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The writings of Herder and his school stimulated a Germanic mysticism. These developments were echoed in France, especially after the defeat of 1870. Nationalism throve on defeat, and the Jews were ideally cast for the role of insidious plotters and traitors, so necessary to explain defeat. Instead of the decay of nationalism envisaged by the Enlightenment, the nineteenth century saw a new intensity of nationalism that excluded the Jews as aliens. The work of Gobineau on alleged racial inequality was combined with concepts taken from Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection in order to produce a pseudo-scientific theory of antisemitism.

The successors of Charlemagne, Louis (814–40 CE) and Charles (840–77 CE), rulers over France and Germany, continued his policy of toleration and even favour towards the Jews, despite the efforts of the prelates Agobard and Amolo to have the anti-Jewish laws enforced. In Spain, meanwhile, the Jews prospered under both Muslims and Christians. Here a great Jewish culture developed, reaching its zenith in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Both Muslims and Christians, fighting for control of Spain, found the Jews useful, and the fulminations of the Church went unheeded.

17 THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND To support the picture of the Jews as a criminal nation, the Church Fathers used passages from the Hebrew Bible as well as from the New Testament. 22 On the basis of Psalm 106:37, the Jews were declared to have been practising infanticides. Chrysostom even accuses them of cannibalism, on the basis of Deuteronomy 25:56. The explicit object of this cataloguing of alleged crimes was to show that the Jews’ alleged murder of Jesus was foreshadowed in their whole history.