The final chapter covers the rich civilizations of the Americas. Greece. and the Pacific region. Divided into chapters according to region. traders exchanged goods for precious items that were used to create fine jewelry and costumes. and while it is sometimes possible to build up a detailed portrait of a culture.Warriors needed weapons and armor to help them defend their kingdoms. when people first started wearing clothes. Individual chapters are devoted to ancient Egypt. and both men and women liked to adorn themselves with jewelry and ornaments. they all have some factors in common. and Rome. People wore special costumes to worship their gods. to the collapse of the Roman Empire in the late fifth century CE. and the aim of this volume is simply to highlight major trends and to provide interesting examples. Although the cultures described in this book are extremely varied. The history of costume is a vast subject. who dressed in a dramatic way to show off his riches and power. but the book also focuses on the cultures of India. Most early civilizations had a strong ruler. Knowledge of ancient costume depends on surviving evidence (such as paintings and items of jewelry). the picture is far from complete for many civilizations.
. it outlines the early history of costume from prehistoric times to the emergence of the first cities. and surveys the succession of civilizations that grew up in the Middle East. eastern Asia. Once a society was reasonably settled.Introduction
This volume traces the history of costume from the last Ice Age.

who lived around 100. head lice.
belts.These were sometimes made from fur. people did wear fur boots. pointed stone was used to punch a line of holes along the edges of the leather pieces. trousers.000 and 114. although this could be very bulky.
T
Making Clothes
The first clothes were probably simple tunics. tied onto their feet and legs with leather laces.Chapter 1: Early People Prehistoric People
he hunters of the last Ice Age. which commonly infest human clothing. using sinew. evolved a new sub-species.The holes made it easier to pass a bone needle through the hide and sew the pieces together. and the earliest examples of clothing did not survive. To make clothing. there is no proof of when clothing first developed. animal hides were first pegged out on the ground and scraped clean. However. and added jewelry and ornaments made from shells.
6
. Recent DNA evidence indicates that some time between 30. string skirts. since the materials used to make clothing decay easily and rapidly. and cloaks. Then a sharp. were probably the first people to wear clothes. body lice. bones and feathers. Once the hides had been thoroughly stretched.
Prehistoric people wore simple clothes made from animal skins. using a sharpened animal bone or sharp-edged stone. More often the fur was removed from the animal hide. the leather was softened before being cut into suitable pieces for clothing. Then they were washed and stretched out taut to stop them from shrinking as they dried. which typically infest human hair. However.000 years ago.000 years ago.

who have followed the same basic way of life for thousands of years.They also appear to be wearing cloaks made from feathers. just as people have done for millions of years in Africa and Australia. archaeologists also study traditional groups. To help them reconstruct the practices of ancient people.
Body Paints
There is evidence that the early cave painters painted their bodies as well as their caves. Specialized tools for permanent tattooing dating from around 38. dancing figures wear deer antlers attached to their heads.The mammoth hunters of the Russian plains sewed seashells and feathers onto their tunics. suggesting that people decorated the bodies of the dead before they were buried.
Cave Paintings
Around 35.The painted. Scraps of leather clothing have been found in graves. and long wolves’ tails.
pigment have been discovered on bodies in graves. such as the aboriginals of Australia and the Inuit of Alaska. and experts believe that these figures were probably priests dressed as animals. Archaeologists believe that the mammoth hunters wore these decorations for religious ceremonies and dances. It is probable that people also used pigments to paint patterns on their own bodies. people began painting pictures on the walls of caves. and used ivory from mammoth tusks to make simple bracelets.They also made strings of beads from shells and animal teeth.
7
.000 years ago.Early People
Early Decorations
Evidence survives from around 30. Some of these early cave paintings depict semi-human creatures.000 years ago of hunters decorating their clothes. These very early carved and painted ornaments reflect an ancient tradition of jewelry making. while shells and teeth pierced with holes indicate that these objects once formed necklaces.Traces of red ocher
Where’s the Evidence?
Archaeologists draw on a range of different sources to build up a picture of the sort of clothes that very early people wore.000 years ago have been discovered in Europe.
Shells were one of the first materials to be made into jewelry.

and in some parts of the world people still use these natural dyes. while the madder root gives a rich scarlet.
Dyes from Nature
Early people colored their clothes with dyes made from earth. This painted plaque from the twelfth century BCE shows a woman from Nubia (in North Africa) and a man from Syria. while the bark and husks of walnut dye cloth a deep brown. Some lichens produce a green color. both dressed in colorful costumes. and bark. A type of clay called ocher produces warm reds. The indigo plant makes a deep blue. color and pattern were very important.First Civilizations
Even in the earliest civilizations. and yellows. flowers. oranges.
8
.

2334–c. spears. carefully trimmed to fall in two tiers.Their metalworkers became very skilled. They fought with long spears and wore pointed helmets.
9
. just to the north of Sumer. revealing that warriors wore their hair in an elaborate style: hanging down in curls around the ears.
Sumerian men paid a lot of attention to their hair.The production of cloth for export was very important to the economy and culture of ancient Sumeria. A golden helmet found in a royal tomb in the ancient city of Ur is engraved with hair and ears. who ruled the land of Akkad. and gold by heating metal ore and pouring it into molds. named Uttu.The Sumerians made another important discovery: by combining copper and tin. daggers. and by 3000 BCE it contained several large city-states. silver. In addition to his elaborate hairstyle. while dancers and musicians wore sleeveless robes with multi-tiered skirts. Soldiers wore knee-length tunics with scalloped hems and long cloaks fastened at the neck. and helmets. braided at the front. showing the elaborate hairstyle and carefully trimmed beard favored by the nobles of Sumer. 2284 BCE). producing engraved necklaces. The ancient Sumerians learned how to make objects from copper.Early People
Ancient Sumerians
One of the earliest civilizations in the Middle East was the kingdom of Sumer. which lay between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq. and more robust helmets.
A bronze head of King Sargon of Akkad. they created bronze.They even had a goddess of weaving and clothing. each ruled by a warlike king with his own army. a very strong alloy that could be used to make axes. and fastened in a knot at the back of the head. The ancient Sumerians wore colorful robes with scalloped hems. A similar braided hairstyle is shown in a bronze head of King Sargon (reigned c. Rulers had tall headdresses. the king also sported a splendid curled beard.The civilization began around 3500 BCE with a collection of villages.

semi-transparent cloth known as royal linen. ruled by powerful pharaohs.
Using Linen
In the hot and sunny climate of North Africa. Historians divide it into three main periods. the Middle. which was cool and easy to wear. Gradually. Both figures wear pleated robes of fine royal linen. Ordinary people wore simple clothes made from coarse. the ancient Egyptians did not need to wear heavy clothes. Clothing was made from linen. white. and the New Kingdom. unbleached linen. which in ancient times was also very humid.Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt Clothing and Jewelry
round 5000 BCE farming villages began to grow up around the Nile River in northern Africa. from around 3100 BCE.
A
An Egyptian pharaoh from the New Kingdom being anointed with oil by his queen.
Egyptian farmers. like the figures shown here. Linen thread was made from the beaten stalks of the flax plant and woven on looms into cloth. and have ornate collars and elaborate crowns.The Egyptian civilization flourished for three thousand years. or kingdoms: the Old.
10
. wore short kilts made from coarse linen. the villages of the Nile joined together to form a great kingdom. while nobles’ clothes were made from a fine.

Women wore a simple. Rich people’s sandals were made from decorated leather.
spectacular pieces made from gold and silver and often set with semiprecious stones and glass.Ancient Egypt
Clothing Styles
For thousands of years the basic style of Egyptian clothes remained unchanged. almost transparent kilt over their short tunic.
Footwear
People in ancient Egypt went barefoot most of the time. but sometimes they wore sandals. Some men wore a long.
This fine collar belonged to an Egyptian princess. and earrings. Poor people’s jewelry was made from cheaper substances such as copper and faience (a colored. berries.Tunics and cloaks made of very fine. In winter. men and women wore cloaks made from thick linen. pleated cloth became fashionable for men and women. Over their basic tunic women began to wear a pleated garment that sometimes had a brightly colored fringe and small ornaments hanging from it. makeup. These collars were worn by both women and men of all classes. decorative collar. a more elaborate style of dress developed in Egypt. Poor people’s sandals were made from papyrus (a type of reed) or from woven grass. and leaves.or ankle-length. Even poorer people wore necklaces. Kilts could be either knee. but also with flowers. glazed pottery). Some of the collars found in the pharaoh Tutankhamun’s tomb included olive leaves and cornflowers. Tunics and kilts were usually kept plain. tight-fitting. During the time of the New Kingdom. and one pair of golden sandals has been discovered in a pharaoh’s tomb. It is decorated with golden hawks’ heads and inlaid with colored glass and semiprecious stones. Although their clothes could be decorated with beads and feathers. bracelets. and hairstyles to create a dramatic effect. the Egyptian people relied on their jewelry.
11
Jewelry
No Ancient Egyptian costume was complete without a selection of jewelry. The collars consisted of a series of strings threaded with beads and ornaments. while men wore a kilt. ankle-length dress with two shoulder straps. made from a piece of linen wrapped around the waist and tucked in.
Colorful Collars
One of the most impressive items of Egyptian jewelry was the broad. while the rich wore
.

The artist has also shown cones of fat resting on top of the women’s heads (see Cool Cones).
hair long. and ribbons.The Egyptians also paid a lot of attention to their hair.Egyptian Beauty Care
In this painted banquet scene. but by the time of the New Kingdom noblewomen wore their
12
. but only for special occasions.
Looking good was very important to the ancient Egyptians. which they kept in elegant pots. Noblewomen liked to decorate their hair with flowers. but there were also cheaper ones made from black wool.
Hair and Wigs
Most Egyptian men were cleanshaven and kept their hair fairly short. beads.The best wigs were made from real hair. and some rich people shaved their heads and wore elaborate wigs. Egyptian wigs could be amazingly elaborate. although some noblemen had longer hair. In the early periods. Pharaohs and nobles often shaved their heads and wore elaborate wigs.These long tresses were sometimes worn loose and sometimes curled and braided. Some wigs had ornaments hung over them.They worked hard to keep themselves clean and sweet-smelling. or were decorated with beads and jewels. Less wealthy people also wore wigs. women usually had a chin-length bob. with lots of braids and curls. four young women wear braided wigs decorated with lotus flower blossoms. and both men and women used cosmetics.

13
.
of the henna tree. Makeup was applied with the fingers or with a special wooden applicator. Instead of soap they used a cleansing cream made from oil. lime. They also rubbed scented oils into their skin to stop it from drying out in the sun. oils and cosmetics. some experts believe that the cones were drawn by artists to indicate that the person was wearing a scented wig.This s-shaped lock was called the “side-lock of youth. made from the leaves
This decorated makeup box belonged to the wife of an important architect. perhaps to protect them from drowning in the Nile. Most people washed in the river or used a basin and jug of water. Green eyeliner was used in the early period.
Children had their hair shaved off or cut very short. they outlined them with heavy lines. but later black became very popular.To help them apply their makeup. The Egyptians took a lot of care over making up their eyes. Perfumes were made from flowers.” Sometimes children wore a fish amulet in their hair.
Cosmetics
Egyptian cosmetics were made from finely ground minerals mixed with oils. Cosmetics were prepared and stored in jars and bowls. Redbrown henna. The glass and ceramic jars would have held perfumes. However. was used to paint nails and possibly hands and feet. while red ocher was used for lipstick and blush. and henna was also used to dye hair and wigs. and sometimes in hollow reeds. the rich used mirrors made from highly polished metal. seeds. which drew attention to the beauty of the eyes and also helped to shield them from the glare of the sun. Green and black eyeliners were made from malachite (copper ore) and galena (a type of lead).Ancient Egypt
Cool Cones
Paintings of ancient Egyptian banquets show the guests with rounded cones on their heads. except for one section that formed a kind of ponytail on one side. Poor people had to manage by observing their reflections in water!
Smelling Sweet
In the hot climate of Egypt it was very important to keep clean. It is believed that these were cones of perfumed fat that gradually melted during the course of the meal. and perfume. and fruits soaked in oils and animal fats. keeping the guests cool and also ensuring that they smelled sweet.

with its twin symbols of the vulture and the cobra. Queens. Rulers of the New Kingdom wore a bright blue crown like a battle helmet. Most of the time the priests dressed simply to carry out their duties in the temples.The crook symbolized the pharaoh’s protection of his people.
Queens
The pharaoh had many queens. She was believed to be a goddess and was dressed in astonishing splendor.
Pharaohs
One of the most important elements of the pharaoh’s dress was his crown or headdress. striped headdress called a menes. a woman ruled as the pharaoh. and finger rings. jeweled headdresses. golden collars. It shows the young king wearing the striped menes. but sometimes they wore special costumes and headdresses. and Priests
Religion was central to ancient Egyptian society.
Priests
Priests wore only the finest. but pharaohs wore a long beard that grew from the base of their chin. often wore a long. but the chief queen was usually his sister or half-sister. Paintings and carvings show Egyptian queens wearing tall. armlets.The menes was usually decorated with the heads of the pharaoh’s twin protectors: the vulture and the cobra. as a sign of their royal status. In the final stages of the embalming ceremony
False Beard
Most Egyptian men were clean-shaven. between 1473 and 1458 BCE. such as Tutankhamun. and carrying his royal crook and flail. Early kings often wore a red-and-white crown symbolizing the two parts of their kingdom: red for lower Egypt and white for upper Egypt. including a false beard!
.
This solid gold burial mask comes from the tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun (1332-1322 BCE).
In paintings and carvings.The Egyptians believed that their land had originally been ruled by gods. Later rulers. reflecting their important role as a warrior. At one point in Egyptian history.They had to purify themselves by bathing in a sacred lake at least twice a day. including their hair and eyebrows.They also had to shave their whole bodies. pharaohs are often shown holding the symbols of their office: the royal crook and flail. while the flail stood for the punishment of his enemies. So pharaohs and their families were treated like gods and wore highly elaborate ceremonial costumes. pure white linen. whose power had passed directly to the pharaohs. Carvings show that Queen Hatshepsut was properly crowned as pharaoh and wore the full royal regalia.Pharaohs.

painted or carved into a piece of jewelry.
Amulets
Many items of jewelry worn by ordinary Egyptians featured goodluck charms. Egyptian rulers wore more elaborate costumes. the jackal god. Some necklaces and earrings featured charms to ward off snake bites!
A chief priest. or the udjat eye (the eye of the god Horus) symbolizing healing and good health. Queen Nefertiti. known as amulets.The amulets depicted religious symbols such as the ankh (a cross with a loop at the top) representing eternal life. Sometimes these charms took the form of ornaments or brooches. 15
. tends the body of a dead pharaoh. which covered his whole head and shoulders. who reigned in the 1350s BCE. In other cases.(when a dead body was being prepared to be a mummy). he led the dead to judgment. the chief priest wore a jackal mask. For grand ceremonial occasions. The mask represents Anubis. wearing his ceremonial mask. dressed in semitransparent robes and simple crowns. painted mask. a sacred symbol was
The Pharaoh Akhenaten and his wife.This dramatic. According to ancient Egyptian belief. represented the god Anubis.

and some produced fine buildings and works of art. as many different peoples battled for control of the fertile lands around the Persian Gulf and the eastern Mediterranean Sea. which was probably made from horsehair. 16
. To protect their heads they had iron helmets with a distinctive crest. some were great traders. Over the next 1.This was the start of a turbulent period in the Middle East. Many of these civilizations were very warlike.Chapter 3: Peoples of Western Asia
round 2000 BCE the ancient civilization of Sumer (see page 9) collapsed.
A
Hittite warriors wore leather tunics covered with iron plates. a series of powerful kingdoms rose and fell.500 years.

When they rode into battle in their war chariots. white tunic. green. The soldier on the left wears the distinctive horned helmet of the Sherden tribe. and bold patterns and borders
17
. was a member of the Sea Peoples. For more than two centuries they were one of Egypt’s most dangerous enemies. One of their tribes. long. The Sea Peoples wore short.
Cloth from Canaan
To the south of the Hittite empire lay the more peaceful land of Canaan. crowned by two small horns. patterned cloth that was sold by merchants to people all around the Mediterranean. which were much stronger than the bronze weapons of their opponents. contrasting bands of color. colorful tunics decorated with bold.The people of Canaan made their colorful cloth into striking clothes. edged with a dramatic band of color.Wool and linen were dyed in a range of brilliant colors. while others preferred a simple. and Canaan had several thriving ports on the Mediterranean coast. whose fight against David is recorded in the Bible. who originally came from Greece.The warrior Goliath. Most of the Canaanites were farmers and merchants. and within four hundred years they had conquered an empire that stretched as far south as presentday Syria. blue. They wore iron helmets with flaps to protect their neck. were woven into the cloth. they dressed in leather tunics covered with metal plates. and gold.They fought with iron-tipped spears and swords. Canaanites.The horns may have had a religious significance or they may have simply been intended to make the warriors appear more frightening. and protected themselves with round. wore distinctive battle helmets.
Two armed warriors from the army of the Sea Peoples.
Sea Peoples
Eventually. Hittite warriors carried long wooden spears tipped with iron. including scarlet.Peoples of Western Asia
Hittites. wooden shields.Weavers in Canaan produced a colorful. called the Sherden. the Hittite empire was destroyed by an army of Sea Peoples (also sometimes called Philistines). giving them excellent protection against enemy spears and arrows. The Hittites were tough warriors who developed a new and effective battle dress. and carried large wicker shields. Some wore several layers of different patterns. and Sea Peoples
Around 2000 BCE the Hittite people settled in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).

and the golden head
A Hebrew priest wearing the “white garments”— a turban. Around 1000 BCE the Hebrew king David (reigned c. tunic. 965–c.To keep off the glare of the sun.The Hebrews. was attacked by the Babylonians (see page 24) in 597. Judah. with two sardonyx stones on its shoulderstraps. and a golden head plate. however. and a breastplate. Finally. a pair of linen breeches.
Ceremonial Garments
Around 950 BCE King David's son Solomon (reigned c. Over the white tunic and pants. set with twelve precious stones. These garments were worn as a sign of humility before God. 931 BCE) built a spectacular temple in Jerusalem to house his people’s most precious treasure. and the northern kingdom. On top of the tunic was the ephod. representing the twelve tribes of Israel. a breastplate. people often wore a cloth over their head. a robe. was conquered by the Assyrians (see pages 22–3) around 722.Hebrews
The story of the Hebrews is told in the Old Testament of the Bible. the high priest wore a skyblue robe.The kingdom split in two in about 931. Most Hebrews dressed very simply in tunics or long dresses. the turban was placed on the high priest’s head. the Ark of the Covenant. and these instructions are all recorded in the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament. who came to be known as Jews. breeches and belt all made from pure white linen. a turban.The southern kingdom. 1005–c. an ephod (a type of apron).The high priest in charge of the temple wore a special set of ceremonial clothes known as the golden garments. wore rich robes. God gave the prophet Moses detailed instructions for the making of these sacred garments. called Israel. 18
. Hebrew kings. hemmed with decorative pomegranates and bells which tinkled as he moved. a belt. were taken into captivity. According to Jewish belief. while the most magnificent costume of all was worn by the high priest. 965 BCE) established the kingdom of Israel with its capital city in Jerusalem.They were a wandering desert people who gained control of some land in Canaan between 1200 and 1050 BCE. and ten years later the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem. which was fixed in place with a narrow headband. adorned with precious stones. The golden garments consisted of eight separate items: a tunic.

is described as having a glorious “coat of many colors. the youngest son of Jacob. turban. the high priest showed his humility before God by wearing the white garments: a turban. all made from pure white linen. a thick linen thread was used. While Abraham is shown in the costume of a medieval knight. and breeches. “Holy to the Lord.To weave the tunic. dark red wool.” Nobody knows what this coat would have looked like. as well as the more usual greens. sky-blue wool. yellows. and belt. On this day.
This 13th century fresco shows Abraham being blessed by a High Priest. and then cut into fine threads. breeches. tunic.
19
. the sky-blue dye for the wool came from a shellfish known as chilazon.” The high priest wore his golden garments every day of the year except on the Day of Atonement.Peoples of Western Asia
plate fixed in place with its inscription.The evidence suggests that gold leaf was beaten into thin sheets. made from six twisted strands. but it may have featured colored wool dyed sky blue and crimson. and browns produced by earth and plants. Other priests wore the white garments all through the year. and the crimson color was produced by the cochineal insect. the dark red color was derived from a type of snail. the High Priest wears his ceremonial robes. Joseph. crimson wool.” Many years of research have gone into discovering exactly which materials were used.
Special Materials
The Book of Exodus lists five different materials to be used in the making of the golden garments: gold.
Joseph’s Coat
In the Old Testament Book of Genesis. the Hebrews’ most holy day. and “twisted linen.

with multi-tiered skirts.
Purple People
The word Phoenician is Greek for “purple men. Phoenicians acquired because of their famous purple dye. As well as their kingdom in the Middle East. Each tier was bordered by a fringe. including broad neck collars similar to those worn by the ancient Egyptians.
Phoenician men wore long tunics with multi-tiered. fringed skirts. rulers and merchants often wore long tunics. setting up great trading ports.While the ordinary workers wore simple loincloths.Their hair was often covered by a cap or hood. but sometimes it was simply encircled by a band.” a name the
Gorgeous Jewels
Phoenician women were usually modestly dressed. Merchants and rulers wore finger rings set with semiprecious stones that were engraved with a design. 20
. which were both carefully curled. who liked to show off their wealth by wearing colorful clothes. From around 1200 BCE they lived along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. but it was so expensive that it was usually only worn by royalty. the dye colored cloth a rich. draping their bodies in folds of cloth. and in Cyprus.Phoenicians
The Phoenicians were a seafaring people descended from the Canaanites (see page 16). below which it rippled freely over their shoulders. they also had colonies along the coasts of Africa and Spain.
Stylish Dressers
Phoenician men were stylish dressers. Wealthy men wore jewelry. For two thousand years the Phoenicians were the most successful traders in the region. Purple cloth from Phoenicia was sold all over the Mediterranean and the Middle East. and Malta. Sicily. Made from the murex shellfish. but those who went bareheaded paid a lot of attention to their hair and beard. and simple armlets consisting of a twist of metal wound several times around the upper arm. and these rings could be stamped into wax and used as a personal seal. deep purple. Many Phoenician men wore a conical cap.

and brooches. and are impressively detailed. and the heads of humans and animals. then some larger beads. which was apparently sewn onto clothes. miniature vases and cones. Many surviving Phoenician beads are long and oval in shape and blue-green in color. with tiny coils of glass for hair and beards. greatly magnified.
A Phoenician glass bead. usually made from glass.The ornaments came in an astonishing variety of shapes. who wore a variety of pendants. showing human heads. the Phoenicians also created tiny sculptures in colored glass. lotus flowers. bracelets. Some of these beads. earrings.
21
. Beads like this were traded all around the Mediterranean area. one above the other—a string of small pearls at the top. Another type of ornament was the flat. contain up to five different colors of glass.Peoples of Western Asia
Jewelry was very popular with Phoenician women. with holes in the edges. pomegranates. and finally a couple of rows of necklaces with hanging ornaments (similar to a present-day charm bracelet). Others are a deep olive green. and they made a range of beautiful colored beads. Often. patterned plaque. armlets. and precious stones. Phoenician ladies wore three or four necklaces at a time.
Glass Beads
The Phoenicians were probably the earliest people to discover how to blow glass.
Phoenician women were famous for their splendid jewelry. including acorns. glass. Some surviving necklaces have up to sixty
ornaments made from gold. finger rings. As well as making beads from solid glass.

and even reached as far west as Egypt. spears and swords. From around 1350 BCE they began to conquer new land. they built up a large empire which stretched from the Persian Gulf to the eastern Mediterranean.
Battle Dress
The Assyrians were expert warriors.The Assyrian kings were great war leaders.
. Both wear golden jewelry and colorful robes covered with embroidered patterns. who fought with bows and arrows. Over the next seven hundred years. and long leather
22 This carved relief from the ancient city of Nineveh shows two armed warriors—one with a bow and arrows and the other carrying a wooden shield shaped like a shallow cone. but they also loved to relax in their beautiful palaces and gardens.
The Assyrian people were farmers who came from an area close to the Tigris River in present-day Iraq.Assyrians
An Assyrian king and queen relaxing in their garden.

23
Palace Life
Assyrian men at court usually wore a close-fitting.They wore golden collars with a bunch of scarlet feathers hanging down at the front. The Assyrians were skilled workers in gold. and high leather boots. although linen was sometimes used for better-quality garments. wearing long robes and a fez-shaped golden helmet. like a parasol over his head. a servant accompanied him. All of these colors were also used to dye embroidery wool. bracelets.Peoples of Western Asia
Splendid Beards
Assyrian hair and beards were very well tended.The king wore a golden.
with embroidery. holding a fringed canopy. Clothes were dyed in a range of colors: pale and deep indigo blue. 627 BCE) shows his carefully curled. short-sleeved tunic. which covered them from neck to ankle. but some stopped at the knees and sometimes a fringed shawl was also worn. Kings rode into battle in a royal war chariot. Patterns embroidered on Assyrian clothes featured repeated geometric shapes. A statue of King Ashurnasirpal II (reigned 668–c. and often included sacred rosettes and palm trees. edged with golden fringes. The beard is carefully trimmed into a neat rectangle and appears to have bands of horizontal decoration. Assyrian noblewomen dressed in a similar way to men. The royal horses also had a crown of feathers on their heads. Assyrian costumes were lavishly decorated. leggings. Colors. and some of their helmets were topped with a plume of feathers. Both women and men at court wore simple leather sandals on their feet. fez-shaped crown and wherever he went in his palace. and purple. dull olive green. and Patterns
The most common material for clothing was wool. belted tunics.
slings. Except in the earliest examples. and the robes of the king were covered
. in fringed and embroidered robes and shawls. yellow ocher. Some carried round wooden shields into battle and some were protected by an extra leather tunic covered with many small iron plates.
Fabrics. and it is possible that the Assyrians’ beards were bound or interwoven with embroidered cloth. shoulder-length hair and a splendid moustache and beard. Horses played an important part in Assyrian warfare and they were also dressed for battle. Soldiers wore short.Tunics were usually worn long. scarlet. Most warriors wore pointed iron helmets with flaps to cover their ears. and earrings. Other Assyrian statues also feature beards with decorated horizontal bands. and both men and women wore golden necklaces.

with wide halfsleeves.Tunics were made from dyed linen. short. During his reign it became one of the richest cities in the world. However. Then.
24
. and both men and women loved to wear golden jewelry. full of temples and palaces and home to the famous hanging gardens. a shell. Inside the splendid city of Babylon. flowing tunic. Men carried tall. decorative belt.
Two Babylonian servants accompany their richly dressed master. A surviving statue of the goddess Ishtar shows her wearing a necklace made from concentric golden rings and two outsize golden earrings—one resembling a bunch of grapes and the other. undyed tunics. Servants in Babylon wore simple. the Babylonians began to fight back. belted at the waist. the wealthy lived a life of comfort and ceremony. One of their tasks was to walk in front of their wealthy masters with a large whisk. driving away the flies! The people of Babylon were skilled workers in silver and gold. and was finally conquered by the Assyrians in 689 BCE. after 1750. caught in at the waist by a broad. Men and women wore a loose.
Dress in Babylon
One of King Nebuchadnezzar’s greatest achievements was the rebuilding of Babylon. Babylon had taken control of the Assyrian Empire. around 620 BCE. before being conquered by the Persians. the city gradually declined. woolen tunic was sometimes also worn when the weather became cooler.Babylonians
Babylon had a period of greatness during the eighteenth century BCE. and a second. The Babylonians ruled their empire for the next sixty years. when it was ruled by King Hamurabai. By the time King Nebuchadnezzar II came to the throne in 605 BCE. ornamental staffs and wore a fezlike headdress.

Then.The mighty Persian Empire lasted for two hundred years until it was finally defeated by Alexander the Great. and the Medes in the north. and carries a tall spear and a bow slung over his shoulder. with a tail hanging down at the back. known as satraps.Persians
The land of Persia (present-day Iran) was originally ruled by two separate tribes: the Persians in the south. birdlike creatures. carved on a staircase in the royal palace at Persepolis. The soldiers wear long. patterned robes. By the year 500.
dressed far more simply in short. the Persians ruled the largest empire the world had ever seen. pleated sleeves. with wide. flowing robes with pleated sleeves. the Persians took over the Medes’ land and began to conquer all of the surrounding lands. the Medes wore a plain.While the Persians had tall. At court.
Peoples of Western Asia
Golden Armlet
The Persians made exquisite golden jewelry. The Persians and Medes wore very distinctive headdresses. golden band encircling his forehead. horns.
Soldiers and Satraps
A tiled frieze survives showing Persian soldiers in ceremonial dress. A solid gold armlet has been discovered at Oxus (in present-day Turkmenistan) in a hoard of treasure that probably belonged to a Persian king. Each soldier wears a wide. Persian men tended to wear their beards long. with beaks. and pants were very practical for long horse rides across the plains. Attached to each soldier’s back is a deep pouch for carrying arrows. each confronting the other fiercely. woolen tunics and long pants. but the local rulers. and often wore golden hoops in their ears. fluted hats. in 550 BCE. The armlet is covered with elaborate carvings and shows two mythical.
25
. and wings.The Persians were great horsemen. the Persians wore long. ears. rounded bonnet.
Persian guards with spears and shields.

decorative tent hangings.
Scythian warriors carry their dead leader’s armlets and robes in a solemn funeral procession. in an area that is now Russia. but they also dressed warmly in long woolen dresses.The warriors fought with long-bladed battleaxes and bows and arrows.Scythians
One group of people who the Persians never succeeded in conquering were the warlike Scythians. Helmets were also made from metal plates. and carved wooden bowls. Scythian warriors wore a protective armor of overlapping metal plates. the Scythians created an art that was easily portable.
Animal Art
Because of their nomadic lifestyle. and tunics which wrapped across their bodies and were fastened by a belt.They wore tall headdresses swathed in scarves. All these objects were ornamented with swirling animal motifs featuring horses. making intricate golden jewelry and weapons. They are wearing distinctive pointed felt caps.
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. which covered their upper body and sometimes their legs. eagles. On their heads they wore a thick pointed cap which covered their ears.They lived as nomads on the windswept plains north of the Black Sea. topped by a belted coat. stags.
Herders and Warriors
Scythian herders and warriors needed warm clothes that were easy to ride in.They also decorated their clothes and made elaborate trappings for their horses. and fought fiercely to defend their lands. snakes. Scythian women spent less time on horseback. bears. thick woolen pants.They set up their tents wherever they could find good pasture. When they rode into battle. and they often engraved their arrow cases with animal designs. fur-lined boots. herding sheep and cattle.The Scythians spent much of their lives on horseback.They wore leather. and rabbits.

and clothes. especially when worn in combination with elaborate golden belts. the Scythians also sewed small.
Animal Tattoos
The graves of several Scythian chiefs were excavated in Siberia. his body was dressed in the most splendid finery and laid on a chariot. eagles.
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.When a chief was buried.
Ceremonial Dress
The Scythians kept their best clothes for special ceremonies. necklaces. such as the burial of a chief. found in a chief’s tomb. Men in the funeral procession shaved their heads. which was pulled by a pair of horses in ceremonial dress. In addition to these decorations. golden plaques onto their clothes.These plaques were engraved with animal motifs and must have sparkled dramatically in the sun. tunics. The bodies have stayed frozen in the icy ground for thousands of years and still display tattoos on their skin. matted substance which was dyed vivid colors. and earrings. horse trappings. and some even cut off an ear to show their grief. and coats.Women embroidered elaborate animal patterns in colored wool and also stitched felt appliqué pieces onto dresses. The tattoos are remarkably elaborate and show swirling designs of interlocked creatures that appear to be a combination of horses. shows Scythian warriors in battle. Felt was made by pressing and rolling wool and hair until it formed a thick. bracelets.The Scythians created dramatic appliqué designs on their wall hangings.Peoples of Western Asia
Splendid Decorations
The Scythians’ clothes were made from leather and wool and covered in decoration.The horses were draped in appliquéd hangings and wore golden harnesses and tall.
The Scythians were expert goldsmiths. and stags. using shapes made from colored felt. This exquisite golden comb. tasseled headdresses.

In the warm. Minoan women wore golden necklaces and bracelets and left their hair long and loose. and some wore golden bands covering most of their calves. and worked gold. The short-sleeved tunic that covered the top of the body had a tightfitting bodice. each ruled by a king. conical hats. with full. but by 2000 BCE there were a number of palaces on the island. armlets.
T
This fresco from the Minoan palace at Knossos shows a procession of priestesses. This creature had a bull’s head and a man’s body. Minoan men were usually clean shaven and their hair was worn loose down their backs. and they were often decorated with geometric patterns and a patterned border.They wore brightly colored dresses.They wore golden collars. in which the king wore a mask of a bull’s head.Chapter 4: Civilizations of Ancient Greece Minoans
he first great civilization in Europe grew up on the Greek island of Crete. Minoan men usually wore a simple loincloth or a short kilt made from wool or linen. cut very low to leave the breasts bare. fished. all wearing full-skirted dresses with low-cut bodices. made pottery.
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.
Minotaur Mask?
According to Greek legend.The Minoan civilization started slowly. the first king of Crete kept a beast called a ‘minotaur’ in a huge maze under his palace. and developed over several thousand years.
Minoan Dress
Colorful paintings on the walls of the Minoan palaces reveal the sort of clothes that people wore on the island. and bracelets. agriculture thrived. falling in many layers to the ground.The Minoans farmed. They wore tall. Some scholars believe that this legend had its origin in a ceremony performed at the palace. flounced skirts. or more often just a simple headband. Minoan women’s dress was far more elaborate. sunny Mediterranean climate.The kilts dipped down to form a point at the front.

who imported tin to make bronze for weapons.There is evidence that both
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. low-cut bodices. Mycenean women wore multicolored dresses. with flared. each of whom had his own palace. and metalworkers. in the northeastern Peloponnese. and usually left their chests bare. Some oil was traded by merchants. hanging around their shoulders.
Palace Dress
In the great halls of their brightly painted palaces. Kings and nobles wore simple kilts with patterned borders. tiered skirts. and close-fitting.Myceneans
Around 1650 BCE the Greek kingdom of Mycenae. grew very powerful. and held in place by a simple headband. and surviving murals show that the women of Mycenae were graceful and stylish. while men had golden armlets. which they stored in elegant jars. and part of a lady’s beauty routine would probably have involved soaking in a tub and then rubbing scented oil into her skin. and gold and amber to make jewelry.
Both men and women in the Mycenean cities cared a great deal for their appearance.Their hair was loosely bound with colorful ribbons.
Beauty Routine
The famous beauty Helen of Troy was a Mycenean queen. the Mycenean kings and queens held lavish feasts. Men wore their hair loose. weavers. Inside the palaces were small stone tubs. Inside the palaces were workshops for potters.The Myceneans were a warlike people. with artfully arranged hair. as well as splendid rooms for the royal family. Mycenae was ruled by several kings. and the women were famous for their beauty. but a certain quantity was kept for use at home. but they were also great sailors and traders.Women wore gold and amber necklaces and bracelets. while some locks hung down around their faces.The Myceneans produced perfumed oils.
Civilizations of Ancient Greece
women and men spent time and care on their appearance.

” were tall and rectangular and bowed in at the sides. Kings and nobles trained for battle.Mycenean Warriors
War was a central part of Mycenean life. silver. topped by a flowing horsehair plume. Warriors fought with shields. One remarkable helmet has been found that was originally constructed from dozens of boars’ tusks laid side by side. a warrior wore a complete suit of armor made from bronze. Occasionally. the king and his nobles rode in battle chariots. known as “tower shields. but it was later proved that the mask belonged to one of the earliest Mycenean kings. and copper. One dagger found in a king’s grave has a solid gold hilt and a blade inlaid with a scene in gold. Helmets were usually fairly plain—a pointed bronze cap with flaps for the ears.The king. The masks were made by beating a sheet of gold over a carved wooden mold. Some shields were shaped like a solid figure eight. but these were very heavy and rigid. showing leopards hunting in the forest. The most famous of these masks was discovered by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 1870s. however. Shields were made from ox hide stretched over a wooden frame.
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. and probably uncomfortable to wear. At first Schliemann believed that he had found the body of King Agamemnon of Troy. and the sheet was then laid over the face of the dead ruler in his tomb.
The golden death mask of an early Mycenean king. Most of the army wore simple kilts and relied for their protection on helmets and shields.
Death Mask
The Myceneans created gleaming golden death masks for their kings. swords. and musicians sang songs about great victories. one of the major figures in Homer’s Iliad. while the ordinary soldiers marched on foot. while others. but relied on their large shields for protection. and some of these weapons were beautifully decorated.When a Mycenean city went to war. wore a helmet with a curved horn at the front.
Most Mycenean warriors did not wear body armor. and daggers. found by the archeologist Heinrich Schliemann.

and shellfish. soldiers. comprising about a quarter of the population. Ancient Greek society had an elite of wealthy. and by the fifth century BCE it had become the center of a thriving Greek civilization. One story told the legend of Arachne. and discussed political ideas.There were also priests. Most women in ancient Greece wove the cloth for their household. who was turned into a spider by the goddess Athena because she dared to challenge Athena to a weaving contest. but rich women often had slaves to do the work instead. a very skilled weaver.Women wove their thread on a tall. studied mathematics and medicine.
Civilizations of Ancient Greece
Arachne the Weaver
Spinning and weaving were so important in ancient Greece that many myths and stories grew up about them. who kept busy with her weaving for twenty years.
Making Clothes
Most women in ancient Greece knew how to spin wool and weave it into cloth. traders. in eastern-central Greece. upright loom and sometimes included
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. and Sparta. in the south. although some women wove thread from flax to make linen cloth. Greek clothes were usually made from wool. and merchants. farmers. well-educated people. and mythological creatures also featured in borders. Some women did all of their household spinning and weaving themselves.Classical Greece
By around 800 BCE the ancient Greeks were living in city-states.
A woman weaving woolen cloth on a vertical loom. while Odysseus was away on his adventures! Once the wool was spun. a few very rich people wore garments made from imported silk or cotton. but the two most powerful ones were Athens.They created fine art and great buildings. Athens gained in wealth and power. and a Greek wife was expected to provide all the cloth for her family. were slaves.
patterned borders in their cloth. it could be colored using natural dyes made from plants. There were around three hundred city-states in total. the wife of the hero Odysseus. One famous example of a virtuous Greek woman is Penelope. Gradually.The lowest class. From the fifth century BCE onward. Geometric shapes were very popular. insects.

A girdle was also tied at the waist to hold the chiton in place. fastened at the shoulders and left open at one side. which were fastened at intervals across the shoulders. Most Greek men wore a simple tunic sewn up at the side and fastened with a pin or brooch on one or both shoulders. Craftsmen. Wealthy Greeks wore jewelry made from gold. and slaves often wore a loincloth. lead. Sometimes men wore a himation.Fashion in Ancient Greece
In the warm. and ivory.
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. and bone. It is made from solid gold. while older men and nobles had ankle-length robes. but sometimes they wore simple leather sandals.The Doric chiton was a sleeveless tunic. There were two main styles of chiton. but precious stones were only used at the end of the Greek period. Usually people went barefoot. which could vary in size and weight. Jewelers sometimes added enamel for color. and added a cloak for cooler weather.Young men wore their tunics short. It was made from a single piece of rectangular cloth. dry climate of Greece. and necklaces. which could be plain or very elaborate. Both men and women wore a simple tunic. Over the chiton. women wore a himation. from a light scarf to a warm traveling cloak.
Jewelry
The Greeks liked to wear delicate earrings. The basic dress for women was the chiton. while the poorer people’s jewelry was made from bronze.This could be worn on its own or as a second garment over a tunic. people did not need many clothes.
This impressive necklace would have been worn by a wealthy woman.This was a rectangular wrap. while the Ionic chiton had elbow-length sleeves. silver. which they wrapped around the body with one end thrown over one shoulder. bracelets. farmers.Tunics and cloaks were held in place by pins or brooches.

The wife wears a chiton while her husband wears a flowing robe with the end draped over his shoulder. Some women dyed their hair and wore wigs or false hairpieces. while women usually wore their hair up. and women often waved or curled their hair. and used rouge on their cheeks. healthy babies. women looked and behaved very differently from their counterparts in the rest of Greece. with a loose skirt to allow plenty of movement. darkened their eyebrows.
Hairstyles
In the early Greek period. while others used padding to improve their figure. One statue even shows a Spartan girl wearing a thigh-length tunic with a high slit in one side. female
Looking and smelling good was very important to the Greeks. and their beards were neatly trimmed. bound by several ribbons and scarves. painted on a Greek vase. From around 300 BCE men shaved off their beards and wore their hair cropped close to their heads. a wealthy woman massages oil into her hair.
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. held in place by a simple headband. Spartan women were encouraged to spend most of their time outside. or wore thick-soled sandals to make themselves look taller.Civilizations of Ancient Greece
hairstyles became extremely elaborate. Many Greek women wore makeup. while her servant holds the oil jar.
Spartan women
In the warlike city-state of Sparta. from around 500 BCE onward. Usually they wore a knee-length dress. Meanwhile. exercising and playing sports to make sure that they had robust.They would bathe frequently and rub perfumed oils into their skin to prevent it from drying out. However. Statues of Spartan women and girls show that they were very strong and muscular.
A couple exchanging gifts. men’s hair became much shorter.
Beauty Care
Women in ancient Greece spent a lot of time and effort making themselves look beautiful.Women also used oil on their hair to make it shine.They whitened their skin with special creams. both men and women wore their hair long and loose. Here.

In 338 BCE the Greeks were conquered by their northern neighbor. Each of the main fighting groups— the Greeks (led by the city of Athens). wood. For eleven years they fought against the Persians. During this period the chroniclers relate that Alexander abandoned his traditional Macedonian dress and adopted instead the dress of the Persians. and a lightweight cloak fastened at the neck.
A Question of Dress
After Alexander the Great had defeated the king of Persia in 331 BCE. which they saw as represented by their dress.When Philip died in 336. who were intensely proud of their kingdom’s military history. His breastplate has a decoration in the form of a head—possibly the god of war. and the Macedonians—had their own distinctive battle dress. the Spartans. and leather. he took control of the great Persian Empire. with a bold design painted on it.
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. led by King Philip II. and there was also a long war between the rival city-states of Athens and Sparta. Alexander the Great. the kingdom of Macedonia. Alexander wears a metal breastplate with wide shoulder straps. This infuriated Alexander’s Macedonian generals.
Greek Hoplites
The backbone of the Greek army was its company of heavily armed footsoldiers.Greeks at War
The ancient Greeks were often at war. Hoplites fought with a long spear and a sword and carried a large circular shield made from bronze. wearing a loose tunic and pants (see page 25). became the leader of the Greek army and led a force of Macedonians and Greeks on a campaign to win a vast empire in Asia and the Middle East. known as hoplites.They wore a short tunic and their upper body was protected by a bronze and leather
This detail from a Roman mosaic shows Alexander the Great dressed in the armor of a Macedonian general. his son.

Running in Armor
The ancient Greeks loved to hold athletic competitions. The Hoplites all wear splendid. known as greaves. The origins of this race probably lay in the strict training of the Greek hoplites. scarlet cloaks and helmets which covered almost all of the face. covered the soldiers’ calves. so that it streamed out from under their helmets. Alexander is bareheaded. boys were taken from their mothers to begin their military training.The hoplites had magnificent bronze helmets with a horsehair crest and flaps to protect the sides of the face. and they wore sturdy leather sandals on their feet.The overall effect could be very fearsome when they advanced en masse in battle. in which men competed against each other in sports such as jumping. Bronze leg guards. On his feet he had calf-length boots and he wore a purple cloak to show his royal status.
Greek hoplites depicted on a vase from the sixth century BCE. In most of the surviving statues and mosaics. he wore the traditional armor of his native kingdom of Macedonia: a short-sleeved battle tunic with a metal breastplate and a skirt and sleeves made from metal strips. Spartan warriors dressed in a distinctive way.
Spartan Warriors
All the men of Sparta were full-time soldiers. wearing a lion’s head with its paws tied under his chin.When he led the Greeks into battle. with long. crested headdresses and carry circular shields—each with its own distinctive design.The most famous competition of all was the Olympic Games. The Spartan soldiers also let their hair grow long.
Alexander’s Armor
Alexander the Great was one of the finest generals the world has ever
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. Most Olympic sports were performed by naked athletes. but one statue shows him as a fierce conqueror. boxing. but in one running race the competitors had to wear heavy armor. Alexander rode an enormous charger and fought with a long sword. At the age of seven. Each of the runners wore a bronze helmet and greaves and carried a heavy shield.
known. and wrestling.Civilizations of Ancient Greece
breastplate.

Augustus was the first Roman emperor.
A Roman woman dressed in stola (dress) and palla (shawl). and a period of conflict followed until Augustus took control in 27 BCE.Chapter 5: The Roman Empire Ancient Romans
he Roman Empire began as a small community of farmers living on the banks of the Tiber River in Italy. The Romans used handmirrors made from highly-polished
T
In this mosaic from the fourth century BCE the Roman poet Virgil is flanked by two muses (goddesses of inspiration). In 45 BCE a general named Julius Caesar seized power. who were advised by a senate.
At first the city of Rome was ruled by kings. Gradually. the farming villages grew into a town and then into a city.
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. Virgil wears a toga looped over one shoulder. but he was soon assassinated. and the stola empire lasted for the next four hundred years. but in 509 BCE the last king was driven out palla and Rome became a republic ruled by two elected consuls.

However. the cloth was beaten. Rich people had rings made from gold and silver and set with precious stones such as emeralds. First. and bleached. belted. wrapped around the body and draped over one shoulder. the cloth was stiffened by soaking it in urine. sleeveless dress called a stola. which was spun and woven by hand at home or in a workshop. Until they were sixteen.This was a very long strip of woolen cloth.
loincloth made from a strip of wool or linen. baths. the toga was very heavy and awkward to wear. but after this they often wore brightly colored dresses. creating an empire that stretched from Britain in the north to North Africa in the south. Less wealthy people wore rings made from bronze.The Roman Empire
Augustus and his successors conquered vast areas of land. but those worn by senators had a broad purple border. Romans took their woolen cloth to the fuller’s workshop to be cleaned and treated before it was made into clothes. which could be worn draped around the shoulders or looped over the head like a hood. Under the stola women wore a loincloth and sometimes a simple leather bra.Wherever the Romans conquered. Over this was a large. Girls wore white until they were married.
Women's Clothing
Roman women wore a long. belted tunic made from two rectangles of wool stitched together.The wealthiest wore clothes made of cotton from India and silk from China. stretched. which came from Egypt. Important men wore a toga over their tunic.Togas were usually plain white. rectangular shawl. known as a palla. building fine cities with temples. even dressing like the Romans. and many of the conquered peoples adopted Roman ways. boys from wealthy families wore a white toga with a narrow purple border. pearls. they established the Roman way of life. Sometimes the Romans had clothes made from linen. Fullers also cleaned and mended clothes for the richer people. so it was only worn for special occasions. which could be wrapped around them or fastened with a brooch at the neck.
Roman Rings
Roman men and women wore a lot of rings. After this. In towns and cities. Governors were sent from Rome to rule over the provinces. or amber.
Making Clothes
Most Roman clothes were made from wool. Often a ring held a gemstone engraved with a pattern that could be used as a seal. and then it was cleaned by rubbing it with a kind of clay. Under their tunics men wore a
. and theaters.
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Togas and Tunics
The basic garment for men was a simple.They also had a simple cloak. Tunics were usually made of unbleached wool and reached to the knees.

or even the sediment of red wine. Others bought wigs made from imported hair. plant dye. although the emperor Hadrian (reigned 117–138 CE) started a fashion for beards.
False Teeth
Many Romans suffered from tooth decay. held in place with dozens of pins.During the period of the republic. and brides wore several hairpieces for their weddings. while blond and red hair was imported from northern Europe. It was very fashionable in Roman times for women to look pale.They darkened their eyebrows and eyelashes with soot and wore eye shadow made from ash or saffron. either combed forward or curled. so women whitened their faces and arms with powdered chalk or a poisonous mixture made from lead. and slaves devoted hours each morning to making up their mistresses.Wealthy women’s hair was curled and braided and piled into elaborate styles. most women wore their hair tied in simple buns at the back of their heads. Others tried to prevent their hair from going gray by applying a paste of earthworms and herbs!
This young woman wears simple gold earrings in her ears.
Hair Care
Most Roman men kept their hair short. and sometimes dentists took drastic action. Black hair came from Asia.This could be a painful experience because barbers did not use soap or oil. Some women cut off their slaves’ hair and had it made into wigs or hairpieces. Color was added to lips and cheeks using red ocher. Most men began the day by visiting the barber’s shop for a shave. but by the time of the empire some very elaborate styles had developed.They were usually cleanshaven. Some Romans used a brown hair dye made from walnut shells and wild onions. False teeth were made from ivory or bone and were attached to a gold band that would not rust. while her carefully curled hair is held in place by a delicate lattice-work cap. They extracted rotten teeth and supplied false ones to fill the gaps.
Makeup
Most wealthy Roman women relied on cosmetics to make themselves look beautiful. wealthy women wore wigs. For special celebrations.
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. and some had the hair removed from their arms and legs as well.

They applied facials of bread soaked in milk and even used a cream made from crushed snails. However. Perfumes were very popular. Roman baths offered the chance for a total exercise and beauty routine.
visit to the baths with a session in the exercise yards.The whole experience ended with a refreshing dip in the frigidarium—the unheated.This could be followed by a period in the sudatorium—a hot. (Only the lower section dates from Roman times.The Roman Empire
As well as applying makeup. the Romans smeared their bodies with perfumed oil and then scraped off the dirt with a curved stick called a strigil. like a modern-day sauna. a lukewarm pool where they could cool down. or hot bath. where they could practice weightlifting. Roman women liked to treat their skin with a variety of creams. In the caldarium. a visit to the baths was much more than a chance to get clean. Like modern health clubs. or ball games. outdoor swimming pool. and women kept their cosmetics and scent in delicate glass pots and bottles. wrestling.)
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. and then perhaps enjoy a massage. in southern England. After this they visited the tepidarium. steamy room.
Roman Baths
Very few Roman houses had bathrooms. so most people visited the public baths. Many Romans began their
A surviving Roman bath from the city of Bath.

most plays featured a chorus— a group of actors who all spoke at once. while the one on the right represents a pale-skinned maiden. the actors had to be
Two Roman actors’ masks from a mosaic. or knockabout comedies about ordinary people. and the actors wore distinctive costumes and masks to help the audience understand their roles in the play.
easily visible. Costumes were fairly simple and usually consisted of a tunic and cloak. Because of the vast size of these theaters. and many actors added extra padding under their costumes to give themselves more bulk.They wore exaggerated masks and large wigs. All the parts were taken by men. while happy characters had brightly colored costumes. As well as the individual actors.Roman Actors
Throughout the Roman Empire.The colors of an actor’s clothes helped to identify his role in the drama. with rows of seats built in a high circle around a central stage.These plays were usually solemn tragedies about heroes and gods. and Greek and Roman actors wore very similar costumes and masks.
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. Roman drama had its origins in the plays of the ancient Greeks. so tragic characters wore dark robes. outdoor theaters. The mask on the left would be worn by a comic character.The actors playing women used special padding to give them a more female shape. companies of actors performed plays to entertain the people.
Costumes
Roman plays were usually performed in huge. which were short for men and long for those playing women. Members of the chorus also wore costumes and sometimes even dressed as animals or birds.

” the “fool. The shoes had no left or right and looked the same from both sides.” and “the scheming slave. and whether they were humans or gods.They had holes for the eyes and a very large hole for the mouth. the actors wore masks to help the audience recognize what kind of character they were playing. painted linen.
Actors’ masks were usually made from stiffened. but very hot.” the “innocent maiden.The masks had exaggerated features which showed the character’s sex and age. and they were lightweight.
Actors’ Shoes
Ancient Greek and Roman actors sometimes wore special shoes to make them seem taller. swapping perhaps from a smiling to an angry mask to indicate that his character's mood had changed. an actor might wear several masks. These shoes were made from wood and had thick soles and a high heel.” During the course of a performance. Female masks were much paler than male ones and had bigger eyes.There were special masks for recognizable character types such as the “wise old man.
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.The Roman Empire
Masks
In addition to their costumes. which helped to amplify the actor’s voice so that he could be heard by everyone in the theater.

or tortoise. This well-protected shape was known as the testudo. The Roman army was divided into legions—groups of around six thousand men. and javelins and carried a large wood and leather shield. Rome did not have a professional army.Within the legions.A Roman legionary Iron helmet
The Roman Army
In the early republic. however. Roman legionaries wore short tunics and leather sandals studded with nails. An iron helmet protected their head and
Metal breastplate
Scabbard for sword Javelin Wood and leather shield Tunic
Leather sandal studded with nails
Useful Shields
While the shields of the Roman cavalry were flat and oval.
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. Marching at the head of the legion was the aquilifer or standard-bearer. or foot soldiers. swords. Soldiers were well-paid professionals who wore regulation armor and weapons.The men had to provide their own weapons and equipment and then return home when the fighting was over.They fought with daggers. By the time of the empire. The shields were made in this distinctive shape so that the legionaries could form a cunning formation. the Roman army had become an extremely efficient fighting force. most men fought as legionaries. all male citizens were expected to fight. and it allowed the legionaries to approach very close to the enemy before launching their attack. while a smaller group of mounted soldiers formed the cavalry. the legionaries’ shields were rectangular in shape and bowed outward. because in times of war. Groups of soldiers advancing toward the enemy locked their shields together to form a solid barrier that covered the soldiers’ heads and also protected the front and sides of the group.

The figure on the left in both scenes is a retiarius. criminals.The Roman Empire
they also wore a breastplate made from metal strips. or horn player. Standard-bearers led their legion into battle. they wore a dramatic headdress made from the head and front paws of a lion. and each group had its own commander. and wore a striking costume made from a bear’s head and skin. Most gladiators fought with very short swords. such as the Colosseum in Rome. Another dramatic figure on the battlefield was the cornicene. fought with a net and wore no armor at all. As well as their basic armor. who commanded a group of around eighty men.They wore simple loincloths and went bare-chested. and he wore a plumed helmet on his head. although they did wear a helmet and carry a shield. using a large. but his shins were protected by metal plates called greaves.
who were forced to fight each other to the death.The least important was the centurion. who was in charge of the whole legion and wore a golden helmet topped with eagle’s wings. circular trumpet.” these shows were held in massive stone stadiums. He blew battle signals. One type of gladiator.The most important commander was the legate. who fights with a net.
Gladiators
The Roman emperors paid for dramatic and bloodthirsty shows to entertain the people of the city.
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.The centurion wore similar armor to the legionary. Known as “the games. called a retiarius.
This mosaic shows two scenes of gladiators fighting. and carried a tall staff topped by a golden emblem of an eagle. Each Roman legion was divided into many smaller groups. or prisoners of war. One of the most popular games was the gladiator fight. so they had to be easy to spot. Gladiators were slaves.

Barbarians and Celts
Although the Romans were very successful at conquering the peoples of Europe. short tunics and leggings. the Celts fought hard to defend their lands. However. and shaved at the back with an extra topknot of hair sprouting from the top of the head. but one of the most terrifying were the Franks. settling as far north as Scotland and as far south as Turkey. However. The Romans called these tribes “barbarians” and fought fiercely to keep them out of their lands.
Barbarian Warriors
A Frankish warrior.
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.
By the third century CE attacks on the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes were growing more serious. who originally came from Germany.They wore rough coats made from furs. while in Cornwall and Brittany some Celtic traditions remained. the most striking aspect of the warriors’ appearance was their hair. while tribes of Germanic people from northeastern Europe launched frequent attacks on the empire’s borders. known as a francisca.This was worn in a pigtail at the front. Rome was threatened by many warlike tribes. but they all shared the same language and way of life. Celtic culture survived in Ireland and remote parts of Scotland and Wales. Eventually.The Roman army fought constant battles with the Celtic people. and boots cross-laced around their calves.The Celtic culture began in Austria around 800 BCE. however. there were some tribes who resisted them. and the Celts gradually spread across most of Europe. As the Roman Empire grew. and in 476 the Roman Empire collapsed in western Europe. Rome was invaded by barbarians. but in the end most of them were conquered.
Celtic People
The people known as the Celts were made up of many different tribes. armed with his throwing axe. Frankish warriors carried circular wooden shields and fought with spears and lethal throwing axes called franciscas.

and the same sort of patterns appeared much later in Celtic medieval art. and gold. fought with spears.
A Celtic bronze shield dating from around 350 BCE. Celtic warriors wore bronze helmets. Both men and women often wore chunky neckbands. and often featured patterns of stripes. In battle. and items of jewelry from bronze. Some of these objects.
Celtic Metalwork
The Celts were skilled metalworkers who made strong weapons and tools. some Celtic warriors stripped to the waist and painted their bodies with swirling patterns. using a blue dye called woad.To make themselves appear more intimidating to their enemies. known as torcs. which were sometimes crowned with horns or animal ornaments.The Roman Empire
Celtic Dress
Celtic men wore short. belted tunics and baggy pants tied at the ankle with strips of leather. made from twisted bands of gold. These simple designs were probably the origin of the traditional plaid patterns later used in Scottish kilts. are decorated with intricate swirling patterns.
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. shields.
Celtic warriors usually wore thick woolen clothes with bold patterns of checks and plaids. and very simple plaids. and blew on tall war trumpets decorated with animal heads. while women wore long dresses with belts.They also combed lime through their hair to make it stand up in spikes.
Checks and Plaids
Celtic clothes were woven from wool and dyed bright colors. They also created beautiful cups.They carried bronze shields. silver. dating from around two thousand years ago. checks.

who wore a simple tunic and turban. clay.
I
People of the Indus Valley
The first civilization in India grew up around the valley of the Indus River around 3500 BCE.The Indus valley civilization. while Buddhism also began in India around 500 BCE. metalworkers and bead makers made headbands. Buddhist monks have a “triple robe. armlets. who arrived in India around 1500 BCE. in the towns and cities. and the priests and scholars. and dance. wrapped around the body like a
Clothes for Castes
The Aryan people.
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. Children always belonged to the same caste as their parents. introduced the religion of Hinduism.These robes have been worn by Buddhist monks from the sixth century BCE right up to the present day. introduced a caste system in which people were divided into different classes according to the jobs they did. who wore magnificently patterned robes and turbans and masses of jewelry. The farmers there were the first people to grow cotton and weave it into cloth for clothes. which flourished between 2600 and 2000 BCE.” which consists of: a waistcloth. and he gave precise instructions about their robes.The Gupta Empire of the fourth to the sixth centuries CE is famous for its painting. a wandering holy man who dressed very simply and had almost no possessions.The Buddha attracted many followers who wished to live like him.Within a thousand years there were over a hundred towns and cities in the Indus valley. and semiprecious stones. Some pottery beads were modeled in the form of tiny animals. was larger than any other empire of the time. music. who usually dressed very simply in a loincloth. Meanwhile.Chapter 6: Peoples of the South and East Ancient India
ndia has a rich early history.
Buddhist Monks
Around 528 BCE Prince Siddhartha Gautama gave up his worldly riches and became the Buddha.The Aryan people. the merchants. the warriors and kings. who arrived in India around 1500 BCE. The main castes were: the workers. and necklaces. and each caste wore different kinds of clothes. with their hair knotted behind their head. who dressed in more colorful robes and wore golden jewelry. Beads for necklaces were made from gold.

and encouraged art. Around their necks. science. jeweled headdresses rising in points. the tilaka began in Aryan times when the bridegroom used his thumb to apply his blood to his bride’s forehead as a recognition of their marriage.Peoples of the South and East
Buddhist monks today still wear the same traditional saffron robes that they wore in the sixth century BCE. and princesses had splendid clothes and jewelry. and fruits. laden with jewels. Some have golden. plants. According to ancient Hindu tradition. and trade.Textiles were a major source of wealth for the empire. arms. and an outer robe.
The Tilaka
Ever since the Aryan period. and legs are strings of pearls. cotton. which is only worn in cold weather. linen. It is usually made from a mixture of red ocher powder and sandalwood paste and is a visible sign that a person belongs to the Hindu religion.The dancers wear flowing robes of the finest muslin.
The Gupta Empire
The Gupta emperors ruled from 320 to 550 CE. flowers. kings. and muslin (a very fine cotton) were produced to be traded abroad.
sarong. princes. and large quantities of silk.
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. A set of famous Buddhist murals painted at Ajanta during the
Guptas’ rule portray a group of exquisite dancing maidens. While the ordinary people in the Gupta Empire wore simple clothes made from cotton. or saffron. a robe. Monks’ robes can be dyed from roots and tubers. waists. Hindu women have worn a mark called the tilaka on their foreheads. leaves. beads.The most common color for Buddhist robes is a yellowish-orange. while others are bareheaded with jewels and flowers woven into their hair. bark. and these natural substances produce a range of colors from deep red to yellow. and jewels.

Ancient China
round 5000 BCE people began farming along the banks of the Yellow River. They emphasized the difference between the nobility and the workers. Once the thread was collected. who had to labor with their hands.
A
Making Silk
Silk thread is produced by silkworms that spin their thread into tightly bound cocoons. Well-manicured nails were a symbol of a high social position. From that time on. 48
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These nail protectors were worn by a Chinese empress over her six-inchlong fingernails. several strands were twisted together to make threads thick enough for weaving. China’s early rulers wore gold and silver nail polish.
Fancy Fingernails
Around 3000 BCE wealthy people in China began to paint their fingernails. the threads would loosen. wealthy people in China wore exquisite robes woven from this material. The colors used depended on rank. but by the time of the emperors the royal colors were red and black. After a thousand years. farmers began to grow rice. from light gauzes to heavy brocades. making it possible to unwind the silk thread onto a stick. and around 2700 BCE they discovered how to make silk.The ancient Chinese discovered that if they soaked these cocoons in hot water. the Chinese could weave a range of different silk cloths.
Chinese nobles wore colorful silk robes covered with embroidery. By creating threads of different thicknesses.

Peoples of the South and East

Silk was woven on looms to make fine cloth, but was also used for embroidery thread.The Chinese soon learned to embroider exquisite patterns onto silk cloth, often using a contrasting color. Some silk was made into beautiful clothes, and some was taken by merchants who traveled to the West, where silk sold for enormous prices. Soon, Chinese silk was so famous that the trading route that ran across Asia to Europe became known as the Silk Road.

from rushes or straw. In the warm, wet south, peasants working in the fields wore wide-brimmed, coneshaped hats to protect them from the sun and rain.

Chinese Warriors
The enormous tomb of the first emperor of China contains more than seven thousand life-sized model warriors, placed there to guard his body. Made from terracotta and originally brightly painted, the warriors wear knee-length tunics. Some warriors have their hair tied in a topknot and wear a simple headband, but the officers sport elaborate bonnets with two wings at the top that tie under the chin. Some of the warriors carried real crossbows, which were set to fire if anyone dared to enter the tomb.

Emperors and Nobles
In 221 BCE Qin Shi Huangdi established China's first empire. He established a pattern of living very grandly, and the emperors that followed him built magnificent palaces where they lived with their courtiers. Emperors and nobles wore wide-sleeved, flowing silk robes, which crossed over at the front and were fastened by a high belt.The robes included long, trailing sashes and were covered with embroidered designs. Emperors and nobles often wore their beards and moustaches long. Emperors had elaborate caps decorated with tassels, while nobles usually wore their hair tied in a topknot and covered with a small, silken cap.

One of the thousands of terracotta warriors guarding the first emperor’s tomb. This figure originally held a real weapon.

Working Dress
The Chinese had strict rules about dress. No merchants were allowed to wear silk, and farmers and craftworkers dressed very simply. Some wore cotton loincloths, while others had loose tunics and pants. On their feet they wore sandals made
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Ancient Japan
The earliest people in Japan lived as hunter-gatherers, hunting, fishing, and collecting nuts and berries.Then, around 500 BCE, settlers arrived from China and Korea.They brought new skills, such as metalworking and farming, and people began to live in tribes, ruled by chieftains. One tribe, called the Yamato, became more powerful than all the others, and around 500 CE they took control, becoming the first emperors of a united Japan. silk-making were brought over from China. People in ancient Japan probably dressed in the same way as the ancient Chinese, with farmers wearing simple tunics and pants, while richer people wore fine robes made from silk. The best evidence for ancient Japanese costumes comes from the burial mounds of the Yamato emperors. Here, archaeologists have found bronze mirrors, bells, swords, and spears.They have also discovered clay models of warriors, placed around the burial mound to protect the emperor’s body.These miniature figures are dressed completely in armor that seems to be made from metal strips.The armor consists of: a helmet with long side flaps meeting under the chin; a long, waisted jacket tied at the front with laces; and wide pants.The warriors wear gauntlets and have swords in scabbards on their belts.

Yamato Emperors and Warriors
The Yamato emperors ruled until around 700 CE. During their rule, many new ideas, such as writing and

Swords, Jewels, and Mirrors
An ancient Japanese creation myth provides some insight into the things that were considered important in early Japanese society. According to this myth, the sun goddess Amaterasu sent her grandson Ninigi to rule over Japan, giving him a sword, a jewel, and a mirror. These three gifts became symbols of the emperor's authority. They are said to be still owned by Japan's ruling family.

A miniature terracotta soldier from a Yamato emperor’s tomb.

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Australia and the Pacific
During the last Ice Age, adventurous groups of people from Southeast Asia began to journey in boats.They rowed south across the Pacific Ocean, which was much smaller than it is today because large amounts of land were covered in ice. Some people settled on islands in the South Pacific, and some reached as far as Australia.Very much later, around 750 BCE, a group called the Maoris arrived in New Zealand.

Australian Aboriginals
The aboriginal people of Australia first arrived on the continent around 40,000 years ago, and gradually spread out all over Australia. In the cooler regions, the aboriginals wore animal skins to keep warm, but in many parts of Australia there was no need for clothes. The early aboriginals painted their bodies with patterns using pigments made from ochers, white clay, and charcoal. Both men and women wore a range of ornaments made from natural materials such as bark, teeth, and feathers, or carved from wood. Aboriginal hunters used boomerangs, clubs, and spears, and defended themselves with wooden shields, which were decorated with carvings or paintings.

Dreamtime Patterns
All the patterns used in aboriginal body painting have traditional meanings. They show figures and events from the Dreamtime, a period when their world was created by the Spirit Ancestors, according to aboriginal belief.

Pacific Islanders
The people who settled on the Pacific islands wore skirts made from dried grasses and necklaces made from shells, feathers, and teeth.They may have decorated their faces and bodies with body paint or tattoos, like the Maoris.They may also have worn small carvings as good-luck charms.

Today, some Australian aboriginals still paint their bodies with the same designs that their ancestors used thousands of years ago.

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people learned to weave baskets from plant fibers. usually known as the Early Basketmakers. including small burial mounds. the early buffalo hunters must have used buffalo hides to make tepees and clothes.000 BCE people had settled in the frozen Arctic regions. Some baskets were lined with gum from plants so they could hold water.000 BCE. the Native Americans established a different way of life.
ceremonial dances. pants.They also carved ornaments from walrus tusks. and hunters disguised themselves by wearing the skin of a wolf or a buffalo. mittens. and boots. These early ancestors of the Inuit people lived by hunting seals and walruses. sandy deserts of the southwest. It must have stayed unchanged for thousands of years. A miniature ivory mask survives from around 500 BCE. very gradually. Like their Inuit descendants. people spread out all over the continent. and birds. Asia and America were linked by a bridge of land and ice. Like the later people of the plains.Chapter 7: People of the Americas North America
D
uring the last Ice Age. Evidence of these people. used their weaving skills to build conical homes in the sand. over thousands of years. In each area where they settled. the people of the Arctic must have used animal skins to make hooded coats.
Traditional Inuit dress is made entirely from animal skins and fur. when some of them dressed as buffalo. Hunters from northern Asia followed herds of buffalo until they arrived in the northwestern tip of America. fish. which may have belonged to a chief or a priest.
Arctic People
By around 12.Then.
Hunters of the Plains
It is thought that the first people arrived in the Great Plains area around 10.They were succeeded around 300 BCE by the
Early Basketmakers
In the hot.The early plains dwellers probably also held
52
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Mound Builders
Around 500 BCE a people called the Adena flourished in southern Ohio. and also made baskets to be carried on their backs. From the first century CE these desert people.The people of the plains hunted buffalo for food. has been found in the Scioto River valley.

The Hopewell people were great traders who exchanged goods with tribes as far away as the Rocky Mountains and the Gulf of Mexico. and moccasins made from leather and decorated with dried seeds and feathers.They painted patterns on their skin and wore feathered headdresses on their heads. while the pendants and earrings were fashioned from beaten copper. though they may not have ridden horses. such as hands and claws.These people were hunters and gatherers who wore loincloths. In their ceremonies they smoked tobacco from a carved pipe which was passed between them. The Adena and Hopewell people probably lived in a similar way to the later tribes of the northeastern woodlands.
Hopewell. wear clothes made from leather and feathers. Over time.
The Hopewell people made fine jewelry using a wide range of natural materials. archaeologists have found copper bracelets.People of the Americas
These Native American buffalo hunters. but they may have been worn as pendants. and they also held dances in which some tribe members wore carved wooden masks. and quartz. mica. or sewn onto clothes. until they had become substantial. who flourished until the sixth century CE. painted in the nineteenth century. wooden masks. necklaces made from shells and alligator teeth. flat ornaments. This necklace was made from pearl beads gathered from freshwater shellfish. and carved wooden pipes. circular burial chambers. and brought back copper. from
mica sheets.They also cut out shapes. Their ancient ancestors probably dressed in a similar way. No one knows the function of these small. another great moundbuilding civilization. the Hopewell people built larger burial mounds. silver. Inside these chambers. Hopewell craftworkers made copper sheets into designs such as flying birds. cloaks. 53
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including jaguars.South America
A Chavin figurine of a wild cat.
People of Peru
People began to settle on the rocky coast of Peru around 12.They kept
llamas. alpacas. and also cotton for spinning and weaving. and potatoes.000 BCE. but they were the first people in the Americas to work gold.The Peruvian farmers grew maize. Between 1800 and 900 BCE the Chavin people created the first civilization in South America. This Paracas burial cloak and headdress were made from dyed and embroidered wool. which was used to weave blankets and cloaks. Chavin goldsmiths made intricate figurines and pendants covered with expressive carving.They were skilled stoneworkers who built huge temples filled with carvings of their fierce animal gods. and guinea pigs for their meat and wool. This solid gold ornament may have been worn by a ruler or a priest. they survived by catching shellfish and crabs and gathering nuts and berries. including the Paracas cultures in the south. and the Moche in the north.
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. Chavin culture disappeared around 200 BCE. but by about 2000 BCE they had learned to grow crops. At first. eagles. squash.The Chavin people settled in the long coastal strip which is present-day Peru and influenced the culture of the whole area. alligators.
The Paracas people mummified their rulers and buried them in fine woolen garments.These ornaments show a range of animal spirits. beans.
Chavin Gold
Little evidence remains of Chavin clothing. but other groups grew up.

Whenever the weavers wanted to tighten their threads. and hanging around their necks are square. The warp strings of the loom were attached at one end to a high post. scarlet. such as alpacas. Sometimes weavers combined the forms of several creatures into a complex intertwined design. woven bags. while some is decorated with embroidered designs. and snakes. One surviving Paracas textile has a recurrent design of flying figures.
crabs. Around their ankles are feathered leg bands. apparently wearing ceremonial dress. birds of prey. are famous for their weaving and embroidery. Semi-human deities are also shown. Some surviving Paracas cloth has geometric figures and motifs woven into it.
Paracas Cloth
The Paracas people. and jade green. including turquoise. The figures on this embroidery may represent warrior priests. decorated kilts with elaborately patterned belts. These portable looms could be set up anywhere and are still used today in Peru.Weavers used fine alpaca wool to make spectacular cloaks and burial cloths in a range of vivid colors. Each figure carries a baton and a fan. At the other end the strings were tied to a strap that went around the weaver’s back. they simply leaned back against the strap.
The figures wear short. All of these splendid ornaments were probably worn by Chavin rulers and priests.
A Paracas llama-wool textile used to wrap the body of a mummified ruler. and wears a simple headdress of two horizontal bands topped by a design of an animal’s face. In addition to the figurines. who flourished in the southern Andes from around 600 BCE to 400 CE. wide gold collars and pectorals have also been found in Chavin temples. and shellfish. jaguars.People of the Americas
Backstrap Looms
Portraits of weavers on ancient Moche pots reveal that the people of the Andes used a simple backstrap loom to weave their patterned cloth. Designs include a range of animal motifs. displaying a mixture of human and animal features.The cloth is brightly colored with dyes.
55
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and metals. and copper in small furnaces and used stone hammers to flatten the metal into thin sheets. glittering in all his finery. and earth colors. earrings. and lapis lazuli. and pendants.
Portraits in Clay
Moche lords commissioned skilled potters to make bowls. shell. Many of the pots feature painted figures and scenes. white.
Between 200 and 800 CE. One surviving pot even shows a man washing his hair with coca leaves.Moche Lords Sacred Gold
All the ancient people of the Andes worshiped the sun god. nose rings.The Moche lords conducted solemn ceremonies and led their warriors into battle. warriors in patterned battle tunics and headdresses. 56
. For their special ceremonies. Moche pottery reveals a fantastic range of costumes: lords adorned with face paint and wearing feathered headdresses. and gold was especially prized because it was associated with the sun god’s life-giving power. Moche lords were festooned with golden jewelry and also wore a cotton cloak covered with gilded plates. painted with designs in red.They also supervised the work of skilled craftspeople who worked in clay. silver. Most of the Moche people lived in small farming or fishing villages clustered around tall pyramids where the lords had their palaces. Moche jewelry was often covered with fine engravings and sometimes inlaid with turquoise. and vases. he personified the god of the sun. face masks. pots. textiles. the Moche lords ruled over a coastal kingdom in northern Peru.
This “stirrup vase” made by the Moche people shows a laughing man wearing a simple cotton cap. and ordinary people in cotton tunics and caps. From these they fashioned gleaming headdresses. When a Moche lord appeared on the top of his pyramid. pectorals. while some “stirrup vases” take the form of human figures.
Moche Jewelry
Metalworkers smelted gold.

and at the end of the game one team was put to death. and serpentine. hands. Some have a decorated badge at the center of the forehead. and jaguars. and also semi-human figures with snarling jaguar faces. similar to the headdress of their rulers. the Olmecs played a sacred ball game on a stone court.
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A colossal stone head from San Lorenzo.These carvings featured eagles. including the Maya people (see pages 58 and 59).The two major sites were San Lorenzo and La Venta. serpents. Each contained a complex of temple platforms and pyramid mounds and a court for a sacred ball game.They also wore a large chest ornament and a high-cut loincloth with a wide. Players had special loincloths and helmets and wore large ornaments on their chests. the Maya also played a sacred ball game. and their players wore a similar costume. obsidian. Carved heads like these were probably intended as portraits of rulers. Each of them wears a distinctive helmet-like headdress with straps around the ears. and hips. swampy lands around the Gulf of Mexico.
Olmec Carvings
Olmec craftspeople created masks and figurines from jade. Here. Olmec sculptors also carved a set of giant stone heads. Later. Carvings show that the Olmec ballgame players wore a protective helmet.
Sacred Ball Game
As part of their religion. Mexico. the Olmec people built a series of ceremonial sites on low hills. which are probably portraits of leaders.
The Olmecs and the Maya played a sacred ball game. which were possibly worn as pendants. and many aspects of their culture were adopted by later groups. padded waistband. The Olmecs were the first of a series of peoples that flourished in Central America.Central America
Olmecs
The first major Central American civilization emerged around 1500 BCE in the humid. Players hit a rubber ball with their arms.

nobles also filed their teeth into different shapes.The Maya also produced painted pots and manuscripts. squared-off locks. The two central figures may be courtiers.The palaces and pyramids of the Maya cities were covered with sculptures of their gods and rulers.This painting shows a range of Maya costumes. which offer a wealth of evidence about the way they looked and dressed. and pendulous earrings. Hair was sometimes worn over the forehead and cut in uneven.The Maya queens’
Maya Beauty
The Maya people had flattened foreheads that sloped backwards. tasseled leg bands. Each Maya city was filled with temples and palaces and was ruled by a powerful king.The kings wore patterned tunics with elaborate belts and large pectorals featuring images of their gods. Maya
58
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Kings and Queens
Maya kings and queens wore amazing costumes.
Maya
Around 300 BCE the Maya people started building stone cities deep in the rainforests of Central America. and built up the bridge of their nose with clay to make a long ridge that extended right up to the middle of the forehead. egg-like shape. while the dark figure in the feathered headdress (top left) is a warrior. On their heads they had a towering headdress that frequently featured an animal’s head.This shape was achieved by binding the skulls of babies while their bones were still soft. giving their faces an oval.They also wore decorated armbands. The figure on the left carrying a bundle is probably an ordinary farmer.

the Maya used the long.Their tunics.These royal burial masks were usually made of jade. They wore long cloaks and dresses. which they associated with everlasting life. intricate earrings. The most important of all the gods was the sun god. the Mayan’s most precious material. Quetzalcoatl was half snake and half Quetzal bird.Warriors defended themselves with shields and fought with long spears. and pulling frightening faces. Maya warriors dressed to scare their enemies. 59
. and when the Maya kings were buried. and spears were all decorated with jaguar skin. they wore a mask showing the sun god’s face.
A Maya warrior painted on a vase. and earrings. shields. blowing long trumpets. As part of these ceremonies.People of the Americas
clothes were equally dramatic. and a simple cap on their heads. spiky headdresses and went into battle shouting.
Maya Warriors
In battle. cotton loincloth.
Imitating the Gods
The Maya worshiped dozens of gods and held many ceremonies to please them. priests and kings wore costumes and headdresses representing their gods.They wore huge. green tail feathers of the Quetzal bird in the headdresses of their rulers and priests. rather than kill them. Ordinary people wore a basic. The fiercest warriors of all were the jaguar knights. Like other Central American peoples. armbands.
Quetzal Feathers
Most of the ancient peoples of Central America worshiped the serpent god Quetzalcoatl. headdresses. heavy golden neck collars. This portrait shows very clearly the backwardsloping forehead which the Maya people considered very beautiful. and the feathers of the Quetzal bird were considered sacred. and their headdresses were shaped like a jaguar’s head. but they aimed to take their prisoners alive. They also wore chunky beads. and tall and elaborate crowns.

c. hemp is first used for making cloth in China. Greek soldiers wear strong protective armor. 600 The Paracas people of the Andes create elaborate woven costumes. 2600 The people of the Indus valley grow cotton and use it to make clothes. c. c. c. and used for making axes. 114. 1200 The Phoenicians make a purple dye which is sold around the Mediterranean. Chavin goldsmiths make golden ornaments and collars. wear jewelry made from shells and teeth. 30. 8000 Linen is first woven in Europe.000 Twine nets are first woven. c. c. 9000–6000 Farmers in Iraq learn to spin wool and weave it into simple tunics. c. spears. 3500 Cotton manufacture develops in India. Prehistoric people make simple clothes from animal skins. Persian warriors wear pants for riding. and use body paint for ceremonies. 10. c. 1500 The Chavin people are the first civilization in the Americas to discover gold.
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. c. 29. 2700 Silk-making begins in China. c. daggers. c. silver. Roman styles of dress spread across the Middle East and Europe.000–c. The ancient Egyptians learn to weave linen clothes from flax. 5000 Cotton is spun and woven into cloth in Central America.Timeline
BCE c. 520 The Persians start to build their empire. Bronze is discovered. Many Egyptians wear elaborate jewelry. c. c. 24.000 People begin to wear clothes. 27 The Roman Empire begins. 500 The ancient Greek civilization begins to flourish. 300 The Mayans start building stone cities. 3000 The ancient Sumerians learn to make necklaces.000 The earliest evidence of woven cloth (probably from grasses) dates from this time. c. and gold. 3100 The Egyptian civilization begins.000 Jewelry is made from pottery and semiprecious stones. and makeup. The ancient Chinese weave elaborate silk robes. c. and helmets from copper. They also discover how to blow glass and make glass beads and ornaments. c. They also export silk to Europe along the Silk Road. Maya rulers and warriors wear elaborate headdresses. c. and strong helmets. wigs.

gold leaf An extremely thin layer of gold. glasslike substance that can be produced in a range of colors and is often used to decorate metal objects.Glossary
alloy A mixture of two or more metals. or pink in color.000 years ago to 10. moccasin A shoe made from soft leather. Brocades often have raised patterns made from gold or silver threads. jade A semiprecious stone that can range in color from green to white. fuller Someone who makes and treats cloth. obsidian A dark. fez A cone-shaped hat without a brim. flail An instrument with a handle and a freeswinging end. brown. Alpacas have long. volcanic rock. gauze A very thin woven cloth that is almost transparent. glassy. such as a plant or a rock. brocade A rich fabric with a raised pattern woven into it. braided Divided into strands and twisted together. which grows in the Andes Mountains. coca leaves Leaves from the coca plant. bodice The tight-fitting upper part of a woman’s dress. pigment A natural substance. boomerang A curved stick that is thrown through the air and returns to its thrower if it misses its target. baton A long. A flounced skirt is usually made up of several layers of gathered fabric. plaid A design of straight lines crossing at right angles to give a checkered appearance. armlet A band that is worn around the upper arm. enamel A shiny. alpaca A goatlike animal that comes from South America. that gives color to something. loincloth A piece of cloth worn around the waist or hips and covering the bottom. pectoral A large ornament worn on the chest. ocher A type of rock or earth that is used for making brown. quartz A gemstone that can be purple. red. and yellow pigments. mica A type of rock that can be split into very thin sheets. lapis lazuli A bright turquoise-blue mineral found in rocks. Ice Age A period of time when large parts of the earth were covered with ice. appliqué A method of decorating fabric in which pieces of a different material are sewn onto the fabric. Boomerangs are used by aboriginal hunters in Australia. yellow. amulet An ornament or piece of jewelry that is believed to bring its owner good luck. jackal mask A mask made to look like a wild desert dog called a jackal. braid A length of hair that has been divided into three strands and twisted together. gilded Decorated with gold. flounced Gathered to create a ruffle. used for beating corn or as a whip. gauntlet A heavy glove with a long cuff. fluted Decorated with regular vertical grooves or dips. mural A wall painting. pleated Folded and pressed or stitched in place. shaggy hair that is used to make fine wool. The last Ice Age lasted from around 100. motif A figure or shape in a design. cochineal insect A Mexican insect whose crushed body produces a bright crimson dye. flat brooch or badge. lichen A flat.
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.000 years ago. moss-like plant that grows on trees and rocks. thin stick sometimes carried by a warrior. henna A reddish dye made from the powdered leaves of the henna plant that grows in Asia and North Africa. The jackal was the symbol of the Egyptian god Anubis. nomad A member of a tribe or people that wander from place to place. plaque A small. orange.

. http://www. Adult General Reference Sources Fagan. Anne. 1981) Young Adult Sources Chandler. and their costumes.costumes. sediment Solid bits that settle at the bottom of a liquid. often used for weaving. The Ancient World (Usborne. Fiona. The Usborne Book of the Ancient World (Usborne. Everyday Life in the Ancient World: The Illustrated History Encyclopedia (Southwater. 1994) Internet Resources http://www. Costume of Ancient Rome (Batsford. 1980) Starr. David. Kingdoms of Jade: The Americas before Columbus (Thames and Hudson. Brian M.org The Costumer’s Manifesto A general website on the history of costume with links to sites on different cultures. 1987) Wise. Kingdoms of Gold. sandalwood A sweet-smelling wood.. terracotta A type of hard. usually made from crocus flowers.costumes. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations (Mayfield. Arthur. A History of the Ancient World (Oxford. wicker A flexible twig or shoot. David. Jane. saffron An orange-yellow color. 1983) Haywood. tiered Having several layers.
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. The Atlas of the Ancient World (Dorling Kindersley. Marion. tuber A kind of plant root. Terence. tasseled Decorated with bunches of threads that are tied at one end. tepee A conical tent made by Native Americans. scabbard A holder for a sword or dagger. 1991) Sichel. 1987) Watson. 1987) Symons.Further Information
rouge Red powder or paste applied to the cheeks. Philip.org/history/100pages/ greeklinks. Costume of Ancient Greece (Batsford. John (Ed). 2001) Millard. 1991) Symons. Costume of the Classical World (Batsford.htm A general website on the history of costume with links to sites on different cultures of the ancient world and their costumes. unglazed pottery that is brownish-red in color. Costume of Ancient Egypt (Chelsea House. 1991) Cotterell. 1999) Chisholm. Ancient Armies of the Middle East (Osprey. scalloped Wavy. Chester G. standard-bearer Someone who carries the flag (or standard) for a company of soldiers. sarong A draped. sardonyx A gemstone with reddish-brown and white stripes. serpentine A dark green rock with a shiny surface. skirtlike garment made from a strip of cloth. or made up of a series of curves.

http://www.ucl.smith.digitalegypt.net/society/ soc-dress.annaswebart. http://phoenicia.htm Ancient Egypt: Clothing page with diagrams.org/~bmcmanus/ romanpages.utoronto.org/dress.add. including diagrams for recreating them.uk Digital Egypt for Universities includes multiple pages on textile production. http://www. has photos. dining and cuisine.com/ Villa Ivilla.com/blacksword/ Spartan%20Combat%20Arts%202001/ 1-Pages/HowTo/Clothing/Chiton.greyhawkes. and detailed bibliography and links. photos.html Roman Dress. with footnotes. http://www. tools and clothing in ancient Egypt.html Rome: Republic to Empire has a section on Roman clothing with many details of accessories for both men and women. part of the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire site. and detailed information on Roman clothing styles.html Greek Jewelry: Five Thousand Years of Tradition has beautiful photographs. http://www. and home life.gr/jewel/elka/index. including many color photos and pattern diagrams of surviving garments.htm The Smith College Museum of Ancient Inventions has recreations of prehistoric and ancient textile tools with descriptions of their uses.library.reshafim. diagrams.il/ad/egypt/ timelines/topics/clothing.html Phoenician Dress. http://www.vroma.ac. also images of jewelry and tools for body art.com/Cleo/ Cleopatra1.html The Cleopatra Costume on Stage and in Film examines in detail both the probable clothing of the real Cleopatra.htm How to Make a Chiton: instructions for making ancient Greek female dress. http://www. as well as the theatrical costumes worn by performers depicting her since the sixteenth century.
http://www.roman-empire. http://www.edu/hsc/museum/ ancient_inventions/home. http://www. where you can “become acquainted with the rhythm of daily life in ancient Rome and learn about fashions for men and women.davidclaudon.” The site includes instructions for correctly wrapping a toga. Ornaments and Social Habits: an outline of ancient Phoenician dress of all classes. http://www. and a detailed history of the subject.ca/east/ students03/tai_amy/ The Evolution of Chinese Costume covers changes in Chinese dress from ancient times to the present.com/culture/ costhistory/ Greek Costume through the Centuries concentrates mainly on women’s dress from the Minoan Civilization to the nineteenth century.
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.org.http://www.villaivilla.