Staff Profiles

Dr Giuseppe Donati

Reader in Primatology / Biological Anthropology

Department of Social Sciences

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

Phone number: +44 (0)1865 483780

Email: gdonati@brookes.ac.uk

Location:

Giuseppe Donati is a Reader in Primatology. Over the last twenty years Giuseppe has conducted research on behaviour, ecology, and conservation of lemurs and New World monkeys, and produced numerous publications in peer-reviewed journals or books. He initially focussed his research on the unique evolutionary traits of the lemur radiation, and especially their capacity to be active both during the day and at night. Through this work he made a contribution to the understanding of the cost-benefit involved in the transition from the nocturnal to the diurnal life-style during the evolution of primates. Giuseppe’s more recent research addresses a priority area in conservation research, i.e. investigating how primates tolerate habitat change. This work culminated in his involvement in the designing of the Lemur Conservation Action Plan and a leading role on lemur research and conservation in the region of Fort Dauphin (South-eastern Madagascar).

Elena Racevska: Lemurs as protectors of the forest: Lemur seed dispersal, forest regeneration and local livelihoods in the littoral forest fragments of Madagascar

Sam H. Roberts: An investigation into the fragmentation origin of the littoral forests of the southeast of Madagascar: Using the genetic diversification of the genus Microcebus to reconstruct the environmental history of the littoral forests

Journal articles

Cabana F, Dierenfeld F, Wirdateti, Donati G, Nekaris KAI, 'Trialling nutrient recommendations for slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) based on wild feeding ecology'Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 102 (1) (2018) pp.e1-e10ISSN: 0931-2439 eISSN: 1439-0396 Abstract Slow loris (Nycticebus spp.) captive diets have been based on routine and anecdotes rather than scientific fact. The growing body of evidence contradicts the high fruit diet supported by such anecdotes. Non-human primate nutrient requirements are grouped into new (based on the common marmoset Callithrix jacchus) or old world (based on rhesus macaques Macaca mulatta) primates. Slow lorises are known to suffer from many health ailments in captivity such as dental disease, obesity, wasting and kidney issues all of which have been linked to diet. This study aimed to estimate nutrient intake from free-ranging slow lorises and to determine whether this intake can be used as nutrient recommendations. We collected data of nutrient intake, food passage rate and digestibility of captive slow lorises on three diet treatments 1: current captive type diet which is mostly fruits, 2: wild-type diet made only of food items from their natural diet, 3: new diet made to reflect wild slow loris nutrient intake. In order to validate our nutrient recommendations, diets 2 and 3 would have to be significantly different to Diet 1 in terms of nutrients, but not different from each other. Captive diets were significantly higher in soluble carbohydrates and lower in minerals and fibre fractions than both diets 2 and 3. Diets 2 and 3 led to a significantly increased food passage time and to more effective fibre and calcium digestion compared to Diet 1. We also observed obese individuals lost weight and underweight individuals gained weight. Our nutrient recommendations have been validated by our trials, and new or old world monkey nutrient recommendations are not consistent with our results. Diets should be high in protein and fibre and low in soluble carbohydrates and fats.Website

Campera M, Phelps M, Besnard F, Balestri M, Eppley TM, Nijman V, Donati G, 'Does forest management and researchers’ presence reduce hunting and forest exploitation by local communities in Tsitongambarika, south-east Madagascar?'Oryx (2017)ISSN: 0030-6053 Abstract Hunting of wildlife is one of the major threats to biodiversity. For effective conservation programmes in countries where hunting and shifting agriculture are the main sources of subsistence, forest management should aim to reduce hunting pressure and forest exploitation. The presence of researchers has been promoted as one of the main ways to mitigate anthropogenic pressures on wildlife populations. Our aim was to test whether local management and the establishment of a research station had a role in decreasing forest exploitation by local people living adjacent to a recently protected area in south-east Madagascar. We interviewed local people from nine villages at various distances from the recently established research station of Ampasy, in the northernmost portion of the Tsitongambarika Protected Area, to explore how people use the forest, with a particular focus on hunting. We also performed transect surveys to estimate snare and lemur encounter rates before local forest management began, at the establishment of the research station, and 1 year after. The impact of local communities on the forest seems to have decreased since the beginning of forest management, with a further decrease since the establishment of the research station. Participants from villages not involved in the local management were more reluctant to declare their illegal activities. We conclude that a combination of local management and related activities (e.g. installation of a research station) can assist in temporarily reducing forest exploitation by local communities; however, community needs and conservation plans should be integrated to maintain long-term benefits.Website

Eppley TM, Watzek J, Hall K, Donati G, 'Climatic, social and reproductive influences on behavioural thermoregulation in a female-dominated lemur'Animal Behaviour 134 (2017) pp.25-34ISSN: 0003-3472 Abstract It is well-established that social rank in a large group confers a higher adaptive value to a dominant individual relative to others, though there is scant evidence that members of small social groups either have similar social standing or maintain strict dominance. We aimed to determine whether members of small social groups, using the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis) as a model, gain rank-related benefits. We first established a dominance hierarchy through a network-based analysis of win-loss interactions, which showed that adult females maintained social dominance within their groups, similar to many strepsirrhine species. To address whether dominant individuals gained rank-related benefits, we then explored how social dynamics may permit access to resting huddles, which provide a physiological benefit. Social thermoregulation, i.e. huddling, is a behavioural energy conservation mechanism, and among many mammals is a direct response to decreasing ambient temperatures. As such, huddling behaviour may have evolved among social animals because of its potential direct and indirect benefits. To examine the effect of dominance rank within small social groups on huddling inclusion, we used generalized linear mixed-effects models to predict the likelihood of huddling to occur during resting bouts from climatic (e.g., temperature, precipitation), social (e.g., affiliation, dominance rank, grooming) and reproductive (e.g., access, infant protection) variables. We found that colder temperatures, especially during shorter resting bouts, increased the likelihood of huddling. Grooming between partners with a high discrepancy in rank increased huddling. Additionally, huddling increased during the reproductive season, potentially offering greater opportunity for males to gain favour with sexually receptive females, and also when new-borns were present, providing essential thermal maintenance and potential anti-predator protection to infants. Taken as a whole, our results suggest that even in small social groups, females gain rank-related benefits by controlling access to huddles, i.e., the intrinsic benefits of social thermoregulation.Website

Donati G, Santini L, Eppley TM, Arrigo-Nelson SJ, Balestri M, Boinski S, Bollen A, Bridgeman LL, Campera M, Carrai V, Chalise MK, Derby Lewis A, Hohmann G, Kinnaird MF, Koenig A, Kowalewski M, Lahann P, McLennan MR, Nekaris AKI, Nijman V, Norscia I, Ostner J, Polowinsky SY, Schülke O, Schwitzer C, Stevenson PR, Talebi MG, Tan C, Tomaschewski I, Vogel ER, Wright PC, Ganzhorn JU, 'Low levels of fruit nitrogen as drivers for the evolution of Madagascar’s primate communities'Scientific Reports 7 (2017)ISSN: 2045-2322 Abstract The uneven representation of frugivorous mammals and birds across tropical regions – high in the New World, low in Madagascar and intermediate in Africa and Asia – represents a long-standing enigma in ecology. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain these differences but the ultimate drivers remain unclear. Here, we tested the idea that fruits in Madagascar contain insufficient nitrogen to meet primate metabolic requirements, thus constraining the evolution of frugivory. We performed a global analysis of nitrogen in fruits consumed by primates, as collated from 79 studies. Our results showed that average frugivory among lemur communities was lower compared to New World and Asian-African primate communities. Fruits in Madagascar contain lower average nitrogen than those in the New World and Old World. Nitrogen content in the overall diets of primate species did not differ significantly between major taxonomic radiations. There is no relationship between fruit protein and the degree of frugivory among primates either globally or within regions, with the exception of Madagascar. This suggests that low protein availability in fruits influences current lemur communities to select for protein from other sources, whereas in the New World and Old World other factors are more significant in shaping primate communities.Website

Eppley TM, Tan CL, Arrigo-Nelson SJ, Donati G, Ballhorn DJ, Ganzhorn JU, 'High energy or protein concentrations in food as possible offsets for cyanide consumption by specialized bamboo lemurs in Madagascar'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 38 (5) (2017) pp.881-899ISSN: 0164-0291 eISSN: 1573-8604 Abstract Plants producing toxic plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) deter folivores from feeding on them. Animals that can cope with noxious PSMs have a niche with a competitive advantage over other species. However, the ability to cope with toxic PSMs incurs the costs of detoxification. To assess possible compensations for the ingestion of toxic PSMs, we compare the chemical quality of plants consumed by bamboo lemurs (genera Hapalemur and Prolemur; strepsirrhine primates of Madagascar) in areas with and without bamboo. Some bamboo lemurs consume bamboo containing concentrations of cyanogenic substances 10-50 times above the average lethal dosage for mammals, and we postulate that animals consuming cyanogenic substances need supplementary protein or readily available energy for detoxification. We compared the chemical composition of food consumed by three species of bamboo lemurs that feed mainly (>80% of their time) on bamboo in the evergreen rainforest of Ranomafana (Madagascar) with published data of the diets of bamboo lemurs at two sites without highly cyanogenic plants (reed beds of Lac Alaotra and the evergreen littoral forest of Mandena) and with food of sympatric folivorous lemur species that do not feed on bamboo. Lemurs feeding on bamboo consumed up to twice as much protein as bamboo lemurs in areas without bamboo and sympatric lemur species that feed on leaves of trees. Concentrations of nonstructural carbohydrates (a source of energy) showed the opposite trend. This result supports the hypothesis that feeding on cyanogenic plants is linked to high protein intake, either as a source of protein or for sulfur-containing amino acids that can be used for detoxification. Owing to the high protein concentrations in bamboo, however, we cannot distinguish between the hypothesis that lemurs that eat bamboo target additional food items with higher protein from the hypothesis that lemurs feeding on bamboo unavoidably obtain higher concentrations of protein than animals feeding on leaves of trees, without an added nutritional benefit.Website

Balestri M, Campera M, Nekaris KAI, Donati G, 'Assessment of long-term retention of environmental education lessons given to teachers in rural areas of Madagascar'Applied Environmental Education and Communication 16 (4) (2017)ISSN: 1533-015X eISSN: 1533-0389 Abstract Assessing the retention of knowledge is the first step of environmental education programs. The low education level in rural areas is one factor influencing habitat loss in Madagascar. We tested whether environmental education lessons given to teachers from a municipality, Iaboakoho, in a priority area for lemur conservation were retained after one year. Questionnaires were given to teachers from Iaboakoho and from other three neighbouring municipalities (control groups). Teachers from Iaboakoho had higher scores than the others. Knowledge gained was retained and might be transferred to children. Increasing proenvironmental attitudes and behaviours is the next step to reduce environmental exploitation.Website

Bertoncini S, D’Ercole J, Brisighelli F, Ramanamanjato J-B, Capelli C, Tofanelli S, Donati G, 'Stuck in fragments: population genetics of the endangered collared brown lemur Eulemur collaris in the Malagasy littoral forest'American Journal of Physical Anthropology 163 (3) (2017) pp.542-552ISSN: 0002-9483 eISSN: 1096-8644 Abstract Objectives. The Endangered collared brown lemur (Eulemur collaris) is the largest primate living in the littoral forest of southeastern Madagascar, a top priority habitat for biodiversity conservation on the island. Because this lemur is a key seed-disperser, an evaluation of the structure and connectivity of the populations surviving in the forest fragments is urgently needed to guide conservation plans. Materials and Methods. Genetic variability at autosomal microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA was investigated in a total of 49 collared brown lemurs sampled by non-invasive methods in three littoral forest fragments and in the nearby lowland humid forest.

Results. The overall genetic diversity of E. collaris in the southeastern coastal region of Madagascar was lower than in other populations, as well as in other lemur species. The population appears highly structured, with less variable and more inbred groups inhabiting the littoral forest fragments compared to the inland area. Major barriers to gene flow were identified isolating littoral forest fragments from each other and from the inland lowland humid forest.

Discussion. Medium to long-term drift and scarce gene flow is the scenario that best explains the current genetic distribution. Habitat discontinuities such as rivers and grassland between forest fragments played a major role in structuring the population. A common history of size contraction is pointed out by several genetic estimators, indicating a possible ecological crisis triggered around 1,300 years ago. The adoption of strategies aimed at facilitating gene flow and population growth appears crucial to delay further loss of genetic diversity.

Eppley TM, Watzek J, Dausmann KH, Ganzhorn JU, Donati G, 'Huddling is more important than rest site selection for thermoregulation in southern bamboo lemurs'Animal Behaviour 127 (May 2017) (2017) pp.153-161ISSN: 0003-3472 Abstract Resting site selection can have important effects on the behaviour and fitness of organisms. The maintenance of optimal body temperatures (Tb) when faced with environmental variables has often been attributed to either specific microhabitat rest site characteristics or to behavioural strategies. Among many small group living endotherms, social thermoregulation (i.e., huddling) is utilised as a behavioural energy conservation mechanism at low ambient temperatures (Ta), thus decreasing the metabolic cost of maintaining Tb. Though unusual among primates, lemurs are hypometabolic and exhibit a diversity of thermoregulatory strategies; however, objective Tb measurements have thus far been limited to small-bodied lemurs (e.g., Cheirogaleids). As such, we sought to determine whether a medium-sized lemur model, the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis), would maintain thermoregulation through microhabitat rest site selection, huddling behaviour, or potentially both strategies. Within a degraded littoral forest fragment in southeast Madagascar, we conducted full-day focal observations on three groups of H. meridionalis between January and December 2013. Adult individuals were collared with data-loggers that collected instantaneous skin temperature Tsk (°C). We calculated the mean Tsk of the focal individual during each resting bout, and the proportional rate of huddling between the focal and conspecifics. In addition, we recorded all resting sites utilised ≥15 min and collected standard tree characteristics. We fitted Linear Mixed-Effects Models to determine the thermoregulatory combined effect of specific resting site characteristics, huddling behaviour, and environmental variables on Tsk. Our results showed that lemurs selected tree sites with larger diameter at breast height; however, huddling was most predictive of increasing Tsk whereas resting site characteristics were not included in the best-fit model. It is possible that microhabitat rest site selection is not significant in a degraded forest as the potential environmental buffering is limited, thus thermoregulatory mechanisms are likely best served by behavioural strategies, i.e., social huddling.

Cabana F, Dierenfeld ES, Wirdateti, Donati G, Nekaris KAI, 'Exploiting a readily available but hard to digest resource: A review of exudativorous mammals identified thus far and how they cope in captivity'Integrative Zoology 13 (1) (2017) pp.94-111ISSN: 1749-4869 Abstract Gum is a widely available carbohydrate, composed mainly of non-digestible structural carbohydrates. No mammalian enzymes can digest gum, therefore a mammal ingesting gum must rely on microbial fermentation in order to access the energy it possesses. Gums are known as relatively nutrient poor. Despite this, some mammals have evolved to exploit this food resource. We aim to review the literature for all mammal species which have been recorded to ingest gum, whether quantified or not and discuss this in context of their evolutionary adaptations. We also investigated the recommended captive diets for these species to look at if gum is recommended. We conducted a literature search on ISI Web of Knowledge to tabulate all mammal species observed ingesting gum and classify them as obligate, facultative or opportunistic feeders. We encountered 94 mammal species which eat gum in the wild (26 obligate feeders, 35 facultative feeders and 33 opportunistic feeders). Obligate feeders have entirely evolved to exploit this resource but were found to not be given gum in captivity, which may explain why they are failing to thrive, as opposed to facultative feeders which have fewer issues. Gum may be necessary for the health of obligate feeders in captivity. Future research should focus on the physiological effects that gum ingestion poses on different digestive systems.Website

Cabana F, Dierenfeld E, Wirdateti W, Donati G, Nekaris KAI, 'The seasonal feeding ecology of the Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus)'American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2017)ISSN: 0002-9483 Abstract Objectives. To describe the strategy employed by exudativorous primates during seasonal shifts in food abundance using the Javan slow loris as a model. Males and females may cope differently as well as exploit fallback foods in different proportions.
Materials and methods. Observing 15 free ranging Javan slow lorises over a year, we quantified their seasonal diet and nutrient intake using intake rates. For gum intake rates, we conducted a trial with 10 captive Javan slow lorises measuring the length of time it took for them to ingest 10 g of gum. We monitored phenology in our field site over five plots that were assessed monthly. We weighed our free-ranging animals every six months. We analyzed all food items slow lorises ingested for macronutrients using the nutritional geometry framework.
Results. The slow loris diet consisted of eight food categories, with gum and insects being the major food sources in terms of wet weight intake. The captive gum trials resulted in an intake rate of 0.021 g/s. All food items eaten by wild Javan slow lorises were available in the wet season and were restricted in the dry season. Males and females reacted differently to seasonal abundances with females ingesting more protein, gum, fruits and flowers and males ingesting more fiber.
Conclusions. The strategy used by the Javan slow lorises during periods of lower food availability were similar to folivorous primates and included increased dependence on lower quality foods. The reproductive costs of gestation and lactation may place a burden on females that requires them to alter their foraging strategy during the dry season to ensure enough protein and overall energy is ingested. The overall strategy used by these exudativorous primates is one of nutrient maximization as no nutrient was clearly preferred over another.Website

Svensson M S, Shanee S, Shanee N, Bannister FB, Cervera L, Donati G, Huck M, Jerusalinsky L, Juarez CP, Maldonado AM, Martinez Molinedo J, Méndez-Carvajal PG, Molina Argandoña MA, Mollo Vino A D, Nekaris KAI, Peck M, Rey-Goyeneche J, Spaan D, Nijman V, 'Disappearing in the night: an overview on trade and legislation of night monkeys in South and Central America'Folia Primatologica 87 (5) (2017) pp.332-348ISSN: 0015-5713 eISSN: 1421-9980 Abstract The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species' geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries' legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries.Website

Eppley TM, Balestri M, Campera M, Rabenantoandro J, Ramanamanjato JB, Randriatafika F, Ganzhorn JU, Donati G, 'Ecological flexibility as measured by the use of pioneer and exotic plants in two lemurids: Eulemur collaris and Hapalemur meridionalis'International Journal of Primatology 38 (2) (2017) pp.338-357ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract Primate responses to habitat alteration vary depending on the species’ dietary guild and forest type. Leaves from secondary vegetation can provide nutritious resources to folivorous primates, whereas frugivores, burdened with a scattered spatial and temporal distribution of fruiting resources, require larger home ranges, potentially limiting their ability to cope with altered landscapes. Within coastal south-eastern Madagascar, we sought to determine whether two lemur species occupying contrasting ecological niches (i.e., dietary guilds) respond differently to the changing features of their degraded and fragmented habitat. We conducted behavioural observations between 2011 and 2013 on frugivorous collared brown lemurs (Eulemur collaris) and folivorous southern bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur meridionalis). In order to estimate the ability of lemurs to use pioneer species, we categorised all plants used for feeding and resting as either ‘fast-growing’, ‘mid-growing’, or ‘slow-growing’. We fitted linear mixed-effects models, one for each plant growth category with monthly proportional use rates as the dependent variable, and included species (E. collaris and H. meridionalis), activity (feeding and resting), and season (dry and wet) as fixed effects. Our results show that E. collaris used both slow- and mid-growing plant species most often, while H. meridionalis were more likely to use fast-growing plants, which indicated an ability to utilise secondary/disturbed vegetation. Frugivorous E. collaris appear more limited by climax plants, while folivorous H. meridionalis appear to be slightly more adaptable, a finding that is consistent with other primate folivores.

Eppley T M, Watzek J, Ganzhorn J U, Donati G, 'Predator avoidance and dietary fibre predict diurnality in the cathemeral folivore Hapalemur meridionalis'Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 71 (4) (2016)ISSN: 0340-5443 eISSN: 1432-0762 Abstract Though numerous mammalian taxa exhibit cathemerality (i.e. activity distributed across the 24-h cycle), this includes very few primates, exceptions being species from Aotinae and Lemuridae. Four non-mutually exclusive hypotheses have been proposed to explain the ultimate determinants for cathemeral activity in lemurs: thermoregulatory benefits, anti-predator strategy, competition avoidance and metabolic dietary-related needs. However, these have only been explored in the frugivorous genus Eulemur, with some species increasing nocturnality as a possible response to avoid diurnal raptors and to increase their ability to digest fibre during resource-scarce periods. Since Eulemur lack specializations for digesting bulk food, this strategy would allow for processing fibres over the full 24-h. The folivorous lemurids, i.e. genus Hapalemur, provide a divergent model to explore these hypotheses due to gastrointestinal adaptations for digesting dietary fibre and small body size compared to Eulemur. We linked continuous activity data collected from archival tags with observational behaviour and feeding data from three groups of adult Hapalemur meridionalis from January to December 2013. We tested the effects of thermoregulation, predator avoidance and the weighted proportion of digestible dietary fibre on the daily diurnal/nocturnal activity ratio using a Linear Mixed-Model. Our best-fit model revealed that increased canopy exposure and dietary fibre predicted greater diurnality. Our findings partly contrast with previous predictions for frugivorous lemurids. We propose a divergent adaptive explanation for folivorous lemurids. We suggest that the need to avoid terrestrial predators, as well as longer digestive bouts during bulk food periods, may override cathemerality in favour of diurnality in these bamboo lemurs.Website

Sawyer RM, Fenosoa ZSE, Andrianarimisa A, Donati G, 'The effect of habitat disturbance on the abundance of nocturnal lemur species on the Masoala Peninsula, northeastern Madagascar'Primates 58 (1) (2016) pp.187-197ISSN: 0032-8332 eISSN: 1610-7365 Abstract Madagascar is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots. The island’s past and current rates of deforestation and habitat disturbance threaten its plethora of endemic biodiversity. On Madagascar, tavy (slash and burn agriculture), land conversion for rice cultivation, illegal hardwood logging and bushmeat hunting are the major contributors to habitat disturbance. Understanding species-specific responses to habitat disturbance across different habitat types is crucial when designing conservation strategies. We surveyed three nocturnal lemur species in four forest types of varying habitat disturbance on the Masoala Peninsula, northeastern Madagascar. We present here updated abundance and density estimates for the EndangeredAvahi mooreorum and Lepilemur scottorum, and Microcebus sp. Distance sampling surveys were conducted on 11 transects, covering a total of 33 km after repeated transect walks. We collected data on tree height, bole height, diameter at breast height, canopy cover and tree density using point-quarter sampling to characterise the four forest types (primary lowland, primary littoral, selectively logged and agricultural mosaic). Median encounter rates by forest type ranged from 1 to 1.5 individuals (ind.)/km (Microcebus sp.), 0–1 ind./km (A. mooreorum) and 0–1 ind./km (L. scottorum). Species density estimates were calculated at 232.31 ind./km2(Microcebus sp.) and 121.21 ind./km2 (A. mooreorum), while no density estimate is provided for L. scottorum due to a small sample size. Microcebus sp. was most tolerant to habitat disturbance, exhibiting no significant effect of forest type on abundance. Its small body size, omnivorous diet and generalised locomotion appear to allow it to tolerate a variety of habitat disturbance. Both A. mooreorum and L. scottorum showed significant effects of forest type on their respective abundance. This study suggests that the specialist locomotion and diet of A. mooreorum and L. scottorum make them susceptible to the effects of increasing habitat disturbance.Website

The proximate and ultimate determinants that may have prompted some primates to shift from an arboreal to terrestrial feeding niche, whether due to environmental change, seasonality, and/or predation pressure, are poorly understood. Within a fragmented littoral forest in southeast Madagascar, an arboreal strepsirrhine population spends a large proportion of time on the ground, thus we aimed to identify which factors influence terrestrial feeding.

Methods

From January to December 2013, we conducted 103 full-day focal follows on three social groups of southern bamboo lemurs H. meridionalis. We continuously recorded feeding time on all arboreal and terrestrial items, as well as whether the focal individual was under the canopy or exposed, and the distance to their nearest conspecific neighbor. All observed food items were collected and analyzed for macronutrient content. Daily climatic variables (temperature, precipitation), resource seasonality, daily path length (DPL), along with dietary and predation risk proxies, were used as fixed effects in a linear mixed model, with the daily proportion of terrestrial feeding as the dependent variable.

Results

Our model indicated that daily terrestrial feeding increased at cooler temperature, was associated with reduced DPL, and the intake of dietary metabolizable energy increased as terrestrial feeding increased. All other fixed effects were not significant predictors.

Discussion

Our study provides a window into the ultimate determinants of niche expansion: ancestral primates, in absence of their primary resources, may have initially descended to the ground in peripheral population range areas where the benefits (e g., nutritional pay-off) out-weighed the costs.

Marsh C, Link A, King-Bailey G, Donati G, 'Effects of Fragment and Vegetation Structure on the Population Abundance of Ateles hybridus, Alouatta seniculus and Cebus albifrons in Magdalena Valley, Colombia'FOLIA PRIMATOLOGICA 87 (1) (2016) pp.17-30ISSN: 0015-5713 Abstract Many primate species currently subsist in fragmented and anthropogenically disturbed habitats. Different threats arise depending on the species' life history strategy, dietary requirements and habitat preference. Additionally, anthropogenic disturbance is far from uniform and may affect individual forest fragments in a single landscape in differing ways. We studied the effects of fragmentation on three species of diurnal primate, Cebus albifrons, Alouatta seniculus and Ateles hybridus, in Magdalena Valley, Colombia. We tested the assumption that generalist species are more resilient than specialist species to habitat degradation by examining the fragments' vegetation and spatial structure and how these affected primate presence and abundance patterns. We found C. albifrons, a generalist, to be the most abundant species in 9 of 10 forest fragments, regardless of the level of habitat disturbance. A. hybridus, a large-bodied primate with a specialist diet, was either absent or low in abundance in fragments that had experienced recent disturbances and was found only in higher-quality fragments, regardless of the fragment size. A. seniculus, a species considered to have a highly flexible diet and the ability to survive in degraded habitat, was found in intermediate abundances between those of Cebus spp. and Ateles spp., and was more frequently found in high-quality fragments. Website

Ganzhorn JU, Arrigo-Nelson SJ, Carrai V, Chalise MK, Donati G, Droescher I, Eppley TM, Irwin MT, Koch F, Koenig A, Kowalewski MM, Mowry CB, Patel ER, Pichon C, Ralison J, Reisdorff C, Simmen B, Stalenberg E, Starrs D, Terboven J, Wright PC, Foley WJ, 'The importance of protein in leaf selection of folivorous primates'American Journal of Primatology 79 (4) (2016) pp.1-13ISSN: 0275-2565 Abstract Protein limitation has been considered a key factor in hypotheses on the evolution of life history and animal communities, suggesting that animals should prioritize protein in their food choice. This contrasts with the limited support that food selection studies have provided for such a priority in nonhuman primates, particularly for folivores. Here, we suggest that this discrepancy can be resolved if folivores only need to select for high protein leaves when average protein concentration in the habitat is low. To test the prediction, we applied meta-analyses to analyze published and unpublished results of food selection for protein and fiber concentrations from 24 studies (some with multiple species) of folivorous primates. To counter potential methodological flaws, we differentiated between methods analyzing total nitrogen and soluble protein concentrations. We used a meta-analysis to test for the effect of protein on food selection by primates and found a significant effect of soluble protein concentrations, but a non-significant effect for total nitrogen. Furthermore, selection for soluble protein was reinforced in forests where protein was less available. Selection for low fiber content was significant but unrelated to the fiber concentrations in representative leaf samples of a given forest. There was no relationship (either negative or positive) between the concentration of protein and fiber in the food or in representative samples of leaves. Overall our study suggests that protein selection is influenced by the protein availability in the environment, explaining the sometimes contradictory results in previous studies on protein selectionWebsite

Donati G, Johnson SE, 'New Research Directions in the Genus Eulemur: Preface to the Special Issue'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 37 (1) (2016) pp.1-2ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract Preface to the Special IssueWebsite

Eppley TM, Donati G, Ganzhorn JU, 'Unusual sleeping site selection by southern bamboo lemurs'PRIMATES 57 (2) (2016) pp.167-173ISSN: 0032-8332 Abstract Selection of sleeping sites has consequences for individual fitness. Non-human primates often bias their selection towards arboreal sites, and the lemurs of Madagascar typically rest/sleep in trees, tree holes, and/or constructed nests. Three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses to explain sleeping site selection include protection from predators, avoidance of parasitic vectors, and improved thermoregulation. Here, we examine these hypotheses for the unusual sleeping site selections by the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis). Within the Mandena littoral forest of southeast Madagascar, the southern bamboo lemur is known for its ecological flexibility compared to other bamboo lemur species, including a dietary niche expansion to feeding on the ground. Between October 2012 and December 2013, we observed bamboo lemurs from three social groups for 1778.67 h, conducting full-day focal follows on 11 adult individuals (five males, six females). During this period, all three groups were observed to sleep on the ground, with one of these groups also using an abandoned nest of a Madagascar crested ibis (Lophotibis cristata). We collected habitat and temperature data to examine whether selection was influenced by environmental variables. Terrestrial sleeping (N = 17) was observed in all individuals but one adult female, with individuals burrowing under thick vegetation more often during the hot austral summer. While difficult to rigorously test, it is possible that terrestrial sleep sites and/or sleeping in a bird nest may impair visual detection by some aerial and terrestrial predators. Neither of these sites (i.e., terrestrial sleeping or use of a bird nest), however, is likely to minimize exposure to parasites/vectors. Terrestrial sleeping appears to support a thermoregulatory strategy, whereas the use of a bird nest could not be empirically tested. Our observations of unique sleeping site locations used by southern bamboo lemurs further the complexity of their natural history and that of Malagasy strepsirrhines.Website

Sato H, Santini L, Patel ER, Campera M, Yamashita N, Colquhoun IC, Donati G, 'Dietary Flexibility and Feeding Strategies of Eulemur: A Comparison with Propithecus'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 37 (1) (2016) pp.109-129ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract Despite the great variety of habitats in Madagascar, Eulemur has successfully populated most forested habitats on the island. Although the high dietary flexibility of Eulemur is often credited as one of the drivers of its evolutionary success, other behavioral evidence suggests a limited capacity for dietary switching. To shed light on the feeding strategies of Eulemur, we compared the dietary flexibility between populations of this genus with that of another widespread lemur taxon, Propithecus. We hypothesized that Eulemur would show greater dietary flexibility than Propithecus, which has a digestive system specialized for folivory, and that Eulemur living in dry forests would switch its diet from fruit to other food seasonally. To examine these hypotheses, we performed a phylogenetic least-squares analysis on 10 populations of Eulemur and 7 of Propithecus to assess the contribution of environmental variables and body mass on their dietary flexibility while controlling for phylogenetic relatedness. Eulemur relied heavily on fruit and did not show large variations in primary food over the year. Propithecus consumed leaves and fruits equally and exhibited considerable flexibility across seasons. Therefore, in contrast to our predictions, the anatomical specialization for fiber digestion heightens dietary flexibility in Propithecus. At the intrageneric level, we found similar ecogeographic variation; populations of both genera with heavier body mass consumed more fruit. As we predicted, Eulemur in drier habitats switched the diet from fruit to alternative food more frequently. To compensate for low dietary flexibility, Eulemur mostly adopts a power-feeding strategy by which it increases energy expenditure to acquire patchily distributed fruit resources.Website

Donati G, Campera M, Balestri M, Serra V, Barresi M, Schwitzer C, Curtis DJ, Santini L, 'Ecological and Anthropogenic Correlates of Activity Patterns in Eulemur'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 37 (1) (2016) pp.29-46ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract The ultimate determinants of cathemerality, i.e., activity spread over the 24-h cycle, in primates have been linked to various ecological factors. Owing to the fast rate of habitat modification, it is imperative to know whether and how this behavioral flexibility responds to anthropogenic disturbance. The true lemurs (Eulemur clade) constitute a valuable case to study these potential effects, as all species studied so far exhibit cathemerality. Here we explored the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on activity patterns of Eulemur while controlling for ecological factors proposed as determinants of activity shifts. We first performed a meta-analysis using 13 long-term studies conducted over the last three decades on various populations of Eulemur. We fitted a beta regression using the proportion of diurnality (the activity taking place between sunrise and sunset) as the response variable and seven climatic, ecological, and anthropogenic disturbance variables at each site as predictors. We also present a validation with original data using year-round, 24-h activity of collared brown lemurs (Eulemur collaris) in forest fragments with different levels of disturbance in southeastern Madagascar. Diurnality was prevalent at most sites. Seasonality, proportions of leaves in the diet, and group size were all found to be significant predictors of the proportion of diurnal activity. After controlling for socioecological factors in the model, overall anthropogenic disturbance emerged as a negative predictor of diurnality. Our validation suggests that the lemurs in the more disturbed area exhibited more nocturnal activity than those in the less disturbed area. It is unclear whether the plasticity observed might allow populations of Eulemur to persist in disturbed areas longer than lemurs with less flexible activity patterns.Website

Eppley TM, Ganzhorn JU, Donati G, 'Latrine behaviour as a multimodal communicatory signal station in wild lemurs: the case of Hapalemur meridionalis'ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 111 (2016) pp.57-67ISSN: 0003-3472 Abstract Latrine behaviour is the repeated use of specific sites for defecation/urination, and is common among most mammals, including carnivores, herbivores, marsupials and rodents. While rare among primates, latrine use has been observed among some lemurs. It has been hypothesized that group-living primates may use latrines to maintain intergroup spacing (i.e. territorial defence) and for female advertisement of sexual condition. To test these, we conducted focal follows of three neighbouring southern bamboo lemur, Hapalemur meridionalis, groups in Mandena littoral forest of southeast Madagascar. From January to December 2013, we recorded all occurrences of latrine behaviour and characterized latrine sites to determine what factors influenced returning to specific latrines. Additionally, we attempted to elucidate the functional role of scent marking at latrines. We assessed the degree of home range overlap between neighbouring groups, and recorded intergroup aggression. Overall, latrines were almost exclusively visually conspicuous sites and located in the core areas of group home ranges. Best-fit models indicated that multiply visited latrines occurred more often in core areas, and were influenced by both sexes. Glandular scent marking at latrine sites was driven by males, and occurred more during the nonmating season. Males overmarked female scent-marks less often during the mating season and more often when younger males were likely to disperse. Thus, overmarking at latrine sites may function as a mate-guarding strategy to deter new males. Latrine use supports the energy frugality hypothesis, which proposes that lemur social systems, known for female social dominance and low rates of agonism, evolved as responses to the low productivity of Malagasy forests. The deposition of olfactory cues (i.e. faeces, urine, glandular secretions) at visually conspicuous sites may convey information to neighbouring conspecifics, thus reducing the need for intergroup agonism. Overall, latrine behaviour acts as a multimodal means of intergroup communication. (C) 2015 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Website

Eppley TM, Donati G, Ramanamanjato J, Randriatafika F, Andriamandimbiarisoa LN, Rabehevitra D, Ravelomanantsoa R, Ganzhorn JU, 'The Use of an Invasive Species Habitat by a Small Folivorous Primate: Implications for Lemur Conservation in Madagascar'PLOS ONE 10 (11) (2015)ISSN: 1932-6203 Abstract The lemurs of Madagascar are among the most threatened mammalian taxa in the world, with habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and timber harvest heavily contributing to their precarious state. Deforestation often leads to fragmentation, resulting in mixed-habitat matrices throughout a landscape where disturbed areas are prone to invasion by exotic plants. Our study site, the Mandena littoral forest (southeast Madagascar), is a matrix of littoral forest, littoral swamp, and Melaleuca swamp habitats. Here, Melaleuca quinquenervia has invaded the wetland ecosystem, creating a mono-dominant habitat that currently provides the only potential habitat corridor between forest fragments. We sought to understand the role of this invasive Melaleuca swamp on the behavioral ecology of a threatened, small-bodied folivore, the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis). We collected botanical and behavioral data on four groups of H. meridionalis between January and December 2013. Our results confirm Melaleuca swamp as an important part of their home range: while lemurs seasonally limited activities to certain habitats, all groups were capable of utilizing this invasive habitat for feeding and resting. Furthermore, the fact that Hapalemur use an invasive plant species as a dispersal corridor increases our knowledge of their ecological flexibility, and may be useful in the conservation management of remaining threatened populations.Website

Cervera L, Lizcano DJ, Tirira DG, Donati G, 'Surveying Two Endangered Primate Species (Alouatta palliata aequatorialis and Cebus aequatorialis) in the Pacoche Marine and Coastal Wildlife Refuge, West Ecuador'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 36 (5) (2015) pp.933-947ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract Accurate information on the distribution, demography, and conservation status of endangered populations in threatened habitats are essential to provide the basis for conservation actions and management plans. Neglect of western Ecuador by biologists has resulted in a paucity of information of primate populations in the region. Capuchins (Cebus spp.) and howlers (Alouatta sp.) occur in the Tumbes-Choc-Magdalena hotspot along the Pacific coast. We conducted the first primate survey in Pacoche Marine and Coastal Wildlife Refuge, one of the few protected areas in western Ecuador. Although the Pacoche refuge is protected, illegal activities inside the area include slash-and-burn agriculture and natural resource extraction. We surveyed 18 1-km transects within the protected area between April and July 2012 to evaluate the effects of anthropogenic disturbance and habitat characteristics on population densities of the Critically Endangered Ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin (Cebus aequatorialis) and the Vulnerable mantled howler (Alouatta palliata aequatorialis). We confirmed the presence of C. aequatorialis through direct observation on three occasions outside transects. The low detection rate of C. aequatorialis underscores the need for immediate conservation action for this species. Using a hierarchical distance sampling model, we predicted group size as a proxy of probability of detection and found that canopy cover explained group density of A. p. aequatorialis, following a half-normal distribution. We estimated the mean density of A. p. aequatorialis as 12.4 ind./km(2) and the total population to be 621.5 individuals. The correlation between the density of A. p. aequatorialis and canopy cover underlines the need to preserve the remaining forest and its connectivity. Our results also highlight the importance of including vegetation structure in primate censuses.Website

Eppley TM, Ganzhorn JU, Donati G, 'Cathemerality in a small, folivorous primate: proximate control of diel activity in Hapalemur meridionalis'BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY AND SOCIOBIOLOGY 69 (6) (2015) pp.991-1002ISSN: 0340-5443 eISSN: 1432-0762 Abstract A non-adherence to a strict diurnal or nocturnal activity cycle is prevalent among mammals, including taxa of Lemuridae, but rare among other primates. While non-mutually exclusive ecological hypotheses attempted to explain the evolution of this activity, termed cathemerality, as either an old or a recent phenomenon, the scarcity of systematic data collected over 24 h limits our potential to explore its proximate and ultimate determinants. Among strepsirrhines, systematic studies involving only two lemurid genera (Eulemur and Lemur) have recorded this activity pattern, while fewer quantitative observations are available for other taxa. If cathemerality could be shown in most members of Lemuridae despite their different ecological adaptations, this would support the hypothesis that this trait is basal and appeared early during lemurid evolution. Here, we investigated whether the folivorous southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis) exhibits cathemeral activity, and determined which environmental factors influence its pattern. We deployed ten archival tags across four social groups to continuously record activity data over a 15-month period. This allowed us to generate a diurnal/nocturnal (DN) ratio for each 24-h period and assess their diel activity. Our data suggest that southern bamboo lemurs are cathemeral within Mandena; while climatic factors showed no influence, nocturnal activity increased with greater nocturnal luminance. Despite contrasting dietary niches, visual morphologies, and body sizes between Hapalemur, Eulemur, and Lemur, all three exhibit cathemerality and lunarphilia. The close phylogenetic proximity of these lemurids supports this flexible activity pattern as an ancestral trait that likely dates to the origin of the Lemuridae radiation.Website

Cervera L, Tirira D, Donati G, 'Preliminary Data on the Population Density and Conservation Status of Two Endangered Primate Species Inhabiting a Protected Area on the West Coast of Ecuador'FOLIA PRIMATOLOGICA 86 (4) (2015) pp.260-260ISSN: 0015-5713 Abstract Howler ( Alouatta spp.) and capuchin monkeys ( Cebus spp.) are among the most studied

Neotropical primates and both taxa are well known for their ability to survive in highly disturbed

habitats. However, there is a lack of information on the Ecuadorian populations of these two genera which occur there in some of the most threatened South American ecosystems, including the coastal region located in the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena hotspot. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of anthropogenic disturbance and habitat characteristics on the population density of the Vulnerable mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata aequatorialis) and the Critically Endangered white-fronted capuchin monkey (Cebus albifrons aequatorialis) in the Marine and Coastal Wildlife Refuge of Pacoche in western Ecuador. Although protected, illegal activities inside the area include slash-and-burn agriculture, natural resource extraction and small-scale hunting. We distributed eighteen transects of 1 km each in the protected area in order to determine population density in the reserve and assess the impact of anthropogenic disturbance. Each transect was walked 5 times, totalling over 90 km of surveying effort, yet we did not detect capuchins in the area while walking the transects. White-fronted capuchin monkeys were observed on three occasions, confirming their presence in the area. We estimated mantled howler monkey density to be 20.44 ind/km 2, and the average group size was 9.28 ± SD 4.30 individuals. Results suggest that probability of detection varied with group size and A. palliata aequatorialis density followed a half normal distribution correlated with distance to the road. Canopy cover was also associated with probability of detection, which highlights the importance of habitat connectivity. The very low detection of white-fronted capuchins in the area indicates the need for immediate conservation actions for the primates of the Ecuadorian coastal region. (Abstract presented in the 6th European Federation for Primatology Meeting, Rome Italy, August 25-28, 2015)

of its endemic species. In the south-east of the island, this habitat has been exposed to heavy fragmentation due to shifting cultivation and logging. This area faces an additional risk due to the mining of titanium deposits. Considering these threats, it is crucial to understand the key drivers of forest restoration and habitat corridors. As the largest seed disperser in this ecosystem, the collared brown lemur (Eulemur collaris) is known to disperse seeds of up to 36.5 mm in length. We thus hypothesize that the disappearance of this lemur may cause cascade effects for large-seeded plant regeneration. We investigated this hypothesis using three forest fragments of a similar size: one with high densities of E. collaris , one with low densities of E. collaris , and one in which the species disappeared long ago. Regenerating saplings, ranked by classes of height, were sampled in a total of 300 small plots of 2 × 2 m each. At each point, mature trees were also recorded via the point-quarter method to control for the presence of parent trees. Differences between fragments in the frequencies of the overall regeneration, lemur dispersed species, and Eulemur dispersed species were explored through a Generalized Linear Model with negative binomial distribution. Lemur and Eulemur dispersed plant species were identified on the basis of observational data and seed size. The results showed that both overall regeneration and the regeneration of the lemur dispersed species did not differ between fragments. In contrast, the two fragments in which E. collaris persists showed higher regeneration of tree species exclusively dispersed by this lemur, as compared to the fragment in which the species has been eradicated. This work demonstrates the key role of medium/large frugivorous lemurs for the maintenance of forest diversity in Madagascar (Abstract presented at the 6th European Federation for Primatology Meeting, Rome, Italy, August 25-28, 2015)

in size, and the vast diversity of plants and animals living in it is now highly threatened. In the

south-east of the island, a few fragments of littoral forest still harbour small populations of the

endangered collared brown lemur, Eulemur collaris . In 2000, the rapid devastation of one of these forest fragments by charcoal makers (in the area of Mandena) elicited a rescue action and relocation of 28 E. collaris into a nearby, but recently protected, fragment. Since then, some of the relocated animals have been observed by a team of observers from QMM (QIT Madagascar Minerals) in order to get insight into their adaptation to the new area. Since there is a paucity of longterm data on prosimians relocations, these monitoring efforts are crucial to understand how

prosimians in general and lemurs in particular may adapt to unfamiliar areas. We analysed dietary choice in one relocated group of E. collaris throughout several years and we compared it

with data from other populations to assess whether the release site provided a suitable habitat.

We analysed data collected by local QMM assistants in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2013. The analysis indicated that the diet of E. collaris remained mainly frugivorous over the years, which is the usual dietary regime shown by this species in natural situations. A Mixed Model indicated that seasonal fluctuations were wider than inter-annual differences, which is in line with the highly variable tree phonological pattern in this habitat. This multi-annual study indicated that E. collaris did not modify its overall diet at the release site in terms of major food categories but the use of tree species varied significantly throughout the years. Summarizing, our work suggests that Eulemur species may tolerate relocations and the disruptive effects of these operations are not apparent on the animals’ behavioural ecology over the long-term. (Abstract presented on the 6th European Federation for Primatology Meeting, Rome, Italy, August 25-28, 2015)

biodiversity is severely threatened by habitat disturbance due to tavy (slash and burn agriculture), land conversion for rice cultivation, illegal hardwood logging and bushmeat hunting. Understanding species specific responses to this habitat disturbance is crucial when designing conservation plans. We surveyed three nocturnal lemur species in four forest types of varying habitat disturbance on the Masoala Peninsula, northeastern Madagascar. We present here the first abundance and density estimates for the Endangered Avahi mooreorum and Lepilemur scottorum, and a currently undescribed Microcebus sp. Distance sampling surveys were conducted on 11 transects, covering a total of 33 km. Overall density estimates for the study area are provided for Microcebus sp. and Avahi mooreorum using Distance 6.0. We collected data on tree height, bole height, DBH, canopy cover and tree density using point quarter sampling to characterise the four forest types (primary lowland, primary littoral, selectively logged and agricultural mosaic). Species encounter rates ranged from 1.44–2.78 ind/km ( Microcebus sp.), 0.22–2.89 ind/km (Avahi mooreorum) and 0–1.22 ind/km (Lepilemur scottorum) . Species density estimates were calculated at 232.31 ind/km 2 ( Microcebus sp.) and 121.21 ind/km 2 (Avahi mooreorum) , while no density estimate is provided for Lepilemur scottorum due to a small sample size. Microcebus sp. showed no significant effect of forest type on abundance, and its small body size, omnivorous diet and generalised locomotion appears to allow it to tolerate a variety of habitat disturbance. Both Avahi mooreorum and Lepilemur scottorum showed significant effects of forest type on their abundance. This study would suggest that the specialist locomotion and diet of Avahi mooreorum and Lepilemur scottorum make them more susceptible to the effects of habitat disturbance than Microcebus sp. (Abstract presented at the 6th European Federation for Primatology Meeting, Rome, Italy, August 25-28, 2015)

compared to those in the wild. Obesity causes health issues including reproductive problems,

cardiovascular disease and diabetes – it is therefore vital to know influencing factors and preventative measures. Captive individuals are classified as overweight or obese compared to wild weight averages. Food intake and activity pattern observations were conducted to determine differences in amounts consumed, items consumed and time active between individuals. A questionnaire was distributed to UK institutions, exploring factors potentially influencing body weight, such as age, gender, enclosure type, group size, night access and browse presence, and to determine captive weight ranges. No relationship was found between body weight and total grams consumed, and no individual consumed near the average provisioned. There was a strong tendency towards a positive trend between body weight and metabolisable energy. All individuals spent more time inactive than active, with little variation between them. No correlation was found between body weight and age, group size, dominance, or presence of browse. Captive weight ranges were higher than wild ranges, standard enclosures had significantly heavier occupants, and individuals with full night access were significantly heavier than those with weather dependent access. Males were significantly heavier than females, which is unexpected given female dominance. The average weight for captive Lemur catta was 2,603 g compared to 2,219 g for wild individuals, which provides a more realistic target weight and reclassifies the number of individuals regarded as overweight or obese, with long-term husbandry implications. Metabolisable energy intake was the most influential factor on body weight, but no one aspect explained the variation between individuals. Additional factors must play a role. This study emphasises the importance of conducting food intake and activity pattern observations before making any weight-induced husbandry changes. This research project complied with the European Directive 2010/63/EU and the International Primatological Society (IPS) Guidelines for the Use of Nonhuman Primates in Research. (Abstract presented on the 6th European Federation for Primatology Meeting. Rome, Italy, August 25-28, 2015)

Eppley TM, Hall K, Donati G, Ganzhorn JU, 'An unusual case of affiliative association of a female Lemur catta in a Hapalemur meridionalis social group'BEHAVIOUR 152 (7-8) (2015) pp.1041-1061ISSN: 0005-7959 eISSN: 1568-539X Abstract Polyspecific associations are well documented, but have rarely been observed in strepsirrhines. In this study we present a unique affiliative association between a female ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) and a group of southern bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur meridionalis) in south-east Madagascar. Our main research focused on H. meridionalis; however, due to the presence of the L. catta we treated her as a group member, including her in the focal sampling of Hapalemur social behaviour. We also recorded ad libitum data on all food species/items and any unique events or occurrences. Among observations, both species appeared to have a mutual understanding of vocalisations, behavioural synchronisation, dietary overlap, and possible service exchange, e.g., grooming. We also observed the L. catta occasionally attending to the bamboo lemur infant. This included grooming, baby-sitting, and even transporting the infant. The behavioural flexibility exhibited by both species has allowed the successful integration of the female ring-tailed lemur.Website

Campera M, Serra V, Balestri M, Barresi M, Ravaolahy M, Randriatafika F, Donati G, 'Effects of Habitat Quality and Seasonality on Ranging Patterns of Collared Brown Lemur (Eulemur collaris) in Littoral Forest Fragments'INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY 35 (5) (2014) pp.957-975ISSN: 0164-0291 Abstract Degraded forest habitats typically show low fruit availability and scattered fruit tree distribution. This has been shown to force frugivorous primates either to move further in search of food, resulting in large home ranges, or to use energy saving strategies. Malagasy lemurs are known to face pronounced seasonality and resource unpredictability, which is amplified by the overall reduction in food availability due to the human-driven habitat disturbance on the island. To explore lemur flexibility to habitat disturbance, we examined the ranging behavior of collared brown lemurs (Eulemur collaris) in two differently degraded fragments of littoral forest of southeastern Madagascar. We collected data from February 2011 to January 2012 on two groups living in a degraded area and two groups living in a less disturbed forest. We calculated annual ranges, monthly ranges, and daily distance traveled. We then ran repeated measures ANOVAs using seasonality as dichotomous, intrasubject factor and site/group as intersubject nested factors. In the degraded forest, the lemurs had larger monthly ranges, and their annual ranges were either fragmented or characterized by multiple core areas. They were able to use a habitat mosaic that also included nonforested areas and swamps. In addition, they shortened their daily path length, possibly to preserve energy, and used different areas of their annual home ranges seasonally. Although a number of possible confounding factors may have been responsible for the observed differences between sites, our findings highlight the ranging flexibility of collared brown lemurs in littoral forest fragments.Website

Balestri M, Barresi M, Campera M, Serra V, Ramanamanjato JB, Heistermann M, Donati G, 'Habitat Degradation and Seasonality Affect Physiological Stress Levels of Eulemur collaris in Littoral Forest Fragments'PLOS ONE 9 (9) (2014)ISSN: 1932-6203 Abstract The littoral forest on sandy soil is among the most threatened habitats in Madagascar and, as such, it represents a hot-spot within a conservation hot-spot. Assessing the health of the resident lemur fauna is not only critical for the long-term viability of these populations, but also necessary for the future re-habilitation of this unique habitat. Since the Endangered collared brown lemur, Eulemur collaris, is the largest seed disperser of the Malagasy south-eastern littoral forest its survival in this habitat is crucial. In this study we compared fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels, a measure of physiological stress and potential early indicator of population health, between groups of collared brown lemurs living in a degraded forest fragment and groups occurring in a more preserved area. For this, we analysed 279 fecal samples collected year-round from 4 groups of collared brown lemurs using a validated 11-oxoetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay and tested if fGCM levels were influenced by reproductive stages, phenological seasons, sex, and habitat degradation. The lemurs living in the degraded forest had significantly higher fGCM levels than those living in the more preserved area. In particular, the highest fGCM levels were found during the mating season in all animals and in females during gestation in the degraded forest. Since mating and gestation are both occurring during the lean season in the littoral forest, these results likely reflect a combination of ecological and reproductive pressures. Our findings provide a clear indication that habitat degradation has additive effects to the challenges found in the natural habitat. Since increased stress hormone output may have long-term negative effects on population health and reproduction, our data emphasize the need for and may add to the development of effective conservation plans for the species.Website

Schwitzer C, Mittermeier RA, Johnson SE, Donati G, Irwin M, Peacock H, Ratsimbazafy J, Razafindramanana J, Louis EE, Chikhi L, Colquhoun IC, Tinsman J, Dolch R, LaFleur M, Nash S, Patel E, Randrianambinina B, Rasolofoharivelo T, Wright PC, 'Averting Lemur Extinctions amid Madagascar's Political Crisis'SCIENCE 343 (6173) (2014) pp.842-843ISSN: 0036-8075 Abstract The most threatened mammal group on Earth, Madagascar's five endemic lemur families (lemurs are found nowhere else) (1), represent more than 20% of the world's primate species and 30% of family-level diversity. This combination of diversity and uniqueness is unmatched by any other country—remarkable considering that Madagascar is only 1.3 to 2.9% the size of the Neotropics, Africa, or Asia, the other three landmasses where nonhuman primates occur. But lemurs face extinction risks driven by human disturbance of forest habitats. We discuss these challenges and reasons for hope in light of site-specific, local actions proposed in an emergency conservation action plan (2).Website

Lazdane K, Broll A, Theisinger O, Bearder SK, Donati G, 'A preliminary assessment of nematode infections in Eulemur collaris (Geoffroy, 1812) (Mammalia: Lemuridae) in remnant fragments of Malagasy littoral forest'Italian Journal of Zoology 81 (3) (2014) pp.374-380ISSN: 1125-0003 Abstract The rapid rate of habitat loss in Madagascar urges a comprehensive assessment of the threats that its fauna faces by living in fragmented, secondary and/or exotic forests. The role of habitat disturbance in determining potential boosts of parasite infections in lemurs, for instance, has been only recently investigated. Here, we conducted a preliminary assessment of prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal parasite infections in two populations of endangered red-collared brown lemurs, Eulemur collaris (Geoffroy, 1812) (Mammalia: Lemuridae), living in two littoral forest fragments of southeastern Madagascar. We collected faecal samples from 45 lemurs. The samples were stored in 70\% alcohol, and we used a modified McMaster technique to analyze egg shedding. The analysis revealed only nematode infections. We found a higher prevalence of infection in the more disturbed fragment, while no differences were revealed in terms of infection intensity. Prevalence of infection was found to be sex-biased in the less degraded area, being higher in females. We hypothesize that this might have been caused by female immune suppression due to increased energetic costs during pregnancy and/or to avoid possible harm to the foetus. Since red-collared brown lemurs are the largest seed dispersers in the littoral forest and only small populations survive in a few fragments, the implications of our results should be considered in future conservation plans for this habitat.Website

Khimji SN, Donati G, 'Are rainforest owl monkeys cathemeral? Diurnal activity of black-headed owl monkeys, Aotus nigriceps, at Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru'PRIMATES 55 (1) (2014) pp.19-24ISSN: 0032-8332 Abstract Members of the genus Aotus are traditionally considered strictly nocturnal, however, in recent years cathemeral habits have been described in a single species of owl monkey, Aotus azarai, which occur in the highly seasonal habitat of the Argentinean Chaco. This finding raises the question as to whether other species of Aotus exhibit cathemeral activity in less seasonal habitats. In this study, we observed the diurnal activity of one group of A. nigriceps living in the Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru over 65 days. The data collected indicate that A. nigriceps has only sporadic diurnal bouts of activity. In addition, nocturnal luminosity of the previous night, rainfall, and temperature did not correlate with the minor diurnal activity exhibited. This suggests that for A. nigriceps the potential costs of shifting to diurnality may outweigh its prospective advantages in this rainforest environment.Website

The ability to operate during the day and at night (i.e., cathemerality) is common among mammals but has rarely been identified in primates. Adaptive hypotheses assume that cathemerality represents a stable adaptation in primates, while nonadaptive hypotheses propose that it is the result of an evolutionary disequilibrium arising from human impacts on natural habitats. Madagascar offers a unique opportunity to study the evolution of activity patterns as there we find a monophyletic primate radiation that shows nocturnal, diurnal, and cathemeral patterns. However, when and why cathemeral activity evolved in lemurs is the subject of intense debate. Thus far, this activity pattern has been regularly observed in only three lemurid genera but the actual number of lemur species exhibiting this activity is as yet unknown. Here we show that the ring-tailed lemur, Lemur catta, a species previously considered to be diurnal, can in fact be cathemeral in the wild. In neighboring but distinct forest areas these lemurs exhibited either mainly diurnal or cathemeral activity. We found that, as in other cathemeral lemurs, activity was entrained by photoperiod and masked by nocturnal luminosity. Our results confirm the relationship between transitional eye anatomy and physiology and 24-h activity, thus supporting the adaptive scenario. Also, on the basis of the most recent strepsirrhine phylogenetic reconstruction, using parsimony criterion, our findings suggest pushing back the emergence of cathemerality to stem lemurids. Flexible activity over 24-h could thus have been one of the key adaptations of the early lemurid radiation possibly driven by Madagascar's island ecology.

Facets of habitat quality which allow species persistence in forest fragments are an important aspect for primate conservation. Mantled howler monkeys (A. palliata) seem to be tolerant of habitat fragmentation, though the limits of this flexibility are not yet clear. In some areas, howler monkey densities in small, primary forest fragments are among the highest ever recorded for the species. We hypothesize that if high density is also determined by habitat carrying capacity; primaryvegetation should provide higher quality resources. Alternatively, if density is just the consequence of crowding, this would decrease the quality of the diet compared to that of monkeys living in non-crowded forests. To test these hypotheses, we studiedfour howler monkey groups at La Suerte Biological Field Station, North-eastern Costa Rica. Two groups occurred in a small primary forest with high howler density, while two groups lived in a large secondary forest with lower density. We collected behavioural data via a 5-min Focal Animal Sampling to estimate activity, habitat use and diet. Food samples were also collected and then analyzed to evaluate their nutritional contents. Moreover, we registered GPS coordinates and estimated home-ranges and mean inter-location distances. Our results show that primary forest food samples contained a significantly lower amount of fiber and a higher protein/fiber ratio than samples from the secondary habitat. Also, primary forest groups used larger feeding trees and moved substantially less than secondary forest groups. Our results support the hypothesis that the primary forest provides higher quality resources than the secondary habitat and, as a possible consequence, howler monkeys living in the latter have to move more to meet their energy requirements.

Trade in primates is seen as a significant impediment to their conservation. Primates are traded both domestically and internationally, in order to supply, amongst others, biomedical industries and pharmaceutical markets, the entertainment business, or pet markets. Primate meat is consumed globally, whereas body parts are used as ingredients in traditional medicine or sold as curios. All international trade in primates is regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), to which all but 2 primate range countries are signatory. The last 15 years has seen a linear increase in the export of live primates (each year 3500 more individuals are exported), with China being, numerically, the largest exporter. While the trade in live primates worldwide involves tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of individuals a year, the trade in dead primates involves millions of animals a year. We introduce here a series of studies dealing with various aspects of the primate trade. We hope that these studies will urge others to quantify the extent of trade in primates alive and dead in both domestic and international contexts, allowing us to find ways to mitigate the consequences of this trade to the conservation of primates.

Malagasy primates of the genus Hapalemur are exceptional in their exhibition of specialisations allowing for a folivorous diet despite their small body size. Members of this group are well known for their preference for specific parts of woody bamboo, the primary food resource throughout much of their range. The southern gentle lemur (H. meridionalis), however, inhabits littoral forests that contain little or no woody bamboo. Similar to its closely related congener, the Alaotran gentle lemur (H. alaotrensis), the question is raised as to how these lemurs subsist in this ecological context. The aim of this study was to gain an initial understanding of the ecological niche of the southern gentle lemur in the threatened ecosystem of the littoral forest of southeastern Madagascar. Lemurs were habituated and observed over a 3-month period during the austral winter, allowing for collection of both continuous and instantaneous focal data on their feeding ecology. Preferred food species were identified and collected, and biochemical analyses determined macronutrient and secondary compound values for consumed food items. The diet of the southern gentle lemur was found to be of low nutritional quality, as evaluated through the low protein-to-fibre ratio, especially when compared with other folivores. This lemur is also unique in spending a majority of its time grazing on terrestrial grasses (family Poaceae) during the resource-poor winter months. Our data indicate that Hapalemur spp. possess a behavioural flexibility, and possibly, digestive abilities, higher than previously thought for an animal of its small body size.

Primates deal with fluctuations of the thermal environment by both physiological and behavioral mechanisms of thermoregulation. In this article we focus on nonhibernating lemurs, which are hypometabolic and have to cope with a seasonal environment. Behavioral thermoregulation has received little attention compared with specific physiological adaptations to seasonality, i.e., hibernation and torpor, which characterize a number of lemurs. We investigated the role of seasonality and dietary-related factors in determining frequencies of resting, social and postural thermoregulation, and microhabitat selection in collared lemurs, Eulemur collaris. We observed two groups of collared lemurs over a 14-month period in the littoral forest of Sainte Luce, Southern Madagascar. Frequencies of total resting and time spent in huddling, prone, and curled postures were collected via 5-min instantaneous sampling. Microhabitat selection was evaluated as the proportion of time spent in the upper canopy as compared with other layers. Climatic variables were recorded by automatic data loggers, while dietary variables were derived from phenological data and nutritional analyses of the ingested food items. We weighted the combined effects of climatic and dietary variables on the different types of behavioral thermoregulation by means of canonical correlation analysis. The model with the strongest canonical correlation included a first root representing mainly feeding time, day length, and ambient temperature and a second root representing diet quality and height of feeding trees. The output indicated that collared lemurs adapt to thermal and dietary-related metabolic stress by adjusting resting time, social, and postural thermoregulation.

Background
Frugivorous primates are known to encounter many problems to cope with habitat degradation, due to the fluctuating spatial and temporal distribution of their food resources. Since lemur communities evolved strategies to deal with periods of food scarcity, these primates are expected to be naturally adapted to fluctuating ecological conditions and to tolerate a certain degree of habitat changes. However, behavioral and ecological strategies adopted by frugivorous lemurs to survive in secondary habitats have been little investigated. Here, we compared the behavioral ecology of collared lemurs (Eulemur collaris) in a degraded fragment of littoral forest of south-east Madagascar, Mandena, with that of their conspecifics in a more intact habitat, Sainte Luce.Methodology/Principal Findings Lemur groups in Mandena and in Sainte Luce were censused in 2004/2007 and in 2000, respectively. Data were collected via instantaneous sampling on five lemur groups totaling 1,698 observation hours. The Shannon index was used to determine dietary diversity and nutritional analyses were conducted to assess food quality. All feeding trees were identified and measured, and ranging areas determined via the minimum convex polygon. In the degraded area lemurs were able to modify several aspects of their feeding strategies by decreasing group size and by increasing feeding time, ranging areas, and number of feeding trees. The above strategies were apparently able to counteract a clear reduction in both food quality and size of feeding trees. Conclusions/Significance Our findings indicate that collared lemurs in littoral forest fragments modified their behavior to cope with the pressures of fluctuating resource availability. The observed flexibility is likely to be an adaptation to Malagasy rainforests, which are known to undergo periods of fruit scarcity and low productivity. These results should be carefully considered when relocating lemurs or when selecting suitable areas for their conservation.

Tofanelli S, Bertoncini S, Castri L, Luiselli D, Calafell F, Donati G, Paoli G, 'On the origin and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence form high resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages and implications for admixture mapping'Molecular Biology and Evolution 26 (9) (2009) pp.2109-2124ISSN: 0737-4038 eISSN: 1537-1719 Abstract The Malagasy have been shown to be a genetically admixed population combining parental lineages with African and South East Asian ancestry. In the present paper, we fit the Malagasy admixture history in a highly resolved phylogeographic framework by typing a large set of mitochondrial DNA and Y DNA markers in unrelated individuals from inland (Merina) and coastal (Antandroy, Antanosy, and Antaisaka) ethnic groups. This allowed performance of a multilevel analysis in which the diversity among main ethnic divisions, lineage ancestries, and modes of inheritance could be concurrently evaluated. Admixture was confirmed to result from the encounter of African and Southeast Asian people with minor recent male contributions from Europe. However, new scenarios are depicted about Malagasy admixture history. The distribution of ancestral components was ethnic and sex biased, with the Asian ancestry appearing more conserved in the female than in the male gene pool and in inland than in coastal groups. A statistic based on haplotype sharing (D(HS)), showing low sampling error and time linearity over the last 200 generations, was introduced here for the first time and helped to integrate our results with linguistic and archeological data. The focus about the origin of Malagasy lineages was enlarged in space and pushed back in time. Homelands could not be pinpointed but appeared to comprise two vast areas containing different populations from sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia. The pattern of diffusion of uniparental lineages was compatible with at least two events: a primary admixture of proto-Malay people with Bantu speakers bearing a western-like pool of haplotypes, followed by a secondary flow of Southeastern Bantu speakers unpaired for gender (mainly male driven) and geography (mainly coastal).Website

Donati G, Baldi N, Morelli V, Ganzhorn J U, Borgognini-Tarli S M, 'Proximate and ultimate determinants of cathemeral activity in brown lemurs'Animal Behaviour 77 (2) (2009) pp.317-325ISSN: 0003-3472 Abstract Among primates, only two lemur genera, Eulemur and Hapalemur, and a population of the platyrrhine Aotus azarai are known to be cathemeral (i.e. show a mixture of daytime and night-time activity). Given the rarity of this phenomenon in primates except for Malagasy lemurs, its proximate and ultimate factors are still debated. The adaptive reasons for this apparently odd lifestyle are mainly based on four not mutually exclusive hypotheses: thermoregulatory benefits, antipredator strategy, competition avoidance and metabolic dietary-related needs. However, little effort has been made to tease apart proximate cues from potential ultimate factors in the multivariate context of activity correlates. To investigate these hypotheses, we compared the year-round cathemeral activity of two groups of Eulemur collaris and one group of hybrids E. collaris×Eulemur fulvus rufus in a humid littoral and in a dry gallery forest of southern Madagascar. Data were collected using a 5min instantaneous method, with sampling equally distributed between day and night. We weighted the different effects of proximate and ultimate factors via the ANCOVA analysis using as the dependent variable the ratio between diurnal and nocturnal activity. Photoperiodic changes and nocturnal luminosity were the two proximate factors that accounted for most of the variability at the two sites. Diet quality was the only ultimate factor that had a significant effect on the diurnality index of the two lemur populations, suggesting a role of metabolic dietary-related needs in determining cathemeral activity in these lemurs.Website

genetic diversity due to isolation. The grey mouse lemur Microcebus murinus has been shown to be resilient to some degree of habitat fragmentation and is, therefore, an ideal species to study to understand how to counteract this threat. In the south-eastern corner of Madagascar, the tiny remnant fragments of the highly threatened littoral forest are today linked by habitat corridors which consist of non-native plants, native plants or a mixture of both. Previous studies have revealed

that grey mouse lemurs prefer to utilise native plants. However, as the regeneration of the

native forests is slow and non-native plantations grow fast, it is crucial to regularly monitor when

and whether threshold conditions for using non-native formations are reached. During this

3-month study, the effectiveness of different matrices of habitat corridors, with different composition and age, as dispersal mediums was assessed for grey mouse lemurs in the Mandena Conservation Area. Night walks and capture-recapture methods, using Sherman traps and non-invasive semi-permanent marking techniques, were undertaken. As expected, lemurs were observed at a higher frequency in corridors with higher proportions of native plant species, while corridors where non-native species prevailed were almost unused. The effectiveness of using non-native plantations as habitat corridors for endemic species is discussed.

The Mahavavy-Kinkony Wetland Complex (MKWC), North-Western Madagascar gained protected status in January 2007. Remaining forests are highly fragmented yet the complex covers most of the range of two highly threatened lemur species, Propithecus coronatus and Eulemur mongoz. The IUCN Lemur Specialist Group suggested E. mongoz be updated from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered based on rapid habitat loss. Thus, new data from MKWC are crucial for conservation action planning in this area. Lemur surveys were conducted in MKWC between May-June 2008 using nocturnal/diurnal strip transects in five fragments and presence/absence data from an additional three fragments using rapid diurnal surveys. Propithecus coronatus, Propithecus deckenii, Eulemur rufifrons, Eulemur mongoz, Microcebus sp and Lepilemur sp were encountered. Compilation with previous research produced updated distribution maps for MKWC and Eulemur mongoz densities were compared over time. Eulemur mongoz densities in Anjamena decreased at a rate of 85% over 13 years. Although not significant (p=.65), nested analysis (T=0.02) suggested E. mongoz as the most vulnerable to fragmentation of the diurnal/cathemeral lemur species surveyed. During the surveys, the species was not found in any fragments less than 250ha although representatives of all other species were still present. This research supports the IUCN Lemur Specialist Group’s suggestion to update the status of the E. mongoz and highlights the urgent need for conservation planning in the MKWC.

Forest fragmentation alters both the quality and area of habitat available to primate species. Determining whether there are vegetation traits associated with primate population density and structure may help to manage fragmented habitats better. In this study, we investigated whether significant demographic changes had occurred in populations of Neotropical primates over the last decade at La Suerte Biological Station, Costa Rica. Those changes were then related to forest structureand diversity. We sampled tree height, density, diversity, crown volume and canopy cover in a small fragment of old-growth vegetation (20 ha) and in a fragment of mature, second-growth forest (250 ha). We also carried out censuses of mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) , white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) and black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Overall, both forests had similar vegetation structure, but the primary site had trees with larger crown volume and higher diversity. Forest agecorrelated positively with howler density and the size of howler foraging groups. Primate populations in the primary fragment seem to have reached carrying capacity, while populations of all three species in the secondary fragment had grown significantly. Our findings support other studies that have identified the importance of tree diversity and large trees for primate habitat.

Santini L, Donati G, 'An Unexpected Nocturnal Life: 24-hour Activity in Ring-tailed Lemurs (lemur Catta)'Folia Primatologica 82 (2012) pp.265-266ISSN: 0015-5713 eISSN: 1421-9980 Abstract In the last decades, research on primate activity patterns has revealed that cathemerality, i.e., the ability to operate over the 24-hour cycle, is more widespread than previously thought. The ring-tailed lemur, Lemur catta, has long been described as an example of diurnality in le- murs, overlooking the many traits shared by this genus with cathemeral species. To determine whether Lemur catta is strictly diurnal or could be grouped together with most members of its family, two groups were followed in two areas of gallery forests in Southern Madagascar (Berenty and Bealoka). The data were recorded over a period of 5 months via a Scan Animal Sampling every 5 minutes and were equally distributed between the diurnal and the nocturnal phase. We show that the ring-tailed lemur is a facultative cathemeral species in the wild. In two separate, yet geographically close fragments of forest, these lemurs exhibited either mainly diurnal or cathemeral activity. Diurnal activity was influenced by photoperiod, while nocturnal activity was strongly controlled by moon luminosity. Since at the two sites climate and predation pres- sures were assumed not to differ significantly, we argue that this flexibility was possibly related to competition and dietary needs. Our findings support the idea that flexible activity over the 24-hours could have been one of the key adaptations of early lemur radiations possibly driven by Madagascar’s unique island ecology.Website

Corcione F P, Marini E, Donati G, 'Does Forest Degradation Affect Locomotion? A Preliminary Study on Alouatta Palliata at La Suerte Biological Station, Costa Rica'Folia Primatologica 82 (2012) pp.273-273ISSN: 0015-5713 eISSN: 1421-9980 Abstract The use of different locomotion styles is closely related to the ecological context occupied by primates. Thus, once accounting for the paramount influence of body size, quantitative changes in the use of a species-specific locomotion repertoire are expected to be shaped by habitat differences. Considering the energetic costs involved in the use of different locomotion modes, it is crucial to understand whether the decreasing primary vegetation available to primates in tropical habitats may affect their choices. To test this hypothesis, we studied four mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) groups living in two different fragments of lowland rainforest at La Suerte Biological Station, Costa Rica, in July-August 2009. Two groups were located in a primary forest and two groups in a mature secondary forest. We collected a total of 125 observation hours on all locomotion activities using Focal Instantaneous Sampling at 5 min intervals. We also distinguished between sexes, support sizes and types of forest. The most frequent type of locomotion recorded during the study period was quadrupedalism. We found a difference in the choice of support between sexes, with females using smaller branches more often. In the primary forest, quadrupedalism was used more frequently, while in the secondary forest jumping and climbing were more often recorded. Finally, in the primary forest the animals were able to use horizontal branches more frequently than in the modified habitat. Our results support the idea that habitat modifications have a strong influence on primate locomotion. These findings, if supported by long-term data, have important implications for the survival of howler monkeys in secondary forests

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