Iran hostage crisis, international crisis (1979–81) in which militants in Iran seized 66 American citizens at the U.S. embassy in Tehrān, holding 52 of them hostage for more than a year. The crisis, which took place during the chaotic aftermath of Iran’s Islamic revolution (1978–79) and its overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, had dramatic effects on domestic politics in the United States and poisoned U.S.-Iranian relations for decades.

The crisis

Iran’s revolution deeply altered that country’s relationship with the United States. The deposed Iranian ruler, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, had been close to a succession of U.S. administrations, and this had produced deep suspicion and hostility among Iran’s revolutionary leaders, from both the left and right of the political spectrum. Beginning in the fall of 1978, the U.S. embassy in Tehrān had been the scene of frequent demonstrations by Iranians who opposed the American presence in the country, and on February 14, 1979, about a month after the shah had fled Iran, the embassy was attacked and briefly occupied. The embassy weathered this assault, during which several of its personnel were killed or wounded, but Iran was in the throes of enormous revolutionary change, which called for a new U.S. posture in Iran. Consequently, by the start of the hostage crisis, the embassy staff had been cut from more than 1,400 men and women before the revolution to about 70. In addition, attempts had been made to arrive at a modus vivendi with Iran’s provisional government, and during the spring and summer the Iranian authorities sought to strengthen security around the embassy complex.

In October 1979 the U.S. State Department was informed that the deposed Iranian monarch required medical treatment that his aides claimed was available only in the United States; U.S. authorities, in turn, informed the Iranian prime minister, Mehdi Bazargan, of the shah’s impending arrival on American soil. Bazargan, in light of the February attack, guaranteed the safety of the U.S. embassy and its staff. The shah arrived in New York City on October 22. The initial public response in Iran was moderate, but on November 4 the embassy was attacked by a mob of perhaps 3,000, some of whom were armed and who, after a short siege, took 63 American men and women hostage. (An additional three members of the U.S. diplomatic staff were actually seized at the Iranian Foreign Ministry.) Within the next few days, representatives of U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Tehrān-based diplomats from other countries attempted but failed to free the hostages. An American delegation headed by former U.S. attorney general Ramsey Clark—who had long-standing relations with many Iranian officials—was refused admission to Iran.

A political struggle was afoot in Tehrān—between the Islamic right and secular left and between various personalities within the Muslim coterie surrounding the revolutionary leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini—and the hostages apparently were caught in the stalemate resulting from this dispute. It soon became evident that no one within the virulently anti-American atmosphere of postrevolutionary Iran was willing, or able, to release the hostages. The hostage takers themselves most likely were supporters of Khomeini—whose failure to order the release of the hostages led Bazargan to resign the premiership on November 6—and demanded, as a condition of the hostages’ release, that the United States extradite the shah to Iran.

On November 12 acting Iranian foreign minister Abolhasan Bani-Sadr indicated that the hostages would be released if the United States ceased interfering in Iranian affairs, if the shah was returned to Iran for trial, and if assets in the possession of the shah were declared stolen property. The United States responded by stating that Iran was free to make financial claims against the shah in U.S. courts and further declared that it would support establishing an international commission to investigate purported human rights abuses under the shah’s regime; as a precondition of any such actions, however, the hostages would have to be returned.

The United States bolstered its position by refusing to purchase Iranian oil, by freezing billions of dollars of Iranian assets in the United States, and by engaging throughout the crisis in a vigorous campaign of international diplomacy against the Iranians. U.S. diplomats twice obtained United Nations (UN) Security Council resolutions (on December 4 and 31) against Iran’s actions, and on November 29 the United States filed suit against the Iranian government in the International Court of Justice (which ruled in favour of the United States in May 1980). The consensus of the international community was against the Iranian seizure of the hostages, and diplomats from various countries sought to intervene on their behalf. One notable incident occurred on January 28, 1980, when Canadian diplomats helped six American diplomats who had managed to avoid capture flee Iran (the Canadian embassy was subsequently closed).

Earlier, on November 17, Khomeini had ordered the release of 13 hostages, all women or African Americans, on the grounds that they were unlikely to be spies (another hostage, who became gravely ill, was released on July 11, 1980, producing the final number of 52 hostages). Throughout the ordeal the Iranians used as negotiating leverage the threat of putting the hostages on trial for various crimes, including espionage.

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