Document 182753

Feature
Haris Hamidovic, CIA, ISMS
IA, ITIL, IT Project+, is chief
information security officer
at Microcredit Foundation
EKI Sarajevo, Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Prior to
How to Maximize Evidential Weight
of Electronically Stored Information
Recommendations of BS 10008
his current assignment,
Hamidovic served as IT
specialist in the North
American Treaty Organizationled Stabilization Force in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. He
is the author of five books
and more than 70 articles
for business and IT-related
publications. Hamidovic is a
certified IT expert appointed
by the Federal Ministry
of Justice of Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the Federal
Ministry of Physical Planning
of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
He is a doctoral candidate
in critical information
infrastructure protection at
the Dzemal Bijedic University
in Mostar, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Do you have
something
to say about
this article?
Visit the Journal
pages of the ISACA
web site (www.isaca.
org/journal), find the
article, and choose
the Comments tab to
share your thoughts.
Go directly to the article:
1
ISACA JOURNAL VOLUME 4, 2012
Enhancing cybersecurity and protecting critical
information infrastructures are essential to
each nation’s security and economic well-being.
Deterring cybercrime is an integral component of
a national cybersecurity and critical information
infrastructure protection strategy. In particular,
this includes the adoption of appropriate
legislation against the misuse of information and
communications technologies (ICTs) for criminal
or other purposes and activities intended to affect
the integrity of national critical infrastructures.1
Apart from substantive criminal law provisions,
law enforcement agencies need the necessary tools
and instruments to investigate cybercrime. Such
investigations present a number of challenges.
Perpetrators can act from nearly any location in
the world and take measures to mask their identity.
The tools and instruments needed to investigate
cybercrime can be quite different from those used
to investigate ordinary crimes.2 Furthermore, as
stated by Jerker Danielsson and Ingvar Tjøstheim:
In many jurisdictions, it is unclear
to organizations which requirements
and constraints the legislation sets on
collection and preservation of potential
digital evidence. Often it’s also unclear
how the responsibility is shared between
law enforcement organizations and
organizations affected by criminal
activity leaving digital traces. It can be
argued that organizations have to take a
greater responsibility in the cyber-world
than they currently do in the physical
world. This is due to the complexity of
the environment and consequently the
complexity of investigations of crimes in
this environment. Law enforcement needs
support in getting an overview of affected
systems. Additionally, law enforcement
can only collect evidence post mortem
and is consequently dependent on the fact
that organizations affected by crime have
collected and preserved potential digital
evidence in a way that guarantees that it is
authentic, accurate and complete.3
In most jurisdictions and organizations,
digital evidence is governed by three fundamental
principles: relevance, reliability and sufficiency.
These three principles are important for the
digital evidence to be admissible in a court of
law, as stated in ISO/IEC DIS 27037. Digital
evidence is relevant when it goes toward proving
or disproving an element of the specific case
being investigated. The meaning of reliability
varies between jurisdictions; however, a general
principle of it is to ensure that the digital
evidence is what it purports to be and has
not been spoiled. The concept of sufficiency
means that digital investigators need only to
collect enough evidence to prove or disprove
the elements of the matter (ensuring that no
exculpatory material has been overlooked).4
There has been much discussion about the
value of information stored electronically when
required as evidence in a court of law or for other
purposes. British Standard BS 10008 specifies
the requirements for the implementation and
operation of electronic information management
systems, where the issues of authenticity, integrity
and availability, as required by legal admissibility
and evidential weight, are important.5 This article
introduces the basic recommendations, based on
BS 10008, for improving the reliability of, and
confidence in, electronically stored information.
Principles of Good Practice for Information
Management
Code of Practice for the Implementation of BS
10008 is structured according to a set of five
principles of good practice, which are defined
in PD 0010 The principles of good practice for information
management. The five principles (figure 1), as defined in
PD 0010, are:6
1. Recognize and understand all types of information.
2. Understand the legal issues and execute duty-of-care
responsibilities.
3. Identify and specify business processes and procedures.
4. Identify enabling technologies to support business
processes and procedures.
5. Monitor and audit business processes and procedures.
“The ordering of the five principles also reflects a cascade
from the high-level classification of information streams to
responsibilities, and then on to operational, technological and
system monitoring considerations.”7
The following sections outline some of the most important
processes and procedures that need to be established to
ensure compliance with this code.
Duty of Care
The board of directors (or other equivalent group) of
an organization is responsible for the conduct of that
organization in every way—financially, operationally,
legally and ethically. Specifically, it has responsibility for
the organization’s assets and their use. One such asset is
information—not information systems, but stored information
itself. It is essential that organizations be aware of the value of
information that they store.
Design for Evidence
Traditionally, corporations have considered the evidentiary
implications of electronic documents only when it is required
• Read Electronic Discovery.
www.isaca.org/e-discovery
• Read IT Audit and Assurance Guidelines G2 Audit
Evidence Requirement and G28 Computer Forensics.
www.isaca.org/Guidelines
• Learn more about, discuss and collaborate on
cybersecurity and business continuity/disaster
recovery planning in the Knowledge Center.
www.isca.org/knowledgecenter
for litigation, or forensic practitioners have focused on
collecting IT evidence as artifacts of an investigation. Unlike
latent evidence that is inadvertently produced when a person
contacts something (e.g., fingerprints, DNA), computer
systems must be specifically designed to generate electronic
records in a manner that maximizes their potential evidentiary
value. Once electronic records are created, they must be
carefully handled to maximize their evidentiary weight.8
Security Measures
All information, irrespective of the media on which it is
stored, is vulnerable to loss or change, whether accidental
or malicious. To protect information stored electronically,
security measures need to be developed and implemented to
reduce the risk of a successful challenge to its authenticity.
Figure 1—The Principles of Good Practice for Information Management
The Principles of Good
Practice for Information
Management
Recognize and
understand all types
of information.
Understand the legal
issues and execute
duty-of-care
responsibilities.
Identify and specify
business processes
and procedures.
Identify enabling
technologies to support
business processes
and procedures.
Monitor and audit
business processes
and procedures.
Supporting processes and procedures
Source: BSI Group, PD 0010:1997
ISACA JOURNAL VOLUME 4, 2012
2
However, security is not a concern with computer systems
only. Security and availability of the operating environment
(e.g., buildings, temperature controls, network links, physical
media) and the auditable implementation of procedures by all
staff are key elements.
Security measures are often developed in an unstructured
way, by reacting to security incidents and/or to available
computer software tools. This approach on its own can easily
leave gaps in security, which are filled only at some later date,
typically after a security breach. A more structured approach
is to review the information assets of the organization, and
then assign risk factors based on asset value, potential threats,
system vulnerability and likelihood of attack. These should
be assigned on the basis of which appropriate, cost-effective
security measures can be identified.9
Access Rights
“The segregation of roles is a fundamental aspect of
duty of care,” according to the Code of Practice for the
Implementation of BS 10008. It provides a check on errors
and on the deliberate falsification of records. In this respect,
segregation of roles is particularly important in systems where
there is risk of fraud or other malicious action.
Code of Practice for the Implementation of BS 10008
further suggests that it is also important to ensure that the
physical and managerial segregation that exists around a
system is mirrored by the logic access control within it, via
the implementation of an access control system. Only staff
with relevant access rights should be permitted to enter data
or amend stored data. It is also important to ensure that a
suitably granular level of automatic logging is applied to
the process to record the activities performed, times and
dates.10 System access rights should be granted only after the
members of staff have successfully proved their competence.
Some of the electronic data files can have a nonhuman
author. A computer-generated record is the output of a
computer program untouched by human hands, thus the
author can be considered to be a particular computer program
or programs executing on a particular computer or multiple
computers. One computer program may author many records,
and many computer programs may author elements of a single
record. Each computer program generating elements of the
electronic record must be identified clearly in the record.
The key evidentiary issue is demonstrating that the computer
program generating the record is functioning properly.11
3
ISACA JOURNAL VOLUME 4, 2012
Further, some data files, particularly those generated by word
processor or spreadsheet programs, may contain automatically
executable code (often referred to as macros), which can have
the effect of modifying the file each time it is retrieved, viewed
or printed out. It may be difficult to assess what evidential
weight is attached to such files.12
Reliable and Trustworthy Systems
It is important to be able to demonstrate that the computer
system has been functioning properly (i.e., according to
agreed-upon procedures) in order to authenticate data stored
on the system. Arguments over admissibility of information
as evidence can lead to an investigation into the system from
which the information came, the method of storage, operation
and access control, and even into computer programs and
source code. It may be necessary to satisfy the court that
the information is stored in a proper manner. This could be
a tactic used to try to discredit the evidence and to make
inadmissible, or reduce the evidential weight of, that evidence
and any similarly stored information that is produced.
Questionable hardware reliability, for example, could be used
to discredit the information management system. This could
call the whole system into question and cause information
stored within it to be ruled inadmissible.13
It is important to utilize reliable and trustworthy technology
to store electronic information over a long period of time. Each
part of the system needs to be chosen with care, taking into
account the possible need to demonstrate the proper and
appropriate working of the system some time in the future. This
demonstration may need to encompass both technology itself
and the methods by which it was configured and used.14
The information management system should be maintained
and corrective maintenance should be carried out only by
qualified personnel to ensure that its performance does
not deteriorate to such an extent that the integrity of the
data captured, created by or stored within it is affected. A
maintenance log should be kept, stating the preventive and
corrective maintenance procedures completed. The log should
include information regarding system downtime and details
of action taken. Where system access control can be bypassed
during maintenance of hardware and/or software, personnel
performing such processes should be strictly controlled,
monitored and audited.15
Business Continuity Planning
From time to time, problems arise with information
management systems that require emergency procedures
to be implemented in order for recovery. Such procedures
may involve the temporary use of additional or third-party
resources. To ensure that the integrity of information is not
compromised during these operations, an agreed-upon and
approved business continuity plan (sometimes known as a
disaster recovery plan) may be implemented.
Procedures to be used in cases of major equipment,
environmental or personnel failure should be developed,
tested, maintained and implemented. Such procedures
should ensure that the integrity of stored information is not
compromised during implementation. Issues surrounding
the security of backup data may be important in the event
of a dispute over authenticity. It may be argued that backup
media had been compromised, and then used to recover from
an information loss, thus affecting the authenticity of stored
information. In some cases, the availability of backup data
that have been in secure storage, to be used only in the event
of a challenge to the authenticity of the live data, can be used
to enhance the evidential weight of the stored information.16
Date and Time Stamps
Being able to determine the date and/or time of an event
can be an important piece of evidence. Thus, all appropriate
events should be date- and/or time-stamped. Where accuracy
of date and/or time stamps is important, regular checking of
system clocks should be carried out. Any errors should be
corrected and any actions taken should be documented.
Only authorized personnel should be able to change
system clocks.17
Audit Trails
Code of Practice for the Implementation of BS 10008 further
suggests that when preparing information for use as evidence,
it is often necessary to provide further supporting information.
This information may include details such as date of storage
of the information, details of movement of the information
from a medium, and evidence of the controlled operation of
the system. These details are known as audit trail information.
This audit trail information is needed to demonstrate that
the system is working as well as the progress of information
through the system. Audit trails need to be comprehensive and
properly looked after, because without them, the integrity and
authenticity and, thus, the evidential weight of the information
stored in the system could be called into question.
The audit trail consists of the aggregate of the information
necessary to provide a historical record of all significant
events associated with stored information and the information
management system. As such, it covers the answers to all classic
questions concerning the provenance of any piece of information
stored within the information management system:18
• Who?
• What?
• Where?
• When?
• Why?
• How?
Access to the audit trail information needs to be controlled.
In some applications, access may be needed only infrequently,
so it is important that the interpretation procedures be
documented. As audit trail data may be inspected by authorized
external personnel (such as auditors) who have little or no
familiarity with the system, interpretation procedures should
be understandable to nontechnical users. The storage of audit
trail data is a topic often not included in an organization’s
information management policies. As they are frequently created
automatically and infrequently accessed, they are forgotten and,
thus, not subject to adequate control.19
Some systems control the size of audit trail data files by
the use of looping. Looping sets the maximum size for the
data file, and when the size is reached, new data overwrite the
oldest data in the file. Thus, old audit trail data are lost. This
process may not be in compliance with required retention
policy. This should not be the case with audit trail data from
information management systems, which should be stored for
the same period as that of the data to which they relate.
In a general sense, if an attacker gains unlimited access to
a system, if the audit trail is not protected by write-only or
write-once technology, and if no physical means are used or
are effective in determining authenticity of audit trails, it is
possible to create a forged audit trail that is not differentiable
from a legitimate audit trail.
When attackers try to cover up attacks, they tend to do one
of three things:
1. Attempt to delete all files on a system to remove all traces
of their entry.
ISACA JOURNAL VOLUME 4, 2012
4
2. Try to modify selected audit trails to remove any indication
of their use.
3. Try to prevent their attack from being audited by avoiding
the use of audited events.
If they prevent their attacks from being audited by
avoiding the use of audited events, there is little that can be
done to detect their tampering within the system.20
Conclusion
ICT brings potentially increased, or at least different, risk in
terms of civil or criminal wrongdoing, and organizations must
be able to protect themselves against such risk. Failure to
do so raises governance and accountability issues for which
management of the organization could be held responsible.
When information is used as evidence in the event of a
dispute, the maximum weight of evidence is not affected
by the size or shape of the organization and its own view
of security risk. It frequently depends on the opinion of
an independent arbiter. That view may well be affected by
the opposing party in the dispute attempting to discredit
evidential value.
Legal admissibility concerns whether a piece of evidence
would be accepted by a court of law. To ensure the admissibility,
information must be managed by a secure system throughout
its lifetime (which can be for many years). Where doubt can be
placed on the information, the evidential weight may well be
reduced, potentially harming the legal case.
BS 10008 can provide assurance that any electronic
information required as evidence of a business transaction is
afforded the maximum evidential weight. Compliance with
this standard does not guarantee legal admissibility. It defines
best practice. The standard pays particular attention to setting
up authorized procedures and subsequently being able to
demonstrate, in a court of law, that these procedures have
been followed.
Information security is key when discussing legal
admissibility issues. The main discussion on this topic is
likely to be the authenticity of the stored information. When
the electronic information was captured by the storage
system, was the process secure? Was the correct information
captured, and was it complete and accurate? During storage,
5
ISACA JOURNAL VOLUME 4, 2012
was the information changed in any way, either accidentally or
maliciously? When responding to these questions, information
security implementation and monitoring are central to
demonstrating authenticity.
Endnotes
1International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
Understanding Cybercrime: A Guide for Developing
Countries, Switzerland, 2009
2
Ibid.
3Danielsson, Jerker; Ingvar Tjøstheim; “The Need for a
Structured Approach to Digital Forensic Readiness: Digital
Forensic Readiness and E-commerce,” IADIS International
Conference e-Commerce, 2004
4International Organization for Standardization,
ISO/IEC DIS 27037 Information technology—Security
techniques—Guidelines for identification, collection,
acquisition and preservation of digital evidence, 2012
5BSI Group, BS 10008:2008 Evidential weight and legal
admissibility of electronic information—Specification,
UK, 2008
6
BSI Group, PD 0010:1997 The principles of good practice
for information management, 1997
7BSI Group, BIP 0008-1:2008 Evidential Weight and Legal
Admissibility of Information Stored Electronically. Code of
Practice for the Implementation of BS 10008, UK, 2008
8Australian Standards, HB 171—2003, Guidelines for the
management of IT evidence, Australia, 2003
9 Op cit, BSI Group, BIP 0008-1:2008
10 Ibid.
11Op cit, HB 171—2003
12 Op cit, BSI Group, BIP 0008-1:2008
13 Op cit, BSI Group, BS 10008:2008
14 Op cit, BSI Group, BIP 0008-1:2008
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20Cohen, Fred; Challenges to Digital Forensic Evidence,
Fred Cohen & Associates, 2008