Guide to office safety and health

A Guide to
Office Safety and Health
Sydney Cheryl Sutton
Editor
N. C. Department of Labor
Division of Occupational Safety and Health
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
Acknowledgments
A Guide to Office Safety and Health was prepared for the
North Carolina Department of Labor by the L. A. Weaver
Company, located at 308 East Jones Street, Raleigh, North
Carolina. The L. A. Weaver Company specializes in occupa-tional
and environmental safety and health and ergonomics.
Additional material was supplied by J. Edgar Geddie, Ph. D.,
health standards officer with the North Carolina Division of
Occupational Safety and Health.
This guide is intended to be consistent with all existing
OSHA standards; therefore, if an area is considered by
the reader to be inconsistent with a standard, then the
OSHA standard should be followed.
To obtain additional copies of this book, or if you have ques-tions
about N. C. occupational safety and health standards
or rules, please contact:
N. C. Department of Labor
Bureau of Education, Training and Technical Assistance
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Phone: ( 919) 807- 2875 or 1- 800- NC- LABOR
____________________
Additional sources of information are listed
on the inside back cover of this book.
____________________
The projected cost of the OSHNC program for federal fiscal year 2002– 2003 is $ 13,130,589.
Federal funding provides approximately 37 percent ($ 4,920,000) of this total.
Printed 2/ 97 5M
N. C. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Program
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
OSHA State Plan Designee
Allen McNeely
Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
Kevin Beauregard
Assistant Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
iii
Contents
Part Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
2 General Office Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
3 Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Video Display Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Environmental Considerations
in the Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 Sources of Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Foreword
When most people think of occupational safety and
health needs, they picture the dangers lurking around
construction sites or in factories. However, office work-ers
have discovered over the years that they also face
many unique challenges to their safety and health.
A Guide to Office Safety and Health examines many
of these potential risks and offers solutions to them.
General office safety, indoor air pollution, video
displays, and office environmental issues are discussed
in this booklet.
In North Carolina, state inspectors enforce the federal
OSHA laws through a state plan approved by the United
States Department of Labor. The North Carolina
Department of Labor’s Division of Occupational Safety
and Health ( OSHNC) is charged with this mission.
OSHNC enforces all current OSHA standards. It offers
many educational programs to the public and produces
publications, including this guide, to help inform people
about their rights and responsibilities regarding OSHA.
When looking through this guide, please remember
OSHA’s mission is greater than just to enforce regula-tions.
An equally important goal is to help people find
ways to create safe workplaces. This booklet, like the
other educational materials produced by the North
Carolina Department of Labor, can help.
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
iv
1
Introduction
Historically, the office has been considered a relative-ly
clean, safe, and healthy place to work. In recent
years, however, office workers have expressed concerns
about the office environment and their working condi-tions.
These concerns are also reflected in complaints of
discomfort, anxiety, irritation, and general job dissatis-faction
and can be measured in terms of sick leave,
absenteeism, and job turnover. This industry guide dis-cusses
major areas of concern related to health and
safety in the office.
Accidents which occur in offices are frequently from
poorly designed office environments and improper office
procedures. The rate of office accidents declines when
office workers are informed of potential hazards and
methods for working safely. Training regarding general
safety precautions for work in an office reduces both the
number and severity of accidents.
Office workers are increasingly sensitive to the
effects of computer video display terminals ( VDTs) upon
their health and safety. Individuals who work at VDTs
commonly report stress related and musculoskeletal
disorders. If such disorders are to be reduced, VDT
workstations must accommodate the needs of office
workers.
Concern over the quality of air in offices has generat-ed
various health related symptoms which are known
collectively as the “ stuffy office syndrome” and as the
“ sick building syndrome.” Indoor air pollution and inad-equate
ventilation are present subjects of intense study.
The ambience of interoffice surroundings has caused
problems for office workers. Such factors as improper
temperature, inadequate humidity, and even colors of
1
walls and furnishings are now known to be sources of
discomfort. These are situations which should be
considered in creating a safe, healthful, and efficient
office environment.
2
2
General Office Safety
Safety is not a common concern for a typical office
worker because the office is not perceived as a hazardous
working environment. As this guide illustrates, however,
office workers do sustain injuries from hazards in the
office environment. Many injuries, such as those result-ing
from falls, are as serious as those found in the indus-trial
workforce. It follows that office workers should
be informed of office- related hazards and methods for
working safely.
Types of Office Accidents
The most common office accident is falling. Falls
account for the greatest number of disabling injuries.
Falls result in the most severe injuries and the highest
percentage of lost work days due to such injuries.
Falls from chairs occur when workers lean back to tilt
their chair, place their feet on a desk, sit down without
looking, and rise from or move around in a chair. Falls
from stairs also occur, but more precaution is usually
exercised on stairs because the fall hazard they pose is
recognized. Slips, trips, and falls can result from poor
housekeeping such as wet surfaces, electrical cords
improperly placed, and trash obstructed walkways.
Falls result when workers stand on chairs or other
office furniture in order to reach elevated objects.
Injuries from strain and overexertion frequently
occur when office workers attempt to move or improper-ly
lift heavy objects. Office workers sustain muscular
and/ or back injuries by carrying or moving books, office
furniture, equipment, and supplies without assistance.
They may exacerbate such injuries by the stretching,
twisting, and bending required by the office routine.
3
Office workers are injured when struck by objects.
File drawers may fall from the cabinet when pulled too
far, typewriters can fall from a rolling table, or doors
opened from the side opposite the worker may strike
the employee. Similarly, injuries occur when workers
strike objects. Employees bump into doors and desks.
File cabinets inadvertently left open are a source of
injury.
Infectious cuts are caused by sharp objects normally
found in office environments, such as staples and pens
for writing. Fingers can get caught under the knife edge
of a paper cutter.
Office Hazard Control
The process for controlling hazards in the office is
similar to controlling hazards in industrial settings.
The preferred means of hazard control is eliminating
the hazard ( engineering controls). Another means is
minimizing exposure to the hazard ( administrative con-trols).
Office- related hazards are controlled by carefully
considering the office environment and by following
office safety procedures.
Office Environment
The layout of an office should incorporate the princi-ples
of work flow, considering safety and health,
efficiency, and convenience. The Life Safety Code
( National Fire Protection Association ( NFPA) 101) cov-ers
specific requirements for stairways, exits, and doors.
For example, handrails for stairs are required to be
located 30 to 34 inches above the tread surface.
Standards enforced under the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of North Carolina also address stairs.
Generally speaking, enclosed stairways with four or
more risers and less than 44 inches wide require a
handrail on one side. Enclosed stairways wider than 44
4
inches require a handrail for both sides. Regardless of
stair width, there must be a stair railing for each open
side. An intermediate stair railing is required for stairs
wider than 88 inches.
Doors which open onto a passageway pose a hazard to
oncoming traffic. Guardrails can be used to minimize
that hazard or the floor can be painted to mark the
swing area. Exits should be unobstructed and well illu-minated.
Emergency lighting is required for exit hall-ways
or paths.
Inadequate illumination caused by glare or shadows
which interfere with vision can contribute to accidents.
Illumination levels should be consistent to reduce visual
fatigue created when one moves from bright surround-ings
into dark ones. The office layout should not require
employees to face windows, unshielded lamps, or other
sources of glare.
Hazards from electrical equipment can be reduced by:
• Using only UL- listed ( Underwriters Laboratories,
Inc.) equipment.
• Arranging electrical extension cords to avoid trip-ping
hazards.
• Installing proper receptacles.
Electrical appliances such as coffee makers, radios,
and lamps can become sources of fire or electrical shock.
Appliances should be equipped with electrical plugs
which have a ground prong or the appliance should
have been marked “ double insulated” by the manufac-turer.
Electrical extension cords should not be used as a
substitute for permanent wiring. When extension cords
are a temporary necessity, they should be taped down,
clipped to the back of desks, or covered with a rubber
passageway if they cross the floor.
5
The National Electrical Code ( NEC), NFPA 70,
requires ground fault circuit interrupters ( GFCIs) for
restroom areas. The GFCI is a fast- acting device which
senses current leakage caused by a fault in the electrical
circuit. The GFCI shuts off the electricity to interrupt its
faulty flow. It is good practice to use GFCIs wherever
electrical hazards might develop.
All fuses and circuit breakers must be identified.
Place a label on each fuse or circuit breaker switch and
a corresponding label on each receptacle and light
switch. That practice will reduce time needed to identify
a specific fuse or circuit breaker when there is a need to
turn it off.
Floor surfaces should have a slip- resistant finish.
Tripping hazards can be minimized by immediately
replacing defective tiles and carpet or worn floor mats.
Slip- resistant floor wax can give polished floors a higher
coefficient of friction. Floor mats and runners offer a
more slip- resistant protection for stairways or lobby
entrances.
Offices should have an area specifically designed for
storing supplies. Materials should be neatly stacked in
stable piles with the heaviest pieces on the bottom.
Office equipment should not be placed on the edge of a
table or desk.
Office Safety Procedures
Following safe work procedures in the office can
prevent many accidents. Running in offices must be pro-hibited.
Those walking in a passageway should keep to
the right. Accidents result when persons stand in front of
doors, so employees should stand away from the path of
the door swing. Employees should not attempt to carry
stacks of materials which are high enough to obstruct
vision. If an elevator is available, it should be used
instead of carrying stacks of material up flights of stairs.
6
Proper attention should be given to the act of ascend-ing
or descending stairs. Stairways should not be areas
for congregation. Those using the stairs should not
crowd or push. Falls on stairs occur when persons are
distracted through conversation or by turning to another
person while descending. Individuals should not stand
near doors at stairways.
Fall hazards can be prevented through good house-keeping
in the office. Spilled liquids should be cleaned
up immediately, and loose objects and broken glass
should be removed when first noticed. Broken glass
should be immediately vacuumed or swept, and the fine
pieces should be picked up with a damp cloth.
Poor sitting habits can also lead to falls. Rolling in
one’s chair across the floor, leaning sideways in a chair
to pick up objects from the floor, and leaning back in the
chair with feet on the desk are excellent examples of
poor office safety procedures.
Filing cabinets are a major cause of accidents and
should be used with care. The safe office worker will:
• Close all file drawers immediately after use.
• Close the file drawer with the drawer handle and
not with his or her feet.
• Open only one file drawer at a time to avoid
toppling the file cabinet.
• Never leave an open drawer unattended and never
open a drawer if someone is underneath it.
• Never climb on open file drawers.
• Remove small stools ( used to access upper file cabi-net
drawers) from passageways and safely store
them.
• Wear finger guards to avoid paper cuts.
7
Other unsafe office procedures include storing pencils
with the points upward, placing scissors or knives with
the point toward the user, using paper cutters without
proper guards, and placing glass objects on a desk or
table edge.
Employees using lounges and eating areas should fol-low
good housekeeping and safe operating procedures to
prevent exposure to microwaves and burns from hot
plates and coffee makers.
Emergency Action Plan
As a general recommendation, employers should
develop an emergency action plan to address emergen-cies
that the employer can expect in the workplace.
Examples of such foreseeable emergencies are fire, toxic
chemical releases, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, and
floods.
Some of the key components of an emergency action
plan are the following:
• Emergency escape procedures and escape routes
for employees to follow in the event of an
emergency. This should include floor plans that
indicate the appropriate evacuation routes.
• How to account for all employees following
evacuation.
• The rescue and medical duties for those employees,
if any, who are to perform them.
• The preferred means of reporting fires and other
emergencies.
• Names or regular job titles of persons responsible
for the emergency action plan.
Employers are, however, required to have both an
emergency action plan and a fire prevention plan when
portable fire extinguishers are provided, even though
8
they are not intended for employee use. The elements of
a fire prevention plan are:
• Identification of the major workplace fire hazards
and their proper handling and storage.
• Potential ignition sources ( e. g., smoking) and their
control procedures and the type of fire protection
equipment or systems which can be used to control
a fire.
• Names or regular job titles of personnel responsi-ble
for fire suppression equipment or systems.
• Names or regular job titles of personnel responsi-ble
for controlling fuel source hazards.
9
3
Indoor Air Pollution
Our awareness of the quality of indoor air has in-creased
in recent years. Energy conservation programs
spawned by world oil shortages have resulted in building
design and operation changes. Buildings have been
sealed and ventilation rates reduced to prevent the infil-tration
of untempered outside air ( hot, humid air in the
summer months and cold, dry air in the winter). These
changes have conserved fossil fuels and operating costs,
but they have also negatively affected indoor air quality.
Indoor air quality problems are generally classified as
“ sick building syndrome” ( SBS) or “ building- related ill-ness”
( BRI). Conditions associated with sick building
syndrome are not easily traced to a specific substance,
but are usually believed to result from some unidenti-fied
contaminant or combination of contaminants.
The symptoms associated with SBS include:
The symptoms of sick building syndrome are relieved
when the employee leaves the building and may be
reduced or eliminated by modifying the ventilation
system.
10
eye irritation
nose irritation
irritation of the
throat
dry mucous
membranes
mental fatigue
respiratory infections
cough
dry skin
erythema ( skin
reddening)
headache
hoarseness
wheezing
nausea
dizziness
BRI describes specific medical conditions which have
a known origin. These illnesses can be severe and,
unlike SBS, can often be traced to a single contaminant
source such as mold infestation and/ or microbial growth
in cooling towers, air handling systems, and water dam-aged
furnishings. Symptoms may not disappear when
the employee leaves the building. Building- related ill-nesses
include:
respiratory allergies
nosocomial ( hospital) infection
humidifier fever
hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Legionnaires’ disease
Signs and symptoms characteristic of exposure to
chemical and biological substances include:
carbon monoxide
formaldehyde
pesticides
endotoxins
Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air quality is affected by pollution from inside
and outside of buildings and from poor ventilation.
Human metabolic activity, smoking, structural compo-nents
of the building, building contents, biological
contamination, office and mechanical equipment, and
outside air pollutants that enter the building— all are
sources of indoor air pollution.
Inside Air Contaminants
According to the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health ( NIOSH), approximately 4 percent of
indoor air problems can be attributed to contamination
from building materials and products. Formaldehyde
can emit vapors from urea- formaldehyde foam insula-tion,
particle board, plywood, and some glues and
11
adhesives commonly used during construction. Other
contaminants include fibrous glass, various organic
solvents from glues and adhesives, and acetic acid used
as a curing agent in silicone caulking.
Chemicals from copying machines, for example,
methyl alcohol from spirit duplicators, butyl methacry-late
from signature machines, and ammonia and acetic
acid from blueprint copiers, contribute to indoor air pol-lution.
Other inside contaminants include:
improperly applied pesticides
boiler additives such as n, n- diethylethanolamine
improperly diluted cleaning agents such as rug
shampoo
tobacco smoke of all types
combustion gases from sources common to
cafeterias and laboratories
cross- contamination from poorly ventilated sources
that leak into other air zones
Approximately 5 percent of indoor air problems
involve some type of microbiological contamination.
Such contamination can result from water damage to
carpets or furnishings, or from standing water in venti-lation
system components. A respiratory problem
known as hypersensitivity pneumonitis can result from
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and microbiological products
that may originate in ventilation system components.
Outside Air Contaminants
NIOSH has determined that approximately 10 percent
of indoor problems are due to contamination from outside
the office space. Examples of these contaminants are
motor vehicle exhaust fumes, boiler gases, and previous-ly
exhausted air. Major sources are improperly located
exhaust and intake vents and periodic changes in wind
conditions.
12
One of the most common contaminants from outside
is carbon monoxide gas from basement parking garages,
recirculated through the building ventilation system.
Other outside contaminants include the by- products of
construction or renovation, such as asphalt, solvents,
and dusts. Gasoline vapors can infiltrate the basement
and/ or sewage system and are usually caused by gaso-line
leaks from ruptured underground tanks at nearby
service stations.
Inadequate Ventilation
Inadequate ventilation is by far the largest problem
associated with poor indoor air quality. Ventilation
problems commonly encountered include:
insufficient outdoor air supplied to the office space
poor air distribution and mixing which causes
stratification, draftiness, and pressure differences
between offices spaces
extremes of fluctuations in temperature and
humidity ( sometimes caused by poor air distri-bution)
air filtration problems caused by improper or
inadequate maintenance to the building
ventilation system
In many cases, these ventilation problems are created
or exacerbated by energy conservation measures. Such
measures include reducing or eliminating outdoor air;
reducing infiltration and exfiltration; lowering thermo-stats
in the winter and raising them in the summer; elim-inating
humidification or dehumidification systems; and
early shutdown and late start- up of ventilation systems.
Control Strategies
Four control strategies can be implemented to reduce
indoor air pollution: education and training; dilution
13
ventilation; modifying processes and/ or equipment; and
air cleaning.
Education and Training
The employer should provide all office employees
with timely information on the health and physical
hazards associated with office products and materials.
Employers are required by the OSHA hazard communi-cation
standard to develop and implement a hazard
communication program where any hazardous chemi-cals
are known to be present and to which employees
may be exposed. The required hazard communication
program details information and training which
employees must receive.
Dilution Ventilation
Ventilation systems are designed to supply sufficient
oxygen for normal respiration, to dilute contaminants in
occupied spaces, to remove contaminants emitted from
work areas, and to control odors. The American Society
of Heating, Refrigeration, Air Conditioning Engineers
( ASHRAE) is a private standard setting organization
that has developed specific ventilation standards which
are often incorporated into building codes. Most ventila-tion
systems meet the design standards set by state and
local building codes.
The primary method of controlling air contaminants
in most buildings is general ventilation. Dilution venti-lation
requires a clean air supply, to dilute all the con-taminants
of concern, and exhaust openings, located
near the contaminant source or work area.
Recirculation of exhausts can be avoided by locating
the intake and outlet remotely. Reentry of exhaust air
can be avoided by discharging exhaust above the roof
away from openings and air intakes.
14
Diluting contaminants through ventilation should not
be used where:
• There are dust or fume producing operations.
• Highly toxic air contaminants are present.
• Large quantities of contaminants are produced.
• Contaminants are released in nonuniform
quantities.
• Makeup air is unavailable or tempering the air is
economically infeasible.
In the above instances, properly designed local
exhausts may be more effective for controlling air
quality.
Modifying Processes and/ or Equipment
Pollution emission rates may be reduced by modifying
processes and/ or equipment. Polluting substances which
are part of the work process may simply be eliminated.
Less toxic materials may be available to substitute for
contaminating substances. Or the quantity of contami-nating
substances may be reduced.
Equipment may be subject to modification which
would reduce contamination. Using equipment differ-ently
or installing barriers may also reduce emissions
at their source.
Air Cleaning
This control strategy involves removing air contam-inants
before the air is recirculated. Filters and electronic
air cleaners are common particle removal devices.
Adsorption and absorption are removal techniques for
pollutant gases. Air conditioning is primarily a comfort
device, but some concentrations of pollen and other par-ticulate
matter are slightly reduced by air conditioning.
15
4
Video Display Terminals
Video Display Terminals ( VDTs) are now prevalent in
all types of offices. It is common to see operators work-ing
with a VDT without interruption for several hours
or an entire day.
VDT work restricts movement, demands that the
hands be kept positioned at the keyboard, and requires
constant attention to the monitor. Operators become
susceptible to the effects of poor posture, awkward wrist
positioning, poor lighting, and inadequate display char-acteristics.
It is critical that VDTs be designed to fit the
capabilities and physical limitations of the worker.
VDT Workstation Design
Studies of individuals engaged in long- term sitting
indicate that people usually do not sit straight but con-tinually
shift their position. Proper back support and a
large working area contribute to comfortable sitting.
Therefore, the furniture in a VDT workstation should
be as accommodating as possible.
A properly designed chair for the VDT operator is an
essential part of the workstation. It affects posture, cir-culation,
and pressure on the spine. A good backrest is
an important feature of the chair. It should adjust up,
down, backward, and forward. The backrest also
supports the inward curve of the lower spine ( lumbar).
Ideally, the angle between the trunk and thighs should
be greater than 90 degrees.
The seat surface should be a reasonable composition
so that operators do not suffer pressure from a hard
seat or experience levitation from a soft seat. Chair
stability and mobility are critical for ease of movement
16
while in the chair. Chair adjustments must be simple or
the operator will not bother to change the chair.
The height of the seat pan should be adjustable so
that a seated operator’s feet are firmly rested on the
floor. The operator’s thighs should be somewhat
horizontal and the lower legs should be vertical. A
footrest may be needed to reach a comfortable sitting
position.
17
Figure 1
Video Display Terminal Areas of Adjustability
The keyboard should be detachable from the VDT to
permit the operator to locate it for convenience and
preference, according to the work to be performed.
Palm, hand, wrist, and arm supports may be needed for
long- term keying. A desk height of 24 to 28 inches will
allow the upper and lower forearms to form an angle of
approximately 90 degrees. The upper arms should hang
comfortably at the sides.
The monitor should be located at a proper distance and
angle with respect to the human eye. A viewing distance
of 12 to 14 inches ( 30 to 35 centimeters) is common for
many operators. A line of sight 10 degrees or more below
the horizontal is a comfortable eye position. The monitor
should be angled so that the normal vision line falls in
the upper half of the screen. ( See figure 1.)
Workstation Illumination
The amount of light on a VDT workstation deter-mines
if the surface of the display receives direct reflec-tions.
Screen reflections may be annoying and cause
operator complaints. Reflections on the screen can come
from overhead light sources, light fixtures, windows,
and shiny surfaces.
In the past, higher levels of illumination were con-sidered
more effective. Present recommendations on
luminance are that there should be no more than a 3: 1
ratio in luminance between the task area and its
surroundings. The contrast between the task and the
background allows for easy viewing.
Headaches and eye fatigue due to reflected illumina-tion
can be reduced in several ways. The most effective
method of minimizing screen reflections is to eliminate
the light source. This can be accomplished by moving the
light source or workstation or by using indirect illumina-tion.
If natural lighting is a problem, it is best to position
the display so that it is perpendicular to windows.
18
The next best solution for glare reduction is to control
the light between the source and the screen. Baffles,
louvers, shades, and shields are useful light control
devices.
The least desirable solution is to control the light at
the screen of the display. Surface treatments or filters
can be used. Filters are designed to improve contrast
and reduce glare. However, the overall energy from the
VDT character is lessened by a filter and character
sharpness is reduced.
Work Methods
Even a comfortable workstation can be stressful and
tiring after an operator sits for long periods of time.
Stretching occasionally, looking away from the work, or
getting up from the VDT station can help relieve strain
and stress. If other tasks can be accomplished, alternat-ing
them with VDT work can vary the work rhythm to
reduce strain and tension.
19
5
Environmental
Considerations in the Office
Temperature
Indoor climate conditions are among the most com-mon
complaints from office workers. An uncomfortable
atmosphere can cause annoyance and even pain,
depending on the degree of heat imbalance.
The effects of improper temperature include fatigue,
sweating, respiratory discomfort, and changes in pulse
rate. Too warm of an atmosphere leads to sleepiness, a
decrease in performance, and increased chance for
error. An atmosphere which is too cool stimulates rest-lessness
and reduces alertness and concentration.
Because productivity is related to a comfortable
climate, it is important to keep the office at a pleasing
temperature. Of course, individuals perceive tempera-ture
comfort levels differently. Recognizing that fact,
the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air
Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE) developed a volun-tary
standard ( ASHRAE 55- 1981) for temperature
ranges. Compliance with the standard would yield
temperatures satisfactory to 80 percent of the average
population. Compliance would require:
a range of 73° to 79° F for an average individual in
the summer, and a range of 68° to 74.5° F in the
winter
relative humidity between 30 and 60 percent
an average indoor air velocity of 0.25 meters per
second or less in the summer, and an average
indoor air velocity of 0.15 meters per second or less
in the winter
20
Preferred air temperature may vary according to air
velocity, clothing, muscular activity, and metabolism.
Situational conditions can also affect comfort levels.
Sitting near a glass wall or window on a hot or cold day
may be uncomfortable, and sitting near heat producing
equipment such as VDTs and copiers may cause discom-fort.
Humidity
Office humidity deficiencies can lead to adverse
health effects. It has been demonstrated that dry air
leads to chronic irritation of the nasal and bronchial
passages. Studies have shown that dry mucous
membranes in the air ducts can obstruct the flow of
mucous over the ciliary tracts, possibly leading to
diminished infection resistance.
Relative humidity below 30 percent is thought to
create unhygienic conditions. Atmospheric humidity
does not measurably affect thermal comfort, or the
effective temperature, if the temperature and humidity
are within the ranges recommended by ASHRAE.
Color
Color in the workplace seems to have a psychological
effect on individuals due to optical illusions and
emotional experiences which colors trigger. Such emo-tional
experiences may be positive or negative feelings
which colors somehow link with earlier experiences.
Generally, dark colors are depressing and tiring while
light colors are friendly and cheerful. Room colors must
also be considered in light of the nature of the work to
be accomplished. Routine work requires more exciting
colors. Work requiring close concentration requires
colors which are not distracting and which are restful.
21
Intense colors should be reserved for rooms such as
entrance halls, restrooms and corridors. Strong colors
may help brighten these areas, making them more
cheerful. Particular colors and their effects are summa-rized
below.
Colors Effects
Blue Restful
Brown Restful
Green Very restful
Orange Exciting
Yellow Exciting
Red Very stimulating, not restful
Violet Aggressive, tiring
22
6
Sources of Help
North Carolina Department of Labor
The North Carolina Department of Labor’s Division
of Occupational Safety and Health ( OSHNC) adminis-ters
OSHA rules and regulations in our state. Workers
employed in both public and private offices are protect-ed
by OSHA.
Any employee may contact OSHNC regarding an
unsafe or unhealthy condition in his or her workplace.
Complaints may be made by calling toll- free 1- 800- NC-LABOR
or by calling ( 919) 807- 2796. Any employee
making a complaint about such conditions can request
to have his or her name kept confidential.
An employer or any employee may contact the
OSHNC Bureau of Education, Training and Technical
Assistance regarding questions about OSHA or for
other assistance regarding occupational safety and
health information. Many publications including the
OSHA standards for general industry or for construc-tion,
a wide range of industry- specific booklets, and
other materials can be ordered through this bureau. See
the inside back cover of this guide for the bureau’s
address and telephone number.
The North Carolina Department of Labor Library
offers employers and employees a wide range of litera-ture
and audiovisuals on labor- related topics. The
library’s holdings are loaned free of charge to the public.
A full- time librarian is on staff to assist patrons in
selecting the materials most appropriate to their needs.
The address and telephone number for the library is:
23
North Carolina Department of Labor Library
4 West Edenton Street
Raleigh, NC 27601- 1092
Telephone: 1- 800- NC- LABOR or ( 919) 807- 2848
Employers may also contact the OSHNC Bureau of
Consultative Services. This bureau conducts programs
to assist employers in improving the safety and health
conditions of their facilities and programs to recognize
those who operate safe and healthy workplaces.
Bureau of Consultative Services staff members rou-tinely
conduct safety and health consultative visits at
worksites at the request of employers. The bureau does
not share its information with the OSHNC compliance
bureaus.
This bureau also administers the Safety Awards
program to honor those who operate safe and healthy
workplaces and the Carolina Star program which
recognizes employers who have achieved extraordinary
safety and health records. Please contact the bureau for
more information on any of these services. The Bureau
of Consultative Services’s address and telephone num-ber
are located on the inside back cover of this guide.
Other Organizations, Associations, and
Agencies
You have valuable sources of assistance in your own
vicinity. For example, the local chapter of the American
Red Cross and the American Heart Association can
assist you in establishing a course in CPR ( cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation). Your local fire department or
community college can teach your office staff about
different types of fire extinguishers, including how to
use one, and advise you about a response plan for
emergencies such as fires.
24
A sampling of other agencies includes:
Duke Poison Control Center
1- 800- 672- 1697 ( 24 hours/ day)
National Fire Protection Association ( NFPA)
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, Massachusetts 02269
( 617) 770- 3000
National Safety Council
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, Illinois 60143- 3201
( 630) 285- 1211
Suggested Readings
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. 1983. Video Display
Terminals— Preliminary Guidelines for Selection,
Installation and Use. Short Hills, New Jersey.
Hazardous Chemicals Right to Know Act, N. C. Gen.
Stat. § § 95- 173– 95- 218 ( 1990).
Musselman, Victoria. 1989. Emergency Planning and
Community Right- to- Know. New York: Von Nostrand
Reinhold.
National Safety Council. 1988. Accident Prevention
Manual for Industrial Operations: Administration and
Programs. Chicago.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1991. A Guide to
Electrical Safety. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 18.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1990. A Guide to
Ergonomics. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 9.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1993. A Guide to OSHA in
North Carolina. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 4.
25
N. C. Department of Labor. 1992. A Guide to
Voluntary Training and Training Requirements in
OSHA Standards. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 8.
N. C. Department of Labor. North Carolina
Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General
Industry.
North Carolina Occupational Safety and Health
Hazard Communication Standard, 13 NCAC
7C. 0101( a)( 105); 29 CFR 1910.1200.
26
The following industry guides are available from the N. C. Department of Labor’s Division of Occupational
Safety and Health:
1# 1. A Guide to Safety in Confined Spaces
1# 2. A Guide to Procedures of the Safety and Health Review Board of North Carolina
1# 3. A Guide to Machine Safeguarding
1# 4. A Guide to OSHA in North Carolina
1# 5. A Guide for Persons Employed in Cotton Dust Environments
1# 6. A Guide to Lead Exposure in the Construction Industry
1# 7. A Guide to Bloodborne Pathogens in the Workplace
1# 8. A Guide to Voluntary Training and Training Requirements in OSHA Standards
1# 9. A Guide to Ergonomics
# 10. A Guide to Farm Safety and Health
# 11. A Guide to Radio Frequency Hazards With Electric Detonators
# 12. A Guide to Forklift Operator Training
# 13. A Guide to the Safe Storage of Explosive Materials
# 14. A Guide to the OSHA Excavations Standard
# 15. A Guide to Developing and Maintaining an Effective Hearing Conservation Program
# 17. A Guide to Asbestos for Industry
# 18. A Guide to Electrical Safety
# 19. A Guide to Occupational Exposure to Wood, Wood Dust and Combustible Dust Hazards
# 20. A Guide to Crane Safety
# 21. A Guide to School Safety and Health
# 23. A Guide to Working With Electricity
# 25. A Guide to Personal Protective Equipment
# 26. A Guide to Manual Materials Handling and Back Safety
# 27. A Guide to the Control of Hazardous Energy ( Lockout/ Tagout)
# 28. A Guide to Eye Wash and Safety Shower Facilities
# 29. A Guide to Safety and Health in Feed and Grain Mills
# 30. A Guide to Working With Corrosive Substances
# 31. A Guide to Formaldehyde
# 32. A Guide to Fall Prevention in Industry
# 33. A Guide to Office Safety and Health
# 34. A Guide to Safety and Health in the Poultry Industry
# 35. A Guide to Preventing Heat Stress
# 36. A Guide to the Safe Use of Escalators and Elevators
# 37. A Guide to Boilers and Pressure Vessels
# 38. A Guide to Safe Scaffolding
# 39. A Guide to Safety in the Textile Industry
# 40. A Guide to Emergency Action Planning
# 41. A Guide to OSHA for Small Businesses in North Carolina
Occupational Safety and Health ( OSH)
Sources of Information
You may call 1- 800- NC- LABOR ( 1- 800- 625- 2267) to reach any division of the N. C. Department of Labor; or visit the
NCDOL home page on the World Wide Web, Internet Web site address: http:// www. nclabor. com.
N. C. Division of Occupational Safety and Health
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 3rd Floor)
Local Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2900 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2856
For information concerning education, training and interpretations of occupational safety and health standards contact:
Bureau of Education, Training and Technical Assistance
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 4th Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2875 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2876
For information concerning occupational safety and health consultative services and safety awards programs contact:
Bureau of Consultative Services
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 3rd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2899 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2902
For information concerning migrant housing inspections and other related activities contact:
Agricultural Safety and Health Bureau
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 2nd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2923 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2924
For information concerning occupational safety and health compliance contact:
Safety and Health Compliance District Offices
Raleigh District Office ( 313 Chapanoke Road, Raleigh, NC 27603)
Telephone: ( 919) 779- 8570 Fax: ( 919) 662- 4709
Asheville District Office ( 204 Charlotte Highway, Suite B, Asheville, NC 28803- 8681)
Telephone: ( 828) 299- 8232 Fax: ( 828) 299- 8266
Charlotte District Office ( 901 Blairhill Road, Suite 200, Charlotte, NC 28217- 1578)
Telephone: ( 704) 665- 4341 Fax: ( 704) 665- 4342
Winston- Salem District Office ( 4964 University Parkway, Suite 202, Winston- Salem, NC 27106- 2800)
Telephone: ( 336) 776- 4420 Fax: ( 336) 776- 4422
Wilmington District Office ( 1200 N. 23rd St., Suite 205, Wilmington, NC 28405- 1824)
Telephone: ( 910) 251- 2678 Fax: ( 910) 251- 2654
*** To make an OSHA Complaint, OSH Complaint Desk: ( 919) 807- 2796***
For statistical information concerning program activities contact:
Planning, Statistics and Information Management
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 2nd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2950 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2951
For information about books, periodicals, vertical files, videos, films, audio/ slide sets and computer databases contact:
N. C. Department of Labor Library
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 5th Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2848 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2849
N. C. Department of Labor ( Other than OSH)
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Telephone: ( 919) 733- 7166 Fax: ( 919) 733- 6197

Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

A Guide to
Office Safety and Health
Sydney Cheryl Sutton
Editor
N. C. Department of Labor
Division of Occupational Safety and Health
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
Acknowledgments
A Guide to Office Safety and Health was prepared for the
North Carolina Department of Labor by the L. A. Weaver
Company, located at 308 East Jones Street, Raleigh, North
Carolina. The L. A. Weaver Company specializes in occupa-tional
and environmental safety and health and ergonomics.
Additional material was supplied by J. Edgar Geddie, Ph. D.,
health standards officer with the North Carolina Division of
Occupational Safety and Health.
This guide is intended to be consistent with all existing
OSHA standards; therefore, if an area is considered by
the reader to be inconsistent with a standard, then the
OSHA standard should be followed.
To obtain additional copies of this book, or if you have ques-tions
about N. C. occupational safety and health standards
or rules, please contact:
N. C. Department of Labor
Bureau of Education, Training and Technical Assistance
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Phone: ( 919) 807- 2875 or 1- 800- NC- LABOR
____________________
Additional sources of information are listed
on the inside back cover of this book.
____________________
The projected cost of the OSHNC program for federal fiscal year 2002– 2003 is $ 13,130,589.
Federal funding provides approximately 37 percent ($ 4,920,000) of this total.
Printed 2/ 97 5M
N. C. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Program
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
OSHA State Plan Designee
Allen McNeely
Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
Kevin Beauregard
Assistant Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
iii
Contents
Part Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
2 General Office Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
3 Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Video Display Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Environmental Considerations
in the Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 Sources of Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Foreword
When most people think of occupational safety and
health needs, they picture the dangers lurking around
construction sites or in factories. However, office work-ers
have discovered over the years that they also face
many unique challenges to their safety and health.
A Guide to Office Safety and Health examines many
of these potential risks and offers solutions to them.
General office safety, indoor air pollution, video
displays, and office environmental issues are discussed
in this booklet.
In North Carolina, state inspectors enforce the federal
OSHA laws through a state plan approved by the United
States Department of Labor. The North Carolina
Department of Labor’s Division of Occupational Safety
and Health ( OSHNC) is charged with this mission.
OSHNC enforces all current OSHA standards. It offers
many educational programs to the public and produces
publications, including this guide, to help inform people
about their rights and responsibilities regarding OSHA.
When looking through this guide, please remember
OSHA’s mission is greater than just to enforce regula-tions.
An equally important goal is to help people find
ways to create safe workplaces. This booklet, like the
other educational materials produced by the North
Carolina Department of Labor, can help.
Cherie K. Berry
Commissioner of Labor
iv
1
Introduction
Historically, the office has been considered a relative-ly
clean, safe, and healthy place to work. In recent
years, however, office workers have expressed concerns
about the office environment and their working condi-tions.
These concerns are also reflected in complaints of
discomfort, anxiety, irritation, and general job dissatis-faction
and can be measured in terms of sick leave,
absenteeism, and job turnover. This industry guide dis-cusses
major areas of concern related to health and
safety in the office.
Accidents which occur in offices are frequently from
poorly designed office environments and improper office
procedures. The rate of office accidents declines when
office workers are informed of potential hazards and
methods for working safely. Training regarding general
safety precautions for work in an office reduces both the
number and severity of accidents.
Office workers are increasingly sensitive to the
effects of computer video display terminals ( VDTs) upon
their health and safety. Individuals who work at VDTs
commonly report stress related and musculoskeletal
disorders. If such disorders are to be reduced, VDT
workstations must accommodate the needs of office
workers.
Concern over the quality of air in offices has generat-ed
various health related symptoms which are known
collectively as the “ stuffy office syndrome” and as the
“ sick building syndrome.” Indoor air pollution and inad-equate
ventilation are present subjects of intense study.
The ambience of interoffice surroundings has caused
problems for office workers. Such factors as improper
temperature, inadequate humidity, and even colors of
1
walls and furnishings are now known to be sources of
discomfort. These are situations which should be
considered in creating a safe, healthful, and efficient
office environment.
2
2
General Office Safety
Safety is not a common concern for a typical office
worker because the office is not perceived as a hazardous
working environment. As this guide illustrates, however,
office workers do sustain injuries from hazards in the
office environment. Many injuries, such as those result-ing
from falls, are as serious as those found in the indus-trial
workforce. It follows that office workers should
be informed of office- related hazards and methods for
working safely.
Types of Office Accidents
The most common office accident is falling. Falls
account for the greatest number of disabling injuries.
Falls result in the most severe injuries and the highest
percentage of lost work days due to such injuries.
Falls from chairs occur when workers lean back to tilt
their chair, place their feet on a desk, sit down without
looking, and rise from or move around in a chair. Falls
from stairs also occur, but more precaution is usually
exercised on stairs because the fall hazard they pose is
recognized. Slips, trips, and falls can result from poor
housekeeping such as wet surfaces, electrical cords
improperly placed, and trash obstructed walkways.
Falls result when workers stand on chairs or other
office furniture in order to reach elevated objects.
Injuries from strain and overexertion frequently
occur when office workers attempt to move or improper-ly
lift heavy objects. Office workers sustain muscular
and/ or back injuries by carrying or moving books, office
furniture, equipment, and supplies without assistance.
They may exacerbate such injuries by the stretching,
twisting, and bending required by the office routine.
3
Office workers are injured when struck by objects.
File drawers may fall from the cabinet when pulled too
far, typewriters can fall from a rolling table, or doors
opened from the side opposite the worker may strike
the employee. Similarly, injuries occur when workers
strike objects. Employees bump into doors and desks.
File cabinets inadvertently left open are a source of
injury.
Infectious cuts are caused by sharp objects normally
found in office environments, such as staples and pens
for writing. Fingers can get caught under the knife edge
of a paper cutter.
Office Hazard Control
The process for controlling hazards in the office is
similar to controlling hazards in industrial settings.
The preferred means of hazard control is eliminating
the hazard ( engineering controls). Another means is
minimizing exposure to the hazard ( administrative con-trols).
Office- related hazards are controlled by carefully
considering the office environment and by following
office safety procedures.
Office Environment
The layout of an office should incorporate the princi-ples
of work flow, considering safety and health,
efficiency, and convenience. The Life Safety Code
( National Fire Protection Association ( NFPA) 101) cov-ers
specific requirements for stairways, exits, and doors.
For example, handrails for stairs are required to be
located 30 to 34 inches above the tread surface.
Standards enforced under the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of North Carolina also address stairs.
Generally speaking, enclosed stairways with four or
more risers and less than 44 inches wide require a
handrail on one side. Enclosed stairways wider than 44
4
inches require a handrail for both sides. Regardless of
stair width, there must be a stair railing for each open
side. An intermediate stair railing is required for stairs
wider than 88 inches.
Doors which open onto a passageway pose a hazard to
oncoming traffic. Guardrails can be used to minimize
that hazard or the floor can be painted to mark the
swing area. Exits should be unobstructed and well illu-minated.
Emergency lighting is required for exit hall-ways
or paths.
Inadequate illumination caused by glare or shadows
which interfere with vision can contribute to accidents.
Illumination levels should be consistent to reduce visual
fatigue created when one moves from bright surround-ings
into dark ones. The office layout should not require
employees to face windows, unshielded lamps, or other
sources of glare.
Hazards from electrical equipment can be reduced by:
• Using only UL- listed ( Underwriters Laboratories,
Inc.) equipment.
• Arranging electrical extension cords to avoid trip-ping
hazards.
• Installing proper receptacles.
Electrical appliances such as coffee makers, radios,
and lamps can become sources of fire or electrical shock.
Appliances should be equipped with electrical plugs
which have a ground prong or the appliance should
have been marked “ double insulated” by the manufac-turer.
Electrical extension cords should not be used as a
substitute for permanent wiring. When extension cords
are a temporary necessity, they should be taped down,
clipped to the back of desks, or covered with a rubber
passageway if they cross the floor.
5
The National Electrical Code ( NEC), NFPA 70,
requires ground fault circuit interrupters ( GFCIs) for
restroom areas. The GFCI is a fast- acting device which
senses current leakage caused by a fault in the electrical
circuit. The GFCI shuts off the electricity to interrupt its
faulty flow. It is good practice to use GFCIs wherever
electrical hazards might develop.
All fuses and circuit breakers must be identified.
Place a label on each fuse or circuit breaker switch and
a corresponding label on each receptacle and light
switch. That practice will reduce time needed to identify
a specific fuse or circuit breaker when there is a need to
turn it off.
Floor surfaces should have a slip- resistant finish.
Tripping hazards can be minimized by immediately
replacing defective tiles and carpet or worn floor mats.
Slip- resistant floor wax can give polished floors a higher
coefficient of friction. Floor mats and runners offer a
more slip- resistant protection for stairways or lobby
entrances.
Offices should have an area specifically designed for
storing supplies. Materials should be neatly stacked in
stable piles with the heaviest pieces on the bottom.
Office equipment should not be placed on the edge of a
table or desk.
Office Safety Procedures
Following safe work procedures in the office can
prevent many accidents. Running in offices must be pro-hibited.
Those walking in a passageway should keep to
the right. Accidents result when persons stand in front of
doors, so employees should stand away from the path of
the door swing. Employees should not attempt to carry
stacks of materials which are high enough to obstruct
vision. If an elevator is available, it should be used
instead of carrying stacks of material up flights of stairs.
6
Proper attention should be given to the act of ascend-ing
or descending stairs. Stairways should not be areas
for congregation. Those using the stairs should not
crowd or push. Falls on stairs occur when persons are
distracted through conversation or by turning to another
person while descending. Individuals should not stand
near doors at stairways.
Fall hazards can be prevented through good house-keeping
in the office. Spilled liquids should be cleaned
up immediately, and loose objects and broken glass
should be removed when first noticed. Broken glass
should be immediately vacuumed or swept, and the fine
pieces should be picked up with a damp cloth.
Poor sitting habits can also lead to falls. Rolling in
one’s chair across the floor, leaning sideways in a chair
to pick up objects from the floor, and leaning back in the
chair with feet on the desk are excellent examples of
poor office safety procedures.
Filing cabinets are a major cause of accidents and
should be used with care. The safe office worker will:
• Close all file drawers immediately after use.
• Close the file drawer with the drawer handle and
not with his or her feet.
• Open only one file drawer at a time to avoid
toppling the file cabinet.
• Never leave an open drawer unattended and never
open a drawer if someone is underneath it.
• Never climb on open file drawers.
• Remove small stools ( used to access upper file cabi-net
drawers) from passageways and safely store
them.
• Wear finger guards to avoid paper cuts.
7
Other unsafe office procedures include storing pencils
with the points upward, placing scissors or knives with
the point toward the user, using paper cutters without
proper guards, and placing glass objects on a desk or
table edge.
Employees using lounges and eating areas should fol-low
good housekeeping and safe operating procedures to
prevent exposure to microwaves and burns from hot
plates and coffee makers.
Emergency Action Plan
As a general recommendation, employers should
develop an emergency action plan to address emergen-cies
that the employer can expect in the workplace.
Examples of such foreseeable emergencies are fire, toxic
chemical releases, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, and
floods.
Some of the key components of an emergency action
plan are the following:
• Emergency escape procedures and escape routes
for employees to follow in the event of an
emergency. This should include floor plans that
indicate the appropriate evacuation routes.
• How to account for all employees following
evacuation.
• The rescue and medical duties for those employees,
if any, who are to perform them.
• The preferred means of reporting fires and other
emergencies.
• Names or regular job titles of persons responsible
for the emergency action plan.
Employers are, however, required to have both an
emergency action plan and a fire prevention plan when
portable fire extinguishers are provided, even though
8
they are not intended for employee use. The elements of
a fire prevention plan are:
• Identification of the major workplace fire hazards
and their proper handling and storage.
• Potential ignition sources ( e. g., smoking) and their
control procedures and the type of fire protection
equipment or systems which can be used to control
a fire.
• Names or regular job titles of personnel responsi-ble
for fire suppression equipment or systems.
• Names or regular job titles of personnel responsi-ble
for controlling fuel source hazards.
9
3
Indoor Air Pollution
Our awareness of the quality of indoor air has in-creased
in recent years. Energy conservation programs
spawned by world oil shortages have resulted in building
design and operation changes. Buildings have been
sealed and ventilation rates reduced to prevent the infil-tration
of untempered outside air ( hot, humid air in the
summer months and cold, dry air in the winter). These
changes have conserved fossil fuels and operating costs,
but they have also negatively affected indoor air quality.
Indoor air quality problems are generally classified as
“ sick building syndrome” ( SBS) or “ building- related ill-ness”
( BRI). Conditions associated with sick building
syndrome are not easily traced to a specific substance,
but are usually believed to result from some unidenti-fied
contaminant or combination of contaminants.
The symptoms associated with SBS include:
The symptoms of sick building syndrome are relieved
when the employee leaves the building and may be
reduced or eliminated by modifying the ventilation
system.
10
eye irritation
nose irritation
irritation of the
throat
dry mucous
membranes
mental fatigue
respiratory infections
cough
dry skin
erythema ( skin
reddening)
headache
hoarseness
wheezing
nausea
dizziness
BRI describes specific medical conditions which have
a known origin. These illnesses can be severe and,
unlike SBS, can often be traced to a single contaminant
source such as mold infestation and/ or microbial growth
in cooling towers, air handling systems, and water dam-aged
furnishings. Symptoms may not disappear when
the employee leaves the building. Building- related ill-nesses
include:
respiratory allergies
nosocomial ( hospital) infection
humidifier fever
hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Legionnaires’ disease
Signs and symptoms characteristic of exposure to
chemical and biological substances include:
carbon monoxide
formaldehyde
pesticides
endotoxins
Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air quality is affected by pollution from inside
and outside of buildings and from poor ventilation.
Human metabolic activity, smoking, structural compo-nents
of the building, building contents, biological
contamination, office and mechanical equipment, and
outside air pollutants that enter the building— all are
sources of indoor air pollution.
Inside Air Contaminants
According to the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health ( NIOSH), approximately 4 percent of
indoor air problems can be attributed to contamination
from building materials and products. Formaldehyde
can emit vapors from urea- formaldehyde foam insula-tion,
particle board, plywood, and some glues and
11
adhesives commonly used during construction. Other
contaminants include fibrous glass, various organic
solvents from glues and adhesives, and acetic acid used
as a curing agent in silicone caulking.
Chemicals from copying machines, for example,
methyl alcohol from spirit duplicators, butyl methacry-late
from signature machines, and ammonia and acetic
acid from blueprint copiers, contribute to indoor air pol-lution.
Other inside contaminants include:
improperly applied pesticides
boiler additives such as n, n- diethylethanolamine
improperly diluted cleaning agents such as rug
shampoo
tobacco smoke of all types
combustion gases from sources common to
cafeterias and laboratories
cross- contamination from poorly ventilated sources
that leak into other air zones
Approximately 5 percent of indoor air problems
involve some type of microbiological contamination.
Such contamination can result from water damage to
carpets or furnishings, or from standing water in venti-lation
system components. A respiratory problem
known as hypersensitivity pneumonitis can result from
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and microbiological products
that may originate in ventilation system components.
Outside Air Contaminants
NIOSH has determined that approximately 10 percent
of indoor problems are due to contamination from outside
the office space. Examples of these contaminants are
motor vehicle exhaust fumes, boiler gases, and previous-ly
exhausted air. Major sources are improperly located
exhaust and intake vents and periodic changes in wind
conditions.
12
One of the most common contaminants from outside
is carbon monoxide gas from basement parking garages,
recirculated through the building ventilation system.
Other outside contaminants include the by- products of
construction or renovation, such as asphalt, solvents,
and dusts. Gasoline vapors can infiltrate the basement
and/ or sewage system and are usually caused by gaso-line
leaks from ruptured underground tanks at nearby
service stations.
Inadequate Ventilation
Inadequate ventilation is by far the largest problem
associated with poor indoor air quality. Ventilation
problems commonly encountered include:
insufficient outdoor air supplied to the office space
poor air distribution and mixing which causes
stratification, draftiness, and pressure differences
between offices spaces
extremes of fluctuations in temperature and
humidity ( sometimes caused by poor air distri-bution)
air filtration problems caused by improper or
inadequate maintenance to the building
ventilation system
In many cases, these ventilation problems are created
or exacerbated by energy conservation measures. Such
measures include reducing or eliminating outdoor air;
reducing infiltration and exfiltration; lowering thermo-stats
in the winter and raising them in the summer; elim-inating
humidification or dehumidification systems; and
early shutdown and late start- up of ventilation systems.
Control Strategies
Four control strategies can be implemented to reduce
indoor air pollution: education and training; dilution
13
ventilation; modifying processes and/ or equipment; and
air cleaning.
Education and Training
The employer should provide all office employees
with timely information on the health and physical
hazards associated with office products and materials.
Employers are required by the OSHA hazard communi-cation
standard to develop and implement a hazard
communication program where any hazardous chemi-cals
are known to be present and to which employees
may be exposed. The required hazard communication
program details information and training which
employees must receive.
Dilution Ventilation
Ventilation systems are designed to supply sufficient
oxygen for normal respiration, to dilute contaminants in
occupied spaces, to remove contaminants emitted from
work areas, and to control odors. The American Society
of Heating, Refrigeration, Air Conditioning Engineers
( ASHRAE) is a private standard setting organization
that has developed specific ventilation standards which
are often incorporated into building codes. Most ventila-tion
systems meet the design standards set by state and
local building codes.
The primary method of controlling air contaminants
in most buildings is general ventilation. Dilution venti-lation
requires a clean air supply, to dilute all the con-taminants
of concern, and exhaust openings, located
near the contaminant source or work area.
Recirculation of exhausts can be avoided by locating
the intake and outlet remotely. Reentry of exhaust air
can be avoided by discharging exhaust above the roof
away from openings and air intakes.
14
Diluting contaminants through ventilation should not
be used where:
• There are dust or fume producing operations.
• Highly toxic air contaminants are present.
• Large quantities of contaminants are produced.
• Contaminants are released in nonuniform
quantities.
• Makeup air is unavailable or tempering the air is
economically infeasible.
In the above instances, properly designed local
exhausts may be more effective for controlling air
quality.
Modifying Processes and/ or Equipment
Pollution emission rates may be reduced by modifying
processes and/ or equipment. Polluting substances which
are part of the work process may simply be eliminated.
Less toxic materials may be available to substitute for
contaminating substances. Or the quantity of contami-nating
substances may be reduced.
Equipment may be subject to modification which
would reduce contamination. Using equipment differ-ently
or installing barriers may also reduce emissions
at their source.
Air Cleaning
This control strategy involves removing air contam-inants
before the air is recirculated. Filters and electronic
air cleaners are common particle removal devices.
Adsorption and absorption are removal techniques for
pollutant gases. Air conditioning is primarily a comfort
device, but some concentrations of pollen and other par-ticulate
matter are slightly reduced by air conditioning.
15
4
Video Display Terminals
Video Display Terminals ( VDTs) are now prevalent in
all types of offices. It is common to see operators work-ing
with a VDT without interruption for several hours
or an entire day.
VDT work restricts movement, demands that the
hands be kept positioned at the keyboard, and requires
constant attention to the monitor. Operators become
susceptible to the effects of poor posture, awkward wrist
positioning, poor lighting, and inadequate display char-acteristics.
It is critical that VDTs be designed to fit the
capabilities and physical limitations of the worker.
VDT Workstation Design
Studies of individuals engaged in long- term sitting
indicate that people usually do not sit straight but con-tinually
shift their position. Proper back support and a
large working area contribute to comfortable sitting.
Therefore, the furniture in a VDT workstation should
be as accommodating as possible.
A properly designed chair for the VDT operator is an
essential part of the workstation. It affects posture, cir-culation,
and pressure on the spine. A good backrest is
an important feature of the chair. It should adjust up,
down, backward, and forward. The backrest also
supports the inward curve of the lower spine ( lumbar).
Ideally, the angle between the trunk and thighs should
be greater than 90 degrees.
The seat surface should be a reasonable composition
so that operators do not suffer pressure from a hard
seat or experience levitation from a soft seat. Chair
stability and mobility are critical for ease of movement
16
while in the chair. Chair adjustments must be simple or
the operator will not bother to change the chair.
The height of the seat pan should be adjustable so
that a seated operator’s feet are firmly rested on the
floor. The operator’s thighs should be somewhat
horizontal and the lower legs should be vertical. A
footrest may be needed to reach a comfortable sitting
position.
17
Figure 1
Video Display Terminal Areas of Adjustability
The keyboard should be detachable from the VDT to
permit the operator to locate it for convenience and
preference, according to the work to be performed.
Palm, hand, wrist, and arm supports may be needed for
long- term keying. A desk height of 24 to 28 inches will
allow the upper and lower forearms to form an angle of
approximately 90 degrees. The upper arms should hang
comfortably at the sides.
The monitor should be located at a proper distance and
angle with respect to the human eye. A viewing distance
of 12 to 14 inches ( 30 to 35 centimeters) is common for
many operators. A line of sight 10 degrees or more below
the horizontal is a comfortable eye position. The monitor
should be angled so that the normal vision line falls in
the upper half of the screen. ( See figure 1.)
Workstation Illumination
The amount of light on a VDT workstation deter-mines
if the surface of the display receives direct reflec-tions.
Screen reflections may be annoying and cause
operator complaints. Reflections on the screen can come
from overhead light sources, light fixtures, windows,
and shiny surfaces.
In the past, higher levels of illumination were con-sidered
more effective. Present recommendations on
luminance are that there should be no more than a 3: 1
ratio in luminance between the task area and its
surroundings. The contrast between the task and the
background allows for easy viewing.
Headaches and eye fatigue due to reflected illumina-tion
can be reduced in several ways. The most effective
method of minimizing screen reflections is to eliminate
the light source. This can be accomplished by moving the
light source or workstation or by using indirect illumina-tion.
If natural lighting is a problem, it is best to position
the display so that it is perpendicular to windows.
18
The next best solution for glare reduction is to control
the light between the source and the screen. Baffles,
louvers, shades, and shields are useful light control
devices.
The least desirable solution is to control the light at
the screen of the display. Surface treatments or filters
can be used. Filters are designed to improve contrast
and reduce glare. However, the overall energy from the
VDT character is lessened by a filter and character
sharpness is reduced.
Work Methods
Even a comfortable workstation can be stressful and
tiring after an operator sits for long periods of time.
Stretching occasionally, looking away from the work, or
getting up from the VDT station can help relieve strain
and stress. If other tasks can be accomplished, alternat-ing
them with VDT work can vary the work rhythm to
reduce strain and tension.
19
5
Environmental
Considerations in the Office
Temperature
Indoor climate conditions are among the most com-mon
complaints from office workers. An uncomfortable
atmosphere can cause annoyance and even pain,
depending on the degree of heat imbalance.
The effects of improper temperature include fatigue,
sweating, respiratory discomfort, and changes in pulse
rate. Too warm of an atmosphere leads to sleepiness, a
decrease in performance, and increased chance for
error. An atmosphere which is too cool stimulates rest-lessness
and reduces alertness and concentration.
Because productivity is related to a comfortable
climate, it is important to keep the office at a pleasing
temperature. Of course, individuals perceive tempera-ture
comfort levels differently. Recognizing that fact,
the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air
Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE) developed a volun-tary
standard ( ASHRAE 55- 1981) for temperature
ranges. Compliance with the standard would yield
temperatures satisfactory to 80 percent of the average
population. Compliance would require:
a range of 73° to 79° F for an average individual in
the summer, and a range of 68° to 74.5° F in the
winter
relative humidity between 30 and 60 percent
an average indoor air velocity of 0.25 meters per
second or less in the summer, and an average
indoor air velocity of 0.15 meters per second or less
in the winter
20
Preferred air temperature may vary according to air
velocity, clothing, muscular activity, and metabolism.
Situational conditions can also affect comfort levels.
Sitting near a glass wall or window on a hot or cold day
may be uncomfortable, and sitting near heat producing
equipment such as VDTs and copiers may cause discom-fort.
Humidity
Office humidity deficiencies can lead to adverse
health effects. It has been demonstrated that dry air
leads to chronic irritation of the nasal and bronchial
passages. Studies have shown that dry mucous
membranes in the air ducts can obstruct the flow of
mucous over the ciliary tracts, possibly leading to
diminished infection resistance.
Relative humidity below 30 percent is thought to
create unhygienic conditions. Atmospheric humidity
does not measurably affect thermal comfort, or the
effective temperature, if the temperature and humidity
are within the ranges recommended by ASHRAE.
Color
Color in the workplace seems to have a psychological
effect on individuals due to optical illusions and
emotional experiences which colors trigger. Such emo-tional
experiences may be positive or negative feelings
which colors somehow link with earlier experiences.
Generally, dark colors are depressing and tiring while
light colors are friendly and cheerful. Room colors must
also be considered in light of the nature of the work to
be accomplished. Routine work requires more exciting
colors. Work requiring close concentration requires
colors which are not distracting and which are restful.
21
Intense colors should be reserved for rooms such as
entrance halls, restrooms and corridors. Strong colors
may help brighten these areas, making them more
cheerful. Particular colors and their effects are summa-rized
below.
Colors Effects
Blue Restful
Brown Restful
Green Very restful
Orange Exciting
Yellow Exciting
Red Very stimulating, not restful
Violet Aggressive, tiring
22
6
Sources of Help
North Carolina Department of Labor
The North Carolina Department of Labor’s Division
of Occupational Safety and Health ( OSHNC) adminis-ters
OSHA rules and regulations in our state. Workers
employed in both public and private offices are protect-ed
by OSHA.
Any employee may contact OSHNC regarding an
unsafe or unhealthy condition in his or her workplace.
Complaints may be made by calling toll- free 1- 800- NC-LABOR
or by calling ( 919) 807- 2796. Any employee
making a complaint about such conditions can request
to have his or her name kept confidential.
An employer or any employee may contact the
OSHNC Bureau of Education, Training and Technical
Assistance regarding questions about OSHA or for
other assistance regarding occupational safety and
health information. Many publications including the
OSHA standards for general industry or for construc-tion,
a wide range of industry- specific booklets, and
other materials can be ordered through this bureau. See
the inside back cover of this guide for the bureau’s
address and telephone number.
The North Carolina Department of Labor Library
offers employers and employees a wide range of litera-ture
and audiovisuals on labor- related topics. The
library’s holdings are loaned free of charge to the public.
A full- time librarian is on staff to assist patrons in
selecting the materials most appropriate to their needs.
The address and telephone number for the library is:
23
North Carolina Department of Labor Library
4 West Edenton Street
Raleigh, NC 27601- 1092
Telephone: 1- 800- NC- LABOR or ( 919) 807- 2848
Employers may also contact the OSHNC Bureau of
Consultative Services. This bureau conducts programs
to assist employers in improving the safety and health
conditions of their facilities and programs to recognize
those who operate safe and healthy workplaces.
Bureau of Consultative Services staff members rou-tinely
conduct safety and health consultative visits at
worksites at the request of employers. The bureau does
not share its information with the OSHNC compliance
bureaus.
This bureau also administers the Safety Awards
program to honor those who operate safe and healthy
workplaces and the Carolina Star program which
recognizes employers who have achieved extraordinary
safety and health records. Please contact the bureau for
more information on any of these services. The Bureau
of Consultative Services’s address and telephone num-ber
are located on the inside back cover of this guide.
Other Organizations, Associations, and
Agencies
You have valuable sources of assistance in your own
vicinity. For example, the local chapter of the American
Red Cross and the American Heart Association can
assist you in establishing a course in CPR ( cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation). Your local fire department or
community college can teach your office staff about
different types of fire extinguishers, including how to
use one, and advise you about a response plan for
emergencies such as fires.
24
A sampling of other agencies includes:
Duke Poison Control Center
1- 800- 672- 1697 ( 24 hours/ day)
National Fire Protection Association ( NFPA)
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, Massachusetts 02269
( 617) 770- 3000
National Safety Council
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, Illinois 60143- 3201
( 630) 285- 1211
Suggested Readings
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. 1983. Video Display
Terminals— Preliminary Guidelines for Selection,
Installation and Use. Short Hills, New Jersey.
Hazardous Chemicals Right to Know Act, N. C. Gen.
Stat. § § 95- 173– 95- 218 ( 1990).
Musselman, Victoria. 1989. Emergency Planning and
Community Right- to- Know. New York: Von Nostrand
Reinhold.
National Safety Council. 1988. Accident Prevention
Manual for Industrial Operations: Administration and
Programs. Chicago.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1991. A Guide to
Electrical Safety. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 18.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1990. A Guide to
Ergonomics. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 9.
N. C. Department of Labor. 1993. A Guide to OSHA in
North Carolina. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 4.
25
N. C. Department of Labor. 1992. A Guide to
Voluntary Training and Training Requirements in
OSHA Standards. Division of Occupational Safety and
Health. OSHNC Industry Guide # 8.
N. C. Department of Labor. North Carolina
Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General
Industry.
North Carolina Occupational Safety and Health
Hazard Communication Standard, 13 NCAC
7C. 0101( a)( 105); 29 CFR 1910.1200.
26
The following industry guides are available from the N. C. Department of Labor’s Division of Occupational
Safety and Health:
1# 1. A Guide to Safety in Confined Spaces
1# 2. A Guide to Procedures of the Safety and Health Review Board of North Carolina
1# 3. A Guide to Machine Safeguarding
1# 4. A Guide to OSHA in North Carolina
1# 5. A Guide for Persons Employed in Cotton Dust Environments
1# 6. A Guide to Lead Exposure in the Construction Industry
1# 7. A Guide to Bloodborne Pathogens in the Workplace
1# 8. A Guide to Voluntary Training and Training Requirements in OSHA Standards
1# 9. A Guide to Ergonomics
# 10. A Guide to Farm Safety and Health
# 11. A Guide to Radio Frequency Hazards With Electric Detonators
# 12. A Guide to Forklift Operator Training
# 13. A Guide to the Safe Storage of Explosive Materials
# 14. A Guide to the OSHA Excavations Standard
# 15. A Guide to Developing and Maintaining an Effective Hearing Conservation Program
# 17. A Guide to Asbestos for Industry
# 18. A Guide to Electrical Safety
# 19. A Guide to Occupational Exposure to Wood, Wood Dust and Combustible Dust Hazards
# 20. A Guide to Crane Safety
# 21. A Guide to School Safety and Health
# 23. A Guide to Working With Electricity
# 25. A Guide to Personal Protective Equipment
# 26. A Guide to Manual Materials Handling and Back Safety
# 27. A Guide to the Control of Hazardous Energy ( Lockout/ Tagout)
# 28. A Guide to Eye Wash and Safety Shower Facilities
# 29. A Guide to Safety and Health in Feed and Grain Mills
# 30. A Guide to Working With Corrosive Substances
# 31. A Guide to Formaldehyde
# 32. A Guide to Fall Prevention in Industry
# 33. A Guide to Office Safety and Health
# 34. A Guide to Safety and Health in the Poultry Industry
# 35. A Guide to Preventing Heat Stress
# 36. A Guide to the Safe Use of Escalators and Elevators
# 37. A Guide to Boilers and Pressure Vessels
# 38. A Guide to Safe Scaffolding
# 39. A Guide to Safety in the Textile Industry
# 40. A Guide to Emergency Action Planning
# 41. A Guide to OSHA for Small Businesses in North Carolina
Occupational Safety and Health ( OSH)
Sources of Information
You may call 1- 800- NC- LABOR ( 1- 800- 625- 2267) to reach any division of the N. C. Department of Labor; or visit the
NCDOL home page on the World Wide Web, Internet Web site address: http:// www. nclabor. com.
N. C. Division of Occupational Safety and Health
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 3rd Floor)
Local Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2900 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2856
For information concerning education, training and interpretations of occupational safety and health standards contact:
Bureau of Education, Training and Technical Assistance
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 4th Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2875 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2876
For information concerning occupational safety and health consultative services and safety awards programs contact:
Bureau of Consultative Services
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 3rd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2899 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2902
For information concerning migrant housing inspections and other related activities contact:
Agricultural Safety and Health Bureau
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 2nd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2923 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2924
For information concerning occupational safety and health compliance contact:
Safety and Health Compliance District Offices
Raleigh District Office ( 313 Chapanoke Road, Raleigh, NC 27603)
Telephone: ( 919) 779- 8570 Fax: ( 919) 662- 4709
Asheville District Office ( 204 Charlotte Highway, Suite B, Asheville, NC 28803- 8681)
Telephone: ( 828) 299- 8232 Fax: ( 828) 299- 8266
Charlotte District Office ( 901 Blairhill Road, Suite 200, Charlotte, NC 28217- 1578)
Telephone: ( 704) 665- 4341 Fax: ( 704) 665- 4342
Winston- Salem District Office ( 4964 University Parkway, Suite 202, Winston- Salem, NC 27106- 2800)
Telephone: ( 336) 776- 4420 Fax: ( 336) 776- 4422
Wilmington District Office ( 1200 N. 23rd St., Suite 205, Wilmington, NC 28405- 1824)
Telephone: ( 910) 251- 2678 Fax: ( 910) 251- 2654
*** To make an OSHA Complaint, OSH Complaint Desk: ( 919) 807- 2796***
For statistical information concerning program activities contact:
Planning, Statistics and Information Management
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 2nd Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2950 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2951
For information about books, periodicals, vertical files, videos, films, audio/ slide sets and computer databases contact:
N. C. Department of Labor Library
Mailing Address: Physical Location:
1101 Mail Service Center 111 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101 ( Old Revenue Building, 5th Floor)
Telephone: ( 919) 807- 2848 Fax: ( 919) 807- 2849
N. C. Department of Labor ( Other than OSH)
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Telephone: ( 919) 733- 7166 Fax: ( 919) 733- 6197