A Supplement to the PowerPoint Program:

Rationale for Raising Free-Range Poultry

Small farm operators looking for a non-traditional farm enterprise to fit the unique needsof their small farm should seriously consider giving free-range poultry a try. Raisingpoultry requires less startup capital, land, and equipment than other comparableenterprises. An important point is that there is a consistently strong market for fresh,farm-raised eggs and meat birds.Marketing locally produced poultry products is often made easier by the media as theycondition the public to distrust the quality and safety of poultry products in the chainstores. As we have seen with locally grown produce, the public would prefer to purchaselocally produced poultry products, because they perceive them to be more natural andsafer for their family to eat.In commercial poultry houses, the birds are raised in confined,unnatural conditions, because of the stress from over-crowdingand the air they breathe; the birds are fed feed containingantibiotics. In a free-range poultry enterprise, the birds are raisedin a stress-free environment where they are not crowded, have anaturaldiet of grains, forage, and bugs, and have plenty of fresh air andsunlight. This is an antibiotic-free system that also includes hand-processing on the farmthat ensures that the carcass remains clean and free of fecal matter, which is acontributing factor to food safety regarding commercial poultry products.Alternative Poultry Production TechniquesWhile the term free-range is often applied generically to all poultry raised outside of acage, it is not correct to put this label on all alternative poultry production techniques.These alternative production techniques include:Free-Range: This refers to enterprises using moveable housing with access to pasture. Infree-range enterprises, portable houses or pens are moved regularly so that chickens mayforage on grass, seeds, and insects outside of the house during daytime hours. At nightthe chickens return to the safety of the house, where it can be moved to a new site forfresh grazing the next day. This system is popular with egg laying enterprises.

Pastured Poultry: This term is used to describe a modification of free-range. In this

system, a field pen is used to strictly control the grazing area and bird density. The birdsare pastured in floorless pens and moved daily to maintain a continued supply of freshforage. This system works well in a rotation where the birds follow cattle. This systemis preferred in fryer and broiler enterprises.

Semi-intensive: This refers to a system, where the birds are kept in permanent housingwith access to a surrounding yard or pasture. The surrounding yard or pasture should bedivided into smaller units or paddocks, where the birds can be rotationally grazed;otherwise they will quickly over-graze the area into bare soil. This system works wellwith egg laying operations.

Yard and Crop: This is a catch-all term referring to poultry enterprises that do notinclude a formal plan for rotating pasture or have no access to pasture. In this system,birds are allowed to roam the farm at will and are shut up at night in a house forprotection from predators. This is the typical poultry production system on most familyfarms.

Innovative: In this system birds forage fallow land, such as last years garden, in afloorless pen, which is moved daily. Birds will feed on weeds, seeds, and insects, as wellas depositing manure on the ground for next years crop. The field will be rotated back tocrop production the following year. This would be an alternative to the yard and cropsystem for the family farm poultry production.

Free-Range Poultry Enterprises

Table Birds: This enterprise refers to birds that are raised and marketed for meat, whichincludes: Fryers, young birds less than 4 pounds Broilers, birds weighing 4 to 5 pounds Roasters, young birds 5 to 10 pounds Capons, males castrated at 3 weeks and sold at 7 to 11 pounds Laying hen with eggs, in-production hen is harvested and sold with un-laid eggs Stewing Hen, old retired laying hen Pieces and Parts, cut up chicken parts sold as value-added productLayers: This enterprise is especially strong in this region as mostpeople prefer fresh from the farm eggs. There is a year-arounddemand for both white and brown eggs. Free-range andsemi-intensive production systems work well with managinglaying flocks.Turkeys: This is obviously a more seasonal enterprise than raisingchickens, however much of the production management is the same. During holidayseasons, this can be a profitable niche enterprise.Ducks and Geese: This is another niche enterprise to consider. Ducks and geese are verygood grazers and fit well in a free-range operation. They are however more difficult toprocess because of the oil in the feathers, which makes them more difficult to remove.Game Birds: There are restaurants in the region that would love to be able to offer freerange raised game birds such as pheasant and quail to their customers. The production ofthese birds is not too different from raising chickens; however the Maryland Departmentof Natural Resources requires the producer to obtain a license from them beforebeginning this enterprise.

BreedsRhode Island Reds, White Rocks, and New Hampshire Reds are dual purpose breeds thatlay eggs fairly well, are deep bodied, and yield a meaty carcass.The Production Red is a genetically improved Rhode Island Redthat is a better layer, but is a smaller bodied bird. The WhiteLeghorn is the top bird of choice among commercial eggenterprises. It is a 3-pound bird that produces over 300 eggsper year. The Cornish Cross is the bird of choice in commercialmeat-bird enterprises. It is a cross (hybrid) between the doublebreasted Cornwell chicken and the White Rock; almost all of thebroilers in the U.S. are Cornish Cross.The marketability of the Cornish Cross needs to be considered when selecting a breed forraising meat birds. Most of the public are not used to tougher, narrow-breasted types ofchicken, but niche markets can be developed for the other breeds of birds. Cornish Crosschickens will take more management to produce successfully, since this breed wasdeveloped for commercial caged production and not for grazing.Purchasing purebreds vs. hybrids is a big decision when starting out. Hybrids will bemore efficient in egg and meat production, while purebreds will produce more consistentoffspring, if producers decide to develop their own replacement flock. Non-hybridbreeds are hardy and mortality for them during production runs close to zero. Nonhybrid breeds take 12-weeks to reach 4 pounds rather than 8-weeks like the CornishCross hybrid; this longer production time means that producers can expect less palatablebirds and a lower profit.Producers, who decide to begin their laying enterprise with started pullets (females lessthan one-year-old, may be limited to one of the hybrid breeds. If producers are willing toraise their own pullets, there may be more options; if they wanted to look at some of thedual purpose breeds. There are some breeds that produce white shelled or brown shelledeggs; producers need to decide which one or both they want to produce.InspectionThe customer is the ultimate inspector; part of marketing and customer service revolvesaround their observance of the farm operation. How they perceive the farms overallmanagement will directly affect their perception of quality control on the productsmarketed from the farm.Early direct market poultry producers got around selling processed birds to customers byselling live birds and then providing the processing free. The size and scope of mostsmall farm enterprises should fall through most regulatory cracks; for this reason, it isrecommended that first-time producers should start-out small, so that they can see if thereare any other red tape issues that they have missed.

Small farm poultry enterprises can process up to 20,000 birds on the farm without havingUSDA inspection. This works well for direct marketing birds to the public, however ifproducers decide to sell their birds to restaurants, food stores, or caterers, it isrecommended that they get USDA inspected. The laying flock has to be inspected by theMaryland Department of Agriculture (MDA) for diseases that may be carried in the eggs,if eggs are going to be marketed to the public.There are limited federal regulations on egg laying operations with less than 3,000 birds.The FDA labeling, which includes safe handling instructions, fair packaging, andnutritional information do apply.Maryland egg regulations apply to all producers regardless of the number of birds.Producers must register annually with the Maryland Secretary of Agriculture; there is nofee for operations with less than 3,000 birds. Registered producers are consideredapproved by the health department, so eggs can be sold on and off the farm.Maryland egg regulations require that flocks must originate from a source monitored forSalmonella enteritidis. Registrants must comply with all requirements of the MarylandEgg Law. Producers registered to sell eggs are automatically registered in the PoultryPremise Registration Program.Maryland egg standards include factors essential to food safety; these include: Fresh, clean, and unbroken eggs No inedible eggs; large blood clots, mixed rots, or black rots No adulterated eggs; contaminated with bacteria, pesticides, or filth Must meet weight requirements for labeled size; Jumbo 30 oz./doz., Extra Large27 oz./doz., Large 24 oz./doz., and Medium 21 oz./doz.Maryland egg labeling requirements include: Grade and size Net quantity, weight, or count Identity of product, eggs Packer or distributer name and address MDA registration number Lot number to designate flock; small producers can use Lot 1 Safe handling statement Cartons can be reused, but must be cleanMaryland egg regulations include refrigeration. The law requires shelled eggs to be keptat an ambient temperature of 450 F after packing and during transport. MDA allowscoolers as long as the eggs are not submerged in ice. Some counties require commercialrefrigeration at farmers markets and some also require a retail license to sell at farmersmarkets.Very often in todays farming culture we find that the most critical inspector orcomplainer of a farming operation is the next door neighbor. In order to avoid future6

issues with neighbors, it is recommended that neighbors be treated with an occasional

bird or some fresh eggs.Nutrient ManagementIf the farm generates a gross income of $2,500 or more, or has eight (8) animal units ormore, producers are required by the State of Maryland to have a certified nutrientmanagement plan. This is a result of The Water Quality Improvement Act of 1998,which was enacted to help protect the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries from nutrientrun-off pollution. An animal unit is defined as 1,000 pounds, for example 2,000 fourpound fryers would be an animal unit. Animal units on a farm would include the totalweight of all of the animals, including poultry, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, etc.

In its simplest form a nutrient management plan is an outline or accounting of what plantnutrients are generated on or are brought onto the farm; this includes animal manures,compost, and commercial fertilizer. Producers can hire someone to write a certified planfor them, or they can become certified to write their own plan. The local University ofMaryland Extension office can be contacted for more information on nutrientmanagement planning.Getting StartedThe least expensive way to begin a free-range poultry enterprise is by purchasing chicksand raising them to production age. There are some advantages and disadvantages todoing it this way. In addition to being less costly, chicksare less likely to bring a disease in with them to the farmthat could devastate the flock. Another important positivewith starting out with chicks is that they will grow up tobecome familiar and comfortable with the people aroundthem. The obvious downside with chicks is that they willrequire a lot of care, if they are to reach production age.The producer should always expect some mortality of thechicks along the way too; normally, about 1 to 2% of chicks die in the first couple of daysafter they arrive on the farm. These are typically runts and those that come from the

hatchery sick. If the mortality rate over this same time period is 4 or 5% or higher,something is wrong.Another option besides chicks when beginning a poultry enterprise is getting startedbirds; these are typically young birds less than a year-old. This works well for egg layingoperations; for example, a producer may consider getting pullets, which are young hensjust entering egg laying age. These are a good deal if a producer can get them. Thisreduces much of the risk in raising chicks, and saves money by not having to feedunproductive birds.The most expensive way to start a poultry enterprise is with the purchase of mature birds.The upside here is that the birds will be productive immediately and will present thefewest surprises. Besides the expense, other negatives include the risk of disease beinghigher with mature birds and the fact the age of these birds may not be known when theyarrive on the farm.A good recommendation, when beginning a new broilerenterprise, would be to start with between 50 to 100 birds. Donot worry about selling the first batch of birds; chalk this up togaining experience and learning how to be a poultry producerby giving the finished birds to friends, neighbors, and relativesand ask them for their feedback on the quality.About three (3) acres of land is needed for each 400 birds to be raised; this allows for arotation to a new, fresh acre of pasture each year, giving the previous years pasture timeto be decontaminated of potential disease organisms. It would be perfectly safe for otherlivestock, except for turkeys, to graze on this pasture during the rest years. In fact, it ispreferred to have cattle graze a pasture prior to poultry, since poultry prefer shorterforage and cattle dung provides valuable nutrients and more.Getting ChicksWhen starting an enterprise with chicks, purchase 25% more birds than is expected to beneeded; this allows for mortality and culling. When beginning a laying flock, decide onhow many eggs will be needed and size the flock accordingly. Unless the enterpriseincludes raising cockerels (young roosters) for meat, most birds should be hens, since toomany roosters will fight.Initially it is a good idea to get chicks from a hatchery, however a producer may decide,after they have gained more experience, to hatch their own chicks. Once chicks arebrought to the farm, be sure to control the cat and dog; theycan be one of the deadliest predators of young birds. Rats arealso serious predators of chicks. A producer does not reallywant to add losses from predators to the mortality rate normallyexpected with chicks.

Commercial feeds such as Game Bird Starter (21-24% protein) can be used for the first 2weeks, and then can be switched to a locally mixed feed ration. An important note hereis that most commercially mixed poultry rations are medicated with antibiotics. If aproducer is planning on being certified organic or just does not want to use antibiotics inthe feed, the dealer can be asked for antibiotic-free feed.Cold is one of the hardest and deadliest things on chicks, the season should not be rushedby getting chicks too early in the year. Producers should be sure that, if they are havingchicks shipped to them, that the postal truck handling the chicks will have at least 500 Fin the non-heated truck. When the chicks arrive, they will need to get warmed up to 900F as quickly as possible. When they are cold, chicks do not eat, since their first desire iswarmth.For a small batch of about 100 chicks, an area of 100 ft2 is adequate; a cardboard boxwith a light bulb hanging down will work quite well. A thermometer at chick level canbe used to monitor the temperature. A waterer and feeder willalso be needed, but initially some newspaper with feed andgrit sprinkled on it is okay. The main point at this time is thatthechicks should have unlimited access to feed and water.

Housing ChicksA 6x8 ft room is adequate for 100 to 200 chicks and a 15x15 room can accommodate 400chicks. If more than 200 to 300 birds are put together in a room, they should bepartitioned apart. Studies have shown that performance drops off in groups of more than300 birds. More room should be provided for the birds as theygrow.Rooms need to be very weather-tight, since cold, drafty, anddamp spaces are lethal to chicks. For heating, some producersuse a combination of red infrared 250 watt electric brooderlamps and propane infrared heaters. However, woodstoves,light bulbs, or other innovative devices will work just fine. Thetemperature at the floor level should be 900 F the first week,then can be dropped an average of 50 F/week after that. Chickscan handle freezing temperatures at three (3) weeks of age; the decreasing temperatureswill help to get them ready for moving outdoors. Producers have to be visual observersof their birds. For example, if birds are spread out to the edges of the brooder house, it istoo hot for them. If they bunch up under the heat sources, or pile up together, they aretoo cold.

BeddingBedding type and maintenance in chick housing is critical to the health and success offree-ranging pastured poultry operations. Suggested bedding materials include sawdustor wood shavings. Wood shavings are the preferred material, since it is desirable not touse anything that will mat down; materials such as hay and straw will mat. If mattingdoes occur, it reduces manure penetration, which leads to the formation of a damp, filthylayer on top. Wood chips are too big for chickens to scratch around and wire mesh floorsshould not be used, because they do not allow the chickens to scratch and are devoid ofbeneficial microorganisms that contribute to the health of young, growing birds.

Joel Salatin, a pioneer in the history of pastured poultry, found a direct relationshipbetween mortality and the quality and quantity of bedding. He observed that, when thebrooder house was cleaned out and new bedding was put in, mortality was higher than ifit was not cleaned, but only aerated and new material was added on top of the existingbedding.What Joel Salatin discovered was that it was healthier for the chicks, if the bedding wasmanaged as a compost pile. For best management of composting material, it should havea carbon: nitrogen (C: N) ratio of 30:1. The easiest way to determine if the ratio is rightis through smell, if there is the smell of ammonia, there is not enough carbon to soak upthe excess nitrogen. Raw poultry manure has a C: N ratio of 7:1, cow manure is 18:1,and wood shavings are 500:1. Carbon bonds quickly tosoluble nutrients, so anytime the smell of ammonia isdetected in a livestock facility, some carbon-based materialcan be spread on the area to reduce the smell. It is best toalways keep a supply of clean, dry shavings handy to throwon damp spots, especially around waterers and under lampswhere birds hang around. If the C: N ratio is correct, thebedding will compost if air is injected into it.Between batches of chicks, the bedding litter can be wetdown with water and then stirred with a rake or fork; this injects the needed air into thebedding. After this, a couple of inches of fresh shavings can be added on top. In JoelSalatins system there is no need for regular major clean outs of the room, which usuallyrequires the use of sanitizers and germicides.

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Salatin found that, the deeper the bedding, the better it supported the composting processof the litter material, which also provided extra heat for the chicks during the process.Deep bedding also provided an environment, which supported an ecosystem that includedinsects and other small creatures that served as a bonus food source for the birds.Foraging for these creatures help chicks learn the necessary skills for when they aremoved to pasture.It will be up to the producer to decide when its time to clean out thehouse; Joel Salatin waits until the bedding is about 18 inches deep,since this is all that his room can accommodate. A warm, sunny dayshould be selected when tackling the job of cleaning out the house;this will help it dry more quickly. It is recommended that the wallsand equipment be lightly sprinkled with some water, so as to reducethe dust as the room is cleaned. Remove everything that is portableincluding feeders, waterers, nests, and cages, before you start to removethe litter and droppings from the floor. This material should be prettywell composted by this time, so it can be spread onto a field or gardenarea where birds will not be grazed for at least one to two years. Besure to remove all dust and cobwebs from the ceiling, walls, fans,vents, and equipment. Make sure to thoroughly scrape any lingering manure fromperches, floor, and other places. When satisfied with the broom and scraper job, applydetergent, hot water, and brush to the ceiling, walls, and everything else that is washable.When finished, open up the room and let it completely dry before putting in freshbedding.FeedersChickens should never be debeaked, if they are expected to forage on plants and critters;debeaked chickens are useless on pasture. There is no need for debeaking chickens innon-caged systems, because cannibalism in open systems is not a problem. The birds arenot stressed, bored, and there should be no nutritional deficiencies.When feeders are set out for chicks, there should be enough linear space toaccommodate 35-50% of the flock at any one time. It is not necessary toaccommodate feeding space for all of them at one time, since chicks willspend a lot of time sleeping. When the chicks line up at the feeder countthem, and if it is full of birds and not at least 35% of them, add some morefeeders.Every few days, feeder space will change as the birds grow, so fewer will fit around thefeeders. Experienced producers say that, one of the easiest ways to foster leg problems inchicks is associated with the stress resulting from inadequate feeder space. It is alsoimportant that you make sure that the chicks never run out of feed; it is better to wastesome feed rather than have them not have enough to eat.

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Trough type feeders will provide more linear space than round types. Chicks should nothave to stretch for their food, so the feeder should be nested into the bedding a half-inchor so to make sure the feeder lip does not exceed beak height.Birds want to search down in the feeder for food and stretching too much can cause legproblems. The lip of the feeder should hit the birds at about breast height.Waterers should be elevated as chicks grow for both cleanliness and drinking efficiency.For this reason, the waterer lip should be higher than the feeder trough.Feeding Grit and Vegetable MatterSilica and grit are necessary to the digestive process, where it serves as food grindingstones in the birds digestive system. There are commerciallyavailable grit materials that can be purchased; however thereare some producers who use creek sand and aggregates, whichthey believe have a more diverse content of minerals andmore. Grit should be made available to chicks as soon as theyarrive; it can be spread out onto newspaper along with somefeed sprinkled on top of it to ensure that the chicks receive agood dose of grit right away.Vegetable matter type feeds, such as hay chaff, lawn clippings, and weed seeds can bemade available to chicks. They are nutritious and stimulate the scratching skills they willneed when they begin foraging in the pasture. However caution needs to be taken withfeeding too much of these fresh materials, since these types of feed are low in energy andreduce the amount of grain that is eaten.Moving Chicks to the FieldIf it is warm enough, the birds can be moved to pasture at 2 to 4 weeks of age. JoelSalatin waits until they are 4 to 6 weeks old; however it really depends on the weather.When the birds can stand the nighttime temps withoutpiling, they are ready to go outside. It is best to movethe birds early in the morning, if it is going to be dryand warm. They can be loaded directly into the skidor mobile chicken house and towed to the field; theycan also be moved to the field in chicken crates. If aconfinement cage system is not being used, it is bestto keep them in the mobile house or pen the entire firstday, so that they can bond with the new environment;otherwise they will leave and not return when they arelet loose. In the mobile house system, it should be moved to the next site in the pastureafter the birds are in for the night; this way the following morning, when they go out,they are familiar with the house and will return.

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Pasture PensMobile chicken pens used to house grazing birds in the field vary in size and design.They are designed to be moved in the field, so the size of the pen depends on the methodof moving it from one spot to another. There are dozens of different designs of poultrypens available on the Web where ideas can be found to help build a pen that fitsparticular needs; there are also commercial pens available to purchase. Typically a 10ft x12ft x 2ft pen will house between 80 to 90 birds on pasture.Water is critical for healthy, productive birds housed in the field. A white plastic fivegallon bucket set atop the chicken pen in the field works well; the bucket gravity feedswater down to the waterer. For feeders, some producers have found that a six-inch PVCpipe, with one-third cut out at the top then hung in the cage works fine. Chicken pensshould be arranged in a wing formation in the field, so that a hard rain will not washwater carrying manure through one pen into another (sanitation issue).Many free-range egg laying operations use mobile layerhouses, which provide outside access to the nest boxeswhere the producer can easily gather eggs. The typicalmobile layer house will accommodate between 40 to 50hens. One nest box is needed for every four hens;depending on the size of the breed of hens you have, a12in x 12in x 12in nest box will work. Some producerswill use a community nest box (4ft x 2ft x 12ft) which will serve 40 to 50 hens. It is agood idea to have a perch in front of the nest box to make it easier for hens to get in andout of the nest.Pole Building Layer HouseA pole style building is a good choice for housing laying hens in a semi-intensive poultrygrazing system. A 30ft x 40ft pole building, which can be insulated, will house 600 hens.These 600 layers will produce an average of 245 dozen eggs per week (70% rate of lay).The hens can be allowed outside to graze during the day when temperatures are above200 F. Plans for pole buildings can be found on the Web or at the Extension office inyour county.In a semi-intensive poultry grazing system, a predatorproof fence around outer edge of the pasture areasurrounding the pole building will be needed. Thepasture should be subdivided into at least four paddocks, which will be grazed one at a time. A bestmanagement practice recommendation is to have thechickens rotationally graze each paddock, whichrequires them to be moved to a fresh paddock afterthey have grazed down the forage in the currentpaddock. This helps to prevent the chickens from over grazing the paddocks around the

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building; without good grazing management, the chickens would quickly turn the areaaround the building into a barren, dusty, or a muddy mess.Important chicken coop design needs include:-

Easy to cleanHas good drainageProtects from wind and sunKeeps out rodents, wild birds,and predatorsProvides adequate space for flock sizeIs well ventilatedIncludes sanitary feed and waterstations

- Is free of drafts- Maintains uniform temperature- Has a place for birds to roost- Has nests that entice hens to layindoors- Offers plenty of light, natural andartificial

FeedingAside from housing, feed accounts for 70% of the cost of raising chickens. Someknowledge of the nutrient requirements of poultry and applicable feedstuffs is neededbefore producers should try mixing their own poultry feeds. Grains and other feedingredients need to be milled and mixed to an exact formulation, and are best pelletizedfor efficient feeding. For these reasons, it is best to start out by buying commerciallyavailable feeds until more experience has been gained.Use a balanced, pelletized ration, which will most likelycontain corn for energy, soybean meal for protein, and vitaminsand minerals. Typical commercial feeds will containmedications, so ask for feed without it, if it is not wanted in thefeed. The reason for having the feed pelletized is becausechickens are nibblers, usually making several trips to the feedtrough for small meals, wasting energy in the process. Makingthem eat pellets forces them to eat more at each meal. However,there are some producers who want their birds to get moreexercise by requiring them to walk more; they believe that itmakes a better meat product.It is important that pastured birds get plenty of grit, since their diet of forages, seeds, andbugs contains a lot of fiber. Grit helps them to grind these feedstuffs up, so it can bedigested. Supplemental grit is needed, because most commercial feeds are low in grit.Producers will use different feed rations depending on the production stage of their birds.Starter rations are high in protein, while grower and finisher rations are typically lower inprotein. Starter is usually 24% protein, grower 20% protein, and finisher 18% protein.Layer rations are typically about 16% protein. It is not recommended to feed moreprotein than is necessary, since it is an expensive feed component.

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If a producer has a home poultry flock, it is okay to provide the birds with leftover treatsfrom the dinner table. Leftover vegetables can provide a good variety in their diet, butcare should be taken not to overdo it. Some important donts here include not feedingraw potato peels; they should be cooked first, because the birds cannot digest them. Alsodont feed spoiled or rotten stuff, strong-tasting foods like onions, garlic, or fish; this canflavor eggs and meat. Dont feed table scraps to a commercial flock.Pasture NeedsMuch the same with any other farm animal, producers want a good grass and legumemixture in the pasture; the forage species is not that important. The quality of the foragewould also be the same as what is needed for other grazing animals. Chickens do like toeat weeds, they are preferred next to legumes, so do not get too caught up with the overallcondition of the field. Monocultures (pasture with only one forage species) are notrecommended. One acre of good pasture is needed for every 400 chickens on pasture.Chickens prefer pasture plants shorter than other grazing animals, so producers will needto either mow or graze the pasture down to between two to six inches in height beforeputting the chickens on the pasture. This provides an opportunity for producers to getmultiple uses out of the pasture by having chickens follow grazing livestock. Thelivestock will graze down the height of the pasture plants and deposit manure piles thatthe chickens love to pick through. In fact livestock manure provides essential vitaminsand other nutrients to chickens.There are some plants that are poisonous to poultry. These plants include poisonhemlock, monkshood, privet, yew, nightshade, and horse radish. Producers will noticethat some of these are wild plants and others are cultivated; pictures of these plants can befound on the Web, so become familiar with what they look like, and see if any of themare on the farm near the birds.

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HealthBe a good listener, as well as visual observer of the birds. Chickens should walk erectand tall and routinely stretch; producers should hear happy chirping birds, if they arequiet, something is wrong. Health issues have not typically been a problem in most freerange poultry operations despite not using antibiotics and vaccines. Birds are healthier inthis system, because they are not being crowded together, get plenty of fresh air andsunshine, eat a good, well-balanced diet, and are not stressed. It is important that goodpasture rotation is practiced, so that the birds do not graze behind another flock for atleast two years. Another critical point is to practice the all-in and all-out (closedflock) philosophy of moving out an entire group of birds before bringing in newreplacement group of birds.The closed flock philosophy centers on the belief that each flock is exposed to a uniqueset of disease-causing organisms, so they develop their own set of immunities. Birdsfrom two healthy flocks can therefore give each other diseases for which the other has nodefenses. Once the flock is established, the best advice is to keep it closed.Maintaining a closed flock means that producers dont:- Mix birds from various flocks- Bring in new birds- Return birds to the property once they have been elsewhere- Visit other flocks- Let owners from other flocks visit yours- Borrow or lend equipment- Hatch eggs from other flocks- Allow wild birds free accessProducers will have some sick birds, so have a hospitalpen available to house them. This quarantined area, withits special attention, proximity to feed, water, and pastureis needed to help sick birds to recover. The hospital pencan also be an area in a stationary house if there is space.

is often all that

PredatorsPredators should be one of the most serious concerns of a free-range poultry producer.Prevention is the best course of action against this problem. Building an effectiveperimeter fence around the property where producers have birds is a good start. Exactlywhat constitutes an effective fence is debatable, but the fence should be at least 6ft highand have a small enough mesh that predators cannot squeeze through. It is alsorecommended that the fence be buried at least 6 inches in the soil to prevent predatorsfrom digging under the fence; this can also be enhanced by placing an electric fence-wirenear the base of the fence. In addition, placing an electrified wire at the top of the fencewill help to prevent predators from climbing over the fence.

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Another good preventative practice is to keep pastures mowed or grazed down. Thispractice eliminates much of the cover preferred by predators that are more comfortableapproaching prey unseen in the tall grass. Pens moved up close to the edge of the woodsadjacent to a pasture are more likely to be attacked by predators. Boards can be used toplug depressions in the pasture along the edge of a cage greater than one inch to prevent apredator from gaining leverage. If there is a sign of predators around a pen, for example,you find birds having been maimed through the cage; traps can be set around the cage thenext night to catch them.Rats are serious predators of very young birds, while foxes, opossums, and raccoons arethe most serious overall predators of free-range poultry. If you find headless birds, thisindicates that a raccoon was involved and gutted birds are a sign of an opossum attack.Foxes generally wont come around pens, because of the human scent, however if theydo, they will find it easier than hunting and will continue to prey upon your birds. Theylike to carry off the bird and eat it in a safe place; they will dig their why into a pen.

Other predators that can pose problems to poultry in this region include weasels, coyotes,and birds of prey, so be alert to them; the birds of prey are owls and hawks. Also be sureto keep an eye out for neighborhood dogs; they can become very effective predators ofthe birds.WeatherMost free-range poultry producers say that rain is their biggest weather problem. Wetbirds get cold and this is especially dangerous for young birds. Cold birds willinstinctively snuggle together for warmth; however as a consequence, birds in the middleof the pile can suffocate. Older birds tend not to snuggle as much as younger birds; theywill hunker down, wont eat, or drink, and just slowly freeze to death, if the conditionslast long enough. They should be forced to stay active.It is not the brief thunderstorm that is the problem; it is the cold, rainy period over severaldays that could be deadly to the birds. It is the saturated ground with water runningthrough it or with puddles forming that is the real problem; producers need to take actionimmediately under these conditions. Action strategies include: taking some dry hay orstraw and spreading it out over the area under the pen, gently pushing the birds up ontothe dry material as it is spread out. If there is a cold breeze as well, wind blocks should

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be placed against the side of the pen. Cold dry weather is not a problem for adult birdsdown to 200; below 200 can be a problem. Heat above 900 is dangerous for adult birds.Dealing with Dead BirdsNo matter how good a producer is, there are going to be some dead birds to deal with inthe operation. There are various ways to handle this problem, such as paying someone tohaul them away, but burying them on the farm is not acceptable for a number of reasons.The best way to solve this problem is to compost the dead birds.Composting is the most efficient and cost effective method of disposing of dead birds andprocessing waste. Research has shown that bird carcasses will breakdown quickly withno odors and can then be spread onto a crop field after the decomposition process isfinished. Best results have been obtained when using materials that soak up liquids andpack down like sawdust. Straw and other loose materials will form air pockets andthereby develop a really bad odor. Composting can be effective with other animals onthe farm including larger animals such pigs, sheep, and cattle. Check with your localUniversity of Maryland Extension office for recommendations on how to compost deadfarm animals.

ReferencesAlternative Free-Range Poultry EnterprisesLayers: This is a year-around poultry enterprise, with the market especially strong duringthe winter months. It is important to note that egg production drops off as day-lengthshortens into the fall and winter months unless supplemental light is added. This isdifficult to do in free-range systems, but the income from the egg business is enough tojustify the expense of adding lights. Layers need 14 hours of light each day to prevent adrop in production, so supplemental lighting with a time clock is required. Set the timeclock to come on at 5:30 am and to go off at 9:30 pm.Purchasing started pullets, young layers less than one-year old, is a quick way to getstarted with a laying enterprise; pullets are at an age where they will begin egg-laying,although their eggs will initially be small. There are some breeds that produce white eggsand others which produce brown eggs; a decision should be made to either produce white

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or brown eggs, or both. While there is no difference in the egg itself other than color,some customers do have a preference. If producers are willing to raise their own pullets,there are more options, such as raising a dual purpose breed, which can be marketed bothfor egg and meat. If this is the option, a non-hybrid, purebred breed of chicken will beneeded.

Until enough experience has been gained as a poultry producer to confidently mix poultryfeed rations on the farm, it is a good idea to purchase pre-mixed commercial feeds forlayers. Attention should be paid to the added ingredients in the feed mix, if feeding an allnatural ration to the birds is a goal of the enterprise. How eggs and birds are marketedwill affect how birds are fed.Calcium is essential in layer feed rations, since it is necessary for healthy, strong eggshell formation. Limestone can be built into the feed ration as a source of calcium as analternative to the more expensive oyster shell. However if it is decided to try limestone,be sure not to use dolomite, which is a high magnesium type of limestone; this willadversely affect egg production.Molting is the process where a birds old feathers are lost and are replaced by new ones;this is a natural process, which can take between one and two-months in some egg-layingbreeds and longer in other breeds. Egg production significantly drops off during themolting process, however once egg production resumes after molting is completed, eggproduction can be better than before molting.Some direct market selling points for egg enterprises include telling customers that theenterprise produces a better quality egg that is fresher than those sold in large grocerystores, where the eggs could be months old. The egg whites are thicker and the yolks arericher in color than in stores, since hens are raised in a less stressful environment andhave an all natural diet. Producers can go the organic route; this will require OrganicCertification through the Maryland Department of Agriculture. If a natural diet is used,let customers know this, since this will help to justify the higher price for eggs.Free-Range Turkey production: Turkey production is more seasonal than chickens;otherwise much of the management is the same as chickens. Producers will need oneacre of good pasture per year for every 100 turkeys. The recommendation is that turkeysshould be rotated to new pasture yearly in a three-year rotation to avoid disease andparasites; the rotation should never follow chickens.Fifty turkeys is a good number to start with; 15% more birds should ordered than neededto allow for mortality. As with most young birds when they arrive, there are usually

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some weaklings that do not make it. Turkeys are more fragile than chickens until theirimmune system develops at about 22-weeks.Poults (young turkeys) purchased from a hatchery can be a good way to begin the turkeyenterprise. There are several breeds of turkeys to select from; the Broad Breasted Bronzeis a breed that has performed well in free-range systems, however success within breedscan vary between hatcheries. If producers decide to brood their own turkeys, it is donethe same way as chickens. Poults should be kept indoors until they are eight-weeks ofage. The same mobile pen used for chickens can be used for turkeys, holding about 30birds; as with chickens, the pens should be moved to a fresh area of the pasture every dayor as needed.Turkeys require a higher protein feed than chickens;cannibalism problems can develop if protein is too low.A commercial Game Bird Starter ration is recommendedfor young growing birds. Turkeys consume more feedthan chickens; it takes about 3.6 pounds of feed to get apound of weight gain with turkeys. Weight gain can becontrolled by the type of feed used; for example Starter isused for weight gain, Finisher is used in the last 10 daysof feeding before marketing, and Holding Diets are used if the birds are too heavy. Aholding diet typically consists of a 50-50 mix of whole corn and wheat.Most customers will want birds averaging 16-17 pounds; however overall orders for birdswill range between 10-26 pounds. The typical turkey production period is about 24weeks. Producers will need to regularly check the weight of the turkeys in October, sothat they can be at the correct weight by Thanksgiving.Grazing turkeys will usually stay within 150 feet of the roost. They prefer forage heightto be about four to five inches tall; a typical pasture mixture of grass and legumes worksfine for them. Predator prevention practices are the same with turkeys as with chickens.Free-Range Game Birds, Ducks, and Geese: There are restaurants thatwould like to offer free-range game birds such as pheasant and quail ontheir menus. The production of these birds isnt too different than forchickens; chicks can be purchased through a hatchery, but are moreexpensive. In addition, the production period for game birds is longerthan chickens, which contributes to their being more costly to produce.Game birds, being wild species, will need more open space than domesticbirds. They are also more fragile than domestic birds and are more proneto health problems and cannibalism. Their skin is more delicate than achickens, so they are more difficult to process.An important note here is that game bird production is regulated by the government. Inorder to raise game birds, a permit from the Maryland Department of Natural Resources

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will have to be obtained. This is not an impossible task, but it will be needed beforeproduction begins.Ducks and geese are very good grazers and will do well in a free-range system. Onepoint to note with these birds is that they are more difficult to process than other birds,because the oil in their feathers makes them more difficult to remove.MarketingThe enterprises marketing message should promote that you have a clean, naturalproduct that has been raised without antibiotics in a stress-free environment. Promotingthis message will help to sell not only chickens, but also eggs, turkeys and game birds.Restaurants, grocers, and caterers will pass this message on to their customers as well;direct market customers will also let others know about the enterprises products.The key to marketing is to differentiate a product (make it standout) from thecompetition. Here are a few ideas that can be used to make the farm-raised poultryproduct standout from the typical grocery store product: Your poultry is raised on all-natural feed Your poultry is raised in a stress-free naturalenvironment Your birds have firmer muscle tone, which meansbettertextured meat Your birds have more flavor Your eggs are fresher You are a local business enterprise You are knowledgeable about your product and will answer questionsAnother way to differentiate a farm-raised product from the local grocer is to get itcertified organic. This process can be done through the Maryland Department ofAgriculture, which usually takes about three-years. This will require producers to usecertified organic feeds, feedstuffs, and ingredients, and to raise their birds in accordancewith accepted organic standards. This will most likely increase production costs, butthese costs can be justified and passed on to customers. Recent history has shown thatcustomers are willing to pay more for eggs, meat and other products they believe aresafer and healthier to eat.There are different methods available to market poultry products. As a small farmproducer, direct marketing will be the most profitable. In direct marketing producers donot sell to middlemen, so that they keep all of the profit. Direct marketing givesimmediate feedback on a products performance. One of the keys to marketing issuccessfully promoting, advertising the product; the enterprises promotional messageshould tell prospective customers why they should buy its product over someone elses.Direct marketing can be done in several different ways. For example products can besold direct through a farmers market, roadside stand, subscription market, community

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supported agriculture (CSA), buyers club, or mail order. Contact the local University ofMaryland Extension office for more detail on each of these direct marketing styles. Itshould be mentioned here that producers will need to check with the state healthdepartment concerning any health regulations related to poultry marketed at any of thesedirect markets.Another marketing option is selling to restaurants. This can be a rewarding way tomarket your products, since a good restaurant can move a lot of product per week.However, producers will need to be able to meet their demand for both quantity andquality. A few key points to remember here are that the products will need to be USDAinspected; also the liability issue needs to be considered, because a lawsuit involving therestaurant over a product will find its way to the farm. One last point of caution is to becareful of commitments to a restaurant, because restaurants have a tendency to go in andout of business.Selling products to an independent or mom and pop type grocery store is another wayto move a lot of product. For this to be most successful, the farm should have a logo orsome other product identification label. It is important for customers to be able toremember the product, so that they can look for it again when they shop. It would also benecessary in this type of market to advertise and to develop a unique message; look howeffective Frank Perdues message was for his product. Again in this market USDAinspection will be needed for these products.To really be successful at marketing through restaurants, grocers,and caterers, year around production may be necessary. It will becostly to do this; this is a big decision, so begin by doing someresearch and then develop a business plan.One last point to remember is that people skills are necessary atall levels of marketing. This is especially true with direct marketing;if a producer hates being around people and interacting with them direct marketing is nota good idea. It is also important to remember that maintaining a quality product isessential; restaurants, grocers, and caterers will demand it, since their reputation is on theline. Direct market customers will also always demand a quality product; repeatcustomers and their word-of-mouth advertising are critical to the enterprises growthand sustainability.GlossaryAcre: The standard unit of measurement for land area in agriculture; an acre of land isequivalent to 43,560 square feet.Cannibalism: The habit of some animals, or poultry of biting at, pecking, or eating bodyparts of pen-mates.Capon: A male chicken castrated before reaching sexual maturity.Cockerel: A young rooster not more than a year old.

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Cull: Refers to animals, or poultry being eliminated from the enterprise operation due toproduction or management reasons.Forage: Vegetable matter in a fresh, dried, or ensiled state, which is feed to animals, orpoultry. Forage includes pasture, hay, green chop, haylage, and silage.Hen: An adult female chicken, turkey, or game bird.Legume: A broadleaf plant which has a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixingbacteria, which live in nodules on the plants roots. Some legume species include clover,alfalfa, vetch, lespedeza, and soybeans.Over-grazing: Refers to the poor pasture management practice of allowing animals, orpoultry to graze re-growth of previously grazed pasture plants, which have not been givenan adequate rest period to recover root reserves. This practice results in the loss ofpasture plants and barren, muddy areas in the field.Paddock: A subdivided section of a pasture used to more effectively graze a larger field;a pasture can be divided up into several different paddocks depending on its size and thenumber of animals or poultry.Poult: A young turkey of either sex, usually less than two months of age.Pullet: A female chicken less than a year old.Rooster: An adult male chicken, also known as a cock.Tom: A male turkey.Under-grazing: The poor pasture management practice of allowing pasture plants tobecome over mature, which reduces palatability and nutritional value. This usually occurswhen the number of animals or poultry is not high enough for the size of the pasture fieldbeing grazed.Resources on the WebATTRA National Sustainable Agriculture Information ServicePoultry Publications and Resourceshttp://attra.ncat.org/livestock.html#PoultryChicken Resources on the Webhttp://www.google.com/Top/Science/Agriculture/Animals/Birds/Poultry/Chickens/Poultry Help.ComA Source for Online Poultry Raising Informationhttp://www.poultryhelp.com/home.htmlMississippi State University Extension ServicePoultry Publicationshttp://www.msstate.edu/dept/poultry/msupubs.htmThe Ohio State University ExtensionVeterinary Preventive Medicine Fact Sheet Indexhttp://ohioline.osu.edu/vme-fact/