Revisiting Wasson's Soma: exploring the effects
of preparation on the chemistry of Amanita muscaria.

Abstract:

In 1968 R. Gordon Wasson first proposed his groundbreaking theory
identifying Soma, the hallucinogenic sacrament of the Vedas, as the
Amanita muscaria mushroom. While Wasson's theory has garnered
acclaim, it is not without its faults. One omission in Wasson's
theory is his failure to explain how pressing and filtering Soma, as
described in the Rig Veda, supports his theory of Soma's identity.
Several critics have reasoned that such preparation should be
unnecessary if equivalent results can be obtained by consuming the raw
plant, as is done with other psychoactive mushrooms. In order to address
these specific criticisms over 600 anecdotal accounts of Amanita
muscaria inebriation were collected and analyzed to determine the impact
of preparation on Amanita muscaria's effects. The findings of this
study demonstrated that the effects of Amanita muscaria were related to
the type of preparation employed, and that its toxic effects were
considerably reduced by preparations that paralleled those described for
Soma in the Rig Veda. While unlikely to end debate over the identity of
Soma, this study's findings help to solidify the foundation
ofWasson's theory, and also to demonstrate the importance of
preparation in understanding and uncovering the true identity of Soma.

In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson first proposed his groundbreaking theory
identifying Soma, the hallucinogenic sacrament of the Vedas, as the
classic spotted fairy tale mushroom--Amanita muscaria. While
Wasson's theory is compelling on many levels he neglected to
explain how the pressing and filtering of Soma, as described in the Rig
Veda, supported his theory of Soma's identity. This omission has
led to several criticisms of his theory, including: (1)that such an
elaborate process of extraction and preparation should be unnecessary if
Soma were a mushroom; and (2) that no procedure of preparation is known
to reliably reduce or eliminate the often unpleasant effects of Amanita
muscaria. In order to address these specific criticisms over 600
anecdotal accounts of Amanita muscaria inebriation and poisonings were
collected and analyzed to determine the impact of preparation on Amanita
muscaria inebriation. The findings of this study demonstrated that the
effects of Amanita muscaria were related to the type of preparation
employed, and that the often-toxic effects of Amanita muscaria were
considerably reduced by preparations that paralleled those described for
Soma in the Rig Veda. Before addressing this analysis, however, it is
important to establish a foundational understanding of the chemistry of
Amanita muscaria, as it is currently understood, and to understand
Wasson's ideas around preparation and the criticisms that have been
leveled against this portion of his theory.

The pharmacology of Amanita muscaria is not entirely understood.
Two primary compounds, ibotenic acid and muscimol, are known to occur in
pharmacologically active levels and are partially, if not entirely,
responsible for Amanita muscaria's psychoactive effects. Another
notable constituent of Amanita muscaria is muscarine. Muscarine is a
cholinergic agonist which produces significant physiological changes in
sufficient doses, but is not known to produce psychoactive effects and
does not contribute to the psychoactivity of Amanita muscaria.
Muscazone, a compound related to ibotenic acid, has also been reported
from Amanita muscaria, but may simply be a by-product of procedures used
to isolate ibotenic acid (Catalfomo & Eugster 1970). The
psychoactivity of muscazone is unknown, but is considered doubtful (Ott
1993). There is also evidence that the degradation of ibotenic acid
results in the production of another, as of yet unidentifed, compound
(Ott 1976).

Ibotenic acid is the most abundant of the principal compounds, and
easily degrades into muscimol through the loss of a carboxyl group.
Dehydration of the mushroom is the easiest way to promote
decarboxylation of ibotenic acid to muscimol. It has been suggested that
heating or cooking may also promote degradation of ibotenic acid due to
its low stability (Catalfomo & Eugster 1970). Jonathan Ott (1976)
has found that ibotenic acid decarboxylates to muscimol when exposed to
acidic conditions, and suggested that ibotenic acid may be converted to
muscimol in the acidic environment of the stomach. Interestingly, most
ibotenic acid passes through the system unmetabolized and may be
reingested in the form of urine to prolong its psychoactive effect.
Ibotenic acid is a water soluble compound, but is apparently difficult
to dissolve in cold water (Catalfomo & Eugster 1970).

Dr. Scott Chilton (1975), a specialist on mushroom toxins, detailed
the following effects from his experiments with pure ibotenic acid:
unsteadiness, dizziness, narrowed field of vision, mild visual spasms,
muscular twitches, and sleep. Dr. Chilton reported no actual
hallucinations from his experiments. According to Chilton, 53 mg was
sufficient to produce psychoactive effects, while a dose of 93 mg
produced a strong inebriation, including a brief bout of vomiting. Peter
G. Waser, a Professor at the University of Zurich, has also reported on
his experimentation with a low dose of ibotenic acid. With 20 mg, Waser
(1979) reported experiencing flushing, lassitude, and sleep. The
psychoactivity of ibotenic acid has been pegged at 1 mg/kg (Ott 1993),
making Waser's dose a very light one. It is not clear whether
ibotenic acid itself is psychoactive, or whether the psychoactivity is
caused purely by the decarboxylation product of ibotenic acid, muscimol
(Ott 1993).

Muscimol is five to 10 times more potent than ibotenic acid, and is
likely the primary contributor to the psychoactive effects of Amanita
muscaria intoxication. Muscimol is a salt and is very soluble in water.
It is also a thermostable compound, and will not degrade with cooking or
boiling. There is some uncertainty as to whether muscimol occurs in
fresh specimens of Amanita muscaria, or whether it only appears once
drying and decarboxylation of ibotenic acid commences (Catalfomo &
Eugster 1970). There is still heavy speculation that other, as of yet
unidentifed, compounds may contribute to the intoxicating properties of
Amanita muscaria.

Waser (1979: 435), experimenting with 15 mg of muscimol, reported
the following effects:

The echopictures experienced by Waser under the influence of
muscimol have also been described by others after having ingested
Amanita muscaria mushrooms, supporting the idea that muscimol is the
primary inebriating agent. One individual described his experience as
follows:

As I sat on the toilet watching [my son] splash in the tub I had
the most peculiar visual experience ... As I watched him, say laying
belly down, my mind captured this image so it remained in my perception,
till another motion, say my son sitting upright, caught my attention, of
which the new image would appear. The whole effect was sort of a still
frame slide show, where an image would remain in perception till a new
one burst from the center of the old one (ChemBob 2005).

Other symptoms known to be caused by muscimol include altered
auditory and visual perception, visual disturbances, loss of equilibrium
and mild muscle twitching. Unlike ibotenic acid, only trace amounts of
muscimol pass through the urine unmetabolized (Ott 1993).

Discovered in 1869, muscarine was the first compound isolated from
the Amanita muscaria mushroom, from which the compound derives its name.
It was originally thought to be the active intoxicating agent, a notion
that has long been abandoned. Muscarine, however, does produce notable
physiological changes, typically characterized by excessive perspiration
and salivation, blurring of vision, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and
diarrhea. These effects usually develop within 15 to 30 minutes after
ingestion, but symptoms may take up to an hour to occur in some cases.
Muscarine is both water soluble and thermostable, and does not degrade
with cooking or heating.

WASSON ON PREPARATION

The Rig Veda speaks of three filters used to purify and prepare
Soma for sacramental use. Wasson (1968) has identified these three
filters as: (I) a celestial filter, or filter of sunlight; (2) a filter
of woolen cloth; and (3) the human body. Wasson focuses predominantly on
the first and third filters, providing varying degrees of support for
his Soma theory. This section provides an overview of Wasson's
thinking on these three filters and also examines the criticisms leveled
against this portion of his theory.

The first filter, according to Wasson, is a "celestial
filter," which purifies Soma with sunlight. Wasson explained that
Soma "catches the sun's rays on its back and holds them there,
where they filtre the Soma juice into the plant" (Wasson 1968: 53).
In support of his interpretation Wasson cited several passages from the
Rig Veda, including the following:

9.76.4: He [Soma] who has been cleansed by the sun's ray.
(Wasson 1968: 38).

9.86.32: The Soma envelopes himself all around with rays of the sun
... (Wasson 1968: 54).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Wasson's theory is that the filter of sunlight represents
drying or dehydration of the Soma plant, a process that is essential in
the preparation of Amanita muscaria in Siberia. Among the Kamchadal of
the Kamchatka peninsula, it is believed that Amanita muscaria that have
been sun dried while still in the ground are the most potent, while the
Koryak and other Siberian peoples consider fresh Amanita muscaria to be
toxic (Wasson 1968). These views are likely connected to the change in
chemistry of the mushroom through the dehydration process, which
increases the strength of the mushroom through decarboxylation of
ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol.

Providing additional support to Wasson's interpretation of the
first filter are complementary verses from the Rig Veda that suggest
Soma is in a dry state before application of the second filter, when
Soma is mixed with water and strained through a woolen cloth. The
following passages suggest that when mixed with water the Soma plant
swells in size, a characteristic absent in most fresh plants but
familiar to some dried plants, particularly dried mushrooms. Mushrooms
are exceptional among plants and vegetables in their ability to
reconstitute from a dried state, swelling both significantly and rapidly
when soaked in water.

8.9.19: When the swollen stalks were milked like cows with [full]
udders ... (Wasson 1968: 43).

9.74.9: Clarifying Soma, when you are sated with waters your juice
runs through the sieve made of wool (Doniger 2005: 123). 10.125.2: I
carry the swelling Soma ... I bestow wealth on the pious sacrificer who
presses the Soma and offers the oblation (Doniger 2005: 63).

The second filter is a filter of lamb's wool, used to strain
and remove the solids of the Soma plant in order to produce the
sacramental beverage. Wasson expended little time examining this filter,
stating that it "presents no problems," presumably because
this filter is described directly and without any ambiguity (Wasson
1968: 51). Wasson's failure to examine the significance of this
stage of the purifying process has led to several criticisms of his
work. Professor John Brough (1971: 338) challenged Wasson on this
omission, pointing out that "if the Soma-plant had been a mushroom,
it would be strange that the elaborate

Vedic process of pounding out and filtering the juice should have
been necessary. Why should the plant not have been simply eaten?"
David Stophlet Flattery, who proposed that Soma is the plant Peganum
harmala, also argued that such preparation should be unnecessary if
equivalent results can be obtained "by simply chewing the plant
materials, as is the case with psychotropic mushrooms" (Flattery
& Schwartz 1989: 33).

While Brough and Flattery make a good point, their challenge is
based on incorrect assumptions. The frst assumption is that Amanita
muscaria shares similar chemical properties with Psilocybe mushrooms,
which allow it to be eaten fresh or dried without preparation. The
active compounds in Psilocybe mushrooms (psilocybin and psilocin),
however, have never been isolated from Amanita muscaria, do not
contribute to its intoxicating effects, and are completely irrelevant to
understanding the pharmacology of Amanita muscaria. While it is true
that Amanita muscaria, like Psilocybe mushrooms, can produce
psychoactive effects when eaten fresh or dried, it does not follow that
the pharmacology of the two mushrooms would be similarly affected by the
extraction process described for Soma. The second assumption is that the
Soma plant cannot simply be eaten, which appears to be based on a bias
towards identifying Soma as a woody or fibrous plant (such as Ephedra or
Sarcostemma), which would require water extraction in order to render
the drug consumable. Both of these assumptions ignore passages in the
Rig Veda that suggest that Soma can be consumed "pressed" or
"unpressed." More importantly, however, are indications in the
Rig Veda that Soma that has not been pressed is inferior to Soma that
has been pressed, suggesting that there is some chemical change that
occurs during the extraction process.

6.41.4: Soma when pressed excels the unpressed Soma, better, for
one who knows, to give him pleasure (Griffith 1890: 367).

The passages above suggest, regardless of what Soma's true
identity is, that pressing and extracting Soma alters the chemistry of
the sacrament in some beneficial way. While it has typically been
presumed that the "pressing" of Soma is used to extract an
active agent from a benign but indigestible plant, hymns describing the
ritual preparation of Soma repeatedly speak of Soma being cleansed or
purified by the water employed during pressing. For example:

9.62.6: The beautiful plant beloved of the gods, [the Soma] washed
in the waters, pressed by the masters, the cows season [it] with milk
(Wasson 1968: 28).

9.109.17: The prize-winning Soma has flowed, in a thousand drops
cleansed by the waters, mixed with the milk of cows (Wasson 1968: 28).

9.2.5: The ocean [of Soma] has been cleansed in the waters;
mainstay of the sky, the Soma in the filtre, he who is favourable to us
(Wasson 1968: 47).

The focus on cleansing and purifying Soma through pressing and
straining would suggest that Soma is not pressed for the sake of
rendering it in a consumable form, as seems to be assumed by Brough,
Flattery and others, but rather for eliminating impurities and/or toxic
qualities that would otherwise be present in the Soma plant. While
Wasson was unable to explain the significance of the second filter as
applied to Amanita muscaria, this study seeks to illustrate how this
step may provide further support for his theory.

The third filter, as proposed by Wasson, is the human body. Wasson
advanced his proposition for the third filter by citing the traditions
of urine drinking in Siberia and by relying on limited Vedic references
to urine, including the following passages from the Rig Veda:

Wasson went on to explain that "the Soma juice that is drunk
by 'Indra' and 'Vayu' in the course of the liturgy
is filtered in their organisms and issues forth as sparkling yellow
urine, retaining its inebriating virtue but having been purged of its
nauseating properties" (Wasson 1968: 55). From a pharmacological
perspective Wasson may indeed be correct. While ibotenic acid, one of
the mushrooms active constituents, passes in the urine unmetabolized, it
is likely that other components of Amanita muscaria that contribute to
nausea and vomiting, such as muscarine, have been metabolized (filtered)
into inactive by-products. This biological process would leave a fairly
pure extraction of ibotenic acid in the consumer's urine.
Unfortunately, there were an insufficient number of anecdotal reports on
urine consumption to provide a proper analysis of the third filter in
Wasson's theory.

Pharmacology aside, Wasson's assertion that the third filter
is the human body and that mushroom-infused urine is the purest form of
Soma has been challenged on two substantial grounds. First is that
Wasson's interpretation assumed that "priests appointed to
impersonate Indra and Vayu" urinate the intoxicating Soma (Wasson
1968: 30), despite a lack of evidence "in the whole of the Rigveda
that priests ever impersonate the gods in any capacity" (Ingalls
1971: 189). The second argument relies on the mere paucity of references
to urinating Soma in the Rig Veda, as well as the ambiguity of these
rare passages. As noted by one detractor, "the verb to urinate is
used in connection with the word soma only twice in the Rig Veda"
(Ingalls 1971: 189).

While Wasson's interpretation of the third filter is
intriguing, other more feasible explanations present themselves in the
text of the Rig Veda. Milk is frequently spoken of as being mixed with
pressed Soma or used to further purify Soma, as in the following
passages:

9.8.5 : When through the filter thou art poured, we clothe thee
with a robe of milk to be a gladdening draught for gods (Griffith 1891:
370).

Frequent reference is also made to purifying prayers that were
recited over the Soma bowl prior to consumption of the sacred beverage.
For example:

9.113.2: Pressed with sacred words, with truth and faith and
ardour, O drop of Soma, flow for lndra (Doniger 2005: 133). 9.74.9:
Polished by the poets, Soma who brings supreme ecstasy, be sweet for
Indra to drink (Doniger 2005: 122).

The addition of milk to Soma and the recitation of prayer during
the preparation of Soma are well described steps in the Soma ceremony,
as illustrated by the passages above, and either process would make a
more plausible candidate for the third filter than recycled urine, as
proposed by Wasson.

METHODS

Accounts of Amanita muscaria inebriation and poisonings were
collected in order to analyze variations in the reports of nausea and
vomiting, symptoms often associated with Amanita muscaria
inebriation/poisoning, by style of preparation. The hypothesis was that
each of the first two filters identified by Wasson, the celestial and
woolen filters, when applied to Amanita muscaria would produce a
substantial reduction in the incidence of nausea and vomiting. Such a
showing would address criticisms that the elaborate preparation of Soma
is unnecessary when applied to Amanita muscaria, and that the effects of
Amanita muscaria are too unpleasant to warrant a sacramental status like
that of Soma.

The anecdotal accounts of Amanita muscaria experiences described a
variety of preparation types, including: (1) fresh/raw, (2) dried, (3)
tea with solids consumed, (4) tea with solids removed, and (5) cooked.
In the fresh category only reports where mushrooms were consumed without
preparation (i.e., eaten as is) have been included. The dried category
included reports where mushrooms were air or oven dried. The tea with
solids consumed category included all water extractions (hot and cold)
of dried mushrooms where the mushroom solids were also consumed. The tea
category included all water extractions (hot and cold) of dried
mushrooms that were strained before consumption. The cooked mushrooms
category consisted of reports where mushrooms were prepared by oven or
stove, but were not cooked to a dehydrated state. Within each category
the reports were examined for frequency of the following symptoms:
nausea, vomiting, and inebriation. The resulting differences between
each category were then examined through application of logistic
regression to determine whether there was a statistically significant
relationship between preparation style and effects of the mushroom.
Unfortunately, insufficient anecdotal evidence was available on Amanita
muscaria and urine recycling to analyze the properties of recycled urine
in terms of nausea and vomiting.

RESULTS

Considering Table 1, there appear to be some clear trends in the
frequency of nausea and vomiting depending on how the mushroom is
prepared. Both nausea and vomiting decreased when the mushroom was
consumed dried rather than fresh. Vomiting appeared to stay about the
same when dried mushrooms were prepared as tea (with solids consumed),
but again both nausea and vomiting decreased when the mushroom was
consumed as a tea rather than dried or as a tea with solids consumed.
While these numbers appeared significant, the difference in population
sizes between preparation types made it difficult to come to any
conclusions without applying some method of statistical analysis.

The data listed in Table 1 were analyzed using logistic regression
to determine whether any of the differences in frequency of nausea and
vomiting among preparations were truly significant. The results of this
analysis showed that type of preparation was a significant factor in
predicting the likelihood of nausea ([chi square] (4, N = 525) = 15.19,
p < .01); and that preparation type was also a significant factor in
predicting the likelihood of vomiting ([chi square] (4, N = 525) =
39.87, p < .001).

While the frequency of nausea appeared to decrease when dried
preparations were used instead of fresh preparations, the only
preparation type that had a significant effect on the odds of
experiencing nausea was tea with solids removed. A preparation of tea
reduced the odds of experiencing nausea over a fresh preparation by 53%
(p < .05). Changes in preparation type had a more substantial effect
on the frequency of vomiting experienced during Amanita muscaria
inebriation; still, only two preparation types had a significant effect
on the odds of experiencing vomiting. Eating dried mushrooms reduced the
odds of experiencing vomiting over a fresh preparation by 64% (p <
.01). Drinking a tea also reduced the odds of experiencing vomiting over
a fresh preparation by 86% (p < .001). While not statistically
significant, a preparation of tea (with solids consumed) tended to show
reduced odds of experiencing vomiting over a fresh preparation by 63% (p
< .10).

Finally, a comparison of the different preparation types showed no
significant variation in the likelihood of experiencing psychoactive
effects ([chi square] (4, N = 525) = 1.60, p > .05), indicating that
while preparation may have influenced the frequency of nausea and
vomiting, preparation did not have a similar effect on the production or
frequency of psychoactive effects.

DISCUSSION

The change in Amanita muscaria's effects when the mushroom was
prepared similarly to Soma, as described in the Rig Veda, was
remarkable. Results of the current study showed a significant reduction
in the odds of vomiting in consumers of dried preparations as compared
to those who consumed the mushrooms fresh. This result serves as an
example of how the dehydration process can cause statistically
significant changes in the toxic effects of Amanita muscaria, and
supports Wasson's theory that the first filter used in purifying
Soma was a celestial filter, or filter of sunlight. According to the
current understanding of Amanita muscaria's chemistry, the biggest
difference between fresh and dried Amanita muscaria is in the levels of
ibotenic acid and muscimol present. Because the drying process
decarboxylates ibotenic acid to muscimol, dried preparations have lower
concentrations of ibotenic acid than do fresh specimens. This chemical
change may account for the differences in the prevalence of vomiting
between fresh and dried preparations. The difference in effects between
fresh and dried specimens of Amanita muscaria is also supported by the
taboo against eating fresh Amanita muscaria mushrooms among several
Siberian groups with a traditional use of this mushroom (Wasson 1968).

The differences in ill effects between dried preparations and
preparations of tea showed that when applying Soma's second filter,
a filter of woolen cloth, a significant change in the effects produced
by Amanita muscaria also occurred. This change could certainly be
perceived as beneficial, and could also explain why "Soma unpressed
ne'er gladdened liberal Indra" (Griffith 1891: 35). Perhaps
unsurprisingly, preparations of the tea in which the solids were
consumed shared a similar prevalence of vomiting when compared to dried
preparations. This suggested that a component of the mushroom that
contributed to the effect of vomiting remained in the mushroom after a
hot or cold water extraction. This information seemed to indicate that
at least one of the compounds responsible for producing nausea and
vomiting was not destroyed by high temperatures (as many preparations
were boiled) and was not water soluble. Strained tea still contained
ibotenic acid and muscarine, both of which are known to produce symptoms
of nausea andvomiting, but the severely toxic components seem to have
been removed. Because of the purported difficulty of dissolving ibotenic
acid in cold water, a cold water extraction may have lower
concentrations of ibotenic acid than hot water extractions, and thus
reduce the risk of vomiting even further.

Complicating our understanding of Amanita muscaria's
pharmacology, however, is a recent article by William Rubel and
mycologist David Arora (2008) that reveals a history of culinary use of
this mushroom by scattered populations throughout the world. The most
common method of detoxifying this mushroom has been to parboil it in
several changes ofwater, which eliminates all negative and inebriating
effects (Rubel & Arora 2008). This would seem to suggest, assuming
both methods are valid, that any compound contributing to nausea and
vomiting that remains in the mushroom after boiling does not itself
produce these results but does so only by acting in concert with Amanita
muscaria's water soluble components. More research is needed to
determine the specific chemical changes that render water extractions of
Amanita muscaria less toxic than the dried mushroom.

While there is no indication in the Rig Veda that Soma is cooked, a
comparison between fresh and cooked preparations of Amanita muscaria has
been included in order to address an observation made by Wasson during
his unsuccessful experiments with Amanita muscaria. Wasson observed one
of his colleagues, Rokuya Imazeki, become inebriated after cooking the
mushroom caps over an open fire. He and his colleagues were at a loss to
explain why Imazeki had become successfully inebriated while the others
had not, and could only conclude that cooking had something to do with
it (Wasson 1968). While it has been suggested that cooking might cause
ibotenic acid to break down due to its instability (Catalfomo &
Eugster 1970), the results here suggested that cooking Amanita muscaria
did not significantly impact the chemistry of the mushroom as it related
to the production of nausea or vomiting. The results also showed that
none of the preparation types, including cooking, were significantly
more likely to produce psychoactive effects than any other preparation
type. This suggested that inebriation may be produced through any of the
discussed preparations and that the successful experience of
Wasson's colleague was likely a function of dose rather than
preparation.

LIMITATIONS

The anecdotal reports used for this study were collected from a
variety of sources, and the extent of details provided varied from
source to source. As a result, the data used were not entirely uniform
and may have been incomplete in some instances. One limitation resulting
from the variation in detail is a lack of information on dose and how
dose impacted the experiences of nausea, vomiting, and inebriation among
preparation types. Without this information it is difficult to gauge how
much preparation style, as opposed to dose, contributed to variance in
the frequency of nausea and vomiting. Similarities in the frequency of
inebriation among preparation types suggested some uniformity of dosage
across types, perhaps indicating a limited impact of dose on the
analyzed sample. Even with accurate dosage information, however, there
remain difficulties in making comparisons among preparations, such as
comparing dosages of fresh and dried mushrooms. Direct data collection
with uniform questions would help to clarify the impact of preparation
versus dose on the occurrence of nausea and vomiting.

The results were also limited by a lack of information on diet and
variations in set and setting, factors that may have accounted for some
of the differences in reactions among the surveyed reports. Another
potential limitation is that no distinction was made between degrees of
nausea. As a result, individuals with mild stomach discomfort were
grouped together with those who experienced violent illness. A closer
inspection may have shown that preparation also predicted the degree of
nausea experienced by the consumer.

CONCLUSION

It has been over 40 years since the publication of Wasson's
Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, and in that time his theory
identifying Soma as the Amanita muscaria mushroom has remained one of
the most viable proposals to date. One failure of Wasson's,
however, was to demonstrate how the preparation of Soma, as described in
the Rig Veda, supported his identification of Amanita muscaria. The
research presented above fills this gap by demonstrating that the
effects of Amanita muscaria are related to the type of preparation
employed, and that the optimal effects of Amanita muscaria are produced
through preparations that parallel those described for Soma in the Rig
Veda. Wasson's theory is further supported by a reading of the Rig
Veda that interprets the preparation of Soma as not merely an extraction
process, but also a purifying process, since the techniques of Soma
preparation when applied to Amanita muscaria not only extracted the
active principles of the mushroom but also significantly reduced the
presence of its nauseating and emetic properties. While this effort in
no way closes the door on the debate over the identity of Soma, these
findings help to solidify the foundation of Wasson's theory, as
well as demonstrate the utmost importance of preparation in
understanding and uncovering the true identity of Soma.

Seattle Times. 2006. Three hospitalized in Olympia after eating
poisonous mushrooms. May 4. Available at http://archives.seattletimes.
nwsource.com/cgi-bin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?slug=webmus
hrooms04&date=20060504&query=pantherina.

(1.) Amanita pantherina is a close relative of Amanita muscaria,
producing the same symptoms as Amanita muscaria poisoning and containing
the same primary compounds: ibotenic acid, muscimol and muscarine.

After a phase of stimulation, concentration became more difficult.
Vision was altered by endlessly repetitional echopictures of
situations a few minutes before ... I felt sometimes as if I had
lost my legs, but never had hallucinations as vivid and colourful
as with LSD.