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1 JØRGEN GOUL ANDERSEN & TOR BJØRKLUND: SCANDINAVIA AND THE FAR-RIGHT Introduction Three Waves of the Far-Right First Wave: Neo-Fascism Second Wave: Tax Protest Third Phase: Xenophobia The Politicisation of Immigration Until the Mid-1980s: No Political Divisions The Mobilisation of the Immigration Issue From an Economic Issue to a Cultural Issue Internal Conflict over Immigration The Switch to Pro-Welfare Parties The Contemporary Far-Right The Failure of the Far-Right in Sweden and Finland Differences in Attitudes The Supply of Parties Institutional and Media Barriers Preconditions for the Formation of New Parties Conditions of Consolidation: Leadership and Organisation Party Competition and Prominence Conclusions OFFPRINTS This essay is published in The Far Right in Europe. An Encyclopedia, Peter Davies with Paul Jackson, editors, Oxford: Greenwood World Publishing, 2008, pp It was written in The radical right parties in Scandinavia are constantly changing. All information regarding this topic was current as of that time. 1 Due to an editorial mistake the name of Jørgen Goul Andersen was excluded in the encyclopedia 1

2 JØRGEN GOUL ANDERSEN & TOR BJØRKLUND: SCANDINAVIA AND THE FAR RIGHT Introduction In 2006, the main parties on the far-right in Scandinavia are: the Danish People's Party (Dansk Folkeparti, DPP) in Denmark, and the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet, FrP) in Norway. Both are well-established parties with a long record. The DPP founded in 1995, but the successor of the Progress Party which was represented in Danish Parliament from 1973 gained 13.3 per cent in the 2005 election, up from 12.0 per cent in Since 2001, it has been the key coalition partner of the Liberal-Conservative minority government. The FrP, has also been represented in Parliament since Though it has had less direct influence on government, the FrP has been even more successful in electoral terms as it won 22.1 per cent in the 2005 election, up from 14.6 per cent in In Sweden and Finland, there are no true equivalents. The True Finns (Perussuomalaiset, TF), which in 1995 succeeded the populist Finnish Rural Party, bears some resemblance to the Danish and Norwegian parties in its resistance to immigration, but is otherwise quite dissimilar. It gained 1.6 per cent and three seats in the 2003 parliamentary election, up from 1.0 per cent in 1999, and its chairman, Timo Soini, received 3.4 per cent in the 2006 presidential election. In Sweden, the populist New Democrats (Ny Demokrati, NyD) came out of nowhere shortly before the 1991 election and won 6.7 per cent of the votes, only to disappear almost as rapidly as it emerged after the next election. By 2006, the closest relative was the Sweden Democrats (Sverigedemokraterna, SD) which, historically, has roots in the extreme right. It gained 2.9 per cent in the 2006 election, up from 1.4 per cent in However, this result was not sufficient for it to pass the four per cent threshold for representation. Local elections were held at the same time as the parliamentary election, and here the SD were represented by as least 200 members in the municipal councils, with a stronghold in south-western Sweden (Scania). Even if the result was an all-time high, it was still far below the election results for the Norwegian and Danish parties. For this reason, this chapter focuses on the Danish and Norwegian parties. Below, we take our point of departure as Klaus von Beyme's identification of three waves of mobilisation 2

3 of the far-right in postwar Europe. The following section will describe the mobilisation of anti-immigration policies and the transformation of the parties. Then the chapter will analyse the movement from anti-tax policies to a broadly pro-welfare position, and relate this change of party position to the changing cleavage structure in western European societies. The final section will then briefly discuss why the far-right has been so successful in Denmark and Norway and equally unsuccessful in Sweden and Finland. Three Waves of the Far-Right To describe the development of the far-right in Scandinavia, we can take our point of departure the identification of three waves of post-war mobilisation of the extreme right in Europe, as postulated by Klaus von Beyme. 1 He distinguishes between a first wave of neofascist or neo-nazi parties that emerged shortly after the war; a second wave of tax revolt parties that began with Pierre Poujade's party in France in the second half of the 1950s; and finally a third wave of xenophobic parties which have emerged from in the mid-1980s onwards. First Wave: Neo-fascism The first wave was virtually non-existent in Scandinavia. Like elsewhere, Nazi parties had been established in Scandinavia in the 1930s, but they obtained very little electoral support. In both Denmark and Norway, the parties had a peak support of just over 2 per cent, and the Swedish parties remained even smaller. After the war, all organisations with a past as collaborators and supporters of Nazism were silenced in Denmark and Norway. For Swedish Nazis, old networks were slightly easier to sustain, but the number of sympathisers was small. One of the oldest organisations, the national-socialist Nordic Reich Party (Nordiska Rikspartiet, NRP), founded in 1956, occasionally put up candidates in national elections, but the number of votes it received is estimated to be in the low hundreds. 2 However, the first chairman of the SD, Anders Klarström, had a history as an NRP activist. In Denmark, a small Independent Party ran for elections between 1953 and 1968 and typically obtained some 2-3 per cent of the vote. In 1973 it put up a few candidates on the party list of the Progress Party and had one representative elected. However, even though the Independent Party was far to the right, it was not a far-right party. It was founded by a former Liberal prime minister as a reaction to the abolition of the two-chamber system in 1953, and simply advocated more orthodox liberal and non-socialist policies. 3

4 In Norway, there were no parties on the far-right at this time. However, Anders Lange, who became the founder of the FrP in 1973, had unsuccessfully tried to launch a far-right party in the 1950s. Anders Lange was a strange political propagandist operating on the fringe of the established right wing. Before the war, he had been affiliated with a right-wing organisation sympathetic to fascism, but he later became definitely anti-fascist and actively opposed the German occupation. To conclude, the first wave of far-right mobilisation was virtually absent in Scandinavia. Even though there are a few links to the past, especially in the Swedish case, a balanced assessment suggests that modern far-right parties in Scandinavia are not rooted in any historical tradition of right-wing extremism. Further, it is debatable whether the term extremist in this context is an appropriate one. Second Wave: Tax Protest The parties of the second wave - the Progress parties in Denmark and Norway and, two decades later, the NyD in Sweden - were populist tax protest parties. Nevertheless, these parties were quite different from the party of Pierre Poujade a couple of decades earlier. First and foremost, they had a less petite bourgeois outlook. In particular, there were no traces of petite bourgeois anti-capitalism or nostalgia for the past. Unlike Poujade's party, the second-wave parties in Scandinavia were parties of the mature welfare state, to some extent forerunners of the neoliberal retrenchment. However, the Danish and Norwegian parties succeeded in transforming themselves from second-wave parties to very successful representatives of the third wave. The Swedish variant, on the other hand, turned out to be a flash-in-the-pan party similar to Poujadism in 1950s France. The Danish Progress Party (Fremskridtspartiet) was launched by the tax lawyer Mogens Glistrup in 1972, and immediately experienced an explosive growth in opinion polls. In the election of December 1973, it obtained 15.6 per cent of the votes, and in the subsequent elections of 1975, 1977 and 1979 its support remained above 10 per cent. Inspired by Glistrup's success, Anders Lange established a similar party in Norway in The founders of both parties argued strongly for tax cuts and against the lavishness of the welfare state. Nevertheless, they were distinguishable from conventional right-wing parties not only on account of their anti-elitist, populist style and by their radicalism, but also by demanding more money for health care and old-age pensions especially in the Danish case. As has already been mentioned, these parties were to some extent forerunners of the neo-liberalism of the 1980s, which started when Margaret Thatcher became the prime 4

5 minister of Britain in1979, and Ronald Reagan became President of the USA in The subsequent wave of neo-liberalism reached Norway in 1981, when Kåre Willoch of the Conservative Party was appointed prime minister. The following year the Danish Conservative Party leader, Poul Schlüter, became prime minister of a centre-right government that introduced tough measures to stop the Danish economy's course towards the abyss. With such government measures, the Progress parties were rendered superfluous as proponents of neo-liberalism. Further, taxes were no longer a salient issue among voters. Accordingly, support for the parties fell to below four per cent in elections, and even lower in opinion polls in the early 1980s. Moreover, the founder of the Danish party was sentenced to prison for tax fraud, and spent about 18 months in jail between 1984 and The situation was critical, and new initiatives were needed. The opportunity for a new platform came when the number of asylum-seekers, who were typically of non-western origin, exploded in the mid-1980s. The latter issue was also to some extent exploited by the Swedish NyD, which was launched shortly before the 1991 election. However, the NyD must be classified primarily as a second-wave party. In Sweden, welfare state retrenchment was largely postponed until the 1990s, thereby creating the political space for criticism of the welfare state as too lavish. After the extremely severe economic crisis in Sweden, and the unprecedented retrenchment that followed after 1991, this part of the party's agenda soon became unusable. At that time, however, the party had already destroyed itself through political and personal disagreement, and what little remained of the party erroneously radicalised the neo-liberal aspects of the party's programme, while dropping the xenophobic tenor. It does not come as any surprise, then, that the party went bankrupt a few years later. Third Phase: Xenophobia This brings us to the third phase which, according to von Beyme, began across Europe from the mid-1980s, and was characterised by a xenophobia that was, in part, linked to unresolved social problems. The new parties of this third phase have variously been dubbed antiimmigration parties, New Populist/Neo-populist Parties, Radical Right-wing Populist Parties, New Radical Right Parties, and Extreme Right Parties. The term new right is preferable, but this chapter will continue to use the term far-right during the course of its discussion. Unlike the old extreme right parties from the first phase, typically the third-wave parties have no ideological relationship to fascism or neo-fascism. Most of these parties 5

6 undisputedly defend democracy, and they are also clearly against classical ideas of racism based on biological arguments and the idea of hierarchies of races. Rather, they argue that immigration is costly; that ethnic groups are culturally different; and that multiculturalism should be avoided because it undermines cohesion and generates conflict. This ethnopluralist xenophobia is often surrounded by a broader perception that the nation-state is undermined and threatened by Europeanisation and globalisation and, consequently, needs to be defended. 3 In Denmark and Norway, immigration arrived on the political agenda when the number of asylum-seekers exploded in the mid-1980s. In Norway, the figures increased from 200 in 1983 to 8,613 in In Denmark, the corresponding figures were 800 in 1983 and 9,300 in Thus there was a possibility of revitalising the Progress parties. In Denmark, Mogens Glistrup had already started to fraternise with racist groups in 1979, but that only resulted in internal unrest and electoral losses, in particular among better-educated voters. But, in 1985, the time was ripe. Immediately upon his release from prison, Mogens Glistrup made some very provocative statements that went far beyond the bounds of acceptability, but attracted attention in the media. Subsequently, the statements were translated into a more socially acceptable language by the new de facto party leader, Pia Kjaersgaard. In the parliamentary elections of 1987 and 1988, the Progress Party was revived, with 4.8 per cent and 9.0 per cent of the vote respectively (even though part of the increase from 1987 to 1988 must be ascribed to increasing political distrust). In Norway too, the issue of immigration resulted in a second breakthrough for the FrP, which elevated itself from 3.7 per cent in the 1985 parliamentary election to 12.3 per cent in the 1987 local elections. The party presented itself as the only movement that opposed immigration, arguing that money spent on asylum-seekers should be better spent on taking care of the elderly and sick people of an ethnic Norwegian background. Subsequently, this form of welfare chauvinism has been an important part of the political message of the far-right parties in both countries, while in Denmark the old tax issue has gradually been relegated. This process was catalysed in Denmark when former party leader, Pia Kjaersgaard, broke with the Progress Party in 1995 to launch her new DPP, which abandoned tax protest altogether in favour of a position as a pro-welfare, anti-immigration party. In Sweden, the far-right did not benefit much from the issue. After the disastrous 1994 election, the remaining elements the NyD took the opposite course to Pia Kjaersgaard and largely dropped the immigration issue in favour of classical neo-liberalism. The party went bankrupt a few years later. Only the SD, formed in 1988, took up the issue. The party gained only a negligible number of votes in the general elections of 1988 and 1991; by 1994 it received 6

7 14,000 votes; in 1998, it received almost 20,000; and in 2002 it received 76,300 votes, corresponding to 1.4 per cent of the electorate. In the September 2006 election, the party's support increased further, but still not enough to a high enough level to pass the 4 per cent threshold. However, as will be pointed out in the description of party transformations below, the three parties are in many ways dissimilar, and they have had differing levels of success in disassociating themselves clearly from more extremely racist and nationalist parties. The Politicisation of Immigration Until the Mid-1980s: No Political Divisions As will be pointed out below, the issue of immigration has triggered strong political divisions that cut across traditional left / right affiliations, and it has generated a new, two-dimensional political cleavage structure in Danish and Norwegian politics. As late as 1985, attitudes towards immigration among Norwegian voters did not vary much according to party preference, and FrP voters did not deviate from the population at large in this respect. But, from 1988 onwards, regarding attitudes to immigration all surveys locate FrP voters at one extreme and left-socialist voters at the other, with the Social Democrats in an uneasy and divided position around the centre. Likewise, a Danish opinion poll question from 1979 concerning guest workers revealed no difference at all between Progress Party voters and the adherents of other parties, except for a slightly more liberal attitude among left-socialist voters. This indicates that the issue was not politicised in Denmark either. The flow of migrant workers from circa 1970 had not made immigration an issue: their numbers were modest, they were not expected to stay, and there was nearly full employment. Few people objected to a situation where guest workers accepted the low-status jobs that the indigenous population left vacant. Nor was it a political issue when the decision was made in the early 1970s to stop immigration of guest workers. This was supported even by the left. But, with the massive arrival of refugees from the mid-1980s, the issue was redefined and became salient among voters. This started the third phase of the far-right s development in Scandinavia. The Mobilisation of the Immigration Issue Even though their figures remain modest, the number of non-western immigrants has increased rapidly in the Nordic countries. By 2006, non-western immigrants and descendants constituted about six per cent of the population in Denmark, and about five per 7

8 cent in Norway. However, immigrants are not evenly spread geographically. Especially in Norway, there is a large concentration in the capital Oslo. Further, the age profile of migrants is such that the proportion of immigrant schoolchildren is about twice as high as in the population at large. As labour market integration of non-western immigrants remains very low in the Nordic countries, problems are visible. Not least, there has been increasing public attention on social problems like ghettoisation, schooling, juvenile delinquency, language issues, unemployment, and welfare dependency - as well as growing awareness of prejudices and discrimination. Further, because the Scandinavian countries with the exception of the Sami people in the far north traditionally have been very homogeneous in religious and ethnic terms, and also not especially religious, learning to live with cultural diversity has also proved quite difficult. This issue is particularly problematic because, at the same time, religion has become an important source of identity-formation among immigrants themselves. In recent times, Islam has become the second largest religious denomination next to state Lutheranism. In Denmark, the number can be estimated to be around 200, ,000, 4 and in Norway just below 100,000, or, in relative terms, approximately four and two per cent of the respective populations. Election studies show that the issue is higher up in terms of voters interest in Denmark than in Norway. This is indicated by analysing questions put to the public about what formed the most important criteria when supporting a party (Norway), or about the most important issues that politicians should address (Denmark). In the last three Norwegian parliamentary elections , 2001 and only around five per cent of answers have been about immigration. In Denmark, the level has been much higher, especially in the 2001 parliamentary election, when one half of voters, 20 per cent of all answers, spontaneously referred to immigration as a central issue. In addition, the issue of immigration is more polarising in Denmark. In Norway, the prominence of immigration almost always involves negative attitudes: the vast majority among those who mention immigration as the most important issue for party choice also voted for the FrP. Contrastingly, in Denmark the pro-immigration camp have also mobilised on the issue. By 2005, people who were sympathetic to immigrants were about as likely to point to immigration as the most important issue as those who were negative. In particular, the centre party, the Radical Liberals, have benefited from this issue. From an Economic Issue to a Cultural Issue 8

9 In Norway as well as in Denmark, the arguments against immigration have also shifted from the economic to the cultural. In the manifestos of the Progress parties from the 1980s, immigration was discussed almost purely in economic terms. The FrP argued for supporting education in Norwegian, against subsidising housing, and against all sorts of affirmative action policies that were seen as favouring immigrants and as discriminating against Norwegians. Thus, the party presented itself as the only one that did not discriminate according to ethnicity, religion and culture. This theme was also echoed in the manifesto of the Danish party in the early 1990s. However, gradually the manifesto of the FrP revealed a shift from economic to cultural arguments, and was based on a critique of multiculturalism. It was argued that a multicultural society generates conflicts, whereas an ethnically homogeneous society was seen as a precondition for peace and harmony in society. This was because different ethnic groups would always find it hard to co-exist peacefully. Following on from this view, by 2006 the FrP recommended a very restrictive policy towards new immigration, allowing only a quota of 1,000 non-western immigrants per year, including people seeking asylum and attempting to reunify families. In particular, both the Norwegian and Danish parties have argued against liberal rules of citizenship (which were granted almost automatically after seven years in both countries until the rules were tightened in Denmark from 2002), and against the right of foreign citizens with three years of legal residence to vote in local elections. Further, they have demanded that the criteria for family reunion should be tightened, and that immigrants who commit crime should be expelled from the country. In the Danish case, these demands have to a large extent been satisfied since Internal Conflict over Immigration The reorientation towards immigration as the key rallying issue has not only increased electoral support for the far-right parties, in Norway it also resulted in a party split. A group of die-hard neo-liberals, who stuck to ideological doctrines such as the free movement of the workforce, had put their mark on the party s manifesto in the 1980s. According to the manifesto, in principle the party would favour free immigration, provided that migrants could manage without public support. Similar formulations also found their way into the manifesto of the Danish Progress Party, which stated that foreigners were welcome if they did not impose extra social expenditure on Danish citizens or commit any crimes. Neo-liberals were still allowed to put forward their views in parts of the party programme, but in its public statements the party increasingly emphasised welfare alongside immigration, with the issue of tax more or less dropped. 9

10 The notion of free immigration disappeared from the Norwegian party s manifestos when the anti-immigration faction won over the hardcore liberalists in Four out of ten MPs left the party, along with the youth organisation, which was itself a neo-liberal stronghold. In spite of this dramatic split, the party subsequently won a convincing victory in the 1995 local elections where immigration once again emerged as a central issue. In the 1995 election survey, one-half of those who voted for the FrP mentioned immigration as the most important issue for their party choice. During the 1995 election, to many voters the FrP appeared as a single-issue party. About 90 per cent of those who regarded the immigrant question as the most important issue voted for the FrP. In the Danish case, a more thorough break with the past took place when the DPP became the successor party of the Progress Party. In the first half of the 1990s, the Progress Party almost disintegrated. At first, Mogens Glistrup became more and more extreme and frustrated over not being in control of his party. In 1990, he tried unsuccessfully to run for office on his own list, and was subsequently excluded from the party. However, this did not bring an end to the unrest. After a prolonged period of internal strife over the control of the Progress Party, in 1995 the former party leader Pia Kjaersgaard decided to leave the party and form a new party of her own: the Danish People's Party. This gave rise to the opportunity to get rid of most of the party's older neo-liberal legacy. The manifesto of the DPP is built more strictly around the notion of nationalism. Rather than low taxes, this nationalism explicitly involves a social obligation to take care of the weak within society. The party has adopted a positive attitude towards welfare, and has deliberately tried to steal the welfare agenda from the Social Democrats, for example by successfully demanding more money for poor pensioners and the disabled, by opposing retrenchment in early retirement programmes and the like, until they finally gave in during The party has served as a loyal and reliable coalition partner for the Liberal-Conservative government since 2001, but it has deliberately sought to present itself as the guarantor of welfare schemes. In this respect, it has moved much further than the Norwegian party, which, to a greater extent, is in competition with other bourgeois parties, whereas the Danish party is in competition more directly with the Social Democrats. As far as immigration is concerned, both the Danish and the Norwegian parties have been keen to maintain a socially respectable image, and they have explicitly dissociated themselves from racism, as well as from radical right movements like Le Pen's National Front (Front National, FN). Here, the art is to go as far as possible without overstepping the invisible line of public decency. On quite a few occasions, the leadership of the DPP has gone too far. But 10

11 the main task has been to maintain strict control over its members and representatives in order to ensure that they do not destroy the party's image as a non-racist and respectable party. The DPP is extremely centralised, and exclusions have often taken place. In the summer of 2006, an undercover journalist from a Danish newspaper phoned some of the DPP s local chairmen and asked whether he could become a member of the party even though he had previously been more or less affiliated with the racist movement Danish Front. Immediately after the appearance of this story in the press, those who, according to the newspaper, had answered positively were excluded without any inquiry or interrogation whatsoever. This approach may cause some frustration within the party organisation, but it is of the utmost importance in the effort to keep the party s image clean. By and large the party has succeeded in this effort. The Switch to Pro-Welfare Parties Alongside the increasing emphasis on immigration, the DPP and the FrP have increasingly marketed themselves as pro-welfare parties or even as parties that carry the legacy of classical social democracy. In particular, this is the case with the Danish party. As stated by Pia Kjaersgaard at the party's annual meeting in 2006: A true Social Democrat votes for the Danish People's Party. 5 Over the years, the Norwegian party has also become more and more friendly towards the welfare state. However, in Norway, there was greater continuity between the second and the third wave: i.e. no change of party and no change of party leadership. This also means that the party's critical attitude towards taxes has been maintained, and the party still embraces a number of policy positions from its liberal past. This includes a number of proposals for reforming the public sector, such as outsourcing, partial privatisation of hospitals, and budgeting according to the taxameter principle, that is, allocating money in proportion to production in schools, universities, hospitals etc. Increasingly, such principles have been implemented in both countries, but the DPP has not pressed for changes in this direction. Further, as a pure opposition party, the FrP also seeks to use discontent in a somewhat more opportunistic way than the DPP, which is essentially loyal to the government. The Norwegian party still argues for tax cuts, but not as vigorously as during the first years of existence, and for a long time the party has demanded that more money should be appropriated to welfare programmes, especially for the elderly. Indeed, the FrP has successfully built an image of a party that promotes care for the elderly. In the 2001 elections, no other party received a higher score among voters regarding which party they believed forwarded the best policy in terms of caring for the elderly. In the 2005 elections, the party s 11

12 reputation in this respect was somewhat weakened, but it still scored well, coming second only to the Social Democrats. Also in Denmark, a study of party images in 2006 showed that, when people were asked which party protected the interests of elderly people, an absolute majority of voters pointed at the DPP. The pro-welfare stance of the DPP has implied that the party has completely abandoned any demands for lower taxes. Since 2001, it has supported the government's tax stop policy which forbids any increase in any tax rates, but it has tried to modify the government's proposals for tax relief even when it was not accompanied by any savings. For example, in 2003, the party successfully demanded that the amount of tax relief should be reduced in favour of more welfare benefits to pensioners. The FrP is able to argue for increasing welfare benefits and decreasing taxation at the same time. Because of the enormous oil revenues received by the country, this is not quite as contradictory as it might seem. Indeed, an important new conflict has developed in Norwegian politics concerning the issue of whether to save or spend more oil money. In the 1997 election campaign, one of the party s slogans was: Use the oil revenues for the people s welfare. Nearly all the other parties followed the advice of economists which said that such a policy would be irresponsible and would cause the economy to over-heat. As the economy was already working close to its capacity limit, such a policy could lead to serious problems regarding inflation. At any rate, both parties have moved towards the political centre. The FrP has even proposed that the government should act as an investor in the market, and argued for the establishment of large government funds in order to ensure that Norwegian businesses are kept in Norwegian hands, thus preventing acquisitions by foreign investors. But first and foremost, both parties have sought to position themselves as pro-welfare parties close to the Social Democrats. This reflects a rational exploitation of the new political opportunities provided by a changing cleavage structure that has thoroughly altered Danish and Norwegian politics, including the notions of left and right. The Contemporary Far-Right One might say that contemporary far-right parties in Denmark and Norway are strong because of the weak historical traditions of the far-right. This has not only helped them avoid the image problems associated with interwar extremism, but has also allowed the parties to be more flexible and to adapt their policies to reflect changing socio-political situations. These situations have altered substantially in both countries, due to the emergence of a new, two- 12

13 dimensional political cleavage structure. In Denmark, the DPP and the Liberals have jointly been able to attract former core Social Democrat voters, and have built a new majority situated to the right, one that would have been unthinkable until the late 1990s. However, the meaning of left and right has changed. In a way, this is nothing new. Basically, these concepts have changed their meaning ever since they were introduced during the French Revolution. At that time, the left-right dimension centred on a liberal fight for political rights, democracy and representative government. This fight ended long ago, but in Denmark it is still visible in the party names of the two parties usually considered to be to the right of the centre line on the economic left / right dimension. In Denmark and partly Norway, the left / right economic axis has been dominant from the early 20th Century until the 1990s. In Norway the centre-periphery cleavage has in short periods been a challenger. The economic left / right axis has its origin in the emergence of industrial society, and arose from the conflict between labour and capital. This conflict crystallised into two blocs of political parties, which for many years were called the socialist and bourgeois parties. The divisive issues were questions regarding economic distribution, taxes and welfare, and state control versus free markets. Such economic conflicts will always remain relevant, even though some issues relating to state ownership or state control have become obsolete. In addition, broad support for the welfare state has softened the left / right economic dispute in Scandinavia. Nevertheless, this political cleavage structure remained dominant in Denmark until it was challenged by new value-based politics. Due to a simple political cleavage structure between bourgeois and proletarian politics, Denmark and Sweden used to be the class-polarised polities par excellence, even though class conflicts were peaceful and moderate. With the emergence of post-industrial society and globalisation, new issues such as environmentalism, gender equality and immigration have come to the forefront. Even though conflicts over such issues are conceptually different, increasingly they can be seen to converge empirically into a new value politics with its own left / right dimension. We use the terms left and right to describe the new value dimension of politics as this reflects how positions are perceived and political identities are formed among the general population. The new value dimension to politics comes close to what has been dubbed materialismpostmaterialism by Ronald Inglehart. His book, The Silent Revolution, was written with reference to the youth and student rebellion of the late 1960s. Even though the explanations in terms of affluence and socialisation may be open to question, Inglehart's theory, with an 13

14 emphasis on environmentalism and public influence on governance, at least provided an account of the emergence of the new left. However, the emergence of the new right at the opposite pole is difficult to explain in terms of Inglehart s theory. As suggested by Ignazi, the new right might be conceived as a silent counterrevolution i.e. as a reaction to the new left. 6 But this is also too narrow a viewpoint. Rather, the new right is related to an authoritarian / liberal polarisation that was triggered by immigration. Lipset had already talked about working-class authoritarianism in Political Man, but at that time this phenomenon was unimportant for electoral behaviour, which was determined mainly by economic and class interests. Further, as working-class parties were anti-authoritarian, the practical implications in western democracies were small. With the increasing significance of immigration, and with more rational voting behaviour leading to people voting increasingly in accordance with their political attitudes, the situation has fundamentally changed. Empirically, the materialist versus post-materialist and authoritarian versus liberal value dimensions increasingly tend to converge in Scandinavia. Attitudes towards Europeanisation and globalisation are sometimes linked to either one of these dimensions but, at least up until the point of writing, attitudes towards the European Union stand out as a separate conflict line in Scandinavian politics. The crucial point here is that values reflecting levels of education have become at least as important as distributional attitudes or economic left / right positions, which reflect class structures, as determinants of party choice and the construction of political identities that are seen to operate on the left or the right. Electoral researchers in Denmark have demonstrated that an individual's position on the economic / distributional dimension, and their position on the value dimension - both measured by issue positions - are approximately of equally importance in determining selfplacement on a scale ranging from 0 representing the left to 10 representing the right. The latter is a subjective scale where voters themselves decide the meaning of left and right. Also, in Norway this value-dimension has increased our ability to determine voters position on the left-right dimension. However, the economic / distributional dimension is still the most important factor. When voters are asked to place the different parties on the 0-10 left-right scale, the values of the FrP and the DPP are usually equated to the most right positions of all parties, even among the parties' own followers. However, when it comes to the position of the parties supporters on the distributional left-right scale, these are much closer to the centre, and this also holds for voters' evaluations of the parties position on distributional issues. On the 14

15 values dimension, both the followers themselves and voters assessment of party positions unambiguously locate new right parties on the far-right. The economic and value-based left / right axes have different social compositions. The economic left / right dimension reveals a well-known pattern. At the left pole we find lower-class people, people with minor educational attainments and people with low incomes, whereas the rich and well educated are located to the right. Support for politics of redistribution reflects social class. Education can be interpreted both as a class variable and as a socialisation variable. Higher education offers a better position in the class structure, but also breeds humanistic values that pull individuals to the left on the value dimension. On the value dimension, the left pole attracts people with high education and income, whereas the lower-educated tend to be attracted to the right. Consequently, manual workers are typically positioned towards the right pole on the value dimension, but to the left on the economic left / right dimension. This contradiction, strengthened by increasing significance of the value dimension of politics, has alienated workers from what might be viewed as their traditional parties. This has opened great opportunities for far-right movements. Because they are closer to the average worker than socialist parties on the value dimension of politics, they are able to attract substantial numbers of working-class voters, provided that the parties' positions on the economic left-right axis are not too far to the right. Therefore, it is rational for these parties to adapt their policy image on distributional and welfare policies. And this is exactly what we find. Workers are increasingly over-represented among far-right supporters, and the DPP and the FrP today have higher proportions of manual workers among their supporters than the social democratic parties. Among new left parties, we find the very opposite trend in social composition of supporters. However, there remains a difference between the Danish and Norwegian parties, as the DPP has increasingly moved towards a centrist or even centre-left position on issues of welfare, taxation and economic inequality. By pursuing this strategy, the DPP has consolidated its victory over the Social Democrats, which has decisively tipped the balance between the parties and weakened the centre-left alternative. To some extent, this may be seen as a reflection of the changes in the strategy of bourgeois parties, in particular the Liberals, who have also adopted a much more pro-welfare and anti-immigration stance than was previously the case. It seems likely that part of what is mobilised by the Liberals in the Danish case would be mobilised in Norway by the FrP. It is also worth noting that, in spite of the close similarities between the Danish and 15

16 the Norwegian parties, there is virtually no contact between them. The FrP has even openly declared that it does not want any contact with the DPP. Sometimes, workers' attraction to far-right parties is interpreted in terms of threats of marginalisation rather than in terms of values. In the labour market, globalisation and the transition from an industrial to a post-industrial society generates winners and losers: as a consequence of automation and outsourcing, routine jobs in manufacturing tend to disappear, and in this process of de-industrialisation manual workers can easily end up as losers. Thus, according to this theory which resembles classical explanations of fascism as expression of panic of the middle class the radical right has a special appeal to the losers in modernisation or globalisation, or at least to those groups of voters who do not benefit from socio-economic change. However, the Scandinavian experience does not fit easily within this theory. In the first place, the success of far-right movements in the first decade of the new century coincides with economic prosperity and record-low unemployment. Furthermore, skill differences in unemployment are unusually low in Scandinavia - there are few potential modernisation losers. These are also the countries where sentiments regarding globalisation in the general population are the most optimistic. Paul Taggart has stressed that new protest parties, including far-right parties, have optimum conditions in which to operate when there is longterm economic success and there are strong welfare states. 7 To some extent, this is a plausible perspective. At least the absence of other problems, such as economic crisis and unemployment, leaves more space for issues, including welfare, immigration and even the environment, to develop on the political agenda. However, the surge of the far-right must be related to structural changes and new political cleavage structures. First and foremost, the far-right is structurally related to globalisation and concomitant immigration. How globalisation affects nation-states economically, politically and culturally, is somewhat different from one state to another. In Scandinavia, with prosperous economic conditions, value-based conflicts that reflect the emergence of a new social-cultural cleavage are the natural outcome. Politics is about conflict, and even though immigrants remain a relatively small minority, a large number of new issues which mobilise strong conflicts of values have entered the political agenda. To take the extreme cases, the tragic killings of Muslim girls by their own fathers, however infrequent such cases are, have shocked the Scandinavian public. So have instances of genital mutilation. To take a more general issue, clashes between cultural traditions and individual rights, such as forced and arranged marriages, serve to generate tensions. A clash has also 16

17 emerged between feminism and multiculturalism. Feminism has argued for universal rights irrespective of culture, whereas multiculturalism celebrates cultural diversity. And the increasing visibility of religion - sometimes fundamentalist religion - in some of the world's most secular and unreligious societies also serves to generate negative attention and tensions, in particular in societies where other social problems are relatively few. These considerations suggest that we are dealing with more general phenomena which are not peculiar to specific nations. Rather, it is the absence of similar conflicts in other Scandinavian countries that needs to be explained. In particular, why is it the case that the farright has, until now, been unsuccessful in Sweden and Finland? This chapter does not offer a fully-fledged explanation of this, but will present some considerations that are worth mentioning. The Failure of the Far-Right in Sweden and Finland Differences in Attitudes Of course, the first possible explanation is simply that there is not a similar demand for farright movements in the Swedish and Finnish populations. This explanation is not entirely without credibility. All international comparisons describe the Swedes as the most tolerant people in Europe, 8 even though immigration constitutes a larger part of the Swedish population than in most other countries. However, this argument does not really apply to Finland, 9 and in comparative terms all the Nordic populations appear as relatively tolerant, 10 with negative attitudes towards Islam forming an exception. Interestingly, Islamophobia in Denmark is stronger among those who have fewer affiliations with Christianity (with the exception of the most orthodox Christians). In other words, Islamophobia is nourished by negative attitudes towards religion. Differences in attitudes of tolerance may contribute to an explanation of why far-right parties have less appeal in Sweden. However, it cannot explain the absence of significant farright parties. Besides, one may ask why Swedes are more tolerant than the people of the other Nordic countries. Further, what matters the most is not minor differences in attitudes to immigration. Rather, it is the prominence of the issue which is consistently lower in Sweden and Finland than in Denmark. However, even explanations in terms of the saliency of immigration are inadequate because there are also large differences between Denmark and Norway in this respect. At this point, it is probably the institutionalisation or freezing of new political cleavages that are significant in the Danish and Norwegian contexts. And at any rate, we need an explanation of this difference in the prominence of immigration. In Finland, 17

18 this might be explained by the fact that immigration is a more novel phenomenon, and that the composition of immigrants is quite different. The latter explanation even has some relevance to Sweden, but on the other hand, Sweden hosts by far the largest proportion of immigrants, and its problems with labour market integration and cultural tensions are very much similar to in the other countries. The Supply of Parties One may argue quite convincingly that the Norwegian and Danish parties are better equipped to mobilise significant groups of voters due to their positions on key issues with appeal to the working class, and due to their image as relatively moderate parties. The SD carries a legacy of past excesses and an image of extremism that is regarded as far more outspoken. At the same time, the party suffers from a programmatic weakness on other issues, and from obsolete ideas, such as very traditional ideas about the family. This is also the case with the True Finns (Perussuomalaiset, TF). Indeed, it is questionable whether the TF belongs to this party family at all, in spite of the strong anti-immigration stance of some of its spokesmen. However, such issue positions may also to some extent be considered a dependent variable: with a strong and professional party organisation, parties are better equipped to design votemaximising policies. Institutional and Media Barriers In Sweden, there is a four per cent threshold for representation in parliament, as has also been the case in Norway since the 1989 election. If Denmark and Norway had also enforced such as threshold before 1989, the Progress parties would have been out of parliament in the early 1980s, and it is questionable whether they would have been given a second chance do develop as a political force. However, it is also worth noting that Finland does not have such barrier to parliamentary representation. Access to the media is important. In the 1973 election campaign, the Danish Progress Party and Anders Lange s party participated in television and radio programmes on the same terms as the established political parties. In contrast, during the 2006 election the SD were expelled from all the important mass media outlets. They even experienced problems when trying to buy advertising space. Some of the most influential newspapers had an advertising ban on the SD. 18

19 The success of the Danish and Norwegian parties, in contrast to the failure of NyD, illustrates another characteristic, namely that new parties are very vulnerable during their first years of existence, and that it is very difficult to establish new political movements. Preconditions for the Formation of New Parties In 1971 Sten Berglund and Ulf Lindstrøm published a book entitled The Scandinavian Party System(s), which described the party systems as relatively similar, dominated by five party types: Conservatives, Liberals, Agrarians, Social Democrats and Communist/Left Socialist Parties. As these countries are relatively similar in terms of culture and social and political structures, this similarity was not very surprising. However, in Sweden no tax revolt parties emerged during the 1970s and the 1980s. This is puzzling. The formation of new parties is difficult, and there are at least two important hurdles. It takes extraordinary circumstances to launch a new party, and it is very difficult to consolidate a new movement. High thresholds of representation of course serve to augment such problems. In all countries, the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s was the most expansive period for the welfare state, with unprecedented tax increases. However, in both Denmark and Norway the incumbent parties were coalitions of non-socialist parties, which followed on from a long period in which the Social Democrats were in office. This aroused frustration and distrust among non-socialist voters, who had hoped for a change of regime, but only saw taxes escalating even faster than before. In Sweden, however, the Social Democrats remained in office during the period of the most expansive growth of the welfare state. Accordingly, bourgeois voters in Sweden did experience a similar disappointment, and distrust did not really escalate until 1976 when a bourgeois coalition took over. Another difference is that Denmark and Norway both had referendums regarding membership of the European Community (EC) in 1972, one year before the 1973 breakthrough for the far-right parties. The referendum campaign generated considerable polarisation between voters and party elites, especially in Norway, and contributed to an atmosphere of political distrust. The bonds of loyalty between voters and their parties deteriorated, facilitating the breakthrough of new parties. The 1973 polls in Denmark and Norway have been called earthquake elections. In Denmark, the number of parties represented in parliament doubled from five to ten. Due to the referendum and bourgeois disappointment, the political establishments had lost some of their defence mechanisms, which normally precluded the emergence of new parties. In 1991, after a referendum about nuclear power, Sweden experienced a similar earthquake. A new far- 19

20 right party, NyD, gained 6.4 per cent of the vote, and in the same election Christian Democrats succeeded in gaining representation for the first time. By 1991, Swedish voters had also learned that the differences between a social democratic and a non-socialist government were small. Even though the new issue of immigration was on the political agenda and was reflected in the party programme of NyD, it was basically a second-wave party. Further, it turned out to be a short-lived movement. The party disintegrated after only one parliamentary term. This was a reminder that the conditions conducive for the breakthrough of a new party are dissimilar to the conditions favourable for consolidation. Conditions of Consolidation: Leadership and Organisation The survival of a party leadership is an extremely important factor, yet rivalry and internal conflicts tend to be the rule. After a short period of time, a serious split occurred between the two founders of NyD, Bert Carlsson and Ian Wachtmeister. They were unable to cooperate, and neither of them wanted to remain in charge of the party. NyD was exceptional in the fact that both leaders retired. Indeed, its survival would actually have been a miracle. In short, leadership is a decisive factor in the initial phase of the life of a political party, when it is most vulnerable. This applies to all parties, but even more so to populist parties where charismatic leaders often become synonymous with the parties themselves. However, different skills are required to launch and to consolidate a new party. This is perhaps an explanation as to why populist parties tend to be flash-in-the-pan parties. However, in both Norway and Denmark, the Progress parties were, so to speak, rescued from their founders, Anders Lange and Mogens Glistrup. Both leaders soon experienced problems with running the party on a daily basis. The competence of Anders Lange s leadership was questioned immediately after the parliamentary group was established. Lange argued against ordinary party organisation while another faction led by the later chairman, Carl I. Hagen, argued for the same style of organisation that was found in other parties. After one year in parliament, Lange suddenly died, and the party was expected to collapse. However, Lange s replacement as MP, Carl I. Hagen, who had actually temporarily left the party at this point, rejoined and managed to reorganise the party. Like Carl I. Hagen, Pia Kjærsgaard was a replacement MP for the Danish Progress Party s founder, Mogens Glistrup, who was imprisoned for tax evasion in She managed to capture de facto leadership of the party at a time when Glistrup had become increasingly extreme, 20

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