Shapiro, J. R. and Williams, A. M.

The Role of Stereotype Threats in Undermining Girls’ and Women’s Performance and Interest in STEM Fields

2011 - Sex Roles

Gunderson et al. (2011) detail how negative stereotypes about women’s math abilities are transmitted to girls by their parents and teachers, shaping girls’ math attitudes and ultimately undermining performance and
interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields. The social psychological phenomenon of stereotype threat complements this approach and demonstrates the additional ways in which gender-related math attitudes undermine girls’ and women’s interest and performance in STEM domains. Considering the phenomenon of stereotype threat also identifies how stereotypes and other gender-related math attitudes can undermine women’s and girls’ interest and performance in STEM domains even when women and girls have positive math attitudes.

Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C. and Beilock, S. L.

The Role of Parents and Teachers in the Development of Gender-Related Math Attitudes

2012 - Sex Roles

Children and adults can ascribe to two different theories of intelligence that are associated with a constellation of attitudes and behaviors (Blackwell et al. 2007). Those who believe that intelligence is fixed (an entity theory) also tend to believe that working hard means you aren’t very smart, are motivated by performance goals that emphasize displaying their high level of ability, and tend to disengage from difficult tasks that call their ability into question (Blackwell et al. 2007; Hong et al. 1999). On the other hand, those who believe that intelligence is malleable (an incremental theory) tend to believe that working hard can help you improve at a task, are motivated by learning goals that emphasize gaining new knowledge and skills, and tend to embrace difficult tasks that provide an opportunity for learning. Incremental theories are more adaptive for academic achievement because they promote motivation to persist even after failure (Hong et al. 1999). In fact, promoting incremental theories through school-based interventions that emphasize the malleability of intelligence (e.g., lessons explaining that “the mind is a muscle”) can significantly improve students’ performance (Aronson et al. 2002; Blackwell et al. 2007; Good et al. 2003). There are gender differences in these theories of intelligence, with boys being more likely to endorse the more adaptive incremental theory of intelligence than girls (Dweck et al. 1978; Gunderson et al. 2011). As young as 8 years of age, boys hold stronger incremental theories than girls in the sociomoral and academic domains (Gunderson et al. 2011). These gender differences persist through later ages as well (Dweck et al. 1978).

In-text: (Gunderson et al., 2012)

Your Bibliography: Gunderson, E., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. and Beilock, S. (2012). The Role of Parents and Teachers in the Development of Gender-Related Math Attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3-4), pp.153-166.

Journal

Spencer, S., Steele, C. and Quinn, D.

Stereotype threat and women’s math performance

1999 - Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Spencer et al. (1999) found that women experience a similar outcome in the domain of math. In one experiment, men and women were randomly assigned to learn either that a difficult math test had shown gender differences in the past or that it had not shown gender differences in the past.When participants were told the test had not shown gender differences, men and women performed similarly on the test. However, when participants were told the test had shown gender differences, women performed significantly worse on the test compared to men.

Hargreaves, M., Homer, M. and Swinnerton, B.

A comparison of performance and attitudes in mathematics amongst the ‘gifted’. Are boys better at mathematics or do they just think they are?

2008 - Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice

In-text: (Hargreaves, Homer and Swinnerton, 2008)

Your Bibliography: Hargreaves, M., Homer, M. and Swinnerton, B. (2008). A comparison of performance and attitudes in mathematics amongst the ‘gifted’. Are boys better at mathematics or do they just think they are?. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 15(1), pp.19-38.

Journal

Carrington, B., Tymms, P. and Merrell, C.

Role models, school improvement and the ‘gender gap’—do men bring out the best in boys and women the best in girls?

2008 - British Educational Research Journal

In-text: (Carrington, Tymms and Merrell, 2008)

Your Bibliography: Carrington, B., Tymms, P. and Merrell, C. (2008). Role models, school improvement and the ‘gender gap’—do men bring out the best in boys and women the best in girls?. British Educational Research Journal, 34(3), pp.315-327.

Ellison, G. and Swanson, A.

The Gender Gap in Secondary School Mathematics at High Achievement Levels: Evidence from the American Mathematics Competitions

2010 - Journal of Economic Perspectives

In-text: (Ellison and Swanson, 2010)

Your Bibliography: Ellison, G. and Swanson, A. (2010). The Gender Gap in Secondary School Mathematics at High Achievement Levels: Evidence from the American Mathematics Competitions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), pp.109-128.

Doing your Early Years Research Project - A Step by Step Guide

2011 - SAGE - London

Schwery, D., Hulac, D. and Schweinle, A.

Understanding the Gender Gap in Mathematics Achievement: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Stereotype Threat

2016 - Canadian Journal of School Psychology

In-text: (Schwery, Hulac and Schweinle, 2016)

Your Bibliography: Schwery, D., Hulac, D. and Schweinle, A. (2016). Understanding the Gender Gap in Mathematics Achievement: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Stereotype Threat. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 10(4), pp.386-396.

Report

Dickerson, L.

Gender differences in mathematics curriculum-based measurement in third through eighth grade students

Fennema, E.

Mathematics Learning and the Sexes: A Review

1974 - Journal for Research in Mathematics Education

Your Bibliography: Fennema, E. (1974). Mathematics Learning and the Sexes: A Review. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 5(3), p.126.

Journal

Shields, S. A.

The Variability Hypothesis: The History of a Biological Model of Sex Differences in Intelligence

1982 - Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society

In-text: (Shields, 1982)

Your Bibliography: Shields, S. (1982). The Variability Hypothesis: The History of a Biological Model of Sex Differences in Intelligence. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 7(4), pp.769-797.

Journal

Hyde, J. S.

How large are cognitive gender differences? A meta-analysis using W² and D.

1981 - American Psychologist

In-text: (Hyde, 1981)

Your Bibliography: Hyde, J. (1981). How large are cognitive gender differences? A meta-analysis using W² and D. American Psychologist, 36(8), pp.892-901.