The Children's Literature Portal

Children's literature is literature written for and/or marketed towards a primarily juvenile audience. While some books are authored for a youthful audience, others become associated with children through marketing or tradition. Still others are "crossover" books, read by children and adults alike. Literature addressed directly to children arose in Western Europe in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, becoming a very profitable industry in the 19th century, it includes picture books, fairy tales, animal stories, school stories, science fiction, fantasy, series fiction, chapter books, children's poetry, and other genres. Throughout its 300-year history, children's stories have reflected the values of the societies that produced them.

Selected article

Bambi, A Life in the Woods, originally published in Austria as Bambi. Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde, is a 1923 Austrian novel written by Felix Salten and published by Paul Zsolnay Verlag. The novel traces the life of Bambi, a male roe deer, from his birth through childhood, the loss of his mother, the finding of a mate, the lessons he learns from his father and experience about the dangers posed by human hunters in the forest. Considered to be one of the first environmental novels published, an English translation by Whittaker Chambers was published in North America by Simon & Schuster in 1928. The novel has since been translated and published in over 20 languages around the world. Salten released a sequel, Bambis Kinder, eine Familie im Walde (Bambi's Children), in 1939. The novel was well received by critics and is considered a classic, it was adapted into a theatrical animated film, Bambi, by Walt Disney Studios in 1942, two Russian live-action adaptations in 1985 and 1986, and a stage production in 1998. Janet Schulman released a children's picture book adaptation in 2000 that featured realistic oil-paintings and many of Salten's original words.

Selected quote

She had no money, so the only thing to do was to make a pair of shoes herself! At first the difficulty of the task discouraged her. She had never really considered how shoes were made.... Her respect for shoemakers increased.... When night fell, she was still hard at work, but she longer had any doubt of her success. If the first attempt did not bring it, she would try again. Even if the second or third trial did not prove successful, she would keep on trying — until the tenth time if necessary!

1.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם‎, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian

2.
Children's literature
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Childrens literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are enjoyed by children. Modern childrens literature is classified in two different ways, genre or the age of the reader. Childrens literature can be traced to stories and songs, part of an oral tradition. The development of childrens literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many childrens tales were originally created for adults. Since the 15th century, a quantity of literature, often with a moral or religious message, has been aimed specifically at children. The late nineteenth and early centuries became known as the Golden Age of Childrens Literature as this period included the publication of many books acknowledged today as classics. There is no single or widely used definition of childrens literature and it can be broadly defined as anything that children read or more specifically defined as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, or drama intended for and used by children and young people. The International Companion Encyclopedia of Childrens Literature notes that the boundaries of genre. are not fixed but blurred, sometimes, no agreement can be reached about whether a given work is best categorized as literature for adults or children. Rowlings Harry Potter series was written and marketed for young adults, the series extreme popularity led The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for childrens books. Despite the widespread association of childrens literature with picture books, spoken narratives existed before printing, seth Lerer, in the opening of Childrens Literature, A Readers History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says, This book presents a history of what children have heard and read. The history I write of is a history of reception, early childrens literature consisted of spoken stories, songs, and poems that were used to educate, instruct, and entertain children. It was only in the 18th century, with the development of the concept of childhood, that a genre of childrens literature began to emerge, with its own divisions, expectations. French historian Philippe Ariès argues in his 1962 book Centuries of Childhood that the concept of childhood only emerged in recent times. He explains that children were in the past not considered as different from adults and were not given significantly different treatment. Pre-modern childrens literature, therefore, tended to be of a didactic and moralistic nature, with the purpose of conveying conduct-related, educational, during the 17th century, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe. Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection, the English philosopher John Locke developed his theory of the tabula rasa in his 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and he also suggested that picture books be created for children

3.
Picture book
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A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. The images in picture books use a range of such as oil paints, acrylics, watercolor. Two of the earliest books with something like the picture books still retain now were Heinrich Hoffmanns Struwwelpeter from 1845. Some of the picture books are Robert McCloskeys Make Way for Ducklings, Dr. Seuss The Cat In The Hat. The Caldecott Medal and Kate Greenaway Medal are awarded annually for illustrations in childrens literature, from the mid-1960s several childrens literature awards include a category for picture books. Some picture books are published with content aimed at children or even adults. Tibet, Through the Red Box, by Peter Sis, is one example of a book aimed at an adult audience. There are several subgenres among picture books, including books, concept books, early readers, nursery rhymes. Another category is movable books, such as books, which employ paper engineering to make parts of the page pop up or stand up when pages are opened. The Wheels on the Bus, by Paul O. Zelinsky, is one example of a bestseller pop-up picture book, orbis Pictus from 1658 by John Amos Comenius was the earliest illustrated book specifically for children. It is something of an encyclopedia and is illustrated by woodcuts. A Little Pretty Pocket-Book from 1744 by John Newbery was the earliest illustrated storybook marketed as pleasure reading in English, the German childrens books Struwwelpeter from 1845 by Heinrich Hoffmann, and Max and Moritz from 1865 by Wilhelm Busch, were among the earliest examples of modern picturebook design. Andrew Langs twelve Fairy Books published between 1889 and 1910 were illustrated by among others Henry J. Ford and Lancelot Speed, lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland, illustrated by John Tenniel in 1866 was one of the first highly successful entertainment books for children. Toy books were introduced in the half of the 19th century. These had a proportion of pictures to words than earlier books. Heath Robinson, Howard Pyle, or Charles Robinson, generally, these illustrated books had eight to twelve pages of illustrated pictures or plates accompanying a classic childrens storybook. Beatrix Potters The Tale of Peter Rabbit was published in 1902 to immediate success, Peter Rabbit was Potters first of many The Tale of. Including The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin, The Tale of Benjamin Bunny, The Tale of Tom Kitten, swedish author Elsa Beskow wrote and illustrated some 40 childrens stories and picture books between 1897–1952

4.
Fairy tale
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Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. The term is used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries. In less technical contexts, the term is used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness. Colloquially, a tale or fairy story can also mean any far-fetched story or tall tale, it is used especially of any story that not only is not true. Legends are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form, the name fairy tale was first ascribed to them by Madame dAulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of todays fairy tales have evolved from stories that have appeared, with variations. The history of the tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today. Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways, the Aarne-Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales. It moves in a world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms, a fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale. Although the fairy tale is a genre within the larger category of folktale. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame DAulnoys conte de fées, Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between fairy tales and animal tales on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Were I asked, what is a fairytale, I should reply, Read Undine, that is a fairytale. of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful. As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face. Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales, davidson and Chaudri identify transformation as the key feature of the genre

5.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars

6.
Fantasy
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Fantasy is a fiction genre set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Most fantasy uses magic or other elements as a main plot element, theme. Magic and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds, in popular culture, the fantasy genre is predominantly of the medievalist form. In its broadest sense, however, fantasy works by many writers, artists, filmmakers. Fantasy is studied in a number of disciplines including English and other studies, cultural studies, comparative literature, history. The identifying trait of fantasy is the reliance on imagination to create narrative elements that do not have to rely on history or nature to be coherent. This differs from realistic fiction in that whereas realistic fiction has to attend to the history and natural laws of reality, an author applies his or her imagination to come up with characters, plots, and settings that are impossible in reality. Fantasy has often compared with science fiction and horror because they are the major categories of speculative fiction. Fantasy is distinguished from science fiction by the plausibility of the narrative elements, a science fiction narrative is unlikely, though seeming possible through logical scientific and/or technological extrapolation, whereas fantasy narratives do not need to be scientifically possible. The imagined elements of fantasy do not need an explanation to be narratively functional. Authors have to rely on the suspension of disbelief, an acceptance of the unbelievable or impossible for the sake of enjoyment. Despite both genres heavy reliance on the supernatural, fantasy and horror are distinguishable, horror primarily evokes fear through the protagonists weaknesses or inability to deal with the antagonists. Beginning perhaps with the earliest written documents, mythic and other elements that would come to define fantasy. MacDonald was an influence on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, lord Dunsany established the genres popularity in both the novel and the short story form. Many popular mainstream authors also began to write fantasy at this time, including H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Indeed, juvenile fantasy was considered more acceptable than fantasy intended for adults, nathaniel Hawthorne wrote fantasy in A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys, intended for children, though works for adults only verged on fantasy. Political and social trends can affect a societys reception towards fantasy, in the early 20th century, the New Culture Movements enthusiasm for Westernization and science in China compelled them to condemn the fantastical shenmo genre of traditional Chinese literature

7.
Children's poetry
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Childrens poetry is poetry written for, or appropriate for children. This may include folk poetry, poetry written intentionally for young people, poetry written originally for adults, but appropriate for young people, and poems taken from prose works. Dr. Seuss - Wrote many Childrens poetry books including The Cat in the Hat, Green Eggs and Ham, robert Louis Stevenson - Author of such works as A Childs Garden of Verses. Shel Silverstein - Author of such works as Where the Sidewalk Ends and A Light in the Attic, Silverstein also wrote The Giving Tree. Jack Prelutsky - Author of such works as A Gopher in the Garden and Other Animal Poems, michael Rosen is a broadcaster, childrens novelist and poet and the author of 140 books. He was appointed as the fifth Childrens Laureate in June 2007, succeeding Jacqueline Wilson, roald Dahl is one of the most successful childrens writers in the world, around thirty million of his books have been sold in the UK alone. Dahls collection of poems Revolting Rhymes is a re-interpretation of six fairy tales. Dahls poems and stories are popular among Children because he writes from their point of view - in his books adults are often the villains or are just plain stupid. Brian Moses is one of Britains favourite childrens poets, for both his own poetry and the anthologies he has edited, and he has performed in two thousand schools across the UK and Europe. He is a Reading Champion for the Literacy Trust, roger Stevens is a performance poet, author, musician and artist. His poems have appeared in more than one hundred anthologies, gez Walsh is a performance poet and stand-up comedian best known as the author of the cult classic childrens poetry book The Spot on my Bum. Allan Ahlberg is one of Britains best-loved childrens writers, the author of over a hundred books. Jean Sprackland is an English poet, the author of three collections of poetry published since 1997, shepherd Thorleif Halvorsen - Author of The Bridge Across The River, a collection of poems for children. Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1964–1969, Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1976–1981. Frizzell Smith, Ardis Sarff O’Hoyt, and Mildred Bakke, subject Index to Poetry for Children and Young People. Chicago, American Library Association,1957, ISBN 0-8389-0242-1

8.
Bambi, a Life in the Woods
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Bambi, a Life in the Woods, originally published in Austria as Bambi, Eine Lebensgeschichte aus dem Walde is a 1923 Austrian novel written by Felix Salten and published by Ullstein Verlag. An English translation by Whittaker Chambers was published in North America by Simon & Schuster in 1928, Salten published a sequel, Bambis Kinder, eine Familie im Walde, in 1939. The novel was received by critics and is considered a classic. It was adapted into a animated film, Bambi, by Walt Disney Productions in 1942. A ballet adaptation was written by an Oregon troupe, but never premiered, janet Schulman published a childrens picture book adaptation in 2000 that featured realistic oil paintings and many of Saltens original words. Bambi is a roe deer fawn born in a thicket to a doe in late spring one year. Over the course of the summer, his mother teaches him about the inhabitants of the forest. When she feels he is old enough, she takes him to the meadow which he learns is both a wonderful but also dangerous place as it leaves the exposed and in the open. After some initial fear over his mothers caution, Bambi enjoys the experience, on a subsequent trip, Bambi meets his Aunt Ena, and her twin fawns Faline and Gobo. They quickly become friends and share what they have learned about the forest, while they are playing, they encounter princes, male deer, for the first time. After the stags leave, the fawns learn that those were their fathers, as Bambi grows older, his mother begins to leave him alone. While searching for her one-day, Bambi has his first encounter with He—the animals term for humans—which terrifies him, the man raises a firearm and aims at him, Bambi flees at top speed, joined by his mother. After he is scolded by a stag for crying for his mother and he later learns the stag is called the Old Prince, the oldest and largest stag in the forest who is known for his cunning and aloof nature. During the winter, Bambi meets Marena, a doe, Nettla, an old doe who no longer bears young. Mid-winter, hunters enter the forest, killing many animals including Bambis mother, Gobo also disappears and is presumed dead. After this, the novel skips ahead a year, noting that Bambi was cared for by Nettla, and it is summer and Bambi is now sporting his second set of antlers. He is reunited with his cousin Faline, after he battles and defeats first Karus then Ronno, Bambi and Faline fall in love with each other. They spend a great deal of time together, during this time, the old Prince saves Bambis life when he nearly runs towards a hunter imitating a does call

9.
Austrian literature
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Austrian literature is the literature written in Austria, which is mostly, but not exclusively, written in the German language. Some scholars speak about Austrian literature in a sense from the year 1806 on when Francis II disbanded the Holy Roman Empire. A more liberal definition incorporates all the works written on the territory of todays and historical Austria. Thus, the seven volume history of Austrian literature by the editors Herbert Zeman, there are and have been many tries to work out a complete definition of Austrian literature. Something most people can agree on is that there are certain differences, from the 19th century onward, Austria contributed some of the greatest names in modern literature. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke, well-known essayists are Robert Menasse, yet, it is hard to speak of an Austrian literature prior to that period. In the early 18th century, Lady Mary Wortly Montague, whilst visiting Vienna, was stunned to meet no writers at all. For all of Austrias contributions to architecture, and having one of the most hallowed musical traditions in Europe, a number of reasons can be given. Firstly, the arts were the preserve of the imperial court, fine baroque palaces, imperial portraits and commissions of music could all work very well to this aim, but literature was deemed less suitable, and thus not encouraged. It came mostly from Empress Maria Theresas Chastity Commission, intended to uphold public morals, but it had the not only of creating a facade of decency. But perhaps the greatest reason for Austrias late literary fruition was its cultural mindset, according to the cultural historian Carl Emil Schorske, profoundly Catholic, it was a deeply sensuous, plastic culture. The outlook of an aristocracy, it was copied by the lower classes. This mentality was not necessarily bad, the emphasis on beauty and fantasy was integral to establishing the capital of Vienna. But it was not the best ground for literary experiment, nevertheless, the liberalisation of Austria in the late 19th century created a more dynamic climate for writing, which soon produced a flowering. The main problem of defining a dynamic development may be that any definition will fall short of the currents which lead to a certain type of literature. Through the centuries, there have many different approaches. The Austrian literature developed out of a symbiosis of different regional traditions, in the Middle Ages, there was a homogeneous zone along the Danube river, spanning from Bavaria down to the eastern territories. Travellers and bards moved along this route, bringing them new influences

10.
Felix Salten
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Felix Salten was an Austrian author and critic in Vienna. His most famous work is Bambi, a Life in the Woods, Salten was born Siegmund Salzmann in Pest, Hungary, the grandson of an orthodox rabbi. When he was four weeks old, his family relocated to Vienna, many Jews were immigrating into the city during the late 19th century because Vienna had granted full citizenship to Jews in 1867. When his father became bankrupt, the sixteen-year-old Salten quit school and he also began submitting poems and book reviews to journals. He became part of the Young Vienna movement and soon received work as a full-time art, in 1900 he published his first collection of short stories. In 1901 he initiated Viennas first, short-lived literary cabaret Jung-Wiener Theater Zum lieben Augustin and he was soon publishing, on an average, one book a year, of plays, short stories, novels, travel books, and essay collections. He also wrote for all the major newspapers of Vienna. In 1906 Salten went to Ullstein as an editor in chief of the B. Z. am Mittag and the Berliner Morgenpost and he wrote also film scripts and librettos for operettas. In 1927 he became president of the Austrian P. E. N, Club as successor of Arthur Schnitzler. His most famous work is Bambi and it was translated into English in 1928 and became a Book-of-the-Month Club success. Life in Austria became perilous for a prominent Jew during the 1930s, adolf Hitler had Saltens books banned in 1936. Two years later, after Germanys annexation of Austria, Salten moved to Zurich, Switzerland, with his wife, Felix Salten died on 8 October 1945, at the age of 76. He is buried at Israelitischer Friedhof Unterer Friesenberg, Salten married actress Ottilie Metzl in 1902, and had two children, Paul and Anna Katharina. He composed another book based on the character Bambi, titled Bambis Children and his stories Perri and The Hound of Florence inspired the Disney films Perri and The Shaggy Dog. Salten is now considered to be the author of a celebrated erotic novel, Josephine Mutzenbacher, The Life Story of a Viennese Whore. Seibert, Ernst & Blumesberger, Susanne, Felix Salten – der unbekannte Bekannte, Felix Salten, A Preliminary Bibliography of His Works in Translation

11.
Roe deer
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The European roe deer, also known as the western roe deer, chevreuil, or simply roe deer, is an Eurasian species of deer. The male of the species is referred to as a roebuck. The roe deer is small, reddish and grey-brown. The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and it is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer. Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in Co, sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth, Bt. The Lissadell deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that area for about 50 years before they died out. In England and Wales, roe have experienced an expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century. This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems, at the start of the 20th century, they were almost extinct in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range for no apparent reason and possibly in some cases with human help. In 1884, roe were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Chase area, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. At the same time, the population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire. Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe are now a feature of cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol. In Wales, they are common, but have been seen as far south west as Cardigan and as far north west as Bangor. German colonial administrators introduced roe deer to the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia and they are hunted by locals in very steep and heavily vegetated terrain. The meat is sold in markets and restaurants in Kolonia, the capital city of Pohnpei. Roe deer were introduced also to Australia, the roe deer is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer found from the Ural Mountains to as far east as China and Siberia. It is known there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chernobyl. The roe deer is a small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm, a shoulder height of 65–75 cm. It has rather short, erect antlers and a body with a grey face

12.
Whittaker Chambers
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Whittaker Chambers, born Jay Vivian Chambers also known as Jay David Whittaker Chambers was a 20th-Century American writer, editor, and Soviet spy. After early years as a Communist Party member and Soviet spy, he defected from communism, under subpoena in 1948, he testified in what became Alger Hisss perjury trials and he became an outspoken anti-communist. Afterwards, he worked briefly as an editor at National Review. President Ronald Reagan awarded him the Medal of Freedom in 1984, Chambers was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and spent his infancy in Brooklyn. His family moved to Lynbrook, Long Island, New York, in 1904 and his parents were Jay Chambers and Laha. Chambers described his childhood as troubled because of his parents separation and his father was a half-closeted homosexual and treated Whittaker cruelly, while his mother was neurotic. Chambers brother committed suicide shortly after withdrawing from his first year of college, Chambers would cite his brothers fate as one of many reasons that he was drawn to communism at that time. As he wrote, communism offered me what nothing else in the world had power to offer at the same intensity, faith. At Columbia his fellow undergraduates included Meyer Schapiro, Frank S. Hogan, Herbert Solow, Louis Zukofsky, Clifton Fadiman, Elliott V. Bell, John Gassner, Lionel Trilling, in the intellectual environment of Columbia he gained friends and respect. His professors and fellow students found him a writer and believed he might become a major poet or novelist. In his sophomore year, Chambers joined the Boars Head Society and wrote a play called A Play for Puppets for Columbias literary magazine The Morningside, the work was deemed blasphemous by many students and administrators, and the controversy spread to New York City newspapers. Later, the play would be used against Chambers during his testimony against Alger Hiss, disheartened over the controversy, Chambers left Columbia in 1925. In 1924, Chambers read Vladimir Lenins Soviets at Work and was affected by it. He now saw the nature of his family, he would write, as in miniature the whole crisis of the middle class. Chamberss biographer Sam Tanenhaus wrote that Lenins authoritarianism was precisely what attracts Chambers and he had at last found his church, that is, he became a Marxist. In 1925, Chambers joined the Communist Party of the United States, Chambers wrote and edited for Communist publications, including The Daily Worker newspaper and The New Masses magazine. Combining his literary talents with his devotion to Communism, Chambers wrote four short stories in 1931 about proletarian hardship and revolt, considered by critics as one of the best pieces of fiction from the American Communist movement. Hallie Flanagan co-adapted and produced it as a play entitled Can You Hear Their Voices, staged across America and in many other countries

13.
Simon & Schuster
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Simon & Schuster, Inc. a subsidiary of CBS Corporation, is an American publishing company founded in New York City in 1924 by Richard Simon and Max Schuster. As of 2016, Simon & Schuster publishes 2,000 titles annually under 35 different imprints, in 1924, Richard Simons aunt, a crossword puzzle enthusiast, asked whether there was a book of New York World crossword puzzles, which were very popular at the time. After discovering that none had been published, Simon and Max Schuster decided to launch a company to exploit the opportunity, at the time, Simon was a piano salesman and Schuster was editor of an automotive trade magazine. They pooled US$8,000 to start a company to publish crossword puzzles, fad publishing became the business model for the new publishing house, which set out to exploit current fads and trends and publish books with commercial appeal. Instead of signing authors with a manuscript, they came up with their own ideas. In the 1930, the moved to what was known as Publishers Row on Park Avenue in Manhattan. In 1939, with Robert Fair de Graff, Simon & Schuster founded Pocket Books, in 1942, Simon & Schuster, or Essandess as it is called in the initial announcement, launched the Little Golden Books series in cooperation with the Artists and Writers Guild. Simon & Schusters partner in the venture was the Western Printing and Lithographing Company, Western Printing bought out Simon & Schusters interest in 1958. In 1944, Marshall Field III, owner of the Chicago Sun, purchased Simon & Schuster, following Fields death in 1957, his heirs sold the company back to Richard Simon and Max Schuster, while Leon Shimkin and James Jacobson acquired Pocket Books. In the 1950s and 1960s, many publishers including Simon & Schuster turned toward educational publishing due to the boom market. Pocket Books focused on paperbacks for the market instead of textbooks. By 1964 it had published over 200 titles and was expected to put out another 400 by the end of that year, Books published under the imprint included classic reprints such as Lorna Doone, Ivanhoe, Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn, and Robinson Crusoe. In 1966, Max Schuster retired and sold his half of Simon & Schuster to Leon Shimkin, Shimkin then merged Simon & Schuster with Pocket Books under the name of Simon & Schuster. Among his many bestsellers was Joseph Hellers Catch-22, in 1976, Gulf+Western headed by Charles Bluhdorn acquired S&S, which was grossing about US$50 million a year for $11 million, most of it in Gulf+Western stock. After the death of Bluhdorn in 1983, Simon & Schuster made the decision to diversify, bluhdorns successor Martin Davis told The New York Times, Society was undergoing dramatic changes, so that there was a greater need for textbooks, maps and educational information. We saw the opportunity to diversify into areas, which are more stable. In 1984, CEO Richard E. Snyder acquired Esquire Corporation, buying everything, Prentice Hall was brought into the company fold in 1985 for over $700 million and Martin Davis said that Prentice Hall became the road map for remodeling the company and a catalyst for change. This acquisition was followed by Silver Burdett in 1986, mapmaker Gousha in 1987, part of the acquisition included educational publisher Allyn & Bacon which according to Michael Korda became the nucleus of S&Ss educational and informational business

14.
Bambi's Children
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Bambis Children, The Story of a Forest Family is a novel written by Austrian author Felix Salten as a sequel to his successful work Bambi, A Life in the Woods. The sequel to Bambi follows the lives of the children of Bambi. Salten wrote the sequel while living in exile in Switzerland after being forced to flee Nazi-occupied Austria as he was of Jewish heritage, originally written in German, the novel was first published in English in the United States in 1939 by Bobbs-Merrill. It was not published in German until the following year, perri, a squirrel character from one of Saltens earlier novels, makes several appearances in the book. The models for Geno and Gurri were Felix Salten’s own children, Paul who was careful and timid, and Anna Katharina, Salten also included himself as the responsible and humane hunter in the novel. On the other hand, the 1977 Swedish translation, Bambis barn, is essentially abridged, without a mention of this in the book. He wrote to his American publisher, “At this time I beg you most urgently, quite apart from softenings, not to advertise my work as a book or to launch it otherwise in such a way. ”Salten’s original German text of Bambis Kinder does not have chapter divisions. However, the English-language edition consists of 30 chapters, and the abridged Swedish edition only has 14 chapters, barthold Fles’ English translation has also been released with illustrations by Phoebe Erickson and Richard Cowdrey. The 1945 Brazilian Portuguese translation, Os filhos de Bambi, a shortened French-language edition was illustrated by Jeanne Hives after Walt Disney in 1959 and by Jacques Fromont in 1977. The Hungarian language can boast with three separate translations and the Slovak language with two, the novels protagonists are the twin fawns born at the ending of the first novel. Geno and Gurri learn the pleasures as well as downsides of nature and their forest home and their father, Falines cousin Bambi, watches over them and, at times, takes care of them while their mother is busy. During their lives, they interact with Lana and Boso, twin fawns of their Aunt Rolla, one day, Gurri is attacked by a fox, but survives because the hunter shoots the fox at the last moment. She is then taken away by a hunter, when she is brought to the Hes place, she meets his dog, Hector, and a European eagle-owl that He captured a while ago. The owl is kept in a cage, and he tells Gurri about the times when He uses him as a bait to attack crows and other birds of prey and shoots them. Then Bambi finds her, and he tells Gurri that he will come every night to teach her how to jump over the fence, but when He sees the tracks of Bambi in the corral, He sets Gurri free. When she comes back, tensions between her family and Rollas family start to rise, first, Rolla asks Gurri to tell her what had happened, but she doesn’t want to talk because she thinks that she would not honor her miraculous salvation and Bambi’s effort properly. Then one day, Rolla gets attacked by a wolfdog, Nero, while trying to escape him, she accidentally lures the wolfdog to where Faline and the others are hiding. The wolfdog immediately turns his attention to Geno, and chases him instead, when Faline sees Geno disappear, she blames Rolla for sacrificing her son

15.
Bambi
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Bambi is a 1942 American animated drama film directed by David Hand, produced by Walt Disney and based on the book Bambi, A Life in the Woods by Austrian author Felix Salten. The film was released by RKO Radio Pictures on August 13,1942, the main characters are Bambi, a white-tailed deer, his parents, his friends Thumper, and Flower, and his childhood friend and future mate, Faline. The film received three Academy Award nominations, Best Sound, Best Song and Original Music Score. In June 2008, the American Film Institute presented a list of its 10 Top 10—the best ten films in each of ten classic American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. In December 2011, the film was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress, the fawn is quickly befriended by an eager, energetic rabbit named Thumper, who helps to teach him to walk and speak. Bambi grows up very attached to his mother, with whom he spends most of his time and he soon makes other friends, including a young skunk named Flower and a female fawn named Faline. Curious and inquisitive, Bambi frequently asks about the world around him and is cautioned about the dangers of life as a forest creature by his loving mother, one day out in a meadow, Bambi briefly sees The Great Prince but does not realize that he is his father. As the great prince wanders uphill, he discovers the human hunter named Man by all the animals is coming and rushes down to the meadow to get everyone to safety. Bambi is briefly separated from his mother during that scene but is escorted to her by the Great Prince as the three of them make it back in the forest just as Man fires his gun. During Bambis first winter, he and Thumper play in the snow while Flower hibernates, one day his mother takes him along to find food, when Man shows up again. As they escape his mother is shot and killed by the hunter, leaving the little fawn mournful, taking pity on his abandoned son, the Great Prince leads Bambi home as he reveals to him that he is his father. Years later, Bambi has matured into a stag. They are warned of twitterpation by Friend Owl and that they eventually fall in love. However, Thumper and Flower soon both encounter their beautiful romantic counterparts and abandon their former thoughts on love, Bambi himself encounters Faline as a beautiful doe. However, their courtship is interrupted and challenged by a belligerent older stag named Ronno. Bambi successfully manages to defeat Ronno in battle and earn the rights to the does affections, Bambi is awakened shortly afterward by the smell of smoke, he follows it and discovers it leads to a hunter camp. Bambi is warned by his father that Man has returned with more hunters, the two flee to safety, although Bambi is separated from Faline in the turmoil and searches for her along the way. He soon finds her cornered by Mans vicious hunting dogs, which he manages to ward off, Bambi, his father, Faline, and the forest animals manage to reach shelter on a riverbank

16.
Walt Disney Pictures
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Walt Disney Pictures, Inc. is an American film production company and a subsidiary of Walt Disney Studios, owned by The Walt Disney Company. The subsidiary is based at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California and it took on its current name in 1983. Today, in conjunction with the units of Walt Disney Studios. Animated films such as those by Walt Disney Animation Studios and Pixar Animation Studios are released under this brand. Pirates of the Caribbean series is the corporations most successful franchise, the studios predecessor was founded as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio, by filmmaker Walt Disney and his business partner and brother, Roy, in 1923. The creation of Mickey Mouse and subsequent short films and merchandise generated revenue for the studio which was renamed as The Walt Disney Studio at the Hyperion Studio in 1926, in 1929, it was renamed again to Walt Disney Productions. With the profits from Snow White, Walt relocated to a studio in Burbank. In the 1940s, Disney began experimenting with full-length live-action films, with the introduction of hybrid live action-animated films such as The Reluctant Dragon and Song of the South. By 1953, the company ended their agreements with such third-party distributors as RKO Radio Pictures and United Artists and formed their own distribution company, Buena Vista Distribution. The Walt Disney Productions in April 1983 incorporated its film division as Walt Disney Pictures, Inc. Touchstone Films banner was used by then new Disney CEO Michael Eisner in the 1984–85 television season with the short lived western, Wildside. The next TV season, Touchstone produced a hit with The Golden Girls, David Hoberman was promoted to president of production, Walt Disney Pictures in April 1988. In April 1994, Hoberman was promoted to president of motion pictures at Walt Disney Studios and was replaced as Disney President by David Vogel. Vogel added the position of Hollywood Pictures in 1997, then was promoted in 1998 to head up all live action motion picture units as president of Buena Vista Motion Pictures Group, Pirates of the Caribbean launched a film series and made the ride into a franchise. After four Pirates sequels, the franchise took in more than $5.4 billion worldwide, so, the corporation was looking for addition of the ride adaptations. In 2010, Disney released Alice in Wonderland, an adaptation of the 1951 animated film of the name that became the second $1 billion-grossing film in the studios history. The film began a trend of fantasy genre films being green-lit. With sister units Marvel Studios and Lucasfilm successfully targeting the male market, with the success of Maleficent and Cinderella, the studio announced a whole series of live-action adaptations of animated films as being in early stages. The Jungle Book cemented this trend with a global near billion-dollar box office, some adaptations are sequels to existing adaptations, origin stories and prequels

17.
William Wallace Denslow
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Denslow, was an American illustrator and caricaturist remembered for his work in collaboration with author L. Frank Baum, especially his illustrations of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Denslow was an editorial cartoonist with a strong interest in politics, born in Philadelphia, Denslow spent brief periods at the National Academy of Design and the Cooper Union in New York, but was largely self-educated and self-trained. In the 1880s, he traveled about the United States as an artist and newspaper reporter, he came to Chicago for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in 1893, and chose to stay. Denslow acquired his earliest reputation as a poster artist, he designed books and bookplates. Denslow may have met Baum at the Chicago Press Club, where men were members. Besides The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Denslow also illustrated Baums books By the Candelabras Glare, Father Goose, His Book, Baum and Denslow held the copyrights to most of these works jointly. Denslow illustrated an edition of traditional nursery rhymes titled Denslows Mother Goose, along with Denslows Night Before Christmas and the 18-volume Denslows Picture Books series. He also used his copyright to the art of the Baum books to newspaper comic strips featuring Father Goose. He also created the comic strip Billy Bounce, notable as one of the earliest comic strips in which the protagonist has some manner of super powers. The royalties from the print and stage versions of The Wizard of Oz were sufficient to allow Denslow to purchase Blucks Island, Bermuda, Denslow wrote and illustrated a childrens book called The Pearl and the Pumpkin. Denslow had three wives and three divorces in his lifetime and his first wife, Annie McCartney married him in 1882 and gave birth to his only child, a son, the following year. The couple were separated, however, and Denslow never saw his son. They finally divorced in 1896, freeing her to marry the man she lived with for five months and that same day, February 20,1896, Denslow married Anne Holden Denslow, the daughter of Martha Holden, writer. The marriage did not last long either, Anne filed for divorce in September 1903, alleging that he told her in June 1901 that he did not love her and henceforth declined to live with her. In less than a month she married a young artist, their friend, Lawrence Mazzanovich, Denslow then married his third wife, Mrs. Frances G. Doolittle December 24. Frances left him in 1906 and they divorced in 1911. He rewrote his will in 1914 leaving his estate to a fourth woman, Works by William Wallace Denslow at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Wallace Denslow at Internet Archive Works by William Wallace Denslow at LibriVox Hearn, Michael Patrick. “The Man Behind the Man Behind Oz, W. W, Denslow at 150” AIGA July 5,2006

18.
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
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The story chronicles the adventures of a young farm girl named Dorothy in the magical Land of Oz, after she and her pet dog Toto are swept away from their Kansas home by a cyclone. The novel is one of the stories in American literature and has been widely translated. The Library of Congress has declared it Americas greatest and best-loved homegrown fairytale and its groundbreaking success and the success of the Broadway musical adapted from the novel led Baum to write thirteen additional Oz books that serve as official sequels to the first story. Baum dedicated the book to my good friend & comrade, My Wife, in January 1901, George M. Hill Company completed printing the first edition, a total of 10,000 copies, which quickly sold out. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz sold three million copies by the time it entered the domain in 1956. The book was published by George M. Hill Company and its first edition had a printing of 10,000 copies and was sold in advance of the publication date of September 1,1900. On May 17,1900, the first copy of the book came off the press, Baum assembled it by hand, the public saw the book for the first time at a book fair at the Palmer House in Chicago, July 5–20. The books copyright was registered on August 1, full distribution followed in September, by October 1900, the first edition had already sold out and the second edition of 15,000 copies was nearly depleted. In a letter to his brother Harry, Baum wrote that the books publisher George M. Hill predicted a sale of about 250,000 copies, in spite of this favorable conjecture, Hill did not initially predict that the book would be phenomenally successful. He agreed to publish the book only when the manager of the Chicago Grand Opera House Fred R. Hamlin committed to making The Wonderful Wizard of Oz into a stage play to publicize the novel. The play The Wizard of Oz debuted on June 16,1902 and it was revised to suit adult preferences and was crafted as a musical extravaganza, with the costumes modeled after Denslows drawings. Hills publishing company became bankrupt in 1901, so Baum and Denslow agreed to have the Indianapolis-based Bobbs-Merrill Company resume publishing the novel, Baums son Harry Neal told the Chicago Tribune in 1944 that L. Frank told his children whimsical stories before they became material for his books. Harry called his father the swellest man I knew, a man who was able to give a decent reason as to why black birds cooked in a pie could afterwards get out, by 1938, more than one million copies of the book had been printed. Less than two decades later in 1956, the sales of his novel had grown to three million copies in print, Dorothy is a young girl who lives with her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry and her little dog Toto on a Kansas farm. One day, Dorothy and Toto are caught up in a cyclone that deposits her farmhouse into Munchkin Country in the magical Land of Oz, the falling house has killed the Wicked Witch of the East, the evil ruler of the Munchkins. The Good Witch of the North arrives with the grateful Munchkins, the Good Witch tells Dorothy that the only way she can return home is to go to the Emerald City and ask the great and powerful Wizard of Oz to help her. As Dorothy embarks on her journey, the Good Witch of the North kisses her on the forehead, on her way down the yellow brick road, Dorothy attends a banquet held by a Munchkin man named Boq. The next day, Dorothy frees the Scarecrow from the pole on which he is hanging, applies oil from a can to the connections of the Tin Woodman

19.
L. Frank Baum
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Lyman Frank Baum, better known by his pen name L. Frank Baum, was an American author chiefly known for his childrens books, particularly The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. He wrote thirteen novel sequels, nine other novels, and a host of other works. Baum was born in Chittenango, New York in 1856 into a devout Methodist family and he had German, Scots-Irish, and English ancestry, and was the seventh of nine children of Cynthia Ann and Benjamin Ward Baum, only five of whom survived into adulthood. Lyman was the name of his fathers brother, but he disliked it. Benjamin Baum succeeded in many businesses, including barrel-making, oil drilling in Pennsylvania, L. Frank Baum grew up on his parents expansive estate called Rose Lawn, which he fondly recalled as a sort of paradise. Rose Lawn was located in Mattydale, New York, Frank was a sickly, dreamy child, tutored at home with his siblings. Baum started writing early in life, possibly prompted by his father buying him a printing press. He had always close to his younger brother Henry Clay Baum. The brothers published several issues of the journal, which included advertisements, at 20, Baum took on the national craze of breeding fancy poultry. He specialized in raising the Hamburg, Baum had a flair for being the spotlight of fun in the household, including during times of financial difficulties. His selling of fireworks made the Fourth of July memorable and his skyrockets, Roman candles, and fireworks filled the sky, while many people around the neighborhood would gather in front of the house to watch the displays. Baum dressed as Santa Claus for the family and his father would place the Christmas tree behind a curtain in the front parlor so that Baum could talk to everyone while he decorated the tree without people managing to see him. He maintained this tradition all his life, Baum embarked on his lifetime infatuation—and wavering financial success—with the theater. A local theatrical company duped him into replenishing their stock of costumes on the promise of leading roles coming his way, disillusioned, Baum left the theater — temporarily — and went to work as a clerk in his brother-in-laws dry goods company in Syracuse. This experience may have influenced his story The Suicide of Kiaros, a fellow clerk one day was found locked in a store room dead, probably from suicide. Baum could never stay away long from the stage and he performed in plays under the stage names of Louis F. Baum and George Brooks. In 1880, his father built him a theater in Richburg, New York, the Maid of Arran proved a modest success, a melodrama with songs based on William Blacks novel A Princess of Thule. Baum wrote the play and composed songs for it, and acted in the leading role and his aunt Katharine Gray played his characters aunt

20.
Margaret Mahy
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Margaret Mahy, ONZ was a New Zealand author of childrens and young adult books. Many of her story plots have strong supernatural elements but her writing concentrates on the themes of human relationships and she wrote more than 100 picture books,40 novels and 20 collections of short stories. At her death she was one of thirty writers to win the biennial, international Hans Christian Andersen Medal for her contribution to childrens literature. Mahy won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the years best childrens book by a British subject and she was also a highly commended runner up for Memory. Among her childrens books, A Lion in the Meadow and The Seven Chinese Brothers and her novels have been translated into German, French, Spanish, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Italian, Japanese, Catalan and Afrikaans. In addition, some stories have been translated into Russian, Chinese, Mahy was born in 1936, the eldest of five children. She was raised in her birthplace of Whakatane and her father, Frances George Mahy, was a bridge builder and often told his children adventure stories which later influenced Mahys writing. She was regarded as a learner, and particularly hated mathematics. Her first published story was Harry is Bad, written at age seven and she showed it to her class to let them know that they could write stories at any age. She went to the high school, where she was acknowledged as a talented swimmer. Mahy completed her B. A. at Auckland University College and Canterbury University College, in 1956 she trained at the New Zealand Library School, Wellington as a librarian. She worked as a librarian in Petone, the School Library Service in Christchurch, during this time many of her stories were published in the New Zealand Department of Education School Journal and her first book saw her become known internationally. A Lion in the Meadow was a School Journal story from 1965 and it was published in 1969 by J. M. Dent in the U. K. and Franklin Watts in the U. S. as a large-format picture book illustrated by Jenny Williams. There were three others in that same year, Mahy wrote several fantasy novels, including The Haunting and The Changeover. Mahy became a writer in 1980. She went on to win numerous awards and honours for her contributions to New Zealand. One was an honorary Doctor of Letters from the University of Canterbury, in 1985 she established the Margaret Mahy Fees Scholarship at the University of Canterbury. For her contributions to childrens literature she was made a member of the Order of New Zealand, in March 2009 she was commemorated as one of the Twelve Local Heroes and a bronze bust of her was unveiled outside the Christchurch Arts Centre

21.
Twelve Local Heroes
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The establishment of the commemorative sculptures was driven by the Twelve Local Heroes charitable trust. The project had been four years in the making before the bronze busts were unveiled on 18 March 2009, the artwork was produced by the sculptor Mark Whyte. The Twelve Local Heroes can be grouped by having died prior to the project commencing, by agreeing to be included but having since died, and by being alive. Members of this group had no influence on their inclusion as one of the Twelve Local Heroes, members of this group were asked and agreed to be included as one of the Twelve Local Heroes, but have since died. Members of this group were asked and agreed to be included as one of the Twelve Local Heroes, the sculptures have been temporarily removed from their current position on Worcester Blvd to facilitate the post earthquake restoration of the Engineering block of the Arts Centre of Christchurch. Following the restoration, it is envisaged that they will return

22.
Christchurch
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Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. The Christchurch urban area lies on the South Islands east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula and it is home to 389,700 residents, making it New Zealands third most-populous urban area behind Auckland and Wellington. The city was named by the Canterbury Association, which settled the province of Canterbury. The name of Christchurch was agreed on at the first meeting of the association on 27 March 1848 and it was suggested by John Robert Godley, who had attended Christ Church, Oxford. Some early writers called the town Christ Church, but it was recorded as Christchurch in the minutes of the management committee of the association, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Avon River flows through the centre of the city, with a park located along its banks. At the request of the Deans brothers, the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, the usual Māori name for Christchurch is Ōtautahi. This was originally the name of a site by the Avon River near present-day Kilmore Street. The site was a dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi. The Ōtautahi name was adopted in the 1930s, prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as Karaitiana, a transliteration of the English word Christian. The citys name is abbreviated by New Zealanders to Chch. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is the fingerspelled letter C signed twice, with the second to the right of the first. Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 CE. These first inhabitants were thought to have followed by the Waitaha tribe. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha were dispossessed by the Ngati Mamoe tribe and they were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu tribe, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by the Deans brothers in 1843 who stayed, the First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the Randolph, Charlotte Jane, Sir George Seymour, the Charlotte Jane was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, the name Christ Church was decided prior to the ships arrival, at the Associations first meeting, on 27 March 1848

23.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu

24.
Cartoonist
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A cartoonist is a visual artist who specializes in drawing cartoons. This work is created for entertainment, political commentary, or advertising. The English satirist and editorial cartoonist William Hogarth, who emerged In the 18th century, has credited with pioneering Western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic series of pictures called modern moral subjects. Much of his work poked fun at politics and customs. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account, while never a professional cartoonist, Benjamin Franklin is credited with having the first cartoon published in an American newspaper. In the 19th century, professional cartoonists such as Thomas Nast introduced other familiar American political symbols, during the 20th century, numerous magazines carried single-panel gag cartoons by such freelance cartoonists as Charles Addams, Irwin Caplan, Chon Day, Clyde Lamb, and John Norment. These were almost always published in black and white, although Colliers often carried cartoons in color, the debut of Playboy introduced full-page color cartoons by Jack Cole, Eldon Dedini, and others. Single-panel cartoonists syndicated to newspapers included Dave Breger, Hank Ketcham, George Lichty, Fred Neher, Irving Phillips, comic strips received widespread distribution to mainstream newspapers by syndicates such as the Universal Press Syndicate, United Media, or King Features. Sunday strips go to a company such as American Color before they are published. Some comic strip creators publish in the press or on the Internet. Comic strip artists may also work in book-length form, creating graphic novels. Both vintage and current strips receive reprints in book collections, the major comic book publishers utilize teams of cartoonists to produce the art. When a consistent artistic style is wanted among different cartoonists, character model sheets may be used as reference, animated cartooning is created for short films, advertising, feature films and television. It is also used in live-action films for dream sequences or opening titles. An animation artist is referred to as an animator rather than a cartoonist. They create motion pictures as well, Animation studios such as DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Walt Disney Animation Studios, and Blue Sky Studios create CGI or computer-animated films that are more three-dimensional. There are many books of cartoons in both paperback and hardcover, such as the collections of cartoons from The New Yorker, prior to the 1960s, cartoons were mostly ignored by museums and art galleries

25.
Dr. Seuss
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Theodor Seuss Geisel was an American writer, cartoonist, animator, book publisher, and artist best known for authoring childrens books under the pen name Dr. Seuss. His work includes several of the most popular books of all time, selling over 600 million copies. Geisel adopted his Dr. Seuss pen name during his university studies at Dartmouth College and he left Oxford in 1927 to begin his career as an illustrator and cartoonist for Vanity Fair, Life, and various other publications. He also worked as an illustrator for advertising campaigns, most notably for Flit and Standard Oil and he published his first childrens book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street in 1937. After the war, Geisel focused on books, writing classics such as If I Ran the Zoo. If I Ran the Circus, The Cat in the Hat and he published over 60 books during his career, which have spawned numerous adaptations, including 11 television specials, four feature films, a Broadway musical, and four television series. He won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958 for Horton Hatches the Egg, Geisels birthday, March 2, has been adopted as the annual date for National Read Across America Day, an initiative on reading created by the National Education Association. Geisel was born and raised in Springfield, Massachusetts, the son of Henrietta, all four of his grandparents were German immigrants. His father managed the brewery and was later appointed to supervise Springfields public park system by Mayor John A. Denison after the brewery closed because of Prohibition. Mulberry Street in Springfield, made famous in Dr. Seuss first childrens book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street, is less than a mile southwest of his home on Fairfield Street. He enrolled at Springfield Central High School in 1917 and graduated in 1921 and he took an art class as a freshman and later became manager of the school soccer team. Geisel attended Dartmouth College, graduating in 1925, at Dartmouth, he joined the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity and the humor magazine Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern, eventually rising to the rank of editor-in-chief. While at Dartmouth, he was caught drinking gin with nine friends in his room, at the time, the possession and consumption of alcohol was illegal under Prohibition laws, which remained in place between 1920 and 1933. As a result of this infraction, Dean Craven Laycock insisted that Geisel resign from all extracurricular activities, to continue work on the Jack-O-Lantern without the administrations knowledge, Geisel began signing his work with the pen name Seuss. He was encouraged in his writing by professor of rhetoric W. Benfield Pressey, upon graduating from Dartmouth, he entered Lincoln College, Oxford intending to earn a PhD in English literature. At Oxford, he met Helen Palmer, who encouraged him to give up becoming an English teacher in favor of pursuing drawing as a career. Making use of his time in Europe, he pitched a series of cartoons called Eminent Europeans to Life magazine and his first nationally published cartoon appeared in the July 16,1927 issue of The Saturday Evening Post. This single $25 sale encouraged Geisel to move from Springfield to New York City, later that year, Geisel accepted a job as writer and illustrator at the humor magazine Judge, and he felt financially stable enough to marry Helen

26.
The Swiss Family Robinson
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The Swiss Family Robinson is a novel by Johann David Wyss, first published in 1812, about a Swiss family shipwrecked in the East Indies en route to Port Jackson, Australia. Wyss presents adventures as lessons in a history way and physical sciences. This resembles other educational books for young ones published about the same time, over the years there have been many versions of the story with episodes added, changed, or deleted. Perhaps the best-known English version is by William H. G. Kingston, other English editions that claim to include the whole of the Wyss-Montolieu narrative are by W. H. Davenport Adams and Mrs H. B. The closest English translation to the original is William Godwins 1816 translation, although movie and television adaptations typically name the family Robinson, it is not a Swiss name. The German title translates as The Swiss Robinson which identifies the novel as part of the Robinsonade genre, the novel opens with the family in the hold of a sailing ship, weathering a great storm. The ships passengers evacuate without them, and William and Elizabeth, as the ship tosses about, the father - William - prays that God will spare them. The ship survives the night and the family finds themselves within sight of a desert island. The next morning, they decide to get to the island they can see beyond the reef, with much effort, they construct a vessel out of tubs. After they fill the tubs with food and ammunition and all articles of value they can safely carry. Two dogs from the ship named Turk and Flora swim beside them, the ships cargo of livestock, guns & powder, carpentry tools, books, a disassembled pinnace, and provisions have survived. Upon reaching the island, the set up a makeshift camp. The father knows that they must prepare for a time on the island. William and his oldest son Fritz spend the day exploring the island. The family spends the next few days securing themselves against hunger, William and Fritz make several trips to the ship in their efforts to bring ashore everything useful from the vessel. The domesticated animals on the ship are towed back to the island, there is also a great store of firearms and ammunition, hammocks for sleeping, carpenter’s tools, lumber, cooking utensils, silverware, and dishes. Initially they construct a treehouse, but as time passes, they settle in a permanent dwelling in part of a cave. Fritz rescues a young Englishwoman shipwrecked elsewhere on their island, the book covers more than ten years

27.
Harriet Adams
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Harriet Stratemeyer Adams was an American juvenile mystery novelist and publisher who authored some 200 books over her literary career. She wrote many books in the Nancy Drew series and a few in the Hardy Boys series and she also oversaw other ghostwriters who wrote for these and many other series as a part of the Stratemeyer Syndicate. With her sister, Edna, Adams took over control of the Stratemeyer Syndicate after her father Edward Stratemeyers death in 1930. Edna ran the business operations, while Adams dealt with publishers and wrote, after Edna was married in 1942, she became inactive. She ran the syndicate for 52 years and she was born in Newark, New Jersey, the daughter of Edward Stratemeyer and Magdalena Van Camp At a young age, Adams wanted to break free from being a proper, young lady who should stay at home. She climbed trees, made friends with boys, and loved books from an early age. Adams graduated from Wellesley College in 1914 and her father forbade her to work outside the home, so she edited manuscripts at home. In 1915, she married Russell Vroom Adams, and raised four children and she resided in Maplewood, New Jersey, and in Pottersville, New Jersey, an area within Tewksbury Township, where she died of a heart attack. She lived in Pottersville at her estate, Bird Haven, until her death in 1982, Adams was interred in Fairmount Cemetery in Newark. The Secret of the Stratemeyer Syndicate, biography by Stratemeyers granddaughter Harriet Adams at the Internet Book List Harriet Adams at the Internet Book Database of Fiction BBC. co. uk - Franklin W. Dixon

28.
Nancy Drew
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Nancy Drew is a fictional American character in a mystery fiction series created by publisher Edward Stratemeyer. The character first appeared in 1930, the books are ghostwritten by a number of authors and published under the collective pseudonym Carolyn Keene. Over the decades, the character evolved in response to changes in US culture, the books were extensively revised and shortened, beginning in 1959, in part to lower printing costs with arguable success. In the revision process, the original character was changed to be less assertive. In the 1980s, an older and more professional Nancy emerged in a new series, The Nancy Drew Files, the original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series started in 1930, and ended in 2004. Launched that same year, the Girl Detective series features Nancy driving an electric vehicle. In 2013, the Girl Detective series ended, and a new current series called Nancy Drew Diaries was launched, illustrations of the character evolved over time to reflect contemporary styles. The character proves continuously popular worldwide, at least 80 million copies of the books have sold. Nancy Drew is featured in five films, two shows, and a number of popular computer games, she also appears in a variety of merchandise sold around the world. Nancy Drew is an amateur sleuth. In the original versions of the series, she is a 16-year-old high school graduate, in the series, she lives in the fictional town of River Heights with her father, attorney Carson Drew, and their housekeeper, Hannah Gruen. As a child, she loses her mother and her loss is reflected in her early independence—running a household since the age of ten with a clear-cut servant in early series and deferring to the servant as a surrogate parent in later ones. As a teenager, she spends her time solving mysteries, some of which she stumbles upon, Nancy is often assisted in solving mysteries by her two closest friends, cousins Bess Marvin and George Fayne. Bess is delicate and feminine, while George is a tomboy, Nancy is also occasionally joined by her boyfriend Ned Nickerson, a student at Emerson College. Nancy is often described as a super girl, in the words of Bobbie Ann Mason, she is as immaculate and self-possessed as a Miss America on tour. She is as cool as Mata Hari and as sweet as Betty Crocker, Nancy is well-off, attractive, and amazingly talented, At sixteen she had studied psychology in school, and was familiar with the power of suggestion and association. Nancy was a painter, spoke French, and had frequently run motor boats. She was a driver who at sixteen flashed into the garage with a skill born of long practice

29.
Hardy Boys
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The Hardy Boys, Frank and Joe Hardy, are fictional characters who appear in various mystery series for children and teens. The books are published under the collective pseudonym Franklin W. Dixon, the Hardy Boys have evolved in various ways since their first appearance in 1927. Beginning in 1959, the books were revised, partially to eliminate racial stereotypes. The books were written in a simpler style in an attempt to compete with television. Some critics argue that in the process, the Hardy Boys changed, becoming more respectful of the law and simultaneously more affluent, agents of the ruling class. Most, however, saw the updates as an attempt to make the style of the more modern. Similar complaints were made about the updates to the comparable girls series Nancy Drew, a new Hardy Boys series, the Hardy Boys Casefiles, was created in 1987, and featured murders, violence, and international espionage. The original Hardy Boys Mystery Stories series ended in 2005, a new series, Undercover Brothers, was launched the same year, featuring updated versions of the characters who narrate their adventures in the first person. The Undercover Brothers ended in 2012 and was replaced in 2013 by The Hardy Boys Adventures, through all these changes, the characters have remained popular. The books sell more than a million copies a year, several additional volumes are published annually, and the boys adventures have been translated into more than 25 languages. The Hardy Boys have been featured in games and five television shows and used to promote merchandise such as lunchboxes. The Hardy Boys are fictional teenage brothers and amateur detectives and they live in the city of Bayport on Barmet Bay with their father, detective Fenton Hardy, their mother, Laura Hardy, and their Aunt Gertrude. Frank, the brother, is eighteen, and his younger brother Joe is seventeen. The brothers nominally attend high school in Bayport, where they are in the same grade, in the older stories, the Hardy Boys cases are often linked to the confidential cases their detective father is working on. He sometimes asks them for help, while at times they stumble upon villains. In the Undercover Brothers series, begun in 2005, the Hardys are members of a known as American Teens Against Crime. The Hardy Boys are constantly involved in adventure and action, despite frequent danger, the boys never lose their nerve. They are hardy boys, luckier and more clever than anyone around them and they live in an atmosphere of mystery and intrigue, Never were so many assorted felonies committed in a simple American small town

30.
Bobbsey Twins
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The Bobbsey Twins are the principal characters of what was, for many years, the Stratemeyer Syndicates longest-running series of American childrens novels, penned under the pseudonym Laura Lee Hope. The first of 72 books were published in 1904, the last in 1979, edward Stratemeyer himself is believed to have written the first volume in its original form in 1904. When the original series was brought to its conclusion in 1979, at least two attempts to restart the series were launched after this, but neither effort saw the popularity that the original series achieved. Elizabeth Ward is credited with volumes 29–35, while Harriet Stratemeyer Adams is credited with 36–38,39,40,42,43, and 44–48. Volumes 49–52 are attributed to Andrew Svenson, while 53–59, and the 1960s rewrites of 1–4,7, 11–13, grace Grote is regarded as the real author of 60–67 and the rewrites of 14 and 18–20, and Nancy Axelrad is credited with 68–72. Of the 1960s rewrites not already mentioned, volumes 5 and 16 are credited to Mary Donahoe,6 and 25 to Patricia Doll, 8–10 and 15 to Bonnibel Weston, and 24 to Margery Howard. Mr. Richard Bobbsey, the owner of a yard in Lakeport Mrs. Mary Bobbsey, his wife. She has dark hair and dark eyes Bert Bobbsey, their elder son and he has dark hair and dark eyes. Freddie Bobbsey, their son, Flossies twin. The Bobbsey Twins, Merry Days Indoors and Out took place over the course of a year, with Nan and Bert described as eight years old. The second book, The Bobbsey Twins in the Country is set at the beginning of the following summer. The second part of the summer is chronicled in The Bobbsey Twins at the Seashore, the fourth book, The Bobbsey Twins at School, begins the next autumn, with Nan and Bert nearly nine years old and Freddie and Flossie almost five. The earliest Bobbsey books were mainly episodic strings of adventures, with the popularity of the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew. Even so, few of the mysteries involved violent crime, by 1971, when the Bobbseys visited Colonial Williamsburg, real places were being depicted in meticulous detail, down to the names of well-known hotels and restaurants. In 1960, the Stratemeyer syndicate began to rewrite most of the older volumes and this was done concurrently with the release of a new edition of the series, with picture covers, no dust jackets, and a lavender spine and back cover. Many of the paintings were originally dust-jacket paintings that had been added in the 1950s. In all,20 were completely rewritten, all but two with modernized titles, while 16 were never released in this edition, evidently having been deemed to be dated beyond repair. Most of the rewrites were motivated by changing technology or changing social standards, particularly in how Sam and Dinah, the African-American cook and handyman, were portrayed

31.
Anna Sewell
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Anna Sewell was an English novelist, best known as the author of the classic 1877 novel Black Beauty. Anna Sewell was born on 30 March 1820 in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, England and her father was Isaac Phillip Sewell, and her mother, Mary Wright Sewell was a successful author of childrens books. She had one sibling, a brother named Philip and was largely educated at home. When she was twelve, the moved to Stoke Newington where she attended school for the first time. Two years later, however, she slipped while walking home from school and her father took a job in Brighton in 1836, in the hope that the climate there would help to cure her. Despite this, and most likely because of mistreatment of her injury, for greater mobility, she frequently used horse-drawn carriages, which contributed to her love of horses and concern for the humane treatment of animals. At about this time, both Sewell and her left the Society of Friends to join the Church of England. While seeking to improve her health in Europe, Sewell encountered various writers, artists, sewells only published work was Black Beauty, written in the period between 1871 and 1877, after she had moved to Old Catton, a village outside the city of Norwich in Norfolk. During this time her health was declining and she was often so weak that she was confined to her bed and writing was a challenge. She dictated the text to her mother and from 1876 began to write on slips of paper which her mother then transcribed, Sewell sold the novel to local publisher Jarrolds on 24 November 1877, when she was 57 years old. It is now considered a classic, but she originally wrote it for those who worked with horses. She said a special aim to induce kindness, sympathy, Sewell died on 25 April 1878 of hepatitis or tuberculosis, five months after her book was published, living long enough to see its initial success. She was buried on 30 April 1878 in the Quaker burial-ground at Lammas near Buxton, Norfolk, not far from Norwich and her birthplace in Church Plain, Great Yarmouth has been the home to a museum and, as of 2014, is home to a tea shop

32.
Black Beauty
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Black Beauty is an 1877 novel by English author Anna Sewell. It was composed in the last years of her life, during which she remained in her house as an invalid. The novel became an immediate best-seller, with Sewell dying just five months after its publication, with fifty million copies sold, Black Beauty is one of the best-selling books of all time. While forthrightly teaching animal welfare, it also teaches how to treat people with kindness, sympathy, in 2003, the novel was listed at number 58 on the BBCs survey The Big Read. There is no religion without love, and people may talk as much as they like about their religion, Anna Sewell was born in Great Yarmouth, England, and had a brother named Philip, who was an engineer in Europe. At the age of 14, Anna fell while walking home from school in the rain, through mistreatment of the injury, she became unable to walk or stand for any length of time for the rest of her life. Disabled and unable to walk, she began learning about horses, spending many hours driving her father to and her dependence on horse-drawn transportation fostered her respect for horses. Sewells introduction to writing began in her youth when she helped edit the works of her mother, Mary Wright Sewell, Anna Sewell never married or had children. In visits to European spas, she met many writers, artists and her only book was Black Beauty, written between 1871 and 1877 in her house at Old Catton. During this time, her health was declining, and she could barely get out of bed and her dearly-loved mother often had to help her in her illness. She sold the book to the publishers, Jarrold & Sons. The book broke records for sales and is the “sixth best seller in the English language, by telling the story of a horses life in the form of an autobiography and describing the world through the eyes of the horse, Anna Sewell broke new literary ground. Sewell died of hepatitis or tuberculosis on 25 April 1878, only five months after the novel was published and she was buried on 30 April 1878 in the Quaker burial-ground at Lammas near Buxton, Norfolk, where a wall plaque marks her resting place. Her birthplace in Church Plain, Great Yarmouth, is now a museum, Sewell did not write the novel for children. Along the way, he meets with many hardships and recounts many tales of cruelty, the book describes conditions among London horse-drawn taxicab drivers, including the financial hardship caused to them by high licence fees and low, legally fixed fares. Sewell uses anthropomorphism in Black Beauty, the text advocates fairer treatment of horses in Victorian England. For instance, Ginger describes the effects of the bearing rein to Black Beauty. Your neck aching until you know how to bear it

33.
Hector Malot
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Hector Malot was a French writer born in La Bouille, Seine-Maritime. He studied law in Rouen and Paris, but eventually became his passion. He worked as a critic for Lloyd Francais and as a literary critic for LOpinion Nationale. His first book, published in 1859, was Les Amants, in total Malot wrote over 70 books. By far his most famous book is Sans Famille, which deals with the travels of the young orphan Remi, Sans Famille gained fame as a childrens book, though it was not originally intended as such. He announced his retirement as an author of fiction in 1895 and he died in Fontenay-sous-Bois in 1907

34.
J. R. R. Tolkien
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He was at one time a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972, after Tolkiens death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his fathers extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term legendarium to the part of these writings. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien and this has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the father of modern fantasy literature—or, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, forbes ranked him the 5th top-earning dead celebrity in 2009. Tolkiens paternal ancestors were middle-class craftsmen who made and sold clocks, watches and pianos in London, the Tolkien family had emigrated from Germany in the 18th century but had become quickly intensely English. According to the tradition, the Tolkiens had arrived in England in 1756. Several families with the surname Tolkien or similar spelling live in northwestern Germany, mainly in Lower Saxony, however, this origin of the name has not been proven. A German writer has suggested that the name is likely to derive from the village of Tolkynen near Rastenburg. Although that village is far from Lower Saxony, its name is derived from the now-extinct Old Prussian language. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892 in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State to Arthur Reuel Tolkien, an English bank manager, the couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank for which he worked. Tolkien had one sibling, his brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel. In another incident, a family servant, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off. When he was three, he went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them and this left the family without an income, so Tolkiens mother took him to live with her parents in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole, then a Worcestershire village, Mabel Tolkien taught her two children at home. Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil and she taught him a great deal of botany and awakened in him the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his lessons were those concerning languages

35.
English people
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The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age

36.
English literature
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However, until the early 19th century, it only deals with the literature of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It does not include literature written in the languages of Britain. The English language has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years, the earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible as well as the Great Vowel Shift. Through the influence of the British Empire, the English language has spread around the world since the 17th century. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English, from the 9th century, that chronicle the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is a work of uncertain date, celebrating the Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Oral tradition was strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national status in England. The only surviving manuscript is the Nowell Codex, the date of which is debated. Beowulf is the title, and its composition is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, and it is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language. The poem, The Dream of the Rood, was inscribed upon the Ruthwell Cross, Two Old English poems from the late 10th century are The Wanderer and The Seafarer. Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts, the longest is King Alfreds 9th-century translation of Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the language of courts, parliament

37.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic

38.
Philology
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Philology is the study of language in written historical sources, it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist, in older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics. Indo-European studies involves the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages, Philology, with its focus on historical development, is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussures insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. The contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and Chomskyan linguistics alongside its emphasis on syntax, the term changed little with the Latin philologia, and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French philologie, in the sense of love of literature. The adjective φιλόλογος meant fond of discussion or argument, talkative, in Hellenistic Greek also implying an excessive preference of argument over the love of true wisdom, as an allegory of literary erudition, Philologia appears in 5th-century post-classical literature, an idea revived in Late Medieval literature. The meaning of love of learning and literature was narrowed to the study of the development of languages in 19th-century usage of the term. Most continental European countries still maintain the term to designate departments, colleges, position titles, J. R. R. Tolkien opposed the nationalist reaction against philological practices, claiming that the philological instinct was universal as is the use of language. Based on the critique of Friedrich Nietzsche, US scholars since the 1980s have viewed philology as responsible for a narrowly scientistic study of language. The comparative linguistics branch of philology studies the relationship between languages, similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 16th century and led to speculation of a common ancestor language from which all these descended. Philology also includes the study of texts and their history and it includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an authors original text based on variant copies of manuscripts. Since that time, the principles of textual criticism have been improved and applied to other widely distributed texts such as the Bible. Scholars have tried to reconstruct the original readings of the Bible from the manuscript variants and this method was applied to Classical Studies and to medieval texts as a way to reconstruct the authors original work. A related study method known as higher criticism studies the authorship, date, as these philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, there is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics. When text has a significant political or religious influence, scholars have difficulty reaching objective conclusions, some scholars avoid all critical methods of textual philology, especially in historical linguistics, where it is important to study the actual recorded materials. Supporters of New Philology insist on a diplomatic approach, a faithful rendering of the text exactly as found in the manuscript. Another branch of philology, cognitive philology, studies written and oral texts and this science compares the results of textual science with the results of experimental research of both psychology and artificial intelligence production systems. In the case of Bronze Age literature, philology includes the prior decipherment of the language under study and this has notably been the case with the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages

39.
High fantasy
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High fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy, defined either by its setting in a fictional universe or by the epic stature of its characters, themes, and plot. The term high fantasy was coined by Lloyd Alexander in a 1971 essay, High Fantasy, High fantasy is defined as fantasy set in an alternative, fictional world, rather than the real, or primary world. The secondary world is usually consistent, but its rules differ from those of the primary world. By contrast, low fantasy is characterized by being set in the primary, or real world, or a rational and familiar fictional world, with the inclusion of magical elements. The romances of William Morris, such as The Well at the Worlds End, the works of J. R. R. Tolkien—especially The Lord of the Rings—are regarded as archetypal works of high fantasy. Stephen R. Donaldsons The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant is another example of a fantasy series. Many high fantasy stories are told from the viewpoint of one main hero, often, much of the plot revolves around his or her heritage or mysterious nature. In many novels the hero is an orphan or unusual sibling and he or she begins the story young, if not as an actual child. In other works the hero is a completely developed individual with a unique character, the hero often begins as a childlike figure, but matures rapidly, experiencing a huge gain in fighting/problem-solving abilities along the way. The plot of the story depicts the heros fight against the evil forces as a Bildungsroman. In many books there is a knowing, mystical mentor/teacher and this character is often a formidable wizard or warrior, who provides the main character with advice and help. In some books, there is also a mysterious Dark Lord, often obsessed with taking over the world and this character is an evil wizard or sorcerer, or sometimes a kind of god or demon. This character commands an army and a group of highly feared servants. In some works the villain may have had a predecessor/s who might have been superior or inferior to them, the progress of the story leads to the character learning the nature of the unknown forces against him, that they constitute a force with great power and malevolence. The good versus evil fighting against each other is a concept in high fantasy. Indeed, the importance of the concepts of good and evil can be regarded as the distinguishing mark between high fantasy and sword and sorcery. Many early video game developers played Dungeons and Dragons in their free time, some developers were influenced by its pre-made worlds instead, the most popular of which were high fantasy settings. As a result, one game series such as Warcraft are included in the high fantasy

40.
The Hobbit
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The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a childrens fantasy novel by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published on 21 September 1937 to wide acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal. The book remains popular and is recognized as a classic in childrens literature. The Hobbit is set in a time between the Dawn of Færie and the Dominion of Men, and follows the quest of home-loving hobbit Bilbo Baggins to win a share of the treasure guarded by Smaug the dragon. Bilbos journey takes him from light-hearted, rural surroundings into more sinister territory, the story is told in the form of an episodic quest, and most chapters introduce a specific creature or type of creature of Tolkiens geography. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey, the story reaches its climax in the Battle of the Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story and these themes have led critics to view Tolkiens own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story. The authors scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in fairy tales are often noted as influences, the publisher was encouraged by the books critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkiens work progressed on the successor The Lord of the Rings and these few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkiens changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled, the work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games, several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits. Bilbo Baggins, the titular protagonist, is a respectable, reserved hobbit, during his adventure, Bilbo often refers to the contents of his larder at home and wishes he had more food. Until he finds a ring, he is more baggage than help. Gandalf, an itinerant wizard, introduces Bilbo to a company of thirteen dwarves, during the journey the wizard disappears on side errands dimly hinted at, only to appear again at key moments in the story. Smaug is a dragon who long ago pillaged the kingdom of Thorins grandfather. Gandalf tricks Bilbo into hosting a party for Thorin and his band of dwarves, when the music ends, Gandalf unveils a map showing a secret door into the Mountain and proposes that the dumbfounded Bilbo serve as the expeditions burglar. The dwarves ridicule the idea, but Bilbo, indignant, joins despite himself, the group travels into the wild, where Gandalf saves the company from trolls and leads them to Rivendell, where Elrond reveals more secrets from the map. Passing over the Misty Mountains, they are caught by goblins, although Gandalf rescues them, Bilbo gets separated from the others as they flee the goblins

41.
The Lord of the Rings
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The Lord of the Rings is an epic high-fantasy novel written by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. The story began as a sequel to Tolkiens 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit, written in stages between 1937 and 1949, The Lord of the Rings is one of the best-selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold. The work was intended by Tolkien to be one volume of a two-volume set, the other to be The Silmarillion. For economic reasons The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes over the course of a year from 29 July 1954 to 20 October 1955, the three volumes were titled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. Structurally, the novel is divided internally into six books, two per volume, with appendices of background material included at the end of the third volume. Some editions combine the work into a single volume. The Lord of the Rings has since been reprinted numerous times, Tolkiens work has been the subject of extensive analysis of its themes and origins. Although a major work in itself, the story was only the last movement of a larger epic Tolkien had worked on since 1917 and these inspirations and themes have often been denied by Tolkien himself. The Lord of the Rings has inspired, and continues to inspire, artwork, music, films and television, video games, award-winning adaptations of The Lord of the Rings have been made for radio, theatre, and film. In 2003, it was named Britains best-loved novel of all time in the BBCs The Big Read, Sauron was defeated by an alliance of Elves and Men led by Gil-galad and Elendil, respectively. Isildur, son of Elendil, cut the One Ring from Saurons finger, Isildur claimed the Ring as an heirloom for his line, but when he was later ambushed and killed by the Orcs, the Ring was lost in the River Anduin at Gladden Fields. Over two thousand years later, the Ring was found by one of the river-folk called Déagol and his friend Sméagol fell under the Rings influence and strangled Déagol to acquire it. Sméagol was banished and hid under the Misty Mountains, the Ring gave him long life and changed him over hundreds of years into a twisted, corrupted creature called Gollum. Gollum lost the Ring, his precious, and as told in The Hobbit, meanwhile, Sauron assumed a new form and took back his old realm of Mordor. When Gollum set out in search of the Ring, he was captured and tortured by Sauron, Sauron learned from Gollum that Baggins of the Shire had taken the Ring. Sauron, who needed the Ring to regain his power, sent forth his powerful servants. The story begins in the Shire, where the hobbit Frodo Baggins inherits the Ring from Bilbo Baggins, his cousin, neither hobbit is aware of the Rings nature, but Gandalf the Grey, a wizard and an old friend of Bilbo, suspects it to be Saurons Ring. After Gandalf confirms his suspicions, he tells Frodo the history of the Ring, Frodo leaves the Shire, in the company of his gardener and friend, Samwise Gamgee, and two cousins, Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, and Peregrin Took, called Pippin

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