4 Introduction In the last two decades, physical training and competitive opportunities have increased dramatically in junior, collegiate and professional tennis. This arose due to a multitude of factors, but much of it has stemmed from an increase in knowledge and understanding of scientifically based training programs focused on improving performance. As this focus on performance has increased, the area of recovery has received relatively limited focus. Recovery is a multi-faceted paradigm focusing on recovery from training session to session, day to day and week to week. Recovery is also vitally important during training as well as in competition between matches and between days during multi-day tournaments. As more information is needed in the area of tennis specific recovery, the Sport Science Committee of the United States Tennis Association (USTA) sponsored an extensive evidence-based review of the available literature related to eight distinct areas of tennis-specific recovery. These eight areas are: Nutritional Aspects of Tennis Recovery Heat and Hydration Aspects of Tennis Recovery Psychological Aspects of Tennis Recovery Recovery Aspects of Young Tennis Players Physiological Aspects of Tennis Recovery Musculoskeletal Injuries/ Orthopedics Aspects of Tennis Injury General Medical Aspects of Recovery Coaching Specific Aspects of Recovery As the mission of the USTA Sport Science Department is to produce, evaluate and disseminate sport science and sports medicine information relevant to tennis, this project was a priority to help bridge the gap between the current scientific literature covering recovery in tennis and how this information may be applied practically to coaches, players and parents. The major objective of this project was to gain a greater understanding of the information currently available and provide some guidance on how tennis players should be recovering from training and competition with a specific focus on reducing the likelihood of injury as well as improving performance, health and safety.

5 The original goal of this project was to analyze the data that is available in the hope of illuminating potential answers to some of the following frequently asked questions by coaches, parents, tournament directors and players: How many matches is it appropriate to schedule in a given day for a junior (18 years old or younger) player? (Players are grouped into 12&under, 14&under, 16&under and 18&under age groups.) How much time should be allowed between individual matches to allow for adequate recovery - to achieve high level performance while also reducing the risk of injury? How many weeks in a row should players compete in tournaments (often times traveling to play in these events) before taking a break? How much time should be allowed between training sessions? What guidelines should players follow to properly refuel the body after a match/ practice to allow for recovery? The USTA strives to base all recommendations on existing evidence-based literature, yet the literature on recovery, particularly as it relates to tennis, is somewhat limited. Recognizing we cannot answer most of these questions definitively, this project aimed to provide the most current state of knowledge to the tennis community using information from many areas of sport science and from other sports arenas as well. We were very fortunate to have each chapter written by leading experts in their respective fields and the information provided does showcase what is presently available, but it equally highlights many areas that are in need of further research. The hope is that this information will be used by clinicians, researchers and coaches to improve the recovery components of the competitive tennis player, with the understanding that much of the recovery literature on tennis has yet to be investigated. More research both in lab settings as well as on the court, during training and live tournaments needs to be evaluated before definitive guidelines can be made. Sincerely, Mark Kovacs, PhD Todd S. Ellenbecker, DPT W. Ben Kibler, MD

12 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Abstract Fatigue is a natural response to training and stress and as such it is an essential part of the human adaptive process. However sport scientists have struggled to provide a single definition of fatigue because of the broad range of physiological, cognitive, and emotional states integral to human performances. Despite debate about what constitutes fatigue, the negative impact of it on a player s ability to train and perform optimally and consistently, is evident to both athlete and coach. There is increased awareness that the rate of recovery from fatigue is a gauge of a player s response to stress. Recognition of player fatigue and how it is managed in both training and performance contexts, is the basis of recovery. The way that fatigue is expressed reflects the type of training undertaken, the performance environment and lifestyle issues affecting the player. Selection of appropriate recovery strategies to address specific types of fatigue will depend on the recovery knowledge of player and coach, and on the availability and cost of the strategies identified. Numerous recovery modalities are available but few have been subjected to rigorous scientific examination. Coaches and players often depend on anecdotal information from fellow coaches and other athletes for details about recovery techniques and their use. This chapter has two major aims. The first is to provide coaches and players with a systematic approach to monitoring adaptation to training and stress. The second is to review current scientific information about commonly used recovery modalities and strategies, with examples of how these can be integrated into training and performance for tennis. USTA Recovery Project 2

13 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Introduction The roles and benefits of recovery The main role of recovery is to help athletes adapt faster to training 1,2,3. This is done by minimizing the effects of training and performance fatigue in order to enable the player to bounce back and be ready for the next session or match. 2 This process is a critical step in the overcompensation model. training/competing work/stress adaptation fatigue accelerated recovery Figure 1. The principle of recovery 2 The ensuing benefits from detecting and addressing athlete fatigue include a reduction in illnesses and injuries 5. The conditions of overtraining 6,7 overuse 8,9,10 and burnout 11,12 are common problems for high performance athletes and can occur either independently 7 or collectively 6,11 when undertaking high volumes of training 7, Regular monitoring of players stress responses can help to detect problems early, thereby reducing the incidence and impact of such problems 13,14,15. A holistic approach to managing fatigue through the use of recognized recovery practices USTA Recovery Project 3

14 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery (outlined later) promotes adaptations to training loads and stress that are natural and safe for the player. These recovery strategies provide the player with legitimate techniques to promote adaptation, unlike strategies that involve the use of banned ergogenic substances and practices, as outlined in the USTA Anti-Doping Program, that may compromise the health and wellbeing of the player. An additional benefit for players using recovery monitoring and management strategies is the enhancement of their self-awareness and self management skills 1. Training hard and recovering well requires careful planning and management and players who develop these competencies acquire skills that transfer to life outside the sporting environment. These attributes are invaluable for the post competitive career period when players transit into other vocations and lifestyles. Recognizing fatigue The fatigue experienced by players in training and competition is a necessary part of the adaptive process 2,17. The astute coach will design programs specifically to expose the player to many varieties of fatigue in order to extend the player s skill levels and capability to perform in both fresh and fatigued states. The challenge for most coaches and players is to identify what capacity is being fatigued from these stresses 17 and then to be able to select the most appropriate recovery strategies to accelerate the restoration of the player to a normal functioning state 3,4. USTA Recovery Project 4

15 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Types of Fatigue Training and competition fatigue can be categorized into four main types based on the source of the fatigue. It is important for a coach and player to be able to identify the source of the fatigue 14 so that they know how to address each type of fatigue with appropriate and specific recovery strategies 1,3. Metabolic fatigue refers to fatigue resulting from imbalances in the availability and replenishment of the energy required to perform (fluids and fuels) (see chapter on Nutrition). It is associated typically with high volumes of training and competition 18,19. This can occur as a result of demanding training sessions or matches lasting more than one hour, or as a result of several sessions a day, or training and matches over a number of days. Much less is known about neural fatigue than metabolic fatigue. Neural fatigue may result from fatigue of either or both, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and/or the central nervous system (CNS). The former occurs when there are biochemical imbalances in strong ion concentrations or neurotransmitters within the muscle cell, resulting in a reduction of localized force production 20. PNS fatigue may occur after short but high intensity training sessions or matches even when there is no evidence of metabolic fatigue, or after long lasting but low intensity sessions 20,21. Fatigue of the central nervous system can occur if the player has an inadequate diet 22 (e.g.low blood glucose levels), lacks motivation, or is injured 20. It is characterized by a lack of drive 20 and may occur independently from or consecutively with, psychological fatigue. The causes of psychological fatigue are varied and may stem from within or outside the training and competition program 14,15,23. The most common sources of this type of USTA Recovery Project 5

16 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery fatigue include competition pressures, school exams, home life stresses, and financial difficulties (see chapter on Psychology). Environmental fatigue occurs through time spent travelling and dealing with changing weather conditions and time zones. Climate and weather conditions such as the extreme heat experienced by players at the Australian Open, can lead to an earlier onset of fatigue than would be normal for that player. Time spent travelling, particularly through one or more time zones can lead to jet-lag, so additional recovery strategies are needed to address fatigue in these circumstances 1,24,25. All of these types of fatigue may occur together or independently depending on the amount and type of workloads and stress affecting a player. A multi-day tournament with poor weather conditions may produce all types fatigue, so a comprehensive and integrated approach to recovery requires careful planning to minimize the impact of this on performance 1,3,4. USTA Recovery Project 6

17 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Table 1: Training and Competition Fatigue 1 Type of Fatigue Main causes for fatigue Expression of this fatigue Tennis examples Metabolic Fatigue (Energy Stores) Long training sessions e.g. of one hour or more Playing several matches a day e.g. singles and doubles Cumulative fatigue from training or competing over many days e.g. tournaments Player fatigues sooner than is normal for that player Player struggles to complete a session or event Lethargy in body language Walking slowly in the session Slower response to chasing balls Neurological Fatigue PNS Fatigue (muscles) After short high intensity sessions, e.g. weights, plyometrics, complex skill execution, etc. After long training sessions of one hour or more, or after matches greater than two hours. Several matches over consecutive days 26 Reduced localized force production e.g. slower responses, reduced power Slow feet Reduced acceleration Poor technique and coordination. Abnormal number of technical mistakes Reduced power in shots and strokes Neurological Fatigue CNS Fatigue Low blood glucose levels High pressured training session especially involving rapid decision making and reactions Poor motivation e.g. Lack of drive Slower at processing visual cues Looses concentration quickly Slower at decision making Slower anticipation timing e.g. speed and placement of opponents serve or return 7

18 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery (brain) monotony of training, emotional factors, injury etc. Psychological Fatigue (emotional, social, cultural) Lack of squad cohesion, personality conflicts etc. Competition pressures, event venue, residential conditions, parents, coach, media, etc. Other lifestyle stresses home, school exams, personal relationships Player looses selfconfidence or self esteem Poor interaction and deteriorating communication with other players and coaches Increased signs of anxiety, negative attitudes, etc. Player shows a definite lack in confidence during play and also off court Tends to be more negative than usual especially in selftalk, and with body language Players communication seems different, e.g. pre occupied with matters away from tennis that affect focus and concentration Environmental & Travel Fatigue Weather (e.g. wind, heat and sun) increase fatigue Disruption of normal routines, circadian dysrhythmia Disruption to sleep, waking and meal times Sedentary and restricted body movement on long journeys, i.e. 30 min or more Adapting to different climates and time zones Players are slower to start Fatigue sooner than normal especially in the heat Visual fatigue from bright or glaring sunlight Player takes longer than usual to get game together Unforced errors in the first 15 min are well above normal Tired eyes and eye strain Poor tracking of the ball Adapted from Calder 1 8

19 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Main Text Monitoring adaptive responses to training and stress Players will adapt to training and stress in different ways and at different rates depending on their developmental age, training experience and performance level 27. For these reasons it is essential to monitor individual responses to work and stress, both within and outside the training and competition environment. There are three perspectives to monitoring a player s adaptation. These are through the player s own recorded perceptions 28,29,30 the coach s observations at training and in competition 4,31 and sport scientist and sport medical screening and testing assessments 32,33. Each person involved in this process has a different role but the collective information from all parties provides a holistic view of adaptation throughout a players long term involvement in tennis 27,28. Of the three views, the most important is that of the player who is responsible for self-assessment on a daily basis. The coach is the next most important individual as the coach is able to monitor the player at training and often in competition. The coach s records of player performance and behavior are an invaluable source of empirical information. Sport science and sport medicine evaluations and reviews occur less frequently and are more intermittent depending on the needs of the player. These are often expensive as they require greater expertise than the personal observations conducted by player and coach. 9

21 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery The Player A responsible player will monitor training adaptations through regular recordings in a training diary or log book 30. An essential skill for all players is to maintain a daily record of their fatigue levels and responses to stress as this enables them to learn how to recognize their current adaptive state. Recordings about the quality of sleep and a daily rating of fatigue levels are two essential variables that should be recorded daily. Some players may also like to record morning resting heart rate 34 and body weight, with the latter being a useful way of monitoring the effectiveness of any rehydration strategies following a match day, or long training session. These four variables take no more than 2 minutes a day to record and may be the first warning that the athlete is not adapting well to training and other stresses 3,14,15. Stated simply, feeling tired after a training session or match is a normal response but feeling fatigued all the time is a sign that the body has not adapted well to stress. An elevated resting heart rate recorded first thing in the morning (i.e. 10 beats above normal) is often an indication that any training undertaken should be minimal on that day. Although many factors influence heart rate variability 34 regular recordings can be a useful physiological measure when used in conjunction with the other indicators of excessive stress. An elevated morning resting heart rate profile is more evident in developing players who are adapting to heavy training or competition, whereas more seasoned players with extensive training bases may experience a depressed morning heart rate following such workloads. Body weight is best recorded each morning before eating and after going to the toilet but some adolescent females may misinterpret this Coaching Perspectives of Recovery 11

22 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery strategy as a measure of fat so this variable should be used very selectively in these cases. Rapid weight loss or rapid weight gain is not advisable. Unexplained weight loss is not necessarily a measure of decreased fat stores but may be an indication of poor hydration or excessive stress (see chapter on Nutrition). In reality many players are likely to be inconsistent with recording morning resting heart rates. Research to identify effective indicators to warn of any possible onset of illness have indicated that a comprehensive set of variables, not just resting heart rate, should be monitored 12,13,19,23,24. The frustration for many coaches is the lack of consistency with which many players record these variables. Some players will forget to record information consistently while others are unreliable at maintaining records of any kind. There are alternative strategies to deal with non-compliance. A simple and quick selfassessment method for the coach is to present a monitoring sheet to the athlete when they arrive at training. The use of the Smiley Faces form 5,22 (Figure 2) within a training session to indicate player well-being has proved to be most helpful for coaches of both junior and high performance players. Performance Happiness Figure 2. Smiley Faces. Check how you feel Coaching Perspectives of Recovery 12

23 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery Feedback from tennis coaches after using the Smiley Faces with their players. The first time I used this, the players thought it was not a too serious exercise and were quite casual about filling it in. Now, however, 4 months later, when they are still filling it in every training session they can see the usefulness of it. My expectations are more realistic to their wellbeing rather than to the same training levels we always worked at. Peter le Surf 35 After what I perceived to be one heavy session, the feedback did not indicate that the session was as stressful as I had thought which brought me to the conclusion that they were more resilient than I had given them credit for. The emotional box also helped me to get an insight into how they were feeling that morning, before even talking to them. This tool is great as it is simple and a fast way for a coach to gain relevant information without delving too deep and wasting valuable time. It gives coaches a chance to adjust training sessions prior to and plan appropriate sessions based on the responses in the table. Paul Aitken 36 The USTA has developed a more comprehensive daily monitoring form that is also simple and quick to use and ideal as a component within a training diary 37. The aim is for players to be able to assess their responses to training and wellness on a daily basis. Consistent monitoring will help players to become more perceptive when something is outside their normal response range. With increased awareness the players are encouraged to be proactive about dealing with potential problems by contacting their coach, trainer, or medical specialist before any major issues occur. Coaching Perspectives of Recovery 13

24 Coaching Perspectives of Tennis Recovery The Coach Each coach has a wealth of knowledge about adaptive responses based on many years of observation about tennis performance and fatigue. Frequently this knowledge is implicit in nature and based more on mental notes rather than formalized recorded criteria. It is important for each coach to identify what it is that they observe that is indicative of excessive stress and fatigue. The selected variables can be categorized into signs and symptoms about physical appearance, behavioral actions and interactions, performance measures and the coach s sixth sens. 5,6. A quick assessment of these criteria at every coaching session enables the coach to identify non-adaptive stress responses at an early stage and then address these before they become a major issue for the player. The Medical or Sport Science specialist Preseason medical, musculoskeletal, vision and psychological screenings are essential. These should be addressed before any training is undertaken in order to detect any muscle imbalances, medical, and psychological issues, and to evaluate the health status and any previous illnesses and injuries 33. While some areas require only an annual review, other assessments should be more frequent. Conditioning and performance tests are often performed every four to six weeks, and musculoskeletal assessments tend to be biannual. This regular planned screening and testing is designed to track any changes and developments in the player, and address potential medical, personal and health problems at an early stage 32. Feedback from player, coach, and specialist perspectives should be reviewed regularly and integrated to Coaching Perspectives of Recovery 14

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