Contents

The first Evangelical church meeting is held in Örebro, the Örebro koncilium: the customs of Holy water, Anointing and Pilgrimages (and thereby the worship of saints) is kept, and the priests are offered but not forced to accept the bible in the native language. However, fasting and the celibacy of vicars is abolished.

1.
15th century
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The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian years 1400 to 1500. In Europe, the 15th century is seen as the bridge between the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the Early modern period. Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the European miracle of the following centuries, in religious history, the Roman Papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades, until the Council of Constance. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century. The event forced Western Europeans to find a new route, adding further momentum to what was the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Explorations by the Spanish and Portuguese led to European sightings of the Americas and these expeditions ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy and these two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance. The Spanish Reconquista leads to the fall of the Emirate of Granada by the end of the century, ending over seven centuries of Muslim rule. The Hundred Years War end with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon, financial troubles in England following the conflict results in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ends with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century. In Asia, under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zheng He to explore the world overseas, tamerlane established a major empire in the Middle East and Central Asia, in order to revive the Mongol Empire. In Africa, the spread of Islam leads to the destruction of the Christian kingdoms of Nubia, the formerly vast Mali Empire teeters on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising Songhai Empire. In the Americas, both the Inca Empire and the Aztec Empire reach the peak of their influence, 1400s 1401, Dilawar Khan establishes the Malwa Sultanate in present-day central India 1402, Ottoman and Timurid Empires fight at the Battle of Ankara resulting in Timurs capture of Bayezid I. 1402, Sultanate of Malacca founded by Parameshwara,1403, The Yongle Emperor moves the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. 1403, The settlement of the Canary Islands signals the beginning of the Spanish Empire, 1405–1433, Zheng He of China sails through the Indian Ocean to India, Arabia, and East Africa to spread Chinas influence and sovereignty. 1405, Paregreg war, Majapahit civil war of succession between Wikramawardhana against Wirabhumi, 1405–1407, The first voyage of Zheng He, a massive Ming dynasty naval expedition visited Java, Palembang, Malacca, Aru, Samudera and Lambri. 1410s 1410, The Battle of Grunwald is the battle of the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War leading to the downfall of the Teutonic Knights. 1410–1413, Foundation of St Andrews University in Scotland,1414, Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan, takes over Delhi founding the Sayyid dynasty

2.
16th century
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The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty

3.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania

4.
1510s
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January – Catherine of Aragon gives birth to her first child, a stillborn daughter. January 23 – An 18-year-old Henry VIII of England jousts anonymously at Richmond, Surrey, february 27 – Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Goa. May 30 – Rebel leader Zhu Zhifan is defeated and captured by commander Qiu Yue, july – The Holy League, formed to defend the Italian States, attacks French-occupied Genoa. December 2 – Battle of Marv, Shah Ismail I defeats the Uzbek forces of Shaybani Khan in Khorasan, the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasili III conquers Pskov Peter Henlein builds the first pocket watch. Sir Thomas More becomes undersheriff of the City of London, paolo Cortese publishes De Cardinalatu, a manual for cardinals, including advice on palatial architecture – which inspires Thomas Wolsey in his construction work at Hampton Court Palace. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa moves to Italy, april 9 St Johns College, Cambridge, England, founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, receives its charter. The Şahkulu Rebellion breaks out in Anatolia, july – Henry VIII of Englands flagship, the Mary Rose, is launched at Portsmouth. The Sultanate then establishes rule from Johor, starting decades of skirmishes against the Portuguese to regain the fallen city, while taking the city, the Portuguese slaughter a large community of Chinese merchants living there. Malacca is the first city in Southeast Asia to be taken by a Western nation, october 12 – James IV of Scotlands great ship, the Michael, is launched at Newhaven, Edinburgh. November – The Treaty of Westminster creates an alliance between Henry VIII of England and Ferdinand II of Aragon against France, november 20 – Sinking of the vessel Frol de la Mar transporting Afonso de Albuquerque and the valuable treasure of the conquest of Malacca en route to Goa. Diego Velázquez and Hernán Cortés conquer Cuba, Velázquez is appointed Governor, duarte Barbosa arrives in India for the second time. He works as clerk in the factory of Cananor and as the liaison with the Indian rajah, Ferdinand II of Aragon observes that one black can do the work of four Indians. Juan de Agramonte, a sailor from Spain, is possibly to have travelled to Newfoundland. Taíno, an indigenous uprising occurs in southwestern Puerto Rico near Guánica, the first black slaves arrive in Colombia. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán begins, Erasmus publishes his most famous work, The Praise of Folly, as Moriae encomium / Laus stultitiae. Middle of January – After Regent of Sweden Svante Nilsson dies on January 2 and he is however ousted after only six months. February 18 – War of the League of Cambrai, Sack of Brescia by the French. April 11 – War of the League of Cambrai, Battle of Ravenna, French forces under Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours defeat the Spanish under Raymond of Cardona, may 3 – The Fifth Council of the Lateran starts

5.
1520s
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January 19 – King Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeats the Swedes at Lake Åsunden in Sweden. The Swedish regent Sten Sture the Younger is mortally wounded in the battle and he is rushed towards Stockholm, in order to lead the fight against the Danes from there, but dies from his wounds on February 3. June – Moctezuma II, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, is declared deposed due to his captivity by conquistador Hernán Cortés and his brother Cuitláhuac rises to the throne. June 7 – King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France meet at the famous Field of Cloth of Gold, June 10 – Revolt of the Comuneros, Blockade of Segovia. June 15 – Pope Leo X issues the bull Exsurge Domine, threatening Martin Luther with excommunication if he does not recant his position on indulgences and other Catholic doctrines. July 1 – La Noche Triste, The forces of Cuitláhuac, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan and this results in the death of about 400 conquistadors and some 2,000 of their Native American allies. However, Cortés and the most skilled of his men manage to escape, july 20 – The Spaniards defeat the Aztecs at Otumba near Lake Texcaco. August – Martin Luther writes To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, september 7 – Christian II makes his triumphant entry into Stockholm, which has surrendered to him a few days earlier. September 22 – Suleiman I succeeds his father Selim I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, October – Cuitláhuac, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, dies from smallpox. He is succeeded by his nephew Cuauhtémoc, October 21 – The islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon are discovered by Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes off Newfoundland. He names them Islands of the 11,000 Virgins in honour of Saint Ursula, november 1 – Christian II is elected king of Sweden. November 4 – Christian II is crowned king of Sweden, the coronation is followed by a three-day feast in Stockholm. November 7 – At the end of the day of Christians coronation feast. December 10 – Martin Luther burns a copy of The Book of Canon Law, the Franciscan friar Matteo Bassi is inspired to return to the primitive life of solitude and penance as practiced by St. Francis, giving rise to the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin. Aleksandra Lisowska is given as a gift to Suleiman I on the occasion of his accession to the throne, january 3 – Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther in the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. January 22 – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, opens the Diet of Worms in Worms, january 27 – Suleiman the Magnificent suppresses a revolt by the ruler of Damascus. January 28 – The Diet of Worms begins, lasting until May 25, February 2 – The Nydala Abbey Bloodbath take place in Nydala Abbey in Sweden. March 6 Ferdinand Magellan discovers Guam, Martin Luther is summoned to appear before the Diet of Worms

6.
1527
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Year 1527 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. January 5 – Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, is drowned in the Limmat in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church, march 17 – Battle of Khanwa, This and two other major Moghul victories lead to their domination of northern India. March – Paracelsus is appointed as physician of Basle. April 30 – Treaty of Westminster, an alliance during the War of the League of Cognac, the Pope grows a beard in mourning. May 16 – In Florence, the Piagnon, a devoted to the memory of Girolamo Savonarola, drive out the Medici for a second time. June 17 – The Narváez expedition to conquer Florida sets sail from Spain, june 17 – The Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden. The Riksdag of the Estates in Västerås adopts Lutheranism as the religion in place of Roman Catholicism. June 21 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher and humanist dies in Florence, june 22 – Jakarta, current capital of Indonesia, was founded as Jayakarta. June 23 – Paracelsus burns books of Avicenna, august 3 – The first known letter is sent from North America by John Rut while at St. Johns, Newfoundland. August 20 – Sixty Anabaptists meet at the Martyrs Synod in Augsburg, august 20 – Diet of Odense. King Frederick I declares religious tolerance for Lutherans, permits marriage of priests, september 27 – Battle of Tarcal, Ferdinand, future Holy Roman Emperor, defeats John Zápolya and takes over most of Hungary. John appeals to the Turks for help, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala highlands is completed, the first Guatemala City is founded. Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo invades Yucatán, members of the University of Wittenberg flee to Jena in fear of the bubonic plague. Bishop Veseys Grammar School at Sutton Coldfield in the West Midlands of England is founded by Bishop John Vesey, Sir George Monoux College is founded as a grammar school at Walthamstow, England, by Sir George Monoux, draper and Lord Mayor of London. The Ming Dynasty government of China greatly reduces the quotas for taking grain, the second Dalecarlian rebellions in Sweden

7.
1528
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Year 1528 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. January 12 – Gustav I of Sweden is crowned king of Sweden, february Peasant uprising in Dalarna, Sweden, rebel campaign fails and the rebel leader, later known as Daljunkern, flees to Rostock. Diego García de Moguer explores the Sierra de la Plata along the Río de la Plata, June 19 – Battle of Landriano, A French army in Italy under Marshal Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol is decisively defeated. September 12 – Andrea Doria defeats his former allies, the French, october 3 – Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón arrives in the Maluku Islands. October 13 – Cardinal Thomas Wolsey founds a college in his birthplace of Ipswich in England, october 20 – The Treaty of Gorinchem is signed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Charles, Duke of Guelders. November 6 – Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his companions become the first known Europeans to set foot on the shores of what is present-day Texas, montenegro gains autonomy under Turkish power. The Maya peoples drive Spanish Conquistadores out of Yucatán, spain takes direct control of Acapulco. Bubonic plague breaks out in England, the fourth major outbreak of the sweating sickness occurs in England. This time the disease spreads to northern Europe. St Georges Chapel in Windsor Castle is completed, chateau Fontainebleau in France is begun. Michelangelo Buonarroti begins work on the fortifications of Florence, baldassare Castiglione publishes The Book of the Courtier

8.
1529
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Year 1529 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. March 7–March 9 – Battle of Shimbra Kure, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, with 200 men armed with matchlocks, defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, april 8 – Flensburg Disputation, a debate, attended by Stadtholder Christian of Schleswig-Holstein between Lutherans and the more radical Anabaptists. Johannes Bugenhagen, an associate of Martin Luther, presides. The Disputation marks the rejection of radical ideas by the Danish Reformation, april 9 – The Westrogothian rebellion in Sweden. April 19 – At the Diet of Speyer, a group of rulers and independent cities protest the reinstatement of the Edict of Worms, beginning the Protestant movement. April 22 – The Treaty of Zaragoza divides the eastern hemisphere between Spanish and Portuguese empires, stipulating that the line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas. May–July – Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, presides over a court at Blackfriars, London. May 10 – The Turkish army under Suleiman I leaves Constantinople to invade Hungary once again, june 21 – War of the League of Cognac, Battle of Landriano, French forces in northern Italy are decisively defeated by Spain. July 30 – The only Continental outbreak of English sweating sickness reaches Lübeck, Henry VIII of England accedes on August 27. September 1 – Sancti Spiritu, the first European settlement in Argentina, is destroyed by local natives, september 8 Buda is recaptured by the invading forces of the Ottoman Empire. The city of Maracaibo, Venezuela is founded by Ambrosius Ehinger, september 23 – Siege of Vienna, Vienna is besieged by the Ottoman forces of Suleiman the Magnificent. October 15 – With the season growing late, Suleiman abandons the Siege of Vienna, october 26 – Cardinal Wolsey falls from power in England due to his failure to prevent Habsburg expansion in Europe and obtain an annulment of Henry VIIIs marriage. Thomas More succeeds him as Lord Chancellor, november 4–December 17 – First sitting of the English Reformation Parliament. Aylesbury is granted the county town of Buckinghamshire in England by King Henry VIII, stephen Báthory becomes governor of Transylvania. Boromrajathira IV succeeds Rama Thibodi II as king of Ayutthaya, fluorite is first described by Georg Agricola. Pietro Bembo becomes historiographer of Venice, Heinrich Bullinger becomes pastor of Bremgarten, Switzerland. Paracelsus uses the name Paracelsus for the first time, occultist Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa publishes Declamatio de nobilitate et praecellentia foeminei sexus, a book pronouncing the theological and moral superiority of women. 25 March — Blood libel against the Jewish community of Bosen, three Jews are accused and killed, while the boy is discovered alive, kidnapped for the benefit of the scheme

9.
1531
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Year 1531 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. January 26 – Lisbon, Portugal is hit by an earthquake in which thousands die, february 27 – Lutheran princes in the Holy Roman Empire form an alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League. February or March – Battle of Antukyah, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of the Adal Sultanate defeats the Ethiopian army, april – Battle of Puná, Francisco Pizarro defeats the islands native inhabitants. April 16 – The city of Puebla, Mexico, is founded, may – The third Dalecarlian rebellion in Sweden appears to be over when the king accepts an offer made by the rebels, but violence flares up again the following year. June 24 – The city of San Juan del Río, Mexico, is founded, july 25 – The city of Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico is founded. August 26 – Comet Halley achieves its perihelion, september 22 – Battle of Obertyn, The Moldavians are defeated by Polish forces under Jan Tarnowski, allowing the Poles to recapture Pokucie. October 11 – Battle of Kappel, The forces of Zürich are defeated by the Catholic cantons, huldrych Zwingli, the Swiss religious reformer, is killed. October 28 – Battle of Amba Sel, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi again defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, the southern part of Ethiopia thus falls under Imam Ahmads control. Andrea Alciato publishes the first part of his Emblemata, conquistador Francisco de Montejo claims Chichen Itza as capital of Spanish-ruled Yucatán. The University of Sarajevo is founded by Gazi Husrev-beg, charles V, Holy Roman Emperor abolishes the worst abuses of the encomienda system by pressure of Bartolomé de las Casas. Witch-hunt in the town of Schiltach, Germany

10.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe

11.
Gustav I of Sweden
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Initially of low standing, Gustav rose to lead the rebel movement following the Stockholm Bloodbath, in which his father perished. As King, Gustav proved an administrator with a ruthless streak not inferior to his predecessors. He worked to raise taxes, end Feudalism and bring about a Swedish Reformation, replacing the prerogatives of local landowners, noblemen and clergy with centrally appointed governors and bishops. Due to a vibrant dynastic succession, his three sons, Erik, Johan and Karl IX, all held the kingship at different points, Gustav I has subsequently been labelled the founder of modern Sweden, and the father of the nation. Gustav liked to compare himself to Moses, whom he believed to have liberated his people. As a person, Gustav was known for ruthless methods and a bad temper and he founded one of the now oldest orchestras of the world, the Kungliga Hovkapellet. Royal housekeeping accounts from 1526 mention twelve musicians including wind players, today the Kungliga Hovkapellet is the orchestra of the Royal Swedish Opera. Gustav Eriksson, a son of Cecilia Månsdotter Eka and Erik Johansson Vasa, was born in 1496. The birth most likely place in Rydboholm Castle, northeast of Stockholm. The newborn got his name, Gustav, from Eriks grandfather Gustav Anundsson, Erik Johanssons parents were Johan Kristersson and Birgitta Gustafsdotter of the dynasties Vasa and Sture respectively, both dynasties of high nobility. Birgitta Gustafsdotter was the sister of Sten Sture the Elder, regent of Sweden, being a relative and ally of uncle Sten Sture, Erik inherited the regents estates in Uppland and Södermanland when the latter died in 1503. Although a member of a family with considerable properties since childhood, according to genealogical research, Birgitta Gustafsdotter and Sten Sture were descended from King Sverker II of Sweden, through King Sverkers granddaughter Benedikte Sunesdotter. One of King Gustavs great-grandmothers was a half-sister of King Charles VIII of Sweden, since the end of the 14th century, Sweden had been a part of the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Norway. The Danish dominance in this union led to uprisings in Sweden. During Gustavs childhood, parts of the Swedish nobility tried to make Sweden independent, Gustav and his father Erik supported the party of Sten Sture the Younger, regent of Sweden from 1512, and its struggle against the Danish King Christian II. Following the battle of Brännkyrka in 1518, where Sten Stures troops beat the Danish forces, it was decided that Sten Sture and King Christian would meet in Österhaninge for negotiations. To guarantee the safety of the king, the Swedish side sent six men as hostages to be kept by the Danes for as long as the negotiations lasted. However, Christian did not show up for the negotiations, violated the deal with the Swedish side, the six members of the kidnapped hostage were Hemming Gadh, Lars Siggesson, Jöran Siggesson, Olof Ryning, Bengt Nilsson – and Gustav Eriksson

12.
Holy water
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Holy water is water that has been blessed by a member of the clergy or a religious figure. The use for cleansing prior to a baptism and spiritual cleansing is common in several religions, the use of holy water as a sacramental for protection against evil is common among Anglicans and Roman Catholics. The use of water in the earliest days of Christianity is attested to only in somewhat later documents. The Apostolic constitutions, which go back to about the year 400 and it is plausible that in earliest Christian times water was used for expiatory and purificatory purposes in a way analogous to its employment in Jewish Law. However, Eastern Orthodox do perform the blessing, whether in a baptistry or an outdoor body of water. Sprinkling with holy water is used as a sacramental that recalls baptism, Holy water is kept in the holy water font, which is typically located at the entrance to the church. Smaller vessels, called stoups, are placed at the entrances of the church. In recent years, with the concerns over influenza, new holy water machines that work like a soap dispenser have become popular. In the Middle Ages the power of water was considered so great that in some places fonts had locked covers to prevent the theft of holy water for unauthorized magic practices. The Constitutions of Archbishop Edmund Rich prescribe that Fonts are to be kept under lock and key, similarly the chrism and sacred oil are kept locked up. In Catholicism, holy water, as well as used during the washing of the priests hands at mass, is not allowed to be disposed of in regular plumbing. Roman Catholic churches will usually have a basin that leads directly into the ground for the purpose of proper disposal. A hinged lid is kept over the water basin to distinguish it from a regular sink basin. Items that contained holy water are separated, drained of the holy water, Holy water fonts have been identified as a potential source of bacterial and viral infection. In the late 19th century, bacteriologists found staphylococci, streptococci, coli bacilli, Loefflers bacillus, in a study performed in 1995, thirteen samples were taken when a burn patient acquired a bacterial infection after exposure to holy water. The samples in that study were shown to have a range of bacterial species. During the swine flu epidemic of 2009, Bishop John Steinbock of Fresno, also in response to the swine flu, an automatic, motion-detecting holy water dispenser was invented and installed in an Italian church in 2009. As a reminder of baptism, Catholic Christians dip their fingers in the holy water and this ceremony dates back to the ninth century

13.
Anointing
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Anointing is the ritual act of pouring aromatic oil over a persons head or entire body. By extension, the term is applied to related acts of sprinkling, dousing, or smearing a person or object with any perfumed oil, milk, butter. Scented oils are used as perfumes and sharing them is an act of hospitality, in present usage, anointing is typically used for ceremonial blessings such as the coronation of European monarchs. This continues an earlier Hebrew practice most famously observed in the anointings of Aaron as high priest, the concept is important to the figures of the Messiah and the Christ who appear prominently in Jewish and Christian theology and eschatology. Anointing—particularly the anointing of the sick—may also be known as unction, the present verb derives from the now obsolete adjective anoint, equivalent to anointed. The adjective is first attested in 1303, derived from Old French enoint, the past participle of enoindre, from Latin inungere and it is thus cognate with unction. The oil used in a ceremonial anointment may be called chrism, several related words such as chrismation and chrismarium derive from the same root. Anointing served and serves three purposes, it is regarded as a means of health and comfort, as a token of honor. Used in conjunction with bathing, anointment with oil closes pores and it was regarded as counteracting the influence of the sun, reducing sweating. Aromatic oils naturally masked body and other odors, and other forms of fat could be combined with perfumes. Applications of oils and fats are used as traditional medicines. The Bible records olive oil being applied to the sick and poured into wounds and it is still used in traditional Indian medicine to remove illness, bad luck, and demonic possession. For sanitary and religious reasons, the bodies of the dead are sometimes anointed, in medieval and early modern Christianity, the practice was particularly associated with protection against vampires and ghouls who might otherwise take possession of the corpse. Anointing guests with oil as a mark of hospitality and token of honor is recorded in Egypt, Greece and it was a common custom among the ancient Hebrews and continued among the Arabs into the 20th century. For about 3,000 years, Persian Zoroastrians honor their guests with rose extract while holding a mirror in front of their guests face, the guests hold their palms out, collect the rose water, and then spread the perfumed liquid upon their faces and sometimes heads. The words of rooj kori aka might be said as well, east African Arabs traditionally anointed themselves with lions fat to gain courage and provoke fear in other animals. Australian Aborigines would rub themselves with a human victims caul fat to gain his powers, in religions like Christianity where animal sacrifice is no longer practiced, it is common to consecrate the oil in a special ceremony. The most famous example of this is on the throne of Tutankhamun, anointment of the corpse with sweet-smelling oils was an important part of mummification

14.
Pilgrim
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A pilgrim is a traveler who is on a journey to a holy place. Typically, this is a journey to some place of special significance to the adherent of a particular religious belief system. Pilgrims and the making of pilgrimages are common in many religions, including the faiths of ancient Egypt, Persia in the Mithraic period, India, China, and Japan. The Greek and Roman customs of consulting the gods at local oracles, such as those at Dodona or Delphi, in Greece, pilgrimages could either be personal or state-sponsored. In the early period of Hebrew history, pilgrims traveled to Shiloh, Dan, Bethel, while many pilgrims travel toward a specific location, a physical destination is not always a necessity. One group of pilgrims in early Celtic Christianity were the Peregrinari Pro Christ, or white martyrs and this sort of pilgrimage was an ascetic religious practice, as the pilgrim left the security of home and the clan for an unknown destination, trusting completely in Divine Providence. These travels often resulted in the founding of new abbeys and the spread of Christianity among the population in Britain and in continental Europe. Many religions still espouse pilgrimage as a spiritual activity, the great Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, is an obligatory duty at least once for every Muslim who is able to make the journey. Other Islamic devotional pilgrimages, particularly to the tombs of Shia Imams or Sufi saints, are popular across the Islamic world. International Bible Students Association pilgrims were excellent speakers, and their talks were typically well-publicized and well-attended. A modern phenomenon is the cultural pilgrimage which, while involving a journey, is secular in nature. An example might be a baseball fan visiting Cooperstown, New York, destinations for cultural pilgrims include Auschwitz concentration camp, Gettysburg Battlefield or the Ernest Hemingway House. Under communist regimes, devout secular pilgrims visited locations such as the Mausoleum of Lenin, the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, sites such as these continue to attract visitors. The distinction between religious, cultural or political pilgrimage and tourism is not necessarily always clear or rigid, pilgrimage could also refer symbolically to journeys, largely on foot, to places where the concerned person expect to find spiritual and/or personal salvation. In the words of adventurer-author Jon Krakauer in his book Into The Wild, many national and international leaders have gone on pilgrimages for both personal and political reasons

15.
Gudhem Abbey
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Gudhem Abbey, Swedish Gudhems kloster, in operation from 1152 to 1529, was a nunnery in Sweden, initially Benedictine and later Cistercian. It was located in Gudhem outside Falköping in the Falbygden area in Västergötland and it is considered to have been one of the oldest convents in Sweden, after Vreta Abbey and Alvastra Abbey. Gudhem, a name signifying Home of the Gods, was according to tradition a holy place of worship already before Christianity, according to the saga, one hundred images of the thunder god Thor were placed in Gudhem. In reality, however, the Abbey was founded one hundred years later. Charles VII of Sweden donated the estate of Gudhem Manor to the Abbey during his reign. Gudhem Abbey was prestigious during the 13th century, when it was responsible for providing the Pilgrims on their way to Nidaros with hospitality, the Swedish Queen Dowager Catherine of Ymseborg entered the abbey in mid 13th century and donated her vast estates to it. During the reformation in 1527, the abbey was confiscated by the crown, the former nuns however, were granted an allowance from the properties formerly belonging to the abbey and the right to live in the building for life. In 1529, the abbey caught fire and burned down, the last abbess asked the King to rebuilt the abbey, but her request was not granted, and the nuns were housed by the surrounding peasantry. They continued to be supported by the allowance granted to them in 1527, there were still former nuns benefiting from the allowance living in the surroundings of the former abbey in 1540. The abbey was never rebuilt and the ruins were used as a quarry, in the late 17th century, the walls of the church were still of original height. The ruins were excavated in 1928-1969, Gudhem Abbey is a location in The Knight Templar, where the character Cecilia is imprisoned

16.
Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa
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Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa, also called Margareta Vasa and Margareta of Hoya, was a Swedish noblewoman, sister of king Gustav I of Sweden. Margareta was born to Erik Johansson Vasa and Cecilia Månsdotter and thus sister to the future king Gustav Vasa, in November 1520, Margareta and her spouse attended the coronation of Christian II of Denmark as king of Sweden. Her spouse and father belonged to those executed at the Stockholm Bloodbath, in the chronicle of her son Per Brahe the Elder the captivity of the Swedish noblewomen in Denmark were described, They were much deprived of food and drink. In 1524, Margareta was released and returned to Sweden, where her brother was now king Gustav I, in August of that year, she was engaged to the German count John VII of Hoya and Brockenhusen, and the wedding tool place 15 January 1525 in Stockholm. The marriage was arranged by her brother for political reasons, after their marriage, king Gustav granted the governorship of Vyborg Castle to John VII of Hoya and Kalmar Castle to Berend von Melen. She corresponded with her brother the king about both political, religious and private issues, which is partially preserved, Margareta disliked her life in Finland, was afraid of the Russians and asked for permission to return to Sweden, but he refused stating that he needed her there. In 1528, she visited Lübeck in Germany, on her return to Sweden in April 1529, she and Wulf Gyl were captured by mayor Nils Arvidsson of Jönköping. This incident was the beginning of the Westrogothian rebellion of the nobility against the ongoing Swedish Reformation, the rebellion was successfully subdued by her brother in May, and she was released unharmed. Margareta was interested in literature and corresponded with bishop Hans Brask, in June 1534, during the Counts Feud, John VII of Hoya broke with Gustav I and left Sweden for Germany. He soon joined the Counts Feud and fought against Sweden, Margareta accompanied Johan to Germany with her children and their escape attracted attention and bad publicity about Gustav I around the Baltic Sea. The King wrote to her and asked her to abandon her traitorous husband and return to Sweden, when she was widowed in June 1535, she asked her brother if he would force her to enter another arranged marriage if she returned. When he avoided to answer her question and merely replied that if she did return, it was well and she died in Tallinn in Estonia. After her death, the king asked her son of her first marriage to return to Sweden, marriages and children, Joakim Brahe Mauritz Brita Joakimsdotter Brahe, married in 1531 to baron Birger Nilsson Grip. Öllegård Joakimsdotter Brahe, died in Sko Abbey, were she were at school, per Brahe John VII of Hoya John, bishop of Osnabrück. He was captured by Franz von Halle and died in prison, svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon, cd-skiva, band 19 Lars-Olof Larsson, Gustav Vasa - landsfader eller tyrann. Libris 1583728 Wilhelmina Stålberg, Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor

17.
Vreta Abbey
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It was located in the present-day municipality of Linköping in Östergötland. The exact year of the foundation is not known, in the following decade King Inge the Younger and Queen Ulvhild made large donations to it. Vreta Abbey was a house of Benedictine nuns until 1162, when it was turned into a Cistercian nunnery, the first Cistercian abbess was Ingegerd, sister of Charles VII. A second sister, Helena, widow of Canute V of Denmark, entered Vreta as a nun after her husbands death in 1157, in the 13th century, the Swedish princess Helena Sverkersdotter were among its abbesses. It served as a school for daughters of Swedens ruling families, Vreta Abbey has entered folklore as the scene during the 13th century of a number of prominent abductions of girls for marriages disapproved of by their families. Vreta was the house of Askeby Abbey near Linköping, Riseberga Abbey in Närke. The buildings burned down in the early 13th century, but were rebuilt, after 1527, as a result of the Reformation the abbey was forbidden to accept any new novices, but was otherwise treated very leniently. Vreta Abby received the nuns from the former Askeby Abbey and Skänninge Abbey when they were closed in 1529 and 1544 respectively. In 1536, Gustav I gave the abbey and its assets to his Roman Catholic mother-in-law Ebba Eriksdotter Vasa, she spent her last years here, there were still nuns here in 1562, and the last two of whom, Brita Gisledotter and Kirstin Månsdotter, died in 1582. Vreta Abbeys remaining church now belongs to the Church of Sweden, the church continued in use as a Lutheran parish church and still stands today, distinguished by its possession of a medieval hagioscope. The remaining buildings were allowed to fall into ruin. Between 1916 and 1926 the ruins were excavated, and large portions to the north of the church, the finds, including an unusual wooden waterpipe, are on display in the adjoining museum. Apart from the church, the monastic building completely preserved is the barn. The stones from the refectory were used to build the tower of Linköping Cathedral. Riksantikvarieämbetet, Vreta kloster 2006 Cistercienserkloster längs Eriksgatan i Östergötland Eskilstunakistan och Stenkilska gravkoret i Vreta Vreta kloster och kyrka Se er om i Vreta kloster

18.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

19.
History of Austria
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The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states, from the early Stone Age to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria, Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1806, when the Holy Roman Empire came to an end. When this empire collapsed in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main German speaking areas of the empire, however this union was forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles. Following the First Republic, Austrofascism tried to keep Austria independent from the German Reich, but in 1938 it was annexed by Nazi Germany with the support of the large majority of the Austrian people. After the Second World War Austria again became an independent republic as the Second Republic in 1955, the history of Austria raises a number of questions. Should it be confined to the current Republic of Austria, or to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria, should Austrian history include 1938–1945 when it did not exist. Within Austria there are regional variations, and parts of Austria have at various times wished to become part of adjacent countries. Human habitation of current Austria can be traced back to the first farming communities of the early Stone Age. In the late Iron Age it was occupied by a Celtic culture, at the end of the 1st century BC this became part of the Roman Empires lands to the south of the Danube, and was incorporated as the Province of Noricum around 40 AD. The most important Roman settlement was at Carnuntum, in the 6th century, another Germanic people, the Bavarii occupied these lands until it fell to the Frankish Empire in the 9th century. Around 800 AD Charlemagne established the outpost of Avar March in what is now Lower Austria, to hold back advances from Slavs and Avars. In the 10th century an eastern outpost of the Duchy of Bavaria, bordering Hungary, was established as the Marchia orientalis or Margraviate of Austria in 976 and this Eastern March, in German was known as Ostarrîchi or Eastern Realm, hence Austria. The first mention of Ostarrîchi occurs in a document of that name dated 996 CE, from 1156 the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa created an independent duchy under the House of Babenberg, until its extinction in 1246, corresponding to modern Lower Austria. The 15th and early 16th century saw expansion of the Habsburg territories through diplomacy and marriages to include Spain. This expansionism, together with French aspirations and the resultant Habsburg-French or Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry were important factors shaping European History for 200 years, by 1526 Ferdinand had also inherited the kingdoms of Bohemia, and Hungary after the Battle of Mohács which partitioned the latter. However the Ottoman Empire now lay directly adjacent to the Austrian lands, even after the unsuccessful first Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the Ottoman threat persisted for another one and a half centuries. The 16th Century also saw the spread of the Reformation, from around 1600 the Habsburg policy of recatholicisation or Catholic Renewal eventually led to the Thirty Years War. Originally a religious war, it was also a struggle for power in central Europe, eventually the pressure of the anti-Habsburg coalition of France, Sweden, and most Protestant German states contained their authority to the Austrian and Czech lands in 1648

20.
History of France
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The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language, over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands. Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire, in the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul under his rule in the late 5th century, Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne. The war formally began in 1337 following Philip VIs attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its holder, Edward III of England. Despite early Plantagenet victories, including the capture and ransom of John II of France, among the notable figures of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led French forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453, victory in the Hundred Years War had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and vastly increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the period known as the Ancien Régime, France transformed into an absolute monarchy. During the next centuries, France experienced the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, Henry, King of Navarre, scion of the Bourbon family, would be victorious in the conflict and establish the French Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century, French political power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, The Sun King, builder of Versailles Palace. In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution, the country was governed for a period as a Republic, until the French Empire was declared by Napoleon Bonaparte. France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I, fighting alongside the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, the United States and smaller allies against Germany and the Central Powers. France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II, the Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany while the south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist Vichy government. Living conditions were harsh as Germany drained away food and manpower, Charles de Gaulle led the Free France movement that one-by-one took over the colonial empire, and coordinated the wartime Resistance. Following liberation in summer 1944, a Fourth Republic was established, France slowly recovered economically, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its very low fertility rate. Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat, in the wake of the Algerian Crisis of 1958, Charles de Gaulle set up the French Fifth Republic. Into the 1960s decolonization saw most of the French colonial empire become independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments, since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO. It played a role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union

21.
History of Germany
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Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagnes heirs in 843, in 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. In the High Middle Ages, the dukes, princes. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the states became Protestant. The two parts of the Holy Roman Empire clashed in the Thirty Years War, which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians living in both states. The Thirty Years War brought tremendous destruction to Germany, more than 1/4 of the population,1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, feudalism fell away, the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, led to the rapid growth of cities and to the emergence of the Socialist movement in Germany. Prussia, with its capital Berlin, grew in power, German universities became world-class centers for science and the humanities, while music and the arts flourished. The new Reichstag, a parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific, Germany was the dominant power on the continent. By 1900, its rapidly expanding industrial economy passed Britains, allowing a naval race, Germany led the Central Powers in World War I against France, Great Britain, Russia and the United States. Defeated and partly occupied, Germany was forced to pay war reparations by the Treaty of Versailles and was stripped of its colonies as well as Polish areas and Alsace-Lorraine. The German Revolution of 1918–19 deposed the emperor and the kings and princes, leading to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. In the early 1930s, the worldwide Great Depression hit Germany hard, as unemployment soared, in 1933, the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler came to power and quickly established a totalitarian regime. Political opponents were killed or imprisoned, after forming a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939, Hitler and Stalin divided Eastern Europe. After a Phoney War in spring 1940 the German blitzkrieg swept Scandinavia, only the British Commonwealth and Empire stood opposed, along with Greece. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in 1942, the German invasion of the Soviet Union faltered, and after the United States had entered the war, Britain became the base for massive Anglo-American bombings of German cities. Germany fought the war on multiple fronts through 1942–1944, however following the Allied invasion of Normandy, millions of ethnic Germans fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion, and became the dominant economy in Western Europe

22.
History of Hungary
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For the history of the area before this period, see Pannonian basin before Hungary. The oldest archaeological site in Hungary is Vértesszőlős, where palaeolithic Oldowan pebble tools, the Roman Empire conquered territory west of the Danube River between 35 and 9 BC. From 9 BC to the end of the 4th century AD, Pannonia, among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila the Hun in 435 AD. Attila was regarded in past centuries as a ruler of the Hungarians. They entered what is now Hungary in the 7th century AD, the Avar Khaganate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure, and the Franks under Charlemagne managed to defeat the Avars to end their 250-year rule. Árpád was the leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood and he led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. Between 895 and 902 the whole area of the Carpathian Basin was conquered by the Hungarians, an early Hungarian state was formed in this territory in 895. The military power of the nation allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns, Prince Géza of the Árpád dynasty, who ruled only part of the united territory, was the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes. He aimed to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe by rebuilding the state according to the Western political and social models, Géza established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk as his successor. This decision was contrary to the dominant tradition of the time to have the eldest surviving member of the ruling family succeed the incumbent. By ancestral right, Prince Koppány, the oldest member of the dynasty, should have claimed the throne, Koppány did not relinquish his ancestral rights without a fight. After Gézas death in 997, Koppány took up arms, the rebels claimed to represent the old political order, ancient human rights, tribal independence and pagan belief. Stephen won a victory over his uncle Koppány and had him executed. Hungary was recognized as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I, Stephen was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád. Stephen was crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary in the first day of 1000 AD in the city of Esztergom. Pope Sylvester II conferred on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full authority over bishoprics. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power by eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old traditions or wanted an alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he initiated sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a feudal state, complete with forced Christianization

23.
Kalmar Union
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The Union was not quite continuous, there were several short interruptions. Legally the countries remained separate sovereign states, but with their domestic, one main impetus for its formation was to block German expansion northward into the Baltic region. The main reason for its failure to survive was the struggle between the monarch, who wanted a strong unified state, and the Swedish and Danish nobility which did not. Diverging interests gave rise to a conflict that would hamper the union in several intervals from the 1430s until its breakup in 1523 when Gustav Vasa became king of Sweden. Norway continued to remain a part of the realm of Denmark–Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for nearly three centuries until its dissolution in 1814. Then Union between Sweden and Norway lasted until 1905, when a grandson of the incumbent king of Denmark was elected its king, the union was the work of Scandinavian aristocracy wishing to counter the influence of the Hanseatic League. Margaret, a daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark, married King Haakon VI of Norway and Sweden, Margaret succeeded in having her son Olav recognized as heir to the throne of Denmark. In 1376 Olav inherited the crown of Denmark from his grandfather as King Oluf III, with his mother as guardian. The two kingdoms were united in a union under a child king, with the kings mother as his guardian, later. On 2 February the next year, she was recognized as regent of Norway. Their common enemy was the Hanseatic League and the growing German influence over the Scandinavian economy. The Nordic union was established on 17 June 1397 by the Treaty of Kalmar, signed in the Swedish castle of Kalmar on Swedens south-east coast, at each junction, installation of a new monarch tended to mean a break-up of the union for a while. Eric of Pomerania, however, became the monarch of all three kingdoms, at Kalmar, the 15-year-old Eric of Pomerania was crowned king of all three kingdoms by the archbishops of Denmark and Sweden, but Margaret managed to remain in control until her death in 1412. It is said that contemporaries of the Union would not recognize the term, Union of Kalmar—that they just understood that much of the time. While the term meaning Treaty of Kalmar was known already at the time, the Swedes were not happy with the Danes frequent wars on Schleswig, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania, which were a disturbance to Swedish exports to the European continent. Furthermore, the centralization of government in Denmark raised suspicions, the Swedish Privy Council wanted to retain a fair degree of self-government. The unity of the union eroded after the Danish defeat against the German Hanseatic League in the 1430s, even to the point of armed rebellion, erik was deposed as the union king and was succeeded by his nephew, the childless Christopher of Bavaria. In the power vacuum that arose following Christophers death, Sweden elected Charles VIII king with the intent to reestablish the union under a Swedish king, during the next seven decades struggle for power and the wars between Sweden and Denmark would dominate the union

24.
History of Moldavia
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Moldavia is a historical region, and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river. The western half of Moldavia is now part of Romania, the eastern side belongs to the Republic of Moldova, the original and short-lived reference to the region was Bogdania, after Bogdan I, the founding figure of the principality. Dragoș was accompanied by his female hound called Molda, when reached the shores of an unfamiliar river. The dogs name would have given to the river and extended to the country. The old German Molde, meaning open-pit mine the Gothic Mulda meaning dust, dirt, a Slavic etymology, marking the end of one Slavic genitive form, denoting ownership, chiefly of feminine nouns. In several early references, Moldavia is rendered under the composite form Moldo-Wallachia, Ottoman Turkish references to Moldavia included Boğdan Iflak and Boğdan. See also names in other languages, the name of the region in other languages include French, Moldavie, German, Moldau, Hungarian, Moldva, Russian, Молдавия, Moldaviya, Turkish, Boğdan Prensliği, Greek, Μολδαβία. The inhabitants of Moldova were Christians, archaeological works revealed the remains of a Christian necropolis at Mihălășeni, Botoșani county, from the 5th century. The place of worship, and the tombs had Christian characteristics, the place of worship had a rectangular form with sides of 8 and 7 meters. Similar necropolis and place of worship were found at Nicolina, in Iași The Bolohoveni, the chronicle shows that this land is bordered on the principalities of Halych, Volhynia and Kiev. Archaeological research also identified the location of 13th-century fortified settlements in this region, Alexandru V. Boldur identified Voscodavie, Voscodavti, Voloscovti, Volcovti, Volosovca and their other towns and villages between the middle course of the rivers Nistru/Dniester and Nipru/Dnieper. The Bolohoveni disappeared from chronicles after their defeat in 1257 by Daniil Romanovichs troops, in the early 13th century, the Brodniks, a possible Slavic–Vlach vassal state of Halych, were present, alongside the Vlachs, in much of the regions territory. On the border between Halych and the Brodniks, in the 11th century, a Viking by the name of Rodfos was killed in the area by Vlachs who supposedly betrayed him. In 1164, the future Byzantine Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, was prisoner by Vlach shepherds around the same region. In 1342 and 1345, the Hungarians were victorious in a battle against Tatar-Mongols, the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz mentioned Moldavians as having joined a military expedition in 1342, under King Władysław I, against the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1353, Dragoș, mentioned as a Vlach Knyaz in Maramureș, was sent by Louis I to establish a line of defense against the Golden Horde forces of Mongols on the Siret River and this expedition resulted in a polity vassal to Hungary, centered around Baia. His realm extended north to the Cheremosh River, while the part of Moldavia was still occupied by the Tatar Mongols. After first residing in Baia, Bogdan moved Moldavias seat to Siret, disfavored by the brief union of Angevin Poland and Hungary, Bogdans successor Lațcu accepted conversion to Roman Catholicism around 1370, but his gesture was to remain without consequences

25.
Navarre
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The first documented use of a name resembling Navarra, Nafarroa, or Naparroa is a reference to navarros, in Eginhards early 9th Century chronicle of the feats of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne. Other Royal Frankish Annals feature nabarros, there are two proposed etymologies for the name. Basque nabar, brownish, multicolor (i. e. in contrast to the mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre. Basque naba, valley, plain + Basque herri, the linguist Joan Coromines considers naba to be linguistically part of a wider Vasconic or Aquitanian language substrate, rather than Basque per se. During the Roman Empire, the Vascones, a tribe who populated the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, not so the flatter areas to the south, which were amenable to large-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops. Neither the Visigoths nor the Franks ever completely subjugated the area, the Vascones included neighbouring tribes as of the 7th century. In AD778, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and that kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of King Sancho III, comprising most of the Christian realms to the south of the Pyrenees, and even a short overlordship of Gascony. When Sancho III died in 1035, the Kingdom of Navarre was divided between his sons and it never fully recovered its political power, while its commercial importance increased as traders and pilgrims poured into the kingdom throughout the Way of Saint James. In 1200, Navarre lost the key western Basque districts to Alphonse VIII of Castile, Navarre then contributed with a small but symbolic force of 200 knights to the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 against the Almohads. The native line of kings came to an end in 1234, however, the Navarrese kept most of their strong laws and institutions. To the south of the Pyrenees, Navarre was annexed to the Crown of Castile, but keeping a separate status. A Chartered Government was established, and the managed to keep home rule. After the 1839 Convention of Bergara, a version of home rule was passed in 1839. The relocation of customs from the Ebro river to the Pyrenees in 1841 prompted the collapse of Navarre’s customary cross-Pyrenean trade, amid instability in Spain, Carlists took over in Navarre and the rest of the Basque provinces. The end of the Third Carlist War saw a wave of Spanish centralization directly affecting Navarre. In 1893-1894 the Gamazada popular uprising took place centred in Pamplona against Madrids governmental decisions breaching the 1841 chartered provisions. Except for a faction, all parties in Navarre agreed on the need for a new political framework based on home rule within the Laurak Bat

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the first Europeans who managed to reach it, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.

The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that …

The Bailiwick of Jersey

La Pouquelaye de Faldouet was constructed on a site on the east coast looking across to the Cotentin Peninsula.

Mont Orgueil dominates the small harbour of Gorey and guards Jersey from attack from the French coast opposite

This map of Jersey, published in 1639, shows interior details such as Le Mont ès Pendus (the gallows hill, now called Westmount). At first sight, the coastline appears wildly inaccurate, but if the image is rotated a little clockwise, the shape becomes much closer to what is known today.