Bolivian americans

by Tim Eigo

Overview

Bolivia, the only landlocked country in the Western Hemisphere, is home to
almost eight million people. Twice as large as Texas, Bolivia is a
multiethnic society. Of all the South American countries, Bolivia has the
largest percentage (60 percent) of indigenous Indians. The next largest
ethnic group in the Bolivian population is the
mestizos,
those of mixed-race heritage; they make up 30 percent. Finally, 10
percent of the Bolivian population are of Spanish origin.

These figures mask the true breadth of the Bolivian population map. The
largest ethnic groups are the highland Indians—the Aymara and the
Quechua. The most ancient people of the Andes may be the ancestors of the
Aymara, who formed a civilization as early as 600 A.D. The rural lowland
regions are home to more ethnic diversity. Other Indian groups include the
Kallawayas, the Chipayas, and the Guarani Indians. Ethnicities from most
of the other South American countries are represented in Bolivia, as well
as people of Japanese descent and origin. Those known as Spanish are
called "Whites," not so much for their skin color as for
their social status, identified by physical characteristics, language,
culture, and social mobility. The blending and intermarriage of races for
over 500 years has made Bolivia a heterogeneous society.

Bolivia is bordered to the west by Chile and Peru, to the south by
Argentina, to the southeast by
Paraguay, and to the east and north by Brazil. One of the most striking
features of Bolivia, its high plateau, or
Altiplano,
is also home to most of its population. The Altiplano sits between two
chains of the Andes mountains and it is one of the highest inhabited
regions in the world, reaching an average height of 12,000 feet. Although
it is cold and windswept, it is the most densely populated region of the
country. The valleys and ridges of the Andes' eastern slopes are
called the
Yungas,
where 30 percent of the country's population lives and 40 percent
of the cultivated land sits. Finally, three-fifths of Bolivia are sparsely
populated lowlands. The lowlands include savannas, swamps, tropical
rainforests, and semi-deserts.

HISTORY

To those in the relatively recently settled Western Hemisphere—and,
in fact, to most people anywhere in the world—the length of
Bolivian history is staggering. When the Spanish arrived to conquer and
subjugate South America in the 1500s, they found a land that had been
populated and civilized for at least 3,000 years. Early settlements of
Amerindians probably lasted until about 1400 B.C. For another thousand
years, an Amerindian culture known as
Chavin
existed in Bolivia and Peru. From 400 B.C. until 900 A.D., the
Tiahuanaco
culture thrived. Its center for ritual and ceremonies was on the shores
of Lake Titicaca, the largest navigable lake in the world and a dominant
part of Bolivia's geography. The Tiahuanaco culture was highly
developed and prosperous. It had superb transportation systems, a road
network, irrigation, and striking building techniques.

The Aymara Indians subsequently invaded, probably from Chile. At the end
of the fifteenth century, the Peruvian Incas swept into the land. Their
rule continued until the arrival of the Spaniards in the 1530s. Spaniard
rule was known as the colonial period, and was marked by the development
of cities, the cruel oppression of the Indians, and the missionary work of
Catholic priests. The struggle for independence from Spain began in the
seventeenth century, and the most significant rebellion occurred when the
Aymara and Quechua united at the end of the eighteenth century. Their
leader was eventually captured and executed, but the rebels continued to
resist, and for more than 100 days, about 80,000 Indians besieged the city
of La Paz. General Antonio Jose de Sucre, who fought alongside Simon
Bolivar, finally gained independence from Spain in 1825. The new nation
was a republic, with a senate and a house of representatives, an executive
branch, and a judiciary.

Almost as soon as Bolivia obtained its independence, it lost two
disastrous wars to Chile, and in the process, lost its only coastal
access. It lost a third war in 1932, this time with Paraguay, which
further reduced its land holdings. Even at the end of the twentieth
century, such setbacks continued to weigh heavily on the Bolivian psyche
and affected political actions in the capital city of La Paz.

Bolivia's historic success at getting valuable riches from beneath
its soil has been a mixed blessing. Only a few years after the arrival of
the Spaniards, silver was discovered near the city of Potosi. Although
Indian legend warned that the silver should not be mined, the Spaniards
instituted a complex mining system to retrieve the ore from
Cerro Rico
("Rich Hill"). The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw
Bolivia's most valuable resource flow into the coffers of Spanish
royalty. Much of the silver supply was exhausted after only 30 years, and
a new method of extracting the ore was needed. Methods using highly
poisonous mercury were developed, and allowed the extraction of
lower-grade ore for centuries. The cold and inaccessible region around
Potosi rapidly became the most populated city in Spanish America; by about
1650, its population was 160,000. However, for those who had to work
beneath
Cerro Rico,
almost always Amerindians, the good fortune of mining meant injury,
sickness, and death. Thousands died beneath the steep slopes.

MODERN ERA

In addition to being a silver exporter, Bolivia also became a leading
supplier of tin for the world's markets. Ironically, working
conditions in the mines led to the evolution of Bolivia's modern
political state. Conditions in the mines continued to be so abhorrent that
a workers' party, the National Revolutionary Movement, or MNR,
formed. Under the leadership of President Paz Estenssoro in the 1950s, the
MNR nationalized the mines, taking them from private companies and
transferring ownership to the government. The MNR also began important
land and industrial reforms. For the first time, Indians and other working
poor had an opportunity to own the land that they and their ancestors had
toiled on for generations.

From the 1970s onward, Bolivia suffered setbacks due to rampant inflation,
other deteriorating economic conditions, and a series of military
dictators. However, by the end of the twentieth century, some measure of
economic stability had returned. Bolivia's economy has always been
dominated by mining, cattle and sheep herding but the growth of coca
leaves became a major problem by the 1980s. From the leaves, coca paste
can be made illegally,
which then is used in the manufacture of cocaine. In the 1990s, the
Bolivian government sought to reduce the drug trade. The illegal
manufacture and sale of cocaine has been a major point of contention
between the United States and Bolivia. In Washington, D.C., Bolivia, like
other countries, must be regularly "certified" as a partner
that is working hard to end the drug trade; this process is often
politically charged and lengthy, leaving poor nations that are dependent
on U.S. trade, grants, and credits to bide their time. This process is
made difficult by the fact that coca leaves have always been a part of the
daily lives of millions of Bolivians. It is not uncommon to see rural
Bolivians chewing coca leaves.

Bolivian immigrants arrive in the United States with advantages not shared
by many other immigrant groups. Bolivian Americans stand out from other
immigrant groups because, unlike others who flee brutal regimes, Bolivians
travel to the United States seeking greater economic and educational
opportunities. As such, they fare better than do those who seek political
asylum, such as the Salvadorans and Nicaraguans. Also, Bolivians usually
come from large cities, and adapt more easily to urban American areas.
They are well-educated and have high professional spirations. Their
families are usually intact, and their children do well in school because
the parents come from a higher educational background. In the 1990s,
Stephanie Griffith, an activist in immigrant communities stated that, of
all recent immigrants, the Bolivians come closest to achieving the
national dream.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

Since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South
America have settled in the United States, but who they were or where they
came from remains a mystery. It was not until 1960 that the U.S. Census
Bureau categorized these immigrants by their nation of origin. In 1976,
the Census Bureau estimated that Central and South Americans from
Spanish-speaking countries made up seven percent of the Spanish-origin
population in the United States. In addition, the size of the Bolivian
American community has been difficult to ascertain because many Bolivians
arrive in the United States with tourist visas and stay indefinitely with
friends or family. Because of this, and because the total number of
Bolivian immigrants to this country has been relatively small, estimates
of Bolivian immigration waves to the United States may be impossible to
determine.

U.S. Census figures show that, in the 10 years between 1984 and 1993, only
4,574 Bolivians became U.S. citizens. The annual rate of immigration is
steady, ranging from a low in 1984 of 319 to a high in 1993 of 571. The
average number of Bolivians naturalized every year is 457. In 1993, 28,536
Bolivians were admitted into the United States. In the same year, only 571
Bolivian immigrants were naturalized as U.S. citizens. This low rate of
naturalization reflects the rates of other Central and South American
communities. This suggests that Bolivian Americans have a continued
interest in Bolivia, and hold open the possibility of returning to South
America in the future.

Although relatively few Bolivians immigrate to the United States, those
who do are often clerical and administrative workers. This exodus, or
"brain drain," of educated workers has harmed Bolivia and
South America as a whole. It is a middle-class migration from one of the
poorest nations in the world. Of all South American immigrants,
Bolivia's immigrants represent the highest percentage of
professionals, from 36 percent in the mid-1960s to almost 38 percent in
1975. In comparison, the average percentage of professional immigrants
from other South American countries was 20 percent. These educated workers
largely travel to American cities on the coasts of this country, settling
in urban centers on the West Coast, the Northeast, and the Gulf states.
There, they and most immigrants find a comfortable population of people
with similar histories, status, and expectations.

The largest communities of Bolivian Americans are in Los Angeles, Chicago,
and Washington, D.C. For example, an estimate from the early 1990s
indicated that about 40,000 Bolivian Americans lived in and around
Washington, D.C.

Like most South American immigrants, most travelers from Bolivia to the
United States enter through the port of Miami, Florida. In 1993, of 1,184
Bolivian immigrants admitted, 1,105 entered through Miami. These numbers
also disclose just how small the Bolivian exodus has been. In the same
year, for example, Colombian immigrants to the United States numbered
almost 10,000.

American families adopt a small number of Bolivian children. In 1993,
there were 123 such adoptions, with 65 girls adopted and 58 boys adopted.
The majority of those children were adopted when they were less than one
year old.

Acculturation and Assimilation

Bolivian Americans generally find that their skills and experience prepare
them well for life in the United States. However, by the late twentieth
century,

At the 45th Anniversary of the
U.S. granting citizenship to Puerto Rico in New
York, Gladys Gomez of the
Bronx gets to represent her home country of Bolivia.
She is holding a U.S. and a Puerto Rican flag.

anti-immigrant sentiments were growing, particularly toward Mexican
American immigration, and these feelings often failed to distinguish
between Central and South Americans and between legal and illegal
immigration. Thus, the move to the United States is challenging for
Bolivians.

TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, AND BELIEFS

Bolivian Americans seek to instill in their children a strong sense of the
culture of the country from which they emigrated. As such,
children's education includes Bolivian history, traditional dances,
and music. In modern-day Bolivia some belief in the gods of the ancient
Inca remains. Although these pre-Columbian beliefs are today little more
than superstition, they are often followed strictly, by Indians and
non-Indians alike. To the Quechua Indians, respect must be given to
Pachamama,
the Incan earth mother. Pachamama is seen as a protective force, but also
a vengeful one. Her concerns range from the most serious events of life to
the most mundane, such as chewing the first coca leaf of the day. Before
beginning a journey, Indians often leave some chewed coca by the side of
the road as an offering. The average highland Indian may purchase a
dulce mesa
—sweets and colored trinkets—at a witchcraft and folk
medicine market to give to Pachamama. Even among more worldly Bolivians,
respect for her is seen in the practice of pouring a portion of a drink on
the ground before taking the first sip, in recognition that all treasures
of this world come from the earth. Another ancient god who plays a role in
everyday life is
Ekeko,
"dwarf" in Aymara. Especially favored among Mestizos, he is
believed to oversee the finding of a spouse, providing shelter, and luck
in business.

One famous Bolivian tale is about the mountain, Mount Illimani, which
towers over the city of La Paz. According to the legend, there once were
two mountains where one now stands, but the god who created them could not
decide which he liked more. Finally, he decided it was Illimani, and threw
a boulder at the other, sending the mountaintop rolling far away. "
Sajama,
" he said, meaning, "Go away." Today, the distant
mountain is still called Sajama. The shortened peak that sits next to
Illimani is today called
Mururata,
meaning beheaded.

ART SPANNING TWO CONTINENTS

Events occurring in the late 1990s provided an opportunity for Bolivia and
the United States to assess their relationship and for Bolivian Americans
to feel pride in both of their cultures. In a landmark case for native
people seeking to maintain their cultural heritage, the Aymara people of
Coroma, Bolivia, with the help of the U.S. Customs Service, had 48 sacred
ceremonial garments returned that had been taken from their village by
North American antiquities dealers in the 1980s. The Aymara people
believed the textiles to be the property of the entire Coroman community,
not owned by any one citizen. Despite this, some community members, facing
drought and famine during the 1980s, were bribed into selling the
garments. An art dealer in San Francisco, California, when threatened with
legal action, returned 43 of the textiles. Five more textiles held by
private collectors were also returned.

CUISINE

As in most countries, the Bolivian diet is influenced by region and by
income. Most meals in Bolivia, however, include meat, usually served with
potatoes, rice, or both. Another important carbohydrate is bread. Near
Santa Cruz are large wheat fields, and Bolivia imports large quantities of
wheat from the United States. In the highlands, potatoes are the staple
food. In the lowlands, the staples are rice, plantain, and yucca. Fewer
fresh vegetables are available to those in the highlands.

Some popular Bolivian recipes include
silpancho,
pounded beef with an egg cooked on top;
thimpu,
a spicy stew cooked with vegetables; and
fricase,
pork soup seasoned with yellow hot pepper. Also central to the urban
Bolivian diet is street food, such as
saltenas,
oval pies, stuffed with various fillings and eaten as a quick meal. They
are similar to
empanadas,
which are usually filled with beef, chicken, or cheese. Diets in the
lowlands include wild animals such as the armadillo. The most common
Bolivian drink is black tea, which is usually served strong with lots of
sugar.

In urban areas, most Bolivians eat a very simple breakfast and a large,
relaxed, and elaborate lunch. On weekends, lunch with friends and family
is a major event. Often, lunch guests remain long enough to stay for
dinner. In La Paz a popular dish is
anticuchos,
pieces of beef heart grilled on skewers. The cuisine in rural areas is
simpler and only two meals are eaten per day. Native families usually eat
outside. Bolivians who live in rural areas are often uncomfortable eating
in front of strangers. Therefore, when they must eat in a restaurant, they
often face toward a wall. Eating in front of strangers makes a Bolivian in
rural areas feel uncomfortable. Thus, men, particularly, will face a wall
when they eat if they must do so away from home.

MUSIC

The use of pre-Columbian musical instruments remains an important part of
Bolivian folklore. One of those instruments is the
siku,
a series of vertical flutes bound together. Bolivian music also uses the
charango,
which is a cross between the mandolin, guitar, and banjo. Originally, the
soundbox of the
charango
was made from the shell of an armadillo, which gave it a unique sound and
appearance. During the 1990s, Bolivian music began to incorporate lyrics
into mournful Andean music. Thus, a new genre of songs was created.

TRADITIONAL COSTUMES

Traditionally, Bolivian men living on the
Altiplano
would wear homemade trousers and a poncho. Today, they are more likely to
wear factory-made clothes. For headgear, however, the
chulla,
a woolen cap with earflaps, remains a staple of the wardrobe.

Traditional native clothing for women includes an apron over a long skirt
and many underskirts. An embroidered blouse and cardigan is also worn. A
shawl, which is usually in the form of a colorful rectangle, serves many
purposes, from carrying a child on the back to creating a shopping pouch.

One of the more striking types of Bolivian clothing is the bowler hat worn
by Aymara women. Known as a
bombin,
it was introduced to Bolivia by British railway workers. It is uncertain
why more women tend to wear the bombin than men. For many years, a factory
in Italy manufactured bombins for the Bolivian market, but they are now
made locally by Bolivians.

DANCES AND SONGS

More than 500 ceremonial dances can be traced to Bolivia. These dances
often represent important events in Bolivian culture, including hunting,
harvesting, and weaving. One dance performed at festivals is the
diablada,
or devil dance. The diablada was originally performed by mine workers
seeking protection from cave-ins and successful mining. Another famous
festival dance is the
morenada,
the dance of the black slaves, which mocked the Spanish over-seers who
brought thousands of slaves into Peru and Bolivia. Other popular dances
include the
tarqueada,
which rewarded the tribal authorities who managed
land holdings for the past year; a llama-herding dance known as the
llamerada;
the
kullawada,
which is known as the dance of the weavers
;
and the
wayno,
a dance of the Quechua and the Aymara.

In the United States, traditional Bolivian dances are popular among
Bolivian Americans. During the late twentieth century, Bolivian dances
began to appeal to a broader audience as well. The participation of groups
of Bolivian folk dancers from around the country has increased. In
Arlington, Virginia, which has a large community of Bolivian Americans,
folk dancers participated in about 90 cultural events, nine major parades
(including the Bolivian National Day Festival), and 22 smaller parades and
festivals in 1996. The dancers also participated in almost 40
presentations in schools, theaters, churches, and other venues. Sponsored
by the Pro-Bolivia Committee, an umbrella organization of arts and dance
groups, these Bolivian folk dancers performed before 500,000 spectators.
Millions more watched the performances on television. Held every year on
the first Sunday of August, the Bolivian National Day Festival is
sponsored by the Arlington Department of Parks and Recreation and attracts
about 10,000 visitors.

HOLIDAYS

Bolivian Americans maintain strong ties to their former country. This is
emphasized by the fervor with which they celebrate Bolivian holidays in
the United States. Because Bolivian Americans are primarily Roman
Catholic, they celebrate the major Catholic holidays such as Christmas and
Easter. They also celebrate Bolivia's Labor Day and Independence
Day on August 6.

Festivals in Bolivia are common and often fuse elements from the Catholic
faith and from pre-Colombian custom. The Festival of the Cross is
celebrated on May 3 and originated with the Aymara Indians. Another Aymara
festival is
Alacitas,
the Festival of Abundance, which takes place in La Paz and the Lake
Titicaca region. In
Alacitas,
honor is given to Ekeko, who brings good luck. One of the most famous of
Bolivia's festivals is the carnival in Oruro, which takes place
before the Catholic season of Lent. In this mining town, workers seek the
protection of the Virgin of the Mines. During the Oruro festival, the
diablada
is performed.

Language

The three official languages of Bolivia are Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara.
Formerly dismissed as simply the languages of poor Indians, Quechua and
Aymara have gained favor due to increasing attempts to preserve
Bolivia's customs. Quechua is primarily an oral language, but it is
one with international importance. Originally spoken during the Incan
empire, Quechua is still spoken by about 13 million people in Peru,
Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina, and Chile. About three million people in
Bolivia and Peru speak Aymara. It has survived for centuries despite
efforts to eliminate its use. Spanish remains the predominant language in
Bolivia, however, and is used in all modern forms of communication,
including art, business, and broadcasting. Bolivia is also home to dozens
of other languages, most spoken by only a few thousand people. Some of the
languages are indigenous, whereas others arrived with immigrants, such as
the Japanese.

Bolivian Americans, when they do not speak English, usually speak Spanish.
In their careers and family life in the United States, immigrants have
found these two languages to be the most useful. Bolivian American
schoolchildren new to the United States, for whom English is a second
language, have experienced increased difficulties becoming adept at
English as support and funding for bilingual education shrinks in the
United States.

GREETINGS

Nonverbal communication is important to Bolivians when they meet and
converse. Bolivians who are descended from Europeans often use their hands
when they speak, whereas indigenous people from the highlands normally
remain immobile. Similarly, urban dwellers often greet each other with a
single kiss on the cheek, especially if they are friends or acquaintances.
Men usually shake hands and perhaps embrace. Indigenous people shake hands
very lightly and pat each others' shoulders as if to embrace. They
do not embrace or kiss. Bolivian Americans tend to utilize expansive
gestures when they communicate. This is due to the fact that most Bolivian
Americans are of European extraction and are more likely to have emigrated
to the United States.

Family and Community Dynamics

EDUCATION

In colonial times, only upper-class men were educated, either privately or
in schools run by the Catholic Church. In 1828, President Antonio Jose de
Sucre ordered public schools to be established in all states, known as
departments. Primary, secondary, and vocational schools soon became
available to all Bolivians.
Education is free and compulsory for children between 7 and 14 years of
age. In rural areas of Bolivia, however, schools are underfunded, people
are spread far and wide across the countryside, and children are needed to
work on the farms.

Bolivian females tend to be less educated than their male counterparts.
Only 81 percent of girls are sent to school, compared to 89 percent of
boys. It is common practice for parents to send their daughters to
government-run schools, while sons receive a better education in private
schools.

Education levels among Bolivian Americans tend to be high. Most Bolivian
immigrants are high school or college graduates, and they often obtain
jobs in corporations or in government. As with other immigrant and
minority populations in the United States, schools have been created that
are specifically designed to serve the needs of Bolivian American students
and preserve cultural traditions and values. For example, at the Bolivian
School in Arlington, Virginia, roughly 250 students practice their math
and other lessons in Spanish, sing "Que Bonita Bandera"
("What a Pretty Flag") and other patriotic Bolivian songs,
and listen to folk tales in native dialects.

BIRTH AND BIRTHDAYS

For Bolivians, birthdays are important events and are almost always
accompanied by a party. The party usually begins around 6:00 or 7:00 in
the evening. Guests almost always bring their entire families, including
children. After dancing and a late meal at about 11:00, the cake is cut at
midnight.

Children's parties, on the other hand, are held on the Saturday of
the birthday week. Gifts are not opened at the event, but after the guests
leave. It is traditional not to put the name of the giver on the birthday
gift, so that the birthday child may never know who gave each gift.

THE ROLE OF WOMEN

Although the role of women in Bolivian society has undergone dramatic
changes, much work still needs to be done in order to ensure that they
achieve greater equality with men. From birth, women are taught to
maintain the household, care for the children, and obey their husbands.
Traditionally, families in Bolivia have been quite large, sometimes
containing six or seven children. Sometimes, a household includes more
than just the husband, wife, and children. Grandparents, uncles, aunts,
cousins, and other relatives may also live in the home and women are
responsible for maintaining the household.

Bolivian women have traditionally played an important role in commercial
and economic activities. In poorer regions of Bolivia, women are often the
main financial support for the family. Since colonial times, women have
contributed to the economy through activities such as farming and weaving.

COURTSHIP AND WEDDINGS

In rural Bolivia, it is common for a man and a woman to live together
before marrying. The courtship process begins when a man asks a woman to
move in with him. If she accepts his request, this is called
"stealing the girl." The couple usually live in the house of
the man's family. They may live together for years, and even have
children, before they save enough money to formally celebrate their union.

Urban weddings among Bolivians of European descent are similar to those
performed in the United States. Among mestizos (persons of mixed blood)
and other indigenous peoples, weddings are lavish affairs. After the
ceremony, the bride and groom enter a specially decorated taxi, along with
the best man and parents of the bride and groom. All of the other guests
ride in a chartered bus, which takes them to a large party.

FUNERALS

Funeral services in Bolivia often include a mixture of Catholic theology
and indigenous beliefs. Mestizos participate in a expensive service known
as
velorio.
The wake, or viewing of the deceased's body, occurs in a room in
which all of the relatives and friends sit against the four walls. There,
they pass limitless servings of cocktails, hot punches, and beer, as well
as coca leaves and cigarettes. The next morning, the casket is carried to
the cemetery. The guests extend their condolences to the family, and may
then return to the funeral celebration. The next day, the immediate family
completes the funeral rite.

For mestizos who live near La Paz, the funeral rite includes a hike to the
Choqueapu River, where the family washes the clothing of the deceased
person. While the clothes dry, the family eats a picnic lunch and then
builds a bonfire to burn the clothes. This ritual brings peace to the
mourners and releases the soul of the deceased into the next world.

RELIGION

The predominant religion in Bolivia is Roman Catholicism, a religion
brought to the country by the Spaniards. Catholicism is often mixed with
other folkloric beliefs that come from Incan and
pre-Incan civilizations. Bolivian Americans usually maintain their Roman
Catholic beliefs after they enter the United States. However, once they
leave Bolivia, some Bolivian Americans fail to adhere to indigenous
rituals and beliefs, such as a belief in Pachamama, the Incan earth
mother, and Ekeko, an ancient god.

Employment and Economic Traditions

Like immigrants from most Central and South American countries, Bolivian
Americans have relatively high levels of income and education. Their
median income is higher than that of other Hispanic groups such as Puerto
Ricans, Cubans, and Mexicans. The proportion of Central and South
Americans who have completed the twelfth grade is twice as large as the
same proportion of Mexicans and Puerto Ricans. Also, a higher percentage
of Central and South Americans work in managerial, professional, and other
white-collar occupations than members of other Hispanic groups.

Many Bolivian Americans highly value education, which has allowed them to
do well economically. Upon arrival in the United States, they are often
employed as clerical and administrative workers. By pursuing further
education, Bolivian Americans often advance into managerial positions. A
large percentage of Bolivian Americans have held government jobs or
positions in American corporations. Multinational companies often benefit
from their skills and facility with foreign languages. Bolivian Americans
have begun working at universities, and many teach about issues related to
their former homeland.

Immigration into the United States is often tied to the economy of an
immigrant's home country, and Bolivia is no exception. One measure
of Bolivia's economic health is its fluctuating trade balance with
the United States. In the early 1990s, Bolivia had a positive trade
balance with the United States. In other words, Bolivia exported more to
America than it imported from it. By 1992 and 1993, however, that balance
had shifted, causing Bolivia to have trade deficits with the United States
of $60 million and $25 million, respectively. These amounts are relatively
small, but they added to a national debt that is staggering for such a
poor nation. In fact, the International Monetary Fund and the United
States forgave some of Bolivia's debt in the 1990s, releasing it
from its obligation to pay. The United States in 1991 provided grants,
credits, and other monetary payments to Bolivia totaling $197 million.
Such economic difficulties have made it harder for Bolivians to save
enough money to move to North America.

Bolivian immigrants are employed in a variety of careers in the United
States. Among those immigrants who provided occupation information to the
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, the largest single occupation
category in 1993 was professional specialty and technical workers. The
next largest group of Bolivian Americans identified themselves as
operators, fabricators, and laborers. About two-thirds of Bolivian
immigrants in 1993 chose not to identify their occupation, a percentage
that is consistent with immigrants from most countries.

Politics and Government

For Bolivian Americans, the political system of the United States is quite
familiar. Both countries have a constitution that guarantees basic
freedoms, a government with three separate branches, and a Congress that
is divided into two houses. However, while the United States has achieved
remarkable political stability, Bolivia's government has
experienced upheaval and several military coups.

In the United States, Bolivian Americans feel comfortable with the
political process. Their participation in American politics has been
focused toward improving the living conditions in Bolivia and other areas
of South America. During the 1990s, Bolivian Americans developed a strong
desire to influence politics within their homeland. In 1990, the Bolivian
Committee, a coalition of eight groups that promote Bolivian culture in
Washington, D.C., petitioned Bolivia's president to allow
expatriates to vote in Bolivian elections.

Individual and Group Contributions

ACADEMIA

Eduardo A. Gamarra (1957-) is an assistant professor at Florida
International University in Miami, Florida. He is the co-author of
Revolution and Reaction: Bolivia, 1964-1985
(Transaction Books, 1988), and
Latin America and Caribbean Contemporary Record
(Holmes & Meier, 1990). In the 1990s, he researched the stabilization
of democracy in Latin America.

Leo Spitzer (1939-) is an associate professor of history at Dartmouth
College in Hanover, New Hampshire. His written work includes
The Sierra
Leone Creoles: Responses to Colonialism, 1870-1945
(University of Wisconsin Press, 1974). His research concerns have centered
on Third World responses to colonialism and racism.

ART

Antonio Sotomayor (1902-) is a renowned painter and illustrator of books.
His work also includes a number of historical murals that are painted on
the walls of California buildings, churches, and hotels. His illustrations
can be seen in
Best Birthday
(by Quail Hawkins, Doubleday, 1954);
Relatos Chilenos
(by Arturo Torres Rioscco, Harper, 1956); and
Stan Delaplane's Mexico
(by Stanton Delaplane, Chronicle Books, 1976). Sotomayor also has written
two children's books:
Khasa Goes to the Fiesta
(Doubleday, 1967), and
Balloons: The First Two Hundred Years
(Putnam, 1972). He lives in San Francisco.

EDUCATION

Jaime Escalante (1930-) is a superb teacher of mathematics whose story was
told in the award-winning film
Stand and Deliver
(1987). This movie documented his life as a calculus teacher in East Los
Angeles, where he worked hard to show his largely Latino classes that they
were capable of great things and great thinking. He now teaches calculus
at a high school in Sacramento, California. He was born in La Paz.

FILM

Raquel Welch (1940-) is an accomplished actress who has appeared in a
number of films and on stage. Her film work includes
Fantastic Voyage
(1966),
One Million Years BC
(1967),
The Oldest Profession
(1967),
The Biggest Bundle of Them All
(1968),
100 Rifles
(1969),
Myra Breckinridge
(1969),
The Wild Party
(1975), and
Mother, Jugs, and Speed
(1976)
.
Welch won the Golden Globe award for Best Actress for her work in
The Three Musketeers
(1974). She appeared on stage in
Woman of the Year
(1982).

JOURNALISM

Hugo Estenssoro (1946-) is accomplished in many fields. He is prominent as
a magazine and newspaper photographer (for which work he has won prizes)
and he has edited a book of poetry (
Antologia de Poesia Brasilena
[An Anthology of Brazilian Poetry], 1967). He has also written as a
correspondent for numerous magazines both abroad and in the United States.
In his correspondence, Estenssoro has interviewed Latin American heads of
state and political and literary figures in the United States. In the
1990s, he was a resident of New York City.

LITERATURE

Ben Mikaelsen was born in La Paz in 1952. He is the author of
Rescue Josh McGuire
(1991),
Sparrow Hawk Red
(1993),
Countdown
(1997), and
Petey
(1998). Mikaelsen's unique adventure stories do not focus on the
battle between humans and nature. Instead, they appeal for peaceful
coexistence between the natural and social worlds. Mikaelsen lives in
Bozeman, Montana.

MUSIC

Jaime Laredo (1941-) is a prize-winning violinist who, early on, was noted
for his virtuoso performances. He first performed when he was eight years
old. His likeness has been engraved on a Bolivian airmail stamp.

SPORTS

Marco Etcheverry (1970-) is an accomplished athlete who is lauded by
professional soccer fans. Before his stellar career with the DC United
team, he was already one of Bolivia's most famous athletes. He
played for soccer clubs from Chile to Spain and traveled the world with
various Bolivian national teams. He is the captain of his team and a hero
to thousands of Bolivian immigrants in the Washington area. Etcheverry led
DC United to championship wins in both 1996 and 1997. In 1998, Etcheverry
had a career-high 10 goals and matched a personal best with 19 assists for
a total of 39 points. Nicknamed "El Diablo," Etcheverry and
his countryman Jaime Moreno are the only two players in league history to
reach double figures in goals and assists.

Media

Bolivia, Land of Promise.

Established in 1970, this magazine promotes the culture and beauty of
Bolivia.

User Contributions:

Good job! I was born in La Paz and have family in Cochabamba. I Production Design Feature Films in Los Angeles and I am now Directing. It's great to hear about so many wonderful Bolivians and American-Bolivians. Super saludos to you and keep up all the hard work. Bolivia es increible y me encanta lo que escriben. ciaooo! ARS

This is a truly wonderful, well-written article about Bolivia. I am from Cochabamba. My family is quechua indian. I beam with pride that I am indian, Bolivian, and have a tremendous influence on today's Bolivian youth. My children's father is from El Salvador. It's sad that his country does not recognize their indian descent. My children are well in tuned with their Bolivian culture--they know how to dance caporales, tinku, suri, and antawara, and they love their Bolivian cuisine.

I am from Cochabamba but in the 15 years that I lived in Bolivia
my family lived all over the place to include La Paz and Santa
Cruz. I love Bolivia and sometimes I miss the food and the
people. I think Bolivia its a very exotic place with its
tourism potential untapped, anywhere in Bolivia the landscapes
are awsome, worth taking a thousand pictures !
Bolivia has it all except a coastline but makes it up with
exuberant places and a very diverse geography.
Yes Bolivia has had a tragic history but I like to think
that most bolivians are doing ok and happy with they have.
To all bolivians living in the good old USA I say:
salud !! y que gane el Wilster !!

This was excellent. My mother is from Cochababmba Quechua indian (familia Guzman) and I was truly impressed to read about other Bolivian Americans. I hope to infuse my hispanic heritage on my children as well. I serve in the United States Army and make my Bolivian heritage known to all. Thank You for this wonderful article.

I found this article fascinating. Even though I am a Doninican Hungarian born in the U.S I love Bolivian and Andean culture so much that I even find myself identifying with it more than my birth nationalities. I especially love the highland culture and I play sikus, quenas, and indigenous wind instruments for about 6-7 years now.

Long live the Bolivians here in America and in Bolivian and all over the world!

I was born in Cochabamba and I m very happy to find a well written site that contains information about our beautiful country. Like most Bolivians in the United States, I came to this country many years ago, and made it my home. I have two wonderful children, who consider themselves proud to be from Bolivian descent. My husband is very well admired by his colleagues and is a fine exponent of the Bolivian men, well educated, well mannered and a wonderful family man. Thank you very much for this informative site. We need more sites like this, congratulations!

This article of information was well written. I am a proud 23 yr old Bolivian from Northern Virgina, attending college and decided to do a report on Bolivia. Bolivia is a beautiful country with such a rich culture. Bolivian-American's in the United State share such a strong bond and preserve our unique culture through music,festivals,parades,community groups and support systems! I love it i can remeber being part of a Bolivian dance group 3 years ago best experience of my life, getting to explore my roots and share good memories and road trip with my group. we danced in Maryland, New York at the Hispanic day parade in 5th Ave plus more! What a lovely culture Bolivia has =)

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