The Arabs are a Semitic people from south-western Asia. A number of Semitic peoples and civilizations have flourished in this region over a period of several thousand years. Various groups such as the Canaanites, the Arameans and the Akkadians built their cities in Mesopotamia, the Levant and the northern Arabian Peninsula. They have migrated here and there and have interbred. At various times, many of their people either came from what is now northern Saudi Arabia and nearby areas or later settled there. For example, the Akkadians, who set up an empire in central Mesopotamia which peaked in the 22nd to 24th centuries BCE, had originally migrated from the Arabian Peninsula.

The first known reference to the word “Arab” came in 853 BCE when an Assyrian scribe told of how the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III defeated king Gindibu at the Battle of Karkar in that year. The beaten king was said to have come from “matu arbai”, which means Arab land. Gindibu was one of a coalition of 12 kings and their forces, and the Assyrian king was eventually defeated by them. Some of the names of those who fought in this battle are tied to proto-Arabic dialects. Words such as Arabi, Arubu and Aribi soon appeared in Assyrian writings, while the Hebrew Bible refers to the Arvi people. All these words mean Arab or Arabian and probably referred to the desert tribes of Semitic peoples in northern Arabia and Syria.

Evidence of the emergence of the Arabs in northern Arabia is found in a number of texts and inscriptions from the 8th century BCE onwards. Several language or cultural groups of Arabs evolved and lived in northern Arabia and nearby areas, a region known for its busy trading routes and high migration. The Lihyan people lived in north-western Arabia until about 400 BCE. The Thamudic people (not to be confused with the Thamuds of southern Arabia) lived in northern parts of Arabia and the Sinai from around this time until the 3rd or 4th century CE. Meanwhile, the Hasaitic people lived in eastern Arabia in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. The Safaitic people lived in north-western and north central Arabia as well as nearby areas in Syria and Jordan from about the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.

Another Arab group, the Nabataeans, lived in southern Jordan and northern Arabia from about 300 BCE, establishing a trade network in a region where the Edomites had previously lived for centuries. They had agriculture, permanent dwellings and made wine. Trajan annexed the Nabataean Kingdom to Rome around 107 CE, and in the 4th century they converted to Christianity. The Qahtanite Arabs from southern Arabia and Yemen, where there was far less migration and intermixing than in the north, took over the remnants of the kingdom and the land was divided among the Arab kingdoms of the Byzantines, Ghassanids, Himyarites and Kindahs.

Many historians put the Arabs into three broad groups around this time: the ‘perishing Arabs’, which include various tribes who disappeared through invasion, assimilation or decadence; ‘pure Arabs,’ who were the Qahtanites; and their rivals, the ‘Arabized Arabs,’ who were the Adnani Arabs of the northern, central and western parts of the peninsula and descended from Adnan. Whether the Adnani were Arabized or the original Arabs is contentious. Many scholars consider them as the original Arabs, who included the nomadic Bedouin who had lived in the area from time immemorial. According to Muhammad, his ancestor Ishmael, who is the son of Abraham and an ancestor of Adnan, was the first to speak Arabic.

The Qahtanites were supposedly descended from Qahtan, who is thought to be the biblical Joktan, a descendant of Shem, who is an ancestor of Abraham. This would mean the two Arab groups are related. The Qahanites consist of two subgroups: the Himyar and the Kahlan. The various nomadic Kahlan tribes were forced out by the settled and stronger Himyar tribes and migrated to Mesopotamia and Syria in the 3rd century CE. The Himyarite Kingdom dates from 110 BCE and was the dominant group in Arabia until 525 CE. It was an agricultural society with strong trade links with eastern Africa and the Mediterranean, mainly the Roman Empire. However, the strength of Nabataean trade, Roman superiority and intertribal fighting led to disunity and decline. In the 5th century, a number of its kings converted to Judaism and by the 6th and 7th centuries, the religion flourished in Himyar.

In 613 CE, merchant, shepherd and prophet Muhammad from the Arabian city of Mecca started teaching his revelations from God, but was met with hostility. He moved to Medina in 622 and united the tribes. His followers grew to 10,000 and conquered Mecca in 630. By the time of his death in 632, he had united the warring Arab tribes, and most of the peninsula had converted to Islam. In the following century, the Arabs took their message well beyond Arabia, expanding by a series of Islamic conquests to create a vast Muslim Empire that extended from western India to the Iberian Peninsula, and included central Asia, the Middle East and northern Africa.

Today, the Arabs and their influence have extended around the world. Arabian is the official language of Saudi Arabia and several other Middle Eastern countries and much of northern Africa. It is one of the official languages of Iraq and several countries in northern and eastern Africa. Millions of Arabs live in countries such as Brazil, France, Argentina, Iran and the US.

Precious stones were highly regarded in ancient times. The Scriptures tell us that people used them in necklaces, rings and bracelets. Royalty had crowns laced with gems and their gowns were often adorned with them. Gemstones were highly sought after, often for their arresting qualities such as their brilliant colors. When the Israelites left their land, they took large quantities of stones with them. When they were in Palestine, they bought stones from the caravans that came from the East.

Due to difficulties in translating early versions of the Bible, we are not always sure which stones are being referred to. The ancients didn’t identify stones by their composition or crystalling form but from their color or use, or where they came from. This means that any analysis of particular gemstones in the Bible could be open to interpretation. This factor should be kept in mind when discussing the various stones mentioned in the Bible.

There are many biblical references to gemstones but the most important are considered to be those in Aaron’s breastplate (Exodus 28: 15-20 and 39:10-13), the stones in the foundations of the wall of New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:18-21) and the precious stones that were among the King of Tyre’s treasures (Ezekiel 28:13).

Aaron was Moses’ brother and led the tribe of the high priests. His breastplate is one of the earliest accounts of an array of gemstones as decoration and symbols. It is described in the Bible as the breastplate of judgment or decision. It had twelve precious gems, one for each of the Israelite tribes, and was inscribed with their names. The stones were set in four rows: a sardius, topaz and carbuncle in the first row; an emerald, sapphire and diamond in the second; a ligure, agate and amethyst in the third; and a beryl, onyx and jasper in the fourth row. Each stone was set with an ouch, or clasp or buckle, of gold.

From the time of Aaron in the 13th century BCE, high priests wore a breastplate or gorget of cloth similar to that worn by Aaron. The priests wore these garments whenever they were communicating with God over the course the Israelites should take. Josephus felt that the breastplate represented the earth, and the priest’s girdle as the ocean that went around it. He took the twelve stones to be the months or Zodiac signs. The priests’ bells and pomegranates represented thunder and lighting, and their headdress signified heaven.

After Solomon’s temple was destroyed and the Jews were taken captive to Babylon in the 6th century BCE, they always hoped for Jerusalem’s restoration. Successive foundations of the wall of New Jerusalem were garnished with various precious stones. From the first foundation to the twelfth foundation, stones used were jasper, sapphire, chalcedony, emerald, sardonyx, sardius, chrysolyte, beryl, topaz, chrysoprasus, jacinth and amethyst respectively. The wall itself was made of jasper. The stones are very similar to those worn by Aaron and successive high priests.

Regarding the treasures of Hiram I, 10th century BCE king of Tyre, Ezekiel (28:13) describes the Garden of Eden as having “every precious stone”, including beryl, carbuncle, diamond, emerald, gold, jasper, onyx, sapphire, sardius and topaz, and that “the workmanship of thy tablets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou was created”. Tyre was the center of a large trading empire which traded with Egypt, Arabia and Mesopotamia and the king became quite rich. Hiram helped Solomon build his temple.

Let’s now turn to the major individual precious stones mentioned in these biblical references and the significance of each gem, in alphabetical order:

– Agate was the second stone in the third row of the breastplate and thought to represent the Aser tribe of the Israelites. The stone was associated with health, longevity and wealth. It was brought to Palestine by merchants from places such as Babylonia, Persia, Saba and Reema in their caravans (Ezekiel 27:22). Agate was considered to have medicinal powers into the Middle Ages, supposedly countering poisons, contagious diseases and fever. Agate comes in various bright colors. Red agate was meant to improve eyesight.

– Amethyst represents the Issachar tribe. It appears in the breastplate, the wall foundations, and among the king’s treasure. This stone was thought to prevent intoxication. Drinkers would wear an amulet of amethyst for this reason. It is supposed to provide deep and pure love. It is a brilliant purple, close to the color of red wine.

– Beryl is thought to represent the Nephtali tribe and is in the breastplate and the wall foundations. It can be pale blue to yellowy green, although it can also be white or rose. It relates to happiness and everlasting youth.

– Carbuncle relates to the tribe of Juda, is in the top row in the breastplate, and in the King of Tyre’s treasure. It is a glittering red color. Holding it up to the sun makes it look like burning coal.

– Carnelian is a blood red color or it can be a pale skin color, and is in the first stone (sard) in the breastplate. It also appears in the king’s treasure, and in the celestial city’s wall foundations. Carnelian was an important stone in preventing misfortune.

– Chalcedony is one of the stones in the wall foundations. It is milky or grayish in color and is translucent. It was supposed to get rid of depression.

– Chrysolyte belongs to the tribe of Zabulon. It is a stone in the foundations of the wall. Orangey yellow in color, it gladened the heart, helped people get over a fear of the dark, and drove away the devil. It was supposed to cure eye diseases.

– Chrysoprasus is a green agate and is a foundation stone.

– Diamond was in the breastplate and one of the precious stones in the king’s treasure. It signifies purity, preserves peace and prevents storms.

– Emerald is represented by the tribe of Levy. It is in the breastplate, the wall foundations and the Tyre treasures. It glitters and is a brilliant green. Emerald is actually a green beryl. It was supposed to preserve or restore sight. It signifies immortality and incorruptibility.

– Hyacinth is a foundation stone. It is reddish-orange in color and gave second sight.

– Jasper is in the breastplate and represents the Benjamin tribe. The New Jerusalem wall itself was made of jasper. It is opaque, comes in most colors, and gives courage and wisdom.

– Ligurus is a stone in the breastplate and the wall foundations, and relates to the tribe of Gad.

– Onyx appears in the breastplate and belongs to the Joseph tribe. It relates to marital happiness. Its color is white and black, and sometimes includes brown.

– Sapphire is found in the breastplate, wall foundations and king’s treasure. It represents the Dan tribe. It is a beautiful blue color and promotes constancy, truth and virtue.

– Topaz also features in all three of the important biblical references to precious stones. It signifies friendship and happiness.

There are various other biblical references to the gemstones found in the priests’ breastplate, New Jerusalem’s wall foundations, and the King of Tyre’s treasures, as well as to other stones, but these three and their stones are generally regarded as the most important.

Here is the last of four articles on Islam I wrote some time ago and published to the Helium writing site (now gone). Islam is a religion of peace and it seems that the views and actions of the terrorists are the complete opposite of this. I’m an atheist, by the way. I should perhaps also add here that I’m a non-drinker …

Drinking alcohol is forbidden by Islam because of the damage it can and does cause. From the early days of Islam, Muslims have abstained from alcohol. Muhammad was opposed to alcohol and there are a number of verses in the Quran warning of the dangers. The word “alcohol” actually comes from the Arabic language. Al-kohl means fermented sugars, fruits or grains that produce an intoxicating drink. The drink itself is called khamr.

Alcohol was readily available in pre-Islamic Arabia, and khmar bars and shops were open 24 hours a day. Arabic society featured tribal fighting, tribal laws, murder, cruelty, exploitation, theft, adultery, prostitution, women treated like slaves, neglected children, and broken homes, while the menfolk were excessively proud, competitive and ruthless. These factors were associated with and often made worse by heavy drinking. Muhammad’s reforms and the Quran helped to change this situation. He told his followers to avoid intoxicating substances: “If it intoxicates in a large amount, it is forbidden even in a small amount.” He also said: “Prayer is the pillage of religion. The one who performs it has erected religion and the one who abandons it has ruined (his) religion.”

One of the early Quranic verses on alcohol said: “And from the fruit of the date-palm and the vine ye get out wholesome drink and food: behold in this also is a sign for those who are wise.” (16:67) This caused some Muslims to wonder if drinking khamr was right. Another early verse said: “They ask thee concerning wine and gambling, say: In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit …” (2:219). This led to a further reduction in drinking. A third mention of alcohol said: “O ye who believe! Approach not prayers with a mind befogged, until ye can understand all that ye say …” (4:43). Muslims pray five times daily and prayers are spread throughout the day, so it became impossible to drink much alcohol and adhere to their faith.

Another verse was soon added: “The devil wants only to cast among you enmity and hatred by means of strong drink and games of chance and to turn you from remembering Allah and from prayer. Will you then desist?” (5:90-91) This verse was the turning point that resulted in total prohibition, and Muslims poured their wine into the streets. Prohibition helped turn a lawless society into a safe and caring one. Mohammad ensured that divine law overrode customary law, women and children were given rights, infanticide was outlawed, a system of law and order was put in place, religious freedoms were granted, aristocratic privilege was denounced, and family values were put in place. Alcohol was no longer needed to try and be happy or relieve stress or drown sorrows in a caring society.

Alcohol affects every part of the body, every organ, since it enters the bloodstream and thereby circulates throughout the body. It is a depressant, slowing down the nervous system. It goes to the stomach, into the blood and to the liver where it turns into acetaldehyde, which is a poison that can damage the brain. A hangover is the effect of acetaldehyde poisoning. With alcohol, we get less nutrition from food as we are less able to absorb nutrients. Alcohol accelerates the aging process. It makes us look older too, with facial features deteriorating quicker.

The risk of cancer of the liver increases with alcohol. The liver processes toxic substances in our body and works overtime in heavy drinkers. Alcohol increases fatty liver and can lead to more serious conditions such as alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver. US research found that 10-35% of heavy drinkers end up with alcoholic hepatitis and 10-20% get cirrhosis of the liver. Cirrhosis can also occur in moderate drinkers. In a New York study, people drinking moderate to heavy amounts of alcohol increased their liver fat by an average of 8% in 18 days. If you’re burning alcohol, you’re not burning fat. An increase in liver fat can lead to cirrhosis. Further, alcohol can increase the chances of a cancer causing enzyme occurring in the liver by 5-10 times. Alcohol can cause others cancers, especially in the upper digestive tract.

Heavy drinking by women can cause periods to stop or become irregular, and there is a greater risk of miscarriage. A study showed that menstrual cycle problems can even be present in women who consume three drinks a day for three weeks. Another study found an 11% increase in breast cancer for women consuming just one drink a day. Alcohol can result in a loss of calcium in bones, and osteoporosis can occur, especially in women. Heavy drinking can affect an unborn baby, including physical abnormalities, slower growth and delayed development. Fetal alcohol syndrome can result in a child suffering mental retardation, poor concentration, microcephaly, poor teeth, epicanthus, heart valve lesions, and restricted joint movement.

Alcohol can affect reproductive hormones. A four week study showed that heavy drinking reduces testosterone levels after five days, and they kept falling over the four weeks. Long-term deficiency can lead to male breast enlargement. A Finnish study found that males who drank 13-25 drinks a week had a fourfold increase in likelihood of stroke. Alcohol can cause high blood pressure and heart failure. It is estimated that high blood pressure in 11% of males and in 6% of females is attributed to alcohol. Heavy drinking clogs the arteries, and the heart becomes larger as it loses its elasticity and suffers a build up of fat.

Mental health can be affected by alcohol, including psychosis, dementia, depression and anxiety. Brain shrinkage can occur and it seems to happen in that part of the brain associated with intellectual capacity. US studies show that young binge drinkers and women are particularly affected in this regard. People who drink rather than eat can suffer low vitamin B (thiamin), which can lead to a form of brain damage called Korsakoff’s syndrome with its memory loss, apathy and confusion.

The US National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism says that “alcohol is typically found in the offender, victim or both in about half of all homicides and serious assaults, as well as in a high percentage of sex-related crimes, robberies, and incidents of domestic violence, and alcohol-related problems are disproportionately found among juvenile and adult criminal offenders”. Alcohol is a major cause of road and other accidents, often causing death and injury. It directly or indirectly causes an estimated 100,000 deaths in the US a year, and over six million kids under 18 have an alcoholic parent. Alcohol abuse also contributes to absenteeism and lost production. It can lead to unsafe sex, resulting in possible disease and unwanted pregnancies.

Some wine surveys conclude that people who drink 1-2 glasses a day are healthier than those who abstain. What they don’t tell us is that the group who abstains includes people who chose not to drink because they are less robust and have less tolerance to alcohol in any case. In other words, take the alcohol out of the equation and the 1-2 glasses a day people are healthier to start with. Muslims would regard that even if 1-2 glasses is okay, the damage done by alcohol, especially in the long term, exceeds any benefit.

A US study estimated the cost of alcohol abuse to be $167 billion in 1995, which exceeded the estimated cost of illegal drug use of $110 billion. Allowing for inflation and population increase, alcohol abuse is probably now costing the US well over $200 billion a year.

It’s no wonder Islam prohibits alcohol. It is also easy to see why the prohibition movement in Western societies was quite strong in the early twentieth century. If legislators could have their time again, alcohol might never have been legalized, but perhaps grouped with other illegal drugs.