The party has won 24 of the last 40 U.S. presidential elections and there have been a total of 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The first was 16th president Abraham Lincoln, who served from 1861 to 1865, when he was assassinated, and the most recent being 45th and current president Donald Trump, who took office on January 20, 2017.

The first official party convention was held on July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan.[25] By 1858, the Republicans dominated nearly all Northern states.The Republican Party first came to power in the elections of 1860 when it won control of both houses of Congress and its candidate, Abraham Lincoln, was elected president, it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877.[26]

Early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan "free labor, free land, free men", which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio (and future Secretary of the Treasury and Chief Justice of the United States).[27] "Free labor" referred to the Republican opposition to slave labor and belief in independent artisans and businessmen. "Free land" referred to Republican opposition to the plantation system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land, leaving the yeoman independent farmers the leftovers. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power and the expansion of freedom.[28]

Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency, the party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War and over Reconstruction.[29][30] In the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket.

The Republican Party supported business generally, hard money (i.e., the gold standard), high tariffs to promote economic growth, high wages and high profits, generous pensions for Union veterans, and (after 1893) the annexation of Hawaii. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, as the northern post-bellum economy boomed with heavy and light industry, railroads, mines, fast-growing cities and prosperous agriculture, the Republicans took credit and promoted policies to sustain the fast growth.

Nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers, the high McKinley Tariff of 1890 hurt the party and the Democrats swept to a landslide in the off-year elections, even defeating McKinley himself.

After the two terms of Democrat Grover Cleveland, the election of William McKinley in 1896 is widely seen as a resurgence of Republican dominance and is sometimes cited as a realigning election. McKinley promised that high tariffs would end the severe hardship caused by the Panic of 1893, and that Republicans would guarantee a sort of pluralism in which all groups would benefit.

20th century

The 1896 realignment cemented the Republicans as the party of big business, while Theodore Roosevelt added more small business support by his embrace of trust busting, he handpicked his successor William Howard Taft in 1908, but they became enemies on economic issues. Defeated by Taft for the 1912 nomination, Roosevelt bolted the party and led the third party ticket of the Progressive Party, the Republicans returned to the White House throughout the 1920s, running on platforms of normalcy, business-oriented efficiency, and high tariffs. The national party avoided the prohibition issue after it became law in 1920.

The New Deal coalition of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt controlled American politics for most of the next three decades, excepting the two-term presidency of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower. Blacks moved into the Democratic Party during the New Deal era; they could vote in the North but not in the South. After Roosevelt took office in 1933, New Deal legislation sailed through Congress and the economy moved sharply upward from its nadir in early 1933. However, long-term unemployment remained a drag until 1940; in the 1934 midterm elections, 10 Republican senators went down to defeat, leaving them with only 25 against 71 Democrats. The House of Representatives likewise had overwhelming Democratic majorities.

The Republican Party split into a majority "Old Right" (based in the Midwest) and a liberal wing based in the Northeast that supported much of the New Deal, the Old Right sharply attacked the "Second New Deal" and said it represented class warfare and socialism. Roosevelt was reelected in a landslide in 1936 but everything went awry in his second term, as the economy plunged, strikes soared, and FDR failed to take control of the Supreme Court or to purge the Southern conservatives in the Democratic party. Republicans made a major comeback in the 1938 elections, and had new rising stars such as Robert A. Taft of Ohio on the right and Thomas E. Dewey of New York on the left.[31] Southern conservatives joined with most Republicans to form the conservative coalition, which dominated domestic issues in Congress until 1964. Both parties split on foreign policy issues, with the anti-war isolationists dominant in the Republican Party and the interventionists who wanted to stop Hitler dominant in the Democratic party. Roosevelt won a third and fourth term in 1940 and 1944. Conservatives abolished most of the New Deal during the war, but did not attempt to reverse Social Security or the agencies that regulated business.

Unlike the "moderate", internationalist, largely eastern bloc of Republicans who accepted (or at least acquiesced in) some of the "Roosevelt Revolution" and the essential premises of President Truman's foreign policy, the Republican Right at heart was counterrevolutionary, anticollectivist, anti-Communist, anti-New Deal, passionately committed to limited government, free market economics, and congressional (as opposed to executive) prerogatives, the G.O.P. conservatives were obliged from the start to wage a constant two-front war: against liberal Democrats from without and "me-too" Republicans from within.[32]

The Democrats elected majorities to Congress almost continuously after 1932 (the GOP won only in 1946 and 1952), but the Conservative Coalition blocked practically all major liberal proposals in domestic policy, after 1945, the internationalist wing of the GOP cooperated with Harry Truman's Cold War foreign policy, funded the Marshall Plan, and supported NATO, despite the continued isolationism of the Old Right.

The second half of the 20th century saw election or succession of Republican presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. Eisenhower had defeated conservative leader Senator Robert A. Taft for the 1952 nomination, but conservatives dominated the domestic policies of the Eisenhower Administration. Voters liked Ike much more than they liked the GOP, and he proved unable to shift the party to a more moderate position, after 1970, the liberal wing began to fade away.[33]

Ever since he left office in 1989, Reagan has been the iconic conservative Republican; and Republican presidential candidates frequently claim to share his views and aim to establish themselves and their policies as the more appropriate heir to his legacy.[34] In 1994, the Party, led by House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich campaigning on the "Contract with America", was elected to majorities to both houses of Congress in the Republican Revolution. However, Gingrich was unable to deliver on most of its promises, and after the impeachment and acquittal of President Bill Clinton in 1998 and 1999, and subsequent Republican losses in the House, he resigned. Since Reagan's day, presidential elections have been close. However, the Republican presidential candidate won a majority of the popular vote only in 2004, while coming in second in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2008, 2012 and 2016.

21st century

The Senate majority lasted until 2001, when the Senate became split evenly but was regained in the 2002 elections. Both Republican majorities in the House and Senate were held until the Democrats regained control in the mid-term elections of 2006, the Republican Party has since been defined by social conservatism, a preemptive war foreign policy intended to defeat terrorism and promote global democracy, a more powerful executive branch, supply side economics, support for gun ownership, and deregulation.

2010 was a year of electoral success for the Republicans, starting with the upset win of Scott Brown in the Massachusetts special Senate election for the seat held for many decades by the Democratic Kennedy brothers. In the November elections, Republicans recaptured control of the House, increased their number of seats in the Senate, and gained a majority of governorships.[35] Additionally, Republicans took control of at least 19 Democratic-controlled state legislatures.[36]

In the Presidential election of 2012, the Republican nominees were former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts for President, and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin for Vice President. The Democrats nominated incumbents Barack Obama and Joe Biden, the campaign focused largely on the Affordable Care Act and President Obama's stewardship of the economy, with the country facing high unemployment numbers and a rising national debt four years after his first election. Romney and Ryan were defeated by Obama and Biden; in addition, in the November congressional elections, while Republicans lost 7 seats in the House, they retained control. However, Republicans were not able to gain control of the Senate, continuing their minority status with a net loss of 2 seats.

After the 2014 midterm elections the Republican Party took control of the Senate by gaining nine seats,[37] with a final total of 247 seats (56.8%) in the House and 54 seats in the Senate, the Republicans ultimately achieved their largest majority in the U.S. Congress since the 71st Congress in 1929.[38]

After the 2016 elections, Republicans maintained a majority in the Senate, House, Governorships, and elected Donald Trump as President. The Republican Party controls 69 of 99 state legislative chambers in 2017, the most it has held in history,[39] and at least 33 governorships, the most it has held since 1922,[40] the party has total control of government (legislative chambers and governorship) in 25 states,[41] the most since 1952,[42] while the opposing Democratic Party has full control in five states.[43]

Recent trends

For most of the post-World War II era, Republicans had little presence at the state legislative level, this trend began to reverse in the late 1990s, with Republicans increasing their state legislative presence and taking control of state legislatures in the south, which had begun to vote for Republican presidential candidates decades earlier but had retained Democrats in the legislatures. From 2004 to 2014, the Republican State Leadership Committee (RSLC) raised over $140 million targeted to state legislature races while the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee (DLSC) raised less than half that during that time period. Following the 2014 midterm elections, Republicans control 68 of 98 partisan state legislative houses, the most in the party's history, and have control of both the governorship and state legislatures in 24 states, as opposed to only 7 states with Democratic governors and state legislatures.[44] According to a January 2015 poll by Pew Research, 41% of Americans view the Republicans favorably while 46% view the Democrats favorably.[45]

With the inauguration of Republican George W. Bush as President, the Republican Party remained fairly cohesive for much of the two-thousands, as both strong economic libertarians and social conservatives opposed the Democrats, whom they saw as the party of bloated and more secular, liberal government.[46] The Bush-era rise of what were known as "pro-government conservatives", a core part of the President's base, meant that a considerable group of the Republicans advocated for increased government spending and greater regulations covering both the economy and people's personal lives as well as for an activist, interventionist foreign policy. Survey groups such as the Pew Research Center found that social conservatives and free-market advocates remained the other two main groups within the party's coalition of support, with all three being roughly of the same number.[47][48]

In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging report on the party's failures in 2012, calling on Republicans to reinvent themselves and officially endorse immigration reform, he said, "There's no one reason we lost. Our message was weak; our ground game was insufficient; we weren't inclusive; we were behind in both data and digital; and our primary and debate process needed improvement." He proposed 219 reforms that included a $10 million marketing campaign to reach women, minorities and gays as well as setting a shorter, more controlled primary season and creating better data collection facilities.[51]

With a majority of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents under the age of 49 supporting legal recognition of same-sex marriages versus the opposition remaining from those over 50, the issue remains a particular divide within the Party. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich has remarked that the "Party is going to be torn on this issue" with some constituents "going to flake off".[52][53] A Reuters/Ipsos survey from April 2015 found that 68% of Americans overall would attend the same-sex wedding of a loved one, with 56% of Republicans agreeing. Reuters journalist Jeff Mason remarked that "Republicans who stake out strong opposition to gay marriage could be on shaky political ground if their ultimate goal is to win the White House" given the divide between the social conservative stalwarts and the rest of the U.S. that opposes them.[54]

The Republican candidate for President in 2012, Mitt Romney, lost to incumbent President Barack Obama, the fifth time in six elections the Republican candidate received fewer votes than his Democratic counterpart; in the aftermath of the loss, some prominent Republicans spoke out against their own party; for example, 1996 Republican Presidential candidate and longtime former Senator Bob Dole said, "today's GOP members are too conservative and overly partisan. They ought to put a sign on the National Committee doors that says closed for repairs".[55] Former Senator Olympia Snowe of Maine stated as well that she was in agreement with Dole.[56] Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs (under George H.W. Bush) and former Secretary of State (under George W. Bush) Colin Powell remarked that the GOP has "a dark vein of intolerance in some parts of the party", commenting about the birther movement "[w]hy do senior Republican leaders tolerate this kind of discussion within the party?" and "I think the party has to take a look at itself."[57] The CRNC released a report in June 2013 that was highly critical of the party, being titled "Grand Old Party for a Brand New Generation".[58][needs update]

Name and symbols

1874 Nast cartoon featuring the first notable appearance of the Republican elephant[60]

The red, white, and blue Republican elephant, still a primary logo for many state GOP committees

The circa 2013 GOP logo

The party's founding members chose the name "Republican Party" in the mid-1850s as homage to the values of republicanism promoted by Thomas Jefferson's Republican party,[61] the idea for the name came from an editorial by the party's leading publicist, Horace Greeley, who called for, "some simple name like 'Republican' [that] would more fitly designate those who had united to restore the Union to its true mission of champion and promulgator of Liberty rather than propagandist of slavery".[62] The name reflects the 1776 republican values of civic virtue and opposition to aristocracy and corruption,[63] it is important to note that "republican" has a variety of meanings around the world, and the U.S. Republican Party has evolved such that the meanings no longer always align.[64][65]

The term "Grand Old Party" is a traditional nickname for the Republican Party, and the abbreviation "GOP" is a commonly used designation, the term originated in 1875 in the Congressional Record, referring to the party associated with the successful military defense of the Union as "this gallant old party"; the following year in an article in the Cincinnati Commercial, the term was modified to "grand old party". The first use of the abbreviation is dated 1884.[66]

The traditional mascot of the party is the elephant. A political cartoon by Thomas Nast, published in Harper's Weekly on November 7, 1874, is considered the first important use of the symbol.[67] An alternate symbol of the Republican Party in states such as Indiana, New York and Ohio is the bald eagle, as opposed to the Democratic rooster or the Democratic five-pointed star.[68][69] In Kentucky, the log cabin is a symbol of the Republican Party (not related to the gay Log Cabin Republicans organization).[70]

Traditionally the party had no consistent color identity.[citation needed] After the 2000 election, the color red became associated with Republicans, that election night, for the first time, all of the major broadcast networks used the same color scheme for the electoral map: states won by Republican nominee George W. Bush were colored red, and states won by Democratic nominee Al Gore were colored blue, although the assignment of colors to political parties is unofficial and informal, the media has come to represent the respective political parties using these colors. The party and its candidates have also come to embrace the color red.[citation needed]

Republicans strongly believe that free markets and individual achievement are the primary factors behind economic prosperity. To this end, they advocate in favor of fiscal conservatism, and the elimination of government run welfare programs in favor of private sector nonprofits and encouraging personal responsibility.

Modern Republicans advocate the theory of supply side economics, which holds that lower tax rates increase economic growth.[71] Many Republicans oppose higher tax rates for higher earners, which they believe are unfairly targeted at those who create jobs and wealth. They believe private spending is more efficient than government spending.

Republicans believe individuals should take responsibility for their own circumstances, they also believe the private sector is more effective in helping the poor through charity than government is through welfare programs, and that social assistance programs often cause government dependency. Some[who?] agree there should be some "safety net" to assist the less fortunate, while limiting it to encourage employment and monitoring it[how?] to reduce abuse.

2016 and 2017 polls found that an overwhelming majority of Republicans support protectionism and autarky, and oppose free trade.[72][73][74]

Republicans believe corporations should be able to establish their own employment practices, including benefits and wages, with the free market deciding the value of work, since the 1920s, Republicans have generally been opposed by labor union organizations and members. At the national level, Republicans supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which gives workers the right not to participate in unions. Modern Republicans at the state level generally support various "right-to-work" laws that weaken unions.

Most Republicans tend to oppose increases in the minimum wage, believing that such increases hurt businesses by forcing them to cut and outsource jobs and pass costs along to consumers.

Environmental policies

Historically, progressive leaders in the Republican party supported environmental protection. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist whose policies eventually led to the creation of the National Park Service.[76] While Republican President Richard Nixon was not an environmentalist, he signed legislation to create the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and had a comprehensive environmental program.[77] However, this position has changed since the 1980s and the administration of President Ronald Reagan, who labeled environmental regulations a burden on the economy,[78] since then Republicans have increasingly taken positions against environmental regulation.[79][80] From 2008 to 2017, the Republican Party has quickly gone from "debating how to combat human-caused climate change to arguing that it does not exist",[81] the Republican Party is today "an anomaly in denying anthropogenic climate change" among conservative political parties across the Western world.[82]

Since the 1990s, a significant part of the US conservative movement has worked to challenge climate science and climate policy.[78] While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97%,[83] according to a Pew Research survey, 44% of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change, and 23% of Republicans.[84] Republican views on global warming and scientific consensus on climate change show a similar trend, and few Republican lawmakers support climate policy that builds on international consensus.[78]

Many Republicans during the Presidency of Barack Obama had opposed the then-current president's new environmental regulations, such as those on carbon emissions from coal; in particular, many Republicans support building the Keystone Pipeline, which is supported by businesses but opposed by indigenous peoples' groups and environmental activists.[91][92][93]

Immigration

Republicans are divided on how to confront illegal immigration between a platform that allows for migrant workers and a path to citizenship (supported by establishment types), versus a position focused on securing the border and deporting illegal immigrants (supported by populists); in 2006, the White House supported and Republican-led Senate passed comprehensive immigration reform that would eventually allow millions of illegal immigrants to become citizens, but the House, also led by Republicans, did not advance the bill.[94]

After the defeat in the 2012 presidential election, particularly among Latinos, several Republicans advocated a friendlier approach to immigrants. However, in 2016 the field of candidates took a sharp position against illegal immigration, with leading candidate Donald Trump proposing building a wall along the southern border with Mexico and using tariffs on goods imported from Mexico to pay for construction.

Proposals calling for immigration reform with a path to citizenship have attracted broad Republican support in some[which?] polls. In a 2013 poll 60% of Republicans supported the pathway concept.[95]

Foreign policy and national defense

Some[who?] in the Republican Party support unilateralism on issues of national security, believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without external support in matters of its national defense. In general, Republican thinking on defense and international relations is heavily influenced by the theories of neorealism and realism, characterizing conflicts between nations as struggles between faceless forces of international structure, as opposed to being the result of the ideas and actions of individual leaders. The realist school's influence shows in Reagan's Evil Empire stance on the Soviet Union and George W. Bush's Axis of evil stance.

According to the 2016 RNC platform,[104] the party's stance on the status of Taiwan is that "We oppose any unilateral steps by either side to alter the status quo in the Taiwan Straits on the principle that all issues regarding the island's future must be resolved peacefully, through dialogue, and be agreeable to the people of Taiwan." In addition, if "China were to violate those principles, the United States, in accord with the Taiwan Relations Act, will help Taiwan defend itself."

In a 2014 poll 59% of Republicans favored doing less abroad and focusing on the country's own problems instead.[105]

Abortion and embryonic stem cell research

A majority of the party's national and state candidates are pro-life and oppose elective abortion on religious or moral grounds. While many advocate exceptions in the case of incest, rape or the mother's life being at risk, in 2012 the party approved a platform advocating banning abortions without exception,[108] they oppose government funding for abortions.[109]

Although Republicans have voted for increases in government funding of scientific research, some[which?] members actively oppose the federal funding of embryonic stem cell research beyond the original lines because it involves the destruction of human embryos.[110][111][112]

Civil rights

Republicans are generally against affirmative action for women and some minorities, often describing it as a 'quota system', and believing that it is not meritocratic and that it is counter-productive socially by only further promoting discrimination. Many[who?] Republicans support race-neutral admissions policies in universities, but support taking into account the socioeconomic status of the student.[113][114]

LGBT rights

Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States, the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many[who?] as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement. Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage (the party's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided, with some in favor and others opposed), with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004. In both 2004[117] and 2006,[118] congressional Republican leaders[which?] promoted the Federal Marriage Amendment, a proposed constitutional amendment which would legally restrict the definition of marriage to heterosexual couples. In both attempts, the amendment failed to secure enough votes to invoke cloture, and thus, ultimately was never passed, as more states legalized same-sex marriage in the 2010s, Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy.[119]

Anti-discrimination laws

The Republican Party opposed the inclusion of sexual preference in anti-discrimination statutes from 1992 to 2004,[121] the 2008 and 2012 Republican Party platform supported anti-discrimination statues based on sex, race, age, religion, creed, disability, or national origin, but both platforms were silent on sexual orientation and gender identity.[122][123]

A 2013 poll found that 61% of Republicans support laws protecting gay and lesbian people against employment discrimination,[119] and a 2007 poll showed 60% of Republicans supported expanding federal hate crime laws to include sexual orientation and gender identity.[124]

Puerto Rican statehood

The 2016 Republican Party Platform declares: "We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state. We further recognize the historic significance of the 2012 local referendum in which a 54 percent majority voted to end Puerto Rico's current status as a U.S. territory, and 61 percent chose statehood over options for sovereign nationhood. We support the federally sponsored political status referendum authorized and funded by an Act of Congress in 2014 to ascertain the aspirations of the people of Puerto Rico. Once the 2012 local vote for statehood is ratified, Congress should approve an enabling act with terms for Puerto Rico's future admission as the 51st state of the Union."[104]

Composition

Prior to the formation of the conservative coalition, which helped realign the Democratic and Republican party ideologies in the mid-1960s, the party had historically advocated classical liberalism and progressivism, the party is a full member of the conservative International Democrat Union as well as the Asia Pacific Democrat Union. It is also an associate member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe,[14] which has close relations to the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom. According to the most recent Gallup poll, 25% of Americans identify as Republican and 16% identify as leaning Republican; in comparison, 30% identify as Democratic and 16% identify as leaning Democratic. The Democratic Party has typically held an overall edge in party identification since Gallup began polling on the issue in 1991;[125] in another Gallup poll, 42% of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents identified as economically and socially conservative, followed by 24% as socially and economically moderate or liberal, 20% as socially moderate or liberal and fiscally conservative, and 10% as socially conservative and fiscally moderate or liberal.[126]

Historically speaking, the Republican base initially consisted of northern white Protestants and African-Americans nationwide, with the first Presidential candidate, John C. Fremont, receiving almost no votes in the South. This trend continued into the 20th century, with 1944 Republican presidential candidate Thomas E. Dewey having only 10% of his popular votes in the South. After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the core base shifted considerably, with the Southern United States becoming more reliably Republican in presidential politics, and the Northeastern United States becoming more reliably Democratic, especially since 1992, every Northeastern state except for New Hampshire has voted Democratic six straight elections or more.

The party's current base consists of groups such as white, married Protestants, rural and suburban citizens, and non-union workers without college degrees, with urban residents, ethnic minorities, the unmarried, and union workers having shifted to the Democratic Party.[127]

Establishment vs. anti-establishment

In addition to splits over ideology, the party can be broadly divided into the establishment and anti-establishment.

Nationwide polls of Republican voters in 2014 by the Pew Center identified a growing split in the Republican coalition, between "business conservatives" or "establishment conservatives" and "steadfast conservatives" or "populist conservatives".[128]

The Tea Party movement is typically aligned with the Republican Party, but it feuds with the pro-business wing of the party, which it sees as too moderate and too willing to compromise.[129]

In Congress, Eric Cantor's position as Majority Leader went to California Congressman Kevin McCarthy, who had been an advocate of the Export-Import Bank, it finances overseas purchases of American products, especially airplanes. However, after meeting with populist Congressmen, McCarthy changed positions and decided to support the termination of the Bank.[130][131]

Conservatives, moderates, liberals, and progressives

Republican conservatives are strongest in the South, Mountain West and Midwest, where they draw support from social conservatives, the moderates tend to dominate the party in New England, and used to be well represented in all states. From the 1940s to the 1970s under such leaders as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and Gerald Ford, they usually dominated the presidential wing of the party. Since the 1970s, they have been less powerful, though they are always represented in the cabinets of Republican presidents; in Vermont, Jim Jeffords, a Republican Senator became an independent in 2001 due to growing disagreement with President Bush and the party leadership. In addition, moderate Republicans have recently held the governorships in several New England States, while Lincoln Chafee, a former moderate Republican senator is an independent-turned-Democrat former governor of Rhode Island. Former Senator Olympia Snowe and current Senator Susan Collins, both of Maine, and former Senator Scott Brown of Massachusetts are notable moderate Republicans from New England. Former Senator Mark Kirk is another example of a moderate Republican from a Democratic stronghold, Illinois, who ironically held the Senate seat once held by President Barack Obama, from 1991 to 2007, moderate Republicans served as governors of Massachusetts. Prominent Republican moderates have included former Presidents Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and George Bush Sr., as well as former Senate leaders Howard Baker and Bob Dole, former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, and former New York City Mayors Rudy Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg.

Business community

Republicans are usually seen as the traditionally pro-business party and it garners major support from a wide variety of industries from the financial sector to small businesses. Republicans are about 50 percent more likely to be self-employed, and are more likely to work in management.[134]

A survey cited by The Washington Post in 2012 stated that 61 percent of small business owners planned to vote for then-Republican Presidential Candidate Mitt Romney. Small business became a major theme of the 2012 Republican National Convention. For example, South Dakota Senator John Thune discussed his grandfather's hardware store and New Hampshire Senator Kelly Ayotte referred to her husband's landscaping company.[135]

Demographics

The Democrats do better among younger Americans and Republicans among older Americans; in 2006, Republicans won 38% of the voters aged 18–29.[136]

Low-income voters tend to favor the Democrats while high-income voters tend to support the Republicans; in 2012, Obama won 60% of voters with income under $50,000, and 45% of those with incomes higher than that.[137] Bush won 41% of the poorest 20% of voters in 2004, 55% of the richest twenty percent, and 53% of those in between; in the 2006 House races, the voters with incomes over $50,000 were 49% Republican, while those under were 38%.[136]

Gender

Since 1980, a "gender gap" has seen slightly stronger support for the Republican Party among men than among women; in 2012, Obama won 55% of the women and 45% of the men—and more women voted than men.[137] In the 2006 House races, 43% of women voted Republican, while 47% of men did so;[136] in the 2010 midterms, the "gender gap" was reduced with women supporting Republican and Democratic candidates equally 49% to 49%.[138][139] In recent elections, Republicans have found their greatest support among whites from married couples with children living at home.[140] Unmarried and divorced women were far more likely to vote for Kerry in 2004,[141] the 2012 returns revealed a continued weakness among unmarried women for the GOP, a large and growing portion of the electorate.[142] Although Mitt Romney lost women as a whole 44–55 to Barack Obama, he won married women 53–46.[143] Obama won unmarried women 67–31.[144]

Education

In 2012, the Pew Research Center conducted a study of registered voters with a 35–28, Democrat-to-Republican gap, they found that self-described Democrats had a +8 advantage over Republicans among college graduates, +14 of all post-graduates polled. Republicans were +11 among white men with college degrees, Democrats +10 among women with degrees. Democrats accounted for 36% of all respondents with an education of high school or less, Republicans were 28%. When isolating just white registered voters polled, Republicans had a +6 advantage overall and were +9 of those with a high school education or less.[145]

An analysis of 2008 through 2012 survey data from the General Social Survey, the National Election Studies, and the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press led to the following assessment of the overall educational status of self-identified Democrats and Republicans:

On average, self-identified Republicans have more years of education (4 to 8 months each, depending on the survey) and are probably more likely to hold, at the least, a 4-year college degree. (One major survey indicates that they are more likely, while the results of another survey are statistically insignificant.) It also appears that Republicans continue to out-test Democrats in surveys that assess political knowledge and/or current events. With respect to post-graduate studies, the educational advantage is shifting towards self-identified Democrats, they are now more likely to hold post-graduate college degrees. (One major survey indicates that they are more likely, while the results of another survey are statistically insignificant.)[146]

Ethnicity

Alan Keyes orating in February 2008. Keyes was the first African American Republican candidate for the U.S. presidency.

Republicans have been winning under 15% of the black vote in recent national elections (1980 to 2016). While historically the party had been supporters of rights for African Americans starting in the 1860s, it lost its leadership position in the 1960s.[citation needed] The party abolished slavery under Abraham Lincoln, defeated the Slave Power, and gave blacks the legal right to vote during Reconstruction in the late 1860s. Until the New Deal of the 1930s, blacks supported the Republican Party by large margins.[147] Black voters shifted to the Democratic Party beginning in the 1930s, when major Democratic figures such as Eleanor Roosevelt began to support civil rights, and the New Deal offered them employment opportunities, they became one of the core components of the New Deal Coalition. In the South, after the Voting Rights Act to prohibit racial discrimination in elections was passed by a bipartisan coalition in 1965, blacks were able to vote again and ever since have formed a significant portion (20–50%) of the Democratic vote in that region.[148]

For decades, a greater percentage of white voters identified themselves as Democrats, rather than Republicans. However, since the mid-1990s whites have been more likely to self-identify as Republicans than Democrats.[149]

In the 2010 elections, two African American Republicans were elected to the U.S. House of Representatives,[150] the party has recently nominated African American candidates for senator or governor in Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland, though none were successful.

In recent decades, Republicans have been moderately successful in gaining support from Hispanic and Asian American voters. George W. Bush, who campaigned energetically for Hispanic votes, received 35% of their vote in 2000 and 44% in 2004,[151] the party's strong anti-communist stance has made it popular among some minority groups from current and former Communist states, in particular Cuban Americans, Korean Americans, Chinese Americans, and Vietnamese Americans. The election of Bobby Jindal as Governor of Louisiana has been hailed as pathbreaking,[152] he is the first elected minority governor in Louisiana and the first state governor of Indian descent.[153] According to John Avlon in 2013, the Republican party is more diverse at the statewide elected official level than the Democratic Party, including Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and South Carolina Senator Tim Scott.[154]

In 2012, 88% of Romney voters were white, while 56% of Obama voters were white;[155] in the 2008 presidential election, John McCain won 55% of white votes, 35% of Asian votes, 31% of Hispanic votes, and 4% of African American votes.[156] In the 2010 House election, Republicans won 60% of the white votes, 38% of Hispanic votes, and 9% of the African American vote.[157]

Religious beliefs

Religion has always played a major role for both parties, but in the course of a century, the parties' religious compositions have changed. Religion was a major dividing line between the parties before 1960, with Catholics, Jews, and Southern Protestants heavily Democratic, and Northeastern Protestants heavily Republican. Most of the old differences faded away after the realignment of the 1970s and 80s that undercut the New Deal coalition.[158] Voters who attend church weekly gave 61% of their votes to Bush in 2004; those who attend occasionally gave him only 47%, while those who never attend gave him 36%. Fifty-nine percent of Protestants voted for Bush, along with 52% of Catholics (even though John Kerry was Catholic), since 1980, large majorities of evangelicals have voted Republican; 70–80% voted for Bush in 2000 and 2004, and 70% for Republican House candidates in 2006. Jews continue to vote 70–80% Democratic. Democrats have close links with the African American churches, especially the National Baptists, while their historic dominance among Catholic voters has eroded to 54–46 in the 2010 midterms,[159] the main line traditional Protestants (Methodists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Disciples) have dropped to about 55% Republican (in contrast to 75% before 1968). The mainline denominations are rapidly shrinking in size. Mormons in Utah and neighboring states voted 75% or more for Bush in 2000.[160]

This map shows the vote in the 2004 presidential election by county. All major Republican geographic constituencies are visible: red dominates the map, showing Republican strength in the rural areas, while the denser areas (i.e., cities) are blue. Notable exceptions include the Pacific coast, New England, the Black Belt, areas with high Native American populations, and the heavily Hispanic parts of the Southwest.

This map shows the vote in the 2016 presidential election by county, the most recent Republican electoral victory. Similar to the 2004 map, Republicans dominate in rural areas, making improvements in the Appalachian states, namely Kentucky, where the party won all but two counties, and West Virginia, where every county in the state voted Republican. The party also improved in many rural counties in Iowa, Wisconsin, and other Midwestern states. Contrarily, the party suffered substantial losses in urbanized areas such Dallas, Harris and Fort Bend counties in Texas and Orange and San Diego counties in California, all of which were won in 2004 but lost in 2016.

While Catholic Republican leaders try to stay in line with the teachings of the Catholic Church on subjects such as abortion, euthanasia, embryonic stem cell research and same-sex marriage, they differ on the death penalty and contraception.[161]Pope Francis' 2015 encyclical Laudato si' sparked a discussion on the positions of Catholic Republicans in relation to the positions of the church. The pope's encyclical on behalf of the Catholic Church officially acknowledges a man-made climate change caused by burning fossil fuels,[162] the Pope says the warming of the planet is rooted in a throwaway culture and the developed world's indifference to the destruction of the planet in pursuit of short-term economic gains. According to The New York Times, Laudato si' put pressure on the Catholic candidates in the 2016 election: Jeb Bush, Bobby Jindal, Marco Rubio, and Rick Santorum.[163] With leading Democrats praising the encyclical, James Bretzke, a professor of moral theology at Boston College, has said that both sides were being disingenuous: "I think it shows that both the Republicans and the Democrats... like to use religious authority and, in this case, the Pope to support positions they have arrived at independently... There is a certain insincerity, a hypocrisy I think, on both sides."[164] While a Pew Research poll indicates Catholics are more likely to believe the Earth is warming than non-Catholics, 51% of Catholic Republicans believe in global warming (less than the general population), and only 24% of Catholic Republicans believe global warming is caused by human activity.[165]

Since 1980, geographically the Republican "base" ("red states") is strongest in the South, the Midwest, and Mountain West. While it is weakest on the West Coast and Northeast, this has not always been the case; historically the northeast was a bastion of the Republican Party with Vermont and Maine being the only two states to vote against Franklin Roosevelt all four times. In the Northeast, Maine, New Hampshire and Pennsylvania continue to have a considerable Republican presence, the Midwest has been roughly balanced since 1854, with Illinois becoming more Democratic and liberal because of the city of Chicago (see below) and Minnesota, Iowa, Michigan and Wisconsin more Republican since 1990. Ohio, Missouri and Indiana all trend Republican. Since the 1930s, the Democrats have dominated most central cities, while the Republicans now dominate rural areas and the majority of suburbs.[166]

The South has become solidly Republican in national elections since 1980, and has been trending Republican at the state level since then at a slower pace;[167] in 2004, Bush led Kerry by 70%–30% among Southern whites, who made up 71% of the Southern electorate. Kerry had a 70–30 lead among the 29% of the voters who were black or Hispanic. One-third of these Southern voters said they were white evangelicals; they voted for Bush by 80–20; but were only 72% Republican in 2006.[136][151]

The Republican Party's strongest focus of political influence lies in the Great Plains states, particularly Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota, and in the Mountain states of Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah (Utah gave George W. Bush more than 70% of the popular vote in 2004), these states are sparsely populated with few major urban centers, and have majority white populations, making it extremely difficult for Democrats to create a sustainable voter base there. While still remaining notably Republican, Montana is the only state in the region with a more moderate lean.[168] Unlike the South, these areas have been strongly Republican since before the party realignments of the 1960s.[citation needed] The Great Plains states were one of the few areas of the country where Republicans had any significant support during the Great Depression.[citation needed]

Structure and organization

The Republican National Committee (RNC) is responsible for promoting Republican campaign activities, it is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and election strategy. Its current chairwoman is Ronna Romney McDaniel, the chair of the RNC is chosen by the President when the Republicans have the White House or otherwise by the Party's state committees.

The RNC, under the direction of the party's presidential candidate, supervises the Republican National Convention (the highest body in the party) and raises funds for candidates, on the local level, there are similar state committees in every state and most large cities, counties and legislative districts, but they have far less money and influence than the national body.

Footnotes

^ abPaul Gottfried, Conservatism in America: Making Sense of the American Right, p. 9, "Postwar conservatives set about creating their own synthesis of free-market capitalism, Christian morality, and the global struggle against Communism." (2009); Gottfried, Theologies and moral concern (1995) p. 12

^George H. Nash, "The Republican Right from Taft to Reagan", Reviews in American History (1984) 12#2 pp. 261–65 in JSTOR quote on p. 261; Nash references David W. Reinhard, The Republican Right since 1945, (University Press of Kentucky, 1983)

^ abNicol C. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans: From 1952 to the Present (1989)

^Unmarried Women in the 2004 Presidential Election (PDF). Report by Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research, January 2005. p. 3: "The marriage gap is one of the most important cleavages in electoral politics. Unmarried women voted for Kerry by a 25-point margin (62 to 37 percent), while married women voted for President Bush by an 11-point margin (55 percent to 44 percent). Indeed, the 25-point margin Kerry posted among unmarried women represented one of the high water marks for the Senator among all demographic groups." Archived January 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.

^To some extent the United States Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade caused American Christians to blur their historical division along the line between Catholics and Protestants and instead to realign as conservatives or liberals, irrespective of the Reformation Era distinction.

Barone, Michael. The Almanac of American Politics 2014: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (2013); revised every two years since 1975.

Black, Earl and Merle Black. The Rise of Southern Republicans (2002)

Brennan, Mary C. Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP (1995)

Conger, Kimberly H. The Christian Right in Republican State Politics (2010) 202 pages; focuses on Arizona, Indiana, and Missouri

Crane, Michael. The Political Junkie Handbook: The Definitive Reference Books on Politics (2004) covers all the major issues explaining the parties' positions

Critchlow, Donald T. The Conservative Ascendancy: How the Republican Right Rose to Power in Modern America (2nd ed. 2011)

Schlesinger, Arthur Meier Jr. ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (various multivolume editions, latest is 2001). Essays on the most important election are reprinted in Schlesinger, The Coming to Power: Critical presidential elections in American history (1972)

Shafer, Byron E. and Anthony J. Badger, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (2001), long essays by specialists on each time period:

includes: "To One or Another of These Parties Every Man Belongs": 1820–1865 by Joel H. Silbey; "Change and Continuity in the Party Period: 1835–1885" by Michael F. Holt; "The Transformation of American Politics: 1865–1910" by Peter H. Argersinger; "Democracy, Republicanism, and Efficiency: 1885–1930" by Richard Jensen; "The Limits of Federal Power and Social Policy: 1910–1955" by Anthony J. Badger; "The Rise of Rights and Rights Consciousness: 1930–1980" by James T. Patterson; and "Economic Growth, Issue Evolution, and Divided Government: 1955–2000" by Byron E. Shafer

1.
Donald Trump
–
Donald John Trump is the 45th and current President of the United States. Prior to entering politics he was a businessman and television personality, Trump was born and raised in Queens, New York City, and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He then took charge of The Trump Organization, the estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother, which he ran for four. During his real career, Trump has built, renovated, and managed numerous office towers, hotels, casinos. Besides real estate, he started several ventures and has lent the use of his name for the branding of various products. He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015, and he hosted The Apprentice, as of 2017, Forbes listed him as the 544th wealthiest person in the world with a net worth of $3.5 billion. Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for office in 1987. He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000, but withdrew his candidacy early on, in June 2015, he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among 17 candidates in the Republican primaries. His final opponents suspended their campaigns in May 2016, and in July he was nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate. His campaign received unprecedented media coverage and international attention, many of the statements he made at rallies, in interviews, or on social media were controversial or false. Trump won the election on November 8,2016, in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton. His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist, protectionist, Trump was born on June 14,1946 at the Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, Queens, New York City. He was the fourth of five born to Frederick Christ Fred Trump. His siblings are Maryanne, Fred Jr. Elizabeth, and Robert, Trumps ancestors originated from the village of Kallstadt, Palatinate, Germany on his fathers side, and from the Outer Hebrides isles of Scotland on his mothers side. All his grandparents, and his mother, were born in Europe and his mothers grandfather was also christened Donald. On a visit to his village, he met Elisabeth Christ. He died from the flu pandemic of 1918 and Elizabeth incorporated the family real estate business, Elizabeth Trump and Son, which would later become The Trump Organization. Trumps father Fred was born in the Bronx, and worked with his mother since he was 15 as a real estate developer, primarily in the New York boroughs of Queens and he eventually built and sold thousands of houses, barracks and apartments

2.
Mike Pence
–
Michael Richard Mike Pence is an American politician, lawyer, and the 48th Vice President of the United States. He previously served as the 50th Governor of Indiana from 2013 to 2017, born and raised in Columbus, Indiana, Pence graduated from Hanover College and earned a law degree from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law before entering private practice. After losing two bids for a U. S. congressional seat in 1988 and 1990, he became a conservative radio and he served as the chairman of the House Republican Conference from 2009 to 2011. Pence positioned himself as an ideologue and supporter of the Tea Party movement, noting he was a Christian, a conservative. Pence signed bills intended to restrict abortions, including one that prohibited abortions if the reason for the procedure was the race, gender. He later signed an additional bill acting as an amendment intended to protect LGBT people. Michael Richard Mike Pence was born June 7,1959, in Columbus, Indiana, one of six children of Nancy Jane and Edward J. Pence and his family were Irish Catholic Democrats. He was named after his grandfather, Richard Michael Cawley, who emigrated from County Sligo, Ireland, to the United States through Ellis Island and became a bus driver in Chicago and his maternal grandmothers parents were from Doonbeg, County Clare. Pence graduated from Columbus North High School in 1977 and he earned a BA degree in history from Hanover College in 1981, and a JD degree from the Indiana Universitys Robert H. McKinney School of Law in Indianapolis in 1986. While at Hanover, Pence joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, after graduating from Hanover, Pence was an admissions counselor at the college from 1981 to 1983. In his childhood and early adulthood, Pence was a Roman Catholic, kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. While in college, Pence became an evangelical, born-again Christian, after graduating from law school in 1986, Pence was an attorney in private practice. He ran unsuccessfully for a seat in 1988 and in 1990. He became the president of the Indiana Policy Review Foundation, a self-described free-market think tank in 1991, Pence left the Indiana Policy Review Foundation in 1993, a year after beginning to host The Mike Pence Show, a talk radio program based in WRCR-FM in Rushville, Indiana. Pence called himself Rush Limbaugh on decaf since he considered himself politically conservative while not as outspoken as Limbaugh, the show was syndicated by Network Indiana and aired weekdays 9 a. m. to noon on 18 stations throughout the state, including WIBC in Indianapolis. From 1995 to 1999, Pence also hosted a political talk show from Indianapolis. In 1988, Pence ran for Congress against Democratic incumbent Phil Sharp and he ran against Sharp again in 1990, quitting his job in order to work full-time in the campaign, but once again was unsuccessful. During the race, Pence used political donations to pay the mortgage on his house, his credit card bill, groceries, golf tournament fees

3.
Indiana
–
Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial

4.
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien

5.
Kevin McCarthy (California politician)
–
Kevin Owen McCarthy is an American congressman from Bakersfield, California. He serves in the United States House of Representatives for Californias 23rd district, a Republican, he was formerly chairman of the California Young Republicans and the Young Republican National Federation. McCarthy worked as director for U. S. Representative Bill Thomas, and in 2000 was elected as a trustee to the Kern Community College District and he then served in the California State Assembly from 2002 to 2006, the last two years as minority leader. When Thomas retired from the House of Representatives in 2006, McCarthy ran to succeed him and won the election. After announcing his candidacy for Speaker on September 28,2015, he dropped out of the race on October 8 after a gaffe where he said, Everybody thought Hillary Clinton was unbeatable, but we put together a Benghazi special committee, a select committee. But no one would have any of that had happened, had we not fought. McCarthy was born in Bakersfield, California, the son of Roberta Darlene, a homemaker, and Owen McCarthy, McCarthy is a fourth-generation resident of Kern County. He is the first Republican in his family, as his parents were members of the Democratic Party. At the age of 19, he opened his first business and he subsequently sold the deli to attend California State University, Bakersfield, where he obtained a B. S. in marketing in 1989 and an M. B. A. in 1994. In 1995, he was chairman of the California Young Republicans, from 1999 to 2001, he was chairman of the Young Republican National Federation. From the late 1990s until 2000, he was director for U. S. Representative Bill Thomas, who, at the time, chaired the House Ways, McCarthy won his first election in 2000, as a Kern Community College District trustee. McCarthy was elected to the California State Assembly in 2002, becoming Republican floor leader during his term in 2003. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 2006, McCarthy entered the Republican primary for Californias 22nd District after his former boss, Bill Thomas, announced his retirement. He won the three-way Republican primary--the real contest in this heavily Republican district--with 85 percent of the vote and he then won the general election with 70. 7% of the vote. McCarthy was unopposed for a second term and he was virtually unopposed, winning 98. 8% of the vote, with opposition coming only from a write-in candidate. Redistricting before the 2012 election resulted in McCarthys district being renumbered as the 23rd District and it became somewhat more compact, losing its share of the Central Coast while picking up large parts of Tulare County

6.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565

7.
Mitch McConnell
–
Addison Mitchell Mitch McConnell Jr. is an American politician and the senior United States Senator from Kentucky. A member of the Republican Party, he has been the Majority Leader of the Senate since January 3,2015 and he is the 15th Republican and the second Kentuckian to lead his party in the Senate. During the administration of President Barack Obama, McConnell was known to the left as being an obstructionist, some on the right praised him for tenacity and courage, while others criticized him for being part of the political establishment and not keeping his promises to conservatives. From early 2016, McConnell refused to schedule Senate hearings for Obamas nominee to the Supreme Court, Merrick Garland, to replace Associate Justice Antonin Scalia, who died in February 2016. Garlands nomination remained before the Senate for 294 days, from March 16,2016 until it expired on January 3,2017, McConnell has repeatedly been found to have the lowest home state approval rating of any sitting senator. McConnell was born on February 20,1942, in a hospital in Sheffield, Alabama, which is now called the Helen Keller Hospital, McConnell is the son of Addison Mitchell McConnell, and his wife, Julia. As a youth, he overcame polio and his family moved to Georgia when he was eight. When he was a teenager, his family arrived in Louisville where he attended duPont Manual High School and he graduated with honors from the University of Louisville with a B. A. in political science in 1964. McConnell was president of the Student Council of the College of Arts and Sciences and he has maintained strong ties to his alma mater and remains a rabid fan of its sports teams. Three years later, McConnell graduated from the University of Kentucky College of Law, McConnell is of Scots-Irish and English descent. McConnell enlisted in the U. S. Army Reserve at Louisville and he received an Honorable Discharge for medical reasons after five weeks at Fort Knox. McConnell began interning for Senator John Sherman Cooper in 1964, later, McConnell was an assistant to Senator Marlow Cook and was a Deputy Assistant Attorney General under President Gerald R. Ford, where he worked alongside future Justice Antonin Scalia. In 1977, McConnell was elected the Jefferson County Judge/Executive, the top political office in Jefferson County. 1984 In 1984, McConnell ran for the U. S. Senate against two-term Democratic incumbent Walter Dee Huddleston. The election race wasnt decided until the last returns came in, McConnell was the only Republican Senate challenger to win that year, despite Ronald Reagans landslide victory in the presidential election. His campaign bumper stickers and television ads asked voters to Switch to Mitch,1990 In 1990, McConnell faced a tough re-election contest against former Louisville Mayor Harvey I. 1996 In 1996, he defeated Steve Beshear by 12. 6%,2002 In 2002, he was re-elected against Lois Combs Weinberg by 29. 4%, the largest majority by a statewide Republican candidate in Kentucky history. 2008 In 2008, McConnell faced his closest contest since 1990 and he defeated Bruce Lunsford by 6%

Mitch McConnell
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McConnell in January 2009
Mitch McConnell
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McConnell (right) served as a staff assistant to Senator Marlow Cook from 1968 to 1970.
Mitch McConnell
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McConnell stands in front and directly to the right of President Obama as he signs tax cuts and unemployment insurance legislation on December 17, 2010.
Mitch McConnell
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McConnell with President Barack Obama, August 2010.

8.
Kentucky
–
Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall

Kentucky
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Narrow country roads bounded by stone and wood plank fences are a fixture in the Kentucky Bluegrass region.
Kentucky
Kentucky
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Kentucky's regions (click on image for color-coding information.)
Kentucky
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The Eastern Kentucky Coalfield is known for its rugged terrain.

9.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

10.
Teen Age Republicans
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National Teen Age Republicans is the youth wing of the United States Republican Party. Its aim is to support to the party and its candidates. Members work to community service, and learn about the political processes at local, state. The group claims to have a presence in all 50 U. S. states, the oldest recorded TAR group is in South Dakota, which was formed in 1960. TARs are organizationally independent of the Young Republican National Federation and the Republican National Committee, TAR is organized in chapters across United States. There are federations in most states, and clubs in counties, the National TAR office provides information on existing clubs, and provides resources and advice on starting a club in areas that do not already have one. It also organizes the annual national Teenage Republican Leadership Conference and awards ceremony and it is not affiliated with certain teenage outreach programs through state chapters of the Young Republicans Federation. Similar to the Republican Party, the majority of TAR activity takes place on the State level, State and Regional TAR federations sometimes receive some financial support from their state Party. Most have an executive board with its own constitution, and organize statewide events such as summer camps. County and Local Clubs are subordinate to state organizations, and are formed at county, city or school level, with similar structure and activities to state federations. During TLC, National TARs also hosts an awards ceremony where members can win awards such as Outstanding TAR In the Nation

Teen Age Republicans
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Teen Age Republicans

11.
Neoconservatism
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For modern conservatism in other countries, see Conservatism § Modern conservatism in different countries. Neoconservatism is a movement born in the United States during the 1960s among conservative-leaning Democrats who became disenchanted with the partys foreign policy. Many of its adherents became politically famous during the Republican presidential administrations of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, neoconservatives peaked in influence during the administration of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Prominent neoconservatives in the George W. Bush administration included Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, the term neoconservative refers to those who made the ideological journey from the anti-Stalinist Left to the camp of American conservatism. The movement had its roots in the Jewish monthly review magazine Commentary. They spoke out against the New Left and in that way helped define the movement, the neoconservative label was used by Irving Kristol in his 1979 article Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed Neoconservative. His ideas have been influential since the 1950s, when he co-founded and edited the magazine Encounter, another source was Norman Podhoretz, editor of the magazine Commentary from 1960 to 1995. By 1982 Podhoretz was terming himself a neoconservative, in a New York Times Magazine article titled The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagans Foreign Policy. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the neoconservatives considered that liberalism had failed and no longer knew what it was talking about, seymour Lipset asserts that the term neoconservative was used originally by a socialist to criticize the politics of Social Democrats, USA. Jonah Goldberg argues that the term is ideological criticism against proponents of American modern liberalism who had become more conservative. Through the 1950s and early 1960s, the future neoconservatives had endorsed the American Civil Rights Movement, racial integration, from the 1950s to the 1960s, there was general endorsement among liberals for military action to prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. Many were particularly alarmed by what they claimed were anti-semitic sentiments from Black Power advocates, a substantial number of neoconservatives were originally moderate socialists associated with the right-wing of the Socialist Party of America, and its successor, Social Democrats, USA. Max Shachtman, a former Trotskyist theorist who developed an antipathy towards the New Left, had numerous devotees among SDUSA with strong links to George Meanys AFL-CIO. Following Shachtman and Meany, this led the SP to oppose an immediate withdrawal from the Vietnam War. They also chose to cease their own party-building and concentrated on working within the Democratic Party, thus the Socialist Party ceased to be in 1972 and SDUSA emerged. SDUSA leaders associated with neoconservatism include Carl Gershman, Penn Kemble, Joshua Muravchik, Norman Podhoretzs magazine Commentary of the American Jewish Committee, originally a journal of liberalism, became a major publication for neoconservatives during the 1970s. Commentary published an article by Jeane Kirkpatrick, an early and prototypical neoconservative, many neoconservatives had been Jewish intellectuals in New York City during the 1930s. They were on the left but strongly opposed Stalinism, some were Trotskyists

12.
Right-wing populism
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Right-wing populism is a political ideology that rejects the current political consensus and often combines laissez-faire, ethnocentrism and anti-elitism. It is considered populism because of its appeal to the man as opposed to the elites. Right wing populism in the Western world, is associated with ideologies such as New Nationalism, anti-globalization, nativism, protectionism. Although extreme right-wing movements in the US have been studied separately, other populist parties have links to fascist movements founded during the interwar period when Italian, German, Hungarian, Spanish and Japanese fascism rose to power. Since the early 2010s, right wing populist movements such as the National Front in France, the Party for Freedom in the Netherlands, and UK Independence Party began to grow in popularity. In large part because of increasing opposition to immigration from the Middle East and Africa, rising euroscepticism, President Donald Trumps 2016 political views have been summarized by pundits as right wing populist and nationalist. Also, unlike traditional parties, they do not belong to organizations of like-minded parties. One commonality though is that they are more right-wing than other parties on the left–right axis. Scholars use terminology inconsistently, sometimes referring to right-wing populism as radical right or other such as New Nationalism. Republican Party and Conservative Party of Canada include right-wing populist factions, Canada has a history of right-wing populist protest parties and politicians, most notably in Western Canada due to Western alienation. The highly successful Social Credit Party of Canada consistently won seats in British Columbia, Alberta, in recent years, right-wing populism exists within factions of the Conservative Party of Canada and is most notably espoused by Kellie Leitch, Kevin OLeary and the now-deceased Rob Ford. In 2016, the Czech Republic warned that Russia tries to divide, the Austrian Freedom Party established in 1955 by a former Nazi functionary claims to represent a Third Camp, beside the Socialist Party and the social Catholic Austrian Peoples Party. It succeeded the Federation of Independents founded after World War II, from 1980, the Freedom Party adopted a more liberal stance. Upon the 1983 federal election it entered a government with the Socialist Party. The liberal interlude however ended, when Jörg Haider was elected chairman in 1986, by his down-to-earth manners and patriotic attitude, Haider re-integrated the partys nationalist base voters. Nevertheless, he was able to obtain votes from large sections of population disenchanted with politics by publicly denouncing corruption. The electoral success was boosted by Austrias accession to the EU in 1995, upon the 1999 federal election the Freedom Party with 26. 9% of the votes cast became the second strongest party in the National Council parliament. Having entered a government with the Peoples Party, Haider had to face the disability of several FPÖ ministers

13.
European political party
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A European political party is a type of political party organisation operating transnationally in Europe and in the institutions of the European Union. They are regulated and funded by the European Union and are made up of national parties. Europarties have the right to campaign during the European elections and express themselves within the European Parliament by their affiliated political groups. Europarties, through meetings with their affiliated heads of state and government. The term political party in the EU can mean three different types of entities, domestic political parties, political groups in the European Parliament, and European political parties. As of January 2016, there are 15 recognised Europarties, Section 41 of the Treaty of Maastricht added Article 138a to the Treaty of Rome, Article 138a stated that Political parties at European level are important as a factor for integration within the Union. They contribute to forming a European awareness and to expressing the political will of the citizens of the Union, so the concept of a political party at European level was born. Article J.18 and Article K.13 of the Treaty of Amsterdam established who should pay for expenditure authorised by Article 138/191 within certain areas. This provided a mechanism whereby Europarties could be paid for out of the European budget, such expenditure included funding national parties, an outcome not originally intended. Article 2, section 19 of the Treaty of Nice added a paragraph to Article 191 of the Treaty of Rome. The reference to Article 251 refers to co-decision, which meant the European Parliament had to be involved, so Europarty funding had to be regulated by the Council and the European Parliament, acting together. This meant that the Europarties can set up and fund legally separate affiliated think-tanks to aid them, the revised regulation also gives Europarties the exclusive responsibility to campaign for the European elections and can use their funds for this purpose. The Authority will be a body of the European Union and this regulation repealed Regulation No 2004/2003, however the provisions of that regulation shall continue to apply for the 2014,2015,2016 and 2017 budget years. Although it came into force on 24 November 2014, the regulations only apply from 1 January 2017. The Authority shall however be set up by 1 September 2016, the Alliance of Independent Democrats in Europe, a loose association of Eurosceptics and nationalists, met the recognition threshold from 2006 to 2008. The heterogeneous Alliance for Europe of the Nations, which included moderate nationalists, national conservatives and Eurosceptics, the eurosceptic, national conservative, right populist Movement for a Europe of Liberties and Democracy was recognized from 2012 to 2016. On 1 November 2008 Declan Ganley had registered a company in Dublin called the Libertas Party Ltd, Libertas applied for Europarty recognition which was briefly granted but then suspended following the disavowal of two of its candidates. As of 1 November 2008, the regulation governing Europarties is Regulation No 2004/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 November 2003, as later amended under codecision

14.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House

United States House of Representatives
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United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
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Seal of the House
United States House of Representatives
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Republican Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.
United States House of Representatives
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House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman George Miller confer with President Barack Obama at the Oval Office in 2009.

15.
Territories of the United States
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Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions directly overseen by the United States federal government. These territories are classified by whether they are incorporated and whether they have a government through an Organic Act passed by the U. S. Congress. Currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, the U. S. Virgin Islands. They are classified as unincorporated territories and they are organized, self-governing territories with locally elected governors and territorial legislatures. Each also elects a member to the U. S. House of Representatives. Eleven territories are small islands, atolls and reefs, spread across the Caribbean and Pacific, the status of some are disputed by Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and the Marshall Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the territory currently incorporated. Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land while the borders of the United States were still evolving, other territories administered by the United States went on to become independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau. Many organized incorporated territories of the United States existed from 1789 to 1959, currently, the United States has sixteen territories, five of which are permanently inhabited, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, United States Virgin Islands and American Samoa. The 11 uninhabited territories administered by the Interior Department are Palmyra Atoll, Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, while claimed by the US, Navassa Island, Wake Island, Serranilla Bank and Bajo Nuevo Bank are disputed. Territories have always been a part of the United States, by Act of Congress, the term United States, when used in a geographical sense, means the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin Islands of the United States. Since political union with the Northern Mariana Islands in 1986, they too are treated as a part of the U. S, an Executive Order in 2007 includes American Samoa as U. S. geographical extent duly reflected in U. S. State Department documents. Approximately 4 million islanders are U. S. citizens, about 32,000 U. S. non-citizen nationals live in American Samoa, under current law among the territories, only persons born in American Samoa and Swains Island are non-citizen U. S. nationals. American Samoans are under the protection of the U. S. with freedom of U. S. travel without visas. The five inhabited U. S. territories have local voting rights and protections under U. S. courts, pay some U. S. taxes, depending on the congress, they may also vote on the floor in the House Committee of the Whole. S. Every four years, the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their candidates at conventions which include delegates from the five major territories. The citizens there, however, do not vote in the election for U. S. President. S. Incorporated territories are considered a part of the United States

16.
Two-party system
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A two-party system is a party system where two major political parties dominate the government. One of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is referred to as the majority or governing party while the other is the minority or opposition party. Around the world, the term has different senses, in such arrangements, two-party systems are thought to result from various factors like winner takes all election rules. The reasons why a country with free elections will evolve into a two-party system have been debated, a leading theory, referred to as Duvergers law, states that two parties are a natural result of a winner-take-all voting system. There is general agreement that the United States has a two-party system, historically, in the First Party System, only Alexander Hamiltons Federalist Party and Thomas Jeffersons Democratic-Republican Party were significant political parties. Toward the end of the First Party System, the Republicans dominated a one-party system, under the Second Party System, the Democratic-Republican Party split during the election of 1824 into Adams Men and Jacksons Men. In 1828, the modern Democratic Party formed in support of Andrew Jackson, the National Republicans were formed in support of John Quincy Adams. After the National Republicans collapsed, the Whig Party and the Free Soil Party quickly formed and collapsed, in 1854, the modern Republican Party formed from a loose coalition of former Whigs, Free Soilers and other anti-slavery activists. Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican president in 1860, during the Third Party System, the Republican Party was the dominant political faction, but the Democrats held a strong, loyal coalition in the Solid South. During the Fourth Party System, the Republicans remained the dominant Presidential party, although Democrats Grover Cleveland, in 1932, at the onset of the Fifth Party System, Democrats took firm control of national politics with the landslide victories of Franklin D. Roosevelt in four consecutive elections. Other than the two terms of Republican Dwight Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, Democrats retained firm control of the Presidency until the mid-1960s. In the election of 2012, only 4% separated the popular vote between Barack Obama and Mitt Romney, although Obama won the vote by a landslide. Throughout every American party system, no party has won a Presidential election or majorities in either house of Congress. Despite that, third parties and third party candidates have gained traction, in the election of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt won 27% of the popular vote and 88 electoral votes running as a Progressive. In the 1992 Presidential election, Ross Perot won 19% of the popular vote, sometimes these systems are described as two-party systems but they are usually referred to as multi-party systems. There is not always a sharp boundary between a two-party system and a multi-party system, Democrats in the United States and the Conservative Party vs. the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. Other parties in these countries may have seen candidates elected to local or subnational office, historian John Hicks claims that the United States has never possessed for any considerable period of time the two party system in its pure and undefiled form. In some governments, certain chambers may resemble a two-party system, for example, the politics of Australia are largely two-party for the Australian House of Representatives, which is elected by instant-runoff voting, known within Australia as preferential voting

Two-party system
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In a two-party system, voters have mostly two options; in this sample ballot for an election in Summit, New Jersey, voters can choose between a Republican or Democrat, but there are no third party candidates.
Two-party system
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Economist Jeffrey D. Sachs.
Two-party system
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Equestrian portrait of William III by Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688
Two-party system
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In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the center.

17.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president

18.
Republicanism in the United States
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Republicanism is the guiding political philosophy of the United States. It has been a part of American civic thought since its founding. American republicanism was founded and first practiced by the Founding Fathers in the 18th century, for them, according to one team of historians, republicanism represented more than a particular form of government. It was a way of life, an ideology, an uncompromising commitment to liberty. Republicanism was based on Ancient Greco-Roman, Renaissance, and English models and it formed the basis for the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, as well as the Gettysburg Address. The term republicanism is derived from the republic, but the two words have different meanings. A republic is a form of government, republicanism refers to the values of the citizens in a republic, two major parties have used the term in their name – the Democratic-Republican party of Thomas Jefferson, and the current Republican Party, founded in 1854. The colonial intellectual and political leaders in the 1760s and 1770s closely read history to compare governments, the Revolutionists were especially concerned with the history of liberty in England and were primarily influenced by the country party. Country party relied heavily on the classical republicanism of Roman heritage, it celebrated the ideals of duty and it drew heavily on ancient Greek city-state and Roman republican examples. This approach produced a political ideology Americans called republicanism, which was widespread in America by 1775, Republicanism was the distinctive political consciousness of the entire Revolutionary generation. American republicanism was centered on limiting corruption and greed, Virtue was of the utmost importance for citizens and representatives. Revolutionaries took a lesson from ancient Rome, they knew it was necessary to avoid the luxury that had destroyed the Empire, a virtuous citizen was one who ignored monetary compensation and made a commitment to resist and eradicate corruption. The Republic was sacred, therefore, it is necessary to serve the state in a representative way, ignoring self-interest. Republicanism required the service of those who were willing to give up their own interests for a common good, virtuous citizens needed to be strong defenders of liberty and challenge the corruption and greed in government. The duty of the virtuous citizen became a foundation for the American Revolution, the commitment of most Americans to republican values and to their property rights helped bring about the American Revolution. The greatest threat to liberty was thought by many to be corruption – not just in London, the colonists associated it with luxury and, especially, inherited aristocracy, which they condemned. Historian Thomas Kidd argues that during the Revolution Christians linked their religion to republicanism and he states, With the onset of the revolutionary crisis, a major conceptual shift convinced Americans across the theological spectrum that God was raising up America for some special purpose. Kidd further argues that new blend of Christian and republican ideology led religious traditionalists to embrace wholesale the concept of republican virtue, as virtuous republicans, citizens had a growing moral obligation to eradicate the corruption they saw in the monarchy

Republicanism in the United States
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The Capitol exalted classical republican virtues

19.
Progressivism in the United States
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Progressivism in the United States is a broadly based reform movement that reached its height early in the 20th century and is generally considered to be middle class and reformist in nature. It arose as a response to the vast changes brought by modernization, such as the growth of corporations and railroads. In the 21st century, progressives continue to embrace concepts such as environmentalism, Social progressivism, the view that governmental practices ought to be adjusted as society evolves, forms the ideological basis for many American progressives. Historian Alonzo Hamby defined progressivism as the movement that addresses ideas, impulses. Emerging at the end of the century, it established much of the tone of American politics throughout the first half of the century. Many of the principles of the Progressive Movement focused on the need for efficiency in all areas of society. The real enemy was particularism, state rights, limited government, Progressives repeatedly warned that illegal voting was corrupting the political system. It especially identified big-city bosses, working with saloon keepers and precinct workers, the solution to purifying the vote included prohibition, voter registration requirements, and literacy tests. All the Southern states used devices to disenfranchise black voters during the Progressive Era, typically the progressive elements in those states pushed for disenfranchisement, often fighting against the conservatism of the Black Belt whites. A major reason given was that whites routinely purchased black votes to control elections, in the North, Progressives such as William URen and Robert La Follette argued that the average citizen should have more control over his government. The Oregon System of Initiative, Referendum, and Recall was exported to many states, including Idaho, Washington, many progressives, such as George M. Forbes, president of Rochesters Board of Education, hoped to make government in the U. S. Progressives in the South supported the elimination of supposedly corrupt black voters from the election booth, while the ultimate significance of the progressive movement on todays politics is still up for debate, Alonzo L. Hamby asks, What were the central themes that emerged from the cacophony. And what was the impact of American foreign policy, were the progressives isolationists or interventionists. Imperialists or advocates of national self-determination, and whatever they were, what was their motivation. Not surprisingly many battered scholars began to shout no mas, in 1970, Peter Filene declared that the term progressivism had become meaningless. The Progressives typically concentrated on city and state government, looking for waste and these changes led to a more structured system, power that had been centralized within the legislature would now be more locally focused. These changes led to a solid type of municipal administration compared to the old system that was underdeveloped. The Progressives mobilized concerned middle class voters, as well as newspapers and magazines, to identify problems and concentrate reform sentiment on specific problems

Progressivism in the United States
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Woman marching for the right to vote, 1912
Progressivism in the United States
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"The Bosses of the Senate", a cartoon by Joseph Keppler depicting corporate interests–from steel, copper, oil, iron, sugar, tin, and coal to paper bags, envelopes, and salt–as giant money bags looming over the tiny senators at their desks in the Chamber of the United States Senate.
Progressivism in the United States
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A poster highlighting situation of child labor in USA in early 20th century
Progressivism in the United States
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Upton Sinclair's The Jungle exposed Americans to the horrors of the Chicago meatpacking plants

20.
Modern liberalism in the United States
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Modern American liberalism is the dominant version of liberalism in the United States. It is characterized by social liberalism, and combines ideas of liberty and equality with support for social justice. The term modern liberalism in this article refers only to the United States, in a global context, this philosophy is usually referred to as social liberalism. The American modern liberal philosophy strongly endorses public spending on such as education, health care. Important social issues today include addressing inequality, voting rights for minorities, affirmative action, reproductive and other rights, support for LGBT rights. American liberals oppose conservatives on most issues, but not all, Modern liberalism is historically related to social liberalism and progressivism, though the current relationship between liberal and progressive viewpoints is debated. John F. Kennedy defined a liberal as follows, keynesian economic theory has played an important role in the economic philosophy of modern American liberals. Modern American liberals generally believe that national prosperity requires government management of the macroeconomy, in order to keep unemployment low, inflation in check and they also value institutions that defend against economic inequality. In The Conscience of a Liberal Paul Krugman writes, I believe in an equal society, supported by institutions that limit extremes of wealth. I believe in democracy, civil liberties, and the rule of law and that makes me a liberal, and Im proud of it. Liberals often point to the prosperity enjoyed under a mixed economy in the years since World War II. They believe liberty exists when access to necessities like health care and economic opportunity are available to all, Modern American liberalism is typically associated with the Democratic Party, as modern American conservatism is typically associated with the Republican Party. Today the word liberalism is used differently in different countries, one of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the United States and usage in Europe. According to Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. Liberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European country, save possibly Britain. In Europe, liberalism, usually means what is called classical liberalism, a commitment to limited government, laissez-faire economics. This classical liberalism sometimes more closely corresponds to the American definition of libertarianism, in the United States, the general term liberalism will almost always refer to modern liberalism, a more social variant of classical liberalism. A2015 Gallup poll found that liberal views have consistently been on the rise in America since 1999. As of 2015, there is an equal number of socially liberal Americans and socially conservative Americans

Modern liberalism in the United States
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Bill Clinton and Tony Blair, adherents of the Third Way
Modern liberalism in the United States
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Gallup Poll trends in ideological self-identification.

21.
Free market
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Another view considers systems with significant market power, inequality of bargaining power, or information asymmetry to be less than free. It is a result of a need being, then the need being met, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. Others believe regulation might be part of a market, if the regulation is necessary to control significant market power, inequality of bargaining power. The latter view implies a free market is not necessarily deregulated, although some of those with the former belief speak of free markets, friedrich Hayek argued in The Pure Theory of Capital that the goal is the preservation of the unique information contained in the price itself. The definition of free market has been disputed and made complex by collectivist political philosophers, during the marginal revolution, subjective value theory was rediscovered. Various forms of socialism based on free markets have existed since the 19th century, early notable socialist proponents of free markets include Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Benjamin Tucker, and the Ricardian socialists. These economists believed that free markets and voluntary exchange could not exist within the exploitative conditions of capitalism. Advocates of free-market socialism such as Jaroslav Vanek argue that free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property. Socialists also point out that free market capitalism leads to excessive disparities in the distribution of income, corporate monopolies run rampant in free markets, with endless agency over the consumer. Thus, free market capitalism desires government regulation of markets to prevent social instability and this implies that economic rents, i. e. profits generated from lack of perfect competition, must be reduced or eliminated as much as possible through free competition. Economic theory suggests the returns to land and other resources are economic rents that cannot be reduced in such a way because of their perfect inelastic supply. Some economic thinkers emphasize the need to share those rents as a requirement for a well functioning market. It is suggested this would eliminate the need for regular taxes that have a negative effect on trade as well as release land. Two features that improve the competition and free market mechanisms, winston Churchill supported this view by his statement Land is the mother of all monopoly. The American economist and social philosopher Henry George, the most famous proponent of this thesis, followers of his ideas are often called Georgists or Geoists and Geolibertarians. Léon Walras, one of the founders of the neoclassical economics who helped formulate the general theory, had a very similar view. He argued that competition could only be realized under conditions of state ownership of natural resources. Additionally, income taxes could be eliminated because the state would receive income to public services through owning such resources and enterprises

Free market
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Issues

22.
Deregulation
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Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations, typically in the economic sphere. It is the undoing or repeal of governmental regulation of the economy, opposition to deregulation may usually involve apprehension regarding environmental pollution and environmental quality standards, financial uncertainty, and constraining monopolies. Regulatory reform is a parallel development alongside deregulation, Regulatory reform refers to organized and ongoing programs to review regulations with a view to minimizing, simplifying, and making them more cost effective. Cost–benefit analysis is used in such reviews. In addition, there have been regulatory innovations, usually suggested by economists, Deregulation can be distinguished from privatization, where privatization can be seen as taking state-owned service providers into the private sector. Argentina underwent heavy economic deregulation, privatization, and had an exchange rate during the Menem administration. In Dec.2001, Paul Krugman compared Enron with Argentina, two months later, Herbert Inhaber claimed that Krugman confused correlation with causation, and neither collapse was due to excessive deregulation. Having announced a range of deregulatory policies, Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke announced the policy of Minimum Effective Regulation in 1986. This introduced now familiar requirements for regulatory impact statements, but compliance by governmental agencies took many years, the labour market under the Hawke/Keating Labor governments operated under an accord. John Howards Liberal Party of Australia in 1996 began deregulation of the labor market, however, it was reversed under the following Rudd Labor government. Natural gas is deregulated in most of the country, with the exception of some Atlantic provinces and some pockets like Vancouver Island, most of this deregulation happened in the mid-1980s. There is price comparison service operating in some of these jurisdictions, particularly Ontario, Alberta, the other provinces are small markets and have not attracted suppliers. Customers have the choice of purchasing from a distribution company or a deregulated supplier. In most provinces the LDC is not allowed to offer a term contract, LDC prices are changed either monthly or quarterly. The province of Ontario began deregulation of electricity supply in 2002, the government is still searching for a stable working regulatory framework. The current status is a partially regulated structure in which consumers have received a price for a portion of the publicly owned generation. The remainder of the price has been market price based and there are numerous competitive energy contract providers, however, Ontario is installing Smart Meters in all homes and small businesses and is changing the pricing structure to Time of Use pricing. All small volume consumers are to be shifted to the new structure by the end of 2012

Deregulation
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As a result of deregulation, Orange operates phone booths in Wellington, New Zealand.
Deregulation
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Since the deregulation of the postal sector, different postal operators can install mail collection boxes in New Zealand's streets.

23.
Labor unions in the United States
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Labor unions in the United States are representatives of workers in many industries recognized under US labor law. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state, Most unions in the United States are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations, the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, the AFL-CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues. In 2013, there were 14.5 million members in the U. S. down from 17.7 million in 1983, the percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States was 10. 8%, compared to 20. 1% in 1983. Union membership in the sector has fallen under 7% — levels not seen since 1932. From a global perspective, the density in 2013 was 7. 7% in France,18. 1% in Germany,27. 1% in Canada, and 85. 5% in Iceland, which is currently highest in the world. In the 21st century the most prominent unions are among public sector such as city employees, government workers, teachers. Members of unions are disproportionately older, male, and residents of the Northeast, the Midwest, Union workers average 10-30% higher pay than non-union in the United States after controlling for individual, job, and labor market characteristics. Of special concern are efforts by cities and states to reduce the pension obligations owed to unionized workers who retire in the future, States with higher levels of union membership tend to have higher median incomes and standards of living. Unions began forming in the century in response to the social. National labor unions began to form in the post-Civil War Era, the American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers until his death in 1924, proved much more durable. It arose as a coalition of various local unions. It helped coordinate and support strikes and eventually became a player in national politics. American labor unions benefited greatly from the New Deal policies of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the 1930s, the Wagner Act, in particular, legally protected the right of unions to organize. Unions from this point developed increasingly closer ties to the Democratic Party, pro-business conservatives gained control of Congress in 1946, and in 1947 passed the Taft-Hartley Act, drafted by Senator Robert A. Taft. President Truman vetoed it but the Conservative coalition overrode the veto, the veto override had considerable Democratic support, including 106 out of 177 Democrats in the House, and 20 out of 42 Democrats in the Senate. The unions campaigned vigorously for years to repeal the law but failed, during the late 1950s, the Landrum Griffin Act of 1959 passed in the wake of Congressional investigations of corruption and undemocratic internal politics in the Teamsters and other unions. The percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States peaked in 1954 at almost 35%, membership has declined since, with private sector union membership beginning a steady decline that continues into the 2010s, but the membership of public sector unions grew steadily

Labor unions in the United States
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Richard Trumka of the AFL-CIO is one of the most prominent union leaders in the United States

24.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms

25.
Mormons
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After Smiths death in 1844, the Mormons followed Brigham Young to what would become the Utah Territory. Today, most Mormons are understood to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, some Mormons are also either independent or non-practicing. The center of Mormon cultural influence is in Utah, and North America has more Mormons than any other continent, Mormons have developed a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history. Mormons dedicate large amounts of time and resources to serving in their church, Mormons have a health code which eschews alcoholic beverages, tobacco, coffee, tea, and other addictive substances. They tend to be very family-oriented, and have connections across generations and with extended family. Mormons also have a law of chastity, requiring abstention from sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage. Mormons self-identify as Christian, although some non-Mormons consider Mormons non-Christian, Mormons believe in the Bible, as well as other books of scripture, such as the Book of Mormon. They have a view of cosmology, and believe that all people are spirit-children of God. Mormons believe that returning to God requires following the example of Jesus Christ and they believe that Christs church was restored through Joseph Smith and is guided by living prophets and apostles. Central to Mormon faith is the belief that God speaks to his children, due to their high birth and conversion rates, the Mormon population has grown significantly in recent decades rising from around three million in 1970 to over 15 million in 2015. The term Mormons has been embraced by most adherents of Mormonism, most notably Mormon fundamentalists, while other Latter Day Saint denominations, both LDS Church members and members of fundamentalist groups commonly use the word Mormon in reference to themselves. The LDS Church, however, disagrees with this self-characterization, Church leaders also encourage members to use the churchs full name to emphasize its focus on Jesus Christ. Today, polygamy is practiced within Mormonism only by people that have broken with the LDS Church, the history of the Mormons has shaped them into a people with a strong sense of unity and communality. From the start, Mormons have tried to establish what they call Zion, in the first period, Smith had tried literally to build a city called Zion, in which converts could gather. During the pioneer era, Zion became a landscape of villages in Utah, in modern times, Zion is still an ideal, though Mormons gather together in their individual congregations rather than a central geographic location. Mormons trace their origins to the visions that Joseph Smith reported having in the early 1820s while living in upstate New York, in 1823, Smith said an angel directed him to a buried book written on golden plates containing the religious history of an ancient people. Smith published what he said was a translation of these plates in March 1830 as the Book of Mormon, named after Mormon, on April 6,1830, Smith founded the Church of Christ. The early church grew westward as Smith sent missionaries to proselytize, in 1833, Missouri settlers, alarmed by the rapid influx of Mormons, expelled them from Jackson County into the nearby Clay County, where local residents were more welcoming

26.
U.S. Executive Branch
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

27.
List of Presidents of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War

List of Presidents of the United States
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The White House in Washington, D.C. is the president's official residence, the center of the administration, and a prominent symbol of the office.
List of Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents of the United States
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1
List of Presidents of the United States
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2

28.
Free Soil
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The Free Soil Party was a short-lived political party in the United States active in the 1848 and 1852 presidential elections, and in some state elections. Founded in Buffalo, New York, it was a third party, the party leadership consisted of anti-slavery former members of the Whig Party and the Democratic Party. Its main purpose was to oppose the expansion of slavery into the western territories and it opposed slavery in the new territories and sometimes worked to remove existing laws that discriminated against freed African Americans in states such as Ohio. It nominated Martin Van Buren for the presidency in 1848 and John P. Hale for the presidency in 1852, the party membership was largely absorbed by the Republican Party between 1854 and 1856, by way of the Anti-Nebraska movement. The party also called for a tariff for revenue only, the Free Soil Partys main support came from areas of Ohio, upstate New York and western Massachusetts, although other northern states also had representatives. The party contended that slavery undermined the dignity of labor and inhibited social mobility, viewing slavery as an economically inefficient, obsolete institution, Free Soilers believed that slavery should be contained, and that if contained it would ultimately disappear. In 1848 the New York State Democratic convention did not endorse the Wilmot Proviso, almost half the members, known as Barnburners, walked out after denouncing the national platform. Lewis Cass, the Democratic Partys 1848 presidential nominee, supported popular sovereignty for determining the status of slavery in the U. S. territories, the main party leaders were Salmon P. Chase of Ohio and John P. Hale of New Hampshire. The Free Soil candidates won 10% of the vote in 1848 but no electoral votes. The party distanced itself from abolitionism and avoided the moral problems implicit in slavery, members emphasized instead the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen in the new western territories. Although abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison derided the party philosophy as white manism, the 1848 platform pledged to promote limited internal improvements, work for a homestead law, work towards paying off the public debt, and introduce a moderate tariff for revenue only. The Compromise of 1850 temporarily neutralized the issue of slavery and undercut the partys no-compromise position, most Barnburners returned to the Democratic Party while most of the Conscience Whigs returned to the Whig Party. This resulted in the Free Soil Party becoming dominated by ardent anti-slavery leaders, the party ran John P. Hale in the 1852 presidential election, but its share of the popular vote shrank to less than 5%. However two years later, after enormous outrage over the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, the remains of the Free Soil Party helped form the Republican Party. The Free Soil Party sent two Senators and fourteen Representatives to the thirty-first Congress, which convened from March 4,1849 to March 3,1851. Since there were party members on the floor of Congress, they could carry far more weight in the government, the partys spoiler effect in 1848 may have helped Taylor into office in a narrowly contested election. The strength of the party, however, was its representation in Congress, the sixteen elected officials had influence far beyond their numerical strength. The partys most important legacy was as a route for anti-slavery Democrats to join the new Republican coalition, in August 1854 an alliance was brokered at Ottawa, Illinois between the Free Soil Party and the Whigs that gave rise to the Republican Party

29.
History of the Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party of the United States is the oldest voter-based political party in the world, tracing its heritage back to the 1820s. During the Second Party System, from 1832 to the mid-1850s, under presidents Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, both parties worked hard to build grassroots organizations and maximize the turnout of voters, which often reached 80 percent or 90 percent. Both parties used patronage extensively to finance their operations, which included emerging big city political machines as well as networks of newspapers. The Democratic party was a proponent for farmers across the country, urban workers and it was especially attractive to Irish immigrants who increasingly controlled the party machinery in the cities. The party was less attractive to businessmen, plantation owners, Evangelical Protestants. The party advocated westward expansion, Manifest Destiny, greater equality among all white men, from the start of the Democratic party which was in 1828, 6th President John Quincy Adams was a Democratic-Republican, and he was not a slave-holder. The 7th through 15th Presidents were either Democratic or Whig and all slaveholders, finally, 16th President Abraham Lincoln was a Republican and the only non-slave-holding President, other than John and John Quincy Adams. Thus in 1860 the Civil War began between the mostly-Republican North against the mostly-Democratic, slaveholding South, the Democrats elected only two presidents to four terms of office for 72 years, Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson. The Party was split between the Bourbon Democrats, representing Eastern business interests, and the elements comprising poor farmers in the South. The agrarian element, marching behind the slogan of free silver, captured the Party in 1896, both Bryan and Wilson were leaders of the Progressive Movement, 1890s–1920s. Starting with 32nd President Franklin D. Eisenhower. S, important Democratic progressive/liberal leaders included Presidents, 33rd – Harry S Truman, and 36th – Lyndon B. Since the Presidential Election of 1976, Democrats have won five out of the last ten presidential elections, winning in the elections of 1976,1992 and 1996. The modern Democratic Party emerged in the 1830s from former factions of the Democratic-Republican Party and it was built by Martin Van Buren who assembled a cadre of politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. The spirit of Jacksonian Democracy animated the party from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the Second Party System, the new Democratic Party became a coalition of farmers, city-dwelling laborers, and Irish Catholics. Behind the party platforms, acceptance speeches of candidates, editorials, pamphlets and stump speeches, as Norton explains, The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 corrupt bargain had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics, Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jacksons political power was largely expressed in negative acts

History of the Democratic Party (United States)
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Andrew Jackson, the first Democratic President (1829-1837).
History of the Democratic Party (United States)
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1837 cartoon shows the Democratic Party as donkey.
History of the Democratic Party (United States)
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To vote for Douglas in Virginia, a man deposited the ticket issued by the party in the official ballot box.
History of the Democratic Party (United States)
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Thomas Nast 's January 1870 depiction of the Democratic donkey

30.
Know Nothing
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The Native American Party, renamed the American Party in 1855 and commonly known as the Know Nothing movement, was an American political party that operated nationally in the mid-1850s. The motivators of the Partys rise were,1. )Nativist sentiment caused by the sudden, unprecedented influx of German and Irish immigrants in the late 1840s,2. )A rapid, steep decline in wages caused by the sudden influx of very large numbers of Irish immigrants fleeing the potato famine,3. )The threat members perceived that the expansion of slavery into factory labor. In the eyes of supporters of both the Free Soil and Know Nothing movements, the existence of black slavery threatened to reduce free, white workers to wage slaves, and 4. )Fear that land in the western territories would be awarded to wealthy slave plantation owners rather than to white small farmers. It was due to fear that slavery would destroy the economic prospects of working families that the Party enrolled massive numbers of voters in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The Partys most prominent leaders were U. S, the American Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election. Anti-Catholicism had been a factor in colonial America but played little role in American politics until the arrival of large numbers of Irish and it then reemerged in nativist attacks on Catholic immigration. It appeared in New York politics as early as 1843, under the banner of the American Republican Party, the movement quickly spread to nearby states, using that name or Native American Party or variants of it. They succeeded in a number of local and Congressional elections, notably in 1844 in Philadelphia, in the early 1850s, numerous secret orders grew up, of which the Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled Banner came to be the most important. They merged in New York in the early 1850s as an order that quickly spread across the North, reaching non-Catholics. The name Know Nothing originated in the organization of the party. When a member was asked about its activities, he was supposed to reply, outsiders called them Know Nothings, and the name stuck. In 1855, the Know Nothings first entered politics under the American Party label, the immigration of large numbers of Irish and German Catholics to the United States in the period between 1830 and 1860 made religious differences between Catholics and Protestants a political issue. Violence occasionally erupted at the polls, Protestants alleged that Pope Pius IX had put down the failed liberal Revolutions of 1848 and that he was an opponent of liberty, democracy and Republicanism. One Boston minister described Catholicism as the ally of tyranny, the opponent of material prosperity, the foe of thrift, the enemy of the railroad, the caucus, and the school. In 1849, a secret society, the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, was created by Charles B. Allen in New York City. Fear of Catholic immigration led to a dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party, activists formed secret groups, coordinating their votes and throwing their weight behind candidates sympathetic to their cause. When asked about these organizations, members were to reply I know nothing. Immigration during the first five years of the 1850s reached a level five times greater than a decade earlier, most of the new arrivals were poor Catholic peasants or laborers from Ireland and Germany who crowded into the tenements of large cities

31.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21

32.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864

33.
Reconstruction era of the United States
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states

Reconstruction era of the United States
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The southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865
Reconstruction era of the United States
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The ruins of Richmond, Virginia after the American Civil War, newly freed African Americans voting for the first time in 1867, Office of the Freedmen's Bureau in Memphis, Tennessee, Memphis Riots of 1866
Reconstruction era of the United States
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A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
Reconstruction era of the United States
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Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war

34.
Third Party System
–
This period, the later part of which is often termed the Gilded Age, is defined by its contrast with the eras of the Second Party System and the Fourth Party System. Democrats were back in control of the Senate at the end of the Third Party System, indeed, some scholars emphasize that the 1876 election saw a realignment and the collapse of support for Reconstruction. The northern and western states were largely Republican, save for closely balanced New York, Indiana, New Jersey, after 1876, the Democrats took control of the Solid South. Cities of 50,000 or more developed ward and citywide bosses who could depend on the votes of clients, Newspapers continued to be the primary communication system, with the great majority closely linked to one party or the other. Both parties consisted of broad-based voting coalitions, throughout the North, businessmen, shop owners, skilled craftsmen, clerks and professionals favored the Republicans, as did more modern, commercially oriented farmers. The Democratic Party was composed of conservative, pro-business Bourbon Democrats, the Democratic coalition was composed of traditional Democrats in the North. They were joined by the Redeemers in the South and by Catholic immigrants, in addition the party attracted unskilled laborers and hard-scrabble old-stock farmers in remote areas of New England and along the Ohio River valley. Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Scandinavian Lutherans and other pietists in the North were tightly linked to the Republicans, in sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians, and German Lutherans, looked to the Democratic Party for protection from pietistic moralism, especially prohibition. While both parties cut across economic class structures, the Democrats were supported more heavily by its lower tiers, cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign language schools, became important because of the sharp religious divisions in the electorate. In the North, about 50% of the voters were pietistic Protestants who believed the government should be used to reduce social sins, liturgical churches constituted over a quarter of the vote and wanted the government to stay out of personal morality issues. Source, Paul Kleppner, The Third Electoral System 1853-1892 p.182 The collapse of the Whigs after 1852 left political chaos, various prohibitionist and nativist movements emerged, especially the American Party, based originally on the secret Know Nothing lodges. The Republican Party was more driven, in terms of ideology and talent, by 1858 the Republicans controlled majorities in every Northern state, and hence controlled the electoral votes for president in 1860. The ideological force driving the new party was modernization, and opposition to slavery, by 1856 the Republicans were crusading for Free Soil, Free Labor, Frémont and Victory. The main argument was that a Slave Power had seized control of the government and would try to make slavery legal in the territories. That would give rich slave owners the chance to go anywhere and buy up the best land, thus undercutting the wages of free labor, the Democratic response was to countercrusade in 1856, warning that the election of Republican candidate John C. The outstanding leader of the Democrats was Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas ‒ he believed that the process in each state or territory should settle the slavery question. When President James Buchanan tried to rig politics in Kansas Territory to approve slavery, Douglas broke with him, the Republicans played it safe in 1860, passing over better-known radicals in favor of a moderate border state politician known to be an articulate advocate of liberty. Abraham Lincoln made no speeches, letting the party apparatus march the armies to the polls, the Confederacy abandoned all party activity, and thereby forfeited the advantages of a nationwide organization committed to support of the administration

Third Party System
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1881 cartoon attacks the imperial splendor of Garfield's inauguration in contrast to Jefferson's republican simplicity (upper left)
Third Party System
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Democratic magazine ridicules GOP use of "bloody shirt" memories of war

35.
Salmon P. Chase
–
Salmon Portland Chase was an American politician and jurist who served as the sixth Chief Justice of the United States from 1864 to his death in 1873. Earlier in his career, Chase was the 23rd Governor of Ohio, senator from Ohio prior to service under Abraham Lincoln as the 25th Secretary of the Treasury. As Secretary of the Treasury, Chase strengthened the government, introducing its first paper currency as well as a national bank. He coined the slogan of the Free Soil Party, Free Soil, Free Labor, Chief Justice Chase presided over the Senate trial of Andrew Johnson during the Presidents impeachment proceedings in 1868. Chase was born in Cornish, New Hampshire, on January 13,1808, to Janet Ralston and Ithamar Chase, senator Dudley Chase of Vermont was another uncle. He studied in the schools of Windsor, Vermont, and Worthington, Ohio. He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity and Phi Beta Kappa, while at Dartmouth, he taught at the Royalton Academy in Royalton, Vermont. Chase then moved to the District of Columbia, where he opened a school while studying law under U. S. Attorney General William Wirt. He was admitted to the bar in 1829, Chase moved to a country home near Loveland, Ohio, and practiced law in Cincinnati from 1830. He rose to prominence for his compilation of the states statutes. From the beginning, despite the risk to his livelihood, he defended runaway slaves and he worked initially with the American Sunday School Union. Chase was also a member of the literary Semi-Colon Club, its members included Harriet Beecher Stowe, Chase became the leader of the political reformers, as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionist movement. For his defense of escaped slaves seized in Ohio under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 and his argument in the case of Jones v. Van Zandt on the constitutionality of fugitive slave laws before the U. S. Supreme Court attracted particular attention. In this and similar cases, the court ruled against him, Chase contended that slavery was local, not national, and that it could exist only by virtue of positive state law. Elected as a Whig to the Cincinnati City Council in 1840, for seven years he was the leader of the Liberty Party in Ohio. He helped balance its idealism with his approach and political thought. He was skillful in drafting platforms and addresses, and he prepared the national Liberty platform of 1843, building the Liberty Party was slow going. By 1848 Chase was leader in the effort to combine the Liberty Party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats of New York to form the Free Soil Party

36.
Secretary of the Treasury
–
This position in the Federal Government of the United States is analogous to the Minister of Finance in many other countries. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the Presidents Cabinet, nominees for The Secretary of the Treasury undergo a confirmation hearing before the United States Senate Committee on Finance before being confirmed by the United States Senate. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the U. S. National Security Council. The Secretary along with the Treasurer must sign Federal Reserve notes before they can become legal tender, the Secretary also manages the United States Emergency Economic Stabilization fund. Most of the Departments law enforcement agencies such as the U. S. Customs Service, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, secret Service were reassigned to other Departments in 2003 in conjunction with the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. The Secretary of the Treasury salary is $205,700 annually,2 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury M. Peter McPherson served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from August 17,1988, to September 15,1988. 4 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Kenneth W. Dam served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from December 31,2002,5 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Robert M. Kimmitt served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from June 30,2006, to July 9,2006. 7 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Neal Wolin served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from January 25,2013, as of April 2017, there are eleven living former Secretaries of the Treasury, the oldest being George P. Shultz. The most recent Secretary of the Treasury to die was Lloyd M. Bentsen, United States Department of the Treasury

Secretary of the Treasury
–
Incumbent Jack Lew since February 27, 2013
Secretary of the Treasury
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Seal of the Department of the Treasury
Secretary of the Treasury
Secretary of the Treasury

37.
Spoils system
–
Thereafter the spoils system was largely replaced by a nonpartisan merit at the federal level of the United States. Similar spoils systems are common in nations that traditionally have been based on tribal organization or other kinship groups. Before 1829, moderation had prevailed in the transfer of power from one U. S. president to another. Andrew Jacksons first inauguration, March 4,1829, signaled a departure from the past. These promises were honored by a number of removals after Jackson assumed power. At the beginning of Jacksons administration, fully 919 officials were removed from government positions, the hardest changed organization within the federal government proved to be the post office. The post office was the largest department in the federal government, in one year 423 postmasters were deprived of their positions, most with extensive records of good service. By the late 1860s, citizens began demanding civil service reform, running under the Liberal Republican Party in 1872, they were soundly defeated by Ulysses S. Grant. After the assassination of James A. Garfield by a rejected office-seeker in 1881, while few jobs were covered under the law initially, the law allowed the President to transfer jobs and their current holders into the system, thus giving the holder a permanent job. The Pendleton Acts reach was expanded as the two political parties alternated control of the White House every election between 1884 and 1896. After each election the outgoing President applied the Pendleton Act to jobs held by his political supporters, by 1900, most federal jobs were handled through civil service and the spoils system was limited only to very senior positions. The separation between the activity and the civil service was made stronger with the Hatch Act of 1939 which prohibited federal employees from engaging in many political activities. Illinois modernized its bureaucracy in 1917 under Frank Lowden, but Chicago held on to patronage in city government until the city agreed to end the practice in the Shakman Decrees of 1972 and 1983, Modern variations on the spoils system are often described as the political machine. Patronage Political corruption Separation of powers Soft despotism Whig Party Griffith, the Modern Development of the City in the United Kingdom and the United States Hoogenboom, Ari Arthur. Outlawing the Spoils, A history of the civil service reform movement, 1865–1883 Ostrogorski, democracy and the Party System in the United States Rubio, Philip F. A History of Affirmative Action, 1619–2000 University Press of Mississippi Van Riper, History of the United States Civil Service Greenwood Press Civil Service Reform. The Civil Service and the Patronage

38.
Chester A. Arthur
–
Chester Alan Arthur was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States, he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latters assassination. At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation and he succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration, Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, grew up in upstate New York, and practiced law in New York City. He served as general in the New York Militia during the American Civil War. Following the war, he devoted time to Republican politics. In 1878, the new president, Rutherford B, Hayes, fired Arthur as part of a plan to reform the federal patronage system in New York. When Garfield won the Republican nomination for president in 1880, Arthur, after just half a year as vice president, Arthur found himself in the executive mansion due to the assassination of his predecessor. To the surprise of reformers, Arthur took up the cause of reform and he signed the Pendleton Act into law and strongly enforced its provisions. He gained praise for his veto of a Rivers and Harbors Act that would have appropriated federal funds in a manner he thought excessive. He presided over the rebirth of the United States Navy, but was criticized for failing to alleviate the federal budget surplus, suffering from poor health, Arthur made only a limited effort to secure the Republican Partys nomination in 1884, he retired at the close of his term. Journalist Alexander McClure later wrote, No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted as Chester Alan Arthur, more generally respected, alike by political friend and foe. The New York World summed up Arthurs presidency at his death in 1886, No duty was neglected in his administration, mark Twain wrote of him, t would be hard indeed to better President Arthurs administration. Over the 20th and 21st centuries, however, Arthurs reputation mostly faded among the public, Chester Alan Arthur was born October 5,1829, in Fairfield, Vermont. Arthurs mother, Malvina Stone, was born in Vermont, the daughter of George Washington Stone, malvinas family was primarily of English and Welsh descent, and her grandfather, Uriah Stone, fought in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. His father, William Arthur, was born in Dreen, Cullybackey, County Antrim, Ireland, he graduated college in Belfast. Arthurs mother met his father while William Arthur was teaching at a school in Dunham, Quebec, the two married in Dunham on April 12,1821, soon after meeting. After their first child, Regina, was born, the Arthurs moved to Vermont and they quickly moved from Burlington to Jericho, and finally to Waterville, as William received positions teaching at different schools. William Arthur became an outspoken abolitionist, which made him unpopular with members of his congregations

Chester A. Arthur
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Chester Alan Arthur
Chester A. Arthur
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Arthur married Ellen Herndon in 1859.
Chester A. Arthur
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The New York Custom House (formerly the Merchants' Exchange building at 55 Wall Street) was Arthur's office for seven years.
Chester A. Arthur
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A cartoon depicting President Rutherford B. Hayes kicking Arthur out of the New York Custom House

39.
Civil service
–
A civil servant or public servant is a person so employed in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the service varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants whereas county or city employees are not, many consider the study of service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in non-departmental public bodies may also be classed as servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms. Collectively a states civil servants form its service or public service. An international civil servant or international staff member is an employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation but are governed by internal staff regulations, All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO. Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission of the United Nations and its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. The origin of the modern civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the states bureaucracy and this system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit, after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system. This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty, which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations, the first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui. The examination tested the candidates memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms, the system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package. The Chinese system was admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. In the 18th century, in response to changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase, by the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. The origins of the British civil service are better known, during the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806, in that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College, near London to train and examine administrators of the Companys territories in India

40.
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
–
The act provided selection of government employees by competitive exams, rather than ties to politicians or political affiliation. It also made it illegal to fire or demote government officials for political reasons, to enforce the merit system and the judicial system, the law also created the United States Civil Service Commission. This board would be in charge of determining the rules and regulations of the act, the Act also allowed for the president, by executive order to decide which positions could be subject to the act and which would not. A crucial result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding from business, in 1877, there was growing interest in the United States concerning the effects of the spoils system on the American political system. New York City established the Civil Service Reform Association to help address the issues, the presence of these organizations was one of the first steps in trying to up end the spoils system in America. The assassination of President James A. Garfield moved the Civil Service Reform from city organizations to a topic in the political realm. Garfield died two months later, and Vice President Chester A. Arthur acceded to the presidency, once in office, President Arthur pushed through legislation for civil reform. On January 16,1883 Congress passed the Civil Service Act, the Act was written by Dorman Bridgman Eaton, a staunch opponent of the patronage system who was later first chairman of the United States Civil Service Commission. However, the law would also prove to be a political liability for Arthur. The law offended machine politicians, or politicians who belong to a clique that controls a political party. These politicians realized that with the Pendleton Act in place they would have to find a new means of income, the Act initially covered only about 10% of the U. S. governments civilian employees. However, there was a provision that allowed outgoing presidents to lock in their own appointees by converting jobs to civil service, after a series of party reversals at the presidential level, the result was that most federal jobs were under civil service. Civil Service Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 National Civil Service Reform League

41.
Gold standard
–
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished, specie, bullion, and exchange, the gold bullion standard is a system in which gold coins do not circulate, but the authorities agree to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price in exchange for the circulating currency. The gold exchange standard usually does not involve the circulation of gold coins. This creates a de facto standard, where the value of the means of exchange has a fixed external value in terms of gold that is independent of the inherent value of the means of exchange itself. Most nations abandoned the standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century. An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history and this is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres, or a cube 21 metres on a side. There are varying estimates of the volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years, another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the output in illegal mining activities. World production for 2011 was at 2,700 tonnes, since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth of around 2x, although far less than world economic growth of some 8x, or some 4x since 1980. The gold specie standard arose from the acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money, typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form, the use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor. During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe, however, as the Byzantine Empires economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as its currency over gold, Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757–796. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe, Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later. In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard, following Queen Annes proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816

42.
Pietism
–
Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined Lutheran emphasis on Biblical doctrine with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life. Although the movement was active exclusively within Lutheranism, it had a impact on Protestantism worldwide, particularly in North America. Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland and the rest of German-speaking Europe, Scandinavia and the Baltics, and it was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. The movement reached its zenith in the century, and declined through the 19th century. A substantial part of the Pietistic Protestants was formed by German Sectarians, Norwegian Lutherans, Swedish Lutherans, as the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the Church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. The direct originator of the movement was Philipp Jakob Spener and he studied theology at Strasbourg, where the professors at the time were more inclined to practical Christianity than to theological disputation. In 1675, Spener published his Pia desideria or Earnest Desire for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church and this was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of Methodists somewhat later in England. While large numbers of orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Speners book, in 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In Leipzig, a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study, the theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Speners proposals. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a simplification, stressing the need for the church. Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through the whole of Middle, Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world. Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, the whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to a new form of justification by works and its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century, one leader was Valentin Ernst Löscher, a movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and it likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men, bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a desired piety in a person, as unbiblical. Pietism is considered the influence that led to the creation of the Evangelical Church of the Union in Prussia in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite and this union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s

43.
Prohibition
–
The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands

Prohibition
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A police raid confiscating illegal alcohol, in Elk Lake, Canada, in 1925.
Prohibition
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The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846.
Prohibition
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This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette shows the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union 's campaign against beer brewers. The "water cure" was a torture which was in the news because of its use in the Philippines.
Prohibition
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Prescription form for medicinal liquor

44.
Sherman Antitrust Act
–
The Sherman Antitrust Act is a landmark federal statute in the history of United States antitrust law passed by Congress in 1890. In the general sense, a trust is a form of a contract whereby one party entrusts its property to a second party. These are commonly used to hold inheritances for the benefit of children, in most countries outside the United States, antitrust law is known as competition law. The law attempts to prevent the raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply. Innocent monopoly, or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is perfectly legal, over time, the Act has also been used more broadly, to oppose the combination of entities that could potentially harm competition, such as monopolies or cartels. The Sherman Act is divided into three sections, Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the spirit of the Act, Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U. S. territories and the District of Columbia. The Robinson–Patman Act of 1936 amended the Clayton Act, the amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors. The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, some cases were successful and others were not, many took several years to decide, including appeals. Notable cases filed under the act include, United States v. Workingmens Amalgamated Council of New Orleans, hale v. Henkel also reached the Supreme Court. Precedent was set for the production of documents by an officer of a company, hale was an officer of the American Tobacco Co. Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, which broke up the company based on geography, United States v. American Tobacco Co. which split the company into four. Federal Baseball Club v. National League in which the Supreme Court ruled that Major League Baseball was not interstate commerce and was not subject to the anti-trust law, United States v. National City Lines, related to the General Motors streetcar conspiracy. United States v. AT&T Co. which was settled in 1982, United States v. Microsoft Corp. was settled in 2001 without the breakup of the company. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, according to its authors, it was not intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. Senator George Hoar of Massachusetts, another author of the Sherman Act, who merely by superior skill and intelligence. got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist. It involved something like the use of means which made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition, at Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader 310 U. S.469,310 U. S. 492-93 and n. In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation

45.
William McKinley
–
McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law, in 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Partys expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office and he was elected Ohios governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and he defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated sound money and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Rapid economic growth marked McKinleys presidency and he promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. William McKinley, Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, there, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy and he met Nancy Allison there, and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvanias earliest settlers, the family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohios Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, William followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist, in 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio so that their children could attend the better schools there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville and he remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio and he did not graduate from either university. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohios earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers, they would be designated by Ohios governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, McKinley quickly took to the soldiers life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause

William McKinley
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William McKinley
William McKinley
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Rutherford B. Hayes was McKinley's mentor during the Civil War and afterward.
William McKinley
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Ida Saxton McKinley
William McKinley
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Congressman McKinley

46.
United States presidential election, 1896
–
The United States presidential election of 1896 was the 28th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3,1896. The 1896 campaign was an election that ended the old Third Party System. McKinley forged a coalition in which businessmen, professionals, skilled factory workers. He was strongest in cities and in the Northeast, Upper Midwest, Bryan was the nominee of the Democrats, the Populist Party, and the Silver Republicans. He presented his campaign as a crusade of the man against the rich, who impoverished America by limiting the money supply. Silver, he said, was in ample supply and if coined into money would restore prosperity while undermining the power of the money trust. Bryan was strongest in the South, rural Midwest, and Rocky Mountain states, Bryans moralistic rhetoric and crusade for inflation alienated conservatives. Turnout was very high, passing 90% of the voters in many places. Since the Panic of 1893, the nation had been mired in an economic depression, marked by low prices, low profits, high unemployment. Economic issues, especially tariff policy and the question of whether the standard should be preserved for the money supply, were central issues. Republican campaign manager Mark Hanna pioneered many modern techniques, facilitated by a $3.5 million budget. He outspent Bryan by a factor of five, at their convention in St. Louis, Missouri, held between June 16 and 18,1896, the Republicans nominated William McKinley for president and New Jerseys Garret Hobart for vice-president. McKinley had just vacated the office of Governor of Ohio, both candidates were easily nominated on first ballots. Given that many businessmen and bankers were terrified of Bryans populist rhetoric and demand for the end of the gold standard, in the end, Hanna raised a staggering $3.5 million for the campaign and outspent the Democrats by an estimated 5-to-1 margin. This sum would be equivalent to approximately $85 million, according to the calculator of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Major McKinley was the last veteran of the American Civil War to be nominated for president by either major party, one month after McKinleys nomination, supporters of silver-backed currency took control of the Democratic convention held in Chicago on July 7–11. Most of the Southern and Western delegates were committed to implementing the free silver ideas of the Populist Party, the convention repudiated President Clevelands gold standard policies and then repudiated Cleveland himself. This, however, left the convention wide open, there was no successor to Cleveland

47.
Panic of 1893
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The Panic of 1893 was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897. It deeply affected every sector of the economy, and produced political upheaval that led to the 1896 realigning election, one of the causes for the panic of 1893 can be traced back to Argentina. Investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers, however, the failure of the 1890 wheat crop and a coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. As concern for the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, the credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The Populists were a short-lived agrarian-populist political party which appealed politically to wheat farmers in the West and they saw the resulting panic as confirmation that the values of rootless global finance were assailing traditional American values. Historian Hasia Diner notes, Some Populists believed that Jews made up a class of international financiers whose policies had ruined small family farms, Jews, they asserted, owned the banks and promoted the gold standard, the chief sources of their impoverishment. Agrarian radicalism posited the city as antithetical to American values, asserting that Jews were the essence of urban corruption, the Free Silver movement arose, gaining support from farmers and mining interests. People attempted to redeem notes for gold. Ultimately, the limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments, the National Cordage Company went into receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCCs financial distress. The company, a manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price, holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and this was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies, in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the west, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panics peak, the huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result, as a result of the panic, stock prices declined. 500 banks closed,15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation, the unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to feed the destitute

Panic of 1893
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Drawing of frenzied stockbrokers on May 5, 1893, from Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
Panic of 1893
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The 1896 Broadway melodrama The War of Wealth was inspired by the panic of 1893.

48.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr

49.
Trust busting
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Competition law is a law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement, Competition law is known as anti-trust law in the United States, and as anti-monopoly law in China and Russia. In previous years it has known as trade practices law in the United Kingdom. In the European Union, it is referred to as both antitrust and competition law, the history of competition law reaches back to the Roman Empire. The business practices of market traders, guilds and governments have always been subject to scrutiny, since the 20th century, competition law has become global. The two largest and most influential systems of regulation are United States antitrust law and European Union competition law. National and regional competition authorities across the world have formed international support, modern competition law has historically evolved on a country level to promote and maintain fair competition in markets principally within the territorial boundaries of nation-states. National competition law usually does not cover activity beyond territorial borders unless it has significant effects at nation-state level, countries may allow for extraterritorial jurisdiction in competition cases based on so-called effects doctrine. The protection of competition is governed by international competition agreements. These obligations were not included in GATT, but in 1994, with the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of GATT Multilateral Negotiations, the Agreement Establishing the WTO included a range of limited provisions on various cross-border competition issues on a sector specific basis. Competition law, or antitrust law, has three elements, prohibiting agreements or practices that restrict free trading and competition between business. This includes in particular the repression of trade caused by cartels. Banning abusive behavior by a firm dominating a market, or anti-competitive practices that tend to lead to such a dominant position, Practices controlled in this way may include predatory pricing, tying, price gouging, refusal to deal, and many others. Supervising the mergers and acquisitions of large corporations, including joint ventures. Substance and practice of competition law varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, protecting the interests of consumers and ensuring that entrepreneurs have an opportunity to compete in the market economy are often treated as important objectives. In recent decades, competition law has been viewed as a way to better public services. An early example of competition law can be found in Roman law, the Lex Julia de Annona was enacted during the Roman Republic around 50 B. C. To protect the trade, heavy fines were imposed on anyone directly, deliberately

Trust busting
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Judge Coke in the 17th century thought that general restraints on trade were unreasonable
Trust busting
Trust busting
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Elizabeth I assured monopolies would not be abused in the early era of globalization
Trust busting
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Senatorial Round House by Thomas Nast, 1886

50.
Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American third party. The new party was known for taking advanced positions on progressive reforms, beset by factionalism and failure to win many offices, the party went into rapid decline by 1914 and virtually disappeared in 1916. The Progressive party was nicknamed the Bull Moose Party after journalists quoted Roosevelt saying that he felt fit as a bull moose shortly after the new party was formed. He had selected Taft, his Secretary of War, to succeed him as presidential candidate, Roosevelt became disappointed by Tafts increasingly conservative policies. Taft upset Roosevelt when he used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to sue U. S. Steel for an action that President Roosevelt had explicitly approved and they became openly hostile, and Roosevelt decided to seek the presidency. Roosevelt entered the late, as Taft was already being challenged by progressive leader Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin. Most of La Follettes supporters switched to Roosevelt, leaving the Wisconsin Senator embittered, nine of the states where progressive elements were strongest had set up preference primaries, which Roosevelt won. For example, he bought up the votes of delegates from the southern states, the Republican national convention rejected Roosevelts protests. Roosevelt and his supporters walked out, and the convention re-nominated Taft, the next day, Roosevelt supporters met to form a new political party of their own. California governor Hiram Johnson became its chairman, and a new convention was scheduled for August, Roosevelts family gave $77,500 and others gave $164,000. The total was nearly $600,000, far less than the major parties, the new party had serious structural defects. Since it insisted on running complete tickets against the regular Republican ticket in most states, the exception was California, where the progressive element took control of the Republican Party and Taft was not even on the November ballot. Only five of the 15 more progressive Republican Senators declared support for it, Republican Representatives, governors, committeemen, and the publishers and editors of Republican-leaning newspapers showed comparable reluctance. Many of Roosevelts closest political allies supported Taft, including his son-in-law, for men like Longworth, expecting a future of his own in Republican politics, bolting the party would have seemed tantamount to career suicide. However, many independent reformers still signed up, despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women, in 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed womens suffrage on the national level. The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a speech for Roosevelts nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South, yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel

Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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National Progressive Convention, 1912, in the Chicago Coliseum
Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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Theodore Roosevelt was the founder of the Bull Moose Progressive Party and thus is often associated with the party.
Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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16-page campaign booklet with party platform of the Progressive Party
Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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Roosevelt mixing spicy ingredients in his speeches in this 1912 editorial cartoon by Karl K. Knecht (1883-1972) in the Evansville Courier

51.
Calvin Coolidge
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John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was the 30th President of the United States. A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics and his response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th vice president in 1920, elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative, and also as a man who said very little, although having a rather dry sense of humor. Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessors administration, as a Coolidge biographer wrote, He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength, Coolidges retirement was relatively short, as he died at the age of 60 in January 1933, less than two months before his immediate successor, Herbert Hoover, left office. Though his reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald Reagan administration, John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in Plymouth Notch, Windsor County, Vermont, on July 4,1872, the only U. S. president to be born on Independence Day. He held various offices, including justice of the peace and tax collector. Coolidges mother was the daughter of a Plymouth Notch farmer and she was chronically ill and died, perhaps from tuberculosis, when Coolidge was twelve years old. His younger sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge, died at the age of fifteen, probably of appendicitis, Coolidges father remarried in 1891, to a schoolteacher, and lived to the age of eighty. Coolidges family had roots in New England, his earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge, emigrated from Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, England, around 1630 and settled in Watertown. Another ancestor, Edmund Rice, arrived at Watertown in 1638, Coolidges great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American military officer in the Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch. His grandfather, Calvin Galusha Coolidge, served in the Vermont House of Representatives, many of Coolidges ancestors were farmers, and numerous distant cousins were prominent in politics. Coolidge attended Black River Academy and then Amherst College, where he distinguished himself in the class, as a senior joined the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta. While there, Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman, the only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give. Yet people are entitled to the rewards of their industry, what they earn is theirs, no matter how small or how great. But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service, at his fathers urging after graduation, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts to become a lawyer. To avoid the cost of law school, Coolidge followed the practice of apprenticing with a local law firm, Hammond & Field. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County, in 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the bar, becoming a country lawyer

52.
United States presidential election, 1920
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The United States presidential election of 1920 was the 34th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1920. The Republicans nominated newspaper publisher and Senator Warren G. Harding from Ohio, while the Democrats chose newspaper publisher, incumbent President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, in poor health, chose not to run for a third term. Former President Theodore Roosevelt had been the front runner for the Republican nomination and he died in January 1919 without leaving an obvious heir to his progressive legacy. With both Wilson and Roosevelt out of the running, the parties turned to little-known dark horse candidates from state of Ohio. As his running mate, Cox chose Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harding virtually ignored Cox in the race and essentially campaigned against Wilson by calling for a return to normalcy. With a spending advantage of almost 4-to-1, Harding won a victory by winning 37 states, including the first Republican victories in Arizona, New Mexico. The wartime economic boom had collapsed, at home, the year 1919 was marked by major strikes in the meatpacking and steel industries and large-scale race riots in Chicago and other cities. Anarchist attacks on Wall Street produced fears of radicals and terrorists, harding’s victory margin of 26. 2% in the popular vote remains the largest popular-vote percentage margin in presidential elections after the unopposed election of James Monroe in 1820. Hardings percentage of the vote, however, was later exceeded by Franklin Roosevelt in 1936, Lyndon Johnson in 1964. As a result, the popular vote increased dramatically, from 18.5 million in 1916 to 26.8 million in 1920. The election is notable for being the first of three in which a sitting U. S. senator was elected president. Republican candidates, On June 8, the Republican National Convention met in Chicago, the race was wide open, and soon the convention deadlocked between Major General Leonard Wood and Governor Frank Orren Lowden of Illinois. Other names placed in nomination included Senators Warren G. Butler, la Follette from Wisconsin was not formally placed in nomination, but received the votes of his state delegation nonetheless. Harding was nominated for president on the ballot, after some delegates shifted their allegiances. At that decisive time, the friends of Harding will suggest him, Daughertys prediction described essentially what occurred, but historians Richard C. Bain and Judith H. Parris argue that Daughertys prediction has been too much weight in narratives of the convention. The Tally, Source for convention coverage, Richard C, bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. 200–208. Early favorites for the nomination had included McAdoo and Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, others placed in nomination included New York Governor Al Smith, United Kingdom Ambassador John W. Davis, New Jersey Governor Edward I

53.
United States presidential election, 1924
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The United States presidential election of 1924 was the 35th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1924. Incumbent President Calvin Coolidge, the Republican candidate, was elected to a full term, Coolidge had been vice-president under Warren G. Harding and became president in 1923 when Harding died during his term in office. Coolidge was given credit for an economy at home and no visible crises abroad. His candidacy was aided by a split within the Democratic Party, the regular Democratic candidate was John W. Davis, a little-known former congressman and diplomat from West Virginia, and the only person from that state to ever become a candidate for President. Davis was also the first man from a slave state to be a Presidential candidate since the Civil War. Since Davis was a conservative, many liberal Democrats bolted the party, La Follette of Wisconsin, who ran as the candidate of the Progressive Party and by winning his home state became and remains the only person from Wisconsin to win an electoral vote for president. The third place candidate, Robert La Follette, however, campaigned on a contrary platform, Republican Candidates When Coolidge became President, he was fortunate to have had a stable Cabinet that remained untarnished by the scandals of the Harding administration. He won public confidence by taking a hand in settling a serious Pennsylvania coal strike, even much of the negotiation’s success was largely due to the states governor. However it should be noted that Coolidge was not popular with the liberal or progressive factions within the party either, heartened by their victories in the 1922 midterms, the partys progressives vigorously opposed a continuation of the late Hardings policies. Coolidge decided to head off the threat of Johnsons candidacy by gaining the endorsement of some of the liberals. He first approached Senator William Borah from Idaho and cultivated his circle by making a reference to the Soviet Union in a speech in December. No sooner had the Soviet Union reacted favorably than Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes persuaded the President to reject it, Coolidge for his part seemed unsure of what ideological posture to assume. His State of the Union address in January was neither liberal nor reactionary and he played Borah by repeatedly promising to fire Attorney General Harry Daugherty and putting it off. In an effort to try to get at least some of the back into the party ranks. The senator declined, also refusing to nominate Coolidge at that years Republican convention which he decided against attending. Another task for Coolidge, only slightly easier than tightening his hold over the partys divergent factions, was to rebuild the party organization, a few years before, Will Hays had brought disciplined energy to the office of Republican national chairman. Hays replacement, William Butler, lacked his predecessors experience, and his prime task was to establish control over the party in order to ensure his own nomination. This allowed him to control of southern delegates to the coming Republican convention

54.
United States presidential election, 1928
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The United States presidential election of 1928 was the 36th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1928. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover was nominated as the Republican candidate, New York Governor Al Smith was the Democratic nominee. Hoover and Smith had been known as potential presidential candidates long before the campaign of 1928. Each candidate was a newcomer to the race and presented in his person. Each candidate also faced serious discontent within his party membership, the result was a third consecutive Republican landslide, a result that would only be repeated in 1988. Hoover narrowly failed to carry a majority of former Confederate states and this was the last election until 1952 in which a Republican won the White House. Republican candidates, With President Coolidge choosing not to enter the race, the leading candidates were Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, former Illinois Governor Frank Orren Lowden and Senate Majority Leader Charles Curtis. A draft-Coolidge movement failed to gain traction with party insiders and failed to persuade Coolidge himself, the Republican Convention, held in Kansas City, Missouri, from June 12 to 15, nominated Hoover on the first ballot. To attract votes from farmers concerned about Hoovers pro-business orientation, it was offered to Senator Curtis. He was nominated overwhelmingly on the first ballot, in his acceptance speech eight weeks after the convention ended, Secretary Hoover said, We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of this land. We shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this land, the phrase would eventually haunt Hoover during the Great Depression. One who did not was New York Governor Al Smith, who had tried twice before to secure the Democratic nomination, the 1928 Democratic National Convention was held in Houston, Texas, on June 26 to 28, and Smith became the candidate on the first ballot. Smith was the first Roman Catholic to gain a major partys nomination for president, many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in Rome in making decisions affecting the country. Source, US President - D Convention, the Prohibition Party Convention was held in Chicago from July 10 through July 12. Nonetheless, William F. Varney was nominated for president over Hoover by a margin of 68–45, anti-Catholicism was a significant problem for Smith’s campaign. According to a joke, after the election he sent a one-word telegram advising Pope Pius XI to “Unpack”. An example was a statement issued in September 1928 by the National Lutheran Editors’ and Managers’ Association that opposed Smith’s election, the Catholic Church, the manifesto asserted, was hostile to American principles of separation of church and state and of religious toleration. Smith’s opposition to Prohibition, a key reform promoted by Protestants, also lost him votes, due to these issues, Smith lost several states of the Solid South that had been carried by Democrats since Reconstruction

55.
Teapot Dome scandal
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The Teapot Dome Scandal was a bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1921 to 1922, during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. In 1922 and 1923, the became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, no person was ever convicted of paying the bribes, however. Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics, in the early 20th century, the U. S. Navy largely converted from coal to fuel oil. To ensure that the Navy would always have enough fuel available and this was not implemented until 1922, when Interior Secretary Fall persuaded Navy Secretary Edwin C. Later in 1922, Interior Secretary Albert Fall leased the oil production rights at Teapot Dome to Harry F. Sinclair of Mammoth Oil and he also leased the Elk Hills reserve to Edward L. Doheny of Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company. Both leases were issued without competitive bidding and this manner of leasing was legal under the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920. The lease terms were very favorable to the oil companies, which secretly made Fall a rich man, Fall had received a no-interest loan from Doheny of $100,000 in November 1921. He received other gifts from Doheny and Sinclair totaling about $404,000 and it was this money changing hands that was illegal, not the leases. Fall attempted to keep his actions secret, but the improvement in his standard of living was suspect. In April 1922, a Wyoming oil operator wrote to Senator John B, kendrick, angered that Sinclair had been given a contract to the lands in a secret deal. Kendrick did not respond, but two later on April 15, he introduced a resolution calling for an investigation of the deal. La Follette, Sr. of Wisconsin led an investigation by the Senate Committee on Public Lands, at first, La Follette believed Fall was innocent. However, his suspicions deepened after his own office in the Senate Office Building was ransacked, democrat Thomas J. Walsh of Montana, the most junior minority member, led a lengthy inquiry. For two years, Walsh pushed forward while Fall stepped backward, covering his tracks as he went, no evidence of wrongdoing was initially uncovered as the leases were legal enough, but records kept disappearing mysteriously. Fall had made the leases appear legitimate, but his acceptance of the money was his undoing, by 1924, the remaining unanswered question was how Fall had become so rich so quickly and easily. Money from the bribes had gone to Falls cattle ranch and investments in his business, finally, as the investigation was winding down with Fall apparently innocent, Walsh uncovered a piece of evidence Fall had forgotten to cover up, Dohenys $100,000 loan to Fall. This discovery broke the scandal open, civil and criminal suits related to the scandal continued throughout the 1920s

Teapot Dome scandal
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Oil businessman Edward L. Doheny (second from right, at table) testifying before the Senate Committee investigating the Teapot Dome oil leases in 1924
Teapot Dome scandal
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Teapot Dome around the time of the scandal, featuring Teapot Rock (from postcard, ca 1922)
Teapot Dome scandal
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Teapot Rock viewed from the south. The Teapot Dome oil fields are located north of the rock to the right. (image ca 2009).
Teapot Dome scandal
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Senator Albert B. Fall, the first former U.S. cabinet official sentenced to prison

56.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930

57.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn

Dwight Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight Eisenhower
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The Eisenhower family home, Abilene, Kansas.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (2nd from left) and Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the 1912 West Point football team.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (far right) with three unidentified people in 1919, four years after graduating from West Point.

58.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks

New Deal
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Top left: The Tennessee Valley Authority, part of the New Deal, being signed into law in 1933. Top right: President Roosevelt was responsible for initiatives and programs of the New Deal. Bottom: A public mural from one of the artists employed by the Works Progress Administration, part of the New Deal.
New Deal
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USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
New Deal
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1935 cartoon by Vaughn Shoemaker; he parodied the New Deal as a card game with alphabetical agencies.
New Deal
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Roosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through his declaration that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" and his "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.

59.
Thomas E. Dewey
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Thomas Edmund Dewey was an American lawyer, prosecutor, and politician. He served as the 47th Governor of New York from 1943 to 1954, in 1944, he was the Republican candidate for President, but lost to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the closest of Roosevelts four presidential elections. He was again the Republican candidate in 1948, but lost to President Harry S. Truman in one of the greatest upsets in presidential election history. As a New York City prosecutor early in his career, Dewey was relentless in his effort to curb the power of the American Mafia, most famously, he successfully prosecuted Mafioso kingpin Charles Lucky Luciano on charges of compulsory prostitution in 1936. Luciano was given a prison sentence. Dewey almost succeeded in apprehending Jewish mobster Dutch Schultz as well, Dewey led the moderate or progressive faction of the Republican Party, in which he fought conservative Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft. Dewey was an advocate for the professional and business community of the Northeastern United States, in addition he played a large part in the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President in 1952. Deweys successor as leader of the progressive Republicans was Nelson Rockefeller, the New York State Thruway is named in Deweys honor. Dewey was born and raised in Owosso, Michigan, where his father, George Martin Dewey, owned, edited, and published the local newspaper, the Owosso Times. His mother, Annie, whom he called Mater, bequeathed her son a healthy respect for common sense and the average man or woman who possessed it. One journalist noted that he did show leadership and ambition above the average, by the time he was thirteen and he graduated from the University of Michigan in 1923, and from Columbia Law School in 1925. While at the University of Michigan, he joined Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, a fraternity for men of music. He was an excellent singer with a deep, baritone voice and he briefly considered a career as a professional singer, but decided against it after a temporary throat ailment convinced him that such a career would be risky. He then decided to pursue a career as a lawyer and he also wrote for The Michigan Daily, the universitys student newspaper. On June 16,1928, Dewey married Frances Eileen Hutt, a native of Sherman, Texas, she was a stage actress, after their marriage she dropped her acting career. They had two sons, Thomas E. Dewey Jr. and John Martin Dewey, in 1945, Dewey told a reporter that my farm is my roots. The heart of this nation is the small town. Dapplemere was part of a rural community called Quaker Hill

60.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare

61.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier

Richard Nixon
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Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon
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The infant Richard stands outside the Nixons' Yorba Linda Home (early 1914), looking toward what is today the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Richard Nixon
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Nixon (second from right) makes his newspaper debut in 1916, contributing five cents to a fund for war orphans. Donald is to the left of his brother.
Richard Nixon
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Nixon at Whittier High School in 1930.

62.
Gerald Ford
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Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977, following the resignation of Richard Nixon. Prior to this he served eight months as the 40th Vice President of the United States, before his appointment to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as U. S. Representative from Michigans 5th congressional district, the nine of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War, with the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U. S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation, one of his most controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Fords presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, in the Republican presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. Arthur not to be elected in his own right, following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died at home on December 26,2006, Ford lived longer than any other U. S. president –93 years and 165 days – while his 895-day presidency was the shortest of all presidents who did not die in office. Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14,1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. a wool trader, Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her sons birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, from there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913, she gained custody of her son. Fords paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930, Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. James M. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man. After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1,1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford and they then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford, Jr. The future president was never adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3,1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mothers marriage, Thomas Gardner Tom Ford, Richard Addison Dick Ford. Ford also had three half-siblings from the marriage of Leslie King, Sr. his biological father, Marjorie King, Leslie Henry King

Gerald Ford
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Ford in August 1974
Gerald Ford
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Eagle Scout Gerald Ford (circled in red) in 1929; Michigan GovernorFred W. Green at far left, holding hat
Gerald Ford
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Ford as a center on the University of Michigan football team, 1933
Gerald Ford
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The Gunnery officers of the USS Monterey. Ford is second from the right, in the front row.

63.
Newt Gingrich
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Newton Leroy Newt Gingrich is an American author and politician from Georgia who served as the 50th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1995 to 1999. He represented Georgias 6th congressional district as a Republican from 1979 until his resignation in 1999, in 2012, Gingrich was a candidate for the Republican Party presidential nomination. In the 1970s, Gingrich taught history and geography at the University of West Georgia, during this period he ran twice for the United States House of Representatives before winning in November 1978. He served as House Minority Whip from 1989–95, a co-author and architect of the Contract with America, Gingrich was a major leader in the Republican victory in the 1994 congressional election. In 1995, Time named him Man of the Year for his role in ending the four-decades-long Democratic majority in the House, as House Speaker, Gingrich oversaw passage by the House of welfare reform, and a capital gains tax cut in 1997. In 1998, the House passed the first balanced budget since 1969 and he resigned altogether from the House on January 3,1999. Since leaving the House, Gingrich has remained active in policy debates. He founded and chaired several policy think tanks, including American Solutions for Winning the Future and he has written or co-authored 27 books. In May 2011, he announced his campaign for the Republican presidential nomination, on May 2,2012, Gingrich ended his presidential campaign and endorsed front runner Mitt Romney, who won the nomination. After being raised Lutheran and spending most of his life as a Southern Baptist. He has been married three times, with the first two ending in divorce after he had affairs with other women. He has two children from his first marriage and has married to Callista Gingrich since 2000. On July 15,2016, Trump officially announced that Pence would be his running mate, Newton Leroy McPherson was born at the Harrisburg Hospital in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, on June 17,1943. His mother, Kathleen Kit, and father, Newton Searles McPherson, married in September 1942, the marriage fell apart within days. He is of German, Scottish, and Irish descent, in 1946, his mother married career Army officer Robert Gingrich, who adopted Newt. Robert Gingrich was a career Army officer who served tours in Korea, in 1956 the family moved to Europe living for a period in Orléans, France and Stuttgart, Germany. Gingrich has three younger half-sisters, Candace and Susan Gingrich, and Roberta Brown, Gingrich was raised in Hummelstown and on military bases where his father was stationed. He also has a half-sister and half-brother, Randy McPherson, from his fathers side, in 1960 during his junior year in high school, the family moved to Georgia at Fort Benning

64.
Impeachment and acquittal of Bill Clinton
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Clinton was subsequently acquitted of these charges by the Senate on February 12,1999. Two other impeachment articles – a second charge and a charge of abuse of power – failed in the House. The Independent Counsel, Ken Starr, turned over documentation to the House Judiciary Committee, the Chief Prosecutor, David Schippers, and his team reviewed the material and determined there was sufficient evidence to impeach the president. The trial in the United States Senate began right after the seating of the 106th Congress, a two-thirds vote was required to remove Clinton from office. Fifty senators voted to remove Clinton on the obstruction of justice charge and 45 voted to him on the perjury charge. Clinton, like Johnson a century earlier, was acquitted on all charges, the charges arose from an investigation by Ken Starr, the Independent Counsel. In the course of the investigation, Linda Tripp provided Starr with taped phone conversations in which Monica Lewinsky, at the deposition, the judge rejected the plaintiffs lawyers definition of the term sexual relations that Clinton claims to have construed to mean only vaginal intercourse. Judge Wright then told the attorneys they could be as explicit as necessary in asking their questions, a much-quoted statement from Clintons grand jury testimony showed him questioning the precise use of the word is. If the—if he—if is means is and never has been, that is not—that is one thing, if it means there is none, that was a completely true statement. Starr obtained further evidence of behavior by seizing the computer hard drive. Based on the conflicting testimony, Starr concluded that Clinton had committed perjury. Starr submitted his findings to Congress in a document, and simultaneously posted the report on the internet. Starr was criticized by Democrats for spending $70 million on an investigation that substantiated only perjury, after rumors of the scandal reached the news, Clinton publicly stated, I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky. In his Paula Jones deposition, he swore, I have never had relations with Monica Lewinsky. Ive never had an affair with her, months later, Clinton admitted that his relationship with Lewinsky was wrong and not appropriate. Lewinsky engaged in sex with Clinton several times. Nevertheless, impeachment was one of the issues in the election. In November 1998, the Democrats picked up five seats in the House, impeachment proceedings were initiated during the post-election, lame duck session of the outgoing 105th United States Congress

Impeachment and acquittal of Bill Clinton
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Floor proceedings of the U.S. Senate during the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding. House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right.
Impeachment and acquittal of Bill Clinton
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Two tickets for Bill Clinton's impeachment trial, January 14–15, 1999
Impeachment and acquittal of Bill Clinton
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Robe worn by Chief JusticeWilliam Rehnquist during the proceedings
Impeachment and acquittal of Bill Clinton
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Presidency

65.
United States elections, 2006
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The 2006 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 7,2006 in the middle of Republican President George W. Bushs second term. The victory of the Democratic Party in the 2006 Congressional elections was a milestone for an additional reason. Reasons for the Democratic party takeover include the decline of the image of George W. That May, just two months after the invasion, Bush announced the end of major combat operations in Iraq. In the following months, insurgents began resisting the American occupation, additionally, religious tensions between majority Shiite and minority Sunni Muslims, tensions which had been suppressed under the grip of the Hussein regime, began to result in violence. By the end of 2003, despite the war being initially popular, a November 2003 Gallup poll showed that Bush’s job approval rating had fallen to 50% from a high of 71% at the outset of the war. It was, however, the first time since 1988 that a winner garnered a popular majority, terrorism and the war in Iraq dominated the election, with domestic issues taking a secondary role. Bush began his term with a continuation of the occupation. Both policies proved unpopular, and violence in Iraq continued to increase, compounding the unpopularity of the war was that no weapons of mass destruction were found. August 2005 was the last time any public opinion poll recorded majority approval of Bush’s job. Negative perceptions of Bush following the slow response to Hurricane Katrina further weighed on his popularity. Simultaneously, the Republican-controlled 109th Congress’s popularity was declining as well, throughout 2006, sectarian violence was ongoing in Baghdad and other areas of Iraq, many claimed that the conflict was evolving into a civil war. President Bush’s job approval rarely rose above 40%, perceptions of Congress and Republicans in general remained highly negative. The Democratic Party won a majority of the governorships and the U. S. House and Senate seats each for the first time since 1994. For the first time since the creation of the Republican party in 1860, no Republican captured any House, Senate, Democrats took a 233–202 advantage in the House of Representatives, and achieved a 49–49 tie in the United States Senate. The Senate figure is quoted in the media as 51-49. The final Senate result was decided when Democrat James Webb was declared the winner in Virginia against incumbent George Allen, on November 9,2006, Allen and fellow Republican incumbent Sen. Conrad Burns both conceded defeat, ceding effective control of the Senate to the Democrats. The election made Nancy Pelosi the first-ever female, first-ever Italian-American, keith Ellison became the first Muslim ever elected to the U. S. Congress and Mazie Hirono and Hank Johnson became the first Buddhists in a United States governing body

United States elections, 2006
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2006 United States elections

66.
Supply side economics
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Supply-side economics is a macroeconomic theory that argues economic growth can be most effectively created by investing in capital and by lowering barriers on the production of goods and services. It was started by economist Robert Mundell during the Ronald Reagan administration, typical policy recommendations of supply-side economists are lower marginal tax rates and less government regulation. The term supply-side economics was thought, for time, to have been coined by journalist Jude Wanniski in 1975. Its use connotes the ideas of economists Robert Mundell and Arthur Laffer, the Laffer curve is one of the main theoretical constructs of supply-side economics. However, the Laffer curve only measures the rate of taxation, not tax incidence, in addition, some studies have shown that tax cuts done in the US in the past several decades seldom recoup revenue losses and have minimal impact on GDP growth. It drew on a range of economic thought, particularly the Chicago School. Classical Liberals opposed taxes because they opposed government, taxation being the latters most obvious form and their claim was that each man had a right to himself and his property and therefore taxation was immoral and of questionable legal grounding. Supply-side economists, on the hand, argued that the alleged collective benefit provided the main impetus for tax cuts. As in classical economics, supply-side economics proposed that production or supply is the key to economic prosperity, john Maynard Keynes, the founder of Keynesianism, summarized Says Law as supply creates its own demand. He turned Says Law on its head in the 1930s by declaring that demand creates its own supply. S, monetary policy under Nixon in the 1970s. Wanniski advocated lower tax rates and a return to some kind of gold standard, in 1983, economist Victor Canto, a disciple of Arthur Laffer, published The Foundations of Supply-Side Economics. This theory focuses on the effects of tax rates on the incentive to work and save. While the latter focus on changes in the rate of growth in the long run. This led the supply-siders to advocate large reductions in income and capital gains tax rates to encourage allocation of assets to investment. Jude Wanniski and many advocate an zero capital gains rate. The increased aggregate supply would result in increased demand, hence the term Supply-Side Economics. Supply-side economics holds that increased taxation steadily reduces economic trade between economic participants within a nation and that it discourages investment, taxes act as a type of trade barrier or tariff that causes economic participants to revert to less efficient means of satisfying their needs. As such, higher taxation leads to lower levels of specialization, the idea is said to be illustrated by the Laffer curve

Supply side economics
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Robert Mundell
Supply side economics
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Supply-side economics proposes that tax decreases may lead to economic growth. Historical data, however, shows no significant correlation between lower top marginal tax rates and GDP growth rate.
Supply side economics
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U.S. federal government tax receipts as a percentage of GDP from 1945 to 2015 (note that 2010 to 2015 data are estimated).
Supply side economics
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Reagan gives a televised address from the Oval Office, outlining his plan for tax reductions in July 1981.

67.
John McCain
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John Sidney McCain III is an American politician who currently serves as the senior United States Senator from Arizona. He was the Republican nominee for the 2008 U. S. presidential election, McCain followed his father and grandfather, both four-star admirals, into the United States Navy, graduating from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1958. He became an aviator, flying ground-attack aircraft from aircraft carriers. During the Vietnam War, he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, in October 1967, while on a bombing mission over Hanoi, he was shot down, seriously injured, and captured by the North Vietnamese. He was a prisoner of war until 1973, McCain experienced episodes of torture, and refused an out-of-sequence early repatriation offer. His war wounds have left him with physical limitations. He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona, elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1982, McCain served two terms. He was first elected to the U. S. Senate in 1986, winning re-election easily five times, while generally adhering to conservative principles, McCain at times has had a media reputation as a maverick for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues. He is also known for his work in the 1990s to restore relations with Vietnam. McCain ran for the Republican nomination in 2000 but lost a primary season contest to George W. Bush of Texas. He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration, by 2013, however, he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment. In 2015, McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, John McCain was born on August 29,1936, at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone, to naval officer John S. McCain Jr. and Roberta McCain. He has a brother named Joe and an elder sister named Sandy. At that time, the Panama Canal was under U. S. control, McCains family tree includes Scots-Irish and English ancestors. Both his father and his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. became four-star United States Navy admirals. The McCain family followed his father to various postings in the United States. Altogether, he attended about 20 schools, in 1951, the family settled in Northern Virginia, and McCain attended Episcopal High School, a private preparatory boarding school in Alexandria. He excelled at wrestling and graduated in 1954, following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, McCain entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis

John McCain
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John McCain
John McCain
John McCain
John McCain

68.
Joe Biden
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Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Jr. is an American politician who was the 47th Vice President of the United States from 2009 to 2017, having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama. A member of the Democratic Party, he represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009, Biden was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1942, and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware. He became an attorney in 1969, and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 and he was first elected to the Senate in 1972, and became the sixth-youngest senator in U. S. history. He was re-elected to the Senate six times, and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 and he was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the Gulf War in 1991, but advocated U. S. and he voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002, but opposed the surge of U. S. troops in 2007. He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U. S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork, Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008, both times dropping out after lacklucster showings. In the 2008 U. S. presidential election, Barack Obama chose Biden to be his mate in the race. He became the first Roman Catholic, and the first Delawarean, in 2011, he opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden. Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012, in October 2015, after months of speculation, Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016. On January 12,2017, Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, after leaving office, Biden was named the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania. Biden was born on November 20,1942, at St. Marys Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Catherine Eugenia Jean Biden and Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Sr. He was the first of four siblings in a Catholic family, with a sister, Valerie and his mother was of either Irish or Northern Irish descent, with roots variously attributed to County Louth or County Londonderry. His paternal grandparents, Mary Elizabeth and Joseph H. Biden, an oil businessman from Baltimore, Maryland, were of English, French and his paternal great-great-great grandfather, William Biden, was born in Sussex, England, and immigrated to the United States. His maternal great-grandfather, Edward Francis Blewitt, was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate, Bidens father had been very well-off earlier in his life, but suffered several business reversals by the time his son was born. For several years, the family had to live with Bidens maternal grandparents, when the Scranton area went into economic decline during the 1950s, Bidens father could not find enough work. In 1953, the Biden family moved to an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, Joe Biden Sr. was then more successful as a used car salesman, and the familys circumstances were middle class. He played on the team as well. During these years, he participated in an anti-segregation sit-in at a Wilmington theatre, academically, he was an above-average student, was considered a natural leader among the students, and was elected class president during his junior and senior years

Joe Biden
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Joe Biden
Joe Biden
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Drawer of chamber desk XCI occupied by Biden in the U.S. Senate. Note signature at upper center inside of drawer. President John F. Kennedy once occupied the desk in the U.S. Senate.
Joe Biden
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Joe Biden met his second wife, Jill (here seen dancing together in 2009), in 1975 and they married in 1977.
Joe Biden
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Biden with President Jimmy Carter in the Oval Office

69.
Bob McDonnell
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Robert Francis Bob McDonnell is an American Republican politician who was the 71st Governor of Virginia. McDonnell also served on the committee of the Republican Governors Association. McDonnell was a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army Reserve and he served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1992 to 2006, and was Attorney General of Virginia from 2006 to 2009. McDonnell was elected Governor of Virginia after using the campaign slogan Bobs for Jobs and he defeated Democratic state Senator Creigh Deeds by a 17-point margin in the 2009 general election, which was marked by the severe recession of the late 2000s. McDonnell succeeded Democrat Tim Kaine who was term-limited by Virginia law, after taking office as governor, McDonnell advocated privatization and promoted offshore drilling for Virginia. McDonnells governorship ended with a 55% to 32% approval to disapproval rating among registered voters, on January 21,2014, McDonnell and his wife, Maureen, were indicted on federal corruption charges for receiving improper gifts and loans from a Virginia businessman. They were convicted on most counts by a jury on September 4,2014. McDonnell, the first Virginia governor to be indicted or convicted of a felony, was sentenced on January 6,2015 to two years in prison, followed by two years of supervised release, however, he was free on bond during the subsequent appeals process. On June 27,2016, the United States Supreme Court unanimously vacated McDonnells conviction, less than three months later, the Justice Department announced that they would not prosecute the case again and moved to dismiss the charges against the former governor and his wife. McDonnell was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Emma B, meta and Lt. Col. John Francis McDonnell USAF Ret. His paternal grandparents were Irish immigrants, and his grandparents were from Alsace-Lorraine in what was then the German Empire. His family moved to Fairfax County, Virginia, in 1955 when he was a year old and he spent four years of his early childhood in Germany when his father, a United States Air Force officer, was sent out on assignment. After returning to Virginia, the McDonnells permanently established residence in Fairfax County, McDonnells mother worked at Mount Vernon. McDonnell graduated from Bishop Ireton High School in Alexandria, Virginia, McDonnell attended the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana, on an ROTC scholarship, graduating with a B. B. A. in management in 1976. Immediately following graduation, he served as a supply officer in the United States Army for four years. His military posts were medical clinics in Germany from 1976 to 1979, in addition, he took night classes and received an M. B. A. from Boston University in 1980. After leaving active duty in 1981, McDonnell worked for the American Hospital Supply Corporation and his career path shifted from business to law and public policy when he selected a joint degree program at Christian Broadcasting Network University now known as Regent University. During his studies, McDonnell interned under Congressman Jerry Lewis, McDonnell is married to Maureen Patricia McDonnell, with whom he has five children

Bob McDonnell
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McDonnell in February 2010

70.
Mitt Romney
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Raised in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, by his parents George and Lenore Romney, he spent 2½ years in France as a Mormon missionary, starting in 1966. He married Ann Davies in 1969, and they have five sons, by 1971, he had participated in the political campaigns of both parents. He earned a BA at Brigham Young University in 1971 and a joint JD–MBA at Harvard University in 1975, Romney entered the management consulting industry, and in 1977 secured a position at Bain & Company. Later serving as Bains chief executive officer, he helped lead the company out of a financial crisis, in 1984, he co-founded and led the spin-off company Bain Capital, a highly profitable private equity investment firm that became one of the largest of its kind in the nation. Active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, he served during his business career as the bishop of his ward and then stake president in his home area near Boston. After stepping down from Bain Capital and his leadership role in the LDS Church. Upon losing to longtime incumbent Ted Kennedy, he resumed his position at Bain Capital, years later, a successful stint as President and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics led to a relaunch of his political career. He also presided over the elimination of a projected $1. 2–1.5 billion deficit through a combination of spending cuts, increased fees, and the closure of corporate tax loopholes. He did not seek re-election in 2006, instead focusing on his campaign for the Republican nomination in the 2008 U. S. presidential election and he won several primaries and caucuses, however, he lost to the eventual nominee, Senator John McCain. His considerable net worth, estimated in 2012 at $190–250 million, following his term as Governor of Massachusetts in 2007, Romney was the Republican Partys nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election. He won the 2012 Republican presidential nomination, becoming the first Mormon to be a major party presidential nominee and he was defeated by incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama in the November 2012 general election, losing by 332–206 electoral college votes. The popular vote margin was 51–47 percent in Obamas favor, following the election, he initially kept a low profile, and later became more visible politically. Willard Mitt Romney was born on March 12,1947, at Harper University Hospital in Detroit, Michigan, one of four born to automobile executive George W. Romney. His mother was a native of Logan, Utah, and his father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua, of primarily English descent, he also has Scottish and German ancestry. Another great-great-grandfather, Parley P. Pratt, helped lead the early Church, Romney has three elder siblings, Margo, Jane, and Scott. His parents named him after a friend, businessman J. Willard Marriott, and his fathers cousin, Milton Mitt Romney. Romney was referred to as Billy until kindergarten, when he indicated a preference for Mitt, in 1953, the family moved from Detroit to the affluent suburb of Bloomfield Hills. His father became the chairman and CEO of American Motors the following year, soon helping the company avoid bankruptcy, by 1959, his father had become a nationally known figure in print and on television, and the youngster idolized him

Mitt Romney
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His Excellency Mitt Romney
Mitt Romney
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Romney began attending Cranbrook School in 1959.
Mitt Romney
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Mitt's father George (pictured here in a 1968 poster) lost the Republican presidential nomination to Richard M. Nixon and later was appointed to the Nixon cabinet.
Mitt Romney
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Mitt's mother Lenore (promoted here on a button) lost a Senate race in 1970, and he worked for her campaign.

71.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
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The Affordable Care Act was designed to increase health insurance quality and affordability, lower the uninsured rate by expanding insurance coverage and reduce the costs of healthcare. It introduced mechanisms including mandates, subsidies and insurance exchanges, the law requires insurers to accept all applicants, cover a specific list of conditions and charge the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex. The ACA has caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance, increases in overall healthcare spending have slowed since the law was implemented, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans. The Congressional Budget Office reported in studies that the ACA would reduce the budget deficit. As implementation began, first opponents, then others, and finally the president himself adopted the term Obamacare to refer to the ACA. The law and its implementation faced challenges in Congress and federal courts, and from state governments, conservative advocacy groups, labor unions. The ACA includes provisions to take effect between 2010 and 2020, although most took effect on January 1,2014, few areas of the US health care system were left untouched, making it the most sweeping health care reform since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. However, some areas were more affected than others, most of the coverage gains were made through the expansion of Medicaid, and the biggest cost savings were made in Medicare. Some regulations applied to the market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system. Not all provisions took full effect, some were made discretionary, some were deferred, and others were repealed before implementation. Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals due to pre-existing conditions, States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families. The law provides a 5% income disregard, making the income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138% of the poverty level. The State Childrens Health Insurance Program enrollment process was simplified, among the groups who remained uninsured were, Illegal immigrants, estimated at around 8 million—or roughly a third of the 23 million projection—are ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid. They remain eligible for emergency services, eligible citizens not enrolled in Medicaid. Citizens who pay the penalty instead of purchasing insurance, mostly younger. Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8% of household income and are exempt from the penalty, citizens who live in states that opt out of the Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage through the states new insurance exchanges. Households with incomes between 100% and 400% of the poverty level were eligible to receive federal subsidies for policies purchased via an exchange. Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credits, additionally, small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided that they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
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The President and White House Staff react to the House of Representatives passing the bill on March 21, 2010.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
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Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
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John Chafee
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
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Mitt Romney's Massachusetts went from 90% of its residents insured to 98%, the highest rate in the nation.

72.
71st United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1929 to March 4,1931, during the first two years of Herbert Hoovers presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Thirteenth Decennial Census of the United States in 1910, both chambers had a Republican majority. This congress saw the most special elections of any congress with 27 in all, fall is convicted of bribery for his role in the Teapot Dome scandal, becoming the first Presidential cabinet member to go to prison for actions in office. June 15,1929, Agriculture Marketing Act, ch,24,46 Stat.11 June 18,1929, Reapportionment Act of 1929, ch. 28,46 Stat.21 June 17,1930, Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act,590, March 3,1931, Davis–Bacon Act, ch. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the Changes in membership section and this list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district, senators were elected every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, the names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their districts. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, mcCarl Librarian of Congress, Herbert Putnam Public Printer of the United States, George H. Carter Secretary, Edwin P. Thayer Sergeant at Arms, David S. Barry Chaplain, ZeBarney T. Phillips Democratic Party Secretary, Edwin A. Halsey Republican Party Secretary, Carl A. Loeffler Clerk, William T. Page Sergeant at Arms, Joseph G. Rodgers Doorkeeper, Bert W. Kennedy Postmaster, Frank W. Collier Parliamentarian, Lewis Deschler Chaplain, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, House History U. S. Senate, Statistics and Lists Official Congressional Directory for the 71st Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 71st Congress, 2nd Session, Official Congressional Directory for the 71st Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 71st Congress, 3rd Session, Official Congressional Directory for the 71st Congress, 3rd Session

73.
United States elections, 2016
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The 2016 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 8,2016. During this presidential election year, the President of the United States, in addition, elections were held for all 435 voting-member seats in the United States House of Representatives and 34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate to determine the 115th Congress. The Republican Party won the presidency, and retained its majorities in the House, twelve state governorships, two territorial governorships, and numerous other state and local elections were also contested. The United States presidential election of 2016 was the 58th quadrennial presidential election, Clinton won the popular vote, taking 48% of the vote compared to Trumps 46% of the vote, but Trump won the electoral vote and thus the presidency. Libertarian Gary Johnson won 3. 3% of the popular vote, Trump won the states of Michigan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Florida, Ohio, and Iowa, all of which were won by Obama in 2008 and 2012. The election is one of five elections in American history in which the winner of the popular vote did not win the presidency. The United States governments intelligence agencies concluded the Russian government interfered in the 2016 United States elections, a joint US intelligence review stated with high confidence that, Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election. Russia’s goals were to undermine public faith in the US democratic process, denigrate Secretary Hillary Clinton, further, the US intelligence community stated Putin and the Russian Government developed a clear preference for President-elect Trump. All seats in Senate Class 3 were up for election, additionally, special elections may be held to fill vacancies in the other two Senate Classes. Democrats won a net gain of two seats, but Republicans retained a majority with 52 seats in the 100-member chamber, all 435 voting seats in the United States House of Representatives were up for election. Additionally, elections were held to select the Delegate for the District of Columbia as well as the delegates from U. S. territories and this includes the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, who serves a four-year term. Democrats won a net gain of six seats, but Republicans held a 241-to-194 majority following the elections, regular elections were held for the governorships of 11 U. S. states and two U. S. territories. Additionally, an election was held in Oregon after the resignation of John Kitzhaber as Governor. Republicans won a net gain of two seats, in 2016,44 states held state legislative elections,86 of the 99 chambers were up for election. Only six states did not hold legislative elections, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, Virginia, Alabama. Many states also held elections for elected offices, such as attorney general. Mayoral elections were held in cities, including, Baltimore, Maryland. Democrat Catherine E. Pugh was elected as Rawlings-Blakes replacement, honolulu, Hawaii, Incumbent Kirk Caldwell won re-election

United States elections, 2016
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2016 United States elections

74.
United States Senate elections, 2016
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Elections to the United States Senate were held on November 8,2016. The presidential election, House elections,14 gubernatorial elections, and many state, in the 2016 Senate election,34 of the 100 seats—all class 3 Senate seats—were contested in regular elections, the winners will serve six-year terms until January 3,2023. Class 3 was last up for election in 2010, when Republicans won a net gain of six seats, in 2016, Democrats defended 10 seats, while Republicans defended 24 seats. Republicans, having won a majority of seats in the Senate in 2014, Democrats won a net gain of two seats. Republicans will retain control of the Senate for the 115th United States Congress, only two incumbents lost their seats, Kelly Ayotte of New Hampshire and Mark Kirk of Illinois, both to Democrats Maggie Hassan and Tammy Duckworth, respectively. Despite Republicans retaining control of the Senate,2016 marks the first time since 1986 that Democrats made a net gain of seats in class 3. This election marks the first time since 2000 in which the party in opposition to the elected or reelected presidential candidate made net gains in the Senate and it is the first and only election where the winning party in every Senate election mirrored the winning party in the Presidential election. With the retirement of Harry Reid, Chuck Schumer became the Democratic leader after the elections, all 34 Class 3 Senators were up for election in 2016, Class 3 consisted of 10 Democrats and 24 Republicans. Of the Senators not up for election,34 Senators were Democrats,30 Senators were Republicans, several sites and individuals publish predictions of competitive seats. These predictions look at such as the strength of the incumbent, the strength of the candidates. The predictions assign ratings to each seat, with the rating indicating the predicted advantage that a party has in winning that seat, some predictions also include a tilt rating that indicates that one party has an advantage that is not quite as strong as the lean rating would indicate. All seats classified with at least one rating of anything other than safe or solid are listed below, O indicates an open seat This table shows the primary dates for regularly-scheduled elections. It also shows the type of primary, open primary, any registered voter can vote in any partys primary Closed primary, only voters registered with a specific party can vote in that partys primary. Top-two primary, all candidates run against each other regardless of party affiliation, all of the various other primary types are classified as hybrid. RIndicates a state that requires primary run-off elections under certain conditions, red denotes Senate races won by Republicans, Blue denotes those won by Democrats. Five-term Senator Richard Shelby was re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2010 and he was 82 years old in 2016. He served in the Senate as a Democrat until switching parties in 1994, on March 1, Shelby won the primary with 65% of the vote. There were two Democratic candidates, Ron Crumpton, patient rights advocate, and Charles Nana, Crumpton won the primary with 56% of the vote

United States Senate elections, 2016
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Class 3 (34 of the 100) seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2016

75.
Pew Research
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The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American fact tank, which is based in Washington, D. C. It provides information on issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States. It also conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, Pew Research Center does not take explicit policy positions, and is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. In 1990 the Times Mirror Company founded the Times Mirror Center for the People & the Press as a project, tasked with conducting polls on politics. Andrew Kohut became its director in 1993, and The Pew Charitable Trusts became its sponsor in 1996. In 2004, the trust established the Pew Research Center in Washington, in 2013, Kohut stepped down as president and became founding director, and Alan Murray became the second president of the center. In October 2014, Michael Dimock, a 14-year veteran of the Pew Research Center, was named president, the Pew Research Center is a nonprofit, tax-exempt 501 organization and a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. Some projects are funded by the Evangelical Protestant John Templeton Foundation, the Centers research is divided into seven areas. Politics & Policy Journalism & Media Internet, Science & Tech Religion & Public Life Hispanic Trends Global Attitudes & Trends Social & Demographic Trends Official website The Pew Charitable Trusts

Pew Research
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Pew Research Center

76.
2000s (decade)
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The 2000s was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1,2000, and ended on December 31,2009. The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade, in the English-speaking world, a name for the decade was never universally accepted in the same manner as for decades such as the 80s, the 90s, etc. Orthographically, the decade can be written as the 2000s or the 00s, some people read 2000s as two-thousands, and thus simply refer to the decade as the Two-Thousands, the Twenty Hundreds, or the Twenty-ohs. Some read it as the 00s, while others referred to it as the Zeros, on January 1,2000, the BBC listed the noughties, as a potential moniker for the new decade. This has become a name for the decade in the UK and Australia. Others have advocated the term the aughts, a widely used at the beginning of the 20th century for its first decade. The American Dialect Society holds an annual poll for word of the year. For 2009, the winner in the least likely to succeed category was Any name of the decade 2000–2009, such as, Noughties, Aughties, Oughties, etc. When the 20- is dropped, the years within the decade are usually referred to as starting with an oh. The option aught-seven, for reason, has never caught on idiomatically. When the 20- is retained, two options are available in speech, both of which have idiomatic currency, two thousand seven in American English or twenty-oh-seven, during the 2000s decade, it was more common to hear the first pattern than the second. The War on Terror and War in Afghanistan began after the September 11 attacks in 2001, the International Criminal Court was formed in 2002. A United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, and the Iraq War led to the end of Saddam Husseins rule as Iraqi President, Al-Qaeda and affiliated Islamist militant groups performed terrorist acts throughout the decade. These acts included the 2004 Madrid train bombings, 7/7 London bombings in 2005, the European Union expanded its sanctions amid Irans failure to comply with its transparency obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and United Nations resolutions. Additional armed conflict occurred in the Middle East, including between Israel and Hezbollah, then with Israel and Hamas, cooperative international rescue missions by many countries from around the world helped in efforts by the most affected nations to rebuild and recover from the devastation. An enormous loss of life and property came in 2005. The resulting political fallout was severely damaging to the George W. Bush administration because of its failure to act promptly and effectively. In 2008, Barack Obama was elected President of the United States, the campaigns were launched by the United States, with support from NATO and other allies, following the September 11,2001 attacks that were carried out by al-Qaeda

77.
Pew Research Center
–
The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American fact tank, which is based in Washington, D. C. It provides information on issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States. It also conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, Pew Research Center does not take explicit policy positions, and is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. In 1990 the Times Mirror Company founded the Times Mirror Center for the People & the Press as a project, tasked with conducting polls on politics. Andrew Kohut became its director in 1993, and The Pew Charitable Trusts became its sponsor in 1996. In 2004, the trust established the Pew Research Center in Washington, in 2013, Kohut stepped down as president and became founding director, and Alan Murray became the second president of the center. In October 2014, Michael Dimock, a 14-year veteran of the Pew Research Center, was named president, the Pew Research Center is a nonprofit, tax-exempt 501 organization and a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. Some projects are funded by the Evangelical Protestant John Templeton Foundation, the Centers research is divided into seven areas. Politics & Policy Journalism & Media Internet, Science & Tech Religion & Public Life Hispanic Trends Global Attitudes & Trends Social & Demographic Trends Official website The Pew Charitable Trusts

78.
Reince Priebus
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Reinhold Richard Reince Priebus is the current White House Chief of Staff for U. S. President Donald Trump, serving since January 20,2017. Priebus is a lawyer and politician, he served as the Republican National Committee chairman, RNC general counsel. Priebus has drawn controversy for his management style as Chief of Staff. Priebus was born on March 18,1972, in Dover, New Jersey, and lived in Netcong, New Jersey, until his family moved to Green Bay, Wisconsin and his father is a former union electrician and his mother a real estate agent. Some sources, including his biography on the Republican Party website, identify his parents names as Richard and his father is of German and English descent and his Sudanese-born mother is of Greek descent. At the age of 16, he volunteered for his first political campaign and he attended Tremper High School in Kenosha, Wisconsin, graduating in 1990. After graduating from Tremper, he attended the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, where he majored in English and political science and he graduated cum laude in 1994 and prior to that had been elected to serve as student body president. After graduation from Whitewater, Priebus served as a clerk for the Wisconsin State Assembly Education Committee and he then enrolled at the University of Miami School of Law in Coral Gables, Florida. In 1998, he graduated with a J. D. degree cum laude from the University of Miami after serving as president of the law school student body and he moved back to Wisconsin and became a member of the state bar. Subsequently, he joined Wisconsin law firm Michael Best & Friedrich LLP, Priebus ran for election to the Wisconsin State Senate in 2004 but lost 52–48 to the Democratic incumbent, Robert Wirch. In 2007, following a campaign, he was elected chairman of the Wisconsin Republican Party. Two years later, in 2009, he became the general counsel for the Republican National Committee. As chairman of the Wisconsin Republican Party, Priebus led the party to success in the November 2010 elections in Wisconsin, the party won control of the State Senate and Assembly, and a Republican candidate was elected Governor. He worked to bring Wisconsins Tea Party movement together with the mainstream Republican party organization, Priebus continued as Wisconsin party chairman and general counsel to the RNC until 2010, when he stepped down as general counsel to run for election to chairman of the committee. On December 5,2010, Priebus stepped down as general counsel for the Republican National Committee, the next day he sent a letter to all 168 voting members of the RNC announcing his candidacy for chairman. Priebus told delegates in his letter, I will keep expenses low, I will put in strong and serious controls. We will raise the funds to make sure we are successful. We will work to regain the confidence of our donor base, on January 14,2011, after seven rounds of voting, Priebus was elected chairman of the Republican National Committee

Reince Priebus
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Reince Priebus
Reince Priebus
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Priebus in May 2010

79.
Bob Dole
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In the 1976 presidential election, Dole was the Republican Party nominee for Vice President and incumbent President Gerald Fords running mate. He ran unsuccessfully for the Republican presidential nomination in 1980 and 1988, in 1996, Dole secured the Republican nomination for President of the United States, but lost the general election to incumbent President Bill Clinton. Dole is currently a member of the council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation and special counsel at the Washington. Dole is married to former U. S. cabinet member and former U. S, Senator Elizabeth Hanford Dole of North Carolina. Dole was born on July 22,1923, in Russell, Kansas, Doles father, who had moved the family to Russell shortly before Robert was born, earned money by running a small creamery. One of Doles fathers customers was the father of future Senator Arlen Specter, during the Great Depression, which severely impacted Kansas and its residents, the Dole family moved to the basement of their home and eventually rented out the upper floors to raise money. As a boy, Dole worked as a jerk in the local drug store. Dole graduated from Russell High School in the spring of 1941, Dole had been a star high school athlete in Russell, and Kansas basketball coach Phog Allen traveled to Russell to recruit him to play for the Jayhawks basketball team. While at KU, Dole played for the team, the track team. In football, Dole played at the end position, earning varsity letters in 1942 and 1944, while in college, Dole joined the Kappa Sigma Fraternity, and in 1970 was bestowed with the Fraternitys Man of the Year honor. Doles pre-med studies at KU were interrupted by World War II, after the war, Dole returned to become a law student. Dole attended the University of Arizona from 1948 to 1951 and earned both his law degree and BA degrees from Washburn University in 1952, Dole was initiated as a Freemason of Russell Lodge No. 177, Russell, Kansas on April 19,1955, Dole grew up in a house at 1035 North Maple in Russell and it remained his official residence throughout his political career. In 1942, Dole joined the United States Armys Enlisted Reserve Corps to fight in World War II, Dole was transported to the United States, where his recovery was slow, interrupted by blood clots and a life-threatening infection. After large doses of penicillin had not succeeded, Dole overcame the infection with the administration of streptomycin and he nevertheless remained despondent, not ready to accept the fact that my life would be changed forever. He was encouraged to see Hampar Kelikian, an orthopedist in Chicago who had working with veterans returning from war. Dr. K, as Dole later came to call him, operated on him seven times, free of charge, and had, in Doles words. Dole recovered from his wounds at the Percy Jones Army Hospital, Dole was decorated three times, receiving two Purple Hearts for his injuries, and the Bronze Star with combat V for valor for his attempt to assist a downed radioman

80.
Birther movement
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Theories alleged that Obamas published birth certificate was a forgery—that his actual birthplace was not Hawaii but Kenya. Other theories alleged that Obama became a citizen of Indonesia in childhood, still others claimed that Obama was not a natural-born U. S. citizen because he was born a dual citizen. A number of commentators have characterized these various claims as a racist reaction to Obamas status as the first African American President of the United States. A Luo from Nyang’oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, who was attending the University of Hawaii, Birth notices for Barack Obama were published in The Honolulu Advertiser on August 13 and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin on August 14,1961. Obamas fathers immigration file also clearly states Barack Obama was born in Hawaii, one of his high school teachers, who was acquainted with his mother at the time, remembered hearing about the day of his birth. Obamas parents were divorced in 1964 and he attended kindergarten in 1966–1967 at Noelani Elementary School in Honolulu. As a child in Indonesia, Obama was called Barry, sometimes Barry Soetoro, reflecting his step-fathers surname, and sometimes Barry Obama, using his fathers surname. When he was ten years old, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Dunham. These rumors about his religion expanded into his values, cultural, and national loyalty, in April of that year, anonymous e-mails from supporters of Hillary Clinton repeated the same rumor, including a Clinton Iowa campaign worker, who was fired for sending the e-mail. These and numerous other chain e-mails during the subsequent presidential election circulated false rumors about Obamas origin, religion, on June 9,2008, Jim Geraghty of the conservative website National Review Online asked that Obama release his birth certificate. Was not his father, as well as the rumor that Barack Obama was not a natural-born citizen. In August 2008, Philip J. Berg, a member of the Democratic State Committee of Pennsylvania, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against Obama. In October 2008, an NPR article referred to Kenyan-born Sen. Barack Obama, also that month, anonymous e-mails circulated claiming that the Associated Press had reported Obama was Kenyan-Born. The claims were based on an AP story that had appeared five years earlier in a Kenyan publication, when this was posted by Breitbart, the booklets editor said that this incorrect information had been her mistake, not based on anything provided to her agency by Obama. On June 12,2008, Obamas campaign responded to the rumors by posting an image of Obamas birth certificate on the Fight The Smears website, the image is a scan of a laser-printed document obtained from and certified by the Hawaii Department of Health on June 6,2007. It is a Certification of Live Birth, sometimes referred to as a short form birth certificate, and contains less information than the longer Certificate of Live Birth, which Hawaii no longer issues. The document was used to create the electronic records, and has been examined by state officials multiple times since the controversy began. In releasing the certificate, the Obama website declared that the rumors arent actually about that piece of paper – theyre about manipulating people into thinking Barack is not an American citizen, the campaign also provided the Daily Kos blog with a copy of the document

Birther movement
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A 2010 billboard displayed in South Gate, California, questioning the validity of Barack Obama's birth certificate and by extension his eligibility to serve as President of the U.S. The billboard was part of an advertising campaign by WorldNetDaily, whose URL appears on the billboard's bottom right corner.
Birther movement
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In response to the conspiracy theories, the White House released copies of the President's long-form birth certificate on April 27, 2011, and posted an image of it to the White House website, reaffirming that he was born on August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii.
Birther movement
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Right-to-left: Barack Obama and Maya Soetoro with their mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham in Hawaii (early 1970s)
Birther movement
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Scanned image of Barack Obama's birth certificate released by his presidential campaign in June 2008.

81.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade

John F. Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
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The Kennedy family at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in 1931 with Jack at top left in white shirt. Ted was born the following year.
John F. Kennedy
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Lieutenant (junior grade) John F. Kennedy (standing at right) with his PT-109 crew, 1943.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the PT-109, 1943.

82.
Jimmy Carter
–
James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland

83.
United States Senate elections, 1954
–
The United States Senate elections of 1954 was a midterm election in the first term of Dwight D. Eisenhowers presidency. Eisenhowers Republican party lost a net of two seats to the Democratic opposition and this small change was enough to give Democrats control of the chamber, which they would hold until January 1981. Including independent Wayne L. Morse, who caucused with the Democrats, Democrats held a 49-47 majority, the elections resulted in a divided government that continued to the end of Eisenhowers presidency. *I1, Wayne Morse of Oregon, who was not up for election this year, Democrats defeated incumbents John S. Cooper, Homer Ferguson, Ernest S. Brown, and Guy Cordon, and took an open seat in Wyoming. Republicans took the seats of incumbents Guy M. Gillette and Thomas A. Burke, all elections are for the Class 2 seat, unless otherwise indicated. United States elections,1954 United States House of Representatives elections,1954 83rd United States Congress 84th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1954
–
38 of the 96 seats in the United States Senate 49 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1954

84.
United States Senate elections, 1956
–
The United States Senate elections of 1956 were elections for the United States Senate that coincided with the re-election of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although the Democrats gained two seats in elections, the Republicans gained back two seats in special elections, leaving the party balance of the chamber remained unchanged. Democrats defeated incumbents Herman Welker, George H. Bender, and James H. Duff, Republicans defeated incumbent Earle C. Clements as well as winning Democratic-held seats in Kentucky, New York, and West Virginia. Thus, this election caused Kentuckys U. S. Senate delegation to change from two Democrats to two Republicans, also, Price Daniel left the Senate to become governor of Texas, and Democrat Ralph Yarborough won a special election for that Senate seat. The net result was to leave the party balance unchanged, for the November 1956 general and special elections. Colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row, in these special elections, the winners were seated during 1956 or in 1957 before January 3, ordered by election date. In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3,1956, all of the elections involved the Class 3 seats. In these elections, the winners were elected in 1957 after January 3, in New York, the Republican state convention met on September 10 at Albany, New York, and nominated New York State Attorney General Jacob K. Javits. The Democratic state convention met on September 10 at Albany, New York, the Liberal Party endorsed the Democratic nominee, Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. for the U. S. Senate. On October 1, a movement was launched to vote for General of the Army Douglas MacArthur as a candidate for the U. S. Senate. On October 2, MacArthur disavowed the campaign, and stated that he was not a candidate, only Young filed as a Republican, and the endorsed Democratic candidate was Quentin Burdick, the son of well-known politician Usher Burdick, and former candidate for Governor of North Dakota. Young and Burdick won the elections for their respective parties. Townley, also filed before the deadline, townley would later seek the states other senate seat in 1958, and was known for creating the National Non-Partisan League. In Oregon, Republican-turned-Independent-turned Democratic Senator Wayne Morse decided to seek re-election for his first full term as a Democrat, Morse defeated Republican candidate Douglas McKay in the hotly contested general election. Senator James H. Duff sought re-election to another term, but was defeated by the Democratic nominee, Joseph S. Clark, in South Carolina the regular election was held simultaneously with the special election. The special election resulted from the resignation of Senator Strom Thurmond on April 4,1956, Thurmond was unopposed in his bid to complete the remaining four years of the term. Senator Strom Thurmond faced no opposition from South Carolina Democrats and avoided a primary election, with no challenge to the remainder of the term, Thurmond did not conduct a campaign and rejoined his old law firm in Aiken until he returned to the Senate after the general election. Incumbent Democratic Senator Olin D. Johnston handily defeated Republican mayor of Clemson Leon P. Crawford, Olin D. Johnston, the incumbent Senator, faced no opposition from South Carolina Democrats and avoided a primary election

United States Senate elections, 1956
–
35 of the 96 seats in the United States Senate 49 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1956

85.
United States Senate elections, 1958
–
The United States Senate elections of 1958 were elections for the United States Senate which occurred in the middle of President Dwight D. Eisenhowers second term. As is common in midterm elections, the party in the White House lost seats, the Eisenhower Administrations position on right-to-work issues galvanized labor unions which supported Democrats. The launch of Sputnik may also have been a factor, the Democratic Party took thirteen Republican seats, and also won both Senate seats in the new state of Alaska. This is the largest swing in the history of the Senate, Alaska, won by Bob Bartlett Alaska, won by Ernest Gruening No Democrats retired. West Virginias delegation changed from two Republicans to two Democrats, colored shading indicates party with largest share of that row. In these special elections, the winner was seated during 1958 or before January 3,1959, in these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning January 3,1959, ordered by state. All of the elections involved the Class 1 seats, in these special elections, the winners were seated after January 3,1959. In Connecticut, Democratic Thomas J. Dodd defeated incumbent senator William A. Purtell who ran for a second term, in Montana, incumbent United States Senator Mike Mansfield, who was first elected to the Senate in 1952, ran for re-election. Mansfield won the Democratic primary comfortably, and moved on to the election, where he was opposed by Lou W. Welch, a millworker. In contrast to the campaign in 1952, Mansfield defeated Welch in a landslide. Senator George W. Malone ran for re-election to a third term, only Langer filed as a Republican, and the endorsed Democratic-NPL candidate was Raymond G. Vendsel. Langer and Vendsel won the elections for their respective parties. Townley and Custer Solem, also filed before the deadline but had impact on the outcome of the election. Townley was known as the creator of the National Non-Partisan League, Senator Edward Martin did not seek re-election. The Republican nominee, Hugh Scott, defeated Democratic nominee George M. Leader for the vacant seat, in Vermont, incumbent Republican Ralph Flanders did not run for re-election to another term in the United States Senate. Republican candidate Winston L. Prouty defeated Democratic candidate Frederick J. Fayette to succeed him, in Virginia, incumbent Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. was re-elected after defeating Independent Louise Wensel and Social Democrat Clarke Robb. United States elections,1958 United States House of Representatives elections,1958 85th United States Congress 86th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1958
–
32 of the 98 seats in the United States Senate, plus 2 mid-term vacancies and 2 new seats 49 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1958

86.
United States Senate elections, 1960
–
The United States Senate elections of 1960 coincided with the election of John F. Kennedy as president. The Republicans gained one seat at the expense of the Democrats, the Democrats nonetheless retained a commanding lead in the Senate with 64 seats to 36. As Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson was elected Vice President, Mike Mansfield became the new Majority Leader. Montana, James E. Murray was replaced by Lee Metcalf Oregon, Hall S. Lusk was replaced by Maurine B. Neuberger Rhode Island, Theodore F. Green was replaced by Claiborne Pell Wyoming, oMahoney was replaced by Edwin Keith Thomson. But Thomson died before the Congress began and was replaced by a Democratic appointee. Wyoming, Senator-elect Keith Thomson died December 9,1960, and was replaced by appointee John J. Hickey at the beginning of the Congress, the Republicans gained one seat during the next Congress. Texas, Two-term Incumbent Lyndon Johnson had been re-elected, but he resigned January 3,1961 at the beginning of the term to become U. S, william A. Blakley was appointed January 3,1961 to begin and to continue the term. John Tower was elected June 14,1961 to finish the term, United States elections,1960 United States presidential election,1960 United States House of Representatives elections,1960 86th United States Congress 87th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1960
–
35 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate
United States Senate elections, 1960

87.
United States Senate elections, 1964
–
The United States Senate elections,1964 coincided with the election of President Lyndon B. Johnson by an overwhelming majority, to a full term. His Democratic Party picked up a net two seats from the Republicans, the Senate election coincided with Democratic gains in the House in the same year. Notably, of the 34 seats up for election this year,25 of were held by Democrats, a party defending 2/3 of the seats up for election would not make net gains in the Senate again until 2012. Coincidentally, with the same Senate Class, Class 1, future President George H. W. Bush ran for a seat in Texas, but lost. Arizona, Barry Goldwater retired to run for President, laxalt joined Cannon in the Senate when he won Nevadas other seat in 1974. Michigan, Patrick V. McNamara died April 30,1966, bold state indicates a separate article on that election

United States Senate elections, 1964
–
33 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate, plus 2 mid-term vacancies 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1964

88.
United States Senate elections, 1972
–
The United States Senate elections,1972 was an election for the United States Senate coinciding with the landslide re-election of Republican President Richard Nixon. Despite Nixons victory, Democrats increased their majority by two seats, after the election, Democrats held 56 seats and Republicans held 42 seats, with 1 Conservative and 1 independent Senator. This was the first election that citizens at least 18 years of age could vote due to the recent passage of the 26th Amendment, U. S. House of Representatives, Office of the Clerk. Archived from the original on July 25,2007, Republican pickups included open seats in New Mexico, North Carolina, and Oklahoma, and the defeat of incumbent William B. Saxbe of Ohio resigned to become Attorney General, and Democrat Howard Metzenbaum was appointed to replace him and this is not included in the party balances. All elections are class 2 unless otherwise indicated, bold states links to a separate article about that states election. United States elections,1972 United States presidential election,1972 United States House of Representatives elections,1972 92nd United States Congress 93rd United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1972
–
34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1972

89.
United States Senate elections, 1976
–
Although almost half of the seats being decided in this election changed parties, Carters narrow victory did not provide coattails for the Democrats, and the balance of the chamber remained the same. This was the first election in which the Libertarian Party competed, the leaders of both parties retired. Democrats had a net gain of one seat from retirements, michigan, Philip Hart was replaced by Donald W. Riegle, Jr. Hart then died December 27,1976 and Riegle was appointed to finish the term. Montana, Majority leader Mike Mansfield was replaced by John Melcher, arizona, Paul Fannin was replaced by Dennis DeConcini. Hawaii, Hiram Fong was replaced by Spark Matsunaga, nebraska, Roman Hruska was replaced by Edward Zorinsky. Hruska then resigned December 27,1976 and Zorinsky was appointed in his place, pennsylvania, Hugh Scott was replaced by John Heinz. Missouri, Stuart Symington was replaced by John Danforth, Symington then resigned December 27,1976 and Danforth was appointed to finish the term. Rhode Island, John O. Pastore was replaced by John Chafee, Pastore then resigned December 28,1976 and Chafee was appointed to finish the term. Republicans had a net gain of one seat from re-election gains, maryland, John Glenn Beall, Jr. lost re-election to Paul Sarbanes. New York, James L. Buckley lost re-election as a Republican to Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ohio, Robert Taft, Jr. lost re-election to former Senator Howard Metzenbaum. Taft then resigned December 28,1976, Metzenbaum was appointed to finish the term. Tennessee, Bill Brock lost re-election to Jim Sasser, california, John V. Tunney lost re-election to S. I. Tunney then resigned January 1,1977 and Hayakawa was appointed to finish the term, indiana, Vance Hartke lost re-election to Richard Lugar. New Mexico, Joseph Montoya lost re-election to Harrison Schmitt, utah, Frank Moss lost re-election to Orrin Hatch. Wyoming, Gale W. McGee lost re-election to Malcolm Wallop, a bolded state name links to an article about that states election. United States elections,1976 United States presidential election,1976 United States House of Representatives elections,1976 94th United States Congress 95th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1976
–
33 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1976

90.
United States Senate elections, 1978
–
The United States Senate elections,1978 in the middle of Democratic President Jimmy Carters term. Thirteen seats changed hands between parties, the Democrats lost a net of three seats to the Republicans, leaving the balance of the chamber 58-41 in favor of the Democrats. Republicans took three seats, including one in Minnesota, as well as in Mississippi and South Dakota. They also defeated five Democratic incumbents, Floyd Haskell, Dick Clark, William Hathaway, Wendell Anderson, the two Republican victories in Minnesota saw the states Senate delegation change from two Democrats to two Republicans in the same election. The Republican gains were offset by Democratic defeats of Edward Brooke and Robert Griffin, and captures of Republican open seats in Nebraska, New Jersey, a bolded state name indicates an article about that states election. United States elections,1978 United States House of Representatives elections,1978 95th United States Congress 96th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1978
–
36 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1978

91.
United States Senate elections, 1980
–
The United States Senate elections,1980 coincided with Ronald Reagans victory in the presidential election. Reagans large margin of victory over incumbent Jimmy Carter pulled in many Democratic voters, the Republicans gained a net of 12 seats from the Democrats and gained control of the Senate, 53–46–1. Majority and minority leaders Robert Byrd and Howard Baker exchanged places and this election marked the first time since 1954 that the Republican Party controlled either house of Congress. Despite large gains, Republican Senate candidates lost the popular vote and this was the largest Senate swing since 1958, and was the largest Republican gain since 1946, when Republicans also picked up 12 seats. In 1982, Harrison A. Williams resigned from the Senate rather than face a vote on his expulsion over the Abscam scandal and he was replaced by Republican Nicholas F. Brady. This is not reflected in the party totals, a bolded state name indicates an article about that states election. United States elections,1980 United States presidential election,1980 United States House of Representatives elections,1980 96th United States Congress 97th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1980
–
34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1980

92.
United States Senate elections, 1982
–
The United States Senate elections,1982 were held on November 2,1982. It was an election for the United States Senate following Republican gains in 1980, a total of four seats changed hands between parties, and the lone independent, Senator Harry Byrd, retired. Democrats made a net gain of one seat in the election, Byrd, Jr. was taken by a Republican, and the open seat in New Jersey that was held by an appointed Republican was taken by a Democrat. In 1983, Henry M. Jackson died, and a Republican, Dan Evans, was appointed to fill the vacancy and this is not included in the numbers below. A bolded state indicates an article about that states election. United States elections,1982 United States House of Representatives elections,1982 97th United States Congress 98th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1982
–
33 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1982

93.
United States Senate elections, 1984
–
The United States Senate elections,1984 coincided with the landslide re-election of President Ronald Reagan in the presidential election. Source, Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk A bolded state indicates an article about that states election. The Almanac of American Politics 1986, The Senators, the Representatives, snider, William D. Helms and Hunt, The North Carolina Senate Race,1984. United States elections,1984 United States presidential election,1984 United States House of Representatives elections,1984 98th United States Congress 99th United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1984
–
33 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1984

94.
United States Senate elections, 1992
–
The United States Senate elections,1992 was an election for the United States Senate that coincided with the victory of Bill Clinton in the presidential election. Despite the presidential victory, Democrats did not gain any seats in the Senate, Democratic victories over Republicans John F. Seymour and Bob Kasten were cancelled out by the defeats of Democrats Wyche Fowler and Terry Sanford. The election of four new Democratic women to the Senate was notable, due to a special election in California, both of Californias Senate seats were up for election in 1992. These seats were won by Dianne Feinstein and Barbara Boxer, as a consequence, California became the first state to have elected women to occupy both of its seats in the United States Senate. Democrat Carol Moseley Braun, became the first African-American woman to serve in the United States Senate, source, Election Statistics - Office of the Clerk California, Sen. John F. Seymour was defeated in a special election by former San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein. Seymour had been appointed to the seat by Governor Pete Wilson following Wilsons resignation from the Senate after his election as governor. Wisconsin, Sen. Bob Kasten survived a close call in his first re-election bid in 1986, Fowler faced Coverdell in a run-off in Dec.1992 and lost as both parties spent a good amount of time and resources on the run-off campaign. North Carolina, Sen. Terry Sanford became the third straight incumbent to lose this seat after one term when he was defeated by Democrat-turned-Republican Lauch Faircloth, faircloths victory was aided by Sanfords health scares and the considerable political organization of the states other senator, Jesse Helms. In 1993, Democratic Senator Lloyd Bentsen resigned to become U. S. Secretary of the Treasury and his Democratic replacement, Bob Krueger, lost a special election to Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison. This election was held in June 1993 and so is not included in the party balance numbers in this article, a bolded state name indicates an article about that states election. United States elections,1992 United States presidential election,1992 United States House of Representatives elections,1992 102nd United States Congress 103rd United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1992
–
Class III (34 of the 100) seats in the United States Senate and two mid-term vacancies from Class I 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1992

95.
United States Senate elections, 2000
–
The United States Senate elections,2000 was held on November 7,2000. The elections coincided with other federal and state elections, including the election which was won by Republican George W. Bush. It featured a number of contested elections that resulted in a victory for the Democratic Party. This election marked the first election year since 1988 where Democrats made net gains in the Senate and this election took place six years after Republicans had won a net gain of eight seats in Senate Class 1 during the elections of 1994. Democrats defeated Republican senators Bill Roth, Spencer Abraham, Rod Grams, John Ashcroft, ashcrofts defeat was noteworthy in that his opponent, Mel Carnahan, had died before the election, but still won. The Republicans did defeat one incumbent, Chuck Robb, and won a seat in Nevada. The election resulted in an equal 50–50 split between Republicans and Democrats, meaning the Vice President would cast the votes in organizing the Senate. This resulted in the Democrats winning control of the Senate for only 17 days, since Al Gore was still Vice President and President of the Senate at the beginning of the new term, on January 3,2001. But the Republicans won control of the chamber with the vote of the new Vice President Dick Cheney on January 20. The Republican majority would last until June 6,2001 when Republican Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party, became an independent,1 Totals do not include participating voters who declined to cast a vote for U. S. Senate. Candidates in the Georgia Special Election to fill the seat of deceased Senator Paul Coverdell were required to be non-partisan, however, Zell Miller and Mack Mattingly were added to the Democratic and Republican columns respectively and all the other candidates were added to the Independent column. Campbell even lost his own district by almost 15 points. Five-term incumbent William V. Roth, Jr. was defeated by outgoing Governor Thomas R. Carper, the age of the two candidates was an unspoken issue of the campaign as Carpers relative youth contrasted that of the 79-year-old Roth. Incumbent Connie Mack III retired after two terms, former Congressman Bill Nelson would defeat Rep. Bill McCollum in a close race that was nevertheless overshadowed by the contentious presidential race in Florida. Incumbent Spencer Abraham was unseated after one term by Rep. Debbie Stabenow, the contentious election was highlighted by a series of third party ads attacking Abrahams record on border security. Incumbent Rod Grams lost his bid to former State Auditor Mark Dayton. An heir to a department store chain, Dayton was able to self-finance his $12 million campaign, in one of the more unusual races of the cycle, deceased Governor Mel Carnahan defeated incumbent John Ashcroft. Carnahan died in a plane crash three weeks before the election and his widow Jean received an interim appointment in her late husbands place

United States Senate elections, 2000
–
Class 1 (33 of the 100) seats in the United States Senate and one mid-term vacancy from Class 3 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2000

96.
United States Senate elections, 2002
–
The Senate seats up for election, known as class 2 Senate seats, were last up for regular election in 1996. The election was held on November 5,2002, almost fourteen months after the September 11,2001 attacks, in addition, four incumbent Republicans and no Democrats announced their retirement before the election. However, the Republicans were able to hold the four open seats, ultimately, Republicans would pick up three seats and lose one, resulting in a net gain of two seats. This was the first time since 1962 in which a first-term presidents party made net gains in the Senate and this was the most recent Senate election cycle in which at least one incumbent senator from each party lost in the general election. This was the election cycle ever where the party of the incumbent President gained new control of a house of Congress in a midterm election. Defeated incumbents included Tim Hutchinson, Max Cleland, and Jean Carnahan, the Republicans also gained the seat of deceased senator Paul Wellstone. 1 Includes candidates from Louisianas General Election, not run-off, totals do not include participating voters who declined to cast a vote for U. S. Senate. Although the Democrats had lost the majority control, the Senate was not reorganized until the next Congress, even though Cleland was a combat veteran, Chambliss won the support of the VFW. Missouri, Sen. Jean Carnahan had been appointed to the Senate after her husband, minnesota, Sen. Paul Wellstone, in the middle of a tough fight against former St. Paul Mayor Norm Coleman, died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. South Dakota, The Democratic Party also invested heavily in South Dakota to keep Sen. Thunes strategy would work successfully when he later defeated Daschle in 2004, Republicans challenged this late replacement of a weak candidate, but were not successful in the courts. Louisiana, Republicans ran several candidates at once against incumbent Mary Landrieu, hoping to push her vote below 50% and they did force a runoff, but Republican Suzanne Haik Terrell narrowly lost the runoff. He defeated Smith in the primary and went on to defeat Democrat Jeanne Shaheen, the retiring governor, in the general election

United States Senate elections, 2002
–
33 of the 100 seats in the U.S. Senate and 1 mid-term vacancy 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2002

97.
United States Senate elections, 2004
–
Senators who were elected in 1998, known as Senate Class 3, were seeking reelection or retiring in 2004. This was the third consecutive election for Senate Class 3 where the Democrats failed to end up with a net gain and this also marked the first time since 1980 in which a presidential candidate from either party won with coattails in the Senate. Also, Republican Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell of Colorado chose not to run for re-election, summary of the United States Senate elections,2004 results Sources, Dave Leips Atlas of U. S. Elections United States Elections Project at George Mason University The Senate, as of the pre-election 108th Congress, was composed of 51 Republicans,48 Democrats, and 1 independent. The Democrats, therefore, needed to make a net gain of at least two seats from retiring or incumbent Republicans to gain control of the Senate, in the election, incumbent senators won reelection in all races but one. The seats of retiring senators were taken by the party in Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina. In fact, the retiring senator whose seat was taken by a member of his party was Republican Don Nickles of Oklahoma. Republicans gained four seats in the 2004 elections, and entered the 109th Congress with a 55-44-1 lead, while such a majority is formidable, it is still less than the 60 seats needed to override a filibuster and completely control the bodys agenda and procedures. One Republican seat, that of retiring Senator Peter Fitzgerald in Illinois, was taken by Democrat Barack Obama. In Colorado, retiring Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbells seat was taken by Democrat Ken Salazar. In Alaska, Republican Lisa Murkowski won reelection in a tight race, in Oklahoma, Tom Coburn kept Don Nickles seat in Republican hands, while in Kentucky, Republican Jim Bunning won a second term by a very narrow margin. The Democrats prospects were weakened by the fact that five of their six incumbent Senators in Southern states were retiring, retiring Georgia Sen. Zell Millers seat, contested by Denise Majette, was lost in a landslide, as was that of South Carolina Sen. Ernest Hollings. In North Carolina, Democrat Erskine Bowles lost John Edwardss seat to Republican Richard Burr, especially close races in Florida, Louisiana, and South Dakota all resulted in turnovers to the Republicans. The Libertarian, Constitution, and Green parties contested many of the seats, of the 34 senate seats up for grabs, the Libertarians ran candidates in 20 of the races, the Constitutionalists ran 10 candidates, and the Greens ran 7 candidates. Minor parties in a number of states contested one or more Senate seats, examples include the America First Party, the Labor Party, the Peace and Freedom Party, and the Socialist Workers Party. None of these parties gained a seat in this election nor received a significant number of votes, main article, United States Senate election in Alabama,2004 The U. S. Senate election in Alabama was between Republican incumbent Richard Shelby and Democrat Wayne Sowell. Shelby easily won re-election to a term with 68% of the vote. Tony Knowles lost by nearly 3% after staying in a dead heat with incumbent Lisa Murkowski in opinion polling throughout the summer

United States Senate elections, 2004
–
Class 3 (34 of the 100) seats in the United States Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2004

98.
United States Senate elections, 2006
–
The United States Senate elections,2006 were held on November 7,2006, with all 33 Class 1 Senate seats being contested. The term of office for those elected in 2006 ran from January 3,2007, prior to the election, the Republican Party controlled 55 of the 100 Senate seats. Democrats kept their two seats in Minnesota and Maryland, and Republicans held onto their lone open seat in Tennessee. In Vermont, Bernie Sanders, an independent, was elected to the left open by independent Senator Jim Jeffords. In the 2006 election, two new female Senators were elected to seats held by men. This brought the number of female senators to an all-time high of 16. Following the elections, no party held a majority of seats for the first time since January 1995, however, the Democrats were able to control the chamber because independents Bernie Sanders and Joe Lieberman chose to caucus with the Democrats. The Democrats needed at least 51 seats to control the Senate because Vice President Dick Cheney would have broken any 50–50 tie in favor of the Republicans, summary of the November 7,2006, United States Senate election results ID The Independents joined with the Democrats in their caucus. Sources, Dave Leips Atlas of U. S, Elections United States Elections Project at George Mason University Wealthy real estate developer Jim Pederson declared his intention to challenge Senator Jon Kyl of Arizona on September 14,2005. Pederson served as Arizona Democratic Party Chairman from 2001 to 2005 while spending millions of his own money to help Democrats modernize, Kyl got an unexpected boost when TIME listed him as one of the Ten Best Senators. While polling in October showed Pederson catching up, Kyl was re-elected 53%-44%, Democratic Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut was originally thought to be a shoo-in, but his reelection prospects were complicated by political cross-currents. Lamont defeated Lieberman for the Democratic nomination in the August 8 primary 52%-48% and he also filed to create a new independent party, Connecticut for Lieberman. Challenging Lamont and Lieberman in the election was Republican Alan Schlesinger, former mayor of Derby. Schlesinger had a history of winning crossover Democratic voters, but he had never run in a large constituency, Schlesinger was embarrassed when it was revealed that he was thrown out of a casino for counting cards under an assumed name. Lieberman went on to win the election with 50% of the vote to Lamonts 40%, Schlesinger trailed far behind with only 10%, in part due to Lieberman receiving support from only 33% of Democrats but a commanding 70% of Republicans. While Lieberman won as the CFL nominee, he decided to serve as an Independent Democrat in the current Congress, Senator Paul Sarbanes announced on March 11,2005, that he would retire rather than run for re-election in 2006. Sarbanes seat had been considered safe, considering Marylands Democratic voting tendencies, Representative Ben Cardin bested former Representative and NAACP President Kweisi Mfume and others in the Democratic primary. Lieutenant Governor Michael S. Steele, a Republican, announced his candidacy on October 25,2005, on November 7, Cardin was victorious over Steele by a vote of 54%-44%

United States Senate elections, 2006
–
Class 1 (33 of the 100) seats in the U.S. Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2006
United States Senate elections, 2006
–
Jon Tester (D) narrowly defeated incumbent Conrad Burns (R).

99.
United States Senate elections, 2012
–
The Democrats had 21 seats up for election, plus two independents who caucused with the Democrats, while the Republicans had only ten seats up for election. The Democrats gained a net of two seats, leaving them with a total of 53 seats, the Republicans lost a net of two seats, ending with a total of 45 seats. The remaining two senators, both independents, caucused with the Democrats, leaving the majority party with a total of 55 seats. This was also the first time since 1936 where a Democratic presidential candidate who won a term also had Senate coattails in both occasions. This was the first time since 1964 in which party had to defend more than two-thirds of the Senate seats up for grabs. Shading indicates party with largest share of that line, in these general elections, the winner was seated on January 3,2013, ordered by state. Percentages may not add to 100% due to rounding & omission of minor candidates, all of the elections involved the Class 1 seats. In this special election, the winner was elected in 2013 after January 3, the table below gives an overview of some final predictions of several well-known institutes and people. † In Maine, independent Angus King did not declare until after the election which party he would caucus with, roll Call described the race as Likely Independent. Sabatos Crystal Ball marked it as Leans Independent/Democratic, the Cook Political Report notes Kings frontrunner status but without knowing his party, treated the race as a Tossup. RealClearPolitics found that King would be likely to caucus with the Democrats, coloring the map for an independent, fiveThirtyEight stated it was more likely that King caucuses with the Democrats, while officially classifying the race as Likely Independent. Thirty-three seats were up for election, Six Democrats retired, Five were replaced by a Democrat. One was replaced by a Republican, one Independent who caucused with the Democrats retired. He was replaced by a Democrat, one Independent who caucused with the Democrats ran for re-election. One was replaced by an Independent who caucuses with the Democrats, seven Republicans ran for re-election Five were re-elected. One lost renomination and was replaced by a Democrat, three-term incumbent and Senate Minority Whip Republican Jon Kyl, who was re-elected in 2006 with 53% of the vote, announced he would not seek a fourth term in 2012. Republican Representative Jeff Flake won the August 28 primary with 69. 1% of the vote, on the Democratic side, former U. S. Surgeon General Richard Carmona won the primary election, which was held August 28,2012. The candidates faced Libertarian Marc Victor and independents Ian Gilyeat and Michael F. Meyer on Nov.6, Flake won the election with 49. 7% of the vote against Carmonas 46. 2% and Victors 4. 6%

United States Senate elections, 2012
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Class 1 (33 of the 100) seats in the U.S. Senate 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2012

100.
United States Senate elections, 2014
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Elections to the United States Senate were a part of the elections held in the United States on November 4,2014. 33 Class 2 seats in the 100-member United States Senate were up for election, the candidates winning the regular elections will serve six-year terms from January 3,2015 to January 3,2021. The elections marked 100 years of elections of U. S. Senators. Twenty-one of the seats were held by the Democratic Party. The Republicans regained the majority of the Senate in the 114th Congress, which started in January 2015 and they had needed a net gain of at least six seats to obtain a majority. They successfully held all of their seats, and gained nine Democratic-held seats, five incumbent Democratic senators were unseated, Mark Begich of Alaska, Mary Landrieu of Louisiana, Kay Hagan of North Carolina, Mark Udall of Colorado, and Mark Pryor of Arkansas. The Republicans also picked up another 4 open seats in Iowa, Montana, South Dakota and this was the second consecutive election held in a presidents sixth year where control of the Senate changed hands. This was also the first time that the Democrats lost control of the Senate in a sixth-year midterm since 1918. With a total net gain of 9 seats, the Republicans made the largest Senate gain by any party since 1980, and this is also the first election since 1980 in which more than two incumbent Democratic Senators were defeated by their Republican challengers. In order to have a majority, the Republicans were required to attain at least 51 seats in the Senate, the Democrats would have been able to retain a majority with 48 seats because, in event of a tie vote, Vice President Joe Biden would become the tie-breaker. From 1915 to 2013, control of the U. S. Senate flipped in 10 of 50 cycles, the Republican Party had lost ground in the 2012 elections, leading to an internal fight among the Republican leadership over the best strategies and tactics for the 2014 Senate races. By December 2013, eight of the twelve incumbent Republicans running for re-election saw Tea Party challenges, however, Republican incumbents won every primary challenge. 7 of the 21 states with Democratic seats up for election in 2014 had voted for Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election, Democrats also faced the lower voter turnout that accompanies mid-term elections. Poll aggregation website FiveThirtyEight gave the Republican Party a 60% chance of taking control of the Senate as of September 28, another poll aggregation website, RealClearPolitics, gave the Republican Party a net gain of 7 seats. Due to the closeness of several races, it was believed that Senate control might not be decided on election night. Both Louisiana and Georgia were seen as competitive, and both require a run-off election if no candidate takes a majority of the vote. Additionally, two independent candidates, Greg Orman in Kansas and Larry Pressler in South Dakota, refused to commit to caucusing with either party. However, no independent won a Senate race in 2014, and King, by midnight ET, most major networks projected that the Republicans would take control of the Senate

United States Senate elections, 2014
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33 of the 100 seats in the U.S. Senate and 3 mid-term special elections 51 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 2014

101.
United States presidential election, 1868
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The United States presidential election of 1868 was the 21st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3,1868. It was the first presidential election to place after the American Civil War. As three of the former Confederate states were not yet restored to the Union, their electors could not vote in the election, by 1868, Johnson had alienated many of his constituents and had been impeached by Congress. Although Johnson kept his office, his presidency was crippled, after numerous ballots, the Democrats nominated former New York Governor Horatio Seymour to take on the Republican candidate, Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant. Grant was one of the most popular men in the North due to his efforts in concluding the Civil War successfully for the Union, although Seymour was buried in the electoral college, he gave Grant a good race for the popular vote. It was the first election in which African Americans could vote in every Northern or Reconstructed Southern state, every state except Florida used popular votes to determine electors for the Electoral College vote. Reconstruction and civil rights of slaves was a hotly debated issue in the Union. Republican candidate, By 1868, the Republicans felt strong enough to drop the Union Party label, the Democratic Party controlled many large Northern states that had a great percentage of the electoral votes. House Speaker Schuyler Colfax, a Radical Republican from Indiana, was nominated for vice-president on the ballot, beating out the early favorite. The Republican platform supported black suffrage in the South as part of the passage to full citizenship for former slaves and it agreed to let northern states decide individually whether to enfranchise blacks. Democratic candidates, The Democratic National Convention was held in New York City between July 4, and July 9,1868, meanwhile, the convention chairman Horatio Seymour, former governor of New York, received nine votes on the fourth ballot from the state of North Carolina. This unexpected move caused “loud and enthusiastic cheering, ” but Seymour refused, saying, “I must not be nominated by this Convention and my own inclination prompted me to decline at the outset, my honor compels me to do so now. It is impossible, consistently with my position, to allow my name to be mentioned in this Convention against my protest. The clerk will proceed with the call. ”After numerous indecisive ballots, the names of John T. Hoffman, Francis P. Blair, none of these candidates, however, gained substantial support. For twenty-one ballots, the opposing candidates battled it out, the East battling the West for control, the two leading candidates were determined that the other should not receive the nomination, because of the two-thirds rule of the convention, a compromise candidate was needed. Seymour still hoped it would be Chief Justice Salmon P. ” Seymour had to wait for the rousing cheers to die down before he could address the delegates, “I have no terms in which to tell of my regret that my name has been brought before this convention. God knows that my life and all that I value most in life I would give for the good of my country, I could not receive the nomination without placing not only myself but the Democratic party in a false position. God bless you for your kindness to me, but your candidate I cannot be. ”Seymour left the platform to cool off and rest

United States presidential election, 1868
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SpeakerSchuyler Colfax from Indiana For Vice President
United States presidential election, 1868
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All 294 electoral votes of the Electoral College 148 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1868
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Republican campaign poster, created by superimposing a portrait of Grant onto the platform of the Republican Party.
United States presidential election, 1868
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Grant/Colfax humorous campaign card

102.
Rutherford B. Hayes
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Rutherford Birchard Hayes was the 19th President of the United States. He became President at the end of the Reconstruction Era of the United States through a complex Compromise of 1877, Hayes, an attorney in Ohio, was city solicitor of Cincinnati from 1858 to 1861. When the Civil War began, he left a political career to join the Union Army as an officer. Hayes was wounded five times, most seriously at the Battle of South Mountain and he earned a reputation for bravery in combat and was promoted to the rank of brevet major general. After the war, he served in the Congress from 1865 to 1867 as a Republican, Hayes left Congress to run for Governor of Ohio and was elected to two consecutive terms, from 1868 to 1872, and then to a third term, from 1876 to 1877. In 1876, Hayes was elected president in one of the most contentious elections in national history and he lost the official popular vote to Democrat Samuel J. Tilden but he won an intensely disputed electoral college vote after a Congressional commission awarded him twenty contested electoral votes. The result was the Compromise of 1877, in which the Democrats acquiesced to Hayess election, Hayes believed in meritocratic government, equal treatment without regard to race. He ordered federal troops to crush the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and he implemented modest civil service reforms that laid the groundwork for further reform in the 1880s and 1890s. He vetoed the Bland–Allison Act, which would have put money into circulation and raised nominal prices. His policy toward Western Indians anticipated the assimilationist program of the Dawes Act of 1887, Hayes kept his pledge not to run for re-election, retired to his home in Ohio, and became an advocate of social and educational reform. Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, on October 4,1822, Hayess father, a Vermont storekeeper, took the family to Ohio in 1817. He died ten weeks before Rutherfords birth, Sophia took charge of the family, bringing up Hayes and his sister, Fanny, the only two of their four children to survive to adulthood. She never remarried, Sophias younger brother, Sardis Birchard, lived with the family for a time and he was always close to Hayes and became a father figure to him, contributing to his early education. Through both his father and mother, Hayes was of New England colonial ancestry and his earliest American ancestor emigrated to Connecticut from Scotland in 1625. His mothers ancestors arrived in Vermont at a time. John Noyes, an uncle by marriage, had been his fathers partner in Vermont and was later elected to Congress. His first cousin, Mary Jane Noyes Mead, was the mother of sculptor Larkin Goldsmith Mead, John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, was also a first cousin. He became a member of the Sons of the American Revolution based on his descent from Daniel Austin, Hayes attended the common schools in Delaware, Ohio, and enrolled in 1836 at the Methodist Norwalk Seminary in Norwalk, Ohio

Rutherford B. Hayes
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Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford B. Hayes
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Rutherford and Lucy Hayes on their wedding day
Rutherford B. Hayes
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Hayes in Civil War uniform in 1861
Rutherford B. Hayes
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George Crook was Hayes's commander and the namesake of his fourth son

103.
United States presidential election, 1880
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The United States presidential election of 1880 was a contest between Republican James A. Garfield and Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock in which the Republican Garfield prevailed. It was the 24th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, the voter turnout rate was one of the highest in the nations history. In the end, the vote totals of the two main candidates were separated by fewer than 2,000 votes, the smallest victory in the popular vote ever recorded. In the electoral college, however, Garfields victory was decisive, Hancocks sweep of the Southern states was not enough for victory, but it cemented his partys dominance of the region for generations. Incumbent president Rutherford B. Hayes did not seek re-election, keeping a promise made during the 1876 campaign, after the longest convention in the partys history, the divided Republicans chose Garfield as their standard-bearer, another Ohioan who had earlier served as a Congressman and Civil War general. The Democratic Party selected Pennsylvania-born Civil War general and career army officer Winfield Scott Hancock as their nominee, the dominance of the two major parties began to fray as an upstart left-wing party, the Greenback Party, nominated another Civil War general for president, Iowa Congressman James B. In a campaign fought mainly over issues of Civil War loyalties, tariffs, Weaver and two other minor candidates, Neal Dow and John W. Phelps, together made up the remaining percentage. Party membership was partly based on ideology, party identification often reflected ethnic and religious background. Most Northern Protestants voted Republican, as did black Southerners, on the other hand, white Southerners and Northern Catholics generally voted Democratic. Tariff reform and the standard also divided the country and the major parties. The monetary debate was over the basis for the value of the United States dollar, nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States until the Civil War, when the mounting costs of the war forced the United States Congress to issue greenbacks. Greenbacks helped pay for the war, but resulted in the most severe inflation since the American Revolution, after the war, bondholders and other creditors wanted to return to a gold standard. At the same time, debtors benefited from the way inflation reduced the value of their debts. Monetary debate intensified as Congress effectively demonetized silver in 1873 and began redeeming greenbacks in gold by 1879, as the 1880 election season began, the nations money was backed by gold alone, but the issue was far from settled. Tariff policy was a source of conflict in late 19th-century American politics, during the Civil War, Congress raised protective tariffs to new heights. This was done partly to pay for the war, but partly because high tariffs were popular in the North, a high tariff meant that foreign goods were more expensive, which made it easier for American businesses to sell goods domestically. Republicans supported high tariffs as a way to protect American jobs, many Northern Democrats supported high tariffs, however, for the same economic reasons that Northern Republicans did. In the interest of party unity, they sought to avoid the question as much as possible

United States presidential election, 1880
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Ulysses S. Grant
United States presidential election, 1880
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All 369 electoral votes of the Electoral College 185 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1880
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James G. Blaine
United States presidential election, 1880
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John Sherman

104.
United States presidential election, 1884
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The United States presidential election of 1884 was the 25th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1884. It saw the first election of a Democrat as President of the United States since the election of 1856, the campaign was marred by exceptional political acrimony and personal invective. New York decided the election, awarding Governor Cleveland the states 36 electors by a margin of just 1,047 votes out of 1,171,312 cast. Though he was popular, Arthur did not make a serious bid for a full-term nomination. Blaine led on the first ballot, with Arthur second, and this order did not change on successive ballots as Blaine increased his lead, and he won a majority on the fourth ballot. After nominating Blaine, the convention chose Senator John A. Logan from Illinois as the vice-presidential nominee, Blaine remains the only Presidential nominee ever to come from Maine. Lincoln however was as averse to the nomination as Sherman was, the Democrats convened in Chicago on July 8–11,1884, with New York Governor Grover Cleveland as clear frontrunner, the candidate of northern reformers and sound-money men. Although Tammany Hall bitterly opposed his nomination, the machine represented a minority of the New York delegation. Its only chance to block Cleveland was to break the rule, which mandated that the votes of an entire delegation be cast for only one candidate. Daniel N. Lockwood from New York placed Clevelands name in nomination, but this rather lackluster address was eclipsed by the seconding speech of Edward S. Bragg from Wisconsin, who roused the delegates with a memorable slap at Tammany. As the convention rocked with cheers, Tammany boss John Kelly lunged at the platform, on the first ballot, Cleveland led the field with 392 votes, more than 150 votes short of the nomination. Trailing him were Thomas F. Bayard from Delaware,170, Allen G. Thurman from Ohio,88, Samuel J. Randall from Pennsylvania,78, mcDonald from Indiana,56, with the rest scattered. Randall then withdrew in Clevelands favor and this move, together with the Southern bloc scrambling aboard the Cleveland bandwagon, was enough to put him over the top of the second ballot, with 683 votes, to 81.5 for Bayard and 45.5 for Thomas A. Hendricks was nominated unanimously for vice-president on the first ballot after John C, black, William Rosecrans, and George Washington Glick withdrew their names from consideration. Anti-Monopoly candidates, The Anti-Monopoly National Convention assembled in the Hershey Music Hall in Chicago, the party had been formed to express opposition to the business practices of the emerging nationwide companies. There were around 200 delegates present from 16 states, but 61 of those delegates had come from Michigan, alson Streeter was the temporary chairman and John F. Henry was the permanent chairmen. Benjamin F. Butler was nominated for president on the first ballot, delegates from New York, Washington D. C. and Maryland bolted the convention when it appeared that no discussion of other candidates would be allowed. Ultimately however, only the Greenback Party would endorse his candidacy, the convention chose not to nominate a candidate for vice-president, hoping that other conventions would endorse a similar platform and name a suitable vice-presidential nominee

United States presidential election, 1884
United States presidential election, 1884
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All 401 electoral votes of the Electoral College 201 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1884
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Benjamin F. Butler from Massachusetts
United States presidential election, 1884
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James B. Weaver from Iowa (Declined to be Nominated)

105.
United States presidential election, 1888
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The United States presidential election of 1888 was the 26th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1888. It saw Grover Cleveland of New York, the incumbent president and a Democrat, try to secure a second term against the Republican nominee Benjamin Harrison, a former U. S. The economy was prosperous and the nation was at peace, but Cleveland lost re-election in the Electoral College, Tariff policy was the principal issue in the election. Harrison took the side of industrialists and factory workers who wanted to keep tariffs high, clevelands opposition to Civil War pensions and inflated currency also made enemies among veterans and farmers. On the other hand, he held a hand in the South and border states. Harrison swept almost the entire North and Midwest, and narrowly carried the states of New York. Unlike the election of 1884, the power of the Tammany Hall political machine in New York City helped deny Cleveland the electoral votes of his home state. This election is notable for being the third of five U. S. presidential elections in which the winner did not get a plurality of the popular vote. The first, in 1824, saw John Quincy Adams elected by the House of Representatives, defeating Andrew Jackson, the second occurred in 1876, the fourth in 2000 and the fifth in 2016. It is also notable because only two states switched parties in the vote from the preceding election. It would not be until the 2012 election that only two states would switch parties in consecutive elections, the Democratic National Convention held in St. Louis, Missouri, on June 5–7,1888, was harmonious. Incumbent President Cleveland was re-nominated unanimously without a formal ballot and this was the first time an incumbent Democratic president had been re-nominated since Martin Van Buren in 1840. After Cleveland was re-nominated, Democrats had to choose a replacement for Thomas A. Hendricks, Hendricks ran unsuccessfully as the Democratic nominee for vice-president in 1876, but won the office when he ran again with Cleveland in 1884. Hendricks served as vice-president for only eight months before he died in office on November 25,1885, former Senator Allen G. Thurman from Ohio was nominated for vice-president over Isaac P. Gray, his nearest rival, and John C. Gray lost the nomination to Thurman primarily because his enemies brought up his actions while a Republican, the Democratic platform largely confined itself to a defense of the Cleveland administration, supporting reduction in the tariff and taxes generally as well as statehood for the western territories. The Republican candidates were former Senator Benjamin Harrison from Indiana, Senator John Sherman from Ohio, Russell A. Alger, the former governor of Michigan, Walter Q. Gresham from Indiana, the former Secretary of the Treasury, Senator William B. Allison from Iowa, and Chauncey Depew from New York, Blaine realized that the party was unlikely to choose him without a bitter struggle. After he withdrew, Blaine expressed confidence in both Benjamin Harrison and John Sherman, Harrison was nominated on the eighth ballot

United States presidential election, 1888
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All 401 electoral votes of the Electoral College 201 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1888
United States presidential election, 1888
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Brigadier GeneralClinton B. Fisk from New Jersey
United States presidential election, 1888
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Business advertising card with an election theme

106.
United States presidential election, 1900
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The United States presidential election of 1900 was the 29th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1900. The election was a re-match of the 1896 race between Republican candidate and incumbent President William McKinley and his Democratic challenger, William Jennings Bryan, the Republican Convention chose New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt as McKinleys running mate, since Vice-President Garret Hobart had died from heart failure in 1899. The 926 delegates to the Republican convention, which met in Philadelphia on June 19–21, Platt, the boss of the New York State Republican Party, did not like Theodore Roosevelt, New Yorks popular governor, even though he was a fellow Republican. By electing Roosevelt vice president, Platt would remove Roosevelt from New York state politics, quite unexpectedly, Roosevelt would be elevated to the presidency in September 1901, when McKinley was assassinated in Buffalo, New York. After Admiral George Deweys return from the Spanish–American War, many suggested that he run for president on the Democratic ticket. Dewey, however, had angered some Protestants by marrying the Catholic Mildred McLean Hazen in November 1899. His candidacy was also almost immediately plagued by a number of public relations gaffes, shortly thereafter, he admitted never having voted in a presidential election before, mentioning that the only man he ever would have voted for, had he voted, would have been Grover Cleveland. He drew even more criticism when he told a newspaper reporter that. Deweys campaign was met with a level of pessimism by Gold Democrats on whose support his campaign depended, some even threw their support to Bryan, since they believed him to be the stronger candidate. As early as three days into his candidacy, his campaign having been damaged by the aforementioned missteps, rumors abounded regarding Deweys impending withdrawal which proved false. Further injuries, however, were made when it became clear that the Democratic Party leaders of Vermont were hostile to Dewey, Ohio similarly went for Bryan, though with the caveat there that some leaders suggested that all mention to silver in the party platform be dropped. By May 5 John Roll McLean, the brother-in-law of and effective campaign manager for Dewey, Bryan won at the 1900 Democratic National Convention held at Kansas City, Missouri, on July 4–6, garnering 936 delegate votes topping David B. Source, US President – D Convention, at the state level, local Populist parties were left at liberty to proceed as they saw fit. In the Plains states, the Populists fused with the Democrats, in the South, the Populists fused with the Republican Party. The end result, though Bryan was defeated, was that the Populists greatly enlarged their representation in Congress, from 10 to 26. The move had its consequences, as in the mid-term election of 1898, Populist representation in the House of Representatives fell to 9. The treatment of Populists by the Democratic Party led to a division in the party. On May 17,1899, Populist Party leaders met in St. Louis and issued an address calling for a Middle of the Road policy, the statement was primarily aimed at the partys national chairman, U. S

United States presidential election, 1900
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All 447 electoral votes of the Electoral College 224 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1900
United States presidential election, 1900
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Financier and Publicist Wharton Barker from Pennsylvania
United States presidential election, 1900
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Milford W. Howard from Alabama

107.
United States presidential election, 1904
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The United States presidential election of 1904 was the 30th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1904. During the election campaign, Republicans emphasized Roosevelts success in foreign affairs, the nominee of the Democratic Party was Alton B. Parker, Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, as there was little difference between the candidates positions, the race was largely based on their personalities, the Democrats argued the Roosevelt presidency was arbitrary and erratic. Roosevelt easily defeated Parker, sweeping every region in the nation except the South, in doing so, he became the first President to win a term in his own right after having ascended to the Presidency upon the death of his predecessor. Since then, Presidents Calvin Coolidge in 1924, Harry S. Truman in 1948, Republican candidates, As Republicans convened in Chicago on June 21–23,1904, President Theodore Roosevelts nomination was assured. He had effectively maneuvered throughout 1902 and 1903 to gain control of the party to ensure it, a dump-Roosevelt movement had centered on the candidacy of conservative Senator Mark Hanna from Ohio, but Hannas death in February 1904 had removed this obstacle. Roosevelts nomination speech was delivered by former governor Frank S. Black of New York, Roosevelt was nominated unanimously on the first ballot with 994 votes. Since conservatives in the Republican Party denounced Theodore Roosevelt as a radical, Senator Charles W. Fairbanks from Indiana was the obvious choice, since conservatives thought highly of him, yet he managed not to offend the partys more progressive elements. Roosevelt was far from pleased with the idea of Fairbanks for vice-president and he would have preferred Representative Robert R. Hitt from Illinois, but he did not consider the vice-presidential nomination worth a fight. With solid support from New York, Pennsylvania, and Indiana, source, US President - R Convention. Source, US Vice President - R Convention, Democratic candidates, In 1904, both William Jennings Bryan and former President Grover Cleveland declined to run for president. Since the two Democratic nominees of the past 20 years did not seek the nomination, Alton B. Parker, a Bourbon Democrat from New York, emerged as the frontrunner, Parker was the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals and was respected by both Democrats and Republicans in his state. On several occasions, the Republicans paid Parker the honor of running no one against him when he ran for political positions. Parker refused to work actively for the nomination, but did nothing to restrain his conservative supporters, former President Grover Cleveland endorsed Parker. The Democratic Convention that met in St. Louis, Missouri, on July 6–9,1904, has called one of the most exciting. The struggle inside the Democratic Party over the nomination was to prove as contentious as the election itself, despite the fact that Parker had supported Bryan in 1896 and 1900, Bryan hated him for being a Gold Democrat. Bryan wanted the weakest man nominated, one who could not take the control of the party away from him and he denounced Judge Parker as a tool of Wall Street before he was nominated and declared that no self-respecting Democrat could vote for him

108.
United States presidential election, 1912
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The United States presidential election of 1912 was the 32nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1912. The election was a rare four-way contest, incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and it nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. Meanwhile, the Socialist Party of America renominated its perennial standard-bearer and it is the last election in which a former, or incumbent, President ran for the office without being nominated as either a Democrat or Republican. It is also the last election in which an incumbent president running for re-election failed to either first or second in the popular vote count. Wilson won the election, gaining a majority in the Electoral College and winning 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won 27%, Taft 23%. Wilson became the elected president from the Democratic Party between 1896 and 1932, and the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was also the last election in more than one nominee had previously been elected president. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election in 1908 in fulfillment of a pledge to the American people not to seek a full term. Roosevelts first term as president was incomplete, as he succeeded to the office upon the assassination of William McKinley and he had tapped Secretary of War William Howard Taft to become his successor, and Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the general election. The progressive Republicans favored restrictions on the employment of women and children, promoted ecological conservation, the progressives were also in favor of the popular election of federal and state judges and opposed to having judges appointed by the president or state governors. By 1910 the split between the two wings of the Republican Party was deep, and this, in turn, caused Roosevelt and Taft to turn against one another, despite their personal friendship. Republican candidates, William Howard Taft, President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt, La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin For the first time, significant numbers of delegates to the national conventions were elected in presidential preference primaries. Primary elections were advocated by the faction of the Republican Party. Altogether, twelve states held Republican primaries, La Follette won two of the first four primaries. Beginning with his victory in Illinois on April 9, however, Roosevelt won nine of the last ten presidential primaries. As a sign of his popularity, Roosevelt even carried Tafts home state of Ohio. The Republican Convention was held in Chicago from June 18 to 22, Taft, however, had begun to gather delegates earlier, and the delegates chosen in the primaries were a minority

United States presidential election, 1912
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All 531 electoral votes of the Electoral College 266 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1912
United States presidential election, 1912

109.
Charles Evans Hughes
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Charles Evans Hughes, Sr. was an American statesman, lawyer, and Republican politician from New York. He was the Republican nominee in the 1916 U. S, Presidential election, losing narrowly to incumbent President Woodrow Wilson. Historian Clinton Rossiter has hailed him as a leading American conservative, Charles Evans Hughes was born in Glens Falls, New York, the son of a Welsh immigrant minister Rev. David C. Hughes and Mary C. Hughes, a sister of State Senator Henry C and he was active in the Northern Baptist church, a Mainline Protestant denomination. Hughes early education included attending Lafayette School in Newark, NJ, at the age of 14, he enrolled at Madison University, where he became a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity. He then transferred to Brown University, continuing as a member of Delta Upsilon and he graduated third in his class at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year. He read law and entered Columbia Law School in 1882, where he graduated in 1884 with highest honors, in 1885, Hughes met Antoinette Carter, the daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and they were married in 1888. They had one son, Charles Evans Hughes Jr. and three daughters and their youngest child, Elizabeth Hughes Gossett, was one of the first humans injected with insulin, and later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society. Hughes was the grandfather of Charles Evans Hughes III and H. Stuart Hughes, after graduating Hughes began working for Chamberlain, Carter & Hornblower where he met his future wife. In 1888, shortly after he was married, he became a partner in the firm, later the name was changed to Hughes, Hubbard & Reed. In 1891, Hughes left the practice of law to become a professor at Cornell Law School, in 1893, he returned to his old law firm in New York City to continue practicing until he ran for governor in 1906. He continued his association with Cornell as a lecturer at the Law School from 1893 to 1895. He was also a lecturer for New York University Law School. At that time, in addition to practicing law, Hughes taught at New York Law School with Woodrow Wilson, in 1905, he was appointed as counsel to the New York state legislative Stevens Gas Commission, a committee investigating utility rates. His uncovering of corruption led to lower gas rates in New York City, in 1905, he was appointed to the Armstrong Insurance Commission to investigate the insurance industry in New York as a special assistant to U. S. Attorney General. Hughes served as the Governor of New York from 1907 to 1910 and he defeated William Randolph Hearst in the 1906 election, and was the only Republican statewide candidate to win office. As a supporter of progressive policies, Hughes was able to play on the popularity of Theodore Roosevelt, in 1908, he was offered the vice-presidential nomination by William Howard Taft, but he declined it to run again for Governor. Theodore Roosevelt became an important supporter of Hughes and he pushed the passage of the Moreland Act, which enabled the governor to oversee city and county officials as well as officials in semi-autonomous state bureaucracies

110.
United States presidential election, 1940
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The United States presidential election of 1940 was the 39th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1940. The election was fought in the shadow of World War II in Europe, incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate, broke with tradition and ran for a third term, which became a major issue. The surprise Republican candidate was maverick businessman Wendell Willkie, a horse who crusaded against Roosevelts perceived failure to end the Depression. Roosevelt, acutely aware of strong isolationist and non-interventionism sentiment, promised there would be no involvement in foreign wars if he were re-elected, Willkie conducted an energetic campaign and managed to revive Republican strength in areas of the Midwest and Northeast. Roosevelt won reelection in 1940 thanks to his wide margins in the nations large cities. In the North, cities with a population over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60% of their votes, while smaller cities, rural, and suburban areas in the North favored Willkie 52%-48%. Throughout the winter, spring, and summer of 1940, there was speculation as to whether Roosevelt would break with longstanding tradition. The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the U. S. Constitution, had established by President George Washington when he refused to run for a third term in 1796. He was aided by the political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat the popular Willkie. At the July 1940 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Illinois, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and John Nance Garner, Garner was a Texas conservative who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies. As a result, Roosevelt decided to pick a new running mate, Henry A. Wallace from Iowa, his Secretary of Agriculture and an outspoken liberal. That choice was opposed by many of the partys conservatives. The three leading candidates for the Republican nomination were all isolationists to varying degrees, the three frontrunners were Senator Robert A. Taft from Ohio, Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg from Michigan, and District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey from New York. Taft was the leader of the conservative, isolationist wing of the Republican Party, Vandenberg, the senior Republican in the Senate, was the favorite son candidate of the Michigan delegation and was considered a possible compromise candidate if Taft or Dewey faltered. Former President Herbert Hoover was also spoken of as a compromise candidate, however, each of these candidates had weaknesses that could be exploited. Deweys relative youth—he was only 38 in 1940—and lack of any foreign-policy experience caused his candidacy to weaken as the Nazi military emerged as a fearsome threat, in 1940, Vandenberg was also an isolationist and his lackadaisical, lethargic campaign never caught the voters attention. Hoover still bore the stigma of having presided over the market crash of 1929. This left an opening for a dark horse candidate to emerge, a Wall Street-based industrialist named Wendell Willkie, who had never before run for public office, emerged as the unlikely nominee