Sight-reading, also called a prima vista (Italian meaning "at first sight"), is the reading and performing of a piece of music or song in music notation that the performer has not seen before. Sight-singing is used to describe a singer who is sight-reading. Both activities require the musician to play or sing the notated rhythms and pitches. Many believe that sight-singing is the more challenging of the two, because singers do not have any keys, frets or valves (on keyboard instruments, guitars, and valved brass instruments, respectively) to help them obtain the correct pitches. Singers must also read and sing the correct lyrics, which adds another layer beyond pitch and dynamics. However, difficulty is related both to the instrument and the difficulty of the piece itself, for instance, sight-reading on a polyphonic instrument, such as the classical guitar, can be more challenging due to the fact that the guitarist has to read polyrhythms and polyphonic passages that can often be played in different positions using different frets.

People in music literature commonly use the term "sight-reading" generically for "the ability to read and produce both instrumental and vocal music at first sight […] the conversion of musical information from sight to sound".[1] Udtaisuk and some other authors prefer the use of the more specific terms "sight-playing" and "sight-singing" where applicable, this differentiation leaves a third, more restricted use of the term "sight-reading" for the silent reading of music without creating sound by instrument or voice.

Highly skilled musicians can sight-read silently; that is, they can look at the printed music and hear it in their heads without playing or singing (see audiation).[2] Less able sight-readers generally must at least hum or whistle in order to sight-read effectively, this distinction is analogous to ordinary prose reading in late antiquity, when the ability to read silently was notable enough for St. Augustine to comment on it. [3]Franz Liszt was famous for his capacity to play advanced piano pieces sight-reading the notes.

The term a prima vista is also used, as Italian words and phrases are commonly used in music and music notation. To play a musical piece a prima vista means to play it 'at first sight'. According to Payne, "the ability to hear the notes on the page is clearly akin to music reading and should be considered a prerequisite for effective performance.... Egregious errors can occur when a student, analyzing a piece of music, makes no effort to play or hear the composition but mechanically processes the notes on the page".[4]

The ability to sight-read is important for all musicians, even amateur performers, but with professional orchestra musicians and session musicians, it is an essential professional skill, some professional orchestras ask prospective candidates for positions to sight-read orchestral parts.

According to Udtaisuk, "many [authors] use the term sight-playing for instrumental sight-reading performance." However, Udtaisuk and some other authors use the more descriptive term "sightplaying" (or "sight-playing") for instrumental sight-reading, because sight-playing combines two unique skill sets: music reading and music making.

Some authors, according to Udtaisuk, use the term "sight-singing" for vocal sight-reading, as with sight-playing, Udtaisuk advocates and uses the more descriptive term "sightsinging" for vocal sight-reading because sight-singing combines sight-reading and singing skills.

The ability to sight-read partly depends on a strong short-term musical memory. An experiment on sight reading using an eye tracker indicates that highly skilled musicians tend to look ahead further in the music, storing and processing the notes until they are played; this is referred to as the eye–hand span.

Storage of notational information in working memory can be expressed in terms of the amount of information (load) and the time for which it must be held before being played (latency), the relationship between load and latency changes according to tempo, such that t = x/y, where t is the change in tempo, x is the change in load, and y is the change in latency. Some teachers and researchers have proposed that the eye–hand span can be trained to be larger than it would otherwise be under normal conditions, leading to more robust sight-reading ability.

Human memory can be divided into three broad categories: long-term memory, sensory memory, and short-term (working) memory. According to the formal definition, working memory is "a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension." The paramount feature that distinguishes the working memory from both the long-term and sensory memory is this system's ability to simultaneously process and store information. The knowledge has what is called a "limited capacity", so there is only a certain amount of information that can be stored and it is easily accessible for only a small window of time after it has been processed, with a recall time block of roughly fifteen seconds to one minute.

Experiments dealing with memory span have been conducted by George Miller in 1956 that indicated, "Most common number of items that can be stored in the working memory is five plus or minus two.” However, if this information is not retained and stored (“consolidated”) in one's long-term memory, it will fade quickly.

Research indicates that the main area of the brain associated with the working memory is the prefrontal cortex, the prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe of the brain. This area deals with cognition and contains two major neural loops or pathways that are central to processing tasks via the working memory: the visual loop, which is necessary for the visual component of the task, and the phonological loop, which deals with the linguistic aspects of the task (i.e. repeating the word or phrase). Although the hippocampus, in the temporal lobe, is the brain structure most frequently paired with memories, studies have indicated that its role is more vital for consolidation of the short-term memories into long-term ones than the ability to process, carry out, and briefly recall certain tasks.

This type of memory has specifically come into focus when discussing sight reading, since the process of looking at musical notes for the first time and deciphering them while playing an instrument can be considered a complex task of comprehension, the main conclusion in terms of this idea is that working memory and short-term memory capacity and mental speed are three important predictors for sight reading achievement. Although none of the studies discredits the correlation between the amount of time one spends practicing and musical ability, specifically sight-reading proficiency, more studies are pointing to the level at which one’s working memory functions as the key factor in sight-reading abilities, as stated in one such study, "Working memory capacity made a statistically significant contribution as well (about 7 percent, a medium-size effect). In other words, if you took two pianists with the same amount of practice, but different levels of working memory capacity, it's likely that the one higher in working memory capacity would have performed considerably better on the sight-reading task."

Based on the research and opinions of multiple musicians and scientists, the take home message about one's sight-reading ability and working memory capacity seems to be that “The best sight-readers combined strong working memories with tens of thousands of hours of practice.”

Sight-reading also depends on familiarity with the musical idiom being performed; this permits the reader to recognize and process frequently occurring patterns of notes as a single unit, rather than individual notes, thus achieving greater efficiency. This phenomenon, which also applies to the reading of language, is referred to as chunking. Errors in sight-reading tend to occur in places where the music contains unexpected or unusual sequences; these defeat the strategy of "reading by expectation" that sight-readers typically employ.

Studio musicians (e.g., musicians employed to record pieces for commercials, etc.) often record pieces on the first take without having seen them before. Often, the music played on television is played by musicians who are sight-reading, this practice has developed through intense commercial competition in these industries.

McNerney, jazz musician, professor, and private instructor, describes auditions for University of North Texas Jazz Lab Bands as being almost completely based on sight-reading: "you walk into a room and see three or four music stands in front of you, each with a piece of music on it (in different styles ...). You are then asked to read each piece in succession."[5]

This emphasis on sight-reading, according to McNerney, prepares musicians for studio work "playing backing tracks for pop performers or recording [commercials]." The expense of the studio, musicians, and techs makes sight-reading skills essential. Typically, a studio performance is "rehearsed" only once to check for copying errors before recording the final track. Many professional big bands also sight-read every live performance, they are known as "rehearsal bands", even though their performance is the rehearsal.

According to Frazier, score reading is an important skill for those interested in the conducting profession and "Conductors such as the late Robert Shaw and Yoel Levi have incredibly strong piano skills and can read at sight full orchestral scores at the piano" (a process which requires the pianist to make an instant piano reduction of the key parts of the score).[6]

Although 86% of piano teachers polled rated sight-reading as the most important or a highly important skill, only 7% of them said they address it systematically. Reasons cited were a lack of knowledge of how to teach it, inadequacy of the training materials they use, and deficiency in their own sight-reading skills. Teachers also often emphasize rehearsed reading and repertoire building for successful recitals and auditions to the detriment of sight-reading and other functional skills.[7]

Hardy reviewed research on piano sight-reading pedagogy and identified a number of specific skills essential to sight-reading proficiency:

Grand-staff knowledge consists of fluency in both clefs such that reading a note evokes an automatic and immediate physical response to the appropriate position on the keyboard. Beauchamp asserts it is better to sense and know where the note is than what the note is, the performer does not have time to think of the note name and translate it to a position, and the non-scientific note name does not indicate the octave to be played. Beauchamp reports success using a Key/Note Visualizer, note-reading flashcards, and computer programs in group and individual practice to develop grand-staff fluency.

Udtaisuk also reports that a sense of keyboard geography and an ability to quickly and efficiently match notes to keyboard keys is important for sight-reading, he found that "computer programs and flash cards are effective ways to teach students to identify notes [and] enhance a sense of keyboard geography by highlighting the relationships between the keyboard and the printed notation."

Most students do not sight-read well because it requires specific instruction, which is seldom given. A major challenge in sight-reading instruction, according to Hardy, is obtaining enough practice material, since practicing rehearsed reading does not help improve sight-reading, a student can only use a practice piece once. Moreover, the material must be at just the right level of difficulty for each student, and a variety of styles is preferred. Hardy suggests music teachers cooperate to build a large lending library of music and purchase inexpensive music from garage sales and store sales.

In some circumstances, such as examinations, the ability of a student to sight-read is assessed by presenting the student with a short piece of music, with an allotted time to peruse the music, then testing the student on the accuracy of the performance. A more challenging test requires the student to perform without any preparation at all.

The Washington Assessment of Student Learning has piloted a classroom based assessment which requires 5th and higher grade students to sight-sing or perform on instruments from sheet music they have written. It is suggested that students use solfege or numbering systems or fingering without instruments as aids. 8th graders are expected to sing by sight: "Students are asked to perform a sight-singing exercise of four measures of music. Students will be assessed on their understanding of rhythm and steady beat and their ability to perform in the designated key with accurate interval changes, acappella."[8]

Many students and adults cannot sight-sing, and even some professional singers cannot sing by sight.[citation needed] However, in combination with an assessment which requires composing music on a staff as early as 5th grade, it is hoped that such a requirement will raise arts achievement. Pilot data show that many students can meet or exceed such standards.[citation needed]

The Standard Assessment of Sight Reading (SASR) is a non-subjective sight reading evaluation method, it was created with a scientific/electronic platform to insure a non-subjective approach to grading and administering that test. It consists of several thousand pieces of music over 80 graded levels of difficulty that have been reviewed by 135 teachers and students to ascertain the correct difficulty levels, their scores were averaged electronically in order to insure a scientific approach to graduating the difficulty levels of the music.[citation needed]

1.
Cold reading (theatrical)
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Theatrical cold reading is reading aloud from a script or other text with little or no rehearsal, practice or study in advance. Sometimes also referred to as reading, it is a technique used by actors and other performers in theatre, television. Many actors and other performers and public speakers take classes and practice at length to improve the quality of their cold readings, cold reading can also be used in conjunction with improvisations to gauge a performers ability to perform new works. A good dramatic cold reader is able to communicate with fluency and clarity and to project speech rhythms, the reader should also be able to bring out the intent, mood and characterization of a piece through appropriate articulation and body language

2.
Caravaggio
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Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, in scarcely a year or so’s sojourn in Naples, he rapidly established himself once more as the most prominent painter, exploiting high-ranking connections. It was not long before these connections gave him an opening to travel on in 1607 to Malta, governed by the Order of Knights Hospitallers, Caravaggio probably hoped that the Knights would provide a channel whereby he could obtain a pardon from the Papacy. Once more his talents made an instant impression, along with the support of noble patrons and his hopes dashed, he contrived to escape and flee once, which before the end of 1608 led to his cancellation from the rolls of the Order. He made for Syracuse in Sicily, where he was received as a guest by a friend from his Roman days, the painter’s face was disfigured and rumours started to circulate of his death. Various commentators have formulated opinions about his state from works supposedly executed at this period. In fact, Caravaggio’s end is shrouded in mystery, mystery that is rendered only denser by conflicting hypotheses, some speak of a natural death from a persistent fever, others of an assassination by emissaries of the Knights of Malta. The loss of the paintings put the deal and his future in doubt, there is evidence that dogged by a serious fever, he was tended by a local religious confraternity near Porto Ercole, then in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but succumbed. His death was certified by them as taking place on 18 July 1610, if the story to this point is exact, it is likely he was buried in a paupers’ common grave. As to the place, though this continues to be contested. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was forgotten almost immediately after his death, despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism was profound. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy claimed, What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting. Caravaggio was born in Milan where his father, Fermo, was an administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan, Caravaggios mother died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592 Caravaggio left Milan for Rome, in flight after certain quarrels, in Rome, where there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for an alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggios innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close observation with a dramatic, even theatrical

3.
Reading (process)
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Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning. Reading is a means of acquisition, communication, and of sharing information. The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and refinement, in addition, reading requires creativity and critical analysis. Consumers of literature make ventures with each piece, innately deviating from literal words to create images that make sense to them in the places the texts describe. Because reading is such a process, it cannot be controlled or restricted to one or two interpretations. There are no laws in reading, but rather allows readers an escape to produce their own products introspectively. This promotes deep exploration of texts during interpretation, readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding and comprehension. Readers may use context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words, readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema. Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms, the common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals. Handwritten text may also be produced using a pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object, often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall, a text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are referred to as environmental print. Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast, words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal, instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or myriad other examples. A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background and a font size. In the case of a screen, it is important to be able to see an entire line of text without scrolling. The field of word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking and this has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them

4.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers

5.
Musical notation
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Types and methods of notation have varied between cultures and throughout history, and much information about ancient music notation is fragmentary. Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent melodies and rhythms, none of them were particularly comprehensive, the seeds of what would eventually become modern western notation were sown in medieval Europe, starting with the Catholic churchs goal for ecclesiastical uniformity. The church began notating plainchant melodies so that the same chants could be used throughout the church, Music notation developed in the Renaissance and Baroque music eras. The introduction of figured bass notation in the Baroque era marked the beginning of the first compositions based around chord progressions, in the classical period and the Romantic music era, notation continued to develop as new musical instrument technologies were developed. Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including music, popular music. The earliest form of notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, a tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation. Although the interpretation of the system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre. Although they are fragmentary, these represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables, an example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript, the Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire. Byzantine music has survived as music for court ceremonies, including vocal religious music. It is not known if it is based on the monodic modal singing, unlike Western notation Byzantine neumes always indicate modal steps in relation to a clef or modal key. These step symbols themselves, or better phonic neumes, resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called gántzoi in Modern Greek, Notes as pitch classes or modal keys are represented in written form only between these neumes. In modern notation they simply serve as a reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a change into another echos. With exception of vú and zō they do correspond to Western solmization syllables as re, mi, fa, sol, la, si

6.
Late antiquity
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Late antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages in mainland Europe, the Mediterranean world, and the Near East. The development of the periodization has generally been accredited to historian Peter Brown, precise boundaries for the period are a continuing matter of debate, but Brown proposes a period between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Generally, it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empires Crisis of the Third Century to, in the East, the early Islamic period, following the Muslim conquests in the mid–7th century. In the West the end was earlier, with the start of the Early Medieval period typically placed in the 6th century, beginning with Constantine the Great, Christianity was made legal in the Empire, and a new capital was founded at Constantinople. The resultant cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent culture of Europe, the term Spätantike, literally late antiquity, has been used by German-speaking historians since its popularization by Alois Riegl in the early 20th century. Concurrently, some migrating Germanic tribes such as the Ostrogoths and Visigoths saw themselves as perpetuating the Roman tradition, Constantine confirmed the legalization of the religion through the so-called Edict of Milan in 313, jointly issued with his rival in the East, Licinius. Monasticism was not the only new Christian movement to appear in Late Antiquity, notable in this regard is the topic of the Fifty Bibles of Constantine. Within the recently legitimized Christian community of the 4th century, a division could be distinctly seen between the laity and an increasingly celibate male leadership. Celibate and detached, the clergy became an elite equal in prestige to urban notables. The Late Antique period also saw a transformation of the political and social basis of life in. The later Roman Empire was in a sense a network of cities, archaeology now supplements literary sources to document the transformation followed by collapse of cities in the Mediterranean basin. Burials within the urban precincts mark another stage in dissolution of traditional urbanistic discipline, overpowered by the attraction of saintly shrines, in Roman Britain, the typical 4th- and 5th-century layer of black earth within cities seems to be a result of increased gardening in formerly urban spaces. A similar though less marked decline in population occurred later in Constantinople. In Europe there was also a decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce. The degree and extent of discontinuity in the cities of the Greek East is a moot subject among historians. In the western Mediterranean, the new cities known to be founded in Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries were the four or five Visigothic victory cities

7.
Augustine of Hippo
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Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage

8.
Franz Liszt
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Franz Liszt was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary. Liszt gained renown in Europe during the nineteenth century for his prodigious virtuosic skill as a pianist. As a composer, Liszt was one of the most prominent representatives of the New German School and he left behind an extensive and diverse body of work in which he influenced his forward-looking contemporaries and anticipated many 20th-century ideas and trends. Franz Liszt was born to Anna Liszt and Adam Liszt on October 22,1811, in the village of Doborján in Sopron County, in the Kingdom of Hungary, Liszts father played the piano, violin, cello and guitar. He had been in the service of Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy and knew Haydn, Hummel, at age six, Franz began listening attentively to his fathers piano playing and showed an interest in both sacred and Romani music. Adam began teaching him the piano at age seven, and Franz began composing in an elementary manner when he was eight and he appeared in concerts at Sopron and Pressburg in October and November 1820 at age 9. After the concerts, a group of wealthy sponsors offered to finance Franzs musical education in Vienna, There Liszt received piano lessons from Carl Czerny, who in his own youth had been a student of Beethoven and Hummel. He also received lessons in composition from Antonio Salieri, then director of the Viennese court. Liszts public debut in Vienna on December 1,1822, at a concert at the Landständischer Saal, was a great success and he was greeted in Austrian and Hungarian aristocratic circles and also met Beethoven and Schubert. In spring 1823, when his one-year leave of absence came to an end, Adam Liszt therefore took his leave of the Princes services. At the end of April 1823, the returned to Hungary for the last time. At the end of May 1823, the family went to Vienna again, towards the end of 1823 or early 1824, Liszts first composition to be published, his Variation on a Waltz by Diabelli, appeared as Variation 24 in Part II of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Liszts inclusion in the Diabelli project—he was described in it as an 11 year old boy, born in Hungary—was almost certainly at the instigation of Czerny, his teacher, Liszt was the only child composer in the anthology. After his fathers death in 1827, Liszt moved to Paris, to earn money, Liszt gave lessons in piano playing and composition, often from early morning until late at night. His students were scattered across the city and he often had to long distances. Because of this, he kept uncertain hours and also took up smoking, the following year he fell in love with one of his pupils, Caroline de Saint-Cricq, the daughter of Charles Xs minister of commerce, Pierre de Saint-Cricq. Her father, however, insisted that the affair be broken off, Liszt fell very ill, to the extent that an obituary notice was printed in a Paris newspaper, and he underwent a long period of religious doubts and pessimism. He again stated a wish to join the Church but was dissuaded this time by his mother and he had many discussions with the Abbé de Lamennais, who acted as his spiritual father, and also with Chrétien Urhan, a German-born violinist who introduced him to the Saint-Simonists

9.
Orchestra
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The term orchestra derives from the Greek ὀρχήστρα, the name for the area in front of a stage in ancient Greek theatre reserved for the Greek chorus. A full-size orchestra may sometimes be called an orchestra or philharmonic orchestra. The actual number of employed in a given performance may vary from seventy to over one hundred musicians, depending on the work being played. The term chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles of about fifty musicians or fewer, the typical orchestra grew in size throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak with the large orchestras called for in the works of Richard Wagner, and later, Gustav Mahler. Orchestras are usually led by a conductor who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, the conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the tempo and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The first violin, commonly called the concertmaster, also plays an important role in leading the musicians, the typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the instruments in each group. Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles, a chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the BBC Concert Orchestra, the so-called standard complement of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven. The composers instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, the exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No,4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral palette in Symphonies 3,5,6, the third horn in the Eroica Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of choral brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the finale of his Symphony No.5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, for several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethovens well-established model, with few exceptions. Apart from the core orchestral complement, various instruments are called for occasionally. These include the guitar, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord. Saxophones, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores.6 and 9 and William Waltons Belshazzars Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked tenor tuba, including Gustav Holsts The Planets, cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussys La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz

10.
Transposition (music)
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In music transposition refers to the process, or operation, of moving a collection of notes up or down in pitch by a constant interval. For example, one might transpose a piece of music into another key. Similarly, one might transpose a tone row or a collection of pitches such as a chord so that it begins on another pitch. The transposition of a set A by n semitones is designated by Tn, thus the set consisting of 0–1–2 transposed by 5 semitones is 5–6–7 since 0 +5 =5,1 +5 =6, and 2 +5 =7. There are two different kinds of transposition, depending on one is measuring intervals according to the chromatic scale or some other scale. In chromatic transposition one shifts every pitch in a collection of notes by a number of semitones. For instance, if one transposes the pitches C4–E4–G4 upwards by four semitones, in scalar transposition one shifts every pitch in a collection by a fixed number of scale steps relative to some scale. For example, if one transposes the pitches C4–E4–G4 up by two steps relative to the familiar C major scale, one obtains the pitches E4–G4–B4, if one transposes the same pitches up by two steps relative to the F major scale, one obtains instead E4–G4–B♭4. Scalar transposition is sometimes called diatonic transposition, but this term can be misleading, however, scalar transposition can occur with respect to any type of scale, not just the diatonic. There are two kinds of transposition, by pitch interval or by pitch interval class, applied to pitches or pitch classes. Transposition may be applied to pitches or to pitch classes, although transpositions are usually written out, musicians are occasionally asked to transpose music at sight, that is, to read the music in one key while playing in another. There are three basic techniques for teaching sight transposition, interval, clef, and numbers, first one determines the interval between the written key and the target key. Then one imagines the notes up by the corresponding interval, a performer using this method may calculate each note individually, or group notes together. Clef transposition is routinely taught in Belgium and France, one imagines a different clef and a different key signature than the ones printed. The change of clef is used so that the lines and spaces correspond to different notes than the lines and spaces of the original score. Seven clefs are used for this, treble, bass, baritone, and C-clefs on the four lowest lines, the signature is then adjusted for the actual accidental one wants on that note. The octave may also have to be adjusted, but this is a matter for most musicians. Transposing by numbers means, one determines the degree of the written note in the given key

11.
Eye tracker
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Eye tracking is the process of measuring either the point of gaze or the motion of an eye relative to the head. An eye tracker is a device for measuring eye positions and eye movement, Eye trackers are used in research on the visual system, in psychology, in psycholinguistics, marketing, as an input device for human-computer interaction, and in product design. There are a number of methods for measuring eye movement, the most popular variant uses video images from which the eye position is extracted. Other methods use search coils or are based on the electrooculogram, in the 1800s, studies of eye movement were made using direct observations. In 1879 in Paris, Louis Émile Javal observed that reading does not involve a smooth sweeping of the eyes along the text, as previously assumed and this observation raised important questions about reading, which were explored during the 1900s, On which words do the eyes stop. When does it regress back to already seen words, edmund Huey built an early eye tracker, using a sort of contact lens with a hole for the pupil. The lens was connected to a pointer that moved in response to the movement of the eye. Huey studied and quantified regressions, and he showed that words in a sentence are not fixated. The first non-intrusive eye trackers were built by Guy Thomas Buswell in Chicago, using beams of light that were reflected on the eye, Buswell made systematic studies into reading and picture viewing. In the 1950s, Alfred L. Yarbus did important eye tracking research and he showed the task given to a subject has a very large influence on the subjects eye movement. He also wrote about the relation between fixations and interest, All the records, records of eye movements show that the observers attention is usually held only by certain elements of the picture. Eye movement reflects the human thought processes, so the thought may be followed to some extent from records of eye movement. It is easy to determine from these records which elements attract the eye, in what order. The observers attention is drawn to elements which do not give important information but which, in his opinion. Often an observer will focus his attention on elements that are unusual in the circumstances, unfamiliar, incomprehensible. When changing its points of fixation, the observers eye repeatedly returns to the elements of the picture. Additional time spent on perception is not used to examine the secondary elements, in the 1970s, eye tracking research expanded rapidly, particularly reading research. A good overview of the research in this period is given by Rayner, in 1980, Just and Carpenter formulated the influential Strong eye-mind hypothesis, that there is no appreciable lag between what is fixated and what is processed

12.
Memory
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Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm

13.
George Armitage Miller
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George Armitage Miller was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of the cognitive psychology field. He also contributed to the birth of psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general, Miller wrote several books and directed the development of WordNet, an online word-linkage database usable by computer programs. This paper is frequently cited in both psychology and the wider culture and he also won awards, such as the National Medal of Science. Miller started his education focusing on speech and language and published papers on these topics and he started his career at a time when the reigning theory in psychology was behaviorism, which eschewed any attempt to study mental processes and focused only on observable behavior. Working mostly at Harvard University, MIT and Princeton University, Miller introduced experimental techniques to study the psychology of mental processes. He went on to be one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was one of the key figures in founding the broader new field of cognitive science. He collaborated and co-authored work with figures in cognitive science and psycholinguistics. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Miller as the 20th most cited psychologist of that era. Miller was born on February 3,1920, in Charleston, West Virginia, the son of an executive at a company, George E. Miller. He grew up only his mother during the Great Depression, attended public school. He relocated with his mother and stepfather to Washington D. C. and was at George Washington University for a year and his family practiced Christian Science, which required turning to prayer, rather than medical science, for healing. After his stepfather was transferred to Birmingham, Alabama, Miller transferred to the University of Alabama and he received his bachelors degree in history and speech in 1940, and a masters in speech in 1941 from the University of Alabama. He had taken courses in phonetics, voice science, and speech pathology, membership in the Drama club fostered his interest in courses in the Speech Department. He was also influenced by Professor Donald Ramsdell, who introduced him both to psychology, and, indirectly through a seminar, to his future wife Katherine James and they married on November 29,1939. He married Margaret Ferguson Skutch Page in 2008, Miller taught the course Introduction to Psychology at Alabama for two years. He enrolled in the Ph. D. program in psychology at Harvard University in 1943 and his doctorate thesis, The Optimal Design of Jamming Signals, was classified top secret by the US Army. After receiving his doctorate, Miller stayed as a fellow at Harvard, to continue his research on speech. He was appointed assistant professor of psychology in 1948, the course he developed on language and communication would eventually lead to his first major book, Language and communication

14.
Chunking (psychology)
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Chunking in psychology is a process by which individual pieces of information are bound together into a meaningful whole. A chunk is defined as a collection of more elementary units that have been inter-associated and stored in memory repeatedly and act as a coherent. It is believed that individuals create higher order cognitive representations of the items on the list that are easily remembered as a group than as individual items themselves. Representations of these groupings are highly subjective, as they depend critically on the perception of the features of the items. For example, when recalling a number such as 12101946, if numbers are grouped as 12,10 and 1946, thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that is beyond the seven plus-or-minus two memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers. A modality effect is present in chunking and that is, the mechanism used to convey the list of items to the individual affects how much chunking occurs. Experimentally, it has found that auditory presentation results in a larger amount of grouping in the responses of individuals. As stated above, the grouping of the responses occurs as individuals place them into categories according to their inter-relatedness based on semantic, therefore, when chunking is used as a strategy, one can expect a higher proportion of correct recalls. Various kinds of memory training systems and mnemonics include training and drill in specially-designed recoding or chunking schemes, such systems existed before Millers paper, but there was no convenient term to describe the general strategy or substantive and reliable research. The term chunking is now used in reference to these systems. As an illustration, patients with Alzheimers disease typically experience working memory deficits, another classic example of chunking is discussed in the Expertise and skill memory effects section below. The word chunking comes from a famous 1956 paper by George A. Miller, The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, a variety of studies could be summarized by saying that short-term memory had a capacity of about seven plus-or-minus two chunks. The span of immediate memory seems to be almost independent of the number of bits per chunk, Miller acknowledged that we are not very definite about what constitutes a chunk of information. A man just beginning to learn radio-telegraphic code hears each dit, soon he is able to organize these sounds into letters and then he can deal with the letters as chunks. Then the letters organize themselves as words, which are still larger chunks, thus, a telegrapher can effectively remember several dozen dits and dahs as a single phrase. With sufficient drill, people found it possible to remember as many as forty binary digits, Miller wrote, It is a little dramatic to watch a person get 40 binary digits in a row and then repeat them back without error. However, if you think of this merely as a trick for extending the memory span. The point is that recoding is a powerful weapon for increasing the amount of information that we can deal with

15.
Musician
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A musician is a person who plays a musical instrument or is musically talented. Anyone who composes, conducts, or performs music may also be referred to as a musician, Musicians can specialize in any musical style, and some musicians play in a variety of different styles. Examples of a musicians possible skills include performing, conducting, singing, composing, arranging, in the Middle Ages, instrumental musicians performed with soft ensembles inside and loud instruments outdoors. Many European musicians of this time catered to the Roman Catholic Church, providing arrangements structured around Gregorian chant structure, vocal pieces were in Latin—the language of church texts of the time—and typically were Church-polyphonic or made up of several simultaneous melodies. Giovanni Palestrina Giovanni Gabrieli Thomas Tallis Claudio Monteverdi Leonardo da Vinci The Baroque period introduced heavy use of counterpoint, vocal and instrumental “color” became more important compared to the Renaissance style of music, and emphasized much of the volume, texture and pace of each piece. George Frideric Handel Johann Sebastian Bach Antonio Vivaldi Classical music was created by musicians who lived during a time of a middle class. Many middle-class inhabitants of France at the time lived under long-time absolute monarchies, because of this, much of the music was performed in environments that were more constrained compared to the flourishing times of the Renaissance and Baroque eras. This age included the initial transformations of the Industrial Revolution, a revolutionary energy was also at the core of Romanticism, which quite consciously set out to transform not only the theory and practice of poetry and art, but the common perception of the world. Some major Romantic Period precepts survive, and still affect modern culture, in 20th-century music, composers and musicians rejected the emotion-dominated Romantic period, and strove to represent the world the way they perceived it. Musicians wrote to be. objective, while objects existed on their own terms, while past eras concentrated on spirituality, this new period placed emphasis on physicality and things that were concrete. The advent of recording and mass media in the 20th century caused a boom of all kinds of music—popular music, rock music, electronic music, folk music. Singer Composer Music artist Tour Manager Media related to Musicians at Wikimedia Commons

16.
Advertising
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising

17.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941

18.
University of North Texas
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Ten colleges, two schools, an early admissions math and science academy for exceptional high-school-age students from across the state, and a library system comprise the university core. Its research is driven by 34 doctoral degree programs, during the 2013–2014 school year, the university had a budget of $865 million, of which $40 million was allocated for research. In 1901, North Texas was formally adopted by the state, UNT is the main campus of the University of North Texas System, which includes additional campuses in Dallas and Fort Worth. The Denton campus is located in the largest populated region of Texas under two categories defined by the U. S. Census, core based statistical area and combined statistical area, as a state, Texas, as of 2011, had the second highest GDP in the country. On behalf of the state, the university, in its advocacy for the state. In 2009, the University of North Texas at Dallas became its own independent institution and that same year, the Texas legislature approved the creation of University of North Texas at Dallas College of Law, opening in 2014 in Downtown Dallas as part of UNT Dallas. In 2004, North Texas opened UNT Discovery Park —290 acres — in Denton, north of the campus with technology incubator facilities dedicated to science. In 1985 the Governors Select Committee on Higher Education recommended that North Texas be designated a national research university. Nine years earlier, in 1976, the Carnegie Foundation designated North Texas as a Class 1 Doctorate-Granting Institution, in 1992, UNT was elected to full membership in the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities. And, in 2011, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board included UNT as one of eight Emerging Research Institutions in its accountability system, certified enrollment as of the fall of 2013 was 36,198, the fourth largest in the state. For the 2011 academic year, the university awarded 8,608 degrees, North Texas awarded 459 PhD degrees from fiscal years 2009 to 2011. Of the thirteen constituent collegiate units, ten sponsor 97 bachelors degree programs, the Toulouse Graduate School coordinates admissions, recruiting, and other aspects of the 81 masters and 34 doctorate degree programs offered by the ten collegiate units. The Honors College is described below, the student-faculty ratio at UNT is 23,1, and 28.8 percent of its classes consist of fewer than 20 students. The most popular majors include business, management, marketing, communication, journalism, English, multi/interdisciplinary studies, and visual and performing arts. As of this year,2017, North Texas is a member of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and is among the twenty-seven universities in Texas at Level VI. As of 2013, the university was home to research centers and institutes. Three have been sponsored by the Office of the Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs, simultaneously, the university launched six additional strategic research areas, some of which involving frontiers in science, medicine, and hi-tech. In 2010, the National Science Foundation ranked UNT 104th out of 418 academic institutions for number of science

19.
Robert Shaw (conductor)
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Robert Shaw was an American conductor most famous for his work with his namesake Chorale, with the Cleveland Orchestra and Chorus, and the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. Shaw received 14 Grammy awards, four ASCAP awards for service to music, the first Guggenheim Fellowship ever awarded to a conductor. His father, Rev. Shirley R. Shaw, was a minister and he had four siblings, one of whom was singer Hollace Shaw. He attended Pomona College, class of 1938, shortly after his graduation, Shaw was hired by popular band leader Fred Waring to recruit and train a glee club that would sing with the band. In 1941, Shaw founded the Collegiate Chorale, a notable in its day for its racial integration. In 1948, the group performed Beethovens Symphony No.9 with the NBC Symphony and Arturo Toscanini, Shaw continued to prepare choirs for Toscanini until March 1954, when they sang in Te Deum by Verdi and the prologue to Mefistofele by Boito. Shaws choirs participated in the NBC broadcast performances of three Verdi operas, Aida, Falstaff and A Masked Ball, all conducted by Toscanini and they can be seen on the home videos of the telecasts of Aida and Beethovens Ninth Symphony, also conducted by Toscanini. Shaw himself took a bow at the end of the Beethoven telecast, Shaw was also Charles F. Shaws second cousin and often vacationed at his winery in Napa Valley. He went on to found the Robert Shaw Chorale in 1948, the Chorale visited 30 countries in tours sponsored by the U. S. State Department. Shaw was named director of the San Diego Symphony in 1953. Only after his San Diego tenure did he become an apprentice again, studying the art of conducting with George Szell and he also took over the fledgling Cleveland Orchestra Chorus and fine-tuned it into one of the finest all-volunteer choral ensembles sponsored by an American symphony orchestra. From 1967-1988 he was director and conductor of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra. Although noted in classical repertoire, Shaw hardly limited himself to that genre, for Telarc he recorded several digital remakes of the Christmas albums he had previously recorded for RCA Victor, including The Many Moods of Christmas. Shaw collaborated with noted composer and conductor Alice Parker on arrangements of folksongs, hymns, spirituals. His work set new standards in the United States. He recorded many of the great choral-orchestral works more than once, bachs Mass in B minor, Beethovens Missa Solemnis, Orffs Carmina Burana, Verdis Requiem, and other similar masterworks remain highly regarded. In a move toward historically informed performance, Shaws first recording of Messiah, in 1966, Shaw was a champion of modern music from the beginning of his career. He commissioned a requiem for Franklin D, in 1998 Yale also awarded Shaw an honorary doctorate

20.
Reduction (music)
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A reduction for solo piano is sometimes called a piano reduction or piano score. During opera rehearsals, a répétiteur will typically read from a reduction of the opera. When a choir is learning a work scored for choir and full orchestra, before the advent of the phonograph, arrangements of orchestral works for solo piano or piano four hands were in common use for enjoyment at home. A piano reduction or piano transcription is sheet music for the piano that has been compressed and/or simplified so as to fit on a two-line staff and it is also considered a style of orchestration or music arrangement less well known as contraction scoring, a subset of elastic scoring. Piano-vocal score Social history of the piano Kregor, Jonathan

21.
Fingering (music)
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In music, fingering, or on stringed instruments stopping, is the choice of which fingers and hand positions to use when playing certain musical instruments. Fingering typically changes throughout a piece, the challenge of choosing good fingering for a piece is to make the hand movements as comfortable as possible without changing hand position too often, a substitute fingering is an alternative to the indicated fingering, not to be confused with finger substitution. Depending on the instrument, not all the fingers may be used, for example, saxophonists do not use the right thumb and string instruments only use the fingers. Fingering applies to the rotary and piston valves employed on many brass instruments, the trombone, a fully chromatic brass instrument without valves, employs equivalent numbered notation for slide positions rather than fingering. On keyboard instruments all digits are used and the thumb is considered to be a finger, so there are numbers from 1 to five. The numbers are related to the fingers themselves, not to the position on the keyboard. There are only few publications about piano fingering and it is mentioned by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach in his book Versuch über die wahre Art, das Clavier zu spielen where he dedicated several paragraphs to this topic. The British pianist Tobias Matthay wrote a small book Principles of Fingering, in 1971 Julien Musafia published his book The Art of Fingering in Piano Playing. The book includes musical examples mostly from the Beethovens Violin and Piano Sonatas, in 2012 Rami Bar-Niv published his book The Art of Piano Fingering -- Traditional, Advanced, and Innovative. The book teaches the craft of piano fingering using music examples, photos and diagrams, exercises, and injury-free techniques. On string instruments fingers are numbered from 1 to 4, beginning with the finger, the thumb not being counted because it does not normally play on a string. In those cases on string instruments where the thumb is used, guitar music indicates thumb, occasionally used to finger bass notes on the low E string, with a T. Position may be indicated through ordinal numbers or Roman numerals, a string may also be indicated through Roman numerals, often I-IV, or by its open-string note. A change in positions is referred to as a shift, guitar music indicates position with Roman numerals and string designations with circled numbers. The classical guitar also has a notation system for the plucking hand, known as pima, abbreviations of Spanish. It is usually notated in scores where a passage is particularly difficult. Otherwise, plucking-hand fingering is generally left to the discretion of the guitarist, several alternate fingerings may exist for any given pitch. Simple flutes as well as bagpipe chanters have open holes which are closed by the pads of the players fingertips, some such instruments use simple keywork to extend the players reach for one or two notes

22.
Somatosensory system
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The somatosensory system is a part of the sensory nervous system. The somatosensory system is a system of sensory neurons and pathways that responds to changes at the surface or inside the body. The axons, of sensory neurons connect with, or respond to, sensory receptors are found all over the body including the skin, epithelial tissues, muscles, bones and joints, internal organs, and the cardiovascular system. Somatic senses are sometimes referred to as somesthetic senses, with the understanding that somesthesis includes the sense of touch, proprioception, the mapping of the body surfaces in the brain is called a cortical homunculus and plays a fundamental role in the creation of body image. This brain-surface map is not immutable, however, dramatic shifts can occur in response to stroke or injury. The four mechanoreceptors in the skin respond to different stimuli for short or long periods. Merkel cell nerve endings are found in the epidermis and hair follicles, they react to low vibrations. Due to a receptive field they are used in areas like fingertips the most, they are not covered. Tactile corpuscles react to moderate vibration and light touch and they are located in the dermal papillae, due to their reactivity they are primarily located in fingertips and lips. They respond in quick action potentials, unlike Merkel and they are responsible for the ability to read Braille and feel gentle stimuli. Lamellar corpuscles determine gross touch and distinguish rough and soft substances and they react in quick action potentials, especially to vibrations around 250 Hz. They are the most sensitive to vibrations, and have large receptor fields, pacinian reacts only to sudden stimuli so pressures like clothes that are always compressing their shape are quickly ignored. Bulbous corpuscles react slowly and respond to sustained skin stretch and they are responsible for the feeling of object slippage and play a major role in the kinesthetic sense and control of finger position and movement. Merkel and bulbous cells are myelinated, the rest are not, all of these receptors are activated upon pressures that squish their shape causing an action potential. All afferent touch/vibration info ascends the spinal cord via the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway via gracilis or cuneatus, cuneatus sends signals to the cochlear nucleus indirectly via spinal grey matter, this info is used in determining if a perceived sound is just villi noise/irritation. All fibers cross in the medulla, the postcentral gyrus includes the primary somatosensory cortex collectively referred to as S1. BA3 receives the densest projections from the thalamus, bA3a is involved with the sense of relative position of neighboring body parts and amount of effort being used during movement. BA3b is responsible for distributing somato info, it projects texture info to BA1, region S2 divides into Area S2 and parietal ventral area

23.
Chord (music)
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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord

24.
Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit

25.
Subject (music)
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In music, a subject is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a composition is based. In forms other than the fugue this may be known as the theme, a subject may be perceivable as a complete musical expression in itself, separate from the work in which it is found. In contrast to an idea or motif, a subject is usually a phrase or period. The Encyclopédie Fasquelle defines a theme as Any element, motif, Thematic changes and processes are often structurally important, and theorists such as Rudolph Reti have created analysis from a purely thematic perspective. Fred Lerdahl describes thematic relations as associational and thus outside his cognitive-based generative theorys scope of analysis, Music based on a single theme is called monothematic, while music based on several themes is called polythematic. Most fugues are monothematic and most pieces in sonata form are polythematic, in the exposition of a fugue, the principal theme is announced successively in each voice – sometimes in a transposed form. In some compositions, a subject is announced and then a second melody, sometimes called a countersubject or secondary theme. Music without subjects/themes, or without recognizable, repeating, and developing subjects/themes, is called athematic, examples include the pre-twelve-tone or early atonal works of Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, and Alois Hába. Schoenberg once said that, intoxicated by the enthusiasm of having freed music from the shackles of tonality, in fact, I … believed that now music could renounce motivic features and remain coherent and comprehensible nevertheless. Examples in the works of later composers include Polyphonie X and Structures I by Pierre Boulez, Sonata for Two Pianos by Karel Goeyvaerts, and Punkte by Karlheinz Stockhausen. In a fugue, when the first voice has completed the subject, and the voice is playing the answer. The countersubject usually contrasts with the subject/answer phrase shape, in a fugue, a countersubject is the continuation of counterpoint in the voice that began with the subject, occurring against the answer. It is not usually regarded as a feature of fugue. Attacco Cell Figure Formula composition Leitmotif Thematic transformation Benward, Bruce, Music in Theory and Practice, eighth edition, vol. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham. Une nouvelle grammaire musicale, prémices et premiers essais / A New Musical Grammar, Principles, la Scena Musicale 6, no.3. Lerdahl, Fred. Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Encyclopédie de la musique,3 vols, Music and Discourse, Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Caroline Abbate

26.
Inversion (music)
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In music theory, the word inversion has several meanings. There are inverted chords, inverted melodies, inverted intervals, the concept of inversion also plays a role in musical set theory. An interval is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes using displacement of the octave so that retain their names. Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and vice versa, augmented intervals become diminished, traditional interval names add together to make nine, seconds become sevenths and vice versa, thirds become sixes and vice versa, and fourths become fifths and vice versa. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval and its inversion. A chords inversion describes the relationship of its bass to the tones in the chord. For instance, a C major triad contains the tones C, E and G, its inversion is determined by which of these tones is the bottom note in the chord. The term inversion is used to categorically refer to the different possibilities. In texts that make this restriction, the position may be used instead to refer to all of the possibilities as a category. A root-position chord Play is sometimes known as the parent chord of its inversions. For example, C is the root of a C major triad and is in the bass when the triad is in position, the 3rd. The following chord is also a C major triad in root position, the rearrangement of the notes above the bass into different octaves and the doubling of notes, is known as voicing. In an inverted chord, the root is not in the bass, the inversions are numbered in the order their bass tones would appear in a closed root position chord. In the second inversion Play, the bass is G—the 5th of the triad—with the root and the 3rd above it, forming a 4th and a 6th above the bass of G, respectively. This inversion can be either consonant or dissonant, and analytical notation sometimes treats it differently depending on the harmonic, for more details, look at Second inversion Third inversions exist only for chords of four or more tones, such as 7th chords. In a third-inversion chord Play, the 7th of the chord is in the bass position, each numeral expresses the interval that results from the voices above it. For example, in root-position triad C-E-G, the intervals above bass note C are a 3rd and a 5th, giving the figures 5-3. If this triad were inverted, the figures 6-3 would apply, due to the intervals of third and sixth appearing above bass note E. Figured bass is similarly applied to 7th chords, certain arbitrary conventions of abbreviation exist in the use of figured bass

27.
Interval (music)
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In music theory, an interval is the difference between two pitches. In Western music, intervals are most commonly differences between notes of a diatonic scale, the smallest of these intervals is a semitone. Intervals smaller than a semitone are called microtones and they can be formed using the notes of various kinds of non-diatonic scales. Some of the very smallest ones are called commas, and describe small discrepancies, observed in some tuning systems, Intervals can be arbitrarily small, and even imperceptible to the human ear. In physical terms, an interval is the ratio between two sonic frequencies, for example, any two notes an octave apart have a frequency ratio of 2,1. This means that successive increments of pitch by the same result in an exponential increase of frequency. For this reason, intervals are often measured in cents, a derived from the logarithm of the frequency ratio. In Western music theory, the most common naming scheme for intervals describes two properties of the interval, the quality and number, examples include the minor third or perfect fifth. These names describe not only the difference in semitones between the upper and lower notes, but also how the interval is spelled, the importance of spelling stems from the historical practice of differentiating the frequency ratios of enharmonic intervals such as G–G♯ and G–A♭. The size of an interval can be represented using two alternative and equivalently valid methods, each appropriate to a different context, frequency ratios or cents, the size of an interval between two notes may be measured by the ratio of their frequencies. When a musical instrument is tuned using a just intonation tuning system, Intervals with small-integer ratios are often called just intervals, or pure intervals. Most commonly, however, musical instruments are tuned using a different tuning system. As a consequence, the size of most equal-tempered intervals cannot be expressed by small-integer ratios, for instance, an equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 2 7⁄12,1, approximately equal to 1.498,1, or 2.997,2. For a comparison between the size of intervals in different tuning systems, see section Size in different tuning systems, the standard system for comparing interval sizes is with cents. The cent is a unit of measurement. If frequency is expressed in a scale, and along that scale the distance between a given frequency and its double is divided into 1200 equal parts, each of these parts is one cent. In twelve-tone equal temperament, a system in which all semitones have the same size. Hence, in 12-TET the cent can be defined as one hundredth of a semitone

28.
Staff (music)
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Appropriate music symbols, depending on the intended effect, are placed on the staff according to their corresponding pitch or function. Musical notes are placed by pitch, percussion notes are placed by instrument, the absolute pitch of each line of a non-percussive staff is indicated by the placement of a clef symbol at the appropriate vertical position on the left-hand side of the staff. For example, the treble clef, also known as the G clef, is placed on the second line, the lines and spaces are numbered from bottom to top, the bottom line is the first line and the top line is the fifth line. The musical staff is analogous to a graph of pitch with respect to time. Pitches of notes are given by their position on the staff. A time signature to the right of the clef indicates the relationship between timing counts and note symbols, while bar lines group notes on the staff into measures, staff is more common in American English, stave in British English. The plural is staves in either case, stave is, in fact, the vertical position of the notehead on the staff indicates which note to play, higher-pitched notes are marked higher on the staff. The notehead can be placed with the center of its notehead intersecting a line, notes outside the range of the staff are placed on or between ledger lines—lines the width of the note they need to hold—added above or below the staff. Exactly which staff positions represent which notes is determined by a clef placed at the beginning of the staff, the clef identifies a particular line as a specific note, and all other notes are determined relative to that line. For example, the treble clef puts the G above middle C on the second line, the interval between adjacent staff positions is one step in the diatonic scale. Once fixed by a clef, the represented by the positions on the staff can be modified by the key signature. A clefless staff may be used to represent a set of percussion sounds, a single vertical line drawn to the left of multiple staves creates a system, indicating that the music on all the staves is to be played simultaneously. A bracket is a vertical line joining staves, to show groupings of instruments that function as a unit. A brace is used to join multiple staves that represent a single instrument, such as a piano, organ, harp, or marimba. Sometimes, a bracket is used to show instruments grouped in pairs, such as the first and second oboes, or the first. In some cases, a brace is used for this instead of a bracket. When more than one system appears on a page, often two parallel diagonal strokes are placed on the left side of the score to separate them. Four-part SATB vocal settings, especially in hymnals, use a notation on a two-staff system with soprano and alto voices sharing the upper staff

29.
Musical note
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In music, the term note has three primary meanings, A sign used in musical notation to represent the relative duration and pitch of a sound, A pitched sound itself. Notes are the blocks of much written music, discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance, comprehension. In the former case, one note to refer to a specific musical event, in the latter. Two notes with fundamental frequencies in an equal to any integer power of two are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the pitch class. However, within the English-speaking and Dutch-speaking world, pitch classes are represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet. A few European countries, including Germany, adopt an almost identical notation, the eighth note, or octave, is given the same name as the first, but has double its frequency. The name octave is also used to indicate the span between a note and another with double frequency, for example, the now-standard tuning pitch for most Western music,440 Hz, is named a′ or A4. There are two systems to define each note and octave, the Helmholtz pitch notation and the scientific pitch notation. Letter names are modified by the accidentals, a sharp ♯ raises a note by a semitone or half-step, and a flat ♭ lowers it by the same amount. In modern tuning a half step has a ratio of 12√2. The accidentals are written after the name, so, for example, F♯ represents F-sharp, B♭ is B-flat. Additional accidentals are the double-sharp, raising the frequency by two semitones, and double-flat, lowering it by that amount, in musical notation, accidentals are placed before the note symbols. Systematic alterations to the seven lettered pitches in the scale can be indicated by placing the symbols in the key signature, explicitly noted accidentals can be used to override this effect for the remainder of a bar. A special accidental, the natural symbol ♮, is used to indicate an unmodified pitch, effects of key signature and local accidentals do not accumulate. If the key signature indicates G♯, a flat before a G makes it G♭, though often this type of rare accidental is expressed as a natural. Likewise, a sharp sign on a key signature with a single sharp ♯ indicates only a double sharp. Assuming enharmonicity, many accidentals will create equivalences between pitches that are written differently, for instance, raising the note B to B♯ is equal to the note C

30.
Octave
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In music, an octave or perfect octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. It is defined by ANSI as the unit of level when the base of the logarithm is two. The octave relationship is a phenomenon that has been referred to as the basic miracle of music. The most important musical scales are written using eight notes. For example, the C major scale is typically written C D E F G A B C, two notes separated by an octave have the same letter name and are of the same pitch class. Three commonly cited examples of melodies featuring the perfect octave as their opening interval are Singin in the Rain, Somewhere Over the Rainbow, the interval between the first and second harmonics of the harmonic series is an octave. The octave has occasionally referred to as a diapason. To emphasize that it is one of the intervals, the octave is designated P8. The octave above or below a note is sometimes abbreviated 8a or 8va, 8va bassa. For example, if one note has a frequency of 440 Hz, the note one octave above is at 880 Hz, the ratio of frequencies of two notes an octave apart is therefore 2,1. Further octaves of a note occur at 2n times the frequency of that note, such as 2,4,8,16, etc. and the reciprocal of that series. For example,55 Hz and 440 Hz are one and two away from 110 Hz because they are 1⁄2 and 4 times the frequency, respectively. After the unison, the octave is the simplest interval in music, the human ear tends to hear both notes as being essentially the same, due to closely related harmonics. Notes separated by a ring together, adding a pleasing sound to music. For this reason, notes an octave apart are given the note name in the Western system of music notation—the name of a note an octave above A is also A. The conceptualization of pitch as having two dimensions, pitch height and pitch class, inherently include octave circularity, thus all C♯s, or all 1s, in any octave are part of the same pitch class. Octave equivalency is a part of most advanced cultures, but is far from universal in primitive. The languages in which the oldest extant written documents on tuning are written, leon Crickmore recently proposed that The octave may not have been thought of as a unit in its own right, but rather by analogy like the first day of a new seven-day week

31.
Eye movement in music reading
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Eye movement in music reading is the scanning of a musical score by a musicians eyes. This usually occurs as the music is read during performance, although musicians sometimes scan music silently to study it, the phenomenon has been studied by researchers from a range of backgrounds, including cognitive psychology and music education. A central aspect of reading is the sequence of alternating saccades and fixations. Saccades are the rapid ‘flicks’ that move the eyes from location to location over a music score, saccades are separated from each other by fixations, during which the eyes are relatively stationary on the page. It is well established that the perception of information occurs almost entirely during fixations. Fixations comprise about 90% of music reading time, typically averaging 250–400 ms in duration, despite some 30 studies in this area over the past 70 years, little is known about the underlying patterns of eye movement in music reading. However, it is here that the similarities end. It is this uniquely strict temporal requirement in musical performance that has made the observation of eye movement in music reading fraught with more difficulty than that in language reading, another critical difference between reading music and reading language is the role of skill. Most people become reasonably efficient at language reading by adulthood, even though almost all language reading is sight reading, by contrast, some musicians regard themselves as poor sight readers of music even after years of study. It is therefore unsurprising that most research into eye movement in reading has aimed to compare the eye movement patterns of the skilled. From the start, there were problems with eye-tracking equipment. The five earliest studies used photographic techniques and these systems were sensitive to even small movement of the head or body, which appear to have significantly contaminated the data. In addition to head movement, researchers faced other physical. The musculoskeletal response required to play a musical instrument involves substantial body movement, usually of the hands, arms and this can upset the delicate balance of tracking equipment and confound the registration of data. The disadvantage of this behaviour is that it causes signal dropout in the data every time it occurs, when participants are prevented from looking down at their hands, typically the quality of their performance is degraded. Rayner & Pollatsek wrote that, even skilled musicians naturally look at their hands at times, accurate eye movement recording these head movements. Musicians often need appreciable training with the apparatus before their eye movements can be measured, since Lang, all reported studies into eye movement in music reading, aside from Smith, appear to have used infrared tracking technology. However, research into the field has mostly been conducted using less than optimal equipment and this has had a pervasive negative impact on almost all research up until a few recent studies

32.
Shape note
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Shape notes are a music notation designed to facilitate congregational and community singing. The notation, introduced in 1801, became a teaching device in American singing schools. Shapes were added to the heads in written music to help singers find pitches within major and minor scales without the use of more complex information found in key signatures on the staff. This association can be used to help in reading the music, when a song is first sung by a shape note group, they normally sing the syllables to solidify their command over the notes. Next, they sing the notes to the words of the music. The syllables and notes of a shape note system are rather than absolute. The first note of a major key always has the triangular Fa note, followed by Sol, La, the first note of a minor key is always La, followed by Mi, Fa, etc. The first three notes of any major scale – fa, sol, la – are each a tone apart, the fourth to sixth notes are also a tone apart and are also fa, sol, la. The seventh and eighth notes, being separated by a semitone, are indicated mi-fa and this means that just four shapenotes can adequately reflect the feeling of the whole scale. The system illustrated above is a system, six of the notes of the scale are grouped in pairs assigned to one syllable/shape combination. The four syllable variation of Guidos original system was prominent in 17th century England, shortly afterward, shapes were invented to represent the syllables. The other important systems are seven-shape systems, which give a different shape, such systems use as their syllables the note names do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do familiar to most people. A few books present the older seven-note syllabization of do, re, mi, fa, so, la, si, in the seven-shape system invented by Jesse B. Aikin, the notes of a C major scale would be notated and sung as follows, whether or not shape notes actually facilitate learning music is disputed. A controlled study on the usefulness of shape notes was carried out in the 1950s by George H. Kyme with a population consisting of fourth-. Kyme took care to match his experimental and control groups as closely as possible for ability, quality of teacher and he found that the students taught with shape notes learned to sight read significantly better than those taught without them. Kyme additionally found that the students taught with shape notes were far more likely to pursue musical activities later on in their education. Many forms of music employ modulation, that is, a change of key in mid-piece, modulation is problematic for shape-note systems, since the shapes employed for the original key of the piece no longer match the scale degrees of the new key

33.
Subvocalization
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Subvocalization, or silent speech, is the internal speech typically made when reading, it provides the sound of the word as it is read. This is a process when reading and it helps the mind to access meanings to comprehend and remember what is read. This inner speech is characterized by minute movements in the larynx, most of these movements are undetectable by the person who is reading. It is one of the components of Baddeley and Hitchs phonological loop proposal which accounts for the storage of these types of information into short-term memory, subvocalization has been considered as far back as 1868. In 1950 Edfelt reached a breakthrough when he created an electrically powered instrument that can record movement and he concluded that newer techniques are needed to accurately record information and that efforts should be made to understand this phenomenon instead of eliminating it. Subvocalization is commonly studied using electromyography recordings, concurrent speaking tasks, shadowing, EMG can be used to show the degree to which one is subvocalizing or to train subvocalization suppression. EMG is used to record the activity produced by the articulatory muscles involved in subvocalization. Greater electrical activity suggests a use of subvocalization. In the case of training, the trainee is shown their own EMG recordings while attempting to decrease the movement of the articulatory muscles. The EMG recordings allows one to monitor and ideally reduce subvocalization, in concurrent speaking tasks, participants of a study are asked to complete an activity specific to the experiment while simultaneously repeating an irrelevant word. For example, one may be asked to read a paragraph while reciting the word cola over and over again, speaking the repeated irrelevant word is thought to preoccupy the articulators used in subvocalization. Subvocalization, therefore, cannot be used in the processing of the activity being studied. Participants who had undergone the concurrent speaking task are often compared to participants of the study who had completed the same activity without subvocalization interference. The participants in the comparison group usually also complete a different. This ensures that the difference in performance between the two groups is in due to subvocalization disturbances and not due to things such as task difficulty or a divide in attention. Shadowing is conceptually similar to concurrent speaking tasks, techniques for subvocalization interference other may also include counting, chewing or locking ones jaw while placing the tongue on the roof of ones mouth. Subvocal recognition involves monitoring actual movements of the tongue and vocal cords that can be interpreted by electromagnetic sensors, through the use of electrodes and nanocircuitry, synthetic telepathy could be achieved allowing people to communicate silently. The exploration into the background of subvocalization is currently very limited

34.
Counting (music)
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In music, counting is a system of regularly occurring sounds that serve to assist with the performance or audition of music by allowing the easy identification of the beat. Commonly, this involves verbally counting the beats in each measure as they occur, in addition to helping to normalize the time taken up by each beat, counting allows easier identification of the beats that are stressed. Counting is most commonly used with rhythm and form and often involves subdivision, the method involving numbers may be termed count chant, to identify it as a unique instructional process. In lieu of simply counting the beats of a measure, other systems can be used which may be appropriate to the particular piece of music. Depending on the tempo, the divisions of a beat may be vocalized as well, as an alternative to counting, a metronome can be used to accomplish the same function. Triple meter, such as 34, is often counted 123, while compound meter, for each subdivision employed a new syllable is used. Triplets may be counted 1 tri ple 2 tri ple 3 tri ple 4 tri ple, quarter note triplets, due to their different rhythmic feel, may be articulated differently as 1 dra git 3 dra git. Rather than numbers or nonsense syllables, a word may be assigned to a rhythm to clearly count each beat. An example is with a triplet, so that a triplet subdivision is often counted tri-pl-et, the Kodály Method uses Ta for quarter notes and Ti-Ti for eighth notes. For sextuplets simply say triplet twice, while quintuplets may be articulated as un-i-vers-i-ty, in some approaches, rote-before-note, the fractional definitions of notes are not taught to children until after they are able to perform syllable or phrase-based versions of these rhythms. However the counting may be syllabized, the important skill is to keep the pulse steady, there are various ways to count rhythm, from simple numbers to counting syllables to beat placement syllables. Ultimately, musicians count using numbers, “ands” and vowel sounds, downbeats within a measure are called 1,2, 3… Upbeats are represented with a plus sign and are called “and”, and further subdivisions receive the sounds “ee” and “uh”. Musicians do not agree on what to call triplets, some say the word triplet. Some use numbers along with the word triplet, still others have devised sounds like “ah-lee” or “la-li” added after the number. Counts the beat number on the tactus, & on the half beat, the beat numbers are used for the tactus, te for the half beat, and n-ti-te-ta for four sixteenths. Triplets or three notes in compound meter are n-la-li and six sixteenth notes in compound meter is n-ta-la-ta-li-ta. Counting system using n-ne, n-ta-ne-ta, n-na-ni, and n-ta-na-ta-ni-ta, all three systems have internal consistency for all divisions of the beat except the tactus, which changes according to the beat number. French Time-Names system, and also called the Galin-Paris-Cheve system

35.
Music psychology
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Music psychology, or the psychology of music, may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and musicology. It aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience, including the processes through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life. Modern music psychology is primarily empirical, its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of, Music psychology can shed light on non-psychological aspects of musicology and musical practice. For example, it contributes to music theory through investigations of the perception and computational modelling of musical structures such as melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, meter, ethnomusicology can benefit from psychological approaches to the study of music cognition in different cultures. The study of sound and musical phenomenon prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the modelling of pitch. This view that sound and music could be understood from a physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could only be understood through human perception, Research by Vincenzo Galilei demonstrated that, when string length was held constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and he also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable, thus the disputes were unnecessary. Study of topics including vibration, consonance, the series, and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution, including work by Galileo, Kepler, Mersenne. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the organs and higher-order processes, particularly by Savart, Helmholtz. The latter 19th century saw the development of music psychology alongside the emergence of a general empirical psychology. The first was structuralist psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts, Carl Seashore led this work, producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings, Music psychology in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along with science, including such research areas as music perception, musical development and aptitude, music performance. It has also emerged into the public sphere, much work within music psychology seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical behaviors, including perception, comprehension, memory, attention, and performance. Music has been shown to elicit emotional responses in its listeners. The field draws upon and has significant implications for areas as philosophy, musicology. A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the processes underlying music perception

36.
Solmization
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Solmization is a system of attributing a distinct syllable to each note in a musical scale. Various forms of solmization are in use and have been used throughout the world, the seven syllables normally used for this practice in English-speaking countries are, do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and ti. Guido of Arezzo is widely considered to be the origin of the European tradition of solmization, giovanni Battista Doni is known for having changed the name of note Ut, renaming it Do. An alternative explanation, first proposed by Franciszek Meninski in Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum, in India, the origin of solmization was to be found in Vedic texts like the Upanishads, which discuss a musical system of seven notes, realized ultimately in what is known as sargam. In Indian classical music, the notes in order are, sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni, which correspond to the Western solfege system. Byzantine music uses syllables derived from the Greek alphabet to name notes, starting with C, in Han peoples music in China, the words used to name notes are, 上, 尺, 工, 凡, 六, 五, 乙. The system is used for teaching sight-singing, in Japanese music, the first line of Iroha, an ancient poem used as an ABC of traditional kana, is used for solmization. The syllables representing the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, G are i, ro, ha, ni, ho, he, shakuhachi musical notation uses another solmization system beginning Fu Ho U. In Indonesia, Javanese musicians derive syllables from numbers, ji-ro-lu--ma-nem, in Scotland, Canntaireachd was used as a means of communicating bagpipe music verbally. Other systems invented for teaching sight-singing are, Tonic sol-fa Kodály method with Curwen hand signs Shape note See also Do Re Mi for songs named after those solmization syllables

Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German

Addy Vannasy reads aloud to children at a village "Discovery Day" in Laos. Reading aloud is a common technique for improving literacy rates. Big Brother Mouse, which organized the event, trains its staff in read-aloud techniques: Make eye contact with the audience. Change your voice. Pause occasionally for dramatic effect.

Night reading has benefits to calm the nerves by eliminating excess sound and vision stimulus resulting in better sleep.

Music notation or musical notation is any system used to visually represent aurally perceived music played with …

A photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two Delphic Hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.

View west along the Harbour Street towards the Library of Celsus in Ephesus. The pillars on the left side of the street were part of the colonnaded walkway apparent in cities of Late Antique Asia Minor.

In cognitive psychology, chunking is a process by which individual pieces of information are bound together into a …

Schematic of a hierarchical sequential structure with three levels. The lowest level could be a linear representation, while intermediate levels denote chunk nodes. The highest level is the entire sequence.