Socio-economic gaps in HE participation: how have they changed over time?

Transcription

1 Socio-economic gaps in HE participation: how have they changed over time? IFS Briefing Note BN133 Claire Crawford

2 Executive summary Socio-economic gaps in HE participation: how have they changed over time? 1 Claire Crawford Institute for Fiscal Studies Higher education (HE) participation has expanded dramatically in England over the last half century, with the proportion of 17- to 30-year-olds going to university increasing from just 5% in 1960 to 47% in Yet socio-economic inequality in HE participation remains of great policy concern, stoked by fears about whether the introduction (in 1998) and subsequent increases (in and ) in tuition fees would discourage young people from poorer backgrounds from going to university. This briefing note provides new evidence on what happened to HE participation overall and at high-status institutions amongst state school students in England following the increase in tuition fees (and accompanying changes to student support and other policies designed to widen HE participation) that occurred in In particular, it examines whether these policy changes were coincident with changes in the trajectories of HE participation rates and whether these changes occurred differentially for young people from different socio-economic backgrounds. We are able to do this for the first time using linked individual-level administrative data from schools, colleges and universities. These provide us with a census of pupils taking (or eligible to take) GCSEs in state schools in England between and , totalling over half a million pupils per cohort. We are able to follow each cohort through the education system, from age 11, through secondary school and further education, and on to potential HE participation anywhere in the UK at age 18 (when first eligible) or age 19 (after a single year out). Our results show that HE participation has been increasing over time and that it has been rising more rapidly for those from deprived backgrounds, such that the gap in HE participation -- and, to a lesser extent, in participation at high-status institutions -- between individuals from the most and least deprived quintile groups (fifths of the population) has fallen over time. For example, between 1 The author gratefully acknowledges funding from the Nuffield Foundation (grant number EDU/39084) and would like to thank Ellen Greaves, Paul Johnson, John Micklewright and Anna Vignoles for helpful comments and advice. All errors remain the responsibility of the author. 1

3 and , the gap in HE participation between those from the top and bottom socio-economic quintile groups has fallen from 40.0 percentage points to 37.3 percentage points, while the gap in high-status participation has fallen more slowly, from 19.7 to 19.0 percentage points. These reductions are at least partly explained by the improvement in the relative performance of those from more deprived backgrounds in earlier achievement tests, especially at Key Stage 5 (taken at age 18). In terms of changes to the trajectories over time, it looks as if overall HE participation rates may have dipped slightly when fees were raised in , but the dip was actually more pronounced among those from better-off backgrounds than it was among more deprived students. For example, participation was around 2 percentage points lower than might otherwise have been expected amongst individuals from the highest socio-economic quintile group, while it was no more than 0.5 percentage points lower amongst individuals from the lowest socio-economic quintile group. The trend towards a smaller socio-economic gap also accelerated somewhat in We cannot say for sure that this change in trend arose as a consequence of the new HE finance regime, but it was coincident with it and we cannot explain it using the other characteristics that we observe in our data. One possible reason for this observed pattern is that, contrary to the beliefs of many, the new HE finance regime introduced in was actually significantly more progressive than the system it replaced. Overall, it was more generous to students from poorer backgrounds and hit richer students relatively harder. Assuming students understood the financial implications of the regime and were not debt averse, the change in regime might have been expected to reduce participation rates amongst those for whom the costs of university had gone up rather than down (i.e. those from the richest families) relatively more. This is exactly what we see: participation rates were lower than might otherwise have been expected in and after , with the negative effect significantly greater for students from the least deprived backgrounds. However, it must be highlighted that we cannot separate the effects of changes to the HE finance regime from the effects of other policies that were introduced around the same time and that might have been expected to produce similar results. These policies include the increased responsibility and focus of universities, and indeed schools, on increasing HE participation amongst disadvantaged students. Nonetheless, the changes in participation that we observe are at least consistent with the responses that might have been expected given the incentives provided by the new HE finance regime. 2

4 1. Introduction Higher education (HE) participation has expanded dramatically in England over the last half century, with the proportion of 17- to 30-year-olds going to university increasing from just 5% in to 47% in However, despite decades of policies designed to widen participation i.e. to increase the HE participation rates of pupils from lower socio-economic backgrounds and other under-represented groups socio-economic inequality in HE participation and degree acquisition appears to have widened in England during the 1980s and early 1990s, 4 although some dispute this. 5 In any case, in , young people from the richest fifth of families were still over four times more likely to go to university at age 18 or 19 than young people from the poorest fifth of families. Considering participation at a group of high-status institutions whose degrees typically earn their holders the highest returns in the labour market 6 the socioeconomic gap is even starker: young people from the richest fifth of families are almost 10 times more likely to attend such institutions than young people from the poorest fifth of families. 7 2 D. Finegold, The roles of higher education in a knowledge economy, Rutgers University, mimeo, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS), Participation rates in higher education: academic years 2006/ /2011 (provisional), Statistical First Release, 2012, 4 See, for example: J. Blanden and S. Machin, Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education, Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Special Issue on the Economics of Education, 2004, 51, ; S. Machin and A. Vignoles, Educational inequality: the widening socio-economic gap, Fiscal Studies, 2004, 25, ; and J. Lindley and S. Machin, The quest for more and more education: implications for social mobility, Fiscal Studies, 2012, 33, For example, R. Erikson and J. Goldthorpe, Has social mobility in Britain decreased? Reconciling divergent findings on income and class mobility, British Journal of Sociology, 2010, 61, A. Chevalier and G. Conlon, Does it pay to attend a prestigious university?, London School of Economics, CEE Discussion Paper 33, 2003; I. Hussain, S. McNally and S. Telhaj, University quality and graduate wages in the UK, London School of Economics, CEE Discussion Paper 99, Author s calculations based on linked individual-level administrative data from schools, colleges and universities. See Section 2 for further discussion of these data, how we measure socio-economic status and which institutions constitute the high-status group. 3

5 Concerns about the types of students who would be able to access higher education increased following the introduction of tuition fees in Although the fees were means tested, meaning that lower-income students should be less affected, there were fears that the prospect of fees would create a barrier to HE participation for poorer students. 8 Such concerns heightened following the increase in the cap on tuition fees that occurred in (to 3,000 p.a.) and again in (to 9,000 p.a.), despite the fact that these higher fees did not have to be paid until after graduation and were covered by a zero real interest rate loan, repayable only above an income threshold and written off after a period of time. 9 In fact, Dearden et al. (2007) and Chowdry et al. (2012) 10 concluded that poorer individuals would be better off under the new fee regimes introduced in and than under their predecessors. This suggests that, as long as students from poorer backgrounds understood the reforms and were not debt averse, HE participation rates should not have been reduced by these changes. Indeed, there is no strong empirical evidence available to date that the introduction or subsequent increase of tuition fees in England reduced HE participation rates, even amongst pupils from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. 11 However, the existing studies typically either focus on the introduction of tuition fees in 1998 or are able to consider only a very limited period following the policy changes. Given the recent reforms to HE finance that were introduced in , together with the richer data on 8 C. Callender, Student financial support in higher education: access and exclusion, in M. Tight (ed.), Access and Exclusion: International Perspectives on Higher Education Research, Elsevier Science, London, For further discussion of the changes in HE finance that have occurred in England, and their likely distributional effects, see: L. Dearden, E. Fitzsimons, A. Goodman and G. Kaplan, Higher education funding reforms in England: the distributional effects and the shifting balance of costs, Economic Journal, Features, 2007, 118, F ; G. Wyness, Policy changes in UK higher education funding: , University of London, Institute of Education, DoQSS Working Paper 10-15, 2010; and H. Chowdry, L. Dearden, A. Goodman and W. Jin, The distributional impact of the higher education funding reforms in England, Fiscal Studies, 2012, 33, Full references are given in footnote See, for example: C. Crawford and L. Dearden, The Impact of the HE Finance Reforms on HE Participation, BIS Research Paper 13, 2010; and L. Dearden, E. Fitzsimons and G. Wyness, The impact of tuition fees and support on university participation in the UK, Institute for Fiscal Studies, Working Paper 11/17,

6 participation that are now available over longer time periods, this is an opportune time to revisit what happened to HE participation overall and at highstatus institutions following the increase in tuition fees (and accompanying changes to student support and other policies designed to widen participation) that occurred in To do so, we use linked individual-level administrative data from schools, colleges and universities. These provide us with a census of pupils taking (or eligible to take) GCSEs in state schools in England between and , totalling over half a million pupils per cohort. We are able to follow each cohort through the education system, from age 11, through secondary school and further education, and on to potential HE participation anywhere in the UK at age 18 (when first eligible) or age 19 (after a single year out). We start by documenting what happened to HE participation overall and at highstatus institutions at age 18 or 19 for state school students who were first eligible to go to university between and , and show how these patterns varied by socio-economic background. 12 This evidence builds on the existing literature on this topic in two ways: first, by making use of a continuous measure of socio-economic status, which combines individual eligibility for free school meals (FSMs) with a variety of aggregate information relating to an individual s very local neighbourhood; 13 and second, by considering participation at highstatus institutions as well as participation overall this differentiation is particularly important given the higher returns garnered by individuals holding degrees from such institutions. 12 Concerns about the quality of the data linkage for private school students in the early periods covered by our data mean that it is difficult to accurately document changes in HE participation for these individuals over time. See Section 2.1 for further discussion of this issue. 13 Previous evidence tends to rely either on FSM eligibility or on more aggregate neighbourhood measures alone -- see, for example: Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), Trends in young participation in higher education: core results for England, Issues Paper 2010/03, 2010, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS), Widening participation in higher education: analysis of progression rates for young people in England by free school meal receipt and school type, 2011, and HEFCE, POLAR3: young participation rates in higher education, Issues Paper 2012/26, 2012, 5

7 We then investigate whether there is any evidence of a change in the trajectory of HE participation rates in or after and, if so, whether these changes occurred differentially for young people from different socio-economic backgrounds. To do so, we estimate whether the HE participation rates of individuals observed in or after are higher or lower than we might have expected based on trend rates of participation over the period covered by our data, and whether these deviations from trend differ for individuals from different parts of the socio-economic distribution. 14 This analysis will provide some insight into whether the increase in tuition fees (and accompanying changes to student support) that occurred in were coincident with any significant changes in HE participation or the socio-economic gaps in HE participation. However, these estimates should not be interpreted as the causal effect of the increase in tuition fees (and accompanying changes to student support) that occurred. The most important reason for this is that there is no unaffected (control) group in England to provide an indication of what would have happened to participation rates in the absence of the reforms; we must instead generate the relevant counterfactual by assuming that participation would otherwise have followed the existing trend. We also cannot separate the effects of the changes to the HE finance regime from other changes that occurred in or after that could plausibly affect HE participation, particularly efforts by universities to recruit students from more deprived backgrounds. Nonetheless, it is still a useful exercise to consider whether HE participation rates appear to be on different trajectories before and after This briefing note proceeds as follows: Sections 2 and 3 describe the data and methods that we use for our analysis; Section 4 discusses our results; and Section 5 concludes. 2. Data We use linked individual-level administrative data from schools, colleges and universities. 15 These provide us with a census of pupils taking (or eligible to take) GCSEs in state schools in England between and totalling over 14 This assumes that supply constraints would not have been binding over this period. 15 Specifically, we use linked individual-level data from the National Pupil Database (NPD), the National Information System for Vocational Qualifications (NISVQ) and the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA). 6

8 half a million pupils per cohort. We are able to follow them through the education system, from age 11, through secondary school and further education, and on to potential HE participation anywhere in the UK at age 18 (when first eligible) or age 19 (after a single year out). Table 1 outlines the expected progression of our cohorts through the education system. Table 1. Expected progression of our cohorts through the education system Outcomes Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6 Born Sat Key Stage 2 (KS2) (age 11) Sat GCSEs / KS4 (age 16) Sat A levels / KS5 (age 18) HE participation (age 18) HE participation (age 19) The data set includes a variety of academic outcomes in the form of national achievement test scores at age 11 and public examination results (GCSEs, A levels and equivalent vocational qualifications) at ages 16 and 18. It also includes a variety of pupil characteristics such as gender, date of birth, ethnicity, special educational needs (SEN) status, eligibility for free school meals (FSMs) and whether English is an additional language (EAL), plus the pupil s home postcode and a school identifier. 2.1 Data linkage The data linkage process was carried out by the Fischer Family Trust on behalf of the Department for Education, as follows: first, individual-level records from schools and colleges were linked using a unique pupil identification number. Administrative records from higher education institutions were then linked in to the school/college data using probabilistic matching on the basis of a set of identifying variables including name, gender, date of birth and postcode. Given the large number of variables including date of birth and postcode used in the linkage algorithm, the linking process is likely to be of high quality, although this is not verifiable. 7

9 Broecke and Hamed (2008) 16 report that of those English-domiciled 18-year-olds observed in HESA records in , 19% did not have a linked school/college record. This problem is specific to the year (the first year in which the linkage occurred) and mainly affects pupils who were not in state schools. For this reason, our analysis only includes pupils who were attending state schools at the age of Outcomes For the purposes of this briefing note, higher education participation is defined as enrolling in a UK HE institution at age 18 or 19 to study for a Bachelors degree. (It does not, for example, include individuals studying for HE qualifications in further education colleges.) To derive our measure of high institution status, we linked in institution-level average Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) scores a measure of research quality from the 2001 exercise, and included all Russell Group institutions, 18 plus any UK university with an average 2001 RAE score exceeding the lowest found among the Russell Group. 19 This gives a total of 41 high-status universities out of 163 institutions. Using this definition, 31% of HE participants attending state schools at age 16 attend a high-status university in their first 16 S. Broecke and J. Hamed, Gender Gaps in Higher Education Participation: An Analysis of the Relationship between Prior Attainment and Young Participation by Gender, Socio- Economic Class and Ethnicity, Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (DIUS) Research Report 08-14, In previous analysis using these data (Chowdry et al., full reference in footnote 24), our conclusions were not materially affected by the omission of private school students; thus we would hope that our results here would be similarly unaffected. 18 See for more details. There were 20 Russell Group institutions over the period covered by our data: Birmingham, Bristol, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Imperial College London, King s College London, Leeds, Liverpool, London School of Economics, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham, Oxford, Queen s University Belfast, Sheffield, Southampton, University College London and Warwick. A further four universities -- Durham, Exeter, Queen Mary University of London and York -- were added to the Russell Group in March These institutions are all included in the broader definition of high-status institutions on which we focus in this briefing note. 19 These additional institutions are Aston, Bath, Birkbeck College, Courtauld Institute of Art, Durham, East Anglia, Essex, Exeter, Homerton College, Lancaster, Queen Mary and Westfield College, Reading, Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, Royal Veterinary College, School of Oriental and African Studies, School of Pharmacy, Surrey, Sussex, University of the Arts London, University of London and York. 8

10 year, which equates to 9.8% of the sample as a whole (including both participants and non-participants). We recognise that such definitions of institution status are, by their very nature, contentious and somewhat arbitrary. However, obtaining a degree from a Russell Group institution and attending a university that scored highly in the RAE exercise are both associated with higher wage returns. 20 We would thus argue that our indicator of status is an important proxy for the nature of higher education being accessed, which in turn will have long-run economic implications for the individuals concerned. 2.3 Measuring socio-economic background To classify each pupil s socio-economic position, we ideally require rich individual-level data such as parental education, income and social class. The administrative data are relatively weak in this respect, however: pupils eligibility for free school meals at age 16 (an indicator of being in receipt of state benefits) and home postcode at the same age are the only individual-level information we observe for all cohorts. The FSM indicator is a feasible measure of socio-economic status (SES) but, as it is dichotomous, it would only allow investigation of differences in participation for those who are eligible (approximately 16% of the school population) and those who are not; it would not allow us to differentiate between individuals at the middle and top of the SES distribution. In order to create a more continuous (and informative) measure of SES, we therefore linked in detailed information about the area in which pupils lived using their home postcode at age 16; individual socio-economic status is therefore partially proxied by aggregate information relating to very small numbers of households around where they live. Our index combines, using principal components analysis, the pupil s eligibility for free school meals (measured at age 16) with the following neighbourhoodbased measures of socio-economic circumstances (linked in on the basis of home postcode at age 16): their 2004 Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) score (designed to capture lack of access to jobs or services in seven domains, including health and 20 See, for example, Chevalier and Conlon (2003) and Hussain et al. (2009) -- full references in footnote 6. 9

11 education, and available for neighbourhoods containing approximately 700 households); 21 their ACORN type (constructed using information on socio-economic characteristics, financial holdings and property details, and available for neighbourhoods containing approximately 15 households); 22 three very local area-based measures from the 2001 Census specifically, the proportion of individuals in each area: (a) who work in higher or lower managerial/professional occupations; (b) whose highest educational qualification is NQF 23 Level 3 or above; and (c) who own (either outright or through a mortgage) their home; available for neighbourhoods containing approximately 150 households. Our previous work based on the same measure of socio-economic status demonstrated its validity compared with the richer individual-level information available in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. 24 We showed that 40% of mothers in the top fifth of our index were educated to degree level compared with just 8% of mothers in the bottom fifth. Similarly, 60% of fathers in the top fifth of our index worked in a professional or managerial occupation, compared with just 11% of fathers in the bottom fifth. Our sample here is restricted not only to pupils who were in state schools at age 16, but also to individuals for whom we observe this SES measure (i.e. for whom FSM eligibility is non-missing and for whom we observe a valid home postcode that can be matched to the relevant local area information). This is not a very stringent restriction for state school students, with just 3.5% of our potential state school sample excluded as a result. We split our final sample into five evenly-sized groups (quintile groups) on the basis of this index in order to compare HE participation rates overall and at high-status institutions across socio-economic groups. 21 For more information about the Index of Multiple Deprivation, see 22 For more information about ACORN data, see 23 National Qualifications Framework. 24 For further details, see H. Chowdry, C. Crawford, L. Dearden, A. Goodman and A. Vignoles, Widening participation in higher education: analysis using linked administrative data, Institute for Fiscal Studies, Working Paper 10/04, 2010; forthcoming in Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A. 10

12 2.4 Other individual characteristics In addition to SES quintile groups, our later models also account for other individual characteristics: gender, month of birth, ethnicity, whether English is an additional language and whether the pupil has statemented (more severe) or non-statemented (less severe) special educational needs all recorded at age 16. Pupils for whom some or all of this information is missing are still included in our analysis through the use of dummy (binary) variables that indicate missing values. We also account for test scores from national achievement tests at ages 11, 16 and 18, and we include an indicator for whether the individual met the government s expected level of five GCSEs or equivalents at grades A* C (the Level 2 threshold) at age 16. At each age and in each year, we divide the sample into quintiles according to their total point score on the relevant test or examination. At age 11, this score is calculated across tests in English, maths and science. At ages 16 and 18, it is calculated across the full range of examinations (GCSEs or equivalents at age 16 and A levels or equivalents at age 18) that pupils take. Again, we include missing dummies to account for cases in which some or all of these test scores are missing. In particular, this approach means that we are not forced to drop from our analysis individuals who do not stay in education beyond age 16. Universities often emphasise the importance of GCSE and A-level subject choice for students. 25 We additionally include an indicator for whether the individual achieved five GCSEs at grades A* C including English and maths at age 16. At age 18, we add indicators for whether the individual achieved passes in certain A- level subjects (including biology, chemistry, economics, English, maths, modern languages and physics) and also make use of information identifying whether individuals had achieved the Level 2 or Level 3 thresholds (the latter being equivalent to two A-level passes) via any route by age 18. We take account of the school each individual attended at age 16 through the use of school fixed effects. (See Section 3 for further discussion of this important issue.) 25 See, for example, 11

13 3. Methods As described above, this briefing note explores the determinants of participation at (a) any HE institution in the UK and (b) a group of high-status HE institutions, 26 with a particular focus on understanding whether and how the trajectories of HE participation changed in or after We start by estimating the raw socio-economic differences in HE participation (or participation at a high-status institution) and whether these patterns differed before and after To do so, we model HE participation as a function of an individual s socio-economic status, a linear time/cohort trend (defined according to the year in which the pupil was first eligible to start university) and an indicator for whether they were first eligible to start in or after This last variable should capture any change in HE participation rates that occurred in or after , over and above the trend in participation over time / across cohorts that might otherwise have been expected to occur (in the absence of supply constraints). To further understand whether any changes in trajectory that might have occurred in or after may have differentially affected pupils from different socio-economic backgrounds, our post indicator is additionally interacted with the pupil s socio-economic status. These variables should enable us to capture the extent to which any change in participation rates in or after varied by socio-economic background. We then examine the extent to which these differences in HE participation rates by socio-economic background and over time can be explained by differences in other observable characteristics, by successively adding individual covariates, school fixed effects and rich measures of prior attainment to our model. In each case, we view these characteristics as either directly affecting HE participation decisions or being correlated with underlying unobserved factors that are likely to affect such decisions. For example, we include controls for ethnicity to account for the fact that pupils from different ethnic backgrounds often have very different educational values and a higher or lower propensity to go to university than white British students, even conditional on their exam results. Prior attainment is also likely to be a key determinant of an individual s choice of whether or not to go to university, not least because they may only be able to tackle the challenges and fully reap the benefits of a university education if they 26 We discussed our measure of high-status institutions in Section

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