FDI, FPI and Institutional Quality-evidence From African Countries

Patricia Lindelwa Rudo Makoni, University of South Africa

Abstract

The primary objective of this study was to explore the relationship between FDI, FPI and institutional quality using a panel of nine African countries, over the period 2009-2016. This period was of interest as it was immediately after the global economic crisis of 2007/2008, which resulted in international capital flight from host countries due to the flouting of many market regulations and other similar institutions. Using various econometric approaches, we found that where natural resources and developed financial markets were absent, institutional quality mattered for both FDI and FPI inflows. Further, we established a positive relationship between FDI and FPI, in line with theory and earlier empirical studies. Our study’s novelty lies in that it applies the Kuncic database of institutional quality, which is more comprehensive than other single source databases. In light of our findings, the policy recommendations put forth are that the Governments of these developing African countries formulate and implement investment policies to attract FDI and FPI by ensuring that the operating governance environment is conducive, and hindrances such as expropriation risk, poor corporate governance and political instability are absent. This will assist these countries to further grow their economies, by supplementing domestic savings and investments with international capital inflows to boost local production, increase employment, economic growth and other trade opportunities.

Keywords

FDI, FPI, Institutional Quality, Africa.

Introduction

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is defined as international investment made by one
economy’s resident entity, in the business operations of an entity resident in a different economy,
with the intention of establishing a lasting interest (International Monetary Fund [IMF], 1993).
According to the UNCTAD (2006), FDI can potentially generate employment, raise productivity,
transfer skills and technology, enhance exports as well as contribute to the long-term economic
growth of the world´s developing nations. Although FDI is important in promoting growth and
economic integration, the inflows of foreign direct investment into Africa have been significantly
lower than those of other developing economies in Asia and Latin America (Makoni, 2016).

Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI), on the other hand, is that investment made by a
resident entity in one country in the equity and debt securities of an enterprise resident in another
country, motivated by capital gains but not necessarily seeking to establish a significant interest
or long term lasting relationship in the foreign enterprise (IMF, 1993). It comprises of
investments in bonds, notes, money market instruments and financial derivatives, as well as
government bonds. Sawalha et al. (2016) argued that FPI could contribute positively to economic
growth, whether on its own or through its interaction with FDI inflows thus creating liquidity,
and providing a source of low-cost capital. FPI-investors often demand higher transparency in
corporate governance and legal protection. If these expectations are met, they result in enhanced
investor confidence. According to Sawalha et al. (2016), these features make FPI a prominent driver for improvements in domestic financial infrastructure, thus paving the way for countries to
attract longer term FDI inflows.

Lipsey (2004) cited in Makoni (2015) identified several macro-level determinants that
influence a host country’s attractiveness to foreign investment. Key amongst these was
institutional factors such as the political stability of the country. In the study by Daude and
Fratzscher (2008), it was found that inward FDI flows and loans were high for countries with
weaker regulatory institutional bodies and lowly developed capital markets, because foreign
direct investors’ perceptions of such economies were that their investments were not secure and
could be subjected to expropriation of assets such as factories and mines. Their findings further
highlighted the importance of strong regulations as a prerequisite to establish and integrate
domestic stock markets in line with international standards to be able to attract FPI inflows.

There has been an increasing interest amongst academics to understand the relationship
between institutional quality and foreign international capital flows. This is despite there being
no consensus on the appropriate proxy for institutional quality. As such, we feel the need to
address this gap by examining this phenomenon in the African context.

This paper contributes to the empirical literature on the relationship between FDI, FPI
and institutional quality by examining the role of institutional quality in the host countries, and
FDI and FPI inflows using econometric panel data techniques that address the problem of
endogeneity of some of the independent variables. Secondly, for our institutional quality proxy,
we use a composite principal component analysis Kuncic (2014) constructed index.

Thus the question that we want to answer is: What influence, if any, does institutional
quality have on FDI and FPI inflows to our selected African economies? The remainder of the
paper is organised as follows: the next section considers a review of the existing literature on the
relationships between FDI, FPI and institutional quality respectively. This is followed by the
methodology in which we lay out our econometric model and steps followed. The findings are
discussed thereafter, and conclusions and recommendations wind up the paper.

Literature Review

Dunning and Dilyard (1999) suggested that the theory of FPI is located within
international economics, and drawn on macroeconomic financial variables, notably interest rates
and exchange fluctuations. As such, it is expected that financial resources will flow from capitalrich
countries to poor ones, in pursuit of the higher rate of return. Bartram and Dufey (2001) are
also of the view that international financial investments are subject to not only currency and
political risk, but also institutional factors such as respect for the rule of law, property rights and
tax issues. In support of these views, Goldstein and Razin (2006) also reiterated the notion that
FPI is motivated by yield-seeking and risk-reducing activities that are achievable through
portfolio diversification.

Wilhems and Witter (1998) as cited in Makoni (2015) theorised that FDI institutional
fitness is a country’s ability to attract, absorb and retain FDI. The theory attempted to explain the
uneven distribution of FDI flows between countries, based on four key aspects the role of
Government, market, educational and socio-cultural factors. According to Makoni (2015), a
country’s institutional strength, as proxied by government fitness, advocates for the formulation
and implementation of strong market regulations.

In addition, Musonera et al. (2010) empirically tested the theory of FDI institutional
fitness using a three-country case study between 1995 and 2007. They found that FDI inflows to
African countries were motivated by variables such as the population, size of the economy, financial market development, trade openness, infrastructure and other economic, financial and
political risks, and not primarily by natural resource endowment as often perceived. The success
of African economies in receiving FDI inflows has increasingly grown on the strength of the
establishment of macroeconomic and political stability policies, the introduction of an efficient
regulatory framework in financial markets, as well as the elimination of corruption from both the
private and public sectors, thus proving an enabling environment to MNCs to invest (Makoni,
2015).

Institutional quality measures reflect the effectiveness of the rule of law, the level of
corruption, enforceability of legal contracts and stability of the government in a country.
Kuncic’s (2014) institutional quality measures encompass legal, political and economic
institutional indicators. The relationship between FDI and institutional quality has been
extensively studied. Although on the one hand, Kedir et al. (2011) and Cleeve (2012) found that
political and institutional risk factors were insignificant in explaining FDI inflows to Africa;
other studies have reached different conclusions.

Buchanan et al. (2012) examined the relationship between FDI and institutional quality
and found that institutional quality has a positive and significant effect on FDI. Other scholars
also concluded that the institutional quality of the host country has a positive impact on FDI
(Bengoa & Sánchez-Robles, 2003; Cheng & Kwan, 2000). In addition, Stein and Daude (2001)
examined the impact of institutional quality on FDI and found that countries whose governments
are highly ranked according to various indices of the quality of institutions tend to do better in
attracting FDI. Lothian (2006) adopted the Economic Freedom of the World Index in his study
and concluded that countries with better institutions were able to attract increased foreign capital
flows. Likewise, Papaioannou (2009) studied the relevance of institutions on a sample of
countries using panel data and found that improvements in institutional quality are often
complemented by a corresponding increase in inward FDI flows.

On the other contrary, poor institutional quality has been found to have a negative impact
on the ability to attract FDI inflows. Authors such as Dutta and Roy (2011) and Asiedu (2002)
found that poor institutional quality served to shun FDI. Similar conclusions were drawn by
Levine and Zervos (1996), Rowland (1999), and De Santis and Luhrmann (2009) who also found
that poor quality institutions, high taxes and transaction costs inhibit on the freedom of foreign
investors to bring in the much sought-after capital from abroad.

Methodology

Data and Variables

In this paper, we examine the interrelationships between FDI, FPI and institutional
quality using World Bank panel data for Botswana, Cote D’Ivoire, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya,
Mauritius, Morocco, Tunisia, and South Africa from 2008 to 2016. We opted to use Kuncic’s
(2014) database of institutional quality. This database groups over 30 institutional indicators
derived from different sources such as the Heritage Foundation, Freedom House, Fraser Institute,
ICRG, World Bank World Governance Indicators (WGI), Polity and Transparency International
into three spheres of legal, political and economic institutions, with the objective of computing
an index of institutional quality to capture the institutional environment (Kuncic, 2014). This
made the database a more comprehensive index to apply than any of the other individual sources.

FDI is measured as the ratio of net FDI inflows to GDP, and FPI is net inflows scaled by
GDP. Institutional quality is a composite index from Kuncic’s database. Our control variables FDI is measured as the ratio of net FDI inflows to GDP, and FPI is net inflows scaled by
GDP. Institutional quality is a composite index from Kuncic’s database. Our control variables

Econometric Model

In determining the relationship between FDI, FPI and institutional quality, we estimated
the following multiple regression models:

Where, i denotes country, t denotes time, α0 is a constant term, εit is a random error term and
the other variables are defined as:

FDIit=the inflow of FDI as a percentage of GDP into country i for time t.

FPIit=the inflow of FPI as a percentage of GDP into country i for time t.

INSTQit=the measure of legal, political and economic institutional quality.

HUMCAit=the gross enrolment ratio for primary education.

NATRESit=total natural resources scaled by GDP.

TRDOPNit=the openness index proxied by total trade as a % of GDP.

INFRASit=the log of fixed telephone lines per 1000 people.

RGDPGit=real GDP growth rate.

FMDEXit=composite financial market development index.

The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model was applied on the multiple regressions to
determine the nature of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The
next section presents the results of the regression analysis.

Results And Analysis

The objective of this study was to examine the interrelationship between FDI, FPI and
institutional quality using World Bank panel data for Botswana, Cote D’Ivoire, Egypt, Ghana,
Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco, Tunisia, and South Africa from 2009 to 2016.

A summary of the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the estimations for the
sample of nine African countries in this study is presented in Table 1 below.

Table 1DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Variable

Observations

Mean

Standard deviation

Minimum

Maximum

FDIGDP

72

6.3788

26.8446

-0.2045

220.0027

FPIGDP

72

3.1110

11.8588

-0.9046

80.4750

INSTQ

72

0.3836

0.1479

0.1314

0.7071

FMDEX

72

-5.6910

0.1002

-0.4932

3.7156

TRDOPN

72

76.5599

26.2492

30.2000

121.3044

RGDPG

72

4.0167

2.8131

-7.6522

10.7065

HUMCA

72

89.4573

29.1078

15.9148

117.5122

NATRES

72

7.4182

5.8322

0.0034

28.4123

INFRAS

72

88.6038

85.5671

1.0267

315.0345

Source: Author’s own computations

Table 1 above reflects the descriptive statistics for the sample of nine African countries
for an eight-year period spanning from 2009 to 2016. It can be deduced from the data that FDI
inflows to sampled African countries as a percentage of GDP were significantly low. The mean
of net FDI inflows for the period under review was 6.37% of GDP, with a standard deviation of
26.84. The minimum FDI as a percentage of GDP was -0.2045%, while the maximum was
220%. The negative FDI inflow values are indicative that outflows exceeded inflows during the
period under review. It therefore appears that most countries faced disinvestment of foreign
direct capital flows from the relevant country’s economy during this period.

FPI inflows averaged 3.11% of GDP, with a standard deviation of 11.85. The minimum
FPI as a percentage of GDP was -0.90%, while the maximum was 80.48. Similar to FDI inflows,
where the FPI value is negative, there were investment outflows that occurred during that period.
Poor FPI inflows are the result of equally under-developed financial (stock and bond) markets in
Africa, with most multinational corporations resorting to the credit banking sector rather than the
stock markets as conduits for raising capital locally.

The institutional quality of our selected African countries was measured using Kuncic’s
(2014) database. The aim of Kuncic’s database is to compute an index of institutional quality to
reflect the institutional environment of a country (Kuncic, 2014). The relative institutional
quality values derived from Kuncic’s database range from -2 to 2, with a mean of zero (0); are
calculated using factor analysis to identify the latent factor scores for every country every year,
within each institutional group. We chose to adopt this database as it combines comprehensive
sources of legal, political and institutional quality variables, and were hence deemed to be the
most appropriate measure for our sampled African countries. Therefore, with a pooled mean
score of 0.38 for institutional quality, a minimum of 0.13 and a maximum of 0.71, the sample of
African countries had a medium score on the quality of institutions. Institutional quality is a
proxy of the legal, economic, political and regulatory frameworks, and other such characteristics,
which enhance a country’s current and future attractiveness to multinational corporations,
domestic and foreign investors alike.

The relative size of the domestic financial markets as measured by a composite financial
market index constructed using principal components analysis, reflected an average of -5.69%,
with -0.49% for the smallest financial market to a maximum of 3.72% for the most developed
financial market within our sample frame. Financial markets play a pivotal intermediation role
within the economy and hence should be developed in terms of instruments offered, as well as
adhering to a strong regulatory framework.

The real GDP growth rates, which served as a proxy of macroeconomic stability for the
sampled African countries, averaged 4.01% for the period under review. Further, the countries
surveyed appeared to have been very open to trade with an average of 76.55%, which matters for
multinational corporations which bring in foreign direct investment. Trade openness was
measured as the sum of the host country’s imports and exports scaled by GDP. Other variables
included in this paper are infrastructure, human capital development and natural resource
endowment.

In terms of infrastructural development in the sample of African countries between 2009
and 2016, there were a maximum of 315 fixed telephone lines per 1,000 people of the
population, as compared to the lowest with one line per person. This confirmed that
infrastructure in some African countries is unevenly developed. Human capital development
remains a largely debated driver of FDI. Scholars have argued that it is not the size of the labour
pool that matters, but rather the skills level of human capital, which is important for FDI inflows (Mallik & Chowdhury, 2017). This assertion is reflected in our descriptive statistics by the high
average of 89.46 which is the gross enrolment ratio for primary level education, and is
considered the minimum level required to undertake tasks as expected of labour by the MNCs.
Lastly, natural resource endowment was measured as the total natural resources scaled by GDP.
It yielded a mean of only 7.41% and a maximum of 28.41% of overall GDP. According to
Asiedu (2006), countries that do not have an abundance of natural resources are able to harness
inward FDI flows by improving their regulatory institutions and political environment.

Various diagnostic tests were run to test our regression model before it was estimated. To
avoid spurious results of the regression analysis, the data were tested for serial correlation,
multicollinearity and heteroskedasticity. A correlation matrix was employed to examine our
variables for any multicollinearity amongst them. According to Table 2 below, none of the
variables was correlated at the 5% level of significance. Generally, the correlation coefficient
should fall between ranges of +1 to -1. The rule of thumb is that correlations between any two
variables should not be above 0.8 (80%).

The Hausman test was used to determine whether to adopt a fixed effects model or a
random effects model. Mundlak (1978) argued that the random effects model assumes
exogeneity of all the regressors, and the random individual effects. Wooldridge (2010) later
added weight to this argument, stating that the random effect (or error component) model is
based on the assumption that there is no correlation between the regressors (explanatory
variables) and the unobserved, individual-specific effects. A fixed effects model, on the other
hand, would allow the individual-specific intercept to be correlated with one of more of the
regressors (Gujarati & Porter, 2009). The p-value of one for the Hausman test indicates that there
is no evidence that the random effects estimates are invalid, thereby making random effects
model more efficient than the fixed effects model for this study. Applying random effects would
further allow the generalisation of inferences beyond just the sample in the study. Due to the
failure to reject the null hypothesis, we applied the random effects estimator (Table 3).

The R2 shows that almost 40% of the variation in FDI was driven by the regressors. In
this instance, we acknowledge that there are other variables, which account for inward FDI and
FPI flows, other than the specific variables under study in this paper. The F-statistic on the
random effects model is positive and significant at 1955.66, meaning that the model was
properly specified and unbiased. Thus, the random effects estimation results are discussed in the
next section (Table 4).

Table 4
DIAGNOSTIC STATISTICS

Pooled OLS robust

Fixed effects

Random effects

Diff GMM

GLS

LSDVC

Observations

63

63

63

54

63

63

Groups

9

9

9

9

9

9

F-stats/Wald chi2

36.21

2428.94

1955.66

4.75

28.73

Prob>F/Prob>Wald chi2

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.019

0.0007

Hausman (chi2)

3.1

3.1

Prob>chi2

0.96

0.96

R2

Within

0.2452

0.2058

Between

0.0850

0.9337

Overall

0.3988

0.1008

0.3988

Arellano-Bond AR (1)

-0.56

Prob>z

0.576

Arellano-Bond AR (2)

-0.75

Prob>z

0.455

Sargan test of overid

47.14

Prob>chi2

0.083

Hansen test of overid

0.00

Prob>chi2

1.00

Instruments

44

Source: Author’s own computations

Discussion Of Findings

The results indicate that there is a positive and highly significant relationship between
FDI and FPI. This was expected to be the case since investors tend to use FPI to test the waters
of new destinations, prior to engaging in more permanent investments such as FDI. As such,
countries that are able to harness FPI inflows would expect to see a similar pattern with regards
to FDI inflows. This finding is supported by the theory of Pfeffer (2008) who assessed the
relationship between FDI and FPI, and found that firms often pursue international diversification
through combined investment strategies (FDI and FPI together, as opposed to FDI only or FPI
only), hence making FDI and FPI key strategic complements. On the contrary, Humanicki et al.
(2013) examined the long run and short run relationships between foreign direct and foreign
portfolio investments in Poland using the vector error correction model. They found that FDI and
FPI are in fact substitute forms of capital for one another. Further, they concluded that FDI is
more prominent in economies that portray economic stability, while FPI becomes the capital
source of choice when political instability is inherent in a host country’s environment.

In this study, we also found evidence that there was a positive influence between FDI,
FPI and institutional quality. This finding is similar to that of Cleeve (2012) and Asiedu (2004) who concluded that for African countries, there exists a positive relationship between FDI and
institutional quality. These results were also similar to studies by Wei (2000), Alfaro et al. (2008)
and Buchanan et al. (2012) who found a positive relationship between international capital flows
and institutions. It would appear that, in the absence of developed financial markets, good quality
institutions matter for FPI.

Asiedu (2006) examined the role of natural resources, market size, government policy,
institutions and political stability in African countries. She found that good quality institutions
attract more FDI, although corruption and political instability hinder FDI inflows to Sub-Saharan
countries. On the contrary, Mallik and Chowdhury (2017) examined the effect of institutions on
FDI using panel data for 156 countries. They concluded that corruption has a negative impact on
FDI inflows, while other institutions such as democracy, political stability, and the rule of law
and order positively influence inward FDI.

Most studies that considered the effect of institutional quality on foreign investment used
the six common variables drawn from the ICRG and the World Bank World Governance
Indicators (WGI) of voice and accountability, political stability, governance effectiveness,
regulatory quality, rule of law and control of corruption as individual measures. In our study
however, we adopted a composite index of institutional quality, which is more comprehensive
that the individual indicators. It is against this background that scholars such as Daude and Stein
(2007) and Bailey (2018) argued that individually, poor institutional quality variables such as the
lack of protection of property rights, expropriation risk, high levels of corruption and political
instability deter inward foreign investment capital. Similarly, our study found a positive, net
effect of good institutions on foreign investment inflows, that is where institutions are considered
to be favourable and do not represent an additional cost to foreign investors and multinational
corporations, the volumes of FDI and FPI are most likely going to increase towards developing
countries. In addition, we specifically examined the pre-and post-2007 financial crisis period
and found that global financial crises cast the spotlight on weak institutions, resulting in a
withdrawal or volatility in foreign capital flows.

Although Africa is generally a resource-rich continent, in the presence of good quality
institutions, natural resources do not seem to matter for inward FDI inflows to certain countries.
Asiedu and Lien (2011) examined the effect of institutions between resource and non-resource
exporting countries. They found that foreign investors preferred democratic governments when
operating in non-resource exporting countries, but preferred less democratic governments when
based in resource-exporting countries. This preference by foreign investors is informed by the
work of Li and Resnick (2003), who found that countries that cannot guarantee property rights
protection to foreign investors are expected to remedy that shortcoming with incentives such as
tax holidays or exclusive rights to natural resources, which ultimately still works in favour of the
FDI firm.

Insofar as the control variables are concerned, the study found a positive but insignificant
association between FDI, FPI and the real GDP growth of host country. Although the economic
growth rate is an indicator of macroeconomic stability as well as current and future prospects in a
country, international investors are spurred by other country-specific factors. Further, the
availability of good infrastructure has a positive and highly significant influence on a country’s
attractiveness to foreign investors. Although previous studies by Borensztein et al. (1998) as well
as Mallik and Chowdhury (2017) found that human capital development matters for FDI, our study finds evidence to the contrary. In this instance, the earlier studies are confirmation that it is
not only the size of the labour pool which affects FDI inflows but also the skills level of workers,
a phenomena which is not characteristic of African countries.

Conclusions And Policy Recommendations

The primary objective of this paper was to study the effect of institutional quality on FDI
and FPI inflows into selected African countries using panel data. The selected period of 2009 to
2016 is significant in that it was immediately after the global financial crisis of 2007/2008 that
resulted in many multinational corporations and institutional investors re-evaluating and
restructuring their foreign investment portfolios. The global crisis was a wake-up call as many
standards of good practice and market regulations were flouted, resulting in significant losses to
investors, and capital flight of foreign investments from host countries. Examining the status quo
after the financial crisis was important to assess the reaction and response of investors to global
economic turbulence, which was magnified by poor institutional quality. The contribution of this
paper is that it applies Kuncic’s (2014) database of institutional quality which is a more
comprehensive source for the proxy as it combines over 30 institutional indicators derived from
different individual sources such as the Heritage Foundation, Freedom House, Fraser Institute,
ICRG, World Bank World Governance Indicators (WGI), Polity and Transparency International
into three spheres of legal, political and economic institutions. Earlier studies have
predominantly applied only one of the sources aforementioned.

The results of this paper show that in the absence of natural resource abundance, and
developed financial markets institutional quality matters for host countries to attract inward
inflows of both FDI and FPI. There is a positive relationship between FDI and FPI, supported by
both theoretical and empirical literature; and a further positive relationship between FDI, FPI and
institutional quality for our sample of African countries in this study, despite the market
disturbances caused by the global financial crisis prior to the period under survey.

In light of these findings, the policy recommendations are that African governments
continue to formulate, adopt and implement macroeconomic investment policies that will attract
further flows of both FDI and FPI. These policies need to be complemented by strong quality
institutions such as a respect for the rule of law, lower corruption and incidents of bribery, well
as greater transparency and good corporate governance of host country financial markets. It has
been proven that for those countries that does not have abundant natural resources, strong legal,
political and economic institutions are a good substitute, and can enhance the attraction of
foreign investment capital. International capital flows are necessary to reduce the dependence of
less developed countries on foreign aid, by directing inward foreign capital flows to productive
sectors of the economy, which in turn increases employment and promotes further economic
growth.

Our empirical findings support the theoretical priori that better institutional quality leads
to higher FDI and FPI inflows. Our results further affirm that economic policy makers should
consider the overall quality of institutions in order to implement more conducive policies to
encourage inward FDI and FPI flows to their respective countries. Policy makers should
therefore focus on promotional resources to attract the various flows of international capital in
the form of FDI and FPI. By this we mean that, the degree of FDI and FPI absorption is
dependent on a range of capacities including country-specific characteristics such as natural
resource endowment, infrastructural development, human capital development, trade and capital
openness, as well as institutional quality–all of which should be at the core of macroeconomic policy formulation and implementation. The appropriate government policies and legislation will
largely depend on the objective of attracting FDI and FPI. If the foreign investment capital is to
play an effective role in filling the investment gap facing developing countries, then it is
paramount to ensure that these investment priorities are reflected in the domestic policies, and
supported by the requisite legislature and best practices insofar as institutions are concerned. As
such, developing country governments which formulate and implement sound macroeconomic
policies and regulations that permit and promote the private sector can enjoy substantial
increases in FDI and FPI flows, if such policies are coupled with a high standard of institutional
quality. These, and other earlier studies, assert that those developing countries which show
improvements with regard to lowering corruption, ensuring efficient bureaucracy, guaranteeing
institutional individual property rights, and spurring confidence in the quality of contract
enforcement, can attract more foreign capital inflows, which in itself can reduce dependency on
official aid.

The limitations of this study are that, although it adopted the random effects model whose
underlying assumption is that findings can be generalised; this is not the case as several
developing countries portray heterogeneous characteristics insofar as their governance styles are
concerned. It would therefore be misleading to apply these findings to all African countries since
they differ in natural resource endowment, enforcement of laws and regulations as well as
financial market development, which are central to the absorption of FDI and FPI, respectively.

This study only focused on determining whether relationships between FDI, FPI and
institutional quality exist. It is proposed that future studies go further and assess the direction of
causality between these three key variables. It is anticipated that in some instances the presence
of strong institutions would result in higher inflows of foreign investment capital, while in other
cases, multinational corporations and institutional investors from abroad would force host
countries to instil greater discipline in their legal, political and economic regulatory frameworks.
Another avenue of future research would be to determine whether a threshold level of
institutional quality needs to be attained before the positive impact of FDI and FPI can be felt by
host countries. Conducting such research would improve governments’ efforts to reach a
regulatory level deemed adequate for the country’s economy to be integrated with other markets
in the quest to attract increased international capital flows, thus competing with many other
countries worldwide.

World Bank Group. (2016). World development indicators (WDI) 2016. World Bank Publications.

Allied Business Academies publishing a total of 14 different journals in various fields of business. With an acceptance rate of 30%, each of the journals of our affiliates is double blind, peer reviewed and some of the journals are listed in SCOPUS, SCIMAGO, Google Scholar, ProQuest, Cengage Gale, LexisNexis and several other academic databases and search engines.