Spent Nuclear Fuel in the U.S., France and Finland

Ahmed Sharif
March 20, 2011

Introduction

Nuclear reactors have provided a stable source of
power to many countries since the 1950's. Nonetheless, operation of
these reactors has also provided a steady stream of radioactive nuclear
waste, i.e. spent nuclear fuel (SNF), since then. In fact, given current trends, the IAEA
estimates that a total of 445,000 metric tons of heavy metal spent fuel
(MTHM) worldwide will need to be disposed of by 2020. [1] Yet no
permanent facility for the disposal of SNF currently exists. [1] As is
evident, policymakers in nuclear-powered countries must soon develop
permanent disposal solutions for SNF. This paper briefly discusses
practices, policies, and challenges concerning the disposal of SNF in
three countries at various points in the process of developing a
long-term SNF disposal solution: the United States, France, and
Finland.

United States

The United States currently has more than 65,000
metric tons of SNF in interim storage, and it adds approximately 2,000
metric tons of heavy spent fuel to this inventory every year. [1,2] This
constitutes the largest inventory of SNF pending ultimate disposal. [1]
Most of this waste is stored at active or shut-down reactor sites; a
smaller fraction of SNF is stored off-site. [1] Generally, facilities
store the waste in either containment pools (or "swimming pools") or dry
casks. [2] Nevertheless, these solutions, as noted above, are only temporary;
it is imperative that the U.S. find a long-term SNF storage solution.

As pressing of an issue as it is, the long-term SNF disposal issue has "vexed"
Congress, scientists, and regulatory agencies for the last half-century. [3] After
considering, and subsequently rejecting, disposal options ranging from
"burying nuclear waste in polar ice caps to rocketing it to the sun,"
U.S. scientists came to a consensus on "deep geologic burial as the
safest way to isolate this toxic material in perpetuity." [3] A geologic
repository located at Nevada's Yucca Mountain was the U.S. government's
primary focus over the last few decades; however, President Obama, with
input from Senate leaders, canceled pursuit of this option last year,
seeking instead alternatives that would not involve storage of thousands
of pounds of radioactive waste at one site. [4] Public opinion in the
media also suggests that Yucca Mountain was partially victim to NIMBY
concerns. [5]

Looking forward, the Obama Administration has
appointed the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future, a team
of policymakers, academicians, and other industry experts; to tour sites
around the country seeking alternatives to Yucca Mountain. The purpose
of the commission is to not only evaluate the sites on a technical
basis, but also to engage the public and understand relevant public
concerns. Nonetheless, as it has in the past, the U.S. is likely to
continue to struggle with NIMBY and other road blocks standing in the
way of a long-term SNF disposal solution.

France

France currently has about 11,300 MTHM spent fuel in
interim storage. [1] However, unlike the U.S., France sends SNF from
power plants to a reprocessing plant in La Hague for fuel recycling.
Thus, while the total volume of SNF waste that France must handle is
relatively low compared to the U.S., France must handle the secondary
stream of high-level radioactive waste associated with fuel
reprocessing. Moreover, high-level radioactive waste resultant from
reprocessing has a high heat output, and heat output, more so than
volume, dictates disposal facility capacity. [6] After reprocessing,
France vitrifies and places the high-level radioactive waste in interim
storage at La Hague. [1]

Looking forward, under the 2006 Radioactive Materials
and Waste Planning Law, the government must investigate either creating
new storage facilities or modifying existing facilities for the purposes
of storing long-lived high- and intermediate-level radioactive waste by
2015. [1] Moreover, the Planning Law requires that a deep geological
repository for storage of high-level radioactive waste be commissioned
by 2025. Similar to public engagement efforts of the Blue Ribbon
Commission, the Law makes explicit requirements for public
participation. The success and timely implementation of the 2006 Law is
yet to be determined; France is still years away from selecting a waste
repository site. [1]

Finland

Approximately 1,700 of MTHM are stored on-site at
Finland's two nuclear plants. [1] The Olkiluoto power plant stores SNF
in a fuel containment pool while the Loviisa plant utilizes a smaller
storage facility. As is evident, Finland's nuclear power industry is
much smaller than the nuclear power industry in the United States or
France. Nonetheless, Finland serves as an excellent to case to examine
given its significant progress with respect to waste disposal policy; it
is the only country as of yet to have completed selection of a permanent
repository site (with government approval). [1]

Finland started to research and develop long-term
storage solutions for SNF in the 1980's, with a commitment to selecting
a storage site by 2010. [1] In 2001 Finland selected a repository site
in Eurajoki, nine years earlier than its original target selection date.
[1] Moreover, the repository is anticipated to be operational by 2020. [7]
Finland's success in selecting a permanent repository (as opposed to the struggles
in identifying permanent sites in the U.S. and France) can be attributed
to its active public engagement, its establishment of an independent
repository siting body, and its adoption of a relatively rigorous
technical standard.

Summary

Despite nuclear power's significant position in the
developed world's generation resource portfolio, no country has yet
started to construct a permanent SNF repository. Finland, in fact, is
the only country to have selected a permanent repository site with
governmental approval. Major roadblocks to other countries in site
selection have been due to NIMBY concerns and a lack of public
engagement in site selection. Countries such as the U.S. and France may
benefit from examining the Finish model for developing a permanent SNF
disposal solution.