white supremacybeliefs and ideas asserting the natural superiority of the lighter-skinned, or “white,” human races over other racial groups. In contemporary usage, the term white supremacist has been used to describe some groups espousing ultranationalist, racist, or fascist doctrines. White supremacist groups often have relied on violence to achieve their goals.

From the 19th to the mid-20th century the doctrine of white supremacy was largely taken for granted by political leaders and social scientists in Europe and the United States. For example, in the four-volume Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines (1853–55; Essay on the Inequality of Human Races) the French writer and diplomatist Joseph-Arthur, comte de Gobineau, wrote about the superiority of the white race, maintaining that Aryans (Germanic peoples) represented the highest level of human development. According to 19th-century British writers such as Rudyard Kipling, Charles Kingsley, Thomas Carlyle, and others, it was the duty of Europeans—the “white-man’s burden”—to bring civilization to nonwhite peoples through beneficent imperialism. Several attempts were made to give white supremacy a scientific footing, as various institutes and renowned scientists published findings asserting the biological superiority of whites. These ideas were bolstered in the early 20th century by the new science of intelligence testing, which purported to show major differences in intelligence between the races. In these tests northern Europeans always scored higher than Africans.

In the United States—especially the South—in the era of slavery and during the subsequent period of legal racial segregation, white supremacy enjoyed broad political support, as it did in contemporary European colonial regimes. The doctrine was especially associated with violent groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, which enjoyed some success in the United States (particularly in the 1920s), though many nonviolent individuals and groups also believed fervently in white supremacist ideas. By the mid-1950s, however, overtly racist doctrines fell into deep disfavour across much of the Western world, a development that was hastened by both desegregation and decolonization.

As a result of hostility among some American whites toward the American civil rights movement, civil rights legislation—especially the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965)—and Supreme Court decisions that invalidated many racially discriminatory laws—especially BrownBoard Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)—white supremacy underwent a revival in the United States in the late 1950s and the ’60s. It eventually manifested itself in the “White Power” movement, which arose in reaction to the “Black Power” doctrines of the 1960s and ’70s. White supremacists, as well as many social conservatives, were troubled by the U.S. government’s adoption of or acquiescence in measures such as affirmative action, school busing, and rules against racial discrimination in the housing market. Their resentment contributed to the growth of various groups and movements that actively preached white supremacy, including the traditional Ku Klux Klan, various neo-Nazi organizations, and the religious Christian Identity groups. Indeed, by the second half of the 20th century the Christian Identity movement—which claims that northwestern Europeans are directly descended from the biblical tribes of Israel and that Armageddon (which is to occur in the near future) will produce a final battle of whites against nonwhites—was the dominant religious viewpoint of white supremacists in the United States.

Nevertheless, white supremacists in the United States and throughout the world ultimately were unable to defend the laws that ensured white domination. The last regimes to institutionalize doctrines of white supremacy through comprehensive legislation were Rhodesia, which changed its name to Zimbabwe after its white minority finally ceded power in 1980, and South Africa, whose apartheid system was dismantled in the 1990s.

Despite the demise of segregationist and discriminatory laws throughout the Western world and in Africa, white supremacy has survived as a populist doctrine. During the 1970s and ’80s the gradually uniform rhetoric and iconography of white supremacists in the United States became influential in Europe, where immigration, especially from former colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean, contributed to a significant and growing nonwhite population. In some countries white supremacist ideas found expression in the programs of anti-immigrant political parties such as the National Front (Front National) in Franceand , The Republicans (Die Republikaner) in Germany. By far the most successful of these parties, , and the Austrian Freedom Party (Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs) won more than one-fourth of the vote in legislative elections in 1999 and entered government as a coalition partner of the Austrian People’s Party (Österreichische Volkspartei) in the following year. Generally, however, white supremacist groups were increasingly and (since 2005) the Alliance for the Future of Austria (Bündnis Zukunft Österreich). In 2009, following the election the previous year of the first African American president of the United States, Barack Obama, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) warned that white-supremacist groups and right-wing militias in the country were winning new recruits by stoking fears of gun control and expanded welfare rolls and by exploiting resentment created by the economic recession that began in late 2007. Some observers of the movements, however, were skeptical of those claims. In most other countries such groups continued to be confined to the political fringe.