Marine fisheries

The
global state of exploitation of the world marine fishery resources has tended
to remain relatively stable over the past 10-15 years, even if changes have
been reported for some fish stocks and specific areas (Figure 18). the overall
examination of the state of stocks and groups of stocks for which information
is available confirms that the proportions of overexploited and depleted stocks
have remained unchanged in recent years, after the noticeable increasing trends
observed in the 1970s and 1980s. It is estimated that in 2005, as in previous
years, around one-quarter of the stock groups monitored by FAO were underexploited
or moderately exploited (3 percent and 20 percent, respectively) and could
perhaps produce more. About half of the stocks (52 percent) were fully
exploited and therefore producing catches that were at or close to their
maximum sustainable limits, with no room for further expansion. the other
one-quarter were either overexploited, depleted or recovering from depletion
(17 percent, 7 percent and 1 percent, respectively) and thus were yielding less
than their maximum potential owing to excess fishing pressure exerted in the
past, with no possibilities in the short or medium term of further expansion
and with an increased risk of further declines and need for rebuilding.

Since
FAO started monitoring the global state of stocks in 1974, there has been a
consistent downward trend from almost 40 percent in 1974 to 23 percent in 2005
in the proportions of underexploited and moderately exploited stocks, which are
those offering some potential for expansion. At the same time, there has been
an increasing trend in the proportion of overexploited and depleted stocks,
from about 10 percent in the mid-1970s to around 25 percent in the early 1990s,
where it has stabilized until the present, while the proportions of fully
exploited stocks declined from slightly over 50 percent in 1974 to around 45
percent in the early 1990s, increasing to 52 percent in 2005 (Figure 19).

Most
of the stocks of the top ten species, which account in total for about 30
percent of the world capture fisheries production in terms of quantity (Figure
6 on p. 11), are fully exploited or overexploited and therefore cannot be
expected to produce major increases in catches. this is the case for the
anchoveta (Engraulis ringens), with two main stocks in the Southeast Pacific that are fully exploited
and overexploited; the Alaska pollock (Theragra
chalcogramma), which is fully exploited in the North Pacific; the blue
whiting (Micromesistius poutassou), which is overexploited in the Northeast Atlantic; the Atlantic herring (Clupea
harengus), with several stocks that
are fully exploited and others that are recovering from depletion in the North
Atlantic; the Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus), which is fully
exploited in the Northeast Pacific; the Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus
murphyi), which is fully exploited and overexploited in the Southeast
Pacific; and the yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), which is fully
exploited in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and probably moderately to fully
exploited in the Indian Ocean. Some stocks of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus
pelamis) are fully exploited while some are still reported as moderately
exploited, particularly in the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
where they offer some limited possibilities for further expansion of fisheries
production. Some limited possibilities for expansion are also offered by a few
stocks of chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), which are moderately
exploited in the Eastern Pacific while other stocks are already fully
exploited. the largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) is considered fully
overexploited in the main fishing area in the Northwest Pacific, but its state
of exploitation is unknown elsewhere.

The
percentage of stocks exploited at or beyond their maximum sustainable levels
varies greatly by area. the major fishing areas with the highest proportions
(69-77 percent) of fully exploited stocks are the Western Central Atlantic, the
Eastern Central Atlantic, the Northwest Atlantic, the Western Indian Ocean and
the Northwest Pacific, while the areas with the highest proportions (46-60
percent) of overexploited, depleted and recovering stocks are the Southeast
Atlantic, the Southeast Pacific, the Northeast Atlantic and the high seas,
particularly those in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans for tuna and tuna-like
species. Few areas of the world report a relatively high number (48-70 percent)
of still underexploited or moderately exploited stocks, as is the case for the
Eastern Central Pacific, Western Central Pacific and Southwest Pacific, while
20-30 percent of stocks still considered moderately exploited or underexploited
are reported for the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Southwest Atlantic and Eastern Indian Ocean.

Four
FAO major fishing areas produce almost 68 percent of the world marine catches.
the Northwest Pacific is the most productive, with a total catch of 21.6
million tonnes (25 percent of total marine catches) in 2004, followed by the
Southeast Pacific, with a total catch of 15.4 million tonnes (18 percent of
marine total), and the Western Central Pacific and Northeast Atlantic, with
11.0 and 9.9 million tonnes (13 and 12 percent, respectively), in the same
year.

In
the Northwest Pacific, large changes in the abundance of Japanese pilchard (or
sardine), Japanese anchovy and Alaska
pollock have occurred in response to heavy fishing and to natural decadal
oscillations. After a period of high abundance in the 1980s, the Japanese
pilchard declined followed by a strong recovery of the Japanese anchovy
population, which has been supporting catches of 1.8 to 2.0 million tonnes per
year, with 1.8 million tonnes in 2004, while catches of Japanese pilchard
remained low with only 230 000 tonnes in 2004 – a fraction of the annual yield
of more than 5 million tonnes in the 1980s. this alternation of sardine (or
pilchard) and anchovy stocks follows a pattern also observed in other regions
that seem to be governed by climatic regimes affecting stock distribution and
overall fish abundance. the stocks of Alaska
pollock in the Northwest Pacific are fully exploited, as is the case in the
Northeast Pacific.

In
the Southeast Pacific, the anchoveta has fully recovered after the severe El
Niño event of 1997–98 and produced a total catch of 10.7 million tonnes in
2004. Catches of Chilean jack mackerel totalled 1.8 million tonnes in the same
year – about one-third of the historical peak production reached in 1995 –
while the stock of South American pilchard remains very low, producing a small
fraction of the record catches of the 1980s and early 1990s. the Chilean jack
mackerel and, particularly, the South American pilchard are in a decadal cycle
of natural low abundance and there are no signs of a reversal at present.

The
Western Central Pacific is very varied in terms of species caught. the higher
catches are produced by the skipjack tuna, which is considered fully exploited
in the area. Various species of sardinellas are considered moderately or fully exploited, as are
various species of scads and mackerels. Less is known about the miscellaneous
coastal fishes being exploited in the area, although some ponyfishes, breams
and catfishes are still moderately exploited, while others are reported as
fully or overexploited.

In
the Northeast Atlantic, catches of blue
whiting continue to increase steeply and the species is considered
overexploited. Most stocks of Atlantic cod in the area are also overexploited
or depleted, while capelin and herring are exploited to their full potential.
the Atlantic horse mackerel and the Atlantic mackerel are also fully exploited.

Overall,
more than 75 percent of world fish stocks for which assessment information is
available are reported as already fully exploited or overexploited (or depleted
and recovering from depletion), reinforcing earlier observations that the
maximum wild capture fisheries potential from the world’s oceans has probably
been reached and calls for a more cautious and closely controlled development
and management of world fisheries. While this observation applies generally to
all fisheries, the situation seems more critical for some highly migratory,
straddling and other fishery resources that are exploited solely or partially
in the high seas. A recent FAO review of the world’s highly migratory,
straddling and other high seas fishery resources notes that while the state of
exploitation of highly migratory tunas and tuna-like species is similar to that
of all fish stocks tracked by FAO, the state of highly migratory oceanic sharks
seems to be more problematic, with more than half of the stocks for which
information is available being listed as overexploited or depleted.11
Evidence seems to suggest that the state of straddling stocks and of other high
seas fishery resources is even more problematic than for highly migratory
species, with nearly two-thirds of the stocks for which the state of
exploitation can be determined being classified as overexploited or depleted.
Although these high seas fishery resources represent only a small fraction of
the world fishery resources upon which millions of people are critically
dependent for their food and livelihood, these correspond to fish stocks that
are key indicators of the state of an overwhelming part of the ocean ecosystem,
which appears to be more overexploited than the EEZs. the UN Fish Stock
Agreement that entered into force in 2001 is leading to the implementation of measures
that are expected to be beneficial in the medium to long term to species fished
on the high seas.12

Inland fisheries

The
nature of many inland fisheries makes assessment of their status extremely
difficult. Inland fisheries often use multiple fishing gear to harvest a
complex array of species for which catch rates are strongly influenced by
seasonality. Catches are frequently not recorded by species or not recorded at
all. Additionally, inland fisheries are often practised in remote areas by the
poorer sectors of society. these factors make collecting accurate information
on inland fisheries extremely costly for public administrations and many do not
collect such information or make assessments of the status
of inland fishery resources. to determine the status of marine fishery
resources, FAO relies on a network of fishery scientists, the use of expert
knowledge and catch and other statistics. No such network exists for inland
fisheries and the catch statistics are generally inadequate for use as a measure
of stock status. FAO is not therefore in a position to make accurate global
statements on the status of inland fishery resources.

Nevertheless,
fishery scientists have undertaken some partial assessments. A recent review
pointed to the overfished state of many inland fisheries.13 It
identified two types of overfishing: intensive targeting of individual species
and assemblage or ecosystem overfishing.

Targeted
fishing for large freshwater fish species in several major river systems in
Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, the Near East, North America and South America
has led to a decline in fish abundance. Of the fish targeted in these
fisheries, 10 out of 21 species were assessed as being vulnerable or in danger
of extinction; for the remaining 11 species the available data were
insufficient to assess their status or no assessment was undertaken.

Assemblage
overfishing is most common in tropical areas with high species diversity and
where local communities depend on a diverse inland fish harvest. this situation
prevails in Tonle Sap, a major component of the Mekong
river Basin. It was stated in The State of World
Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 that this basin showed signs of
overfishing, yet in 2005 catches from the Tonle Sap
were reported as being the largest since records began. However, fishery
scientists have pointed out that in that year signs of overfishing were
apparent in that the catch consisted mostly of small fish. In addition, catches
are reported to have been even higher in past, before official records were
kept.

Efforts
are under way in many areas to improve the status of selected inland fishery
resources through restocking programmes, habitat rehabilitation and improved
fishery management. While habitat rehabilitation is a widespread activity in
many developed countries, it is not common in developing countries and its
efficacy in improving fish stocks has not been evaluated in most cases (see pp.
107–112). Also, the management of rice-based ecosystems for biodiversity,
together with the use of alien species and stocking of inland water bodies,
continues to improve the fishery resources of many areas, primarily in Asia.14

Globally,
inland fishery resources appear to be continuing to decline as a result of
habitat degradation and overfishing. this trend – which is in large part a
result of the growing quantities of freshwater being used for hydropower generation
and agriculture - is unlikely to be reversed as long as countries do not see
inland fisheries as a growth sector. And they are not likely to want to
reconsider this viewpoint until they have accurate information on these
fisheries and their value to society now and in the future.

In
2004, about 75 percent (105.6 million tonnes) of estimated world fish
production was used for direct human consumption (see table 1 on p. 3). the
remaining 25 percent (34.8 million tonnes) was destined for non-food products,
in particular the manufacture of fishmeal and oil. If China is
excluded, the quantities were 68.9 million tonnes and 24.0 million tonnes,
respectively (see table 2 and Figure 2 on pp. 4 and 5). More than 77 percent
(37 million tonnes) of China’s
reported fish production (47.5 million tonnes) was apparently used for direct
human consumption, the bulk of which in fresh form. the remaining amount (an
estimated 10.8 million tonnes) was reduced to fishmeal and other non-food uses,
including direct feed for aquaculture.

In
2004, 61 percent (86 million tonnes) of the world’s fish production underwent
some form of processing. Fifty-nine percent (51 million tonnes) of this
processed fish was used for manufacturing products for direct human consumption
in frozen, cured and canned form and the rest for non-food uses. the many
options for processing fish allow for a wide range of tastes and presentations,
making fish one of the most versatile food commodities. Yet, unlike many other
food products, processing does not necessarily increase the price of the final
product and fresh fish is often the most highly priced product form. During the
1990s, the proportion of fish marketed in live/fresh
form worldwide increased compared with other products (Figure 20). Live/fresh
fish quantities rose from an estimated 35 million tonnes in 1994 to 55 million
tonnes in 2004, representing an increase in its share of total production from
31 percent to 39 percent. Freezing is the main method of processing fish for
food use, accounting for 53 percent of total processed fish for human
consumption in 2004, followed by canning (24 percent) and curing (23 percent).
In developed countries (Figure 21), the proportion of fish that is frozen has
been constantly increasing, and in 2004 accounted for 40 percent of total
production. In comparison, the share of frozen products was 13 percent of total
production in developing countries, where fish is largely marketed in
live/fresh/chilled form.

Utilization of fish production shows marked
continental, regional and national differences. the proportion of cured fish is
higher in Africa (17 percent in 2004) and Asia
(11 percent) compared with other continents. In 2004, in Europe and North America, more than two-thirds of fish used for
human consumption was in frozen and canned forms. In Africa and Asia, the share of fish marketed in live or fresh forms
was particularly
high. unfortunately, it is not possible to determine the exact amount of fish
marketed in live form from available statistics. the sale of live fish to
consumers and restaurants is especially strong in Southeast Asia and the Far East.

In
2004, the bulk of the fishery products used for non-food purposes came from
natural stocks of small pelagics. Most of these fishery products were used as
raw material for the production of animal feed and other products. Ninety
percent of world fish production (excluding China) destined for non-food
purposes was reduced to fishmeal/ oil; the remaining 10 percent was largely
utilized as direct feed in aquaculture and for fur animals. the quantities of
fish used as raw material for fishmeal in 2004 reached about 25.5 million
tonnes, representing a 17 percent increase compared with 2003, but was still
well below peak levels of more than 30 million tonnes recorded in 1994.

Global
per capita fish16 consumption has increased over the past four
decades, rising from 9.0 kg in 1961 to an estimated 16.5 kg in 2003. China has been
responsible for most of this increase: its estimated share of world fish
production grew from 21 percent in 1994 to 34 percent in 2003, when its per
capita fish supply stood at around 25.8 kg. If China is excluded, the per capita
fish supply is about 14.2 kg, almost the same as during the mid-1980s. During
the 1990s, world per capita fish supply, excluding China, was relatively stable at
13.2-13.8 kg. this can mainly be attributed to a higher population growth than
that of food fish supply during the 1990s (1.6 percent per annum compared with
1.1 percent, respectively). Since the early 2000s, there has been an inversion
of this trend, with higher food fish supply growth than that of population (2.4
percent per annum compared with 1.1 percent). Preliminary estimates for 2004
indicate a slight increase of global per capita fish supply, to about 16.6 kg.

Global
per capita food consumption has also been improving in recent decades.
Nutritional standards have shown positive long-term trends with worldwide
increases in the average global calorie supply per person (a rise of 16 percent
since 1969–71 to reach 2 795 kcal/person/day in 2000-02, with the developing
country average expanding by more than 25 percent) and in the quantity of
proteins per person (from 65.1 g in 1970 to 76.3 g in 2003). Yet distributional
disparities continue to exist. In 2001-03, according to FAO estimates, 856
million people in the world were undernourished, 61 percent of whom were living
in Asia and the Pacific and 820 million in the developing countries overall.
the highest prevalence of undernourishment is found in sub-Saharan Africa,
where 32 percent of the population were undernourished, while an estimated 16
percent of the population were estimated to be undernourished in Asia and the Pacific.

Fish
is highly nutritious, rich in micronutrients, minerals, essential fatty acids
and proteins, and represents a valuable supplement to diets otherwise lacking
essential vitamins and minerals. In many countries, especially developing
countries, the average per capita fish consumption may be low, but, even in
small quantities, fish can have a significant positive impact on improving the
quality of dietary protein by complementing the essential amino acids that are
often present only in low quantities in vegetable-based diets. It is estimated
that fish contributes up to 180 kilocalories per person per day, but reaches
such high levels only in a few countries where there is a lack of alternative
foods, and where a preference for fish has been developed and maintained (for
example in Iceland, Japan and some small island developing states). Generally,
on average, fish provides about 20–30 kilocalories per person per day. the
dietary contribution of fish is more significant in terms of fish proteins,
which are a crucial component in some densely populated countries where total
protein intake levels may be low. For instance, fish contributes to, or
exceeds, 50 percent of total animal protein intake in some small island
developing states, as well as in Bangladesh,
Equatorial Guinea, the Gambia, Guinea,
Indonesia, Myanmar, Senegal, Sierra
Leone and Sri
Lanka. Globally, fish provides more than 2.8
billion people with almost 20 percent of their average per capita intake of
animal protein. the contribution of fish proteins to total world animal protein
supplies rose from 13.7 percent in 1961 to a peak of 16.0 percent in 1996,
before declining somewhat to 15.5 percent in
2003. Corresponding figures for the world, excluding China, show an increase from 12.9
percent in 1961 to 15.4 percent in 1989, slightly declining since then to 14.6
percent in 2003. Figure 22 presents the contributions of major food groups to
total protein supplies.

In industrialized countries (table 10), apparent
fish consumption grew from 13 million tonnes (live weight equivalent) in 1961
to 27 million tonnes in 2003, with an increase in annual per capita consumption17
from 20.0 kg to 29.7 kg during the same period. the contribution of fish to total
protein intake rose remarkably during the period 1961-89 (between 6.5 percent
and 8.5 percent), before gradually declining owing to the increase in
consumption of other animal proteins; by 2003, its share (7.8 percent) was back
at the levels prevailing in the mid-1980s. Since the early 1990s, the
consumption of fish protein has remained relatively stable at around 8.2–8.6 g per
capita per day, while the intake of other animal proteins has continued to
grow.

Table 10Total and per capita food fish
supply by continent and economic grouping in 2003

Total food supply

(Million tonnes live weight equivalent)

Per capita food supply

(kg/year)

World

104.1

16.5

World excluding china

71.1

14.2

Africa

7.0

8.2

North and Central America

9.4

18.6

South America

3.1

8.7

China

33.1

25.8

Asia (excluding China)

36.3

14.3

Europe

14.5

19.9

Oceania

0.8

23.5

Industrialized countries

27.4

29.7

Economies in transition

4.3

10.6

LIFDCs (excluding China)

23.8

8.7

Developing countries excluding LIFDCs

15.8

15.5

Until
the mid-1980s, the average per capita apparent fish supply in LIFDCs was
one-quarter of the estimated supply in industrialized countries. the gap has
been reduced progressively, with stronger growth since the mid-1990s (+2.1
average annual percentage growth during 1995-2003). In 2003, at 14.1 kg it
stood at about a half of that of industrialized countries (29.7 kg) and 60
percent of the per capita fish supply of developed countries (23.9 kg).
However, if China
is excluded, per capita supply in the other LIFDCs is still relatively low, at
an estimated 8.7 kg in 2003, with a growth rate of 1.3 percent per year since
1993. Notwithstanding the relatively low fish consumption by weight in LIFDCs
(excluding China),
the contribution of fish to total animal protein intake in 2003 was significant
at about 20 percent, and may be higher than indicated by official statistics in
view of the unrecorded contribution of subsistence fisheries. Yet, since 1975,
when it peaked at 24.1 percent, this share has slightly declined notwithstanding
the continued growth of fish protein consumption (from 2.2 g to 2.7 g during
1975-2003). this is because of the increase in the consumption of other animal
proteins.

Fish
consumption is distributed unevenly around the globe, with marked continental,
regional and national differences as well as income-related variations (Figures
23 and 24). Per capita apparent fish consumption can vary from less than 1 kg
per capita to more than 100 kg. Geographical differences are also evident
within countries, with consumption usually being higher in coastal areas. For
example, 104 million tonnes were available globally for consumption in 2003,
but only 7.0 million tonnes were consumed in Africa (8.2 kg per capita);
two-thirds of the total were consumed in Asia, of which 36.3 million tonnes
were consumed outside China (14.3 kg per capita) and 33.1 million tonnes in
China alone (25.8 kg per capita). Per capita consumption in Oceania was 23.5
kg, in North America 23.8 kg, in Europe 19.9 kg, in Central America and the
Caribbean 9.4 kg and in South America 8.7 kg.

During
the past few years, major increases in the quantity of fish consumed originated
from aquaculture, which in 2004 was estimated to have contributed 43 percent of
the total amount of fish available for human consumption. Aquaculture production
has pushed the demand and consumption for several high-value species such as
shrimps, salmon and bivalves. Since the mid-1980s, these species have shifted
from being primarily wild-caught to being primarily aquaculture-produced, with
a decrease in their prices and a strong increase in their commercialization. Aquaculture
has also had a major role in terms of food security in several developing
countries, particularly in Asia, for the
significant production of some low-value freshwater species, which are mainly
destined for domestic consumption. For the world excluding China, the
average contribution of aquaculture to per capita supply grew from 13.7 percent
in 1994 to an estimated 21.4 percent in 2004, corresponding to an increase from 1.8 kg per capita in 1994 to 2.9 kg
per capita in 2004 (an average annual growth of 4.8 percent). Corresponding figures
for China
indicate an increase from 61.6 percent in 1994 to 83.4 percent in 2004. During
the past decade, the per capita supply from aquaculture in China is
reported to have increased from 10.9 kg in 1994 to 23.7 kg in 2004, implying an
annual average growth of 8.1 percent (Figure 25).

Differences
in consumption patterns by species are marked. Demersal fish are preferred in
northern Europe and North America, whereas cephalopods are mainly consumed in
several Mediterranean and Asian countries. the
consumption of crustaceans, being high-priced commodities, is mostly
concentrated in affluent economies. Of the 16.5 kg of fish per capita available
for consumption in 2003, around 75 percent were finfish. Shellfish supplied 25
percent – or about 4.2 kg per capita, subdivided into 1.5 kg of crustaceans,
0.6 kg of cephalopods and 2.1 kg of other molluscs. Freshwater and diadromous
species accounted for 30 million tonnes of the total supply (about 4.8 kg per
capita). Marine finfish species provided more than 46 million tonnes, of which
18.4 million tonnes were demersal species, 19.8 million tonnes pelagics and 8.4
million tonnes unidentified marine fish. the remaining share of the total food
supply consisted of shellfish, of which 9.4 million tonnes were crustaceans,
3.6 million tonnes cephalopods and 13.4 million tonnes other molluscs.
Historically, there have been no dramatic changes in the share of most of the
broader groups
in average world consumption; demersal and pelagic fish species have stabilized
at around 3.0 kg per capita. Crustaceans and molluscs are exceptions in that
they showed a considerable increase between 1961 and 2003. the per capita
availability of crustaceans increased more than threefold, from 0.4 kg to 1.5
kg (mainly as a result of the increased production of shrimps and prawns from aquaculture),
and the availability of molluscs (excluding cephalopods) increased from 0.6 kg
to 2.1 kg per capita.

In
recent years, both fish consumption and overall food consumption have been
influenced by complex interactions involving several demographic and economic
transformations such as population growth; rising incomes and economic growth;
rapid urbanization; increased female participation in the workforce; increased
international trade; international agreements on trade, rules, tariffs and
quality standards; and improvements in transportation, marketing, and food
science and technology. All these factors, together with developments in
production, processing and prices of commodities, have had a remarkable impact
on dietary habits, particularly in developing countries. During recent decades,
the increased food consumption of developing countries has been characterized
by a shift towards more proteins and vegetables in the diet, with a reduction
of the share of basic cereals. For instance, the per capita consumption of meat
has increased from 15.1 kg in 1983 to 28.9 kg in 2003, consumption of fish has
grown from 7.7 kg to 14.6 kg and that of vegetables from 56.1 kg to 118.7 kg in
the same period. these changes in dietary habits have been particularly driven
by the impact of rapid urbanization (which increased from a share of 26 percent
of total population in 1975 to 43 percent in 2005) combined with the
transformations in food distribution. Several developing countries, especially
in Asia and Latin America, have experienced a
rapid expansion of supermarkets, which are not only targeting higher-income
consumers but also lower- and middle-income consumers. Supermarkets are thus
emerging as a major force in developing countries, offering consumers a wider
choice, reduced seasonality and lower prices of food products – and often safer
food.

Dietary
habits are also changing in developed countries, where incomes are generally
high and basic dietary needs have long been more than satisfied, leading
consumers to look for more variety in their diets. Simultaneously, the average
consumer is becoming increasingly health- and diet-conscious and usually sees
fish as having a positive impact on health. Markets have become more flexible
and new products and species have found market niches. the trend, for fish as
well as for other food products, is to provide
greater value addition in the catering and retail markets, thus making the
products easier for consumers to prepare. Alongside traditional preparations,
developments in food science and technology, combined with improved
refrigeration and the use of microwave ovens, are making convenience foods,
ready-to-cook or ready-to-eat products, coated products and other value-added
items a fast-growing industry. the reasons for this rapid expansion include
changes in social factors such as the increasing number of women in the
workforce and the fragmentation of meals in households as well as the general
decrease in average family size and the increase in single-person households.
the need for simple meals that are ready to eat and easy to cook has thus become
more important. Another trend is the increasing importance of fresh fish.
unlike many other food products, fish is still more favourably received on the
market when it is fresh rather than processed. However, historically, fresh
fish has been of little importance in international trade owing to its
perishable nature and limited shelf-life. Improvements in packaging, reduced
air freight prices and more efficient and reliable transport have created
additional sales outlets for fresh fish. Food chains and department stores are
also taking an increasing share of the fresh seafood sector, and many now
provide fresh seafood counters with an extensive variety of fish and freshly
prepared fish dishes or salads next to their frozen food counters.

The
above-mentioned trends are expected to continue for the foreseeable future. the
united Nations Population Division estimates that the world population growth
rate will slow, but owing to higher fertility rates, the share of developing
countries in the total population will rise to about 83 percent in 2030 (79
percent in 2005). the rapid increase in urbanization is also forecast to
continue, from about 3.2 billion people in 2005 to an estimated 4.9 billion in
2030, with most of the growth coming from developing countries (from 1.9
billion to about 3.8 billion). In 2030, 57 percent of the population in
developing countries is forecast to be urban, compared with 43 percent in 2005.
Population and income growth, together with urbanization and dietary
diversification, are expected to create additional demand and to continue to
shift the composition of food consumption towards a growing share of animal
products in developing countries. In industrialized countries, food demand is
expected to grow only moderately and, in determining demand for food products,
issues such as safety, quality, environmental concerns and animal welfare will
probably be more important than price and income changes. At the global level,
animal disease outbreaks could represent an important source of uncertainty.
For example, during the past few years, and particularly in 2004 and 2005, the
international market for meats was disrupted by outbreaks of animal diseases
such as avian influenza and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). this
situation, together with the related import bans, led to an inducted shortage
in meat supplies in some countries, particularly of poultry, pushing up
international meat prices in 2004 and 2005 (+30 percent for poultry in 2004–05)
and driving consumers towards alternative protein sources, including fish.

In
2004, total world trade of fish and fishery products reached a record value of
uS$71.5 billion (export value), representing a 23 percent growth relative to
2000 and a 51 percent increase since 1994 (Figure 26). Preliminary estimates
for 2005 indicate a further increase in the value of fishery exports. In real
terms (adjusted for inflation), exports of fish and fishery products increased
by 17.3 percent during the period 2000–04, 18.2 percent during 1994–2004 and
143.9 percent between 1984 and 2004. In terms of quantity, exports were
reported to have peaked at 53 million tonnes (live weight equivalent) in 2004,
with a growth of 13 percent since 1994 and of 114 percent since 1984. the
quantity of fish traded remained stagnant during the period 2000–03 following
several decades of strong increases. the record reached in 2004 by fishery
exports coincided with an impressive rise in global trade, despite sharp
increases in oil prices and natural disasters. this global growth also
continued in 2005. In 2004, prices of several agricultural commodities
(particularly of basic foods) also rebounded after a prolonged period of
decline. A series of long- and short-term factors contributed to
this growth as demand shifted for some commodities in response to market
transformations caused by changes in technology, consumer preferences, market
structures and policies. One such important factor was the influence exerted by
price movements and exchange rates on trade flows, in particular the weaker US
dollar, which is also used to denominate many commodity prices, and the marked
appreciation of several currencies (especially European currencies) against the
dollar.

The
share of fishery trade in total merchandise trade is limited; it has been relatively
stable at about 1 percent since 1976, with a downward trend through the late
1990s and early 2000s (0.8 percent in 2004). the proportion of fishery exports
in total agricultural (including forestry products) exports expanded from 1976
(4.5 percent) onwards and reached a record value of 9.4 percent in 2001. It has
since declined, reaching 8.4 percent in 2004. For developed countries, the
share of fishery exports in total merchandise exports was about 0.6–0.8 percent
during the period 1976–2004. the proportion of fishery exports in total
agricultural trade (including forestry products) increased in the late 1970s
from 4.1 percent to reach 6.5 percent in the period 1998–2002. In 2004 it
declined to 6 percent as a result of the strong increases in exports of
agricultural (33 percent) and forestry (37 percent) products compared with
2003. For developing countries, the part of fishery exports in total
merchandise exports expanded
in the late 1970s until the late 1980s (2.3 percent in 1988), before slowing
down to only 1.2 percent in 2004. The share of fishery exports in total
agricultural trade (including forestry products) increased from 5 percent in
1976 to 16 percent in 2002 and then declined slightly to 14 percent in 2004,
because of the recent upturn in agricultural and forestry exports (+36 percent
and 30 percent, respectively, in the period 2002-04).

Table 11 shows the top ten exporters and
importers of fish and fishery products in 1994 and 2004. In 2004, China was the
world's major exporter of fish and fishery products, with exports valued at
US$6.6 billion. Despite this, fishery exports represented just 1.1 percent of
its total merchandise exports and 29 percent of its agricultural exports
(excluding forestry products). China
has increased its fishery exports remarkably since the early 1990s. This growth
is linked to its growing production, as well as to the expansion of its
fish-processing industry, reflecting competitive labour and production costs.
In addition to exports from domestic fisheries production, China also
exports reprocessed imported raw material, creating a strong value addition in
the process. Imports of fish and fishery products to China have also risen over the past
decade, from US$0.2 billion in 1990 to US$3.1 billion in 2004. This growth has
been particularly noticeable in the past few years, since the country's
accession to the WTO in late 2001, when it had to lower its import duties,
which decreased from an average import tariff as high as 15.3 percent in 2001
to 10.4 percent in 2004.

Table 11Top ten exporters and importers
of fish and fishery products

1994

2004

APR

(US$millions)

(Percentage)

Exporters

China

2 320

6 637

11.1

Norway

2 718

4 132

4.3

Thailand

4 190

4 034

-0.4

United
States of America

3 230

3 851

1.8

Denmark

2 359

3 566

4.2

Canada

2 182

3 487

4.8

Spain

1 021

2 565

9.6

Chile

1 304

2 484

6.7

Netherlands

1 346

2 452

5.5

Viet Nam

484

2 403

17.4

TOP TEN SUBTOTAL

21 243

35611

5.3

REST OF
THE WORLD TOTAL

26 267

35 897

3.2

WORLD TOTAL

47 511

71 508

4.2

Importers

Japan

16 140

14 560

-1.0

United
States of America

7 043

11 967

5.4

Spain

2 639

5 222

7.1

France

2 797

4 176

4.1

Italy

2 257

3 904

5.6

China

856

3 126

13.8

United
Kingdom

1 880

2 812

4.1

Germany

2 316

2 805

1.9

Denmark

1 415

2 286

4.9

Republic of Korea

718

2 233

12.0

TOP TEN SUBTOTAL

38 063

53 090

3.4

REST OF
THE WORLD TOTAL

13 104

22 202

5.4

WORLD TOTAL

51 167

75 293

3.9

Note: APR refers to the average annual percentage growth
rate for 1994-2004.

World fish imports rose by 25.4 percent in the
period 2000–04, reaching a new record of more than uS$75 billion in 2004.
Preliminary data suggest that in 2005 major importing markets further increased
their imports of fish and fishery products.

Fish
is traded widely and, in 2004, a large share of fish production entered
international marketing channels, with about 38 percent (live weight
equivalent) exported as various food and feed products (Figure 27). Developed
countries exported some 23 million tonnes of fish (in live weight equivalent)
in 2004. Although a part of this trade may be re-exports, this amount
corresponds to about 75 percent of their production. Exports from developing
countries (30 million tonnes in live weight) totalled around one-quarter of
their combined production. the share of developing countries in total fishery
exports was 48 percent by value and 57 percent by quantity. A significant share
of these exports consisted of fishmeal. In 2004, developing countries
contributed about 68 percent, by quantity, of world non-food fishery exports.
Developing countries have also significantly increased their share in the
quantity of fish exports destined for human consumption, from 43 percent in
1992 to 51 percent in 2004.

The
role of fishery trade varies among countries and is important for many
economies, particularly for developing nations. trade in fish represents a
significant source of foreign currency earnings, in addition to the sector’s
important role in employment, income generation and food security. In a few
cases, fishery exports are crucial for the economy. For example, in 2004 they
accounted for around one-half of the total value of merchandise exports for Iceland, Kiribati,
Maldives, the Federal States
of Micronesia, Panama and Saint Pierre and
Miquelon.

The
past four decades have also seen major changes in geographical patterns of
fishery trade. the share of fishery exports of developing countries in global
fishery exports increased from close to 37 percent in 1976 to 51 percent in
2000–01, before declining to around 48 percent in 2004. Asian countries
accounted for most of this growth; their share in total fishery exports
increased from slightly more than 20 percent in 1976 to 32 percent in 2004 and
their fishery exports represented 66 percent of the value of the exports from
developing countries.

The
fishery net exports of developing countries (i.e. the total value of their
exports less the total value of their imports) showed a continuing rising trend
in recent decades, growing from uS$4.6 billion in 1984 to uS$16.0 billion in
1994 and to uS$20.4 billion in 2004 (Figure 28). these figures are
significantly higher than those for other agricultural commodities, such as
rice, coffee and tea. the LIFDCs play an active and growing role in the trade
of fish and fishery products. In 1976, their exports accounted
for 11 percent of the total value of fishery exports – a share that expanded to
13 percent in 1984, 18 percent in 1994 and 20 percent in 2004, when their
fishery net export revenues were estimated at uS$9.4 billion.

In
many countries there is considerable two-way trade in fishery products (Figure
29). the Latin America and the Caribbean region holds a strong positive net
fishery exporter position, as do developing Asia and Oceania.
Africa has been a net exporter since 1985, when the factory ships of the former
union of Soviet Socialist republics
and Eastern Europe diminished or ceased landing massive quantities of cheap
frozen pelagic fish in West Africa. Europe, Japan and North America
are characterized by a fishery trade deficit. In 2004, a total of 97 countries
were net exporters of fish and fishery products.

There
has been a tendency in recent decades towards increased intensity of fishery
trade within regions. Among developed countries, fishery trade remains largely
and increasingly self-centred: in the period 2002–04, some 85 percent of the
value of developed country fishery exports were destined to other developed
countries and more than 50 percent of developed country fishery imports
originated in other developed countries. Particularly significant is the role
of trade among Eu countries,
with more than 84 percent of Eu exports going to, and about 50 percent of their imports coming from,
other Eu countries in both 2004 and
2005. trade between Canada and the united States of America, although much
smaller than intra-Eu trade, has expanded significantly since 1980, reflecting
the growing importance of the North American Free trade Agreement (NAFTA) –
which includes also Mexico – and prior to that the united States–Canada Free
trade Agreement. At present, about 43 percent of their exports and 21 percent
of their imports are between the two countries. trade in fish and fishery
products among the more developed economies consists mainly of demersal
species, herring, mackerel and salmon.

Conversely,
although fishery trade among the developing countries has increased,
particularly during the 1990s, it still represents a share of only 15 percent
of the value of fishery exports of developing countries. Fishery intra-trade
among developing countries should potentially increase in the future, partly as
a result of the emergence of regional trade agreements and partly driven by
demographic, social and economic trends that are transforming food markets in
developing countries. However, developing countries still depend to a large
extent on the developed countries, mainly as outlets for their fishery exports,
but also as suppliers of their fishery imports for local consumption or their
processing industries. In fact, several developing countries are importing an
increasing quantity of raw material for further processing and re-export to
developed countries. Fishery exports of developing countries are gradually
evolving from the export of raw material for the processing industry in
developed countries to high-value live fish or value-added products. this is
happening notwithstanding a variety of barriers (such as high import tariffs on
processed products), which often hinder the industry. Many developed countries
have invested in processing facilities in developing countries, where costs are
lower.

The
maps shown in Figure 30 indicate trade flows of fish and fishery products by
continent for the period 2002–04. the overall picture presented by these maps,
however, is not complete. Although the countries that reported their imports
over this period (some 159 countries) account for 99 percent of the estimated
world total, some continental groups are not covered completely (e.g. about
one-third of African countries did not report their trade in fishery products
by country of origin/ destination). In this case, the data indicated should not
be taken to represent the total trade flow of the continental groups to which
they refer. In the period 2002–04, about 77 percent of the value of fishery
exports of developing countries was directed to developed areas, mainly to the Eu, Japan and the united States of America.
these exports consisted mostly of tuna, small pelagics, shrimps and prawns,
rock lobsters and cephalopods. the quantity of exports from developed countries
to developing countries is relatively insignificant, representing around 15
percent of the total value of developed country exports of fishery products.
these exports consist mainly of low-priced small pelagics, which account for
about 20–30 percent of developing countries’ imports, and raw material for
processing.

Owing
to the high perishability of fish and fishery products, more than 90 percent of
international trade of fish and fishery products is conducted in processed
form. In terms of quantity (live weight equivalent), the share of live, fresh
or chilled fish was 10 percent in 2004. Live and fresh fish are valuable but
difficult to trade and transport and they are often subject to stringent health
regulations and quality standards. Yet trade in live fish has increased in
recent years as a result of technological developments, improved logistics and
increased demand. An elaborate network of handling, transport, distribution,
display and holding facilities has been developed to support the live fish
trade. New technological systems include specially designed or modified tanks
and containers, as well as trucks and other transport vehicles equipped with
aeration or oxygenation facilities to keep fish alive during transportation or
holding/display. trade in live fish also includes ornamental fish as opposed to
fish for human consumption, and this area has become a lucrative business. Live
fish is particularly appreciated in Asia
(particularly by the Chinese population) and in niche markets in other
countries, mainly among immigrant Asian communities.

Exports
of frozen fish have increased during the past decade, from a share of 28
percent of the total quantity of fish exports in 1994 to 36 percent in 2004.
Exports of prepared and preserved fish totalled 8.3 million tonnes (live weight
equivalent) in 2004, representing a share of 15 percent of total exports (10
percent in 1994). Exports of cured fish accounted for 5 percent of total
exports in 2004, but this share had declined slightly over the preceding
decade. In 2004, exports of non-food fishery products represented 34 percent of
total fish exports in terms of quantity, a large proportion of which originated
from Latin American countries.

Shrimp

Shrimp
continues to be the most important commodity traded in value terms, accounting
for 16.5 percent of the total value of internationally traded fishery products
in 2004. the other main groups of exported species were groundfish (10.2
percent – i.e. hake, cod, haddock and Alaska
pollock), tuna (8.7 percent) and salmon (8.5 percent). In 2004, fishmeal
represented around 3.3 percent of the value of exports and fish oil less than 1
percent.

It
is important to note the reduced share of shrimp in total fish trade since its
21 percent peak reached in 1994, notwithstanding the growth of 18 percent by
value and of 69 percent by quantity (live weight equivalent) of shrimp exports
during 1994–2004. the substantial increase in the
quantity of shrimp traded coincided with the strong expansion in aquaculture shrimp
production, which has grown rapidly since 1997, with an increase of 165 percent
during the period 1997–2004 (annual growth of 15 percent). In 2004, more than
41 percent (or 2.5 million tonnes) of total shrimp production was of farmed
origin. the unit value for shrimp exports increased in the 1990s to reach
uS$6.9/kg in 1995. Since then, probably as a result of the strong rise in
production, it has declined to uS$4.1/kg in 2004.

During 2005, shrimp imports in several key
markets reached new highs. Key markets were influenced by supply fluctuations,
in both the wild and farmed sectors, and regulatory developments in both the Eu and the united States of America.
Sales to the latter, the world’s largest shrimp market, continued to increase
and imports reached 530 000 tonnes. Annual shrimp imports into Japan during
2005 declined by 6 percent compared with the previous year. In Europe, shrimp imports increased in 2005, as a result of
a strong euro and competitive international prices. the impact of the united States of America’s anti-dumping process
was evident in a relative switch from the unites States market to European
markets by suppliers in the six affected countries (Brazil,
China, Ecuador, India,
thailand and Viet Nam). the
relaxing of Eu restrictions
on imports of Chinese farmed shrimp was reflected in import share changes in
several Eu
markets, most
notably in Spain where China became
the leading supplier. Despite signs of a gradual upward trend, initial
indications for 2006, including modest demand conditions in key markets,
suggest that shrimp prices will remain competitive at least for the medium
term. Lower supplies from the main shrimp-producing countries were reported in
2006, which led to some increases in prices. Shrimp prices in Japan and the united States of America are
presented in Figure 31.

Salmon

The
relative importance of salmon as a traded item has grown in recent years, to
reach 8.5 percent in 2004, up from 7 percent in the mid-1990s, as a result of
the booming salmon farming industry in Chile
and Norway.
the average unit value of salmon exports declined during the past 15 years,
from about uS$6.10/kg in 1988 to uS$3.20/kg in 2004. the start of this downward
trend coincided with the growth of industrial salmon aquaculture. the huge
increase in farmed salmon production had a strong impact on trade. In fact,
salmon trade (live weight equivalent) grew significantly during the period
1988–2004, from 375 000 tonnes to over 1.7 million tonnes. However, the decline
in unit value seems to have come to an end.

The year 2005 was positive for salmon producers
and traders worldwide. With farmed salmon prices at their highest level since
2000, salmon farmers in Europe, North America and South
America are optimistic. Demand is strong in all markets and supply
increased less than had been expected. Profits are abundant thanks to stellar
prices and reduced production costs gained through economies of scale and
efficiency gains. the outlook for 2006 is positive, although some price
reductions can be expected in the future, and in the medium to long term prices
should return closer to cost than they are currently. In fact, in a commodity
industry, high prices lead to increased production, which in turn depresses
prices.

Tuna

Japan is the top world market for sashimi-grade
tuna. recent indications of an improved economy in Japan should result in more demand
for high-value sashimi tuna. the farming of bluefin tuna has had a significant
impact on the sashimi market in Japan in recent years, although
catch limitations do not leave much space for expansion of tuna farming. the
reduction of the Eu canned tuna
import tariff (from 24 percent to 12 percent) for a quantity of 25 000 tonnes
from countries such as Indonesia,
the Philippines and thailand was
not welcomed by the main European tuna canners. On the other hand, Spanish
canners are outsourcing and new canning plants have been installed by Spanish
companies in Central America (in El Salvador
and Guatemala).
the concentration of the world tuna industry in fewer hands is continuing.
Prices of skipjack tuna in Africa and thailand are shown in Figure 32.
these prices expanded sharply in the opening months of 2006, after mixed
results in 2005, and canned tuna prices also rose as a result. Low catches
combined with high fuel prices were the main cause for this price hike.
Consumer resistance for canned tuna started to be observed in Europe in 2006,
while the united States of
America was already reporting lower canned
tuna consumption in 2005. Press reports on dangerous levels of mercury in
canned tuna are scaring away united
States consumers.

Other finfish

In
a tighter supply context, frozen groundfish prices showed a definite upward
trend during 2005. Groundfish prices in the united States of America are shown
in Figure 33. Increased demand for surimi from Asia had an impact on united States Alaska
pollock fillet production, and fillet supplies to Europe
decreased as a result. Lower hake landings
in several Latin American countries, notably Argentina,
also meant reduced supplies to Europe. China’s role in
frozen groundfish markets continues to increase. the country expanded its share
of Alaska
pollock fillet imports in the key French and German markets. It also
strengthened its position in European frozen cod fillet markets, notably in Germany and the united Kingdom.

Cephalopods

After
several years of reduced production, 2005 was characterized by good supplies,
for both squid and octopus. the beginning of 2006 was marked by good squid
landings, notably in the Southwest Atlantic.
total production for 2006 should be in line with the good level of 2005. Spain remains
the leading European squid market. During 2005, frozen imports (Illex and
Loligo) increased by 7 percent over 2004 levels to almost 160 000
tonnes. In 2005, the Italian squid market followed a similar trend to that of Spain. Japan continued
to be the main market for cephalopods worldwide in 2005. the octopus resource
in the Central East Atlantic is recovering after years of stringent catch
controls by the Moroccan Government. Prices for all cephalopod products
stabilized at high levels in 2005 and early 2006. Squid and cuttlefish prices
in Japan
are shown in Figure 34.

Fishmeal

The
bulk of fishmeal production – about 60 percent – is exported each year. In 2005,
fishmeal production in the five major exporting countries amounted to 3.5
million tonnes, which compares with 4.7 million tonnes in 2000. Catches of fish
for reduction were low in all major fishmeal-producing countries. Fishmeal
prices, which increased strongly in 2005 and in the opening months of 2006, are
a result of strong demand, especially from China and other Asian countries.
Fishmeal and soybean meal prices for Germany
and the Netherlands
are given in Figure 35.

Marine fisheries

RFMOs play a unique role in facilitating
international cooperation for the conservation and management of fish stocks.
these organizations represent the only realistic means of governing fish stocks
that occur either as straddling or shared stocks between zones of national
jurisdiction or between these zones and the high seas, or exclusively on the
high seas (see Box 2).18 they seek to promote the long-term
sustainable use of the target stocks falling within these mandates, though
RFMOs are moving towards a broader ecosystem approach to fisheries management
and biodiversity considerations where measures are adopted for species
belonging to the same ecosystem or are associated with, or dependent upon, the
target stocks.

Strengthening RFMOs in order to conserve and
manage fish stocks more effectively remains the major challenge facing
international fisheries governance. Despite efforts
over the past decade to improve their management capacity and their images as
effective and responsive organizations, some RFMOs have failed to achieve their
fundamental goal of the sustainable management of stocks. this situation has
led to an increasing number of stocks being subject to catch moratoria, together with elevated
international criticism concerning the effectiveness of RFMOs. this criticism,
from RFMO members as well as civil society, undermines the credibility of, and
respect for, RFMOs.

Box 2

FAO’s role in promoting
cooperation for more effective governance

FAO seeks to
promote cooperation among regional fishery bodies (RFBs), aware that the need
for effective global and regional fisheries governance has been increasing
dramatically in importance. FAO’s main objective is to foster international
fisheries cooperation so as to enhance conservation and management. With this
goal in mind, FAO provides
technical and administrative support to its 11 RFBs. FAO also encourages all RFBs to work to strengthen
their mandates and functions so as to improve their operational efficiency, and
the stablishment of new bodies where none exists currently. As an ongoing
initiative, FAO
promotes and hosts
the biennial meetings of RFBs as a means of facilitating discussion and
information sharing among them. these meetings address the outcomes of the FAO Committee on Fisheries focusing
on issues such as the role of RFBs in global fisheries governance, IUU fishing,
fleet overcapacity, the EAF, marine protected areas, harmonization of
catch/trade documentation and the fishery resources monitoring system.

In response to worldwide public concerns about the
state of world fishery resources and related ecosystems, the FAO has been promoting, inter
alia in the RFBs, the extended application of the Code of Conduct for
responsible Fisheries together with the EAF, as well as the related International
Plans of Action (on seabirds, sharks, fishing capacity and IUU).

Many RFMOs are focusing their efforts on
implementing measures that will operationalize key aspects of the 1995 UN Fish
Stocks Agreement and other recently concluded international fisheries
instruments (see Box
3). Important steps towards the implementation of these
instruments have been taken through the review and updating of mandates: for
example, by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), the
Indian Ocean tuna Commission (IOTC), the Inter-American tropical tuna
Commission (IATTC), the International Commission for the Conservation of
Atlantic tunas (ICCAT), the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)
and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO).

Several tuna management bodies are concerned
about perceived overcapacity in global tuna fleets. Work they have conducted
jointly with FAO indicates
the need to move towards a rights-based management system, with interim
management procedures suggested in the meantime. these procedures include an
immediate moratorium on the entry of additional large vessels and the
development of allocation criteria and mechanisms for new participants.

In addition to taking steps to implement the EAF
(including measures to minimize bycatch such as sharks, sea turtles and
seabirds), RFMOs are striving to adopt the precautionary approach. they are
also working to strengthen international cooperation, promote transparency,
encourage eligible non-members to become members of organizations or
cooperating entities, and enhance compliance and enforcement
through improved monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS), including the
implementation of mandatory vessel monitoring systems (VMS), the adoption of
regional schemes for port state measures and the development of vessel lists.

Box 3

1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement review
Conference

The 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement review Conference,
held in New York, united States of America, from 22
to 26 May 2006, was foreseen in Article 36 of the Agreement when it was
negotiated. In reviewing and assessing the adequacy of the provisions of the
Agreement, and in proposing means to strengthen its implementation, the review
Conference focused on the relevant provisions relating to the conservation and
management of stocks (adoption of measures, overfishing and capacity
management, effects of fishing on the marine environment, fisheries not
regulated by an RFMO, and data collection and sharing); mechanisms for
international cooperation (integrity of RFMO regimes, fishing activity by
non-members of RFMOs, functioning of RFMOs and participatory rights);
monitoring, control and surveillance, compliance and enforcement
(implementation of flag state duties and investigation and penalization for
violations); developing states (recognition of the special requirements,
provision of assistance and capacity building) and non-parties (increasing
adherence to the Agreement).

The
review Conference structured its report around two themes – review and
assessment – and proposed means for strengthening the elements in the clusters
(in terms of action by states, individually and collectively through RFMOs and,
as appropriate, by FAO and the
united Nation’s Division of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea). the strong
focus on RFMOs in the recommendations agreed by the Conference reflected their
central role in implementing the Agreement. Importantly, it was agreed that
high seas discrete stocks would be included within the ambit of the Agreement,
thereby eliminating a conservation and management gap for these stocks.

An
issue that attracted considerable discussion during the review Conference was
the need for RFMOs to embrace and accommodate new entrants, and in particular
developing countries, in an equitable manner within the limits of scientific
advice for managed stocks. While noting that this was a delicate issue linked
to the concept of “real interest” and effective flag state control over
vessels, it was pointed out that a failure to deal adequately with
participation and allocation of fishing opportunities within RFMOs could
promote, unwittingly, IUU fishing.

On
the matter of port state measures – a weak link in the chain in efforts to
combat IUU fishing – the review Conference proposed that FAO, building on the 2005 FAO Model Scheme on Port State
Measures and the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate
Illegal, unreported and unregulated Fishing, initiate a process to develop, as
appropriate, a legally binding instrument on minimum standards for port state
measures.

The review Conference agreed to continue to review the
implementation of the Agreement and to the resumption of the review Conference
at a date not later than 2011.

Two
RFMOs established after the conclusion of the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Conference –
the South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO) and the Western and
Central Pacific
Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) – are implementing the provisions of the 1995 UN
Agreement through their Conventions.

In
2004, the FAO Council,
in resolution 1/127, established the South West Indian Ocean Fisheries
Commission (SWIOFC) under Article VI of the FAO Constitution.
As the newest RFB of its type, it seeks to promote the sustainable development,
conservation, rational management and best utilization of fishery resources in
the region, with a special emphasis on fisheries targeted at non-tuna species.
SWIOFC’s membership is open to coastal states whose territories are situated
wholly or partly within the area of the Commission (i.e. the Southwest
Indian Ocean) and that notify in writing to the FAO Director-General their interest
in becoming a member of the Commission. the Commission held its first meeting
in April 2005 in Mombasa (Kenya) and its second meeting in Maputo (Mozambique)
in August 2006.

Also
noteworthy are two other conventions that focus on the conservation and
management of deep-sea resources of the high seas (including discrete high seas
stocks) and that use the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement as a framework: the
South Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA), which was adopted and opened to
signature in July 2006,19 and the South Pacific regional Fisheries
Management Organisation (SPRFMO), which is still under negotiation. Both of
these agreements and organizations are intended to fill high seas management
gaps where valuable but vulnerable stocks exist. Some of the stocks covered by
the agreements are subject to heavy fishing pressure and in the case of the Indian Ocean they have probably already been overfished.

The
perceived lack of action by RFMOs and their inability in some cases to stem
stock declines should be viewed in the context of the obstacles faced by many
RFMOs, not all of which are of their own making. A lack of political commitment
by the members of some RFMOs and unyielding positions that mitigate against
sound regional fisheries management (e.g. insistence on the use of
consensus-based decision-making, even for RFMOs established in the post-1995 UN
Fish Stocks Agreement era, and opt-out/objection provisions for management
measures20), has thwarted, if not stalled, efforts by some RFMOs to
meet and address conservation and management challenges. Such positions hinder
RFMO performance, while criticism is directed at the organizations rather than
at their members.

The
high incidence and increasing sophistication of IUU fishing continue to
undermine the work of RFMOs. the continuing widespread use of flags of
non-compliance and ports of convenience exacerbates the scope and extent of IUU
fishing. the criminal aspect of IUU fishing is also coming to the fore as
organizations take measures against offending fishing vessels and their owners,
and RFMO secretariats sometimes receive threats intended to make them withdraw
measures that combat IUU fishing.

Coupled
with the issue of RFMO credibility are calls for their performance to be
reviewed regularly as a means of promoting greater efficiency and
accountability. However, this issue is highly sensitive and in some instances
RFMO members have been reluctant to support such evaluation believing that it
might interfere with their autonomy, disrupt their work and, ultimately,
reflect poorly on their membership. Nonetheless, despite objections, the
rationale and need for such performance appraisal is taking root and gaining wide
international acceptance. It has been argued in international fora that,
provided that reviews are undertaken in a transparent and inclusive manner and
with the full involvement and cooperation of members and secretariats, RFMOs
should embrace the review process as a means of boosting their international
reputation. More importantly, the review outcomes should provide concrete
results that organizations can adopt and implement to strengthen their
conservation and management capacity.

Following
consideration of this issue by the twenty-sixth Session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and the Fourth Meeting of
regional Fishery Bodies, the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)
in 2005 agreed to undertake an independent performance review of the
Commission.21 the purpose of the review was to
provide a systematic check on its performance since its inception in 1982 and
its consistency with the NEAFC Convention, the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement
and other relevant international agreements and instruments. A comprehensive
set of criteria was developed, against which NEAFC will be reviewed. the
results of the review should point to NEAFC’s achievements and areas where
there is scope for improvement. the review panel will involve the Chairs of two
NEAFC working groups, the Secretary of the Commission, an independent marine
scientist and two UN experts, one each from FAO and the united Nations Division for Ocean
Affairs and the Law of the Sea (UNDOALOS).

This
is the first RFMO performance review to be undertaken, the results of which
should be available at NEAFC’s annual meeting in 2006. Despite hesitancy on the
part of some NEAFC members in proceeding with the review, the Commission has
shown leadership in venturing into a new and important area for RFMOs. However,
RFMO members are aware that reviews will not, in themselves, lead to enhanced
performance: the results of these reviews, which should be accessible to all
interested parties, must be translated into time-bound operational measures if
RFMO shortcomings are to be addressed and if these organizations are to be
strengthened to play an even more effective role in the governance of fish
stocks.

In
2005, Ministers attending the Conference on the Governance of High Seas
Fisheries and the UN Fish Agreement – Moving from Words to Action22
adopted a declaration that focused, inter alia, on the role and work of
RFMOs. It noted that these organizations are fundamentally important for high
seas fisheries governance. the Ministers undertook to implement, through RFMOs,
key measures ranging from strengthened decision-making processes to the
implementation of improved MCS to address more vigorously IUU fishing and fleet
overcapacity. Moreover, the declaration recognized the need to assist
developing countries in implementing international fisheries agreements and for
officials to identify practical ways to move forward on the commitments set out
in the declaration.

A
further initiative that focused attention on IUU fishing and the role played by
RFMOs in attempts to combat this problem was the work of the Ministerially-Led
task Force on IUU Fishing on the High Seas.23 the resultant report
addresses improved high seas governance and suggests that a model for be
developed for improved governance by RFMOs to deter IUU fishing. It also
advocates promoting a more systematic approach to the review of RFMO
performance and encourages RFMOs to work together more effectively through
improved coordination and the use of port- and trade-related measures. Although
the task Force was led by a small number of fisheries ministers and heads of NGOs, its outcomes are being promoted
widely as a means of encouraging greater “buy-in” and participation in the
implementation of the report’s nine proposals. While many of these proposals are
already on the international fisheries agenda and are being implemented to
varying degrees, the task Force’s report serves to focus attention more sharply
on them and, as a result, attract funding to support more intensive
implementation.

Inland fisheries

Many of
the world’s large river basins cross one or several international borders
(table 12) and therefore activities in one country may affect fish stocks and
fisheries in the others. Many riverine fish species are migratory, so even in
situations where an impact on a certain species is confined to a particular
area, the effects on the species may be felt by communities exploiting the fish
stock in other countries. thus, there is a need for a system of governance for
transboundary and international inland waters.

Appropriate
fisheries management of transboundary waters requires that suitable policies
and strategies for sustaining the shared resources (water and biological
resources) are developed at the regional level, and that these are incorporated
into national legislation and implemented. the first step would be to identify
the species and stocks that are shared and establish whether they are
vulnerable and to what threats. the countries would then move on to identify
the specific management measures that are required. the FAO Code of Conduct for responsible Fisheries24
emphasizes,
inter alia, that "States should ... cooperate at subregional, regional and global levels...
to promote conservation and management, ensure responsible fishing and ensure
effective conservation and protection of living aquatic resources throughout
their range of distribution, taking into account the need for compatible
measures in areas within and beyond national jurisdiction" and, further,
"For transboundary fish stocks... the States concerned ... should cooperate
to ensure effective conservation and management of the resources. This should
be achieved, where appropriate, through the establishment of a bilateral, subregional or regional fisheries
organization or arrangement."

Table 12International river basins and
management frameworks by continent

Continent

International basins1

Number of basins with international agreements1

Inland watercommissions witha mandatein fisheries

(Number)

(Number)

(Percentage)

(Number)

Africa

59

19

32

8

Asia

57

24

42

2

Europe

69

45

63

12

North America

40

23

58

3

South America

38

6

16

6

1Based on United Nations Environment Programme. 2002.
Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements. Nairobi.

A range of regional frameworks provide advice
on, or deal directly with, the management of inland waters and living aquatic
resources. However, the governance system is incomplete as only 44 percent of
international basins are subject to one or more agreements, and these
agreements deal with a variety of issues that may or may not include fisheries.
Many do not focus on fishery resources, but on water as a resource, for example
the allocation of water for irrigation, flood protection, navigation or hydropower generation. Nevertheless, the
agreements have a mandate in environmental matters, which could be extended to
include fisheries although these are often not specifically mentioned. A
searchable database of summaries and the full text of most of these agreements
can be found at http://faolex.fao.org/faolex.

Inland fisheries are especially vulnerable to
influences from outside the fisheries sector, for example water diversion,
habitat degradation, pollution and loss of habitat. The governance system that applies
to inland water bodies rarely considers the maintenance of fisheries as a prime
target, and often favours other sectors using the water resource - sectors that
are perceived to be more profitable or more important. This system has in some
instances resulted in negative impacts for inland fishers and communities
dependent on inland fishing.

There are, however, some encouraging
developments. Resolution IX.4 of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,25 which addresses
the conservation, production and sustainable use of fisheries resources,
stresses, inter alia, that "local, national and international
mechanisms should be established, as appropriate, whereby allocation of
essential resources for the protection of aquatic resources and specifically
fisheries resources are negotiated among all users of the resource". The
European Water Framework Directive26 emphasizes the river basin
approach for the integrated and coordinated river basin development and
management of all European river systems. The Framework calls for a
comprehensive ecological assessment and classification on the basis of the
composition and abundance of the aquatic fauna and flora and taking into
account the type-specific reference conditions of the water body.

The Mekong River Commission oversees the world's
largest inland fishery and, at its 11th Ministerial Council meeting in 2004,
pledged to implement "Integrated Water resources
Management” at basin scale as a means of alleviating poverty and enhancing
economic growth. In the lower Mekong Basin, demand for hydropower is expected
to increase by 76 percent each year for the next 20 years and the objective of
the Commission is to “meet this demand in a way that fully recognizes the
requirement to safeguard ecosystems and social interests”.27

Within the inland fisheries sector, capture fisheries
is competing with aquaculture, inter alia, for development assistance.
In the past, negative consequences from aquaculture on the aquatic environments
have sometimes been predicted. today, however, in many regions the perceived
benefits of aquaculture are increasingly inspiring a change in how water bodies
are being used. In Lake Victoria, for example,
many interested parties in riparian countries are lobbying the Lake Victoria
Fisheries Organization (LVFO) for legislation to permit cage culture in and
around the lake and the LVFO has requested FAO’s assistance in developing such
legislation.

Not only are inland fisheries unlikely to be, or
become, the primary focus in all water management programmes, but there is also
a risk that the needs of rural and small-scale fisheries will not be considered
in these programmes unless water governance systems are expressly designed to
include inland fisheries.

Aquaculture

There
is growing understanding that sustainable development of the aquaculture sector
requires an enabling environment, with appropriate institutional, legal and
management frameworks guided by an overall policy. While efforts towards
reaching the goal of sustainable development vary among countries, according to
the level of commitment by policy-makers and the scale of development of the aquaculture
sector, notable progress has been made in a number of institutional, legal and
management development areas, including the use of various public- and private-sector
partnership arrangements.

Because
aquaculture activities are generally located within national borders, most aquaculture
is managed, monitored and governed by national instruments and arrangements.
this situation contrasts with that of capture fisheries, where important
fisheries are transboundary in nature and regional, international and/or global
governance instruments are required to harmonize national governance of the
shared resources.

The
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia–Pacific (NACA) is the only true regional
intergovernmental organization that promotes aquaculture, and the COFI Sub-Committee on Aquaculture is
the only global intergovernmental forum that discusses aquaculture exclusively.
there are also several international NGOs and civil society instruments that assist aquaculture regionally.
As the importance of aquaculture continues to rise, it is likely that more
regional and international instruments will be developed to support governance
of the sector.

Among
the lessons learned from the establishment and operations of aquaculture networks
such as NACA is that technical cooperation
among member governments works.28
Building on the NACA experience, the Network of Aquaculture
Centres of Central–Eastern Europe (NACEE) was established in 2004. In other
regions, especially in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa,
several countries, together with FAO, are exploring the possibilities of establishing such
regional networks.

Recent
research and reviews clearly indicate that one of the key trends in aquaculture
development and management is enhanced regulation and better governance.29
Examples include the implementation of integrated land-use planning,
including the establishment of farmer-friendly tenure systems and appropriate
environmental planning, and the development and enforcement of regulations for
the general management of aquaculture, including aspects such as the use of
drugs and chemicals. Self-regulation of the sector has led to several essential
developments, such as codes of practice and better management practices,
including in collaboration with farmers.

Aquaculture
does not exist in isolation, and increased regulation of the sector also
requires that its external effects are moderated. Following a trend in some
regions of
increasing intensification and rising numbers of farms, environmental impact
assessment and routine environmental monitoring are being conducted.

An
encouraging trend is that an increasing number of countries have formulated, or
are in the process of formulating, fisheries policies, plans, regulations and
strategies that accommodate and facilitate growth and efficient management of
the aquaculture sector. A recent study by FAO on the integration of fisheries
into key national policy documents relating to poverty reduction and rural
development showed that the sector has been most effectively mainstreamed in
Asia (in the case of poverty reduction strategy papers and national development
plans), closely followed by Africa.30

The
Abuja Declaration on Sustainable
Fisheries and Aquaculture in Africa was adopted by the Heads of State Meeting
of the New Partnership for Africa’s
Development (NEPAD) Fish for All Summit in Nigeria.31 On the same
occasion, the Global Program on Fisheries (PROFISH)32 was launched.
the Program is a new global partnership of developing countries, donors and
technical agencies led by the World Bank. these are two significant recent
developments that demonstrate national and international commitment towards
realizing the potential that fisheries and aquaculture have to contribute to
food security, poverty reduction and economic development.

From
the federation of aquaculture self-help groups, including women’s groups, in
one of the poorest villages of India
to the Global Aquaculture Alliance, producer associations have been playing a
major role in global aquaculture development. While the producer associations
have a range of purposes, some of the common ones are: shaping and influencing
policy and regulations; providing technical services; facilitating access to
markets; developing and promoting codes of conduct, best management practices
and self-regulatory practices; and sharing of knowledge.

As
part of their overall privatization strategy, many countries engaged in
promoting aquaculture development are expanding the scope of their
privatization programme to include the aquaculture sector. In sub-Saharan
Africa, for example, Kenya’s approach is to play a supportive role by fostering
participative policy formulation, providing a conducive legal and investment
framework, establishing public–private partnerships, providing basic
infrastructure support, promoting self-regulation, providing a research
platform, undertaking zoning for aquaculture and providing monitoring and
evaluation support.

Civil
society groups, including NGOs, are also making substantial contributions to policy formulation and
implementation and support to poor aquaculture farmers. these groups have been
instrumental in making the sector address the issues that arose from unsustainable
shrimp farming practices in many countries in Asia and Latin
America.

Co-management
is an emerging trend and is usually applied in the management of common
property resources, such as floodplains and forests. In the context of the aquaculture
sector, the application of co-management (see Box 6 on pp. 72–73) has been effective in
culture-based fisheries, a form of aquaculture practised communally in small
water bodies in rural areas. this form of aquaculture has the potential to
increase fish production with minimal input of resources (e.g. in Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, thailand
and Viet Nam).
An evaluation of this type of programme in three countries (Bangladesh, the Philippines
and thailand)
found that it had contributed to the development of self-help initiatives,
local ownership and decision-making in communities.

Trade

The
role of fishery subsidies continues to receive great attention from both
governments and civil society. Given their cross-cutting nature, subsidies
influence the economic, social and environmental dimensions of fisheries. thus
many different interests are involved. Discussions on fisheries subsidies have
been taking place at the technical and policy levels, each influencing the
other.

On
the technical side, much progress has been achieved from a theoretical and
analytical point of view from work in several intergovernmental organizations (interalia, FAO,
the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] and the united Nations
Environment Programme [uNEP]) and NGOs (in particular the World Wide
Fund for Nature). On the policy side, the main centre for the negotiations on
fisheries subsidies is the WTO Negotiating Group on rules. During the WTO
Ministerial Meeting held in China, Hong Kong Special Administrative region (2005),
in reviewing progress achieved in discussions based on the Doha Mandate of
2001, Ministers noted that there is broad agreement that the Negotiating Group
on rules should strengthen disciplines on subsidies in the fisheries sector,
including by prohibiting certain forms of fisheries subsidies that contribute
to overcapacity and overfishing. Ministers also noted that special and
differential treatment for developing and least-developed Members that is both
appropriate and effective should be an integral part of the fisheries subsidies
negotiations, taking into account the importance of this sector to development
priorities, poverty reduction, livelihoods and food-security concerns. Several
text-based submissions for fisheries-specific amendments to the Agreement on
Subsidies and Countervailing Measures are being discussed. More recently, under
the initiative of several Members, the debate on fisheries subsidies seems to
be expanding to areas other than fish-capture activities, i.e. to aquaculture, fish
processing, etc.

In
addition to focusing on the need to discipline fisheries subsidies that
contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, countries are debating how to
integrate sustainable development considerations into the fisheries subsidies
disciplines. Beyond the general issues concerning the implementation of special
and differential treatment, difficulties are being faced in defining
small-scale fisheries and in incorporating fisheries access agreements fees
into the disciplines. It seems possible that the outcomes of the negotiations
will depend on how certain technical issues will be defined and agreed and also
on how far WTO Members will go in addressing not only trade, but also
environmental and development issues.

With
the entry of China into the
WTO in 2001, all major fishery countries other than the Russian Federation and Viet Nam (which
have started membership negotiations) are now Members of the WTO.

The
declaration adopted by the WTO Ministerial Conference in 2005 has important
implications for fisheries. Import tariffs on non-agricultural goods, which
include fish and fishery products, might be reduced using a certain formula.
the exact coefficients and reductions for the formula could have been decided
in 2006. Developing country exporters would have benefited from “the reduction
or elimination of tariff peaks, high tariffs, and tariff escalation, in
particular on products of export interest” to them. For fishery products this
could have had possible implications for exporters of value-added products,
although countries that enjoy preferential treatment today would see their
advantage reduced in the future. Since the above scenario did not materialize
owing to failure to reach agreement, the future of the negotiations within WTO
still remains uncertain.

Other
important issues relevant to international trade in fishery products that have
been prominent in recent years include the introduction of new labelling and
traceability requirements in major markets; the adoption of the FAO guidelines on ecolabelling of
fish and fishery products originating from marine capture fisheries; trade
disputes between importing and exporting countries related to alleged dumping
of aquaculture products and subsidies in production; the expansion of regional
trade areas and the number of new bilateral trade agreements with strong
relevance to fish trade. the full impact and long-term effects of these
agreements in addition to, or as a substitute for, broader multilateral
agreements, are not yet clear. One trade agreement of particular relevance for
trade in fish and fishery products is the one currently being negotiated at the
regional level between the African, Caribbean
and Pacific Group of States (ACP) group of countries and the Eu. the objective
of these negotiations is to conclude economic partnership agreements between
the Eu and the six different ACP regions and render them operational from
January 2008.

The united Nations Agreement for
the Implementation of the Provisions of the united Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management
of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (available at http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/uNDOC/GEN/N95/274/67/PDF/
N9527467.pdf?OpenElement).

This section is based on data
published in FAO, 2007. Fish and fishery products. World apparent consumption statistics based
on food balance sheets. revision 8: 1961-2003. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 821. rome.
Some discrepancy may occur with other sections that quote data made available
to FAO
more recently.

Per capita consumption is
calculated on an annual basis and using a live-weight equivalent unless
otherwise stated.

A distinction is made between RFMOs
and regional fishery bodies (RFBs). usually RFBs do not have fisheries
conservation and management mandates. rather, they seek to promote cooperation
among members on fisheries matters of common concern, and may have advisory
mandates.

During the signing ceremony,
held at FAO
headquarters, rome, six countries (Comoros,
France, Kenya, Mozambique,
New Zealand and Seychelles) and
the European Community signed the South Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement.

Even if opt-out provisions are
not invoked by parties to an RFMO, their existence and potential use by members
weakens the effectiveness of management measures adopted. Significantly, the
2006 review Conference of the 1995 UN Fish Agreement recommended that states
individually and collectively through RFMOs “Ensure that post opt-out behaviour
is constrained by rules to prevent opting out parties from undermining
conservation ...”.

RFMO performance reviews were
also addressed in paragraph 60 of the united Nations General Assembly
resolution 60/31.

Held in St Johns, Newfoundland, Canada, from 1 to 5 May 2005.

The work of the task Force
extended over a period of two years. the report was released in March 2006.

FAO. 1995. FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries.Rome.

Ramsar. 2005.Resolution IX.4. The Ramsar Convention and conservation,
production and sustainable use of fisheries resources (available at http://www.ramsar.org/res/key_res_ix_04_e.pdf).

Adopted on 23 October 2000
(available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/ water-framework/index_en.html).

For further information, see http://www.mrcmekong.org/
mekong_program_ceo.htm#integrated_water.