Contents

The exodus of the foreign Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized") community, which included the British and French colonial powers as well as Jews, Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians,[1] began following the First World War, and by the end of the 1960s the exodus of the foreign community was effectively complete. According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism".[2][3][4] In addition, there was a small indigenous Jewish community, although most Jews in Egypt in the early twentieth century were recent immigrants to the country, who did not share the Arabic language and culture.[5] Until the late 1930s, the foreign minorities, including both indigenous and recent immigrant Jews, tended to apply for foreign citizenship in order to benefit from a foreign protection.[6]

In October 1956, following the invasion of Britain, France and Israel in the Suez Crisis, President Gamal Abdel Nasser brought in a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties and allowing the state to stage mass arrests without charge and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired.[7] Some lawyers, engineers, doctors and teachers were not allowed to work in their professions.[8] As part of its new policy, 1,000 Jews were arrested and 500 Jewish businesses were seized by the government.[9] Jewish bank accounts were confiscated and many Jews lost their jobs.[8]

The actions taken to encourage emigration or expel the foreign minorities applied to the whole Mutamassirun community, and after 1956 large majority of Greeks, Italians, Belgians, French, and British, including Jews, left the country.[10][not in citation given] The decree was also relevant to Egyptian Jews suspected as Zionist agents, especially those with free professions and relatives in Israel.[8]

The expellees[citation needed] were allowed to take only one suitcase and a small sum of cash, and forced to sign declarations "donating" their property to the Egyptian government.[citation needed]

Foreign observers reported that some members of Jewish families were taken hostage, apparently to insure that those forced to leave did not speak out against the Egyptian government.[citation needed] Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 60,000 in Egypt left,[11] mainly for Israel, Europe, the United States and South America.[citation needed] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were leaving voluntarily and agreed with the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000.[citation needed]

The Guardian correspondent Michael Adams noted in 1958 that the Egyptian government ultimately only expelled a small minority of the Jewish population of Egypt, though many Jews also left of their own accord.[12] This is supported by Laskier[13] who claims: "It is estimated that as early as the end of November 1956 at least 500 Egyptian and stateless Jews had been expelled from Egypt". In contrast, Max Elstein Keisler claims that "around 25 000 Jews were expelled that year (1956)",[14] equivalent to all of the Jews who left Egypt in 1956.[13]

On December 9, 1956, Egyptian Interior Minister Zakaria Mohieddin stated that of Egypt's 18,000 British and French citizens, 1,452 had been ordered to be expelled.[15]

^Gorman 2003, p. 176 #1: "In the course of the 40 years from the end of the First World War until the early sixties, this considerable mutamassir presence was effectively eliminated, a casualty of the decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism. The relation between these two phenomena was exacerbated by British policy."

^Gorman 2003, p. 176 #2: "During the Second World War, at the insistence of British authorities, adult male Italian citizens were incarcerated as enemy aliens. In 1948, the foundation of Israel made the position of all Jews in Egypt increasingly tenuous, no matter what their nationality, and the position of Greeks was affected by the vicissitudes of the Greek Civil War in the 1940s. Another critical setback came during the Suez crisis in 1956 when all those who held British and French citizenship were deemed enemy aliens and expelled from the country."

^Laskier 1995, p. 573: "The Jews, like other minorities in Egypt—Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians—did not make up a significant percentage of the total population of 19 million in 1948. Yet, like these minorities, they had made important contributions to the economic modernization of the country, particularly since the latter half of the nineteenth century."

^Krämer 1989, p. 233"Not only were they not Muslim, and mainly not of Egyptian origin; most of them did not share the Arabic language and culture, either. Added to these factors was their political diversity."

^Krämer 1989, p. 233: "These developments concerned all local foreign minorities, and after 1956 the large majority of Greeks, Italians, Belgians, French, and British did, indeed, leave the country as well. Non-Muslim and non-Arab minorities had smaller chances to integrate into the Egyptian nation once it came to be increasingly defined on Arab and Islamic lines."

^Adams, Michael (1958). Suez and after: year of crisis. Beacon Press. p. 89.: "After various contradictory orders had been given, the Egyptian government only expelled a small minority of the Jewish population of Egypt, though since that time a good many Jews have left Egypt of their own accord."

^Hofstadter, Dan (1973). Egypt & Nasser: 1952–56. 1. Facts on File. pp. 226–227. ISBN9780871962034.: "The Egyptian government Nov. 26 issued a statement denying that it had ever planned the mass expulsion of British and French nationals and saying that British and French citizens in Egypt were free to remain or to leave 'at their own discretion'. But Max Koenig, Swiss minister in Egypt, said Dec. 9 that expulsions of individual British and French citizens from Egypt and the sequestration of their property were 'continuing relentlessly' on a large scale. Egyptian Interior Min. Zakaria Mohieddin said Dec. 9 that, of some 18,000 British and French citizens in Egypt, 1,452 had been ordered expelled from the country."

1.
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
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A number of small-scale Jewish exoduses began in many Middle Eastern countries early in the 20th century with the only substantial aliyah coming from Yemen and Syria. Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands that now make up the Arab world, a further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily from Iraq, Yemen, in these cases over 90% of the Jewish population left, despite the necessity of leaving their property behind. Two hundred and sixty thousand Jews from Arab countries immigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1951, accounting for 56% of the immigration to the newly founded state. Later waves peaked at different times in different regions over the subsequent decades, the peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956 following the Suez Crisis. The exodus from the other North African Arab countries peaked in the 1960s, Six hundred thousand Jews from Arab and Muslim countries had reached Israel by 1972. In total, of the 900,000 Jews who left Arab and other Muslim countries,600,000 settled in the new state of Israel, and 300,000 immigrated to France and the United States. In 2009, only 26,000 Jews remained in Arab countries, the history of the exodus has been politicized, given its proposed relevance to the historical narrative of the Arab–Israeli conflict. At the time of the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, ancient Jewish communities had existed in parts of the Middle East. Jews under Islamic rule were given the status of dhimmi, along with certain other pre-Islamic religious groups, as such, these groups were accorded certain rights as People of the Book. During waves of persecution in Medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands, though in times and places, Jews fled persecution in Muslim lands. The French began the conquest of Algeria in 1830, the decree began a wave of Pied-Noir-led anti-Jewish protests, which the Muslim community did not participate in, to the disappointment of the European agitators. Though there were cases of Muslim-led anti-Jewish riots, such as in Constantine in 1934 when 34 Jews were killed. Neighbouring Husainid Tunisia began to come under European influence in the late 1860s, around a third of Tunisian Jews took French citizenship during the protectorate. Morocco, which had remained independent during the 19th century, became a French protectorate in 1912, French penetration into Morocco between 1906 and 1912 created significant Morocco Muslim resentment, resulting in nationwide protests and military unrest. During the period a number of anti-European or anti-French protests extended to include anti-Jewish manifestations, such as in Casablanca, Oujda and Fes in 1907-08, the Alliance Israelite Universelle, founded in France in 1860, set up schools in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia as early as 1863. During World War II, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya came under Nazi or Vichy French occupation, in Libya, the Axis powers established labor camps to which many Jews were forcibly deported. In other areas Nazi propaganda targeted Arab populations to incite them against British or French rule, national Socialist propaganda contributed to the transfer of racial antisemitism to the Arab world and is likely to have unsettled Jewish communities

2.
Mizrahi Jews
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Yemeni Jews are sometimes also included, but their history is separate from Babylonian Jewry. The use of the term Mizrahi can be somewhat controversial, before the establishment of the State of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves as Sephardi, as follow the traditions of Sephardic Judaism. From the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, any rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel are under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, as of 2005, over 61% of Israeli Jews are of at least partial Mizrahi ancestry. Mizrahi is literally translated as Oriental, Eastern, מזרח, Hebrew for east, in the past the word Mizrahim, corresponding to the Arabic word Mashriqiyyun, referred to the natives of Syria, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North Africa. In medieval and early times the corresponding Hebrew word maarav was used for North Africa. In Talmudic and Geonic times, however, this word maarav referred to the land of Israel as contrasted with Babylonia, for this reason many object to the use of Mizrahi to include Moroccan and other North African Jews. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, the term came to be widely used more by Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation, most of the Mizrahi activists actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called Westerners, rather than Easterners. g. Moroccan Jew, or prefer to use the old term Sephardic in its broader meaning, today, many identify all non-Ashkenazi rite Jews as Sephardic - in modern Hebrew Sfaradim, mixing ancestral origin and religious rite. This broader definition of Sephardim as including all, or most, the reason for this classification of all Mizrahim under Sephardic rite is that most Mizrahi communities use much the same religious rituals as Sephardim proper due to historical reasons. The prevalence of the Sephardic rite among Mizrahim is partially a result of Sephardim proper joining some of Mizrahi communities following the 1492 expulsion from Sepharad. Even before this assimilation, the rite of many Jewish Oriental communities was already closer to the Sephardi rite than to the Ashkenazi one. Many of the Sephardic Jews exiled from Spain resettled in greater or lesser numbers in many Arabic-speaking countries, such as Syria, in Syria, most eventually intermarried with and assimilated into the larger established communities of Arabic-speaking Jews and Mizrahi Jews. In some North African countries such as Morocco, Sephardic Jews came in greater numbers, in Arab nations, Mizrahim most often speak Arabic, although Arabic is now mainly used as a second language, especially by the older generation. Most of the many notable philosophical, religious and literary works of the Jews in Spain, North Africa, Neo-Aramaic is a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. It is identified as a Jewish language, since it is the language of major Jewish texts such as the Talmud and Zohar, traditionally, Aramaic has been a language of Talmudic debate in yeshivoth, as many rabbinic texts are written in a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic. The current alphabet used for Hebrew, known as Assyrian lettering or the script, was in fact borrowed from Aramaic

3.
Persian Jews
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Persian Jews or Iranian Jews are Jews historically associated with the Persian Empire, whose successor state is Iran. Judaism is the second-oldest religion still practiced in Iran, the Biblical Book of Esther contains references to the experiences of the Jews in Persia. Jews have had a presence in Iran since the time of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus invaded Babylon and freed the Jews from Babylonian captivity, the history of immigrant Jews in Iran goes back more than 3,000 years, during which time they were part of a multiconfessional society which included adherents of several other religions. Today, the vast majority of Persian Jews live in Israel, according to the latest Iranian census, the remaining Jewish population of Iran was 8,756 in 2012, while the number of crypto-Jews is unknown. Today the term Iranian Jews is mostly used to refer to Jews from the country of Iran, in various scholarly and historical texts, the term is used to refer to Jews who speak various Iranian languages. Iranian immigrants in Israel are referred to as Parsim, the beginnings of Jewish history in the area of present-day Iran date back to late biblical times. The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles and this great event in Jewish history took place in the late sixth century BCE, by which time there was a well-established and influential Jewish community in Persia. Jews in ancient Persia mostly lived in their own communities, Persian Jews lived in the ancient communities not only of Iran, but also the Armenian, Georgian, Iraqi, Bukharan, and Mountain Jewish communities. Scholars believe that during the peak of the Persian Empire, Jews may have comprised as much as 20% of the population. But the Library of Congresss country study on Iran states that Over the centuries the Jews of Iran became physically, culturally, the overwhelming majority of Jews speak Persian as their mother language, and a tiny minority, Kurdish. According to the Bible, three times during the 6th century BCE, Nebuchadnezzar exiled the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon and these three separate occasions are mentioned in Jeremiah. The first exile was in the time of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, when the Temple of Jerusalem was partially despoiled, after eleven years, a fresh rising of the Judaeans occurred. Jerusalem was razed to the ground, and deportation ensued, finally, five years later, Jeremiah recorded a third captivity. After the overthrow of Babylonia by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great is said by the Bible allowed the Jews to return to their native land, more than forty thousand were said to have done so. The historical nature of theCyrus decree has been challenged, professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a trickle, taking place over perhaps decades, Cyrus ordered rebuilding the Second Temple in the same place as the first, however, he died before it was completed. Darius the Great came to power in the Persian empire and ordered the completion of the temple, according to the Bible, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged this work

4.
Baghdadi Jews
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Many of them were merchant traders who settled on trade routes and formed immigrant communities in their new homelands. The main Baghdadi Jewish communities in Asia are found in India, Yangon, Singapore, the majority of Baghdadi Jews lived in the Indian cities of Mumbai and Kolkata. The ethnic Jewish community in Penang is now extinct with the death of its last member in 2011, some smaller Jewish communities, such as the one in Bangkok, trace their first founders to Baghdadi Jewish traders who worked and settled down in the region. There are only one or two remaining Baghdadi Jews in Bangladesh, though there had been significant Persian Jewish communities in India since early Mughal times, the first Arabic-speaking Iraqi Jews arrived in the 18th century. In 1730, Joseph Semah arrived in Surat from Baghdad and established the Surat Synagogue, there was already an established Baghdadi Jew community by then with its center in Surat. Surat was a trading port in the 16th and 17th centuries. Surat is located in Western India, in Gujarat State, and is the commercial capital of Gujarat. Arab Jews came to India as traders in the wake of the Portuguese, Dutch and these Baghdadis, as they came to be known, especially the Sassoons of Bombay and the Ezras of Calcutta, eventually established manufacturing and commercial houses of fabulous wealth. The majority came from Iraq, thus giving the community its name, though smaller groups came from countries such as Syria and Afghanistan. Unlike other Indian Jewish communities, whose oral traditions attest to their presence in India as long as 2000 years ago, sir David Sassoon is the most illustrious name of this community of Jews. In Mumbai, the Jewish community was concentrated in the Jacob Circle area in Central Bombay and they had totally integrated themselves with the society around them. Their dress used to be traditionally Indian and their womenfolk wear saree, and bangles. Their surnames and family names were like those of other Indians and their culinary habits are also influenced by Indian. Persian speaking Jews closely related to Baghdadi Jews from Afghanistan and Iran came with the Ghaznavad, Ghori and Mughal invasions of Mahmud, Muhammad, the most obscure of Indian Jews, they were traders and courtiers of the Mughals. Jewish advisors at the Court of Akbar the Great in Agra played a significant role in Akbars liberal religious policies, in Delhi, one Jew was tutor to the Crown Prince, Dara Shikoh, the teacher and student were later assassinated by Aurangzeb. These Jews got assimilated in the population as no trace or community remains. The community largely emigrated abroad following Indian independence following Zionism, after Indian independence, there was a continuous migration of Baghdadi Jews to Israel. Many others went to the United States and United Kingdom, Indian Baghdadi cuisine is an Indian hybrid cuisine, with many Arab, Turkish, Persian and Indian influences

5.
Sephardi Jews
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They established communities throughout Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity. Spoken by Sephardim in the Eastern Mediterranean, Haketia, an Arabic influenced Judaeo-Spanish variety also derived from Old Spanish, with numerous Hebrew and Aramaic terms. Taken with them in the 15th century after the expulsion from Spain in 1492, Early Modern Spanish and Early Modern Portuguese, including in a mixture of the two. Traditionally spoken or used liturgically by the ex-converso Western Sephardim, taken with them during their later migration out of Iberia in the 16th to 18th centuries as conversos, after which they reverted to Judaism. In most cases these varieties have incorporated loanwords from the languages of the Americas introduced following the Spanish conquest. This article deals with Sephardim within the narrower ethnic definition, the name Sephardi means Spanish or Hispanic, derived from Sepharad, a Biblical location. The location of the biblical Sepharad is disputed, but Sepharad was identified by later Jews as Hispania, that is, Sepharad still means Spain in modern Hebrew. In its most basic form, this broad definition of a Sephardi refers to any Jew, of any ethnic background. The term Sephardi in the sense, thus describes the nusach used by Sephardi Jews in their Siddur. A nusach is defined by a liturgical traditions choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers, Sephardim traditionally pray using Minhag Sefarad. Additionally, Ethiopian Jews, whose branch of practiced Judaism is known as Haymanot, have come under the umbrella of Israels already broad Sephardic Chief Rabbinate. The divisions among Sephardim and their descendants today is largely a result of the consequences of the Royal edicts of expulsion. In the case of the Alhambra Decree of 1492, the purpose was to eliminate their influence on Spains large converso population. Indeed, a number of those Jews who had not yet joined the converso community finally chose to convert. While the stipulations were similar in the Portuguese decree, King Manuel then largely prevented Portugals Jews from leaving, by blocking Portugals ports of exit. This failure to leave Portugal was then reasoned by the king to signify a default acceptance of Catholicism by the Jews, actual physical forced conversions, however, were also experienced throughout Portugal. Sephardi Jews, therefore, encompass Jews descended from those Jews who left the Iberian Peninsula as Jews by the expiration of the respective decreed deadlines. This group is divided between those who fled south to North Africa, as opposed to those who fled eastwards to the Balkans, West Asia

6.
History of the Jews under Muslim rule
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Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since Antiquity. Jews under Islamic rule were given the status of dhimmi, along with certain other pre-Islamic religious groups, though second-class citizens, these non-Muslim groups were nevertheless accorded certain rights and protections as people of the book. During waves of persecution in Medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands, today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes, with Iran and Turkey being home to the largest remaining Jewish populations. There were, for a long but uncertain period, a significant number of Jews in Arabia, another theory posits that these Jews were refugees from Byzantine persecutions. Arab historians mention some 20 Jewish communities, including two of Kohanim, for example, the constitution stated that the Jews will profess their religion, and the Muslims theirs, and they shall be responsible for their expenditure, and the Muslims for theirs. After the Battle of Badr, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qaynuqa breached treaties, Muhammad regarded this as casus belli and besieged the Banu Qaynuqa. Upon surrender the tribe was expelled, the following year saw the expulsion of the second tribe, the Banu Nadir, accused of planning to kill the prophet Muhammad. The third major Jewish tribe in Medina, Banu Qurayza was eliminated after allegedly betraying the Muslims during the Battle of the Trench, the two populations in question were the Jews of the Khaybar oasis in the north and the Christians of Najran. Only the Red Sea port of Jeddah was permitted as a quarantine area. During the Middle Ages, Jewish people under Muslim rule experienced tolerance, some historians refer to this time period as the Golden Age for the Jews, as more opportunities became available to them. In the context of life, Abdel Fattah Ashour, a professor of medieval history at Cairo University. The Muslim rule at times didnt fully enforce the Pact of Umar, author Merlin Swartz referred to this time period as a new era for the Jews, stating that the attitude of tolerance led to Jewish integration into Arab-Islamic society. Social integration allowed Jews to make advances in new fields, including mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry and philology. Increased commercial freedom increased their integration into the Arab marketplace, leon Poliakov writes that in the early ages of Islam, Jews enjoyed great privileges, and their communities prospered. No laws or social barriers restricted their activities, and exclusive trade. Jews who moved to Muslim lands were found themselves free to engage in any profession and this, coupled with more intense Christian persecution, encouraged many Jews to migrate to areas newly conquered by Muslims and establish communities there. Although Jewish life improved under Islamic rule, an interfaith utopia did not exist, under Islamic Rule, the Pact of Umar was introduced, which protected the Jews but also established them as inferior. Since the 11th century, there have been instances of pogroms against Jews, examples include the 1066 Granada massacre, the razing of the entire Jewish quarter in the Andalucian city of Granada

7.
History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
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By the time of the Ottoman conquests, Anatolia had been home to ancient communities of Hellenistic and later Byzantine Jews. The Ottoman Empire became a haven for Iberian Jews fleeing persecution, and in its heyday. The First and Second Aliyah brought an increased Jewish presence to Ottoman Palestine, Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the Shulchan Aruch was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577, the situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. But it would not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions. The status of Jewry in the Ottoman Empire often hinged on the whims of the Sultan, although the status level of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire may have often been exaggerated, it is undeniable that the tolerance was enjoyed. Under the millet system, the non-Muslims were organized as autonomous communities on the basis of religion, in the framework of the millet they had a considerable amount of administrative autonomy and were represented by the Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. There were no restrictions in the professions Jews could practice analogous to common in Western Christian countries. There were restrictions in the areas Jews could live or work, like all non-Muslims, Jews had to pay the harac and faced other restrictions in clothing, horse riding, army service etc. but they could occasionally be waived or circumvented. The first Jewish synagogue linked to Ottoman rule is Etz ha-Hayyim in Bursa which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324, the synagogue is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people. During the Classical Ottoman period, the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews rose to prominence under the millets, an additional problem was the lack of unity among the Jews themselves. They had come to the Ottoman Empire from many lands, bringing them their own customs and opinions, to which they clung tenaciously. Another tremendous upheaval was caused when Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed to be the Messiah and he was eventually caught by the Ottoman authorities and when given the choice between death and conversion, he opted for the latter. His remaining disciples converted to Islam too and their descendants are today known as Donmeh. The first major event in Jewish history under Turkish rule took place after the Empire gained control over Constantinople, after Sultan Mehmed IIs Conquest of Constantinople he found the city in a state of disarray. After suffering many sieges, a devastating conquest by Catholic Crusaders in 1204 and even a case of the Black Death in 1347, as Mehmed wanted the city as his new capital, he decreed the rebuilding of the city. And in order to revivify Constantinople he ordered that Muslims, Christians, within months most of the Empires Romaniote Jews, from the Balkans and Anatolia, were concentrated in Constantinople, where they made up 10% of the citys population

8.
Old Yishuv
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The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of the southern Syrian provinces in the Ottoman period, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities in Galilee, a second group was composed of Ashkenazi and Hassidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Pekiin, Acre, Nablus. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the New Yishuv. Jewish communities of the southern Levant under Byzantine rule fell into a decline in the early 7th century. And with the Jewish revolt against Heraclius and Muslim conquest of Syria, despite temporary revival, the Arab Muslim civil wars of the 8th and 9th centuries drove many non-Muslims out of the country, with no evidence of mass conversions, except for Samaritans. The Crusader period marked the most serious decline, lasting through the 12th century, maimonides traveled from Spain to Morocco and Egypt, and stayed in the Holy Land, probably sometime between 1165 and 1167, before settling in Egypt. He had then become a physician of Saladin, escorting him throughout his war campaigns against the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Small Jewish communities were also existent at the time in Gaza, the vast majority of the settlers were wiped out by the Crusaders, who arrived in 1219, and the few survivors were allowed to live only in Acre. Their descendants blended with the original Jewish residents, called Mustarabim or Maghrebim, the Mamluk period saw an increase in the Jewish population, especially in the Galilee, but the black death epidemics had cut the countrys demographics by at least one-third. In 1260, Rabbi Yechiel of Paris arrived in Eretz Israel, at the part of Mamluk Empire, along with his son. There he established the Talmudic academy Midrash haGadol dParis and he is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268, and is buried near Haifa, at Mount Carmel. Nahmanides arrived in 1267 and settled in Acre as well, don Joseph Nasi succeeded in resettling Tiberias and Safed in 1561 with Sephardic Jews, many of them former Anusim. By the late 16th century, Safed had become a center of Kabbalah, inhabited by important rabbis, among them were Rabbi Yakov bi Rav, Rabbi Moshe Cordevero, Rabbi Yosef Karo, and Isaac Luria. At this time there was a community in Jerusalem headed by Rabbi Levi ibn Haviv also known as the Mahralbach. Rabbi Yeshaye Horowitz, the Shelah Hakadosh, arrived in 1620, Galilee, becoming the most important Jewish center, however, didnt last

9.
Antisemitism in the Arab world
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Traditionally, Jews in the Muslim world were considered to be People of the Book and were given dhimmi status. They were afforded relative security against persecution provided they did not contest the inferior social and legal status imposed on them, while there were antisemitic incidents before the twentieth century, antisemitism increased dramatically as a result of the Arab–Israeli conflict. However, by the mid 1970s the vast majority of Jews had left Arab and Muslim countries, moving primarily to Israel, France, the reasons for the exodus are varied and disputed. The rise of political Islam during the 1980s and afterwards provided a new mutation of Islamic antisemitism, Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, typically had the legal status of dhimmi in the lands conquered by Muslim Arabs, generally applied to non-Muslim minorities. Jews were generally seen as a group, thus being a part of the Arab family. Dhimmis were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which varied with time, dhimmis had to pay a special poll tax, which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the zakat alms tax required of Muslims. In return, dhimmis were granted limited rights, including a degree of tolerance, community autonomy in personal matters, there is evidence for this claim in that the status of Jews in lands with no Christian minority was usually worse than their status in lands with one. For example, there were incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews in North Africa, especially in Morocco, Libya. Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, at certain times in Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G. E. But it would not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions. The Damascus affair was an accusation of murder and a blood libel against Jews in Damascus in 1840. On February 5,1840, Franciscan Capuchin friar Father Thomas and his Greek servant were reported missing, the Turkish governor and the French consul Ratti-Menton believed accusations of ritual murder and blood libel, as the alleged murder occurred before the Jewish Passover. An investigation was staged, and Solomon Negrin, a Jewish barber, confessed under torture, two other Jews died under torture, and one converted to Islam to escape torture. More arrests and atrocities followed, culminating in 63 Jewish children being held hostage, International outrage led to Ibrahim Pasha in Egypt ordering an investigation. Negotiations in Alexandria eventually secured the release and recognition of innocence of the nine prisoners still remaining alive. Later in Constantinople, Moses Montefiore persuaded Sultan Abdülmecid I to issue a firman intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, pogroms spread through the Middle East and North Africa, Aleppo, Damascus, Beirut, Dayr al-Qamar, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Cairo, Mansura, Alexandria, Port Said, the Dreyfus affair of the late nineteenth century had consequences in the Arab world

10.
The Holocaust in Italian Libya
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Conditions worsened for the Jews of Libya after the passage of Italys Manifesto of Race in 1938. Following the German intervention in 1941, some of the Jews of Libya were sent to camps in continental Europe, during the Holocaust hundreds of Jews died of starvation. With approximately 40,000 Jews living in Libya before the war, as a result of the later Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, in July 1911 the Italian government demanded control of Libya from the Ottoman Empire. When the demand was not met, Italy declared war and quickly conquered the cities along the coast of Libya. Some of the Jews of Libya supported Italy, and some actively contributed to the war effort, one of the reasons behind the support of Italy and a regime change began with the Italian influence on Libya through commercial and cultural ties. The autonomy that they received from the empire didn’t prevent the recurring pogroms, after the Italian conquest, the Jews received official status and were an important religious-ethnic group due to their key role in the Libyan economy. The studying of the Italian language and European country, which began before the conquest, the Italian government, which at first saw the Jews as Italians—just like the Italian Jews—began to consider them as indigenous Muslims. In 1934, After the fascists rise to power, Italo Balbo was appointed as the governor-general of Italian Libya. He developed the “Italian colony” and, like fascists, saw it as symbol of Italy’s returning to the greatness of the Roman Empire—the last time that Italy controlled Libya. During his reign, the process of modernizing Jewish communities accelerated, Balbo respected the Jewish tradition so long as it did not prevent the progress he brought to Libya. One instance of conflict occurred when Jews closed their shops on the Sabbath, earlier that year Benito Mussolini came to the Jewish community during a visit to Italian Libya, and received a warm reception. He promised that the Jews of Libya would be safe, Italy’s aggressive policies caused her to be an isolated country in Europe, and the winds of war brought her to enter into a pact with Nazi Germany in 1936. The Rome-Berlin axis forced the countries to operate based on common principles, so the German race laws applied to Italy, in the racial manifesto, which was published in Italy in 1938, racist and anti-semitic laws appeared as representing the Fascists party’s position. Jews were forbidden from participating in government bids, Italian Libya’s governor, Balbo, tried to convince Mussolini to postpone the application of the laws in Libya, claiming that they would destroy the Libyan economy. Mussolini allowed Balbo to apply the laws as he saw fit, Balbo was killed in July 1940, when an Italian ship shot down his airplane. Italian officials explained the incident as an accident, in the second half of 1940, after Italy joined World War II on the side of Germany, the Jews situation worsened. Tripoli was in chaos, and the Jewish quarter in Italy was heavily damaged by Allied bombings, some Jews, like the Muslim population, escaped inland. The Jewish community in Tripoli rented homes for the needy, erected underground bomb shelters, as time went by, the race laws became worse - the Jews of Cyrenaica were sent to a concentration camp in Tripolitania, and most of the community’s workforce was sent to labor camps

11.
Farhud
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Farhud refers to the pogrom or violent dispossession carried out against the Jewish population of Baghdad, Iraq, on June 1–2,1941, immediately following the British victory in the Anglo-Iraqi War. The riots occurred in a vacuum following the collapse of the pro-Nazi government of Rashid Ali. Over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured, looting of Jewish property took place and 900 Jewish homes were destroyed. According to Hayyim Cohen, the Farhud was the known to the Jews of Iraq. The Jews lived in the land of Babylon for more than 2,500 years following the Babylonian captivity, there had been at least two earlier comparable pogroms in the modern history of Iraqi Jews, in Basra in 1776 and in Baghdad in 1828. After the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the First World War, after King Ghazi who inherited the throne of Faisal I, died in a 1939 car accident, Britain installed Abd al-Ilah as Iraqs governing regent. By 1941, the approximately 150,000 Iraqi Jews played active roles in many aspects of Iraqi life, including farming, banking, commerce and the government bureaucracy. Iraqi nationalist Rashid Ali al-Gaylani was appointed Prime Minister again in 1940, in addition, between 1932 and 1941, the German embassy in Iraq, headed by Dr. Fritz Grobba, significantly supported antisemitic and fascist movements. Intellectuals and army officers were invited to Germany as guests of the Nazi party, the German embassy purchased the newspaper Al-alam Al-arabi which published, in addition to antisemitic propaganda, a translation of Mein Kampf in Arabic. The German embassy also supported the establishment of Al-Fatwa, a organization based upon the model of the Hitler Youth. In 1941, a group of pro-Nazi Iraqi officers, known as the Golden Square and led by General Rashid Ali, the coup had significant popular support, particularly in Baghdad. Bashkin writes that All, apparently, yearned for the departure of the British after two decades of interference in Iraqi affairs. Iraqs new government then was involved in confrontation with the British over the terms of the military treaty forced on Iraq at independence. The treaty gave the British unlimited rights to base troops in Iraq, the British arranged to land large numbers of soldiers from India in Iraq to force the country to show its intentions. Iraq refused to let them land and confrontations afterward occurred both near Basra in the south and to the west of Baghdad near the British base complex and airfield. The Germans dispatched a group of 26 heavy fighters to aid in an air attack on the British airbase at Habbaniya which accomplished nothing. The telegram dealt with the issues of war in the middle east rather than Iraq exclusively. On May 25, Hitler issued his Order 30, stepping up German offensive operations, in this connection special importance is attached to the liberation of Iraq

12.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements

13.
1948 Palestine war
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However, Jordanian operations were limited to specific and clearly defined objectives. Egypt, Syria and Iraq by contrast, attempted an invasion of the territory of the newly created State of Israel with the intention of expunging it. Transjordan took control of the remainder of the Palestinian mandate, which it annexed, with Jordan occupying the West Bank and Egypt occupying Gaza, no state was created for the Palestinian Arabs. Dramatic demographic changes accompanied the war in the country, around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the area that became Israel, and they became Palestinian refugees. Due to the war, around 10,000 Jews fled or were expelled from their homes in Palestine and these Jewish refugees were absorbed into Israel in the One Million Plan. Israelis usually mark the anniversary of their independence on the 5th of Iyar of the Hebrew Calendar, the Yishuv managed to clandestinely amass arms and military equipment abroad for transfer to Palestine once the British blockade was lifted. In Western Europe, Haganah agents amassed fifty 65mm French mountain guns, twelve 120mm mortars, ten H-35 light tanks, the airborne arms smuggling missions from Czechoslovakia were codenamed Operation Balak. The airborne smuggling missions were carried out by mostly American aviators – Jews and non-Jews – led by ex-U. S, air Transport Command flight engineer Al Schwimmer. Schwimmer’s operation also included recruiting and training fighter pilots such as Lou Lenart and this was an attempt to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. Each state would comprise three sections, the Arab state would also have an enclave at Jaffa in order to have a port on the Mediterranean. With about 32% of the population, the Jews were allocated 56% of the territory and it contained 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs and a majority of it was in the Negev desert. The Palestinian Arabs were allocated 42% of the land, which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews, the Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan as the indispensable minimum, glad to gain international recognition but sorry that they did not receive more. The Arabs rejected the partition, not because it was supposedly unfair and they upheld that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations. According to Article 73b of the Charter, the UN should develop self-government of the peoples in a territory under its administration. In the immediate aftermath of the UNs approval of the partition plan, soon after, violence broke out and became more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came fast upon each other, the sanguinary impasse persisted as no force intervened to put a stop to the escalating violence. During this period the Jewish and Arab communities of British Mandate clashed, while the British organized their withdrawal and intervened only on an occasional basis. In the first two months of the Civil War, around 1,000 people were killed and 2,000 people injured, and by the end of March, the figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded

14.
Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale

15.
Six-Day War
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The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched an offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai, Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai. Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had defeated the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, on June 11, a ceasefire was signed. Arab casualties were far heavier than those of Israel, fewer than a thousand Israelis had been killed compared to over 20,000 from the Arab forces. Israels military success was attributed to the element of surprise, an innovative and well-executed battle plan, Israel seized control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities were expelled, with refugees going to Israel or Europe. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, in the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a defense agreement with Egypt. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back, King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordans aid, and hiding behind UNEF skirts. In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border, the right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations. On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact, the following day, at Jordans invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent, on June 1, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six-Day War. Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties and this has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces

16.
Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords, the planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and to some attempts at military coups. Upon independence, in 1962,900,000 European-Algerians fled to France, in fear of the FLNs revenge, the French government was totally unprepared for the vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830, in 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and was subsequently declared by the constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and divided into three departments. Many French and other Europeans later settled in Algeria, under the Second Empire, the Code de lindigénat was implemented by the Sénatus-consulte of July 14,1865. Its first article stipulated, The indigenous Muslim is French, however and he may be admitted to serve in the army and the navy. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria and he may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen, in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. However, prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians, the 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de lIndigénat made the official by creating specific penalties for indigènes. The Law of September 20,1947, granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, Algeria was unique to France because, unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, only Algeria was considered and legally classified an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War I, Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs and spahis, and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs dAfrique. Within this context, a grandson of Abd el-Kadir spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and he was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party. The North African Star broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Pariss demand, the pieds-noirs violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party opposed it, leading to the projects abandonment. This new party was dissolved in 1939, under Vichy, the French state attempted to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On the other hand, nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union in 1938, in 1943 Abbas wrote the Algerian Peoples Manifesto. In the early morning hours of November 1,1954, FLN maquisards attacked military and he declared in the National Assembly, One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic and they have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French

17.
Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)
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Operation Magic Carpet is a widely known nickname for Operation On Wings of Eagles, an operation between June 1949 and September 1950 that brought 49,000 Yemenite Jews to the new state of Israel. British and American transport planes made some 380 flights from Aden, at some point, the operation was also called Operation Messiahs Coming. The operations official name originated from two passages, Book of Exodus 19,4 - Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles wings. Book of Isaiah 40,31 - But they that wait upon the LORD shall renew their strength, they shall mount up with wings as eagles, they run, and not be weary, and they shall walk. The Operation Magic Carpet was the first in a series of operations, Israel sees the rescue operation as a successful rescue of Yemens community from oppression towards redemption. 49,000 Jews were brought to Israel under the program, a street in Jerusalem, one in Herzliya, and another in Kerem HaTeimanim, Tel Aviv, were named Kanfei Nesharim in honor of this operation. In 1948 there were 55,000 Jews living in Yemen, following the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Muslim rioters attacked the Jewish community in Aden that killed at least 82 Jews and destroyed a number of Jewish homes. Early in 1948, accusations of the murder of two Muslim Yemeni girls led to looting of Jewish property, reuven Ahroni and Tudor Parfitt argue that economic motivations also had a role in the massive emigration of Yemeni Jews, which began prior to 1948. Purely religious, messianic sentiment too, had its part but by, esther Meir-Glitzenstein also criticized the execution of the operation. She especially criticized the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Israel, mismanagement or corruption by the imam of Yemen, the British authorities, and the Jewish Agency also played a role. Some 850 Yemenite Jews died en route to their points, and in the community which reached Israel infant mortality rates were high. According to David Ben-Gurions diary, the Yemeni children in the Israeli maabarot or tent transit camps were dying like flies. Children were often separated from their parents for reasons, or taken away to hospitals for treatment. According to some testimony, there was a suspicion that the state kidnapped healthy Yemeni children, for adoption, and then informed the parents they had died. As a result, some later, the Yemenite Children Affair exploded. In 1959, another 3,000 Jews from Aden fled to Israel while many left as refugees to the United States. The emigration of Yemeni Jews continued as a trickle but stopped in 1962, when a war broke out in North Yemen. As of the year 2013, a total of some 250 Jews still live in Yemen, the Jewish communities in Rayday were shocked by the killing of Moshe Yaish al-Nahari in 2008

18.
Operation Ezra and Nehemiah
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From 1951 to 1952, Operation Ezra and Nehemiah airlifted between 120,000 and 130,000 Iraqi Jews to Israel via Iran and Cyprus. The massive emigration of Iraqi Jews was among the most climactic events of the Jewish exodus from Arab, most of the $4 million cost of the operation was financed by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. In some accounts the Farhud marked the point for Iraqs Jews. In late 1942, one of the emissaries explained the size of their task of converting the Iraqi community to Zionism and we are today eating the fruit of many years of neglect, and what we didnt do cant be corrected now through propaganda and creating one-day-old enthusiasm. In addition, the Iraqi people were incited against Zionism by propaganda campaigns in the press, the Iraqi Jewish Leaders, had declared anti Zionist statements during the 1930, but in 1944 they now boldly and vehemently refused a similar request. They did so as a protest against the treatment of Jewish community. In 1947, with the affirmation of the 1947 Partition Plan for Palestine, and Israeli Independence in 1948, immediately after the establishment of the State of Israel, the Iraqi government adopted a policy of anti-Jewish discrimination, mass dismissals from government service, and arrests. Nuri al-Said admitted that the Iraqi Jews were victims of bad treatment, during this period, the Iraqi Jewish community became increasingly fearful. The Jewish community general sentiment was that if a man as well connected and powerful as Shafiq Ades could be eliminated by the state, other Jews would not be safe any longer. Like most Arab League states, Iraq initially forbade the emigration of its Jews after the 1948 war on the grounds that allowing them to go to Israel would strengthen that state. However, by 1949 the Iraqi Zionist underground was smuggling Jews out of the country to Iran at about a rate of 1,000 a month, from where they were flown to Israel. The Iraqi government took in only 5,000 of the c.700,000 Palestinians who became refugees in 1948–49 and refused to submit to American, the Iraqi-British proposal was reported in the press in October 1949. On 14 October 1949 Nuri Al Said raised the exchange of population concept with the economic mission survey, at first, few would register, as the Zionist movement suggested they not do so until property issues and legal status had been clarified. After mounting pressure from both Jews and the Government, the movement relented and agreed to registrations, immediately following the March 1950 Denaturalisation Act, the emigration movement faced significant challenges. Initially, local Zionist activists forbade the Iraqi Jews from registering for emigration with the Iraqi authorities, because the Israeli government was still discussing absorption planning. As a result, by September 1950, while 70,000 Jews had registered to leave, many selling their property and losing their jobs and they were housed in public buildings and were being supported by the Jewish community. The delay became a significant problem for the Iraqi government of Nuri al-Said, as the number of Jews in limbo created problems politically, economically. Particularly infuriating to the Iraqi government was the fact that the source of the problem was the Israeli government, as a result of these developments, al-Said was determined to drive the Jews out of his country as quickly as possible

19.
Jewish Migration from Lebanon Post-1948
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Lebanese Jewish Migration to Israel included thousands of Jews, who moved to Israel. Similarly to how 1948 witnessed the emigration of hundreds of Jews from Arab countries, tudor Parfitt writes, “the riots, which would have been quite inconceivable a short time before, were the first serious indication of dissatisfaction with British rule in the history of the colony”. Looking at a few such as Aden, Libya, and Iraq it is clear that distaste for colonial rule. These sentiments led to acts of violence against Jews throughout the Arab world. What resulted was fear and distrust within Jewish communities, prompting the emigration of hundreds to Israel, “There is little doubt however that the riots, separated from the mass immigration by about four years, were a central factor in bringing it about”. In 1949 alone Israel witnessed an immigration of two hundred and thirty five thousand Jews. N. Giladi page 77 Like many other Arab states, the Lebanese experienced deep resentment for their new lack of autonomy, yet, unlike many other Arab states, Lebanon did not experience the same levels of dissatisfaction with their European colonizers. Jews have been present in Lebanon since biblical times, and have been a part of Lebanese society. “In the twelfth century…the Jews lived in the area as the Druze with whom they traded and engaged in crafts. They were well integrated into their environment and the majority of them were Arabised”, yet this Arabization should not be misconstrued as assimilation. Lebanese Jews did not assimilate into Muslim culture, but rather integrated, here a distinction between assimilation and integration must be made. As it is to be used here assimilation deals with the adopting of a majority of another culture’s customs, integration instead describes the relationship of two individual groups that come together yet maintain their individuality. Though a fundamental part of Lebanese society, the Jews of Lebanon retained their religious, one key way in which Lebanese Jews were able to maintain this cultural identity was through the Lebanese Constitution. Under the French Mandate, the French helped Lebanon to create a constitution, Lebanon thus created a country of integration rather than assimilation, one in which various cultures and religions were respected. “The rights of the Lebanese Jewish community were recognized in a constitution of 1911. This made them one of the more progressive minorities”, what is more is that the governments did not simply state or write that they would respect minorities, but also did so in practice. In the case of Lebanon, Zionism was never received by the Jewish population to an extent to warrant significant riots or anti-Semitic violence. In a letter to Colonel Frederick Kisch, the chairman of the Zionist Executive wrote that prior to 1929 all the Lebanese communities including the Jews “showed no interest in the Palestine question”

20.
Operation Yachin
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Operation Yakhin was an operation to secretly emigrate Moroccan Jews to Israel, conducted by Israels Mossad between November 1961 and spring 1964. About 97,000 left for Israel by plane and ship from Casablanca and Tangier via France, the operation also received important help from Francoist Spain. However, some Jews settled in France, Canada and the United States instead of in Israel, Morocco received indemnities for the loss of the Jews. The operation was fronted by the New York-based Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the Jewish community of Morocco spans nearly 2,000 years. It became an important Jewish center with the expulsion of Jews from Spain and later Portugal, despite singular events of violence, such as the 1948 Anti-Jewish Riots in Oujda and Jerada, the Moroccan Jews were perhaps the most protected Jewish community across the Arab World. Many hesitated to trade their comfortable lives and good businesses for an uncertain future across the seas, with only Israel, the migration swelled by the early 1950s, until an official ban was issued by the French colonial government. Morocco obtained independence from France in 1956, on 10 January 1961 a small boat called Egoz carrying 44 Jewish emigrants sank on the northern coast of Morocco. This created a crisis both within the Moroccan authorities and for the Zionist institutions responsible for the illegal immigration activities, yaakov Margi was brought to Israel during Operation Yachin in 1962. The Secret Alliance, The Extraordinary Story of the Rescue of the Jews Since World War II

21.
Pied-Noir
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The term usually includes the North African Jews, who had been living there for many centuries but were awarded French citizenship by the 1870 Crémieux Decree. More specifically, the term pied-noir is used for those of European ancestry who returned to mainland France as soon as Algeria gained independence, the term pied-noir began to be commonly used shortly before the end of the Algerian War in 1962. As of the last census in Algeria, taken on 1 June 1960, the conflict contributed to the fall of the French Fourth Republic and the mass exodus of Algerian Europeans and Jews to France. After Algeria became independent in 1962, about 800,000 Pieds-Noirs of French nationality were evacuated to mainland France while about 200,000 chose to remain in Algeria. Of the latter, there were still about 100,000 in 1965, in popular culture, the community is often represented as feeling removed from French culture while longing for Algeria. Thus, the recent history of the Pieds-Noirs has been imprinted with a theme of alienation from both their native homeland and their adopted land. Though the term rapatriés dAlgérie implies that once lived in France. Many families had lived there for generations, and the Algerian Jews, the actual origin of the term pied-noir is unknown and therefore debated. The Le Robert dictionary states that in 1901 the word indicated a sailor working barefoot in the room of a ship. In the Mediterranean, this was often an Algerian native, thus the term was used pejoratively for Algerians until 1955 when it first began referring to French born in Algeria and this usage originated from mainland French as a negative nickname. There is also a theory that the term comes from the boots of French soldiers compared to the barefoot Algerians. Other theories focus on new settlers dirtying their clothing by working in areas, wearing black boots when on horseback. European settlement of Algeria began during the 1830s, after France had commenced the process of conquest with the seizure of the city of Algiers in 1830. The invasion was instigated when the Dey of Algiers struck the French consul with a fly-swatter in 1827, in 1830 the government of Charles X blockaded Algeria and an armada sailed to Algiers, followed by a land expedition. A troop of 34,000 soldiers landed on 18 June 1830, following a three-week campaign, the Hussein Dey capitulated on 5 July 1830, and was exiled. In the 1830s the French controlled only the part of the country. Entering the Oran region, they faced resistance from Emir Abd al-Kader, in 1839 Abd al-Kader began a seven-year war by declaring jihad against the French. The French signed two treaties with al-Kader, but they were broken because of a miscommunication between the military and the Parisian government

22.
Exodus of Iran's Jews
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A number of small-scale Jewish exoduses began in many Middle Eastern countries early in the 20th century with the only substantial aliyah coming from Yemen and Syria. Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands that now make up the Arab world, a further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily from Iraq, Yemen, in these cases over 90% of the Jewish population left, despite the necessity of leaving their property behind. Two hundred and sixty thousand Jews from Arab countries immigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1951, accounting for 56% of the immigration to the newly founded state. Later waves peaked at different times in different regions over the subsequent decades, the peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956 following the Suez Crisis. The exodus from the other North African Arab countries peaked in the 1960s, Six hundred thousand Jews from Arab and Muslim countries had reached Israel by 1972. In total, of the 900,000 Jews who left Arab and other Muslim countries,600,000 settled in the new state of Israel, and 300,000 immigrated to France and the United States. In 2009, only 26,000 Jews remained in Arab countries, the history of the exodus has been politicized, given its proposed relevance to the historical narrative of the Arab–Israeli conflict. At the time of the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, ancient Jewish communities had existed in parts of the Middle East. Jews under Islamic rule were given the status of dhimmi, along with certain other pre-Islamic religious groups, as such, these groups were accorded certain rights as People of the Book. During waves of persecution in Medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands, though in times and places, Jews fled persecution in Muslim lands. The French began the conquest of Algeria in 1830, the decree began a wave of Pied-Noir-led anti-Jewish protests, which the Muslim community did not participate in, to the disappointment of the European agitators. Though there were cases of Muslim-led anti-Jewish riots, such as in Constantine in 1934 when 34 Jews were killed. Neighbouring Husainid Tunisia began to come under European influence in the late 1860s, around a third of Tunisian Jews took French citizenship during the protectorate. Morocco, which had remained independent during the 19th century, became a French protectorate in 1912, French penetration into Morocco between 1906 and 1912 created significant Morocco Muslim resentment, resulting in nationwide protests and military unrest. During the period a number of anti-European or anti-French protests extended to include anti-Jewish manifestations, such as in Casablanca, Oujda and Fes in 1907-08, the Alliance Israelite Universelle, founded in France in 1860, set up schools in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia as early as 1863. During World War II, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya came under Nazi or Vichy French occupation, in Libya, the Axis powers established labor camps to which many Jews were forcibly deported. In other areas Nazi propaganda targeted Arab populations to incite them against British or French rule, national Socialist propaganda contributed to the transfer of racial antisemitism to the Arab world and is likely to have unsettled Jewish communities

23.
Aliyah
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Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as the act of going up—that is, towards Jerusalem—making Aliyah by moving to the Land of Israel is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism, the opposite action, emigration from the Land of Israel, is referred to in Hebrew as yerida. The State of Israels Law of Return gives Jews and their descendants automatic rights regarding residency, the large-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine began in 1882. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, more than 3 million Jews have moved to Israel, as of 2014, Israel and the Palestinian territories together contain 42. 9% of the worlds Jewish population. Successive waves of Jewish settlement are an important aspect of the history of Jewish life in Israel, Eretz Yisrael is the Hebrew name for the region known in English as Israel. This traditional Hebrew toponym, in turn, has lent its name to the modern State of Israel, pre-Zionist Aliyah refers to small-scale return migration of Diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel. Since the birth of Zionism, its advocates have striven to facilitate the settlement of Jewish refugees in Ottoman Palestine, Mandatory Palestine, Aliyah in Hebrew means ascent or going up. Jewish tradition views traveling to the land of Israel as an ascent, anyone traveling to Eretz Israel from Egypt, Babylonia or the Mediterranean basin, where many Jews lived in early rabbinic times, climbed to a higher altitude. Visiting Jerusalem, situated 2,700 feet above sea level, Aliyah is an important Jewish cultural concept and a fundamental component of Zionism. It is enshrined in Israels Law of Return, which accords any Jew and eligible non-Jews, someone who makes aliyah is called an oleh or olah. Many religious Jews espouse aliyah as a return to the Promised land, and regard it as the fulfillment of Gods biblical promise to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, nachmanides includes making aliyah in his enumeration of the 613 commandments. In the Talmud, at the end of tractate Ketubot, the Mishnah says, A man may compel his entire household to go up with him to the land of Israel, but may not compel one to leave. Sifre says that the mitzvah of living in Eretz Yisrael is as important as all the other mitzvot put together, there are many mitzvot such as shmita, the sabbatical year for farming, which can only be performed in Israel. In Zionist discourse, the term includes both voluntary immigration for ideological, emotional, or practical reasons and, on the other hand. The vast majority of Israeli Jews today trace their familys recent roots to outside the country, while many have actively chosen to settle in Israel rather than some other country, many had little or no choice about leaving their previous home countries. While Israel is commonly recognized as a country of immigrants, it is also, in large measure, a country of refugees. 2 Chronicles 36,23 Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD God of heaven given me, and he hath charged me to him an house in Jerusalem. Who among you of all his people, the LORD his God with him, and let him go up

24.
Iranian Jews in Israel
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Iranian Jews in Israel refers to the community of Iranian Jews who migrated to Israel after the formation of the modern state and living within the state of Israel. At the same time most of the Iranian Jews are religious or traditionals and have a strong and deep connection to the Jewish religion. In the late 1800s-1900s mostly strong religious Iranians Jews began immigrating to Israel, after the establishment of the state of Israel, the immigration to Israel was increased significantly. In 1952 under the Israeli mission, Operation Cyrus, approximately 30,000 Iranian Jews immigrated to Israel, in addition, many Iranian Jews immigrated to Israel after the Iranian revolution in 1979. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, over 134,000 Iranian have settled in Israel, Israel continues to encourage the remaining Jews in Iran to immigrate since Israel sees the Jews of Iran as hostages of the Iranian regime, against Israel. In 2007 Israel offered monetary incentives to Jews in Iran to encourage Iranian Jewish immigration to Israel, Jews of Iranian descent in Israel are considered part of the Mizrahim. In the 1950s the Israeli treatment of Iranian Jews was similar to the Israeli treatment of other Jews from the Middle Eastern and North African region. Kol Israel transmits daily radio broadcasts to Iran in the Persian language and Menashe Amir, mor Karbasi – Singer Moshe Katsav – Former President of Israel Rita Kleinstein – Israeli pop singer Shaul Mofaz – Former Israeli Minister of Transport. Had been elected the chairman of the Kadima

25.
Kurdish Jews in Israel
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Kurdish Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Kurdish Jewish communities, who now reside within the state of Israel. The thriving period of Safed however ended in 1660, with Druze power struggles in the region, since the early 20th century some Kurdish Jews had been active in the Zionist movement. One of the most famous members of Lehi was Moshe Barazani, whose family immigrated from Iraqi Kurdistan, the vast majority of Kurdish Jews were forced out of Northern Iraq, being evacuated to Israel in the early 1950s, together with other Iraqi Jewish community. The vast majority of the Kurdish Jews of Iranian Kurdistan relocated mostly to Israel as well, the Times of Israel reported on September 30,2013, Today, there are almost 200,000 Kurdish Jews in Israel, about half of whom live in Jerusalem. There are also over 30 agricultural villages throughout the country that were founded by Kurdish Jews, Today, the large majority of the Jews of Kurdistan and their descendants live in Israel

26.
Syrian Jews
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Syrian Jews are Jews who lived in the region of the modern state of Syria, and their descendants born outside Syria. There were large communities in Aleppo and Damascus for centuries, in the first half of the 20th century a large percentage of Syrian Jews immigrated to the U. S. The largest Syrian Jewish community is located in Brooklyn, New York and is estimated at 75,000 strong, there are smaller communities elsewhere in the United States and in Latin America. In 2011, there had been about 50 Jews still living within Syria, by May 2012, only 22 Jews were left in Syria. More recently, in September 2016, this number is reported to be down to only nine, there have been Jews in Syria since ancient times, according to the communitys tradition, since the time of King David, and certainly since early Roman times. Jews from this ancient community were known as Mustaarabim to themselves, many Sephardim arrived following the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and quickly took a leading position in the community. For example, five successive Chief Rabbis of Aleppo were drawn from the Laniado family, in the 18th and 19th centuries, some Jews from Italy and elsewhere, known as Señores Francos, settled in Syria for trading reasons, while retaining their European nationalities. Jews who are members of the Kurdish community represent yet another sub-group of Syrian Jews and they are Middle Eastern maternal origin Syrian Jews whose presence in Syria predates the arrival of Sephardic Jews following the reconquista. The ancient communities of Urfa and Çermik also formed part of the broader Syrian community, today, some distinctions between these sub-groups are preserved, in the sense that particular families have traditions about their origins. However, there is considerable intermarriage among the groups and all regard themselves as Sephardim in a broader sense and it is said that one can tell Aleppo families of Spanish descent by the fact that they light an extra Hanukkah candle. This custom was established in gratitude for their acceptance by the more native Syrian based community. Further emigration, particularly following the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, was caused by repetitive Muslim aggression towards the Jewish communities in Syria. Within a few months, thousands of Syrian Jews made their way to Brooklyn, with a few families choosing to go to France, the majority settled in Brooklyn with the help of their kin in the Syrian Jewish community. There has been a Jewish Syrian presence in Jerusalem since before 1850, some Syrian traditions, such as the singing of Baqashot, were accepted by the mainstream Jerusalem Sephardi community. A further group immigrated to Palestine around 1900, and formed the Ades Synagogue in Nachlaot and this still exists, and is the main Aleppo rite synagogue in Israel, though its membership now includes Asiatic Jews of all groups, especially Kurdish. There is also a large Syrian community in Holon and Bat Yam, many Jews fled from Syria to Palestine during the anti-Jewish riots of 1947. After that, the Syrian government clamped down and allowed no emigration, in the last two decades, some emigration has been allowed, mostly to America, though some have since left America for Israel, under the leadership of Rabbi Albert Hamra. The older generation from prior to the establishment of the Israeli state retains little or no Syrian ethnic identity of its own and is integrated into mainstream Israeli society

27.
Turkish Jews in Israel
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Turkish Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Turkish Jewish communities, who now reside within the State of Israel. During Ottoman times, the Jewish presence was concentrated to four cities, as in other Muslim-majority countries, discrimination later became the main push factor that encouraged emigration from Turkey to Palestine. Between 1923 and 1948, approximately 7,300 Jews emigrated from Turkey to Mandatory Palestine, immigration to Palestine was organized by the Jewish Agency and the Palestine Aliya Anoar Organization. The Varlık Vergisi, a tax which occurred in 1942, was also significant in encouraging emigration from Turkey to Palestine. The Jews of Turkey reacted very favorably to the creation of the State of Israel, between 1948 and 1951,34,547 Jews immigrated to Israel, nearly 40% of the Jewish population at the time. Immigration was stunted for several months in November 1948, when Turkey suspended migration permits as a result of pressure from neighboring Arab countries. In March 1949, the suspension was removed when Turkey officially recognized Israel, the migration was entirely voluntary, and was primary driven by economic factors given the majority of emigrants were from the lower classes. In fact, the migration of Jews to Israel is the second largest mass emigration out of Turkey. After 1951, emigration of Jews from Turkey to Israel slowed materially, in the mid 1950s, 10% of those who had moved to Israel returned to Turkey. A new synagogue, the Neve Şalom was constructed in Istanbul in 1951, generally, Turkish Jews in Israel have integrated well into society and are not distinguishable from other Israelis. However, they maintain their Turkish culture and connection to Turkey, and are strong supporters of close relations between Israel and Turkey

28.
Yemenite Jews in Israel
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Yemenite Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Yemenite Jewish communities, who now reside within the state of Israel. They number around 400,000 in the wider definition, between June 1949 and September 1950, the overwhelming majority of Yemen and Adens Jewish population was transported to Israel in Operation Magic Carpet. Emigration from Yemen to Ottoman-ruled Land of Israel began in early 1881 and it was during this time that about 10% of the Yemenite Jews left. Certain Yemenite Jews interpreted these changes and the new developments in the Holy Land as heavenly signs that the time of redemption was near, by settling in Ottoman Syria they would play a part in what they believed could precipitate the anticipated messianic era. From 1881 to 1882 a few hundred Jews left Sanaa and several nearby settlements and this wave was followed by other Jews from central Yemen who continued to move into Ottoman Syrian provinces until 1914. The majority of these moved into Jerusalem and Jaffa. In 1884, some families settled into a neighborhood called Yemenite Village Kfar Hashiloach in the Jerusalem district of Silwan. Before World War I there was another wave that began in 1906, hundreds of Yemenite Jews made their way to Ottoman Syria and chose to settle in the agricultural settlements. It was after these movements that the World Zionist Organization sent Shmuel Yavneeli to Yemen to encourage Jews to emigrate to the Land of Israel, Yavneeli reached Yemen at the beginning of 1911 and returned to Ottoman Syria in April 1912. Due to Yavneelis efforts, about 1,000 Jews left central, in 1922, the government of Yemen, under Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din reintroduced an ancient Islamic law entitled the orphans decree. She claimed to be his due to his being her mothers brother. According to her recollection of events, he was born Zekharia Hadad in 1910 to a Yemenite Jewish family in Ibb and he was raised in the powerful al-Iryani family and adopted an Islamic name. Al-Iryani would later serve as minister of religious endowments under northern Yemens first national government and it states that Zekharia Haddad is in fact, Abdul Raheem al-Haddad, Al-Iryanis foster brother and bodyguard who died in 1980. Abdul Raheem is survived by tens of sons and grandsons, Adens Jewish community was economically paralyzed, as most of the Jewish stores and businesses were destroyed. Early in 1948, the rumour of the ritual murder of two girls led to looting. This increasingly perilous situation led to the emigration of virtually the entire Yemenite, during this period, over 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel. Operation Magic Carpet began in June 1949 and ended in September 1950, part of the operation took place during the hostilities of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The operation was planned by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, the plan was for the Jews from all over Yemen to make their way to the Aden area

29.
Ma'abarot
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The Maabarot were refugee absorption camps in Israel in the 1950s. The maabarot began to decline by mid-1950s and were transformed into Development Towns. The last Maabara was closed in 1963, the Hebrew word Maabara derives from the word maavar. Maabarot were meant to be temporary communities for the new arrivals, immigrants housed in these communities were Jewish refugees mainly from Middle East and North Africa, as well as Holocaust survivors from Europe. The sudden arrival of over 130,000 Iraqi Jews in Israel in the early 1950s meant that almost a third of immigrant camp dwellers were of Iraqi Jewish origin. At the end of 1949 there had been 90,000 Jews housed in camps, by the end of 1951 this population rose to over 220,000 people. More habitable housing had been provided to replace the tents of the immigrant camps, most of maabarot residents were housed in temporary tin dwellings. Over 80% of the residents were Jewish refugees from across Arab and Muslim countries in Middle East, over time, the Maabarot metamorphosed into Israeli towns, or were absorbed as neighbourhoods of the towns they were attached to, and residents were provided with permanent housing. The number of people housed in Maabarot began to decline since 1952, most of the camps transformed into Development Towns - Ayarat Pituach. Maabarot which became towns include Kiryat Shmona, Sderot, Beit Shean, Yokneam, Or Yehuda, most of maabarot residents were housed in temporary tin dwellings. Conditions in the Maabarot were very harsh, with many people sharing sanitation facilities, in one community it was reported that there were 350 people to each shower and in another 56 to each toilet. Unlike the situation in immigrant camps, where the Jewish Agency provided for the immigrants, Israeli satirist Ephraim Kishon produced a satirical film about the Maabarot called Sallah Shabbati. The film was nominated for an Academy Award and is regarded as an Israeli classic

30.
Immigrant camps (Israel)
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The tent camps first accommodated Holocaust survivors from Europe, and later largely Jewish refugees from Middle East and North Africa. By early 1950, immigrant camps were converted into Transition Camps and it was agreed that upon being provided with an appropriate certificate by a donor, immigrants would be released from detention camps. Through 1947 about 750 immigrants per month arrived in Mandatory Palestine in accordance with the agreement and were detained within Atlit detainee camp. Due to the conditions in Atlit camp, many immigrants were transferred to Kiryat Shmuel Immigrant Camp in Haifa. It was agreed that its guards would be Jewish policemen of the Mandatory police, the Jewish Agency was responsible for the internal management of the camps in Atlit and Kiryat Shmuel, while medical services were provided there by the Hadassah organization. The Kiryat Shmuel camp is considered to be the first actual immigrant camp, in the first half of 1947 another immigrant camp, named Newe Haim, was established near Hadera, providing housing for those released from Atlit detention camp and from Kiryat Shmuel camp. The average stay of immigrants in Newe Haim at that time was about 3 weeks, at this stage the Pardes Hana immigrant camp was established as well as immigrant camps next to Raanana, Bet Lid, Benyamina and Rosh Haain. Later more camps were established in Beer Yaacov, Kiryat Eliyahu, Kiryat Motzkin, Rehovot and those camps housed immigrants, who could not find better arrangements or receive assistance from relatives. By the end of 1948 there were 20 immigrant camps across Israel, housing 35,000 immigrants, the time period, spent by immigrants in immigration camps turned longer and longer over time, reaching more than one month. At the end of 1949 there had been 90,000 Jews housed in camps, by the end of 1951 this population rose to over 220,000 people. The sudden arrival of over 130,000 Iraqi Jews in Israel in the early 1950s meant that almost a third of immigrant camp dwellers by that time was of Iraqi Jewish origin. In addition to the Iraqi Jews, large numbers of Libyan and Yemenite Jews reshaped the immigrant camps into largely Sephardic, the tent cities provided a harsh environment for the refugees and immigrants. As a result, more housing were provided to replace the tents. The first transition camp was created on May 1950 in Jerusalem, most of maabarot residents were housed in temporary tin dwellings. Over 80% of the transition camp residents were Jewish refugees from across Arab and Muslim countries in Middle East, over time, the Maabarot metamorphosed into Israeli towns, or were absorbed as neighbourhoods of the towns they were attached to, and residents were provided with permanent housing. The number of people housed in camps began to decline after 1952, most of the transition camps became Development Towns - Ayarat Pituach. Maabarot, which towns, include Kiryat Shmona, Sderot, Beit Shean, Yokneam, Or Yehuda. The immigrant camps were in fact tent cities, located in vicinity of Jewish cities and villages, the residents of the immigrant camps were entirely supported by institutions, not requiring them to work and support themselves

31.
Development town
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The towns were designated to expand the population of the countrys peripheral areas and to ease development pressure on the countrys crowded centre. The towns are the results of the Sharon plan – the master plan of Israel, the majority of such towns were built in the Galilee in the north of Israel, and in the northern Negev desert in the south. In addition to the new towns, Jerusalem was also given development town status in the 1960s, the sudden arrival of over 130,000 Iraqi Jews in Israel in the early 1950s meant that almost a third of Maabarah dwellers were of Iraqi Jewish origin. At the end of 1949 there had been 90,000 Jews housed in Maabarot, by the end of 1951 this population rose to over 220,000 people, Maabarot residents were housed in tents or in temporary tin dwellings. Over 80% of the residents were Jewish refugees from Arab and Muslim countries of Middle East, the number of people housed in Maabarot began to decline in 1952, and the last Maabarot were closed sometime around 1963. Over time, the Maabarot metamorphosed into Israeli towns, or were absorbed as neighbourhoods of the towns they were attached to, most of the Maabarah camps transformed into development towns. Maabarot, which became development towns, include Kiryat Shmona, Sderot, Beit Shean, Yokneam Illit, Or Yehuda, the first development town was Beit Shemesh, founded in 1950 around 20 km from Jerusalem. The newly established towns were populated by Jewish refugees from Arab and Muslim countries – Morocco, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Libya, Yemen. Development towns were populated by Holocaust survivors from Europe and Jewish immigrants. A high proportion of the population is religious or traditional, with a 2003 survey showing that 39% of residents would rather Israel be run more by halakhic law. In 1984, the Development Towns project was awarded the Israel Prize for its contribution to society. Many towns gained a new influx of residents during the immigration from former Soviet states in the early 1990s. 11 points in the Negev List of Israel Prize recipients

32.
Austerity in Israel
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From 1949 to 1959, the state of Israel was, to a varying extent, under a regime of austerity, during which rationing and similar measures were enforced. Soon after establishment in 1948, the state of Israel found itself lacking in both food and foreign currency. In just three and a half years, the Jewish population of Israel had doubled, increased by nearly 700,000 immigrants, consequently, the Israeli government instigated measures to control and oversee distribution of necessary resources to ensure equal and ample rations for all Israeli citizens. In addition to the problems with the provision of food, national austerity was also required because the state was lacking in foreign currency reserves. Export revenues covered less than a third of the cost of imports, most financing was obtained from foreign banks and gas companies, which, as 1951 drew to an end, refused to expand the available credit. In order to supervise austerity, the minister, David Ben-Gurion, ordered the establishment of the Ministry of Rationing and Supply. At first this rationing was set for staple foods alone — oil, sugar and margarine, for instance — but it was expanded to furniture. Each month, each citizen would get food coupons worth 6 Israeli pounds, to counter this, the government established in September 1950 the Office for Fighting the Black Market, whose goal it was to combat the forming of such a market. Yet despite the increased supervision, and the specially summoned courts, in 1952 the reparations agreement was signed with Germany, compensating the Jewish state for confiscation of Jewish property during the Holocaust. The resulting influx of capital was a huge boost to the states struggling economy. In 1956, the list of rationed goods was narrowed to just fifteen goods, shortly afterwards, it was abolished for all goods except jam, sugar and coffee. In 1959, rationing was abolished altogether, economically, austerity proved a failure, mostly due to the enormous government deficit, covered by bank loans, creating an increase in the amount of money use. Throughout austerity unemployment remained high, and inflation grew as of 1951, Rationing in the United Kingdom - 20th century wartime periods Special Period - austerity in Cuba 1991-1999

33.
History of the Jews in France
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The history of the Jews in France deals with the Jews and Jewish communities in France. There has been a Jewish presence in France since at least the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning in the Middle Ages, but persecution increased as the Middle Ages wore on, including multiple expulsions and returns. During the late 18th century French Revolution, France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population, Antisemitism has persisted despite legal equality, as expressed in the Dreyfus affair of the late 19th century. During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi occupiers to deport numerous French, 75% of the Jewish population in France survived the Holocaust. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, the Jewish community in France is estimated to be 480, 000-500,000 but depends on the adopted definition. They migrated to France beginning in the late 20th century, since 2010 or so, more have been making aliyah there because of attacks on Jewish institutions and individuals in France. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, The first settlements of Jews in Europe are obscure, there is evidence of Jews in Rome. In the year 6 C. E. there were Jews at Vienne and Gallia Celtica, an early account praised Hilary of Poitiers for having fled from the Jewish society. At the funeral of Hilary, Bishop of Arles, in 449, Jews and Christians mingled in crowds and wept, from the year 465 the Church took official cognizance of the Jews. In the sixth century, Jews were documented in Marseilles, Arles, Uzès, Narbonne, Clermont-Ferrand, Orléans, Paris and these places were generally centers of Roman administration, and located on the great commercial routes. The Jews built synagogues in these centers, in harmony with the Theodosian code, and according to an edict of 331 aby the emperor Constantine, the Jews were organized for religious purposes as they were in the Roman empire. They appear to have had priests, archisynagogues, patersynagogues, the Jews worked principally as merchants, as they were prohibited from owning land, they also served as tax-collectors, sailors, and physicians. They probably remained under the Roman law until the triumph of Christianity, with the established by Caracalla. The emperor Constantius compelled the Jews to share in the curia and their association with fellow citizens was generally amicable, even after the establishment of Christianity in Gaul. The Christian clergy participated in some Jewish feasts, intermarriage between Jews and Christians sometimes occurred, and the Jews made proselytes, in the 6th century, a Jewish community thrived in Paris. They built a synagogue was on the Île de la Cité, but it was torn down by Christians. In 629, King Dagobert proposed to expel all Jews who would not accept Christianity, no mention of the Jews was found from his reign to that of Pepin the Short. But in the south of France, then known as Septimania and a dependency of the Visigothic kings of Spain, from this epoch dates the earliest known Jewish inscription relating to France, that of Narbonne

34.
The Forgotten Refugees
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With Ralph Avi Goldwasser as executive producer. The documentary explores the history, culture, and forced exodus of Middle Eastern, shown at multiple Jewish film festivals in the US and worldwide and on public television networks, the film was also screened at the second annual UN panel on Jewish refugees from Arab countries. It was also shown at a hearing held by the US Congressional Human Rights Caucus which heard testimonies on the issue of Jewish refugees from Arab countries, the film is recommended as a resource for activists on the issue of Jewish refugees from Arab countries. The Forgotten Refugees won the Best Documentary Film at the 2007 Marbella Film Festival, in 2006, the film won Best Featured Documentary at the Warsaw Jewish Film Festival

35.
Arab Jews
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Arab Jews is a term referring to Jews living in the Arab World. This term is proposed by cultural studies scholar Ella Shohat to refer to populations commonly termed Mizrahim or Sephardim, though the latter term particularly refers to the Ladino-speaking descendants of the Spanish expulsion who dispersed mainly to Western Europe and the Balkans. Jews living in Arab lands speak Arabic, using one of the many Arabic dialects as their primary community language, many aspects of their culture are Arabic or influenced by Arabic culture. They usually follow Sephardi Jewish liturgy, making one of the largest groups among Mizrahi Jews. The term was not commonly used until the modern era, other public figures who refer to themselves as Arab Jews include Sasson Somekh, professor at Tel Aviv University, in a recent memoir. Ilan Halevi described himself as 100% Jewish and 100% Arab, today the term is sometimes used by newspapers and official bodies in some countries, to express the belief that Jewish identity is a matter of religion rather than ethnicity or nationality. However, some Mizrahi activists, particularly those not born in Arab countries or who emigrated from them at a young age. Notable proponents of such an identity include Naeim Giladi, Ella Habiba Shohat, Sami Shalom Chetrit, on this view, the correct distinction is between Jews, Muslims, Christians and other religious groups, rather than between groups such as Jews and Arabs. However, the use of the term Arab to define Christian Copts, Maronites, others may regard Arab Jews as simply shorthand for Jews of Arab lands or Arabic-speaking Jews, and identify as Arab Jews while definitely not regarding themselves as Arabs. The term Arab Jews has become part of the language of post-Zionism, the term was introduced by Ella Shohat. To insure homogeneity Zionist focused on religious commonality and a romanticized past and she argues that the use of the term Mizrahim is in some sense a Zionist achievement in that it created a single unitary identity separated from the Islamic world. Which replaced older multifaceted identities each linked to the Islamic world, including and she argues that when Sephardi express hostility towards Arabs it is often due to self-hatred. Another argument that Shohat makes is that Israel is already demographically an Arab country, yehouda Shenhav’s works are also considered to be among the seminal works of post-Zionism. Shenhav, an Israeli sociologist, traced the origins of the conceptualization of the Mizrahi Jews as Arab Jews and he interprets Zionism as an ideological practice with three simultaneous and symbiotic categories, Nationality, Religion and Ethnicity. In order to be included in the national collective they had to be de-Arabized, according to Shenhav, Religion distinguished between Arabs and Arab Jews, thus marking nationality among the Arab Jews. David Rabeeya argues that while the Zionist movement succeed in creating a Jewish state it did irreparable harm to Arab Jews and he argues that Israel has already entered a post-Zionist era in which the influence of Zionist Ashkenazim has declined. With many Jews of European origin choosing to leave the country as Israel becomes less Western and he writes that Arab Jews, like Arab Muslims and Arab Christians, were culturally Arab with religious commitments to Judaism. David Tal argues that Shohat and her students faced great resistance from Mizrahim with few choosing to identify as Arab Jews and he argues that Shohat in a sense tried to impose an identity in the same way in which she criticized the Ashkenazi for doing

36.
Maghrebi Jews
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Maghrebi Jews are Jews who had traditionally lived in the Maghreb region of North Africa under Arab rule during the Middle Ages. Established Jewish communities had existed in North Africa long before the arrival of Sephardi Jews, expelled from Portugal, the oldest Jewish communities were present during Roman times and possibly as early as within Punic colonies of the Ancient Carthage period. Today, descendants of Maghrebi-Sephardic Jews in Israel have largely embraced the renovated Israeli Jewish identity and in many cases intermix with Ashkenazi, some of the Maghrebi-Sephardic Jews also consider themselves as part of Mizrahi Jewish community, even though there is no direct link between the two communities. Some Jewish settlements in North Africa date back to pre-Roman times, earlier mentions of Jewish presence go back to Cyrenaica, Greek colony of eastern Libya and home to an early Jewish community. Notable Cyrenaic Jews of that era includes Simon of Cyrene mentioned in the New Testament and these settlers engaged in agriculture, cattle-raising, and trade. They were divided into clans, or tribes, governed by their respective heads, during the Kitos War, Jews must have suffered losses, they continued to thrive in parts of North Africa that were under the Late Roman Empire. Berber lands east of Aleandria were relatively tolerant and were very welcoming for Christians. After the overthrow of the Vandals by Belisarius in 534 CE over the Roman era, Justinian I issued his edict of persecution, a community settled in Djerba island off the coast of southern Tunisia during the Roman period. Mainly composed of Cohanim, they built the Ghriba synagogue with stones coming directly from Jerusalem. La Ghriba is still to this day annually visited by a lot of North African Jews, later Jews were relatively well treated by the Berber Muslim dynasties namely Merinids, Zianides and Zirides. The much greater immigration of Sephardic Jews took place between 1391 and 1492, by the Alhambra decree edict of expulsion, and persecution in Spain, a larrivée des Juifs espagnols, Mutation de la communauté. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Singer, Isidore. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company

37.
Berber Jews
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Berber Jews are the Jewish communities of the Atlas mountains in Morocco, and previously in Algeria, which historically spoke Berber languages. Between 1950 and 1970 most emigrated to France, the United States, Jews have settled in North Africa since Roman times and a Jewish community existed in the Roman province of Africa, which is modern Tunisia. Ifriqia was the chosen for what we know today as Tunisia. The acceptance by the Berbers of Judaism as a religion, and its embrace by a number of tribes, French historian, Eugène Albertini dates the judaization of certain Berber tribes and their expansion from Tripolitania to the Saharan oases, to the end of the 1st century. Marcel Simon for his part, sees the first point of contact between the western Berbers and Judaism in the great Jewish Rebellion of 66-70. Besides old settlements of Jews in the Atlas mountains and the interior Berber lands of Morocco, strong periodic persecutions by the Almohades most probably augmented the Jewish presence there. She is said to have aroused the Berbers in the Aures in the spurs of the Atlas Mountains in modern-day Algeria to a last, although fruitless. Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the tensions between the indigenous Jewish communities and the indigenous Muslim communities increased, Jews in the Maghreb were compelled to leave due to these increased tensions. Today, the indigenous Berber Jewish community no longer exists in Morocco, the Moroccan Jewish population rests at about 8,000 persons with most residing in Casablanca, some of whom might still be Berber speakers. Consequently, the proponents of this theory were scholars such as Nahum Slouschz who worked closely with French authorities. Other scholars such as André Goldenberg and Simon Lévy also favoured it, haim Hirshberg, a major historian of North-African Jewry, questioned the theory of massive Judaization of the Berbers in an article named The Problem of the Judaized Berbers. The theory of a massive Judaization of the Berber population was called into question by a recent study on the mtDNA. The study carried out by Behar et al. that analysed samples of North African Jews indicates that Jews from North Africa lack typically North African Hg M1. Du Lys, www. editionsdulys. com, Montréal,2010, Deuxième édition, www. iuniverse. com, ebook, Prix Haïm Zafrani de lInstitut universitaire Élie Wiesel, Paris 2012. Moroccan citron, an old heritage of growing the genetically pure citron type, native to Assads, Morocco on the Anti Atlas canyon, les Derniers Judeo-Berberes The Berbers and the Jews The Amazigh Jews La découverte des Juifs Berbères Muir Appelbaum, Diana

Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
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A number of small-scale Jewish exoduses began in many Middle Eastern countries early in the 20th century with the only substantial aliyah coming from Yemen and Syria. Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands that now make up the Arab world, a further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of T

Mizrahi Jews
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Yemeni Jews are sometimes also included, but their history is separate from Babylonian Jewry. The use of the term Mizrahi can be somewhat controversial, before the establishment of the State of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves as Sephardi, as fol

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David Sassoon

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Yemenite Jew blowing shofar, 1947

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Kurdish Jews in Rawanduz, northern Iraq, 1905.

Persian Jews
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Persian Jews or Iranian Jews are Jews historically associated with the Persian Empire, whose successor state is Iran. Judaism is the second-oldest religion still practiced in Iran, the Biblical Book of Esther contains references to the experiences of the Jews in Persia. Jews have had a presence in Iran since the time of Cyrus the Great of the Achae

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Cyrus the Great allowing Hebrew pilgrims to return to the Land of Israel and rebuild Jerusalem

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Hebrew version of Nizami 's "Khosrow va Shirin".

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Statue of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani,The Persian physician of Jewish origin, polymathic writer and historian, who wrote an enormous Islamic history, the Jami al-Tawarikh, in the Persian language during Mongol rule. He was also Grand Vizier of Ilkhanid court.

Baghdadi Jews
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Many of them were merchant traders who settled on trade routes and formed immigrant communities in their new homelands. The main Baghdadi Jewish communities in Asia are found in India, Yangon, Singapore, the majority of Baghdadi Jews lived in the Indian cities of Mumbai and Kolkata. The ethnic Jewish community in Penang is now extinct with the deat

Sephardi Jews
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They established communities throughout Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity. Spoken by Sephardim in the Eastern Mediterranean, Haketia, an Arabic influenced Judaeo-Spanish variety also derived from Old Spanish, with numerous Hebrew and Aramaic term

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Elias Canetti

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Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.

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Claude Cohen-Tannoudji

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Benjamin Disraeli

History of the Jews under Muslim rule
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Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since Antiquity. Jews under Islamic rule were given the status of dhimmi, along with certain other pre-Islamic religious groups, though second-class citizens, these non-Muslim groups were nevertheless accorded certain rights and protections as people of the book. During waves o

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Photochrom of Jews in Jerusalem, in the 1890s.

History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
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By the time of the Ottoman conquests, Anatolia had been home to ancient communities of Hellenistic and later Byzantine Jews. The Ottoman Empire became a haven for Iberian Jews fleeing persecution, and in its heyday. The First and Second Aliyah brought an increased Jewish presence to Ottoman Palestine, Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews an

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Sultan Bayezid II sent Kemal Reis to save the Sephardic Jews of Spain from the Spanish Inquisition in 1492 and granted them permission to settle in the Ottoman Empire.

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Painting of a Jewish man from the Ottoman Empire, 1779.

Old Yishuv
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The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of the southern Syrian provinces in the Ottoman period, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages. The oldest group consist

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Jewish life in the Land of Israel

Antisemitism in the Arab world
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Traditionally, Jews in the Muslim world were considered to be People of the Book and were given dhimmi status. They were afforded relative security against persecution provided they did not contest the inferior social and legal status imposed on them, while there were antisemitic incidents before the twentieth century, antisemitism increased dramat

The Holocaust in Italian Libya
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Conditions worsened for the Jews of Libya after the passage of Italys Manifesto of Race in 1938. Following the German intervention in 1941, some of the Jews of Libya were sent to camps in continental Europe, during the Holocaust hundreds of Jews died of starvation. With approximately 40,000 Jews living in Libya before the war, as a result of the la

Farhud
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Farhud refers to the pogrom or violent dispossession carried out against the Jewish population of Baghdad, Iraq, on June 1–2,1941, immediately following the British victory in the Anglo-Iraqi War. The riots occurred in a vacuum following the collapse of the pro-Nazi government of Rashid Ali. Over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured, looting of J

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Mass grave for the victims of the Farhud, 1946

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Monument "Prayer" in Ramat Gan in memory of the Jews who were killed in Iraq in the Pogrom "Farhud" (1941) and in the 1960s

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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the

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Theodor Herzl is considered the founder of the Zionist movement. In his 1896 book Der Judenstaat, he envisioned the founding of a future independent Jewish state during the 20th century.

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Aliyah

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Israeli author Amoz Oz, who today is described as the 'aristocrat' of Labor Zionism

1948 Palestine war
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However, Jordanian operations were limited to specific and clearly defined objectives. Egypt, Syria and Iraq by contrast, attempted an invasion of the territory of the newly created State of Israel with the intention of expunging it. Transjordan took control of the remainder of the Palestinian mandate, which it annexed, with Jordan occupying the We

Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the Unite

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Damaged Egyptian equipment

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The location of the Suez Canal, which connects the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.

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Port Said, at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the Mediterranean.

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Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies led an international committee in negotiations with Nasser in September 1956, which sought to achieve international management of the Canal. The mission was a failure.

Six-Day War
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The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensi

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Israeli troops examine destroyed Egyptian aircraft.

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Territory held by Israel before and after the Six Day War. The Straits of Tiran are circled, between the Gulf of Aqaba to the north and the Red Sea to the south.

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Dassault Mirage at the Israeli Air Force Museum. Operation Focus was mainly conducted using French built aircraft.

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Conquest of Sinai. June 5–6, 1967

Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate app

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Collage of the French war in Algeria

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Battle of Somah in 1836

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Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algiers in 1857

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Anti-French protests in Algeria on 8 May 1945

Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)
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Operation Magic Carpet is a widely known nickname for Operation On Wings of Eagles, an operation between June 1949 and September 1950 that brought 49,000 Yemenite Jews to the new state of Israel. British and American transport planes made some 380 flights from Aden, at some point, the operation was also called Operation Messiahs Coming. The operati

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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

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Aliyah

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Yemenite Jews en route to Israel from Aden, Yemen

Operation Ezra and Nehemiah
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From 1951 to 1952, Operation Ezra and Nehemiah airlifted between 120,000 and 130,000 Iraqi Jews to Israel via Iran and Cyprus. The massive emigration of Iraqi Jews was among the most climactic events of the Jewish exodus from Arab, most of the $4 million cost of the operation was financed by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. In some

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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

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Immigrants from Iraq leaving Lod airport on their way to ma'abara, 1951

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Aliyah

Jewish Migration from Lebanon Post-1948
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Lebanese Jewish Migration to Israel included thousands of Jews, who moved to Israel. Similarly to how 1948 witnessed the emigration of hundreds of Jews from Arab countries, tudor Parfitt writes, “the riots, which would have been quite inconceivable a short time before, were the first serious indication of dissatisfaction with British rule in the hi

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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

Operation Yachin
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Operation Yakhin was an operation to secretly emigrate Moroccan Jews to Israel, conducted by Israels Mossad between November 1961 and spring 1964. About 97,000 left for Israel by plane and ship from Casablanca and Tangier via France, the operation also received important help from Francoist Spain. However, some Jews settled in France, Canada and th

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Aliyah

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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

Pied-Noir
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The term usually includes the North African Jews, who had been living there for many centuries but were awarded French citizenship by the 1870 Crémieux Decree. More specifically, the term pied-noir is used for those of European ancestry who returned to mainland France as soon as Algeria gained independence, the term pied-noir began to be commonly u

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Notre Dame d'Afrique, a church built by the French Pieds-Noirs in Algeria

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Bombardment of Algeria by Admiral Duperré's forces in 1830

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Four children in a wagon pulled by two donkeys, circa 1905. The first Pieds-Noirs were the French Army of Africa personnel's children.

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Map of French Algeria

Exodus of Iran's Jews
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A number of small-scale Jewish exoduses began in many Middle Eastern countries early in the 20th century with the only substantial aliyah coming from Yemen and Syria. Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands that now make up the Arab world, a further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of T

Aliyah
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Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as the act of going up—that is, towards Jerusalem—making Aliyah by moving to the Land of Israel is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism, the opposite action, emigration from the Land of Israel, is referred to in Hebrew as yerida. The State of Israels Law of R

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Aliyah

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Abba Hushi during his Hachshara, circa 1920

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A page from a passport issued by the Polish Republic in 1934 to a couple of Jews who decided to emigrate to Mandatory Palestine.

Iranian Jews in Israel
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Iranian Jews in Israel refers to the community of Iranian Jews who migrated to Israel after the formation of the modern state and living within the state of Israel. At the same time most of the Iranian Jews are religious or traditionals and have a strong and deep connection to the Jewish religion. In the late 1800s-1900s mostly strong religious Ira

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Iranian Jews in Israel

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Rita Kleinstein, an Israeli pop-star, of Persian descent

Kurdish Jews in Israel
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Kurdish Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Kurdish Jewish communities, who now reside within the state of Israel. The thriving period of Safed however ended in 1660, with Druze power struggles in the region, since the early 20th century some Kurdish Jews had been active in the Zionist movement. One of the most fa

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Traditional Kurdish areas

Syrian Jews
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Syrian Jews are Jews who lived in the region of the modern state of Syria, and their descendants born outside Syria. There were large communities in Aleppo and Damascus for centuries, in the first half of the 20th century a large percentage of Syrian Jews immigrated to the U. S. The largest Syrian Jewish community is located in Brooklyn, New York a

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A Jewish family in Damascus, pictured in their ancient Damascene home, in Ottoman Syria, 1901

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Jewish pupils in the Maimonides school in ‘Amārah al Juwwānīyah, in the historic Maison Lisbona in Damascus. The photo was taken shortly before the exodus of most of the remaining Syrian Jewish community in 1992

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Chief Rabbi Jacob Saul Dwek, Hakham Bashi of Aleppo, Syria, 1907.

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Syrian Jews worship in Ades Synagogue. Renowned as a center for Syrian Hazzanut (Syrian Jewish liturgical singing), Ades is one of only two synagogues in the world that maintains the ancient Syrian Jewish tradition of Baqashot, the marathon Kabbalistic singing held in the early hours of Shabbat morning to welcome the sunrise over winter months.

Turkish Jews in Israel
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Turkish Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Turkish Jewish communities, who now reside within the State of Israel. During Ottoman times, the Jewish presence was concentrated to four cities, as in other Muslim-majority countries, discrimination later became the main push factor that encouraged emigration from Turke

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Traditional areas of Turkish settlement

Yemenite Jews in Israel
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Yemenite Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Yemenite Jewish communities, who now reside within the state of Israel. They number around 400,000 in the wider definition, between June 1949 and September 1950, the overwhelming majority of Yemen and Adens Jewish population was transported to Israel in Operation Magic

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Yemenite Jews en route from Aden to Israel.

Ma'abarot
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The Maabarot were refugee absorption camps in Israel in the 1950s. The maabarot began to decline by mid-1950s and were transformed into Development Towns. The last Maabara was closed in 1963, the Hebrew word Maabara derives from the word maavar. Maabarot were meant to be temporary communities for the new arrivals, immigrants housed in these communi

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Ma'abara near Nahariya (northern Israel), 1952.

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Children in a ma'abara in 1952

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Milk distribution

Immigrant camps (Israel)
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The tent camps first accommodated Holocaust survivors from Europe, and later largely Jewish refugees from Middle East and North Africa. By early 1950, immigrant camps were converted into Transition Camps and it was agreed that upon being provided with an appropriate certificate by a donor, immigrants would be released from detention camps. Through

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Pardes Hana Immigrant Camp (1 December 1950).

2.
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

Development town
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The towns were designated to expand the population of the countrys peripheral areas and to ease development pressure on the countrys crowded centre. The towns are the results of the Sharon plan – the master plan of Israel, the majority of such towns were built in the Galilee in the north of Israel, and in the northern Negev desert in the south. In

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Mitzpe Ramon development town, southern Israel, 1957

2.
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

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Ma'abara near Nahariya (northern Israel), 1952.

4.
Aliyah

Austerity in Israel
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From 1949 to 1959, the state of Israel was, to a varying extent, under a regime of austerity, during which rationing and similar measures were enforced. Soon after establishment in 1948, the state of Israel found itself lacking in both food and foreign currency. In just three and a half years, the Jewish population of Israel had doubled, increased

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Tel Aviv residents standing in line to buy food rations, 1954

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A Wonder Pot (right), a top-of-the-stove baking utensil invented during the austerity period to help homemakers bake cakes and casseroles without an oven.

History of the Jews in France
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The history of the Jews in France deals with the Jews and Jewish communities in France. There has been a Jewish presence in France since at least the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning in the Middle Ages, but persecution increased as the Middle Ages wore on, including multiple expulsions and returns. During the late 18th cent

The Forgotten Refugees
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With Ralph Avi Goldwasser as executive producer. The documentary explores the history, culture, and forced exodus of Middle Eastern, shown at multiple Jewish film festivals in the US and worldwide and on public television networks, the film was also screened at the second annual UN panel on Jewish refugees from Arab countries. It was also shown at

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The Forgotten Refugees

Arab Jews
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Arab Jews is a term referring to Jews living in the Arab World. This term is proposed by cultural studies scholar Ella Shohat to refer to populations commonly termed Mizrahim or Sephardim, though the latter term particularly refers to the Ladino-speaking descendants of the Spanish expulsion who dispersed mainly to Western Europe and the Balkans. Je

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Africa

Maghrebi Jews
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Maghrebi Jews are Jews who had traditionally lived in the Maghreb region of North Africa under Arab rule during the Middle Ages. Established Jewish communities had existed in North Africa long before the arrival of Sephardi Jews, expelled from Portugal, the oldest Jewish communities were present during Roman times and possibly as early as within Pu

1.
Danny Ayalon

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The present-day Arab Maghreb Union countries

3.
Ninet Tayeb

4.
Silvan Shalom

Berber Jews
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Berber Jews are the Jewish communities of the Atlas mountains in Morocco, and previously in Algeria, which historically spoke Berber languages. Between 1950 and 1970 most emigrated to France, the United States, Jews have settled in North Africa since Roman times and a Jewish community existed in the Roman province of Africa, which is modern Tunisia

1.
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the Battle of the Somme, Mark V tanks cross the Hindenburg Line, HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, a British Vickers machine gun crew wears gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, Albatros D.III fighters of Jagdstaffel 11

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Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908.

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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.