SichuanWade-Giles romanization Ssu-ch’uan, conventional Szechwansheng (province) of China. It is located in the upper Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley in the southwestern part of the country. Sichuan is the second largest of the Chinese provinces. It is bordered by the provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi to the north, the territory of Chongqing municipality to the east, the provinces of Guizhou and Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and the province of Qinghai to the northwest. Sichuan was the most populous province in China until Chongqing and adjacent areas were separated from it in order to create the independent province-level municipality in 1997. The capital, Chengdu, is located near the centre of the province.

From economic, political, geographical, and historical points of view, the heart and nerve centre of Sichuan is in the eastern, Sichuan Basin area, also called the Red Basin (Hongpen). Its mild and humid climate, fertile soil, and abundant mineral and forestry resources make it one of the most prosperous and economically self-sufficient regions of China. The area has been seen by some as China in a microcosm and is often viewed as a country within a country. The Chinese call the basin Tianfu Zhi Guo, meaning “Heaven on Earth.” Area 188,800

square miles (

487,000

square km). Pop.

(2010 prelim

.

) 80,418,200.

Land

Relief

The Sichuan Basin is bordered on all sides by lofty highlands. To the north the Qin (Tsinling) Mountains extend from east to west and attain an elevation between 11,000 and 13,000 feet (3,400 and 4,000 metres) above sea level. The limestone Daba Mountains rise to approximately 9,000 feet (2,700 metres) on the northeast, while the Dalou Mountains, a lower and less continuous range with an average elevation of 5,000 to 7,000 feet (1,500 to 2,100 metres), border the south. To the west the Daxue Mountains of the Tibetan borderland rise to an average elevation of 14,500 feet (4,400 metres). To the east the rugged Wu Mountains, rising to about 6,500 feet (2,000 metres), contain the spectacular Yangtze Gorges.

In general, the relief of the eastern region of Sichuan province is in sharp contrast to that of the west. The extensive Sichuan Basin and its peripheral highlands predominate in the east; the land slopes toward the centre of the basin from all directions. This basin was a gulf of the China Sea in the later Paleozoic Era (which ended about 250 million years ago); most of it is underlain by soft sandstones and shales that range in colour from red to purple.

Within the basin the surface is extremely uneven and gives a general appearance of badland topography. Numerous low, rolling hills are interspersed with well-defined high ridges, floodplains, valley flats, and small local basins. The most impressive portion of the basin’s surface is the Chengdu Plain—the only large continuous tract of relatively flat land in the province.

The landforms of western Sichuan include a plateau in the north and mountains in the south. The northern area is part of the edge of the Plateau of Tibet, which consists of highlands above 12,000 feet (3,700 metres) and higher mountain ranges. There is also an extensive plateau and some swampland. To the south the transverse mountain belt of eastern Tibet and western Yunnan province rises to an average of 9,000 to 10,000 feet (2,700 to 3,000 metres). Trending from north to south is a series of parallel lofty ranges with narrow divides and canyons more than a mile deep. Mount Gongga (Minya Konka), in the Daxue range, is the highest peak in the province, rising to a height of 24,790 feet (7,556 metres).

Sichuan lies in a highly active seismic zone. The eastern portion of the province is part of a relatively small crustal block that is being compressed by the mountainous western portion of Sichuan as it is displaced eastward by the constant northward movement of India against southern Asia. Over the centuries this activity has produced numerous strong earthquakes, including one in 1933 that killed nearly 10,000 people and a much more severe quake in 2008 that caused tens of thousands of deaths, hundreds of thousands of injuries, and widespread damage in the affected area (including Chengdu).

Drainage

Seen from the air, the principal drainage pattern of the eastern section of the province has the appearance of a leaf with a network of veins. The Yangtze—flowing from west to east—is conspicuous as its midrib, and the main north and south tributaries appear as its branch veins. Especially important are the Jialing and Min river systems in the north. The distribution of these veins is primarily concentrated in the upper, or northern, half of the leaf.

The four main tributaries of the Yangtze are the Min, Tuo, Jialing, and Fu rivers, which flow from north to south. Most of the major streams flow to the south, cutting steep gorges in the west or widening their valley floors in the soft sediments of the Sichuan Basin; they then empty into the Yangtze before it slices its precipitous gorge through the Wu River below Wanxian (now in Chongqing municipality). Within the basin most of the rivers are navigable and are a common means of transportation.

Soils

There are six major soil regions—three in the east and three in the west. In the east they include the highly fertile purple-brown forest soils for which the Red Basin is named. This group of soils rapidly absorbs and loses water, and it erodes easily. The other eastern soils consist of the noncalcareous alluvium and rice paddy soils of the Chengdu Plain and other river valleys and the yellow earths of the highlands and ridges. The alluvial soils are the most important group agriculturally, as they are highly fertile and are formed mainly from the rich black soils washed down from the Tibetan borderlands. The yellow earths are usually gray-brown in colour, are generally less fertile, and are agriculturally unimportant. The three major groups of soils in the west are the degenerated chernozem (dark-coloured soils containing deep, rich humus) soils of the Zoigê Marsh (Songpan Grasslands), the alluvial soils of the numerous valleys, and the podzolized (leached) gray-brown soils of the mountain slopes.

In Sichuan a form of soil erosion known as soil creep has developed. On hillsides where the surface slopes are composed of smooth sandstones, the covering soil gradually slides downward under the influence of gravity. In many places the thin surface soils have been completely removed, leaving only bare rocks. When the surface rock is composed of comparatively rougher shales, the soil is less easily moved.

Climate

The eastern basin area and the lower western valleys are sheltered from cold polar air masses by the surrounding mountains. The climate is therefore milder than would be expected and is similar to that of the Yangtze delta region. The eastern basin has more than 300 frost-free days annually, and the growing season is nearly year-round. In the west the sheltering effect of the mountains is evident from the contrast between the perennially snowcapped peaks and the mild weather prevailing in the valleys beneath them. During the summer, in the month of July, the mean temperature is about 84 °F (29 °C) in the south and lower than 68 °F (20 °C) in most parts of the west. During the winter the mean temperature in the west decreases northward from 54 °F (12 °C) in Xichang to 18 °F (−8 °C) in Qianning.

The eastern rainy season begins in April and reaches its peak during July and August. Annual precipitation (generally as rain) measures about 40 inches (1,000 mm) annually. The east is noted for its frequent fogs, its many cloudy days, the relative absence of wind, and the high relative humidity. The extent to which the region is overcast is reflected in the saying, “Sichuan dogs bark when they see the Sun.” Precipitation is lower in the west than in the east. The average total of about 20 inches (500 mm) falls mainly during the summer and early autumn, and there is heavy snowfall in the mountains during the winter.

Plant and animal life

There are four major vegetation regions in Sichuan: the pine-cypress-banyan-bamboo association of the basin area, the dense mixed association of coniferous and deciduous trees in the eastern highlands, the grasslands of the northwest, and the dense coniferous forests of the western highlands. Sichuan’s great differences in elevation, its low latitudinal position, its diversified topography, and its high rainfall make the area what has been called a paradise for botanists. Extensive forests grow on the upper slopes, and lush growths of rhododendrons are found below those forests, though still at high elevations; arid vegetation prevails on many canyon floors.

One of the outstanding features of vegetation of Sichuan province is its division into vertically differentiated zones. Cypress, palm, pine, bamboo, tung, and citrus fruit trees grow below 2,000 feet (600 metres), while between 2,000 and 5,000 feet (600 and 1,500 metres) there are evergreen forests and oaks. From 5,000 to 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 metres) the vegetation is characterized by dense groves of mixed coniferous trees. Between 8,500 and 11,500 feet (2,600 and 3,500 metres) there is a subalpine zone of coniferous forest, while above 11,500 feet there are alpine zones of scrub and meadow up to the snow line, which occurs at 16,000 feet (4,900 metres). One of the unique vegetational features is the presence of the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides)—a tree previously believed to be extinct—in the zone of mixed conifers.

Two of the most interesting indigenous animal species are the panda, or bear cat, and the lingyang (a special species of antelope). Both inhabit the highlands of western Sichuan, and both have become endangered because of overcutting of the vegetation that is the mainstay of their diet. However, the province is best known as the principal home of the world-famous and highly endangered giant panda, whose habitat is now largely confined to a series of protected areas in the mountains of central Sichuan; these reserves collectively were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2006.

People

Population composition

Sichuan province has one of the most diversified ranges of ethnic groups in all of China, including Han (Chinese), Yi (Lolo), Tibetans, Miao (Hmong), Tujia, Hui (Chinese Muslims), and Qiang peoples. Most of the Han—who constitute the major part of the population—live in the basin region of the east. The Yi reside in the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in the southwest, while the Tibetans are distributed in the plateau region of the west. The Miao live in the southern mountains, near Guizhou and Yunnan provinces. The Hui are concentrated in the Zoigê Marsh grasslands of the northwest and are also scattered in a number of districts in the east. The Qiang are concentrated in the Maoxian-Wenchuan area on both banks of the Min River.

The majority of the non-Han ethnic groups are fiercely independent and have maintained their traditional way of life. In most cases, they practice a mixture of agriculture, animal husbandry, and hunting. Among the Han there has been an influx of people from various neighbouring provinces, particularly from Hubei and Shaanxi. This immigration was especially intensified in the early part of the 18th century, as a result of the massacre of the people of Sichuan by a local warlord. The immigrants brought with them agricultural techniques that are reflected in the heterogeneity of present cultivation patterns.

There are three major linguistic groups: the Han, who speak Southern Mandarin; the Tibeto-Burman group, including the Tibetans and the Yi; and the Hui, who also speak Southern Mandarin but use Turkish or Arabic in their religious services. The Han practice a mixture of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. They do not maintain rigid boundaries in religious belief. The Tibetans follow their own form of Buddhism. Many people in the northwest profess Islam, while some hill peoples of the southwest practice traditional beliefs.

Settlement patterns

As one of the most densely populated provinces of China, Sichuan may be compared to the Yangtze River delta and the North China Plain. Its population is unevenly distributed, however, with most people concentrated in the eastern part of the province. The majority of the population is rural. There are comparatively few large villages and nucleated hamlets, except for the provincial and prefectural capitals. In the hilly regions, farmsteads are scattered through generally small and irregular terraced fields. In the Chengdu Plain the larger field units are commonly square or oblong in shape, and the farmsteads are surrounded by groves of banyan, cypress, mimosa, palm, or bamboo.

Most urban settlements give the appearance of being compactly built. Generally, the houses have only one story. There are no yards or sidewalks in front of the houses, which abut streets that are narrow and often are paved with limestone slabs. One of the outstanding features of urban settlement is the concentration of cities on river terraces, notably along the Yangtze River. Because water transportation is vital, large cities are always found wherever two major streams converge. Examples of such cities are Luzhou, at the juncture of the Yangtze and Tuo rivers, and Leshan, at the confluence of the Dadu and the Min. The principal characteristic of these urban sites is that their areas are limited by their locations, so that urban expansion is hindered; in addition, the hazards of flooding are always a problem. Chengdu, the provincial capital and Sichuan’s largest city, is located in the centre of the Chengdu Plain.

Economy

Sichuan, occupying an important position in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, is the strongest province in western China in terms of overall economic strength. The Sichuan Basin has a good natural environment, abounds in specialty products, and commands an ample labour force. Despite having been reduced in size and population when its eastern part was made into Chongqing municipality in 1997, Sichuan is still one of the country’s major provinces in terms of population, resources, economic development, and technological advancement. Its outputs of grain, meat, rapeseed, and silkworm cocoons are ranked among the highest in China. Completely integrated industrial sectors produce high-quality machinery, electronics, metallurgical products, chemicals, building materials, foodstuffs, and silk. Economic growth has been especially pronounced in Chengdu, Deyang, Leshan, Mianyang, Neijiang, Panzhihua, and Xichang.

Agriculture and forestry

Most of the population of Sichuan earn their livelihood from agriculture, and a large portion of the provincial exports are agricultural products. Cultivation is characterized by the diversity of crops, intensive land use, extensive terracing, irrigation, the cultivation of zaisheng dao (“rebirth” rice), and the special methods of soil culture, fertilization, composting, and crop rotation.

The basin area of eastern Sichuan is extensively terraced and is often called a “land of one million steps.” The terraces are of varying dimensions but are commonly long narrow strips of land that frequently have rather steep slopes. They are easy to construct because the bedrock is soft and weathers easily. Even 45-degree slopes have tiny steps of terraced land.

Irrigation is widely practiced in the terraced fields, and numerous methods and devices are employed. Among the most spectacular is the ancient Dujiangyan irrigation system of the Chengdu Plain, which dates to the Qin dynasty (221–207 bce); it captures the torrential flow of the Min River and guides it through an artificial multiplication of channels into numerous distributaries along the gently graded plain. Annual dredging keeps the river level constant. The system—part of a regional World Heritage site designated in 2000—is not only the oldest but also the most successful and easily maintained irrigation system in China. It has freed the plain from the hazard of floods and droughts and ensured the agricultural prosperity of the basin. A special landscape feature of the eastern basin is the dongshuitian (literally, “winter water-storage field”) system, in which large tracts of terraced fields are left fallow during the winter season and are used for the storage of water that is needed in the paddy fields in the spring; from the air they resemble a mosaic of broken mirrors.

Crops range from those of subtropical climates to those of the cool temperate zone. Although Sichuan is generally classified as a rice region, it is also a leading producer of such crops as corn (maize), sweet potatoes, wheat, rapeseed, gaoliang (a variety of grain sorghum), barley, soybeans, millet, and hemp and other fibre crops. Tropical fruits—such as litchi and citrus—grow together with the apples and pears of cool temperate climates. Other principal cash crops include sugarcane, peanuts (groundnuts), cotton, tobacco, silkworm cocoons, and tea.

Sichuan is a national leader in the total number of its cattle and pigs. It is the only region in China in which both water buffalo of South China and oxen of North China are found together. Pig bristles from Sichuan have been an important item of foreign trade for years. About half the inhabitants of the west are pastoral. Their animals include cattle, sheep, horses, donkeys, and yaks.

Sichuan is second only to China’s Northeast as a lumber region. Valuable forests are located on the peripheral highlands that surround the basin area and on the numerous hills within the basin. Western Sichuan still has much of its original forest cover. The most important products from the forests are tung oil, white wax, and various kinds of herbs.

Resources and power

Mineral deposits are abundant and varied. They include both metallic and nonmetallic deposits, such as iron, copper, aluminum, platinum, nickel, cobalt, lead and zinc, salt, coal, petroleum, antimony, phosphorus, asbestos, and marble. The production of brine salt is the most extensive mining activity. Petroleum and natural gas are often located together and are widely spread throughout the province, especially in the Zigong area. Natural gas has been used for centuries in the production of brine salt. Most coalfields are located in the eastern and southern mountain areas. The most important iron deposits are along the southern and western plateau areas; those of the western sector are of high-quality titaniferous magnetite associated with vanadium. Some placer gold is panned along the Jinsha (“Gold Sand”) River. Other valuable minerals include tin and sulfur.

Power is generated from a variety of small- and medium-sized thermal and (in the mountains) hydroelectric plants scattered throughout the province. Power supplies are sufficient for local needs, and the excess is added to the national grid for consumption farther east.

Manufacturing

There has been considerable industrial development since the 1950s, and Sichuan has become the most industrialized province of southwestern China. The most important industries include iron and copper smelting, the production of machinery and electric power, coal mining, petroleum refining, and the manufacture and processing of chemicals. Other important products are aircraft, electronic equipment, textiles, and food. Sichuan is also known for its cottage industries. It has a long history of silk production. Also produced are handwoven cloth, embroidery, porcelain, carved stone, bamboo mats and carved bamboo, and silver and copper items. In addition, such local products as distilled liquors, Sichuan peanuts (groundnuts), and cured meats (notably ham) are known nationwide.

Transportation

Of the problems facing Sichuan, none is more important and more acute than that of transportation. For centuries, travel into or out of the province has been extremely difficult; the main entrances were the dangerous Yangtze Gorges in the east through Chongqing, a treacherous plank road across the mountains in the north, and the deep canyons and swift currents of the Dadu and Jinsha rivers in the west. Since the 1950s great efforts have been made to improve transportation. Railways have been built across the mountains, and steel bridges have been constructed over rivers in the west.

Water routes are the most important means of transportation. Of the approximately 300 streams in the province, the Yangtze River is the most significant, traversing the entire width of the basin from the southwest to the northeast. It is the spinal cord of the river transportation system. In the west, water transport is difficult and limited except in the lower reaches of the Anning and Dadu rivers.

Railways are important for the transport of bulky products. Since the 1950s, railway construction has included the Chengdu-Baoji route—the first to cross the Qin range—which connects with the principal east-west Longhai rail line and thus links Sichuan to both northwestern and coastal China; and the Chengdu-Chongqing line, which links the Chengdu Plain with the Yangtze River. To the south there are railways to connect Sichuan with Yunnan (Chengdu-Kunming line) and Guizhou and, farther southeast, to Guangxi and Guangdong provinces.

The thoroughly dissected terrain and easily weathered rock structures of the province have made the construction and maintenance of highways costly and hazardous, entailing the constant threat of landslides, the presence of numerous steep slopes and hairpin turns, and the necessity of constructing many solid embankments. Chengdu is the principal highway centre. Major highway routes connect with bordering provinces in the north, Hubei in the east, Guizhou and Yunnan in the south, and Tibet in the west. Express highways linking Chengdu, Chongqing, and other major cities constitute important components of the province’s transport infrastructure.

Sichuan’s first commercial air service began in 1937. Since then, commercial flying has grown steadily. Chengdu is the principal air transportation centre.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

In 1955 former Xikang province, at the edge of the Plateau of Tibet, was incorporated into Sichuan province, and in 1997 the eastern part of Sichuan, centred on Chongqing, was upgraded to China’s fourth province-level municipality. Sichuan is now divided into 18 prefecture-level municipalities (dijishi) and 3 autonomous prefectures (zizhizhou). The province is further divided into counties (xian), autonomous counties (zizhixian), and county-level municipalities (xianjishi). These are the most important administrative units because it is through them that the government exercises control.

The autonomous prefectures are the Aba Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, with its headquarters at Ma’erkang (Barkam); the Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, with its capital at Kangding; and the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, with its capital at Xichang. As a rule, the autonomous prefectures represent little more than a symbolic cultural indulgence of local minorities. The actual control of the units is exercised by the central government at Chengdu. The ethnic groups, however, enjoy their own mode of life and preserve their language and cultural traditions with a minimum of interference by the Han-controlled provincial government.

Sichuan province was a leader in the economic reform movement that began in the late 1970s, introducing innovative policies such as the one that linked farmers’ incomes to actual output. Three counties in the province became the first areas to dissolve communes, a practice that soon spread nationwide.

Health and welfare

The warm and wet climate of most of the province makes respiratory ailments a major health problem. Because of the severe pressure of the people on the land, the farmers of Sichuan must work extremely hard to eke out a living. The farmers of the Chengdu Plain are the most prosperous and have the highest standard of living. Rural life is harder in the hills surrounding the basin, and the standard of living is considerably lower in the west, where pastoral activities predominate. In the western mountains, many of the people migrate seasonally from the lowlands to the highlands in search of pasturage.

Education

Sichuan has many institutions of higher education, some of which are important for training China’s most talented students. Notable among these is Sichuan University, in Chengdu, which traces its roots to 1902 and acquired its present configuration in 1994 by incorporating Chengdu University of Science and Technology and West China University of Medical Science. The University of Electronic Science and Technology of China and Southwest China Jiaotong University are also important. In addition, there are hundreds of research institutions in the province, and much attention is given to developing science and technology there.

Cultural life

Chengdu has always played a vital role in the cultural and intellectual life of Sichuan. The city is a haven for intellectuals and scholars, and—with its heavy traffic, rich nightlife, and luxurious surroundings—is sometimes called the “Little Paris” of China. Notable cultural sights in Chengdu include a memorial hall dedicated to the 3rd-century-ce adviser Zhuge Liang and the cottage of the 8th-century poet Du Fu.

The unique form of architecture of the eastern basin is characterized by projecting eaves, gracefully curved roofs, and rich, elaborate roof ornaments. Because there is little wind and practically no snow in the basin, these fragile and extraordinarily beautiful structures and decorations can safely be constructed. The frequent misty rains make it necessary to project the roof eaves over the walls to protect them from the rain.

Tourism is fairly well developed in Sichuan and is of growing importance there. UNESCO World Heritage sites include not only the giant panda reserves and the Dujiangyan irrigation system but also the Mount Emei area and the Jiuzhai River valley. Mount Emei, in the south-central Daxiang Mountains, is one of the four sacred mountains of Chinese Buddhism; it reaches an elevation of 10,167 feet (3,099 metres) at Wanfo Summit. The mountain and the Leshan Giant Buddha (carved into a hillside in the region) were collectively designated a World Heritage site in 2007. The Jiuzhai River (Jiuzhaigou) valley is a beautiful landscape in the Min Mountains of northern Sichuan; it received its World Heritage designation in 1992. All these are popular tourist destinations.

Sichuan is renowned for its hot, spicy cuisine, which features liberal use of hot chili peppers. Garlic and ginger are also common in both vegetable and meat dishes. Peanuts are another common ingredient, as in kung pao (gongbao) chicken, a highly popular dish throughout the world.