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Party Systems and Governments Observatory: A New Research Tool

Have you ever wondered who governs the countries of Europe? Would you like to know who governed your country more than a century ago? Are you not sure about the partisan affiliation of ministers in your neighboring states? Are you interested in discovering how has the (economic and financial) crisis affected the composition of European governments and party systems?

Now a quick answer to all these questions, and more, is possible thanks to a new research project at the University of Nottingham: namely, the Party Systems and Governments Observatory (PSGo), a new research interactive tool (whogoverns.eu)[1] where data on government formation and party system institutionalization in 48 European democratic states since 1848 can be found. European indicates those countries stretching from the Atlantic to the Urals. Democratic refers to those countries displaying (1) a score of 6 or higher in the Polity IV index, (2) universal suffrage elections (including universal male suffrage only, when historically appropriate), and (3) governments formed and/or relying on a parliamentary majority, rather than on the exclusive will of the head of state. States includes those countries recognized by either the United Nations or the Council of Nations.[2]

In particular, and as it follows from the table below, the number of years per country varies between just one (e.g. Czechoslovakia’s Third Republic and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) and more than a century (e.g. Norway or Denmark). Secondly, the number of political regimes taken into account varies between just one (e.g. Belgium or the Netherlands) and four (France and Greece). Thirdly, the number of electoral cycles taken into account varies between just one (e.g. Greece’s post-WWII Kingdom or Poland’s First Republic) and thirty-three (Switzerland). Finally, the number of cabinets taken into account varies between just one (Czechoslovakia’s Third Republic) or two (e.g. Belarus or Kosovo) and ninety-seven (France’s Third Republic).

European democracies (1848-2014)

Country

Period

Country

Period

Albania

2002-

Kingdom of SHS

1921

Andorra

1993-

Kosovo

2008-

Armenia

1991-1994

Latvia (post-WWI)

1920-1933

Austria (1st Republic)

1920-1932

Latvia (post-1989)

1993-

Austria (2nd Republic)

1946-

Liechtenstein

1993-

Belarus

1991-1994

Lithuania

1993-

Belgium

1919-

Luxembourg

1920-

Bulgaria

1991-

Macedonia

1992-

Croatia

2000-

Malta

1964-

Cyprus

1978-

Moldova

1994-

Czechoslovakia (1st Rep)

1918-1938

Montenegro

2007-

Czechoslovakia (3rd Rep)

1946

The Netherlands

1918-

Czech Republic

1993

Norway

1905-

Denmark

1911-1934

Poland (2nd Republic)

1918-1926

Estonia (post-WWI)

1921-1934

Poland (3rd Republic)

1991-

Estonia (post-1989)

1992-

Portugal (1st Republic)

1919-1925

Finland (post-WWI)

1917-1930

Portugal (3rd Republic)

1976-

Finland (post-WWII)

1945-

Romania

1996-

France (2nd Republic)

1848-1851

Russia

2000-2006

France (3rd Republic)

1876-1940

San Marino (post-WWI)

1920-1923

France (4th Republic)

1946-1957

San Marino (post-WWII)

1945-

France (5th Republic)

1968-

Serbia

2001-

Georgia

2004-

Slovenia

1993-

Germany (Weimar Rep)

1925-1932

Spain (Restoration)

1900-1923

Germany (post-WWII)

1949-

Spain (2nd Republic)

1931-1936

Greece (King. of George I)

1875-1914

Spain (post-Francoist)

1979-

Greece (2nd Republic)

1926-1936

Sweden

1917-

Greece (post-WWII)

1946-1948

Switzerland

1897-

Greece (3rd Republic)

1975-

Turkey (post-WWII)

1946-1953

Hungary

1990-

Turkey (post-1960 coup)

1961-1979

Iceland

1944-

Turkey (post-1980 coup)

1983-

Ireland

1923-

Ukraine

1994-

Italy

1948-

United Kingdom

1919-

In terms of government composition, the database contains information on cabinet duration (i.e. dates of formation and termination), the names of the various ministerial offices as well as of the people[3] appointed to occupy them, and the partisan affiliation of each minister at the time a particular cabinet is appointed.[4]

In accordance with the party government literature (Müller and Strøm, 2000), the database records changes of government in three different instances:

a) change in the partisan composition of the government coalition,
b) change in the prime minister, and
c) celebration of parliamentary elections.

In case of electoral coalitions, the database also displays information about the partisan affiliation of the ministers belonging to the different parties within the coalition. In those instances when two or more political formations merged to form a new party, the partisan affiliation of the ministers belonging to the parties merged is also shown.

In terms of party systems, and closely following the party politics literature (Bartolini and Mair, 1990; Huntington, 1968; Lijphart, 1999; Mainwaring and Scully, 1995; Sartori, 1976), the database contains operationalisations and measurements for six different classic indicators:

a) party system institutionalisation, calculated in four different periods (pre-WWI, inter-war, post-WWII, and post-1989),

b) party institutionalization, calculated according to average party age as well as Lewis’ (2006) index,

c) electoral volatility, measured by Pedersen’s (1979) index,
d) the effective number of (electoral and legislative) parties, measured by Laakso and Taagepera’s index,
e) the number of “new” parties, with at least 0.5 per cent of votes,
f) polarization, calculated as the percentage of votes obtained by anti-establishment-parties, and
g) electoral disproportionality, measured by Gallagher’s (1991) index.

All in all, the database covers 166 years, 66 different historical political regimes, roughly 670 elections, and more than 1600 cases of government formation.

Finally, and for those interested in more than plain data, the Observatory also runs a blog where country experts post their knowledgeable opinions on the latest process of cabinet formation (for example in Bulgaria, Ukraine, Kosovo, Romania), including inside analyses on coalition negotiations, possible government alternatives, future outcomes and expectations, and the like.

Fernando Casal Bértoa is a Research Fellow at the University of Nottingham (UK). This article first appeared on blog Presidential Power and is available here. The Party Systems and Governments Observatory tweets from @whogovernseu.