Biotechnology offers a variety of potential benefits and risks. It has enhanced food production by makingplants less vulnerable to drought, frost, insects, and viruses and by enabling plants to compete more effectively againstweeds for soil nutrients. In a few cases, it has also improved the quality and nutrition of foods by altering theircomposition. However, the use of biotechnology has also raised concerns about its potential risks to the environmentand people. For example, some people fear that common plant pests could develop resistance to the introduced pesticidesin GM crops that were supposed to combat them. Genetic engineering provides a means to introduce genes into plants viamechanisms that are different in some respects from classical breeding. A number of commercialized, geneticallyengineered (GE) varieties, most notably canola, cotton, maize and soybean, were created using this technology, andat present the traits introduced are herbicide and/or pest tolerance. Gene technology enables the increase of productionin plants, as well as the rise of resistance to pests, viruses, frost, etc. Gene transfer is used to modify the physicaland chemical composition and nutritional value of food. Gene transfer in animals will play a part in boundless possibilitiesof improving qualitative and quantitative traits. The yield, carcass composition and meat characteristics the useof nutritive substances ? not sure what is being said here?, and resistance to diseases can be improved. On the otherhand, negative effects of gene technology on animals, human, and environment should be considered. The present reviewarticle is the compilation of various studies that present both positive and negative impacts of genetically modified food onhuman health.Keywords: Bacillus thuringiensis, genetically modified food, Gene Technology, Human Health, Pharmaceutical Drugs,transgenic plants.INTRODUCTION

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are defined asorganisms (except for human beings) in which the geneticmaterial has been altered in a way that does not occurnaturally by mating and/or natural recombination. GMOshave widespread applications as they are used in biologicaland medical research, production of pharmaceutical drugs,experimental medicine, and agriculture. The use of genetechnology in food production has become interesting due toincreased needs of food as well as its improved quality. Withthe application of gene technology to plants and animals,goals can be achieved more quickly than by traditionalselection. Consequently, ethical dilemmas are openedconcerning the eventual negative effects of production ofgenetically modified food. It seems that supplementation ofnutraceuticals and wild foods as well as wild lifestyle may beprotective, whereas western diet and lifestyle may enhancethe expression of genes related to chronic diseases. Our

*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Biotechnology,College of Engineering & Technology IFTM Campus, Delhi Road, Moradabad244001, U.P., India; Tel: +91-591-2360817; Fax: +91-591-2360818;E-mail: sanjaymishra66@gmail.comgenes or pathways are most likely regulated by microRNA[1-4]. The prevalence and mortality due to multifactorialpolygenic diseases; hypertension, coronary artery disease(CAD), diabetes and cancer vary depending upon geneticsusceptibility and environmental precursors because theyhave identifiable Mendelian subsets. Rapid changes in dietand lifestyle may influence heritability of the variantphenotypes that are dependent on the nutraceutical orfunctional food supplementation for their expression. It ispossible to recognize the interaction of specific nutra-ceuticals, with the genetic code possessed by all nucleatedcells. There is evidence that South Asians have an increasedsusceptibility to CAD, diabetes mellitus, central obesity andinsulin resistance at younger age, which may be due tointeraction of gene and nutraceutical environment [5]. Thenegative consequences can affect the health, environment,etiology, society and ethics [6].TECHNOLOGY TO PRODUCE GENETICALLYMODIFIED ORGANISMSSeveral methods of production of genetically modifiedorganisms (GMO) are known. The foreign gene that hasbeen inserted into the cell of a microorganism, a plant or an4 The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 Verma et al.animal is called a transgene. It is integrated into the genomeof the recipients which are called transgenic. The transgenesare genes with known traits or mutated variants of knowngenes. In most cases also marker genes are used because ofidentification of transgenic organism. The integration oftransgene into the cell is carried out by different methods: (a)Transduction with the use of bacteriophages (b) Transgeneinjection using pronuclear microinjection [7]; (c) Transferusing modified viruses and plasmids (d) Electroporationmethod by which higher permeability of cell membrane isachieved.For transfer of foreign gene also artificial chromosomesor fragments of chromosomes can be used. Transgenes canbe transferred into the egg-cell by spermatozoa containingfragments of chromosomes [6]. Developed world, havingmaterial and intellectual capacities, leads the studies ontransgenic technology for production increase and improvedfood quality. In fact, there is not only enough but even toomuch food in the developed world. However, developingcountries that need this technology to exceed the foodshortage cannot afford it [8]. Hence, gene technology is not aremedy to prevent the world from starvation. Transgenicseeds that developed countries can provide to developingcountries to diminish the rate of malnutrition seems to be thebest idea of genetic engineering. Transgenic plants that areresistant to pests will cause higher resistance in pests;consequently stronger herbicides and insecticides should beused in the future. Finally, it has been proposed thattransgenic food can cause certain allergies.GM FOODS ARE PROMOTED WHY?The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modifiedorganisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plantscreated for human or animal consumption using the latestmolecular biology techniques. These plants have beenmodified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such asincreased resistance to herbicides or improved nutritionalcontent. Genetic engineering can create plants with the exactdesired trait very rapidly and with great accuracy. Forexample, plant geneticists can isolate a gene responsible fordrought tolerance and insert that gene into a different plant.The new genetically-modified plant will gain droughttolerance as well. Not only can genes be transferred from oneplant to another, but genes from non-plant organismsalso can be used. The best known example of this is theuse of B.t. genes in corn and other crops. B.t., or Bacillusthuringiensis, is a naturally occurring bacterium thatproduces crystal proteins that are lethal to insect larvae. B.t.Crystal protein genes have been transferred into corn,enabling the corn to produce its own pesticides againstinsects.ADVANTAGES OF GM FOODS• Pest resistance: Farmers typically use many tons ofchemical pesticides annually. Consumers do not wish toeat food that has been treated with pesticides because ofpotential health hazards, and run-off of agricultural wastesfrom excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers can poisonthe water supply and cause harm to the environment.Growing GM foods such as B.t. corn can help to eliminatethe application of chemical pesticides and reduce the cost ofbringing a crop to market [9, 10].• Herbicide tolerance: Crop plants genetically-engineeredto be resistant to one very powerful herbicide could help toprevent environmental damage by reducing the amountof herbicides needed. For example, Monsanto has createda strain of soybeans genetically modified to be not affectedby their herbicide product Roundup. A 2010 study hasfound that long-term exposition to environmental relevantconcentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolicdisruption in Leporinus obtusidens[11]. A farmer growsthese soybeans which then only require one applicationof weed-killer instead of multiple applications, reducingproduction cost and limiting the dangers of agriculturalwaste run-off [12].• Disease resistance: There are many viruses, fungi andbacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are work-ing to create plants with genetically-engineered resistance tothese diseases [13,14].• Cold tolerance: An antifreeze gene from cold water fishhas been introduced into plants such as tobacco and potato.With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to toleratecold temperatures that normally would kill unmodifiedseedlings [15].• Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance: As the worldpopulation grows and more land is utilized for housinginstead of food production, farmers will need to grow cropsin locations previously unsuited for plant cultivation.Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought orhigh salt content in soil and groundwater will help people togrow crops in formerly inhospitable places [16,17].• Nutrition: Malnutrition is common in third worldcountries where impoverished peoples rely on a single cropsuch as rice for the main staple of their diet. However, ricedoes not contain adequate amounts of all necessary nutrientsto prevent malnutrition. If rice could be genetically engineeredto contain additional vitamins and minerals, nutrientdeficiencies could be alleviated. For example, blindness dueto vitamin A deficiency is a common problem in third worldcountries. Researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology Institute for Plant Sciences have created a strainof "golden" rice containing an unusually high content ofbeta-carotene (vitamin A) [18]. Plans were underway todevelop golden rice that also has increased iron content.• Pharmaceuticals Medicines and vaccines often arecostly to produce and sometimes require special storageconditions. Researchers are working to develop ediblevaccines in tomatoes and potatoes [19, 20]. These vaccineswill be much easier to ship, store and administer thantraditional injectable vaccines.• Phytoremediation: Plants such as poplar trees have beengenetically engineered to clean up heavy metal pollutionfrom contaminated soil [21].SOME CRITICISMS AGAINST GM FOODSGM foods fall into three categories: environmentalhazards, human health risks, and economic concerns.Environmental Hazards• Unintended harm to other organisms: pollen from B.t.corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterflyGenetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 5

caterpillars. Monarch caterpillars consume milkweedplants, not corn, but the fear is that if pollen from B.t.corn is blown by the wind onto milkweed plants inneighboring fields, the caterpillars could eat the pollenand perish. B.t. toxins kill many species of insect larvae.• Reduced effectiveness of pesticides just as somepopulations of mosquitoes developed resistance to thenow-banned pesticide DDT; many people are concernedthat insects will become resistant to B.t. or other cropsthat have been genetically modified to produce their ownpesticides.• Gene transfer to non-target species is another concernthat crop plants engineered for herbicide tolerance andweeds will cross-breed, resulting in the transfer of theherbicide resistance genes from the crops into the weeds.These "superweeds" would then be herbicide tolerant aswell.Human Health Risks• Allergenicity Many children in the US and Europe havedeveloped life-threatening allergies to peanuts and otherfoods. There is a possibility that introducing a gene into aplant may create a new allergen or cause an allergicreaction in susceptible individuals. A proposal toincorporate a gene from Brazil nuts into soybeans wasabandoned because of the fear of causing unexpectedallergic reactions [22].• Unknown effects on human health: A recent articlepublished in Lancet examined the effects of GM potatoeson the digestive tract in rats [23, 24]. Moreover, the geneintroduced into the potatoes was a snowdrop flowerlectin, a substance known to be toxic to mammals.Economic ConcernsBringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costlyprocess. Yet consumer advocates are worried that patentingthese new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so highthat small farmers and third world countries will not be ableto afford seeds for GM crops, Patent enforcement may alsobe difficult, as the contention of the farmers that theyinvoluntarily grew Monsanto-engineered strains. One way tocombat possible patent infringement is to introduce a"suicide gene" into GM plants. These plants would be viablefor only one growing season and would produce sterile seedsthat do not germinate. Farmers would need to buy a freshsupply of seeds each year. However, this would befinancially disastrous for farmers [25].APPLICATION OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS INHUMAN NUTRITIONGenetically modified foods are classified into threecategories according to their usage and legal regulations[26].1. Food is genetically modified (potato, tomato, soya,maize, sunflowers, rice, pumpkins, melons, rape, etc.)2. Food contains components of genetically modified plants(starch, oil, sugar, aminoacids, vitamins, etc.)3. Food contains genetically modified organisms (yoghurtcontains transgenic microorganisms).Gene technology enables higher yields in plants,resistance to pests and frost, as well as mechanical propertiesof fruits, etc. We can also modify physical and chemicalcomposition in order to improve nutritional and physiologi-cal value of foods. Transgenic plants also enable productionof more healthy food (more unsaturated fatty acids, transferof proteins from legumes into wheat, increased content ofessential amino acids, transfer of proteins from sunflowersinto maize, etc.). Thus, dangers of heart diseases, allergiesare diminished and malignancy prevented [27].GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPSBT COTTONCotton is an important fibre crop of India beingcultivated over an area of about 9.5 million hectares (mha)representing approximately one quarter of the global area of35 million hectares under this crop. After China, India is thelargest producer and consumer of cotton. Much of thissuccess owes itself to the introduction of Bt cotton in 2002prior to which cotton production suffered huge losses dueto its susceptibility to insect pests. Among the insects,cotton bollworms are the most serious pests of cotton inIndia causing annual losses of at least US$300 million.Insecticides valued at US$660 million are used annually onall crops in India, of which about half are used on cottonalone [28, 29]. Bt or Bacillus thuringiensis is a ubiquitoussoil bacterium first discovered in 1901 by Ishiwata, aJapanese microbiologist [30]. Later it was found that someBt strains (Cry+) were highly toxic to larvae of certain insectspecies which are also plant pests. Bt was first sold as aspray formulation in 1938 in France for the management ofEuropean corn borer. Subsequent research has revealed thatBt carries proteinaceous crystals that cause mortality in thoseinsects which carry receptor proteins in gut membranes thatbind to Bt proteins. Other organisms that do not containreceptors to Bt proteins are not affected by the toxin.The advent of genetic transformation technology made itpossible to incorporate cry genes and thus the ability toproduce Bt proteins in plant cells so that target insect larvaeinfesting the crop plants are effectively killed. The first Btcrops viz., Bt cotton, Bt corn and Bt potato werecommercialized in USA in 1996. Bt crops are currentlycultivated in 23 countries over an area of 46 mha [31]. Theadvent of genetic transformation technology made it possibleto incorporate cry genes and thus the ability to produce Btproteins in plant cells so that target insect larvae infesting thecrop plants are effectively killed. The first Bt crops viz., Btcotton, Bt corn and Bt potato were commercialized in USAin 1996. Bt crops are currently cultivated in 23 countriesover an area of 46 mha [31]. It is also recognized that GMtechnology may entail rare unintended risks and hazards toenvironment, and human and animal health. These risksinclude toxicity and allergenicity, emergence of new viruses,development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms,adverse effects on non-target organisms, erosion of cropdiversity, and development of new weeds [32]. Bt cotton isin many ways an ideal candidate for introduction as atransgenic commercial crop. It is basically grown as a fibrecrop, while cotton seed oil used for consumption is free ofproteins, including Bt protein. The safety of Bt toxins interms of toxicity and allergenicity towards mammals and6 The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 Verma et al.other non-target organisms is well documented [33, 34].Lack of receptors that bind to Bt toxins and their instantdegradation in human digestive system makes theminnocuous to human beings. Community exposure to Btspray formulations over a period of last six decades has notresulted in any adverse effects. Lack of homology to anyallergenic protein/ epitope sequences makes Bt toxins non-allergenic. The safety of Bt crop-derived foods has also beenwell established [35, 36]. In recent years, the effects of Btcrop cultivation on non-target organisms including insectpredators, parasitoids and pathogens have been investigatedquite extensively [25, 37-42].GOLDEN RICEThe bright orange color of carrots comes from beta-carotene, which forms vitamin A in our bodies. Yet 250million people suffer from vitamin A deficiency. Each year ahalf million children become blind from lack of vitamin Aand over half of these die within months. Ideally, everyonewould have a varied diet with lots of produce that suppliedample vitamin A and other nutrients. Better nutrition couldprevent up to two million deaths in children under the age offour each year. But that requires more prosperity for much ofthe world – something that’s a long way off. Nearly half theworld’s population survives on a daily bowl of white rice,which contains no vitamin A. Making rice more nutritious,could improve people’s lives tremendously [43].A team of researchers decided to try creating rice thatcontains beta-carotene (the compound we convert to vitaminA). They were inspired by the bright yellow daffodil. Howdid it produce beta-carotene? They found that severaldaffodil enzymes manufacture beta-carotene from othermolecules. Rice has those other molecules, but it doesn’tproduce the enzymes to rearrange them into beta-carotene inits kernel. Could they give rice the genes for those enzymesand get them to work together? Previous researchers hadinserted several genes that worked individually to makeseparate products. No one had successfully inserted a groupof genes that had to work in sync to make one product. Theytried putting the genes in a gene gun and shooting them intorice cells. That didn’t work, so they put two genes in oneAgrobacterium and another gene in another Agrobacterium.Both bacteria “infected” the rice cells, inserted the newgenes, and soon the lab grew rice plants carrying all threegenes. It was easy to see that the genes worked becauseof the kernels’ golden glow. A bowl of this “golden rice”provides enough vitamin A to keep a person healthy.Meanwhile, researchers are working on a related nutritionalproblem. White rice also contains very little useable iron,and without iron, children don’t grow or learn well. Irondeficiency causes 40 million mothers to have premature andlow weight babies. Many of these mothers and babies die ofanemia. The solution also involves several genes fromseveral sources: a fungus, another kind of rice, and a greenbean. These genes produce proteins in the rice kernel thathelp the human body absorb and store iron. Again, they areusing Agrobacterium to get the genes into rice. Someday,researchers may crossbreed the rice plant that makes beta-carotene with one that makes iron to produce a hybrid thatmakes both essential nutrients. The research team worked tenyears on golden rice. They are working out legal issues sothey can donate this rice to farmers in developing countries[43, 44].POTATOESMany poor countries can’t afford vaccines or can’t getthem to remote villages. Clinics often can’t refrigerate thevaccines or sterilize needles. These problems make safe-guarding millions of children extremely difficult. In addition,most vaccines are made from the infectious organism thatcauses the disease. Every once in a while such vaccine cancause harmful side effects, even the disease they aresupposed to prevent. In 1991 the World Health Organizationchallenged scientists to create a simpler, safer, cheaper wayto vaccinate children. Some scientists began to brainstormabout plants. Since plants naturally make a number ofdifferent compounds, they could be reprogrammed to makeedible vaccines [43].Researchers tried making a cholera vaccine using plants.Cholera is a bacterial disease that causes deadly diarrhea. Itspreads rapidly where people don’t have clean water and itkills two to three million children each year. Researcherspinpointed part of the cholera bacterium that the humanimmune system can recognize, so it could be used as avaccine. Scientists found the genes that make that bacterialpart. After some trial and error, they put those genes intopotatoes to turn potatoes into a handy vaccine. Potatoes growin many areas of great health need, and they can withstandlong shipping and storage. But there is a snag. People don’teat raw potatoes. So scientists cooked them and found thatsome of the vaccine still survives. When people ate thesecooked potatoes, their bodies made some of the antibodiesthat can protect them from cholera [44]. Imagine gettingyour vaccines and boosters from potatoes or some other foodinstead of painful shots! But that’s still a ways off. With thecholera vaccine, researchers need to adjust the dose in eachbite and find ways to package them. Of course, people willget their vaccine bits from nurses and clinics, not from thesupermarket. Ideally, edible vaccines wouldn’t spoil, whichwould cut the cost and difficulty of delivering them in thedeveloping world. They’d be more pleasant, too.In industrialized countries, most people don’t suffer fromtoo little food. They suffer from too much. Obesity is amajor health problem even for children. We all know that weshould avoid greasy French fries and sugary sodas, but it’shard! If we can’t take the junk food away from people,maybe we can take the “junk” out of food – but keep thetaste in. Again, scientists are looking at the potato. When it’sfried, oil replaces the water in the potato. But the starchierthe potato, the less oil it soaks up. Restaurants pay apremium price for high starch potatoes because they makecrisper, less greasy fries. Scientists are trying to developpotatoes with even more starch so they will soak up evenless oil. Another way to make a healthier fry is to makehealthier oil. Scientists have already modified plants likesoybean and canola to produce a less saturated, healthier fat.Future plants may make even healthier oils that actually stripaway fatty deposits from your arteries. What about that sodawith your fries? Scientists are working on that, too. They aremodifying the sugar beet to produce an enzyme that changessugar (sucrose) to fructan. Fructan tastes like sugar, but wedon’t digest fructan so it adds no calories. They have alsoGenetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 7

cloned the gene for a protein in an African plant that tastes athousand times sweeter than sugar! We could get the samesweetness with a thousand times less sweetener [43, 44].BT BRINJALThe Genetic Engineering Approval Committee’sapproval of Bt brinjal, the first genetically modified crop forhuman consumption in India, has sparked off protests acrossthe country. On October 15, 2009, the Genetic EngineeringApproval Committee (GEAC) of the ministry of environ-ment, the regulatory body for approving genetically modifiedcrops (GM crops) in India, approved Bt brinjal, the first GMcrop for human consumption in India, for commercial use[45, 46]. The approval came following the review of reportssubmitted by the Maharashstra Hybrid Seeds CompanyLimited (Mahyco), the Indian subsidiary of the US-basedcompany Monsanto, that uses biotechnology to produce highyielding, pest resistant crops. Bt Brinjal is a geneticallymodified plant in which a gene from the soil bacteriumbacillus thuringensis is inserted into the genome of the brinjal,which can then produce a protein, Cry1Ac. This proteinbehaves as a toxin against the shoot and fruit borer (SFB), apest that commonly affects brinjal. The gene modificationalso includes the addition of two antibiotic resistance markergenes.GENETICALLYY MODIFIED ANIMALS ANDHUMAN NUTRITIONImportant advancement in production and processing oftransgenic plants has encouraged studies in animals [47].Like in plants, microinjection and similar techniques areused to inject foreign gene (DNA) into the nucleus offertilized egg-cell in animals. When egg is developed toblastula it is transferred to the uterus of an animal wheretransgenic organism develops. Genetic linkage maps forcattle, pigs and sheep elucidating chromosomal regions foreconomically important traits will considerably contribute tobetter quality and amounts of meat [48]. Gene technology isprosperous in farm animal production and in improvement ofquality and quantity traits [26, 49, 50]. Gene technologystimulates the yields, higher nutrient consumption, andanimal welfare. These traits can be improved directly bygene transfer or using growth hormones, vaccines, anti-bodies, immunity stimulants and anti-allergy DNA producedby genetic engineering. Gene transfer is expected to improvethose production traits in animals that are poorly inherited(low heritability rate, h2), for example number of weanedpiglets per sow [51] reported that transgenic plants thatproduced vaccines, which animals consumed with forage,were produced. The gene for resistance enables breeding ofanimals resistant to diseases. Vaccine for immune castrationof animals, which is painless in male animals and diminishesaggressiveness while female animals are free of negativeeffects of oestrus, positively affects the economically impor-tant trait carcass composition [52]. The possibilities of bio-technological interventions are numerous but the applicationdepends on economic, social and cultural conditions.Transgenic technique can improve the carcass traits and meatquality. The percentage of meat in carcass increases; tasteand water binding improve, diminish the percentage of fatand improve the fatty acid composition of meat (more non-saturated fatty acids [53]. Milk has been modified withtransgenes and in most cases without any harm to transgenicanimals. Proteins that are used in pharmaceutical industrywere obtained from milk of transgenic animals, like humanantitrypsin in sheep, plasminogene activator in goat andhuman protein C in pig.Transgenic milk can be used as: (a) Food for wide use;(b)raw materials for milk products; (c) food for infants;(d)source of biologically active substances for pharmaceuticalindustry [50, 51].Even non-protein compounds of human milk, likeoligosaccharides, are highly appreciated in milk oftransgenic animals. Mammary gland produces milk proteinsand lactose under the influence of hormones during latepregnancy and lactation period. Caseins and lactoglobulinesare synthesized only during lactation period. Genes frommentioned compounds are used for transgenic milk produc-tion that is used for cheese production and for substitute tohuman milk for infant nutrition [50] reported on wide use ofbovine growth hormone (somatotropin) in cattle to increaseproduction of milk and meat [53]. The bovine growthhormone gene had implied as the prediction of thepossibilities of production of ideal pork with ultra low fatcontent and favorable fatty acids composition with trans-genic pigs took place.HEALTH RISK OF GENETICALLY MODIFIEDORGANISMS"Several animal studies indicate serious health risksassociated with GM food," including infertility, immuneproblems, accelerated aging, insulin regulation, and changesin major organs and the gastrointestinal system.GMOS ARE INHERENTLY UNSAFEThere are several reasons why GM plants present uniquedangers. The first is that the process of genetic engineeringitself creates unpredicted alterations, irrespective of whichgene is transferred. This creates mutations in and around theinsertion site and elsewhere [54]. The biotech industryconfidently asserted that gene transfer from GM foods wasnot possible; the only human feeding study on GM foodslater proved that it does take place. The genetic material insoybeans that make them herbicide tolerant transferred intothe DNA of human gut bacteria and continued to function[55]. That means that long after we stop eating a GM crop,its foreign GM proteins may be produced inside ourintestines.GM DIET SHOWS TOXIC REACTIONS IN THEDIGESTIVE TRACTThe very first crop submitted to the FDA’s (Food & DrugAdministration) voluntary consultation process, theFlavrSavr tomato, showed evidence of toxins. Out of 20female rats fed the GM tomato, 7 developed stomach lesions[56]. The type of stomach lesions linked to tomatoes couldlead to life-endangering hemorrhage, particularly in theelderly who use aspirin to prevent blood clots [57]. Dr.Pusztai believes that the digestive tract, which is the first andlargest point of contact with foods, can reveal variousreactions to toxins and should be the first target of GM foodrisk assessment. Mice fed potatoes engineered to produce theBt-toxin developed abnormal and damaged cells, as well as8 The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 Verma et al.proliferative cell growth in the lower part of their smallintestine (ileum) [58]. Rats fed potatoes engineered toproduce a different type of insecticide (GNA lectin from thesnowdrop plant) also showed proliferative cell growth inboth stomach and intestinal walls.GM DIETS CAUSE LIVER DAMAGERats fed the GNA lectin potatoes had smaller andpartially atrophied livers [59] Rats fed Monsanto’s Mon 863corn, engineered to produce Bt-toxin, had liver lesions andother indications of toxicity [60]. Rabbits fed GM soyshowed altered enzyme production in their livers as well ashigher metabolic activity [61]. Rats fed Roundup Readysoybeans also showed structural changes in their liver [44].GM FEED ANIMALS HAD HIGHER DEATH RATESAND ORGAN DAMAGEThe cells in the pancreas of mice fed Roundup Ready soyhad profound changes and produced significantly lessdigestive enzymes [62]; in rats fed a GM potato, thepancreas was enlarged [60]. In various analysis of kidneys,GM fed animals showed lesions, toxicity, altered enzymesproduction or inflammation [61-63]. Enzyme production inthe hearts of mice was altered by GM soy, [61] and GMpotatoes caused slower growth in the brain of rats [60].REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE AND INFANTMOTALITYThe testicles of both mice and rats fed roundup readysoybeans showed dramatic changes. In rats, the organs weredark blue instead of pink. In mice, young sperm cells werealtered [64]. Embryos of GM soy-fed mice also showedtemporary changes in their DNA function, compared to thosewhose parents were fed non-GM soy [65].GM CROPS TRIGGER IMMUNE REACTIONS ANDMAY CAUSE ALLERGIESAllergic reactions occur when the immune systeminterprets something as foreign, different and offensive andreacts accordingly. All GM foods, by definition havesomething foreign and different. And several studies showthat they provoke reactions. GM potatoes caused the immunesystem of rats to responded more slowly [60]. And GM peasprovoked an inflammatory response in mice, suggesting thatit might cause deadly allergic reactions in people [66]. Inaddition to the herbicide tolerant protein, GM soybeanscontain a unique, unexpected protein, which likely cameabout from the changes incurred during the geneticengineering process. Scientists found that this new proteinwas able to bind with IgE antibodies, suggesting that it mayprovoke dangerous allergic reactions. Organic farmers andothers have sprayed crops with solutions containing naturalBt bacteria as a method of insect control. The toxin createsholes in their stomach and kills them. Genetic engineers takethe gene that produces the toxin in bacteria and insert it intothe DNA of crops so that the plant does the work, not thefarmer. The fact that we consume that toxic pesticide inevery bite of Bt corn hardly appetizing. Studies verify,however that natural Bt-toxin is not fully destroyed duringdigestion and does react with mammals. The Bt—toxinproduced in GM crops is vastly different from the bacterial(Bt-toxins) used in organic and traditional farming andforestry. The plant produced version is designed to be moretoxic than natural varieties [67]. Just like the GM soyprotein, the Bt protein in GM corn varieties has a section ofits amino acid sequence identical to a known allergen (eggyolk), the protein is too resistant to break down duringdigestion and heat. If Bt—toxin causes allergies, then genetransfer carries serious ramifications. If Bt genes relocate tohuman gut bacteria, our intestinal flora may be convertedinto living pesticide factories, possibly producing Bt-toxininside of us year after year.SAFETY ASPECTS OF GMO FOODIt has been well discussed whether the consumption ofDNA in approved novel foods and novel foods ingredientscan be regarded as safe as consumption of DNA in existingform [68]. All DNA, including DNA from GMOs arecomposed of the same 4 nucleotides. Genetic modificationresults in the re-assortment of sequences of nucleotidesleaving their chemical structures unchanged. Therefore,DNA from GMOs is chemically equivalent to any otherDNA. The only uniqueness is restricted to differences in theDNA sequence, which occurs also in natural variations. Thepresent use of recombinant techniques in the food chain doesnot introduce changes in the chemical characteristics of theDNA. There is no difference in the susceptibility ofrecombinant DNA and other DNA to degradation bychemical or enzymatic hydrolysis. There are no indicationsthat ingested DNA has allergenic or other immunogenicproperties that would be of relevance for consumption offood derived from GMOs. Uptake integration and expressionof any residual extracellular DNA fragments from foods bymicroorganisms of the gastrointestinal trait can not beexcluded. Each of these circumstances is a rare event andwould have happen sequentially. In vivo uptake of DNAfragments by mammalian cells after oral administration hasbeen observed. There are effective mechanisms to avoidgenomic insertion of foreign DNA. There is no evidence thatDNA from dietary sources has ever been incorporated intothe mammalian genome [69] studied the animal nutritionwith GMOs. Their conclusions are similar as they from [68].They didn’t find differences in physiological andnutritive values in food of animal’s products when theanimals are feed with GM plants. Adverse health effectsneed to be screened for, because health effects are dependentupon the modifications made [68]. Most feeding trials haveobserved no toxic effects and saw that GM foods wereequivalent in nutrition to unmodified foods, although a fewreports attribute physiological changes to GM food.However, some scientists [69] and advocacy groups such asGreenpeace and World Wildlife Fund consider that theavailable data do not prove that GM food does not pose risksto health, and call for additional and more rigorous testingbefore marketing genetically engineered food [69]. A 2008review published by the Royal Society of Medicine notedthat GM foods have been eaten by millions of peopleworldwide for over 15 years, with no reports of ill effects[70].

However, a 2009 review in Nutrition Reviews foundthat although most studies concluded that GM foods do notdiffer in nutrition or cause any detectable toxic effects inanimals, some studies did report adverse changes at acellular level caused by some GM foods, concluding that"More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensureGenetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 9

that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke anyform of health problem" [71]. A study published in 2009found clear negative impact on liver and kidney function inrats consuming GM maize varieties for 90 days [72].

However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or showssignificant differences from the unmodified food, thenfurther safety testing is carried out [43].

Worldwide, reportsof allergies to all kinds of foods, particularly nuts, fish andshellfish, seem to be increasing, but it is not known if thisreflects a genuine change in the risk of allergy, or anincreased awareness of food allergies by the public [73].

A2005 review in the journal Allergy of the results fromallergen testing of current GM foods stated that "no biotechproteins in foods have been documented to cause allergicreactions" [74].

LEGISLATION AND LABELLING OF TRANSGENICFOODFoods from GMO have already appeared at Europeanmarket. Hence some methods of identification of these foodshave been developed [43,73,74]. Beer, soya oil, tomatoesand it products, potato, maize, and some spices are on themarket. Gene transfer has started many contradictory andemotional discussions especially on the German spokenmarket. Some sound requirements on adequate labeling ofthe genetically transformed food in EU have been passedso that consumers can choose according to their believes(religious, ethic, medical). Therefore EU introduced newsystem of NOVEL-FOOD classification on May 17, 1997[73-75]. NOVEL-FOOD has been classified into two groups:(a) Foods that are genetically modified organisms or thatcontain genetically modified organisms (tomato, yoghurt);(b) Foods that are produced from genetically modifiedorganisms (oil produced from herbicide resistant soya,enzymes, and vitamins) [73-75].NOVEL-FOOD classification does not enquire anyspecial requirements, it is just a wide assortment of variousfoods and supplements. The products should be consistentlylabeled; they should not misguide the consumers and shouldenable the verification of data. Also other foods that enterthe EU market should be properly labeled, for example genetransfer free. The consumer should be informed about thefood. New products appear every day, so the legislation isnot final. The level of 0.9% of GMO contamination has beenset as a threshold for labeling of genetically modified food.All current and future products should be irreproachable tohealth, environment, ethics and society. In the latest EUlegislation EU No. 1829/2003 and 1830/2003 geneticallymodified food is taken from the Novel-Food Classification.It is classified, together with the feedstuffs made from thegenetically modified organisms, as genetically modifiedproducts, which have to be declared [73-76].CONCLUSIONSThe latest development of biotechnology, particularlymolecular biology, genetic engineering and transgenictechnology has a very large number of potential applicationsin food production, including micro-organisms, plants andanimals. Transgenesis is much more difficult to apply tofarm animals than to plants or micro-organisms. Geneticmodification has increased production in some crops. But thetechnology has too few challenges in few crops. Geneticmodification is not a good in itself but it is a tool wherepublic & private science can balance each other. Geneticallymodified foods have various advantages like high yield,salinity tolerant, insect resistance etc.GM foods have a lot ofhealth effects on living beings. GM foods have both positiveand negative effects. These may be either direct effects, onorganisms that feed on or interact with the crops, or widereffects on food chains produced by increases or decreases inthe numbers of other organisms. As an example of benefits,insect-resistant Bt-expressing crops will reduce the numberof pest insects feeding on these plants, but as there are fewerpests, farmers do not have to apply as much insecticide,which in turn tends to increase the number of non-pestinsects in these fields. Other possible effects might comefrom the spread of genes from modified plants to unmodifiedrelatives, which might produce species of weeds resistant toherbicides. Conclusively, the present article is the compila-tion of various selective studies presenting both positive andnegative impacts of GM foods on human health.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors are grateful to Prof. R. M. Dubey (ManagingDirector) and Prof. A. Srivastav (Director), CET, IFTMCampus, Moradabad, U.P, India) for providing the necessaryfacilities and encouragement. The author, CV, is a Ph.D.scholar and registered at Uttarakhand Technical University,Dehradoon, Uttarakhand, India.REFERENCES[1] Singh RB, Niaz MA. Genetic variation and nutrition, in relation tocoronary artery disease. J Assoc Physicians India 1999; 47: 1185-90.[2] Rodenhiser D, Mann M. Epigenetics and human disease:translating basic biology in to clinical applications. Can Med AssocJ 2006; 174: 341-8.[3] Jones PA, Baylin SB. The epigenomics of cancer. Cell 2007; 128:683-92.[4] Trojer P, Reinberg D. Histone, lysine, demethylases and theirimpact on epigenetics. 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