1. Material for the Introduction was obtained from
the following sources: 106 Stat, 40, Public Law 102-248, March 3, 1992;
U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
Hearing Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands of
the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives,
One Hundred Second Congress, First Session, on H.R. 543, To Establish
the Manzanar National Historic Site in the State of California, and for
Other Purposes, H.R. 2351, To Authorize a Study of Nationally
Significant Places in Japanese American History, Hearing Held in
Washington, D.C., May 21, 1991 (Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1993), pp. 1-70; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and
Insular Affairs, Establishing the Manzanar National Historic Site In
The State Of California, And For Other Purposes, 102d Cong., 1st
Sess., H. Rept. 102-125, 1991, pp. 1-10; U.S. Congress, Senate,
Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Establishing The Manzanar
National Historic Site In The State Of California, And For Other
Purposes, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., S. Rept. 102-236, 1991, pp. 1-9;
State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Manzanar:
Feasibility Study, September 1974, pp. 1-11; U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places
Inventory  Nomination Form, "Manzanar War Relocation Camp,"
prepared by Erwin N. Thompson, August 12, 1984; U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Manzanar National Historic Site,
California: Draft General Management Plan & Environmental Impact
Statement, December 1995; and An Annotated Bibliography for
Manzanar National Historic Site, Prepared by Arthur A. Hansen, Debra
Gold Hansen, Sue Kunitomi Embrey, Jane C. Wehrey, Garnette Long, and
Kathleen Frazee, Prepared for the National Park Service, Denver Service
Center, Manzanar National Historic Site, #5370000.094, Subconsultant
Agreement with Jones & Jones, A Professional Service Corporation,
Oral History Program, California State University, Fullerton, February
1995.

Chapter One

1. Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The
Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese
Exclusion (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, University of California
Press, 1962), p. 106. For a historical overview of Japanese emigration
and its attendant problems in California see Andrew F. Rolle,
California: A History (2d ed., Arlington Heights, Illinois, AHM
Publishing Corporation, 1969), pp, 389-394.

5. Midori Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese
in Los Angeles County, 1940-1950 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Washington, 1955), pp. 13-14.

6. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American
History, p. 352, and Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in
Los Angeles County," pp. 17-18, 20-21.

7. Nishi, "Changing Occupance of the Japanese in Los
Angeles County," pp. 14-16.

8. U.S. Bureau of Immigration, and Naturalization.
Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industries,
Part 25, vol.23 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911), p.
37.

9. Ibid., p, 61; Nishi, "Changing Occupance
of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 18-20; and David Lavender,
California: A Bicentennial History (New York and Nashville, W. W.
Norton & Company, Inc., and American Association for State and Local
History, 1978, p. 189.

17. Isami Arifuku Waugh and Alex Yamato, "A History
of Japanese Americans in California," in Isami Arifuku Waugh, Alex
Yamato, and Raymond Y. Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in
California (Sacramento, State of California, Department of Parks and
Recreation, Office of Historic Preservation, 1988), p. 162.

18. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, pp.
63-64, 87-88; Stephen S. Fugita and David J. O'Brien, Japanese
American Ethnicity: The Persistance of Community (Seattle and
London, University of Washington Press, 1991), p. 8; Waugh, Yamato, and
Okamura, A History of Japanese Americans in California, pp.
164-66, 171,193-94; Lavender, California, pp. 189-90; and Yamato
Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States (London and Stanford,
California, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press and Stanford
University Press, 1932), p. 124.

19. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, History of
Japanese Americans in California, p. 171.

1. For more information on the transfer of Japanese
from Hawaii to the mainland see Stetson Conn, Rose C, Engelman, and
Byron Fairchild, United States Army in World War II: The Western
Hemisphere, Guarding the United States and Its Outposts (Washington,
United States Army, Office of the Chief of Military History, 1964), pp.
206-16.

2. Three of the best sources for this subject are
Conn, et al.,Guarding the United States. pp. 115-49, and
Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime
Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, Government
Printing Office, December 1982); and Roger Daniels, Concentration
Camps USA: Japanese Americans and World War II (Hinsdale, Illinois,
The Dryden Press, 1972). For a comparison study of Japanese exclusion
and evacuation from the military point of view, see U.S. War Department,
Final Report: Japanese Evacuation From the West Coast, 1942
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943. A history of Japanese
exclusion and evacuation from the viewpoint of the War Relocation
Authority may be found in U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, WRA: A Story of Human Conservation
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), and Ibid.,Wartime Exile: The Exclusion of the Japanese Americans From the West
Coast, by Ruth E. McKee (Washington, Government Printing Office,
1946), pp. 97-167.

5. Pre-Pearl Harbor archival documents dealing with
discussions between the War and Justice departments over
responsibilities for enemy aliens in case of war and with internal Army
communications about construction of accommodations for enemy aliens and
interned merchant seamen may be found in Roger Daniels, ed., American
Concentration Camps: A Documentary History of the Relocation and
Incarceration of Japanese Americans, 1942-1945 (9 vols., New York
and London, Garland Publishing, 1989), Vol. 1, Part 1. Although the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor precipitated the movement for exclusion
and evacuation of persons of Japanese ancestry from the west coast
during World War II, it is significant to note a White House memorandum
written by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 10, 1936.
Discussing the surveillance of people of Japanese descent on the
Hawaiian island of Oahu, Roosevelt demanded that a list of people under
surveillance be kept so that the suspected problem people would "be the
first to be placed in a concentration camp in the event of trouble,"
Record Group 181, Records of Naval Districts and Shore Establishments,
14th Naval District, Commandants Office, General Correspondence,
1925-42, File No. A8-5, Document 20, National Archives and Records
Administration, Pacific Sierra Region, San Bruno.

6. Personal Justice Denied, p. 55; Thomas and
Nashimoto Spoilage, p. 5; and ten Brock, Jacobus, Edward N.
Barnhart, and Floyd W. Matson, Prejudice, War and the
Constitution (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1954), p.
101. Copies of three proclamations may be found in Daniels, ed.,
American Concentration Camps, Vol. 1, Part 2. Printed copies of
the three proclamations (No. 2525, December 7, 1941, and Nos. 2526 and
2527 on December 8, 1941) may be found in U.S. Congress, House, Select
Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, National Defense
Migration, Fourth Interim Report... Pursuant to H. Res. 113, 77th
Cong., 2d Sess., H, Report 2124, May 1942, Appendixes 1-3, pp.
294-300.

John DeWitt was born on January 9, 1880, at Fort Sidney, Nebraska,
His father was an army doctor who had served in the Civil War, and
during John's youth his father and family were transferred to Fort
Hancock, Texas, Fort Missoula, Montana, and Fort Sully in the Dakotas,
When John was 16, he was sent to Princeton. He applied to West Point,
but was turned down. On November 1, 1898, he dropped out of college to
accept a lieutenancy in the 20th Infantry during the Spanish-American
War and he was sent to the Philippines. From then until World War I, he
was posted back and forth between stateside and the Philippines. In late
1917, he went to France as a quartermaster, serving behind the lines as
a supply officer. Between World Wars I and II, he served on army posts
in Washington, Georgia, Texas, and the Philippines.

10. Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding the
United States, pp. 117-18.

11. Ibid., p. 118. Archival documents
(dating from December 7 to 31, 1941) demonstrating the growing conflicts
between the War and Justice departments and showing the rising concern
about internal security in both the government and the nation at large
may be seen in Daniels, ed., American Concentration Camps, Vol.
1, Part 3.

12. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
4-6, 19-24.

13. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp.
63-64.

14. Conn, et al.,Guarding the United
States, p. 119.

15. Quoted in ibid., p. 120.

16. For further data on this subject, see U.S.
Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Wartime
Exile, pp. 154-58.

17. Conn, et al.,Guarding the United
States, p. 120.

18. Quoted in Grodzins, Americans Betrayed,
p. 48.

19. Quoted in ten Brock, et al.,Prejudice, War and the Constitution, p. 75.

20. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p.
70. Copies of Ford's letters may be found in Daniels, ed., American
Concentration Camps, Vol. 2, Part 1.

21. Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding the
United States, p. 121.

22. The Roberts Commission report was published in
Pearl Harbor Attack: Hearings Before the Joint Committee on the
Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack (39 parts, Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1946), Part 39, pp. 1-21.

23. Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding the
United States, p. 122.

24. For further data on this subject see Grodzins,
Americans Betrayed, pp. 67-69.

Printed copies of the Justice Department press releases between
January 29 and February 7 ma be found in House Report 2124, May 1942,
Appendixes 6-11, pp. 302-14.

27. Conn, et al.,Guarding the United
States, pp. 123-24.

28. Ibid., p. 124, and Grodzins, Japanese
Evacuation, p. 124.

29. Quoted in ibid. p. 125.

30. Ibid., p. 125, and Personal Justice
Denied, p. 76-77.

31. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p.
126.

32. Ibid., pp. 126-27.

33. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, p.
77.

34. Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding the
United States, p. 127. The substance of this report, one of the most
detailed and sympathetic military analyses of the Japanese problem in
early 1942, was published anonymously in Harper's Magazine,
October 1942, pp. 489-97.

43. The memorandum is printed in U.S. War
Department, Final Report, pp. 33-38. According to Conn, et
al.,Guarding the United States, p. 132, the memorandum
should be dated February 13. Also see Personal Justice Denied,
pp. 66, 82.

46. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp.
81-82.In Alaska the Army had been made responsible for controlling enemy
aliens soon after Pearl Harbor, and it had promptly interned those
considered dangerous. On March 6, 1942, the Secretary of war extended
his authority under Executive Order 9066 to the Army commander in
Alaska, By late May he had evacuated not only his alien internees but
also the entire Japanese population of Alaska  230, of whom more
than half were United States citizens.

47. Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding the
United States, p. 134. In its Final Report the War Department
stated on page 25: "The War Department representative [Colonel
Bendetsen] carried back to the Secretary the recommendation of the
Commanding General that some method be developed empowering the Federal
Government to provide for the evacuation from sensitive areas of all
persons of Japanese ancestry, and any other persons individually or
collectively regarded as potentially dangerous. The Commanding Genera;
proposal was reduced to writing in a memorandum for the Secretary of
War, dated February 14, 1942 . . . . This recommendation was presented
to the Secretary of War on or about February 16th." No other evidence
was found that the recommendations contained in General DeWitt's
memorandum to the Secretary of War were considered or referred to in the
preparation of new War Department directives on the subject between
February 17 and 20. After these directives were drafted and after
talking with General DeWitt on February 20, Bendetsen informed Secretary
Stimson: "It was I who misunderstood General Dewitt's plan  he has
no mass movement in mind." Quoted in Conn, et al.,Guarding
the United States, p. 134, footnote 64.

48. Conn, et al.,Guarding the United
States, pp. 134-35.

49. Ibid., p. 135.

50. Ibid., p. 135.

51. Executive Order 9066, February 19, 1942,
Federal Register, Vol. 7, No. 38, February 25, 1942. Also see
U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 25-29; Personal Justice
Denied, p. 85; Maisie and Richard Conrat, "Executive Order 9066;
The Internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans (Los Angeles,
California Historical Society, 1972); and ten Brock, Prejudice, War
and the Constitution, pp. 111-12. A copy of Executive Order 9066 may
be seen in Appendix A of this study, Daniels,
Decision to Relocate the Japanese, pp. 49-50.

16. U.S. War Department Final Report, pp.
29-31,49, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 331-44. More data
on the legal aspects and consequences of the presidential and
congressional decisions may be found in Clinton Rossiter, The Supreme
Court and the Commander in Chief (Ithaca, New York, Cornell
University Press, 1951), pp. 42-54.

17. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
30-31.

18. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 99.

19. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
28-29. Also see Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp. 116-21.

36. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
50-51, and Peter Irons, Justice at War (New York and Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 69-70.

37. A copy of Executive Order 9102 may be seen in
Appendix B of this study.

38. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 26-30, and Irons,
Justice At War, pp. 71-72.

39. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p.
41.

40. Ibid., pp. 43-44, 65-74, 104-05. For an
examination of related activities of the WCCA, such as curfew and travel
control and repatriation, see ibid., pp. 291-333.

41. Ibid., p. 78.

42. Ibid., p. 151.

43. Ibid., p. 44, and Irons, Justice At
War, p. 69. More indepth study of the Manzanar site selection may
be found in Chapter Five of this study.

44. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
44, 46, and 151.

45. Personal Justice Denied, p. 138, and
Irons, Justice At War, p. 69, Chapter Four
of this study includes data on the construction, development, and
operation of the assembly centers.

46. For more information on the historical
development of the Japanese community on Terminal Island see Kanshi
Stanley Yamashita, "Terminal Island: Ethnography of an Ethnic Community:
Its Dissolution and Reorganization to a Non-Spatial Community" (Ph.D.
dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1985).

53. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
48-49; House Report 2124, p. 5; and Audrie Girdner and Ann Loftis, The
Great Betrayal: The Evacuation of the Japanese-Americans During World
War II (London, The Macmillan Company, Collier-Macmillan, Ltd.,
1969), p. 133.

54. Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp.
54-55, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 49, 519-21.

55. A copy of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 1 is
printed in Appendix 20, House Report 2124, pp. 332-34.

56. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied, pp.
109-10.

57. Daniels, Decision to Relocate, pp.
54-55.

58. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
89-93, 114-26, and Thomas and Nashimoto, Spoilage, pp. 13-17.

59. A complete set of the 108 civilian exclusion
orders may be found in Record Group 210, Records of the War Relocation
Authority, Entry 16, Headquarters Subject  Classified General
Files, 1942-46, Box 242, File 35.434, National Archives and Records
Administration, Archives I, Washington, D.C. In conjunction with the
issuance of each civilian exclusion order the Civil Affairs Division of
the Western Defense Command and Fourth Army prepared memoranda detailing
the responsibilities of each agency and military unit for implementation
of the order, Copies of some of these memoranda may be found in
Collection No. 200, California Ephemera Collection, Japanese in
California, Box 42, Folders 4-6, Department of Special Collections,
University Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.

60. House Report 1911, pp. 5-6.

61. Ibid., pp. 6-8.

62. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
43, 127-29, 136-38.

63. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp.
132-33.

64. House Report 1911, p. 19.

65. Dillon S. Myer, Uprooted Americans: The
Japanese Americans and the War Relocation Authority During World War
II (Tucson, Arizona, University of Arizona Press, 1971), p. 253.

67. Personal Justice Denied, pp. 117-18. For
further information on this topic, see U.S. Department of the Interior,
war Relocation Authority, The Wartime Handling of Evacuee
Property (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), pp. 1-109;
House Report 2124, pp. 13-16, 173-95; U.S. Department of the Interior,
War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp.
155-62; U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 127-44; and Final
Report of the Participation of the Farm Security Administration In the
Evacuation Program of the Wartime Civil Control Administration, Civil
Affairs Division, Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Covering the
Period, March 15, 1942 through May 31, 1942, RG 210, Entry 7, Issuances
of Other Federal Government Agencies, 1942-46, Box 5, File, "Wartime
Civil Control Administration  Final Report of Farm Security
Administration."

68. U.S. War Department. Final Report, pp.
15, 105.

69. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, pp.
12-13, and Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 304-05, 312-13. See
Appendix B for a list of the exclusion dates,
number of persons evacuated, and destinations of Japanese associated
with each civilian exclusion order.

70. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p.
15.

71. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp.
303-22.

72. ten Brock, et al.,Prejudice, War,
and the Constitution, p. 133.

73. Public Proclamation No. 7, quoted in
ibid., p. 125.

74. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Store of Human Conservation, pp. ix-x, 23, and Irons,
Justice At War, p. 73.

2. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 151,
and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 153.

3. For a history of the Santa Anita Assembly Center,
see Anthony L. Lehman, Birthright of Barbed Wire (Los Angeles,
Westernlore Press, 1970).

4. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p.
227.

5. Ibid., p. 152. For more information on
Army cantonment construction, see U.S. Department of Defense, Legacy
Resources Management Program, and U.S. Department of the Interior,
National Park Service, World War II and the U.S. Army Mobilization
Program: A History of 700 and 800 Series Cantonment Construction,
Including Historic American Buildings Survey Documentation for Camp
Edwards, Massachusetts, and Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, by Diane Shaw
Wasch, Perry Bush, Keith Landreth, and James Glass. 1993.

6. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 183,
and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 149.

7. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
183-85, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, pp. 183-85.

8. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
183-84.

9. Ibid., p. 186, and Girdner and Loftis,
Great Betrayal, p. 152.

10. American National Red Cross, "Report of the
American Red Cross Survey of Assembly Centers in California, Oregon, and
Washington," August 1942, p. 37, quoted in Personal Justice
Denied, p. 139. The per capita cost of constructing the centers
ranged from $64 for Puyallup to $196 for Pomona. "Summary of Available
Data on Assembly Centers," pp. 5-6ff, Roll 3, No. 69, M1342, RG 210.

11. U.S. War Department Final Report, pp.
46-47, 222, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 169.

12. U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
222-23, and Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal, p. 169.

13. U.S. War Department, Final Report, p.
226.

14. Ibid., pp. 222-27.

15. Ibid., p. 225. A copy of the W.C.C.A.
Operations Manual, dated June 11, 1942, may be found in collection
No. 200, Japanese in California, Box 42, Folder 5, Department of Special
Collections, UCLA.

3. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly
Report, March 18 to June 30, 1942, p. 8; ibid., Second Quarterly
Report, July 1 to September 30, 1942, pp. 1-2; and ibid.,
[Third] Quarterly Report, October 1 to December 31, 1942, pp.
1-2, and U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp. 282-84, 288.

18. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly
Report, p. 7; U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 20, 22, U.S. War
Department, Final Report, p. 249, and Girdner and Loftis,
Great Betrayal, p. 216.

27. War Relocation Authority, First Quarterly
Report, p. 12. For further information on "theater of operations"
military construction, see U.S. Department of Defense, Legacy Resources
Management Program, and U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, World War II and the U.S. Army Mobilization Program.

3. For more information on Boddy's efforts and
Brown's cooperation see Interview of Robert L. Brown by Arthur A.
Hansen, December 13, 1973, and February 20, 1974, in Jessie A. Garrett
and Ronald C. Larson, eds., Camp and Community: Manzanar and the
Owens Valley (Fullerton, California State University, Fullerton,
Japanese American Oral History Project, 1977), pp. 23ff, Also see John
Walton, Western Times and Water Wars: State, Culture, and Rebellion
in California (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1992).
Brown detailed his involvement in the selection of the Manzanar
site and the public relations program related to its establishment in an
untitled report labeled in pencil "Assembly Centers, by Robert Brown,
Reports Officer, Manzanar, April, 1943," RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 69, File,
"Miscellaneous Reports." Also see "[Assembly Centers," April 1943],
Robert Brown, Reports Officer, Manzanar, pp. 1-3, RG 210, Entry 4b,
Relocation Center Records, Box 69, File, "Miscellaneous Reports."

4. Bob Brown, Inyo-Mono Comes Back," California
Magazine of the Pacific, April 1940, pp. 20-22; William Kahrl,
Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the
Owens Valley (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982), p.
361; and Appendix 2, Letter, Ralph P. Merritt to Aunt Luella, December
25, 1942, in "Project Director's Report, Final Report, Manzanar,
Vol. I, A-74 to A-76, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File, "Manzanar Final
Reports." The best biographical source on Ralph P. Merritt is University
of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, "After Me Cometh A Builder:"
The Recollections of Ralph Palmer Merritt, Completed under the
auspices of the Regional Cultural History Project and the Oral History
Program, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962. Also see Ardis M. Walker,
Ralph P. Merritt (San Bernadino, California, Inland Printing and
Engraving Company, 1964), p 3-5.

5. For more information on the men contacted by
Brown see Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 217. Also see
"Owens Valley Coordinating Committee," n.d., Box 21, File, "Public
Relations  State, County, etc., Coordinating Committee Collection
No, 122, War Relocation Authority Archive, Department of Special
Collections, University Research Library, University of California, Los
Angeles.

6. For more information on this topic, see Kahrl,
Water and Power, p. 367, and Interview of Robert L. Brown by
Arthur A. Hansen, in Garrett and Larson, eds., Camp and
Community, p. 27.

12. Informal Statement of Tom C. Clark, Alien
Control Coordinator, in office of H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and
General Manger, Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles...
March 5, 1942, Correspondence, March 1942  October 1943, Manzanar
Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive
Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records. Also see "Evacuated
Japanese To Be Settled In Owens Valley," Intake, March 1942, p.
3. Copies of the Intake, a periodical of the Los Angeles
Department of Water and Power, may be found in Manzanar Relocation
Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office
Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.

13. For more information on various reactions by
Owens Valley residents, see the interviews in Garrett and Larson, eds.,
Camp and Community.

14. DeWitt to Department of Water and Power, March
7, 1942, and attachments, File  Jap[anese] Resettlement Area,"
Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power,
Bishop, California, Attached to the letter was Exhibit "A" describing
the land parcels that the military wished to lease for the construction
of Manzanar, Originally, the military reported that the Manzanar site
covered approximately 5,700 acres, On March 11, however, the U.S. Corps
of Engineers revised the total acreage to 6,020 after conducting more
accurate surveys. Exhibit "A," [March 7, 1942], Correspondence, March
1942  October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and
Executive Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP
Historical Records, Also see "Evacuated Japanese To Be Settled In Owens
Valley," Intake, March 1942, p. 3.

15. E. L. Thrasher, Councilman, 14th Dist. to Board
of Water and Power Commissioners, March 10, 1942, and Walter C.
Peterson, City Clerk to Water and Power Commission, April 155, 1943,
Correspondence, March 1942  October 1943, Manzanar Relocation
Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive Office,
Historical Records, LADWP Historical Records.

16. Condemnation Proceeding United States of
America, Plaintiff, vs. 5,700 Acres of Land, More or Less, in the County
of Inyo, State of California; City of Los Angeles, a municipal
corporation; Bureau of Power and Light, a political subdivision of the
City of Los Angeles; County of Inyo, a body politic and corporate; State
of California, a corporation sovereign. No. 147 Civil Complaint in
Condemnation, June 27, 1942. RG 210, Entry 16, Box 293, File 41.080,
"individual Projects (Manzanar Relocation Center)." For more information
on legal questions relating to acquisition of the Manzanar site, see
Norman M. Littell, Assistant Attorney General to Undersecretary of War
Robert P. Patterson, April 8, 1942, Correspondence, March 1942 
October 1943, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive
Files, Water Executive Office Historical Records, LADWP Historical
Records.

25. Colin L. Busby, John M. Findlay, and James C.
Bard, A Cultural Resource Overview of the Bureau of Land
Management Coleville, Bodie, Benton and Owens Valley Planning
Units, California. Prepared for United States Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Bakersfield District Office,
Contract No. YA-512-CT8-181 (Oakland, California, Basin Research
Associates, June 1979), p. 3; U.S. Department of the Interior,
Geological Survey, Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No, 181, Geology
and Water Sources of Owens Valley, California, by Willis T. Lee
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1906); and U.S. Department of
the Interior, Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 294, An Intensive
Study of the Water Resources of a Part of Owens Valley, California,
by Charles H. Lee (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1912), pp.
8.10.

26. Busby, Findlay, and Bard, Cultural Resource
Overview, p. 3, and U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological
Survey, Water-Supply Paper 294, pp. 10-14. Also see Clemens Arvid
Nelson, Guidebook to the Geology of a Portion of the Eastern Sierra
Nevada, Owens Valley, and White Inyo Range: Fall 1980 Field Trip,
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of California, Los
Angeles (Los Angeles, UCLA Department of Earth and Space Sciences,
1980); U. S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Professional
Paper 110, A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the
Eastern Slope of the Southern Sierra Nevada, California, by Adolph
Knopf and Edwin Kirk (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1918);
Genny Schumacher Smith, ed., Deepest Valley: A Guide to Owens Valley,
Its Roadsides and Mountain Trails (Rev. ed., Palo Alto, Genny Smith
Books, 1978), pp. 119-48; and Robert A Sauder, The Lost Frontier:
Water Diversion in the Growth and Destruction of Owens Valley
Agriculture (Tucson and London, University of Arizona Press, 1994),
pp. 7-27.

37. Appendix Q, "Journal of Mr. Edward Kern of an
Exploration of Mary's or Humboldt River, Carson Lake and Owens River and
Lake," in Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of the
Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in
Carson Valley, in 1859 by Captain J. H. Simpson (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1876), pp. 482, 484.

40. Northern California Historical Records Survey
Project, Inventory of the County Archives of California, No. 27, Mono
County (Bridgeport). San Francisco, 1940, p. 12, and Walton,
Western Times and Water Wars, p. 13.

46. An overview of this period of mining history in
California may be found in Chapter One of W. W. Paul, California
Gold: The Beginning of Mining in the Far West (Cambridge, Harvard
University Press, 1947). Also see Remi A. Nadeau, Ghost Towns and
Mining Camps of California (Los Angeles, Ward Ritchie, 1965), p.
173.

62. For more information on the impact of
Euro-American settlement on the Paiute culture in Owens Valley, see
Carling l. Malouf and John M. Findlay, Euro-American Impact Before 1870,
in Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11,
Great Basin, pp. 499-516; Edward D. Castillo, "The Impact of
Euro-American Exploration and Settlement," in William C. Sturtevannt,
ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8, California
(Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1978), pp. 99-127; Sherburne F.
Cook, The Conflict Between the California Indian and White
Civilization (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California
Press, 1976); Roger D. McGrath, No Goodee Cow Man," in Friends of the
Eastern California Museum, comp., Mountains to Desert: Selected Inyo
Readings (Independence, California, Friends of the Eastern
California Museum, 1988), pp. 17-73; Walton, Western Times and Water
Wars, pp. 16-22; and William H. Michael, "'At the Plow and in the
Harvest Field': Indian Conflict and Accommodation in the Owens Valley,
1860-1880" (Master's Thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1993).

66. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862 (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1863), pp. 226-27.

67. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the
Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1861 (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1861), pp. 110.

68. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862, p. 106; Cragen,
Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 11-13; and Cook, Conflict, pp.
483-85.

69. Quoted in Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue
Pants, pp. 4-5.

70. Phillips, Desert People and Mountain
Men, pp. 58-60; Chalfant, Story of Inyo, 1922, pp. 96-98; and
Farquhar, ed., Up and Down California, p. 538.

71. U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1862, pp. 225-27, and
ibid.,Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the
Year 1863 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1864), p. 99

76. Cragen, Boys in Sky-Blue Pants, pp. 88,
187. For more data on Indian population statistics in Owens Valley, see
Sherburne F. Cook, The Population of the California Indians:
1769-1970 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976).

97. Nadeau, Ghost Towns and Mining Camps, p.
203-04, 211-15. For more information on the historical development of
Bodie, see State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation,
The Cultural Resources of Bodie State Historic Park, Sacramento,
1977.

98. Among the best sources on the historic
development of the Carson and Colorado Railroad are: David F. Myrick,
Railroads of Nevada and Eastern California, Volume One  The
Northern Roads (Berkeley, Howell-North Books, 19162), pp. 166-210;
John F. Due, "Carson and Colorado Railroad," Western Railroader,
XXII, (May 1959), pp. 3-5; and J. B. Hungerford, The Slim Princess:
The Story of the Southern Pacific Narrow Gauge (Reaeda, California,
Hungerford Press, 1956).

99. Hungerford, Slim Princess, pp.
8ff.

100. Krater, East of the High Sierra, pp.
8-9, and Homes for Settlers, pp. 26-27.

112. Schmacher-Smith, ed., Deepest Valley,
p. 191; Edwin Schallert, "The Valley of the Flowing Waters," West
Coast Magazine, XI (November 1911), pp. 135-49; and G. Yoell
Parkhurst, Inyo County, California (San Francisco, Sunset
Magazine Homeseekers' Bureau, ca. 1910), no pagination, in Inyo County,
California," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern
California Museum, Also see Agricultural and Industrial Survey of
Inyo County, Calif., Made by the California Government Board of
San Francisco, California, at the Request of the Board of Supervisors of
Inyo County, June-July 1917, Thalia Weed Newcomb, Field agent,
September 1917; and J.S. Cotton, Agricultural Conditions of Inyo
County, California (Mss., 1905).

113. Material for this section is based on the
following works, which are considered by most scholars to be the best
documentary sources in this field, Walton, Western Times and Water
Wars; Vincent Ostrom, Water & Politics: A Study of Water
Policies and Administration in the Development of Los Angeles (Los
Angeles, The Haynes Foundation, 1953); Kahrl, Water and Power: The
Conflict over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley; William
L. Kahrl, "The Politics of California Water: Owens Valley and the Los
Angeles Aqueduct, 1900-1927, Part I," California Historical
Quarterly, LV (Spring 1976) pp. 2-25; William L. Kahrl, "The
Politics of California Water: Owens Valley and the Los Angeles Aqueduct,
1900-1927, Part II," California Historical Quarterly, LV (Summer
1976), pp. 98-120; and Robert A. Sauder, "Owens Valley's Abandoned
Landscapes," California Geographer, XXXII (1992), pp. 61-76. Also
see Catherine Hoehn, "The Owens Valley-Los Angeles water Controversy:
Bibliographic Guide" (M. A. Thesis, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1977); Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, A Brief
Summary of Important Historical Data and Current Facts Concerning the
Municipally Owned, Department of Water and Power, City of Los
Angeles (Los Angeles, The Department, 1986); Gordon R. Miller, "Los
Angeles and the Owens River Aqueduct" (Ph. D. dissertation, Claremont
Graduate School, 1977); Los Angeles, Bureau of the Aqueduct, Annual
Reports of the Chief Engineer of the Los Angeles Aqueduct to the Board
of Public Works, (7 vols., Los Angeles, Department of Public Works,
1907-13); and Los Angeles, Department of Public Service, Complete
Report on Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Los Angeles,
1916).

116. The perspective of the Los Angeles Department
of Water and Power may be seen in Los Angeles Water and Power
Department, "The Owens Valley Controversy in Perspective," in Southern
Inyo American Association of Retired Persons, Saga of Inyo County
(Covina, California, Taylor Publishing Company, 1977) pp. 41-43.

123. Ostrom, Water & Politics, pp.
128-30. For more information on this topic, see Richard Coke Wood,
The Owens Valley and the Los Angeles Water Controversy: Owens Valley
As I Knew It (Stockton, University of the Pacific, Pacific Center
For Western Historical Studies, 1973).

125. Krater, East of the High Sierra, pp.
52-53; Kahrl, Politics of California Water, Part II," p. 114; and
Ostrom, Water & Politics, p. 127.

126. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars,
p. 201.

127. Ibid., p. 222.

128. The 1929-33 period of Owens Valley history is
summarized in W. A. Chalfant, The Story of Inyo (Rev, ed., Los
Angeles, Citizens Print Shop, Inc., 1933) pp. 399-411. Also see Mary
DeDecker, "Owens Valley, Then and Now," in Friends of the Eastern
California Museum, comp., Mountains to Desert, pp. 7-15.

131. Kahrl, Water and Power, pp. 361-67,
and Walton, Western Times and Water Wars, p. 214. Also see the
Interview of Robert L. Brown by Arthur A. Hansen in Garrett and Larson,
eds., Camp and Community, pp. 21-22. The Interview of Jack B.
Hopkins by Arthur A. Hansen, December 20, 1973, in Garrett and Larson,
eds., Camp and Community, pp. 43-45, also provides perspective on
this issue.

132. Walton, Western Times and Water Wars,
p. 216. Also Inyo County Board of Supervisors, comp., Inyo, p.
70.

138. Jane Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp
Period: Data and Sources and Suggestions and Sources for Further
Research on Attitudes of Owens Valley Townspeople During Manzanar Camp,"
California State University, Fullerton, October 1993, p. 1.

148. Inyo Independent, March 14, 1902, in
"Hunter," Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California
Museum. A post office had been established at George Creek in 1875, and
from 1896 to 1911 a post office named Thebe (Indian name for the
surrounding mountains) served the George Creek and Shepherd Creek
settlements. J. Hoyle Mayfield, comp., Postmasters of Inyo County,
California, 1866-1970 (Bakersfield, Kern County Genealogical
Society, 1970), pp. 8, 20.

151. Kahrl, Water and Power, pp. 218-20;
Inyo Independent, June 18, 1909, in "Inyo County II," Subject
History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and "The
Manzanar 'Chaffey-Kreider' Connection," pp. 1-4, in "Chaffey (Kreider),"
Family History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. For
more data on the background of Chaffey see Joseph A. Alexander, The
Life of George Chaffey: A Story of Irrigation Beginnings in California
and Australia (Melbourne, Australia, Macmiillan and Co., 1928).

158. Anno Domini 1912, pp. 43-44, and John
M. Gorman, I Remember Manzanar (Bishop, California, Pinion Press,
1967), pp. 9-10. The Eastern California Museum has a collection
containing items relating to Manzanar town history. Among the museum's
accessioned objects are documents including deeds for land acquisition
by the Lacey family and receipts/assessments of the Manzanar Water
Corporation. Provision for pavement of the highway from Independence to
Manzanar was made in a state highway bond issue passed in November
1916.

166. Deed, Owens Valley Improvement Company to
Manzanar School District, Dated July 19, 1912, Inyo County Deed Book 23,
Folio 181, copy in #23-040-11 and #23-080-10, Reference Files, City of
Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop; "Manzanar School,
Inyo Co., California, 1916," in "Manzanar Town," Subject History,
Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum; and Mills, "Henry
Lenbek Family," Southern Inyo American Association of Retired Persons,
Saga of Inyo County, pp. 122-24. Also see Dorothy C. Cragen, A
Brief History of the Schools of Inyo County and a Statistical and
Financial Report Covering Sixteen Years (Independence, California,
1954).

167. U.S. Bureau of Census, Fourteenth Census
of the United States, Taken in the Year 1920, Population. Inyo
County, Third Township.

168. Henry S. Smith to Mr. [Charles N.] Irwin,
August 2, 1979, and Mrs. Barbara Wicks to Charles N. Irwin, July 31,
1979, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files,
Eastern California Museum. Also see "Maps Showing Classification and
City Ownership of Lands in Owens River Valley, Department of Water and
Power, City of Los Angeles, Survey Classification and Map Delineation
Under Direction of J. E. Phillips, by P. E. Ritch, February 13 1931,"
Maps, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop. For
city land purchase records in the Manzanar area, see "Survey of City
Owned Land in Inyo and Mono Counties," n.d., in "Survey of DWP Land;"
"Land Purchase Records;" "Ow ens Valley Lands #9;" "Photo Book, South
District #4;" and "Photo Book, Sub-Divided Properties #1;" Reference
Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.

170. Quoted in Jane Wehrey, "Layers of Meaning In
A Place And Its Past: The Manzanar National Historic Site," May 1994, p.
17. A copy of this study may be found in the collections of the
California State University, Fullerton, Oral History Program.

171. Ibid., pp. 19-20. Also see "The Bureau
of Water Works and Supply is a Fruit Grower de Luxe," Intake,
June 1927, p. 20.

172. For more data on Los Angeles farming
operations at Manzanar see J. P. Hertel, County Agent, to E. H. Lehy, A.
Water and Power Board Office, Bishop, June 19, 1926, and attachment,
"Some Suggestions for the Future Land Policy of the City of Los Angeles
in the Owens River Valley. J. P. Hertel, Farm Advisor, June 1926;" in
"LAWP Misc. #1," Subject History, Vertical Reference Files, Eastern
California Museum. Also see Walter E. Packard, Report on the
Agricultural Situation in Owens Valley, As It Relates to the
Agricultural Development of Lands Belonging to the City of Los
Angeles (Los Angeles, Department of Public Service, 1925).

174. Los Angeles Times Farm and Orchard
Magazine, November 20, 1927, in "Manzanar Town," Subject History,
Vertical Reference Files, Eastern California Museum. Also see the
reminiscences of John M. Gorman, a life long resident and rancher near
Independence, who was hired by Christopher to oversee farm crews at
Manzanar during the late 1920s. Gorman, I Remember Manzanar, pp.
15-24.

24. In late April, the Army responded to Pulliam's
requests, sending two officials and two "disinterested appraisers" to
Manzanar to purchase the evacuees' automobiles. Appraisals were based on
the prices listed in the manufacturers' Blue Book. Before the
appraisers arrived several evacuees sold their vehicles to members of
the construction crew. The Manzanar Free Press reported on May 2
(p. 5) that the Army planned to "put to immediate use all cars
manufactured after 1937." In case the sale of the vehicles was not
completed, the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, acting as the
fiscal agent of the government, was authorized to store the cars at the
owner's risk. The newspaper reported on May 6, (p. 4) that "Ranging from
a Model 'T' Ford, vintage 1925, to a 1941 Chevrolet, 150 automobiles
belonging to first arrivals at Manzanar have been sold to the Army,
carpenters, and workers here." All vehicles would be removed during the
week, Four autos were not sold, because the owners decided not to
sell.

3. "Memorandum of Agreement Between the War
Department and War Relocation Authority," April 17,1942, and "Transfer
Agreement Between War Department and War Relocation authority Pertaining
to Manzanar Relocation Area," June 1,1942, printed in U.S. War
Department, Final Report, pp. 239-40, 46-47.

4. See Chapter Five of this study for more
information concerning the adoption of the "Standards and Details."

5. Sec Memorandum, "Additional Construction 
Japanese Reception Centers," To the Division Engineer, South Pacific
Division, U.S.E.D., June 23, 1942, for required additional construction
at Manzanar by the Corps of Engineers to conform with the "Standard and
Details" after the WRA took over administration of the camp. RG 210,
Entry 38, Subject-Classified General Files of the San Francisco Regional
Office, 1942, Box 50, File No. 670, "Engineering and Construction, 1942,
General (Thru November)."

11. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Evacuated People, p. 102. A few of the American-born
persons listed in this chart may have been Sansei, or third generation
Japanese Americans.

12. Further information on
the historical background of the Japanese population on the west coast
may be found in U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Wartime Exile, pp. 1-96.

13. Waugh and Yamato, "A History of Japanese
Americans In California," in Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of
Japanese Americans in California, pp. 162-67, and Nishi, "Changing
Occupance of the Japanese in Los Angeles County," pp. 26, 45-47.

14. House Report 2124, pp. 91-130.

15. Waugh and Yamato, "A History of Japanese
Americans In California," in Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of
Japanese Americans in California, pp. 168-70. Also see John Modell,
The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of
Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1977)
for material on the Japanese population in Los Angeles.

16. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of
Japanese Americans in California, p. 182, and Bloom and Riemer,
Removal and Return, p. 158.

18. Except where otherwise noted the material in
this -section on the development of the Los Angeles Japanese/Japanese
American community to the 1910s is based on William M. Mason and John A.
McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, History
Division of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History,
Contribution No. 1, 1969), pp. 1-36. Also see Chotoku Toyama, 'The
Japanese Community in Los Angeles" (M. A. Thesis, Columbia University,
1926), pp. 6-12, 58-62.

19. Waugh, Yamato, and Okamura, A History of
Japanese Americans in California, pp. 182-83; Bloom and Riemer,
Removal and Return, pp. 158-61; and Kanichi Kawasaki, "The
Japanese Community of San Pedro, Terminal Island, California" (M. A.
Thesis, University of Southern California, 1931).

20. Fumiko Fukuoka, "Mutual Life and Aid Among the
Japanese in Southern California with Special Reference to Los Angeles"
(M. A. Thesis, University of Southern California, 1937), pp. 4-7.

53. See Broom and Kitsue, Managed Casualty,
pp. 1-11, for more information on the social and cultural background of
the Japanese/Japanese American population before evacuation.

54. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Impounded People, pp. 24-27. Further information on
this topic may be found in Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural
Issues at Poston and Manzanar Relocation Centers: A Themal
Analysis."

55. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 2-3.

57. Ibid; pp. 121-2; U.S. Department of the
Interior, War Relocation Authority, Impounded People, pp. 29-30;
and U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story
of Human Conservation, pp. 3-6.

58. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 6.

62. Data on the history of the JACL may be found in
Bill Hosokawa, JACL in Quest of Justice (New York, William Morrow
and Company, Inc., 1982); Mike Masaoka and Bill Hosokawa, They Call
Me Moses Masaoka (New York, William Morrow and Company, 1987); and
Niiya, ed., Japanese American History, pp. 182-85. While these
sources are authored by JACL "insiders," they provide a useful overview
of the establishment and historical development of the organization.

63. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 5, and Hansen and
Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic Perspective," p. 125.

64. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Impounded People, p. 30.

71. Rita Takahashi Cates, "Comparative
Administration and Management of Five War Relocation Authority Camps:
America's Incarceration of Persons of Japanese Descent During World War
II" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1980, pp. 371-72.

72. Thomas and Nishimoto, Spoilage, p.
21.

73. Hansen and Hacker, "Manzanar Riot: Ethnic
Perspective," p. 125.

74. Niiya, Japanese American History, p.
183.

75. Pacific Citizen, June 4, 1942. p. 4, in
Library, Japanese American Citizens League National Headquarters, San
Francisco, California.

76. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 5.

77. For more information on the background and
activities of Elaine Black, see Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red
Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New
York, International Publishers, 1991).

78. Further information on Yoneda's activities, as
well as the role of the American Communist Party in labor organization
in the prewar Japanese/Japanese American community, may be found in Karl
G. Yoneda, Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker (Los
Angeles, Resource Development and Publications, Asian American Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1983), and Niiya, ed.,
Japanese American History, pp. 362-63. Also see the Karl G.
Yoneda Papers in the Japanese American Research Project Collection,
Collection No. 2010, in the Department of Special Collections at the
University Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.

83. Supporting documentation for this topical
analysis may be found in Harold Josif, "Description of Terminal Island
Society Taken from a Paper on Japanese Immigrant Communities," pp. 1-12,
RG 210, Entry 8, State and Local Government and Private Publications,
Box 8, File, "Josif, Harold."

4. The motor pool fleet at Manzanar as of June 1
included five sedans, five panels, 20 Army-type 1/2-ton pickups (4x4
feet), 14 Army-type, 1-1/2-ton pickups (4x4 feet), 12 commercial-type
1-1/2-ton stake side trucks, five standard rented pickups, and three
rented dump trucks. In July the following vehicles were made available
from the Pomona Motor Base  six sedans, four coupes, one panel,
three pickups, and two stake trucks. These vehicles had been purchased
from evacuees by the Army and distributed to various relocation centers.
"Motor Transport and Maintenance Section," Final Report,
Manzanar, Vol. IV, pp. 1122-23, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 73, File,
"Manzanar Final Reports."

18. Togo Tanaka, an evacuee at Manzanar, would
later scoff at suggestions that the Manzanar Free Press enjoyed
any real freedom from censorship. Stating that some censorship was overt
while some was unseen, he noted that the Issei generally distrusted the
paper, while the Nisei viewed it as workers look at a publication
produced for them by their employers. John D. Stevens, "From Behind
Barbed Wire: Freedom of the Press in World War II Japanese Centers,"
Journalism Quarterly, XLVII (1971), p. 284.

50. The three buildings for the Children's Village
were completed in June 1942. On June 23, children were taken by bus to
Manzanar from the Maryknoll Home and the Japanese American Children's
Home, as well as other orphanages and foster homes, in Los Angeles.
Children from the San Francisco Salvation Army Home arrived at Manzanar
a week later. The first contingent consisted of 61 children, but 101
children would eventually be housed at the Children's Village at
different times. For more information on this topic, see Wilbur Sato,
"Manzanar Children's Village," Files, Pacific Great Basin System Support
Office, San Francisco, and Dr. T. G. Ishimaru, "Children's Village,
Manzanar Relocation Project," January 22, 1943, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box
68, File, "Community Management  Welfare  Children's
Village, Manzanar, 1943.

7. Considerable information on the role of Harry
Y. Ueno in the events of December 5-6 may be found in Hansen, Mitson,
and Embrey, "Dissident Harry Ueno Remembers Manzanar," pp.
58-64,77, and Sue Kunitomi Embrey, Arthur A. Hansen, and Betty
Kuhlberg Mitson, Manzanar Martyr: An Interview with Harry Y. Ueno
(Fullerton, California, California State University, Fullerton, The Oral
History Program, 1986).

8. "Board of Officers, December 10, 1942," p. 55,
and "WRA, Appendix I," p. A-66. According to the WRA, "Manzanar
'Incident,'" p. I, Tayama told police that Keiji Arataka had followed
him to the showers and back to his apartment that evening. A short while
after returning to his quarters, Arataka and the others had attacked
him.

36. According to one evacuee, agitators in the
crowd stayed in the background and threw rocks, while the evacuees in
the front were primarily curious bystanders. Manzanar Relocation Center,
Community Analysis Section, November 19, 1943, Report No. 97, "One
Evacuee's Version of Events Leading Up to the Incident of December 6,"
by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16, Box 347, File No. 61.318, No.
5.

46. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, Story of Human Conservation, p. 51.

47. Weglyn, Years of Infamy, pp. 125-32.
For more information on the experiences of the Manzanar evacuee
"troublemakers" who were transferred to Moab, Leupp, and Tule Lake, see
Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps, pp. 95-116.

2. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military
Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers: Report of the ubcommittee
on Japanese War Relocation Centers to the Committee on Military Affairs,
United States Senate, on S.444. . . .and S. Res, 101 and 111. . . . May
7,1943 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943).

6. Erica Harth, "Children of Manzanar,"
Massachusetts Review, XXXIV (Autumn 1993), pp. 367-91. Harth was
a daughter of a female WRA relocation counselor at Manzanar who had been
recruited in Los Angeles. Her family lived at Manzanar (her father
worked in Inyokern and spent weekends at the center) from July 1944
until the center closed. On page 372 she noted, "The administrative
section where we lived was literally white. Its white painted bungalows
stared across at the rows of brown tarpaper barracks that housed the
internees. Our house was small but comfortable, with a separate room for
me, a kitchen and a bathroom. . . .it seemed a normal enough home, a
safe haven against the dust storms and air raid drills. . . ."

14. Ansel Adams, Born Free and Equal:
Photographs of the Loyal Japanese-Americans at Manzanar Relocation
Center, Inyo County, California (New York, U.S. Camera, 1944), pp.
7, 9, 25, 36. Also see "What You See Is What You Get," pp. 14-22,
32.

32. "Education Section," Final Report,
Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 238-42, 374, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File,
"Manzanar Final Reports," and Fox, "Secondary School Program at the
Manzanar War Relocation Center." For data on the effect of relocation
center living conditions on the study habits of students at Manzanar,
see Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis Section, February 23,
1944, Report No. 204, "Changes in Study Habits and Work Habits as a
Result of Evacuation and Center Life," by Morris E. Opler, RG 210. Entry
16, Box 347, File 61.318, No, 11.

5. "Memorandum of Understanding As To Functions of
Military Police Units At the Relocation Centers and Areas Administered
by the War Relocation Authority," July 8, 1942, in U.S. Congress,
Senate, Committee on Military Affairs, Japanese War Relocation
Centers.

6. Headquarters, Western Defense Command and
Fourth Army, Presidio of San Francisco, California, Circular No. 19,
Policies Pertaining to Use of Military Police at War Relocation Centers,
September 17, 1942, in U.S. War Department, Final Report, pp.
527-29.

7. Headquarters, Western Defense Command and
Fourth Army, Office of Commanding General, Presidio of San Francisco,
California, Memorandum, Policies as to Relationship of Western Defense
Command with Ninth Service Command and War Relocation Authority,
November 22, 1942, (and attachments) in U.S. War Department, Final
Report, pp. 526-33.

23. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual
Report, July 1 to December 31, 1945, p. 40; Oda, Heroic Struggles
of Japanese Americans, pp. 163-65; and National Japanese American
Historical Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp.
59-66.

24. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual
Report of the Secretary of the Interior For the Fiscal Year Ended June
30,1944, p. 289,

25. National Japanese American Historical Society,
Supplement to U.S. I>Detention Camps Photo Exhibit, 1990 (Sari
Francisco, 1989), pp. 28-29; National Japanese American Historical
Society, Americans of Japanese Ancestry, pp. 63-65; and Eric
Bittner, "Loyalty . . . Is A Covenant: Japanese-American Internees and
the Selective Service Act," Prologue, XXIII (Fall 1991), pp.
248-52.

26. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual
Report, July 1 to December 31, 1944, pp. 45-46, and War Relocation
Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1945, p.
59.

30. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Impounded People; Japanese Americans in the
Relocation Centers (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946),
pp. 188-91.

31. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military
Affairs, Japanese War Relocation Centers, pp. 1-309.

32. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Military
Affairs, Segregation of Loyal and Disloyal Japanese in Relocation
Centers: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting
Report on Senate Resolution No. 166 . . . . 78th Cong., 1st Sess.,
S. Doc. 96, September 14, 1943, pp. 1-25.

33. U.S. Congress, House, Special Committee on
Un-American Activities, Report and Minority Views of the Special
Committee on Un-American Activities On Japanese War Relocation
Centers, 78th Cong., 1st Sess., 1943, H. Rept. 717, pp. 1-16.

34. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human conservation, p. [45], and Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp.
68-70.

35. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 59-60, and
Personal Justice Denied, pp. 206-07.

40. War Relocation Authority, Segregation of
Persons of Japanese Ancestry in Relocation Centers (Denver,
Hirschfield Press, August 1943), pp. 6-7.

41. Personal Justice Denied, p. 208.For
information on the renunciants, see Donald E. Collins, Native
American Aliens: Disloyalty and the Renunciation of Citizenship by
Japanese Americans During World War II (Westport, Connecticut,
Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 1985)

42. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual
Report, January 1 to June 30, 1944, pp. 66-67, and U.S. Department
of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the interior,
1944, pp. 285-86.

43. Personal Justice Denied, p. 208.

44. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual
Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 1-4, 56, 87, and U.S.
Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary of the
Interior, 1944, p. 286.

60. Merritt to Myer, February 17, 1948, box 23,
File, "Relocation  Registration (1942-April 1943), Coll. 122,
Department of Special Collections, UCLA. There is evidence that Merritt
had reason to single out the Kibei as the source of continuing
anti-American sentiment at Manzanar. In November 1943, for instance, a
mostly Kibei roofing crew admitted that it had used roofing tar to write
Japanese salutations to the Emperor and Japanese military deities and
other pro-Japanese patriotic slogans on the roofs of several buildings
in Blocks 27, 28, and 29.

101. Hacker, "A Culture Revisited, A Culture
Revived," pp. 152-69. For further data on this topic, see the
dissertation by Yatsushiro, "Political and Socio-Cultural Issues at
Poston and Manzanar."

102. "Relocation Division," Final Report,
Manzanar, Vol. II, pp. 92-93, RG 210, Entry 4b, Box 71, File,
"Manzanar Final Reports." Camp Savage, Minnesota, was a sub-post of Fort
Snelling. The Japanese language school had originated at the Presidio of
San Francisco, California, as the IV Army Military Intelligence Service
Language School (MISLS) housed in (present) Building No. 640, an old
hangar at Crissy Airfield that had previously been converted into a
R.O.T.C. classroom. The school opened on November 1, 1941, five weeks
before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Removal of Japanese and Japanese
Americans from the exclusion zones forced the Army to relocate the
school to Fort Snelling, then Camp Savage. This school was the origin of
the Defense Language Institute, which was subsequently moved to
Monterey, California. Steve Haller, The Last Word in Airfields: A
Special History Study of Crissy Field, Presidio of San Francisco,
California (San Francisco, National Park Service, 1994), pp.
91-94.

1. Executive Order No. 9102, March 18, 1942. For
further historical data on the evolution of the WRA's relocation
program, see U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority,
The Relocation Program (Washington, Government Printing Office,
1946).

15. Ibid., and U.S. Department of the
Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation,
p. 30.

16. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 30-31.

17. War Relocation Authority, Second Quarterly
Report, pp. 17-18.

18. War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual
Report, July 1 to December 31, 1943, pp. 47-48. For further
information on the student relocation program, see the John William
Nason Papers and the Thomas Ray Bodine Papers in the archives of the
Hoover Institution On War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University,
Stanford, California. Nason, president of Swarthmore College,
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, served as chairman of the National Japanese
American Student Relocation Council and Bodine served as the
organization's field director from 1942-45. Material in the Nason
Papers, Box 21, and the Bodine Papers, Box 5, Folder 15, relate to
Manzanar.

19. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, PP. 31-32.

33. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp.
141-42.

34. Ibid., pp. 142-43.

35. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual
Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30,
1945, p. 278.

36. Ibid., p. 277, and U.S. Department of
the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human
Conservation, pp. 143-45.

37. "Community Analysis weekly Summaries, Nos.
1-30," December 1944  July 1945, Community Analysis Reports and
Community Analysis Trend Reports of the war Relocation Authority,
1942-1946, RG 210, National Archives Microfilm Publications, Microfilm
Publication M1342, Roil 2. The surprise of WRA officials is an
indication of how little they understood the mind sets of the
evacuees.

38. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 145-51;
War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, July 1 to December 31,
1945, pp. 39-40; and "Trends in the Relocation Centers: III,"
September 26, 1942, pp. 1-7, in "Reports of Trends in the Relocation
Centers, Nos 1-3," November 1944  September 1945, Community
Analysis Reports and Community Analysis Trend Reports of the war
Relocation Authority, 1942-46, RG 210, National Archives Microfilm
Publications, Microfilm Publications M1342, Roll 2.

39. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual
Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30,
1946, p. 386, and War Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report,
January 1 to June 30, 1946, p. 29.

40. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual
Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30,
1945, p. 281.

41. U.S. Department of the Interior, War
Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, pp. 151-55.

61. Manzanar Relocation Center, Community Analysis
Section, October 16, 1943, Report No. 68, "The Present Situation In
Respect To Relocation At Manzanar, by Morris E. Opler, RG 210, Entry 16,
Box 347, File 61.318, No. 4. These themes were further amplied by Opler
on June 28, 1944, in Report No. 240, "Resistances To Resettlement," Box
348, File 61.318, No. 15.The despair, fears, and uncertainties
experienced by some evacuees, particularly the older Issei, were not
only reflected in their apparent lack of interest in relocation but also
in other forms of negative behavior. During the winter of 1943-44, for
instance, there were reports that gambling and bootleg operations were
increasingly becoming a menace to the tranquillity of family life as
well as the peace and welfare of the entire center evacuee
population.

1. U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation
Authority, Administrative Highlights of the WRA
Program(Washington, Government Printing Office), 1946, pp.
72-82.

2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Annual
Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Fiscal Year Ended June 30,
1946, p. 389; Myer, Uprooted Americans, pp. 224-30; and War
Relocation Authority, Semi-Annual Report, January 1 to June 30,
1946, p. 29. Ralph Merritt also donated his Manzanar headquarters
office files to UCLA.

19. In June 1945, Merritt obtained permission from
WRA Director Myer to dismantle several buildings, including two
recreation buildings, Block 35, Building 15, and Block 36, Building 15,
to provide wood for crates in which to pack personal belongings of
relocating evacuees. "Project Report, Month of June 1945," Box 73, File,
"Reports  Project (Reports Office), June 1945, Coll. 122,
Department of Special Collections, UCLA.

22. Burton S. Grant, Assistant Chief Engineer of
Water Works to Messrs. Samuel B. Morris and Laurence E. Goit, November
23, 1945; Frances H. Lindley, Assistant City Attorney to Northcutt Ely,
March 8 and 28, 1946, and attachments; and "In the District Court of the
United States in and for the Southern Division of California, Northern
Division, United States of America vs. 4700 Acres of Land, more or
less, in the County of Inyo, State of California; City of Los Angeles, a
municipal corporation; Department of Water and Power of the City of Los
Angeles, et al., No. 147-ND, Civil, Notice Not to Remove Fixtures,
Additions and Structures, March 27, 1946; Correspondence  Removal
of Buildings, November 1945  April 1946, Manzanar Relocation
Center; and "Manzanar Relocation Center, Disposal of Facilities," June
6, 1946, Correspondence, January 1944  December 1946, Manzanar
Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive Files, Water Executive
Office, LADWP Historical Records.

39. John Coolick, Special Assistant to Vice
Administrator for Field Operations, January 16, 1947, RG 270,
California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, Manzanar
Relocation Center  Manzanar Ca. Disposal Data;" A. Dewitt Varech,
Assistant Attorney General to Robert M. Littlejohn, Administrator, War
Assets Administration (and attachment), May 22, 1947, RG 270,
California, Real Property Disposal Case Files, Box 89, File, "Manzanar
Relocation Center  Manzanar, Ca., Plancor 183  Property
Management;" and "In the District Court of the United States in and for
the Southern District of California, Northern Division, United States
of America vs. 5,700 Acres of Land, more or less, in the County of Inyo,
State of California, City of Los Angeles, a municipal corporation,
Department of Water and Power of the City of Los Angeles, et al., No
147-ND, Civil, Stipulation for Amendment of Second Amended Final
Judgment and Decree in Condemnation and Judgment for Deficiency and
Order Thereon, April 2, 1947," Correspondence, March 1947 
November 1966, Manzanar Relocation Center, Administrative and Executive
files, Water Executive Office, LADWP Historical Records.

43. Wehrey, "Report on Manzanar Pre-Camp Period,"
n,p., and ibid., "Layers of Meaning in a Place and its Past," p.
25.

44. Board of Water and Power Commissioners of the
City of Los Angeles, "Notice of Sale Inviting Bids for Surplus Building
at Manzanar, Inyo County," (and attachments), February 19, 1952, File,
"Jap [anese] Resettlement Area," Reference Files, City of Los Angeles,
Department of water and Power, Bishop.

47, Samuel B. Nelson, Chief Engineer of Water
Works and Assistant Manager to Honorable Board of water and Power
Commissioners, February 26, 1957, File, "Manzanar Airport, 1956-1974,"
Reference Files, City of Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power,
Bishop.

48. Documentation for these activities may be
found in File, "Manzanar Airport, 1956-1974," Reference Files, City of
Los Angeles, Department of Water and Power, Bishop.

50. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior
and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Subcommittee, May 21,
1991, p. 37.

51. Interview of Sue Kunitomi Embrey by Arthur A.
Hansen, David A. Hacker, and David J. Bertagnoli August 24 and November
15, 1973, in Japanese American World War II Evacuation Oral History
Project, Part I: Internees, ed. by Arthur A. Hansen (Westport,
Connecticut and London, Meckler Publishing, 1991), pp. 149ff.

75. Frank and Joanne Iritani, Ten Visits: Brief
Accounts of Our Visits to All Ten Japanese Relocation Centers of World
War II (Sacramento, The Electric Page, 1993), p. 8.

76. Federal Register, Vol. 60, No. 66,
April 6, 1995, p. 17572.

77. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park
Service Manzanar National Historic Site, California: General
Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement, 1996.
Legislation was introduced in 1995 in the House of Representatives to
authorize an exchange of real estate necessary for land acquisition for
Manzanar National Historic Site. Sponsored jointly by Representatives
Robert T, Matsui and Jerry Lewis, H.R. 3006 passed the House on July 31,
1996. The bill provides for approximately 300 additional acres to the
national historic site, thus bringing the total acreage of the site to
813,81. A similar bill will be introduced in the Senate in September
1996.

2.For more information on constitutional questions
and Supreme Court decisions relating to the evacuation and relocation
program, see U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority,
Legal and Constitutional Phases of the WRA Program (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1946); Irons, Justice At War, pp.
75-103; Eugene V. Rostow, "The Japanese American cases  A
Disaster," Yale Law Journal, LIV (June 1945), pp. 489-533; and
Howard Ball, "Judicial Parsimony and Military Necessity Disinterred: A
Reexamination of the Japanese Exclusion Cases, 1943-44," in Japanese
Americans: From Relocation to Redress, ed. by Daniels, Taylor, and
Kitano, pp. 176-85.

3. For more information on these topics, see
Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, pp. 361-74.

4. Ibid., p. 374.

5. Rostow, "Japanese-American Cases," pp.
489-91.

6. Quoted in Roger Daniels, "Redress Achieved,
1983-1990," in Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress,
ed. by Daniels, Taylor, and Kitano, p. 222.