perceiving meaningful connections among unrelated or random phenomena; try to make sense out of connections those connections dont actually exist

apophenia

giving meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena

Apophenia

making meaningful connections among unrelated things (Lincoln and JFK)

apophenia

perceiving meaningful connections among unrelated or random phenomena

Making sense out of connections

"see what you want to see"

Ex. Comparison between Abe v. Lincoln

similar coincidence

Pareidolia

Seeing meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli

Ex. Dog smiling, shapes in clouds

Pareidolia

a vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon, and hearing non-existent hidden messages on records played in reverse.

organismic variability (all organisms of the same species are different)

environmental fluctuation (environment is always changing)

competition

adaption to circumstances

reproductive stress (fitness)

speciation (reproductive isolation)

Speciations

Can reproduce among themselves.

Reproductive isolated unit

Formation of new species

speciation

evolve new species, but the species cannot reproduce with old species and a new one is formed

Correlated Variation

When one advantageous trait is gained, others are too, which may or not have any purpose. Think of the furry cats that evolved during ice age that had the weird purr ability.

Correlated variation

offspring will get the gene, but the gene comes with other traits as well and eventually leads to speciation

correlated variation

when an organism adapts, many parts of the body are modified

Correlated Variation

When one part modified under selection, other parts are unavoidably altered. Varieties rarely differ by a single characteristic alone. We didn't know genes at this point.

Correlated Variation

can effect more than one trait that may not matter for reproductive success

Pleiotropy

phenomenon in which a single gene determines a number of distinct and seemingly unrelated characteristics

pleiotropy

oOccurs when one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits

oA gene codes for at least 2 traits

Pleiotropy

one gene has multiple traits

Pleiotropy

gene with many other effects than one

pleiotropy

any trait is influenced by the expression of a gene (turning the gene on and off)

Pleiotropy

modern adaptive trait

Edward L. Thorndike

-Puzzle box cats

-Law of effect: When a response is followed by satisfaction the S-R connection is strengthened. When it is followed by discomfort, the S-R connection is weakened. Rewarded behavior is likely to return.

Edward L. Thorndike

-animal learning

-Thorndike's puzzle box

-Law of Effect: connection between stimulus & response is strengthened when accompanied or closely followed by a satisfying state of affairs

Edward Thorndike

Animal learning

Law of Effect

if behavior is rewarding, it will be repeated

Edward L. Thorndike

Did studies at Columbia University. Studied animal learning. Came up with law of effect, operant conditioning. In a nutshell: If it feels good, repeat it. If rewarded, you'll do it again.

auditory interaction of mallard hens and their offspringgo out into the field as a starting point then into the labnesting mallard--> 24 hr recording of vocalization of mallards: hear what others dont if not in the field.sonigram, visualizing sound so you can measure it, shape of the notes

Starting point for subsequent lab investigations

Find something interesting first... Dr. Miller's mallard hen and offspring auditory interaction were in field first, then in lab.

Validate or add Substance to Previously Obtained Lab Data

Some scientists discovered Tonic Immobility in the lab, but they didn't know how if organisms actually did this in nature and what its purpose was.Caching behavior in foxes- bury the food they've caught and save them for later = purpose of TI

Provide Information on Species Variables for Efficient Lab Study

- Species differences in predation cues

- Color vision

Use Field as Natural "Lab" to Test Hypothesis

Some animals need to be researched in their own environment since their behavior changes so much in the lab

Sexual dimorphism (the 2 sexes of the species look REALLY different) & evolution of elaborate structures

Should be disadvantageous --> predation

Reproductive advantage ONLY

Sexual selection

Credited to Darwin. Sexual dimorphism and evolution of elaborate structures... has a reproductive advantage only! Sexual dimorphism only occurs in species with sexual selection, and the two sexes look VERY different.

Sexual Selection

occurs in exreme cases of sexual dimorphism where the trait confers a reproductive advantage

Sexual Selection

Charles Darwin

sexual dimorphism: male & female look extremely different

reproductive advantage

cons of field research

lack on control

small sample size

predation

-subjects die

Cons of field research

lack of control, small sample size, predation

Pros and Cons of Field Research

PROS

-external validity: generalizability

•if you study Mallard ducks in

NC & learn something, chances are Mallard

ducks in Russia may be the same

-fewer artifacts: caused by unnatural contexts

Context

It matters

context

something that greatly effects behavior

Context

behavior is dependent on context (greatly affects social structure), They put themselves in a certain place...rheesus monkeys (urban vs. jungle)

Context

natural vs. unnatural

Continuum of Observational Settings Based on Degree of Control by Investigator

FIELD= Least environmental control

Unobtrusive field observations

Obtrusive field observations

Semifree field observations

Observations in captivity

Complete environmental control

LAB= Most environmental control

Unobtrusive Field Observations

Inconspicuous, the subject is unaware of the observer.

Unobtrusive field observations

- inconspicuous

- blinds

Unobtrusive Field Observations

inconspicuous

blinds

experimenter is hidden

Obtrusive Field Observations

--participant observer (subjects are aware of experimenter)

--accustom, record

obtrusive field observations

you become part of the group and while you are participating, you record data

Obtrusive Field Observations

participant observer

accustom/record

need to get close to your subject, you become one of the group

semifree field observations

- enclosed or confined

-- islands

-- large zoological parks (not cages)

Semifree Field Observations

Enclosed or confined

Something limiting where you go

-Exx: Large zoo

Semifree Field Observations

--enclosed or confined subjects (ie islands)

Semifree Field Observations

enclosed or confined

islands, zoo

Zuckerman

anatomist, studied baboons in the london zoo

300 males, 30 females: biased sex ratio

year round breeding, aggression, and competition

^how he believed primates were in the wild

Evolutionary Psychology/Ethology

Darwin

adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional, etc competencies as they change with age

Apply methods of study animals to humans

Facial Gestures

Things that are species specific.

Raise eyebrows when see someone we know from a distancde

Facial gestures

things that aren't culture specific but species specific

Facial gestures

Looks for facial gestures in all cultures... take pictures in camera lens on the SIDE, no in front. Found we "eyebrow flash". Huge ethical issues.

Facial Gestures

went to hundreds of different countries to try to find similarities between two species

eyebrow flashing: done in different contexts, someone walks towards you and you recognize them

Reliability

Need more than one observer

reliability

you have second student out there

Reliability

greater than of equal to two report seeing the same thing (if 90% same notes, then reliable)

manipulated by experimenter, can be situational subjective or organismic

The independent variable

Manipulated by experimenter. Can be situational (like the physical environment), subject (like attribute of subject), or organismic (an internal change)

Independent Variables

manipulated by experimenter- (temp, lighting, age, gender)

independent variable

variable in the experiment that the experimenter manipulates

Independent Variable

manipulated by experimenter

situational: physical environment

subject: attribute of subject (age, gender)

organismic: internal manipulation (change brain, hormones)

Dependent Variable

Response measured

Behavioral Outcome

Dependent variable

Response measured

Dependent variable

Response measured (behavior)

dependent variable

response MEASURED

The dependent variable

Is the response to changes in the independent variable

Dependent Variable

The response that is measured (reaction time, reading comprehension)

dependent variable

variable that the independent variable affects

measures the response

Dependent Variable

Response measured

relies on the independent variable

extraneous variable

any aspect of the experimental setting(lighting, temperature) that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation.

Extraneous variable

Variables that influence the outcome of an experiment but are not the variables that are actually of interest.

extraneous variable

affects behavior without you wanting it to

Extraneous variables...

intrude. The control is held constant. Confounding varies systematically with independent variable and can influence the dependent variable. Random sampling/assignment and large sample sizes lower impact of confounding variables

Extraneous Variable

can render the design useless

Confounding Variable: Coke vs. Pepsi

People were paying attention to the letters not the tasted

Example of confounding variable: M and Q : Coke and Pepsi

Participants picked the certain cans based on letters not flavor

letter-not taste- preference

Clever Hans

·horse who could perform simple math problems.A psychologist observed and asked trainer to stand behind a barrier and ask the horse to answer the problems; this time the horse could not see the trainer. Trainer asked and Hans got the question wrong.What really was going on: Hans the horse looked at body language on when to stop tappingHorses good at non verbal communication.

oBehavior due to prompting = confounding variable

Clever hans

Behavior due to prompting, owner moved head slightly when hans reached the right answer.

Clever Hans

Osten unknowingly gave the horse answers

counterbalancing

technique for controlling order effects; distrubute progressive error across different treatment condiions of experiment; prevents carryover

Counterbalancing

EX: if a sound is being projected it must be projected from the left 50% of the time and the right 50% of the time

Counterbalancing

simultaneous preference test

coke & pepsi balance out

only works with 2+ stimuli

other ways of controlling extraneous variables

Single blind(placebo): subject is "blind" and controls for subject bias

Double blind: experimenter and subject are "blind" and controls for Experimenter & Subject bians, and Clever Hans. Experimenter has a helper conduct experiment

Sham Operates

Organismic study: Surgery for E and C. E gets internal manipulation while C does not. This controls for the effects of trauma of surgery alone.

Sham operates

surgery can be traumatic

organismic studies: experimental and control groups receive same pre-op and post-op care, but only subjects in experimental group get the actually internal manipulation surgery

controls for surgical trauma ---> sham operates!

Sham operates

surgery can be traumatic

organismic studies: experimental and control groups receive same pre-op and post-op care, but only subjects in experimental group get the actually internal manipulation surgery

controls for surgical trauma ---> sham operates!

Sham Operates

both groups are treated identically but only experimental group gets brain manipulation, other just gets mock surgery

Sham Operates

Experimenter receives an experimental manipulation during surgery and the control does not; nobody is told and the "post-surgery trauma" is measured

Sham Operates

organismic studies

focus on internal manipulation

Experimental and Control go into surgery

experimenter gets manipulation

surgery changes a person

Yoked control

oE Group controls event

oC group “yoked” and passively receives sameevent as E

oTests effects of arousal

oShows how learning works

Yoked Control

only E controls event. C yoked to E. C passively recieves same event as E. Make sure arousal is not affecting outcome.

Yoked Control

Only E controls event.

C yoked to E

C passively recieves same event as E.

Make sure arousal is not affecting outcome.

Yoked control --> passively receives the reward

yoked control

both groups receive reward although only one performed the action, to make sure that arousal from reward doesn't affect behavior

Yoked control

Only the experimental group controls the event... C "yokes" E. C PASSIVELY receives the same event as E, eliminated arousal as a modifier. Especially useful to study animal learning (rats and milk)

Yoked Control

Only E controls the event, but C receives same reward; C is yoked

Yoked Control

only experimenter controls the event

2 brothers, 1 brother gets all As and gets rewarded with $. The parents feel bad and reward the other brother as well.

smart brother controls the experiment

internal validity

results are the result of differences in the way groups are treated, not a results of who we happen to place in those groups

Treats parkinson's and other movement disorders. Human-maid and old. L-Dopa allows for cure of Parkinson's... while taking it... and causes psychotic behavior. Too much dopamine leads to schizophrenia, and then you get used to the dopamine and you redevelop Parkinson's. Brain grafts and stem cells prove more promising.

L-Dopa

human-made drug for Parkinson's disease

worked well but no one realized it was a trade off for psychosis bc of too much dopamine in the brain - schizophrenia

brain grafts: taking dopamine tissue and putting it in an area where it's needed

L-Dopa

Human-made drug

used to treat Parkinsons because it mimics dopamine

side effect: psychosis

stopped long-term use because you need more for it to remain affective

-NMDA receptor which is specific to glutamate, good communication in hippocampus

-Alcohol blocks the NMDA receptor so disruption of learning and memory

Glutamate

most abundant in the CNS (hippocampus)

NMDA receptor: glutamate helps in learning and memory

alcohol blocks the glutamate receptor

Glutamate

most abundant throughout CNS

learning & memory

NMDA receptor

alcohol clogs NMDA receptor

abundant in the hippocampus

The Role of Dopamine and Glutamate in Forming an Addiction

Dopamine fuels the high, which makes you LIKE it.

Glutamate gets you addicted by making you WANT it.

serotonin

sleep and emotion

Low levels(violent suicide)

dominance in nonhuman primates (high levels)

Normal serotonin(heterosexual)

Low-Homosexual

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that takes part in temp. regulation, onset of sleep, dominance, sexual behavior and preferences and is low in those with SAD (seasonal effective disorder), and commit violent suicides.

wear a helmet that sines bright light on the head & gives a reflection

optogenetics

insert genetically-engineered, light-sensitive protein into neurons and stimulate neuron with fiber optic light to switch neurons on and off

Optogenetics

Inserting a light sensitive protein into a neuron that activates when a light is shined on it.

Optogenetics

Insert genetically-engineered, light-sensitive protein into neurons. Stimulate neuron with fiber optics light to switch neuron on or off. You can see behavioral result of individual neurons in this way.

Use optogenetics conditioning fear response, allows the rat to forget the conditioned fear. Now shine that light again, and conditioned fear response returns. Memory is stored but dormant.

optogenetics

insert genetically-engineered, light-sensitive protein into neurons and stimulate neuron with fiber optic light to switch neurons on and off

ex) off: mouse goes in patterned path; on: mouse goes crazy

Hindbrain

Lowest area of brain where brain meets spinal cord

Hindbrain

Pons, Medulla, Cerebellum

Hindbrain

made of the cerebelum, medulla, and the pons

hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum, if a cat was transected above this it could move but not act

Cerebellum

coordinates movement and posture

Cerebellum

Part of the Hindbrain.

-Coordinates specialized movement and posture.

-Larger in musicians who play stringed instruments with complex hand movement.

-Altered tempo= surge of activity in cerebellum of conductors

Cerebellum

coordinates movement and posture

music production and perception

increased growth in musicians

altered tempo --> cerebellum crazy

autism: tend to not make eye contact

purkinje cell: inhibitory; degeneration is autism

cerebellum

fine muscle movements, without purpose

Cerebellum

music production

Involved in higher order cognitive behavior

sensory function- able to respond to incoming info in sensory manner ex.altering tempo

Midbrain

the segment of the brainstem that lies btwn the hindbrain and the forebrain

GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide 1. Stop eating when full. Damage to a nucei of hypothalamus leads to low GLP-1, eats even when full. You eat when hungry... but introduce GLP-1, and even if hungry, won't eat.

Hypothalamus & Eating

damage to nuclei in the hypothalamus

regulates appetite

GLP 1: stop eating when you are full

increasing GLP 1 will cause less eating

only 1 component in the regulation

Hypothalamus and pituitary

secretes hormones switches on and off by hypothalamus

Hypothalamus and pituitary

Hypothalamus sends chemicals to pituitary (which is controlled by hypothalamus). Pituitary gland is technically part of the endocrine system.

Hypothalamus & Pituitary

Pituitary is part of the Endocrine System

regulated by the hypothalamus

sits under hypothalamus

Basal Ganglia

part of CNS

substantia nigra comm. with neural bundle causes basal to do its thing

Basal ganglia

Coordinates muscle movement, and located on the left and right of the thalamus.

Basal Ganglia

a set of nuclei

motor coordination

Parkinson's Disease

Newly discovered

psychiatric disorders

OCD & ADHD

Learning

Basal Ganglia

"Ganglia"

A set of nuclei: putamen

Motor coordination

Parkinson's disease

Newly discovered:

Psychiatric disorders

OCD & ADHD

Learning

basal ganglia

regulated muscle contractions for smooth movements

Locus

physical site on a chromosome of a trait or gene

Locus

identical sites on each chromosomal pair

Allele

Identical loci in a pair of chromosomes different variations

Alleles

-Gene pair: 1 from mom and 1 from dad

-Mendel (1860) discovered this

-Homozygous is the same proteins, meaning 2 dominant or 2 recessive

-Heterozygous is different proteins, meaning 1 dominant and 1 recessive

-Dominant of heterozygous will win, but you are still a carrier of recessive gene so you can pass it on

Alleles

Homozygous = same proteins (2 dominant or two recessive), Heterozygous = different proteins

Recessive/homozygous is more likely to be bad than dominant.

alleles

represent different genes

Nucleus

where genetic material is contained

1) Nucleus

group of cell bodies clustered inside CNS

Nucleus

-46 chromosomes/cell, 23 from mom and 23 from dad

-genes are made up of DNA

-Genes are on chromosomes inside nucleus

Nucleus

46 chromosomes/cell

23 from mom

23 from dad

Fragile x syndrome

both sexes

SEVERE mental retardation

Growth abnormalities

Fragile X syndrome

Both sexes, asymptomatic carrier possibility, mental retardation and learning disorders. Growth abnormalities (large, long head, protruding ears, large testicles), caused by overproduction of proteins and found in chimpanzees (evolutionarily old)

Fragile X Syndrome

-Both sexes

-Asymptomatic carrier personality, not show symptoms

-Mental retardation and learning disorders

-Growth abnormalities, such as long head and protruding ears and large testicles