A film distributor is responsible for the marketing of a film. The distribution company is usually different from the production company. Distribution deals are an important part of financing a film.

The distributor may set the release date of a film and the method by which a film is to be exhibited or made available for viewing; for example, directly to the public either theatrically or for home viewing (DVD, video-on-demand, download, television programs through broadcast syndication etc.). A distributor may do this directly, if the distributor owns the theaters or film distribution networks, or through theatrical exhibitors and other sub-distributors. A limited distributor may deal only with particular products, such as DVDs or Blu-ray, or may act in a particular country or market. The primary distributor will often receive credit in the film's credits, one sheet or other marketing material.

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If a distributor is working with a theatrical exhibitor, the distributor secures a written contract stipulating the amount of the gross ticket sales the exhibitor will be allowed to retain (usually a percentage of the gross). The distributor collects the amount due, audits the exhibitor's ticket sales as necessary to ensure the gross reported by the exhibitor is accurate, secures the distributor's share of these proceeds, surrenders the exhibitor's portion to it, and transmits the remainder to the production company (or to any other [intermediary], such as a film release agent).

The distributor must also ensure that enough film prints are struck to service all contracted exhibitors on the contract-based opening day, ensure their physical delivery to the theater by the opening day, monitor exhibitors to make sure the film is in fact shown in the particular theatre with the minimum number of seats and show times, and ensure the prints' return to the distributor's office or other storage resource also on the contract-based return date. In practical terms, this includes the physical production of release prints and their shipping around the world (a process that is being replaced by digital distribution in most developed markets) as well as the creation of posters, newspaper and magazine advertisements, television commercials, trailers, and other types of ads.

The distributor is also responsible for ensuring a full line of advertising material is available for each film which it believes will help the exhibitor attract the largest possible audience, create such advertising if it is not provided by the production company, and arrange for the physical delivery of the advertising items selected by the exhibitor at intervals prior to the opening day. Film distributors spend between $3.5 billion and $4.0 billion a year in the United States alone on direct buys of advertising such as TV commercials, billboards, online banner ads, radio commercials and the like.[1] That distributor-spending figure doesn't include additional costs for publicity, film trailers and promotions, which aren’t classified as advertising but also market films to audiences.

Distributors typically enter into one of the two types of film booking contracts. The most common is the aggregate deal where total box office revenue that a given film generates is split by a pre-determined mutually-agreed percentage between distributor and movie theater. The other method is the sliding scale deal, where the percentage of box office revenue taken by theaters declines each week of a given film's run.[2] The sliding scale actually has two pieces that starts with a minimum amount of money that theater is to keep—often called “the house nut”—after which the sliding scale kicks in for revenue generated above the house nut. However, this sliding scale method is falling out of use. Whatever the method, box office revenue is usually shared roughly 50/50 between film distributors and theaters.

If the distributor is handling an imported or foreign film, it may also be responsible for securing dubbing or subtitling for the film, and securing censorship or other legal or organizational "approval" for the exhibition of the film in the country/territory in which it does business, prior to approaching the exhibitors for booking. Depending on which studio that is distributing the film, the studio will either have offices around the world, by themselves or partnered with another studio, to distribute films in other countries. If a studio decides to partner with a native distributor, upon release both names will appear. The foreign distributor may license the film for a certain amount of time, but the studio will retain the copyright of the film. [3] When a film is produced and distributed by an independent production company and independent distributor (meaning outside the studios), generally an international sales agent handles the licensing of international rights to the film. The international sales agent will find a local distributor in each individual international territory (meaning outside of the US for a US independent film) and license the exclusive rights to the film for a certain amount of time but in the same case as the studios described above, the production company will retain the copyright of the film. This means that this distributor in a certain territory has the exclusive right to exploit the film in various media (theatrical, tv, home entertainment, etc) for a certain amount of time.

Although there are now numerous distribution techniques, in the past the studios and networks were slow to change and did not experiment with different distribution processes. Studios believed that new distribution methods would cause their old methods of revenue to be destroyed. With time, the development of new distribution did prove to be beneficial. The studios revenue was gained from myriad distribution windows. These windows created many opportunities in the industry and allowed networks to make a profit and eliminate failure. These new distribution methods benefited audiences that were normally too small to reach and expanded the content of television. With the new age of technology, networks accepted the fact that it was a consumer demand industry and accepted the new models of distribution.[4]

This term, used mainly in the British film industry, describes the distribution of feature films for screening to a gathered audience, but not in theatres at which individual tickets are sold to members of the public. The defining distinctions between a theatrical and a non-theatrical screening are that the latter has to be to a closed audience in some way, e.g. pupils of a school, members of a social club or passengers on an airline, and that there can be no individual admission charge. Most non-theatrical screening contracts also specify that the screening must not be advertised, except within the group that is eligible to attend (e.g. in a membership organisation's newsletter or an in-flight magazine).

Non-theatrical distribution includes the airlines and film societies. Non-theatrical distribution is generally handled by companies that specialise in this market, of which Motion Picture Licensing Company (MPLC) and Filmbankmedia are the two largest:

Representing the major Hollywood studios and independent producers. Home video media is sold with a licence that permits viewing in the home only. Until these technologies were widespread, most non-theatrical screenings were on 16mm filmprints supplied by the distributor. Today, the most common business model is for a distributor to sell the exhibitor a licence that permits the legal projection of a copy of the film, which the exhibitor buys separately on a home video format. These licences can either be for individual, one-off screenings, or cover an unlimited number of screenings of titles represented by that distributor for a specified time period. The latter are often purchased by pubs and students' unions, to enable them to show occasional feature films on a TV in their bars.

Some distributors only handle home video distribution or some sub-set of home video distribution such as DVD or Blu-ray distribution. The remaining home video rights may be licensed by the producer to other distributors or the distributor may sub-license them to other distributors.

If a distributor is going to distribute a movie on a physical format such as DVD, they must arrange for the creation of the artwork for the case and the face of the DVD and arrange with a DVD replicator to create a glass master to press quantities of the DVD.

Some movie producers use a process called "DVD-on-demand." In DVD-on-demand, a company will burn a DVD-R (a process called "duplication") when a copy of the DVD is ordered, and then ship it to the customer.

A distributor may also maintain contact with wholesalers who sell and ship DVDs to retail outlets as well as online stores, and arrange for them to carry the DVD. The distributor may also place ads in magazines and online and send copies of the DVD to reviewers.

1.
Film release
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An art release is the premiere of an artistic production and its presentation and marketing to the public. A film release is the authorization by the owner of a film to a public exhibition of the film. The exhibition may be in theatres or for home viewing, a films release date and the method of release is part of the marketing of the film. It may be a wide or limited release, the process may involve finding a film distributor. A films marketing may involve the film being shown at a festival or trade show to attract distributor attention and, if successful. A delayed release or late release in the industry refers to the relatively late release of a film to the public. A release can be postponed due to the difficult transition of the production or post-production to the sales. Due to several factors a film release can be delayed, Problems during post-production of an artistic nature, economic problems relating to limitations in the film budget. These problems can be resolved by overcoming artistic problems, making politically correct or commercially successful changes to the film/or relieving budgetary problems, the word can also refer to the event at which an album or single is first offered for sale in record stores. Also an album launch, or single launch, musical performers often self-release their recordings without the involvement of an established record label. With the growth of the Internet as a medium for publicizing and distributing music, unlike self-publishing a novel, which is usually done only when no other options exist, even well-established musicians will choose to self-release recordings. Music managers are increasingly getting involved in such releases and with the advent of artist management labels which have stepped in to save the situation, in Kenya, for example, most record labels only handle production, thus leading to a situation where records are marketed less. This has prompted music companies like Grosspool Music to sign independent artists and manage their branding, releases, development hell Roadshow theatrical release Legal release, music release may also refer to a legal release of music Music recording sales certification Reissue, or rerelease

2.
DVD
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DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD, such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs can be recorded using a DVD recorder. Rewritable DVDs can be recorded and erased many times, DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. The OED also states that in 1995, The companies said the name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disk’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disk’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications, Digital versatile disc is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forums mission statement. There were several formats developed for recording video on optical discs before the DVD, Optical recording technology was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958 and first patented in 1961. A consumer optical disc data format known as LaserDisc was developed in the United States and it used much larger discs than the later formats. CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm size of audio CDs, Video CD became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc formats were being developed. By the time of the launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc. Representatives from the SD camp asked IBM for advice on the system to use for their disc. Alan E. Bell, a researcher from IBMs Almaden Research Center, got that request and this group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. On August 14,1995, an ad hoc group formed from five computer companies issued a release stating that they would only accept a single format. The TWG voted to both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions, as a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB for a dual-layered, single-sided disc

3.
Video on demand
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IPTV technology is often used to bring video on demand to televisions and personal computers. Internet television, using the Internet, is a popular form of video on demand. VOD can also be accessed via desktop client applications such as the Apple iTunes online content store, some airlines offer VOD as in-flight entertainment to passengers through individually controlled video screens embedded in seatbacks or armrests or offered via portable media players. Some video on demand services such as Netflix use a model that requires users to pay a monthly fee to access a bundled set of content. Other services use a model, where access is free for Internet users. Downloading and streaming video on demand systems provide the user all of the features of Portable media players. Some VOD systems that store and stream programs from hard drives use a memory buffer to allow the user to fast forward. It is possible to put video servers on local area networks, streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a WAN, in which case the responsiveness may be reduced. Download VOD services are practical to homes equipped with cable modems or DSL connections, servers for traditional cable and telco VOD services are usually placed at the cable head-end serving a particular market as well as cable hubs in larger markets. In the telco world, they are placed in either the central office, the first Video on Demand systems used tapes as the realtime source of video streams. GTE started as a trial in 1990 with AT&T providing all components, by 1992 VOD servers were supplying previously encoded digital video from disks and DRAM. In the US the 1982 anti-trust break-up of AT&T resulted in a number of telephone companies called Baby Bells. Following this the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984 prohibited telephone companies from providing services within their operating regions. All of these companies and others began holding trials to setup systems for supplying Video on Demand over telephone, in November 1992 Bell Atlantic announced a VOD trial. The IBM was developing video server code-named Tiger Shark, concurrently Digital Equipment was developing a scalable video server. Bell Atlantic selected IBM and April 1993 the system became the first VOD over ADSL to be deployed outside the lab, in 1994-5 US West went on to file for VOD at several cities. 330,000 subscribers in Denver,290,000 in Minneapolis, many VOD trials were held with various combinations of server, network and set-top. Of these the primary players in the US were the companies, using DEC, Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, Hewlett-Packard, USA Video, nCube, SGI

4.
Billing (filmmaking)
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Billing is a performing arts term used in referring to the order and other aspects of how credits are presented for plays, films, television, or other creative works. Information given in billing usually consists of the companies, actors, directors, producers and they also feared that, once actors were billed on film, they would be more popular and would seek large salaries. Actors themselves did not want to reveal their film careers to their counterparts via billing on film. As late as the 1910s, stars as famous as Mary Pickford, according to Mary Pickfords biography Doug and Mary, she was referred to by the public as the Biograph girl in all of her films before 1905. Before Mary Pickford, the used to call Florence Lawrence the Biograph girl. In 1910 Lawrence was lured away from Biograph by Carl Laemmle when he started the Independent Motion Picture Company, Laemmle wanted Lawrence to be his star attraction, so he offered her more money and marquee billing, something Biograph did not allow. She signed on, with the release of her first IMP film, The Broken Oath, from then on, actors received billing on film. Also originating during that time was the system of billing above and below the title, big stars such as Pickford, Fairbanks, and Chaplin were billed above the title, while lesser stars and supporting players were billed below the title. The studios still followed the system of the silent era. After the studio systems collapse in the 1950s, actors and their agents fought for billing on a film-by-film basis and this, combined with changes in union contracts and copyright laws, led to more actors and crew members being included in the credits sequence, expanding its size significantly. As a result, since the late 1960s, a significant amount of the billing is reserved for the credits of the film. In addition, more stars began to top billing. Billing demands even extended to publicity materials, down to the height of the letters, by the 1990s, some films had moved all billing to the films end, with the exception of company logos and the title. Occasionally, even the title is left to the end, such as in Avatar, The Passion of the Christ, Inception, the order in which credits are billed generally signify their importance. While there are variations, most opening credits use some variation of the following basic order. In the absence of opening credits, these roles will often be credited in order at the beginning of the closing credits. However, a studio may not necessarily be the party that produced it, instead, a separate production company may have actually made the film or financed a substantial part of the film. Sometimes the producer or writer may also get a possessory credit, Victor Fleming was one such director, his films usually featured the credit A Victor Fleming Production, even when someone else produced the film

5.
Contract
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A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions

6.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call

7.
Audit
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It also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the concern as required by law. Auditing has become such a phenomenon in the corporate and the public sector that academics started identifying an Audit Society. Any subject matter may be audited, Audits provide third party assurance to various stakeholders that the subject matter is free from material misstatement. The term is most frequently applied to audits of the information relating to a legal person. Other areas which are commonly audited include, secretarial & compliance audit, internal controls, quality management, project management, water management, and energy conservation. As a result of an audit, stakeholders may effectively evaluate and improve the effectiveness of management, control. The word audit is derived from a Latin word audire which means to hear, an information technology audit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the management controls within an Information technology infrastructure. These reviews may be performed in conjunction with a financial statement audit, internal audit, due to strong incentives to misstate financial information, auditing has become a legal requirement for many entities who have the power to exploit financial information for personal gain. Traditionally, audits were mainly associated with gaining information about financial systems, financial audits are performed to ascertain the validity and reliability of information, as well as to provide an assessment of a systems internal control. As a result of this, a party can express an opinion of the person / organisation / system in question. The opinion given on financial statements will depends on the evidence obtained. Due to constraints, an audit seeks to provide reasonable assurance that the statements are free from material error. Hence, statistical sampling is often adopted in audits, but recently, the argument that auditing should go beyond just true and fair is gaining momentum. And the US Public Company Accounting Oversight Board has come out with a release on the same. Cost accounting is a process for verifying the cost of manufacturing or producing of any article, on the basis of measuring the use of material. In simple words, the term, cost audit means a systematic and accurate verification of the cost accounts and records, in most nations, an audit must adhere to generally accepted standards established by governing bodies. There are also new types of integrated auditing becoming available that use unified compliance material and this is a very new but necessary approach in some sectors to ensure that all the necessary governance requirements can be met without duplicating effort from both audit and audit hosting resources. The purpose of an assessment is to something or calculate a value for it

8.
Print (filmmaking)
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events such as gala premieres. As a showprint is at least two generations closer to the camera negative than a typical release print, the definition and saturation in the projected image is significantly higher. Showprints have been referred to as EKs, since Showprint is a tradename of DeLuxe. In short, a release print is three generations removed from the cut camera negative. This procedure eliminates at least one generation of analogue duplication and usually results in a significant higher quality of release prints, as of March 2015, Eastman Kodak is the only remaining manufacturer of colour release print stock in the world. Along with Kodak, ORWO of Germany also sells black-and-white print stock, the person operating the printer on which the release print is struck must take several factors into consideration in order to achieve accurate color. At the theater, release prints are projected through an aperture plate, sometimes a hard matte is used in printing to ensure that only the area of the frame shot in the camera that is intended to be projected is actually present on the release print. The audience may be confused when significant action appears on the edges of the picture. Director Brad Bird expressed frustration at this practice, which some theaters applied to his film The Incredibles, for example, in the United States, it is not unusual for each one to cost around $1,500 to print and ship to theaters around the country. The cost of a print is determined primarily by its length, the type of print stock used. Laser subtitling release prints of foreign language films adds significantly to the cost per print, due to the fear of piracy, distributors try to ensure that prints are returned and destroyed after the movies theatrical run is complete. A significant number of films have been preserved this way, via prints eventually being donated to film archives, the polyester film base is often recycled. EKs are even more expensive as they are almost completely made by hand, perhaps only five EKs will be made of a widely distributed feature, compared to thousands of standard prints. They are intended primarily for first-run and Academy-consideration theatrical runs in Los Angeles and this accounts for two of the typically five produced. Two EKs are usually reserved for the films producer, the remaining EK is usually archived by the films distributor. SFIFF, Brad Birds State of Cinema Address

9.
Opening day
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Opening Day is the day on which professional baseball leagues begin their regular season. For Major League Baseball and most of the leagues, this day typically falls during the first week of April. For baseball fans, Opening Day serves as a symbol of rebirth, writer Thomas Boswell once penned a book titled, Why Time Begins on Opening Day. Many feel that the occasion represents a newness or a chance to forget last season, in that all 30 of the league clubs. Opening Day festivities extend throughout the sport of baseball, from hundreds of Minor League Baseball franchises to college, high school, since Major League Baseball generally starts their season first among professional leagues, their Opening Day is the one most commonly recognized by the general public. Most of the minor leagues start a few later, but within the same week. Opening Day ignores the exhibition games played during spring training in the leading up to Opening Day. For generations, Opening Day has arrived amid pageantry, in Cincinnati, home of the sports first professional team, the annual Findlay Market Parade marks an official city holiday with young and old alike taking the day off to cheer on the Reds. For decades, the first pitch of every league season officially took place in Cincinnati. The Chicago Cubs have been the Reds most common Opening Day opponent, visiting Cincinnati 36 times on Opening Day, most recently in 2007. Since 1994 ESPN has televised a game the night before Opening Day and recent years have seen the staging of season-opening series in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Japan. While these are technically opening games, Major League Baseball still reserves the title Opening Day for the first day in multiple games are played. Hall of Fame pitcher Early Wynn, who played for the Washington Senators, Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox, once said, theres that little extra excitement, a faster beating of the heart. You have that anxiety to get off to a start, for yourself. You know that when you win the first one, you cant lose em all, prior to Opening Day, the teams managers have to decide the starting pitchers for the game, an assignment typically given to the ace of each teams staff. For a pitcher to start on Opening Day is considered an honor, in 1907, the New York Giants forfeited their game at the Polo Grounds to the Philadelphia Phillies, 9–0, after rowdy fans made and threw snowballs. Without police available to order, umpire Bill Klem awarded the game to the Phillies. In 1940, Cleveland Indians pitcher Bob Feller threw a no-hitter to open the season against the Chicago White Sox and it remains the only no-hitter in Opening Day history

10.
Release print
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events such as gala premieres. As a showprint is at least two generations closer to the camera negative than a typical release print, the definition and saturation in the projected image is significantly higher. Showprints have been referred to as EKs, since Showprint is a tradename of DeLuxe. In short, a release print is three generations removed from the cut camera negative. This procedure eliminates at least one generation of analogue duplication and usually results in a significant higher quality of release prints, as of March 2015, Eastman Kodak is the only remaining manufacturer of colour release print stock in the world. Along with Kodak, ORWO of Germany also sells black-and-white print stock, the person operating the printer on which the release print is struck must take several factors into consideration in order to achieve accurate color. At the theater, release prints are projected through an aperture plate, sometimes a hard matte is used in printing to ensure that only the area of the frame shot in the camera that is intended to be projected is actually present on the release print. The audience may be confused when significant action appears on the edges of the picture. Director Brad Bird expressed frustration at this practice, which some theaters applied to his film The Incredibles, for example, in the United States, it is not unusual for each one to cost around $1,500 to print and ship to theaters around the country. The cost of a print is determined primarily by its length, the type of print stock used. Laser subtitling release prints of foreign language films adds significantly to the cost per print, due to the fear of piracy, distributors try to ensure that prints are returned and destroyed after the movies theatrical run is complete. A significant number of films have been preserved this way, via prints eventually being donated to film archives, the polyester film base is often recycled. EKs are even more expensive as they are almost completely made by hand, perhaps only five EKs will be made of a widely distributed feature, compared to thousands of standard prints. They are intended primarily for first-run and Academy-consideration theatrical runs in Los Angeles and this accounts for two of the typically five produced. Two EKs are usually reserved for the films producer, the remaining EK is usually archived by the films distributor. SFIFF, Brad Birds State of Cinema Address

11.
Shipping
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Freight transport is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo. The term shipping originally referred to transport by sea, but is extended in American English to refer to transport by land or air as well, logistics, a term borrowed from the military environment, is also fashionably used in the same sense. Land or ground shipping can be by train or by truck, ground transport is typically more affordable than air, but more expensive than sea especially in developing countries like India and Pakistan, where inland infrastructure is not efficient. Shipment of cargo by trucks, directly from the place to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment. Trucks and trains make deliveries to sea and air ports where cargo is moved in bulk, much shipping is done by actual ships. An individual nations fleet and the people that crew it are referred to as its merchant navy or merchant marine, merchant shipping is the lifeblood of the world economy, carrying 90% of international trade with 102,194 commercial ships worldwide. On rivers and canals, barges are used to carry bulk cargo. Cargo was transported by air in specialized cargo aircraft and in the compartments of passenger aircraft. Air freight is typically the fastest mode for long distance freight transport, intermodal freight transport refers to shipments that involve more than one mode. More specifically it refers to the use of intermodal shipping containers that are easily transferred between ship, rail and truck. Common trading terms used in shipping goods internationally include, Free on board –the exporter delivers the goods at the specified location. For example, FOB JNPT means that the exporter delivers the goods to the Jawahar lal Nehru Port, India and this term also declares that where the responsibility of shipper ends and that of buyer starts. The exporter is bound to deliver the goods at his cost, in this case, the freight and other expenses for outbound traffic are borne by the importer. Most of the governments ask their exporters to trade on these terms to promote their exports worldwide such as India, many of the shipping carriers offer guarantees on their delivery times. These are known as GSR guarantees or guaranteed service refunds, if the parcels are not delivered on time, carriage, insurance and freight, Insurance and freight are all paid by the exporter to the specified location. For example, at CIF Los Angeles, the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles including the insurance of cargo and this also states that responsibility of the shipper ends at the Los Angeles port. The term best way generally implies that the shipper will choose the carrier who offers the lowest rate for the shipment. In some cases, however, other factors, such as insurance or faster transit time will cause the shipper to choose an option other than the lowest bidder

12.
Poster
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A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or vertical surface. Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may be either graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be both eye-catching and informative, Posters may be used for many purposes. They are a frequent tool of advertisers, propagandists, protestors, Posters are also used for reproductions of artwork, particularly famous works, and are generally low-cost compared to original artwork. The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates back to the 1840s and 1850s when the printing industry perfected colour lithography, according to the French historian Max Gallo, for over two hundred years, posters have been displayed in public places all over the world. The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates back to the mid-nineteenth century, First, the printing industry perfected colour lithography and made mass production of large and inexpensive images possible. Second, government censorship of public spaces in countries like France was lifted, and finally, advertisers began to market mass-produced consumer goods to a growing populace in urban areas. They have ranged in styles from Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Cubism, and Art Deco to the more formal Bauhaus, Posters, in the form of placards and posted bills, have been used since earliest times, primarily for advertising and announcements. Purely textual posters have a history, they advertised the plays of Shakespeare. The invention of lithography was soon followed by chromolithography, which allowed for mass editions of posters illustrated in vibrant colours to be printed, by the 1890s, the technique had spread throughout Europe. Chéret is considered to be the father of advertisement placards and he was a pencil artist and a scene decorator, who founded a small lithography office in Paris in 1866. He used striking characters, contrast and bright colours, and created over 1000 advertisements, primarily for exhibitions, theatres, the industry soon attracted the service of many aspiring painters who needed a source of revenue to support themselves. Not surprisingly, Chéret is said to have introduced sex in advertising or, at least, Posters soon transformed the thoroughfares of Paris, making the streets into what one contemporary called the poor man’s picture gallery. Their commercial success was such that some artists took up poster design in earnest. Some of these artists were, like Alphonse Mucha, in great demand, the popularity of poster art was such that in 1884 a major exhibition was held in Paris. By the 1890s, poster art had widespread usage in other parts of Europe, by the end of the 19th century, during an era known as the Belle Époque, the standing of the poster as a serious artform was raised even further. Between 1895 and 1900, Jules Chéret created the Maîtres de lAffiche series that became not only a commercial success, Alphonse Mucha and Eugène Grasset were also influential poster designers of this generation, known for their Art Nouveau style and stylized figures, particularly of women. Advertisement posters became a type of graphic art in the modern age. ”In the United States

13.
Advertisement
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising

14.
Television commercial
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A television advertisement is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertisers and marketeers may refer to television commercials as TVCs, Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately-owned television networks. As of 2016 the vast majority of television advertisements consist of advertising spots. Advertisements of this sort have promoted a variety of goods, services. The effects of television advertising upon the public have been the subject of philosophical discourse by such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. In many countries, including the United States, television advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00, displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase Bulova Watch Time, appeared in the lower quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK went to air on ITV on September 22,1955, the first TV ad broadcast in Asia appeared on Nippon Television in Tokyo on August 28,1953, advertising Seikosha, it also displayed a clock with the current time. To accomplish the first step means different things in different parts of the world depending on the regulation in place, in the UK for example, clearance must be given by the body Clearcast. Another example is Venezuela where clearance is governed by a body called CNAC, the clearance provides guarantee to the broadcasters that the content of the advertisement meets legal guidelines. Because of this, special extended clearance sometimes applies to food, after the advent of cheap video software and consumer cameras, numerous individuals have offered video production services on the internet. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning gags that appear in films, television shows, magazines, comics, or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to whom they appeared. An example is the phrase, Winston tastes good like a cigarette should. Variations of this dialogue and direct references to it appeared as long as two decades after the advertising campaign expired, another example is Wheres the Beef. which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by Walter Mondale. Another popular catch-phrase is Ive fallen and I cant get up, Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns

15.
Foreign film
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World cinema is a term used primarily in English-speaking countries to refer to the films and film industries of non-English-speaking countries. It is therefore often used interchangeably with the foreign film. However, both world cinema and foreign film could be taken to refer to the films of all other than ones own. World cinema has an implication of films with artistic value as opposed to Hollywood commercialism. Foreign language films are often grouped with art house films and other independent films in DVD stores, unless dubbed into ones native language, foreign language films played in English-speaking regions usually have English subtitles. Few films of this kind receive more than a limited release, as such the marketing, popularity and gross takings for these films are usually markedly less than for typical Hollywood blockbusters. The combination of subtitles and minimal exposure adds to the notion that World Cinema has an inferred artistic prestige or intelligence, additionally, differences in cultural style and tone between foreign and domestic films affects attendance at cinemas and DVD sales. Foreign language films can be commercial, low brow or B-movies, furthermore, foreign language films can cross cultural boundaries, particularly when the visual spectacle and style is sufficient to overcome peoples misgivings. The first foreign and foreign film to top the North American box office was Hero in August 2004. Foreign language films that are successful in international markets may be taken on by the large film distribution companies for DVD releases. At the other end of the scale, many foreign films are never given a DVD release outside of their home markets. The majority of those DVDs that are given an international release and they bought out Medusa Communications in 2005, and own the sub-labels Hong Kong Legends and Premier Asia. The Criterion Collection Dragon Dynasty - Label specialising in films from East Asia, eastern Eye Facets Multimedia Film Movement Fortissimo Films ImaginAsian Pictures Janus Films Kino International - Label distributing foreign language, arthouse and silent films. Manga Entertainment - Label specialising in anime, masters of Cinema Mongrel Media Optimum Releasing - Distributor of foreign and English language films in the UK. East Asian films released through their Optimum Asia sub-label, palador Pictures - Distributors of highly awarded foreign language films from across the world. Palisades Tartan - Palisades bought out the back catalogue of Tartan Films when they folded, soda Pictures Studio Canal Tartan Films - Label distributing a variety of foreign and English language films, though primarily East Asian films. The company consists of Tartan Video in the UK and Tartan Films USA, as well as the Tartan Asia Extreme, the company folded in 2008 and were taken over by Palisades

16.
Dubbing (filmmaking)
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The process usually takes place on a dub stage. After sound editors edit and prepare all necessary tracks, the mixer or mixers proceed to balance all of the elements. In the past, dubbing was practiced primarily in musicals when the actor had a singing voice. Today, dubbing enables the screening of material to a mass audience in countries where viewers do not speak the same language as the performers in the original production. Films, videos, and sometimes video games are dubbed into the local language of a foreign market. In foreign distribution, dubbing is common in theatrically released films, television films, television series, cartoons, the insertion of voice actor performances for animation, such as computer-generated imagery or animated cartoons, is often referred to as ADR although it generally does not replace existing dialogue. In conventional film production, a sound mixer records dialogue during filming. During post-production, a sound editor, or ADR supervisor, reviews all of the dialogue in the film. ADR is recorded during an ADR session, which place in a specialized sound studio. The actor, usually the original actor from the set, views the scene with the original sound, over the course of multiple takes, the actor performs the lines while watching the scene, the most suitable take becomes the final version. The ADR process does not always take place in a post-production studio, the process may be recorded on location, with mobile equipment. Sometimes, a different actor than the actor on set is used during ADR. One famous example is the Star Wars character Darth Vader portrayed by David Prowse, in post-production and it provides a more precise guide for the actors, directors, and technicians, and can be used to complement the traditional ADR method. The rythmo band is projected in the studio and scrolls in perfect synchronization with the picture, Studio time is used more efficiently, since with the aid of scrolling text, picture, and audio cues, actors can read more lines per hour than with ADR alone. With ADR, actors can average 10–12 lines per hour, while rythmo band can facilitate the reading of 35-50 lines per hour, However, the preparation of a rythmo band is a time-consuming process involving a series of specialists organized in a production line. VideoDubber, a startup company from Israel, developed an automated dubbing SaaS platform that enables automated dubbing of video content to over 40 languages using digitized voices. It was the first to dub a full TV channel using this technology for a Spanish cable provider in July 2015, Media Movers, Inc. a dubbing company, has developed a piece of proprietary software that can automatically sync ADR/dubbed tracks with pre-defined algorithms. TM Systems received Emmy awards in 2002 and 2007 for their dubbing and subtitling software, Dubbing is often used to localize a foreign movie

17.
Subtitling
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The encoded method can either be pre-rendered with the video or separate as either a graphic or text to be rendered and overlaid by the receiver. Teletext subtitle language follows the audio, except in multi-lingual countries where the broadcaster may provide subtitles in additional languages on other teletext pages. EIA-608 captions are similar, except that North American Spanish stations may provide captioning in Spanish on CC3, DVD and Blu-ray only differ in using run-length encoded graphics instead of text, as well as some HD DVB broadcasts. Sometimes, mainly at festivals, subtitles may be shown on a separate display below the screen. Television subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing is referred to as closed captioning in some countries. The word subtitle is the prefix followed by title. In some cases, such as opera, the dialog is displayed above the stage in what are referred to as surtitles. Today, professional subtitlers usually work with specialized software and hardware where the video is digitally stored on a hard disk. Besides creating the subtitles, the subtitler usually also tells the computer software the exact positions where each subtitle should appear and disappear, for cinema film, this task is traditionally done by separate technicians. The end result is a file containing the actual subtitles as well as position markers indicating where each subtitle should appear and disappear. These markers are based on timecode if it is a work for electronic media. For multimedia-style Webcasting, check, SMIL Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language, same-language captions, i. e. without translation, were primarily intended as an aid for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Internationally, there are several studies which demonstrate that same-language captioning can have a major impact on literacy. This method of subtitling is used by television broadcasters in China. Same Language Subtitling is the use of Synchronized Captioning of Musical Lyrics as a Repeated Reading activity, the basic reading activity involves students viewing a short subtitled presentation projected onscreen, while completing a response worksheet. Closed captioning is the American term for closed subtitles specifically intended for people who are deaf and these are a transcription rather than a translation, and usually contain descriptions of important non-dialog audio as well such as or and lyrics. From the expression closed captions the word caption has in recent years come to mean a subtitle intended for the hard of hearing, be it open or closed. In British English subtitles usually refers to subtitles for the hard of hearing, however, programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning

18.
Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, there are no laws against self-censorship. In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, defied attempts by the Greek state to censor his philosophical teachings and was sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. Socrates student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, in contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law, the rationale for censorship is different for various types of information censored, Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage, which is the process of gleaning military information, political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones, alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc, throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years, in the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader, pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available if they were published by Communist Parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books, possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB

19.
British film industry
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The United Kingdom has had a significant film industry for over a century. Many British actors have achieved fame and critical success, including Maggie Smith, Michael Caine, Sean Connery. Some of the films with the largest ever box office returns have been made in the United Kingdom, including the second, the identity of the British industry, and its relationship with the Cinema of the United States, has been the subject of debate. The history of production in Britain has often been affected by attempts to compete with the American industry. The career of the producer Alexander Korda was marked by this objective, the Rank Organisation attempted to do so in the 1940s, in 2009 British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7% globally and 17% in the United Kingdom. UK box-office takings totalled £1.1 billion in 2012, with 172.5 million admissions, the British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking what they consider to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films. The annual BAFTA awards hosted by the British Academy of Film, the first people to build and run a working 35 mm camera in Britain were Robert W. Paul and Birt Acres. They made the first British film Incident at Clovelly Cottage in February 1895, soon several British film companies had opened to meet the demand for new films, such as Mitchell and Kenyon in Blackburn. Although the earliest British films were of everyday events, the early 20th century saw the appearance of shorts, mainly comedies. The early films were often melodramatic in tone, and there was a preference for story lines already known to the audience, in particular, adaptations of Shakespeare plays. The Lumière brothers first brought their show to London in 1896, in 1898 American producer Charles Urban expanded the London-based Warwick Trading Company to produce British films, mostly documentary and news. Also in 1898 Hepworth Studios was founded in Lambeth, South London by Cecil Hepworth, the Bamforths began producing films in Yorkshire, in 1902 Ealing Studios was founded by Will Barker, becoming the oldest continuously-operating film studio in the world. In 1902 the earliest color film in the world was made, like other films made at the time, in 2012 it was found by the National Media Museum in Bradford after lying forgotten in an old tin for 110 years. The previous title for earliest color film, using the Kinemacolour process, was thought to date from 1909 and was actually an inferior method, the re-discovered films were made by pioneer Edward Raymond Turner from London who patented his process on 22 March 1899. In 1903 Frank Mottershaw of Sheffield produced the film A Daring Daylight Robbery, in 1911 the Ideal Film Company was founded in Soho, London, distributing almost 400 films by 1934, and producing 80. In 1913 stage director Maurice Elvey began directing British films, becoming Britains most prolific film director, in 1914 Elstree Studios was founded, and acquired in 1928 by German-born Ludwig Blattner, who invented a magnetic steel tape recording system that was adopted by the BBC in 1930. In 1920 Gaumont opened Islington Studios, where Alfred Hitchcock got his start, also in 1920 Cricklewood Studios was founded by Sir Oswald Stoll, becoming Britains largest film studio, known for Fu Manchu and Sherlock Holmes film series. In 1920 the short-lived company Minerva Films was founded in London by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend, some of their early films include four written by A. A. Milne including The Bump, starring C

20.
In flight movie
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In-flight entertainment refers to the entertainment available to aircraft passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano, lounge, dining room, smoking room, after the Second World War, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In 1985 the first personal audio player was offered to passengers, during the 1990s the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of aircraft cabins. Before then, the most a passenger could expect was a movie projected on a screen at the front of a cabin, now, in most aircraft, private IFE TV screens are offered on most airlines. The current European trend is to implement bring your own device systems that provide intranet connectivity, following this trend, companies such as Immfly are advancing at a fast pace to deliver on-board entertainment on short-haul commercial flights. Design issues for IFE include system safety, cost efficiency, software reliability, hardware maintenance, the in-flight entertainment onboard airlines is frequently managed by content service providers. The first in-flight movie was in 1921 on Aeromarine Airways showing a film called Howdy Chicago to its passengers as the airplane flew around Chicago. The film The Lost World was shown to passengers of an Imperial Airways flight in April 1925 between London and Paris, eleven years later in 1932, the first in-flight television called media event was shown on a Western Air Express Fokker F.10 aircraft. However, it was not until the 1960s that in-flight entertainment was becoming mainstream, in 1961, David Flexer of Inflight Motion Pictures developed the 16mm film system using a 25-inch reel for a wide variety of commercial aircraft. Capable of holding the film, and mounted horizontally to maximize space. In 1961, TWA committed to Flexers technology and was first to debut a film in flight. ”Amerlon Productions. In 1963, AVID Airline Products developed and manufactured the first pneumatic headset used on board the airlines and these early systems consisted of in-seat audio that could be heard with hollow tube headphones. In 1979 pneumatic headsets were replaced by electronic headsets, the electronic headsets were initially available only on selected flights and premium cabins whereas economy class still had to make do with the old pneumatic headsets. The audio was played back through the headsets, in 1971, TRANSCOM developed the 8mm film cassette. Flight attendants could now change movies in-flight and add short subject programming, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer widebody aircraft, such as the Boeing 767. These used LaserDiscs or video cassettes for playback, some airlines upgraded the old film IFE systems to the CRT-based systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s on some of their older widebodies. In 1985, Avicom introduced the first audio player system, based on the Philips Tape Cassette technology, in 1988, the Airvision company introduced the first in-seat audio/video on-demand systems using 2.7 inches LCD technology for Northwest Airlines. The trials, which were run by Northwest Airlines on its Boeing 747 fleet, as a result, this completely replaced the CRT technology

21.
16 mm film
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16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm outfit consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen, rCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935. Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry, Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making movies, people could buy or rent films from the library. Intended for amateur use,16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base, Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952, the silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935. Used extensively in WW2, there was an expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a network of 16 mm professional filmmakers. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the less expensive 8 mm film. 16 mm has been used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use, nevertheless,16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio for low cost productions

22.
Business model
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A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value, in economic, social, cultural or other contexts. The process of model construction is part of business strategy. The literature has provided very diverse interpretations and definitions of a business model, a systematic review and analysis of manager responses to a survey defines business models as the design of organizational structures to enact a commercial opportunity. Further extensions to this design logic emphasize the use of narrative or coherence in business model descriptions as mechanisms by which entrepreneurs create extraordinarily successful growth firms, well-known business models can operate as recipes for creative managers. Business models are referred to in some instances within the context of accounting for purposes of public reporting. Over the years, business models have much more sophisticated. The bait and hook business model was introduced in the early 20th century and this involves offering a basic product at a very low cost, often at a loss, then charging compensatory recurring amounts for refills or associated products or services. Examples include, razor and blades, cell phones and air time, computer printers and ink cartridge refills, a variant of this model is Adobe, a software developer that gives away its document reader free of charge but charges several hundred dollars for its document writer. In the 1950s, new models came from McDonalds Restaurants. In the 1960s, the innovators were Wal-Mart and Hypermarkets, today, the type of business models might depend on how technology is used. For example, entrepreneurs on the internet have also created new models that depend entirely on existing or emergent technology. Using technology, businesses can reach a number of customers with minimal costs. Design logic views the model as an outcome of creating new organizational structures or changing existing structures to pursue a new opportunity. Gerry George and Adam Bock conducted a literature review and surveyed managers to understand how they perceived the components of a business model. In that analysis these authors show that there is a logic behind how entrepreneurs and managers perceive. They also show that when the narrative is incoherent or the components of the story are misaligned and they recommend ways in which the entrepreneur or CEO can create strong narratives for change. The University of Tennessee conducted research into highly collaborative business relationships, researchers codified their research into a sourcing business model known as Vested. From about 2012, some research and experimentation has theorized about a so-called liquid business model, sangeet Paul Choudary distinguishes between two broad families of business models in an article in Wired magazine

23.
Public house
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as the heart of England, Pubs can be traced back to Roman taverns, through the Anglo-Saxon alehouse to the development of the tied house system in the 19th century. In 1393, King Richard II of England introduced legislation that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold, most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals, the owner, tenant or manager is known as the pub landlord or publican. The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s and these alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for the folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. Herein lies the origin of the public house, or Pub as it is colloquially called in England. They rapidly spread across the Kingdom, becoming so commonplace that in 965 King Edgar decreed that there should be no more than one alehouse per village. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, the Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses,1,631 inns, Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, the latter tend to provide alcohol, but less commonly accommodation. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard, there is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. In North America, the aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, traditional English ale was made solely from fermented malt. The practice of adding hops to produce beer was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century, alehouses would each brew their own distinctive ale, but independent breweries began to appear in the late 17th century. By the end of the century almost all beer was brewed by commercial breweries, the 18th century saw a huge growth in the number of drinking establishments, primarily due to the introduction of gin

24.
Students' union
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In higher education, the students union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. Outside the US, student union and students refer to a representative body. Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, universally, the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students in some fashion. In some cases, students unions are run by students, independent of the educational facility, the purpose of these organizations is to represent students both within the institution and externally, including on local and national issues. Students unions are responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Depending on the makeup, students can get involved in the union by becoming active in a committee, by attending councils and general meetings. Some students unions are politicized bodies, and often serve as a ground for aspiring politicians. Students unions generally have similar aims irrespective of the extent of politicization, usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, some students unions often officially recognize and allocate an annual budget to other organizations on campus. In some institutions, postgraduate students are within the students unions. In some cases, graduate students lack formal representation in student government, as mentioned before universally the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students. Many times students unions usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, simple variations on just the name include the name differences between the United States and other countries. Depending on the country there are different methods of representation compulsory education to Higher education or tertiary, in Australia, all universities have one or more student organizations. Most also operate specialized support services for female, LGBT, international, many expressed concerns over the introduction of voluntary student unionism in 2006. The legislation passed after the Greens took the balance of power in the senate, Azerbaijan Students Union was established by students from Baku on 15 September 2008. ASU is an organization which was established on basis of experience and it was the first student organization which united students irrespective of gender, race, creed. ASU considered international relations very important, for the first time ASUs delegates were participants of the First Asia IAESTE Forum in Shanghai during 12–15 November 2009. After that forum ASU established close relations with IAESTE which is one of the biggest student exchange organizations, as a result of relations on 21 January 2010 ASU was accepted a member of IAESTE. Our union gained right to represent Azerbaijan students in IAESTE and that membership was the unions first success on international level

25.
Gone with the Wind (film)
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Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchells 1936 novel Gone with the Wind. It was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures, the leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Leslie Howard, and Olivia de Havilland. Production was difficult from the start, filming was delayed for two years due to Selznicks determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the search for Scarlett led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard, but underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length, the film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939, although some reviewers found it dramatically lacking and bloated. The casting was praised and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. It set records for the number of wins and nominations at the time. The film was popular, becoming the highest-earning film made up to that point. When adjusted for inflation, it is still the most successful film in box-office history. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture, part 1 On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, Scarlett OHara lives at Tara, her familys cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters. At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett secretly declares her feelings to Ashley, Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest, Rhett Butler, has overheard their conversation, a smitten Rhett promises Scarlett he will keep her secret. The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist, as Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye, Melanies younger brother Charles proposes to her. Although she does not love him, Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight, Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army. Scarletts mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up, Scarlett, who should not attend a party while in mourning, attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she runs into Rhett again, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. Celebrating a Confederate victory and to money for the Confederate war effort. Rhett makes a large bid for Scarlett and, to the disapproval of the guests. The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarletts town are killed, upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves, Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of fever and her father has become incompetent. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself

26.
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
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Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc. is an American media company, involved primarily in the production and distribution of feature films and television programs. Its headquarters are in Beverly Hills, California and it is one of the worlds oldest film studios. In 1971, it was announced that MGM would merge with 20th Century Fox, over the next thirty-nine years, the studio was bought and sold at various points in its history until, on November 3,2010, MGM filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. MGM Resorts International, a Las Vegas-based hotel and casino company listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol MGM, is not currently affiliated with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In 1966, MGM was sold to Canadian investor Edgar Bronfman Sr. whose son Edgar Jr. would later buy Universal Studios, the studio continued to produce five to six films a year that were released through other studios, mostly United Artists. Kerkorian did, however, commit to increased production and a film library when he bought United Artists in 1981. MGM ramped up production, as well as keeping production going at UA. It also incurred significant amounts of debt to increase production, the studio took on additional debt as a series of owners took charge in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1986, Ted Turner bought MGM, but a few later, sold the company back to Kerkorian to recoup massive debt. The series of deals left MGM even more heavily in debt, MGM was bought by Pathé Communications in 1990, but Parretti lost control of Pathé and defaulted on the loans used to purchase the studio. The French banking conglomerate Crédit Lyonnais, the major creditor. Even more deeply in debt, MGM was purchased by a joint venture between Kerkorian, producer Frank Mancuso, and Australias Seven Network in 1996, the debt load from these and subsequent business deals negatively affected MGMs ability to survive as an independent motion picture studio. In 1924, movie theater magnate Marcus Loew had a problem and he had bought Metro Pictures Corporation in 1919 for a steady supply of films for his large Loews Theatres chain. With Loews lackluster assortment of Metro films, Loew purchased Goldwyn Pictures in 1924 to improve the quality, however, these purchases created a need for someone to oversee his new Hollywood operations, since longtime assistant Nicholas Schenck was needed in New York headquarters to oversee the 150 theaters. Mayer, Loew addressed the situation by buying Louis B. Mayer Pictures on April 17,1924, Mayer became head of the renamed Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, with Irving Thalberg as head of production. MGM produced more than 100 feature films in its first two years, in 1925, MGM released the extravagant and successful Ben-Hur, taking a $4.7 million profit that year, its first full year. Marcus Loew died in 1927, and control of Loews passed to Nicholas Schenck, in 1929, William Fox of Fox Film Corporation bought the Loew familys holdings with Schencks assent. Mayer and Thalberg disagreed with the decision, Mayer was active in the California Republican Party and used his political connections to persuade the Justice Department to delay final approval of the deal on antitrust grounds

27.
Jurassic Park (film)
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Jurassic Park is a 1993 American science-fiction adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Kathleen Kennedy and Gerald R. Molen. The first installment of the Jurassic Park franchise, it is based on the 1990 novel of the name by Michael Crichton, with a screenplay written by Crichton. Before Crichtons novel was published, four put in bids for the film rights. With the backing of Universal Studios, Spielberg acquired the rights for $1.5 million before publication in 1990, Koepp wrote the final draft, which left out much of the novels exposition and violence and made numerous changes to the characters. Filming took place in California and Hawaii between August and November 1992, and post-production rolled until May 1993, supervised by Spielberg in Poland as he filmed Schindlers List. The dinosaurs were created with groundbreaking computer-generated imagery by Industrial Light & Magic and it was well received by critics, who praised its special effects, John Williams musical score, and Spielbergs direction. The film won more than twenty awards, including three Academy Awards for its achievements in visual effects and sound design. A fifth installment is scheduled for a 2018 release, industrialist John Hammond and his bioengineering company, InGen, have created a theme park called Jurassic Park on Isla Nublar, a Costa Rican island, populated with cloned dinosaurs. After one of the dinosaur handlers is killed by a Velociraptor, Gennaro invites mathematician Ian Malcolm, while Hammond invites paleontologist Dr. Alan Grant and paleobotanist Dr. Ellie Sattler. Upon arrival, the group is stunned to see a live Brachiosaurus, at the parks visitor center, the group learns that the cloning was accomplished by extracting dinosaur DNA from mosquitoes that had been preserved in amber. DNA from frogs was used to fill in gaps in the dinosaur genomes, to prevent breeding, all the dinosaurs were made female. Malcolm scoffs at the idea of controlled breeding, declaring it impossible. The crew witness the birth of a raptor and visit the raptor enclosure. During a luncheon, the debates the ethics of cloning. The group is joined by Hammonds grandchildren, Lex and Tim Murphy, for a tour of the park. The tour does not go as planned, with most of the failing to appear. The tour is cut short as a storm approaches Isla Nublar. Most of the park employees depart on a boat for the mainland and the return to their electric tour vehicles, except Ellie

28.
Universal Studios
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Universal Pictures is an American film studio owned by Comcast through the Universal Filmed Entertainment Group division of its wholly owned subsidiary NBCUniversal. The company was founded in 1912 by Carl Laemmle, Mark Dintenfass, Charles O. Baumann, Adam Kessel, Pat Powers, William Swanson, David Horsley and its studios are located in Universal City, California, and its corporate offices are located in New York City. Universal Pictures is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America and is one of Hollywoods Big Six studios. Universal Studios was founded by Carl Laemmle, Mark Dintenfass, Charles O. Baumann, Adam Kessel, Pat Powers, William Swanson, David Horsley, Robert H. Cochrane, one story has Laemmle watching a box office for hours, counting patrons and calculating the days takings. Within weeks of his Chicago trip, Laemmle gave up dry goods to buy the first several nickelodeons, for Laemmle and other such entrepreneurs, the creation in 1908 of the Edison-backed Motion Picture Trust meant that exhibitors were expected to pay fees for Trust-produced films they showed. Soon, Laemmle and other disgruntled nickelodeon owners decided to avoid paying Edison by producing their own pictures, in June 1909, Laemmle started the Yankee Film Company with partners Abe Stern and Julius Stern. Laemmle broke with Edisons custom of refusing to give billing and screen credits to performers, by naming the movie stars, he attracted many of the leading players of the time, contributing to the creation of the star system. In 1910, he promoted Florence Lawrence, formerly known as The Biograph Girl, the Universal Film Manufacturing Company was incorporated in New York on April 30,1912. Laemmle, who emerged as president in July 1912, was the figure in the partnership with Dintenfass, Baumann, Kessel, Powers, Swanson, Horsley. Eventually all would be out by Laemmle. Following the westward trend of the industry, by the end of 1912 the company was focusing its efforts in the Hollywood area. On March 15,1915, Laemmle opened the worlds largest motion picture production facility, Universal City Studios, studio management became the third facet of Universals operations, with the studio incorporated as a distinct subsidiary organization. Unlike other movie moguls, Laemmle opened his studio to tourists, Universal became the largest studio in Hollywood, and remained so for a decade. However, it sought an audience mostly in towns, producing mostly inexpensive melodramas, westerns. In its early years Universal released three brands of feature films — Red Feather, low-budget programmers, Bluebird, more ambitious productions, and Jewel, their prestige motion pictures. Directors included Jack Conway, John Ford, Rex Ingram, Robert Z. Leonard, George Marshall and Lois Weber, despite Laemmles role as an innovator, he was an extremely cautious studio chief. Unlike rivals Adolph Zukor, William Fox, and Marcus Loew and he also financed all of his own films, refusing to take on debt. Character actor Lon Chaney became a card for Universal in the 1920s

29.
Film trailer
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A trailer is an advertisement or a commercial for a feature film that will be exhibited in the future at a cinema, the result of creative and technical work. The term trailer comes from their having originally been shown at the end of a film screening. That practice did not last long, because patrons tended to leave the theater after the films ended, trailers are now shown before the film begins. Movie trailers have now become popular on DVDs and Blu-rays, as well as on the Internet, of some 10 billion videos watched online annually, film trailers rank third, after news and user-created video. The trailer format has also adopted as a promotional tool for television shows, video games, books. Trailers were initially shown after, or trailing, the feature film, the practice was found to be somewhat ineffective, often ignored by audiences who left immediately after the feature. Later, exhibitors changed their practice and trailers were only one part of the program which included cartoon shorts, newsreels. Most trailers had some form of narration and those that did featured stentorian voices, in the early 1960s, the face of motion picture trailers changed. Textless, montage trailers and quick-editing became popular, largely due to the arrival of the new Hollywood and techniques that were becoming increasingly popular in television. Among the trend setters were Stanley Kubrick with his montage trailers for Lolita, Dr. Strangelove or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, and 2001, A Space Odyssey. Kubricks main inspiration for the Dr. Strangelove trailer was the short film Very Nice, as more and more animated films were produced, the need for outstanding voice actors steadily progressed not only for the movies but also for movie trailers, commercials, and promos. Thus, the industry saw a number of professional voice artists. One of the most famous voice personalities for the generation is Don LaFontaine who recorded hundreds of thousands of commercials. LaFontaine recorded his first voice over in 1962 for a movie trailer, from then on, he was able to set the standard for how movie trailers were written and voiced, literally becoming the voice of the movies. Most VHS tapes would play them at the beginning of the tape, VHS tapes that contained trailers at the end usually reminded the viewer to Stay tuned after the feature for more previews. With DVDs and Blu-rays, trailers can operate as a bonus feature instead of having to watch through the trailers before the movie, trailers consist of a series selected shots from the film being advertised. For this purpose the scenes are not necessarily in the order in which appear in the film. A trailer has to achieve that in less than 2 minutes and 30 seconds, each studio or distributor is allowed to exceed this time limit once a year, if they feel it is necessary for a particular film

30.
Titanic (1997 film)
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Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance-disaster film directed, written, co-produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Camerons inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks, production began in 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. Scale models, computer-generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California were used to re-create the sinking, the film was partially funded by Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox. It was the most expensive film made at time, with an estimated budget of $200 million. Upon its release on December 19,1997, Titanic achieved critical and commercial success, with an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It remained the highest-grossing film of all time until Camerons 2009 film Avatar surpassed it in 2010. A 3D version of Titanic, released on April 4,2012 to commemorate the centennial of the sinking, earned it an additional $343.6 million worldwide and it became the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide. In 2015, Titanic Live, an orchestra version of the film. In 1996, treasure hunter Brock Lovett and his team aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh search the wreck of RMS Titanic for a necklace with a rare diamond, the Heart of the Ocean. They recover a safe containing a drawing of a woman wearing only the necklace dated April 14,1912. Rose Dawson Calvert, the woman in the drawing, is brought aboard Keldysh, in 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old first-class passenger Rose DeWitt Bukater, her fiancé Cal Hockley, and her mother Ruth board the luxurious Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Roses marriage will resolve their familys financial problems, distraught over the engagement, Rose considers suicide by jumping from the stern, Jack Dawson, a penniless artist, intervenes and discourages her. Discovered with Jack, Rose tells a concerned Cal that she was peering over the edge, when Cal becomes indifferent, she suggests to him that Jack deserves a reward. He invites Jack to dine with them in first class the following night, Jack and Rose develop a tentative friendship, despite Cal and Ruth being wary of him. Following dinner, Rose secretly joins Jack at a party in third class, aware of Cal and Ruths disapproval, Rose rebuffs Jacks advances, but realizes she prefers him over Cal. After rendezvousing on the bow at sunset, Rose takes Jack to her room, at her request, Jack sketches Rose posing nude wearing Cals engagement present. They evade Cals bodyguard and have sex in an automobile inside the cargo hold, on the forward deck, they witness a collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers and designer discussing its seriousness

31.
20th Century Fox
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Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation is an American film studio currently owned by 21st Century Fox. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios and is located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, the studio was formerly owned by News Corporation. 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2015, 20th Century Fox celebrated its 80th anniversary as a studio. Spyros Skouras, then manager of the Fox West Coast Theaters, the studios biggest star, Will Rogers, died in a plane crash weeks after the merger. Its leading female star, Janet Gaynor, was fading in popularity and promising leading men James Dunn, at first, it was expected that the new company was originally to be called Fox-20th Century, even though 20th Century was the senior partner in the merger. However, 20th Century brought more to the bargaining table besides Schenck and Zanuck, the new company, 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation, began trading on May 31,1935, the hyphen was dropped in 1985. Schenck became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, while Kent remained as President, Zanuck became Vice President in Charge of Production, replacing Foxs longtime production chief Winfield Sheehan. The company established a training school. The contracts included an option for renewal for as long as seven years. For many years, 20th Century Fox claimed to have founded in 1915. For instance, it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary, however, in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding, even though most film historians agree it was founded in 1915. The companys films retained the 20th Century Pictures searchlight logo on their credits as well as its opening fanfare. Also on the Fox payroll he found two players who he built up into the studios leading assets, Alice Faye and seven-year-old Shirley Temple, favoring popular biographies and musicals, Zanuck built Fox back to profitability. Thanks to record attendance during World War II, Fox overtook RKO, while Zanuck went off for eighteen months war service, junior partner William Goetz kept profits high by going for light entertainment. The studios—indeed the industrys—biggest star was creamy blonde Betty Grable, in 1942, Spyros Skouras succeeded Kent as president of the studio. Together with Zanuck, who returned in 1943, they intended to make Foxs output more serious-minded. During the next few years, with pictures like The Razors Edge, Wilson, Gentlemans Agreement, The Snake Pit, Boomerang, and Pinky, Zanuck established a reputation for provocative, adult films. Fox also specialized in adaptations of best-selling books such as Ben Ames Williams Leave Her to Heaven, starring Gene Tierney and they also made the 1958 film version of South Pacific

32.
Paramount Pictures
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Paramount Pictures Corporation is an American film studio based in Hollywood, California, that has been a subsidiary of the American media conglomerate Viacom since 1994. In 1916, film producer Adolph Zukor contracted 22 actors and actresses and these fortunate few would become the first movie stars. Paramount Pictures is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2014, Paramount Pictures became the first major Hollywood studio to distribute all of its films in digital form only. Paramount is the fifth oldest surviving studio in the world after the French studios Gaumont Film Company and Pathé, followed by the Nordisk Film company. It is the last major film studio headquartered in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles. Paramount Pictures dates its existence from the 1912 founding date of the Famous Players Film Company, hungarian-born founder, Adolph Zukor, who had been an early investor in nickelodeons, saw that movies appealed mainly to working-class immigrants. With partners Daniel Frohman and Charles Frohman he planned to offer feature-length films that would appeal to the class by featuring the leading theatrical players of the time. By mid-1913, Famous Players had completed five films, and Zukor was on his way to success and its first film was Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth, which starred Sarah Bernhardt. That same year, another aspiring producer, Jesse L. Lasky, opened his Lasky Feature Play Company with money borrowed from his brother-in-law, Samuel Goldfish, the Lasky company hired as their first employee a stage director with virtually no film experience, Cecil B. DeMille, who would find a site in Hollywood, near Los Angeles, for his first feature film. Hodkinson and actor, director, producer Hobart Bosworth had started production of a series of Jack London movies, Paramount was the first successful nationwide distributor, until this time, films were sold on a statewide or regional basis which had proved costly to film producers. Also, Famous Players and Lasky were privately owned while Paramount was a corporation, in 1916, Zukor maneuvered a three-way merger of his Famous Players, the Lasky Company, and Paramount. Zukor and Lasky bought Hodkinson out of Paramount, and merged the three companies into one, with only the exhibitor-owned First National as a rival, Famous Players-Lasky and its Paramount Pictures soon dominated the business. It was this system that gave Paramount a leading position in the 1920s and 1930s, the driving force behind Paramounts rise was Zukor. In 1926, Zukor hired independent producer B. P. Schulberg and they purchased the Robert Brunton Studios, a 26-acre facility at 5451 Marathon Street for US$1 million. In 1927, Famous Players-Lasky took the name Paramount Famous Lasky Corporation, three years later, because of the importance of the Publix Theatres, it became Paramount Publix Corporation. In 1928, Paramount began releasing Inkwell Imps, animated cartoons produced by Max, the Fleischers, veterans in the animation industry, were among the few animation producers capable of challenging the prominence of Walt Disney. The Paramount newsreel series Paramount News ran from 1927 to 1957, Paramount was also one of the first Hollywood studios to release what were known at that time as talkies, and in 1929, released their first musical, Innocents of Paris

Film release
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An art release is the premiere of an artistic production and its presentation and marketing to the public. A film release is the authorization by the owner of a film to a public exhibition of the film. The exhibition may be in theatres or for home viewing, a films release date and the method of release is part of the marketing of the film. It may b

1.
Film premieres can be elaborate media events, such as this 2012 exhibition of Celebration Day with promotional artwork on the Hammersmith Apollo

DVD
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DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp

2.
Backside of a Sony DADC -manufactured DVD

3.
A DVD burner drive for a PC

4.
Sony Rewritable DVD

Video on demand
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IPTV technology is often used to bring video on demand to televisions and personal computers. Internet television, using the Internet, is a popular form of video on demand. VOD can also be accessed via desktop client applications such as the Apple iTunes online content store, some airlines offer VOD as in-flight entertainment to passengers through

Billing (filmmaking)
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Billing is a performing arts term used in referring to the order and other aspects of how credits are presented for plays, films, television, or other creative works. Information given in billing usually consists of the companies, actors, directors, producers and they also feared that, once actors were billed on film, they would be more popular and

1.
Man on a ladder, changing the billing on a marquee in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

2.
The Towering Inferno poster

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Reynold Brown 's poster for Attack of the 50 Foot Woman (1958), with a billing block at the bottom.

Contract
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A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agree

1.
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak, Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC

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The Carbolic Smoke Ball offer

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A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins

Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a

1.
Accounting

Audit
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It also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the concern as required by law. Auditing has become such a phenomenon in the corporate and the public sector that academics started identifying an Audit Society. Any subject matter may be audited, Audits provide third party assurance to various stakeholders that the su

1.
Some typical stages in the audit process

2.
Ethics and principles

Print (filmmaking)
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events su

Opening day
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Opening Day is the day on which professional baseball leagues begin their regular season. For Major League Baseball and most of the leagues, this day typically falls during the first week of April. For baseball fans, Opening Day serves as a symbol of rebirth, writer Thomas Boswell once penned a book titled, Why Time Begins on Opening Day. Many feel

1.
2009 Opening Day at Dodger Stadium

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The Findlay Market Parade at Fountain Square in Downtown Cincinnati in 2015. The parade has been held annually since 1920 to celebrate Opening Day in Cincinnati.

3.
Opening Day introductions at Minute Maid Park on April 2, 2007

4.
President Woodrow Wilson throws out the ceremonial first pitch on opening day. Photo 1916

Release print
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events su

Shipping
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Freight transport is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo. The term shipping originally referred to transport by sea, but is extended in American English to refer to transport by land or air as well, logistics, a term borrowed from the military environment, is also fashionably used in the same sense. Land

2.
This map of shipping routes illustrates the relative density of commercial shipping in the world's oceans.

Poster
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A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or vertical surface. Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may be either graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be both eye-catching and informative, Posters may be used for many purposes. They are a frequent tool of advertis

Advertisement
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for

1.
A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s

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Bronze plate for printing an advertisement for the Liu family needle shop at Jinan, Song dynasty China. It is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.

3.
Edo period LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan

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A 1900 advertisement for Pears soap

Television commercial
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A television advertisement is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertisers and marketeers may refer to television commercials as TVCs, Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately-owned television netw

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Television was still in its experimental phase in 1928, but the medium's potential to sell goods was already predicted.

2.
A still from an animated TV advertisement

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Television commercial in 1948

4.
Filming a movie ad

Foreign film
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World cinema is a term used primarily in English-speaking countries to refer to the films and film industries of non-English-speaking countries. It is therefore often used interchangeably with the foreign film. However, both world cinema and foreign film could be taken to refer to the films of all other than ones own. World cinema has an implicatio

1.
Most productive cinemas around the world based on IMDb (as of 2009). Over 10,000 titles (green), over 5,000 (yellow), over 1,000 (blue)

Dubbing (filmmaking)
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The process usually takes place on a dub stage. After sound editors edit and prepare all necessary tracks, the mixer or mixers proceed to balance all of the elements. In the past, dubbing was practiced primarily in musicals when the actor had a singing voice. Today, dubbing enables the screening of material to a mass audience in countries where vie

1.
Dubbing studio

Subtitling
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The encoded method can either be pre-rendered with the video or separate as either a graphic or text to be rendered and overlaid by the receiver. Teletext subtitle language follows the audio, except in multi-lingual countries where the broadcaster may provide subtitles in additional languages on other teletext pages. EIA-608 captions are similar, e

1.
Example of a film with subtitles (quotation dash is used for differentiating speakers)

2.
Example of speaker ID in SDH (voices are off-screen)

3.
Example of non-speech information in SDH (source is off-screen)

Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location,

1.
Book burning in Chile following the 1973 coup that installed the Pinochet regime.

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Chinese troops destroyed the statue Goddess of Democracy in Tiananmen Square in 1989, and continue to censor information about those events. This statue, now known as the Victims of Communism Memorial was recreated by Thomas Marsh.

4.
Nikolai Yezhov, standing to the left of Joseph Stalin, was shot in 1940. He was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors after his execution as a form of damnatio memoriae. This policy was commonly applied to high-ranking executed political enemies during Stalin's reign.

British film industry
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The United Kingdom has had a significant film industry for over a century. Many British actors have achieved fame and critical success, including Maggie Smith, Michael Caine, Sean Connery. Some of the films with the largest ever box office returns have been made in the United Kingdom, including the second, the identity of the British industry, and

1.
Vue cinema, Leicester Square

2.
Charlie Chaplin, c. 1918

3.
Deborah Kerr as Sister Clodagh in Black Narcissus (1947).

4.
Christopher Lee in Dracula (1958).

In flight movie
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In-flight entertainment refers to the entertainment available to aircraft passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano, lounge, dining room, smoking room, after the Second World War, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In

1.
IFE control integrated in an armrest

2.
iQ entertainment system on a Qantas A330

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Panasonic eFX system installed on a Delta Air Lines Boeing 737-800

4.
24" AVOD in Garuda Indonesia Boeing 777-300ER First Class

16 mm film
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16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak rel

Business model
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A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value, in economic, social, cultural or other contexts. The process of model construction is part of business strategy. The literature has provided very diverse interpretations and definitions of a business model, a systematic review and analysis of mana

1.
Although Webvan failed in its goal of disintermediating the North American supermarket industry, several supermarket chains (like Safeway Inc.) have launched their own delivery services to target the niche market to which Webvan catered.

Public house
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Sam

1.
A thatched country pub, The Williams Arms, near Braunton, North Devon, England

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A city pub, The World's End, Camden Town, London

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The Ale-House Door (painting of c. 1790 by Henry Singleton)

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Ye Olde Fighting Cocks in St Albans, Hertfordshire, which holds the Guinness World Record for the oldest pub in England

Students' union
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In higher education, the students union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. Outside the US, student union and students refer to a representative body. Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, universally, the purpose

1.
A Students' Union building at Oklahoma State University, which doubles as a student activity center.

2.
The University of Pretoria 's first student council in 1909

3.
Queen's University Belfast Students' Union Building

4.
Glasgow University Union was the last students' union in the UK to begin admitting women.

Gone with the Wind (film)
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Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchells 1936 novel Gone with the Wind. It was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures, the leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Leslie Howard, and Olivia de Havilland. Production was difficult from the start, film

1.
Theatrical pre-release poster

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Scarlett and Rhett at the charity dance

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Clark Gable

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Vivien Leigh

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
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Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc. is an American media company, involved primarily in the production and distribution of feature films and television programs. Its headquarters are in Beverly Hills, California and it is one of the worlds oldest film studios. In 1971, it was announced that MGM would merge with 20th Century Fox, over the next thirty-n

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MGM Tower, former company headquarters highlighted by the famous Leo the Lion logo at the top

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Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc.

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Clark Gable

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Marie Dressler and Wallace Beery in Min and Bill (1930)

Jurassic Park (film)
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Jurassic Park is a 1993 American science-fiction adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Kathleen Kennedy and Gerald R. Molen. The first installment of the Jurassic Park franchise, it is based on the 1990 novel of the name by Michael Crichton, with a screenplay written by Crichton. Before Crichtons novel was published, four put

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Theatrical release poster

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The life-sized animatronic Tyrannosaurus rex on the set. It is the largest sculpture ever made by Stan Winston Studio.

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Reconstruction of the stop motion scene of the destroyed car in the National Museum of Cinema of Turin, Italy.

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Michael Crichton 's book attracted the attention of director Steven Spielberg even before publishing. The author was also responsible for the film's first scripts.

Universal Studios
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Universal Pictures is an American film studio owned by Comcast through the Universal Filmed Entertainment Group division of its wholly owned subsidiary NBCUniversal. The company was founded in 1912 by Carl Laemmle, Mark Dintenfass, Charles O. Baumann, Adam Kessel, Pat Powers, William Swanson, David Horsley and its studios are located in Universal C

Film trailer
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A trailer is an advertisement or a commercial for a feature film that will be exhibited in the future at a cinema, the result of creative and technical work. The term trailer comes from their having originally been shown at the end of a film screening. That practice did not last long, because patrons tended to leave the theater after the films ende

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Screenshot from a film trailer for the 1956 film Attack!.

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Walt Disney in a 1937 color film trailer for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

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Screenshot from film trailer for North by Northwest

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An example of a red band trailer card.

Titanic (1997 film)
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Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance-disaster film directed, written, co-produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. Camerons inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks, production began in 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav K

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Theatrical release poster

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The real Margaret Brown (right) giving Captain Arthur Henry Rostron an award for his service in the rescue of Titanic ‍ '​s surviving passengers.

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The reconstruction of the RMS Titanic. The blueprints were supplied by the original ship's builder and Cameron tried to make the ship as detailed and accurate as possible.

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Close-up shot of Cameron's nude Rose sketch with the " Heart of the Ocean ". The nude scene was one of the first scenes shot as the main set was not yet ready.

20th Century Fox
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Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation is an American film studio currently owned by 21st Century Fox. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios and is located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, the studio was formerly owned by News Corporation. 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2015, 20t

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Logo used as of 2013

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Entrance to 20th Century Fox studio lot.

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Carmen Miranda in The Gang's All Here. In 1946, she was the highest-paid actress in the United States.

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Alice Faye, Don Ameche, and Carmen Miranda in That Night in Rio, produced by Fox in 1941.

Paramount Pictures
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Paramount Pictures Corporation is an American film studio based in Hollywood, California, that has been a subsidiary of the American media conglomerate Viacom since 1994. In 1916, film producer Adolph Zukor contracted 22 actors and actresses and these fortunate few would become the first movie stars. Paramount Pictures is a member of the Motion Pic

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Logo used as of 2012

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Paramount Pictures logo, based on a design by founder William Wadsworth Hodkinson, from 1917 to 1967.

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Lasky's original studio, a.k.a.: "The Barn"; as it appeared in the mid-1920s. The Taft building, built in 1923, is visible in the background.

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The original Paramount logo seen on its 1930s films and Popeye shorts.