America and World War One

America
entered World War One on April 6th, 1917.
Up to that date, America had tried to keep out of World War One – though she
had traded with nations involved in the war – but unrestricted
submarine warfare, introduced by the Germans on January 9th,
1917, was the primary issue that caused Woodrow
Wilson to ask Congress to declare war on Germany
on April 2nd. Four days later, America joined World War One on the
side of the Allies.

In 1914,
when war was declared in Europe, America adopted a policy of neutrality and
isolation. When news of trench warfare and the horrors
associated with it reached the shores of America, it confirmed to the government
that they had adopted the right approach. Their approach had the full support of
the majority of Americans – many of whom could not believe that a civilised
entity called Europe could descend into such depths as were depicted by trench
warfare and the futility associated with such a strategy.

“The
horror of it all kept me awake for weeks, nor has the awfulness of it
all deserted me, but at first it seemed a horrid dream.”

Anon

Though small groups within America
– American-Germans, American-French etc – were all for some form of
involvement for their own ‘side’, the bulk of Americans supported Wilson’s
approach and as a president seeking re-election in 1916, he had to listen to
what the public said.

Woodrow Wilson
took full control of foreign policy issues within the limits of the
Constitution. Though he delegated work to members of his cabinet and others, he
maintained full control over what America did in terms of foreign policy. As a
student of modern history, Wilson was
very aware that the causes of war were rarely black and white and that the
modern European scenario was a complicated one. For this reason, he maintained
America’s neutrality, as he did not believe that any of America’s interests
were threatened by a European war – as long as her trade was allowed to
continue unhindered. On August 4th, 1914,
Wilson officially announced that America would be neutral in World War One. That
neutrality extended to a policy of ‘fairness’ – whereby American bankers
could lend money to both sides in the war. Overseas trade was more complicated.
Trade with both sides was permitted and merchant ships crossed the Atlantic to
trade. However, a British naval blockade of the German coastline made it all but
impossible for America to trade with Germany – through no fault of her own.
The British policy of blockading Germany was the primary reason for Germany
ultimately introducing unrestricted
submarine warfare. Germany would have claimed that Britain had forced her
into taking this action.

It was Germany's use of U-boats that
pushed America into a corner and ultimately to declare war. On February 4th, 1915,
Germany announced that merchant shipping in a specified zone around Britain
would be legitimate targets. They added that this would include neutral ships
because many Allied ships had taken to flying the flag of a neutral nation to
assist its safety. Wilson warned the Germans that he would hold them to account
if any American ships were sunk. This threat was tested when on May 7th, 1915,
the 'Lusitania' was sunk. 128 Americans on board the
liner were killed. However, the 'Lusitania' was not an American ship and Wilson
accepted the Germans change of policy - that U-boats would adopt 'cruiser'
tactics and surface and attack a ship by guns fitted on to their decks. The
German chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg,
managed to avoid a major diplomatic issue this time but the military in Germany
was adamant that the 'cruiser' tactic was not going to be used as it was too
dangerous. In fact, what was seen as Wilson's hard line stance, paid even
greater dividends as the German government promised to compensate for any
American ships that were destroyed, including the value of their cargo. By the
end of 1915, tolerable equilibrium had been reached in terms of America's
relationship with Germany. In late December 1915, Wilson sent one of his closest
advisors to London, Colonel House, to see if a peace initiative could be
thrashed out between Britain and Germany with America acting as an intermediary.
On February 22nd, 1916, the House-Grey Memorandum was signed which put on paper
Wilson's plan of mediation. House returned to America in good spirits and
immediately set about with Wilson putting some substance into the Memorandum.
The sinking by a U-boat of the paddle steamer 'Sussex' on March 24th, 1916, all
but ended this venture. Two Americans on the 'Sussex' were hurt but when reports
got back to America, they stated that they had been killed. The 'Sussex'
incident was resolved and by mid-1916, the Americans seemed to have developed a
more positive relationship with Germany.

The same was not true with regards to
Britain. First, Britain turned its back on the Memorandum signed by its own
Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey. Then Britain increased its maritime
activities with regards to stopping ships trading with Germany and other members
of the Central Powers. Finally, the treatment of those arrested after the failed
Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916 had greatly
angered the influential Irish-American community on America's east coast. To
many, Britain had lost the moral high ground and to some it seemed as if Britain
did not want peace at all.

On November 7th, 1916,
Wilson won the presidential election. To many Americans he was still seen as a
man of peace whereas his opponent, Charles Evans Hughes, was seen as a
warmonger. Wilson spent the next few months trying to set up a way in which
America could lead peace negotiations that would end the war. He sent out a
simple question to both sides - what would it take for them to be willing to end
the war? Britain and France sent back replies that stated their terms - terms
that could only be met with a decisive military victory. Germany's reply was
vague and evasive.

Regardless of this, Wilson
continued to fight for peace based around the idea of a Leagueof Nations. In mid-January 1917, he set up
secret negotiations with both Britain and Germany to obtain their agreement for
America's mediation in a peace plan. Wilson had a very clear idea of what he
wanted:

"Peace
had to be a peace of reconciliation, a peace without victory, for a
victor's peace would leave a sting, a resentment, a bitter memory upon
which terms of peace would rest, not permanently, but only as upon
quicksand."