1A military junta took power in March 2012; in April 2012 an ECOWAS-brokered deal gave nominal control to an interim civilian government, which handed power over to a democratically elected president in September 2013.

Dissatisfaction with the government’s handling of the conflict in the north was cited as the impetus for an army mutiny on March 21, 2012, that quickly evolved into a military coup. Early the next day the mutinying group announced that it had seized power and suspended the constitution, replacing Mali’s democratically elected government with the National Committee for the Recovery of Democracy and Restoration of the State, headed by Capt. Amadou Haya Sanogo. The coup was quickly criticized by the international community, including the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Within a week of the coup, both organizations suspended Mali, and in early April they imposed sanctions on the junta and Mali, which quickly led to food and energy shortages and rising prices.

Meanwhile, Tuareg rebels and Islamic insurgents—some of whom had ties to AQIM—took advantage of the political instability and by April 1 had gained control over the northern half of the country, including the strategically important town of Gao, home to a military base, and the historic city of Timbuktu. On April 6, 2012, the Tuareg rebel group National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (Mouvement National pour la Libération de l’Azawad; MNLA) declared that the northern part of Mali was now the independent state of Azawad. The MNLA’s declaration of independence was promptly condemned by the international community. Later that day, with the impact of the sanctions as well as the rapidly deteriorating situation in the north weighing heavily, the junta agreed to a deal mediated by ECOWAS that would restore civilian rule to Mali. In return, the sanctions were lifted. As part of the agreement, Touré officially resigned from the presidency on April 8, clearing the way for the presidential succession plan mandated in the constitution to be enacted. Consequently, the president of the National Assembly, Dioncounda Traoré, was sworn in as interim president of Mali on April 12, 2012. Traoré’s appointment was not well received by all Malians, however, and in May he was beaten into unconsciousness by a mob of junta supporters who had launched a brazen attack on the presidential palace. He recuperated in France for two months before returning to Mali in late July. Under pressure from ECOWAS to form a more inclusive—and presumably more stable—government, Traoré reappointed his prime minister, Cheick Modibo Diarra, in August, and a new government was formed later that month.

During Traoré’s absence, the situation in the self-declared state of Azawad grew even more precarious. An alliance that was announced in late May between the MNLA and the primary Islamist group, Ansar Dine (“Defenders of the Faith”), would have caused the north to be ruled as an Islamic state, but the alliance quickly broke down over Ansar Dine’s insistence on imposing a strict version of Sharīʿah law in the region, which had traditionally embraced a more liberal and tolerant version of Islam. By early July, Ansar Dine and other Islamist groups, including AQIM and an offshoot known as Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa, had wrested control of much of the territory from the MNLA—including the main towns of Timbuktu, Gao, and Kidal—and had begun imposing Sharīʿah law on northern Malians. In addition, the Islamists had begun damaging or destroying many Sufi religious shrines of great historical and cultural value; they claimed that the monuments were idolatrous. Ansar Dine’s leader, Iyad Ag Ghali, repudiated the MNLA’s claim of independence for Azawad, stating that Ansar Dine members considered themselves Malian, opposed dividing the country, and wanted to impose Sharīʿah law throughout the entire country, not just in the contested northern territory. By midsummer the grave situation in the north had caused hundreds of thousands of Malians to flee the region.

In early December, representatives from the Malian government, Ansar Dine, and the MNLA met with ECOWAS officials to discuss an end to the protracted crisis. Both rebel groups agreed in principle to respect national unity and human rights, while rejecting forms of terrorism and extremism, and to observe a cease-fire, and all parties agreed to continue talks at a later date. In the months prior to the meeting, as the various Islamist groups strengthened their foothold in the north, the international community grew concerned that the region was becoming a haven for terrorist groups and debated about what course of action to take to assist Mali in its efforts to reclaim the territory. Options included bolstering Mali’s military capabilities by providing training and support and deploying an international military force to retake the contested region. However, many members of Mali’s military, including the members of the junta responsible for the March coup, were resistant to the idea of foreign troops on Malian soil.

On December 10, 2012, Diarra, one of the Malian politicians who supported plans for foreign intervention in the north, was arrested by soldiers from the junta. The next day they forced him to resign as prime minister; they alleged that Diarra was on the verge of committing acts of subversion. Later that day Traoré appointed Django Cissoko, a seasoned public official, as the new interim prime minister. The military’s interference in political affairs was widely condemned by the international community. Later that month the UN Security Council authorized the deployment of an international force, led by African troops, to help Mali reclaim the northern part of the country. Deployment of the UN-backed force, known as the African-led International Support Mission in Mali (AFISMA), was not expected to occur until well into 2013.

The time frame for international assistance was moved up, however, when Islamist fighters led a southerly incursion and captured Konna, a key town in the centre of the country, in early January 2013. Alarmed by the fighters’ advance into government-held territory, Malian officials asked for international assistance in the matter, and the UN called for swift action. France quickly sent troops that—together with the Malian forces and later with troops from other African countries, under the AFISMA banner—utilized both air strikes and ground combat to force the Islamist fighters to retreat from Konna and beyond. By the end of January, the Malian, French, and AFISMA troops had retaken key towns in the north, including Timbuktu, and by early February had pushed Islamist fighters from Kidal, the last town under their control. Routed from their strongholds, Islamist fighters embraced guerrilla-style tactics against international and Malian troops in the north. French troops began to withdraw from Mali in April, and later that month the UN Security Council approved the creation of the Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA), which took over operations from AFISMA in July 2013. MINUSMA troops then worked alongside the remaining French forces to maintain security.

Meanwhile, a peace accord was signed in June 2013 by the Mali government and Tuareg rebels. It provided for an immediate cease-fire and for the return of Malian troops to the town of Kidal, which had been held by Tuareg rebels after the Islamist fighters were pushed out earlier in the year. The agreement was intended to provide an environment conducive to elections, which were expected to be held later that summer.

In spite of concerns that the country was not yet ready to hold elections, the polls were held on July 28, 2013, with more than two dozen candidates standing for the presidency. Election day was peaceful, and a record number of voters—more than 50 percent—turned out to cast their ballots. Provisional results showed that no candidate received a majority of the vote, so the top two vote getters, former prime minister Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and former finance minister Soumaïla Cissé, faced each other in a second round of voting, held on August 11. Keïta was victorious, winning almost 78 percent of the vote, and Cissé conceded defeat. Traoré handed power over to Keïta, who was sworn in on September 4, 2013.

A landlocked country in northwestern Africa, Mali is bordered by Senegal and Mauritania on the west, Algeria on the northeast, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso on the southeast, and Cote d’Ivoire and Guinea on the south. The legendary city of Timbuktu, long regarded as perhaps the most inaccessible place on Earth, sits in the center of the country. The capital of Mali is Bamako, which is situated in the south. Area 482,077 square miles (1,248,574 square kilometers). Population (2015 est.) 16,956,000.