Sample records for assisted stress corrosion

A number of industrial boilers, including in the pulp and paper industry, needed to replace their lower furnace tubes or decommission many recovery boilers due to stress-assistedcorrosion (SAC) on the waterside of boiler tubes. More than half of the power and recovery boilers that have been inspected reveal SAC damage, which portends significant energy and economic impacts. The goal of this project was to clarify the mechanism of stress-assistedcorrosion (SAC) of boiler tubes for the purpose of determining key parameters in its mitigation and control. To accomplish this in-situ strain measurements on boiler tubes were made. Boiler water environment was simulated in the laboratory and effects of water chemistry on SAC initiation and growth were evaluated in terms of industrial operations. Results from this project have shown that the dissolved oxygen is single most important factor in SAC initiation on carbon steel samples. Control of dissolved oxygen can be used to mitigate SAC in industrial boilers. Results have also shown that sharp corrosion fatigue and bulbous SAC cracks have similar mechanism but the morphology is different due to availability of oxygen during boiler shutdown conditions. Results are described in the final technical report.

The aim of this review is to assess from the available data whether irradiation in PWR primary water can adversely affect the properties of stainless steels due to irradiation assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC). The following aspects are examined: (i) Irradiation damage of the material, (ii) The influence of water radiolysis. Since the irradiation damage processes are similar for both PWR and BWR systems, differences observed in the intergranular cracking properties of core components of both systems must be attributable to differences in the synergistic interactions with the coolant chemistry. These aspects are analysed in detail to determine to what extent BWR experience can be used to predict IASCC in PWR core components. Several related potential failure mechanisms are also reviewed such as radiation hardening, radiation creep and helium or hydrogen embrittlement. The probable role of some or all of these failure mechanisms in core component failures observed to date, and in experiments ostensibly designed to observe IASCC, is critically examined.

Stressassistedcorrosion (SAC) of carbon steel boiler tubes is one of the major causes of waterside failure in industrial boilers. SAC is a major concern for kraft recovery boilers in the pulp and paper industry as any water leak into the furnace can cause a smelt-water explosion in the boiler. Failed carbon steel boiler tubes from different kraft recovery boilers were examined to understand the role of carbon steel microstructure on crack initiation and SAC crack morphology. A number of carbon steel tubes showed a deep decarburized layer on the inner surface (water-touched) and also an unusually large grain size at the inner tube surface. SAC cracks were found to initiate in these areas with large-graineddecarburized microstructure. Tubes without such microstructure were also found to have SAC cracks. It was found that the decarburization and large grained microstructure may facilitate initiation and growth but is not necessary for SAC of carbon steel boiler tubes.

Irradiation assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) is a problem of growing importance in pressurized water reactors (PWR). An understanding of the mechanism(s) of IASCC is required in order to provide guidance for the development of mitigation strategies. One of the principal reasons why the IASCC mechanism(s) has been so difficult to understand is the inseparability of the different IASCC potential contributors evolutions due to neutron irradiation. The potential contributors to IASCC in PWR primary water are: (i) radiation induced segregation (RIS) at grain boundaries, (ii) radiation induced microstructure (formation and growth of dislocations loops, voids, bubbles, phases), (iii) localized deformation under loading, (iv) irradiation creep and transmutations. While the development of some of the contributors (RIS, microstructure) with increasing doses are at least qualitatively well understood, the role of these changes on IASCC remains unclear. Parallel to fundamental understanding developments relative to IASCC, well controlled laboratory tests on neutron irradiated stainless steels are needed to assess the main mechanisms and also to establish an engineering criterion relative to the initiation of fracture due to IASCC. First part of this study describes the methodology carried out at CEA in order to provide more experimental data from constant load tests dedicated to the study of initiation of SCC on neutron irradiated stainless steel. A description of the autoclave recirculation loop dedicated to SCC tests on neutron irradiated materials is then given. This autoclave recirculation loop has been started on July 2010 with the first SCC test on an irradiated stainless steel (grade 316) performed at CEA. The main steps of the interrupted SCC tests are then described. Second part of this paper reports the partial results of the first test performed on a highly neutron irradiated material. (authors)

The internal components of light water reactors are exposed to high-energy neutron irradiation and high-temperature reactor coolant. The exposure to neutron irradiation increases the susceptibility of austenitic stainless steels (SSs) to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) because of the elevated corrosion potential of the reactor coolant and the introduction of new embrittlement mechanisms through radiation damage. Various nonsensitized SSs and nickel alloys have been found to be prone to intergranular cracking after extended neutron exposure. Such cracks have been seen in a number of internal components in boiling water reactors (BWRs). The elevated susceptibility to SCC in irradiated materials, commonly referred to as irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC), is a complex phenomenon that involves simultaneous actions of irradiation, stress, and corrosion. In recent years, as nuclear power plants have aged and irradiation dose increased, IASCC has become an increasingly important issue. Post-irradiation crack growth rate and fracture toughness tests have been performed to provide data and technical support for the NRC to address various issues related to aging degradation of reactor-core internal structures and components. This report summarizes the results of the last group of tests on compact tension specimens from the Halden-II irradiation. The IASCC susceptibility of austenitic SSs and heat-affected-zone (HAZ) materials sectioned from submerged arc and shielded metal arc welds was evaluated by conducting crack growth rate and fracture toughness tests in a simulated BWR environment. The fracture and cracking behavior of HAZ materials, thermally sensitized SSs and grain-boundary engineered SSs was investigated at several doses (≤3 dpa). These latest results were combined with previous results from Halden-I and II irradiations to analyze the effects of neutron dose, water chemistry, alloy compositions, and welding and processing conditions on IASCC

Irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking is a key materials degradation issue in today s nuclear power reactor fleet and affects critical structural components within the reactor core. The effects of increased exposure to irradiation, stress, and/or coolant can substantially increase susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking of austenitic steels in high-temperature water environments. . Despite 30 years of experience, the underlying mechanisms of IASCC are unknown. Extended service conditions will increase the exposure to irradiation, stress, and corrosive environment for all core internal components. The objective of this effort within the Light Water Reactor Sustainability program is to evaluate the response and mechanisms of IASCC in austenitic stainless steels with single variable experiments. A series of high-value irradiated specimens has been acquired from the past international research programs, providing a valuable opportunity to examine the mechanisms of IASCC. This batch of irradiated specimens has been received and inventoried. In addition, visual examination and sample cleaning has been completed. Microhardness testing has been performed on these specimens. All samples show evidence of hardening, as expected, although the degree of hardening has saturated and no trend with dose is observed. Further, the change in hardening can be converted to changes in mechanical properties. The calculated yield stress is consistent with previous data from light water reactor conditions. In addition, some evidence of changes in deformation mode was identified via examination of the microhardness indents. This analysis may provide further insights into the deformation mode under larger scale tests. Finally, swelling analysis was performed using immersion density methods. Most alloys showed some evidence of swelling, consistent with the expected trends for this class of alloy. The Hf-doped alloy showed densification rather than swelling. This observation may be

The objective of this project is to determine whether deformation mode is a primary factor in the mechanism of irradiation assisted intergranular stresscorrosion cracking of austenitic alloys in light watert reactor core components. Deformation mode will be controlled by both the stacking fault energy of the alloy and the degree of irradiation. In order to establish that localized deformation is a major factor in IASCC, the stacking fault energies of the alloys selected for study must be measured. Second, it is completely unknown how dose and SFE trade-off in terms of promoting localized deformation. Finally, it must be established that it is the localized deformation, and not some other factor that drives IASCC.

In-reactor testing of bolt-loaded compact tension specimens was performed in 360 C water. New data confirms previous results that high irradiation levels reduce SCC resistance in Alloy X-750. Low boron heats show improved IASCC (irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking). Alloy 625 is resistant to IASCC. Microstructural, microchemical, and deformation studies were carried out. Irradiation of X-750 caused significant strengthening and ductility loss associated with formation of cavities and dislocation loops. High irradiation did not cause segregation in X-750. Irradiation of 625 resulted in formation of small dislocation loops and a fine body-centered-orthorhombic phase. The strengthening due to loops and precipitates was apparently offset in 625 by partial dissolution of {gamma} precipitates. Transmutation of boron to helium at grain boundaries, coupled with matrix strengthening, is believed to be responsible for IASCC in X-750, and the absence of these two effects results in superior IASCC resistance in 625.

Failure of carbon steel boiler tubes from waterside has been reported in the utility boilers and industrial boilers for a long time. In industrial boilers, most waterside tube cracks are found near heavy attachment welds on the outer surface and are typically blunt, with multiple bulbous features indicating a discontinuous growth. These types of tube failures are typically referred to as stressassistedcorrosion (SAC). For recovery boilers in the pulp and paper industry, these failures are particularly important as any water leak inside the furnace can potentially lead to smelt-water explosion. Metal properties, environmental variables, and stress conditions are the major factors influencing SAC crack initation and propagation in carbon steel boiler tubes. Slow strain rate tests (SSRT) were conducted under boiler water conditions to study the effect of temperature, oxygen level, and stress conditions on crack initation and propagation on SA-210 carbon steel samples machined out of boiler tubes. Heat treatments were also performed to develop various grain size and carbon content on carbon steel samples, and SSRTs were conducted on these samples to examine the effect of microstructure features on SAC cracking. Mechanisms of SAC crack initation and propagation were proposed and validated based on interrupted slow strain tests (ISSRT). Water chemistry guidelines are provided to prevent SAC and fracture mechanics model is developed to predict SAC failure on industrial boiler tubes.

Slow-strain-rate tensile (SSRT) tests were conducted on model austenitic stainless steel (SS) alloys that were irradiated at 289 C in He. After irradiation to {approx}0.3 x 10{sup 21} n {center_dot} cm{sup 2} and {approx} 0.9 x 10{sup 21} n {center_dot} cm{sup -2} (E > 1 MeV), significant heat-to-heat variations in the degree of intergranular and transgranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC and TGSCC) were observed. At {approx}0.3 x 10{sup 21} n {center_dot} cm{sup -2}, a high-purity heat of Type 316L SS that contains a very low concentration of Si exhibited the highest susceptibility to IGSCC. In unirradiated state, Types 304 and 304L SS did not exhibit a systematic effect of Si content on alloy strength. However, at {approx}0.3 x 10{sup 21} n {center_dot} cm{sup -2}, yield and maximum strengths decreased significantly as Si content was increased to >0.9 wt.%. Among alloys that contain low concentrations of C and N, ductility and resistance to TGSCC and IGSCC were significantly greater for alloys with >0.9 wt.% Si than for alloys with <0.47 wt.% Si. Initial data at {approx}0.9 x 10{sup 21} n {center_dot} cm{sup -2} were also consistent with the beneficial effect of high Si content. This indicates that to delay onset of and reduce susceptibility to irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC), at least at low fluence levels, it is helpful to ensure a certain minimum concentration of Si. High concentrations of Cr were also beneficial; alloys that contain <15.5 wt.% Cr exhibited greater susceptibility to IASCC than alloys with {approx}18 wt.% Cr, whereas an alloy that contains >21 wt.% Cr exhibited less susceptibility than the lower-Cr alloys under similar conditions.

Medical device fractures during gamma and electron beam (eBeam) sterilization have been reported. Two common factors in these device fractures were a constraining force and the presence of fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP). This study investigated the effects of eBeam sterilization on constrained light-oxide nitinol wires in FEP. The goal was to recreate these fractures and determine their root cause. Superelastic nitinol wires were placed inside FEP tubes and constrained with nominal outer fiber strains of 10, 15, and 20%. These samples were then subjected to a range of eBeam sterilization doses up to 400 kGy and compared with unconstrained wires also subjected to sterilization. Fractures were observed at doses of >100 kGy. Analysis of the fracture surfaces indicated that the samples failed due to irradiation-assistedstress-corrosion cracking (IASCC). This same effect was also observed to occur with PTFE at 400 kGy. These results suggest that nitinol is susceptible to IASCC when in the presence of a constraining stress, fluorinated polymers, and irradiation.

This report summarizes work performed at Argonne National Laboratory on irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) of austenitic stainless steels that were irradiated in the Halden reactor in simulation of irradiation-induced degradation of boiling water reactor (BWR) core internal components. Slow-strain-rate tensile tests in BWR-like oxidizing water were conducted on 27 austenitic stainless steel alloys that were irradiated at 288 C in helium to 0.4, 1.3, and 3.0 dpa. Fractographic analysis was conducted to determine the fracture surface morphology. Microchemical analysis by Auger electron spectroscopy was performed on BWR neutron absorber tubes to characterize grain-boundary segregation of important elements under BWR conditions. At 0.4 and 1.4 dpa, transgranular fracture was mixed with intergranular fracture. At 3 dpa, transgranular cracking was negligible, and fracture surface was either dominantly intergranular, as in field-cracked core internals, or dominantly ductile or mixed. This behavior indicates that percent intergranular stresscorrosion cracking determined at {approx}3 dpa is a good measure of IASCC susceptibility. At {approx}1.4 dpa, a beneficial effect of a high concentration of Si (0.8-1.5 wt.%) was observed. At {approx}3 dpa, however, such effect was obscured by a deleterious effect of S. Excellent resistance to IASCC was observed up to {approx}3 dpa for eight heats of Types 304, 316, and 348 steel that contain very low concentrations of S. Susceptibility of Types 304 and 316 steels that contain >0.003 wt.% S increased drastically. This indicates that a sulfur related critical phenomenon plays an important role in IASCC. A sulfur content of <0.002 wt.% is the primary material factor necessary to ensure good resistance to IASCC. However, for Types 304L and 316L steel and their high-purity counterparts, a sulfur content of <0.002 wt.% alone is not a sufficient condition to ensure good resistance to IASCC. This is in distinct contrast to

. Irradiation assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) is a known issue in current reactors. In a 60 year lifetime, reactor core internals may experience fluence levels up to 15 dpa for boiling water reactors (BWR) and 100+ dpa for pressurized water reactors (PWR). To support a safe operation of our fleet of reactors and maintain their economic viability it is important to be able to predict any evolution of material behaviors as reactors age and therefore fluence accumulated by reactor core component increases. For PWR reactors, the difficulty to predict high fluence behavior comes from the fact that there is not a consensus of the mechanism of IASCC and that little data is available. It is however possible to use the current state of knowledge on the evolution of irradiated microstructure and on the processes that influences IASCC to emit hypotheses. This report identifies several potential changes in microstructure and proposes to identify their potential impact of IASCC. The susceptibility of a component to high fluence IASCC is considered to not only depends on the intrinsic IASCC susceptibility of the component due to radiation effects on the material but to also be related to the evolution of the loading history of the material and interaction with the environment as total fluence increases. Single variation type experiments are proposed to be performed with materials that are representative of PWR condition and with materials irradiated in other conditions. To address the lack of IASCC propagation and initiation data generated with material irradiated in PWR condition, it is proposed to investigate the effect of spectrum and flux rate on the evolution of microstructure. A long term irradiation, aimed to generate a well-controlled irradiation history on a set on selected materials is also proposed for consideration. For BWR, the study of available data permitted to identify an area of concern for long term performance of component. The efficiency of

In-reactor testing of bolt-loaded compact tension specimens was performed in 360 C water to determine the irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) behavior of HTH Alloy X-750 and direct-aged Alloy 625. New data confirm previous results showing that high irradiation levels reduce SCC resistance in Alloy X-750. Heat-to-heat variability correlates with boron content, with low boron heats showing improved IASCC properties. Alloy 625 is resistant to IASCC, as no cracking was observed in any Alloy 625 specimens. Microstructural, microchemical and deformation studies were performed to characterize the mechanisms responsible for IASCC in Alloy X-750 and the lack of an effect in Alloy 625. The mechanisms under investigation are: boron transmutation effects, radiation-induced changes in microstructure and deformation characteristics, and radiation-induced segregation. Irradiation of Alloy X-750 caused significant strengthening and ductility loss that was associated with the formation of cavities and dislocation loops. High irradiation levels did not cause significant segregation of alloying or trace elements in Alloy X-750. Irradiation of Alloy 625 resulted in the formation of small dislocation loops and a fine body-centered-orthorhombic phase. The strengthening due to the loops and precipitates was apparently offset by a partial dissolution of {gamma}{double_prime} precipitates, as Alloy 625 showed no irradiation-induced strengthening or ductility loss. In the nonirradiated condition, an IASCC susceptible HTH heat containing 28 ppm B showed grain boundary segregation of boron, whereas a nonsusceptible HTH heat containing 2 ppm B and Alloy 625 with 20 ppm B did not show significant boron segregation. Transmutation of boron to helium at grain boundaries, coupled with matrix strengthening, is believed to be responsible for IASCC in Alloy X-750, and the absence of these two effects results in the superior IASCC resistance displayed by Alloy 625.

A family of high performance aerospace fasteners made from corrosion resistant alloys for use in applications where corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking are of major concern are discussed. The materials discussed are mainly A-286, Inconel 718, MP35N and MP159. Most of the fasteners utilize cold worked and aged materials to achieve the desired properties. The fasteners are unique in that they provide a combination of high strength and immunity to stresscorrosion cracking not previously attainable. A discussion of fastener stresscorrosion failures is presented including a review of the history and a description of the mechanism. Case histories are presented to illustrate the problems which can arise when material selection is made without proper regard for the environmental conditions. Mechanical properties and chemical compositions are included for the fasteners discussed. Several aspects of the application of high performance corrosion resistant fasteners are discussed including galvanic compatibility and torque-tension relationships.

Constant-extension-rate tensile tests and grain-boundary analysis by Auger electron spectroscopy which were conducted on high- and commercial-purity (HP and CP) Type 304 stainless steel (SS) specimens from irradiated boiling-water reactor (BWR) components to determine susceptibility to irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) and to identify the mechanisms of intergranular failure. The susceptibility of HP neutron absorber tubes to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) was higher than that of CP absorber tubes or CP control blade sheath. Contrary to previous beliefs, susceptibility to intergranular fracture could not be correlated with radiation-induced segregation of impurities such as Si, P, C, N, or S, but a correlation was obtained with grain-boundary Cr concentration, indicating a role for Cr depletion that promotes IASCC. Detailed analysis of grain-boundary chemistry was conducted on neutron absorber tubes that were fabricated from two similar heats of HP Type 304 SS of virtually identical bulk chemical composition but exhibiting a significant difference in susceptibility to IGSCC for similar fluence. Grain-boundary concentrations of Cr, Ni, Si, P, S, and C in the crack-resistant and susceptible HP heats were virtually identical. However, grain boundaries of the cracking-resistant material contained less N and more B and Li (transmutation product from B) than those of the crack-susceptible material, indicating beneficial effects of low N and high B contents.

Advanced testing of structural materials was developed by Lewis Research Center and Langley Research Center working with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Under contract, Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) conducted a study for evaluating stresscorrosion cracking, and recommended the "breaking load" method which determines fracture strengths as well as measuring environmental degradation. Alcoa and Langley plan to submit the procedure to ASTM as a new testing method.

Intergranular cracking of irradiated austenitic alloys depended on localized grain boundary stress and deformation in both high-temperature aqueous and argon environments. Tensile specimens were irradiated with protons to doses of 1 to 7 dpa and then strained in high-temperature argon, simulated boiling water reactor normal water chemistry, and supercritical water environments. Quantitative measurements confirmed that the initiation of intergranular cracks was promoted by (1) the formation of coarse dislocation channels, (2) discontinuous slip across grain boundaries, (3) a high inclination of the grain boundary to the tensile axis, and (4) low-deformation propensity of grains as characterized by their Schmid and Taylor factors. The first two correlations, as well as the formation of intergranular cracks at the precise locations of dislocation channel-grain boundary intersections are evidence that localized deformation drives crack initiation. The latter two correlations are evidence that intergranular cracking is promoted at grain boundaries experiencing elevated levels of normal stress.

In-reactor testing of bolt-loaded precracked compact tension specimens was performed in 360{degree}C water to determine effect of irradiation on the SCC behavior of HTH Alloy X-750 and direct aged Alloy 625. Out-of-flux and autoclave control specimens provided baseline data. Primary test variables were stress intensity factor, fluence, chemistry, processing history, prestrain. Results for the first series of experiments were presented at a previous conference. Data from two more recent experiments are compared with previous results; they confirm that high irradiation levels significantly reduce SCC resistance in HTH Alloy X-750. Heat-to-heat differences in IASCC were related to differences in boron content, with low boron heats showing improved SCC resistance. The in-reactor SCC performance of Alloy 625 was superior to that for Alloy X-750, as no cracking was observed in any Alloy 625 specimens even though they were tested at very high K{sub 1} and fluence levels. A preliminary SCC usage model developed for Alloy X-750 indicates that in-reactor creep processes, which relax stresses but also increase crack tip strain rates, and radiolysis effects accelerate SCC. Hence, in-reactor SCC damage under high flux conditions may be more severe than that associated with postirradiation tests. In addition, preliminary mechanism studies were performed to determine the cause of IASCC In Alloy X-750.

Finite element analyses were conducted to clarify the role of corrosion product films (CPFs) in stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Flat and U-shaped edge-notched specimens were investigated in terms of the CPF-induced stress in the metallic substrate and the stress in the CPF. For a U-shaped edge-notched specimen, the stress field in front of the notch tip is affected by the Young's modulus of the CPF and the CPF thickness and notch geometry. The CPF-induced tensile stress in the metallic substrate is superimposed on the applied load to increase the crack tip strain and facilitate localized plasticity deformation. In addition, the stress in the CPF surface contributes to the rupture of the CPFs. The results provide physical insights into the role of CPFs in SCC. PMID:26066367

Finite element analyses were conducted to clarify the role of corrosion product films (CPFs) in stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Flat and U-shaped edge-notched specimens were investigated in terms of the CPF-induced stress in the metallic substrate and the stress in the CPF. For a U-shaped edge-notched specimen, the stress field in front of the notch tip is affected by the Young’s modulus of the CPF and the CPF thickness and notch geometry. The CPF-induced tensile stress in the metallic substrate is superimposed on the applied load to increase the crack tip strain and facilitate localized plasticity deformation. In addition, the stress in the CPF surface contributes to the rupture of the CPFs. The results provide physical insights into the role of CPFs in SCC. PMID:26066367

Service experience applications, experimental data generation, and the development of satisfactory quantitative theories relevant to the suppression and control of stresscorrosion cracking in titanium are discussed. The impact of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) on the use of titanium alloys is considered, with emphasis on utilization in the aerospace field. Recent data on hot salt SCC, crack growth in hydrogen gas, and crack growth in liquid environments containing halide ions are reviewed. The status of the understanding of crack growth processes in these environments is also examined.

Stresscorrosion of titanium and its alloys at elevated temperatures is minimized by replacing trichloroethylene with methanol or methyl ethyl ketone as a degreasing agent. Wearing cotton gloves reduces stresscorrosion from perspiration before the metal components are processed.

Criteria and recommended practices for preventing stress-corrosion cracking from impairing the structural integrity and flightworthiness of space vehicles are presented. The important variables affecting stress-corrosion cracking are considered to be the environment, including time and temperature; metal composition, and structure; and sustained tensile stress. For designing spacecraft structures that are free of stress-corrosion cracking for the service life of the vehicle the following rules apply: (1) identification and control of the environments to which the structure will be exposed during construction, storage, transportation, and use; (2) selection of alloy compositions and tempers which are resistant to stress-corrosion cracking in the identified environment; (3) control of fabrication and other processes which may introduce residual tensile stresses or damage the material; (4) limitation of the combined residual and applied tensile stresses to below the threshold stress level for the onset of cracking throughout the service life of the vehicle; and (5) establishment of a thorough inspection program.

This research program has had two major areas of focus that are related: (1) alloy corrosion and (2) the role of selective dissolution in the stresscorrosion cracking of alloy systems. These interrelated issues were examined using model systems such as Ag-Au and Cu-Au by conventional electrochemical techniques, in situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), in situ small angle neutron scattering (SANS), ultrahigh speed digital photography of fracture events, and computer simulations. The STM and SANS work were specifically aimed at addressing a roughening transition known to occur in alloy systems undergoing corrosion at electrochemical potentials greater than the so-called critical potential. Analytical models of de-alloying processes including the roughening transition were developed that specifically include curvature effects that are important in alloy corrosion processes. Stress-corrosion experiments were performed on the same model systems using rapid optical and electrochemical techniques on 50 {micro}m--250 {micro}m thick sheets and small diameter wires. The primary goal of this work was to develop a fundamental understanding of the corrosion and electrochemistry of alloys and the stress-corrosion cracking processes these alloys undergo. Computer simulations and analytical work identified surface stress and an important parameter in environmentally assisted fracture. The major results of the research on this program since the summer of 1993 are briefly summarized.

The object of the present work is first to investigate accurately the processes during stresscorrosion, in particular, for light metal alloys and, as the first part of the investigation, to determine its laws; and secondly to explain its causes for various alloys and thereby find means for its partial or complete elimination and thus make possible the production of light metal alloys free from any stresscorrosion. In the present paper some of the results of the investigation are given and the fundamental problems of stresscorrosion discussed.

Corrosion failure, especially stresscorrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue, is the main cause of centrifugal compressor impeller failure. And it is concealed and destructive. This paper summarizes the main theories of stresscorrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue and its latest developments, and it also points out that existing stresscorrosion cracking theories can be reduced to the anodic dissolution (AD), the hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), and the combined AD and HIC mechanisms. The corrosion behavior and the mechanism of corrosion fatigue in the crack propagation stage are similar to stresscorrosion cracking. The effects of stress ratio, loading frequency, and corrosive medium on the corrosion fatigue crack propagation rate are analyzed and summarized. The corrosion behavior and the mechanism of stresscorrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue in corrosive environments, which contain sulfide, chlorides, and carbonate, are analyzed. The working environments of the centrifugal compressor impeller show the behavior and the mechanism of stresscorrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue in different corrosive environments. The current research methods for centrifugal compressor impeller corrosion failure are analyzed. Physical analysis, numerical simulation, and the fluid-structure interaction method play an increasingly important role in the research on impeller deformation and stress distribution caused by the joint action of aerodynamic load and centrifugal load.

The stresscorrosion cracking resistance of high strength, wrought aluminum alloys in a seacoast atmosphere was investigated and the results were compared with those obtained in laboratory tests. Round tensile specimens taken from the short transverse grain direction of aluminum plate and stressed up to 100 percent of their yield strengths were exposed to the seacoast and to alternate immersion in salt water and synthetic seawater. Maximum exposure periods of one year at the seacoast, 0.3 or 0.7 of a month for alternate immersion in salt water, and three months for synthetic seawater were indicated for aluminum alloys to avoid false indications of stresscorrosion cracking failure resulting from pitting. Correlation of the results was very good among the three test media using the selected exposure periods. It is concluded that either of the laboratory test media is suitable for evaluating the stresscorrosion cracking performance of aluminum alloys in seacoast atmosphere.

Process piping is often exposed to corrosive fluids. During service, such exposure may cause localized corrosion or stress-corrosion cracking that affects structural integrity. This paper presents a model that quantifies the effect of localized corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking on pipe failure stress. The model is an extension of those that have been developed for oil and gas pipelines. It accounts for both axial and hoop stress. Cracks are modeled using inelastic fracture mechanics. Both flow-stress and fracture-toughness dependent failure modes are addressed. Corrosion and crack-growth rates are used to predict remaining service life.

An experiment was conducted to investigate the role of weld residual stress on stresscorrosion cracking in welded carbon steel plates prototypic to those used for nuclear waste storage tanks. Carbon steel specimen plates were butt-joined with Gas Metal Arc Welding technique. Initial cracks (seed cracks) were machined across the weld and in the heat affected zone. These specimen plates were then submerged in a simulated high level radioactive waste chemistry environment. Stresscorrosion cracking occurred in the as-welded plate but not in the stress-relieved duplicate. A detailed finite element analysis to simulate exactly the welding process was carried out, and the resulting temperature history was used to calculate the residual stress distribution in the plate for characterizing the observed stresscorrosion cracking. It was shown that the cracking can be predicted for the through-thickness cracks perpendicular to the weld by comparing the experimental KISCC to the calculated stress intensity factors due to the welding residual stress. The predicted crack lengths agree reasonably well with the test data. The final crack lengths appear to be dependent on the details of welding and the sequence of machining the seed cracks, consistent with the prediction.

Accelerated test program results show which precipitation hardening stainless steels are resistant to stresscorrosion cracking. In certain cases stresscorrosion susceptibility was found to be associated with the process procedure.

Stressed alloy specimens are immersed in a salt-dichromate solution at 60 degrees C. Because of the minimal general corrosion of these alloys in this solution, stresscorrosion failures are detected by low-power microscopic examination.

A description is given of a device for stressing tensile samples contained within a high temperature, high pressure aqueous environment, thereby permitting determination of stresscorrosion susceptibility of materials in a simple way. The stressing device couples an external piston to an internal tensile sample via a pull rod, with stresses being applied to the sample by pressurizing the piston. The device contains a fitting/seal arrangement including Teflon and weld seals which allow sealing of the internal system pressure and the external piston pressure. The fitting/seal arrangement allows free movement of the pull rod and the piston.

Use of time-to-failure curves for stress-corrosion cracking processes may lead to incorrect estimates of structural life, if material is strongly dependent upon prestress levels. Technique characterizes kinetics of crackgrowth rates and intermediate arrest times by load-level changes.

SC resistance of new high-strength alloys tested. Research report describes progress in continuing investigation of stresscorrosion (SC) cracking of some aluminum alloys. Objective of program is comparing SC behavior of newer high-strength alloys with established SC-resistant alloy.

The liquefaction of coal to produce clean-burning synthetic fuels has been demonstrated at the pilot plant level. However, some significant materials problems must be solved before scale-up to commercial levels of production can be completed. Failures due to inadequate materials performance have been reported in many plant areas: in particular, stresscorrosion cracking has been found in austenitic stainless steels in the reaction and separation areas and several corrosion has been observed in fractionation components. In order to screen candidate materials of construction, racks of U-bend specimens in welded and as-wrought conditions and unstressed surveillance coupons were exposed in pilot plant vessels and evaluated. Failed components were analyzed on-site and by subsequent laboratory work. Laboratory tests were also performed. From these studies alloys have been identified that are suitable for critical plant locations. 19 figures, 7 tables.

An investigation has been carried out to examine the relationship of the observed chemical and mechanical properties of Al-Cu and Al-Zn-Mg alloys to the stresscorrosion mechanisms which dominate in each case. Two high purity alloys and analogous commercial alloys were selected. Fundamental differences between the behavior of Al-Cu and of Al-Zn-Mg alloys were observed. These differences in the corrosion behavior of the two types of alloys are augmented by substantial differences in their mechanical behavior. The relative cleavage energy of the grain boundaries is of particular importance.

Stress-corrosion cracking has been the most common cause of structural-material failures in the Apollo Program. The frequency of stress-corrosion cracking has been high and the magnitude of the problem, in terms of hardware lost and time and money expended, has been significant. In this report, the significant Apollo Program experiences with stress-corrosion cracking are discussed. The causes of stress-corrosion cracking and the corrective actions are discussed, in terminology familiar to design engineers and management personnel, to show how stress-corrosion cracking can be prevented.

Laboratory tests were conducted to investigate the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of 304L stainless steel used to construct the containment vessels for the storage of plutonium-bearing materials. The tear drop corrosion specimens each with an autogenous weld in the center were placed in contact with moist plutonium oxide and chloride salt mixtures. Cracking was found in two of the specimens in the heat affected zone (HAZ) at the apex area. Finite element analysis was performed to simulate the specimen fabrication for determining the internal stress which caused SCC to occur. It was found that the tensile stress at the crack initiation site was about 30% lower than the highest stress which had been shifted to the shoulders of the specimen due to the specimen fabrication process. This finding appears to indicate that the SCC initiation took place in favor of the possibly weaker weld/base metal interface at a sufficiently high level of background stress. The base material, even subject to a higher tensile stress, was not cracked. The relieving of tensile stress due to SCC initiation and growth in the HAZ and the weld might have foreclosed the potential for cracking at the specimen shoulders where higher stress was found.

An aircraft crash in the Netherlands was caused by disintegration of a jet engine. Fractography showed that the chain of events started with stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of a pin attached to a lever arm of the compressor variable vane system. Such a lever arm-pin assembly costs only a few dollars. Investigation of hundreds of pins from the accident and a number of identical engines revealed that this was not an isolated case. Many pins exhibited various amounts of SCC. The failed pin in the accident engine happened to be the first fractured one. SCC requires the simultaneous presence of tensile stress, a corrosive environment, and a susceptible material. In this case the stress was a residual stress arising from the production method. There was a clear correlation between the presence of salt deposits on the levers and SCC of the pins. It was shown that these deposits were able to reach the internal space between the pin and lever arm, thereby initiating SCC in this space. The corrosive environment in Western Europe explains why the problem manifested itself in the Netherlands at a relatively early stage in engine life. The main point is, however, that the manufacturer selected an SCC-prone material in the design stage. The solution has been to change the pin material.

In the light of research material published up to May 1970, the current understanding of the experimental variables involved in the stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of titanium and its alloys is reviewed. Following a brief summary of the metallurgy and electrochemistry of titanium alloys, the mechanical, electrochemical, and metallurgical parameters influencing SCC behavior are explored with emphasis on crack growth kinetics. Macro- and microfeatures of fractures are examined, and it is shown that many transgranular SCC failures exhibit morphological and crystallographic features similar to mechanical cleavage failures. Current SCC models are reviewed with respect to their ability to explain the observed SCC behavior of titanium and its alloys. Possible methods for eliminating or minimizing stresscorrosion hazards in titanium or titanium alloy components are described.

This paper describes a wide variety of residual stress effects in stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) of metallic materials on the basis of previous research of the author on high-strength steel in the form of hot-rolled bars and cold-drawn wires for prestressed concrete. It is seen that internal residual stress fields in the material play a very important -- if not decisive -- role in the SCC behavior of any engineering material, especially residual stresses generated near the free surface or in the vicinity of a crack tip.

The effects of irradiation on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) and intergranular corrosion (IGC) susceptibility were investigated in solution-treated Fe19Cr9NiMn alloys and JPCA irradiated to 5.3×1024 n/m2 (E > 1 MeV) at 573 K. In Fe19Cr9NiMn alloys, the irradiation enhanced IGC i n boiling HNO3 + Cr6+ solution when the alloys contained phosphorus and silicon and induced SCC in all the alloys with strain rate tensile tests in 571 K water containing 32 ppm oxygen. With increasing phosphorus and silicon contents. IGC was promoted but IGSCC was suppressed after irradiation. The results indicated that these elements are not the main contributors to irradiation-assisted SCC, although they affect SCC behavior. The Japanese Prime Candidate Alloy (JPCA) had better SCC resistance than Fe19Cr9NiMn alloys under the present irradiation condition.

This paper reports the sulfide stresscorrosion cracking (SSC) behavior of line pipe steel investigated using the SSC test method in NACE Standard TMO177-77, Testing of Metals for Resistance to Sulfide Stress Cracking at Ambient Temperatures. SSC of base metal can be classified into two types, depending on microstructures. In ferrite-perlite steel, the first crack initiates parallel to the pipe surface and propagates perpendicularly to the axis of stress. In ferrite-bainite steel or low C-bainite steel, the crack initiates at the interface between the bainite particle and the ferrite. With decreasing carbon content, the threshold stress of SSC ({sigma}{sub th}) increases, but in low-carbon steel, the {sigma}{sub th} value of weld seam is lower than that of base metal. SSC of weld seams occurs at the softening zone in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) about 2 to 4 mm away from the fusion line.

The effect of hydrogen on the properties of metals, including titanium and its alloys, was investigated. The basic theories of stresscorrosion of titanium alloys are reviewed along with the literature concerned with the effect of absorbed hydrogen on the mechanical properties of metals. Finally, the basic modes of metal fracture and their importance to this study is considered. The experimental work was designed to determine the effects of hydrogen concentration on the critical strain at which plastic instability along pure shear directions occurs. The materials used were titanium alloys Ti-8Al-lMo-lV and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn.

This document sets forth the criteria to be used in the selection of materials for space vehicles and associated equipment and facilities so that failure resulting from stresscorrosion will be prevented. The requirements established herein apply to all metallic components proposed for use in space vehicles and other flight hardware, ground support equipment, and facilities for testing. These requirements are applicable not only to items designed and fabricated by MSFC (Marshall Space Flight Center) and its prime contractors, but also to items supplied to the prime contractor by subcontractors and vendors.

In this article theoretical models and some existing data sets were examined in order to model the two main causes (hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion-cracking under stress) of the called environmentally assisted cracking phenomenon (EAC). Additionally, a computer simulation of flat metal plate subject to mechanical stress and cracking due both to hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion was developed. The computational simulation was oriented to evaluate the effect on the stress-strain behavior, elongation percent and the crack growth rate of AISI SAE 1040 steel due to three corrosive enviroments (H2 @ 0.06MPa; HCl, pH=1.0; HCl, pH=2.5). From the computer simulation we conclude that cracking due to internal corrosion of the material near to the crack tip limits affects more the residual strength of the flat plate than hydrogen embrittlement and generates a failure condition almost imminent of the mechanical structural element.

Mathematical formulation is based on cumulative-damage hypothesis and experimentally-determined stress-corrosion characteristics. Under both stationary random loadings, mean value and variance of cumulative damage are obtained. Probability of stress-corrosion fracture is then evaluated, using principle of maximum entropy.

Evaluations of stress-corrosion cracking resistance of five high-strength low-alloy steels described in report now available. Steels were heat-treated to various tensile strengths and found to be highly resistant to stress-corrosion cracking.

Two fundamental concepts of fracture mechanics are used to develop a theory of the earthquake mechanism which specifically predicts observed time-dependent rupture phenomena such as slow earthquakes, postseismic rupture growth and afterslip, multiple events, foreshocks, and aftershocks. The theory also predicts that there must be a nucleation stage prior to an earthquake, and suggests a physical mechanism by which one earthquake may trigger another. Investigations show that all earthquakes must be preceded by a quasi-static slip over a portion of the rupture surfaces, although it may be difficult to detect in practice, and a study of delayed multiple events characterizes the strength of some barriers in the earth as having a stresscorrosion index of about 24.

The overall aim has been to develop an improved understanding of the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) mechanism considered to be responsible for pellet-cladding interaction (PCI) failures of nuclear fuel rods. The objective of the present phase of the project was to investigate the potential for improving the resistance of Zircaloy to iodine-induced SCC by modifying the manufacturing techniques used in the commercial production of fuel cladding. Several aspects of iodine SCC behavior of potential relevance to cladding performance were experimentally investigated. It was found that the SCC susceptibility of Zircaloy tubing is sensitive to crystallographic texture, surface condition, and residual stress distribution and that current specifications for Zircaloy tubing provide no assurance of an optimum resistance to SCC. Additional evidence was found that iodine-induced cracks initiate at local chemical inhomogeneities in the Zircaloy surface, but laser melting to produce a homogenized surface layer did not improve the SCC resistance. Several results were obtained that should be considered in models of PCI failure. The ratio of axial to hoop stress and the temperature were both shown to affect the SCC resistance whereas the difference in composition between Zircaloy-2 and Zircaloy-4 had no detectable effect. Damage accumulation during iodine SCC was found to be nonlinear: generally, a given life fraction at low stress was more damaging than the same life fraction at higher stress. Studies of the thermochemistry of the zirconium-iodine system (performed under US Department of Energy sponsorship) revealed many errors in the literature and provided important new insights into the mechanism of iodine SCC of Zircaloys.

The selection of materials for mechanism components used in ground support equipment so that failures resulting from stresscorrosion cracking will be prevented is described. A general criteria to be used in designing for resistance to stresscorrosion cracking is also provided. Stresscorrosion can be defined as combined action of sustained tensile stress and corrosion to cause premature failure of materials. Various aluminum, steels, nickel, titanium and copper alloys, and tempers and corrosive environment are evaluated for stresscorrosion cracking.

The Hanford reservation Tank Farms in Washington State has 177 underground storage tanks that contain approximately 50 million gallons of liquid legacy radioactive waste from cold war plutonium production. These tanks will continue to store waste until it is treated and disposed. These nuclear wastes were converted to highly alkaline pH wastes to protect the carbon steel storage tanks from corrosion. However, the carbon steel is still susceptible to localized corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking. The waste chemistry varies from tank to tank, and contains various combinations of hydroxide, nitrate, nitrite, chloride, carbonate, aluminate and other species. The effect of each of these species and any synergistic effects on localized corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking of carbon steel have been investigated with electrochemical polarization, slow strain rate, and crack growth rate testing. The effect of solution chemistry, pH, temperature and applied potential are all considered and their role in the corrosion behavior will be discussed.

Molten salt is often used as a heat transfer and energy storage fluid in concentrating solar power plants. Despite its suitable thermal properties, molten salt can present challenges in terms of corrosion. Previous studies have focused extensively on mass loss due to molten salt-induced corrosion. In contrast, we have investigated how corrosion begins and how it changes the surface of stainless steel. Samples of alloys including 304 and 316 stainless steel were exposed to the industry-standard NaNO3-KNO3 (60%-40% by weight) mixture at temperatures over 500°C and then analyzed using Hirox, SEM, and TOF-SIMS. We compare the corrosion at grain boundaries to that within single grain surfaces, showing the effect of the increased internal stresses and the weakened passivation layer. Also, we have examined the enhanced corrosion of samples under mechanical stress, simulating the effects of thermal stresses in a power plant.

Coating with suitable grease found to inhibit stress-corrosion cracking in bore of inner race of ball-bearing assembly operating in liquid oxygen. Protects bore and its corner radii from corrosion-initiating and -accelerating substances like moisture and contaminants, which enter during assembly. Operating life extended at low cost, and involves very little extra assembly time.

A laboratory test method that is only mildly corrosive to aluminum and discriminating for use in classifying the stresscorrosion cracking resistance of aluminum alloys is presented along with the method used in evaluating the media selected for testing. The proposed medium is easier to prepare and less expensive than substitute ocean water.

Study resulting in a satisfactory stresscorrosion cracking test with extremely consistent results produced six new analytical methods. Methods detect and determine differences in the minor constituent composition of different types of dinitrogen tetroxide.

Measurements of electrical conductivity, ultrasonic surface wave attenuation, and internal friction loss were made on aluminum alloys 7079-T6, 2219-T31, and 2219-T81 as a function of the onset of stresscorrosion.

Experimental results on iodine induced stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) are analyzed. The studies were performed at 350°C using Zr-1% Nb tubular specimens. Fatigue crack at internal surface served as an initial defect. The relationship was derived between crack propagation rate and stress intensity factor; the threshold stress intensity factor of 4.8 MPa m{1}/{2} was determined.

Unexpected occurrence of failures, due to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of structural components, indicate a need for improved characterization of materials and more advanced analytical procedures for reliably predicting structures performance. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to determine the stresscorrosion susceptibility of 15-5PH steel over a wide range of applied strain rates in a highly corrosive environment. The selected environment for this investigation was a highly acidified sodium chloride (NaCl) aqueous solution. The selected alloy for the study was a 15-5PH steel in the H900 condition. The slow strain rate technique was selected to test the metals specimens.

During 1984, research investigating intergranular corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking in PWR steam generators provided data to formulate a corrosion-product transport theory. In addition, the research showed that changing the pH of liquids in generator crevices will retard and sometimes arrest the corrosion process.

The corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) characteristics of annealed and hardened 440C stainless steel were evaluated in high humidity and 3.5-percent NaCl solution. Corrosion testing consisted of an evaluation of flat plates, with and without grease, in high humidity, as well as electrochemical testing in 3.5-percent NaCl. Stresscorrosion testing consisted of conventional, constant strain, smooth bar testing in high humidity in addition to two relatively new techniques under evaluation at MSFC. These techniques involve either incremental or constant rate increases in the load applied to a precracked SE(B) specimen, monitoring the crack-opening-displacement response for indications of crack growth. The electrochemical corrosion testing demonstrated an order of magnitude greater general corrosion rate in the annealed 440C. All techniques for stresscorrosion testing showed substantially better SCC resistance in the annealed material. The efficacy of the new techniques for stresscorrosion testing was demonstrated both by the savings in time and the ability to better quantify SCC data.

In many applications, corrosion pits act as precursors to cracking, but qualitative and quantitative prediction of damage evolution has been hampered by lack of insights into the process by which a crack develops from a pit. An overview is given of recent breakthroughs in characterization and understanding of the pit-to-crack transition using advanced three-dimensional imaging techniques such as X-ray computed tomography and focused ion beam machining with scanning electron microscopy. These techniques provided novel insights with respect to the location of crack development from a pit, supported by finite-element analysis. This inspired a new concept for the role of pitting in stresscorrosion cracking based on the growing pit inducing local dynamic plastic strain, a critical factor in the development of stresscorrosion cracks. Challenges in quantifying the subsequent growth rate of the emerging small cracks are then outlined with the potential drop technique being the most viable. A comparison is made with the growth rate for short cracks (through-thickness crack in fracture mechanics specimen) and long cracks and an electrochemical crack size effect invoked to rationalize the data. PMID:25197249

In many applications, corrosion pits act as precursors to cracking, but qualitative and quantitative prediction of damage evolution has been hampered by lack of insights into the process by which a crack develops from a pit. An overview is given of recent breakthroughs in characterization and understanding of the pit-to-crack transition using advanced three-dimensional imaging techniques such as X-ray computed tomography and focused ion beam machining with scanning electron microscopy. These techniques provided novel insights with respect to the location of crack development from a pit, supported by finite-element analysis. This inspired a new concept for the role of pitting in stresscorrosion cracking based on the growing pit inducing local dynamic plastic strain, a critical factor in the development of stresscorrosion cracks. Challenges in quantifying the subsequent growth rate of the emerging small cracks are then outlined with the potential drop technique being the most viable. A comparison is made with the growth rate for short cracks (through-thickness crack in fracture mechanics specimen) and long cracks and an electrochemical crack size effect invoked to rationalize the data. PMID:25197249

In search for mild corrosive, 14 different salt solutions screened in alternate-immersion tests on 3 aluminum alloys. Best results were obtained with NaCl/MgCl2 solution and with synthetic seawater (contains nearly same proportions of NaCl and MgCl2 along with precise, minute amounts of eight other salts). Because solution is less expensive than artificial seawater, it is probably preferred for future stress-corrosion-cracking (SCC) testing.

The objective of the investigation is to develop a physically based understanding of the mechanisms of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in pipeline steels by applying advanced fracture surface and electrochemical characterization techniques to samples taken from fielded pipeline and to laboratory corrosion test specimens. SCC is a well-known concern of the gas industry that occasionally affects natural gas treatment plants, gathering lines, and transmission lines. The research program is designed to increase the understanding of pipeline degradation by identifying the specific mechanisms that control SCC. From the results, the authors expect to improve the ability to identify features in the metallurgy of pipeline steel, the environmental conditions that affect the susceptibility to SCC. The effect of overloads (possibly from hydrotests or pressure fluctuations) on the propagation of stresscorrosion cracks was readily evident from an analysis of the topographies of conjugate fracture surfaces. Crack branching usually resulted from overloads. Corrosion products were removed from the fracture surfaces of a stresscorrosion crack in a pipeline specimen recovered from service. The topography of the underlying metal surface appears to be preserved with little corrosion damage after crack formation. This allowed the cracking process to be reconstructed and details to be investigated.

A method is developed for predicting the probability of stress-corrosion fracture of structures under random loadings. The formulation is based on the cumulative damage hypothesis and the experimentally determined stress-corrosion characteristics. Under both stationary and nonstationary random loadings, the mean value and the variance of the cumulative damage are obtained. The probability of stress-corrosion fracture is then evaluated using the principle of maximum entropy. It is shown that, under stationary random loadings, the standard deviation of the cumulative damage increases in proportion to the square root of time, while the coefficient of variation (dispersion) decreases in inversed proportion to the square root of time. Numerical examples are worked out to illustrate the general results.

Based on the mass transport in the stresscorrosion crack, a mathematical expression of potential distribution along the stresscorrosion crack is deduced. From this mathematical expression and the E-pH diagram for H{sub 2}O, a new mechanism for hydrogen generation in the stresscorrosion crack i.e. H{sup +} partial potential drop mechanism, is proposed. Following this mechanism, the relationship between hydrogen generation and affecting factors, such as current density of anodic dissolution inside the crack, pH value, partial resistivity of H{sup +} ion, dimension of the crack and potential of the metal, is discussed. The mechanism is verified by experimental measurement results of the H{sup +} partial potential drop with microelectrodes placed in an artificial crack on AISI 410 stainless steel in 3%NaCl solution.

Stresscorrosion cracking behavior of several nickel-base alloys in high temperature caustic environments has been evaluated. The crack tip and fracture surfaces were examined using Auger/ESCA and Analytical Electron Microscopy (AEM) to determine the near crack tip microstructure and microchemistry. Results showed formation of chromium-rich oxides at or near the crack tip and nickel-rich de-alloying layers away from the crack tip. The stresscorrosion resistance of different nickel-base alloys in caustic may be explained by the preferential oxidation and dissolution of different alloying elements at the crack tip. Alloy 600 (UNS N06600) shows good general corrosion and intergranular attack resistance in caustic because of its high nickel content. Thermally treated Alloy 690 (UNS N06690) and Alloy 600 provide good stresscorrosion cracking resistance because of high chromium contents along grain boundaries. Alloy 625 (UNS N06625) does not show as good stresscorrosion cracking resistance as Alloy 690 or Alloy 600 because of its high molybdenum content.

Tests on irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) were carried out by using cold-worked (CW) 316 stainless steel (SS) in-core flux thimble tubes which were irradiated up to 5×10 26 n/m 2 ( E>0.1 MeV) at 310°C in a Japanese PWR. Unirradiated thimble tube was also tested for comparison with irradiated tubes. Mechanical tests such as the tensile, hardness tests and metallographic observations were performed. The susceptibility to SCC was examined by the slow strain rate test (SSRT) under PWR primary water chemistry condition and compositional analysis on the grain boundary segregation was made. Significant changes in the mechanical properties due to irradiation such as a remarkable increase of strength and hardness, and a considerable reduction of elongation were seen. SSRT results revealed that the intergranular fracture ratio (%IGSCC) increased as dissolved hydrogen (DH) increased. In addition, SSRT results in argon gas atmosphere showed a small amount of intergranular cracking. The depletion of Fe, Cr, Mo and the enrichment of Ni and Si were observed in microchemical analyses on the grain boundary.

The susceptibility of welded and unwelded samples of Al 5454 (UNS A95454) in the -O and -H34 tempers to pitting corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in chloride solutions was studied. Welded samples were fabricated using the relatively new friction stir welding (FSW) process as well as a standard gas-tungsten arc welding process for comparison. Pitting corrosion was assessed through potentiodynamic polarization experiments. U-bend and slow strain rate tests were used to determine SCC resistance. The FSW samples exhibited superior resistance to pitting corrosion compared to the base metal and arc-welded samples. U-bend tests indicated adequate SCC resistance for the FSW samples. However, the FSW samples exhibited discontinuities that probably were associated with remnant boundaries of the original plates. These defects resulted in intermittent increased susceptibility to pitting and, particularly for Al 5454-H34 samples, poor mechanical properties in general.

This paper addresses some of the overarching aspects of microstructure instability expected from both high temperature and radiation exposure that could affect the corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) resistance of the candidate austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni alloys being considered for the fuel cladding of the Canadian supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) concept. An overview of the microstructure instability expected by both exposures is presented prior to turning the focus onto the implications of such instability on the corrosion and SCC resistance. Results from testing conducted using pre-treated (thermally-aged) Type 310S stainless steel to shed some light on this important issue are included to help identify the outstanding corrosion resistance assessment needs.

This program is focused on the corrosion, stresscorrosion and corrosion fatigue behavior of Type 316 stainless steel (316SS) at 50, 90, and 130 C in high-purity water. Irradiated solution tests are performed using high-energy photon radiation. Purpose of this work is to determine the effects of radiolysis products on the environmental stability of 316SS in support of the ITER first wall/shield/blanket design. Preliminary results suggest that irradiation of pure water at 50 C results in a shift in the electrochemical potential for 316SS of approximately 100mV in the active direction and nearly an order of magnitude increase in the passive current density as compared to non-irradiated conditions. This proposal outlines a three-year program to develop corrosion design criteria for the use of 316SS in an ITER environment.

The resistance of the martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels PH13-8Mo, 15-5PH, and 17-4PH to stresscorrosion cracking was investigated. Round tensile and c-ring type specimens taken from several heats of the three alloys were stressed up to 100 percent of their yield strengths and exposed to alternate immersion in salt water, to salt spray, and to a seacoast environment. The results indicate that 15-5PH is highly resistant to stresscorrosion cracking in conditions H1000 and H1050 and is moderately resistant in condition H900. The stresscorrosion cracking resistance of PH13-8Mo and 17-4PH stainless steels in conditions H1000 and H1050 was sensitive to mill heats and ranged from low to high among the several heats included in the tests. Based on a comparison with data from seacoast environmental tests, it is apparent that alternate immersion in 3.5 percent salt water is not a suitable medium for accelerated stresscorrosion testing of these pH stainless steels.

Twenty-seven full-time students within the Physician Assistant Studies Program at The University of Texas--Pan American were anonymously surveyed to determine their levels of stress while enrolled in their first semester. The majority of respondents reported that their stress levels at this point in the program tell within the moderate to…

We investigated stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of zirconium by constant load test and the small-scale mock-up test simulated the fuel dissolve. These tests operated in the simulated solution, which substituted non-radioactive elements, i.e. V with radioactive elements such as Pu and Np. From the results of constant load test, the cracks were not observed on 150 MPa after 908 hours in approximately 3 % strain. However a lot of cracks caused by SCC were observed over 20 % strain under high tensile stress in the simulated solution and the heat-transfer condition having more corrosive circumstance and noble potential accelerated the susceptibility of SCC. The cracking behavior would be caused by the creep phenomena. The small-scale mock-up test had been operated for about 50000 hours during 7 year. From the results, zirconium showed excellent corrosion resistance and no SCC was observed during these long-term operations. (authors)

Resistance to stress-corrosion cracking in some stainless-steel alloys increased by addition of small amounts of noble metals. 0.75 to 1.00 percent by weight of palladium or platinum added to alloy melt sufficient to improve properties of certain stainless steels so they could be used in manufacture of high-speed bearings.

Solution of hydrogen flouride, hydrogen peroxide, and water reveals hot salt stresscorrosion cracks in various titanium alloys. After the surface is rinsed in water, dried, and swabbed with the solution, it can be observed by the naked eye or at low magnification.

The cold working process of stress coining is used to provide fatigue improvement of fastener holes in aircraft structures. The cold working produces a radial flow of the metal. The residual stresses resulting from stress coining provide protection against fatigue damage by opposing the applied tensile stresses in service at the edge of the fastener hole. However, it is shown in this paper that in addition to the compressive stresses surrounding the stress coined hole, there are tensile stresses that result from the coining operation and that these residual tensile stresses can have a deleterious effect on the stresscorrosion susceptibility of the postcoined structure.

Duplex stainless steels (DSS) with roughly equal amount of austenite and ferrite phases are being used in industries such as petrochemical, nuclear, pulp and paper mills, de-salination plants, marine environments, and others. However, many DSS grades have been reported to undergo corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking in some aggressive environments such as chlorides and sulfide-containing caustic solutions. Although stresscorrosion cracking of duplex stainless steels in chloride solution has been investigated and well documented in the literature but the SCC mechanisms for DSS in caustic solutions were not known. Microstructural changes during fabrication processes affect the overall SCC susceptibility of these steels in caustic solutions. Other environmental factors, like pH of the solution, temperature, and resulting electrochemical potential also influence the SCC susceptibility of duplex stainless steels. In this study, the role of material and environmental parameters on corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking of duplex stainless steels in caustic solutions were investigated. Changes in the DSS microstructure by different annealing and aging treatments were characterized in terms of changes in the ratio of austenite and ferrite phases, phase morphology and intermetallic precipitation using optical micrography, SEM, EDS, XRD, nano-indentation and microhardness methods. These samples were then tested for general and localized corrosion susceptibility and SCC to understand the underlying mechanisms of crack initiation and propagation in DSS in the above-mentioned environments. Results showed that the austenite phase in the DSS is more susceptible to crack initiation and propagation in caustic solutions, which is different from that in the low pH chloride environment where the ferrite phase is the more susceptible phase. This study also showed that microstructural changes in duplex stainless steels due to different heat treatments could affect their SCC

The Expert Panel Oversight Committee (EPOC) has been overseeing the implementation of selected parts of Recommendation III of the final report, Expert Panel workshop for Hanford Site Double-Shell Tank Waste Chemistry Optimization, RPP-RPT-22126. Recommendation III provided four specific requirements necessary for Panel approval of a proposal to revise the chemistry control limits for the Double-Shell Tanks (DSTs). One of the more significant requirements was successful performance of an accelerated stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) experimental program. This testing program has evaluated the optimization of the chemistry controls to prevent corrosion in the interstitial liquid and supernatant regions of the DSTs.

Sodium sulfite is used routinely for removing traces of oxygen from the water in low- and moderate-pressure boilers. Sodium sulfite is unacceptable for use in higher pressure boilers because it will decompose, which will release acidic gases into the steam and increase corrosion of after-boiler components. However, even in moderate-pressure boilers, one of the products of sulfite decomposition, moist sulfur dioxide, can cause stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of copper alloys. Monitoring the degree of sulfite decomposition in a specific boiler and controlling the factors that promote decomposition will reduce the likelihood and severity of SCC.

Stresscorrosion cracking caused by polythionic acid and/or chlorides is a problem in coal liquefaction pilot plants. This problem is also common in refineries and has been the subject of extensive research. This study examines (1) the relationship of the ASTM standard ferric sulfate-sulfuric acid test for determining sensitization to resistance to polythionic stresscorrosion cracking, (2) the cracking resistance of higher-alloy Fe-Ni-Cr materials in addition to the common austenitic stainless steels, and (3) the effect of chloride concentrations up to 1% in polythionic acid solutions on cracking behavior. We found that the ferric sulfate-sulfuric acid test can be used as an acceptance test for materials resistant to polythionic acid stresscorrosion cracking because of its severity. The more highly alloyed materials were more resistant to sensitization than most of the austenitic stainless steels and were virtually unattacked in polythionic acid solutions containing up to 1% chloride. Chloride increased the corrosion rate and caused localized pitting, but it did not affect significantly the number of failures or the failure mode.

In oil and gas production, internal corrosion of pipelines causes the highest incidence of recurring failures. Ensuring the integrity of ageing pipeline infrastructure is an increasingly important requirement. One of the most widely applied methods to reduce internal corrosion rates is the continuous injection of chemicals in very small quantities, called corrosion inhibitors. These chemical substances form thin films at the pipeline internal surface that reduce the magnitude of the cathodic and/or anodic reactions. However, the efficacy of such corrosion inhibitor films can be reduced by different factors such as multiphase flow, due to enhanced shear stress and mass transfer effects, loss of inhibitor due to adsorption on other interfaces such as solid particles, bubbles and droplets entrained by the bulk phase, and due to chemical interaction with other incompatible substances present in the stream. The first part of the present project investigated the electrochemical behavior of two organic corrosion inhibitors (a TOFA/DETA imidazolinium, and an alkylbenzyl dimethyl ammonium chloride), with and without an inorganic salt (sodium thiosulfate), and the resulting enhancement. The second part of the work explored the performance of corrosion inhibitor under multiphase (gas/liquid, solid/liquid) flow. The effect of gas/liquid multiphase flow was investigated using small and large scale apparatus. The small scale tests were conducted using a glass cell and a submersed jet impingement attachment with three different hydrodynamic patterns (water jet, CO 2 bubbles impact, and water vapor cavitation). The large scale experiments were conducted applying different flow loops (hilly terrain and standing slug systems). Measurements of weight loss, linear polarization resistance (LPR), and adsorption mass (using an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance, EQCM) were used to quantify the effect of wall shear stress on the performance and integrity of corrosion inhibitor

Corrosion and material degradation issues are of concern to all industries. However, the nuclear power industry must conform to more stringent construction, fabrication and operational guidelines due to the perceived additional risk of operating with radioactive components. Thus corrosion and material integrity are of considerable concern for the operators of nuclear power plants and the bodies that govern their operations. In order to keep corrosion low and maintain adequate material integrity, knowledge of the processes that govern the material's breakdown and failure in a given environment are essential. The work presented here details the current understanding of the general corrosion of stainless steel and carbon steel in nuclear reactor primary heat transport systems (PHTS) and examines the mechanisms and possible mitigation techniques for flow-assistedcorrosion (FAC) in CANDU outlet feeder pipes. Mechanistic models have been developed based on first principles and a 'solution-pores' mechanism of metal corrosion. The models predict corrosion rates and material transport in the PHTS of a pressurized water reactor (PWR) and the influence of electrochemistry on the corrosion and flow-assistedcorrosion of carbon steel in the CANDU outlet feeders. In-situ probes, based on an electrical resistance technique, were developed to measure the real-time corrosion rate of reactor materials in high-temperature water. The probes were used to evaluate the effects of coolant pH and flow on FAC of carbon steel as well as demonstrate of the use of titanium dioxide as a coolant additive to mitigated FAC in CANDU outlet feeder pipes.

Bone cutting is a frequently used procedure in the orthopaedic surgery. Modern cutting techniques, such as ultrasonic assisted drilling, enable surgeons to perform precision operations in facial and spinal surgeries. Advanced understanding of the mechanics of bone cutting assisted by ultrasonic vibration is required to minimise bone fractures and to optimise the technique performance. The paper presents results of finite element simulations on ultrasonic and conventional bone cutting analysing the effects of ultrasonic vibration on cutting forces and stress distribution. The developed model is used to study the effects of cutting and vibration parameters (e.g. amplitude and frequency) on the stress distributions in the cutting region.

Processes in growth of short cracks and stage I of long stresscorrosion cracks were identified and evaluated. There is evidence that electrochemical effects can cause short stresscorrosion cracks to grow at rates faster or slower than long cracks. Short cracks can grow at faster rates than long cracks for a salt film dissolution growth mechanism or from reduced oxygen inhibition of hydrolytic acidification. An increasing crack growth rate with increasing crack length could result from a process of increasing crack tip concentration of a critical anion, such as Cl{sup {minus}}, with increasing crack length in a system where the crack velocity is dependent on the Cl{sup {minus}} or some other anion concentration. An increasing potential drop between crack tip and mouth would result in an increased anion concentration at the crack tip and hence an increasing crack velocity. Stage I behavior of long cracks is another early development stage in the life of a stresscorrosion crack which is poorly understood. This stage can be described by da/dt = AK{sup m} where da/dt is crack velocity, A is a constant, K is stress intensity and m ranges from 2 to 24 for a variety of materials and environments. Only the salt film dissolution model was found to quantitatively describe this stage; however, the model was only tested on one material and its general applicability is unknown.

Postweld heat treatment of welded joints to improve the ductility of welds susceptible to cracking due to metal composition or wall thickness has become an essential component of standards generated by professional organizations. When properly applied, these procedures have proven to be quite effective in preventing premature weld-related failures. Recently, the welding industry has recognized that weld-induced stress also plays a role in certain localized corrosion phenomena. To address the cause of these long-term corrosion failures, it has become common practice to specify postweld heat treatment for thin-walled piping and vessels that would otherwise be exempt from code procedures. Corrosion often continues to be a problem even after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is performed on these relatively thin-walled weldments. The results of the extensive tests performed for the preparation of this paper indicate that surprisingly large through-wall radial temperature gradients often exist during the application of common PWHT practices. As a result of these radial temperature gradients, the standard application of heating elements to the pipe exterior does not always provide assurance that the interior surfaces at the edge of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) will achieve the temperatures necessary to adequately reduce weld-induced hardness. It is on these interior surfaces that the stress-induced corrosion phenomena is initiated.

Laser surface treatment of aluminium alloy 6013, a relatively new high strength aluminium alloy, was conducted with the aim of improving the alloy's resistance to stresscorrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue. In the first phase of this research, laser surface melting (LSM) of the alloy was conducted using an excimer laser. The microstructural changes induced by the laser treatment were studied in detail and characterised. The results showed that excimer LSM produced a relatively thin, non-dentritic planar re-melted layer which is largely free of coarse constituent particles and precipitates. The planar growth phenomenon was explained using the high velocity and high temperature gradient absolute stability criteria. The structure of the oxide and/or the nitride bearing film at the outmost surface of the re-melted layer was also characterised. The results of the electrochemical tests showed that the pitting corrosion resistance of the alloy could be greatly increased by excimer laser melting, especially when the alloy was treated in nitrogen gas: the corrosion current density of the N2-treated specimen was some two orders of magnitude lower than that of the air-treated specimen which was one order of magnitude lower than that of the untreated specimen. The effect of the outer surface oxide and/or nitride bearing film per se on pitting corrosion resistance was determined. The results of a Mott - Schottky analysis strongly suggest that the outer surface film, which exhibited the nature of an n-type semiconductor was responsible for the significant improvement of the corrosion resistance of the laser-treated material. Furthermore, the corrosion response of the surface film was modelled using equivalent circuits. Based on the results of the slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) and corrosion fatigue tests, the stresscorrosion cracking and pitting corrosion fatigue behaviour of the excimer laser treated material was evaluated. The results of the SSRT test showed that, in

The extremely low thermal expansion glass ceramic ZERODUR® finds more and more applications as sophisticated light weight structures with thin ribs or as thin shells. Quite often they will be subject to higher mechanical loads such as rocket launches or modulating wobbling vibrations. Designing such structures requires calculation methods and data taking into account their long term fatigue. With brittle materials fatigue is not only given by the material itself but to a high extent also by its surface condition and the environmental media especially humidity. This work extends the latest data and information gathered on the bending strength of ZERODUR® with new results concerning its long term behavior under tensile stress. The parameter needed for prediction calculations which combines the influences of time and environmental media is the stresscorrosion constant n. Results of the past differ significantly from each other. In order to obtain consistent data the stresscorrosion constant has been measured with the method comparing the breakage statistical distributions at different stress increase rates. For better significance the stress increase rate was varied over four orders of magnitude from 0.004 MPa/s to 40 MPa/s. Experiments were performed under normal humidity for long term earth bound applications and under nitrogen atmosphere as equivalent to dry environment occurring for example with telescopes in deserts and also equivalent to vacuum for space applications. As shown earlier the bending strength of diamond ground surfaces of ZERODUR® can be represented with a three parameter Weibull distribution. Predictions on the long term strength change of ZERODUR® structures under tensile stress are possible with reduced uncertainty if Weibull threshold strength values are considered and more reliable stresscorrosion constant data are applied.

Six alloys have been selected as candidate container materials for the storage of high-level nuclear waste at the proposed Yucca Mountain site in Nevada. These materials are Type 304L stainless steel (SS), Type 316L SS, Incology 825, P-deoxidized Cu, Cu-30%Ni, and Cu-7% Al. The present program has been initiated to determine whether any of these materials can survive for 300 years in the site environment without developing through-wall stresscorrosion cracks, and to assess the relative resistance of these materials to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). A series of slow-strain-rate tests (SSRTs) in simulated Well J-13 water which is representative of the groundwater present at the Yucca Mountain site has been completed, and crack-growth-rate (CGR) tests are also being conducted under the same environmental conditions. 13 refs., 60 figs., 22 tabs.

Microstructural analyses by several advanced metallographic techniques were conducted on austenitic stainless steel mockup and core shroud welds that had cracked in boiling water reactors. Contrary to previous beliefs, heat-affected zones of the cracked Type 304L, as well as 304 SS core shroud welds and mockup shielded-metal-arc welds, were free of grain-boundary carbides, which shows that core shroud failure cannot be explained by classical intergranular stresscorrosion cracking. Neither martensite nor delta-ferrite films were present on the grain boundaries. However, as a result of exposure to welding fumes, the heat-affected zones of the core shroud welds were significantly contaminated by oxygen and fluorine, which migrate to grain boundaries. Significant oxygen contamination seems to promote fluorine contamination and suppress thermal sensitization. Results of slow-strain-rate tensile tests also indicate that fluorine exacerbates the susceptibility of irradiated steels to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking. These observations, combined with previous reports on the strong influence of weld flux, indicate that oxygen and fluorine contamination and fluorine-catalyzed stresscorrosion play a major role in cracking of core shroud welds.

The stresscorrosion crack growth ate of metal matrix composites has been described by a model which is dependent on the length-to- diameter ({ell}/d) ratio and volume fraction of the reinforcing phase and matrix creep component. The model predicts a large dependence of the stresscorrosion crack growth rate of a metal matrix composite on {ell}/d and matrix creep component and a small dependence on the volume fraction of reinforcement. Experimentally determined crack growth rates for 7090 Al/SiC tested in 3.5% NcCl solution, 6061 Al/SiC tested in moist air with NaCl and immersed in NaCl solution, and Mg/Al{sub 2}0{sub 3} tested in a chloride/chromate solution are all consistent with the model. The close correspondence between the model and experiment for a matrix creep stress exponent of 3 suggest that there is little corrosion damage to the reinforcing phase in these systems. 16 refs., 5 figs.

The US Department of Energy is characterizing a potential repository site for nuclear waste in Yucca Mountain (NV). In its current design, the nuclear waste containers consist of a double metallic layer. The external layer would be made of NO6022 or Alloy 22 (Ni-22Cr-13Mo-3W-3Fe). Since over their lifetime, the containers may be exposed to multi-ionic aqueous environments, a potential degradation mode of the outer layer could be environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) or stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). In general, Alloy 22 is extremely resistant to SCC, especially in concentrated chloride solutions. Current results obtained through slow strain rate testing (SSRT) shows that Alloy 22 may suffer SCC in simulated concentrated water (SCW) at applied potentials approximately 400 mV more anodic than the corrosion potential (E{sub rr}).

Stresscorrosion cracking studies of aluminum alloys AA2219, AA8090, and AA5456 in heat-treated and non heat-treated condition were carried out using electrochemical noise technique with various applied stresses. Electrochemical noise time series data (corrosion potential vs. time) was obtained for the stressed tensile specimens in 3.5% NaCl aqueous solution at room temperature (27 °C). The values of drop in corrosion potential, total corrosion potential, mean corrosion potential, and hydrogen overpotential were evaluated from corrosion potential versus time series data. The electrochemical noise time series data was further analyzed with rescaled range ( R/ S) analysis proposed by Hurst to obtain the Hurst exponent. According to the results, higher values of the Hurst exponents with increased applied stresses showed more susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking as confirmed in case of alloy AA 2219 and AA8090.

The stresscorrosion characteristics of uniaxial glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin composites have been examined in Hydrochloric acid at room temperature and 80 C. A simple technique based on linear elastic fracture mechanisms (LEFM) is presented for characterizing crack growth in these materials subjected to hostile acidic environments. The environmental stresscorrosion cracking is investigated both for different types of resin and different types of glass fiber reinforcements. Two matrices were used: Bis-A epoxy vinyl ester resin (based on Bisphenol-A epoxy resin) and novolac epoxy vinyl ester resin (based on epoxidized novolac resin). Two glass fiber types were employed: standard E-glass fiber and R, a special type of E-glass with superior acid resistance. Model experiments using a modified double cantilever beam test with static loading have been carried out on unidirectional composite specimens in 1M Hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature and 80 C. The rate of rack growth in the specimens depends on the applied stress, the temperature and the environment. Consequently, the lifetime of a component or structure made from GRP, subjected to stresscorrosion conditions, could be predicted provided the dependence of crack growth rate on stress intensity at the crack tip is known. Scanning electron microscopy studies of the specimen fracture surfaces have identified the characteristic failure mechanisms. The most thing findings of this work is that the selection of epoxy vinyl ester resins reinforced with R fiber exhibited superior resistance to crack growth at 80 C compared to similar E-glass reinforced composites at room temperatures.

NACE Task Group T-8-14 was formed by Group Committee T-8 on Refining Industry Corrosion to conduct a survey on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of existing amine units. The main purpose of the survey was to determine the extent of cracking problems in such units and to examine possible correlations between cracked and noncracked locations to establish possible cause(s) for cracking. A total of 294 completed survey forms were received and analyzed. Cracking was reported in monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine, methyldiethanolamine, and diisopropanolamine solutions but was most prevalent in MEA units. Cracking occurs in all types of equipment and piping operating at all common temperatures. Cracking has been reported in all typical refinery streams containing H/sub 2/S, CO/sub 2/, or a combination of the two. The use of corrosion inhibitors, soda ash, caustic, filters, or reclaimers has no indicated effect on cracking tendencies. The survey results confirmed that stress relieving is a highly effective means of preventing amine SCC.

Residual stresses can play a key role in the SCC performance of susceptible materials in PWR primary water applications. Residual stresses are stresses stored within the metal that develop during deformation and persist in the absence of external forces or temperature gradients. Sources of residual stresses in pipe fittings include fabrication processes, installation and welding. There are a number of methods to characterize the magnitude and orientation of residual stresses. These include numerical analysis, chemical cracking tests, and measurement (e.g., X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, strain gage/hole drilling, strain gage/trepanning, strain gage/section and layer removal, and acoustics). This paper presents 400 C steam SCC test results demonstrating that residual stresses in as-fabricated Alloy 600 pipe fittings are sufficient to induce SCC. Residual stresses present in as-fabricated pipe fittings are characterized by chemical cracking tests (stainless steel fittings tested in boiling magnesium chloride solution) and by the sectioning and layer removal (SLR) technique.

Coal liquefaction plants with 6000 ton/d capacity are currently being planned by DOE as a step toward commercial production of synthetic fossil fuels. These plants will demonstrate the large-scale viability of the Solvent Refined Coal (SRC) process, which has been used since 1974 in two operating pilot plants: a 50-ton/d unit at Fort Lewis, Washington, and a 6-ton/d plant in Wilsonville, Alabama. Experience in these plants has shown that austenitic stainless steels are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking associated with residual stresses from cold working or welding. The corrodants responsible for the cracking have not yet been positively identified but are suspected to include polythionic acids and chlorides. To screen candidate materials of construction for resistance to stresscorrosion cracking, racks of stressed U-bend specimens in welded and as-wrought conditions have been exposed at the Wilsonville and Fort Lewis SRC pilot plants. These studies have identified alloys that are suitable for critical plant applications.

We have developed a model which utilizes a probabilistic failure criterion to describe intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC). A two-dimensional array of elements representing a section of a pipe wall is analyzed, with each element in the array representing a segment of grain boundary. The failure criterion is applied repetitively to each element of the array that is exposed to the interior of the pipe (i.e. the corrosive fluid) until that element dissolves, thereby exposing the next element. A number of environmental, mechanical, and materials factors have been incorporated into the model, including: (1) the macroscopic applied stress profile, (2) the stress history, (3) the extent and grain-to- grain distribution of carbide sensitization levels, which can be applied to a subset of elements comprising a grain boundary, and (4) a data set containing IGSCC crack growth rates as function of applied stress intensity and sensitization level averaged over a large population of grains. The latter information was obtained from the literature for AISI 304 stainless steel under light water nuclear reactor primary coolant environmental conditions. The resulting crack growth simulations are presented and discussed. 14 refs., 10 figs.

Laboratory experiments performed at BNL have shown that the concentration of boric acid to a moist paste at approximately the boiling point of water can produce corrosion rates of the order of several tenths of an inch per year on bolting and piping materials, which values are consistent with service experience. Other failure evaluation experience has shown that primary coolant/lubricant interaction may lead to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of steam generator manway studs. An investigation was also performed on eleven lubricants and their effects on A193 B7 and A540 B24 bolting materials. H/sub 2/S generation by the lubricants, coefficient of friction results and transgranular SCC of the bolting materials in steam are discussed. 13 refs.

Zirconium (Zr) has excellent general corrosion resistance in nitric acid. However, stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) has been reported in concentrated nitric acid. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the SCC susceptibility of Zr as a function of HNO[sub 3] concentration, from 6 to 94%, and temperature. The SCC mechanism was also investigated in relation to the electrochemical behavior. The slow strain rate test technique, under constant potential conditions, was mainly adopted for SCC testing. SCC did not occur in the boiling HNO[sub 3] at concentrations less than 70% unless an anodic potential was applied. The critical SCC potential, which coincides with the transient potential from passive to transpassive behavior in the polarization curve, decreased with an increase in HNO[sub 3] concentration. In boiling 94% HNO[sub 3] Zr exhibited SCC even under open-circuit potential conditions.

The Partnership for New Generation Vehicle has the goal of producing lightweight automobiles that achieve 80 mpg. To accomplish this will require liberal use of Al and Mg alloys such as AA5083 and AZ91D. The corrosion and stresscorrosion of alloy AA5083 is controlled by the precipitation of the b-phase (Al3Mg2) at grain boundaries and by the precipitation of the g-phase (Mg17Al12) in AZ91D. The b-phase is anodic to the Al matrix while the g-phase is cathodic to the Mg matrix. The effects of crack propagation along grain boundaries with electrochemically active particles is a key factor in the SCC performance of these materials.

Demonstration that the major variables influencing hot-salt stress-corrosion of titanium alloys are alloy processing conditions, heat-to-heat variations and composition, surface condition, and cyclic exposures. Under simulated compressor environmental conditions the commonly used 64 alloy is creep limited and not stress-corrosion limited. Cyclic exposures to stress-corrosion conditions are not as detrimental as continuous exposures for equivalent total times.

U-bend, C-ring, and slow strain-rate tests have been performed to evaluate the effects of texture, stress, surface conditions, heat treatment, electrochemical potential, and strain rate on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of zirconium in 90% nitric acid at room temperatures. It has been shown that careful control of texture, surface condition (scratching, cleaning and oxide coating), and/or applied stress can effectively lead to the prevention of SCC of zirconium in 90% HNO/sub 3/. Heat treating at 760/sup 0/C, 880/sup 0/C, or 1000/sup 0/C does not seem to improve the SCC resistance. However, if the potential of zirconium is maintained at 500 mV/sub SCE/ or lower, or 200 ppm of HF is added, zirconium's SCC susceptibility in 90% HNO/sub 3/ is eliminated. In the case of adding HF, zirconium sponge must also be added in order to avoid high corrosion rates. The mechanism for SCC of zirconium in 90% HNO/sub 3/ appears to be stressassisted local anodic dissolution, since the highest susceptibility is observed at strain rate = 7.5 x 10/sup -7//sec, and, at a higher or lower strain rate the susceptibility decreases. There is additional evidence to support this mechanism.

The current design of waste package containers include outer barrier using corrosion allowable material (CAM) such as A516 carbon steel and inner barrier of corrosion resistant material (CRM) such as alloy 625 and C22. There is concern whether stresscorrosion cracking would occur at welds or base metals. The current memo documents the results of our analysis on this topic.

Several ultrasonic inspection methods were developed at the Federal Aviation Administration's Airworthiness Assurance NDI Validation Center (AANC) to easily and rapidly detect hidden stresscorrosion cracks in all vertical windshield posts on the US Coast Guard (USCG) HU-25 Guardian aircraft. The inspection procedure locates cracks as small as 2.0 millimeters emanating from internal fastener holes and determines their length. A test procedure was developed and a baseline assessment of the USCG fleet was conducted. Inspection results on twenty-five aircraft revealed a good correlation with results made during subsequent structural disassembly and visual inspection.

The susceptibility of zirconium and its common alloys to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in nitric acid was investigated by slow strain-rate and constant deflection techniques. Cracking occurred at 25/sup 0/C over a wide range of acid concentrations and electrochemical potentials. The crack velocity increased slightly with increasing temperature. The failure mode was transgranular and the morphology was similar to SCC failures of zirconium alloys in other environments. The fracture was very orientation-dependent suggesting that it occurs on a single crystallographic plane in the material. The results of the study are not consistent with a hydrogen mechanism for cracking.

This paper covers some basic definitions and provides some data. The 51 slides illustrates these definitions, crack initiation and propagation, sources of stress, types of specimens used for SCC, potentiostatic polarization, data for Mulberry and U-Nb alloys, effects of environment, and data for U-0.75 Ti and U-Mo alloys. (DLC)

Intergranular stress-corrosion cracking of weld-sensitized wrought stainless steel piping has been an increasingly ubiquitous and expensive problem in boiling-water reactors over the last decade. In recent months, numerous cracks have been found, even in large-diameter lines. A number of potential remedies have been developed. These are directed at providing more resistant materials, reducing weld-induced stresses, or improving the water chemistry. The potential remedies are discussed, along with the capabilities of ultrasonic testing to find and size the cracks and related safety issues. The problem has been much less severe to date in pressurized-water reactors, reflecting the use of different materials and much lower coolant oxygen levels.

Carbonate-bicarbonate has been identified as the environmental species responsible for stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in the majority of studied field failures of natural-gas pipelines. Battelle Columbus Division, Columbus, Ohio, studied approximately 30 SCC field failures of natural-gas pipelines form a 20-year period beginning in 1965. The results of the study also reject hydroxide (caustic) as a significant factor in these failures. Stress-corrosion cracking in natural-gas transmission pipelines has been recognized as a serious problem for a number of years. But there remains considerable controversy concerning the environmental species responsible for the cracking. One opinion has held that carbonate-bicarbonate promotes cracking, while another attributes the cracking to hydroxide (caustic). This issue is important because the feasibility of mitigation procedures based on potential control depend upon the chemical species responsible for the cracking. Moreover, it is important for the laboratory studies aimed at SCC mitigation to simulate closely the field failures. Both carbonate/bicarbonate and caustic environments can result from application of cathodic protection to a pipeline. The cathodic current applied to the pipeline accelerates the rate of the reduction reactions occurring on the pipe surface, promoting generation of hydroxide.

The feasibility of detecting stress-corrosion cracks (SSC) using the Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) technique was demonstrated. The RFEC technique interrogates the entire thickness of the pipe and is applicable for in-line inspection. If it can be shown that the RFEC technique is effective in detecting SSC, then the technique is an ideal method for detecting the defects of interest. A defect detection model is proposed for explaining the mechanism for crack detection. For axially oriented, closed cracks, such as SCC, the conventional defect detection model proved to be too simplistic and not applicable. Therefore, a new detection mode that examines the flow of circumferential eddy currents was developed based on experimental results. This model, though not rigorous, provides a general understanding of the applicability of the RFEC technique for finding SSC. The data from the cracks and various artificial defects is presented in three formats: isometric projections, pseudocolor images and line-of-sight data. Though only two cracks were found, the experimental results correlate well with the circumferential eddy current theory. A theoretical analysis of the effects of motion on the output signal of the receiver is presented. This analysis indicates that inspection speed of simple implementations may be limited to a few miles per hour. Remote field eddy current inspection has excellent potential for inspection of gas transmission lines for detecting stresscorrosion cracks that should be further developed.

High strength, age hardenable Ni-base superalloy Inconel X-750 in susceptible to severe intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) when used in the triple heat treated condition. In this research, constant strain rate technique was employed to evaluate the stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of alloy X-750 under simulated pressurized water reactor conditions in a nuclear power plant using an automated autoclave system at 8 x 10/sup 6/ N/m/sup 2/ pressure and 289/sup 0/C temperature. The alloy produced via ESR and VAR processing routes containing .004% and .011% sulfur, respectively, were solution annealed at 1075 and 1240/sup 0/C for 2 hours and water quenched followed by aging in the 704 to 871/sup 0/C temperature range up to 200 hours and cooled in air as well as the furnace. Complete grain boundary chemistry and precipitation morphology was studied, supported by observations made using Charpy impact and modified Huey tests. Results showed Inconel X-750 processed through electroslag refining, solution annealed at 1240/sup 0/C for 2 hours and water quenched followed by aging at 871/sup 0/C for 200 hours and furnace cooling, provides the best combination of strength, ductility, and resistance to SCC.

In this article, we examine the effect of aging treatment and the role of planarity of slip on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior in precipitation-hardened alloys. With aging, the slip mode can change from a planar slip in the underage (UA) to a wavy slip in the overage (OA) region. This, in turn, results in sharpening the crack tip in the UA compared to blunting in the OA condition. We propose that the planar slip enhances the stress concentration effects by making the alloys more susceptible to SCC. In addition, the planarity of slip enhances plateau velocities, reduces thresholds for SCC, and reduces component life. We show that the effect of slip planarity is somewhat similar to the effects of mechanically induced stress concentrations such as due to the presence of sharp notches. Aging treatment also causes variations in the matrix and grain boundary (GB) microstructures, along with typical mechanical and SCC properties. These properties include yield stress, work hardening rate, fracture toughness K IC , thresholds K Iscc, and steady-state plateau velocity ( da/ dt). The SCC data for a wide range of ductile alloys including 7050, 7075, 5083, 5456 Al, MAR M steels, and solid solution copper-base alloys are collected from the literature. Our assertion is that slip mode and the resulting stress concentration are important factors in SCC behavior. This is further supported by similar observations in many other systems including some steels, Al alloys, and Cu alloys.

The possibility for stresscorrosion cracking due to external environments to occur in submarine pipelines can not be excluded. The probability for stresscorrosion to occur in submarine pipelines, however, considered to be for onshore pipelines mainly because calcareous deposits are expected to prevent buildup of the corrosive environment. Also the fact that the quality of surface preparation prior to coating for submarine pipelines normally is of a relatively high standard, contributes to reduce the probability for stresscorrosion cracking to occur.

A stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) model has been adapted for performance prediction of high level radioactive-waste packages to be emplaced in the proposed Yucca Mountain radioactive-waste repository. SCC is one form of environmentally assisted cracking resulting from the presence of three factors: metallurgical susceptibility, critical environment, and tensile stresses. For waste packages of the proposed Yucca Mountain repository, the outer barrier material is the highly corrosion-resistant Alloy UNS-N06022, the environment is represented by the water film present on the surface of the waste package from dripping or deliquescence of soluble salts present in any surface deposits, and the stress is principally the weld induced residual stress. SCC has historically been separated into 'initiation' and 'propagation' phases. Initiation of SCC will not occur on a smooth surface if the surface stress is below a threshold value defined as the threshold stress. Cracks can also initiate at and propagate from flaws (or defects) resulting from manufacturing processes (such as welding). To account for crack propagation, the slip dissolution/film rupture (SDFR) model is adopted to provide mathematical formulae for prediction of the crack growth rate. Once the crack growth rate at an initiated SCC is determined, it can be used by the performance assessment (not in the scope of this paper) to determine the time to through-wall penetration for the waste package. This paper presents the development and validation of the SDFR crack growth rate model based on technical information in the literature as well as experimentally determined crack growth rates developed specifically for Alloy UNS- N06022 in environments relevant to high level radioactive-waste packages of the proposed Yucca Mountain radioactive-waste repository.

Duplex stainless steel (DSS) is a dual-phase material with approximately equal volume amount of austenite and ferrite. It has both great mechanical properties (good ductility and high tensile/fatigue strength) and excellent corrosion resistance due to the mixture of the two phases. Cyclic loadings with high stress level and low frequency are experienced by many structures. However, the existing study on corrosion fatigue (CF) study of various metallic materials has mainly concentrated on relatively high frequency range. No systematic study has been done to understand the ultra-low frequency (˜10-5 Hz) cyclic loading effect on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of DSSs. In this study, the ultra-low frequency cyclic loading effect on SCC of DSS 2205 was studied in acidified sodium chloride and caustic white liquor (WL) solutions. The research work focused on the environmental effect on SCC of DSS 2205, the cyclic stress effect on strain accumulation behavior of DSS 2205, and the combined environmental and cyclic stress effect on the stresscorrosion crack initiation of DSS 2205 in the above environments. Potentiodynamic polarization tests were performed to investigate the electrochemical behavior of DSS 2205 in acidic NaCl solution. Series of slow strain rate tests (SSRTs) at different applied potential values were conducted to reveal the optimum applied potential value for SCC to happen. Room temperature static and cyclic creep tests were performed in air to illustrate the strain accumulation effect of cyclic stresses. Test results showed that cyclic loading could enhance strain accumulation in DSS 2205 compared to static loading. Moreover, the strain accumulation behavior of DSS 2205 was found to be controlled by the two phases of DSS 2205 with different crystal structures. The B.C.C. ferrite phase enhanced strain accumulation due to extensive cross-slips of the dislocations, whereas the F.C.C. austenite phase resisted strain accumulation due to cyclic strain

The critical stress for initiation of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of a duplex stainless steel (DSS) in a sour environment was investigated using three stress application techniques: constant-strain, constant-load, and slow strain rate testing (SSRT). The critical stresses for SCC initiation as determined by detailed observation of the alloy surface after the three tests were in good agreement when a newly proposed index was adopted to express the SSRT results combined with crack observations for each test. The effect of cold work (CW) on SCC and pitting resistance of the DSS also was studied. CW did not accelerate SCC when initiation was controlled by pitting. The critical stress for SCC initiation increased with increasing CW and the resultant increase in yield stress.

In order to examine the cause of the reactor fuel pin pellet-cladding interaction phenomenon (PCI), stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) experiments of Zircaloy under iodine, iron iodide, aluminum iodide, cesium iodide, and cadmium were undertaken. Radiation enhancement tests with CsI were also performed. Iodine, iron iodide, and aluminum iodide can reduce the failure times. Fractography is of cleavage type and is completely different from the ductile dimple type failure for control specimens. There exists a critical stress of 379 MPa for iodine and iron iodide above which burst type failure occurs. Pinhole type failure predominates for lower stresses. Both types showed brittle fracture surfaces. The presence of CsI did not have any influence on failure time of zircaloy. The failure is burst-type, and the fractography is ductile. Radiation enhancement tests with cesium iodide did not cause reduction in failure time either. Failure times were decreased for the tests under cadmium. All specimens failed under cadmium vapor by a burst mode, and fractography showed cleavage brittle characteristics. Chemical parameters such as reaction order, activation energy, and minimum pressure required for SCC were determined. A crack propagation more originally designed for brittle solids for the SCC experimental data well. Variable stresses and surface roughness test results can be correlated quantitatively by the model. 80 figures.

Laboratory testing was performed to develop a comprehensive understanding of the corrosivity of the tank wastes stored in Double-Shell Tanks using simulants primarily from Tanks 241-AP-105, 241-SY-103 and 241-AW-105. Additional tests were conducted using simulants of the waste stored in 241-AZ-102, 241-SY-101, 241-AN-107, and 241-AY-101. This test program placed particular emphasis on defining the range of tank waste chemistries that do not induce the onset of localized forms of corrosion, particularly pitting and stresscorrosion cracking. This document summarizes the key findings of the research program.

The electrochemical behavior of high purity (99.95% to 99.99%) iron in 0.6M NaCl and 1.0M Na/sub 2/SO/sub 4/ containing H/sub 2/S (50 ppM to 34,000 ppM) was studied using cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry, and slow scan rate polarization. Results have indicated that iron does undergo passivation in sulfate solutions containing H/sub 2/S. Iron dissolution depends on the presence of Cl/sup -/, the concentration of H/sub 2/S and solution pH. An equation is given that describes the anodic Tafel current densities. The slow strain rate test was used to evaluate the effect of electrode potential on the susceptibility of 2-1/4Cr, Mo steel to stresscorrosion cracking in boiling 50% NaOH solution. Susceptibility decreased and general corrosion increased with increasing potentials. Failures contained a combination of ductile and brittle fracture. Time-to-failure was longest for controlled potentials of -700 and -600mV (Hg/HgO reference) in the -1100 to -400mV range used in this study.

A synergistic effect of hydrogen and stress on a corrosion rate was analyzed with thermodynamics. The results showed that an interaction of stress and hydrogen could increase the corrosion rate remarkably. Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of austenitic stainless steel (ASS) was investigated in boiling chloride solution to confirm the analysis. Hydrogen could be introduced into the specimen concentrated at the crack tip during SCC in boiling LiCl solution (143 C). The concentrating factor is about 3 which is consistent with calculated results according to stress induced diffusion.

The stresscorrosion behavior of the P/M aluminum alloy 7091 is evaluated in two overaged heat treatment conditions, T7E69 and T7E70, using an accelerated test technique known as the breaking load test method. The breaking load data obtained in this study indicate that P/M 7091 alloy is highly resistant to stresscorrosion in both longitudinal and transverse orientations at stress levels up to 90 percent of the material yield strength. The reduction in mean breaking stress as a result of corrosive attack is smallest for the more overaged T7E70 condition. Details of the test procedure are included.

Presents some materials for use in demonstration and experimentation of corrosion processes, including corrosion stimulation and inhibition. Indicates that basic concepts of electrochemistry, crystal structure, and kinetics can be extended to practical chemistry through corrosion explanation. (CC)

A research program on primary stresscorrosion crack (PWSCC) is being conducted by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). In this program, the material degradation problem in Alloys 600, 182, and 82 is being investigated with objectives that include compling a knowledge base on all cracking in nickel based materials at all degradation sites in nuclear power plants, assessing NDE methods using mockups to quantify the detection, sizing, and using mockups to quantify the detection sizing and characterization of tight cracks, and determining the role of welding processes in degradation. In this paper, the resuts of the initial literature searchs are presented. The relevant data on crack properties such as shape and orientation are presented and their impace on nondestructive evaluation (NDE) reliability is discussed.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) resistance of 18Ni maraging steel (grades 200, 250, 300, and 350) was determined in 3.5 percent salt (NaCl) solution, synthetic sea water, high humidity, and outside MSFC atmosphere. All grades of the maraging steel were found to be susceptible to SCC in varying degrees according to their strengths, with the lowest strength steel (grade 200) being the least susceptible and the highest strength steel (grade 350), the most susceptible to SCC. The SCC resistance of 250 grade maraging steel was also evaluated in salt and salt-chromate solutions using fracture mechanics techniques. The threshold value, K sub SCC, was found to be approximately 44 MN/sq m square root m, (40 ksi square root in.) or 40 percent of the K sub Q value.

The pitting and stresscorrosion cracking of a stable austenitic stainless steel in aqueous chloride environments were investigated using a secondary ion mass spectrometer as the primary experimental technique. The surface concentration of hydrogen, oxygen, the hydroxide, and chloride ion, magnesium or sodium, chromium and nickel were measured as a function of potential in both aqueous sodium chloride and magnesium chloride environments at room temperature and boiling temperatures. It was found that, under anodic conditions, a sharp increase in the chloride concentration was observed to occur for all environmental conditions. The increase may be associated with the formation of an iron chloride complex. Higher localized chloride concentrations at pits and cracks were also detected with an electron microprobe.

Several utility steam generator and stresscorrosion cracking databases are synthesized with the view of identifying the crevice chemistry that is most consistent with the plant cracking data. Superheated steam and neutral solution environments are found to be inconsistent with the large variations in the observed SCC between different plants, different support plates within a plant, and different crevice locations. While the eddy current response of laboratory tests performed with caustic chemistries approximates the response of the most extensively affected steam generator tubes, the crack propagation kinetics in these tests differ horn plant experience. The observations suggest that there is a gradual conversion of the environment responsible for most steam generator ODSCC from a concentrated, alkaline-forming solution to a progressively more steam-enriched environment.

This report describes experimental application of the RFEC technique for crack detection in gas transmission pipelines. Crack data from three pipe samples are presented. A total of eight stresscorrosion cracks were detected ranging in depth from 25 percent of wall thickness to completely through-wall. An improved defect detection model is presented that explains the interaction of the remote electromagnetic field with axial cracks as well as other defects such as metal loss and circumferential cracks. The investigation of the through-wall crack helps illustrate this model and also indicates RFEC has potential for detection and location of leaks from cracks. Many regions with crack depths less than 25 percent and lengths less than one inch were investigated, but dejection was unsuccessful. Data from artificial defects are presented to describe the relative sensitivity and characterization capability of the RFEC technique to longitudinal and circumferential planar (crack-like) defects as well as volumetric (metal loss) defects.

Surface finishing treatments such as shot blasting and wire brushing can be beneficial in improving the integrity of machined surfaces of austenitic stainless steels. These operations optimize in-service properties such as resistance to pitting corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). In this study, ground steel surfaces were subjected to a series of sand blasting and wire brushing treatments. The surfaces were then characterized by their hardness, surface residual stress state, and resistance to stresscorrosion and pitting corrosion. Some samples were selected for depth profiling of residual stress. It is found that surface hardening and the generation of near-surface compressive residual stress are the benefits that can be introduced by sand blasting and brushing operations.

Six alloys have been selected as candidate container materials for the storage of high-level nuclear waste at the proposed Yucca mountain site in Nevada. These materials are Type 304L stainless steel (SS). Type 316L SS, Incoloy 825, phosphorus-deoxidized Cu, Cu-30%Ni, and Cu-7%Al. The present program has been initiated to determine whether any of these materials can survive for 300 years in the site environment without developing through-wall stresscorrosion cracks. and to assess the relative resistance of these materials to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC)- A series of slow-strain-rate tests (SSRTs) and fracture-mechanics crack-growth-rate (CGR) tests was performed at 93{degree}C and 1 atm of pressure in simulated J-13 well water. This water is representative, prior to the widespread availability of unsaturated-zone water, of the groundwater present at the Yucca Mountain site. Slow-strain-rate tests were conducted on 6.35-mm-diameter cylindrical specimens at strain rates of 10-{sup {minus}7} and 10{sup {minus}8} s{sup {minus}1} under crevice and noncrevice conditions. All tests were interrupted after nominal elongation strain of 1--4%. Scanning electron microscopy revealed some crack initiation in virtually all the materials, as well as weldments made from these materials. A stress- or strain-ratio cracking index ranks these materials, in order of increasing resistance to SCC, as follows: Type 304 SS < Type 316L SS < Incoloy 825 < Cu-30%Ni < Cu and Cu-7%Al. Fracture-mechanics CGR tests were conducted on 25.4-mm-thick compact tension specimens of Types 304L and 316L stainless steel (SS) and Incoloy 825. Crack-growth rates were measured under various load conditions: load ratios M of 0.5--1.0, frequencies of 10{sup {minus}3}-1 Hz, rise nines of 1--1000s, and peak stress intensities of 25--40 MPa{center_dot}m {sup l/2}.

Duplex stainless steels (DSSs) have generally performed very well in caustic environments. However, some corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of DSSs have been reported in different pulp mill environments employing caustic solutions. Studies have shown that the corrosion and SCC susceptibility of DSSs depend on the alloy composition and microstructure of the steel. In this study, the effect of a sulfide-containing caustic environment (pulping liquor) and material properties (DSS alloy composition and microstructure) on the corrosion and SCC of DSSs was evaluated. During metal fabrication processes, localized areas of DSSs may be exposed to different temperatures and cooling rates, which may lead to changes in the microstructure in these regions. This change in microstructure, in turn, may affect the general and localized corrosion or SCC susceptibility of the affected area as compared to the rest of the metal. Hence, the effect of different annealing and aging temperatures as well as cooling rates on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of S32205 DSSs in caustic environment was evaluated. The results showed that changes in the microstructure of S32205 DSSs due to selected heat treatments did not have a significant effect on the general corrosion susceptibility of the steel in caustic environment, but its SCC susceptibility varied with changes in microstructures.

Stresscorrosion cracking is one of the major issues for welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy in high-speed trains. High residual stress in the welded joints under corrosion results in stresscorrosion cracking. Ultrasonic impact treatment was used to control the residual stress of the welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy. Experimental tests show that ultrasonic impact treatment can induce compressive longitudinal and transverse residual stress in the welded joint, harden the surface, and increase the tensile strength of welded joints. Salt-fog corrosion tests were conducted for both an as-welded sample and an ultrasonic impact-treated sample. The surface of the treated sample had far fewer corrosion pits than that of the untreated sample. The treated sample has higher strength and lower tensile residual stress than the untreated sample during corrosion. Therefore, ultrasonic impact treatment is an effective technique to improve the stresscorrosion cracking resistance of the welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy.

Stresscorrosion cracking is one of the major issues for welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy in high-speed trains. High residual stress in the welded joints under corrosion results in stresscorrosion cracking. Ultrasonic impact treatment was used to control the residual stress of the welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy. Experimental tests show that ultrasonic impact treatment can induce compressive longitudinal and transverse residual stress in the welded joint, harden the surface, and increase the tensile strength of welded joints. Salt-fog corrosion tests were conducted for both an as-welded sample and an ultrasonic impact-treated sample. The surface of the treated sample had far fewer corrosion pits than that of the untreated sample. The treated sample has higher strength and lower tensile residual stress than the untreated sample during corrosion. Therefore, ultrasonic impact treatment is an effective technique to improve the stresscorrosion cracking resistance of the welded joints of 6005A-T6 aluminum alloy.

Types S31600 and S31254 stainless steel heat exchanger plates have suffered crevice corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking under gaskets in rich amine service in a sour gas plant. The gasket material, ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM), has been used successfully for many years at other sour gas plants. Laboratory testing has duplicated the corrosion observed and shown that the mechanism is synergistic sulfide-halide attack. The use of a bromine plus chlorine-activated curing system for the EPDM rubber gaskets provided the necessary halides. Laboratory testing identified some nickel-based superalloys which were resistant to this corrosion and also demonstrated that essentially halogen-free, peroxide-cured EPDM gaskets do not cause attack of S31600 or S31254. The heat exchanger packs were replaced with S31600 plates and peroxide-cured EPDM gaskets having a specified total halogen concentration of 200 ppm maximum. Field operating experience has been excellent.

The objective of this paper is to present an approach for design and lifetime evaluation of environmental cracking based on experimental and fundamental modeling of the underlying processes operative in crack advance. In detailed this approach and its development and quantification for energy (hot water) systems, the requirements for a life prediction methodology will be highlighted and the shortcomings of the existing design and lifetime evaluation codes reviewed. Examples are identified of its use in a variety of cracking systems, such as stainless steels, low alloy steels, nickel base alloys, and irradiation assistedstresscorrosion cracking in boiling water reactor (BWR) water, as well as preliminary use for low alloy steel and Alloy 600 in pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and turbine steels in steam turbines. Identification of the common aspects with environmental cracking in other hot water systems provides a secure basis for its extension to related energy systems. 166 refs., 49 figs.

The surface treatment techniques of laser and shot peening were used to investigate their effect on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in friction stir welded (FSW) 2195 aluminum alloy joints. The investigation consisted of two parts: the first part explored the peening effects on slow strain rate testing (SSRT) in a 3.5% NaCl solution, while the second part investigated the effects of peening on corrosion while submerged in a 3.5% NaCl solution with no external loads applied. For the SSRT, the laser-peened samples demonstrated superior properties to the other samples, but no signs of corrosion pitting or SCC were evident on any of the samples. For the second part of the study, the FSW plates were inspected periodically for signs of corrosion. After 60 days there were signs of corrosion pitting, but no stresscorrosion cracking was noticed in any of the peened and unpeened samples.

Failure of some fuel elements in light water nuclear reactors has been attributed to stresscorrosion cracking of the fuel cladding. Mechanical interaction between the fuel pellets and cladding tube generates a tensile hoop stress. Release of volatile fission products, most likely iodine, provides a corrosive environment. An investigation of stresscorrosion crack propagation is performed at 300/degree/C in four Pa flowing iodine environment. By varying the orientation of fracture mechanics specimens, the effect of crystallographic texture, heat treatment, and microstructure on K/sub I/(SCC) is studied. 27 refs.

The phenomenon of plastic flow induced by electrochemical reactions near room temperature is significant in porous anodic oxide (PAO) films, charging of lithium batteries and stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). As this phenomenon is poorly understood, fundamental insight into flow from our work may provide useful information for these problems. In-situ monitoring of the stress state allows direct correlation between stress and the current or potential, thus providing fundamental insight into technologically important deformation and failure mechanisms induced by electrochemical reactions. A phase-shifting curvature interferometry was designed to investigate the stress generation mechanisms on different systems. Resolution of our curvature interferometry was found to be ten times more powerful than that obtained by state-of-art multiple deflectometry technique and the curvature interferometry helps to resolve the conflicting reports in the literature. During this work, formation of surface patterns during both aqueous corrosion of aluminum and formation of PAO films were investigated. Interestingly, for both cases, stress induced plastic flow controls the formation of surface patterns. Pore formation mechanisms during anodizing of the porous aluminum oxide films was investigated . PAO films are formed by the electrochemical oxidation of metals such as aluminum and titanium in a solution where oxide is moderately soluble. They have been used extensively to design numerous devices for optical, catalytic, and biological and energy related applications, due to their vertically aligned-geometry, high-specific surface area and tunable geometry by adjusting process variables. These structures have developed empirically, in the absence of understanding the process mechanism. Previous experimental studies of anodizing-induced stress have extensively focused on the measurement of average stress, however the measurement of stress evolution during anodizing does not provide

Laser gas assisted treatment of AISI H12 tool steel surface is carried out and the electrochemical response of the laser treated surface is investigated. Morphological and metallurgical changes in the treated layer are examined using a scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Potentiodynamic polarization tests are carried out for untreated and laser treated specimen in 0.2 M NaCl solution at room temperature. It is found that the laser treated AISI H12 workpiece surfaces exhibit higher corrosion resistance as compared to untreated specimen as confirmed by lower corrosion rate, higher pitting potential, and lower passive current density.

Certain safety-related core internal structural components of light water reactors, usually fabricated from Type 304 or 316 austenitic stainless steels (SSs), accumulate very high levels of irradiation damage (20--100 displacement per atom or dpa) by the end of life. The data bases and mechanistic understanding of, the degradation of such highly irradiated components, however, are not well established. A key question is the nature of irradiation-assisted intergranular cracking at very high dose, i.e., is it purely mechanical failure or is it stress-commotion cracking? In this work, hot-cell tests and microstructural characterization were performed on Type 304 SS from the hexagonal fuel can of the decommissioned EBR-11 reactor after irradiation to {approximately}50 dpa at {approximately}370 C. Slow-strain-rate tensile tests were conducted at 289 C in air and in water at several levels of electrochemical potential (ECP), and microstructural characteristics were analyzed by scanning and transmission electron microcopies. The material deformed significantly by twinning and exhibited surprisingly high ductility in air, but was susceptible to severe intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) at high ECP. Low levels of dissolved O and ECP were effective in suppressing the susceptibility of the heavily irradiated material to IGSCC, indicating that the stresscorrosion process associated with irradiation-induced grain-boundary Cr depletion, rather than purely mechanical separation of grain boundaries, plays the dominant role. However, although IGSCC was suppressed, the material was susceptible to dislocation channeling at low ECP, and this susceptibility led to poor work-hardening capability and low ductility.

Novel methods for assessing the electrochemical and micromechanical performance of modular tapers were evaluated, and self-reinforced composite materials were developed for their potential to prevent the onset of mechanically assistedcorrosion in modular taper devices. A study of the seating and taper locking mechanics of modular taper samples was conducted, and the effect on taper engagement strength of seating load, loading rate, taper moisture, and taper design/material combination was studied. The load-displacement behavior was captured during seating, and the subsequent pull off load was correlated to seating displacement, seating energy, and seating load. The primary factor affecting taper engagement strength was seating load, and loading rate and design/material factors did not have a significant impact on the quality of the taper engagement. Next, the effect of variation of 7 different design, material, and surgical factors on the fretting corrosion and micromechanical behavior during incremental cyclic fretting corrosion testing was examined using a design of experiments matrix. Seating load and head offset length were the most influential factors affecting fretting corrosion, with low seating loads and high head offsets giving rise to increased currents during sequentially incremented cyclic loads. Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) fibers were produced, and the effects of varying draw down ratio, molecular weight, and post-spinning treatment on the structural and mechanical properties of the fibers were studied. Highly drawn fibers showed the highest increase in molecular orientation and mechanical properties. PEEK fibers were then utilized in the design and fabrication of self-reinforced composite PEEK (SRC-PEEK) thin film composites, and self-reinforced composite ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (SRC-PE) produced from Spectra fiber was also introduced. Pin on disk studies were employed to understand the potential of both of these SRC materials to

Austenitic stainless steels (SS) have been used as core component materials for light water reactors. As reactors age, however, the material tends to suffer from degradation primarily resulting from irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) as well as intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC). Neutron-irradiated, thermally sensitized Type 304 (UNS S30400) stainless steels (SS) were examined by slow strain rate (SSR) stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) tests in 290 C water of 0.2 ppm dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) and by SSR tensile tests in 290 C inert gas environment. Neutron fluences ranged from 4 x 10{sup 22} n/m{sup 2} to 3 x 10{sup 25} n/m{sup 2} (energy [E] > 1 MeV). percent intergranular (%IG) cracking, which has been used as an intergranular (IG) cracking susceptibility indicator in the SSR SCC tests, changes anomalously with neutron fluence in spite of the strain-to-failure rate decreasing with an increase of neutron fluence. Apparently, %IG is a misleading indicator for the irradiated, thermally sensitized Type 304 SS and for the irradiated, nonsensitized SS when IG cracking susceptibility is compared at different neutron fluences, test temperatures, DO, and strain rates. These test parameters may affect deformation and fracture behaviors of the irradiated SS during the SSR SCC tests, resulting in changing %IG, which is given by the ratio of the total IG cracking area to the entire fracture surface area. It is suggested that strain-to-IG crack initiation for the irradiated, thermally sensitized SS and for the irradiated, nonsensitized SS is the alternative indicator in the SSR SCC tests. An engineering expedient to determine the IG crack initiation strain is given by a deviating point on superposed stress-strain curves in inert gas and in oxygenated water. The strain-to-IG crack initiation becomes smaller with an increase of neutron fluence and DO. The SSR tensile tests in inert gas are needed to obtain strain-to-IG crack initiation in

When metallic plates are welded, for example using the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process, residual tensile stresses may develop in the vicinity of the weld seam. Processes such as Low Plasticity Burnishing (LPB) and Laser Shock Peening (LSP) could be applied locally to eliminate the residual stresses produced by welding. In this study, Alloy 22 (N06022) plates were welded and then the above-mentioned surface treatments were applied to eliminate the residual tensile stresses. The aim of the current study was to comparatively test the corrosion behavior of as-welded (ASW) plates with the corrosion behavior of plates with stress mitigated surfaces. Immersion and electrochemical tests were performed. Results from both general and localized corrosion tests show that the corrosion resistance of the mitigated plates was not affected by the surface treatments applied.

Various aspects of stress-corrosion cracking in 7075 aluminum alloy are discussed. A model is proposed in which the continuous anodic path along which the metal is preferentially attacked consists of two phases which alternate as anodes.

The purpose of this research is to study the stresscorrosion behavior of basalt/epoxy composites under bending loading and submerged in 5% sulfuric acid corrosive medium. There are limited numbers of research in durability of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Moreover, studies on basalt fibers and its composites are very limited. In this research, mechanical property degradation of basalt/epoxy composites under bending loading and submerged in acidic corrosive medium is investigated. Three states of stress, equal to 30%, 50% and 70% of the ultimate strength of composites, are applied on samples. High stress states are applied to the samples to accelerate the testing procedure. Mechanical properties degradation consists of bending strength, bending modulus of elasticity and fracture energy of samples are examined. Also, a normalized strength degradation model for stresscorrosion condition is presented. Finally, microscopic images of broken cross sections of samples are examined.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) methods of testing zirconium cladding tubes are analyzed. A proximate method is proposed for estimating SCC of fuel claddings claddings in a iodine-containing environment with a limited contact zone between a metal and corrosive medium and simultaneous measurement of acoustic emission (AE) from forming corrosion defects. Criteria of estimating the SCC resistance of the tubes are proposed from measured AE and corrosion damage of the tube material. The results of local SCC tests of cladding tubes of E110 and E635 zirconium alloys are presented.

It is well known that machining induced residual stresses can seriously affect the dimensional accuracy, corrosion and wear resistance, etc., and further influence the longevity and reliability of Micro-Optical Components (MOC). In Ultrasonic Torsional Vibration Assisted Micro-milling (UTVAM), cutting parameters, vibration parameters, mill cutter parameters, the status of wear length of tool flank are the main factors which affect residual stresses. A 2D model of UTVAM was established with FE analysis software ABAQUS. Johnson-Cook's flow stress model and shear failure principle are used as the workpiece material model and failure principle, while friction between tool and workpiece uses modified Coulomb's law whose sliding friction area is combined with sticking friction. By means of FEA, the influence rules of cutting parameters, vibration parameters, mill cutter parameters, the status of wear length of tool flank on residual stresses are obtained, which provides a basis for choosing optimal process parameters and improving the longevity and reliability of MOC.

Stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of carbon steel and decarburized steel was studied in 8.5 M sodium hydroxide at 100 ?C. Potentiodynamic experiments were performed to determine the potential values to be applied in slow strain rate(ssr) experiments. Optical and scanning electron microscopy were used to investigate the surfaces of corroded samples. Severe intergranular stresscorrosion cracking was observed on the carbon steel samples in comparison to the decarburized steel samples.

Treatment for compound and/or comminuted fractures is frequently accomplished via external fixation. To achieve stability, the compositions of external fixators generally include aluminum alloy components due to their high strength-to-weight ratios. These alloys are particularly susceptible to corrosion in chloride environments. There have been several clinical cases of fixator failure in which corrosion was cited as a potential mechanism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of physiological environments on the corrosion susceptibility of aluminum 7075-T6, since it is used in orthopedic external fixation devices. Electrochemical corrosion curves and alternate immersion stresscorrosion cracking tests indicated aluminum 7075-T6 is susceptible to corrosive attack when placed in physiological environments. Pit initiated stresscorrosion cracking was the primary form of alloy corrosion, and subsequent fracture, in this study. Anodization of the alloy provided a protective layer, but also caused a decrease in passivity ranges. These data suggest that once the anodization layer is disrupted, accelerated corrosion processes occur. PMID:18257055

A pipe inspection round robin entitled Mini-Round Robin'' was conducted at Pacific Northwest Laboratory from May 1985 through October 1985. The research was sponsored by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research under a program entitled Evaluation and Improvement of NDE Reliability for Inservice Inspection of Light Water Reactors.'' The Mini-Round Robin (MRR) measured the intergranular stresscorrosion (GSC) crack detection and sizing capabilities of inservice inspection (ISI) inspectors that had passed the requirements of IEB 83-02 and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) sizing training course. The MRR data base was compared with an earlier Pipe Inspection Round Robin (PIRR) that had measured the performance of inservice inspection prior to 1982. Comparison of the MRR and PIRR data bases indicates no significant change in the inspection capability for detecting IGSCC. Also, when comparing detection of long and short cracks, no difference in detection capability was measured. An improvement in the ability to differentiate between shallow and deeper IGSCC was found when the MRR sizing capability was compared with an earlier sizing round robin conducted by the EPRI. In addition to the pipe inspection round robin, a human factors study was conducted in conjunction with the Mini-Round Robin. The most important result of the human factors study is that the Relative Operating Characteristics (ROC) curves provide a better methodology for describing inspector performance than only probability of detection (POD) or single-point crack/no crack data. 6 refs., 55 figs., 18 tabs.

The effect of corrosion on the tensile properties of duralumin while stressed is shown in graphical form. According to the test results, duralumin sheet, coated with aluminum, maintains its initial properties unimpaired for corrosion periods as long as 60 days with an applied tensile stress as high as 20,000 lb/sq.in., which is approximately one-half the stress corresponding to the yield point as defined here. In these tests, that material which had been heat-treated by being quenched in cold water, though far inferior to similar material having the aluminum coating, was superior to the sheet material which was heat treated by being quenched in hot water. These results are in excellent agreement with the results of previous laboratory and exposure tests.

Underground waste tanks fabricated from mild steel store more than 253 million liters of high level radioactive waste from 50 years of weapons production at the Hanford Site. The probable modes of corrosion failures are reported as nitrate stresscorrosion cracking and pitting. In an effort to develop a waste tank corrosion monitoring system, laboratory tests were conducted to characterize electrochemical noise data for both uniform and localized corrosion of mild steel and other materials in simulated waste environments. The simulated waste solutions were primarily composed of ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate and were held at approximately 97°C. The electrochemical noise of freely corroding specimens was monitored, recorded and analyzed for periods ranging between 10 and 500 h. At the end of each test period, the specimens were examined to correlate electrochemical noise data with corrosion damage. Data characteristic of uniform corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking are presented.

It is pointed out that any proper design of interference fit fastener, interference fit bushings, or stress coining processes should consider both the stress-corrosion susceptibility and fatigue-life improvement together. Investigations leading to such a methodology are discussed. A service failure analysis of actual aircraft parts is considered along with the stress-corrosion susceptibility of cold-working interference fit bushings. The optimum design of the amount of interference is considered, giving attention to stress formulas and aspects of design methodology.

External stress-corrosion cracking of pipelines is a serious problem for the gas transmission industry. Longitudinal cracks initiate on the outside surface of the pipe and link up to form flaws that, in some cases, can lead to pipe rupture. This paper presents a model that quantifies the effect of stress-corrosion cracking on pipe failure stress. The model is an extension of those that have been developed for oil and gas pipelines and considers both flow-stress and fracture-toughness dependent failure modes. A methodology also is presented to calculate the remaining life of a pipeline containing flaws of known size.

A major problem in evaluating the stresscorrosion cracking resistance of aluminum alloys by alternate immersion in 3.5 percent salt (NaCl) water is excessive pitting corrosion. Several methods were examined to eliminate this problem and to find an improved accelerated test medium. These included the addition of chromate inhibitors, surface treatment of specimens, and immersion in synthetic sea water. The results indicate that alternate immersion in synthetic sea water is a very promising stresscorrosion test medium. Neither chromate inhibitors nor surface treatment (anodize and alodine) of the aluminum specimens improved the performance of alternate immersion in 3.5 percent salt water sufficiently to be classified as an effective stresscorrosion test method.

The use of aluminum-lithium alloys for aerospace applications is currently being studied at NASA Langley Research Center's Metallic Materials Branch. The alloys in question will operate under stress in a corrosive environment. These conditions are ideal for the phenomena of Stress-Corrosion Cracking (SCC) to occur. The test procedure for SCC calls for alternate immersion and breaking load tests. These tests were optimized for the lab equipment and materials available in the Light Alloy lab. Al-Li alloy ML377 specimens were then subjected to alternate immersion and breaking load tests to determine residual strength and resistance to SCC. Corrosion morphology and microstructure were examined under magnification. Data shows that ML377 is highly resistant to stress-corrosion cracking.

Since the pioneer work of Brown (1966), precracked specimens and related fracture mechanics analyses have been extensively used to study stresscorrosion cracking. Certain questions arose in connection with initial attempts to prepare standardized recommended practices by ASTM Committee G-1 on Corrosion of Metals. These questions were related to adequacy of test control as it pertains to acceptable limits of variability, and to validity of expressions for stress intensity and crack-surface displacements for both specimen configurations. An interlaboratory test program, was, therefore, planned with the objective to examine the validity of KIscc testing for selected specimen configurations, materials,and environmental systems. The results reported in the present paper include details of a single laboratory test program. The program was conducted to determine if the threshold value of stress intensity for onset and arrest of stresscorrosion cracking was independent for the two specimen configurations examined.

Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) composite materials are often used to construct tanks, piping, scrubbers, beams, grating, and other components for use in corrosive environments. While FRP typically offers superior and cost effective corrosion resistance relative to other construction materials, the glass fibers traditionally used to provide the structural strength of the FRP can be susceptible to attack by the corrosive environment. The structural integrity of traditional FRP components in corrosive environments is usually dependent on the integrity of a corrosion-resistant barrier, such as a resin-rich layer containing corrosion resistant glass fibers. Without adequate protection, FRP components can fail under loads well below their design by an environmental stress-corrosion cracking (ESCC) mechanism when simultaneously exposed to mechanical stress and a corrosive chemical environment. Failure of these components can result in significant releases of hazardous substances into plants and the environment. In this paper, we present two case studies where fiberglass components failed due to ESCC at small chemical manufacturing facilities. As is often typical, the small chemical manufacturing facilities relied largely on FRP component suppliers to determine materials appropriate for the specific process environment and to repair damaged in-service components. We discuss the lessons learned from these incidents and precautions companies should take when interfacing with suppliers and other parties during the specification, design, construction, and repair of FRP components in order to prevent similar failures and chemical releases from occurring in the future. PMID:16950568

Residual stresses and strains have been shown to play a fundamental role in determining the elastic behavior of engineering materials, yet the effect of these strains on brittle and elastic behavior of rocks remains unclear. In order to evaluate the impact of stored elastic strains on fracture propagation in rock, we undertook a four-month-long three-point bending test on three large 1100 x 100 x 100 mm Carrara Marble samples. This test induced stable low stress conditions in which strains were concentrated at the tip of a saw cut and pre-cracked notch. A corrosive environment was created at the tip of the notch on two samples (M2 and M4) by dripping calcite saturated water (pH ~ 7.5-8). Sample M5 was loaded in the same way, but kept dry. Samples were unloaded prior to failure, and along with an additional non-loaded reference sample (M0), cored into cylindrical subsamples (ø = 50 mm, h = 100 mm) before being tested for changes in residual elastic strains at the SALSA neutron diffractometer at the Institute Laue-Langevin (ILL), Grenoble, France. Three diffraction peaks corresponding to crystallographic planes hkl (110), (104) and (006) were measured in all three spatial directions relative to the notch. Shifts in the diffraction peak position (d) with respect to a strain free state are indicative of intergranular strain, while changes in the width of the peak (FWHM) reflect changes in intragranular strain. We observe distinctly different patterns in residual and volumetric strains in hkℓ (104) and (006) for the dry M5 and wet tested samples (M2 and M4) indicating the presence of water changes the deformation mechanism, while (110) is strained in compression around 200 μstrain in all samples. A broadening of the diffraction peaks (006) and (110) in front of the crack tip is observed in M2 and M4, while M5 shows no changes in the peak width throughout the depth of the sample. We suggest water present at the crack tip increased the rate of corrosion, allowing a

Recently developed Al-Li-Cu alloys show great potential for implementation in the aerospace industry because of the attractive mix of good mechanical properties and low density. AA2099 is an Al-Li-Cu alloy with the following composition Al-2.69wt%Cu-1.8wt%Li-0.6wt%Zn-0.3wt%Mg-0.3wt%Mn-0.08wt%Zr. The environmental assisted cracking and localized corrosion behavior of the AA2099 was investigated in this thesis. The consequences of uncontrolled grain boundary precipitation via friction stir welding on the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of AA2099 was investigated first. Using constant extension rate testing, intergranular corrosion immersion experiments, and potentiodynamic scans, the heat-affected zone on the trailing edge of the weld (HTS) was determined to be most susceptible of the weld zones. The observed SCC behavior for the HTS was linked to the dissolution of an active phase (Al2CuLi, T1) populating the grain boundary. It should be stated that the SCC properties of AA2099 in the as-received condition were determined to be good. Focus was then given to the electrochemical behavior of precipitate phases that may occupy grain and sub-grain boundaries in AA2099. The grain boundary micro-chemistry and micro-electrochemistry have been alluded to within the literature as having significant influence on the SCC behavior of Al-Li-Cu alloys. Major precipitates found in this alloy system are T1 (Al 2CuLi), T2 (Al7.5Cu4Li), T B (Al6CuLi3), and theta (Al2 Cu). These phases were produced in bulk form so that the electrochemical nature of each phase could be characterized. It was determined T1 was most active electrochemically and theta was least. When present on grain boundaries in the alloy, electrochemical behavior of the individual precipitates aligned with the observed corrosion behavior of the alloy (e.g. TB was accompanied by general pitting corrosion and T 1 was accompanied by intergranular corrosion attack). In addition to the electrochemical behavior of

Transgranular and intergranular stresscorrosion cracks were investigated in alpha-brasses in a tarnishing ammoniacal solution. Surface observation indicated that the transgranular cracks propagated discontinuously by the sudden appearance of a fine crack extending several microns ahead of the previous crack tip, often associated with the detection of a discrete acoustic emission (AE). By periodically increasing the deflection, crack front markings were produced on the resulting fracture surfaces, showing that the discontinuous propagation of the crack trace was representative of the subsurface cracking. The intergranular crack trace appeared to propagate continuously at a relatively blunt crack tip and was not associated with discrete AE. Under load pulsing tests with a time between pulses, ..delta..t greater than or equal to 3 s, the transgranular fracture surfaces always exhibited crack front markings which corresponded with the applied pulses. The spacing between crack front markings, ..delta..x, decreased linearly with ..delta..t. With ..delta..t less than or equal to 1.5 s, the crack front markings were in a one-to-one correspondence with applied pulses only at relatively long crack lengths. In this case, ..delta..x = ..delta..x* which approached a limiting value of 1 ..mu..m. No crack front markings were observed on intergranular fracture surfaces produced during these tests. It is concluded that transgranular cracking occurs by discontinuous mechanical fracture of an embrittled region around the crack tip, while intergranular cracking results from a different mechanism with cracking occurring via the film-rupture mechanism.

A specific study was carried out to measure the influence of texture on the behaviour of Zircaloy-4 under iodine-induced stresscorrosion cracking. The aim was to determine the relative effects of various metallurgical parameters involved in fuel rod fracture by pellet-clad interaction (PCI). Cladding tubes of different geometries were manufactured from a given Zircaloy-4 ingot. In this way tubes with different textures were obtained. Rings from these tubes were then subjected to slow tensile tests in an inert atmosphere and in an iodine vapour atmosphere. The sensitivity of the tubes to stresscorrosion cracking is quantified by the loss of ductility on fracture between the tests in each atmosphere. Combined with the findings of other studies, the results showed that: (a) texture has a strong effect on the stresscorrosion cracking behaviour of Zircaloy-4, (b) the mechanical properties do not have any bearing on the material behaviour under stresscorrosion cracking, and that the better behaviour of a recrystallized material — compared to the same material in a stress-relieved state — can be explained solely by the texture effect, (c) texture is a more important parameter than chemical composition of Zircaloy-4, on condition that this composition remains within the ASTM specification. The conflict between the various mechanisms involved in stresscorrosion crack propagation may explain these observations. Preliminary extrapolation of these conclusions to the irradiated material shows that a more specific study is needed using appropriate parameters.

This research experimentally investigates second harmonic generation of Rayleigh waves propagating through carbon steel samples damaged in a stresscorrosion environment. Damage from stresscorrosion cracking is of major concern in nuclear reactor tubes and in gas and fuel transport pipelines. For example, certain types of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) account for more failures in steam generator tubes than most other damage mechanisms, yet these cracks do not initiate until late in the structure's life. Thus, there is a need to be able to measure the damage state prior to crack initiation, and it has been shown that the acoustic nonlinearity parameter - the parameter associated with second harmonic generation - is sensitive to microstructural evolution. In this work, samples are immersed in a sodium carbonate-bicarbonate solution, which typically forms in the soil surrounding buried pipelines affected by SCC, and held at yield stress for 5-15 days to the onset of stresscorrosion cracking. Measurements of second harmonic generation with Rayleigh waves are taken intermittently to relate cumulative damage prior to macroscopic cracking to nonlinear wave propagation. Experimental results showing changes in second harmonic generation due to stresscorrosion damage are presented.

When metallic plates are welded, residual tensile stresses may develop in the vicinity of the weld seam. Processes such as Low Plasticity Burnishing (LPB) and Laser Shock Peening (LSP) could be applied locally to eliminate the residual stresses produced by welding. In this study, Alloy 22 (N06022) plates were welded and then the above-mentioned surface treatments were applied to eliminate the residual tensile stresses. The aim of the current study was to compare the corrosion behavior of as-welded (ASW) plates with the corrosion behavior of plates with stress mitigated surfaces. Immersion and electrochemical tests were performed. Results show that the corrosion resistance of the mitigated plates was not affected by the surface treatments applied.

Utility and vendor representatives from around the world met to share information on stresscorrosion cracking of steam generator tubing from the primary side. In 32 presentations, speakers discussed in-plant experience with the phenomenon and related laboratory data. The workshop was the first to present results of remedial stress relief programs.

The residual stresses generated in the machined work piece have detrimental effect on fatigue life, corrosion resistance and tribological properties. However, the effect of cutting and vibration parameters on residual stresses in Ultrasonic Assisted Turning (UAT) has not been dealt with. The present paper highlights the effect of feed rate, depth of cut, cutting velocity and percentage intensity of ultrasonic power on residual stress generation. XRD analysis has been carried out to measure the residual stress while turning 4340 hardened steel using UAT. The experiments were performed based on response surface methodology to develop statistical model for residual stress. The outcome of ANOVA revealed that percentage intensity and feed rate significantly affect the residual stress generation. The significant interactions between process parameters have also been presented tin order to understand the thermo-mechanical mechanism responsible for residual stress generation. PMID:27179142

Samples of ultra high purity stainless steel have been fabricated into 2mm {times} 2mm rectangular bars and irradiated to one dpa ({approximately}l {times} 10{sup 19} p{sup +}/cm{sup 2}) using 3.4 MeV protons (>20{mu}A) while controlling the sample temperature at 400{degree}C. Samples are pressed onto a water-cooled and electrically heated copper block with a thin layer of Sn in between to improve thermal conductivity. The irradiation produced a significant prompt radiation field but sample activation was limited to {beta}-decay and this decayed rapidly in less than 48 h. Samples were hydrogen charged and strained at slow rates at {minus}30{degree}C insitu in the Auger electron spectrometer to successfully fracture several samples intergranularly for grain boundary composition analysis. An ultra-high purity (UHP) alloy of Fe-19Cr-9Ni was irradiated to 1 dpa at 400C {plus minus} 5C and 7 {times} 10{sup {minus}9} torr in the tandem accelerator of the Michigan Ion Beam Laboratory, resulting in a dislocation network density of 1.8 {times} 10{sup 9} cm{sup 2} and a dislocation loop density of 7 {times} 10{sup 16} cm{sup {minus}3} along with the dissolution of small precipitates present in the unirradiated sample. EPR experiments on the UHP irradiated alloy showed no significant increase in charge passed upon reactivation, over an unirradiated sample experiencing the same thermal history. An SCC waterloop and autoclave system has been completed and a sample has been designed to measure the susceptibility of the irradiated microstructure as compared to the unirradiated microstructure.

Stresscorrosion tests of Al-Li-Cu powder metallurgy alloys are described. Alloys investigated were Al-2.6% Li-1.4% and Al-2.6% Li-1.4% Cu-1.6% Mg. The base properties of the alloys were characterized. Process, heat treatment, and size/orientational effects on the tensile and fracture behavior were investigated. Metallurgical and electrochemical conditions are identified which provide reproducible and controlled parameters for stresscorrosion evaluation. Preliminary stresscorrosion test results are reported. Both Al-Li-Cu alloys appear more susceptible to stresscorrosion crack initiation than 7075-T6 aluminum, with the magnesium bearing alloy being the most susceptible. Tests to determine the threshold stress intensity for the base and magnesium bearing alloys are underway. Twelve each, bolt loaded DCB type specimens are under test (120 days) and limited crack growth in these precracked specimens has been observed. General corrosion in the aqueous sodium chloride environment is thought to be obscuring results through crack tip blunting.

The influence of exposure cycle on the hot-salt stress-corrosion cracking resistance of the Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy was determined. Both temperature and stress were cycled simultaneously to simulate turbine-powered aircraft service cycles. Temperature and stress were also cycled independently to determine their individual effects. Substantial increases in crack threshold stresses were observed for cycles in which both temperature and stress or temperature alone were applied for 1 hour and removed for 3 hours. The crack threshold stresses for these cyclic exposures were twice those determined for continuous exposure for the same total time of 96 hours.

Following an introductory history, the frozen stress photoelastic method is reviewed together with analytical and experimental aspects of cracks in photoelastic models. Analytical foundations are then presented upon which a computer assisted frozen stress photoelastic technique is based for extracting estimates of stress intensity factors from three-dimensional cracked body problems. The use of the method is demonstrated for two currently important three-dimensional crack problems.

Duplex stainless steel having attractive combination of austenitic and ferritic properties is being used in industry such as petrochemical, pulp and paper mills. In this study, the corrosion and stresscorrosion behavior of duplex stainless steel in 3.5% sodium chloride environment was investigated by weight loss measurements, electrochemical DC testing and slow strain rate test (SSRT). Weight loss data showed no significant corrosion after 1700 hours. Electrochemical polarization test in 3.5% NaCl solution exhibited a uniform corrosion rate of 0.008 mpy (calculated using Tafel analysis) showing passivity in the range of 735-950 mV. A comparison of the slow strain rate test in 3.5% NaCl solution with air shows almost a similar stress strain curve for duplex stainless steel. In comparison, the stress strain curves for 0.15% carbon steel show a loss of about 25% tensile elongation for the same comparison. The excellent corrosion and especially resistance to localized corrosion (pitting) is responsible for no loss of ductility in duplex stainless steel.

A series of accelerated electrochemical experiments to study the degradation properties of polyvinylbutyral-encapsulated silicon solar cells has been carried out. The cells' electrical performance with silk screen-silver and nickel-solder contacts was evaluated. The degradation mechanism was shown to be electrochemical corrosion of the cell contacts; metallization elements migrate into the encapsulating material, which acts as an ionic conducting medium. The corrosion products form a conductive path which results in a gradual loss of the insulation characteristics of the encapsulant. The precipitation of corrosion products in the encapsulant also contributes to its discoloration which in turn leads to a reduction in its transparency and the consequent optical loss. Delamination of the encapsulating layers could be attributed to electrochemical gas evolution reactions. The usefulness of the testing technique in qualitatively establishing a reliability difference between metallizations and antireflection coating types is demonstrated.

The possible role of activated processes in seismic attenuation is investigated. In this study, a solid is modeled by a parallel and series configuration of dashpots and springs. The contribution of stress and temperature activated processes to the long term dissipative behavior of this system is analyzed. Data from brittle rock deformation experiments suggest that one such process, stresscorrosion cracking, may make a significant contribution to the attenuation factor, Q, especially for long period oscillations under significant tectonic stress.

The influence of the initial hydrogen content of a titanium alloy on subsequent resistance to hot salt stresscorrosion embrittlement and cracking was investigated. A Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy was tested in four conditions: mill annealed (70 ppm H), duplex annealed (70 ppm H), vacuum annealed to an intermediate (36 ppm H) and a low (9 ppm H) hydrogen level. Material annealed at 650 C (duplex condition) exhibited resistance to hot salt stresscorrosion superior to that exhibited by material in the mill annealed condition. Reduction of the alloy hydrogen content from 70 to as low as 9 ppm did not influence resistance to hot salt stresscorrosion embrittlement or cracking.

A stresscorrosion evaluation was performed on Inconel 625, Hastelloy C276, titanium commercially pure (TiCP), Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V extra low interstitial, and Cronidur 30 steel as a consequence of a change in formulation of the pretreatment for processing the urine in the International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System Urine Processing Assembly from a sulfuric acid-based to a phosphoric acid-based solution. The first five listed were found resistant to stresscorrosion in the pretreatment and brine. However, some of the Cronidur 30 specimens experienced reduction in load-carrying ability.

A review of water impurity and temperature effects on stress-corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel is presented. These results demonstrate that stress-corrosion crack growth can occur at ITER relevant temperatures for certain water chemistries and material conditions. A model developed at PNL to calculate the degree of sensitization was used to estimate the potential for sensitization of Type 316 SS and US PCA. This analysis shows that both materials can be severely sensitized but, with proper processing and fabrication, sensitization should be avoidable.

Samples of austenitic stainless alloys were examined by means of scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Misorientations were measured by electron backscattered diffraction. Grain boundary distributions were analyzed with special emphasis on the grain boundary character along intergranular stress-corrosion cracks and at crack arrest points. It was established that only coherent twin S3 boundaries could be considered as "special" ones with regard to crack resistance. However, it is possible that twin interactions with random grain boundaries may inhibit crack propagation. The results suggest that other factors besides geometrical ones play an important role in the intergranular stress-corrosion cracking of commercial alloys.

Crack-propagation tests on a bulk metallic glass (BMG), Zr55Cu30Ni5Al10, were conducted either in aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions or in high-purity water under sinusoidal cyclic loading or sustained loading. Although the crack growth rate in high-purity water was almost identical to that in air, the rate in the NaCl solution was much higher than that in air, even in a very low concentration of NaCl such as 0.01 mass pct. In a 3.5 mass pct NaCl solution, the time-based crack growth rate during cyclic loading, da/ dt, was determined by the maximum stress-intensity factor, K max, but was almost independent of the loading frequency and the stress ratio, and the rate was close to that of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) under a sustained loading.

Many unexpected failures, below design criteria, of light water reactor fuel cladding (Zircaloy) have been found during operational power ramps. Such a fuel rod failure can result from pellet/cladding mechanical interaction (PCMI) assisted by fission product stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of the Zircaloy tubing. A deterministic PCMI/SCC model has been coupled with the steady-state fuel behavior code, FRAPCON-2. The resulting code has been benchmarked (against few test cases but comprising many data points) but not fully verified. It is used to simulate two important occurrences: preramp (base) and power ramp irradiation. Because of the limitations of FRAPCON-2, the code is best suited to the simulation of mild power ramps with rates that do not exceed 0.02%/s. Computations with the code for greater power ramp rates, however, gave results which are not inconsistent with some overpower ramp experimental test results. Limited sensitivity studies are performed on the operational parameters and some fuel rod design parameters.

Microstructure is known to influence the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of Alloy 600 in both hydrogenated water and steam environments. This study evaluated the relative SCC response of a single heat of Alloy 600 as a function of microstructure in a hydrogenated doped-steam environment. The 400 C doped-steam environment was selected for the SCC tests to accelerate cracking. The material was evaluated in three conditions: (1) as-received (2) as-annealed, and (3) as-annealed + 26% deformation. Microstructural characterization was performed using analytical electron microscopy (AEM) techniques for the evaluation of carbide type and morphology, and general structure. Constant displacement (bolt-loaded) compact tension specimens were used to induce SCC. The as-annealed and as-annealed plus cold worked samples had two fracture morphologies: a rough intergranular SCC fracture morphology and a smooth intergranular fracture morphology. The SCC fracture in the as-received specimens was characterized by a classic intergranular morphology at low magnification, consistent with the microstructural evaluation of cross-sectional metallographic samples. More detailed examination revealed a pseudo-intergranular fracture morphology. This pseudo-intergranular morphology appears to be comprised of very fine cleavage-like microfacets. These observations may assist in understanding the difference in SCC fracture morphologies as reported in the open literature.

The effects of alloy composition on the aqueous stresscorrosion of titanium alloys were studied with emphasis on determining the interrelations among composition, phase structure, and deformation and fracture properties of the alpha phase in alpha-beta alloys. Accomplishments summarized include the effects of alloy composition on susceptibility, and metallurgical mechanisms of stress-corrosion cracking.

Resistance to external stresscorrosion cracking (ESCC) and crevice corrosion were examined for various candidate canister materials in the spent fuel dry storage condition using concrete casks. A constant load ESCC test was conducted on the candidate materials in air after deposition of simulated sea salt particles on the specimen gage section. Highly corrosion resistant stainless steels (SS), S31260 and S31254, did not fail for more than 46 000 h at 353 K with relative humidity of 35%, although the normal stainless steel, S30403 SS failed within 500 h by ESCC. Crevice corrosion potentials of S31260 and S31254 SS became larger than 0.9 V (SCE) in synthetic sea water at temperatures below 298 K, while those of S30403 and S31603 SS were less than 0 V (SCE) at the same temperature range. No rust was found on S31260 and S31254 SS specimens at temperatures below 298 K in the atmospheric corrosion test, which is consistent with the temperature dependency of crevice corrosion potential. From the test result, the critical temperature of atmospheric corrosion was estimated to be 293 K for both S31260 and S31254 SS. Utilizing the ESCC test result and the critical temperature, together with the weather station data and the estimated canister wall temperature, the integrity of canister was assessed from the view point of ESCC.

Candidate alloys for the Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) case were tested under simulated service conditions to define subcritical flaw growth behavior under both sustained and cyclic loading conditions. The materials evaluated were D6AC and 18 Ni maraging steel, both heat treated to a nominal yield strength of 1380 MN/sq m (200 ksi). The sustained load tests were conducted by exposing precracked, stressed specimens of both alloys to alternate immersion in synthetic sea water. It was found that the corrosion and stresscorrosion resistance of the 18 Ni maraging steel were superior to that of the D6AC steel under these test conditions. It was also found that austenitizing temperature had little influence on the threshold stress intensity of the D6AC. The cyclic tests were conducted by subjecting precracked surface-flawed specimens of both alloys to repeated load/thermal/environmental profiles which were selected to simulate the SRB missions. It was found that linear removal operations that involve heating to 589 K (600 F) cause a decrease in cyclic life of D6AC steel relative to those tests conducted with no thermal cycling.

The complex interaction between physiological stresses and corrosive human body fluid may cause premature failure of metallic biomaterials due to the phenomenon of stresscorrosion cracking. In this study, the susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking of biodegradable and aluminium-free magnesium alloys ZX50, WZ21 and WE43 was investigated by slow strain rate tensile testing in a simulated human body fluid. Slow strain rate tensile testing results indicated that each alloy was susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking, and this was confirmed by fractographic features of transgranular and/or intergranular cracking. However, the variation in alloy susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking is explained on the basis of their electrochemical and microstructural characteristics. PMID:25063163

The role of iodine and zirconium iodide in the process of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Zircaloy is studied by an internal pressurization SCC test and independent corrosion and creep tests, using iodine and zirconium tetraiodide crystals as the attacking species. Measurement of the critical values of iodine potential reveals that irradiated fuel rods should possess enough iodine potential to induce SCC failure of Zircaloy cladding. The difference between tests with I 2 and ZrI 4, and the morphology of microcraks at the site of corrosion pits suggest that the quantity of free iodine may play an important role in the crack initiation stage. Although the thick surface oxide can protect Zircaloy from iodine attack, it will rupture under sustaining a tensile stress, and then the iodine-bearing carrier will penetrate through the cracks to supply the necessary iodine potential and to proceed the propagation.

Specimens of DH36 marine steel were prepared with welded attachments. Residual stress measurements were made on the samples as-welded, following an ultrasonic peening treatment, and following accelerated corrosion exposure after ultrasonic peening. Neutron diffraction and the contour method were used for determining the residual stress profiles. The welding introduces tensile near-surface residual stress, approaching the material yield strength, and the ultrasonic peening overlays this with a compressive residual stress. Material removal by corrosion decreases the peak surface compressive stress slightly, by removal of a layer of stressed material, but does not cause significant redistribution of the residual stress profile.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the corrosion resistance of stressed NiTi and stainless steel orthodontic wires using cyclic potentiodynamic and potentiostatic tests in acid artificial saliva at 37 degrees C. An atomic force microscope was used to measure the 3-D surface topography of as-received wires. Scanning electron microscope observations were carried out before and after the cyclic potentiodynamic tests. The surface chemical analysis was characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Auger electron spectroscopy after the potentiostatic tests. The cyclic potentiodynamic test results showed that the pH had a significant influence on the corrosion parameters of the stressed NiTi and stainless steel wires (p < 0.05). The pitting potential, protection potential, and passive range of stressed NiTi and stainless steel wires decreased on decreasing pH, whereas the passive current density increased on decreasing pH. The load had no significant influence on the above corrosion parameters (p > 0.05). For all pH and load conditions, stainless steel wire showed higher pitting potential and wider passive range than NiTi wire (p < 0.001), whereas NiTi wire had lower passive current density than stainless steel wire (p < 0.001). The corrosion resistance of the stressed NiTi and stainless steel wires was related to the surface characterizations, including surface defect and passive film. PMID:12926035

To date, more than 30 PWRs have reported stresscorrosion cracking of steam generator tubing from the primary water side. In 32 presentations, this report offers in-plant and laboratory data on the contributing factors, as well as discussing some promising remedial measures.

Representatives from utilities, vendors, universities, government agencies, and EPRI reviewed recent research on stresscorrosion cracking of steam generator tubing in primary water. Participants agreed that, although the mechanism involved in cracking is uncertain, identifying the rate-limiting step is more important than understanding the complete mechanism.

Participants at this 1986 workshop discussed methods, such as electrochemical monitoring, for determining stresscorrosion crack (SCC) initiation and for identifying variables involved in initiation. A survey of field occurrences of SCC revealed a correlation between fabrication-related defects and crack initiation.

To ensure the integrity and serviceability of gas pipelines, operators periodically utilize intelligent pigging. This inspection technique has proven to be a cost effective approach for determining the condition of operating pipelines. Recent advancements in intelligent pigging technology are now aiding the pipeline industry in the detection of stresscorrosion cracking.

Stress-corrosion cracking of sensitized Type 304 steel in low temperature borated water has been observed. The probable role of low levels of chloride ions or sulfur-containing ions is described, including the relationship of the phenomenon to polythionic acid cracking. The mechanism of the sulfur-induced cracking and its usefulness as a test for sensitization are outlined.

A double overlapping etch zone technique for evaluation of the resistance of metallic alloys to stresscorrosion cracking is described. The technique involves evaluating the metallic alloy along the line of demarcation between an overlapping double etch zone and single etch zone formed on the metallic alloy surface.

A double overlapping etch zone technique for evaluation of the resistance of metallic alloys to stresscorrosion cracking. The technique involves evaluating the metallic alloy along the line of demarcation between an overlapping double etch zone and single etch zone formed on the metallic alloy surface.

Point defects were introduced into specimens of three heat-treated tempers of alloy 7075 by neutron irradiation. Continuous ultrasonic monitoring allowed crack growth to be observed. Effects on stress-corrosion susceptibility, elongation, hardness, and yield strength are noted and compared for the three tempers.

Discusses the employee assistance program (EAP), a benefit increasingly provided by United Kingdom employers that claims to reduce the effects of stress on individuals and organizations, provide a management tool to improve workplace performance and productivity, and respond to critical incidents. Describes EAPs, their history, development and…

The weldability, strength, and corrosion resistance of four 5XXX aluminum alloys electron beam welded to 6061-T6 aluminum alloy without a filler metal were evaluated. Adding filler metal raises weld energy requirements and makes the process more difficult to control. In this study, instead of using a filler metal, a high-magnesium 5XXX alloy was welded to the 6061 alloy. The four 5XXX alloys used (5456-H321, 5052-H34, 5086-H323, and 5083-H32) were selected for their high magnesium content which reduces weld crack sensitivity.

This paper describes research on the stress-corrosion crack growth (SCCG) behavior of a new series of bioactive glasses designed to fabricate coatings on Ti and Co-Cr-based implant alloys. These glasses should provide improved implant fixation between implant and exhibit good mechanical stability in vivo. It is then important to develop an understanding of the mechanisms that control environmentally-assisted crack growth in this new family of glasses and its effect on their reliability. Several compositions have been tested in both static and cyclic loading in simulated body fluid. These show only small dependences of stress-corrosion crack growth behavior on the composition. Traditional SCCG mechanisms for silicate glasses appear to be operative for the new bioactive glasses studied here. At higher velocities, hydrodynamic effects reduce growth rates under conditions that would rarely pertain for small natural flaws in devices. PMID:17714778

A meeting on PWSCC Remedial Measures'' was organized to give those working in this area an opportunity to share their results, ideas and plans with regard to development and application of remedial measures directed against the primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC) phenomenon affecting alloy 600 steam generator tubes. Topics discussed included: utility experience and strategies; nondestructive examination (NDE) methods for PWSCC; technical topics ranging from predictive methods for occurrence of PWSCC to results of corrosion tests; and services provided by vendors that can help prevent the occurrence of PWSCC or can help address problems caused by PWSCC once it occurs.

The stresscorrosion susceptibility of two powder metallurgy (P/M) alloys, Al-Li-Cu and Al-Li-Cu-Mg two mechanically attrited (M/A) alloys, Al-Li-Cu and Al-Li-Mg; and two wrought, ingot alloys, X-2020 and AA7475, are compared. Time-dependent fracture in an aqueous sodium chloride environment under alternate immersion condition was found to vary significantly between alloys. The stresscorrosion behavior of the two powder metallurgy processed alloys was studied in detail under conditions of crack initiation, static crack growth, and fatigue crack growth. A variety of stresscorrosion tests were performed including smooth surface, time-to-failure tests; potentiostatic tests on smooth surfaces exposed to constant applied strain rates; and fracture mechanics-type tests under static and cyclic loads. Both alloys show surface pitting and subsequent intergranular corrosion. Pitting is more severe in the magnesium-bearing alloy and is associated with stringer particles strung along the extrusion direction as a result of P/M processing.

The stresscorrosion susceptibility of two powder metallurgy (P/M) alloys, Al-Li-Cu and Al-Li-Cu-Mg; two mechanically attrited (M/A) alloys, Al-Li-Cu and Al-Li-Mg; and two wrought, ingot alloys, X-2020 and AA7475, are compared. Time-dependent fracture in an aqueous sodium chloride environment under alternate immersion condition was found to vary significantly between alloys. The stresscorrosion behavior of the two powder metallurgy processed alloys was studied in detail under conditions of crack initiation, static crack growth, and fatigue crack growth. A variety of stresscorrosion tests were performed including smooth surface, time-to-failure tests; potentiostatic tests on smooth surfaces exposed to constant applied strain rates; and fracture mechanics-type tests under static and cyclic loads. Both alloys show surface pitting and subsequent intergranular corrosion. Pitting is more severe in the magnesium-bearing alloy and is associated with stringer particles strung along the extrusion direction as a result of P/M processing.

U-band, C-ring, and slow strain rate tests were performed to evaluate the effects of texture, stress, surface condition, heat treatments electrochemical potential, and strain rate on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of zirconium in 90% nitric acid at room temperature. Careful control of texture, surface condition (scratching, cleaning, and oxide coating), and/or applied stress was shown to effectively lead to the prevention of SCC of zirconium in 90% HNO/sub 3/. Heat treating at 760, 880, or 1000 C does not seem to improve the SCC resistance. However, if the potential of zirconium is maintained at 500 mV/sub SCE/ or lower, or 200 ppm of HF is added, zirconium's SCC susceptibility in 90% HNO/sub 3/ is eliminated. When adding HF, zirconium sponge must also be added to avoid corrosion rates.

An interstitial free steel is subjected to slow strain rate tests to investigate the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior at strain rates ranging from 10-4 to 10-6s-1 in air and 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. The ratios of time to failure, failure strain, and ultimate tensile stress at different strain rates in air to that in corrosive were considered as SCC susceptibility. Serrated stress-strain curve observed at lowest strain rate is explained by the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect. Maximum susceptibility to SCC at lowest strain rate is attributed to the soluble γ-FeOOH in the rust analyzed by Fourier Transformed Infrared spectroscopy. Mechanism for SCC relates to the anodic dissolution forming the groove, where hydrogen embrittlement can set in and finally fracture happens due to triaxiality.

In an effort to simulate typical compressor operating conditions of current turbine engines, special test facilities were designed. Air velocity, air pressure, air dewpoint, salt deposition temperature, salt concentration, and specimen surface condition were systematically controlled and their influence on hot-salt stress-corrosion evaluated. The influence of both continuous and cyclic stress-temperature exposures was determined. The relative susceptibility of a variety of titanium alloys in commonly used heat-treated conditions was determined. The effects of both environmental and material variables were used to interpret the behavior of titanium alloys under hot-salt stress-corrosion conditions found in jet engines and to appraise their future potential under such conditions.

Scratch test and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) were applied to study the effects of thiosulfate on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Alloy 800 in simulated crevice solutions. The results showed that thiosulfate cathodically shifted the pitting potential of Alloy 800 significantly and the pitting morphology on the electrode surface was also different from that formed in the absence of thiosulfate. The synergistic effect between thiosulfate and stress was also observed, which was mainly promoting enhanced anodic dissolution at active sites. In the lead-induced stresscorrosion crackings (PbSCC) work, the crack propagation rate (CPR) of Alloy 800 double cantilever specimen were estimated in neutral crevice chemistries solutions at 300 degree Celsius. The PbSCC of alloy 800 at high temperature were investigated by comparing the CPR rate of Pb-contaminated and Pb-free conditions. A repetitive behavior of crack advance was observed from the measurement. This observation is consistent with the film rupture model.

The stresscorrosion cracking resistance was studied for high strength alloy steels 4130, 4340, for H-11 at selected strength levels, and for D6AC and HY140 at a single strength. Round tensile and C-ring type specimens were stressed up to 100 percent of their yield strengths and exposed to alternate immersion in salt water, salt spray, the atmosphere at Marshall Space Flight Center, and the seacoast at Kennedy Space Center. Under the test conditions, 4130 and 4340 steels heat treated to a tensile strength of 1240 MPa (180 ksi), H-11 and D6AC heat treated to a tensile strength of 1450 MPa (210 ksi), and HY140 (1020 MPa, 148 ksi) are resistant to stresscorrosion cracking because failures were not encountered at stress levels up to 75 percent of their yield strengths. A maximum exposure period of one month for alternate immersion in salt water or salt spray and three months for seacoast is indicated for alloy steel to avoid false indications of stresscorrosion cracking because of failure resulting from severe pitting.

Pure Al coatings were deposited by direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering to protect sintered NdFeB magnets. The effects of Ar+ ion-beam-assisted deposition (IBAD) on the structure and the corrosion behaviour of Al coatings were investigated. The Al coating prepared by DC magnetron sputtering with IBAD (IBAD-Al-coating) had fewer voids than the coating without IBAD (Al-coating). The corrosion behaviour of the Al-coated NdFeB specimens was investigated by potentiodynamic polarisation, a neutral salt spray (NSS) test, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The pitting corrosion of the Al coatings always began at the voids of the grain boundaries. Bombardment by the Ar+ ion-beams effectively improved the corrosion resistance of the IBAD-Al-coating.

Attempts have been made to elucidate the mechanism of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in high-strength Al-Zn-Mg and Al-Li-Zr alloys exposed to aqueous environments by considering the temperature dependence of SCC susceptibility based upon the anodic dissolution and hydrogen embrittlement models. A quantitative correlation which involves the change of threshold stress intensity, K ISCC, with temperature on the basis of anodic dissolution has been developed with the aid of linear elastic fracture mechanics. From the derived correlation, it is concluded that the threshold stress intensity decreases as the test temperature increases. This suggestion is inconsistent with that predicted on the basis of hydrogen embrittlement. It is experimentally observed from the Al-Zn-Mg and Al-Li-Zr alloys that the threshold stress intensity, K,ISCC, decreases and the crack propagation rate, da/dt, over the stress intensity increases with increasing test temperature. From considering the change in SCC susceptibility with temperature, it is suggested that a gradual transition in the mechanism for the stress-corrosion crack propagation occurs from anodic dissolution in stage I, where the crack propagation rate increases sharply with stress intensity, to hydrogen embrittlement in stage II, where the crack propagation rate is independent of stress intensity.

The goal of this research program was to determine the effects of loading on growth of stress-corrosion cracks (SCC) in line pipe steel and whether special loading procedures could actually inhibit crack growth. Of particular interest was the effect of hydrostatic retesting on the subsequent growth of existing cracks. The growth rate experiments showed that the slow-strain rate loading could successfully nucleate a group of fine cracks with depths up to 0.025 inches (0.64 mm). However, the subsequent cyclic loading at typical operating stress levels (lower than experienced during the slow- strain rate loading) produced minimal crack growth and stopped soon after the test was started. The limited growth is believed to be a real phenomenon which means this is not a suitable procedure for the measurement of average crack growth rates. These experiments indicate that cracks grown at high stress (as in the slow-strain rate phase) do not readily propagate at lower stress levels. This may be because of crack closure (compressive crack tip residual stress) induced by the initial higher stress level. If that is true, then hydrostatic retests could inhibit the growth of existing stress-corrosion cracks, especially if the hydrostatic tests are conducted at high stress levels. 15 figures, 3 tabs.

The crack growth behavior of D6AC steel as a function of stress intensity, stress and corrosion history, and test technique, under sustained load in filtered natural seawater, 3.3 per cent sodium chloride solution, and distilled water, was investigated. Reported investigations of D6AC were considered in terms of the present study with emphasis on thermal treatment, specimen configuration, fracture toughness, crack-growth rates, initiation period, and threshold. Both threshold and growth kinetics were found to be relatively insensitive to these test parameters. The apparent incubation period was dependent on technique, both detection sensitivity and precracking stress intensity level.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in the Yucca Mountain waste package closure welds is believed to be the greatest threat to long-term containment. Use of stress mitigation to eliminate tensile stresses resulting from welding can prevent SCC. A laser technology with sufficient average power to achieve high throughput has been developed and commercially deployed with high peak power and sufficiently high average power to be an effective laser peening system. An appropriately applied version of this process could be applied to eliminate SCC in the waste package closure welds.

The relationship between surface properties of line pipe steels and external stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) is reviewed. Surface factors discussed include mill scale, surface pitting, decarburization, surface residual stresses, and near-surface stress state. Recent research results have demonstrated that the susceptibility of a line pipe steel to SCC initiation is dependent on complicated interaction among these properties. However, these studies also show that relatively simple surface preparation procedures such as grit blasting can be effective in reducing the susceptibility of pipelines to crack initiation.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) experiments were conducted on Ti-8-1-1 wire specimens in hydrochloric and sulfuric acids of variable pH in order to determine the effect of pH on the susceptibility to cracking. The alloy exhibited increasing susceptibility with decreasing pH. By varying the applied potential, it was observed that susceptibility zones exist both in the cathodic and the anodic ranges. In the cathodic range, susceptibility also increased with decreasing applied potential. Corrosion potential-time data in hydrochloric acid (pH 1.7) and sulfuric acid (pH 1.7) indicate that chloride ions lower the corrosion potential of the specimen which, in turn, increases the susceptibility.

Austenitic stainless steels are known to be sensitive to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in hot chloride solutions. The aim of the present study is to find improvements in the SCC behavior of 316L-type austenitic stainless steels in 117 C MgCl{sub 2} solutions. Previously, the authors have proposed the corrosion-enhanced plasticity model (CEPM) to describe the discontinuous cracking process which occurs in SCC. This model is based on localized corrosion (anodic dissolution, and hydrogen absorption)-deformation (dislocations) interactions (CDI). From the framework of this model, it is proposed that a prestraining in fatigue at saturation decreases the SCC sensitivity. This idea is experimentally confirmed for both crack initiation and crack propagation, through the analysis of the SCC behavior by slow-strain-rate tests of single and polycrystals after different prestraining conditions.

Titanium alloy degradation modes are reviewed in relation to their performance in repository environments. General corrosion, localized corrosion, stresscorrosion cracking, hydrogen induced cracking, microbially influenced corrosion, and radiation-assistedcorrosion of Ti alloys are considered. With respect to the Ti Grade 7 drip shields selected for emplacement in the repository at Yucca Mountain, general corrosion, hydrogen induced cracking, and radiation-assistedcorrosion will not lead to failure within the 10,000 year regulatory period; stresscorrosion cracking (in the absence of disruptive events) is of no consequence to barrier performance; and localized corrosion and microbially influenced corrosion are not expected to occur. To facilitate the discussion, Ti Grades 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, and 24 are included in this review.

StressCorrosion Cracking (SCC) and Corrosion-Fatigue (CF) tests were performed in autoclave at 320 C in concentrated boric acid chlorinated media in presence of oxygen or hydrogen on type 316L austenitic stainless steel. Crack Growth Rates (CGR) are higher in non deaerated solutions for both SCC and CF than in hydrogenated solutions. CGR are relatively similar in CF and in SCC, excepted for high load ratio in CF where CGR are higher than in SCC. Detailed analysis of the fracture surface shows some distinct features between SCC and CF. Intergranular and transgranular mode of fracture are observed on SCC and CF. Fracture modes depend on the chemistry of solution in SCC and on frequency in CF. Traces of slip bands and crack front marking associated with oxide scale present on fracture surfaces exist in SCC and CF. Fatigue striations appear for low load ratio and high frequency. Secondary intergranular and transgranular cracking is observed only on SCC fracture surfaces and ligament morphology can be different in SCC relative to FC.

A new hybrid monitoring technique for chloride stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) is proposed. It uses both the acoustic emission (AE) and corrosion potential fluctuation (CPF) techniques. This paper discusses the results of SCC tests on butt-welded Type 304 stainless steel pipes. The weld pipe suffered transgranular (TG)-SCC in a concentrated magnesium chloride solution (40 mass%), but suffered intergranular (IG) attack and falling-off of grains in a heat-affected zone (HAZ) in a dilute chloride solution (35 mass%). SCC initiations in both concentrated and dilute corrodants were successfully monitored using a CPF technique. However, the CPF technique could not monitor the propagation of the SCC. This propagation could be detected using an AE technique. Secondary AE was produced by hydrogen gas evolution and by the cracking of corrosion products, and the primary AE was produced by the falling-off of grains due to the mutual actions of anodic dissolution and the mechanical fracture along a chromium-depleted zone in the grain boundary. The volume of metal loss by the dissolution was predicted from the local anodic current due to the fluctuation of the corrosion potential, and was found to correspond to the volume of the grain boundary attack. The fact that the primary AE was detected just after rapid drop (RD)-type CPF suggested that the grain boundary corrosion caused the falling-off of the grain that produced the primary AE.

Simulated service testing (SST) development was required to help qualify a new 2195 aluminum lithium (Al-Li) alloy spin forming dome fabrication process for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Exploration Development Technology Program. The application for the technology is to produce high strength low weight tank components for NASA s next generation launch vehicles. Since plate material is not currently manufactured large enough to fabricate these domes, two plates are joined by means of friction stir welding. The plates are then pre-contour machined to near final thicknesses allowing for a thicker weld land and anticipating the level of stretch induced by the spin forming process. The welded plates are then placed in a spin forming tool and hot stretched using a trace method producing incremental contours. Finally the dome receives a room temperature contour stretch to final dimensions, heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging to emulate a T-8 condition of temper. Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) tests were also performed by alternate immersion in a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution using the typical double beam assembly and with 4-point loaded specimens and use of bent-beam stress-corrosion test specimens under alternate immersion conditions. In addition, experiments were conducted to determine the threshold stress intensity factor for SCC (K(sub ISCC)) which to our knowledge has not been determined previously for Al-Li 2195 alloy. The successful simulated service and stresscorrosion testing helped to provide confidence to continue to Ares 1 scale dome fabrication

Container materials may undergo any of several modes of degradation in this environment, including: undesirable phase transformations due to lack of phase stability; atmospheric oxidation; general aqueous corrosion; pitting; crevice corrosion; intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC); and transgranular stresscorrosion cracking (TGSCC). This paper is an analysis of data from the literature relevant to the pitting, crevice corrosion, and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of these alloys. Though all three austenitic candidates have demonstrated pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-containing environments, Alloy 825 has the greatest resistance to these forms of localized attack. Both types 304L and 316L stainless steels are susceptible to SCC in acidic chloride media. In contrast, SCC has not been documented for Alloy 825 under comparable conditions. Gamma irradiation has been found to enhance SCC of Types 304 and 304L stainless steels, but it has no detectable effect on the resistance of Alloy 825 to SCC. Furthermore, while microbiologically induced corrosion effects have been observed for 300-series stainless steels, nickel-based alloys such as Alloy 825 seem to be immune to such problems. Of the copper-based alloys, CDA 715 has the best overall resistance to localized attack. Its resistance to pitting is comparable to that of CDA 613 and superior to that of CDA 102. Observed rates of dealloying in CDA 715 are less than those observed in CDA 613 by orders of magnitude. The resistance of CDA 715 to SCC in tarnishing ammonical environments is comparable to that of CDA 102 and superior to that of CDA 613. Its resistance to SCC in nontarnishing ammonical environments is comparable to that of CDA 613 and superior to that of CDA 102. 22 refs., 8 figs., 4 tabs.

Microstructural analyses by advanced metallographic techniques were conducted on mockup welds and a cracked BWR core shroud weld fabricated from Type 304L stainless steel. heat-affected zones of the shroud weld and mockup shielded-metal-arc welds were free of grain-boundary carbide, martensite, delta ferrite, or Cr depletion near grain boundaries. However, as a result of exposure to welding fumes, the heat-affected zones of the welds were significantly contaminated by fluorine and oxygen which migrate to grain boundaries. Significant oxygen contamination promotes fluorine contamination and suppresses classical thermal sensitization, even in Type 304 steels. Results of slow-strain-rate tensile tests indicate that fluorine exacerbates the susceptibility of irradiated steels to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking. These observations, combined with previous reports on the strong influence of weld flux, indicate that oxygen and fluorine contamination and fluorine-catalyzed stresscorrosion play a major role in cracking of Type 304L stainless steel core shroud welds.

The physical characteristics of stresscorrosion cracking of titanium in an aqueous chloride environment are compared with those of embrittlement of titanium by a gaseous hydrogen environment in an effort to help contribute to the understanding of the possible role of hydrogen in the complex stresscorrosion cracking process. Based on previous studies, the two forms of embrittlement are shown to be similar at low hydrogen pressures (100 N/sq m) but dissimilar at higher hydrogen pressures. In an effort to quantify this comparison, tests were conducted in an aqueous chloride solution using the same material and test techniques as had previously been employed in a gaseous hydrogen environment. The results of these tests strongly support models based on hydrogen as the embrittling species in an aqueous chloride environment.

Types 304L, 316L, and 321 austenitic stainless steel and Incoloy 825 are being considered as candidate container materials for emplacing high-level waste in a tuff repository. The stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of these materials under simulated tuff repository conditions was evaluated by using the notched C-ring method. The tests were conducted in boiling synthetic groundwater as well as in the steam/air phase above the boiling solutions. All specimens were in contact with crushed Topopah Spring tuff. The investigation showed that microcracks are frequently observed after testing as a result of stresscorrosion cracking or intergranular attack. Results showing changes in water chemistry during test are also presented.

This paper illustrates the use of an 'equivalent rectangular crack' approach to predict leak rates through laboratory generated stresscorrosion cracks. A comparison between predicted and observed test data on rupture and leak rate from laboratory generated stresscorrosion cracks are provided. Specimen flaws were sized by post-test fractography in addition to pre-test advanced eddy current technique. The test failure pressures and leak rates are shown to be closer to those predicted on the basis of fractography than on NDE. However, the predictions based on NDE results are encouraging, particularly because they have the potential to determine a more detailed geometry of ligamentous cracks from which more accurate predictions of failure pressure and leak rate can be made in the future. (authors)

Loads of the continuous kraft digester have been determined during the start-up of the digester house. Loading was caused by the pressure of the proof test, the start-up pressures of the digester and, finally, the normal working pressure. The apparent threshold stress level in the base metal was greater than that achieved during the normal continuous cooking process but the level in the weld of the impregnation zone were exceeded due to the superposition of the tensile residual stresses. This two-axial tension is considered as the precondition for stresscorrosion cracking (SCC), which was confirmed by fractography studies. The results showed, that SCC in the impregnation zone is possible only in the welds during the normal continuous cooking process. During the refill and blow phase of the digester the measured loading stress changes corresponded to the stresses of the proof test and increased the risk for SCC. Some procedures to avoid or minimize SCC are discussed.

Reactor vessel internal components made of nickel-base alloys are susceptible to environmentally assisted cracking (EAC). A better understanding of the causes and mechanisms of this cracking may permit less conservative estimates of damage accumulation and requirements on inspection intervals. The objective of this work is to evaluate and compare the resistance of Alloys 600 and 690 and their welds, such as Alloys 82, 182, 52, and 152, to EAC in simulated light water reactor environments. The existing crack growth rate (CGR) data for these alloys under cyclic and constant loads have been evaluated to establish the effects of alloy chemistry, cold work, and water chemistry. The experimental fatigue CGRs are compared with CGRs that would be expected in air under the same mechanical loading conditions to obtain a qualitative understanding of the degree and range of conditions for significant environmental enhancement in growth rates. The existing stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) data on Alloys 600 and 690 and Alloy 82, 182, and 52 welds have been compiled and analyzed to determine the influence of key parameters on growth rates in simulated PWR and BWR environments. The SCC data for these alloys have been evaluated with correlations developed by Scott and by Ford and Andresen.

The results of internal gas pressurization tests, primarily at 320/sup 0/C, on cladding tubes from two suppliers, Supplier A and Supplier B, are presented. The two lots show a substantial difference in iodine SCC susceptibility so a test matrix is used to resolve the relative contributions of surface condition, residual stress, and texture. Additional tests with constant deflection split-ring specimens and with unstressed cladding segments are used to understand crack initiation and the early crack growth stages of SCC. The difference in SCC susceptibility is due to crystallographic texture. Other variables such as surface finish, stress relief temperature, and residual stress have little or no effect. Mechanical properties, crack initiation, and crack propagation all depend on texture. Both initiation and propagation features are analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. A mechanism for crack initiation consistent with most observations in this study and with the work of other investigators is proposed. At 320/sup 0/C, lifetime is crack initiation limited while several tests at 390/sup 0/C indicate that lifetime is less initiation limited at higher temperature. 31 figures, 9 tables.

This paper considers a number of aspects of the stress-corrosion cracking of brass from the point of view of the localized electrochemical processes occurring at the tip of a propagating crack. The principal system examined is the intergranular SCC of 70-30 brass in near-neutral ammoniacal solutions, for which a detailed mechanism is developed. In addition, the effects of nitrite ions in promoting SCC of both brass and copper are considered.

The effect of hydrogen saturation on the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) resistance of zirconium cladding tubes in an iodine-containing medium is studied. Comparative SCC tests are performed for tubes produced from E110 and E635 alloys with various hydrogen contents (up to 400 ppm). Hydrogen is shown to decrease the SCC resistance of the tubes predominantly because of the activation of pitting formation processes.

This report describes two major extensions of the SCCIG model for iodine stresscorrosion cracking of Zircaloy. The first permits prediction of the effects of texture on SCC; the second (the SCCIG-B model) permits the prediction of the SCC behavior of zirconium-lined ''barrier'' cladding. A fast-running derivative model (CFMIII) has also been developed. A complete users manual for the SCCIG-B FORTRAN program is given. 42 refs.

An electrochemical model of hot-salt stress-corrosion cracking of titanium alloys is proposed based on an oxygen-concentration cell. Hydrogen embrittlement is proposed as the direct cause of cracking, the hydrogen being generated as the results of the hydrolysis of complex halides formed at the shielded anode of the electrochemical cell. The model found to be consistent with the diverse observations made both in this study and by many investigators in this field.

A process of producing a NiCrFe alloy having a high resistance to stresscorrosion cracking comprises heating a NiCrFe alloy to a temperature sufficient to enable the carbon present in the alloy body in the form of carbide deposits to enter into solution, rapidly cooling the alloy body, and heating the cooled body to a temperature between 1100 to 1500/sup 0/F for about 1 to 30 hours.

A process of producing a NiCrFe alloy having a high resistance to stresscorrosion cracking comprising heating a NiCrFe alloy to a temperature sufficient to enable the carbon present in the alloy body in the form of carbide deposits to enter into solution, rapidly cool the alloy body, and heat the cooled body to a temperature between 1100.degree. to 1500.degree. F. for about 1 to 30 hours.

Emphasis has been placed on determining the interrelations among the composition, phase structure, deformation, and fracture properties of the alpha phase in susceptible alpha-beta alloys. The program is divided into two parts: (1) evaluation of the aqueous stresscorrosion susceptibility of a series of alloys that contain various alpha-soluble elements; and (2) investigations of the metallurgical aspects of the mechanism of aqueous stresscorrosion cracking.

Participants in this international workshop discussed research investigating mechanisms and propagation rates of intergranular corrosion in PWR steam generators. Laboratory test results, which have been consistent with power plant experience, permitted preliminary definition of corrosion rates in alloy 600 tubing.

Alloy 718 is generally considered a highly corrosion-resistant material but can still be susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). The combination of factors leading to SCC susceptibility in the alloy is not always clear enough. In the present work, alloy 718 leaf spring (LS) materials that suffered stresscorrosion damage during two 24-month cycles in pressurized water reactor service, operated to >45 MWd/mtU burn-up, was investigated. Compared to archival samples fabricated through the same processing conditions, little microstructural and property changes occurred in the material with in-service irradiation, contrary to high dose rate laboratory-based experiments reported in literature. Though the lack of delta phase formation along grain boundaries would suggest a more SCC resistant microstructure, grain boundary cracking in the material was extensive. Crack propagation routes were explored through focused ion beam milling of specimens near the crack tip for transmission electron microscopy as well as in polished plan view and cross-sectional samples for electron backscatter diffraction analysis. It has been shown in this study that cracks propagated mainly along random high-angle grain boundaries, with the material around cracks displaying a high local density of dislocations. The slip lines were produced through the local deformation of the leaf spring material above their yield strength. The cause for local SCC appears to be related to oxidation of both slip lines and grain boundaries, which under the high in-service stresses resulted in crack development in the material.

Cold rolled carbon steel 1018C is widely used in pressurized fuel pipelines. In these structures, stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) can pose a significant problem because cracks initiate late in the lifetime and often unexpectedly, but grow fast once they get started. To ensure a safe operation it is crucial that any damage can be detected before the structural stability is reduced by large cracks. In the early stages of SCC, microstructural changes occur which in many cases increase the acoustic nonlinearity of the material. Therefore, an initially monochromatic Rayleigh wave is distorted and measurable higher harmonics are generated. Different levels of stresscorrosion cracking is induced in five specimens. For each specimen, nonlinear ultrasonic measurements are performed before and after inducing the damage. For the measurements, oil coupled wedge transducers are used to generate and detect tone burst Rayleigh wave signals. The amplitudes of the received fundamental and second harmonic waves are measured at varying propagation distances to obtain a measure for the acoustic nonlinearity of the specimens. The results show a damage-dependent increase in nonlinearity for early stages of damage, indicating the feasibility of this nonlinear ultrasonic method to detect the initiation of stresscorrosion cracking.

Alloy 718 is generally considered a highly corrosion-resistant material but can still be susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). The combination of factors leading to SCC susceptibility in the alloy is not always clear enough. In this paper, alloy 718 leaf spring (LS) materials that suffered stresscorrosion damage during two 24-month cycles in pressurized water reactor service, operated to >45 MWd/mtU burn-up, was investigated. Compared to archival samples fabricated through the same processing conditions, little microstructural and property changes occurred in the material with in-service irradiation, contrary to high dose rate laboratory-based experiments reported in literature. Though the lack of delta phase formation along grain boundaries would suggest a more SCC resistant microstructure, grain boundary cracking in the material was extensive. Crack propagation routes were explored through focused ion beam milling of specimens near the crack tip for transmission electron microscopy as well as in polished plan view and cross-sectional samples for electron backscatter diffraction analysis. It has been shown in this study that cracks propagated mainly along random high-angle grain boundaries, with the material around cracks displaying a high local density of dislocations. The slip lines were produced through the local deformation of the leaf spring material above their yield strength. Also, the cause for local SCC appears to be related to oxidation of both slip lines and grain boundaries, which under the high in-service stresses resulted in crack development in the material.

The aim of this dissertation was to develop models of fatigue crack growth and stress-corrosion cracking by investigating cohesive theories of fracture. These models were integrated in a finite-element framework embedding a contact algorithm and techniques of remeshing and adaptive meshing.For the fatigue model, we developed a phenomenological cohesive law which exhibits unloading-reloading hysteresis. This model qualitatively predicts fatigue crack growth rates in metals under constant amplitude regime for short and long cracks, as well as growth retardation due to overload. Quantitative predictions were obtained in the case of long cracks.We developed a chemistry-dependent cohesive law which serves as a basis for the stress-corrosion cracking model. In order to determine this cohesive law, two approaches, based on energy relaxation and the renormalization group, were used for coarse-graining interplanar potentials. We analyzed the cohesive behavior of a large--but finite--number of interatomic planes and found that the macroscopic cohesive law adopts a universal asymptotic form. The resulting stress-corrosion crack growth rates agreed well with those observed experimentally in 'static' fatigue tests given in the literature.

This research uses nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves to characterize stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) damage in welded 304 Stainless Steel (304 SS). 304 SS is widely used in reactor pressure vessels, where a corrosive environment in combination with applied stress due to high internal pressures can cause SCC. Welds and the nearby heat affected zones (HAZ) in the vessel material are especially sensitive to SCC damage. SCC damage results in microstructural changes such as dislocation formation and microcrack initiation that in the long term lead to reduced structural integrity and material failure. Therefore, the early detection of SCC is crucial to ensure safe operation. It has been shown that the microstructural changes caused by SCC can generate higher harmonic waves when excited harmonically. This research considers different levels of SCC damage induced in samples of welded 304 SS by applying stress to a specimen held in a corrosive medium (Sodium Thiosulfate). A nonlinear Rayleigh surface wave is introduced in the material and the fundamental and the second harmonic waves are measured using wedge detection. The nonlinearity parameter that relates the fundamental and the second harmonic amplitudes, is computed to quantify the SCC damage in each sample. These results are used to demonstrate the feasibility of using nonlinear Rayleigh waves to characterize SCC damage.

This research uses nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves to characterize stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) damage in welded 304 Stainless Steel (304 SS). 304 SS is widely used in reactor pressure vessels, where a corrosive environment in combination with applied stress due to high internal pressures can cause SCC. Welds and the nearby heat affected zones (HAZ) in the vessel material are especially sensitive to SCC damage. SCC damage results in microstructural changes such as dislocation formation and microcrack initiation that in the long term lead to reduced structural integrity and material failure. Therefore, the early detection of SCC is crucial to ensure safe operation. It has been shown that the microstructural changes caused by SCC can generate higher harmonic waves when excited harmonically. This research considers different levels of SCC damage induced in samples of welded 304 SS by applying stress to a specimen held in a corrosive medium (Sodium Thiosulfate). A nonlinear Rayleigh surface wave is introduced in the material and the fundamental and the second harmonic waves are measured using wedge detection. The nonlinearity parameter that relates the fundamental and the second harmonic amplitudes, is computed to quantify the SCC damage in each sample. These results are used to demonstrate the feasibility of using nonlinear Rayleigh waves to characterize SCC damage.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of AISI 4140 and AISI 4340 steels has been evaluated in five environments, three simulating a leaking aqueous boric acid environment and two simulating ambient external conditions ie moist air and salt spray. Both steels were found to be highly susceptible to SCC in all environments at hardnesses of 400 VPN and above. The susceptibility was greatly reduced at hardnesses below 330 VPN but in one environment, viz refluxing PWR primary water, SCC was observed at hardnesses as low as 260VPN. Threshold stress intensities for SCC were frequently lower than those in the literature.

The thermodynamics of the zirconium-iodine system are summarized. Thermodynamic information for iodine chemisorbed on zirconium surfaces is also presented. These thermochemical results are used to analyze chemical behavior in situations related to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Cracking initiation sites in commercial Zircaloy tubing were found to be associated with impurities (iron, aluminum, silicon, and chromium) in the Zircaloy surface in microsurface examination of failures produced in iodine-induced SCC tests. It is suggested that the impurity site may react with iodine to form a locally embrittled region that fails under stress and acts as a crack initiator.

Phase II, Series 2 corrosion testing performed by the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) for the Department of Energy 3013 container has been completed. The corrosion tests are part of an integrated plan conducted jointly by Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Savannah River Site. SRNL was responsible for conducting corrosion studies in small-scale vessels to address the influence of salt composition, water loading, and type of oxide/salt contact on the relative humidity inside a 3013 container and on the resulting corrosion of Type 304L and 316L stainless steel (304L and 316L). This testing was conducted in two phases: Phase I evaluated a broad spectrum of salt compositions and initial water loadings on the salt mixtures exposed to 304L and 316L and the resulting corrosion; Phase II evaluated the corrosion of 304L at specific water loadings and a single salt composition. During Phase I testing at high initial moisture levels (0.35 to 1.24 wt%)a, the roomtemperature corrosion of 304L exposed to a series of plutonium oxide/chloride salt mixtures ranged from superficial staining to pitting and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). 304L teardrop coupons that exhibited SCC were directly exposed to a mixture composed of 98 wt % PuO2, 0.9 wt % NaCl, 0.9 wt % KCl, and 0.2 wt % CaCl2. Cracking was not observed in a 316L teardrop coupon. Pitting was also observed in this environment for both 304L and 316L with depths ranging from 20 to 100 μm. Neither pitting nor SCC was observed in mixtures with a greater chloride salt concentration (5 and 28 wt%). These results demonstrated that for a corrosive solution to form a balance existed between the water loading and the salt chloride concentration. This chloride solution results from the interaction of loaded water with the hydrating CaCl2 salt. In Phase II, Series 1 tests, the SCC results were shown to be reproducible with cracking occurring in as little as 85 days. The approximate 0.5 wt% moisture level was found to

Laser-assisted cold spray (LACS) process will be increasingly employed for depositing coatings because of its unique advantages: solid-state deposition of dense, homogeneous, and pore-free coatings onto a range of substrates; and high build rate at reduced operating costs without the use of expensive heating and process inert gases. Depositing coatings with excellent performance indicators via LACS demands an accurate knowledge and control of processing and materials' variables. By varying the LACS process parameters and their interactions, the functional properties of coatings can be manipulated. Moreover, thermal effect due to laser irradiation and microstructural evolution complicate the interpretation of LACS mechanical deformation mechanism which is essential for elucidating its physical phenomena. In order to provide a basis for follow-on-research that leads to the development of high-productivity LACS processing of coatings, this review focuses on the latest developments in depositing corrosion- and wear-resistant coatings with the emphasis on the composition, structure, and mechanical and functional properties. Historical developments and fundamentals of LACS are addressed in an attempt to describe the physics behind the process. Typical technological applications of LACS coatings are also identified. The investigations of all process sequences, from laser irradiation of the powder-laden gas stream and the substrate, to the impingement of thermally softened particles on the deposition site, and subsequent further processes, are described. Existing gaps in the literature relating to LACS-dependent microstructural evolution, mechanical deformation mechanisms, correlation between functional properties and process parameters, processing challenges, and industrial applications have been identified in order to provide insights for further investigations and innovation in LACS deposition of wear- and corrosion-resistant coatings.

Carbon steel, alloy steel, and high-strength, quenched and tempered steel, when under applied or residual stress and especially when cold formed and/or welded without subsequent thermal stress relief, are subject to failure by stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in air-contaminated dry ammonia. Water as well as hydrazine when present in small amounts have been shown to be effective inhibitors in an all steel system. Galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals and/or accelerated failure by SCC of stressed steel as a result of galvanic coupling may be of concern. Where water has proven effective as an inhibitor of SCC in an all steel system, it may not be adequate in a mixed metal system. With aluminum tubes, the tube sheet will either have to be solid aluminum, aluminum clad steel or some nonconductive coating will be necessary to effectively remove the cathodic alloy from the galvanic circuit. Research is required to determine the severity of the coupling effect between dissimilar alloys in ammonia under OTEC conditions; especially the possibility of accelerated SCC failures of stressed steel where the presence of an inhibitor in the ammonia may not be sufficient to override the galvanic coupling effect.

The effect of load interactions on the crack growth velocity of D6AC steel under stresscorrosion cracking conditions was determined. The environment was a 3.5 percent salt solution. The modified-wedge opening load specimens were fatigue precracked and subjected to a deadweight loading in creep machines. The effects of load shedding on incubation times and crack growth rates were measured using high-sensitivity compliance measurement techniques. Load shedding results in an incubation time, the length of which depends on the amount of load shed and the baseline stress intensity. The sequence of unloading the specimen also controls the subsequent incubation period. The incubation period is shorter when load shedding passes through zero load than when it does not if the specimen initially had the same baseline stress intensity. The crack growth rates following the incubation period are also different from the steady-state crack growth rate at the operating stress intensity. These data show that the susceptibility of this alloy system to stresscorrosion cracking depends on the plane-strain fracture toughness and on the yield strength of the material.

The focuses of the thesis are heating induced segregation/mixing of refractory alloys, along with oxidation and stresscorrosion properties of selected fcc metals and thin oxide layers formed on the surfaces thereof. The particular studies include segregation and oxidation simulation of Mo3Ni alloy clusters. These reveal favorable stabilizing oxidation resistance properties due to the Ni component, which diffuses during annealing to the surface of the clusters. A comparative study has been done for different sized Al grains in Fe or Ni bulk matrices. Its results indicate that Ni matrix is favorable due to the grain dissolution and energetic stability properties upon heating and cooling of the structures. Oxidation simulation of the same structures in slab structures indicate that unmixed metals oxidize first and the alloy layer, which forms only for the Ni matrix, eventually segregates to single-metal layers, which oxidize subsequently. The stresscorrosion properties of Al oxide slab/thin film structures in water, noble gas and vacuum environments have been studied with the aim of subsequent stresscorrosion simulation of alloys or metals with protective surface oxide layers. The obtained results indicate brittle type failures, which involve shear deformation and localized amorphization. The plasticity enhancing fluid environment effects are found to be similar for both reactive and nonreactive species, which indicates significant pressure effects and passivated reactivity of surfaces. Parallel to the corrosion study, strain rate effects and cyclic loading behavior for slab structures in vacuum have been characterized and compared at different temperatures. These indicate time dependent deformation mechanisms including temperature enhanced local amorphization prior to crack formation. Complementary analyses include extended timescale crack behavior of a slab structure in vacuum using parallel replica dynamics and steady state analysis of a slab structure in water

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of austenitic EN1.4301 (AISI 304) and EN1.4404 (AISI 316L) stainless steels was studied using the constant load method and polymer (PTFE) crevice former in order to study the effects of crevice on SCC susceptibility. The uniaxial active loading tests were performed in 50 pct CaCl2 at 373 K (100 °C) and in 0.1 M NaCl at 353 K (80 °C) under open-circuit corrosion potential (OCP) and electrochemical polarization. Pitting, crevice, and SCC corrosion were characterized and identified by acoustic emission (AE) analysis using ∆ t filtering and the linear locationing technique. The correlation of AE parameters including amplitude, duration, rise time, counts, and energy were used to identify the different types of corrosion. The stages of crevice corrosion and SCC induced by constant active load/crevice former were monitored by AE. In the early phase of the tests, some low amplitude AE activity was detected. In the steady-state phase, the AE activity was low, and toward the end of the test, it increased with the increasing amplitude of the impulses. AE allowed a good correlation between AE signals and corrosion damage. Although crevice corrosion and SCC induced AE signals overlapped slightly, a good correlation between them and microscopical characterization and stress-strain data was found. Especially, the activity of AE signals increased in the early and final stages of the SCC experiment under constant active load conditions corresponding to the changes in the measured steady-state creep strain rate of the specimen. The results of the constant active load/crevice former test indicate that a crevice can initiate SCC even in the mild chloride solution at low temperatures. Based on the mechanistic model of SCC, the rate determining step in SCC is thought to be the generation of vacancies by selective dissolution, which is supported by the low activity phase of AE during the steady-state creep strain rate region.

The purpose of this investigation was to develop titanium nitride (TiN)/titanium (Ti) coating on orthodontic nickel-titanium (NiTi) wires and to study the stresscorrosion of specimens in vitro, simulating the intra-oral environment in as realistic a manner as possible. TiN/Ti coatings were formed on orthodontic NiTi wires by physical vapor deposition (PVD). The characteristics of untreated and TiN/Ti-coated NiTi wires were evaluated by measurement of corrosion potential (Ecorr), corrosion current densities (Icorr), breakdown potential (Eb), and surface morphology in artificial saliva with different pH and three-point bending conditions. From the potentiodynamic polarization and SEM results, the untreated NiTi wires showed localized corrosion compared with the uniform corrosion observed in the TiN/Ti-coated specimen under both unstressed and stressed conditions. The bending stress influenced the corrosion current density and breakdown potential of untreated specimens at both pH 2 and pH 5.3. Although the bending stress influenced the corrosion current of the TiN/Ti-coated specimens, stable and passive corrosion behavior of the stressed specimen was observed even at 2.0 V (Ag/AgCl). It should be noted that the surface properties of the NiTi alloy could determine clinical performance. For orthodontic application, the mechanical damage destroys the protective oxide film of NiTi; however, the self-repairing capacity of the passive film of NiTi alloys is inferior to Ti in chloride-containing solutions. In this study, the TiN coating was found able to provide protection against mechanical damage, while the Ti interlayer improved the corrosion properties in an aggressive environment.

A stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) model has been adapted for performance prediction of high level radioactive-waste packages to be emplaced in the proposed Yucca Mountain repository. For waste packages of the proposed Yucca Mountain repository, the outer barrier material is the highly corrosion-resistant Alloy UNS-N06022 (Alloy 22), the environment is represented by aqueous brine films present on the surface of the waste package from dripping or deliquescence of soluble salts present in any surface deposits, and the tensile stress is principally from weld induced residual stress. SCC has historically been separated into ''initiation'' and ''propagation'' phases. Initiation of SCC will not occur on a smooth surface if the surface stress is below a threshold value defined as the threshold stress. Cracks can also initiate at and propagate from flaws (or defects) resulting from manufacturing processes (such as welding); or that develop from corrosion processes such as pitting or dissolution of inclusions. To account for crack propagation, the slip dissolution/film rupture (SDFR) model is adopted to provide mathematical formulae for prediction of the crack growth rate. Once the crack growth rate at an initiated SCC is determined, it can be used by the performance assessment to determine the time to through-wall penetration for the waste package. This paper presents the development of the SDFR crack growth rate model based on technical information in the literature as well as experimentally determined crack growth rates developed specifically for Alloy UNS-N06022 in environments relevant to high level radioactive-waste packages of the proposed Yucca Mountain radioactive-waste repository. In addition, a seismic damage related SCC crack opening area density model is briefly described.

A number of major accomplishments resulted from the project. These include: • Data Structures, Algorithms, and Numerical Methods for Reactive Molecular Dynamics. We have developed a range of novel data structures, algorithms, and solvers (amortized ILU, Spike) for use with ReaxFF and charge equilibration. • Parallel Formulations of ReactiveMD (Purdue ReactiveMolecular Dynamics Package, PuReMD, PuReMD-GPU, and PG-PuReMD) for Messaging, GPU, and GPU Cluster Platforms. We have developed efficient serial, parallel (MPI), GPU (Cuda), and GPU Cluster (MPI/Cuda) implementations. Our implementations have been demonstrated to be significantly better than the state of the art, both in terms of performance and scalability. • Comprehensive Validation in the Context of Diverse Applications. We have demonstrated the use of our software in diverse systems, including silica-water, silicon-germanium nanorods, and as part of other projects, extended it to applications ranging from explosives (RDX) to lipid bilayers (biomembranes under oxidative stress). • Open Source Software Packages for Reactive Molecular Dynamics. All versions of our soft- ware have been released over the public domain. There are over 100 major research groups worldwide using our software. • Implementation into the Department of Energy LAMMPS Software Package. We have also integrated our software into the Department of Energy LAMMPS software package.

The environmental response of commercially produced high-strength Al alloys, such as 7075, depends strongly on the anisotropy of the grain structure. Minimum resistance to both stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement is observed in the short transverse direction of the pancake'' grain structure in commercially produced alloys. It has not been established, however, exactly how the morphology of the grain structure in commercially produced alloys. It has not been established, however, exactly how the morphology of the grain structure mediates the SCC response or the SCC mechanism. Therefore, stress-corrosion testing of a high-purity 7075 Al alloy (low in Fe, Si, and Cr), having equiaxed grains, under tension (mode I) and torsion (mode III) loading modes, including fractography, appeared to suggest that the predominant processes of SCC were hydrogen embrittlement in mode I and anodic dissolution in mode III, in agreement with prior work on a commercially produced 7075 alloy, but that severe corrosion during longer tests renders those results unsuitable for threshold determination in this very aggressive testing environment.

Irradiated Zircaloy cladding specimens that reached burnups from 6 to 30 MWd/kg U were exposed to iodine to investigate their stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility. Constant-stress and stress-change tests were performed. Cladding from several sources (including BWRs and PWRs) was tested. Test temperatures ranged from 320 to 360/sup 0/C and applied hoop stresses ranged from 150 to 500 MPa )22 to 72 ksi). Two iodine concentrations, 6.0 and 0.6 mg/cm/sup 2/, were used. Failure times ranged from 360 s (0.1h) at high stresses to 5 x 10/sup 5/ s (142 h) at low stresses. The 24-h failure stress was 171 +- 18 MPa (24.8 +- 2.6 ksi) regardless of the preirradiation metallurgical condition for all specimens that reached a burnup > 10 MWd/kg U. This failure stress is lower than is typically measured on unirradiated Zircaloy. The effect on SCC behavior of an oxide that formed on the inner surface of one cladding type was evaluated. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed on some specimens. An analytical model for iodine-induced SCC of Zircaloy was developed that correlates reasonably well with the measurements.

Ti-6Al-4V is the most widely used high strength-to-mass ratio titanium alloy for advanced engineering components. Its adoption in the aerospace, maritime, automotive, and biomedical sectors is encouraged when highly stressed components with severe fatigue loading are designed. The extents of its applications expose the alloy to several aggressive environments, which can compromise its brilliant mechanical characteristics, leading to potentially catastrophic failures. Ti-6Al-4V stress-corrosion cracking and corrosion-fatigue sensitivity has been known since the material testing for pressurized tanks for Apollo missions, although detailed investigations on the effects of harsh environment in terms of maximum stress reduction have been not carried out until recent times. In the current work, recent experimental results from the authors' research group are presented, quantifying the effects of aggressive environments on Ti-6Al-4V under fatigue loading in terms of maximum stress reduction. R = 0.1 axial fatigue results in laboratory air, 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution, and CH3OH methanol solution at different concentrations are obtained for mild notched specimens ( K t = 1.18) at 2e5 cycles. R = 0.1 tests are also conducted in laboratory air, inert environment, 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution for smooth, mild and sharp notched specimens, with K t ranging from 1 to 18.65, highlighting the environmental effects for the different load conditions induced by the specimen geometry.

The frequency of stresscorrosion cracking in the near weld regions of the SRS reactor tank walls is apparently lower than the cracking frequency near the pipe-to-pipe welds in the primary cooling water system. The difference in cracking tendency can be attributed to differences in the welding processes, fabrication schedules, near weld residual stresses, exposure conditions and other system variables. This memorandum discusses the technical issues that may account the differences in cracking tendencies based on a review of the fabrication and operating histories of the reactor systems and the accepted understanding of factors that control stresscorrosion cracking in austenitic stainless steels.

Discussion of some of the precaution needs the development of fracture-mechanics based test methods for studying stresscorrosion cracking involves. Following a review of pertinent analytical fracture mechanics considerations and of basic test methods, the implications for test corrosion cracking studies of the time-to-failure determining kinetics of crack growth and life are examined. It is shown that the basic assumption of the linear-elastic fracture mechanics analyses must be clearly recognized and satisfied in experimentation and that the effects of incubation and nonsteady-state crack growth must also be properly taken into account in determining the crack growth kinetics, if valid data are to be obtained from fracture-mechanics based test methods.

The aim of the present paper is to carefully analyze the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) microprocesses of f.c.c. single crystals, not only for the influence of the tensile axis orientation but also for the influence of the cracking direction (imposed or not). 316L (in MgCl{sub 2}) and copper (in nitrites) single crystals of well defined tensile axis will be strained using the slow strain rate technique. The authors focus on the influence of the relative orientations of the cracking direction and the slip planes on the crystallography of fracture. The effect of slip conditions on the corrosion-deformation interactions leading to fracture are then emphasized, which gives major information relevant to the micromodelling of SCC.

To assess the role of abiotic/biotic electrode and electric field for enhancing methanogenesis under ammonia stress, three sets were conducted, i.e. R1 (titanium electrode+closed circuit), R2 (graphite felt+closed circuit), R3 (graphite felt+open circuit). Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) degradation and methane generation were gradually inhibited in all reactors when elevating NH4(+)-N to 4g/L; nevertheless, butyrate and propionate degradation rates in R2 and R3 were enhanced by 10-70% as compared to R1. Under the extremely high stress of NH4(+)-N (6g/L), insignificant difference was found among three tests and the methanogenesis were seriously hampered. Under ammonium stress, abundance of Methanobacterium significantly increased without electricity stimulation, however, acetoclastic Methanosaeta was found to survive and even increase in R2. Furthermore, Methanosaeta was enriched on graphite felt biofilm as compared to the suspended sludge, indicating the assistant role of bioelectrode for the methanogenesis under ammonium stress. PMID:26947446

Gas turbine blades encounter corrosion problems, especially at the bare metal connection between the blades and the rotor. Elevated temperatures, a corrosive environment, and high stress are factors that can reduce blade lifespan. Thus, understanding the relation between corrosion behavior and stress is key to improving the design of turbine blades and their operation. Type-II hot corrosion mechanisms (700 °C in flowing 1000 ppm-SO2 with Na2SO4 on the specimen surface) are representative of this problem, and Meier and Luthra have expertly established the mechanisms of Ni-alloy and Co-alloy systems. However, little research has focused on CMSX-4, which is a Ni-based superalloy single crystal. Moreover, research on the effects of phases (eutectic and gamma' size), crystal orientations, and applied stress is lacking. In this research, tests of the early stages of hot corrosion---from 3 minutes to 50 hours of exposure---are performed to develop an understanding of type-II hot corrosion mechanism in CMSX-4.The discovery is that a single Cobalt oxide rich layer is initially formed above NiO in the outward oxidation and turns into spheroids afterward. A unique remnant gamma' precipitate structure is observed in the inward oxidation zone and this evidence indicates the preferential corrosion behavior. Sulfur layer above the original surface is one of the causes influencing the overall oxidation thickness by pushing the outward oxidation scale. As-cast CMSX-4 with a wide variety of phases is used to examine the phase effects. With short exposure, coarse gamma' phase influences the inward oxidation thickness but the effect becomes less with time. Specimens with different orientations (growth and transverse directions) are used to examine orientation effect. A notched specimen with a wedge was invented to maintain a stress gradient during hot corrosion test. The results suggest that there may be an effect of stress on the overall oxidation thickness.

Examinations of the inside surface of irradiated fuel cladding from two reactors show the Zircaloy cladding is exposed to a number of aggressive substances, among them iodine, cadmium, and iron-contaminated cesium. Iodine-induced stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of well characterized samples of Zircaloy sheet and tubing was studied. Results indicate that a threshold stress must be exceeded for iodine SCC to occur. The existence of a threshold stress indicates that crack formation probably is the key step in iodine SCC. Investigation of the crack formation process showed that the cracks responsible for SCC failure nucleated at locations in the metal surface that contained higher than average concentrations of alloying elements and impurities. A four-stage model of iodine SCC is proposed based on the experimental results and the relevance of the observations to pellet cladding interaction failures is discussed.

The objective of this investigation was to estimate the creep life of glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) materials subjected to stress-corrosive environments using acoustic emission (AE). The laminates were fabricated using combinations of rigid bisphenolic polyester resin (LP-1), flexible vinylester resin (R806), random fiber mat and woven cloth. The creep tests were conducted in 5% nitric acid environment. The rigid matrix composites displayed higher AE count rate than the flexible matrix composites. For given creep testing conditions, the woven cloth reinforced specimens displayed higher number of AE counts than the random mat reinforced specimens. The creep life decreased with increasing creep stress, whereas the AE count rate increased with increasing creep stress. A linear relationship was found between the creep life and the AE count rate.

In stresscorrosion studies, crack velocity plotted with respect to stress intensity generally yields a characteristic curve with three distinct regions. Stage I exhibits a threshold (K{sub ISCC}) followed by a rapid increase in crack velocity (da/dt) for small changes in stress intensity. Stage II is characterized by an essentially constant crack velocity with increases in the stress intensity. Stage III exhibits a rapid increase in crack velocity for small increases in stress intensity leading to fracture. Stage I behavior has been poorly characterized in literature due to previous emphasis on determining the threshold K{sub ISCC} and difficulty and uncertainty in measuring of a large increase in crack velocity with only incremental changes in stress intensity. Tests were conducted in the stage I regime to measure crack velocity as a function of constant stress intensity. Constant K specimens were prepared according to the Mostovoy design, (a tapered double cantilever beam). Specimens were prepared from Type 304 stainless steel containing 0.06 wt% C solution annealed at 1100C for 1 hour, water quenched, and annealed at 625C for 24 hours to produce sensitization. A sodium thiosulfate solution at 50{degree}C was chosen as the test environment.

The crack growth behavior of D6AC steel as a function of stress intensity, stress and corrosion history and test technique, under sustained load in natural seawater, 3.3 percent NaCl solution, distilled water, and high humidity air was investigated. Reported investigations of D6AC were considered with emphasis on thermal treatment, specimen configuration, fracture toughness, crack-growth rates, initiation period, threshold, and the extension of corrosion fatigue data to sustained load conditions. Stress history effects were found to be most important in that they controlled incubation period, initial crack growth rates, and apparent threshold.

In oil and gas industrial environments, H2S gas is one of the corrosive species which should be a main concern in designing infrastructure made of carbon steel. Combination between the corrosive environment and stress condition will cause degradation of carbon steel increase unpredictably due to their simultaneous effects. This paper will design a model that involves electrochemical and mechanical theories to study crack growth rate under presence of H2S gas. Combination crack and corrosion propagation of carbon steel, with different hydrogen concentration has been investigated. The results indicated that high concentration of hydrogen ions showed a higher crack propagation rate. The comparison between corrosion prediction models and corrosion model developed by researchers used to verify the model accuracy showed a good agreement.

Concentrated caustic is a primary cause of stresscorrosion cracking and intergranular attack of Alloy 600 tubing in PWRs. However, temperature, electrochemical potential, stress, and metallurgical state all play a role. This study provides the quantitative evidence needed to develop models of crack growth and to devise effective countermeasures.

Chloride-induced stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is one of the failure modes of stainless steels. Highly alloyed austenitic stainless steels S32654, S31254, and N08028, and duplex grades S32750 and S31803 possess much improved resistance to SCC compared with S30400 and S31600 steels. With the development of a database, SSData, experimental data collected from calcium chloride tests, autoclave tests, and drop evaporation tests were evaluated. Stress-corrosion cracking data generated by autoclave tests agreed well with the practical service conditions and can be used to discriminate alloys for SCC resistance in sodium chloride solution. Drop evaporation test data can be used in situations where evaporation may occur and cyclic loading may be involved. The SCC resistance of alloys under each method increased with increasing molybdenum equivalent Mo + 0.25Cr + 0.1Ni. For a given alloy, the testing result depends on the stress state and environment; different test methods can give different ranking orders concerning SCC resistance. The performance of duplex stainless steels in a chloride-containing environment at higher temperatures was not as good as expected when dynamic loading was involved.

Susceptibility of titanium alloys to hot-salt stress-corrosion cracking increased as follows: Ti-2Al-11Sn-5Zr-0.2Si(679), Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo(6242), Ti-6Al-4V(64), Ti-6Al-4V-3Co(643), Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V(811), and Ti-13V-11Cr-3A1(13-11-3). The Ti-5Al-6Sn-2Zr-1Mo-0.25Si(5621S) alloy was both the least and most susceptible depending on heat treatment. Such rankings can be drastically altered by heat-to-heat and processing variations. Residual compressive stresses and cyclic exposures also reduce susceptibility to stress-corrosion. Simulated turbine-engine compressor environmental variables such as air velocity, pressure, dewpoint, salt concentration, and salt deposition temperature have only minor effects. Detection of substantial concentrations of hydrogen in all corroded alloys confirmed the existence of a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism.

Based on X-ray texture and structure analysis data of the material of main gas pipelines it was shown that the layerwise inhomogeneity of tubes is formed during their manufacturing. The degree of this inhomogeneity affects on the tendency of tubes to stress- corrosion cracking under exploitation. Samples of tubes were cut out from gas pipelines located under various operating conditions. Herewith the study was conducted both for sections with detected stress-corrosion defects and without them. Distributions along tube wall thickness for lattice parameters and half-width of X-ray lines were constructed. Crystallographic texture analysis of external and internal tube layers was also carried out. Obtained data testifies about considerable layerwise inhomogeneity of all samples. Despite the different nature of the texture inhomogeneity of gas pipeline tubes, the more inhomogeneous distribution of texture or structure features causes the increasing of resistance to stress- corrosion. The observed effect can be explained by saturation with interstitial impurities of the surface layer of the hot-rolled sheet and obtained therefrom tube. This results in rising of lattice parameters in the external layer of tube as compared to those in underlying metal. Thus, internal layers have a compressive effect on external layers in the rolling plane that prevents cracks opening at the tube surface. Moreover, the high mutual misorientation of grains within external and internal layers of tube results in the necessity to change the moving crack plane, so that the crack growth can be inhibited when reaching the layer with a modified texture.

Alloy 718 is generally considered a highly corrosion-resistant material but can still be susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). The combination of factors leading to SCC susceptibility in the alloy is not always clear enough. In this paper, alloy 718 leaf spring (LS) materials that suffered stresscorrosion damage during two 24-month cycles in pressurized water reactor service, operated to >45 MWd/mtU burn-up, was investigated. Compared to archival samples fabricated through the same processing conditions, little microstructural and property changes occurred in the material with in-service irradiation, contrary to high dose rate laboratory-based experiments reported in literature. Though the lackmore » of delta phase formation along grain boundaries would suggest a more SCC resistant microstructure, grain boundary cracking in the material was extensive. Crack propagation routes were explored through focused ion beam milling of specimens near the crack tip for transmission electron microscopy as well as in polished plan view and cross-sectional samples for electron backscatter diffraction analysis. It has been shown in this study that cracks propagated mainly along random high-angle grain boundaries, with the material around cracks displaying a high local density of dislocations. The slip lines were produced through the local deformation of the leaf spring material above their yield strength. Also, the cause for local SCC appears to be related to oxidation of both slip lines and grain boundaries, which under the high in-service stresses resulted in crack development in the material.« less

The distributions of elastic stresses/strains in the grain boundary regions were studied by the analytical and the finite element models. The grain boundaries represent the sites where stress concentration occurs as a result of discontinuity of elastic properties across the grain boundary and the presence of second phase particles elastically different from the surrounding matrix grains. A quantitative analysis of those stresses for steels and nickel based alloys showed that the stress concentrations in the grain boundary regions are high enough to cause a local microplastic deformation even when the material is in the macroscopic elastic regime. The stress redistribution as a result of such a plastic deformation was discussed.

The effects of variations in microstructure and strength level on the stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of three medium to high strength steels, H13, 300M, and HY-130, in 3.5 pct NaCl have been systematically studied. Superimposed on the expected inverse dependence of KISCC on yield strength was more than an order of magnitude reduction in crack growth rate, with no strength penalty. These results have been analyzed in terms of the possible relative roles of different microstructural features, in particular retained austenite, whose detailed behavior is the subject of a companion paper.

The effects of variations in microstructure and strength level on the stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of three medium to high strength steels, H13, 300M, and HY-130, in 3.5 pct NaCl have been systematically studied. Superimposed on the expected inverse dependence of KISCC on yield strength was more than an order of magnitude reduction in crack growth rate, with no strength penalty. These results have been analyzed in terms of the possible relative roles of different microstructural features, in particular retained austenite, whose detailed behavior is the subject of a companion paper.

A fractographic interpretation of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Zircaloy-2 was made through detailed scanning electron microscope (SEM) examination of cladding tubes irradiated and subjected to internal pressurization SCC tests in an iodine environment. The SEM examination of the fracture surface revealed that both intergranular and transgranular fracture appeared in the regions of crack initiation. The W-type voids were observed in the intergranular fracture. As the crack proceeded, transgranular fracture, or cleavage facet, became predominant. Cleavage facets were separated by tearing ridges as well as by fluting marks. The appearance of tearing ridges is consistent with the increase of slip systems in α-zirconium with increasing temperature.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of Ti-8Al-1 Mo-1V has been studied in several molten salt environments. Extensive data are reported for the alloy in highly pure LiCl-KCl. The influence of the metallurgical heat treatment and texture, and the mechanical microstructure show similarities with aqueous solutions at lower temperature. The fracture path and cracking modes are also similar to that found in other environments. The influence of H2O and H(-) in molten LiCl-KCl lead to the conclusion that hydrogen does not play a major role in crack extension in this environment.

Arc welds of Al-Zn-Mg alloy with Al-Mg filler wire have shown a preferential macroscopic segregation of Mg and Zn to the weld toes. Islands of large precipitates, which are observed in those solute-enriched weld toes, are identified as T phase (Mg32(Al,Zn)49) using diffraction pattern analysis. The location of T precipitates consistently coincides with the initiation site for stresscorrosion cracking. Therefore, it is hypothesized that they induce the crack initiation due to preferential dissolution.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of A537 tank steel was investigated in a series of environments designed to simulate the chemistry of legacy nuclear weapons production waste. Tests consisted of both slow strain rate tests using tensile specimens and constant load tests using compact tension specimens. Based on the tests conducted, nitrite was found to be a strong SCC inhibitor. Based on the test performed and the tank waste chemistry changes that are predicted to occur over time, the risk for SCC appears to be decreasing since the concentration of nitrate will decrease and nitrite will increase.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) on the external surface of pipelines contributes to the major failure of pipelines. The great majority of SCC is intergranular and occurs in a carbonate-bicarbonate environment. Metallurgical factors affecting SCC are still vague and therefore have been studied. Uniform microstructures, not mixed structures, are favorable for suppressing SCC. Low-C steels produced in a process such as thermomechanical-controlled processing are less susceptible to SCC. The presence of locally soft microstructures decreases resistance to SCC (mixed structure and decarburized structure). However, SCC resistance is high on hard layers, like grit-blasted surfaces.

Nuclear grade production tubing of Alloy 600 was evaluated for stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility in high purity water at 365, 345, 325, and 290 C. Reverse tube U-bend specimens provided crack initiation data and constant extension rate tests were employed to determine the crack velocities experienced in th crack propagation stage. Initial results indicate that a linear extrapolation of data received from high temperature tests can be used to predict the service life of steam generator tubing that has been plastically deformed or is continually deforming by ''denting.''

The feasibility of counteracting or preventing the stress-corrosion cracking in the BWR core internals by the photoelectrochemical method has been examined. For the purpose TiO{sub 2} semiconductor is noted for its capability of photo electrochemically inducing the water-oxidizing anodic reaction in low enough potential domain if supplied with a light of a wavelength shorter than 410 nm. This paper offers an empirical proof by showing that Type 304 stainless steel and Alloy 600 stainless alloy that have been plasma-spray coated with TiO{sub 2} film will do quite well in environments of BWR primary coolant.

In this paper, we present the results of a duplex plasma nitriding followed by an oxidizing stage process (which is also referred as oxy-nitriding) on the corrosion behavior of a 17-4PH precipitation hardening stainless steel. The formation of both, expanded martensite (b.c.t. α'N-phase) and chromium oxide (type Cr2O3) in the subsurface of oxy-nitrided samples at specific controlled conditions, leads in a noticeable increasing in the time-to-rupture during the sulfide stress cracking test, in comparison with an untreated reference sample. Oxy-nitriding improves the corrosion performance of the alloy when it is immersed in solutions saturated by sour gas, which extends the application potential of this type of steel in the oil and gas extraction and processing industry. The presence of the oxy-nitrided layer inhibits the corrosion process that occurs in the near-surface region, where hydrogen is liberated after the formation of iron sulfides, which finally produces a fragile fracture by micro-crack propagation; the obtained results suggest that oxy-nitriding slows this process, thus delaying the rupture of the specimen. Moreover, oxy-nitriding produces a hard, sour gas-resistant surface, but do not significantly affect the original chloride ion solution resistance of the material.

In this paper, we present the results of a duplex plasma nitriding followed by an oxidizing stage process (which is also referred as oxy-nitriding) on the corrosion behavior of a 17-4PH precipitation hardening stainless steel. The formation of both, expanded martensite (b.c.t. α'N-phase) and chromium oxide (type Cr2O3) in the subsurface of oxy-nitrided samples at specific controlled conditions, leads in a noticeable increasing in the time-to-rupture during the sulfide stress cracking test, in comparison with an untreated reference sample. Oxy-nitriding improves the corrosion performance of the alloy when it is immersed in solutions saturated by sour gas, which extends the application potential of this type of steel in the oil and gas extraction and processing industry. The presence of the oxy-nitrided layer inhibits the corrosion process that occurs in the near-surface region, where hydrogen is liberated after the formation of iron sulfides, which finally produces a fragile fracture by micro-crack propagation; the obtained results suggest that oxy-nitriding slows this process, thus delaying the rupture of the specimen. Moreover, oxy-nitriding produces a hard, sour gas-resistant surface, but do not significantly affect the original chloride ion solution resistance of the material.

Stresscorrosion cracking is one of the most common corrosion-related causes for premature breach of metal structural components. Stresscorrosion cracking is the initiation and propagation of cracks in structural components due to three factors that must be present simultaneously: metallurgical susceptibility, critical environment, and static (or sustained) tensile stresses. This report was prepared according to ''Technical Work Plan for: Regulatory Integration Modeling and Analysis of the Waste Form and Waste Package'' (BSC 2004 [DIRS 171583]). The purpose of this report is to provide an evaluation of the potential for stresscorrosion cracking of the engineered barrier system components (i.e., the drip shield, waste package outer barrier, and waste package stainless steel inner structural cylinder) under exposure conditions consistent with the repository during the regulatory period of 10,000 years after permanent closure. For the drip shield and waste package outer barrier, the critical environment is conservatively taken as any aqueous environment contacting the metal surfaces. Appendix B of this report describes the development of the SCC-relevant seismic crack density model (SCDM). The consequence of a stresscorrosion cracking breach of the drip shield, the waste package outer barrier, or the stainless steel inner structural cylinder material is the initiation and propagation of tight, sometimes branching, cracks that might be induced by the combination of an aggressive environment and various tensile stresses that can develop in the drip shields or the waste packages. The Stainless Steel Type 316 inner structural cylinder of the waste package is excluded from the stresscorrosion cracking evaluation because the Total System Performance Assessment for License Application (TSPA-LA) does not take credit for the inner cylinder. This document provides a detailed description of the process-level models that can be applied to assess the performance of Alloy 22

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of the AA2219 aluminum alloy in the single-pass (SP) and multipass (MP) welded conditions was examined and compared with that of the base metal (BM) in 3.5 wt pct NaCl solution using a slow-strain-rate technique (SSRT). The reduction in ductility was used as a parameter to evaluate the SCC susceptibility of both the BM and welded joints. The results showed that the ductility ratio ( ɛ NaCl/( ɛ air) was 0.97 and 0.96, respectively, for the BM and MP welded joint, and the same was marginally reduced to 0.9 for the SP welded joint. The fractographic examination of the failed samples revealed a typical ductile cracking morphology for all the base and welded joints, indicating the good environmental cracking resistance of this alloy under all welded conditions. To understand the decrease in the ductility of the SP welded joint, preexposure SSRT followed by microstructural observations were made, which showed that the decrease in ductility ratio of the SP welded joint was caused by the electrochemical pitting that assisted the nucleation of cracks in the form of corrosion induced mechanical cracking rather than true SCC failure of the alloy. The microstructural examination and polarization tests demonstrated a clear grain boundary (GB) sensitization of the PMZ, resulting in severe galvanic corrosion of the SP weld joint, which initiated the necessary conditions for the localized corrosion and cracking along the PMZ. The absence of PMZ and a refined fusion zone (FZ) structure because of the lesser heat input and postweld heating effect improved the galvanic corrosion resistance of the MP welded joint greatly, and thus, failure occurred along the FZ.

A stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) investigation was conducted on HP 9Ni-4Co-0.30C steel plate welds (welded by using straight polarity plasma arc and HP 9Ni-4Co-0.20C weld wire) since this material is being considered for use in the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) program. Prior to the welding, the material was double tempered at 538 C (1,000 F). After welding, only part of the material was stress relieved at 510 C (950 F) for 3 h. Round tensile specimens obtained from nonstress-relieved material were tested in 100-percent relative humidity at 38 C (100 F), in 3.5-percent NaCl alternate immersion, and in 5-percent salt spray at 35 C (95 F). Specimens obtained from stress-relieved material were tested in alternate immersion. The stress levels were 50, 75, and 90 percent of the corresponding 0.2-percent yield strength (YS). All the nonstress-relieved specimens exposed to salt spray and alternate immersion failed. Stress-relieved specimens (exposed to alternate immersion) failed at 75 and 90 percent of YS. No failures occurred at 50 percent of YS in the stress-relieved specimens which indicates a beneficial effect of the stress relief on the SCC resistance of these welds. The stress relief also had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of the welds (the most important being an increase of 21 percent on the YS). Under the conditions of these tests, the straight polarity plasma arc welded HP 9Ni4Co-0.30C steel plate was found highly susceptible to SCC in the nonstress-relieved condition. This susceptibility to SCC was reduced by stress relieving.

A stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) investigation was conducted on HP 9Ni-4Co-0.30C steel plate welds (welded by using straight polarity plasma arc and HP 9Ni-4Co-0.20C weld wire) since this material is being considered for use in the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) program. Prior to the welding, the material was double tempered at 538 C (1,000 F). After welding, only part of the material was stress relieved at 510 C (950 F) for 3 h. Round tensile specimens obtained from nonstress-relieved material were tested in 100-percent relative humidity at 38 C (100 F), in 3.5-percent NaCl alternate immersion, and in 5-percent salt spray at 35 C (95 F). Specimens obtained from stress-relieved material were tested in alternate immersion. The stress levels were 50, 75, and 90 percent of the corresponding 0.2-percent yield strength (YS). All the nonstress-relieved specimens exposed to salt spray and alternate immersion failed. Stress-relieved specimens (exposed to alternate immersion) failed at 75 and 90 percent of YS. No failures occurred at 50 percent of YS in the stress-relieved specimens which indicates a beneficial effect of the stress relief on the SCC resistance of these welds. The stress relief also had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of the welds (the most important being an increase of 21 percent on the YS). Under the conditions of these tests, the straight polarity plasma are welded HP 9Ni4Co-0.30C steel plate was found highly susceptible to SCC in the nonstress-relieved condition. This susceptibility to SCC was reduced by stress relieving.

An ideal expert system should closely reproduce the functions normally performed by the original source expert(s). But the complex transformations of a lifetime of industrial expertise into conveniently accessible software requires the willing and active participation of domain experts whose knowledge is rarely organized for such a transformation. The matching of logical and meticulous knowledge elicitation with memory-based judgments and expertise has often proved to be a difficult task. This paper describes an approach to construct a knowledge elicitation shell specifically adapted to the field of corrosion-related problems and expertise. The knowledge elicitation shell was structured along the lines of what has recently become the framework for the transfer of corrosion information to management and design engineers. The recent work published by Professor R.W. Staehle on the general topic of lifetime prediction and the impact of stresscorrosion cracking on materials was used for this task. One obvious advantage of using an established formalism is the availability of supporting documentation and background material. The advantage of using Professor Staehle`s work in particular is the clarity of his points of view that reflect a solid career in materials science and engineering. In this paper, the environment-induced cracking of high-strength aluminum alloys is used as an example to illustrate how the elicitation shell could be activated. It is believed that, by using the elicitation shell, human experts will have to rationalize some aspects of their expertise and subsequently become able to establish new links between facts and corrosion data. The process of building tables of certainty factors during the shell operation and interaction with users is also discussed.

The relation of microstructure to the mechanical strength and stresscorrosion resistance of highest strength and overaged tempers of BAR and 7050 aluminum alloys was investigated. Comparison is made with previously studied 7075 aluminum alloy. Optical microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry were used to characterize the grain morphology, matrix microstructure, and grain boundary microstructure of these tempers. Grain boundary interparticle spacing was significant to stresscorrosion crack propagation for all three alloys; increasing interparticle spacing led to increased resistance to crack propagation. In addition, the fire grain size in Bar and 7050 appears to enhance crack propagation. The highest strength temper of 7050 has a comparatively high resistance to crack initiation. Overall stresscorrosion behavior is dependent on environment pH, and evaluation over a range of pH is recommended.

A survey of the literature was performed to identify potential stress-corrosion cracking agents for low-strength carbon and low alloy steels in repository environments. It was found that a number of potent cracking agents are present, but stress-corrosion cracking is relatively unlikely in the bulk repository environments because of their low concentration. On the other hand, concentration of these species may occur by a number of mechanisms, and thus it is conceivable that the waste package could fail prematurely by stresscorrosion. Accordingly, it is recommended that the lower concentration limits for potential cracking agents be identified under typical repository environments, in conjunction with modeling studies to assess the likelihood that the concentrating mechanisms will operate and to bound the upper limits of concentration for each mechanism. 82 refs.

The evaporator recycle streams of nuclear waste tanks may contain waste in a chemistry and temperature regime that exceeds the current corrosion control program, which imposes temperature limits to mitigate caustic stresscorrosion cracking (CSCC). A review of the recent service history found that two of these A537 carbon steel tanks were operated in highly concentrated hydroxide solution at high temperature. Visual inspections, experimental testing, and a review of the tank service history have shown that CSCC has occurred in uncooled/un-stress relieved tanks of similar construction. Therefore, it appears that the efficacy of stress relief of welding residual stress is the primary corrosion-limiting mechanism. The objective of this experimental program is to test A537 carbon steel small scale welded U-bend specimens and large welded plates (30.48 x 30.38 x 2.54 cm) in a caustic solution with upper bound chemistry (12 M hydroxide and 1 M each of nitrate, nitrite, and aluminate) and temperature (125 C). These conditions simulate worst-case situations in these nuclear waste tanks. Both as-welded and stress-relieved specimens have been tested. No evidence of stresscorrosion cracking was found in the U-bend specimens after 21 days of testing. The large plate test was completed after 12 weeks of immersion in a similar solution at 125 C except that the aluminate concentration was reduced to 0.3 M. Visual inspection of the plate revealed that stresscorrosion cracking had not initiated from the machined crack tips in the weld or in the heat affected zone. NDE ultrasonic testing also confirmed subsurface cracking did not occur. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the environmental condition of these tests was unable to develop stresscorrosion cracking within the test periods for the small welded U-bends and for the large plates, which were welded with an identical procedure as used in the construction of the actual nuclear waste tanks in the 1960s. The

Cladding specimens were obtained from two fuel rods irradiated in the Big Rock Point Reactor to a burnup of approximately 8 gigawatt days per ton. Both claddings had a uniform, thick (approximately 4/mu/m) zirconium oxide layer on the inner surface. The significant difference between the two rods was the degree of fission-gas release (0.2 versus 14.3 percent). The cladding specimens, with the fuel removed, were subjected to stress-rupture tests to evaluate their stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility at an initial iodine concentration of 0.6 mg/cm/sup 2/ and a temperature of 325 degree C. Specimens from the high-gas-release rod exhibited significantly increased susceptibility to iodine SCC. The results suggest that the inner-surface oxide provides a barrier to iodine penetration. 10 refs.

A stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) evaluation was undertaken on HP 9Ni-4Co-0.20C steel in support of the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) program. This alloy was tested in plate, bar, and ring forging forms. Several heat treating procedures yielded ultimate tensile strengths ranging from 1,407 to 1,489 MPa (204 to 216 ksi). The test environments were high humidity, alternate immersion in 3.5-percent NaCl, and 5-percent salt spray. Stress levels ranged from 25 to 90 percent of the yield strengths. The majority of the tests were conducted for 90 days. Even though the specimens rusted significantly in salt spray and alternate immersion, no failures occurred. Therefore, it can be concluded that this alloy, in the forms and at the strength levels tested, is highly resistant to SCC in salt and high humidity environments.

Additional support is presented for the previously proposed role of hydrogen as an embrittling agent in hot-salt stresscorrosion cracking of titanium-aluminum alloys. The main source of hydrogen formed during the reactions of titanium alloys with hot salt was identified as water associated with the salt. Hydrogen is produced by the reaction of an intermediate (hydrogen halide) with the alloy rather than from metal-water reactions. The fracture mode of precracked tensile specimens was ductile when the specimens were tested in air, and brittle when tests were made in high-pressure hydrogen. Stressed titanium-aluminum alloys also were cracked by bombardment with hydrogen ions produced in a proton accelerator. The approximate concentrations of the hydrogen ions in the alloys were calculated.

Aluminum is a principal element in alkaline nuclear sludge waste stored in high level waste (HLW) tanks at the Savannah River Site. The mass of sludge in a HLW tank can be reduced through the caustic leaching of aluminum, i.e. converting aluminum oxides (gibbsite) and oxide-hydroxides (boehmite) into soluble hydroxides through reaction with a hot caustic solution. The temperature limits outlined by the chemistry control program for HLW tanks to prevent caustic stresscorrosion cracking (CSCC) in concentrated hydroxide solutions will potentially be exceeded during the sludge mass reduction (SMR) campaign. Corrosion testing was performed to determine the potential for CSCC under expected conditions. The experimental test program, developed based upon previous test results and expected conditions during the current SMR campaign, consisted of electrochemical and mechanical testing to determine the susceptibility of ASTM A516 carbon steel to CSCC in the relevant environment. Anodic polarization test results indicated that anodic inhibition at the temperatures and concentrations of interest for SMR is not a viable, consistent technical basis for preventing CSCC. However, the mechanical testing concluded that CSCC will not occur under conditions expected during SMR for a minimum of 35 days. In addition, the stress relief for the Type III/IIIA tanks adds a level of conservatism to the estimates. The envelope for corrosion control is recommended during the SMR campaign is shown in Table 1. The underlying assumption is that solution time-in-tank is limited to the SMR campaign. The envelope recommends nitrate/aluminate intervals for discrete intervals of hydroxide concentrations, although it is recognized that a continuous interval may be developed. The limits also sets temperature limits.

Alloy 690 has been selected for nuclear heat transport system tubing application in recent commercial reactor plants due to its resistance to multiple types of corrosion attack. Typical corn final heat treatments for this material are a mill-anneal (MA, approximately 1,070 C) to completely dissolve the carbides and develop the final grain structure plus a thermal treatment (TT, approximately 700 C) to precipitate carbides at the grain boundaries. Tubing with grain boundary carbides and no or few intragranular carbides has been found resistant to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) in caustic environments. In this work, first, Alloy 690 plate was subjected to a variety of MA and MA-TT heat treatments to create microstructures of carbide-decorated grain boundaries and undecorated boundaries. Caustic IGSCC test results were consistent with tubing data. Second, experiments were conducted to understand the mechanism by which caustic-corrosion resistance is imparted to Alloy 690 by grain boundary carbides. Tubing with a fully-developed MA-TT carbide microstructure was strained and heat-treated to create a mixed microstructure of new grain boundaries with no carbide precipitate decoration, intermixed with intragranular carbide strings from prior grain boundaries. Caustic SCC performance of this material was identical to that of material with the MA-TT carbide-decorated grain boundaries. This work suggests that the fundamental cause of good IGSCC resistance of MA-TT Alloy 690 in caustic does not derive solely from grain boundary carbides. It is suggested that matrix strength, as measured by yield stress, could be a controlling factor.

The physical characteristics of stresscorrosion cracking of titanium in an aqueous chloride environment are compared with those of embrittlement of titanium by a gaseous hydrogen environment in an effort to help contribute to the understanding of the possible role of hydrogen in the complex stresscorrosion cracking process. Based on previous studies, the two forms of embrittlement are shown to be similar at low hydrogen pressures (100 N/sqm) but dissimilar at higher hydrogen pressures. In an effort to quantify this comparison, tests were conducted in an aqueous chloride solution using the same material and test techniques as had previously been employed in a gaseous hydrogen environment. The results of these tests strongly support models based on hydrogen as the embrittling species in an aqueous chloride environment. Further, it is shown that if hydrogen is the causal species, the effective hydrogen fugacity at the surface of titanium exposed to an aqueous chloride environment is equivalent to a molecular hydrogen pressure of approximately 10 N/sqm.

Transmission Kikuchi diffraction (TKD), also known as transmission-electron backscatter diffraction (t-EBSD) is a novel method for orientation mapping of electron transparent transmission electron microscopy specimen in the scanning electron microscope and has been utilized for stresscorrosion cracking characterization of type 316 stainless steels. The main advantage of TKD is a significantly higher spatial resolution compared to the conventional EBSD due to the smaller interaction volume of the incident beam with the specimen. Two 316 stainless steel specimen, tested for stresscorrosion cracking in hydrogenated and oxygenated pressurized water reactor chemistry, were characterized via TKD. The results include inverse pole figure (IPFZ) maps, image quality maps and misorientation maps, all acquired in very short time (<60 min) and with remarkable spatial resolution (up to 5 nm step size possible). They have been used in order to determine the location of the open crack with respect to the grain boundary, deformation bands, twinning and slip. Furthermore, TKD has been used to measure the grain boundary misorientation and establish a gauge for quantifying plastic deformation at the crack tip and other regions in the surrounding matrix. Both grain boundary migration and slip transfer have been detected as well. PMID:25974882

Marine atmosphere and laboratory stresscorrosion test results on smooth and precracked specimens from 7075, 7475, 7050, and 7049 alloy plates (1.25 and 3.0-in. thick) are presented. It is shown that for a given strength level, alloys 7050-T7X and 7049-T7X have superior short-transverse stresscorrosion resistance (SCR) to 7X75-T7X. At typical strength levels above the minimum, for example, SCR of these alloys is considerably better than that of 7075-T76, and approaches that of 7075-T73. Alloy 7475 maintains an advantage in the area of fracture toughness, however, because it can be thermally processed to give particularly clean microstructures. Results from precracked specimens are in good qualitative agreement with those obtained from smooth specimens. Although both specimen types are capable of distinguishing between -T6, -T76 and -T73 tempers in relatively short time periods the precracked specimen provides more information about crack growth rates.

The feasibility of detecting stress-corrosion cracks (SSC) using the Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) technique was demonstrated. The RFEC technique interrogates the entire thickness of the pipe and is applicable for in-line inspection. If it can be shown that the RFEC technique is effective in detecting SSC, then the technique is an ideal method for detecting the defects of interest. A defect detection model is proposed for explaining the mechanism for crack detection. For axially oriented, closed cracks, such as SCC, the conventional defect detection model proved to be too simplistic and not applicable. Therefore, a new detection mode that examines the flow of circumferential eddy currents was developed based on experimental results. This model, though not rigorous, provides a general understanding of the applicability of the RFEC technique for finding SSC. The data from the cracks and various artificial defects is presented in three formats: isometric projections, pseudocolor images and line-of-sight data. Though only two cracks were found, the experimental results correlate well with the circumferential eddy current theory. A theoretical analysis of the effects of motion on the output signal of the receiver is presented. This analysis indicates that inspection speed of simple implementations may be limited to a few miles per hour. Remote field eddy current inspection has excellent potential for inspection of gas transmission lines for detecting stresscorrosion cracks that should be further developed.

A laboratory test program was conducted to compare the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of three weld metals in two boiling water reactor (BWR) environments. Tests were performed on compact tension specimens produced from Alloy 316L plates welded with weld metal 182, 308L, or 72. The specimens were notched, side-grooved, and precracked such that all crack growth would occur in weld metal. The specimens were notched to four different depths to allow several stress intensities to be studied at one time. Daisy-chained strings of specimens were loaded via the internal autoclave pressure. Tests were performed in a normal operating BWR environment and a BWR environment faulted with sulfate and oxygen. Test temperature was 550{degrees}F and test pressures ranged from 1200 to 2900 psi. Due to the specimen loading arrangement, varying the autoclave pressure changed the stress intensity on the specimens. Crack growth was monitored using a computer-automated potential drop (PD) system. A computer program was written which sequentially recorded PD and reference PD data, and calculated crack lengths and stress intensities for all the specimen. The crack growth rate was calculated for each specimen after every exposure. Plots of da/dt versusK were constructed for each weld metal in both environments. Following the test exposure, all the specimens were fractured and the fracture faces were examined. The visual examination results were then comparedto the PD-calculated crack lengths and stress intensities.

A laboratory test program was conducted to compare the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of three weld metals in two boiling water reactor (BWR) environments. Tests were performed on compact tension specimens produced from Alloy 316L plates welded with weld metal 182, 308L, or 72. The specimens were notched, side-grooved, and precracked such that all crack growth would occur in weld metal. The specimens were notched to four different depths to allow several stress intensities to be studied at one time. Daisy-chained strings of specimens were loaded via the internal autoclave pressure. Tests were performed in a normal operating BWR environment and a BWR environment faulted with sulfate and oxygen. Test temperature was 550{degrees}F and test pressures ranged from 1200 to 2900 psi. Due to the specimen loading arrangement, varying the autoclave pressure changed the stress intensity on the specimens. Crack growth was monitored using a computer-automated potential drop (PD) system. A computer program was written which sequentially recorded PD and reference PD data, and calculated crack lengths and stress intensities for all the specimen. The crack growth rate was calculated for each specimen after every exposure. Plots of da/dt versusK were constructed for each weld metal in both environments. Following the test exposure, all the specimens were fractured and the fracture faces were examined. The visual examination results were then comparedto the PD-calculated crack lengths and stress intensities.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of high-strength steel used in prestressed concrete structures was studied by acoustic emission technique (AE). A simulated concrete pore (SCP) solution at high-alkaline (pH ≈ 12) contaminated by sulphate, chloride, and thiocyanate ions was used. The evolution of the acoustic activity recorded during the tests shows the presence of several stages related respectively to cracks initiation due to the local corrosion imposed by corrosives species, cracks propagation and steel failure. Microscopic examinations pointed out that the wires exhibited a brittle fracture mode. The cracking was found to propagate in the transgranular mode. The role of corrosives species and hydrogen in the rupture mechanism of high-strength steel was also investigated. This study shows promising results for an potential use in situ of AE for real-time health monitoring of eutectoid steel cables used in prestressed concrete structures.

Marine atmospheric exposure of smooth and precracked specimens from 7075, 7475, 7050 and 7049 plates support the conclusion that for a given strength level, the short transverse stresscorrosion resistance of 7050-T7X and 7049-T7X is superior to that of 7075-T7X. The threshold stress intensity (K sub Iscc) for these alloys is about 25 MPa square root m at a yield strength of about 460 MPa; the corresponding yield strength level for 7075-T7X at this SCR level is about 425 MPa. Additional tests on two lots of high-toughness 7475 plate indicate that this alloy is capable of achieving K sub Iscc values of about 35 MPa square root m at yield strengths of 400-450 MPa. Precracked specimens from all these 7XXX-series alloys are subject to self loading from corrosion product wedging. This effect causes stresscorrosion cracks to continue growing at very low apparent stress intensities, and should therefore be considered a potential driving force for stresscorrosion in design and materials selection.

The evaporator recycle streams contain waste in a chemistry and temperature regime that may be outside of the current waste tank corrosion control program, which imposes temperature limits to mitigate caustic stresscorrosion cracking (CSCC). A review of the recent service history (1998-2008) of Tanks 30 and 32 showed that these tanks were operated in highly concentrated hydroxide solution at high temperature. Visual inspections, experimental testing, and a review of the tank service history have shown that CSCC has occurred in uncooled/un-stress relieved F-Area tanks. Therefore, for the Type III/IIIA waste tanks the efficacy of the stress relief of welding residual stress is the only corrosion-limiting mechanism. The objective of this experimental program is to test carbon steel small scale welded U-bend specimens and large welded plates (12 x 12 x 1 in.) in a caustic solution with upper bound chemistry (12 M hydroxide and 1 M each of nitrate, nitrite, and aluminate) and temperature (125 C). These conditions simulate worst-case situations in Tanks 30 and 32. Both as-welded and stress-relieved specimens have been tested. No evidence of stresscorrosion cracking was found in the U-bend specimens after 21 days of testing. The large plate test is currently in progress, but no cracking has been observed after 9 weeks of immersion. Based on the preliminary results, it appears that the environmental conditions of the tests are unable to develop stresscorrosion cracking within the duration of these tests.

Surface treatment of aluminium alloys using steam with oxidative chemistries, namely KMnO4 and HNO3 resulted in accelerated growth of oxide on aluminium alloys. Detailed investigation of the corrosion performance of the treated surfaces was carried out using potentiodynamic polarisation and standard industrial test methods such as acetic acid salt spray (AASS) and filiform corrosion on commercial AA6060 alloy. Barrier properties of the film including adhesion were evaluated using tape test under wet and dry conditions. Electrochemical results showed reduced cathodic and anodic activity, while the protection provided by steam treatment with HNO3 was a function of the concentration of NO3- ions. The coating generated by inclusion of KMnO4 showed highest resistance to filiform corrosion. Overall, the performance of the steam treated surfaces under filiform corrosion and AASS test was a result of the local coverage of the alloy microstructure resulting from steam containing with KMnO4 and HNO3.

Radioactive wastes are confined in 49 underground storage tanks at the Savannah River Site. The tanks are examined by ultrasonic (UT) methods for thinning, pitting, and stresscorrosion cracking in order to assess fitness-for-service. During an inspection in 2002, ten cracks were identified on one of the tanks. Given the location of the cracks (i.e., adjacent to welds, weld attachments, and weld repairs), fabrication details (e.g., this tank was not stress-relieved), and the service history the degradation mechanism was stresscorrosion cracking. Crack instability calculations utilizing API-579 guidance were performed to show that the combination of expected future service condition hydrostatic and weld residual stresses do not drive any of the identified cracks to instability. The cracks were re-inspected in 2007 to determine if crack growth had occurred. During this re-examination, one indication that was initially reported as a 'possible perpendicular crack <25% through wall' in 2002, was clearly shown not to be a crack. Additionally, examination of a new area immediately adjacent to other cracks along a vertical weld revealed three new cracks. It is not known when these new cracks formed as they could very well have been present in 2002 as well. Therefore, a total of twelve cracks were evaluated during the re-examination. Comparison of the crack lengths measured in 2002 and 2007 revealed that crack growth had occurred in four of the nine previously measured cracks. The crack length extension ranged from 0.25 to 1.8 inches. However, in all cases the cracks still remained within the residual stress zone (i.e., within two to three inches of the weld). The impact of the cracks that grew on the future service of Tank 15 was re-assessed. API-579 crack instability calculations were again performed, based on expected future service conditions and trended crack growth rates for the future tank service cycle. The analysis showed that the combined hydrostatic and weld

We have examined the incubation times in two alloys, 7075-T651 aluminum alloy and 4140 steel, as a function of applied K, using the published data in aqueous environment. The role of overloads was compared with the results from those without overloads, for a given environment. Effect of environment (NaCl vs deionized water) was also examined. The results show that in a constant K test, the incubation time increases with decreasing K. When a single overload cycle was applied, the time increased with percent overload for a constant background K, indicating that overload cycle affected the crack tip driving forces. These effects varied with the environment. The changes in the incubation times are analyzed considering one-to-one correspondence between the crack tip driving force and the times. Overloads contributed to compressive residual or internal stresses, thereby affecting the crack tip driving force. The stresses are related to changes in the plastic zone (PZ) sizes formed before and after the overloads. The effective stress intensity due to internal stress, K int, is defined and is shown to be a function of PZ size. Similarly, condition for crack initiation is expressed as K total = K app ± K int ≥ K Iscc. A detailed methodology for the determination of K int is outlined.

Recent investigations of cracked steam generator tubes at nuclear power plants concluded that lead significantly contributed to cracking the Alloy 600 materials. In order to investigate the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of Alloy 690, slow strain rate tests (SSRT) and anodic polarization measurements were performed. The SSRTs were conducted in a lead-chloride solution (PbCl{sub 2}) and in a chloride but lead free solution (NaCl) at pH of 3 and 4.5 at 288 C. The anodic polarization measurements were carried out at 30 C using the same solutions as in SSRT. The SSRT results showed that Alloy 690 was susceptible to SCC in both solutions. In the lead chloride solution, cracking had slight dependence on lead concentration and pH. Cracking tend to increase with a higher lead concentration and a lower pH and was mainly intergranular and was to be a few tens to hundreds micrometers in length. In the chloride only solution, cracking was similar to the lead induced SCC. The results of anodic polarization measurement and electron probe micro analysis (EPMA) helped to understand lead induced SCC. Lead was a stronger active corrosive element but had a minor affect on cracking susceptibility of the alloy. While, chloride was quite different from lead effect to SCC. A possible mechanism of lead induced SCC of Alloy 690 was also discussed based on the test results.

The results of microstructural characterization and stresscorrosion cracking test are presented for several heat treatment conditions of age-hardenable alloys X-750, 718, and A-286 used for in-core components in light-water reactors. Resistance to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking was evaluated using slow-strain-rate tests in pressurized-water-reactor primary water, and microstructural etch and rising-load quality assurance tests. Detailed microstructural characterization of these alloys was performed, and stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility is related to microstructural features. Alloy X-750 microstructures with heavy grain boundary coverage by Cr/sub 23/C/sub 6/ show better resistance to stresscorrosion cracking in primary water, despite grain boundary chromium depletion. Alloys 718 and A-286 have good resistance to cracking in the slow-strain-rate and quality assurance tests, although neither is immune to cracking in reactor service. Results are compared with those of a related program, including crack initiation and crack growth tests in pressurized-water and boiling-water reactor environments. Recommendations are made for improvements in the quality assurance tests and in heat treatment for alloy 718. 29 refs., 15 figs., 9 tabs.

This report presents the results of a research program conducted to evaluate the behavior of hypothetical stresscorrosion cracks in large diameter austenitic piping. The program included major tasks, a design margin assessment, an evaluation of crack growth and crack arrest, and development of a predictive model. As part of the margin assessment, the program developed diagrams which predicted net section collapse as a function of crack size. In addition, plasticity and dynamic load effects were also considered in evaluating collapse. Analytical methods for evaluating these effects were developed and were benchmarked by dynamic tests of 4-in.-diameter piping. The task of evaluating the growth behavior of stresscorrosion cracks focused on developing constant load and cyclic growth rate data that could be used with the predictive model. Secondly, laboratory tests were performed to evaluate the conditions under which growing stresscorrosion cracks would arrest when they intersected stresscorrosion resistant weld metal. The third task successfully developed a model to predict the behavior of cracks in austenitic piping. This model relies on crack growth data and the critical crack size predicted by the net section collapse approach.

This report presents the results of a research program conducted to evaluate the behavior of hypothetical stresscorrosion cracks in large diameter austenitic piping. The program included major tasks, a design margin assessment, an evaluation of crack growth and crack arrest, and development of a predictive model. As part of the margin assessment, the program developed diagrams which predicted net section collapse as a function of crack size. In addition, plasticity and dynamic load effects were also considered in evaluating collapse. Analytical methods for evaluating these effects were developed and were benchmarked by dynamic tests of 4-in.-diameter piping. The task of evaluating the growth behavior of stresscorrosion cracks focused on developing constant load and cyclic growth rate data that could be used with the predictive model. Secondly, laboratory tests were performed to evaluate the conditions under which growing stresscorrosion cracks would arrest when they intersected stresscorrosion resistant weld metal. The third task successfully developed a model to predict the behavior of cracks in austenitic piping.

Slow-strain-rate tests have been conducted on Grade-2 and Grade-12 titanium in simulated rock salt brines at 83/sup 0/C. Although neither metal shows stresscorrosion cracking, total elongation and reduction in area show some decrease. Optical and SEM results are discussed to elucidate the fracture mechanism.

This book describes an investigation of the potential to use remote field eddy currents at low frequencies that would permit penetration of pipeline steels and use this technique to detect stresscorrosion cracking on coated pipelines without requiring coating to be removed. The report describes development of a prototype eddy current instrument.

Iodine-induced stresscorrosion cracking (I-SCC) is a recognized factor for fuel-element failure in the operation of nuclear reactors requiring the implementation of mitigation measures. I-SCC is believed to depend on certain factors such as iodine concentration, oxide layer type and thickness on the fuel sheath, irradiation history, metallurgical parameters related to sheath like texture and microstructure, and the mechanical properties of zirconium alloys. This work details the development of a thermodynamics and mechanistic treatment accounting for the iodine chemistry and kinetics in the fuel-to-sheath gap and its influence on I-SCC phenomena. The governing transport equations for the model are solved with a finite-element technique using the COMSOL Multiphysics® commercial software platform. Based on this analysis, this study also proposes potential remedies for I-SCC.

Austenitic stainless steel welds and nickel alloy welds, which are widely used in nuclear power plants, present major challenges for ultrasonic inspection due to the grain structure in the weld. Large grains in combination with the elastic anisotropy of the material lead to increased scattering and affect sound wave propagation in the weld. This results in a reduced signal-to-noise ratio, and complicates the interpretation of signals and the localization of defects. Mechanized ultrasonic inspection was applied to study austenitic stainless steel test blocks with different types of flaws, including inter-granular stresscorrosion cracks (IGSCC). The results show that cracks located in the heat affected zone of the weld are easily detected when inspection from both sides of the weld is possible. In cases of limited accessibility, when ultrasonic inspection can be carried out only from one side of a weld, it may be difficult to distinguish between signals from scattering in the weld and signals from cracks.

The susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of a sensitized, wrought type 304 (UNS S30400) stainless steel (SS) was assessed using the slow strain rate test (SSRT) technique under applied potential control. Data was obtained in lithium hydroxide (LiOH)-doped water with the addition of sulfate (SO{sub 4}{sup 2{minus}}) and/or chloride (Cl{sup {minus}}) ions. Test were performed over the temperature range from 50 C to 250 C. Intergranular SCC (IGSCC) was observed at temperatures from 150 C to 250 C. The effects of SO{sub 4}{sup 2{minus}} and Cl{sup {minus}} on the critical potential for IGSCC varied with temperature. Results were compared with literature data for IGSCC in pure water and in water containing other concentrations of dopants.

This experimental program was divided into two parts. The first part evaluated stresscorrosion cracking in 2219-T87 aluminum and 5Al-2.5Sn (ELI) titanium alloy plate and weld metal. Both uniform height double cantilever beam and surface flawed specimens were tested in environments normally encountered during the fabrication and operation of pressure vessels in spacecraft and booster systems. The second part studied compatibility of material-environment combinations suitable for high energy upper stage propulsion systems. Surface flawed specimens having thicknesses representative of minimum gage fuel and oxidizer tanks were tested. Titanium alloys 5Al-2.5Sn (ELI), 6Al-4V annealed, and 6Al-4V STA were tested in both liquid and gaseous methane. Aluminum alloy 2219 in the T87 and T6E46 condition was tested in fluorine, a fluorine-oxygen mixture, and methane. Results were evaluated using modified linear elastic fracture mechanics parameters.

Self-loaded fracture mechanics specimens were tested in simulated groundwater at 150/degree/C to evaluate the susceptibility of 90-10 cupronickel to environmentally enhanced cracking. The test duration was 2000 hours. Electron fractographic evidence indicated that no stresscorrosion cracking occurred during the test. Compliance methods demonstrated that a substantial amount of crack extension did not occur during the 2000-hour exposure, but this method was insensitive to detecting crack growth increments less than 0.030 inch. Conventional macroscopic examination of fracture surfaces could not be used to determine if any crack extension occurred during the test because stains were observed beyond the original precrack. The stains were attributed to artifacts associated with postcracking procedures. 7 refs., 11 figs., 3 tabs.

Creep strength enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels Grades 23, 24, 91, and 92 have been widely implemented in the fossil fired industry for over two decades. The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of these materials with respect to mainstay Cr-Mo steels (such as Grades 11, 12 and 22) has not been properly assessed, particularly in consideration of recent reported issues of SCC in CSEF steels. This report details the results of Jones test exposures of a wide range of materials (Grades 11, 22, 23, 24, and 92), material conditions (as-received, improper heat treatments, normalized, weldments) and environments (salt fog; tube cleaning environments including decreasing, scale removal, and passivation; and high temperature water) to compare the susceptibility to cracking of these steels. In the as-received (normalized and tempered) condition, none of these materials are susceptible to SCC in the environments examined. However, in the hardened condition, certain combinations of environment and alloy reveal substantial SCC susceptibility.

Austenitic stainless steel welds and nickel alloy welds, which are widely used in nuclear power plants, present major challenges for ultrasonic inspection due to the grain structure in the weld. Large grains in combination with the elastic anisotropy of the material lead to increased scattering and affect sound wave propagation in the weld. This results in a reduced signal-to-noise ratio, and complicates the interpretation of signals and the localization of defects. Mechanized ultrasonic inspection was applied to study austenitic stainless steel test blocks with different types of flaws, including inter-granular stresscorrosion cracks (IGSCC). The results show that cracks located in the heat affected zone of the weld are easily detected when inspection from both sides of the weld is possible. In cases of limited accessibility, when ultrasonic inspection can be carried out only from one side of a weld, it may be difficult to distinguish between signals from scattering in the weld and signals from cracks.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of sensitized Type 304 stainless steel in thiosulfate solutions has been studied using constant extension rate tests. Very low concentrations of about 6.10/sup -7/M Na/sub 2/S/sub 2/O/sub 3/ (0.1ppm) gave cracking. With boric acid added, higher concentrations (1ppm) were required. The SCC was shown to be electrochemically controlled. Below -0.5v/sub SCE/ (-0.75/sub SHE/) no SCC took place; above this potential the rate of SCC increased with potential. An induction period was required before SCC continued above -0.5v if the potential was held at or below this value for extended times. This period was associated with the build up of an aggressive solution of thiosulfate decomposition products within the crack. The cracking process has been considered to be controlled by rupture of a salt layer and not a passivating oxide.

Stage I stresscorrosion cracking usually exhibits a very strong K dependence with Paris law exponents of up to 30. 2 Model calculations indicate that the crack velocity in this regime is controlled by transport through a salt film and that the K dependence results from crack opening controlled salt film dissolution. An ionic transport model that accounts for both electromigration through the resistive salt film and Fickian diffusion through the aqueous solution was used for these predictions. Predicted crack growth rates are in excellent agreement with measured values for Ni with P segregated to the grain boundaries and tested in IN H{sub 2}SO{sub 4} at +900 mV. This salt film dissolution may be applicable to stage I cracking of other materials.

Stresscorrosion cracking of natural gas pipelines in low-pH environments is a serious problem for the gas transmission industry. To date, researchers have experienced significant difficulties in reproducing cracking in the laboratory. This paper describes results of an ongoing program investigating crack growth of an API X-65 line pipe steel in a low-pH cracking environment using a J-integral technique. The primary objectives of this research are to reproduce the cracking observed in the field and identify an appropriate crack driving force parameter. Significant crack growth has been observed in the testing and the J-integral appears to be a good parameter for characterizing crack growth behavior.

An intergranular stresscorrosion cracking failure of 304 stainless steel pipe in 2000 ppM B as H/sub 3/BO/sub 3/ + H/sub 2/O at 100/sup 0/C has been investigated. Constant extension rate testing has produced an intergranular type failure in material in air. Chemical analysis was performed on both the base metal and weld material, in addition to fractography, EPR testing and optical microscopy in discerning the mode of failure. Various effects of Cl/sup -/, O/sub 2/, and MnS are discussed. The results have indicated that the cause of failure was the severe sensitization coupled with probable contamination by S and possibly by Cl ions.

Ultrasonic testing (UT) of the stainless steel piping in the primary coolant water system of SRS reactors indicates the presence of short, partly-through-wall stresscorrosion cracks in the heat-affected zone of approximately 7% of the circumferential pipe welds. These cracks are thought to develop by intergranular nucleation and mixed mode propagation. Metallographic evaluations have confirmed the UT indications of crack size and provided evidence that crack growth involved the accumulation of chloride inside the growing crack. It is postulated that the development of an oxygen depletion cell inside the crack results in the migration of chloride ions to the crack tip to balance the accumulation of positively charged metallic ions. The results of this metallurgicial evaluation, combined with structural assessments of system integrity, support the existence of leak-before-break conditions in the SRS reactor piping system. 13 refs., 9 figs.

with the previously used plain carbon steel and other currently used pressure vessel steels was successfully completed. The experimental and computational results of the Q&T HSLA steel agreed well with each other. The susceptibility of the Q&T A543 steel to stresscorrosion cracking was investigated using the slow strain rate testing under different environments and conditions. Also, advanced corrosion study using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was done at different conditions. The corrosion study revealed that this A543 steel is prone to form pits in most of the conditions. The model results in the corrosion study were validated with the Gamry Echem Analyst software that A543 steel tends to form pits in the tested environment.

This paper describes the application of magnetically-soft ribbon-like sensors for measurement of temperature and stress, as well as corrosive monitoring, based upon changes in the amplitudes of the higher-order harmonics generated by the sensors in response to a magnetic interrogation signal. The sensors operate independently of mass loading, and so can be placed or rigidly embedded inside nonmetallic, opaque structures such as concrete or plastic. The passive harmonic-based sensor is remotely monitored through a single coplanar interrogation and detection coil. Effects due to the relative location of the sensor are eliminated by tracking harmonic amplitude ratios, thereby, enabling wide area monitoring. The wireless, passive, mass loading independent nature of the described sensor platform makes it ideally suited for long-term structural monitoring applications, such as measurement of temperature and stress inside concrete structures. A theoretical model is presented to explain the origin and behavior of the higher-order harmonics in response to temperature and stress. c2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The hot salt stresscorrosion cracking behavior of Ti-6A1-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si (Ti-6242S) alloy was studied in the temperature range from 523.15 K to 673.15 K (250 °C to 400 °C). The alloy showed marginal susceptibility at 573.15 K (300 °C), and the extent susceptibility found to increase significantly at higher test temperatures. The specimens did not fail in long-term (1000 hours) hot salt constant load exposure tests carried out at 623.15 K and 673.15 K (350 °C and 400 °C), even at the stress levels more than the 80 pct of their ultimate tensile strength. However, the salt exposure in both stressed and unstressed conditions found to significantly impair the room-temperature ductility. The study shows that pitting and formation of slip step were the precursor events for SCC initiation; and the cracks were found to grow in transgranular manner in the primary- α phase and discontinuous-faceted manner in the transformed β colony. Furthermore, the XRD analysis of hot salt-exposed specimens revealed the presence of titanium hydride phase, which could be responsible for the embrittlement.

The mechanical and stresscorrosion properties are presented of vacuum melted Custom 455 stainless steel alloy bar (1.0-inch diameter) and sheet (0.083-inch thick) material aged at 950 F, 1000 F, and 1050 F. Low temperature mechanical properties were determined at temperatures of 80 F, 0 F, -100 F, and -200 F. For all three aging treatments, the ultimate tensile and 0.2 percent offset yield strengths increased with decreasing test temperatures while the elongation held fairly constant down to -100 F and decreased at -200 F. Reduction in Area decreased moderately with decreasing temperature for the longitudinal round (0.250-inch diameter) specimens. Notched tensile strength and charpy V-notched impact strength decreased with decreasing test temperature. For all three aging treatments, no failures were observed in the unstressed specimens or the specimens stressed to 50, 75, and 100 percent of their yield strengths for 180 days of alternate immersion testing in a 3.5 percent NaCl solution. As indicated by the results of tensile tests performed after alternate immersion testing, the mechanical properties of Custom 455 alloy were not affected by stress or exposure under the conditions of the evaluation.

This paper describes the application of magnetically-soft ribbon-like sensors for measurement of temperature and stress, as well as corrosive monitoring, based upon changes in the amplitudes of the higher-order harmonics generated by the sensors in response to a magnetic interrogation signal. The sensors operate independently of mass loading, and so can be placed or rigidly embedded inside nonmetallic, opaque structures such as concrete or plastic. The passive harmonic-based sensor is remotely monitored through a single coplanar interrogation and detection coil. Effects due to the relative location of the sensor are eliminated by tracking harmonic amplitude ratios, thereby, enabling wide area monitoring. The wireless, passive, mass loading independent nature of the described sensor platform makes it ideally suited for long-term structural monitoring applications, such as measurement of temperature and stress inside concrete structures. A theoretical model is presented to explain the origin and behavior of the higher-order harmonics in response to temperature and stress. PMID:12449154

The high corrosion rate of magnesium (Mg) and Mg-alloys precludes their widespread acceptance as implantable biomaterials. Here, we investigated the potential for rapid solidification (RS) to increase the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) resistance of a novel Mg alloy, Mg-6%Nd-2%Y-0.5%Zr (EW62), in comparison to its conventionally cast (CC) counterpart. RS ribbons were extrusion consolidated in order to generate bioimplant-relevant geometries for testing and practical use. Microstructural characteristics were examined by SEM. Corrosion rates were calculated based upon hydrogen evolution during immersion testing. The surface layer of the tested alloys was analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Stresscorrosion resistance was assessed by slow strain rate testing and fractography. The results indicate that the corrosion resistance of the RS alloy is significantly improved relative to the CC alloy due to a supersaturated Nd enrichment that increases the Nd2O3 content in the external oxide layer, as well as a more homogeneous structure and reduced grain size. These improvements contributed to the reduced formation of hydrogen gas and hydrogen embrittlement, which reduced the SCC sensitivity relative to the CC alloy. Therefore, EW62 in the form of a rapidly solidified extruded structure may serve as a biodegradable implant for biomedical applications. PMID:25842129

This investigation was carried out to study the effect of a novel process of surface modification, surface nanostructuring by ultrasonic shot peening, on osteoblast proliferation and corrosion behavior of commercially pure titanium (c p-Ti) in simulated body fluid. A mechanically polished disc of c p-Ti was subjected to ultrasonic shot peening with stainless steel balls to create nanostructure at the surface. A nanostructure (<20 nm) with inhomogeneous distribution was revealed by atomic force and scanning electron microscopy. There was an increase of approximately 10% in cell proliferation, but there was drastic fall in corrosion resistance. Corrosion rate was increased by 327% in the shot peened condition. In order to examine the role of residual stresses associated with the shot peened surface on these aspects, a part of the shot peened specimen was annealed at 400°C for 1 hour. A marked influence of annealing treatment was observed on surface structure, cell proliferation, and corrosion resistance. Surface nanostructure was much more prominent, with increased number density and sharper grain boundaries; cell proliferation was enhanced to approximately 50% and corrosion rate was reduced by 86.2% and 41% as compared with that of the shot peened and the as received conditions, respectively. The highly significant improvement in cell proliferation, resulting from annealing of the shot peened specimen, was attributed to increased volume fraction of stabilized nanostructure, stress recovery, and crystallization of the oxide film. Increase in corrosion resistance from annealing of shot peened material was related to more effective passivation. Thus, the surface of c p-Ti, modified by this novel process, possessed a unique quality of enhancing cell proliferation as well as the corrosion resistance and could be highly effective in reducing treatment time of patients adopting dental and orthopedic implants of titanium and its alloys. PMID:25020216

310S is an austenitic stainless steel for high temperature applications, having strong resistance of oxidation, hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion. Stresscorrosion cracking(SCC) is the main corrosion failure mode for 310S stainless steel. Past researched about SCC of 310S primarily focus on the corrosion mechanism and influence of temperature and corrosive media, but few studies concern the combined influence of temperature, pressure and chloride. For a better understanding of temperature and pressure's effects on SCC of 310S stainless steel, prepared samples are investigated via slow strain rate tensile test(SSRT) in different temperature and pressure in NACE A solution. The result shows that the SCC sensibility indexes of 310S stainless steel increase with the rise of temperature and reach maximum at 10MPa and 160°C, increasing by 22.3% compared with that at 10 MPa and 80 °C. Instead, the sensibility decreases with the pressure up. Besides, the fractures begin to transform from the ductile fracture to the brittle fracture with the increase of temperature. 310S stainless steel has an obvious tendency of stresscorrosion at 10MPa and 160°C and the fracture surface exists cleavage steps, river patterns and some local secondary cracks, having obvious brittle fracture characteristics. The SCC cracks initiate from inclusions and tiny pits in the matrix and propagate into the matrix along the cross section gradually until rupture. In particular, the oxygen and chloride play an important role on the SCC of 310S stainless steel in NACE A solution. The chloride damages passivating film, causing pitting corrosion, concentrating in the cracks and accelerated SSC ultimately. The research reveals the combined influence of temperature, pressure and chloride on the SCC of 310S, which can be a guide to the application of 310S stainless steel in super-heater tube.

Niobium nitride coatings for the surface modified die casting molds with various ICP powers have been prepared using ICP assisted magnetron sputtering. The applied ICP power was varied from 0 to 200 W. The deposited coatings were characterized post-deposition using X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Single NbN phased coatings with nano-grain sized (<7.6 nm) were identified. The corrosion resistance and hardness of each coating were evaluated from potentiostat and nanoindentator. Superior corrosion protective coatings in excess of 13.9 GPa were deposited with assistance of ICP plasma during sputtering. PMID:27433719

Stresscorrosion cracking of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (AA7xxx) aluminum alloys exposed to saline environments at temperatures ranging from 293 K to 353 K (20 °C to 80 °C) has been reviewed with particular attention to the influences of alloy composition and temper, and bulk and local environmental conditions. Stresscorrosion crack (SCC) growth rates at room temperature for peak- and over-aged tempers in saline environments are minimized for Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys containing less than ~8 wt pct Zn when Zn/Mg ratios are ranging from 2 to 3, excess magnesium levels are less than 1 wt pct, and copper content is either less than ~0.2 wt pct or ranging from 1.3 to 2 wt pct. A minimum chloride ion concentration of ~0.01 M is required for crack growth rates to exceed those in distilled water, which insures that the local solution pH in crack-tip regions can be maintained at less than 4. Crack growth rates in saline solution without other additions gradually increase with bulk chloride ion concentrations up to around 0.6 M NaCl, whereas in solutions with sufficiently low dichromate (or chromate), inhibitor additions are insensitive to the bulk chloride concentration and are typically at least double those observed without the additions. DCB specimens, fatigue pre-cracked in air before immersion in a saline environment, show an initial period with no detectible crack growth, followed by crack growth at the distilled water rate, and then transition to a higher crack growth rate typical of region 2 crack growth in the saline environment. Time spent in each stage depends on the type of pre-crack ("pop-in" vs fatigue), applied stress intensity factor, alloy chemistry, bulk environment, and, if applied, the external polarization. Apparent activation energies ( E a) for SCC growth in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys exposed to 0.6 M NaCl over the temperatures ranging from 293 K to 353 K (20 °C to 80 °C) for under-, peak-, and over-aged low-copper-containing alloys (<0.2 wt pct) are typically ranging from

The hydrogen permeation behavior and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of precharged 7075-T6 Al alloy were investigated in this paper. Devanthan-Stachurski (D-S) cell tests were used to measure the apparent hydrogen diffusivity and hydrogen permeation current density of specimens immersed in 3.5wt% NaCl solution. Electrochemical experiment results show that the SCC susceptibility is low during anodic polarization. Both corrosion pits and hydrogen-induced cracking are evident in scanning electron microscope images after the specimens have been charging for 24 h.

In vivo modular taper corrosion in orthopedic total joint replacements has been documented to occur for head-neck tapers, modular-body tapers, and neck-stem tapers. While the fretting corrosion mechanism by which this corrosion occurs has been described in the literature, this report shows new and as yet unreported mechanisms at play. A retrieved Ti-6Al-4V/Ti-6Al-4V neck-stem taper interface, implanted for 6 years is subjected to failure analysis to document taper corrosion processes that lead to oxide driven crack formation on the medial side of the taper. Metallurgical sectioning techniques and scanning electron microscopy analysis are used to document the taper corrosion processes. The results show large penetrating pitting attack of both sides of the taper interface where corrosion selectively attacks the beta phase of the microstructure and eventually consumes the alpha phase. The pitting attack evolves into plunging pits that ultimately develop into cracks where the crack propagation process is one of corrosion resulting in oxide formation and subsequent reorganization. This process drives open the crack and advances the front by a combination of oxide-driven crack opening stresses and corrosion attack at the tip. The oxide that forms has a complex evolving structure including a network of transport channels that provide access of fluid to the crack tip. This emergent behavior does not appear to require continued fretting corrosion to propagate the pitting and cracking. This new mechanism is similar to stresscorrosion cracking where the crack tip stresses arise from the oxide formation in the crack and not externally applied tensile stresses. PMID:22113876

Damage tolerance testing development was required to help qualify a new spin forming dome fabrication process for the Ares 1 program at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). One challenge of the testing was due to the compound curvature of the dome. The testing was developed on a sub-scale dome with a diameter of approximately 40 inches. The simulated service testing performed was based on the EQTP1102 Rev L 2195 Aluminum Lot Acceptance Simulated Service Test and Analysis Procedure generated by Lockheed Martin for the Space Shuttle External Fuel Tank. This testing is performed on a specimen with an induced flaw of elliptical shape generated by Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) and subsequent fatigue cycling for crack propagation to a predetermined length and depth. The specimen is then loaded in tension at a constant rate of displacement at room temperature until fracture occurs while recording load and strain. An identical specimen with a similar flaw is then proof tested at room temperature to imminent failure based on the critical offset strain achieved by the previous fracture test. If the specimen survives the proof, it is then subjected to cryogenic cycling with loads that are a percentage of the proof load performed at room temperature. If all cryogenic cycles are successful, the specimen is loaded in tension to failure at the end of the test. This standard was generated for flat plate, so a method of translating this to a specimen of compound curvature was required. This was accomplished by fabricating a fixture that maintained the curvature of the specimen rigidly with the exception of approximately one-half inch in the center of the specimen containing the induced flaw. This in conjunction with placing the center of the specimen in the center of the load train allowed for successful testing with a minimal amount of bending introduced into the system. Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) tests were performed using the typical double beam assembly and with 4

Alloys 690 and 152 are the replacement materials of choice for Alloys 600 and 182, respectively. The latter two alloys are used as structural materials in pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and have been found to undergo stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). The objective of this work is to determine the crack growth rates (CGRs) in a simulated PWR water environment for the replacement alloys. The study involved Alloy 690 cold-rolled by 26% and a laboratory-prepared Alloy 152 double-J weld in the as-welded condition. The experimental approach involved pre-cracking in a primary water environment and monitoring the cyclic CGRs to determine the optimum conditions for transitioning from the fatigue transgranular to intergranular SCC fracture mode. The cyclic CGRs of cold-rolled Alloy 690 showed significant environmental enhancement, while those for Alloy 152 were minimal. Both materials exhibited SCC of 10{sup -11} m/s under constant loading at moderate stress intensity factors. The paper also presents tensile property data for Alloy 690TT and Alloy 152 weld in the temperature range 25--870 C.

Previously reported stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) rates for Alloy 82H gas-tungsten-arc welds tested in 360 C water showed tremendous variability. The excessive data scatter was attributed to the variations in microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stresses that are common in welds. In the current study, however, re-evaluation of the SCC data revealed that the large data scatter was an anomaly due to erroneous crack growth rates inferred from crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) measurements. Apparently, CMOD measurements provided reasonably accurate SCC rates for some specimens, but grossly overestimated rates in others. The overprediction was associated with large unbroken ligaments that often form in welds in the wake of advancing crack fronts. When ligaments were particularly large, they prevented crack mouth deflection, so apparent crack incubation times (i.e. period of time before crack advance commences) based on CMOD measurements were unrealistically long. During the final states of testing, ligaments began to separate allowing the crack mouth to open rather quickly. This behavior was interpreted as a rapid crack advance, but it actually reflects the ligament separation rate, not the SCC rate. Revised crack growth rates obtained in this study exhibit substantially less scatter than that previously reported. The effects of crack orientation and fatigue flutter loading on SCC rates in 82H welds are also discussed.

Laboratory tests to investigate the corrosivity of moist plutonium oxide/chloride salt mixtures on 304L and 316L stainless steel coupons showed that corrosion occurred in selected samples. The tests exposed flat coupons for pitting evaluation and 'teardrop' stressed coupons for stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) evaluation at room temperature to various mixtures of PuO{sub 2} and chloride-bearing salts for periods up to 500 days. The exposures were conducted in sealed containers in which the oxide-salt mixtures were loaded with about 0.6 wt % water from a humidified helium atmosphere. Observations of corrosion ranged from superficial staining to pitting and SCC. The extent of corrosion depended on the total salt concentration, the composition of the salt and the moisture present in the test environment. The most significant corrosion was found in coupons that were exposed to 98 wt % PuO{sub 2}, 2 wt % chloride salt mixtures that contained calcium chloride and 0.6 wt% water. SCC was observed in two 304L stainless steel teardrop coupons exposed in solid contact to a mixture of 98 wt % PuO{sub 2}, 0.9 wt % NaCl, 0.9 wt % KCl, and 0.2 wt % CaCl{sub 2}. The cracking was associated with the heat-affected zone of an autogenous weld that ran across the center of the coupon. Cracking was not observed in coupons exposed to the headspace gas above the solid mixture, or in coupons exposed to other mixtures with either no CaCl{sub 2} or 0.92 wt% CaCl{sub 2}. SCC was present where the 0.6 wt % water content exceeded the value needed to fully hydrate the available CaCl{sub 2}, but was absent where the water content was insufficient. These results reveal the significance of the relative humidity in the austenitic stainless steels environment to their susceptibility to corrosion. The relative humidity in the test environment was controlled by the water loading and the concentration of the hydrating salts such as CaCl{sub 2}. For each salt or salt mixture there is a threshold relative

Duplex stainless steels are increasingly widely used in the oil and gas production industry for a variety of applications. The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of wrought material is reasonably well understood, and limits of use are placed upon these alloys in NACE MR0175, for sour service. However, the SCC behavior of weldments is less well understood, and this has limited the use of welded material in H{sub 2}S-containing conditions. The SCC resistance of duplex stainless steels is influenced by their microstructure as well as their chemical composition and the objective of the research reported in this paper is to investigate the SCC behavior of welded 22%Cr and 25%Cr alloys in a simulated oilfield environment. Mechanized orbital TIG was used to butt weld 168mm outside diameter tubes. The shielding gas contained nitrogen additions of up to 10% (in the case of UNS S32760) and 7% (in the case of UNS S31803). Slow strain rate testing (SSRT) was conducted on cross-weld specimens in sodium chloride solutions overpressured with varying partial pressures of H{sub 2}S and CO{sub 2}. The SSRT results, in terms of ductility parameters and secondary cracking, are correlated with fractography and metallurgical examination of crack morphology in order to establish the effects of the welding process and the nitrogen content of the shielding gas. It was found that the nitrogen uptake from the shielding gas has a detrimental effect on SCC resistance of duplex stainless steel weldments. While this effect is only modes, it is in direct contrast to the beneficial effect it has on pitting corrosion resistance.

The segmented expanding mandrel test (SEMT) method is generally regarded as a good laboratory simulator of pellet-cladding interactions (PCI) in LWR fuel rods. Yet it does not reproduce the low strain failures in Zircaloy cladding typical of PCI-failed fuel elements and commonly observed in other types of laboratory specimens. This investigation addressed this apparent inconsistency. Iodine-stresscorrosion cracking (I-SCC) of cold worked, unirradiated Zircaloy-2 cladding was induced in three different types of tubing specimens (known as regular, thin-wall, and chamfered) in a modified SEMT apparatus designed to test mechanical conditions that could lead to slow strain failures. Only the chamfered sample, which has been shown to be subjected to more nearly plane strain conditions than either of the other two specimen types, failed consistently at low (0.8%) total diametral strains in good agreement with in-reactor failure data. Such conditions were numerically and experimentally quantified by means of finite element calculational models and local strain measurements. The numerical analyses and strain measurements provide valuable insight into the PCI simulating power of the segmented expanding mandrel test and its experimental limitations. Failure-strain results for chamfered barrier claddings were obtained and compared with available literature data. The improved I-SCC resistance of this type of cladding was confirmed but the failure strains were significantly lower than reported for regular barrier tubes.

The electrochemical and sulfide stresscorrosion cracking (SSCC) behaviors of 13Cr stainless steel and P110 steel were investigated in a simulated acidic annular environment with low-temperature and high-pressure H2S/CO2 using electrochemical methods, U-bend immersion tests, and scanning electron microscopy. In the solution containing high pressure CO2, 13Cr, and P110 steels exhibited general corrosion and severe pitting, respectively. Compared with sweet corrosion, additional H2S in the solution enhanced the corrosion of 13Cr steel but inhibited the corrosion of P110 steel. By contrast, in a solution containing 4 MPa CO2 and different (0-0.3 MPa), the susceptibility of both 13Cr stainless steel and P110 steel toward SSCC was significantly promoted by increases in H2S partial pressure. The 13Cr stainless steel exhibited higher susceptibility toward SSCC than P110 steel under a H2S/CO2 environment but lower susceptibility under a pure CO2 environment.

Pilot plants with capacities of up to 600 tons/d are currently demonstrating the engineering feasibility of several coal liquefaction processes including Solvent Refined Coal (SRC), Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS), and H-Coal. These plants are the first step toward commercial production of synthetic fuels. Among other factors, development of the technology depends on reliable materials performance. A concern is the application of those austenitic stainless steels necessary for general corrosion resistance, because they are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking. This cracking results from tensile stresses in combination with offensive agents such as polythionic acids, chlorides, and caustics. To screen candidate construction materials for resistance to stresscorrosion cracking, we exposed racks of stressed U-bend specimens in welded and as-wrought conditions at four coal liquefaction pilot plants. Results from exposures through June 1980 were described in a previous report for exposures in the SRC plants. This report summarizes the on-site test results from June 1980 through October 1981 for the two SRC pilot plants and the H-Coal and Exxon coal liquefaction pilot plants.

The ambient and cryogenic temperature mechanical properties and the ambient temperature stresscorrosion properties of hot rolled and centerless ground Nitronic 32 stainless steel bar material are presented. The mechanical properties of longitudinal specimens were evaluated at test temperatures from ambient to liquid hydrogen. The tensile test data indicated increasing smooth tensile strength with decreasing temperature to liquid hydrogen temperature. However, below -200 F (-129.0 C) the notched tensile strength decreased slightly and below -320 F (-196.0 C) the decrease was significant. The elongation and reduction of area decreased drastically at temperatures below -200 F (-129.0 C). The Charpy V-notched impact energy decreased steadily with decreasing test temperature. Stresscorrosion tests were performed on longitudinal tensile specimens stressed to 0, 75, and 90 percent of the 0.2 percent yield strength and on transverse 'C'-ring specimens stressed to 75 and 90 percent of the yield strength and exposed to: alternate immersion in a 3.5 percent NaCl bath, humidity cabinet environment, and a 5 percent salt spray atmosphere. The longitudinal tensile specimens experienced no corrosive attack; however, the 'C'-rings exposed to the alternate immersion and to the salt spray experienced some shallow etching and pitting, respectively. Small cracks appeared in two of the 'C'-rings after one month exposure to the salt spray.

Unirradiated split-ring specimens of Zircaloy fuel cladding, coated with CsI, cracked when stressed at elevated temperatures. The specimens have been reexamined fractographically and metallographically in order to confirm that the cause of cracking was stresscorrosion (SCC) and not delayed hydride cracking (DHC). Further specimens have been cracked at 350°C by a solution of CsI in a fused mixture of nitrates of rubidium, cesium, strontium and barium, by a similar mechanism. CsI dissolved in a fused molybdate melt was not stable at 400°C, and rapidly evolved iodine, leaving a melt that was incapable of causing SCC. Irradiation of stressed split-ring specimens of Zircaloy fuel cladding in a γ-irradiator of 10 6 R/h and in the U-5 loop in the NRU reactor at an estimated 10 9 R/h caused SCC when the specimens were packed in dry CsI powder. Care had to be taken to dry the CsI, otherwise cracking occurred by a DHC mechanism from hydrogen absorbed from residual moisture in the CsI. Fractography showed that the crack surfaces obtained with dry CsI were typical of iodine-induced SCC rather than cesium-induced metal vapour embrittlement. Thus, if a transport process is provided for the iodide to obtain access to the zirconium surface, CsI is capable of causing SCC of Zircaloy. This transport process might be ionic diffusion in a fission product oxide melt in the fuel-clad gap, however, radiolysis of CsI to form a volatile iodine species in a radiation field is the more probable explanation of PCI failures.

Injection of corrosion inhibitor into the fluid current of oil and gas pipelines is an effective way to mitigate corrosion rate on the inner-surface parts of pipelines, especially carbon steel pipelines. In this research, two alkylimidazolium ionic liquids, 1-decyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (IL1) and 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (IL2) have been synthesized and studied as a potential corrosion inhibitor towards carbon steel in 1 M HCl solution saturated with carbon dioxide. IL1 and IL2 were synthesized using microwave assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) method. Mass Spectrometry analysis of IL1 and IL2 showed molecular mass [M-H+] peak at 223.2166 and 251.2484, respectively. The FTIR,1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra confirmed that IL1 and IL2 were successfully synthesized. Corrosion inhibition activity of IL1 and IL2 were determined using weight loss method. The results showed that IL1 and IL2 have the potential as good corrosion inhibitors with corrosion inhibition efficiency of IL1 and IL2 are 96.00% at 100 ppm (343 K) and 95.60% at 50 ppm (343 K), respectively. The increase in the concentration of IL1 and IL2 tends to improve their corrosion inhibition activities. Analysis of the data obtained from the weight loss method shows that the adsorption of IL1 and IL2 on carbon steel is classified into chemisorption which obeys Langmuir's adsorption isotherm.

Electrochemical and mechanical experiments were conducted to analyze the environmentally-influenced cracking behavior of a bulk amorphous metal, Zr41.2Ti13.8Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5. This study was motivated by a scientific interest in mechanisms of fatigue-crack propagation in an amorphous metal, and by a practical interest in the use of this amorphous metal in applications that take advantage of its unique properties, including high specific strength, large elastic strains and low damping. The objective of the work was to determine the rate and mechanisms of subcritical crack growth in this metallic glass in an aggressive environment. Specifically, fatigue-crack propagation behavior was investigated at a range of stress intensities in air and aqueous salt solutions by examining the effects of loading cycle, stress-intensity range, solution concentration, anion identity, solution de-aeration, and bulk electrochemical potential. Results indicate that crack growth in aqueous solution in this alloy is driven by a stress-assisted anodic reaction at the crack tip. Rate-determining steps for such behavior are reasoned to be electrochemical, stress-dependent reaction at near-threshold levels, and mass transport at higher (steady-state) growth rates.

Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is a technique used widely in non-destructive testing (NDT) of natural gas and petroleum transmission pipelines. This inspection method relies on magnetizing the pipe-wall in axial direction. The MFL inspection tool is equipped with an array of Hall sensors located around the circumference of the pipe, which registers the flux leakage caused by any defects present in the pipe-wall. Currently, the tool magnetizes the pipewall in axial direction making it largely insensitive to axially oriented defects. One type of defect, which is of a growing concern in the gas and petroleum industry is the stresscorrosion crack (SCC). The SCCs are a result of aging, corrosion, fatigue and thermal stresses. SCCs are predominantly axially oriented and are extremely tight, which makes them impossible to be detected using current inspection technology. A possible solution to this problem is to utilize the remote field eddy current (RFEC) effect to detect axially oriented defects. The RFEC method has been widely used in industry in the inspection of tubular products. The method uses a pair of excitation and pick-up coils. The pick-up coil located in the remote field region, usually two, three pipe-diameters away from the excitation coil. With RFEC the presence of defects is detected by the disturbance in the phase of the signal measured by the pick-up coil relative to that of the excitation coil. Unlike conventional eddy current testing the RFEC method is sensitive to defects on the exterior of the inspected product, which makes it a good candidate for the development of in-line inspection technology. This work focuses on the development of non-destructive testing technique, which uses remote field eddy currents induced by rotating magnetic field (RMF). A major advantage of the RMF is that it makes possible to not only detect a defect but also localize its position in circumferential direction. Also, it could potentially allow detection of defects

This research program has included two thrusts. The first addressed environment-induced embrittlement in a parallel study of stresscorrosion cracking and metal-induced embrittlement. This work has examined (1) mechanical properties as influenced by embrittling environments, (2) fractography and crystallography or transgranular cracking, (3) the mechanics of cracking, (4) the extent and role of local plastic flow, and (5) local chemistry within stresscorrosion and metal-induced cracks. The embrittlement of iron aluminide alloys by air was addressed by determining the effect of water and hydrogen upon the mechanical properties. Slow strain rate testing in aqueous environments was carried out at controlled anodic and cathodic potentials. The effect of cathodically charged hydrogen and the effect of subsequent baking were measured. Environmental susceptibility was measured as affected by alloy composition, microstructure and degree of ordering.

Santee Cooper (South Carolina Public Service Authority) experienced twenty-three tube failures in a high pressure feedwater heater that was in service less than three years. The tube failures were located at baffles adjacent to both exists of the dual flow desuperheater. Metallurgical analysis of the failed tubes indicated that stresscorrosion cracking of the 304N stainless steel was the primary failure mode (Rudin, 1994; Shifler, 1994). The investigation to determine the factors leading to the onset of stresscorrosion cracking included analysis of heater acceptance tests, the heater manufacturer`s proposal and manufacturing procedures, operational data, eddy current reports, metallurgical reports, and a heater design review for vibration and wet wall potential (formation of condensation on the outside diameter (OD) of the tube prior to the desuperheater exit).

Santee Cooper (South Carolina Public Service Authority) experienced twenty-three tube failures in a high pressure feedwater heater that was in service less than three years. The tube failures were located at baffles adjacent to both exits of the dual flow desuperheater. Metallurgical analysis of the failed tubes indicated that stresscorrosion cracking of the 304N stainless steel was the primary failure mode. The investigation to determine the factors leading to the onset of stresscorrosion cracking included analysis of heater acceptance tests, the heater manufacturer`s proposal and manufacturing procedures, operational data, eddy current reports, metallurgical reports, and a heater design review for vibration and wet wall potential (formation of condensation on the outside diameter (OD) of the tube prior to the desuperheater exit).

After nearly 53 months of exposure to marine atmosphere, crack growth in SL DCB specimens from 7075, 7475, 7050, and 7049-T7X plate has slowed to the arbitrary 10 to the -10 power m/sec used to define threshold stress intensity. Because some specimens appear to be approaching crack arrest, the importance of self-loading from corrosion product wedging as a significant driving force for crack propagation in overaged materials is questioned. Crack length-time data were analyzed using a computer curve fitting program which minimized the effects of normal data scatter, and provided a clearer picture of material performance. Precracked specimen data are supported by the results of smooth specimen tests. Transgranular stresscorrosion cracking was observed in TL DCB specimens from all four alloys. This process is extremely slow and is characterized by a striated surface morphology.

This paper describes the tests conducted to determine the conditions leading to cracking of a specified grain of metal, during the iodine stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of zirconium alloys, focusing on the crystallographic orientation of crack paths, the critical stress conditions, and the significance of the fractographic features encountered. In order to perform crystalline orientation of fracture surfaces, a specially heat-treated Zircaloy-4 having very large grains, grown up to the wall thickness, was used. Careful orientation work has proved that intracrystalline pseudo-cleavage occurs only along basal planes. the effects of anisotropy, plasticity, triaxiality, and residual stresses originated in thermal contraction have to be considered to account for the influence of the stress state. A grain-by-grain calculation led to the conclusion that transgranular cracking always takes place on those bearing the maximum resolved tensile stress perpendicular to basal planes. Propagation along twin boundaries has been identified among the different fracture modes encountered.

A research program on primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC) is being conducted by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). In this program, the material degradation problem in Alloys 600, 182 and 82 is being investigated, with objectives that include compiling a knowledge base on all cracking in nickel-base materials at all degradation sites in nuclear power plants, assessing nondestructive evaluation methods using mockups to quantify the detection, sizing, and characterization of tight cracks, determining the role of material parameters, such as welding processes, in the degradation. This work is being conducted as a part of an international cooperative research project that has been set up to leverage efforts in several countries to address a significant and common problem. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission is leading this cooperative project to address this generic problem in a systematic manner over the next four years. In this paper, published information on the failure history of Alloys 600, 182, and 82 is compiled and presented. The configurations of the welded assemblies that contain these alloys are shown to be important considerations for NDE reliability measurements. The product forms and the welding processes represented in the degraded components are described. The relevant data on crack morphology parameters such as shape and orientation are presented, and their impact on nondestructive evaluation (NDE) reliability is discussed.

Constant elongation rate tests (CERT) were conducted to evaluate the effect of heat treatment on intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) susceptibility of alloy 600 (UNS NO6600) in 140 C and 50% caustic solution at {minus}900 mV vs saturated calomel electrode (SCE). Results showed: (1) Heat treatment at low temperature for a long time (600 C for 260 h) led to a material that was not susceptible to caustic intergranular (IG) cracking. Increase in heat treatment temperature enhanced IG cracking susceptibility. Caustic IGSCC susceptibility was at maximum near the carbon solubility limit. However, when the heat treatment temperature was higher than the carbon solubility limit, a significant decrease in crack growth rate was observed. (2) Grain boundaries acted as a preferential crack path when grain boundary carbon segregation was likely. Thermodynamic considerations suggested that severe caustic IGSCC susceptibility near the carbon solubility limit could be explained in terms of carbon segregation at the grain boundaries. (3) IGSCC in caustic solution did not seem to be caused by chromium depletion. (4) Although formation of semi-continuous IG carbides and IGSCC resistance seemed to exhibit a similar chronological response with heat treatment, it was unlikely that grain boundary IG carbides played a role in caustic IGSCC susceptibility.

Risk-Informed integrity management methodologies have been developed for Japanese nuclear power plants. One of the issues of concern is the reliability assessment of piping with flaws due to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Therefore, the probabilistic fracture mechanics analysis code has been developed, which can perform the reliability assessment for austenitic stainless steel piping with flaws due to SCC. This paper describes technical basis of this code. This method is based on Monte-Carlo technique considering many sample cases in a piping section, where the initiation and growth of cracks are calculated and piping failures, including leaks and rapture, are evaluated. A notable feature is that multiple cracks can be treated, consequently, assessment of coalescence of cracks and intricate break evaluation of piping section have been included. Moreover, the in-service inspection (ISI) and integrity evaluation by Fitness-for-Service (FFS) code are integrated into the analysis, and the contribution to failure probability decrease can be assessed. Key parameters are determined on a probability basis with the designated probability type throughout the procedure. Size, location and time of crack initiation, coefficients of crack growth due to SCC and factors for piping failure are included in those parameters. With this method the reliability level of the piping through the operation periods can be estimated and the contribution of various parameters including ISI can be quantitatively evaluated.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in light water reactors (LWRs) has been a persistent form of degradation in the nuclear industry. Examples of SCC can be found for a range of materials in boiling and pressurized water reactor environments, including carbon steels, stainless steels, and nickel-base stainless alloys. The evolution of SCC is often characterized by a long initiation stage followed by a phase of more rapid crack growth to failure. This provides a relatively short window of opportunity to detect the start of observable SCC, and it is conceivable that SCC could progress from initiation to failure between subsequent examinations when managed by applying periodic in-service inspection techniques. Implementation of advanced aging management paradigms in the current fleet of LWRs will require adaptation of existing measurement technologies and development of new technologies to perform on-line measurements during reactor operation to ensure timely detection of material degradation and to support the implementation of advanced diagnostics and prognostics. This paper considers several non-destructive examination (NDE) technologies with known sensitivity to detection of indicators for SCC initiation and/or propagation, and assesses these technologies with respect to their ability to detect and accurately characterize the significance of an SCC flaw. Potential strategies to improve SCC inspection or monitoring performance are offered to benefit management of SCC degradation in LWRs.

Recently, much attention has been given to aluminum-lithium alloys because of rather substantial specific-strength and specific-stiffness advantages offered over commercial 2000and 7000-series aluminum alloys. An obstacle to Al-Li alloy development has been inherent limited ductility. In order to obtain a more refined microstructure, powder metallurgy (P/M) has been employed in alloy development programs. As stresscorrosion (SC) of high-strength aluminum alloys has been a major problem in the aircraft industry, the possibility of an employment of Al-Li alloys has been considered, taking into account a use of Al-Li-Cu alloys. Attention is given to a research program concerned with the evaluation of the relative SC resistance of two P/M processed Al-Li-Cu alloys. The behavior of the alloys, with and without an addition of magnesium, was studied with the aid of three test methods. The susceptibility to SC was found to depend on the microstructure of the alloys.

Cortest Columbus Technologies, Inc. (CC Technologies) investigated the long-term performance of container materials used for high-level waste package as part of the information needed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to assess the Department of Energy`s application to construct to geologic repository for high-level radioactive waste. At the direction of the NRC, the program focused on the Tuff Repository. This report summarizes the results of Stress-Corrosion-Cracking (SCC) studies performed in Tasks 3, 5, and 7 of the program. Two test techniques were used; U-bend exposures and Slow-Strain-Rate (SSR) tests. The testing was performed on two copper-base alloys (Alloy CDA 102 and Alloy CDA 175) and two Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (Alloy 304L and Alloy 825) in simulated J-13 groundwater and other simulated solutions for the Tuff Repository. These solutions were designed to simulate the effects of concentration and irradiation on the groundwater composition. All SCC testing on the Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys was performed on solution-annealed specimens and thus issues such as the effect of sensitization on SCC were not addressed.

Long-time stresscorrosion cracking tests were made in boiling, 45% magnesium chloride (MgCl{sub 2}) solution at 155 C and in an autoclave, 26% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution at 200 C on 15 commercial stainless steel and Ni-based alloys and four laboratory Fe-Cr-Ni heats. The results were compared with the original Copson curve derived from tests in the MgCl{sub 2} solution on wires made from Fe-20% Cr alloys with a range of Ni contents. Additional alloying elements in commercial alloys (Mo, Cu, Ti, Cb) do not have a significant effect on the Copson curve. In contrast, in the less severe NaCl tests, times to failure were greatly increased and the range of Ni concentration in which alloys are susceptible to cracking was narrowed, even in 100-day tests. The significant of this information on the effect of Ni in cases of exceedingly long service times, such as for containers for high-level nuclear waste, is discussed.

Slow strain rate tests (SSRT) were conducted in solutions of hydrochloric acid (HCl) + sodium chloride (NaCl) at ambient temperature on type 304 (UNS S30400) stainless steel (SS) weldments that exhibited a duplex ferrite-austenite structure in the weld fusion zone. Results indicated the weld fusion zone corroded preferentially. Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) initiated and propagated along the ferrite-austenite interphase. Austenitic dendrite was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in the fracture surface morphology. This interfacial cracking was attributed to the formation of a complex cell structure consisting of weld fusion zone/parent metal with delta-ferrite/austenite in the weld zone. The delta-ferrite was microanodic phase. The proposed model of SCC for type 304 SS weldments in HCl + NaCl was film formation-slip (film rupture)-dissolution-crack propagation. Because of the presence of the complex cell structure, the surface film was nonuniform, which was favorable for crack initiation. SCC propagated faster through the active path of delta-ferrite than through the matrix.

ER 308L and 309LMo were utilized as the filler metals for the groove and overlay welds of a 304L stainless steel substrate, which was prepared via a gas tungsten arc-welding process in multiple passes. U-bend and weight-loss tests were conducted by testing the welds in a salt spray containing 10 wt% NaCl at 120 °C. The dissolution of the skeletal structure in the fusion zone (FZ) caused the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of the weld. The FZ in the cold-rolled condition showed the longest single crack length in the U-bend tests. Moreover, sensitization treatment at 650 °C for 10 h promoted the formation of numerous fine cracks, which resulted in a high SCC susceptibility. The weight loss of the deposits was consistent with the SCC susceptibility of the welds in a salt spray. The 309LMo deposit was superior to the 308L deposit in the salt spray.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) is a common mode of failure encountered in boiler components especially in austenitic stainless steel tubes at high temperature and in chloride-rich water environment. Recently, a new type of austenitic stainless steels called Super304H stainless steel, containing 3% copper is being adopted for super critical boiler applications. The SCC behavior of this Super 304H stainless steel has not been widely reported in the literature. Many researchers have studied the SCC behavior of steels as per various standards. Among them, the ASTM standard G36 has been widely used for evaluation of SCC behavior of stainless steels. In this present work, the SCC behavior of austenitic Fe-Cr-Mn-Cu-N stainless steel, subjected to chloride environments at varying strain conditions as per ASTM standard G36 has been studied. The environments employed boiling solution of 45 wt.% of MgCl2 at 155 °C, for various strain conditions. The study reveals that the crack width increases with increase in strain level in Super 304H stainless steels.

Two powder metallurgy processed (Al-Li-Cu) alloys with and without Mg addition were studied in aqueous 3.5% NaCl solution during the alternate immersion testing of tuning fork specimens, slow crack growth tests using fracture mechanics specimens, and the slow strain rate testing of straining electrode specimens. Scanning electron microscopy and optical metallography were used to demonstrate the character of the interaction between the Al-Li-Cu alloys and the selected environment. Both alloys are susceptible to SC in an aqueous 3.5% NaCl solution under the right electrochemical and microstructural conditions. Each test method yields important information on the character of the SC behavior. Under all conditions investigated, second phase particles strung out in rows along the extrusion direction in the alloys were rapidly attacked, and played principal role in the SC process. With time, larger pits developed from these rows of smaller pits and under certain electrochemical conditions surface cracks initiated from the larger pits and contributed directly to the fracture process. Evidence to support slow crack growth was observed in both the slow strain rate tests and the sustained immersion tests of precracked fracture mechanics specimens. The possible role of H2 in the stresscorrosion cracking process is suggested.

The age hardening, stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of an Al-Zn-Mg-Cu 7175 alloy were investigated experimentally. There were two peak-aged states during ageing. For ageing at 413 K, the strength of the second peak-aged state was slightly higher than that of the first one, whereas the SCC susceptibility was lower, indicating that it is possible to heat treat 7175 to high strength and simultaneously to have high SCC resistance. The SCC susceptibility increased with increasing Mg segregation at the grain boundaries. Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) increased with increased hydrogen charging and decreased with increasing ageing time for the same hydrogen charging conditions. Computer simulations were carried out of (a) the Mg grain boundary segregation using the embedded atom method and (b) the effect of Mg and H segregation on the grain boundary strength using a quasi-chemical approach. The simulations showed that (a) Mg grain boundary segregation in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys is spontaneous, (b) Mg segregation decreases the grain boundary strength, and (c) H embrittles the grain boundary more seriously than does Mg. Therefore, the SCC mechanism of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys is attributed to the combination of HE and Mg segregation induced grain boundary embrittlement.

Stresscorrosion cracking of natural gas pipelines in low-pH environments is a serious problem for the gas transmission industry. This paper describes results of an ongoing research program investigating crack growth of API X-65 and X-52 line pipe steels in a low-pH cracking environment using a J-integral technique. The overall objective of the work is to estimate crack growth rates on operating pipelines. In previous work, it was demonstrated that the technique could be utilized to reproduce the cracking observed in the field and that the J integral is a good parameter for characterizing crack growth behavior. Recent work has focused on the evaluation of the influence of loading parameters, such as displacement rate, and metallurgy, on crack growth. Testing has also been performed in which loading sequences involved: (a) a constant displacement rate, until cracking was detected, followed by maintaining a constant displacement; and, (b) slowly loading a specimen to fifty percent of its tensile strength in an inert, non-aqueous environment followed by loading in the low-pH environment.

Stresscorrosion cracks in Alloy 600 compact tension specimens tested at 325 °C in a simulated primary water environment of a pressurized water reactor were analyzed using microscopic equipment. Oxygen diffused into the grain boundaries just ahead of the crack tips from the external primary water. As a result of oxygen penetration, Cr oxides were precipitated on the crack tips and the attacked grain boundaries. The oxide layer in the crack interior was revealed to consist of double (inner and outer) layers. Cr oxides were found in the inner layer, with NiO and (Ni,Cr) spinels in the outer layer. Cr depletion (or Ni enrichment) zones were created in the attacked grain boundary, the crack tip, and the interface between the crack and matrix, which means that the formation of Cr oxides was due to the Cr diffusion from the surrounding matrix. The oxygen penetration and resultant metallurgical changes around the crack tip are believed to be significant factors affecting the PWSCC initiation and growth behaviors of Alloy 600. For interpretation of color in Fig. 4, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.

This paper investigates the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of welded API X70 pipeline steel in simulated underground water using the slow strain rate test, fractographic characterization by scanning electron microscopy, and potentiodynamic polarization techniques. SCC susceptibility of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is demonstrated to be dependent on two factors: the effect of the microstructure in the HAZ on electrochemical reactions and the effect of the mechanical property on SCC occurrence. Electrochemical experiments indicate that the microstructures in the HAZ, especially the softened microstructure, can significantly facilitate the processes of hydrogen evolution when cathodic potential is positive to -1050 mVSCE. However, when the cathodic potential is below -1050 mVSCE, the cathode current densities of different microstructures are close to one another and greatly increase because of the decrease of the applied potentials. The SCC behavior is consistent with the electrochemical results. Under -650 and -850 mVSCE, SCC is most likely to occur in the softened region, and under -1200 mVSCE, SCC occurs in both the softened and hardened regions.

Repassivation kinetics of rapidly scratched scars on the surface of type 304 (UNS S30400) stainless steel (SS) in a chloride solution was examined using an ampero-chronometric method. Its relationship to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility measured by slow strain rate tests (SSRT) was explored. The repassivation kinetics was analyzed in terms of the current density flowing from the scratch (i[t]) as a function of the charge density that flowed from the scratch (1[t]). The log i(t) has a linear relationship with 1/1(t) in which the slope, determined from the linear relationship was very effective as a measure of repassivation kinetics. The alloy/environment system with a lower value of the slope showed a faster repassivation rate with formation of a thinner and more protective passive film during repassivation. With an increase in applied potential, the slope increased gradually and reached asymptotically a limiting value beyond which an inflection point appeared in the log i(t) vs. 1/q(t) plots. The change in the slope with applied potential was correlated with the SCC susceptibility. Based on this correlation, a new method was proposed for the prediction of SCC susceptibility in terms of repassivation kinetics. The validity of this method was confirmed by applying the relationship between changes in the slope and SCC susceptibility to effects of solution temperature and Cl{sup {minus}} concentration on repassivation kinetics and SCC susceptibility of type 304 SS.

A temperature sensing apparatus including a sensor element made of a magnetically soft material operatively arranged within a first and second time-varying interrogation magnetic field, the first time-varying magnetic field being generated at a frequency higher than that for the second magnetic field. A receiver, remote from the sensor element, is engaged to measure intensity of electromagnetic emissions from the sensor element to identify a relative maximum amplitude value for each of a plurality of higher-order harmonic frequency amplitudes so measured. A unit then determines a value for temperature (or other parameter of interst) using the relative maximum harmonic amplitude values identified. In other aspects of the invention, the focus is on an apparatus and technique for determining a value for of stress condition of a solid analyte and for determining a value for corrosion, using the relative maximum harmonic amplitude values identified. A magnetically hard element supporting a biasing field adjacent the magnetically soft sensor element can be included.

ER 308L and 309LMo were utilized as the filler metals for the groove and overlay welds of a 304L stainless steel substrate, which was prepared via a gas tungsten arc-welding process in multiple passes. U-bend and weight-loss tests were conducted by testing the welds in a salt spray containing 10 wt% NaCl at 120 °C. The dissolution of the skeletal structure in the fusion zone (FZ) caused the stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of the weld. The FZ in the cold-rolled condition showed the longest single crack length in the U-bend tests. Moreover, sensitization treatment at 650 °C for 10 h promoted the formation of numerous fine cracks, which resulted in a high SCC susceptibility. The weight loss of the deposits was consistent with the SCC susceptibility of the welds in a salt spray. The 309LMo deposit was superior to the 308L deposit in the salt spray.

This report presents a new model for iodine stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Zircaloy, developed as an ingredient of EPRI's SPEAR light-water reactor fuel performance code. The model is based on experimental data generated under related EPRI programs and elsewhere, as well as certain theoretical considerations. It is a unified treatment of SCC crack initiation, crack propagation, and non-SCC fracture, treating such sub-process as intergranular failure, transgranular (cleavage plus fluting) failure, ductile rupture, changes in the local stress and strain distribution due to crack formation and growth, iodine penetration along the SCC crack, and the mutual couplings among these processes.

There is, currently, simultaneous public resistance to traditional waste handling procedures and a compelling need to destroy both military and civilian hazardous waste. Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) is one developing technology particularly appropriate for treating a broad range of dilute aqueous organic wastes. Above its critical point (374 C and 221 atm) water is a low density fluid possessing properties intermediate between those of a liquid and a gas, and solvation characteristics more typical of a low polarity organic than water. Although this is a promising technology, a critical issue in its development will be the ability to overcome severe degradation problems of the materials of construction. While titanium and platinum liners have shown promise for some hazardous military feed streams, costs are high. Although nickel alloys are considered important for severe service, the indication is that they will not survive certain SCWO environments. Nevertheless, there is evidence that judicious feed modification may be employed to mitigate corrosion and reduce fabrication cost. Exposure studies have been accomplished for various alloys over a range of temperatures from 300--600 C. Experiments have been carried out in environments as innocuous as deionized water and as aggressive as highly chlorinated aqueous organic feed streams. Analysis of a number of failed components has provided enlightenment on degradation mechanisms and cracking, pitting and elevated corrosion rates are all observed in these systems. For chlorinated feed streams, both dealloying and cracking have been observed for alloy C-276. Samples exposed to a highly chlorinated organic indicate that the high-nickel alloys behave significantly better at 600 C than stainless steel type 316.

For a better understanding of the initiation step of iodine induced stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) in Zr alloys, responsible for pellet-cladding interaction (PCI) fuel rod failures, an analytical study has been undertaken, the aim of which being focused on the respective roles of local chemistry and stress/strain state on the crack nucleation. This second part is mostly related to the local stress induced by strain incompatibilities between grains. Using EBSP (electron back-scattering pattern) to analyze the crystallographic orientation of all the grains of the samples tested in SCC, it was possible to conclude that the major parameter controlling the nucleation of the intergranular cracks is not related to grain to grain strain incompatibilities, but to the orientation of the grain boundary planes with respect to the tensile stress.

Experimental and theoretical approaches towards the study on mechanism of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of pipeline steels in near-neutral pH environment have been performed. The subject of the investigations included SCC susceptibility at various testing conditions, hydrogen distribution around SCC crack tip and the role of hydrogen in cracking process. SCC tests were mainly conducted using slow strain rate testing (SSRT). The hydrogen distribution around a stresscorrosion crack tip was measured using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and modelled using an elastic-plastic analysis. A thermodynamic model was proposed and used to calculate the effect that the presence of hydrogen and stress has on the SCC growth rate. SSRTs showed that transgranular stresscorrosion cracking (TGSCC) of pipeline steels could occur in a dilute bicarbonate solution with a near-neutral pH value. SCC susceptibility increased as the applied electrochemical potential, the pH value of solution and applied strain rates during tension testing decreased. Hydrogen precharging or addition of carbon dioxide (CO2) facilitated the process of SCC, suggesting that dissolution and ingress of hydrogen are both involved in the cracking process. SIMS measurement indicated that low pH values and applying cathodic potential facilitate the generation, evolution and enrichment of hydrogen around the SCC crack tip. Hydrogen plays an important role in the SCC of pipeline steels by promoting anodic dissolution and SCC susceptibility. Thermodynamic analysis showed that hydrogen interacted with the stress field and changed the internal energy and entropy of the steel. These changes could result in an increase of the anodic dissolution rate of the steel and enhancing the SCC growth rate. The hydrogen-facilitated SCC growth rate obtained from the proposed model was in agreement with SSRT measurements. The mechanism of SCC for pipeline steels in near-neutral pH solutions may be that at near free corrosion

Due to the steadily increasing demand on innovative manufacturing processes, modern lightweight construction concepts become more and more important. Especially joints of dissimilar metals offer a variety of advantages due to their high potential for lightweight construction. The focus of the investigations was Al/Mg-joints. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an efficient process to realize high strength joints between these materials in ductile condition. Furthermore, for a simultaneous transmission of power ultrasound during the FSW-process (US-FSW) a positive effect on the achievable tensile strength of the Al/Mg-joints was proven. In the present work the industrial used die cast alloys EN AC-48000 (AlSi12CuNiMg) and AZ80 (MgAl8Zn) were joined by a machining center modified especially for Ultrasound Supported Friction Stir Welding. The appearing welding zone and the formation of intermetallic phases under the influence of power ultrasound were examined in particular. In order to identify optimal process parameters extensive preliminary process analyzes have been carried out. Following this, an ultrasound-induced more intensive stirring of the joining zone and as a result of this a considerably modified intermetallic zone was detected. At the same time an increase of the tensile strength of about 25% for US-FSW-joints and for fatigue an up to three times higher number of cycles to failure in comparison to a conventional welding process was observed. Moreover, detailed corrosion analyzes have shown that especially the welding zone was influenced by the corrosive attack. To expand and deepen the knowledge of the US-FSW-process further material combinations such as Ti/Steel and Al/Steel will be considered in future.

Tested the buffering hypothesis that negative effects of stressors (measured as burden, burnout, and perceived job pressure) on nursing assistants (n=245) in long-term care institutions are moderated by social support (at work and external to work). Buffering hypothesis was not confirmed, though some support for a main effects view was found.…

Effect of solid solution treatment (T4) on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of an as-forged Mg-6.7%Zn-1.3%Y-0.6%Zr (in wt.%) alloy has been investigated using slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. The results demonstrated that the SCC susceptibility index (ISCC) of as-forged samples was 0.95 and its elongation-to-failure (εf) was only 1.1%. After T4 treatment, the SCC resistance was remarkably improved. The ISCC and εf values of T4 samples were 0.86 and 3.4%, respectively. Fractography and surface observation indicated that the stresscorrosion cracking mode for as-forged samples was dominated by transgranular and partially intergranular morphology, whereas the cracking mode for T4 samples was transgranular. In both cases, the main cracking mechanism was associated with hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Through alleviating the corrosion attack of Mg matrix, the influence of HE on the SCC resistance of T4 samples can be greatly suppressed. PMID:27387817

Effect of solid solution treatment (T4) on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of an as-forged Mg-6.7%Zn-1.3%Y-0.6%Zr (in wt.%) alloy has been investigated using slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. The results demonstrated that the SCC susceptibility index (ISCC) of as-forged samples was 0.95 and its elongation-to-failure (εf) was only 1.1%. After T4 treatment, the SCC resistance was remarkably improved. The ISCC and εf values of T4 samples were 0.86 and 3.4%, respectively. Fractography and surface observation indicated that the stresscorrosion cracking mode for as-forged samples was dominated by transgranular and partially intergranular morphology, whereas the cracking mode for T4 samples was transgranular. In both cases, the main cracking mechanism was associated with hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Through alleviating the corrosion attack of Mg matrix, the influence of HE on the SCC resistance of T4 samples can be greatly suppressed.

The need for a fast and reliable method to study stresscorrosion in metals has caused increased interest in the Slow Strain Rate Technique (SSRT) during the last few decades. PH13-8MoH950 and H1000 round tensile specimens were studied by this method. Percent reduction-in-area, time-to-failure, elongation at fracture, and fracture energy were used to express the loss in ductility, which has been used to indicate susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Results from a 3.5 percent salt solution (corrosive medium) were compared to those in air (inert medium). A tendency to early failure was found when testing in the vicinity of 1.0 x 10(-6) mm/mm/sec in the 3.5 percent salt solution. PH13-8Mo H1000 was found to be less likely to suffer SCC than PH13-8Mo H950. This program showed that the SSRT is promising for the SCC characterization of metals and results can be obtained in much shorter times (18 hr for PH steels) than those required using conventional techniques.

Effect of solid solution treatment (T4) on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of an as-forged Mg-6.7%Zn-1.3%Y-0.6%Zr (in wt.%) alloy has been investigated using slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. The results demonstrated that the SCC susceptibility index (ISCC) of as-forged samples was 0.95 and its elongation-to-failure (εf) was only 1.1%. After T4 treatment, the SCC resistance was remarkably improved. The ISCC and εf values of T4 samples were 0.86 and 3.4%, respectively. Fractography and surface observation indicated that the stresscorrosion cracking mode for as-forged samples was dominated by transgranular and partially intergranular morphology, whereas the cracking mode for T4 samples was transgranular. In both cases, the main cracking mechanism was associated with hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Through alleviating the corrosion attack of Mg matrix, the influence of HE on the SCC resistance of T4 samples can be greatly suppressed. PMID:27387817

Scoping stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) tests of 304 stainless steel (SS) were performed in 75 C and 250 C aerated pressurized water (APW) and 250 C deaerated pressurized water (DPW). The 250 C APW environment was used to initiate intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) and then the water was deaerated and hydrogenated to see if IGSCC continued in 250 C DPW. Tests were performed with and without 200 ppb SO{sub 4}{sup =}. The 304 SS test materials were evaluated in either the as-received, heavily sensitized (649 C for 1 h), fully sensitized (1099 C for 1 h/water quench/621 C for 17 h) or 20% cold rolled condition. At the beginning of each test sequence, specimens were subjected to continuous cycling with a 500s rise/500s fall or a 5000s rise/500s fall to promote the transition from a transgranular (TG) precrack to an IG crack. After generating a uniform crack under continuous cycling conditions, a trapezoidal waveform with 500s rise/9000s hold/500s fall was used to characterize the SCC behavior. Crack growth rates (CGRs) were monitored continuously with the electric potential drop (EPD) method and were corrected based on physical crack length measurements obtained when specimens were destructively evaluated. Continuous cycling with a 500s or 5000s rise time was found to produce both TG faceting and IGSCC in fully sensitized 304 SS tested in 75 C APW with 7 ppm O{sub 2} and 200 ppb SO{sub 4}{sup =}. However, no measurable crack extension occurred when a 9000 s hold time was introduced. Extensive IGSCC occurred in heavily sensitized and fully sensitized 304 SS in 250 C APW with 1 ppm O{sub 2} and 200 ppb SO{sub 4}{sup =}. IGSCC initiated under continuous cycling conditions with a 500 s rise time, and rapid IGSCC occurred when a 9000 s hold time was introduced. During the trapezoidal waveform test with a 9000 s hold, CGRs ranged from 1 to 3 mils/day for the heavily sensitized material and 5 to 10 mils/day for the fully sensitized material. When the test

One of the potential failure modes of the drip shield (DS), the waste package (WP) outer barrier, and the stainless structural material is the initiation and propagation of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) induced by the WP environment and various types of stresses that can develop in the DSs or the WPs. For the current design of the DS and WP, however, the DS will be excluded from the SCC evaluation because stresses that are relevant to SCC are insignificant in the DS. The major sources of stresses in the DS are loadings due to backfill and earthquakes. These stresses will not induce SCC because the stress caused by backfill is generally compressive stress and the stress caused by earthquakes is temporary in nature. The 316NG stainless steel inner barrier of the WP will also be excluded from the SCC evaluation because the SCC performance assessment will not take credit from the inner barrier. Therefore, the purpose of this document is to provide a detailed description of the process-level models that can be applied to assess the performance of the material (i.e., Alloy 22) used for the WP outer barrier subjected to the effects of SCC. As already mentioned in the development plan for the WP PMR (CRWMS M and O 1999e), this Analyses and Models Report (AMR) is to serve as a feed to the Waste Package Degradation (WPD) Total System Performance Assessment (TSPA) and Process Model Report (PMR).

Grain boundary chromium carbides improve the resistance of nickel based alloys to primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC). However, in weld heat affected zones (HAZ's), thermal cycles from fusion welding can solutionize beneficial grain boundary carbides, produce locally high residual stresses and strains, and promote PWSCC. The present research investigates the crack growth rate of an A600 HAZ as a function of test temperature. The A600 HAZ was fabricated by building up a gas-tungsten-arc-weld deposit of EN82H filler metal onto a mill-annealed A600 plate. Fracture mechanics based, stresscorrosion crack growth rate testing was performed in high purity water between 600 F and 680 F at an initial stress intensity factor of 40 ksi {radical}in and at a constant electrochemical potential. The HAZ samples exhibited significant SCC, entirely within the HAZ at all temperatures tested. While the HAZ samples showed the same temperature dependence for SCC as the base material (HAZ: 29.8 {+-} 11.2{sub 95%} kcal/mol vs A600 Base: 35.3 {+-} 2.58{sub 95%} kcal/mol), the crack growth rates were {approx} 30X faster than the A600 base material tested at the same conditions. The increased crack growth rates of the HAZ is attributed to fewer intergranular chromium rich carbides and to increased plastic strain in the HAZ as compared to the unaffected base material.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Ni-Fe-Cr alloys and weld metals was investigated in simulated environments representative of high temperature water used in the primary and secondary circuits of nuclear power plants. The mechanism of primary water SCC (PWSCC) was studied in Alloys 600, 690, 800 and Alloy 82 dissimilar metal welds using the internal oxidation model as a guide. Initial experiments were carried out in a 480°C hydrogenated steam environment considered to simulate high temperature reducing primary water. Ni alloys underwent classical internal oxidation intragranularly resulting in the expulsion of the solvent metal, Ni, to the surface. Selective intergranular oxidation of Cr in Alloy 600 resulted in embrittlement, while other alloys were resistant owing to their increased Cr contents. Atom probe tomography was used to determine the short-circuit diffusion path used for Ni expulsion at a sub-nanometer scale, which was concluded to be oxide-metal interfaces. Further exposures of Alloys 600 and 800 were done in 315°C simulated primary water and intergranular oxidation tendency was comparable to 480°C hydrogenated steam. Secondary side work involved SCC experiments and electrochemical measurements, which were done at 315°C in acid sulfate solutions. Alloy 800 C-rings were found to undergo acid sulfate SCC (AcSCC) to a depth of up to 300 microm in 0.55 M sulfate solution at pH 4.3. A focused-ion beam was used to extract a crack tip from a C-ring and high resolution analytical electron microscopy revealed a duplex oxide structure and the presence of sulfur. Electrochemical measurements were taken on Ni alloys to complement crack tip analysis; sulfate was concluded to be the aggressive anion in mixed sulfate and chloride systems. Results from electrochemical measurements and crack tip analysis suggested a slip dissolution-type mechanism to explain AcSCC in Ni alloys.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of Ti-155 was investigated in methanol-hydrochloric acid solution in preexposure and anodic polarization experiments using specimens with tensile axis in the parallel or transverse orientation to the rolling direction. Intergranular penetration data showed a dependence of the intergranular corrosion process on preexposure time. Susceptibility to SCC increased with increasing preexposure time and applied anodic current density. Fractographic analysis by scanning electro microscope (SEM) of fractured specimen surfaces in preexposure and anodic polarization experiments showed a fracture morphology comprised of intergranular at the exposure surface edge, an intermediate transgranular cleavage zone, and a terminal ductile region. These observations supported the view that intergranular fracture and transgranular cleavage occurring during SCC of titanium in MeOH-HCl solution is caused by mechanisms related to anodic dissolution and hydrogen embrittlement (HE), respectively. A mechanism to describe the simultaneous occurrence of dissolution and HE at the grain boundary was suggested.

This project aims to understand how radiation accelerates corrosion of reactor core materials. The combination of high temperature, chemically aggressive coolants, a high radiation flux and mechanical stress poses a major challenge for the life extension of current light water reactors, as well as the success of most all GenIV concepts. Of these four drivers, the combination of radiation and corrosion places the most severe demands on materials, for which an understanding of the fundamental science is simply absent. Only a few experiments have been conducted to understand how corrosion occurs under irradiation, yet the limited data indicates that the effect is large; irradiation causes order of magnitude increases in corrosion rates. Without a firm understanding of the mechanisms by which radiation and corrosion interact in film formation, growth, breakdown and repair, the extension of the current LWR fleet beyond 60 years and the success of advanced nuclear energy systems are questionable. The proposed work will address the process of irradiation-accelerated corrosion that is important to all current and advanced reactor designs, but remains very poorly understood. An improved understanding of the role of irradiation in the corrosion process will provide the community with the tools to develop predictive models for in-reactor corrosion, and to address specific, important forms of corrosion such as irradiation assistedstresscorrosion cracking.

A study was carried out to understand the effect of precyclic loading on stress-corrosion-crack initiation in an X-65 pipeline steel exposed to a near-neutral-pH soil environment. The test specimens were precyclically loaded before corrosion exposure to represent a service history of up to about 20 years, depending on the severity of pressure fluctuation. Microcracks had initiated on the polished surface of the X-65 pipeline steel after long-time exposure at open-circuit potential (OCP) in a near-neutral-pH synthetic soil solution. These microcracks were mostly initiated from pits at metallurgical discontinuities such as grain boundaries, pearlitic colonies, and banded phases in the steel. Strong preferential dissolution was observed along planes of the banded structures in the steel. The selective corrosion attack at these metallurgical discontinuities is attributed to the galvanic nature of those areas to their neighbors. Cyclic loading prior to corrosion exposure had significant effects on microcrack initiation and propagation during subsequent corrosion exposure. Cyclic loading prior to corrosion exposure either reduced or increased the probability of crack initiation and the rate of crack propagation, depending upon the magnitude of the stress cycles. The largest reduction was seen at a peak cyclic stress of about 0.8 of the yield strength. This cyclic-loading-dependent cracking behavior might be related to the alteration of the substructures and the residual stress in the steel as a result of precyclic loading.

A personal assistant has to promote equality in living conditions for persons with severe disabilities. The aim of this study was to explore how personal assistants experience their work and what strategies they employ to alleviate work-related stress. Thirty personal assistants were interviewed and latent content analysis was performed. The findings regarding the experiences of work-related stress could be brought together under the theme of "difficulties of being in a subordinate position," and those regarding management strategies could be brought together under the theme of "coming to terms with the work situation." There is a need to empower personal assistants through training programs including tailored education, working communities, and coaching. PMID:22630600

Injection of corrosion inhibitor into the fluid current of oil and gas pipelines is an effective way to mitigate corrosion rate on the inner-surface parts of pipelines, especially carbon steel pipelines. In this research, two alkylimidazolium ionic liquids, 1-decyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (IL1) and 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (IL2) have been synthesized and studied as a potential corrosion inhibitor towards carbon steel in 1 M HCl solution saturated with carbon dioxide. IL1 and IL2 were synthesized using microwave assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) method. Mass Spectrometry analysis of IL1 and IL2 showed molecular mass [M-H+] peak at 223.2166 and 251.2484, respectively. The FTIR,{sup 1}H-NMR and {sup 13}C-NMR spectra confirmed that IL1 and IL2 were successfully synthesized. Corrosion inhibition activity of IL1 and IL2 were determined using weight loss method. The results showed that IL1 and IL2 have the potential as good corrosion inhibitors with corrosion inhibition efficiency of IL1 and IL2 are 96.00% at 100 ppm (343 K) and 95.60% at 50 ppm (343 K), respectively. The increase in the concentration of IL1 and IL2 tends to improve their corrosion inhibition activities. Analysis of the data obtained from the weight loss method shows that the adsorption of IL1 and IL2 on carbon steel is classified into chemisorption which obeys Langmuir’s adsorption isotherm.

The stresscorrosion cracking behavior of Fe3AI based intermetallic alloy in 3.5% NaCl solution was studied. The role of hydrogen in the cracking process was also defined. The susceptibility of the alloy to hydrogen embrittlement was first investigated by performing tensile tests in air environment and mineral oil. It was found that ductility increased with increasing strain rate when tested in air, but stayed at a high value when tested in mineral oil. This behavior indicates that the alloy is sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement in air. In 3.5% NaCl solution, the environmental effect was studied by slow strain rate tests that were done at electrochemical potentials ranging from {minus}1,000 mV to 0 mV vs SCE. When tested at anodic potentials, from {minus}500 mV to 0 mV vs SCE, ductility reduced from 8.7% to 3.9%. When tested in cathodic region, from {minus}500 mV to {minus}1,000 mV, the ductility was between 7.3% to 9.1%. Results of tests done on pre-immersed specimens and notched tensile specimens confirmed this material degradation to be caused by stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). To identify the mechanism, an electrochemical permeation technique was employed. By measuring the diffusible hydrogen concentration, sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement has been assessed at different potentials. Anodic dissolution is believed to be the controlling mechanism of the SCC as the alloy is less sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement at anodic potentials. Fracture surfaces were examined under the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fracture mode was found to be mainly transgranular quasi-cleavage, except the ones tested at anodic potentials on which intergranular fracture area was found near the edge. This intergranular fracture, which increases with increasing anodic potential, is believed to be the stresscorrosion cracking area. Pits which corroded intergranularly are the crack initiation sites.

Research is being conducted for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory to assess the effectiveness and reliability of advanced nondestructive examination (NDE) methods for the inspection of light water reactor (LWR) components and challenging material/component configurations. This study assessed the effectiveness of far-side inspections on wrought stainless steel piping with austenitic welds, as found in thin-walled, boiling water reactor (BWR) component configurations, for the detection and characterization of intergranular stresscorrosion cracks (IGSCC).

Anodic behaviour of decarburised iron and of quenched Fe–C materials with up to 0.875 wt% C was examined in 8.5 M NaOH at 100 °C to explain the role of carbon in caustic stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of plain steels. Removal of carbon from Armco iron strongly reduced its intergranular SCC. Slip steps on grains did not initiate cracks. It has been shown that carbon at low contents deteriorates the passivation of iron, whereas at high contents it promotes the formation of magnetite. High resistance to SCC of high carbon steels can be explained by an intense formation of magnetite on these steels.

Stresscorrosion crack growth studies have been performed on annealed and cold worked Titanium Grade 7 and Alloy 22 in 110 C, aerated, concentrated, high pH salt environments characteristic of concentrated ground water. Following a very careful transition from fatigue precracking conditions to SCC conditions, the long term behavior under very stable conditions was monitored using reversing dc potential drop. Titanium Grade 7 exhibited continuous crack growth under both near-static and complete static loading conditions. Alloy 22 exhibited similar growth rates, but was less prone to maintain stable crack growth as conditions approached fully static loading.

Closed stresscorrosion cracks (SCCs) have been generated in nuclear power plants, resulting in the underestimation and nondetection. To solve this problem, we have developed closed-crack imaging method, the subharmonic phased array for crack evaluation (SPACE), on the basis of subharmonic waves and phased array technique. Here, after verifying the SPACE in a realistic SCC specimen, we present a two-step method for forming deep closed SCC for a reasonable amount of time. The SCC closure was verified by SPACE. This significantly contributes to the improvement of nondestructive evaluation methods and training/educating of inspection engineers.

The objective of this program is to evaluate the primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC) susceptibility of high chromium alloy 690 and its weld metals, establish quantitative measurements of crack-growth rates and determine relationships among cracking susceptibility, environmental conditions and metallurgical characteristics. Stress-corrosion, crack-growth rates have been determined for 12 alloy 690 specimens, 11 alloy 152/52/52M weld metal specimens, 4 alloy 52M/182 overlay specimens and 2 alloy 52M/82 inlay specimens in simulated PWR primary water environments. The alloy 690 test materials included three different heats of extruded control-rod-drive mechanism (CRDM) tubing with variations in the initial material condition and degree of cold work for one heat. Two cold-rolled (CR) alloy 690 plate heats were also obtained and evaluated enabling comparisons to the CR CRDM materials. Weld metal, overlay and inlay specimens were machined from industry mock ups to provide plant-representative materials for testing. Specimens have been tested for one alloy 152 weld, two alloy 52 welds and three alloy 52M welds. The overlay and inlay specimens were prepared to propagate stress-corrosion cracks from the alloy 182 or 82 material into the more resistant alloy 52M. In all cases, crack extension was monitored in situ by direct current potential drop (DCPD) with length resolution of about +1 µm making it possible to measure extremely low growth rates approaching 5x10-10 mm/s. Most SCC tests were performed at 325-360°C with hydrogen concentrations from 11-29 cc/kg; however, environmental conditions were modified during a few experiments to evaluate the influence of temperature, water chemistry or electrochemical potential on propagation rates. In addition, low-temperature (~50°C) cracking behavior was examined for selected alloy 690 and weld metal specimens. Extensive characterizations have been performed on material microstructures and stress-corrosion cracks by

Stresscorrosion cracking tests were conducted using Bayer solutions of different chemistry at different temperatures for extraction of alumina from bauxite ores. The validity of the commonly used caustic cracking susceptibility (CS) diagram for steels exposed to plain caustic solutions was assessed by testing the notched and precracked specimens. This study presents first results toward the development of a model susceptibility diagram for actual Bayer solutions, and for improved applicability of the traditional plain caustic diagram. For mechanistic understanding of caustic cracking, tests were also carried out under imposed electrochemical conditions.

A research program was conducted to critically assess the effects of precracked specimen configuration, stress intensity solutions, compliance relationships and other experimental test variables for stresscorrosion testing of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy plate. Modified compact and double beam wedge-loaded specimens were tested and analyzed to determine the threshold stress intensity factor and stresscorrosion crack growth rate. Stress intensity solutions and experimentally determined compliance relationships were developed and compared with other solutions available in the literature. Crack growth data suggests that more effective crack length measurement techniques are necessary to better characterize stresscorrosion crack growth. Final load determined by specimen reloading and by compliance did not correlate well, and was considered a major source of interlaboratory variability. Test duration must be determined systematically, accounting for crack length measurement resolution, time for crack arrest, and experimental interferences. This work was conducted as part of a round robin program sponsored by ASTM committees G1.06 and E24.04 to develop a standard test method for stresscorrosion testing using precracked specimens.

Slow strain rate tests (SSRT) were conducted on alloy 690 in various lead chloride solutions and metal lead added to 100 ppm chloride solution at 288 C. The corrosion potential (rest potential) for the alloy was measured with SSRT tests. The cracking was observed by metallographic examination and electron probe micro analyzer. Also, the corrosion behavior of the alloy was evaluated by anodic polarized measurement at 30 C. Resulting from the tests, cracking was characterized by cracking behavior, crack length and crack growth rate, and lead effects on cracking. The cracking was mainly intergranular in mode, approximately from 60 um to 450 um in crack length, and approximately 10{sup {minus}6} to 10{sup {minus}7} mmS-1 in crack velocity. The cracking was evaluated through the variation the corrosion potential in potential-time and lead behavior during SSRTs. The lead effect in corrosion was evaluated through active to passive transition behavior in anodic polarized curves. The corrosion reactions in the cracking region were confirmed by electron probe microanalysis. Alloy 690 is used for steam generation tubes in pressurized water reactors.

The degradation of 316 stainless steel (SS) storage container materials is a potential problem for radioactive waste disposition. Container materials will be exposed to significant ionizing radiation, elevated temperatures, embrittling and/or alloying agents (e.g., gallium), chloride-containing compounds (as much as 20 wt% Cl or Cl{sup {minus}}), oxidizing compounds, and a limited quantity of moisture. Additionally, containers will contain welds that have heterogeneous composition due to solute segregation and that may retain significant residual stress. All of the above-listed environmental and material conditions have been shown to be deleterious to material integrity under certain conditions. Unfortunately, the precise conditions within each container and environment is unknown and may vary widely from container to container. Thus, no single test or set of tests will be able mimic the broad range of storage container conditions. Additionally, material behavior cannot be predicted because the synergistic effects of temperature, time, chloride, moisture, sensitization, weldments, salt formation, etc., have not been fully studied. The complexity and uncertainty of storage conditions precludes any detailed recommendations. This document attempts to detail selected previous studies and to suggest some general guidelines for storage of radioactive waste. Because of the voluminous research in this area, this review cannot be considered to be comprehensive. Readers are directed to references that contain detailed reviews of particular processes for more information. Note that the effect of gallium on the degradation of SS storage containers has been discussed elsewhere and will not be discussed here.

A jacketed underground pipeline made of 304 stainless steel tubing to transport utility water in a petrochemical plant at ambient temperature was perforated after few months of operation. Perforation started preferentially at the outer bottom surface of the pipe in the weld heat-affected zones where the insulating coating was damaged. Detailed microstructural characterization was carried out to determine the cause of failure using optical metallography, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Experimental results indicated that the failure occurred by interaction between the outer bottom surface of the pipe and surrounding environment leading to pitting and stresscorrosion cracking in the presence of chloride ions. This could have been aided by residual welding stresses and the characteristic low stacking fault energy of the material.

An investigation was conducted to determine the cause of the failure of a massive AISI Type 316 stainless steel valve which controlled combustion air to a jet engine test facility. Several through-the-wall cracks were present near welded joints in the valve skirt. The valve had been in outdoor service for 18 years. Samples were taken in the cracked regions for metallographic and chemical analyses. Insulating material and sources of water mist in the vicinity of the failed valve were analyzed for chlorides. A scanning electron microscope was used to determine whether foreign elements were present in a crack. On the basis of the information generated, the failure was characterized as external stress-corrosion cracking. The cracking resulted from a combination of residual tensile stress from welding and the presence of aqueous chlorides. Recommended countermeasures are included.

The drip procedure from the Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Influence of Thermal Insulation on External StressCorrosion Cracking Tendency of Austenitic Stainless Steel (ASTM C 692-95a) was used to research the effect of halogens and inhibitors on the External StressCorrosion Cracking (ESCC) of Type 304 stainless steel as it applies to Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.36, Nonmetallic Thermal Insulation for Austenitic Stainless Steel. The solutions used in this research were prepared using pure chemical reagents to simulate the halogens and inhibitors found in insulation extraction solutions. The results indicated that sodium silicate compounds that were higher in sodium were more effective for preventing chloride-induced ESCC in Type 304 austenitic stainless steel. Potassium silicate (all-silicate inhibitor) was not as effective as sodium silicate. Limited testing with sodium hydroxide (all-sodium inhibitor) indicated that it may be effective as an inhibitor. Fluoride, bromide, and iodide caused minimal ESCC which could be effectively inhibited by sodium silicate. The addition of fluoride to the chloride/sodium silicate systems at the threshold of ESCC appeared to have no synergistic effect on ESCC. The mass ratio of sodium + silicate (mg/kg) to chloride (mg/kg) at the lower end of the NRC RG 1.36 Acceptability Curve was not sufficient to prevent ESCC using the methods of this research.

The use of eddy current techniques for the detection of outer diameter damage in tubing and many complex aerospace structures often requires the use of an inner diameter probe due to a lack of access to the outside of the part. In small bore structures the probe size and orientation are constrained by the inner diameter of the part, complicating the optimization of the inspection technique. Detection of flaws through a significant remaining wall thickness becomes limited not only by the standard depth of penetration, but also geometrical aspects of the probe. Recently, an orthogonal eddy current probe was developed for detection of such flaws in Space Shuttle Primary Reaction Control System (PRCS) Thrusters. In this case, the detection of deeply buried stresscorrosion cracking by an inner diameter eddy current probe was sought. Probe optimization was performed based upon the limiting spatial dimensions, flaw orientation, and required detection sensitivity. Analysis of the probe/flaw interaction was performed through the use of finite and boundary element modeling techniques. Experimental data for the flaw detection capabilities, including a probability of detection study, will be presented along with the simulation data. The results of this work have led to the successful deployment of an inspection system for the detection of stresscorrosion cracking in Space Shuttle Primary Reaction Control System (PRCS) Thrusters.

The mechanism of selective internal oxidation (SIO) for intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) of nickel-base alloys has been investigated through a series of experiments using high-purity alloys and a steam environment to control the formation of NiO on the surface. Five alloys (Ni-9Fe, Ni-5Cr, Ni-5Cr-9Fe, Ni-16Cr-9Fe, and Ni-30Cr-9Fe) were used to investigate oxidation and intergranular cracking behavior for hydrogen-to-water vapor partial pressure ratios (PPRs) between 0.001 and 0.9. The Ni-9Fe, Ni-5Cr, and Ni-5Cr-9Fe alloys formed a uniform Ni(OH)2 film at PPRs less than 0.09, and the higher chromium alloys formed chromium-rich oxide films over the entire PPR range studied. Corrosion coupon results show that grain boundary oxides extended for significant depths (>150 nm) below the sample surface for all but the highest Cr containing alloy. Constant extension rate tensile (CERT) test results showed that intergranular cracking varied with PPR and cracking was more pronounced at a PPR value where nonprotective Ni(OH)2 was able to form and a link between the nonprotective Ni(OH)2 film and the formation of grain boundary oxides is suggested. The observation of grain boundary oxides in stressed and unstressed samples as well as the influence of alloy content on IG cracking and oxidation support SIO as a mechanism for IGSCC.

The corrosion behavior of stressed C-rings made of martensitic steel T91 was investigated through constant strain tests. The specimens with different initial hoop stresses (0 MPa, 150 MPa and 300 MPa) were exposed to static oxygen saturated lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) at 480 °C for 500 h, 1000 h and 1500 h, respectively. The results showed that no crack was found on the outer surface of all the specimens after exposure; and the microscopic analysis showed that the specimens were covered with two oxide layers, which included a magnetite outer layer and a Fe-Cr spinel inner layer. The transformation of spinel into magnetite at the spinel/magnetite interface might be promoted by stress, which increased the difference between the thickness of the inner and outer layers. Moreover, the steel loss was estimated by the observed oxide layers; it increased rapidly when the stress was above 300 MPa, and was about 1.3 times of when the stress was absent.

The steam generator in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) of a nuclear power plant consists mainly of a shell made of carbon (C) steel and tubes made of alloy 600 (UNS N06600). However, alloy 600 suffers environmentally induced cracking with exposure to high-temperature primary water. The susceptibility of alloy 600 to integranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) was investigated as a function of the level of applied stresses and mode of loading. Constant load tests were conducted with specimens prepared from thin wall tubes, and constant deformation tests were conducted using specimens prepared from plates. With tubes exposed to primary water at 330 C, the crack propagation rate (CPR) was found to increase from 1 [times] 10[sup [minus]11] m/s at a stress intensity (K[sub i]) of 10 MPa[radical]m to 1 [times] 10[sup [minus]9] at K[sub i] = 60 MPa[radical]m. CPR obtained using compact specimens prepared from plates were 1 order of magnitude lower than values measured in tubes at the same temperature and in the same solution at each stress intensity. The corollary was that values of crack propagation and threshold stress intensities obtained using compact specimens could not be extrapolated to the behavior of thin wall tubes.

With increasing the distance from the weld fusion line in an Alloy 690 heat-affected zone, micro-hardness decreases, kernel average misorientation decreases and the fraction of Σ3 boundaries increases. Chromium depletion at grain boundaries in the Alloy 690 heat-affected zone is less significant than that in an Alloy 600 heat-affected zone. Alloy 690 heat-affected zone exhibits much higher IGSCC resistance than Alloy 600 heat-affected zone in simulated pressurized water reactor primary water. Heavily cold worked Alloy 690 exhibits localized intergranular stresscorrosion cracking. The effects of metallurgical and mechanical properties on stresscorrosion cracking in Alloy 690 are discussed.

A modified version of the Cu-depletion electrochemical framework was used to explain the metallurgical factor creating intergranular stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility in an aged Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy, C416. This framework was also used to explain the increased resistance to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking in the overaged temper. Susceptibility in the under aged and T8 condition is consistent with the grain boundary Cu-depletion mechanism. Improvements in resistance of the T8+ thermal exposure of 5000 h at 225 F (T8+) compared to the T8 condition can be explained by depletion of Cu from solid solution.

Corrosion rates and the mode of corrosion attack form a most important basis for selection of canister materials and design of a nuclear waste package. Type 304L stainless steel was selected as the reference material for canister fabrication because of its generally excellent corrosion resistance in water, steam and air. However, 304L may be susceptible to localized and stress-assisted forms of corrosion under certain conditions. Alternative alloys are also investigated; these alloys were chosen because of their improved resistance to these forms of corrosion. The fabrication and welding processes, as well as the glass pouring operation for defense and commercial high-level wastes, may influence the susceptibility of the canister to localized and stress forms of corrosion. 12 references, 2 figures, 4 tables.

Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in high performance pressure vessels, nuclear, chemical, process and medical industry due to their very good corrosion resistance and superior mechanical properties. However, austenitic stainless steels are prone to sensitization when subjected to higher temperatures (673 K to 1173 K) during the manufacturing process (e.g. welding) and/or certain applications (e.g. pressure vessels). During sensitization, chromium in the matrix precipitates out as carbides and intermetallic compounds (sigma, chi and Laves phases) decreasing the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. In the present investigation, 304L austenitic stainless steel was subjected to different heat inputs by shielded metal arc welding process using a standard 308L electrode. The microstructural developments were characterized by using optical microscopy and electron backscattered diffraction, while the residual stresses were measured by X-ray diffraction using the sin{sup 2}ψ method. It was observed that even at the highest heat input, shielded metal arc welding process does not result in significant precipitation of carbides or intermetallic phases. The ferrite content and grain size increased with increase in heat input. The grain size variation in the fusion zone/heat affected zone was not effectively captured by optical microscopy. This study shows that electron backscattered diffraction is necessary to bring out changes in the grain size quantitatively in the fusion zone/heat affected zone as it can consider twin boundaries as a part of grain in the calculation of grain size. The residual stresses were compressive in nature for the lowest heat input, while they were tensile at the highest heat input near the weld bead. The significant feature of the welded region and the base metal was the presence of a very strong texture. The texture in the heat affected zone was almost random. - Highlights: • Effect of heat input on microstructure, residual

The medical device industry is still seeking answers to the mechanically-assistedcorrosion (MAC) problem, which becomes increasingly important due to modularity in design. MAC manifests in various forms, some of which are fretting corrosion, crevice corrosion and stresscorrosion. Several studies have been conducted to understand the causes and the factors that affect fretting corrosion. Some of the factors are the applied load, surface potential, oxide film characteristics and solution chemistry near the interface. Surface properties such as surface roughness determine the topography of the surface and the nature of asperity-asperity contact, which is a factor that would determine the mechanically assistedcorrosion behavior of the interface, like the stem-neck and head-neck taper junctions in modular hip replacement devices. This study aims to understand the correlation between surface roughness of 316L stainless steel samples and fretting corrosion behavior using a variable load pin-on-disc test. It was found that the smoother surfaces are associated with lower fretting currents. However, smoother surfaces also created the conditions for fretting initiated crevice corrosion to occur more readily. Fretting corrosion regimes and the severity are thus dependent upon the surface roughness. A possible explanation could be due to the inverse relationship between the interasperity distance parameter, Delta, and fretting currents. The coefficient of friction between the two surfaces in contact however remained unaffected by surface roughness, but decreased with increasing load. Smoother surfaces, while lowering fretting corrosion reactions can enhance crevice corrosion reactions in 316L stainless steel interfaces.

Experiments were performed to determine the effect of dilute impurities in high purity water on the rate of initiation and growth of stresscorrosion cracks in NiCrMoV steels. 3.5 NiCrMoV steels of commercial quality, high purity, and high purity with intentionally added tramp elements were investigated. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide were the primary water impurities investigated. The tests were conducted on constant load, smooth bar tensile specimens of the NiCrMoV steels in flowing 160C high purity water containing various dilute levels of impurities. It was determined that the initiation rate is very sensitive to changes in dissolved oxygen content; the peak initiation rate are achieved between 20 and 80 ppB dissolved oxygen. The initiation rate is less sensitive to dissolved CO2 content. The crack growth rate in high purity water is only weakly dependent on dissolved O2 and CO2. This work shows that the crack growth rate is strongly dependent on the yield strength (and therefore the microstructure that develops as a result of tempering) of the turbine disc alloy, whereas the initiation rate is only weakly dependent on material yield strength. In addition, crack growth rates decrease as grain sizes are decreased. In general, crack growth rates are very slow (less than 10 m/s) in these dilute environments in materials with yield strengths below 690 Mpa (100 ksi). The results of these experiments indicate that a hydrogen-assisted process may be an important cracking mechanism in these alloys in these dilute environments. Implication of a hydrogen-assisted mechanism could have important consequences in the design and selection of turbine disc alloys.

The goal of this program is to provide screening data on the susceptibility to corrosion of commercial base metals and welds that are candidate materials of construction for large coal liquefaction plants. Specimens are exposed in operating environments of liquefaction pilot plants and under controlled laboratory conditions to establish acceptable conditions of stress, temperature, time, and environment for candidate alloys. Chemical analyses have been carried out to identify the corrosion-causing constituents of the liquids. The behavior of potential containment materials is being assessed on the basis of results from both in-plant exposure of test specimens as well as results from laboratory tests at ORNL. One portion of the in-plant tests includes exposing stresscorrosion cracking specimens in critical areas of liquefaction plants. The critical areas include the dissolver vessel, the pressure letdown vessels, and the factionation columns. Other in-plant tests consist of exposure of corrosion coupons in areas where general corrosion has been severe. These areas include the fractionation columns used for recovery of process and wash solvents. Laboratory tests are being conducted using selected liquid process streams from the pilot plants to simulate SRC environments. Sample materials include the full range of austenitic stainless steels, most of the Inconel, Incoloy and Hastelloy high-nickel alloys, ferritic stainless steels, and Cr-Mo steels, as well as pure materials such as titanium, aluminum and nickel.

Sandvik steel IRK91 combines good corrosion resistance with high strength. The steel has good deformability in austenitic conditions. This material belongs to the group of metastable austenites, so during deformation a strain-induced transformation into martensite takes place. After deformation, transformation ccontinues as a resuit of internai stresses. Depending on the heat treatment, this stress-assisted transformation is more or less atitocatalytic. Both transformations are stress-state and temperature dependent. This article presents a constitutive model for this steel, based on the macroscopic material behaviour measured by inductive measurements. Both the stress-assisted and the strain-induced transformation to martensite are incorpomted in this model. Path-dependent work hardening is also taken into account. The model is implemented in the commercial FEM code MARC for doing simulations. In the simulations thé tools are treated as rigid bodies, friction is taken into account beeause it inflnences the stress state during metal forming. The material properties after a calculation step are mapped to the next step to incorporate the cumulative effect of the transformation and work hardening during the different steps. A multi-stage metal-forming process is simulated. The process consists of different forming steps with intervals between them to simulate the waiting time between the different metal-forming steps. Results of the transformation behaviour are presented together with the shape of the product during and after metal forming. Finally, this article shows the results of the calculation in which the material transforms autocatalytic, as a resuit of a specific heat treatment.

Experimental results are presented from a study of the effects of precracked specimen configuration and initial starting stress intensity on crack growth rate and threshold stress intensity, for both onset of cracking and crack arrest. Attention is given to AISI 4340 steel in a 3.5-percent NaCl solution, for configurations of a single edge-cracked specimen tested in cantilever bending under constant load, and a modified compact specimen bolt loaded to a constant deflection. The threshold stress intensity value determined was independent of specimen configuration, if the stress intensity value associated with the compact specimen is taken where the discontinuous break occurs in the velocity-stress intensity curve.

Through appropriate heat treatments, a Zn-22.3wt%Al (Zn-22.3Al) alloy can be prepared in both superplastic and nonsuperplastic specimens. It has been found that the superplastic Zn-22.3Al alloy possesses a very fine microduplex structure, while the nonsuperplastic alloy has a lamellar duplex structure with locally coarsened second phases. The very different microstructures of both specimens result in different corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behaviors in 3% NaCl solution. In addition, the fractographs of both the superplastic and nonsuperplastic Zn-22.3Al specimens after SCC tests under various anodic applied potentials have been compared. Through the observations, a mechanism for the SCC in this case was proposed to show that the cracks proceeded with successive processes of oxide film rupture and Zn-Al matrix tearing. Such a mechanism is more evident for the fractography of nonsuperplastic specimens, on which a series of parallel strips inserted with dimple-bands can be obviously found.

Friction stir welding process is being evaluated for application on the Al-Cu-Li 2195 Super-Light Weight External Tank of the Space Transportation System. In the present investigation Al-Cu-Li 2195 plates were joined by autogenous friction stir welding (FSW) and hybrid FSW (friction stir welding over existing variable polarity plasma arc weld). Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were utilized to characterize microstructures of the weldments processed by both welding methods. TEM observations of autogenous FSW coupons in the center section of the dynamically-recrystallized zone showed an equiaxed recrystallized microstructure with an average grain size of approx. 3.8 microns. No T(sub 1), precipitates were present in the above-mentioned zone. Instead, T(sub B) and alpha precipitates were found in this zone with a lower population. Alternate immersion, anodic polarization, constant load, and slow strain tests were carried out to evaluate the general corrosion and stress-corrosion properties of autogenous and hybrid FSW prepared coupons. The experimental results will be discussed.

The influence of different impurities, viz., oxyacids and several chloride salts, on the stress-corrosion-cracking (SCC) of sensitized Type 304 stainless steel (SS) was investigated in constant-extension-rate-tensile (CERT) tests in 289/sup 0/C water at a low dissolved-oxygen concentration (<5 ppB). Cyclic loading experiments on fatigue precracked fracture-mechanics-type specimens of this material and Type 316NG were also performed at 289/sup 0/C in low-oxygen environments with and without sulfate at low concentrations. In these experiments, the crack growth behavior of the materials was correlated with the type and concentration of the impurities and the electrochemical potentials of Type 304 SS and platinum electrodes in the simulated hydrogen-water chemistry environments. The information suggests that better characterization of water quality, through measurement of the concentrations of individual species (SO/sub 4//sup 2 -/, NO/sub 3//sup -/, Cu/sup 2 +/, etc.) coupled with measurements of the corrosion and redox potentials at high temperatures will provide a viable means to monitor and ultimately improve the performance of BWR system materials.

This patent describes a method for protecting a stainless steel flow-conducting component used in hot geothermal brine service from chloride stresscorrosion caused by contact of geothermal brine with an exterior surface of the component. It comprises: thermally coating the exterior surface with a metal having an electrode potential more negative than that of the stainless steel being protected.

This article deals with the effect of the microstructural changes, due to transformation of delta ferrite, on the associated variations that take place in the tensile and stresscorrosion properties of type 316 L stainless steel weld deposits when subjected to postweld heat treatment at 873 K for prolonged periods (up to 2000 hours). On aging for short durations (up to 20 hours), carbide/ carbonitride was the dominant transformation product, whereas sigma phase was dominant at longer aging times. The changes in the tensile and stresscorrosion behavior of the aged weld metal have been attributed to the two competitive processes of matrix softening and hardening. Yield strength (YS) was found to depend predominantly on matrix softening only, while sig-nificant changes in the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the work-hardening exponent, n, occurred due to matrix hardening. Ductility and stresscorrosion properties were considerably affected by both factors. Fractographic observations on the weld metal tested for stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) indicated a combination of transgranular cracking of the austenite and interface cracking.

Laser peening is an emerging modern process that impresses a compressive stress into the surfaces of metals. Treatment can reduce the rate of fatigue cracking and stress-corrosion-cracking in metals (such as gears, bolts and cutters) needed for tunnel boring and other construction & mining applications. Laser peening could also be used to form metals or alloys into a precise shape without yielding and leaving both sulfates in a crack resistant compressive state.

In February 2001, a routine visual inspection of the reactor vessel head of Oconee Nuclear Station Unit 3 identified boric acid crystals at nine of sixty-nine locations where control rod drive mechanism housings (CRDM nozzles) penetrate the head. The boric acid deposits resulted from primary coolant leaking from cracks in the nozzle attachment weld and from through-thickness cracks in the nozzle wall. A general overview of the inspection and repair process is presented and results of the metallurgical analysis are discussed in more detail. The analysis confirmed that primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC) is the mechanism of failure of both the Alloy 182 weld filler material and the alloy 600 wrought base material. (authors)

Formal training programs for ultrasonic inspection of boiling water reactor (BWR) piping for intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC) have been provided by the EPRI NDE Center since 1983. Separate courses are available for detection and sizing of IGSCC in unrepaired piping. A third course addresses inspection for IGSCC in piping which has been repaired by the weld overlay method. It is the policy of EPRI and EPRI NDE Center management to review these programs periodically, using both expertise internal to the NDE Center staff and from outside sources. This report provides the results of a review of the NDE Center IGSCC ultrasonic inspection training by a group of individuals who have no permanent relationshiip with the NDE Center, but who possess recognized expertise in the subject area.

An evaluation was made of irradiated zirconium-liner cladding for its resistance to iodine-induced stresscorrosion cracking (SCC). Emphasis was put on irradiation-induced hardening in zirconium and SCC resistance in zirconium-liner cladding as compared with Zircaloy-2 cladding. The Vickers microhardness test revealed that crystal bar zirconium experienced less hardening than Zircaloy-2 during neutron exposure. The SCC resistance of zirconium-liner cladding was evaluated for failure strains under the tube pressurization SCC test, and compared with the results of Zircaloy-2 cladding. The failure strains of zirconium-liner cladding were significantly larger than those of Zircaloy-2 cladding over all neutron fluence ranges examined, e.g., more than ten times at 1.0 × 10 21n/ cm2 ( E > 1 MeV). Judging from our results on the Vickers microhardness and SCC tests, good SCC resistance of zirconium-liner cladding could be expected even at high fluences.

An observation of the dislocation mechanisms operating below a naturally initiated hot-salt stresscorrosion crack is presented, suggesting how hydrogen may contribute to embrittlement. The observations are consistent with the hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity mechanism. Dislocation activity has been investigated through post-mortem examination of thin foils prepared by focused ion beam milling, lifted directly from the fracture surface. The results are in agreement with the existing studies, suggesting that hydrogen enhances dislocation motion. It is found that the presence of hydrogen in (solid) solution results in dislocation motion on slip systems that would not normally be expected to be active. A rationale is presented regarding the interplay of dislocation density and the hydrogen diffusion length.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was employed to investigate the microchemistry and microstructure of grain boundary precipitates in Al 7075 aged at room temperature for several hours, at 393 K (120 °C) for 12 hours (under aged), at peak aged (T651) and over aged (T73) conditions. High resolution TEM analysis of precipitates at grain boundaries and fine probe energy dispersive spectrometry showed that the grain boundary precipitates at peak and over aged conditions are hexagonal η phase with stoichiometry Mg(Cu x Zn1- x )2. Considerable increase in Cu content in the grain boundary η in the over aged condition compared to the peak aged condition was observed. The average Cu content in the over aged condition was found to be 20 at. pct. The higher Cu content of the precipitate is associated with a lower stresscorrosion cracking plateau velocity.

Selective internal oxidation (SIO) is a mechanism of grain boundary embrittlement through the formation of intergranular oxides of Cr2O3. SIO is proposed as a mechanism to explain intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) of Ni-base alloys in pressurized water reactor environments. The purpose of this work is to investigate SIO through a series of experiments using controlled-purity alloys in a controlled, low-pressure steam environment in which the oxygen potential is varied. Five alloys; Ni-9Fe, Ni-5Cr, LCr (Ni-5Cr-9Fe), CD85 (Ni-16Cr-9Fe) and HCr (Ni-30Cr-9Fe), were used in corrosion coupon exposure tests and constant extension rate tensile (CERT) tests at 550°C and 400°C in an environment consisting of a controlled mixture of hydrogen, water vapor and argon. The hydrogen-to-water vapor partial pressure ratio (PPR) was varied between 0.001 and 0.9 to control the oxygen partial pressure. The Ni-9Fe, Ni-5Cr and LCr alloys formed a uniform Ni(OH)2 film at PPR values less than 0.09 while CD85 and HCr formed Cr2O 3 oxide films over the entire PPR range. Corrosion coupon results also show the formation of highly localized oxide particles at grain boundaries. Focused ion beam analysis revealed that intergranular oxides were observed at significant depths (>150 nm) down grain boundaries and the oxide morphology depended on the alloy composition and PPR value. Diffusion of oxygen along the grain boundary accounted for the growth of intergranular oxides. CERT test results showed that intergranular cracking was caused by creep-induced microvoid coalescence only at 550°C and did not depend on PPR. At 400°C, the cracking behavior depended on the PPR and resulted in a mixture of creep-induced microvoid coalescence and brittle intergranular failure. The cracked boundary fraction was higher at a PPR value where a Ni(OH)2 surface film formed. Alloy composition influenced cracking and the cracked boundary fraction decreased as the alloy chromium content increased. The

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of cut (machined) vice thread rolled Alloy X-750 and Alloy 625 fasteners in a simulated high temperature primary water environment has been evaluated. SCC testing at 360 and 338C included 157 small and 40 large 60{degree} Vee thread studs. Thread rolled fasteners had improved resistance relative to cut fasteners. Tests of fatigue resistance in air at room temperature and both air and primary water at 315C were conducted on smaller studs with both cut and rolled threads. Results showed rolled threads can have significantly improved fatigue lives over those of cut threads in both air and primary water. Fasteners produced by two different thread rolling methods, in-feed (radial) and through-feed (axial), revealed similar SCC initiation test results. Testing of thread rolled fasteners revealed no significant SCC or fatigue growth of rolling induced thread crest laps typical of the thread rolling process. While fatigue resistance differed between the two rolled thread supplier`s studs, neither of the suppliers studs showed SCC initiation at exposure times beyond that of cut threads with SCC. In contrast to rolling at room temperature, warm rolled (427C) threads showed no improvement over cut threads in terms of fatigue resistance. The observed improved SCC and fatigue performance of rolled threads is postulated to be due to interactive factors, including beneficial residual stresses in critically stressed thread root region, reduction of plastic strains during loading and formation of favorable microstructure.

Stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of cut (machined) vice thread rolled Alloy X-750 and Alloy 625 fasteners in a simulated high temperature primary water environment has been evaluated. SCC testing at 360 and 338 C included 157 small and 40 large 60 degree thread studs. Thread rolled fasteners had improved resistance relative to cut fasteners. Tests of fatigue resistance in air at room temperature and both air and primary water at 315 C were conducted on smaller studs with both cut and rolled threads. Results showed rolled threads can have significantly improved fatigue lives over those of cut threads in both air and primary water. Fasteners produced by two different thread rolling methods, in-feed (radial) and through-feed (axial), revealed similar SCC initiation test results. Testing of thread rolled fasteners revealed no significant SCC or fatigue growth of rolling induced thread crest laps typical of the thread rolling process. While fatigue resistance differed between the two rolled thread supplier's studs, neither of the suppliers studs showed SCC initiation at exposure times beyond that of cut threads with SCC. In contrast to rolling at room temperature, warm rolled (427 C) threads showed no improvement over cut threads in terms of fatigue resistance. The observed improved SCC and fatigue performance of rolled threads is postulated to be due to interactive factors, including beneficial residual stresses in critically stressed thread root region, reduction of plastic strains during loading and formation of favorable microstructure.

Susceptibility of SA-543 steel, its welds (with and without stress relief treatment), and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) was investigated in de-aerated and aerated boiler feed water subjected to the all-volatile treatment (AVT-BFW), and distilled water at 275 °C using the slow strain rate testing (SSRT) technique. The SSRT specimens were tested at three extension rates (3.50 × 10-6, 9.00 × 10-6, and 7.50 × 10-5 mm/s) using a novel SCC testing rig capable of testing at high temperatures and pressures. There are no significant differences in the time-to-failure among the four tested specimens. The elongation of the specimens at the time of failure is in the range of 10-23%. The reduction of the cross-sectional area of the failed specimens is large (45-77%) and the absence of any signs of intergranular propagation in fractured specimens, determined by scanning electron microscopy, indicates that the failure is due to mechanical load and not due to SCC. Dissolved oxygen does not affect the susceptibility of the specimens to SCC, which could be due to the inhibition effect of the test solution. SA-543 steel as the base metal, its welds (with and without stress relief treatment), and the HAZ are suitable for use in hot AVT-BFW and distilled water.

In Switzerland, all deaths through assisted suicide are reported as unnatural deaths and investigated by a forensic team (police, medical examiner, and state attorney). However, there is limited knowledge concerning the impact these forensic investigations have on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, complicated grief, or depression in those who have lost a loved one. A cross-sectional survey of 85 family members or close friends who were present at an assisted suicide was conducted in December 2007. The Impact of Event Scale, Inventory of Complicated Grief, and Brief Symptom Inventory were used to assess mental health. The newly developed Forensic Investigation Experience Scale measured the emotional experience of the legal investigation at the death scene. The data suggest that the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder is significantly related to having experienced the forensic investigation as emotionally difficult. Thus, the way the forensic investigation is conducted immediately after an unnatural death is evidently associated with the development of post-traumatic stress. It is recommended that a protocol be developed establishing a standardised response to cases of assisted suicide and that specific training be provided for the legal professionals involved. PMID:22012547

The effect of a constant applied stress in crack initiation of aluminum 2014-T6, 2219-T87, 2014-T651, 7075-T651 and titanium 6Al-4V has been investigated. Aluminum c-ring specimens (1-inch diameter) and u-band titanium samples were exposed continuously to a 3.5% NaCl solution (pH 7) and organic fluids of ethyl, methyl, and iso-propyl alcohol (reagent purity), and demineralized distilled water. Corrosive action was observed to begin during the first and second day of constant exposure as evidenced by accumulation of hydrogen bubbles on the surface of stressed aluminum samples. However, titanium stressed specimens showed no reactions to its environment. Results of this investigation seems to suggest that aluminum 2014-T6, aluminum 7075-T651 and aluminum 2014-T651 are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking in chloride solution (NaCl), while aluminum 2219-T87 seem to resist stresscorrosion cracking in sodium chloride at three levels of stress (25%, 50%, and 75% Y.S.). In organic fluids of methyl, ethyl, and iso-propyl alcohol, 2014-T6 and 7075-T651 did not fail by SCC; but 2014-T651 was susceptible to SCC in methly alcohol, but resistant in ethyl alcohol, iso-propyl alcohol and demineralized distilled water.

Four lots of stress-relieved Zircaloy-2 tubing were prepared from a single heat of the alloy. Tube reduction parameters were controlled so that each lot had a different crystallographic texture. The tubing with the most radial (least tangential) basal pole intensity was shown to have a Kearns texture number in the radial direction of 0.61, whereas the equivalent value for the tubing with the least radial texture was 0.48. Each lot of tubing was given one of three surface treatments: etched, etched and grit blasted, or lightly etched and shot blasted. The iodine stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of the unirradiated tubing was determined by measuring the time to failure in a standard tube pressurization test at about 593 K in which 6 mg of iodine was present for each square centimetre of exposed Zircaloy surface. The results showed that texture has a large effect on SCC susceptibility and that surface condition has a significant but lesser effect. The SCC resistance was lowest in the material with the most tangential basal pole intensity and increased as the texture became more radial. The lightly etched and shot-blasted surface resulted in times to failure that were shorter than the times for the other two surface conditions. However, it seems likely that the influence of surface treatment is quite complex and that SCC susceptibility can change significantly with a seemingly minor change in the surface treatment technique. The effect of texture was interpreted in terms of its influence on strength, on deformation characteristics, and on orientation of SCC susceptible planes with respect to the dominant tensile (hoop) stress. The effect of surface condition was interpreted in terms of its influence on residual stresses, on local texture changes, on local stress concentration, and on chemical activity.

In this paper, two main types of corrosion, localized corrosion and stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of cables used in prestressed concrete structures, were characterized and identified by acoustic emission (AE) analysis using extracted AE parameters. A novel analysis of the AE parameters using the principal component analysis (PCA) was done to discriminate localized corrosion from SCC. First, K-mean was used as an unsupervised method, and then to validate the clustering analysis k-nearest neighbour was used as a supervised method. The correlations of the AE parameters including amplitude, counts, hits and time were also used to identify corrosion mechanisms. In addition, the corrosion process characteristics of each type were explained by applying the AE signal analysis (time-frequency). Experimental results show the ability of AE to evaluate a crack propagation rate of 10-7 m s-1 in a chloride medium. Microscopic examinations revealed a mixed mode of crack propagation, modes I (shear-like mechanism) and II (cleavage-like mechanism), characterized by a multi-terrace appearance on the fractured steel surface.

Duplex stainless steels (DSS) generally have superior strength and corrosion resistance as compared to most standard austenitic and ferritic stainless grades owing to a balanced microstructure of austenite and ferrite. As a result of having favorable properties, DSS have been selected for the construction of equipment in pulp and paper, chemical processing, nuclear, oil and gas as well as other industries. The use of DSS has been restricted in some cases because of stresscorrosion cracking (SCC), which can initiate and grow in either the ferrite or austenite phase depending on the environment. Thorough understanding of SCC mechanisms of DSS in chloride- and hydrogen sulfide-containing solutions has been useful for material selection in many environments. However, understanding of SCC mechanisms of DSS in sulfide-containing caustic solutions is limited, which has restricted the capacity to optimize process and equipment design in pulp and paper environments. Process environments may contain different concentrations of hydroxide, sulfide, and chloride, altering corrosion and SCC susceptibility of each phase. Crack initiation and growth behavior will also change depending on the relative phase distribution and properties of austenite and ferrite. The role of microstructure and environment on the SCC of standard grade UNS S32205 and lean grade UNS S32101 in hot alkaline-sulfide solution were evaluated in this work using electrochemical, film characterization, mechanical testing, X-ray diffraction, and microscopy techniques. Microstructural aspects, which included residual stress state, phase distribution, phase ratio, and microhardness, were related to the propensity for SCC crack initiation in different simulated alkaline pulping liquors at 170 °C. Other grades of DSS and reference austenitic and superferritic grades of stainless steel were studied using exposure coupons for comparison to understand compositional effects and individual phase susceptibility

The effect of strain rate on cathodic reactions of X70 pipeline steel during stresscorrosion cracking in a near-neutral pH solution was investigated by electrochemical impedance spectroscope and potentiodynamic polarization curve measurements as well as slow strain rate tests. A local additional potential model was used to understand mechanistically the role of strain rate in electrochemical cathodic reaction. It was found that an application of elastic stress would not affect the electrochemical stable state of the steel specimen at a macroscopic scale. Under a weak cathodic polarization, the interfacial charge-transfer process occurring on steel contains both cathodic and anodic reactions. Since the anodic reaction process is still significant, localized dissolution could occur even at such a cathodic potential, resulting in generation of corrosion pits. These pits could be the start sites to initiate stresscorrosion cracks. Strain rate affects the corrosion reaction, which is associated with the generation of dislocation emergence points and slip steps on the specimen surface, resulting in a negative local additional potential to enhance the cathodic reaction locally.

This report presents a preliminary mechanical property and stresscorrosion evaluation of double melted (vacuum induction melted (VIM), and vacuum arc remelted (VAR)), solution treated, work strengthened and direct aged Inconel 718 alloy bar (5.50 in. (13.97 cm) diameter). Two sets of tensile specimens, one direct single aged and the other direct double aged, were tested at ambient temperature in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. Longitudinal tensile and yield strengths in excess of 200 ksi (1378.96 MPa) and 168 ksi (1158.33 MPa), respectively, were realized at ambient temperature, for the direct double aged specimen. No failures occurred in the single or double edged longitudinal and transverse tensile specimens stressed to 75 and 100 percent of their respective yield strengths and exposed to a salt fog environment for 180 days. Tensile tests performed after the stresscorrosion test showed no mechanical property degradation.

The effect of a constant applied stress in crack initiation of aluminum 2014-T6, 7075-T651 and titanium 6A1-4V has been investigated. Aluminum c-ring specimens (1-inch diameter) and u-band titanium samples were exposed continuously to a 3.5% NaCl solution (pH 6) and organic fluids of ethyl, methyl, and iso-propyl alcohol (reagent purity). Corrosive action was observed to begin during the first and second day of constant exposure as evidenced by accumulation of hydrogen bubbles on the surface of stressed aluminum samples. However, a similar observation was not noted for titanium stressed specimens. Results of this investigation seems to suggest that aluminum 2014-T6, aluminum 7075-T651 are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking in chloride solution (NaCl); while they (both alloys) seem to resist stresscorrosion cracking in methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, iso-propyl alcohol, and demineralized distilled water. Titanium 6A1-4V showed some evidence of susceptibility to SCC in methanol, while no such susceptibility was exhibited in ethanol, iso-propyl alcohol and demineralized distilled water.

The inhibitory effect of boric acid on the Intergranular Attack and StressCorrosion Cracking (IGA/SCC) propagation behavior of steam generator (SG) tubing was studied under accelerated test conditions. Based on the analysis results of stress intensity factors at IGA/SCC crack tips, the notched C-ring tests were carried out to evaluate the effect of stress intensity and boric acid on the IGA/SCC crack propagation. The A.C. impedance measurement and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) were also conducted to clarify the inhibitory effect of boric acid. Notched C-ring test results indicated that IGA/SCC crack velocity of alloy 600 increased gradually with increasing stress intensity factor in the range 4 to about 26 MPa{center_dot}m{sup 1/2}, which might be loaded on the IGA/SCC crack tips of actual SG tubes under PWR secondary conditions. Adding boric acid slightly retarded the crack velocity in both all volatile treatment (AVT) water and caustic solutions. IGA/SCC crack velocities were lower in nearly neutral solutions than in alkali or acidic solutions. Furthermore, A.C. impedance studies showed that the polarization resistances of oxide films formed in boric acid solutions were higher than those of films formed in acidic and alkali solutions. AES analysis revealed that boron content in the oxide films formed in acidic solution containing boric acid was lowest. Good agreement was obtained between the IGA/SCC inhibitory effect of boric acid and the formation of the stable oxide films containing boron.

A series of model boiler tests, using a mixture of precracked and non-precracked (virgin) tube-to-tube support plate intersections was performed. The testing supported the qualification of inhibitors for mitigating the secondary side corrosion of alloy 600 steam generator tubes. Many utilities suspect that the caustic impurities come from the feedwater. Candidate inhibitors included boric acid (as a reference), cerous acetate, and two forms of titanium dioxide: a laboratory produced titania-silica sol-gel, and manometer sized anatase The latter was combined with a 150 C pre-soaking with a titanium lactate, and was tested with and without a zeta potential treatment by sodium aluminate. Effectiveness of boric acid to prevent and retard caustic induced intergranular corrosion was confirmed in all crevice configurations (open and packed). The cerous acetate treatment multiplied by two to four the time necessary to detect a primary-to-secondary leak on virgin tubes, and reduced the propagation rate on precracked tubes. Cerium was found intimately mixed, as cerianite, with the free span and crevice deposits, when the crevices were sufficiently accessible. Due to its very low solubility and large particle size, the titania-silica sol-gel was unable to penetrate the crevices and had no effect on the degradation process. The nanometric particle size titania treatment and/or the preceding soaking with soluble titanium lactate drastically increased the titanium concentration in free span and open crevice deposit (with no added sodium aluminate, titania reacted with magnetite to form ilmenite) and showed undeniable capacity to prevent tubing degradation. Its effectiveness, in the case of packed crevices and for arresting cracks, was not so conclusive.

A strain energy density-distance criterion was previously developed and used to correlate rising-load K{sub c} initiation data for notched and fatigue precracked specimens of hydrogen precharged Alloy X-750. This criterion, which was developed for hydrogen embrittlement (HE) cracking, is used here to correlate static-load stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) initiation times obtained for smooth geometry, notched and fatigue precracked specimens. The onset of SCC crack growth is hypothesized to occur when a critical strain, which is due to environment-enhanced creep, is attained within the specimen interior. For notched and precracked specimens, initiation is shown by analysis to occur at a variable distance from notch and crack tips. The initiation site varies from very near the crack tip, for highly loaded sharp cracks, to a site that is one grain diameter from the notch, for lower loaded, blunt notches. The existence of hydrogen gradients, which are due to strain-induced hydrogen trapping in the strain fields of notch and crack tips, is argued to be controlling the site for initiation of cracking. By considering the sources of the hydrogen, these observations are shown to be consistent with those from the previous HE study, in which the characteristic distance for crack initiation was found to be one grain diameter from the notch tip, independent of notch radius, applied stress intensity factor and hydrogen level.

In this study, a grain boundary model with three-dimensional (3D) cohesive elements for analyzing the intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) on the crystal level in polycrystalline materials is presented. The objectives are to characterize the grain boundary microstructure and the fracture mechanism of IGSCC in AZ31 Mg alloy. In order to investigate the development of the microcrack and its effects on macrocrack evolution, a novel model of IGSCC propagation has been developed, in which the 3D Voronoi tessellations geometry is employed to model polycrystalline grain structures. And the 3D cohesive elements with zero constitutive thickness are directly inserted on the faces of two adjacent grains. The effect of the embrittlement due to the presence of hydrogen has also been included in the cohesive model. To validate the model, an IGSCC process of AZ31 Mg alloy in NaCl solution has been simulated, with the influence of hydrogen concentration being taken into account. It is found that damage develops at the triple lines between the grains and the combinations of grains can lead to high stresses at the grains boundary, especially those that are normal to the direction of the applied strain. In this paper, the effects of damage due to hydrogen and the grain sizes in microstructure are considered. The simulation results have a good consistency with the experimental phenomenon.

Hot deformation behavior of Nickel-based corrosion-resistant alloy (N08028) was studied in compression tests conducted in the temperature range of 1050-1200 °C and the strain rate range of 0.001-1 s-1. The flow stress behavior and microstructural evolution were observed during the hot deformation process. The results show that the flow stress increases with deformation temperature decreasing and strain rate increasing, and that the deformation activation energy ( Q) is not a constant but increases with strain rate increasing at a given strain, which is closely related with dislocation movement. On this basis, a revised strain-dependent hyperbolic sine constitutive model was established, which considered that the "material constants" in the original model vary as functions of the strain and strain rate. The flow curves of N08028 alloy predicted by the proposed model are in good agreement with the experimental results, which indicates that the revised constitutive model can estimate precisely the flow curves of N08028 alloy.

Significant intergranular (IG) crack growth during stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) tests has been documented during tests in simulated PWR primary water on two alloy 152 specimens cut from a weldment produced by ANL. The cracking morphology was observed to change from transgranular (TG) to mixed mode (up to ~60% IG) during gentle cycling and cycle + hold loading conditions. Measured crack growth rates under these conditions often suggested a moderate degree of environmental enhancement consistent with faster growth on grain boundaries. However, overall SCC propagation rates at constant stress intensity (K) or constant load were very low in all cases. Initial SCC rates up to 6x10-9 mm/s were occasionally measured, but constant K/load growth rates dropped below ~1x10-9 mm/s with time even when significant IG engagement existed. Direct comparisons were made among loading conditions, measured crack growth response and cracking morphology during each test to assess IGSCC susceptibility of the alloy 152 specimens. These results were analyzed with respect to our previous SCC crack growth rate measurements on alloy 152/52 welds.

Grain boundary microstructures and microchemistries are examined in cold-rolled alloy 690 tubing and plate materials and comparisons are made to intergranular stresscorrosion cracking (IGSCC) behavior in PWR primary water. Chromium carbide precipitation is found to be a key aspect for materials in both the mill annealed and thermally treated conditions. Cold rolling to high levels of reduction was discovered to produce small IG voids and cracked carbides in alloys with a high density of grain boundary carbides. The degree of permanent grain boundary damage from cold rolling was found to depend directly on the initial IG carbide distribution. For the same degree of cold rolling, alloys with few IG precipitates exhibited much less permanent damage. Although this difference in grain boundary damage appears to correlate with measured SCC growth rates, crack tip examinations reveal that cracked carbides appeared to blunt propagation of IGSCC cracks in many cases. Preliminary results suggest that the localized grain boundary strains and stresses produced during cold rolling promote IGSCC susceptibility and not the cracked carbides and voids.

The stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) of sensitized Alloy 600 was investigated in aerated solutions of sodium thiosulfate containing 1.3% boric acid. Results indicate that in the borated thiosulfate solution containing 7 ppM sulfur, 5 ppM lithium as lithium hydroxide is sufficient to inhibit SCC in U-bends. The occurrence of inhibition seems to correlate to the rapid increase of pH and conductivity of the solution as a result of the lithium hydroxide addition. In the slow strain rate tests in the borated solution containing 0.7 ppM lithium as lithium hydroxide, significant SCC is observed at a sulfur level of 30 ppB, i.e., a lithium to sulfur ratio of 23. In a parallel test in 30 ppB sulfur level but without any lithium hydroxide, the SCC is more severe than that in the lithiated environment. In the constant load test on a specimen held initially at a nominal stress near the yield strength of the material, cracks continue to grow until fracture during controlled, progressive dilution of the bulk solution, leading to final lithium concentration of 1.5 ppM and sulfur concentration (as thiosulfate) of 9.6 ppB i.e., a lithium to sulfur ratio of about 156, although lithium hydroxide retards the rate of crack propagation to some extent. The crack growth rate is strongly influenced by the electrochemical potential which is primarily governed by the local crack tip chemistry.

Intergranular (IG) attack regions and stress-corrosion cracks in alloy 600 U-bend samples tested in 330C, pressurized-water-reactor water have been characterized by analytical transmission electron microscopy (ATEM). Observations of cross-sectional samples revealed short oxidized zones preceding crack tips and narrow (10-nm wide), deeply penetrated, oxidized zones along grain boundaries exposed along open cracks. High-resolution TEM imaging and fine-probe analysis were used to determine the local chemistries and structures in these corrosion-affected zones. Matrix areas surrounding the crack tips appeared highly strained, whereas the IG penetrations generally did not. The predominant oxide structure found along crack walls and just ahead of crack tips was NiO with metal-atom ratios similar to the alloy. The attacked grain boundaries off open cracks contained similar fine-grained NiO-structure oxide together with local areas of Cr-rich oxide and Ni-rich metal. In contrast, Cr-rich oxide identified as Cr2O3 predominated at the leading edges of the IG attack. Stereoscopic imaging of these tip structures revealed nm-scale porosity and tunnels within the oxide and pores along the grain-boundary plane ahead of the oxide. The general interpretation of these results is that IG attack and cracking follows local dissolution or oxidation and the formation of pores at grain boundaries. This degradation occurs at the nanometer scale and therefore requires high-resolution ATEM methods to reveal detailed characteristics. Experimental support for several possible IG degradation mechanisms is considered.

Bridging the gap between graduation from medical school and being board eligible in a medical specialty is a lengthy and arduous process. The fact that stress is typical during the residency training period is well-documented in the literature, as are its many situational, professional, and personal sources, which the author reviews: heavy work-load, sleep deprivation, difficult patients, poor learning environments, relocation issues, isolation and social problems, financial concerns, cultural and minority issues, information overload, and career planning issues. Stress can also stem from and exacerbate gender-related issues and problems for significant others, spouses, and family members. The author also describes less commonly documented sources of stress-often overlooked or postponed so long that stresses are inevitable for all concerned. These are associated with residents who perform marginally and in some cases should not have been passed on from medical school, or who are studying specialties not compatible with their skills and personalities, or who foster severe interpersonal problems on the job. Common effects of stress include anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive trends, hostility, and alcohol and substance abuse. To respond to the problems that these many stressors present to residents, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) requires that all post-medical-school medical training programs make assistance services available for all residents. The author outlines essential elements of an assistance program, states how important such problems can be in saving both residents and their institutions needless difficulties and costs, and presents important issues for the consideration of all involved in residents' training. PMID:11158832

The fundamental basis for mechanistic understanding and modeling of SCC remains in question for many systems. Specific mechanisms controlling SCC can vary with changes in alloy characteristics, applied/residual stress or environmental conditions. The local crack electrochemistry, crack-tip mechanics and material metallurgy are the main factors controlling crack growth. These localized properties are difficult or impossible to measure in active cracks. Nevertheless, it is essential to quantitatively interrogate these crack-tip conditions if mechanistic understanding is to be obtained. A major recent advance has been the ability to investigate SCC cracks and crack tips using high-resolution ATEM techniques. ATEM enables the characterization of SCC cracks including trapped tip solution chemistries, corrosion product/film compositions and structures, and elemental composition gradients and defect microstructures along the crack walls and at the crack tip. A wide variety of methods for imaging and analyses at resolutions down to the atomic level can be used to examine the crack and corrosion film characteristics. Surface films and reaction layers have been examined by cross-sectional TEM techniques, but little work had been conducted on environmentally induced internal cracks until that of Lewis and co-workers [1-3] and the current authors [4-17]. This capability combined with modern ATEM techniques has enabled exciting new insights into corrosion processes occurring at buried interfaces and is being used to identify mechanisms controlling IGSCC in boiling water reactor (BWR) and pressurized water reactor (PWR) components. The objective of this paper is to summarize certain results focused on IGSCC of Fe- base and Ni-base stainless alloys in high-temperature water environments. Representative crack-tip examples will be shown to illustrate specific aspects that are characteristic of SCC in the material/environment combinations. Differences and similarities in crack

Irradiation-assistedstresscorrosion cracking (IASCC) is a significant materials issue for the light water reactor (LWR) industry and may also pose a problem for fusion power reactors that will use water as coolant. A new metallurgical process is proposed that involves the radiation-induced release into solution of minor impurity elements not usually thought to participate in IASCC. MnS-type precipitates, which contain most of the sulfur in stainless steels, are thought to be unstable under irradiation. First, Mn transmutes strongly to Fe in thermalized neutron spectra. Second, cascade-induced disordering and the inverse Kirkendall effect operating at the incoherent interfaces of MnS precipitates are thought to act as a pump to export Mn from the precipitate into the alloy matrix. Both of these processes will most likely allow sulfur, which is known to exert a deleterious influence on intergranular cracking, to re-enter the matrix. To test this hypothesis, compositions of MnS-type precipitates contained in several unirradiated and irradiated heats of Type 304, 316, and 348 stainless steels (SSs) were analyzed by Auger electron spectroscopy. Evidence is presented that shows a progressive compositional modification of MnS precipitates as exposure to neutrons increases in boiling water reactors. As the fluence increases, the Mn level in MnS decreases, whereas the Fe level increases. The S level also decreases relative to the combined level of Mn and Fe. MnS precipitates were also found to be a reservoir of other deleterious impurities such as F and O which could be also released due to radiation-induced instability of the precipitates.

The goal of this research is to develop a 3D finite element (FE) model of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) to predict stresses in the blood sac. The hyperelastic stress-strain curves for the segmented poly(ether polyurethane urea) (SPEUU) blood sac were determined in both tension and compression using a servo-hydraulic testing system at various strain rates. Over the range of strain rates studied, the sac was not strain rate sensitive, however the material response was different for tension versus compression. The experimental tension and compression properties were used in a FE model that consisted of the pusher plate, blood sac and pump case. A quasi-static analysis was used to allow for nonlinearities due to contact and material deformation. The 3D FE model showed that blood sac stresses are not adversely affected by the location of the inlet and outlet ports of the device and that over the systolic ejection phase of the simulation the prediction of blood sac stresses from the full 3D model and an axisymmetric model are the same. Minimizing stresses in the blood sac will increase the longevity of the blood sac in vivo. PMID:19131267

Stresscorrosion cracking behaviors of one-directionally cold rolled 316L stainless steel specimens in T-L and L-T orientations were investigated in hydrogenated and deaerated PWR primary water environments at 310 °C. Transgranular cracking was observed during the in situ pre-cracking procedure and the crack growth rate was almost not affected by the specimen orientation. Locally intergranular stresscorrosion cracks were found on the fracture surfaces of specimens in the hydrogenated PWR water. Extensive intergranular stresscorrosion cracks were found on the fracture surfaces of specimens in deaerated PWR water. More extensive cracks were found in specimen T-L orientation with a higher crack growth rate than that in the specimen L-T orientation with a lower crack growth rate. Crack branching phenomenon found in specimen L-T orientation in deaerated PWR water was synergistically affected by the applied stress direction as well as the preferential oxidation path along the elongated grain boundaries, and the latter was dominant.

A corrosion rate model is developed for carbon steel in water containing CO{sub 2} at different temperatures, pH`s, CO{sub 2} fugacities and wall shear stresses. The model is based on loop experiments at temperatures from 20--160 C. The data are taken from a database containing more than 2,400 data points at various temperatures, CO{sub 2} fugacities, pH`s and wall shear stresses. To find the best fit of the data, data for each temperature present in the data base was evaluated separately to find typical trends for the change in corrosion rate versus CO{sub 2} fugacity, wall shear stress and pH. To facilitate use of the corrosion model a simplified method for calculating wall shear stress in multiphase flow is included. This model includes a viscosity model for dispersions and is developed for oil wet and water wet flow. Criteria for the maximum production rate to avoid mesa attach in straight sections and behind welds is also included.

This research program has included two thrusts. The first addressed environment-induced embrittlement in a parallel study of stresscorrosion cracking and metal-induced embrittlement. This work has examined (1) mechanical properties as influenced by embrittling environments, (2) fractography and crystallography or transgranular cracking, (3) the mechanics of cracking, (4) the extent and role of local plastic flow, and (5) local chemistry within stresscorrosion and metal-induced cracks. The embrittlement of iron aluminide alloys by air was addressed by determining the effect of water and hydrogen upon the mechanical properties. Slow strain rate testing in aqueous environments was carried out at controlled anodic and cathodic potentials. The effect of cathodically charged hydrogen and the effect of subsequent baking were measured. Environmental susceptibility was measured as affected by alloy composition, microstructure and degree of ordering.

This paper presents a study of the effects of microstructural changes on the caustic stresscorrosion cracking resistance of a NiCrMoV rotor steel. All tests were run in 9 M NaOH at 98 °C and at an electrochemical potential of -400 mVHg/Hgo. Different microstructures were obtained by tempering martensitic samples for different times at 600 °C or by using a slow controlled cool from the austenite to produce a bainitic structure. The results show that heat treatments which produced large, chromiumrich carbides are beneficial. These carbides are preferentially corroded and cause pits to form at the crack tip. We propose that these pits cause crack tip blunting and slow crack propagation. It is further shown that, although changes in microstructure can produce improvements in the susceptibility to stresscorrosion cracking, these changes cannot compensate for the detrimental effects of phosphorus segregation to grain boundaries.

Microscopic strains associated with stresscorrosion cracks have been investigated in stressed C-rings of Ni-16 Cr-9 Fe (Alloy 600) boiler tubing. Polychromatic X-ray microdiffraction was used to measure deviatoric strain tensors and the distribution of dislocations near cracks that had been propagated in electrochemically accelerated corrosion tests. An associated investigation of the C-ring-induced strains prior to corrosion showed significant tensile strain in the stress axis direction by the torsional closure of the alloy tube section in the C-ring test. Significant grain lattice rotation and pronounced plastic strain at some grain boundaries were noted. Stress-corrosion-cracking-generated intergranular cracks were produced in two Alloy 600 specimens after 6 h and 18 h tests. The diffraction patterns and resultant strain tensors were mapped around the cracked area to a 1 μm spatial resolution. The strain tensor transverse to the crack growth direction showed tensile strain at the intergranular region just ahead of the crack tip for both specimens. Both cracks were found to follow grain boundary pathways that had the lowest angle of misorientation. Dislocation distributions within each grain were qualitatively obtained from the shapes of the diffraction spots and the effect of 'hard' and 'soft' grains on the crack pathway was explored for both 6 h and 18 h specimens. The Schmid factor of one of the grains adjacent to the crack at the 6 h and 18 h initiation sites was found to be the lowest, compared to Schmid factors calculated for surface grains away from the initiation site, and also along the crack path into the bulk.

This paper reports a study of the effects of phosphorus, tin, and molybdenum on the caustic stresscorrosion cracking susceptibility of NiCrMoV rotor steels. Constant load tests were performed on these steels in 9M NaOH at 98 ± 1 °C at a controlled potential of either -800 mVHg/Hgo or -400 mVHg/Hgo. Times to failure were measured. The results show that at a potential of -400 mVHg/Hgo the segregation of phosphorus to grain boundaries lowers the resistance of these steels to caustic stresscorrosion cracking. When molybdenum is removed from a steel that has phosphorus segregated to the grain boundaries, the steel’s resistance to stresscorrosion cracking is improved. High purity alloys, both with and without molybdenum, show very good resistance to caustic cracking at this potential. At-800 mVHg/Hgo segregated phophorus has no effect; only molybdenum additions lower the resistance of the steel to caustic stresscorrosion cracking. Segregated tin has little effect at either potential. Metallographic examination shows that one explanation for these results is that molybdenum and phosphorus, probably as anions precipitated from solution, aid in passivating the sides of the crack and thus help keep the crack tip sharp. This sharpness will increase the speed with which the crack will propagate through the sample. Furthermore, removal of molybdenum greatly increases the number of cracks which nucleate. This higher crack density would increase the relative area of the anode to the cathode and thus act to decrease the crack growth rate.

At a number of locations in the U.S., spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is maintained at independent spent fuel storage installations (ISFSIs). These ISFSIs, which include operating and decommissioned reactor sites, Department of Energy facilities in Idaho, and others, are licensed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) under Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 72. The SNF is stored in dry cask storage systems, which most commonly consist of a welded austenitic stainless steel canister within a larger concrete vault or overpack vented to the external atmosphere to allow airflow for cooling. Some ISFSIs are located in marine environments where there may be high concentrations of airborne chloride salts. If salts were to deposit on the canisters via the external vents, a chloride-rich brine could form by deliquescence. Austenitic stainless steels are susceptible to chloride-induced stresscorrosion cracking (SCC), particularly in the presence of residual tensile stresses from welding or other fabrication processes. SCC could allow helium to leak out of a canister if the wall is breached or otherwise compromise its structural integrity. There is currently limited understanding of the conditions that will affect the SCC susceptibility of austenitic stainless steel exposed to marine salts. NRC previously conducted a scoping study of this phenomenon, reported in NUREG/CR-7030 in 2010. Given apparent conservatisms and limitations in this study, NRC has sponsored a follow-on research program to more systematically investigate various factors that may affect SCC including temperature, humidity, salt concentration, and stress level. The activities within this research program include: (1) measurement of relative humidity (RH) for deliquescence of sea salt, (2) SCC testing within the range of natural absolute humidity, (3) SCC testing at elevated temperatures, (4) SCC testing at high humidity conditions, and (5) SCC testing with various applied stresses. Results

As part of ongoing research into primary water stresscorrosion cracking (PWSCC) susceptibility of alloy 690 and its welds, SCC tests have been conducted on alloy 152/52 dissimilar metal (DM) welds with cracks positioned with the goal to assess weld dilution and fusion line effects on SCC susceptibility. No increased crack growth rate was found when evaluating a 20% Cr dilution zone in alloy 152M joined to carbon steel (CS) that had not undergone a post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). However, high SCC crack growth rates were observed when the crack reached the fusion line of that material where it propagated both on the fusion line and in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the carbon steel. Crack surface and crack profile examinations of the specimen revealed that cracking in the weld region was transgranular (TG) with weld grain boundaries not aligned with the geometric crack growth plane of the specimen. The application of a typical pressure vessel PWHT on a second set of alloy 152/52 – carbon steel DM weld specimens was found to eliminate the high SCC susceptibility in the fusion line and carbon steel HAZ regions. PWSCC tests were also performed on alloy 152-304SS DM weld specimens. Constant K crack growth rates did not exceed 5x10-9 mm/s in this material with post-test examinations revealing cracking primarily on the fusion line and slightly into the 304SS HAZ.

A detailed study was made of the relation between the size distribution of Ti3Al particles in a Ti-8Al alloy and the tensile properties measured in air and in saltwater. The size distribution of Ti3Al was varied by isothermal aging for various times at temperatures in the range 770 to 970 K (930 to 1290 F). The aging kinetics were found to be relatively slow. Quantitative measurements of the particle coarsening rate at 920 K (1200 F) showed good agreement with the predicted behavior for coarsening controlled by matrix diffusion, and suggested that the specific free energy of the Ti3Al alpha interface in negligible small. In all cases, the Ti3Al particles were sheared by the glide dislocations. It was concluded that there is a definite correlation between the presence of deformable Ti3Al particles and an alloy's susceptibility to aqueous stresscorrosion cracking. Furthermore, the appearance of the surface slip lines and the dislocation substructure in deformed specimens suggest that the specific effect of the Ti3Al particles is to cause a nonhomogeneous planar slip character and an enhanced chemical potential of the slip bands.

The dynamic strain rate ahead of a crack tip formed during stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) under a static load is assumed to arise from the crack propagation. The strain surrounding the crack tip would be redistributed as the crack grows, thereby having the effect of dynamic strain. Recently, several studies have shown cold work to cause accelerated crack growth rates during SCC, and the slip-dissolution mechanism has been widely applied to account for this via a supposedly increased crack-tip strain rate in cold worked material. While these interpretations consider cold work as a homogeneous effect, dislocations are generated inhomogeneously within the microstructure during cold work. The presence of grain boundaries results in dislocation pile-ups that cause local strain concentrations. The local strains generated from cold working α-brass by tensile elongation were characterized using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The role of these local strains in SCC was studied by measuring the strain distributions from the same regions of the sample before cold work, after cold work, and after SCC. Though, the cracks did not always initiate or propagate along boundaries with pre-existing local strains from the applied cold work, the local strains surrounding the cracked boundaries had contributions from both the crack propagation and the prior cold work. - Highlights: • Plastic strain localization has a complex relationship with SCC susceptibility. • Surface relief created by cold work creates its own granular strain localization. • Cold work promotes crack growth but several other factors are involved.

The effect of travel speed on stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of friction stir welded 2024-T4 aluminum alloy was investigated by slow strain rate tensile test. Microstructure and microhardness of the welded joint were studied. The results showed that the size of second phase particles increased with increasing travel speed, and the distribution of second phase particles was much more homogeneous at lower travel speed. The minimum microhardness was located at the boundary of nugget zone and thermomechanically affected zone. In addition, the SCC susceptibility of the friction stir welded joint increased with the increase of travel speed, owing to the size and distribution of second phase particles in the welds. The anodic applied potentials of -700, -650, -600 mV, and cathodic applied potential of -1200 mV facilitated SCC while the cathodic applied potential of -1000 mV improved the SCC resistance. The SCC behavior was mainly controlled by the metal anodic dissolution at the open circuit potential, and hydrogen accelerated metal embrittlement.

Stresscorrosion crack growth tests were conducted on Type 316 SS and PCA sensitized to 5 C/cm2 at 100°C in deionized water with 10 ppm Cl-. A constant K test specimen was cylically loaded at 1 Hz with an R of 0.5 and a δK of 11 MPa√m in an autoclave immersed in a 60Co source. Tests were conducted at 0, 2.3 × 102, and 6.5 × 105 rad/h. The average crack velocities were found to be 2.0 and 1.5×105 mm/cycle for the Type 316 SS and PCA, respectively, in the absence of gamma irradiation and 1.3 and 0.74×10-5 mm/cycle, respectively, at both gamma fluxes. Gamma irradiation may have shifted the potential to more reducing rather than more oxidizing, as observed by others in high-temperature water with low O2 activity. This study suggests that there is no significant detrimental effect of gamma irradiation on the subcritical crack growth behavior of unirradiated Type 316 SS and PCA at ITER-relevant conditions.