Can NHS hospitals do more with less?

Transcription

1 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Research report Jeremy Hurst and Sally Williams January 2012

2 Acknowledgements We would like to thank the librarians at the Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham for their invaluable help with the literature review, and colleagues at the Nuffield Trust for their support: Dr Judith Smith, Dr Jennifer Dixon, Dr Martin Bardsley, Anita Charlesworth, Dr Benedict Rumbold, Elizabeth Eastmure and Lisa Cook. Our particular thanks go to Professor Aileen Clarke at the University of Warwick. We are also grateful to Peter Smith, Professor of Health Policy at Imperial College London; Dame Julie Moore, Chief Executive of the University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust; Jim Mackey, Chief Executive of the Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust; and Clive Smee, Visiting Professor of Economics at the University of Surrey, who served as advisers to this project, and to Andy McKeon, Managing Director, Health at the Audit Commission, Nuffield Trust trustee and Chair of the Quest for NHS Efficiency programme steering group, for their comments on our emerging thinking. Our sincere gratitude goes to all the NHS executive managers, clinicians and others who generously took time out of their busy schedules to speak with us during the course of this project. (A list of all those interviewed is contained in Appendix B.) The Quest for NHS Efficiency The NHS is facing one of the most significant financial challenges in its history, with efficiency savings of at least 4 per cent per year now required. This comprehensive programme of research aims to help the NHS respond to the financial challenges ahead by examining how health services can improve productivity and deliver more for less. It is informed by rigorous analysis of existing UK and international research evidence, and sets out practical recommendations for managers, clinicians and policy-makers about how the NHS can improve productivity and respond to what has been dubbed the Nicholson challenge. An accompanying research summary, based on this report and providing a policy analysis, has been produced. To download the summary, or further copies of this report, visit Find out more online at:

5 5 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Focusing on the determinants of efficiency 71 The external environment 71 Management and the adoption of new technology 71 Changes to hospital processes 72 Need for further work 73 Some brief policy conclusions 73 Appendix A: Research methods 74 Appendix B: List of interviewees 76 Appendix C: Concepts and measurement of efficiency 78 References 81 About the authors Inside back cover

7 7 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Foreword The financial challenge facing the UK s health services over the next four years, combined with the relentless rise in the demand for services, means that it is imperative that the NHS delivers more for less. Simply maintaining real spending and the current level of activity will not be enough. Substantial improvements in productivity are needed if new demands are to be met, new innovations are to be funded and significant shortcomings in the quality of some services are to be remedied. The authors of this report studied UK and international literature on hospital efficiency, and surveyed senior managers and clinicians in six hospital trusts that had been turned around following financial difficulties. They found much research evidence on what measures are associated with higher productivity in hospitals. They gleaned practical lessons from the managers about what successful steps had been taken to improve efficiency in their financially challenged hospitals. Their findings highlight the crucial roles that good leadership and effective clinical and general management play in driving hospital efficiency improvements. They underline the importance of creating an external environment that will support and incentivise hospital managers in the battle for greater productivity. They also point to some of the many ways in which the processes of delivering hospital services can be reshaped to raise productivity. There are important lessons here for the new local clinical commissioning groups and the national NHS Commissioning Board. This report is part of the Nuffield Trust s Quest for NHS Efficiency programme. An accompanying research summary highlights the report s key findings within the context of the current Government health reforms. The publications and other resources, together with more information on our work in this area, can be accessed at Judith Smith Head of Policy, Nuffield Trust

8 8 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Executive summary Aims The NHS needs to make unprecedented efficiency savings of 20 billion over the next four years (4 per cent per year) to bridge the gap between a virtual freeze in real-terms funding, and rising demand. Its chances of doing this will depend to a significant extent on hospitals improving productivity and efficiency, since hospitals account for the bulk of health spending and have seen a fall in their quality-adjusted productivity in recent years. This report seeks to understand the factors that determine efficiency within hospitals and how hospital trusts can best make cost savings by improving efficiency, based on UK and international experience. Methods The report is based on two separate strands of investigation. The first was a review of UK and international research literature about ways to improve hospital efficiency. The second was fieldwork, consisting of a small survey of senior executive managers and clinicians in trusts that have been turned around following financial difficulties, without reducing their quality of care. The researchers also interviewed a small number of national experts, to test emerging ideas and conclusions. The determinants of hospital efficiency The hypothesis adopted in this study is that the determinants of hospital efficiency fall into three distinct areas: the external environment: this includes such factors as the financial pressure on hospitals; competition and other market forces; performance monitoring and management; and the availability of cost-effective treatments and technologies hospital management: this covers such factors as leadership and the use of effective management practices; cooperation between managers and clinicians; and the speed at which new and cost-effective treatments and technologies are adopted hospital operational processes: these include the control of labour costs; the use of nursing skill-mix; shortening length of stay; and measures intended to reduce errors and increase quality. Findings: the external environment Financial pressure: One of the most striking and consistent findings from NHS history and the international literature is that financial pressure on hospitals is associated with improvements in crude productivity, although its impact on quality is less clear. However, increased activity has been the main source of hospital efficiency gain during previous contractions in the NHS. It may not be possible to increase activity in the coming financial contraction, if clinical commissioners assert themselves, pushing

9 9 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? for the shift towards care closer to home, if the tariff is reformed to bear down on additional volume, and if pressure is applied to maintain or raise quality. The fieldwork for this study suggested that it is much easier to increase activity than to take costs out of the system; but going forward the emphasis must shift towards cost containment rather than revenue growth. Competition, payment, and performance management: The NHS internal market is likely to support the pursuit of hospital efficiency, since there is evidence that strong commissioning arrangements, an element of competition, and case-based payment systems such as England s Payment by Results are positively associated with hospital efficiency. However, the kind of competition matters. UK studies have suggested that while competition on price may eventually bear down on costs it may also impact on quality. There are signs that the publication of information on quality can help to raise standards, at least for the activities highlighted. However, it is too early to judge the impact of pay-for-performance schemes such as England s Commissioning for Quality and Innovation (CQUIN). Technological change: Although financial pressure tends to improve crude productivity, it is the introduction of new technology that holds promise for improving qualityadjusted health care over the longer term, by extending treatment possibilities and by enhancing outcomes. Yet it is difficult to reap net cost savings from new technologies. Although there are examples of medical advances representing cheaper substitutes for existing therapies, it is more common for them to lead to treatments for conditions for which there were previously no (or no effective) therapies, and for these to be introduced at premium prices. The fieldwork for this research found good examples of IT and other innovations being introduced to turnaround trusts to secure efficiency benefits. But the diffusion of many cost-effective technologies varies significantly across the NHS hospitals, with profound consequences for outcomes. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has a vital role to play in guiding NHS organisations towards cost-effective technologies. Findings: hospital management Leadership and clinical engagement: Good leadership, effective management practices and strong clinical engagement are the cornerstones on which hospital efficiency can be improved. The indicators of good management include human resource practice, such as setting clear performance targets and rewarding staff for meeting them. There is a firm belief among NHS executives that embedding an ongoing pursuit of efficiency relies on the delegation of responsibility and accountability for budgets to business units within a hospital, with service-line reporting being seen as one of the most powerful tools for engaging clinicians in discussions about cost and quality. Recognition of and support for good management will be critical in achieving efficiency gains in NHS hospitals. Process re-engineering and pathway redesign: Over the past two decades, a great deal of attention has been paid to process re-engineering in hospitals, drawing on the experience of private firms. Studies have however shown that attempts to re-engineer whole organisations have met with limited success. The fieldwork for this research suggested that several turnaround trusts had re-engineered pathways, and there is

10 10 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? some evidence that re-engineering can work at the departmental or ward level, and that it should be targeted on those services with high reference costs and/or concerns about quality. Findings: hospital operational processes At an operational level, there are few quick and simple fixes for hospital inefficiency. Achieving efficiency requires the diagnosis of multiple sources of inefficiency followed by adjustments on many fronts to the quantity and quality of care, the volume and skill-mix of staff, and the technology used to deliver care. There is a vast amount of knowledge about how to extract efficiencies from hospitals. What is much more difficult is to put these into practice in a concerted and sustained manner. Significant clinical and general managerial time and effort will be required, in a context of focused business planning and organisational development. Length of stay and bed reductions: Reducing length of stay and increasing day case treatment have been strongly associated with past efficiency gains. International evidence suggests the NHS still has some way to go in terms of reducing its average length of stay, and that moving specialist medical staff into the community and focusing on long-term care may be necessary to achieve this. Eventually, further reductions in bed numbers will be needed if the NHS is to remain efficient; both the NHS Confederation and The King s Fund have argued that it would be better if whole sites closed or had radical changes to the service they deliver, even though this is likely to be unpopular with communities and could restrict competition and choice. The picture is complicated by the Private Finance Initiative (PFI), which has created some up-to-date and efficient but inflexible NHS capacity. The large fixed costs associated with PFI facilities may mean that rationalisation is more likely on non-pfi sites. Mergers: Studies have suggested that the impact of hospital mergers on efficiency is mixed, because any management failure to focus on the human impact of major change can bring about a dip in performance. Likewise, there are limits to the economies of scale possible through mergers; these may be better achieved by cooperation between hospitals to reduce the duplication of services and concentrate buying power. Quality initiatives: Quality and efficiency seem to be positively correlated. This may be because getting things right first time is good for patients and good for costs; although it is also likely that high quality and low costs are associated with sustained good management and the speedy diffusion of cost-effective technologies. The fieldwork identified several examples of quality initiatives that had led to efficiency gains, with infection prevention being one of the most significant examples. It is likely that reducing harm to patients will be a key area for efficiency gain in the coming years. Improving staff productivity: Staff costs are the first place to look for efficiencies. Key strategies for increasing staff productivity include: reducing staff numbers where there is relative slack, stopping the use of agency staff, securing better management of overtime and sickness absence, and (more tentatively) making skill-mix changes that preserve a rich clinical skill-mix when reducing overall numbers. Reducing the pay bill, through reductions in staff and skill-mix reviews, are strategies that NHS managers expect to use.

11 11 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Conclusions There have been a number of technical limitations to this study. It has confronted issues with multiple data sources, changes in reference costs and interpreting Care Quality Commission scores in trying to compile a set of statistics that reliably demonstrate changes in a trust s productivity and efficiency over time. It has found that the measurement of quality in the literature on hospital efficiency is invariably missing or incomplete. And it has found that studies of the determinants of efficiency are largely confined to observational studies, with an absence of controlled trials or longitudinal studies that link efficiency to its supposed determinants over time. Despite this, there is evidence to suggest that there are considerable efficiency gains yet to be made by the NHS in England. There are also indications from the research presented in this report as to what measures could be taken to secure such gains. More specifically, the research suggests that the financial and regulatory measures set out in the last three operating frameworks for the NHS in England and the quality, innovation and productivity elements of the Department of Health s Quality, Innovation, Productivity and Prevention (QIPP) agenda provide a sound basis for approaching efficiency improvements in English hospitals over the next four years. However, one of the strongest findings was that good leadership, and effective general and clinical management, are both crucial for making productivity gains. So it must be a worry that the current major reform and reorganisation of the NHS risk distracting managers and clinical leaders from this important and pressing agenda.

12 12 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? 1. Introduction Context The long years of increased spending are over for the NHS. From enjoying an average growth of nearly 7 per cent a year in real spending since the beginning of this century, the NHS in England is facing what will be virtually a real-terms freeze in funding for the four years from 2011/12 to 2014/15. It is required to deliver formidable efficiency savings of up to 20 billion, which should be released into funding front-line services for patients (Department of Health, 2010f). At a first glance, the omens for making such efficiency savings do not look good. The NHS can boast many achievements in recent years, but until very recently increased productivity was not one of them. Office for National Statistics data indicate that UK health care productivity fell by 3.3 per cent between 1995 and 2008, an annual average decline of 0.3 per cent (Penaloza and others, 2010). Most of this decline happened in the hospital sector, and most happened during a sub-period when there was unprecedented growth in funding. Although NHS productivity rose by 0.7 per cent in 2009, it still remained 2.7 per cent below its 1995 level (Hardie and others, 2011). Benchmarking data reveal the distance that the NHS needs to travel to reduce variations in day case rates, length of stay and other productivity indicators. The NHS now faces what NHS Chief Executive David Nicholson has described as the toughest financial climate it has ever known (Department of Health, 2009a: p2) at a time when demand is expected to continue rising. The volume and quality of NHS care is threatened if the productivity decline is not put into reverse especially in the hospital sector. The Department of Health has said that it is difficult to grow capacity and productivity at the same time (Department of Health, 2010a). Now that a period of contraction is upon us, will productivity gains be any more achievable, and can they be designed to contribute to the cost savings that are required? Much depends on the NHS s starting point in terms of efficiency. There is some international evidence that the health system in the UK is less efficient than the health systems in the majority of other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, including four out of the five countries which have health care institutions that are most like those of the UK (Joumard and others, 2010). It is small consolation, perhaps, that there is evidence from within the UK that the NHS in England is relatively efficient compared with the NHS in the rest of the UK (Connolly and others, 2010). At a glance, the financial outlook for the NHS may appear relatively secure, at least in comparison to other areas of public sector spending, with a commitment from the Coalition Government to increase health spending in real terms, if only marginally, in each of the next four years. However, such funding will not meet the growing demands on the NHS arising from advances in medical technology, rising expectations and demographic trends; neither

13 13 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? will it meet the cost of new priorities such as the NHS reorganisation which has been ordered by the Coalition Government (Department of Health, 2010b). In order to fund these demands, the NHS will be required to find, as mentioned above, efficiency savings of up to 20 billion (about 20 per cent of total NHS spending in England) in the four years from 2011/12 to 2014/15 (Department of Health, 2010f). The Department of Health s thinking on improving efficiency rests on, among other things, avoiding some hospitalisation by caring for more patients close to home, using the tariff payment system to lower hospital prices, and raising productivity (Department of Health, 2009a). The search for greater productivity should be combined with the pursuit of quality, innovation and prevention, as set out in the Department of Health s Quality, Innovation, Productivity and Prevention (QIPP) agenda (Department of Health, 2010d; 2010f). The funds released will then be available to be recycled into financing new demands and the changing priorities for the NHS (Department of Health, 2009a; 2010c; 2010f). In practice, much rests on the ability of the acute hospital sector the biggest spender of NHS resources and the main locus of the recent productivity decline to release resources by improving efficiency. It appears that acute hospitals will be facing a double squeeze: on the rate of growth of the levels of activity that they can expect to provide (with a proposed shift of more care to the community); and on the prices they receive for services (Department of Health, 2009a; 2010f). This report With this challenge in mind, this report seeks to understand how acute and mental health trusts can best make cost savings by improving efficiency, based on evidence and past experience of efforts to do this. It is part of the Nuffield Trust s Quest for NHS Efficiency programme of research. The focus in this report is almost entirely on efficiency within hospitals. The study has not looked systematically at whether the NHS or, indeed, hospitals would become more efficient if there were, for example, more or less primary or long-term care. Neither has it looked at the right role for hospital services on a multitude of patient pathways. In other words, this particular investigation is focused on some questions albeit large questions involving sub-optimisation within health care as a whole. As has been noted above, recent health policy in Britain has favoured shifting some care from hospitals to settings closer to home (Department of Health, 2006; 2009a). The evidence from other work undertaken by the Nuffield Trust (for example, Smith and others, 2009; Blunt and others, 2010) provides strong hints that there is potential to improve efficiency by shifting more care from hospitals into primary care or integrated care settings, and by reducing avoidable hospitalisation. Input prices have been assumed to be given to NHS hospitals partly because wages and salaries, and (indirectly through the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme) the price of drugs, are respectively partly and wholly negotiated centrally in the UK.

14 14 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? Turning to our research methods, this report is based on two separate strands of investigation: 1. A review of the British and international literature on the scale of hospital inefficiency, and ways to improve it the results of this review are included in this report. 2. Fieldwork consisting of a survey of senior executive managers and clinicians in six hospital trusts which, following financial difficulties a few years ago, appear to have been turned around, improving their efficiency without apparently reducing the quality of care. We also interviewed some experts. The results of these surveys are reported in boxes in Chapters 4 7. More details on the research methodology for each strand of investigation are reported in Appendix A. The report is organised into seven further chapters and three appendices. Chapter 2 is concerned mainly with concepts and measurement of hospital efficiency. Chapters 3 7 present the evidence from the literature review and the fieldwork survey. More specifically, Chapter 3 covers external influences on hospital efficiency, Chapter 4 deals with hospital management issues, Chapter 5 with the adoption of new technology, Chapter 6 with hospital operational processes, and Chapter 7 with staff productivity. Chapter 8 draws together some lessons for the NHS, as it faces the requirement to release cash by making major improvements to its productivity. Appendix A details the research methodology and includes the names of the trusts visited. Appendix B lists the names of all those interviewed as part of the fieldwork. Appendix C contains additional text on concepts and measurement of efficiency. Limitations to this investigation There are various technical limitations to this study. Efficiency is, roughly speaking, the ratio of outputs to inputs, or costs. Ideally, the measurement of outputs should include outcomes or the quality of care, as well as its volume. However, the literature review has come up against the fact that invariably, measurement of the quality of health care is either missing or incomplete. We have used the term crude efficiency to denote measures of efficiency where quality adjustment is missing entirely. Moreover, most of the literature contains, at best, evidence on relative efficiency, because it adopts a benchmarking approach. In addition, the literature on the determinants of efficiency is confined to observational studies there are no reports of controlled trials. Finally, there is a dearth of longitudinal studies that link efficiency to its postulated determinants through time.

15 15 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? 2. Hospital efficiency and its determinants This chapter addresses the conceptualisation of hospital efficiency and the formidable difficulties that attend its measurement. It moves on to suggest that efficiency is very variable among hospitals according to the best available evidence. Also, hospital efficiency has been deteriorating since 2001 in the UK. The chapter concludes by presenting a conceptual framework of the determinants of hospital efficiency. Capturing efficiency Descriptions of concepts of efficiency as they apply to this project are contained in Appendix C. The project is concerned with productive efficiency, which combines technical efficiency or productivity (broadly speaking, maximising the ratio of outputs or outcomes to inputs) and cost-efficiency (minimising the monetary cost of purchasing the output or outcomes produced by a technically efficient mix of inputs). However, as mentioned previously, input prices have been assumed to be given to hospitals. A discussion of measurement issues is also in Appendix C. Some of the best literature on the determinants of hospital efficiency employs frontier methods to measure efficiency: that is, the most efficient hospitals (on the frontier) are identified and the distance that other, less efficient hospitals lie from the frontier is quantified in percentage terms. If possible, the measurement of output should include the quality 1 as well as the volume of health care provided. That is, it should include effectiveness the impact of health care activities on health outcomes and patient experience or satisfaction. However, in practice, quality measurement is invariably incomplete or lacking entirely (in the latter case, the measurement of productivity or efficiency is crude ). (An outline of the difficulties this study encountered measuring the efficiency of NHS trusts in preparation for and during the fieldwork is included in Appendix C.) The extent of hospital inefficiency The development of frontier techniques for measuring inefficiency (see Appendix C) has generated a large literature on the measurement of efficiency and productivity in health services. As mentioned previously, at the international level, Joumard and others (2010) have used frontier techniques to examine the efficiency with which OECD countries turn health care resources into longevity, after controlling for other determinants of mortality. Their findings suggest that the UK is less efficient than many other OECD countries, including four out of five of the countries which have health institutions most similar to those in the UK. This study relates to whole health systems, and therefore is limited by the highly aggregate data which were used and the difficulties of comparing outcomes across countries. Several studies that have not used 1 This report adopts the healthcare quality framework set out by Donabedian (1966). In particular, it embraces the idea that outcomes represent the ultimate validation of the quality of care.

16 16 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? frontier techniques suggest that the NHS in England is relatively efficient compared with the rest of the UK (see, for example, Connolly and others, 2010). A recent paper has suggested that there are considerable variations in (quality-adjusted) productivity in hospital and community health services across English health regions the least efficient region is 6.5 per cent less efficient than the national average (Bojke and others, 2010). In principle, more accurate measurement of efficiency should be possible for entities that are smaller than nations or regions. Hollingsworth (2008) reports finding 317 published papers on frontier efficiency measurement of productive units in health care. About half of these studies concern hospitals, most utilise some measure of patients treated as output (that is, they are crude ), many are American and most are crosssectional rather than longitudinal. Hollingsworth has prepared some summary statistics from the findings of these studies. The mean efficiency across all the hospital studies is 83.5 per cent (where maximum efficiency = 100 per cent). The mean efficiency in US hospitals is 82.6 per cent and in EU hospitals is 86.0 per cent. Interestingly, the mean in public hospitals (at 88.1 per cent) is higher than that in for-profit hospitals (at 80.1 per cent), and even higher than that in not-for-profit hospitals (at 82.5 per cent). There is considerable dispersion around these means, suggesting significant potential for improvements in efficiency. However, Hollingsworth points to the many difficulties of measuring efficiency by using frontier techniques, and counsels against drawing very firm operational conclusions at this stage in the development of the literature. Hollingsworth does not summarise British studies. However, Maniadakis and others (1999) found mean efficiency levels between 86 per cent and 92 per cent in Scottish hospitals between 1991/92 and 1995/96, and Hollingsworth and Parkin (2003) found mean efficiency levels of 86.3 per cent and 90.7 per cent in acute hospitals in one English region in 1994/95 and 1995/96, respectively. The standard deviations of the English efficiency scores in these two years were 13.9 per cent and 11 per cent, respectively, suggesting that there was much larger scope for efficiency improvements in some hospitals than in others. Indeed, the full range of efficiency scores was from about 20 per cent to 100 per cent. Changes in hospital productivity Estimates of trends in productivity have been available for the Hospital and Community Health Services (HCHS) as a whole in England for a period beginning in From 1974 to at least 1999 (judging by Smee, 2005) these estimates were based on the so-called cost weighted activity index, which lacked quality adjustments, and on an index of the volume of inputs to the HCHS. This measure of crude HCHS productivity, prepared by the Department of Health, remained fairly flat for various periods between 1974 and 1999, but rose sharply between 1982 and 1987, following the introduction of performance measurement and general management into the NHS in It rose again briskly between 1992 and 1995, following the introduction of the NHS internal market reforms and, it should be added, the setting of explicit targets by the Department of Health for efficiency gains. In all, the index rose about 20 per cent between 1974 and 1999 (Smee, 2005). Presumably, if there had been quality adjustment, the index would have risen even faster, since there was significant technological change over the period.

17 17 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? The Office for National Statistics now publishes estimates of productivity trends for the NHS with quality adjustments. The preferred quality adjustments are based on the following: survival health gains and waiting times in hospital primary care outcomes patient experience. As has been mentioned above, recent estimates suggest that quality-adjusted productivity for the HCHS fell by 3.3 per cent between 1995 and 2008; an annual average decline of 0.3 per cent, despite the fact that the estimated quality component of output rose over the period. Virtually all of the fall in productivity occurred between 2001 and 2008 the period of rapid expansion of the NHS (Penaloza and others, 2010). Most of this fall appears to have been due to declining productivity in the HCHS. Crude HCHS productivity fell by 16.7 per cent over the period; an annual average decline of 1.4 per cent (Penazola and others, 2010). Unfortunately, quality-adjusted productivity estimates are not available for the separate components of the NHS. Determinants of productive efficiency in hospitals There are significant bodies of both empirical evidence and professional judgement as to what determines variations in efficiency across hospitals. Measures of efficiency in the literature vary widely, ranging from crude measures (lacking quality adjustment), such as operating profit or loss (in the US) and average cost per case across the hospital, adjusted for case mix using diagnosis-related groups (DRGs) or health care resource groups (HRGs) (in many countries), to quality-adjusted measures which allow, if only partially, for the quality as well as the volume of output. Efficiency in a particular hospital is often measured relative to that in a benchmark hospital (or group of benchmark hospitals), which appears to be most efficient. In what follows, particular attention has been paid to studies that use frontier analysis to estimate which the most efficient hospitals are, and how relatively inefficient the remaining hospitals are (see Appendix C). Quantitative exploration of what determines relative efficiency can then take place using methods such as regression analysis (see Appendix C). The determinants of productive efficiency in hospitals may lie partly in the hospitals themselves and partly in the external environment particularly the economic environment. Figure 2.1, which is used to organise the structure of the remainder of this report, elaborates on these hypotheses. Hospital productive efficiency which depends on the ratio between outputs and costs lies at the centre of the figure. It is likely to be associated (in the next concentric ring) with certain methods of production or processes, such as providing a high proportion of elective surgery on a day case basis. The adoption of efficient processes, in its turn, is likely to depend (in the next concentric ring) on factors such as: effective leadership management and organisational culture

18 18 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? doctors engagement staff skills and engagement the speed of adoption of cost-effective, technological change. Lastly (in the outermost concentric ring) the performance of the hospital is likely to depend partly on external factors such as: financial incentives information for benchmarking performance the availability of cost-effective technological change. The following five chapters in this report contain an examination of the determinants of hospital efficiency following Figure 2.1 ring-by-ring inwards, starting with the external environment in Chapter 3. Chapters 4 and 5 are devoted to management issues and to technology diffusion, respectively. Chapters 6 and 7 are devoted to hospital processes (excluding staff) and staff productivity, respectively. Key points Both literature review and fieldwork have encountered well-known difficulties with the measurement of efficiency. Much of the measurement of efficiency is crude: that is, it excludes quality (outcomes). Estimates of hospital inefficiency using a benchmarking (or frontier ) approach find average levels between 10 per cent and 20 per cent in many countries, including the UK. Estimated HCHS efficiency rose by about 20 per cent in crude terms between 1974 and 1999 in England. Quality-adjusted HCHS efficiency fell at an average rate of -1.4 per cent a year between 1995 and 2008 most of the decline was during the period of rapid expansion of the NHS after The determinants of hospital efficiency are many, and can be sought both within hospitals and in their external environment.

20 20 Can NHS hospitals do more with less? 3. The external environment This chapter addresses certain external determinants of efficiency within hospitals, such as: financial pressure technological change the degree of competition payment methods external performance management. Whereas the evidence is clear that some of these factors are associated with higher hospital productivity, the evidence on others is more mixed. As mentioned previously, this report does not look systematically at whether investment or disinvestment elsewhere in the health system would affect efficiency within hospitals. It notes simply that current health policy in Britain already favours shifting some care from hospital to settings closer to home. Financial pressure One of the most striking and consistent findings of the literature on hospital productivity is that external financial pressure is associated with improvements in hospital productivity. The term financial pressure can include one or more of the following: reductions in global budgets or revenues; a squeeze on prices or payment rates for services provided; and a rise in input prices not compensated for elsewhere. One or more of these factors may show up as a change in the surpluses or deficits of hospitals if no compensating actions are taken. Appleby (1999) has examined a long time series of real spending on the NHS (mainly covering a period when hospitals were financed by global budgets), and a crude measure of hospital productivity: discharges and deaths per pound of real spending in hospitals. His investigation reveals a linear, inverse relationship between annual changes in real spending and annual changes in crude productivity in the HCHS between 1951 and The volume of inpatient activity has increased reliably between 1 per cent and 5 per cent in most years, irrespective of the rate of growth of resources. This means that crude productivity has tended to fall when resources have grown rapidly as they did from 2000 to 2010 and has tended to rise when resources have grown slowly or have fallen in real terms. Unfortunately, Appleby was unable to measure the impact, if any, of this association on the quality of care. Appleby (2008) has described a similar relationship across England and Scotland. Scotland has been budgeted to spend about 18 per cent more per capita on health services than England in recent years. Yet, a number of very crude measures of hospital productivity including admissions + day cases per bed, admissions + day cases per nurse and operations per consultant suggest that productivity in Scotland has been

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