Italian was adopted by the state after the
Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on
Tuscan
as spoken mostly by the upper class
of Florentine society.[18]
Its development was also influenced by other Italian languages
and to some minor extent, by the Germanic languages
of the post-Roman invaders. The incorporation into Italian of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language,
Latin, is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Italian speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Italian. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after
Sardinian.[19][20]
Unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latin's contrast between short and long consonants.[21]
As in most Romance languages,
stress
is distinctive.

During the
Middle Ages, the established written language in Europe was Latin. With the great majority of people being illiterate, however, only a handful were well versed in the language. In the
Italian peninsula, as in most of Europe, the majority would instead speak a local vernacular. These dialects (as they are commonly referred to as) were born to
Vulgar Latin
over the course of centuries, evolving naturally unaffected by formal standards and teachings, and are not truly "dialects" of Standard Italian, that itself started off being one of these local tongues. Since they often provide poor mutual intelligibility with standard Italian, they are better classified as distinct languages.[22]:13

The standard Italian language has a poetic and literary origin in the writings of
Tuscan
writers of the 12th century, and, even though the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century,[23]
the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. However, Italian as a language spoken in the Appenine peninsula has a longer history. In fact, the earliest surviving texts that can definitely be called Italian (or more accurately, vernacular, as distinct from its predecessor Vulgar Latin) are legal formulae known as the
Placiti Cassinesi
from the Province of Benevento
that date from 960–963, although the Veronese Riddle, probably from the 8th or early 9th century, contains a late form of Vulgar Latin that can be seen as a very early sample of an Italian dialect.[24]

The language which came to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer
Dante Alighieri, written in his native
Florentine. Dante's epic poems, known collectively as the
Commedia,
to which another Tuscan poet Giovanni Boccaccio
later affixed the title Divina, were read throughout the peninsula and his written dialect became the "canonical standard" that all educated
Italians
could understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language. In addition to the widespread exposure gained through literature, the Florentine dialect also gained prestige due to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and the fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between the northern and the southern Italian dialects.[22]:22
Thus the dialect of Florence
became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy.

Italian was progressively made an official language of most of the Italian states predating unification, slowly replacing Latin, even when ruled by foreign powers (like Spain in the
Kingdom of Naples, or Austria in the
Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia), even though the masses kept speaking primarily vernacular languages and dialects. Italian was also one of the many recognised languages in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Italy has always had a distinctive dialect for each city because the cities, until recently, were thought of as
city-states. Those dialects now have considerable
variety. As Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. The most characteristic differences, for instance, between
Roman
Italian and Milanese
Italian are the gemination
of initial consonants and the pronunciation of stressed "e", and of "s" in some cases: e.g. va bene
"all right": is pronounced [va ˈbːɛne]
by a Roman (and by any standard-speaker), [va ˈbene]
by a Milanese (and by any speaker whose native dialect lies to the north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line);
a casa
"at home" is [a ˈkːasa]
for Roman and standard, [a ˈkaza]
for Milanese and generally northern.

The economic might and relatively advanced development of Tuscany at the time (Late Middle Ages) gave its language weight, though
Venetian
remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life, and Ligurian (or Genoese)
remained in use in maritime trade alongside the Mediterranean. The increasing political and cultural relevance of Florence
during the periods of the rise of the Banco Medici,
Humanism, and the
Renaissance
made its dialect, or rather a refined version of it, a standard in the arts.

The
Renaissance
era, known as il Rinascimento
in Italian, was seen as a time of "rebirth", which is the literal meaning of both renaissance
(from French) and rinascimento
(Italian).

During this time, long-existing beliefs stemming from the teachings of the
Roman Catholic Church
began to be understood from new a perspectives as humanists—individuals who placed emphasis on the human body and its full potential—began to shift focus from the church to human beings themselves.[25]
Humanists began forming new beliefs in various forms: social, political, and intellectual. The ideals of the Renaissance were evident throughout the Protestant Reformation, which took place simultaneously with the Renaissance. The Protestant Reformation began with
Martin Luther's rejection of the selling of indulgences by
Johann Tetzel
and other authorities within the Roman Catholic Church, resulting in Luther's eventual break-off from the Roman Catholic Church in the Diet of Worms. After Luther was excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church, he founded what was then understood to be a sect of
Catholicism, later referred to as
Lutheranism.[25]
Luther's preaching in favor of faith and scripture rather than tradition led him to translate the Bible
into many other languages, which would allow for people from all over Europe to read the Bible. Previously, the Bible was only written in Latin, but after the Bible was translated, it could be understood in many other languages, including Italian. The Italian language was able to spread even more with the help of Luther and the invention of the
printing press
by Johannes Gutenberg. The printing press facilitated the spread of Italian because it was able to rapidly produce texts, such as the Bible, and cut the costs of books which allowed for more people to have access to the translated Bible and new pieces of literature.[26]
The Roman Catholic Church was losing its control over the population, as it was not open to change, and there was an increasing number of reformers with differing beliefs.[27]

Pietro Bembo
was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage.

Italian became the language used in the courts of every state in the
Italian peninsula. The rediscovery of Dante's
De vulgari eloquentia
and a renewed interest in linguistics in the 16th century, sparked a debate that raged throughout Italy concerning the criteria that should govern the establishment of a modern Italian literary and spoken language. This discussion, known as "questione della lingua"
(i. e., the problem of the language), ran through the Italian culture until the end of the 19th century, often linked to the political debate on achieving a united Italian state. Renaissance scholars divided into three main factions:

The
purists, headed by Venetian
Pietro Bembo
(who, in his Gli Asolani, claimed the language might be based only on the great literary classics, such as
Petrarch
and some part of Boccaccio). The purists thought the Divine Comedy was not dignified enough because it used elements from non-lyric registers of the language.

A fourth faction claimed the best Italian was the one that the papal court adopted, which was a mix of Florentine and the dialect of Rome. Eventually, Bembo's ideas prevailed, and the foundation of the
Accademia della Crusca
in Florence (1582–1583), the official legislative body of the Italian language led to publication of Agnolo Monosini's Latin tome
Floris italicae linguae libri novem
in 1604 followed by the first Italian dictionary in 1612.

The continual advancements in technology plays a crucial role in the diffusion of languages. After the invention of the
printing press
in the fifteen century, the number of printing presses in Italy grew rapidly and by the year 1500 reached a total of 56, the biggest number of printing presses in all of Europe. This allowed to produce more pieces of literature at a lower cost and as the dominant language, Italian spread.[28]

An important event that helped the diffusion of Italian was the conquest and occupation of Italy by
Napoleon
in the early 19th century (who was himself of Italian-Corsican descent). This conquest propelled the unification of Italy some decades after and pushed the Italian language into a lingua franca
used not only among clerks, nobility, and functionaries in the Italian courts but also by the bourgeoisie.

Italian literature's first modern novel,
I Promessi Sposi
(The Betrothed), by
Alessandro Manzoni, further defined the standard by "rinsing" his Milanese "in the waters of the
Arno" (Florence's river), as he states in the Preface to his 1840 edition.

After unification, a huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home languages ("ciao" is derived from
Venetian
word "s-cia[v]o" (slave), "panettone" comes from
Lombard
word "panetton" etc.). Only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak the Italian standardized language properly when the nation was unified in 1861.[29]

One study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin (comparing
phonology,
inflection,
discourse,
syntax,
vocabulary, and
intonation) estimated that among the languages analyzed the distance between Italian and Latin is only higher than that between Sardinian and Latin.[34]

Italian is an official language of
Italy
and San Marino
and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries' populations. Italian is official, together with French, German and Romansch
in Switzerland, with most of the 0.5 million speakers concentrated in the south of the country, in the cantons of
Ticino
and southern Graubünden
(predominately in Italian Grigioni). Italian is the third most spoken language in Switzerland (after German and French), and its use has modestly declined since the 1970s.[35]
Italian is also used in administration and official documents in Vatican City.[36]

Italian is widely spoken in
Malta, where nearly two-thirds of the population can speak it fluently.[37]
Italian served as Malta's official language until 1934, when it was abolished by the British colonial administration amid strong local opposition.[38]
Italian is also recognized as an official language in Istria County, Croatia, and
Slovenian Istria, where there are significant and historic Italian populations.[39][40][41]

It is used as the official language of the
Sovereign Military Order of Malta, a Roman Catholic chivalric order which, while not a nation per se, is still recognized as a sovereign subject of international law.

In
Albania, it is one of the most spoken languages. This is due to the strong historical ties between
Italy
and Albania
but also the Albanian communities in Italy, and the 19,000 Italians
living in Albania.[42]
It is reported as high as 70% of the Albanian adult population has some form of knowledge of Italian. Furthermore, the Albanian government has pushed to make Italian a compulsory second language in schools.[43]
Today, Italian is the third most spoken language in the country after Albanian
and Greek.

Italian is also spoken by a minority in
Monaco
and France (especially in the southeast region of the country).[44][45]

Due to heavy Italian influence during the
Italian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies.[12]
Although it was the primary language in Libya
since colonial rule, Italian greatly declined under the
rule of Muammar Gaddafi, who expelled the
Italian Libyan
population and made Arabic
the sole official language of the country.[46]
Nevertheless, Italian continues to be used in economic sectors in Libya. In Eritrea, Italian is at times used in commerce and the capital city Asmara
still has one Italian-language school.[47]
Italian was also introduced to Somalia
through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during the colonial period
but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in the Somali Civil War. Italian is still understood by some elderly and other people. The official languages of the Somali Republic are
Somali
(Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic. The working languages during the Transitional Federal Government were Italian and English.[48]

Although over 17 million
Americans are of Italian descent, only a little over one million people in the United States speak Italian at home.[49]
Nevertheless, an Italian language media market does exist in the country.[50]
On the other hand, although technology allows for the Italian language to spread globally, there has been a decrease in the number of Italian speakers in the United States. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the number of Italian speakers in 1980 was 1,614,344. In 1990, the number of Italian speakers in the United States dropped to 1,308,648. In 2000, the number of speakers decreased to 1,008,370, and finally, in 2010, the number of Italian speakers plummeted to 725,223. The percent change from 1980–2010 was a negative 55.2.[51]

In
Canada, Italian is the second most spoken non-official language when
varieties of Chinese
are not grouped together, with over 660,000 speakers (or about 2.1% of the population) according to the 2006 Census.[52]

In
Australia, Italian is the second most spoken foreign language after Chinese, with 1.4% of the population speaking it as their home language.[53]

Italian immigrants to
South America
have also brought a presence of the language to that continent. Italian is the second most spoken language in Argentina[54]
after the official language of Spanish, with over 1 million (mainly of the older generation) speaking it at home, and Italian has also influenced the dialect of Spanish spoken in Argentina and Uruguay, mostly in phonology, as well as the Portuguese
prosody
of the Brazilian state of São Paulo
which itself has 15 million Italian descendants. This form of Spanish is known as Rioplatense Spanish.[55]
Italian bilingual speakers can be found in the Southeast of Brazil
as well as in the South. In Venezuela, Italian is the second most spoken language after Spanish, with around 200,000 speakers.[56]
Smaller Italian-speaking minorities on the continent are also found in Paraguay
and Ecuador.

In
Costa Rica,
Central America, Italian is one of the most important immigration community languages, after
English. It is spoken in the southern area of the country in cities like
San Vito
and other communities of Coto Brus, near the south borderline with Panama.[57]

Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language. Italian is the fourth[16][59]
most frequently taught foreign language in the world.[60]
In the 21st century, technology also allows for the continual spread of the Italian language, as people have new ways for one to learn how to speak, read, and write languages at their own pace and at any given time. For example, the free website and application Duolingo
has 28.1 million English speakers learning the Italian language.[61]

According to the
Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, every year there are more than 200,000 foreign students who study the Italian language; they are distributed among the 90
Institutes of Italian Culture
that are located around the world, in the 179 Italian schools located abroad, or in the 111 Italian lecturer sections belonging to foreign schools where Italian is taught as a language of culture.[62]

In the United States, Italian is the fourth most taught foreign language after Spanish, French, and German, in that order (or the fifth if
American Sign Language
is considered).[63]
In central-east Europe Italian is first in Montenegro, second in Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, and Ukraine after English, and third in Hungary, Romania and Russia after English and German.[62]
But throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught foreign language, after English, French, German, and Spanish.[64]

In the
European Union
statistics, Italian is spoken as a native language by 13% of the EU population, or 65 million people,[1]
mainly in Italy. In the EU, it is spoken as a second language by 3% of the EU population, or 14 million people. Among EU states, the percentage of people able to speak Italian well enough to have a conversation is 66% in Malta, 15% in
Slovenia, 14% in
Croatia, 8% in
Austria, 5% in
France
and Luxembourg, and 4% in the former
West Germany,
Greece,
Cyprus, and
Romania.[65]
Italian is also one of the national languages of Switzerland, which is not a part of the European Union.[66]
The Italian language is well-known and studied in Albania,[67]
another non-EU member, due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to the diffusion of Italian television in the country.[68]

Rioplatense Spanish, and particularly the speech of the city of Buenos Aires, has intonation patterns that resemble those of
Italian languages
because Argentina has had a continuous large influx of Italian settlers since the second half of the nineteenth century: initially primarily from northern Italy; then, since the beginning of the twentieth century, mostly from southern Italy.

Starting in late
medieval
times in much of Europe and the Mediterranean, Latin was replaced as the primary commercial language by Italian language variants (especially Tuscan and Venetian). These variants were consolidated during the Renaissance
with the strength of Italy and the rise of humanism
and the arts.

During that period, Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. It was the norm for all educated gentlemen to make the
Grand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus became expected to learn at least some Italian. In England, while the classical languages
Latin
and Greek
were the first to be learned, Italian became the second most common modern language after French, a position it held until the late eighteenth century when it tended to be replaced by German. John Milton, for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian.

Within the
Catholic church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents.

The differences in the evolution of Latin in the different regions of Italy can be attributed to the presence of three other types of languages:
substrata, superstrata, and adstrata. The most prevalent were substrata (the language of the original inhabitants), as the Italian dialects were most likely simply Latin as spoken by native cultural groups. Superstrata and adstrata were both less important. Foreign conquerors of Italy that dominated different regions at different times left behind little to no influence on the dialects. Foreign cultures with which Italy engaged in peaceful relations with, such as trade, had no significant influence either.[22]:19-20

Regional differences can be recognized by various factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local language (for example, in informal situations the contraction
annà
replaces andare
in the area of Rome for the infinitive "to go"; and nare
is what Venetians
say for the infinitive "to go").

There is no definitive date when the various Italian variants of Latin—including varieties that contributed to modern Standard Italian—began to be distinct enough from Latin to be considered separate languages. From a linguistic perspective, two language variants are considered separate languages (rather than variant dialects of a single language) when they are no longer
mutually intelligible. For the Italian Romance languages, the first extant written evidence of varieties that can be considered no longer to be Latin comes from the ninth and tenth centuries C.E. These written sources demonstrate certain vernacular characteristics and sometimes explicitly mention the use of the vernacular in Italy. Full literary manifestations of the vernacular began to surface around the 13th century in the form of various religious texts and poetry.[22]:21Although these are the first written records of Italian varieties separate from Latin, the spoken language had likely diverged long before the first written records appear, since those who were literate generally wrote in Latin even if they spoke other Romance varieties in person.

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the use of Standard Italian became increasingly widespread and was mirrored by a decline in the use of the dialects. An increase in literacy was one of the main driving factors (one can assume that only literates were capable of learning Standard Italian, whereas those who were illiterate had access only to their native dialect). The percentage of literates rose from 25% in 1861 to 60% in 1911, and then on to 78.1% in 1951.
Tullio De Mauro, an Italian linguist, has asserted that in 1861 only 2.5% of the population of Italy could speak Standard Italian. He reports that in 1951 that percentage had risen to 87%. The ability to speak Italian did not necessarily mean it was in everyday use, and most people (63.5%) still usually spoke their native dialects. In addition, other factors such as mass emigration, industrialization, and urbanization, and internal migrations after
World War II
contributed to the proliferation of Standard Italian. The Italians who emigrated during the Italian diaspora
beginning in 1861 were often of the uneducated lower class, and thus the emigration had the effect of increasing the percentage of literates, who often knew and understood the importance of Standard Italian, back home in Italy. A large percentage of those who had emigrated also eventually returned to Italy, often more educated than when they had left.[22]:35

The Italian dialects have declined in the modern era, as Italy unified under Standard Italian and continues to do so aided by mass media, from newspapers to radio to television.[22]:37

Between two vowels, or between a vowel and an approximant or liquid (/l r/
or /w j/), consonants can be either single or
geminated. Geminated consonants shorten the preceding vowel (or block phonetic lengthening) and the first geminated element is
unreleased. For example,
/fato/ [ˈfaː.to] ~ /fatto/ [ˈfat.to]
(first one means "fate, destiny" and the second means "fact", see "fato" and "fatto"). However,
/ɲ/, /ʃ/, /ʎ/,
are always geminated word-internally.[71]
Similarly, nasals, liquids, and sibilants are pronounced slightly longer before medial consonant clusters.[72]

The distinction between
/s/
and /z/
is neutralized before consonants and at the beginning of words: the former is used before voiceless consonants and before vowels at the beginning of words; the latter is used before voiced consonants (meaning [z]
is an allophone of /s/
before voiced consonants). The two are only contrasted between two vowels within a word. According to Canepari,[75]
though, the traditional
standard has been replaced by a modern neutral pronunciation
which always prefers /z/
when intervocalic, except when the intervocalic s
is the initial sound of a word or a morpheme, if the compound is still felt as such: for example, presento/preˈsɛnto/[76]
('I foresee', with pre
meaning 'before' and sento
meaning 'I see') vs. presento/preˈzɛnto/[77]
('I present'). There are many words in which dictionaries now indicate that both pronunciations with /z/
and with /s/
are acceptable. The two phonemes have merged in many regional varieties of Italian, either into /z/
(Northern-Central) or /s/
(Southern-Central). Geminate /ss/
can be pronounced as single [s].

Italian has a seven-vowel system, consisting of
/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/, as well as 23 consonants. Compared with most other Romance languages, Italian phonology is conservative, preserving many words nearly unchanged from
Vulgar Latin. Some examples:

The conservativeness of Italian phonology is partly explained by its origin. Italian stems from a literary language that is derived from the 13th-century speech of the city of
Florence
in the region of Tuscany, and has changed little in the last 700 years or so. Furthermore, the Tuscan dialect is the most conservative of all
Italian dialects, radically different from the
Gallo-Italian languages
less than 100 miles to the north (across the La Spezia–Rimini Line).

Preservation of most intertonic vowels (those between the stressed syllable and either the beginning or ending syllable). This accounts for some of the most noticeable differences, as in the forms
quattordici
and settimana
given above.

Compared with most other Romance languages, Italian has a large number of inconsistent outcomes, where the same underlying sound produces different results in different words, e.g.
laxāre
> lasciare
and lassare,
captiāre
> cacciare
and cazzare,
(ex)dēroteolāre
> sdrucciolare,
druzzolare
and ruzzolare,
rēgīna
> regina
and reina,
-c-
> /k/
and /ɡ/,
-t-
> /t/
and /d/. Although in all these examples the second form has fallen out of usage, the dimorphism is thought to reflect the several-hundred-year period during which Italian developed as a literary language divorced from any native-speaking population, with an origin in 12th/13th-century Tuscan but with many words borrowed from
languages
farther to the north, with different sound outcomes. (The La Spezia–Rimini Line, the most important
isogloss
in the entire Romance-language area, passes only about 20 miles to the north of Florence.)

Some other features that distinguish Italian from the Western Romance languages:

The Italian alphabet is typically considered to consist of 21 letters. The letters j, k, w, x, y are traditionally excluded, though they appear in loanwords such as
jeans,
whisky,
taxi,
xenofobo,
xilofono. The letter ⟨x⟩ has become common in standard Italian with the prefix
extra-, although
(e)stra-
is traditionally used; it is also common to use of the Latin particle ex(-)
to mean "former(ly)" as in: la mia ex
("my ex-girlfriend"), "Ex-Jugoslavia" ("Former Yugoslavia"). The letter ⟨j⟩ appears in the first name Jacopo
and in some Italian place-names, such as Bajardo,
Bojano,
Joppolo,
Jerzu,
Jesolo,
Jesi,
Ajaccio, among others, and in
Mar Jonio, an alternative spelling of
Mar Ionio
(the Ionian Sea). The letter ⟨j⟩ may appear in dialectal words, but its use is discouraged in contemporary standard Italian.[78]
Letters used in Foreign words can be replaced with phonetically
equivalent native Italian letters and digraphs: ⟨gi⟩, ⟨ge⟩, or ⟨i⟩ for ⟨j⟩; ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ch⟩ for ⟨k⟩ (including in the standard prefix
kilo-); ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩ or ⟨v⟩ for ⟨w⟩; ⟨s⟩, ⟨ss⟩, ⟨z⟩, ⟨zz⟩ or ⟨cs⟩ for ⟨x⟩; and ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ for ⟨y⟩.

The
acute accent
is used over word-final ⟨e⟩ to indicate a stressed front close-mid vowel, as in
perché
"why, because". In dictionaries, it is also used over ⟨o⟩ to indicate a stressed back close-mid vowel
(azióne). The
grave accent
is used over word-final ⟨e⟩ to indicate a front open-mid vowel, as in
tè
"tea". The grave accent is used over any vowel to indicate word-final stress, as in gioventù
"youth". Unlike ⟨é⟩, a stressed final ⟨o⟩ is always a back open-mid vowel
(andrò), making ⟨ó⟩ unnecessary outside of dictionaries. Most of the time, the penultimate syllable is stressed. But if the stressed vowel is the final letter of the word, the accent is mandatory, otherwise it is virtually always omitted. Exceptions are typically either in dictionaries, where all or most stressed vowels are commonly marked. Accents can optionally be used disambiguate words that differ only by stress, as for
prìncipi
"princes" and princìpi
"principles", or àncora
"anchor" and ancóra
"still/yet". For monosyllabic words, the rule is different: when two identical monosyllabic words with different meanings exist, one is accented and the other is not (example:
è
"is", e
"and").

The letter ⟨h⟩ distinguishes
ho,
hai,
ha,
hanno
(present indicative of avere
"to have") from o
("or"), ai
("to the"), a
("to"), anno
("year"). In the spoken language, the letter is always silent. The ⟨h⟩ in ho
additionally marks the contrasting open pronunciation of the ⟨o⟩. The letter ⟨h⟩ is also used in combinations with other letters. No phoneme[h]
exists in Italian. In nativized foreign words, the ⟨h⟩ is silent. For example, hotel
and hovercraft
are pronounced /oˈtɛl/
and /ˈɔverkraft/
respectively. (Where ⟨h⟩ existed in Latin, it either disappeared or, in a few cases before a back vowel, changed to [ɡ]:
traggo
"I pull" ← Lat. trahō.)

The letters ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ can symbolize
voiced
or voiceless
consonants. ⟨z⟩ symbolizes /dz/
or /ts/
depending on context, with few minimal pairs. For example: zanzara/dzanˈdzaːra/
"mosquito" and nazione/natˈtsjoːne/
"nation". ⟨s⟩ symbolizes /s/
word-initially before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, ch⟩), and when doubled; it symbolizes /z/
when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants. Intervocalic ⟨s⟩ varies regionally between /s/
and /z/, with
/z/
being more dominant in northern Italy and /s/
in the south.

The letters ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ vary in pronunciation between
plosives
and affricates
depending on following vowels. The letter ⟨c⟩ symbolizes /k/
when word-final and before the back vowels ⟨a, o, u⟩. It symbolizes /tʃ/
as in chair
before the front vowels ⟨e, i⟩. The letter ⟨g⟩ symbolizes /ɡ/
when word-final and before the back vowels ⟨a, o, u⟩. It symbolizes /dʒ/
as in gem
before the front vowels ⟨e, i⟩. Other Romance languages and, to an extent, English have similar variations for ⟨c, g⟩. Compare hard and soft C,
hard and soft G. (See also
palatalization.)

The
digraphs
⟨ch⟩ and ⟨gh⟩ indicate or preserve hardness (/k/
and /ɡ/) before ⟨i, e⟩. The digraphs ⟨ci⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ indicate or preserve softness (/tʃ/
and /dʒ/) before ⟨a, o, u⟩. For example:

Note: ⟨h⟩ is
silent
in the digraphs ⟨ch⟩,
⟨gh⟩; and ⟨i⟩ is silent in the digraphs ⟨ci⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ before ⟨a, o, u⟩ unless the ⟨i⟩ is stressed. For example, it is silent in
ciao/ˈtʃaː.o/
and cielo /ˈtʃɛː.lo/, but it is pronounced in
farmacia/ˌfar.maˈtʃiː.a/
and farmacie/ˌfar.maˈtʃiː.e/.

Italian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by
length
and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for /ʃ/,
/dz/,
/ʎ/,
/ɲ/, which are always geminate, and
/z/, which is always single. Geminate plosives and affricates are realized as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and
/l/
are realized as lengthened continuants. There is only one vibrant phoneme
/r/
but the actual pronunciation depends on context and regional accent. Generally one can find a flap consonant [ɾ]
in unstressed position whereas [r]
is more common in stressed syllables, but there may be exceptions. Especially people from the Northern part of Italy (Parma,
Aosta Valley,
South Tyrol) may pronounce
/r/
as [ʀ],
[ʁ], or
[ʋ].[79]

There are two
genders
(masculine and feminine). Masculine nouns end in -o, which changes to -i in the plural, and feminine nouns ends in -a, which changes to -e in the plural. With few exceptions, masculine nouns refer to male people or animals, and feminine nouns refer to female people or animals. A last class of nouns end in -e in the singular and -i in the plural, and are arbitrarily assigned masculine or feminine. These nouns often denote inanimate objects. This is fixed by the grammar of Italian, and a dictionary would need to be consulted to figure out the gender.[80]
There is a number of nouns that change their gender from the singular to plural, having a masculine singular and a feminine plural, and thus are sometimes considered neuter (those are derived from neuter
Latin nouns). An instance of neuter gender also exists in pronouns of the third person singular.

Nouns, adjectives, and articles
inflect
for gender and number (singular and plural).

Like in English, common nouns are capitalized when occurring at the beginning of a sentence. Unlike English, nouns referring to languages (e.g. Italian), speakers of languages, or inhabitants of an area (e.g. Italians) are not capitalized.[80]

There are three types of
adjectives: descriptive, invariable and form-changing. Descriptive adjectives are the most common, and their endings change to match the number and gender of the noun they modify. Invariable adjectives are adjectives whose endings do not change. The form changing adjectives "buono (good), bello (beautiful), grande (big), and santo (saint)" change in form when placed before different types of nouns. Italian has three degrees for comparison of adjectives: positive, comparative, and superlative.[80]

The order of words in the phrase is relatively free compared to most European languages.[78]
The position of the verb in the phrase is highly mobile. Word order often has a lesser grammatical function in Italian than in English. Adjectives are sometimes placed before their noun and sometimes after. Subject nouns generally come before the verb. Italian is a
null-subject language, so that nominative pronouns are usually absent, with subject indicated by verbal
inflections
(e.g. amo
'I love', ama
's/he loves', amano
'they love'). Noun objects normally come after the verb, as do pronoun objects after imperative verbs, infinitives and gerunds, but otherwise pronoun objects come before the verb.

There are both indefinite and definite
articles
in Italian. There are four indefinite articles, which vary based on the gender and first letter of the noun they modify. Uno
is used before a masculine singular noun beginning with z,
s+consonant,
gn, or
ps.Un
is used before masculine singular nouns beginning with any other letters. Una
is used before a feminine singular noun beginning with any consonant. Un'
is used before a feminine singular noun beginning with any vowel. There are seven definite articles, both singular and plural. In the singular: lo, which corresponds to the uses of
uno;
il, which corresponds to the uses of
un, la,
which corresponds to the uses of una;
l',
used before both masculine and feminine nouns and corresponds to un'
in the feminine and un
in the masculine. In the plural: gli, the plural of
lo and l';
i, the plural of
il; and
le, the plural of
la
and l'. If an adjective also precedes the noun, the article used corresponds with the adjective.[80]

There are 27 pronouns, grouped in
clitic
and tonic pronouns. Personal pronouns are separated into three groups: subject, object (which take the place of both direct and indirect objects), and reflexive. Second person subject pronouns have both a polite and a familiar form. These two different types of address are very important in Italian social distinctions. All object pronouns have two forms: stressed and unstressed. Unstressed object pronouns are much more frequently used, and come before the verb. Stressed object pronouns come after the verb, and are used when emphasis is required or to avoid ambiguity. Aside from personal pronouns, Italian also has demonstrative, interrogative, possessive, and relative pronouns. There are two types of demonstrative pronouns: relatively near (this) and relatively far (that). Demonstratives in Italian are repeated before each noun, unlike in English.[80]

There are three regular sets of verbal
conjugations, and various verbs are irregularly conjugated. Within each of these sets of conjugations, there are four simple (one-word) verbal conjugations by person/number in the
indicative mood
(present tense;
past tense
with imperfective aspect, past tense with
perfective aspect, and
future tense), two simple conjugations in the
subjunctive mood
(present tense and past tense), one simple conjugation in the conditional mood, and one simple conjugation in the
imperative mood. Corresponding to each of the simple conjugations, there is a compound conjugation involving a simple conjugation of "to be" or "to have" followed by a
past participle. "To have" is used to form compound conjugation when the verb is transitive ("Ha detto", "ha fatto": he/she has said, he/she has made/done), while "to be" is used in the case of verbs of motion and some other intransitive verbs ("È andato", "è stato": he/she has gone, he/she has been). "To be" may be used with transitive verbs, but in such a case it makes the verb passive ("Ê detto", "è fatto": it is said, it is made/done). This rule is not absolute, and some exceptions do exist.

^"Romance languages".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
19 February
2017.
... if the Romance languages are compared with Latin, it is seen that by most measures Sardinian and Italian are least differentiated and French most

^See
Italica
1950: 46
(cf. [2]
and [3]): "Pei, Mario A. "A New Methodology for Romance Classification." Word, v, 2 (Aug. 1949), 135–146. Demonstrates a comparative statistical method for determining the extent of change from the Latin for the free and checked accented vowels of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Rumanian, Old Provençal, and Logudorese Sardinian. By assigning 3½ change points per vowel (with 2 points for diphthongization, 1 point for modification in vowel quantity, ½ point for changes due to nasalization, palatalization or umlaut, and −½ point for failure to effect a normal change), there is a maximum of 77 change points for free and checked stressed vowel sounds (11×2×3½=77). According to this system (illustrated by seven charts at the end of the article), the percentage of change is greatest in French (44%) and least in Italian (12%) and Sardinian (8%). Prof. Pei suggests that this statistical method be extended not only to all other phonological but also to all morphological and syntactical, phenomena.".

^See
Koutna
et al.
(1990: 294): "In the late forties and in the fifties some new proposals for classification of the Romance languages appeared. A statistical method attempting to evaluate the evidence quantitatively was developed in order to provide not only a classification but at the same time a measure of the divergence among the languages. The earliest attempt was made in 1949 by Mario Pei (1901–1978), who measured the divergence of seven modern Romance languages from Classical Latin, taking as his criterion the evolution of stressed vowels. Pei's results do not show the degree of contemporary divergence among the languages from each other but only the divergence of each one from Classical Latin. The closest language turned out to be Sardinian with 8% of change. Then followed Italian — 12%; Spanish — 20%; Romanian — 23,5%; Provençal — 25%; Portuguese — 31%; French — 44%."

^"Europeans and their Languages"(PDF).
Europeans and their Languages. European Commission: Directorate General for Education and Culture and Directorate General Press and Communication. February 2006. Retrieved
28 June
2013.

^Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor,
The Somalis: their history and culture, (Center for Applied Linguistics: 1993), p. 15.: "Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak English.
Swahili
may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya."

' ', counter(4.62963e+286), ^Castelmezzano may also be defined as an
Eastern Romance language, though the Italo-Dalmation group may itself be defined as a subdivision of Eastern Romance languages depending on the source ·