SUMMARY OF THE PREVIOUS CHAPTER : In the previous chapter
we have discussed the nature of seven Tattvas along with the nature of
Samyagdarsana. After dwelling upon the nature of jiva and Ajiva Tattvas, we
have, in the first place, explained the nature of 'Yoga' (vibratory activity of
soul) and its effect in the mundane and embodied supermundane souls. Secondly,
the nature of passions with their multitudinous forms of existence and
operations has been made out. Thirdly, we have unfolded some causes of the
auspicious and the inauspicious Samparayika Asrava, and have concluded the
topic of Asrava and Bandha after dwelling upon the views of Kundakunda
regarding them. Fourthly, the nature of Samvara, Nirjara and Moksa has been
briefly dealt with, inasmuch as they are exemplified in the ethical development
of the soul to be explained in this and the following chapters. Fifthly, we
have discussed the nature of Samyagdarsana form the Vyavahara and Niscaya
points of view, and have emphasizedits importance for the authenticity of
knowledge and conduct. In other words, we have seen how any discipline
contributing to the highest spiritual welfare, which is the crowing phase of
life, presupposes spiritual conversion, which is itself an evidence for
regarding Jaina ethics as spiritual. Thus, in the absence of Samyadarsana all
intellectual knowledge and ethical conduct will deprive the as paint of superb
attainments, of which he is potentially capable.

RIGHT CONDUCT AS AN INTERNAL NECESSITY OF THE SPIRITUALLY
CONVERTED : We now proceed to deal with the nature of right conduct, which
transforms the potential excellence of the self into actuality. With the light
or right knowledge, which enables the aspirant to look into his infirmities, the
pursuit of right conduct sweeps away the elements, which thwart the
manifestation of uninterrupted happiness and infinite knowledge. Right
knowledge illumines the path, and right knowledge emancipation presupposes
right conduct as well. Really speaking, right conduct emanates from the
internal necessity, which the right believer has developed in him. Thereby, he
then expunges the disharmony existent between his present and future
conditions, and between his potential conviction and actual living. Thus, the
right believer is ardently desirous of manifesting the natural modification of
the soul by pursuing the right course of discipline.

VITARAGA CARITRA AND SARAGA CARITA ; INAUSPICIOUS
ACTIVITIES ARE IN NO WAY THE PART OF CONDUCT : So important is the pursuit of
right conduct for releasing the transcendental nature of self that Kundakunda
calls it Dharma. Such conduct as will conduce to the emergence of a state of
self which is devoid of infatuation (moha)
and perturbation (ksobha) by virtue
of the subversion of all kinds of passions in their most comprehensive extent
is called Vitaraga Caritra. This should be distinguished from Sara Caritra,
which results in auspicious activities by virtue of auspicious psychical sates,
and this amounts to a fall from the pinnacle of truth and normality. In
consequence, as the former results in liberation, it is to be pursued ; and as
the interest of arriving at the summit of spiritual perfection. In spite of
this bondage the virtuous deeds may, in some measure, be considered to be the
part of conduct,

________________________

1 Prava. 1. 7.2 Prava. II. 6 and Comm. Amrta.

but the inauspicious
activities emanating from inauspicious psychical states can in no way be the
part of conduct, hence they are to be completely relinquished. Thus, in order
to stamp out the inauspicious psychical states from the texture of self, the
aspirant must abstain himself root and branch from violence, falsehood. Theft,
unchastely and acquisition. The engrossment of the most intense passions, which
can be wiped off by negating to perform the vicious deeds. This affirmation
does not imply the nullification of the previously mentioned inauspicious
activities, which result in inauspicious Asrava, but it simply signifies the grouping
of them under different heads. This negative process of purifying the self by
weeding out these villainous actions of necessity requires the pursuance of the
positive process of non-violence, truthfulness, non-thieving, chastity and
non-acquisition. Both of these processes keep pace together.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE SPIRITUALLY CONVERTED AND PERVERTED
SOULS REGARDING THE PERFOMANCE OF MORAL AND EVOL ACTIONS: We cannot forbear
mentioning in passing that even a right believer may be occupied with the aforementioned
evil deeds ; the recognition of which would at the first sight tend to annul
the distinction between the wise and the ignorant, or between the spiritually
converted and perverted souls. But this assumption is based on a certain
misapprehension. Notwithstanding their extrinsic similitude they evince
intrinsic disparity; i.e., the wise under some latent constraint unwillingly
perpetrate such evil actions, and the ignorant rejoicingly commit them. From
this it is obvious that right belief is not incompatible with the most intense
forms of inauspicious activities. It will not be inconsistent if it is laid
down that both the wise and the wise and the ignorant are capable of
extirpating inauspicious psychical states. But the difference is that while in
the former case there is spiritual morality, in the latter, there is only dry
morality, which is possible without spirituality. Dry morality is socially
useful, but spiritually barren ; while spiritual morality is fruitful both
socially and spiritually. Being subtle and far reaching, the limited
comprehension. We may simply say that, for the spiritually converted, morality
is a means ; while for the perverted it is an end in itself. It is to be borne
in mind that morality, of whatever type, can in no case be useless ; hence it
deserves our respect wherever it is witnessed.

NECESSITY OF PARTIAL CONDUCT : To revert to our point. It
is astonishing that in spite of not being the part of conduct in any way, the
aforementioned vicious deeds refuse to be completely relinquished at the start
on account of their being ingrained in the mind of man. Hence, there arises the
concept if limited morality technically called Vikala Caritra (partial conduct)
in contrast to absolute morality known as Sakala Caritra (complete conduct)
wherein these vicious deeds are completely renounced. He who observes the
former, being not able to renounce the vices to the full, claims the title of a
'layman'; while he who observes the latter, being able to hold the spirit of
renunciation to the brim, is called a 'Muni'. We shall now confine ourselves to
the former, deferring the consideration of the latter to the subsequent
chapter.

NECESSITY OF PARTIAL CONDUCT : To revert to our point. It
is astonishing that in spite of not being the part of conduct in any way, the
aforementioned vicious deeds refuse to be completely relinquished at the start
on account of their being ingrained in the mind of man. Hence, there arises the
concept of limited morality technically called Vikala Caritra (partial conduct)
in contrast to absolutemolarity known as Sakala Caritra ( complete conduct)
wherein these vicious deeds are completely renounced. He who observes the
former, being not able to renounces the vices to the full, claims the title of
a 'layman' ; while he who observes the latter, being able to hold the spirit of
renunciation to the brim, is called a 'Muni'. We shall now confine ourselves to
the former, deferring the consideration of the latter to the subsequent
chapter.

PRIVILEGED POSITON OF MAN : The ethics of the Jaina answer
to his metaphysical findings, which point to an infinite number of independent
souls and an infinite number of material particles together with the other
principles already discussed. Of the infinite number of conscious principles
varying from the one-sensed to the five-sensed, man alone is recognised as the
terminus of evolution. In other words, only man is capable of unfolding his
potential attributes perfectly. To express it differently, though every soul is
potentially divine, yet the attainment of freedom is rendered possible only
when the soul achieves a human form ; hence the importance of human birth.

PHILOSOPHY OF RENUCIATION : Animate and inanimate objects
are not on themselves auspicious and inauspicious. They are called auspicious
and inauspicious, when they are considered in relation to the mundane souls.
They very often wield influence over, and react upon, the mundane souls to the
extent of engendering either mild passions or intense passions in the structure
of self. In other words, the mild or intense passions, which arise owing to the
karmic accompaniment, gratify their subtle persuasion in hankering after
particular types of objects. Intense passions are vice, and mild passion is
virtue, To illustrate, Bhakti is a mild passion, but lustful thought and
voluptuousness is an intense passion. Because of this parallelism between the
outward objects and the inward psychical states, the inward psychical states,
the renunciation of extraneous objects assists in destroying corresponding
intense passions. If the

________________________

1 Ratna. Srava. 50.2
Kartti. 90.

giving up of certain
external things does not, for some reason or another, result in the destruction
of the internal intense passions and in the development of Bhakti, study and
meditation, the discipline so observed would amount to futility. Hence, the
giving up of intense passions is of great significance, although, in common
parlance, Vairagya is understood to convey the withdrawal from the external
world of wife, children etc., yet the underlying hidden meaning consists in
removing the filth of intense passions, which will necessarily lead to the
turning of selves from them.

Intense passions manifest themselves in violence,
falsehood, theft, unchastity and acquisition, which have been represented to be
vices. As we have said, the elimination of these vices requires the cultivation
of virtues of non-violence, truthfulness, non-thieving, chastity and
non-acquisition. Of these virtues, non-violence is the fundamental. All the
rest should be regarded as the means for its proper sustenance, just as the
field of corn requires adequate fencing for its protection. The householder can
partially acquire these virtues which are than called partial non-violence (ahimsanuvrata), partial truthfulness (satyanuvrata), Partial non- thieving ( acauryanuvratai), partial chastity (bramahacaryanuvrata) and partial
non-acquisition (parigraha-
parimananuvrata). We shall now dwell upon the aforementioned vices one by one,
and shall derive from them the scope of partial vows of the householder .

COMPREHENSIVE MEANING OF HIMSA : We begin with Himsa.
Speaking from the transcendental point of view, we may say that even the
slightest fall from complete self-realization is to be regarded as Himsa. In
other words, Himsa commences with the appearance of passions, whether mild or
intense , on the surface of self. Considered from this perspective, the concept
of Himsa includes both virtue and vice. But here we are concerned with the
meaning of Himsa as vice or intense passion only. From this point of view,
therefore, falsehood, theft, unchastely and acquisition are the illustrations
of Himsa. Thus Himsa summarises all these vices. In its popular meaning, which
shall be dealt with presently, Himsa distinguishes itself from falsehood,
theft, uncastity and acquisition. In the former, the Dravya-pranas and the
Bhava-pranas are directly injured ; whereas in the latter cases, the Pranas are
indirectly afflicted.

________________________

1 Sarvartha. VII. 1.2
Puru. 44.

POPULAR MEANING OF HIMSA: The term Himsa may be defined as
the committing of injury to the Dravya-Pranas and the Bhava-pranas through the
operation of intense-passion-infected Yoga (activity of mind, body, and
speech).Suicide, homicide and killing
of any other life whatsoever aptly sum up the nature of Himsa, inasmuch as
these villainous actions are rendered conceivable only when the Dravya-Pranas
and the Bhava-pranas pertaining to oneself and to others are injured.The minimum number of Dravya-Pranas has been
considered to be four, and the maximum has been known to be ten; and the
Bhava-pranas are the very attributes of Jiva.The amount of injury will thus be commensurate with the member of Pranas
injured at a Pranas injured at a particular time and occasion.If the bodily movements etc,. are performed
with circumspection, nevertheless if any living being is oppressed, it cannot
be called Himsa, for the infection element of intense passion is missing.On the contrary, even if, by careless bodily
movements no animate body is oppressed, the actions are not free from
Himsa.Here though the soul has not
injured others, yet it has injured itself by defiling its own natural
constitution.We may thus say that both
the indulgence in Himsa and the negation of abstinence from Himsa constitute
Himsa.In other words, he who has not
abandoned Himsa, though he is not factually indulging in it, commits himsa on
account of having the subconscious frame of mind for its perpetration.Again, he who employs his mind, body and
speech in injuring others also commits Himsa on account of actually indulging
in it.Thus, wherever there is inadvertence
of mind, body or speech, Himsais
inevitable.

PURITY OF EXTERNAL BEHAVIOU TOO IS NECESSARY :It will be the height of folly and
impertinence if any man conceitedly argues that it is no use renouncing the
performance of certain actions, but that the internal mind alone ought to be uncontaminated.But it is to be borne in mind that in lower
stages, which exceedingly fall short of self realisation, the external
performance of a man ahs no meaning without his being internally disposed to do
so.Hence the external and the internal
influence each other; and in most cases the internal precedes the
external.Thus, in no case, the outward
commission of Himsa, without the presence of internal corruption can be
vindicated.He who exclusively
emphasizes the internal at the expense of the external forgets.

the significance of outward
behavior.He loses sight of the fact
that the impiousness of external actions necessarily leads to the pollution of
the internal mind, thus disfigure in both the aspects, namely, the internal and
external.In consequence, both the
Niscaya and Vyavahara Nayas, i.e. both the internal and external aspects should
occupy their due places.

JUDGEMENT OF THE ACTS OF HIMSA AND AHIMSA:We may point out here that the Jaina
philosophers do not blink the possibility of the disparity between the exterior
behavior and the interior state of mind; and consequently they do not get
perplexed in judging the acts of Himsa and Ahimsa, i. e., which act will bear
the fruit of Himsa, and which act will be judged as Ahimsa?Aneminet Jaina author Amrtacandra, in his
celebrated book, Purusarthasiddhyupaya, dwells
with great clarity upon the above facts.First, he preaches that he who does not explicitly commit Himsa may also
reap the fruits of Himsa because of his continual mental inclination towards
indulging in Himsa; and he who apparently employs himself in the acts of Himsa
may not be liable to fruits of Himsa.Secondly, owing to one's intense passion one may be subjected to grave
consequences even by committing trifling Himsa, while, owing to mild passion,
the other escapes the sad and serious consequences in spite of preparation
gross acts of Himsa.Thirdly, it is
amazing that, in spite of the two persons following the same course of Himsa,
divergence at the time of fruition may be exhibited on account of the
differences in their states of mind and intensity of passions.Fourthly, though Himsa may be committed by
one, yet consequences may be suffered by many.Similarly, though it may be committed by many, the consequences may be
suffered by one.From all these we may
conclude that the point of reference in judging the acts of Himsa and Ahimsa is
the internal state of mind.

KINDS OF HIMSA : Having explained the philosophy of Himsa,
we now proceed to Enquirer into the kinds of Himsa.It is of two kinds, namely, intentional and non-intentional.The letter has been again subdivided into
Udyami, Aramhi, andVirodhl.The intentional perpetrator of Himsa engages
himself in the commitment of the acts of Himsa by his own mind, speech and
action; provokes others to

commit them; and endorses
such acts of others.Besides, himsa
which is unavoidably committed 1) by reason of one's own profession, 2) by the
performance of domestic activities, and3) by defending oneself, one's neighbor, one's belongings and the like
from one's foes is denominated:1)
Udyami, 2) Arambhi and 3) Virodhi respectively.

AHIMSANUVRATA : Now the householder, being snared in the
meshes of infirmities, is incapable of turning away completely from Himsa;
hence of the two-sensed to five sensed beings.1The commitment of Himsain being engaged in a certain profession, in performing
domestic activities and in adopting defensive contrivances. Cannot be
counteracted by him. Thus he commits intentional injury to one-sensed J1vas,
namely, the vegetable-bodied, the air-bodied, the fore-bodied etc.; and
non-intentional injury in performing Arambha (domestic activities), Udyoga
(profession) and Virodha(defense). He
can therefore observe the gross form of Ahimsa, which is known as Ahimsanurata.
Even in therealm of one-sensed Jivas
and in the realm of non-intentional injury he should so manage to confine his
operations as may affect the life and existence ofa very limited number of J1vas.2In
these two provinces the point to note is that of alleviating the amount of
injury that is apt to be caused and not is that of total relinquishment which
is not possible without jeopardizing the survival of man. Nevertheless, Himsa,
even in the realm of one-sensed J1vas and in the realm of non-intentional
injury, is unjustifiable. If we reflect a little, we shall find that man is
subject to Himsa by the very condition of his existence. Yet intrespsravsating
the matura; weight of Himsa by falling foul upon one another and by our cruel
treatment with the annual and vegetable kingdoms, we should endeavor to
alleviate this general curse, to the extent which we are capable of doing, by
conforming ourselves to the sacred injunctions enjoined by Jaina spiritual
teachers.

________________________

1 Puru. 75.;Caritra Pahuda.
24;

Ratna. Srava. 53; Kartti. 332;

Saga. Dharma. IV. 7,;

Amita. Srava. VI. 4.

2 Puru. 77; Vasu. Srava. 209. Yo . Sa. II.21.

For the observance of Ahimsanuvrata, the householder should
avoid the use of 1) wine, 2) meat, 3) honey and five kinds of fruits known as
Umbra, Katsumura, Pakara, Bada, and Papilla. 1) Drinking, first, breeds certain
unhealthy and base passion like pride, anger sex passion and the like which are
nothing but the different aspects of Himsa.2 secondly, it stupefies
the intellect, which sinks virtue and piety, and results in the commitment of
the mean and morally depraved deeds of Himsa.3 Thirdly, being the
repository of abundant lives, wine necessarily entails injury to them. 2) As
regards meat-eating, first, the procurement of flesh is inconceivable in the
absence of the infliction of injury on the sentient beings, and even though it
is obtained as a consequence of the natural death of living beings, Himsa is
inevitable owing to the crushing of creatures spontaneously born therein,
Secondly, the pieces of flesh which are raw, or cooked, or are in the process
of being cooked, are found unceasingly to generate creatures in them, so that
he who indulges in meat-eating is incapable of avoiding hurt to them. A
plausible argument is sometimes adduced in support of meat-eating: beans and
pulses too are to equated with flesh as these are endowed with life like the
bodies of camels, sheep and animals. However shrewd the argument may be, it
contains the fallacy of undistributed middle. Somadeva observe, 'no doubt flesh
may constitute the body of an animate object, but the body of any animate
object is not necessarily composed of flesh, just as the Neem is a tree, but
any tree is to Neem. In a similar vein, Asahara cogently points out that though
flesh and vegetables indubiously possess lives, the latter are proper to be
used as food to the exclusion of the former, inasmuch as though both mother and
wife possess womanhood, wife alone is justified in gratifying our sex-passion,
and not the mother. 3) The use of honey is objected to on the ground that it is
procured by injuring the lives of bees and of the young eggs in the womb of
bees : and even if it is gathered when the honey naturally drops down, it
causes destruction to the live spontaneously born therein. The

five kinds of fruits known
as Umara, Kathumara, Pakara, Bada and Pipala are the breeding grounds of
various living organisms, and their use for deistic and other purposes is also
forbidden owing to the injury caused to them. Again their use after they get
dry on account of the passage of time causes himsa, because it is due to our excessive attachment to such odious
things.

Again, the following points should be noted for the
observance of Ahimsanuvrata. First, one should not sacrifice animals for the
adoration of gods, being dominated by the perverted notion of receiving
benediction in return. It is inconceivable how the gods seek satisfaction and
serenity from such inhuman deeds which cause unbearable pain to the animals.
Secondly, it must to be obligatory to kill the animals for the entertainment of
guests, a pious design by impious means. Thirdly, to harbor the nation that the
vegetable food necessitates the killing of innumerable lives abiding in it as
compared with the slaughter of one living being may be fascinating at the
inception, but it is imprudent in view of the facts that the body of an animal
possesses countless microscopic lives which will be inevitably injured in its
killing; and that the five-sensed Jiva would entail more inauspicious Asrava,
i.e., vice owing to the occupation and consequential loss of more Dravya and
Bhava Pranas than those of one-sensed Jivas belonging to the vegetable kingdom.
Fourthly, (snakes, scorpions, lions and the like should not be killed on the
ground that by so doing large number of lives will be saved, and that they
(snakes, scorpions etc.) will get the opportunity of avoiding the accumulation
of more sin by their continued violence. Fifthly, under the weight of
misconception that those who are in distress and calamity on being killed will
soon obtain relief from anguish and agony, the living beings should never be
obtain relief from anguish and agony, the living beings should never be killed.
Lastly, moved by the pangs of other beings should not provide one with the
flesh of one's own body to appease one's appetite.

STAGES OF DEFILEMENT OF A VOW AND THE TRANSGRESSIONS OF THE
HOUSEHOLDER'S VOW OF AHIMSA : We have dwelt upon the nature of Ahimsanuvrata,
which is obligatory for every householder to pursue. The vow should be followed
with proper understanding and comprehen-

_________________________

1 Puru. 72.2 Puru. 73.3 Puru. 79, 80.4 Ibid. 81.5
Ibid. 82, 83.

6 Puru. 84.7 Ibid.85.8
Ibid. 89.

sion. Sometimes it so
happens that on account of the short understanding or on account of the
irresistible force of passion, the purity and enthusiasm diminish and the
result is the defilement of a vow. This must at once be avoided in order to
maintain its sanctity. When such corruption rises in the mind, it is called atikrama; when further development
occurs towards its defilement, say, collection of means to overthrow it, vyatikramai is the name given to it;
when we have indulged in it, it is said to be aticara; and lastly, when excessive indulgence in it, it is said to
be aticara; and lastly, when
excessive indulgences is witnessed, anacara results.These four are the stages of defilement of a vow.To illustrate, to simply think to enter
another man's field is Aticara; and to move, sit and lie down in the field is
Anacara.Accordion to Amrtacandra that
which hampers the purity of the vow is called Aticara.Every vow should be observed with great
purity, care and zeal, since only such vows can bear desired fruits, and serve
as a means to the moral and the spiritual up liftment.In spite of every care the mind may, under
the influence of society, ill-health, fear and passion, deviate from the
prescribed path.Hence, defects
origination in the observance of vows may be of many types, but the Jaina
Acaryas have mentioned only five for each vow, so that we may direct our mind
towards them and shun them.Now the
five transgressions of the householder's vow of Ahimsa are:1) Tying up living beings, 2) Mutilating
them, 3) beating them, 4) overloading them, and 5) withholding their food and
drink.

NATURE OF ASATYS (FALSEHOOD): We now turn to the exposition
of the nature of falsehood and Satyanuvrata.To begin with falsehood, it concerns itself with the expression of
intense passion through the outlet of speech, which expresses itself in
language and gestures.Dispassionate
speech is synonymous with the mystical realization which is the height of truth
man is capable of achieving.Intense-passion-infected speech is complete falsehood.Mild-passion-infected speech, is, to coin a
new word, semi-truth, i.e., truth descended in the mundane and embellished
form, for example, to speak noble, beneficial and benevolent words; this
certainly amounts to the gliding and lapse from the superb

heights of mystical
truth.The perfect souls of
Tirthamkaras who preach for the upliftment of human and other beings should not
be regarded as being moved by the mild passions of compassion and benevolence,
inasmuch as they speak for the god of all without any selfish desire and
without constraint of mild-passion.It
follows from what has been described that falsehood, bin the expression of
intense passions, is a double fall from the loftiest heights of truth.It defiles both the internal soul and the
external demeanor, the social living and the spiritual upliftment, hence it
should be forsaken in the interest of advancement.

We now define falsehood.It implies the making of wrong statement by one who is overwhelmed by
intense passions, such as anger, greed, conceit, deceit and the like.We may point out here that it does not mean
merely the pronouncement of the existent as non-existent, nor can it be said to
embrace merely the proclamation of the non-existent as existent, but it
involves also the misrepresentation of the true nature of the existents and the
use of speech which arouses intense-passion and causes pain to others.Accordingly, truth must not mean merely the
announcement of the existent as existent, but it must mean also the use of
words which are soothing, gentle and ennobling.It should be borne in mind that, even if by our most vigilant and
gentle speaking, others are somehow perversely and painfully affected, we shall
not be considered as transgression and setting at naught the vow of truth.Ontologically speaking, no word is pleasant
or unpleasant in isolation and in itself.It is the spirit that counts.A
word, being the modification f Pudgala, has infinite characteristics.Therefore it possesses the potency of
affection others in infinite ways, all of which are incapable of being known by
imperfect human beings.In calling a
word pleasant or unpleasant, the circumstances, the place and time, the
character of the man, the mental and physical effects on himself and others
that surround him should all be counted.Thus, according to Amrtacandra, the first kind of falsehood refers to
the affirmation of the existent as non-existent; the second refers to the
declaration of the non-existent as existent; the third refers to the
representation of the existing nature of things as different from what they
really are; and the fourth is indicative of the speech which is 1) condemnable
(garhita),

_________________________

1 Puru. 91. 2 Puru. 92. 3 Ibid. 93. 4 Ibid. 94.

2) sinful (savadya), and 3) disagreeable (apriya). To explain the fourth form of
falsehood, 1) back-biting, ridiculous speech, harsh language and violent words
are comprised under condemnable speech. Besides, useless gossiping, language
inciting unfounded beliefs, and superstitions should also be grouped under it.
2) Sinful speech comprises the use of language for defense, for running the
household and for professional purposes. 3) Disagreeable words are those which
arouse uneasiness, engender fear, excite repugnance, inflame dollar, and intoxicate
brawl.

SATYANUVRATA : Of these forms of falsehood, it is beyond
the power of the householder to shun totally the use of words concerning his
household affairs, the affairs relating to his profession and safety; and these
necessarily entail Himsa. The avoidance of sinful (savadya) speech is not possible without imperiling his life, and
that of his dependents, just as it is not possible for him to abandon the Himsa
of one- sensed Jivas. Thus the householder should abandon all other forms of
falsehood except sinful speech. This is the gross form of the vow of truth or
Satyanuvrata. It should be noted that Samantabhadra allows not telling the
truth, if it endangers the life of any one in Satyanuvrata. The truthful man
should denounce exaggeration, fault-finding and indecent speech; and speak
words that are noble, beneficial and balanced. He should be grave, equanimous,
noble- characterizedpersonality,
philanthropist, kind and sweet-tongued. He should not extol himself, and
calumniate others. Nor should he hide the merits of others that are existent,
and describe those of himself that are non- existent. In order to maintain the
purity of the vow, one should steer clear of the following Aticaras, which are;
1) false preaching. 2) divulging the secrets of a couple, 3) forgery, 4) not to
return the deposited articles of a man in full, if he has forgotten the actual
number, and 5) disclosing one's secret purposes.

Nature of STEYA ( STEALING) : We now proceed to deal with
the nature of stealing (steya) and
Acauryanurata. Stealing means the

_________________________

1 Puru. 95.2 Ibid. 96.3 Puru. 96.4 Ibid. 97.5 Ibid. 98.

6 Ibid.101.7 Ratna. Srava. 55 ; Vasu. Srava. 210.

8 Kartti. 334,; Yas. and Ic. p. 266.9 Yas. and Ic. p. 266.

10 Yas. and Ic. p. 266.11 Puru. 184; Tasu. VII-26.,
Uvasagdasao I. 46., Saga.Dharma. IV.
45;. The Aticaras of this vow show wide divergence. We have followed the
Tattvarthasutra and its commentary, the Saravarthasiddhi.

taking of things without their
being given by the owner. This necessarily implies the presence of internal
intense passions in one's own mind. In this world, transient the external
Pranas, of a man, and he who thieves or plunders them is said to commit theft,
inasmuch as this is tantamount to depriving a man of his Pranas. This, then, is
not other than Himsa.

ASTEYANUVRATA OR ACACURYANUVRATA : Not to take anything
without the permission of others is a discipline par-excellence; but it lies
beyond the power of the house- holder ; so he is required to use such things
freely as are of common use without their being given, such as well-water, sand
and the like. This is Acauryanuvrata or gross from of the vow of non-stealing.
According to Samantabhadra the observer of the householder's vow of
non-stealing neither takes himself those things which are unfired, placed,
dropped, and forgotten by others nor gives them to anyone else. Karttikeya
includes even the purchasing of costly things at reduced prices under stealing,
which is probably due to the fact that one may sell a thing after getting it by
improper methods. Somadeva holds that the underground property belongs to the
king or thestate; so also the property
of unknown ownership. To takethe
possession of property at the death of one's own kinsman is justified, but,
when he is alive, his sanction is required to sustain the householder's vow of
non-stealing. The householder who gives himself to this vow must abstain
himself from the following Aticaras.

NATURE OF ABRAHMA
(UNCHASTITY) : We now pass on to dwell upon the nature of unchastely and
Brahmacaryanuvrata. The copulation arising from sexual passion is Abraham. This
is Himsa in two ways. In the first place, many living beings are deprived of
their vitalities in the vagina in the sexual act, just as a hot rod of iron,
when it is introduced in a tube filled with sesames seeds, burns them up. Secondly,
psychical life is affected because of the emergence of sexual

Passion and so also the
material Pranas are affected owing to the lethargic condition consequent upon
coition.1

BRAHMACARYANUVRATA:The householder cannot relinquish copulation as such.Hence he should abstain himself from the
sexual and lustful contacts with all other woman except his nuptial
partner.This is Brahmacaryanuvrata or
gross form of the vow of chastity.According to Vasunandi, the householder following this vow should not
succumb to the unnatural ways of sexual satisfaction like masturbation, sodomy
and the like and should not copulate even with his own wife on the pious days
(Asthma and Caturdasi) of each fortnight.Samantabhadra defines Brahmacaryanuvrata as renouncing lustful contacts
with another man's wife, and as seeking contentment in one's own wife.Such an observer of vow neither enjoys
another man's wife, nor instigates another person to do so.Somadeva enunciates the vow of gross
chastity as chastity all women or concubines as one's mother, sister or
daughter with the exception of one's own wife." Wine. Meat, gambling, music with song and dance, personal
decoration, intoxication, libertines and aimless wanderings -these ten are the concomitants of sexual
passion."Besides, "One
should be careful not to excite oneself by erotic acts, aphrodisiac potions and
erotic literature.The breaches of the
vow of gross chastity are: 1) taking interest in match- making, 2) sexual
association with married woman, 3) sexual association with unmarried woman, 4)
unnatural methods of sexual enjoyment, and 5) inordinate sexual desire.

NATURE OF PARIGRAHA ( ACQUISITION):We now proceed to dwell upon the nature of
acquisition and parigraha- parimananuvrata.The most comprehensive characteristic of parigraha is attachment, which
follow as the modification and operation of Mohakarma. Thedefinition of Parigraha as attachment is
scientific, since it embodies the entire connotation signified by the term. It
believes, in the first place, that those who have the least vestige of a
feeling of attachment, notwithstanding the external renunciation of all worldly
acquisitions,

_________________________

1.Puru. 109.2. Ibid. 110.3. Vasu.Srava.212.

4.Ratna. Srava. 59.5. Ibid. 59.6. Yas. And Ic.p.267;

Amita. Srava. VI. 64, 65. 7. Yas. and Ic.p.267.8. Yas. and Ic.p. 267.

9. puru. 186; Dharma Bi. 159; Tasu. VII. 28; Uvasagadasao. I. 48;

Srava. Prajna. 273; amita. Srava. VII.6. We have followed Pujyapada's
meaning of the Aticaras.10. Puru. 111.

are far from non-
acquisition.Secondly, it expresses that
the possession of external things is not possible without internal
attachment.Thus both the internal
attachment and the possession of external things come within the sweep of
Parigraha.We may now say that if one
is disposed to remove the internal attachment, one should correspondingly throw
aside external possession also.In the
presence of external possession, if non- attachment is claimed, it will be
self- deception possession cannot be perforce with us.It may happen that, despite insignificant external
possession, one may have conspicuous internal inclination for possession, just
as a poor man may have.But this must
not brush aside the difference in internal attachment corresponding to the kind
of external possession.In other words,
there occurs internal variation in attachment by virtue of the longing one
possesses for the kind of external objects.For example, attachment is feeble in a young deer which continues to
live on green blades of grass in comparison to a cat which kills a host of mice
for procuring its food.Thus, the
external and the internal influence each other.

KINDS OF PARIGRAHA: Parigraha is of two kinds: the
external, and the internal.The former
again admits of two kinds: the living and the non- living; and the latter is
recognised to be of fourteen kinds, namely, perverted belief, laughter,
indulgence, ennui, sorrow, fear, disgust, anger, pride, deceit, greed and
desire for sexual enjoyment with man, with woman and with both.

PARIGRAHA and
HIMSA: Parigraha as such can never preclude Himsa; and those who wish to
practice Ahimsa should avoid the internal and the external attachment.So Ahimsa will be commensurate with the
degree of avoidance.Perfect non-
attachment, and consequently perfect Ahimsa is rendered possible only in the
life of Arahantas, and, below this, only degrees of Aparigraha are possible.

PARIGRAHA- PARIMANANUVRATA: The householder is incapable of
renouncing all Parigraha.Hence he
should shun perverted belief and Anantanubandhi and Apratyakhyanavarna kinds of
passion; andshould accordingly limit
the Parigraha of wealth, cattle, corn, servants, buildings, etc.inasmuch as the spirit of renunciation is
the right

_________________________

1. Puru. 1122. Puru.113. 3. Puru. 121. 4. Puru.115 to 117.5. We have already dealt with these kinds of passion in
the previous chapter.

Principal.This is Parigraha- parimananuvrata or the
gross form of the vow of Aparigraha.We
may say in passing that the householder'svow of Aparigraha would tend to annul the economic inequality rampant in
society and thereby everybody will be able to get things of daily necessities
at least.To- day, men nations are
striving for the enhancement of their wealth and territory at the cost of
others with the consequencethat the
individual and national tensions are increasing. Parigraha is detrimental, when
it engenders inordinate clinging. An attitude of a philanthropist is essential
to the observance of the vow of Parigraha- Parimananuvrata.Inorder to sustain the purity of the vow the violations of the limits
regarding 1) house and land, 2) gold and silver, 3) cattle and corn, 4) male
and female servants, and 5) clothes and utensils, should be avoided.Samantabhadra has spoken of the other
breaches of the vow, namely. 1)the keeping of a larger number of vehicles than
required, 2) accumulatingnecessary
articles in large number, and 5) the over- loading of animals.

Householder's LIFE AS MIXTURE OF VIRTUE AND VICE: We have
so far dealt with the nature of the five Anuvratas.Violence, falsehood, stealing, unchastely, and acquisition are
the different vices.They amount to a
fall from the heights of mystical experience.The middle way is to lead the life of virtue. It is to be borne in mind
that the three types of non- intentional Himsa, the Himsa of one- sensed Jivas,
the use of Savadya or sinful language, the act of sexual intercourse with one's
own wife, the use of common things without permission, and the keeping of
limited Parigraha-all these are
householder's vices, which may be socially justifiable, but cannot be justified
spiritually.In other words, looked at
with the social eye, they are not regarded as vices, but the eye of
spirituality considers them to be so.Thus, in the life of the householder pure virtue in the sense of mid
passion is an impossibility; his life is always a mixture of virtue and
vice.The condition of that householder
who does not strictly follow the partial vows is pitiable.Virtue, in his life,

will be a mere accident, and
sometimes a social compulsion.This,
then, will be a pseudo- virtue as distinguished from genuine virtue springing
from the inner consciousness of sin.It
is only in the latter case that the vows are trustful and conducive to the
moral, social and spiritual ennoblement.

REELECTION ON AND THE REPETION OF CERTAIN IDEAS FOR THE
PROPER OBSERVANCE OF THE VOWS: Now, in order that the vows may be fixed in mind
and pursued with great zeal, the author of the Tattvarthasutra has advised us
to reflect on the following ideas and to repeat them in mind very often.First, one should ponder over the troubles
that may be faced in one's own life in this world, and over the afflictions
that may fall to one's lot in the life hereafter, as a result of indulging in
the five types of sins.To illustrate,
it should be thought that any one never believes an untruthful man.Confinement and disrespect and other
inconceivable mental and physical pains are the punishments he has to bear in
this life.Besides, he will have to
take birth at odious places and in disgraceful forms as a result of
falsehood.Similarly for other
sins.Secondly, one is required to
think that by cultivating the four noble habits, namely, universal friendship
with the living beings in general, appreciation for those who are virtuous,
active compassion for the distressed, and indifference towards the arrogant and
the incorrigible, one is facilitated in the observance of the vows.Thirdly, one should think over the
transitoriness of the worldly objects andsensual pleasures, and over the impermanence, the unsubstantantiality,
and the foulness of the body.

CONCEPT OF MULAGUNAS: The five vows together with the total
abandonment of wine, meat and honey have been called Mulagunas (Primary moral
characters) by the ethics- logical philosopher, Samantabhadra.The conception of Mulagunas has been for the
first time proclaimed by this eminent saint- philosopher.The content and the number of the Mulagunas
are dynamic, which is evidenced but the fact that the later Acaryas have
modified them in accordance with the time, place and the nature of disciples.
In this ever transforming world, new conditions emerge, and consequently new
sedatives become indispensable.There
can be no sovereign remedy for all times and persons of different age.The Mulagunas which are the steeping stones
to higher progress

_________________________

1. Ta. Su.VII.9.2.
Ta.Su.VII.11.3.Ta.Su.VII.12.4.Ratna. Srava.66.

are, therefore, to be
changed in the light of the conduct and character of persons.Thus the forms may change but not be
criterion, i.e., not the fundamental principle of Ahimsa in its comprehensive
sense.After Samantabhadra Jinasena
substitutes gambling for honey and does not disturb the other Mulagunas.Atremendous change which has been effected in the content is due to
Somadeva.He substituted five Udambara
fruits for five Anuvratas, and keeps the remaining three, namely, to abstain
oneself from wine, meat and honey, as Samantabhadra has done.Amitagati increases the number of Mulagunas
by appending the avoidance of eating at night to therenunciation of wine, meat, honey and five Udambara fruits.Though this eminent Acarya has mentioned
neither the name, ' Mulaguna,' nor their number, a little reflection would
suffice to witness both.In the end of
the chapter he has mentioned that at the start these puru Gunas should be
practiced; and regarding number, if five Udambara fruits are considered as one
we have five Mulagunas, and if as five, we have nine Mulagunas.The mentioning of the fact by Amratacandra
that even the worthiness of Jaina discipline is acquired by virtue of outright
relinquishing the eight kinds of things, namely, meat, wine, honey and five
Udamabara fruits, is suggestive of eight Mulagunas.It is apparent from Vasunadi's viewof the first stage of householder's conduct that he is regarding
the abandonment of meat, wine, honey, five Udamber fruits, gambling, hunting,
prostitution, adultery, and stealing as the Mulagunas.Asadhara mentionedthe view of other Acarya who has prescribed somewhat different
Mulagunas, namely, the abandonment of meat, wine, honey, five Udambara fruits
and night, as also the devotion to the adorable five (Arahanta, Siddha, Acarya,
Upadhyaya and Sadhu), the use of water strained though a cloth, and the
compassionate attitudetowards the
sentient beings.

Asana:- "All that is swallowed: grains, and pulses of all kinds,
particularly the staple, boiled rice."(Jaina Yoga, p. 39);

2. Pana:- "All that is drunk: Water, milk, the juice of
fruits." (ibid.p.39);

Khadima:- " All that is chewed or nibbled: fruits and nuts"
(Ibid.);

Svadima:-"All that is
tasted or severs as a relish, pepper, cumin seeds' etc,.

in saying that the eating of
any kind of food at night occasions more Himsa than the eating by day in
sunlight.The controversy centers round
the question of its avoidance in the life of the householder at a particular
stage.Of the eleven stages of the
householder, to be dealt with in the sequel, kundakunda,1 Karttikeya
2and Samantabhadra 3 enjoin
the total avoidance of eating at night at the sixth stage of advancement.Somadeva 4 and Asadhara 5
include this in Ahimsanuvrata, though the latter has prescribed itspartial avoidance in the preparatory
stage, i. e., Paksika stage, to be
dealt with afterwards.6 Amitagati 7 enumerates the total avoidance of eating at
night in the Mulagunas, thus necessitating its observance at the inception of
householder's life.Vasunandi
prescribes its total abandonment even before commencing the observance of the
rules of conduct formulated for the 1st stage of householder's
conduct.8Thus he is in
harmony with Amitagati. Hemachandra 9 prescribed the avoidance of
eating at night in the Bhogopabhoga parimanavrata.

AVODIDANCE OF EATING AT NIGHT AS THE SIXTH ANUVRATA:
Viranandi and camundaraya 10 regard the avoidance of eating at night
as the sixth Anuvrata.They count it is
as a separate Anuvrata in addition to the five Anuvratas already dealt
with.The corroboration of the fact of
regarding the avoidance of eating at night as the sixth Anuvrata may be made
from Pujyapada's 11 commentary on the Tattvarthasutra where in
reference has been made to the prevalence of the view that it is the sixth
Anuvrata.That Amratacandra has
enunciated the importance of total abstinence from eating at night just after
propounding the nature and extent of the five vows of the householder is
significant of the view that he implicitly regards it as the sixth Anuvrata. 12
Neither has he comprised it in Ahimsanuvrata, nor has he included it in
the eight requisites which make a man worthy of Jaina discipline, nor has he
mentioned its abstinence at any particular stage of householder's Dharma.All these considerations oblige us to infer
that he wasimplicitly in favour of
recognizing this as the sixth Anuvrata.Why has he not explicitly described it to be so may, on the one hand,
owing

_________________________

1. Caritra Pahuda;
22. 2. Kartti. 382. 3. Ratna. Srava. 142.

4. Yas. and Ic.p. 264.5.Saga. Dharma.IV.24.6. Saga.Dharma.II.76.

7. Amita Srava.V.1.8.Vasu.Srava.314.9.Yo.Sa,II.48.

10.
Acarasara.V.70;Caritrasara.p.13.11
Sarvartha. VII.1.

12.Puru. 129.

to his unreserved
faithfulness to the old tradition of recognising Anuvratas as five in number,
and on the other, owing to his desire to avoid the aforementioned controversy
centered round it.

DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE GUNAVRATAS AND THE
SIKSAVRATAS: After dealing with the five vices, the five Anuvratas, the various
conceptions of Mulagunas, andthe
avoidance of eating at night, we now propose to dwell upon the nature of
Gunavratas and Siksavratas, which are recognised as the seven Silavratas.1
These Silavratas servethe useful
purpose of guarding the Anuvratas. 2 To be more clear, they effect a
positive improvement in the observance of the Anuvratas.The Sravaka Prajnapti distinguishes between
the Gunavratas and the Sikksavratas by saying that the former are observed for
the whole life, but that the latter, for a limited time.3Asadhara also draws a distinction between
the two by pointing out that, by the observance of theGunavratas, the Anuvratas are observed in a
better way, and that, by the observance of the Sikksavratas, the individual
gets inspiration and training for the life of renunciation.4 The two seemingly different views do not
exclude each other, but the one implies the other.The former view emphasis's the time element, whereas the latter
one lays stress on the functions performed by the Gunavratas and the
Siksavraatas.There is perfect
unanimity among the Jaina Acaryas regarding the number of Silavratas.All of them agree that there are three
Gunavratas and four Siksavratas.Of the
three Gunavratas, the Digvrata and the Anarthadandavrata have been recognised
by all the Acaryas as the Gunavratas; and of the four Siksavratas, the
Atithisamvibhagavrata has been unanimously regarded as the Sikkksavrata; and
all the Acaryas except Vasunandi include the Samayikavrata and the
Prosadhopavasavrata in the Siksavratas.Vasunandi has not recognised them at all as any of the Vratas. Different schools of Vratas have emerged
owing to the controversial nature of Desavrata, Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata and
Sallekhana.Kundakunda5
regards Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata as the Gunavrata and Sallekhana as the
Siksavrata Sikasvrata without any mention of Desavrata in the scheme of
Silavratas.Karttikeya6
enumerates Desavrata in the Siksavratas, and regards Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata
as the Gunavrata.Umasvati 7 seems to
consider Desavrata to be the

Gunavrata and Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata to be the
Siksavrata. Samantabhadra1 and
Kattikeya agree in respect of the names of Vratas, but the former slightly
varies the order by putting Desavrata first in the order of Siksavrata.Karttikeya, Umasvati and Samantabhadra
discuss the nature of Sallekhana after the Silavratas.Vasunandi 2regards Desavrata as the Gunavrata and bifurcates
Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata into Bhogavirati and Paribhoganiviitti and includes
them in the Siksavratas along with Sallekhana.Thus, in the Digmbara sect of Jainism five tradition are witnessed
concerning the Silavratas, namely, the tradition of Kundakunda, Karttikeya,
Umasvati, Samantabhadra, and Vasunandi.In the Svetambara sect of Jainism two traditions are witnessed, first,
the tradition of Umasvati and secondly, thetradition of the Upasakadadas
and the Sravaka Prajnapti which
isfollowed by Haribhadra, Hemachndra,
Yasovijaya etc.The second tradition
agrees with Karttikeys and Samantabhadra withslight variation in the order of Vratas.The different traditions, we may point out, are due to the
differences of interpretations caused by differences in time, place and trends
of though, and not due to the non- conformity with the fundamental principles
of Jainism.

We shall now dwell upon the nature of each of the
Silavraras.Kundakunda in the Caritra Pahuda3has simply enumerated their names without
explaining their nature according to his own interpretation.So it is very difficult to guess his mind by
means of mere names.Though Umasvati
has not mentioned the names, Gunavrata and Siksavrata, the great commentators
like Pujyapada4 and Vidyananda 5
have mentioned the first there as the Gunavratas, and the last four as the
Siksavratas.

NATURE OF DIGVRATA: We now proceed to deal with the nature
of Digvrata.All the traditions recognise
this as the Gunavrata.It consists in
fixing the limits of one's own movements in the ten directions.6 For
the purpose of demarcation are utilized the well known signs, such as oceans,
rivers, forest, mountains, countries and Yojana stones.7 As regards
the time limit, Samantabhadra8 and Akalalanka 9

explicitlyprescribe its life- long observance, while the
other Acaryas implicitly state so.The
Sravaka Prajnapti 1 tells is that since the householder is like a heated iron
ball, his movements, wherever they are made, entail Himsa.If the area of his movements is
circumscribed, he will thereby save himself from committing Himsa as such
outside tat area.Thus by the avoidance
of even the subtle sins beyond the determined limits, the Anuvrati
(householder) becomes like a Mahavrati (ascetic) in respect of the regions lying
beyond those limis.2 Besides, the Karttikeyanupreksa3 tells us that by fixing the limits
in all the ten directions the passion of greed is controlled.This may be explained by saying that the
Digerati has automatically renounced the getting of wealth, even if it can be
easily got, from the area outside the limits.4It will not be idle to point out here that
the limitation of movements in the external world tends to reduce the internal
passions, thereby fulfilling the purpose for which the Digvrata is enjoined.

The five transgression of the Digvrata are: Going beyond
the fixed limits of space 1) in upward direction, 2) in downward direction, 3)
in other directions, 4) extending the filed of one's activity by increasing
boundaries, and 5) forgetting the limits.5

NATURE OF Desavrata:We now turn to the Desavrata.We
shall first explain the nature of Desavrata according to those who have
regarded it as one of the Siksavratas.Kundakunda has not recognised this vow,but speaks of Sallekhana in its place.Karttikeya and Samantabhadra have included Desavrata in the Siksavratas,
but the latter considers it to be the first and the former, the fourth of the
Siksavratas.The Sravaka Prajnapti,6
Haribhadra,7 Hemacandra 8 etc., have regarded Desavrata
as the second of the Siksavratas.It
may be pointed out here that Karttikeya, Samantabhadra and Hemacandrahave not considered Sallekhana to be
useless, but have delineated it after the Silavratas.The other tinkers 9 have subscribed to this

View of describing
Sallekhana after the delineation of Silavratas.Of the extensive range of Spacedemarcated in the Digvrata, when further curtailment is made each day
with reference to a house, a garden, a village, a field. A river, a forest and
a Yojana stone, it is called Desavrata.1 As regards the time limit,
Samantabhadra says that it may consist of a year, half a year, four months, two
months, one month, and fifteen days.2 but according to Hemacandra, the time
limit consists of a day or a night .3It is to be borne in mind that, beyond the fixed limit of space, for the
determined time the gross and subtle sins are absolutely renounced to such an
extent that the observer of Desavrata may be credited with the designation of
Mahavrati for the time- limit of Desavrata.4In addition to the above view of the
Desavrata, Karttikeya expounds that sense objects should also be limited like
the limitation in the extensive range prescribed by the Digvrata.5Perhaps this alludes to the further
limitation of the objects of Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata which is regarded by him
as the Gunavrata. In other words, the Desavrata in the light of Karttikeya
equally narrows the extent of Digvrata and Bhogopabhoparimanavrata, whereas
Samantabhadra and the Sravaka Prajnapti subscribe to the limitation of mere
Digvrata.This is the exposition of
Desavrata in conformity with those who have recognised this among the
Siksavratas.

We now turn to those who have regarded this as one of the
Gunavratas.According to Umasvati6
and Vasunandi, the Desavrata is a Gunavrata.The Tattvarthasutra Bhasya 7and the Sarvarthasiddhi8 expound the nature of Desavrata as limitingone's own movements to the region
determined by certain village and as renouncing the rest of the places.Amitagati subscribes to this defintion.9If this interpretation of Desavrata which implies
its life- long observance is accepted, it cannot be distinguished from the
Digvrata.Probably keeping this in
view, Akalanka and Camundaraya specifically mention that the Digvrata

is observed for the full
life, but that the Desavrata is observed for a limited time.Amrtacandra also prescribes limited time in
the Desavrata.If Akalanka's and
Amrtacandra's view is kept in mind, we shall have no distinction between
Desavrata as Gunavrata and Desavrata as Sikksavrata.Thus according to one interpretation it is superfluous, since it
can be absorbed into the Digvrata, while according to the other it should be
regard as Siksavrata, since it prescribes its observance for a limited
time.It is true that Akalanka and
Amrtacandra avoid this controversy of Gunavrara and Siksavrata by not dividing
the seven Vratas in Gunavratas and Siksavratas as Pujyapada has done.But still the tradition of Desavrata as
Siksavrata cannot over- look the interpretation of Akalanka and Amrtacandra as
favoring its case.It is likely that
after pondering over this confusing nature of the Desavrata Vasunandi has
explained it by affirming that it implies the abandonment of the habitation of
those countries or places where the observance of vows is threatened or
rendered difficult.1This
way of elucidating the Desavrata is capable of justifying it as one of the
Gunavraras.It is very interesting to
note that Srutasagara, the 16th century commentator of the
Tattvarthasutra has, in addition to the definition of Digvrata, given by the
Sarvathasiddhi, subscribed to the view of Vasunandi by saying that the
Desavrata consists in discarding those places which obstruct the due observance
of Vratas and which occasion insularity of mind.2

Though the tradition of Umasvati and Samantabhadra differ
in respect of the classification of the Devastates, they coalesce in point of
the indication of its Aticaras.Transgressing the limits by 1) sending an agent, 2) drawing attention by
making sounds, 3) ordering for things beyond limits, 4) making gestures and
signs, and 5) throwing certain articles, has been announced to constitute the
five breaches of the Desavrata.3

NATURE OF
ANARTHADANDVRATA:We now propose to
deal with the nature of Anarthadandavrata.All the traditions unanimously acknowledge this as the Gunavrata.Kartikeya defines Anarthadandavrata as renouncing
the commitment of such acts as are not subservient to any useful purpose.4Being frivolous, they simply engender

instability of mind, which
results in depravity.Samantabhadra
defines Anarthadandavrata as refraining from wanton activity, even within
determined directional limits, caused by inauspicious physical, mental and
vocal operations, Akalanka in his commentary on the Tattvarthasutra explicitly
points out that the purport of placing Anarthadandavrata in between
Digvrata-Desavrata and Upabhogaparibhogaparibhogaparimanavrata contributes
towards the comprehension of the fact that, even within the limits prescribed
by the Dasavrata, the Digvrata and the Upabhogaparibhogaparimanavrata, one
should neither make purposeless movements, nor enjoy such sensual pleasures as
are of no account.The Sravaka
Prajnapti affirms that actions without any purpose bring about more Karmic
bondage than the actions with some end in view, inasmuch as the former may be
committed at any time even without any necessity, while that latter are
performed at some specific time out of some necessity.Thus there is manifest concordance among the
Jaina philosophers regarding the nature of Anarthadanvrata.

FORMS OF ANARTHADANDAS: We now dwell upon the forms of
Anarthdandas.The perpetration of
barren and inane actions admits of multitudinous forms, but for the sake of
comprehension either four or five forms have been recorded.The Upasakadasa and the Sravaka Prajnapti
recognise four forms of Anarthadandas, whereas Karttikeys, Samantabhadra, and
the commentators of Tattvarthasutra like Pujyapada and Akalanka recognise four
forms of Anarthadandas.The four are:
1) Apadhyana, 2) Papopadesa, 3) Pramadacarita, and 4) Himsadana; and if
Duhsruti is added to this list we get five forms of Anarthadandas.The treatment of these Anarthadandas is
varied in nature, which is quite convincing in view of the extensive field
embraced by the Anarthadandas.Though
Karttikeya and Amratcandra have not mentioned the names of the five forms of
Anarthadandas, the above mentioned four denominations very aptly suit the fivefold
forms presented by both the Araya's.Though the life of the householder is at every step a mixture of virtue
and vice-since he is pursuing the Anuvratas-yet these Anarthadandas
unnecessarily entrap the perpetrator in such a way as to cause the influx of
inauspicious Karmas which bring about unimaginable suffering in this life and
the life hereafter.

_________________________

1 Ratna. Srava. 742. Raja. VII. 21/223.
Srava. Prajna. 290

4. uvasaga. 43.5. Srava. Prajna. 289

Let us come to the meaning of the five forms of the
Anarthadandas.First, Apadhyana implies
inauspicious reflections which procreate nothing except a vicious trend of
thought.This involves the fact of
peeping into another man's wife with an evil eye, witnessing the dissension
among persons, mutilating, imprisoning and killing others and getting
interested in hunting, victory, defeat, war, adultery, theft, gambling, and the
like.Hemacandra and Asadhara summarily
include Arta Dhyana and Raudra Dhyana in Apadhyana.Secondly, Papopadesa means the giving of evil instructions to
persons earning livelihood by service, business, writing documents, cultivating
land, and working in the field of art.Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Akalanka and Camundaraya include in Papopadesa
the following things: the talk of selling slaves and beasts profitably and the
giving of direction to hunters, fowlers and the like.Thus the provocation of vicious tendencies, on account of which
an individual may indulge in corrupted, passionate, and life-injuring ways may
briefly sum up the meaning of Papoadesa.Thirdly, Pramadacarita consists in doing such actions purposelessly as
digging the ground, uprooting trees, trampling lawns, sprinkling water, burning
and quenching fire, plucking leaves, fruits and flowers, wandering etc.Fourthly, Himsadana implies the giving of
the instruments of Himsa like knife, poison, fire, sword, bow, chain etc.According to Karttikeya the rearing of
violent animals like cat's etc., and the business of weapons like iron, Lac etc.,
come under Himsadana.Lastly, Duhsruti,
listening to and teaching such stories as are passionexciting.Besides, the study of literature aggravating
worldly attachment describing erotic things, and dealing with other
intense-passion exciting things has also been included in Duhsruti.Vasunandi does

not describe the five forms
of Anarthadandas, but simply announces that he who is observing Anarthadandavrata
should avoid the business of iron, nets etc., the use of false weights and
measures, and the rearing of dogs, of violent animals like cats etc.

The five transgressions that elate to define this vow are:
1) indulging in licentious speech, 2) ridiculously gesticulating and uttering
obscene words, 3) prattling in a senseless manner, 4) becoming engrossed in
actions without any consideration of purpose, and 5) unnecessarily accumulating
articles of Bhoga and Upabhoga.

NATURE OF BHOGOPABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA: We now proceed to deal
with the nature of Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata.The word 'Bhoga' pertains to those objects which are capable of being
used only once, for instance, betel-leaf, garland etc., and the word 'Upabhoga'
covers those objects which are capable of being used again and again, for
instance, clothes, ornaments, cots etc.Thus the Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata implies the limitation in the use of
the objects of Bhoga and Upabhoga in order to reduce attachment to the
objects.Only Vasunadi bifurcates it
into Bhogavirati and Paribhoganivrtti by keeping in view the aforementioned
nature of Bhoga and Upabhoga.It ma be
pointed out here that this Varity includes not only the positive process of
limitaion, but also the negative prowess of renunciation.Karttikeya tells us that the renunciation of
those things that are within one's won reach is more commendable than the
renunciation of those things that are neither possessed, nor likely to be
possessed in future.Samantabhadra
points out that Vrata does not consist in giving up things unsuitable to
oneself along with those which are not worthy to be used by the exalted
persons, but that it consists in

3 The Upasakadasa and the
Sravaka-prajnapti put 'bringing together the parts of implements' in place of
the fouth as mentioned above.

4 The other name for his
used by the Upasakadasa, th Tattvarthasutra, the Sravaka Prajnapti, etc. is
Upabhga-Paribhoga-Parimanavrata. Here Upabhoga is equivalent to Bhoga' and
Partibhoga is equal to ' Upabhoga'.

the deliberate renouncement of the suitable objects of senses,
since the above two types of things are not even used by commonplace persons.Amrtancandra tells us that the layman should
renounce, according to his capacity, the use ofobjects which are not prohibited.

TWO KINDS OF ABNEGATION IN BHOGOPABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA: In
the Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata abnegation is of two kinds: Yama and Niyama; the
former is for the whole duration of life, while the latter is for a limited
period.Three types of things, namely,
1) objects causing injury to living beings processing more than oneness, like
meat and honey; 2) objects developing spiritual laziness like wine, opium,
seeds of thorn-apple, the intoxicating hemp and the like; and 3) objets causing
injury to infinite one-sensed Jivas forming one body like ginger, radish,
carrot etc., along with butter, flowers of Ketaki etc., should be forsaken for
life.Besides, the use of objects like
ornaments, conveyance etc., which have been considered as not necessary and the
use of objects detested by the exalted personages like variegated colored
clothes, odd dress and the like, should be forsaken either for life or for a
limited period of time.The
renouncement for life or for a limited period of time.The denouncement for a limited time, i.e.,
for an hour, a day, a night, a fortnight, a month, a season or half a year,
should be made concerning food, conveyance, couch, bathing unguents,
betel-leaf, clothes , ornaments, copulation, music and singing, since the
householder cannot dispense with these things altogether.By virtue of pursuing such discipline,
Animas is observed owing to not incurring Himsa arising from the use of the
articles of Bhoga and Upabhoga, that have been renounced.

After dealing with the Digambara view of Bhogopabhogavrata,
we now proceed to point out the Svetambara view.The Upasakadsa and the Sravaka Prajnapti tell us the Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata
concerns itself with the purity of food and that of occupation. 9

8 The puit of food means the
avoidance of such food as causes Himsa of mobile beeings, for iinstance, meat,
honey etc.

9 The purit of occupation
signifies the abandonment of such evil trades as cause a good deal of Himsa for
instance, livelighood from charcoal, trade in animal by-products etc.

"Other topics included at least by the Svetambaras under the
Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata are the renouncement of the Ananta-kaya, the
Abhaksyas and Ratribhojana."Here
we observe that the Gigambara version of the Vrata includes both the elements
of Yama and Niyama under its scope, but that the Svetambara version seems to
comprised only the element of Yama.

BHOGOPOABHOGAPARIMANAVRATA AS GUNAVRATA AND SIKSAVRATA:
Notwithstanding the delineation of the nature of Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata by
the indifferent traditions of the Gigambaras without any marked difference,
Vasunandi and the commentators of the Tattvarthsutra, namely, pujyapada and
Vidyanandi enumerate this in the Siksavratas, while Samantabhadra and
karttikeya count this as Gunavrata.This difference of opinion is on account of the dual nature of the vow
itself.It possesses both the elements
of Yama and Niyama characteristics of Gunavrata and Siksavrata
respectively.So it can be interpreted
both ways.The difference is of
emphasis and not of nature.

The five transgressions of this vow according to Umasvati
are: eating 1) articles having life, 2) articles in contact with those having
life, 3) articles mixed with those having life, 4) articles not well-cooked and
5) fermented and aphoradisiacal articles.These Aticaras are too narrow to include the comprehensive extend of the
Bhogopabhoga, so, it seems Samantabhadra has framed different Aticaras.The five Aticaras according to Samantbhadra
are: 1) eating 1) articles having life, 2) articles in contact with those
having life, 3) articles mixed with those having life, 4) articles not
well-cooked and 5) fermented and aphrodisiac articles.These Aticaras.The five Aticaras according to Samantabhadra are: 1) constant
craving for the venom of sensual enjoyment, 2) dwelling upon bygone pleasurable
experiences, 3) too much indulgence even after enjoyment, 4) having acute
craning for the gratification of senses in future, and 5) too much indulgence
during enjoyment.

After dealing with the nature of Digvrata,
Anarthadandavrata, Devastate and Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata, we now turn to the

_________________________

1 Srava. prajna. Comm. 287,
288.

2 Plants having infinite one
sensed Jivas, such as ginger, radish, carot etc.

3 Things not fit to e eates
such as ice, ocurds kept for more than two days, tainted food etc.

4 Jaina Yoga. p\. 102. ( For
the detailed traeatement of Anantakayas and Abhaksyas, see jaina Yoga.
110-116). We have already discussed this separately.

remaining three Vratas,
namely, Samayika, Prosadhopavasa and Atithisamvibhaga which are unanimously
pronounced as Siksavratas.

NATURE OF SAMAYIKA: Samayika is the positive way of
submerging the activities of mind, body and speech in the Atman.Amrtacandra tell us that the purpose of
Samayika is to attain the Atman after espousing the economies state of mind
produced by renouncing attachment and aversion to the objects of the
world.Samantabhadra defines Samayika
as relinquishing the five types sins to the farthest extreme during the time
fixed for the act of Samayaika.The
Sravaka Prajnati tell us that Samayika negatively implies the abandonment of
snuffle actions and positively, the practice of non-sinful actions.The economies state of mind, in the as of
the householder, is equivalent should be distinguished from Sddhopayaoga, the
ideal to be achieved through strenuous self-denial.Jus as Samyagdarsana is at the root of liberation (Moksa ), so
Samayika is at the root of the conduct for Moksa.Reflection on the nature of the would as inauspicious,
transitory, and full of pain, and reflection on the nature of salvation as auspicious,
permanent and blissful-both these constitute what is allied the content of
auspicious deliberations.5

The consideration of seven requisites, namely, 1) place, 2)
time, 3) posture, 4) meditation, and threefold purifies, namely, 5) mental, 6)
bodily, and 7) voal, is necessary for the successful performance of
Samayika.10 That place which is free
from disturbing noise, gathering of persons, and insects like mosquitoes,
flies, etc., is the solitude, whether it is a forest, a house, a temple or any other
place, should be chosen to perform Samayika.2) Samayika should be performed three time as a day, i.e., in the
morning, noon and evening.The great
Acarya Amrtacandra says that the householder should consider the act of
Samayika as obligatory and perform it at least twice a day, i.e., in the
morning and evening.He further remarks
that its performance at other times will conduce towards the enhancement of the
spiritual and moral characteristics, hence it is not

_________________________

1 Raja. VII. 21/7;
Caritrasara. p 19. 2 Puru. 148

3 Ratna. Srava. 97.4 Srave. Prajna. 292.

5 Ratna. Srava. 104.6 Kartti. 352/

7 Kartti. 353.8
Ratna. Srava. 99.9 Kartti. 354

10 Puru. 149.

improper, but beneficial.Samantabhadra says that one should perform Samayika till the time one
fixes for it according to one's own mental states.After with drawing oneself from all kinds of worldly activities,
and after subduing all mental disturbances, one should increase the duration of
Samayika on the fasting and half-fasting days.It should also be gradually enchanted daily, since Samayika serves as a
great cause for fulfilling the five vows.3) Sitting and standing postures are generally recommended for the
performance of Samayika.4-7) The
aspirant should purge the mind of sensual pleasures by concentrating on the
sermons of the Jina, adopt submissive and surrendering gestures, and finally,
either repeat the devotional hymns mentally or absorb himself in
self-meditation.He should bear
hardships caused by cold, heat, insect-biting as well as troubles created by
enemy without breaking silence, and without disturbing the purity of physical,
mental and vocal activities.By the
performance of Samayika he who keeps in view the aforementioned requisites is
naturally led to abandon even all the subtle vices which entangle the
householder.And for the time one fixes
for the act of Samayika, one approaches asceticism.

The five transgressions which should be avoided are: Losing
one's control over 1) mind, 2) body and 3) Speech, 4) Lacking interest in
Samayika, and 5) forgetfulness of Samayika.

NATURE OF PROSADHOPAVASAVRATA: Samantabhadra and others
enunciate the Prosadhopavasavrata as renouncing the four kinds of food on the
eighth and fourteenth lunar days in each fortnight.Probably keeping in view the infirmness of disciples, Karttikeya
also includes the eating of unseasoned food once a day in the
Prosadhopavasavrata, and Amitagati and Asadhara also comprise the taking of

only water in this
Vrata.The observance of this Vrata
requires the performance of meditation, the study of spiritual literature, and
the avoidance of batch, perfumes, bodily embellishment, ornaments, cohabitation
and household affairs.The Sravaka
Prajnapti prescribes that the relinquishment of food, bodily embellishment,
cohabitation, household affairs shouldbe effected either partially or completely in the Prosadhopavasavrata.Here we observe that though the Digambara
Acaryas allow the partial renunciation of food, they prescribe complete
relinquishment of cohabitation, bodily embellishment and household affairs in
observing the Prasadhoopavasavrata, as we have said above.As regards the place for the performance of
this Vrata, a temple, the abode of Sadhus, a Prosadhasala, or any holy place
should be chosen for one's stay.

PROCEDURE OF PRASADHOPAVASAVRATA: Amrtacandra notably lays
down the procedure for observing the Prosadhopavasavrata.After renouncing all household affairs and
all worldly attachment, one should undertake the vow at the middle of the day
previous to the Prosadha day.After
this, one should repair to a sequestered place, forsake allsinful activities, renounce all sensual
pleasures, and observe due restraint of body, speech and mind.After passing the rest of the day in
auspicious deliberations, the evening should be occupied with the performance
of Samayika.The night should be passed
on a pure mat after getting over sleep by being engrossed in the study of
spiritual literature.On the next
morning, after performing Samayika, one should engage oneself in the worship of
Jina with Prasuka objects.In the same
prescribed manner, the day, the second night, and half of the third day should
be spent with circumspection.Thus,
sixteen Yamas (48 hours) constitute the time of Prosadhopavasavrata."The Svetambara writers mention a
period of twenty-four hours"and
lays down the procedure of the Vrata fundamentally in the same way as
above.The difference consists of moron
details.

PROSADHOPAVASAVRATA AND THE FIVE SINS: On account of being
free from all sinful activities the observer of Prosadhopavasavrata approaches
the complete vows only pursuable by the saints.He

eschews the Himsa of all
kinds of Jivas because of the renunciation of the articles of Bhoga and
Upabhoga.He shuns falsehood, stealing,
acquisition and unchastely on account of the control of speech, the abstinence
from all misappropriation, the absence of the feeling of attachment, and the avoidance
of sexual intercourse respectively.

NATURE OF ATITHISAMVIBHAGAVRTA: We now proceed to represent
the nature of Atithisamvibhagavrata.According to Karttikeya, he who after acquiring certain qualifications,
offers four kinds of gifts in conformity with the nine fold ways of
entertaining the three kinds of deserving recipients is announced to be
legitimately pursuing the Atithisamvibhagavrata.The offering should be made for mutual ennoblement without
expecting any return.It will not be
amiss to point out that Samantabhadra denominates this vow as Vaiyavratya,
probably to extend the scope of the vow. It also includes the fact of removing
the ailments of those pursuing the path of renunciation, of massaging their
feet, as well as of serving them in various other ways.Besides, it is to the credit of
Samantabhadra that he renders devotion to Arahantas obligatory for those who
follow this vow.According to the
Sravaka Prajnapti, this vow consists in offering pure food to the saint by
keeping in view the following things: Place (desa), time (kala), faith
(sraddha), respect (satkara), and due order (karma), Haribhadra explains these
terms in the following way: place signifies the area producing wheat or rice
etc.; time means famine or otherwise; purity of mind is faith; the formalities
of standing up, offering seat, worshipping, following the saint when he is
returning etc., come under

respect; due order points to the articles of food to be offered
one after there other.

CONSIDERATION OF FIVE OBJETIVES FOR THE ADEQUATE OBSERVANCE
OF THIS VOW: This vow comprises the consideration of the five objectives for
its adequate observance, namely, 1) classes of deserving recipients, 2)
qualifications of a donor, 3) things worthy of gift, 4) method of giving and 5)
yield of gift.1) Merit develops with
respect to the degree of conduct along with Samyagdarsana.Hence three kinds of deserving recipients
have been recgonised.a) The saint who
has consecrated his life for the achievement of liberation, and consequently,
who has absolutely forsaken all the sins stands at the highest rung of the
ladder of merit.b) The householder who
pursues the twelve vows or observes the discipline prescribed by he eleven stages
of advancement (eleven Pratimas) stands at the middle of the ladder of
merit.c) He who is endowed with the
characteristic of Samyagdarsana but who does not observe the right course of
ethical discipline stands at the last rung of the ladder of merit.We shall now describe the nature of I)
Kupatras, ii) Aparas, and iii) Karunapatras in order to distinguish them form
the aforementioned three kinds of Part's (deserving recipients).I) In the absence of Samyaggdarsana he who
is adhering to vows, performing austerities, and striving for the betterment of
living beings is designated as Kupatra (not entitled to the gift to be offered
with religious devotion).In other
words, sheer moral purity in the absence of spiritual or religious conversion
cannot be the objet of devoted offering.We may point out in passing that this aspect of Dana thrown light upon
the spieitualisation of Jaina ethical living.Ii) He who possesses neither moral conduct nor Samyagdarsana should be
regarded as Apatra (not entitled to the gift as such).Apatra is a curse to society, iii) children
and such persons as are very old, dumb, blind, deaf, foreigner, diseased, and
indigent should be given suitable things out of compassion.8 We
cannot

forbear mentioning that
Bhakti Dana should be distinguished from social charity (Dana) inclusive of
Karuna Dana.The three Patras
(deserving recipients) receive gifts out of devotion but Kupatas and
Karunapatras should be given from moral or social point of view.It is to the credit of the Jainas that they
have not ignored the social aspect of Dana in emphasizing Bhakti Dana or Patra
Dana.2) As regards the qualifications
of a donor concerning the Patra Dana, the donor must possess the seven virtues;
namely, belief in the result of Dana given to the Patras, affection for the
merits of Patras, pleasure at the time of giving and after giving, knowledge of
the suitable gifts proper to the different Patras, absence of longing for
worldly benefits, control over anger even at a critical juncture, showing real
enthusiasm in such a manner as may astound even the wealthy persons.All these are respectively called: faith
(sraddha), devotion (bhakti), joy(samtosa or taste), wisdom (Vienna),
unattachment (alubdhata, or alaulya), forbearance (ksama), and enthusiasm
(sakti or sativa).The Tattvarthabhasya
enumerates eight characteristics, namely, absence of jealousy towards the
recipient (anasuya), absence of sorrow in giving avisada), absence of
condescension towards the recipient (aparibhavita), joy in giving (pritiyaga),
auspicious frame of mind (kusalabhisamdhita), absence of desire for worldly
benefit (drstaphalanapeksita), straightforwardness (nirupdhatva), and lastly,
freedom from desire for other-worldly benefits (anidanatva).3) To consider the things worthy of gifts,
generally four kinds of gifts have been recgonised; namely, food, medicine, books
and fearlessness.Food, medicine, Upakarana
(religious accessories) and the place of shelter is the other list of four
objects.All these things should be
worthy of the Patras.Only such things
should be given as are useful for the pursuance of studies and for practicing
austerities of a very high quality, and as do not bring about attachment,
aversion, incontinence, pride, sorrow, fear and the

2 Ta. su. Bha. VII. 34. (I
have practically followed the transaltion given in the Jaina yoga. pp. 13-154)
Amrtacandra enumerates almost the same characteristics. (Puru. 169)

3 Kartti. 362. Amita. Srava.
IX. 83, 106, 107. Vasu. Srava. 233.

4 Ratna. Srava. 117.
Caritrasara. p. 26. yas. and Ic. p. 283.

5 Upakaranas differ for a
Svetambara nd a Digambara monk. We need not mention them here.

like. 4) The gifts should be
given according to the nine fold ways of entertaining a Patra.This process consist of reception, offering
a high seat, washing the feet, adoration, salutation, purity of mind, purity of
body, purity of speech and purity of food.The saints should be entertained with the above formalities but the
other Pates according to their merits.5) As regards the yield of gift, greed is overcome by Dana and
consequently Atithidana amounts to the renunciation of Himsa.Besides, just as water washes away bloods,
so proper gifts to saints would for certain wipe off the sins accumulated on
account of the unavoidable household affairs.The paying of obeisance to the holy saints causes noble birth; the
giving of Dana to them entails prosperous living; their servitude promotes high
respect; their devotion determines gracious look; and the extolling of their
virtues brings about celebrity.Vasunandi
tells us that the gift to Patras is just like a seed sown in a fertile land;
and the gift to Apertures is just like a seed sown in a barren land.

The five Aticaras of this vow are;1) placing foodon things having life, 2) covering food with things having life,
3) offering food at an improper time, 4) offering some other person's food, and
5) lack of interest or jealousy towards the other giver.

TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING THE HOUSEHOLDER'S ETHICAL
DISCIPLINE: VRATAS, AND PRATIMAS: We have so far endeavored to expound the
characteristic nature of Anuvratas, Gunavratas bad Siksavratas.The last two types of Vratas, which are
called Salivates, are capable of educating the individual for the exalted life
of renunciation.They deepen his
consciousness of sin, thereby encouraging him to shun totally the causes of
subtle Himsa, which prevent the full-fledged performance of the auspicious
Dhyanas (Dharma and Sukla).It is
evident that

7 Sarvartha. VII. 36. Raja.
VII. 36. The names of these Aicaras are the smae in Digambara and Svetambara
works, but the meaning differs slightly. we have followe dPujapada's meaning.

We shall deal with these two
Dhyanas in the subsequent chapter.

whatever sour of Himsa
remains in the life of the householder, who pursues the partial vows, is
consequent upon the employment of the materials of Bhoga and Upabhoga.Now he whose heart has been illumined, who
has developed in him the capacity of discharging the obligations which result
from the arduous life of asceticism proceeds towardsthe gradual and the systematic renunciation of the articles of
Bhoga and Upabhoga, tillhe arrives at
the full life of a saint.To express it
differently, the elevated outlook of life negatively depends upon narrowing
down the compass of Bhoga and Upabhoga to the irreducible extent, and
positively, upon steadily deepening the meditational aspect of life.The negative aspect deserves to be extolled
only when it is accompanied by the positive phase of meditational development
or auspicious female and disposition of mind.In our study of the Jaina ethical works, we find the exposition of the
Acura of the householder on the ground of Anuvratas, Gunavartas and Siksavratas
as only one of the ways of its presentation.This method of Approach to the conduct of the householder is itself
capable of effecting moral and spiritual advancement by systematically
prescribing the renouncement of the objects of Bhoga and Upbhoga.The outstandingadvocates of this sort of presentation are Umasvati,
Samantabhadra, Someday, Amitagati, Amrtacandra and Hemacandra.Of these religio-thical saints, Umasvati,
Amrtacandra and Hemacandra have to all intents and purposes subscribed to this
view, whereas the rest, in spite of their having represented the householder's
ethical discipline on the aforementioned pattern, have also referred to another
way which shall be henceforth discussed.The notable champions of another way, i.e. of the way which seeks to
represent that Aara of the householder on the basis of eleven stages, which are
technically called eleven Pratimas, are Kundakunda, Karttikeya, Camundaraya and
Vasunandi.

RECONCILONCILIATION OF THE TWO WAYS: These two ways
may,at the first sight, appear to
present two divergent outlooks of Jaina ethical discipline, but a little
reflection would convince us that the divergence is only superficial.The two are so closely related that is the former
way fo representation is pushed ahead for spiritual development we are capable
of having systematic stages of advancement.To be more clear,

_________________________

1 Caritra pahuda. 22 Kartti.
305, 306.

3 Caritra sara, p. 3.4 Vasu. Srava. 4.

the vows of Samayika,
Prosadhopavasa, and Bhogopabhogaparimana give us the nine stages of advancement
towards the life of asceticism.Thus
there is no unbridgeable gulf between the two ways of delineation.There is continuity and not a chasm between
them.Besides, the latter way of
exposition on the basis of eleven stages is chronologically prior, the credit
of logical priority comes to the former.

THE ELEVEN PRATIMAS:The eleven Pratimas which have been mentioned by Kundakunda,
Samantabhadra, Camundaraya, and Vasunandi are denominated 1) Darsana, 2) Vrata,
3) Samayika, 4) Prosadha, 5) Sacittatyaga, 6) Ratribuktityaga, 7) Brahamacarya,
8) Arambhatyaga, 9) Parigrahatyaga, 10) Anumatityaga, and 11)
Uddistatyaga.The usagadhasao also
speaks of eleven Pratimalas, but does not mention their names.Karttikeya enumerates twelve Pratimas but it
should not be considered as the violation of the traditional number which is
eleven since the first stage enumerated by Karttikeya isindicative of Samyagadarasana, i.e., of
spiritual conversion which has not been separately enumerated by other Acaryas
but has been included in the 1st stage mentionedby them.The remaining are the names of the eleven Primates.Hence, there is no divergence from
traditional enumeration.Somadeva, in
the first place, effects variation in the order of certain stages and secondly
substitutes 'Diva-Maithuna-virati' for 'Ratri-Bhukti-virati.The former deviation from the traditional
presentation has received no support at the hands of subsequent thinkers, while
the latter one has been assimilated in their ethical discussions.We shall presently dwell upon each of the
eleven Pratimas and shall swell as endeavor to point out that the
aforementioned three

_________________________

1 Sat. Vol. I-p. Kasaya
Pahuda. Vol. I. p. 130.

2 Caritra Pahuda. 22.3. Ratna. Srava. 137 to 147.

4. Vasu. Srava. 4.

5 uvasaga. 70. Abhayadeva, the commentator of the Uvasagadasao, mentions the
names of eleven Pratimas in the following way : 1) Darsana, 2)Vrata, 3)
Samayika, 4) prosadha, 5) Kayotasarga, 6) Abrahma-varjana, 7) Sacitta-tyaga, 8)
Arambhatyaga, 9) Presyatyaga, 10) Uddistatyaga and 11) Sramanabhuta. (Uvasaga.
Comm. pp. 74-77) we observe that the names of Pratimas given by the Svetambaras
are somewhat different from those given by teh Digambaras. But we shall point
out afterwards that the contents do not differ much.

6 Kartti. 305, 306. 7
Vasu. Srava. Intro. p. 50.

Vratas (Smayaika,
Prosadhopavasa, and Bhogopabhogaparimana) are capable of explaining the nine
stages of ethical headway.

DARSANA PRATIMA : The fist stage is Darsanapratima. After
the attainment of Samyadarsana the aspirant who should be styled Darsanika
Sravaka resolutely forsakes the use of odious things such as meat wine and the
like, and becomes indifferent to worldly and heavenly pleasures, and nourishes
the spirit of detachment. In conformity with the views of Vasunandi, he who has
acquired Samyagdarsana and has relinquished the use of five Udamabara fruits
and refrained himself from gambling, meat, wine, honey, hunting, prostitution,
adultery and stealing, should be designated as Darsanika Sravaka. In addition
to the relinquished of the above indulgences, Vasunandi very emphatically cries
down the practice of taking food at night, and argues that he who indulges in
eating at night cannot claim to be practicing even the observances of the first
stage. If we pause a little to ponder over these decline actions of the
observances of the first stage, we can very easily conceive that this stage
comprises the Mulagunas in addition to Samyagdarsana. Hence, the various
conceptions of Mulagunas may give us various enunciation's of the first stage.
It is in all probability due to the recognition of this fact that Somadeva
calls the first stage 'Mulavrata'. It will not be out place to point out that
the characterization of this stage in accordance with Vasunandi is so
comprehensive as to comprise under it all the preceding formulations concerning
Milagunas. It has not the stringency of Samantabhadra's and Jinasena's
conceptions of Mulagunas wherein five partial vows have been included and not
the excessive mildness of Somadeva's view. The pronouncement of the seven kinds
of additions to calamitous habits (saptavyasana)
tends towards the inclusion of the four types of sins to some extent, namely,
Himsa, falsehood, stealing and unchastity. Hence it is that in some measure the
view of Samantabhadra and Jinasena is included in it. We need not mention how
the Mulagunas prescribed by Amitagati, Somadeva are completely comprehended in
it.

_________________________

1 Karti. 328, 329.2 Ratna.
Srava. 137; Caritrasara. P. 3.

3 Vasu. Srava. 57 to 59.4
Ibid. 314.

5 Abhayadeva mentions under this stage only the attainment of
Samyagdarsana.

6 Vasu. Srava. 59; Vasu. Srava. Intro. P. 50.

7 Gambling, meat, wine, hunting, prostitution, adultery and stealing.

Thus Mulagunas and
Samyagdarsana may depict the 1ststage.
Just as the conception of Mulagunas is dynamic, so the portrayal of the first
stage will also be dynamic character. In other words, this stage is capable of
involving the abandonment of newly evolved evil tendencies that may mar the
spiritual and the moral advancement owing to Samyagdarsana. It is of capital
importance to note that the first stage is the stage of mental preparation
accompanied be the initial training of the will by following the short course
of ethical discipline. We regard the separate treatment of Mulguna as more
correct, than the one along with Samyagdarsana, since they are capable of being
observed even by the great majority of commonplace persons, by virtue of which
the social structure may be morally defended.

VRATA PRATIMA : The second stage is called Vrata pratima.
This second rung of the ladder of the householder's evolution of conduct
comprises the scrupulous observance of Anuvratas, Gunavratas and Siksavratas.2
We have already dwelt upon the nature of these vratas, so need not turn to them
again.

SAMAYIKA AND VRATA PRATIMA : The third and fourth stages
bear the designations of Samayika and Prosadha Pratimas respectively. Aquestion may be asked : when Samayika and
Prosadhopavasa have been treated as Siksavratas, why have they been regarded as
constituting the third and fourth Pratimas respectively ? It is really a question
and this becomes all the more puzzling when we find that Samantabhadra and
Karttikeya who recognise Samayika and Prosadha as both Vratas and Pratimas have
practically prescribed the same course of discipline to be observed. In
Samayika Pratima, Karttikeya has prescribed the resoluteness of mind, body and
speech despite all perils to life, while Samantabhadra has represented this
characteristic in Samayika as Vrata, but has distinguished Samayika as Pratima
by prescribing the

_________________________

1 Abhayadeva prescribes only
the observance of the Anuvratas in this stage. (Uvasaga. comm. p. 76)

2 Ratna. Srava. 3178/ Vasi/
Srava/ 207.

3 Abhayadeva also recognises
the performance of Samayika and the observance of Prosadhopavasa in these two
Pratimas ( See uvasaga. Comm. p. 76)

4 Kartti. 371, 372. 5
Ratna. Srava. 103.

necessity of performing
Samayika thrice a day, which characteristic has been included in Samayika as
Vrata according to Karttikeya. In Prosadha as Pratima and Prosada as Vrata no
significant distinction has been made by Karttikeya and Samantabhandra. We may
now say that the distinction which has been made is quite insignificant for
being calculated as supplying the adequate warrant for recognising these Vratas
as indecent Pratimas. The argument of Asadhara that these Silas, which were
subserving the purpose of guarding the Anuvratas, become in Pratimas
independent Vratas, bears little cogency, since though these Silas, no doubt
serve the purpose of custodian, yet it is unintelligible how they cancel the
designation of being called Vratas. The word 'Sills' prefixed to Vratas evinces
simply particularisation and not the cancellation of their being understood as
Vratas. May be, on account of this overt duplication, Vasunandi has totally set
aside these Vratas from Salivates, and his simply represented them as the two
Pratimas. If Kundakunda and Karttikeya have wedded with this mode of
delineation, i.e., have recognised Samayika and Prosadha as both Vratas and
Pratimas, it is to point out their paramount importance for marching towards
deep spiritual life. As a matter of fact, these sum up the entire spiritual
life of the householder. Besides, Samayika and Prosadhopavasa are closely
interrelated and so influence each other. Prosadhopavasa assists in the due
performance of Samayika and sometimes Samayika encourages the performance of
the other with purity and zeal. Thus if Vasunandi is theoretically justifiable,
Kundakunda and Karttikeya are practically so. In the science of spirituality
theory cannot countervail practice. So, if these two Vratas are elevated to the
rank of Pratimas, it is to favor the deepening of spiritual consciousness, and
hence it is justifiable.

THE REMAINING PRATIMAS : Having vindicated the claims of
Samayika and Prosadhopavsa as Pratimas notwithstanding their recognition in
Vratas, we now proceed to enquire into the nature of the remaining Pratimas.
All the subsequent stages rest on the relinquishment of Bhoga and Upabhoga.
Sacittaga Pratima consists in renouncing the use of articles having life,
namely, roots, fruits, leaves, barks, seeds

_________________________

1 Ratna. Srav. 139.

2 Kartti. 354.

3 Saga. Dhama. VII. 6.

and the like. The observer
of the discipline prescribed by this stage does not also feed others with those
things which he himself has renounced. The next stage is recognised to be
either 'Ratri Bhuktivirati' or 'Divamaithunvirati.' Kundakunda, Karttikeya and
Samantabhadra subscribeto the former
view while the other authors like Amitagati, Chmundaraya, Vasunandi , Somadeva
and Asadhana recognise 'Divamaithunavirati', i.e., abstinence from sexual
intercourse in the day. According to Karttikeya he who has ascended this stage
neither eats food nor feeds others at night nor suggest others to do so. We may
now say that this stage refers to the limitations of both Bhoga and Upabhoga.
The next stage known as Brahmacarya Pratima prescribes absolute continence.
This is indicative of the further limitation in the objects of Upabhoga. The
eighth stages of householder's advancement which is known as Arambhatyaga
signifies the discontinuance of service, cultivation, business, in short, the
means of live hood. Besides, he neither suggests others to do business etc.,
nor commends those who are doing so. The next stage, namely, Parigrahatyaga
Pratima enjoins the abandonment of all kinds of accusations except clothes, and
in those too the observer is not attached. The statement of Samantabhadra and
Karttikeya that the observer of this stage should renounce all kinds

2 kartti. 380. Abhayadeva
calls this pratima by the name of Kayotsaga and regards this as the fifth in
order and includes in it the avoidance of cohabitation in the da. he also
prescribes the observance of the Gunavratas and the Siksavratas in addition to
the Anuvratas in this Pratima. (uvasaga. Comm. p. 76)

3 Caritra pahuda. 22. 4
kartti. 382. 5. Ratna. Srava.
142.

6 Amita. Srava. VII. 727
Caritrasara. p. 38.8 Vasu. Srava. 296.

9 Vasu. Srava. Intro. p. 50.10.
Saga. Dharma. VII. 12.

11 Jarttu, 384. Vasu. Srava.
297. Ratna. Srava. 1432. saga. Dhrma. VII. 16. Abhayadeva defines it in the
same way, though the order of the pratima is the sixth.

12 Ratna. Srava. 144. Vasun.
Srava. 298. Abhayadeva holds that the aspirant himself should not indulge in
any activity for livelihood.

13 Kartti. 385. 14. Vasu. Srava. 299

of Parigraha internal as well as external should mean the
renouncement of all Parigraha except clothes. In the tenth stage, the aspirant
refuses to give advice or suggestion regarding mattes concerning the
householder, hence it is called Anumatityaga Pratima. Here all theobjects of Bhoga and Upabhoga have been
renounced except clothes, and proper food cooked for him. The highest point of
householder's discipline is arrived at in the eleventh stage when the aspirant
renounces home and goes to the forest where ascetics dwell and accepts vows in
the presence of a Guru. He performs austerities, lives on food obtained by
begging, and wears a piece of lion-cloth. Thus he is designed as excellent
Sravaka and the stages is called Uddistatyaga Pratima. Vasunandi gives a twofold
classification of this stage, first, the excellent Sravaka with one cloth, and
secondly the same with the one lion-cloth. The former applies instruments for
cutting of his hair. Keeps broom to avoid injury to small living beings, takes
meals once a day either in the palm of his hand or in some pot in a sitting
posture, and observes fast by renouncing all kinds of food on the four pious
days (Astami and Caturdasi ) of the month. This distinguishes him from the
latter who pulls out his hairs, and takes his meals in the palm of his hand,
other things being common to both. In both the cases, food is begged either
from one house after the monks have taken their meals and fast is observed if
food is not obtained from there, or from different houses in case food is not
received at one house.

THE THIRD WAY AS THE SYSTEMATIC AND ALL-INCLUSIVE EXPOSITON
OF THE HOUSEHOLDERS ETHICAL DISCIPLINE : We witness a third way of

_________________________1. Kartti. 386.Ratna. Srava. 145.Abhayadeva recognisesneirther
the Parigrahatyaga Pratima nor the Anumatityaga Pratime.He speak of Presytyaga Pratima, which
implies the esfusal to make use of other for livelihood.

2. Kartti. 388. Ratna.Srava. 146. Vasu.Srava.300.

3. Ranta. Srava.147. According to Abhayadeva, in the Uddistatyaga Pratima the aspirant
does not take food prepared for himself; he either shaves his head or keeps a
top- knot.In the Sramanabhuta Pratima
he either shaves his head or pulls out his hair.Besides he keeps a broom and a begging bowl (Uvasga
comm.pp.76-77)These two stage almost
correspond to the two-fold division made by Vaunandi as mentioned above.

4. Vasu.Srava.301

5. Vasu.Srava.302,303,311; Saga. Dharma.VII.39,40.

6.Vasu.Srava.304 to 309, Saga.Dharma. VII. 41 to 44, 46.

representing the
house-holder's ethical discipline. This has emerged on account of the tendency
of comprehensive systematisation. Sallekhana (to be henceforth discussed) which
is included by Kundakunda in Vratas is taken out by other Acaeyas from the
extent of the Vratas and is given a separate place. Besides, the Mulagunas, the
Vratas, and the Pratimas appear to be somewhat detached from one another.
Though the conception of Pratimas is capable of including Mulagunas and Vratas,
yet it mingles Mulagunas with Samyagdarsana. Thus it detaches Mulagunas from
their original function for which they have been designed, namely, for
preparing commonplace persons morally and for deciding the minimum of morality.
Again, though Mulagunas and Vratas along with Samayagdarsana are capable of
giving rise to Pratimas, yet Sallekhana remains isolated. Thus the conception
of Pratimas suffers from two defects; first, of curbing the freedom of
Mulagunas to embrace wide extent, and secondly, of not including Sallekhana
within them; and the conception of Mulagunas and Vratas along with
Samyagdarsana, from one defect of not comprising Sallekhana with their purview.
Probably keeping this in view, Jinasena has devised an all-comprehen-sive way
for describing the Acara into Paksa, Carya and Sadhana. The follower of this
discipline is called Paksika, Naisthika, and Sadhana respectively. Asadhara has
adopted this way as the basis of his Sagaradharmamrta.
He who has set his face against the intentional injury to all mobile living
beings, and who observes Mulagunas is called Paksika. He is to abstain himself
from wine, meat, honey, five kinds of Udambara fruits and seven kinds of bad
habits already mentioned, and from eating corn-food at night. He is further to
devote himself to worship Arahantas, revere Gurus, offer gifts to the Patras
and try to earn fame by meritorious deeds of charity and the like. Besides, he
should practice universal friendship, appreciate meritorious personages, be
compassionate towards the miserable and be indifferent towards the perverted.
The aspirant who devotes himself to the observance of Pratimas which also
include Vratas in styled Naisthika. And lastly, he who practises Sallekhana is
called Sadhaka. Thus we see that all the previous ways of describing the
householder's discipline have been properly harmonised.

_________________________

1 Adipurana. 145.2Saga. Dharma. I-19, II-2.

3 Saga. Dharma. II. 17,
76.4 Ibid. I. 19.

NATURE OF SALLEKHANA AS DISTINGUISHED FROM SUICIDE :After reconciling the threefold ways of
describing the householder's ethical discipline, we now proceed to explain the
conception of Sallekhana as recognised in Jainism. It implies the enervation of
external body and internal passions in a legitimate way by the gradual removal
of the causes of their nourishment so that one may renounce the present body
with a view to having a new bodily modification. To be more clear, the
abandonment of the bodily frame on being confronted with the uneschewable
calamity, famine, senility, and disease for the sustenance of spiritual
practices has been regarded as Sallekhana. This signifies thatthe process of Sallekhana is to be adopted
either in special circumstances when the religious observances are being endangered
on account of unavoidable bodily infirmities and the like, or on the occasion
when the time of natural death has been in all probability. No doubt, the body
which is the medium of the upliftment of the soul is to be properly nourished
and cared for and the diseases are to be seriously met with any retreat. But if
the body refuse to respond to our earnest endeavors, we should not falter to
forsake it like a villain in the interest of saving the peace of mind. Thus if
one is encountered with the causes of the termination of duration of the present
life one should resort to the performance of the process of Sallekhana, which
is not other than the spiritual welcome to death. This is not yielding to
death, but a way of meeting the challenge of death undauntedly and adequately.
This happy embracement of death has been calculated to carry the spiritual
dispositions to the next birth, but it is not very easy to practice. Those who
have submitted themselves to vicious deeds throughout their lives cannot easily
think to adopt the process of Sallekhana. Thus it requires an earnest endeavour
from the start. Samantabhadra declares that austerities, if they have been
truly, deeply, and successfully performed, must bear the fruits of noble death.
"Self-restraint, study, austerities, worship, and charity, all become
useless if the mind is not pure at the last hour of life. Just as the training
of a king who has learnt the use of weapons for twelve years, becomes useless
if he faints on the battle field." It is to be remembered that the mere
loss of the strength of the body is of no

consequence if it does not
lead to the conquest of passions. The flagellation of the body must issue in
the denial of passions. The resignation of body to death has not been
considered to be as difficult as the observing of self-control, and the fixing
of one's mind in the Atman, when the vital forces depart from the body. Thus
the emphasis is on thee rejection of passion, and consequently this noble death
serves for the fulfillment of Ahimsa. It is on account of this insistence on
the abnegation of passion that the process of Sallekhana must needs be
distinguished from suicide which is perpetrated by the cruel dominance of
passions through the mal-agency of water, fire, poison, inhibition of breath
and the like. Suicide is easy when compared with the adequate performance of
Sallekhana. The latter is undertaken only when the body fails to answer to the
spiritual needs of the individual and when the inevitability of death is a
matter of undisputed certainty; while suicide may be committed at any time in
the life time under the spell of emotional disturbance or passionate attitude
of mind.

PROCESS OF SALLEKHANA : To deal with the process of
Sallekhana, the aspirant must attain the purity of mind by renouncing
attachment, aversion and infatuation. Afterwards in modest and sweet words he
should make his earnest request to the members of his family and others around
him to pardon him for the vicious deeds committed by him to afflict them
wittingly and unwittingly. He should also forgive them from the bottom of his
heart for being troubled by them on certain occasions. He should then practice
the five Mahavratas and engage himself in the study of scriptures with adequate
zeal without allowing himself to be seduced by grief, fear, hatred, and the
like. Nourishment is to be renounced gradually so that mental disturbance may
be avoided. The persistence of equanimous mental state is the prime necessity.
The physical renunciation of food to enervate the body must needs be balanced
by the enhancement of the strength of the spirit. In other words, the gradual
renunciation of the causes of physical nourishment. In the first place, only
milk and whey should be continued after having abandoned the solid food, then

_________________________

1 Saga. Dharma VIII. 22. 2.
Ibid. VIII. 24.

3. Puu. 179. 4.
Puru. 178

5 Ratana. Srava. 124 to 128.

after giving up even the
former, only hot water should be taken. Subsequently fasting should be
observed. Then after entirely devoting himselfto the meditation on the fivefold holy names of Arahanta, Siddha,
Acarya, Upadhyaya and Sadhuy, the aspirant should bid fare well it his body.

While practising Sallekhana, the
Sadhaka should avoid the following faults : 1) desire to live, 2) desire to
die, 3) remembrance of friends, 4) revival of past pleasures, and 5)
expectations for future prosperity. Samantabhandra takes out 'revival of past
pleasure' and puts 'fear' in its place. According to the Uvasagadasao the
defects are 1) longing for this world, 2) longing for the next world, 3)
longing for life, 4) longing for death, and 5) longing for sensual pleasures.