The baryons and mesons are complex subatomic particles built from more-elementary objects, the quarks. Six types of quark, together with their corresponding antiquarks, are necessary to account for all the known hadrons. The six varieties, or “flavours,” of quark have acquired the names up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. The meaning of these somewhat unusual names is not important; they have arisen for a number of reasons. What is important is the way that the quarks contribute to matter at different levels and the properties that they bear.

The quarks are unusual in that they carry electric charges that are smaller in magnitude than e, the size of the charge of the electron (1.6 × 10−19 coulomb). This is necessary if quarks are to combine together to give the correct electric charges for the observed particles, usually 0, +e, or −e. Only two types of quark are necessary to build protons and neutrons, the constituents of atomic nuclei. These are the up quark, with a charge of +2/3e, and the down quark, which has a charge of −1/3e. The proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark, which gives it a total charge of +e. The neutron, on the other hand, is built from one up quark and two down quarks, so that it has a net charge of zero. The other properties of the up and down quarks also add together to give the measured values for the proton and neutron. For example, the quarks have spins of 1/2. In order to form a proton or a neutron, which also have spin 1/2, the quarks must align in such a way that two of the three spins cancel each other, leaving a net value of 1/2.

Up and down quarks can also combine to form particles other than protons and neutrons. For example, the spins of the three quarks can be arranged so that they do not cancel. In this case they form short-lived resonance states, which have been given the name delta, or Δ. The deltas have spins of 3/2, and the up and down quarks combine in four possible configurations—uuu, uud, udd, and ddd—where u and d stand for up and down. The charges of these Δ states are +2e, +e, 0, and −e, respectively.

The up and down quarks can also combine with their antiquarks to form mesons. The pi-meson, or pion, which is the lightest meson and an important component of cosmic rays, exists in three forms: with charge e (or 1), with charge 0, and with charge −e (or −1). In the positive state an up quark combines with a down antiquark; a down quark together with an up antiquark compose the negative pion; and the neutral pion is a quantum mechanicalmixture of two states—uu and dd, where the bar over the top of the letter indicates the antiquark.

Up and down are the lightest varieties of quarks. Somewhat heavier are a second pair of quarks, charm (c) and strange (s), with charges of +2/3e and −1/3e, respectively. A third, still heavier pair of quarks consists of top (or truth, t) and bottom (or beauty, b), again with charges of +2/3e and −1/3e, respectively. These heavier quarks and their antiquarks combine with up and down quarks and with each other to produce a range of hadrons, each of which is heavier than the basic proton and pion, which represent the lightest varieties of baryon and meson, respectively. For example, the particle called lambda (Λ) is a baryon built from u, d, and s quarks; thus, it is like the neutron but with a d quark replaced by an s quark.

The development of modern particle theory

The year of the birth of particle physics is often cited as 1932. Near the beginning of that year James Chadwick, working in England at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, discovered the existence of the neutron. This discovery seemed to complete the picture of atomic structure that had begun with Ernest Rutherford’s work at the University of Manchester, England, in 1911, when it became apparent that almost all of the mass of an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. The elementary particles seemed firmly established as the proton, the neutron, and the electron. By the end of 1932, however, Carl Anderson in the United States had discovered the first antiparticle—the positron, or antielectron. Moreover, Patrick Blackett and Giuseppi Occhialini, working, like Chadwick, at the Cavendish Laboratory, had revealed how positrons and electrons are created in pairs when cosmic rays pass through dense matter. It was becoming apparent that the simple pictures provided by electrons, protons, and neutrons were incomplete and that a new theory was needed to explain fully the phenomena of subatomic particles.

A year later Dirac published his relativistic electron theory, which took correct account of Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. Dirac’s theory showed that the electron must have a spin quantum number of 1/2 and a magnetic moment. It also predicted the existence of the positron, although Dirac did not at first realize this and puzzled over what seemed like extra solutions to his equations. Only with Anderson’s discovery of the positron did the picture become clear: radiation, a photon, can produce electrons and positrons in pairs, provided the energy of the photon is greater than the total mass-energy of the two particles—that is, about 1 megaelectron volt (MeV; 106 eV).

Dirac’s quantum field theory was a beginning, but it explained only one aspect of the electromagnetic interactions between radiation and matter. During the following years other theorists began to extend Dirac’s ideas to form a comprehensive theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) that would account fully for the interactions of charged particles not only with radiation but also with one another. One important step was to describe the electrons in terms of fields, in analogy to the electromagnetic field of the photons. This enabled theorists to describe everything in terms of quantum field theory. It also helped to cast light on Dirac’s positrons.

According to QED, a vacuum is filled with electron-positron fields. Real electron-positron pairs are created when energetic photons, represented by the electromagnetic field, interact with these fields. Virtual electron-positron pairs, however, can also exist for minute durations, as dictated by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and this at first led to fundamental difficulties with QED.

During the 1930s it became clear that, as it stood, QED gave the wrong answers for quite simple problems. For example, the theory said that the emission and reabsorption of the same photon would occur with an infinite probability. This led in turn to infinities occurring in many situations; even the mass of a single electron was infinite according to QED because, on the timescales of the uncertainty principle, the electron could continuously emit and absorb virtual photons.

It was not until the late 1940s that a number of theorists working independently resolved the problems with QED. Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman in the United States and Tomonaga Shin’ichirō in Japan proved that they could rid the theory of its embarrassing infinities by a process known as renormalization. Basically, renormalization acknowledges all possible infinities and then allows the positive infinities to cancel the negative ones; the mass and charge of the electron, which are infinite in theory, are then defined to be their measured values.

Once these steps have been taken, QED works beautifully. It is the most accurate quantum field theory scientists have at their disposal. In recognition of their achievement, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1965; Dirac had been similarly honoured in 1933.

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