mlsiWKnH
HANDBOUND
AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
MODERN
LANGUAGE NOTES.
A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT,
MANAGING EDITOR.
JAMES W. BRIGHT, JULIUS GOEBEL,
HENRY ALFRED TODD,
ASSOCIATE EDITORS.
VOLUME III.
1888.
BALTIMORE : THE EDITORS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
To Our leaders 1
Gerber, Adolph, Modern Languages In the
University of Prance, 1 1-10
Cook, A. 8., Notes on Old English Words
[ Cumbol. Mittan, Milting] 11-13
Wells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs in Aelfric's
Judith 13-15
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, On a Verse in the Old
Norse "HOfudlausn" 16-18
McElroy, Jno. G. 11., Matter and Manner in
Literary Composition 57-06
Gerber, Adolph, Modern Languages in the
University of France, II 66-73
Bright, James W., The Anglo-Saxon bdmlan
and wrasen 73
McCabe, T., Modern Languages at Cambridge
University, England 74-75
Schelling, Felix E., The Fifth Annual Con-
vention of the Modern Language Asso-
ciation of America 76-81
Wightman, Jno. R., Convention of the Mod-
ern Language Association of Ontario. . . 81-82-
Bowen, B. L., Correction to Whitney's
French Vocabularies
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The Study of Old
Danish 113-115
Todd, H. A., Apropos of Les Trois Mors et
Trois Vis 115-118
Carpenter, Wm. H., A Fragment of Old Ice-
landic 117-123
Wells, Benj. W., Sigf ried-Arminius 124-126
Schmidt, H., Cl, Gl > Tl, Dl in English Pro-
nunciation 126-130
Egge, Albert E., Scandinavian Studies in the
United States 131-135
Bright, James W., Thraf-caik 138-139
Karsten, Gustaf , The/ in French Soif, Bief,
Moeuf, etc 169-178
Wells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs in Aelfric's
Saints, 1 178-185
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Construction
in the Romanic Languages, III 185-192
Schmidt, H., Postscript to Cl, Gl > Tl, Dl in
English Pronunciation 192
Hart, J . M., Macaulay and Carlyle 225-237
Karsten, Gustaf, Dantesca. Osservazioni su
alcuni pafaggi del la Divina Commedia. 237-245
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The Personal Pro-
noun in the Old Danish ' Tobiae Com-
edie.'.. 245-247
Schneegans, Heinrich, Die Romanhafte
Itiuhtung dor Aluxlualegende In alt-
fnmzoHlHchi-n und mlttHluM h.|<-utm-ln-n
Gedichten, 1 247 284
Dwells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs In Aclfrlc'i
Saints, II
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Coi>8truction
in the Romanic Language r. ... 388-270
McCabe, T., The Use of the Feminine In the
Romance Languages to express on in-
definite neuter 270-874
White, Horatio 8., The Seminary System In
Teaching Foreign Literature 287-307
Schneegans, Heinrich, Die Komunhafte
Richtung der Alexiuslegende in alt-
franzosischen und mittelhochdeutech-
... enGedichten.il 307-327
/Elliott, A. Marshall, Origin of tin- minx-
^^' Canada.' 327-3t5
Schmidt, H., ' Sally fn our Alley' and a Ger-
man Student Song 345-347
Todd, H. A., A traditionally mistranslated
passage in Don Quijote 347-848
Otto, Richard, Zwei altcatalanische Rechta-
formulare 349-350
. Kent, Charles W., The Anglo-Saxon bvrh and
byrig , 351353
Spencer, Frederic, Corrections in Uartech's
Glossary (La Lanyut et la Littfrature
Fran$ahes : Paris, 1887) 253-254
Sheldon Grandgent, Phonetic Compensa-
tions : 354-874
Cook, Albert S., Errata in the Sievers Cook
Old English Grammar 374
Karsten, Gustaf, The origin of the suffix -re
in French ordre, coffre, pampre, etc.. . 374-378
Warren, F. M., D6sir6 Nisard and the History
of Literature 370-380
. Cook, Albert 8., English Rimes 417-439
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Construction
in the Romanic Languages, V 436-487
Bright, James W., The Verb toftU 437-438
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The pronouns in the
Old Danish ' Tobiae Komedie.' 438-441
Karsten, Gustaf, The Third Annual Neuphi-
lologentag 481-488
Spencer, Frederic, The Old French Manu-
scripts of York Minster Library 488-496
Schneegans, Heinrich, Das Verhtlltniss der
Franzosischen von Herz hcrausgege-
benen Alexiuslegcnde zu ibren lau-ini.
schen Quellen 406-500
Fruit, J. Phelps, The Evolution of Figures
of Speech 501-506
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
REVIEWS.
Colbeck, C., The Teaching of Modern Lan-
guages in Theory and Practice. [Edw.
S. Joynes]
Cledat, L., La Chanson de Roland. [J. A.
Fontaine)
Schilling, Hugo, Noch Einmal Meissner-
Joynes, I
Rajna, Pio, Osservazioni Sull'alba bilingue "|
del Cod. Regina,1462 [F. M. Warren}. I
Rajna, Pio, Un'Iscrizione Nepesina, del |
1131. IF. M. Warren] J
Korting, Gustav, Neuphilologische Essays.
[H. Scmidt]
Chauveau, Pierre, Frederic Ozanam, Sa Vie
et Ses Oeuvres. [Chas. H. Grandgent}.
Schroer, M. M. Arnold, Wissenschaft und
Schule in ihrem VerhBltnisse zur prakti-
schen Spracherlernung. [A . Lodemari} .
Schilling, Hugo, Noch Einmal Meissner-
Joynes, II
Joynes, Edw. S., Audi Alteram Partem
Fortier, Alcee, Quatre grands poetes du 19e
Siecle. [A. Du Four]
Saintsbury, George, A History of Elizabethan
Literature . [//. E. Shepherd]
Wrede, Ferdinand, Ueber die Sprache der
Wandalen . [ Julius Goebel]
Lorentz, Alfred, Die erste Person Pluralis
des Verbums im AltfranzBsischen. [H.
Schmidt]
Hoemer, Jean, The Origin of the English
Language. [H. C. G. von Jagemann]..
Becker Mora, Spanish Idioms with their
English Equivalents, embracing nearly
ten thousand Phrases. [H. It. Lang] . . .
Seret, W. A., Grammar and Vocabularies"!
of VolapUk I
Sprague, Charles E., Hand-Book of Vola- |"
ptik . [ Wm. Hand Browne] J
Paris Ulrich, Merlin, roman en prose du
XHIe Siecle. [F. M. Warren]
Tobler, Adolf, Die Berliner Handschrift des
Decameron. [P. E. Marcou]
Woodward, F. M. English in the Schools.
[Edward 8. Joynes]
Becker Mora, Spanish Idioms with their
English Equivalents, embracing nearly
ten thousand Phrases, II. [H. B. Lang] .
Balg, G. H., A Comparative Glossary of the
Gothic Language. [Hans C. G. von
Jagemann]
Treis, Dr. Karl, Die Formalitaten des Ritter
schlags . [J. A. Fontaine]
Lange, Franz, Freytag's Die Journalisten,
Lustpiel in vier Akten. [O. B. Super]
Skeat, Rev. Walter M., The Gospel according
to Saint Matthew in Anglo-Saxon, Nor-
thumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions.
[Albert S. Cook.]
Ycld, Rev. Charles, Florian's Fables. [Ed-
ward S. Joynes]
Socin, A., Schriftsprache und Dialekte im
Deutschen nach Zeugnissen alter und
neuer Zeit. [H. C. G. Brandt.]
Kluge, F., Von Luther bis Lessing. [H. U.
G. .]
v. Reinhardstoettner, C., Italian Literature
in Bavaria. [F. M. Warren.}
18-33
23-34
25-38
29-32
41-42
84-88
88-94
94-96
96-99
99-102
102-104
139-143
143-150
150-153
154-158
159
194-195
196-203
203-207
207-209
209-212
274-277
277-579
279-281
281-282
282-384
Wunderlich, Dr. Hermann, Untersuchung-
en ueber den Satzbau Luthers.
[Charles Bundy Wilson.] 284-285
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, Correspondence.... 285-287
Morley, Henry, English Writers. [James
M. Garnett.] 380-387
Karsten, Gustaf, The Study of Romance
Philology 387-393
Collar Eysenbach, Graded German Lessons.
[ W. H. Uarruth.} 393-398
Diez, Friedr., Etymologisches WOrterbuch
der Romanischen Sprachen. [E. S.
Sheldon.] -399
Goedeke, Karl, Grundriss zur Geschichte der
deutschen Dichturig aus den Quellen.
[Julius Goebel.] 399-400
Sawyer, Wesley C., Complete German Man-
ual for High Schools and Colleges. [M,
D. Learned.] 400-403
Skeat, Walter W. , Correspondence 404
Odin, A., Phonologic des patois du Canton de
Vaud. [J. Sturzinger.] 441-446
Joynes Meissner, German Grammar. [H.
Schilling.] , 446-450
Xanthippus, Was ddnkt euch urn Heine ?
(Dr. E. Mahrenholtz.] 450-453
Hunt, Th. W., Caedmon's Exodus and Daniel.
[James W. Bright.} 453-456
Horning, Adolf, Die ostf ranzoesischen Grenz-
dialekte zwischen Metz und Belfort.
[A. M. Elliott.] 457-464
Sawyer's ' Complete German Manual ' again. 464-467
Vietor, Dr. Wilhelm, EinfUhrung in das
Studium der Englischen Philologie mit
RUcksicht auf die Anforderungen der
Praxis. [ W. E. Simonds.} . 505-508
Michaelis, H., Novo Diccioiiario da lingua
portugueza e allemS, enriquecido com
os termos technicos do Commercio e da
Industria, das Sciencias e das Artes, e
da Linguagem Familiar. [Henry Ji.
Lang.] 509-516
Novati, F., Un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Fram-
mento del Tristran di Tommaso. [F.
M. Warren.] 517-521
Preyer, W., Naturforschung und Schule.
[A. Lodeman.} 521-523
CORRESPONDENCE :
Payne, William Morton 83-84
Schele De Vere, M 135-136
Davidson, Thomas 137
-Corson, Hiram, A Passage of ' Beowulf ' 193-194
Otto, Richard, Modern Language Professor- .
ships in Germany
Lang, H. R., Spanish Atestar
B(rowne), W. H., Derides
Monk, Should a Poet be a Philologist ?
Ingraham, A., 'As She is Spoke '
BRIEF MENTION.
42-53, 104-109, 159-ia5, 212-230, 287-293, 404-414, 470-475,
523-532.
PERSONAL.
53-54, 166, 220-333, 393-394, 475-478, 533-534.
OBITUARY.
333, 294, 534.
JOURNAL NOTICES.
55-56, 110-112, 167-168, 223-224, 395-296, 415,-416, 479-480,
535-536.
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Baltimore, January, 1888.
TO OUR READERS.
It is no less a privilege than a pleasure to
talk to earnest, sympathizing friends about an
enterprise for whose success they have practi-
cally worked ; and the editors of MODERN
LANGUAGE NOTES desire at the beginning of
the third year to tender thanks to their col-
laborators, and to all well-wishers who have
so cheerfully aided them in passing the test-
year of a journal's existence. So cordial and
liberal has been the support of the undertak-
ing, both on this and the other side of the
Atlantic, that the editors feel encouraged to
renew their pledge to the public for an ad-
vance in the variety and quantity of material
to be presented. Two years of experience in
editorial matters have shown that the modern
languages in America have a scholarly follow-
ing and that their friends are able and, it is
believed, willing to sustain a publication of
more extended proportions than that which
has hitherto been issued. To prepare the
way for this, the price has been increased by
one-third, and in the future the NOTES will
be conducted on as liberal a scale as this
change may warrant. The various publishers
both here and in Europe have been prompt,
as- a rule, in forwarding their recent publica-
tions for notice in these columns. With their
continued co-operation and that of individual
contributors, it is hoped to make the NOTES
more and more reflect the wishes, plans and
doings of American scholars occupied with
modern linguistics in whatever direction, and
to bring to their notice all the chief home
and foreign publications for the three depart-
ments, those of the English, Germanic and
Romance languages, especially represented
here.
MODERN LANGUAGES IN THI
UNIVERSITY OF FRANCI..
I.
University de France is the name of the vast
organization which comprises all establish-
ments of public instruction from the facnltes
of the capital down to the ecole maternelle or
infant class of the primary school in the re-
motest village of the provinces. At the head
of this body is the minister of public instruc-
tion, who has the title of grand-master of the
university. He is assisted by the conseil su-
p'erieur de Finstruction publique, a council of
sixty members, and about twenty inspecteiirs
ghieraux. To facilitate the administration the
country is divided into sixteen educational dis-
tricts, called academies. At the head of each
of these, with the exception of that of Paris, is
a recteur, who in his turn is aided by an aca-
demical council and inspecteurs d'academic.
These authorities watch over all branches of
education, and together with the prefects, ap-
point or dismiss all teachers ; the superior
council deliberates and prescribes the methods
and the plans of study for all schools.
By the side of the -university are the ecoles
libres, and in consequence of the law of 1875
now also a few facultes libres. The ecoles
libres, especially those directed by the clergy,
enjoy still the patronage of a great portion of
the nation. The state has excluded all priests
and members of religious orders from the pub-
lic schools, but it cannot interfere with their
teaching in their own establishments, as long
as they do not violate the laws or the constitu-
tion. It has, however, reserved to itself, that is,
to the university, the exclusive right of examin-
ation for all certificates valuable in public life,
and that of conferring all academic degrees.
An important aid for the study of the govern-
ment schools is afforded by the publication
through Delalain Freres of a great number of
the plans of study and programs of the condi-
tions of admission to schools and examinations.
The publishers have made these particularly
valuable by adding many official documents,
such as the reports of committees of the
Superior Council and regulations of the minis-
ter of public instruction, which show both the
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
motives that have led the council to determine
the plans and programs, and the spirit in which
the minister would have them applied.
From these documents we discover at once
that the measures of the distinguished Council
are dominated by a spirit of reform. They
are making earnest efforts to have the educa-
tion of France keep pace with that of other
nations, and do not hesitate to adopt from the
neighbouring countries, especially Germany,
whatever is conformable to the national
genius. Though they may not have avoided
mistakes by their frequent, perhaps too fre-
quent, changes of program, they certainly
realize to the full the great value of the study
of modern languages and give them an im-
portant place in schools and examinations.
The instruction is either primary (Enseig-
nement primaire}, or secondary (Enseigne-
ment secondaire), or of university rank (Enseig-
nement superieur).
We will consider the training schools for
teachers along with that grade of schools for
which they prepare.
I. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
There are two grades of primary schools ;
the ecoles priinaires elementaires and the
ecoles priinaires superieures; in case there is
need for instruction beyond the lower grade,
u ithout the erection of a full ecole primaire
superieure being expedient, a cours com-
plemcntaire may be connected with the ele-
mentary school. A complementary course has
usually one year and at most two; an ecole
primaire superieure must have two years, and
is called de plein exercice in case it comprises
three or more. In the lower grade modern lan-
guages are excluded from the complementary
courses. They are desirable but can be dis-
pensed with ; in the higher grade one language
is compulsory, and four hours a week through-
out the school are devoted to it.
The course aims at the elements of a prac-
tical knowledge of the language. Without
neglecting grammar, parsing, oral and written
composition, special stress is laid upon
conversation on topics of every-day life, man-
ual labor and travel, and on the writing of
simple business letters. Candidates for the
certificat deludes primaires superieures have
to pass an oral examination in a modern lan-
guage.
I. ECOLES NORMALES PRIMAIRES.
The primary normal schools are training
schools instituted to supply the contingent of
teachers necessary for, the primary schools.
According to the law of 1879 every depart-
ment must be provided with two normal
schools, one for men and the other for women ;
two departments may, however, unite in estab-
lishing one or both of these schools. The
course in these institutions comprises three
years. At the close of the first year, the stu-
dents must pass an examination for the brevet
elementaire, which opens the way to a position
in an e cole primaire elementaire ; at the end
of the third year they can present themselves
for the examinations of the brevet superieur,
required of teachers of an ecole primaire
superieure.
The plans of study promulgated Aug. 3d,
1881, assign for an optional study of modern
languages two hours a week for three years in
the normal schools for men, and two hours a
week for two years in the normal schools for
women.
While a special intimation appended to a
circular of Oct. 18, of the same year, represents
this study as exceedingly desirable though not
required for the brevet superieur, an edict of
Dec. 30, 1884, renders some knowledge of a
modern language compulsory. The candi-
dates for this brevet have to be able to trans-
late at sight twenty lines of an easy text which
they may choose from English, German, Ital j
ian, Spanish or Arabic.
2. ECOLES NORMALES PRIMAIRES SUPERIEU-
RES.
There are two training schools for professors
of primary normal schools ; one for men and
another for women. That for men is estab-
lished at Saint Cloud, the one for women
at Fontenay-aux-Roses near Paris. The course
in each of these two schools extends over
two years and is divided into the two sections
of letters and sciences.
The candidates for a professorship of sciences
are not examined in modern languages ; those
for a professorship of letters, however, have to
translate German or English texts at sight and
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
answer grammatical questions; the list of
authors from which the text may he taken is
fixed every three years. After Jan. i, 1888,
there wHl he added to the oral examination an
English or German composition (thtme et
version.}
In concluding these few statements on the
primary school system of France we may re-
mark that the study of modern languages
naturally could not have a very large place in
the primary schools themselves, but that it is
constantly progressing among the teachers.
II. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION.
The secondary instruction of the boys is
divided into the .Enseignement secondaire
classique and the Ensignement secondaire
special; to these has been added as a third
division the Enseignement secondaire desjeu-
nes.fi lies. All three branches of instruction
are given in the lycees de r Etat and colleges
connnunaux, but while the first and second are
mostly united in the same establishment, they
are always strictly separated from the third.
According to the salaries of the professors the
institutions may be arranged in five groups.
The lyceums of Paris, Vanves and Versailles
stand highest, then follow the first, second and
third categories of lyceums in the depart-
ments, and last the communal colleges. Being
of the lowest grade, the colleges have many
professors that, are only bacheliers, while the
lyceums of the departments now require at
least licencies, and those of Paris, Vanves and
Versailles agreges. The lyceums for boys are
directed by proviseurs and censeurs, the
colleges for boys by principaux, the colleges
and lyceums for girls by directrices.
I. CLASSICAL INSTRUCTION.
The classical course of the lyceums has ten
classes de lettres and two (or three*) classes
superieures des sciences. The candidate for
the baccalaureat es lettres goes through all
the literary classes, that for the baccalaureat "es
sciences can leave the literary classes to the
end of the flasse de troisitme and, after an ex-
amination in the studies of that class, passes
through the classes of mathematiques prepa-
ratoires and mathematiques elemcntaires ; the
third scientific class, called mathematiques spe-
ciales, is not necessary for the baccalaureate.
1 '.i -fon- ih. r.-furms of 1880 and 1884, the
literary classes had eight years of Latin and
six of Greek, and, therefore, might h.
compared to the German Gymnasium with its
nine years of Latin and seven years of Greek .
Now the classical languages h.iv l n re-
duced so much, in favor of a greater amount
of French, sciences, history and modern lan-
guages, that the literary classes stand betv
the Gymnasium and the Realgymnasium,
while the scientific course, but for its deficiency
in modern languages and a plus in Greek,
would resemble the Realgymnasium. The
candidates for the baccalaureat h lettres are
becoming so poor in Latin and Greek that the
friends of classical culture ardently wish for a
truly classical course.
The study of one modern language for the
classical students take up only one modern
language commences at once in the division
elementaire, where four hours a week are
assigned to it. The pupils are supposed to be
from eight to ten years old, and the method
is made to suit the age. The work centres in
easy reading and conversation and training in
pronunciation, while a systematic study of the
elements of grammar begins only in the third
year. In English they read stories from Miss
Edgeworthand Day's 'Sandford and Merton,'
in German, Krummacher's ' Parabeln ' and C.
v. Schmid's ' Erzahlungen.'
In the division de grammaire the classical
languages hold the first place and the modern
language is reduced by two hours a week. The
systematical study of grammatical forms and
syntax is completed, and in English enlarged
by some notions on word-formation. To
this is added oral and written composition
(theme oral et e"crit) and from the classe de
cinquieme also written translation into French
(version). In English are read among other
works Walter Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather,'
B. Franklin's Autobiography, De Foe's 'Robin-
son Crusoe,' Washington Irving's ' Voyages of
Columbus ; ' in German, Herder and Liebes-
kind, ' Palmbliitter ; ' Benedix, ' Der Proo
and ' Eigensinn ; ' Niebuhr, ' Griechische He-
roengeschichten ; ' Lessing, 'Minna von Barn-
helm;' Musaeus, ' Volksmarchen,' Kotzebue
and Hoffman.
In the division superieurc the modern Ian-
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
guage keeps its two recitations except in Phi-
losophic, where it has only one. The study of
grammar is confined to reviews and a study of
word-formation. Thtme oral et ecrit and
version, as well as conversation, continue as
heretofore. The English authors of this grade
are Goldsmith, Lamb, Macaulay, Shakespeare
(Julius Cesar), Walter Scott, Dickens, Irving,
Byron, Tennyson, George Eliot, Pope, Stuart
Mill and Adam Smith. In German we find:
Goethe, ' Campagne in Frankreich ; ' Schiller,
'Tell' and 'Maria Stuart,' Chamisso, 'Peter
Schlemihl,' Auerbach's ' Dorfgeschichten ; '
Goethe, ' Hermann und Dorothea ; ' Schiller,
' Wallenstein ' and extracts from historical
works ; HaufT, ' Lichtenstein ;' Kleist, ' Michael
Kohlhaas;' Lessing, 'Dramaturgic,' Schiller
and Goethe, lyrical poems ; Schiller, ' Braut
von Messina,' 'Jungfrau von Orleans;' Les-
sing, ' Laokoon ; ' Goethe, 'Faust,' Part I,
Correspondence between Schiller and Goethe.
In connection with the reading some notions
of literary history are given.
In the two scientific classes the reading mat-
ter is of a similar character but more restricted.
Of the whole literary course 200 hours, if we
count drawing in the lower division 58, or
29$ are devoted to the classical languages, 44^
hours or 22$ to French, and 25 hours or 1-2% to
a modern language. If we count only the two
upper divisions, the classics have 44}^$,
French 12% as above, German or English 9$.
The scientific students get in these two divi-
sions 35$, 10% and <) l / 2 %.
The candidate for the B.iccalaureat ~es let-
tres has to pass two examinations, one after the
Rhitorique, the other after the Philosophic ;
the modern language comes in the first. He
has to write an English or German composition
(theTne), for which he is allowed the use of a
simple le.riqne autorise, and to translate a
passage from one of six English or German
texts chosen by himself among the authors
read in the upper division. The modern lan-
guage counts for one-fifth of the first exami-
nation and ahout f) l / 2 % of the whole.
The examination in the modern language
for the bacalaiireat ts sciences is only oral. It
consists of questions on the grammar, inter-
pretation of a passage taken from one of the
works prescribed by the program, and a con-
versational exercise. The English works are
in this case Pope's 'Essay on Criticism,'
Shakespeare's ' Macbeth,' Milton's ' Paradise
Lost,' cantos i., ii. The modern language
counts for 9$ of the whole.
DRAWING
SUM TOTAL
PHILOSOPHY
SCIENCES
a
So
H
>
d
o
rt
C
MODERN LANG
FRENCH
GREEK
LATIN
SUBJECTS.
(Average ag
H
to
u
*
|
Prdparatoire.
M
i
w
CO
;
GHuitifeme.
s 5-
H
-o
OJ
OJ
*
*
3 Septi&me.
r
3
"
8
.,
OJ
n
CO
"^Sixieme.
3 G
M
X
10
10
OJ
to
OJ
&
1
,2 Cinqui^me.
3 rt n*
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to
to
M
to
to
*
(Jl
^Quatrifeme.
3 =
ECIT
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8
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!
to
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tJl
jTroisime.
H
8
01
OJ
to
.
u.
-1*.
j; Secdnde.
fs
z
8
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!
4-
*
-f'
"g^Rhdtorique.
si-
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"
M
I
Philosophic.
-
1
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CO
to
M
cn
4v
to
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2. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.
The so-called special instruction was estab-
lished by Duruy in 1865 .and has since been
improved upon in 1881, 1882 and 1886. Its
aim is to enable French manufacturers, mer-
chants and farmers to compete successfully
with their neighbours; yet " in order to give a
useful preparation for the most elevated phases
of industrial, commercial and agricultural
pursuits, this instruction must pay a great deal
of attention to purely intellectual culture, and
borrow from classical instruction as far as
possible its procedures and methods." Though
January. MODKK' \ /..I .\'< , ' 'AGE NOTES, 1888. Afc. i.
10
two-fifths of all college studi-nts atti-nd tin-
courses of special instruction, it lacks still, in
most places, establishments of its own. Since
it is injurious to a free and vigorous develop-
ment of this instruction to 1>r considered as a
m< re annex of a lower grade, (iol)let enconr-
;i-es coininnnities whose colleges have only
a feu classical students, to transform their
co/lt'ges cltissiqnes into colleges speciai<.\ .
To every establishment of special instruction
there is attached a coinitc dc patronage, con-
sisting of UK- mayor, the president of the
school and five members chosen among the
engineers and merchants, manufacturers and
fanners of note; they are expected to recom-
mend students and to find places for them.
The cours normal of this instruction covers
six years, corresponding somewhat to the mid-
dle and upper division of the classical schools;
it leads to the baccalaurat de /' cnxci^neinent
secondaire, a degree which offers several of
the advantages of the baccalaureates sciences.
If a lyceum or college has only four years of
the course, it is de denii exercice.
In 1865 the curriculum was based on French
history and sciences ; Latin and Greek were
excluded, the modern languages only optional.
At present the classics remain excluded, but
modern languages have come to form one of
the most essential studies. While the classical
coarse requires no more than one modern
language, the special makes the study of two
compulsory. The first language, langue fon-
damentale is studied for six years, the second
langue contplemeittaire, for three. The fun-
damental language must be either English or
German, the complementary one German,
Knglish, Spanish, Italian or Arabic. The
minister of public instruction determines the
two languages for every institution.
The reading matter in English and German
is essentially the same with that of the classi-
cal curriculum, from the classe de septi^me to
l\hetorique, except that historical, geographi-
.cal and scientific works receive more conside-
ration. The study of the second language,
though it is allowed hardly half the time of
the first, yet covers the same ground. The
teacher has to condense his instruction and
the students are expected to learn so much
the faster for their more mature mind and the
training gained from the first. For the rest,
the method and aim of modern language teach-
ing in this instruction differ considerably from
that of the classical.
There, the language was studied mainly
from a philological and literary point of view,
oral practice being not altogether neglected ;
here, practical application stands foremost,
grammar being considered only a valuable
and necessary auxiliary. All directions given
to the teacher are conceived in this spirit.
The first year is devoted to drill in proi.
tioii ;ind to the ;K (|iiisition of th- most :
sary words and phrases. These ;ire first pro-
nounced by the teacher, then repeated by
the students, written on tin- black-
copied and committed to memory. In the
second year conversational ex--r< ises on ob-
jects brought into class are added, and dic-
tations extended. In the fourth and fifth year
the students are accustomed to reproduce or to
give accounts in the foreign language of pieces
read in class or at home. In the last
finally, the texts are explained in the foreign
language.
While in the classical curriculum only from
12-9$ of all recitations were devoted to modern
languages, here 22$ are given to them. If we
wished to look for similar schools in other
countries, the Lateinlose Kealschulen of Ger-
many might be taken for comparison.
PENMANSHIP..
DRAWING
SUM TOTAL
MORALS, BOOK-
SCIENCES
HISTORY AND
MODERN LANG
FRENCH
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CiKRHKR.
Earlham College.
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.i.
NOTES ON OLD ENGLISH WORDS.
Grimm characterizes cumbol (Andreas und
Elene, pp. 92-3) as one of the most difficult
words of Teutonic antiquity. He attempts to
establish a connection with camb, but this, he
owns, is a mere conjecture, like the suggestion
that the French cimier is derived from cumbol.
Apparently there are three distinct senses of
the word in Germanic : a) 'cairn,' b) 'wound,'
'swelling,' 'tumor,' c) 'sign,' 'ensign.' Of
these the first is found in Old Norse, the second
in Old Norse and Old English, and the third in
Old Norse, Old English, Old High German,
and Old Saxon. Which of these is the primi-
tive meaning? It has usually been assumed
that the third underlies the others. The Cleas-
by-Vigfusson Dictionary, after quoting the very
few instances in which it is employed in the
third sense, illustrates its passage to the first
by a reference to the Greek 6ijua. The Bos-
worth-Toller Dictionary supports the theoreti-
cal evolution of the second meaning from the
third by paraphrasing vulnus, of Gregory's
Pastoral Care, as morbi signttm, thus introduc-
ing the desired signum. My own opinion, as
will be seen, is different,
Here it should be noted that the word occurs
only once in O. H. G., and is there somewhat
doubtful ; only twice in O. E. prose, so far as
is known, and each time in the second sense ;
and that the third sense is found chiefly in
poetry, namely, three times in the O. S. He-
liand, three times in O. N. (but twice besides in
the Sagas), and frequently in O. E.
As to the form of the word, it occurs both
with and without svarabhakti, O. S. cumbal
and cumbl, O. E. cumbol*.\\<\ cumbl, O. H. G.
cumpal, O. N. cunibl, and with and without b,
O. E. prose cnmbl, P. C. 187, 7 (Cotton and Hat-
ton texts), cuml, Otho text of P. C., and Saxon
Leechdoms, Herb. 158,5(1 60), O. N. <:;/ and
cuml (cub I). The fall dissyllabic form is better
adapted to metrical purposes, and consequent-
ly no other is found in O. E. poetry, except-
where inflectional endings are attached ; the
form with syllabic /, on the contrary, is the
usual one in Old Norse, which has almost none
but prose senses, and in O. E. prose. But
which of these is earlier? And which is orig-
inal, the form with or without b ? In later En-
glish, a secondary, epenthetic b is quite fre-
quently developed after ;;/, especially before r
and /. But does this occur in the Old English
period ? Decisive upon this point are the forms
brlmelxnA brernbel, symle and symble (Goth.
simlc), of which only the first are supported by
the analogy of the cognate tongues. Another
instance is O. E. scolimbos (Saxon Leechdoms,
I 60) for Gr. tfxoAu/io?. Hence we may con-
clude that cuml or cumol is the earlier form.
But this corresponds, phonetically and in pur-
port, to Lat. cumulus, if we take the Germanic
word in the first meaning given above. Noth-
ing forbids us to do this, except the difficulty
of deriving the second and third senses from
the first. But the second presents no difficulty;
Sweet translates cumbl (cuml), by swelling (cf.
O. N. kumla, to bruise) and Cockayne by
' lump,' ' glandular swelling ' (Gr. (Ixippcajiia),
which may readily be evolved from the signi-
fication of the Latin word. Only the third
sense, therefore, is troublesome. But \i6ijna,
from meaning 'sign,' may come to mean
'cairn, 'why may not cumbol from, meaning
'cairn, 'the permanent sign of what is ever
memorable, come to mean sign in general, and
that by which the sign or signal is given ? If it
is objected that this is a broadening, rather
than a specialization, of the sense, the fact may
be conceded without admitting that the pro-
cess is inconceivable. Thus O. N. horgr(O. E.
hear.?), fro n signifying 'consecrated place,'
' temple,' arrives at the meaning of elevation,'
'cliff,' ' peak,' through the intermediate sense
of 'high place,' regularly associated with
horgr, because of the customary situation of the
Scandinavian temple. A still better illustra-
tion might be Welsh awgrym, which Professor
Rhys informs us (Academy, Oct. i, 1887, p. 223)
means sign in the widest sense of that term,
though originally confined to the sense of
numerical sign, or system of signs (cf. Phil.
Soc. Diet. s. v. Algorism).
The double form is readily accounted for.
Lat. cnmulum would yield Germ. *cumul, and
under the historic tendency to strengthen the
m in this position, would develop into *cumbul.
On the other hand, *ciinil in inflected forms
actually passed into cuml-, as for instance, in
the cumlu (for cumu/ii) of the Leechdoms, the
January. MOD/-RN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
I ;
plural from the strengthened form taking no
final vowel, i'mnhii/ (cuin/x>/):\\u\ cuinl would
therefore be parallel forms; the ground of
differentiation would be forgotten, and they
would gradually be confounded as cinnbol,
ciimb I, cum/, except as the full dissyllabic
character of cumbol would recommend it for
verse. In Middle Knglish, only cuinl survives
(in Layamon), apparently in the sense of
' booth,' that is a pile, but of branches, we may
sii|)pose, rather than of stones.
MITTAN, MITTING.
Parallel with (ge)>netan gemeting(gemetting},
O. E. poetry frequently has (ge)mittan, (gdr)-
mitting. Hosworth-Toller's Dictionary quotes
gemittunghom Aelfred's Orosius, but the text
of Sweet's edition shows no trace. If found
at all in prose, it is extremely rare. I shall
not attempt to give a phonological explana-
tion of these variants, but will confine myself
to pointing out the fact, which seems to have
escaped notice, that they are clearly Anglian.
In the Northumbrian Gospels are the following
forms : ind. pres. ist sing. mitto(\); ind. pret.
3d sing, initte (8), mittce (i); ind. pret. plur.
mitton (i). Of eleven instances of this abnor-
mal vowel in the poetry, it may be significant
thac three are found in the Psalms, and four in
Genesis A.
University of California.
ALBERT S. COOK.
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS
JUDITH.
This rhythmical version of the story of Judith
is contained in Anglia X, 87 ff., and is attri-
buted by the editor to Aelfric. It seemed to
me therefore that it might be of service, in con-
nection with the study which Professor Cook
promises us (Notes II., 117) of the verbs in
Aelfric's ' Saints,' to gather together the strong
forms in this piece. I have retained the ac-
cents of the MS., though they are not used
consistently and sometimes stand over vowels
winch are certainly short.
Class I. Preterit singulars: adraf 12, beldf
109, astah 318. Participles : scinendan 245,
gegripen 246.
Class II. Presents, infinitives and parti-
(iplcs: />nn an 270, abtigan 32, 181, 189 ain't
gende 182, An Mean 360, leogaft 406, 436. I
terit singulars: bead 51, behead 47, 232, 284,
bcbtdd $$>, a/fat 247. Preterit plurals: bugon
122, abugon 62, gebugon 253, flugon 37.
Class 111. Infinitives and participles: gebiti-
'/<"' '53. TA\,ftolitfndc 64, fintlirf 353, Wurman
147, foruntrftan 252. I'ntcrit singulars:
gebealh 37, \^(>,furcearf^\6,feaht 119, a&prang
53> gfwan 65, bewand 306, wearO 77, 155, 158,
J 76, 197, 246, 289, 293, 343, awearp 228, 427,
towearp 11. Preterits and stibium lives y;/</cw
90, affinde 364, gehulpe 212, gen'umion 118,
wiirdon 116, 123, 222, 370, wtirdon 131, for:,
don T2,forwArdon 61, wurde 328, \i\,forwurde
154. Past participles: abolgen 141, gebunden
155, gebundcnnt' 157, aftnden 158, gewordene
124.
Class IV. Infinitives and presents : bectunan
258, becyml 187, nimal 434. Preterits: bter
421, com 261, 287, cdin 86, 114, 316, 338, 386,
becdni 73, 236, 327, ofercom 410, comon 315,
cdmon 57, bccdmon 310, nam 307. Past parti-
ciple :fornumene 58.
Class V. Infinitives, presents and parti-
ciples : biddan 82, ii^gebiddan 256, gf bidden m-
276, bidde(ic} 137, 319, biddende 59, 72, cwfd-
ende 162, 319, licgan 364, lift 368, forligft 432,
forlicgon 430, forseon 164, geseoh (/>) 163,
asittan 171, gewrecan 39. Preterit singulars :
bfed 280, abcrd 274, to brccc 51, cwteft 42, 83,
146, gec'wfeft 26,forgea/425, beseah i^geseah
301, gesprcec 209, wees 4. 22, etc., ntrs 117, 420.
Preterit plurals and subjunctives: btedon 169,
gebcrdon 234, civfedon 59, 174, wiftcit'crdon 34,
logon si^csd won T,^,/orsdu'on 40, 81, gesdwe
388, sprtrce 44, wceron 2, 18, ware 33, 59, 80,
210, 311, 325, tiff re 263. Past participles :
ge ewe den 2, 25.
Class VI. Infinitives, presents and partici-
ples:/flrrtw 101 , //</# 408, aha/en 409. ofsleanne
342, ofsleati 149, ofslagen 148, 197, o/slagene
131, s tent 404, 440, u'itfstandan 57, u-iffsttindan
78, witistandcnne 127, Preterits: ahdf 29, sl6h
304, forsloh 305, ofsloh 11, ofsl6h 28, 52, 324,
stod 288, astdd 104, witistddon 52, .^-wr 38.
Class VII. Infinitives, presents and parti-
ciples : tocn&wan \*p, flou'endttin 161. ,^aw 276,
j^rf;/ 266, ttft 350, gehaten 22, 46, gehdten 9,
194, 385, healdan 303, /<#/< (/>//) \tf,for/<ft 320,
geweaxen 93. Preterits : feollon 161, het 19.
'5
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
16
153, 291, htt 155, 266, 268, 303, behet 418,
262, 292, 323, 420, 7/^te 341, beheton 437, heoldon
121, misheoldon 130, /W0 180, forleton 156,
fortiton 100, 372, sp6w 362.
In this connection it will not be inappropriate
to call attention to some peculiar forms in the
life of St. Chad, Anglia X, 141 fif.
Class I. gezvitu 23, and also onginnu i, and
bebeodu 146, of classes III. and II. retain the
old ending. Elsewhere e is regular in the
first person of the singular.
Class II. brtsc 243, for breac from britcan.
Classes III., V. gefalh 174, is the only case
of a for a in the preterit singular. In class
V geseh 213, for geseah 254, etc., occurs. In
bregdon 175, preterit plural of bregdan the
verb has gone over to class V where e for ^
is here the rule. The final consonant in gealt
251, from gttldan deserves notice. The strong
frignan has become fregnan 39 (fregn 140,
fregnaden 178,) and is weak.
Class IV. her 257 from beran, is the only
case of accent in this form. Napier suggests
that genemad 233 is an error of the scribe for
geneomaft, no uncommon form in Anglia and to
be traced, though not with certainty till a later
date, in Kent also. May not the forms which
Bright attributes to -umlaut (hneoton, scionon,
riodun, griopun, geweotan, preterit plurals of
I. .Notes II. 160) have a similar origin ? If they
were due to w-umlaut would they not be more
general and more frequent ?
Class VI. The editor suggests that slenne
193, is a blunder for sleane. Slcefi 194, is
probably for sleft ; e is here the usual umlaut
of ea. hlahendne 255, shows no trace of the
-jan form.
Reduplicating verbs show two peculiar
forms, gehelde 57, for geheolde and onfongon
136, for -feng-, cf. lines 23, 25, 55. The pre-
terit of hdtan is heht 50, 150. The shortened
form, het, does not occur.
BENJ. W. WELLS.
Jena, Germany.
ON A VERSE IN THE OLD NORSE
" HOFUDLA USN. "
The Saga of Egil Skallagrimsson may with
propriety be styled the skaldic Saga of Ice-
land : for its pages are strewn with short verses
to the number of over fifty, and it contains,
besides these, three long poems, of which the
Hofudlausn is the first. The extreme difficul-
ty of Icelandic poetry is caused mainly by the
excessive use of obscure figures, and the
Hofudlausn is no exception to this rule. The
verse here selected for comment is the sixth,
or rather the first half of it. The Icelandic
reads as follows :
hue fir?! a fit
vid fleina hnit.
This passage has been variously explained
by different commentators. J6n Thorkelsson,
in the Reykjavik edition of the Saga, 1856,
page 256, offers the following explanation :
Fir'da (in Vigfusson's Die. spelled only
fyrfta) from plural firftar, men, warriors
[A. S.fyrda, troop].
fit, a connected row. According to this,
fit must be derived from fitja, to knit, or tie
together. This meaning is not given by Vig-
fusson.
Fir'da fit would then mean, a connected
row of men, battle-array. Fleina hnit he
renders spear-thrusts.
In the Lexikon Poeticum, we find "fit.f.,
planta pedis, raped 1 -, TtoSoS." Our passage
from the Hofudlausn is quoted and the first
part is explained as follows: "succubuit vir-
orum pes, i. e., explicante G. Magnes, viri,
pedibus succisis, cecederunt, aut pedibus am-
plius insistere non valentes prae lassitudine se
dejecerunt."
Per Sorensson* follows closely the rendering
of the Lexikon Poeticum : firtie, as in the first :
fit, foot, or knee ; fleina hnit is translated
spear-thrusts. Hn6 is, of course, the pret., 3d,
sing, of hniga, to bend or recede, and can be
translated in no other way..
The passage, then, according to the first ex-
planation, reads in English :
The battle array receded before the spear-
thrusts.
According to the second :
Men's feet (or knees) bent before the spear-
thrusts.
It may be noted in this connection that tniiga
* " Egil Skallagrimssons Hiifudlausn, ofersatt och for-
klarad," Lund, 1868.
'7
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
may be applied equally to the sinking or bend-
ing of aliiios! any object, from the sun to a
dying warrior or a tree (see Vigfusson's Die.,
page. 276). Hence, neither rendering does
violence to the- meaning of the verb.
Unit is rendered, as we have already seen,
by 'thrust.' Concerning this word, too, there
is some difference of opinion. In Vigfusson
we find Iniit rendered as "forging; poet., the
clash of battle," with a reference to our poem.
In this connection it would be more properly
rendered simply by 'clash,' or perhaps better
by ' din.'
If din be accepted as the meaning of hnit, it
would seem to follow almost as a necessity that
firfia fit be translated as battle-array, since
to associate the bending of men's feet with the
din of spears would form a very bold figure,
founded on a very slight resemblance. With
a modern poet this argument would certainly
hold true, but in criticising Old Norse poetry
we must not be governed at all by modern
canons of art, remembering always that what
would now be considered a blemish might in
the tenth century have received unqualified
approval. Again, if spear-din be regarded as
a simple paraphrase for battle, the appropri-
ateness of the figure becomes very much more
apparent. (Th&tJleifKl hnit may mean battle,
cf. the following figures: " v igelds-prym-rog-
;//;-," din of Swords or spears, battle. Kgil.
chap. 58, i. ; " sverfi-dynr," sword-din, battle,
Vigf.'s Die., p. 610).
The Lexikon Poeticnin renders hnit very
much as Vigfusson does, but without explain-
ing clearly the force of the figure employed ;
the result of the figure, not its working, is
shown in the rendering : collisio, conflictio,
Jh'ina hnit, spiculorum collisio, pugna. From
this we also derive additional authority for
rendering Jicina hnit battle. The Latin trans-
lation, contained in the A. M. edition of the
Saga, Copenhagen, 1809, gives practically the
same result as the above, namely :
Decidit virorum pes
Ad hastarum collisionem.
In the face of these three authorities I should
have no hesitation in accepting the rendering of
Jit by ' foot,' were it not for one circumstance.
In stanza 4, the poet begins the description
of Eirik's battles: he tells how "the din of
swords waxed hot against tin- inns of tin-
shields; the battle waxed about the king."
"The sword's river (blood) ran ;" and in st.ui/a
5, "the ship ran in blood; but the wound
boiled." Stan/a 6 is very short, consisting of
only four lines, and to my mind it ma\
regarded as a climax to what has gone be!
It presents a picture of the battle as a whole :
the result of the preceding statement-,.
Therefore it would seem more appropriate for
the poet to employ the general word battle-
array than the specific words men's feet or
knees. Again, fit is singular, the nominative
plur. being fitjar; but this is perhaps of
minor importance. What is to be specially
dwelt upon is the poetical appropriateness of
the first rendering. This rendering of Thor-
kelsson's, further, does no violence to the
derivation, since fit is frequently used meta-
phorically for a plain or meadow, that which is
stretched out (see Vigfusson, p. 155, and l.c.\i-
kon Poeticum, page 173), and we often observe
figures in Old Norse poetry formed by a com-
parison between men and objects of nature,
so that to apply the same word to a line <>i
men and an extended meadow would be quke
in accordance with the train of thought of the
Icelandic skald (hr&s-lavar, 'haystacks of the
slain,' 'heaps of,' Hofnd/ansn, II., a striking
resemblance to meadow of men, battle-array ;
a man is often called a tree, etc.).
The arguments in favor of Thorkelsson's
rendering of fir 3ar Jit therefore are ; first, the
artistic appropriateness, and secondly, the
analogy with other figures. The rendering of
the verse would then be :
" The battle-array receded at the spear-din (battle)."
DANIKI. KII.IIAM DODC.K.
Columbia College.
The Teaching of Modern Languages in
Theory and Practice. Two Lectures, de-
livered in the I'niversity of Cambridge in
the Lent term, 1887. By C. Colbeck, M.
A., Assistant Master in Harrow School,
late Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. From the I'niversity Press. 1887.
The appearance of a course of lectures, how-
ever brief, on the Teaching of Modern Lan-
guages, delivered iii the University of Cam-
January. MODERN LANG UA GE NO TES,
No. i.
bridge by a late Fellow of Trinity, now Assist-
ant Master in one of the great Public Schools
of England, is an encouraging sign of the
"new era." The author says, in his modest
preface, " There seems to be at last a disposi-
tion to regard seriously the pretensions of
Modern Languages to a larger place in edu-
cation "; and these lectures are interesting to
us chiefly as the outcome of this "disposition,"
and a vindication surely modest enough of
these "pretensions." It is well known that
thus far the progress of modern language
study in higher education has in the mother
country lagged behind what, almost within the
last decade, has been achieved among our-
selves. This is due, mainly doubtless, to the
greater authority and persistence of the wooden
traditions of an exclusive classicism, backed
as they have been by every kind of prescrip-
tive advantage ; but in part, doubtless, also to
the greater proximity of the continent, and the
larger demand, therefore, for such teaching
only as should enable John Bull to inquire his
way in Paris, or to browbeat the waiters along
the Rhine. So the mulitudinous "methods"
"natural" and unnatural, and largely in the
hands of untrained tutors have had firmer
hold there ; and the effort to place the modern
languages upon a sound scientific, or at least
pedagogical, basis has had to encounter, first,
to a degree now happily unknown here, the
blows inflicted in the house of its friends. And
this not only in the lower ranks of the "native"
teachers, who swarm in the. United Kingdom,
but even within the sacred shadows of the
University ; for we find Mr. Colbeck combat-
ing manfully the views of the " Master of
Baliol," who thinks (p.u) that " Modern Lan-
guages can be [best] taught between the ages
of six and ten, and not one language only but
two, and even a third ! and that the linguistic
faculty is strongest at ten, and extinct at twen-
ty." This, too, in a speech of welcome to the
"Professeurs -de Francais at Oxford" God
save the mark ! But under all these discour-
agements from below and above, these Lec-
tures give ample evidence that the battle for
the modern languages has begun in earnest,
under earnest and able leaders ; and one can-
not doubt that victory, however delayed, will
at last be certain and complete. It is as an in-
dication of the direction of this movement that
this little book is specially interesting to us at
home. We cannot follow its details; but shall
only indicate its leading lines of argument.
In answer to the question Why we teach
Modern Languages ? the author replies at
once : " Because they are so supremely use-
ful." This consideration, now more justly
understood, has raised, he says, the study of
modern languages "from the status of an ac-
compli Jiment, or of a commercial art, mi a
level, let us say, with book-keeping, to rank
as an integral portion of a liberal education"
(p. 3) : and he proudly adds, in a spirit of pro-
phetic if not of actual triumph, that "it is not
one of the least of the honors of Cambridge
that it has recognized that whatever study the
world needs, a University should teach in all
its breadth and fullness" while, however, he
confesses, "there is still (even in Cambridge)
some trace of the old mistrust, I fear I must say,
of the old contempt." The Modern Language
Tripes, he tells us, "was dubbed a Courier
Tripos," and the living languages were said to
be "too trivial to be scholarly, too easy to be
learned, too useful to be dignified'." But it is
encouraging to see that, even in Cambridge,
our lecturer is not afraid to strike back, and
knows how to hit hard. "How gladly and
profitably would nine tenths of our middle
classes exchange their little Latin and less
Greek for a passable knowledge of even one
modern language!" (p. 5). Of the boys to
whom we so laboriously teach Greek, he says
(p. 6), "we own that nine-tenths of them learn
little, forget that little soon, and never touch
a Greek book when once they leave school."
To the claim that thereby we "train faculty,"
he replies that we should seek subjects of
study " in which we may combine some actual
knowledge with the bare' power to know;"
and he concludes (p. 8): "Teach a boy Greek,
if you can; but give him also, because you can,
the power to read in the original " the master-
j pieces of modern literature that are found in
i the French and German languages. We have
happily here passed that stage of the conflict;
but it is well to know that our colleagues
abroad are not deficient in the "noble art of
self-defense," which means giving as well as
taking blows.
21
January. MO/)/.'A'.\' LANGUA (, /. NOTES, iSHK.
When he comes to enumerate the elements
of the utility whirh he claims for the modern lan-
guages, it is interesting to see that tlie lecturer
places first the fact (p. 5) that "a knowledge i.t'
I'Yench and German doubles and trebles the
library whence knowledge may be drawn ; "
and in his analysis of method (p.io): tf:e
teaching of reading, he says, " I put that
clearly first." He says (p. 26) "1 would always
begin with a book" and claims (p. 13) "that
for all, young or old, the eye is incomparably
the swifter gate to knowledge", and "it is the
only means of rapidly acquiring accuracy."
He insists that elementary (oral) work on lan-
guage should be confined to the mother tongue;
and adds the important conclusion (p.i6),
"that the power of conversing in a foreign lan-
guage can be acquired at least as easily late as
early ; that it is much less important than trans-
lation, much less important than composition,
and that in learning it, at whatever age, we
waste power if we proceed by ear only." Yet
he does not undervalue the office of the ear,
and adds an interesting paragraph on Dictation
and Audition that is, writing and listening
from oral repetition; but all these he holds to
be subordinate to the main purpose of reading,
and to the linguistic training and literary cul-
ture to be derived from the study of modern
languages. Surely it is gratifying to see how
closely the views which Mr. Colbeck repre-
sents are in accord with those formally enun-
ciated by the .Modern Language Association
of America.*
Along the same line of thought the lecturer
discusses frankly, yet very modestly, the
question of native (English) or foreign teachers
a much more "burning" question in England,
we may be sure, than (fortunately) it is now
*Since these lines were written the views of Mr. Colbeck
representing Cambridge have received confirmation from
another source, of still higher authority representing Oxford.
In a paper on Literature and Language^ in the Contem-
porary Review reprinted in the Eclectic Magazine for De-
cember, 1887, Prof. Edward A. Freeman, the historian, writes,
with reference to the new Chair at Oxford : " We may fairly-
lay down that it is the business of an (sic) University to teach
men the scholarly knowledge of languages ; that it is not its
business to teach men their practical mastery." And again :
"The gift of talking this or that language is not one which
comes within the scope of an University : it is no part of the
scientific study of the language." We wish we could quote
more largely: but this suffices to show the consensus of
opinion, in the highest quarters, as to the true direction of
modern language study for higher education in England. It
is of course superfluous to recommend the reading of the
whole of Prof. Freeman's paper.
with us. He admits the obvious retort, "voiis
<"tt s orfevre, M. Josse"; but yet with allow-
ance for illustrious exceptions so numerous,
let us thankfully add, in our own country he
dot -s not hesitate to conclude: "I think that
English teachers produce considerably the
best results." In his careful and candid analy-
sis of this question, he says (p. 30): "The Eng-
lishman knows his boys' difficulties. He
knows what not to teach, what to begin by
teaching, and where to lay stress. He looks at
the task from the same side as his pupils," etc. ;
and as to the much vaunted use of the foreign
tongue in the class room, he adds: "The round
of remarks which it involves is very limited :
Lisez, traduisez, asseyez-vous, continue/, rC-
ptez, a-t-il raison? vous aveztort; Aufgepasst,
sprechen sie deutlich, kein dummes Zeug,
soon degenerate into jargon". Can this be a
true picture? If not, it is heresy of the worst
kind ! Perhaps it were better it should be
true; for, surely, it seems to us that in the
brief hours assigned to class-room work, of
which every minute should be precious, that
language should be used which speaks quick-
est and clearest to the most immediate intelli-
gence of the pupil. But if Mr. Colbeck tells
us the worst, there is not so much harm done
after all.
In this notice, already too prolonged, we
have confined our attention only to the
leading points of the first lecture, of 31 pages.
Besides what we have noted, there is much of
interesting suggestion and criticism on ques-
tions of method, with glances at some of the
best-known systems. The second lecture, of
54 pages, is devoted mainly to details of in-
struction, and contains many striking and in-
genious suggestions. These, it may be re-
marked, may be usefully compared with a
paper by Miss Bracket, in the last number of
the (Syracuse) Academy. Mr. Colbeck 's style
is bright and breezy. The entire little book is
eminently readable, with temptations to quote
throughout, as we have already done beyond
our proper limits. Without endorsing all of
its arguments as, for example, what is said
of the Historical, or "Mediaeval," study of
Modern Languages we commend the book
heartily to all teachers of Modern Languages,
and we wish Mr. Colbeck and his colleagues
('od-speed in their good work.
EDWARD S. JOYXKS.
South Carolina College.
II
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. \.
La Chanson de Roland. Traduction archa-
i'que et rythme'e, accompagne'e de notes
explicatives par L. CLKDAT. Paris,
Ernest Leroux. 1887.
Mr. L. Cldat vient de publier une traduc-
tion archaique et rythme de la Chanson de
Roland. C'est une reproduction aussi fidele
et aussi complete que possible de 1'original,
accompagne'e d'excellentes et nombreuses
notes. Nous ne saurions qu'approuver 1'id^e
de conserver le rythme d'un poeme qu'on a
1 'intention non pas de traduire mais bien
plutot de rajeunir. En pareil cas le rythme a
pour but cle conserver plus fidelement 1'esprit,
le caractere, le style et 1'harmonie du poeme.
.C'est deja un immense avantage dont il faut
tenir grand compte a 1'auteur. Mais que le
rythme rende la lecture du poeme lourde,
difficile et en beaucoup d'endroits obscure,
c'est ce qu'on ne saurait nier. Mr. Cle"dat
aurait pu se dispenser d'une foule d'inversions
plus on moins heureuses qui nuisent a la'
clart^ de la narration et ne pas s'attacher a
reproduire aussi scrupuleusement qu'il 1'a fait
1'ordre des mots du Roland. La lecture en
aurait e"te beaucoup plus courante et plus
agre"able. D'un autre c6t^, si ce texte est
destine 1 au public de notre temps, des vers tels
que :
Je t'en mourrai si grand deuil et contraire 311
Que j 'en eclaire cette mienne grande ire 322
Roland le conte ne 1'eut du se penser 355
Ne 1'dis pour ce des votres n'aura perte 591
Qui vint a Charles les galope et les sauts 731
Celui n'y a ne pleure de pitie^ 822
Sous son manteau en fuit la contenance 830
Celle ne 1'voit vers lui ne s'esclaircisse 958
Espanelis hors le va adextrant 2648
et nombre d'autres sont a peine admissibles.
11s sont par trop obscurs pour le public
d'aujourd'hui. II est juste d'ajouter que des
notes viennent au secours du lecteur, mais
quand il s'agit d'offrir un poeme d'une lecture
courante, il est preferable de lui pargner les
notes, surtout si, par quelques modifications
insignifiantes, on pent lui presenter un vers
d'un sens et d'une clart satisfaisante.
Pour ce qui est des mots anciens que Mr.
Cle"dat a laisse's dans sa traduction, ils sont en
trop grand nombre et ne"cessitent trop de
notes, trop de " c'est-a-dire." Par mots
anciens nous devons ici entendre et ceux qui
ont disparu completement de la langue etceux
dont un changement radical de signification
6quivaut pour nous a une complete dispari-
tion. Que cette ide"e conservatrice puisse con-
tribuer a faire reparaitre et a imposer a la
langue des mots depuis longtemps oublie's,
c'est a souhaiter; mais c'est la une consideYa-
tion secondaire pour le lecteur. Avant tout il
lui faut comprendre ce qu'il lit. Ce que nous
disons des mots peut s'appliquer a la syntaxe :
Trop d'inversions et trop d'anciennes tour-
nures. En suivant pareil systeme Mr. Cle"dat
a re"ussi a conserver plus entier le caractere
du poeme, et plus originale 1'expression de la
pense"e, mais que le lecteur qui se sent incapa-
ble d'aborder le texte primitifde notre vieille
e'pope'e ne s'imagine pas avoir une tache facile
et gre"able ayec la pre"sente traduction.
Terminons par quelques retnarques qui sans
6tre d'importance me semblent cependant
ne'cessaires. L'unitd de traduction, du moins
dans le cas qui nous occupe, demande qu'un
mot soit ou remplace" partout on conserve"
partout.
Or, guerpir est tour a tour rendu par : .' guer-
pir,' 'quitter,' ' abandonner,' 'laisser,' sans
raison apparent, cf. vers 536; 1626; 2618; 2683;
3041; adents par: 'adents,' 'surla face,' 'a
terre,' cf. vers 1624; 2025; 2358; 3097 ; isnel
par: ' rapide ' isnel,' 'le"ger,' cf. vers 13^7;
1492 ; 2085 ; 3884 ; 3839 ; au vers 717 aserie est
rendu par attardee, mais attar der n'a jamais
voulu dire que 'retarder,' 'se mettre en re-
tard'ou ' mettre quelqu'un en retard ' ; pour-
quoi ne pas traduire aserie par 'assombrie,'
com me au vers 3991 ?
Passe le jour, la nuit est assombrie.
Ces remarques ne tendent aucunement a
diminuer ou a m^connaitre 1'habilet^ que Mr..
Cl^dat a montr^e dans sa traductiou de la
Chanson de Roland, disons plutdt dans son
rajeunissement, tout au contraire nous faisons
un devoir de loner egalement et la fide'lite' de
sa traduction et l'originalit de sa m^thode.
J. A. FONTAINK.
University of A*e/>msA<t.
January. MODERN LANGUAGE No s. No. i.
NOCII /:/ A .)/. //. Mt-.lSSMER-JOr.\l:SJ.
Niirhdem Dr. Goebel in seiner Besprediung
von Meissner-Joynes ( iranunatik (Decrmbt i
nummer iSSji den Character der Kritik Pro-
fessor I larrisons ge/eidmet niul das Yerh.'iltnis
dt-r Ik-arbeitim?; von Prof. Joynes zu ihrem Ori-
ginal iin Allgemeinen festgestellt hat, eriibrigt
tins nur noch, das Werk in seiner amerika-
nischen (ic-stalt an sich nnd fur sich einer ein-
gehenden Untersuchung zu unterziehen. Wir
warden dabci nurvoneinem Wunschegeleitet,
denjeder Fachgenosse teilen muss, namlich,
nacli Kraften dazu beizutragen, dass ein in
hohem Grade praktisches Lehrbuch in der
folgenden Aufiage der Vollkommenheit naher
geriickt werde.
An allgemeinen Bemerkungen sind die
folgenden vorauszuschicken :
Den Grundsatzen der heutigen Padagogik
/i wider wird dem Schiller (vvie auch Dr. Goe-
bel bemerkt hat) fast nie Gelegenheit zu selb-
stiindigem Denken gegeben ; der Bearbeiter
erkliirt die verschiedenen grammatischen Er-
scheinungen mil iibermassiger Breite und for-
dert das geisttotende mechanische Auswendig-
lernen durch zahlreiche Abteilungen und Un-
terabteilungen. So scheidet er z. B. in 96
die Hauptworter der schwachen Declination
in nicht weniger alssechs Gruppen, woesdoch
wirklich nur derenzvveigiebt ; jeder denkende
Schiiler wird unschwer unterscheiden konnen,
wo das e der Flexionsendung en auszulassen
ist und wo nicht. Anderswo ( 134) wird gar
von dem Schiiler verlangt, dass er die Endung-
en des Pronomens und des Adjectivs zusam-
men " both horizontally and vertically " aus-
wendig lerne ! Auch das beste Gedachtnis
konnte soldi ein totes Schema nicht lange be-
halten ; wenn dagegen der Schiiler das VVesen
und die Ursache dieser Erscheinungen einmal
verstanden hat, braucht er keirfe mechanische
Formel mehr. Ahnliches gilt von den mne-
monic words % 408, die sich in einer, wenn auch
elementaren, Besprechung von Grimm's ver-
schiebuugsgesetz ganz eigentiimlich ausneh-
men.
Die grammatischen Definitionen lassen ofters
an Klarheit viel zu wiinschen iibrig. So wer-
den ^244, 245, Indefinite Pronouns nnd Inde-
finite Adjectives unterschieclen ; unter den
ersteren finden wir keiner, ehcas und nichts-
//Vuiid n'fuix \\<-rdtn /u den
Adjt < tivrn ^cn-< hurt ! In 449 ist di<- nr-
spriinglic IK- Kinu-ilimg nidit i-inmal i-ingi-lial-
tt-n und di<- \'-rwirning wird no< h ar^-
sind allc, eini^f, i-fliclif, keine und nnimh,-
plot/li( li /'nnioiiiiintla (cf. }5 245) nnd mehrtre,
verschiedcne, vielc, weuigc sind Indefinites!
Von eiiu-r plainniissi^cn. l.^is- ht-n Unter-
sclu-iilung kann da nicht die kedcs*-in. \\'.is
ferner 481, 2 von der Bedeutung d.
Perf. der intransitiven \\-rba gesagt wird, ist
zum Mindesten schw-r verstandlirh ; wanmi
nicht einfach die iibliche Angabe, dass di-,-s
Part. Perf. active Bedeutung hat ?
Ausserdem finden sich noch zahlreich< In
genauigkeiten, sowie grammatische und philo-
logische Fehler; unter den let/teren sind
t-inige grobe Schnitzer, die uns urn so mehr
befremden miissen, als sie durch Zuhulfe-
nalime der elementarsten Nachschlagewerke,
wie z. B. des Worterbuchs der ilauptsrhuie-
rigkeiten, etc., von Sanders, oder dt
Prof. Joynes selbst den Schiilent(f) empfohle-
nen Etymologischen Worterbuchs von Kluge,
leicht hatten vermieden werden konnen. \ < r
altete Formen und Ausdriicke, \\:
gegen das Idiom, etc., beweisen ferner, dass
bei der Abfassung oder Bearbeitung i-iiu-r
deutschen Grammatik durch t-iiu-n Auslander
die Hinzuziehungeines mil dem besten Sprach-
gebrauch vertrauten Eingebornen wenigstens
zum Lesen der Correcturbogen unerlasslit h
ist.
Wir bringen nun die einzelnen Punkte, die
der Verbesst-rung bediirfen, einfach in der
Reihenfolge zur Besprechung, in welrher wir
ihnen bei der Durchsicht des Buches begegnen.
28 ist doch etwas zuapodiktisch. In fast
ganz Mittel- und Oberdeutschland wird s im
Anlaut und zwischen X'ocalen tonlos ges-
prochen. SS. 17, 18. Die lu'er gegt-l)ene
deutsche Schrift sieht aus, als <>b sie ziun 'IVil
einer Fibel aus dem yorigen Jahrhuiukrt
entnommen ware. Die Biichstabeii //
haben eine ganzlich veraltete Form, a uiul o
sind balb lateinisch, halb deutsrh, n ist gan/
lateinisch, C und >"sind \olleiuls falsch, uiul
p. 18 unten sind fast keine zwei Buclistabeii
von gleicher Lange. Die Schrittproben am
Ende des Buches sind dagegen, einige kleiue
Versehen abgererhiu-t, mustergiltig.
' ^
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No, i.
28
Was muss der Verfasser von den Geistesgaben
der amerikanischen Jugend denken, wenn er
fiir notig halt, derselben mitzuteilen, dass die
Worter Jung-ling-, Heft, Pferd, Schiff, Zeug
im Plural nicht umgelautet werden ! 86 sind
hinzuzufiigen mancher und solcher. 88
sollte nach 79 stehen ; ihr 'her' ist vergessen.
lor gewohnlich des Schmerzes, dem Sch-
merze. 105. Wo kbmmen jetzt noch die
Plurale Bette und Hemder vor? Rohre ist
sing. fern. 123. Der Augapfel ist the eye-
ball. 132. Die Plurale Tiicher=^kerchiefs,
cloths und Tuche=cloths=verschiedene Ar-
ten von Tuch sollten streng auseinandergehal-
ten werden. 175. Wozu iin Imperativ die
Formen habe er, haben sie, anstatt er habe, sie
haben ? 202 ist unrichtig ; man sagt ent-
weder es sick order sich's 235 besagt das-
selbe wie 234. 242. Fichtst, flichtst, nicht
fichst, flichst. Lbschen als starkes Verb wird
wol nie transitiv gebraucht, heisst also nicht
to put out sondern nur to go out; die transitive
(factitive) Form ist regelmassig schwach.
Schraiibeu wircl nur sehr selten stark conju-
girt. Neben schwor kommt ebenso haufig,
wenn nicht haufiger, schwur vor, im Conjunc-
tiv fast immer- schwiire. Melken ist im
Praeteritum oft schwach, auch vereinzelt im
Part. Perf. Ebenso werdenfttmmen, schallen,
schnauben nicht selten schwach flectirt, we-
niger oft auch gdren und saugen ^ 243. Man
spricht stets und schreibt meistens du \sst,
frisst, liest, misst, vergisst (ss fiir sz) anstatt
der vollen aber etwas unbehiilflichen Formen
du issest, liesest, etc. Dasselbe gilt 248 von
bldsest, lassest, stossest, wdchsest, ivdschest,
wofiir man gewohnlich findet blast, Idsst,
stosst, wdchst, wdsclist, letzteres sogar wie
wascht ausgesprochen. Hierzu gehoren noch
232 birst(est) und 242 drisch(es)t, lisch(es)t,
schmilz(es)t, 246. Keif en ist meist schwach.
274. Es fragt sich heisst it is doubtful,
nicht it is asked. 277. Zu betrilgen ist nicht
eigentlich Infinitiv, sondern Supinum, oder
" Infinitiv mit zu," wenn man will. 278,
Der Ausfall des ge- ist nur so nebenbei, sollte
aber 277 ausdriicklich betont werden. 313.
Doch auch Jan'uar, Feb'ruar. 329, Note ist
unrichtig ; auf nicht nur folgt stets das Wort
zu welchem ' nnr logisch gehort, und das ist
meist das Verbum, wahrend nach sondern
auch die Wortstellung normal bleibt. 357
Festhalten ist ein trennbares Compositum und
gehort zu 379, da/<?.y/hier (wie los in loslas-
sen) Adjectiv, nicht Adverb ist. 358. Ver-
halten soil vv.ol lieissen aufhalten. 371. Ent-
gegnen (entgegen) und entzweien (entzwei)
sollen mit dem Praefix ent zusammengesetzt
sein ! Dem Worte entzwei wenigstens sieht
und hort doch jeder Laie sofort an, dass es
mit dem englischen in two auch formell
identisch ist. Die ahd. Formen sind in-
gagan(i), in-zuvei, mhd. engegen, enzwei.
374. Zergliedern heisst to dissect, to divide
into (natural) parts. 375. Begehen haufiger
=to commit, perpetrate ; ergehento come
out, to be issued, impers. to fare. 383. Der
Tropf=the dropping, der Tropfen=the drop.
Das Band (Plur. Bander) the ribbon, (Plur.
Bande) the tie, bond', der Bund^=the union.
384. Der Bissen=-the morsel. Hier finden
wir wieder eine neue Ableitung: Stopsel mit
-sal zusammengetzt ! Das Wort gehort zu
Abteilung 3 desselben Paragraphen. 386.
Gottheit ist meist=G"0#. Das Christen turn
heisst Christianity, nicht Christendom ; das
Kcnigtum ist abstract=rcy///y, kingship;
387. Die Gebnrt gehort in die Anmerkung zu
Gebiet. 389. Meist Kurziveil, ohne e.
390, Anmerkung. Was fiir Tiiel sind das 1
395- Von welchen compound nouns sind denn
breitsclmltrig und vierfussig abgeleitet ? Bis-
herig ist of hitherto ; dortig : of that place ;
hiesig: of this place (town, city). Die Bemerk-
ung iiber lei ist dem Schiller dunkel -und ist
auch sonst nicht am Platze. Schadlich und
niitslich gehoren zu io a . 396. Misstrauisch
gehort zd 395,8. 399. Ruckweise, nicht
riickweise. Mai als Adverb ist doch wol im-
mer bewusste Kiirzung von einmal('nmal, mat)
und als solche nur in familiiirer Umgangs-
sprache zulassig ; es ist daher hier die voile
Form einmal zu setzen. Der ganze Paragraph
macht in seiner Anbrdming wie auch im Inhalt
und Styl den Eindruck sehr fliichtiger Arbeit.
401. Hinzu ist nur ein zusanimengesetztes
Verbalpraefix, kein selbstandiges Adverb.
HUGO SCHILLING.
Wittenberg College.
2 9
>;<!'/
Jami-iry. . 1/r >/'/: A'. V /..l.\'(,r.li, / .\V;//.S, ,sss \,>
sit//' ti/htt hi /illicit,- (ft-/ ('<nt.
.\(n. By I'lo UAINA. (De-print
from til- Stii:ij (fi l-'il(>lu<jia Koinanza,
Fuse. IV).
I'n' Ixcrizionc AV/V.v/;/</ del 1131. By I'm
KA.I.NA. (De-print from the Archivio
Storifo Italiaiio, XIX., la).
'1'lu- importance of the- Bilingual Alba of the
Vatican ro<U-x Kcgina 1462, as the- earliest
monument in which Provencal has been found,
has led many Romance scholars to attempt a
satisfactory interpretation of it.* Their efforts
have hitherto met with but little decided
result, owing in great part to the absence of
MSS. which might be used for comparison,
and also to the carelessness of the copyists;
likewise, possibly, to the ignorance of the
author himself. The latter was undoubtedly
more versed in Latin than in the vernacular,
and his imitations of the popular refrains he
heard around him are vitiated by the Latin
poetical mould into which he casts them.
However, making the best of the single MS.,
Prof. Rajna proceeds boldly by means of text
criticism to the desired end. Uniting the
various lines of the Alba in which the refrain
appears entire or in part, he gains as text
for his point of departure:
L'alba part (or par) umet mar atrasol
Poypas (orPoy pas) abigil miraclar tenebras.
As is seen, the MS. disregards the separa-
tion of words, writing two now together, now
apart. This leads the author to examine first
the second line of the refrain to determine the
meaning of pas abigit, which he resolves into
pasa bigil and explains bigil as vigil, Latin r
in South-west France sounding as b. The a is
hence not a preposition, as Suchier and Stengel
had interpreted, but apart of the verb. In the
same way, atra sol is read by Prof. Rajna
atras ol, the ol being an article and agreeing
with ]\)\. Thus, from disregard of the MS.
division of words, the author is led to ignore
also the lines of the text, and construes the-
re fra in : L'alba part ninct mar a Iras ol pny
pasa bigil uiiraclar tciichras.
*See articles by Schmidt and Suchier in Ziitschrift fuf
dcutsche Philologie, XII., 33355.: by Stengel in Zeitsckri/t
fiir romanitche Philologie, IX, 403 ss., etc.
I'.nt here .1 difficulty arises whi< h seems to
us more serious than the re< onstnn lion of tin-
Prof. Kajna admits th.it <>/ mcurs in
Provem.al only as a pronoun, < iting line K.I of
Aigar f Mantni: Si <>/ t n.\ t -nf In /
A/i-r<in\, where In is the form ol tin- artii le.
He is, then-Ion-, obliged to suppos.- ili.r
as article, existed in Provin , .,., n . \j,t, <| m
certain Lombard dialects. an hy|-
which, in the absence of supporting !
somewhat ha/ardous. Tin- division of tin-
being thus suggested, the author claims
pi>y to be the noun and not the adverb, and
gives two decasyllabic lines by the addition
of/toy to the first verse, when- it must have
originally belonged, until the scribe, intent on
the Latin, had forced it fn.m its place. Tin-
text of the original refrain would thus be :
I. 'alba part umet mar atras ol \x>y.
I'asa bigil miraclar tenebrax ;
which Prof. Rajna would translate in Italian:
L'alba, di ladall'umido mare, dietro il poggio,
passa vigile a spiar per entro alle tern-lire.
The Epic verse is therefore furnished with still
another proof of its antiquity, in a monument
some hundred years earlier than Jioithitis.
Proceeding from the refrain to the entire-
poem, Prof. Kajna argues for a Latin original,
composed by a ' poet who was perhaps an
imitator of Vergil and < >vid. In his hands the
vernacular\f. mutilated, though the Alba differs
in no essential respect from the popular forms
of the Albas of the XII. and XIII. centi:
The second article of Prof. Rajna leaves the
strictly defined field of Pro\-ncal poetry for the
wider ground of C'arolingian legend. The
treason of (ianelon at the gorge of Rom < s-
valles had been sung as wide as the pi
of Roland. The greater the glory of the hero,
magnified by the grow ing tradition of succes-
sive generations, the deeper the contempt for
the traitor who had brought against him over
powering forces. Judas alone was a fitting
example to be placed by the side of (..melon,
and thus the action of the epic on Scripture
and of Scripture on the epic worked in the
mind of the people until a race of traitors
stood forth who, from father to s,.n and
through the various lines of kindred
opposed the valiant ami the loyal. Such a
state of feeling is i-xpic ,srd by the Latin in-
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
scription in the wall of the vestibule of the
cathedral at Nepi. In the year 1131, the
soldiers of Nepi and the rulers made oath
together that should any one break the al-
liance he should be deprived of honor and
dignity, and moreover should have his portion
"cum Juda et Caypha atque Pilato," for they
would put him to death " ut Galelonem qui
suos tradidit socios."
The historical import of the inscription is
considered at length by Prof. Rajna, before
turning to the relation it may have with the
French epic. The treason of Ganelon, he
affirms, must have been known solely
through popular tradition. As proof of this,
Sutri near Nepi is cited, the region of Italy
most abounding in legendary traces of Roland.
Now Sutri was a stopping place on the high-
way to Rome, most frequented by pilgrims
from the north-west. This highway is fre-
quently called in the middle ages the Strata
Francigena, and many towns in the vicinity
bear in their names the marks of French in-
fluence. Together with the pilgrims came
the wandering minstrels, with their tales of
wars against the infidels, and by them Italy
was made acquainted with the story of the
peers of Charlemagne. Italy in her turn
reacted on the singers, who borrowed from her
many scenes and who make especial reference
to Sutri. (See ' Enfances ' and ' Chevalerie
Ogier.')
For the particular mention of Ganelon in
other than the French form, Prof. Rajna sur-
mises that the word Galelonem is identical
with the Spanish Galalon, and that it is due to
pilgrims who had visited the shrine of St.
James at Campostello and who had made a
halt at Roncesvalles. An interesting citation
in support of this view is made from Pulci :
E tutti i peregrin questa' novella
Riportan di Galizia ancora espresso,
D'aver veduto il sasso e'l corno fesso.
Morgante, XXVII., 108.
In connection with this early appearance
of Ganelon in Italy, it is interesting to note
that he was also celebrated in South France
in 1170 (See Bartsch ' Chrest. Prov.' col. 85, 1.
25), and that the Troubadours frequently
coupled him, as is suggested by the inscrip-
tion at Nepi, with the arch-traitor Judas.
(Birch-Hirschfeld : ' Uber die den Troubadours
bekannten epischen Stoffe,' p. 60). f
F. M. WARREN.
Johns Hopkins University.
Neuphilolugische Essays by GUSTAV KOR-
TING. Heilbronn, Gebr. Henninger, 184
pp., 1887.
The indefatigable author of the ' Ency-
klopadie und Methodologie der Romanischen
Philologie,' whose similar work on English
philology has recently appeared, puts before
the public a series of essays on modern
philology. A simple enumeration of the titles
will show that the book is not written for the
specialist in modern philology, but that the
author addresses himself to a wider circle of
readers, to all those that take an interest in
higher education. These essays, eight in
number, treat of the following subjects: 1.
Modern Philology, Romance Philology, Eng-
lish Philology. II. The Study of Modern
Philology at the German Universities. III.
Suggestions as to the University Studies in
Modern Philology. IV. " Staatsexamen " of
Modern Philologists. V . The Examination
of Modern Philologists for the Doctor's De-
gree. VI. Scientific Criticism in Modern
Philology. VII. Instruction in Modern Lan-
guages at the "Gymnasium." VIII. In-
struction in Modern Languages at the Female
High Schools (Hohere Tochterschule) a
variety of subjects that undoubtedly will not
fail to awaken the interest of scholars and lay-
men in Europe, and let us hope, in America
also.
In his first article, which he modestly calls
aphorism, Prof. Korting' discusses the question
whether the academic study of Romance
languages and English has a right to the name
of philology, and how far we are entitled to
speak of modern philology. For his defini-
tion of philology he refers to the article in the
fFor the tradition of Ganelon in the French epic see
Stengel's Ausg. und Abh., No. 50: Ganelon und sein Ge-
schlecht im altfranziisischen Epos, by E. Sauerfeld. In Ro-
mania XI., 410 traces are noted of contemporary legends in
the d partement de la Somme, France.
16
January. .V< >/>/: A', \' LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No i
' Kncyklopadie uud Methodologie der Roina-
nis< hen Sprachen ' which dctinitioii lias since
been criticised by Prof. Kl/e in liis 'Grundriss
:i;Jischen Philologic.' \Ve arc glad
that Prof. Korting did not enter into polemics
with 1'rof. Kl/e, as liis work shows well t In-
difference between theory and praxis.
Philology considers only the " Cultur-
sprachen," tlie languages that have produced
a national literature, and it must consider
them in their natural development. Lan-
guages that are related to each other must be
regarded as one group and cannot be separated
in philology. Thus Latin and the Romance
languages form a philological unity, and so long
as the study of the derived tongues remains
in close connection with their parent speech
we can make use of the name of Romance
philology. The case is different with Germanic
philology, of which the study of Knglish is
only a branch. Here the basis of scientific in-
vestigation is the philology of prehistoric
times comparative philology and since the
Knglish scholar like the German scholar who
makes the High German branch his special
study must found his studies on Sanskrit, etc.,
to follow the development of the Germanic
languages, his science can only be termed
Germanic, not Knglish, philology. Romance
and Germanic philology can be combined
under the name of ' modern philology ' only for
practical reasons. ' Modern philology,' like
' Knglish philology ' is merely a name, no
science.
Prof. Korting devotes a whole article to this
question, because it is the starting point for his
ensuing deductions as to the academic study
of modern languages. Some of the ideas in
the following essays are old acquaintances
that are familiar to us from his pamphlet
' Gedanken und Bemerkungen iiber das
Studium cler neueren Sprachen auf den deu-
tschen Hochschulen ' and occasional remarks
in the " Kncyklopadie." When our young
science was in its infancy, it was quite natural
that the student chose the two modern langua-
ges that he could make use of in teaching, and
this became so much the fashion that it gave
rise to the name of ' modern philology ' and
' modern philologists,' as distinguishing them
from the scholars of classical philology. But
since that time modern philology lias
\eloped int.. a M i.-i,. - of Midi vast .-\tent that
it is beyond any on-- student's ubilit) In
embrace it, at l.-.ist during lli<,
that he spends at a university. Korting calls
for a separation of Krench and Knglish. .
of which subjects is to be studied IP its nat-
ural connection with Latin or German. 'I lu.s
the Romance student would be compelled to
follow courses in Latin and attend the Latin
urinary, and would be better prepared for his
work in Romance philology, while the Knglish
student, who formerly contented himself with
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, wmild ha\e to make
himself acquainted with the elements of com-
parative philology, ( )ld Norse, and the < ierman-
ic dialects. The Prussian government, evident-
ly pressed by certain universities has in the new
" Priifungsordnung." going into effect this
year, somewhat remedied this deficiency by
combining Krench and the " facultas docendi "
in Latin for lower classes. The one chief
difficulty in Prof. Korting 's combination of
subjects, natural and commendable as it h
that the authorities can not reasonably insist on
it since the combination of subjects in the "Prii-
fungsordnung " is to a large extent dictated Im-
practical considerations, and Knglish is not
taught in the Gymnasium ; and the student,
who, whatever his enthusiasm tor his chosen
science, has to keep in view what will become
of him after the time of preparation, will natu-
rally take those subjects that give him tin-
best chance to find some position, if necessary,
outside of the Gymnasium and Kealsc hule.
that is to say, the Krench and the Knglish
It is indeed gratifying to see that the scientific
spirit among the young generation of modern
philologists in Germany, in their struggle for
existence, has not abated, for it displays almost
the steadfastness of a martyr to write a disserta-
tion or some scholarly work with the feeling
that one is the seventieth in the number of
well qualified candidates who will compete
for some obscure position with .1 salary just
above the starvation point.
Kvery scholar knows that Germain is tin-
seat of philology, classical .is well as modern.
Since Grimm and Hie/ laid the foundation for
the latter, their worthy su- .ided by
hundreds of enthusiastic co-workers, have built
35
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
up a science that can well compare with its
more experienced and more consolidated
parent philology. Yet there may, perhaps, be
more Latin scholars than Prof. Korting sup-
poses (though we are sure they are exceptions)
who think it an intrusion that Romance philo-
logy should go back to the classical age to dig
out treasures that must otherwise be hidden. It
is not so long since Prof. Sittl wrote his book :
'Die localen Verschiedenheiten des Latein,'
but we feel some satisfaction that his ' vivat
sequens ' was addressed to a scholar who has
a closer feeling and more sympathy with
Romance philology.
If these scholars are exceptions, the number
is pretty large in Germany of educated people
who feel that occupation with the language
and literature of a foreign country is a lack of
patriotism, and who wish to see the whole
strength and ability of native scholars concen-
trated on the study of their own language and
history. To all these and others of the same
opinion we recommend the reading of Prof.
Korting's refutation, in his second essay ; the
more intelligent would be convinced that
occupation with foreign languages and litera-
tures is one of the best, and often the only,
means of understanding the national pro-
ductions, and that, if other nations do not pay
the same attention to German philology as
German scholars do to theirs, "this is not the
effect of a more highly developed national feel-
ing but simply the oatcome of a deficient scien-
tific insight." The following lines from the
greatest philologist of France, which we read
in the last volume of the Romania, would
show them how much these studies are ap-
preciated abroad: " Les Allemands s'em-
parent de plus en plus du terrain des Etudes
romanes et sp6cialement du domaine de
1'ancien francais. C'est en vain que nous
essayons de marcher au moins de conserve
avec eux ; nous sommes vaincus par le nombre
d'abord et nous sommes loin de posse"der
un outillage aussi commun. Ce que nous
avons de mieux a faire est de profiler des
travaux qu'ils accumulent et de les remercier
quand les travaux sont vraiment utiles."
The fourth essay is full of suggestions as to
the regulations of the "Staatsexamen." The
author's experience as an examiner in the
" Pfufungskommission " is a guaranty for the
possibility of carrying through the modifica-
tions he proposes. The "Staatsexamen"
really consists of four examinations : the
scientific, in which the candidate has to show
his acquaintance with the development and
the results of Romance, etc., philology; a
practical examination, on which the new
" Prufungsordnung " puts more stress now
than before, to show how far the candidate is
able to speak and write the languages he
desires to teach ; the examination in pedagogy
and last not least the ' 'allgemeine Bildung, ' '
which, though restricted to certain branches
Philosophy, Latin, History and Religion is in
examination as in common life an idea capable
of wide extension. The last, with the ex-
ception of philosophy, has been regarded by
many professors as entirely superfluous, and
we fully agree with Prof. Korting that it is
even injurious. The reason is so obvious and
the feeling against it has been so universal
among students, teachers and professors that
we are surprised to find the same old-fashioned
regulation in the new "Prufungsordnung,"
and fear accordingly that Prof. Korting's
propositions will hardly be taken into con-
sideration. The rest of the examination the
author wishes to have divided into two parts.
The first, strictly scientific, ought to "be taken
after finishing the university studies, the
second, covering the practical knowledge of
French and English in speaking and writing,
should follow an interval of two years, spent
mostly in France and England. Theoretical
studies in pedagogy should be left entirely un-
til after a practical foundation has been laid
during the probationary year. Does it not
disgust the commissioners to hear candidates
speaking about things that they cannot reason-
ably be expected to knovy ? We hope that the
candidate will no longer be obliged as was
the case in Alsace to appear in the class-
room, after an absence of about five years,
confronted by the rather embarrassing ne-
cessity of combining Gothic Grammar and
Muspilli's or Lachmann's Theory with the
somewhat less scholarly explanation of " Ich
hatt' einen Kameraden " !
There is no question whatever that by divid-
ing the examination the candidates will be
37
January. MODERN I,Ab & No.i.
better prepared, scientifically and practically,
and tlu- authorities, who do not hesitate to
make use of tin- large number of philologists
by offering them salaries that only necessity
can compel them to accept, should not be too
timid to require a little further preparation.
Besides, the first " Staatsexamen " and the
" 1 )octorexanien " could easily be combined,
if the candidate for the former we^e allowed
to devote all his time to one thesis, equal to
that now required for the Dr. Phil., instead
of preparing several papers in his different
lines of studies. Something must be done
to help teachers who have passed their
Staatsexamen without taking the Dr. Phil.,
and they are the majority to some title
that they can use in society. We know a
teacher in a "Gymnasium" who took his
degree in his sixtieth year, in order, after retir-
ing from his position, to have some title that
might distinguish him from the ordinary public
school teacher. For titles are no mere chimera
in a monarchial government, and putting the
teacher in that respect on the same level with
other learned professions is an honor that Ger-
many owes to the promoters of her intellectual
power, and the ordinance of last year, raising
teachers with academical education to the
rank of lawyers, etc., has not fully made
amends for this fault of omission.
The article on criticism is mostly a plea for a
more moderate and polite tone in criticising par-
ticularly the works of beginners. Our readers
are well acquainted with the often too harsh
language seen especially in German journals,
and, though this may find some explanation in
the transient and even ephemeral character of
a review, yet scholars on this side of the water
cannot but hope that the time may never come
when we shall find our learned periodicals filled
with merely personal " Krwiderungen " and
" Kntgegnuugen."
The last two essays occupy themselves with
the instruction in modern languages. The
Gymmasium, Prof. Korting says, is a prepara-
tory school for the university, and has in
\iew, as its sole object, to fit boys best for
subsequent scientific study there. \Ve may
admit this, but how about the author's con-
tested "Kinheitsschule," the combined Real-
gymnasieii and (iymnasium? The number of
students is decreasing in many departments,
and we hope the "Kinheitsschule" uill not
multiply their number. The remarkable im-
personality of Prof. Korting, so a-ie. ably
different from those outbursts of scorn I. ether
uttered by the minority striving for <-\ist.
or flung with self-sufli( iem \ to tli<- public from
the stronghold of a secured position, would
have assured a candid hearing to any explana-
tion he might have had to offer as to the n
of blending (iymnasium and Kealschule, and
we much regret that this question has found
no treatment among his essays. Certainly the
Kinheitsschule cannot be a preparatory school
for the university in the same sense as the
(iymnasium ; it must embody the whole higher
education. We join Prof. Korting in his wish
that in the German Gymnasium, Knglish
may find a place that has hitherto been
denied to it, as well as in his hope that the
Classics will always remain the foundation of
higher education. Whether a thorough train-
ing in Latin and Greek can be obtained in less
than sixteen hours a week, during a course of
at least nine years, is a question that we lea\e
for German scholars. Our experience tea
us that the secondary subjects are too much
neglected, and that the pupils, especially in
the lower and intermediate classes, mostly
look upon the weekly Latin exercise as the
only essential in their promotion to a higher
class.
The end of modern language teaching has
been often discussed in this country by various
scholars, and most of them, at least those who
are free from one-sidedness, agree that the only
purpose can be to enable the pupils to read a
foreign language, to understand scientific
books, and enjoy foreign literature. The abil-
ity simply to speak a foreign tongue will
hardly extend beyond the common-life phr.
that without constant practice will soon be
forgotten and this cannot be the aim of an in-
struction that means something more than
mere superficial knowledge of the subject.
Prof. Korting emphasises the great difficulty
of learning a foreign language, and denies even
the possibility of acquiring in a limited number
of hours, the ability to write compositions of
any stylistic value, "for writing French ami
Knglish is different from writing Latin."
39
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
40
Compared with other subjects the modern lan-
guages have been until recently much neglect-
ed in Germany. This is due to the fact, as the
author remarks, that instruction was given
partly by teachers who had no scientific train-
ing and who therefore could not, in a body of
men and in an institution of a higher character,
take a position which entitled them to the
necessary respect. Though much remains to be
wished for, Germany is now beyond the stage
of language masters, and no candidate, is ap-
pointed who has not proved that he has suc-
cessfully devoted several years to a scientific
study of modern philology. Having these
thoughts in mind the author, in his excellent
article on instruction in modern languages at
Girls' High Schools, could not be expected
to give us more than a pleasant causerie upon
the experiments of killing time by the study
of languages from thoughtlessly compiled
grammars and handbooks. We must thank
the author for his consideration in not allow-
ing the memory of Juvenal to betray him in
this case into writing a biting satire.
The book contains so many new ideas and
suggestions that it is impossible to give our
readers a detailed account of its contents here.
We highly recommend it to all those who
are interested in the study of modern philology
and desire information as to its present status
in Germany. The essays are, besides, written
in so attractive a style and the subject is dealt
with in such a masterly manner that the reader
will be tempted to finish the book without
delay.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
Frederic Ozanam, sa vie et ses ceuvres, a
volume of 600 pages, published last year at
Montreal, is the first important literary venture
of M. Pierre Chauveau, son of the eminent
Canadian author. It is an extended study of
the labors of the enthusiastic scholar and de-
vout and practical Christian who was chiefly
instrumental in forming the Society of St. Vin-
cent de Paul. The subject is, of course, treat-
ed from a thoroughly Roman Catholic stand-
point ; indeed, the avowed object of the book
is to place before young Canadians who may
be tempted to abandon or slight their religion
and give way to the skeptical tendency of the
age, a model of saintliness free from all the
repulsive elements of narrow-mindedness and
intolerance.
Fr^deYic Ozanam was born in 1813, a time
when the Roman Catholic religion had not
yet recovered its forces after the Revolution.
He inherited from his parents the best traits of
a Christian character, and these traits were
strengthened by his early training. As soon
as he was old enough, he joined the ranks of
the defenders of his faith. His powers as a
controversialist were first shown in an attack
on the doctrines of Saint-Simon, which he pub-
lished while still a law student at Lyons. Con-
tinuing his legal studies in Paris, Ozanam
became a leader in the establishment of the
conferences of St. Vincent de Paul, and some-
what'later he helped found the conferences of
Notre Dame. At this period of his life he
wrote his second work, Les deux chanceliers
d'Angleterre, which attracted some attention.
Having obtained the degree of doctor in
both law and letters, he was appointed pro-
fessor of commercial law at Lyons. So suc-
cessful was his career, that before he was thirty
years old he had become professor of foreign
literature at the Sorbonne, where he lectured
until his early death in 1853. The twelve years
of his professorship were spent in almost
incessant labor on his life-task, the history of
Christian civilization from its beginning down
to the i4th century, a task which was destined
never to be completed. Fortunately, however,
he published the various sections of this great
work soon after he finished them, so 'that we
have (besides his letters and his unpublished
notes) nine volumes of Ozanam's writings, of
which the most important are Dante etlaphilo-
sophie catholique, Etudes geria>iiqncs and La
civilisation an ci nqui^tne siec le. This last pro-
duction, which did not appear until after the
author's death, was crowned by the French
Academy.
It is to an analysis of these historical and
literary works that the greater part of M. Chau-
veau's book is devoted. Yet Ozanam himself
is never forgotten ; the homely, sickly, nervous
little man, whose awkward manner could not
January.
LANGUAGE NOTES,
long conceal his \ ast knowledge nor his splen-
did talent, is constantly before our eyes ; while
his lovable character and his life of patient
sulfering and sell-denial an- shown to speak
from every page he wrote. M. Chaiiveau's
style is perfectly straightforward ; the large
amount of information he has accumulated is
presented tastefully and modestly, without any
kind of pretence; much space is given to quo-
tations from other critics and also from Fre'de'-
ric Ozanam's own writings.
The book is rendered still more valuable by
an introduction from the pen of M. Chauveau,
ptre, who speaks briefly of the struggles of the
French clerical party during the present cen-
tury. In these struggles Ozanam played his
part : not that of a political leader, nor that of
a violent and one-sided debater, but rather
that of man who, without neglecting his re-
gular duties, quietly and conscientiously strives
to make every action of his life tend toward
the desired end. " Toute sa vie fut nne triple
predication, par la parole, par Fe'criture, par
Faction. Tout ce qu'il a fait, il Fa entrepris
dans un seul but, faire du bien a ses semblables,
et par-dessus tout, leur procurer le plus ne"ces-
saire de tons les biens, la foi."
CHAS. H. GRANDGENT.
Harvard College.
Wissenschaft und Schule in ihrem Verhalt-
nisse zur praktischen Spracherlernung.
Von Dr. M. M. ARNOLD SCHROER, ao.
Professor der Englischen Philologie an
der Universitat Freiburg i. B. (Leipzig
1887).
This brochure has for its object the discus-
sion of the following dilemma : On the one
hand, the university belongs to science, and
every science has ideal, not practical, ends in
view ; hence, practice in speaking a language
has no place in the University. On the other
hand, a practical knowledge of the respective
living language is absolutely indispensable
(ein unumgangliches Erforderniss) to the
philologian and, especially, to the future
teacher; without it, work in the history of
language cannot be carried on with success,
nor can the teaching of a modern language
me really l>.-nHi< ial if the instructor lacks
the ability to speak it (praktisc he Spra< hf-rtij{-
beit).
There are three ways out of this difficulty:
The student may be left to j^el a practical
knowledge of the ' language oiitsidi- o| tin-
university, from private teachers; or In- may
neglect the practical study entirely during his
university course, in order to devote himself
to it afterwards, in the country where the
language is spoken ; or, finally, he may be
referred to lectors, specially appointed for
this purpose by the university authori 1
The advantages of, and objections to, each of
these methods are well set forth by S< lu
On the whole, the third method, which has
been adopted by several universities, is the
most feasible; but, after all, the author con-
siders a sojourn in the foreign country indis-
pensable, and a dozen pages of the pamphlet
are devoted to the consideration of the ques-
tion, how such a sojourn abroad may be
brought within the reach of the student and
turned to best advantage.
It would seem that the author, while advo-
cating the desirability of a practical acquisition
of the language previous to admission to the.
university, underrates the possibililits in this
respect, as well as the importance of such
early training to the student of philology.
There is added to the discussion of the
main question an excursus on the instruction
in English in (ierman schools and an ap-
pendix on the foundation of an institute for
German philologians for the study of English
in London.
The little brochure of sixty pages is full of
suggestions to the teacher.
A. LODKMAN.
Ypsilanti, Mich.
In order to prevent any possible misappre-
hension, the editors take occasion to remark
that the foot-note appended to Dr. Karsten's
review of Paul's Principicn in the last number
of the NOTES was simply intended to remind
our readers, impartially, of the existing oppo-
sition to the views presented by Paul.
43
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
44
In a note on Louise von Francois's ' Phos-
phorus Hollunder ' (Boston: D. C. Heath and
Co., 1887) innocent young Americans are in-
formed by the editor that ' Urania ' and ' Die
bezauberte Rose' are 'mediaeval poems.'
Poor Tiedge ! Poor Schulze ! Surely there
could be no bitterer comment on the words of
the original : " Den Zeitgenossen Hollunders
brauchen wir kaum zu sagen, dass 'Urania'
und ' Die bezauberte Rose ' seine Vorbilder
und Lieblingsdichtungen waren ; das jiingere
Geschlecht wird sich derselben aus der Lite-
raturgeschichte erinnern. "
An attractive title that must of late have
more than once caught the eye of teachers of
French who scan the lists of new publications
is : Beispielsammlung zur Einfuhrung in das
Stadium der Etymologie des Neufranzosi-
schen, von Dr. Gustav Breddiu (Leipzig, Gus-
tav Fock, 1886 ; 410, pp. 31). Unfortunately
the collection is not only worthless, but calcu-
lated to do positive harm in the hands of the
unwary. The etymologically inclined com-
piler, who signs himself Oberlehrer, is appar-
ently unacquainted even with the difference
between words of popular and of learned
origin. In short, pretty much everything is
grist that comes to his mill. The result can
be more easily imagined than described.
Geo. O. Curme, Professor of French in
Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa, has in
press an edition of Lamartine's 'Meditations.'
Prof. Curme has taken special pains to throw
as much light as possible on the sources of
personal inspiration of each poem. The work
will be preceded by an introductory study of
the poet's life ; and the poems (those are
selected that have the inspiration of "Elvire")
are so grouped as to keep the student's inter-
est centered on the interesting period from
1816-1820.
The publishers of the above work, (D. C.
Heath & Co. Boston), also announce ' His-
toriettes Modernes,' selected and annotated
by C. Fontaine, Instructor in French in the
Washington (D. C.) High School.
Messrs. Henry Holt & Co. have brought
out, under the title of 'Whitney's Practical
French,' the entire first part of the author's
French Grammar, supplemented by a con-
siderable variety of conversational exercises,
and by lists of phrases illustrating, in parallel
columns, the idiomatic uses of a number of
the commoner French and English verbs.
This low-priced and handy edition of .the
more practical part of the larger grammar will
be welcome to many teachers, and will do
much, it may be hoped, towards bringing a
good book into successful competition with
many less valuable rivals.
The attention of students of Italian is called
to an Italian semi-weekly newspaper, publish-
ed in Chicago, and already in its third year :
L' Italia giornale politico, artistico, dilette-
vole. The value of general newspaper reading,
for the purpose of becoming thoroughly imbued
with the every-day spirit and vocabulary of a
foreign language, is too well recognized to
need emphasis. L* Italia is intended for the
benefit of the better portion of the numerous
Italian colonies scattered over the country,
and is accordingly a genuine Italian newspaper
in all its details. It is in folio form, printed on
good paper, with clear type ; and is a high-
class journal, treating with dignity the leading
questions of American and foreign politics and
affairs. The subscription price is $3 per an-
num (six months, $1.75). O. Durante, Editore.
404 S. Clark St., Chicago, 111.
We have received from Dr. D. G. Brinton
(115 S. 7th St., Philadelphia) his instructive
address before the Anthropological Section of
the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, entitled : " A Review of the
Data for the Study of the Prehistoric Chro-
nology of America." It is a deprint from the
Proceedings of the Association, vol. xxxvi.
Together with this, comes the announcement
that vol. vii. ('Ancient Nahuatl Poetry') of
his important Library of Aboriginal American
j Literature is now ready." It contains a number
| of songs in the Nahuatl language, most of
; which were composed before the Spanish
! conquest. They are accompanied by transla-
I tions and notes.
Mr. William R. Jenkins (Publisher, N. Y.)
announces as the next number of his will
known series ' Romans Choisis,' Ohnet's popu-
lar romance, ' Le Maitre de Forges, ' which was
to be ready in November. In Paris, this novel
45
January. MO/>/-:/{N LANGUAGE NOTI-IS, 1888. No. \.
has reached its 249111 edition. The next No.
of ' Contes Choisis ' will contain, among other
things, Claretie's clever little story, ' Boum-
Boum.' The new edition, in 1'rench, of Victor
Hugo's 'Les Miserable*,' which Mr. Jenkins
has been issuing volume by volume, has now
reached its completion. It fulfills the pro-
mises made by the publisher and is handsome
in its appearance; the typography is clear
and tasteful and the paper good, while the size
is convenient both for reading and for the
library shelf. Being the cheapest edition to
be had in French, it is also the handiest, as
the only Paris edition now published is in
large octavo volumes, cumbersome and costly.
These five volumes are the most important
and extensive French work yet attempted in
America and argue well for the -success of
Mr. Jenkins' laudable enterprise. 5 vols.,
paper $4.50, cloth $6.50.
Under the title : Die Urbilder zu Hermann
und Dorothea, Albert Bielshowsky publishes
an interesting article on Goethe's personal
relations to the characters of his classical idyl.
While the latter has hitherto been considered
a pure work of art, almost entirely free from
the personal element which appears so fre-
quently in most of Goethe's productions,
Bielshowsky in this essay brings conclusive
arguments to the contrary. He points to the
similarity between Dorothea and Lili Schone-
mann, not only in regard to their character, but
above all in respect tp the latter's fate during
the French revolution, her flight across the
Rhine and the courageous self-defence of her
virtue on that occasion. By adding to this the
evidence of various traits of resemblance
between Hermann and Goethe, as well as
between the clergyman of the poem and
Pfarrer Ewald, our idyl is made to appear not
only in the light of a reminiscence of Goethe's
beautiful " Brautigamszeit " in Frankfurt, but
also as a touching and harmonious expiation
of his guilt toward Lili.
The publisher, Andreas Deichert of Erlan-
gen (Germany), announces the early publica-
tion of a ' Ratoromanische Chrestomathie ' by
Dr. C. Decurtins. The work is to be confined
to the literature of the Canton des Griso.is,
and will be divided into two volumes: vol. I.
comprehending Ob- and Nidwald, Ob-r- and
Unterlialbstdn ; vol. II. < overing IS.-rgiin, the
Kngadine and Miinsterthal. The materials
are to include the dim-rent p.-riods of the litera-
ture, beginning with the s. \eut.-enth ( ntiiry,
to which will be added an introduction, a
glossary, biographical not.-s of the individual
authors and a description of the NUs. from
which the texts are drawn.
1 Contes et Nouvel/es, suivis de conversa-
tions ; d'exercices de grammaire ; de notes
facilitant la traduction (8vo, pp. 3071, is
another recent publication of the same house,
edited by Mme L. Alliot, lately teacher of
French at the Bryn Mawr School, Baltimore.
The selections are racy specimens of the work
of several of the best modern contettrs, and
are all suited to the taste and comprehension
of young pupils. One of the stories, 'La
Princesse verte,' by Andre" Theuriet, is
borrowed from the Revue des Deux Mondes,
and another, ' Le Bachelierde Nimes,' is the
translation of a prose sketch from the Proven-
cal of the celebrated poet, Mistral. ' Mon
Professeur,' from ' La Bibliotheque de mon
Oncle' by Topffer, is the same narrative,
abridged and retouched (presumably by the
author), which appears in the Clarendon Press
'French Classics,' vol. Y.. under the title
1 Me"saventures d'un Ecolier,' and elsewhere
as ' Le Hanneton.' The retouching reminds
one of the later polishing bestowed by Rous-
seau on his 'Confessions.' and has been so
thorough-going that a systematic comparison
of the two redactions would bean instructive
exercise in style for an advanced class. In
this edition, proof-reading and press-work
have been carefully attended to; yet in the
table of contents Victor Hugo's ' La bonne
puce et le me"chant roi ' is called a Conte a ses
petits enfants (petits-enfants) ; on p. 147 grand* -
nitre is printed grantl-m^rc; and in t he-
conversational exercise on p. 99, ' New
England's Memorial ' from which quaint
Colonial volume the pupil, by the way, is re-
commended to commit to memory a liberal
extract, done into French is attributed t<>
Nathaniel Norton instead of Morton.
The House of Hachette & Cie has under-
taken a biographical series of leading French
47
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
authors (' Les Grands Ecrivains Francais '),
with the view of placing before the public
"studies of their life, works and influence."
The separate volumes are assigned to compe-
tent critics, who discuss their subject in a
direct and comprehensive way, dwelling little
on details but emphasizing salient features.
Victor Cousin is thus presented by M. Jules
Simon; Mme de Sdvigne" by M. Gaston
Boissier; Montesquieu by M. Albert Sorel ;
and 'George Sand,' the most recent of the
series, is the posthumous work of Caro.
Among the volumes announced for the future,
are ' Voltaire ' by M. Bruneti^re ; ' Villon ' by
M. Gaston Paris; 'Rousseau' by M. Cherbu-
liez; 'Balzac' by M. Paul Bourget; 'Musset'
by M. Jules Lemaitre and ' Sainte-Beuve ' by
M. Taine. The appearance of the volumes is
most pleasing, both as to print and neatness.
Those already published are of moderate size
(from 170 to 180 pages), and are accompanied
by a portrait of the author, as frontispiece.
The patriotic school of Italian poets is
the subject of a series of essays from a some-
what unexpected quarter. (' Modern Italian
Poets ' ; W. D. Howells. New York : Harper).
In his introduction, Mr. Howells quite .apolo-
gizes for giving to the world what is the
product of his leisure moments ; he excuses
himself on the ground that there is nothing in
English which covers this particular field. It
is the period that begins with Parini, enlarges
with Alfieri and continues, through the various
phases of the Romantic movement, down to
the time when Italian unity became a fact and
when the aspiration for it ceased to be an in-
fluence in Italian literature. As patriotism is
the link which connects the various authors of
the period, so Mr. Howells is inclined, perhaps,
to accentuate too strongly the patriotic to the
detriment of the classic element. The studies
on the individual authors vary in length accord-
ing to their prominence, but the same clear
style and system are maintained throughout :
a short sketch of the poet, of his surroundings,
is followed by criticisms and translations from
his works. Alfieri, Manzoni, Niccolini, whose
' Arnaldo da Brescia ' is analyzed minutely
(pp. 211-242), Leopardi, Giusti and Aleardi are
naturally most favored. The translations are
good and spirited, with especial care to be as
far as possible faithful to the original. Of
especial excellence are ' II Cinque Maggio '
of Manzoni, and the chorus in his ' Conte di
Carmagnola,' the ballads of Ongaro and a
poem of Grossi. To the volume a short bibli-
ography is appended.
Though Mr. Howells in all places expressly
disclaims that he speaks ex cathedra, his
work throws the burden of proof on him by
bearing the stamp of accurate scholarship. It
is therefore, perhaps, not invidious to call
attention to the few errors of fact that are not
due to the discrepancies of biographical
dictionaries : the Sacred Hymns of Manzoni
appear to have been published in 1810 instead
of 1815 (p. 137) ; and the date of ' Arnaldo da
Brescia ' is generally fixed in 1835 rather than
1843 (p. 203). The usual judgment of con-
temporary critics on Leopardi (pp. 265 and
272) is not shared by so competent an authority
as Bartoli, who places him "perhaps next to
Dante." The tasteful make-up of the book is
not enhanced by the poor wood-cuts which
accompany many of the sketches.
Teachers of elementary classes in literature
as well as private students, will be pleased with
the new school-room edition of Scott's Mar-
mion, published by Macmillan & Co. The
editor, Prof. M. Macmillan (B. A., Oxon.) is a
practical teacher at Elphinstone College, Bom-
bay. In the Introduction will be found a brief,
though well considered, characterization of
Scott as a poet, and the Notes, covering many
pages, supply an unusually full apparatus of
historical allusions, parallels in literature, com-
ments on popular customs and beliefs to which
the poet makes reference, and of uses of words,
constructions, and figures of speech to which
the learner's attention is to be directed. The
same press has also published for the same
editor, as a companion volume to the Ufarniion,
Books I and II of the Paradise Lost. This
second volume, though not so much needed,
is yet quite as efficiently prepared as the first.
The method of studying English Literature,
which, several years ago, was set forth by Prof.
Isaac N. Demmon (Univ. of Michigan) in a
syllabus entitled a "Course in English Master-
pieces: references for the use of students,"
may be found worked out in greater detail,
49
January. .VO/'J-A'N LANGUAGE NOTKS, iHKS. .\u. i.
and applied in a mop- systematic manner to a
wider selection of " masteipiei es," ranging
from Chaucer to Tennyson, in a new volume
by Prof. Alfred H.Welsh (English Masterpiece
Course, Chicago, John C. Buckbee & ('D.I.
There art- many teachers of English literature
that have become petrified in the deadening
prartio- of blindly following the narrow treat-
ment of some text-book. Other teachers do
practically the same thing, but with certain
misgivings ; they would do better. To this
latter (-lass Prof. Welsh's hook will be helpful.
It will suggest means for making the study of
literature a rational and manly performance,
an invaluable training not only in feeling and
sentiment, but also in the power of estimating
opinions, in correlating truths, and in testing
theories ; in short it will enforce the idea that
literature is to be studied by each individual
for himself, more or less independently of
others, and will at once show how to make the
novel experiment.
The publication is announced of the follow-
ing work, important for scholars interested in
Provencal literature : Origine et Etablisse-
ment de I'Acade'mie des Jeux Floratix de Tou-
Lnise ; Biographic des Troubadours; Sur la
langue romane ou le provencal. Par C.
Chabaneau, Professeur a la Facult^des Lettres
de Montpellier. En i vol. in 410 de 246 pages.
Price 27 frs. To be had of H. Welter, 59 Rue
Bonaparte, Paris.
A new series of French texts for the use of
schools is that edited by Martin Hartmann
(Leipzig, E. A. Seeman). The first number
contains the comedy of Jules Sandeau, ' Mile.
de la Seigliere.' Nothing but praise can be
said of the care and the completeness of the
text, the abundance of notes both grammatical
and literary and the neatness of the volume
both as to print and to shape. In a short ap-
pendix are found a study on the relation of the
comedy to the novel, and the two songs of
Beranger alluded to in the text. So thorough
lias been the work of the editor that little is
left and we think it a fault in class-work to
be developed by the instructor.
An important contribution to the text of the
Breton Cycle is the publication of the Portu-
guese Ms. 2594 of Vienna. (A Historia dos
Cavalleiros da M.-s.i Kedonda < da I ><-manda
do Santo Graall ; K. von Reiiihardsloettner,
Berlin iSSy-S, Krster Band;. The Ms. belongs
t<> the XV. century and is therefore of t
cond period of the prose novels. In looking
for the original, Prof. K. finds that the Ms.
bearsthe most resemblance to the third volume
of ' Lancelot du Lac,' published at Paris in
J 533- It gradually separates from the latter,
in that the object of the Portuguese writer is
to give a history of the Knights of the Round
Table and of the quest of the Grail, while
the French novel centers in the person of
Lancelot and his deeds. Various points of
comparison are made by the editor in an
Introduction where clearness of style is not a
characteristic quality and where there is an
abuse of italic letters. The text printed in-
cludes 70 out of 199 folios.
At the annual public session of the French
Academy, a prize of 1500 frances was awarded
to M. E. Cosquin for his ' Conies populaires de
la Lorraine ; ' one of 1200 frs. to M. Brunot
for his ' Grammaire historique de la langue
francaise.' A prize of 1500 frs. was divided
between M. J. F. Blade, for his ' Contes popu-
laires de la Gascogne,' and M. J. Fleury, for
his ' Litterature orale de la Basse Normandie.'
We have received the first number of the
Zeitschrift fiir Vergleichende Litteraturge-
schichte und Renaissance Litteratur, the pros-
pectus of which was noticed in the November
number of the NOTES. This journal is a com-
bination of the Zeitschrift fiir I'crgl. Littcra-
turgeschichte, edited by Professor Max Koch,
and the Jahrcsschrift fiir Kultur etc. der
Renaissance, edited by Professor Ludwig
Geiger, the latter of which ceased last year to
be issued in separate form. The new periodi-
cal appears under the joint editorship of Koch
and Geiger. The first number presents. <>n
various subjects of German, English, Hun-
garian and humanistic literature, a series ni
essays which are all of peculiar interest and
permanent value. The young science of the
comparati\e history of literature, hitherto
mainly in the hands of dilettanti, po--
in the new Zeitschrift an organ that will com-
mand the respect of all scholars interested in
this important subject. The names of the
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. i.
editors vouch for a strictly scientific and phil-
ological treatment of the subjects presented,
and we take pleasure in recommending the
journal cordially to our readers.
Renewed proof of the activity of the Goethe
Gesellschaft is given us in the appearance of
two volumes of the long expected definitive
edition of the poet's works, the " Ausgabe der
Grossherzogin Sophie von Sachsen," to whom
Walther O. Goethe, the last surviving grand-
child of the poet, bequeathed the family.archi-
ves. Vol. I, containing a portion of the " Ge-
dichte," and Vol. XIV, containing the first
part of " Faust," form the society's present
contribution, handsome octavos in clear type,
a delightful contrast to the stubby little vol-
umes of the Cotta and Hempel editions. The
material to be published is classified under
four heads, which will also serve to suggest
the scope of the proposed edition/ Goethe's
works (in the narrower sense), his scientific
writings, diaries and letters. Confidence in
the editorial work is inspired by the list of
editors and their associates to the number of
more than three-score published in the intro-
duction to the first volume ; v. Loeper, Erich
Schmidt, Herman Grimm, Seuffert and Su-
phan as editors-in-chief, while among the as-
sistants one notices v. Biedermann, Geiger of
the "Jahrbuch," Fielitz, the editor of the
" Briefe an Frau v. Stein," Minor, Schroer
and others of like scholarship and repute.
For its text and arrangement the present
edition of Goethe's works holds closely to the
last edition published by Cotta during Goethe's
life, the so-called "Ausgabe letzter Hand,"
1827-30, with supplementary volumes publish-
ed after Goethe's death. The text is accom-
panied by a complete critical apparatus, redu-
ced however to surprisingly compact form, for
which the manuscript treasures of the archives
afforded abundant new material. The " Faust"
in particular, is enriched by additional parali-
pomena and especiallv by the readings of the
Gochhausen manuscript, a copy of the origi-
nal as brought by Goethe to Weimar in 1775,
which E. Schmidt was fortunate enough to
discover in January of the present year among
the papers of Frl. v. Gochhausen, now in pos-
session of her grand-nephew (cf. Nation, No.
1145, Jun. 9, 1887). This manuscript, it should
be remarked, has also been published separate-
ly by Schmidt, so that the new. material for
Faust criticism is now accessible to every
Goethe student. The present volumes of the
new edition give promise that it will do its part
to fulfill the prediction made by Grimm in his
enthusiastic preface to the first volume ; " die
neue Ausgabe vvird als das Merkmal eines
geistigen Umschwunges gelten, von dem
heute nur als etwas Zukunftigem die Rede
sein kann, von dem die Zukunft aber als von
Etwas Vollbrachtem sprechen wird."
The' Life of Dante,' by Miss Ward, published
by Roberts Brothers, is an unpretentious little
book, which accomplishes satisfactorily what
it attempts to do. In a perfectly simple way it
tells what is known about the life of the great
poet, and gives a short analysis of his works,
both prose and poetry. There is no attempt
to show wide reading nor philosophic depth
in exposition, but the author is both widely-
enough read and has grasp enough of the sub-
ject to avoid the pitfalls iiito which the pre-
sumptuous or unwary are sure to plunge, when
writing on such a subject. There is probably
no book before the American public which
gives so agreeably and in so brief a compass
as does this excellent little work with no
valuable criticism, to be sure, but also with
little or no vague speculation the facts con-
cerning Dante's life and work.
The same firm sends a reprint of Dante Ros-
setti's ' Dante and His Circle,' a book which is
almost indispensable to many students of
Dante and his times, who have no access to the
originals of nearly half of what is here trans-
lated with a felicity of expression and- a depth
of sympathy so rare as to excite admiration.
The fact is that no man of letters in this
century, if transported back to the Florence
of Farinata or of Giotto, would have felt
himself so little out of place as Dante Gabriel
Rossetti. This is why his translations that
of the 'Vita Nuova.'in particular are unsur-
passed, and not likely soon to be surpassed, in
general justness of tone; though Norton's or
even Martin's Vita Nuova may be an improve-
ment in single phrases or even passages. In
spite of some misgivings on the subject of in-
26
53
January. MOI>t'.k'.\ LANGUAGE NOTES, iS88. No. i.
54
ternationnl copyright, it must be said that
Roberts Brothers liave done a real service, in
putting within the. read) of all, at a moderate
price, so good a work, the original editions of
which are not easy to get and expensive be-
sides. 1 1 is only to be regretted that they have
not made it a handsomer book.
PERSONAL.
Prof. Fr. Kluge Qena, Germany) never flags
in industry. He is at present seeing through
the press a new edition of his Etymological
Dictionary, also a new work on the influence
of Luther on the German language, and an
Anglo-Saxon Reader.
Prof, ten Brink (Strassburg, Germany), we
are told, has in the Press a work on the Bo-
wulf. We are unable to give any further char-
acterization. His proposed edition of the
poem is, however, still far off.
We are authorized to state that Prof. T. W.
Hunt will publish the third edition of his Exo-
dus and Daniel in March. The Glossary will
be materially enlarged.
Dr. Benj. W. Wells, formerly of the Friends'
School, Providence, R. I., is pursuing his stu-
dies in Old English at Jena, Germany. He is
just now specially interested in the writings of
Aelfric and Wulfstan, and the Church docu-
ments generally, and will in time, doubtless,
make known to us his results.
Prof. A. S. Cook (University of California) is
fapidly completing his treatise on the North-
umbrian documents; Max Niemeyer, the well-
know publisher of Halle has undertaken it.
The most of the Glossary is now in the printer's
hands, and the remaining parts will be ready
in a few we'jks. The citations, except in the
case of the commonest pronouns, articles, etc.,
will be practically exhaustive. The intention
is to combine Grammar and Glossary in the
same volume.
Prof. Cook is also publishing, with Ginn &
Co., an Anglo-Saxon Primer, which may be
expected to appear soon.
Dr. Francis H. Gnmmere's place at the Su.nn
Free School (NYw Medford, Mass.) has Ixjen
filled by the appointment of Andrew Ingra-
ham, A. B., as Master of the School. It will
be remembered that Dr. (iummere, who is at
present pursuing his studies in English .it
Berlin, was called to Haverford College |d.
MOD. LANG. NOTES, Vol. II., p. iSz].
Dr. R. F. Weymouth, 33 Alfred Road, A< ton,
London, W., has made a translation of Cyne-
wulfs ' Elene,' which he desires to publish,
and for which he will receive subscriptions at
five shillings per copy. Dr. Weymouth is the
editor of Grossetete's ' Castel of Love ' for the
Philological Society, author of a work on
Early English Pronunciation, and editor of
the recently published ' Resultant Greek
Testament.'
Rodes Massie, for some years professor of
German and French in the University of Ten-
nessee (Knoxville), resigned his position at the
beginning of the present academic year and
has settled temporarily at Charlottesville
(Univ. of Virginia) Va. His former Assistant,
Wm. I. Thomas, Ph. D., now occupies the
place vacated by this resignation.
Professor L. A. Stager, for some time head of
a School of languages in St. Louis and after-
ward in Philada., has been called to the Col-
legiate and Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn,
with the title, Adjunct Professor of the Ger-
man Language.
H. C. Penn has been appointed Assistant in
English at the University of Missouri (Colum-
bia). Mr. Penn was a graduate at Central
College (Fayette, Mo.) in 1885, after which he
taught in the Central Collegiate Institute of
Altus (Ark.) until he entered upon his present
position. He has contributed to the Missouri
School Journal several articles, among uhich
maybe noted: " When should Anglo-Saxon
be begun in the average Western College"?
and "Anglo-Saxon as a Substitute tor Latin
and Greek."
Professor A. C. Dawson was called at the
beginning of the present academic year from
Beloit College, Wis., to the Chair of French
and German in Lake Forest I'niversity. Lake
Forest, 111.
27
55 January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. i.
JOURNAL NOTICES.
ANQLIA. VOL. X. PART I |.-Kamann, P. Die quel-
len der Yorkspiele. -Dieter, F. Die Walderefrag-
mente und die ursprtingliche gestalt der Walthersage.
Carl, It. Ueber Thomas Lodge's leben und werke.
Soft'e, E. Eine nachricht tiber englische komo'dianten
in Mahren. Ellmer, W. Ueber die quellen der reim-
chronik Roberts von Gloucester. Horstmann, K.
Orologlum Sapientiae or The Seven Poyntes of Trewe
Wisdom. Nuck, B. Zu Trautmann's deutung des
ersten und neun und achtzigsten rBtsels.
BEITRAEGE (HRSG. v. PAUL UND BRAUNE) VOL.
XIII., PART II. Helmburger, K. Grammatisehe dar-
stellung der mundart des dorfes Ottenheim. Leltz-
mini n- A. Zur Kritik und erklBrung des Winsbeken
und der Winsbekin. Zimmermann, P. Heinrich
GOding-a gedicht von Heinrich dem Lowen. Bugge,
8. Etymologische studien tiber germanische lautver-
schiebung. Grimme, F. Bin neues bruchstiick der
niederrheinischen Tundalusdichtung. Falk, Hjalmar.
Bemerkungen zu den lausavisur der Egilssage. Holt-
hausen, F. Miscellen. Ueber uo = 5 im Heliand.
(in I Ice, J. M. Graphische varianten im Heliand.
Bremer, 0. Ahd. leo Ho leuuo. Lulck, K. Zur theorie
der entstehung der schwell verse. Kauffmann, Fr.
Geschlossenes e aus e vor i.
LlTERARISCHES CENRALBLATT. NO. 44. Krel-
ten, W. Molieres Leben und Werke. (H. K ng).
Lange, 0. Die lateinischeii Osterfeiern. Bartsrh, K.
Die altdeutschen Handschriften der Universitttts-
Bibliothek in Heidelberg. Die Schweizer Minne-
sftnger. Zarncke, Fr. Das Nibelungenlied. Martin,
E. AusgewShlte Dichtungen von Wolfhart Spangen-
berg. No. 45. Altdeutsche Textbibliothek.. Nos. 7,
8. El/e, K. Grundriss der englischen Philologie. (R.
W.). Beitrftge zur Landes-u. Volkeskunde von
Elsass-Lothringen : I. This, C. Die deutsch-franzfisi-
sche Sprachgrenze in Lothringen ; IT. Martin, E. Die
Badent'ahrt von Thomas Murner.-Norton, (!h. E. 1 Cor-
respondence between Goethe and Carlyle: 2. Carlyle,
Thomas, Reminiscence, Garnett, B. Carlyle (Ew. Fl.)
Gietmann, G. Parzival, Faust, Job u. einige ver-
vvandte Dichtungen. Cludius, C. Ed. Der Plan von
Goethe's Faust. No. 46. Devillard, Cr., Chresto-
mathe de 1'aiicien f raneais. (H . K ng). Edda Snorra
Sturlusonar. Tomi III. pars 2. Seemuller, Jos., Sei-
fried Helbling. Boethe, Gust., Die GedichteReinmar's
von Loreter (H. P.). Bleibtrcu, K. Geschichte der
englishen Literaturim 19. Jahrhundert (R. W.). Vet-
ter, Th. Chronik der Gesellsch. d. Mahler 1721-1722.
No. 47. Bramer, K. NationalitHt u. Sprache im
Kfinigreiche Belgien. Bolssler, Gaston, Mme. de
Sevigne (H. K ng). Baechtold, Jak., Geschichte der
deutschen Literaturin der Schweiz. Porkelsson, Jon:
Breytingar & mynduui. Holland, W. L. Zu Ludwig
Uhland's Gedftehtiiiss. Fischer, H., Ludwig Uhland.
Belling, Ed., Die Metrik Lessing's (C.).
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG, No. 44. stahr,
A. G. E. Leasing, sein Leben und seine Werke (A.
Sauer). Kremer, J. Estienne von Fougi^res' Livre
des Mani'.'res [Aus. und Abh. No. 39, Fr. Bischoff].
NO. 45. Lemko, E. Volkstlimliches in Ostpreussen
(G. Kossinna). Gaedertz, K. T. Goethes Minchen (E.
Schmidt). Vallat, G. Etude sur la vie et les ceuvres
de Thomas Moore (A. Brandl). No. 46. Mueller, W.
Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage (Max Rddiger).
Martlnetti, G. A. e Antona Traversl, 0. Ultime lettere
di Jacopo Ortis. No. 47. Gletmann, G. Parzival,
Faust, Job und einige verwandte Dichtungen (R. M.
Werner).
LA NCUVELLE REVUE, ler Novtmbre. Pejrot, M.,
Symbolistes et Decadents. 15 November HenntQuIn
E., Charles Dickens, etude analytique.
REVUE CRITIQUE, No. 43. Bitter, E. Recherches
sur le poete Claude de Buttet et son Amalthee (T. de
L.). Godetroy. La lettre N. du Diction nai re (A.
Jacques). No. 46. Furnivall, F. J., Some 300 fresh
allusions to Shakspere, from 1594 to 1694. M af ray, W.
D., The Pilgrimage to Parnassus L1597-1601, J. J. Jus-
serand]. Oharmasse, A. de, Francois Pen-in (A. Del-
boulle).
REVUE POLITIQUE ET LITTERAIRE, NO. 2 1. -Paris,
G., La legende du mari aux deuxfemmes. No. 22.^
Larroumet, G. De Moliere a Marivaux.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA, FASC. XX. Dei Lungo, i.
Dante e gli Estensi. Maz/onl, G. La vita di Moliere
secondo gli ultimi studi (Fine). FASC. XXI. Fornl-
onl, S. La Comedia del secolo XX. Borgognoni, A.
Poeti e Poesia.
REVUE DU MONDE LATIN, Nmembre. Horatlus, La
Litterature espagnole contemporaine.
NEUPHILOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT, No. 6
(Dezember 1887) RUckblick. Zweiter allgemeiner
deutscher Neuplilologentag zu Frankfurt a. M.
(Schluss.) Die Uberbllrdungsfrage in Frankreich.
Uber den Gebrauch der FremdwoYter im Deutschen.
Besprechung der am 22. MHrz 1887 von Dr. Waag Jaut
Jahresbericht der Realschule zu Freiburg i. Br.
gehaltenen Festrede. Berichte aus den Vereinen :
Berlin, Cassel, Frankfurt, Hannover ( Hornc maun .
Der Franz. Unterricht in Gymnasialquiiita ohne
Lesebuch und Grammatik). Kartellverband neu-
philologischer Vereine deutscher Hochschulen (Sch-
luss.). Litteratur: Besprechungen (Gelst, Lehrbuch
der italienischen Sprache; Life of Adam Smith; L'Ami
MacDonald; The Saracens; Thackeray's Letters.)
Neue Erscheinungen. Inhaltsangabe von Zeitschrif-
ten. Nachruf. Anzeigen.
GlORNALE STORICO DELLA L.ETTERATURA ITAL-
IANA, VOL. X. (FASC. 1-2). Macrl-Leone, Francesco,
Ilribaldone Boccaccesco della Magliabechiana.-Kajna,
Plo, Intorno al considdetto ' Dialogus Creaturarum '
ed al suo autore : II. L'autore, 2. Breve intermezzo.
3. Maestro Bergamino. 4. Mayno de' Mayneri (con-
tinuazione e fine). Solerti, Angelo, Torquato Tasso e
Lucrezia Bendidio. Santinl, Pletro, Frammenti di un
libro di banchieri florentini scritto in volgare iiel 1211 .
Paodi, E. G. Illustrazioni linguistiuhe ai suddutti
Frammenti. Percopo, Krasmo, Dragpnetto Bonifacio,
marchese d' Oria, rimatore del sccolo XVI. Ferral,
L. A., A. Medin, La resa di Treviso e la inorte di Can-
grande I della Scala. Pellegrini, F. (\, P. Vjllari, La
storia di Qirolamo Savonarola, nuova ediz., vol. I.
Sciplonl, G. 8.. Gir. Mancini. Nuovi documenti e
notizie sullu vita e sugli scritti di L. B. Alberti.
28
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
r.ali iiiinrr. I'Vbriiur.v, 1 8S8.
MATTER AND MANNER IN LITER-
AR Y COMPOSITION.
It is not without retk-ction that 1 put the con-
junction (inti between the two principal words
of the title of this paper. That conjunction
strikes the key-note of what the paper will try
to say, namely, that, since every literary pro-
duct necessarily has manner as well as matter,
as necessarily no literary product is worthy of
unreserved commendation, unless in it not only
matter, but manner also, is adequately attend-
ed to. In no other form would the title have
said this. "Manner as opposed to matter"
would have implied to a greater or less extent
an incompatibility between the terms ; while
any other expression that readily suggests it-
self would have involved a notion of at least
the inferiority of one or the other element of
the composition. In fact, however, the terms
are interpenetrating and mutually dependent ;
it being a truism that matter can not exist with-
out form nor form without matter.
A discussion of style, then, that proceeds in
forgetfulness of this mutual dependence of
form and content, necessarily shoots wide of
the mark. And yet it was exactly this depend-
ence that a recent discussion seemed to me to
forget. In the late Modern Language Conven-
tion, a paper by President Shepherd, of
Charleston College, on the English of Lord
Macaulay, provoked a deal of caustic criticism,
unfair, I believe, because one-sided. Never
before, perhaps, was Macaulay assigned so
hopelessly low a place on the roll of English
prose authors. Professor Hart, of Cincinnati,
who said that Macaulay always seemed to him
to write as if some one were looking over his
shoulder and saying, " Bravo ! Lord Macaulay;
how well you have turned that sentence ; ""
Professor Hunt, of Princeton, who declared
that he had yet to receive from Macaulay the
slightest intellectual stimulus ; both ignored,
as it seems to me, this fundamental principle
of the inseparability, except in thought, o
matter and form in literary composition, both
*Quoted from memory.
spoke as if the only nirrit in composition u
its expressing worthy thought. Professor Hi nt
did, indeed, confess that about no other u riter
had such widely different opinions been ex-
pn-ssed, and that the nearly mil oumk-d popu-
larity Macaulay had attained was certain!',
sign of some power in him; but it was
for another speaker to remind the Conven-
tion of the indissoluble bond between
form and content; while even he damned
the illustrious Englishman with faint pra
by saying (in effect) that his style was an
excellent poison with which to innoculate
beginners against the more dreadful forms
of " fine writing."
Now Macaulay's case is, of course, but one
instance under the principle ; and the discus-
sion intended here is of the principle, not of
any concrete instance of it. Let us grant,
then, freely the many defects of Macaulay
both in thought and in style. President Shep-
herd undoubtedly praised him over much ;
his weaknesses are patent, and need not even
be specified. They lie on the very face of his
style ; his brilliancy itself making them glare
at us the more rudely and insist the more
strongly on being observed. But has Macau-
lay, therefore, no points of excellence ? Is
only the novice, never the practised critic,
impressed by him ? Or, to put the question
more broadly, is there no merit in a fine style ?
Is such a style necessarily bad ? Are we to
attend only to the thought of a composition ?
Is it not, rather, manifestly unfair to single
out a writer's defects, however glaring they
are, and dwell on them, holding them so close
to our eyes the meanwhile that we can not
se.e his excellences at all ? can not see the
woods for the trees, as the German proverb
has it? Granted that we outgrow such a
writer as Macaulay ; what is it that we out-
grow ? Surely not his clearness, not his pow-
er of calling for us spirits from the vasty deep,
not his admirable choice of words, not any of
the merits of his style. Why, then, should we
not gratefully recognize these merits and con-
fess them elements of a real and true success?
On the other hand, we do tire of the inherent
contradiction between these excellences of
29
59
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
60
form and the writer's too evident failure to
maintain his thought at a correspondingly high
standard. Such brilliancy of style has a right
to exist only as growing naturally out of a cor-
respondingly briHiant body of thought ; and the
critic is fairly entitled to say so. But he is
manifestly unfair when he says this without
conceding the other truth ; when he holds the
writer up to ridicule as posing before a look-
ing-glass and saying, "Ah, you handsome
dog! " when , in fact, though the writer is a
bit self-conscious, he really gives us something
fine to look at. r
Suppose, for example, that Macaulay had
thought as Carlyle thought. Would the bril-
liancy of his style in that case have offended
us? Nay, would not his many charms of man-
ner, unimpaired as they would then have been,
only have added to his legitimate effect upon
us ? We were told in the Convention that
Carlyle first wrdte as Macaulay did, but after-
wards deliberately changed his style. But
Why ? Was it not because he believed that,
by intentionally adopting the peculiarities
that characterize his later work, he would the
more certainly secure an audience ? Surely,
there was never a more conceited, self-consci-
ous great man than Carlyle. Vice versa, sup-
pose that Carlyle's style had remained more
finished. Woufd his influence have been less ?
Nay, is it not despite his crudities, his " Baby-
lonian dialect," as Alexander Everett called it,
that he influences us at all ? despite thatbois-
terousness and utter want of self-containment
which have secured for him the epithet mega-
losaurian ? Or, let us take some examples
nearer home. Surely, thecharmof the Mosses
from an Old Manse and the sustained interest
of The House of the Seven Gables are no whit
the less because of Hawthorne's almost match-
less literary form? On the other hand, Mr.
Marion Crawford is not at all a great novelist
great as Thackeray or Dickens or even
Bulwer is great. Yet Mr. Crawford's style
makes many a^passage in his works easy
that would otherwise be the roughest sailing :
nay, more, it furnishes us throughout his writ-
ings with one legitimate object of admiration,
even where the body of thought is of a texture
too light to be valued for itself.
Not that I would champion mere manner.
When a man has nothing to 'say, by all means
let him say it as the familiar epigram warns
us ; but when he has something to say, why
shall he not say it as well as he can ? What
do Professor McMaster's cross-section pictures
of American life in 1789 lose by being painted
in the brightest colors ? Or what does Carlyle
gain by his eccentricities of style ? If a wri-
ter's only true object is to influence his age or
succeeding ages, if the man of letters should
be (in Carlyle's own phrase) a prophet, what
shall he gain by conciliating, as Carlyle has
done, only a small audience ? Granted that
Carlyle's audience is select, if small : he has
offended multitudes whom he might have
taught, and so has lost no small part of his
proper influence. What a power his writings
might have wielded, couched in a different
style ! Or, to take another example, which ot
the two famous passages in Milton's Areopa-
gitica has exerted the greater force in human
thinking, that in which a tradesman is describ-
ed as committing his religion to his pastor
for safe-keeping, while he himself is devoted
to his trade, or that in which Truth is pictured
as hewn, like Osiris, into a thousand pieces,
while her sad friends, like Isis, make careful
search for her members ? Both passages ex-
press worthy thought, thought often dwelt up-
on in our own times ; both rise above the plain
style of ordinary prose ; each contains a figure
of speech worked out to its utmost limits.
But the style of the first passage is affected
almost to awkwardness ; and the truth it con-
tains is to-day re-expressed by our own writers
in many different ways. The second passage,
inimitable and almost unprose-like as it is,
nevertheless impresses the most casual read-
er, and is quoted daily from a score- of com-
monplace-books. Its delicate style has kept
it sweet through all the ages.
Once more, why is it that Milton's prose or
the prose of Sir Thomas Browne is so little
read to-day? To say that Milton's poetry-
overshadows his prose, or that the topics on
which he wrote are no longer " living " topics
of thought, is no reason why the Urn Burial
or the Religio Medici should not be known.
Sir Thomas Browne wrote no verse ; and a
more profitable book even for our study than
the Urn Burial might be looked for in vain.
6i
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
Its inverted ;in<l otherwise un-modern style
a'oiie seals it from all but a select lew readers.
The truth, then, would seem to he as stated
in my opening paragraph, that holh a good
style and a wortliy body of thought art: in
sary to the ideally perfect composition. This
certainly was (leorge Saintsbury's opinion
when, in February 1876, lie printed in the
Fortnightly Review his paper Modern English
Prose, a paper in which, lamenting the pre-
vailing neglect and consequent decay of Eng-
lish prose style, he declares this decay not "a
mere isolated fact," but " a change which has
affected English Literature to a degree and in
a manner worthy of the most serious consider-
ation." The fine old English style, he hints,
has gone out with the fine old English gentle-
man, till, in this ultra democratic age, a certain
coarseness of manner is as noticeable in liter-
ary composition as it is in the conduct of peo-
ple who profess themselves of the beau monde.
Mr. Saintsbury actually describes the symp-
toms of this change, details its causes, and
lays down the duty of the critic in view of it ;
showing by his earnestness and the minute at-
tention he gives the subject, how real and how
serious he considers the phenomenon to be.
The opposite opinion, however, has no little
vogue. Buffon's doctrine that style is the man
himself is interpreted by many teachers to
mean that the individuality of a writer is ex-
pressed only in his thought; that we are to
know an author solely by the opinions he ex-
presses. That the foot of Hercules, or
rather his hand, shall also betray him, seems
to these critics an incredible idea ; and
their depreciation of form, of style in this its
truest sense, grows in proportion. Less and
less attention is paid to how an author writes,
more and more to what he says. Worse than
this, perhaps, the very springs of our literary
supply are left unfilled ; until, in the mid-winter
dearth that would seem to be threatening us,
we shall have only to deplore our insensate
folly in neglecting the precautions that might
doubtless would have secured us springs
filled to overflowing. The study of rhetoric
and criticism is too much neglected by us.
Language studies are too often only philo-
logical ; or, at best, the student is left to
acquire a good style by " absorption." Cer-
tain worthy writers are put I.efore him; th-ir
biography, the history of their times, th.- his-
tory of literature in general, are taught him ;
but the fundamental truths arrording to which
the authors are good here and bad ther-
mit taught him. Even questions of grammati-
cal purity are treated as ol little value, ami.
with the weightier matt,
paragraph building, unity o| < ..nip.. jti,,n.
ness, force, and other such topirs. are hiisth d
out of court in quiet contempt.
Even professed English scholars give us
some extraordinary examples of this neglect
of manner in their hot pursuit of excellent
matter. Thus, from a recently published book
on English prose literature I extract the follow-
ing curious fagots of crooked sticks :
"Then follows, The Chronicle, compiled,
partly, by Alfred, and partly, by I'legimund
and other less known annalists. This collec-
tion, unimportant as it is in itself or in its liter-
ary character, is invaluable in its historical
and civil bearings. Beginning long before
the Conquest, // runs nearly a century beyond
it and thus serves to cherish the First-English
spirit and language. As the earliest history of
any Teutonic people in a Teutonic language,
and with the Laws the earliest form of En-
glish Prose, it has an interest and [a] value
quite aside from its contents. Alfred did for it
[what ? the Chronicle or " the earliest form of
English Prose " the Chronicle embodies?]
what Chaucer did for English Poetry. He
made it [?] national, so that from his time to
the death of Stephen it [?] was the people's
authority. Above all, it [?] was English clear
and clean and lies back of all later English as
a basis and guide." 1
Could anything be more inartistic, unless,
indeed, it is the same author's constant prac-
tice of referring to headings on his page by
mere demonstratives, and of thus making
these headings part of his text ? For example,
treating of Dr. Johnson's style, he writes,
" This * is one of the first features that im-
press the reader as he studies this [?]3 prose
structure and diction and it becomes more
manifest as the perusal goes on."
i The italics, I need hardly say, are mine.
a " Its Anglo-Latin Element."
3 The context does not make this pronoun clear.
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 Ao. 2.
64
4 applies to subject matter as well as
to method and external form."
" This s is a failure common to periodical
writing." [Can the absence of impassioned
energy be a. failure?]
All three examples are found within ten
pages, and the whole volume is full of similar
instances. Thus, among the merits of John-
son's style is " (2) Literary Gravity," and we
are informed about it that " the reference here
is not to that excessive seriousness of manner
which often ended in confirmed melancholy
but to that sober habit of mind and expression
which was based on his view of the writer's
vocation."
The same writer, (who, let it be said in jus-
tice to him, can write and has written not a
little unimpeachable English), is fond of long
series of those excessively short sentences
which Coleridge condemned as "purposely
invented for persons troubled with the asthma
to read, and for those to comprehend who la-
bour under the more pitiable asthma of a short -
witted intellect." Thus, "The limits of his
[Johnson's] life were too narrow to admit of
much diversity. His style was affected by
these circumstances and especially in the line
of[\] want of adaptiveness to all classes and
phases. His method was rigid and mechani-
cal and the same to all. He would talk to
Goldsmith and Savage and the artisan in the
same manner. Whatever the topic might be,
the treatment of it was the same. The nar-
rative, [the] descriptive, [the] didactic and [the]
critical were all run in the same mold and
branded with the common mark. They are
all in the phrase of Macaulay, 'Johnsonese.'
His prose style, as his body, was very much
opposed to change. Starting in one direction
and at a certain pace he maintained it to the
end. In all this he was true to his nationality.
In that he was lethargic, he was English. The
phlegmatic element in him was native to the
realm. The Gallic verve and sprightliness
was [sic] as foreign to him as it was to his
country. He was constitutionally and mental-
ly heavy and could not face about at will.
There are few scenes in literary history so
amusing as when this ponderous man attempts
4 " The Want of Flexibility and Adaptation."
5 " Absence of Impassioned Energy."
to be playful and unbend himself to passing
changes. While he is unbending, the oppor-
tunity passes. Here [!] as in the case of dic-
tion, naturalness covers many sins. The very
uniformity of his prose is natural. It is a fault
and yet modified by the fact that it is purely
individual and characteristic."
One is reminded of the criticism by Theseus
of Quince's famous speech " for the Prologue,"
" This fellow doth not stand upon points."
So, Mr. Sweet, Anglo-Saxon Reader, p. xlv.,
finds it in his conscience to write, " Adjectives
have the three genders of nouns, and the same
cases, with the addition of the instrumental,
ending in e, which only occurs in the masc.
and neut. in the sing. : in the fern. sing, and
in the plur. its place is taken by the dat. 6
They also have a strong and [a] weak inflec-
tion, the latter employed after the definite ar-
ticle and demonstratives generally." Can con-
tempt for form go further? Or is this utter
want of style merely an unconscious imitation
(as the abbreviations are a conscious following)
of the great German philologist Dr. Wittern-
sieaus ?
Even trained theologians and preachers are
not free from such blunders. Thus, in a recent
most important contribution to the history of
Christianity, I find the following slips (with
many more) in the work, the style of which is
in general by no means bad :
" The statesman or [the] ecclesiastical poli-
tician whose object it was not to attain [=to
attain not] martyrdom but triumph."
" The Greek fathers could not escape [have
escaped], even had they been inclined to do so,
from the influence of a philosophy like the
Stoic."
" The truth of the incarnation as that which
can alone \=alone can] meet the needs of spec-
ulative enquiry."
Surely, if such things are possible in the
writings of authors of no little repute, it is
time that some one raised -his voice in behalf
of a more careful, more conscientious cultiva-
tion of style. Nor is any author to be judged
without mercy, who, no matter what his short-
comings in thought, has set us so illustrious
an example of the importance and the effec-
6 The abbreviations are, of course, Sweet's.
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
66
tiveness of attention to points of style as
Macaulay has set. Granting all that can he
said as to Macaulay's mannerisms, even con-
ceding that he paid, perhaps, too much atten-
tion to mere form, he remains a model of
diligence, of "curious care" in expression, that
we dare not despise, and in reading whom the
young writer makes a very judicious start.
Should a philosophic basis be demanded for
the position taken in this paper, it is not far to
seek. Composition is an art, and in every
art-process three elements enter, matter, or
content ; form, or style ; and purpose, or
end in view. Granting that of these three the
first is chief, does it follow that the others or
either of them is of no account ? How is it in
music, in painting, or even in the technical
arts, such as engineering? Shall a painter,
because he has a noble picture in his mind,
daub it on his canvass, so that we must strug-
gle to discover his thought or his purpose?
Is Wagner or Beethoven the greater musician ?
Browning or Tennyson the greater poet?
Which has most clearly set out to less gifted
mortals the God-inspired blessings of sound
or thought with which his own soul was enrich-
ed and exalted ? It can not be that with regard
to art in general two opinions can prevail on
this subject : why should we be able to enter-
tain them with regard to the particular art of
composition ?
It is quite possible, then, to overstate the
chief importance of having something worthy
to say, to state it, indeed, as if it were the
only important element of composition. The
truth is that success in all particulars is desira-
ble ; that Macaulay (for example), whose de-
fects are mainly in matter, is culpable only in
another way from that in which Carlyle is to
blame, whose defects are in style, and in still
another way from that in which De Quincy is
wrong, whose defects though in style, are
not the same defects of style as Carlyle's.
Indeed, if a strict inquiry be made, the pur-
pose of discourse, its moral character, would
seem to over-shadow even the having some-
thing worthy to say. Many a writer has made
shipwreck solely because his work has seemed
to lack unity or definiteness of aim, so that
his readers, like lost children or Spenser's
travellers wandering in Error's den, have
i scarcely been able to find their way. OH the
other hand, no writer is wholly useless ulio
illustrates lor us one or another of the < I. in. nts
of good composition. Nay, more; in our da\ .
though a revival of the grand manner of the
last century is not desirable, a protest is quite
in place against the inditfen n to manner,
the undisguised contempt for it, that ft
to be a prevailing affectation among us.
JNO. G. R.
University of Pennsylvania.
MODERN LANGUAGES /A THE
UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE.
II.
3- L'ENSEIGNEMENT SECONDAIRE DES
JEUNES FILLES.
Colleges for women are a rather new feature
I in the University of France; they were only
| created by the law of Dec. 21, 1880. While the
president must be a woman, the teachers may
be of either sex. The regular course of
studies extends over five years and is divided
into the premiere pMode, including the first,
second and third year, and the deuxitme pf-
riode or cours suptrieur, comprising the fourth
and fifth. Outside of this course there may
be organized a preparatory department, which
would cover the instruction of the lower and
middle course of primary schools required for
entrance to the college course. The instruction
of the first period is given in classes proper;
that of the second, in courses uniting students
of the same standing ; the modern languages,
however, hold an exceptional position, and are
taught in courses throughout. The studies are
either part of the instruction proper, or ac-
cessory exercises, or optional. The instruc-
tion proper bears a distinctively literary char-
acter ; it is based on the French language and
literature with the elements of ancient litera-
tures, the modern languages, and universal
and national history and geography, which
have 52 recitations out of 71 throughout the
course ; the other 19 recitations are devoted to
mathematics, natural science, physics, chem-
istry, morality, physiology, domestic economy,
hygiene, law, and psychology. The accessory
33
67
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
68
exercises are drawing, penmanship, vocal
music, needle work and gymnastics. Optional
in the last two years are : drawing, vocal music,
the ancient literatures, the elements of Latin,
mathematics, economical geography, and ani-
mal and vegetable physiology. Few students
take all these optional studies; most decide
either for a literary or for a scientific line.
One modern language is compulsory from
first to last and gets 21$ of the recitations of
the instruction proper ; students are moreover
encouraged to take up two or more, but suc-
cessively, not all at the same time. Italian and
Spanish are to be taught, but German and
English should be studied in the first place, in
view of their incontestable superiority for
mental drill (gymnastique intellectuelle). The
reading matter in English and German equals
in most respects that of the other colleges. Of
works not given in the list of the classical col-
leges I mention : J. Habberton, ' Helen's
Babies,' Longfellow, ' Evangeline ' and other
poems ; Tennyson, ' The Grandmother,' Ottilie
Wildermuth, Ausgewahlte Novellen ; Goethe,
' Iphigenie of Tauris,' and lyrics of the i8th
and i gth centuries. On the other hand,
several works studied in the classical and
special colleges are entirely omitted, others
like Shakespeare and Milton are read in family
editions, Byron in extracts. Along with the
harder works that are examined thoroughly,
easier ones are read rapidly ; some poetry is
committed to memory. The method and end
of study resemble more that of the special col-
leges than that of the classical. While not
only the study of grammar but also transla-
tion from French into the foreign language is
limited to what is indispensable, conversation
and original composition receive the greatest
attention. Conversation proceeds from simple
object-lessons to an interpretation of the for-
eign authors in their own language ; composi-
tion, from simple letters to essays on topics
from the various studies of the class. The
course is completed by an outline of literary
history and some remarks on the origin and
principal epochs of the language.
The colleges for women deliver a certificat
cT6tud.es secondaires after an examination at the
close of the third year, and a dipldme de fin
d' etudes after an examination at the end of the
whole course. The students are examined by
their own teachers under the presidency of a
delegate of the rector. If women wish to pre-
sent themselves for one of the baccalaureats in
the examination held by the facultes, they are
free to do so.
SUM TOTAL....
B { SCIENCES....
(ELEMENTS 01
, /ANCIENT LIT.
VOCAL MUSIC
III. OPTIONAL Si
DRAWING
C/)
C
II. ACCESSORY EXERCISE
i
CJ
K
MORALS, PHYSIOLOGY,
SCIENCES
=
I
d
o
I
MODERN LANGUAGE..
I. INSTRUCTION PROPER.
FRENCH LANG. AND LIT ..
SUBJECTS.
(Age minimum)
' LATIN'
1
B
Ul
-
s. (PENMANSHIP. VOCAL MUSIC, NEEDLE-WORK, ETC.)
2
1
01
U)
*
Ul
w,
<*> D.
i.
b
r,
i
3
fl
1
S
to
4-
H
4-
to
CO
5
U)
-
Ul
01
M
4-
M
Os
H
*
Ul
Ul
4>
Ul
H
Ul
M
U)
-
Ul
*
P
CO
Ul
r
H
w
H
10
U
M
-
O\
3-
~t
8
X
Not organized in
1882.
Ul
.
KJ
01
-
*
-
0,
Ul
Os
i
H U
01
Sum total of
weekly recita-
tions during the
entire course.
III. HIGHER INSTRUCTION.
The Enseignement suptrieur is not concen-
trated in universities, as in .England and Ger-
many, but scattered in ti\tfacult&s des tettres,
des sciences, de droit, de medecine and de the-
ologie, in various normal and preparatory-
schools, in the College de France and other
institutions. We consider here only the facili-
ties afforded for students aiming at professor-
ships in secondary schools, and the require-
ments made of them in modern languages.
First we examine the normal schools, then the
study in the faculties, and finally such degrees
34
69"
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
and certificates as cannot be obtained without
a modern language.
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
There are three principal normal schools :
the renowned Ecole normale superieure at
Paris, the Ecole normale speciale of Cluny,
and the Ecole normale secondaire de Sevres.
The first of these prepares professors for the
classical colleges and the institutions of higher
instruction; the second, professors for the spe-
cial instruction ; the last, women professors for
girls' colleges. The course of studies is three
years in each, admission by a cone ours (compet-
itive examination) ; board and tuition are free,
in case the engagement of remaining for ten
years in the service of the university is kept.
Besides these three schools, there is establish-
ed an Ecole normale secondaire at the lyceum
of 'the chef-lieu of each academic \ it is formed
by the reunion of the maitres repetiteurs aux-
iliaires or ellves maitres boarding in the insti-
tution.
The Ecole normale superieure does not re-
quire any composition in a modern languag;e
for admission, but the candidates of the scien-
tific section have to pass an oral examination
on the authors read in Mathematiques specia-
les, those of the literary section on the works
prescribed for Rhetorique and Philosophic.
The Ecole normale speciale admits students
to both the sections of letters and sciences
without a special examination on a modern
language ; only those who expect to enter the
section of modern languages must write a
t/ieme and version. The Ecole normale secon-
daire of Sevres requires a written theme and
version and an oral examination in a modern
language of all candidates. The ecoles nor-
males secondaires make no special require-
ments.
THE FACULTIES.
Before the great reform of the last ten years
the professors of Ihefacultes acted principally
as examiners for degrees and lecturers to the
general public, and had scarcely any regular
students at all . Now the state, the departments
and the communes have offered so many in-
ducements to aspirants, that it has become a
very important part of the professors' work to
prepare students for the licence and agrega-
tion. The students are either resident or non-
resident. The rt-sid. nts consist of boursiers,
maitres auxiliaires, maitres d'etudes and
auditeurs /tores, all of whom are bound to be
regular in their attendance. The boursiers
are either holders of a bourse de licence
(scholarship) or of a bourse d'agrfgation (fi-l-
lowship) ; the former are given after a con-
coitrs, the latter according to the judgement
of the professors of the faculty with whom the
candidate has taken his licence; both bourses
are awarded for one year, but can be prolong-
ed for another, and require the ten years'
engagement. The non-resident students are
mostly teachers of the communal colleges of
the academy who are working for a licence or
agregation. At fixed intervals they send com-
positions for correction to the professors or
maitres de conferences, and on Thursday,
the French weekly holiday, they themselves
go to the seat of the faculty to attend certain
courses, their travelling expenses being partly
paid by the state. Not all faculties are pro-
vided with a staff of professors numerous
enough to prepare for all licences and agrega-
tions.
LA LICENCE.
The licence is the next degree after the bac-
calaureat and cannot be obtained till one year
afterwards. There are three different licences
scientifiques and four licences de lettres : the
licence litteraire, the licence philosophique,
the licence historique and the licence avec
mention 'tongues vivantes.' In the examina-
tions for the literary, philosophical and histori-
cal degree the requirements in modern lan-
guages are limited to the translation of an easy
English or German work of literary , philosophi-
cal or historical criticism ; for the last degree
they are naturally of a more rigorous charac-
ter. The candidate writes a thlme and version
of four hours each, without a dictionary; inter-
prets a text with questions on literature ; and
translates at sight into the foreign language ;
besides, he renders into French a passage from
a prose author of a second foreign language.
CERTIFICATS D'APTITUDE.
While the examinations for the baccalaureat
and the licence may be taken at any faculty,
those for the certificat f aptitude for the secon-
35
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888.- N*. 2.
72
dary instruction, and for the agregation, must
be completed at Paris. Nobody can obtain a
certificate without possessing one of the bac-
calaureats or an equivalent. A modern lan-
guage is required for the certificate of a pro-
fessor of the elementary classes of classical col-
leges, for that of a professor in the literary sec-
tion of special instruction, for that of a woman
professor in girls colleges, and finally, as a mat-
ter of course, for the certificate of a professor
of modern languages. For the classical pro-
fessor, German has been compulsory since
1884. A short and easy German text is dictated
and translated into French, and vice versa a
French text into German. Then a German
piece is read and partly translated, and some
elementary questions are asked and answered
in German. The candidate for a literary pro-
fessorship in the special instruction writes a
theme, interprets an author and answers a
few oral questions on the language and litera-
ture. For the girls' colleges, a modern lan-
guage did not become compulsory till 1886.
The scientific section has some oral questions
with a theme on the blackboard; the literary
division, a four hours' theme and version, fol-
lowed by some interrogations.
The certificate for the instruction in modern
languages enlists our special attention. The
candidates take a preparatory and a definitive
examination. The former consists of a thtme,
version and a French composition without any
aid ; the latter comprises' an oral thlme and
version, a le$on grammatical, and a conversa-
tion in the foreign language, and two questions,
one on the foreign and the other on French
literature. The list of authors varies from
year to year. In 1886 we find in German :
Goethe,' Gotz ; ' Wieland, 'Oberon; ' Gervinus,
4 Litteraturgeschichte ; ' Hauff, ' Lichtenstein ;'
Me'rime'e, ' Colomba ' and Racine, ' Phedre '
(Acts I. and V.); tin English: Miss Austen,
' Pride and Prejudice ;' Shakespeare, ' Hamlet '
Montesquieu, ' Grandeur et decadence des
Remains.' The pronunciation of the French
and the foreign language forms an important
factor in the estimate of the jury.
L'AGREGATION.
Every candidate for an agregation must be
licencie; an agrege. gets, the .title of professor
and receives a higher salary than a licencie in
the same position ; the form of the examina-
tion is the concours. Among the different
agregations only that of modern languages,
and that of instruction in girls' colleges de-
serve our notice. The requirements for the
agregation of girls' colleges closely resemble
those for the, certificate of the same schools ;
the examination for the agregation of modern
languages is much harder than that for the
corresponding certificate. '*" <
The preparatory part contains a. theme, a
version, a French composition and a com-
position in the foreign language ; one of these
compositions is on a question of literature and
the other on a question of language. The first 1
definitive examination is the interpretation of
a passage drawn by lot among the German or
English classics indicated by the Minister ; and
an oral theme. The list of 1886 shows, for Ger-
man, works of Lessing, Herder(Ideen), Goethe,
Schiller (Balladen), A. W. v. Schlegel (Vorle-
sungen iiber dramatische Kunst und Litteraitur)
Platen, Simrqck (Das kleine Heldenbuch), La
Fontaine, Moliere, Mv de Stael, Saint-Marc
Girardin,; for English, among others, pieces
from Chaucer, Sir Philip Sidney, Shakespeare,
Milton, Pope, Gray, Sterne, Shelley, Ch.
Bronte, Green, La Fontaine, Racine and J. j\
Rousseau. The second definitive examination
comprises two one hour lemons, one in the
foreign language and the other in French:
The subject of the one is taken from one of
the authors of the program, that of the other
from literary history. The last examination is
finally the translation of a prose author of the
other modern language into French.
IV.T BOURSES DE SKJOUR A L'ETRANGER.
In conclusion I should like to mention- that
the French Government sends each year a
number of young men abroad to study English
and German in the countries where those lan-
guages are spoken. The official plan cT etudes
of the ecoles primaires superieures contains
the announcement of an annual concours
among graduates and pupils of that grade of
schools for bourses- de sejour a VHranger.
Much less known is the fact that normal school
teachers also and college graduates are sent
abroad. According to the Kblnische Zeitung,
there were last year eighteen of such young
73
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
2.
74
men in Austria, Suit/erland and Germany,
and twelve in England. In Germany the
college graduates take hoard in German
families and attend the Untcr- and Oberprima
of a Realgymnasium ; they stay eighteen
months, but they must spend that time at two
different schools. Before they return to France
they send a detailed report of their experi-
ences and observations to the minister of
public instruction. Some of these reports
which were communicated to Germans show
that the young men generally maintain the
most amicable relations both with their Ger-
man fellow students and with the families in
which they board. Their progress, further-
more, in learning the German language and
in school exercises is very satisfactory.
MO/)/-A'.\ LANGUAGES AT CAM
fcarlham College.
ADOLPH GERBER.
THE ANGLO-SAXON bdsnian
and wr&sen.
The Anglo-Saxon word bdsnian, ' to delay,
tarry' etc., though rather odd in appearance,
is not so obscure a formation as one might at
first suppose. Whatever be the relation be-
tween the suffixes of the feminine abstract
nouns such as the Gothic sdkns (suffix -ni) and
usbeisns (suffix -sni), it is sufficient for the pres-
ent purpose to accept the suffix -sni (in all
probability at first developed in association
with dental bases) as an extension of the
simple form -ni. In accordance with this view
Kluge in his Nominale Stammbildungslehre
147 has classed the Gothic usbeisns < *usbeid-
sns, anabusns< *anabudsns etc., with sdkns,
taikns, siuns etc. Kluge has also called atten-
tion to the ablaut-variation which is exhibited,
for example, in taikns and usbeisns. By the
side, therefore, of *usbeidsni- we may also
place, as formed from the same base-group of
the verb bidan (A. S.), the stem *baidsni-.
From this we should in Anglo-Saxon obtain
*bdsn >*bdsen ' an abiding, a delay,' the nomi-
nal base of the denominative verb bdsnian.
In like manner do we find wrasen (inwit-wrd-
sen, etc.) <*zvrai3sni- by the side of the verb
wriftan. A verb *ivrdsnian could also have
been formed.
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
LAM>.
Readers of MODERN LAM.I *oi Nous \\ill
be interested to hear of a meeting of great im-
portance which has lately taken place at Cam-
bridge University, England. The'. .
the National Society of French Professors
residing in England was invited by the authori-
ties to a session in the university at which the
vice-chancellor and all the masters of colleges
were present. The occasion was one of im-
portance in a variety of respects. It was
under distinguished patronage, the chairman
being M. Waddington, the French ambassador
to England, while among those who expressed
their strong sympathy with the work of the
Congress we meet the names of Lord Lytton
(Minister to France), Lord Tennyson, MM.
Jules Simon, de Lesseps, Arsene Houssaye,
and Jules Ferry. M. Waddington delivered
the inaugural address. He referred with
pleasure to the recognition of the Congress by
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and
expressed the hope that modern languages
would soon be placed upon an equal footing
with classical and other subjects. Vice Chan-
cellor Taylor emphasized the warm interest
felt by the university in the study of French.
The most important speech, however, was
that made by Professor Seeley, the widely
known occupant of the chair of modern history
at Cambridge. Professor Seeley's long and
varied experience and extensive knowledge
make his remarks of special value. He
believed that a crisis in education has arrived
when it is necessary to accord to modern lan-
guages their true and prominent place in
modern culture. Recognizing most strongly
the value of the classics, "himself a classicist
of the classics," he still thought that the needs
of modern life were peremptorily demanding
very much more devotion to the study of
modern languages than had ever yet been
accorded them. So far from believing that
Latin must be learned in order to teach
French, "let us," he said, "teach French in
order to learn Latin." He emphasized the
immense value of French literature, "a litera-
ture not less but more extensive and various
than the Greek and Roman literatures them-
37
75
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
76
selves." "It is absurd," he continued, "to
claim the title of humanities exclusively for
the classics, to consider that a youth cannot
learn grace from Racine, austere purity from
Pascal, eloquence from Rousseau, elevation
and force from Victor Hugo, not to say from
Dante and Goethe." Professor Seeley
enumerated the various departments of activi-
ty in which the modern languages are of para-
mount importance, especially history ; and
strongly objected to the statement that in all
respects the classics are the preferable object
of study. "The modern literatures cannot be
introduced by the ancient, but the ancient
literatures can be included in the modern by
means of translation." The speaker continued
in the same strain, and upon closing his ad-
dress was greeted with enthusiastic applause
not merely by members of the Congress but by
some of the dons and by a large body of the
students. A banquet at King's College and a
conversazione at Trinity College supplied the
social element of the occasion. A general
feeling of unanimity seemed to reign, both as
to the hopeful prospect in regard to the aca-
demic study of modern languages, and as to
the cessation of the all but monopoly which
has so long obtained in favor of the classics, in
the great English universities.
The gentlemen entertained by the universi-
ty were simply teachers of the French lan-
guage and not, in any sense, a body of scholars
engaged in the advanced study of modern
linguistics, in either their scientific or literary
aspect. It may fairly be presumed, then, that
had the latter important phases of modern
language study been duly represented in the
Congress, its reception on this occasion would
have been all the more enthusiastic and
honorable. The scientific attention which the
philology of modern languages is now so
widely claiming would certainly have secured
for a body representing original research as
well as practical instruction the especially
hearty endorsement of Cambridge University.
It is gratifying to call attention to these
signs of the times. The prospects are certain-
ly hopeful when the men who stand guard
over the strongholds of classicism are thus
frankly outspoken in favor of reform.
T. McCABE.
Johns Hopkins University.
THE FIFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION
OF THE
MODERN LANGUA GEASSOCIA TION
OF AMERICA.
The Fifth Annual Convention of the Modern
Language Association of America, held at
Philadelphia on the 28, 29 and 30 of Decem-
ber, may be considered memorable in the
annals of the Association for several reasons :
the large number of members attending and
the increase in membership ; the practical
nature of the majority of the subjects treated,
and the uniform excellence of the papers ; and
last, though by no means the least important,
the increasing interest which its discussions
created in the minds of the more general pub-
lic, as witnessed in the fulness of the re-
ports of the daily papers. Representing, as
such a society does, the progressive rather
than the radical spirit of modern education,
the extension of its audience to this more gene-
ral public can not but be attended with the
best results, in forming a public opinion which
we trust may in some measure correct the
utilitarian tendencies so widely prevalent in
both our school and college curricula.
Although the order of exercises did not
begin, strictly speaking, until Wednesday
evening, December 28, Dr. William Pepper,
Provost of the University of Pennsylvania,
received informally at his house, on Tuesday
evening, such delegates as had already ar-
rived. Quite a number availed themselves of
Dr. and Mrs. Pepper's kind hospitality.
During Wednesday, in accordance with the
provisions already made by the Local Com-
mittee, the delegates were enabled to visit
such places of interest in and about Phila-
delphia as proved most attractive.
On Wednesday evening, the Association met
at the University of Pennsylvania to listen to
Provost Pepper's Address of Welcome, and to
hear Professor James MacAlister in an address
on "The Place of Modern Literature in the
Education of Our Time." In the absence of
James Russell Lowell, the president of the
association, and of W. T. Hewett of Cornell
University, the second Vice-president, Profes-
sor James M. Garnett, of the University of Vir-
77
February. MODERN LAMGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
j
-
ginia, presided. Provost Pepper, after stating
that " the association's success was due to the
strong personality of its membership as well
as to the strong public interest in the subject
they represented," went on to say that while
the association must take the lead in an attack
on classicism, such attack in its hands must be
free from wanton and destructive measures ;
for none could be more favorable advocates
for the just claims of the Greek and Latin lan-
guages than the members of the association.
He held that the object of the association was
to emphasize its belief " that the modern lan-
guages have an equal claim with the classics,"
in modern education. Provost Pepper conclud-
ed with appropriate words of welcome in be-
half of the authorities of the University of
Pennsylvania and of the local committee.
It must be confessed that, in the address
which followed, Professor MacAlister material-
ly departed from the very moderate views
just expressed by the Provost. He claimed
that the present system, in which the classics
still maintained an ascendency in education,
could not last ; that " the final outcome must
be a distinctive system based on the foremost
human achievements of modern times. Dante,
Cervantes and Goethe, may be taken as the
types of modern culture. They can teach us
more than all the ancient writers." At the
close of the exercises the University gave a
reception to the members of the Convention.
The second session opened on Thursday
morning with the reading of the annual report
by Professor A. Marshall Elliott of Johns
Hopkins University. This was followed by
the appointment of various committees ; nota-
bly one to consider the advisability of me-
morializing Congress for an abolition of the
tariff on imported books. The reading of pa-
pers then began. Professor Albert H.Tolman
of Ripon College, Wisconsin, read the first
paper, which treated of the Style of Anglo-
Saxon Poetry. After an intelligent consider-
ation of the contending verse theories as now
held by Heinzel, Rieger, ten Brink and others,
the speaker devoted his attention to a minute
consideration of style proper, laying particu-
lar stress upon the vigor and strength of the
metaphorical and disconnected style of the
early Anglo-Saxon poets. In the discussion
that followed, in which Professors Hart,
Bright and Hunt took an active part, especial
emphasis was laid upon the necessity of a com-
plete renovation of the entire subje< t of Anglo-
Saxon versification in the light of the later
researches of Professor Sievers in this field.
Professor Tolman was followed by Pr.
H. S. White of Cornell University, on " Tin-
Modern Language Seminary System." He
spoke at length upon the needs of our colleges
for intelligent work under the personal super-
vision of competent instructors, and of the
I equipment necessary to carry out these re-
quirements. In closing, Professor White was
particularly happy in calling attention to the
words of James Russell Lowell in his address
at Harvard last year, that " language should
be made a ladder for literature, and not litera-
ture a ladder for language."
The morning session was brought to a close
with an elaborate essay on the " Face in the
Spanish Metaphor and Proverb," by Pro-
fessor Henry R. Lang of New Bedford, Mass.
After luncheon, which was served in the
j University, the reading of papers was resum-
j ed. Professor Sylvester Primer's paper on
j "Charleston's Provincialisms" elicited enthus-
j iastic approval, and led to lengthy discussion
| and comparison of various provincialisms which
are still lurking among us. Prof. Joynes, of
South Carolina College, gave especial weight
to climatic influences in their effect upon
pronunciation. However, from the number
of parallel cases mentioned by those taking
part in the discussion, we may affirm that per-
haps not the least difficult part of Professor
Primer's task for the future will be found in
the discovery of what are and what are not
provincialisms peculiar to Charleston.
Professor Henry Wood, of Johns Hopkins
University, followed with a paper on "The
Brief, or Pregnant, Metaphor in the Minor
Elizabethan Dramatists." In the treatment of
the brief metaphor he found the greatest origi-
nality of the Elizabethan dramatic style, and
showed that what we should now consider a
mere " fancy " or conceit was to the dramatist
of that age the appropriate expression of the
highest imaginative thought.
The last paper of the session was that of
Professor Alce"e Fortier of Tulane University.
39
79
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
80
La., upon "Bits of Louisiana Folk-lore."
This proved one of the most entertaining papers
of the session, and it was a matter of regret
that the limited time prevented anything ex-
cept the more popular presentation of the
subject.
In the evening the members of the associa-
tion were tendered a reception by the Histori-
cal Society at its rooms. The reception brought
together a large and distinguished gathering,
and conversation was general and animated.
The last day's session was opened by Pro-
fessor Charles F. Kroeh with a paper on the
" Methods of Teaching Modern Languages," in
which he advocated the "natural method."
The Convention now proceeded to the
more technical papers. The " Speech Unities
and their R61e in Sound Change and Phonetic
Laws " by Professor Gustaf Karsten and " Die
Herkunft der sogenannten Schwachen Verba
der germanischen Sprachen " by Professor
Hermann Collitz were both delivered in Ger-
man and led to considerable discussion. Pro-
fessor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University,
followed with an interesting paper on "Some
Specimens of a Canadian French Dialect
spoken in Maine," which elicited from Pro-
fessor Elliott the identification of many of its
peculiarities with those of the dialects of
Northern France. The last paper of the morn-
ing session, "On Paul's Principien der Sprach-
geschichte," by Dr. Julius Goebel of Johns
Hopkins University, dealt largely with meta-
physical theories of the origin of language and
brought out an extremely lively discussion
between its author and Professor Karsten.
After midday luncheon, before the reading
of papers was resumed, the reports of com-
mittees were in order. Among them was that
of the committee appointed to memorialize
' Congress for a removal of the tax upon foreign
books. Resolutions also were received and
approved embodying the thanks of the asso-
ciation to the University of Pennsylvania and
to the various organizations that had extended
their courtesy to the members of the associa-
tion.
The next paper, "A Study of Lord Macaulay's
English" by President Henry E. Shepherd of
the College of Charleston, called out the ex-
pression of so much opinion adverse to the
reat English essayist, that it may well be
doubted if anything short of Macaulay's own
mpetuous eloquence could have stemmed the
ide of disapproval. Professor Hart found no
pleasure or profit in him; Professor Hunt had
never received from him the least intellectual
stimulus ; and finally another gentleman step-
led in with the coup de grdce by stating that
owed much to Macaulay as an author who
lad taught him the want of something better
n the way of mental pabulum.
Professor Albert H. Smyth of Philadelphia
then read an essay on "American Literature in
the Class-room," putting in a strong plea for
the more general recognition of our own au-
thors in our school and college curricula. In
reply to the position there taken, Professor
Wood made an excellent point, by calling at-
tention to the greater justice of the term ' En-
glish Literature in America ' in comparison
with the term 'American Literature.'
In his paper on "The English Curriculum in
the University," Dr. James W. Bright of Johns
Hopkins dwelt upon the true distinction be-
tween the university and the college, and ex-
cited much favorable discussion. The exer-
cises were brought to a close with a paper on
"The Earliest Works'on Italian Grammar and
Lexicography published in England," by Prof.
A. Marshall Elliott of Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity.
In the evening, the members of the Associa-
tion met many of their newly-made friends
at the Penn Club's Reception, which conclud-
ed the list of hospitalities.
The varied character of the papers read calls
for some comment. The considerable number
and excellence of the papers dealing more or
less with pedagogics, can not but be regarded
as the indication of an awakening upon a subject
too long neglected among us ; while the liter-
ary tendency of others indicates that we are
not, at least not all of us, given over hopeless-
ly to die neue Philologie. The philological
depths were sounded in the purely technical
papers, but the fact that philology is none the
less concerned with living and growing organ-
ism was recognized as perhaps it has never
before been recognized here in America. In
the excellent work of Professors Primer, Shel-
don and Fortier, in their representation of the
40
8i
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
living speech phenomena around us as was
justly said during the convention we must
recognize what scorns to be tin- peculiar func-
tion of this Association. It is to be hoped that
such work may inspire renewed effort for the
future in this interesting field of research.
KKLIX E. SCHKI.UNG.
University of Pennsylvania.
CONVENTION OF THE
MODERN LANG UA GEASSOCIA TION
OF ONTARIO.
The Second Annual Meeting of the Modern
Language Association of Ontario, Canada,
was held in the Canadian Institute, Toronto,
on Wednesday and Thursday, December 28th
and 2gth.
The attendance of members was large and
included the names of most of the best known
and most successful teachers of French and
German in the Province. Upon a survey of
the topics treated, it will be seen that though
the subjects had a wide range, they yet bore
almost exclusively upon what the teacher
might directly utilize in his work in the class-
room. The seemingly practical bent thus
given to the discussions of the Convention
was due to the fact that its members were with
few exceptions language teachers in Secondary
Schools. We may remark that there are in
Ontario over one hundred of these so-called
High Schools ; that in each of them provision
has to be made for the teaching not only of the
classics but also of one at least of the modern
languages ; and that in all the larger schools
special masters are employed for this purpose.
The opening address of the convention was
given by its Hon. Prest., Dr. Daniel Wilson,
the venerable President of Toronto University.
The topic treated of was "The Influence of
the French Revolution on English Literature."
The great English poets who flourished in the
brilliant literary epoch marked by the latter
part of the reign of the Third George, were
named and briefly characterized ; and it was
shown what was the influence exerted by the
political events in France on their lives and
writings.
In the afternoon session o(. \V< dncsday, pa-
pers were n ;K! on " English M-tre," on "'I In-
Natural Method of Teaching Language*," and
on " Language and Thought."
At the evening meeting, Mr. Yand<-rsmissi n.
the President, opened with an address on
" History and Literature," tin- speaker limit-
ing himself to the field of Germany. A paper
was then read on "The Study of English in
Ontario." In the animated discussion which
followed on this subject, the majority of tin-
speakers held, with the writer of tin- arti
that English is well taught in the < >ntario
High Schools. Another subject treated of was
that of Text-Books, of which it was pleaded
that a periodical revision should be made,
every five years, by a competent committee.
On the following morning, after the election
of officers and of new members, a resolution
was passed asking the Modern Language Mas-
ters of the Province to send in the names of
works in French and German suitable for
University Matriculation examination.
The reading of papers was then resumed.
The first subject discussed was that of "The
Eye and the Ear in Modern Language Teach-
ing." These two organs, it was held, should
be cultivated simultaneously, as should also
the ear and the voice. A plea was also ad-
vanced for the application in teaching of the
principles of phonetics. The Convention
closed with a practical paper on "Translating
French."
We heartily congratulate our fellow teachers
across the border-line on the success of their
recent meeting, and trust that their efforts in
the direction of improved teaching of Modern
Languages, and of a more thorough study of
the same, may meet with even greater success
in the future.
JOHN R. WIGHTMAN.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRECTIONS TO WHITNEY'S
FRENCH VOCABULARIES.
A careful perusal of the vocabularies at the
close of Whitney's ' Practical French Gram-
mar,' suggests the following corrections :
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
84
i. FRENCH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.
Aprts-midi is given as masc., better fern. ;
auberge masc., should be fem. ; chanson,
masc., should be fem. ; cdte, fem., should be
masc. (As this mistake occurs also in the
English-French vocabulary, and as the author
derives the word from the form costa, ' rib,' it
is probable that the error is not a typographi-
cal one merely, but due perhaps to a confusion
with cdte.} Faim, masc., should be fem. ;
tortueux is marked as fem. (with no designa-
tion as adj .). Under head of omission, we may
note that the word cerise, used on page 97
(sentence 19), is wanting in the vocabulary.
2. ENGLISH-FRENCH VOCABULARY.
Under the word 'afternoon,' aprts-midi,
masc., better fem. ; under the words
' many ' and ' too ' the author gives, as one
meaning for 'too many," the expression trop
beaucoup de (!) (This error is corrected in the
abridged edition.) Under the word 'March,'
the gender of the French mars should be
given, (same remark for peuple, under the
word ' people"). Under the word 'perhaps,'
peutetre should be joined by a hyphen ; under
the word ' side,' cdte, fem., should be masc.
If the question of etymologies were to be
touched upon, attention might be called to
the inconsistency between examples like :
laurier [fr. L. laurum\, orage [fr. L. aura,
breeze], etc., on the one hand, and those more
accurately given, such as : berger [LL. ber-
bicarium, h.berbex, r&m\,fromage \formceti-
cum, shaped], on the other.
B. L. BOWEN.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To the Editors of Modern Language Notes :
I have had for some years an old dictionary
which has afforded me considerable amuse-
ment, and I think a few extracts from it may
be of interest to your readers. The work is
entitled :" A New and Complete American
Dictionary of the English and German Lan-
guages," By Wm. Odell Elwell (New York,
1852). The significance of the word " Ameri-
can " in this title will appear in what follows.
Some time ago, in looking it over, I came
upon the expression "catawamptiously chaw-
ed up," which I found translated as "ganzlich
zerstort, ganz und gar vernichtet." This dis-
covery encouraged me to look further, and I
append the result of my investigations in the
following list of choice excerpts :
ABSQUATULATE. Weglaufen.
ARGUFY. Gewicht haben : beweisen.
BLACKSTRAP. Branntwein und Zucker : Grog.
BOGUS. Eine Art Grog.
BUSTER. Etwas Grosses, Colossales, Ungeheures.
CALIBOGUS, Ein Getrank von Rum und Bier.
DIGGINGS. DerBezirk.
DINGED. Sehr.
DRATTED. Sehr : ausserordentlich.
FARZINER (!). (Corrumpirt aus ' Far as I Know.').
So viel ich weiss.
FLUMMUX. Verwirren.
GAL-BOY. Ein wildes Madchen.
KOOL-SLAA. Der Kohlsalat.
LAM. Derb durchprligeln.
PESKY. Gross: weit : ausserordentlich; in hohem
Grade : sehr.
RANTANKEROUS. Zankisch.
SNOOZER. Der Dieb (in Gasthofen).
SPOONEY. Der einf Itige Mensch.
This list might be extended indefinitely.
The German's conception of" English as She
is Spoke " in America is quite as mirth-provok-
ing as that of the Portuguese .grammarian
whose little book gave him fame of a sort al-
together unexpected.
WILLIAM MORTON PAYNE.
Chicago High School.
NOCH EIN MA L MEISSNER-JOYNES,
II.
403 ff. Das Capitel iiber die Verwandt-
schaft der englischen Sprache mil der deut-
schen hatte auf der Grundlage von Grimm's
Verschiebungsgesetz zu einem recht fruchtba-
ren gemacht werden konnen ; aber leider ist die
Behandlung dieses Gegenstandes gerade in
den Hauptpunkten unklar und fehlerhaft. Es
wird nirgends angegeben INWIEFERN ein
grosser Teil der Unterschiede zwischen den
beiden Sprachen durch Grimm's Gesetz zu
February. MODERN LANG UA GE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
M
erklaren ist ; imGegenteil, 405 & 414 niiisscii
in jedeni Uneingeweihteii die verkehrte Yor-
stellung erwecken, als ob jenes Gesetz nur fiir
die Zeit VOR der Lostrennung des Angelsachs-
ischen von dem Stammlande in Betracht kame;
ein Vergleich der einander entsprechenden
deutschen und englischen Laute mit dem
Schema S. 221 notigt ferner zu dem Schlusse,
dass die englischen Consonanten durchweg
einer spateren Entwickelungsstufeangehoren,
als die deutschen. Sieht man vollends, wie
die englischen Formen den deutschen iiberall
nachgestellt sind, und wie 41 1 von Auslassung-
en, Einfiigungen und Umstellungen handelt,
so ergiebt sich als scheinbar zweifellos, dass
der engl. Consonantismus sic haus dem hoch-
deutschen entwickelt habe. So wird der arg-
lose Neuling von vornherein in die Irre ge-
fiihrt. Fast mochte es scheinen, als ob der
Bearbeiter selbst nicht ganz im Klaren gewe-
sen ware ; denn in dem erwahnten Schema S.
221 ist Grimm's Verschiebungsgesetz in ganz
entstellter Form wiedergegeben. Die Reihen-
folge sollte sein
Soft Hard Aspirate (Soft),
und S. 222 :
English soft hard aspirate
German hard aspirate soft.
Es wu'rde sich empfehlen, wie hier, so iiber-
all die englischen Formen den deutschen
voranzustellen und den Grund dafiir die Pri-
oritat der englischen consonantischen Laut-
stufe im Vergleich mit der weiter verschobe-
nen hochdeutschen ausdrucklich zu erklaren
und hervorzuheben. j5 409, 410. Die Eintei-
lung der lautlichen Abweichungen ist manch-
mal sogar fiir ein Elementarbuch zu unwissen-
schaftlich. 414. Overset ein primitive?
417. Zu Stande kommen to be brought
about, to be consummated. 422. Ehren-
bezeigungen, nicht bezeichnungen. 423. Die
Hose, das Beinkleid sind ganz gewohnlich
als Singulare ; auch das Ostern, das (die)
Pfingsten, das (die) Weihnachten oder die
Weihnacht, die Alp kommen haufig vor.
425. Die Bemerkung : but in the compound,
die Fensterladen, onfyist unrichtig. 426.
Der Chor=the chorus, the choir ; das Chor=
the choir. 428. (or dem Herrn) ist zu strei-
chen; die Frau Professor(in); meine Frau wird
nie als Anrede gebraucht, man sagt Madam(e)
(vrraltet)oder hoflichcr gnddige Frau, oder
:il)-r Frau mit nachfolgcn<l< m Naim r.
TitH <lrs ( ieinahls: Frau Miiller, Frau Doctor-
(i'w)etc. g 430*. Selten difs(ts) mein Herz.
432. Die tttichdruckerkunst wortli< h the
art-of-the-printer-of -books. 434 C . Kiigehin-
7U : sich t-nlsinnen, to remember. ^ 437.6.
Sich anmassen, to arrogate; Note: d
brauch des Artikels ware unhoflich, da -
be vor Eigennamen oft Geringschatzung aus-
driickt. 438. Ist favorable im Sinne des
deutschen hold guter Sprachgebrauch ? Si li
Ex. LI, Satz i. 450. Alter liebst ist kein
absoluter, sondern ein relativer Superlativ
(aller=von alien); aber es wird jetzt kaum
mehr als Superlativ gefuhlt, das beweist seine
praedicative Anwendungund derregelm:i-,sig<-
Gebrauch des unbestimmten Artikels vor dem-
selben. 452. In meinetwegen, seinetu'illen,
euerthalben etc. haben wir nicht Genitive der
Personalia, sondern Accusative resp. Dative
der Possessiva, da wegen, willen, halben ur-
spriinglich substantivische Casus sind. Also
eigentlich (und friiher thatsachlich so ge-
schrieben)rw/ meincn Wegen, umseinen Willfit,
(von) eueren Halben imlnl. JiaJ6e=Se\te, Rich-
tung). Wegen des / vergleiche man die For-
men meinentwegen, derentwillen, allenthalben
etc. Mit Ausnahme von halb(en), das schon
ganz friih als blosse Praeposition auftritt, ist
der gen. sing, der Personalia in Verbindung
mit diesen Ausdriicken erst neuerdings, und
nur in beschranktem Masse, gebrauchlich
geworden. 457,3 sollte lauten : Regular-
ly, as indefinite antecedent of a relative, he
(who) is derjenige or der not er, etc. : he
who is happy, derjenige welcher glilcklich ist,
or wer gliicklich ist; but when the antecedent
refers to a certain person before mentioned or
understood, it must be translated by the person-
al pronoun : auch er (sie, etc.), der (die, etc.)
mir so viel verdankte, verliess mich in der
Not. 459, Remark. Darin diirfte man mit
dem Bearbeiter doch nicht ohne Weiteres
iibereinstimmen. Dasselbegilt von der Bemer-
kung 462,2. g 463, b. continuing up to and
during the present time. 467. Mich bezah-
len, nicht mir ; aber wenn das Ding, welches
bezahlt wird, erwahnt ist, steht es im Accusa-
tiv, die Person, der man etwas bezahlt, im
Dativ. 468. Um dass ist veraltet. 472.
43
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
88
He might have forgotten it wiirde man zu-
riickiibersetzen mit er hdtte es vergessen kon-
nen, nicht er diirfte etc. Diirfen driickt eher
eine Wahrscheinlichkeit, als eine blosse Mog-
lichkeit aus ; dazu hat der Conj. Praet. diirfte
fast immer Praesensbedeutung. Also das
diirfte zu schwer sein : that is probably too
hard; er ditrfte es vergessen haben : he has
probably forgotten it, etc. 474,d. Nach
Juhlen, hbren, sehen ist der active Infinitiv
mindestens doppelsinnig ; man wird ihn stets
eher activ als passiv auffassen. 477, Note.
Den Fluss durchschwamm, nicht d. F. sch-
wamm. c. Satze \vie der letzte (mit um dass)
diirfen dem Schiiler nicht als Muster vorgelegt
werden. 483. Erbittert heisst exasperated ;
embittered=verbittert. 485. Ja, horen sie
einmal kann je nach der Betonung auf ganz
verschiedene Weise iibersetzt werden, aber
keinesfalls mit just listen to what 1 say ; am
nachsten kame wol, dem Sinne nach, ein Aus-
druck wie : But, my dear Sir, etc. Ja als
Ausrufungswort zu Anfang eines Satzes ent-
spricht dem englischen Yes mitangehangtem
that is (would be) all very well und driickt
meist Ungeduld aus. Horen Sie (einmal) ! ist
eine Anrufung wie das englische (/) say \
Kommt er noch nicht heisst is he not coming
yet? Wohl bedeutet probably, nicht may-be,
manchmal auch indeed: Das ist wol wahr,
that is indeed true, oder that is true enough.
486,10. Wenn der Hauptsatzmit sobeginnt,
heisst das wenn im Nebensatz stets if; so ist
es auch in den letzten zwei Beispielen zu iiber-
setzen. 487, Examples i a . Nach versteckte
etc. lies who was ... and who received and con-
cealed etc.
Die Uebungsstiicke zum Uebersetzen ver-
lieren dadurch sehr an Wert, dass die allzu
reichlichen Anmerkungen dem Schiiler oft gar
keine Gelegenheit zur selbstandigen Anwen-
dung gelernter Regeln iibrig lassen. Wozu
sollen denn solche Uebersetzungen dienen,
wenn z. B. iiberall angegeben wird, wann der
Conjunctiv ge.braucht werden muss und wie
das Verbalnomen auf ing wiederzugeben ist ?
Andersvvo wird in ganz leichten Dingen nach-
geholfen, wahrend idiomatische Eigentiimlich-
keiten, die sich keiner Regel fiigen (wie S. 303
a little way, S. 311 the snows of Lapland, etc.)
unerklart bleiben. Auch sonst finden sich
einige Versehen. p 303, Ex. IV. Wozu ist
lying \\\ Klamrnern ? p 304, Ex. VII. Tore-
strain ist hier : in Schranken (im Zaume) hal-
ten. p 306, Ex. X. Anm. i ist fur den Schiiler
zu unbestimmt. p. 310 Ex. VIII. To redeem,
hier : siihnen ; to disdain : verse hinahen ; Anm.
9 soil wol heissen anhdngen, aber auch dieses
Wort passt hier nicht, vielmehr sollte die ganze,
fur den Schiiler zu schwierige Stelle (he bis
ignominy) in einer Anmerkung erklart sein.
Ex. IX. Tend exceedingly : sind sehr dazu
angethan ; gehen sehr weit ware hier un-
deutsch. 311. To delight in : seine Freude
(Lust) haben an.
Zur Liste der starken Verba : Fechten und
jlechten sollen auch schwach vorkommen?
Von beklemmen ist nur das Part. Perf. beklom-
men stark. Klingen ist immer stark. Das
Part. Perf. von stecken wird stets schwach ge-
bildet.
Endlich sind die folgenden Drjckfehler zu
verzeichnen : 134. ( 87) statt ( 86). 206.
( 456,2.) st. ( 455,2.). 427. Matthei st.
Matthdi. 434,c. gedst. get. 437, 5. forbade
st. forebode. 462. advatage st. advantage.
475, d. under (i) st. in 474. 485,10. Das
ist wahr st. Das ist wohl wahr. 303, Ex. III.
gone* si. gone. 308, Ex. \ .mouth 1 st. mouth.
^ 317. 231 b (vor schinden} st. 2j/ a.
Nach so vielen Ausstellungen gereicht es
dem Referenten zur Freude, auch der unter-
schiedlichen Vorziige zu gedenken, welchedie
amerikanische Bearbeitung vorihrem englisch-
en Originale auszeichnen und die dazu beitra-
gen werden, dem Buche in einer verbesserten
Auflage einen Platz unter den besten vorhan-
denen Schulgrammatiken zu sichern.
HUGO SCHILLING.
Wittenberg College.
A UDI AL TERAM PAR TEM.
After two such reviews of the Joynes-Meiss-
ner German Grammar as have appeared in
the NOTES with more promised of like kind
surely even a book as limited in its scope and
as modest in its pretensions as this declares
itself to be, must have some right of defense.
That I fully share Mr. Schilling's wish that the
book in a future edition mav be made as free
44
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No.
as possible from error, is proved by the fact
that he had been specially asked to communi-
cate to the editor his suggestions to that end
and, also, that at my request the publishers
have since addressed a like printed invitation
to all teachers known. to be using the book.
I accept this as the avowed object of his paper
in spite of some, doubtless unconscious,
features hardly consistent with this single pur-
pose ; and I thank him for whatever correc-
tions he may have made. Yet I cannot but
regret, for his own sake as well as mine and
the book's, that he did not subject his work to
more careful revision. This not in depreca-
tion of criticism, but in sheer justice I now
propose to do. I shall follow his "points"
one by one so far at least as may suffice for
the present purpose; then 1 shall add a few
words of conclusion.
1. 96. It is an error to say that I divide
nouns of the weak declension into not less
than six groups. I appeal to the text and
the context ( 93, 94)
2. 134. The statement that the combined
endings of the pronominal and of the
adjective should be learned "both hori-
zontally and vertically" occurs, in smaller
type, in one of those suggestions to teach-
ers, referred to in the preface, of which
nothing more will now be said. That they
should be so learned " auswendig " is a
gratuitous addition.
3. 408. The mnemonic words, referring to
Grimm's Law, are taken, with slight
change from the Historical English Gram-
mar of Dr. R. Morris, by whom they are
expressly attributed to his friend, the Rev.
W. W. Skeat a surely sufficient authority.
They are here expressly intended only as
a help for beginners.
4. 244, etc. The fact that the Indefinites
are divided, in a first statement, into pro-
nouns and adjectives ; that, later, some
of the latter are included under the gener-
al term pronominals (with reference to the
declension of a following adjective) and
that, finally (under syntax), the entire group
is treated in detail as indefinites, is perfect-
ly simple, consistent, and logical. The
same might be said of the demonstratives,
etc.
5. g 481, 2. What i-, saiil of the perfect parti-
ciples of intransitive verbs is a simple
statement of the truth. It would not be
true to say that such participles have here
active meaning. Das gesunkene Schiff
does not mean a ship that has sunk some-
thing else.
6. 28. Is the reverse of "apodiktisch."
The reference to the "best author!:.
clearly implies that there are other author-
ities and other usage. That I have corn c t
ly stated the best usage will, I presume,
not be denied.
7. Pp. 17-18. That the Schrift letters, here
copied from Meissner, are not perfect, may
be admitted ; but many teachers think a
fair handwriting makes a better copy than
a perfect copper-plate. The microscopic
accuracy of the criticism is, however, only
suggestive of frequent regret elsewhere.
8. 85. It would be impossible to believe,
without referring to the text, that it is
nowhere stated that such words as Jung-
ling, Heft, P/erd,etc. t are not umlauted
in the plural ! They occur only in some
groups of words given as exercises in the
paradigms and there, without the least
reflection on the " Geistesgaben der
Amerikanischen Jugend ! "
9. 86. Here might be added mancher and
solcher; but they come in better else-
where.
10. 88. Might also stand after 79, but is
in its proper place here. Ihr " her," here
indeed "forgotten," isduly remembered,
192.
11. 101. The book gives both forms for
Schmerz.
12. 105 is a side remark, in smaller type,
calling attention to the occasional occur-
rence of unusual, or double forms. In so
far, it is entirely correct and in place.
13. 123. Does not Augapfel also mean the
" pupil of the eye? "
14. 132. It would not have been in place
to distinguish here the plurals Tucher and
Tuche. Such double forms are discussed
later.
r 5- J 75- The forms habe er, etc., instead
of er habe, etc., are given (for imperatives)
because they are the more usual forms as
45
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
92
is stated in the immediate context ( 177),
and also, more fully and precisely, 346.
16. $ 202, 3. Yes ; the statement is too gener-
al. "Often" or "usually "should be
inserted. Thanks.
17. It is a mistake to say that 235 " besagt
dasselbe wie 234." See the text.
18. But by far the gravest of all is Mr. Schil-
ling's criticism upon the verb-forms, 242,
243, 232, 246, which for convenience may
be grouped together. He here charges
error, or defect, in not less than 28 of the
Strong Verbs surely a serious charge
and deserving, if true, of even severer
remark but can it be possible that so
grave a charge could be made if not true ?
Let us see.
Of these twenty-eight forms, \.wo,fichst,
flichst (to* fichtst, flichtsf) occur in the last
edition of Meissner, and are not included
in the list of misprints kindly sent me by
Dr. M. ; nor were they noted by any of my
accomplished proof-readers. Still, they
may be erroneous.
For one, birst (for birstest) I do not find
the requisite authority, though it may
exist.
And now, will it be believed that the other
25 forms are given in the grammar with entire
correctness, almost in the very terms demand-
ed by Mr. Schilling ? And yet this astonish-
ing statement is true ! I need only refer to the
Alphabetical List, pp. 312-320 a list not in-
cluded in Meissner's Grammar, but made by
me as expressly supplementary to the classi-
fied lists (intended for earliest exercise only)
from which alone Mr. S. has quoted. This,
too, from a critic who, in his very first sentence
declares that the relation of my work to Dr.
Meissner's has been " festgestellt " strange
coincidence ! by another critic (Dr. Goebel)
who, in an express list of "improvements,"
does not mention this most important addi-
tion ! !
Can it be possible that Mr. Schilling had not
seen this list, but deliberately set himself to
review a book which he had not even read
through ? Is this the deutsche Griindlichkeit
of which we hear so much ? Is this what was
due to the MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES? or to
me? or to himself?
Need I go further ? Need I pursue to the
end this list of "Punkte," of which there is
just one column more mostly, like the pre-
ceding, either mistaken or trivial to show the
essential (yet I would not say, intentional)
injustice of this review ? That Mr. Schilling
has contributed a few useful corrections, I
thankfully acknowledge ; but 1 should be too
vain if I imagined the book did not need more
careful reading and more helpful criticism
than his. These, with the aid of all willing
friends, I promise to supply, for the next edi-
tion.
Now, having so far followed Mr. Schilling's
order, I will venture, in a few concluding
remarks, to move backwards. The Veraltete
Formen, Verstosse gegen das Idiom, etc., to
which he refers, I hope Mr. S. will not fail to
communicate, either through the NOTES or
personally. But it is only fair to add that, at
different stages, the sheets of this book were
read by scholars familiar with the best "Sprach-
gebrauch " in both German and English. The
errors which have escaped them all are, I trust,
neither many nor serious. Still, they will be
gratefully corrected.
As to the opinion that the detailed exhibi-
tion of the paradigms, in an elementary book,
necessarily demands "das geistestotende Aus-
wendiglernen " I have no reply to make. So
far as the remark is meant to apply to the sup-
posed methods of the editor of this book, it is
an entire mistake. At the same time, I do
deem it proper that the student, or the teacher,
who needs to consult a paradigm, should
know where to find it, in its most complete
form.
Still moving backwards, I read the first sen-
tence, wherein, with sincere regret, I note the
starting-point of this review, in an error so
grave that it could hardly have failed to lead
the writer astray. That Dr. Goebel, in his
paper for December, had " im Allgemeinen
festgestellt " the relation of my work to Dr.
Meissner's original, is, unfortunately, not true.
Mr. Schilling's opinion to that effect is, I fear,
only an instance of misplaced confidence!
Only my respect for Dr. Meissner and for his
work has prevented and still prevents me from
pursuing this question in detail ; but I leave
its answer to everv candid reader who will
93
February. MODKK.V LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. a.
compart- tin- two hooks. That I >r. Goehrl
had " ge/eichnet " the character of I' ro|".
HarriftOn'8 paper (for November) may he inn-
hut tin- terms in which lie did so arc certain-
ly to be regretted hy '-\cry " Fachgenosse."
l'"inally and with most regret I observe
that Mr. Schilling's indebtedness to Dr. Goe-
bel begins even before the (irst sentence, with
the title itself: " Nodi /'.hinni/ Mt issner-
Joynes." The hook in question is named by
its American proprietors, who have amply
satisfied all other rights, \\\v Joy ties- Meiss tier
German Grammar. This title was intended
to represent the nature of the book, which is,
moreover, fully and fairly stated on the title-
page and in the preface Mr. Schilling, follow-
ing Dr. Goebel, calls it Meissner-Joyties with
what purpose, jocose or serious, 1 will not pre-
tend to say. But, I submit, this is not even
lawful ; still less is it courteous ; least of all is
it worthy of a dignified review. Let me sup-
pose a case : if Mr. Schilling had, for any
reasons, subscribed his review with the signa-
ture Schilling- Goebel would he have deemed
it courteous or legitimate in me to quote it
by the name Goebel-SehilKngl Yet just so
only in a far graver matter have he and Dr.
Goebel treated the title of the Joynes-Meissner
German Grammar.
EDWARD S. JOYNES.
South Carolina College.
P. S. The editors of the NOTES have been kind
enough to send me the proofs of Mr. Schilling's" Noch
Einmal Meissner-Joynes II," against which I have
hardly anything to object, except as before the title,
for which I hardly hold Mr. S. responsible. I note with
pleasure the absence of that tone apparent but, I am
sure, unconscious which was so much regretted in
the first paper. I am thankful for many helpful criti-
cisms, while as before some, on closer inspection,
would appear to be mistaken and others quite un-
important. I have even "heaped a little fire" on
Mr. Schilling's head, by* correcting some false refer-
ences and misprints that he had overlooked in his own
paper. As to the errors in German, it would be amus-
ing to see how far almost without exception they
are taken without change from Meissner, an " Eingc-
fiorener;" but this, of course, did not fall within the
scope of Mr. Schilling's review, and would be, more-
over, no excuse for actual error. I shall thankfully
accept his help in a closer inspection of all such points
for the next edition.
The only point of Mr. Si hilling's second paper
ic to iioiii-r, is his iritH i-m ujx,n the chapter
on the Relation of ( ,ennan to Kngli-h, u ith r-
to tin: brief statement of (or rather, allusion to i Grimrn'h
Law. If he will read more carefully, he will ve
that I speak only of correspondence between the two
languages not of derivation, nor even chang<
one to the other. Historical views are exprewly ex-
cluded (lioth here and in the preface). Now, the
reason for putting the German first was purely peda-
gogical: that is, the German form is considered a-, the
pupil's i/iifitni, to be correlated with its corresponding
English. In certain cases as in the latter part of my
reply to Mr. Schilling's lirt paper it maybe lawful
to move backboards. At the same time, I am quite
willing to admit as suggested to me by another very
kind critic [Prof. BRANDT] that it might have been
better for my (elementary) purpose to give simply a
list of principal correspondences, without any refer-
ence to Grimm's I^aw. At any rate, there i
enough of this to hurt ; " and the limits of the view
presented are very clearly stated in the book.
In conclusion, let me again thank Mr. Schilling for
the trouble he has taken, with the promise that not
one of his suggestions shall be disregarded in the
revision of a book of which with all its faults he is
good enough to speak so kindly.
K. S. J.
Quatre grands po'etes du /o* siec/t, Conferen-
ces, par ALCEE FOR TIER, professeur 5
rUniversite" de Tulane, N. Orleans, 1887.
Ce petit volume nous a interesse'; encore
que publi^ en Louisiane, ou la langue francaise
n'est pas morte, Dieu merci, il pourrait bien
tre, sous son apparence modeste, un signe
des temps. II faut bien qu'on se disc, en eflfet,
que le couronnement des Etudes litteYaires est
ncessairement polyglotte, et que, pour ache-
ver une vue d'ensemble sur la pense"e d'un
peuple, la langue qui lui servit a 1'exprimer
est le seul instrument propre a en faire com-
prencke la porte'e et les nuances avec fide'lite'.
C'est assez dire que nous voudrions \\>ir 1 'usage
des conferences franchises se multiplier dans
les universits ameYicaines, non settlement
pour exposer les sujets litteraires aux tu-
diants des degrs superieurs, mais encore pour
faconner leur oreille aux modulations de la
langue et de la parole francai
Rien ne vaut 1'anglais pourpark-rde Shake-
speare, ralli-mand, pour analyser Goethe, et,
47
95
February. MODERN LANG UA GE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
96
pour disserter sur Mussel ou sur Lamartine,
1'idiome sonore et precis qui fit vibrer leur
lyre.
Au point de vue de 1'histoire litteYaire, les
conferences de M. Fortier sont completes,
trop completes mme, a notregre", caril nous
paralt impossible de trailer d'aussi vastes
sujets dans un cadre aussi restreint, si Ton
pretend tout dire. Le catalogue des ceuvres
prend tant de place, qu'il n'en reste guere
pour les appreciations originales. Or, comme
M. P. Bourget le dit si justement, l'extrme
civilisation tend & remplacer la faculte de cr6er
par celle de comprendre, et nous vivons dans
un siecle ou 1'enseignement litte'raire ne sau-
rait aller sans analyse. On saisit bien que
nous ne parlons pas ici de 1'analyse d'un
roman ou d'un conte, M. Fortier, selon nous,
use un peu trop de celle-la, mais de cette
analyse esthetique et psychologique, qui, sous
I'emotion donne"e, cherche sa raison d'etre.
Nous croyons fermement que quelques mor-
ceaux soigneusement choisis, etudies a la
lumiere d'une critique personnelle, donnent
d'un auteur tine idee plus feconde que l'e"nu-
meration de ses ouvrages.
Mais ce n'est la qu'un point de vue, et il est
bien possible que 1'auteur des " Quatre con-
ferences" ne le partage pas. Cette diver-
gence d'opinion ne nous empche point de
rendre hommage a rendition de M. Fortier,
qui, dans ces consciencieuses etudes, a ouvert
une voie ou nous voudrions voir d'autres
s'engager aprs lui.
Et puis, il faut le dire, dans 1'idee de 1'auteur,
ses conferences etaient, peut-etre, plutdt des
lecons qu'autre chose ; il parlait & ses etu-
diants, plus encore qu'a un public deja lettre,
partant, plus exigeant. Si c'etait le cas, et nous
avons lieu de le croire, les reserves que nous
avons faites perdraient beaucoup de leur force,
et pourraient bien se transformer en eipges,
car le volume clont nous parlons s'adapte ad-
mirablement & cet enseignement, necessaire-
ment plus dogmatique que critique, qui reste
la base indispensable de 1'esthetique litteraire,
logiquement posterieure en date. A ce point
de vue, le livre de Mr. Fortier est un manuel
predeux a consulter, dont la place nous parait
marquee, d' avance, dans les bibliotheques
" coliegiales " et universitaires.
Un mot, toutefois : Mr. Fortier, en prenant
(pages 38 et 39) la defense de Lamartine,
qui n'avait m rit ',
Ni cet exc! s d'honneur, ni cette indignit ',
lui a-t-il fait sa veritable place ? A-t-il tenu
suffisamment compte de cette justice tardive,
mais eclatante, que la critique contemporaine
rend a 1'auteur des Meditations? II n'est,
peut-tre, pas hors de propos de rappeler ici
que Mr. Brunetiere disait de lui (R. des D. M.,
Aout, 1886): "J'ai la confiance que 1'heure
viendra, t6t ou tard, pour Lamartine, d'etre
mis & son rang, et ce rang il se
pourrait que ce fut le premier."
Entendez-vous ? Le premier, et cela, dans
le siecle qu'on appelle deja, un peu prematu-
rement peut-e"tre, le siecle de V. Hugo! Et
Mr. Brunetiere n'est pas le seul, puisque T.
Lemaitre s'ecrie: "Et notez que Lamartine,
c'est plus qu'un poete, c'est la poesie elle-
mme." (V. Les Coiiteinporains, i e Serie, a
propos de F. Coppee).
Chose qui donne, assurement, a penser, que
cet accord absolu sur le nom de Lamartine,
entre deux critiques eminents, de methodes
si diverses, 1'un, gardien jaloux des traditions
classiques, 1'autre, si franchement epris de
modernite
A. Du FOUR.
Washington, D. C.
ENGLISH LITER A TURE.
A History of Elizabethan Literature. By
GEORGE SAINTSBURY. Macmillan & Co.,
London and New York, 1887. xiv, 471
pp. 8vo.
We have read this book with genuine
pleasure and satisfaction. It grows in interest
as it expands, and is laid. aside with a feeling
of regret and grateful recollection. Mr. Saints-
bury's previous training in our own literature,
his wide and varied acquaintance with the
literature of France, eminently qualify him
to be the historian of the most fascinating and
comprehensive era in the development of our
language. Such the Elizabethan age is ; such
it must always be. Its position in our literary
evolution is similar to that of Rome in the
evolution of European history it is the central
48
97
Fcbwary. MODERN LA G UAG E NOTES, 1888 No. a.
point; all previous literature converges to it,
all subsequent literature diverges from it.
The wonderful complexity of infiueiicfs that
entered into its development has never been
aih -quately investigated; the harvest for
special research is still rich anil plenteous.
We can in the course of an ordinary review
note only the distinctive features of Mr. Saints-
btiry's work. The preliminary portion is
executed with the characteristic thoroughness
of the author ; we are especially pleased with
the lucid fashion in which he has explained
the genesis of the Elizabethan drama, with its
commingling of scholarly and popular, classi-
cal and romantic elements. Ample justice is
clone almost for the first time, if we except
Professor Minto's sketch in his ' Characteristics
of "English Poets,' to the strange and isolated
genius of Sackville, the author of the ' Induc-
tion to "The Mirror for Magistrates." We
seem in this unique production to reap for the
first time the ripe fruits of the Renaissance in
England; with no disparagement of the earlier
school of Surrey and Wyatt, nothing in the
range of our literature had approached the
'Induction' in sombre splendor and melancholy
grace. The opening stanzas never fail to
recall the introduction to Keats's ' Eve of St.
Agnes,' the style of which must have been
sensibly affected by its diligent study. We
adhere to the opinion previously expressed,
that Mr. Saintsbury in tracing the origin of our
prose literature does not carry his investiga-
tions to a sufficiently early period in the history
of our speech, ignoring the first Biblical trans-
lation in which the form and fashion of our
sacred style was fixed for all time. The
omission is the more conspicuous by reason of
the superb tribute he pays to the King James
or Authorized Version, itself the consummate
flower of many preceding translations and
much heroic devotion. Notably is this true of
Tyndale, whose undefined English has kindled
the enthusiastic admiration of the cold and
cavilling Froude.
We believe that no previous historian of
this epoch has so thoroughly succeeded in
portraying its complex and versatile richness
of thought as well as form and color. An
anthology of the minor and almost forgotten
poets of the Elizabethan age, would form a
most valuable contribution to our liter. itnn-
In no era of the world's literature, perhaps, is
there so much that is rare and worth
survival which has so nearly faded from the
memory of after times. Tin- spr id. iiitliiem <
of the Renaissance in developing m our lit'
ture a love of form and color, is discussed ly
Mr. Saintsbury in his wonted stimulating and
suggestive manner. It has sometimes been
the fashion of literary historians to speak of
the " highly colored style now regnant in our
poetry." as if it were of modern origin, bein^
coincident with Keats and Shelley, and per-
petuated by Tennyson in our own time. Such
a view seems to be entirely at variance with
the recognized facts of our literary develop-
ment. The poetry of the Elizabethan age
teems with richness of coloring and splendor of
form ; not only the master-pieces of its su-
preme artists, Spenser, Marlowe, Shakespeare.
and Johnson, but the writings of many almost
nameless bards abound in flashes of brilliancy
and beauty aglow with the very genius of the
Renaissance. However much this feature of
Elizabethan times may have been repressed
during the critical or reflective dispensation of
Dryden and Pope, it beamed forth again under
the more auspicious influences of our romantic
revival during the closing decades of the
eighteenth and the earlier decades of the
nineteenth century. We regret that time
and adherence to rational limits will not allow
us to consider Mr. Saintsbury's view of the
strange phenomenon known as Euphuism,
and his admirable pages upon the great prose-
poets, Taylor, Milton, and Sir Thomas
Browne.
If we were to venture a criticism upon Mr.
Saintsbury's English, it would assume the
form of a gentle protest against the super-
abundant employment of "the enemy 'and
which,'" to quote his own language in the
introduction to his English Prose, p. xxxin.
The phrase is a harsh and dissonant one even
when " preceded by another which ; " for the
most part its use can be dispensed with with
pleasure to the reader, as well as with advan-
tage to the grace and symmetry of the sen-
tence.
A brief review can convey no adequate im-
pression of the value of Mr. Saintsbury's work.
49
99
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
While not acquisescing in all his views and
deploring an occasional looseness of expres-
sion, we cordially commend the book to the
critical scrutiny of students of English Litera-
ture in the United States.
H. E. SHEPHERD.
College of Charleston.
Ueber die Sprache der Wandalen. Ein Bei-
trag zur Germanischen Namen- und
Dialectforschung von DR. FERDINAND
WREDE. Strassburg, Karl J. Triibner,
1886.
Wer die Entwicklung der deutschen Philo-
logie wahrend des letzten Jahrzehnts aufmerk-
sam und unbefangen verfolgt hat, dem wird es
wol nicht ohne Bedauern entgangen sein, wie
diese Wissenschaft nach und nach zur einsei-
tigen Lautforschung zusammengeschrumpft
ist. Dass es bei der herrschenden Mode ein
Leichtes sei, sich durch Aneignung beliebter
Schlagworter, Schulausdriicke und Formeln
einen wissenschaftlichen Narrfen zu erwerben,
hat schon Scherer scharf geriigt. Von dem
Geiste, der die grossen Begriinder der ger-
manistischen Studien und ihre nachsten
Schuler beseelte, schien sich nur wenig auf
die Epigonen vererbt zu haben, die ihre
Grosse gar oft damit zu beweisen suchen, dass
sie iiber jene Manner hochmutig herfahren.
Ein jeder Versuch die Mode zu durchbrechen
und die einseitig atomistische Methode zu
iiberwinden, indem er das Ganze der Wissen-
schaft im Auge behalt, ist darum von vorn
herein wolwollend zu begriissen. Doppelt ist
solch ein Versuch aber willkommen zu heissen,
wenn er von einem scharfsinnigen, methodolo-
gisch und, auch im Sinne der Lautforschung,
philolologisch geschulten Kopf ausgeht, wie
er uns in der vorliegendeu Abhandlung begeg-
net.
Nur wenig ist bisher auf dem Gebiete ge-
schehen, das sich der Verfasser erwahlt hat, so
sehr auch gerade hier das Fragmentarische
der Ueberlieferung Scharfsinn und Combina-
tionsgabe des Philologen reizen mogen. Lei-
der ist uns ja von der Sprache der vielen
Germanenstamme, welche wahrend der V61-
kernanderung auftreten, fast nichts als Per-
sonennamen, und auch diese meist in
verderbter Form iiberliefert. Hierzu kommt
noch, dass wir von den lateinischen und
griechischen Schriftstellern, denen wir ihre
Erhaltung verdanken, nur einzelne text-
kritische Ausgaben besitzen, dass somit die
Arbeit des Forschers unendlich erschwert
wird. K. Meyers Schrift iiber die Sprache
der Langobarden muss in vielen Beziehungen
fiir ungeniigend gelten, und es bleibt daher
nur iibrig, was J. Grimm in der Geschichte
der deutschen Sprache fiir die Losung dieser
Fragen auf ostgermanischem Gebiete geleis-
tet hat.
Mit Recht betont Wrede in der Einleitung
dass die Namenforschung, welche die Unter-
suchung hier notwendig sein muss, vom Stand-
punkte des Dialectes zu betreiben sei, um zu
positiven Resultaten zu gelangen. So mangel-
haft das wandalische Sprachmaterial auch ist,
das sich auf ca. 53 Namen beschrankt, so
scheint es uns doch als habe der Verfasser
einige nicht unwesentliche Unterschiede vom
gotischen Sprachbestand festgestellt. Denn
da uns von dem letzteren ja das meiste
Material iiberliefert ist, so hat man es bis jetzt
kaum unternommen, auf strenge Scheidung
der iibrigen wandilischen Dialecte zu dringen.
In klarer, kritischer Weise behandelt unsere
Schrift im ersten Teile die Quellen, welche die
wandalischen Sprachreste bis zum Jahre 1000
iiberliefern. Es ist nach unserer Meinung vollig
berechtigt, wenn der Verfasser hierbei den La-
teinern grossere Zuverlassigkeit zuschreibt als
den Griechen, zumal die ersteren weit mehr in
personliche Beriihrung mil den Wandalen ka-
men als die letzteren und darum weit eher nach
dem Gehor berichten konnten. Am deutlich-
sten wird dies vielleicht bei der Ueberlieferung
von Geisarix, dem Namen des beriihmten
Wandalenkonigs. Wahrend sammtliche latei-
nische Quellen bis zu Geisarix' Tod den ersten
Bestandteil des Namens a'ls gets- (got. *gaiza,
ahd. alts, ger, an. geirr) geben, berichten die,
Griechen in bunter Mischung ri&pixo?, Fe&-
pixot, Ftv&pixoS, etc. Die letztere Form hat
schon J. Grimm (Gesch. d. d. Spr. 477) dazu
verfiihrt den Namen aus got. gansanser zu
erklaren. Da wir nun nicht wol annehmen
konnen, dass sich der Wandalenkonig mit zwei
Namen geschmiickt habe, wovon ausserdem
der erster nur vollig gesichert ist, so glaube
101
February, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. a.
102
ich, dass die Form rtv&ptxot eine griechische
Ungenauigkeit ist, die sich auf spatere latei-
nische Schriftsteller forterbte. Audi ohne
romanischen EHnfluss anzunehmen mag <l;is
v sehr vvohl aus nasalirter Aussprache des
Diphtongen ei entstanden sein wie sie durch
den Zischlaut begiinstigt wurde und heute
noch in Dialecten vorkommt.
I in xweiten Teile seiner Schrift behandelt
der Verfasser die Namen, welche sicli ihm aus
seiner Quellenuntersuchung ergeben haben.
In der Herstellung wie in der Deutimg der
einzelnen Namen ist der Verfasser gleich
scharfsinnig und meist ebenso gliicklich ver-
fahren. Einzelnes ist hier schon von Ehris-
mann Ltbl. vin, 468 ff. berichtigt worden.
So erinnert dieser zur Etymologic des Namens
VVandalen mit Recht an luendese, wendehner,
die schon Forstemann herbeizog, ebenso an
Wendel als Namen des Teufels. In der Her-
stellung der Namen Gamtith, Gabadus und
Theudarju wird Wrede trotz Ehrismann wol
Recht behalten. Bei Thrasamund, der son-
derbarer Weise auch als Transamund, wie
Genserich neben Geisartx erscheint, ware
wol nicht bios an got. prasa-balpei, sondern
auch noch an den westgotischen Thursimuud
zu erinnern. Beide Formen konnten dann auf
die gemeinsame Wurzel dhars 'mutig,' 'kiihn,'
' dreist sein ' zuriickgeben, wozu altir. tren
'heros,' ' vir fortis,' gr. Qpativt an. purs, ags.
p>yrs ahd. gaturstmhd. turst, diirse zu verglei-
chen waren (cf. Kremer Beitr. vin, 418; H.
Zimmer K. Zeitschr. xxiv, 207; J. Grimm
Gesch d. d. Spr. 195). Interessant ist es
natiirlich in Hasdinge und Theudarix zwei
Namen unserer Heldensage zu begegnen.
Im letzten Teile der Abhandlung hat der
Verfasser dem mangelhaften, vielfach un-
sicheren Character seines Materiales gemass
vorsichtig die grammatischen Resultate seiner
Untersuchungen zu ziehen versucht. Da er
sich selbst den " Mut des Fehlens " zuschreibt
und sehr wol weiss, dass er meist nur Andeu-
tungen gebenkann, so istes hochst iiberflilssig
die Schulmeisternase zu riimpfen, wenn die
positiven Resultate der aufgewanten Miihe
nicht zu entsprechen scheinen.* Die Griinde,
die Wrede dafiir beibringt, dass auslautendes
j im Wandalischen nach Dentalen bereits zu
schwinden angefangen hat, sind jedenfalls
ernstlich zu priifen. Als absolut sicher er-
scheinen mir dagegt-n <lt-s Verfassers Ausfuh-
rungen uber den diphtoiiKisi li-n (liar,
von wand, ei sowie die Schlussfolgerun;
die er hieraus gegen Bremers Anffassung von
got. at vor Vokalen (saiati. vaian Beitr. xi. 51
ff.) zieht.
Anziehend sind die allgemeinen Andeuttmg-
en, uber germanische Namengebung am
Schlusse des anregenden, fleissig und scharf-
sinnig gearbeiteten Buches, in dem wir eim-n
schonen Anfang wissenschaftlicher deutscher
Namenforschung erblicken, weichem der V.-r-
fasser hoffentlich recht bald das beabsichtigte
gotische Namenbuch wird folgen lassen.
JULIUS GOEBEL.
Die erste Person Pluralis des Verbums im
Altfranzosischen. Dissertation for the
Doctor's degree at the University of Strass-
burg, by ALFRED LORENTZ. 45 pp. 1886.
It is known to every student of French that
the various endings of the ist pers. plur. in
Latin in the tenses that have survived, with
the exception of the perfect, resulted in the
French form -ons. The following forms appear
in Old French : (i) -onsand its variants, as -otns,
-onies,-ommes,-ums,e\.c.;(2) -tens, -t'ftn, etc.;
(3) -tens, -iems, etc., in the Imperf. Ind. of all
conjugations ; (4) -mes, in the three words
faintes, dimes, and ermes. They correspond
to the following Latin endings: (i) -tintus ;
(2) -e(b)amus, -i(b)amus ; (3) -edmus, -Idtnus ;
(4) -Itnus. The remaining forms, viz. -atnus,
-emus, -tmus, and -ttbamus, have left no trace.
Thurneysen, in his treatise ' Das Verbum
etre und die frz. Konjugation,' Halle 1882, was
the first to explain satisfactorily the influence
of the -ons ending, originally belonging only to
sunius, on the development of all other verbs.
'"Die Art und Weise, wie sich die verschiedeneu " Schulen "
unter einander belobhudeln oder gegenseitig zu vernichten
suchen, ist ja allbekannt. Durch einzelne Wendungen wie z.
\\.inpartibufinfidelium verfUhrt, glaubte ich auch ia Dr.
Karstens Recension von Pauls Principien einen paneilichen
Ton zu endecken (cf. Decembernummer der NOTES). Inzwi-
schen habe ich jedoch vom Verfasser selbst erfahren, dass er
denselben keineswegs beabsichtigte und ich freue mich daher
meine Anffassung wie meinc Anmerkung zu jenern Artikel
hiermit berichtigen zu kimnen.
103
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
104
The thesis of Mr. Lorentz adds no new mate-
rial to this acknowledged theory, except the
suggestion that habemus in its Old French form
was first affected by sumus, as the Moralium
in Job shows only avomes beside somes. The
value of the thesis consists in the collecting
and sifting of the different forms, and grouping
them according to their geographical distribu-
tion. As more than sixty texts have been
carefully searched, the investigation may be
called a thorough if not an exhaustive one.
Realizing the difficulty of becoming acquain-
ted with dissertations that are not published
in journals and that therefore easily escape
attention, we hope the communication of the
results of the present thesis will be of some
service to students in Romance dialectology.
The difference in endings shows plainly the
existence of two groups of dialects, one of
which wholly rejects -iems and takes only -oms
and its representatives, while the other adopts
both. The former, moreover, never uses -omes,
the latter never -om. These two groups are the
West French (Poitou, Aunis, Saintonge, An-
goumois, Touraine, Maine, Manche and Nor-
mandy) and the Anglo-Norman on the one
side, and the rest of the continental French
dialect on the other. West French p is repre-
sented in Anglo-Norman by u. The West
French form -om changes to -d, later written
-on ; -ons is used in the twelfth century only for
the sake of the rhyme, and so with -uns in An-
glo-Norman. Probably -um was also nasalized,
though retaining its form.
The second group (Champagne Namur,
Cambrai, Belgium, Flanders, Brabant, Hai-
nault, Artois, Picardy, Beauvoisis, Verman-
dois, lie de France) has only in the pres. ind.
-oms, -ons etc. , the other tenses have also -iems,
-iens etc.
We recognize three further divisions : (i)
East French, the dialects of Wallonia and
Hainault, showing -ons in the pres. ind., and
-iens in the pres. subj. and impf. ind. andsubj.
In the last two dialects and that of Champagne
are to be found -omes and -iemes in the respec-
tive tenses, at least since the thirteenth cen-
tury. (2) -ons and -omes in the pres. ind. and
subj., are to be found in the North French dis-
trict ; the exclusive use of -iemes is met with
only in Picardy and Artois. (3) In the Central
French dialect -ons and -iens are used indiffer-
ently, with the exception of the pres. ind.,
which knows only -ons or sometimes -omes ;
-ons predominates in the North and -iens in the
South ; the first form seems to be used exclu-
sively in Beauvoisis.
This thesis will prove a valuable help for the
study of the Old French dialects. The micro-
scopic inquiry has proved, for instance, that
-omes does not necessarily characterize the dia-
lect of Picardy, as was formerly supposed.
Some of the most genuine documents of that
region never employ it. The results acquired
also tend to overthrow the hypothesis of Prof.
Suchier(Grober's Zeitschriftl, 277) and of Jen-
rich (Die Mundart des Miinchener Brut Halle,
1881), who assign the Brut of Miinchen to the
dialect of Namur. Besides the occurrence of
the -uns forms, which points to a connection
with the Anglo-Norman, there seem to be other
reasons for the untenableness of Jenrich's
opinion. These we propose to consider in a
later article.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
BRIEF MENTION.
One of the significant accessory features of
the second convention of the Modern Lan-
guage Association of Germany, held at
Frankfurt in the last Easter Holidays, was the
publication, under the general title of ' Frank-
furter Neuphilologische Beitrage,' of a Fest-
schrift der Neuphilologischen Sektion des
Freien Deutschen Hochstifts in Frankfurt a.
M. zur Begriissung des zzveiten allgemeinen
deutschen Netiphilologentages (Frankfort, 1887,
Svo., pp. xii, 136). It opens with an informal
account of the origin and activity of the
" Neuphilologischen Sektion" of Frankfurt,
by Direktor Arthur Kortegarn. This is follow-
ed by an extended study of " La Critique
litteYaire de Sainte-Beuve," written by Armand
Caumont, who quotes the remark of Edmond
Scherer : II faut avoir connu Sainte-Beuve,
pour savoir 1'importance qu'il attachait a 1'or-
thographe d'un nom propre, a un renseigne-
ment, a une date. II voulait tout voir de ses
propres yeux, tout verifier. II avail vraiment
la religion des lettres," Dr. Ludvvig Romer
105
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, i$88. No.*.
106
contributes an article entitled "/wolf fran.
ische Lieder aus dem 16. Jahrhuiulert." One
of the literary diversions of Dr. Edmund Sten-
'j,c\, the indefatigable Professor of Romance
Languages at Marburg, is the collection and
publication of the private correspondence of
eminent philologians. He ofl'ers us here two
letters from Ferdinand Wolf and Kmanuel
Geibel, and extensive contributions from the
correspondence of the Brothers Grimm with
several of their Frankfurt friends. Dr. Fer-
dinand Michel has a study entitled " Hand-
schriftliches zu Les Tournois de Chauvenci
von Jacques Bretel. ' ' One of the coincidences
of similar work done at the same time at wide-
ly distant points is marked by Oskar VVinne-
berger's " Textprobe aus der altfrz. Uberlie-
ferung des Guy de Warwick," considerable
extracts from one of the unpublished MSS. of
which (Bib. Nat. 1669) are given in the study
of " Guillaume de Dole," appearing in the
recent volume of 'Transactions of the Mod.
Lang. Ass'n of America.' The last article is
by Dr. Max Banner; it is entitled " Das Fran-
zosische als Unterrichtsgegenstand an unsren
Gymnasien." The predominance of critical
studies in French in the above showing is
noteworthy.
In Science, for December 23, '87, is to be
found a short notice of Saintsbury's ' A His-
tory of Elizabethan Literature ; ' for January
13, '88, an account of the recent Fifth Annual
Convention of the Modern Language Associa-
tion of America, held at the University of
Penna. (Philadelphia). A review and charac-
terization of the work of the same Convention,
from the pen of Dr. Julius Goebel, appears in
- the New York Belletristisches Journal
for January 27th. The University Review
(Organ of Garfield University) for December,
1887, contains an Article on "Modern Lan-
guages" by J. S. Griffin, Professor of Modern
Languages in that University. The December
Number (1887) of The Academy (Syracuse,
George A. Bacon, Editor) has a characteristic
and important article (pp. 385-397) on "Aims
and Methods in Modern Language Teaching,"
by Samuel Thurber, Master in the Girls'
High School, Boston.
Following close upon the first appearance
of Grandgent's Italian Grammar, recently
noticed in these < olumns (II, 465), conies to us
the third edition of a little work of similar
form though different treatment, entitl-
Manual of Italian Grammar, witli Compara-
ti\- Tables and Historical Remarks. by\V.
L. Montague, l'n>lessor ot' French, Italian and
Spanish in Amherst College (New York: H-n-
ry Holt & Co., 1887. i2mo, pp. 114). The
method of this grammar is purely <l
there being no exercises introduced, except
one in pronunciation, which in addition to its
special purpose " will be of service in the
application of the various facts respecting the
j parts of speech as they are consecutively-
learned in the grammar." The grammatical
statements, however, are illustrated by trans-
lated examples. The preface to this book
received the authors signature in 1874, nor
have the subsequent years, so far as the reader
is informed, suggested the propriety of any
changes or additions. Yet the occasion of
offering a new edition to the public might
have been utilized to give another form to
certain features and statements of the work.
Thus, as throwing light upon the information
that Dante's classification of the Italian dia-
lects has been modified since his time, other
authorities than that of the "35th vol. of the
North American Review " might appropriate-
ly have been mentioned. Care should have
been taken to eliminate such misleading com-
parisons (for the plural forms) as that given on
p. 17 for the definite article :
Sing. ILLE, ILLUM, ILLAM : //, lo, Id \
Plur. ILLI, ILLOS, 1 1. 1. AS: i, gli, le\
while a comparative table in which, for exam-
ple, are confronted (p. 34), without any sugges-
tion of a reconciliation, such forms as ILLAE
(elleno), ILLARVM (di loro), ILLIS (alpro), ILLAS
(loro, le), must be mystifying rather than sug-
gestive to beginners. As to the 'historical
remarks,' we find (p. 15) a note of some length
accounting for the origin of the plural s in
French, but of the Italian plural forms (includ-
ing that in -a) no explanation is offered. The
statement, however, is made that there are
many " euphonic changes " in the formation of
the plural : " i. Nouns ending in ca and ga
take an // in the plural, in order to preserve
the hard sound of the r and ," etc., etc. On
p. 37 the etyma of questo, cotfsto, qtiflio are
53
107
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
108
given as QUEM ISTUM, QUID ISTUM, QUEM
ILLUM ; and on p. 42 Sp. quienquiera, cual-
quiera are set down as the etymological
equivalents of It. chiunque, qualunque, the
corresponding Fr. quiconque being misprint-
ed quinconque. On the same page we are told
that " Si is used less frequently than on in
French, to represent an indefinite subject; . . .
but when the following accusative is plural the
verb agrees with it. Ex. Si vedono molfe
persone." Further on (p. 45), occurs the re-
markable statement that "In the Provencal
these forms [of the analytical future] were
never combined, as in French, Italian and
Spanish, to form a single word, and AD vos
DICERE HABES is written vos-dir-ai, or dir-vos-
ai." Again, on the same page, "The Spanish
imperfect subjunctive in ara and era is formed
from AREM, EREM of the same tense in Latin."
P. 74, " Ci and vi as adverbs of place are
contractions for quinci, here ; quivi, there. "-
In the chapter on ' derivation,' no account is
taken of vowel quality and position, or of tonic
accent. With the exception of these, and
some other corrigenda, the essential facts of
the language are here conveniently grouped
and plainly stated,
1 Die Werke des Troubadours N' At de Mons, '
by W. Bernhardt, forms volume eleven of the
Altfranzosische Bibliothek(Heilbronn : Gebr.
Henninger, 1887 ; pp. XLIX, 169). This poet,
who belongs to the decadent epoch of Proven-
cal literature, is not mentioned in the old MS.
biographies, a neglect which all his contempo-
raries shared, save Guiraut Riquier. From a
study of the historical allusions in his works,
which are almost entirely didactic, the editor
.arrives at the following conclusion : N'At de
Mons came from Toulouse ; he wrote in the
second half of the thirteenth century and was a
contemporary of Alfonso X., of Castille, and
Peter III., of Aragon. His death occurred
about 1290. The poems, now edited for the first
time, are five in number, contained in a single
MS. ; to them the sirventes already published
(Bartsch, Ghrest., col. 303) is added, which
completes the sum total of what has been
preserved. From passages and citations in
the ' Leys d" Amors,' it is evident that many
shorter poems were written by the same author
and are now lost, the fate which overtook the
greater part of the literature of South France.
Unfortunately for the present popularity of
N'At de Mons, the remnants of his literary
baggage have little other than linguistic worth :
his longest poem, in 2059 six syllable couplets,
addressed to Alfonso X. , treats of the influence
of the stars on human destiny ; the remaining
five are on topics not more attractive. The
editor has consequently devoted the greater
part of the introduction to the language of the
poet and of the MS., to comments on the flexion
and versification. A short criticism, in which
Dr. Foerster differs from certain yiews of the
editor, is appended. Following the text are
extended remarks and notes. It will be
noticed that in this publication a departure from
strictly French texts is made for ihe ' Altfran-
zosische Bibliothek.' That the precedent is
to be followed appears from the announce-
ment of other volumes on Provencal.
To the same field belongs the ' Vie tie Saint
George, poeme provencal ' by C. Chabaneau,
(Paris, 1877), a deprint from the Revue des lan-
guesromanes. The text is unaccompanied by
notes, and represents merely the Provencal
version of the favorite legend, evidently imitat-
ed from some French original. In the few re-
marks that precede the text, the editor has
evidently overlooked the fact that the episode
of the widow (v. 380 ss.) is common to the
French poems and their Latin original (See
Zeitsch.fur roman. Philologie, v, 508). Also
" le poeme de Wace sur le meme sujet " is,
without doubt, not by Wace but by some
anonymous poet, later by thirty years or more
(See Zeitschrift fiir roman. Phi/ologie, v,
504)-
At the last meeting of the Modern Language
Association of America, held at the University
of Penna. (Philadelphia) during the Christmas
holidays, 1887, a Phonetic Section of the So-
ciety was formed for the purpose of encourag-
ing and promoting the study of phonetics in
this country. The desire is to place the prac-
tical teaching of this subject upon a more
scientific basis, especially in our colleges, and
to develop, as far as circumstances will admit,
a spirit for scientific research in it. As a prac-
tical step toward the accomplishment of this
object, it is proposed by the members specially
interested, to urge that broader scope be given
54
109
/ .i>ruary. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
no
to this subject in public and private instruction,
to establish courses of lectim-s suitable to
promulgate correct views concerning it, to ar-
range a system of exchanges in phonetic litera-
ture, and to give, by correspondence, to in-
quirers in phonetic matters such help as may
be thought adapted to their various circum-
stances and needs. To secure agreement as
to the general mode of sound notation to be
used, a committee will endeavor to formu-
late a standard system which will be sub-
mitted for suggestions and improvements
to all those who take special interest in the
subject, and it is hoped that the result of
their united efforts will meet with general
approval. Equipped with this standard
alphabet, young scholars will be able to record
intelligibly the various dialect shadings of
American speech, of whatever origin, and
thus prepare the way to examine critically the
interesting phenomena of speech mixture in
this country. Suggestions from any quarter
touching a definite system of Sound notation
will be welcomed by the Committee. The
veteran phonetist, Alexander Melville Bell,
has accepted the presidency of the newly
formed section and Professor Gustaf Kar-
sten of Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.,
has been appointed Secretary; to the latter
should be addressed all communications re-
lating to the subject of phonetics.
We take pleasure in announcing that the new
American Folk-Lore Society, preparations for
which have been for some time making, is at
present definitely organized under the presi-
dency of Prof. F. J. Child of Harvard. The
Society will hold an annual meeting, but does
not promise a yearly volume of Proceedings
and Transactions. In lieu of this, a quarterly
journal will be published, to be furnished to
members of the Society in consideration of an
annual membership fee of three dollars. It is
hoped that the first number of the proposed
journal will appear in April next. The Acting
Secretary of the Society is Mr. W. W. Newell
of Cambridge, Mass., to whom those interest-
ed may address themselves.
JOURNAL NO'I h .
ZEIT8CHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZO6I8CHE S PR ACHE
UNDLITTERATUR BANDIX.HFT. 6. KK/KN-
KuertlBK, H. Victor Kourn. -,.
J-'i.x-i Heller.H.J. K. . Pt-u-n.-
Frankreleh. Hll.ler mid Nki/.w,i. Kraak. jMrf.
Arthur Tillcy, The Literatim- .r the Kr.-n.-h H.-HHI-
MUII ' AII Introductory KMMH) . Borakak. d. p HU |
Kiihnt. (iediuikeiii, :.!>-ii/<-ii in JoOHIe'i inn]
(iariiier'H TriiRftdien un<1 Sen.-ra 1 * KlnttiiiM 11
selben. Mabrenbollz. K. (iuHtave IJUT.-UI.
Com&lie ilc M.iliere. Kautem- et ]. milieu. Makrra-
hollz, It. W. Kreiten. Molldre'i Leben und W
Horning, H. H. Muhrcnholt/.. Jean- Francois Hommud
Hartraann, K. A. Martin. Xeue Krm-helnuiiiren der
HIIRO- Litteratur. Heller, H J. Jan ten Hrlnk. Lit
terarische Scheteen en Krltleken: fiinlle Zola.
Heller, H. J. Jan ten llrlnk. 1. ll.-i Nuturaliwne to
Rood, etc. Sckefler. W. C. C. Kleurlot. Auawahl fran-
zttsischer SprichwoYter mlt deutscher Cberaetzunir
und Erklai-uiiR. Sarrazln, Jo*ek- Frankfurter Neu-
phiiologrische .Beitrttge. Ranbeai, A. Lehr un-i
DbuiiRsbUcher Kir den Schulgebrauch. Bercbvlter,
W. Xavler de Malstre, Prascovle ou I^a Jeune SiU'n-
ciinc. Sarrazln. Jo-.-ph. Schulausgaben. Lla, Th. I .
SehulausKaben.MiszEi.bBN. Barrelrl, I'karlea. li
J. Kacine, Die Gerichtsfexen. WesBjr, L. Aufrusto
v i t it . Leg Mille et une Nuite de Th atre.- MahrtMktltz.
R. J. Grand-Carteret, I^a France jutrte par TAIle-
maKne. Heller, H. J. Victor Cberbullez, I.H i
Heller, H. J. Catulle Mendds, Zo'har, roman
porairi. Kambeau, A. Nachtrair zu Zschr.
ff.; 8. 39 ff Schulze, 0. Zu Zschr. IV, 8. 188 ff.
Supfle, Theodor. Demerkungen zu dom deuUcb*
fnuiy.osischeii Teile des Enzyklopsdlschen WQrter-
buchs von Sachs fgrrosse Ausgabe). HFT. 7. AB-
HANDLUNOEN. Dammhul/, K. 8tudienUberdiefrao-
zb'sischc Sprat- IK- zu AnfaiiR des XVII. Jhrhds. iin
Anschluss an J. de Schelendre's Tyr et 8idon,Tnuri-
comedie divisee en deux journ'es. MabreibalU, B.
f.mile Zola's Selbstbekenntnisse im Roman exp^ri-
mental. MISZELLEN. Klehler. Vondenloaen FlK-h-
sen dleser Welt, nur eine ttberaetzung aus dem Fran-
zOsischen des Jean Bouchet. Mabreiholtz, R. Doute*
snr leg Opinions recues dans la Social*. Hea7, K.
Sue, son exil en Savoie 1A12-1H5T.
LlTERATURBLATT FUR QERMANI8CHE UND RO-
MANI8CHE PHILOLOOIE. -Vor. Bebagbel, OMo. Brug-
111:11 1 H. Grundriss der verKl- Grammatlk der Indoor-
man. Sprachen I . Khrlomann, (i. W rede, Ueber die
Sprache der Wandalen. Hyaoaft, B. Volo spo. Aui
dem Altnord. Ubersetzt von A. Heugler. Mck, K.
(Jt-riiiR, Glossar zu den Liedern der Edda. reacer.
R. Keinhart Fuchs. Hrsgr. von Keissenbenrer. E*ck,
Max. Schmidt, niarakt-ristik*-n. ProevhoHl. Lud
wig. Markscheffel, Thomas Kyds TraKOdien. Krew-
nt-r, Adolf. Saure, Auswahl eiiRl. Gedichte; Gropp
und Hausknecht, Auswahl eiitrlischer GedK-htc.
KhrNmann. 6. Voxels, Die ungedruckten latein.
Versionen Mandeville'g. Morf, H. Ziesing. Braame
ou SaliRnac V Etude sur la lett.re de Fran?. Rabelais.
-Sllefel. A. L. Wenzel. Studieu Ober Antoiue de
55
Ill
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
Montehretien. Mahrenholtz, R. Kreiten, Molieres
Leben und Werke. Meyer, W. Horning, Die ostf ranz.
Grenzdialekte zwischen Metz und Belfort. Goerlich,
Ewald. Wendelborn, Rprachl. Untersuchung der
Reime der Vcgece- Versification des Priorat v. Besan-
^on. Belnhardstoettner, i\ Michaglis, Worterbuch
der portugiesischen Sprache. Bibliographic. Literar-
ische Mittheilungen, Personal nachrichten etc. Ly-
on, Erklttrung. Kahle und Kauffmann, Erwiderung
und Antwort. Kolmacevsky, Zu Ltbl. V. 104 ff. und
VIII, 391 ff .
ANDOVER REVIEW. December. Wood, C. J. Dante
Gabriel Rossetti.
NEW ENGLANDER. December. Whitney, E. Dr.
Furness's " Othello." January. Brastow, L. 0. Ca-
bot's Life of Emerson.
SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE. January. Holden, E. 8.
A New Light on Balzac. -Brownell, W. 0, French
Traits Intelligence .
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG. No. 48.
Boethe, 6. Die Gedichte Reinmars von Zweter (J. See-
mttller). Micbaelis, H. Neues Worterbuch der portu-
giesischen und deutschen Sprache (Wilh. Storck).
NO. 49. Meyer, P. Alexandre le Grand (E. Schro-
der). No. 50. de Nolhac, Pierre. La Bibliotheque
de Fulvio Orsini (A. Pakscher). Ottmann, B. E.
Grammatische Darstellung der Sprache des althoch-
deutschen Glossars (G. Kossinna). Briinning, J. Le
theatre en allemagne (1200-1760).
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT. NO. 48.
Grober, Grundriss, (Kn). Knust, H. Gualteri Burlaei
liber de vita et moribus philosophorum. Ortner, M.
Reinmar der Alte. DieNibelungen. No. 51. Adling-
ton, W. The most p'easant and delectable table of the
marriage of Cupid and Psyche (G. N.). No. 52.
Golther, W. Das Rolandslied des Pfaffen Konrad
(Kn).
REVUE CRITIQUE. NO. 47. Levl, I. Le Roman
d'Alexandre, texte hfibreu anonyme, etc. (R. Duval).
NO. 48. Mu'ntz, E. et Fabre. P. La Bibliotheque
du Vatican au XVe siecle (P. de Nolhac). No. 49.
Meyer, P. Fragments d'une vie de saint Thomas de j
Cantorbery (C. Bemont). No. 50. Combes, E. Pro-
flls et types de la litterature allemande (A. Chuquet).
NO. 51. 1. Scherer, W. Aufsatze fiber Goethe : 2.
Schmidt, E. Charakteristiken : 3. Lessing, Geschichte
seines Lebens und seiner Schriften: 4. Wolff, E., Karl
Gotthelf Lessing : 5. Lachmann, K. Gotthold Ephraim
Lessings sSmtliche Schriften (A. Chuquet).
REVUE DES DEUX MONDES. lerDccembre. Itrune-
tiere, F. Theophile Gautier.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA. fasc. XXIII. Nencioni, E.
" Cose Viste," da Victor Hugo.
NINETEENTH CENTURY. December. Gosse, E.
The French Society of Authors. January. Arnold,
M. Shelley.
FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. January. Saintsbury, G.
The Present state of the Novel, II.
NEW PRINCETON REVIEW, November. Warner, C. D.
Shelley Vincent, M. B. Dean Plumptre's Dante. Janu-
ary, 1888. American Authors and British Pirates.
Twain, Mark, 1. A Private Letter and a Public Post-
script. Matthews, Brander, 2. An Open Letter to Close
a Correspondence. Baylor, Frances Courtrnay, Hidal-
go : the Washington of Mexico. Men of Letters at
Bordeaux in the Sixteenth Century.
REVUE DE L'ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES Vl-
VANTES Novembre. Halbwachs, G. Les Morts du
Baecalaureat. A. . . . Les Langues Vivantes au Bac-
calaureat c's Lettres. I'n Orit ntallste. Notes sur la
Langue Anglaise (suite). Vailat, G. Thomas Moore,
imitateur de Catulle et de Tibulle. Kont, I. Mat ri-
aux pour servir ft THistoire des Etudes Allemandes
en France au XVIIIe si'cle. Varia. Concours de
1887. Agregations et Certificats d'Aptitude. Traduc-
tions. Licence des Langues Vivantes. Session de
Juillet, 1887. Bibliographic. Decembre. Sarrnzin,
Gabriel. Essai sur Wordsworth. Forschcr, Z. Emile
Deschamps, traducteur de Poesies allemandes. Kltrln,
L. Maitres d'Ecole et Professeurs au XIXe siecle en
Allemagne. Malgrot, N. Les Langues Vivantes dans
rEnseignement special. Concours de 1887. Agr Ca-
tions et Certiflcats d'Aptitude (Allemand et Anglais).
Traduction des Versions. Certificats d'Aptitude de
rEnseignement primaire. Traduction. Revue des
Cours et Conferences. Sujets et Devoirs. Concouvs
de 1888. Auteurs du programme. Bibliographic.
Errata.
NEUPHILOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT. inhait ;
Prof. Sachs. t^ber franzosische I^exikograpliie.
Berichte aus den Vereinen : Hannover, Karlsruhe.
Kartellverband neuphilologischer Vereine deutscher
Hochschuleii (Statistisches, Dissertationen). PrU-
fungsordnung ftir Lehrerinnen der franz. u. engl.
Sprache. Litteratur : Besprechungen (Engt'l, Gesch.
d. franz. Litt. ; Btgel, Thackeray's Lectures; Lion,
Biblioteca-italiana; Horning, Ostfranzflsische Grenz-
dialekte; v. Hamel, la chaire de franyais; v. Base,
Buchgewerbe : Hatton, Gay World ; Hodgson, Unrest ;
Halse, Weeping Ferry ; Tharp, Cradled in a storm ;
Tangcr, Engl. Namen-Lexikon ; Morhy, History of
English Literature; Braddon, Like and Unlike.)
Neue Erscheinungen. Inhaltsangabe von Zeitschrif-
ten. Miscellen : Konnte Shakespeare FranzOsisch ?
Academic fraiifaise. Antworten. Bemerkungen.
Anzeigen.
FRANCO-GALLIA- December. Abhandlungen. Kress-
ner, Entwurf eines Lchrplans t'lir den franzosischen
Unterrichtan der hoheren BUrgerschule. Besprech-
ungen und Anzeigen. I. Philologie. Wolter, Lehr-
und Lesebuch der franzOsischen Sprache I. Pro-
gramme zur Methodik des franzfisischen Unterrichts
(Schbpke, Bin Wort zur Reform; Gunzel, Der franzOs-
ische Unterricht in den lateinloseri hoheren Unter-
richtsanstalten ; Jager, Der franzosische Anfangs-
unterricht in Gymnasien; Seeger, Mitteilungen liber
die Organisation des f ranzo'sischen Uuterrichts in den
Mittelklassen). Marelle, Le petit Monde. 3e edition.
Stange, Auswahl franzftsischer und englischer Ge-
dichte. 2. Auflage. Honncher, Fahrten nach Mond
und Sonne. Ten Brink, Emile Zola und seine Werke.
Ubersetzt von Rahstede. Zeitschriftenschau. II.
Belletristik. Jules Verne, Le Chemin de France.
Oantacuzene-Altieri, Une Exaltee. Le Prince Napoleon,
Napoleon et ses detracteurs. Revuenschau. Neue
Publikationen. I. Philologie und Pada^ogik. II.
Belletristik, Geschichte, Geographic, Philosophic.
Baltimore, March, isss.
THE STUDY OF OLD DANISH.
By the establishment of the Danish Union
of the University-Jubilee (liniversitets-Jubi-
laeets danske Samfund), in 1881, the study of
Old Danish received a great impulse, and the
works published by this society since then
have revealed in part the importance of this
branch of the Scandinavian languages.
Though at present few persons outside of
Denmark have interested themselves in this
direction, the time cannot be very far distant
when this younger sister of Old Norse will
find a place in every Scandinavian course.
That some knowledge of Old Danish is
necessary to a thorough study of the Scandi-
navian languages, no one can deny, and now
that this publishing society has applied itself
with as much diligence and scholarly skill to
the providing of material, no worker in this
field can longer neglect this branch of his
subject. For the phonologist the oportunities
are especially good. Only the introductory
work has been done, and no one yet knows
the extent to which individual inquiries may
be carried. The Scandinavian influence upon
the English language, further, is but im-
perfectly understood ; we learn much from the
Old Norse, but I venture to prophesy that in
the next decade more light will be thrown
upon the subject from a study of Old Danish
than can ever be gained from that of the Old
Norse. The Old Danish inflectional forms
show, even from a superficial examination,
much closer resemblances to the correspond-
ing forms in English than do those of Old
Norse, and the same may be said of the vo-
cabulary. The exact value of Old Danish as
an aid to the study of English can of course
be determined only after careful and thorough
investigation, but everything points at the
out-set to a brilliant future for this new
" Fach."
The study of Old Danish is to be advocated
wholly from a linguistic point of view. Its
literary value, outside of Denmark, will always
be s!ight. In connection with the develop-
ment of Danish literature, such study may be
of great interest and importance, but not even
tin- most patriotic Dane would compare these
early remains with tin- imperishable monu-
ments of Icelandic literatim.-. My English
and American scholars, Old Danish will l*r
studied chiefly for the light it may thr<>\\ ..n
the English language ; but if our efforts in
this direction meet with any su . ss. surely
the labor will be well spent.
Hitherto our Scandinavian studies have
been altogether too one-sided and partial.
In our study of Icelandic we have paid tr o
little regard to the modern tongue (though
Dr. W. H. Carpenter may be cited as a nota-
ble exception); in our study of Danish we
have altogether neglected the language in its
earlier stages. Scandinavian researches have
not been in the highest sense scientific, that
is, comparative. In our study of Danish,
again, we have paid little regard to dialectic
differences, satisfying ourselves with a more
or less thorough knowledge of the p:
literary language. If the study of the Scandi-
navian languages is to make any headway, it
must embrace all sides of the question. Let
the development of Danish be compared with
that of Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish ;
let the several dialects of each language be
compared with one another ; and let these
results be compared with our own language ;
then, and not till then, will the Scandinavian
languages be thoroughly understood and their
influence on English clearly seen. \Ve are
apt to forget that the Danes that invaded Eng-
land at different times, could not all have
spoken the same dialect, and even if we do
realize this important fact, our in sufficient
knowledge of these dialects often stands in
the way.
The work of the Danish society has been
hitherto wholly local, confined to the study of
Danish for itself and without regard to its
connection with English. This, of course, is
necessary at the beginning ; we must first
collect our material before we can draw any
sound conclusions ; a thorough knowledge of
the language must precede any inquiry as to
its outside influences. The time is not yet
ripe for any startling disclosures, but in the
meanwhile, let us at least watch with interest
this new departure in the linguistic Held, and
57
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
116
let us give to these pioneers in Old Danish
study our sympathy and encouragement.
The publications issued during 1887 by the
Danish Union comprise the following :
1. O. Kalkar's " Ordbog til det aeldre
danske Sprog (1300-1700)." This dictionary
was begun in 1881, and is being issued in
semi-annual parts.
2. 'Tobiae komedie,' edited by S. Birket
Smith. A Danish drama from about 1600.
O
3. ' Sprogarten pa Sejer,' by P. K. Thor-
sen.
4. ' Bidrag til en Ordbog over jyske
Almussmal," by H. F. Feilberg.
5. ' Blandinger,' consisting of short papers
on etymological and phonetic subjects.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
APROPOS OF LES TROIS MORS ET
LES TROIS VIS.
In a foot-note to his notice of my edition of
the Panthtre d' Amours (cf. Bulletin de la
Societe des anciens textes franfais, 1885, p. 96
and Bibliothlque de /' Ecole des Charles
XLVII, p. 186), M. Paul Meyer calls attention to
three MSS. of the poem of Les trois mors et
les trois vis, republished in the introduction to
the Pant/tire, which were unknown to me at
the time of preparing the edition mentioned.
M. Meyer's note reads as follows : A propos
du Dit de la Panth'ere,]^ ferai remarquer que
le Dit des trois morts et des trois vifs com-
mencant par Compains vois tu ce que je voi,
dont M. TODD s'est occupe" p. xxx et xxxi de
sa preface, se trouve encore dans deux ms. du
Muse"e Britannique et dans un ms. qui na-
gueres appartenait & M. Didot ; voyez le Bulle-
tin de la Socie'te', 1882, pp. 46, 71-2, et 1884, p. 66.
Concerning the last named of these MSS. I
have no further information to offer, but hav-
ing had an opportunity of consulting the two
former in the library of the British Museum, I
am in a position to indicate the few facts of
interest disclosed by an examination of them.
The MSS. in question are catalogued Arun-
del 83, folio 127 (given as 128, Bull. d. 1. Soc.
d. anciens textes, 1881, p. 71, according to a
pagination since corrected) and Egerton 945,
folio 12 (described Bull., 1881, p. 44). The
latter of these MSS. offers a text almost pre-
cisely identical, excepting slight differences of
orthography, with that of the- fourth of the five
versions of the poem, as given in Montaiglon's
edition of the Alphabet de la Mort (Paris :
Edwin Tross, 1856), according to the MS. of
the Paris Bib. Nat. there cited fonds de la
Mare, No. 69882-2 The distinctive feature of
this version is that it omits an introduction of
some length, which appears, from the abrupt-
ness of the opening lines as well as from the
internal evidence of the fuller versions, to
have formed an integral part of the original
poem. Owing to the limited time at my dis-
posal, I was able to copy from this MS. only
some forty lines of the poem, in all of which
portion, however, I find but two occasions for
emending (except as regards punctuation) the
text of Montaiglon, viz., in 11. 8 and 9, fol. a 8,
p. 7. Montaiglon here reads :
Li tiers mors dist ya 1 // est sechie's :
" Je sui de mon lignage chids,"
the manifestly correct reading of which is
given in Egerton 945 as follows :
Li tiers mors dist, qui e' sechiez :
Je/*'de mon lignage chiez.
The text of the other MS. (Arundel 83),
which is closely related to that of Egerton 945,
and begins at the same point, is in every
respect except that of caligraphy far inferior
to it. In fact, while the Egerton version
numbers 144 verses, the poem has here been
arbitrarily abridged in such a way as to occupy
but the lower half of a single page, the upper
portion of which is somewhat elaborately illu-
minated with designs of the six personages
introduced. In the left-hand column are
ranged, in succession, the respective ' parts '
of the three morts (represented in the rubric
and enluminure as three kings), and on the
right-hand side, in the same order, the parts of
the three vifs (as below), each part being limit-
ed to the first six lines of the corresponding
passages in the Egerton redaction. The text,
as will be seen, is somewhat stupidly though
by no means grievously corrupt, but its very
mediocrity and blundering, together with its
Anglo-Norman irregularity of versification,
afford, in consideration of its brevity and yet
factitious completeness, a motive for printing
in full this version of the poem. The charac-
ters * (/) and u (v) are reproduced as in the
original, but the ordinary abbreviations, which
are few and offer no embarrassment, are
resolved, and the punctuation regulated . By
comparison with Montaiglon's edition, it is
easy to make the necessary textual emenda.
tions.
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
118
D<e uiuis regibus
Primus rex vivus
" Compay nouns, veez ceo ke ieo voy ?
A poy ke ieo ne me devoy ;
De grant pour le quoer me tremble.
Ueez la treis mors ensemble,
Cum il sunt hidous et divers,
Purriz et mange/, des tiers."
Secundus rex uiuus
Le secunde dist : " Ieo ay enuie,
Compaynoun, de amender ma vie;
Trop ay fet de mes volentez,
Et mini quoer est entalentez
De fere tant ke m'alme acorde
Al dieu rei de misericorde."
Tertius rex uiuus
Ly tierz uif, ki destreint ses meins,
Dist: " Purqnei fut fet homme humeins,
Pur ky deit receiuere tiele perte?
Ceo fust folie trop aperte ;
Ceste folie ne fist unkes dieux,
Si courte ioye et si grantz deduitz."
A FRAGMENT OF OLD ICELANDIC.
When in Iceland, several years ago, a small
piece of old parchment was given to the writer
by J6n Arnason, the collector of the legends
and folk-lore of Iceland.* Though not of
great intrinsic worth, the gift was, in its way,
one of no little rarity and value, intended, its
recipient was happy to think, as a mark of
especial esteem. Thanks to the indefatigabili-
ty of early collectors, Arni Magntfsson at their
head, Iceland has been as thoroughly stripped
of her early vellums, and even of their paper
transcripts, as though they had never existed ;
and beyond those preserved in the archives in
Reykjavik and the few fragments possibly in
the hands of some private individuals who
know their value, there are absolutely no
parchments of any size, sort, or condition, left
in the country. When, accordingly, the frag-
ment here in question was proudly exhibited
to friends in Reykjavik, no little wonder was
expressed that it should have been given
away to be taken out of the land, and the kind-
hearted donor was, no doubt, taken to task
for his indiscretion.
The vellum is the leaf of a book, written on
both sides, 3^x4^ inches in size; the top and
bottom are straight ; on the front is a slight
lent which does not extend through the mar-
*Islenzkar Thj6fisogur og JEjintyri. Leip-
zig, 1862. 2 vols.
De mart nit regidui
I'rimut rex tnartuui
Ly premer mort dim : " I>amoyel,
Ne ubliez pa* pur *cl oUel,
Ne pur vo robe* a orfreii,
Qc vous ne tiegnez bien le* ley*
Qe Jheiu Crist ad on'
De sa seinte volente 1 ."
Secundus rex mortuui
" Seignour*," dis le *ecund mort.
" Uerite et ke la mort
Nous ad fet lick cum noun *umu,
E vous purirez cume noun sumux,
Tut see/ ia si pur ne si fin ;
Ore purueez vous devant la fin."
Tertius mortuut
Le tierz mort dit : " Sachez,
Ieo fu de mon lynage chief,
Princes, reys et conustables.
Heals et riches, joyanz, me* tables ;
Ore su si hidous et si nuz
Ke noy ver ne deigne nul* .
H. A. TODD.
gin ; the back is ragged where it has been
forcibly torn from the stitching, but the torn
places do not affect the text. It is a palimp-
sest manifestly cut down to its present size
from a larger leaf; traces of the rubrics and of
the original characters are plainly visible, but
illegible; there is a small hole in the lo\\t-r
half of the page, whether in the original MS.,
or cut when it was scraped, it is impossible
now to determine. The parchment is much
discolored, but cleaner than most Icelandic
vellum, early or late. The ink is black and
the hand round and clear ; the catch-words at
the bottoms of the pages are cursive. The
origin of the fragment is probably to be placed
near the middle, or, possibly, in the first half
of the isth century.
From a literary point of view the contents
of the leaf are of no value. It is simply a part
of a homily on the Lord's prayer whether
coincident or not with the one in the homily-
book printed by Linger, Cod. A. M. 619,! the
writer has no means of knowing, as that book
is not at hand. Philological ly, turn ever, the
text is not without value, and as this fragment
is in all probability, the only scrap of Ice-
landic vellum in America, it is, perhaps,
worthy of reproduction here. Its peculiarities
of diction are those common to almost all Ice-
landic MSS. It is, accordingly, first printed
as nearly as possible verbatim et literatim
and then extended, without, of course, any
attempt at a normalization of the orthography.
tGammei norsk Homiliebog. Chrisliania, 1864.
59
H9 March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3. 120
unu 7 ollu folki til gagnf 7 goda \ gf pu
- r _ _ _ _
Drottin gud himnefk fad' \ ollu hRu kg
u 7 hdfdingiu \ 7 ollu pm fm fuerdit haf
a 7 er a hndi folgid \ fnd fampycki 7 sa
o - -
helldi | vpp a p ad vi mg uu konu 7 born
- " -r d
u I 7 aullu put fm pu hf off uar famlg
i - u
a gfid | mcettu Ufa g allri god tygt u \ CB
" " r
dygd | fidfemi 7 Gudhrceflu \ pth pu fialf
- r c -
hf fagt | leitid fyrft gudg Rykiff o hnf
- - r
Riettlcetis pa fk p allt anad yd t'legiaft \
- w
Og fyr' gf pu off vor fkulld' \ Suo fm
vi fyr* gfu voru fkulldunautu \
Ul
Upp a p uortt hita m eigi hafa eina
- " w
Rietta huyld 7 fa uifkun gledi 7
" r r ,
ey purfa ad otta ft e miftreyfta \ f
- c
foku mikileika fyndana \ gack ei g dom
d v c r a
mr off e riett \ O pu himnefki fad 1 he
r r tu -
lid fkyl og f lat off vor fynd" \ 7 reika
off
e ^
off ei nie t'leg peer off t' vonda \ put vi
- w r- vu - d
viliu ginan f gfa of hita mg pini u
w
arfaml'ri hlalp 7 tilkomu \ had sm
-r r -
off hf vid giortt a moti \ giorndi fuo
pm gott sm off hfa giortt vont 7 tia
- w . r
pm af hita allu kicsrleika \ f put ad
o o o
pu uillt off var fynd' 7 of \ 7 mifgi
r - '
ninga f gfa \ ^ forlata \ ef ad vi af
w o - r ___- _ o
hita f latu 7 / gfu pm fm off hfa git
a moti | pra fkulld' 7 brot \
gn Leidd off ecki g freiftni
Lat p alldri fkie Drottin Gud himne
60
i2i March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
/ fad' | f/ w /o// ttra fynd
r e
e toft I fi n P M frc>/titft | 7 r<i
freiftni lydtt \ par ko pu 7 hialpa \
c -
off I o *;'/ 0/7" kiaftddu 111% f>ynu hci
I'ga anda \ fuo vi' mcettn ftryda 7 sta
H
nda mTa mj ]>ini hialp \ moti holldi
og bio
heimunum og ollum folki til gagns og goda. gef pu
Drottinn, gud, himneskr fadir, ollum herrum, konung-
um og hoffiingium, og ollum peitn scm stierdit haf-
a og er a hendi folgift, frid, sampycki og sant-
helldi ; vpp a pafi ad vir meS uorum kanum og born-
urn og allu piii sent pti hefir oss nndarsamlig-
a gefil mcettum Ufa i allri gotfri tygt, tun feverandu
dygft, siftsemt og Gufthrceslu : pui aft pit sia/fr
hefir sagt, leitift fyrst guJz rykiss oc hans
riettlatiss pa skal pad allt annafi ytar tilleggiast.
Og fyrirgef pu oss vorar skulldir, Suo sem
vir fyrirgefum vorttm skulldunautum.
Upp a pad uortt hiarta meigi hafa etna
rietta hu$ld og samuiskunnar glefti, og
ey put fa ad ottast edr mistreysta, fyrir
soknm mikileika syndanna, gack ecki i dom
meftr oss eda riett. O, pu himneski fadir, he-
lldr skyl og fyrirlat oss vorar syndir, og reikna
oss
oss ecki nie tilleg peer oss til vonda : pui vir
vilium giarnan fyrirgef a af hiarta, med pititii und-
arsamligri hialp og tilkomu, huad sem
oss hefir verid giortt a moti; giorandi suo
peim gott sem oss hafa giortt vont, og tia
peim af hiarta allum kiarleika ; fyrir pui ad
pu uillt oss vorar syndir og brot, og misgior-
ninga fyrirgef a og forlata, ef a5 vir af
hiarta forlatum og fyrirgefum peim sem oss hafa giort
a moti peira skulldir og brot.
Inn Leidd oss ecki i freistni.
Lat pad alldriskie, Drottinn, Cud, himne-
skr fadir, ad vir folium i ttockra synd
edr last. Enn po uir freistumst og nockra
freistni lydum, par kom pu og hialpa
oss, oc ueit oss hiastodu med pynum hei-
laga anda; suo vir mcettum stryda og sta-
tida maunliga, med pinni hialp, moti holldi
og bio
61
I2 3
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No. 3.
124
NOTES.
I. 8. The MS. has plainly pth, which has
been rendered, perhaps wrongly, by pvi ad.
I. 17. The transcriber evidently first wrote in
several words incorrectly and then wrote them
over, as best he could, leaving behind, how-
ever, above the words, several letters that it
was impossible to incorporate and not easy to
erase. II. i. peer (Sic). II. 13, 14. Whether
nockra or nockura is scarcely to be determined
from the abbreviated form used ; ck is written
on the analogy of ecki, which is given in full.
Vowels. Vowel length is indicated, but not
consistently, by the diaeresis or the second
marks : rykiss, huyld, pynum, stryfta, lyfium,
pu and pu ; but ey, Gufthrceslu, samuiskun-
nar, purfa. In tillegiast\\\z diaeresis indicates
consonantal gemination.
Vowel interchange, y takes the place of i
in : sky I. With the diaeresis or the seconds it
stands for $ in : rykiss, huyld, pynum, strytia,
lydum. y is once written ie in : nie for ny. u
and v interchange : suerdit, suo, uorum,
uortt; but vorar, vorum, uir and vir, 6%>and
vpp. ei=e in: meigi for megi. v&r, prn. I.
pers. nom. pi., occurs always as vir, uir.
Umlaut, //-umlaut occurs with its proper
sign in : hoftfingium, bornum, sokum, hia-
stodu ; aullu also occurs ; but allum, ollum
three times, folium.
Consonants, j is always written i; it shows
itself, as in the present language, graphically
in: riettlcztiss, rietta, riett ; after palatal g-k
in : giortt and giort, misgiorninga, skie.
7"-final occurs only in : suerdit; it is already
weakened to & in : folgid, gefift, leitid, ad,
annaft, huad. I have, accordingly, also
printed pad, which in this as in other MSS. is
written p.
D and ft are throughout both written d.
Oc, ' and,' occurs twice, as does also og ;
otherwise it is represented by the sign 7,
which has been transcribed og.
Consonantal gemination occurs incorrectly
in the following places : tt in : uortt, giortt
twice, but also giort. II in : samhelldi, skull-
dir, helldr, uillt, alldri, skulldunautum, holl-
di. dd (for fid) in : Leidd. .ys-final in : rykiss,
riettl<ztis&.
WM. H. CARPENTER.
Columbia College.
SIG FRIED ARMINIUS.
It is of course no new idea that the hero of
German history and the hero of the Norse and
German saga are the same person. Arminius,
the chief figure in their national life, would
otherwise be unrepresented in their popular
traditions, while we know from Tacitus that
he was one of the chief subjects of the songs
of that time. It is intrinsically improbable
both that so great a man as Arminius should
wholly vanish from the minds of those who
owed to him their national existence, and that
Sigfried should not have some such historic
representation as we know existed for Dietrich,
Etzel, and others. These considerations led
German scholars as far back as Mone, half a
century ago, to suggest their identity, though
it must be confessed without sufficient proof.
The first to bring the matter to a point where
it could claim to be more than a fancy was
Vigfusson, in his volume of Essays on Jacob
Grimm's birthday. Much, however, that he
suggested was not of a character to commend
his thesis, and several points remained still
untouched, so that it is not superfluous to
examine the subject once more, and briefly to
summarize the grounds on which their identi-
ty is based.
I am indebted for much of what follows to
the kindness and generosity of Professor
Kluge of Jena, without whose assistance I
should have been unable to offer the greater
part of what I believe to be new in this paper.
THE NAMES What was Arminius' German
name ? Whatever it was, it was not Hermann,
which would have given in Latin *Cherman-
nus. Arminius is the name of a Roman gens,
otherwise not unknown to history, which, we
may suppose, adopted Arminius during his
stay in Italy in childhood. But we have a
clue to his German name in that of his father,
Sigemerus. His uncle also had a name of
which the first part Sige- was the same, so
that this Sige- is obviously a family name, and
it is no great stretch of imagination to suppose
that, like his father and his uncle, Arminius
was named Sige.
Arminius had a brother whom the Latins
called Flavius. If we seek for a High Ger-
man name of equivalent meaning we shall
find it in the O. H. G. Fizzil, and this is of
62
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
126
course the O. E. Fitela of Beowulf 879 and 889,
where, as might have been expected in an in-
terpolated passage, Sigemund, the father of
the Sigfried of the saga, is confused with his
son.
Arminius' wife is called by Strabo Thusnelda.
This is no German name, but it seems to point
to a name ending in -hilde ; Sigfried's wives
were Brunhild and Crimhild. Arminius'
father was Sigemerus ; Sigemerus's was Sige-
mund.
Of course it is not claimed that this partial
correspondence is proof, but it may encourage
us to consider the question of the places where
the chief events of their lives took place.
THE PLACES. Arminius, as we know, was
a \Vestphalian, or at any rate from the right
bank of the Rhine ; but where did Sigfried
come from ? The answer comes from a rather
unlikely looking source. A certain Norseman,
Nicholas, wrote a guide book for pilgrims to
the Holy Land , when I do not know, but he died
in 1159. In this book, published in ' Symbolae
ad Geographiam Medii -/Evi, Kopenhagen,
1821,' he says "Thence," i. e. from Pader-
born, "are four days' journey to Mayence ;
between is a village called Horus. Another
is called Kiliandr, and there is the Gnitaheath
where Sigurd killed Fafnir." Horus is the old
Horohus on the Diemel. Kiliandr is Kaldern
on the Lahn, an old name for which is Calan-
tra. Here then the Germans placed Sigfried.
The Norse Edda calls him Hunskr, not, as one
might suppose, the Hun, (for how could such a
name be given him as an honorable epithet by
the Germans?) but the Hun. This, however,
was the name of a tribe that originally occu-
pied this very region in the valleys of the
Diemel and the Lahn, and has left traces of
itself in many names of places, hills, and
streams. There is the river Hauna, the town
Hunfeld, the village Hiinhahn, two castles
Hunburg and two Hiinenburg, two Hii-
nischeburg, a Hiineburg, and several others
(See Vilmar's Idiotikon von Kurhessen, Mar-
burg und Leipzig, 1883, p. 178). The saga
there is in complete accord with the history
as to the place of their birth. Whether there
is any possibility of identifying the slaying of
Fafnir with the defeat of Yarns in the Teuto-
burgerwald I will not examine at present. It
will be better to consider the general course
of their lives and see what points of accord
can be found there.
THEIR LIVES. While Arminius was still an
infant 1m father died. Sigfried was in the
<>l<U-r Saga a posthumous child, and in the
later Saga his father plays no part. Arminius
spent his boyhood in Italy ; Sigfried away
from home with Mime, each learning the art
that was to make them famous, and each
giving little promise in boyhood of future
greatness. After Arminius had defeated the
Romans he married the person whom, for lack
of a better name, we must call Thusnelda.
He carried her away by force from her father
Segestus, and when her father had afterward
recovered her and guarded her in his castle,
Arminius endeavored to take it by storm.
Sigfried, after killing the dragon, took as it
were by force Brunhild from the fiery " Shield -
burg."
Crimhild may stand for Arminius' second
wife ; and as she was the innocent cause of
domestic strife and Sigfried's treacherous
murder, so Arminius was killed by his relations
as the result of family quarrels and mutual
jealousies.
Each died young, in the flower of youthful
promise. Arminius was but thirty-seven.
We shall hardly reckon the Sigfried of the
saga as so old. Each left one son. Arminius
died in exile in Italy ; Sigfried in a foreign land,
at Etzel's court.
The serious difficulty remains. How can
the chief event of Arminius' life, one might say
of German history, be passed over in silence ?
Why do we hear nothing of Yams? But
while this question waits for an answer we
may at least say that the connection between
Arminius and Sigfried is as close as that
between the Dietrich of the Saga and the
historic Theodoric of Verona.
BENJ. W. \Yi i.i.s.
Jena, Germany.
CL, GL>TL, DL IN ENGLISH PKO-
NUNCIA TION.
In XOTKS vol. II, No. 8 (pp. 222 O, Prof.
Tolman calle'd attention to the pronunciation
of initial cl and gl as // and dl in F.n-lish
127
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
128
words. This observation is by no means a
new one. In his large Dictionary, edition 1828,
Webster states that cl is to be pronounced //.
As we do not have this edition at hand we
quote the following passage from Marsh's
Lectures on the English Language, 5th
edition p. 350. "Ah extraordinary instance
of this confusion (c and t) occurs in the re-
marks on pronunciation prefixed to the
edition of Webster's large Dictionary, printed
in 1828. In that essay, the lexicographer
whose most conspicuous defects were certain-
ly not those of the ear, after having devoted a
lifetime to the study of English orthoepy and
etymology, informs the student that the
letters cl answering to /are pronounced as if
written tl ; clear, clean, are pronounced Hear,
tlean. Gl is pronounced dl; glory is pro-
nounced dtory." Webster certainly went
too far in his statement and seems to have
silently acknowledged it by the omission in
the later edition. For the following physiolog-
ical explanation, proving the possibility of a
change from cl to //, we cannot claim any
originality, but shall try to show of how
frequent occurrence this phenomenon is in
different languages.
The different /sounds, from the interdental
to the cerebral, have in common that the
closure is formed through the tip of the
tongue, while the k is produced at the root
of the tongue. That the forward / closure
is substituted for the velar, is constantly
observed with children whose powers of
articulation are imperfectly developed, even
in words without consonantal combinations,
and was already mentioned by Quintilian I,
xi, 5. The language of the natives of the
Sandwich Islands is said to lack a distinction
between / and k. Protestant missionaries
write regularly k, while the French put it
down as t. Of what character this peculiar
sound is, I have not been able to find out.
Byrne (Principles of structure of language I,
223) describes it as "a mere catch in the
throat." We shall, I think, hardly be able to
pronounce this sound where the / and k
articulations have blended, without a parasitic
j after it.
If the t is immediately followed by sounds
for the utterance of which the middle part of
the tongue has to be raised towards the roof
of the mouth, the closure is of course apt to
be affected by it, and to come nearer the back
part of the tongue, while in the case of the
k, the velar closure advances in the same
manner towards the hard palate. This is the
case with palatal vowels, and with /, r, n ; they
account for the change of t> c as well as of
Of. In Swedish, k before palatal vowels is
pronounced as tj, e. g. .kil (cuneus), kyss
(osculum)=//2/, tjyss ; this corresponds exact-
ly to Low German dialectic pronunciation, for
instance in the province of Westpreussen,
where kind sounds like//Y/, kien (taeda)=//z,
kiste=tjist, etc. Rask teaches the pronuncia-
tion tsh, tshil, etc., which would have an
analogy in English chest, child, etc. Swedish
books show different spelling ; kceder, kjezder
tjteder (Cf. Grimm D. Gr. I, 2 535). Thus we
shall have to explain Greek r representing an
Indo-Europ. velar explosive=Lat. qu ; e. g.
Ti'=quid. (Cf. Brugmann, Grundriss 427).
Modern Greek (Tsaconian dialect) changes /
before palatal vowels to k, e. g. KI/.IOV r?//'^ ;
-nvi'r'i r//<;/ etc. (Cf. Foy, Lautsystem der
Griech. Vulgarsprache, pp. 7 and 8). The low-
er population of French Canada is said to
pronounce metier, moitie as mekier, moikie ;
the same peculiarity we find in France :
amiquie amitie, quien tien (Paris), poiiqiie
porter (Luneville). In Southern France the
contrary is the case : intieter inquieter (Cf.
Schuchardt, Vocalismus I, 159) In Mussaffia's
Beitrage z. Kunde d. nordit. Mundarten im
XV. Jahrh. p. 34, s. v. bissestro, I find the
German schaltjahr as schalkjar. Vulgar
Latin shows as early as the beginning of the
second century A. D. the interchange of ci
and //, though first mentioned by Servius ;
their parallel development in the Romance
languages has been the. object of several
masterly essays.
If an /follows a /the explosion is invariably
lateral, the dental / in this combination can-
not be pronounced without a svarabhaktic
vowel. The contact is broken at the edges of
the middle portion of the tongue, strictly
speaking only on one side, thus coming very
near the k closure. The anticipation of the
/position of the tongue in uttering kl results
in the coincidence of // and cl\ thus the vis
64
129
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
minima will cause clean to be pronounced as
//<<;;/, rA/.v.s as (lass. Neither German nor
English has any word beginning with tl, but
there are word-combinations of frequent oc-
currence and here a negligent pronunciation
is most liable to take place that bring ft and
/ into close connection ; thus it may be diffi-
cult for Englishmen to distinguish between at
least and ac least, (Cf. Victor, Elemente der
Phon. 1884, p. 143). In German velar and dental
articulation are so strongly kept apart that
we shall hardly find any illustration of this
change, yet it may occur in dialects. Sievers
mentions that people in Saxony pronounce
glauben as claum or clom with their ina-
bility to distinguish between voiced and voice-
less explosives, and very often tlom. (Grund-
ziige der Phon. p. 160). I find the pronunciation
of t=k attributed to the dialect of Cologne.
In Latin these inconvenient combinations
are apt to be simplified by loss of initial ^or c.
latus tuli rAf/ro?, /amentum clamare, lib-
urn H\ibavo$, with which we might compare
French lapin if we can connect it with clapir.
There is, however, in Latin a tendency to
velar articulation ; the suffix -tlo changes to
do, e. g. exanclo t^avrXoa ; Modern Greek
shows the same change i^ayH\i'^oo, etc.
Lucian writes rXf/ua for nXffua. Roman
grammarians warn against the pronunciation
of // as cl: "Stlataris sine c littera scriben-
dum est," " vitulus non viclus," " capitulum
non capiclum," " vetulus non veclus." The
Roman public, however, cared little for such
injunctions; all Romance languages developed
words of this class from cl forms. Vetulus
vetlus veclus, It. vecchio, veclo (Giacomo
da Verona), vectre (Bescape), Sp. viejo, Prov.
vielh, Roum. vecliu and vechiu, Fr. vieil ; It.
schioppare (scloppus, stloppus) It. fischiare
(fistulare) R. R. inclegier (intelligere) clavau
(tabulatum) ; situla It. secchia, Sp. Prov.
selha, Fr. seille, to which we can add mod.
Greek 6i*\a; Prov. uscl.ir (ustulare), ascla
(aatula) etc. (Cf. Diez Gram. d. r. Spr. 4th
ed. I. 210 pp.) East Lad. forms a remarkable
exception : tlaml clamare, dlaca glades.
(Cf. Schuchardt, Voc. III. 83). Bavarian
klnfe-tlufe, dluva (Greden), klauben-tlupt
(Greden), kloster-tloster, etc. (Cf. Gartner,
Raetor. Gram.)
The phonetic affinity of // and cl and thc-ir
corresponding voiced sounds is so strong that
we may look for a language in whi< h tin-
change tl>cl, <//>/ has become a law. This
we find in Lithuanian and Lettic ; e. g. Lett.
segli, Engl. saddle (Cf. Brugmann, ibid. 8377
and 378).
A following r ought to have a similar force,
so much the more as rand /often interchange,
e. g. arbor, arbre-albero. Theoretically the
velar r will be apt to change t>c , the dental r,
Ot. There are, however, very few illustra-
tions, as Sp. Port, crema Fr. trema, vincere
O. Fr. veintre. Tr=cr is a peculiarity of
African Latin. But this is sufficient to prove
that the etymon of craindretremere corre-
sponds to the laws of sound.
In modern English k before n is no more
pronounced. Marsh dates this loss back to the
time "soon after the Norman conquest;"
(ibid. p. 351) it was, however, retained during
the seventeenth century, g was lost earlier.
Skeat (Principles of Engl. Et. p. 358) remarks :
"The difficulty of sounding k and g before
has led to their total suppression in mod.
Engl." I am inclined to think that kn went
through the stage of tn before being complete-
ly dropped a weak explosion takes place
through the nose as the position of the
tongue closes the regular passage, as in rotten,
pronounced rottn.
That the English language has a tendency
to dentalization, is beyond doubt. The pe-
culiar nature of the English / brings it more in
relation with tl than in any other tongue.
I Sweet remarks : " English / not only in nature
(before a palatal) but also generally (as in net)
is often formed not only by the point, but also
the flat of the tongue just behind the point, it
| has therefore an approximately palatal charac-
| ter." A few English words substitute / for k,
mentioned by Skeat, Princ. E. Et. 329, where
he also quotes the words : "I ast your par-
don " from Martin Chuzzlewit ch. XXV. (* be-
fore f)\
How far this pronunciation has spread here
in America may be worth while recording. I
' hope that the establishment of the phonetic
! section in the Modern Language Association
i will be a new stimulus to investigations of this
kind.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell Unirtrsity.
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 3.
132
SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES IN THE
UNITED STATES.
In Science and Education for May 13, 1887,
D. K. Dodge has written an article on " Scan-
dinavian Studies in the United States," which
contains welcome information for those in-
terested in the subject. The writer gives
what he believes to be a complete account of
the origin and development of Scandinavian
studies in this country up to the present day.
In 1858, Rev. Paul C. Sinding was appointed
professor of Scandinavian languages and
literature in the University of New York City,
which position he held till 1861, devoting him-
self chiefly to Danish history and literature.
At Luther College, Decorah, Iowa, founded
in 1861, Norwegian has until recently been the
chief medium of instruction. Between the
years 1868 and 1883 instruction in Icelandic
and Norwegian was offered to students at
Cornell University by Willard Fiske and H.
H. Boyesen. In 1870 a Swedish theological
seminary was established at Galesburg, 111.,
which in 1882 was moved to Evanston, 111.,
and united with the Northwestern University.
In 1885 a Norwegian and Danish theological
school was founded at the same university.
In each the language of the nationality repre-
sented is studied throughout a course extend-
ing over three years. In 1869 R. B. Anderson
was appointed instructor and, six years later,
professor of Scandinavian languages at the
University of Wisconsin, holding his position
till 1883, when he was succeeded by J. E.
Olson. At Columbia, the only eastern college
in which Scandinavian languages can be stud-
ied at present, instruction in Danish was first
given by C. S. Smith during the winter of
1880-81, and in Swedish during the winter of
1882-83. Since 1883 Dr. W. H. Carpenter,
Prof. H. H. Boyesen, and Prof. Smith have
had classes in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish,
and have lectured on Norwegian, Swedish,
and Danish literature. Since 1886 the Univer-
sity of Nebraska offers courses in Swedish
and Danish, Dr. A. H. Edgren being the in-
structor. Courses of lectures on Scandinavian
literature other than academic, have been
deliverd by Prof. R. B. Anderson at the Pea-
body Institute, Baltimore, and in other places ;
by Dr. W. H. Carpenter at the Johns Hopkins
University (1882), and by Prof. H. H. Boyesen
before the Lowell Institute, Boston, and at
Columbia College (1886).
Such, in abstract, is the list prepared by Mr.
Dodge. Though aiming to give a complete
account of the origin and development of
Scandinavian studies in the United States, he
has made many omissions, and it is the object
of this paper to point out the chief of these.
In 1883 Prof. O. J. Breda, formerly of Luther
College, Decorah, Iowa, was appointed pro-
fessor of Scandinavian languages at the
University of Minnesota. He entered upon
his new duties in the fall of 1885 and has since
been doing successful work. Last year, for
instance, seventeen Americans received in-
struction in Norwegian, and four Scandina-
vians pursued more advanced studies in litera-
ture and rhetoric. This year, besides the in-
struction in Norwegian for Americans, courses
are given in Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish
Literature. At St. Olafs School, Northfield,
Minn., founded in 1874, to which a college
department was added in the fall of 1886,
courses in Norwegian have been offered every
year, though English is almost exclusively the
medium of instruction and the language most-
ly used in conversation. During the present
term a class of fifteen is studying Old Norse.
Norwegian is taught and largely used as the
medium of instruction also at Luther Semi-
nary, Madison, Wis. ; Red Wing Seminary,
Red Wing, Minn. ; and Augsburg Seminary,
Minneapolis, Minn. ; also to some extent,
though English is the principal medium of in-
struction, at Lutheran Seminary and Institute,
Willmar, Minn. ; Augustana College and Nor-
mal Institute, Canton, Dak. ; Lutheran Acade-
my, Bode, Iowa ; and an English-Norwegian
normal school at Wittenberg, Wis., the two
latter founded within the last six months.
Danish high-schools giving instruction in the
Danish language and literature are located at
Elk Horn, Iowa ; Ashland, Mich. ; and Nysted,
Nebraska. Danish is also taught in the
Scandinavian department of the Baptist Union
Theological Seminary at Morgan Park, near
Chicago. Among those who have been in-
structors here may be mentioned Prof. Edward
Olson, now president of the University of Ver-
million, Dak. Of Swedish institutions may be
66
133
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
134
mentioned Augustana College and Theologi-
cal Si-ininary, Rock Island, 111., founded in
1860, and Gustavus Adolphus College, St.
Peter, Minn., founded in 1876, both flourish-
ing colleges of a high standing, in which the
Swedish language and literature are studied
throughout the entire course. Swedish is
taught, though to a less extent, also at Beth-
any College and Normal Institute, Lindsborg,
Kansas, and at Luther Academy, Wahor,
Nebraska. Since the fall of 1885, Dr. H.
Wood has given an annual course in Old
Norse at the Johns Hopkins University. The
Indiana University, Rloomington, Ind., offers
courses in Norwegian-Danish literature.
The writer next discusses the question as to
the profit accruing from the study of the
Scandinavian languages. He thinks the study
of Icelandic furnishes as good a mental dis-
cipline as the study of Greek and Latin, and
that the culture of the old Norsemen gives as
profitable food for reflection as does the cul-
ture of the Greeks and Romans, and that,
therefore, Icelandic ought to have a place in
every college course. He gives it as the
opinion of many that the national significance
of Icelandic to all who call themselves Anglo-
Saxons is alone enough to offset any possble
advantage that the older tongues may possess.
Whatever may be thought of this statement by
those who think that we should study Latin
and Greek to the neglect of the language and
traditions of our Teutonic ancestors, Mr.
Dodge is no doubt right in holding that the
study of the Scandinavian languages in this
country has been unwarrantably neglected,
and it is to be hoped that his enthusiasm for
Icelandic may communicate itself to others.
The modern Scandinavian literatures also will
compare favorably with the literature of any
country, and it seems that to students in Ger-
manics, Scandinavian ought not to be of less
importance than for instance Wallachian to
Romance students. Here in the West, where
the Scandinavians form so large a part of the
population, the question has also a practical
bearing.
Towards the end of his article Mr. Dodge
makes some remarks to which I beg leave to
take exceptions. The statement that "the
views of the Scandinavian religious bodies are
directly opposed to everything distinctively
American," that "instead of trying to Ameri-
canize the Scandinavian youth of the west,
these missionaries do all they can to keep
their charges in their present condition," and
that "they do not teach them even to use the
English language," is inaccurate to say the
least. So far from this being the case, there
are thorough courses in English in all the
high-schools and colleges mentioned above,
and in many of them English is the principal
language both in the class-room and outside
of it.
There is little danger that the Scandina-
vians in this country are being Americanized
too slowly. The danger is rather the opposite.
A people should cherish the language and
traditions of its ancestors for the same reason
that a man should love his home and parents
the best, however humble. As long as the
Scandinavians of the United States became
good American citizens, for which they re-
ceive credit everywhere in the West (there
were no Scandinavians in the Chicago Hay-
Market riot), there is no reason why they
should not be allowed to keep up their an-
cestral language for domestic purposes as long
as they choose to do so. It is a matter of
their own to decide when they wish to break
their connection with the past.
It would be interesting to know where Mr.
Dodge has got his information. If he had
spent some time among the Scandinavians of
the west, he could not have misrepresented
them as in the remarks quoted. The most
impartial authority ought to be the American
press, which is unanimous in saying that the
Scandinavians "seem to be more willing to
take their part and place as good American
citizens" than any immigrants that come to
our shores. The " Northfield Independent"
for Feb. gth, says : " It is estimated that there
are 1,800,000 Scandinavians in the United
States to-day. They are estimated to consti-
tute one-third of the population of our state.
60,000 are in Minneapolis, 30.000 are in St.
Paul. Of all from over the sea now coming to
us they Americanize most quickly. Their
traditions and habits are those of free Protest-
ant civilization and there is a very strong and
aggressive temperance element among them,
67
135
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
136
and they are taking their place in the moral
WRITTEN.
PRONOUNCED.
warfare of our time in a way that inspires
Devereux
Devereu
hope in all wellwishers for our common coun-
Duchesne
Ducane Dukarn
try."
Froude
Frood
ALBERT E. EGGE.
Geoghegan
Gaygan
Northfield, Minn.
Glamis
Gloucester
Glams
Gloster
Gower
Gore
CORRESPONDENCE.
Hawarden
Hardening Harden
SIRS :
Heathcote
Hethcut
I send you the following list of odd-
Hereford
Harford
ly-pronounced, or perhaps better oddly-spell-
Hertford
Harford
ed, proper names in the hope that it may lead
to two results : the completion of the list,
which as here given has been made up of
Herri es
Hobart
Hough ton
Hume
Harris
Hubbard
Hoton
Home
jottings as personal intercourse or quotations
in books etc., brought them to my knowledge;
Johnston
Johnson
and besides this, I hope that some keener eye
than mine may discover some law or laws
Ker
Knollys
Carr
Knowles
governing the astounding violence done to
some of these names. Such a discovery
would be of the utmost interest and import-
Leicester
Leveson-Gower
Lyndhurst
Lyveden
Lester
Lewson-Gore
Lynehurst
Livden
ance.
Mackay
Mackie
WRITTEN. PRONOUNCED.
Main waring
Mannering
Abergavenay Abergaven
Marjoribanks
Marchbanks
Ayscough Askew
Mahown
Mahone
Barfreestone Barston
Menzies
Minges
Bartholomew Battlemore
Milnes
Mills
Beaconsfield Beckonsfield
Beauchamp Beecham
Mohun
Molyneux
Moon
Mulnix Molinooks
Beauclerk Boclare
Montgomery
Mungumery
Beauvoir Beever
McLeod
Macloud
Berkeley Barclay
Puleston
Pilston
Bethune Beaton
Raleigh
Rawiey
Bicester Bister
Reay
Ray
Blount Blunt
Ruthven (scotice)
Riven
Blythe Ely
Sandys
Sands
Boughton Bawton \
Strachan
Strawn
Brougham Broom
St. Clair
Sinclair Sinkler
Buchan Buckan
St. John
Sinjon
Burghersh Burgwash Burrish
St. Leger
Silliger
Cavendish Caudish
St. Maur
Seymour
Cholmondeley Chumley
Theobald
Tibbald
Circencester Cicester
Tollemache
Talmadge Talmash
Cockburn Coburn
Trottersclifife
Trosley
(Joke Cook
Colquhoun Cohoon
Coutts Coots
Vaughan & Strahan Vawn & Strawn
Waldegrave Walgrave
Dalziel Dee-al
Wemyss
Weems
Davenport . Devenport
Worcester
Wbrster
Derby Darby
M. SCHELE DE VERB.
D'Eresby D'Esrby
Des Voeux De Vau
University of Virginia.
68
137
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
138
SIRS :
I i-;innot, I ft-.ir, explain all Mr.
Browne'? Scotch puzzles ; but some of them I
think I can.
Myance is simply Fr. moyens=means.
Netherit, better Nidderit, pinched or awry.
Nok, better Nock, spindlehead. Snock is a
common word for nose or bill now.
Sewane, is, I take it, Savin or Sabine.
Thraff-caik is yeast-cake. We still speak of
TArtf-drinks.
Enchaip, like Encheip, is plainly of French
origin. The original word must be
Enchapper.
Figonale is a puzzle which I have tried to
solve before now ; but in va*in.
THOMAS DAVIDSON.
Orange, N. J.
I am greatly obliged to Mr. Davidson. At
the time I made the qi'ery, I had not receiv-
ed Donaldson's Supplement to Jamieson.
Donaldson's explanations of tough words
are too often inferential, but sometimes
plausible, as when he deduces figonale from
Fr. figue, and explains it as " fig-basket."
"Netherit as a nok," he takes to mean
" gnarled as an oak " not a good guess, for
an owl's beak is not gnarled. Mr. Davidson
is happier, if a spindlehead be bent or crook-
ed. "Thraff-caik" as a light or leavened
cake, is no doubt correct.
I should be glad to be favored with Mr.
Davidson's explanation of this line from Hol-
land :
"Thus wycit he the walentyne thraly and thrawin."
I have my interpretation, but am by no
means sure, of it.
W. H. B.
Johns Hopkins University.
P. S. Apropos of Scottish etymologies, I have just seen a
specimen page of Dr. Mackay's Dictionary of Lo-mlaml
Scotch. In this one page he is inclined to derive "bang"
from Gael, ban, a woman; actually derives "beacon"
from Gael, beachan; defines "barmkin " and "barbican "
as ''a watch-tower on a castle," and tells us that Shake-
speare uses Tybert as the name of a cat.
W. H. H.
'J'liraf-caik.
'l'li- above discussion of thraf-caik has
not, as I think, led to the right conclusion.
The whole mystery of the odd word Mm/ is
at once dispelled when we remind ours- K. s
of the Middle English therj of which thraf % is
but a dialectal variant (< f. Scottish tharj thairf
which will be mentioned below); and therf
takes us back to the Anglo-Saxon peorf,
which means primarily ' lacking in something '
(pearf, I need ; German diir/en), and corre-
sponds to the German derb. The special
uses of this adjective must at all times have
been various, applied, for example, to milk it
denoted ' skimmed ' (Cockayne, Leechdoms),
but the application that is of importance here,
is revealed in the uniformity with which Anglo-
Saxon, Middle English, O. H. G. and M. H.
G. Glosses define pearf (per/) and derb with
azymus ; from Aelfric to Wiclif, moreover, the
unleavened bread of the Passover is peorf
hl&f and per/ breed. That peorf, perf as
applied to bread and dough therefore to a late
period of Middle English meant 'unleavened,'
is shown by the entry in the Promptoriuin
Parvulorum p. 490: "therf, wythe owte sowre
dowe, azimus " (cf. also Reliquiae Antiquae I,
p. 6; and Catholicon Anglicum p. 381, note
2); and the M. H. G. derbe-brot, derpkuoche,
derpteic, etc., supply an exact parallel. But
the correspondence between the German and
English uses of these words does not end
here. There was an easy transition from
azymus to panis densus, and thence to any
heavy or coarse kind of bread ; derbes brot is
to-day not an unleavened loaf, but any sort of
coarse bread in distinction from the finer and
white varieties. In English the same develop-
ment of meanings seems to have taken place,
an assumption that enables us to understand
a passage in Piers the Plowman (A. pass.
VII, 269) where perf-cake must mean a cheap
and coarse product, better defined in the B
and C texts by ' an hancr cake,' and ' a cake of
otes' (cf. Mr. Skeat's note). It is highly prob-
able then that the ' uplandis and the burges
Mous' of Henryson regaled themselves on
some coarse kind of bread, perhaps an oaten
loaf, which by them would be esteemed quite
dainty enough.
It will now be preceived how derb in Modern
69
139
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888.
140
German has developed along two lines of
metaphorical meanings: 'firm, strong, hardy,'
etc., and 'rude, uncouth,' etc. Here we may
again compare the Scottish tharj, thairf,
which Donaldson in his Supplement, after
blundering with the etymology, defines with
'cold, stiff, unsocial, reluctant.' The signifi-
cance of noticing the existence of this adjec-
tive fharfby the side of the metathesized form
thraf \s of course apparent (see also tharf-bred
in Wright-Wiilker's Vocal, p. 657, 30, and Mr.
Wright's note).
How, finally, are we to regard the relation
between a thraf-cake and a thfaf -drink? My
suggestion is that in the expression thraf-
drink, the epithet thraf is used with the
secondary signification of ' simple, inexpen-
sive,' etc., so that a thraf -drink is practically
a 'penny ale' or a 'small beer.' In this way
' small beer,' etc., necessarily made with yeast
comes to be designated with a word which
would originally have implied the lack or
absence of barm or yeast. Mr. Davidson is
therefore right in implying that a thraf-drink
is a yeast-drink, but in taking no account of
the curious lucus a non lucendo which we
have thus discovered, he leads us astray when
he comes to speak of the thraf-cake.
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The Origins of the English People and of
the English Language. Compiled from
the best and latest authorities by JEAN
ROEMER, LL. D., Professor of the French
Language and Literature and Vice-Presi-
dent of the College of the City of New
York. New York, D. Appleton & Co.,
1888. xxiv, 658 pp. 8vo.
The author of this work, so far known only
as a writer of text-books for the study of
French, has ventured out of his accustomed
sphere to add another bulky volume to the
numerous popular works on the English Lan-
guage. Since most of the latter are sadly
out of date, a well written manual embodying
the results of recent investigations would be
very desirable. Considering the vastness of
the subject which, as the author of this book
states, "involves, first of all, a critical inquiry
into the origin, character and distribution of
the various races of men Celts, Romans,
Saxons, Danes, Normans who at various
epochs have found their way into the British
islands their idioms and forms of religion,
their social and political differences, their
relative progress in the arts of civilized life "
we would cheerfully excuse the writer from the
task of original investigation, and should be
satisfied if, by judicious compilation from "the
best and latest authorities " he had produced
a work which, while giving in an interesting
style a clear idea of the origins of the English
language, would be faithful and accurate in
every detail. We shall not venture to discuss
the historical part at the author's work ; but as
far as its philological side is concerned we feel
compelled to give it as our opinion that Dr.
Roemer has failed to fulfill the above stated
requirements. His authorities are frequently
not the " best and the latest ; " more frequent-
ly still he speaks on his own authority and
often not wisely ; in some fundamental points
he gives the reader a wrong conception of the
development of the language, owing to his
predilection for the Norman-French element ;
throughout the whole book a great deal of
miscellaneous information is volunteered which
blurs the clearness of the picture and leaves
us in the end without a clear conception of
what we have read.
The list of authorities prefixed to the vol-
ume is long, and it would be difficult for me to
verify my assertion ; yet I venture to say that
many of Dr. Roemer's ideas are original with
him ; certainly they are not to be found in
what are commonly regarded as the best
authorities. And here is the mischief such
books can do : the public is told that they are
compiled from the "best and latest authori-
ties;" but all through them are scattered the
writers' own favorite ideas and original dis-
coveries, which pass for the results of serious
investigations and are soon copied in numer-
ous text-books of a lower order, to the dis-
credit of philological scholarship in general.
Throughout the present volume the most
startling propositions are advanced as though
they were facts known to everybody who had
ever looked into the matter.
70
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
142
Thus p. 67 we are told that the name of the
Jutes is probably only a corruption of the
word Tent or Dent, which, with its suffix ish,
sch, ch t has produced the forms Deutsch and
Dutch! In defence of his theory the writer
cites the mispronunciation jew for dew and
ajew for adieu ! This word Tent or Dent (why
not add the correct form peod?) is then said to
be " after all of remote Celtic origin ! " Here
the author evidently confounded deutsch with
German. This supposition seems reasonable
in view of the fact that almost throughout the
rest of the book the author uses the term
Dutch instead of German, speaking in all
seriousness of the Old High Dutch and the
Old Low Dutch, terms which, like the author's
" Gothic stock of languages," have an interest-
ing archaic air about them. The trouble
begins when Dutch is used in the same con-
nection in its modern acceptation ; and there
is frequent occasion for this, for the author
believes with Prof. Skeat (Etym. Diet. p. xiv)
that the influence of Dutch upon English has
been greatly underrated ; but he probably
goes much farther than his authority when he
says, p. 68 : " That in the time of King Ethel-
bert the people of Kent spoke Dutch is proved
by tWe fact that Angustin, on his mission to
England, took with him as interpreters men
from the Salian Franks, who originally came
from the Rhenish Netherlands, where the lan-
guage was the ancient idiom of Holland ; " or
when, p. 398, he gives a list of so-called Dutch
words said to occur in the Ancren Riwle,
among them such good old English words as
biiiden, bitter, breken, buten, cwellen, delen,
drinken, grim, etc., which is followed on p. 430
by a similar list of Dutch words in Chaucer,
among them sterven, nemen, stelen etc., words
which resemble closely their modern Dutch
cognates given in a parallel column.
Frequently the author goes directly against
his own -uithorities, and he does this in some
cases with a total disregard for phonetic laws.
On p. 310 smith is derived from smite although
both the etymological dictionaries which the
author quotes as his authorities (Skeat and
Muller) consider this derivation impossible
(Skeat: " we might as well connect kith with
kite as far as phonetic laws are concerned "I ;
p. 250, doomsday (in Doomsday-book) is deri-
ved from dotnus del ; the author feels no hesita-
tion about the etymology ^cockney, in regard
to which his authorities confess their ignorance
(P- 336) ; on P- 466 we are told that Lerti, a
collective name for certain German tribes who
settled in the North of Gaul, was " probably-
only the Latin way of pronouncing the German
word leute " ; p. 379 we learn that "the distinc-
tion in our modern pronunciation between the
initial sounds of thine and thin did probably
not exist in the earliest times, the th always
being voiced as in thine"; etc. There are
many minor errors which might easily have
been avoided, as when the author speaks of
" Sigurd in the Song of the Nibelungs " (p. 26)
or assigns the He Hand, " Heiland in Dutch,"
to the tenth century (p. 93) ; or when, p. 529,
he derives '^besitzen, to possess, from the Old
High German bisazj'an" etc.
The author deserves credit for insisting, p.
373, on the separation of the various classes of
Latin and Romance words introduced into the
English language at various times, but he fails
to follow his own precept when. p. 344, he says :
" thus from sol they made soil; from reculer,
recoil; pauvre became poor" etc. If the
author had given the Norman French and
Anglo-Norman forms instead of the modern
French, the origin of the English words as we
have them would be clear.
The weakest part of the book is that devo-
ted to Anglo-Saxon, "an idiom from which
English literature has derived but little if any
value " (p. 454). Here it is evidently not fa-
miliarity which breeds contempt. In the
author's list of the "best and latest authori-
ties " the names of all the men most promi-
nently connected with the study of the Anglo-
Saxon language and literature, Grein, March,
Sweet, Sievers, Zupitza, ten Brink etc., are
conspicuous for their absence. Indeed there
is reason to believe that the writer is ignorant
of the very elements of an idiom a thorough
knowledge of which constitutes a prime re-
quisite in the author of a work on the origins
of the English language. We can hardly
come to any other conclusion when we read,
P- 354 : "The Anglo-Saxon prepositions were
used as if possessed of the power of altering
the cases of the nouns they governed, as oc-
curs in Latin and Greek ; but so irregular and
143
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
144
capricious were the principles of this govern-
ment, that in the same sentence the same
preposition throws its connected substantives
into four different cases." This startling pro-
position is then illustrated by the phrase mid
ealre thinre heortan and mid eallum mode!
If all this means anything, it means that the
endings -re, -an, -um, -e are signs of different
cases ! No wonder the author remarks : "that
amid this confusion of grammar the people
could have always correctly understood each
other, may be reasonably doubted."
An appendix of nearly two hundred pages
is devoted exclusively to the French sources
of Modern English. It contains a chapter on
the history of the French language from the
earliest times to the present ; a chapter on
French etymology introduced by observations
on the general principles of linguistic science,
the latter taken from August Schleicher; and
a chapter containing specimens of Early
French. This appendix contains much that
is foreign to the author's subject, but this is
true of the whole book. Thus on pp. 330 ff.
we find an account of the rise of universities,
with the question as to the priority of Oxford
or Cambridge duly considered ; pp. 524 ff. we
find a history of the degree of Bachelor of
Arts, with remarks on the requirements of the
mediaeval curriculum and the meaning of the
word " commencement " ; p. 488 we learn that
in the Middle Ages in a letter of importance
the following order was always strictly obser-
ved: viz., " Salutatio, Captatio, Benevolentia
(sic !), Narratio, Petitio, Conclusio"; etc. If
the author had devoted the time spent in the
collection of one half of his material to the
verification, correction and systematic arrange-
ment of the remainder, he might have produ-
ced a useful book.
HANS C. G. VON JAGEMANN.
Indiana University.
SPANISH IDIOMS. I.
Spanish Idioms with their English Equiva-
lents, embracing nearly ten thousand
Phrases, collected by SARAH GARY
BECKER and FEDERICO MORA. Boston :
Ginn & Co. 1887. i2mo. pp. 331.
In the preface to this interesting book an
idiom is defined as being "a phrase stamped
by the usage of language with a signification
other than its grammatical or logical one."
Let us examine this definition in the light of a
few idioms ! p. 144 : acabo de llegar, ' I have
just arrived.' As venir in French, so acabar
in Spanish (and Portuguese) is used as a sort of
auxiliary verb with an infinitive, to express
immediate past time; acabar de hacer, 'to
have just done,' is a verbal construction
peculiar to Spanish grammar, the signification
of which is neither non-grammaticai nor non-
logical. Again, the phrase hacer libro nuevo,
' to turn over a new leaf (p. 128) is a Spanish idi-
om, not because its meaning differs from the
grammatical or the logical one, but because it
is the peculiarly Spanish way of conveying, by
an expression taken from a concrete case
(here from a particular occupation of man), the
abstract idea of ' reforming one's conduct of
life.' Its accepted signification is not the
literal one, to be sure, but does it for that
reason cease to be grammatical and logical ?
In short, the idioms of a language are pre-
cisely those of its constructions and expressions
which, so far from contravening grammar and
logic, reflect most faithfully its syntactical and
logical structure. Hardly more felicitous than
the above definition of an idiom is the state-
ment made further on in the preface: " Many
of the idiomatic phrases are proverbs, but
proverbs not containing idioms are excluded."
But it is not so much with the collectors'
definition of idioms and proverbs that we
must find fault, as with their plan of arranging
them. The idioms are divided into such as
contain a verb, and such as have or appear to
have no verb, as if the verb contained invari-
ably the essentially idiomatic element of the
phrase. Thus a heterogeneous number of
idiomatic and proverbial phrases are indis-
criminately arranged together under the verb
or one of the verbs which they happen to con- ,
tain and under which, in most cases, they
would never be looked for! Look for instance
at the phrases grouped under abrir p. 5-6,
andar p. 13-18, estar p. 90-102, haber p. 107-
113, hacer p. 115-131, ser p. 205-223, tener p.
227-239, and their inflected forms ! But even
accepting this injudicious arrangement, one
fails to understand why the phrase cnando
el hierro estd encendido, entonces ha de ser
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 3.
146
batido (p. 95) should be mentioned under estd .
rather than under the far more important verb
encendido or batido. Was the rule probably
to let the first verb determine the place of the
expression ? If so, why is ni juega ni da
barato under dar (p. 60), why acabo de llegar
(p. 144) not under acabar, where it ought to be ;
why again el se mete en lo que no le va ni le
[not lo] viene (p. 251) under this last verb
instead of under meter?, and so on. Not
unfrequently, again, it occurs that the same
idiom is gratuitously repeated, owing, probab-
ly, to the slightly different version or order of
words in which it happened to occur. Thus
en casa del ahorcado no hay que mentor la
soga under hay (p. 109) and ha (p. 152), de la
mana & la boca desaparece la sopa (pp. 71 and
170), quien del alacrdn estd picado, la sombra
le espanta (p. 98 and 173), cuando la barba de
tit vecino vieres pelar, echa la tuya d remojar
(p. 76 and 254), callen larbas y hablen cartas
(p. 34 and 114) ; and so on. The alphabetical
order ought to have been more carefully
observed : Tener occurs under temar (p. 227),
tender under tener (p. 230), podar ' to prune '
under poder ' to be able ' (p. 173), senior under
sentir (p. 205), etc. The arbitrary division of
the idioms into those with and those without
a verb having been once adopted, it should
have been consistently carried out. This is
not the case. A goto viejo raton tierno is
given under the verb dar (p. 60), whereas, for
instance, ablanda breva or ablanda higos (p.
258), d rnata caballo (p. 266), muchos ajos en
un mortero, mal los maja tin majadero (p.
266), enganchar la gata en la ancla (p. 279),
d tente bonete or hasta tente bonete (p. 266 ; cf.
un tente tieso, Gald6s, Baile*n, p. 177), d
gaznate tendido (p. 280, but also found under
verbs, p. 230), huevos pasados por agua (p.
285) are classed with idioms containing no
verb !
Let us now pass on to a few remarks on the
English rendering, and other matters which
have suggested themselves during a rapid
glance through the collection. On the whole
the Spanish idioms are happily rendered ; but
here as elsewhere in the work greater
uniformity of plan and method should have
been observed. Otro gallo me cantdra (not
cantard, as the book has it) is rendered im-
personally : ' one would fare better ' (p. 36),
whereas estar hecho un hospital (p. 99) is trans-
lated : ' he is very sickly ; ' and so in many
other cases.
P. 31. Buscar pan de trastrigo, 'To look
for better bread than ever came of wheat.'
This rendering is taken from Ormsby's transla-
tion of Don Quijote IV, p. 386, from which
the following foot-note is quoted : " Trastrigo
is an obscure word, but the application is un-
questionably to seeking things out of season,
or out of reason." There are a few Spanish
words in which tras has very much the same
force as re in rebueno, reviejo (cf. Port, re-
velho}, Latin per in pellucidus, French par in
parfournir. Thus trasanejo, which the Span-
ish lexicographers generally explain as mean-
ing 'three years old,' signifies 'more than a
year old' ' very old ' and is, like de antano, a
favorite epithet of good wine. ' Dios te con-
suele, hija, que asf me has consolado, sino que
temo que [el vino] me ha de hacer mal, porque
no me he desayunado; no hara, madre, re-
spondi6 Monipodio, porque es trasanejo.
Cervantes, Rinconete y Cortadillo (Brockh.
ed., p. 103). To this may be added another
passage quoted by Sbarbi (Ref. VI, p.' 285),
whose explanation of trastrigo agrees with
the one here given :
Bebe de lo trataflejo :
Por que con mas gusto comas.*
Kaltasar de Alcazar, La Cena-
A similar force of tras would seem to lie in
trasudar as used by Cervantes in the following
passage : El pobre gobernador (Sancho), el
cual en aquella estrecheza recogido sudaba y
trasudaba, y de todo corazon se encomendaba
a Dios que de aquel peligro le sacase. DQ.
II, 53. Now, another instance of this kind we
have precisely in trastrigo, which means
'superior to wheat.' To appreciate the force
of such an expression, it must be borne in mind
what high value was set on wheat as the best
material of which the principal article of food,
bread (la gracia de Dios), was made, and
to what extent it figures as a valuable thing
in proverbial language.
Saberle d uno d trigo, ' to taste of wheat,' is
a phrase which 1 have not found elsewhere, but
*Cf. the Proverb : Pan de ayer, carne de oy, vino dt
unta o, traen al h ombre sano. ^Sbarbi, Ref. III., p. 45)
73
147
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
148
which in the passage here quoted evidently
means 'to give satisfaction to one,' 'to turn
out successfully : '
Levest pocca gananpia quando luchest comigo,
Diote mal salespaqio Onorio mi amigo :
Quando quemar me quisisti, non te s'po d trigo,
Traeras mientre seas la manziella contigo. S. Mill. 268.
The Virgin is addressed as the Mother of
Wheat-bread.
Reyna de los f ielos, Madre del pan de trigo,
Por que fo confondido el mortal enemigo,
Tu eres mi fianza, esso misme te digo . . . Milagros, 659.
Proverb : Da Dios trigo en el ero sembrado.
Cast. 6 Doc. p. 175. Such being the signifi-
cance attached to trigo and pan de trigo, it
appeared senseless to ask for something more
or better than wheat-bread. Hence the
phrase : buscar mas (inejor) de pan de trigo,
' to seek something unreasonable : '
Probar todas las cosas el apostol lo manda :
Fui a probar la sierra, tfis loca demanda :
Luego perdi la mula, non fallaba vianda,
Quien mas de pan de trigo busca, sin seso anda.
JRoiz, 924.
Assaz eras varon bien casado conmigo :
lo mucho te queria commo a buen amigo ;
Mas tu andas buscando weior de pan de trigo :
Non valdr is mas por esso quanto vale un figo.
Mil. 341 ; cf. 759.
Trastrigo, then, which so far seems to be
known only from two passages in the Don
Quijote (I, 7 and II, 67), is the equivalent of
mas or mejor de trigo, and buscar pan de
trastrigo means, as Ormsby well says, ' to seek
things out of reason.' In conclusion it may be
remarked that, undoubtedly through the
translations of Cervantes' popular work, the
phrase ' to want better bread than is made of
wheat ' has become naturalized in English.
P. 38. Duena ciilpada mal castiga la [mis-
printed castigada] mallada. The English
idiom is also familiar to the Spaniard. Antes
tiraba piedras d mi tejado, agora encoge las
manos y las tiene quedas, viendo que es el suyo
de vidrio. Guz. de Alf. p. 204. Quien tiene
tejado de vidrio no tire piedras al de su vecino,
DQ. I. Pr61. ; Sbarbi, Refranero Espanol, IV,
p. 57 ; Alarcon, El Escandalo, p. 272. This is
one of the numerous Spanish phrases not con-
tained in the collection.
P. 40. No cocersele a uno el pan (gratui-
tously repeated immediately below). If,
instead of 'to be anxious to know the truth,'
the translation of this idiom read simply, ' to
be anxious,' it would be far nearer to the
truth. No cocersele d uno el pan is one of the
many Spanish idioms expressing impatience,
and means 'to be very impatient or restless.'
Este nuestro enfermo no sabe qu6 pedir ; de
sus manos no se confia ; no se le cuece el pan ;
teme su negligencia ; maldice su avaricia y
cortedad, porque te di6 tan poco dinero, La
Celestina, p. 18 ; cf. Guz. de Alf. p. 228. No se
le coda el pan a Don Quijote, como suele
decirse, hasta ver y saber . . . DQ. II, 25; cf.
ibid. 52, 65; Gald6s, Gloria I, p. 168. Other
Spanish expressions for impatience, not to be
found in the 'Spanish Idioms,' are: no ver la
hora de haceralguna cosa (occurs first in Ber-
ceo, S. Mill. 13) \faltarle d uno tiempo para
haceruna cosa (Fern. Cab. Lagr. p. 182; Revista
Cont. 1887, p. 3:); hacerse tarde d uno (Guz.
de Alf. p. 232 ; DQ. II, 53); hacerse d uno el
dia mas largo que tin ano (S. Mill. 12 ; JRoiz
451) ; parecerle d uno cada hora cien mil siglos
(Guerras civ. de Gran. p. 519 ; cf. Guz. de Alf.
P- 353)-
P- 50. Quien te cubre, te descubre, ' ex-
cessive secrecy betrays.' This does not convey
the idea of the proverb. The literal meaning
is: 'he who covers thee, uncovers thee,' that
is, he who knows your faults or secrets and
covers them up, can also uncover, disclose
them (he has you in his power). In this sense
at least the proverb occurs in the following
passage: <;Sabis por qu, rnarido? respondi6
Teresa, por el refran que dice: quien ie cubre
te descubre: por el pobre todos pasan los ojos
como de corrida, y en el rico los detienen ; y
si el tal rico fue un tiempo pobre, alii es el
murmurar y el maldecir. DQ. II, 5.- This
again is the import of the Portuguese : Quern
te cobre, te descobre, according to the follow-
ing explanation of a Portuguese friend of
the reviewer : Aquelle em quern confiastes
para te ajudar (no que pode ser uma falta),
depois em inimizade comtigo te descubrira.
See also the Dictionary of the Academy.
P. 51. Dios da el frio conforme la ropa.
Here belong the synonymous phrases : Da
Dios almendras a quien no tiene muelas,
Sbarbi, Ref. IX, p. 211 ; Da Dios habas & quien
no tiene quijadas. Celestina, p. 14; Garay,
74
149
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. VII, p. TOO) ; cf. Catalan :
Deu dona favas a qui no t caxals, Sbarbi,
Ref. IX, p. 200.
P. 70. No dejar ni roso tit velloso, 'to
leave no stone unturned to ensure success.'
This rendering is not borne out by any of the
passages in which we have found the phrase
in question. ' Un juez testarudo .... Ilev6
un vestido que para poderlo concertar y
ponerselo, eran menester mas de mil cedulillas
y albala de guia, 6 entrarle con una cuerda
como en el laberinto, y con aquella hambre
nunca se pens6 ver harto ; de donde diere, no
dejd roso ni velloso ; en todo hallo pecado : en
este, porque si, y en aquel, porque no. Guz.
de Alf. p. 224. Now, in this passage the fact
that the idiom is coupled with de donde diere,
a phrase characterizing indiscriminate pro-
ceeding, is sufficient proof against the mean-
ing assigned to it. It is evidently a synonym
of de donde diere and means here 'without
sparing any one.' And this idea it conveys
again in the following passage, where it is
also joined witli a synonymous phrase : Esto
fu6 el diablo, que empez6 & decirque no habia
de dejar roso ni velloso, ni piante ni mamante,
y que los habia de traer al retortero d todos,
y saiga si es hombre. Quevedo y Villegas,
Cuento de Cuentos (in: Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, 47).
No dejar (quedar) piante ni mamante means :
'not to leave (survive) bird or quadruped,' i.
e., not to spare a living being. And so indeed
the idiom in question is explicitly interpreted
by the commentator on the above passage,
F. de Paula Seijas (ibid.), and by Sbarbi him-
self (ibid. p. 105-106), who further quotes a
copla from the Mingo Revulgo which reads as
follows :
Yo soRe 1 esta trasnochada,
De que estoy estremuloso,
Que ni rasa ni velloso
Quedard de esta vegada.
The commentator suggests that the reading
raso represents the original form of the phrase,
raso having in the course of time become roso
by the natural tendency to assonance, and
that in this case the idiom would mean, as
indeed it appears from the passage just
quoted: 'to leave or spare neither young
(smooth-faced) nor old (bearded),' ' not to spare
a living soul." Here is one more instance for
this signification : No tan perdido como algu-
nos que yo conocia, que no dejaban roso ni
velloso, y en viendo la suya, como buenos
tiradores, mataban la caza al vuelo. Don.
Hablador, p. 529.1 The Spanish equivalent
of ' to leave no stone unturned ' is no dejar
piedra por mover-. Mas ellos estuvieron siem-
pre erre que erre, dale que le das, y aprieta
Martin, de forma y manera que no dejaron
piedra por mover Garay, Cartas (in Sbarbi,
Ref. V, 82-3).
H. R. LANG.
New Bedford, Mass.
VOLAPUK.
Grammar with Vocabularies of Volapuk.
By W. A. SERET, Glasgow : 1887.
Hand-Book of Volapuk. By CHARLES E.
SPRAGUE. New York : 1888.
In the December number of this Journal,
some account was given of the origin and
design of Volapuk, the proposed international
tongue; but the appearance on the editorial
table of the books named in the rubric, offers
an excuse for a few more specific details which
may not be without interest for those who are
as yet unacquainted with this novel and
curious experiment in language.
The foundation of Volapuk is a body of
stems, mostly monosyllabic, chosen from the
principal European languages, but especially
from the English, as the tongue most widely
diffused. These stems are unchangeable ;
and the language is formed from them by
affixes and combinations. The rules for this
construction are simple, precise, and un-
encumbered with exceptions; so that with a
knowledge of the rules and a moderate vo-
cabulary of stems, the learner can at once
proceed to construct sentences, with confi-
dence that his language will be correct and
intelligible.
Most, if not all, of these stems are nouns;
and upon the noun, as the simplest concept,
the whole language is founded. Every noun
may give birth to other nouns of secondary
iTo these set expressions for 'no one,' 'nobody,' may be
compared the following: cuantos aran y cavan 'as many
as plough and dig.' No me lo har n creer cuantos aran y
cavan. Sbarbi, Ref, VIII, 22. For arar y cavar cf. also
DQ. 11,53.
75
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
152
significations, to a verb, an adjective and an
adverb, as also, at times, to a preposition or
conjunction. Thus the stem spid (speed,
haste) gives spiddn, to hasten, spidel, an ac-
celerator, spidik, speedy, spido, quickly, &c.
The noun and pronoun are declined by in-
flection, the vowels a, e, i being successively
added to the stem to indicate the genitive,
dative, and accusative cases ; while other
cases are indicated by prepositions, as in
English. Thus mot, mother, makes mota,
mote, moti; but ko mot, with a mother, .in
plad, in a place, me kik, by means of a key.
This succession of vowels is preserved in the
tenses of the verb and elsewhere, as a help to
the memory. All plurals end in s.
Adjectives are formed from the noun by
adding -ik or -lib, as saun, health, saunik,
healthy, saunlik, wholesome ; and these may
be transformed into adverbs by the addition
of -o.
The verb is conjugated somewhat after the
pattern of the Greek, the tenses (except the
present) being indicated by prefixes, and
moods and persons by suffixes, which in the
latter case are the personal pronouns, 06, 1, ol,
thou, &c., added to the stem. Thus the stem
being giv, a gift ; and the verb givon, to give,
"I give" is givob (giv-\-ob); "thou givest,"
givol, &c. The other tenses of the indicative
are formed by prefixing successively the
vowels a, e, i, o, u, to the present, as agivob,
I gave; igivotn, he had given ; ugivoms, they
will have given. The other moods are formed
from the indicative by the addition of suffixes
to the personal sign ; thus from igivom, he had
given, is formed igivomov, he would have
given. The passive voice is formed by pre-
fixing the consonant p (for the present tense,
pa) to the corresponding active form ; as alo-
fom, he loved, palofom, he was loved.
A simple sentence of Volapiik, with a
translation, will give an idea of the look and
construction of this artificial language.
Du apolob da nekulivop vola at, akomob al
top sembal ko asibinom ninovag, ed aseitobok
in top et al slipon.
"As I-wandered through wilderness of-
world this, I-came to place certain where
there-was cavern, and I-laid-myself in place
that to sleep."
While the inventor of Volapiik proposed to
himself the invention simply of an extremely
easy and convenient form of international
communication, some enthusiasts have pre-
dicted that in time it will supplant all other
tongues, and be the world's one language.
Such expectations are extravagant. Volapiik
has no idioms of its own, no associations, noth-
ing that gives color to its words and phrases.
The utmost it can now do is to render color-
less statements quite clearly, without ambigui-
ty. Indeed it may not be the least of its
recommendations that, should it become uni-
versal, punning would become a lost art, like
the manufacture of Tyrian purple, or an un-
committable crime, like adultery in Sparta.
On the other hand, it is amusing to see what
animosity Volapiik has aroused in philological
quarters, and among learned professors to
whom years seem hardly to have brought the
philosophic mind. Some flame up in wrath
as if they had received personal outrage and
bufferings ; while others stare aghast as if Herr
Schleyer had turned loose a new bacillus to
ravage mankind. One, with a pretty wit, has
compared it to Wagner's homunculus in a
bottle ; forgetting, apparently, the services
that the homunculus afterward renders when
Faust is travelling in strange regions.
One of the objections raised against Volapiik
is the uncouthness of its appearance. But
even Greek in Roman letters looks uncouth
enough. "Toisi para sphisi ginomenoisi
krokodeiloisi toisi en tesi haimasiesi." What
a guffaw would be raised if that were Volapiik,
instead of being the words of him whose lan-
guage was thought musical as the songs of the
Muses themselves.
Others shriek from the topmost battlements
of a priori philology that the great goddess
Sprachentwickelung has been blasphemed
because Volapiik is a synthetic instead of an
analytic language. "If," (pathetically laments ,
one who is not altogether a6n\ay x.v < ?) "he
had only said^w ob instead of givob \ " The
printer's space, like the * in homoiousios, parts
the sheep from the goats. A politer answer
than Mr. Burchell's historic monosyllable, is
the reminder that Volapiik is not a natural
development, but a manufacture a con-
trivance. Does any one blame machinists for
76
153
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
not making locomotives on the plan of horses
ami elephants? A palaeographer does 'not
sneer at a st< -tm^rapher because he finds it
convenient to make an f without the conse-
craU-d Snail's horns.
In certain points of detail, however, it
seems, to one looking at it from the outside,
to have some defects.
First, the almost total omission of the letter
r, (apparently as a concession to the Chinese)
which gives rise to such Aztec-like words as
dlenon, tie Ion.
Secondly, the placing the accent invariably
on the last syllable, so that the whole ac-
centuation shifts with every additional suffix.
Thus:
VOLAPUK
VOLAPUKA
vbLAPUKA T'lD
VOLAPUKA TIDAL.
Surely it would have been better to attach the
accentuation to the significant stems.
The third defect is really important, and
that is the lack of a definite article, without
which precision of expression cannot be had.
Thus, in the bit of translation given above, it
is impossible to render Bunyan's phrase, " the
wilderness of this world," in Volapiik. The
words given mean " wilderness," which is
altogether different.
After all, the only important question is:
does Volapiik sufficiently supply the requisites
of an international medium of communication ?
that is, is it adequate for the ordinary pur-
poses of life ; and is it preeminently easy of
acquisition, of use, and of understanding?
On this the present writer expresses no
opinion. Judicabit orbis terrarum : that is to
say, the final verdict on the merits of pud-
dings must rest on d posteriori grounds.
WM. HAND BKOUNI .
Johns Hopkins University.
////. OLD FRENCH MERLIN.
Merlin, roman en prose du XIII* siecle, pub-
lu'avec la mise en prose du poerne de
Merlin de Robert de Boron, d'apres le
mamisrrit appurtenant a M. Alfred H.
Huth, par GASTON PARIS et JACOB
ULRICH : Paris, 1886, 2 vols. XCI-28o,
308 pp. 8vo. (Publication of the Socie'te'
des Anciens Textes
By the publication of the Huth MS. the
Early French Text Society turns its attention
for the first time to the Arthurian legends.
The version of ' Merlin ' which it here gives is
found in but one MS., unfortunately incom-
plete, belonging to the end of the XIII. or to
the beginning of the XIV. century. Itcontains,
as preserved, three works: ist, a prose ver-
sion of ' Joseph of Arimathea ' by Robert de
Boron, of which many MSS. exist and which
has been published by Weidner; 2d, a prose
version of ' Merlin,' by the same author, not
published in modern times ; 3d, a unique and
incomplete version of a continuation to ' Mrr-
lin.' Owing to the edition of Weidner the
'Joseph' has here been omitted. From the
linguistic standpoint the MS. offers nothing
remarkable : the writing is French, evidently
by many successive scribes, but shows still
marks of Picard or Wallon dialect. The few
words of interest are gathered into a Vocabu-
lary, which is followed by an analytical table
of proper names and by an analysis of the
work. From the literary point of view, how-
ever, the Huth ' Merlin ' is of much importance
in the history of the Breton cycle, and the
Introduction by M. Paris is therefore devoted
principally to the discussion of certain of these
new features. As noted above, the editors
have published that part of the Huth MS.
which contains a prose version of the ' Merlin'
of Robert de Boron, the poetical original
exists only as a fragment of 504 v., published
by Michel, and a ' Merlin ' which claims to
be a sequel to it. The former stopped at the
crowning of Arthur, as had been stated by
Paulin Paris, and it was the second in a series
of three poems by Robert on the ('.rail legend.
This author, Robert de Boron, as M. Paris
determines, must have written before 1201,
and have revised his cycle after 1212, the
77
155
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
156
date of the death of his collaborator, Gautier
de Montbeliard. Possibly also a fourth poem
should be reckoned among his works, the
third in the series, on the deeds of Alain ; but
all trace of it is lost. He himself was proba-
bly a native of North-eastern France, from
many vague indications in his poems, none of
which however are conclusive. Of the three
poems known to have been his, the third,
' Perceval,' exists only in prose, in a much
altered MS. of the XIV. century.
Passing to the sources. of the works before
us, M. Paris determines that the ' Merlin ' is
made up from the ' Historia Britonum,' a
translation of which Robert had read and
partially remembered, or which had been
orally transmitted to him. The story of
Geoffrey he changes at will or enlarges from
popular stories concerning Merlin (a subject
which M. Paris promises to treat in the Ro-
mania), with notions borrowed perhaps from
the Gospel of Nicodemus. His entire ignor-
ance of England is seen in the topography of
his work : Carlion he does not mention ; but
at Carduel, by the advice of Merlin, Uter
founds the Round Table (Wace gives Arthur)
after the model of those of the Saviour and
Joseph, which has, like theirs, an empty seat
that shall not be filled until in the next reign a
knight shall come (evidently Percival) who
shall have accomplished the search for the
Grail. Another variation due to Robert, in
order to increase the importance of Merlin, is
the concealment for fifteen years of Arthur,
who then alone of all is able to draw the sword
of royal authority from the magic anvil. 1
According to Robert, it was the mother of Kay
who nursed the infant Arthur and who was
consequently obliged to intrust her own son
to a stranger of low birth. Thus the charac-
ter of Kay was tainted by the milk of a menial
(a common notion in the Middle Ages), and he
became " fel et faus et vilains." We have
here an ingenious explanation both for the
evil traits of Kay in the poems from the time
iThis idea M. Paris would trace to biblical legends: the rod
of Joseph which buds, thus designing him to be the husband
of Mary ; or to episodes in other poems of the cycle. A
more striking parallel seems to me to be found in the German,
epic, where Siegmund draws the sword from the oak, unless
perhaps, indeed, the latter may have been the original of a
popular story which had crept over the German border and
which was utilized, by Robert.
of Chretien de Troies and for the indulgence
of Arthur towards him.
The ' Merlin ' of Robert had a sequel by his
own hand, the ' Perceval ' (perhaps also an
intermediate poem on the adventures of
Alain). The ' Perceval ' did not, however,
meet with much favor ; it was soon crowded
out of the series by the ' Lancelot,' which new
arrangement of the story demanded a connect-
ing link that should relate the end of Merlin's
adventures and the history of Arthur up to the
arrival of Lancelot. Several writers tried to
fill the gap. The one of the Huth MS. evi-
dently had the least success, as other versions
were preferred to his.
His work proceeds from the crowning of
Arthur, and to be consistent he claims to be
Robert de Boron. M. Paris shows by many
discrepancies that he is not. A character
for deceit being thus established in the anony-
mous writer, another falsification which inter-
ests literary history is easily pointed out.
The continuator of the ' Merlin ' of the Huth
MS. pretends that he is translating from a
Latin book on the legend of the Grail and
that to lighten his task he has asked his lord
" Helye, qui a este 1 mes compains a armes,"
to translate a branch of the book which he
calls " li contes del brait." Further on he
shows Helie at work, and finally declares that
the branch is finished. All this, with other
allusions, proves that there existed a work,
probably in prose, called ' li Contes del Brait,'
from the last cry of Merlin, written by a cer-
tain He'lie. This story is lost in French, but
is partially preserved here and there in a
Spanish translation of ' Merlin ' bearing the
title of ' El Baladro del sabio Merlin.' The
rubrics and the closing chapter of this transla-
tion are appended by M. Paris to the Introduc-
tion. From these references the story may
be drawn, somewhat as follows : Baudemagus,
angered at seeing Tor, his junior, given a
seat before him at the Round Table, leaves the
court of Arthur, undergoes many adventures,
and finally arrives in the forest of Darnantes.
In this same forest, four days before, Merlin
had been shut up in the 'Tomb of the Lovers'
by Ninienne, 2 to whom he had taught his arts.
aThis appears to be the true form of the name : also Ni-
niane, Nivienne, etc. Vivienne or Viviane seem to be wrong
readings of the MSS.
157
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
158
On it she had replaced the sword, which ten
men could scarcely lift, and had sealed it to
the tomb by incantations. Attracted by the
laments of Merlin, Baudemagus strives to raise
the sword, but is told by the sage that no one
save her who placed him there can free him.
In terror Baudemagus falls to the ground,
whereupon " un poco despues de hora nona "
(the allusion is obvious and might suggest the
origin of the notion) Merlin utters his last cry,
which sounded through the. kingdom of
Logres. Th candles in the hands of the
thirteen kings went out and many marvels were
accomplished, as Merlin himself had pre-
dicted. 3
The author of this story is without doubt a
person called He'lie, a name not infrequent
among writers of the Middle Ages. Who
this particular He'lie may be is not yet de-
termined, but the allusions to him in the Huth
MS. have been curiously twisted. From a
comrade in arms of the pretended Robert de
Boron he becomes (in subsequent stories as in
1 Guiron le Courtois ' and in an epilog to
' Tristan ') a relative of Robert ; and finally
blooms out into literary history as a writer on
the Grail, He'lie de Boron all of which is
exploded by the publication of the original.
Seeking now the sources of the sequel to the
' Merlin ' of the Huth MS. M. Paris finds that it
is, in large part, a development of indications
found in the ' Conte du Brait,' 'Lancelot,'
' Mort Arthur ' and the prose ' Tristan,' all of
which were unknown to Robert- de Boron.
Other material was doubtless drawn from
various episodes of Breton stories, and the
whole supplemented by poor inventions of
the author himself. As the readers of the
Middle Ages preferred other sequels of the
4 Merlin ' of Robert to this, its influence in
France was not important. It offers, however,
peculiar interest to English-speaking peoples,
in that if was employed, much abridged, by
Malory. It serves the latter as the original
for his first four books, minus chapters v-xvi
of Book I, which are taken from the common
3"The end of Merlin is much more dramatic than that in the
ordinary version and, so far as we can ascertain in the Huth
MS., Vivien appears in a much more favorable light. Mer
lin teaches her his art in order to win her over, and she
while preserving her honor, hates him for his intentions and
finally destroys him, thus strongly pointing a moral.
version of ' Merlin.' The author of the Huth
MS. wrote not far from 1225-30; was probably
from North-east France ; like Robert de Boron
he did not know England.
Having thus analyzed the MS. as preserved,
M. Paris passes to a conjecture of the nature
of the part that is lost. He points out that
the anonymous author has given an intimation
of his plan in a passage on folio 125 of the MS.
There he states that the narrative will be divi-
ded into three equal parts of 125 folios each :
the first corresponds to the ' Joseph ' and the
' Merlin ' of Robert de Boron, plus 50 folios of
the continuation ; the second reaches to the
commencement of the Grail, and in the Huth
MS. lacks about 20 folios; the third ends with
the death of Lancelot and Mark, and is entirely
wanting. This third part M. Paris concludes,
from the allusions in 'Merlin' and in other
works that refer to ' Merlin,' to be a Quest of
the Grail. This 'Quest,' like the 'Merlin,'
was attributed to Robert de Boron ; was
known to the author of the prose ' Tristan ; '
and resembled greatly the ' Quest ' commonly
assigned to Walter Map, in fact was probably
the original of the latter, which was early in-
corporated into the ' Lancelot.'
This prediction was unexpectedly verified
the same year it was made (M. Paris signs the
Introduction July i4th, 1887), and in a manner
most flattering to the penetration of M. Paris,
by the publication of a Portuguese translation
of the 'Quest (See NOTES III, col. 49) by Dr.
von Reinhardstottner, which is in reality the
missing part of the work of the pretended
Robert de Boron (See Romania XVI, p. 582).
The importance of this discovery on the his-
tory of the cycle we may hope to see demon-
strated soon by M. Paris himself.4
F. M. WARRKN.
Johns Hopkins University.
480 far as determined, the work on the Grail legend in its
early form may be thus arranged : Robert de Boron is the
author of at least three poems which are preserved as follows
' Joseph of Arimathea,' of which we possess the original
complete and several MSS.ofthe prose versions; 'Merlin,'
original 504 v., and several MSS. of the prose version;
'Perceval,' one MS. of the prose version. The' Perceval,'
being unpopular, gave way to another conclusion, which
necessitated a connecting story. Thus, for ' Perceval ' in
the plan of Robert we have a ' Sequel to Merlin ' and a
'Quest,' which latter was finally united to the ' Lancelot.'
79
159
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
160
Die Berliner Handschrift des Decameron,
von A. TOBLER. [Sitzungsberichte der Ko-
niglich Preussischen Academic der Wissen-
schaften zu Berlin]. It is perhaps, after all, not
surprising that a work so well known and so
often printed as the Decameron should still
have no critical edition which the future his-
torian of the Italian language could use with
any safety. And yet the Decameron is cer-
tainly one of the most important monuments
of early Italian prose. But then, the pretty
stories and graceful style of Boccaccio have
doubtless rather repelled than attracted the
severe labors of the grammarian. At last, a
good beginning has been made, and if those
who follow Prof. Tobler perform their task
with the same thoroughness and keenness, we
shall ultimately have an edition of the De-
cameron of great value to the grammarian
and lexicographer.
In this pamphlet we have :
1. An accurate description of a MS. of the
Decameron the writing of which is not later
than the very beginning of the fifteenth cen-
tury. This MS. is part of the Hamilton col-
lection of the Berlin library ;
2. A carefully compiled list of the corrupt
passages which are common to the Berlin
text and to the Mannelli text ;
3. A list of passages in the Berlin text
which offer a better reading than that of the
Mannelli text ; many of these readings have
already been introduced into editions of Boc-
caccio from other MSS., or conjecturally ;
4. Corrupt readings which are found in the
Berlin MS. but not in the Mannelli text ;
5. A list of divergent readings either of
which may be adopted without changing the
meaning of the text ;
6. A list of divergent readings where the
adoption of one or the other would change
somewhat the meaning of the text.
Prof. Tobler shows conclusively that the
Berlin MS. is not a 'copy of the Mannelli, and
makes it appear very probable that the reverse
is the case.
P. B. MARCOU.
Cambridge, Mass.
BRIEF MENTION
Apropos of Dr. Schilling's recent review of
the Joynes-Meissner German Grammar in
these columns, the Editors desire to state that
the entire review was furnished to the NOTES
at one time, its subsequent division into two
parts being simply incidental to editorial con-
siderations ; so that the spirit and fairness of
the article in question can be judged only
with reference to its effect as an undivided
whole. As for the title of the review, we are
assured that it was already chosen before the
appearance of the article on the same subject
in our December number ; and the paper
throughout was written quite independently
of any suggestion from the author of that
article.
Professor F. Max Miiller has published a
new volume, which comprises a collection of
essays, notes, and letters relating to ety-
mological, anthropological and antiquarian
topics, and has named it ' Biographies of
Words, and the Home of the Aryas' (Long-
mans, Green & Co., New York). This volume
belongs to that class of semi-popular scien-
tific writings in which Max Miiller has few
equals in the charm of captivating generaliza-
tion and readableness, and it is sure to find
its peculiar place on every shelf by the side
of the household "Chips." General readers
will here find some things to satisfy their
craving for those inspired deductions that
spurn the scientific scaffolding by which ordi-
nary mortals raise themselves to the appre-
hension of a truth ; here is the philologist, to
their own liking, not painfully and weakly
ever holding fast to the dead weight of the
logic of facts lest, perchance, the wings of
his spirit may waft him through the free air of
direct perception towards the very s"un and
center of absolute knowledge. But if Max
Miiller knows how to give one a refreshing
airing, and to disappoint one afterwards by
not providing the healthful meal for which the
appetite has been sharpened, this is but one
side of his character. He is a great scholar,
and always gives the scientific man something
to think about. Whatever our tastes may be
we are all obliged to read his books, whether
for admonition of how subjects should, or
should not be treated ; of how things are, or
are not. In the present instance the ' biogra-
phy ' of the word persona is alone enough to
80
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
162
save the whole volume. The author is at his
best in sketching the life of this word that has
played a marvclously significant role through
many centuries.
In the 'Johns Hopkins University Studies
in Historical and Political Science,' Fifth
Series, No. XI, is to be found a succinct and
interesting treatment of " Seminary Libraries
and University Extension," by Dr. H. B.
Adams, Editor. This account is confined, of
course, to history and allied subjects, but, as
the system here noted is precisely the same
for linguistic investigations, we would heart-
ily recommend the article to all modern lan-
guage professors seeking light on Seminary
Methods. The same writer has published
' The Study of History in American Colleges
and Universities ' (Bureau of Education, Circu-
lar of Information No. 2, 1887) which, we
hope, will suggest to some of our earnest
workers the propriety of a similar study for
the modern languages, or a department of
them, in the United States. A history of
English, German or Romance studies in our
colleges would reveal an extraordinary de-
velopment in the past few years of an im-
portant branch of education. No greater
revolution has taken place in any department
of our educational system than that which
might be traced out just here.
We have received a contribution that is
likely to do important service for the science
of dialectology : ' Grammatikalische und
lexikalische Arbeiten iiber die lebenden
Mundarten der langue d'Oc und der langue
d'Oil,' by Dr. D. Behrens [Deprint from the
IX. vol. of Zeitschrift f. Neufranzbs. Spr. u.
Litteratur. Oppeln u. Leipzig ; Eugen
Franck's Buchhandlung]. In this monograph
the writer has presented in the space of 125
octavo pages an historical survey of all the
principal publications bearing on North and
South French dialects, with here and there
short characterizations of the work noted.
Every one who has attempted to make such
a list will be able to appreciate the difficulties
and amount of labor attending it, and feel the
more grateful to Dr. B. that he has compiled a
bibliography so useful and so nearly complete
as this is. For all those interested in dialect
p
matters it is an indispensable help ; to supple-
ment it will be comparatively easy, now that
the first steps in this direction have been
taken. It remains to continue the good work
by publishing bibliographies of original works
in the individual patois. When these texts
shall have been made accessible to foreign
scholars, the materials necessary for dialect
investigation, especially for the important
categories of Syntax, Morphology and Sema-
siology, will be at hand, and will doubtless
attract a goodly number of zealous workers.
Sievers* Anglo-Saxon Grammar holds an
altogether unique place, being the only full
treatment of the early forms of our language
according to the most accurate scholarship.
It is therefore a just matter of natural pride
that an American translator has made this
indispensable work accessible in English. A
further element of gratification is the gener-
ous acceptance, throughout our country, of
Professor Cook's version that has encouraged
him so soon after the author's own second
edition to give us the corresponding edition
of the translation (Ginn & Co., Boston).
When Professor Cook first came to the pre-
paration of his English version it will be re-
membered that he could not escape the
responsible duty of making many variations
from the original, by incorporating a large
body of additional matter which the author
had collected and published separately subse-
quent to his first edition. By carefully per-
forming this editorial task, Professor Cook at
once gave us the work in a form that properly
stood mid-way between the first and second
editions of the original. After the author
had himself brought his work to embrace his
recent modifications, it is clear that the Eng-
lish version could be made to correspond
more closely to the original than before. And
this has been accomplished by Prof. Cook,
whose second edition conforms in all es-
sentials to the second edition of the author.
Prof. Cook has however added a new feature
which deserves to be mentioned. He has not
only expanded and corrected the somewhat
unsatisfactory ' index of words ' of the origi-
nal, but has added five supplementary indices
in which are collected the Gothic, the O. H.
German, the Old Saxon, the Old Norse, the
Latin and the Greek words that receive inci-
81
i6 3
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
164
dental consideration in the body of the work.
Any criticism of this excellent grammar can
only pertain to minor details, and these will
not be entered upon at this time. Merely one
observation shall be made, namely, that there
are serious omissions in the chapter on the
Numerals. The student will in vain turn to
these pages for information on the method of
counting by subtraction by means of Ids,
wana or butan, as for example, Chron. 641, he
rixode two, Ices xxx geara\ Chrori. 972 he
woes pa ana wana xxx wintra, etc. So too we
should be told how fractional parts were ex-
pressed ; and healf in expressions of number
is a very interesting and important phenome-
non. Nor is the word twc&de recorded here,
and yet it is not of rare occurrence, a single
example may suffice : wylle-ponne on cetele
o<5 p se wceta sie twcede on bewylled, Leech.
II, 332.
The work of translation has been so ad-
mirably done that it were quite unfair to lay
stress upon the few instances of slight inad-
vertence. It is seldom that Professor Cook
has, as in the case of the first period of 31,
relaxed his hold upon his author, and it were
useless to look for another instance of such a
curious and rather mischievous mistranslation
as that in 340 of <5e -bsic by "we whom,"
instead of ' us whom ; ' the ambiguity of nos
quos must have tripped the unwary.
In a recent circular issued by the American
Dante Society, the Council of the Society
" desire to call attention to the collection
of works on Dante in the Library of Har-
vard College, in Cambridge, a collection
which the Society has made it one of its
special objects to bring together, and to which
it yearly adds as many works as it is able to
procure. The collection now numbers over a
thousand volumes, and may be freely consulted
at the Library by every one, and under certain
restrictions may" be used by members of the
Society who live at a distance. A detailed
Catalogue is in course of publication in the
Harvard University Bulletin, and will be issued
separately as soon as completed." All cor-
respondence with reference to the collection
should be addressed to Mr. William C. Lane,
Asst. Librarian, Harvard College Library,
In charge of the Dante Collection.
It is with pleasure that we are able to an-
nounce the establishment in New York City of
an organisation entitled : "The Modern Lan-
guages Publishing Company," whose object
will be to publish from time to time works
that may meet the demands, both in matter
and method, of the recent development of
modern language study in America. The ad-
dress of the company is 150 Nassau Street.
A useful help to students of Moliere has
appeared in the second revised edition of F.
Hermann Fritsche's ' Molirestudien : Ein
Namenbuch zu Moliere's Werken, mit phi-
lologischen und historischen Erlauterungen '
(Berlin ; Weidmannsche Buchhandlung). The
first edition of this work was published in
1868, since which time important and varied
researches have been carried on in this branch
of French literature both in and out of France.
The text followed is that of Despois and
Mesnard, and the object of the author is to
give here the results of recent investigation
as to the explanation of proper names and
character-types used by the poet. To this
end evidence is drawn from his contemporaries
and predecessors, and the studies are laid
under contribution which the author has pub-
lished from time to time in Herrig's Archiv
and in Schweitzer's Moliere- Museum ; The
range of names has been extended and hence,
naturally, a number of new articles added,
while only a few of the old ones have remain-
ed untouched ; the most of them have been
entirely recast : " Was vor zwanzig Jahren gait
gilt grossenteils heute nicht mehr." Working
in this spirit, the author has given us virtually
a new book, as will be recognised at a glance
by those familiar with the older treatise. The
onomastic interpretations here bear both
upon general and special significations : gene-
ral, as to their origin and primitive meaning ;
special, as to their restricted use by Moliere
and other comic poets before and after his
time. Hence, in addition to etymological
notes, the author often gives the poetic charac-
ter of the names as represented in tradition,
in the manners and customs of the time, etc.,
and the treatise thus becomes a valuable con-
tribution to the general history of onomato-
logy as well as specially to that of the great
French poet. The Namenbuch covers about
82
165
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
166
230 octavo pages, preceded by a preliminary
study of thirty pages on proper geographi-
cal and ethnographical names.
Encouraged by the publication of ' Les
Miserables ' in the original French, WILLIAM
R.JKNKINS (New York) proposes to publish
'Les Travailleurs de la Mer ' and 'Notre-
Dame de Paris,' during the coming year. As
the last number of his interesting series,
'Romans Choisis,' the same publisher has
given us 'La Neuvaine de Colette,' a bright
and amusing romance recently published
anonymously in the Revue des Deux Mondes.
The perplexing question, Can the art of
English Composition be taught? is admirably
answered in one of the recent ' Monographs
on Education ' (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston)
entitled ' English in the Preparatory Schools,'
by Ernest W. Huffcut, Instructor in English
in Cornell University. Teachers in secondary
schools should read this pamphlet if they
would know the true doctrine of primary in-
struction in English. It would be difficult to
point to a more rational discussion of the
practical matter of early laying the founda-
tion of a clear and effective style in writings.
This can be done, as the writer shows, in ac-
cordance with the natural laws of the mind's
operations and growth, and by the avoidance
of the system, historically in bad repute, of
requiring " the tale of the bricks" when no
straw is provided. The ' essay writing ' bond-
age that embitters so many experiences in
early life can legitimately be converted into
a willing and pleasurable service that will
surely produce results of just the desired
kind.
The American reprint of Lamartine's charm-
ing idyll, 'Graziella,' by W. R. Jenkins (850
Sixth Ave., N. Y.) calls again attention tothe
industry and enterprise of this house, which is
rapidly supplying us with a choice of French
standard works of the recent literature. The
appearance of the volume, to correspond with
its contents, is bright and attractive. Among
the announcements for the near future we re-
mark 'Cinq Mars,' by Alfred de Vigny, with
English notes, and H. Tamil's ' Les Grands
Ecrivains Francais.' The latter will be a
most valuable addition to the means of pre-
senting the chief points of French literature
in the class-room.
PERSONALS.
Professor Joseph L. Armstrong has been ap-
pointed to the chair of English and Modern
Languages in Trinity College, N. Carolina.
Mr. Armstrong attended Randolph Macon
College (Va.) for some lime, but was compell-
ed to leave before taking his degree. After
quitting college (1878), he spent two years in
teaching, then passed one year (1880-81) at the
Johns Hopkins University, devoting himself
especially to English ; after this he went to
the University of Leipsic, where he spent one
year studying with Wiilker, Brugmann and
Techmer. Returning to America, he was en-
gaged in teaching for the following two years,
when he was appointed Professor of English
and Modern Languages in Central College
(Mo.), and he remained there during 1885-86.
His health failing, he resigned and spent the
following year in teaching an academic school
in Va., whence he passed to the appointment
noted above.
Professor J. S. Griffin was appointed at the
opening of the present Academic year to the
chair of Modern Languages in Garfield Uni.-
versity (Kansas). He was graduated at Abing-
don (now Eureka) College (111.) in 1873, and
received the Master's degree from the same
institution three years later. After gradu-
ation, he spent ten years as Principal and Su-
perintendent of Graded Schools in Illinois,
and three years as principal of a private
school in Tennessee. He is now engaged on
a translation of Droysen's ' Grundriss der His-
torik' and Florian's 'Gonzalve de Cordoue.'
Mr. F. V. Paget was appointed at the begin-
ning of the present academic year, Instructor
in French and Spanish in the University of
California (Berkely). Mr. Paget is a native of
France, where he received his early education ;
in 1862, he obtained the diploma of Bachelier
s lettres, at the Faculte" des lettres of Stras-
burg, and in 1865, that of Bachelier es scien-
ces, at Grenoble. In 1876, he came to Ameri-
ca and has been teaching privately and in
schools of San Francisco up to the date of his
present appointment. He is an occasional
contributor to the Overland l\fonihly t where
he has published papers on Lamartine and
Victor Hugo.
i6 7
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
168
JOURNAL NOTICES.
REVUE CRITIQUE. No. 52. Hiiffer, G., Der hei-
lige Bernard von Clairvaux. Erster Band : Vorstu-
dien (I. L.). Bobiquet, P., De Joannis Aurati poetae
etc., (P. de Nolhac). Gazler, A., CEuvres poetiques de
Boileau (A. Delboulle) 1888, NO- I. Kltchin, D. B.,
An^introduction to the study of prove^al (M. H.)
Cherot, H., Etude sur la vie et les ceuvres du P. Le
Moyne (1602-1671) (F. Hemon). No. 3. Paris, 6. et
Ulrich, J., Merlin, roman en prose du Xllle siecle
(//). Bevllllout, Ch., Antoine Gonebaud, chevalier de
Mere", etc., (T. de L.). No. 4. La Chanson de Roland,
traduction far L. Cledat (A. T.). Pakscher, A., Die
Chronologic der Gedichte Petrarcas (P. de Nolhac).
Scherer, E., Melchior Grimm (Ch. J.).
REVUE BLEUE, 1888, No. I. LemaHre, J., M. Paul
Verlaine et les poetes symbolistes et decadents.
Barine, A., Le mariage de Thomas Carlyle. No. 2.
Larroumet, 6., Les Comediens et les Moeurs, etude
historique. NO. 3. Darmesteter. J., Poesie anglaise.
Miss Mary Robinson. Larroumet, G. f Les Comediens
et les Muoars, etude historique (suite et fin). No. 4.
Bigot, Charles, Le roman psychologique comtem-
porain. Mensonges de M. Paul Bourget. Alexandra,
B., Les debuts litteraires d'Eugene Labiche.
LA NOUVELLE REVUE. ler Janvier, Bod, E., Gia
como Leopardi, d'apres des publications nouvelles.
REV. DES DEUX MONDES. 15 Janvier. Brunetlere,
F., La litterature personnelle. ler fevrier, Brune-
tlere, F., Les metaphores de Victor Hugo.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA. 1888, FASC I Carducci,G.,
a proposito di una recente edizione delle odi di Gio-
vanni Fantoni.
ANDOVER REVIEW 1888, January, Williams, 8. C.,
William Wordsworth. February, Huff, L. J., The
Christian character oi Goethe's ' Iphigenie auf Tau-
ris.'
ATLANTIC MONTHLY 1888, February, Lathrop, G.
P., George Meredith, The Coleorton Papers.
GOTTINGISCHE GELEHRTE ANZEIGEN, 1888. NO.
(. Hiiffer, G., Der heilige Bernard von CJairvaux (v.
Druffel).
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG, IX, No. I.
Ascoll, G. I., Sprachwissenschaftliche Briefe, tJber-
setzung von Brauno Gtlterbock (F. Hartmann).
Braune, W., Althochdeutsche Grammatik (R. Hen-
ning). Koerting, H., Geschichte des franzosischen
Romans im 17. Jahrhundert (M. von Waldberg). No.
2. Snider, D. J., Goethe's Faust (E. Schmidt).
Bernhard, W., Die Werke des Trobadors N'At de Mons
(O. Schultz). No. 3. Brandes, G., Die Litteratur des
neunzehnten Jahrhunderts etc., IT. Band. (Minor).
Murray, J. A. H., A New English Dictionary on
Historical Principles. Part III. (J. Zupitza). No. 4.
Beurath, P., Vocalschwankungen bei Otfried (J.
SeemUller).
NATIONAL REVIEW, 1888, January. Egerton, H. E.,
Two views of the Novelist. February, Austin, A.,
Mr. Matthew Arnold on the loves of the poets.
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT, 1888, NR. I.
Dlez. Fr., Etymologisches Wftrterbuch der roma-
nischen sprachen. 5 Ausg. Mit einem Anhang von
Scheler, Aug., (H. K ng). Mlehaells, H., Neues
WBrterbuch der portugiesischen u. deutschen
Sprache. 1 Th. Portugiesisch-Deutsch (H. K ng).
Gering, H., Glossar zu den Liedern der Edda (-gk).
Hasscnsteln, G., Ludwig Uhland. NR. 2. Dante
Allghlerl, Commedia and Canzoniere. Translated by
Plumptre. E. H., Vol. II. (H. K-ng).-l'herot, H.,
Etude sur la vie et les oeuvres du P. Le Moyne (1602-
71) (H. K ng). NR. 4. Kortlng, G., Grundriss der
Geschichte der englishen Literatur (R. W.). Crlzc-
nach, W., Der alteste Faustproiog. Itochholz, E. L.,
Wanderlegenden aus der oberdeutschen Pestzeit von
1348 bis 1350 (Rho. K6).-NR. 5.-Blelbtrtu, K., Ge-
schichte der englischen Literatur. 1. Bd. Die Renais-
sance und Classicitat (R. W.) Pflster, H. von, Mun-
dartliche und stammheitliche Nachtittge zu Vilmar's
Idiotikon von Hessen (H. K.)
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEN DEUTSCHEN UNTERRICHT
II, I. Klee, G., Ausgeftihrter Lehrplan ftlr den
deutschen Unt. an den Unter- und Mittelklassen
eines sachs. Gymn. Huther, A., TJeber die realistisch-
en Elemente von Goethes Hermann und Dorothea.
FUR LlTTERATURGESCHICHTE. (HR8G.
v. DR. FRANZ SCHNORR v. CAROLSFELD.) VOL.
XV, PART IV. Funch, Hclnrlch, Ein Stuck aus
Klopstocks Messias in ursprtinglicher Fassung.
Jacoby, Daniel, Herder und J. W. Petersen. Freilurr
v. Bledermann, Woldemar. Zweite Fortsetzung der
Nachtrage zu " S. Hirzels Verzeichniss einer Goethe-
Bibliothek, hrsg. v. L. Hirzel " und zu " Goetlies
Brief en von F. Strehlke." E. Minor, Briefe von Fried-
rich Schlegel. (With this number the Archiv ceases
to be issued).
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE, VOL.
XX, PART II. Kelle, Jon., Verbum und nonien in
Notkers de syllogismis, de partibus logicae, de rheto-
riea arte, de musica. Matthias, E., Ein pasquill aus
der zeit des Schmalkaldischen Krieges. Giske, H.,
tJber aneinanderreihung der strophen in der mittel-
hochdeutschen lyrik. Keltner, E., Zur Kritik des
Nibelungenliedes. VIII. Die texte A und B. Erd-
mann, 0., Particip des praeteriturns in passivischer
bedeutung mit haben statt mit tein verbunden.
And roscn, K. G., Der teufel in deutschen geschlechts-
namen. Kettner, G., Zur domscene des Goethischen
Faust. Holsteln, H., Der dramatiker Marcus Pfeffer.
GERMANIA. VIERTES HEFT. Maroid, t 1 ., otfrids
Beziehungen zu den biblischen Dichtungen des
Juvencus, Sedulius, Arator. Grlmme, Fr., Beitrage
zur Geschichte der Minnesttnger, II. Schnell, Ht-r-
niiinn, Zu den MUnchener BruchstUcken von Marien-
legenden. Wllslockl, H., Die Mausethurmsage in
Siebenblirgen. Von den drei Frauen. Galle'e, J. H.,
Segensprtlche. Sprenger, B., Zu Gerhard von Minden.
K' horn. K., Der heilige Kumernus oder die heilige
Wil^efortis. Singer, 8., Verzeichniss der in der
erzbischOflichen Di5cesanbibliothek in Erlau vor-
handenen altdeutschen Codices. Bartsch, K., Bruch-
stticke aus Strickers Karl. Singer, 8., Zum Willchalm
Wojf rams von Eschenbach .
84
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Itiiltiniorc, April, 18HS.
THE F IN FRENCH SOIF, BIEF,
MOEUF, ETC.
The problem which I intend to discuss in
the present article is this. A number of Old
and Modern French words end in /, while
their Latin or Germanic etyma have a dental
instead: JOI/SITIM, />/BEDUM, inoeuf MOD-
DM, blef BLADUM, nif NIDUM, pecchief PECCA-
TI-M, maugref MALEGRATUM, fief FEODUM(?),
aleu(f} AU.ODUM, pief(?) PEDEM, and buef
from -Boooin such words as Albitef ADALBO-
DO, Elbuef ELBODO, Gondebuef GUNDOBODO,
Condclbuef GUNDILBODO, Maimbnef MAGIN-
noix), Marbncf MARBODO, Rusteboeuf(?},
Tnrneboeuf(J}, Paimboeuf (?}, Quilleboeuf^}.
The question is, whether this / is a regular
phonetic development of the radical dental,
or, if not, to what influence its origin must be
ascribed. The various writers on the subject
have answered this question in very different
ways : YAKNHAGEN in his review of STORM'S
J-'.nglische Philologie, Anz. f. d. A. ix, 179
takt-s it for granted that the dental went
through ft : f, and he undertakes to support
this explanation by citing cases of a similar
sound-change from all sorts of other languages.
Resuming the subject in GROEBER'S Zs.f. r.
Ph. x, 296, he repeats his theory, borrowing
tliis time his accessory illustrations from the
Middle English and recognizing in English
faith a remnant of the old transitory stage th.
( 'iKOEBER, to whom we owe the first thorough
investigation of the point in question, Zs.f. r.
J'/i. ii, 459 ff., says that the reading sot/,
inoeuf, etc., occurred first in MSS. in which
both final / and final / were already silent,
that thus an orthographical confusion easily
arose and under the influence of the resulting
erroneous spelling the / became later an
audible part of certain of the above words;
SITIM, soi(t), soi(f], soif. In inoeuf, -buef,
secondary reasons favored the persistence of
/, inoeuf being affected by the/-forms of in OH -
I'oir, and -buef being associated with boeiif
HOVEM ;./?</, whose/must be older because of
the derivative fieffer, is traced back not to
feodum but to the simple feint . GROEHER
expresses himself to the same effect in a
" Beischrift" to VARNHAGEN'S abov--m. n-
tioned article in the Zeitschrift.
Other scholars have incidentally mentioned
the phenomenon, some of them without indi-
cating their own standpoint. SrcniER, Zs. ii,
298, says simply: "tier Auslaut des neufrz.
suif vi\r<\ wie in soif, inoeuf, blef zu erklaren
sein." These words of SUCHIER'S are referred
to by NEUMANN, Zs. viii, 399, without any
further remark. FOERSTER, Lyoner Yzopet
xxxvii, calls the forms without/" bekanntlich
die regelmassigen afrz. Formen," and so does
MACKEL, page 161, and, in accordance with
Groeber, on page 29 of his work, Die germani-
schen Elemente in derfranz. u. provenz. Spr.
APFELSTEDT, Loth. Psalt. xlv, seems to be-
lieve in a phonetic development: "in nif,
ntuefw'ird es (f) wohl aus dem nachfolgenden
u oder d entwickelt sein." The words "aus
dem nachfolgenden " are to be under-
stood, I think, with reference to the theory on
va(d)o: vo(is), which has been recently sup-
planted by NEUMANN'S explanation (Zs. viii,
384 ff.). GASTON PARIS, Romania viii, 135,
says: "je n'aijamais dit que je visse dans \'f
une transformation du d fafeodtint."
So we have, 'thus far, but two positive
opinions to discuss, those of VARNHAGEN and of
GROEBER. I trust that Romance scholars will
excuse my passing over VARNHAGEN'S theory
as rapidly as most of the authors just quoted
have done; since GROEBER, in his excellent
Beischrift, 1 has thoroughly treated the points
in question. I even think that GROEBER, in
his reply, goes rather too far in denying the
probability that Continental French d, inter-
vocalic and final, may have passed through
the fricative before being dropped. The
analogy of French b (g) as well as Spanish ,
/, perhaps Provencal *pafirc : paire, seems, to
speak in favor of th in French also. But that,
of course, would in no way save YARNHAGEN'S
iGroeber says that the Anglicist should not suffer himself
to admit a French sound-change which runs counter to the
phonetic laws of that language, in order to avoid the difficul-
ty of explaining the th in English faith. It seems to me
that this difficulty is not so very great. Since we have to
admit that the dental became th in Anglo-Norman, the word
faith could very well preserve this th in spite of plenty, etc.
Faith is the only monosyllabic word of all those quoted by
VAKNHABN, and by BBHKBNS in b'ra*z. Stud, v, i, 175 ff.
Moreover, forms like oath and especially truth and others in
th Goth -iVAi may have induced or supported the th \nfaith.
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
172
theory, as long as we do not believe in " Spo-
radischen Lautwandel."
GROEBER'S own exposition of the case is, of
course, extremely scholarly and instructive,
and we should willingly adopt his views, were
it not for the unlikelihood that, at an epoch
when writing played but a very insignificant
part in public life, the pronunciation of a group
of words should have been influenced by an
occasionally occurring error in spelling. Does
it not seem more natural that much the
same reasons which, according to GROEBER,
troubled the Old French copyists, should have
brought more or less confusion into the pro-
nunciation itself? The final labials did not
disappear in Old French under all circum-
stances. They fell only before words begin-
ning with consonants and perhaps inpausa;
before words beginning with vowels they have
been preserved down to the present day. So
there was in Old French a "linking" of
labials, exactly as, gradually, all final conso-
nants became liable to be either mute or
linked. The forms coming from B6vEM BRE-
VEM, N6vuM, etc. were pronounced either hue,
brie, nue or buef(v), brief (v), nuef(v), according
to the following word. The same with final
dentals originally preceded by consonants (a
at, o ot, etc.), and hence an uncertainty of
the " Sprachgefiihl " and a tendency to pro-
nounce a t or f even where there was no
etymological warrant for doing so. Examples
for such confusion in Modern French are the
often quoted c'estpat a moi, c'estpoinz a vous,
etc., and aime-t-il. In principle it makes not
the slightest difference that the Latin etymon
of aime-t-il happens to have a / at the corres-
ponding place, the / of aime-t-il being in no
causal nexus whatever with the / in AMAT
ILLE. In this case the unetymological /
became firm under the continued influence of
estil, at il, peut il, etc. Our/" may better be
compared with d in Oldest French ned, sed,
or with r in Modern English idear, cf. MODERN
LANGUAGE NOTES ii, 227. First it was pro-
nounced and written only occasionally, and
became usual only in words in which it was
favored by some accessory reason (like the t
in aime-t-il). Such secondary reasons GROE-
BER himself adduces for all the words in
question except soif, where he believes in the
sole influence of spelling. Soif, however, very
naturally followed the /-forms of boivre, as
has been suggested by SCHUCHARDT, Litera-
turblatt fur germ. u. rom. Phil., 1887, 22.
Thus the explanation we have proposed
might be perfectly satisfactory, if other con-
siderations did not suggest or rather require
quite an other manner of regarding the case :
ASCOLI, in one of his Lettere glottologiche
(Ascoli-Gi'tterbock, 206) treats of our French
words in connection with similar phenomena
in Ladinian, Provencal and Catalan, and says
that forms like moeuf, nifmust not, as GROE-
BER would have it, be looked upon as late
graphical deviations, but that, similar forms
extending over as large a territory as "von
den Quellen des Rheins bis zur Miindung des
Ebro," they must be the result of some pho-
netic development, and that they require in
their etyma not the group -du but -ud : niud,
moud instead of nidu, modu. Now, such
Latin etyma might very happily explain our
Romance forms, but the difficulty is that the
Latin words are in fact not niud, moud, but
nidu, modu, and there is no phonetic law
according to which -du should become -ud.
ASCOLI calls the supposed transformation a
" vocalattraction," and refers to such forms
as settle, reule; but seule, reule are to be ex-
plained in a different way, and cannot hold
good against vieil, ueil, peril, espalle, etc.
At all events, "vocalattraction" is a rather
vague expression, and sounds very much
like a circumlocution to express ' an un-
explained fact. It is a pity that our venerated
Italian Maestro, like his great Florentine
countryman, sometimes uses a certain parlar
coperto, or even keeps back entirely 'his last
word on the subject he is treating. In our
case, however, the dental in the supposed
etymon *niud, etc., makes it evident that ASCO-
LI either believes in some sort of metathesis,
which in fact is not much better a term than
"vocalattraction," or that he means a kind of
u- or o- Umlaut (d labialized by a following u
or o and developing a u before itself), similar
perhaps to FOERSTER'S i- Umlaut (Zs. f. r.
Ph. iii). This comparison, I think, suggests
at once the definite solution of the problem.
FOERSTER'S proposed law has been, as I take
it, successfully modified by NEUMANN in his
86
'73
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 4.
174
admirable articles on Satzdonbletten (Zs. viii).
May not Ascou's theory call for a similar
modification ? Indeed, a type -
tin : n would explain the Surselvian
etc., as well as Provencal alloc and our French t
forms, while the Catalan would remain about
as difficult as they are with ASCOLI. NEU-
MANN, in Zs. viii, has not neglected to take
into consideration the development of conso- |
nant-f in French, and he has even devoted \
a special essay to this subject in the Caix-
Canello Miscellanea, 167-174. It is strange ,
that in treating of French alou it has escaped j
his attention that nij is a form of the same
character, and therefore he did not realize that
all our French words with -f come under the
same category. I think it was because of two j
objections which might possibly be made that j
NEUMANN declined to identify the two cases. !
The question is (i) whether would become/ !
and (2) whether consonant-}-" is compatible i
with a diphthong in the preceding syllable j
(-buef, bief, etc.). As to the first question, a ]
" consonnification de Vu " is posited by BON- j
WA.RDOT (Romania v, 326-7), but no explanation
is given of the development. The naturally
was a v, as soon as the following word began
with a vowel, and this v, when generalized,
became an/ in pausa. Words which clearly
show this are: ANTIQUUM, antikvo, antiv(o)
antif; here the z/-form was favored by the
feminine antive, but not necessarily produced
by it ; Iudaeum,Judeo+vovie\,judeu,ju(d)ev,
juif (the i presents difficulty, but in any case
has nothing to do with our theory) ; VIDUUM,
vedito, veuo-\-vowel, veuu, veuv, veuf ; here, I
think, the feminine was originally 'veue veve,
and eu came from the masculine. We may
very well suppose, then, that /-f vowel
became nidu, niu, niv, nif ; and so the other
forms.
A much more difficult question is that which
concerns the diphthongization of the root-
vowel before consonant-)-;/.
NEUMANN keeps strictly to the rule that
consonant-f forms position, and indeed the
words which he treats agree with such a view.
But, in the first place, I do not see why the ie
in bief, ue in buef, etc., cannot be understood
just like the e in gueu (Zs. viii, 399). The
cases are perfectly parallel. I do not insist
however upon this possibility, because I am
not at all convinced that consonant-f always*
( 'instituted position; q could very well, under
favorable accentuation, preserve enough of its
vowel character to form something like a
syllable of its own, and make the radical vowel
"libre." (Hence, perhaps, the trisyllabic
Provensal vfzova, Ital. vedova.) Cf. further
the development of the parallel group conso-
nant -\-t\n PODIUM pui, MODIUM mui, CORRIUM
cuir, OLEUM huile, IMPERJUM empire, POST-
lus puts and especially that of AQUA ewe (be-
sides aiwe) EQUA ive, SEQUERE sivre. More-
over, the question of "Romance position" is
still very much open to doubt ; cf. es (APES), as-
sez, tiede, Esfiefne, Jumilges, ierre, nies, Jien-
me, vieil, oirre, tonoirre, doivle,foivle,juefne,
ues, nueit, etc., as against at, asne, ntalade,
anme,jofne, Estefre, settle, reule, dette, erre,
tonerre, manege, etc. Although some of
these differentiations may be due to some
analogy, it would be difficult to show the
probability of such or any other secondary
influence for all the forms concerned. I feel
sure that it depended entirely on the greater
or less stress a word happened to have, in
fluent speech. Cf. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES
i, no ff. All these differences are indeed
easily accounted for by an explanation which
is of course but an hypothesis, but which has
perhaps the advantage of greater likelihood
as compared with otfrer ideas of a similar
character.
I do not hesitate then, to recognize the
result of consonant+ in the/of all the French
words mentioned above. Soif, faudestuef,
and the doubtful pief (Tobler in the Caix-
Canello Miscellanea, 72 ; Groeber in Zs. x,
293) owe their / to analogy, and it has been
explained above that wrong linking was much
favored by the conditions of final / and / in
Old French. Pecchief may have been in-
aCf. G. PARIS, Romania. XIV, 157 ff., and again Nu-
MANN, Literaturblatt VI, 305 ff. The mere &ct that of two
such scholars as PARIS and NEUMANN, the first believes that
cons. +u did not form position, while the latter is convinced
of the contrary, seems to show that here, as often, the truth
is between the two extremes.
It is true, as NEUMANN says, that rivrt, rtv can no more
than lit, etc., be quoted as not forming J^itin petition; but
they show the prolonged effect of TEN BRINK'S law and are
therefore of importance where Romance or Callo-Latin
position is concerned.
J75
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 4.
176
fluenced by mechief ; maugref by gr(i)ef;
-buef by bovem, according to Groeber ; and
the forms Beuves, Bouvin, Buovo may per-
haps be quoted in favor of this analogy. As
to fief-fieffer, it seems to me that we should
rather expect the group fief-f(i)ever to be the
regular correspondence ; cf. grief -gr(i)ever,
chef-achever, etc. I understand the ff of
fieffer in another way : the analogy of chauf-
fer, calfar CALEFACERE seems to justify the
assumption that the common formula feodum
facere grew together to feoffacere, which, by
contraction and change of conjugation, became
feoffarie). This may then have favored the
development and persistence of the labial in
the noun. Soif, as we learned from SCHU-
CHARDT, followed the /-forms of boivre : jo
boiv car fai SOIF.*
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
Since the above was in type, I find that
ASCOLI has published in Archivio Glottologico
x, 2, pp. 260 fT., another essay connected with
our subject, entitled " II tipo gallo-romano
seuvSEBd etc."
This essay is a reproduction of ASCOLI 's
' Widmungsschreiben an Francesco d'Ovidio,
Sprachw. Briefe, i-xvi,' "con qualche omis-
sione e alcune aggiunte," repeating, and de-
fending against the objections of W. MEYER
and GROEBER (Zs. xi, 283-288), the Gallo-
Roman "attrazione," which in a sarcastic
note (cf. 'Sprachw. Briefe' x) he again ex-
plains as anticipation of the final vowel,
protesting against labialization of the inter-
mediate consonant. He also thinks it neces-
sary again to insist that he has "il piu pro-
fondo rispetto per la scienza in generale e in
especie per la fisiologia e anche per la psicolo-
gia."
This certainly nobody would ever venture
to doubt, nor should we deny that a man like
ASCOLI may claim the right to use such ex-
pressions and to use them in such sense as he
chooses. We only protest against vague ex-
pressions, because others, del minorum
gentium, might very soon hide under general
*This article was intended for our March issue but a delay
in the mails prevented it from reaching us in time and conse-
quently it appears with postscript in the present number.
Eds.
terms a lack of clearness in their own ideas.
This must be avoided, and therefore we
should have been thankful to ASCOLI if he
had vouchsafed to tell us, in simple language,
whether his " attrazione " must be considered
a merely psychological process, or whether it
is due to physiological causes also. If the
latter be the case, we must protest against the
possibility that any sound can influence an-
other element of speech, unless both are in
immediate connection with each other, the
line being unbroken by any intermediate ele-
ment which remains intact. The modern
Piemontese-Ligurian boinBONi cannot
prove anything, becuase the n may very well
have been palatalized when the /-sound was
developing before it ; and the same with the
other forms. So I continue to consider any
such " attraction " as Umlaut in the above-
mentioned sense of the word. The practical
question now is, did this "attrazione" or
Umlaut take place in French under all circum-
stances, as ASCOLI says ? Theoretically there
is no objection to such a law, and I am espe-
cially glad that ASCOLI, in the course of his
investigations, has had occasion to state once
more the fact that all unaccented vowels in
Latin did not fall at the same time, but that
long vowels naturally had more tenacita than
short ones. In fact it has always been one of
my favorite ideas, that no mechanical law will
ever be found covering the disappearance
of unaccented syllables, their existence being
entirely at the mercy of the momentary con-
ditions of speech ; but that, generally speak-
ing, long syllables offered the longest resist-
ance ; and I have brought this into connection
with similar features in TEN BRINK'S law (cf.
MOD. LANG. NOTES i, 210-227). Moreover
ASCOLI, by making his Gallo-Roman law
appear to be the natural consequence of
parallel processes in the language of the
original Celtic race, opens to our eyes such a
wide and dazzling perspective, that at first
sight one feels inclined enthusiastically to
accept the new discovery of our master ; and
I confess that when I first read the 'Widmungs-
schreiben' I came very near giving up all my
previous notions as regards our case ; but
there are reasons which prevent me from
adopting ASCOLI'S law :
88
177
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
i. According to ASCOLI we should have to
admit a sound-change niud: nivd\ anting:
antivg, etc. I, for one, think it simply im-
possible that iu before consonants should be-
come iv, the opposite change being the only
probable one in French. It is not possible,
either, to propose a series niud, niu, niv,
because and this leads us to the
ad objection final d does not disappear in
prehistoric French, and we should expect
therefore to find in Oldest French forms
like niud etc., which, however, do not occur
anywhere in the language.
3. Even if the intermediate type *niud,
*antiug may be supposed to have existed in the
language without ever occurring in the pre-
served documents, a fact which in itself is not
at all impossible, is it not strange that pho-
netic conditions like/a/0, which occurred so
frequently in Latin, should have left so very
few traces in the whole French language?
The rare occurrence of a certain phonetic
development is, of course, the more natural,
the more its conditions are restricted, as is the
case in our own theory : V/+vowel : nidu :
nidv : niv : nif.
One point in my theory I seem not to have
treated thoroughly enough, because I really
did not think that any difficulty could arise as
to the question whether u could become v
and/. This has been denied by W. MEYER
and GROEBER (Zs. xi, 1. c).
It is true that ASCOLI has already thrown
the weight of his authority into the other
balance, but, as we have seen under number
i, we cannot avail ourselves of his assistance,
since his own proposition seems to us al-
together impossible. Accordingly, we must
answer for ourselves. MEYER does not be-
lieve that , being bilabial, would become
dentilabial v. It might be difficult to hold
to this objection in principle, when we think
of Germanic bilabial uu becoming bilabial
fricative w in South German, dentilabial w
in North German, and occasionally/ in North
German dialects ; e. g., Goth, weis, S. G. wir,
N. G. wir, Soest. fui (cf. HOLTHAUSEN,
'Soester Mundart.') Compare, further,
Norwegian / which according to HOFFARY
was bilabial in Old Norse. In Gallo-Roman
itself Indo-Germ. g as well as g*,g% became
dentilabial v (VASTS, VENIRE). In short, the
transition of u to dentilabial v is an entirely
common one, and the question can only be,
does it agree with French sound-change?
GROKBER admits that Cermauic u became v,
as is necessary for his etymology fehu : fief.
What the difference could have been between
Germanic u and Latin n is hard to see ; but,
of course, any statement based on personal
convictions may be supported, as long as
nothing militates against it. So we shall have
to look out for instances among French words
of Latin origin ; and I wonder how W.
MEYER and GROEBER explain forms like
Janvier, veuve, veuf* antif.
G. K.
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS
SAINTS. I.
Of the thirty-nine homilies mentioned in
the table of contents prefixed to the MS. of the
' Saints ' the first and second parts of SKEAT'S
edition contain 1-23. The ' Interrogationes
Sigewulfi ' ( I. S.) forming number thirty-seven
is edited by McLEAN in Anglia vii, i. These
texts form the basis of this study.
The plan of the work is as follows. Adopt-
ing the classification of SIEVER'S grammar,
there is first given a list of all verbs that occur
in each class in the forms which their infini-
tives have, or would have according to the
analogy of the forms that occur. If the verb
is not used without a prefix it is preceded by
a hyphen, and the prefixes with which it is
used are placed in alphabetical order after
each verb.
The citations are arranged below in the
order of the ablaut-vowels, so that all forms
with like vowels appear together. Where all
is regular according to West Saxon standards,
I have not thought it necessary to cite every
passage, but I have endeavored to give one
citation for every form that occurs. Where
there is any irregularity, or where two spellings
are used for the same form, I have given the
citations in full. The references are to the
pages of SKEAT and to the lines of the ' In-
terrogationes.' All marks of accentor quanti-
ty are omitted except in so far as they occur
in the MS. Here I have given all cases where
179
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
180
an accent is used over a short ablaut-vowel,
but have given only partial citations where it
is used over long ones. I have used ft as
medial and final and /> as initial, without regard
to the MS. reading except in special cases.
Some notes on the endings may best be
placed here.
The ad, 3d sing, of the present indicative is
always in the short form, except widstanded,
I. S., 229, and has regularly umlaut when
possible. An h suppressed in the infinitive
reappears regularly (flyhfi, pyhd, si/iff, fehft,
etc.) A double consonant is simplified (wind,
fyffi), and 3#, ft become / (ft), while dst=tst,
or st (fint, bitt, finst, brytst, etc.).
When final, h takes the place of g (stah, etc.),
and double consonants are usually simplified
(pngan, feol}, but there are many exceptions
noted in full below.
In endings a is occasionally used for e, e.
g.forleosa, 108, but as these are usually noted
in the text by a ' (sic) ' it is not necessary to
notice them further here. Cheat confusion
exists between en, an, and on, though the
infinitive and past participle suffer less than
other forms. The following examples will
suffice.
en for on,forleten 388, ongunnen 12, 32, begea-
ten 92.
en for an, gehealden 24, tosceaden 20, unbinden
222.
an for en, acoman 252, beswican 10, 72, tocneo-
wan 48.
an for on, ongunnan 12, becoman 28. coman 92,
gewytan 96.
on for en, beswicon 242, eton 290, wrecon 484,
sprecon 530.
on for an, tobrecon 130, beaton 98, winnon I. S.
280.
e sometimes takes the place of ad where the
pronoun is suffixed, e. g. sprece we 286, sceole
ge, 352, cwetie we 382, and of en, e. g. bruce ge
522. In a similar way an is used in faran us \
(let us go) 500, Icetan hi gelangigan (let them
be summoned).
The construction of wesan with the present
participle, which is so frequent in two of the
Blickling Homilies and is occasionally found
throughout that text, occurs here so far as I
have observed only in was peonde 194, and in
the ' Seven Sleepers ' (which as we shall see in
what follows presents many peculiar forms)
four times, wees sprecende 510, 522, wees onsit-
tende 516, wees far end e 531. (')
The lists which follow contain 163 strong
verbs. Of these forty are used only without
prefixes, sixty-one are used always with pre-
fixes, and sixty-two are used both with and
without, though in several cases the simple
forms are very rare. These are noted as they
occur. The division by classes appears in the
following table :
Always with L L L L L L -
12 6 14 5 5 9 10 61
Always with-
out prefixes.
With and with- -9 10 18 3 8 4 10 62
out prefixes.
TOTAL. 26 26 37 9 16 18 31 163
CLASS i.
Bidan a-, and-, ge-, -bitan a-, drifan ofer-,
aweg-,up~, -dwinan for-, Jlitan, -glidan ofer-,
gnidan, -gripan ge-, hnigan under-, -lifan be-,
ridan, -risan a-, ge-, scinan, scripan ge, sigan
on-, slitan to-, -smitan be-,umbe-, spiwan a-,
stigan a-,ofer-, swican be,-ge-, -swidan ofer-,
peon ge-, ofer-, -witan cet-, ge-, -wreon a-, on-,
writan a-, -wriftan ge-.
Swican occurs but once without a prefix,
swicafi 352, which may be weak, for it is third
person singular, but its meaning is that of the
strong verb. Writan occurs but twice, 328,
334 (ivritan, writenne) ; the formb with the
prefixes are very common.
The infinitive, imperative, present participle
and present tense have the regular i or i.
Examples are gebide 84 and bidati 358 ; drifan
278, awegdrifan 166, oferdrifan 36, drifS 530 ;
flitan 292, flitende 88 ; belifti 166 ; arisan 234,
ar'isan 510, aris\ 158, gerisft 6; scinendan I. S.
143, scind 468, scinaS 22, onsigendan 242, sli-
tendan 206, oferstigan 12, stihft 12, astihft 12,
beswican I. S. 268, beswicft I. S. 250, oferswi-
dan 240, oferswift! 246, oferswide (i) I. S. 272 ;
i I will take this opportunity to call attention
also to the use of u for f once in byuigende
206, (bifigende 212); of eo for e in feorde 154,
and to tne constructions gange him (let him
go) 444, hine gebiddan beo ("continue in
prayer") 288, oferswidendum (not to be
conquered) 310, for Icetan (to be rejected)
336, to gebiddene (to be adored).
90
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
182
pihti, geivitan 166 (twice), gewit! 170 (twice)
476, gewit (3) I. S. 202; writan 334, writenne
328, awrltan 510; gewriSan 202, etc.
j* is used tor / in the following cases : scy-
nende 420, scynft 258, 436 ; spywfi 272 ; geswycO
272 ; gewytan 20, awrytene 82.
^o occurs regularly in ]>eonde 194, 280, 322,
440, gepeo (subj.) I. S. 491. The preterit and
past participle of peon follow the second class.
The preterit singular i, 3, is always a or d.
Examples aregebdd 108, abdt 126, oferdrdf2j,2,
fordwan 166, oferglad 220, hndh 122, under-
hnah 340, beldf 138, 390 ; rdd 62, 162 ; ara^ 150,
arj 52, sah 436, 502, j^fA 528, 538 ; spaw 264,
aspdw 32 ; j/^A 12, aj/rtA no, a.y/<fA 144, <?/V'r-
330; geswac I. S. 19, 22; geswdc 44; 0/>r-
24, ()
The 2d sing, and plural and the subj. preterit
have * in all cases. Abite{$\\\>).} 126, updrifon
490, gegrifon 30, belifon 112, 138, 254, scinon
254, /o sliton 492, gewite (subj.) 224, ouwrige
(subj.) 166, owriton 6. So also the past parti-
ciples ge serif ene 282, besmiiene 94, unbesmit-
enum 94, beswicane 10, beswicen I. S. 32,
eetwiten 524, awriten 5, 434 MS. U., I. S. 95,
etc.
^ for i occurs in the past participles besnty-
tene 46, awrygennysse, awryten 20, 24, awry-
tan 434, aivrytene 246.
f for f in stigon 490; ^o for / ?', onwreogan
(P-P-) 534-
CLASS 2.
Beodan a-, be-, /or-, ge-, brucan, bugan a-,
for-, ge-, on-, ceosan ge-, ceowan, creopan,
dreogan a-, fleogan, fleon <zt-,for-,freosan-,
geotan a- be-, hleotan, -hreosan of, hreowan
leogan for-, -leosan for-, -lutan a-, -lucan be-,
reocan, sceofan a-, be-, (also scufari), sceotan
a- be-, -sleopan to-, spreotan, sucan, supan,
teon a-, be-, ford-, ge-, of-, ofer-, ut-, pur h, yd
peon (in the preterit and past participle, see i.)
The infinitive, imperative, present participle,
the ist sing, and plural of the present indica-
tive, and the present subjunctive, have eo or u
* Else always weak, e. g. oferswitide 340, 344,
oferswitidod 240, oferswytidon 216; ofer-
swided 252, 374 ; oferswyoed 252, 358, 360 ;
a/a/ 96, gewdt 32, 66; awrat 122, 232, 1. S.
48, awrdt 58, wrat 232 MS. B., gewrad 252,
etc. Scinan has sc fan 102, no, 178. 204, 250,
322, scean 92, scedn 178.
(6). Examples of eo are : bebeode (i) 22,
gebeodon (subj.) 6; ceosan 32, geceosan 172,
geceos\ 176, geceos 300 W., ceowaO 120; creo-
pende 14, adeogan 160, fleogendum 400, cet-
fleon 12, fleo \ 300, fleondan 416, fleo (subj.) 214 ;
hleotan 370, hleotafi 370, hreowan 492 (twice) ;
for lease 2i^,forleosa (2) (subj.) 108; reocendes
170; sceofany.*, besceofan 182, asceofon (inf.)
404, asceofan 404; of teon 202, ateoh\ 212, a/^o^
22, forftteofi 460, ateo (subj.) 444 (twice), q/teo
(subj.) 216 ; ^d is used in oferteon I. S. 354.
Examples of w are: brdce (subj.) 34, btigan
68, abugan 20 I. S. 224, aubugan 368, gebugan
I. S. 481, forbugan I. S. 91, A ! 272, 380, ?-
*A ! 2$6,fordtige 20 (subj.) ; belucan 70, ^/wr !
212; bescufan 48 (twice), and 404 MS. Junius
(twice).
The 2d, 3d present indicative takes y in
onbyhft I. S. 300, cywfi 112, flyhfi 18, 334, 372,
forlyst 280, forlysfi 370, jr/ry/ 293 (twice),
bescyt I. S. 260.
jV becomes in */A^ 348, lihst 272, //A^ 268,
//AJ 476.
fleoft 250, which is translated as the 3d sing.
of fleon, is, I think, the 3d sing. o( flowan.a.n&
for flewd, (see 7, c).
The ist, 3d pret. sing, is regularly ea. The
examples are: bead 172, I. S. 389, abead 28,
forbead 134, breac 172, 62, MS. V, 0^aA 140
190, 322, 384, gebeah 40, geceas 6, ffva^ 448,
rfrazA 2i6,fleah 54, 298, /^aA 278, forleah 276,
forleas 20, beleac 74, #a/ 190, jr^a/ 54, MS.
V, 404, MS. Jun., asceat 466, 396 MS. Jun.,
j^a/ 60, MS. V., teah 50, 518, utteah 164, purh-
teah I. S. 59, />*-aA 24, 234, (see i).
^ is used for <ra in brae 62, jr<?/ 54. 250,
60.
^ is used for ea in sett 404, ascet 396.
^o is used for ^a before w in hreow 510, ofhreow
300.
The preterit 2d sing., plural, and subjunctive
has always. Examples are : abude 28, bugon
(subj.) I. S. 485, gebugon 188, gecure 198,
gecuron 42, crupon 174, drugon 196, forfluge
204, flugon 204, 492, /^-<r 274, forlugan (ind.)
38, scufon 246, bescufon 410, Jf^ (zdind.) 202 ;
<i for \nfl6gon 492.
The participle has 0, twice <*. The examples
are : beboden ^t,forboden I. S. 42, 195, gebog-
en 188, gebdgenan 30, gecorenan 30,! . S. 393,
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
184
500; begoten 182, begotene 324, agotene 98, 176;
ofhrorene 298, (MS. Faustina ofhrdrene};for-
loren 18, alotene 14, beloceu 78, 190, I. S. 326;
gestoten (? for gescoten) I. S. 325, (other MSS.
getogeri) ; toslopene 248, toslopenum 162, ^-
/#<? 26, I. S. 325, betogen 458, ydtogenan 506 ;
gepogene 280, oferpogen 62.
CLASS 3.
Belgan a-, ge-, beorgan ge-, berstan <zt-, to-,
-bindange-, un-, -b finnan a-, una-, bredan a-, at-,
for-, ge-, of a-, to-, byrnan for-, ceorfan for,-
ofa-, drincan a-,feohtan,findana-,ge-,una-,
-frinan be-, -gyldan a-, for-, ofer-, -ginnan a-,
be-, on-, umbe, helpan ge-, -hweorfan be-, -lim-
pan tzt-,be-,ge-, -me/fan a-, for-, sincan a-, be-,
singan ge-, springan a-, slingan, spurnan,
stincan ge-, -stingan of-, -swelgan for-, -swel-
lan to-, sweltan, swimman, swincan be-,
-swingan be-, -pindan to-, -pingan ge-, windan
eet-, be-, ofer-, winnan ge-, ofer-, on, wurpan
<*-> be-, ge-, of-, to-, wurdan for-, ge-, yrnan
be-.
i. The present stem, (a) Before nasals i
is regularly used. Examples are: unbindan
498, unbinden (inf.) 222, unablinnendlic 144,
drincft 266, 354, adrincaft 134, gefindan 504,
afindan 130, onginf 186, 246, 478, aginne (i)
498, onginfi 488, gelimpd 18, belimpo' 20, 330
(thrice) belimpaftl. S. 251, besincan 112, singe
(i) 22 (twice), slingft I. S. 259, stincS I. S. 259,
swimmao" 14, swincst 88, swincft 380, beswin-
gan 238, winnon (inf.) I. S. 280, bewindan 122,
oferwinnan 362, omvinnendum 190, win ! 284,
win^ 286, 304, I. S. 262, gewind 364, oferwirift
188, winne (subj.) 340.
Before the endings st, S the d in findan,
windan is dropped and S becomes /, e. g.
gebint 476, finst 82, fint 202-.
y is used for i in ablynti 470, belympti 416,
gelympfi 20, gelympe (subj.) 22, wyriS 352.
In befrinan 372, befrinenne 400, the * doubt-
less long but is not accented.
(b) Before ht, rg, rf, the regular vowel is
eo. Cases of the 2, 3, indie, sing, do not occur.
The examples are: gebeorgan I. S. 406, ge-
beorge (subj.) 138, ceorfanne 202, ofaceorfan
202,/eokffnd 282. Before rn, y is used: for-
byrnan 178, byrnende 48, 140, 208, 490, byrnen-
da 204, byrnendan 140, byrnendunt 106, I. S.
453, byrnft 208; yrnan 462, yrnendum 148,
yrna.8 330, 370. In berstan, where the r owes
its place to metathesis, no breaking takes
place. The umlaut in the third person is y.
^Etberstan 246, 530, I. S. 480, cztbrytst 266.
After w we find n, with umlaut in the third
singular to y in two cases, while u is retained
in two. The forms are : wurpan 404, gewur-
pan 436, awurp ! 188, awurpad 118, awurpe
(subj. plural) 120, (MS. C. y),forwurpan (subj.)
358; gewurfian 514, gewurfiaft 12, wurft 120,
132, wyrft 120 MS. C., 152. Isolated is geweor-
dan 506, in the ' Seven Sleepers ' which contains
several other phonetic and syntactic peculiari-
ties, (see below).
(c) Before /-{-consonant, e is used except
after g, where y is found. The 3d sing, indica-
tive has e in gehelpo~ 190, swelt 68, eg in sw&lt
18, andjy \nformylt 316, swylt 256, 272, 276, as
well as in f orgy It 382, compare agyldan 368,
ofergyldaft 198. The 2d sing, does not occur.
Examples of e are helpe (i) -]2,forswelgan 48,
sweltan I. S. 88, 198.
(d) Bregdan(^ drops the ^throughout (ex-
cept in MS. U in the past participle abrogden
222, abrdgden 226). The present forms are :
cstbredan 116, (ttbrytst 82, abret I. S. 137, <zt-
brede (subj.) 426.
2. The preterit ist, 3d singular has a before
nasals and rn, ea before I and r+consonant,
though eo is regular in heolp, sweolt and ce in
bcerst and breed. Before nasals tinb&nd 122,
dranc 266, befran 174, 310, 454 I. S. 12, 17, be-
frdn 72 (twice) 198, 200, 204, 214, 226, 310, 388 ;
began 158, 160, 230, 242, 264, 296, 408, 414, 504
538, ongan 34, 228, 330 (twice) 352, 426, 452,
488, 520, begann, 36, 248, 502, 530, ongann 350,
538, gelamp, I. S. 240, asanc 112, besanc 48,
gesang 104, sprang 294, 524, asprang 138,
.y/'awf no, swang 494, wand<$. 217, 398, bew&nd
518, cetwand 182, 414, o/a 170, 246, 282. 340
(twice), 372, onwan 408, onwann 480. Before
r . ar 112 (twice), 2o8,forbarn 208 I. S. 462,
ar 74, 88, 100, 136, 154, 180 (twice), etc., I. S.
217, etc., beam 234. Spearn 174, 208, may be
regarded as ed or as anomalous. Before h, /,
r-f-consonant ea, in gebealh 64, 202, 394, bearh
Si8,feaht 284, forgeald 62, 340, formealt 250,
spearn 174, 208 (see above), swealt 428, MS. D.,
ifrignan is treated as a nasal stem, see (a),
but the pret. was certainly long and the
u though not accented was probably so.
92
April. MODERN I. ANi;r.\<;i:
No. 4.
1 86
awearp 50, ofwearp 382 (twice), towearp I. S.
203, wearfl 14, etc., I. S. 297, etc., gewearO 5,
fonvearti 30. For *a we find <s? in ward 20,
b<?rstq/8, 316, tobcfrst 48, 112, 248, 298, 312, 372,
404, 460, 466, (see * above), swcelt 16 (twice).
For < we have <ea in waard 104, probably a
blunder, and ^0 in geheolp 212 (with which
compare the subjunctive geheoipe 462) sweolt
396, 428. *Bregdan has ?Y?rf 252, eetbrced
282, 424, tobrted 492, and, as if to indicate a
lengthening in place of the g, gebr&d 34.
3. The 2d preterit singular, the plural and
subjunctive, are always with u except geheoipe
462 (subj.) (see 2). The cases are : abulgon 280,
gfburge 480, burston 422, atburste 528, gebun-
don 190, brudon 528, abrudon 528, atbrudon
424, (MS. U cetbriidon as complementary
lengthening), of abrudon 178, forcurfon 28,
druncon 164, drunce 330, fuhton 240, 406, ^-
frunon 230, forgulde 136, ongunnan 12, hulpe
452, 492 (cf. geheoipe 462, see 2 above), behwur-
fon 236, cstlumpon 492, formulton 208, suncon
598, 316 (twice), sungon 240, stuncon 102, ^-
stnnce no, ofstunge 142, swulton 300, 326, ^-
swunce 276, (ztwunde (subj.) 494, bewurpon 390,
townrpon 46; wurdon 44, etc, I. S. 164, etc.,
wurde I. S. 403, 459, and once, with a neglect
of the change from # to rf, gewurfte (subj.) 534,
which like geweordan 506 is from the ' Seven
Sleepers ; ' urnon 208, 324, 378, 402.
The past participle has w before nasals and
r, elsewhere 0. Before nasals : gebundene 36,
unbunden 222, afundan 208, unafunden 78,
tinbegunnen 12, gelumpen 524, 530, cethimpene
504, topundenum 64, gepungen I. S. i, gepun-
genra 58, gepungenran 362, I. S. 502. Before
r; forburnen no, 318. Before mutes and
liquids except r : gebolgen 38, geborgen 202,
forbroden 470 (twice), abroden 222 (U. abrog-
deri), 226 (U. abrdgden), corfene 204, amoltenan
130, toswollen 78, aworpene 342, beworpene 390,
geworden 422.
BENJ. W. WELLS.
Jena, Germany.
THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION
IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES,
We now come to the Syntax, which will be
treated under two rubrics : ist, The Gerund
without a preposition, and ad, The Gerund
with a preposition.
THE GERUND WITHOUT A PREPOSITION.
The most striking peculiarity of the gerun-
dial construction in the early languages, es-
pecially those of France, is its infrequency as
compared with modern usage. It is more
common in verse than in prose, and this is ex-
plained by the fact, that when a writer starts a
"leash" (laisse) whose assonance or rime
requires ant, ent, (ans, ens) terminations, he is
often driven to seek the construction and the
use of words which will give him his rime or
assonance. Could we call up the shades of
the old poets and question them on the
subject of verse-making, many of them would
have to make the same confession in this
respect as Baltasar del Alcazar makes of the
consonants :
Porque si in verso reficro
Mis cosas mas importantes,
Me fuerzan los consonantes
A decir lo que no quiero.
The freer use of the infinitive during the first
stages of the growth of these languages doubt-
less exerted a great influence in preventing
the rapid development of the gerundial con-
struction, which at the present time has as-
sumed such extensive proportions owing to
the general discarding of the infinitive as a
kind of verbal noun.
The following French and Provencal ex-
amples, selected as being the most note-
worthy in this regard, will make plain the
difference as compared with modern usage.
Et Ie fist mult bien & 1'enz metre (modern : en
les repoussant) si que grant pris 1'en dona
Ton.
Ville-Hardouin.
Si unt le clerc truvd par querre e demander
Prechant e batizant, ke f o fu sun mester.
Math. Paris, Vie de S. Auban, 1291.
Mais hardis doit estre en serrir.
Jehan de Condi, B. 396,3.
II faisait tel noise au venir (mod. en venant)
que il sembloit que ce fust la foudre dou ciel.
Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. XLIII.
Et y mist 1'on au paiement faire lesamedi.
Ditto, LXXV.
Car il avail paour que il ne brisast le col au
tourner.
Ditto, CI.
93
i8 7
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
1 88
Je li demandai comment ce estait que il ne
metoit consoil en li garantir ne par noer.
Ditto, CXXIX.
E la amava e deleitava se en parlar de lieis.
Bib. der Troub. XXXV.
L'un an els fundemens lur cura,
Li autre en bastir la mura
El altre en far lo mortier.
Life of St. Enimia.
Aisi se van ferir (might be : feren) cum cascus
venc,
No lor valo escut par un besenc.
G. de Rossilho, 2180.
Car ab cor franc tan m'afranc en amar.
Anonym. Ballad.
Contrast the two following examples, in
which infinitive and gerund are equivalents :
Per la vila s'en van cridan.
Die Kindheit Jesu
(B's Denknvler, XXXIX).
E totz los juzieus van cridar.
Ditto.
That the language has lost much in force
and ease of expression by abandoning this
free use of the infinitives for other construc-
tions cannot be questioned ; as the substitutes,
which have been mostly supplied by the ger-
, und, are not as flexible for purposes of
thought. One can not but feel this to be one
of the lost beauties of the language ; and the
loss becomes more apparent, when we turn to
the Italian, Spanish etc., in which thegerund-
ial and infinitive constructions have grown
side by side with each other and give to these
languages a variety of expression unattainable
in French. The Italian : lo scender questa
roccia ; al passar questa valle ; gli costa caro
questo diffamare altrui : Spanish : un secreto
desearos ; el huir la ocasion ; el comunicar
los males ; cair me" mal castigado en non
temer a Dios : Prov.: al camp levar, etc., had
their analogy in : au doner le don, au passer
la porte, a un tertre monter, au prendre le
conge", en eel tirer expressions which even
Montaigne could imitate (il se penoient du
tenir le chastel, and : le paistre 1'erbe est
salutaire au jeune cheval), but which have
now totally disappeared from the language.
One of the earliest and very common con-
structions of the gerund is effected by its con-
junction with the verb aller. When so used,
alter may perform the part of a simple aux-
iliary or copula and either expresses progres-
sive or iterative action, or these ideas may be
altogether absent and the action of the princi-
pal verb does not seem to be appreciably
modified by the addition of aller. In other
cases aller retains in part or wholly its
motional signification and as so used may be
replaced by almost any verb expressing
motion. These two categories are not always
clearly defined, certain cases being susceptible
of either interpretation. As instances of aller
as copula only and in which the fundamental
meaning is completely subordinated to the
principal verb, may be cited :
1. E tei tuz jurs apele, " K'alez vusdemandant."
Vie de Seint Auban, 818.
2. As eschies e as tables se vunt esbaneiant.
Voyage de Charlemagne, 270.
3. Seignurs baruns, n'en alez mespensant,
Pur Deu vus pri que ne seiez fuiant.
Ch. de Roland, 1472.
4. Kar chevalchiez. Pur qu'alez arestant ?
Ditto, 1783.
5. De grant dolour se va ly her pasmant.
Roman d'Aquin, 1601.
6. Pour 1'amour D nels alez espargnant.
Ditto, 1633.
7. Voire moult plus, ce trovon nous lesant
Dedans 1'ystoire qui point ne va mentant.
Ditto, 1666.
8. Quant li rois 1'entendi, de coer va souspirant.
Berte aus Grans Pie's, 2542.
9. La paiz alout cherchant, les querre metre a fin.
Roman de Rou, 1542.
10. Se li reis li alout de nule rien falsant.
Ditto, 2544.
11. Fortment lo vant il acusand,
La soa mort mult demandant.
La Passion, B. 16, 6-7.
12. Or pri a tous les vrais amans
Ceste chanson voisent chantant.
13. Ainz y mouron que salon recreant,
Ne que de riens nous augeon fouyant.
Roman d'Aquin, 1635.
14. Li Tur vindrent assaillir a" sa gent qui tout
de gr*5 s'aloient remanant.
Trans, de Gull, de Tyr, Liv. VII,
15. D'ores en autres va sa colpe rendant
A sa main destrealoit son piz batant.
Guil. d'Orange, B. 65, 38.
16. (Ja et la espandu par le chemin et li plus
d'eus aloient dormant.
Tr. de Guil. de Tyr, Liv. XII.
All of these examples either show plainly
of themselves, or it may be gathered from
the context, that the idea of actual motion in
94
189
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
190
alter is totally wanting, as much so as it would
be in "go," if we should translate example 10
by the popular construction : if the king
should go to deceiving him in any way.
In Nos. i, 3, 4, 6, 10, the simple verbs :
demandez, mespensez, arestez, espargnez,
falsout, could be substituted without in any
way modifying the thought. It is quite evi-
dent that alez, in the first line of No. 3, is the
exact functional equivalent of seiez in the
second line. We learn from the context of
No. 2 that Charlemagne found the knights
seant\ hence "se vunt esbaneiant " means,
they are in the act of enjoying themselves
progressive or continuative action. In 5 and
8 aller gives to the principal verb the notion
of incipiency as well as progression ; while
" point ne va mentant," in No. 8, may imply
that history is not in the habit of lying. In n
and 12 it is possibly repetitive. How com-
pletely the idea of real motion could be over-
looked may be learned from the last three
examples (14, 15, 16).
It is interesting to observe that old Johan
Fischart uses the German gehen in a similar
manner, in his translation of Rabelais, head-
ing of chapter 4 :
Wie Gurgelmiltsam, als sie mit dem kind-
lein Gurgellantule schwanger gieng, ein
grossen wust kutteln frass und davon genas.
The famous boast of Juno, in Virgil, offers a
like instance of the copulative use of a verb
of motion :
Ast ego, quac Divtim incedo, Jovisque
Et soror et conjux.
In English it is a common idiom to say : to go
mad, blind, etc. ; and we in the Southern
States are familiar with the negro lingo : done
gone and kilt him=has killed him ; but I was
hardly prepared, when some months ago I
was speaking of the death of a favorite dog,
to have put to me, by a Hoosier acquaintance,
the query : when did he go dead? or to find a
writer in The Nation of August 4, 1887, (p. 89)
speaking of somebody's horse going dead
lame.
But returning to aller we see that, used as a
simple copula, it may shade off into a number
of fine distinctions, in which actual motion is
not necessarily implied. At the present day
many of these features of aller are supplied
by other constructions. Remnants of some of
its functions are seen in :
L'entreprite suffit i prouver que I'ltude du
fram,ais va toujoun prenant plu* d'im-
portance en Allcrnagnc.
Romania, IX. 166.
Et des touches au loin t 'ouvrent avidement,
A ccs atomei fous que la nuil va semant.
Hugo, L'Ane.
Vous n'allez frt'quantant que ipadasiins
inftmes.
Ditto, Ruy Bias, I. .
expressions, in which the combination of the
two verbs serves to indicate progression,
continuance or habit, but only weakly or not
at all that of motion. In translating the first
sentence into English we should say : is daily
becoming more important ; in rendering the
second, to be exact, we should probably have
to make va subordinate to semant sows as it
goes ; while the third is : you habitually asso-
ciate with, etc.
A rather peculiar combination of venir and
aller is found in the Roman d'Alexandre (B.
177.5):
Alexandres commande 1'ost amener avant,
Quar el bos as puceles vint aler deduisant.
In the formation of the compound tenses of
aller \n the senses above illustrated, avoir is
generally, though not always, employed :
Et orent tant alt! sofrant que il virent la Rouse
A mains de demie lieue.
Ville-Hardouin, Ch. 94.
Tant est alez Tiebalt son orguil demenant.
Roman de Rou, 4089.
E com lo reis Felips avia anat plaideian
sobre la riba de laiga.
Bil.derTroub. XXVI.
When etre is used, the verb more common-
ly retains its fundamental meaning of motion :
One ne Tot tel Aiquin ly amirez,
Qui par la mer fuyant s'en est alez.
Roman d'Aquin, 9517.
Par toutes terres est alez cunquerant.
Ch. de Roland, 553.
Desus un pin i est alez curant.
Ditto, 9363.
It is to be expected that constructions analo-
gous to these of aller should be found with
verbs of motion in the other languages.
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April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
192
Chfe spero e vo sperando
Che ancora deggio avere
Allegro meo coraggio.
Federigo II, Rei di Sicilia.
Cuando dellos se despide,
Lagrimas va derramando.
Rom. del Cid, CIX. (Voegelin).
Mirabanle las mozas y andaban con los ojos
buscandole el rostro que la mala visera le
encubria.
Don Quij. Ch. II. pt. I.
For las venas cuitadas
La sangre su figura
Iba desconociendo y su natura.
Garcilaso de la Vega.
N8o soffre muito a gente generosa
Andar-lhe os cues os denies mostrando.
Camoens, Os Lus. I. 88.
E vereis ir cortando o salso argento
Os vossos Argonautas.
Ditto, I. 18.
E non ai ges tel coratge
Com li fals drut an,
Que van galian.
G Faidit, B. 142, 10.
In most of the sister languages, other verbs
of motion besides "go" are made to perform
the office of copulas. In the Italian expres-
sion : si venne accorgendo, venne is not only
a copula but has also the force of an adverb of
manner little by little he perceived.
Mold esempj potrei venir contando.
Vitt. Colonna.
The Spanish and Portuguese use, perhaps/
a greater number of verbs of motion in this
way than any of the others. In the former,
andar, ir, venir are employed to express du-
ration or gradual action, while caminar, con-
tinuar, seguir are confined to continued
action. So Portuguese grammarians dis-
tinguish between andar and ir, the former
being frequentative. Accordingly they say :
ando estudando as linguas antigas, which
means, I am making a continual and frequent
study of the ancient languages ; while : vou
convalescendo would mean continuation in a
progressive sense I am getting better every
day. The context of the two passages above
quoted from the Lusiads seems to bear out
this distinction.
Many cases arise in which it is not easy to
determine whether alter is a copula or
whether its action is coordinate with that of
the gerund.
Li galte qui estoit sor le tor les vit venir et
ol qu'i.l aloient de Nicolete parlant.
Aucasin et Nicolete, B. 283, 36.
Mais quant vois aucun mendiant,
Qui de viellece va tranlant,
II t'apele por sa viellece.
Flore et Blanceflor, 762.
Povertade va gridando
A gran voce predicando.
Giacopone da Todi.
In the first of these it is said that the guard
saw coining the men whom Count Garin had
sent to look for Nicolete and heard that they
were talking, of were talking as they went
along, about Nicolete. The other examples
are not clearer, even when studied in con-
nexion with the passages in which they occur.
SAMUEL GARNER.
Annapolis, Md.
POSTSCRIPT TO " CL, GL> TL, DL IN
ENGLISH PRONUNCIA TJON."
In writing the article on " Cl, gl>tl, dl in
English Pronunciation " for the last number of
MOD. LANG. NOTES I had at hand only the
first edition of Victor's Elemente der Phonetik
und Orthoepie. I have since been able to
refer to the second edition of that work, and
find that Victor has added some valuable
material on the subject, found in older Ger-
man-English grammars. My supposition that
kn was pronounced as in before the first sound
of the combination finally disappeared, is
clearly proved there. According to Nicolai
(1693) k before n in know, etc., sounds "fere
ut /." Koenig (1706) states that it is pro-
nounced like d, " doch muss das rfganz wenig
gehort werden." The articulation of the
dental before is of course very weak, and
the following sonant makes it difficult to dis-
tinguish between d and L Beuthner (1711)
and Thiessen (1712) pronounce it as t; Konig
(1715) as d; Arnold " wie ein gelindes weiches
d." G before , finally and in the interior of
words, is already silent when initially it is still
spoken, as Podensteiner (1685) remarks.
None of these grammarians mention the pro-
nunciation of gn as dn. In a grammar of the
year 1748 k and g before n are given as silent
(p. 171).
Cornell University.
H. SCHMIDT.
96
193
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
194
CORRESPONDENCE.
A PASSAGE OF 'BkOWULF:
To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTKS :
SIRS : There is a passage in ' Be"owulf,' the
force of one word of which has, it seems to me,
been misunderstood by all the translators,
English and German. The passage begins
at line 2724 of GREIN'S edition :
Biowitlf maftelode, hi ofer benne sprac,
wunde walbleate (wisse he gearwe
pat he daghwlla gedrogen hcefde
eordan wynne ; pd wees call sccacen
ddgorgerbnes, deaft ungemete neah}:
" Nu ic suna minum syllan wolde
guflgewadu," etc.
THORPE, KEMBLE, GARNETT, ARNOLD,
WACKERBARTH, GREIN, ETTMULLER, and
HEYNE, all make Beowulf speak of his wound,
and in the glossary to HARRISON and SHARP'S
edition of ' Beowulf,' ofer, in the first line of the
passage, is denned 'about, of, concerning:'
he ofer benne sfirac, 2725.
But does not the passage really mean that
Beowulf did not speak of his wound? He
knew that it was fatal, and that his end was
near, and he had other things more important
to speak about before he passed away.
The force of ' ofer ' has, I think, been mis-
understood by all the translators I've named.
I would translate " he of er benne sprac," 'he
beyond (of other things than) his wound,
spake.'
If this is the correct meaning, and I'm quite
sure it is, it is far more forcible than the one
given by all the translators cited. What inter-
venes between " Biowulf mafte/ode," and "Nu
ic suna minum," explains why he spake of
other things than his wound. It was needless
to speak of that fatal, as it would soon prove
and his mind was intent on the 'war-weeds,'
in which he had performed his great deeds.
He regrets that he has no son to whom he can
bequeath them ; or such regret is implied :
" Nu ic suna minum syllan wolde guftgewadu,
par me gifefie swd anig yrfeweard after
wurde lice gelenge ! ' '
After alluding to his brave, and strong, and
not unjust, rule of his people for fifty winters,
he tells his beloved Wfglaf to go quickly, the
hoard to view under the hoar stone, to be in
haste that he (Iteowulf) may look upon the
ancient wealth, the jewel-splendors, he has
won,
" pat ic py seft mage
after mdfSOumwelan m\n d la tan
Hf and leodscipe, pone ic longe htold!"
His speaking not of his wound, suits better
the character, too, of the great warrior.
HIRAM CORSON.
Cornell University.
WOODWARD'S ' ENGLISH IN THE
SCHOOLS:
In their series of Monographs on Education,
already more than once noticed in the NOTES,
Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. have rendered a
service which entitles them to the thanks of
teachers, the more so as these little books are
not likely to "pay " in the direct commercial
sense. The last of this admirable series is
4 English in the Schools,' by F. C. WOODWARD,
A. M. Professor of English in Wofford College,
S. C., which, standing between HUFFCUT'S
' English in the Preparatory Schools ' (noticed
in March) and GENUNG'S 'Study of Rhetoric,'
completes an excellent trilogy of " English "
monographs for school and college. These
monographs attest in a gratifying way the
increasing interest in English study, which
they are sure also to stimulate and promote.
We regret that space does not permit such
notice of PROF. WOODWARD'S essay as its
interest demands ; yet it is hard to notice
briefly a book which, however short (only 23
pages), tempts in almost every paragraph to
the quotation of its incisive and striking, some-
times brilliant, sentences. PROF. WOODWARD
writes clearly and strongly because his ideas
are clear, and his convictions strong, upon the
theme he discusses. He makes no doubt that
the time has come long since indeed for a
sharper assertion of the claims of English lan-
guage and English literature to a fuller and
sounder study in 'schools of every grade; for
"English is the sole literature of ninty-nine
hundredths of our people and the best litera-
ture of the other hundredth ; " and " by virtue
of its mother-tongue quality it claims the right
to coordinate and direct all other studies ; "
97
195
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
196
while, for the lower schools generally, "so far
as linguistic training is concerned, it is English
or nothing." Though himself a classical
scholar (and formerly Professor of Latin) PROF.
WOODWARD asserts that "English asks no
odds of the classics, even on a comparison of
respective disciplinary values;" and if he
does not prove his proposition to the satisfac-
tion of the classicists, he certainly makes his
argument very interesting to read and very
hard to answer very healthy reading, we
should say at least, in connection with PROF.
MORRIS' monograph, in the same series, on
'The Study of Latin.'
The chief topic of the book is an exposition
of the logical character of English, and a plea
for logical and analytical method in its study
freed from the dead formalism of the old
Latin-English grammatical traditions. No-
where have we seen the excellence and useful-
ness of logical analysis in language-study, or
the fitness of English for logical discipline, so
clearly enforced ; and the reader, even if not
altogether convinced, cannot help feeling the
contagion of PROF. WOODWARD'S enthusiasm
when he writes: "Grammarians of the old
school may weep over our loss of inflections
.... but the philosophic scholar hails the un-
making of the Old English as the making of a
New English, which first began to teach the
world to smile and weep when Chaucer turned
.... into the fresh fields and pastures new
that men have not yet found less fresh or new
or sweet;" and .... "the pedagogue shall
find in the new speech a stronger and more
available training than in the traditional
methods and matter of the ancient languages,"
besides the "overwhelming advantage in the
use of the mother-tongue as the training study
of English-speaking children."
The Essay concludes with a suggestive
chapter on the interest and disciplinary value
of English word-analysis, the author contend-
ing that English "etymology, as a training
study, may be successfully conducted without
the intervention of any foreign language-
study." This notice does poor justice to this
admirable Essay. We commend the reading
of it to all teachers, believers or Philistines.
EDWARD S. JOYNES.
South Carolina College.
SPANISH IDIOMS. II.
Spanish Idioms with their English Equiva-
lents, embracing nearly ten thousand
Phrases, collected by SARAH GARY
BECKER and FEDERICO MORA. Boston:
Ginn & Co. 1887. lamo. pp. 331.
P. 71. Dejar d uno la espina en el dedo has
a far wider and more general sense than ' to
leave a malady imperfectly cured.' It means
' to leave a thorn in the flesh,' that is, to leave
cause for anger, or a grudge behind in some
one. Ya oigo al murmurador, diciendo la
mala voz que huvo, rizarse, afeitarse y otras
cosas que callo, dinero que bullian, presentes
que cruzaban, mujeres que solicitaban, me
dejan la espina en el dedo. Guz. de Alf. p.
191. The Portuguese say in a kindred, though
not in the same, sense : O diabo Ihe meta
rachas de cana nas unhas.
P. 74. Quien destaja, no baraja. That
baraja in this proverb means ' to wrangle,' was
made clear long ago by the Marquis de
Santillana's explanation: "Las cosas con-
certadas al principio quitan differencias del
fin," and this signification still survives in a
number of other phrases, as in the proverb :
Cuando uno quiere, dos no barajan (Marquis
de Santillana), i. e. 'when one party is willing
(to yield) the two do not quarrel, 'or, as it reads
more frequently : Cuando uno no quiere, dos
no barajan, 'when one party is not willing (to
quarrel), the two do not wrangle.' Sbarbi^
Ref. VII, p. 5 ; Don. Habl. p. 559.
P. 96. El infierno estd lleno de buenas
palabras. We wish the authors had given us
chapter and verse for this reading, which can
hardly be considered the current one. St.
Francis de Sales writes to Mme. de Chantal
(1605): "Do not be troubled by St Bernard's
saying that hell is full of good intentions and
wills "(see Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, p.
317), and this is the version found in English as
well as other languages. Deseaba sustentar
este buen deseo, mas como de aquestos estdn
los infiernos llenos. . . Guz. de Alf. p. 290.
The Italian says: Di buone volonta pien
1'inferno. Giusti, Prov. ; L'inferno & selciato
di buone intenzioni. Tomm. ; the French :
L'enfer est pave" de bonnes intentions, and the
English : Hell is paved with good intentions,
98
197
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
198
S. Johnson (ed. Roswell, 1776); Hell is full of
good meanings and wishings. Herbert's Ja-
cula Prudentium (Works, London 1854, p. 307.)
P. 99. No estar muy catdlico. ' Not to be
in good health ' is only one meaning of this
phrase, which has a far more general appli-
cation. It is said with regard to things as well
as animate beings, and refers to quality, dispo-
sition, character and health, the verb estar or
ser being used as the case may demand. Ca-
t6fico, in the mind of the devout Spaniard, came
to mean ' right,' ' genuine,' ' sound ' in general.
Estas visiones que por aquf andan, que no
son del todo catdlicas. DQ. I, 47 ; En acaban-
do de beber dej6 la cabeza a un lado, y dando
un gran suspiro dijo ; \ O hideputa bellaco, y
c6mo es cat6lico\ (el vino) DQ. II, 13; Vie"n-
dose bueno, entero y cdtdlico de salud. ibid.
55 ; Aporreado el rucio y no muy catdlico
Rocinante. ib. 58. Cf. also : jurar como catdli-
co cristiano. DQ. II, 27. A Portuguese may
be heard to say in regard to another whose
displeasure he has incurred : Nao estS muito
catholico commigo.
P. 107. Ann hay sol en las bardas, does not
mean : ' There is little hope,' but on the con-
trary: (i) 'there is still some hope (left),' literal-
ly: 'the sun has not set yet.' It is the equivalent
of the German : Es ist noch nicht aller tage
abend, and the Italian: Non eancofaseraa
Prato. Cf. Longfellow's " Behind the clouds is
the sun still shining," Animo, animo (me
respond!) : ^cuando te suelen a te* arrinconar
casos como este, Guzman amigo ? Aun el sol
estd en las bardas, el tiempo descubrira vere-
das ; quien te sac6 anoche del corral, te sacard
hoy del retrete. Guz. de Alf. p. 276; Aun
hay sol en las bardas, dijo Don Quijote ; y
mie"ntras mas fuere entrando en edad Sancho,
con la experiencia que dan los afio estard mas
id6neo y mas habil para ser gobernador, que
no estd ahora. DQ. II, 3. Cf. also: aun hay
sol en los tejados. Haller, Altsp. Sprichw.
p. 444. A synonymous phrase is : aun hay sol
en Feral. Me dijo que no dijese mal del dia
hasta que fuese pasado, porque aun habia sol
en Peral. Esteb. Gonz. p. 350. (2) Accord'
ing to Haller, 1. c., this Spanish phrase, again
resembling its German equivalent, conveys
also some such a threat as this : ' We are not
done with each other yet,' or 'this is not the
end of the matter.'
P. 109. Nc hay olla sin tocino. Compare :
El tocino hace la olla, y el hombre la plaza, la
mujer la casa. Guz. de Alf. p. 323; Ni olla
sin tocino, ni boda sin tamborino. Sbarbi,
Ref. I, 289. Mas dias hay que longanizas:
'There is no haste.' This rendering, which
corresponds with the explanation given by the
Academy's Dictionary, does little justice to the
full import of the saying. Its literal meaning
of course is: 'there are more days than
sausages,' and to this the Spaniard gives two
applications : (i) There is still some hope left
(cf. Haller, 1. c., p. 444). Con todo, espero en
DSos, que tiempo tras tiempo, y agua tras
viento ; y que por eso viene un dia tras otro ;
que mds dias hay que longanizas. Garay,
Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. VII, 61). (2) Time
lasts longer than our provisions: 'we must
make both ends meet.' En el gasto diario
debes guardar tal econotnia, que las pro-
visiones te duren todo el afio ; porque : hay
mas dias que longanizas ; y : Agosto y ven-
dimia no son cada dia. Sbarbi, Ref. V, 6; cf.
VII, 20: Son mas los dias que las longanizas.
P. 139. Jugar d cara 6 Us. Another version
is : jugar d cara y cruz. Haciendo creer a
Napoleon que una nacion donde principes y
reyes jugaban la corona d cara y cruz sobre
la capa rota del populacho, no podia ser in-
expugnable. Gald6s, El 19 de Marzo, p. 127.
P. 158. Mirar por el virote, 'to mind one's
own affairs.' A more accurate rendering
would probably be : 'to take care of one's self,'
'to be on one's guard.' " y cada uno mire
por el virote, aunque lo mas acertado seria
dejar dormir su c61era & cada uno, que no
sabe nadie el alma de nadie, y tal suele venir
por lana que vuelvetrasquilado." DQ. II, 14.
Cada uno mire por el virote (dijo el licencia-
do), pues ha de ir a todo moler; y no echen
de vicio, que podrfa heder el negocio mas
ahfna que piensan. Quevedo y Villegas,
Cuento de Cuentos (in Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p.
86. See ibid, the notes on this passage).
P. 195. Quien las sabe, las tane ; ' One
should speak only of what one understands.'
This is the meaning of the idiom, DQ. II, 59;
but it has also another application, namely:
99
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
' He who knows a trade, will follow it.' Ama.
Bien se yo que tu sabras hazer una vellaqueria,
y esta no es virtud. A. El saberla hazer no es
malo, el usarla si. Ama. Siempre oy dezir,
que quien las sabe, las tane. A. No, sino que
quien ha las hechas, ha las sospechas. Luna,
Dial. fam. (in Sbarbi, Ref. I, 212). Desta
manera vadeare" mis males, como vieja escar-
mentada que arremangada pasa el agua ; por-
que el que las sabe, las tane, que ya duecha
es la loba de la soga. Garay, Cartas (in
Sbarbi, Ref. VII, p. 65); cf. also Celestina, p.
15-
P. 208. Aqui fut Troya, ' Fuit Troja 1
(said of a place of which no vestige remains).
As is sufficiently shown by the aqui of the
Spanish idiom, it is not equivalent to Fuit
Troja. Its idea is : ' Here is (was) an event
as disastrous or fatal as the destruction of
Troy,' as may be seen from the following
passages : Si no fuera por los molineros, que
se arrojaron al agua, y los sacaron como en
peso & entrambos, alii habia sido Troya para
los dos. DQ. II, 29 ; cf. 66.
i Ay infelice de mf !
Fingida su ausencia fue :
Mas ha sabido que yo.
De parte de Dios (aqui es
Troya del Diablo) nos di . . . .
Calderon, Dama Duende, II, 19.
Empieza &. miliciar, duda, recela, cuando
mira al salir del patio & su antagonista, y
i aqui fu Troya \ empez6 el dialogo arriba
dicho que tuvimos dificultad en interrumpir.
Mesonero Romanos, Escenas Matritenses I,
177.
P. 219. Son lobos de la misma camada.
Compare : lobos de la misma manada. Gal-
d6s, Dona Perfecta, p. 229.
P. 247. Traer al retortero, ' to distress
one by overwork.' This fails entirely to
render the import of the idiom. Its literal
sense is, 'to drag one round in a twirl, from
one side to the other.' From this spring the
following significations : (i) ' to keep one
constantly moving, ' ' to give one no peace, ' ' to
harass one.' Esto fud el diablo, que empez6
& decir que no habia de dejar roso ni velloso,
ni piante ni mamante, y que los habia de traer
al retortero d todos, y saiga si es hombre.
Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, 47; see also note to the
passage). (2) 'To lead one,' 'to control one
completely.'
Cardenas y el Cardenal,
Y Chacon y fray Mortero
Traen la corte al retortero.
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 48.
(3) to deceive one by false promises or flattery.
Diet, of Acad. A synonym of this phrase is
traer al estricote: Traele amor al estricote
que es de muy mala ralea. DQ. I, 26 ; and
andar al estricote :
Amigo, segund creo, por mi habredes conorte,
Por mi verna la duenna andar al estricote.
JRoiz, 789, cf. DQ. 11,8;
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 64.
P. 250. Me viene de molde. The render-
ing, 'it fits me like a glove,' would hardly
hold good in every case. Venir (estar) de
tnolde (como de ntolde) means 'to come just
right,' 'to answer the purpose exactly,' and
corresponds more to the English ' to suit one
to a T ' than to 'to fit one like a glove.' ^No
le dije yo? dijo oyendo esto Sancho: s6 que
no estaba yo borracho ; mirad si tiene puesto
ya en sal mi amo al gigante ; ciertos son los
toros, mi condado estd de molde. DQ. I, 35.
Suplico & vuesas mercedes que se me de"
licencia para contar un cuento breve que
sucedi6 en Sevilla, que por venir aqui como de
tnolde me da gana de contarle. Ib., II, i ; cf.
II, 27, 53, 73.
P. 251. Viene como pedrada en djo de
boticario, 'to come inopportunely,' 'to be
unwelcome.' This phrase, which occurs as
often with the verb pegar ' to fit,' corresponds
exactly to the German : passen wie einefaust
aufs auge, and means ' to be entirely out of
place.' Para celebrar la boda de otra senora
igual en edad a mi dona Irene se hizo la
siguiente redondilla, que le pega como pedrada
en ojo de boticario. Sotomayor, Coleccion de
Seguid. (in Sbarbi, Ref. IV, p. 129). Synony-
mous expressions are: (i) Cuadrar una cosa
con otra como por los cerros de Ubeda. DQ.
II, 43, and (2) pegar como un par de pistolas &
un Santo Cristo, an expression very character-
istic of Spanish phraseology. Es verdad que
aqui puede decirse aquello de que pega como
un par de pistolas d un Santo Cristo. Fern.
Cab., La Gaviota, p. 33 (Brockh. ed.)
100
201
April. MODEKN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
22
P- 255. Quicn vivet 'Who goes there?'
The most important and interesting significa-
tion of this phrase- in Spanish is omitted in the
'Spanish Idioms.' It has the force of ' atten-
tion,' 'scent,' and despertar un quien vive
means: 'to get scent of something,' ' to open
one's eyes to something." Ahora, ahora voy
cayendo en ciertas cosas .... las entrevistas
del Duque con el impresario, la constancia
con que esa Norma en ciernes asistia a las
representaciones . . . . ya se van despertando
mis quien vives. Fern. Cab., La Gaviota, p.
205 (See the explanation of this expression,
ibid., p. 206). For eso he tardado este largo
tiempo en darte como si dijeYamos el quien
vive y exigirte que te casaras. E. Castelar,
Santiaguillo, p. 163.
P. 252. Al llamado del que le piensa viene
el buey d la melena, ' It is easy to obey those
who are kind to us.' This can hardly render
the thought of the proverb, since venir d la
melena does not mean 'to obey willingly,' but
rather 'to be obliged to obey,' ' to submit to
one.'
Muchos pueblos estauan por las tierras al .ados,
Que nunca de los griegos non serien ensayados ;
Mas quando a los Cyros uioron tan domados,
Venien a la melena todos cabez colgados. Alex. 1781.
" No me hable con sonsonete,' dijo uno ; ' que,
al cabo al cabo ha de venir d la melena.'"
Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 51 ; see note to the
passage). Compare to this the force of melena
in other proverbial expressions: (i) asir (to-
mar) la ocasion por la melena, ' to take oppor-
tunity by the forelock' (DQ. II, 31) ; soltar la
ocasion de la melena (Esp. Ger. p. 128)
traer a uno a la melena, ' to drag one by the
hair,' 'to force one to anything against one's
will ' (Guz. de Alf., p. 229). The proverb in
question, which, as may be remarked in pass-
ing, is omitted in Mailer's collection, has very
much the same import as the French : celui
louer devons de qui le pain mangeons ; and
the German : Wes brot ich schling, des lied
ich sing.
P. 254. A I reves me la vesti y dndese asi,
' As I began this way, I may go on so.' This
rendering is faithful neither to the letter nor
to the spirit of the idiom. The pith of the
saying lies in al reves 'the wrong way,' and
its literal meaning is : ' I put it (the garment)
on the wrong way, but that may pass.' This
phrase, therefore, characterizes the inertia,
the laisser-aller of many people, and corre-
sponds to the German idiom : umgekehrt ist
auch gefahren. No echar la soga tras el
jarro, sino consolarse con que al reves me la
vesti, y andese asi, que una herrada no es
caldera, y la puerta pesada, en el quicio no
pesa nada. Sotomayor, Coleccion de Seguid.
(in Sbarbi, Ref. IV, 121). A fundarse en ver-
dad la inculpation de desidia, que los ex-
tranjeros nos hacen, el refran caracterfstico
por excelencia entre todos los nuestros debfa
ser e"ste : Al reves me la vesti, andese asi.
Garcia Gutierrez (in Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 227).
P. 266. A brazo partido, 'With bare fists,'
'unarmed.' This expresson, taken from the
art of wrestling, means literally: 'With a
divided, with a bent arm ; ' and figuratively,
'with all one's strength.' Viendo lo cual,
Sancho Panza se puso en pie* ' y arremetiendo
a su amo se abrazd con el d brazo partido, y
echandole una zancadilla di6 con 61 en el suelo
boca arriba.' DQ. II, 60.
Los dos faroles divinos
A luz entera luchaban,
Ya que no d brato partido.
Calderon, La Vida es Suefio, I, 6; cf. Nttg. Prod. Ill, 491.
Gilote, a quien, por lo que se colige, le habia
salido a gloria la misteriosa entrevista, cuando
d brazo partido Iuch6 con la desconocida
dama para impedirle la fuga. Maria, Cantos
pop. esp. I, p. 403.
The purpose of collecting the idioms of a
language may be either a scientific or a practi-
cal one. A scientific treatment might present
to us the phraseology of a language or group
of kindred tongues, such as the Romance, in so
far as it is illustrative of the civilization of one
or more nations at a given point. Thus, it
would prove both an interesting and instruc-
tive study to trace the influence of the religious
history of Spain and of the Roman Catholic
Church on the phraseology of the Spanish
language. Think of the use of cristiano in the
phrase hablar cristiano, 'to speak Spanish,'
(DQ. II, 37), or in the sense of ' man ' (e. g.,
S. Mill. 88; Alex. 1653; Rimado, 54); of
cristianismo and cristianillo with the same
signification (Guz. de Alf. p. 191 ; Proverb ;
Puerco fresco, y vino nuevo, Cristianillo al
cementerio); of caMKco meaning 'genuine,'
101
20 3
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
204
'sound ' (DQ. I, 147 ; II, 13, 27, 55, 58). Again,
the aim of a scientific study of idioms might
be to illustrate the syntactical side of the lan-
guage (e. g., the use of prepositions as in
sonar con una cosa, ' to dream of anything').
A collection of idioms intended solely to serve
practical purposes, such as is the case with the
work before us, evidently has for its object
to help us in finding the English equivalent
for a given foreign idiom, and, what is equally
important, in ascertaining the foreign idiomatic
expression for a given English idea. What-
ever be the object in view, there must be
method and order in the work if it is to ac-
complish its purpose. Now, it is the idea
conveyed by an idiom or the syntactical usage
contained in it that characterizes it as such ;
and it is according to one or the other of these
essential features that idioms must be ar-
ranged, not by the word with which they be-
gin or happen to begin in a certain passage or
version ; nor yet by the one or the other more
or less important verb which they may contain.
Who, for instance, would ever think of looking
for the biblical quotation el que ve la mo/a en
el ojo ajeno, vea la viga en el suyo, under the
impersonal expression es menester with which
Cervantes happens to introduce it (DQ. II,
43) ? Yet, under the verb es alone can it be
found in the ' Spanish Idioms ' ! By arrang-
ing their diligently collected material of
" nearly ten thousand phrases " (which, it may
be said in passing, are far from exhausting the
wealth of Spanish phraseology) according to
the ideas which they express, and providing
the collection with a Spanish and an English
index, the authors, it is believed, would have
given their work incomparably more of the
really practical value which they assuredly
intended it to have,
H. R. LANG.
New Bedford, Mass.
A GOTHIC GLOSSARY.
A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Lan-
guage. With especial reference to En-
glish and German. By G. H. BALG, PH.
D. With a Preface by PROF. FRANCIS A.
MARCH, LL. D. Mayville, Wisconsin:
Published by the Author. 1887. Part I.
64 pp., 8vo. Aai Dails.
In this work the author has tried to combine
a complete Gothic glossary with an etymolog-
ical dictionary of the Germanic languages.
As a Gothic glossary the book seems to be a
careful compilation from the various older
works on the subject, although some of the
changes which the author has introduced are
hardly improvements. Comp, e. g. are arwjd,
where SCHULZE (and similarly STAMM-HEYNE)
gives three meanings, each one followed by a
reference ; while our author gives first the
three meanings in a different order and then
the three references to the text, omitting the
references to GRIMM'S ' Grammatik ' and
GRAFF'S ' Sprachschatz ' found in SCHULZE.
In the etymological part of the work the
author has not followed any existing model,
and his way of finding occasion in a Gothic
glossary to treat of words which have no
cognates in Gothic is certainly original. A
few examples must suffice. Under alls a
whole column is given to a discussion of the
second part of the N. H. G. allmahlich and
its cognates and compounds ; under ara the
O. H. G. *adal-aro is mentioned, followed by
the cognates and compounds of*adal, includ-
ing Adalheid and Adalberaht, etc. ; under
auhns the Mod. E. stove and its genealogy
finds a convenient place ; under bairhts we
learn that in Bertram "-raw=Goth. *hrabns,
O. E. hrcefn, m. Mdl. E. raven, Mdn. E.
raven, N. H. G. rabe, m. raven ; " under
daurd the Mdl. Lt. bordellum with its deriva-
tives is given, and the author tells us that the
E. bordel has become obsolete and has been
superseded by brothel, the history of which
he now proceeds to give at length ; under
baurgs even burgomaster is brought in, and
we are informed that "it is the 'Du.-burge-
mester (mester=Mdn. E. master, Mdl. E.
maister, from O. Fr. maisfer, from Vulg. L.
majister (w. the accent oh the a) for Lt. ma-
g-is ter, master, chief, whence alsoO.S. mestar,
O. H. G. meistar, M. H. G. meister, a learned
poet, ' master-singer,' burgomaster, town-
master, N. H. G. meister, m. master)=M. H.
G. burge-meister and burgermeister, N. H.
G. burgermeister." All this in a comparative
glossary of the Gothic language !
For what class of students can such a book
be intended ? With all the recent increase of
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
ao6
interest in Germanic studies it is not likely
that the general public will ever buy Gothic
glossaries, and as for professional students it
can only be hoped that they will keep away
from such a />ons asinortim if they ever desire
to get beyond the stage of philological dilet-
tanteism. At a time when a large number of
American colleges desire to become universi-
ties and offer, among others, advanced courses
in Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, etc., it is of
especial importance to bear in mind that a
mere juxtaposition of more or less closely re-
lated words is not comparative philology and
that to tell a student, as our author does, that
the Gothic baitrs is the English bitter without
giving him the least inkling as to the excep-
tional phonetic conditions, amounts to teaching
the student the things which he should find
out by himself and withholding from him
just such information as he might expect to
find in his book. Moreover, when the etymol-
ogy of a word is unknown, or very doubtful,
the author refers us to DIEFENBACH. Now,
is it likely that a student who has access to
DIEFENBACH will not have access also to
KLUGE, SCHADE, SKEAT and other authorities
which are at everybody's disposal and upon
which the present glossary is so largely
based ?
While we are thus compelled to differ with
the author as to the usefulness of such a book
(a matter which after all concerns the publish-
er more than any one else) it must be ac-
knowledged that on the whole, the plan, such
as it is, has been well carried out and the
authorities have been carefully consulted. A
few of the most apparent incongruities and
inaccuracies might be mentioned.
While the author pays hardly any attention
to the phonetic constitution of Gothic words,
unless they happen to be mentioned in
BRAUNE'S ' Grammatik,' in which case he
gives the references, he frequently refers to
the most elementary phonetic laws in Anglo-
Saxon (rarely also in German), with which
every beginner is familiar : e. g., under aihva-
tundi: O. E. eoh (eo for e by breaking) ; under
arbi : O. E.yr/e (for ier/e, irfe, from earfe, by
z-uml., from arfe, by breaking) ; under atvef>i:
O. E. eowe, (for euwe, from ewe, the initial e
being z-uml. of a), etc. Some of these phonet-
ic " asides " are clothed in strangely obscure
and misleading language. Thus under asneit
we read: "O.K. earnian (r for j=Germanic
z, by rotacism)." If, as we do not wish to
doubt, the author had the right idea of the
process, it seems very doubtful whether any
beginner would correctly understand the
words " r for J=Germanic z," if indeed they
can be so understood by anybody ; and as to
the expression " by rotacism," what else does
it mean but that z becomes r because z be-
comes r? In regard to the last point, how-
ever, it would not be just to blame the author
too severely for doing what hosts of philo-
logians about him do.
Under aftra : " In Eff. G. the / appears as
ch after becoming achter whence &ter in &ter-
gescherre, n., breeching (of a harness), dter-
ovemgen, day after to-morrow." The change
of /into ch, like other changes thus treatedby
the author, is not confined to the dialect of
EFFEREN (near COLOGNE) but is common
throughout the Low German ; instead of " day
after to-morrow," we should expect "the
second day after to-morrow."
Airzeis. " Cf. O. E. yrre, (for y, from pre-
Germanic e)." Why not also Germanics?
Ajukdups. The Gothic suffix-duf> does not
correspond to the "Latin -tud in words like
longitudo" but to the Lat. -tut- in senectut-,
virtut-, etc. Comp. KLUGE, ' Nominate
Stammbildungslehre,' 132. Ahana. Both
ahana and ahs are here referred to an Idg.
root ak ; but the Gr. a^yy and cixvpor which
the author quotes from KLUGE must, as also
stated by the latter, go back to an Idg. root
agh.
Considering how far the author often goes
out of his way to instruct the reader as to the
origin of certain German or English forms,
the omission of many cognates and deriva-
tives that might legitimately have been quoted,
is all the more surprising. Thus under augjan
we miss ereignis ; under atjan we find G.
titzen, but not its E. derivative etc h ; speaking
of the superlative suffix in aftuma, the author
mentions the Lat. optimus, while postumus,
extremus, and others with direct English de-
rivatives are omitted ; under aftumists it would
have been proper to mention foremost and
the other double superlatives in English, etc.
103
207
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
208
The author follows his excellent guide,
KLUGE, so closely that he rarely commits a
serious error. In several cases he has evident-
ly misread his authority, e. g. when he says,
under dag's : From stem dago- (kindred with
stem of O. E. ddgor, m. n. O. N. ddegr' from
ddgoz-, day) which is supposed to be allied to
Skr. root dah (for Idg. dhag?), to burn.
Comp. KLUGE: " Zur Erklarung des germ.
dago- (daneben angls. ddgor, anord. rfo^raus
ddgoz-) hat man an die skr. Wz. dah (fur idg.
dhag h ?) " brennen " angekniipft," etc. The
author (or translator?) should at least do
KLUGE the justice of quoting his words or
forms correctly. The worst example of such
carelessness is to be found under balgs, "prop,
skin of an animal for holding liquors," (comp.
KLUGE : " eigtl. die zum Aulbewahren von
Fliissigkeiten abgestreifte Tierhaut "), where
we are told that " pre-Germanic bhelgh
answers to Idg. barh from *bharh, to be large,
be strong," an absurdity arising from the fact
that the author interpreted KLUGE'S Ind. as
Indogermanisch instead of Indisch: "Die
vorgerman. Form der Stammsilbe ist den
Gesetzen der Lautverschiebung gemass bhelgh
und diesem entspricht im Ind. barh (mit auf-
gegebener Aspiration im Anlaut) "gross,
stark sein." It is to be hoped that the future
installments of the GLOSSARY will at least be
free from such serious mistakes.
HANS C. G. VON JAGEMANN.
Indiana University.
Die Formalitdten des Ritterschlags in der
altfranzosischen Epik von DR. KARL
TREIS. Pp. 124. Leipzig, 1887.
Les ce're'monies accompagnant la promotion
au grade de Chevalier nous ont e'te' de"crites et
conserve'es dans bon nombre de documents ;
Du Cange et de Ste Palaye nous ont laisse",
sur ce sujet, d'excellents me'moires et disserta-
tions. M. Karl Treis s'est enforce" de nous
presenter, dans 1'ouvrage qui nous occupe, un
tableau aussi de'taille' et aussi fiddle que pos-
sible de ces mmes ce're'monies, telles que les
ont de"crites, diffe'rentes pe>iodes, les poetes
de nos anciennes chansons de geste. Les
nombreuses citations, toutes emprunte'es par
1'auteur & nos plus importants poemes e'piques,
tendent a e"tablir les faits suivants.
La classe infe'rieure n'e'tait pas absolument
exclue des rangs de la chevalerie. Une action
heYoique, un grand service rendu au souverain,
un brillant fait d'armes, e"taient autant de
droits qui lui donnaient acces 1'honneur si
envie". Nos poetes ne semblent pas avoir fait
d'une obscure naissance un obstacle insur-
montable. Tout au contraire, ils prennent les
futurs chevaliers dans toutes les conditions de
la vie ; et bucherons, bergers, portiers, cuisi-
niers, voire me'me batards, recoivent tour a
tour les e"perons d'or. Quant a 1'age du
candidat, ils ne se sont pas montre's plus
scrupuleux que pour sa naissance, et ils en
font un chevalier dds 1'age de treize ans.
Quant au droit de confe"rer la dignite 1 de cheva-
lier, nous savons qu' il n'appartenait qu'& celui
qui e"tait lui-mme rev6tu de cette dignite".
Le pere ou le grand-pere du candidat e"taient
tout naturellement de"signe"s pour remplir cette
importante fonction. A leur deTaut, le candi-
dat tait arme" chevalier, soit par le roi, soit
par un autre guerrier illustre. Mais, vu I'im-
portance du r61e joue" par la femme & cette
e"poque, les poetes nous la repre'sentent sou-
vent confe'rant le grade de chevalier, a celui
qui lui avail voue" un culte special, ou 1'avait
proclame'e la dame de ses pense"es. L'appari-
tion de la femme ne s'observe pas dans nos
chansons de geste de premiere date, et elle
semble indiquer un commencement de de"-
ge'ne'ration dans la chevalerie.
Le nombre des candidats, rarement restreint
chez nos poetes, pouvait s'e"lever jusqu'a cinq
cents et plus. Le grade de chevalier se con-
feYait e"galement en temps de paix et en temps
de guerre, sur le champ de bataille et dans le
palais des ance"tres. Une grande yictoire, une
fe"te de famille, 1'anniversaire d'une naissance,
fournissaient autant d 'occasions. On choisis-
sait ge'ne'ralement 1'^poque du printemps, et
quand 1'influence de I'^glise devint pre"ponde"-
rante les c^rdmonies eurent lieu aux grandes
fStes religieuses, telle que Paque, 1'Ascension,
la Pentec6te, la Saint-Jean et parfois Noel.
Le bain servait de prelude ne"cessaire aux
autres c^r^monies. Le futur chevalier e"tait
assist^, dans son bain, par des jeunes filles,
ou par des dames de qualite" ; elles pre"sidaient
104
209
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 4.
210
aux diffe'rents details de sa toilette. Apres le
bain, le candidat se reposait quelque temps,
puis ses compagnons le conduisaient a l'glise
on il devait passer la nuit en priere. Le jour
suivant, des 1'aube, il se confessait, entemluit
la messe, recevait la sainte communion et
faisait une offrande a l'glise. Ensuite, le
candidat e"tait revtu de ses habits de chevalier
et de ses armes. Ici les poetes out donne 1
libre cours a leur imagination et nous ont fait
de pompeuses descriptions de la beaute 1 , de la
richesse des habits et surtout des armes du
nouvel e'lu. Apres avoir rappele" an candidat
les devoirs que lui imposait la dignite 1 qu'il
allait recevoir, le conse"crateur lui assenait de
sa main droite un violent coup sur la nuque.
La vraie accolade, qui consistait d'un coup
le"ger du plat de I'e'pe'e, n'est, ce semble, pas
mentionne'e dans les chansons de geste.
Ainsi arme", le nouveau chevalier montait de
suite sur son coursier et donnait des preuves
de sa force, de son courage et de sa dexte'rite'
a manier les armes. Le tout se terminait,
quand 1'ennemi en laissait le temps, par d'a-
bondants festins et de grandes rejouissances.
En somme, la dissertation de Mr. Treis, sans
nous apprendre rien d'essentiel concernant la
chevalerie, nous offre un tableau consciencieux
des ce're'monies que nous trouvons de"crites par
nos anciens poetes, qui, a cet effet, s'inspi-
raient e'galement de leur puissante imagination
et des us et coutumes qui s'observaient encore
de leur temps.
J. A. FONTAINE.
University of Nebraska.
Die Journalisten, Lustspiel in Vier Akten.
von GUSTAF FREYTAG. Edited with In-
troduction and Notes by FRANZ LANGE,
Ph. D., Professor, Royal Military Acade-
my, Woolwich. New York, Henry Holt &
Co., izmo, pp. 178.
The editor of this book had a worthy pur-
pose in view. Following the example of his
countryman, Dr. Buchheim, who has done so
much to elevate the standard of German
scholarship in England and America, Dr.
Lange has taken this sprightly comedy of
Freytag's, one of the masterpieces of the
modern German stage, and endeavored in his
notes "to show the same level of scholarship
as the standard school editions of the Classics,
.... and to bring home to the student the
practical result of such excellent books of
reference as Skeat's ' Etymological Dictionary
of the English Language,' Brachet's ' Diction-
naire 6tymologique de la langue francaise,'
and Kluge's ' Etymologisches Worterbuch
der deutschen Sprache." "
How nearly this ideal has been realized
may appear from the following citations from
the Notes.
P. 25, 1. 25, "bet ruhiger Pritfung, bei is here
used to express a possible ground on the
realisation of which the reality of the effect is
made dependent." This is surely taking a
long run in order to jump over a straw. The
student could not well have missed the mean-
ing of the phrase, if there had been no note at
all.
P. 27, 1. 6, "gefurcht . . . notice that the
termination ' ow ' in English words of Teutonic
origin is in German words expressed by ' g '
or ' ch,' as borgen ' to borrow,' Sorge ' sorrow,'
falbich(t) 'fallow,' mehlich(t) ' mellow." This
is, in the first place, a piece of hasty generali-
zation, whereby an occasional occurrence is
made a rule ; but to compare the c h oifalbicht
with the ow in fallow is a blunder, and to com-
pare mehlicht with mellow is a worse one, for
neither of which SKEAT or KLUGE can be held
responsible. The German equivalent of mel-
low is miirbe, while mehlicht is, of course,
mealy.
P- 34 ! 3- " MondenschicnSchein der
Monden, the en is the old weak genitive (M.
H. G. mdne was also used as fem.=English
moon) cf. der Sonncnschein." Right, except
that instead of DER Monden, he should have
said DES Monden, the latter being the gen. of
a weak masc. Opitz, Gellert and writers of
their time declined der Mond, des Mondfn(s),
etc.
P. 38, 1. 31, " meinetwegen, observe the / for
grammatical s of the genitive of these com-
pounds." This mistake is so old that it be-
gins to have "an ancient and fishlike smell."
Meinet here stands for meinent, the / being
parasitic; and this meinen is dative plur.
agreeing with wegen ; cf. allenthalben.
105
211
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, I'm. No. 4.
P. 40, 1. 18. " Schatz from schdtzen;" p.
54, 1. i, schdtzen from der Schatz. The
Doctor's "Schatz" seems to be a sort of
"boomerang" which comes back to its start-
ing place. Even if the editor knows nothing
of verb-derivation, a glance at KLUGE would
have shown him that Schatz is the root-word.
P. 42, 1. 26. " Ressourcenfest 'Conver-
sazione at the Ressource ' (name of a Club)."
This conveys the idea that the name of this
particular club was "Ressource" whereas
ressource simply means club.
P. 56, 1. 7, " widerwdrtig from prep, wider
and warfs (gen. of obsolete wart, related to
wert, Eng. worth, from werden," etc. This
wart never had any existence save in the
imagination of Mr. LANGE, the oldest form
being -wert, and even this is never found
except as a suffix. Its connection with werden
is, at least, doubtful.
P. 59, 1. 28. " Backenstreich=Streich der
Backe(n)." The same error as p. 34, 1. 3.
Backenstreich is a compound of masc. Backen
and Streich, as KLUGE distinctly says. Dr. L. f
however, like the Emperor Sigismund, seems
to be "super grammaticam " and has, there-
fore, no need of reference to books.
P. 63, 1. 2. " Auf meinen Namen 'to my
credit.' " It should be ' at my expense.'
P. 63, 1. 6. " nac h vorn" is not "coming
forward," but "(speaking) towards the front
(of the stage)."
P. 64, 1. 14. " Ich hatfs satt; notice the
idiomatic expression with the indefinite es."
It would have been in place here to point out
that this es is an archaic genitive. Thus,
literally, ' I have enough of it.'
P. 64, l,2i, "die Schuld tragen ' run the
risk.' " Not so, but, ' bear the blame."
P. 67, 1. 21. " Rechtcs, das ich an ihre
Teilnahme habe, Recht haben governs auf
(ace.), Teil haben an (ace.) and since the rela-
tive agrees in gender with das Recht the pre-
position auf governed by Recht should be ex-
pected instead of an." Apart from the general
mistiness of this note, it is unheard-of to say
that a preposition is governed by a noun.
P. 82, 1. 29, " es liegt euch an mir; . . . lit.
'you are lying near (on) me," it is an impers.
v." It is certainly a ridiculous literal transla-
tion. Better ' there lies for you (something)
in me,' i.e. 'there is something in me that
interests you.'
P. 87, 1. 15, " es schickt sich fiir 'it be-
hoves.' Es schickt does not mean 'it be-
hooves,' but 'is proper, becoming.'
P, 101, 1. 12, " ich lobe mir 1 1 prize, I pre-
fer ; ' the reflexive verb sich loben follows the
rule of sich denken, sich einbilden, governing
the dat. of the pers. pron." Dr. L. falls into
the error of calling lobe, in ich lobe mir (das
Land), a reflexive verb : mir is here ethical
dative.
P. 126, 1. 25, " das halbe Wesen hat nichts
getaugt ' this half estrangement was no good.'"
As a specimen of English, this sentence is
certainly " no good."
P' 135. 1- 9- " Ohnmachtohn\e\ Macht"
This is a piece of Volksetymologie of
which a Doctor of Philosophy ought not to be
guilty. The old form of this word is a-maht,
the not appearing before 1450. Luther has
Ammacht as well as Onmacht. This d- has
nothing to do with ohne.
P. 137, 1. 30, " hebe Dich wegvon mir lit.
'lift (heave) yourself away from me.'" The
proper note here would have been merely a
reference to Luke iv, 8, whence these words
are taken verbatim.
O. B. SUPER.
Dickinson College.
BRIEF MENTION.
The Phonetic Section of the Modern Lan-
guage Association of America being now
occupied with the arrangement of a Standara
System of Sound-notation, the following ques-
tions are brought before the Committee and
before all those interested in the subject :
I a Should the standard system of sound-
notation be a physiological one, the sign
for each sound indicating as nearly as
possible the position or movement of the
organs of speech ?
II a Or should at least a beginning be made in
this direction by introducing some of the
simplest and most suggestive physiologi-
cal signs ?
III Can we expect that authors, publishers
and readers are prepared to adopt such a
system at once ?
106
213
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
214
Ib Would you prefer a system on the basis of
the conventional alphabets of European
languages ?
II b Should this system be founded on a com-
bination of different alphabets or upon a
single one with a liberal use of diacritic
signs ?
III b Should there be a common system for all
languages, or a separate one for each of
the principal groups ?
IV. Do you favor the adoption of one of the
existing systems? if so, which do you pre-
fer?
V. Would you adopt this system without
change or, if not, with what modifications?
VI. Or do you wish an entirely new system to
be arranged ?
Please send a statement of your opinion to
the Secretary of the Phonetic Section,
GUSTAF KARSTEN,
Bloomington, Indiana .
We would call the special attention of our
readers to the set of questions noted above
and solicit those who are interested in phonetic
work, of whatever kind, to give the committee
the benefit of their suggestions on sound-
notation. In the mixing of prevailing modes
of transcription there must necessarily result
more or less embarrassment, if not confusion,
which it is hoped in large measure to obviate
by a uniform system that shall receive the
approval of scholars generally. The want of
such consensus for indicating even the more
elementary sounds, is daily felt, and must
naturally become more marked as studies of
. this sort develop. It is believed that the ex-
perience of scholars in the practical working
of existing systems has been sufficient to
enable the majority of those now making use
of them to agree upon a complete and consist-
ent set of characters that shall be best adapt-
ed to actual linguistic needs. The present
time would seem to be favorable for a careful
consideration of the subject, and we would
therefore recommend it to our readers with
the hope that united effort in this direction
may produce practical results beneficial to all
classes of workers in phonetics.
As bearing upon this particular subject,
M, Paul Passy, Ncuilly (Seine), France, has
sent to the Secretary of the Phonetic Section
of the M. L. A. of A. a manuscript containing
a " Plan ov organic alfabet," to be examined
and taken into consideration by the Committee
on Sound-notation. Paul 1'a^sy is known to
the readers of the NOTES as the founder,
organizer and for several years president of
the Phonetic Teachers' Association ; he has
published some excellent books and essays,
among which may be mentioned as especially
useful and in fact indispensable to every con-
scientious teacher of French, Le Francais
Parle" ' (Heilbronn, 1886), and a very able trea-
tise on ' Modern French Phonetics ' in Vic-
tor's Phonetische Studien I. Passy is also
editor of The Phonetic Teacher, the organ of
the Phonetic Teachers' Assoc. All this shows
how well versed and deeply interested he is
in Phonetics, and that the most careful
consideration is due to the new alphabet
which he offers. His plan is chiefly based
on the same principles as Bell's Visible
Speech and English Line Writing, and
Sweet's Revised Romic. The most impor-
tant difference is in the representation of
"vowel-like" consonants (w, j), which are
made like the corresponding high vowel, but
with the voice-stem shortened. For practical
reasons it is not possible to give here any
specimens of the new alphabet. The manu-
script will be sent to the different members of
the Committee and, on application, to other
members of the Mod. Lang. Association of
America who may be interested in Phonetics.
Further information may be obtained by
writing to the Secretary of the Phonetic Sec-
tion, Prof. Gustaf Karsten, Blooming-
ton Indiana.
A book likely to be widely welcomed, is
' Fifty Years of English Lang. Selections from
the Poets of The Reign of Victoria,' edited
by Henry F. Randolph (A. D. F. Randolph &
Co., New York). In four, not only beautifully
but very carefully printed volumes, the editor
has given a well-chosen anthology of English
poetry from Southey and Wordsworth to
Swinburne, O'Shaughnessy and Philip Bourke
Marston. The work is particularly valuable
as giving sufficient specimens of the less-
known poets, whose scattered writings are
107
215
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
216
often very difficult to obtain. Students and
teachers who have not access to exceptionally
full libraries will find many very special wants
supplied in these pages.
Vol. IX, No. 8, of the Louisiana Journal of
Education contains a lengthy and interesting
article by Professor ALCE FORTIER (Tulane
University, New Orleans) on "The Fifth
Convention of the Modern Language Associa-
tion." The Dial for March has an apprecia-
tive review of SAINTSBURY'S ' Elizabethan
Literature ' by Prof. MELVILLE B. ANDERSON
(State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City). The Open
Court, for March 15, offers us a scholarly
article on "Goethe and the Development
Hypothesis " by Prof. CALVIN THOMAS (Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor). The conclusion is
to follow in the next number. The Academy
(Syracuse) for March has a contribution on
"The Worth of the English Tongue " by
Principal WILLIAM K. WICKES of the Water-
town High School.
An interesting paper has reached us, entitled :
' The Place and Function of the Normal
School,' a paper read before the Michigan
School-Master's Club, at Ann Arbor, October
22, 1887, by Professor A. Lodeman, of the
State Normal School at Ypsilanti. The writer
presents here, in a forcible manner, a series
of considerations showing "that there is no
necessity of limiting Normal Schools in the
exercise of their legitimate function of prepar-
ing teachers for all the grades of the public
schools," and then he goes forward to show,
from the writings of educators in this country,
the drift of opinion on secondary education,
and to adduce serious objections to any limit-
ations being placed on the Normal Schools.
The attention of readers who wish to inform
themselves concerning the living German
authors is called to a biographical work en-
titled : Das literarische Deutschland by Adolf
Hinrichsen (Berlin and Rostock: C. Historffs
Verlag). It is now appearing in a second
edition, the first part of which, comprising the
letters A E, we have before us. The intro-
duction, by Prof. C. Beyer, is written in an
enthusiastic tone and it appears to us that the
author's estimation of the present state of
German literature is somewhat too optimistic.
There are in the body of the work, of course,
many names of which nobody has ever heard ;
but the sketches are brief and to the point,
and the work will be found useful by those
desiring special information of the kind here
presented.
Among the many periodicals more or less
devoted to German literature there is none so
important for our knowledge of contemporary
German poetry as the bi-monthly Deutsche
Dichtung, published by A. Bonz & Comp. in
Stuttgart. Considering the ascendency over
the younger generation of immature German
poets recently gained by the French realistic
school, it is refreshing and elevating to meet
again with true poetry in the columns of this
journal. Its able editor, Karl Emil Franzos,
who is favorably known as one of the best
living German novelists, has not only gathered
about himself the poets of established fame
but also encourages rising talents by bringing
them before the cultivated public. In addition
to the poetical contributions we also find here
short literary essays and sprightly reviews of
contemporary poetry by leading scholars and
writers. One of the principal features of the
latest numbers has been the publication of a
number of beautiful and humorous letters of
Scheffel's, written at the time he composed
his 'Trompeter,' and very valuable for a
deeper understanding of this charming poem.
The portraits of contemporary German poets
which are given in each number form an at-
tractive contribution to the value of this really
" vornehme Zeitschrift."
Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Litteratur-
geschichte schreibt, is the title of a highly inter-
esting article in the last number of Herrig's
Archiv, written by Dr. Puls of Flensburg.
The Danish essayist and critic, who has hither-
to in certain circles passed for a great scholar,
and who on account of the supposed profun-
dity of his knowledge was allowed to express
radical opinions and offensive criticism, is
now suddenly exposed as a literary plagiarist
of the worst sort. He has recently published
a second edition of Die Literatur des 19.
Jahrhunderts in ihren Hauptstromungen, the
second volume of which, Die romantische
Schule in Deutschland, Dr. Puls subjects to a
108
217
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
918
careful scrutiny. The result of the latter
develops the fact that Brandes not only did
not read the sources necessary for writing an
original history of literature, such as he claims
his to be, hut that he has copied, in many
passages verbatim, from the works of German
investigators like Haym, Goedeke, Hitzig,
etc. Had Brandes concealed his fraud in the
comparative obscurity of the Danish language
he might perhaps never have been discovered.
But he had his book translated into German,
thus giving another illustration of the not un-
frequent phenomenon that scientific ignorance
and incapacity are coupled with the impudence
and sangfroid belonging properly to criminals.
.It may not be an agreeable occupation to ex-
pose such frauds, but the interests of science
and literary morality vigorously demand it.
And how many unprinted frauds may there
not be in lectures, ' scientific ' papers, and
elsewhere, especially in countries where
criticism is still developing and where a
foreign language affords so excellent a
hiding-place for the stolen wares ! The time
however will come when there will be an a-
wakening to a higher sense of literary honesty,
of frankly distinguishing between the meum
and the tuum; and not until frauds and im-
positions are thoroughly exposed will a healthy
development of science become possible.
Indeed, the story of Brandes is sadly interest-
ing and full of moral lessons.
The teachers of German among our readers
will be glad to have their attention called to a
periodical devoted exclusively to instruction
in German : the Zeitschriftfur den deutschen
Unterricht by R. HILDEBRAND and OTTO
LYON (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner). Everyone
who is acquainted with the literature on this
subject knows that there is at present no high-
er authority in matters concerning the teach-
ing of German than Professor Hildebrand.
This famous continuator of Grimm's Worter-
buch, and foremost living German philologian,
was for many years a practical teacher before
becoming professor in Leipzig ; and his little
book, Vom deutschen Sprachunterricht,
based upon his long experience and upon his
deep insight into the nature of the German
language, has in many respects revolutionized
German instruction. It is sufficient to say
that the present periodical is conducted in the
spirit of the above important work by Pro-
fessor Hildebrand himself and Dr. I. yon. one
of his ablest pupils. Its contents are of
a varied and many-sided character: pedagog-
ical essays, plans for the laying out of Ger-
man courses, interesting interpretations of
classic authors, reviews of the current litera-
ture on the same subject, and many valua-
ble practical hints and suggestions. We are
sure that it will become an indispensable com-
panion not only for teachers of German but
also for those engaged in other branches of
modern linguistic instruction.
A welcome text-book is BALZAC'S ' Eugenie
Grandet ' with introduction and notes by G.
PETILLEAU of the Charterhouse, Godalming
(London, Paris : Hachette et Cie ; Boston :
Schoenhof). Generally considered as the
best product of the French novelist from the
literary stand-point, it has the advantage, to
English readers, of presenting an extensive
and every-day vocabulary and of abounding
in household phrases and idioms. A sketch
of the author's life is prefixed, which might
have been longer with profit to students.
The abundant notes show careful editing. It
is a book which can be recommended in all
respects, not without regret perhaps that M.
PETILLEAU " deemed it indispensable to alter
certain provincialisms and to either modify or
suppress sundry expressions," so that it is not
an exact reprint of the original.
The same house publishes ' Re"cits des
Temps Me"rovingiens ' of A. THIERRY, edited
by H. TESTARD of the Royal Naval College
of Greenwich. It is characterized by the
same high grade of excellence seen in ' Euge"-
nie Grandet.' The first three ' Refits' make
up the volume, illustrated by cuts of Merovin-
gian antiquities and historical paintings. An
appendix brings together longer explana-
tions of Mediaeval laws and feudal customs
than could conveniently find place in the
Notes, which are none the less abundant in
material. The usual genealogical table, map
of the kingdom, and index biographical and
geographical are not omitted. Instructors
who have had reason to regret the lack of
historical text-books will find here an impor-
tant addition to that field in a most attractive
and scholarly form.
109
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
Uber Strophen- und Vers-Enjambement im
Altfranzosischen, von Dr. Eduard Stram-
witz (Leipzig : Gustav Fock, 1887), is a doctor's
dissertation which contains a great deal of
patient collecting and dividing. The run-on
lines in Old French poetry are carefully col-
lected according to the parts of the sentence
which are allowed to run on into the next line.
For some reason the author has overlooked
the most violent cases of enjambement
mentioned in Tobler's Versbau, p. 23, where
a word is cut in two as in Canning's song :
I think of those companions true
Who studied with me at the U
-niversity of Goettingen.
It cannot be said that any very valuable
results are brought out by this investigation.
D. C. Heath & Co. will issue soon Schiller's
Ballads, edited, with an Introduction and
Notes, by Henry Johnson, Longfellow Pro-
fessor of Modern Languages in Bowdoin
College. The Introduction deals briefly with
the relation of the ballads to Schiller's life
and works. It contains also, by way of illus-
tration, selections from the best German
criticism of the poems. The text is based on
that of Goedeke's critical (historischkritische)
edition of Schiller's poems, Cotta, Stuttgart,
1871. The notes include an English version
of the words of Schiller's authorities, when-
ever the poet is known to have been indebted
to others for the incidents of a ballad, and
give every variant (affecting the sense) ap-
pearing in the texts published in Schiller's
life-time. They have been written also with
the constant purpose of assisting in the study
of the poems, considered as literary master-
pieces.
'The Genesis of Literature,' is the subject
of the Phi Beta Kappa oration delivered last
June at Marietta college by Professor J. H.
CHAMBERLIN. The beginnings of literary
expression are set forth in a pleasant and com-
pact way, the relations of poetry and music
are discussed, and the influence of rhythmical
motion, as in the dance or in the march, on
rhythmical utterance is insisted on. Primitive
poetry is particularly characterized by the
repetition of some more than usually harmon-
ious phrase. Its development resulted in the
war-song, in which are contained the germs
of both lyric and epic poetry. An agreeable
feature of the oration is that ihe illustra-
tions are drawn in great part from the songs
of the American Indians ; ' Hiawatha ' is put
under contribution, and we notice (p. 4) that
no allusion is made to the Finnish poem; but
rather we are led to infer that Longfellow
drew his material from Dakota tradition.
Any one interested and who is not? in
the reconstruction of the college courses will
find profit in reading a paper on ' The Evolu-
tion of the College Curriculum ' from the pen
of President D. S. Jordan of the University
of Indiana, which is now made public in a
collection of articles entitled ' Science Sketch-
es ' (A. S. McClurg & Co., 1888). This essay
is not unfittingly thus associated with the
chapters of an eminent specialist in science ;
for we may indulge the hope that the time is
approaching when the utterances of men who,
by undergoing exact training in some branch
of knowledge have become the embodiment
of their own argument, will with peculiar
confidence be heard in matters pertaining to
the theory of education in general. There is
a certain temerity of judgment which is given
to warn against special scholarship as being a
more or less abnormal product from which
the graces of broad culture are necessarily
excluded ; how weak and short-sighted such
a view is, will become more generally mani-
fest when special scholarship has become
among us less of a vision in prejudice and
more of a reality.
PERSONAL.
In response to the wishes of a number of
the lovers of German literature in Baltimore,
DR. JULIUS GOEBEL gave during the months of
February and March a course of public
lectures on Goethe's 'Faust.'
Professor Henry R. Lang, has taken up the
study of the Portuguese dialects spoken in
New Bedford (Mass.). He is preparing to
spend the summer in the Azores, the original
home of a large part of this Portuguese
Colony, which bears the name " Fayal."
Besides this, there is at New Bedford a second
no
221
April. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
222
group of inhabitants from the Cape Verde
Islands, which is likely to prove of great
interest for the linguistic student.
Miss A. L. Morrow, a graduate of the Oswe-
go State Normal School (N. Y.), has been
appointed Instructor in Spanish at the Uni-
versity of Kansas (Lawrence). Miss Morrow
was principal, during the last three years, of
the Government Normal School at Rosario,
Province of Santa Fe" (Argentine Republic)
and has been engaged for some time in com-
piling text-books for the public schools of
that country.
Dr. W. L. Pearson has been appointed to
the chair of Modern Languages in Perm Col-
lege, at Oskaloosa (Iowa). Professor Pearson
is a graduate (1875) of Earlham College (Indi-
ana). In 1878 he entered the Princeton
Theological Seminary, where he completed
the course in 1881, meanwhile having taken
the A. M. degree (1880) by doing post-gradu-
ate work in the Academic department of the
College. At the time of graduation (1881),
he also received the Hebrew Fellowship, for
which he submitted a thesis on ' The Proper
Interpretation of Ezekiel, chaps. XL-XLVIII.'
He then went to the University of Berlin,
where his Biblical studies were continued ; and
finally, in 1885, he took the Doctor's degree at
the University of Leipsic. After graduating
at Earlham College, Dr. Pearson taught for
two years as Principal of Southland College,
at Helena (Arkansas). He has written mono-
graphs on 'The Prophecy of Joel : its Unity,
its Aim, and the Age of its Composition ' and
on 'The Genuineness of Genesis XLIX, 10.'
In a local report of the twenty-first annual
convention of the California State Teachers'
Association recently held in San Francisco,
we notice the election of Prof. A. S. Cook to
the presidency of that body. This event is
of significance as marking the first explicit
recognition of the leadership of the University
of California in the educational matters of
that State ; in this view it is also a fitting event
to precede the meeting of the National Edu-
cational Association which is to be held in San
Francisco next July.
Professor Jesse T. Littleton has been ap-
pointed Assistant Principal in the Danville
College for Young I.adit-s, at Danville, Ya.,
where he has charge of the English, French
and German courses. Mr. Littleton was grad-
uated at Randolph Macon College, Ya., in
1880, receiving the degree of Master of Arts.
During the last three years of his college
course, he was engaged in teaching Gi<
the College. From 1880-1881, he was Princi-
pal of the Kanawha Military Institute, at
Charleston (W. Ya.) ; for the following two
years he had charge of French and German
in a Female College at Murfreesboro (N. C.);
from 1883-1886 he occupied the chair of Greek
and German in Wofford College (S. C.), and
after one year's rest entered upon his present
position.
OBITUAR Y.
FERDINAND LOTHEISSEN, Professor of the
French Language and Literature in the Uni-
versity of Vienna (Austria) died on the i9th of
December last in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
In 1870 he was called to one of the Ober-Real-
sch'ulen of Vienna and shortly afterward,
when the Seminary for French was established
at the University, he was invited to occupy
this position. His chief work, as is well
known to our American readers, is his ' Ge-
schichte der franzosischen Litteratur im xvii.
}hd.' (4vols., 1877-1883), and among his minor
contributions to a knowledge of French litera-
ture may be noted : ' Litteratur und Gesell-
schaft in Frankreich zur Zeit der Revolution '
(1872), ' Zur Kulturgeschichte des xviii. Jahr-
hunderts,' ' Moliere ' (1880), ' Konigin Marga-
rethe von Navarra, ein Kultur- und Littera-
turbild aus der Zeit der franzosischen Re-
formation ' (1885), ' Zur Sittengeschichte
Frankreichs, Bilder und Historien ' (1885).
He left behind an unfinished treatise on the
' Kulturgeschichte Frankreichs im xvii. Jahr-
hundert ' which he intended should make
three volumes and of which the first is about
ready for publication. He was a frequent
contributor to the Zeitsc hriftfiir rom. Philo-
logie, to the Zeitschriftfur nfrz. Sp*. u. Lift.,
besides to a number of other journals of
Germany and Austria.
We are informed of the death on the igth of
February, of Dr. KARL BARTSCH, Geheim
Rath, Professor of Romance and of Germanic
Philology at the University of Heidelberg.
We hope to give in an early number of MOD.
LANG. NOTES an extended account of Prof.
BARTSCH 's life and extraordinary literary
activity, by one of his pupils.
in
223
April. THE MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 4.
224
JOURNAL NOTICES.
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG. No. 6.-Hoir.
inanii, 0., Herders Briefwechsel mit Nicolai (C.
SchUddekopf). Warnke, K. und Proescholdt, L., The
Birth of Merlin (J. Zupitza). No. 6. Burghauser, 6.,
Indogermanische PrHsensbildung im Germanischen
(Fr. Bugr). Gubernatls, A. de, II Paradise di Dante (F.
Zschech). NO. 7. Schutze, P., BeitrHge zur Poetik
Otfride (R. M. Meyer). Seifert, A., Glossar zu den
Gedichten des Bonvesin da Riva. No. 8. Hettema,
K.;i5uUfiirust , Bloemlezing uit Oud-, Middel- en Nieuw.
friesche Geschriften, II (Franck). Biedcrmann, W.
von, Goethes Briefwechsel mit Friedrich Rochlitz (R.
M. Werner) .
ARCHIV FUR DAS STUDIUM DER NEUEREN SPRA-
CHEN : LXXX, HEFT, I, 2,-Puls, Wie Georg Brandes
deutsche Litteraturgeschichte schreibt. Frankel, L.,
Ludwig TJhland als Romanist. Horstmann, C., Nach-
trage zu den Legenden. Hellgrewe, W., Syntaktische
Studien tiber Scarrons Le Roman Comique. Oreans,
K., Die E-reime im Altprovengalischen.
REVUE CRITIQUE.-NO. 6. Le Verdler, P., Mystere
de 1'Incarnation et Nativite de Notre Sauveur (1474)
(A. Delboulle). NO. 7. Kigal, E., Esquisse d'une
histoire des theatres de Paris (1548-1635) (L. B).
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEUTSCHES ALTERTHUM BD.
XXXII. HEFT. I. Bolte, Kleine beitrHge zur geschi-
chte des dramas. Brandes, Die litterarische tBtigkeit
des verfassers des Reinke. Schenk zu Schweinsberg.
Zur frage nach dem wohnsitze Friedrichs von Hau-
sen. Wernleke, Die Pilgerreise dea letzten grafen
von Katzenellenbogen. Kachmann, BruehstUcke
eines frauengebetes. lingerie, Ein BruchstUek der
Kaiserchronik. Knoll, Ein bruchstllck des Wigalois.
Sclionach, Bruchstticke aus dem Alexander des Ulrich
von Eschenbach. Heinemann, Aus zerschnittenen
Wolfenbtittler hss. Bachmnnn, Bruchsttlcke eines
mhd. Cliges. Birlinger, Beitrage zur kunde mittel-
alterlicher personennamen aus mittelrheinischen
urkunden. Schroder, Die erste Klirnbergerstrophe.
V nun n IK Ein wassersegen. Kriiger, Einige besser-
ungen zur Krone.
REVUE CELTIQUE VOL. IX. No. \-Janvier 1888.
Duvau, L., La Legende de la Conception de Cfichulainn.
Stokes, Wh., The Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla.
Barthelemy, A. de, Legendes des Monnaies gauloises
(1887). IVArbofs. II. de Jubainville, Recherches sur
1'origine de la propri''t5 fonciere et des noms de lieu
en France (troisieme article). Nettlau, M.. Notes on
Welsh Consonants. (at: mil, R., Sur quelqnes inscrip-
tions de Saintes contenant des noms gaulois. Warren,
F. E., Un monument in'dit de la liturgie celtique.
Bibllographie. Nettlau, M., BeitrKge /ur cj'mrischen
Grammatik I Einleitung und Vocalismus). Toubin, ('.,
Dictionnairc I'tymologique et explicatif de la langue
francaise.- Ernault, E., Du parfait en grec et en latin.
Mulr, T. S., Ecclesiological Notes on some of the
Islands of Scotland. Krnault, E., Le Mystere de Sainte
Barbe. Atkinson, P.., The Passions and the Homilies
from Leabhar IJreac, text, translation and glossary.
Meyer, Kuno, Peredur ab Efrawc. Martin, Wood.
History of Sligo.
LE MOYEN ACE, NO. 2.-Fevrier im
rendus. Langlols, Le regne de Philippe III le Hardi
(M. Prou). Guastl, C., Santa Maria del Fiore II Per-
gamo di Donatello pel Duomo di Prato (C. Frey).
Pearson, Karl, Die Fronica (A. Marignan). Chronique
blbllographlque. Periodiques. Autrlche, Histoire et
Archeologie (W. Englmann). France, Droit et Econo-
mic politique (G. Platon).
GlORNALE STORICO DELLA LETTERATURA iTALh
ANA, VOL. X, (FASC. 3). -Bladene, Leandro, I mano-
scritti italiani della collezione Hamilton nel R. Museo
e nella R. Biblioteca di Berlino (2. IX. '87). Frail,
Ludorico, Notizie biograflche de rimatori italiani die
secc. XIII-XIV. Ill, Onesto da Bologna (15. XI. '87).
Niihliadini, Kcmiglo, Sugli studi volgari di Leonardo
Giustiniani (3. II. '87). Lamma, Ernesto, Intorno ad
alcune rime di Lionardo Giustiniani. Costa, Emlllo,
Marco Antonio Flaminio e il cardinale Alessandro
Farnese (4. XII. '87). Sforza, Giovanni, Una lettera
dantesca di Gio. Jacopo Dionisi. Passe(/na Bibllogra-
fica. Palmarlnl, I., (Vittorio Rossi) Idrammi pastorali
di Antonio Marr-i detto 1'Epicuro Napolitano. I. La
Mirzia(25. XI. '87). Ademollo, A., (Achille Neri) Goril-
la Olimpica (5. XII. '87). Mazzatlntl. ft., (Rodolfo
Renier) Manoscritti italiani delle biblioteche di Fran-
cia, I e II (26. XI. '87) tioldmann, A., (Francesco
Novati) Drei italienische Handschril'tenkataloge
XIII-XIV (16. XII. '87).
LE CANADA-FRANQAIS, VOLUME PREMIER, I ERE
LlVRAISON. (Janvier, 1888). Prospectus Routlilrr,
A. B., Le Canada-Franfais Son but et son programme.
Vkthot, Mgr. M. E., Le Jubile de sa Saintete Le'on
XIII.-Gosselin, L'abbe A. H., Role Politique de Mgr
de Laval, Le Conseil Souverain et les Gouverneurs du
Camilla. Marceau, Ernest, Reveil Hotnmage aux
fondateurs du Canada Francis. de Fovlle, P., ROle
de la Facult- des Arts dans I'CJniversite catholique.
t'hapnls, Thomas, La Bataille de Carillon. Casgraln,
L'abbe' II. K., Coup d'oeil sur 1'Acadie avant la disper-
sion de la colonie fran^-ais. Laflnmrne, L'abbe .1. r. h..
Metallurgie Klectriijiie. Legendre, Nap. Le Realisme
en Litterature. Routhler, A. B., Chronique de Paris.
Chauveau, P. J. 0., Revue Eiiropeenne. La Canada-
Francaiset l'autorit' j ecclesiastique.-i'ocwin/ Iiiiilitu
T. M'moireau Due de Choiseul, an sujet de lapi\'ten-
tion ou sont les Angloisque les Accadiens n'apparti-
ennent plus a la France. TI. Tableau sommaire des
missionnaires seculiers qui etaient dans les provinces
maritimes vers 1761. III. Declaration de guerre des
Micmacs au gouvernenr d'Halifax, en 1749. (Texte
micmac et traduction franyaise.) I V. Lettres de M.
1'abbe Le Loutre, missionnaire en Acadie, 1738-1748.
V. Estat de 1' Acadie pour le gouvernernent ecclesias-
tique, 1731. VI. Description de 1'Acadie, de la main de
1'abbe Le Loutre, 1746. VII. Description de 1'Acadie,
avec le nom des paroisses et le nonibre des habitants,
1748. VIII. Memoire de 1'abbe de 1'Isle-Dieu a M.
Stanley, 175.-,.
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Baltimore, May, I sss.
MA CAUL AY AND CARLYLE.
PROF. MCELROY'S paper on "Matter and
Manner," in MOD. LANG. NOTES for February,
is in need of rectification at several points.
So far as the personal element may enter
into the following remarks, the reader must
suffer me to be as brief as will comport with
clearness and explicitness.
1. When PROF. MCELROY asserts, column
57, that "both [PROF. HART and PROF.
HUNT] ignored, as it seems to me, this funda-
mental principal of the inseparability, except
in thought, of matter and form in literary
composition, both spoke as if the only merit in
composition were its expressing worthy
thought," he is in grievous error, so far at least
as I am concerned. Neither at Philadelphia
nor elsewhere, neither verbally nor in print,
have I ever expressed or intimated any other
belief than that style and thought are insepara-
ble, that poor style proceeds from poor think-
ing, that good style consists in the adequate
adjustment of thought and expression. For
others I do not undertake to speak.
2. The quotation ascribed to me in the
same place, viz. : " MACAULAY always seem-
ed to write as if some one were looking over
his shoulder and saying 'Bravo! LORD MAC-
AULAY ; how well you have tiirned out that
sentence," is trueasfaras given. But being
given only in part, the truth, is only partial ; and
sometimes, be the reader admonished, partial
truth is partial error. PROF. MCELROY should
have remembered the steps that led up to my
. conclusion. But they will be given farther on ;
provisionally let me note another passage
from PROF. MCELROY, column 59: "But he
[the critic] is manifestly unfair when he ...
holds the writer up to ridicule as posing be-
fore a looking-glass and saying: 'Ah, you
handsome dog,' when in fact, though the
writer is a bit self-conscious, he really
gives us something fine to look at.'" Is
writing " as if some one were looking over
your shoulder "=" posing before a looking-
glass"? Is catching applause from another,
"Bravo, how well you have done that "=
saying to oneself What a handsome dog am
/"? The reader must decide whether he
believes the present writer capable ofthus mis-
taking MACAULAY for, let us say, BULWEK.
3. PROF. MCELROY puts the broad ques-
tion, column 58: " Is there no merit in a fine
style ? Is such a style necessarily bad ? Are
we to attend only to the thought of a composi-
tion?" The sound critic will unhesitatingly
reply : There is every merit in a fine style,
only let us first determine what makes style
truly fine. PROF. MCELROY has evidently
failed to perceive what should be a patent
fact, to wit, that while some would-be critics
may sneer at MACAULAY for writing too finely,
there are other critics who object to him
because he does not write finely enough !
The present writer belongs to the latter class,
and it will be the aim of the following remarks
to justify his position.
i. Wherein consists the essence of style?
What gives a writer his individuality? PROF.
MCELROY tduches forcibly, columns 61 and 62,
upon one of the evils of our time, viz. : the
gross neglect of rhetoric and criticism, the
thrusting aside of literature in favor of phi-
lology. It is only too true, as he intimates,
that our college students are left to acquire a
good style by " absorption;" that "questions
of grammatical purity are treated as of little
value, and, with the weightier matters of
sentence and paragraph building, unity of
composition, clearness, force, and other such
topics, are hustled out of court in quiet con-
tempt." This is all true, painfully true. Yet
it does not go to the root of the evil, nor does
the professor, it is to be feared, even see the
root of the evil. Else he would not think
and write of MACAULAY as he does.
The secret of style lies in the infallible use
of wor"ds. Whether a writer be great or only
mediocre, will depend first and last upon his
choice of words. Grammar, paragraphing, uni-
ty of composition, even clearness and force, are
things that can be taught. All, except per-
haps force, should indeed be disposed of in
the grammar school. But precision, proprie-
ty, elegance, incisiveness, suggestiveness, in-
227
'.May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
228
dividuality, how and when are they to be
acquired ? How, indeed, if not through the
closest study of the greatest writers in their
happiest moods ? As regards MACAULAY, his
genuine critics maintain that he is not one of
the greatest writers of our language, and that
he does not repay the closest study, because
he is lacking in the curiosa felicitas which
betokens consummate literary genius.
Text-books of rhetoric, and with them in-
struction in rhetoric, overlook the paramount
importance of the word-element in style.
They concentrate attention upon more formal
matters, sentence-structure, paragraphing,
' invention ' and the like. But words are the
life-blood of speech. To disregard them is to
misunderstand the very process of thought-
communication. Words are not algebraic
symbols, having exact and fixed values. We
cannot set up our sentences as the mathema-
tician sets up his equations. The same word
does not always bear the same meaning.
Every word has had its own organic growth,
carries with it a variable set of associations,
may appeal to one ear and fall dead upon
another. How, then, are we to learn to use
words correctly? As one artist learns from
another the art of coloring, by observation
and imitation. Imitation, of course, in the
higher sense, not aping, which results in mere
mannerism. More than a century ago LESSING
said, with his usual sagacity, that we might
imagine a Raphael without hands, but never a
Raphael without eyes. What LESSING meant
was that the artist's one essential quality
is vision. The artist must see his object, its
form, its color, its relations, and he must also
see every line and shade that he is to use in
its representation, must see them in his mind
before attempting to convey them to the
canvas. Is it any different in literary style?
Must not the writer see his object in all its
details, must he not select from the treasury
of speech just the word that will reproduce
his mental vision ? The worst mistake that he
can make is to think that one word will answer
as well as another.
2. Here is the explanation of MACAULAY'S
failure to achieve mastery in style. He is lack-
ing in artistic vision. And where he is weak,
CARLYLE is strong. When PROF. MCELROY
speaks, column 58, of MACAULAY'S "power of
calling spirits from the vasty deep, his admir-
able choice of words," he speaks a language
which to me at least is unintelligible. If
MACAULAY ever called up spirits from the
deep, assuredly they were like Glendower's,
they refused to come when he did call them.
But it is safer, perhaps more charitable, to
believe that MACAULAY never tried to call
them. Of all prominent English writers he is
the least spiritual, the most given to gliding
over the surface of life and character. There
is not in his writings a single serious and
sustained attempt to penetrate into the depth
of being or of a being. And his choice of
words is not admirable. The utmost that we
can say of it is that it is correct within the
limits of mediocre conventionalism. The
writer who patterns himself after MACAULAY,
will never make any serious blunder in diction,
on the other hand he will never surprise from
nature one of those winged words that flit
from soul to soul.
One example will suffice. In reviewing
CROKER'S ' BOSWELL,' MACAULAY puts thus
aphoristically his estimate of BOSWELL : " He
has no second. He has distanced all his
competitors so decidedly that it is not worth
while to place them. Eclipse is first, and the
rest nowhere." This is a phrase which may
tickle the popular ear, 'Eclipse first and the
rest nowhere,' but will it not grieve the ju-
dicious? There are competitions in real life
which resemble a horse-race, and MACAULAY
knew them thoroughly. But is the writing of
biography one of them ? Is a biographer a
jockey lashing his Pegasus to the plaudits of a
frantic throng ? If we wish for a true winged
word, let us turn to CARLYLE'S judgment upon
CROKER'S editorial labors: "tombstone-infor-
mation." It is a brief phrase, but the coiner
of it must have seen into CROKER, must also
have seen into the depths of speech.
3. Whether the reader agree or disagree
with the above view of style, in either case he
will now understand how I came to describe
MACAULAY as writing to captivate some im-
aginary bystander looking over his shoulder.
Such a conclusion, isolated from what preced-
ed it, is somewhat startling ; but it was pre-
ceded by a series of propositions which em-
114
229
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
230
bodied the Motive. BrieHy stated, these
propositions \v
a. A say ing of EMERSON'S, that while there
might In- many ways of doing a thing ill, there
could be only one way of doing it well.
b. A quotation from MATTHEW ARNOLD,
explaining the secret of HOMER'S effectiveness,
namely, Id-cause he always composed with his
eye solely upon the object.
c. An application to MACAULAY, stating
that he composed, not with his eye on the
object but rather with his eye upon the reader.
Hence he composed not well in the Emerson-
ian sense, and his choice of words could not
be apt, or truly picturesque, in the Homeric
sense.
The reader may accept this sequence of
thought in whole or in part, or may reject it
altogether, as he shall see fit. But in any
event he can scarcely reject it on the ground
of incoherence.
MACAULAY'S true position in literature is
usually misunderstood. He is placed among
the great writers ; whereas he belongs of right
among the orators. His true field was not
the printed page but the floor of the House of
Commons. Here he was without his match.
In that noble arena no Tory gladiator ever
made him lower his sword's point for an
instant. At a time when parliamentary elo-
quence was at its height he always carried the
House. How could it have been otherwise?
He united in himself all the requisites of a
successful debater: earnest conviction, im-
mense knowledge, ready wit, and an instan-
taneous perception of the weakness of his
adversary. The last gift outweighs, in my
judgment, all the others. I have said that in
order to write well one must see clearly. In
his rightful sphere, debate, MACAULAY did
see clearly. He had the special gift of intu-
ition. The promptness with which he detect-
ed a sophism and branded it in apt words, the
nimbleness with which he met an objection
and turned it upon the objector, are to me
marvellous. The Tories of those days there
were some great men among them must
have often gnashed their teeth in sheer de-
spair.
But it behooves us to remember that parlia-
mentary oratory is not literature. It is dis-
course ad hoc ; literature speaks to the endless
future. As writer, MACAULAY debates, seeks
to capture the reader by a majority vote. His
History of England is a long harangue. His
essays an- short harangues. Everywhere
somebody, some canst-, is to be attacked or
defended. Nowhere is his eye searching
below the surface, detecting hidden analogies
and discriminating between apparent
semblances. We can generally learn from
him how men acted outwardly, how things
looked on the surface at a given juncture.
But if we ask of him why men acted thus, if we
call upon him to lay bare the complex motives,
pride, greed, prejudice, ambition, that result-
ed in an action or a policy, we shall ask in
vain. MACAULAY has but the seven primary
colors with which to paint character: his
palette is without intermediate shades. Vanity
is vanity with him, pride is pride, wisdom is
wisdom. If this judgment appear too sweep-
ing, I can only ask the reader to test it. MAC-
AULAY has given his opinion upon many
literary Englishmen, upon MILTON, BUNYAN,
DRYDEN, SWIFT, GOLDSMITH, JOHNSON,
BYRON. Selecting these seven as samples of
complexity and diversity, I put the question :
Into which of the seven has MACAULAY seen?
MILTON is a learned saint, BUNYAN an inspired
tinker, DRYDEN a renegade, SWIFT a ribald,
GOLDSMITH a lively, chatty fool, JOHNSON a
churl, BYRON a sentimental dandy. Some of
us, truly, had been able to find out that much
for ourselves. But we wish to know more,
we wish to know precisely what it was in each
one of the seven that made him great, made
him a power. And this MACAULAY is unable
to tell us, because he himself has not found it
out.
4. Passing from MACAULAY to CARLYLE,
let us dwell only upon the more obvious
features of contrast. And let us begin with a
general admission. It is not at all needful to
be a blind follower of the sage of Chelsea. It
will lighten our hearts to confess, without urg-
ing thereto, that CARLYLE'S views are often
wrong, outrageously wrong, and when wrong
are usually enforced with a brutality that
shocks every fibre of one's conscience. One
sample will suffice, his estimate of SCOTT,
given in his review of LOCKHART'S ' Life.'
"5
231
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 5.
232
Seldom has literary immorality been more
flagitious. We can account for it only as an
overflow of personal dislike. CARLYLE is
usually taken to be a liberal. At bottom he
was only a Scotch Calvinist, the finer part of
Calvinism rubbed off and replaced by a thin
veneer of German Rationalism. For SCOTT,
the genial Jacobite and Royalist, the despiser
of 'metapheesical' hair-splitting, CARLYLE had
no sympathy, scarcely even understanding.
Yet we can easily afford to be just to CAR-
LYLE. He was often, let us say, color-blind.
He often saw his object unconsciously in a
wrong light, and this defect of vision was
organic and incurable. But when he saw his
object aright, no man, Englishman or other-
wise, ever described it more clearly, more
vividly, with greater spiritual intuition. His
failures are not due, like MACAULAY'S, to wil-
fully diverting his gaze from the object to the
reader. Hence it is that the most indignant
reader of CARLYLE will sympathize with him,
even though it be under protest. At his worst
he can always teach us, if nothing else, the
warning lesson that if the soul's eye be blind
then is the whole body full of darkness. Can
we learn a like lesson of humility from MAC-
AULAY? We shall rather remember LORD
MELBOURNE'S despairing ejaculation: "Would
to God I could be as sure of anything as TOM
MACAULAY is of everything."
On the other hand, when CARLYLE is right,
how very right he is, how wholesome, how
exhilarating! How each subtle thought finds
its organic expression ! To illustrate this, and
at the same time point the comparison, let me
place side by side two extracts from MAC-
AULAY'S and CARLYLE'S reviews of CROKER'S
' BOSWELL.'
a. MACAULAY. "BOSWELL attained it
[literary eminence] by reason of his weakness.
If he had not been a great fool, he would
never have been a great writer . . . Logic,
eloquence, wit, taste, all those things which are
generally considered as making a book valu-
able, were utterly wanting to him. He had,
indeed, a quick observation and a retentive
memory. These qualities, if he had been a
man of sense and virtue, would scarcely of
themselves have sufficed to make him con-
spicuous ; but because he was a dunce, a
parasite, and a coxcomb, they have made him
immortal."
CARLYLE. "Nay, sometimes a strange
enough hypothesis has been started of him
(BOSWELL) ; as if it were in virtue even of those
same bad qualities that he did his good work ;
as if it were the very fact of his being among
the worst men in this world that had enabled
him to write one of the best books therein.
Falser hypothesis, we may venture to say,
never rose in human soul. Bad is by its
nature negative, and can do nothing; whatso-
ever enables us to do anything is by its very
nature good. Alas, that there should be
teachers in Israel, or even learners, to whom
this world-ancient fact is still problematical,
or even deniable. BOSWELL wrote a good
book because he had a heart and an eye to
discern wisdom, and an utterance to render it
forth ; because of his free insight, his lively
talent, above all, of his love and childlike
open-mindedness. His sneaking sycophan-
cies, his greediness and forwardness, whatever
was bestial and earthy in him, are so many
blemishes in his book, which still disturb us in
its clearness ; wholly hindrances, not helps.
Towards JOHNSON, however, this feeling was
not sycophancy, which is the lowest, but rev-
erence, which is the highest of human feelings.
. . . For ourselves, let every one of us cling
to this last article of faith and know it as the
beginning of all knowledge worth the name :
that neither JAMES BOSWELL'S good book, nor
any other good thing, in any time or in any
place, was, is, or can be performed by any
man in virtue of his badness, but always and
solely in spite thereof."
b. MACAULAY. "The characteristic pecu-
liarity of his (JOHNSON'S) intellect was the
union of great powers with low prejudices.
If we judged of him by the best parts of his
mind, we should place him almost as high as
he was placed by the idolatry of BOSWELL; if
by the worst parts of his mind, we should
place him even below BOSWELL himself.
Where he was not under the influence of some
strange scruple or some domineering passion,
which prevented him from boldly and fairly
investigating a subject, he was a wary and
acute reasoner, a little too much inclined to
scepticism, and a little too fond of paradox.
116
233
A fay. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 5.
334
No man was less likely to be imposed upon
by fallurii-s in argument or by exaggerated
statements of fact. But if, while he was beat-
ing down sophisms and exposing false testi-
mony, some childish prejudices, such as would
excite laughter in a well-managed nursery,
came across him, he was smitten as if by en-
chantment. His mind dwindled away under
the spell from gigantic elevation to dwarfish
littleness. Those who had lately been admir-
ing its amplitude and its force were now as
much astonished at its strange narrowness
and feebleness as the fisherman in the Arabian
tale, when he saw the Genie whose stature
had overshadowed the whole sea-coast, and
whose might seemed equal to a contest with
armies, contract himself to the dimensions of
his small prison, and lie there the helpless
slave of the charm of Solomon."
CARLYLE. "More legibly is this influence
of the loving heart to be traced in his (JOHN-
SON'S) intellectual character. What, indeed,
is the beginning of intellect, the first induce-
ment to the exercise thereof, but attraction
towards somewhat, affection for it? Thus,
too, who ever saw, or will see, any true talent,
not to speak of genius, the foundation of which
is not goodness, love? From JOHNSON'S
strength of affection we deduce many of his
intellectual peculiarities ; especially that
threatening array of perversions, known under
the name of 'Johnson's Prejudices.' Look-
ing well into the root from which these sprang,
we have long ceased to view them with hostili-
ty, can pardon and reverently pity them.
Consider with what force early-imbibed
opinions must have clung to a soul of this
affection. Those evil-famed prejudices of his,
that Jacobitism, Church-of-Englandism, hatred
of the Scotch, belief in witches, and suchlike,
what were they but the ordinary beliefs of
well-doing, well-meaning, provincial English-
men in that day ? First gathered by his
father's hearth ; round the kind ' Country-
fires ' of native Staffordshire ; they grew with
his growth and strengthened with his strength ;
they were hallowed by fondest sacred recol-
lections ; to part with them was to part with
his heart's blood. If the man who has no
strength of affection, strength of belief, have
no strength of prejudice, let him thank heaven
for it, but to himself take small thanks.
" Melancholy it was, indeed, that the noble
JOHNSON could not work himself loose from
these adhesions ; that he could only purify
them, and wear them with some nobleness.
Yet let us understand how they grew out from
the very centre of his being ; nay, moreover,
how they came to cohere in him with what
formed the business and worth of his life, the
sum of his whole spiritual endeavour. For it is
on the same ground that he became through-
out an edifier and repairer, not, as the others
of his make were, a puller-down ; that in an
age of universal scepticism, England was still
to produce its believer. Mark, too, his candor
even here ; while a DR. ADAMS, with placid
surprise, asks : ' Have we not evidence of the
soul's immortality?' JOHNSON answers: 'I
wish for more.' "
The reader will have no difficulty in reading
between the lines. As a sample of the heinous-
ness of MACAULAY'S exaggeration, let the
following phrase suffice: "He (BOSWELL)
was ... an unsafe companion who never
scrupled to repay the most liberal hospitality
by the basest violation of confidence." Aside
from the question of fact involved in the asser-
tion, as a mere matter of style one may well
ask : If BOSWELL. had treacherously stabbed a
brother laird in a drunken brawl, or robbed a
savings bank, or run off with his neighbor's
wife, where would MACAULAY have found
words adequate ?
5. PROF. MCELROY, column 59. expresses
himself thus: "Suppose, for example, that
MACAULAY had thought as CARLYLE thought.
Would the brilliancy of his style in that case
have offended us? Nay, would not his many
charms of manner, unimpaired as they would
then have been, only have added to his legiti-
mate effect upon us? We were told in the
Convention that CARLYLE first wrote as MAC-
AULAY did, but afterwards deliberately
changed his style. Was it not because he
believed that, by intentionally adopting the
peculiarities that characterize his later work, he
would the more certainly secure an audience?
Surely there was never a more conceited, self-
conscious great man than CARLYLE."
117
235
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
236
a. The supposition involves an impossibili-
ty. MACAULAY could never have thought as
CARLYLE thought, for the all-sufficient reason
that it was not in him to do so.
b. "Brilliancy" of style, the brilliancy which
consists in heaping up superlatives, balancing
phrases, juggling with the mere order of
words, is offensive, whether in MACAULAY, or
in CARLYLE, or in BURKE, or even in SHAKE-
SPEARE or MILTON. The assertion that CAR-
LYLE'S early style resembled MACAULAY'S
in rhetoric is true. Here is the warrant for it :
" SCHILLER seems to have the greater
genius; ALFIERI the more commanding
character. ALFIERI 's greatness rests on the
stern concentration of fiery passion under the
dominion of an adamantine will . . . SCHIL-
LER'S moral force is commensurate with his
intellectual gifts and nothing more. The
mind of the one is like the ocean, beautiful in
its strength, smiling in the radiance of Sum-
mer, and washing luxuriant and romantic
shores : that of the other is like some black
unfathomable lake placed far amid the melan-
choly mountains ; bleak, solitary, desolate ;
but girdled with grim, sky-piercing cliffs, over-
shadowed with storms, and illuminated only
by the red glare of the lightning."
This is written with an eye to the reader,
and is correspondingly " brilliant." But who-
ever tries to understand ALFIERI and SCHIL-
LER by such red glare of lightning will get
his labor for his pains.
c. There is no warrant for the assumption
that CARLYLE "deliberately" changed his
style. Style is not a garment to be donned or
doffed at will. The change in CARLYLE'S
style came gradually and I suspect un-
consciously. Doubtless it came from a pro-
longed and searching study of GOETHE, the
least rhetorical of writers. Doubtless it was a
sense of the utter inadequacey of such SCHIL-
LER-ALFIERI turgidity to render GOETHE'S
serene, naive, Olympian straightforwardness,
that gave to CARLYLE'S mind its new di-
rection. It was GOETHE who taught CARLYLE
the supreme value of words, the insignificance
of phrase-structure. CARLYLE himself says
of his later syntax :
"Of his sentences perhaps not more than
nine-tenths stand straight on their legs; the
remainder are in quite angular attitudes,
buttressed up by props (of parentheses and
dashes), and ever with this or the other tag-
rag hanging from them ; a few even sprawl
but helplessly on all sides, quite broken-back-
ed and dismembered."
We are not to apply self-irony and mock
self-depreciation too literally. 'In Memoriam'
is the most carefully planned and best sustain-
ed didactic poem in our language, yet the
author condescendingly speaks of it as " little
swallow flights of song." All that CARLYLE
meant by his caricature of Teufelsdroeckh was
that the reader should not expect of him stilted
rhetoric a la Blair.
b. Conceding that CARLYLE is conceited
and self-conscious, the sole question that
concerns us here is, how far his style may
suffer therefrom. Only in so far as prejudice
prevented him, as it prevented JOHNSON, from
seeing the object aright. Where CARLYLE
saw clearly, there he described unerringly,
notwithstanding all his self-consciousness. As
for his "crudities," his " Babylonian dialect,"
his " boisterousness and utter want of self-
containment," they exist only for the reader
who is unfamiliar with the word-wealth of our
language. Above all other prose-writers CAR-
LYLE has the infallible artist-touch in his use of
words. Coming from him, each noun, adjec-
tive, verb is instinct with life. He handles
them as a florist handles his flowers, knowing-
ly, caressingly, lovingly. He does not toss
them at us, as the baker tosses his rolls over
the counter, a roll for a penny. How can
one be boisterous and lacking in self-contain-
ment, whose every word pulses with its own
organic life, grows into its place?
We may reject as many of his opinions as we
see fit, may shrug our shoulders at 'Shooting
Niagara' and the reviler of poorCuffee. It is
easy work. In no writer "perhaps is it easier
to separate the wheat from the chaff". But
which of us can truthfully assert that he has
mastered CARLYLE'S style, that he knows
enough of English literature and language to
make the attempt? Although some of his
best sayings have become almost as thread-
bare as "To Be or Not To Be," the sympa-
thetic reader can not glance furtively at them
without renewing his old sense of humiliation
118
237
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. Afc. 5.
238
at his own ignorance. Where did the man
get his words, from what slums of trash, what
dust-heaps of neglected lore did he evoke
such dainty Ariels, such elvish Pucks, such
towering invective Lears, serene Prosperos,
tenderly-brooding Hermiones ? They humble
us, as SHAKESPEARE'S masterful touch humbles
us. Yet this is the writer whom some would
call Mcgalosaurian ! Rather let us call
ALEXANDER EVERETT a megalosaurian, or
even the great MACAULAV, in his triple brass
of whiggism, conventionalism, omniscience.
J. M. HART.
University of Cincinnati,
DAN TESCA.OSSER VAZIONl SU
ALCUNI PASS AC G I DELL A
DIVINA COMMEDIA.
Prima di cominciare questo articoletto devo
avvertire il lettore, che non ho potuto con-
sultare i comentatori antichi, neppure tutti gli
autori moderni che nelle loro vite di DANTE o
nelle lore edizioni o version! della Divina
Commedia potrebbero essersi valuti dell'
occasione di parlare dei punti da me trattati.
Doveva dunque chiedermi se non sarebbe
statomeglio aspettare con questo piccolo sag-
giuolo, finche non avessi comparata la lettera-
tura suddetta ; ma veduto il monte di scritti
danteschi, che si sono accumulati da tutte le
parti, par essere cosa impossibile 1'accorgersi
dell'apparatoscientifico complete a qualunque
uomo lasciato, come mi trovo io, senza i van-
taggi d'una biblioteca pubblica : era piuttosto
necessario far scelta fra le ottime, ossia le
ultime pubblicazioni, essendo permesso di
supporre, che nelle ricerche pubblicate nel
Dante-Jahrbuch e nelle opere dottissime dei
BLANC, WITTE, WEGELE, PHILALETHES,
HETTINGER ; GARY, CARLYLE, LONGFELLOW,
PLUMPTRE possano trovarsi rappresentate e
discusse quasi tutte le teorie degli antichi
siccome dei contemporanei. Se dunque non
trovava in quegli autori nessuna delle osser-
vazioni, che vorrei far io, ci era luogo a cre-
dere, che non le trovarono eglino stessi nelle
loro fonti, ovvero che il solo silenzio lor
pareva bastante per ribatterle. In ogni caso
spero che non si vorranno giudicare inoppor-
tune le annotazioni seguenti, sia che io co-
minci qui un filo nuovo, o che riprenda il
bandolo pcrduto dagli autori inglesi.
Caccianli i Ciel per non esser men belli,
N6 Io profondo inferno gli riceve,
Ch alcuna gloria i rei avrebber d'elli.
Inf. Ill, 40-43.
L'ultimo verso di questo terzetto 6 state inter-
pretato in tre o quattro varj modi secondo che
ho trovato.
Gli uni, spiegando alcuna gloria nel senso
negative, dicono che non furono ammessi
nell'inferno gli spiriti neutri, perch&, secondo
DANTE, non furono degni neppure di questo
luogo, essendo peggiori anche degli stessi rei.
II Symonds (An introduction to the study of
DANTE. London, 1882, p. 144) ha adottato ques-
ta interpretazione e sentendo bene 1'ingiustizia
della sentenza, ne fa rampogna al poeta. II
HETTINGER all' incontro, il quale sembra am-
mettere questa traduzione anch' egli, si prova
di giustificarne 1'idea, riferendosi al versetto
15-16 dell' apocalissi in. (HETTINGER, Die
gottliche Komodie des DANTE Alighieri nach
ihrem wesentlichen Inhalt und Character, p.
147).
Secondo altri, e ne prendo come esempio il
LONGFELLOW, gli indifferenti non furono ac-
cettati dai rei, perch non erano riconosciuti
uguali dai peccatori attivi, quasiccome nella
maestranza dei ladri i birboni inveterati e
finiti guardano giu con disprezzo sui giovini
novizzi, o mal destri nel loro mestiere. Prende
dunque anche il LONGFELLOW alcuna come
pronome negative.
II maggior numero dei comentatori intende
alcuna nel senso ordinario per a/quanta e
crede, che gli indifferenti non potevano
essere incorporati nell' inferno per non dare
ai rei nessuna cagione di sentire soddisfazione
o gioja maligna, vedendo che per non aver
fatto alcun male, i neutri avessero da patire la
medesima pena ch' eglino stessi. Tale alme-
no e 1 'interpretazione data dai GARY e adottata
dalP ultimo traduttore inglese, il PLUMPTRE.
(Juan to agli autori tedeschi che ho potuto
comparare, mi pare, che capiscano il nostro
passaggio nella stessa maniera ; ma C- vero,
che le traduzioni : " weil Sunder stolz auf sie
doch blicken konnten," (Philal.) e "dass
119
239
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
240
nicht mit ihnen die Verdammten prahlen "
(STRECKFUSs,GoEBEL,SechsVorlesungenuber
DANTE. Bielefeld, Leipzig, 1882), sono espres-
sioni alquanto vaghe che potrebbero signifi-
care anche, che i rei sarebbero contenti non
gia dalla pena ma della compagnia dei neutri.
Ma qualunque sia il senso voluto, credo che
nessuna delle traduzioni citate fin qui corris-
ponda compitamente al concetto altissimo che
I'ALLIGHIERI aveva della giustizia divina. E
ben vero che il poeta, carattere energico e
passionate egli stesso, ha versato tutto il suo
disprezzo su questi miseri pusillanimi ; ma per
essere passionato non potrebbe essere ingius-
to, n farebbe commettere atto d'ingiustizia
al giudice supremo. Ecco ci6, che bisogna
tenere ben distinto ! Che Vaccidia sia falta
gravissima dal punto di vista dogmatico, pu6
essere, ma checchS ne dicano il domma o la
Chiesa, & sicuro, siccome 1'hanno provato il
WEGELE, il WITTE, lo SCARTAZZINI ed altri,
che DANTE non ha seguito esclusivamente il
domma, ma che il suo sistema ha subito anche
1'influsso di diversi altri momenti e in especie
che dappertutto. risulta d'un senso naturale e
correttissimo di giustizia umana ossia cristiana.
II LONGFELLOW crede dovere la sua versione
all' espressione : 116 lo profondo inferno gli
riceve ; questo RICEVE pertanto certamente non
vuol dire che i rei possano scegliere la loro
compagnia e che non vogliano quella dei
neutri, ma ci detto solamente che non gli
riceve 1 'inferno, non lor I aperto, natural-
mente per ordine di Dio. Siccome fa spesso
nelle sue note eccellenti, il LONGFELLOW
cerca illustrare la sua versione, citando passag-
gi paralleli di altre poesie. Ma questa volta,
credo, ha sbagliato. Due dei passaggi citati
sono presi da poesie leggieri e frivole, che
non possono servire a spiegare il poema
dantesco, ed il terzo 6 il versetto biblico, lo
stesso che il HETTINGER ha citato in favore
dell' opinione, che abbiamo discussa di sopra.
Ed affatto, se fosse permesso di tutto il citare
questo versetto, dovrebbe essere inteso come
1'ha fatto il HETTINGER, perch non vi e il
Satanasso che giudica, come pel passaggio
dantesco 1'ha voluto il LONGFELLOW, ma:
" o 14/UT/r, 6 judprvS 6 m6To$ HO! a'A.^Szj'oS, ?/
dpxr) rr/S-Kr ideas? TOV Qeov." In ogni caso
tutti quelli che traducono alcuna per nessuna,
ammettono 1'idea stranissima, che gli indiffe-
renti fossero lasciati fuori dell' inferno per
fare piacere ai rei, come se fosse 1'intenzione
divina 1'usar gentilezze ai suoi nemici.
La terza versione colle varieta rappresen-
tate dal PLUMPTRE e dagli autori tedeschi i
quali ho citati, e grammaticalmente corretta
ed a prima vista non sembra fare torto all'
alto senso di giustizia che in tutto il suo poema
mostra I'ALLIGHIERI, ma pure fasottintendere
anche essa, che da diritto i neutri dovrebbero
essere nell' inferno e che non si trovino la per
una causa che non risulta gia del loro stato
morale proprio, ma d'una considerazione prati-
ca, esterna, voglio dire della necessita di non
lasciare ai rei alcuno conforto. In primo luo-
go, non vediamo in nessun altra parte dell'
Inferno, che i rei trovino consolazione nell'
idea d'essersi almeno dato buon tempo, com-
mettendo i delitti, che devono pagare nell'
inferno. E vero che 1'aver dei compagni
nella pena lor un conforto (cf. GIULIANI,
Dante-Jahrbuch III, 243), ma 6 sicuro anche,
che per tal ragione, voglio dire per torlo via
a loro, questo conforto, non deve mai uno
spirito mancare al suo posto. Carlino sara
il vicino del Camicion de' Pazzi, checch questi
ed altri ne sentano. Infine, nessuna ragione
pud avere alcun effetto sul giudice supremo,
che non sia ispirata dalla sola ed unica gius-
tizia. Non sono dunque nell' inferno i neutri,
perch6 non Vhanno meritato, non sarebbe
giusto. Tutte le pene dell' inferno, come si sa,
non sono altro, se non la continuazione e con-
seguenza diretta dello stato mentale dei pecca-
tori innanzi alia morte. Era dunque data in
avanzo e fissa pel loro carattere stesso la con-
dizione dei neutri, devono venire esattamente
la, dove appartengono, e 1'inferno non sareb-
be luogo acconcio a loro. Ecco la ragione,
nella costruzione, nel carattere e nello scopo
dell' inferno, ragione parallela a quella, perch6
non possono entrare nel cielo :
Caccianli i del per non esser men belli, n6
lo profondo* inferno li riceve, perch il regno
dei rei avrebbe subito un cambio in meliorem
partem per 1'addizione dei neutri. Quesli
*Forse fe notabile \'a.<\A.pro/ondo. Pensando qui in especie
agli angeli neutri, e solamente in secondo luogo agli spiriti
accidiosi, il poeta sembra accennare alia settima bolgia. C.
XIV. ss.
241
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
242
spirit! pusillanimi possono ben essere, e certa-
mente sono, sdegnevoli ed odiosi a Dio, eppure
hanno una certa gloria, un sembiante di
merito. La mancanza di peccato 6 natural-
mente men degna di castigo che un peccato
mortale : il niente 6 come un piu relative in
confronto d'un debito itnmenso. Nell' inferno
tutto deve essere terribile, colpito dall' ira
eterna di Dio, contrasto perfetto dell' alta
beatitudine del Paradise, e questo carattere
orribilmente brutto non deve essere mitigato
pell' addizione d'un elemento non meno
sdegnevole, come pare a noi, ma meno a-
troce. Dunque :
N lo profondo inferno gli riceve
Per non esser men orribile.
Amor che a nullo amato amar perdona,
Mi prese del costui piacer si forte
Che, come vedi, ancor non m'abbandono.
Inf. V, 103-105.
Le parole del costui piacer si trovano spie-
gate nel PLUMPTRE come espressione avver-
biale, rafforzante in un modo generale la frase
principale : amor mi prese :
Love, which does none beloved from loving
spare,
Seized me for him with might that such joy
bred,
That, as thou seest, it leaves me not e'en
here.
E similmente le traducono altri ; e. g. il Phila-
lethes : Hess mich an ihm so gross Gefallen
finden e il traduttore greco, Dante-Jahrbuch
1,388:
*O epoot Se, oS ovitore ipdovrcci ditaXXarrei
Totiovrov itoSov not avtov IvenvEvGE 6vv-
Un' altra versione tutta differente, si legge nel
GARY e, come seconda scelta in Nota, nel
CARLVLE : caught me with pleasing him.
Mi pare sicuro, che col GARY ed altri, dob-
biamo riguardare del COSTUI piacer come
genetivo oggettivo dipendente da amor, ap-
punto come nel terzetto precedente della bella
Persona :
Amor, che al cor gentil ratto s'apprende,
Prese costui della bella persona
Dice dunque la Franceses: io fui presa d'a-
more verso il costui piacer, e viene poi da
chiedere : che cosa vuol dire il costui piacerl
Secondo la versione with pleasing him, costui
sarebbe il dativo dipendente da piacer, e ci
sarebbe da sottintendere il pronome mio
(piacer). Questa interpretazione non credo
che sia giusta. Non parlando gia della diffi-
colt& grammaticale, che sola mi par renderla
molto dubbiosa, il pensiero riescerebbe al-
quanto sgraziato : amor mi prese del mio
piacere a lui.
Costui deve essere il genetivo possessive, e
piacer potrebbe stare per piacenza, carattere
(o apparenza) piacevole, grazioso (cf. Par.
XX, 144), corrispondente quasi al della bella
persona (v. 101) auche nel senso.
E poich6 piacevole, grazioso, amabile sono
mezzi termini, significanti indistintamente una
persona simpatica, o che meriti simpatia, o che
la mostri ella stessa, avremo solamente a
prendere piacenza nell' ultimo senso per
ritrovarvi inchiusa 1'idea, che mette la frase
principale in connessione logica colla frase
relativa.
Ma pu6 essere anche che piacere abbia ques-
to senso attivo* senz' altro, significando
semplicemente simpatia, affezione, amore : io
fui presa d'amore verso la sua affezione: il
suo amore ; mi ferz6 a riamarlo ; perchd amor
a nullo amato amar perdona.
E vero che nel terzetto precedente non si
trova lo stesso sviluppo logico, o almeno non
si trova indicate nella stessa maniera, ma
sarebbe andar troppo lontano, sicuramente,
il valersi di questo motive per combattere la
nostra versione.
II LONGFELLOW, come la nota aggiunta da
lui al verso che stiamo considerando, sembra
aver con un giusto senso poetico, indovinato
nel nostro passaggio quasi la stessa idea, che
ne abbiamo cavata per mezzo della grammati-
ca ; ma sbagliandosi nel punto grammaticale,
1'illustre traduttore americano non ha voluto
seguire la sua ispirazione nel testo, ma ha
tradotto :
Love Seized me with pleasure of this man.
In ogni caso U PLUMPTRE avrebbe fatto
meglio citando, se non voleva adottarle, la
Cf. fartrt con il farert, io soxo di Dartre.
121
243
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
244
spiegazione del GARY e la nota del LONGFEL-
LOW.
Queste parole da lor ci fur porte, [Inf. V, 108],
e la teoria del FEIST.
In GROEBER'S Zs. f. r. Ph. XI, 131-133, A.
FEIST ha proposto una teoria interamente
nuova intorno al passaggio Inf. V, 88-107.
Secondo il suo concetto le parole, che fin
allora tutto il mondo aveva creduto che fossero
parlate da Francesca sola, dovrebbero divi-
dersi in cinque parti : la prima, 88-96, e 1'ultima,
106-107, sarebbero pronunciate dai due amanti
insieme ; la seconda, 97-99, e la quarta, 103-
105, da Francesca sola ; e la parte del mezzo, la
terza, da Paolo.
Si vede, che la congettura delle piu im-
portanti, cambiando interamente tutto il
carattere del passaggio ed attribuendo quasi a
ciascheduna frase un senso tutt" altro che non
le fosse dato innanzi. E vero anche che alcu-
ni momenti, benissimo esposti dal Feist,
parlano fortemente in favore della sua idea,
eppure non posso ancora appigliarmici perche
ci si oppongono altri momenti non meno gravi,
ai quali il FEIST non ha fatto attenzione nel
suo trattato.
Cominciando la sua dimostrazione col ver-
so : Queste parole da lor ci fur porte, dice che
da lor indichi chiaramente, che ambe e due gli
spiriti devono aver parlato. Questo non mi
par essere assolutamente necessario. In
primo luogo arriva spesso ed & tutto naturale,
che avendo inteso un uomo parlare come
rappresentante d'un gruppo, diciamo dopo :
dicevano invece di diceva. Si spiegano i due
amanti inseparabili pella bocca di Francesca,
come dell' altra parte DANTE solo gli ha chia-
mati, a lui solo s' indirizzata la risposta,
eppure alia fine troviamo : ci fur porte. Le
due espressioni da lor e ci sono assolutamente
parallele, non significando altro se non : del
loro posto al nostro, di la ci.
Inoltre porgere, benchd talvolta equivalga
a parlare, non e pure precisamente lo stesso,
ma significa offrire, dare (la risposta) ; e forse,
che nel porte si possa vedere il participio di
porgere e nell' istesso tempo quello $\portare.
Porto per portato : portare sarebbe come
desto : destare, privo : privare, etc.
Sarebbe allora il senso : queste parole ci fur
ofFerte, date a risposta, da loro (per la bocca
di Francesca), ovvero ci furono tramesse (pell '
acre) dal loro posto, e non e dunque assoluta-
mente necessaria la nuova interpretazione,
come 1'ha creduto il suo autore. Vediamo
adesso, se e probabile.
Quanto al carattere generate del passaggio,
che il FEIST pensa essere piu bello secondo la
sua accezione, si pu6 essere di opinione difFe-
rente, ed io, per uno, preferisco la semplicita
del vecchio senso allo stile non dir6 gi
lirico o drammatico ma declamatorio ed
artificioso della nuova versione. Ma di ci6
non dir& nulla, perch de rebus aestheticis
come de gustibus, non disputandum.
Ci sono pertanto altre obbiezioni piu parti-
colari da fare :
II parlare insieme dei due spiriti non mi
pare dantesco, che .non si trova in nessuna
parte un passaggio parallelo ; e poi, i primi
terzetti, in especie, non essendo, altro se non
una semplice introduzione, non sono punto
addattati ad essere pronunciati dai due in-
sieme. Pare cosa stranissima, davvero,
I'imaginarsele recitate dai due amanti, queste
parole quiete e quasi prosaiche.
Delia difficolta grammatical, che offre il
tradurre costui per questo (cuore) non bisogna
parlare qui, perche il FEIST 1'ha mentovata
egli stesso. Ma mentre vuole, che la donna
non dovrebbe chiamare bella persona il suo
corpo, che/r non ha piu, il FEIST non esita a
fare dire all' uomo
Amor, che al c or gentil ratto s'apprende
Prese costui (v. d. il mio, secondo il FEIST).
Senza gusto, quando le pronuncia Paolo,
queste parole all' incontro sono bellissime
nella bocca della donna che cerca spiegare
con esse e giustificare la passione del suo
amante.
II verso e il modo ancor m'ojfende e estre-
mamente insignificante nel senso che gli da il
FEIST, ed il chemifu tolta non sarebbe possi-
bile del tutto, se persona sta per donna,
perche affatto non sono separati gli amanti.
II loro amore e piu forte che 1'inferno stesso
e non e la perdita dell' amore, che lamentano,
ma la loro eterna dannazione.
Avrei altre obbiezioni a fare, ma credo che
122
245
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
246
basteni cid che ho detto e forse sono gia stato
troppo lungo.
Tocchiamo solamente in passando un' altra
questione independente dalla teoria del FEIST,
benche si trovi mentovata nel suo trattato.
Al doloroso passo. Inf. V, 114.
Quel giorno piu non vi leggemmo avante.
Inf. V, 138.
II FEIST ed altri dicono, che in questi versi si
tratti della morte ; ma i versi :
A che e come concedette amore
Che conoscesti i dubbiosi desiri, 119, 120,
e forse
Che ricordarsi del tempo felice, 121,
siccome
la prima radice
Del nostro amor , 124, 125,
indicano che il doloroso passo, etc., non sia la
morte ma il primo peccato degli amanti.
Finalmente devo dar conto al lettore che mi
ha seguito fin qui, perch6, essendo Tedesco io
stesso, e vivendo nel " paese la, dove il yes
suona," abbia osato scrivere il mio articoletto
in Italiano. L'ho fatto, perche la lingua ita-
liana e la sola, che debbano capire tutti quelli
che al nostro poeta s'interessano : da questi
spero che ho riuscito a farmi comprendere,
e per altri ne per altra ragione non ho scritto.
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN IN THE
OLD DANISH 1 TOBIAE CO MED IE:
The text of the ' Tobiae Comedie ' upon
which the present paper is based, was edited
by S. BIRKET SMITH of Copenhagen, and
published in 1887 by the University-Jubilee
Danish Union. The editor informs us in the
introduction that the original of the play is
contained in MS. No. 794, folio, in the Royal
Library at Copenhagen. Our comedy is the
second of the collection.
"The whole linguistic and dramatic form of
the piece," says the editor, " makes it certain
that it cannot be older than the end of the i6th
century, and, on the other hand, it was certain-
ly written some time before the sth of May,
1607, the date of the production of ' De Mundo
et Paupere,' contained in the same collection."
For convenience' sake, we may fix its date at
about 1700. Concerning the name of its
author we have no positive information, but
from two references in the text the editor
infers that it was written in VIBORG.
The language is very rich in grammatical
forms, though we already perceive the con-
fusion of the dative and the accusative. In
respect to its syntax, we notice many resem-
blances to Middle English, and, in fact, we
might call the Danish of this time the Middle
Danish period. The majority of the changes
made in the language since that time are
orthographic, by which the varying forms
have become merged into one invariable form
and the spelling has been normalized.
The forms selected for comment in this
paper are the personal pronouns, which may
be first given in the following tabular order :
du [4.10], [6.1] as vocat.
Sg. N. ieg [9.10].
G.
D
A
ig [38, 22], migh [46.11]. dig [47-"].
g [47-4]- dig [46.12].
PI. N. wi [6.3], vi [so,.i8] vj [72.10]. i [6.15], V [4S.o].
G. eders [17.9], ethers [19-4].
D. oss [5.6]. eder [72.21], ether [17.1].
A. oss [55.8]. eder [20.1], ether [17.12].
Sg. N. hand [6.r 4 ]. hun [8.1].
G. hans [7.15]. hendis [14.8].
D. ham [7.19], {ll [j hende [23.15].
A. ham [8.4], hannem [22.10]. hende [11.19], bender
NOTE i. In the nom., dat. and ace. of the
ist person, the original final k (O. N. ek and O.
Norw. mik) has already changed to g. For
the change of the voiceless explosives (k, t)
after a vowel to the spirants (g and S), see
Noreen's Altislandische Gram., p. 73. The
same process may be noticed in the dat. and
ace. of the 2d person.
NOTE 2. The v of the ist person plural was
sounded like English w \ the interchange of i
and j is, of course, merely graphic, as is also
that of i and.y, in the 2d person plur.
NOTE 3. In the gen., dat. and ace. plur. of
the 2d person we find d, in place of the
123
247
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, -it!,. No. 5.
248
Urnordisch ft ; that is, the voiced interdental
spirant < voiced dental explosive. In O. N.
we find this same change, but only after a
long syllable ending in /, n, 6, If, Ig, ng, or,
nt, or (after 1300) after a short syllable ending
in / or . In each of the three cases occurring
in our text the preceding syllable ends in a
vowel. In pronunciation, however, the d
between vowels in modern Danish retains its
original sound as voiced interdental spirant.
NOTE 4. The gen. sing, and plur. of the ist
and the gen. sing, of the 2d person do not
occur in the text ; and the dual is wholly lack-
ing, as we should naturally expect at so late
a period in the language.
NOTE 5. As in O. N., the neuter and the
plural of the 3d person are borrowed from the
demonstrative.
NOTE 6. The dat. and the ace. have every-
where completely merged, the only instances
in which a difference exists between them
being the migh, the hanoin, and the hender,
which are evidently quite accidental.
NOTE 7. The almost total absence of as-
similation in the O. Danish pronominal
declension also deserves notice. We have
hand, hendis, hende, corresponding to O. N.
hann, hennar, henne; though here again we
find a difference between the Danish of 1700
and that of the present day. We have,
however, hannem, hanom, corresponding to
O. N. honom, and hdnum.
NOTE 8. The forms migh, hender and
hanom occur only once each ; all the other
forms occur with greater or less frequency
through the play.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
DIEROMANHAFTERICHTUNG DER
ALEXIUSLEGENDE
in altfranzosischen und mittelhochdeutschen
Gedichten. I.
In seinen Briefen aus der Schweiz erzahlt
GOTHE, welch' tiefen Eindruck auf ihn die
Erzahlung einer Legende machte, welche
ihm eine Bauerin des Rhonethals, als er nach
einer seiner Fusswanderungen durch das
Gebirge in ihrem Hause gastete, in schlichten,
aber riihrenden Worten vortrug. Diese Er-
zahlung betraf eine Legende, die dereinst im
Mittelalter eine ungeheure Verbreitung gefun-
den und sowohl im franzosischen als im
deutschen, imenglischen als im italienischen,
im spanischen als im russischen zahlreiche
Bearbeitung erfahren hatte, die Legende des h.
ALEXIUS.
Das einzige Historische in der Geschichte
dieses Mannes selbst der Name ALEXIUS ist
erfunden erfahren wir aus einer syrischen
Legende, die nach Augenzeugen das Leben
eines Mannes erzahlt, welcher, obgleich
reicher und vornehmer Herkunft, seine Familie
in Constantinopel verliess, um sich zu den
Armen Edessas zu gesellen und ein ascetisches
Bettlerleben zu fiihren.* Wunderbares war
also urspriinglich nichts vorhanden in dieser
Erzahlung, denn solche Beispiele von Entsa-
gung waren im Mittelalter an der Tagesord-
nung. Aber im Laufeder Zeit wurde aus der
einfachen Biographic ein wahrer Roman. Ein
Grieche aus Constantinopel war es der die
Heirath des ALEXIUS erfand, der ihn seine
Frau gleich in der Hochzeitnacht verlassen
Hess, der seine Riickkehr nach Constantinopel
und Aufnahme im Elternhause, wo er lange
Zeit unkenntlich und unbekannt von Almosen
lebte, hinzudichtete, und schliesslich das
Wunder hinzufugte, das ihn nach seinem
Tode den Eltern als Heiligen offenbarte.
Dieser Roman hatte im Orient riesigen Er-
folg. Dem Occident blieb er aber unbekannt,
bis Ende des loten Jahrhunderts ein aus
Damaskus vertriebener Erzbischof SERGIUS
ihn nach Rom brachte, wo der Heilige bald
so heimisch wurde, dass statt Constantinopel,
Rom zur Statte seiner Leiden gemacht, der
Patriarch des griechischen Textes durch den
Papst INNOCENS zur Zeit des HONORIUS und
ARCADIUS ersetzt, und nach kurzer Zeit sogar
das Haus der Eltern des ALEXIUS in Rom
gezeigt wurde. Von Rom verbreitete sich
dann die Legende nach alien Landern des
Westens und Nordens.
Es kann nicht in unserer Absicht liegen die
Entwickelung der Legende durch alle diese
Lander zu verfolgen ; wir werden uns im
folgenden auf Frankreich und Deutschland
*Cf. Romania VIII (1879), p. 163 ff., G. PARIS : " La vie de
ST. A LEX i en vers octosyllabiques."
124
249
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
250
beschranken, und dies aus besonderem
Grunde. Im Mittelalter hat, wie bekannt,
in litterarischer Beziehung, Frankreich auf
Deutschland einen ungeheuren Einfiuss
ausgeiibt. Wie viele bedeutende deutsche
Dichtungen gehen doch auf franzosische
Quellen zuriick ! Man denke nur an das ' Ruo-
lantesliet ' des PFAFFEN CONRAD, das aus der
Venez. Hs. der ' Chanson de Roland ' fusst,
an das ' Alexanderlied ' des PFAFFEN LAM-
PR KCHT, das auf ALBERICH DE BESANC;ON'S
Alexanderdichtung beruht ! Und haben nicht
selbst grossere Dichter wie HEINRICH VON
VELDEKE seine 'Eneit' von BENO!T DE STE.
MAURE, HARTMANN VON AUE seinen ' Erec '
und 'Iwein' aus CHRESTIEN DE TROVES
entnommen ! Warum ware dies nicht auch
der Fall fiir die uns vorliegenden Legenden ?
Lasst uns darauf hin die franzosischen und
deutschen Gedichte mit einander vergleichen.
Die franzosischen sind : i. Der von GAS-
TON PARIS in seiner ' Vie de St. Alexis '
kritisch hergestellte Text cles ST. ALEXIS
nach den Hd. von Lambspringen,* von Ash-
burnham Place und von Paris, aus dem n-
ten Jahrhundert. Wir bezeichnen das Gedicht
mit P (G. PARIS).
2. Eine stark interpolirte und beinahe urn
das Doppelte vermehrte Bearbeitung des
Gedichtes P, in Assonanzen, von G. PARIS
mit durch Cursivschrift hervorgehobenen
interpolirten Stellen ed. ; aus dem i2ten Jhd.
Wir nennen das Gedicht S (ancien Supple 1 -
ment, 623).
3. Eine von S abhangige Bearbeitung
desselben Gedichtes in Reimen, von MARI-
CHAL ed., M in 1279 v.
4. Eine in 196 vierzeiligen Strophen mit
cinem Reime (quatrains monorimes von M
abhangige Bearbeitung, von PANNIER ed. Q
(Quatrains). Alle diese vier Texte sind ab-
gedruckt in G. PARIS : 'La vie de ST. ALEXIS '
P: p. 139-170; S: p. 222-260; M: p. 279-317;
A : p. 346-388.
*Wegen dieser in einem deutschen Kloster Lambspringen
liegt bei Hildesheim aufbewahrten Hs. scheint die Annah-
me einer Beeinflussung der deutschen Gedichte durch die
fran?8sischen um so naher zu liegen. Dagegen spricht aber
die Bemerkurg von G. PARIS p. a : " Cette abbaye, de 1'ordre
deST. BENOJT, ^taitpeuple'e par des religieux anglais, venus
l;\ & ce que nous apprend MR. HOFFMAN, apres 1643, et qui
suivant tome apparence apport rent avec eux le manuscrit en
question."
5. Ein von G. PARIS in der Romania VIII
(1879), p. 169-180 herausgegebenes Gedicht in
964 achtsilbigen paarweisegereitnten Versen,
die Hs. aus dem i3ten Jhd., das Gedicht
selbst noch vom izten Jhd. Wir nennen es R
(Romania).
6. Ein von JOSEPH HERZ in dem 'Pro-
gramm der Real- und Volksschule der isra-
elitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt am Main
1879' herausgegebenes Gedicht in 60 Laissen,
von verschiedener LUnge, im Ganzen 1254
Zwolfsilbnern, aus dem i3ten Jhd. Wir nen-
nen es Hz. (HERZ).
Die uns uberlieferten deutschen Gedichte
sind alle von MASSMANN herausgegeben wor-
den in seinem ' Sanct Alexius Leben in acht
gereimten mittelhochdeutschen Behandlung-
en.' Sie sind :
A aus einer Gratzer und Prager Hs. mit
1155 v. ; B aus Cod. Vindabon. mit 522 v. ; C
(Miinchener, Neuburger und Heidelberger
Hs.) mit 454 v. ; D von KONRAD VON WURZ-
BURG, in einer Strassburger und Innsbrucker
Hs. mit 1385 v., auch von HAUPT mit Ver-
besserungen Zs. III. ed. ; E (Hamburger Hs.)
mit 1046 v. ; F (Hs. der Herren MEYER und
MOOYER) mit 1526 v.; Gvom Schweizer JORG
ZOBEL (aus St. Gallen) ; H vom Augsburger
JORG BREYNING, aus 1488, in des regenbogen
langen d6n in 19 Strophen von je 23 versen.
Diese vierzehn Gedichte lassen sich schon
nach pberflachlicher Lecture in zwei Classen
theilen. Die einen erzahlen die Legende
schlicht und einfach, oft etwas trocken und
diirr, meist nach dem Beispiele der lateinisch-
en Prosabehandlung der Bollandisten, welche
MASSMANN in seinem Buche ebenfalls abge-
druckt hat. Nach ihnen lautet die Legende
ungefahr folgendermassen: EUPHEMIAN und
AGLAES, die Eltern des Heiligen, fuhren
einen glanzenclen Hofstaat, aber zugleich ein
recht frommes Leben. Ihr Gluck ist nur
dadurch getriibt, dass ihre Ehe unfruchtbar
bleibt. Erst nach langem Beten und vielen
frommen Werken, erhalten sie einen Sohn,
ALEXIUS, fiir dessen Geburt sie Gott geloben
von nun an ihr ganzes Leben keusch bleiben
zu wollen. Der Sohn wird in der Schule
fromm erzogen, er lernt, dass nur durch
Keuschheit das ewige Leben erlangt werden
kann, und im Stillen seines Herzens gelobt er
251
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
252
sich, ewig keusch zu bleiben. Aber sein
Vater, der seinem einzigen Sohne sein bedeu-
tendes Erbe sichern will, beschliesst ihn zu
verheirathen, sucht ihm ein Madchen aus
kaiserlichem Geschlechte aus, und obgleich
ALEXIUS seine Grundsatze zu heirathen ver-
bieten, thut er es doch, um eine andere Siinde,
den Ungehorsam gegen die Eltern, zu ver-
meiden. Sobald er aber Abends mit seiner
Frau allein ist, theilt er ihr seinen Entschluss
mit, ewig keusch zu bleiben, ermahnt sie
dasselbe zu thun und nachdem er ihr seinen
Ring zum Andenken gegeben, verlasst er sie,
um im Morgenlande ein ascetischer Leben zu
fiihren. Er gelangt zuerst nach Laodicea,
dann nach Edessa, wo er seinen Wohnsitz auf
den Stufen einer Kirche aufschlagt, in der ein
beriihmtes Christusbild verehrt wird. Dort
lebt er 17 Jahre lang in Armut unter den
Bettlern und gibt sich sogar den Boten seines
Vaters nicht zu erkennen, die ihn dort suchen.
In Rom herrscht grosse Trauer. Seine Mutter
beklagt ihn in Sack und Asche, und seine
Braut gelobt sich ihm ewig treu zu bleiben,
wie die Turteltaube, die ihren Genossen ver-
liert. So verstreichen siebzehn Jahre. Da will
Gott dem Volke von Edessa die Heiligkeit
des Bettlers verkiinden. Ein Marienbild lasst
ihn durch den Messner in die Kirche herein-
rufen, und seine Heiligkeit wird bekannt.
Aber ALEXIUS, der sich vor menschlichem
Ruhme fiirchtet, flieht aus Edessa, besteigt
ein Schiff, um sich nach Tarsus zu begeben,
doch da verschlagt ihn ein Sturm in seine
Heimat nach Rom. Da wendet er sich an
seinen Vater, den er auf der Strasse antrifft
und bittet ihn, um des Sohnes willen, den er
verloren, um Aufnahme in seinem Hause. Ein
Strohlager wird ihm unter der Treppe bereitet,
und obgleich er nur ein Wort zu sagen hatte,
um zum gefeierten Herren des Hauses zu
werden, indem er von den Dienern verhohnt
und misshandelt wird, bleibt er an seinem
Entschluss fest und lebt in frommer Entsa-
gung abermals sechzehn Jahre. Wie er fuhlt,
dass der Tod ihm naht, schreibt er sein Leben
auf, und den Brief in der Hand haltend ver-
scheidet er kurz darauf. Zugleich erhebt sich
eine Stimme in der Kirche, wo das Volk ver-
sammelt ist, und zu drei verschiedenen Malen
ermahnt sie die Romer den Heiligen zu su-
chen, der im Hause des EUPHEMIAN liege.
Der Papst und die beiden Kaiser HONORIUS
und ARCADIUS, von EUPHEMIAN gefuhrt, der
selber nicht weiss, wer der angekiindigte
Heilige sein konnte, eilen in sein Haus, und
von einem Diener auf den eben verstorbenen
Pilger aufmerksam gemacht, der stets ein so
frommes Leben gefuhrt habe, dass er wohl
der gesuchte Heilige sein konnte, finden sie
denselben todt unter der Treppe liegend.
Und in der That sein Antlitz glanzt wie das
eines Engels, und ein siisser Duft geht aus der
Leiche hervor. Als EUPHEMIAN und nachher
die beiden Kaiser ihm den Brief entnehmen
wollen, den er in der Hand halt, weigert sich
der Todte ihn herzugeben; nur dem Papste,
dem Stellvertreter Gottes, gibt er ihn. Ein
Priester liest den Brief, und nun erfahren
Eltern und Braut das Ungliick, das sich in
ihrem Hause ereignet hat. Ihr Jammer ist
unbeschreiblich, und macht sich in furchtba-
ren Kl.agereden Luft. Endlich lasst der Papst
die Leiche wegtragen. Alle Kranken, die den
heiligen Leib beriihren, werden wieder ge-
sund, und um selbst geheiligt zu werden,
tragen der Papst und die Kaiser selbst die
Bahre. Aber das Gedrange des Volkes ist
so gross, dass um Raum zu schaffen, die
Herrscher Gold ausstreuen lassen, damit das
Volk es auflese, und dadurch dem Leichen-
zuge Platz mache. Doch die Menge zieht es
vor dem Heiligen nachzulaufen. So gelangt
man erst unter grosser Miihe zur Kirche des
h. Bonifacius, wo der Heilige mit grossem
Pomp beigesetzt wird.
Wesentlich in dieser Fassung erzahlt die
eine Gruppe der Bearbeitungen unsere Legen-
de. Unter den deutschen sind esC, D, E, G ;
unter den franzosischen, R und Hz. Natiirlich
herrschen unter diesen Gedichten selbst
gewisse Abweichungen. Wahrend C und G
recht dUrftig, an einigen Stellen ungeniessbar
trocken erzahlen, ergehen sich D und E in
weitschweifige Schilderungen und Moral-
reflexionen. Doch haben alle diese deutschen
Bearbeitungen das Gemeinsame, dass sie kein
poetisches Talent zeigen, und ohne sie zu
beleben, oft sogar indem sie sie durch unver-
standiges Kiirzen oder geschmackloses Erwei-
tern entstellen, ihre Vorlage wiedergeben.
Die franzosischen dagegen, R und Hz., zeigen,
126
253
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
254
was ein begabter Dichter auch aus diesem
einfachen Stoflfe machcn konnte, wenn er ihn
nur anziehend erziihlte. Hier werden die
Scenen tnalerisch geschildert, die Handlung-
en motivirt, die Gefiihle niiancirt. Aus der
todten Legende wird eine lebhafte und riih-
rende Erzahlung. Es wiirde uns zu weit
fiihren an dieser Stelle den Vergleich der
einzelnen Gedichte untereinander und die
Untersuchung ihrer Quellen zu unternehmen.
Es ist dies eine langwierige und spitzfindige
Arbeit, die wir an anderer Stelle unternommen
haben, und welche uns das Resultat ergab,
dass wohl alle diese Gedichte in letzter In-
stanz auf dieselbe Quelle zuriickgehen, aber
doch nur durch verschiedene intermediate
Bearbeitungen. Jedenfalls sind wir aber bei
dieser Untersuchung zur Uberzeugung ge-
kommen, dass die Gedichte der Franzosen
und der Deutschen von einander vollig un-
abhangig sind.
Lohnender und litterarisch weit interessanter
ist die kritische Untersuchung und Vergleich-
ung der andern Gruppe der Legenden, welche
die Erzahlung poetischer entwickelt haben,
als die eben besprochene. In dieser Gruppe
gehoren unter den franzosischen Gedichten,
S, M, Q; unter den deutschen A, F, H.
Ueber P werden wir uns naher unten zu er-
klaren haben ; iiber B cfr. R, die Anmerkung.*
Das Merkmal, welches uns dazu fiilirt alle die-
se Gedichte unter einer Gruppe zusammenzu-
fassen, ist dasjenige der Hervorhebung der
Braut in denselben. Wahrend in den vorher
besprochenen Gedichten die Braut nur eine
ganz passive und wesentlich untergeordnete
Rolle spielte, haben die Dichter dieser Gruppe
*Es scheint als ob dieses Gcdicht B, welches sonst zu den
Gedichten der andern Richtung gehBrt, den einen Zug, die
Ubergabe des Briefes an die Braut, wie von Htirensagen in
seine Bearbeitung aufgenommen habe. Dies ist um so eher
anzunchmen, i. Weil der Zug vereinzelt ist ohne die ihn
vorbereitenden sonstigen brSutlichen ZUge. 2. Weil die
Bearbeituns B tiberhaupt auf mllndliche Quellen zuruckzu-
gehen scheint; wegen einiger ganz speciellen ZQge ich kann
hier auf NSheres nicht eingehen, wegen mehrerer Missver-
stiiiiclnisse (7 Jahre statt 17 Jahre, der Kaiser statt die Kais-
er) die leicht aus Verhoren entstanden sein kiinnen, wegen der
KUrze der Bearbeitung, und des fast giin/lichen Fehlens von
Namen, endlich wegen des ersten Verses des Gedichtes "in
einem buoche man uns las," wttre es miiglich, dass das Ge-
dicht Uberhaupt, nach mUndlichem Vortrag, den der Dichter
gehKrt und nicht selbst gelesen, nachtritglich aufgeschrieben
worden sei.
viele Momente erfunden, wo sie in die Hand-
lung eingreift :
1. Die Brautnacht wird ausfuhrlich erzahlt
und je nach den Bearbeitungen geschildert
oder dramatisch belebt.
2. Als ALKXIUS in das Haus seiner El tern
als Bettler ziiriickkomnit tritt seine Braut in
nahere Beziehung zu ihm.
3. Als ALEXIUS stirbt gibt er nicht dem
Papste, sondern seiner Braut den Brief, in
welchem er sein Leben erzahlt.
4. Als die Braut des ALEXIUS stirbt, wird
sie mit ihm begraben, und der Todte riickt
zurecht, um seiner Braut neben sich Platz zu
machen.
Nicht alle Gedichte dieser Gruppe, die wir
nach MASSMANNS . Vorgange die brautliche
nennen wollen, haben alle diese Ziige gemein-
sam. Einige haben nur einen Theil derselben
aufzuweisen. Wie ist dies zu erklaren ? Hat
sich etwa die Ummodelung der Legende erst
allmalig vollzogen, und auf welche Weise?
Haben die einzelnen Gedichte der Gruppe auf
einander geiibt, haben hauptsachlich die fran-
zosischen mit den deutschen nahere Bezie-
hungen, welche wechselseitige Benutzung
annehmen liessen ? Diese Fragen zu losen,
soil unsere Aufgabe auf den folgenden Seiten
bilden.
Vorausschicken miissen wir, dass uns eine
lateinische Prosabearbeitung vorliegt, welche
MASSMANN p. 157-166 abgedruckt hat wir
nennen sie im Folgenden, L die gerade diese
Momente der brautlichen Legende cm halt.
Auf den ersten Blick scheint die Annahme
einer Abhiingigkeit der deutschen oder fran-
zosischen Gedichte von L sehr wahrschein-
lich. Und in der That ist, nach den Unter-
suchungen von MASSMANN, L die hauptsach-
lichste Quelle von A. Gerade die brautlichen
Ziige hat A aus L entnommen. Die Braut-
nacht ist in beiden Bearbtitungi-n ebt-nso
geschildert. An das brennende LiclU ankniip-
fend, das zwischen den Brautleuten steht,
erkliirt Ai.K.xirs seiner Braut, class es um die
Welt wie um das Licht bestellt sei. Sie sei
dem Verfalle anhtimgegeben, von Flammen
der Begierde umgeben sterbe sie dahin, und
bringe uns in ewige Verclammniss. Unsere
Seelen miissten wir von den Flammen der
Verderbniss bofreien und keusch bleiben.
127
255
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
256
Auch der zweite brautliche Zug, der Besuch
der Eltern und der Braut, als ALEXIUS unter
der Treppe liegt, ist in L und A gleich ge-
schildert. Die Braut erkundigt sich eingehend
nach ihrem Brautigam. Der Pilger antwortet,
er hatte den ALEXIUS wohl gesehen ; er be-
schretbt ihn und erzahlt, was ihm ALEXIUS
iiber seine Flucht aus Rom und die Griinde,
die ihn dazu getrieben, gesagt hatte. Sich
selber gibt er den Namen "got ergeben,"
eine wortliche Uebersetzung des lateinischen
"Deo datus."
Auch die zwei iibrigen brautlichen Ziige
sind ebendieselben in A als in L. Aber nicht
bloss auf die Gleichheit dieser Ziige sondern
auch auf diejenige anderer beruht die Uber-
einstimmung beider Bearbeitungen :
1. Die Familienverhaltnisse des EUPHEMI-
AN werden moglichst genau angegeben. Er
stammt aus dem Geschlechte der Scipionen ;
der damalige romische Kaiser THEODOSIUS
hat ihn so lieb, dass er ihn und seinen Bruder
ARSENIUS bei seinem Sohn HONORIUS zum
Gott und Gevatter nahm. Seine Frau AGLAE
ist die Tochter eines romischen Satrapen
JOHANNES.
2. Der Papst SIRICIUS tauft ALEXIUS.
3. Wie ALEXIUS von der Schule abgeht,
nimmt er beim Kaiser ritterliche Dienste an.
4. Die Frau, die fur ALEXIUS ausgesucht
wird, heisst ADRIATICA und ist die Tochter
des GREGORIUS, welcher aus dem Geschlechte
der Fabricii stammt, die gegen Pyrrhus
gekampft haben.
5. Die Bearbeitung sagt ausdriicklich, dass
ein bestimmter Tag zur Hochzeit ausgesucht
wird.
6. Von L hat A auch die Pilgerfahrt des
ALEXIUS nach Pisa, Lucca und Jerusalem
entnommen.
7. Bemerkenswerth ist, dass in A ebenso-
wie in L, als ALEXIUS' Heiligkeit geoffenbart
werden soil, die Glocken lauten, ein Zug, der
sich in der andern Legendengruppe nicht
findet.
Aber wie eng A auch mit L zusammenhangt,
so hat MASSMANN doch herausgefunden, dass
A neben L noch die Bollandistenbearbeitung
als Quelle benutzt hat. Dies erhellt daraus,
dass A noch manche jener Legende eigen-
thiimliche Ziige entnommen hat. So z. B.
den Zug, dass 3000 in Seide gekleidete Diener
an EUPHEMIANS Hofe aufwarten, dass taglich
drei Tische fur Wittwen, Waisen und Pilger
gedeckt werden, dass die Mutter, als ihr Sohn
verloren gegangen, an ihrem Estrich auf einen
Sack sich setzt, von dem sie nicht wieder
aufstehen will, bis sie etwas von ihrem Sohne
wisse. Ebenso den Vergleich der Braut mit
der Turteltaube, die ewig trauert, wenn sie
einmal ihren Genossen verloren hat. MASS-
MANN hat p. 31 eine Vergleichungstabelle der
einzelnen ubereinstimmenden Momente aufge-
stellt, aus der zweifellos hervorgeht, dass A
beide Quellen benutzte. Ein Umstand zeigt
es ganz besonders klar und deutlich. Wenn,
wie oben schon gesagt, L den ALEXIUS nach
Pisa, Jerusalem und Lucca wandern lasst, die
Bollandistenlegende dagegen nach Laodicea
und Edessa, so verbindet A Beides und sagt,
dass ALEXIUS zuerst nach Pisa, dann nach
Laodicea und Edessa, endlich Jerusalem und
Lucca zog. Der Verfasser von A hat mit
wahrhaft dichterischem Takt aus beiden
Quellen die hiibschen Ziige entnommen,
dafiir aber die Uberbietungen und religiosen
Betrachtungen von L fallen lassen. Fiir das
Nahere verweise ich auf MASSMANN, p. 29-31.
Von diesem so gliicklich behandelten Ge-
dichte ist ein anderes deutsches abhangig,
namlich das Gedicht von JORG BREYNING,
aus dem Jahre 1488, H, aber, wie MASSMANN
nachweist, erst durch die Vermittelung einer
deutschen Prosalegende e MASSMANN druckt
sie p. 180 ff. ab die sich, von geringen Ab-
weichungen abgesehn, fast iiberwortlich an A
anschliesst. Cf. MASSMANN, der auch hier
wieder eine Tabelle gibt.
HEINRICH SCHNEEGANS.
Genoa, Italy,
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS
SAINTS. -II.
CLASS 4.
Beran a-, for-, ford-, ge-, un-(tstfcl- t cyne-),
cuman a-, be-, ge-, of-, to-, cwelan,-dwelan ge-,
-helan for-, niman a-, be-, for-, ge-, -sceran
be-, -stelan be-, for-, ge-, -teran to-.
The present stem has e with umlaut to y in
3 singular, i in niman, u in cuman with umlaut
128
257
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
to y. For e we find a once in forfibceran 162.
The forms are : forberan 36, berenne 60, forO-
berad I. S. 293, cwelende 264, forhelan 278,
gestylfi 18 ; gecuman 220, tocuman 400, f ww /
I. S. 391, becume (subj.) 12, cymst 50, becymst
424, 462, rywfl 1 200, I. S. 362, 525, becymft 198,
266, 388, 378, ofcyniti 16, 372, 510; niman I. S.
493, beniman 188, # 376, 354, genimd 178,
animad 182.
The preterit singular i, 3, has <? (<2), a (<f),
o (d). <2r 88, ?6<r 38, /*?/ 466, foAzr 38,
nant 28, 64, <fw 28, com 16, 66, (twice), etc., I.
S. 8 etc., tocom 518, c6m 180, 236, I. S. 273
etc., acdm 170, becdm 96 etc.
The 2 sing., the plural and subjunctive
preterit have as (<) a, 6; totceron 158, namon 66,
c6mon I. S. 344. Isolated is forhule (subj.)
446, EARLE'S ' Gloucester Fragments ' have
the normal forhc&le.
The past participle o and u. Aboren 524,
geboren 14, I. S. 427, unboremtm 512, feSelbor-
en 44, cyneboren 44, gedwolena 10, forholen
524, bescoren 162, Jorstolen 524 ; cumen 524,
fornumen 164, fornumene I. S. 355, genumen
16.
CLASS 5.
Biddan a-, ge-, -brecan to-, unto-, cwedan
be-, ge-, on-, wiS-, etan ge-,fretan-, mod-, gifan
a-, for-, -gitan be-, for-, on-, under-, licgan
for-, ge-, under-, -metan wiS-, seon(*) be-, for-,
ge-, of-, sittan be-, ge-, on-, sprecan for-, ge-,
to-, un-, picgan, -wefan a-, wrecan a-, ge-,
wesan.
In the present stem, except in the 2, 3
singular, the vowel is e (i in biddan, gifan, git-
an, licgan, sittan, picgan ; eo in seon), but ee
is also frequent. Forms with e are : tobrecan
406 MS. Junius, gecweftan 448, cwetiende 444
Gloucester Fragments, becwede 408, et! 394,
etaS 260, eton (subj.) 290, sprecan I. S. 503,
sprecande 78, gesprecan 222 MS. U, 406 MS.
Junius, specan 222, B, sprece(i) I. S. 149, sprece
we 286, sprecati 12, wrecan 296, wrecon(subj.)
484. Forms with & are : tobr&can 286, 406 ;
cwcedende 22, 96, 182, 444, cwceftaft 328, ^/Vzfl'
358, sprcecan 18, 122, I. S. 503 M, gesprcecan
108, 222, 226, 406, tosprtecende 532, sprcecaft
26, 270, spr&ce (subj.) 390. Forms with *':
*Seon occurs but once without a prefix, I. S.
161, seivene.
gebiddan 194, bide I 80, 400, gebidelfA, 202,
(the only strong imperatives in e) bidde we 70,
gebide (subj. 2) 470 ; forgifan 234, etc., agifl
82, forgif! 212; begitan 196, forlicgan 36,
licgende 32, /*V#wi (subj.) 506, onsittende 516,
/nV^r (subj.) 358. For i we have > in gyfende
12, ongytan 508, 530, undergytan \\, under-
gyte (subj.) 18, forlycgan 36. .SVo has geseon
526, geseon I. S. 74, forseon 32, beseoh! 78,
312, geseoh.' 454, $>i,forseo (i) 176 (twice), 198.
The 2, 3 singular of the present indicative is
regularly t in all verbs, but ^ is common, and
e t a; also occur. Forms with i are : *'/.*/ 180,
210, bitt 370, W/ 426, gebit 484. cwiffst 270,
forgif fi 260, etc.), forgit 12, /*'# 198, 398, 438,
underlie" 20, gesihS 12, 202, 338, 372, 376, 1. S.
300, forsiho" 94, 366 (twice), gesihst 108, 400,
470, forsihst 94, 202 ; jiV 268 ; spricO 520.
Forms with jv are : dy/j/ 80, cwyst 126, ryj/
200, cwydst 128 C., ce/y^ 372, 504, ;K/ 266, 354,
ytt 272, I. S. 251, ytst I. S. 247 ; gesyhst 80,
forsyhft 412, sprpcS 214; Forms with ^ are:
cweftst 128 V, f/j/ 262, geetst I. S. 198, tosprecd
I. S. 310, sprecd 64, 288. Forms with *r are:
cwceftst 128, tosprcecd I. S. 310 Mb.
The i, 3 preterit singular is <?, also written
*#, and before h and after ^, ^a. The only
exceptions are bed 112, gesetiii, breac 62 V.,
ne s (for <? /<?.y) 208. The forms are : gebdd
48, tobrdc 60 tobr&csS, breec 62, cwcefi 30, etc.,
becwced 428, gecw&o" I. S. 164, <?/ 164, 392
(twice), I. S. 54, /<z^ 146, 154, 156, 162, 180,
lcgf&, gelag y$, sat 284, 314, sett 72, gesert
77, 222 U ; sprezc 10, 160, I. S. 503, gespr&c 26,
gewrcec 276, 300, gewrc 296 Faustina A.,
w^j 26, etc., zf<#J 28, 32, 44 (twice), 54, 56
(twice), etc. ea occurs in forgeaf 318, I. S.
ii, uudergeat I. S. 222, beseah I. S. 73, ofseah
520, geseah 56, geseah 32, etc.
The 2 sing., plural, and subj. preterit have
a (ct) usually, a before w , ea after g, except
! forgefon 134; but the plural of l<?g is logon,
! though the subjunctive is usually l&ge. The
1 forms are : bfedon 5, abeedon 118, gebttdon 496,
! <?<fe (subj.) 464; oncwade (2) 176, oncw&don
492, 494, ciufede (subj.) I. S. 169, etc., (fton 290,
<?fc(subj.) 126, ge&teM 230; lage (subj.) 234,
508, /^tf 512, l&gon (sbj.) 92; sefton 502,
I onsctton 504; sprace (subj.) 390, I. S. 219;
i awrtfce (subj.) 40, gewr&ce (subj .) 36. wekron
26, etc., wfsron 28, etc., o/rr* I. S. 37, etc. a
129
259
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
260
occurs in lagon 102, 152, 210, 220, 252, 254, 288,
494, 502, 506, etc. Idgon 494, 513 (thrice), lage
(subj.) 234, 234 U (twice), gesawe (2) 122, gesa-
won 58, etc. ea occurs \nforgeafon 134 C. V.
undergeate I. S. 206.
The past participle has regularly e, for which
a is sometimes found, after g it has *, for
which y is also used ; brecan has always o,
following class 4. (tobrocene 294, untobrocen
132). With e: gecweden 358, I. S. 162, etc.,
gecwedene I. S. 118, freten 404, nwdfretene
514, widmeten 22, gesewen 92, 160, sewene I. S:
161, beseten 190, gesprecen 498, gesprecan 534,
forsprecenan 512, awe/en 172, gewrecen 404.
With -^ : gecwceden 18, 24, 236, 360, gecw&dene
18 (twice), ungescewenlie 20. With i \forgif en
218, undergiten I. S. 172. With j/: begyten
524, ongyten 520, 530, forgytene 510, all, as
will he seen, in the ' Seven Sleepers ' ; see
Class 3, i. b.
CLASS 6.
Dragan, faran for-, ford-, ge-, geond-, in-,
mis-, -galan be-, -grafan a-, hcebban a-, hlyh-
han, -sacan <zt-, for-, wit!-, -sceat!an a-, to-,
-scyppan ge, slean a-, ge-, of-, purh-, -spanan
a-, to-, standan a-, (zt-, be-, emb-, under-, wift-,
steppan fore-, fort!-, swerian, pwean a-, -wacan
a-, wescan, wexan.
The present, except in 2, 3 sing, indicative,
is regularly a. The forms are: dragetf 316,
misfaran TJ&o,farande ^io,farende 410 Junius,
infarendum 220, far/ 226,/arad 12, fare (subj.)
y]G,fara (subj.) 138, forfare (subj,) 274, faran
us 500, wiftsacan 72, wit! sac! 202, cztsace 528,
aspanan 194, understanden 14, wittstandan 294,
embstandenum 504, stand! 150. ce occurs in
ahczbban 310, ahcebbe 246, forftstceppende 12.
e occurs in ofsleh ! 224, forftsteppende 14,
wexende 526. ea occurs in tosceaden (for-
8en?) 20, slean 198, ofslea (i) 194, sleati 294.
y in gescyppan 18, I. S. 168, etc., scyppend 12,
etc. z occurs for jy in gescippene I. S. 155,
scippend 20, I. S. 45, scippende I. S. 66.
In 2, 3 pres. irid. sing, the vowel is usually
<?. Cases are : fcsrst 346, 462, fcerft 268, 292,
354) 35^ 364, I. S. 250, geondf&rtS 18, ah&fd
446, tosccst 22, understcznt 22, forfist&pt! 498.
^ is the regular vowel in tospend 72, stenst 532,
stew/ 88, 190, 442, 450 (Gloucester MS.), 280,
300, I. S. 102, etc., understent 20, 22, etc.,
stend 450, wexfi 16. Wholly isolated and
without analogy in any class is witSstandet! I.
S. 229. y is found in gescypt! 16, apyht! (from
pwean) 272 ; for jy in gescipd I. S. 99, ofslihtf
278.
The preterit has o or 6. The forms are :
drogon 326, ytfr 488 (twice), 498, gefdr 320
(except in these three cases ferde takes the
place of for throughout), begol 312, agrofon
508, Ad/" 106, ahof 314, ^A<5/" 488, ahofen (ind.)
207, ahofe 248 (and ahefde 284, thrice), AA5A
i?&,fors6c 32, widsoc 174, witfsdc 64, witfsocon
494, wiSsoce (subj.) 174, 5/oA 70, 190, 276 (four
times), 284, aj/oA 384, ofslogon 190, .y/o^v? 318,
j/trf 4, etc., cetstod 264, bestodon 50, astodon
220, stopon 504, forestopon 114, JK/or 314,
jwdr 36, apwoh 192, apwdh 124, pwogon 438,
apwoge (subj.) 124, apwogon (subj.) 168, aze/ot:
56, azf/<fc 448, 464, awdcon 516, woscean 438 U.
<?e> is used for o in gesceop 6, 12, 14, 130, etc.,
I. S. 20, etc., gesceop 14, 16, 20, 86, gesceope
206, I. S. 206, etc., tospeon 434, ?^e>;r 40, 434,
476, 322, weoxon 124.
The past participle has regularly a. The
forms are: gefaran 156, 488, agrafen 528,
agrafene 98, ahafen 56, 340, 384, 400, wiSsacen
72, 194, ofslagen 114 (twice), 138, 218, 278, 302,
318, 350, 408, 422, 426, 468, 482, I. S. 403, ofs-
lagan 276, purhslagen 278, geslagen 528,
understanden I. S. 173. ea occurs in asceadene
496, gesceapen 14, 380 (twice), 438, etc., I. S.
47, etc., gesceapen I. S. 182 (for gesceapen}.
ce occurs in geslcegene 524, ofslcegen 138 C,
ofsl&gczn 194. e occurs in ofslegen 66; o. in
opwogen 256.
CLASS 7a.
Feallan a-, a?t-, be-, to-, fon be-,ge-, on-,
under-, gan a-,6e-, fort!-, in-, of-, ut-, gangan
of-, healdan be-,ge, -/ion a- upa-, spannan,
-wealdan ge. Present stem, ea is used in
fstfeallan 510, feald($) I. S. no (see below),
(etfeallaS 266, ge healdan 66, behealde ge ! I. S.
477, wealdend 502, geivealdend 502, ealweal-
dend 426, weallendum 314. a is used in gan-
gan 490, gangende 206, 302, 396, 408, gangande
224, .g-a;/^-/ 158 (twice), 348, 398, 456, gange
(subj.) 444, of gange 394, gangon (subj.) I. S.
140, elsewhere vf is always used, 234, etc.,
I. S. 246, etc., fort!gdn 530, ingan 406, Atgan
512, ofgan 524, ^a^ 14, I. S. 136, begat! 272,
130
26l
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
262
etc., spannan 216. o is found in gefon 416,
on/oh! 152, 324, under/oh! 472, /0# I. S. 145,
under/6 (subj.) 62, underfo (subj.) 306, under-
fohft (3) I. S. 537 (for the regular -fehtf, see
below) ; ahon 48.
The 2, 3 indie, sing, have umlaut of ea to y
and of o to and A to <?. The cases are :
fyttl 12, befylti 376 (twice), underfehti 72, 128,
328, 510 ; gtest 248, 410, geeft 14, etc., I. S. 114,
etc., begafi 272, 366, 382, agcefi 372; Ay// 272,
446, A^Ay// 34 8 H^// 4 l6 > 47 8 gewytt 146, 374-
Anomalous are : feald, underfohd, mentioned
above, and underfoehS 16.
The preterit has eo except in fon and hon
where e is regular and a frequent, gangan
and gdn have no preterit. The forms are:
feol 76, 122, 148, 156, 180, 266, 312, 358, 392,
tofeol ^,feoll-j2, 86, 88, 136, 190, 264 (twice),
398, 420, 460, tofeoll 48, cetfeoll 276, 402, befeoll
I. S. 63, befeolle (subj.) I. S. 62, A^o/rf 36,
heolde (subj.) 92, geweold 68, 150, geweolden
(ind.) 218, weollon 102, /<? 140, 390, 398, 400,
412, 516, 534, fengon 524, onfeng 228, U. B.,
befeng 78, 172, 178, gefeng 220, underfeng 136,
156, 172, 414, 416, I. S. 73, and 50, 62 V ', fengon
70 V, underfengon 264, underfenge (subj.) 84,
220 U,fentg- 500, 508, onfencg 228, befencgifo,
underfencg 384, underfencge 220, onfencgon
498, /<z-- 32, 44 (twice), 50, 70, underfang 14,
underftenge 38, 236, underfencge 264. ( is
regular up to page 70, and occurs only twice
later); aA^- 256, 220 B. U, upahtng 58,
ahencg 220, hencg 492, (the only case where
Aow is used without a-).
The past participle has ea before / and a
before n. The forms are : afeallene 140,
behealden 18, gehealden 242, I. S. 69 etc. ; be-
fangen 20, underfangen 230, agdne 332, ^vz I.
S. 463-
CLASS 7b.
-blawan to-, upa-, ut-, -cnazvan ge-,on-, to-,
-drcedan on-, Icetan a-, for-, to-, -rccdan be-,
sawan be., to-, slapan, prawan.
Present and past participle. Before w, a
changes to in 2, 3 sing. ind. ; otherwise ce is
regular before mutes and a before w, though
a and e occur anomalously for ff in ondret (3)
12, and s/npan 456, sldpan 512. The other
cases are : utblawaft 22, toblawene 178, gecna-
wan 516, 526 (twice), 534, dcnaivon 526, oncna-
wan I. S. 321, tocnawan 258 I. S. 195, gecnawe
526, gecnawan (p.p.) 530, sawende 320, sawaS
294, tosawon(p.p.) 510, prawan 202; oncneewst
130, 478, sarwS I. S. 262, bes&wd 362, ondmt
228, 266 (The past participle is always weak,
of dreed w, ofdraddey*>, 514), /<z-/a I. S. 234,
ate/aw 394, /<zr// 130, forlatst \T&,forleet (3)
18, bercedan 428 (not in Bosworth as strong or
with this meaning), slapende 502, (see above).
The preterit has eo before w and e (with an
occasional a?) before mutes. The forms are:
upableow 208, gecneow 62, 530, oncneow 40,
etc., gecneowe 516, 522, 526 (twice), I. S. 276,
seow 350 ; ondred ^522, ondredon 504, #/ 70, /or-
let I. S. 482, o#/0 502, /0/*te 504, j/*/ I. S.
214, j/<r/o 502 (twice), 512, etc., sltyon 516,
slepon (subj.) 506, and with a; for ^ ondr&d
520, forte ton I. S. 145, 393.
CLASS 7c.
blowan- ge-, flowan, glowan, growan, ro-
wan, spowan, -swogan ge-, wepan- *hrowan-
see hreowan 2.
In the present and past participle the follow-
ing forms only occur: blowende 514, geblowen
(p.p.)462,Jlou>an I. S. $44,flowendan ^,fieod
(3) 250, (a) grewG \o4,,geswogen (p.p.) 264, 460,
bewepen 108.
The preterit has always eo. fleow 156, 398,
492, gleow 184, hreowan (for rowon) 436, speow
174, 216, speowe 196, ow/ 48, 74, 162, weapon
478, 490.
CLASS 7d.
hatan be-, ge-, swapan. The forms are :
heztst 496, behtetst 200, A<?/ 255, swtfpS 492, A^/
26, *^Af/ I. S. 396, behet 68, A^/o I. S. 122,
gehaten 24, etc., I. S. 2, etc.. gehdten I. S. 6,
gehatene 22.
CLASS 76.
beatan of-, -heawan a-, to-, hleapan. The
only forms that occur are : beaton 98, beatan
18, 244, ofbeatan 146, beoton 482, 486, tohcowe
46, /^o/ 220 (U. hleop) \ aheawen (p.p.) 438.
BENJ. W. WELLS.
Jena, Germany.
* The passage is " are bldd fleoti to urumfot-
um adune." Skeat's translation has " our
blood fleeth " etc. But the 3 sing, of fleon
'^Jtyhft 18, 334, 372 and for the sense as well
as the grammar it is better to take Jttod=
flewS.
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
264
THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION
IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES,
IV.
We next come to a third and very frequent
use of aller with the gerund, in which motion
is clearly defined. It belongs, in this sense,
then, to the general category of verbs of
motion, which may be accompanied by a ger-
und whose action is subordinate to, or, at
most, coordinate with, that of the verb of
motion.
Aller.
Sans Pedre sols seguen lo vai,
Quar sua fin veder voldrat.
Passion du Christ, B. 9. 14.
A foe, a flamma vai ardant
Et a gladies persecutan.
Vie de S. Leger, B. 16. 39.
Venir.
Done vint edrant dreitmant a la mer.
ViedeS. Alexis, B. 21. 38.
Afonter, descendre.
Muntent et descendent chantant e esjol
Li beus angeres du ciel
Vie de Seint Auban, 1093.
Passer.
Passastes par Brettaine d'orient venant.
Ditto, 1127.
S'adresser.
L'enfant ne quaisse ne ne blece,
Fuiant vers un chemin s'adrece.
Crestien de Troies, B. 145. 15.
Reparier.
Et li altre s'en reparierent fuiant arriere en 1'ost.
Ville-Hardouin, ch. XXI.
Tourner.
Sun petit pas s'en turnet cancelant.
Ch. de Roland, 2227.
Quand paiens virent Gormund mort,
Fuiant s'en tournent vers le port.
Gormund and Isembard, 421 (Rom. St. III. 562).
Entrer.
Main a main entrent dedans lor chids saignant.
Amis et Amiles, B. 62. n.
Saillir.
E cil de Roem saillent 1'uns 1'altre sumunant.
Roman de Ron, 3236.
Issir.
Richart ist de la vile sur son cheval curant.
Ditto, 3246.
Accourir.
Kar de Roem acurent burgeis e paisant,
Macues e guisarmes e baches aportant.
Ditto, 4093.
E Normant lur estordent " Dieu aie" criant.
Ditto, 3235.
Enceilcer.
Vers Saraguce les encalcent ferant,
A colps pleniers les en vunt ociant.
Ch. de Roland.
Sourdre.
Par la priere Auban est surse du pendant
Funtainne freide e clere a grand missel curant.
Vie de S. Auban, 1167.
Apparaitrt.
Angeres i aparurent a clerc voiz chantant.
Ditto, 1182.
It is useless to add more to this list ; for
constructions of this kind are so often met,
that I believe it would not be a rash state-
ment to say that about four-fifths of all the
examples of the gerund without en will be
found to be accompanied with a verb of
motion. To see how the proportion would
stand, I have counted the examples in several
characteristic works. It will be observed that
some authors are much fonder of this mode
of thought-expression than others. The
figures indicate the number of times the con-
struction occurs with the verbs they follow.
Voyage de Charlemagne (860 lines). Tour-
ner, 2; remeindre, i; trouver, 2; aller, 6;
voir, i; tenir, i ; venir, i ; absolute(?) 2.
Chanson de Roland (4002 lines). Aller, 28 ;
venir, i ; absolute(?), i ; mourir, 2 ; tourner, i;
encalcer, i.
Roman d' Aqnin (3087 lines). Tourner, 2 ;
aller, 30; voir, i ; gesir, J ; venir, i.
Berte aits Grans Pies (3482 lines). Faire, i;
aller, 2; trouver, i ; venir, i.
Flor et Blanceflor (3342 lines). Aller, 8;
venir, 2.
H. de Valenciennes (Hist, de 1'Einpereur
Henri). Envoyer, i; aller, 7 ; venir, i; che-
vaucher, i ; absolute.^?).
Guiot de Provins (La Bible). Aller, 4.
Tradnction de Guil. de Tyr. Courir, i ;
mener, i ; chevaucher, i ; prendre, i ; tre-
bucher, i; venir, u; faire, 2; suivre, 3;
absolute(?), 11; fnir, i; instrumental, 3; trou-
ver, i ; retourner, 4; oir, i ; aller, 11 ; chasser,
i ; mourir, i.
Vie de Seint Auban (1845 lines). Venir, 2 ;
aller, 21 ; gesir, i ; absolute(?), 3 ; remaiudre,
i ; resplendir, i; oir, i ; trouver, 3 ; passer, i;
132
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
366
laisser, i ; voir, i ; surdre, i ; aparaistre, i ;
faillir, i.
Ville-Hardouin (La Conqueste de Constan-
tinoble). Reparier, i ; aller, 7 ; venir, 3 ;
tourner, i ; envoyer, i ; absolute(?), 2.
De Joinville (Hist, de Saint Louis). Venir,
6 ; trouver, 2 ; aller, 2 ; faire, i ; as adverb, i ;
sentir, i ; absolute(?), 2.
Aiol et Mirabel (10,985 lines). Aller, 68;
venir, 9 ; oir, i ; encaucher, i ; absolute(?), 2 ;
tourner, 2 ; fuir, i ; par, i.
It seems almost superfluous to cite examples
from the other languages, as this French con-
struction is universally current throughout the
whole Romanic group. That, however,
nothing may be taken on faith, I give a few
from hundreds of examples noted, remarking
that I have been struck with the more
frequent occurrence of the construction in
early French and Provencal, especially with
aller and venir, than in any of the others.
Provtitfal.
Laisse loill.e per nuilla re
No venga ves lui trop corren.
Daude de Pradas, B. 177. 33.
Car co es pessamentz confus
One ven en cor aissi corren.
Ditto, El Romanz, 1. 49 (Stickney's ed).
Un bon juzieu que aquo auzi,
Tantost corren d'aqui parti.
B.'s DenkmSler, XXXIX. p. 274.
E Peire Vidals s'en isset fugen.
Bib. der Troub. XXII.
Italian .
Salian scherzando i pargoletti amori.
Ariosto, sonetto.
E quando a morte deseando corro.
Petrarca.
Ch'io mi parti'sbigottito fugendo.
Guido Cavalcanti.
Chiara fontana ancor surgea d'un monte
Mormorando con aqua dolce e fresca.
Tasso, Gerus. Conquist. XV. 44.
E che accorrer potea un giorno
Camminando alia bufera.
Giorgi Bertola.
Sfatiitk.
Los males vienen corriendo
Jorge Manrique.
La olvidada infanta Urraca
Vertiendo 1 grimas entra.
Rom. del Cid. p. 96. iVoegelin).
De zamora sale Dolfos
Corriendo y apresurado.
Ditto, p. 152.
La pied, sacd miel. fu4* volando.
LuU Martin.
Portuftutt.
e a terras viciosas
De Africa e de Asia andavam derastando.
Camocns, Os Lus. 1. 2.
Pizando o crystalline clo formoto
Vcm pela Via Latea
Ditto. I. 90.
Mai o animal atroce nesse instant*
Bramando duro corre
Ditto, I. 78.
Wallachian.
Cfl Jonanfi a venitu nice mftncftndu nicfibnd&
Math. XI. 18.
Vine alergind pe scena cu un mop de burnene ID
mfluu.
V. Alccsandri, Mama Angheluta.
Halmana in costum de larna trece tinf-iid o valizi.
Ditto. Halmana.
With verbs of motion there may be, in
general, two kinds of construction in conjunc-
tion with other verbs: namely, that already
illustrated, in which the gerund accompanies
the finite verb; and a second, in which the
infinitive is used with or without a preposition.
The latter use of the infinitive is by far the
more common. In either case, that is, whether
the preposition be used or not, the verb of
motion expresses the purpose to be ac-
complished by the concomitant infinitive. The
distinction in shade of meaning is usually
this : when the idea of purpose is strongly
implied, the preposition serves to give promi-
nence to the purpose ; whereas the preposition
is omitted when the purpose is not conspicu-
ous. We may illustrate this by the sentences:
Je vais au theatre m'amuser tous les soirs, and
je vais au theatre tous les soirs non-seuiement
pour m'amuser mais aussi pour observer et
pour apprendre a distinction, which we
should secure in English by : for the purpose
of or by the simple infinitive with to, accord-
ing as we did, or did not, desire to emphasize
the purpose.
La fame Amile a la clere fason
Estoit alee por faire f 'orison.
Amis et Amiles, B. 61. 37.
Abtant se volgran acordar
Qual duy pogran anar veser
La donzela, e per saber
Si sa beutatz era tan grans.
Guillem de la Bara (Meyer, Recueil, p. 128.)
133
267
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
268
This reference to the infinitive construction
,with a verb of motion has been made, in order
to lead up to the consideration of certain
cases in which the infinitive and gerund
touch each other so nearly, in point of use and
signification, that they become virtual equiva-
lents.
t, II se relieve a grant paine
Par grant air le va requerre.
Roman de Renart, B. 213. 9.
2. Quant il nous virent, il nous vindrent
sus courre.
Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. XLVI.
3. Aisi se van ferir cum cascus venc
No lor valo escut pur un besenc.
G. de Rossilho, 2180.
4. L'effant Jhesus i ameneron,
Ad Arian lo prezenteron.
Pueis van li dire e pregar,
Que 1'eflant volgues essenhar.
B.'s Denkmaler, xxxix. p. 273.
5. Arian vat li demandar:
Mon eflfant, ar digas aleph
E en apres tu diras beph.
Ditto, p. 273.
6. Grans meravilhas se doneron,
Per la vila s'en van cridan.
Ditto, p. 274.
7. E totz los juzieiis van cridar :
Ailas caitiu ! e que ferem
Ni qual cosselh penre porem?
Ditto, p. 292.
8. E en apres el manda diire als mainaders
Ez als baros de Fransa ez als sieus logadiers.
Chanson de la Croisade des Albigeois, 8,412.
9. E mandet dire a nUgo de la signa que
vengues a Usercha en un bore on estava en
Gaucelm Faidit.
Bib. der Troub. XL.
10. Volga la vista desiosa e lieta
Cercandomi
Petrarca.
11. Mand6 il cavaliero all'albergo della
corona, sappiendo (=ad informarsi) se era suo
famiglio.
Franco Sachetti.
12. E estandb de fora, enviarao a elle cha-
mando-o.
Marcos, III. 31.
13. Os Portuguezes somos do Occidente,
Imos buscando as terras do Oriente.
Os Lus. I. 50.
14. Que tempo concertado e ventos tinha
Para ir buscando o Indo desejado.
Ditto, I. 95.
15. Si neaflandu-lti, s'ati Intorsti la Jerusa-
limu cantandu-ln.
Luca, II. 45.
16. Porque viene mi nifia
Cogiendo flores.
Anonymous, isth cent.
The first of the examples is not very decid-
ed, for although, as the context shows, Dans
Constanz, considering his position, does not
have to "go" in order to strike Isengrin, va
requerre may express future, rather than pro-
gressive, action. Still there can be no doubt
but that, in accordance with the freedom, I
might almost say, looseness, of the gerundial
construction at this time, the author, if push-
ed for a rime, would not have scrupled to use,
all the circumstances and situations remaining
the same, the gerund as an equivalent for the
infinitive, without feeling he was guilty of any
grammatical negligence. A part of this re-
mark might apply to the quotation from
Girart de Rossilho ; but the passage shows
rather that van ferir means that the knights
continue the fight, "cum cascus venc;" i. e.
van is subordinate to ferir, in other words,
copulative; so that the same nuance of
thought might have been rendered by van
feren.
In No. 2, it is plain that courant substituted
for courre would not vary, in the slightest
degree, the thought, which is : they came
rushing upon us. The first two lines of No.
4 inform us that the parents of Jesus were
already in the presence of Arian. It can not,
therefore, be said of them literally van, they
go; nor can van dire etc., be explained here
as future. Being already before Arian, they
speak to him and request him to undertake
the instruction of their son ; or they go on
telling their story and requesting\\\m, etc.
No. 5 contains a still more decided instance
of the copulative use of anar ; as vai li deman-
dar means // demands and nothing more. In
modern French venir is sometimes used in
very nearly the same way : Un sourire livide
vient glacer ses traits. (Le Franqais, Boston,
vol. i, p. 55).
A comparison of 6 and 7, taken in connex-
ion with the passages in which they occur,
shows the same approximation in thought-
shading, of s'en van cridan and van cridar',
134
269
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
270
the difference, if any, is very slight. So
manda diire and mandet dire, in the two
following examples, are seen to be modes of
expression analogous to : tnandet disen, pre-
gan in : E tan tost com el fo vengutz el man-
det disen al Dalfil et al comte Guion que ill
li deguessen aiudar, Bib. der Troub. XIV. ;
in: elli mandet pregan qu'el fezes si qu'el
fezes mudar los edificis, ditto, B. 241, 15; to:
mand6 sappiendo (No. n); and to the Portu-
guese : enviarao chamando (No. 12). The
Wallachian and Spanish would likewise use
the gerund here after the verb to send. And
so Henri de Valenciennes, in the work already
quoted (ch. IV), uses envoyer: Et envoierent
lor archiers huant et glatissant et faisant une
noise. Cf. also Romania VIII, 90 : Je me
levoyun matin aujort prenant, Entvoy m'en
en un giardin la flor culhant. In modern
French also the gerund after this same verb,
as well as after other verbs of motion, is allow-
able to express a purpose, although the in-
finitive is more common, in accordance with a
general preference which the Frenchman
entertains for the infinitive construction,
where no ambiguity arises by its use.*
M. de Freycinet a appris qu'une note, e"ma-
nant du ministere de 1'inte'rieur, avail die" en-
voye" disant que M. de Freycinet avail
capitule".
Courrier des Etats Unis.
J'eus peur d'avoir senti la peur une fois, el
prenanl mon sabre, cache" sous mon bras,
j'entrai le premier brusquemenl donnanl
1'exemple & mes grenadiers.
A. de Vigny.
Ae"tius avail dej^ de'pe'che' ses courriersdans
toute la Gaule el chez les peuples allie's, les
invitant & s'unir & lui.
Le Beau.
C'esl le voyageur que nous avons vu toul ft
1'heure errer cherchanl un glle.
V. Hugo.
Il is nol possible lo interpret these gerunds
otherwise than as expressing a purpose ; for in
some of them Ihe infinilive with pour could
be subslituted ; and in Ihe olhers, while in
II est dans le gdnie de la langue frana9ise de preTeVer 1'in-
tinitif & tout autre mode, quand la < l.irto de la phrase n'en est
pas alte're'e. BOKBL.
their present shape this substitution could
hardly be made, its exclusion would be more
owing to Ihe cacophony lhal would thereby
arise lhan lo any forbidding principle of gram-
mar. In Ihe case of Ihe first and last sentence,
a well-educated Frenchman, if asked why not
use pour dire and pour chercher, would likely
answer: C'est 1'harmonie de la phrase qui
exige le ge"rondif (participe), as rharmonie is
the universal relreal behind which French-
men lake sheller, when brought face to face
wilh a knolly poinl of grammar.
The gerunds in 10, 15, 16 may as legitimate-
ly be regarded as expressing a purpose as co-
incidenl or progressive aclion, and Ihe thought
would nol be malerially changed, if Ihey were
convened inlo Ihe infinilive conslruclion.
We see this well illustraled in Ihe Iwo remain-
ing examples (13 and 14), which do not differ
essentially in signification, since the purpose
of Ihe going, in bolh cases, is to look for
India.
From the foregoing reasoning we gather
lhat, after a verb of molion, Ihe infinilive or
gerund may lake Ihe place of a final depend-
ent clause.
Here belong also certain verbs, which,
while they are not verbs of molion, are ac-
companied by verbals in -ant which serve to
complele, in a manner, Ihe predicalion of Ihe
principal verb. They may, in most cases, be
resolved into adverbial phrases.
Car mi fii sont ocis et mort saignan. .
Amis et Amiles, B. (a. 37.
A peine chaut remeint li quors en piz batant.
Vie de S. Auban, 844.
Je li lo bienqu'elle vos maint tandant.
Jeu-parti, B. 341. 16.
Murut subitement scant sus une sele.
Kerte aus Grans Pies, 2072.
Lo corns G. e ilh sen s'en van dolen,
E Ihi baro de K. restan ploran.
G. de Rossilho. 5340.
Annapolis, Md.
SAMUEL GARNER.
THE USE OF THE FEMININE
in the Romance Languages, to express an
indefinite neuter.
Among the many interesting linguistic phe-
nomena with which the reading of Romance
135
271
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
272
texts makes us familiar, may be mentioned
the \ise of the feminine form of the pronoun
or adjective to give succinct expression to
some idea not otherwise clearly indicated.
This construction is sometimes, and perhaps
not unhappily, described as the "indefinite
neuter." We find examples of it scattered
through all the Romance languages in their
older periods, and some have survived and
appear to have become crystallized in modern
speech. A satisfactory explanation of the
usage has not yet been offered, most of, the
authorities contenting themselves with a bare
mention of the fact, if indeed they do not pass
it over in silence.
DIEZ, ' Grammatik der Romanischen Spra-
chen,' vol. iii, p. 48, in calling attention to
the fact, cites cases mostly drawn from
Tobler (see below).
BLANC, ' Italianische Grammatik,' p. 272,
referring to Italian says, "es ist jetzt unend-
lich gewohnlich, den Gegenstand wovon die
Rede ist, oder das leicht zu supplirende Ob-
ject des Satzes, durch ' la ' auszudrucken.
Auf diese Weise sind nun eine grosse Menge
Redensarten entstanden.'' He of course
makes no suggestion explanatory of the
usage.
TOBLER, Jahrbuch, viii, 338, gives some
interesting examples, and remarks simply that
" eine solche Verwendung von 'la ' [the per-
sonal pronoun] nicht gegen den Geist der
(franzosischen) Sprache ist."
BRUNOT, ' Grammaire Historique de la
langue francaise,' p. 231, merely alludes to
the frequency of the phenomenon in Old
French and mentions cases of the survival of
the usage in the modern language. Quoting
the example " c'est la voire " and others
similar, he adds : " II n'y a point de substan-
tif fe"minin sous-entendu ; le fe"minin repre"-
sente tout simplement une forme neutre qui
manquait."
An explanation frequently offered is that a
feminine noun was formerly expressed but, fall-
ing itself into desuetude, disappeared, leaving
the impress of its gender upon the word which
remains behind to represent it. This is, how-
ever, far from being a satisfactory, or at least
a sufficient explanation, inasmuch as the
feminine frequently refers to a wholly indefi-
nite antecedent or circumstance, or to an ante-
cedent which embraces a whole set of circum-
stances, as may be seen from the examples
cited later.
This construction is the more interesting as
in the old stages of the languages the regular
usage required, theoretically at least, as we
should naturally have expected, the neuter,
although practically the masculine was used.
In the ' Donatz Proensals,' e. g., (v. E. Stengel,
' Die beiden altesten provenzalischen Gram-
matiken,' Marburg, 1878, p. 2) we read : " Neu-
tris es aquel que no perte al un ni al autre [i. e.
masculine or feminine], si cum "gauc. i.
gaudium," e " bes. i. bonum." Mas aici no
sec lo uulgars la gramatica els neutris sub-
stantius, ans se dicen aici com se fossen
masculi, si cum aici "grans es los bes que
aquest ma fait," e "grans es lo mals que
mes uengutz de lui." We are still able to
trace cases of this neuter use (which of
course became later regularly masculine) ;
e. g. in the ' Chanson de Roland ' we have the
line: " II est jugiet que nus les ocirum," in
which the form "jugiet" is neuter. In view
of this regular usage a special explanation
would seem to be required for the use of the
feminine.
The following examples have been collect-
ed, and it is believed that a continued ex-
amination would show the phenomenon to
be more common than is usually supposed.
French.
"Ne pot estre altre." (Alexis, 156).
" Li a tele donne"e." (Renaus de Montauban,
429. n.)
"Ja altre n'en ferons." (Renaus de Montau-
ban, 191. 21.)
" Ceste m'a il bastie." (Renaus de Montau-
ban, 365. 19.)
" Enmi le piz li dona tel." (Chevalier au
Lyon,4i92.)
" Et il Ten ra une donee tel." (Chevalier au
Lyon, 4208.)
" Ceste arons nous tost prouve"."
" Onques mais n'oi tel."
" C'est la voire." (Brunot, 231.)
" II lui en a une porte"e "=il lui a porte" un
coup. (Brunot, 231.)
" II 1'eut bonne." (Brunot, 231.)
136
273
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
274
" Vous me la baillez bonne." (Brunot, 231.)
"Sire, voire : fait li quens." (' Aucassin et
Nicolete, '1062.)
" Ja ceste n'avenra."
" Ja ceste n'est pense'e."
" Sire, dist il, ne peut autre estre."
" De moult grande s'est escapes."
" Ceste vos iert molt chier vendue."
Compare also, " l'chapper belle," "la
donner belle," "la payer," etc. Further
cases might without difficulty be added.
In the Anmerkung to p. 95 " des Provenza-
lischen Alexanderliedes" (Germania, 1857),
Tobler has collected a number of examples,
the majority of which, however, might be as
well explained as feminines.
Italian.
The use of " nulla " is of course very com-
mon in this sense, and was so already among
the trecentisti; v. Petrarca, Canzoni 9,4; 7,48;
10,75, etc *> etc -
" Poi disse, bene ascolta chi la nota." (Dante,
Inferno xv, 99.)
" Cessar le sue opere biece Sotto la mazza
d'Ercole, cheforse Gliene did cento, enon
sent! le diece." (Dante, Inferno xxv, 33.)
"Di sorta glien'hodata una." (Cesari, Nov.
28.)
" Ella (the matter) non andra cosi." (Boccac-
cio, 9. 5.)
' La, non andra cosl."
" Non posso capirla."
" lo per me non la intendo."
" La capite o non capite ? "
" Passarsela bene o male."
" Farla ad uno."
" Accoccarla ad uno."
" Affibbiarla ad uno."
" Menarla buona ad uno."
" Pagarla cara, " "Scamparla," " Dirla
schietta," " Romperla con qualcuno," etc.,
etc.
Spanish regularly shows the use of the
neuter pronoun ; " lo " being used to repre-
sent a phrase or idea to which gender cannot
be assigned, whereas we have seen the Italian
is very liable to use the feminine " la." Cases
of the use of the feminine however occur.
" Ahora lo tendras hecho un almibar, pero
luego sera ella." (Knapp, Spanish Read-
ings 63.2)
"Hum! ya la tenemos." (Knapp, Spanish
Readings 61.8).
Roumanian. Diez says that "auch der
Dacoromane Feminina in neutralem Sinne
anwendet;" besides which this language has
the further peculiarity that it expresses the
Latin neuter of the plural by means of the
feminine of the same number. E. g., "toate
sunt gata"="omnia sunt parata ; " "vorbi
multe"="multa loqui;" whereas the other
Romance languages can only do this with the
assistance of an added substantive, as in
Provencal : "tolas causas"=" omnia."
A phenomenon similar in character to those
mentioned is the use of certain feminine sub-
stantive-pronouns, relating both to persons
and things, as masculines. Diez refers to
this. Examples, some of which are exceed-
ingly common, are: "personne ne sera assez
hardi ; " " rien n'est bon," " on m'a dit quel-
qu6 chose qui est tres plaisant ; " Old Italian:
" nulla cosa tanto gravoso "(see "I poeti
del primosecolo" i, 82); Old Portuguese:
Algun rem" (v. F. Sant. 545) ; Prov. "ren que
bom sia'" (Raynouard, Choix III, 330); "re
nascut " (v. GeYard de Roussillon, 4087).
T. McCABE.
Johns Hopkins University.
The Gospel according to Saint Matthew in
Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old
Mercian Versions. A new edition, edited
for the Syndics of the University Press
by REV. WALTER W. SKEAT. Cambridge,
1887.
PROFESSOR SKEAT, in his Preface, describes
the difference between the self-imposed
duties of an editor now and when KEMBLE
and HARDWICK edited this Gospel for the
University Press some thirty years ago. He
says : " To put it in the most striking manner,
we may say that an editor's duty at the present
moment is supposed to consist in an endeavour
to represent the peculiarities of the MSS. in
the most exact and accurate manner ; he is
J37
275
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
276
expected to assume that the Scribes meant
what they wrote, and he must not venture to
make any correction without giving due notice.
It might be thought that such a proceeding is
simple and obvious ; but it is quite certain
that such was not what was expected of an
editor thirty or forty years ago. On the con-
trary, he was then expected to edit his MS. ;
and this meant, that he was to modernise the
MS. in every conceivable way, by the use of
every method which his ingenuity could
suggest. He was not to reproduce the MS. as
it stood, but only as it might be supposed to
stand after being so altered as to make it
acceptable to a modern reader. PROFESSOR
SKEAT then goes on to note the arbitrariness
of KEMBLE and HARDWICK'S procedure, i. in
the use of capital letters ; 2. in punctuation ;
3. in the use of v and j\ 4. in ignoring con-
tractions ; 5. in the careless reproduction of
MS. accents; 6. in the employment of p and #.
In all these respects the new edition is in-
deed a vast improvement upon the old. How
numerous and important are the changes may
be gathered from a collation of the first page
of the new edition with the corresponding
portion of the old. At the beginning of the
new occurs this statement : [Leaf i of the
Lindisfarne MS. is blank ; on the reverse of
the leaf is a geometrical pattern] ; this is
omitted in the old. Before Latin title : [Leaf
. 2], new ; omitted in old. In Latin title: .X.
new ; decem, old. In Northumbrian title : rim,
old ; rim, new. Immediately under title :
[Epistola beati Hieronymi ad Damasum Pa-
pam, in quattuor Evangelistas.] [Beatissimo
Papae Damaso, Hieronymus.] ; omitted in new.
L, i : writta, old ; wuritta, new. L. 3 : sun-
drude, old ; sundrade, new. L. 4 ; Latin
text : prcesumtio, old ; prcesumptio, new. Ib. :
cczteris, old ; ceteris, new. L. 6 : I twice,
omitted in old. L. 7 ; gefulden, old ; gefalden
new. L. 8 : Ivcgencz, old ; Ivgcna (altered
from Ivcgnce) new. Ib. : I omitted in old. Ib. :
me, old ; meh, new. L. 7 ; Latin text : saliva,
old ; saliba, new. L. 9 : ? twice omitted in
old. L. 10 : I omitted in old. L. n : setnessa
old; setness, new. L. 12: Latin text: adhib-
ita, old; adhibenda, new. L. 13: Remitted in
old. Ib. Latin text : [enim] in old ; omitted in
new. To these changes must be added all
those included under the first, second and
fourth heads above, and a number of foot-
notes indicating expunctions, corrections, and
marginal additions in the MS., words there
written in red ink, and the point at which the
front of leaf 2 is replaced by the back. This
is a goodly array of corrections, though it
does not include all that PROFESSOR SKEAT
might have given, if I may trust my own col-
lation, made in 1882.
To exhibit the possible margin of error in
the printed text, as compared with the MS., I
append a list of the discrepancies between
PROFESSOR SKEAT'S readings and my own,
covering the various prefaces to the Gospel,
pp. 1-23.
I am far from assuming that all these repre-
sent errors of PROFESSOR SKEAT'S. Even
supposing that half of them do, there is still
proof enough that the edition is tolerably
correct. I designate his reading by S, and
mine by C, and wherever possible give page
and line according to the new edition.
Title: regulra, S ; regolra, C. i 2 \betwih,
S ; bitwih, C. i 5 : to onginnvm in red ink, C.
i 9 : huelc, S ; hwelc, C. i" (margin) : hewere,
S ; hewene, C. i'3: final e oitnonige added in
red ink, C. 2 8 : nan, S ; nan, C. 2" : noma, S;
noma, C. 2 1 ? : criecna, S ; creicna, C. 34 ;
gedryhton, S ; gedryhton, C. 39 : giblonden,
S : geblonden, C. 43 : csrest, S ; aerest, C. 5":
gaast, S ; second a expuncted, C. 7 & : netra,
S ; netna, C. 7 J 3 : gearwas, S ; gearrwas, C.
8 3 : glaesen, S ; glaeren, C. 8 7 : wees, S ; wees ,
C. 9 2 :for, S ; fore, C. 9" : odder, S ; odTer,
C. 9 l6 : huelcum,S; hwelcum, C. 14?: cnear-
esu, S ;. cneuresu, C. Ib. : sice, S ; sie, C.
I4M : enne, S ; eenne, C. :6 8 : faesfern, S ;
faesfern, C. i6 I 4 ; cwodend, S ; cwoftend, C.
173 : geornnisse, S ; geornisse, C. 17^ ; Seem
S;ftaem, C. i7 l6 : god, S; gode, C. 17^ :
ofer, S ; <?/er, C. 18" : h&lendes, S ; haelend-
es, C. 19": betuih, S ; bituih, C. 2\ 3 :ge-
wurpp, S ; gewarpp, C. 21* : I would read
driu, corrected to drig. 21*5 : monigfullice, S ;
monigfallice, C. 22 6 : s<zgde, S; saegde, C.
Of these i", hewene; 2*7, creicna; 34,
gefiryhton ; 7 8 , netna ; 8 3 glaeren ; 147 cneu-
resu', I4 1 4, &nne ; 2i 3 , gewarpp; 21*5, monig-
fallice, are of some importance.
PROFESSOR SKEAT'S statements are now
138
277
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
278
and then too sweeping. Thus, he remarks in
the preface : " The scribe of the Lindisfarne
MS. never employs the letters:/ or/." Be-
sides seeming to settle off-hand the question
whether a variety of hands were employed
on the gloss, thus apparently contradicting
his own opinion as expressed in the Preface
to John's Gospel, p. viii, he ignores the fact,
patent to all, that there is a v on the very
first page of his editing, onginnvm, i 5 , and
two more on the second, vurit, 2'5, and vritt,
2 l8 .
But it would be cavilling to dwell so long
upon these matters as to obscure the fact that
this is, in general, a good edition, if by that
we are to understand the faithful transcript
of a text or texts. Upon this, with whatever
emendations may finally be necessary in detail,
the investigations of scholars may safely be
based.
ALBERT S. COOK.
University of California.
Florian's Fables : selected and edited for the
use of schools by the REV. CHARLES
YELD, M. A., Head Master of University
School, Nottingham, etc. : [In Macmil-
lan's Illustrated Primary Series ; Edited
by G. EUGENE-FASNACHT, etc.]
This is a beautiful and thoroughly unique
little book. " Infinite riches in a little room "
is a not inapt description of it. Within the
limits of loo open, clear, and beautifully printed
i6mo pages, it contains twenty of FLORIAN'S
best Fables, each with an appropriate intro-
duction, and with full notes and vocabularies;
a series of twenty well-constructed exercises
for translation into French, paraphrasing each
of the Fables ; twenty dialogues, based on
the same ; a full alphabetical list of irregular
verbs in their principal parts, and a complete
index : to which are to be added a scholarly
historical introduction, and ten very amusing
pictures all for forty cents! So much that is
good and pretty, for so little money, it would
be hard to find in any other book.
Yet when we come to define the little
volume more closely we confess to some
hesitation and uncertainty. The main title
informs us that it is for the use of schools, by
a Head Master, with philological and
explanatory notes, etc: yet it belongs to
the "Illustrated Primary Series." To
satisfy both these views in so brief a space
was perhaps impossible ; so there has been a
division, with the advantage decidedly against
the primary view. The pictures are indeed
" primary," and will vastly entertain the little
ones while they are good enough also to
amuse bigger children too. But all the rest of
the book except perhaps the text itself lies
outside of what we should call primary work.
The notes "philological and explanatory"
are on a higher plane of scholarship, and are
indeed excellent for even advanced schools.
The vocabularies one for each fable are
etymological throughout, and imply a fair
knowledge of Latin. The exercises and dia-
logues, and indeed the whole apparatus except
the pictures, contradict the presumption that
the book is intended by the editor for the use
of children in the primary study of French.
Hence the little book, small as it is, may have
some difficulty in settling down into its proper
place : indeed, this writer is quite inclined to
give it a trial with a class of collegians who
would be deeply insulted at being called
"primary." Seriously, we fear that the pic-
tures pretty as they are and the " Primary "
title will cause this excellent little book to be
misunderstood and underrated. We commend
it, therefore, to the personal inspection of our
colleagues, for schools and lower college
classes.
But with all its merits, the best thing in it is a
passage from the otherwise scholarly intro-
duction, on the Relation of French to Latin,
which passage we cannot deny ourselves the
pleasure of giving, entire, to those unsuspect-
ing speakers and writers of " the American
dialects " who read the MODERN LANGUAGE
NOTES. Many strange things have appeared
in the NOTES, but nothing stranger than this !
"One might hint at a parallel which seems
to exist in the revolt of the American colonies
from the sovereignty of Britain, and the effect
of this revolt upon the American dialect :
more startling in some respects than the
change from classical Latin to Old French.
Hundreds of words have been invented and
have found a home in America, which are, to
say the least, extraordinary. Every one
knows the strong preterites in the stanza
139
279
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 5.
280
' As stealthily to steal he stole,
His chink he softly chunk ;
And many a leary smile he smole,
And many a wink he wunk.'
It is to be hoped they may never be used
otherwise than by way of joke to show what
Red Republicanism in letters will condescend
to : but remembering by what subtle and un-
perceived stages of attachment words worm
themselves into the diction and grammar of a
language, one cannot help wondering what
the American dialects will grow to, under the
liberty of invention and alteration which every
American citizen claims as his heritage in
literature as in all else. The " Queen's Eng-
lish " may some day become almost as, un-
intelligible to our American cousin as the
Carlovingian Latin is to the modern Parisian."
South Carolina College.
EDWARD S. JOYNES.
LANGUAGE AND DIALECT IN
GERMAN.
Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen
nach Zeugnissen alter und neuer Zeit.
Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen
Sprache von A. SOCIN. 544 pages.
This is a very large book, containing almost
no new and original investigations. Two-
thirds of it is made up of quotations from
documental sources, from early grammarians
and from many authors whose views are
quoted or paraphrased on some of the most
knotty and still unsettled questions in the
history of the German language, and concern-
ing the nature of language in general, of a
literary language, and of a dialect. Where
SOCIN adduces "Zeugnisse," often new ones
found by himself, from original documents,
rare tracts and books of the fifteenth, sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, his compilation is
very valuable even to the specialist. But the
book runs in a popular vein in part, and is
even sensational, e. g. such words as "Spra-
chenhass, Verzweiflungskampf " of dialects do
not belong to the scientific vocabulary. The
author apologizes frankly for any prejudice in
favor of his native dialect, the Alemannic.
One is tempted to say of SOCIN'S book what
the London Academy said of SKEAT'S ' Princi-
ples of English Etymology,' " It is hard to tell
for whom the book is intended." Its possible
value to the philologist is indicated above.
Its chief end, I venture to say. is to furnish
the teachers of German at the ' Gymnasium,'
' Realschule ' and at foreign institutions from
the High School to the University, with a
history of the German language; but the book
can hardly be called ' Contributions ' to such a
history. Its main subject is the origin of the
written language and its relation to the dia-
lects in the different historical periods. It
does for the teacher who has not all the
' Hiilfsmittel ' at command in the history of
the language and the dialects, what the new
editions of HEYSE'S, BECKER'S and BLATZ'S
large grammars are intended and able to do
for him in the field of grammar. Only the
last revisers of HEYSE and BECKER should
have left the old rut enough to put the treat-
ment of the sounds in a separate chapter
called "phonology;" and BLATZ should re-
cognize that a, i, u are not the only primitive
vowels. SOCIN'S book and the grammars
just mentioned, are essentially teachers' aids.
I doubt that even an advanced student will
come to the surface having once plunged into
such a book.
Very interesting reading are the last 200
pages, which treat of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. The appendix has a
special chapter on JACOB GRIMM and one on
the grammatical theories of the author about
the relation of written language to dialect
(romantic point- of view) ; on those of HUM-
BOLDT, HEYSE, BECKER (metaphysical point of
view); on those of RAUMER and WACKER-
NAGEL (pedagogical and provincial) ; on those
of SCHLEICHER, who looks upon language as
a living organism ; on those of RUCKERT and
SCHERER (aesthetic and political point of
view); finally, on those of the "Junggram-
matiker," as SOCIN chooses to call a certain
number of progressive and energetic investi-
gators, who are supposed to be bigotted
worshippers of Sound and of the principle of
Analogy "the heavenly maid," as an old
believer calls his idol, Parataxis. The re\sum
of certain chapters of PAUL'S ' Principien der
Sprachgeschichte ' given by SOCIN, and SIE-
VERS' article in the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica '
under " Philology," will do much to scatter
the pernicious germs of modern philology in
Germany, England and America.
On the theories as to the origin of written
140
28l
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
282
languages in general, the nature of dialects,
on the Prankish Court language during the
Old High German period, on the one literary
language of the Middle High German period,
SOCIN quotes the various opinions directly
from the authors, or presents them in his own
words which is quite impartially done. His
position is the comfortable one of MONTAIGNE
" Que sais-je ? " A non-believer in the exist-
ance of the one Middle High German written
language, must be puzzled, yet pleased, by
the heading of the second chapter of the
first book : " Die mittelhochdeutsche Schrift-
sprache," and of the third chapter of the
same book : " Das Wiederaufleben der Schrift-
clialekte im i4ten Jahrhundert." What a
short-lived affair must have been that " allge-
meine Hof- und Dichtersprache, die durch
ihren Einfluss auf die Prosa zur mittelhoch-
deutschen Schriftsprache sich erweitert und
als solche in Niederdeutschland, theilweise
auch in den Niederlanden, Geltung erlangt "
(p. 112). In the thirteenth century it is a great
institution, in the fourteenth occurs its com-
plete disintegration. In the fifteenth century,
the struggle of the dialects and that of the
various " Kanzleisprachen " with one another
and with the dialects were resumed, struggles
that were to last three hundred years.
SOCIN calls Middle High German a literary
language, Middle German, a literary dialect
(p. 116). Does M. H. G. here include ' Ober-
deutsch ' (South German) and Middle German,
as it generally does ? If so, it is a misstate-
ment, not original with SOCIN. For a popular
book, the author's style is very clumsy.
H. C. G. BRANDT.
Hamilton College.
Von Luther bis Lessing von F. KLIV.K,
Strassburg. Triibner. 1888.
This taking title belongs to a collection of
philological essays, disconnected, but all deal-
ing with certain important points in the New
High German period of the language. " Dies
Hiichlein will keine cleutsche Sprachgeschi-
chte sein ; zur Heruhigung facluvissenschaftli-
cher Gemiiter sei es gesagt," says the author
in the preface. But 1 venture to say, that if we
are to have a history of the German language
we would rather have it from the author of the
Etymological Dictionary with its excellent
historical introduction than from anybody
else.
The essays are written with a view to inter-
est a larger public. In the unpretending book is
a great deal of research that has yielded new
points of view and new facts, hidden under a
genial popular treatment. In the chapter on
the South and Middle German word-stock, are
some interesting and very valuable compara-
tive word-lists chosen from various bible texts.
They are in fact concordances of the early
bible translations. No history of the language
has ever so fully and correctly presented the
relation of Latin to the literary language and
to the dialects as is done in the chapters,
"The Language of the church and of the
People;" "Latin and Humanism." In the
essay " Luther and the German Language,"
KLUGE cannot be blamed for a little hit at
SCHERER'S periods of three hundred years in
the history of German literature. The
contents of the rest of the book are indicated
by the chapter-headings : " MAXIMILIAN and
his ' Kanzlei ; ' " "Authors and Printers;"
" Literary Language and Dialects in Switzer-
land ; " " Low German and High German ; "
" South Germany and the Catholics."
H. C. G.B.
ITALIAN LITERATURE IN BAVA-
RIA.
The relations of Italian literature to the Ba-
varian court are discussed by Dr. K. von
Reinhardtstoettner in the first volume of the
Jahrbuchfiir Munchener Geschichte. Materi-
al for such a study is furnished abundantly
by the accumulations of the Royal Library at
Munich, in the shape of librettos, festival com-
positions, plays, and eulogies of the reigning
family written by official court poets, theatri-
cal managers and masters of ceremonies ;
with occasional sonnets from Italy, celebrating
the liberality and enlightenment of the foreign
ruk-r.
Thus there is little of literary- value, nor are
the poets themselves of wide reputation. The
first writer known is Massimo Trojano, a
Neapolitan, who describes, in 1568, the festi-
141
28 3
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5
284
vals which attended the marriage of William
V. with Renata of Lorraine. This description,
in the form of a dialog, shows that already
Italian customs were in fashion as in France
at the same epoch and that the court pa-
geants were directed by foreigners. Under
the rule of William V. and that of his success-
ors, Italians occupied the positions of court
orators and poets ; from Italy came art and
music, and the favors shown their countrymen
are reflected in the history of Cesare Campa-
na, who devotes especial attention to Bavaria,
and in the sonnet of Tasso to Maximilian I.
while in Italy in 1593. The first half of the
XVII. century offers but one document, a
description of the Residenz by Baldossare
Pistorini ; but with the marriage of Ferdinand
to Adelaide of Savoy in 1652 begins a period
of Italian supremacy. The young queen is
accompanied to her northern home by all her
southern attendants. The court of Munich
becomes an Italian colony. In letters, Ade-
laide herself set the example by composing
madrigals, strambotti and short comedies.
To her poets she furnished subjects, inserted
in their works portions of her own, collected
in Munich much of the Italian literature of
the age, and fashioned the court festivals on
Italian models. Among those patronized by
her may be mentioned her secretary, Dome-
nico Gisberti, a Venetian, writer of sonnets
and allegorical plays without number. The
rise of the musical drama produced under her
care many compositions, among which are
found some of Francesco Sbarra, court poet
at Vienna, and those of Giovanni Battista
Maccioni of Orvieto, who had come to Munich
with Adelaide and who is her chosen poetical
mouth-piece. Of higher birth is count Pietro
Paulo Bissari of Vicenza, who had likewise
an Italian reputation, best known at Munich
in musical dramas and festival scenes.
Another noble is the marquis Ranuccio Pal-
lavicino, attracted from Parma by the fame of
the Bavarian court and who in Munich cele-
brates the architecture of the Residenz and
the magnificence of Ferdinand.
After the death of Adelaide, in 1676, Ven-
tura Terzago, a poet of occasion, writer of
musical dramas and festival plays, rivalled
Gisberti in the number of his compositions.
Later, the wars of Max Emmanuel form the
theme of a poetical album of many authors.
A noted librettist is Luigi d'Orlandi from
Mantua. Others drew subjects for musical
dramas from the works of Corneille and
Racine. With the war of the Spanish Succes-
sion the glory of the Bavarian court diminish-
ed. During the first two decades of the XVIII.
century little literary life is found at Munich,
but beginning with 1723, whenDomenico Lalli
(Bastian Biancardi) became court poet and
composed at Munich many sonnets, librettos
and festival plays, a short-lived revival of Ita-
lian influence occurred. Villati and Perozzi,
the latter a close imitator of Petrarch, resisted
for a time the tide of French tendencies. The
Arcadians also are patronized and imitated,
while the operas of Zeno and Metastasio hold
sway at the theatre. Yet the times were for
national development. The rise of German
poetry drove out the artificial Italian lyric, and
after the middle of the century few traces of
other poets than librettists remain.
A bibliography of the period treated in this
first article, down to the time of Napoleon, is
appended, and is interesting from the number
of Italian works published in Munich which
it enumerates.
F. M. WARREN.
Johns Hopkins University.
Untersuchungen fiber den Satzbau Luthers
von DR. HERMANN WUNDERLICH. I
Theil : Die Pronomina. Miinchen, 1887.
Those who have written about LUTHER'S
language have been concerned for the most
part with etymology and with his service to
New High German, and have had but little to
do with syntax. WETZEL in ' Die Sprache
Luthers ' (Stuttgart, 1859), and LEHMANN in
' Luthers Sprache in seiner Ubersetzung des
neuen Testaments ' (Ha-lle, 1873), treated of
syntax, however, but not from a historical
point of view and without tracing out the
details. Moreover, almost all the investiga-
tions have been confined to the translation of
the Bible, while the free course of the develop-
ment of LUTHER'S language is to be sought in
his original writings.
For these reasons DR. WUNDERLICH has
opened a broader field for his labors, and,
beginning with the address to the German
nobility of 1520, which represents the first step
142
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES. 1888. No. 5.
286
in the development of the Reformations-
schriften, he comprehends in his researches
all the more important writings down to the
year 1545. He follows, as in his ' He it rage
zur Syntax Notkers ' (Herlin, 1883), the system
of MIKLOSICH in considering syntax not a
mass of dead rules but a vigorous organism.
This first part is divided into four heads :
The simple verbal form ; Pronoun under-
stood from the context ; The personal pro-
noun ; The demonstrative and relative pro-
noun. The first three subjects are passed
over rather hurriedly, though perhaps suffi-
cient space is given to them, more than half
of the entire book being devoted to the de-
monstratives and relatives. In considering
the peculiarities of a writer, the simple sentence
is of much less importance than the more
complex constructions. We are to look for
the characteristics of a writer, in his long
periods, where there is opportunity for greater
variety of expression. Following this line of
argument, our investigator has paid particular
attention to the relative sentence and to the
position and arrangement of subordinate sen-
tences in general. No vague generalities are
given. All statements are illustrated by
copious examples, thus making the book a
valuable store-house for convenient reference.
A mild protest against the rather monoto-
nous use of abbreviations would, perhaps, not
be out of place.
Of course, this book is not ' epoch-making,'
but it aims to fill up a gap and, taken, as it
does, the language at the period of transition
from Middle High German to New High Ger-
man will be welcomed by scholars who are
interested in the study of historical German
grammar. It is opportune, as taken in con-
nection with DR. KLUGE'S new work on the
influence of LUTHER on the German lan-
guage. We hope the other parts will
follow iu rapid succession.
CHARLES HUNDY WILSON.
Cornell University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
SCANDINA VIAN STUDIES.
To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTES :
SIRS: Mr. Egge's article in the March num-
ber of MOD. LANG. NOTES on this subject
seems to call for some comment on my part ;
and I shall try to answer his objections and criti-
cisms as briefly as possible. In the first place,
I would beg leave to call Mr. Egge's attention
to a sentence in my original article that must
bar out most of the omissions mentioned by
him. The sentence reads as follows : "Only
college instruction will be discussed, the pure-
ly literary side of the question being necessari-
ly omitted." Now while the University of
Minn, must certainly be regarded as a college,
one would scarcely include under this head
Luther Seminary, Red Wing Sem. and Augs-
burg Lutheran Seminary and Institute. The
Danish High School at Elk Horn and the
other schools of Mr. Egge's list may rank
very high as schools, but they are not colleges
in the Eastern sense of the word, at least. I
had not heard, when the article was written,
that a college course had been added to St.
Olaf's School. Mr. Egge gives us much valua-
ble and interesting information regarding
Scandinavian studies in the Western schools,
but this can only in part be considered as
supplying the omissions of my list.
Again, under the second head, Mr. Egge
seems to have misunderstood me. I should
not presume to announce that I think that " the
study of Icelandic furnishes as good a mental
discipline as the study of Greek and Latin,"
etc. Of course that may be my opinion, but I
do not presume to publish it. A reference to
my original article will show my statement
to be more guarded and conditional ; the
omission of the little word "if" makes the
difference,
Mr. Egge's last criticism may, perhaps, be
a just one. My information was obtained
almost entirely from the catalogues of the
seminaries themselves, and if the impression
derived from them be a false one, I should
be only too glad to acknowledge my error
and to offer my apologies to all offended
Scandinavians. If my remarks could be con-
strued as in any way reflecting on the charac-
ter of our Scandinavian population, I offer
here my sincerest apologies. No unprejudiced
person can fail to recognize in them one of the
mainstays of the republic, and their absence
from the Chicago riot is only one proof out of
287
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
288
many of their excellent character and sound
common sense. I still claim, however, that it
is highly desirable that our foreign population
should in all cases become Americanized,
though not necessarily at the expense of their
native language and literature. A knowledge
of English does not preclude a familiarity with
Danish or Swedish, nor does an adoption of
American ideas shut off all sympathy with
home traditions and beliefs.
No one can blame Mr. Egge for his criti-
cisms, since they are evidently made with
perfect sincerity. It is always interesting to
get a partisan view of any subject. Mr. Egge's
intimate acquaintance with the Scandinavian
population of the West gives an authority to
his statements, to which, of course, I cannot
pretend. A residence in the West would with-
out doubt greatly change my views on this
subject, but in default of this, I have to rely
upon second-hand information, which is apt
to be untrustworthy. This letter is not
intended at all in an unfriendly spirit, but
merely as a justification of my original po-
sitions. Mr. Egge's suggestions and his real
corrections of my incomplete list are grateful-
ly acknowledged.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
BRIEF MENTION.
It is gratifying to learn that the Legislature
of S. Carolina has doubled the appropriation
for South Carolina "College" (now "Uni-
versity") and thereby greatly strengthened
her teaching staff. This is one of the most
welcome movements in the field of Southern
education, where the modern languages at
present begin to play so important a role.
From Oberlin College (Ohio) comes also the
cheering news that "the work in the modern
language department has increased, necessi-
tating another professor of German."
At the banquet given on the occasion of the
reception of the French Professors resident in
England, by the University of Cambridge, of
which an account was given in the February
number of MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, Dr.
Butler, the Master of Trinity College in that
University, delivered an address of hearty
welcome in which he warmly endorsed the
objects of the society and their efforts to
secure the highest competency in the teacher
and the best results in the teaching. His
speech, which was exceedingly witty and
happy, contained several hints of real im-
portance ; among others, the necessity of
establishing between the foreign teacher and
his pupils a warmer sympathy than usually
exists. He humourously suggests that "the
entente cordiale between boys and their
foreign masters will never be quite complete
till some French master has broken at least a
collar-bone at foot-ball."
An attempt to facilitate the study of Old
French philology among "candidates to the
L. L. A. title of St. Andrew's University " and
"students working under the Cambridge Uni-
versity scheme for a tripos in Modern Lan-
guages " is made in 'An Introduction to Old
French ' by F. F. Roget, Graduate of Geneva
University, Tutor for comparative Philology,
and for the Philology of French, St. George's
Hall Classes, Edinburgh (London : Williams
and Norgate, 1887; i2mo., pp. 387). Adverse
criticism is perhaps scarcely warranted in the
case of a work the preface of which begins
with the frank avowal: " This book contains
no independent research, and little scientific
method;" and which proceeds to say, after
acknowledging indebtedness to Bartsch's
' Chrestomathie ' and Cle'dat's ' Grammaire
e'le'mentaire:' "Those books should be resort-
ed to by students who may have a taste for
the high scholarship which we cannot offer
them in this Introduction." Such a commen-
dation as this, however, betrays a false concep-
tion on the part of the present author, since
the elementary works here cited, while un-
doubtedly products, can scarcely be regarded
as well-springs, of ' high scholarship; ' and in
these days no instructor of university candi-
dates should be willing to present his students
with a text-book so invertebrate as not to be
able even to hold up its head in the presence
of such authorities. Indeed, the author
strikes with accurate iteration the key-note of
his work, in speaking yet again of " our fear
that we may be found inaccurate by the learn-
ed, and yet abstruse by the learners;"
though it is reassuring to find him assuming a
144
289
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
290
somewhat bolder front in view of the claims
of the subject treated, by averring (p. 12) of
the earliest monuments, that "they must not be
overlooked ; true men of learning view them
with respect, and even the amateur philologist
[Heaven save the mark !] can ill afford to
brush aside such an instructive page of the
history of language." The book consists of
three parts, of which the first discusses the
.language of the earliest monuments ; the se-
cond furnishes a compend of Old French
grammar, in which, e. g. ( aimeris accounted a
strong verb, and Old French is said to have
hardly a syntax of its own ; and the third,
and most useful, comprises a considerable
chrestomathy of prose and verse, with glos-
sary. Notwithstanding the evidences of more
than the usual share of well-meaning pains
bestowed in the preparation of this volume,
its method of treatment is diffuse and many
of its views and statements are erroneous.
With the exception that the work can scarce-
ly be considered " abstruse by the learners,"
the verdict of the " critical public, whose
judgment a book on Old French studies can-
not escape," must in this case be allowed to
coincide with the modest professions and ap-
prehensions of its author.
A deprint from the Zeitschrift fitr roma-
nische Philologie'\s thearticle "Vom Descort "
by Carl Appel. Derived from the Latin se-
quences of the Middle Ages, the Descort be-
longs almost wholly to the flowering period of
Provencal literature. Of the twenty-two ex-
amples which Dr. Appel notes, the latest is by
Guiraut Riquier, dated 1261, and the earliest,
which he publishes for the first time, is assigned
to Pons de Capduoill (f 1189-90) and therefore
can be placed in the eighth decade of the
twelfth century. The inventor of the Descort
is not known with certainty ; the biography of
Garin d'Apchier asserts that he wrote the first,
and cites the opening verses ; but the poem it-
self is lost and the date of the troubadour
cannot be exactly determined. As to priority
of time between the Descort of North France
and that of South France, the advantage rests
with the latter. The nine French poems
found are later than the earliest dated Proven-
cal, and differ fro:n the latter mainly in length
of verse. They are also, fortunately, accom-
panied by musical notation, which is lacking
in the Provencal MSS. The Descort does not
appear to have flourished outside of France.
In Italy three poems of the Sicilian school are
noted, more irregular in form than their origi-
nal and differing from it in content. Certain
of the North Italians likewise imitated their
neighbors in single poems, the most success-
ful of which is that ascribed to Dante : ' Ai
fals ris.' In Spain and Portugal Dr. Appel
finds that the Ensalada has little likeness with
the Descort, but resembles rather the Frottola
and the Fricassee in its mixture of languages
and combinations of individual lines taken
from different authors. No new definition of
the Descort is attempted by the author. He
cites the various remarks of the Provencal
treatises on poetry, and concludes, with the
'Leys d' Amors,' that the "essential thing in
the Descort is the difference of metrical form
in the various strophes." A discussion of the
relation of the Descort to the lyric Lai of
North France there are but three Lais in
Provencal and these imitated from the French
shows that the rimes of the latter change
more readily and that the last strophe is like
the first, while in the Descort this last strophe
is generally represented by a tornada ; that,
in general, the Descort is subject to ' more
rigid rules than the Lai, a difference explained
by the court origin of the former and by the
popular origin of the latter ; and that the sub-
ject of the Descort is love, while that of the
earlier Lai is religion. We are led here to
differ somewhat from the opinion of Dr.
Appel, and to suggest that the origin of the
Descort and of the lyric Lai are the same,
which would account for the religions bearing
of the latter and at the same time explain
their essential similarity.
THIERRY'S 'Re'cits des Temps MeVovingiens'
appear to be in favor as a text-book and is
found in the Pitt Press Series, edited by G.
Masson and A. R. Ropes (Cambridge Uni-
versity Press). The extracts are the same as
those of the edition of H. Testard (NOTES III,
Col. 218), but the value of the annotations is
far below that of the latter. Not only has
much less work been expended in prepa-
ration the Appendix, Notes and Indices of
the Cambridge edition numbering twenty-nine
145
291
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
292
pages against fifty-two for the Testard but
also the difficulties of translation and the ex-
planations of customs and laws are passed
over superficially. The few attempts at ety-
mologies are not all that could be desired :
masure "from the L. maneo" (p. 116), nierci
"from the L. merx, merces" (p. 124) give
little idea as to how the French form was
obtained, while the derivation of Marmontier
from Ma jus Monasterium (p. 124) reveals a
calm ignorance of phonetic changes. A com-
parison of the two editions is most useful as
illustrative of what editing too often has been,
and what, in the hands of a conscientious
worker like Testard, it can be made to be.
But the same house and the same series offer
to themselves a model in an edition of the
'Ecole des Femmes ' by GEORGE SAINTSBURY.
This play of Moliere, though one of his best,
is rarely edited for class work owing no doubt
to its occasional coarse allusions. The work
of MR. SAINTSBURY is none the less complete
and painstaking. Of unusual excellence from
the literary standpoint are his Introductions
on the life of Moliere and on the history of the
play. The notes are abundant and designed
to initiate into the spirit of the piece as much
as to explain constructions. For typographi-
cal execution and attractiveness of form and
page it is far superior to anything produced as
a text-book in France, where it seems to be a
tradition that good printing should be ex-
cluded from the class-room. The University
Press could not do better than to maintain the
high standard of editing set in this instance.
The indefatigable " Librairie Hachette &
Cie.," sends us a number of new books for the
elementary, or at least the pedagogical, study
of modern languages. Brief mention will be
made of a few of these :
1. Charlin's " First Step " is only a collec-
tion of phrases, well made but within very
narrow range, adapted to the illustration,
colloquially, of certain forms and idioms in
French.
2. Blotiet's ." Primer of French Composi-
tion " by Paul Bloue't, late of St. Pauls, is an
excellent example of the care which our most
scholarly colleagues in the " old country " are
devoting to the preparation of the most ele-
mentary class-books. The little book of 67
pages gives 40 short stories, well provided
with idiomatic notes and an excellent Vocabu-
lary, for translation into French. One of
these, with the figures iudicating the charac-
ter of the notes, will suffice to give an idea of
the plan and may be, moreover, not an in-
appropriate extract for the MODERN LAN-
GUAGE NOTES! "Two Good Friends. A
journalist one day* wrote to David Roberts,
the great painter : ' You have probably* seens
the articles which I have written4 on the pic-
tures which you have exhibited, but I hope
that we shall remain friends.' The painter
answered by return of post :s The first time
that I meet 6 you, I will pull your? ears, but I
hope that we shall remain friends."
3. Of like distinguished authorship is
" Common French Words, rationally grouped
as a stepping stone to Conversation and Com-
position," by Dr. Al. Beljame and Dr. A.
Bossert, with an Introduction by Henri Sue",
who tells us that "a book compiled by two
such eminent professors can scarcely have a
better introduction than the names of its
authors." The book is after the fashion of
our well-known "Roget's Thesaurus of Eng-
lish Words." Beginning with simple topics,
such as "L'homme," "La maison et la
Famille," "L'Ecole," etc., and advancing by
successive divisions to such as " La Vie Intel-
lectuelle et morale," " L'Activite" Sociale "
etc., the authors have grouped together the
nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc., most appropri-
ate for conversation or composition on such
themes. So far as may be judged by a curso-
ry examination, the work has been done with
care and skill. As a book of reference, like
Roget's Thesaurus, it will have interest and
value, and may also serve for correction or
increase of vocabulary. But if the committing
of such lists to memory is relied upon as a
"'stepping stone to conversation and compo-
sition " it will prove, we" fear, like all such
devices, to be only a broken reed ; and the
prediction "that it will materially help those
who use it in an intelligent manner to speak
French with a certain degree of fluency in a
comparatively short period " may be taken
with a free interpretation of the words "ma-
terially," " intelligent," " certain," and " com-
paratively." The book is beautifully printed.
146
293
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
294
4. An edition of Sedaine's " Le Philosophe sans le
Savoir," by Victor Oger, Lecturer in University
College and Victoria University, is interesting as
being the first edition, for English readers, that gives
the text of Sedaine's famous plays " as he wrote it and
as it is now acted," and also because it gives, as paral-
lel readings, the changes enforced by the " Censine,"
before it was allowed to be acted in 1765. In the In-
troduction we have an account of this Censine, and of
the subsequent history of the play until it was first
acted " integrally " in 1875 after more than a hundred
years of repression. To this is added a brief sketch of
Sedaine's literary career, and of his contemporary and
subsequent reputation, besides a good summary of the
play the introductory matter being, on the whole, a
model of what is good for a short edition. But here
our commendation must end. To 58 pages, large
type, of text, there are exactly 58 pages, small type, of
Notes! The editor himself says he has "aimed at
evolving from the text all the information in grammar,
syntax, idiom, words, phrases, etc., which it suggest-
ed." As the result, there is hardly a line that is free
from this process of " evolution," and the changes are
rung, with almost endless detail and repetition, upon
the most elementary points of grammar and vocabula-
ry. The best, then, that can be said for such notes is,
they are harmless, for nobody will read them. It is
due to the editor to add that he states, by way of ex-
planation of this " excess," that his book is intended
in view of certain examinations "to be read by
school boys and girls knowing hardly anything at all
of French . . . . , as well as by more advanced students
(the Senior Candidates) and by independent readers."
It was from the vain effort to produce a book suited
at once to_ all these classes of readers, that the notes
have grown into this cumbersome and heterogeneous
mass ; yet it would be hard to say to which class such
an edition is the least adapted.
PERSONAL.
Mr. Greenough White, Professor of Belles-
Lettres in the University of the South, at
Sewanee (Term.), has resigned his position on
account of failing health.
Dr. B. F. O'CONNOR (Columbia College, N.
Y.) delivered two lectures last month on the
"Cycle of Charlemagne," in the Law Build-
ing, at Columbia College. PROF. ALCEE
FORTIER (Tulane Univ., New Orleans) has
just completed a very successful course of
lectures on "Modern French Literature." The
authors especially treated were: TH. GAU-
TIER, MERIMKE and COPPEE.
MR. C. H. OHLY, an American student who
has for many years been pursuing his studies
in philology at the Universities of Germany,
is about to receive the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the University of Freiburg,
having already gained acceptance for his dis-
sertation : " Die wortstellung bei Otfrid ; ein
beitrag zur deutschen wortstellungslehre."
MR. OHLY has so long, under the guidance of
the best European teachers, been a zealous
student of Germanic philology, that we take
pleasure in announcing his intention to return
to America to join in our efforts here to estab-
lish and maintain the interests of sound and
progressive scholarship in ' Modern Language'
studies. It is to be hoped that MR. OHLY
may soon find a fitting field for work in one of
our best colleges.
OBITUAR Y.
NlSARD (JEAN-MARIE-NAPOLEON)
member of the French Academy, former
director of the Iscole Normale and senator of
France under the Empire, who died at San
Remo on the 25th of March, had long passed
away from active participation in literary
affairs. He was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine
i the 2oth of March 1806, studied at Ste-Barbe,
I commenced his career in the Journal des
\ Debats in 1826, but under the July monarchy,
j went over to the National of Armand Carrel.
I He early made himself known by opposing
the Romantic school, publishing in 1834 Les
Poltes latins de la Decadence, in which he
drew a comparison between Lucan and Victor
Hugo. Instructor at the Ecole Normale under
Gtiizot and, at the same time, attached to the
ministry of Public Instruction, first as chief
secretary, later as head of the division of
sciences and letters, he entered the field of
politics and was deputy of the C6te-d'Or 1842-
8. In 1843 he was made professor of Latin
Eloquence at the College de France, in 1850
elected to the Academy over Alfred de Mussel
and gave his adhesion to the reign of Napo-
leon III, who rapidly advanced him. As in-
spector general of the higher education he
took part in the reorganisation of the Ecole
Normale, was appointed to succeed Villemain
in the chair of French Eloquence at the
Sorbonne, which occasioned a political de-
monstration at his lectures and increased his
reputation with the Empire. Commander of
the Legion of Honor in 1856, director of the
Ecole Normale from 1857, senator of France
from 1868, the arrival of the Republic drove
him into retirement, and of old age into lit-
erary inactivity. His most important works,
besides that mentioned above, are : Precis de
li literature francaise (1840) ; Histoire de la
litterctture franfaise (1849, in two volumes,
1861 in four) ; collections of separate articles
as Melanges (1838), Etudes snr la Renais-
sance (1855), / 'hides de critique litteraire (1858)
Nouvelles Etudes d'histoire et de litteratttre
(1864). He also directed the publication of
the Collection des classiques latins (1839 on, in
27 volumes).
147
295
May. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 5.
296
JOURNAL NOTICES.
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT. NO.
A., Phonologie des patois du canton de Vaud : Etude
sur le verbe dans le patois de Blonay (-ier). No. 8.
Froltzhelm, Job., Lenz, Goethe und Cleophe Fibich.
Harnack, 0., Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung
(1805-1832). (C).
REVUE DE8 DEUX MONDES, lerfevrier. Brunetl-
ere, F., Les M6taphores de Victor Hugo.
REVUE POLITIQUE ET LITTERAIRE. NO. 6.~ Dr-
mesteter, J., Miss Robinson; the Plan of Campaign.
No. 7. Larroumet, 6., Shakespeare et le theatre
fran^ais. NO. 8. Berr, H., L'histoire des romans de
M. Alphonse Daudet.
REVUE DU MONDE LATIN. J^'wir. lefebvre-
8t-0gan. La socie'te' italienne de la Renaissance.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA.-FASC. ll.-D'Ovidio, F., Sulla
canzone " Chiare, fresche e dolci acque." FA8C. III.
Martini, Ferd., Francillon.
FORTNIGNTLY REVIEW.-^a^A. Dowden, E., The
Study of English Literature. James, H., Guy de Mau-
passant.
ANDOVER REVIEW. March. Daves, A. L., F. w. H.
Myers, poet and critic.
WESTMINSTER REVIEW. March.-nn Sachs.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEN DEUTSCHEN UNTER-
RICHT, II, 2. Schoenfeld, P., Accent und Quantitat
Miililluiuscn, Aug., Vom Ubersetzen in der Schule.
Maydorn, B., Zur Aussprache des Deutschen in der
Schule.
|L PROPUQNATORE Novembre-Dlcembre, 1887. Con-
cato, Salvatore, II sonetto rinterzato " Quando il
consiglio degli uccei si tenne " di Dante Alighieri.
Pagano, Vlncenzo, Galeazzo di Tarsia, notizie
storiche e letterarie del barone e poeta Galeazzo di
Tarsia. Giovanni Ite dl Sassonia, (Filalete) Com-
mento della Divina Commedia per la prima volta
tradotto. Lamma, Ernesto, Di alcuni Petrarchisti del
secolo XV. Bestorl, Antonio, Osservazioni sul metro,
sulle asaonanze e sul testo del Poema del Cid (con-
tinuazione e fine). Walter, Bibliografle.
REVUE DES PATOIS, NO. 3. Juillet-OctobrelSffi.
Cle'dat, L., Le patois de Coligny et de Saint-Amour.
Grammaire et glossaire. Combler, Contes en patois de
Germolles. Jean de la Jeanne. Le loup et le renard.
Le couvent de Cluny. Peton et safemme. Les coups
d'yeux. Pultspelu, Sur une derivation populaire du
participe passe. Sebtllot, P., Contes de la Haute-
Bretagne : La bonne f emme aux cent ecus. Peuyot.
Devanne, Conte en patois de Prouvy. Laisse-li ma
tete. Blanchet, Proverbes limousins. Possoz, Chan-
son en patois de S'jez (Savoie). Les trois sortes de
garyons. Depoulllement des p'riodiques franfais con-
sacrfis aux traditions populaires. Notices biblio-
graphiques. Chronlque.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZOSISCHE SPRACHE
UND LlTTERATUR, BAND X., HEFT I. (Abhandhmg-
<). Blcken, W., Die Gestaltung des franzosischen
Unterrichts in Ubereinstimmung mit den revidierten
Lehrplltnen. Bock, N., Moli^re's Amphitryon iin
VerhHltnis zu seinen Vorgftngern. Miszellen. Banzer,
1)., Die Frau Patelin und ihre Nachahmungen. (Sup-
plementheft 4). Holzhausen, P., Die Lustspiele Vol-
taires .
ENQLISCHE STUDIEN. VOL. XI. PART 2. Ka-
luza, M., Zum handschriftenverhaltniss und zur text-
kritik des Cursor Mundi. Kllnghardt, H., Australisch-
er volkscharacter. Reviews : Korting, G., Grundriss
der geschichte der englischen literatur von ihren
anfiingen bis zur gegenwart (E. Kolbing). homer,
K., Einleitung in das studium des AngelsBchs. Erster
theil, zweite aufl. bearbeitet von Adolf Socin (E.
Nader). Sweet, H., Second Middle English Primer (J.
Koch). Wright, W. Aldls, The Bible Word-Book (A.
L. Mayhew). Garnett, Kl chard, Works on Carlyle:
Oswald, Eugene, Life of Thomas Carlyle ; Flugcl,
Ewald, Thomas Carlyle. Ein lebensbild und gold-
kBrner aus seinen werken ; Fischer, Th. A., Erin-
nerungen an Jane Welsh Carlyle (M. Krummacher).
Mommscn, Tycho, Die Kunst des tlbersetzens fremd-
sprachlicher dichtungen ins Deutsche (Max Koch).
Bandisch, Julius, TJeber die charaktere im 'Bruce 1
des altschottischen dichters John Barbour (E. K61-
bing). Soffe, Erall, 1st Mucedorus ein schauspiel
Shakespeares ? (L. PrUscholdt). Johann Baudlsch,
Schulcommentar zu Milton's Paradise Lost (M. Krum-
macher). A number of English 'Readers' for Ger-
man Schools and several school-grammars, are
noticed. Victor, W., Elemente der phonetik, etc.,
Zweite auiiage (A. Western). Sweet, H., Elementar-
buch des gesprochenen English. Zweite Auflage(H.
Klinghardt). Wagner, Ph., Die sprachlaute des Eng-
lischen (Franz Beyer). Phonetlsche Studlen, Hrsg. v.
W. Victor (H. Klinghardt). Several works on
'Methods' of teaching Modern Languages are re-
viewed. Wendt, G., Der gebrauch des bestimmten
artikels im Englischen (E. Nader). Krummarher, M.,
Metrische Ubersetzungen (L. PrOscholdt). Miscellen :
Elze, K., Falsche versabtheilung bei Shakespeare.
Lentzner, K., Coco und cocoa ; Alexander Schmidt
(necrology by Karl Lentzer).
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ROMANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, XI,
3. Teza, E., Trifoglio. Thunieysen, B., Der Weg vom
dactylischen Hexameter zum epischen Zehnsilber der
Franzosen. Osterhage, G., AnklHnge an die germa-
nische Mythologie in der altfranzOsischen Karlssage.
III. Andrcsen, H., Zu Benoit's Chronique des dues
de Normandie. Grober, G., Zu den Liederbi'.chcrn
von Cortona. Vermischtes Bcinhardstottner, >., La
Vittoria di Christian! des Giovanni Bonasera. Hor-
ning, A., Uber steigende und fallende Dipthonge im
Ostfranzosischen. Dlas, Eplph. tfber die spanischeii
Laute 9, z und j. I'lrleh, J., E1ymok>>risehe8. Be-
ftprechungen.'lobler, A. : H." Miehelunt, Der Roman
von Escanor von Gerard von Amiens. Tobli r, A.,
Romania, XVIe annfie, 1887. Janvier.-Stengtl, E., A.
Tobler, Berichtigung.
ARCHIVIO GLOTTOLOGICO ITALIANO, X, 2.-
Kl. chia, ., Annotazioni si^te^laticlle alle Antiche
rime genovesi ecc. I'ecl, L., Vocalismp del diatetto
d'Alatri. Tobler, A., 11 Panfllo in antico veneziano,
col latino a fronte, edito e illustrato. Ascoll. G. I.,
Di -tr-issa che prenda il posto di -tr-lce, i. II ti]>o
gallo-romano w=sebO o i franc, orteil e glaive, dello
ptesso. Gaster, M., II Pkyxiologus rumeno, edito e
illustrato.
148
Italtimorc, ,Iuii>, 1HSS.
/////. S /..]//. V. I A' Y SYSTEM IN TEACH-
ING FOJtEIGX I.I I'l: A'. -ITUKK*
It is my purpose to offer a few suggestions
on the teaching of a foreign literature in
connection with the so-called seminary
system, to add a word regarding that system
itself, and to inquire to what extent the
methods and scope of the instruction at Ger-
man universities are available for our own
institutions.
As the question has been limited to the
teaching of a foreign literature in the seminary
or association of advanced students, the
consideration of the study of English litera-
ture would then be only indirectly included,
inasmuch as the methods would need to be
somewhat modified in order to conform with the
student's greater familiarity with the language.
That subject moreover has already received
much attention at the various sessions of this
Association, and one of our members, PRO-
FESSOR T. W. HUNT of Princeton, published
in the Andover Review for November, 1885,
an article on "Desirable Methods in English
Literary Study," which forms a valuable
contribution not only with respect to the
special topic which lie treats, but also in
regard to the general question of the study of
literature.
How, then, is a foreign literature best taught
to advanced students?
As the instruction given must be adapted to
the qualifications of the student, much de-
pends upon his proficiency in the special lan-
guage under consideration. I will assume, as
our average student, one who has enjoyed at
the start at least two years of preliminary
linguistic training, in the proportion of from
three to five exercises a week, and who has
also enjoved certain other advantages of study
and reading sufficient to have developed in him
a fair literary sense, ami to have furnished him
with an adequate amount of general literary
culture.
*A paper read at the Fifth Annual Convention of the
MriDHKN I.AN<;UAC;R Ass<>< IAI ION OK AMKKICA, held in
I'hiluilclphi.i, December, 1887.
It does not seem necessary here to go into
any detail regarding this preliminary work of
tlie first two years. We may suppose that the
student has been thoroughly grounded in the
grammar of the language, has been initiated
into methods of word-formation and word-
derivation, has examined the laws describing
the relations between the various members of
the Indo-European family of languages, has
had some practice in rendering from English
into the foreign language and in translation at
sight, has read a variety of selections from
different authors illustrating a wide range of
style, and has become familiar with a few
masterpieces in poetry and in prose. In other
words our average student will be the average
Junior, equipped, we trust, with a good
knowledge of English and possessing some
acquaintance with English literature, in
addition to his special acquirements in foreign
languages.
That a knowledge of Greek and Latin also
would be indispensable, no one perhaps would
care to maintain; but it would be folly to
assert that without a knowledge of the ancient
classics a proper appreciation can be gained
of the foundations, the drift, and the inspi-
rations of modern literatures.
The objection may be made that too much
time is demanded for this preliminary study ;
that our ordinary college courses do not admit
the opportunity of carrying on the study of the
modern languages for three or four con-
secutive years. We may be reminded that in
some institutions of great dignity and age the
modern languages have been optional
branches, or have been required for only a
limited number of hours at an advanced stage
in the curriculum. To these objections tin-
answer might be made that a period of two
years so employed would seem to be tin- mini-
mum of time possible for producing the train-
ing necessary, that institutions with an inade-
quate provision of time or teaching-force may
expect to attain results correspondingly inade-
quate, and that the day is fortunately passing
by in which the study of the modern laiigua:
is made merely auxiliary to the curriculum
and treated without proper consideration of
149
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
300
their natural and just requirements. The
spread of the elective system is everywhere a
powerful assistance toward this desirable con-
summation.
After two years of such preparatory work,
then, the student is ready for the advanced
or seminary work. This term seminary with
us seems to be employed to indicate a variety
of methods in teaching, while the word itself
is used in German to describe both the place
of meeting and the exercise which is generally
held there. These exercises abroad appear
to range in character from such as resemble
quite nearly our ordinary recitation to those
embodying the results of some independent
investigation ; but the controlling principle is
apparently the preparation of the work in con-
nection with a special equipment under the
leadership or guidance of the instructor in
charge. The professor's own study may fre-
quently be the scene of action, and the material
furnished be largely from his own supplies.
There is sometimes a disposition to confine
the term seminary-work to the most advanced
stages of investigation, whether literary or
linguistic. There is no real objection to this
limitation, although in the interests of con-
venient nomenclature the larger field might
be permitted to include the smaller.
With respect to the equipment the student
should have easy access to the following
materials, and should be encouraged in their
familiar and constant use.
A collection of the best critical editions of
the standard literary monuments of the lan-
guage, beginning with the earliest records.
As large a collection as possible of minor
literary monuments, pamphlets, journals, cor-
respondence, in short, of all original literary
matter, however insignicant. A collection of
general and special literary histories, including
biographies, essays, monographs and miscel-
laneous articles. Finally, the principal periodi-
cals in the language, both learned and light.
Few colleges are able to furnish such an
apparatus and the private library of the pro-
fessor must frequently assist in filling the gaps.
In those institutions, however, in which the
library appropriations are distributed among
departments, a comparatively small annual
amount, judiciously expended, will be sufficient
to provide gradually a respectable outfit.
Beginnings of this kind have already been
made. The special-alcove system at Har-
vard appears in a modified form at Baltimore,
Ann Arbor, Cornell and elsewhere, and we
trust that it will not be many years before
quarters similar to the admirable language
seminary-rooms at Strasburg, or the well-
furnished historical department at Johns Hop-
kins, may be deemed indispensable for teach-
ing properly modern literatures.
A few words may be added regarding the
employment of this equipment.
There should be careful study of the works
of an author, and careful study of his life and
times. The two lines of study are reciprocally
illustrative, while the balance should decided-
ly incline toward a direct acquaintance with
the author's writings. Literary history, how-
ever, has also its distinct function and value,
affording a clear outline and background for
the special study of the author himself.
The work may be performed in two ways :
by the ordinary form of class-room instruction
with recitation, lecture and comment ; and by
subdivision of the work among different mem-
bers under the supervision of the instructor,
either assigning to the members of such class-
es different portions of the same general sub-
ject, with references to the proper authorities
or sources, or allowing individual members to
pursue individual courses of reading or inde-
pendent lines of investigation, with frequent
reports of progress.
In regard to the question whether a written
lecture or an address from notes be preferable
in the course of such academic instruction, it
has been argued that anything read from a
written page may as well be printed and cir-
culated for more careful study, and that the
dictated phrase is lifeless jn comparison with
the spoken word. There is danger too that
the lecture, once crystallized into a permanent
shape, may not receive from year to year the
revision which it needs. On the other hand,
it is not always convenient or easy to publish
at once the results of study and investigation,
(although we have noticed that some Scotch
students have recently attempted this for their
professor, surreptitiously), while the beneficial
and attractive element of stvle and form is
June. MO HERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
302
..it. n absent from the extemporary effort.
l'rrli;i|.s the \\iser way would lit- to blend
both forms of deliver \ .
\Vitliout attempting hen- to lay down any
detailed course of instruction, it may be said
in general that the study of an author should
not In- divorced from the study of his age, but
that the two sides of the examination should
be jointly conducted. In like manner the
minute study of individual works in respect of
style and thought may well be associated with
general reviews of groups of works. The
function moreover of comparison is important,
the comparison, namely, between different
works of the same writer composed at differ-
ent periods in his career, or between different
writers of the same school, or between differ-
ent stages of development of the subject, as
the drama, or between different stages of
growth of a national literature, or between .
the literatures of different nations and their
reciprocal influence.
Illustrations will readily occur from our
common experiences in teaching.
The old German ' Messiads,' the ' Heliand '
and OTKRID'S 'Krist,' when compared show
many interesting points of contrast. One may-
note the differing treatment of the Gospel
narrative, and the difference in metrical
structure, representing on one hand the strong
and simple alliterative beat of heathen versifi-
cation, and on the other the influence of the
gathering force of the Latin strophe of the
Christian hymn, concealing within itself the
melodious possibilities of assonance and allit-
eration with the more perfect melody of
finished rime. Looking at the circumstances
of the composition of the two poems, in one
has been found an eloquent proof of the growth
of Christianity among the unlettered peoples
of the Saxon North ; in the other, an attempt
to resist in the South the influence of a frivolous
and pagan literature. The poems of WAI.THKR
VON iKR \'<H;I:I.WKI !>!:, when studied in con-
nection with his age, throw interesting side
lights upon the social life of his time, and
upon the contentions between Fmperor and
1'ope. MaKTi.N LrniKK's writings are scarce-
ly intelligible without an examination of
Middle High German, and in turn assist to an
accurate analysis of modern German syntax.
To describe the origin of the French or Ger-
man drama, one must review ecclesiastical
literature, and be familiar with the theatre of
thu ancients. The benefit is evident of such
courses as I'KOFKSSOR CRANE'S lectures at
Cornell on French society in the seventeenth
century, based upon the voluminous memoirs,
correspondence, and other literary memorials
of that period; or the course of PKOKKSSOK
ELLIOTT at Johns Hopkins, in which the
work of the year may be concentrated upon a
limited period in literary history, or upon the
study of a small group of related dialects, or
of a few important linguistic monuments.
What useful material for a knowledge of the
current impressions in Paris regarding Euro-
pean art and politics is afforded by HMM.'S
miscellaneous communications to the Augs-
burg Gazette! What a field, too little
cultivated, is afforded by the bulky corres-
pondence of prominent literary characters!
Again, not the least beneficial phase of the
minute study of the second part of Faust is
afforded by the social and philosophical
problems suggested, and by the discussion of
the relations between the Classic and Roman-
tic movements as depicted in the " Helena."
Not less attractive is the effort to fathom the
secret of the .many erratic manifestations of
genius of which every literature yields attrac-
tive and baffling illustrations.
A legitimate feature of such seminary work
may be the examination by students of neu
and relevant publications, whether edition or
commentary or special treatise, and the pres-
entation of critical notices of their contents.
Others desire to discard all adventitious aids,
and, leaving unconsidered whatever incrus-
tations have clustered i.pon the shell, to
penetrate to the heart, and to devote the
energies of their students to the patient study
of the bare unvarnished text, the naked
thought of the author selected. Such diversi-
ties of operations may yet lead to equally
profitable results.
As to the relation of the study of literature
proper to the study of kindred subjects, one
may say that although the teaching of litera-
ture be not the teaching of history or of bi-
ography, both are essential as a background;
and that inasmuch as the province of what is
"5'
303
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
304
called Culturgeschichte, a sort of litearyr
biology, trenches upon literary history, it is
also to be considered a necessary concomitant
of literary studies.
Another minor agency may be included, for
its value in creating or stimulating the
student's interest, namely, the utilization of
illustrative material by means of the stereop-
ticon an agency at present gradually coming
into more general use. Such material would
comprise photographs, engravings, paintings,
or similar artistic reproductions of pers.ons,
places, or events of literary significance, fac-
similes of chirography, of manuscripts, of
charters, and of everything connected with
the science of diplomatics. Let me instance
the reproductions of old French texts by
GASTON PARIS ; the heliotype fac-similes of old
manuscripts published at Rome ; PROFESSOR
ZUPITZA'S recent edition of 'Beowulf,' with
the text and transliteration side by side ; the
phototypes, in another field, of classic
manuscripts like the Laurentian Sophocles
and the Ravenna Aristophanes ; the autotypes
of the Chaucer manuscripts in the British
Museum ; the splendid and elaborate publi-
cations of the Socie'te' de 1'Ecole des Charles
just appearing, which are to afford us in
beautiful heliogravures reproductions of the
most important documents relative to the
national history and literature ; and even the
matter of illustration in such works as
STACKE'S 'Deutsche Geschichte,' or KON-
NECKE'S 'Bilderatlas zur Geschichte der
Deutschen Literatur.' Material of this kind,
which is often too expensive to be obtained by
the separate members of a class, can readily
be converted into lantern views and be
presented to a class collectively, with appropri-
ate comments, in connection with lecture
courses or seminary work ; and such an ex-
pedient would obviate to a large degree the
disadvantages which his remoteness from the
great libraries and museums of the world
causes the American student to feel. Now for
the first time does there seem in this way to be
some outlook for more general paleographical
studies on this side of the Atlantic.
My remarks have been limited principally
to the consideration of foreign literatures,
leaving untouched the question of the proper
methods for dealing with those fascinating and
exceedingly important adjuncts of language-
training comprised under the rubrics of com-
parative philology and phonetics, At a meet-
ing of the American Philological Association
a few years ago, PROFESSOR JEBK, of Glasgow,
alluded to the current criticism that the work
of American classical scholars concerned itself
too much with grammatical and linguistic
subjects, and was too often in statistical form.
Certainly this is an honorable tendency,
whether displayed with reference to ancient
or to modern languages, and possibly the only
caution needful might be the comment that
the study of belles-lettres is equally arduous,
equally exacting, demanding peradventure
for finished culture in the teacher an even
longer period of apprenticeship, and that it is
equally fruitful in valuable results.
From this standpoint the position of modern
languages in German universities would
perhaps not be entirely satisfactory, as the
norm for corresponding American institutions,
although a tendency appears manifest yonder
which promises ultimately a well-rounded
curriculum. In respect to German, at least,
(and my impression is that the same observa-
tion will in some measure hold good with
regard to English and French also), an ex-
amination of the courses offered will reveal
that the literature since LUTHER has been
subordinated to a somewhat absorbing study
of the earlier dialects. The ordinary pro-
fessorships have been almost invariably held
by those whose chief interest lies in this earlier
field, while the later period has been in the
hands of instructors of a lower rank. At
Berlin, PROFESSOR SCHERER, literary historian
as well as philologist, exhibited a fine type of
the many-sided and finished scholar. Yet a
seminary room for Germanic languages was
finally ready to be occupied only in the year
of his death ; and the library of that seminary,
although comprising the valuable private-
collection of MiJLLENHOFF, contained, when
first made public, almost no literature after
the fourteenth or fifteenth century. SCHERER'S
successor, ERICH SCHMIDT, enjoys the dis-
tinction of holding perhaps the only ordinary
professorship in Germany which is occupied by
a scholar solely devoted to modern German
literature. And even this chair was first
offered to one or two men of the other type.
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
306
It is certainly no insignificant fact that this
departure takes place at the largest and
]>n.l>ahly the leading university of the land.
At Leipsic the conditions are somewhat
similar. Although the instruction under
ZAKNCKEand HII.UKHKAND, BIEDERMANN and
VON BAHDER and KOGEL, leaves little to be
desired, and although some exercises are con-
ducted there in connection with private libra-
ries, the library of the German seminary is
very nearly innocent of New High German
monuments. Among the younger generation
of scholars, too, in Germany we find that
those who are devoted to the older dialects,
as BEHAGHEL at Basel, BRAUNE at Giessen,
(now at Heidelberg) KLUGE at Jena, PAUL at
Freiburg, SIEVERS at Halle, STEINMEYER at
Erlangen, are ordinary or full professors, while
men like GEIGER at Berlin, HENNING at Stras-
burg, MINOR at Vienna, SAUER at Prague,
SEUFFERT at Graz, STRAUCH at Tubingen, and
others whose interests lie in more recent fields,
are of the secondary grade. The older pro-
fessors occasionally pay some attention to the
later literature, and historians like ONCKEN at
Giessen or philosophers like KUNO FISCHER
at Heidelberg or HAYM at Halle, divide their
efforts at times between their special sphere
and subjects in German literature. But it is
fair to maintain that the preponderance of
interest at German universities, and the field
most favored for advancement to the docto-
rate, may be found in the more strictly philo-
logical studies of the earlier period. I will
not presume to debate the wisdom of this
tendency yonder, where the language courses
in the gymnasiums are also to be reckoned in,
nor to claim too much prominence for the
counter-movement, which seems nevertheless
to bring with it a widening of the outlook and
a truer conception of proportion. . But, what-
ever be the task of the German university, it
cannot be precisely the same task as ours, nor
are jts ways, while admirable, necessarily to
be our ways. The German university is large-
ly a nursery for specialists, an invaluable
training-ground for teachers and investigators.
Based upon the common schools, and affording
the sole supply for the learned professions, it
has an intimate and unshaken hold upon the
nation. We, too, have an obligation to perform
toward our nation also. The minor part of our
own duty may be to train a limited number of
bright minds in progressive and independent
work ; the major portion of our labors must be
consumed in helping large numbers of students
to gain such a vantage ground of vision that
their sympathies will be permanently enlarged,
and their intellectual life possess a generous
and catholic range whose influence will touch
distant circles which we can never directly
reach, but which ought to share whatever di-
versities of gifts a university may have at its
I command. Is there any better method of ad-
vancing this aim than the careful and sympa-
thetic study of the noblest expressions of
modern literary thought ?
It has been the great privilege of many here
present to draw liberally from the fountains of
learning which spring so freely from Teutonic
sources ; and the severe and successful
methods there in vogue are exerting a power-
ful and not unfavorable influence upon our
own higher education. But may we not retain
our gratitude and acknowledge our manifold
indebtedness without too general a surrender
to foreign precedents? Perhaps I may be
permitted, in closing, to strengthen and make
clear the position which I am endeavoring to
maintain, by quoting some words from a
memorable oration delivered by the President
of this Association upon a memorable occasion.
At the Harvard Celebration last year, MR.
LOWELL said :
" It (i. e. the college earlier in the century),
set more store by the marrow than by the
bone that encased it. It made language as it
should be, a ladder to literature, and not
literature a ladder to language.
" I think I see a tendency to train young
men in the languages as if they were all to be
editors (i. e. of manuscripts, texts, etc.) and
not lovers of polite literature. Education, we
are often told, is a drawing out of the faculties,
may they not be drawn too thin ! I am not
undervaluing philology or accuracy of scholar-
ship. Both are excellent and admirable in
their places. But philology is less beautiful to
me than philosophy, as MILTON understood
the word, and mere accuracy is to Truth as a
plaster cast to the marble statue ; it gives the
facts but not their meaning. If I must choose,
153
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
308
I had rather a young man should be intimate
with the genius of the Greek dramatic poets
than with the metres of their choruses, though
I should be glad to have him on easy terms
with both.
"I hope then," MR. LOWELL concludes,
" that the day will come when a competent pro-
fessor may lecture here also for three years on
the first three vowels of the Romance Alpha-
bet, and find fit audience though few. I hope
the day may never come when the weightier
matters of a language, namely, such parts of
its literature as have overcome death by reason
of their wisdom and of the beauty in which it
is incarnated, such parts as are universal by
reason of their civilizing properties, their
power to elevate and fortify the mind, I hope
the day may never come when these are not
predominant in the teaching given here. Let
the humanities be maintained undiminished in
their ancient right. Leave in their traditional
preeminence those arts that were rightly
called liberal ; those studies that kindle the
imagination, and through it irradiate the
reason ; those studies that manumitted the
modern mind ; those in which the brains of
finest temper have found alike their stimulus
and their repose, taught by them that the
power of intellect is heightened in proportion
as it is made gracious by measure and
sympathy. Give us science, too, but give
first of all and last of all the science that
ennobles life and makes it generous."
HORATIO S. WHITE.
Cornell University.
n*IE ROMANHAFTE RICHTUNG DER
ALEXIUSLEGENDE
in altfranzosischen und mittelhochdeutschen
Gedichten. II. (Schluss).
Vergleichen wir nun sowohl mit L als auch
mit A, H lassen wir ausser Acht, da es viel
jiingeren Ursprungs ist, das franzdsische Ge-
dicht S und die von ihm abhangigen M und
Q, so fallt uns sofort auf, dass abgesehn von
den brautlichen Ziigeu S noch mehrere andere
Ziige mit L und A gemein hat. So :
i. Den Dienst des ALEXIUS beim Kaiser,
als er die Schule verlassen hat, cf. S v. 75 fF.,
A v. 77 ff., 85 ff.
2. Die Pilgerfahrt des ALEXIUS nach Jeru-
salem, cf. S v. 347 ff., A v. 447 ff., M v. 341-
360, Q str. 49-58.
3. Als ALEXIUS' Heiligkeit geoffenbart
werden soil, lauten auch die Glocken (A v.
758-767, S v. 1004, M v. 1047, Q str. 157).
Und zwar ist es auffallend, dass diese mit A
und L iibereinstimmenden Ziige sammtlich
auf Kosten des Interpolators von S zu setzen
sincl, und nicht aus P, der Quelle von S, stam-
men. So sieht es also aus, als ob entweder
S gerade in diesen neuen Partien von L oder
A beeinflusst sei oder vielleicht diese Ziige
erfunden und dadurch A beeinflusst habe.
Wir untersuchen zunachst die erste Moglich-
keit. Es ware ja denkbar, dass der Interpo-
lator von P nach Kenntniss der lateinischen
Bearbeitung erst sich veranlasst gefiihlt hatte,
seine Vorlage zu andern ; es ware auch mog-
lich, wenn auch weniger wahrscheinlich, da
es ja dem Gange der Litteraturgeschichte des
Mittelalters nicht entsprache, dass der In-
terpolator das deutsche Gedicht zur Vorlage
hatte. Da L und A, wie oben erwiesen, zusam-
menhangen, lasst sich eine eventuelle Be-
einflussung von S durch sie zugleich unter-
suchen fur beide Theile.
Bei naherer Betrachtung fallt uns gleich
auf, dass die iibereinstimmenden Ziige doch
ziemlich verschieden erzahlt sind. So:
1. Die Uebergabe des Briefes.
In L und A heisst es ungefahrso: Nachdem
EUPHEMIAN vergebens versucht hat, den
Brief aus der Hand des Todten zu nehmen,
clarauf die beiclen Kaiser und selbst der Papst
nicht mehr Gliick gehabt haben, denkt die
Braut, es mochte vielleicht in dem Briefe
etwas von ihrem Brautigam stehen, das ihr
allein zu wissen gebiihre. Sie tritt daruni
naher zu ihm hin, und erhalt sofort den Brief.
Ganz anders bei S (M, Q) : Papst und
Kaiser bitten den Heiligen urn den Brief, und
sobald der Papst die Hand ausstreckt, gibt
ihm der Heilige seiiien Brief (S, 1083 ff.). Da
geschieht aber ein Wunder; der Hand des
Papstes entfliegt der Brief sofort zur Jungfrau :
"A la pucele s'en ala a la place
Ens en son sain, en son bliaut de paile."
2. I m Gesprach der Eltern und der Braut
mit ALEXIUS unter der Stiege, hat S nicht alle
154
39
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 6.
hubschen Ziige von L und A ubernommen,
vor alien Dingcn den nicht, dass die Braut
selbst den Pilger nach ihrem " friedel " fragt.
3. Endlich hat in der Erzahlung der Braut-
nacht S den Zug des Lichtes, an welches sich
das Gesprach ankniipft, nicht beibehalten.
Warum hatte S seine Vorlage so sehr
geandert, ohne Grund und oft geradezu zu
seinem Nachtheil ? Schwerwiegender ist noch
der Umstand, dass die Namen von S ganz
verschieden sind : Die Frau des EUPHEMIAN
heisst bei A, L: AGLAES, Tochter des JO-
HANNES; bei S: BONE EURE, Tochter FLOU-
RENS. Der Kaiser heisst in A, L: THEODOSI-
us; bei S : OTEVIANS. Die Braut ist nicht wie
bei A, L : ADRIATICA, Tochter des GREGORIUS,
sondern LESIGNE, Tochter des SIGNOURES.
Die Namen der Vorfahren, welche L und A
sehr genau angeben, finden wir bei S nicht.
Auch dass Papst SIRICIUS ALEXIUS tauft, wird
nicht erwahnt. Endlich sind die Stadte, zu
denen ALEXIUS seine Zuflucht nimmt, andere.
VVeder Lucca noch Pisa kommen vor, sondern
la Lice resp. Lalice (Laodicea) und Ausis (L)
oder Alis (M) oder Alphis (Q) Edessa. Die
Stadt Tarsus nennt S Troholt. Endlich
erwahnt mit keinem Worte S, dass die Braut
zu ALEXIUS ins Grab gelegt wird, und der
Todte ihr neben sich Platz macht. Nach alien
diesen Abweichungen ist eine Beeinflussung
von S durch L oder A nicht anzunehmen.
Gegen die lateinische Bearbeitung spricht
noch speziell der Umstand, dass S Ziige hat,
welche L fehlen, und die A aus seiner andern
Quelle, der Bollandistenbearbeitung, entnom-
men hat. So den Ziig der Turteltaube und
vielleicht des Trauersacks. Ebenso die Ziige
gegen Ende, das grosse Gedrange, welches
Papst und Kaiser durch Geldausstreuen ver-
geblich zu vermindern suchen und das Tragen
der Bahre durch Kaiser und Papst selbst.
Viel wahrscheinlicher ist die zweite Mog-
lichkeit, die Beeinflussung des deutschen Ge-
dichtes durch das franzosische (die lateinische
Bearbeitung miissen wir vorlaufig ausser Acht
lassen). Schon litterargeschichtlich ist sie
amiehmbarer als die erste, da ja im Mittelalter
Frankreich Deutschland so oft beeinflusst.
Noch manches andere kommt hinzu : So vor
alien Dingen der Umstand, dass gerade die
Abweichungen von S und A, die wir oben
erwahnt haben, auf diesem Wege leicht erklar-
lich sind.
Wir haben oben gesehn, dass S auf das
alteste franzosische Gedicht P zuriickgeht,
und dass es alle brautlichen Ziige neu einge-
fiihrt hat. Betrachten wir gleich den wichtig-
sten Zug, den der Uebergabe des Briefes. P
hat die gewohnliche Fassung der Uebergabe
an den Papst. S lasst dem Papst den Brief
zuerst ubergeben und dann durch ein Wunder
zur Braut iibergehen, A lasst den Brief direct
zur Braut iibergehen. Scheint nicht darin
eine gewisse Gradation zu liegen? Der Ver-
fasser von S ist, wie wir unten des naheren
noch werden beobachten konnen, ein sehr er-
finderischer und dichterisch begabter Kopf.
Es ware moglich, dass er, um die Braut mehr
in den Vordergrund treten zu lassen, seine
Vorlage geandert hatte. Doch hatte er nicht
den Muth sofort mit der Tradition zu brechen.
Es ware ihm einerseits frevelhaft vorgekom-
men, einen so frommen Heiligen u'ber den
Kopf des h. Vaters hinweg mit seiner Braut
verkehren zu lassen, und doch hatte er an-
dererseits so viel poetischen Sinn, um den
anderen Zug fiir schoner zu halten. So ver-
band er denn, "par le plaisir le glorious ce-
leste," beide Fassungen mit einander. A
hatte nicht mehr dieselben Bedenken, verstand
vielleicht gar nicht mehr, weshalb der Papst
den Brief zuerst bekommen sollte, wenn ihn
doch sofort darauf die Braut erhalten sollte.
und strich deshalb den Papst. Dadurch
hatte A die Braut ungeheuer gehoben. Es
war dies vielleicht auch fiir A die Veranlas-
sung den Zug des Beilagers im Tode zu erfin-
den. Auch dadurch war dem Verhaltniss der
Braut zu ALEXIUS grossere Bedeutung ver-
liehen.
Dass A auf diese Weise die von S ange-
deutete Richtung weiter verfolgte und dessen
Motive ausbeutete, ist ja sehr natiirlich und
leicht zu verstehen. Viel weniger natiirlich
ware es aber, dass A von S ausgefuhrte Ziige
fallen Hesse. Dies ist aber doch ofters der
Fall, und so treten mis denn auch hier
Schwierigkeiten entgegen.
Beginnen wir mit den Hauptpunkten :
Das Gesprach unter der Treppe zeigt schon
bei beiden solche Unterschiede. Bei S ist es
um so viel mehr ausgefiihrt, und die Braut
155
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
312
wird dabei in so viel mehr riihretide Situatio-
nen gesetzt, dass es hochst seltsam ware, wenn
A diese Motive, obgleich es sie gekannt, nicht
benutzt hatte. Man vergleiche :
Ahnlich ist nur der Zug, dass ALEXIUS
nach seinem Namen gefragt wird. In S fragt
der Vater v. 805 ff. :
Biaus crestiens, ne savons vostre non
Faut vous connois de coi aids besoing?
"Sire, dist il, CRESTIENS ai a non."
Bei A fragt die Braut v. 621 ff.
Si sprach : " So got berate mich,
Tuo dinen namen mir bekannt "
Er sprach : " das tuon ich zehant .
Gote ergeben ich bin genant.
Min name ist dir unerkant. 1 '
Nach dieser Scene fahrt aber S folgender-
massen fort zu erzahlen : Die Mutter steigt mit
der Jungfrau die Treppe hinunter, unter der
ALEXIUS liegt. Jedesmal wenn Mutter und
Braut an ihm vorbeigehen, schwebt ALEXIUS
in grosser Angst, man mochte ihn erkennen,
und zieht sich scheu zuriick. Die Mutter hat
es schon gemerkt, glaubt aber, der Pilger,
der schon so lange Jahre in ihrem Hause lebe,
habe sie nie gesprochen, well er.sie hasse.
Doch ist sie neugierig ; sie mochte gerne
erfahren, woher er stamme, sie wolle ihn
gleich diesmal fragen, sagt sie zu ihrer
Schwiegertochter, sie kame ,ja sonst spater
vielleicht nicht mehr so leicht dazu, er sahe
so abgescbwacht aus, dass er wohl bald
sterben wiirde.
Die beiden Frauen nahern sich ihm. Der
Mutter kommt es so vor, als ob er ihrem ver-
lorenen Sohne gliche, und als sie ihn ansieht,
muss sie weinen: Doch ermannt sie sich und
fragt ihn nach seiner Heimat. Aber ALEXIUS
weicht der Frage aus, er ware krank, dem
Tode nahe, drum wolle er nicht liigen, "car
par mencoigne pert on saint paradis." Sie
wiirde es doch bald wissen, denn vor seinem
Tode wiirde er sein ganzes Leben aufschrei-
ben. Und er bittet seine Mutter noch naher an
ihn heranzukommen, und wie sie vor ihm
steht, kiisst er ihr die Fiisse und bittet sie um
Verzeihung.
"Sire " dist ele, " qttel pardon me querns t "
Pour mon malaige quie jou estre encombrt's."
"Sire " dist ele " tout vous soit pardonn^."
" Vostre grant painne que eu en avds.
Pour amour Diu, si le me pardonnds."
Et la pucele les a bien esgardes
Si li pardonne, ele fait autretel.
Ele s'en tourne, cil est moult lids rente's.
Hochpoetisch wirkt diese Scene, wo der
strenge Ascete beim Anblick seiner Mutter
ein menschliches Ru'hren fiihlt und sie um
Verzeihung bittet. Im deutschen Gedichte
lasst sich ALEXIUS nicht riihren. Wie wenn
er Eltern und Braut geradezu foppen wollte,
erzahlt er aus freien Stiicken (v. 615 ff.) von
ALEXIUS, den er wohl gekannt habe ; er geht
sogar soweit, eine Beschreibung von ihm zu
geben, und stets herzlos, ohne Riihrung. Die
Braut dagegen ist in der deutschen Legende
recht menschlich geschildert. Wie in hasti-
gem Fieber richtet sie ihre Fragen um den
Brautigam an den Pilger :
" Hat er iht gedaht widerkomen?
Daz ban ich nie von im vernomen.
Hat in gerouwen iht diu vart ?
Des selben ich nie innen wart,
Er jach, er wolde in dem leben
Sime libe ein ende geben."
So la dim, herre, enpfolhen sin
Uf die grozen gnside din."
Schon diese Scenen sind so verschieden ge-
schildert, dass eine unmittelbare Beeinflus-
sung kaum vorliegen diirfte. Noch deutlich-
er wird es aber aus dem folgenden : Wenn
der deutsche Dichter an die oben erwahnte
Scene nur eine Moralreflexion iiber ALEXIUS'
Standhaftigkeit und die Bemerkung hinzufiigt :
" Des morgeno fruo si zus im kam
Unt fragten von ir fridel mr,"
fiigt der Franzose noch eine ganze Episode
hinzu, welche die Braut und ALEXIUS noch in
nahere Beziehung zu einander bringt.
Wahrend in der ganzen Stadt Rom der
Heilige gesucht wird, von dem die geheim-
nissvolle Stimme in der Kirche gesprochen
hat, wahrend Papst und Kaiser im Hause des
EUPHEMIAN sich dariiber beklagen, dass er
nicht gefunden werde, und EUPHEMIAN selbst
nicht ahntjwelchen Schatz er in seinem Hause
birgt, liegt ALEXIUS unter der Treppe auf
seinem Strohlager und ringt mit dem Tode.
Da tritt die Jungfrau zu ihm :
" Sire " dist ele " moult vous torble li vis ; "
" Bele" dist il "car sui prts de ma fin."
Er werde heute sterben, er fiihle es an der
156
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, \W>. No. 6.
.\n-st, die ihi) bei a lie ; si.- nn.^c dm h an s< in-
Bestattung in der Kirrhe des h. Bonifarius
denken, aucli sit- werde vielleicht spater wun-
schen dort l>egraben zu werden. Ach, wenn
ilitn iiur fin Zeirhen voiu Mimmel karne, dass
er sehe, ob er recht gelebt ! \Venn nur die
Glocken fiir ihn liintcn u iirden ! Kaum hat
er das Wort gesprochen. so wird sein Wunsch
erfiillt. In der ganzen Stadt Rom lauten die
Glocken und ALEXIUS kann nun ruliigsterben.
Seine Stunde naht, und im letzten Augen-
blicke fliistert er noch seiner Hraut zu, er ware
nicht aus fernem Lande ; unter den Verwand-
ten, die ihn begraben wiirden, waren auch
Vater und Mutter, und seine Frau, die er ver-
lassen habe. Da wird der Braut plotzlich
Alles klar:
" E Dins," dist ele, "jou quie c'est mes amis."
" Sire," dist ele, " sont il bien lone de ci ?
Mandas lors tu par mes qui lor desist ? "
Aber ALEXIUS kann nicht mehr antworten.
Er ist todt. Diese Episode, welche am
schonsten das Verhaltniss des ALEXIUS zu
seiner Braut darstellt, felilt vollstandig bei A.
Sollte diesmoglich sein, wenn A, das ja sonst
viel poetisches Verstandniss zeigt, S gekannt
hatte. Doch wohl kaum. Und noch andere
Griinde sprechen dagegen.
Auch die Brautnacht ist in S und A ganz
verschieden behandelt. Die Details gebe ich
hier nicht an, da ich nochuntendarauf zuriick-
kominen werde. Hier moge die Bemerkung
geniigen, dass sie im fran/osischen Gedichte
ganz realistisch-dramatisch bewegt ist, im
deutschen einfach und riihrend sich abspielt.
Doch auch andere sehr poetische Ziige von
S hat A nicht aufxiuveisen. So hat folgender
Zug von S bei A nicht den geringsten Anklang
gefunden : Als ALEXIUS seine Braut verlassen
hat, um ins Morgenland zu pilgern, steigt er
auf einen Hiigel, um von dort aus vor seiner
Abfalirt zum letzten Mai die Stadt seiner
Ahneii zu sehn. Und indem er hiniiberblickt
zu seiner Yaterstadt, richtet er ein heisses
(it bet an den Herren, und bittet ihn, er moge
doch die Jungfrau, die er verlusseii, ein solches
Leben fiihren lassen, dass ihre Seele ins Him-
melreich koninie. Eincn Angenblick iiber-
inannt ihn die Riilirung, als er an seine Kltern
zuriickclenkt, doch fasst er sich bald wieder,
und befliigelten Schrittes eilt er /i;m Meere.
\Virhtig sind auch die Verse 476-500, die
wieder den Zweckhaben.die Scelenstarke des
AI.KXIUS zu zeigen. Als die Boten, welche
\'.\ THKMIAN nach seinem Sohne ausgeschickt
hat, ihn in Ausis nicht erkannt haben, da er
durch sein ascetisches Leben so abgeharmt ist,
folgt ihnen ALEXIUS heimlich bis zu Hirer
Herberge nach, und an der Thiire belauscht
er ihr Gesprach. Kr hort, wie auf die Frage
des Wirthes und der Wirthin, wen sie denn
so eifrig suchten, die Boten ihnen das Ver-
scliwinden des ALEXIUS aus Rom und die
Klagen seiner Eltern erzahlen. Dieser Bericht
riihrt den Heiligen bis zu Thranen, aber er
bleibt fest und lasst die Boten abziehen, ohne
sich zu erkennen zu geben.
Auch die Ankunft des ALEXIUS in Rom ist
von S mit mehr Farbe geschildert als von A :
Als ALEXIUS das SchifF verlassen, setzt er
sich nach langerer Wanderung durch die
Strassen unter einen Dornstrauch, um sich
auszuruhen. Er ist krank und schwach, und
denkt sich, dass er wohl in fremder Herberge
werde sterben mussen. Da liest er gerade in
seinem Psalter, den er zum Lesen hervorge-
holt, es sei die Pflicht jeder Mutter ihr Kind
zu pflegen, so lange es klein sei, sieben Jahre
lang, doch wenn es schwach und krank ware,
sein ganzes iibriges Leben lang. Das halt er
fiir ein Zeichen des Himmels und es bringt
ihn dazu, bei seinen Eltern um Herberge zu
Hehen.
Auch die Begegnung des Sohnes mit seinen
Eltern enthalt sehr viele Details, welche bei
A absolut nicht wiedergegeben werden.
Dieselben mitzutheilen gestattet mir l,eider
der Rauni nicht. Doch meine ich, dass die
mitgetheilten Abweichungen beider Gedichte
schon zur Geniige zeigen, dass eine directe
Beeinflussung nicht vorliegen kann. Man
denke noch an die obenerwahnte Verschieden-
heit der Namen, und man wird zugeben mus-
sen, dass beide Gedichte in keinem unmittel-
ban-n Yerhiiltniss zu einander stehen.
\\'dlil ist aber mittelbare Uebereinstinimung
vorhanden. S und A (resp. L) gehoren der
" briiutlichen " Richtung an. Nach meiner
Ansicht hat sich diese Richtung erst allmalich
entuickelt. Der urspriinglichen Legende lag
sie fern. In der Bollandistenbearbeitung und
den von ihr abhiingigen Arbeiten ist die Braut
'57
315
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
ganz Nebenfigur. Sie tritt selbst in der Braut-
nacht kaum hervor, willfahrt dem ALEXIUS
sofort, und trauert dann das ganze Gedicht
hindurch, ohne in die Handlung einzugreifen.
Die mittelmassigen Kopfe, welche sich an die
Bearbeitung der Legende machten, gingen
an ihr kalt voriiber. Nur die poetisch begab-
ten merkten, dass aus der Rolle dieser armen
Verlassenen etwas zu machen war, sobald man
sie als menschlich fuhlende Seele auffasste,
statt als stummes Opfer eines blinden Ascetis-
mus. Und jeder Dichter fuhrte die Rolle in
seiner Weise durch : der Deutsche einfach,
innig, riihrend der Franzose realistisch,
dramatisch. Aber nicht mit einem Schlage,
sondern langsam erfolgte die Ummodelung
der Legende. Ein Zug folgte dem andern,
und erst mit der Zeit wurde diese Auffassung
der Sage beliebter als die friihere. Darum
hat MASSMANN nach meiner Ansicht Unrecht,
wenn er p. 41 sagt : " Ueberraschend haftet
in dem spatercn italienischen Gedichte der
Hauptzug, dass der Todte nur der Braut den
Brief anvertraut." Im Gegentheil ist es
natiirlich, dass mit der Zeit das Romanhafte
immermehr gefiel. Aber MASSMANN geht
eben von einem Vorurtheile aus, das ihn
durch die ganze Untersuchung nicht verlasst.
Als die aesthetisch schonste Bearbeitung
muss sie nach ihm zugleich auch die alteste
sein. Aber dagegen lasst sich Wichtiges
einwenden.* Wenn vvir der Sage auf den
Grund gehen, so ist der Zug, dass ALEXIUS
seiner Braut den Brief gibt, so lieblich er auch
ist, fur die Auftassung der Legende doch
schief.f Als frommer Heiliger muss ALEXIUS
auch im Tode seinen Grundsatzen treu bleib-
en und den Stellvertreter Gottes allem andern
vorziehen. Wie kommt er dazu, die Braut
*G. PARIS: Romania VIII (1879) P- l6 5> ' st auc ^ derselben
Meinung. Leider gibt er aber keine Griinde an. Er sagt:
"J'y aurais fait voir (in dem projectirten 2ten Hande der
Alexiuslegende, der nicht herauskam), combien MASSMANN
s'est trompd en regardant la version latine de notre le'gende
oil ALEXIS remet sa fameuse charte A sa femme et non au
pape, comme plus, ancienne que 1'autre : elle en est au con-
traire un remaniement assez recent et sans doute spe'ciale-
ment italien. Pise et Lucques sont substitutes a Laodice'e et
a Edesse, etc."
fCf. G. PARIS: 'Vic de St. Alexis/ p. 206, "II est certain
cependant que cette insistance sur la situation d'une personne
envers qui la conduite du saint homme parait trfes dure n'est
pas de nature a scrvir 1'idec mere de la k'gende.
ausztizeichnen, die er stets bei Seite geschoben
hat ? Dieser Zug ist keineswegs nai'v, sondern
entspringt im Gegentheil einer viel spateren
romanhaften Verdrehung des Grundgedank-
ens. Und zwar musste, ehe sich dieser Zug
einstellen konnte, erst im ganzen iibrigen Ge-
dichte die Braut mehr in den Vordergrund
getreten sein. Dieser Zug, vvelcher am frap-
pantesten die Braut bevorzugt, ist nach meiner
Ansicht der letzte Auslaufer der brautlichen
Richtung. Und aus diesem Grunde halte ich
S, welches noch nicht ganz mit der alteren
Richtung, die den Papst der Braut vorzieht,
gebrochen hat, und auch das Beilager im Tode
nicht erwahnt, fur um eine Stufe alter als L und
A. In der gemeinsamen Quelle von L und S,
die wir x nennen konnen, waren also noch
nicht vorhanden gewesen die Uebergabe des
Briefes an die Braut, und nicht das Beilager
im Tode (doch dariiber cf. unten), sonst aber
die Bevorzugung der Braut im Gesprach unter
der Stiege und in der Brautnacht. Die
speciellen Ziige dabei hatte S, dessen Verfasser
poetisch sehr begabt war, erfunden. x hatte
auch sonst noch die Wanderung des ALEXIUS
nach Jerusalem gehabt, den Dienst des ALEXI-
US u. s. w., alles Ziige, die S und A gemeinsam
haben. Diese Quelle x cliirfte wohl lateinisch
gewesen sein. So hatten wir denn vorlaufig
folgendes Schema :
Zur brautlichen Legende gehort aber, \vie
wir schon oben erwahnt, noch eine andere
deutsche Bearbeitung F. Sie hat zwar nicht
clen Zug der Ubergabe des Briefes an die
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June, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, \W&. No. 6.
Braut, liat abt-r smist die Braut in der Hoch-
/< itsnacht sowohl als im Gesprach uiul ini
Beilager im Tode betont. Welche Stellung
nimint diese Bearbeitung zu S cin?
Die Brnutnncht hat in ihrer ganzen Durch-
fiihrung mehr Ahnlichkeit mit S als mit A.
Man vergleiche:
\Vie in S, aber im Gegensatze zu A, wird die
Braut ins Belt gelegt. Von dem Schmucke
d<-s Brautgemachs, der in L beschrieben wird,
hat aber V nichts. 1 )afiir cr/ahlt cs aber, class
AI.KXIUS schon vorher sich eine Kutte hatte
machen lassen, drin er sich
" Versteln wolde dannen
Von friunden, migen, mannen
Von guote unt von eren
Uur got inz ellende keren."
In L \vird ansfiihrlich berichtet, wie Vnter
und Mutter die Brautleute in das fein ge-
schmiickte und weihrauchduftende Gemach
begleiten. Erst, wie die Braut im Bette liegt,
verlassen die Eltern das Zimmer. In F wird
freilich auch er/iihlt, dass die Braut ins Bett
gelegt wird ; von der Begleitung der Eltern ist
aber keine Rede, dafiir lasst ALEXIUS das
Gesinde aus dem Zimmer gehen :
" Er hiez das vole gar an der st:it
SISfen gar gemeine ..."
In der franzosischen Bearbeitung warden
die Reize der Braut noch naher beschrieben.
I )ie spjitcren franzdsischen Gedichte thun
dies mit besonderem VVohlgefallen, haupt-
sachlich O, das an das Schliipfrige streift.
Bei F ist keine Rede davon. In S aber, wie
in F, betet ALEXIUS, bevor er zu seiner Braut
tritt, noch inbriinstig zum Himmel, er m<")chte
ihm Standhaftigkeit verleihen, dass er seinen
Grundsiitzen treu bleibe. Darauf tritt er vor
seine Braut liin, und ermahnt sie zur Keiisch-
lu-it : Sie solle Jesus zum Brautigam nelinien,
cf. F, v. 527-545; S, v. 144-153. Bei S nimmt
er sofort darauf seinen Ring, durchschneidet
ihn mit seinem Schwerte, und gibt ilir die eine
Hiilfte davon, uahrend er die andere .fur sich
beliah als Erkennungszeichen zwischen ihm
und seiner Mutter, uenn er je zuriickkame.
In I" gibt er ihr erst spater seinen Ring, den
er aber nicht zerschneidet, und bloss zum
Andenken, nicht zum Erkennungszeichen, cf.
v. 404 ff.
Als A i uier Rraut von seinem Vor-
haben spricht, in die Fremde zu geht-n,
straubt sie sich dagegen mit aller Kraft,
nicht aber gegen den Gedanken keusch
bleiben zu miissen. Sie will ihn nur nicht
von sich in's Elend gehen lassen. Auch
folgender Gedanke der Braut ist derselbe in
beiden Gedichten. Sie fiirchtet, dass man
sagen konnte, sie ware schuld daran, dass
ALEXIUS zoge : In F: "darumbe miiess ich
schame r6t vil dicke stan ....," und in S:
was konnte sie dem Vater und der Mutter
sagen, sie wiirden sie verstossen:
"Tel honte arai jamais n'iere honner^e."
Ebenso M und ahnlich Q.
Aber in beiden Gedichten lasst sich ALEXIUS
weder durch Bitten noch Umarmung ein-
schiichtern. Wenn auch die Reihenfolge der
Gedanken verschieden ist und der Wortlaut
abweicht, und bei S mehr detaillirt wird, so
sind die Grundgedanken doch dieselben. Er
setzt ihr auseinander, wie verganglich das
weltliche Leben sei und erklart ihr seinen
fasten Entschluss, nur Gott von nun an zu
leben. Aber die Braut macht verschiedene
Versuche ihn zuriickztihalten. Realistisch und
dramatisch ist die Darstellung bei S, dagegen
bei F etwas unbeholfen. Man vergleiche die
Verse 247 ff. bei S mit 610 ff. bei F.
5 "Sire," dist ele, "com ert del repairier?
Di me le terme, eel ferai metre en brief;
Mout as dur cuer qui or me veus laiscier,
Et pi-re et mtre qui par t'ont si tr{-s cier."
F Si sprach : " o we wie lastu mich
Ze grO^em jamer hinder dlr
TrQt geselle sage mir,
Wan daz iemer mlige geschehen
Daz ich dich fn'ilich mlleze sehen T "
Im franz. Gedicht ist ALEXIUS weniger hart
als in der deutschen, wo er ihr antwortet :
" uf erden niemmer mC." V.r liisst ihr noch
einige Hollnung : "del terme ne sai nient."
Man \\isse \\ohl, wann man gehe. dm h nicht,
wann man zuriickkehre, was er auch thun
wiirde, sie ni(")ge sich an Gott halten. Bei I-
versucht die Braut nach ALKXIUS' so harten
Worten aurh nichts mehr, sie kann nur \\ei-
nen. In S dagegen macht sie noch einen
let/ten X'erstich und fragt ihn weinend, ob sie
ihn clenn nicht begleittn ditrfte als I'ilgerin,
'59
319
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOISES, 1888. No. 6.
320
im harenen Gewande, mit abgeschnittenem
Haar und eisenbeschlagenem Stabe, nur
damit er nicht ganz verwahrlost sei ; sie ver-
spricht ihm auch, ihm stets treu dabei zu
bleiben, v. 313 ff. Aber auch dies gestattet
der Heilige nicht und verlasst sie.
So sehen wir derm, dass trotz einiger
Abweichungen die Grundgedanken uberein-
stimmen, ein Umstand, der beide> Gedichte
sehr nahe an einander riickt.
Der zweite "brautliche" Zug von F, das Ge-
sprach unter der Stiege gleicht .mehr A als S.
Wie in A, fragen auch in F; im Gegensatz zii S
Verwandte (F) oder Braut. .(A) den Pilger
direct nach ALEXIUS. Dagegen hat F nicht
den S und A gemeinsamen Zug, dass ALEXIUS
nach seinem Namen gefragt wird. Dafiir hat
aber F andere spezielle Ziige. Der Pilger
sagt der Braiit direct, dass ALEXIUS siebzehn
Jahre in Edessa g.ewesen sei; die Knechte des
EUPHEMIAN -ihn iiberall gesucht und nicht
gefunden hatten. Darauf der Jammer der
Eltern und die Ankniipfung von Reflexionen.
Man sieht, dass F lange nicht so viel aus dem
Gesprach unter der Stiege hat machen kon-
nen, als A, geschweige denn S (M, Q). Auch
sonst sieht man aus dem Gedichtej dass der
Verfasser von F, dessen Hauptstarke in breit-
getretenen religiosen Reflexionen zu liegen
scheint, kein sehr poetisch begabter Mann ist.
Den dritten " brautlichen " Zug, das Bei-
lager im Tode, hat F mit A gemein. Hier
treinnen sich also wiederum F und S.
Mit, A und S hat F noch einen vierten Zug
gemein, namlich das Glockenlauten beim
To'de des ALEXIUS, freilich in etwas anderem
Zusammenhange, und mit S allein gemein,
das ,-Auftreten von Engeln, welche die Seele
des Heiligen in den Himmel tragen. Cf. F.
v. 1270.
" Die heiligen engel kamen
Sin reine sele namen
Unt fuortens froliche
Ins ewige riche."
S. v. 1058 ff. .
" Et des sains angles vit la pourcession
Qui portent 1'ame cantant nostre signour.''
Die bisher betrachteten Ziige von F, die A
und S gemeinsam sind, waren in x, ihrer
Quelle, vorhanden. In dioser Quelle war
aber auch, freilich noch nicht ganz durchge-
fiihrt, sondern wie bei S, die Uebergabe des
Briefes an die Braut. In F" haben wir dagegen
noch die Uebergabe an den Papst, ein Um-
stand, der auf eine altere Auffassung der Sage
in Fhinweist, als dicing vorhandene. Nochi
folgendes ist zu beachten. Gemeinsam hat F
mit L das Fehlen der Turteltaube und des
Trauersackes. A hat diesen Zug aus den
Bollandisten entnommen und S aus P, sodass
es moglich, sogar wahrscheinlich ist, dass die
Quelle von A und S, x, den Zug nicht hatte,
also x mit F hier iibereinstimmte. Mit x hat
dafu'r F nicht gemein das Dienen des ALEXIUS
am Kaiserlichen Hofe ; dieser Zug kann aber
durch die grosse Ausdehnung, welche der
Schulbesuch des ALEXIUS in F nimmt (v. 92-
246 !) verwischt worden sein.
Nach allem diesem ware es immer noch
moglich, dass F ebenso wie L und S von x
abhangig ware. Entnommen hatte es aus x,
wie L und S :
1. Die grossere Rolle der Braut in der
Brautnacht.
2. Das Gesprach unter der Stiege.
3. Das Glockenlauten und die Engel.
4. Das Fehlen des Vergleichs mit der
Turteltaube, und des Trauersacks.
5. Das Beilager .im Tode, das auch in x
wenigstens angedeutet sein musste. Denn es
findet sich in L, und wenn auch nicht in S
selbst, so doch in Q, das von S stammt, ange-
deutet. Nach dem Hendschriftenschema von
G. PARIS sehen wir, dass S sich folgender-
massen zu M mid Q verhalt :
S*
M*
M
Q
Es kann also ganz gut in x ein Zug gestan-
den haben der in M und Q iiberging, ohne in
S zu iibergehen. Wenn nun in x der Umstand
trocken berichtet war, dass die Braut mit
ALEXIUS begraben wurde, kann dies in Q
iitergegangen sein, ohne durch S zu gehen.
* i ist die franz. Quelle von S und M ; S* und M* altere
Hs.
160
32 1
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
322
I lurch M winl i-s auch gegangen sein ; es lasst
sicli freilich nicht mehr controliren, denn
gerade an dieser Stelle ist die Hs. arg cor-
rupt.* Gerade nach den Worten :
Vail s'ent li pucles, ec li pi-re et li mfere
Ct li puchiele onkes ne desevrirent
bricht die Hs. ab ; erst x.u Sdiluss kommen
noch Gebete; es ist aber anzunehmen, dass
M dasselbe gehabt habe, als B, das ihm stets
treu folgt, also: " Avecguez son segnieur fu
la bele enterre"e." So batten wir denn den
Zug durch x t M, Q bewahrt. S hatte ihn ver-
wiscbt, nur L hatte ihn ausgebeutet, und
wenn F von x abhangt, ebenfalls. Aber ein
anderer Umstand lasst uns x nicht fur die
Out-lie von F annehmen :
1. Ware es wunderbar, dass F den Zug der
Uebergabe des Briefes an die Braut ganz ver-
wischt hatte. Freilich liesse sich denken,
dass F als kirchlich sehr strenge Bearbeitung
die Zuriicksetzung des Papstes als ungehorig
empfand.
2. Viel schwerwiegender ist aber, dass F,
obgleich sie so kirchlich ist und Bibelsprllche,
Citate und Gleichnisse Uberall anwendet, die
Pilgerschaft des ALEXIUS nach Jerusalem,
welche x und die von x abhangigen Bear-
beitungen alle haben, nicht besitzt. Dieser
Umstand stosst die Annahme einer Abhangig-
keit F's von x geradezu urn. Denn es ist
*Cf. G. PARIS in Anmerkung zu v. 1251 "A partir de ce
vcrs le po6me est tronqui- de la fafon la plus violente."
nicht denkbar, dass eine so kirchliche Bear-
beitung dies Ubergangen hatte, wenn sie x
gekannt hatte.
Es ist vielmehr Folgendes anzunehmen : F
gehcirt einer alteren Fassung der Brautlegende
an, welche die Braut in der Brautnacht, im
Gesprach und im gemeinsamen Begraben
hervorhebt, aber noch nicht in der Uebergabe
des Briefes, und zugleich weder die Erwah-
nung Jerusalems, noch der Turteltaube und
des Sackes enthalt. F ist aber wiederum nicht
die directe Quelle von x, denn sonst mOsste
x das von F ausgefuhrte Beilager im Grabe
mil herilbergenommen haben. Quelle von x
ist bloss die Quelle von F, die wir f nennen,
welche nur die spater in x und Q sich wider
findende Andeutung des gemeinsamen Be-
grabens hatte. Diesen Zug hat dann F selb-
standig weiter ausgefiihrt. Soviel Phantasie
kann man F zutrauen. Es ist ganz in dersel-
ber holzernen Art geschehn, wie F den
Schulbesuch des ALEXIUS schildert. So
hiltten wir denn folgendes Schema fur die
brSutliche Legende. Es mag vorlaufig vor f
noch eine andere die brautlichen ZUge im
Keime enthaltende Bearbeitung o (Original)
angenommen werden. Wegen der grossen
sonstigen Verschiedenheiten von L und x
ware es vielleicht gerathen eine Zwischen-
bearbeitung y einzuschieben, die z. B. Pisa
and Lucca eingefiihrt hatte. Zwischen x und
S, M, Q muss i die franz-Quelle kommen ; x
ist lateinisch.
11
323
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No. 6.
324
So batten wir denn die Entwickelung der
brautlichen Richtung bis zu einem gewissen
Grade zu verfolgen vermocht. Sollte es uns
nicht bei grilndlicher Priifung moglich werden,
die Keime dieser Richtung noch zu entdecken ?
Wir haben schon oben gesehn, dass S auf
P zuriickgeht, d. h. z, die frz. Bearbeitung,
welche S, M, Q zu Grunde liegt. Konnten
nicht in P im Keime die Ziige sich vorfinden,
welche spater mehr entwickelt worden ? Lasst
uns diese Spur verfolgen.
Wenn P auf den ersten Blick gerade so zu
erzahlen scheint, wie die Bollandistenbear-
beitung, und weder den Brief an die Braut
Ubergehen lasst, noch das Beilager im Tode,
noch die Pilgerfahrt nach Jerusalem berichtet,
so fallt uns doch auf, dass im Vergleich zu
den anderen Gedichten, welche von der
Bollandistenbearbeitung abhangen, die Braut-
nacht eingehender und zwar in demselben
Gedankengange erzahlt wird, wie wir sie bei
F finden : Auch hier kommt schon das Bett
in Betracht. ALEXIUS betet zu Gott, er mochte
ihn standhaft bleiben lassen. Als beide nun
allein im Zimmer sind, schildert er seiner
Braut die Nichtigkeit des menschlichen
Lebens und fordert sie auf, Jesum Christum
zum Briiutigam zu nehmen. Derauf gibt er
ihr seinen Ring und Giirtel und verlasst sie.
Die Braut spielt hier noch keine thatige
Rolle, aber das Auftreten des ALEXIUS ist in
seinen Grundziigen dasselbe wie in F. Das
Gesprach unter der Treppe ist zwar noch
nicht ausgefiihrt, aber, wahrend die Bollan-
distenbearbeitung und die von ihr abhangigen
Gedichte meist gar nicht die Moglichkeit
eines derartigen Verkehrs zwischen ALEXIUS
und Braut und Eltern vermuthen und an
dieser Stelle schweigen, weist P, zwar noch
negativ, aber doch ausdriicklich darauf bin,
dass ein solcher Verkehr nicht stattfand.
Man vergl. Str. 48, wo P erzahlt : " Oft sahen
ihn Vater und Mutter, und seine Braut. Aber
nie sprachen sie ihn je an, und er sagte ihnen
nicht, und sie fragten ihn nicht, wer er ware
und aus welchem Lande er stamme." Gerade
die hier als nicht geschehen angefiihrten
Momente, sind spater bearbeitet worden, und
man kommt auf eine Vermuthung, die nicht
allzu unwahrscheinlich sein diirfte. Der
Dichter, der diese Zeilen las, musste sicli
denken, dass eine Scene zwischen Eltern,
Braut und Pilger viel packender auf seine
Zuhorer wirken wlirde, als die blosse Erwiih-
nung, dass eine solche nicht stattfand, und so
wurde denn die negative Erwahnung von P
die Quelle des Gesprachs zwischen Braut und
Pilger.
So haben wir denn in P die Keime zweier
der wichtigsten Ziige der brautlichen Legende
gefunden, die Hervorhebung der Brautnacht
und der Hinweis auf ein Verhaltniss der
Braut und des ALEXIUS, unter der Treppe
des vaterlichen Hauses. Die Schilderung des
gemeinsamen Begrabens hat P noch nicht.
Ihn wird demnach die Quelle von F eingefiihrt
haben.
Noch andere als diese speziell "brautlichen"
Ziige hat P mit der "brautlichen" Legende
gemein. Wie in alien besprochenen Ge-
dichten fehlt auch in P, im Gegensatze zur
Bollandistenbearbeitung und den von ihr
abhangigen Gedichten, die Erwahnung der
3000 in Seide gekleideten Diener, die an
EUPHEMIANS Hofe aufwarten, die Geistlichen,
Wittwen und Waisen, die EUPHEMIAN beher-
bergt, das Keuschheitsgeliibde der Eltern
nach der Geburt des ALEXIUS, und mehrere
andere nicht so wichtige Ziige. Vorhanden
ist dagegen in der ganzen Reihe von P nach
H der Dienst des ALEXIUS beim Kaiser (iiber
F siehe oben). Auch hat P mit L, A, S, M, Q
den Umstand gemein, dass ALEXIUS seinen
Vater auf der Strasse antrifft, wie er gerade
von der Kirche, und nicht vom Palaste (wie
die anderen Gedichte sagen), zuruckkommt.
Auch der einfache Satz, der bei P vorkommt,
als die Heirath des ALEXIUS bestimmt wird :
Noument le terme de lor asemblement,
ist in L beinahe wortlich als " ponitur dies
celebritati nuptiarum " wiedergegeben. Den
Vergleich mit der Turteltaube und den
Trauersack, den P hat, und S direct aus P
entnommen hat, A direct aus der Bollandis-
tenbearbeitung, wird die Quelle von F vcr-
loren haben, denn es tritt nicht in F auf und
ebensowtnig in L.
Nach alle dem diirften wir die Quelle von P,
die wir p nennen wollen, als iiber f stehencl
annehmen, und erhalten alsostatt o im objgen
162
325
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
S( -lii-iiia /*, mid davonabhiingig P. /' diirfte
iiberhaupt eine der altesten Quellen der
Sage sein, und -mil der Bollandistenhearbei-
tung (b) ungefahr auf gleicher Stufe stehc-n.
Uemnach hat unser Schema endgiiltig
folgende Gestalt :
Wir sehen also, dass von den altesten Zeiten
an, vom uten Jahrhundert, wo P entstancl,
bis zum Jahre 1488, wo H das Licht der Welt
i-rblickte, die "brautliche" Tendenz in der
Legende des h. ALEXIUS sich immer \veiter
cntwickelte. Aus der urspriiii^lichen schlich-
ten Legende suchte man im Laufe der Zeit
durch die Hervorhebung der Rolle einer
Frau und durch die Hineinflechtung eroti-
scher Momente in den legendarischen Stoff
einen packenden Roman zu machen. Es darf
(lit s nicht Wunder nehmen, denn es ist dies
eine Thatsache, die sich in der Geschichte
der mittelalterlichen Litteratur tausendfach
wiederliolt. Die iiltere Zc-it kennt nur strenge,
schlichte Motive. In den Volksepen spielt
die Liebe noch keine Rolle. In den Kunst-
epen eines CHRESTIENS VON TROVES bestehen
die Ritter zahllose galante Abenteuer. \Vie
mit (k-n Kpcn, so ist cs auch mit unserer
Legende geworden. Der ascetische Heilige,
der urspriinglich nur der gottlichen Inspira-
tion folgte, seine Braut nach kurzer und
trockener Ermahnung verliess, nie wieder in
Beziehung zu ihr trat und der einzigen Auto-
ritat, die er anerkannte, der kirchlichen, sein
letztes Vermjichtniss anvertraute, wurde in
Folge der romanhaften Tendenz spaterer
ZritL-n, schon in der Brautnacht in dramatische
Situntionen gebracht, lernte wahrend seiner
163
327
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
328
Dulderzeit im Hause seines Vaters die ganze
Tiefe der Liebe seiner Braut kennen, und
noch im Tode musste er als galanter Ritter
seiner Dame den Brief iibergeben, in dem er
sein gauzes Leben aufgeschrieben, und einige
Zeit nachher im Grabe ihr den Platz an seiner
Seite einraumen, den er ihr wahrend seines
Lebens versagt hatte.
HEINRICH SCHNEEGANS.
Genoa, Italy.
ORIGIN OF THE NAME ' CANADA.'
In that " orgie enfume'e, ripaille bour-
geoise," as SAINTE-BEUVE calls the ' Vie de
Gargantua et de Pantagruel,' 1 every student
of Middle French literature will remember a
wonderful scene where RABELAIS mounts his
hero upon an enormous mare, presented to
Grandgousier by Prince Fayoles, fourth king
of Numidia. On the journey through the thirty
leagues of forest about Orleans, the poor
beasts (donkeys, horses, etc.) in the caravan
composed of GARGANTUA'S attendants were
so harassed and tormented by gad-flies that
his jument finally determines to avenge the
company : elle desguaine sa queue, et, si bien
s'escarmouchant, les esmoucha, qu'elle en
abbatit tout le bois, a tords, a travers, de- ca,
de la, par cy, par la, de long, de large, dessus,
dessoubs abbatoit bois come ung fauscheur
faict d'herbes Quoy voyant GAR-
GANTUA, y print plaisir bien grand, sans
aultrement s'en vanter, et dist a ses gens : Je
trouve beau ce. Dont feut depuis appele" ce
pays La Beauce. 2
A hardly less fanciful origin, though not
fraught with any such wholesale destruction of
nature, has been assigned to the geographical
name Canada, and, strangely enough, cosmo-
graphers and geographers up to within a re-
cent date have not been unwilling to give a
certain credence both to the composite char-
acter of the name and to the mode in which
it arose. According to a recent lecturer on
Geography at the College de France, it was
FATHER HENNEPIN and LA POTHERIE that
iSAiNTE-BBUVE, Tableau de la pot'sie franaifse au XVIe
sitcle, Tome I, p. 339.
zCKuvres de Rabelais, Edition variorum, par ESMANGART
et JOHANNEAU. Paris, 1823. Tome premier, pp. 315-317
(Livre I, Chap. 16).
relate how the Spanish came to Canada about
the time it was discovered by CABOT (1497),
and finding there nothing but a desert and
ice-bound mountains, instead of the gold fields
for which they sought, they withdrew crying
out meanwhile: Acd Nada! Here nothing!
This expression (ce mot, as the writer naively
puts it) altered, and repeated later to the
French by the natives, was taken for the name
of the country itself.3 The only variation of
this popular etymology which I have been
able to find is that given, "according to most
writers," by JOHN BARROWS "When the
Portuguese first ascended the river (St. Law-
rence) under the idea that it was a strait,
through which a passage to the Indies might
be discovered on arriving at the point where
they ascertained that it was not a strait, but a
river, they, with all the emphasis of disap-
pointed hopes, exclaimed repeatedly, Cd,
nada !-(Here nothing!) which words caught
the attention of the natives and were remem-
bered and repeated by them on seeing other
Europeans, tinder JACQUES CARTIER, arrive
in 1534 but CARTIER mistakes the object of
the Portuguese to have been gold mines ....
and, if the Portuguese account be true, he
also mistook the exclamation of Ca (sic) nada
for the name of the country.
It was evidently from this account that SAL-
VERTE 5 takes his suggestion, attributing the
origin of the word to the Portuguese, since
none of the lexicographers of his time men-
tion the Portuguese at all in this connection,
but to the Spaniards do they assign the honor
of having given the occasion for this whimsi-
cal appellation. Thus, for example, NOEL et
CARPENTIER (1833), 6 the Socie'te" de Savans in
their Encyclopedic (1834),? BOUILLET in his
3Choix de Lectures de Geographic par L. LANIEH. AmeYi-
que. Paris, Belin et fils, 1883, p. 53.
4A chronological history of Voyages into ihe Arctic Re-
gions undertaken chiefly for the purpose of discovering a
North-East, North-West or Polar Passage between the
Atlantic and Pacific .... by JOHN BAKROW, F. R. S.
London, 1818, p. 43.
SEssai historique (1824), Vol. II, p. 295.
6Nouveau dictionnaire des origines, inventions et de'cou-
vertes. Par NOF.L et CAKPENTIER; secondc edition par
PUISSANT fils. Tome I, p. 205.
7Encyclope'die des gens du Monde. Repertoire tiniversel
des sciences, des lettres et des arts. Paris, 1834. Tome
quatrieme, p. 593.
164
329
June. MOHEKN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
330
1 >irtionnaire universe! (1^76), who unites tin-
two vocables and writes wisely about ce mot
ACANADA; 8 the Paris-Amsterdam Dictionary
of a hundred years before (1776), 9 and Vivn:.\
DE SAINT-MARTIN (1879), who, however,
calls the etymology plus que fantaisiste which
assigns the origin of the name to so fortuitous
a circumstance as this theory pre-supposes.
Outside of this traditional source, with refer-
ence to which both Spaniards and Portuguese
have been quoted, there exist three distinct
theories as to the origin of the word ; namely,
i. The river Canada (meaning the St. Law-
rence) gave the name to the country, 2. From
the small province of Canada, the designation
was extended to the whole valley of the St.
Lawrence and 3. The term is of Indian origin,
meaning in Iroquois "a village." The first
evidence, so far as I am aware, of the St. Law-
rence having been called "'Canada," is to be
found in Lescarbot's history, of 1612:" " Et
pour le regard du nom Canada tout celebre"
en 1'Europe, c'est proprement 1'appellation de
Tune et de 1'autre rive de cette grande riviere,
a laquelle on a donne 1 le nom de Canada,
comme au fleuve de 1'Inde le nom du peuple
et de la province qu'il arrose," and this restric-
tion of the term to designate the river, I ap-
prehend, rests upon a simple misunderstand-
ing. JACQUES CARTIER knows nothing of any
such name in the ' Recit ' (1545) of his second
voyage. 12 I have carefully noted every pas-
sage in this work where the term is employed
and it is evident that he had no idea of at-
SDictionnaire universe! d'histoire et de geographic par M.
N. BOITILLBT. Ouvrage revu et continue 1 par A. CHASSANG.
Nouvelle Edition (vingt-cinquicme) ; Paris, 1876. p. 327.
gNouveau Dictionnaire pour servir de supplement aux
Dictionnaires des sciences, des arts et des metiers par M.
. . . Paris, Amsterdam, 1776. Folio. Tome II, pp. 165-66.
loNouveau Dictionnaire de Geographic universelle par M.
VIVIEN B SAINT-MARTIN. Paris, 1879. Tome I, pp. 593-
198.
nHistoire de la Nouvelle France par MARC LBSCARBOT.
Paris, iftr?. Truss-edition, vol. I, pp. 221-22.
laThe full title runs : I'rief recit, & succinctc narration, de
la Nauigation faicte cs yflcs c!e Canada, Hoclielaga & Sague-
n.i y it autres, auec particuliers niuurs, langaiKc, & cerimonies
ilcs haliitans d'icelles : fort delectable veoir. Avcc priuilegc
( in li-s tiend a Paris au fecond pillicr en la grand falle du
Palais, & en la rue neiifiic Nnstrcdame a I'enscigne de Icscu
de frAce, par Ponce RorFet diet Faucher, it Anthoine le
clcrc frcres, 1345.
tributing this appellation to the body of
water now known as the St. Lawrence or to
any other stream.
CARTIKR arrived off the island of An-
on the loth of August date of the martyrdom
of St. Latin-mills, and on which the Catholic
church celebrates the fete of this saint, hence
it seemed appropriate to the explorer to give
this name, 'St. Lawrence," to the body of
water which to-day bears the title : nous
nommasmes la dicte baye fainct Laurens (fol.
8 verso). His record of the I2th of August
then follows : par le Su d'icelle lie, (Anticosti)
estoit le chemin a aller de Hoguedo ou nous
les (sauvages) auions pi-ins Ian precedent a
Canada: Etque a deux iournees du diet cap
& yfle comenceroit le royaulme de Saguenay
a la terre deuers le Nort allant vers le diet
Canada . . . . le chemin, & comencement du
grat Silenne de Hochelaga & chemin de
Canada : le quel alloit toujiours en estroiflent
iufques a Canada (fol. 9 verso) .... Nous ap-
pareillafmes du diet hable le premier iour de
feptembre pour aller vers Canada . . . (fol. n)
... la riuiere & chemin du royaulme & terre
de Saguenay, ainsi que nous a este diet par
noz deux fauvages du pais de Canada. . . .
Le lendemain deuxiefme iour du diet feptem-
bre, refortismes hors de la dicte riuiere pour
faire le chemin vers Canada (fol. n verso) . . .
le feptiesme iour dudict moys, iour noftre-
dame, . . . , nous partifmes de la dicte yfle
pour aller a mont le diet fleuve, ... & vinf-
mes a quatorze yfles qui estoiet diftantes de
ladicte yfle es Couldres de fept a huict lieues,
qui eft le commencement de la terre & prou-
ince de Canada (fol. 12 verso). The author
then goes on (fol. 32)10 define more exactly
where this province of Canada is situated :
" laqlle (Saguenay) fort dentre haultes motaig-
nes, entre dedas ledict Heuue au par auat q
arriue a la puince de Canada, de la bade
deuers le Nort .... Apres ladicte riuiere eft
la prouince de Canada .... II y a auffi es
emiiros atidict Canada dedas le diet lleuue
plusietirs yfles tat grades q petites."
DONNOCONA is called le ' feignetir de Cana-
da '(fol. 13) and his '(Lmeurance 1 U>1. 14) is
at Stadacona ((Jnebec) ; and again (fol. 28) the
author speaks of making ready his gallymi, &
barques pour retourner a la prouince lie
165
331
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
332
Canada au port de faincte Croix (present St.
Charles) ; still further (fol. 29), in response to
an invitation of the Indian chief to visit his
village (Quebec) : ledict cappitaine auec fes
gentilz hommes accompaigne de cinquant
compaignons . . . alleret veoir ledict DONNA-
CONA & fon peuple qui eft diftat dou eftoient
lesdictes nauires d'une lieue : & fe nom leur
demourace Stadacone.
There cannot be the slightest doubt after
these divers statements, intended to represent
so varied events, and widely separated, too,
in point of time, that the only use to which
the name was then applied, was simply to
indicate a limited district of country lying
along the north bank of the St. Lawrence
between the Saguenay and Quebec. Had the
river St. Lawrence been so called, there were
many occasions in his narrative when the
writer would naturally have used it to advan-
tage instead of resorting to the clumsy peri-
phrasis, le diet fleuve (fol. 32, fol. 12 verso).
Not a single example exists in CARTIER'S
account where he refers to the word Canada
with any signification other than as a province.
Among the Indian words given by him (a list
of which follows at the end of his narrative),
he has correctly put down Kanata "village,"
but. without the slightest suggestion that the
word could be taken as the origin of the name
of the province Canada to which he refers so
often. The fact, then, I hold as incontestable
that CARTIER found the name Canada already
in existence as applied to a single province
when he arrived at Stadacona (Quebec) in the
month of September 1535. Here, then, the
question must naturally arise : Was the name
original with DONNACONA and his tribe or was
it of foreign, that is European, origin ? The
improbability of its being indigenous for pho-
netical reasons will be shown later in this in-
vestigation. But, setting aside the linguistic
considerations that will be adduced further on
for a European origin of the word, the ques-
tion may be fairly asked : Is it a priori proba-
ble that in a savage land such as JACQUES
CARTIER found the banks of the St. Lawrence
to be on his first (1534) and second (1535)
visits, a European name could have taken
such hold as to be commonly used by the
natives in so short a time as we are justified
in accepting for the name Canada? Ts it
reasonable to suppose that this part of the
country ever had any other designation ? If
so, is it likely that all traces of the former
native nomenclature should have disappear-
ed? To judge by the analogy of other geo-
graphical names found along the coast of
Newfoundland and around the Gulf of St.
Lawrence by the St. Malo navigator, we are
obliged to answer the first question in the
affirmative. The CABOTAS (JOHN and SEBAS-
TIAN) discovered terram primum visam (Prima
Vista) on June 24, 1497. Leaving out of ac-
count former visits of the Norsemen to these
parts, reaching back 500 years before this, we
thus have over a generation (37 years) elapsing
between CABOT'S discovery and the arrival of
the French under CARTIER. Next after the
English headed by CABOT, came the Portu-
guese and these were followed by the Spanish
so that when the French arrived on the eastern
coast of America they found a great many
places bearing Spanish or Portuguese names.
Thus, Newfoundland was Terra Nova do
Baccalhao (Codfish Island), Labrador was
Terra de Labrador (The Laborer, or Slave
Coast), to which may be added Cabo do Gado
(Cattle Cape), Rio da Tormenta (Storm River)
Bahia das Medas (Rick Bay), Monte de Trigo
(Wheat Mountain), etc. J 3
That the name (if the limited district, origin-
ally called Canada, ever had a special one)
should have disappeared entirely is not sur-
prising ; this was the general fate of Indian
i3Cf. A chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic
Regions... By JOHN BARROW, F. K. s. London, 1818.
p. 38 et seq.
An interesting linguistic study might be made of many of
these geographical names that have been subjected-, succes-
sively, to Spanish, Portuguese, French and English influences,
on the coast of Newfoundland. The products resulting from
a mixing of so divergent phonetic, tendencies as are found
here, are often difficult to trace to their original forms ; a
few French vocables, for example, that have passed through ,
only one of these stages of transformation in their contact
with English, will abundantly illustrate the distorted linguis-
tic developments which one meets here at every turn : Tasse
a l'arpent> TOSTLEJOHN, Beau Bois> BOBOY, Bait: tie Vieux
> BAY-THE-VIEW, Lance au Diablc> NANCY JOBBLE, Bate le
Diablo JABBOULS, Baie de Li vre> BAY DELIVER, Bate
d' Espoir > BAY DESPAIR, Baie des Baules> BAY OF BULLS.
For many more of these curious compounds, cf. Text-Book of
Newfoundland History, by the REV. M. HARVEY. Boston,
1885, p. 67.
1 66
333
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
334
names of places for which European or non-
native designations were substituted ; even
much later ones of European fabrication have
completely fallen out of the geographical
nomenclature of this region : witness the
ffaccalaos, or Codlands, by which title alone
Newfoundland and the adjacent islands were
long known. ROBERT THORNE, of Bristol,
writing from Spain in 1527 (seven years before
Carder's first voyage), knows Labrador only
by the appellation Terre de Labrador '.'4 In
the edition of Ptolemy, published at Basel in
1540, little more than one generation (39 years)
after Cortereal's expedition, the first map there
published is called " TypusorbisUniversalis,"
on which we note in the extreme North of the
new world Terra Nova Sive de Bacalhos.^
On the same map, Labrador is marked " Cor-
terati " (name given by CORTEREAL to this part
of the country), but even at that time it had
been supplanted by the appellation that ex-
pressed the adaptability of the natives for
labor Laborador, the " Slave Coast of Ameri-
ca." These examples serve to show how
names that had for Europeans some personal
or historic significance even, would vanish
from use and all reminiscence of them disap-
pear; the same tendency is well illustrated in
the frequent change of topogrophical designa-
tions for the newer parts of the United States
in our early history. Again : in the earliest
collection of voyages to the new world : 'Paesi
novamente retrovati et Novb Mondo da Albe-
rico Vespucio Florentine,' published at Vicen-
za in 1507, no mention is made of native names
of countries bordering the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. 16 Nay, stranger still, only eleven days
after Cortereal's arrival at Lisbon (8th October
1501), the Venetian Ambassador at the Portu-
guese Court wrote a letter to his brothers in
Italy giving them a detailed account of the
lands discovered by the navigator, of the in-
habitants, some of whom were brought home
as slaves, the conditions of life of the country,
etc., etc., but he mentions no Indian names of
i4Cf. A memoir of Sebastian Cabot with a Review of the
History of Maritime Discovery. Second Edition. London,
1832. p. 57.
islbidem, p. 246.
16 I depend for this statement on the ' Memoir of Sebastian
Cabot ' referred to above, where all such cases would natural-
ly be noted, did they exist.
places: Adjr. VIII delpresente (October) arivo
qui una de le doe Caravelle quale questo
serenissimo Re lanno passato mando a disco-
prire terra verso tramontana Capitaneo Caspar
Corterat : et referissi havere trouato terra ii
M. miglia lonzi da qui tra maestro & ponente
qual mai per avanti fo cognita ad alcun ; . . . .
credono che sia terra firma la qual continue in
una altra terra che lano passato, fo discoperta
sotto la tramontana. 1 ? It is not strange, after
these examples, that the native name of Can-
ada, originally so insignificant a province in
the complex of the St. Lawrence Communi-
ties, should have perished. There was no
great staple commodity of commerce, as in
Newfoundland even, to keep alive the reminis-
cence of it.
If we now turn to the lexicographers of the
eighteenth century we find mention of Cana-
da from the beginning of the century as a
general term applied to a large part of New
France. MICHEL-ANTOINE BAUDRAND (1705)
calls " Le Canada, Canada, Nova Francia,
pays fort tendu de 1'Ame'rique septentrionale
.... On 1'appelle le plus souvent la Nouvelle
France, parcequ'il a e^e" de"couvert par les
Francois qui le possedent . . . . le Canada
propre, Canada Propria, est un pays de
1'Ame'rique septentrionale, assez ressere" dans
la Nouvelle France, dont il fait partie, et a
laquelle il avoit autrefois donne" le nom.' 8
According to this testimony, the more
usual name in use at that time for the whole
country was New France, and it should be
borne in mind that the time of writing is only
about three generations from the date when
this appellation was first given to the country.
But further confirmatory evidence that the
term Canada was originally applied to a small
part only of the valley of the lower St. Law-
rence, may be drawn from the geographical
and historical treatise of M. CORNEILLE, mem-
ber of the French Academy, who wrote only
three years later (1708) than BAUDRAND : " ce
pays porte le nom de Nouvelle France parce-
que les Francois qui y sont aujourd'hui an
nombre de pres de deux cens mille, en occu-
pent la plus considerable partie, et on 1'ap-
lyMemoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 239.
iSUicrionnaire gdographique et historique .... par MICH EL-
ANTOINB BAUURANU. Paris, De Hats, 1705. Tome 1 Col. 353.
I6 7
335
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
336
pelle aussi Canada, a cause que la petite
contre'e de Canada fut apparemment la pre-
miere qu'ils de'couvrirent." 1 9 Here, however,
the extension of the name to the whole coun-
try proceeds also from the river, not alone
from the limited territory that bore the ap-
pellation in the beginning. In speaking of
the St. Lawrence (which he calls also Canada)
the author shpws that his ideas are not clear
as to the chorographical relations of this
French colony ; " Quartier qui la (riviere) de"-
couvrit le premier, 1'appela Hochelaga (sic!).
D'Autres la nommerent Saint Laurant ; et
ceux du Pays luy donnent le nom de Cana-
da." 20 Then in Tome II, p. 129, he adds:
"On le (pays) nomme aussi Canada de la
grande riviere de ce nom qui le traverse &
on y comprend tout ce qui est aux deux c6tes
de cette riviere, depuis les Isles qui sont au
devant de son embouchure en la remontant,
& depuis les Golfes et Detroits de Davis & de
Hudson jusqu'a la Nouvelle Espagne." We
have thus already in the beginning of the
eighteenth century two distinct lines of tradi-
tion crossing each other with reference to the
origin of the generic term ' Canada ' as applied
to New France. But still a generation later
(1740), it is to the territory bordering the Gulf
of St. Lawrence that tradition points as the
birthplace of our modern geographical desig-
nation. BRUNZEN DE LA MARTINIERE, geogra-
pher of Philip V, of Spain, after giving a sur-
vey of all the early expeditions to New France
and after treating its customs, history, language
products and Indian tribes much more ex-
tensively and.i in certain respects, more ac-
curately than any of his predecessors, adds :
" On n'a d'abord donne" le nom de Canada
qu'aux terres qui bordoient le golfe de St.
Laurent et auix deux bords de ce fleuve, jus-
ques vers Tadoussac ; & on croit assez com-
munement que ce nom venoit de quelqu'une
des nations Sauvages des environs. On 1'a
depuis dtenddl pen a pen jusqu'au Mississipi
qui le borne a Touest ; on y a me*me quelque-
igDictionnaire universe! geographique et historique, etc.,
par M. COHNEILLE, de I'Acade'mic francoise .... Paris,
Coignard, 1708. Folio. Tome I, p. 461.
20 Ibidem, p. 495. It is a well-known fact that Hochelaga
was the name of the Indian village situated on the site of the
present Montreal, a part of which is. thus named to-daiy.
fois compris la Nouvelle Angleterre & la
Nouvelle Belgique, aujourd'hui la Nouvelle
York. Mais depuis longtems on ne connoit
sous le nom de Canada, que ce qui estpropre-
ment la Nouvelle France. 21
There are two points worthy of special note
in this statement: the interesting fact that
here for the first time do we find mention of
the possible indigenous origin of the name
Canada, and that the territory thus named
had even then (1740) been long regarded as
co-extensive simply with New France. In a
work published about twenty years later
( J 759) the learned compiler, Louis MORERI,
plagiarizes in an audacious and shameless
way the whole of this account by DE LA
MARTINIERE." His effrontery in thus pur-
loining verbatim from the Royal geographer
serves us, however, a good purpose : it shows
that the opinion recorded by MORERI'S prede-
cessor still continued to be the current view
on this subject held by scholars at the middle
of the eighteenth century.
The celebrated Dictionnaire de Trevoux, a
little more than a decade later (1771), gives a
re'sume' of the suggestions made up to that
time concerning the origin and spread of the
word under discussion : " Le mot Canada est
apparemment un mot sauvage, mais dont on
ne sait point la signification. On ignore aussi
le raison qui le fait clonner a ce pays. Quel-
ques-uns croient que ce fut, parceque les
sauvages re"pe"toieHt souvent ce mot Canada
quand les Francois y aborderent. D'autres,
parceque c'e'toit le nom du fleuve de S. Lau-
rent qui fut donne 1 a tout le pays ; & d'autres
parceque le petit pays de Canada fut le pre-
mier que Ton trouva. Canada est aussi le
nom d'un pays particulier compris da'ns la
grande contr^e dont nous venous de parler.
C'est celui qui est a la droite du fleuve de S.
Laurent, vers son embouchure. II a ce fleuve
au nord, au levant le golfe du fleuve S. Lau-
rent, la baie de Chaleurs au midi ; au couchant
il louche au pays des Etechemins. Cette
21 Le grand Dictionnaire ge"ographique, historique et criti-
que par M. BRUNZKN DK LA MARTINIERE, Ge'ographe de Sa
Majestd Catholique Philippe V. Roy des Espagnes & des
Indes. Paris, Le Mercier, 1740. Folio. Tome II, p. 83.
22Le grand Dictionnaire historique du MOKKKI ^Louis).
Paris, 1759. Tome III, p. 118.
1 68
337
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 6.
338
presqu'Ile est le Canada propre, qui, a ce que
1'uii pretend, a donne son nom a tout le pays
(|iii est derriere, & an fleuve de S. Laurent.
On d-min- encore ce nom a la grande riviere
de Canada ; inais il est peu en usage aujourd-
hui & 1'oit dit toujoura le fleuve de S. Lau-
rent."3
Three theories, then, were held during the
eighteenth century as to the origin of the
word Canada: two of them, the Indian and
river theories seem not to have had general
acceptance, while the third, the extension of
the name from a limited district on the lower
St. Lawrence to the whole country, was com-
monly believed. If we now jump fifty years
and come down to the end .of the first quarter
of our century, we find, curiously enough, a
meaning given to the word that savors of
genuine folk-etymology though it is a con-
scious product. EUSKBE SALVERTE in his ' Essai
historique, etc.,' (1824) accepts the indigenous
source : " Dans la langue canadienne, Canada
signifiait ' ville, assemblage de maisons ; ' de
ce mot, que les indigenes rEpEtaient aux na-
vigateurs europe'ens, sans doute a 1 'aspect de
chacun de leurs hameaux, nous avons fait le
nom d'une vaste contre"e ;" 2 4 and the celebrat-
ed historian of Canada, GARNEAU, follows
(1845) with the categorical statement: " Le
nom de Canada, donne" ici paries Indigenes a
une partie du pays a la totalite" duquel il
s'etend maintenant, ne permet point d'avoir
de doutes [?] sur son Etymologic. L'on doit
done rejeter les hypotheses de ceux qui veu-
lent lui donner une origine europe'enne. L'on
sait du reste que ce mot signifie, en dialecte
indien, amas de Cabanes, village. " 2 S
Linguistic coiMiderations alone are strong
enough to justify us in assigning to the proper
name Canada a directly southwest Romance
origin, had we no confirmatory historic evi-
dence to adduce in support of the proposition.
The mere fact of the existence of a popular
etymology (c nada, or aca nada), however,
23Dictionnaire universe! Fram;ois-I.atin vulgairement
appeli 1 Dictionnaire dc 'i'revoux. Paris, 1771. Folio. Tome
II, p. 198.
24Essai historique et philosophique ser les noms d'hommes
de peuples et de lieux ]iar KrsuiiK SAI.VKKTK. Paris, 1824.
80, 2 vols. Vol. II, p. 250.
asHistoire du Canada par I.(>AKNRAI'. Qtu ! l-ec, Aubin,
1845. Tome I, p. 64.
points a priori to a suppn^-d connection be-
tween the designation of this part of the new
world and the early southwest European dis-
coverers. But leaving out of account this
arbitrary and fanciful composition as too triv-
ial for serious notice, we have left two hypo-
theses that merit a close examination : a, That
the name is of Indian origin ; b, That it is a
Spanish or Portuguese term, which, in its
general signification, was originally applied to
a part, and only a very small part, too, of the
present Dominion of Canada, or even of La
Nouvelle France.
I have purposely stated the Indian theory
first, because of the confidence with which the
indigenous origin of the word has recently
been maintained by scholars of high repute
and because it is much easier on linguistic
grounds to refute than to establish with cer-
tainty to which of the two languages mention-
ed above (Spanish or Portuguese) the name
belongs ; for, while the phonetic constitution
of the word in the former case is sufficient to
condemn it, in the latter, the difference of
form is so slightly marked that we shall have
to appeal to historic evidence to support our
position.
The celebrated ARB Cuog in his 'Lexique
de la Langue iroquoise' sub voce fcanata, 'ville,'
' village,' adds with a conviction strengthened
by more than a dozen years since he had first
expressed the opinion : " De la le nom de
Canada auquel on a voulu, tout re"cemment
encore, mais toujours sans fondement solide,
assigner une autre Etymologic." 26 He here
calls attention in a foot-note to the same view
expressed by him in a work written several
years before against M. RENAN : 2 ? Cette
opinion se trouve encore confirme" par le nom
de Canadaquois que se donnaient a eux-
me'mes les sauvages de Gaspe" et de la
Baie des Chaleurs, r.on nioins que ceux des
deux rives du fleuve Saint Laurent. II ne
faut voir en efTet dan: le mot Canadaqnois
qu'une simple alteration du locatif iroquois
Kanatakon, 'an village,' 'dans le village,"
a6Lexique de la langue irnquoise avec notes et appendices
par J. A. CUOQ, Pretre de Saint-Supplice. Montreal,
Chaplcau & Fils, 1882. p. 10.
27jugement errontf de M. ERNEST RHNAN sur les langues
sauvages d'Anu ! rique. Montreal, Dawson Brothers, 1869,
p. 103.
169
339
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
34"
beaucoup plus frequemment employe" que son
primitif canafa, 'village.' Ma pense"e est
done que Canada vient de Kanata." 28
At the end of the ' Lexique ' just mentioned
is appended a bibliographical study by the
ABB NANTEL, in which (p. 232) he adopts the
derivation suggested and defended by Cuoq :
"Kanata, ' amas de cabanes,' nous a donne"
le nom de notre pays, Canada."
The reverend PERE LACOMBE, under the
general heading ' Etymology,' of his Cri Dic-
tionary,^ observes : " Canada pour Konata,
dont les montagnois de Labrador et tous les
cris se servent pour dire : sans propos, sans
raison, sans dessein, gratis. Note : II est
assez probable que les premiers explorateurs
du Canada ne pouvant se faire comprendre
que par signes, aient pris pour le nom de la
Contre"e, ce mot, qu'ils entendaient re'pe'ter
si souvent aux sauvages qui s'en servent con-
tinuellement ; " and he adds sub voce Cana-
da " c'est le mot banale de la langue crise."
The first thing that strikes us in glancing at
the word, in the phonetic shape which it pre-
sents, is its absolutely non-French character:
the existence of the initial velar gutteral c, of
the intervocalic d, of the a throughout, but on
the other hand, of its entire conformity, pho-
netically, to Spanish and Portuguese types ;
as, for example, to the Portuguese Barbada
(Barbadoes), to the Spanish Florida. These
forms will be considered later ; let us first
notice the Cri-Iroquois Kanata, with reference
to which, if I mistake not, CUOQ'S theory will
have to be rejected on his own ground.
In the American Journal of Philology Vol.
VIII, pp. 147-48, I have quoted CUOQ as show-
ing conclusively that the Indian word for the
Supreme Being is Manito, not Maneto or Mon-
edo, as SCHOOLCRAFT has maintained, since
it is not thus given in any of the native dia-
lects. Now, on analogy with this form, pre-
cisely the same objection may be raised against
Kanata> Kanada (Canada); in fact, aborigi-
nal words adopted by the French keep their
full form, so that not only the voicing of inter-
28This idea is taken directly from LBSBARBOT, Vol. i, pp.
921-222 : . . . . toutefois les peuples de Gachepd et de la baye
de Chaleur, . . se disent Canadocoa (ils prononcent ainsi),
c'est u cRre Canadaquois, comme nous disons Souriquois, et
Iriquois
2gDictionnaire et grammaire de la langue des Cris par le
RBV. PERK ALBERT LACOMIIE, Ptre., Montreal, 1874. p. 706.
vocalic mutes would be anomalous, but also
the change even of initial graphic sign K> C
would be irregular, according to the learned
CUOQ'S transcription. Though only a few
vocables of the savage idioms have been per-
manently naturalized in the Gallic speech of
Canada, 3 yet we can fortunately cite some
half a dozen which show beyond question
what the usage was with reference to inter-
vocalic /. In matachias^ (rassades) we have
exactly the same phonetic conditions (a-\-t-\-a)
as in the word under discussion, the difference
of accent (if there was any) evidently not
affecting the final result. Again, in mitasse 3 *
(legging), sagamit (bouillie de mais),33 succo-
tash (green corn and beans boiled together)34
otoka (canneberge)35 we have the phonetic sur-
roundings of this / varied by light and dark
vowels (i-a, i-, o-a, o-o) and yet its quality is
in no way influencedjby the changed relations
and, so far as we are able to judge, there is
not the slightest tendency in these varying
'modal conditions to pass into the voiced
state. According to mere form, then, irre-
spective of the positive and forcible considera-
tions that tend to fix a totally different etymon
for the geographical term Canada, we may
eliminate the present favorite Indian etymol-
ogy from our discussion. We thus have left
the probable southwest Romance source of the
term, which it is now necessary to examine
from a double point of view ; viz., that of the
Spanish and that of the Portuguese. So far
as I am aware, no other theory as to the
origin of the term has been advanced outside
of these two : the Indian and Spanish (or
Portuguese), and while it is comparatively
easy to refute the former (the Indian) and
show the name to be without doubt of- south-
west Romance origin, yet it becomes difficult
to establish with certainty as to which of these
two languages, Spanish or Portuguese, it
must be assigned. We need only mention
the fact that the word is employed as a com-
mon noun in both Spanish and Portuguese
and that it plays an important rf>le, when used
alone'in the singular, in the plural, or when
found in composita, for the designation of
3oCf. Article referred to in Am. Journal of Philology, p.
H7-
31 Ibidem, p. 148. 32 Ibidem, p. 149. 33 Ibidem, p. 150.
14 Ibidem, p. 338. 35 Ibidem, p. 338.
170
341
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
342
topographical sites. This original use of tlu:
term to denote :;<!ieial ideas which arc em-
bodied in tin- root and which have been after-
ward circunisi -rilicd within a limited circle to
indicate special qualities, is noted in the Por-
tuguese as contrasted with the Spanish. In
the latter, the generic substantive Canada
must, as a rule, be followed by some restric-
ti\e term (Canada la Zarza, Canada Pajares,
etc. (while in the former the differentiation of
special (proper) and common substantival
signification is produced without periphrasis
by simple specialization of meaning.
If we consider the termination -ada only
we have no means of determining whether
the word is Spanish or Portuguese, since the
Latin -atnni ending gives us the same phonetic
product -ado, for both of these languages.
These creations were originally adjectives in
participial form denoting possession, and de-
veloped out of substantives. 36 The feminine
nouns of like formation denote, as DIEZ ob-
serves, "eine menge oder fulle," but I would
prefer to consider Canada an adjective used
as a noun, just as we have it in Florida (terra
florida) and B.irbdda. (Ihla barbada). Dis-
placement of accent is necessary to adapt the
word to the laws of English pronunciation.
The origin of the root can is, of course, the
Latin canna (a reed), which gives regularly
in Spanish Can-ada, the common term for
"glade." In modern Portuguese, can-ada
denotes i. a measure for liquids, of little more
than a liter, 2. a path. Both of these are evi-
d'-ntly transferred meanings representing
simply the ixlea of fulness as predicated of
the primitive canna, used in the same sense
as we have just seen it in Latin. For the old
language, we find a meaning assigned to it by
BARBOSA DB PlNHO LEAL that suits our pre-
sent purpose better than the modern significa-
tion : " Canada, Portuguese antigo, passagem
on caminho por entre paredes on logares
ermos e. escusos, isto e", por onde costuma
passar potica gente."37
3 r )Cf. DIBZ C.rammatikS. p. 664.
37 Portugal Antigo e moderno. Diccionario gcographico,
cstiuistico, cronographico, heraldico, archcologico, historico,
l>ioi;raphico e etymologico de todas as cidadcs, villas e fre-
quenzias de Portugal por Ar<;rsr<> SHAKES n'AxHVitnn BAK-
BOSA !>i? PLNHO I,KAI., Lisbon, Moreira & companhia, 1874.
Tonic I . p. 162.
Hut it is the application of the word to cer-
tain peculiar and < -harac teristic features of
landscape as found by I>K. Hi KMKISTER in the
Argentine Republic that we would recognise
the original meaning; of the term : " Knfm on
appele Canadas tons les bas-fonds de grande
et.-ndue dans lesquels sont disse'mine's
groupes de roseaux. Us peuvent 6tre tra\
6s par un ruisseau, et constituent dans leur
ensemble de bon pAtnrages trs-propres a
l'e"leve du be'tail. Ces endroits humides dans
la pampa ne forment qu'une trs-minime
partie de sa surface et n'en modifient le
caractere que d'une facon accessoire."38 It
will be observed that the word here still be-
longs to the wide circle of descriptive techni-
cal expression and that it bears in its applica-
tion a conscious reflex of its original meaning.
Here furthermore is already a more limited
use of the term than that which was found in
the broad sense of canada , meaning a
" glade " or " dell " in general, as seen above.
But between these two words a discrepancy
is noted in the graphic signs which we must
clear up before going further. Latin gemina-
ted (+) gives regularly in Spanish the
palatalized n+y (n) : afio (annum) cana (can-
nam), gafiir (gannire), pano(pannum), canamo
(cannabis), etc., and the corresponding forms
in Portuguese are : anno, ganir, panno, canna,
canamo, that is, hjre the simple dental rep-
resents.the Latin nn without a trace of mouil-
lation : the geminated forms kept in the
modern idiom are mere graphic variations,
since the double does not affect the pronun-
ciation. 39
In form, then, canada follows the Portuguese
rule ; in signification, the Spanish derivative
from Latin canna. To which of these lan-
guages, now, are we to assign the root can as
38Description physique dc la Rdpublique Argentine par le
I)K. H. RUKMKISTKK, traduitc dc 1 allemand par E. MAITAS.
l';iris, Savy, Tome i.p.ioa.
38Choix de Lectures de Geographic par L. LAXIKK. Amtfri-
que. Paris, Belin et fils, 1883. p. 53.
3gln a recent monograph entitled : ' liases da Ortograf.a
Portugueza por A. R. CloN^ALVKs VIANNA e G. I>K VASCOK-
CBLLOS ABRKU' (Lisl>oa, 1885), it is proposed to reform Portu-
guese orthography by leaving out"os simbolos graficos sem
valor. Silo eles as cnnsoantes dobradas ou grupes de con-
soantes nrto profcridas e sem influcncia na modular 1o antccc-
dente."
171
343
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
344
it exists in our Can-ada ? I have no hesita-
tion in pronouncing for the Spanish, though
the phonetic constitution of the stem would
point rather to a Portuguese source. Preser-
vation of the medial intervocalic n is not a
general rule in the latter language (cf. pessoa
(persona), cadeia (catena), boa (bona)4 though
it is natural that the double Latin n reduced to
monophthong should stick just as in canamo
andganir, cited above; on the other hand,
so far as the pronunciation of the palatalized
n (n) of the Spanish is concerned, the native
dialect might have reproduced it according to
CUOQ'S transcription : French crinitre :
Krinier.4i But it is probable that we have
here a simple non-palatalized product for
Latin nn such as belonged to the older period
of the Spanish language ; for example, delinar
for delinar, cana as differentiated form
(Scheideform) for cana, pena as differentiated
form for pena, doniinar alongside of dowenar,
ordinar alongside of ordenarA* Again : the
extensive use in Spain, as opposed to Portugal,
of the word Canada or Canada as a geographi-
cal designation, would argue in favor of the
probable origin of the name on Spanish soil ;
and, furthermore, the continuation of the tra-
ditional nomenclature in the Argentine Repub-
lic, where it is used to mark riparian districts
not essentially differing from certain parts of
the valley of the St. Lawrence. Not less than
fifty names of places, common and specially
geographical, bear to-day in Spain this charac-
teristically generic designation, either alone, or
in combination with some attributive word, or
words, that serve to modify its broader mean-
ing and cause it to represent distinctive
natural features, or to perpetuate some his-
toric relation, of a given locality. Among the
numerous periphrases of this kind may be
cited such creations as the following : Canada
de San Pedro, Canada y Pesquera, Canadilla
(diminutive) de ortigo, Canada vellida, Can-
ada-jungosa, Canada- Vedija, la Canada aldea,
Canada Rincon, Canada Pastores, etc. The
4oREiNHARDTSTOETTNKK, Grammatik der Portugiesischen
Sprache. pp. 62-63.
4ifitudes philologiques sur quelques langues sauvages.
pp. 62-63.
42Cf. Spanische Sprachlehrc von PAUL FOKSTKK, Berlin
1880. p. 127.
greatest number of these periphrastic denomi-
nations is naturally found under the heading
of Canada or Canada de-\- a word of limitation :
La Canada de los Concyos (a village near
Seville). But not alone in Spain do we find
the word Canada widely used for marking
topographical sites. On the map of France,
we note seven places of this name scattered
throughout as many different De'partements,
in all of which the same general characteris-
tics exist that we have seen in the Spanish
names, save that on Gallic soil it is with one
exception the simple word, without any ac-
companying attribute, which is employed. In
C6tes-du-Nord, Eure and La Manche we have
LE Canada ; in Oise, Seine-et-Oise and Gironde
simply Canada, while in Saone-et-Loire the
striking and characteristic Bas-de- Canada is
used. 43 Now, some of these places may
possibly have received this appellation since
the discovery of that section of the American
Continent to which the name Canada was
given and it would be a matter of great
interest for historical geography to trace the
origin of the present designation in order to
establish whether or not it was applied to
these places before the beginning of the six-
teenth century. This side of the investigation
I was not able to carry out for lack of time
while in Paris, where alone all the necessary
local departmental sources maybe consulted.
Outside of the places already mentioned
bearing the name Canada in France, it is given
to the elevated plateau or promontory above
Fecamp, in Northern Normandy (Seine-
Infe'rieure), where the Camp de Cesar exists
to this day, relic of an old Roman fortifica-
tion. In glancing through the ordinary his-
torians of this historic town, no definite clue
can be had as to the date when the name
Canada was adopted for this region. One
writer44 naively suggests : "on (l')a nomme" le
Canada, sans doute a cause du froid rigoreux
qui s'y faitsentir en hiver;" another authons),
43Dictionnaire des Postcs et des TdWgraphes, Paris, Dela-
grave, 1885. p. 340.
44Esquisses historicities sur Fecamp par CKSAK MAKETTB.
Rouen 1839.
45 Histoire de la ville et de 1'abbaye de Fdcamp par LEON
FALLUK. Rouen, 1841. p. 24
172
345
,1A>/V.7,'.V /.. -\\CUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
34*
in blissful ignorance of phonetic laws, would
tain believe tin- name to be a curiosum ]-n>
duced by melting together two Latin words :
" ce camp curieux, nomine* Canada, peut-etre
decastra Danorum, camp desDanois"; a third
statement by writers already referred to (col.
328)46 would settle the question at once, could
we depend on it: " Audessus de Fe'camp la
pointe de coteau est appele*e de temps im-
nic'morittl Canada." No authority is cited in
support of this extraordinary assertion : it may
he the tradition, but it does not help us in
settling the very important question as to
whether the name Canada was actually known
in France before the discovery of the St. Law-
rence by the French. Should the local his-
tory of any one of the many places now bear-
ing this name show it to have existed in F ranee
antecedent to this date, it will be conclusive
evidence of its European origin, putside of
the considerations presented above. Whether
such proof can be adduced or not, I hope to
be able to state on another occasion.
A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT.
SALLY IN OUR ALLEY AND A GER-
MAN STUDENT-SONG.
Some time ago (Moo. LANG. NOTES, vol. II,
p. 103 f.) DR. GOKHKI. advanced a theory on
the probable source of GOETHE'S ' Gold-
schmiedsgesell,' which, though strong enough
in itself to win approval, was soon continued
by the further discovery of PROF. GKIC.ER (ib.
P. 34).
Upon reading DR. GOKIIKL'S article I at
once suspected a resemblance between
CARKY'S poem and a song that is sung by
< ".' Tinan students, ' Lore am Thore ; ' but not
having a COnWMfsbuch at hand, 1 was obliged
to defer a comparison of the poems to lest the
value of my new impression. I am now. after
a close examination of the song, persuaded
that it too must be referred to 'Sally in Our
Alley' as its source. I shall give the text of
the song, so that the three compositions may
IK- easily compared.
4<'iKiirlyrop die (Us L;OII^ c!u Monde, vol. V,p. 593.
LORE AM THORE.
Von alien den MMdchen to blink und *o blank
Gcfi'llt mir am bestcn die Lore;
.lien den Winkeln und GXitchen der Sttdt
ill mir's im Winkel am Thore.
Der Meister der ichmunzelt, aU hab* er Verdacht,
AU hab' er Verdacht auf die Lore;
Sie ist mein Gedanke bei Tg und be! Nacht
Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommt sic getrippelt da GKuchen hinab.
So wird mir ganz schwlil vor den Augen;
Und hor' ich von Weitem ihr leite* Klipp. Klapp.
Kein Niet' oder Band will mehr taugen.
Die Damen bei Hofe, so *ehr lie iich zier'n,
Sie gleichen doch nicht meiner Lore ;
Sie ist mein Gedanke bei Tag und bei Nacht
Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommet die liebe Weihnacht heran,
Und strotzt mir das Geld in der Westen,
Das Geld, das die Mutter zum Rock mir gesandt,
Ich geb's ihr, bei ihr ist's am best en ;
Und wiirden mir SchHtze vom Teufel gebracht
Ich trUge sie alle zur Lore ;
Sie ist mein Gedanke bei Tag und bei Nacht
Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommet nun endlich auch Pfingsten heran,
Nach Handwerksgebrauch mtlsst' ich wandern ;
Dann werd' ich jedoch f Ur mein eigenes Geld
Hier BUrger und Meister trotz Andern.
Dann werde ich Meister in dieser Stadt,
Fran Meisterin wird ineine Lore;
Dann geht es Juchheissa ! bei Tag urid bet Nacht,
Doch nicht mehr im Winkel am Thore.
The meter, form of the strophe, and the
refrain are strictly preserved. Some passages
are close translations ; in others there is
considerable deviation from the original.
The adaptation to a student-song has led to
the omission of some verses that savor too
much of the apprentice, and one verse was
afterwards added to give to the ' Gesellenlied '
still more the tone of a ' Burschenlied.' I
quote the beginning from memory:
Und hab' ich's Examen bestanden mit Ehr,
Darf frci dann wahlen und kUren,
Dann neiine sie keiner Studentenbraut mrhr,
Sonst soil er die.Klinge vcrspUren.
I have not been able to discover anything
relating to the age of the song or to its history
at the German universities. I have only
heard it sung at Jena, but should not like to
lay too much stress on my observation, as it is
well known how easily such songs, even those
of only local interest, find their way to other
universities. It is however no wild hypothesis
173
347
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 6.
348
to suppose that CAREY'S ballad was brought
to Jena a University greatly favored by
foreigners by English students or travellers,
and that it there found an early translator.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
A TRADI TIO NA LLY MISTRANS-
LA TED PASSAGE IN DON
QUIJOTE.
In the third chapter, Part I, of Don Quijote,
the inn-keeper explains to his incredulous
guest that "todas los cabelleros andantes (de
que tantos libros estan llenos y atestados}
llevaban bien herradas las bolsas," etc. In
endeavoring to make clear to myself the im-
port and etymology of the word atestados, as
here employed and it should be remarked
that the text of the original passage is well
established and unvarying I find that all the
translators on whose works I can lay my
hand have either passed the word over in
silence or else have rendered it as the past
participle of atestar ' to attest,' used as a parti-
cipial adjective with active force, in the sense
of ' authentic," ' unimpeachable.'
The translations which I have been able to
consult are: Motteux's, of which the first
edition appeared in 1712; Jarvis's, first edition
1742; Florian's (in French), 1790; Duffield's
1881 ; and Ormsby's, 1885. For the words in
parenthesis, Motteux (London 1743, vol. i, p.
20) gives: "of whom fo many Hiftories are
full;" Jarvis (London 1801, vol. i, p. 22): "of
whose actions there are such authentic
histories ; " Florian omits the entire parenthe-
sis ; Duffield (vol. i, p. 33) translates: "of
whose deeds so many books were filled and
bore witness;" and finally, Ormsby (vol. i, p.
126): "about whom there were so many full
and unimpeachable books."
The two latest translators, who have worked
in the spirit of modern accuracy and scholar-
ship, are especially to be deferred to, and in a
general way their rendering of the passage
is doubtless grammatically not impossible
(though conspicuously unwarranted is Orms-
by's construing of llenos and atestados attribu-
tively rather than predicatively) ; yet it is
evident that atestados is here the passive
participle of atestar 'to fill to the brim,' 'to
cram ; ' so that to preserve Cervantes' favorite
mode of using synonymous adjectives in pairs,
without regard to their strict construction, the
parenthesis should read: "of whom so many
books are full and replete," or, in more idio-
matic English, "full to overflowing."
A more interesting inquiry is that concern-
the origin of Sp. atestar, used in this sense.
The only other Romance language in which
the word seems to occur is the Portuguese,
and to this closely related idiom we must
have recourse for the explanation of it, since
the noun testa (from Lat. TESTUM or TESTU
' lid '), to which the verb is to be referred, has
not survived in Spanish (though preserved in
Fr. tet, It. testo). In Moraes' Portuguese
Dictionary, under atestar, is given the defi-
nition : "Encher ate" ao testo, at6 acima ; "
and the word testo is defined (s. v.) as " tampa
de barro da panella que vao ao lume." In
Spanish, one of the special meanings, which
may nevertheless be regarded as approaching
the primary one, happily supports this ety-
mology. It is thus given in Bouret's Spanish
Dictionary (s. v.) : " Rellenar, rehenchir las
cubas de vino, cuando despues de haber
cocido y mermado, se les echa otra porcion
competente para que este'n llenas."
The occurrence of the term caballero andante
in the passage above quoted makes this an
appropriate occasion for calling attention to a
commonplace of Romance etymology which
has escaped the notice of PROFESSOR SKEAT.
In his Etymological Dictionary, he connects
the word errant, of the phrase knight errant,
with the Lat. ERRARE ' to err, wander." The
oldest form of the French verb from which
comes errant in this combination, is edrer
(later errer), and derives from Low Latin
ITERARE (from ITER) 'to journey.' This word
is connected with Old and Mod. Fr. erre (e.
g., marcher sur les erres de quelqu'un), and
with Eng. eyre 'circuit' (which, by the way,
PROF. SKEAT derives correctly from Lat. ITER)
and accordingly is not to be confounded
with Fr. errer Lat. ERRARE. Sp. caballero
andante falls into line with this explanation.
H. A. TODD.
J74
349
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
350
/. M'EI AL TCA TALANISCHE RECHTS-
FORMULARE.
I )< r Codex Ottohonianus 3058 in Folio der
v.iticanischen Bibliothek t-ntliiilt due Samm-
lung fast ausschliesslich lateinischer Gesetze
und Verordnungen, die sammtlich fiir Barce-
lona giiltig waren. Die Hs. ist nicht von
t-ifit-i Sclirt. iber, vielmehr bildet den altesten
Theil die zweite und dritte Lage, die auch
lu-sonderspaginirtist, und auf aoBlattern einen
am McGinn des i4ten Jahrh. geschriebenen
Text des ' Liber usaticorum barchinonensium
enthalt. Die iibrigen 17 Lagen sind mit um-
fangreichen Documenten mancherlei Art be
schrieben. Auf dem letzten Blatte befinden
sich die beiden Formulare, die ich hier ab-
drucke. Sie sind von der Hand eines alten
Bcsitzers der Handschrift, unzweifelhaft eines
Juristen, wie u. A. eine Sammlung juristischer
Maximen in ihr bezeugt, eingetragen, und
zwar Hisst sich obendrein die ungefahre Zeit
ilirer Niederschrift angeben. Es befindet sich
namlich auf der ersten Lage der Hs. ein
Kalender, der auf der dritten Seite (Marz)
folgende Eintragung aufweist :
" Depous ora de miganit a tres de marc del
an MCCC *| xx tres foset gran terra tremol en
la ciutat de barchinona e dura dues ores | e
quaech lo cap del cluqer deles esqeles de
santa niaria singla ou toqen les esqeles e quech
nna gran pedra del arch dela esglea de sent
just que es Denant laltar maior de sent just."
Die Schrift dieser datirten Eintragung ist der
der beiden unten folgenden Formulare so
ahnlich, class wir ohne Schwierigkeit anneh-
men konnen, beides sei von demselben Be-
sitzer des Codex niedergeschrieben. Hier der
Text :
I. MANAMENT QUE MOSTREN COM HAN LO
FEU.
Al honrat naytal de mi naytal saints e
honor | Com io per rao de novela senyoria
de aytal loch o lochs vulla de vos aver feeltat
per rao d>_l feu ou feus que per mi tenits en
aytal loch Eu per amor de so a vos die e man
que dins X dies apres dela presentatio dela
present et contumadament (sic) segues (sic)
comparegats denant mi e quern fessats fer per
quel manera los dits fcus a vos pertaim-n
aparalat de fer fealtat a mi laquel sots tenguts
de fer per los clits feus | e de mi rebre investi-
dura axi com nessots tenguts et duvets Escrita
en avtall loch aytall dia daytall mes e daytall
an."
II. FORMA DE EMPAKA.
Al honrat naytal de mi naytal senyor daytal
Castell saluts e amor I con novelameut aia
entes que en vos et estal alienat lo feu quels
hereus den aytal o que naytal teni# en feu per
mi | si e y posada la veritat del fet | e vos
siats entrat en possecio de aquel feu sens fer-
ma et concentiment meu. lo qual feu se tenia
este sots senyoria mia alodiall e dreta | prego
io ab la present letra partida per letres e
sagellada ab mon segell. Contradient ala
dita alienacio | vos empar lo dit feu manant
vos quels fruyts rendes et esdevenimens meus
del dit feu per vos ne per altre no prenats |
Escrita en aytal loch aytal dia daytal mes
daytal an.
Diese beiden Stiicke bieten weit mehr In-
teresse, als die sonst so zahlreich vorhandenen
I altcatalanischen Urkunden. Wahrend der
Romanist dem Texte von Urkunden gegen-
iiber hinsichtlich der Syntax stets mit berech-
tigter Skepsis verfahrt, da dem Verfasser
| derselben stets das lateinische Formular,
wenn nicht vorgelegen, so doch vorgeschwebt
hat, wonach er seine Satze formte, so sieht
man doch an diesen Formularen, dass man in
Catalonien im I4ten Jahrhundert derartige
Documente schon direct in der Vulgarsprache
entwarf.
Das Wort oder vielmehr die Worte naytal
(n=en, ' Herr ; ' vgl. Nanfos=Don Alfonso bei
Ramon Muntaner und sonst auch ; -aytal, das
dem lat. talis fr. fel, un tel, it. un tale, etc., in
diesen Fallen genau entspricht) stehen
jedesmal fiir die im speciellen Falle einzu-
fiihrenden Namen.
Sachlich bieten die Texle kaum eine
Schwierigkeit ; jedem Kenner des mittelalter-
lichen Lehenswesens wird die Situatian sofort
klar.
Die Worte contumadament und segues in
der ersten Formel entziehen sich meinem
Verstiindniss.
Bis auf das einmal in dem i. Text sich
findende Eu, das sonst fast nur in der Sprache
der provenzalisch schreiben wollenden Dichter
vorkommt, lasst der Text sprachlich keine
Ausstellungen zu.
RICHARD OTTO.
Koine, Italy.
175
351
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
352
THE ANGLO-SAXON burh and byrig.
Is there a distinction in meaning between
burh and by rig? In SOMNER (1659) we find:
" beorg collis, acervus, cumulus, tumulus, a
hillock or little hill, a heap of earth, a tombe,
&c. Munimentum, agger, arx, a rampire, a
place of defence and succour.
byrig urbs, civitas, a Citty. Hinc tot a-
pud nos Urbium nomina sic terminantia."
LYE (1772) gives :
" burg urbs, civitas, Mat. 10,23 ; J I > 2 > villa,
Orosius 2,5 ; arx Cob. 10; castrum, municipium,
oppidum curia, palatium, domus ; burga
urbes, Luc. 9,6 ; after burgum Boet. pp. 155,-
195; Caedmon 73,17 vide beorg, collis, Luc.
23,20; mons, Orosius 1,1; acervus Ps. 64,13:
refugium 58,19; czfter burgum Caedmon 65,-
24; 67,16; munimentum, sepulchrum, Cod. Ex.
p. 119. vide beorh agger, Aelf. gr. 9,18;
collis, Luc. 3,5 ; tumulus, R. 97; acervus, Jos.
7,26; mons, Orosius 1,1; beorh upeweard
monticellus, R. 97, dione beorh Caed. 71,4.
beorhgas, Guth."
byrig urbs. Mat. X. 23; oppida, Beda 3,28:
collis, tumulus quivis e terra congestus.
KEMBLE in the 'Saxons in England' (Vol.
II, appendix C) sums up the distinction in
these words :
"The strict meaning of burh, appears to be
fortified place or stronghold. It can there-
fore be applied to a single house or castle, as
well as to a town. There is a softer form
byrig, which in the sense of a town can hardly
be distinguished from burh, but which, as far
as I know, is never used to denote a single
house or castle."
In BOSWORTH -TOLLER'S Anglo-Saxon
Dictionary we find the same history of burh
as KEMBLE gives, and under byrig as follows :
" byrig, e; f: ace. s. byrig, byrige, a city,
urbs, civitas : Her Gtipa gefeaht wid Bry-
twalas cst Biedcan forda, and genam Lygean
byrig and sEgles byrig, in this year Cutha
fought against the Brito-Welsh at Bedford
and took Lenbury and Aylesbury, Chr. 571;
Canhvara byrig forbarn tiy gedre, Canter-
bury was burnt down in this year Chr. 754. v.
burh."
HARRISON and BASKERVILL following
GROSCHOPP'S GREIN omit byrig altogether.
Grammarians are at present in accord as to
the appearance of byrig as the gen. and dat.
sg., and nom. and ace. pi. of burh.
Now the question resolves itself into these
two:
(1) Is there a feminine substantive byrig?
(2) Are there any distinctions between
byrig as representing the declined forms of
burh, and the other forms of burh?
(i) The references for byrig as cited above
are Matthew X, 23; Beda III, XXVIII, 32;
Chr. 571 ; chr. 754. If these examples be ex-
amined, it will be found that Mat. X, 23 is tlie
dative case, on pisse byrig (cf. Gospels, edited
by SKEAT, 1887); Beda III, XXVIII, 32 is ace.
pi. 7 byrig 7 land 7 ceastre 7 tunas 7 hus
for godspellicre lare fturhferan (SMITH'S
Beda, 1722), so that we have left the two cases
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Comparing
THORPE'S edition of the Original Texts of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, London 1861, where
we have the seven manuscripts published in
parallel columns we find for the first case (An.
571, Th. 33,28). (A) CCCC. CXXXIII, Lygean-
burg 7 sEgelsbirg, (B) Cott. Tib. A. VI.
Liggeanburh 7 sEglesburh, (C) Cott. Tib. B.
i, same as B. (E) Bodl. Land 636 Lygeanbyrig
7 sEglesbyrig.
For the second case (An. 754, Th. 81,36),
(A) Cantivaraburg, (B) Canhvareburh, (C and
D) Cantivaraburh, (E) Cantwarabyrig.
In a word, as yet I have been able to dis-
cover only three cases where byrig occurs,
and all of these twice as ace. sg. (Th. 33,28)
and once as nom. sg. (Th. 81,36) are in the
Bodl. Land. MS. of the Chronicle. Of course
upon this authority we must admit the ex-
istence of this feminine substantive, but we
should notice at the same time two things :
first, that the word occurs in conjunction with
a determinative substantive, and secondly,
the peculiarities of this MS. E.
It is the MS. which comes down to the latest
date, 1131. WULKER says (Grundriss III, 513) :
"Da eine Hand vom Anfange bis 1121 geht,
so ist die Vermutting, die Handschrift sei
geschrieben worden nachdem 1116 die Abtei
zu Peterborough durch Feuer vollstandig
zerstort worden war, sehr wahrscheinlich."
Our only evidence then for byrig as a femin-
ine substantive is in conjunction with other
words after 1116. It would be worth the
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, \W>. No. 6.
354
trouble ot srholais In null- any oilier <
tliat may occur to tlu-tn.
\\' licre byrig occurs as a form of burh, we
are not justified in drawing any such distinction
as that made by KEMHLE, following others;
and in one instance investigated by me I am
inclined to translate this form by 'castle,'
although admitting that in most cases that
h.ive fallen under my eye, the significance
has been 'city.' In 'Teutonic Antiquities in
Andreas and Elene ' p. 16, speaking of
heaven I said, "In a narrower sense it is a
city (byrig E. 822). The conception one forms
of heaven from the description as a room,
where the Judge sits on the throne, E. 746, or
the King in the midst of his knights, A. 874,
and as a Noble surrounded by his angels, A.
873, would justify the translation 'castle'
rather than 'city,' but the word byrig (in
contradistinction to burh} dues not seem to
possess this primary meaning." To which
I added the foot-note, " It must be remarked
that byrig is often nothing more than the
dative of burh." This it unquestionably is in
the case in hand, and hence the objection to
the translation ' castle,' urged above, can not
be maintained.* Until we find other examples
of the fern. subs, byrig, it will be impossible
to determine whether it could have the pri-
mary significance 'fortified place.'
CHARLES W. KENT.
University of Virginia.
CORRECTIONS IN BARTSCH' S
GLOSSARY (La Langue et la Littera-
ture Franfaises : Paris, 1887).
This excellent and useful work is doubtless
. in the hands of many of the readers of MODERN
LANGUAGE NOTES. The following errors
(evidently in great part misprints) have been
noted by me while using the Glossary for
purposes of reference and comparison :
p. 682 read ALL- v. AL-
719 COMANDKMENT for 125,5 read 123,5.
720 CAMPAIGNIE for 50,39 read 50,30.
730 CREATURE Omit 269,18.
751 DRAGON for 426,23 read 426,28.
773 read ESPIRITEL v. ESPERITAL.
781 FENDRE for 161,3 read 161,5.
*Cf. Note on burh in EAKI.B'S ' Two of the Saxon Chroni-
cles,' 1865.
792 GKiilK for 140,11 read 141,10.
801 HONIK for 289,1 read 289,9.
807 JKTKR for 203,23 read 203,31.
826 MENTIR for 236,18 read 236,28.
826 MERCIER omit 27,29.
841 OIR for 30,36 read 30,26.
893 SEUR for 56,24 read 56,25.
894 SIECLE for 26,30 read 26,10.
906 TORBE for 24,13 read 24,23.
SUGGESTED EMENDATIONS.
I.
In ' Gormund et Isembard ' (BARTSCH p. 31.
ss.), SCHELER'S Text reads (v. 29)
Tres li cunsent tin Alcman,
where HEILIGBRODT reads cuncen*/. Surely
this should be cunsewt (consivre). So in line
45 (SCHELER) we have cui consiut.
II.
In ' Garin le Loherain ' (BARTSCH in ss.),
we hav^ (122,17)
Li troi chael en la perent asseis :
where the MS. A (Paris 1443) has la poicnt.
The sense which the Editor would give to
this line is not evident : but surely we should
read laperent as one word. The added line
in D (Paris 1582) puts this beyond all doubt.
It reads
Tant que il furent plain, et saol, et res.
III.
In Bertran de Born, ' Bern platy car trega
ni fis ' (STIMMING, No. 8), there is difficulty in
rendering satisfactorily 1. 35:
E qu'en passes dos e dos.
SKIMMING'S explanation is not convincing.
It is with some diffidence that I suggest
E qu'en passes dos sedos.
i. e. 'two setons.' The use of the seton was
not unknown in Bertran de Born's time. 1
would note that the MSS. J, K read dos cedos.
FREDERIC SPENCER.
Cambridge, Eng.
PHONETIC COMPENSA TIONS.
Great as the progress of the scientific study
of speech has been, there are still certain
177
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
356
points on which the different schools of pho-
neticians are utterly at variance. Some of
this disagreement might perhaps be avoided
if all investigators would bear clearly in mind,
as some have always done, the immense
variety of resources which the speaking man
has at his command. If the utterance of the
vowel a is described in one way by B, and
quite differently by C, need we conclude that
either B or C is wrong ? May not each of them
be correctly stating his own national or indi-
vidual method of forming the vowel? Is it
not likely that the human vocal organs, with
their wonderful complexity and delicacy, have
the means not only of bringing forth countless
different sounds, but also, in some cases, of
producing the same sound in several ways ?
Suppose the vowel o may be obtained by a
combination of factors w, x,y : there still re-
mains the possibility that another combina-
tion, say x, y, z, will give nearly or quite the
same result, the addition of a new factor, z,
compensating for the loss of w. Once admit-
ting that the same sound may be produced
(generally with some modifications too slight
to affect its essential quality) by several dis-
tinct processes, we should be forced to admit
that, since different races or persons would
naturally adopt different methods, a phonetic
system broad enough to reconcile the existing
schools, or accurate enough to describe in
detail more than one dialect, must take the
principle of compensation into account. A
study of this principle would, moreover, in
all probability prove to be just the sort of in-
vestigation necessary to determine the hither-
to unknown factors of that most important
but seemingly intangible thing known as a
"national" or "foreign accent." Let us,
then, confining ourselves for the present to the
pronunciation of the vowels, consider how
far compensation is possible, and see whether
any forms of it occur in actual speech. 1
DEFINITIONS.
While adopting in general as a basis for our
investigations SWEET'S vowel system and
i The name " compensation " is not a new one, it was used
by SIEVEKS in his rhonetik 31! ed. p. 80, with reference to a
possible increased tongue action making up for diminished
lip action. Cf. his Phonetik. 2(1 ed. p. 71, 3d. ed. p. 83,
and his Lautphysiologie, p. 45,
nomenclature, we shall find it convenient to
define some of his terms anew, without intend-
ing to change the signification he attaches to
them, unless such change is expressly noted.
1. High, Mid, Low. High vowels are
those pronounced with the articulating part of
the tongue raised nearly to the palate. Low
vowels are those which have least elevation of
any part of the tongue. Mid vowels are half
way between high and low. /and are high
vowels, e and o are mid, ^ (as in man) and y
(as in not) are low.
2. Front, Mixed, Back. For front vowels
the tongue is massed in the front of the mouth ;
for back vowels it is massed in the back ;
mixed vowels are those which are neither
back nor front. 2 /, e, ^ are front vowels ;
the Russian j'ery, the vowel in the last syllable
of defter, and the vowel in sir are mixed ; u, o,
o are back.
3. Wide, Narrow. Any vowel may be
wide or narrow : it is wide when the part of
the tongue raised to pronounce it is as flat as
possible; it is narrow when the elevated part
of the tongue is surmounted by an additional
local hump of small height, which somewhat
narrows the voice-passage. This is the differ-
ence between the vowel in English fin and
that in French fine, between e in Eng. ten and
e in Fr. the, between ce in Eng. fat and e in
Fr. fete; between the vowel in Eng.///// and
that in Vr.fotile, etc.
VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF TONGUE AND JAW.
The following experiment, as well as all
others mentioned in this article, should be
performed before a glass and in a good light.
It is taken for granted that the observer is by
birth an English-speaking person.
Pronounce successively, in a perfectly
natural way, a wide / (as in pin), a wide e (as
in pen), a wide a: (as in pan), it will be seen
that in passing from z to e and from e to re
there is a lowering of the front part of the
tongue, but not of the very point, which
remains about stationary behind the lower
front teeth ; this lowering may be made more
evident by throwing back the head and letting
a strong light shine into the mouth. There
2 This definition of mixed vowels is slightly different from
SWKET'S and still more so from HELL'S.
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES 1888. No. 6.
358
may also be a slight sinking of the jaw. If
tliis he the case, try pronouncing tin- same
vowels with the jaw perfectly still : it can be
iltnie without the least difficulty, with the jaw
in any position, from that of i to one far below
that of <t, or even with the jaws firmly closed,
provided the lips be widely separated so as to
let the sound out. That is, the tongue-move-
ment alone is enough to distinguish these
vowels. This tongue-movement can be well
shown by going through the series with the
jaw as low as possible.
Now produce the same sounds, distinguish-
ing them by lowering the jaw, without any
independent movement of the tongue whatso-
ever. This can, after a little practice, be done
with ease ; but the jaw-movement, though not
necessarily causing a difference of over six or
si-ven millimeters between the i and the ce
positions, will evidently be greater here than
in the natural articulation of the vowels. The
e and ce produced in this, way have a some-
what more open sound than those formed by
tongue-action alone.
Similar experiments can be performed with
the narrow front vowels (French /, <?, e), which,
it will be noted, become closer in quality the
nearer the jaws are brought together; also
with the wide back vowels ( in full, o in
German Sonne, y in not) and the narrow back
vowels ( in German du, o in French sot, y in
law).
It is possible also to pronounce the whole
vowel system with the jaws shut (if only the
lips be kept well apart), the sound then having
a closer quality than when uttered with the
natural mouth-opening.
The foregoing experiment leads us to the
conclusion that high, mid, and low vowels
may be distinguished in three different ways :
ist, by lowering the tongue ; 2d, by sinking
the jaw ; 3(1, by combining these two methods.
In ordinary Kng'ish the tongue-lowering is
probably accompanied by a slight dropping of
the jaw. SWKKT says (' Handbook of Pho-
netics,' i 77, p. 12): "The height of the
tongue is partly due to the action of the
muscles of the tongue itself, but also in a
great degree to the movements of the jaw."
But if we actually measure this jaw move-
ment, we shall find it to be extremely small :
tin- maximum difference, in English as usually
spoken, between /and & is probably not over
three millimeters. Is this the case in other
languages ? MERKEL (' Physiologic der men-
schlichen Sprache,' 1866, p. 103) makes the
difference between i and/? seven millimeters3
PASSV (' Kurze Darstellung des franzosischen
Lautsystems," in Fhonctischc Sludien, I, i, p. 24)
gives diagrams which point to about the same
amount of jaw-lowering ; WESTERN ('Engilsche
Lautlehre,' 1885, pp. 5 and 83) clearly implies
that, although i, e, and <?can be distinguished
by tongue-action, the only difference between
them in point of fact lies in the position of the
jaw. All this testimony goes to show that in
German, French, and Norwegian the jaw-
movement is the main feature. That this is
true of at least some other European lan-
guages a careful examination of foreigners will
prove.
We may sum up our results as follows : ist,
the distinction between high, mixed, and low
vowels depends on the distance of the highest
part of the tongue from the palate; 2d, Eng-
lish-speaking people obtain this characteristic
difference mainly by tongue-movement ; 3d,
Continental Europeans obtain it chiefly by
moving the jaw; 4th, this difference of
methods accounts for the "close" quality of
English pronunciation as compared with
Continental European accents.
ROUNDING.
Pronounce y (as in law), o (as in so), u (as in
too), o (as in French fieu), ii (as in French /) :
at first sight the most striking feature of these
vowels seems to be the rounding or puckering
of the lips. This rounding is naturally least
for low and greatest for high vowels. It may
take various shapes; SIEVERS says ('Grund-
ziige der Phonetik,' 1885, p. 93): " Was . . .
3 The various lip-positions are illustrated by TKCHMER
(Internationale 7-titschrift, I, i, Tab. Ill) in a scries of
drawings which would indicate a far greater degree of jaw.
lowering than that noted by MEKKKI. ; these figures can,
however, scarcely be supposed to represent the mouth-posi-
tions occurring in ordinary speech. TKAVTMANN also I'Die
Sprachlaute,' pp. 41-43) attaches the greatest importance to
jaw-position.
4 Italians commonly speak of the English accent as ttretto.
C. H. c.
A Frenchman in Merlin used the word //<-<' in speaking of
my French pronunciation some fourteen years ago. B. s. s.
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June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
360
die Formunterschiede in der Rundung betrifft,
so unterscheide man im Einzelnen, ob die
Rundung bloss durch Verticalbewegung der
Lippen gegeneinander erzeugt wird, . . . oder
durch Einziehung der Mundwinkel, . . . oder
durch beides zugleich . . . ; ferner ob die Lippen
ihren natiirlichen Abstand von den Zahnen
behalten oder an diese starker angepresst
oder aber vorgestiilpt und dadurch von den
Zahnen abgehoben werden." If we compare
our pronunciation of o and u with that of a
Frenchmen or a German, we shall see that
our iip^roundlng is generally less energetic,
being free from compression as well as from
protrusion : this difference in production ac-
counts for the difference in effect. If, more-
over, we pronounce each of the rounded
vowels with the lips in various positions, we
shall find that, other things being equal, the
round effect always becomes more intense as
the size of the lip-aperture is reduced.
Next let us try producing the rounded
vowels with the jaws closed and with the
corners of the mouth stretched out as far as
possible toward the ears : they can all be
pronounced perfectly in this way, provided
the lips be separated enough to let the air
escape between and around the teeth. When,
however, the lips are brought closer together,
the vowels become more rounded than in
actual speech ; y, which has normally but
little rounding, sounds particularly unnatural.
If the lips be closed entirely, the rounded
vowel culminates in the consonant b.
Let us try one more experiment. While
pronouncing any unrounded vowel, cover the
mouth-aperture with the hand : the sound
obtained has the effect of lip-rounding ; the
closer the hand is pressed, the more intense
the rounding becomes, and when no air is
allowed to escape, the sound passes into a b.
We infer, then, that the lip-rounded effect
is produced by closure of the mouth-aperture.
If the closure be complete, the result is b,
which is the limit of all lip-rounded vowels ;
the nearer the lip-position is to complete
closure, the more intense is the lip-rounded
quality. Our conclusion is borne out by the
acoustic effect of lip-rounding. If we were to
describe this effect, we should probably call it
a " tight " or "shut-up" quality, and should
doubtless compare it to the sound obtained
by talking into a tumbler.
Lip-rounding is, however, not the only sort
of rounding, nor is it always the more im-
portant kind. In English, as we have already
seen, the lips are much less used than in some
and perhaps in nearly all the languages of
Continental Europe : Englishmen and Ameri-
cans can, in fact, without much trouble pro-
duce a good 3 or o and a fairly good u without
any lip-contraction whatsoever. 5 The sounds
thus obtained are, to be sure, slightly different
from the ordinary rounded vowels, but still
they are distinctly round. What gives them
this quality? SWEET says ('H. of Ph., pp. 13,
14) : " Rounding is a contraction of the mouth
cavity by lateral compression of the cheek
passage and narrowing of the lip aperture. . .
... It will be observed that the action of
rounding is always concentrated on that part
of the mouth where the vowel is formed. In
rounding front vowels, such as the high-front-
round (y), as in the French lune, the cheek
compression is concentrated chiefly on the
corners of the mouth and that part of the
cheeks immediately behind them, while in
back vowels, such as the high-back-round (),-
the chief compression is at the back of the
cheeks. Lip-narrowing is, therefore, some-
thing secondary in back-rounded vowels, as it
is possible to form them entirely with cheek-
rounding or 'inner-rounding.' " SIEVERS ('G.
der Ph.,' 1885, p. 94) comments on this passage
as follows : " Es ist richtig, dass bei cler Run-
dung durch Anpressung der Lippen an die
Zahne auch die Wangen z. Th. eine straffere
Spannung annehmen, aber ich vermag niclit
dieser eine derartig besondere Bedeutung
beizulegen wie BELL und SWEET es 'thun, da
doch die Wangen auch in schlaffem Zustande
an den Zahnreihen anzuliegen pflegen, und
also die Gestalt des Resonanzraumes auf diese
Weise nicht wesentlich verandert werden
kann." That there is no necessary contraction
of the cheeks in pronouncing hack-rounded
vowels, either with or without lip-rounding,
anybody can convince himself by holding his
5 The natural facility of English-speaking people in pro-
nouncing rounded vowels without contracting the mouth-
aperture gives them peculiar advantages for studying the
tongue-movements accompanying these sounds.
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June, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, \9S&. No. 6.
362
finger against his cheek while passing from
the unrounded // in but to tin- rounded in
note ; for front rounded vowels tin- "cheek
compression" is evidently nothing hut tin-
tension caused l.y puckering tin- li|>s. EVANS
('Spelling Experimenter,' 1X82) dt-clares it is
possible, without using the lips, to form one
after another the vowels /, e, a, o, u by draw-
ing back the tongue from the front of the
mouth ; lip-rounding he regards merely as a
substitute for tongue-retraction. Although
there is some truth in this, it will be clear to
any one who closely watches his tongue while
trying to perform the experiment described,
that other elements than mere retraction are
necessary to distinguish the vowels of the
series. Finally VIKTOR (' Elemente der
Phonetik,' 1887, p. 17) remarks, after describ-
ing the usual rounding by lip-contraction :
"Ein ahnlicher Klangeffect kann durch ver-
schiedenartige Zungenrundung, die sich auch
leicht mit der Lippenrundung verbindet, . . .
erzielt werden."
Let us try by a few experiments to ascertain
the true nature of this " inner " or, as VIKTOR
calls it, "tongue-rounding." Pronounce the
back rounded vowels (u, o, y) with the mouth
as wide open as possible : y is pronounced
easily and nearly perfectly, o undergoes a
slight modification in quality, u is more mod-
ified and is harder to produce. Practice the
o for some time with the mouth wide open,
until it sounds as nearly as possible like a
natural o. Now pass rapidly, without moving
the jaw or lips, from this o to the unrounded
vowel in but (which we shall call v), and back
again. In changing from v to o the tongue
will be seen to draw back and up, and also to
undergo a violent lateral contraction just in
front of its highest point. This contraction
may take either one of two forms : either the
whole upper front part of the tongue will be
so pinched as to become very thin laterally
and correspondingly thick vertically, while a
farrow is developed low down on each side;
or the shape just described will be modified
by a marked deepening of the permanent
central groove that divides tin- tongue length-
wise. The elfect of this lateral compression
is double: it increases the height of the artic-
ulating part of the tongue, and it enlarges the
cavity in front of this highest point. In other
words, compression supplements the retrac-
tion and elevation of the tongue already
noted.
The participation of the tongue in the round-
ing of the front vowels has been noted and
described by VIKTOK (' K. der 1'h..' 1887^.85):
" Dass bei meiner Aussprache des geschloss-
enen b in Of en und des geschlossenen it in
Ubel, welche ich fur die biihnengemasse halte,
die Zungenstellung nicht ganz dieselbe ist,
wie bei e in ew ig, bezw. * in Igel, davon habe
ich mich durch den Augenschein und Ex-
perimente iiberzeugt. Die Vorderzunge bil-
det bei den gerundeten Vokalen eine ziemlich
flache Langsrinne ; das Zungenblatt ist rings
etwas gehoben. Ein nach dem Gaumen bin
eingefiihrter Federhalter o. dgl. steht an der
namlichen Stelle der e-, bezw. /- Artikulation
im Wege, wo dies fur o, bezw. u nicht der Fall
ist. Offne ich den Mund etwas weiter, als
dies fur die Laute normal ist, so zeigt es sich,
dass sich die flache Rinne nach oben rechts
und links verzweigt und so eine nach drei
Seiten hin eingebuchtete Vertiefung bildet."
The essential point is that a hollow is formed
i in front of the articulating part of the tongue.
i After repeating VIKTOR'S experiments, we
i may try producing these vowels with the
| mouth wide open, that is, without lip-round-
ing: under these circumstances the ii and the
j o, though still recognizable, lose much of the
quality they have in actual speech. In pass-
ing (with open mouth) from / to or from e to
o the tongue is slightly lowered and drawn
back, it is, moreover, contracted, and may
j take either one of two shapes: the one is an
i exaggeration of that described by VIKTOR ;
the other, in its extreme form, is nearly that
of an egg seen from the small end. SIKVFKS
is perhaps thinking of this second variety
when he says (' G. der Ph.,' 1885, pp. 93 and 96,
; 97) that German ii has the tongue-position of.r.
Whichever position the tongue assumes, there
is always a cavity in front of its articulating
part. This cavity seems to be a necessary
feature of inner rounding, /can be changed
to // and c to o merely by the formation of an
artificial cavity just outside the lips.
The above facts lead us to the conclusion that
the conformation necessary for inner round-
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June. MODERN 'LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
364
ing is that of a narrow passage connecting two
cavities. Narrowing the passage intensifies
the rounding ; enlargement of the front cavity
helps the rounding, and, if great enough,
changes the nature of the vowel. The a-
coustic effect of inner rounding is, as we have
seen, analogous to that of lip-rounding, but not
identical with it.
Have we, however, discovered all the factors
that combine to produce inner rounding ?
The following experiment will show that we
have not. Lower the jaw so that the two rows
of teeth are about -a quarter of an inch apart,
press the point of the tongue firmly against
the front teeth of both jaws, distend the lips in
all directions, and round e by lateral com-
pression of the tongue : a tolerably good o will
be the result ; but it is also possible, without
any visible change in tongue or jaw, to pro-
duce a perfectly clear a. What constitutes
the difference between these two sounds? If,
while uttering these vowels, we direct .our
attention not to the mouth, but to the throat,
we shall notice a vigorous motion just above
the Adam's apple. As we pass from o to a
(producing both sounds in the way just de-
scribed) the throat sinks in, as we return to o
it swells out. If we open the mouth wide
while making this change, we shall notice also
that the top of the tongue is nearly level for a,
whereas for this o the back part is raised
nearly to the palate. Next pass from o to v
(as in but): the throat-movement, though less
marked, is still plainly perceptible. BELL was
probably referring to this throat-swelling
when he said that "the mechanical cause of
round quality commences in the superglottal
passage " (quoted by SWEET, 'H. of Ph., 'p. 13).
If we now try to localize still further this
throat-expansion by applying the fingers to
the throat while performing the a-'o experi-
ment, we shall find that it consists in the
protrusion of the hjyoid bone. 6 Grasping this
bone as firmly as we can between the thumb
and fore-finger, let us next try to discover
what positions it occupies when we pronounce
unrounded vowels. In ordinary breathing,
6The hyoid bone is shaped like a horseshoe with the round
end pointing outward ; it is situated at the base of the tongue,
just above the larynx. Its position can be felt by passing
from a to the consonant ti and holding, the latter as long as
possible. |- i
and also in producing all unrounded back
(French & in pate, v in English but, the vowel
in Scotch laogh?) and all unrounded low
vowels (French d in pdte, and the low-mixed
vowel, and English ^ in rat), the bone is
retracted nearly as far as possible, and the
muscles 8 connecting it with the jaw-bone are
relaxed ; but when we pass from any of these
sounds to e or to the Russian Jery,9 it comes
forward, and for i it advances still further, 10 the
genio-hyoid muscle becoming very tense and
very prominent. There is probably a slight
protrusion for the mid-mixed vowel also.
Now, as the hyoid bone is attached to the
base of the tongue, the protrusion of the bone
drags the lower back part of the tongue for-
ward, away from the epiglottis. We can feel
this movement if we insert the finger so far
into the mouth that the end of it is between
the raised epiglottis and the back of the tongue.
This displacement of bulk at the bottom of
the tongue inevitably increases the height of
some spot on the top ; and in point of fact we
find that it is used in the formation of those
vowels (high-mixed, high-front, mid-front)
whose necessary elevation other means are
inadequate to produce. Next let us note the
position of the bone while we pass from the
various unrounded vowels to their correspond-
ing inner-rounded sounds: that is, while passing
without lip-action from d \npdte to 3 in Eng-
lish not, from v to o, from the vowel of lao^h
to u, from ^ to 6 in French peur, from e to o
in French pen, from /to u in French pn. In
every case, except .that of the low-back, \ve
shall see that the rounded vowel is accom-
panied by a greater protrusion of the bone
than the unrounded. The low-back vowels,
both narrow and wide, can be produced with
a slight protrusion, but they can also be (and
perhaps generally are) pronounced without it.
If we go through as many of the above
changes as we can with the finger inserted in
the mouth as far as the epiglottis, we can feel,
as we pronounce the rounded vowels, a vio-
lent up-lifting of the articulating part of the
tongue ; for instance, as we pass from a mid-
back a to an o, the finger is thrown up toward
the soit palate.
7 An unrounded vowel formed in the -position. 8 See
TKCHMEK, /. /,., I, i, p. 136. 9 High-mixed. 10 See MEK-
KKI., ' 1>. der m. S.,' pp. 37, 103.
J82
365
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
All this goes to confirm our theory that the
main feature of inner rounding is a narrow
i \\> <!! |>;ilat<- and tongue. In the
high-mixed position, where we always have a
small passage with a cavity on each side, it is
impossible- to pronounce a sound that does
not strike the ear as rounded. It is also very
hard to produce a high-back vowel entirely
devoid of rounding. To round the high-front
and perhaps the mid-front, where a narrow
passage already exists, all that is required is
the formation of a front cavity, but this neces-
sitates a retraction of the tongue and causes
tin- passage to recede ; in fact, if the cavity be
formed by lateral compression of the tongue,
the narrow passage is, for e, produced far
back in the mouth, so that the rounded vowel
is rather mixed than front. When we round
the" mid-back vowel, we carry the back of the
tongue upwards and backwards. The low-
back can be rounded by carrying the tongue
back toward the lower part of the soft pal-
ate. For the low-front and the low-mixed
inner rounding seems to be impossible : when
we try to round them we lose their characteris-
tic positions. The mid-mixed can be rounded
only by a decided elevation of the middle or
back of the tongue."
The question now presents itself: does inner
rounding exist only in the absence of lip-con-
traction, or is it a regular element of all
rounded vowels ? As far as the front vowels
are concerned, this question is answered by
VIKTOR in the passage quotod above. A cor-
roboration of his statement is found in
Romania, 1887, April-October, p. 630, where
GASTON PARIS remarks, in reviewing a work
by l\ri>oi,F LKNZ: " L' auteur dit quepour arti-
culer 1' it la langue prend la meme position que
pour articuler 1' /. Je ne puis etre de cetavis.
Si on maintient la langue dans la position tie
1' i, on ne pent arriver, avec la position voulue
des levres, a e"mettre un it pur." As for the
bark vowels, TKCHMKR gives us (/. Z., I, i,
Tab. Ill, 4, 5) diagrams showing the difference
in tongue-configuration between a and H : in a
nl once thought that inner rounding might be produced by
the cavity between the tongue and the epiglottis sinus glosto-
rpiglotticus) itself; 1 convinced myself that this could not be
so, by pressing the epiglottis close against the back of the
tongue while pronouncing o. I have performed this experi-
ment a number of times, and have always found the quality
of the o unaltered by the closure of the sinus. c. H. G.
the upper surface of the tongue as seen from
the lips is convex, in u the central groove is
strongly developed. If additional proof be
It-sired, round the lips and try to pronounce
the unrounded front vowels : unless the round-
ing is abnormally great, a pure i and e can be
produced. Similarly the unrounded back
vowels v (as in but) and French & in Idche can
be formed with the lips puckered. All this
evidence shows pretty clearly that ordinary
lip-rounding is not enough to give a round
quality to sounds ; it follows, then, that a cer-
tain amount of inner rounding must be a reg-
ular feature of rounded vowels. A still more
convincing proof is the fact that all the usual
rounded vowels, except perhaps y, are accom-
panied by protrusion of the hyoid bone. An
absence of inner rounding may, however, be
compensated for by abnormal protrusion and
puckering of the lips. If, on the other hand,
inner rounding be used alone, it is, of course,
tremendously exaggerated to compensate for
the loss of lip cooperation.
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS OF TONGUE AND
LIPS.
We have already seen that retraction of the
tongue is one of the regular elements of inner
rounding. We have also referred to a state-
ment of EVANS that the effect of rounding can
be produced by tongue retraction alone. Let
us try passing from front to mixed and from
mixed to back, without rounding of any kind :
we find that there is a constant increase in a
quality which is akin to rounding, but is not
the same thing. We may call it a "hollow"
quality, as compared with the "clear " effect
of the front vowels. /, e, and re produce the
effect of being, as it were, uttered at the lips
and transmitted directly to the ear; whereas
the back vowels remind one of sounds re-
echoing through a large and empty room.
The acoustic effect gives us a clue to the char-
acteristic difference between these two sets of
vowels: hollow sounds are produced with a
large cavity in front of the articulating part of
the tongue, clear vowels are characterized by
the absence of such a cavity. Front or clear
vowels have, moreover, a space of considerable
si/e behind the articulating part of the tongue ;
this empty space, into which the finger (or even
two or three fingers) can easily be inserted,
183
367
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 6.
368
may be of importance in determining the
nature of clear sounds. 12
The effect of the front cavity (the distinguish-
ing mark of hollow vowels) can be shown in
the following way. Place the hands together
in the form of a cup, and while pronouncing
& hold this cup close in front of the mouth : if
the cup be a very shallow one, the result is a
lip-rounded low-mixed ; if the cup be bigger
we obtain a lip-rounded y. If, now, during
the emission of the sounds, we open these
cups, so as to let the air escape freely, without
destroying the artificial cavity in front of the
lips, the shallow one will give us approximate-
ly an unrounded low-mixed, the deep one ap-
proximal^ly a low-back a. Similar experi-
ments can be performed with e and /: here,
however, there is always a rounded effect,
owing to elevation of the tongue. For the i
position, moreover, mere protrusion of the lips
gives the same result as the application of the
cup : an i pronounced with the lips greatly
advanced and puckered sounds like the high-
mixed-rounded ; while the latter, produced
with the same amount of protrusion, becomes
u. These facts prove that for the ear the
effect of front, mixed, and back (or of clear
and hollow) depends on the position of the
articulating part of the tongue with regard to
the whole mouth-cavity.
The acoustic effect of hollowing is, as we
have seen, very like that of rounding ; and a
certain amount of hollowing is a necessary ele-
ment of all inner rounding. It may also be
said that in most of the languages commonly
studied, the extreme hollow quality is general-
ly accompanied by rounding of some kind :
that is, unrounded back vowels are tolerably
scarce, except in English. The English
language has at least two of them, a and v.
In the English rounded vowels, too, we have
seen that retraction and elevation of the
tongue (that is, extra hollowing and extra in-
ner rounding combined) take, to a certain ex-
tent, the place of lip rounding. When, more-
over, the Englishman tries to imitate a French
or German o, he invariably substitutes hollow-
ing for rounding : that is to say, he pronounces
the low-mixed instead of the mid-front-round.
12 See the Proceedings of the American Philological Socie-
ty for 1884, pp. xxxviii-xl.
If, now, we analyze the sound of the back
rounded vowels, we find that in u the round
quality is stronger than the hollow, that in
English o the round effect and the hollow are
about equal, while in y the hollowing is by far
the more important element. We can, in fact,
pronounce the low-back-wide without any
rounding whatsoever,^ and yet the vowel
sounds slightly round, as compared with a low-
back a. Passing, with the mouth wide open,
from low-back a to this unrounded y, we
notice that there is a sinking of the whole front
part of the tongue, and especially of the part
just in front of the y position : in other words
the unrounded low-back vowel which sounds
rounded requires a larger front cavity than the
low-back vowel that has an unrounded effect.
This fact leads us to the conclusion that a
maximum of hollowing is acoustically equiva-
lent to a minimum of rounding : the low-back
position is the one where rounding and hollow-
ing meet. The clear quality (as represented
by a:) is, on the other hand, the opposite of
both hollowing and rounding. We might,
therefore, if we chose, arrange the vowels in
the form of a triangle, at the apex of which
,we should place the vowel which is easiest to
round without lip-action and capable of the
most intense inner rounding (the high-mixed or
the high-back), while ^ and unrounded y would
occupy the two lower corners. It is, however,
important to remember that in most cases the
difference between clear, inner-rounded, and
hollow is one of degree rather than of kind :
for this reason any such triangular arrange-
ment as the one just proposed would probably
be unfit for practical use. It will suffice to
note, in the case of every vowel, whether its
degree of clearness, hollowing, and -inner
rounding corresponds to the amount that is
normal for its position in the Sweet system.
For instance, all back vowels are regularly
hollow ; but if the front cavity of an u be
diminished by raising or carrying forward the
front of the tongue, we should describe the
as "clear;" and, on the other hand, if the
13 In my own natural pronunciation the vowel of not has
no trace of rounding of any kind, yet it is quite distinct in
sound from any variety of a. I am not sure whether my
natural narrow 3 is rounded or not; I can certainly pronounce
this vowel without any lip or tongue movement that seems
like rounding. c. u. (;.
184
369
June. MO/>/ A'.V LANGUAGE NOTES, i8K8. No. 6.
370
ft position be modified by flattening tlie front
elevation of the tongue, we should call the-
n-suit a "hollow" low-front vowel. Like-
wise an / that is changed by tin- formation of a
front cavity would be an "inner-rounded"
high-front. Lip-rounding we should have to
note separately.
TllE </-SiU'NDS.
One of tin- points on which there ismostdis-
u-n ement among phoneticians is the position
of the vowel a. MERKEL, writing in 1866 (P.
der ni. S,' |>. 82), says that during the produc-
tion of this vowel " die mittlere Partie des
Zungenriickens bewegt sich . . . etvvas
nach oben und hinten Die Spitze der
Zunge steht etwa io //x vonden untern Schnei-
de/almen ab." This statement, taken in con-
nection with Fig. 17 of Taf. I, shows clearly
that MERKEL'S a is a back vowel. BELL and
SWEET define a as a mid-back-wide.M and
SIEVERS accepts this definition. On the other
hand VIETOR, TECHMER, and TRAUTMANN
agree substantially with WESTERN, who
describes (' E. L.', p. 4) the production of a as
an articulation " bei welcher die Zunge ganz
platt wie in der Ruhelage im Munde liegt, ohne
dass sich irgend ein Teil derselben iiber das
Niveau der Zahne erhebt ; auch beriihrt der
Zungensaum rings umher leise die untern
Zahne." The French distinguish two kinds of
a, which seem to be according to PASSY (' K.
D. des f. Ls.' in Phonetische Stud., I, i),
respectively low-back (as in pdte] and low-
mixed (as in patte). The possibility of forming
a by various methods has been noted by several
of the writers above-mentioned. BELL calls
Italian long a a low-back vowel. WESTERN
admits (' K. L.', p. 83) that a can be formed in
the mid-back and low-back positions, and also
that the mid-back a is the ordinary one in Eng-
lish ; he maintains, however, that Italian and
North German a are pronounced according to
his description. SWEET says (' H. of Ph.,' p.
25) : "This vowel is liable to considerable fluc-
tuations. It may be lowered nearly to (:i),*s
as in Italian and Spanish, where it is difficult
to decide between (a) 10 and (a). It may also
be advanced almost to the (<'h)'7 position, the
point of the tongue being kept down, giving
14 An unrounded vowel formed in the position of wide o.
15 Low-l>ack-wide. 16 Mid-hack-wide. 17 Mid-mixcd-widc.
a sound whirh is very like ((f), into whi< h
it is easily converted by raising the 'inner*
front of the tongue towards the palate. If the
point of the tongue is raised, it passes into
(^h)." In discussing SWEET'S vowel system
STORM expresses the opinion ('Englische Phi-
lologie, 1881, pp. 67-69) that the mid-back posi-
tion is the usual one for English, North-Ger-
man, and Italian a; French & in pdte he con-
siders as a low-back vowel ; French a in
madanie, Spanish a (as in nada], and the arti-
ficially pronounced English a in pa st (half- way
between ce and mid-back a) he calls "palatal,"
by which he apparently means mixed. He
also quotes (p. 67, note 3) the following words
from a letter written by SWEET : " Note that
the different kinds of a are really perfectly
distinct sounds (Danish a, for instance, being
really more removed from Swedish long a than
* from / or u from o, etc.) : their inclusion
under one name is simply the result of defec-
tive notation." It is assuredly true that the
various a-sounds are widely different in their
mode of utterance ; it is, however, equally
certain that they all produce on the ear the
effect of different varieties of one and the
same vowel. The cause of this similarity in
sound is what we must try to discover.
Let us take up the nine vowel-positions es-
tablished by SWEET, and determine in which
of them a sound can be produced that strikes
the ear as an a.
Mid-Back. Unround a narrow o : the vowel
obtained will be v (as in but). Next unround
a wide o : the sound will be an ordinary Eng-
lish a.
High-Hack. If we try to unround a narrow
n, we get a sound something like v. A wide
unrounded gives a vowel that may be classed
with the a-sounds. Neither of these vowels
can, however, be entirely divested of rounding.
Low-Back. We can pronounce a low-back-
narrow a, which is slightly suggestive of v,
and also a low-back-wide a, which strikes the
ear as being the sound of French it in /ache.
PASSY tells us, to be sure, that this French &
is narrow ; but as he clearly shows in his de-
scription of the tongue-position for & and for
the mixed a (' Phonetische Studien,' I, 2, pp.
171, 172) that he uses tlie term "narrow" in
an entirely different sense from that given it
185
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
372
by SWEET, and as his description of d exactly
fits what we should call the low-back-vvide, we
may safely assume that the French vowel is
not narrow.
Mid- Mixed. The mid-mixed position is that
of the second vowel in better (pronounced, as
it commonly is in southern England and the
eastern United States, without the final r).
This vowel is, however, produced by different
persons in at least two different ways. Say
" better," and on finishing it do not let the
organs of speech move at all : if your pronun-
ciation is like SWEET'S, you will find that the
tongue lies loosely in the middle of the mouth,
the central part slightly rounded up, the front
edge lightly touching the upper rim of the
lower front teeth ; the jaws are nearly closed,'
and the lips are passive. Having obtained
this position, let us see what changes are
necessary to produce an a. A decided lower-
ing of the jaw will give the desired result; so
will a slight flattening or hollowing of the
tongue's surface, or a little depression of the
blade of the tongue, provided there be no ele-
vation at the back. Persons who, on the other
hand, pronounce the second vowel of better
as an "inner " mid-mixed (that is to say, with
the point of the tongue lowered and withdrawn
from the teeth, and with a considerable eleva-
tion of a part between the back and the mixed
positions), can pass to a by means of a very
great jaw-lowering or a decided hollowing of
the front part of the tongue.
High-Mixed. The high-mixed-wide vowel
can be obtained by pronouncing wide i as far
back as possible. The point of the tongue re-
mains behind the lower front teeth, while the
centre is lifted up so as almost to touch the
middle of the palate. The sound is very like
it. To convert this vowel into an a we must
resort to a marked retraction of the hyoid
bone, combined with a degree of tongue-flat-
tening (not to be compensated for by mere
lowering of the jaw) that brings it entirely out
of the high-mixed position : the tongue rises
steeply from the lower front teeth, its highest
point being not quite so high as for a?, and
then extends horizontally to the very back of
the mouth. A more nearly high-mixed a can
be obtained by lateral compression of the
tongue : of this we shall speak later.
Low-Mixed. The low-mixed-wide vowel
will result from putting the tongue into mid-
mixed position and then lowering it. It has a
soiiu what hollower sound than the mid-mixed
wide. The least lowering of the jaw or flat-
tening of the tongue is enough to change this
vowel into an a. The a described by WESTERN
is doubtless a flattened low-mixed-wide. 18
The low-mixed-narrow can be converted into
a by a decided lowering of the middle of the
tongue (so that the narrow quality is lost) or by
* very great lowering of thejaw.
Mid-Front. In passing from the mid-front,
narrow or wide, to an a we find that the eleva-
tion in the front of the tongue is so flattened
that the ^-position is quite lost, while the cav-
ity behind the tongue is filled up by drawing
the back part of the tongue upwards and
backwards. This latter change can be noted
by holding the forefinger close to the back of
the tongue while pronouncing the vowels.
There is also, as we should expect, a notice-
able retraction of the hyoid bone.
High-Front. Neither wide nor narrow /
can be changed to a except by lateral com-
pression of the tongue (accompanied by a very
marked retraction of the hyoid bone), of
which we shall speak later.
Low- Front. An ff, wide or narrow, passes
into a if we bring the back of the tongue up
nearly to the level of the middle, and either
lower the jaw or flatten the front elevation.
This a, which is perhaps the French a in/W/V,
does not differ essentially from the one ob-
tained by flattening the mid-mixed ; k is, in
fact, rather a mixed than a front vowel.
We may sum up the result of our observa-
tions by saying that an a can be produced in
any part of the mouth below a straight line
drawn through the highest point reached by
the back of the tongue in pronouncing wide it
and a point somewhat below that reached by
the front in pronouncing wide <z", provided :
ist, that there be no protrusion of the hyoid
bone \*9 ad, that there be no considerable
cavity in the back of the mouth behind the
tongue ; : 9 3d, that there be a large cavity in
the centre and front of the mouth; 4th, that
this cavity be not so great as to form an j.
18 This is my ordinary it. c. H. c;. But not mine n. s. s.
19 MEKKEL, 'P. der m. S.', p. 103.
1 86
373
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
374
Tlu- ./-sound dillers from tin- unrounded back
\owels in tliat it does not require an elevation
of tin- hack of the ton-ur ; it differs from the
mixed and front unrounded vowels in that it
demands a larger ca\ it y in the centre and front
of tlu; mouth, and a stoppage of the cavity be-
hind the tongue.
It is also possihle to produce a in two more
artificial ways by lateral compression of the
tongue, and by protrusion of the tongue be-
yond the lips.
With the jaw at any height, and with the
tongue in any unrounded position, narrow or
wide, low, mid, or high, front or mixed (but
not hack), we can form an a-sound by so com-
pressing the tongue that it is thin from side to
side and thick from top to bottom, provided
the hyoid hone be retracted and the lip-aper-
ture he such as to allow the sound to escape
freely at the sides. Hy this method an ti can
be produced which, as seen from the lips, has
the appearance of being high-front or high-
mixed ; examination will, however, show that
this a is accompanied by no lowering of the i
back of the tongue. All the back vowels can,
moreover, be formed in this same way : they
differ from one-another in the height of the ;
back of the tongue ; from a they are dis-
tinguished apparently by the fact that they re-
quire an upward slope from front to back,
whereas for a the top of the tongue is about
level.
If the mouth-aperture be tolerably large,
and the tongue be kept flat and free from any
local elevation, a can he pronounced with the
tongue extended far beyond the lips. All the
low vowels can be produced with this same
tongue-protrusion : the low-back (as in saw)
and the low-mixed (as in sir) require, however,
an elevation respectively of the back and of
the centre of the tongue ; a" demands a lifting
in the front of the mouth and a sinking at the
hack. E can also be produced in this way,
but with less protrusion than tc\ i admits still
less than c : for narrow i the tongue can
scarcely project beyond the lower lip.
Putting together all the evidence we have
gathered, we conclude that a is an unrounded
hollow vowel, hollower than the low mixed,
and not so hollow as J. When it is pronounced
in the mid-back or low-back position, its re-
quisite front cavity is already there; but when
it is carried forward, room has to be made for
it by lowering the jaw or by flattening, hol-
lowing, or compressing the tongue.
Harvard University,
C. H. GRANDGENT,
E. S. SHELDON.
EKRATA IN THE SIEVERS-COOK
OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
May I request students of the 'Old English
Grammar ' to make the following corrections
in addition to those noted by DR. BRIGHT in
the March number (p. 82) of this journal ?
68. For silver read sliver.
85. For ' an accented ' read 'a stressed.'
207. For ' smooth guttural and the smooth
palatal ' read 'surd guttural stop and the surd
palatal stop.'
214 (p. 114, second line). For &w&h (dweh)
read awceh (aweK).
214, Note 3. For frunon, gefruncn, bru-
don, brode, strodcn read friinon, gefrftncn,
brudon, brdden, strdden.
214, Note 4. For merne read merne.
% 227. For ' Germanic S3 ' read ' Germanic
.'
is 271. For cwift read avift.
288, Note i. Supply the missing portion
of the parenthesis after scef.
382, Note i. For dcwinan read acwinan.
407, (a). For rdccan read rttcean.
Page 168 (middle). F9r ' 225.2 b ' read ' 225.
2.' For ' 145. and note ' read ' 145.'
Page 262. For ' oSde, conj. 277 ' read ' oSSe,
conj. 200.'
Page 263. For plHoic read pleolic.
Page 264. Under sculan, for 243 read 423.
of California.
ALBERT S. COOK.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SUFFIX -re in
French ordre, coffre, pantpre, etc.
InLENz's 'Der Handschuhsheimer Dialekt,*
I. Teli : Worterverzeichnis.' Konstanz 1887, we
read on page 23 : " Beilaufig will ich bemer-
*LKNZ'S treatise on his native dialect is certainly a most
valuable addition to our dialect investigations and it promises
to be much more so after the publication of the second part.
187
375
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
376
ken, dass ich furs afr. eine entwicklung von
lateinischem nachtonigen, sonantisch gewor-
denen n zu r annehme, also 6rdinem+conson..
anlaut : ordr (geschrieben ordre), ordinem+
vocal. anlaut : orne, s. Diez Wtbch4. 650. Cf.
auch franz. dartre, Langres, Havre, diacre,
Estevre, dombre." When a phonetic law is
formulated with such restrictions as these, the
lack of material will often make it very diffi-
cult to prove either its entire impossibility or
its absolute necessity. In favor of the case
discussed here, we might be inclined to quote
the analogy of a similar, although not an
equivalent sound-change in Spanish ; and the
persistence of the consonant before the r
shows that we have indeed to deal with an
original n and r sonans. Yet, when we ex-
amine the question in connection with other
facts, we may perhaps come to a different
conclusion, and prefer an explanation which I
wish here to submit to the consideration of
Romance scholars.
We will first add to LENZ'S list : Acre (Ac-
CON) coffre (COPHINUM) painpre (PAMPINUM) ;
some other words may have escaped our
attention. The -re of these words, according
to my opinion, is due not to any phonetic law
but to an analogical change of suffix, caused
by the many nouns in -re, which normally
existed in the language : prestre, fenestre,
maistre, arbre, etc., etc. It is true, that this
-re never became a really " living suffix " in
French, but we cannot help admitting its in-
fluence in the formation of such words as es-
clandre, apotre, titre, chapitre, epitre, martre,
I wish that some thorough specialist in Germanics would
make our readers acquainted with the chief results obtained
by the author. Here only a few questions : the first element
of Ititiitut seems to be the German Leid ? May mastung
(suffix-- instead of -ing) contain or be influenced by Dung'',
Should not mhd. meister meinster have been brought into
connection with tneist, meinst, rather than with /<./?
Meinst might have received ll.c nasal from ininst, ininnest.
paste reminds one of ab-bastelu. :ruln seems to be connect-
ed with troddel. With " as kut esprich" cp. the Swiss " as
in": chit" and the Saxon " als G.it tier fferre" (in ' BLIEM-
CHEN IN LONDON'). Der /tern' in the Saxon saying is, of
course, a transformation of snnie form of reden. Hut the
whole expression remains difficult to explain. If the ex-
clamation ma.i \ cou'd be simply undjrstood as the possessive
pron. mein sc. Gott. it might be compared with the English
O my ! and dear me \ I think dear me is not, as generally
believed=Italian dio mio, but<j!fr my Lord, the last word
being left out for obvious reasons.
chartre, costre, cordre, and especially Sambrc,
celestre, escientre, encre, diantre, gouffre,
fi/andre, perhaps goinfre, gouliafre, safre and
others of doubtful origin.
On the other hand, some of the nouns
with n in their etymon occur also without the
r. They have, then, preserved the , and
still the preceding consonant has not disap-
peared, which proves that here also n was
originally sonans : juefne, Estefne, ordene; we
must, of course, not quote asne, chesne, al-
mosne in this connection, nor imagene, which
is not a popular word but a learned form, as
nearly all its sounds show. Have (beside
havrc) has entirely lost the suffix, and other
double forms of a similiar character are golfe:
gouffre, coulte: cotre, marte: martre, (while
Montmarthe : Montmartre should probably be
understood differently). Consequently there
must have been in the language some uncer-
tainty as regards the suffix -re, and we have
just seen that it must have been added ana-
logically in some cases. The question accord-
ingly arises, whether we shall simply admit its
influence in all the forms concerned, or whether
we prefer to lay down phonetic laws, based
upon only a few words which can be easily
explained otherwise.
GUSTAF KARSTKN.
Indiana University.
DESIRE NISARD AND THE HIS-
TOR Y OF LITER A TURE.
A noticeable feature of the reminiscences of
DESIRE NISARD in the French periodicals is
the absence of views on his influence as a
critic. Old pupils of the Ecole Norm ale skc-Lrh
his directorship of that institution, his person-
al bearing, his attitude towards the Erhpire,
comment on the legend of the "Two Morals,"
but in their mention of his -works cast hardly
a glance at his master-piece, nor attempt an
estimate of his services as a historian of
literature.
Reasons for this neglect are obvious. The
memory of NISARD'S campaign against Ro-
manticism, much more his silence in the face
of Realism, unite to make all literary critics of
the present generation hostile to him. The
few adherents of the Classical school have not
yet spoken.
1 88
377
Jim,-. MODERN LANGUAGl VOTES, 1888. No. 6.
378
Yet Iln ' History i'l Fn-ix h Literature' is of
no small actual impoi lance. However vulgar
it may be to estimate literary success from the
publisher's point of \ie\v, in the case of a book
ofsolid reading, full ofanalyses and arguments,
which has no longer tin- attraction of novelty
anil which is rather out of fashion than other-
wist-, the demand of the public furnishes an
indication of its influence. Its prefaces are its
milestones. NISAKD signed his first preface
in iS.j4, his third in 1863, his seventh and final
in 1X79; but he lived to authorize the fourteenth
edition. Thus in sixteen years, 1863-1879, four
editions appeared: in the following eight,
seven were necessary. So increasing a popu-
larity cannot be wisely ignored.
NISAKD was a critic of clear-cut theories.
He chose his measure and abided by it.
There is thus a unity in his work, a close con-
nection of its parts, a constantly recurring
standard of appreciation, which gives to it
unexcelled order and clearness. His purpose,
as he states at length in the first chapter, is to
write a history of literature and not a literary
history in the manner of the Benedictines. It is
also not to be a history of language, though
his distinction here is less obvious, for further
on he states that all French writing previous
to the Renaissance belongs to the history of
language. Literature, he continues, begins
with the appearance of art and ceases with its
disappearance. By art in literature, he means
the expression of general truths in a perfect
language; that is, a language perfectly con-
formed to the genius of the country where it
is spoken and to the spirit of humanity. It
must therefore be a language formed and
fixed. Hence the history of literature is the
history of that which, in literary productions,
has not ceased to be true, living and acting,
and, in this instance, the history of that which
is essential, constant and unchangeable in the
French spirit. Now this spirit, according to
NISARD, is preeminently practical, doing away
with vain curiosity and idle speculations, in
which quality alone it differs from the spirit of
antiquity. It favors discipline rather than lib-
erty. This difference has its cause in the in-
lluence of Christianity, which develops Un-
practical side of human nature. That mirror
of the l-'rench spirit which reflects its image
most exactly, is naturally to be found in its
language. Those writers who most faithfully
return the reflection of the French spirit have
alone survived in the mind of the nation and
are alone to !/< considered by the historian.
It is his duty to compare the original with the
portrait and to render reasons for the judg-
ment that France has instinctively given.
How NISAKU in the individual applica-
tion of his rule would be a fruitless repetition
of former criticisms. In general it is best
adapted to prose writing and he does not hesi-
tate to treat nearly all the literary prose pro-
ductions from the time of VILLEHARDOUN.
I He finds in the early chroniclers and in certain
j of the early poems, 'Roland,' 'Renart,' the
| ' Roman de la Rose ' various traits of the
French spirit and much of the language of
I durable works. The prose of the sixteenth
| century commands his increasing approbation
until in DESCAKTKS and PASCAL he finds the
models he has sought. Poetry, on the other
i hand, is but little suited to the requirements of
NISAKD. He has before his eyes the fear of
i BOILEAU. No notion of the lyric poetry of
: the Middle Ages before CHARLES D' ORLEANS.
! No mention of BAIF, BELLEAU, PASSEKAT,
while the pages devoted to RONSARD are but
a prose commentary of BOILEAU'S lines.
LA FONTAINE he praises, ANDRE CHENIER he
calls a true poet.
The chapter on MOLIERE is inferior only to
to those on DESCARTES and PASCAL in analy-
i sis, enthusiastic estimate and style, but
MOLIERE is to him rather the embodiment of
' the French spirit than a writer of either prose
or poetry. So in his condemnation of FENK-
LON and ROUSSEAU he pays his respects rather
: to their " chimerical " spirit of liberty than to
their manner.
The principal defect in the rule of NISARD
seems to be the assumption that art exists
in a fixed language only, meaning thereby
the language of the seventeenth century, the
language of RACINE. It may be disputed
against him whether each period of linguistic
development does not have its artistic lan-
guage and whether productions that mir-
ror faithfully the spirit of that age may not be
considered as literature. The /a is of Marie
ile France or of 'Aucassin et Nicolette ' bear in
189
379
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES 1888. No. 6.
380
their grace and beauty no less trace of artistic
effort than does 'Andromaque.' France, at
least, no longer refuses to recognize in them
its image, and thus exposes the arbitrary limits
of NISARD to the danger of seeing succeeding
epochs render justice to what had before been
unknown or disdained.
Exception might likewise be taken to the
statement that the predominant trait of the
French mind is the practical. That common
sense prevails in French literature is seen in
the tendency towards satire. Yet it is a ques-
tion whether this arises so much from a prac-
tical bent as from aversion to what lacks order,
moderation ; or, as NISARD says, from desire
for discipline. There is, however, a logical
sequence of thought, rigorous in its unfolding,
running through French literature, whose
result, practical or otherwise, depends entirely
on the premises.
From another standpoint NISARD'S defini-
tion of art might perhaps be open to objection :
as to whether literature must always present
general truths. Human nature remains the
same in its outlines, but each change of social
surroundings brings into prominence different
shades of thought and emotion. That all
variations of humanity are essentially the
same general truths may be philosophically
axiomatic, but whether the presentation in
literature of these variations is accepted as
true in all time may be open to doubt. The
novels of the seventeenth century may be con-
ceded to represent certain phases of the hu-
man mind, but it is evident that NISARD does
not consider them to be literature. DAUDET
is beyond cavil an artist, but a change of social
conditions will render his best works unread-
able.
Thus the history of literature has for us a
broader meaning than is afforded by the defi-
nition of NISARD. It is the history of the
human mind expressed in language. The
study of human thought in the various periods
of its manifestation, which by no means im-
plies the study of all linguistic productions
but rather of those that are typical, leads to
an intelligence of national traits that can be
used as a basis of comparison for the striking
characteristics of each period. The rule of
NISARD embraces but a part of the truth ; it
was also not applied impartially or indepen-
dently. Yet with its shortcomings, its one-
sidedness, we owe to it many admirable de-
lineations of works and authors, among which
are the best presentations of some of the
greatest writers of France, a valuable defence
of classical taste, and a constant incentive to
express the true by the beautiful.
F. M. WARREN.
Jo/ins Hopkins University.
OLD ENGLISH LITER A TURE.
English Writers. Ap attempt towards a
History of English Literature. By HENRY
MORLEV, LL. D., Professor of English
Literature at University College, London.
Vol. I, Introduction. Origins. Old Celtic
Literature. Beowulf. Cassell & Co.,
1887. Vol. II. From Caedmon to the
Conquest. 1888.
This edition of PROFESSOR MORLEV'S
' English Writers ' is a re-writing of his well-
known work first published in 1864-67, two vol-
umes in three, and extending to Dunbar, or to
the invention of printing. The two smaller
volumes now published form the first instal-
ment of an intended ' History of English
Literature ' in twenty volumes, and two more
volumes will complete the period covered by
the original work. It was designed that the
volumes should be issued half-yearly, but the
Preface to the first volume is dated January,
1887, and the " Last Leaves " of the second
volume, January 1888, so that at this rate it is
to be feared that the work will never be
completed by its author, a result much to be re-
gretted on many accounts. With great mod-
esty PROFESSOR MORLEY remarks in his. Pre-
face : "After waiting and working on through
yet another twenty years, the laborer has
learned that he knows less-and less. Little is
much to us when yonng ; time passes and
proportions change. But, however small the
harvest, it must be garnered," and in his
"Last Leaves:" " If the evening of life do
not give long enough light for the completion of
this book, it will be, at any rate, complete as
far as it goes." That this light may be granted
will be the earnest desire of every student of
English literature.
The instalment now given to the public
190
J8i
///,-. MODEKN-I.AXi:t'.M;i \"//v 1888.
6.
forms a complete whole in itself, and consti-
tutes .1 history "I LXOtt, or, as I'ko-
M.IKI.I \ pi .ill it, First Kng-
lisli literature. I ai k Ol t" a copy of
the original work, now out of print, lias pre-
vented a comparison tn ;isi ertain tin- "-xact
changes and additions tliat ha\e In > n made.
Ifmemo: , the Introduction, Compris-
ing a general review of tin- four periods of
Fnglish literature, -namely, the Formation of
the Language, Italian Inlliience, French In-
thience, and Fnglish Popular Inllncnce, the
last dating from Defoe, is reprinted as it
originally stood. The principal changes seem
to he in taking advantage of the works that
have been published in ( iermany, and especial-
ly of tlie articles that have appeared in the
.Inglia, discussing Anglo-Saxon literature,
although PKC>KI:SSC>K MOKI.KY is very conser-
vative and by no means agrees with the
iconoclastic views of some German scholars.
The first impression made upon the reader is
the extent of the work beyond its immediate
subject. There is a large amount of valuable
information contained in it, especially historical
information, but the question naturally arises,
what direct connection has this with the his-
tory of Anglo-Saxon literature? Some of
the chapters can be regarded only as digres-
sions, and, while important in themselves, as
comparatively irrelevant to the main subject.
A history of Keltic literature, and of the liter-
ature of other branches of the Teutonic peo-
ples, has but a remote bearing upon the First"
Knglish literature, and if discussed at all,
might have been treated in much less space.
This would have left room for a fuller treat-
ment of some works that have been passed
over rather briefly.
The first four chapters of the first volume
treat the Forming of the People, and hen-
such questions as "Were the Gaels Hyper-
boreans?" and "Were the Celts Cimmer-
ians?" are discussed, the Old Literature of
the (iael and of the Cymry, and the Old Lit-
erature of the Teutons, including Tlfilas,'
the ' Song of Hildebraml,' and the ' \Veissen-
brunner Prayer." The result is that the only
works in Anglo-Saxon literature treated in this
volume are the 'P.eowulf and the 'Fight at
Finneslnirg.' In tlu- scheme, of the iudo-
F.urope.m family M. i v> the terniinol.
in. I- be objected to in respei t to the Teutonic
branch, in that "Gothic " is applied to tin-
whole branch, Moeso ( iotliic atid tin- S< andi-
navinn languages are included under " Low-
(ierman." and "Teutonic " is applied only to
what are usually known as the Low-(ierman
languages, namely, Old Saxon, Frisian, and
Platt-Deutsc h, the relation between the first
and last of these not being otherwise indicated.
This is at least different from the ordinary
arrangement and liable to confuse the learner.
In the chapters on the literature of the Gael
and Cymry, there is much translation from the
works discussed, so that the reader is put in
possession of much useful information, even
if it has a very remote bearing upon Knglish
literature. On pages 257-8 and 261 there is a
singular lapsus of memory, which causes
I'lfilas to be referred to as if he were contem-
porary with Odoacer and Clovis. although his
correct period has just been given-. This has,
however, been observed and corrected in the
" Last Leaves " of Vol. II.
The ' Beowulf,' as its importance deserves,
is treated at considerable length. Hy means
of translation and paraphrase a full account of
the poem is given, after which follows a fairly
complete summary of critical opinion. Pk<>-
SOR MORI.KY follows GKKIN in his inter-
pretation, but gives too much space to MR.
HATCH'S theory of identification of names of
tribes and places mentioned in ' Beowulf
with those of Kngland, which theory, as far as
I know, has not been adopted by any other
scholar. He summarixes also PKOKKSSOK
FAKI.K'S recent attempt to vindicate an Kng-
lish origin for the poem. GKKIN'S interpreta-
tion of the Thrytho episode is given on pp.
336-7, and seems to be favored, but the old
error of regarding Hygd as the wife of Of) a is
mentioned along with GR KIN'S \iew on p.
300 without condemnation. It appears too in
the summary of Mr. HAKIM'S view (p. ]
and on p. 322 we have from MR. HAKIM.
" I lygd being either another name of Hygelac,
or the name of his queen." PKOFI.SSOR
MOKI.KY accepts GRI-ND i VKI'S identification
of Hygelac with the historical Chocilaicus
(circa 520) mentioned by Gregory of Tours,
but does not note the bearing of II. 2921-22,
191
383
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
384
" As waes d
Merewioinga milts ungyfede,"
upon the date of the poem, although he trans-
lates (p. 335), "Ever since then we have
been denied the friendship of the Merovin-
gians."
Though of minor importance, as a matter of
interpretation it maybe noted that PROFESSOR
MORLEY says (p. 298): "then Grendel's head
was borne by the hair into the place where
men were drinking, and the head of the
woman also;" and again (p. 339): "when
Beowulf had returned victorious and presented
to Hrothgar the heads of Grendel and Gren-
del's mother." The poem does not state that
he brought back any head but that of Gren-
del, and I presume this opinion of PROFESSOR
MORLEY rests upon a misinterpretation of
idese in 1650 which refers to Wealhtheow and
not to Grendel's mother ; for we are told that
he took nothing from the cavern
' ' buton pone hafelan and pahiltsomod ' ' (1615) ;
again in 1636 we have hafelan, singular, as ex-
plained by Grendles heafod in 1640 and 1649 ;
ides is used of Grendel's mother in 1260 and
1352, but not in 1650, for the men bore into the
hall only the head of Grendel. This might
not deserve mention but that PROFESSOR
MORLEY'S view is adopted in the argument to
PROFESSORS HARRISON and SHARP'S edition
of 'Beowulf.' MULLENHOFF'S theory of the
composition of 'Beowulf is briefly summar-
ized at the close of the chapter, and the opin-
ion expressed that " Courage is all that is
wanted to make any one great as an analyst in
the new speculative chemistry applied to
books."
The last chapter of Vol. I contains a trans-
lation of the ' Fight at Finnesburg ' and of
"the corresponding episode in 'Beowulf,' and
is followed by a useful bibliography of ' Beo-
wulf.'
Vol. II treats the other existing remains of
Anglo-Saxon literature, beginning with ' Wid-
sith,' which is translated. The following
chapter on 'The Sc6p ' contains translations
of ' The Seafarer ' and ' The Fortunes of Men, ' '
and discusses MOLLER'S view of the original
strophic form of 'Widsith,' which PROFES-
SOR MORLEY pronounces "critical sleight-of-
hand," and concludes: "Enough has been
said to show how largely this method of de-
structive criticism rests upon conjecture; and
how little the common repetition of such,
phrases as ' clearly,' or ' it is certain,' can give
certainty to the most ingenious system of
three-piled hypotheses. And when all's done,
where is our poem?" It must be ac-
knowledged that the German "tear-to-pieces"
criticism has been "run in the ground," and
not sufficient weight has been given to the ob-
jections that may reasonably be urged against
this method of analysis.
Next comes another interesting digressive
chapter on the " First Teachers of Christiani-
ty," preliminary to an account of the poems
ascribed to Caedmon. BAEDA'S familiar ac-
count is repeated, and the ' Genesis ' is treated
quite fully, with considerable translation, but
the 'Exodus and Daniel,' and the second
book, 'Christ and Satan,' are very briefly
summarized. A translation of the ' Muspilli '
and an account of the ' Heliand ' follow, with
a summary of SIEVERS' pamphlet on 'The
Relation of the Heliand to Caedmon's Para-
phrase,' but PROFESSOR MORLEY thinks that
"Caedmon's poem . . must have been known
to the Old Saxons long before the ' Heliand '
was written" (p. 108). PROFESSOR MORLEY
endorses the very probable view that MILTON
knew of Caedmon's Paraphrase from JUNIUS,
its first editor (1655). This chapter closes with
a brief summary of opinion on the authorship
of Caedmon's poems, and another fling at the
analytic criticism applied by way of burlesque
to the Introduction to the first volume of this
work.
Two chapters follow, chiefly on Bede and
Alcuin ; and while containing much of general
historical interest, there is. little of special
connection with literature in the Anglo-Saxon
tongue. This is resumed in brief notices of
the Northumbrian fragments, and other works
contained in SWEET'S 'Oldest English Texts, '
but PROFESSOR MORLEY does not seem to have
known of SWEET'S ' Anglo-Saxon Reader,
Part II,' although it was received in this
country before the date of the ' Last Leaves,'
for in his note to p. 178 on the contents of the
'Oldest English Texts' he ascribes to MR.
192
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
SUM i tlu- opinion that the Vespasian I'saltcr
is Kentish, as /.I..IM-U lull], but in his later
work MK. Su i i r <!<< -ides that it is M< n ian.
Tliis error is repeated on p. 322, in opposition
to Si i \ i NSOM'fl old \ j,-w that it was N'orthum-
hrian. 'I'liis < liapter contains a full translation
in blank verse of the 'Judith,' that spirited
fragment of Anglo-Saxon poetry, the superior
excellence of which makes us regret the more
that so little of it has been preserved. A de-
scription of tin contents of the Vercelli and the
Kxeter Hooks follows, and of the ' Menology '
and the 'Salomon and Saturn,' but all very
brief; and then \ve have a chapter on Cyne-
wulf, a discussion of his name in the Runes,
and of his connection with the Riddles, the
authorship of which PKOKKSSOR MOKI.I-.V is
inclined to deny to him. I cannot enter into
the discussion, but I'KOKKSSOR MORI.EY sums
up his opinion as follows: "We have, then,
no evidence upon which to ground a belief
that C'ynewulf wrote any of the First English
riddles." SARRAZIN'S odd view that C'yne-
wulf wrote the ' Beowulf is then summarized
hom~Angliu, Vol. IX, and "the myth of
C'ynewulf " is reconstructed after WULKKR in
Anglia, Vol. I ; the conclusion is reached that
he lived in the eighth century; "His work
shows that he was a ' sc6p.' There is no
evidence that he was a priest or monk. Here
ends our knowledge of the personality of
Cynewulf, and even that includes a trace of
supposition."
'The Vision of the Cro'ss " is next trans-
lated, but the opinion of DIETRICH and TEN
BRINK as to its Cynewulfian authorship is
dissented from. The inscription on the Ruth-
well Cross is described, and the views of
CHARITIES and LEFEVRE (Aiiglia, Vols. II
and VI) as to the ' Guthlac ' are briefly given,
with short notices of the ' Physiologus,' the
'Wanderer,' and the 'Ruin,' or 'Ruins,' as
PRMI-KSSOK MORLEY prefers to call it.
Hen- follows another digressive chapter
on Dicuil and Krigena, chiefly the latter, after
which we have a very full accou-it of king
Alfred and his literary labors, but the types
make the author ascribe to King Alfred the
compilation of the 'Chronicle' in the year 991.
PROFESSOR EARI.E'S valuable edition of that
work is curiously omitted on p. 294, although
I'Kon.ssok KAKI.I 's nann- appears in another
i! th- ' ' hronicle ' on p. 308.
Monasticism in the tenth century is f
in connection with Dunstan and Ethelwold,
and this is followed by an account of Aelf:
works, a blank verse translation of the ' Battle
of Brunanburh,' with brief notice of the other
pieces of verse in the 'Chronicle,' a prose
summary of the ' Battle of Maldon, 1 a brief
notice of the 1'salter and the Charters, and a
further account of MR. COCKAYNE'S ' Leech-
doms, Wortcunning, and Star-craft of Early
England.' The consideration of the period is
closed with an account of Wulfstan's works,
bare mention of the ' Apollonius of Tyre ' and
a few other prose pieces, a description of the
' Rhyming Poem,' and a summary of the con-
tents of 'The Grave,' included, perhaps,
because printed in Thorpe's ' Analecta Anglo-
saxonica,' but I can see no reason for counting
this poem as a specimen of Anglo-Saxon
literature, for its language shows that it was
manifestly written after the close of the period.
This chapter closes with a too brief reference
to the 'Anglo-Saxon Gospels,' which is not
brought down to date, for PROFESSOR SKEAT'S
noteworthy edition is omitted entirely,
THORPE'S being the last one mentioned.
The volume closes with a chapter on the
Northmen, in which an account is given of the
'Eddas,' with a full translation of the ' Volus-
pa,' of the Northmen in France and England,
and of the times of Edward the Confessor to
the Norman Conquest. This chapter il-
lustrates further what has been said of the
tendency of PROFESSOR MORLF.V to digress
from his main subject. His account of Ice-
landic literature is interesting and useful, but
of very remote connection with English litera-
ture, and the subsequent historical narrative
is readily accessible anywhere, so that some of
the space occupied with these subjects might
have been devoted to a fuller and more
thorough account of some of the Anglo-Saxon
poems that have been too briefly passed over.
PROFESSOR MORLEY is acquainted with TEN
BRINK'S work on ' Early English Literature,'
as TKN BRINK'S views are occasionally referred
to, but it is nowhere mentioned, nor is PRO-
FESSOR 1C A R i. K'S shorter work on 'Anglo-Saxon
Literature/ although this book will not super-
193
387
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
388
sede them. A useful Bibliography is append-
ed, but it is not full enough for the scholar.
The last work mentioned in it is WULKER'S
' Grundriss,' which might have been used to
advantage in the body of the volumes. PRO-
FESSOR MORLEY expresses the hope that when
WULKER prepares a new edition, he will
arrange for its translation into English. I
may be permitted to state that two American
scholars, MESSRS. MCCLUMPHA and DEERING,
WULKER'S pupils, are now making arrange-
ments for the publication of an English trans-
lation of this valuable work, indispensable to
every Anglo-Saxon scholar, with the full
authority of PROFESSOR WULKER and the use
of the important material that he has collected
for a second edition.
Anglo-Saxon scholars will be thankful to
PROFESSOR MORLEY for this new edition of
the first volume of his 'English Writers,'
which deserved re-writing, but while, from
PROFESSOR MORLEY'S point of view, he may
defend the inclusion of so much extrinsic
matter, I think that the work would have
been improved by both omission and inser-
tion, so that it might serve as the standard
history of Anglo-Saxon literature, an office
that, in its present form, it will scarcely fulfill.
' ' The half is sometimes more than the whole. ' '
JAMES M. GARNETT.
University of Virginia.
THE STUDY OF ROMANCE PHIL-
OLOGY.
Die Romanische Philologie. Ein Grundriss
von FR. NEUMANN. Leipzig, Fues's Ver-
lag, 1886 ; pp. 96.
Encyclopaedic und Methodologie der roman-
ischen Philologie, mit besonderer Beriick-
sichtigung des Franzosischen und Italieni-
schen von GUSTAV KORTING. Heilbronn,
Henninger, i884-'86 ; 3 vols., pp. xvi-224,
xi 1-505, xx-837.
Grnndriss der romanischen Philologie, unter
mitwirkung von neunundzwanzig Fach-
genossen, hera.isgegeben von GUSTAV
GROBER. Strassburg, Triibner, i886-'88 ;
I. Band, pp. 835.
Three publications of a similar character all
intended to introduce the scholar to a thorough
study of Romance Philology, yet each treating
the subject in so distinctive a way that there
will be but little competition among them.
We shall not make an effort here to give a
full account of the immense amount of schol-
arship set down on nearly 2500 pages by men
who all rank among our first masters ; but we
shall try so to characterize the above works,
and to give such information on their contents,
that each of our readers may be able to judge
which of them will best serve his own purpose,
and where, in a given case, he is likely to find
just the reference wanted. Only occasionally,
when the subject under consideration and the
character of our own studies will allow, shall
we venture to add some suggestion of our own.
NEUMANN'S ' Die romanische Philologie, ein
Grundriss' is a deprintfrom SCHMID'S ' Pseda-
gogische Encyclopaedic,' vii. The author
addresses himself not so much to experts in
our science as to beginners, and to a larger
public of non-specialists in general. The sub-
ject was therefore to be treated with the most
elementary clearness and at the same time
with the greatest brevity compatible with
scientific, I mean thorough, work. We must
say that NEUMANN has succeeded admirably
well in this difficult task, and his book can
be highly recommended to students who de-
sire to receive an insight into the character,
aims, history, present state and means of de-
velopment of Romance Philology ; it will also
prove useful to scholars in other departments,
especially in Latin and Teutonic Philology,
whenever they wish to cast the necessary side-
glance on their neighboring field.
The book is divided into two parts : in the
first chapter the author gives an outline of the
history of our discipline, culminating, as. was
natural, in a sketch of the life and works of
our venerated "Altmeister " DIEZ ; the second
part contains a well, we hesitatingly say bib-
liography, although it is not a bibliography in
the common acceptation of the word, not a
mere compilation and juxtaposition of dead
titles, appalling to beginners and next to use-
less, because of the fact that worthless publi-
cations are mentioned in the same breath with
important ones, so that the inexperienced stu-
dent never knows which to choose first and
rarely strikes the right one. NEUMANN'S bib-
194
.//. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
390
liography is of a v.-ry different character: he
.n ( din 1 1. 1 nit -. ii- .i! l\ - MTV title u ith some snl>-
st.iinial remarks on the contents and ;
character of the hook in question, and the
arrangement is very simple and |>ractical.
Yet it is at the same time of scientific int<
inasmuch as NKTMANN lias divided his suhje< t
mil geographically hut systematically, treating
lirst all the Romance: languages in succession,
and then their literatures. I le has thus, among
the first in our science, put into practice a
principle long recognized by our chief author-
ities.
As regards the scope of the bibliography,
NEUMANN quotes only the best and most use-
ful publications on each subject, and works of
minor value, dissertations, etc., are mentioned
only when there was nothing better published.
So, everything was left to the discretion of the
author, and while we may perhaps feel in-
clined to put an interrogation point here and
there, J we must confess that on the whole
Ni i MANN'S selection has been a very judicious
one, and it is altogether astonishing how much
be has been able to give on bis 82 pages. We
therefore again recommend the book most
heartily, especially to our younger readers.
'Die Encyclopaedie und Metbodologie der
romanischen Philologie,' 2 by G. KORTING,
consists of three volumes, containing together
more than 1500 pages. We must not, however,
conclude from the size of the work that we are to
find in it complete treatises on the different
branches of Romance Philology. Such was not
the intention of the author, as he himself de-
clares in the preface. His purpose was more to
give the student a fair start in the whole subject
by offering him a solid outline of the mostim-
. portant principles and the best-established
facts, and by extensive bibliographies at the
close of the various chapters to enable him to
pursue such special studies as he may be par-
1. For instance H. SWERT'S 'Spoken Portuguese,' SAINTS-
iti'Kv's work* on French literature, CRANE'S publications on
Folklore would have deserved special mention, while the com-
pilations of amateur philolngians like PRINCE L. L. |!C>NA-
PAKTE are of doubtful value in the hands of beginners.
2. The American public were first made familiar with this
work by KI.LIOTT, Anifrican "Journal of Philology, and
by Tom), who translated into English the chapter: "Obscr-
Tiiticns on the Academic Study of Romance Philology"' in
The MODERN LANGUAGE SERIES III.
ticularly interested in. For obvious reasons,
then, the author rarely had an opportunity of
committing himself by going into details, and
his more or less rudimentary statements may
be accepted* 0n the whole, as reliable. This
seems to be espec ially the < ;,se in the dep art-
mi -nt of literature. We may, occasionally,
differ from the author's criticism, when he
calls BKANOHS' ' Lit. i. 19 Jh.' B. v. " kein wis-
senschaHliches Buch ;" SCARTAZ/INI'S edition
and commentary of the 'Divina Commedia '
should not be left out, whatever may be
said of the man's scientific and polemical
work in general. Hut in spite of a few details
of this kind the history of literature is appar-
ently KORTING'S strong side. The student
will have to be more cautious in making use
of the linguistical part of the work. Here
KOKTING'S rich and diffusive style often
becomes vague and misleading, nor have recent
investigations always been utilized even when
they are mentioned and recommended in the
bibliography. The whole chapter on French
phonetics is in need of many modifications,
while those on general phonetics and on
sound-change etc. are rather a failure. KOK-
-ri NT.'S notions on the most important facts in
Comparative Philology are somewhat behind
the times, and have been abandoned by every
active grammarian since the discovery of the
famous " Palatalgesetz " and the Indo-Euro-
pean vowel-theory connected with it. Some
readers would have willingly dispensed with a
good many general remarks for a few more
facts instead. But it would be unfair and ab-
surd to insist upon such ami other deficiencies,
when the great work as a whole calls forth our
sincere recognition, gratitude and admiration.
It is at once stimulating and humiliating to
find one man speaking with well-founded au-
thority on so many branches of our science, or
rather on so many sciences, each one of which
seems to be too much for an ordinary man's
capacities. Every question that could possi-
bly ever be brought into connection with
Romance Philology, is treated here with
equal care if not with equal success; nothing
is neglected, nothing thought too small. There
is no frivolous haughtiness or contempt of one
department in favor of another, on account of
some personal predilection. We may, indeed,
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
392
learn from KORTING a noble lesson, which
professors and especially beginners if, in fact,
they ever began at all seem to be liable to
neglect : that in the great field of science each
part is equally worthy of a thorough treatment,
of a scholar's earnest occupation ; that no-
body should belittle his colleague's specialty
and claim the character of scholarship for his
own work alone. Rather let everyone come
bravely forward with the result of his studies."
Every kind of good work will be welcome,
whether it be on pedagogics or phonetics or
literature or syntax , whether on English or
Rumanian or Volapiik. We hope that a seri-
ous perusal of such honest work as KORTING'S,
and the combined efforts of men of experience
and scientific standing, will successfully check
a narrowness of mind which might become
dangerous to the best interests of our young
students individually, as well as to the sound
progress of science itself. Only a loyal co-
operation and a readiness to recognize the
importance of other branches than our own,
can lead to the highest success.
While KORTING'S work is of a more peda-
gogical character, pointing out to the student
what and how he must study in order
to become a Romance scholar, the third pub-
lication which we bring to the attention of our
readers, represents at first hand the actual re-
sults of scientific investigation. In GROBER'S
' Grundriss cler Romanischen Philologie ' we
are in the very workshop, the sanctum sanc-
torum of European, especially German, Ro-
mance Philology, and the reader may be sure
that every line here gives the last word on the
subject in question. This will be explained by
the origin of the work : it is published under
the direction of GROBER, not written by him
alone ; twenty-nine of our first authorities have
combined forces to produce a picture of Ro-
mance Philology under the aspect which it
wears at the date of publication, each of the
authors treating of such part or parts as he
has made his most special study. Three in-
stalments have appeared thus far, the last,
which completes the first volume of the under-
taking, having but just issued from the press.
Three more instalments are reserved for the
second and concluding volume, which will be
devoted chiefly to the literature of the Ro-
mance peoples, the Work being intended to
cover, when complete, the entire domain of
the science. In the first volume we find :
GROBER : " Geschichte der romanischen Phi-
lologie," "Aufgabeund Gliederungderroman.
Phil.," " Die miindlichen Quellen," " Metho-
dik der sprachwissenschaftlichen Forschung,"
" Einteilung und aussere Geschichte der ro-
man. Sprachen ;" SCHUM : " Die schriftlichen
Quellen;" TOBLER : " Methodik der philo-
logischen Forschung ; WINDISCH : "Keltische
Sprache;" W. MEYER: "Die lateinische
Sprache in den romanischen Landern, and to-
gether with FRANCESCO D'.OVIDIO : Die italic-
nische Sprache ;" FR. KLUGE : " Romanenund
Germanen in ihren Wechselbeziehungen ;"
SEYBOLD : Die arabische Sprache in den ro-
manischen Landern ;" GASTER : " Die nicht-
lateinischen Elemente im Rumanischen ; TIK-
TIN : " Die rumanische Sprache ; " GARTNER :
"Die ratoromanischen Mundarten ;" SUCHIER :
" Die franzosische und provenzalische Sprache
und ihre Mundarten ;'' MOREL-FATIO : "Das
Catalanische ;" BAIST : "Die spanische
Sprache;" CORNU : "Die portugiesische
Sprache;" G.MEYER; " Die lateinschen Kle-
mente im Albanesischen." The volume closes
with a " Namen, Sach- und Wortverzeichnis,"
with a general map of the "Ausbreitung der
romanischen Sprachen in Europa " and twelve
minor maps illustrating the distribution of the
leading French and Provencal dialect peculiar-
ities. The abundance of information, the ex-
actness of the detail work, at once the out-
growth and the source of sound general prin-
ciples, the simple, sober style which charac-
terizes this class of workers, the absolute
objectivity which makes things speak for them-
selves, so that we forget all about the author
and ourselves, about "schools" and polemics,
under the immediate impression of facts all
this makes GROBER'S 'Grundriss' a real mas-
ter work. We have no desire to express any
unfavorable criticism as regards the subject-
matter itself, but will only give utterance to a
wish concerning the arrangement of the
materials. GROBER'S essay on the history of
Romance Philology gives a mass of titles, ar-
ranged half chronologically and half system-
atically, and, moreover, alluded to rather than
- given in full, so that students who are not yet
acquainted with the subject cannot even tell
whether the publication mentioned is an article
196
393
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
394
or a large work, without constantly consulting
other bibliographies. While the advanced
student may with some difficulty derive great
benefit from the author's sound criticism, it
remains a pity that so much useful information
is more or less concealed in a labyrinth inac-
cessible to beginners. We hope that an ex-
haustive index will open up all these treasures
to everybody. Most of the special treatises
are suggestive of regrets that they are not
many times longer, and in one or two cases it
may be doubtful whether this feeling arises
solely from the superior excellence of the
essays, or also from the fact that they are
somewhat fragmentary. But in any case we
must not forget that, for instance, MEYER'S
and K LUGE'S, and in fact most of the essays,
are the first comprehensive works ever pub-
lished on their respective subjects, and that
consequently we should not expect to find our
every curiosity satisfied. Perhaps, indeed,
the noblest success of a book is to inspire fresh
curiosity, and in this respect the effect of our
' Grundriss ' is preeminent. Here, as on an
excursion into an unexplored country, we are
constantly surprised by new outlooks and at
the same time experience an ardent desire to
know more and more of what lies beyond ; a
thousand side paths and openings invite us,
and we would fain stop and examine more
closely, were it not that the main road itself is
continually presenting so many interesting
phenomena. We might, indeed, envy our
young students, who are to have the pleasure
of traversing these broad domains under the
guidance of such distinguished masters ; but
let us rather join the party : we are all sure of
receiving our share of benefit as well.
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
THE COL L A R-E YSENB A CH GER-
MAN GRAMMAR.
Graded German Lessons, being a Practical
German Grammar, by WM. EYSENBACH.
Revised and Rewritten, with notes, etc.,
byWM. C. COLLAR, A. M., Head-Master
Roxbury Latin School. Boston, Ginn &
Co.
It will require considerable evidence a few
generations hence to convince antiquarians
that OLI.ENDORF'S Grammar was ever used
as a text-book in sober earnest. Yet it is but
a few years since this book "ignorant of
man's nature and of boy's " was almost the
only American publication offered as an aid
to the teacher of German. Undoubtedly an
inspired teacher can teach with any text-book,
however poor, but unfortunately the rank and
file can hardly lay claim to this high qualifica-
tion, and it becomes of great importance to
secure and put before them every most effi-
cient aid, while even the best teachers cannot
afford to be indifferent toward the associate
which they introduce to their pupils.
The past three years have seen the publica-
tion of no less than a dozen grammars, all of
them with more or less valid claim upon
interest and acceptance, and the problem is
no longer Where shall I find a good gram-
mar? but Which is the best? In many cases
the answer to this question will depend upon
the peculiar circumstances, Students, for
instance, who wish only the merest outline to
enable them to read scientific prose will find
enough in PROF. SHELDON'S Short Grammar,
while others who can devote themselves to a
thorough study of the grammar from a lin-.
guistic stand-point will take WHITNEY'S or
BRANDT'S. But as a grammar for the
average high-school or college class, there are
a great many points in favor of the one which
is here under consideration.
Without feeling obliged to define the
" Natural Method," it may safely be said that
most progressive teachers employ it to a
greater or less extent, even though they do
not confess their allegiance. This grammar
will be found to be on the whole a happy
mean between the Natural and the Scientific
methods, and especially adapted to the great
majority of teachers who do not find it prac-
ticable or wise to follow either course ex-
clusively. Beyond this, two of the greatest
merits of the book, points in which it is
superior to many of its competitors, are its
arrangement under one series of lessons, and
the "sweet reasonableness" of the English
exercises. It has been felt by all teachers
that a grammar which outlines the subject in
one series of lessons, but omits just enough
to oblige the pupil, in order to under-
'97
395
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No. 6.
396
stand it, to go through a second series, is a
mistake. Many students are unable to spend
more than a term on the grammar. Such are
accordingly compelled to buy a book a con-
siderable portion of which they never use,
and at the same time fail to get a right view
of the subject. Hence one of the essentials
of the ideal grammar is a single series of
lessons. Together with this should go the
greatest brevity consistent with thoroughness
and clearness. In this respect the present
work leaves something to wish for. The in-
troduction of German Extracts for Transla-
tion must be regarded as a mistake. It oc-
cupies space and serves no good end. As
PROF. COLLAR says in his Introduction, the
aim should be to get at translation as soon as
possible, but the most satisfactory translation
for the pupil is in continuous work.
The other strong point of the book is in the
character of the sentences used for transla-
tion from English into German. In each
exercise there is a more or less thorough treat-
ment of one phase of expression in sentences
grouped about subject, thus giving a very
desirable unity to the exercises. In most con-
versational grammars there is a large propor-
tion of the ' ' sil ver-spoon-of-my-grandmother ' '
element that element which has brought the
study of German grammar into disrepute.
With very few exceptions there is a human
probability about the sentences in MR. COL-
LAR'S book which will be greatly refreshing
to the teacher who has missed this quality in
his older text-books. To this, paragraph 43
makes a strange exception. Such sentences
as : My nephew's monkey is in his [whose?]
room ; What does your nephew buy in that
shop? Where is the ox of your uncle's
herdsman ? I am looking- for my hare ; I have
lost it in the garden; Have you found what
you are looking for? seem to indicate that
this lesson escaped the careful revision mani-
fest in the others.
The scientific division of nouns into strong
and weak declensions, aided by the tables on
pages 69 and 40 (the iatter might be simplified)
is certainly the clearest way of presenting the
subject; but it is confused here by an over-
handling which is likely to offset all the bene-
fit derived from the plan. Lesson 4 treats the
strong declension; Lesson 5, the weak.
Lesson 7 treats the feminine nouns, thus
overlapping the twojust mentioned. Lessons
8 and 9 treat masculine and neuter nouns in
connection with the declension of adjectives,
this also overlapping 4 and 5. Lesson 10
treats feminine nouns again, making the
third appearance of this subject. Then comes
Lesson ii treating the plural of the weak
and strong declensions, followed by Lessons
12 and 13 on the plural of neuter and femi-
nine nouns. Here is certainly room for mudi
condensation and consequent improvement.
In doing this, note should be taken of the
following : Paragraph 125,2 might fairly say :
One-half of the monosyllabic feminines ;
Paragraph 125,3 is wrong, 'two-thirds' should
be two-sevenths (see 127,2, and 154). Para-
graph 130 would be clearer: "All feminine
polysyllables and one-half the monosyllables."
Paragraph 130,4 should specify "foreign
nouns accented on the last syllable but not
ending in al, an, ast, etc."
Further points of excellence are : the treat-
ment of prepositions, in which notice the
single oversight of saying that nach, without
distinction of meaning, stands either before or
after its object. Only in the meaning 'accord-
ing to' may nach stand after its object. The
negative use of tin, etzuas, etc., the position
of nicht, the distinction between scin and
haben as tense auxiliaries, and the distinction
between the real and the apparent passive
voice, points which are often omitted or poorly
handled, are made clear by the author. Only
in regard to the last, a matter on which too
much light cannot be shed, such an infallible
test as that of throwing the doubtful form into
the active voice, whereby the falae passive
changes its tense, would certainly be helpful.
Especially good are the chapters on the
order of the sentence and on the subjunctive.
The latter is enforced, as indeed is the case
throughout the book, with excellent exam-
ples, but would probably be aided by more
general statements as to the nature and use
of the subjunctive. The suggestion always to
learn the article with the noun, is one which
long experience has proved valuable.
The pronunciation is treated briefly and
well, with the exception of o and ii. For so
198
397
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
398
simple a matter it is queer what an ado gram-
marians make over these tu<> sounds. MR.
COLLAR says o is like the English in burr,
or lik. French en. The first remark is not
correct enough to be of any use, and the
second, aside from not being strictly accurate,
is no help, since French en is one of the most
dilticult vowel-sounds in any European lan-
guage. It is a simple matter to direct any one
how to make these sounds : o is English a,
and ii is English ee, both made with the position
of the lips commonly taken in pronouncing oo.
Matters of detail which we should hope to
see corrected or improved in a second edition
are : The insufficient explanation of the
meanings of the auxiliaries of mode, especial-
ly of wollcn and sollen, and their mutually
complementary relation in the sense of inten-
tion, one active the other passive. The index
on this subject omits the references to pages
101 and 107, while Lesson 16, under the title,
omits the intended reference to page 267.
Paragraph 197,1 is not entirely correct.
"Comparative and superlative are formed by
the addition of -er, and -st, or -est t to the posi-
tive." The superlative of predicate adjectives
is formed in two ways : with der, die, das,
when the comparison is with objects of like
kind; with am sten, when the object is com-
pared with itself or with things of another
kind.
Lesson 20 should contain a statement of the
meanings of the. inseparable prefixes. More-
over, paragraph 232 in this lesson is insufficient.
Durch, unter, etc., may be recognized as
separable, for the most part, by the literal
meaning of the compounds, while those com-
pounds which have figurative meanings, or
are rendered by Latin derivatives, are mostly
inseparable. The place of the accent does not
help the student, because he does not know it.
Paragraph 336 contains the only general
reference to the use of the article in German
when omitted in English. It consists of a
few inadequate examples. When used in the
full extent of their meaning, abstract and
mass nouns in the singular, and class nouns
in the plural, take the article in German. The
same is true of the names of clays of the week
and names of months and seasons ; also of
Christian nam -s and I'-.iter and .)//<//<>-, when
ust (1 in the family. Paragraph 339,3 on
giebt'\s insufficient. In fact no real explan-
ation is offered. Es giebt states the facts of
nature, and others applying to a large extent
of time and space, in distinction from fs ist,
which states incidental circumstances and
facts existing in limited time or space. II y a
does not help in distinguishing, for it covers
both. Paragraph 46,3 is in error regarding
the last two cases. Of the strong verbs in o,
but one takes o in the second and third singu-
lar ; of the six in an, but two change to tiu.
Page 113, Note 6, is not quite accurate.
"The when of narration is als\ of interroga-
tion is wann ; implying condition is wenn." Als
is used for historic tenses, wenn for present
and future, both meaning " when." In Lesson
23 and elsewhere, the author makes a mistake,
pedagogically at least, in rendering the Con-
ditional by English should. This leads inevi-
tably to confusion in the pupil's mind. In the
same Lesson, page 174, Note 6, occurs the ex-
pression " an impossible wish relating to the
past," by which is probably meant, a wish
contrary to fact. The imperfect subjunctive,
moreover, does not express an impossible
wish relating to the present ; it carries no im-
plication of possibility or the contrary.
The statement of the correspondence of
consonants, on page 16, is open to the same
objection as is made by DR. HUGO SCHILLING,
in MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES for February,
to the treatment of this subject in the
JOYNES-MEISSNER grammar, namely, that it
gives a perverted idea of the relation of the
two languages, though MR. COLLAR does not
profess that this is a statement of Grimm's
Law. Yet the defence which MR. JOYNES
sets up is scarcely valid, since the arrange-
ment which would really be the helpful one
for the student is the reverse of the one given
by him as well as by most of the grammars
which touch the subject. Instruction should
go from the known to the unknown, from
the English to the German, and so in the
natural direction of consonantal development.
A brief statement of the more important limi-
tations of Grimm's Law would be very
desirable.
\V. H. CARRL'TH.
<>/" A'tinsus.
199
399
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
400
Etymologise ties Worterbuch der romanischen
Sprachen, von FRIEDR. DIEZ. Fiinfte Aus-
gabe. Mit einem Anhang von AUGUST
SCHELER. Bonn, Marcus, 1887.
This new edition of DIEZ'S ' Worterbuch '
shows a much enlarged appendix, as was to be
expected, and will be very useful. It is per-
haps unfair to lay much stress on any lack of
completeness, for completeness in such matters
is, as we all know, very difficult. But it is sur-
prising not to find any mention of THURNEY-
SEN'S ' Keltoromanisches ' under andare and
in the same place a reference might have been
given to the Literaturblatt fur germanische
und romanische Philologie, 1884, col. 104
(*indare from inde}. The latter omission is
more excusable than the former, and indeed it
appears from a hasty search that THURNEY-
SEN'S book has entirely escaped SCHELER'S
notice, which is indeed surprising. At least I
find no mention of it in several places where
mention might be expected ; for example,
under ambasciata, camicia, drudo, briser, lai,
maint, to mention a few examples out of many.
CORNU'S etymology of bravo (Romania, 1884,
pp. 110-113) is also not mentioned. Under
foin II. c, the appendix has the same surpris-
ing remark as in the last edition. If Latin
praeda is really related to prehendere then a
vulgar Latin preda may not seem any stranger
\\\&\\ pre- in the Latin verb. Of course French
pro'ic cannot have come from praeda.
E. S. SHELDON.
Harvard University.
Grundriss zur Geschichte der de.utschen Dich-
tnng aus den Qncllen von KARL GOEDKKE.
2. Auflage. Dresden, Ls. Ehlermann. Bel.
I-III, pp. viii, 500; iv, 600; viii, 384.
Among the representatives of German phi-
lology and literature who have recently died in
such rapid succession, PROFESSOR KARL
GOKDEKE held one of the foremost positions.
Born in 1814 at Celle, he received his academic
training at the University of Gottingen, where
the influence of the Grimm brothers, Benecke,
Gervinus, Otfried Miiller and Dahlmann
determined his future career. Even as a
student he began making the collections vyhich
became the basis of his later famous works.
The time following his studies in Gottingen
he devoted mostly to quiet literary activity ;
but he also took an active part in the political
events which were then agitating Germany.
Not until the year 1873 was he appointed Pro-
fessor of the History of German Literature at
the University of Gottingen, which position he
held up to the time of his death, October 27,
1887. GOEDEKE'S scientific activity was many-
sided, though mostly directed to literary in-
vestigation, the results of which he did not
withhold from the general public, being widely
and favorably known as the editor of classical
writers and the author of ' Goethe's Leben und
Schriften.' By his clear and objective presen-
tation of facts he marks a wholesome and
pleasing contrast to the scientific journalism
and subjective mannerism so fashionable of
late.
The chief work of GOEDEKE'S life is his
celebrated 'Grundriss,' a monitinciitinn acre
perennius not only of himself but also of the
scholarly industry of Germany. A few years
before his death he prepared a second edition
of it and succeeded in carrying this as far as
the third volume, thus covering the litera-
ture to the close of the Seven Years' War.
In many respects this second edition must be
regarded as an entirely new work. The
author has added a stupendous amount of
material, thus creating an indispensable store-
house for the benefit of all future investigators.
But it is not alone a book of reference : it
equally excels in subtle observation and
objective truthfulness qualities which charac-
terize all of GOEDEKE'S writings. The
publisher promises that the continuation of
the second edition will cover the period down
to the present time; and we hope- that this
excellent work will find its way not only into
the libraries of our colleges and other public
institutions but also into the private collections
of many cultivated readers throughout the
country.
Jri.ius GOKHEL.
Complete German Manual for Higli Scliools
and Colleges by WESLEY G. SAWYER, PH.
D., Chicago, i8t'7.
The book before us attempts to combine the
"natural method" and the "grammar
I" I
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
402
method," and aids i \ e tin- ends of
-i.uiini.it, '''.ink. conversation-book
and rea.K-r. 1'art I, Theory, is devoted to
Pronunciation, lutlexion, Syntax, and F.ty-
mology; Part II, Pract. insd) K\-
- tor Writing and Oral Practice (21 <".< r-
inan Coi -respondent < < ;,i Continuous Reading
and Conversation ('Joseph uiul Benjamin, nach
eiix-t Kr/ahlung von BKRTiioi.nArKKH.vii 'i.
Then follow Remarks on Punctuation and
Orthography, a list of Irregular Verbs, Ger-
man-l-'.nglish and F.nglish-German Vocabu-
laries, an Index and table of Conjugations
and Declensions.
The manual under consideration is an at-
tempt to supply tin- demands of the unorgan-
i/ed, or at best poorly systemati/.ed, method
of teaching German in American Schools, and
as such is in many respects an improvement
upon not a few of the older manuals. But cer-
tain points of theory need comment. The au-
thor's theory of declensions, as applied to
nouns, is quite out of harmony with the classifi-
cation generally recognized in this country and
in Germany. Whatever may be said of the
terms "strong"and"weak," "old" and "new,"
as applied to nominal declension, they certain-
ly are plain finger-boards to the student enter-
ing the historic study of German or Germanic
grammar. Tin's classification as applied by
WIUTNKV, BRANDT, MKISSNKR and all of the
best writers on German grammar is certainly
more scientific and more simple than the ar-
bitrary arrangement into the three declensions
as given by DR. SAYVYKK : I. Containing
feminities (both weak and strong); II. Con-
taining masculines and neuters, ending in -el,
-er, elicit, -It'in ; III. " 'I he third declension
includes all nouns not belonging in the first or
second declension " (181). Then follow
" classes of masculines " belonging clearly to
the weak declension (as the author's words in-
dicate), which are not included " under the
aoove three declensions . . neither do they
constitute a forth declension, but follow the
masculine gender of the weak adjective de-
clension " (>i9i). It mr.st be apparent to the
beginner, as well as to the author himself, that
this classification is complicated ;:nd coniusec'..
It the nouns treated in this last-named class
had been arranged under the weak declension
of nouns, where they belong, it would not have
been necessary tO treftl them as intruders in
nominal inflexion. Inasmuch as the author
makes use ol the terms "strong"and "weak"of
adjective declension, would it not have !>
much more consistent, especially as it is
simpler, to apply the s.niie terms to nominal
d'-i lension, and thus introduce the student at
once to the classification and nomenclature
which he will meet in all scientific works on
( ict man grammar ?
In Part II, the promiscuous collation of ex-
amples from even the earliest period of N. H.
G. literature is liable to lead the student to
suppose that the speech of LruiKK isas good
modern German as that of KKKVTAC or HKYSK.
It S'-ems to us that for purposes of style much
better results would he reached by putting the
student on his guard to detect deviations from
the modern idiom. The exercises for transla-
tion into German, though well selected, se< m
too varied. The great failure of most of the
prose exercises in the books, is due to the in-
discriminate jumble of incoherent sentences
made to fit the rule under consideration. The
student should be trained to think consecutive-
ly and logically in a foreign language as in his
mother-tongue ; a connected description or
story can be made to illustrate a rule quite as
efficiently as a series of disconnected sen-
tences.
The vocabulary might have been rendered
more serviceable by giving more of the im-
portant meanings of many words and by add-
ing the essential forms (nom., gen. sg.; nom.
pi.) of strong nouns.
Minor points to be noted are : 142 might be
better stated by saying that variatives are
formed by adding /</(' kind ') to the geni-
tive (for examples of the older use of this con-
struction cf. M. H. G. " ciner leierule," where
the forms are printed as separate words);
^153 is not correct, inasmuch as the feminine
derivatives in /are both numerous and mono-
syllabic. It is nouns formed on a simple af>-
laiit stem with HO derivative suffix which are
i nerally masculine, while those which add
the suflix / to this stem are regularly feminine.
Kxampk-s are der /.tiff {<zichcti} but die
y.iteht(<Zn!i+l,g> r// before /), der Schlag
(<scliia.t?en) but die Sehlicht, (<Schlag+l)\
155 :"<'/ A'l'ie/i/Hiti. tier Irrtnni are exceptions ;
159 has received fuller treatment in AHN'S
403
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No., 6.
404
'Synopsis of German grammar' 108, BRANDT'S
'German Grammar' 58, WILMANN'S
'Deutsche Grammatik,' ZweiterTeil 88; 178,
add der gefalle, der Schade ; 212 cf. WILL-
MANN'S ' D. Gram.' ZweiterTeil 90,2; 274,
ward=wurde etc. should be mentioned at
least in a note ; 365-369 are not explicit and
full enough for the average beginner, cf. WIL-
MANNS' ' D. Gram.' Zweiter Teil 122-127 for a
clearer treatment. The paragraphs on Pre-
positions and Word-Order are too scanty to be
of much service to the student : BRANDT'S
Ger. Gram.' 301-306 is very happy in giving
well chosen examples of prepositional con-
struction. A judicious use of the chapters in
other grammars referred to above would have
greatly enhanced the value of DR. SAWYER'S
manual. In thus pointing out what seems to
us defects in the manual we would not forget
to mention some of its excellencies as well.
Excepting the paragraphs already commented
upon, the general plan of the book is well
adapted to college use. The principles are
concisely stated, the examples happily chosen
and sufficiently diversified to familiarize the
student with the essentials of German syntax.
The German sentences of Part II are certainly
a vast improvement upon the stilted manu-
facture of most of the exercise-books. The
student is here encouraged to collect gems of
literature rather than to build rugged sen-
tences out of conventional phrases. The
chapter on Correspondence is good as far as
it goes, but too short to teach letter-writing.
DR. SAWYER evidently intended that his man-
ual chould be used as a book for practice and
not for scientific theory, and hence omitted
many points which the student would like to
have explained, as, for example, umlaut and
ablaut. But American education is too de-
pendent upon the text-book. The success of a
text-book depends upon the teacher not less
than upon the author of the book. DR. SAW-
YER'S manual, in the hands of efficient instruc-
tors, can be readily supplemented at these
weaker points. It is to be hoped that this
work will bring us a step farther toward a more
thorough and scientific study of the German
language and literature in our higher schools.
M. D. LEARNED.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTES :
Kindly allow me to explain myself. PROF.
COOK, in MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, III, 5,
277, quotes me as saying "The scribe of the
Lindisfarne MS. never employs the letters v or
j." He then proceeds to quote the word
onginnvm as occurring in a gloss.
What I had in my mind was this. I was
thinking of the original scribe of the Lindis-
farne MS., who wrote that MS. in Latin; and
I do not remember that he anywhere uses
either v or j. As to what the glossator wrote,
I make no assertion at all. I meant my state-
ment to be taken in connection with the con-
text. I go on to say that " the former edition
has v and j throughout, wherever the u and i
of the MS. have consonantal values." This
refers only to the Latin text. I admit I was
obscure ; but that is all.
WALTER W. SKEAT.
BRIEF MENTION.
In the great mass of mediaeval Provencal
lyric are found the names and works of not a
few poetesses, who have hitherto been known
mainly through their literary relations with
contemporary Troubadours. The gallantry
of a student of Romance poetry has rescued
them from this inferior station and has placed
them before the modern public in a compact
and convenient form (' Die Provenzalischen
Dichterinnen,' O. Schultz : Leipzig 1888,410).
In the introduction to their biographies and
writings the editor sketches the rise of woman
in society and hence in literature. He finds
in the other languages of Western Europe but
few representatives of the sex before the four-
teenth century, and attributes to the peculiar
institutions of Provence the prominence which
they there attain. Between the years 1160 and
1250 no less than twenty-one lyric poetesses
appear, some few of whom are known only
by name. The biographies of the greater
number, sixteen in all, as given by Dr. Schultz,
can be determined only approximately, and
mainly by the allusions to them in contempor-
ary literature. Their works, amounting to
twenty-two poems, with four doubtful, are in
this study all edited critically for the first time
June MODERN LA^GUAGE^ NOTES, IHHH. No. 6.
406
\i i-pt the sitAentes of Gormunda given by
Levy in liis edition of (iuilU-iu Figi:-
The\ are < hielly sin icty-verses ten/oni,
coblas but tin- didactic and moral element
K also represented. Several of tin- writers
take part in tlu- same ten/one, others, as
Maria de Yentadoru and Axalais de Porcaira-
gues. ha\ < OIK- poi-m each to their credit, while
lady Castello/a of .\uvrr-in-, who wrote prob-
ably in the lirst part of the thirteenth century,
has left three to posterity, and Beatrice,
countess of I >ia, heads the list with four. The
style of all is simple and free from the com-
plicated strophes and difficult rimes of the
more practiced Troubadours. Appended to
the text are explanatory notes, which complete
a useful publication on woman's activity in
literature in the Middle Ages.
In the May number of the Deutsche I\und-
schau PROFKSSOR HKKMAN GRIMM publishes
a very interesting article under the title : "Die
deutsche Schulfrage uud unsere Classiker,"
in which he takes sides in part with the
modern language movement. It is gratifying
for us to notice that I'KOFI.SI'OK GRIMM'S
views regarding the position which Goethe and
the moderi\ German classics are to take in the
education of our youth coincide essentially
with those already expressed in the Transac-
tions of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. of Am., Vol. I,
pp. 156-169 and MOD. LANG. NOTES, Vol. II,
No. i.
Among the latest publications of 'Gebr.
Ilenninger, Heilbronn, the . fifth edition of
ANDKKSKN'S ' Sprachgebrauch und Sprach-
richtigkeit im Deutschen ' and the reprint of
HEINE'S ' Buchder Lieder ' deserve (.'special
mention. The former of these, though some-
times taking a somewhat pedantic standpoint
and deciding the question of ' Sprachrichtig-
seit ' according to the rules of rigid grammar,
is an indispensable guide for teachers and pu-
pils, to whom, in its new and enlarged edition,
it will b highly welcome. The reprint of the
songs by which 11 KINK gained his world-wide
fame is another valuable addition to the ''\eii-
drucke." It is not the HKINE of the polished
and retouched ' Huch der Lieder ' that we here
meet, but the young poet still strongly under
the influence of the Romanticists and of 'I >es
Knabeu \Vunderhorn.' Krnst Klster, the
editor of the reprint, has pn-fa<.-d it with an
ive and profound introduction, in whit h
he points out the way to a more
tific treatment of the great lyric poet. And
such a treatment will surely dispel the preju-
:'id piudery in regard to 1 1 MM-, which
seem to be in vogue among ourselves as well
as in ( iermany.
The literatim: devoted to practical instruction
in German has recently been increased by a
number of works deserving special mention.
Miss CAKI. A \YKNCKEBACH, favorably known
as the editor of a charming anthology of
German poems, has published a German
Reader (Boston : Carl Schoenhof ; New York :
I-'. \V. Christern) the multifarious character of
which will be best illustrated by giving a synop-
sis of its contents. After the pupil has been
taught the elements of German pronunciation
according to the manner of the primers used
in the public schools of Germany, he is next
introduced to the principles of Grimm's law ;
this is followed by extracts from German
prose and poetry ; and finally is given a sketch
of the historical development of the German
language based upon the works of Scherer,
Grimm, Max Mu'ller, Delbriick, Joh. Schmidt,
Paul, Kluge, etc. To illustrate the last chap-
ter of the Reader, two maps are added repre-
senting the status of the German dialects in
the year 1300, and the present extension of the
Indo-Germanic languages.
The 'Manual of German Prefixes and Suf-
fixes' by J. S. BLACKWELL (New York : Hen-
ry Holt & Co.) will serve as a valuable help
for teachers and pupils. The book does not
aim at a scientific explanation of the origin
and etymology of the material treated, but
rather intends to be a practical guide for those
who find the use of these particles one of the
greatest difficulties in acquiring command of
a foreign language.
Teachers of German who desire to acquaint
their pupils with tlu M. H. G. stage of the
German language will welcome the 'Middle
High German Primer' by JOSIIMI \\'KK;MI
(Oxford: Clarendon Press). This primer, con-
taining a short grammar based on the works of
Paul and \Yeinhold, a suitable selection of
texts, and a glossarv, will doubtless increase
203
407
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
408
the interest in the older forms of German
among students of that language.
One of the best edited texts which have
come recently to our notice is the ' Life of
Frederick the Great ' by DR. C. A. BUCHHEIM,
(Oxford : Clarendon Press). The material,
which is intended to give the student a train-
ing in reading German historical prose, is ex-
tracted from Becker's celebrated 'Weltge-
schichte,' and forms an interesting and power-
ful sketch of the life of the great Prussian
king. It is hardly necessary to dwell on the
excellence of the apparatus furnished by the
introduction >and notes. In consequence of
Becker's clear and simple style, which does
not require extensive grammatical elucidation,
the predominant character of the notes is that
of historical explanation, giving in concise
form an astonishing amount of information
valuable to the student. The littte map of
the scene of Frederick's campaigns must be
considered a valuable addition. DR. BUCH-
HEIM, who is known also in America as one
of the foremost editors of German school-texts,
has by this new work again won the thanks of
all who, in the interest of progress in the
study of the modern languages, appreciate the
value of well-edited books.
Among the practical productions of German
literature which seem constantly to invite the
skill of translators, Schiller's famous ' Lied
von der Glocke ' takes a highly favored posi-
tion. We have recently received two transla-
tions of it : ' The Song of the Bell ' by Fr.
Schiller, translated by N. W. CUTLER (Boston :
D. Lothrop Company) ; Schiller's ' Lay of the
Bell ' translated by E. J. CROCKETT (Southern
Methodist Revieiv, March 1888), both of them
showing peculiar merits. While the latter
keeps more strictly to the German original,
the former may certainly claim a higher poeti-
cal character, rising happily, as it does in
many passages, to Schiller's power and beauty
of thought and diction. Moreover, it is adorned
with a number of good reproductions of pic-
tures selected from the best German illustra-
tors of the poem, This feature of the trans-
lation must be highly commended, since it
wonderfully aids the reader in penetrating the
foreign poet's mode of thinking and feeling.
We entertain the hope of again meeting with
Mr. Cutler as the skilled and graceful media-
tor between German poetry and English
readers.
While we are still waiting for the long-
needed comprehensive English-German Dic-
tionary, we are offered in the new edition of
DR. A. HOPPE'S ' Englisch-Deutsches Supple-
ment-Lexicon als Erganzung zu alien bis jetzt
erschienenen Worterbiichern' (Berlin: Langen-
scheidtsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. i. ab. A
Close), a work which surpasses everything
hitherto published in the line of English-Ger-
man lexicography. The author, presuppos-
ing as known what is contained in Lucas"
large dictionary, endeavors to include the
whole thesaurus of English words and mean-
ings not recorded in the existing dictionaries.
The amount of industrious labor bestowed
upon this work is simply enormous, and its re-
sults were so much appreciated by the editor
of Ogilvie's ' Imperial Dictionary ' that he ap-
propriated, without acknowledgment, a large
part of the contents of the first edition. A
most welcome feature of this lexicon is the
citation of passages illustrative of the use of
the words treated. The literature utilized by
DR. HOPPE and his collaborators for this pur-
pose comprises nearly all fields of literary
production, technical terms and English and
American slang and provincialisms receiving
especial attention. There are naturally some
omissions to be noted. One is rather sur-
prised for example not to find the term
"blatherskite" a word which DR. HOPPE
would doubtless have inserted had he ever
witnessed one of our American presidential
campaigns. We hope also that in due time the
" Mugwump " will not escape his attention.
The ' Supplement-Lexicon ' is a worli of which
author and publisher may justly be proud, and
deserves the widest circulation in America.
A fourth revised edition of KLUGE'S ' Ety-
mologisches Worterbuch ' (Strassburg : Triib-
ner) is now issuing, of which instalments 1-4
have already appeared. This skilfully com-
piled book has from the outset met with so
much success that it is unnecessary to speak
further in its praise. A similar success seems
to be destined for KLUGE'S recent publication,
' Von Luther bis Lessing, (cf. M. L. N. iii, 281)
a second edition of which has become neces-
204
409
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, i8$8. No. 6.
410
s.nv within a feu nuniths. We are, however,
sorry to notice that in tin- latter case, I'KOK.
Ki.i iii-. was not able In-fore going to print to
make use of I'KOKISSOR EDWARD Scm
i 'i K'S ( -xcellent and instructive review of Ills
first edition in the Goetting. gel. Anzcii\i >/,
\o. 7, 1888. In this review it is made evident
that for a successful treatment of such prob-
lems as are undertaken by KIAH;K a merely
linguistic training is not sufficient. Unless an
author posesses, as the result of many years'
study a wide erudition, a deep insightinto the
historical literary development of the lan-
guage, he will run the risk of repeating plati-
tudes and even making gross mistakes.
The students of Folk Lore are reminded by
MR. A K DREW LANG that ' Mother Goose ' has
claims on their scientific appreciation (PER-
RAULT'S ' Popular Tales ': Macmillan & Co.).
MR. LANG has reprinted the French edition of
1697, ' Histoires ou Contes du Temps Passe"
avec des Moralite"z,' to which he has added
the ' Contes en Vers ' and which he has pre-
ceded by a sketch of PKRRAULT, of his tales,
with a study of each story. As usual with the
works of this writer the studies, which consist
of comparative views of similar tales and an
attempt to trace their migrations and changes,
are made in a scholarly way which the wit-
ticisms and local hits here and there impair
but little. The greatest amount of material is
brought together in the remarks on 'Puss in
Boots ' and on 'Cinderella.' In the former
PKRRAULT was hard pushed to find his cus-
tomary rimed moral yet MR. LANG discovers
that versions with a moral exist even in France,
in which the tale continues to show how the
hero the man in his turn renders evil for
good. Such a conclusion points to the
Buddhistic religion, but in India, where the
story substitutes a jackal for the cat, no moral
is fojnd, while in Zanxibar, where the animal
becomes a gazelle, the moral appears: man's
ingratitude contrasted with a beasts' faithful-
ness. ' Cinderella ' offers tw.o chief features :
the friendly beast, for whom a fairy godmother
has been substituted, and the favoritism shown
to the youngest child together with the place
which it occupies in the ashes of the hearth
Cinderella is a step-daughter, an evident
variant. The friendly beast is a common
character in popular stories and seems
to be connected with the belief in trans-
migration. The simple version occurs among
various tribes, as the Kaffirs, where an ox
protects the child and supplies him with food
and riches from its horns. The complex or
perhaps primitive version is found in Russia,
among the Celts and elsewhere. Here a,
mother is changed into an animal (sheep or
cow) by a witch who assumes her form and
passes herself off as the wife. At her request
the animal is killed but the daughter is warned
not to eat the flesh. The bones are buried
from which comes a tree, as in an old Egyptian
story, or other magic, to aid the daughter in
her tasks. In most of these versions the slip-
per, or a ring, is prominent. The substitution
of a fairy godmother for the beast is due evi-
dently to less barbarous society. The second
leading element, the favored youngest child
whose place is on the hearth, may be explained
by an ancient custom common to many tribes
whereby the youngest inherited. The growth
of primogeniture, while the youngest was still
the legal heir, would account for the persecu-
tion of the latter. In the same way the young-
est inherited the hearth by old customs and is
thus, in the stories, placed among the ashes.
The slipper is a means of recognition, gener-
ally in the case of a false bride. Readers of
the old French Epic will recall the plot of
' Berthe aus grans pie's ' where the false bride
is exposed by the smallness of her feet and
where the true one, to the contrary of Cinder-
ella, possesses large feet. The notices of
the other stories of PERRAULT contain many
useful hints, though shorter than the above.
\Ye notice in the Conclusion, which follows the
separate analysis, that MR. LANG does not
state his own theory with the definiteness
shown in his former studies of Folk Lore
but contents himself with raising objections to
the theories of GRIMM and-BENFKV. An in-
teresting comparison of the views of the three
schools from the pen of PROF. CRANE to
whom the last volume of PITRK'S 'Sicilian
Traditions ' has been dedicated has already
appeared in the NOTES (Vol. II, col. I74ss). Re-
views of recent publications of MR. LAM; on the
same subject are found in the A 7 a/wn(iS8Sp.$6).
1 La Syntaxe Pratique de la Langue Fran-
205
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NO TES, 1888. No. 6.
412
caise' by B. MKRAS (New York : The Modern
Language Publishing Co.) presents the gram-
matical rules in the logical way : the examples
precede each rule. The obvious result is that
the rule is conceived by the scholar before it
is formulated and is thus more readily retained.
This system is seen to its best advantage in
the treatment of the past participle (pp. 89-94)
and in the agreement of the verb with its sub-
ject. The defects of such a plan consist main-
ly in the multiplicity of useless rules and
in the tendency to make rules from idioms.
Other faults which lie rather with the author
than the system are the inadequate treatment
of the subjunctive, where Whitney's grammar
could have been consulted with profit, and the
substitution of rules for tabular statements in
regard to the varying gender and plurals of
nouns. The Index is valueless for convenient
reference and should be enlarged before the
work is taken into class use.
The same author is represented in a school
edition of ' Notre Dame de Paris ' (London :
Williams and Norgate). The editor, M. J.
BOIELLE, has arranged, in two neat volumes,
suitable portions of the original, keeping as
near as possible to the progress of the narra-
tive. The notes, which are indicated by fig-
ures in the text, are good and abundant. As
regards etymologies it is unfortunate that an-
notators are not yet acquainted with Scheler
in any of the editions of his Etymological
Dictionary.
' Einfiirhung in das Studium der Englischen
Philologie mit Riicksicht auf die Anforderung-
en der Praxis ' (Marburg, N. G. Elwert, 1888), is
a brochure in which PROFESSOR WILHELM
VIETOR aims to give counsel and direction to
students who may desire to fit themselves as
teachers of English in the schools of Germany.
The scope and character of the examinations
to be passed, and the true significance of
the teacher's office are carefully examined,
and then the practical question is entered upon,
how the necessary preparation may be best
acquired. This leac's to a detailed considera-
tion of the entire course of training which such
a teacher should endeavor to secure, embrac-
ing advice as to the books to be used, courses
of lectures to be attended, etc. These pages
must prove a helpful guide to those for whom
they are expressly written, but they have also
a value for us. The English and American
teacher of English may here gain many a ser-
viceable hint from a careful study of the doc-
trine and methods of English instruction in
foreign schools ; while our teachers of French
and German may, by a process of reasoning
by analogy, be led, by these earnestly written
chapters, to a better understanding of the
true import of their own vocation.
MR. ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL, the cele-
brated phonetician and author of ' Visible
Speech,' has published a pamphlet which may
be expected to arrest the eye of the curious,
and to excite a feeling akin to suspicion in the
breast of the champion of Vola-puk. But
these are effects not to be ignored, nor do they
lie wholly without the range of the writer's in-
tention, if a natural inference may be drawn
from the newly coined title, 'World-English,
The Universal Language ' (New York : N. D.
C. Hodges, 47 Lafayette Place), and the quaint-
ly eloquent epilogue in which leave is taken
of the reader: "Everyone has heard of the
butcher, who, after a long search for his knife,
at last found it in his mouth. So, speakers
of English have been seeking for a Uni-
versal Language, when lo ! it is in their
mouths ! The intelligibility of words has been
obscured by a dense mist of letters. This is
now dispersed in World-English ; and the
language stands revealed, beyond compari-
son clear, simple, copious, and cosmopolitan,
the fitting tongue of humanity." But it were
quite impossible for MR. BELL to toy with any
form of popular sensationalism for its own
sake, and one has but to glance over these
chastely written and beautifully printed pages
to become impressed with the graceful and
philanthropic spirit of the profound scholar.
For the English-speaking world there are two
great questions relating to its language that
are of high importance ; they are these : shall
our spelling be reformed, and shall any syste-
matic effort be made towards the establish-
ment of English as the World's medium of
universal intercommunication ? The first of
these questions may be argued apart from the
second; but the second is, by common consent,
conditioned by the first. This common con-
sent among English scholars (for a matter of
206
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTKS, 1888. No. 6.
414
this kind is in\o|\ed in, and has to encounter
national picjndices) is \v<-ll cxpusscd in MR.
Hi i i.'s o|n ning uords : " No language could
!>< invented lor International UM- that would
surpass English, in grammatical simplicity,
and in general fitness to become the tonkin- ol
tin- World. The only drawback to extension
of English has been its <lillicnlt and unsyste-
matic spelling." It is then clearly seen that
MK. \\v.\.\. opens ami closes with the very deli-
nite belief that English is the true l'ola-f>iik,
and the object of his pamphlet is not so much to
enforce this belief as to offer a theory, and to
submit a practical system, carefully elaborated,
for the attainment of certain ends. A system
of English orthography and typography is here
oH'cred which is not to supplant the present
form of writing, but which is merely to sup-
plement it as an " initiatory " form for begin-
ners in the schools (thereby serving an import-
ant pedagogical purpose at home) and for
"non-scholastic learners, and for foreigners
throughout the world." For our schools, it is
argued " two forms of the language must thus
be equally acknowledged ; one for lower
classes of scholars (MR. RKLL'S ' World-Eng-
lish ') and one for higher classes (the undis-
turbed present literary form)." World-Eng-
lish deserves the careful consideration of all
serious scholars, to whom MR. BKLI, appeals
for criticism and suggestion.
IX C. Heath & Co. have just published the
second book in the series of ' Practical Les-
sons in the use of English,' by MARY E. Hvni:
of the State Normal School, Albany, N. Y.
The volume covers such technical grammaras
is essential to a correct use of the language,
besides giving many selections from the best
writers, to form a correct taste for the best
literature. It treats of letter-writing and its
related subjects ; and contains much matter
necessary to be familiarly km mi* in the ordin-
ary business of life. The same House lias
published ' Exercises in English, a drill book
on Accidence, Syntax and Style,' by 11. I.
STRANC;, Head Master, C.oderich High School,
< >ntario. The book is meant to supply in con-
cise form, well classified and carefully studied
exercises for criticism and correction. It is the
result of much experience in the school-room
and is decidely a working hook.
ERCKMANN-CffATKIAN'h amusing comedy
of ' I. 'Ami Frit/.' with annotations in English
b\ I'K"I . Al I l'.\ I. Ill NM ..,1 IN, "f tl:-
sity of Michigan, has been added to the series
of 'Theatre ( 'oiitemporain ' published by
William K. Jenkins, of New York. (121
250.) ' Encouraged by the favor shown to his
enterprise in furnishing an attractive reprint in
French of VICTOR Hrc.o's ' I.es Mis'rables,'
MK. JKNKINS has determined upon issuing a
uniform edition of all the novels of this author,
and 'Quatrevingt-trei/e,' printed in one vol-
ume, forms the second work in the sen
This story is considered one of the fin-
nit us of I Iroo's literary genius and style, and
will undoubtedly prove of great value to stu-
dents as well as of interest to general readers.
It is issued in similiar typography and bind-
ing to' I. es Misi'rables.' (121110, paper fi.oo,
cloth $1.50.) MMI HI-.NRI (iki'vn.i.K's '1
due,' will be the next number of tin- ' Romans
Choisis,' issued by the same publisher.
The Louisiana Journal of Education for
March contains an article entitled: "Some
Suggestions for a Course of Reading in High
Schools" by PROK. J. R. FICKI.KN of Tulane
University; likewise a review of I'KOK.
("i M-Mi's ' The Study of Rhectoric ' by PROK.
ROHKRT SHARP, of the same institution. The
Dial (Chicago) for May has an interesting
characterization Of '.'Arnold and his Work " by
I'ROK. MKLVIU.K H. ANDKRSON, of State Uni-
versity of Iowa. '1 \\vltniianu .SVW<-;//(< )rgan of
Indiana University) for March, gives us a cred-
itable notice of " Moliere " and his works by
\Y. EC/HARD (ioi.mw;, a student in the French
department of that University. The Academy
(Syracuse), for April, contains a suggesti\e
article on "The Phonetic Method," by E.
Si'AMiooKi), of St. Paul's School, Concord,
N. H.
The first two numbers have reached us of a
publication that promises much of interest and
importance for the worker in modern lan-
guages : !.< Moycn-Age. Bulletin meiisuel
d' 1 iisloiiv et de I'hilologie, iindcrtlu direction
of MKSSRS. A. MARICNAN, ('. PI.AION and
M. WII.MOTTK. Price 9 francs. Addi.
Monsieur Picard, l.ibraire-Editcur, Si rue
Bonaparte, Paris. The list of periodicalsth.it
are put under contribution for this new journal.
is the most extensive, perhaps, of any publi-
cation in existence. All the- periodical htera-
ature of note, bearing on I listory and l.ingnis,
tics, is to he reported on for Norway, Sweden-
iVnmark, Holland, (iermany. Austria, Bel-
gium, France, Italy Spain, Portugal and Rou-
207
415
June. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 6.
416
JOURNAL NOTICES.
BEITRAEOE < HRSG. v. PAUL UNO BRAUNE) VOL.
XIII, PART III. Osthoff, II., Ktymologica. Kauff-
niiuin, Fr., Behaghels argumente flir eine mhd.
Schriftsprachc. Bugge, 8., Zur altgermanischen
spraehgeschichte. Pletsch, P., Einige bemerkungen
Uber ge- bei verben. Bremer, 0., Wurstencr wo'rter-
verzeichnis. Hellborn, E., Die -reime bei- Opitz.
Braune, W., Zu den dcutschen -lauten; Reinhardt
Fuchs ; Nachtrag zu mhd. ein. Luick, K., Geschlossen-
cs e 1'Ur e vor st. Holthausen, P., Nachtrag.
ANGLIA. VOL. X. PART III. Honncher, E., Quel-
len zu Dean Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels.
(iodwln, Francis, The Voyage of Domingo Gonzales
to the World of the Moon. Honncher, E., Bemerkung-
en zu Godwin's Voyage of Domingo Gonzales to the
Moon. Reum, A., De Temporibus ein echtes werk des
abtes ^Elt'ric. Sattler, W., Englische Kollektaneen.
Wllke, W., Anwendung der rhyme-test und double-
ending test auf Ben JOHSOII'S dramen. Koeppel, E.,
Sidneiana. Logeman, 8., Forrest's Theophilus.-Nader,
E., Tempus und modus im Beowulf. Hlcketler, K.,
FUnf rfitsel des Exeterbuches. Lcntzner. K., Zu
Romeo und Julia. Sub lender, P., Btlcherschau ftir
das jahr 1886.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZOSISCHE SPRACHE
UND LlTTERATUR, BAND IX. HEFT Q.(Referate
und Rezensionen) . ** J.-B. Stiernet, La Litterature
franfaise au XVIIe siecle. Essais et Notices, avec
une introduction (Moyen-age et XVIe siecle).
Mahrenholtz, K., E. HOnncher, Fahrten nach Mond
und Sonne. Mahrenholtz, K., E. Hertz, Voltaire und
die fraiizdsische Strafrechtspflege im XVIII. Jahr-
hundert. Mahrenholtz, K., Lettres inedites de Mme
de Lespinasse p. p. Charles Henry. Scheffler, \V.,
Guillaume Ulrich, Essai sur la chanson franyaise de
notre siecle. Honncher, E., Jan ten Brink, Litterari-
sche Schetsen en Kritieken. Koschwltz, E., Moliere,
L'Avare, crklBrt von H. Fritsche. Miszellen. J.-J. (!.
L (eyds), Principaux ecrits relatifs a la personne et
aux ceuvres, an temps et a 1'intiuence de Diderot.
Compilation critique et chronologique. Meyer, R.,
Zur Konstruktion von falloir. Programm der zweiten
Hauptversammlung des deutschen Einheitsschul-
vereins in Kassel am 4. und 5. April 1888- Nekrologe.
Honncher, E., Bibliographic 1887-88.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ROMANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, XI,
4. Tobler, A., Vermisehte BeitrHge zur franz. Gram-
matik. Nchwan, Ed., Zu den Hltesten franzosischen
DenkmBlern. Schuchardt, H., ;Romano-baskisehes.
Beyer, A., Die Londoner Psalterhandschrift Arundel.
Vermischtes. Appel, 0., Zur Reihenfolge der Trionli
Petrarca's. Meyer, W., Labialisierung von Gutturalen
im Nordfranzos. Horning, A., Die Schicksale von en
+Kons. und an+Kong. im Ostfranztisischen. Srhwan,
E., Zur Flexion der Feminina der lat. III. Deklination
im AltfranzOsischen. Wlese, B.,Italienische Etymolo-
gien. I Irich, J., Romanische Etymologien. Be-
gprechungen. Appel, ., W. Bernhard, Die Werke des
Trobadors N'At de Mons. Appel, A. Pakscher, Die
Chronologic der Gedichte Petrarcas. Tobler, A., F.
Torraea, La materia dell' Arcadia del Sainm/aro,
studio. Levy, E. und Tobler, A., Revue des langues
romanes. T. XXX juill.-dec. 1886; t. XXXI, Jativ.-
juin 1887. Meyer, W., Studi di fllologia romanza, fasc.
4. 1887.
LE CANADA-FRANCAIS, VOLUME PREMIER,
LlVRAISON AVRIL '|888. L'Admlnlstration, Mgr
Dominique Racine. Bruche'sl, L'abbe'l'. IN., Los Petites
Sceurs des Pauvres a Montreal. Polsson, Adolphe,
Mouvement de la Population Fran<;aise dans Ics i 'mi-
tons de 1'Est. LeMay, Pamphlle, Le Boquet Po6sie.
Desroslers, Joseph, Le Roman au Foyer Chretien.
Routhlcr, A. B., La Question Romaine. E. R., Revue
des Cours Publics donnas & 1' Univ. -Laval a Quebec
(Hiver 1887-88.- DeOelles, A. D., Notre Avenir. Routh-
ler, A, B., Les Fetes Jubiiaires (Lettre de Rouie).
Ohauveau, P. J. 0., Encore Jacques Cartier. Legend re,
Nap., La Legende d'un Peuple. ValUe, A., Interven-
tion Chirurgicale dans les affections du rein. Lcgen-
dre, Nap., Pelerinageau Pays D'Evangeline.-Ohauveau,
P.-J. 0., Revue Europeenne. P. F., N. L., P. J. 0. 0.,
Bibliographic Revue des livres. P. J. 0. l\. M.-E. M.,
Revue des revues. Documents Inedits. VIII.-Memoi-
re de 1'abbe de I'lsle-Dieu a M. Stanly, 1755, (Suite).
IX. Articles de soumission des Acadiens, 1760. X.
Lottres de M. 1'abbe Maillard, missioiinaire en Acadie,
1735-1738. XI. Journal historique du voyage de la
flotte commandee par M. le Due d'Enville, et partie
pour le Canada le 20 juin 1746.
REVUE CRITIQUE, No. 8. Camus, G., Precetti di
rettorica scritti per Enrico III re di Francia (Ch. J.).
Les grands ecrivains fran$aits: Bolisshr, G., Mme de
Sevignc; Sortl, A., Montesquieu ; hay, L., Turgot;
Uaro, E., George Sand; Simon, J., Victor Cousin (F.
I Hemon). NO. 9. Gaste, A., Olivier Basselin et Le
I Vau de Vire (A. Delboulle). Von M'cllen, Altx., Der
I aegyptische Joseph 1111 Drama des XVI. Jnhrhuuderta
(A.O.). NO. II. Joiisson, Kiiinur, Edua bnorra Stur-
lusonar. 111. ((J.). AJbuni paleograpliiiiue ou recneil
de documents iiuportants (A. Molinier). Catalogue
des livres oomposant la bibliotluque de feu >l. If
baron James ue Rothsehild. Tome second. (T. de
L.). kothler, R., Herders LegenUen (Ch. J.). No.
12. Hemon, F., Theatre de P. Corneille (A. Del-
Uoulle). Catalogue Rothschild (H. Cordier). No. 13.
Wlez, Kr., Etymologisclies WOrterbucli. schtKi-, .1.,
Dictionnaire d'etyniologie t'runeaisu '(A. D.). Vau-
tliUr, U., Essai sur la Vie et les Oeuvres de N IK.HIII-
cene Lemercier (A . R belliau). This, ('., Die deutsch-
frttnzOalsehe Spraehgrenxe im Elsas^ (1;.). No. 14.
onway, H. 8., Verner's Law in Italy ; oerKe, V'.,
Die Itdlisohen Sprauhen (V. Henry). I'rndel, Ch.,
Notice sur la vie du poete Kancliiii (l.iKi-1*)!)^) ( T. de
I'-)- No. IS.karoi-iie, t'., Le Franvais et le.-piit
d'analyse (Ch. J.). Krnault, E., Le mystere de Sainte-
Barbe (H. d'Arbois de Jubainville). No. 17. t^ode-
froy, F., La lettre O du Dictionnaire I.A. J<iciues).
Kurschner, J., DeutsclMj National-Litfratur (vols. 81-
SW). (A. Chuquet). NO. 18. I'anius, G., L'opera Sah'i-
nitana "Circa instaus " ed il testo primitiyo del
"(irunt herbier en fran^ays" (A. Bo-). UUHge, H.,
Courtilz de Sandras una die Anffinge des Men-uiv
historique et politique (Ch. J.). Arnuudlu, F., Conies
populairca grand-landais (ti. Oaldoz). NO. 19.
\iniht, J. B. et C'hubaneaii (.. Deux n;anusi-rits I.K>-
\enyaux du XIN'e bit-clo (T. de L.). lajbcrt, Krd., De
la iMononciation en Franc au XVIe siecle et du livrc
de Thurof, intitule De la prononciation franvaisc ( A.
D.). Clan, N,, Un epiaodio-delld storia della censura
in Italia nel sec. XVI. L'edizione spurgata del C<)rtc-
giano. (P. tie Nolhac). Le in nil re, J., IinpreabJoos de
th atre 1. (K. Hemon). 8tt cher, J., Histoire dc la
1 it tc rat ure n^erlandttlse en Belgique (A.
208
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Italtimorc, November. 1 8HH.
GLISH
/. Rosens ' Orlando Furtoso.'
The Italians have complete Rimari, or
Rime Indexes, of their leading poets, such as
DANTK, PETRARCH, ARIOSTO and TASSO.
These Indexes servr many useful purposes,
and take their place with poetical lexicons
and concordances. In the early stages of a
language, rimes, of whatever kind, either
repose upon etymological kinship or inflex-
ional similarity, or else are largely fortuitous.
A happy union of sense and sound is immedi-
ately consecrated to mnemonic and poetic
uses, and becomes a recurrent phrase, the type
and nucleus of many others.
These are employed at first by popular
poets, and then by conscious artists. Mean-
while the resources and the flexibility of the
language grow. The riming possibilities are
largely, though never indefinitely, extended.
New words are added, and words dissimilar
in sound become assimilated, yet in every
direction there are limits, in some cases
ampler, in others narrower. Within the
ampler limits most of the riming work must
be done, and every effort is made to wed the
sense of words which at first appear to have
nothing in common save their resemblance in
sound. The language must needs become
plastic in order to endure the strain which is
now put upon it. Old words are used in new
senses, figurative uses multiply, unsuspected
adaptabilities of words to each other are re-
vealed, and unsuspected modes of combination
are discovered. Where the limits are narrow-
er the struggle is still more intense. The lan-
guage is ransacked for words as yet unthought
of. Dialects are made to yield up their spoils.
Words are put upon the rack, and tortured to
reveal their secret, and fitted on Procrustean
beds, happy if they may retain their original
proportion:..
Poets make experiments which their succes-
sors find too daring, and their apparent con-
quests, held by too slight a tenure, are aban-
doned.
If these artist3 find their material too refrac-
tory, they admit false rimes, which the next
generation, encountering the same difficulties,
d s|x-r;it( ly sanctions. Thus riming conven-
tions arisr. A word like flight suggests heig ht
and sight, and the rimes of a triplet are thus
pn>\ i<U-d. So knight might suggest fight ?ai&
might. Such triplet or quatrain rimes are
adopted by other poets, with or without mod-
ification. According as there is or is not a
disposition to modify and extend, there are two
schools of rimers. The coaservative rimer
accepts combinations as he finds them, em-
ploys the old, recurrent, familiar jingles, and
spends his strength upon other portions of his
task. The innovator is likely to be a great, fe-
cund, untrammeled spirit, throwing ofl" rimes,
good and bad, in careless profusion, or else a
devotee of art for art's sake, whose whole
study is form. Only exceptionally is a riming
innovator at once a great and a thoroughly
artistic poet. This constant experimenting
and fashioning steadily augments the re-
sources of the language. Its general plasticity
and the actual scope and richness of its rime-
system may, as in the case of the English, go
hand in hand. A cross-section through the
riming product of a given author or century
may afford an indication of the poetic fertility
and chastened sense of form which are there
displayed. An abundance of false and dis-
sonant attempts at rime will signify barrenness
or undisciplined faculty. Smooth harmonies
upon a few chords will point to great dexterity
of handling, but not to the presence of ele-
mental volcanic forces, struggling for utter-
ance at whatever cost. Novel, varied, and
entirely satisfying effects imply that the world
is enriched by another genius or a very high
order of talent.
These considerations have impelled me to
record some observations upon the rimes em-
ployed by ROSE, the friend of SCOTT and trans-
lator of ARIOSTO. Were ROSE'S version bold
and commonplace, the selection of it might
well be obnoxious to criticism. But it is gen-
erally conceded, I believe, that his merits as a
translator are very great. Soon after the pub-
lication of his first volume, BlackwoocTs
Magazine (xv, 418) said : "We believe it will
209
4T9
November. MODERN LANG UA GE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
420
be considered as, on the whole, the best poet-
ical translation in our language." And again :
' ' A specimen of the before unsuspected variety
and flexibility of our poetical language, inde-
pendently of all those monstrous and bar-
barous innovations in which too many of our
most popular poets have ventured to indulge."
It is this first volume, together with the first
twenty-one stanzas of the second, that I have
chosen for this examination. The first volume
contains six cantos and 479 stanzas. These
500 stanzas in the octave measure will yield
looo triplet rimes. To these I have confined
myself, neglecting the final couplets. It will
readily be seen that the selection of this num-
ber facilitates the calculation of percentages,
while affording a sufficiently- wide basis for
some interesting inductions.
In 500 stanzas, 140 different riming sounds
are employed, so that an average of more than
seven triplets are constructed on each riming
sound,
On eighteen riming sounds more than 500
triplets are framed, and on seven riming
sounds more than 250. Double rimes occur in
only twenty triplets. The long-vowel sounds
are preferred, especially a, e, I, d, do, on, and
the first four of these vowels as modified by a
following r; 143 triplets are formed on these
four vowel sounds as finals, that is, followed
by no consonant. Of short vowels, seems to
be most in request, especially in -est, -ed, and
-ent.
No appreciable distinction appears to be
made between do and u in riming ; the same
triplet will frequently contain both sounds.
Only 83.3 per cent (or, if doubtful false rimes
are included 84.2 per cent) of the whole are
absolutely perfect rimes.
In 5.7 per cent a fully stressed syllable
rimes with one or more syllables having a
secondary stress, or the riming syllables have
all secondary stress ; in other words, monosyl-
lables rime with trisyllables (exceptionally
tetrasyllables), or trisyllables with each other.
Three and one-tenth per cent of the triplets
contain the same syllable repeated, either (a) as
a monosyllable of the same form and the same,
or different meaning, (b) as a monosyllable of
the same sound but of different form and
meaning, (r) as the second syllable of a poly-
syllabic word, the original syllable being a
monosyllable, (rf)as the second syllable of a
dissyllabic word in two instances, or (e) as the
second syllable of a word dissyllabic in sound
alone.
In 5 per cent of the triplets, a word is
mispronounced for the sake of the rime.
In 6.7 per cent the rimes are merely rimes
to the eye, or are otherwise inaccurate. In
two instances there is, apparently, no pretence
at riming, viz.,
mi tied: bestride: find
line : came : dame
and in another (end of Canto VI) a line is
wanting, and the triplet therefore stands :
paid: arraid:
The slight discrepancy between the sum of
the percentages and the number TOO is due to
the fact that in two instances the same triplet
rime is repeated in different categories.
In the General List each word stands as the
type of a riming sound ; thus knight is the
type of the riming sound -ite ; day the type of
-ay, etc. The General List includes all the
subsequent categories except that of False
Rimes.
Where pronunciations are indicated it is
done but roughly, and for purposes of identifi-
cation only. Any attempt to be exact would
have required an extensive use of diacritical
marks.
General List.
1. knight
2. see
3- day
4. fear
5- foil"
6. foe
7. rest
8. sped
9. who
10. side
11. nigh
12. maid
13. bore
14. dame
15. wise
16. grace
17. bent
49-
4 8.
4i.
36-
32.
3i-
29-
28.
26.
23-
22.
21.
2O.
19-
18. rain
19. speed
20. bound
21. beat
22. glows
23. land
24. skill
25. brought
26. ring
27. sell
28. find
29. date
30. heart
31. lord
32. fire
33. friends
34. gale
18.
16.
14.
12.
II.
IO.
9-
8.
7-
6.
421
Novtmbtr, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
432
GENERAL LIST. (CONTINUED).
Principal Stress with Secondary Stress.
35. hears
88. lu-irs
e are arranged in the order of the
36. bend
f- 89. blamed
words in the main list. Only one instance of
37- zeal
6.
90. snared
each set occurs, except where a number is
38. tone
91. calls
noted, and then the illustration stands for the
39- sort
92. blazed
type.
40. deep
93. please
(a), bright, chrysolite, fight.
41. heard
5- 94. s;u ks
(b). be, see, chivalry, (16).
42. bold
95. France
he, readily, faculty, (12).
43. hour
96. shape
enmity, cruelty, jeopardy. (4).
44. birth
97. hands
(c). crest, manifest, rest.
45- root
98. gained
(d). descried, signified, spied.
46. mood
99. fact
(e). try, die, verify,
47- riRe
loo. back
testify, eye, reply.
48. gaze
4 101. charms
(f). cries, flies, recognize.
49. horse
102. task
(g). bent, spent, banishment,
50. bruise
103. cost
innocent, intent, fraudulent.
51. wings
104. done
(h). strain, vain, Sericane,
52. queen
105. world
Sericane, domain, pain,
53. shield
106. turn
reign, pain, Charlemagne,
54. shun
107. trust
plain, Charlemagne, plain.
55. doom
108. scout
(i). sfill, will, Logistil.
56. brave
109. chin
(j). ring, following, bring. (6).
57- fling
no. rides
(k). bonnibel, sell, rebel,
58. press
ill. theft
Pinabel, cell, fell.
59. met
112. took
(1). twine, Ghibelline, sign.
60. sure
113. wrong
(m). foal, goal, caracole.
61. line
114. bruits
i.
(n). Sacripant, Levant, Bradamant,
62. last
3- 115. time
Agramant, Agolant, plant.
63. call
116. child
Riming Syllables Repeated.
64. theme
117. miles
(a), rest, west, rest,
65. make
118. spouse
knight, light, light,
66. learned
119. crown
rose, shows, shows,
67. wit
120. lips
plain, Charlemagne, plain.
68. horn
121. flock
(b). way, pray, weigh,
69. extended
122. peace
high, die, hie,
70. inclination .
123. weeps
threw, renew, through,
71. closed
124. brink
grown, bone, groan,
72. pole
125. pearl
seen, scene, queen,
73. pains
126. road
sea, fidelity, see.
74. man
127. effect
(c). tide, divide, eventide,
75. storm
128. narrates
side, beside, pride,
76. den
129. retorts
avows, spouse, vows (or f),
77. plant
130. degrees
depart, heart, part,
78. smile
131. rages
impart, part, heart,
79. bark
* 2. 132. sally
part, impart, heart,
80. speech
133. carry
impart, part, art,
81. beams
134. sabre
upturned, burned, turned,
82. road
135. tiding
steed, deed, misdeed,
83. shot
136. prizes
boy, enjoy, joy,
84. joy
137. wonder
impressed, pressed, best.
85. affection
138. petition
(d). applied, replied, aside,
86. pleasure
139. lamented
replied, complied, tried,
87. first 140. possession
avail, prevail, mail.
423
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
424
(e). say, assay, sway,
assay, way, say,
bright, knight, unite,
veil, avail, scale,
bruise, eschews, choose,
feuds, embrued, brewed,
bends, descends, sends.
Mispronunciations.
he, company, Circassy,
shew, due, view,
pressed, Este, best,
gain, Castellain, stain,
bit, sit, hermaphrodit.
False Rimes.
i. Rimes to the eye.
uv, uv, ddv, (5).
love, above, remove,
above, prove, love, (2).
move, love, above,
above, move, love.
ddv, ddv, uv, (i).
move, prove, love.
odd, odd, ud, (2).
stood, wood, blood,
stood, blood, wood.
ddd, ddd, odd, (i).
mood, wood, stood.
ud, ud, odd, (i).
blood, flood, mood.
ud, ud, ood, (i).
blood, good, flood.
ain, ain, en (or ain),
vain, again, plain,
pain, plain, again,
strain, again, reign,
again, rein, vein.
aid, aid, ed, (2).
said, aid, blade,
blade, laid, said.
ize, Ize, unstressed eeze, (i).
wise, skies, destinies.
ite, lie, unstressed it (spelled ite), (i).
right, fight, opposite.
own, own, oan, (3).
renown, crown, own,
drown, shown, crown,
alone, gown, town.
ar, ar, or, (i).
car, star, war.
i, I, unstressed ee, (9).
prodigy, I, reply,
eye, nigh, sorcery,
i, die, severity,
family, sky, eye,
ply, wrongfully, lie,
symmetry, eye, die,
eye, sky, alchemy,
sky, eye, Camaldoli,
eye, nobility, lie.
unstressed ee : unstressed ee, i, (2).
agony, nigh, insanity,
balcony, happily, I.
Unclassified Rimes.
odd, dod, odd, (i).
wooed, rude, could.
odd, ddd, ddd, (i).
pursued, good, understood.
ddd, ud, odd, (i).
good, blood, pursued.
air, air, ur (or air), (5).
share, heir, were,
were, repair, bear,
care, share, were,
were, care, bear,
pair, were, air.
ore, ore, oor, (4).
pore, Moor, shore,
bore, sore, Moor,
Moor, lore, before,
bore, Moor, before.
oan, oan, on, (i).
grown, gone, own.
oan, oan, un, (i).
overblown, done, moan.
un, un, oan, (i).
alone, sun, won.
oan, un, on, (i).
unknown, done, gone.
un, un, on,- (3).
won, none, upon,
done, upon, sun,
foregone, done, son.
d, d, ow, (i).
brow, flow, below,
know, how, bestow.
airs, airs, ears, (2).
fares, bears, uprears,
prepares, ears, wears.
425
Novftnoer. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
436
ear, ear, air, (i).
deer, tear, fear.
tars, fars, airs, (i).
tears, cares, fears.
ffd, fed, fd, (i).
need, indeed, stead.
air, air, ar, (i).
heir, are, rare.
urned, urned, orned, (i).
mourned, returned, discerned.
antes, antes, urns, (i).
roams, foams, comes.
ung, ung, ong, (i).
sprung, flung, throng.
ount, ount, unt, (i).
fount, front, mount.
;</, urd, ard, (i).
heard, preferred, reward.
own, own, unstressed on, (i).
town, crown, gonfalon.
ante, dme, bom, (i).
home, foam, gloom.
ong, ong, ung, (i).
song, long, among.
ord, ord : unstressed ord or ard, (i).
accord, lord, Paris-ward.
uzf, uze, ooce, (i).
use, pursues, truce.
eeth, eeth, fethf, (i).
sheath, beneath, seethe.
ine, me, oin, (i).
join, line, design.
ide, Ide, igned, (i).
untied, bestride, find.
aim, aim, Ine, (i).
line, cane, dane.
aid, aid, , (i).
paid, arraid, .
University of California.
A. S. COOK.
THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION
IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES.
V.
The nature of the examples considered up
to the present time has been such that the
action of the dependent verb (gerund or infini-
tive) was performed by a subject in the nomi-
native case. This necessarily followed from
the fact that the dependent was joim <I to a
finite verb, tin- latt-r serving sometimes a* a
mere copula between the subject and the sue-
ceeding verb, the former at other times deter-
mining the modality of the action of the latter.
Considering the origin of the gerund, this last
must have been its earlier function ; since being
virtually a noun in an oblique case, it must
necessarily at first have expressed adverbial
relations. Gradually it rose, so to speak, in
dignity and, from the office of a simple modi-
fier, it became the principle word in the
sentence the predicate. II s'en vait corant,
he goes away running(ly) ; where corant points
out the manner of going away ; but il vait me
disant, he is in the act of telling me, or simply,
he tells me.
The cases now to be considered belong to a
different category, in so far that the action of
the gerund (or infinitive where it can be used)
is performed by an agent in an oblique case,
which case is the regime of a verb in a personal
mood. Constructions of this kind occur with
words signifying lofind, to see, toJiear, lofeel,
to perceive, etc., and with/a>r in the sense of
to cause (to do anything), altho' some special
remarks will be called for when we come to
speak of faire as so used. The Romance
languages did not originate this construction
for themselves. It was common in the classi-
cal languages to construct the present partici-
ple and infinitive with words of similar import.
It seems to be a principle of syntax applicable
to most languagues. The distinction between
gerund and infinitive, when so constructed,
is in general terms this : the gerund indicates
the progress of an action into which that of the
finite verb falls and always begins before,
and usually continues after, the completion of
this verb; while the infinitive, in such cases as
it can be employed in, expresses an action, of
which the speaker perceives the beginning and
the end. Logically this could only hold good
of past completed and future time. The use
of the infinitive with the present tense is incon-
sistent a contradiction in terms except to
designate habitual action. For instance, we
should say in English ; I saw him go into the
house ; whereby I should mean : ist, that I saw
213
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November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
428
him complete the action ; ad, that I saw him
performing an act which he began before I
looked and may have continued after I turned
away ; but for the present : I see him going in-
to the house, only ; since, I see him go into the
house, can only be said of a habit or an action
indefinitely repeated and would usually be
accompanied by an adverb indicating the
habit, etc ; as, I see him go into the house
every day. However, here, as in other things,
what ought to be is at variance with what
actually is, and we find a great freedom in the
use of the infinitive. Indeed, with the excep-
tion of to find (meet, come, upon, etc.), the in-
finitive (or some other construction) has gen-
erally usurped, in the modern languages, the
place of the gerund, and is used to express both
completed and continued action, according to
the construction of the sentence.
Trouver.
Ses maisuns truva arses e ses viles ardant,
E un suen fils truva mort en biere gisant,
E sa femme e sa gent merveillus duel faisant.
Roman de Ron, 4104.
Vint milie chevaliers i troverent scant,
E sunt vestut de palies e de hermines blans.
Voyage de Charlemagne, 267.
Les enfans trueve gisanz soz la valee,
En scant ierent, s'ont grant joie menee.
Amis et Amiles.
Le maillet troverent pendant
A la port par de devant.
Le Pelerinage Renart, 93.
E quand venc un dia, Raimons de Castel
Rosillon trobet passan Guillem de Cabestaing.
Bib. derTroub., IX.
This construction is still preserved, in all its
freedom, in the modern language :
Linus venant du ciel sur Pegase, au relai,
Trouve votre sorci're enfourchant son balai.
V. Hugo, Religions et Religion, p. 33.
L'abb6 alia rejoindre Jeanne et Gabriel,
qu'il trouva se promenant avec tristesse dans
le pare du chateau.
Alce'e Fortier, Gabriel d'Ennerich, p. 23.
It is, moreover, common to the whole group of
Romance tongues, as may be illustrated by
the 46th verse of the 24th chapter of Matthew,
which has been rendered by them all in the
same manner.
Heureux ce serviteur que son maitre trou-
vera faisant ainsi quand il arrivera.
Beato quel servitore, il quale il suo signore,
quando egli verra, trover^ facendo cosi.
Bienaventurado aquel siervo, alcual, cuan-
do su Senor viniere, le hallare haciendo asi.
Bienaventurado aquelle servo, ao qual,
quando seu Senhor vier, o achar fazendo
assim.
Fericitti este servulti acela, pre care, venindti
dominultt sen, 'Iti va afla facendtt asa.
Luther translated here by the infinitive with-
out any apparent reason, as it was departing
from the Greek (Sv cASwr xvptof avruv
f.v/j?'/(3i ovrcrif TToKvrra), and we find him
using the participle with finden in Marc XIII,
36 : auf dass er nicht schnell komme und finde
euch schlafend. The infinitive is not admissi-
ble in the Romanic languages, as far as my
observation goes, but is still current in Ger-
man, its use depending upon certain condi-
tions, the discussion of which would be out of
place here.
Ouir (entendre).
The gerund or infinitive is indifferently used
without any appreciable distinction.
Examples :
Fors fut la no\se etla bataille grans
Et li hustins mervillous et pesans,
N'i oissiez nes damedeu tonnant.
Ch. de Gibert de Metz (Rom. St. I, 464).
Nus tut 90 veimes ke m'o"z recuntant.
Vie d S. Auban, 1184.
Et frainte d'armes i avait par tout, que Ten
n'oi'st mie Dieu tonant.
Tr. de Guil. de Tyr, Liv. iv.
Li arcevesque les ot contrarier.
Ch. de Roland, 1737.
Illoec m'assis pour escouter
Deus dames que j'oi parler.
Flore et Blanceflor, 44.
Car adonc aguera om ausit les sens et campanas
sonar al repiquet.
Ch. de la Croisade d'Albigeois.
" Summae Deus clementiae," nel seno
Del grand' ardore allora-udi" cantanoo.
Dante, Purg. XXV, 122.
E degli uccelli le diverse e tante
Odo voci cantar dolci e gioconde.
Vitt. Colonna.
Le oigo hablando con un hombre desconocido.
Sauer's Gram, espagnole.
AstfeluT aucH pero tehiCra cochetS parisiana
cjicencl ca a primiit un puiti de gSina.
V. Alecsandri.
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November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. ^.
43P
The Wallachian excepted, the modern lan-
guages seem to avoid the gerund with words
signifying to hear, and the infinitive or a rela-
tive < Inusr is used instead. The two following
examples with entendre, which now usually
takes the place of the obsolescent ouir, will
serve to illustrate the use of the infinitive to
express completed or progressive action.
J'ai entendu le rossignolet chanter dans son
langage. Romania, IX, 565.
Mais tout e tail. Je n'entends ricn venir.
V. Hugo, Hernani.
It is not pretended, of course, that entendre
is not constructed with the gerund ; yet it
does not seem possible to lay down a rule for
its use. Judging from this sentence : Enten-
dons maintenant Alcuin signalant a Charle-
magne les me'mes abus (Haure*au), we might
probably apply to entendre what further on is
said of voir.
Ecouter.
On e*coutait avec plaisir les jongleurs chan-
tant les jestes des anciens.
Paulin Paris, Preface to Guil. de Tyr.
Voir (with the gerund).
Jeo vi, dist il, une mult bcle
Par desus les ewes montant.
Guil. le Clerc de Normandie.
Quant le virent en Pair salant.
Bauduin de Sebourc, B. 397, 8.
Quant li sires le vit venant,
Si le salua maintenant
Li Contes del Graal, B. 166, 17.
Jeu vos vigui entre los layors penden
On vos fazian trops grans escarnimens.
Plainte de Notre Dame, 58.
E vidi spirti per la fiamina andando.
Dante, Purg. XXV., 124.
Vido al conde paseando
Y estas palabras le ha dicho.
Rom. delCid(Voegelin).
Diego. ; Que viste T
Sancho. Al gran Fernando,
Mi vida con mi muerte amenazando.
G. de Castro, Moc. del Cid, Pt. seg. I, 4.
Como vereis o mar fervendo acceso
Co' os incendios dos vossos pelejando.
<)s I .us. II, 54 (also 1 1. 68).
Cine m'ar videa cutrierAnd orasul cu valiza
pe spinare, ar cuteza porte a crede cJi slnt
vagabond ?
V. Alecsandri, Hatmana.
Voir (with the infinitive).
Quant ele venir M le voit.
Tanioi arrlere i'n retoroc.
Fabliau de Perdrit, B. 9 j, 14-
donde il mania partilU,
Vedendo di lonuno fumar le vllle.
Giutto d*' Contc Romano.
Ver.lt dctpuet Us potencia*
If vaJieodo....
Juan Rule.
o grfto Thebano
Olliando o ajuntamento Luciuno
Ai mouro er moletto e aborrecido.
O Lut. I, 73.
Occasionally both constructions are found
in the same sentence :
Mult veiisiez fortnant iir aronez Nortnanz
Querre turneiemeni e juste demandanz.
Roman de Row, 3357.
Ed al nome dell* alto Maccabeo
Vidi rauoveni un altro roteando.
Dante, Pur. XVIII, 41.
E quand' eo veggio li altri cavalieri
Arme portare e d'amore parlando.
Folcacchiero de' Folcaccbieri.
The infinitive is much the more common,
even where the gerund would be more logical.
This is especially true of the Old French. It
would be but reasonable, for instance, to ex-
pect gisant in the quotation from Guillaume
d 'Orange (B. 65, 18):
Vivien vit gesir desoz un guet
Desoz un abre qu'est foillus et ramez.
For Guillaume did not see Vivien lie down
but saw him already in that posture (lying), as
any other man would, without doubt, have
been who had had his body pierced with fifteen
wounds, from any one of which (the old
romancer naively adds) an emir would have
died.
What was said with reference to the current
construction with verbs signifying to hear,
holds, with some little modification, of verbs
meaning to see.
The Wallachian, which is generally more
varied in its syntax than the other members of
its group, makes very free use of the gerund.
Of thirty odd instances noted in the Bible, the
Italian, Spanish and Portuguese translate by
the infinitive or a relative clause, while the
Wallachian invariably employs the gerund.
This is strictly in accordance with the rule laid
down by the grammarians the Italian gerund
215
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November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
432
being excluded by the grammatical dictum,
that the gerund should always refer to the sub-
ject ; while for the Portuguese and Spanish the
infinitive is to be preferred (unless the idea of
duration is to be made very prominent), and
always where the principle verb is in a past
tense or the object is a noun. The Wallachian,
however, is not trammeled by any such restric-
tions, provided the thought is clearly ex-
pressed. It is this latter point which deter-
mines, to a great extent, the syntax of the ger-
und in all these languages. The Italian has
probably not gained anything by its rigorous
exactness. In such cases as those cited from
the Divina Commedia and in the one follow-
ing, from Vittoria Colonna, there could be no
possible misunderstanding and, consequently,
there is no good reason why the construction
should have fallen under the ban of the gram-
marian.
Ed a mirar i lor piTi cari armenti
Pascendo insieme far piacevol guerra.
It must be admitted, however, that the rule
often prevents ambiguity in a very neat way.
Separated from its context, the following stanza
from Metastasio's canzonetta, La Potenza,
might present some difficulty, since giungendo
could logically be taken either with quanti or
with the subject of vedrai. The possible mis-
understanding is obviated by applying the rule.
Quanti vedrai giungendo
Al nuovo tuo soggiorno,
Quanti venirti intorno
A offrirti amore e fe.
The same ambiguity is avoided in :
Ch'amor quest' occhi lagrimando chuida.
Petrarca.
The French easily evades the difficulty by
the use of en before the gerund : En arrivant
a ton nouveau sejour combien de personnes tu
verras &c. En with the gerund always express-
ing adverbial relations, it can never take the
place of an adjective clause and must conse-
quently affect the action of the principal verb
and not its object.
At the . present day the construction in
French with verbs of seeing and synonymous
import is dependent upon conditions more
easily felt than defined. It would be rash to
make the rule a general one ; because this
would leave full scope for a promiscuous use
of the gerund, which would not coincide with
practice. I believe that a rule formulated
somewhat as follows would serve as a pretty
safe guide : namely, the gerund occurs more
frequentlywith a verb in a past tense and that
in any case it should have an object or some
phrase to modify its action.
J'ai vu les vents grondant sur les moissons
superbes.
Delille.
Les moines et les pre"tendus savants ne
virent dans cet obscur Stranger qu'un aventu-
rier cherchant fortune de ses chimdres.
Lamartine.
Us en e"taient la quand des paysans les aper-
curent marchant c5te a cSte dans 1'enclos.
Saintine.
Je les vois cherchant a deviner des e"nigmes
sans mots et je les aide a s'embrouiller.
George Sand.
Je me de"fie de la dialectique, quand je vois
1'esprit humain tournant sur lui-meme.
Nisard.
La famille en palit et vit en fr^missant
Dans la poudre du greffe un polte naissant
Boileau.
II contemplait la forme svelte et e"le"gante
de la jeune fille traversant la cour au bras du
docteur.
X. de Monte"pin.
Je t'ai vu la griffonant sur ton genou et
chantant ds le matin.
Beaumarchais.
Sentir.
The construction of this verb, which falls
tinder the same rubric as other verbs of per-
ception, has been noted in a few instances ;
but considered either with reference to modern
or early usage, it does not call for any special
discussion which has not already been covered
by the remarks on other verbs of this class.
We need to stop, therefore, to notice only a
few examples.
Quant il nous senti venans, il toucha en fuie.
Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. c.
Voltando sentirei le gio.stre grame.
Dante, Purg. XYII, 42.
Y que con el deseo agonizando
Morir me siento de la misma snerte.
Anonymous, isth Cent.
And in the modern languages :
Mais il la senlit menteuse, incapable de se
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November.
LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
434
r, se donnant aux amis, aux passants, en
bom; ais c-lu-ini
Zola.Nana, p. 474.
I .a |>auvii- femme M si-ntit litteralement
inourir.
X. de Monte"pin.
Kpopea nella quale si sente palpitareil cuore
di tutto un popolo.
Nuovu Antologia, Sec. Ser. XXIV, 385,
Faire.
Our attention will now be claimed by faire,
which occurs with verbals in -ant, and which,
as already observed, requires special consid-
eration. It may be stated at the outset that
this construction has been found only in early
French and Provencal and is probably pecu-
liar to these languages. And again, its total
absence from some authors is somewhat re-
markable; while others use it only with en-
tcndant, which usually, tho' not always, may
be translated by the passive voice. This fact,
together with the observation that certain
combinations of the -ant forms with the pre-
positions d, de, par, etc, were also susceptible
of a passive rendering, attracted my attention
quite early in my researches and led me to
conclude that not only the Latin present parti-
ciple and gerund, but also the gerundive (par-
ticiple in -dus) were, in some instances, hidden
under these verbals in -ant; further, that the
construction of the gerund with faire, regard-
ed from the standpoint of its origin, not being
natural, the construction was probably refer-
able to the gerundive; and, finally, that the
fact of its appearing with an active force and
governing a case was effected through analogy
and confusion with the gerund and active par-
ticiple. That is, if what has been assigned as
the probable cause of the inflexion of the
Wallachian gerund be true, it is the same pro-
cess of passing from a passive to an active
meaning. In Merovingian Latin, too, we have
instances in which the passivity of the partici-
ple in -dus was overlooked and it was allowed
to govern a case. In the "Joca monachonnn "
we read : quis asinam persiguendtim renuni
invenet? i. e. quis asinam persequens regnum
invenit? There can be no doubt, I think, that
this is the proper interpretation ; and the case
is not an isolated one ; for in the same collec-
tion is found a similar interchange of functions
"I tin two parts of speech: quis vivindum
sec ulum vicit? Now, whether rnimlinn In-
here construed with quis or stculutn, it has
the same for< e, that tArirens.
Returning now to the |-rench and Proven-
',al, let us illustrate what h.is been said by
analyzing a few sentences.
Aim! li foil la vielle enundanl la (avele.
Hcrte au* Grans Vitt, 9079.
Et ces choses vous rementoif-je pour vous
faire entendant aucune chose qui offierent a
ma matiere.
Joinville, S. Louis, ch. XL.
I.i in the first of these examples is a dative,
and vous, in the second, may be so taken like-
wise ; and they might be turned into Latin,
root for root, in this way :
Illi facit vetula intendendam fabulam ; and
vobis facere intendendas aliquas unas
causas etc.
Hut the Latin gerundive comes out much
plainer in cases where a preposition is used
with the verbal in -ant.
Des qu'a I'eue de Diepe nus irum esluignant,
Mais jeo ferrai anceis a cele eue passant.
Roman de Rou, 3806.
That is : ad (ab)ecce-illam aquam passandam.
Sire, on me fait a entendant (ad intendeh-
dum) que vous aye's une fille &c.
Henri de Valenciennes, ch. IX.
If, in the following example from the Trans-
lation of Guillaume de Tyr, le is to be taken
for an accusative, as the form usually is, en-
tendant is then active.
Mes cil arnons le decent trop malement, qui
entendant le fit que il serait patriarches.*
Other similar constructions are not infre-
The admission of the gerundive in early French offers a
satisfactory explanation of the construction in Tartuffe, I, i,
now a very common expression and one which, tho 1 an erident
difficulty in modern syntax, is passed over in silence by the
grammars.
Et Ton sait qu'elle est prude a son cor/t drfetufant.
By turning this into the Latin : ad suum corpus defenden-
dum, we at once see a reason for the construction and the diffi-
culty vanishes. The expression, therefore, originally meant,
as it still does: en se defendant contre une attaque; the
other meanings now attaching to it, such as, a contre-cccur,
avec repugnance etc., are derivative. The translator of Guil-
laume de Tyr uses an equivalent in Liv. II, ch. a, where in
answer to Godefroiz, the king says :
Si y mcismes la main comme cfforcie', sur nous defendant.
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435
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. -j.
436
quently met, which are capable of being re-
solved into the Latin gerundive, as :
Dont il lessa au roy, par pais faisant (per pa-
cem faciendam) la contee de Augo.
Joinville, ch. XVI.
Et bien voierit ke se il par sens ti par engen
u par treuage donnant (per tributaticum don-
andum) n'entrent en la chite".
Henri de Valenciennes, ch. XVI.
And so in Joinville (ch. CX): par grant tre"u
rendant (per grande tributum reddendum).
Turning now to this sentence from Guil-
laume de Tyr (Liv. XI, ch. 10) :
Et Ceus qui ne s'en voudroient issir fesoient
remanoir seurement en leur teneures par ren-
dant une resnable somme d'avoir, we seethe
construction has either become active or so
ambiguous in point of syntax that it could
hardly fail to be taken as such.
If we compare the above phrases with nu-
merous infinitive constructions, we shall have
an additional proof of a phenomenon already
discussed at some length, namely, the con-
stant interchange of verbals in -ant with the in-
finitives, without any apparent difference in
meaning or function. In VILLE-HARDOUIN
we have many instances of the construction
in question.
Et mistrent grant paine a la ville prendre,
(ch. XCI), which is evidently represented by
the Latin, ad villam prehendendam. And so
in ch. XII : mais nos ne somes mie tant de
gent que par nos passage paier poons les lor
attendre a construction, which, in the pas-
sages above cited from Joinville and Henri de
Valenciennes, we found explicable by a parti-
ciple derived from the Latin gerundive or par-
ticiple in -dus.
This will suffice, I think, to show that the
force of the gerundive construction partially,
at least, survived among the early French and
Provencal speaking people and brought about
the construction above canvassed ; altho' it is
more than probable that they were unconscious
of this, owing to the identity of form with the
gerund and present active participle. And it
was likely this identity of form which led to
its being merged into the other verbals in -ant
and apparently becoming active in force.
A few other examples collected, possibly
show this active force a little more clearly
than those already given, and I set them down
here as additional proof.
Car por fol sembleir
Me font cil fauls proiant d'ameir.
Guiot de Provins (Wackernagel XV).
Renarz mist 1'aive sor le feu
Et la fist trestot boillant.
Roman de Renart, B. 209, 9.
E vuelh tenir autre viatge
On restaure so que m'a fag perden.
Cadenet.
Tant estet enviro lo lor assetjamens
Tro grans cocha de fam fetz celz dedins rendens.
Peire de Corbiac, B. 213,23.
Olhs de merce, boca de chanzimen,
Nulhs horn nous ve que nol fassatz jauzen.
Peire Vidal, Song 44 (B.'s ed. 1857).
Not fazas ardit ne prezan
Ne ton cor non aviles tan.
Daude de Pradas, Four card. Virtues (Stickney's ed.).
With the exception of a son corps defendant,
all the constructions noticed under the head-
ing of faire have dropt into desuetude or
shaded off into other constructions still bear-
ing an affinity with the original. A la ville
prendre, for instance, would find its modern
offspring in : a prendre la ville; par pais fai-
sant in : en faisant la paix; and par trevage
donnant in : en donnant (Payanf) le tribut*
The direct objects of the verbs avoir, lais-
*It is proper to state that I was anticipated in the above
explanation by Mr. N . DE WAILLY in his " Memoire sur la lan-
gue de Joinville,'' and that PROF. ADOLF TOBLER (Vermischte
Beitrage zur Franzosischen Grammatik), PAUL KLEMENZ
(Der syntactische Gebrauch des Participium Praesentis und
des Gerundiums im Altfranz "sischen) and others have ex-
pressed their belief in the erroneousness of this theory, but
not, as it seems to me, on sufficient grounds. PROF. TOBLER
bases his objections, in the main, on the fact that 'many cases
of this special -ant construction are no more easily explained
by assuming them to come from the participle in -dus than
from the present activj participle, and further that, where
the accompanying noun is feminine, we should expect-
-endain, -andain to produce -ande and not -ant, the form al-
ways found. As an answer to the latter part of this statement
it is relevant to remark that, as -undo, -endo, -untcnt, -entem,
all through the law of analogy, wore away into-rt/, it hardly
seems a violation of this law, but rather a natural proceeding,
to put -anduin, -andatit, -enduin, -endant, together with their
plural forms, all in the same category, especially as they are
all, to a certain extent, functional equivalents in syntax.
Replying to the first ofToBLER's objections, I will say that I
for my part, in arguing for the gerundive, do not pretend that
its admission will clear away all the difficulties ; my thesis
simply is, that the gerundive, as well as the gerund and
present active participle, was operative in producing the-n/
constructions. As the forms were confused, it is not remark-
able that the syntax should have met with a similar fate.
218
437
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
ser, /,-ttir, xnt-r/>ir and smiu- i>tln rs maybe
.11 . itinpanii-tl l>y tin- vi rl) in -ant to express a
state or condition existing at the time of the
action <it tin principle verb.
Kt le lessierent jjisant sur une table.
Joinville, ch. XXXVIII.
Pur mort le guerpissent en xabelum gisant
Charoinne le tenent fans alnic enfreidissant.
Vie dc S. Auban, 845.
La dame ot lore le cuer joiant.
Flore et Blanceflor, 1065 .
Qu'us fisjois capdel' em nais
Quern te jauzent en gran doussor.
Peire Vidal, Song 22 (B.'s ed. 1857.)
The verbal in -ant is also used after interjec-
tions.
Es-le-vus relevant
E le (lot tut sechi, dunt cist vunt Deu leant.
Vie de S. Auban, 1157.
Ast vus venant de deu fidcil.
Brandan's Voyage, 580 (Rom. St. I. 573).
Es vous par le chemin errant
Mon seignor Renart le goupil.
B. 266, 12.
But here, as in so many other cases, the in-
finitive may likewise be used. The nature of
the interjection places it in the same category
with verbs of seeing, beholding, etc. and of
course the same construction is to be expected
in both cases.
Ves les armes reluire : tons li cuers m'en esclaire.
Jehan Bodel, B. 310, 26.
Ay filh, tan vos vech malmenar.
Plainte de Notre Dame. 40.
SAMUEL GARNER.
Annapolis, Md.
THE VERB to fell.
Whether the economy of our language will
for many more generations continue to demand
an expenditure of effort with large classes of
persons it is an effort of only partial success,
with others the failure is complete for main-
taining in use with proper distinction the
couplets to lie, to fay and to sit, to set, is a
question upon which some may be disposed to
speculate. In the case of to fall, to fell, we
have a somewhat different problem, from the
circumstance of a natural restriction, more or
less complete for common speech, of the use
of tofellto regions of particular industries and
occupations. I should be pleased if some of
the friends of this Journal who may find it con-
venient to make observations in any of the
ive lumber districts of the country, would
n-purt the woodman's use cA to fall wn&to fell,
for I have a suspicion that in some places to fell
has entirely disappeared, leaving to the in-
transitive form the burden of a double service.
This suspicion is based upon my recent obser-
vation in a large axe manufacturing establish-
ment, where I discovered the trade name for
one variety of axes to be the " Falling Pattern
(For Pacific Coast Trade)," and of another the
" Puget Sound Falling Pattern."
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
THE PRONOUNS IN THE OLD DAN-
ISH ' TOBIAE KOMEDIE:
In the MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES for May,
the personal pronouns occurring in the 'Tobiae
Komedie ' were briefly discussed. In the
present paper the rest of the pronouns in that
work will be treated in somewhat the same
way. Many of the pronouns are represented
so incompletely in the text, that it has in some
cases been found inexpedient to treat them in
paradigms. The personal pronouns are the
most complete and satisfactory, and show the
most interesting phonetic changes. Many of
these might profitably be compared with cor-
responding forms in Anglo-Saxon and Early
English, but that study must be reserved for
later treatment by itself. For a consideration
of the earlier forms of hand and hun reference
may be made to O. KALKAR'S 'Ordbog,' the
.last issue of which almost completes the letter
h. In the present paper this valuable diction-
ary has occasionally been used to explain the
derivation of some of the pronominal forms,
especially of the indefinites.
The worker in the Old Danish field constant-
ly finds himself hampered by the want of a
grammar. The paradigms have never been
systematically developed, and the difficulties
in the way of any comparative work are in-
creased greatly by the lack of a complete
dictionary. When KALKAR'S dictionary is
finished the task will be very much lightened.
The scope of the present paper and of the pre-
ceding one is necessarily limited, since only
one text is studied, and the results are not to
be regarded as explaining thoroughly the
219
439
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
440
state of the language at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. It is, however, interest-
ing to be able to compare, even cursorily, the
development of the Danish inflections with
those of English, and by so doing we may be
led perhaps to a somewhat clearer understand-
ing of the way in which our language was
affected in its earlier stages by the Scandi-
navian. One cannot but be struck by the
many curious resemblances between Danish
and English, in the development not only of
the inflections but also, in no small degree, of
the syntax. In the gradual wearing away of
the forms and in the order of words in the
sentence the two languages are, indeed, close-
ly related. It is characteristic, too, that, just
as English grammar received but slight acces-
sions from the other tongues that at different
periods had exercised so strong an influence
upon the vocabulary, so Danish grammar was
but slightly affected by the German, from
which so large a proportion of its word-store
is formed. It is with an ulterior purpose,
therefore, that this seemingly trivial study of
the Old Danish pronominal forms is pursued.
Let us now take up in turn the remaining pro-
nominal forms, beginning with the possessive.
The possessives occurring in our text are :
min, my ; din, thy ; sin, his ; vor, ours ; and
eder, yours. By comparison with Icelandic,
we see that these forms must be derived from
the genitives of the corresponding personal
pronouns, which do not occur in our text.
Min occurs unchanged in the singular, both
masculine and feminine, as follows: mascul.,
nom. [9. 7], dat. [40. 18], ace. [41. 14] ; femin.,
nom. [12. i]. T.he gen., masc. and fern., and
the nom. and dat. fern., do not occur. In the
neuter singular the same form occurs under
different spellings : nom. init [38. 12], ace.
mitt [16. 6] and mytt [u. 12]. In the plural
the only form that occurs is mine, once each
as nom. [47. 21] and ace. [39. 4.]. Din is
declined like min, with the exception of dit
[92. 20], which in the MS. appears as did. In
the sing, we find the nom. [10. 18], dat. [41.10),
and ace. [56. 13], and in the plural the nom.
[n. 22]. Of the 3rd person sin we find the
singular forms masc. ace. sin [5. 20], dat. siin
[5- S]> a "d neuter dat. sit [45. ii]. Vor ap-
pears unchanged in all the forms of the masc.
and fern. sing, that occur. Masc. nom. [35.
14], dat. [58. 18] and ace. [29. 12], fem. nom.
[35- J 9]- I" the plural, vor [70. 5] "occurs as
nom., vore [6. 4] as dat., and voris [20. 16] as
ace. For the neuter, the only form that oc-
curs is vortt [76. 22]. Only two examples
occur of eder: masc. ace. eders [78. 8] and
fem. ace. eder [34. 13],
Note i. The possessives in this period of
Old Danish show remarkably few changes
from the older forms. In the ist person
plural we may notice the use of 0. which in
Icelandic occurs often side by side with a.
Note 2. The distinction between the masc.
and the fem., still preserved in the personal
pronoun, is now lost, and the common gender
of Modern Danish takes its place.
The reflexive of the 3rd person, which
should have been included in the preceding
article, is sig [5. 14]. It shows the same
change of k<g, as the first personal pronoun.
The demonstratives are denne, that ; dissc,
this; and saadan [56. 17], such. In the sing.
denne occurs unchanged, nom. [40. 20], dat.
[40. 23], and ace. [41. i]. In the plural we
find dat. dennem [57. 4] and ace. dennem [59.
19]. The nom. dett [78. 22], dat. dette [46. 14],
and ace. dette [46. 10], all in the singular, are
the only forms of the neuter that occur.
Disse appears unchanged in the ace. sing.
[32. 5], and the ace. plural [61. 20].
The demonstrative corresponding to the
Old Norse sa appears in only few forms :
Sing. nom. neuter dit [87. 12], det [61. 10].
Plur. nom. di [72. 24]
Plur. ace. di [84. 7], denom [86. 6].
Note. The suffixed article, in its origin a
demonstrative, is used as in Modern Danish,
en for the common gender, et for the neuter.
The relatives are som, undeclined, occurring
as nom. sing. [40. 19] and ace. sing. [44. 20] ;
huis [85. n], preceded by alt and resembling
the English 'all that; '" huilckett [44. 17], der
[6 1. 12] and den [61. 17].
Note. Before the sixteenth century Jntis
occurs as hues. Huilckett appears in earlier
Danish sometimes as huilki, a mere graphic
difference ; sometimes, by a very curious as-
similation, as huikken and huyken (fifteenth
century).
The interrogatives are 1m em [6. 5], who,
441
November. MODERN LA NCIJACE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
442
and huad [13. ij, what, llucm appears as
MOID, sing., but it n-iniixls OIK- strongly of the
Old Norse dative //;'*/;//.
Of all the pronominal forms the indefinite *
are the most numerous. Beginning with nog-
en, some, we find the nom. [22. 17] and ace.
[45. 20], and the neuter nogett [75. 12] and
noget\&. 1 8].
Int>e>t, no one, nom. [5. 20], ace. [74. 21] and
neuter intett[$2. 10], intet [53. n] and inthit
[87. 20].
Note. The doubling of the t in these two
pronouns is without phonetic significance.
Somme [33. 7], some, appears only as nom. :
as also hon som, [38. 9], whoever.
Huer, each, nom. [5. 5] and dat. [72. 14],
and the extended form huercken [43. 9].
Note i. Huer is weakened from the earlier
form [i393--i49i] hvar, according to Old
Norse hvarr, Old Norwegian, hverr. In Old
Danish the distinction between "each of two"
and "each of many," so consistently kept up
in the Old Norse forms hvarr and hverr re-
spectively, does not appear, so far as can be
seen. In the two cases cited, reference is
made to more than two.
Note 2. Huercken corresponds to Old
Norse hverge. This change of the spirant to
the voiceless explosive sometimes occurs in
Old Norse under special circumstances. In
the earliest of the Old Danish remains we find
the spirant.
Note 3. Under the head of the second per-
sonal pronoun should be inserted the assimi- i
lation with the verb skaltu [62. 12]. This is
the only case in the play, everywhere else the
two words are separate ; as, schalt du [68. 7],
skalt du [67. 9], and numerous others.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
THE PA TO IS OF THE CANTON DE
VAUD.
Phonologic des patois du Canton de Vaud.
Par A. ODIN, Halle, 1886. VIII, 166 pp.
As the work of a beginner this treatise is
promising : the choice of the subject is a good
one, the plan has been ably carried out, and
the faults are of such a character as may be
excused in the earliest contributions of a
scholar.
Since 1874, when ASCOI.I, the great Italian
linguist who has done most for promoting the
study of the Romance dialects, for the first
time treated in his ' Schizzi francoprovenzali '
the French dialects of Switzerland, Savoy,
Franche-Comte* and Dauphine" as a group of
dialects standing by itself, distinct from the
French as well as from the Provencal, the
dialects of all the French Cantons of Switzer-
land have been made the subject of special in-
vestigation by MM. HAEFELIN and AVER (Neu-
chatel and Fribourg), RITTER (Geneva), COR-
NU and GILLIERON (Valais); with the excep-
tion of the most important of them all, the
dialect of the Canton de Vaud. I say the most
important, because this Canton is the largest
and most centrally situated of them all, and
has the greatest variety of physical contours.
It will therefore yield the largest variety of
dialectic shades and supply the intermediate
link of the whole series. By taking up this
important dialect MR. ODIN has, accordingly,
filled up a real gap, and, speaking in general,
has done this in a very satisfactory manner.
All the more so, as the task was no easy one ;
for the author distinguishes not less than
eleven groups, one of which he further divides
into seven sub-dialects.
It is true, the author might have greatly
simplified this task by studying most thorough-
ly the dialect of one or two or even three
single communes of different parts of the Can-
ton, and by presenting a complete view of the
facts. He would thus have given an idea of
the whole dialect as well, an idea which,
though not complete, would at least have been
a consistent one. In this way, I should say,
one ought always to proceed in studying for
the first time a dialect of great variety. The
language of one or two places having been
fixed in a manner that can be in every sense
relied upon, subsequent investigation will
easily supply the peculiarities of the rest.
MR. ODIN, however, having aimed at the
higher object of giving a general survey of the
dialect of the "pays de Vaud," we have only
to accept his work as it stands. He seems,
indeed, to have had sufficient information at
his command for the purpose intended, and
443
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
444
has thus made a valuable contribution to
Romance language study. I have, however,
some criticisms to offer, especially as to the
form in which the facts are presented.
1. As regards the transcription of the
sounds, it is much to be regretted that this
author, like so many others, has adopted a
system of his own, using, e. g., f_ for the
French "e muet," n to indicate the nasalisa-
tion of the preceding vowel, ( for the v.oiceless
th and z for the voice'd, hy for the German ch,
etc. Is there to be no end of creating new
alphabets, or of using old ones in a new way ?
That the inventor of new signs is not neces-
sarily a sound phonetician, the case of MR.
ODIN sufficiently shows. He makes no differ-
ence between the voiceless English th and
the Spanish c before e or i; identifies even the
voiced English th with the voiceless Spanish z
(page 19); and when he has to deal with a new
sound, treats us to a description of it like the
following : "/. est un son unique en son genre.
II s'obtient par un tour de langue en sens
lateYo-vertical " (pp. 19,100).
2. The facts regarding the accented vowels
are presented in the old-fashioned tripartite
division of short and long vowel, and vowel
" in positioned This arrangement has the
great inconvenience of separating facts which
belong together, as the long e (numbers 38-
43) and short i (66-70), or long o (77-82) and
short u (107-114); and the still greater dis-
advantage of confounding in one category
resultants which are the outcome of diverse
causes. This accounts for the confusion that
reigns in the chapters headed : e entrave (50-
59), * entrave (71-78), o entrave (88-100), u entra-
ve (115-125), where no distinction is made
between the short and the corresponding long
vowel.
3. The chapter treating of the unaccented
vowels is defective in this and in other
respects. Under the " vowels in hiatus," the
cases in which one of the two vowels has the
accent ought to have been carefully distin-
guished from those where two unaccented
vowels stand together. And among the for-
mer cases further discrimination was necessary
between those in which the first vowel is ac-
cented, and those in which the second has the
accent. The rules are here enunciated with
perplexing uncertainty and even contradictions
like the following are met with. On page 66
we read : "/.a voye lie persiste toujours lors-
qtfelle est longue ; elle disparait lorsqu'elle
est brtve; " but on the very next page we are
told that " A long ou href se maintient le phis
souvent ." MR. ODIN seems to be ignorant of
DAKMESTETER'S important article on this sub-
ject published some twelve years ago in the
Romatfin,
To these remarks on mistakes of a more
general character let us add a few others on
special cases. The accented vowel of frd-
trem, pdtrem, mdtrem, quddrum, (31) as well
as that of cdpram (33) and dquam (34), of cred-
ere and petram (51), stands in an open syl-
lable ; these examples ought, therefore, not to
be found under the head of "a entrave" and
"e entrave," nor ought the preposition de (38)
and the conjunction et (44) to stand among the
examples of the accented vowels ; nor hoc
(79) among those of long o. The explanation
of tshaire, tshdre (43), as being the Latin CAD-
ERE with the accent on the termination
(CADERE), and of kuaire, kudre (222 and 403) as
representing COQUKRE, with the same shifting
of the accent, is certainly wrong. The two
Latin verbs accentuated on the termination of
the infinitive would have left no trace of the
final -re, for the. infinitive endings -dre, -ere,
-ire have become -a, -ai, -i in this patois ; -re
is characteristic only for the infinitive of the
third conjugation, just as in French, the reason
for this being the same in both languages.
The etymon of bussi ' heurter, frapper ' is not
PULSARE, since the b- and the -i could hardly
be accounted for. I trace it to the Allem.
botzen, and therefore to the same root as
French bouter, \\.a\.bottare. Salyaite (65) can-
not be a participial form SAL!TAM (salirc) mere-
ly with shortened i ; the / of such a form could
not have remained. As draite is Latin DIREC-
TAM, so salyaite points .to a form SALECTAM,
participle formed on the analogy of COLLKCTA,
as in Old French, Provencal and some dialects
of Raetia and Northern Italy. In daivo
"debeo," ressaivo "recipio" (213), no transpo-
sition of the unaccented <? or i of "debeo"
" recipio" into the accented syllable has taken
place ; since the 2nd and 3rd person have the
same ai, owing it to the accented vowels e and
445
November. MODI-.KN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
446
If in an opn: syllable, it must be accounted for
in the s;uiif way in tin- first person, and *i-
*RECfPO are to be regarded as tin- Latin forms
for daivo, ressaivo. MR. ODIN is at a loss
bow to explain the tsh (=Latin C before A) in
tshe, tshera CARTM, CARA, for tin- regular ts
which occurs in another form of the feminine,
in tsira. The tsh seems to represent the
fusion of is with the following i; for tshe,
tshera, as well as tsira, pre-suppose the older
forms A/V, tsiera. As in Old French and
Kaetian dialects, this ie has had at onetime
the stress on the i, at another on the e. These
different accentuations are represented by
tsira and tshera. In tsira the strongly accent-
ed i of tx'iera has entirely absorbed the e,
while tshera represents tsiera, in which 'the
unaccented / "in hiatus " becomes the conso-
nant .y and tsy = tsh. Therefore we have in
the examples exhibited in number 312 -tsi on
the one hand, tshe on the other, as martsi or
martsht MERCATUM, setsi or setshl SICCARE,
etc. This explanation is confirmed by the fact
that Latin c before unaccented A or before
accented "a entravt " never turns into tsh, but
becomes ts, as in setse SICCA, arise ARCA,
fortse FURCA, etc., or tsan CAMPUM and CAN-
TUM, tsd CARNEM and CARRUM, etc. (cf. number
312 and page 165). The same explanation
holds good for the corresponding voiced
sound, as the examples of 313 show ; -dzi or
dje in tserdz'i or tserdj& CARRICARE, predzi or
predjt PREDICARE, but only dz in mandze
MANICA, deniendze DOMINICA, or in dzono GAL-
BINUM, dzuye GAUDIA, dzuta GABATA. The d
in pedance (325) does not admit the etymon
PICTANTIAM. I take it for the present parti-
ciple of petere 'to ask for, to beg.' There is
of course no prosthesis of y \\\yd, ye HERi(4i3),
the.)/ is the regular outgrowth of the unaccent-
ed i in the former ier.
I close this review by pointing out some of
the best chapters of the book. Such are : the
accented vowel a in connection with a palatal
consonant (pp. 21-25), point which MR. ASCOLI
made the main criterium of the whole Franco-
Provencal group of dialects ; the suffix -arimn
(pp. 30-32); the long e and o in open syllable
(pp. 34 and 47-48); the final unaccented
vowels (pp. 77-80); the combinations of the
consonant / (pp. 101-108); the general re-
marks on the shifting of the accent (pp. 145-
148). All of ihese show the author's ability in
tr.icing the history of linguistic phenomena.
Two of them deserve special remark. The
one treats of a very curious fact of " Sat/pho-
netik," as described on page 32, and the oth-r
is i he first attempt at explaining a well known
but unaccounted-for irregularity in the past
participle of those verbs of the first conjuga-
tion which end in -/' or -e (as the case may be)
in the Infinitive. The explanation, as given
on pp. 23-24, is not quite satisfactory, yet I
think the problem is at least halfway solved
by MR. ODIN. I accept his manner of explain-
ing the feminine of the participle, but not the
masculine. The latter seems to have had its own
development, although both genders use only
one form. I cannot give here the arguments
for my opinion, as in fact they need reconsid-
eration and, being long, will find better place
in a separate note. Hut this I may state, that
MR. ODIN was at any rate much mistaken, in
writing the note on page 24 : // serait par
trap baroque . . . . de supposer que la palatale
aurait empche' le passage de 1" a a 1* ?." This
" par trop baroque " supposition represents a
plain