Contents

After the fall of the Safavid dynasty, Bahrain went through a period of anarchy, dismay, and self-rule in villages which made the country vulnerable to foreign invasions. Utub forces often attacked the island during this phase which made the spiritual leader of Bahrain, Sheikh Mohammed ibn Abdullah Al Majed, use the Huwala to combat the Utubs' attacks, these attacks continued throughout the early 18th century until the Utubs launched a full-scale invasion of the island and established a government loyal to the Sultan of Muscat.[5] The Utubs were defeated and expelled by the Huwala forces loyal to Bahrain's spiritual leader who established a government headed by Sheikh Jabara Al-Holi (also known as Jubayr al-Holi), the Persian Afsharids led by former Safavid general Nader Shah invaded the island in 1737 and deposed Sheikh Jabara. Persian rule continued for 46 more years, with brief interruptions, until the Utubs finally took over the island in 1783.[6]

Sayid Majed ibn Sayid Ahmad Al-Jidhafsi was Bahrain's vice governor and the headman of Jidhafs who often clashed with his political nemesis, Ahmad ibn Muhammad Al-Biladi, the headman of the semi-autonomous village of Bilad Al-Qadeem, this rivalry reached its climax when an argument between the Al Khalifas who came to the island of Sitra to buy some supplies and a merchant escalated into a shoot out which resulted in the deaths of numerous Al Khalifas. Those who remained went back to Zubarah and informed their clan about the incident which caused outrage between the Utubs, causing them to send a naval fleet to Sitra with the intention of avenging their kins' deaths, after a disproportionate number of Sitra inhabitants were killed as a result of the rampage, the Utubs returned to Zubarah.[7][8]

After news of the incident reached Bahrain's governor, Nasr Al-Madhkoor, he ordered a naval attack on Zubarah and sent numerous warships filled with well-equipped soldiers to fulfill this mission. However, the Utubs' spies infiltrated Al-Madhkoor's inner circle and as a result the Utubs crushed Al-Madhkoor's navy after plans of the attack reached them which resulted in a decisive Utub victory. Al-Madhkoor then headed to Iran to ask the troubled government, which was already suffering from its own internal issues, for help which did not arrive because of that country's bad conditions. Subsequently, Sayid Majed Al-Jidhafsi, who was substituting for Al-Madhkoor, personally asked the Al Khalifas and their allies to invade the Bahrain archipelago and promised them material aid and victory, should they do so, this action proved to have a lasting effect on the county and a civil war between the loyalist forces led by Sayid Majid Al-Jidhafsi and Madan Al-Jidhafsi, the Iranian governor's vizier and the rebels led by Ahmad Al-Biladi ensued as a result. The loyalists ultimately won the civil war.[9]

However, by this time, the Al Khalifas and other Utubs had just entered the country, killed the vizier and successfully captured the islands of Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur, the Al Khalifa family has ruled Bahrain ever since. The invasion was led by Ahmed bin Muhammad Al Khalifa, leading to him being named Ahmed Al Fateh ("Ahmed the Conqueror").

The Al Khalifa were supported by a naval fleet from Kuwait and several Bedouin clans based in Zubara in its invasion of Bahrain, these clans included the Al-Ma'awdah, Al-Fadhil, Al-Mannai, Al-Noaimi, Al-Sulaiti, Al-Sadah, Al-Thawadi, and other families and tribes who later settled in the island.[10]

The Utubs (including the Al Khalifas) moved from their epicenter of Zubarah to Bahrain in 1797 after Zubarah was besieged by Saudi troops under the command of the emir of Al-Hasa, General Ibrahim ibn Ofaysan and left their territories in Qatar under the control of the Al Thani clan which eventually seceded from the Emirate of Al Khalifa and set on a quest to conquer all of the Qatar Peninsula.[11][12] Persian plans to reinstate their control of Bahrain were never utilized, however, Bahrain became a tributary state of Persia in 1799 after soliciting the aid of Bushehr to expel the Omanis, a request that was granted. Oman retaliated by re-invading Bahrain and deploying a garrison at Arad Fort, the Utubs besieged the fort and re-expelled the Omanis who tried to invade Bahrain once again in 1802 but failed due to Saudi support of the Al Khalifas. The Saudis then deposed the Al Khalifas, annexed Bahrain into their emirate, and imposed their rule over the island for nine years. Without a central government after the Saudis withdrew from Bahrain, tensions rose and havoc ensued in many Shia villages, especially those bordering newly founded Sunni towns where bedouin tribes would sometimes attack and loot neighboring Shia villages, causing some of their inhabitants to immigrate to nearby areas and countries such as Qatif, Ahsa, Iraq, and Iran. The Al Khalifas retook Bahrain in 1820 with British aid after they entered a treaty relationship with Great Britain and restored order in the country. Sporadic attacks against the Shia Arabs continued until the early 20th century.

The Sunni Arabs eventually began tolerating their fellow Shia Arabs and their formerly religious-based attacks now became directed primarily at areas inhabited by the newly arrived Persian immigrants whom they termed "al-Sharshaniya", i.e., people of unrecognized foreign origins.[13]

1.
Bahrain
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Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf. Bahrains population is 1,234,567, including 666,172 non-nationals and it is 780 km2 in size, making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation and it has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries, which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam, following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521, who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire. In 1783, the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, in the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, in 2011, the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Persian Gulf, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors. Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama, the countrys capital, Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. In Arabic, Bahrayn is the form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the two seas, although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal— but rather to all of Eastern Arabia. Today, Bahrains two seas are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the water as noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory with regard to Bahrains toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, another supposition by al-Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. Until the late Middle Ages, Bahrain referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, the region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayns Bahrayn Province, the exact date at which the term Bahrain began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as Bahrain for a millennium, the island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s. Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia, Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty, by about 250 BC, Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman

2.
Zand dynasty
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The Zandiyeh dynasty was an Iranian dynasty of Lak a branch of Lurs origin founded by Karim Khan Zand that initially ruled southern and central Iran in the 18th century. It later quickly came to expand to include much of the rest of contemporary Iran, as well as Azerbaijan, and parts of Iraq and Armenia. The dynasty was founded by Karim Khan, chief of the Zand tribe, which is a tribe of Laks and he became one of Nader Shahs generals. Nader Shah moved the Zand tribe from their home in Lakestan to the steppes of Khorasan. After Nader’s death, the Zand tribe, under the guidance of Karim Khan, abolfath Khan was the Prime Minister, Karim Khan became the army chief commander and Ali Morad Khan became the regent. Karim Khan declared Shiraz his capital, and in 1778 Tehran became the second capital and he gained control of central and southern parts of Iran. In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karim Khan placed the infant Shah Ismail III, Ismail was a figurehead king and real power was vested in Karim Khan. Karim Khan chose to be the commander and Alimardan Khan was the civil administrator. Soon enough Karim Khan managed to eliminate his partner as well as the king and in 1760. He refused to accept the title of the king and instead named himself The Advocate of the People, by 1760, Karim Khan had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorasan, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shah Rukh. His foreign campaigns against Azad Khan in Azerbaijan and against the Ottomans in Mesopotamia brought Azerbaijan, but he never stopped his campaigns against his arch-enemy, Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar, the chief of the Qoyunlu Qajars. The latter was defeated by Karim Khan and his sons, Agha Mohammad Khan. Karim Khans monuments in Shiraz include the famous Arg of Karim Khan, Vakil Bazaar and he is also responsible for building of a palace in the town of Tehran, the future capital of the Qajar dynasty. Karim Khans death in 1779 left his territory vulnerable to threats from his enemies and his son and successor Abu al-Fath was an incompetent ruler who was heavily influenced by his half uncle, Zaki Khan. Other rulers such as Ali Morad and Jafar Khan also failed to follow the policies of Karim Khan and soon enough, the biggest enemies of the Zands, the Qajar chiefs, led by the former hostage, Agha Mohammad Khan, were advancing fast against the declining kingdom. Finally, in 1789, Lotf Ali Khan, a grand-nephew of Karim Khan and his reign was spent mostly in war with the Qajar khan. He was finally captured and brutally killed in the fortress of Bam, politically, it is also important that the Zands, especially Karim Khan, chose to call themselves Vakilol Roaya instead of kings. The Zand era was an era of peace and economic growth for the country

3.
Zubarah
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It was founded by Al Bin Ali, main and principal Utub tribe in the first half of the eighteenth century. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 and it was once a successful center of global trade and pearl fishing positioned midway between the Strait of Hormuz and the west arm of the Persian Gulf. It is one of the most extensive and best preserved examples of an 18th–19th century settlement in the region, covering an area of circa 400 hectares, Zubarah is Qatar’s most substantial archaeological site. The site comprises the town with a later inner and an earlier outer wall, a harbour. It was presumably given this name due its abundance of sand, during the early Islamic period, trade and commerce boomed in northern Qatar. Settlements began to appear on the coast, primarily between the towns of Zubarah and Umm al-Maa, a village dating back to the Islamic period was discovered near the town. Between September 1627 and April 1628, a Portuguese naval squadron led by D. Goncalo da Silveira set a number of neighboring coastal villages ablaze, Zubarahs settlement and growth during this period is attributed to the dislodging of people from these adjacent settlements. There remains some uncertainty over the earliest mention of Zubarah in written documents, qatars Memorial, a 1986 Arabic history book, alleges that a functional self-governing town existed before the arrival of the Utub. Zubarah was founded and ruled by the Al Bin Ali tribe and it soon emerged as one of the principal emporiums and pearl trading centres of the Persian Gulf. The following poem was recorded about murairs water spring, وتشـرب أسـآر الحيـاض تسوفـه ولو وردت ماء المريرة آجمـا, the Al Bin Ali they were also known for their courage, persistence, and abundant wealth. The Al Bin Ali had an independent status in Bahrain. Under their jurisdiction, the town developed trade links with India, Oman, Iraq, many goods were transported through its ports, including dates, spices and metals. The town soon became a transit point for traders after the Utub abolished trade taxes. The towns prosperity further increased after the 1775–76 Persian occupation of Basra when merchants, ongoing wars between Bani Khalid and the Wahhabis and Persian invasion of Basra were among the factors that helped Al Zubara flourish into an important trade center. This prominent position led to conflicts with adjacent port towns, merchants from nearby settlements migrated to Zubarah en masse during the 1770s due to the prevalence of attacks and the plague in the Persian Gulf region. A quarrel arose in 1782 between the inhabitants of Zubarah and Persian-ruled Bahrain, Zubarah natives traveled to Bahrain to buy some wood, but an altercation broke out and in the chaos an Utub sheikhs slave was killed. The Utub and other Arab tribes retaliated on 9 September by plundering and destroying Manama, a battle was also fought on land between the Persians and the Arab tribes, in which both sides suffered casualties. The Zubarans returned to the mainland three days with a seized Persian gallivat that had been used to collect annual treaty

4.
Sheikhdom of Kuwait
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The Sheikhdom of Kuwait was a Sheikhdom which gained independence from the Emirate of Al Hasa in the year 1752. Kuwait was founded in 1613 AD as a village known as Grane. The families of the Bani Utbah finally arrived in Kuwait in 1713 AD, the Utubs didnt immediately settle in Kuwait however, they roamed for half a century before finally settling. In 1718, the head of family in the town of Kuwait gathered. In the eighteenth century, Kuwait prospered and rapidly became the commercial center for the transit of goods between India, Muscat, Baghdad and Arabia. By the mid 1700s, Kuwait had already established itself as the trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo. During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775—1779, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were instrumental in the expansion of Kuwaits boat-building and trading activities. As a result, Kuwaits maritime commerce boomed, between the years 1775 and 1779, the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait. The English Factory was diverted to Kuwait in 1792, which consequently expanded Kuwaits resources beyond fishing and pearling, the English Factory secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa. This allowed Kuwaiti vessels to venture all the way to the banks of Sri Lanka and trade goods with India. Kuwait was also the center for all caravans carrying goods between Basra, Baghdad and Aleppo during 1775-1779, Kuwaits strategic location and regional geopolitical turbulence helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait in the second half of the 18th century. Kuwait became wealthy due to Basras instability in the late 18th century, in the late 18th century, Kuwait partly functioned as a haven for Basras merchants fleeing Ottoman government persecution. Economic prosperity in the late 18th century attracted many immigrants from Iran, by 1800, it was estimated that Kuwaits sea trade reached 16 million Bombay rupees, a substantial amount at that time. Kuwaits pre-oil population was ethnically diverse, the population consisted of Arabs, Persians, Africans, Jews and Armenians. Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf region in the century until the early twentieth century. Ship vessels made in Kuwait carried the bulk of trade between the trade ports of India, East Africa, and Red Sea. Boats made in Kuwait were capable of sailing up to China, Kuwaiti ship vessels were renowned throughout the Indian Ocean for quality and design. Kuwaitis also developed a reputation as the best sailors in the Persian Gulf, Kuwait was divided into three areas, Sharq, Jibla and Mirqab

5.
Missing in action
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Missing in action is a casualty classification assigned to combatants, military chaplains, combat medics, and prisoners of war who are reported missing during wartime or ceasefire. They may have killed, wounded, captured, or deserted. If deceased, neither their remains nor grave has been positively identified, becoming MIA has been an occupational risk for as long as there has been warfare or ceasefire. Until around 1912, service personnel in most countries were not routinely issued with ID tags, as a result, if someone was killed in action and his body was not recovered until much later, there was little or no chance of identifying the remains. Starting around the time of the First World War, nations began to issue their service personnel with purpose-made ID tags and these were usually made of some form of lightweight metal such as aluminium. However, in the case of the British Army the material chosen was compressed fiber, alternatively, there could be administrative errors e. g. g. The forgotten mass grave at Fromelles, as a result, the remains of missing combatants might not be found for many years, if ever. When missing combatants are recovered and cannot be identified after a thorough forensic examination the remains are interred with a tombstone which indicates their unknown status. Although it is possible to take samples from a close relative of the missing person. It is a fact of warfare that some combatants are likely to go missing in action, however, by wearing ID tags and using modern technology the numbers involved can be considerably reduced. In addition to the military advantages, conclusively identifying the remains of missing service personnel is highly beneficial to the surviving relatives. Having positive identification makes it easier to come to terms with their loss. Otherwise, some relatives may suspect that the person is still alive somewhere. However, many of these procedures are not typically used for combatants who are members of militias, mercenary armies, insurrections. It is possible some of the combatants who took part of the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC went missing in action. Certainly, the wars which followed over successive centuries created many MIAs. The list is long and includes most battles which have ever fought by any nation. This made the difficult task of identification even harder

6.
History of Bahrain
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Bahrain is an island country in the Persian Gulf. The history of Bahrain dates back to ancient history, Bahrain was the central location of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Bahrains strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from mostly the Persians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Portuguese, the Arabs, and the British. Whilst the country had closest economic relations with Indians or South Asians for the longest time, Bahrain was the central site of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official, Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from an official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian and these letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun, there are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the Kassite dynasty in Mesopotamia, one of the early sites discovered in Bahrain indicate that Sennacherib, king of Assyria, attacked northeast Persian Gulf and captured Bahrain. He most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian dynasty, Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the king of Babylon. The name of Dilmun fell from use after the collapse of Neo-Babylon in 538 BC, there is both literary and archaeological evidence of extensive trade between Ancient Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization. Impressions of clay seals from the Indus Valley city of Harappa were evidently used to seal bundles of merchandise, a number of these Indus Valley seals have turned up at Ur and other Mesopotamian sites. Instances of all of these goods have been found. The importance of trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were in fact identical to those used by the Indus. The ships of Dilmun, from the land, brought him wood as a tribute. Mesopotamian trade documents, lists of goods, and official inscriptions mentioning Meluhha supplement Harappan seals, literary references to Meluhhan trade date from the Akkadian, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and Isin-Larsa Periods, but the trade probably started in the Early Dynastic Period. Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports, but by the Isin-Larsa Period, the Bahrain National Museum assesses that its Golden Age lasted ca

7.
Dilmun
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Dilmun, or Telmun, was an ancient Semitic-speaking country mentioned throughout the history of Mesopotamia from the 3rd millennium BC onwards. It is regarded as one of the oldest civilizations in the Middle East, based on textual evidence, it is located in the Persian Gulf on a trade route between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilisation, close to the sea and to artesian springs. Dilmun was an important trading centre, at the height of its power, it controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. According to some theories, the Sumerians regarded Dilmun as a sacred place. Dilmun was mentioned by the Mesopotamians as a partner, a source of copper. The scholarly consensus is that Dilmun encompassed Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and this area is certainly what is meant by references to Dilmun among the lands conquered by King Sargon of Akkad and his descendants. It is often stated that the Sumerians described Dilmun as a garden paradise in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Sumerian tale of the paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story. However, that is modern speculation since the home of Utnapishtim is never indicated as Dilmun. Dilmun was an important trading center from the fourth millennium to 800 BC. At the height of its power, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes, Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmuns commercial power began to decline between 1000 BC and 800 BC because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf, in 600 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and later the Persian Empire, ruled Dilmun. The Dilmun civilization is mentioned first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the third millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official, one of the earliest inscriptions mentioning Dilmun is that of king Ur-Nanshe of Lagash found in a door-socket, The ships of Dilmun brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon and these letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur. The names referred to are Akkadian and these letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun, there are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. One of the sites discovered in Bahrain suggests that Sennacherib, king of Assyria, attacked northeast Arabia

8.
Tylos
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Tylos was the name used by the Greeks to refer to Bahrain, as the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. From the 6th to 3rd century BC Bahrain was included in the Persian Empire by the Achaemenids, the use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia. Ares was also worshipped by the indigenous and Greek population. It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests. The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic Tilmun, the term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until Ptolemy’s Geographia when the inhabitants are referred to as Thilouanoi. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the suburb of Arad in Muharraq, is believed to originate from Arados. The Greek historian Strabo believed that the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain, herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain. The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, however, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place. Herodotuss account refers to the Phoenicians originating from Bahrain, according to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, a building inscription found in Bahrain indicates that Hyspoasines occupied the islands. From the third century BC to the arrival of Islam in the seventh century AD, by about 250 BC, the Seleucids lost their territories to Parthians, an Iranian tribe from Central Asia. The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman, because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of the Persian Gulf. In the third century AD, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam, Ardashir, the first ruler of the Sassanian dynasty marched forward to Oman and Bahrain and defeat Sanatruq, probably the Parthian governor of Bahrain. He appointed his son Shapur I as governor of Bahrain, Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Bahrain was incorporated into the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulfs southern shore, the name ewe-fish would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /ṭāleh/ lamb. By the fifth century Bahrain was a centre for Nestorian Christianity, in 410, according to the Oriental Syriac Church synodal records, a bishop named Batai was excommunicated from the church in Bahrain. It was also the site of worship of a deity called Awal. Worshipers reputedly built a statue to Awal in Muharraq, although it has now been lost, and for many centuries after Tylos

9.
Eastern Arabia
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Eastern Arabia was historically known as Bahrain until the 18th century. This region stretched from the south of Basra along the Persian Gulf coast and included the regions of Bahrain, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Southern Iraq, the entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as “Bahrain” for ten centuries. Until very recently, the whole of Eastern Arabia, from southern Iraq to the mountains of Oman, was a place where people moved around, the people of Eastern Arabia shared a culture based on the sea, they are seafaring peoples. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are solely Eastern Arabia, the modern-day states of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and UAE are the archetypal Gulf Arab states. Saudi Arabia is often considered a Gulf Arab state although most Saudis do not live in Eastern Arabia, in Arabic, Bahrayn is the dual form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the Two Seas. However, which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute, the term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as “Awal”—but rather to the oases of al-Katif and Hadjar. It is unclear when the term began to refer exclusively to the Awal islands, in addition to wells, there are places in the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the salt water, noted by visitors since antiquity. The term Gulf Arab solely refers, geographically, to inhabitants of eastern Arabia, the term Khaleejis is often misused to identify all the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula. The inhabitants of Eastern Arabias Gulf coast share similar cultures and music such as fijiri, sawt. The most noticeable trait of Eastern Arabias Gulf Arabs is their orientation. Maritime-focused life in the small Gulf Arab states has resulted in a society where livelihoods have traditionally been earned in marine industries. The Arabs of Eastern Arabia speak a dialect known as Gulf Arabic, most Saudis do not speak Gulf Arabic because most Saudis do not live in Eastern Arabia. There are approximately 2 million Gulf Arabic speakers in Saudi Arabia, before the GCC was formed in 1981, the term “Khaleeji” was solely used to refer to the inhabitants of Eastern Arabia. In pre-Islamic times, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of partially Christianized Arabs, Arab Zoroastrians, Jews, some sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia exhibit Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac features. The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Bahrain were Aramaic speakers and to some degree Persian speakers, Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official, Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from an official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian and these letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time

10.
Islam in Bahrain
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Islam is the state religion in Bahrain. Bahrains 2010 census indicated that 70. 2% of the population is Muslim, although the country is majority-Shiite, the al-Khalifa monarchy is Sunni. Prior to Islam, the inhabitants of Qatar and Bahrain practiced Arabian paganism, Islam swept the entire Arabian region in the 7th century. The Ismaili Shia sect known at the Qarmatians seized Bahrain in 899 CE, making it their stronghold, the Qarmatians were eventually defeated by their Ismaili counterparts, the Abbasids in 976 and afterwards their power waned. The defeat of the Qarmatian state saw the gradual wane of their brand of Ismaili Islam. Instead, under a process encouraged by Sunni rulers over the four hundred years. According to historian Juan Cole, Sunnis favoured the quietist Twelver branch of Shiism over the Qarmatians, in the 13th Century, there arose what was termed the Bahrain School, which integrated themes of philosophy and mysticism into orthodox Twelver practise. The school produced theologians such as Sheikh Kamal al-Din Ibn Sa’adah al Bahrani, Sheikh Jamal al-Din ‘Ali --- ibn Sulayman al-Bahrani, and perhaps most famously Sheikh Maitham Al Bahrani. There are no figures, but it is estimated that 60-70% of the Bahrainis follow the Shia Jafari school. There is also a population of the South Asian Sunni Muslim residents who follow the Hanafi school. The country observes the Muslim feasts of Eid al-Adha, Eid al-Fitr, the Prophet Muhammads birthday, political liberalisation under King Hamad has seen Islamist parties contest Bahrains elections and become a dominant force in parliament. In the 2006 election Wefaq received the backing of the Islamic Scholars Council which helped it seventeen of the eighteen seats it contested. In the 2010 election, they increased their representation by one seat, winning all the constituencies they contested, to take 18 of the 40 available parliamentary seats

11.
Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami
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Al-ʿAlāʾu l-Haḍramī was a Haḍramī envoy sent by Muhammad in the 7th century CE to spread Islam to the region that extends from Kuwait to Ras al-Khaimah. He was from Hadhramaut in Yemen, prior to Islam, the inhabitants of the region of Bahrain were mostly pagans who worshipped idol gods like Awal, and there were also some Magians and Jews. Islam swept the Arabian peninsula in the 7th century, overturning the idol worshippers, consequently, Abu Al Ala Al-Hadrami was appointed by Muhammad as his representative in Bahrain to collect the Jizya. After the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, large numbers of Arab tribes revolted against the Islamic empire, as a result, the new Caliph Abu Bakr sent Al-Hadrami back to Bahrain with a sizeable army where he successfully defeated the rebels. He governed Bahrain until 634 AD when the new Caliph Umar replaced him with Uthman bin Abi al-Alas Thaqafi after he failed in the first naval invasion to Fars, Al Hadrami later died in 635 AD. There are multiple streets and a named after Al-Hadrami in Bahrain. The letter from Muhammad to Munzir ibn Sawa Al Tamimi is preserved and can be seen at Beit Al Quran museum in Hoora, Bahrain, salaf Sahaba Khamis Mosque Islam in Bahrain Bahrain Eastern Arabia Sunni view of the Sahaba

12.
Qarmatians
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The Qarmatians were a syncretic religious group that combined elements of the Ismaili Shia Islam centered in al-Hasa, where they established a religious utopian republic in 899 CE. They are most famed for their revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate, the origin of the name Qarmatian is uncertain. According to some sources, the name derives from the surname of the sects founder, the name qarmat probably comes from Aramaic, and means either short-legged, red-eyed, or secret teacher. Other sources, however, say that the name comes from the Arabic verb قرمط, the word Qarmatian can also refer to a type of Arabic script. The Qarāmiṭah in southern Iraq were also known as the Greengrocers because of a preacher Abu Hatim who in 906/7 forbade animal slaughter as well as the eating of such as alliums. It is not clear if his teachings persisted, under the Abbasid Caliphate, various Shii groups organised in secret opposition to their rule. Among them were the supporters of the community, of whom the most prominent group were called the Mubārakiyyah. According to the Ismaili school of thought, Imām Jafar al-Sadiq designated his son, Ismail ibn Jafar. Some claimed he had gone into hiding, but the group accepted his death and therefore accordingly recognized Ismā‘īls eldest son, Muhammad ibn Ismail. He remained in contact with the Mubārakiyyah group, most of whom resided in Kufa, the split among the Mubārakiyyah came with the death of Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl. The majority of the group denied his death, they recognized him as the Mahdi, the minority believed in his death and would eventually emerge in later times as the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate, the precursors to all modern groups. Qarmaṭ and his theologian brother-in-law ‘Abdān prepared southern Iraq for the coming of the Mahdi by creating a military, other such locations grew up in Yemen, in Eastern Arabia in 899, and in North Africa. These attracted many new Shii followers due to their activist and messianic teachings and this new proto-Qarmaṭī movement continued to spread into Greater Iran and then into Transoxiana. A change in leadership in Salamiyah in 899 led to a split in the movement, qarmaṭ and his brother-in-law opposed this and openly broke with the Salamiyids, when ‘Abdān was assassinated, he went into hiding and subsequently repented. Qarmaṭ became a missionary of the new Imām, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, nonetheless, the dissident group retained the name Qarmaṭī. Their greatest stronghold remained in Bahrain, which at this period included much of eastern Arabia as well as the islands comprise the present state. It was under Abbasid control at the end of the ninth century, the Qarmaṭians instigated what one scholar termed a century of terrorism in Kufa. Under al-Jannabi, the Qarmaṭians came close to raiding Baghdad in 927, in their attack on Islams holiest sites, the Qarmatians desecrated the Zamzam Well with corpses of Hajj pilgrims and took the Black Stone from Mecca to al-Hasa

13.
Bahrain administrative reforms of the 1920s
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The administrative reforms of the 1920s were a series of British-led reforms that have laid the foundations of modern Bahrain. They took place between 1919 and 1927, but their background extends to the early 19th century, Britain signed a number of treaties with Bahrain in 1820,1861,1880 and 1892. The latter two had turned Bahrain into a British Protectorate, earlier in 1869, Britain had appointed the young Shaikh Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa as ruler. Shaikh Isa was an autocrat and a feudal overlord whose authority was shared with his family, the economy was dependent on pearl diving and palm farming. Both sectors suffered from great inequalities, the conditions of the mostly Baharnah peasants, the Order was not implemented until after the end of World War I. The reforms began in February 1919 after the British Political Agent, brays next step to appoint half members of al-Majlis al-Urfi, a council concerned with commercial disputes encountered opposition from Shaikh Isa which led to its suspension. In November, Major H. R. P. Dickson was appointed Political Agent and he introduced the Joint Court, the Municipal Council of Manama and resumed the meetings of al-Majlis al-Urfi. Dickson was resented by the ruler and his allies. In 1921, Major Daly was appointed Political Agent, few months later, he started undermining the influence of Shaikh Abdulla, the youngest sons of Shaikh Isa in favor of his older brother and the heir apparent, Shaikh Hamad. Starting from mid 1921, Bahrain witnessed a series of supporting and opposing the reforms. They were submitted to different British officials up to the Foreign Office, the supporting faction was composed of Daly, Shaikh Hamad, his supporters and the Baharnah. The Baharnah demanded equity, as they had to pay numerous taxes and were subjected to maltreatment. The other faction, composed of Shaikh Isa, Shaikh Abdulla, tribesmen and pearl merchants opposed the reforms, because they were set to abolish their absolute powers, faced with Britains inaction, the Baharnah staged an uprising in Manama in February 1922. Shaikh Isa agreed to most of their demands, but did not carry them out, the Al Dawasir tribe contacted Ibn Saud, asking for his help against the reforms. On the other hand, Persians launched media campaigns accusing Britain of overlooking the oppression of their co-religious Baharnah in Bahrain, the British position then changed and reforms were to be carried even against the wishes of Shaikh Isa. In May 1923, 3-day-riots broke in Manama between Persians and Najdis, elsewhere, Al Dawasir and Al Khawalid branch of Al Khalifa ruling family attacked several Baharnah villages. The British intervened, they deposed the aging Shaikh Isa in favor of his son after he had refused to retire voluntarily. Al Dawasir and Al Khawalid resumed their attacks against Baharnah villages for which they were put on trial, Al Dawasir migrated to Dammam in the mainland, while Al Khawalid were either banished for long years or sentenced to death in absentia after their escape

14.
National Union Committee
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The National Union Committee was a nationalist reformist political organization formed in Bahrain in 1954. The committee was formed by reformists in response to clashes between Sunni and Shia members of the population. The original committee was made up of four Sunni representatives and four Shii representatives, in March 1956, British Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd was visiting Bahrain. Crowds of protesters lined the streets to shout slogans and threw sand at stones at the Foreign Secretarys entourage. A number of members, including a stewardess, were left injured. Abdulrahman al Bakir, the secretary of the NUC, was among the leaders of the demonstrations and he was asked to leave the country after the incident for an extended stay abroad, and departed to Egypt. Al Bakir returned to Bahrain September 1956, in October 1956, the NUC called for strikes and demonstrations against the Israeli-Anglo-French attack on Egypt in the Suez Campaign. This led to days of violence in Bahrain, in November, the ruler Shaikh Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa, ordered the arrest of the NUC leaders, accusing Al Bakir, Al Shamlan and Aliwat of attempting to take his life. A specially set up court in Budaiya made up of three judges tried the men and found them guilty and they were sentenced to 14 years at a prison located outside of Bahrain, in Saint Helena. In June 1961 the three prisoners were released from Saint Helena after a successful habeas corpus action, and were later paid financial compensation from the British government, debates in British House of Commons Miriam Joyce. The Bahraini three on St. Helena, 1956-1961 in The Middle East Journal, shiism and Political Protest in Bahrain in Domes. Contentious politics in Bahrain, From ethnic to national and vice versa, tribe and state in Bahrain, The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. ISBN 0-8133-0123-8 Charles Belgrave, Personal Column, Abdulrahman al-Baker, Mina al-bahrayn ila al-manfaa, sant halaneh, al-Hayat Library Publications, Bahrain, The Ruling Family of Al Khalifah, A. de L

15.
Bahraini independence survey, 1970
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An independence survey was held in the Persian Gulf island nation of Bahrain during 1970. The survey took the form of a United Nations poll on whether islanders preferred independence or Iranian control, as a result, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 278 on 11 May 1970, whilst in the same month Iran renounced its claim to the island. The country subsequently became independent from the United Kingdom in August 1971, in 1969, both the British and Iranian governments agreed to approach the United Nations Secretariat to resolve the dispute of Bahrains sovereignty. Our policy and philosophy is to oppose occupation of territories by force. In early 1970, the Iranian government asked the UN general secretary to assess the will of the Bahraini people with regards to their sovereignty, both British and Iranian governments stated they would accept the results of the survey provided it was approved by the United Nations Security Council. The UN mission started on 30 March 1970 and lasted two weeks, resulting in the publication of UN Document Number 9772, the report was distributed amongst the Security Council and the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 278 on 11 May 1970. The UN report and resolution were debated and accepted in both the lower and upper houses of Iranian parliament by 14 May 1970, renouncing their claim to Bahrain, the British revoked its special agreements with Bahrain in August 1971, allowing Bahrain to subsequently declare independence. On 29 August 1971, Bahrain and Iran established diplomatic ties

16.
State of Bahrain
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The State of Bahrain was the name of Bahrain between 1971 and 2002. On 15 August 1971, Bahrain declared independence and signed a new treaty of friendship with the United Kingdom, Bahrain joined the United Nations and the Arab League later in the year. The oil boom of the 1970s benefited Bahrain greatly, although the subsequent downturn hurt the economy, the coup would have installed a Shīa cleric exiled in Iran, Hujjatu l-Islām Hādī al-Mudarrisī, as supreme leader heading a theocratic government. In December 1994, a group of youths threw stones at female runners during a marathon for running bare-legged. The resulting clash with police soon grew into civil unrest, a popular uprising occurred between 1994 and 2000 in which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces. The event resulted in approximately forty deaths and ended after Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999, a referendum on 14–15 February 2001 massively supported the National Action Charter. He instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote, as part of the adoption of the National Action Charter on 14 February 2002, Bahrain changed its formal name from the State of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain. Based on its new constitution, Bahraini men elected its first National Assembly in 1973, the Assembly refused to ratify the government-sponsored law, which allowed, among other things, the arrest and detention of people for up to three years, without a trial. The legislative stalemate over this act created a crisis, and on 25 August 1975. The emir then ratified the State Security Law by decree, in that same year, the emir established the State Security Court, whose judgments were not subject to appeal. Full text of the 1973 constitution The constitution of 1973 was written shortly after Bahrains independence from Britain in 1971. In 1972, the then ruler Shaikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa issued a decree providing for the election of a Constituent Assembly that would be responsible for drafting and ratifying the constitution, the electorate of the constituent assembly was native-born male citizens aged twenty years or older. The constituent assembly consisted of elected delegates, plus the twelve members of the Council of Ministers. The constitution was enacted by amiri decree in December 1973, only one parliamentary election was ever held under the 1973 Constitution before it was abrogated by the emir Shaikh Isa in 1975. The country was governed under emergency laws from 1975 to 2002

17.
1990s uprising in Bahrain
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The uprising resulted in the deaths of around 40 civilians and at least one Bahraini soldier. In 1971, Bahrain became independent from Britain and in 1973 the country had its first parliamentary election, however, two years later the constitution was suspended and the assembly dissolved by the late Amir, Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa after it rejected the State Security Law. The act also known as the law was proposed by Ian Henderson. It gave police wide arresting powers and allowed individuals to be held in prison without trial or charge for up to three years for suspicion that they might be a threat to the state. Starting in August 1975, widespread arrests were conducted including members of the dissolved parliament, the ruthless system of repression launched by Henderson lasted for over twenty five years. In 1992, a signed by 280 society leaders, including some of the dissolved parliament members called for the restoration of the national assembly. Initially, the government set up a thirty-member appointed Shura council assigned with commenting on government proposed legislation, another petition the following month concluded that the newly formed council does not replace the national assembly as a constitutional and legislative authority. A delegation of six members, half Sunnis and half Shias representing petition organizers met with the Amir who told them Shura council was all could expect. The final aim of the uprising was the reinstatement of the 1973 constitution and respect of rights in Bahrain. The uprising began in June 1994, with a picket by unemployed people in front of the ministry of labour in June 1994, over 1,500 demonstrator tried to organize a sit-in front of Ministry of Labor protesting the increasing rate of unemployment which had reached 15 percent. Riot police dispersed them using tear gas, similar incidents occurred in August and September. Another petition was launched, this time it was open to all citizens, organizers said they collected over 20,000 signatures most of whom were Shia. In November, hundreds of Shia protested against a charity marathon, the route of the marathon was through some Shia villages, who considered the female dressings offensive. Reportedly, some threw stones on the marathon, which prompted security forces to conduct a number of arrests. The following month Ali Salman, a protest leader, was arrested after being accused of inciting the incident, the arrest sparked further protests and violence in Manama and Sitra. Some protesters used Molotov cocktails to attack police stations, banks, on the other hand, riot police used tear and rubber bullets, sometimes fired at street level and from helicopters. It was also reported that police used live ammunition on some occasions, by December, the number of detainees was between 500 and 600 according to the US Embassy. A number of leaders, including Ali Salman were exiled in January 1995

18.
Muscat
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Muscat is the capital and largest metropolitan city of Oman. It is also the seat of government and largest city in the Governorate of Muscat, according to the National Centre for Statistics and Information, the total population of Muscat Governorate reached 1.56 million as of September 2015. The metropolitan area spans approximately 3,500 km2 and includes six provinces called wilayats, a regional military power in the 18th century, Muscats influence extended as far as East Africa and Zanzibar. As an important port-town in the Gulf of Oman, Muscat attracted foreign tradesmen and settlers such as the Persians and the Balochis. Since the ascension of Qaboos bin Said as Sultan of Oman in 1970, Muscat has experienced rapid development that has led to the growth of a vibrant economy. The rocky Western Al Hajar Mountains dominate the landscape of Muscat, the city lies on the Arabian Sea along the Gulf of Oman and is in the proximity of the strategic Straits of Hormuz. Low-lying white buildings typify most of Muscats urban landscape, while the port-district of Muttrah, with its corniche and harbour, Muscats economy is dominated by trade, petroleum and porting. Ptolemys Map of Arabia identifies the territories of Cryptus Portus and Moscha Portus, scholars are divided in opinion on which of the two related to the city of Muscat. Similarly, Arrianus references Omana and Moscha in Voyage of Nearchus, interpretations of Arrianus work by William Vincent and Jean Baptiste Bourguignon dAnville conclude that Omana was a reference to Oman, while Moscha referred to Muscat. Similarly, other scholars identify Pliny the Elders reference to Amithoscuta to be Muscat, the origin of the word Muscat is disputed. Some authors claim that the word has Arabic origins – from moscha, other authors claim that the name Muscat means anchorage or the place of letting fall the anchor. Other derivations include muscat from Old Persian, meaning strong-scented, or from Arabic, meaning falling-place, Cryptus Portus is synonymous with Oman. But Ov-man, and the old Sumerian name Magan, means sea-people in Arabic, an inhabitant is a Muscatter, Muscatian, Muscatite or Muscatan. Evidence of communal activity in the area around Muscat dates back to the 6th millennium BCE in Ras al-Hamra, the graves appear to be well formed and indicate the existence of burial rituals. South of Muscat, remnants of Harappan pottery indicate some level of contact with the Indus Valley Civilisation. Muscats notability as a port was acknowledged as early as the 1st century CE by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, who referred to it as Cryptus Portus, and by Pliny the Elder, who called it Amithoscuta. The port fell to a Sassanid invasion in the 3rd century CE, under the rule of Shapur I, Muscats importance as a trading port continued to grow in the centuries that followed, under the influence of the Azd dynasty, a local tribe. The establishment of the First Imamate in the 9th century CE was the first step in consolidating disparate Omani tribal factions under the banner of an Ibadi state, however, tribal skirmishes continued, allowing the Abbasids of Baghdad to conquer Oman

19.
Nader Shah
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Nader Shah was one of the most powerful Iranian rulers in the history of that nation, ruling as Shah of Persia from 1736 to 1747 when he was assassinated during a rebellion. Nader Shah was an Iranian who belonged to the Turcoman Afshar tribe of Greater Khorasan in northeastern Iran, Nader reunited the Persian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, Nader idolized Genghis Khan and Timur, the previous conquerors from Central Asia. He imitated their military prowess and — especially later in his reign — their cruelty, Nader Shah has been described as the last great Asiatic military conqueror. His father, Emam Qoli, was a herdsman who may also have been a coatmaker, at the age of 13, his father died and Nader had to find a way to support himself and his mother. He had no source of other than the sticks he gathered for firewood. Many years later, when he was returning in triumph from his conquest of Delhi, he led the army to his birthplace and made a speech to his generals about his early life of deprivation. He said, You now see to what height it has pleased the Almighty to exalt me, from hence, Naders early experiences did not, however, make him particularly compassionate toward the poor. Throughout his career, he was interested in his own advancement. Legend has it that in 1704, when he was about 17, a band of marauding Uzbek Tartars invaded the province of Khorasan, Nader and his mother were among those who were carried off into slavery. Somehow, Nader managed to escape and returned to the province of Khorasan in 1708, living under the most desperate circumstances, he and his friends stole a flock of sheep and sold them in the market. With the money they made, they fled into the mountains, tiring of life as a fugitive, Nader presented himself to a Persian nobleman. He was employed as a courier, to deliver important messages to the court at Isfahan in 1712. A second courier accompanied Nader on these missions, however, upon his return he saw that his master was quite upset. By the look on his face, Nader assumed that the nobleman planned to kill him and he had also fallen in love with the noblemans daughter, but his master flatly refused to consider letting them marry. Because of his disappointment and in order to defend himself, Nader killed the nobleman and fled into the mountains with the daughter, other servants of the dead nobleman joined Nader and they formed a gang of robbers operating in the province of Mazanderan. Nader grew up during the years of the Safavid dynasty which had ruled Iran since 1502. When Sultan Husayn attempted to quell a rebellion by the Ghilzai Afghans in Kandahar, under their leader Mahmud Hotaki, the rebellious Afghans moved westwards against the shah himself and in 1722 they defeated a force at the Battle of Gulnabad and then besieged the capital, Isfahan

20.
Jidhafs
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Jidhafs is a city in Bahrain. It was a municipality of Bahrain in the part of the country. Its territory is now in the Capital and Northern Governorate and it is about 3 km west of the capital Manama. It is neighbored by the villages of Al Daih and Sanabis to the north, Al Musala and Tashan to the south, Jibilat Habshi, the citys population is about 11,000. The Bahraini historian and researcher Mohammed bin Ali Al Tajer states in his book Aqd Al Lalali Fi Tarikh Awal that the word Jid translates to coast, as such, the term Jid Hafs is understood to translate to the Coast of Hafs

21.
House of Khalifa
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The House of Khalifa is the royal family of Bahrain. The Al Khalifas profess Sunni Islam of the Maliki sect, the current head is Hamad bin Isa, who became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999 and via the National Action Charter which obtained the support of 98. 4% of the people. Bahrain was declared a Kingdom and Hamad bin Isa became the King of Bahrain in 2002, decisions pertaining to the Al Khalifa family, as well as disputes between family members are arbitrated by the Ruling Family Council. The council attends to family disputes particularly those related to appropriation of land, sale of real estate. Members of the family are not allowed to refer these or other disputes to ordinary law courts. Relations between the leadership and the rest of the rank and file members of the Al Khalifa ruling family have been formally managed by the council since 1932. The Ruling Family Council is currently chaired by King Hamad, its Deputy Chairman is Mohammed bin Khalifa bin Hamad Al Khalifa, and the Director General is Ibrahim bin Khalid bin Mohammed Al Khalifa. The King appoints the members of the board of the Ruling Family Council as recognised representatives of various kingship lines, Al Khalifa is commonly mistranscribed al-Khalifa. The Al written with the long alif is unconnected to the word and means house, in the sense of family or dynasty

22.
Kuwait
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Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, Kuwait ranks highly in regional metrics of gender equality, as it has the regions highest Global Gender Gap ranking. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz

23.
Bedouin
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The term contrasts against Hathar which refers to the city or town dwellers in the Arabic language. Bedouin means Badiyah dwellers in the Arabic language, as Badyah means literally the visible land, the Bedouins identify themselves as Arabs or by the names of their tribes. City dwellers in Arabia who descended from known tribes refer to themselves as Bedouins to recognize their origin to Arabia. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans and share a culture of herding camels. The Bedouin form a part of, but are not synonymous with, Bedouins have been referred to by various names throughout history, including Qedarites in the Old Testament and Arabaa by the Assyrians. They are referred to as the Araab in the Koran, traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are also popular leisure activities for urbanised Bedouins who live within close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas. The term Bedouin derives from a form of the Arabic word badu. The Arabic term badu literally translates in Arabic as Badiyah dwellers, the word bādiyah means visible land such as plain or desert. The term Bedouin therefore means those in bādiyah or those in the desert, in English usage, however, the form Bedouin is commonly used for the singular term, the plural being Bedouins, as indicated by the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition. The term Bedouin also uses the root word as the Arabic noun for the beginning, بداية. The Arabs believe the Bedouins to be the predecessors to the settled Arabs, disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility. The individual family unit typically consisted of three or four adults and any number of children, when resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage, acquaintance, or no clearly defined relation. The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm or descent group, whilst the phrase descent group suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members. The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, the tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the governments and organizations. Distinct structure of the Bedouin society leads to lasting rivalries between different clans

The Bahraini protests were a series of anti-government protests from 2011 until 2014. The protests were inspired by the …

Clockwise from top-left: Protesters raising their hands towards the Pearl Roundabout on 19 February 2011; Teargas usage by security forces and clashes with protesters on 13 March; Over 100,000 Bahrainis taking part in the "March of loyalty to martyrs", on 22 February; clashes between security forces and protesters on 13 March; Bahraini armed forces blocking an entrance to a Bahraini village.