8 II Crop Production Physiology 1. Screening of varieties against abiotic stresses i) Thick stalked varieties with greater leaf numbers and tillers at early stages suffered less under moisture stress. ii) iii) iv) Late maturing varieties suffered more in terms of juice quality due to moisture stress. Moisture stress at formative phase reduced the juice quality more than at elongation phase. Soil moisture stress reduced green leaf number, leaf area and tiller number resulting in marked reduction in leaf area per plant. v) Commercial cane sugar per unit area was significantly reduced with increase in soil moisture stress, the reduction being more severe from 40 to 20 per cent ASM. vi) Varieties Co 975, Co 1148, Co 853, Co 740, CoLk 9001 and CoS 510 tolerated soil moisture stress better than Co 419, Co 527, Co 658 and Co Co 453, Co 740, Co 85007, BO 91 and UP 5 were more suited for saline soils, whereas CoS 8118 was suitable for waterlogged conditions. Co 1148 was found to be more tolerant to frost than Co Growth, maturity and ripening i) Adaptability of sugarcane varieties under various agro-climatic zones : The findings indicate that Net Assimilation Rate (NAR), Relative Growth Rate (RGR), Crop Growth Rate (CGR) and Specific Leaf Weight (SLW) are associated with cane yield throughout the season. ii) iii) iv) Forecasting of sugarcane yield : Sheath moisture and nitrogen content in leaf at formative and grand growth stages are highly correlated with cane yield. Control of flowering : Leaf spindle removal once during the second and third week of August or two sprays of paraquat/diquat check the flowering in late varieties, while repeated spindle removal between July 20 and August 12 was needed for early varieties. The effective period of spindle removal in both the categories of varieties coincided with initiation of spikelet primordia. There was an improvement in cane yield and juice quality consequent to inhibition of flowering spindle in late harvest. Harvesting time for drought affected crop : For extracting maximum sugar, any crop subjected to moisture stress during active growth phase should be harvested 2-3 months later than normal harvesting time. v) Use of chemical ripeners: Three chemical ripeners viz., polaris, sodium-metasilicate and cycocel were tried for hastening the maturity and sustenance of juice quality over a long period. The beneficial effect of all the three chemicals was evident with polaris being the best. Spray of 4 kg ai/ha, 6-8 weeks before harvest was recommended for improvement of quality and maintaining it for three months. Early maturing varieties responded better to all the three ripeners as compared to late varieties. 8

9 Agronomy and Soil Science 1. Sequential and intercropping with sugarcane At competitive prices, inclusion of sugarcane in crop rotation was found more remunerative than growing only cereals in a rotation under subtropical conditions. Under tropical conditions, inclusion of hybrid bajra in sugarcane based rotation invariably increased the net profit of the rotation over pure sugarcane. Sugarcane can be profitably grown after harvesting early maturing paddy in the last week of September or first week of October. The crop sequence Paddy (early) autumn cane + wheat ratoon pulse crop was superior to Paddy (early) autumn cane alone ratoon pulse crop As the sugarcane is planted in wide spaced rows and its initial growth is slow, the inter-row spaces remain unutilized, where suitable intercrops can be taken successfully. Crops found suitable for intercropping in sugarcane at different locations are listed in Table Suitable variety of wheat was tried as an intercrop in sugarcane. This practice though resulted in reduced cane yield by about 16%, but more than compensated this loss by additional yield of wheat. Growing of potato and sugarbeet did not decrease the yield of sugarcane as compared to its pure crop. Rather potato was identified as one of the best companion crops for inter-cropping with sugarcane. At Jalandhar, however, higher net return was obtained by growing sugarcane + maize as compared to cane + potato. Intercropping of spring planted cane with grain legumes, such as green gram, urd bean, cowpea, etc., increased soil organic matter, total N and available P, but its effect was not conspicuous on cane yield in many cases. In Deccan plateau region, usefulness of vegetables like onion, knol khol and cabbage in preseasonal planting was found to be giving more returns than from sugarcane alone. In tropical region, intercropping of french bean and soybean has also given encouraging results. 9

11 Weed management Unchecked presence of weeds interferes with the growth and development of the crop and ultimately reduces the cane yield. Among various reasons for the loss in cane yield, intense competition by weeds to the crop for nutrients, moisture and space, is the most important one. 1. Weed management in plant crop For weed management in sugarcane, Metribuzin 1.0 kg ai/ha or 2.0 kg ai/ha as pre-emergence is as effective as earlier recommended pre-emergence herbicide 2.0 kg ai/ha. Either of these herbicides should be coupled with application of 1.0 kg ai/ha at 60 days after planting (DAP) and one hoeing at 90 DAP to sustain cane yield equivalent to three manual hoeings at 30, 60 & 90 DAP. 2. Weed management in ratoon crop Three hoeings, at 1, 4, and 7 weeks after ratoon initiation should be adopted for effective control of weeds in sugarcane ratoon crop. However, under limitations of manpower-availability, cost etc., pre emergence application of either of 2.0 kg a.i./ha or 1.0 kg a.i./ha( litre water/ha) followed by either of 2,4 D Na 1.0 kg/ ha( l water/ha) or hoeing at 45 days after ratooning can be successfully practiced. Further, trash mulching in alternate rows and hoeing in unmulched furrow at 1 & 6 weeks after ratoon initiation is also a good option. 3. Management of binding weeds In sugarcane, application of 2 kg ai/ha or 1.25 kg ai/ha as preemergence followed by 350 g ai/ha at 75 DAP is effective for controlling binding weeds in sugarcane. Ratoon management In a study conducted on effect of harvesting of water shoots and late tillers in plant cane on the growth and yield of subsequent ratoon indicated that in subtropical belt and more so in north west zone, where ratoon initiation is delayed due to late harvesting of plant cane in the months of April and May, the water shoots and/or late tillers may be retained to buffer the yield drop. However, appropriate plant protection measures need to be taken to break the continuity of insect pests and diseases transmitted through such shoots/tillers. 1. Management of multiple ratooning Under multiple ratooning, integration of agro-technologies viz. stubble shaving, gap filling, trash mulching and cultivation in alternate rows with the use of phorate (15 kg/ha) may be adopted to sustain higher cane ratoon yields. Keeping ratoon beyond third does not appear to be economical. As component technology, trash mulching and gap filling have been identified as critical technologies to sustain multiple ratoon productivity. 11

12 2. Nutrient management i) Sugarcane did not respond to potassium application under terai soils, where soils are rich in available potassium, containing more than 300 kg K 2 O/ha. At Padegaon, the maximum yield of cane and CCS were obtained under soil moisture stress condition during summer for spring planted sugarcane with conventional planting application of 150 kg K 2 O/ha at planting and trash 5 t/ha immediately after germination. At Sehore, the crop significantly responded to potassium application up to 60 kg K 2 O/ha. ii) Soil application of Azotobactor or 4 kg/ha in two equal splits at 30 and 60 days after planting gave 25% saving in nitrogen fertilizers. iii) Trash mulching in ratoon crop increased sugarcane yield significantly over no mulching at a number of locations in the country; however, at Mandya (Karnataka) and Thiruvalla (Kerala) centers, effect due to mulching was not observed in terms of cane and CCS yields. iv) Application of recommended dose of nitrogen in three to four splits resulted in increased number of canes, seed cane yield and quality in terms of sett moisture. In certain soils, application of 25% additional nitrogen and 25 kg K 2 O/ha as an extra dose produced significantly higher seed cane yield. v) Incorporation of sulphitated press mud at the rate of four tonnes/ha + 75% of recommended dose of N resulted in cane yield equal to that obtained with recommended nitrogen dose alone, thereby saving of 25% of nitrogen. vi) Sulphur may be kg/ha in sugarcane plant crop in slulpur deficient soils. As regards source of sulphur, gypsum has been found more effective and economical. Sustaining sugarcane production and soil health through integration of nutrient sources in sugarcane based cropping system In order to sustain higher cane and sugar yield, sugarcane plant crop should be fertilized with 100% of the recommended NPK fertilizers + 25% N through FYM + biofertilizer (Azotobacter + PSB) in plant crop and 100% of the recommended NPK through inorganics + trash incorporation with cellulolytic culture + biofertilizers in ratoon crop. This also improves soil health, by enriching the organic carbon content. 1. Compatibility of zinc application with sources and levels of phosphorus in sugarcane SSP and DAP are equally effective as sources of phosphorus. In North West Zone, North East Zone and East Coast Zone sugarcane crop may be fertilized with 60 kg P 2 O 5 /ha. However, in Peninsular Zone, DAP is superior to SSP and sugarcane crop be fertilized with kg P 2 O 5 /ha. As regards, zinc nutrition, kg ZnSO 4 /ha is sufficient. 2. Developing organic farming module for sugarcane crop For sustaining higher sugarcane yield and better soil health, sugarcane plant and ratoon crops be fertilized with 75% of recommended NPK through inorganics + 25% of recommended N through 12

13 organics (FYM/PSM) along with furrow application of Azotobacter kg/ha each and biopesticide (Trichoderma) mixed with one quintal FYM; apart from trash mulching and green manure of legumes (Sesbania) in alternate rows in ratoon crop. 3. Nutrient management of sugarcane seed crop Nutrient management for sugarcane seed crop is very important and the agronomic requirements are different for tropical and subtropical belts. In tropical zone, seed cane may be fertilized with 75 to 100% of recommended dose of nitrogen in 2-4 equal splits depending upon soil texture, irrigation practice followed and variety grown. In sub-tropical zone, with wide variability in edaphic, environmental and management conditions, the seed cane needs 25% additional N over recommended doses of N, P and K. Application of total N may be phased out in 4 equal splits for realizing beneficial effects in terms of yield and quality. 4. Drought management in sugarcane: Under drought conditions, additional application of 60 Kg K2O/ha at DAP over and above soaking setts in saturated lime water + foliar spray of urea and 2.5% at 90, 105 & 120 DAP + trash mulching after 60 DAP + application of 10t/ha in furrows before planting be adopted to improve cane yield. Under drought conditions in light and medium textured soils, sugarcane planting following pit method may be adopted in combating drought situation. 5. Improving productivity of winter initiated ratoon of sugarcane in sub-tropical india: Fresh sulphitation press mud cake 20 t / ha at ratooning is recommended for improving bud sprouting and cane yield in winter initiated sugarcane ratoon. Alternatively, 10 t fresh SPMC + 25 kg ZnSO4/ha is also recommended. 6. Sub-soiling on soil physico-chemical characteristics and sugarcane productivity: Sub-soiling especially cross sub-soiling at 1.0 m is recommended for enhancing cane yield and sustaining soil health. 7. Control of chlorosis in sugarcane Iron chlorosis is a widely occurring nutritional deficiency, especially in calcareous soils. It aggravates more in succeeding ratoon crops. Chlorosis has been observed in almost all the sugarcane growing states of India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Bihar. Efforts have been made to ameliorate lime induced iron chlorosis in sugarcane by: (i) Foliar spray of 2 per cent solution of FeSO 4 alongwith 0.5% MnSO 4 and 2% urea, two to three times. (ii) Soil application of 25 kg/ha. (iii) Soil application of press mud (5 t/ha) + iron pyrite (2 t/ha). (iv) Soil application of farm yard manure (25 t/ha) + foliar application of 1.5 % FeSO4 with 1% urea at weekly intervals and 1% ZnSO4 at monthly intervals. 13

14 (v) (vi) Application of elemental 30 to 40 kg/ha, 3 weeks before planting. Foliar spray of Fe EDTA (50 ppm solution). 8. Control of flowering in commercial cultivation of sugarcane Wherever there is problem of flowering, foliar spray of ppm ( ml/10 l water) at 4 months stage of the crop should be followed in suppressing flowering. III. Crop Protection Plant Pathology 1. Methodology for screening of varieties against major diseases a) Red rot : The varieties/genotypes of sugarcane included in zonal varietal trials are evaluated against red rot by plug as well as nodal methods of inoculation. In plug method, the spore suspension of the pathogen is placed inside the cane tissues by puncturing a hole in the middle of the internode (3 rd from the bottom of the cane). The hole is then sealed with plasticine/modeling clay. After 60 days of inoculation, the inoculated canes are split open longitudinally and the following observations are recorded: 1. Condition of the top : green = 0 score; yellow/dry = 1 score. 2. Lesion width above inoculated internodes is assigned the 1, 2 or 3 score. 3. White spots are assigned the score of 1 when restricted or 2 when spreading. 4. Number of nodes crossed above the inoculated internode and given the score of 1 (when one node crossed), 2 (when two nodes are crossed) or 3 (when three or more nodes are crossed). Average of the total score is taken for grading the varieties on 0-9 scale, i.e. 0.0 to 2 as resistant (R), 2.1 to 4 as moderately resistant (MR), 4.1 to 6 as moderately susceptible (MS), 6.1 to 8 as susceptible (S) and above 8 as highly susceptible (HS). Since plug method does not simulate the infection that takes place through nodal region in nature, efforts were made to develop a nodal method of inoculation. In this, the spore suspension is poured between leaf sheath and stalk with the onset of monsoon. Artificial humidity is created when atmospheric humidity is low for better infection. After 60 days of inoculation, the following observations are recorded: presence of mid-rib lesions with or without conidia, presence of acervuli at the nodes especially on leaf scar, root primordia and growth ring. The inoculated nodes are scrapped when the lesions are found developing in the stalk. Fifteen stalks are evaluated as in plug method. 14

15 b) Smut : The zonal varietal entries are evaluated by planting 3-bud setts, inoculated with freshly collected teleutospores of smut fungus. Freshly collected smut whips are dried by keeping under shade and smut spores are collected and filled in butter paper bags. These spores are either used immediately for inoculating the setts or stored in desiccator under anhydrous calcium chloride, for future use. Spore viability is examined before inoculation. The setts of the test varieties are inoculated by steeping them for 30 minutes in aqueous suspension of spores of over 90% viability and with a spore load of one million spores per milli liter. Evaluation of the varieties is based on percentage of clumps infected. It is necessary to maintain atleast 15 to 20 clumps of each genotype before arriving at the percentage of infection. The following grading is followed: Per cent infection Reaction 0 Resistant 0.1 to 10 Moderately resistant 10.1 to 20 Moderately susceptible 20.1 to 30 Susceptible More than 30 Highly susceptible c) Wilt : Sick-plot technique has been developed for screening of varieties against wilt disease. The test varieties/genotypes are planted in the wilt-sick plots. At the end of 10 months of planting, 10 clumps are up-rooted along with roots. All canes from the clump are split open longitudinally and wilt severity index is scored as follows on a 0-4 scale: Grade Symptoms 0 Healthy canes and roots with no external or internal symptoms of wilt. 1 No wilting or drying of leaves, no stunting or shrinking of the stalk or rind, slight pith formation with yellow discoloration of the internal tissues in one or two lower internodes only. No cavity formation or fungal growth seen. Apparently normal and healthy roots. 2 Mild yellowing of top leaves and drying of lower leaves, mild stunting and shrinking of the stalk and rind. Yellowish discoloration of the internal tissues extending to three or four bottom internodes. Slight cavity formation of the pith, no fungal growth seen, slightly discolored roots. 3 Mild yellowing of top leaves and drying of lower leaves, mild stunting and shrinking of the stalk and rind. Light brown discoloration of the internal tissues throughout the entire length of the cane except the top. Severe pith and cavity formation. Sparse fungal growth observed in the pith cavities. 4 Complete yellowing and death of the leaves, marked stunting, shrinking and drying of the stalk and rind, dark brown discoloration of the internal tissues extending throughout the entire length of the cane. Large pith cavities with profuse over growth of the associated fungi. Most of the roots necrotic with dark discoloration which dislodge easily from the stalks. Roots mildly discolored and slightly necrotic. The mean wilt severity index is worked out based on the number of canes sampled. Mean wilt severity index : Sum of wilt indices of individual stalks Number of stalks sampled 2. Identification of varieties resistant to red rot, smut and wilt Sugarcane varieties of zonal varietal trial have been evaluated and a number of varieties have been rated as resistant/moderately resistant against red rot, smut and wilt. It helped breeders to promote varieties for evaluation/identification. 15

16 3. Pathotypes of red rot pathogen Wide range of cultural, morphological and pathogenic variability has been observed in the red rot pathogen. To determine the pathogenic variability, a set of 14 differentials, viz., Baragua (Saccharum officinarum), Khakai (S. sinense), SES 594 (S. spontaneum), Co 419, Co 975, Co 997, Co 1148, Co 62399, Co 7717, CoC 671, CoJ 64, CoS 767, BO 91 and Co 8436 are employed. On the basis of the reaction of the differentials against the isolate of pathogen, eleven pathotypes (Cf 01 to Cf 11) have been identified from different parts of the country. The prevalent pathotypes are being used for screening of varieties against red rot. 4. Molecular characterization of isolates/pathotypes of Collectotrichum falcatum It was established that two major clusters/groups exist in different geographical regions of the country. There was no matching with pathotypes identified by differential host reaction and molecular cluster/group. Hence, the pathotype identification will continue with existing method of host differentials. 5. Epidemiology of diseases Red rot: The results have shown that the diseased setts are the primary source of infection of red rot. Poor germination of buds was observed in case of setts taken from naturally as well as artificially infected setts. The red rot pathogen present in the stubble/debris was found to cause disease development in the stools emerging from freshly planted setts up to 60 days of planting. The presence of infected debris in the soil, however, does not interfere with the initial germination of setts. The mid-rib isolates of Colletotrichum falcatum appeared to be weak pathogens as they could not infect stalks markedly and their role in the spread of red rot under natural conditions may not be significant. Smut: The secondary spread of smut disease was found only to the adjacent and adjoining rows from the primary focus of infection. The disease spreads in a centrifugal manner which may be greatly affected by the wind direction. 6. Disease management Heat therapy: All the heat treatment methods, i.e. moist hot air at 54 o C for 2.5 hrs., hot water at 50 o C for 2 hours and aerated steam at 52 o C for 1 hour, effectively controlled the sett-borne infections of grassy shoot and ratoon stunting diseases. The former two treatment methods were also effective in eliminating smut infection. Besides these diseases, sett borne incipient infection of red rot and leaf scald could also be managed to a greater extent by moist hot air treatment. Chemotherapy: Efforts were made to control the sett borne infection of red rot, and wilt diseases through both systemic and non-systemic fungicides but without appreciable success. The control of red rot and smut through combination of hot water and fungicides was also attempted. However, the results were not conclusive. 16

17 7. Chemical control of smut Dipping of setts (10 minutes) in carbendazim (0.2%) and triademephon (0.2%) was found effective in the management of smut and increasing cane yield. However, taking into economic consideration, carbendazim (0.2%) sett treatment was recommended. 8. Chemical control of rust 0.25% and 0.20% were found to be effective against rust. Either of the fungicide should be sprayed on the foliage just after the appearance of rust pustules, thrice at 15 days interval. 9. Integrated disease management: Planting of sugarcane seed from heat treated (moist hot air treatment at 54 0 C for 2.5 hours at 95-99% RH) crop of a variety moderately resistant to red rot, eradication of diseased plants, especially of smut or GSD and spraying of crop before grand growth phase with fungicides like cropper oxychloride (0.25%) against leaf spots effectively reduced incidence of diseases and sustained cane yield and quality. Nematology 1. Occurrence of nematodes Several sugarcane growing tracts of the country have been surveyed for the occurrence of nematodes. Hoplolaimus indicus, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Tylenchorhynchus elegans, T. mashhoodi and Pratylenchus zeae have been found to be widely prevalent in and around sugarcane roots. Subnormal development of roots, stunting of plants and reduction in yield were associated with nematode infestations. 2. Host-parasite relationship The pathogenicity tests of the phytoparasitic nematodes have proved that a number of nematode species could parasitize sugarcane roots and cause extensive damage. Hoplolaimus indicus, when released in the root zone of the test plant at a concentration of 1000 individuals/kg of soil, significantly reduced the plant growth. Root system of settlings is not properly developed and the roots are devoid of healthy laterals. Nematodes penetrate the host tissues by mechanically puncturing the epidermis and remain confined to cortical tissues. Subsequent to penetration, the intercellular spaces of the affected cortex are filled with a dark gummy substance. 3. Nematode-fungus association Although nematodes alone are detrimental to sugarcane, they often in association with other pathogens form disease complex. Frequently, species of Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium are encountered from nematode infested roots of sugarcane. Pratylenchus and Pythiun have been found 17

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