The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (ERIC EC)
E-mail: webmaster@hoagiesgifted.org
Internet: http://eric.hoagiesgifted.org
ERIC EC Digest #E544
Authors: Donna Y. Ford and Antoinette Thomas
June 1997
The majority of articles and studies on gifted minority students have focused on issues
of identification, primarily because some minority groups of gifted learners, particularly
Black, Hispanic American, and Native American, have been underrepresented in gifted
programs. These students may be underrepresented by as much as 30 to 70%, with
an average of 50% (Ross et al., 1993). While there is a clear need to increase the
participation of minority students in gifted education programs, there is an equally
important need to focus on issues of achievement and underachievement. This digest
discusses factors affecting the achievement of gifted minority students, with particular
attention to Black students. Problems associated with underachievement definitions
and the influence of social, cultural, and psychological factors on student achievement
are discussed. Suggestions and recommendations for reversing underachievement
among gifted minority students are presented.

Defining Underachievement

There is little consensus on how best to define underachievement, particularly among
gifted students. One problem rests in the definition of giftedness; another problem rests
in measurement. For example, each district has its own definition of giftedness,
although most rely almost exclusively on teacher recommendation, and an intelligence
or achievement test score (Coleman, Gallagher, & Foster, 1994). A related issue
concerns one's definition of underachievement. In general, underachievement is
defined as a discrepancy between ability and performance. Yet, few studies have used
the same definition of underachievement. After reviewing more than 100 publications
on underachievement, Ford (1996) noted that this can be measured using any number
of criteria and instruments. School A may use an intelligence and an achievement test,
school B may use an achievement test and grade point average, and school C may use
an aptitude test and GPA. In these examples, the schools have adopted a
psychometric definition of underachievement, which is problematic because minority
students tend not to score well on standardized tests.

Qualitative or subjective factors can also be used to identify underachievement.
School D may rely on teacher expectations to determine who is underachieving. Thus,
if a teacher believes that Marcus is not performing to his potential and that he can do
better, Marcus would be considered an underachiever. Teachers must consider several
questions regarding the nature and extent of students' underachievement:

The lack of consensus on how best to define and measure
underachievement -- qualitative or quantitative, amount of discrepancy, nature and
extent -- all make it difficult to estimate the number of gifted students who are
underachieving. Whitmore (1980) estimated that at least 20% of gifted students
underachieve, while the U.S. Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) estimated
50%. Ford (1995) found that 46% of the gifted Black students surveyed were
underachieving.

Factors Affecting Underachievement

A number of factors must be examined to understand how and why gifted minority
students underachieve. Sociopsychological, family, and school factors should all be
considered. Table 1 presents an initial checklist that can be used to explore factors
contributing to underachievement.

Sociopsychological Factors and Underachievement
Poor self-esteem and low academic and social self-concepts contribute
significantly to poor student achievement. Ford, Harris, and Schuerger (1993)
maintained that racial identity must also be explored with gifted minority students. How
do these students feel about their racial/ethnic heritage? Do they have a strong,
positive racial identity? Minority students who do not hold positive racial identities may
be especially vulnerable to negative peer pressures; they may also equate achievement
with "acting white" or "selling out" (Fordham, 1988), which contributes to low effort and,
thus, low achievement. Specifically, Lindstrom and Van Sant (1986) reported that
many gifted minority students must choose between need for achievement and need for
affiliation. These students often succumb to negative social pressures so that need for
affiliation outweighs need for achievement.

An external locus of control also hinders minority students' achievement.
Students who attribute their outcomes to external factors, such as discrimination, may
put forth less effort than those who attribute outcomes to internal factors, such as effort
and ability (Ford, 1996; Fordham, 1988). Minority students who do not believe in the
achievement ideology, who believe that glass ceilings and injustices will hinder their
achievement, are not likely to work to their potential in school.

Family-Related Factors and Underachievement
Few studies have explored the influence of family variables on the achievement
of gifted minority students. VanTassel-Baska (1989) focused on the role of families in
the lives of 15 low socioeconomic status (SES) gifted students, eight of whom were
Black, and many living in single-parent families. Her findings reveal that low SES Black
families held high expectations, aspirations, and standards for their children, as well as
positive achievement orientations. The Black parents sought to promote
self-competence and independence in their children. Parents were described as
watchful of their children, hyperaware of children's accomplishments, and actively
involved in developing their abilities.

Prom-Jackson, Johnson, and Wallace (1987) conducted a study of minority
graduates of A Better Chance, Inc. (ABC), a nonprofit educational organization that
identifies academically gifted low SES minority students as possible candidates for
college preparatory secondary schools. It was concluded that low SES gifted minority
students had parents of all educational levels. Parental educational level was not a
good predictor of minority students' academic performance. The findings on parental
beliefs and values suggested that in spite of social hardships and barriers, which often
limit achievement and social advancement, this group of parents must have had high
expectations of their children in order to have encouraged them to pursue high levels of
education and challenging careers.

In a seminal study, Clark (1983) examined low SES Black students' achievement
and underachievement in their family context. Achieving Black students had parents
who:

Were assertive in their parent involvement efforts

Kept abreast of their
children's school progress

Were optimistic and tended to perceive themselves as
having effective coping mechanisms and strategies

Set high and realistic
expectations for their children

Held positive achievement orientations and supported
tenets of the achievement ideology

Set clear, explicit achievement-oriented norms

Established clear, specific role boundaries

Deliberately engaged in experiences
and behaviors designed to promote achievement

Had positive parent-child
relations characterized by nurturance, support, respect, trust, and open communication.

Conversely, underachieving Black students had parents who:

Were less optimistic and expressed feelings of helplessness and hopelessness

Were less assertive and
involved in their children's education

Set unrealistic and unclear expectations for
their children

Were less confident in terms of their parenting skills.

Ford (1993) also found that gifted Black achievers reported more positive values and expectations
among their parents regarding their participation in the gifted program, doing well, and
exerting effort.

School-Related Factors and Underachievement
Numerous factors in schools can influence the achievement of gifted minority
students. For example, in a study of gifted Black achievers and underachievers (Ford,
1995), underachievers reported:

Less positive teacher-student relations

Having too little time to understand the material

Less supportive classroom climate

Being unmotivated and disinterested in school.

Underachievers also expressed
more concerns regarding the lack of attention to multicultural education in their classes,
which contributed to their lack of interest in school.

Numerous studies indicate that teacher expectations have a powerful impact on
student achievement (e.g., Good, 1981). Using teachers to define underachievement
presents some problems if teachers lack objectivity or training in gifted education and
multicultural education. Teachers tend to have lower expectations for minority and low
income students than for other students (Hale-Benson, 1986). Consequently, minority
students may not be identified as either gifted or underachieving. Low teacher
expectations for minority students may relate to a lack of teacher training in both
multicultural and gifted education. Such unprepared teachers are less likely to refer
minority students for gifted education services or to complete checklists favorably.
When students do not have access to appropriate education, they have difficulty
reaching their potential. The result may be underachievement due to disinterest,
frustration, and lack of challenge.

Some researchers have noted how minority students' learning styles may
contribute to underachievement. Specifically, research indicates that Black students
tend to be field-dependent, visual, and concrete learners (Hale-Benson, 1986), whereas
schools teach more often in verbal, abstract, and decontextualized ways. Thus,
mismatch between learning styles and teaching styles can result in confusion,
frustration, and underachievement for gifted minority students.

Excessive use of competition can also hinder students' achievement, damaging
academic motivation and educational engagement. Given the more social and less
competitive nature of minority students (e.g., Hale-Benson, 1986), competition can
heighten students' anxieties, lower their achievement motivation, and lower their
academic and social self-concepts.

Suggestions for Preventing and Reversing Underachievement

Student underachievement is a complex and persistent problem. Reversing
underachievement among gifted minority students requires intensive efforts on the part
of teachers and counselors, as well as a partnership with parents and students. For
optimal effects, teachers and counselors must tailor interventions to students' needs.
Interventions for gifted minority students must consider social-psychological, family,
peer, and school factors. Interventions must:

Ensure that definitions of
underachievement are both qualitative and quantitative, and that measures are valid
and reliable

Address school-related factors, including providing
teachers and counselors with gifted and multicultural training to meet both the
academic and affective needs of gifted minority students. This training should include
strategies for improving student-teacher relations, teacher expectations, and the
classroom climate.

Just as important, school-related interventions must focus on
curricular and instructional modifications so that optimal learning and engagement are
possible.

To prevent or reverse underachievement, schools will need to provide supportive
strategies, intrinsic strategies, and remedial strategies. The strategies include
accommodations to students' learning styles, focusing on students' interests, and
affirming students as individuals with special needs and concerns. Suggested
strategies appear in Table 2.

Summary

One of the biggest problems facing educators is that of student underachievement.
Teachers and parents feel confusion, frustration, and disappointment when students fail
to work to their potential. Gifted underachieving minority students perform poorly in
school for many of the reasons that any student might. Yet, as described earlier,
minority students may face additional barriers.

In short, underachievement is not only a problem, but a symptom of problems.
To address this, educators must explore factors contributing to underachievement;
these factors can be categorized as sociopsychological, family-related, peer-related,
and school-related. One or all of these factors can hinder student achievement.
Teachers, counselors, and families must join in partnerships to best identify and serve
gifted underachieving minority students.

References

Clark, R. (1983). Family Life and School Achievement: Why Poor Black
Children Succeed and Fail. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Ford, D. Y. (1995). A Study of Achievement and Underachievement
Among Gifted, Potentially Gifted, and Regular Education Black
Students. Storrs, CT: The University of Connecticut, National Research Center on
the Gifted and Talented.

Donna Y. Ford, Ph.D., is Associate Professor, Curry School of Education, The University
of Virginia. Antoinette Thomas, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor, Curry School of
Education, The University of Virginia.

TABLE 1. CHECKLIST FOR IDENTIFYING INDICES OF UNDERACHIEVEMENT
AMONG GIFTED BLACK STUDENTS

Social Factors
____ Student's primary social group is outside of the school or gifted program
____ Student participates in little or no extracurricular activities
____ Student socializes with delinquents and/or students who have a poor achievement
orientation
____ Student's need for peer acceptance and relations outweighs his or her academic
concerns about school and achievement
____ Student lives in one or more risk factors (e.g., poverty, single-parent family, poorly
educated parent(s), etc.)

Family Factors
____ Student's home life is stressful
____ Low parental educational level
____ Student has one parent in the home
____ Student has relatives who have dropped out of school
____ Student has little parental/family supervision; poor family relations
____ Parental expectations for student are too low or unrealistic
____ Low socioeconomic status
____ Communication between home and school is poor

School Culture/Climate Factors
____ Teachers and school personnel hold low expectations of minority students
____ Morale among teachers, school personnel, and/or students is low
____ Classroom environment is unfriendly or hostile
____ Student feels alienated and isolated from teacher(s)
____ Student feels alienated and isolated from classmates
____ Gifted program lacks cultural and racial diversity relative to students
____ Teaching, administrative staff, and other school personnel lack racial and cultural
diversity
____ Little attention is given to multicultural education
____ Teachers and other school personnel lack substantive training in gifted education
____ Teachers and other school personnel lack substantive training in multicultural and
urban education
____ Minority students are underrepresented in the gifted program and services

Note. From Reversing Underachievement Among Gifted Black
Students: Promising Practices and Programs. by D. Y. Ford, 1996.
Reprinted with permission of the author. New York.

TABLE 2. STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE ACHIEVEMENT AMONG GIFTED MINORITY
STUDENTS

Goal/Objective
To affirm the self-worth of students and convey the promise of greater potential and
success
To provide social and emotional support

Recommended Strategies: Supportive
Provide opportunities for students to discuss concerns with teachers and counselors
Address issues of motivation, self-perception and self-efficacy
Accommodate learning styles
Modify teaching styles (e.g., abstract, concrete, visual, auditory)
Use mastery learning
Decrease competitive, norm-referenced environments
Use cooperative learning and group work
Use positive reinforcement and praise
Seek affective and student-centered classrooms
Set high expectations of students
Use multicultural education and counseling techniques and strategies
Involve mentors and role models
Involve family members in substantive ways

Goal/Objective
To help students develop internal motivation
To increase academic engagement and self-efficacy

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but please acknowledge your source. This publication was prepared with funding from
the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education,
under Contract No. RR93002005. The opinions expressed in this report do not
necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the Department of Education.