As stated in the introduction to this section, cognitive
psychology represents the dominant approach in psychology today. A primary focus of this
approach is on memory
(the storage and retrieval of information), a subject that has been of interest for thousands of years.
The most widely accepted theory is labeled the "stage theory," based on the work
of Atkinson and Shriffin (1968). The focus of this model is on how information is stored
in memory; the model proposes that
information is processed and stored in 3 stages. In this
theory, information is thought to be processed in a serial, discontinuous
manner as it moves from one stage to the next. This theory is discussed in
more detail below.

In addition to the stage theory model
of information processing, there are three more that are widely accepted. The first is based on the work of Craik and Lockhart (1972) and is labeled the "levels-of-processing"
theory. The major proposition is that learners utilize different levels of elaboration as
they process information. This is done on a continuum from perception, through attention,
to labeling, and finally, meaning. The key point is that all stimuli that activate a
sensory receptor cell are permanently stored in memory, but that different levels of
processing (i.e., elaboration) contribute to an ability to access, or retrieve, that
memory. Evidence from hypnosis and forensic psychology provide some interesting support
for this hypothesis. This approach has been extended by Bransford (1979) who suggests that
it is not only how the information is processed, but how the information is accessed. When
the demands for accessing information more closely match the methods used to elaborate or
learn the information, more is remembered.

Two other models have been proposed as alternatives to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model: parallel-distributed
processing and connectionistic. The parallel-distributed
processing model states that information is processed simultaneously by several different
parts of the memory system, rather than sequentially as hypothesized by Atkinson-Shiffrin
as well as Craik and Lockhart. Work done on how we process emotional data somewhat
supports this contention (see Goleman, 1995). The stage-theory model shown below differs
slightly from the original Atkinson-Shriffin model in order to incorporate this feature.

The connectionistic model proposed by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986)
extends the parallel-distributed processing model. It is one of the dominant forms of
current research in cognitive psychology and is consistent with the most recent brain
research (see Scientific American, 2000). This model emphasizes the fact that information
is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of
connections. It is consistent with the levels-of-processing approach in that the more
connections to a single idea or concept, the more likely it is to be remembered.

Even though there are widely varying views within cognitive psychology, there are a few
basic principles that most cognitive psychologists agree with.

General principles

The first is the assumption of a limited capacity of the mental system. This
means that the amount of information that can be processed by the system is constrained in
some very important ways. Bottlenecks, or restrictions in the flow and processing of
information, occur at very specific points.

A second principle is that a control mechanism is required to oversee the
encoding, transformation, processing, storage, retrieval and utilization of information.
That is, not all of the processing capacity of the system is available; an executive
function that oversees this process will use up some of this capability. When one is
learning a new task or is confronted with a new environment, the executive function
requires more processing power than when one is doing a routine task or is in a familiar
environment.

A third principle is that there is a two-way flow of information as we try to
make sense of the world around us. We constantly use information that we gather through
the senses (often referred to as bottom-up processing) and information we have stored in
memory (often called top-down processing) in a dynamic process as we construct meaning
about our environment and our relations to it. This is somewhat analogous to the
difference between inductive reasoning (going from specific instances to a general
conclusion) and deductive reasoning (going from a general principle to specific examples.)
A similar distinction can be made between using information we derive from the senses and
that generated by our imaginations.

A fourth principle generally accepted by cognitive psychologists is that the human
organism has been genetically prepared to process and organize information in specific
ways. For example, a human infant is more likely to look at a human face than any
other stimulus. Given that the field of focus of a human infant is 12 to 18 inches, one
can surmise that this is an important aspect of the infant's survival. Other research has
discovered additional biological predispositions to process information. For example,
language development is similar in all human infants regardless of language spoken by
adults or the area in which they live (e.g., rural versus urban, Africa versus Europe.)
All human infants with normal hearing babble and coo, generate first words, begin the use
of telegraphic speech (e.g., ball gone), and overgeneralize (e.g., using "goed to the
store" when they had previously used "went to the store") at approximately
the same ages. The issue of language development is an area where cognitive and behavioral
psychologists as well as cognitive psychologists with different viewpoints have fought
many battles regarding the processes underlying human behavior. Needless to say the
disussion continues.

Stage Model of Information Processing

One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view
is labeled the "stage theory" and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968).

This model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.

Sensory memory (STSS). Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction
of energy (change from one energy from to another). The environment makes available a
variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain
only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that
transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this external energy to something
the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory
is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).

It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial
stage in order to transfer it to the next one. There are two major concepts for getting
information into STM:

First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting
feature. We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present.

Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known
pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning
before we begin our presentations, we can take advantage of this principle.

Short-term memory (STM).
Short-term memory is also called working memory
and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time. In Freudian terms,
this is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus,
an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds
unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available
for up to 20 minutes. The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this
shallow processing of information. The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex is the
structure associated with working memory. For example, you are processing the words you
read on the screen in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, "What is your telephone
number?" your brain immediately calls that from long-term memory and replaces what
was previously there.

Another major limit on information processing in STM is in terms of the number of units
that can be processed an any one time.
Miller (1956) gave the number
as 7 + 2, but more recent research suggests the number may be more like 5 +
2 for most things we are trying to remember. Because of the variability in how much
individuals can work with (for some it may be three, for others seven) it is necessary to
point out important information. If some students can only process three
units of information at a time, let us make certain it is the most important three.

There are two major concepts for retaining information in STM: organization and
repetition. There are four major types of organization that are most often used in
instructional design:

Component (part/whole)--classification by category or concept (e.g., the components of
the teaching/learning model);

Sequential -- chronological; cause/effect; building to climax (e.g.,
baking a cake,
reporting on a research study);

Relevance -- central unifying idea or criteria (e.g., most important
principles of learning for
boys and girls, appropriate management strategies for middle school and
high school students);

A related issue to organization is the concept of
chunking or grouping pieces of data
into units. For example, the letters "b d e" constitute three units of
information while the word "bed" represents one unit even though it is composed
of the same number of letters. Chunking is a major technique for getting and keeping
information in short-term memory; it is also a type of elaboration that will help get
information into long-term memory.

Repetition or
rote rehearsal is a technique we all use to try to "learn"
something. However, in order to be effective this must be done after forgetting begins.
Researchers advise that the learner should not repeat immediately the content (or skill),
but wait a few minutes and then repeat. For the most part, simply memorizing something
does not lead to learning (i.e., relatively permanent change). We all have anecdotal
evidence that we can remember something we memorized (a poem for example), but just think
about all the material we tried to learn this way and the little we are able to remember
after six months or a year.

Long-term memory (LTM). Long-term memory is also called preconscious and
unconscious memory in Freudian terms. Preconscious means that the information is
relatively easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while
unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness. It is
preconscious memory that is the focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to long-term
memory. The levels-of-processing theory, however, has provided some research that attests
to the fact that we "know" more than we can easily recall. The two processes
most likely to move information into long-term memory are elaboration and distributed
practice (referred to as periodic review in the direct
instruction model).

There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the
teaching/learning process:

Schema / Schemata -- networks of
connected ideas or relationships; data structures or procedures for organizing the parts
of a specific experience into a meaningful system (like a standard or stereotype)

Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then statements
(smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false)

Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general information about
a routine series of events or a recurrent type of social event, such as eating in a
restaurant or visiting the doctor" (Stillings et al., 1987)

Frame -- complex
organization including concepts and visualizations that provide a reference within which
stimuli and actions are judged (also called "Frame of Reference")

Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define a perspective
and presents specific action patterns to follow

Program -- set of rules that
define what to do in a particular situation

Paradigm
-- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing associated with a particular
vision of reality (Harman, 1970)

Model -- a set of propositions or
equations describing in simplified form some aspects of our experience. Every model is
based upon a theory or paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may not be stated in concise
form. (Umpleby in Principia Cybernetica Web, no date)

One of the most important issues in cognitive psychology is the
development or formation of concepts. A concept is the set of rules used to define the
categories by which we group similar events, ideas or objects. There are several
principles that lend themselves to concept development:

Miller, G. A. (1956).
The
magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing
information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. [Available online from
Classics
in the History of Psychology:
http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html]

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