Indigenous Weather Knowledge

Language, culture and environmental knowledge

Introduction to climate culture

A history of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have lived in Australia for at least 50 000 years, with recent evidence suggesting far earlier human occupation of the Australian continent. Aboriginal people developed unique methods of living which enabled life and community to flourish in even the harshest environments and have allowed the sustained development of the world's oldest continuing culture.

Australia is home to hundreds of individual nations or countries, each with distinct cultural practices, beliefs and languages. These cultural practices involve a deep spiritual understanding of the environment and govern how communities live with and maintain the land, plants and animals of their region.

Stories are linked with culture as a way of passing information to younger generations. These stories are commonly referred to as Dreamtime or dreaming stories. Dreamtime stories often talk about creation, and explain how natural elements were formed or how species came to be. Included in these stories can be knowledge of hunting locations, animal behaviours and any restrictions or laws that apply to a particular species or region.

Torres Strait Islander culture is heavily influenced by the oceans, the stars and human interaction with the environment. The Torres Strait region is made up of hundreds of islands varying in size and geography, of which 17 are currently inhabited by 20 different communities.

Torres Strait Islander communities have varying cultural practices and traditions, many of which differ greatly from mainland communities. Interactions with mainland Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands have created a cultural identity unique to the Torres Strait Islands.

Adapting to an ice age

During the time of known Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander life on country, there have been great changes in the climate of the continent.

The main weather event of this era was an ice age which arrived approximately 20 000 years ago and lasted for some 5000 years. During which time the average temperatures fell by 10º C, rainfall decreased, and cold, dry winds blew across the land.

What was previously a place of plenty, with ample water supplies and bountiful game, became stark and inhospitable countryside. It has been suggested that 80 per cent of the Australian continent was temporarily abandoned during this period, with people migrating to areas that could provide greater hospitability, access to water and protection from the elements.

The Bibbulum people of the southwest Western Australia talk of a far off time when it was not as warm and congenial as it is today. Stories of this time begin with 'In the nyitting times..' which translated means 'In the icy cold times of long, long ago....'

About 14 000 years ago, the temperature began to rise and plant and animal populations returned to the levels of earlier days. This allowed Indigenous people to once again extend their area of influence across much of the continent.

These fluctuating temperatures also produced large variations in sea levels, which in turn had far reaching consequences for Aboriginal communities.

At one stage, during the ice age, sea levels were approximately 100 m below their present level, and what is now mainland Australia, was connected to modern Papua New Guinea and Tasmania.

With the rising sea level these land masses separated, with the profound effect of isolating Tasmanian Aboriginal people from their mainland relatives.

A precious heritage

In any study of Aboriginal meteorology, what emerges early is that information and knowledge on the weather and environment has been recorded in a variety of forms, the dominant being the passing of information orally through storytelling and ceremony. This type of archiving is fragile as it is intrinsically linked to language, cultural practices and social values. During European colonisation knowledge was displaced through community relocation, restrictions and changes to traditional language and the introduction of the English language.

In remote locations of central and northern Australian communities, settlers had difficulty exploring and expanding control into many areas. This allowed culture, ceremony and language to thrive and gives access to vast amounts of Indigenous environmental and weather information.

This information consists of an intimate knowledge of plant and animal cycles and contains details of the intricate connections in the natural world. Communities all over Australia continue to propagate this information and have adapted to changes in language and cultural conditions.

This knowledge represents a precious and irreplaceable heritage, the value of which is being increasingly recognised, considered and appreciated by all Australians.

Some of this knowledge is of a purely observational type which records how various plants and animals react to the weather and environment around them. But even more intriguing are other types of observations which are linked to seasonal expectations, some examples of which are:

To the Yanyuwa people rolling coastal clouds indicate that flying foxes and certain bird species are about to start their seasonal migration.

To the Wardaman people the appearance of march-flies in September or October indicate the end of the dry season.

To the Walabunnba people when the mirrlarr (rain bird) calls out, it indicates that there will be a lot of rain.

During the Djilba season in Nyoongar country, the flowers of the balgas (grass trees) emerge in preparation for the coming Kambarang season.

The flowering of the boo'kerrikin (Acacia decurrens) is an indication for the D'harawal people, an end to the cold, windy weather, and the beginning of the gentle spring rains

With example (4), a meteorological scientific explanation could be that falling humidity associated with the beginning of the dry season triggers the flowering response noted. This illustrates the concept that plants and trees, when viewed by the educated eye, can be read in the much the same way as an automatic weather station, with their appearance a direct result of past, present and even future weather.

The other examples noted are far less direct, and result from millennia of observations of the plant and animal kingdoms.

They reflect the deep Aboriginal philosophy that 'all things are connected', that subtle natural linkages are present, which can reveal much about climate and weather.

Culture and beliefs

Culture, beliefs and environmental knowledge

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge is passed from generation to generation by linking information with language, culture, law, community stories and creation beliefs. These stories are commonly referred to as Dreamtime stories and influence many aspects of life, including social interactions within communities or with people of other regions and language groups, foods one may or may not eat and areas in which one may live or hunt. Dreamtime stories often contain vital information on geography, meteorology and biology.

Information is passed through storytelling, songs and dances, art and ceremony. Not all knowledge is readily available and when seeking to learn from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island communities it is essential to respect unique differences in stories from diverse regions and cultures.

The Rainbow Serpent

The Rainbow Serpent is a common theme in creation stories across Australia. Different regions have different explanations as to how the earth came to be, and some communities do not tell of the Rainbow Serpent but may have another similar deity or being of power. Others talk about the Rainbow Serpent in a different way, as one who lives in sacred waterways and can provide healing methods to community doctors, priests or spriritual healers.

The stories and depictions of the Rainbow Serpent vary according to communities with the earliest known images found in 6000-year-old rock art. In many stories the Rainbow Serpent travels on the land leaving grooves and crevices that later fill with water to form rivers and lakes. The Rainbow Serpent is linked with water, being the lifeblood of the country.

Tagai of the Torres Strait Islands

Where Aboriginal Australians of the mainland have dreaming stories, people of the Torres Strait have their own legends and beliefs that pass knowledge of the weather, society and laws from generation to generation.

Torres Strait Islanders live in constant contact with the ocean as a source of food and as a way to connect with other communities. Having reliable methods of navigation and intimate knowledge of changing weather conditions has always been vital in fishing and boating. The stars allowed for navigation at night and Torres Strait Islander stories reflect this close connection. The Torres Strait people tell of a great sea hero, Tagai, who is visible as a vast constellation in the sky.

Indigenous seasonal descriptions

Australia's climate is diverse. Monsoon tropics, desert, savannah, alpine and temperate regions can all be found in various locations. The sheer diversity of ecological zones can't be meaningfully simplified to a rigid European seasonal calendar for the entire continent. Aboriginal people inhabit regions that are geographically and ecologically distinct. The meteorological view of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is one of great diversity, where the names of the seasons are often dependent on localised events or resources.

The ability to link events in the natural world to a cycle that predicts seasonal changes is a key factor in the successful development of Indigenous communities. These natural barometers are not uniform across the land but instead use the reaction of plants and animals to gauge what is happening in the environment.

To the people of D'harawal country during Marrai'gang, when the cries of the Marrai'gang (quoll) seeking his mate can be heard, is the time when the lilly-pilly fruit begins to ripen on trees. However, when the lilly-pillys start to fall, it is time to mend the old warm cloaks from the last cold season, or make new ones, and begin the yearly trek to the coastal areas.

As a result of all this, seasonal cycles as described by the various Aboriginal cultures differ substantially according to location.

This produces a far more intricate and subtle overview of Australia's climate than the four-season European climate description of summer, autumn, winter and spring, applied as it is across most areas of the continent.

A comparison of various Aboriginal seasons from Australia with the Western Four Season Calendar:

December

Western: Summer (dry and hot)

Miriwoong: Nyinggiyi-mageny (wet weather time)

Nyoongar: Birak, (dry and hot)

D'harawal: Parra'dowee, (warm and wet)

January

Western: Summer (dry and hot)

Miriwoong: Nyinggiyi-mageny (wet weather time)

Nyoongar: Birak, (dry and hot)

D'harawal: Burran, (hot and dry)

February

Western: Summer (dry and hot)

Miriwoong: Nyinggiyi-mageny (wet weather time)

Nyoongar: Bunuru (hottest)

D'harawal: Burran, (hot and dry)

March

Western: Autumn (wet and cool)

Miriwoong: Nyinggiyi-mageny (wet weather time)

Nyoongar: Bunuru (hottest)

D'harawal: Burran, (hot and dry)

April

Western: Autumn (wet and cool)

Miriwoong: Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Nyoongar: Bjeran, (cool begins)

D'harawal: Marrai'gang, (wet becoming cooler)

May

Western: Autumn (wet and cool)

Miriwoong: Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Nyoongar: Bjeran, (cool begins)

D'harawal: Marrai'gang, (wet becoming cooler)

June

Western: Winter (cold)

Miriwoong: Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Nyoongar: Makuru, (coldest, wettest)

D'harawal: Burrugin, (cold, short days)

July

Western: Winter (cold)

Miriwoong: Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Nyoongar: Makuru, (coldest, wettest)

D'harawal: Burrugin, (cold, short days)

August

Western: Winter (cold)

Miriwoong: Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Nyoongar: Djilba, (wet days and cool nights)

D'harawal: Wiritjiribin, (cold and windy)

September

Western: Spring (warming)

Miriwoong: Barndenyirriny (hot weather time)

Nyoongar: Djilba, (wet days and cool nights)

D'harawal: Ngoonungi, (cool, getting warmer)

October

Western: Spring (warming)

Miriwoong: Barndenyirriny (hot weather time)

Nyoongar: Kambarang, (long dry periods)

D'harawal: Ngoonungi, (cool, getting warmer)

November

Western: Spring (warming)

Miriwoong: Barndenyirriny (hot weather time)

Nyoongar: Kambarang, (long dry periods)

D'harawal: Parra'dowee, (warm and wet)

European terms

Indigenous Australian seasons

Month

Season

Miriwoong calendar

Nyoongar calendar

D'harawal calendar

DEC

Summer

Nyinggiyi-mageny (wet weather time)

Birak, (dry and hot)

Parra'dowee, (warm and wet)

JAN

Burran, (hot and dry)

FEB

Bunuru, (hottest)

MAR

Autumn

APR

Warnka-mageny (cold weather time)

Bjeran, (cool begins)

Marrai'gang, (wet becoming cooler)

MAY

JUN

Winter

Makuru, (coldest, wettest)

Burrugin, (cold, short days)

JUL

AUG

Djilba, (wet days and cool nights)

Wiritjiribin, (cold and windy)

SEP

Spring

Barndenyirriny (hot weather time)

Ngoonungi, (cool, getting warmer)

OCT

Kambarang, (long dry periods)

NOV

Parra'dowee, (warm and wet)

Table 1. A comparison of various Aboriginal seasons from around Australia with the Western four season calendar

Williams, Alan et al 2013. Human refugia in Australia during the Last Glacial Maximum and Terminal Pleistocene: a geospatial analysis of the 25-12 ka Australian archaeological record, Journal of Archaeological Science.

Authors 2015 update

Djarra Delaney, Bureau of Meteorology

Authors 2002 edition

Mike Fletcher, Centre for Australian Indigenous Studies, Monash University

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