Socialization

May 15, 2012by Russ Long

I. Nature Vs. Nurture

The nature vs. nurture debate explores the relative importance of
cultural (social environment) and biological (heredity) factors in the developmental process of human beings. Is our biology
most important in determining who we are or is our social environment? Do we learn our
character or is it determined at birth genetically? In all likelihood the answer to
this question is a complex interaction between the two.

Few would reject the position that biology plays an important role.
Biology provides us with large brains that allow us to think abstractly (e.g., we
can create things in our minds and build them in reality). Biology also provides us with opposable
thumbs that allows us to grasp tools.

Learning is also very important in determining who we are. The
chapter on culture points out that culture defines much of what is important to people.
Further, it is responsible for our ability to adapt to the environment.

A. Twining Studies

It is often difficult to separate learning from our biology because
we begin learning at the moment we are born. In order to document the effects of learning,
social scientists sometimes use "twining studies."

By following the life course of twins, which are separated at birth,
we are able to lend support to the hypothesis that the environment (e.g., learning) has
far-reaching effects in human development. Social
experiences appears to override biology.

For example, Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997: 103-104) describe
research involving twins, which compares criminal records of twins. The research
shows a low correlation between genetic factors and criminal behavior. In other
words, people learn criminal behavior.

II. Problems with the Concept Human Nature

A. What is Human Nature?

Charon (1987:56-59) points out that our acts and beliefs are often
based on our assumptions about human nature. Human nature refers to nearly permanent
qualities which humans' posses. They are also biologically based. One should be able
to see these characteristics in every culture (e.g., people have an innate urge to
reproduce, find shelter, and find food).

Human nature should not be used to refer to characteristics that
come about because of the environment or our society.

B. Impossible to Determine Human Nature

Biology certainly determines part of what we are, but we start
learning as soon as we are conceived. Sense what we learn is so important to who we are
and what we do, how can we separate biologically determined behavior from learned behavior

C. Human Nature: An Excuse to End Discussion

The second problem is that human nature is often used as an excuse
to close off discussion on social topics. Human nature is used to justify inequality
rather than search for reasons for inequality.

Example:

If we blame prejudice on human nature, we may tend
to assume that solutions to that social problem do not exist. Note how in South Africa,
"it's natural to hate."

III. Social Survival

Physical contact with others is essential to meet our social and
emotional needs. The very survival of the individual and the group depends on its members
being properly socialized (See Robertson, 1989:69-74).

A. Feral Children

Feral means untamed, savage, and wild. Feral
children literally describe children raised in the wild by wild animals.
Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:68-70) contend that numerous accounts exist which describe
children raised by animals. They argue that most stories of children raised in the
wild are untrustworthy.

Appelbaum and
Chambliss (1997:68) call attention to one reasonably well documented case of a boy named
Victor who was apparently found in a rural area of France. Victor, a seven-year-old
boy had apparently been raised in the wild.

In general, the explanation that "wild children" are
raised by wild animals is more than likely an excuse to cover up extreme child abuse.
On occasion, children are discovered who have few social skills and who lack the ability
to speak. Upon closer inspection, it is discovered that these children suffer from
extreme social isolation.

B. Children Raised in Isolation

There are numerous accounts of children raised in near total
isolation. Appelbaum and Chambliss (1997:70) introduce us to a girl named
"Genie." Genie was raised in near isolation for the first twelve years of
her life. She was often strapped to a child's potty or confined to a sleeping
bag. She saw only her father and mother and this contact was occurred only at
feeding. Needless to say, she failed to develop social skills.

It is apparent that sever social isolation contributes to poor
social development, but it's difficult to prove "scientifically." Social
workers encounter children raised in isolation at the end of the process of
isolation. (Presumably, the children are removed to more "humane"
surroundings.) It's impossible to say whether the "wild" behavior is a
result of the isolation or the result of genetic problems that may have caused the
isolation in the first place.

Ethics rule out doing experiments on the effects of isolation on
children. One cannot simply isolate a child from human contact to see what
happens. There fore, research on isolation has to focus on children who have
experienced isolation in the past or it has to investigate the effects of isolation on
animals.

C. Institutionalized Children: Rene Spitz

Rene Spitz explored the development (or lack of development) of
institutionalized children. In the 1945 study involving human babies, Spitz's
followed the social development of babies who, for various reasons, were removed from
their mothers early in life. Some children were placed with foster families while others
were raised in institutions (e.g., a nursing home). The nursing home babies had no
family-like environment. The setting was very institutional. Care was provided by nurses
who worked eight hour shifts. The babies raised in the nursing home environment
suffered seriously. More than a third died. Twenty-one were still living in institutions
after 40 years. Most were physically, mentally, and socially retarded.

D. The Harlow Study

The importance of the social environment is demonstrated by Harry
and Margaret Harlow. In a laboratory setting, the Harlow's removed baby monkeys from their
mothers at birth. The babies were provided with all the necessities of life such as food
and warmth (temperature), but the babies had no contact with other monkeys. Bazaar
behavior developed. The Harlow's concluded that social isolation caused the monkeys
raised in isolation to develop abnormally.

E. Conclusion

Research like that of Spitz and the Harlow's prove that people need
physical contact throughout life. Isolation will bring on hallucinations, extreme apathy,
anxiety, and the loss of the sense of self.

IV. Socialization

Socialization is learning (see Charon, 1987:63-69). Socialization
refers to all learning regardless of setting or age of the individual. Socialization
is the process by which we learn the ways of a particular group. In every group
one has to learn the rules, expectations, and truths of that group, whether the group is
your family, the army, or the state (nation).

Socialization is the process where by people acquire personality
and learn the way of life of their society. Essentially, one has to learn Culture.
Learning culture encompasses all the truths, values, rules, and goals that people share
with one another. Culture is a shared perspective.

The most important time when socialization occurs is between the
ages of one and ten. We obviously learn throughout our lives, but this first ten years
is most important in determining who we are for the rest of our lives.

A. Primary Socialization

Primary socialization is the process whereby people learn the
attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular
culture. For example, Eskimos learn to enjoy eating the raw intestines of birds and
fish while Chinese people eat Carp's heads and the tripe (stomach tissue) of pigs
(Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 98).

B. Anticipatory Socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of
socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations,
and social relationships (See Appelbaum & Chambliss, 1997:76). Henslin
(2004:71) offers the example of a high school student who, upon hearing he had been
accepted to a university, began to wear college student-type cloths.

In his last semester
of high school, Michael has received word that he has been accepted to State University.
Soon he begins to dismiss high school activities as being "too high schoolish,"
and begins to wear clothing styles and affect mannerisms that are characteristic of State
University students. Michael is exhibiting signs of anticipatory socialization.

The
Looking-Glass Self

The looking-glass self is the term Charles Horton
Cooley coined to describe the process by which we develop a sense of self. We see
ourselves through the eyes of other people. We may even use those views of ourselves
when formulating our own self-concept.

For example,

Mattie is a new sociology professor at the local college.
During her first lecture, she noticed that some students were yawning. Based on her
interpretation of the students yawning, Mattie has decided she is a boring teacher.

C. Gender Socialization and Gender Roles

Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of
socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender
socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for
a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This
"learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family
is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are ones friends, school,
work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and
not so subtle ways" (1999:76).

Examples:

Henslin (2004:66) suggests that the fact that parents let
their preschool boys roam farther from home than their preschool girls illustrates the how
girls are socialized to be more dependent.

A parent who buys hi male children trucks while
buying his female children dolls is engaging in gender socialization.

D. Resocialization

Resocialization is
the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. It refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and
accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. Resocialization occurs
throughout the human life cycle (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113).

Resocialization can be intense with the individual experiencing a
sharp break with past and the learning and exposure to radically different norms and
values. An example would be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to
join the Marines. Radical resocialization occurs in a total institution.

E. Total Institutions

This term was coined in 1961 by Erving Goffman and was designed to
describe a society which is generally cut off from the rest of society but yet still
provides for all the needs of its members. Therefore, total institutions have the ability
to resocialize people either voluntarily or involuntarily. For example, the following
would be considered as total institutions: prisons, the military, mental hospitals and
convents (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113).

Goffman lists four characteristics of such institutions:

All aspects of life are conducted in the same place and under the
same single authority.

Each phase of a members daily activity is carried out in the
immediate company of others. All members are treated a like and all members do the same
thing together.

Daily activities are tightly scheduled. All activity is superimposed
upon the individual by a system of explicit formal rules.

A single rational plan exists to fulfill the goals of the
institution.