Judaism and Cosmetic Surgery

A comprehensive overview on plastic surgery in Jewish law.

The first successful face transplant was recently performed in France. A woman had lost her nose, lips, and chin after being mauled by her dog. The injuries left her grotesquely deformed, making it virtually impossible for her interact normally with others. Muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and other tissues were transplanted from a "brain dead" donor in order to fashion a "hybrid" face that neither resembled the donor nor the recipient's original face.

This surgery marked a new milestone in transplantation, raising new questions to the usual list of ethical issues involved in transplantation. Unlike, kidney, liver, lung, or other vital organ transplants, which are life-saving procedures, the recent historic surgery brings transplantation into the realm of plastic surgery.

How far may an individual go to improve his/her appearance?

From a Jewish perspective, the face transplant raises two sets of questions. There are the technical questions regarding transplant and a more fundamental set regarding the approach of Judaism to vanity and plastic surgery.

Let us leave aside the issues of cadaveric transplantation and brain death involved in the recent face transplant case for another day and ask the more basic question of how far an individual may go to improve his/her appearance? Clearly the face transplant patient's surgery was not prompted by vanity, but we must still ask if even routine plastic/cosmetic surgery is permitted at all? What might the possible concerns be that arise for one contemplating plastic surgery?

Cosmetic versus Reconstructive Surgery

Plastic surgery may be divided into cosmetic and reconstructive surgery. The former is performed for enhancement of one's physical appearance (such as rhinoplasty, liposuction, or breast augmentation). The latter is performed to correct a defect, whether congenital (from birth) or acquired (for instance suffered in a car accident). These two indications for surgery may overlap and there is not necessarily a neat line that separates deformity from normal appearance. As has often been repeated, beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Judaism treats the subjective sense of the individual very seriously when a person feels unattractive. What about a self-perceived cosmetic defect, one that is neither a true congenital defect nor the result of an injury? How much importance does Judaism place on self-esteem and self-consciousness?

The History of Plastic Surgery

The oldest descriptions of plastic surgery date back to 2600-year-old Sanskrit texts and ancient Egyptian papyri. These documents describe nose, ear, and lip reconstructions utilizing surgical flaps and skin grafts! Nevertheless, the term "plastic surgery" to describe reconstructive surgery was not introduced until 1818.1

Despite the long history of plastic surgery, no responsa were written about surgery performed for cosmetic surgery until the latter half of the 20th century. This is hardly surprising, since prior to the mid 19th century, all surgery was limited by the inability to adequately ameliorate the pain of the surgery itself and the high morbidity and mortality of surgery in general.

This all changed due to important advances made in the second half of the 19th century. Building upon the work of Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (who argued that handwashing would decrease hospital infections) and Louis Pasteur (who proved that bacteria cause infection), Joseph Lister introduced the concept of antiseptic surgery in the late 19th century, significantly decreasing the risk of surgical infection. Ether, the first form of general anesthesia, was publicly utilized for the first time on October 16, 1846, in an operating theater at the Massachusetts General Hospital, ushering in the age of modern anesthesia. 2 With these two breakthroughs came rapid advances in surgical techniques, and advancements in both reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, particularly between the first and second world wars.

The Earliest Responsum

As plastic surgery developed and the options for cosmetic enhancement grew, formal halachic discussion began. In 1961, Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits, considered by many to be the father of the discipline of Jewish medical ethics, 3 addressed the American Society of Facial Plastic Surgery at a symposium entitled "Religious Views on Cosmetic Surgery." 4 Rabbi Jakobovits, later Chief Rabbi of Great Britain, discussed the parameters of plastic surgery from a Jewish legal perspective.

After explaining that no responsa had yet been written on the topic, he dealt with the question of whether one may undergo plastic surgery for the purpose of improving one's physical appearance. As Rabbi Jakobovits eloquently described in his classic work, Jewish Medical Ethics: 5

The problem was considered under four headings: the theological implications of "improving" God's work or "flying in the face of Providence"; the possible risks to life involved in any operation; the Jewish objection to any mutilation of the body; and the ethical censure of human vanity, especially among males.

Plastic surgery for aesthetic enhancement is a form of arrogance and vanity and is forbidden unless the patient meets certain criteria.

He concluded6 definitively that plastic surgery for aesthetic enhancement is a form of arrogance and vanity (particularly for men) and is forbidden unless the patient meets certain criteria. He later wrote as part of an overview of the Jewish approach to medicine:

In the sparse rabbinic writings on the subject, these reservations could be discounted, provided the danger is minimal; and especially 1) if the operation is medically indicated, e.g. following an accident, or for grave psychological reasons; 2) if the correction of the deformity is designed to facilitate or maintain a happy marriage; or 3) if it will enable a person to play a constructive role in Society and to earn a decent livelihood. 7

The four ethical concerns of Rabbi Jakobovits remained the pivotal issues in all future responsa and therefore bear further elucidation, as subsequent poskim have approached them in different ways.

Ethical Concerns

The first potential practical objection to plastic surgery is the Torah obligation to guard health (See: "Taking a Risk") which might limit the surgical risks that one may accept as part of plastic surgery. In addition to the hazards associated with the surgery itself, anesthesia, particularly general anesthesia, presents a very small but real risk of death or incapacitation.

Beyond the blanket obligation to guard health, there is the particular prohibition of self-mutilation. Just as one may not injure someone else, one may not cause injury to oneself. The prohibition of injuring someone else is called chavala and is derived directly from the Biblical verse8 that warns the court not to give a convicted criminal more lashes than legally mandated. The verse is interpreted to mean that if the court must not strike a criminal without justification, surely an ordinary individual may not strike or otherwise injure his neighbor.

The Talmud9 discusses whether this prohibition applies to harming oneself, concluding that "one who injures himself even though it is forbidden, pays no damages. But if someone else injures him, they pay damages." Injuring oneself without a valid reason is called chovel b'atzmo. This proscription has limitations however. We are only barred from causing unnecessary injury to ourselves. The key question is what is considered necessary.

Risk and harming oneself are not the only issues. There are also philosophical considerations. Do we assert that God, as the ultimate craftsman and molder of human beings, makes each person exactly as they should be and that our "remodeling" of ourselves is an affront to His judgment? That is, does the divine mandate to heal and obligation to seek medical treatment extend to plastic surgery?

The fourth issue applies predominantly to men. The Torah commands that a man not wear the clothing of a woman and that a woman not wear the clothing of a man. This prohibition extends beyond mere clothing, but includes actions and activities that are characteristic of one of the sexes. For instance, in most situations a man may not dye his white hairs back to black for purposes of improving his appearance since this is considered to be a feminine activity. Is plastic surgery also considered a "feminine" activity?

A Variety of Approaches

In 1964, Rabbi Mordechai Yaakov Breish, Rabbi Menasheh Klein, and Rabbi Moshe Feinstein were each asked to rule on questions of cosmetic surgery for enhancement of appearance.

Rabbi Mordechai Yaakov Breish, author of the Chelkas Yaakov and a prominent posek [authority in Jewish law] in Switzerland, discussed the issues of risk and chavala (self-injury) when asked whether a woman may undergo cosmetic surgery to straighten and decrease the size of her nose in order to improve her chance of finding a suitable husband. 10

He used a previous ruling of Rabbi Abraham of Sochachev, the 19th century author of the Avnei Nezer, as a starting point for his discussion of why it is permitted to enter into surgery or other dangerous situations, even when not absolutely necessary. The Avnei Nezer11 had forbidden a child to have surgery to straighten a crooked leg due to the risk of the operation. Rabbi Breish points out several objections to this ruling.

So long as a doctor practices in an acceptable way, it is a mitzvah for a physician to treat even non-life-threatening illnesses even though he may injure or kill patients inadvertently. 12 That is the nature of the mandate to heal. Additionally, the Talmud allowed bloodletting as a preventative health mechanism, even though it was known to be somewhat dangerous. We also clearly see that one is not prohibited from entering into a dangerous situation voluntarily since we do not prohibit women from having babies, despite the risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth. 13

Rabbi Breish also points out that the general population undergoes surgery for non-life-threatening conditions with a very low complication rate. He therefore invokes the concept of Shomer Pasaim Hashem, 14 that God watches over the simple, to defend low risk surgeries. He rules that from the perspective of risk, one may pursue plastic surgery as one of the activities that the general population finds to be acceptably safe. To support his contention that one may injure oneself (independent of any associated risk) for treatment of a non-life-threatening malady, he brings two proofs. The Code of Jewish Law15 warns a child not to remove a thorn, bloodlet, or amputate a limb from a parent, even for medical reasons, lest he transgress the capital offense of (unnecessarily) injuring a parent. Rabbi Moshe Isserles, in his gloss to the Code of Jewish Law, states that the child should only refrain if there is someone else present who can help the parent, for otherwise, the child should even amputate the limb if the parent is in pain. It seems clear that the prohibition is only to injure one's parent, but the concept of bloodletting or amputation merely for pain, despite the trauma involved, does not appear to be problematic!

The second proof is fundamental to our discussion of plastic surgery, particularly cosmetic surgery. The Talmud16 states that a man may remove scabs from his body to alleviate pain, but not to improve his appearance. 17 At first glance, this may appear to exclude the possibility of plastic surgery. However, Tosofos, 18 commenting on this statement, promulgates a concept that demonstrates a very sensitive understanding of human nature and psychology. He writes: "If the only pain that he suffers is that he is embarrassed to walk among people then it is permissible, because there is no greater pain than this." Tosofos recognizes that there is no greater suffering than psychological pain and that it is very difficult to judge for someone else the degree of suffering they are experiencing as a result of a self-perceived defect.

Citing the psychological pain associated with the inability to find a spouse, Rabbi Breish ruled that the woman may have the cosmetic surgery.

The same year, Rabbi Moshe Feinstein (1895-1986) was asked the same question. His responsa first examines the parameters of the prohibition of chavala. He points out that in his Mishneh Torah, 19 Maimonides clearly describes chavala as injury with malice. Rabbi Feinstein brings several examples of injury without the intention to do harm that Jewish religious literature finds acceptable. 20 His final ruling permits surgery when it is in the best interests of the patient, even if they are not sick and it does not treat an illness. As a result, he permitted the woman to have cosmetic surgery since it was to her advantage and not being done to harm her.

Also in 1964, Rabbi Menasheh Klein, author of Mishneh Halachos, dealt with the question of the permissibility of cosmetic surgery to correct various facial imperfections that mar a woman's appearance, such as a very long nose which makes it difficult for her to marry and which she feels makes her very unattractive. 21 Rabbi Klein utilizes an ingenious approach to evaluate the question. He points out that there is ample precedent for medical intervention to improve appearance in dating back to Talmudic times.

The Mishna22 discusses the case of a man who betroths a woman on the condition that she has no defect (mum) where a "mum" is defined as any defect that would bar a Cohen (Jewish priest) from serving in the Temple. Tosofos23 states that if the woman had her blemish corrected by a physician before her engagement, the marriage is valid. Since many of the blemishes that would apply to a Cohen include cosmetic imperfections24 of the face for which people today would desire elective plastic surgery and Tosofos permits these blemishes to be corrected by a physician, Rabbi Klein states that it appears that a man or woman may go to a doctor to correct a cosmetic defect merely for enhancement of their appearance. Rabbi Klein rejects the argument that plastic surgery entails any danger whatsoever based the information which he received from physicians.

In a second responsum, 25 printed immediately following the previously discussed one, Rabbi Klein discusses plastic surgery and chemical peels in men with respect to the prohibition of a man performing female behaviors. He reiterates his previous ruling and adds that (minor) cosmetic procedures are forbidden to men if done strictly for aesthetic enhancement, but that the prohibition does not apply if the blemish causes the man enough embarrassment that he shuns social interaction. Rabbi Klein wisely points out that such a distinction requires a great deal of intellectual honesty.

In 1967, Rabbi Yitzchak Yaakov Weiss (1902-1989), head of the Eida Chareidis rabbinical court in Jerusalem and author of Minchas Yitzchak, dealt briefly with the issues of chavala and risk with respect to plastic surgery. 26 He takes the same approach to self-injury as Rabbi Feinstein, arguing that the prohibition of chavala only applies when the wound is inflicted with the intention of causing harm or degradation. He feels that cosmetic surgery would be permitted if not for the risk of surgery, which he believes to be a serious concern. He refers to one of his earlier responsa27 which was directed to his in-law, Rabbi Breish, in which he forbids surgery for non-life-threatening conditions. While admitting that the line of reasoning of Rabbi Breish has merit, he disagrees, arguing that the permission of the Code of Jewish law to allow amputation of a limb is only in a life-threatening situation. He also agrees with Rabbi Breish that people desiring plastic surgery may be ill, but states that they are not endangered, and therefore is hesitant to allow elective plastic surgery, ending his 1967 responsa by saying the question requires further study.

Despite the generally strong support among halachic experts for the permissibility of reconstructive surgery for congenital defects and traumatic injuries, one dissenting opinion stands out with regard to cosmetic surgery merely to enhance one's appearance.

I am the Lord Your Healer28

There is an inherent tension in Judaism regarding the philosophical underpinnings of the mandate to heal. While the Torah clearly empowers the physician to treat illness, there is controversy regarding how far the permission extends (See "Mandate to Heal"). While most Biblical commentators and Jewish legal scholars interpret the Torah to grant a very broad license to heal, there is a consensus that the patient must be ill to allow the physician to treat the patient, particularly if the treatment is dangerous or requires injuring the patient in the process of healing.

This is one of the major concerns voiced by Rabbi Eliezer Yehuda Waldenberg, author of Tzitz Eliezer, a multivolume set of responsa, much of which deals with medical issues. First, Rabbi Waldenberg29 objects to performing surgery on someone who is neither sick nor in pain. 30 He argues that such activities are outside the boundaries of the physician's mandate to heal (since he questions whether cosmetic surgery is truly included in the category of healing). He further asserts that the patient has no right to ask the physician to wound him or her for the purposes of merely enhancing beauty. Rabbi Waldenberg then makes the theological argument that as the ultimate artisan, God creates each person in His image, exactly as he or she should be, with nothing extra nor anything lacking. He therefore posits that cosmetic surgery that is not for pain or true illness is an affront to God and is forbidden.

A Final Argument

The last major posek to voice an opinion is a fitting conclusion to our discussion of the various approaches of Jewish legal authorities to plastic surgery. Dr. Abraham Abraham reports31 the opinion of Rav Shlomo Zalman Aurbach (1910-1995), the great Israeli posek, on the question of a person whose arm or finger had been traumatically amputated.

In response to those who forbid plastic surgery, Rabbi Aurbach discussed the question of whether an amputated limb could be reattached by surgery requiring general anesthesia, even if the patient had already been treated so that he was no longer in danger his life. He ruled that the surgery would certainly be permitted on a weekday32 "since the surgery would not be considered an injury but a repair and treatment to save the limb. Why then should it be forbidden for someone to undergo plastic surgery in order to look normal?" In a published responsa, 33 Rabbi Aurbach writes:

if the plastic surgery is done to prevent suffering and shame caused by a defect in his looks (for instance a nose which is very abnormal) this would be permitted based on the Tosafot and the Gemara, since the purpose is to remove a blemish. However if the only reason is for beauty, this is not permitted.

Rabbi Aurbach sums up the consensus of most legal experts in ruling that plastic surgery to allow someone to appear normal, and more importantly to view themselves as appearing normal is permitted. It is only when such surgery is performed merely for vanity that the rabbis have serious reservations. Clearly however, true reconstructive surgery and even surgery for an appearance that makes one feel embarrassed is not an issue of vanity. Such was clearly the case with the French face transplant recipient.

This leaves us with a very potent human message. We must always appreciate the self-constructed prisons in which some of our friends and acquaintances live. Whether it is the torture of feeling unattractive or the feeling of hopelessness of a single friend who is losing hope that he/she will ever have a wife/husband and family, we must always look for ways to ease their pain.

Related Articles:

About the Author

Dr. Daniel Eisenberg is with the Department of Radiology at the Albert Einstein Medical Center in Philadelphia, PA and an Assistant Professor of Diagnostic Imaging at Thomas Jefferson University School of Medicine. He has taught a Jewish medical ethics class for the past 15 years. Dr. Eisenberg writes extensively on topics of Judaism and medicine and lectures internationally on topics in Jewish medical ethics to groups of all backgrounds. Obtain more information on scheduling a lecture or learning more about Jewish medical ethics by visiting Dr. Eisenberg at www.daneisenberg.com

Visitor Comments: 11

(10)
Giro,
October 10, 2008 12:40 PM

Does Look/Physical Appearance Really Matters?

I had cosmetic surgery to improve my nose for aesthetic purposes. It did add to my self-confidence at some point. Let's face the reality that most people nowadays are superficial beings. I respect God that He created me the way He wants me to be physically. But I also believe that He gave us as a choice and I made a choice to correct what I think is bothering me, and yes to alter what is given but for my own goodness to feel good physically in this not-so-perfect world. Talking about survival instinct here.

(9)
b l friedberg,
April 15, 2007 11:30 AM

Anesthesia in Cosmetic Surgery

No one should suffer the loss of life to undergo cosmetic surgery precisely because the act has no medical indication.

As a physician who has dedicated himself to providing anesthesia exclusively for elective cosmetic (plastic) surgery for the past 15 years, I thoroughly enjoyed this article.

When Olivia Goldsmith, author of 'The First Wives' Club,' died having a facelift at the prestigious Manhattan Eye & Ear Hospital, the search for a textbook on anesthesia in cosmetic surgery began. Finding none, my editor, Marc Struss, was charged with finding someone to author a textbook on this topic.

He chose me first among 40,000 US anesthesiologists for this project which is now in print. When I asked Marc, 'Why me?,' he quickly responded because you are the only one doing something different and writing about it; i.e. 30 letters to the editor, 14 articles and 3 book chapters.

All cosmetic surgery occurs on the body's superficial layers or 'the wrapper.' It is therefore minimally invasive surgery regardless of the length of the surgery or the extent of the surgical dissection. Although more are beginning to consider cosmetic surgery in this manner, most anesthesiologists do not share this vision.

To maximize patient safety, it is only logical that minimally invasive anesthesia (MIA)Â® should accompany minimally invasive surgery.

The brain is the target organ of the anesthesia. In 1996, the FDA gave approval for the use of a device to measure brain activity under anesthesia - the bispectral index or BIS.

Disclaimer - I do not work for Aspect, makers of BIS, am not a shareholder, or a paid consultant. My enthusiasm for the monitor stems from its utility in my practice.

The BIS computer gets information from a forehead sensor and displays a number between 0-100. The lower the number, the deeper the state of sleep or hypnosis.Prior to BIS monitoring, there was no other way to obtain this important information. Anesthesiologists would be obliged to guess at the optimal dosage and then over-medicate by a factor of at least 20-30% for fear of undermedicating.

Anesthesia was sometimes described as the art of the 'controlled overdose.'

45-60 on the BIS corresponds to a level of sleep compatible with general anesthesia: the patient neither hears, feels nor remembers their surgery.

Anesthesia at BIS below 45 is considered over-medicating. No one should have any anesthesia, much less cosmetic surgery anesthesia, without the benefit of BIS monitoring! Without BIS monitoring, it is impossible to avoid over-dosing, controlled or otherwise.

The same benefits of general anesthesia can be had with less risk @ BIS 60-75 using 20-30% less medication and less trespass to the patient. This is the level of sleep I refer to as minimally invasive anesthesia Â®.

Whether or not there is a Halachic justification for cosmetic surgery, people will continue to seek it out. Since 1997, there has been a 446% increase in the number of cosmetic procedures performed! As a physician dedicated to the preservation of life, it is my mission to protect life. By maximizing patient safety in my own practice and promoting the use of this unique form of anesthesia to my profession as well as the general public, I am fufilling the mitzvah to heal the world. Despite potential dissent from my perspective, I will persist in my efforts to santify life by making anesthesia for elective cosmetic surgery safer than it has been and as safe as it can be.

More information on this topic can be obtained on my non-commercial, patient oriented web site, drfriedberg.com.

(8)
NissanRaclaw,
December 13, 2006 6:00 AM

Isn't a Bris "plastic surgery"?

Regarding the idea that God is the ultimate artisan, etc. Isn't it true that every Jewish male undergoes ("corrective"? "elective"?) plastic surgery on his 8th day of life - i.e., at his brit milah?

Gab,
September 8, 2013 10:42 AM

It's a surgery that is not elective - we were commanded to perform the Brith - it's a covenant between us and G'. The same way it's not "elective" to do your boss' bidding at the office, a Bris is not elective.

(7)
Anonymous,
May 25, 2006 12:00 AM

I found this article interesting, but the final comment ("Whether it is the torture of feeling unattractive or the feeling of hopelessness of a single friend who is losing hope that he/she will ever have a wife/husband and family, we must always look for ways to ease their pain.") was off the mark. A single who has plastic surgery to "ease their pain" will be sorely disappointed if using such alterations as a magic pill for finding a mate. One only needs to look around at the abundance of beautiful, intelligent, successful and caring singles to realize that less than picture-perfect looks are hardly responsible for our singles crisis.

(6)
Zelda,
May 22, 2006 12:00 AM

Is This What We Want Physicians to Spend Time Doing?

It is hard to get into medical school, the costs are high and the years studying are long. Do we really want these trained bright men and women to use their medical expertise to put a piece of celluloid blob into a chest to enlarge it? Is that the best use for all that training? I think the risks are unecessary and the value negligible. It is a big waste and shame and shows how we lack true values. I agree that there are many instances where plastic surgery is needed, as enumerated in the article, but more often it is not.
I do not understand how intellegent men and women have been so bamboozled and I think doctors should be doing more important work.

(5)
Anonymous,
May 22, 2006 12:00 AM

Honest and sensitive decisions need to be made.

A very well sourced and informative article; well balanced, too.

(4)
Tamara,
May 21, 2006 12:00 AM

This question recently came up after a trauma unit ward round I attended, and I read this article beforee I even had a chance to ask the sheilah. The background on plastic surgery was also very interesting

(3)
Rev.Manasseh Mankuleiyo,
May 21, 2006 12:00 AM

Cosmetic Surgery

Thanks Dr. D Eisenberg for your thought provoking comments.
As a theologian and minister I get many questions concerning this subject and am glad that I find soeone else who have reached the same conclusion i have , showing the difference between the necessary and the vain.
Theres a reason why the creator put spots on a leopard and stripes on a zebra. All this manipulation of the creatures body is an endeavour to delay the inevitable, a vanity of vanities and vexation of spirit..Eclessiates chapter 3..
Shall the creature critique the Creators handiwork?
Thanks
MM

(2)
J. Benjamin,
May 21, 2006 12:00 AM

If the words of R. Eliezer Yehuda Waldenberg, mentioned above, can be taken at face value - i.e., that cosmetic surgery is prohibited in non-illness or pain-related cases because man is made in G-d's image and likeness and therefore altering man's appearance is prohibited - then there is a serious flaw in the Rav's thinking. In referring to His image and likeness, G-d is describing man's intellectual capability and possession of free choice. Many commentators, e.g. the Rambam, make this clear. It is most certainly not referring to the idea that man has been made to appear physically like G-d. This is implying that G-d is of physical form, i.e. anthropomorphism, and not at all what the Torah means when stating man is created in His image and likeness. The physical body is a fairly meaningless thing to the Creator, as stated by Dovid HaMelech that "He does not take any pleasure in the legs of a man." (Tehillim, 147) Further, we are told to take possession of the world, to subdue it and to rule over it, (Bereishit 26, 28). This tells us that we have dominion over the physical world, of which our physical bodies are surely a part; what we do with the world is within our purview. Other than a grave health risk, pure vanity would seem to be the only reason to proscribe cosmetic surgery.

(1)
Margarita,
May 21, 2006 12:00 AM

plastic surgery?

"If the correction of the deformity is designed to facilitate or maintain a happy marriage" is a horrible reason for plastic surgery. Anyone who wants to do plastic surgery for vanity reasons will tell you that smaller nose will keep wife happy (or better tummy). Where do we stop?! I think that it is not just correction to keep people happy, it is the idea that non corrective plastic surgery is endangering our lives, and therefore is wrong.

I'm told that it's a mitzvah to become intoxicated on Purim. This puzzles me, because to my understanding, it is not considered a good thing to become intoxicated, period.

One of the characteristics of the at-risk youth is their use of drugs, including alcohol. In my experience, getting drunk doesn't reveal secrets. It makes people act stupid and irresponsible, doing things they would never do if they were sober. Also, I know a lot about the horrible health effects of abusing alcohol, because I work at a research center that focuses on addiction and substance abuse.

Also, I am an alcoholic, which means that if I drink, very bad things happen. I have not had a drink in 22 years, and I have no intention of starting now. Surely there must be instances where a person is excused from the obligation to drink. I don't see how Judaism could ever promote the idea of getting drunk. It just doesn't seem right.

The Aish Rabbi Replies:

Putting aside for a moment all the spiritual and philosophical reasons for getting drunk on Purim, this remains an issue of common sense. Of course, teenagers should be warned of the dangers of acute alcohol ingestion. Of course, nobody should drink and drive. Of course, nobody should become so drunk to the point of negligence in performing mitzvot. And of course, a recovering alcoholic should not partake of alcohol on Purim.

Indeed, the Code of Jewish Law explicitly says that if one suspects the drinking may affect him negatively, then he should NOT drink.

Getting drunk on Purim is actually one of the most difficult mitzvot to do correctly. A person should only drink if it will lead to positive spiritual results - e.g. under the loosening affect of the alcohol, greater awareness will surface of the love for God and Torah found deep in the heart. (Perhaps if we were on a higher spiritual level, we wouldn't need to get drunk!)

Yet the Talmud still speaks of an obligation on Purim of "not knowing the difference between Blessed is Mordechai and Cursed is Haman." How then should a person who doesn't drink get the point of “not knowing”? Simple - just go to sleep! (Rama - OC 695:2)

All this applies to individuals. But the question remains - does drinking on Purim adversely affect the collective social health of the Jewish community?

The aversion to alcoholism is engrained into Jewish consciousness from a number of Biblical and Talmudic sources. There are the rebuking words of prophets - Isaiah 28:1, Hosea 3:1 with Rashi, and Amos 6:6, and the Zohar says that "The wicked stray after wine" (Midrash Ne'alam Parshat Vayera).

It is well known that the rate of alcoholism among Jews has historically been very low. Numerous medical, psychological and sociological studies have confirmed this. The connection between Judaism and sobriety is so evident, that the following conversation is reported by Lawrence Kelemen in "Permission to Receive":

When Dr. Mark Keller, editor of the Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, commented that "practically all Jews do drink, and yet all the world knows that Jews hardly ever become alcoholics," his colleague, Dr. Howard Haggard, director of Yale's Laboratory of Applied Physiology, jokingly proposed converting alcoholics to the Jewish religion in order to immerse them in a culture with healthy attitudes toward drinking!

Perhaps we could suggest that it is precisely because of the use of alcohol in traditional ceremonies (Kiddush, Bris, Purim, etc.), that Jews experience such low rates of alcoholism. This ceremonial usage may actually act like an inoculation - i.e. injecting a safe amount that keeps the disease away.

Of course, as we said earlier, all this needs to be monitored with good common sense. Yet in my personal experience - having been in the company of Torah scholars who were totally drunk on Purim - they acted with extreme gentleness and joy. Amid the Jewish songs and beautiful words of Torah, every year the event is, for me, very special.

Adar 12 marks the dedication of Herod's renovations on the second Holy Temple in Jerusalem in 11 BCE. Herod was king of Judea in the first century BCE who constructed grand projects like the fortresses at Masada and Herodium, the city of Caesarea, and fortifications around the old city of Jerusalem. The most ambitious of Herod's projects was the re-building of the Temple, which was in disrepair after standing over 300 years. Herod's renovations included a huge man-made platform that remains today the largest man-made platform in the world. It took 10,000 men 10 years just to build the retaining walls around the Temple Mount; the Western Wall that we know today is part of that retaining wall. The Temple itself was a phenomenal site, covered in gold and marble. As the Talmud says, "He who has not seen Herod's building, has never in his life seen a truly grand building."

Some people gauge the value of themselves by what they own. But in reality, the entire concept of ownership of possessions is based on an illusion. When you obtain a material object, it does not become part of you. Ownership is merely your right to use specific objects whenever you wish.

How unfortunate is the person who has an ambition to cleave to something impossible to cleave to! Such a person will not obtain what he desires and will experience suffering.

Fortunate is the person whose ambition it is to acquire personal growth that is independent of external factors. Such a person will lead a happy and rewarding life.

With exercising patience you could have saved yourself 400 zuzim (Berachos 20a).

This Talmudic proverb arose from a case where someone was fined 400 zuzim because he acted in undue haste and insulted some one.

I was once pulling into a parking lot. Since I was a bit late for an important appointment, I was terribly annoyed that the lead car in the procession was creeping at a snail's pace. The driver immediately in front of me was showing his impatience by sounding his horn. In my aggravation, I wanted to join him, but I saw no real purpose in adding to the cacophony.

When the lead driver finally pulled into a parking space, I saw a wheelchair symbol on his rear license plate. He was handicapped and was obviously in need of the nearest parking space. I felt bad that I had harbored such hostile feelings about him, but was gratified that I had not sounded my horn, because then I would really have felt guilty for my lack of consideration.

This incident has helped me to delay my reactions to other frustrating situations until I have more time to evaluate all the circumstances. My motives do not stem from lofty principles, but from my desire to avoid having to feel guilt and remorse for having been foolish or inconsiderate.

Today I shall...

try to withhold impulsive reaction, bearing in mind that a hasty act performed without full knowledge of all the circumstances may cause me much distress.

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