Jebel Jassassiyeh is an area with early petroglyphs, residential ruins and pottery remnants (from the 15th century) in northeast Qatar. The carvings, in fossil sand dunes ("jebels"), include geometric shapes, animals and ship shapes, it is Qatar's most extensive rock art site with more than 900 carvings scattered over 580 numbered sites.[1] They are similar to those found at the temple of Karnak in Luxor, Egypt, the area also has ruined dwellings and remains of pottery from the 15th century.[2]

A large percentage of its coastal area is dotted with rocky hills, as hinted by its name,[3] it is promoted as an important tourist attraction by the Qatar Tourism Authority.[4]

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Jebel Jassassiyeh is in the northeast section of Qatar, around 3 miles south of Fuwayrit. Nearby settlements include Safiyaa Fuwairit, Al Marrawnah, and Al Huwailah,[5] it consists of many prominent limestone jebels (sand dune) situated near the coastline. On average, the jebels are no more than 7 metres tall with a central ridge approximately 600 metres in length, rendering the assemblage of jebels one of the largest in the northeast peninsula.[1]

The carvings were first discovered by a Danish archaeological team led by Holger Kapel in 1961.[6] Holger's son, Hans Kapel, surveyed and recorded the carvings in the 1974, he concluded that there were approximately 900 carvings of various types.[1]

Cup and ring marks are the most common forms of art among the carvings.[7][8] Different animals are also depicted, including ostriches, turtles and fish. Jebel Jassassiyeh is the only rock art site in Qatar where boat depictions have been recorded.[9]

Two main categories, based on carving method and rendition, are used to classify the boat carvings, the first category, which accounts for 124 of the carvings, are drawn in plan. The second category accounts for only 17 of the boat carvings and consists of elevation drawings. Plan drawings are mainly found along the central ridge, whereas the elevation drawings are primarily found on the outcrops closer to the sea.[1]

The boats are of different sizes and types, and some contain oars while others do not.[10] Two main types of dhows are included in elevation drawings: battils and baqarahs. Archaeologist William Facey has inferred that some of the elevation drawings are meant to represent pearling crafts due to the prominence of the boats' oars,[11] because the battils and baqarahs contained rudders, he concludes that the elevation drawings could not have been carved earlier than 1000–1200 AD.[12]

In later carvings, the boats appeared with sails; in some of the rock carvings, sails appear without boats. Some of the ancient carvings were modified at later periods, with devices such as ropes and anchors being added.[13][14]

The earliest date of origin for the carvings is inconclusive.[13][15] Archaeologist Muhammad Abdul Nayeem (1998) tentatively dated the earliest of the carvings to the third century BC,[16] whereas William Facey (1987) dated the earliest plan and elevation drawings to the tenth century AD.[12] A study conducted in 2012 which tested nine samples of carvings, including boat carvings, concluded that the oldest of the samples had a minimum age of less than 300 years, the study found no evidence to support the view of the carvings dating back millenniums.[5]

Jebel Jassassiyeh is thought to have been inhabited prior to the 18th century, the area's close proximity to the sea would have allowed for easy access for boats. The area contains clean groundwater which is close to the surface and there are several wells in the vicinity.[17]Beatrice De Cardi's archaeological team reported in 1974 the presence of two habitation mounds and several potsherds dating to various periods, with the earliest recorded potsherds dating to the 10th or 11th century AD.[17] William Facey notes the close proximity (4 miles) of Jebel Jassassiyeh to Al Huwailah, Qatar's largest town before the ascendance of Zubarah in the 18th century,[17] he has speculated that the area could have functioned as a lookout post and restocking station for incoming pearling boats.[18]

1.
Petroglyph
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Petroglyphs are images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use such as carving, engraving. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are associated with prehistoric peoples. The word comes from the Greek word petro-, theme of the word meaning stone, and glyphein meaning to carve. The term petroglyph should not be confused with petrograph, which is an image drawn or painted on a rock face, both types of image belong to the wider and more general category of rock art or parietal art. Petroforms, or patterns and shapes made by large rocks. Inukshuks are also unique, and found only in the Arctic and they are a category of rock art, and sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture. However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, a few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, and were important in the art of the Ancient Near East. Rock reliefs are generally large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size, the vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included. Some petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Neolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, if not earlier. Sites in Australia have petroglyphs that are estimated to be as much as 27,000 years old, around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, other precursors of writing systems, such as pictographs and ideograms, began to appear. Petroglyphs were still common though, and some cultures continued using them much longer, petroglyphs have been found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica with highest concentrations in parts of Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America and Australia. There are many theories to explain their purpose, depending on their location, age, some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps, and other forms of symbolic communication, including a form of pre-writing. Petroglyph maps may show trails, symbols communicating time and distances traveled, as well as the terrain in the form of rivers, landforms

2.
Qatar
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Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign country located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar, Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be regarded as a constitutional or a monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was approved in a referendum. In early 2017, Qatars total population was 2.3 million,313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.6 million expatriates, Qatar is a high income economy and is a developed country, backed by the worlds third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world, Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, the map also referenced a town named Cadara to the east of the peninsula. The term Catara was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which Katara emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling, eventually, the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the countrys name. In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced, while in the local dialect it is, Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula, Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Daasa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain, among the findings were 3,000,000 crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, in 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf

3.
Karnak
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The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak, comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. Building at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom and continued into the Ptolemaic period, the area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the city of Thebes. The Karnak complex gives its name to the nearby, and partly surrounded, the complex is a vast open-air museum, and the second largest ancient religious site in the world, after the Angkor Wat Temple of Cambodia. It is believed to be the second most visited site in Egypt. It consists of four parts, of which only the largest is currently open to the general public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Ra only, the three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public. There also are a few temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re. The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, the original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have carried away for use in other buildings. The key difference between Karnak and most of the temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued through to Ptolemaic times, approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the features of Karnak are unique, but the size. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture and it also contains evidence of adaptations, using buildings of the Ancient Egyptians by later cultures for their own religious purposes. One famous aspect of Karnak is the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re,122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters. The architraves on top of columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers and this would be an extremely time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such great heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone, if stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material

4.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם‎, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian

5.
Cup and ring mark
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Similar forms are also found throughout the world including Australia, Gabon, Greece, Hawaii, India, Israel, Mexico and Mozambique. They consist of a depression, no more than a few centimetres across, pecked into a rock surface. Sometimes a linear channel called a gutter leads out from the middle, numerous cup-marked stones have been found in quite all the alpine valleys, comprising Val Camonica, associated with rock drawings. Regarding western alps, the best known are distributed along the Chisone, Susa and Viù valleys, strictly referring to cup-and-rings, it is possible to cite in the western Alps only the Novalesa stone, in the Cenischia Valley, near the Italian-French border. Found in 1988, it shows 4 concentric circles, with a central cup-mark, all around a network of 20 cup-marks, similar patterns are known in Galicia, which has given them the name of Galician style. Precisely dating megalithic art is difficult, even if the monument can be dated. Some cup marks have been found in Iron age contexts but these may represent re-used stones, where they are etched onto natural, flat stone it has been observed that they seem to incorporate the natural surface of the rock. Those at Hunterheugh are mostly connected to one another by gutters that can channel rainwater from one to the next, the markers of this second phase moved the art from natural stones to megaliths as its symbolism was reinterpreted by Later Neolithic and Early Bronze Age people. Their purpose is unknown although some may be connected with stone outcrops exploited by Neolithic peoples to make polished stone axes. A religious purpose has been suggested and we have seen the cup and ring markings on the stone at Temple Wood, and thats on the main stone but we cant interpret them. yet. He created diagrams and carried out analysis of over 50 of the cup and ring markings from which he determined a length he termed the Megalithic Inch. Davis made an effort to build on Thoms start, and to answer the question he posed. It would indeed be a breakthrough if someone could crack the code of the cups, subsequently, Davis investigated the idea that the prehistoric carvers used an elementary method of diameter-construction in laying out the carvings. Another particularly rich source of cup-marked boulders is the Derrynablaha townland on the Iveragh peninsula in County Kerry, one of the most interesting open air Rock Art sites in the Swiss Alps is situated at Carschenna, Rethic Alps, where Latin derived languages melt with German ones. The first engraved rocks were discovered in 1965, during the building of an iron electricity framework, Carschenna engravings are mainly characterized by concentric circles – from 1 to 9 – and cup-marks. Spirals, sun-like figures, riding scenes, and schematic horses are also present, cup-marks joined by long channels usually superimpose the cup-and-rings patterns. Prehistoric Rock Art of County Durham, Swaledale and Wensleydale, ancient Carvings in Britain, A Mystery. ISBN 0-85511-391-X Morris, Ronald W. B.1977, the Prehistoric Rock Art of Argyll

6.
Architectural drawing
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An architectural drawing or architects drawing is a technical drawing of a building that falls within the definition of architecture. Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular views, sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, the twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently. Today the vast majority of drawings are created using CAD software, the size of drawings reflects the materials available and the size that is convenient to transport – rolled up or folded, laid out on a table, or pinned up on a wall. The draughting process may impose limitations on the size that is realistically workable, sizes are determined by a consistent paper size system, according to local usage. Normally the largest paper size used in architectural practice is ISO A0 or in the USA Arch E or Large E size. Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented, the scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, construction details are drawn to a larger scale, in some cases full size. Scale drawings enable dimensions to be read off the drawing, i. e. measured directly, imperial scales are equally readable using an ordinary ruler. On a one-eighth inch to one foot scale drawing, the divisions on the ruler can be read off as feet. Architects normally use a ruler with different scales marked on each edge. A third method, used by builders in estimating, is to measure directly off the drawing, dimensions can be measured off drawings made on a stable medium such as vellum. All processes of reproduction introduce small errors, especially now that different copying methods mean that the drawing may be re-copied. Consequently, dimensions need to be written on the drawing, the disclaimer Do not scale off dimensions is commonly inscribed on architects drawings, to guard against errors arising in the copying process. This section deals with the conventional views used to represent a building or structure, see the Types of architectural drawing section below for drawings classified according to their purpose. Technically it is a section cut through a building, showing walls, windows and door openings. The plan view includes anything that could be seen below that level, objects above the plan level can be indicated as dashed lines

7.
Dhow
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Dhow is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with lateen sails used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Historians are divided as to whether the dhow was invented by Arabs or Indians, larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty, smaller ones typically around twelve. The exact origins of the dhow are lost to history, most scholars believe that it originated in India between 600 BC to 600 AD Some claim that the sambuk, a type of dhow, may be derived from the Portuguese caravel. The Yemeni Hadhrami people, as well as Omanis, for centuries came to Beypore, in Kerala and this was because of the good timber in the Kerala forests, the availability of good coir rope, and the skilled carpenters who specialized in ship building. In former times, the planks of a dhows hull were held together by coconut rope. Beypore dhows are known as Uru in Malayalam, the language of Kerala. Settlers from Yemen, known as Baramis, are active in making urus in Kerala. In the 1920s, British writers identified Al Hudaydah as the center for dhow building and those built in Al Hudaydah were smaller in size, and used for travel along the coasts. They were constructed of found in Yemen. Even to the present day, dhows make commercial journeys between the Persian Gulf and East Africa using sails as their means of propulsion. Their cargo is mostly dates and fish to East Africa and mangrove timber to the lands in the Persian Gulf and they often sail south with the monsoon in winter or early spring, and back again to Arabia in late spring or early summer. For celestial navigation, dhow sailors have used the kamal. The latter is a device that determines latitude by finding the angle of the Pole Star above the horizon. Baghlah – from the Arabic language word for mule, a heavy ship, the traditional deep-sea dhow. Baqarah or baggarah – from the Arabic word for cow, old type of small dhow similar to the Battil. Battil – featured long stems topped by large, club-shaped stem heads, badan – a smaller vessel requiring a shallow draft. Boum or dhangi – a large-sized dhow with a stern that is tapering in shape, the Arab boum has a very high prow, which is trimmed in the Indian version. Ghanjah or kotiya – a large vessel, similar to the Baghlah, with a curved stem, a fishing or trading dhow with a broad hull similar to the Jalibut, common in Lamu Island and the coast of Oman

8.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern

9.
Zubarah
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It was founded by Al Bin Ali, main and principal Utub tribe in the first half of the eighteenth century. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 and it was once a successful center of global trade and pearl fishing positioned midway between the Strait of Hormuz and the west arm of the Persian Gulf. It is one of the most extensive and best preserved examples of an 18th–19th century settlement in the region, covering an area of circa 400 hectares, Zubarah is Qatar’s most substantial archaeological site. The site comprises the town with a later inner and an earlier outer wall, a harbour. It was presumably given this name due its abundance of sand, during the early Islamic period, trade and commerce boomed in northern Qatar. Settlements began to appear on the coast, primarily between the towns of Zubarah and Umm al-Maa, a village dating back to the Islamic period was discovered near the town. Between September 1627 and April 1628, a Portuguese naval squadron led by D. Goncalo da Silveira set a number of neighboring coastal villages ablaze, Zubarahs settlement and growth during this period is attributed to the dislodging of people from these adjacent settlements. There remains some uncertainty over the earliest mention of Zubarah in written documents, qatars Memorial, a 1986 Arabic history book, alleges that a functional self-governing town existed before the arrival of the Utub. Zubarah was founded and ruled by the Al Bin Ali tribe and it soon emerged as one of the principal emporiums and pearl trading centres of the Persian Gulf. The following poem was recorded about murairs water spring, وتشـرب أسـآر الحيـاض تسوفـه ولو وردت ماء المريرة آجمـا, the Al Bin Ali they were also known for their courage, persistence, and abundant wealth. The Al Bin Ali had an independent status in Bahrain. Under their jurisdiction, the town developed trade links with India, Oman, Iraq, many goods were transported through its ports, including dates, spices and metals. The town soon became a transit point for traders after the Utub abolished trade taxes. The towns prosperity further increased after the 1775–76 Persian occupation of Basra when merchants, ongoing wars between Bani Khalid and the Wahhabis and Persian invasion of Basra were among the factors that helped Al Zubara flourish into an important trade center. This prominent position led to conflicts with adjacent port towns, merchants from nearby settlements migrated to Zubarah en masse during the 1770s due to the prevalence of attacks and the plague in the Persian Gulf region. A quarrel arose in 1782 between the inhabitants of Zubarah and Persian-ruled Bahrain, Zubarah natives traveled to Bahrain to buy some wood, but an altercation broke out and in the chaos an Utub sheikhs slave was killed. The Utub and other Arab tribes retaliated on 9 September by plundering and destroying Manama, a battle was also fought on land between the Persians and the Arab tribes, in which both sides suffered casualties. The Zubarans returned to the mainland three days with a seized Persian gallivat that had been used to collect annual treaty

10.
Luxor
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Luxor is a city in Upper Egypt and the capital of Luxor Governorate. The population numbers 487,896, with an area of approximately 416 square kilometres, immediately opposite, across the River Nile, lie the monuments, temples and tombs of the West Bank Necropolis, which includes the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens. Thousands of tourists from all around the world arrive annually to visit these monuments, the name Luxor comes from the Arabic al-ʾuqṣur, lit. the palaces, from the collective pl. of qaṣr, which may be a loanword from the Latin castrum fortified camp. Luxor was the ancient city of Thebes, the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom. Montuhotep II who united Egypt after the troubles of the first intermediate period brought stability to the lands as the city grew in stature. The city attracted peoples such as the Babylonians, the Mitanni, the Hittites of Anatolia, the Canaanites of Ugarit, the Phoenicians of Byblos and Tyre, a Hittite prince from Anatolia even came to marry with the widow of Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun. However, as the city of the god Amon-Ra, Thebes remained the capital of Egypt until the Greek period. The main god of the city was Amon, who was worshipped together with his wife, the Goddess Mut, and their son Khonsu, the God of the moon. With the rise of Thebes as the foremost city of Egypt and his great temple, at Karnak just north of Thebes, was the most important temple of Egypt right until the end of antiquity. Later, the city was attacked by Assyrian emperor Assurbanipal who installed the Libyan prince on the throne, the city of Thebes was in ruins and fell in significance. However, Alexander the Great did arrive at the temple of Amun, where the statue of the god was transferred from Karnak during the Opet Festival, Aswan and Luxor have the hottest summer days of any other city in Egypt. Aswan and Luxor have nearly the same climate, Luxor is one of the hottest, sunniest and driest cities in the world. Average high temperatures are above 40 °C during summer while average low temperatures remain above 22 °C, during the coldest month of the year, average high temperatures remain above 22.0 °C while average low temperatures remain above 5 °C. The climate of Luxor has precipitation levels lower than even most other places in the Sahara, the desert city is one of the driest ones in the world, and rainfall does not occur every year. The air is dry in Luxor but much more humid than in Aswan. There is a relative humidity of 39. 9%, with a maximum mean of 57% during winter. In addition, Luxor, Minya, Sohag, Qena and Asyut have the widest difference of temperatures between days and nights of any city in Egypt, with almost 16 °C difference. The hottest temperature recorded was on May 15,1991 which was 50 °C, the Coptic Catholic minority established on November 26,1895 an Eparchy of Luqsor alias Thebes, on territory split off from the Apostolic Vicariate of Egypt

11.
Sail
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A sail derives power from the wind to provide motive power for sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and sail-powered land vehicles. Sails mobilize lift and drag properties as air passes along the surface, in most cases sails are supported directly by a mast rigidly attached to the sailing craft or on a wire stay attached to the mast, however some craft employ a flexible mount for a mast. Sails also employ spars and battens to help determine their shape, as a result, sails come in a variety of shapes that include both triangular and quadrilateral configurations, usually with curved edges that promote three-dimensional curvature of the sail. Kites also power certain sailing craft, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article, sailing craft employ two types of rig, the square rig and the fore-and-aft rig. The square rig carries the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically most efficient when running. A fore-and-aft rig consists of sails that are set along the line of the rather than perpendicular to it. Vessels so rigged are described as fore-and-aft rigged, archaeological studies of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ceramics show use of sailing boats from the sixth millennium onwards. Excavations of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia provides direct evidence of sailing boats, Sails from ancient Egypt are depicted around 3200 BCE, where reed boats sailed upstream against the River Niles current. Ancient Sumerians used square rigged sailing boats at about the same time, the proto-Austronesian words for sail, lay, and other rigging parts date to about 3000 BCE when this group began their Pacific expansion. Greeks and Phoenicians began trading by ship by around 1,200 BCE, northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade and during the Crusades. The lateen sail proved to have better performance for smaller vessels. Aerodynamic forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind —the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, for apparent wind angles aligned with the entry point of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. For apparent wind angles behind the sail, lift diminishes and drag increases as the predominant component of propulsion, because of limitations on speed through the water, displacement sailboats generally derive power from sails generating lift on points of sail that include close-hauled through broad reach. Downwind sailing with a spinnaker Each rig is configured in a sail plan, a sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship

12.
Oar
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An oar is an implement used for water-borne propulsion. Oars have a blade at one end. Rowers grasp the oar at the other end, the difference between oars and paddles are that paddles are held by the paddler, and are not connected with the vessel. Oars generally are connected to the vessel by means of rowlocks or tholes which transmit the force to the boat. In this system the water is the fulcrum, rowers generally face the stern of the vessel, reach towards the stern, and insert the blade of their oar in the water. As they lean back, towards the bow, the blade of their oars sweeps the water towards the stern. For thousands of vessels were powered either by sails, or the mechanical work of rowers. Some ancient vessels were propelled by oars or sail, depending on the speed. Rowing oars have been used since the early Neolithic period, wooden oars, with canoe-shaped pottery, dating from 5000–4500 BC have been discovered in a Hemudu culture site at Yuyao, Zhejiang, in modern China. In 1999, an oar measuring 63.4 cm in length, dating from 4000 BC, was unearthed at Ishikawa Prefecture, oars have traditionally been made of wood. The form is a shaft with a flat blade on the end. Where the oar connects to the boat there is a collar which stops the oar slipping past the rowlock, oars usually have a handle about 150mm long, which may be a material sleeve or alternatively an ovoid shape carved to fit the hands. This is a normal, usually wooden oar to which weight has been added at the end so that the blade end is noticeably lighter and easier for a rower to operate without fatigue. For a 7-foot oar the balance point is about 12 inches outboard of the rowlock, often surplus wood is removed from the blades width and thickness and at the neck between the blade and the shaft to further reduce outboard weight. This type of oar is much better for long-range rowing, the oars used for transportation come in a variety of sizes. The oars used in small dinghies or rafts can be less than 2 metres long, in classical times warships were propelled by very long oars that might have several oarsmen per oar. These oars could be more than a dozen metres long, the oars used in competitive rowing are long poles with one flat end about 50 cm long and 25 cm wide, called the blade. The part of the oar the oarsman holds while rowing is called the handle, while rowing, the oars are supported by metal frames attached to the side of the boat called outriggers

Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna (c. 1422-1411 BC)

Steering oar of a Roman boat, 1st century AD (RG-Museum, Cologne).

An early Song Dynasty (960–1279) painting on silk of two Chinese cargo ships accompanied by a smaller boat, by Guo Zhongshu (c. 910–977 AD); notice the large sternpost-mounted rudder on the ship shown in the foreground

A sail is a tensile structure—made from fabric or other membrane materials—that uses wind power to propel sailing …

Image: Chesapeake

Aerodynamic forces for two points of sail. Left-hand boat: Down wind—predominant drag propels the boat with little heeling moment. Right-hand boat: Up wind (close-hauled)—predominant lift both propels the boat and contributes to heel.