Urban Life

The Growth of Cities

Accelerating urbanization is powerfully affecting the transformation
of Indian society. Slightly more than 26 percent of the country's
population is urban, and in 1991 more than half of urban dwellers lived
in 299 urban agglomerates or cities of more than 100,000 people. By 1991
India had twenty-four cities with populations of at least 1 million. By
that year, among cities of the world, Bombay (or Mumbai, in Marathi), in
Maharashtra, ranked seventh in the world at 12.6 million, and Calcutta,
in West Bengal, ranked eighth at almost 11 million. In the 1990s,
India's larger cities have been growing at twice the rate of smaller
towns and villages. Between the 1960s and 1991, the population of the
Union Territory of Delhi quadrupled, to 8.4 million, and Madras, in
Tamil Nadu, grew to 5.4 million. Bangalore, in Karnataka; Hyderabad, in
Andhra Pradesh; and many other cities are expanding rapidly. About half
of these increases are the result of rural-urban migration, as villagers
seek better lives for themselves in the cities.

Most Indian cities are very densely populated. New Delhi, for
example, had 6,352 people per square kilometer in 1991. Congestion,
noise, traffic jams, air pollution, and major shortages of key
necessities characterize urban life. Every major city of India faces the
same proliferating problems of grossly inadequate housing,
transportation, sewerage, electric power, water supplies, schools, and
hospitals. Slums and jumbles of pavement dwellers' lean-tos constantly
multiply. An increasing number of trucks, buses, cars, three-wheel
autorickshaws, motorcy-cles, and motorscooters, all spewing uncontrolled
fumes, surge in sometimes haphazard patterns over city streets jammed
with jaywalking pedestrians, cattle, and goats. Accident rates are high
(India's fatality rate from road accidents, the most common cause of
accidental death, is said to be twenty times higher than United States
rates), and it is a daily occurrence for a city dweller to witness a
crash or the running down of a pedestrian. In 1984 the citizens of
Bhopal suffered the nightmare of India's largest industrial accident,
when poisonous gas leaking from a Union Carbide plant killed and injured
thousands of city dwellers. Less spectacularly, on a daily basis,
uncontrolled pollutants from factories all over India damage the urban
environments in which millions live.

Urban Inequities

Major socioeconomic differences are much on display in cities. The
fine homes--often a walled compound with a garden, servants' quarters,
and garage--and gleaming automobiles of the super wealthy stand in stark
contrast to the burlap-covered huts of the barefoot poor. Shops filled
with elegant silk saris and air-conditioned restaurants cater to the
privileged, while ragged dust-covered children with outstretched hands
wait outside in hopes of receiving a few coins. The wealthy and the
middle class employ servants and workers of various kinds, but jajmani
-like ties are essentially lacking, and the rich and the poor live much
more separate lives than in villages. At the same time, casual
interaction and physical contact among people of all castes is constant,
on public streets and in buses, trains, and movie theaters.

As would-be urbanites stream into the cities, they often seek out
people from their village, caste, or region who have gone before them
and receive enough hospitality to tide them over until they can settle
in themselves. They find accommodation wherever they can, even if only
on a quiet corner of a sidewalk, or inside a concrete sewer pipe waiting
to be laid. Some are fortunate enough to find shelter in decrepit
tenements or in open areas where they can throw up flimsy structures of
mud, tin sheeting, or burlap. In such slum settlements, a single
outhouse may be shared by literally thousands of people, or, more
usually, there are no sanitary facilities at all. Ditches are awash in
raw sewage, and byways are strewn with the refuse of people and animals
with nowhere else to go.

Despite the exterior appearance of chaos, slum life is highly
structured, with many economic, religious, caste, and political
interests expressed in daily activity. Living conditions are extremely
difficult, and slum dwellers fear the constant threat of having their
homes bulldozed in municipal "slum clearance" efforts;
nonetheless, slum life is animated by a strong sense of joie de vivre.

In many sections of Indian cities, scavenging pigs, often owned by
Sweepers, along with stray dogs, help to recycle fecal material. Piles
of less noxious vegetal and paper garbage are sorted through by the
poorest people, who seek usable or salable bits of things. Cattle and
goats, owned by entrepreneurial folk, graze on these piles, turning
otherwise useless garbage into valuable milk, dung (used for cooking
fuel), and meat. These domestic animals roam even in neighborhoods of
fine homes, outside the compound walls that protect the privileged and
their gardener-tended rose bushes from needy animals and people.

Finding employment in the urban setting can be extremely challenging,
and, whenever possible, networks of relatives and friends are used to
help seek jobs. Millions of Indians are unemployed or underemployed.
Ingenuity and tenacity are the hallmarks of urban workers, who carry out
a remarkable multitude of tasks and sell an incredible variety of foods,
trinkets, and services, all under difficult conditions. Many of the
urban poor are migrant laborers carrying headloads of bricks and earth
up rickety bamboo scaffolding at construction sites, while their small
children play about at the edge of excavations or huddle on mounds of
gravel in the blazing sun. Nursing mothers must take time out
periodically to suckle their babies at the edge of construction sites;
such "recesses" are considered reason to pay a woman less for
a day's work than a man earns (male construction workers earned about
US$1 a day in 1994). Moreover, women are seen as physically weaker by
some employers and thus not deserving of equal wages with men.

These construction projects are financed by governments and by
business enterprises, which are run by cadres of well-educated, healthy,
well-dressed men and, increasingly, women, who occupy positions of power
and make decisions affecting many people. India's major cities have long
been headquarters for the country's highest socioeconomic groups, people
with transnational and international connections whose choices are
taking India into new realms of economic development and social change.
Among these well-placed people, intercaste marriages raise few eyebrows,
as long as marital unions link people of similar upper- or
upper-middle-class backgrounds. Such marriages, sometimes even across
religious lines, help knit India's most powerful people together.

Increasingly conspicuous in India's cities are the growing ranks of
the middle class. In carefully laundered clothes, they emerge from
modest and semiprosperous homes to ride buses and motorscooters to their
jobs in offices, hospitals, courts, and commercial establishments. Their
well-tended children are educated in properly organized schools. Family
groups go out together to places of worship, social events, snack shops,
and to bazaars bustling with consumers eager to buy the necessities of a
comfortable life. Members of the middle class cluster around small
stock-market outlets in cities all over the country. Even in Calcutta,
notorious for slums and street dwellers, the dominant image is of office
workers in pressed white garments riding crowded buses--or Calcutta's
world-class subway line--to their jobs as office workers and
professionals (see Transportation, ch. 6).

For nearly everyone within the highly challenging urban environment,
ties to family and kin remain crucial to prosperity. Even in the
harshest urban conditions, families show remarkable resilience.
Neighborhoods, too, take on importance, and neighbors from various
backgrounds develop cooperative ties with one another. Neighborhood
solidarity is expressed at such annual Hindu festivals as Ganesh's
Birthday (Ganesh Chaturthi) in Bombay and Durga Puja in Calcutta, when
neighborhood associations create elaborate images of the deities and
take them out in grand processions.

Cities as Centers

Cosmopolitan cities are the great hubs of commerce and government
upon which the nation's functioning depends. Bombay, India's largest
city and port, is India's economic powerhouse and locus of the nation's
atomic research. The National Capital Territory of Delhi, where a series
of seven cities was built over centuries, is the site of the
capital--New Delhi--and political nerve center of the world's largest
democracy. Calcutta and Madras fill major roles in the country's
economic life, as do high-tech Bangalore and Ahmadabad (in Gujarat),
famous for textiles. Great markets in foods, manufactured goods, and a
host of key commodities are centered in urban trading and distribution
points. Most eminent institutions of higher learning, cradles of
intellectual development and scientific investigation, are situated in
cities. The visual arts, music, classical dancing, poetry, and
literature all flourish in the urban setting. Critical political and
social commentary appears in urban newspapers and periodicals. Creative
new trends in architecture and design are conceptualized and brought to
reality in cities.

Cities are the source of television broadcasts and those great
favorites of the Indian public, movies. Bombay, sometimes called
"Bollywood," and Madras are major centers of film production,
bringing depictions of urban lifestyles before the eyes of small-town
dwellers and villagers all over the nation. With the continuing national
proliferation of television sets, videocassette recorders, and movie
videocassettes, the influence of such productions should not be
underestimated.

Social revolutions, too, receive the support of urban visionaries.
Among the more important social developments in contemporary India is
the growing women's movement, largely led by educated urban women.
Seeking to restructure society and gender relations, activists,
scholars, and workers in the women's movement have come together in
numerous loosely allied and highly diverse organizations focusing on
issues of rights and equality, empowerment, and justice for women. Some
of these groups exist in rural areas, but most are city based.

The escalating issues of dowry-related murder and suicide are most
pressing in New Delhi, where groups such as Saheli (Woman Friend)
provide essential support to troubled women. The pathbreaking feminist
publication Manushi is published in New Delhi and distributed
throughout the country. The overwhelming economic needs of self-employed
poor female workers in Ahmadabad inspired Ela Bhatt and her coworkers in
the Self-Employed Women's Association, which has been highly successful
in helping poor women improve their own lives.

In 1994, two attractive urban Indian women won the most prominent
international beauty contests, the Miss Universe and the Miss World
competitions. Thousands of young Indian women idolized the glamorous
beauties and many newspapers gushed about the victories, but women's
groups and feminist commentators decried this adulation. They pointed
out that the deprivations and injustices experienced by a high
proportion of Indian women were being given short shrift. While the
beauty contest winners were being paraded about in crowns and white
chariots before admiring throngs, almost ignored by the public and the
media were the torture-slaying of a village woman accused of theft by a
soothsayer and the historic qualification of six women as the Indian air
force's first female pilots (see The Air Force, ch. 10). In 1995, the
All India Democratic Women's Association and other groups protested in
New Delhi against the Miss India contest.