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Each generation writes its autobiography in the buildings it creates.

Louis Mumford

Friday, December 3, 2010

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

Renaissance ArchitectureThe Renaissance period, which
lasted roughly from 1400 to 1600, is one of the rare periods whose name was
coined by its own contemporaries. The word "Renaissance" (in French,
literally "rebirth") originates in the Italian word
"rinascita", which has the same meaning. This word, indicating the
revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, served the Italian artists and
scholars of the period to express the dramatic changes that occurred in the passage
to the 15th century.

Early Renaissance
Architecture

Historical
BackgroundIn the 14th century,
following the release of the cities from the feudal rule and their becoming
centers of commerce and industry, changes in perceptions of spirituality took
place and formed a suitable background for the appearance of the Renaissance.
While medieval European culture was subject to the influence of the church, which
intervened in all areas of life, since the 14th century, as a result
the exile of the Pope in Avignon, and following the Black Death since 1348, the
church began to lose its authority among the bourgeoisie, which began to spread
ideas of its own.The Black Death, which killed third of Europe's
population, caused an economic stagnation. The plague's survivors inherited its
victims, grew rich, and in the 15th century signs of economic
recovery appeared. The emphasis on spirituality, which existed during the
Middle Ages, was replaced by an emphasis on concrete reality. The bourgeoisie became
materialistic and their worldview became more democratic and realistic.

Since the mid-15th
century, the people of the period were interested in the world around them and
explored new places. Their curiosity was fueled by the spirit of adventure existed
during the Crusades. Mathematicians, astronomers, and navigators who drew maps,
enlarged their world. Portuguese sailors discovered the path that led them to
India by sea, around the southern tip of Africa. In 1492, the voyage of
Columbus led to the discovery of America - the New World. The Spaniards settled
in America, where they established cities. In 1519, Magellan set out from Spain
to the first voyage around the world.

With the
expansion of the Renaissance man's world, his attitude toward nature that
surrounded him changed. While during the Middle Ages nature was viewed as an
expression of divinity, during the Renaissance, this approach was abandoned in
favor of objective analytical approach that gradually laid the foundations for
scientific study of the world. There has been a progress in math - algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry. Using mathematical symbols such as +, -, and =, began during
this period. As in modern research, during the renaissance began a synthesis
between contemplation and observation and between theories.These developments did not lead
to total abandonment of medieval tradition. The humanist man of the
Renaissance, Pico Della Mirandola (1463-1494) wrote that God the Father, the omnipotent
architect, with his mysterious wisdom, built this intelligent world, which is God's
cosmic residence.The love of logic brought Renaissnce people closer
to science. Their art was dominated by the rules of perspective, proportion, and
symmetry, with the aim of harmony and order. Objective attitude to nature and
learning through direct examination brought the Renaissance discovery of
scientific laws of perspective when trying to draw a realistic three -
dimensional space on a two dimensional surface. While medieval artists were interested
in presenting religious and spiritual truths rather than the real physical
world, Renaissance artists tried to emulate the real world.Renaissance culture first appeared in Italy,
and the reason is clear. The Italian language developed from classical Latin, and
ancient ruins of the Roman buildings were found in almost every town in Italy.
Besides these factors, there were also religious, economic, and social factors
that brought cultural bloom.

During the Middle Ages, trade routes and
journeys to the East passed through Italy. Venice and Milan, Florence and Pisa,
contributed to the prosperity and flourishing of trade, imports of goods from
the East, producing wool and leather products, the establishment of commercial
banks and other institutions that led to their control in the business of the
Western world.Italy was divided
topographically, by the Apennine Mountains, which created separate regions of
valleys and plains. Moving from one region to another was difficult, especially
during the winter months. Each region developed practices, accent, weighing
systems, weights, and coins of its own. This is how the cities were very independent
states, with villages scattered among them. These cities were ruled by
individuals or families. Sforza family ruled Milan, Gonzaga family ruled Mantua,
Malatesta family ruled Rimini, and Medici family ruled Florence. Each such city-state
had its own economic base. In Genoa and Venice, it was marine trade, in Milan -
arms industry, and in Florence - banking, clothing industry, and international
trade.The crisis in the church and the
exile of the Pope to Avignon (which was discussed at length in the chapter Historical
Background of the Gothic period) strengthened the independence of the communities
of northern and central Italy. The economic situation of the Po Valley cities
and especially Tuscany, improved considerably. Tuscan, Lombard and Venetian bankers,
financed military operations of European rulers and the papacy. So they greatly
influenced the political situation in Europe.The
economic prosperity brought with it numerous wealthy families that led to
cultural flowering by becoming patrons of the art. Cultural centers were
created in Milan, the capital of Lombardy, Rome, the capital of the Papal
State, Florence and Siena, central Tuscany, and Venice, which was the cultural
center in North - East of Italy. Smaller centers of culture were the cities of
Ferrara, Mantua (Mantova) and Urbino.

The birthplace of the Renaissance culture was
in Florence, where were created the ripe and most appropriate conditions for its
growth. Its commercial importance, as the focus of economic power, led to a
democratic atmosphere in the city, encouraging original thought and
intellectual curiosity. Such an atmosphere was not found at that time in other
cities in Italy. In Venice, for example, there was a tyrannical rule that
intervened in all walks of life and property of the citizens. These
circumstances caused that in Venice, Middle Ages lasted a long time after the
Renaissance-style buildings were built in Florence. We should also remember
that in Venice there were no classic remains, because it was founded during the
Middle Ages by people from Northern Italy who were fleeing the Lombard invasions,
and lacked the direct classical heritage of which Florence boasted.

Florence was led over a long period by the
Medici family of bankers, which contributed greatly to the city's economic and
cultural prosperity. In 1434, Cosimo de Medici was appointed by the leading
families of Florence to lead the city. Cosimo kept up the appearances of
Republican, but put his family and associates in high positions. When he died
in 1464, his son and grandson continued to lead Florence after him.

The Medici family members were the first
traders in history who were also patrons of the arts among the greatest in
history. Cosimo de Medici used his wealth to build palaces and churches, and to
support scholars and artists. He passed on the tradition of art patronage to
his grandson, Lorenzo, but the focus of interest of the grandson passed from urban
palaces, such as the Medici palace, to villas in the countryside, and from art
providing public needs, to a more refined enjoyment intended for the few.Lorenzo de Medici, the most famous
among members of the Medici family, known as "Lorenzo the
Magnificent," turned Florence into one of the most prosperous and
beautiful cities in Italy, and the center of Renaissance. As the head of the
Medici Bank, with trading links across Europe and diplomatic talent, he
controlled the economic policies of Florence, achieved peace among the
city-states of Italy and strengthened Florence.

Besides being a shrewd banker and clever
politician, Lorenzo de Medici was also a scholar, poet and patron of humanists,
the scholars who have studied the classical writings. He funded the building of
libraries in Florence and supported artists and writers, including
Michelangelo, Boticelli and the poet Angelo Poliziano.A key figure among students of
the classical heritage was Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) who was most of his
life trying to understand the ancient culture and filled with enthusiasm popes,
princes, and emperors who wanted to learn from Italy's past. In his eyes, Italy
was regarded as the heirs of ancient Rome.

Scholars
and artists of the period were intensely interested in Greek and Roman ancient remains,
which were exposed in Florence after being buried in the ground for a long
time, and in the treasures of Greek and Roman literature, which were found in
the libraries of the monasteries for centuries, without being reviewed. During the Middle Ages, there
was knowledge about ancient art in Europe, and there were attempts to repeat
the ancient forms, but the role of classical culture was not so central to
contemporary life as it was in the 15th and 16thcenturies in Italy.

Arab scholars preserved the writings of ancient
Greece's scholars in their libraries. When the Italian cities traded with
Arabs, they became acquainted with the writings, which were preserved since
ancient times and served as a basis for the renaissance.

With the fall of the
Byzantine Empire in the hands of the Turks in 1453, many Christian scholars
left Greece and came to Italy. Some escaped to Italy since 1400, among them refugees
who helped revive the Greek culture by translating Greek literature in the 15th
century or teaching the Greek language in schools in Rome and Florence.
Scholars of the period drew ideas from Plato's works, preferring him over Aristotle
who had a dominant influence on medieval scholars.Study of ancient remains
influenced painting, sculpture, and architecture. Renaissance painting, which
in comparison to medieval painting was more realistic and less focused on
religious matters, has evolved independently more than sculpture and architecture,
because few paintings have survived from ancient times. However, many of the themes
presented in the paintings were inspired by classical culture and Greek
mythologyRenaissance culture gradually
spread from Florence to other Italian cities. In Rome, under the deserted
hills, the old city began to emerge during the years 1450-1600. Scholars of the
period have identified old sites and buildings, and artists came to draw
inspiration from them.Italian cities attracted visitors
from Western Europe. Merchants and bankers were hoping to get rich in them, and
artists and students found in them recognition and publicity. When these
visitors returned home, they brought with them Renaissance ideas. Thus, these
ideas reached France, Spain, Germany, and the Low Countries. These countries
adopted the Renaissance style very slowly, but it has never been as powerful as
it was in Italy.

Another factor that helped spreading the ideas of the Renaissance was the invention of
printing by Johannes Gutenberg (1390-1468). Humanists distributed their
writings and set new standards of language and literature. In 1500, there were
already 1,500 printing houses printing some twenty million volumes of 40,000 different
books.The great writers of the
Renaissance were great writers such as William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Rabelais
(1483-1553) and Montaigne (1533-1592).

Human Image as a Focus of Renaissance Culture

The emphasis
on religious faith that characterized the medieval culture has given way to an
emphasis on faith in the talent and ability of man. While during the Middle
Ages God controls human experience, during the Renaissance, man is the focus of
life, as it was in antiquity whose legacy it revives. The approach in ancient
Greece, according to which man was seen as a microcosm, returns and becomes
popular during the Renaissance.Focusing on the redemption of humankind,
and the embodiment of God in the flesh and blood of Jesus in Christianity empowered
man. While during the Middle Ages the focus was on man in whose image God
appeared, during the Renaissance, the focus was on man as an individual.
Placing man at the center of the world gave no importance to any competitor,
except God himself.Aware of his value,
and being freer of religious restrictions that controlled his life in
the Middle Ages, man's confidence grew. He was enthusiastic about classical
culture, aspired for beauty, was interested in the world around him, and was
determined to make his mark in the world.Humanists (the word was coined in
1539) were the intellectuals of the Renaissance, who were engaged in an
intensive study of Greek and Latin languages, and classical art and history.
They believed that by studying the classical texts they would understand man
and the world better.The spirit of individualism of
the Renaissance, which was seen by the scholar Jacob Burckhardt as the essence
of Renaissance culture, developed in Italy, more than anywhere else. The artist
moved up from the class of bourgeois artisan, to the level of free intellectual
worker. The human mind began to become acquainted with its creative nature.
Renaissance artist creates not only to praise his country and his native town,
or just to glorify God, but also to win esteem in the world, and to have his
name remembered in history after his death. Desire for personal fame in the
modern sense was born. Renaissance artists signed their works, made a name for
themselves, and won fame that their medieval predecessors had not won.The people of the period were
interested in the personality of the artist, and were aware of his creative
power, as he himself was aware of it. This approach was reflected in the
Renaissance concept of the "genius", who was a stranger to the people
during the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge his individuality, originality
and spontaneity. The attention, which was addressed to the architect's
personality during the Renaissance, encouraged originality.

In the first half of the 15th century appeared a
biography of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the first artist whose biography
was written by his contemporary. The most comprehensive of the biography books
was a book by Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) "Lives of Major Painters, Sculptors
and Architects" first published in Florence in 1550, and in more expanded edition In 1568.

As human personality was emphasized during the Renaissance, the human body and its visual
expression won special attention as well. Renaissance art, which poured pagan nature into
Christian symbolism, sought to describe the perfect body and rediscovered nude in
art. Through the study of anatomy, artists were able to describe the human body
accurately. Patrons, who dreamed of eternal fame and glory, ordered portraits
in paintings by renowned artists.Architecture, like painting and
sculpture, had an affinity to the human body. According to Vitruvius, who wrote
his work "On Architecture" in 27 BCE, architecture has to focus on its
relation to the human body. Proportional unity is related to parts of the human
body, and is expressed in Homo Quadratus - an ideal body of a man standing with
arms and legs outstretched to the sides, fitting into a square and circle.
Square and circle were considered the two perfect geometric shapes, as seen
clearly in the famous drawing of Leonardo da Vinci. This ideal unity is based
on module - part of the body, such as foot or hand, that are used as units for measuring
the rest of the body. Realization of this theory was reflected in the human
dimensions of which architects made use. The standard unit of length in
Florence, whose use continued until the transition to the metric system was
braccio (literally in Italian: arm) which was equal 0.583626 m.In the eyes of Vitruvius, the
Vitruvian man symbolized the harmonious relationship between man and nature,
based on the assumption that the cosmos is harmonious, and the human body echoes
this harmony. Renaissance artists connected the ancient concept with religious
outlook. Man was created by God, and God is the source of perfection.

Compared to medieval images in which man was presented as a
microcosm, the human figure of Leonardo is ideal. The proportion between the
line from the vertex of his ideal man to his navel, and between the line
connecting the navel with the foot, is based on the golden section. These
proportions bring man closer to God. Even though the man cannot expand beyond
the square, he has the potential to cross its finality, and share the infinity with
God. The concept was that only through Jesus, who was considered both man and
god, final and endless, contradictions such as square and a circle can unite.
Thus was created the mystical passage from the earthly to the divine.

Leonardo wrote on his drawing of the Vitruvian man that if ​​you spread your feet apart to some extent, so that your height is reduced in a
quarter, and raise your hands to the sides so that the middle finger reaches
the height of the vertex, the center of your hands and feet spread will be the navel.
The area between your legs will be equilateral triangle. This description does
not fit the description of Vitruvius, except for the navel as the center of the
circle, which is common to both descriptions. Vitruvius describes the figure as
static, while the description of Leonardo is dynamic, presenting two positions
at the same time. The result is a transition from one form to another. While Vitruvius
described two distinct geometric shapes, Leonardo created two simultaneous
images, and went beyond the ancient tradition. He made a unique drawing, using
the golden section, creating relation between the square and circle, and showing
the transition from one position to another.

Some believe that the Vitruvian man described by Leonardo
is an image inspired by the writings of Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464),
philosopher, who was particularly interested in geometry and logic. Cusa, in
his book "Learned Ignorance", illustrates the intellectual connection
between man and God, and suggests that we might imagine a multi-sided shape fittingin a circle in which human nature is
represented by long ribs, and the divine nature is represented by a circle. If
the number of sides will be maximized and it will not be possible to increase
the number of ribs, it will become a circle. Using the concept of the circle as
the boundary of the polygonal shape, Nicholas Cosa described the human union
with God, which was also expressed in other writings from the Renaissance.

The connection between man and perfect forms, led to an anthropomorphic concept in design
of buildings and cities. Renaissance architects tried to build a system of
proportions that determines the ratio between the width, height and depth of
parts of the building, and the relations between the parts and the whole. This preoccupation with proportions parallels
the pursuit of Renaissance artists in an attempt to determine an ideal
relationship between the various human body parts, also originating in ancient
times. This attitude stems in part from the belief that the cosmos itself is
based on mathematical harmony, which was also prevalent in ancient times.The architects who built the
Cathedral of Milan in c.1400 said that the proportions between the basis of the
pillar in the cathedral and the capital of that pillar should be based on the
proportion between the human foot and the human head. The basis of the pillar
is also called "foot" and the capital is called "head". The
word "capital" in English derives from the Latin words "caput",
which means "head", and "capitalis", meaning "of the
head".Filarete (Antonio Averlino)
(1400-1469), sculptor and architect who is known as theorist, emphasized the
similarity between the buildings and the human body. He wrote that the
buildings and the human body become sick and die, if not treated properly. According
to him, buildings, like people, need three basic characteristics: beauty,
usability, and long life. Regarding proportions, Philarete combined the canon
of Greek sculpture of Polycleitus (fifth century BCE) with Florentine
measurement methods. Thus, Florentine standards based on the length of an arm, "braccio"
are calculated as the size of the head multiplied by three.Filarete wrote that the head is
the most beautiful part of the human body, and the most beautiful head is the
head of man, which was created by God. Just as in man the most beautiful is the
face, so in the building, the façade is the most beautiful. As man has eyes,
the building has windows. As man has a mouth, so the building has a door, and
as man eats in order to live, so maintenance is necessary for the building.

Vasari, like Filarete, compared the façade of the building to
the face of man, his face to a door, and the windows to eyes. The entrance
hall, according to him, is the neck, the courtyard or cloister, are the body,
and the stairs are the limbs.Francesco di Giorgio (1431-1501
/ 2) returned to the theory according to which the human figure
represents the microcosm. His drawings presenting ground plans of churches are
related to the shape of the human body, which represents the microcosm. Man, as
created by God, in His image, represents the divine perfection.In city design, Di Giorgio had
an anthropomorphic concept as well, whereby, the fortress of the town represents
the head, and the walls represent the arms that surround the rest of the body.Michelangelo believed that
architecture should express forms borrowed from the human body. According to
him, architecture is related to the human body symmetry around a central axis,
as hands are related to the body, or the eyes to the nose.

The Concept of Renaissance
Architecture

Renaissance broke the Gothic tradition, and borrowedmodels from Antiquity and early
Christianity. The revival of interest in Antiquity opened a new world to the
architects, a world full of models available with a new vocabulary inspiring
them to create their own new ideas. Each building that they built was a kind of
their free interpretation to ancient construction. The classical surviving ruins
sparked the creative imagination of Renaissance architects, who referred to the
ancient architecture as a model, but never blindly copied from ancient models.
Enthusiasm for ancient architecture was expressed by using elements from this
period such as columns, capitals, decorations, and rules of composition.Churches, townhouses, and
palaces of the Renaissance-style show completely original solutions in terms of
building space. Unlike the Middle Ages when symbolism played a central role,
Renaissance art appeals to a direct relationship with nature and to expressing its
beauty.The attitude toward the architect's
work changed during the Renaissance, as it changed toward other arts.

Architecture was no longer considered "mechanical
activity" or a type of craft, as it was considered during the Middle Ages,
but as intellectual activity ("liberalis"). Renaissance man connected
science and art, and tended to branch out, and avoid specializing in one area.
Most of the great Italian architects were also master- artists in several arts,
and some excelled in science as well.Philosophers who were occupied
with Platonic doctrines accepted the idea that the main essence of ​​the
artist's work is to embody beauty, but in Plato's approach dominated objective
reason, and the work of the individual, which was perceived as disappearing
behind knowledge and precise measurement. According to the concept of the
Renaissance, the source of the artwork is in the artist and his soul. As
opposed to the objective position of Plato, is standing the subjective position
of the Renaissance.

The Renaissance
artist was perceived as a creator whose creative imagination and intellect should
be respected. The people of the period began to appreciate art for its own sake
as a personal expression of the artist, rather than as a didactic means as was
common in medieval times. A patron, who was interested in architectural design,
would turn to people outside the small circle of those engaged in stone construction.
He would look for people who have proven themselves in other arts. Painter
Giotto, without any prior experience in architecture was called at the end of his
life to plan the bell tower ofFlorence Cathedral.
Likewise, Orcagna, who was identified as a sculptor and painter in the documents
of the period, was responsible for building Orsanmichele in Florence. Theoccupation of Renaissance painters with perspective
brought them closer to engaging in architecture.

Brunelleschi, who was a goldsmith and sculptor, built the foundling hospital
in Florence and many other
monuments. Construction patrons would turn to goldsmiths to draw ideas for
building, because their design talent and technical skill naturally linked them
to architecture and sculpture. Many of their works, such as altars, and Tabernacles (where relics are stored), have shapes,
proportions and decorative details that could be applied in architecture.
Jewelers, who had knowledge of geometry, could draw and create models, as
required by architects. In Florence, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti and Michelozzo,
came from the jeweler's craft.The market conditions during
the Renaissance, demanded the architect to have original inventive spirit.
Florence in the 15th century was a large concentration of patrons
competing for city status by building in the city. There was also a competition between architects, who
were required to be innovative.

Vasari considered architecture as the top of designing
arts, which include painting, sculpture, and architecture. According to him, architecture
is the fullest, most necessary, and beneficial to people, while painting and
sculpture decorate it.An aspiration that existed during the Renaissance in literature,
sciences and arts, to reach eternal truth and beauty, found its expression in
architecture using harmonic proportions. The building is perceived as a
microcosm that reflects the order of divine proportions. The belief in the
connection between microcosm and macrocosm, the world's harmonic structure, and
perception of God through mathematical symbols, all these originated in ancient times. They were also found
in medieval theology and philosophy, but awoke to new life in Renaissance
architecture. Mathematical relations used in architectural design expressed ideal
order, which was connected to Pytagorian and Platonic doctrines, and
represented the divine musical harmony in stone.Alberti, who identified musical harmony with good
architectural proportions, stated that numbers that are enjoyable to the ear, are
also enjoyable to the eye and soul. This concept was also adopted by Palladio
(1508-1580). The harmonious order created by God, found its expression in
architecture, and above all, in architecture of churches and other sacred structures.
The great Gothic churches where the vertical line was emphasized, were replaced
by relatively small churches that were closer in dimension to early medieval
churches. The ideals of the Renaissance architecture were clarity, simplicity,
harmony, balance, and symmetry. These were reflected in centralized plan without
orientation or emphasis on horizontality or verticality.

Emphasis on religious
significance that has characterized the medieval church was abandoned in favor
of an emphasis on human meaning. The person who enters the church no longer
aspires to reach transcendental purpose, but enjoy the beauty around him, and is
excited about the wonderful feeling to be part of that beauty.Renaissance architecture deals with the same problems
that occupied the painters and sculptors. In Florence, in the twenties of the
15th century, the architect Brunelleschi used focal perspective.
Arnold Hauser, in his book "Social History of Art," writes that Renaissance
art focuses on a reality viewed from one viewpoint, a structure with a shape
that comes from the tension between the wide world and the person facing it.

The focus of the Renaissance on
description of accurate three-dimensional space is associated with the
customary approach during this period, according to which there is truth in
everything that man sees because God built it according to the true and natural
laws. Linear perspective gave a precise visual expression to these ideas.
Unlike the Gothic church builders, who had in mind the stories of the Old and
New Testament in every design, ornament, and stained glass, Renaissance architecture
focused on designing space, and on perspective. Brunelleschi's use of the
module (architectural unit used in multiples for the dimensions of other
architectural organs in the structure) to create relations between different
areas, and between these areas and the whole, characterized the building plans
and city planning, and directly affected the perception of beauty and harmony
of the Renaissance.

Gothic
architecture, which focused on problems of structure and design that emphasize
movement towards the sky, gave way to engaging in the harmony of elegant
proportions and symmetry. Renaissance architects generally were not interested
in depth in the problems of Roman structures or construction. Revival of Roman
architecture was superficial in nature, and as time passed, the use of Roman
classic details deviated from the Roman precedent. Renaissance architects adopted
the worldview that was expressed in the classical texts. Writings of Vitruvius
released the 15th century helped them become familiar with the
architecture of ancient Greece, and the desire for harmony that characterized
it, harmony between the parts of the building themselves, and between these parts
and the entire building.

The aspiration to mimic nature expressed by
Democritus in the fifth century BCE has been adopted by Renaissance architects.
According to his theory, in every art we imitate nature: in weaving, we mimic
the spider, and in construction, we mimic the swallow.During the Renaissance, as in
ancient times, nature served as a model for all the arts, including
architecture. Alberti, following the ancient thinkers, believed that we should
imitate nature, which he calls "An artist" or "supreme
creator". Vasari wrote that the creation of the artist will get closer to perfect,
as it will get closer to nature, because nature is God's creation. Thus, the humanists
combined Plato's philosophy with Catholic faith. Nature is a role model for art
because it was created by God. The human body is the embodiment of beauty
created in the image and likeness of God. According to Platonic philosophers,
objects in nature express the embodiment of God in the material.More than any other classical
approach, the Renaissance adopted the approach of Aristotle who wrote that in principle;
art imitates nature, or completes that which nature cannot bring into perfection.Inspired by the writings of
ancient books, books of architectural theories were written during the
Renaissance. It was only natural that at times when architecture was considered
an intellectual activity, architects were also engaged in theories of their
profession. One of these architects was Cataneo, who wrote in Venice in 1554
the book "Four Basic Architecture Books" (Quattro Primi Libri di
Architettura). According to Cataneo, the central church in the city should have
the shape of a cross, because the cross symbolizes redemption. The proportions
of the cross should be the perfect body's proportions based on the body of
Christ, which was perfect.

Cataneo
thought that the interior of the church should be richer than its exterior because
the soul is more beautiful than the body. The interior represents the soul of
Jesus, while the exterior represents his body. For this reason, the outside will
be built in the simple Doric Order, while the interior will be built in a more decorative
order such as the Ionic Order.

Likewise, Cataneo recommended that the columns would be chosen according to the type of the martyr
to whom the church was dedicated. Following the recommendations of Vitruvius,
Doric order would match Jesus, St. Peter, and other male saints. The Ionian order
would match a church dedicated to more delicate saints and women saints. The Corinthian
order would fit churches dedicated to girl saints. Since beauty is a divine
attribute, God deserves as an offering the most
beautiful building of all. Implementation of such approaches was typical of high renaissance.

An architect, who built a little (the hospital
of Milan, which has survived), but played an important role in spreading early
Renaissance style, was Antonio Averlino nicknamed "Filarete"
(literally in Greek: "likes virtue". Filarete wrote the book
"Treatise on Architecture" (Trattato d'Archittetura), to which Vasari
referred as the most ridiculous book ever written. The original book was
written as a dialogue inspired by Neo Platonic theories. One of his innovations
was the creation of a link between the Greek orders and social classes. The
book also includes many designs of impractical buildings, and plans for two ideal
cities.

Filarete presents in his book the emotional
response of the Renaissance to certain shapes. In his book, it can be seen that
he read the writings of Alberti. A central idea of Filarete was that the
superiority of the classic style over the Gothic style stems from the ability
to show the viewer a continuous line. The pointed arch is less beautiful and not
as much perfect as the round arch because the eye cannot follow it without a break.
It stops when it reaches the top of the arch. Unlike the pointed arch, the circle
is relaxing, because when you look at it, the look follows it without a break
or interruption.Another architect of the early
Renaissance, who was much occupied with theory, was Francesco Di Giorgio, who
presented the relations between the shape of the church and the human body. In
a book published in 1525, he proposed to build a church of nine footsteps in
length, because number three squared equals nine. This was an expression of
adopting the statement of Pythagoras, according to which everything is numbers

Renaissance Construction TechniqueAncient building techniques served
as a source of inspiration for new construction techniques. During the 14th
and 15th centuries, the function of architectural drawings became more
and more practical. Such a drawing that was attached to the construction
contract of Sensedoni Palace in Siena from 1340 has survived. This drawing showed
a complete view of the façade with detailed measurements. Although it was drawn
in freehand, attaching it to the contract indicates its official character. The
fact that the drawing is mentioned several times in the contract indicates that
it served the builders, at least in general, to obtain information on
dimensions and location of windows and doors.During the Renaissance, it was
customary to make a competition for building. Once the winning architect was selected,
his model was presented to show the finished product. At a time when
construction took many years, exceeding the life of a human being, the model
was an authority against pressures to change the structure, although changes
were sometimes unavoidable.Several models made of wood have
survived. Among them is the model of the dome of Florence Cathedral designed by
Brunelleschi and the initial model of Sangallo for Palazzo Strozzi. Not all the
models were complete with detailed ornaments.
Many of them were rough three - dimensional sketches, a kind of presentation of
the general idea of ​​the building.Brunelleschi, in his work, used models in a
small and large scale. The dome of Florence Cathedral (whose construction technique
will be discussed in detail in the chapter on Brunelleschi) has created several
models, which showed the structure without ornaments, probably, to avoid bribing
the eye in small details, as Alberti believed. Alberti contended that simple
models are the proof of a genius designer.As for the building, during the Renaissance, in Florence there was
a tendency not to leave bare brick walls in important buildings for reasons of
taste. They were coated with stone and stucco. Over time, the influence of
Florence spread to other Italian cities. So it was also even in a city like
Bologna, which was characterized by a long tradition of building with bricks.

Towards
the end of the 14th century, there was an increased demand for
stone. Major public projects, and above all, Florence Cathedral project, created
a demand for stone, including large quantities of marble. Using stone and
marble paneling highlighted the colors of the building. Throughout Europe, there
were probably not so many builders skilled in building in stone, as there were
in Florence.Two types of stone were hewn: pietra
forte (literally in Italian: a strong stone) and pietra macigno. Pietra forte
is a sandy limestone in hues of yellow-brown with blue-gray spots, which was used
for building palaces in Florence, includingPalazzo Medici and Palazzo Strozzi. Pietra forte is stronger than pietra
macigno and more durable. This stone has veins that could cause breaking. For
this reason, it is not suitable for use in cornices. Quarries of pietra forte
were found in southern Florence.In pietra macigno we
distinguish two types: pietra serena and pietra bigia: pietra serena, a soft stone
in shades of blue - gray that served for decorative details in buildings, and
characterized the new style. This stone is easier to work with than pietra bigio,
and survives longer when coated, but when it is exposed to harsh weather conditions,
it tends to fall apart. Pietra serena was known already in the 14th century,
but Brunelleschi much used it and made it fashionable.Pietra Bigio is a sandstone composed
of quartz, silicate and mica in soil gray shade with a sparkling appearance. It
served for building monolithic columns and capitals that pietra forte did not
suit them. In Florence, it has been used, in part, inside the Church of San
Lorenzo, the Church of Santo Spirito and the courtyard of Strozzi Palace.Quarries of pietra bigio were
scattered on the hills between Fiesole and Settignano. The stone which was abundant near Florence brought the flourishing
of stone industry. Artisans could control all the process of work in stone, from
quarrying to the delivery of the final product.The Economic boom increased
the demand for marble throughout Italy and even in its northern part. The
building style with rustication that characterized the construction of public
buildings in the late 13th century was adopted in the 15th
century façades of private palaces of the upper class. Façades were often designed
in diamond pattern blocks (known as opus reticulatum). This kind of rustication
served for decoration.Another source of building
materials during the Renaissance was reused stones from ancient buildings. Thus,
marble from Ravenna was reused in building the church of San Francesco in
Rimini. During the term of Pope Sixtus V (served 1585-1590), architect Domenico
Fontana planned to turn a part of the Coliseum into a wool workshop, and another
part into the workers' quarters. During this period, there was no
awareness of conservation of sites, the kind familiar to us today. Pope Julius
II looted not only ruins, but also monuments that had survived intact.

Renaissance Architecture in the 15th CenturyThe architects who were more than
others the main influence on the perception of Renaissance architecture at its beginning
were Philippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti, so each of them will be
discussed in a separate chapter.

Philippo Brunelleschi In Florence, in the
early 15th century, Brunelleschi broke the tradition of Gothic
architecture, and built, while combining technique and aesthetics imitating ancient
forms. The revival of antiquity in the works of Brunelleschi finds its
expression in pure forms derived from medieval forms. Practicing harmonious
proportions, and emphasis on perspective, are the central elements in his
architecture. Brunelleschi re-introduced the ancient orders. Using basic
elements such as a square and circle, he created a module that was used as a
baseline for determining dimensions of the building's various parts.
Like
other Renaissance architects, Brunelleschi never copied complete ancient
classical models, as did the neoclassic architects of the 19th century.
He borrowed the principles of Roman architecture, and made the designs according
to his ideas. His buildings were modern at his time. They can be seen as
expressing modern ideas in Latin.After losing the competition
for the design of the bronze doors of Florence baptistery, Brunelleschi
traveled with his friend, the sculptor Donatello, to Rome where he worked as a
goldsmith, and in his spare time, studied the ruins of ancient Roman
architecture in detail.

The Foundling Hospital (Ospedale Degli
Innocenti)In 1419, Brunelleschi began building the foundling hospital in the
Santissima Annunziata Piazza in Florence. This foundling hospital, which was
built on a land purchased by the guild of silk merchants, is considered the
first building of the Renaissance and the first foundling hospital in Europe.
It was meant to take care of abandoned babies and orphans, raise and educate them.
Women who could not raise their babies were transferred to the foundling hospital.
Male infants were kept in this place by the age of 18, and female infants
remained there until they married.

The foundling hospital was the first expression of the
personal style of Brunelleschi in architecture. Its most spectacular element is
the arcade in the façade, with the spandrels (the near triangle shaped area between
the arches) which presented medallions with reliefs of babies in diapers, made
by the sculptor Luca Della Robbia (1400-1482). An architrave (a lintel carried
on columns) separates the ground floor and the floor above. Round arches,
pediments over the windows and Corinthian columns are Roman motifs. The stairs leading
to the foundling hospital are a motif borrowed from the classic Greek temple.The configuration of the
foundling hospital had precedents in hospitals from the Middle Ages in
Florence, such as S. Matteo (now the Academy of Fine Arts). The idea of portico
is associated with porticos of the Roman Forum and the loggia (roofed structure
with an arcade or colonnade, open on two sides or more), such as the Loggia dei
Lanzi in the Piazza della Signoria. The loggia here is not a separate element,
but part of a building in an urban context. Arches carried on high stilts were
inspired by the Church of San Miniato al Monte, which was built in the 11th
and 12th centuries.

In the 14th century, Tuscan hospitals were often
designed with portico, but it was customary to place the columns, which were usually
polygonal, on balustrades. Brunelleschi preferred to design the columns in cylindrical shape with
Corinthian rich capitals.

The Church of San LorenzoThe Church of San Lorenzo (1421-1469)
in Florence was built by Brunelleschi on the site of earlier churches - the
city's oldest church, which was dedicated in 393, and another that was built later
in 1090, in Romanesque style. This is a basilica church built in a Latin cross-shaped
ground plan. In its planning,
Brunelleschi used the square of the intersection of the church as a module. The
longitudinal axis is in the size of six modules, and the transept is in the size
of three modules. A bay in the side aisle is the size of a quarter of a module.
The squared module and quarters of the module were marked on the floor of the
nave and the bays of the side aisles, forming harmonious proportions.

The ratio between the width of the nave and its height
equals the ratio between the width of the side aisle and its height. In the
nave, an arcade of round arches rests on Corinthian columns. The ratio between
the height of the arcade and the height of the clerestory is 5:3 respectively.Brunelleschi, more than any
other architect, was occupied with linear perspective, which is clearly manifested
in the Church of San Lorenzo. He who enters the church can see the lines marked
on the floor, the horizontal lines marked by fine stripes separating the two
floors, the square coffers in the ceiling design, the vertical columns and
fluted pilasters. All these emphasize the perspective, using orthogonal lines,
which meet in a vanishing point in the apse.Inspired by antiquity, Brunelleschi
designed above the arcades in the side aisles of St. Lorenzo, round windows -
occuli. The flat ceiling of the nave is decorated with gilded rosettes located
within square coffers, as seen in the ceiling of the Pantheon. Groin vaults appear
above the intersection area, in the bays of the side aisles, and over theOld
Sacristy (Sagrestia Vecchia), in the northeastern corner. Ten
chapels were built around the transept. Chapels were added later along the side
aisles. A new sacristy was added later in the southeastern corner.

Brunelleschi used to keep the façades of the buildings
that he planned for the end. Thus, he did not plan the façades of Santo Spirito
church and Pazzi Chapel (Capella Pazzi). Michelangelo made a plan to design the
façade of the Cathedral of San Lorenzo, but this has never been carried out.

The Church of Santo Spirito in FlorenceThe building of Santo Spirito Church (literally: the Holy Spirit)
began in 1436. Originally, Brunelleschi designed a most complex layout. In front
of the church was planned a monumental square which covers the area down to the
Arno river. This proposal was rejected, and instead was established a new
church beside the old one which was destroyed later, in 1481. The church that
was built faced the square of the old church with its back towards the river.The Church of Santo Spirito and the
Church of San Lorenzo have some common characteristics: The Latin cross shaped
ground plan, a module in the size of the square of intersection, with a long
axis in the size of six modules, and a transept in the size of three modules.
Likewise, the square bay of the side aisle equals a quarter of the module. In
both churches, the ratio between the width and height of the nave equals the
ratio between the width of the side aisle and its height.

While in San Lorenzo the ratio between the arcade and the
clerestory is 5:3 respectively, in Santo Spirito this ratio is 1:1. In Santo
Spirito, as in San Lorenzo, Brunelleschi presents to those who enter the church
a perspective with one vanishing point.Santo Spirito Church was rebuilt
after being burnt down in 1470. This
construction was financed from the sale of its many chapels. Influence of
traders, which increased during the Renaissance, led to an increase in demand
for private chapels. Following this demand, new churches were built, and existing
churches were modified. Some of the chapels in Santo Spirito were acquired by
large groups of relatives. Chapels of churches were usually used as private burial
place. Originally, half - round Chapels could be seen from the outside. Their
design in this shape made it difficult to put burial monuments inside them. In
many memorial chapels, the donors were not buried. . The only thing that
suggests a relationship between the donor and the chapel, was Masses held in
memory of the donor. In Santo Spirito there are forty chapels – a visual symphony
of semicircles.

As mentioned earlier, eventually, Brunelleschi did not
design the Church of Santo Spirito's façade.

Churchof Santa Maria
del Fiore in FlorenceDuring the years 1426-1436,
Brunelleschi became involved in the construction of the huge dome of the Church
of Santa Maria del Fiore. This church was actually built in the site of the
Church of Santa Reparata from 1294. Santa Reparata, which seemed too small for
a relatively rapidly evolving commercial city, gave way to Santa Maria del
Fiore, the cathedral of Florence.

Arnolfo di Cambio, who designed the church in late 13th century,
died shortly after construction began. Painter Giotto was appointed to replace
him in 1336, and built the campanile - the bell tower. The church building was
completed by Francesco Talenti (1340-1360), who expanded the clover shape of
the ground plan, which had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio. The church structure
is huge – about 170 m in length. As a Gothic Tuscan structure, for its
decoration, colored marble was used.The plan of Arnolfo di Cambio with the changes of
Talenti, left the church with a big problem - to roof the structure with a
dome. Arnolfo's project included a dome, but it was too short. In 1367, it was
decided to expand the church, and include a dome 42 m in diameter, with a
pointed profile. The dome's construction competition was declared in 1418. The
demands of the conditions were building the dome 46 m in diameter on an
octagonal base, without scaffolding.

Brunelleschi won the
competition, but the cathedral managers appointed Lorenzo Ghiberti as the inspector
of the work. Ghiberti won the competition against Brunelleschi to design the
northern door of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence. Brunelleschi was badly
hurt and almost broke the model that he built for the dome. Following the advice
of his friends the artists Donatello and Luca della Robia, he feigned illness
and left the responsibility to Ghiberti, who had to admit that he did not
understand the project and was unable to continue working on his own.Brunelleschi began the work in
which he invested his energies for the rest of his life, while simultaneously
building more monuments. His plan for the dome was radical. His innovation was merging
two elements: a dome in the shape of half a sphere, which was part of the Roman
heritage, and pointed Gothic arches. Thus, the dome combines classic and
medieval shapes. The dominant construction methods for designing the dome were
medieval. The skeleton of the dome was built of eight massive ribs growing from
an octagonal base, as in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen. Brunelleschi borrowed the
Byzantine vaulting ideas, using each layer of stone in the dome, as support for
the next. The dome was built without scaffolding of wood reinforcement. It consists
of nine horizontal rings placed one on top of another. Brunelleschi found out
that a dome built of horizontal rings is stable along the entire course of
construction. The upper ring at each stage acts as a keystone, and prevents the
collapse of the structure inward. The principle of dome construction is similar
to the principle of building an arch where the stones, with mutual pressure,
support the structure itself. Alberti described this method as the best method for
building a dome without scaffolding.

Bricks were placed in horizontal rows with fixed intervals. Vertical
bricks on each side locked up each row of five bricks. This form of laying
bricks creates a herringbone pattern, The Romans used it in ancient times, and
it was called "opus spicatum". This pattern allows the connecting of
rows of stones in a spiral shape to the top of the dome.Upon the completion of the dome,
remained an opening 6 m indiameter, and a lantern was designed there by Brunelleschi but was
built after his death.A pointed structure of a
dome is more stable than half sphere dome-shaped structure, because the forces putting
pressure on the base of the dome toward the outside are weaker. To reduce the weight
of the structure to the minimum, Brunelleschi designed the dome with inner and
outer shells. The inner shell reaches a thickness exceeding two meters, while
the outer shell is lighter, and was intended primarily to protect, and provide
external architectural appearance. The thickness of the outer shell reaches
one-third of the thickness of the inner shell. Between the inner shell and
outer shell, there is a staircase leading to the lantern. These steps are
designed to facilitate the maintenance of the building. Later, it served
tourists visits. The top of the dome rises to 90 m above the ground.The dome reflects the eclectic
character of Renaissance architects. This dome, like other large domes designed
during the Renaissance, is not a simple imitation of ancient forms, but the
integration of elements from the ancient world with a Gothic look, which was
better known to contemporaries.

Alberti described in 1436 the dome
that Brunelleschi designed before the construction of the lantern was
completed, as a work of engineering that people did not believe possible and as
inconceivable during antiquity. The outer dome, which was
completed in 1434, was larger and more "inflated"
than the inner one. Two years later, the lantern wasplaced and raised the height of the cathedral
from 91 m to -114.5 m. Radiant apses were added in 1438. The decoration of the
lantern was completed in 1446, around the time of death of the architect.The dome of Florence
Cathedral is immense in size and became the symbol of the city of Florence. It
represents an innovative and revolutionary architecture from the Renaissance.
Compared to the dome of the Pantheon, which is impressive in the inside, the dome
of Florence is more spectacular in its exterior design.The Façade of Florence
Cathedral was designed during the years 1867-1887 by Emilio de Fabris, in a Gothic
revival style.
Reconstruction work was carried out at the cathedral during the years 1988-1995.

The Sagrestia Vecchia in the Church
of San Lorenzo

Brunelleschi designed the Sagrestia Vecchia (Old Sacristy
as opposed tothe New Scaristy from the 16th century, which was
built by Michelangelo in the same church) in the church of San Lorenzo, which began
as ambitious plan to rebuild the church of San Lorenzo. For funding reasons, the
progress in construction was slow. Rebuilding the east side adjacent to the sacristy
took place in the twenties of the 15th century and was followed by a
break. The work was completed in 1442. The interior of the old sacristy
resembles the interior of Pazzi Chapel, which will be discussed below. The Old
Sacristy has a cubic structure with a hemisphere shaped dome carried over pendentives
(curved triangles in the corner of the square in the base creating a passage
from the square base to the circular base of the dome), as was customary in
Byzantine construction. The dome with the rounded windows at its base is divided
into 12 parts. A smaller similar domed cubic structure is the altar of the chapel.

The ground plan of the Old
Sacristy is square shaped. The height of the wall equals the side of the
square, and thus is created its cubic shape. The cube is domed by a hemisphere
whose diameter is in the size of the side of the square. In this way, the
height of the structure is divided into
three equal parts: the wall until the entablature, the lunette and the dome.
The dome is divided into 12 equal parts. The size of the sacristy's squared
area served as a module for the proportions of the building.

Pazzi Chapel (Capella Pazzi)

Pazzi Chapel in Santa Croce in Florence
whose construction began in 1442 (even though the construction agreement was
signed with Brunelleschi ten years earlier) was ordered by the pazzi (literally
"crazy") family, the bankers who had competed with the Medici (literally:
physicians) family. The chapel, which was intended to serve as a chapter house
and for meetings of Pazzi family, testifies to the prosperity of this family in
the 15th century.

Pazzi
Chapel illustrates the fact that Renaissance was occupied with appearance
of design more than with construction. Although the chapel was built in the Gothic
cloister of the Franciscan church of Santa Croce, it is designed in Renaissance
style.Brunelleschi (who died in
1446) could not design the façade of the chapel, which is dated to 1460. The
façade is certainly not similar to the façade of a medieval church. The portico
in the façade, preceding the chapel is reminiscent of the narthex in early
Christian churches. Six columns support the portico's barrel vault with the low
dome in the center. A significant innovation is the façade design with a round
arch in the center, between two Colonnades. Corinthian columns supporting the
entablature (part of the building above the columns' capitals, and below the
floor above) in the façade are inspired by Roman tradition. Reliefs in rectangular
patterns adorn the wall of the entablature and below them are medallions of the kind that Brunelleschi used
to use many times.The rational and harmonious design that
Brunelleschi created was in contrast to the Gothic design. Inside the chapel
can be seen a geometric system implementing harmonious proportions between
circle and square highlighted by dark gray stone known as pietra serena,
against the light stucco walls.

As in the Old Sacristy in the Church of San
Lorenzo, Brunelleschi paid attention to proportions. While in the side section of
the Old Sacristy the ratio between the height of the wall until the
entablature, height of the lunette and
the height of the dome is 1:1:1, in Pazzi chapel the division is in the ratio
3:4:5. The 5 refers to the height of the wall till the entablature, 4 – to the
height of the lunette, and 3 - to the height of the dome. The division of the structure
according to proportions is highlighted by the gray color of the arches, pilasters,
and entablature.

In planning Pazzi Chapel, Brunelleschi subdivided
a square space into three parts: a portico, central square, and side aisles
vaulted by a barrel vault. The ground plan of the chapel itself is essentially rectangular.
In the center of the rectangle is a dome above pendentives, flanked by barrel
vaults. Pazzi Chapel shows the pendentive as a part of the vocabulary of
Renaissance architecture. The idea of a dome above pendentives is Byzantine.
The main inner walls are decorated with pilasters that appear also in the niche
where the altar is found. Rectangular panels in which there are medallions, and
narrow barrel vaults, flank the central
dome. A motif of rosettes appears in the intersection area above the panels. The
rosettes are highlighted by the contrast between gray - green color of stone
from which they were carved, and the cream color of the stucco walls.

Another element that adds color to the
interior of the church is the medallions in terracotta, which were made by the artist
Luca della Robia. In the medallions inside the pendentives of the central dome,
there is a use of bold perspective. The four figures of the evangelists were painted
in a view from bottom-up in a manner that enhances the illusion of depth. In
the medallions on the walls appear smaller reliefs of the Apostles.

Pazzi Chapel's magic lies in the freshly
renewed treatment of details, clearly reflecting the new interest in the
classic past during the Renaissance.Due to the function of the
chapel as a chapter house, a low bench runs along the walls of the room.
Opposite the entrance is a little altar chapel, square and roofed, which opens on the eastern
wall like the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo, but with richer decoration.The look of Pazzi chapel is
more decorative than any other structure built by Brunelleschi. It shows the
harmony of colors on the walls and spandrels against severe gray color. The
design of the chapel, which shows purity of lines, inspired Renaissance
architects who followed Brunelleschi.

Leon Battista
AlbertiArchitect Leon
Battista Alberti (1404-1472) was a polymath who excelled as an athlete,
playwright, linguist, author of music and mathematician. When the Dome of
Florence Cathedral was built, he was a young man.In his book "Ten Books of
Architecture" (ten inspired by Vitruvius), Alberti presented a theory of
architecture, based on the platonic ideal of perfection and harmony. The ideal
church, according to him, should be the noblest ornament of the city, whose beauty
will surpass all imagination. It must be isolated and stand on a beautiful high
square, far from everyday life that surrounds it. The ideal church's windows
will be located high, to avoid eye contact with everyday life. Through the
windows of the church, which will be pure and white, and will inspire awe, one
will see only the blue sky. It will be a central structure with a dome because the
circle and square were ideal in his opinion. Influenced by Neo - Platonian theory,
which was prevalent at the time, Alberti saw a circle as a perfect and divine
form, and a basis for harmony in nature.Alberti wrote that beauty is
achieved by proportions that are composed together, so that each addition or
removal would destroy the general harmony. Harmony in the church is divine and
echoes the universal harmony. Proportions in architecture, according to him,
are based on the proportions of the human body, as Vitruvius wrote in ancient
times.Alberti was influenced by
classical forms, and medieval structures. During his time, the central structures
such as the Mausoleum of Santa Constanza, the Baptistery at the Lateran, and
even the Baptistery in Florence from the 12th century were
considered ancient Roman temples that became churches. Alberti wrote that
without the geometric equilibrium in which all parts are connected together in
harmony, divinity will not appear. His
book was very popular at the time, and influenced his contemporaries and the
generations to come.

Alberti and Brunelleschi were among the first
to appreciate the value of the Roman ruins, as a tool to improve the
contemporary architecture, but their approaches were different. Alberti was,
first of all, a scholar and theoretician. His writings were written in Latin,
and even the details of his buildings, are purely Roman. While Brunelleschi was
a man of action, who was involved in the construction itself, Alberti was
occupied with the design and did not take part in the construction itself.
While Brunelleschi's buildings excelled in linear elegance, the buildings
designed by Alberti were massive and plastic.There were churches where
Alberti designed the façade only. In contrast, Brunelleschi left the design of
the façades to the end, which is why the churches that he designed were left
without a façade.

While Brunelleschi used columns as a part of
the tectonic structure, Alberti used them as the main ornament in his architecture.
Free standing columns are completely absent from the churches which he planned.
Roman architecture was, for him, the only guide. He did not know Greek temples,
where the column was the basic element of the structure. The columns seemed to
him as a trace of a wall, a completely different concept from the concept of
the Greeks, who always saw the column as a structural unit by itself. The view
of Alberti regarding the column, was influenced by pre-Renaissance Tuscan
buildings from the 12th century.When referring to ornament, Alberti
meant the vocabulary of the classic
orders. He applied it in the Rucellai palace (which will be discussed later at
length in the chapter describing the palace and the private home during the
Renaissance) in Florence, which is the first to present pilasters in the façade
of a building. These appear on each floor, as in the Coliseum.Like Vitruvius, Alberti saw in
architecture an imitation of nature. He derived his criteria for judging
buildings - harmony, proportion and symmetry, from the natural world. His approach
also incorporates the social function of architecture striving to create a rich
and orderly world.Referring to the beauty of the building, Alberti gives an example of the beauty
of woman. The body of the building is first built naked, and then, ornament is
added. The woman's beauty is a modest beauty. Instead of using makeup, she
should keep it clean with water. External cleanliness becomes a sign of
internal cleanliness. The white surface of the building, has, in his opinion,
the same effect of purity. Alberti was influenced by Xenophon who wrote that he
preferred the transparency of men, who show their assets as they are, without
boasting about imaginary assets, or without hiding what they have.

The Façade of Santa Maria Novella

Alberti was commissioned
by Giovanni Rucellai to design the façade of the church of Santa Maria Novella
(1458-1470) , which served as a church family. The façade of San Miniato al
Monte Church (1013) in Florence served as a source of inspiration to Albert in combining
green marble with white marble in coating the façade.It seems
that in the façade Alberti paid considerable attention to proportions. The façade
can be surrounded by a square shape divided into two floors in the same height
(the second floor includes the gable). The second floor can be surrounded by a square.
A pair of such square make up the first floor. Alberti created a façade that is
based on the shape of three squares within one big square.

In the first floor, Alberti
designed two blind arcades with arch shaped entrance in the center. The upper
floor looks like a façade of aGreek
temple crowned by a gable. Between the two floors there is a separating band decorated
with pattern of a square within a circle. In order to harmoniously connect the
two floors, Alberti used the shape of large scrolls. Thus, he found a solution to
the problem that architects were facing since the establishment of the first
basilica churches where a solution to the connection of the façade with the
high nave and shorter side aisles was
needed. The façade of the Church of Santa Maria Novella served as a model for
the façades of the churches that were built later.

The fact that for
Alberti, the column was, above all, an ornament, is well evident here. By using
blind colonnades and pilasters, the symmetry of the façade as a whole, and the repetitive
patterns, form a unity in design. Alberti shows large models that find their
echo in smaller models in the same shape. The large gable that crowns the façade
finds an echo in the small gables above the first floor. The occulus in the center
of the second story finds an echo in the little circles in the scrolls and
pediment, and in the band, that separates the floors. The great arch of the
entrance finds its echo in the little arches of the blind arcade. Thus, Alberti
creates a harmonious symphony of forms.

The Church of San Francesco in Rimini During
the years 1450-1468, Alberti performed a design work at the Church of San
Francesco in Rimini from the 13th century. The person who ordered
the work was Sigimondo Malatesta (1417-1468), the ruler of Rimini whose age did
not exceed 14 years when he took over the city. The church is named after him -
Tempio Malatestiano (Malatesta's Temple). The plan of Malatesta, which derived from
his extrovert character and his intentions to glorify his name, was to turn a
simple monastic church into a burial monument for himself, his mistress, and
contemporary humanists. Enormous niches in the façade were supposed to serve
for placing sarcophagi of Zigimondo and his mistress, while the arcades along
the sides of the church were made for the tombs of poets and scholars of the court.

The isolation of the
church and its location above its surroundings create a severe and distant look
appropriate to the nature of the ideal church according to Alberti. The monumental
impression that it conveys, though it is not large, is due to its large spaces.Alberti borrowed
the theme of triumphal arch from ancient Rome, and introduced it in the façade.
This was the church where the idea of triumphal arch was first implemented in the
façade of a church, an idea later adopted in designing façades of churches. The
great central arch leads into the church. Originally, Alberti, planned to place
the sarcophagi of Zigimondo and his mistress under the smaller arches.
Ultimately, these sarcophagi were placed on the side of the church beside the
sarcophagi of the humanists. Chapels within the church were designed to be used
as memorial sites for Zigimondo and his mistress, and for the purposes of
religious worship.San Francesco Church in Rimini
was, perhaps, the first in the Renaissance, where there was an attempt to
recreate a Roman general appearance, without resorting only to classic details.
In fact, Alberti dressed existing Gothic building's appearance with ancient
motifs, including a triumphal arch, arches, and pillars borrowed from aqueducts,
and a massive dome in the spirit of antiquity. The ancient motifs that Alberti
drew from ancient monuments such as the triumphal arch of Augustus in Rimini
(from 27 BCE), were found near the church,. The fluted pilasters and capitals
were the product of imagination combined with classic elements.

The nave was supposed to
have a wooden barrel vaulted ceiling above which was supposed to be a slanted
roof.The
church building has never been completed, but the medal designed by Matteo di
Pasti who was also the construction manager of the church, shows us how it was
supposed to look like when completed.The expensive materials that were used for building the
church were takenby Malatesta from churches
in Ravenna.

The Church of
St. Andrea in Mantua In
1472, Alberti designed the church of St. Andrea in Mantua, which incorporates a
triumphal arch shape with the shape of a Greek temple manifested in pediment
crowning the façade and stairs leading to the façade of the church. Four Pilasters
of the giant Order kind (several stories high from the ground up) seem to support
the pediment. The giant order is the innovation of Alberti.

Alberti
creates a sense of continuity between interior and exterior, using also the
triumphal arch motif on the façade of the church, and inside it. The ground
plan of St. Andrea in Mantua is Latin cross shape with a dome over the square of
the intersection. Alberti had abandoned the type of basilica church with a nave
and side aisles, in favor of a structure with one large nave covered with a
huge barrel vault, decorated with coffers, like the Roman baths. The nave is
flanked by chapels with barrel vaults whose axes are vertical to the central
axis of the nave's barrel vault. . The
light in the church is dim in the spirit of Alberti's theory, according to which
dim light contributed to the holy atmosphere in the church.

Centralized Churches In the 15th century, there
were not many centralized churches, although the centralized church was
considered ideal among important architects such as Brunelleschi and Alberti.

An architect, who built
a centralized church in the spirit of Alberti's theory, was Giulianno da
Sangallo (1443-1516), who began his career as a carpenter at the Vatican, and
was also occupied with sculpture and military engineering. In early 16th
century, Sangallo was more knowledgeable than his contemporaries were in the technical
aspects of construction. He was often called to correct errors in buildings of
Bramante.In his
ground plan for the church of Sta. Maria Delle Carceri in Prato (1484-1491),
Sangallo first introduced in the Renaissance a Greek cross-shaped church. Without the dome, the church including
the cut corners would have a cubic shape, because the height of the church
until the drum equals its length and breadth. By cutting the corners of the cube,
Sangallo created a form of a Greek cross. Each arm of the cross has a barrel vault,
and the dome is supported by these vaults through pendentives. Sangallo continues
the tradition of presenting the dome as a symbol of the sky. The only opening
in the center of the dome, and the division within the church to 12, are
certainly associated with Jesus and his Apostles. The internal division in the
church resembles that plannedby
Brunelleschi for Pazzi Chapel.

The exterior walls of
the church are coated with marble.

The Private House
and the Palace in 15th Century Italian Renaissance During the Middle Ages, the main task of the architects was to build
churches. Decline in the importance of religion in the 14th and 15th
centuries in European culture, and the increasing importance of the individual,
were expressed in more attention to civil construction. This tendency began in
Italy.

The Concept
of Residence in the Eyes of AlbertiThe house was perceived by
Alberti as the woman's natural place. In his Ten Books on Architecture, Alberti
discusses, among others, private houses whose design is influenced by the
status of the woman and man in society. In the fifth book, he writes that
women's place should be remote from the outside world, while men need to be
exposed to it. He also makes it clear that the honor of men will not increase
if their wives walk around the market, seen in public. He himself would feel
humiliated, to some extent if he himself would remain indoors between women,
when he has to do male things that men do. According to him, bum creatures
living all day among women, or engaged in unimportant feminine activities, have
neither grand nor manly spirit. This approach to living revives the approach, which
was prevalent in Antiquity. It seems that in this area as well, the Renaissance
adopts ancient views.

According to Xenophon
(431-352 BCE), the spaces at home create an impact on gender causing change in mental
and physical nature of those who are found in the place inappropriate for them.
In his Oeconomicus (literally: housekeeping), Xenophon writes that when he must sit at home, the body becomes feminine,
and the spirit loses its power.Alberti designated
for the man a private space of his own at home - his study. A study is a small,
locked room that no one entered, except the father. Such rooms, appeared in the
14th century, and were customary in the 15th century.
Alberti noted that the husband had the space of knowledge that is not physical,
while the wife got the dressing room, a space of material masks beside her
bedroom. The space in her possession was not private because the small children
and the nanny slept inside it. The husband kept in his room certificates,
contracts, family lineage, details of private relationships, etc., which were
transferred to the eldest son, and were inaccessible to his wife. This room was
the true center of the house, indicating the real limitation of the woman in
her home. The woman held the system, without having access to its secrets.

The Renaissance
PalacesThe more secular character of the Renaissance, and the triumph of
humanism, were evident in the villas and palaces built by the 15th century
families of bankers and traders, such as the Medici, Pitti, Strozzi, and
others. These palaces formed a new urban character. Unlike villas surrounded by
hills and cypress trees that were built in a rural area, the palaces were
essentially urban, and located on the façade of the street.The Florentine
Renaissance palace served as a model for other cities in Italy. Its plan was
characterized by reduction of the elements of medieval palace into clear and
pure design. This is a massive and monumental structure projecting power, and
crowned by a cornice. Its walls are built with large stones, and sometimes,
with heavy rustication. In some cases, the rustication appears on the façade,
but is usually limited to the ground floor. The fortified appearance, heavy walls,
and narrow windows reflect uncertainty in the life of the republic of Florentine.
In such a typical palace, there was an inner courtyard with colonnade. The
staircase was hidden and not seen as an element in design. On the first floor
above the ground floor, called piano nobile (literally, a noble floor), was a
series of apartments usually with painted ceiling. In the rooms were often
small windows with heavy bars, facing the street. Sometimes bars design was a
work of art by itself.Thepalace was the hallmark
of the person who lived inside it. When writers wrote about Cosimo de Medici,
they did not forget to mention his palace. Philippo Strozzi began to be famous
when he began the construction of his palace. In order to bring fame to the
owner of a building the coat of arms of his family would appear on the
building. Matteo Palmieri went even further, when he presented his statue in the
façade of his house. Michelangelo said about a hundred years after palaces began
to be built in Italy that nobles' houses, being visible more than any other
property, brought a significant honor to the city.In order
to ensure the success of their building, the owners would consult with
astrologers who would be asked to set a date for the beginning of construction.
The bishop and humanist Marcilio Ficino (1433-1499), a central figure in the
Italian Renaissance, was one of the astrologers who advised Philippo Strozzi to
lay the foundations of his palace on August 6, 1489, and begin the construction
itself, two weeks later. Filarete, as Ficino, emphasized the importance of
determining the appropriate time to begin construction according to astrology.
Alberti mentioned the use of astrology to determine the day of starting construction
in the second book (Chapter 13) of his Ten Books on Architecture.

Medici Palace (Palazzo
Medici)One
of the early Renaissance style palaces that became a prototype of Tuscan
Renaissance palaces, is the Medici Palace (Palazzo Medici) (1444-1459) which
was built by the architect Michelozzi Michelozzo (1396-1472) in Florence.

Cosimo
Medici who initiated the construction, was interested in a traditional
structure that would not be ostentatious. Like the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence,
Medici palace's overall shape is rectangular with an inner courtyard. The most
striking feature of the palace's outer appearance is the rustication on the
surface of the wall, which is becoming more refined from floor to floor. The
stones on the ground floor are rough and not uniform. On the second floor, the
wall surface is smoother, and on the third floor, the wall is further smooth. Rough
stone on the ground floor is very typical of the oldest buildings in Florence,
where typically, the entire building was built in rough stone.The stories
in Palazzo Medici are decreasing in height, an effect that creates the illusion
of greater height than the actual height. Apartments, rooms, bedrooms and other
rooms are scattered between the floors. Emphasis on horizontal line is obtained
by stringcourses that separate floors and by the cornice, which crowns the
palace. These are the elements derived from classical influence and which have
no precedent in medieval buildings. The biforium (divided in two parts) windows,
however, originated in medieval architecture. Round arches replaced the pointed
Gothic arches. In the spandrels of these windows and in the corner of the
palace is embedded the coat of arms of the Medici family with its seven balls.On the ground floor of Palazzo Medici, there
are three entrances with round arches. The main gate opens to a barrel vault
leading to inner courtyard. The corners of the building were, originally, loggias,
where later were built windows by Michelangelo in c.1517, when the
palace was owned by Riccardi family. In 1715, the palace went through changes
again, and the original length of ten bays was increased into the current seventeen.The inner
courtyard of the palace is shaped like a cloister of a monastery. It is
surrounded by an arcade that looks like the arcade from the foundling hospital in
Florence, which was designed by Brunelleschi. Here, as on the exterior of the palace,
classic details can be seen. Above the arcade, there are arches, entablature with
medallions that are copies of classic Roman reliefs in gems from the collection
of the Medici family. The columns of the arcade have composite capitals, according
to Roman tradition. Over the arches of the arcade there are reliefs and above them
an entablature.

In the design of this
courtyard remains an unsolved problem. There is a sense of weakness in the arcades'
corners. The columns appear too light relative to the walls that they carry.
Besides, there is a density in the corners, expressed in the arches that are asymmetrically
cut, and look as if they are suspended in air. The asymmetry is highlighted by the
placing of the medallions. Two windows in the corners look too close, to one
another.Medici
Palace is an important building to the history of architecture, representing
the first stage in the passage from the conception of a fortified castle to the
perception of a house in the city. Michelozzo created a prototype of the
palaces built in Florence and throughout Italy until the 16th century.
Inspired by Medici Palace, the first Renaissance palaces are characterized by
clarity, reason and the impression of massiveness and severity. The façades are
divided by horizontal lines into three floors: ground floor, main floor, which
is the piano nobile, and the attic. Monumental cornice crowns the building.Ruccelai Palace
(Palazzo Ruccelai)

Shortly after the
building of Medici palace in Florence began, construction started in Rucellai palace
(1446-1455) in the same city. It was planned by Alberti. Giovanni Rucellai, who
commissioned the palace purchased several houses in Via della Vigna in an area
which was designated for building the palace and the construction of the piazza
and neighboring loggia.

This was an attempt to
build a building with a classic look. Alberti was, perhaps, the first architect
who adopted the ancient Roman architecture, with full awareness. It can be seen
that the palace is divided horizontally into three floors in the same height.
Alberti revived the design from antiquity by designing pilasters that support the
entablature of each floor, and by introducing the three orders - Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian, one upon the other, according to the Roman model. Alberti
created a vertical division in addition to the horizontal division to floors.
Alberti's outstanding design creates a delicate balance between mass and space,
rhythm and variety. Another innovation in the design of the palace was the use
of pietra forte from Boboli.According to Professor Spanaolesi, who
examined the structure of the palace when it was restored in 1966-1968, the
building was originally built in five vertical units and had symmetrical
appearance. According to him, on the ground floor at the center there was the
main gate leading to the structure.The main
entrance from Via della Vigna leads to the main staircase from which the other
floors and the inner courtyard can be reached. At the base of the palace's
exterior, Alberti designed the Roman opus reticulatum. Flanking the gate ran built
benches, as was the custom in façades of Florentine buildings.

Here, as in Palazzo Medici, biforium windows are crowned
with arches. In the arches of the windows, there is a repeating pattern of the coat
of arms of Ruccelai family presenting a ring with diamonds and feathers.

In the design of palazzo
Ruccelai, the façade presents an image that looks more like a painting than
architectural structure. While the rustication in Palazzo Medici is real, and
formed of placing one stone upon another, here the rustication and opus reticulatum
in the lower part of the palace are decorative elements only. Alberti saw the
work of architecture as a set of lines displayed on a planar surface. This view
is also reflected in his definition of a colonnade as a wall with openings that
leave parts of the wall as columns.

In the inner courtyard
of Palazzo Ruccelai there were originally loggias on three sides, with columns
including Corinthian capitals. Since then, one of these loggias has been
destroyed. On the southern side of the courtyard was hung the family's coat of
arms - a relief made by the sculptor
Bernardo Rosselino and facing it were the coats of arms of the Ruccelai and Medici families (who were
related by marriage) in low relief.

Strozzi Palace(Palazzo
Strozzi)Strozzi Palace was planned by Da Maiano, and its design is a peak
of design of palaces in Florence. This is clearly a huge outstanding classic building.
The most prominent elements are rustication that looks uniform across the
walls, and a giant cornice that crowns the structure. Clear horizontal lines
mark the three stories of the palace, and round arches crown the big openings
of the building. These stone arches are designed so that their size increases
toward the keystone.On three
sides, the palace stands in open space. Each of these three façades has a huge doorway.

Image - Palazzo
Strozzi

http://elgranotro.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/palazzo-strozzi-1.jpgHere can be seen an obvious flaw that
appears in the design of many façades of such palaces. The uniformity in the
height of the floors, which is marked by cornices running along the windows
sills, and the monotonous repetition of the windows, reduce the interest in the
design. In Strozzi Palace, the impression of this imperfection is reduced, to
some extent, with the prominent giant cornice at the top, projecting into the
street with a width of about 2 m, and creating a large shadow. Any other element
in the building becomes of secondary importance. This ancient-style cornice, was
added by Cronaca, who continued the construction work of Benedetto Da Maiano.As for
the internal structure, the organization of the rooms is clearer than that in
the previous palaces. Here there is an innovation – a double floor and double
staircase connecting the floors. The external symmetry continues inside the
building.

In Strozzi Palace the
problem of overcrowding the arches in the corners of the inner courtyard which
we found in Palazzo Medici was resolved, but the corners still look weak, because
columns were used instead of pillars.The coat
of arms of Strozzi family, which is shaped like a crescent moon, appears in the
spandrels of the windows, the façade, and the bases of the corbels inside.

High
Renaissance and Mannerist ArchitectureHistorical BackgroundIn the 16th century,
Italian Renaissance art reached its peak. It was the time of Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564) and Raphael (1483-1520). Leonardo da
Vinci was the greatest among the polymaths of the Renaissance. Besides his work
in painting, he was a great sculptor, musician, poet, engineer, physicist, inventor,
and philosopher. Michelangelo, like Leonardo da Vinci, was a Renaissance man
with many talents. He was a sculptor, painter, architect, and poet.During this period, Italy, which was divided into city-states
fighting with each other, was seen by its neighbors as a tempting prey, and
fell into the hands of foreign rulers. In 1494, the French invaded Italy, and
the Medici were expelled from Florence. It was the beginning of a series of
wars ending in a peace agreement in 1559. The conquerors were captivated by the
charm of Italian art, adopted the culture of the Renaissance and spread it to
other parts of Europe.The Venetian
Republic, even though it was threatened by the invasion of the Ottoman Empire,
remained stable and was the most peaceful among the city-states of Italy.In the early
16th century, during the decline of Florence and theMedici, Rome became the center of art in
Italy. Popes were the major art patrons, including prominent Julius II (served
1503-1513), Leo X (served1513-1521) and
Clement VII (served 1523-1534).Italian
humanism gradually and slowly penetrated the University of Paris since the 15th
century. Paris humanists, including Erasmus from Rotterdam, were interested in
classical philosophy. However, the medieval tradition continued to be dominant
at the University of Paris until c.1600, as the Gothic style was dominant and
the Renaissance style was assimilated slowly in France.Renaissance humanism and ideas began
to lose strength in the second half of the 16th century.
Despite the scientific progress that characterized the Renaissance period, and
despite the geographical discoveries, Renaissance culture was closer to the
Middle Ages in its approach than to modern culture. The religion, which shrank
slightly to the side during the flowering of humanism, was back, and became the
focus of interest of the period.The
Catholic Church, which adopted the bureaucratic structure of the Holy Roman
Empire, was powerful but corrupt at its core. Since the 13th
century, it was called to do reforms following the abuse of its power, but just
the call for reforms in the 16th century shook the foundations of
the Catholic Church and led to its fragmentation. The initiator of the reform
movement was Martin Luther (1483-1546), who set in Wittenberg) in 1517 the list
of ninety-five theses of the Catholic Church - activities which required
modification and reform. Luther detested the church, which sold indulgences that
promised their purchasers penitence for their sins. Among the reforms proposed
were national control of the financial resources of the church rather than
Roman control and allowing the ministry to marry. Due to the invention of
printing, the Reformation ideas spread throughout Europe. Pope Louis X declared
Luther a heretic, and since then the split in the church was irreversible.In 1524
began the Peasant War in response to Luther's call for democratic reform and
correction of the imbalances in the social system. Poverty and envying the wealth
of the clergy caused the uprising of the peasants who attacked the church
property. This social revolt struck Luther's Reformation. The humanistic approach favoring
education to bring higher spirituality was opposed to the reformist approach,
which was occupied with man's constant need for redemption from original sin.

Following the Protestant
movements, the Catholic Church was reorganized and launched an anti -
Protestant attack called contra - Reformation. This attack was expressed in
different ways. One was a campaign of the Jesuits, which reinforced the
Catholic doctrine. Another was the council of Trent, which was held several
times between the years 1545 to 1563 and presented a united front against the
Protestants. Although two-thirds of the residents of Europe disconnected
themselves from the authority of the Catholic Church, it remained powerful.In
France, the views of the religious leader Calvin, whose followers were called
Huguenots, were accepted by many French people, especially city dwellers.
During the reign of Henri III (reigned 1574-1589), son of Henry II (reigned
1547-1559), who ruled in France after his two brothers before him - Francois II
and Charles IX, there were in France three religious factions. There were the Catholic
extremists headed by Prince Henry of Guise, Huguenots, led by Henri of Navarre,
and the Catholics who thought like their leader, Henry III, that all the
Huguenotsshould be killed to preserve the unity of
France. These religious wars were known as the War of the three Henrys.

Henri of Navarre
realized that as long as he would remain Protestant, Catholic France would not
accept him, so he converted and was crowned in 1589 as the Catholic King Henry
IV. He was a talented ruler who was loved by his people. In 1598, he issued the
"Edict of Nantes", which guarantied freedom of belief to the
Huguenots, and in 1610 was murdered by a religious fanatic.

Alongside the
strengthening of religious tendencies in Europe, national aspirations also
increased, especially in England, France, and Spain. In these countries, the
king was an absolute ruler, who represented the national ideal. Governments
have survived as a tool of royal government. In France, François I (ruled
1515-1547), a man of battles, was a cynical dictator and a great patron of art.
He found his country surrounded by Habsburgian territories and began to attack
the Habsburgian territories in Italy. The French were defeated in 1525, and
François himself was taken prisoner. Troops of Emperor Charles V of Habsburg who
were not paid because the bankers who invested in his empire did not provide
the money to do it, invaded Rome in 1527, and for eight days looted the
churches and monasteries, raped nuns, killed priests and nuns, turned the
church of San Pietro into a stable, and left behind destruction. The helpless Pope
fled to the fortress Sant'Angelo, which was built in ancient times as the tomb of
Emperor Hadrian. The attempts of Francois I to break the power of the Habsburg
Empire continued, and caused a new war, which lasted until 1544.England
under Henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547) began a new atmosphere. The royalty's
economic situation improved. Following the Pope's opposition to his divorce
from Catherine of Aragon and his marriage to Anne Boleyn, he severed all ties
with Rome, nationalized all church property, and became head of the Church in
England. The admired king divorced from two of the six wives and beheaded two
others. Like his predecessors, Henry VIII made sure to give the impression that
his rule did not constitute a threat to the nation. He pretended that he
respected the rule of Parliament. During his reign, culture was flourishing in England
and continued to flourish during the rule of his daughter, Queen Elizabeth (ruled
1558-1603), the last in Tudor dynasty. The most prominent figures in the
English Renaissance were the painter Holbein and Shakespeare the playwright.

Henry VIII of England,
Francis I of France and Carlos I of Spain (1500-1558), competed in 1519 for
control of the Holy Roman Empire after the death Maximilian, first emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire, which was a collection of territories controlled by the
Habsburg dynasty. Maximilian's grandson, Carlos, was chosen by the electors and
became the most powerful ruler in Europe - Charles V.Charles V,
was an emperor of the Habsburg dynasty, which began to strengthen its position
in the 13th century. Then, Prince Rudolf was elected emperor and
expanded the private estates, while taking over areas of Austria and other
areas received through marriages. Habsburg dynasty lasted (with a short break)
until 1806 when dismantled by Napoleon.Charles
had under his rule areas including Luxemburg, the Low Countries, large spaces in
France, areas in Italy, and the growing American empire. In 1556, he transferred
the eastern territories of the empire to his brother Ferdinand. The division
between East and West created two Habsburg family branches: Spannish
Habsburgians descendants of Charles V, and Austrian Habsburgians, descendants
of Ferdinand.When
Philip II (1527-1598) came to power in Spain In 1556, he was the most powerful
ruler in Europe at the time, and Spain was the world's largest empire. The
areas of his rule included part of Italy, part of France, the Low Countries and
a great empire in America. In order to unite the kingdom under the Catholic
Christian religion, he combined the use of the sword with the Inquisition.National
awareness of the European countries in the 16th century aroused imperialist
ambitions. The Portuguese
established colonies in Brazil and India. The Spanish took over the Chile,
Argentina and Peru. England, France, and the Netherlands also began to
establish overseas colonies. In the second half of the 16th century,
the French established colonies in Canada. At that time, the Dutch and English
competed with the Portuguese on the territory of India.

Perception of Architecture
in the 16th Century - High Renaissance and the Mannerist Style

Rome, which replaced
Florence as a center of art since 1495 to the sack of Rome in 1527, was the
center of the high Renaissance, which lasted twenty years in the beginning of
the 16th century. High Renaissance style is known as the culmination
of a development in the early Renaissance. The High Renaissance artists are those
considered the greatest in art history - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and
Raphael. Other artists from this period were Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516),
Giorgione (1477 - 1510), and Titian (1485-1576).High Renaissance
architecture was reflected in buildings, which still kept rules of harmonious
proportions and symmetry, but stressed the building's sculptural character rather
than the two - dimensional decorative look.When the
Renaissance reached its peak of perfection, artists and patrons were attracted
to innovations and surprises. During the twenties of the 16th century
a new style developed - the Mannerist style, which lasted from 1520 to 1600 or
so, and made the connection between the Renaissance style and Baroque style which
appeared following it in the 17th century.

The term
"mannerism" is relatively new. Historian André Chastel coined it in
1965. Inspired by Vasari, he used the word "maniera" to praise the
style, which he perceived as the truest in the Renaissance. Later in the history
of art researchers related to the mannerist style with high degree of contempt,
and noted its artificiality. Only in the 19th century, it was re-valued,
and considered the most expressive.The mannerist
style, which first developed in Italy, was a response to the balanced
proportions and characteristics of the Renaissance. It reflected the tension
that prevailed in Europe in the 16th century, breaking the balance
and harmony of the High Renaissance. Manneristic artworks were designed to
charm, surprise, excite, undermine confidence, and sometimes to frighten. Means
by which these effects were obtained were using exaggerated inharmonious forms,
distorted look, and tension. An expression of mannerism can be found in the
paintings of Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and others, who
created elegant figures in uncomfortable positions.

The approach to art has
changed. While during early and High Renaissance nature was the source of
artistic expression that the artist used to achieve a perfect beauty, the
mannerist style still imitated nature, but was seen as stemming from the
spontaneity of the artist's spirit and soul. Imagination and invention, which
were tired of the classical clarity, brought real descriptions resulting from the
soul of the artist.Like mannerist
painters, mannerist architects cut themselves off from the rules that were
acceptable during the Renaissance. While the architecture of the 15th
century dealt with the design of lines and surfaces, the 16th century
architecture used volumes and masses, and designed the building clearly, with departments and floors.
While the High Renaissance architects believed that harmonious proportions and
symmetry create beautiful forms and convey important messages of power,
authority, ethics, and compliance, mannerist architects expressed a tension
between order and chaos, and the lack of practical usability. Their goal was to
emphasize the fact that architecture is an artwork deriving from the spirit of
the artist. However, they had never completely abandoned the principles of
Vitruvius.Mannerist architecture was still largely based on harmonious proportions
and symmetry, but instead of highlighting these elements, they specifically
highlighted elements to which Renaissance style did not pay attention or
emphasize. While in Renaissance-style building all the elements fit harmoniously
and there is no element or detail that stands out more than the others do, mannerist
architecture highlights some elements and thus violates the harmony which was
typical of the Renaissance. Among such elements are emphasized staircase in the
façade of the building, windows, and doorways decorated with rusticated
prominent arches, and pilasters adjacent to walls and pillars.

Gardens were designed to
surprise guests whom it was customary to invite to masquerade balls. Movement
and drama were the main characteristics of the mannerist gardens, which were adorned
with exotic sculptures. Gardens, like buildings, were less peaceful and more
theatrical.Unique mannerist
architecture, we find in Bonarzo near Rome. Dragon-shaped structures reflect
the mannerist spirit, which tends to the bizarre, and unusual. However, it
seems that they also literally express the ideas of Renaissance texts. The door
is the mouth, and eyes are the windows. According to writings on Renaissance
architecture, the house is anthropomorphic. In Bonarzo it is expressed in a
very clear way. This is the anthropomorphic approach to interpretation of the writings,
but it is presented in the form of a dragon rather than human being. The
atmosphere is inharmonious, contrary to buildings in the spirit of Renaissance.The
classical influence on architectural projects throughout Europe in the 16th
century can be attributed largely to the writings that were published during
this period. Essay by Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) appeared in six parts, during
the years 1537-1551. In 1554, Palladio published his book on ancient architecture
and a description of the churches of Rome. In 1556, the books of Vitruvius on
architecture illustrated by Palladio with translations and commentaries were
published in Venice.In 1562,
Vignola published his book "Rules of the Five Orders" (Regole Delle Cinque
Ordini), which won great popularity, and in 1570 Palladio's book "Four
Books on Architecture" was published.

BramanteAn architect whose work had connected the 15th century
architecture, and the architecture of the 16th century, was Donato d'Angelo
(1444 - 1514), better known by the nickname that stuck to him at one point in
his life - "Bramante" (a nickname meaning "he who desires").
Bramnta arrived in Rome in 1499 and remained there until the end of his life.Following the request of Pope Julius II
(served 1503-1513), Bramante planned a luxurious Vatican, with a church and
palace, which was to be built instead of the church of San Pietro that was
built in early Christianity. Julius II's intention was that the church of San
Pietro would compete with pagan buildings in size and magnificence, and would
be the largest church in the world expressing the strength of the papacy. Likewise,
he wanted his tomb to take a central place in the church.Bramante,
in his plan for the Church of St. Peter, introduced a new concept of the
relationship between mass and space. Space, in his design, is not only a lack
of mass, but also a dynamic force. He suggested building a Greek cross-shaped centralistic
church with four small crosses in the arms of the Greek cross. Over the square of
the intersection was supposed to be a huge central dome, a dome resembling that
of Pantheon, with four smaller domes, and four small towers at the corners. All
this structure was planned to be placed isolated in a symmetrical large square.
The cornerstone was laid in 1506, but a little was built, before the death of
the pope, which put an end to the construction.

Tempieto Saint Pietro in Montorio

Bramante built in 1500-1502 the Tempietto
(literally: a small temple) San Pietro in Montorio in Rome, where, according to
tradition, was the place of the crucifixion of St. Peter.In 1480, Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1489) handed
down the abbey church of Saint Pietro in Montorio to the Spanish Franciscans.
The earlier building in the site which was built in the ninth century, was
demolished and replaced by the Tempieto, whose construction was ordered by the Spanish
monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon (1452-1516) and Isabella of Castile(1451-1504).

Tempieto Saint Pietro in
Montorio, located near the Vatican, is a miniature version (8 m in diameter and
13 m in height) of the great vision of Bramante. The structure of this centralistic
building was a restoration of the Roman circular temple, or so it seems at
first sight. Bramnta's inspiration was the Temple of Vesta on the banks of the
Tiber, but instead of Corinthian columns of the Temple of Vesta, Bramante placed
Doric columns, probably to symbolize the militant sanctity of St. Peter. Three
steps lead into the structure, which stands on a base,

Bramante achieved a wonderful harmony between the
parts - the dome, drum, and base, and between the building as a whole. The
pilasters on the drum lead the eye from the columns in the colonnade to the ribs
in the dome, and from them to the lantern. Classical elements and the round plan
symbolize the divine, and create a connection between a homage to antiquity and
the expression of Christian faith.Despite its
modest size, the Tempieto represents the high Renaissance architecture with an
emphasis on sculptural character, treating the mass and space, in a structure where
traditional ideals are kept and combined with forms of a new era. The traditional
character is reflected in the centralistic plan, perfect harmony of
proportions, the simplicity of spaces and the Doric order. What is new here is
the connection of only two simple geometric shapes - a cylinder (drum) and
hemisphere (dome), a combination that was unprecedented in ancient times. The architectural
elements were designed to create effects of light and shade.

Granite columns in the Doric order on the first floor
encircle the main body of the building. In the second floor large arched
and rectangular windows retreating behind a balustrade, are alternating. While
architects who preceded Bramante built complex of buildings composed of plains,
which in their shape are reminiscent of drawings, the buildings of Bramante are
designed in a sculptural approach.

Rotunda structure in itself
was not new in the 15th century. However, the Tempieto is the first
building in the Renaissance where a cella surrounded by a colonnade carries an
architrave, in the ancient style. Like in ancient round temples, the distance
between the columns is fixed throughout the circumference of the circle. Thus, there
is no orientation towards the altar. The cella's diameter of the inner circle
is 4.5 m only. Half the pavement is taken by the stairs leading to it, leaving
little space to the faithful. It seems that the Tempieto was there to be looked
at, rather than to be used. This is a monument in the traditional sense, not a
church. It was intended to serve more as a "picture" being watched
from outside, a symbol of the martyrdom of St. Peter.

Serlio points out in his
writings that the plan of Bramante was not carried out in its entirety. The original
intention of Bramante was not to place it in a square courtyard but to surround
it with a round cloister with 16 columns. Serlio indicates that the diameter of
the columns in the cloister was to be 1.5 times the diameter of a column in the
colonnade, and its height was to be greater than that of the colonnade in the same
proportion.

Palladio stated that
Bramante was the first to issue good architecture. The Tempieto, in its
circular plan, and its towering on a basisisolated from its surroundings, fulfills the requirements of an ideal
church according to Alberti.

In Bramante's buildings,
engineering errors were often discovered, which Giuliano da Sangallo was called
to correct. Bramante, although called "Master destructive" (Maestro
Ruinante), nickname suggesting his engineering failures (some attribute this
name to the destruction of the church of San Pietro in the fourth century), was
well known as an architect.

MichelangeloAn Architect, who brought a revolutionary spirit to architecture, as he
brought a revolutionary spirit to every field he touched, was Michelangelo
(1475-1564), who was a sculptor, painter, and architect. Although he often declared
that he was not an architect, he invented a a new vocabulary of ornaments, new
and dynamic principles of composition, and a totally new approach to designing
space. After completing the Sixteen Chapel and abandoning the tomb of Pope
Julius II, he returned to Florence and designed the Medici Chapel and
Biblioteca Laurenziana

Biblioteca
LaurenzianaIn 1523 Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Clement VII to build theBiblioteca
Laurenziana in the cloister of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. This
building, which was named after Lorenzo the Magnificent, was designed to store the
collection of manuscripts and books of the Medici family. The construction,
which began in 1524, was discontinued in 1526 and began again in 1530. When
Michelangelo moved to Rome in 1534, construction stopped again. In 1557,
Michelangelo sent his plan for the stairs of the library, but never got to see
the building in its finished design.In the vestibule
of the library, Michelangelo created a dramatic effect containing the seeds of
revolutionary approach in relation to antiquity. It intended to bridge between
the ground floor of the library, and the library itself, which was tall and
narrow, not enabling a simple and customary solution. The narrow tall look in
itself creates a sense of inconvenience. Michelangelo found the answer to the
problem is a staircase that fills half the space of the vestibule, and conveys
a sense of free sculpture, that is reinforced due to the proportions. The
staircase has been compared to bursting lava. Stepping upstairs conveys a sense
of descending as if going against the stream. Highlighting the steps in the
structure's design and its theatrical character are precursors of baroque
architecture.Michelangelo designed the inner wall
of the vestibule, as if it were the outer wall, giving it the appearance
of a classical division of the wall with pillars, windows, and pilasters. The
revolutionary aspect is changing the conventional role of these elements. The
wall becomes accentuated, and pairs of columns not supporting anything are placed
in niches.The breaking
of classical norms by Michelangelo is also reflected in the breaking of columns
at the corners and the design of consoles (supporting surface) under columns.
The consoles are architectural parts, which are not supposed to support columns.
Likewise, Michelangelo, arbitrarily breaks the gables and the bars of cornices
(horizontal molding) in the vestibule.

There is a striking
contrast between the vestibule and the library itself, which is long, and
relatively low. The walls in the library are divided by pairs of columns, and the
color of the room is dark while the color of the vestibule is light. The
library's reading tables are well lit by windows between the pilasters that
match the beams.Vasari was
enthusiastic about the new forms introduced by Michelangelo and described them as
"magnificent" ("maravigliose").Image -Biblioteca Laurenziana Planning St. Peter's in Rome

In 1452, Nicholas V asked Bernardo Rossellini to rebuild
a church over the tomb of St. Peter. For two hundred years the architects who worked
on building the church were Bramante, Giuliano da Sangallo, Raphael, Peruzzi,
Antonio da Sanagallo, Michelangelo, Piero Liguria, Vignola, Domenico Fontana,
Della Porta, and Maderno.In 1546,
Pope Paul III entrusted the plan for the Church of St. Peter, to Michelangelo
after the work on the church was abandoned following the death of Bramante.
Michelangelo, who was then 71, chose Bramante's dome plan, but emphasized its
internal structure. The dome is supported by a drum, around which there are sixteen
pairs of columns. It seems to grow out of the base, rather than rest on it. The
diameter of the dome is 42 m, and is almost identical to the diameter of the
dome at the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Michelangelo preferred
the shape of a hemisphere to the shape of a pointed dome. His work in San
Pietro was completed by Giacomo Barozzi, better known as Vignola (1507-1573),
the most faithful disciple of Michelangelo who brought to architecture a severity
consistent with the taste of Contra - Reformation.Due to the
changing of Popes, building the church took a long time.and was completed by Giacomo della Porta (1533-1602)
in collaboration with Domenico Fontana (1543-1607). The dome received a pointed
look, so it would look impressive from the square in front of the façade. There
was also an attempt to reduce its weight. The inner shells of the dome become
gradually thinner, as they make their way to the top. Here, like the dome of
Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, the inner shell is thicker than the outer one.

Almost immediately after
completion of construction, cracks were discovered in the dome, and had to be reinforced
with reinforcing iron coated with plaster. Since then, the structure required additional
reinforcement over the years.

Jacopo
SansovinoJacopo Tati Sansovino (1486-1570), who has already been mentioned in
connection with the construction of the temporary façade of Florence Cathedral,
began his career as a sculptor. He adopted the name of his teacher the artist
Andrea Sansovino. After the sack of Rome in 1527 Sansovino moved to Venice,San Marco Library in VeniceIn
1537, Sansovino was invited to build the library of San Marco in Venice, in
front of the Duke's palace. St. Mark's Library was part of a new urban Venice,
which also included the Mint (Zecca) and logietta (decorated
entrance hall) of the campanile.Renaissance
Venice was the most important center of publishing books. In this city in 1490 were
printed more books than in any other city in Italy. Petrarch (1304-1374) was
the first to conceive the idea of ​​establishing a library in Venice. When he
fled the plague, from Padua to Venice, he offered his library to the city
government so that in return he would get a residence for himself. The books
intended for the library were mostly manuscripts given by the Greek humanist
Bessarion to the Republic of Venice.

The construction
of the library began in a street corner near the bell tower. The building,
which has the general shape of relatively long and narrow rectangle, is a
two-story building with a prominent horizontal separation line between the floors.
The ground floor, which is vaulted with barrel vault, has a Doric colonnade-shaped
portico. On the floor above, there is a Ionic colonnade-shaped windows. The
ratio between the columns and architectural elements that are supported by them
is clearly expressed here. Between the columns in both floors, there are arches
with capstones over which are alternating masks and heads of a lions. In the
spandrels of the arches, there are sculptures in postures fitting the triangular
shape in which they are framed. The frieze that runs above the second floor is rich
in decorations borrowed from antiquity, including garlands and putti (angels
displayed as naked little babies in the spirit of the descriptions of Cupid the
god of love in antiquity). On the roof above it can be seen white balustrades
above which stand nude sculptures made of stone from Istria, carved in mannerist
spirit against the blue sky.According
to Palladio, the Library of San Marco is the most decorated building since
ancient times. Jacob Burkhardt regarded it as the most magnificent work of
modern European secular architecture.In 1545,
the vault over five bays of the upper floor collapsed, although they were reinforced
by rods. Following this event, the architect was dismissed from office and sat
in prison for a short time.

Vincenzo Scamozzi
(1552-1626) completed the construction of the library by building the lobby of
the first floor, which was designed to accommodate the humanist school of
Venetian nobles' education. Scamozzi turned it into a showroom of Greek and
Roman sculptures. Seven different artists painted the ceiling of the reading
room. Until 1572, portraits of classical philosophers were added to the walls
in an attempt to create in the libraryan
atmosphere in the spirit of antiquity.

Palaces and Villas
in Italy in the 16th CenturyIn the 16th century, architecture had significant
achievements in residential construction, and especially the building of
villas, which became a common building type. As in ancient times, in the 16th
century too there was a distinction between the rural (villa rustica with
barns, orchards and vineyards, and the villa designed for the enjoyment, rest
and vacation of the owner (villa urbana), surrounded by gardens with fountains
and sculptures. A pleasure factor distinguishes the villa from the house in the
countryside whose main ingredient was agriculture.Renaissance
villas expressed aspirations to class and power, and reflected the social changes
in the transition from the Middle Ages to Renaissance. Unsurprisingly,
Renaissance culture, which placed man at the center, would pay attention to
residential architecture designed to increase human welfare. With
architecture, garden design art during the Renaissance reached a high level of magnificence
and elegance. Garden designers learned to integrate the house and garden. While
the Romans imposed their architecture on nature, the Renaissance man connected
to nature and his house integrated with the surrounding gardens.

Villa MadamaOne of
the most impressive villas built in the 16th century was Villa
Madama, the last architectural work of the painter and architect Raphael
(1483-1520), who left detailed instructions for its construction. The villa,
which is located on the slopes of Mount Mario (Monte Mario) north of the
Vatican, was the first Renaissance villa to be built outside Rome. It was
ordered by Cardinal Giulio Medici, who became Pope Clement VII. Construction
began in 1517 by Raphael, and after his death, Giuliano da Sangallo the
grandson of the architect Antonio da Sangallo(1485-1546) continued the
construction work and introduced changes in the original plan of Raphael.
Eventually, the construction of the villa has not been completed.

The villa's plan reflects
the interest of Raphael in archeology and the Renaissance love of nature, art,
and joys of life. It blurred the boundaries between interior and exterior. The
original plan consisted of a series of loggias surrounding a circular courtyard,
organized with gardens and terraces around them, overlooking the Tiber River.
The layout of the villa includes an outdoor theater, hippodrome, and stables
for 200 horses. The decorative part of the villa was carried out by Giulio
Romano,Baldassare Peruzzi, Giovanni Battista
Udine and others. The circular courtyard and the rooms were inspired by the Roman
baths and Pliny'sdescription of his
villa Laurentium.

Villa Madama, as Villa Farnesina in Rome
(designed by Baldasare Peruzzi), was built for public events, rather than
private life. The villa's gardens served as a model for many other gardens in
Italy.

The villa is named after
Madama Margherita (1522-1586) of Austria who used it as a summerhouse during
the years 1538-1550. Margarita, an illegal daughter of Charles V, was married
to the Duke Alessandro Medici, the ruler of Florence. She was widowed at 15
when Alessandro was murdered, and married Ottavio Farnese, nephew of Pope Paul
III, who died too and left her a widow. Margarita was the Duchess of Parma and
Piacenza, and the ruler of Holland during the years 1559-1567.

Palazzo del Té

A pupil of Raphael, the painter
and architect Giulio Romano (1499 or 1492-1546), who participated in the
decoration of Villa Madama, and may have taken part in the design of the villa
itself, developed a powerful, dramatic and personal mannerist style. After
leaving Rome he moved to Mantua and in 1524, began the construction of the
Palazzo del Te (1524-1534) commissioned by Federico Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and
the son of Isabella D'Este, one of the great patrons of Renaissance art.Palazzo del Te is considered the
first non-fortified castle built in open space and a masterpiece of the
architect. The palace, designed to serve Federico as a summer villa, combined
features of a villa and castle. The duke's intention was to build a villa that would
allow him to hide with his mistress, and on the other hand, would serve for hosting
visiting dignitaries.The villa
is built around a huge courtyard, and overlooks a garden surrounded by a
colonnade in the shape of half a circle, a plan inspired by ancient Roman villa
and the Villa Madama designed by Raphael. Here, as in Villa Madama, there is a
combination of a house and garden.In the four
different exterior façades of the villa can be seen classical elements used in
sophisticated and strange way, as is typical in the mannerist style. Prominent
design elements of these façades are flat pilasters and exaggerated rustication
creating a monumental impression of power. The villa looks like a two - storey house
although it has only one floor.The inner
courtyard, as the building exteriors, has four façades with entrances to the
palace where heavy rustication can be seen. Above the Doric columns, Giulio
Romano designed grotesques between the triglyphs. The quadratic form of the
main part of the palace consists of many halls decorated in different styles. Among
these, there were the sun hall, the hall of Amore and Psyche and the Giants'
hall. The frescos in the halls of the palace, which were all painted by Giulio
Romano, are essentially of erotic nature.

In the giants' hall, there is one door without
windows. On the ceiling and the walls are described the fall of the Titans so
that the shape of the hall is entirely deleted, and he who enters a room finds
himself facing a fall of rocks and naked giant figures. In this design, Giulio
Romano creates a precursor to the illusory approach of the Baroque style, which
combines architecture and painting so that it is difficult to clearly distinguish
between them.The
architecture of Giulio Romano, as his paintings, are full of surprising complicated
effects designed to shock the viewer in creating tension that characterize
mannerist art. The customary classical values ​​of order, stability, and
symmetry are broken.Palazzo
del Té was the prototype of one-story villa. Its design,
which includes irregular rustication, Tuscan columns, massive keystone in the arches,
and giant order pilasters became a source of imitation.

An architect who
developed a new formula for the ideal villa was Andrea Palladio (1508-1580),
the last of the great humanist architects. He was born in Padua, and came to
Vicenza in 1524. His real name was Andrea di Pietro. He was nicknamed
"Palladio" after the name of Pallas Athena by the humanist scholar
and poet Trissino.

While most
Renaissance architects began their career as painters and sculptors, Palladio
was trained to be an architect, and his training was closer to modern training
of professional architects. He was the first professional architect who focused
on architecture as a profession and as his only occupation, not being engaged
in any other art. Palladio studied Roman buildings, built many villas in northern
Italy, introduced many versions of classic subjects, and developed a precise
theory of proportions and module.Around Venice
were built twenty villas planned by Palladio. Most rural houses reflected the
fact that from the Renaissance on, civil architecture was artistic, as was
religious architecture. Unlike the rural villas adjacent to Florence and Rome,
Palladio's villas were surrounded by fields and vineyards that produced crops. The
layout of each such villa included homes for employees, barns, wineries, grain
warehouses and stables. These villas look very modest compared with the terraced
villas with gardens in Rome. Their simplicity has a special charm that can be noticed
today. They are impressive, though not spectacular.

Palladio's new formula
for the ideal villa finds its expression in Villa Rotunda in Vicenza
(1566-1620), also known as Villa Almerico Capra, after the name of the priest
Paolo almerico who commissioned the building after his retirement from the
court papacy, and the name Capra who acquired the villa in 1591. The term
"Rotunda" (literally: round) is associated with the two story round hall
in the center of the villa around which
the plan is symmetrical.Villa Rotunda,
the most famous villa designed by Palladio, and which had most numerous
imitations, stands on a round hilltop. It is distinct from the other villas
designed by Palladio, in the absence of service structures from the architect's
plan. It also differs from other buildings built at the time in its
centralistic plan and crowned dome. As a villa commissioned by a
clergyman, it was designed with elements that had a sacred meaning. The plan of
frescos painted in the dome in the 16th century are associated with virtues
of religious life. The western room of the villa was called "Room of Religion."The ground
plan of the villa consists of simple geometric shapes that Palladio saw as
important ancient forms - square, circle, and rectangle. The villa's rooms are
arranged symmetrically around a central round dome. Identical portico and gable
appear in each of its four façades. Palladio justified this plan by saying that
the beautiful landscape was seen from all four sides of the villa. The façades
facing four directions deviate by 45 degrees from the four winds, so that
sunlight penetrates the rooms. The villa itself is symmetrical, but the
topography where it is located is asymmetrical.Harmonious
proportions defined the ratio between the porticos of Villa Rotunda, and the rest
of the building. Straight axes and geometric-shaped white walls of the villa,
present a sophisticated contrast to the organic world around it.The ground plan of the villa
rotunda is close in its shape to the drawing of Serlio, which is presented in his
book "Geometry". This drawing displays a circle within a square,
which is associated with human body's proportions. Palladio knew this drawing and
drew inspiration from it. The proportions of the villa's rooms correspond
exactly to the descriptions of Palladio in his "Four Books
Architecture".

Palladio introduced an
innovation by combining a classic temple with a façade of a house. Until his
time, it was common to design this type of façade only for churches and public
buildings. This innovation was due to the limited knowledge in his period about
antiquity. Palladio mistakenly thought that residential Roman houses had
façades with portico and gable as in the Greek and Roman temples.By
adjusting the villa's exterior to exteriors of public buildings and churches,
houses of the powerful and wealthy had a position similar to public buildings
and churches. Designing gabled façades and porticos inspired by Palladio became a central feature
in residential architecture throughout Europe and the colonies in America.The Villa
Rotunda was very popular in the 16th century in houses that adopted
compact and symmetrical shape dominated by harmonious proportions. The English,
including architects, who made the Grand Tour to follow antiquity, were
especially excited about this style. During the 17th and 18th
centuries, Palladio's villas also influenced architects in the United States of
which most prominent was Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826).

Vincenzo Scamozzi
continued the construction of the villa, where it was possible to live in 1569,
although it was not completed when Palladio died in 1580. Palladio's own original plan
was to roof the main central hall with a hemispherical-shaped dome, but Scamozzi
designed it according to the model of the Pantheon, with occulus (round window),
opened to the sky in the middle.Goethe
(1749-1832) who visited the Villa Rotunda said it fitted for human habitation,
but was not homely.

North of the Alps, the
Gothic style remains the preferred style of church architecture until the 18th
century, as a customary alternative to the Italian Renaissance. When Italian architects
were busy reviving their country's national architecture, the Gothic style in
France grew stronger and continued to flourish without any influence of the
Renaissance. While church architecture continues to adhere to the Gothic style,
since the late 15th century, French chateau architecture tended to
gradually adopt Italian Renaissance style elements. This is why French
Renaissance architecture is associated with building palaces rather than religious
structures.

In mid-15th century, houses of the nobility in the
countryside were built to protect, rather than for comfort. They had thick
walls, few windows, and massive towers in their corners. With the return of
peace after the Hundred Years War, and the progress made in development of
artillery, there was no need for fortifications in France. They did not disappear
overnight, but became decorative elements and a status symbol. Large windows
opened in the walls, and turrets at the corners became decorative structures.In late 15th century,
when the French kings were exposed to Italian Renaissance palaces, in times of
wars and conquests, they sought to emulate the elegant residences of the Italians, and brought Italian
architects to France. These presented classic elements to the French, but
Gothic traditions were dominant, and for a long period, only small details were
inspired by antiquity, while the general plan remained essentially Gothic in
nature. The castle remained a rural medieval form. The decoration details in fortresses
initially adopted as an addition to the Gothic buildings were columns, pilasters,
pediments, and medallions.Enthusiasm for Italian art
began under King Charles VIII and continued during the periods of Louis XII,
and Francis I (in French: François Ier). Italian influence began when Italian artists
came to France, and was strengthened when the ancient writings were published,
and French artists traveled to Italy.French Renaissance first
appeared in façades of palaces, which had a completely new appearance. In Gaillon
palace, we find in 1509 pilasters that emphasize the vertical line. Other
castles followed Gaillon palace, and continued the medieval tradition loyal to
Gothic forms.Established during the reign
of King Francis I (1515-1547), Renaissance architecture was fashionable, and
classic forms were no longer just decoration, but also penetrated the design of
buildings' structure. However, the dominant influence of Gothic tradition did
not allow full penetration of Italian Renaissance characteristics to French architecture.
The Gothic tradition, which was rooted in French architecture, was reflected in
its picturesque skyline - sloping roofs with gables and chimneys, and absence
of symmetry and formality that characterized the Italian Renaissance.Francis I, who strived for
glory, knew that arts were a safe means to immortalize him. As a patron of art,
he followed the popes Julius II and Leo X. We must remember that during the
monarchy, personal prestige was a major factor. It was said about Francis I that
aside from an obsession with women, he had an obsession for construction.
During his reign began the building of large palaces that developed from rural forts,
which served the monarchy, usually as hunting palace. The French, following the Italians, published on essays
architecture. In 1547, Jean Goujon wrote an introduction to the French
translation of Vitruvius. Philibert de l'Orme published a treatise on
architecture in 1567. He thought that the architect should be "a universal
man" versed in many fields of knowledge, including philosophy.

Chambord Palace (Chataeau de Chambord)

One of the great
palaces of the French Renaissance style was Chambord castle whose rebuilding began
in 1519 by Francis I on the bank of the Loire.
This was shortly after the death of Leonardo da Vinci to whom some mistakenly attributed
the design of the palace. Construction was not completed during the reign of
Francois I, and continued during the reign of Henry II, Charles IX and Henry
III.The original model of the palace,
which was built in wood, was designed by Domenico da Cortona. Some believe that
the palace was planned by Pietro da Cortona. Other evidence suggests that it
was planned by the French architects Jacques and Denis Suordeau, Pierre Nepveu,
Jaques Coqueau and Pierre Trinqueau.Chambord castle imposes
concepts of symmetry and balance on the plan of a medieval French castle. The Palace,
which was surrounded by a moat, was rectangular (160X120 m) with round towers
(each 20 m in diameter) in the four corners. Within this rectangle, there is a
square structure with four round towers too. Between the square and the rectangular
structures, there is an inner courtyard.The main façade of the
palace building creates a synthesis between the rectangular and square
structure, with four towers - two at both ends of the façade, which are part of
the rectangular structure, and the inner two, which are part of the inner square
structure.The exterior walls of the palace are relatively
thin and pretend to be fortified. The structural elements of protection were
replaced by the balconies that allowed remote monitoring of hunting activities.
Bold horizontal lines separate the three floors. The windows are placed exactly
one above the other. The harmony created between the horizontal and vertical
lines, originates In the Italian palace. Above the third floor, the lines are broken,
and the roof appears taking over almost all of the design and creating an elegant
and unusual skyline combining enormous towers, chimneys, spires, domes, fantastic
lanterns, lilies (Fleurs De Lys - a symbol of the French court), minarets, and
gables. From this roof, which was designed by the architect Pierre Nepveu, Catherine
de Medici used to study the stars with her astrologer.The internal square structure
of the palace had no precedent. Each floor is divided into four parts by a
Greek cross with four arms -rectangular vaulted halls, forming a cross, and
meeting in the center in a double spiral staircase lit, like other staircases
of the palace, by a lantern. The double staircase enabled ascending and
descending the stairs without meeting each other. The cross shape of the halls creates
four squares, each sub-divided into three rooms. This sort of plan which
repeats in each floor, originated in Italy. Altogether, there were in the palace no less than 440 rooms used by the
court.

Palace of
FontainebleauThe Largest palace of Francis
I 's palaces, was the palace of Fontainebleau, which like Chambord, went through
a metamorphosis. The old palace from the 12th and 13th
centuries, served as a hunting palace. Since 1527, Francis I employed Gille Le
Breton in planning the palace which would become a center of Italian art. Works
of art that adorned the palace, were later used as the basis for the art
collection displayed today in the Louvre. Much of Fontainebleau palace was
destroyed. Only the north wing of the Cour du Cheval Blanc literally (yard of
the white horse) has remained in its original shape. The western wing was
destroyed by Napoleon, and the southern was rebuilt by Louis XV.Mannerist architecture, as a
purely decorative phenomenon, appeared in France, with the arrival of the
Italian artist Rosso Fiorentino to Fontainebleau in 1530, after being commissioned
by Francis I. Fontainebleau art freed itself from religious context. The gallery
of Francis I designed by Rosso Fiorentino, began as a corridor, and turned into
a tunnel of grotesque figures. Rosso, along with the painter Francesco
Primaticcio, brought into the decoration of this famous gallery, a combination
of stucco figures and the influence of Raphael's Villa Madama, and Palazzo del Te
design by Giulio Romano. The drawings of Rosso and Primaticcio in the palace of
Fontainebleau, were distributed throughout Europe, through woodcuts, and
influenced the creation of a fashion of decorative surfaces internal and
external.Image - Palace of Fontainbleau

Blois Palace Another important palace where Francis
I left his mark, is Blois Palace, which was built in several stages and
combines styles from the 12th, 15th, 16th, and
17th centuries. The palace was the residence of Francis I's wife, Claude
de France, daughter of Louis the
12th. During the years 1515-1530 the most beautiful part of the palace was built
- a magnificent octagonal staircase to
the northwest of the courtyard in the wing which was built for Louis XII in c.1500.
This staircase, replacing a tower, which was roughly in a similar form, was the
last of a series of spiral staircases built in France in the 15th century.In many ways, the staircase at
Blois is traditional, but the old type is translated here into a new unique style
combining Gothic and mannerist styles. For the first time a staircase receives
a monumental character. The architect thought in three dimensions, and produced
a series of levels in a large polygonal drum of a tower with three strips of balustrades,
each presenting the royal symbols. Five of the eight sides of the octagon
protrude into the yard. This stairwell's ceiling was built of continuous spiral
barrel vault. The staircase is adorned with sculptures of dragons, monkeys, and
hybrid animals, supported by vertical pillars, which are treated as a giant
order. The façade of Blois Palace
was inspired by the loggias of Bramante in the Vatican Palace in Rome, which
were under construction at the time. Francis I's choice of this design shows that
he wanted to adopt the new fashion at its best.

Design of Renaissance Gardens, Palaces, and VillasRenaissance garden was an extension of the house.
Gardens and villas paralleled the palaces and the town squares. In Italy, villa
gardens were never too big. Most of them were terraces fitting the sloping
structure of the ground. Besides, in the warm weather, gardens with shady trees
were favored over open lawns. While the topography in Italy has allowed
modest-sized gardens, gardens in France spread over a wide area, and dominated
the landscape. French climate is more suitable to large areas of landscape. The
attitude of the French to gardens originates in their big hunting woods.

Parks
design culminated in the garden of Villa d'Este in Tivoli (1565-1572), which is
attributed to Pirro Liggorio (1510-1583). The villa was built on the site where
there was earlier a Franciscan monastery, which was destroyed to make room for
the garden. The person who commissioned the villa was Cardinal Ippolito d'Este who
was the son Lucrezia Borgia and grandson of Pope Alexander VI. Ippolito became a
bishop when he was two years old, an archbishop at the age of 10, and cardinal when
he was 30.Villa d'Este is located on a
hilltop, and the gardens whose design took twenty years, were located on a
slope with five terraces, so that it was hardly possible to see them from
inside the villa. Attention is drawn to the distant view. The gardens of Villa
d'Este are considered the top of the art of gardens design. Liggorio geometrically
designed gardens as a layout of paths, ramps, and fountains. He created an
avenue of a hundred fountains adorned with countless statues, inspired by the Metamorphosis
of Ovid, and other ancient writings. The widespread use of water and fountains that
Liggorio saw in the villa of Hadrian, probably influenced him to use water and
water effects. In Villa d'Este fountains were used without precedent in the
gardens of the Renaissance villas. The Italian garden became a prototype of a garden
that evolved from the palace. The Italian terraced garden presents an excellent
model of limited space garden.Italian Renaissance ideas of
designing gardens were received with enthusiasm in 16th century
France and 17th century England. In the 18thcentury, these ideas spread throughout Europe
and America.

Cities During the Renaissance and MannerismThroughout Europe, in the 13th
and 14th centuries, the city was the center of artisans and
merchants community. Armies were small, and the defense focused on the city
walls. The city looked like a combination of houses and shops around the area of
common interest - the area of ​​the cathedral, the town hall, and the market
square. Cities grew slowly and in irregular manner. They were narrow and winding
of the radiocentric type.

After
1400, conscious organization of urban space began. Regions and districts were
separated according to the goods produced by their guilds. Because of the
rivalries that existed between the families who aspired to power, powerful civil
houses were fortified, and towers rose above their usual height.In most cities, the street
system barely changed during the 15th and 16th centuries,
and their plan remained as it was in the Middle Ages. Although demographic
pressure resulted in immigration to cities, almost no new homes were built. The
spatial organization of the city, which has evolved during the Middle Ages,
continued to serve the social and spiritual needs of the population. The
reasons were economic stagnation in most cities, and a preference for building
new fortifications, which have not left sufficient funds to improve living
conditions in the city. The few cities where economic expansion took place,
urban landscape changed and was imitated by other cities, in the 18th
and 19th centuries. Such changes began in the capital cities and
administrative centers.

Due
to Renaissance style, which merged with great fit with the medieval model, the
city became more prosperous and expressive historically. Most Italian cities,
which were built in ancient times, were richer and more expressive than other
cities because medieval and Renaissance styles have been added to them.

Renaissance architects saw in urban
Middle Ages ugliness, corruption, and low moral level. They created a new
humanistic vocabulary that revived the golden age of antiquity, in order to
develop a society closer to divine and natural law, more than that which existed
then. They sincerely believed that their designs symbolized eternal values ​​that
would speed up the start of a new age for man. Unlike the medieval concept according
to which God was perceived as the beginning and end of everything, the
humanistic culture was based on human knowledge and power. Secularization
prompted the growth of capitalism, wealth and economic power, which passed into
private hands and the architect, had a vision, which moved from creating a
mirror image of the heavenly Jerusalem, to building a pleasant place to live in.

The
purpose of Renaissance urban design, as the purpose of architecture, was to
create a harmonious visual order, stable and perfect which would reflect the
stability and harmony in the social system. Existing cities were redesigned, and
presented concepts of city planning from the writings on architecture.During the Renaissance, there
was a clear division into districts - the
government district, the business district, and industrial district. The number
of public buildings increased, and the city was seen as a political entity
rather than as a socio-economic one. The city generally was led by one family, or by one man, who dominated
the cultural and political life in the city.Among the changes made by
rulers in their cities during the Renaissance, were expanding streets linking
the city gates, building new squares and changing existing ones. New buildings
were constructed, and façades of some existing houses were altered. Public
buildings serving political economic and religious goals, such as churches,
municipal buildings and palaces enriched the urban landscape.Alberti, more than anyone
else, developed in his writings and design, the idea that the qualities of a
building, its form and location in the urban landscape, should be well
integrated into the everyday life of the citizens. This approach, in building
churches, palaces and public buildings, emphasized the overall environment as a
background reference to the cultural, social, and political life. Alberti did
not demand the destruction of many existing parts of the city as a prerequisite
to establishing a new design. He wanted to create maximal visual and
ideological impact, believing that buildings of the Renaissance, in their
presence, would lead to a reassessment of the environment, and change the quality
and meaning of urban life.Awareness to the connection
between the buildings and the urban landscape prevailed inpart of
the cities of Italy in the 13th century. In Siena, the central square
where a uniform appearance of the windows has been preserved was chosen in 1288
as the site for building the town hall (Palazzo Pubblico) which was designed in
1297 and completed in 1344. It was necessary to emphasize especially the tower,
which would rise above the height of the cathedral. In 1346 the chronicler Angolo
di Tura wrote proudly that in December 30 the paving work in the square (campo)
of Siena in stone was completed, and noted that it was considered the most
beautiful square in Italy with the most beautiful fountain.In Parma, the authorities
were not allowed to use the square for punishments involving shedding blood, to
preserve the beauty of the place and to avoid harming the goods, which were sold
there. The square was perceived as honorable and worthy of special protection. Activities
such as spinning, breastfeeding babies, and eating figs were prohibited.In the 15th century,
major cities competed with each other in expanding and straightening their narrow
streets. To create a uniform look, construction of structures such as balconies
and wooden structures, sticking out from the house was banned. Alberti contended
that in citiescontrolled by tyrants it
was convenient for the ruler to close the balconies and similar structures to
reduce the resistance to the soldiers who would often walk the streets serving
the despotic rulers. In earlier times, arcades were a dominant feature in several
cities, but some were destroyed during the Renaissance, probably for the
reasons raised by Alberti.When King Ferrante from
Naples, visited Pope Sixtus IV (1414-1484) in 1475, he motioned to him that he
would never feel himself a true ruler of Rome, as long the narrow streets,
balconies and porticos would survive. Pope Sixtus IV, indeed, destroyed the porticos,
expanded the city's streets and squares, and paved them with bricks. The porticos
in Naples survived the period of the rule of Ferrante, including those from antiquity,
but those that survived were destroyed in 1532. Rural towns tended to keep
their porticos. Compared to the destruction of
ancient elements, such as municipal porticos, the Italian cities of the
Renaissance revived the classical tradition by placing statues in the squares. In
piazza del Santo in Padua, near the church, is found since 1453 a pedestal 12 m
in height, with the sculpture of Gattamelata of Donatello - the first equestrian
statue since Roman Marcus Aurelius. The statue of Colleone sculptured by Verrocchio
was placed in the Piazza San Marco in Venice, in late 15th century. Michelangelo's
statue of David was placed in Piazza della Signoria in Florence, in 1503.
Sometimes a monumental statue was erected in the center of a square, such as
the sculpture of Cosimo de Medici in the Piazza della Signoria and the sculpture
of Ferdinand I de Medici in Piazza Annunziata. The Medicis imposed their
presence in bronze, in all the cities that they ruled. Thus, rulers used urban
design to express their political power and refined culture.

The
rulers of the city-states in Italy used to build mansions for themselves
expressing their political power and control in their cities. In planning the ruler's
palace, special attention would be paid to integrating the palace in the urban
fabric, so that the ruler's power and his status rising above the status of
other resident would be expressed. In the City of Urbino,
Italy, the Duke Montefeltro (1422-1482) built a fortified castle in Renaissance
style within the urban settlement. His residential palace stands in the central
square, which crowns the cliff on which it was built, creating an organic unity
with the city.

In Mantua, Palazzo Gonzaga dominated the city among three lakes, being situated in the
most important access point - St George Bridge (St.Giorgio). The cathedral and
the palace created a monumental group where renovations were made often. The square
had no political role, and never served as a market. Occasionally knights'
tournaments were held there, but no one took it as an urban design object.In Turin, which was selected in
1559 as the new capital of the State of Savoy, with the construction of the Castle
of the ruler, began the reorganization of the entire structure of the city.
Duke Emmanuel Filiberto de Savoy, who ruled the new capital during the years 1559-1580,
found in Turin a medium sized city with Roman walls, gates and streets which have
been preserved during the Middle Ages, and wanted to turn the old castle into a
fortified complex. A plan of five-pointed
star (pentagram) shaped was already drawn in 1564. The aim was to
protect the southern and western parts of the city, and in time of emergency,
even the prince himself.

Turin city area has tripled by adding planned areas from
three sides, which were connected to the palace and garden through large axes
of the streets leading to downtown. Territories added to the city, kept the Roman grid model. Strict
construction regulations imposed similar façades in old and new homes and
palaces, along the streets. These laws were put into effect by force since the
16th century until the 19th century. The intention was to
build colonnades and monumental façades in the city. The entire city was
ordered to wear an aristocratic cover, which in other cities, like Paris, was
intended only for the nobility.

While in Italy, England, and France, it was possible
to find cities that were relatively large, German cities were small. In Florence
in 1520 there were approximately 80,000 residents. In Milan there were 85,000. In
Naples in 1500 there were approximately 230 000 residents. In London there were
over 50,000 people during the rule of Henry VIII, and in Paris - 200,000. In
the 16th century, the largest city in Germany was Cologne whose population was about 30,000. There were about
20,000 at Nuremberg. In Frankfurt there were about 10,000 residents, and in Dresden
only 2,500 inhabitants.

In the 16th century, German cities
surrounded themselves with rural forestlands. Among these was the city of
Nuremberg which was surrounded by a dense forest called Reichwald (literally:
the royal forest), because originally it was the property of the empire. During
the 14th century and early 15th century, the forest became
the city's property and became its symbol of independence. In Germany people at
that time knew the woodcut of Nuremberg made
by Michel Wolgemot from 1493 for the Nuremberg Chronicle, Lieber Crronicum written
by Hartmann Schedel, the most popular history book at the time. For many years,
after the book was published, other woodcuts and engravings of the city of Nuremberg
and other cities in Europe appeared, including those of Dürer. City descriptions,
pictures and words, have strengthened the local patriotism and contributed to
the prestige of the city and its relations.Fortunately, numerous
engravings of city plans that have been published since the late 15th
century and later have survived. Braun and Hogenburg whose work was dated to
1530 was the most active company in the field of publishing plans of cities.During the Renaissance, the cities
in which the Renaissance found its expression more than other cities, were
Florence where Renaissance culture was born, Rome, the focus of attention of
Christians, and a center of pilgrimage for thousands of believers who flocked
to it every day, and Ferrara which applied the new principles of perspective.

FlorenceFlorence, where Renaissance architecture
first appeared, paid special attention to the urban landscape. In 1319,
expensive homes were destroyed, to expand the Piazza della Signoria, and in 1339,
the church authorities initiated lowering the houses in the streets to make the
Cathedral of Florence and the baptistery stand out in the urban landscape. When
Brunelleschi designed the dome of Florence Cathedral, he concentrated on the
dome itself regardless of its surroundings, but as a result of the construction,
the whole town's appearance and its skyline has changed. The dome of the
cathedral was the focus of the urban landscape, which can be seen from
everywhere in the town.

The religious center in
Florence, unlike other major cities in Italy and northern Europe was physically
separated from the political and trade centers. While in other cities the
political and economic centers were overlapping, and sometimes found near
religious centers, in Florence, there was a clear separation between these
three kinds of centers. The religious center was in Florence Cathedral, the
main domestic market was Mercato Veccio located in the geographical center of
the city, which was called the ancient forum, and the political center was Piazza
della Signoria.

In the Piazza della Signoria three prominent monuments
are harmoniously connected: Palazzo Vecchio, Loggia dei Lanzi, and the Uffizi
(Ufizzi, literally offices). Palazzo Vecchio, which was built by Arnolfo di
Cambio in late 13th century, has a severe and fortified appearance. The
style of Loggia dei Lanzi, which is rich and elegant, is close to Renaissance
style. The Uffizi (now Gallery Uffizi), which was planned by Vasari is elegant
and light.

The Uffizi (1560-1580) is more associated with urban planning than with building
design. Vasari was commissioned by Cosimo Medici to design the Uffizi in order
to concentrate the 13 administrative agencies, which were scattered throughout
the city until then, in one building. Construction work was completed years
after Vasari's death. The Uffizi building is actually a narrow city street (140
m in length and 18 m in width), leading from Piazza della Signoria to the Arno
River through a triumphal arch located at its end. A loggia and corridors on
the ground floor of the Uffizi served pedestrians, and residents who were
waiting before the gates of the offices. Through planar walls, Vasari created a
strong effect of perspective.As already mentioned, the
Piazza della Signoria was a political center, which served sometimes for passing
political messages. After the flight of the Medici from Florence in 1494, the
inhabitants of the palace took Donatello's bronze statue, which depicts Judith beheading
Helofernes and presented it in the Piazza della Signoria,
before the government's palace, the Palazzo Vecchio, and attached to it the inscription:
"Posted by citizens of the city as a sign of the people's
redemption."

The first square designed in Renaissance style is the square Santissima
Annunziata in Florence, which was designed by Brunelleschi as part of the
construction of the first building of the Renaissance, which was the foundling hospital
(1419). The square is closed on three sides by porticos with round arches. This
is a complex of buildings designed according to a regular rectangular plan. The
shape of the square fits the needs of the foundling hospital. Through the
porticos and the space facing it, the building conveys a sense of openness. One
could leave babies in the portico to be picked up and treated at the foundling
hospital. The size of the buildings in the square, and the ratio between open
and closed spaces reflect balanced proportions between the parts and the
assembly.

Public buildings, palaces, and churches of
Renaissance Florence stood out in their stone hues against the houses of the
common people in the background, which were very colorful, as they were during the
Gothic period. These façades were covered with plaster and painted in bright
colors such as yellow, blue, green, pink, and red. Today we can see the colors
of the houses from this period in paintings of the period.Along the houses and streets
of Florence there were stone benches on which townspeople used to sit, talk,
and gossip about the people passing by. Benches are found everywhere in the
city. They could be seen on the façades of
palaces and simple homes. Sometimes they were placed near the entrances to
stores.In the outskirts of Florence
in the late 15th century, among the houses there were estates and
luxury houses reviving the ancient idea of a villa. It was customary that rich
people had villas. While during medieval times gardens were attached to homes,
in the 14th century Florence, the gardens were units separated from
the houses, so that a green belt was created around the city, such as was much
talked about in the twentieth century.

RomeThe complexity and
centralization of power during the Renaissance, led to the growth of a capital city,
which was both a cultural and religious center. The initiators of construction
of the city of Rome and the improvement of its appearance were the Popes who
came from noble families and their conduct was that of real princes in their
country. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, city bishops tried to ensure
their power by building fortified castles. In Rome, without Castello St. Angelo,
which remained from the Roman period and served as a fortress for the pope, the
papal ruling in the city was not guaranteed. Pope Nicholas V (served 1447-1455) and subsequent popes
gave expression to architectural renewal of imperial Rome. They broke the medieval
order to create a prototype of a rich and prosperous city. For two centuries,
Rome became the model for entire Europe. As the spiritual shepherds of the
Catholic world, the popes had enormous financial resources pouring on them. The
city became rich as a result of being a center of monastic orders, and
pilgrimage.The completion of the Pope's
quarters, and the roads that were supposed to link them with the city on the
Tiber, were the first project in city planning, conducted by the popes. The
most important thoroughfare in Rome was the Tiber. Initially, the only passage
over it was the bridge of St. Angelo, on which were presented heads of
criminals that were condemned by the church. Nicholas V demolished the bridge
of St. Angelo, after hundreds of people were pushed on it in a procession honoring
the Jubilee Year 1450 and many of them fell into the river. For Jubilee
celebration in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV built a new bridge, Ponte Sisto, to
facilitate the passage to the Vatican and prevent a similar incident.

Projects initiated by the popes were not part
of a comprehensive plan. The approach of the Planners that they employed was
characterized by division into cells. Squares were designed as separate
architectural units, without intention to connect them to key areas. This
approach is evident in squares that were built in Rome during the Renaissance,
and the Baroque period that followed it. Among these squares are St. Peter's
Square, Capitol Square, Piazza Navona, Piazza del Popolo, Piazza Barberini and
Piazza di Spagna. Renaissance and Baroque squares are surprisingly diverse and form
the impression that their space seems larger than it is actually.

Nicholas V, who wanted to restore the position
of Rome as the capital of Christianity, began, led by Alberti, to rebuild the
city of Rome and to pave its streets. It was not only a propaganda effort. The
idea behind the plans was to strengthen the position of the church. He
initiated the construction of two power centers in the city - the Capitol and
the Vatican complex.

Piazza del CampidoglioIn 1447, Nicholas
II began to redesign the Campidoglioand turned it into a monumental civic square that would become the center of
municipal government. During antiquity, Campidoglio Hill was a revered
religious and political focal point. During the Middle Ages, its function as a
sacred place and a symbol of Roman power and glory, was largely lost as a
result of the presence of secular regime and the presence of guilds in the site.

The Campidoglio Square design is one of the
major contributions to the history of urban design. Michelangelo was responsible
for designing the new square as a dynamic center of political life in Rome. The
construction project that began in 1538, continued with many interruptions, and
little was built before the death of Michelangelo in 1564. Originally, the
Pope's intention was to build the Capitol Square in honor of Emperor Charles V
(1500-1558), but actually building the square was very slow, and ultimately,
other architects continued the work of Michelangelo and completed it in the 17th
century according to his perception.

Pope Paul III Farnese (served 1534-1549), who was a collector of Roman
art, set the Marcus Aurelius statue in the space created between the two
buildings in the Capitol Square, the historic hill overlooking the Forum and
the church of San Pietro. The design of Michelangelo from 1538 essentially
completed the design of the space around the statue.The buildings surrounding the Campidoglio
Square are the Palazzo del Senatore, Palazzo dei Conservatori, and the new
palace built for aesthetic purposes only – Palazzo Nuovo "(literally new
palace) whose name indicates a lack of practical purpose.

Palazzo Nuovo has achieved exactly the goal described by Michelangelo in
his letter, which refers to the relationship between architecture and the human
body. He wrote that the similarity between the eyes, and the presence of a nose
between them, suggest that the architectural elements to the right and left of
a central axis, should be as mirror image, while the central element is one.The Senate House was built in the 12th
century on the ruins the Tabularium, and was expanded during the years 1299-1303
and 1348, according to a model of public palaces in northern Italy.
Michelangelo changed the building, to suit the overall design of the square.
The bottom floor is rusticated and the two top floors are united by huge pilasters
of the Giant Order type. The upper floor's windows were reduced in size and became
square shaped. The staircases in the façade led to the entrance in the piano nobile
floor.Two towers were added to the back
of the Palazzo del Senatore, and a bell tower towered from its center. The old
tower of the building was damaged by lightning 1577, and in 1583 was rebuilt in
the place designated for it by Michelangelo, but not according to his design.

The building work of Palazzo dei Conservatori was carried out by Giacomo
Della Porta during the years 1564-1568. The portico is made of flat arches
built of horizontal members made of three blocks, linked together, no doubt, by
iron fastenings. They are built to appear as much as possible as monoliths. The
windows in the piano nobile of Palazzo
dei Conservatori were designed in square shape.

Palazzo Nuovo, doubling Palazzo
dei Conservatori, was built during the
years 1603-1654. It was designed simply as a portico with offices. Its current courtyard was not a
part of the plan of Michelangelo. In the etchings made according to his design,
there seem to be nothing but a façade and portico.

The
façades of the buildings in the square using flat pilasters of the giant order
type appear here for the first time in Roman civil construction. The giant order
provided both simple and revolutionary solution to a problem that architects faced
since the time of Alberti – to create a connection between the system of columns,
pilasters and cornices in the ancient style, and the division to floors,
windows and horizontal bars which had been used in palaces of the period. This
connection was done by vertical organs supporting cornices as it had been done
in classic architecture.The wide staircase
leading to the square and the organization of the levels are very sculptural. Flanking
the Palazzo del Senatori are two – storey buildings. Heavy cornice with balustrades
is crowning each of the buildings in the square. Above the balustrade, ancient
statues are placed on the top of each of the colossal pilasters.

Clearly, this project was not perceived as a
complex with individual buildings, but as a large trapezoid living room with
three walls, under the sky. The open portico, the side palaces of the
Campidoglio square, like Brunelleschi's loggia
of the foundling hospital in Florence, are part of a square, as much as they
are part of the buildings themselves. Here the portico is not built with an
arcade, but with a colonnade.Placing the buildings in the
square was made with great skill. The conventional way in which squares were
shaped was ignored. The traditional rectangular square is replaced here by trapezoid-shaped
square. The oval part of the square, with its powerful large star shaped
pattern is one of the innovations full of imagination in the Renaissance. Using
an elliptical shape is unusual during the Renaissance and preceding periods.
Traditionally, flooring of city squares was based on grid pattern made of squares
or rectangles. Royal courts sometimes used the pattern of lines radiating from
the center. Piazza del Campidoglio with its elliptical model, incorporates the
principle of the center with the principle of axis, stressing the center where
the statue of Marcus Aurelius stands, and creates the illusion that the statue
looked bigger than it actually does. The monumental appearance of the statue
makes it part of the architectural composition.

Campidoglio Square breaks the visual ideal of the harmonious order that
characterized the Renaissance. Michelangelo's dramatic design, leads us away
from the neutral spaces of the Renaissance. The palaces are swept into the
drama created by the architect. They disappear into the urban landscape, so that
they have no practical function other than creating an effect of environmental
design.

The square is a masterpiece of city planning,
and was considered one of the most beautiful works of Michelangelo at the time
when built, and even before construction was completed. This was indicated by
Vasari in his book.The Streets Plan in the City of Rome

Pope Sixtus V (1521-1590) who served during
the years 1585-1590, commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana (1543-1607) to
redesign the streets of Rome. This plan, which connected the most important
churches in Rome in a network of streets, marked a new era in city planning.
New streets connected seven large basilica churches for the convenience of
pilgrims. Four streets radiated from Santa Maria Maggiore Church each ending in
a building, or group of buildings with a large square.

A Vatican mural shows the plan of Fontana. While
developing the plan, the architect certainly used plans of other ancient
cities. When he presented his plan, many monuments already existed in Rome, including
the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, Lateran, and other churches.Piazza del Popolo was part of the plan of the streets. This is the square of
traffic vehicles, from which branch three transport arteries leading to different
parts of the city. To Roman Via Flamina, Fontana added two roads, one on each
side, to give a sense that the city plan was laid in front of those who entered
it, and was accessible from all directions. This is a very nice entrance to the
city. Placing identical churches on either side of the road is an example of
the great importance that Renaissance attached to symmetry. Usually churches
are not built in pairs. Piazza del Popolo is a prototype of the entrance to the
city square. Squares of its kind we find in Berlin, Potsdam, and Leipzig.

Fontana
marked key points in the city, using high obelisks brought from Egypt
already during the Roman Empire. His main idea was to link these points and
highlight them visually. He understood that there was a need for a system of
strong visual highlighting to create a comprehensive conception of city design.
Obelisks were a ready answer. Sixtus V began to carry out the plan during his
short term as pope, by placing the obelisks in open spaces.Obelisks erected in the
squares allowed the flexibility of the geometric space, and a dynamic
perspective. The obelisk brought from Egypt by Caligula, was transferred in
1585 to the façade of the church of San Pietro in order to demonstrate the
power of the papacy. During the tenure of Pope Sixtus V Fontana turned it into the
focal point, and a prototype of means of planning throughout the city. Gardens
with symbolically meaningful fountains incorporated into the urban fabric.

Popes, like other rulers, were not devoid of
feelings of jealousy. To perpetuate themselves, they preferred to start a new
project rather than complete the unfinished work of their predecessors. The achievement
of Sixtus V suited this situation. He established the design framework for the
entire city, and created design opportunities for later popes, to satisfy their
ego.Popes in the 16th century
referred to Rome, as Napoleon III referred to Paris on the 19th century.
Sixtus V re-paved hundred and twenty-five streets in order to bring the pilgrims
to a complete urban experience. Within five years, the old city merged with the
new city within one area. Pope Sixtus V was criticized for developing the new
streets, while abandoning ancient monuments, among others, the Coliseum whose
stones were reused.In the axes plan of the city
of Rome, the public areas were a combination of main streets with public
squares as focal points. The model created is a city where public space and
public buildings form the overall urban fabric, with lively places that convey a
clear sense of orientation and clarity.In many squares, the triumph of
Christianity over paganism was expressed in giving new interpretation to ancient
monuments. Fontana reconstructed the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, and
the pope placed at their tops bronze statues of the Apostles Paul and Peter
respectively. Not less than four obelisks were moved from their places in the
city, to become monuments of Contra - Reformation, as an addition to a cross. They were placed in Piazza del
Popolo, Piazza San Giovanni, the square in front of Santa Maria Maggiore and
the Piazza San Pietro.The obelisk (red granite
monolith 5.25 m in height) placed in St. Peter's Square in 1586, was brought from
Heliopolis by Caligula, to be positioned in the Circus of Nero. It was
dedicated to the holy cross celebrations, and everyone understood the new meaning,
which replaced the ancient Egyptian meaning. The Egyptian sun symbol has become
a symbol of victory of Christianity over paganism, thus strengthening the
city's Christian character.San PietroNicholas V, who made the
Vatican the seat of the Pope, began building the church of San Pietro. The old
church of San Pietro was built by Constantine in the fourth century and in the
middle of the 15th century was in a state of severe decay. Alberti
wrote that the mildest earthquake would bring down the building. It was
decided, therefore, to re-build the church, but it took more than a hundred
years until the construction was completed, and one more century until the
Vatican became integrated in the city of Rome.The dome of St. Peter's
Church was built during the years 1587-1589 according to Michelangelo's design,
and construction continued during the years 1606-1624 by Carlo Maderno
(1556-1629). The dome is 42 m in diameter and 29 m in height. The pairs of
columns, windows, and lantern design were inspired by the design of Santa Maria
del Fiore in Florence of Brunelleschi.The square of Saint Peter's
was designed during the Baroque period and it will be discussed later in the
chapter describing the city during the Baroque period.

FerraraIn the city of
Ferrara in northern Italy, as in Milan and Bologna, an effort was made before
1440, to improve transportation, sanitation, and protection of the city. Dukes
of Este family who ruled Ferrara attracted to their yard in the 15th
and 16th centuries, great artists, poets, and scholars. One of the prominent
dukes of the city was a strong ruler full of self-importance as he called
himself "the first Hercules" (1471-1505). The city that he inherited
did not excite him. This was a typical medieval city with narrow streets,
surrounded by a wall. Luckily, he had a talented architect and urban planner,
Biaggio Rossetti, who was considered one of the first modern city designers in
the West. His brilliance is expressed in the construction of a feasible rational
plan that concentrated on the main things, providing a framework for future construction.Rossetti gave life to a
humanistic conception of an ideal city designed according to principles of
perspective. Construction work was carried out with astonishing speed from 1492
to 1502. Ferrara's size has doubled, and the streets were extended. New walls,
gates, main streets, squares and key buildings were built according to the plan
of Rossetti.Three main streets were designed to expand Ferrara. One, made the connection
between the old and new cities, and between the east and west. Two other
streets vertical to each other, divided the city into four quarters.In the Intersection of
the main streets, Rossetti designed the Palazzo Diamanti. All the main streets
of Ferrara connected vital points, with each other. They connected the gates to
the palace, the gates to the castle, squares to other squares, and various
important buildings with each other.The completion of this
project marked the birth of the modern city.Jacob Burckhardt, who visited the city in 1860, wrote that Ferrara with
its buildings was the first city in Europe, ushering in a new taste. Here for
the first time were grown large neighborhoods built according to a preplan.
Capitalists from all over Italy, especially Florence, built palaces for
themselves in this city.

Renaissance City Fortification PlanIn a period when
the king ruled over a large area uniting many cities, there was no need for a city
wall. Attention was directed to protect the ruler and the territories that he
ruled. New fortifications were built for old towns, as new strategic points in
the borders, or new fortified cities were built to serve this purpose.In the 15th century,
it was necessary to renew the fortifications repeatedly following the progress
in the technology of offensive warfare. The use of artillery began with the
invention of gunpowder in the 14th century. However, because of its
great weight, for a long time artillery was used as defense measures during
siege. Guns manufactured after technological improvements at the end of the 15th
century, were more lethal, and with the passage of time, were also lighter and
more mobile.The invention of guns has
changed the attitude toward the fortified medieval city. The ideal defense structures
during the time when bows and arrows were used, became risky targets during the
use of cannons. The artillery made the walls ineffective now that battles took
place from a distance, rather than under the city walls.

The castle's towers were replaced by modern fortification systems. The
fort had a platform sticking out in triangular shape. The base of the triangle allowed
deploying soldiers who were supposed to shoot in event of approaching enemy.
While medieval fortifications were defensive, during the Renaissance, an
offensive character was added to them.Many architects tried
to design star-shaped cities. They found that a polygon was the preferred shape
for fortifications. Likewise, they found that streets converging to a central point
were useful in focusing on a central building. Some designers like Filarete were
involved in the implementation of star shaped military fortifications. This
form was more suited to the walls than a rectangular plan with right angles because
fire was directed against the enemy through the corners.

There
are still, today, fortified walls surviving from the Renaissance, in their ideal
form. Even in the United - States there are such walls that have survived to
this day, but they were built as fortifications, rather than walls of cities. The
shape of the Pentagon in Washington, originated in a long military tradition
that began during this period.The need for drastic
change in defense was felt in Italy, following the French invasion in the
nineties of the 15th century. The main goal of the designers of
fortifications was to strengthen the walls and gates at the corners, or build
fortresses as strategic outposts. In the late 15th century, the
preferred solution was fortresses in quadratic or triangular plan, with heavy
towers, low and round corners. Different versions of this method were found in theoretical
works of Leonardo da Vinci and Dürer (1471-1528). Such forts were built in Ostia
during the years 1483-1486 by Giuliano da Sangallo and PontelliI Baccio, in Rome
- Castel Saint Angelo (in the nineties of the 15th century) by
Giuliano da Sangallo and Antonio da Sangallo the father, and elsewhere.

Construction of
fortifications was intense, especially in places more prone to attack. Fortezza
de Basse was built in Florence in 1534 by Duke Alexander de Medici, but the
main aim then was to create a deterrent to prevent thoughts of rebellion among
the citizens of Florenc rather than defend against enemies.Engineers in the 16th
century were much occupied with planning fortified cities. Leonardo da Vinci,
Michelangelo and Dürer left us artistic drawings of fortified cities. The later
drawings of Michelangelo's fortifications, herald the baroque fortification
design, and the plans of fortifications made by the engineer Vauban, which will
be discussed later.

In Italy, where there
was a constant rivalry between the city - states, each government was under
pressure to improve military technology and to adapt military technology to the
new conditions. These pressures increased when Italy was the battlefield of
Europe, and a platform for improved military techniques. The history of modern
fortification begins, in fact, in late 15th century and early 16th
century Italy.In building
fortifications, unlike in other arts, it was impossible to learn from ancient
times, or the experiences of previous generations. This is one of the only
phenomena in the history of architecture, in which technological progress has
changed the basic concepts of design, as the changes in Roman construction following
the invention of concrete, and the changes in construction in the 19th
century following the invention of steel.New fortifications
protected the cities in strategically sensitive areas, as they encompassed
large tracts of land. Completely new residential areas were located beyond the
existing urban area, to provide homes for nobles and the upper class. The walls,
which marked the symbolic boundaries of the city, did not prevent the
development of suburbs beyond them, or isolated buildings, such as inns and
monasteries that served the city's population.

The Perception of the Ideal
Renaissance CityDuring
the Renaissance special attention was given to creating a urban unit -
"The Ideal City." Architects and engineers were tempted to create a
new city design plans expressed by symmetry and order. The dream of an ideal
city, received a geometric shape. Straight streets led to the monumental
squares, and the seat of the ruler. Palaces and public buildings dominated open
areas, and became perspectives' vanishing points. These designs are certainly
impressive visually, but they made the dimensions of the city grandiose.We saw
that the idea of ​​the ideal city has occupied the Greek philosophers Plato and
Aristotle. Renaissance ideal city plans were based mainly on classical models,
and especially on Vitruvius.Renaissance
utopias were usually associated with design of ideal cities designed to glorify
the dictator. Italian humanists were given the political realities of city -
state, and when planning an ideal city, retained its hierarchical nature
characterized by division into classes.Renaissance
urban ideas were a reaction to medieval city models. The desire for order and
control was reflected in the new architecture. The architectural changes fitted
the circumstances of life in Italy, more than anywhere else. The Italians were
closer to the ancient culture than to medieval ideas and forms. Competition
between patrons, and artistic talents in Italy, promoted urban planning.During
the Renaissance, design of an ideal city was associated with perfection of sociopolitical
organization. This is reflected in the geometric shape of the ideal city, which
was perceived as an architectural entirety in one space surrounded by a wall
whose perfect shape was round or polygonal. Renaissance
theoretical plans that described an ideal city, made a significant contribution
to the history of urbanism. Ideal city center was usually an open space
surrounded by administration buildings, the Prince's Palace, courts, the
central church, jail, treasury and an army camp. The whole concept is visual,
or planned, as imagined as bird's eye view, or view from the ground, creating a
complete perspective to the main buildings that are located at the vanishing point.
Individual structures were designed according to the rules of the classical
orders.

The Ideal City according to
Filarete

During the years 1451-1464, Filarete
presented a detailed description of the ideal fictional city Sfortzinda, which
was commissioned by his patron the Duke Francesco Sforza (1401-1466), and which
bears his name. Sforza commissioned an "ideal city for a tyrant," without
noticing the internal contradiction in this phrase. The descriptions of the
city were part of a series of arguments between the architect and his patron.Filarete planned for the City of Sfortzinda,
high walls in height four times their thickness. For the center of the city, he
planned a tower overlooking the district. The tyrannical ruler had to be
protected from enemies outside of it, and keep an eye on the civilians inside. The
city of a prince, according to Filarete, will be a palace city, and as such,
would have a hedonistic character. It has to please the people. Its ground plan
would be star shaped with eight corners to mark star systems. 16 ribs, 16 cross
streets, canals, and squares make up the layout of the city. The main streets
that have a radial shape, lead to the main square from each of the eight gates
of the city walls, and from each of the eight round towers.All the streets of Sfortzinda descend in a
slope from a square, so that accumulation of rainwater in the city is avoided.
The main streets are running at higher level, a braccia (about 60 cm) or two
(about 1.2 m) above the ground. On either side of the street, there are arcades
or porticos. The main streets are 40 braccia(about 23 m) in width, and the other
streets are 20 braccia (11.5 m) in width.Many associated
the city of Filarete with astrological symbolism, more than with reasonable use
of the ground. As a person who believed in astrology, Filarete set the precise
date for founding the city - April 15
1460 at 10:21.The plan
of the City of Sfortzinda was the first organic plan of a city as a whole. It
was also the earliest plan that integrates a layout of a city with a village.
Gates were placed at the inner corners of the star in the city plan, while the
towers, at its outer corners. Three squares were designed for the center of
Sfortzinda - the main square, right in the center of the city, with east-west
orientation, and two squares, to its north and south. The central square has
the cathedral at the east end, the prince's palace, opposite, on the western
edge of the square, and in the middle at the center of the square, a tower which
is high enough, to overlook the village beyond the city walls. The seat of the
Prince, the compound of the palace, is shaped like a staircase tower – the mountain
of the world. The other two squares were designated for a market and merchants.
In the north, there was the square of trade, and in the south - a large market.
Public buildings – the City Hall Palace (podesta), bank, and mint, military
police and baths, surround these plazas.The details in the plan of the City
of Sfortzinda are reminiscent of the work of Vitruvius. Colonnades adorn the
main squares. In the crossroads created at the intersections of the radial streets
with the concentric ones, are located, alternately, markets and community
churches. The approach of Filarete to the city is anti - medieval, in emphasizing
the importance of the large squares.According
to Filarete, buildings should be constructed according to logic. Various
buildings respond to the needs of residents, the government, justice and
education, training artisans, protection, healing and exercise. Each of these
requirements is translated in Sfortzinda into stone construction.

Filarete presents separate schools
for boys and girls, and the house of good and bad virtues, which is designed to
bring the citizen's morality to perfection. This structure would contain
reading rooms. The lower part was intended for brothels, and the upper floors were
designed for an academia and studies with astrology studies in the uppermost
rooms as they were considered the most important. By designing the house of
good and bad values, and by referring to the city's morality, the city of
Filarete prefigures the city of Shaw, which was planned by Ledoux in the 18th
century, and will be discussed later.

In Sfortzinda there were cottages,
and a small colony of workers. Filarete
also designed the hospital of the city, similar to that which was built
according to his plan in Milan and has survived to the present day. As a self-made
man, he was aware of the life of the common people, which gave his writings a
special charm and interest. His sensitivity to social problems and poverty are evident
in his descriptions of the harsh life of the mountaineers, which are depicted by
him as pale-faced gypsies.Especially
significant is Filarete's interest in landscape. Out of town, labyrinth was to
surround the fort, as the labyrinth of Daedalus in the palace of Minos in Knossos.
Here Filarete associates archeology with function. He insinuates the military
superiority of Sfortzinda, an aspect that brought its enormous popularity in
the second half of the 16th century.The manuscripts
of Filarete in their Italian origin, and the Latin translation, were
distributed throughout Europe, and their influence was felt during the high
Renaissance and the mannerist period.

The Ideal City according to AlbertiAlberti,
like Filarete, dealt with the ideal city. His Ten Books of Architecture served
as an echo to Vitruvius in defining an ideal city in terms of topography, climate,
and security. Unlike Vitruvius, he emphasized the aesthetic qualities. Many of
his books discussed ornaments and style, including an analysis of the five orders.
In Book IV, Chapter 3, he discusses city planning. Alberti did not try to
create an entire layout of an ideal city. His designs include plans for ideal
cities located on hills, and for ideal cities on planar ground. According to him,
a winding street seems longer than it is in fact, because of its presence
outside our sight. Likewise, in his opinion, the importance of monumental
buildings increases when they can be seen only partially.

In his writings, Alberti identifies a link between
perspective, painting, and architecture, and creates an analogy between the
city and home. He wrote that the city according to the philosophers, is like a
large house, and a house is like a small city.

Alberti's city buildings are
classified according to their social function. They include the ruler's palace,
public buildings, temples, houses, schools, and homes. The public buildings in
the city should be dispersed in the streets and squares for comfort and beauty.
His writings present a detailed description of the squares, towers, and
bridges, courts, churches and theaters. These will be magnificent to honor the
city. He stressed the importance of the squares of the city, and believed that several
squares should be built in the city. The square, in his opinion, should be
moderate in size and decoration. It should be, not too empty, and not too
small. Thus, exaggeration of any kind would be avoided. Alberti's city emphasizes the
distinction between the classes, and expresses a clear political structure. In the
city, there are three types of houses: houses for high-ranking people,
middle-class homes, and houses for the common people. Houses of prominent
citizens would be respectable, but refrain from ostentation. They would be based
more on good design, rather than the size of the ornament. Otherwise, they
would arouse the envy of neighbors, and the harmony of the design would be
affected. Poorer homes would be built according the formula of the rich houses,
but would be smaller and more modest, so that the difference between the
wealthy and the poor class would not be too noticeable.As
Vitruvius before him, Alberti refers to architecture and design as one.
Compared to Vitruvius, who summarized the characteristics of ancient construction,
Alberti reminded his contemporaries the classical knowledge, and encouraged
them to bring new ideas. In fact, he stood with one foot in the Middle Ages and
with the other in the Renaissance. Winding streets, in which vision is blocked,
seemed to him suitable for side streets. Winding line is, in his opinion, a
natural line for pedestrians. Straight and wide lines, which create a sense of
grandeur and glory, in his opinion fit into the main streets in powerful and
noble cities, which would be symmetrical on both sides, with a unified design
of buildings and porticos. The center of the city would be more beautiful, he
believes, if its shape is curvy, like a river route.

The innovation in the concept of
the city of Alberti, lies in presenting a building as part of an entire city.
According to this approach, every detail of the building would be subject to
the city's main design as a whole. The streets should be wide enough so that
they would not be congested, and not too wide, so that they would not be too
hot. He disliked the city plan in which each family built a palace and a tower,
out of considerations of rivalry, without any reference to the neighboring
buildings.Alberti made
a distinction between new principalities and kingdoms, on the one hand, and
free republics, on the other. The principalities, being filled with fear and
suspicion, should stick to mountains in an attempt to protect themselves. In
contrast, the free people could live in planar and comfortable cities. Despite
continuing the medieval tradition, Alberti is best remembered as a precursor of
the modern functional approach, and thus connects the Middle Ages with our
time. His aspiration to naturalism in painting, his emphasis on simplicity and
moderation, along with the adoption of the tradition of Vitruvius, are typical
of his time.

The Ideal City according to
Francesco di GiorgioFrancesco
di Giorgio(1439-1501/2) wrote (during the years 1470-1480) a book about the
ideal city, which was dedicated to the Duke of Urbino. Di Giorgio discusses
civil and military architecture. As an expert on fortifications, he introduced
several plans for cities, where special attention was given to the fortified
city.Referring to the city, Di Giorgio does not
focus on one city, or the model of a city, but presents proposals of city planning
accompanied by a series of drawings. He
refers to several kinds of cities - a city located on the beach, city of lakes,
city built on hills, flat city, etc. The circular element of his cities was
designed to serve as a central square with stores, and sometimes its size was enormous.

The Cities of Francesco di Giorgio are as a tool of the government, symbolizing forms of rule. Like
Filarete, di Giorgio offers residence representing a hierarchy of classes, six
levels of residential home. Unlike Filarete, he designs for the villagers, the
lowest class, noting that a country house, tailored for the needs of the city should
be designed for them. The middle class is subdivided into merchants and scholars
("studianti "). The latter
include administration people, lawyers, doctors, and other educated
professionals. The house of the artisan was very close to the bottom of the
hierarchy.

Like Filarete, Francesco di
Giorgio was familiar with astrology, and attached great importance to setting a
date for construction,

Perception
of the City according to Sebastiano Serlio

Sebastiano Serlio
(1475-1554), Italian painter and architect, wrote in the forties of the 16th
century about city planning. According to him, the houses should vary, in size,
design, and location. He divided them into different types, depending on the
social status of their tenants. The poorest live, according to his plan, out of
town, near the gates, while the rich live close to the center. Serlio's
division of residential areas is based on the hierarchical structure of
society. Serlio, in his city planning, was influenced, probably, by the ideal
fortified city that was published by Albrecht Durer in Nuremberg in 1527. This
plan will be discussed in detail, later in this chapter.In his book "On Architecture",
which had a great influence in France, the Low Countries and England, and which
served as a guide of Italian Renaissance
style, Serlio introduced in writing and drawings, streets suitable as
background for comic, tragic, and satirical scenes.For comic scenes, he designated a set in which there were homes
of "citizens, merchants, parasitic lawyers, and similar types." In such
a scene, he recommended to include an inn and a temple. In this street will be
open balconies. The small houses will be placed at the front, so that the
houses behind them will be seen too. For the tragic scene noble buildings would
be chosen because, according to Serlio, tragic romances and unexpected events,
as they were written in ancient tragedy, always happen to nobles, dukes,
princes, and even kings.Serlio's
inspiration for the design of the various scenes was probably, Vitruvius who wrote
in his fifth book (Chapter VI 9) about the three types of scenes: tragic, comic,
and satirical. In the tragic scene, according to him, there will be columns,
pediments, statues and other objects appropriate to kings. Comic scenes will be
presented in residential private homes, with terraces, and rows of windows as
they are seen in simple homes. Satirical scenes would be decorated with trees,
large caves, mountains, and other dirty elements designed in the style of
landscape.Kostof,
in his book from 1995, presents a compelling comparison in images between Piazza
San Marco and the two theatrical scenes of Serlio – the "tragic" and
the "comic". The square in the tragic and comic scenes are corresponding
to Piazza San Marco. In the comic scene appears a bell tower corresponding to
the bell tower of San Marco, and in the tragic scene there are round arches
like in St. Mark's Square. The lower houses in San Marco appear at the façade of
the square, and the higher houses in the back, as in the tragic and comic
scenes of Serlio.

When Leonardo
da Vinci reached Milan, he was shocked to find the misery and overcrowding. The
plague struck the city during the years 1484-1485. In his opinion, it was the
result of overcrowding, and poor sanitation. In his Codex Atlanticus he offered
to the Duke Ludovico Moro his ideas for making Milan beautiful, in terms of
functionality. In his plans, the dominant consideration was hygiene. His proposal
was to build the city anew, in a more spacious way, and transfer the "surplus"
population to new towns, satellite cities, each of which would populate 30,000
people. Each of the new towns would include 5,000 homes. In this way, he wanted
to solve the problem of overcrowding which constituted public health risk and a
threat to law and order.In the
plan of Leonardo da Vinci to the city, the aristocrats live upstairs, exposed
to sunlight, without the noise and stench from the sewage, while the common
people live in the lower level.Leonardo
also introduced a new concept of a city planning of a city surrounding a river.
The upper stream of the river is split into seven channels, all of which
correspond to the main stream, and meet again at the lower level of the city. The rivers were supposed to
provide water, and remove the waste out. For the city itself, he offered three
levels: lower one for water and sewage, middle one for cargo, stores, and a
movement of ordinary people, and the upper one for most respected people of the
city. The upper level is connected to the level below by stairs. Many levels
are designed to free the city from congestion and alleviate transportation.
Leonardo also suggested a subterranean floor that gets the light from the
street above.In addition, he planned hydraulic
facilities that would alter the water levels so that the lower levels would be cleaned
by moving currents.Another
far-reaching suggestion of Leonardo da Vinci was portable wooden houses for construction
workers, so that they would live in a village during the harvests, and thus
improve their health. This idea was ahead of the idea of ​​a greenbelt around
the city, which occupied the city planners of the 19th century.As for the
design of houses, Leonardo wrote that the house should be sited some distance
from any other structure, in order to enable seeing its true shape. He
explained that as a stone thrown into water creates many circles, and as a
sound spreading itself in circles in space, so too any object placed in a bright
space, scatters itself in circles, and fills the space around with infinite images
of it.In
presenting his city, Leonardo was hundreds of years ahead of his time in
proposing to build satellite cities, and planning separate levels for pedestrians
and vehicles traffic, with special routes kept for busy roads which were
designated for transporting goods.Many of
the ideas of Leonardo da Vinci were not implemented. Some of them could not be
applied at the time. The importance of Leonardo's city planning ideas
lies in the extension of the theoretical vocabulary of the 16th
century, and marking the shift from the medieval city to the early modern city.

The Ideal City according to PalladioIn the 16th century Palladio
introduced his ideas on city planning in his book "The Four Books on Architecture."
He wrote that when planning a city, weather conditions should be considered in
order to improve health. In cold areas, or temperate climate, wide streets
should be built, because a city with wide streets would be healthy, comfortable,
and more beautiful. It would be easy to see the beauty of its temples and palaces.
However, in hot areas, narrow streets and tall buildings should be built to
increase the shaded areas. Palladio brings the example of Rome (based on the
writings of Tacitus) (56-120 CE) which became a hot and unhealthy place, after
Nero extended the streets to beautify them.According to Palladio, the main
streets which were called "military", should be laid out in straight
lines, so that they would lead straight from the city gates to the main square, and from
the gates to the gates facing them. Depending on the size of the city, besides
the main square would be built several smaller squares.

The direction of the wind should be checked so that strong winds would
not blow along the streets. Likewise, the roads of the city should be paved.
Preferably, on each side of the street would be porticos, which would enable walking
in the street under a roof and doing business without inconvenience caused by the
heat of the sun, rain, or snow. Palladio writes that all the streets of Padua, which
was famous for its university, were such streets.

Plans of an Ideal City in GermanyOutside Italy, the most important creators
of the theory of an ideal city, was the known German artist Albrecht Dürer
(1471-1528) who published in 1527 a description of an ideal city with a perfect
square shape. He created integration between houses of craftsmen and traders in
a town ruled by a monarchy.Dürer's city plan was designed
for a balanced community. Blocks were allocated for all the crafts. The
uniqueness of the city plan is the division to areas: industry, administration,
and culture. Dürer placed the central square in the heart of the king's palace.
The prince's quarters are located in the periphery, in the lower right corner of
the plan (D), the church was situated in a quiet area in the lower left corner
(2, A) and the Town Hall (X) was found in the left main square in front of the
palace next to the market (12). Dürer expanded the quarters that Filarete allocated for the artisans and guilds of
Sforzinda. The artisans who lived and worked at home were grouped together with
the merchants, in various parts of the city's periphery, according to their
professions. Goldsmiths,
carpenters, copper's cobblers, and blacksmiths are found in the upper left
corner (C), and food vendors at the food stores in the lower right (D).
Warehouses of weapons, grain, and wood are located in the upper right corner of
the city (B). Military bases were placed along the sides of the city.

Eighty years later, the plan of
Dürer inspired the planning of the City of
Freudenstadt in the Black Forest, which was designed for Protestant refugees
during the wars of religion (some think that it was designed for workers from
the mines around the city). The original plan was designed by the German architect
Heinrich Schuckhardt) (1558 - 1634), architect of Frederick IV, who was trained
in Italy. This plan has adopted the grid plan, with the market square at the
center. Major public buildings - a church, town hall, school, and the king's
palace, were located, each, in another corner of the square. The duke
commissioned the plan and modified its design, so that in fact, the square in
the center was much larger than that in the plan. The palace, which was big,
had been placed in the square, and dominated the city.The most important article discussing
German city planning, was that of Daniel Speckle, which was printed in several
editions between the end of the 16th century, and the mid-17th
century. Evident influence of Italian literature can be seen in this article,
which had a significant impact on urban planning. This influence can be seen in
German cities such as Mannheim, Molheim and Karlsroah.

The Ideal City of Thomas MooreIn 1516, Thomas Moore
(1478-1535), philosopher and advisor of Henry VIII, wrote in England the book "Utopia".
The word "utopia" is Greek. "Ut" means "no" and
"topos" meaning "place". The word "eutopia" in
Greek means "good place". Moore may mean both meanings. .In Moore's book, Utopia is a
crescent shaped island, with identical cities, so he who knows one of them,
knows them all. They are the same, as far as nature allows. The number of
families in each city on the island would not exceed 6000. If the total number
of civilians in the city would exceed the agreed number, the surplus residents
would move to another city.Each of the cities of
Utopia has high and thick walls with towers, and is divided into four equal
parts, each with a market in the center. The houses are built so that their
front door faces the street and the back door overlooks a garden. The streets are
about 7 m in width, arranged to be convenient, beautiful, good against the winds,
and suitable for transporting heavy loads.In writing Utopia, Moore drew
inspiration from a meeting that he had with an American navigator, who
described to him the Inca Empire. As was common among the tribes of the Incas, in
the ideal city of Thomas Moore the inhabitants have uniform costume. The streets
are identical so it is difficult to distinguish them. With the cities being
identical, it is not interesting to travel around them. Everyone eats in the
dining room, and playing trumpet announces lunch hour.Utopia of Moore would have
been perceived as comic today unless it would prefigure totalitarian societies.
As Aristophanes ridiculed Plato's ideal city, so did Rabelais(1483-1553) create a sort of a city contrasting
Thomas Moore's Utopia. His city Theleme is a city of happiness without clocks,
method, walls, and it has only one law, which is freedom.

Planned
CitiesThe number
of new towns built during the Renaissance, was smaller than that of new cities built
during the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the new towns
in the 15th and 16th centuries were built for military or
ceremonial purposes. Building a new city was an opportunity to realize new
architectural ideas. New cities were generally too ambitious, and continued to
exist as long as the circumstances that led to their establishment existed. This was especially
true for cities that were established for the purposes of personal
aggrandizement. The lives of these cities did not last beyond the lives of
their founders.

Pienza

The City of Pienza (about 50 km from
Siena (designed by the Florentine sculptor and architect Bernardo Rossellino
(1409-1464), is an example of a city whose life did not last beyond the life of
its founder Pope Pius II, (Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini) (served 1458-1464). The pope
decided to turn his home village Corsignano into the city of Pienza, which
would serve as a personal and family memorial site. Pienza is a proof of the assertion
that a city is not created by law.Pius II wanted the city of Pienza to be the bishop's
seat, and his cardinals to be persuaded to build a new church and palaces for
him and for them. The central square, the Bishop's Palace, the palace of the familyand the communal palace were
built at an accelerated pace, according to the request of the Pope who was interested that
the work would be done within a very
short time. Unfortunately, his death put an end to the project.

Pienza was the first ideal city of
the Renaissance that did not remain as a plan on paper. The goal of the city's
design was to establish ideal system of life and government. Pius IIhad his own desires concerning
the design. He wanted the cathedral to be built after the model of churches in southern
Germany, and the palace would overlook the Orcia Valley and Monte Amiata.

The layout of the
square in Pienza indicates full awareness of optical perspective. Some see in the
organization of the buildings around the main square a masterpiece of
Renaissance town planning.In the 16th century,
the "City" of Pienza became a feudal estate of the Piccolomini family.
The fact that in 1552 fortifications were not built for the city indicates that
it was less important than other cities in Italy, which were fortified to
protect them against Spanish attacks. Today the only visitors to the palaces of
Pienza are tourists and chickens.

BruoageAn evidence of vanished dreams of
ideal city is also found in the City of Bruoage on the west coast of France.
Originally, it was founded as Jacopolis by a local house owner. Louis the 13th
changed it in the twenties of the 17th century, and transformed it
into a military outpost with access to the sea, to prevent a threat from
England. It was fortified with new fortifications. There were earth
fortifications, military bases, ammunition warehouses, residential quarters, smithy,
and drinking water storage.

Within two
generations, Bruage was largely abandoned, because of the rise of the neighbor city
of Rochefort, and the land - the swampy land and diseases, which were caused by
the withdrawal of the sea. The City of Bruage was the victim of its own planning.
It was perceived as an expanded castle, and its development potential was
limited to its fortification. This city failed to attract a civilian
population.

The city nearest to realize the ideal
city theory, was the military city of Palmanova, which was built In 1593, to
defend the territory of Venice, from the north - east. It was the only city
built according to radial plan in the 16th century. Its planning was
ascribed to Vincenzo Scamozzi who has collaborated with military engineers and other
planners.As a
city built for defense and fortification, the plan of Palmanova was star shaped
with nine outer corners. The city's central square is hexagonal with an
inspection tower in the center. Three gates and three roads form a Y shape whose
arms meet in the main square where native Venetian officers and soldiers were
located, and their loyalty could be counted on. Within the fortifications
surrounding the town, there were military bases and foreign mercenaries. The
area between the two areas was civilian with radial streets.During the Renaissance, the circular
form and the radial symmetry was typical of plans offered for cities. It served
as a symbol of mathematical and orderly world - a stable and hierarchical microcosm.
In 1866, when the city of Palmanova was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy, it
was abandoned and no longer served as a military outpost. Today, it is a quiet
rural town. The streets are devoid of activity, and squares are not used. It looks
like a colonial site waiting for the settlers to breathe life into it.Maybe the fate of ideal cities is
to be deserted, or to have life far from ideal. It is a small town. Its maximum
length did not exceed 1,200 m, and yet, was greater than necessary. One of its
drawbacks was the lack of control in the center. The feeling in the city today,
according to the testimony of Harbison from 1991 is the same at any point in the
city and only in the center visitors feel comfortable.

The City as a Stage
for FestivitiesRenaissance streets were used
sometimes, as parade routes. In the first half of the 15th century, a
procession of St. George's Guild was held in Norwich, England, twice a year. St.
George would be presented entering the city on a horseback dressed as a knight,
moving along the streets and fighting the dragon. His main "battle" would
be held near the cathedral at the end of the procession's route.

The city also served as a stage to mark events
in the life of kings and nobles, such as birth, baptism, marriage, and death.
These were "national events". In the ceremonies, the ruler and his
family would cross the border, and "purchase" their land and people,
in the way to their new position. In a society where most towns were founded by
the monarchy, and depended on the ruler to have independence, it was important
to maintain good relationship with him.Celebrations were held in
the city whenever the ruler returned from a trip to another country, or won a
battle. It was a way to express the authority and power. All the city's
population attended the ceremony of the ruler's entrance to the city. Residents
could see their monarch, with their own eyes, and contact him directly.Vasari told that in
order to celebrate the arrival of Pope Leo X to Florence in 1514, triumphal
arches were built of wood throughout the city. Sculptor and architect Jacopo Sansovino
built for the occasion a wooden façade for Santa Maria del Fiore. Sculptures,
architectural scenes, and orders were designed to remove the Gothic
composition. Sansovino used the Corinthian order and gave the façade an
appearance of a triumphal arch. On a large basis, he set double columns on each
side of the gate with large niches between them and free statues of the
Apostles inside them. Above these scenes, there were high reliefs with episodes
from the New Testament. Over these was a prominent entablature. In Prague, the painter Arcimboldo was
responsible for organizing the celebrations of Rudolf II. In France, all the
cities vied with each other on the "Entrance of Henry II".

In such events, painted façades with illusory (trompe l'œil) twisting pillars, stucco ornaments and pilasters,
all were part of the set.. Temporary
decorations contributed to the metamorphosis of cities, and attempts were made to make them permanent.