Volcanoes are natural Earth structures that occur when Earth’s tectonic plates (see the “Plate Tectonics” post) converge or diverge, pushing rock up into a mountainous shape and creating a rupture for magma from the mantle to escape to the surface. The word “volcano” comes from “Vulcano”, a volcanic island, which in turn is named after Vulcan, the Roman mythological god of fire and forges.

My dad, my younger brothers and I with Mount Rainier in the background. Mount Rainier is one of the 16 Decade Volcanoes, and is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world.

Structure of Volcanoes: Volcanoes are divided into multiple parts. Beneath the primary volcano structure is the magma chamber. This is the reservoir of magma that is pushed up during an eruption. The conduit is the tunnel structure that magma is pushed up through when the volcano erupts. Dikes are offshoots of the main conduit that lead into sills, small chambers of contained magma, or into a parasitic cone, a secondary escape point for magma. The throat of a volcano is where the conduit widens slightly to allow the magma to exit through the vent, the primary escape point for magma. The vent is usually enclosed by a crater. The sides of a volcano are called flanks, and are covered by layers of lava and ash after an eruption.

Types of Volcanoes: There are multiple types of volcanoes. The most iconic type, composite volcanoes (also known as stratovolcanoes), are tall, conical mountains that erupt violently. Shield volcanoes are extremely wide volcanoes that are wider than they are tall. They resemble a warrior’s shield lying on the ground. Fissure vents are simply cracks in the Earth from which magma emerges. Lava domes are dome-shaped structures often formed after an eruption and serve as the main eruption point from that point on. Mount Saint Helens, which erupted violently in 1980, completely altering the landscape around it, is a prime example of a lava dome. Cinder cones are, as the name suggests, small conical structures that usually erupt only once. Supervolcanoes are colossal and extremely dangerous volcanoes, usually with large calderas, that have cataclysmic eruptions but luckily have very long time spans between eruptions. The range of ash clouds from a supervolcano eruption can threaten the entire continent they are part of. Yellowstone Caldera is an example of a supervolcano. Submarine volcanoes and subglacial volcanoes form on the ocean floor and beneath glaciers, respectively.

Post-eruption Mount Saint Helens, with a clearly visible lava dome surrounded by a volcanic crater. It is emitting a steam cloud.

Eruption: When a volcano erupts, it releases a number of things. When magma reaches the surface, it is termed lava, to avoid confusion with the magma in the Earth’s mantle. Lava may flow down the sides of the volcano. There are three main types of lava. Pahoehoe (pronounced “pa-hoy-hoy”) lava is smooth and fluid lava. A’a (pronounced “Ah-ah”) lava is slow moving, glowing and extremely viscous lava. Pillow lava is formed by underwater eruptions, where lava quickly cools upon contact with water and forms pillow-like shapes. Contrary to popular belief, lava is not the most hazardous output of volcano eruptions. In fact, ash clouds are the most dangerous thing to be expelled from a volcano. Ash can pollute air, making it unbreathable, as well as warm up the upper atmosphere and block out sunlight. Hot particles suspended in ash clouds can also partially melt airplane turbines, hampering their ability to function correctly. Landslides caused by lava eruptions can enter rivers to for extremely hazardous lahar flows, which are large, mudslide-like flows where mounds of dirt, rock and ash are carried by water. Mount Rainier, one of the 16 dangerous Decade Volcanoes, could produce very dangerous lahar flows that could flood the entire Puyallup River Valley in Washington State if it erupted.

A virus (Latin for “poison”) is a microscopic infectious entity that manipulates host cells to survive, often causing adverse effects in the host when infected. Viruses are responsible for some of the worst and most well-known diseases, including AIDS and hepatitis. Some viruses also cause less severe effects, such as rhinovirus, the most common cause of the common cold. In the following, I will explain viruses and their effects on living organisms in detail.

A rotavirus.

Structure of Viruses: Most viruses are extremely small, even smaller than biological cells. Their bodies consist of a strand of DNA or RNA (see the “Genetics” post) that is surrounded by a protein “envelope” called a capsid. Some viruses are surrounded by an additional layer of lipids. Viruses can come in a variety of shapes, ranging from simple helices to complex icosahedrons. Infection and Replication: Viruses require host cells in order to survive and replicate themselves. Viruses must undergo a series of processes in order to access a cell. The first step is attachment, where the proteins making up the capsid interact with a specific “receptor” chemical on the surface of a cell. This allows the virus to stick to the outside of the host cell. The next step is penetration, where the virus enters the host cell. This can be done in a number of ways, but the most common method is absorption by the host cell either through endocytosis (the cell absorbs the virus as a molecule) or membrane fusion. Once inside, a virus is uncoated, meaning its capsid is removed. This can be done by viral or host enzymes. Some viruses don’t bring their capsid inside at all. Certain bacteriophages actually “park” their capsid outside the cell and enter as pure genetic material. The final stage is replication, where the virus assumes control of its host. This is done by creating RNA strands that act as instructions for the host’s ribosomes. These strands direct the cell’s organelles to produce virus-specific proteins, turning the cell into a virus factory. Once enough copies have been produced, the viruses exit the host cell and spread to other cells, infecting more and more until an entire army of viruses has been massed. At this point, adverse effects begin to become noticeable.

A diagram illustrating a typical virus replication cycle.

Effects on Host: Most viruses cause negative effects to their host cells. By reprogramming the organelles inside a cell, it is no longer capable of producing proteins that the body needs, instead only helping the viruses. When enough cells have been infected, the effect on the entire body becomes apparent. However, cells are not helpless. Most cells have the ability to undergo lysis, or “programmed cell death”, where the cell bursts its own membrane and kills itself and the viruses within. Cells that “commit suicide” do so to combat the spread of infection. The body’s immune system is also a powerful mechanism to defeat viruses. For more information on how the immune system helps, see the “Immune System” post. Classification: There is considerable scientific debate about whether or not viruses should be classified as living organisms. Some scientists say that the fact that viruses have genes is qualification enough to be classified as life in a fourth domain (alongside Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea). Others say that the fact that viruses cannot replicate outside of a host cell and don’t have their own cellular structure qualifies them as non-organic beings. Personally, I believe they should be considered living organisms in a domain of “non-cellular life”.

Connor entered the laboratory where George Darmas and a team of scientists eagerly awaited him. Four scientists were staring at their computer monitors, not showing any intent of halting their research to greet their superior. The remaining scientists, including Darmas, turned to face Connor. “Sir, we have found something extraordinary! Our people in the SLASD have extracted a unique sample from-” “Hold on there, George, slow down. What did the SLASD find?” Connor interjected. “Sorry sir, it’s just so exciting! When their automated probes began exploring the Oort Cloud’s outer regions, they found that some kind of self-replicating substance had been frozen in one of the larger ice chunks. The first probe returned less than an hour ago with our first sample!” Darmas explained. “Well where is it then?” Connor asked. “Because it is capable of self-replication, and we don’t quite understand what substance it is, it is in a secure vault. But we have remote microscopes that we can use from these computers. Atlas, activate the view screen.” Darmas said. Atlas complied, manipulating the wall panels on Connor’s right, shifting to allow a large screen to move in. The lights automatically flickered off, and the screen came to life. Several different values, animations, and images appeared. A strand of DNA, a breakdown of carbon atoms, and some kind of neural web were all displayed on the screen.

“As you can see, this is like some sort of leviathan virus capable of self-replication” Darmas said. “Sir, the sample just started replicating rapidly!” One of the scientists seated at a computer said to Darmas. “What? How?” Darmas said in surprise. A loud static sound blasted out the speakers, mildly startling Connor. “Sir, it’s emitting some kind of radiation. Our sensors aren’t functional!” Another scientist exclaimed. “Warning: Vault A534 air pressure rising to critical levels. Structural failure will occur in -FIVE- minutes minus eight seconds” Atlas said over the intercom. “Atlas! Secure that vault!” Connor ordered. “Cannot comply. The increased air pressure has damaged my connection to the vault’s systems. Manual input is now required to restore vault integrity.” Atlas responded. Without saying a word, everyone in the room bolted out and sprinted towards the vault.

The team was too late. The vault’s door burst open mere second after the scientists arrived. But, quite contrary to former evidence, the vault appeared empty. “Atlas? What’s going on? Where’s the sample?” Connor asked frantically. “Scanning……. unknown. A significant gravitational disturbance is present in the vault. The signature of this disturbance is nearly identical to that of our own space-warp technology” Atlas responded. “Are you telling me that thing can influence space and time?” Darmas said in disbelief. “The evidence supports that hypothesis. My scans have detected abnormal biological readings coming from the biology labs” Atlas responded. “We’d better hurry before that stuff causes serious damage, so come on!” Connor ordered. “Attention security personnel: this facility is now under yellow level security. Remain alert, and shoot any abnormal substances or creatures on sight.” Atlas announced.

Connor, Darmas, and the rest of the scientists arrived in time to see a helpless biologist hurled across the room by a gargantuan, bipedal beast. Connor immediately activated his communicator to call for security and medical squads upon seeing the woman slam into the wall. The beast was covered in fur, with ape-like features and large, somewhat over sized hands and feet. “Atlas, what is that thing?!” Connor asked frantically. “Organism does not match any known creature. Scans suggest that it is a heavily mutated form of Gorilla beringei.” Atlas responded. “How can that be? Nothing can possibly change an organism’s genetic code that drastically and then force it to procreate, much less rapidly accelerate it’s growth without human support.” Connor argued. “That statement is likely to be false in this scenario. Recent analysis indicates that the substance, which I have categorized as EETS 299925, is now the most powerful mutagen in existence. It has taken control of the creature and heavily enhanced it’s combat prowess. Dispensing emergency armaments.” Atlas said, opening several wall panels that allowed robotic arms to hand loaded Gauss pistols to each scientist. “Open fire!” Connor ordered. Several shots hit the hulking creature, but it shrugged off the pain and ignored the wound, instead focusing on crushing the opposition. The monstrosity charged at the group, roaring fiercely. Connor managed to get a shot into the primate’s mouth, making it slightly whimper but not deterring it enough to halt it’s charge. The beast jumped towards the group, intent on pulverizing them. Just as it seemed like he was about to be squashed, Connor saw a self-propelled rocket soar above him. The projectile hit the mutant ape square in the chest, detonating a shell of explosive material and singing the beast. The loud noise made Connor’s ears ring, and the force generated was enough to knock the beast back. Connor turned to see a fully armed security team already opening fire on the downed beast with their high-tech coilguns. The security captain leading the squad approached Connor while his squad mates dealt with the creature. He was clad in a suit of powered armor, and Connor could make out the faint shimmer of an active energy shield surrounding the suit. “Are you alright, sir? Do you need medical attention?” the captain asked. “I’m fine. Have your men secure the labs while your medics tend to the wounded” Connor responded. “Yes sir” The captain affirmed. “Atlas, I want you to command the remaining probes that carry the substance to self-destruct. We can’t risk more of that stuff breaking out again” Connor ordered. “Affirmative, CEO” Atlas replied.

Out-of-Universe Information (Trivia):

The plot in this story is heavily inspired by the Metroid Prime video game series, which features Phazon, a heavily mutagenic and radioactive substance that seems to have a mind of it’s own. The Gorilla beringei mentioned by Atlas in this story is the scientific name for the eastern gorilla. “EETS” as used by Atlas to classify the unique substance is an acronym for “Exotic Extraterrestrial Substance” (the other variant of this is “EATS”, an acronym for “Exotic Artificial Substance”) Additionally, “299925” is a reference to the random Star Trek Stardate given by Sips (a member of the Yogscast, a popular YouTube broadcasting company) during his Dishonored game play through videoseries. Coilguns and Gauss weapons are weapons that work by accelerating projectiles along a magnetic rail to shoot them at high speeds towards opponents.

When stars begin to reach the end of their life cycle and start to run out of fuel, cataclysmic explosions called novas can occur. In the following, I will detail the phenomenon known as a nova. Before reading this, however, I recommend reading the “Stars” post for more information about a star’s life cycle.

When a star becomes a white dwarf in it’s life cycle, it begins running out of gases to use for nuclear fusion. The star becomes very dense, giving it a stronger gravitational pull. If a white dwarf is part of a binary system (two stars that orbit each other) with a larger star, the gravity of the white dwarf may accrete gases from it’s partner star. When the the gases reach the white dwarf, they immediately ignites, causing a massive nuclear explosion called a nova.

Supernovas:

A supernova is different from a nova because the explosion occurs on the entirety of the star. If a white dwarf gets close enough to a larger partner, the two may collide and cause an explosion with a force equal to about 10 octillion (that’s right, there is such a number) megatons of TNT. Supernovae are so bright that they outshine the galaxy they occur in for the duration they exist. Stellar collisions aren’t the only cause of supernovas, though. Some larger stars expand so much that their core can no longer produce enough energy to combat the crushing force of gravity, causing the star to eject it’s outer layers as a supernova. The remnant of a supernova is called a nebula. The supernova that formed the Crab Nebula was observed in the year 1054 by Chinese astronomers. Coincidentally, this supernova occurred on the 4th of July, making it a metaphorical “stellar firework”.

Hypernovas:

Scientists have theorized that a type of intensely powerful supernovas called hypernovas could occur, and how they could be the source of gamma ray bursts (powerful emissions of electromagnetic radiation).

Below is a short video detailing a theorized supernova that could have been a hypernova, along with hypothetical causes of the supernova.

The Sun is our star. All the planets, comets, asteroids, and other bodies in the Solar System orbit around it. It is responsible for giving us sunlight, solar power, photosynthesis, and warmth. In the following, I will explain the Sun in detail.

The Sun

Structure of the Sun:

It is impossible to directly view the interior of the Sun. This is because of two reasons: one, any person or machine would be incinerated upon going anywhere near the Sun, and two, it is almost impenetrable by electromagnetic radiation. However, thanks to helioseismology, astronomers have devised a hypothetical interior. The outermost layer is called the corona. The corona is an aura of hot gases and plasma that surrounds the Sun. The corona is actually much hotter than the Sun’s surface. The corona is the only part of the Sun that can be seen during a total solar eclipse (will be detailed in the “Syzygies” post). Deeper down is the chromosphere. The chromosphere cannot normally be seen because of the intense amount of light emitted by the photosphere below it, and can only be seen during a total solar eclipse. Even during a total solar eclipse, special equipment is required to see the chromosphere, which exhibits a reddish hue. As mentioned above, the photosphere lies beneath the chromosphere. The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun that can be seen with the naked eye. This layer is where light is emitted from the Sun into outer space. Below the photosphere is the convective zone. This is the region where heat and light from the core is transmitted through convection (see the “Energy Transfer and Transformation” post) to the outermost layers. The radiative zone lies just beneath the convective zone, and transmits heat and light through radiation. The center of the Sun is called the core. The core is made up of densely compacted gas and plasma. Here is where most of the light and heat in the Sun is produced via nuclear fusion (see the “Nuclear Fusion and Fission” post).

A labeled diagram of the Sun.

Solar Flares:

A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness and force accompanied by an ejection of mass from the Sun. The mass ejected is pushed with so much force that it reaches Earth in just two to three days. The force of a solar flare is equal to about 160,000,000,000 megatons of TNT.

A solar flare.

Solar Prominences:

A solar prominence is an ejection of mass from the Sun that forms a visible extension of the Sun. Solar prominences can last up to several months.

We know that the term “plant” is given to trees, flowers and grasses. But what exactly must an organism be to be considered a plant?

Several different plants.

Plants are living organisms that are primarily distinguished by their unique cell structure and their method of feeding. Plants make their own food through the process of photosynthesis (or chemosynthesis for abyssal plants). There are currently 9 known plant divisions, each of which I will describe briefly below.

Anthophyta:

Anthophytes, more commonly known as flowering plants, are the largest division of plant life. They are most notable for growing flowers which are pollinated to transfer genetic material in order to reproduce.

A pair of bees pollinating a flowering plant.

Anthocerotophyta:

This division contains hornworts, named for the unique horn-like structure they grow.

Bryophyta:

Bryophyta is the division containing mosses. Mosses are soft plants that grow in clumps on other plants such as trees or simply on man-made materials.

Marchantiophyta:

This large division is comprised of the liverworts. Liverworts are difficult to distinguish from mosses without the aid of microscope analysis or an experienced biologist.

Lycopodiophyta:

This division contains club mosses, ferns, and horsetails. These are vascular plants, meaning they have specialized cells that can transport water and nutrients to photosynthetic cells in the plant. This division is also the oldest known plant division.

Pinophyta:

A division of vascular plants (all of which are trees). Pinophytes are more commonly known as conifers, and store their genetic information in strobilli (pine cones). Cedar and pine trees are two of the most well-known representatives of this division.

A conifer forest.

Cycadophyta:

This division contains trees with a “crown” of stiff evergreen leaves at the top. Although cycads bear significant superficial resemblance to palm trees, they are only distantly related.

Ginkgophyta:

A nearly extinct division with only one surviving member. The surviving ginkgo trees are noted to have erratically shaped branches.

Gnetophyta:

A division including woody, seaweed-like plants that thrive on ocean beaches.

In geology, a rock is any solid conglomerate of minerals, mineraloids, or other naturally occurring materials. There are numerous different types of rocks on Earth.

Types of Rocks:

Rocks are divided into three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic, each of which will be described below.

Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks (from Latin Ignus, meaning “fire”) are rocks that are formed as the result of the cooling, solidification, and crystallization of magma. Igneous rocks can be extrusive or intrusive. Extrusive igneous rocks, sometimes called volcanic igneous rocks, always form on the surface of the Earth from lava flows. Intrusive rocks (also known as plutonic rocks), on the other hand, always form below the Earth’s surface. The time it takes for an igneous rock to cool down determines the size of it’s individual grains.

Sedimentary Rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are rocks that have been deposited by water flows. Siltstone is a common example of sedimentary rock.

Metamorphic Rocks:

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that are subjected to increased heat and pressure beneath the Earth’s surface. These conditions cause the rock to have drastically different properties than the rocks they formed from. Common metamorphic rocks include marble and serpentine.

The Rock Cycle:

All three types of rocks play a role in the Rock Cycle, a scientific process that causes all rocks to constantly turn into different forms. The cycle normally begins with magma. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also revert back into magma under the right conditions. Igneous rocks can be broken into sediments by weathering or erosion (will be explained in the “Weathering and Erosion” post). These sediments are then carried by water flows and deposited to form sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock, when put under intense heat and pressure, becomes metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock can either erode back into sedimentary rock, or melt into magma, where the cycle begins anew.

A diagram of the Rock Cycle.

Below is a song parody of Rascal Flatts’ “Life is a Highway”, that describes the rock cycle.