1.
1667 in science
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The year 1667 in science and technology involved some significant events. June 24 – The site of the Paris Observatory is located on the Paris Meridian, johann Joachim Becher originates what will become known as phlogiston theory in his Physical Education. Thomas Sprat publishes The History of the Royal-Society of London, for the Improving of Natural Knowledge, james Gregory demonstrates the transcendence of π. June 15 – Jean-Baptiste Denys performs the first blood transfusion from a lamb into a boy, robert Hooke demonstrates that the alteration of the blood in the lungs is essential for respiration. Thomas Willis publishes Pathologicae Cerebri, et nervosi generis specimen, nicolas Steno publishes Elementorum Myologiae Specimen, seu Musculi Descriptio Geometrica

2.
1650s in architecture
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1650 - The Marian column in Prague is erected. 1651 - Collegiate Church of Saint Magdalena and Saint Stanisław in Poznań is started,1652 - Church of the Resurrection, Kostroma. 1653 The Taj Mahal mausoleum at Agra in India is completed, the Radziwiłł Palace, Vilnius, is completed. 1656 The Jama Masjid, Delhi, is completed, the colonnade of St. Peters Basilica in Rome is started by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. 1658 - Terraced houses at 52-55 Newington Green in London, perhaps by Thomas Pidcock, are completed,1659 Ca Pesaro on the Grand Canal is started by Baldassarre Longhena. Tomb of Nadira Begum in Lahore is started

3.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science

4.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose

5.
Christiaan Huygens
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Christiaan Huygens, FRS was a prominent Dutch mathematician and scientist. He is known particularly as an astronomer, physicist, probabilist and horologist, Huygens was a leading scientist of his time. His work included early telescopic studies of the rings of Saturn and the discovery of its moon Titan and he published major studies of mechanics and optics, and pioneered work on games of chance. Christiaan Huygens was born on 14 April 1629 in The Hague, into a rich and influential Dutch family, Christiaan was named after his paternal grandfather. His mother was Suzanna van Baerle and she died in 1637, shortly after the birth of Huygens sister. The couple had five children, Constantijn, Christiaan, Lodewijk, Philips, Constantijn Huygens was a diplomat and advisor to the House of Orange, and also a poet and musician. His friends included Galileo Galilei, Marin Mersenne and René Descartes, Huygens was educated at home until turning sixteen years old. He liked to play with miniatures of mills and other machines and his father gave him a liberal education, he studied languages and music, history and geography, mathematics, logic and rhetoric, but also dancing, fencing and horse riding. In 1644 Huygens had as his mathematical tutor Jan Jansz de Jonge Stampioen, Descartes was impressed by his skills in geometry. His father sent Huygens to study law and mathematics at the University of Leiden, Frans van Schooten was an academic at Leiden from 1646, and also a private tutor to Huygens and his elder brother, replacing Stampioen on the advice of Descartes. Van Schooten brought his mathematical education up to date, in introducing him to the work of Fermat on differential geometry. Constantijn Huygens was closely involved in the new College, which lasted only to 1669, Christiaan Huygens lived at the home of the jurist Johann Henryk Dauber, and had mathematics classes with the English lecturer John Pell. He completed his studies in August 1649 and he then had a stint as a diplomat on a mission with Henry, Duke of Nassau. It took him to Bentheim, then Flensburg and he took off for Denmark, visited Copenhagen and Helsingør, and hoped to cross the Øresund to visit Descartes in Stockholm. While his father Constantijn had wished his son Christiaan to be a diplomat, in political terms, the First Stadtholderless Period that began in 1650 meant that the House of Orange was not in power, removing Constantijns influence. Further, he realised that his son had no interest in such a career, Huygens generally wrote in French or Latin. While still a student at Leiden he began a correspondence with the intelligencer Mersenne. Mersenne wrote to Constantijn on his sons talent for mathematics, the letters show the early interests of Huygens in mathematics

6.
Orion Nebula
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The Orion Nebula is a diffuse nebula situated in the Milky Way, being south of Orions Belt in the constellation of Orion. It is one of the brightest nebulae, and is visible to the eye in the night sky. M42 is located at a distance of 1,344 ±20 light years and is the closest region of star formation to Earth. The M42 nebula is estimated to be 24 light years across and it has a mass of about 2000 times the mass of the Sun. Older texts frequently refer to the Orion Nebula as the Great Nebula in Orion or the Great Orion Nebula, the Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky, and is among the most intensely studied celestial features. The nebula has revealed much about the process of how stars and planetary systems are formed from collapsing clouds of gas, astronomers have directly observed protoplanetary disks, brown dwarfs, intense and turbulent motions of the gas, and the photo-ionizing effects of massive nearby stars in the nebula. The nebula is visible with the eye even from areas affected by some light pollution. It is seen as the star in the sword of Orion. The star appears fuzzy to sharp-eyed observers, and the nebulosity is obvious through binoculars or a small telescope, the peak surface brightness of the central region is about 17 Mag/arcsec2 and the outer bluish glow has a peak surface brightness of 21.3 Mag/arcsec2. The Orion Nebula contains a young open cluster, known as the Trapezium due to the asterism of its primary four stars. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good seeing, giving a total of six stars, the stars of the Trapezium, along with many other stars, are still in their early years. The Trapezium is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula Cluster, observers have long noted a distinctive greenish tint to the nebula, in addition to regions of red and of blue-violet. The red hue is a result of the Hα recombination line radiation at a wavelength of 656.3 nm, the blue-violet coloration is the reflected radiation from the massive O-class stars at the core of the nebula. The green hue was a puzzle for astronomers in the part of the 20th century because none of the known spectral lines at that time could explain it. There was some speculation that the lines were caused by a new element, and this radiation was all but impossible to reproduce in the laboratory at the time, because it depended on the quiescent and nearly collision-free environment found in the high vacuum of deep space. This has led to speculation that a flare-up of the illuminating stars may have increased the brightness of the nebula. The first published observation of the nebula was by the Jesuit mathematician, charles Messier first noted the nebula on March 4,1769, and he also noted three of the stars in Trapezium. Messier published the first edition of his catalog of deep sky objects in 1774, as the Orion Nebula was the 42nd object in his list, it became identified as M42

7.
Abscissa and ordinate
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In mathematics, an abscissa is the number whose absolute value is the perpendicular distance of a point from the vertical axis. Usually this is the coordinate of a point in a two-dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. The term can refer to the horizontal axis of a two-dimensional graph. An ordered pair consists of two terms—the abscissa and the ordinate —which define the location of a point in two-dimensional rectangular space and we know no earlier use of the word abscissa in Latin originals. Maybe the word descends from translations of the Apollonian conics, where in Book I, Chapter 20 there appears ἀποτεμνομέναις, for which there would hardly be as an appropriate Latin word as abscissa. In a somewhat obsolete variant usage, the abscissa of a point may refer to any number that describes the points location along some path. Used in this way, the abscissa can be thought of as an analog to the independent variable in a mathematical model or experiment. For the point,2 is called the abscissa and 3 the ordinate, for the point, −1.5 is called the abscissa and −2.5 the ordinate.3 or later. The dictionary definition of abscissa at Wiktionary

8.
Stefano degli Angeli
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Stefano degli Angeli was an Italian mathematician, philosopher, and Jesuat. He was member of the Catholic Order of the Jesuats, in 1668 the order was suppressed by Pope Clement IX. Angeli was a student of Bonaventura Cavalieri, from 1662 until his death he taught at the University of Padua. From 1654 to 1667 he devoted himself to the study of geometry, continuing the research of Cavalieri and he then moved on to mechanics, where he often found himself in conflict with Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Giovanni Riccioli. James Gregory studied under Angeli from 1664 until 1668 in Padua, jean-Étienne Montucla in his monumental Histoire des mathématiques, lavishes praise on Angeli. Angeli moved from Rome to his city of Venice in 1652. The method had been under attack by Jesuits Paul Guldin, Mario Bettini, angelis first response appeared in an Appendix pro indibisibilibus, attached to his 1658 book Problemata geometrica sexaginta, and was aimed at Bettini. Alexander shows how indivisibles and infinitesimals were perceived as a theological threat, the opposition was spearheaded by clerics and more specifically by the Jesuits. In 1632 the Societys Revisors General led by father Jacob Bidermann banned teaching indivisibles in their schools, Cavalieris indivisibles and Galileo Galileis heliocentrism were systematically opposed by the Jesuits and attacked through a spectrum of means, be it mathematical, academic, political, or religious. Bettini called the method of indivisibles counterfeit philosophizing and sought to discredit it through a discussion of a paradox presented in Galileos Discorsi, Angeli analyzes Bettinis position and proves it untenable. Angeli writes that Tacquets criticisms were raised by Guldin and satisfactorily answered by Cavalieri. In his work, Tacquet asked rhetorically, Who does this reasoning convince, Angeli responds incredulously, Whom does it convince. Angeli proceeds to give an impressive list of European mathematicians that have accepted the method of indivisibles, including Jean Beaugrand, Ismael Boulliau, Richard White, Angeli is trying to portray the Jesuits as the lone holdouts against a method that is being universally accepted. However, as Alexander points out, the mathematicians cited reside north of the Alps. Of the three Italians that Angeli cites, Torricelli, Rocca, and Raffaello Magiotti, only the former had in fact published on indivisibles, despite his protestations to the contrary, Angeli was, in his own land, alone. Andersen notes that Angeli, who was a Jesuat like Cavalieri, Tacquet warned that unless the method of indivisibles is destroyed first, it will destroy geometry. Writes Alexander, It was a violent and unexpected end to an old. Founded by the Blessed John Colombini in 1361 to tend for the poor, while Angeli had previously published no fewer than nine books promoting and using the method of indivisibles, he did not publish a word on the topic ever again

9.
Swiss people
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The Swiss are citizens of Switzerland. The demonym derives from the toponym of Schwyz and has been in use to refer to the Old Swiss Confederacy since the 16th century. The number of Swiss nationals has grown from 1.7 million in 1815 to 6.76 million in 2009 with 90% of them living in Switzerland, about 60% of those living abroad reside in the European Union. The largest groups of Swiss descendants and nationals outside of Europe are found in the United States, closely related German-speaking peoples are the Alsatians, the Swabians and the Vorarlbergians. The French-speaking Swiss, traditionally speaking Franco-Provençal dialects, today largely assimilated to the standard French language, amalgamated from the Gallo-Roman population and they are closely related to the French. The Italian-speaking Swiss, traditionally speakers of Lombard language today partly assimilated to the standard Italian language, amalgamated from Raetians and they are closely related to the Italians. The Romansh, speakers of the Romansh language, settling in parts of the Grisons, with worldwide human migration, there are an increasing number of Swiss not descended or only partially descended from the core ethnic groups listed above. Most naturalized Swiss citizens will be linguistically oriented according to their canton of residence, the Swiss populace historically derives from an amalgamation of Gaulish or Gallo-Roman, Alamannic and Rhaetic stock. Their cultural history is dominated by the Alps, and the environment is often cited as an important factor in the formation of the Swiss national character. Political allegiance and patriotism was directed towards the cantons, not the federal level, from the 19th century there were conscious attempts to foster a federal Pan-Swiss national identity that would replace or alleviate the cantonal patriotisms. An additional symbol of national identity at the federal level was introduced with the Swiss national holiday in 1889. The bonfires associated with the holiday have become so customary since then that they have displaced the Funken traditions of greater antiquity. These specifically include Grisons, Valais, Ticino, Vaud and Geneva, according to Hartley-Moore, Localized equivalents of nationalist symbols were also essential to the creation of Swiss civil society. In the Swiss model, pride in local identity is to some degree synonymous with loyalty to the larger state, as Gottfried Keller argued in the nineteenth century, Without cantons and without their differences and competition, no Swiss federation could exist. Facilitated naturalization for foreign spouses and children of Swiss citizens requires a total minimum residence of five years, with more than 20% of the population resident aliens, Switzerland has one of the highest ratios of non-naturalized inhabitants in Europe. In 2003,35,424 residents were naturalized, a number exceeding net population growth. Over the 25-year period of 1983 to 2007,479,264 resident foreigners were naturalized, compare the figure of 0. 2% in the United Kingdom. The genetic composition of the Swiss population is similar to that of Central Europe in general, Switzerland is on one hand at the crossroads of several prehistoric migrations, while on the other hand the Alps acted as a refuge in some cases

10.
Obelus
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An obelus is a symbol consisting of a short horizontal line with a dot above and below, and in other uses it is a symbol resembling a small dagger. In mathematics it is used to represent the mathematical operation of division. It is therefore called the division sign. Division may also be indicated by a line or a slash. In ISO 80000-2-9.6 it says, The symbol ÷ should not be used. In editing texts an obelus takes the form of a mark and is used as a reference mark, or to indicate that a person is deceased. In mathematics, the symbol has also been used to represent subtraction in Northern Europe. The word obelus comes from ὀβελός, the Ancient Greek word for a stick, spit. This is the root as that of the word obelisk. Originally this sign was used in ancient manuscripts to mark passages that were suspected of being corrupted or spurious, the dagger symbol, also called an obelisk, is derived from the obelus and continues to be used for this purpose. The incident of the Bloody Sweat in Gethsemane and the saying Father forgive them, although previously used for subtraction, the obelus was first used as a symbol for division in 1659 in the algebra book Teutsche Algebra by Johann Rahn. Some think that John Pell, who edited the book, may have been responsible for use of the symbol. The usage of the obelus to represent subtraction continued in parts of Europe. Other symbols for division include the slash or solidus, and the fraction bar, in Microsoft Windows, the obelus is produced with Alt+0247 on the number pad or by pressing Alt Gr+⇧ Shift++ when an appropriate keyboard layout is in use. In classic Mac OS and macOS, it is produced with ⌥ Option+/, on UNIX-based systems using Screen or X with a Compose key enabled, it can be produced by composing, and -, though this is locale- and setting-dependent. It may also be input by Unicode code-point on GTK-based applications by pressing Control+⇧ Shift+U, followed by the codepoint in hexadecimal, in the Unicode character set, the obelus is known as the division sign and has the code point U+00F7. In HTML, it can be encoded as &divide, or &#xF7, in LaTeX, the obelus is obtained by \div. Commercial minus sign, ⁒, which resembles a tilted obelus Jeff Miller, Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols Michael Quinion

11.
Therefore sign
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In mathematical proof, the therefore sign is generally used before a logical consequence, such as the conclusion of a syllogism. The symbol consists of three dots placed in a triangle and is read therefore. It is encoded at U+2234 ∴ therefore, for common use in Microsoft Office hold the ALT key and type 8756. While it is not generally used in writing, it is used in mathematics. It is complementary to U+2235 ∵ because, in this century, the three-dot notation for therefore became very rare in continental Europe, but it remains popular in the British Isles. Used in a syllogism, All gods are immortal, X +1 =6 ∴ x =5 The inverted form ∵, known as the because sign, is sometimes used as a shorthand form of because. The therefore sign is used as a substitute for an asterism ⁂. In meteorology, the sign is used to indicate moderate rain on a station model. To denote logical implication or entailment, various signs are used in mathematical logic and these symbols are then part of a mathematical formula, and are not considered to be punctuation. In contrast, the sign is traditionally used as a punctuation mark. The graphically identical sign ∴ serves as a Japanese map symbol on the maps of the Geographical Survey Institute of Japan, on other maps the sign, often with thicker dots, is sometimes used to signal the presence of a national monument or ruins. The character ஃ in the Tamil script represents the āytam, a sound of the Tamil language. In Masonic traditions the symbol is used for abbreviation, instead of the usual period, for example R∴W∴ John Smith is an abbreviation for Right Worshipful John Smith

12.
Thomas Willis
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Thomas Willis was an English doctor who played an important part in the history of anatomy, neurology and psychiatry. He was a member of the Royal Society. Willis was born on his parents farm in Great Bedwyn, Wiltshire and he was a kinsman of the Willys baronets of Fen Ditton, Cambridgeshire. He graduated M. A. from Christ Church, Oxford in 1642, in the Civil War years he was a royalist, dispossessed of the family farm at North Hinksey by Parliamentary forces. In the 1640s Willis was one of the physicians to Charles I of England. Med. in 1646, he began as a physician by regularly attending the market at Abingdon. He maintained an Anglican position, an Anglican congregation met at his lodgings in the 1650s, including John Fell, John Dolben, and Richard Allestree. Fells father Samuel Fell had been expelled as Dean of Christ Church, in 1647, Willis married Samuel Fells daughter Mary, and brother-in-law John Fell would later be his biographer. He employed Robert Hooke as an assistant, in the period 1656-8, one of several Oxford cliques of those interested in science grew up around Willis and Christ Church. Besides Hooke, others in the group were Nathaniel Hodges, John Locke, Richard Lower, Henry Stubbe, in the broader Oxford scene, he was a colleague in the Oxford club of experimentalists with Ralph Bathurst, Robert Boyle, William Petty, John Wilkins and Christopher Wren. Willis was on terms with Wrens sister Susan Holder, skilled in the healing of wounds. Willis lived on Merton Street, Oxford, from 1657 to 1667, in 1656 and 1659 he published two significant medical works, De Fermentatione and De Febribus. These were followed by the 1664 volume on the brain, which was a record of experimental work. From 1660 until his death, he was Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, at the time of the formation of the Royal Society of London, he was on the 1660 list of priority candidates, and became a Fellow in 1661. Henry Stubbe became an opponent of the Society, and used his knowledge of Williss earlier work before 1660 to belittle some of the claims made by its proponents. Willis later worked as a physician in Westminster, London, this coming about after he treated Gilbert Sheldon in 1666. He had a medical practice, in which he applied both his understanding of anatomy and known remedies, attempting to integrate the two, he mixed both iatrochemical and mechanical views. According to Noga Arikha Among his patients was the philosopher Anne Conway, whom he had relations with

13.
Centripetal force
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A centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path. Its direction is orthogonal to the motion of the body. Isaac Newton described it as a force by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, in Newtonian mechanics, gravity provides the centripetal force responsible for astronomical orbits. One common example involving centripetal force is the case in which a body moves with uniform speed along a circular path, the centripetal force is directed at right angles to the motion and also along the radius towards the centre of the circular path. The mathematical description was derived in 1659 by the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens, the direction of the force is toward the center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle. The speed in the formula is squared, so twice the speed needs four times the force, the inverse relationship with the radius of curvature shows that half the radial distance requires twice the force. Expressed using the orbital period T for one revolution of the circle, the rope example is an example involving a pull force. The centripetal force can also be supplied as a push force, newtons idea of a centripetal force corresponds to what is nowadays referred to as a central force. Another example of centripetal force arises in the helix that is traced out when a particle moves in a uniform magnetic field in the absence of other external forces. In this case, the force is the centripetal force that acts towards the helix axis. Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and acceleration, uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this case, assume uniform circular motion, which requires three things. The object moves only on a circle, the radius of the circle r does not change in time. The object moves with constant angular velocity ω around the circle, therefore, θ = ω t where t is time. Now find the velocity v and acceleration a of the motion by taking derivatives of position with respect to time, consequently, a = − ω2 r. negative shows that the acceleration is pointed towards the center of the circle, hence it is called centripetal. While objects naturally follow a path, this centripetal acceleration describes the circular motion path caused by a centripetal force. The image at right shows the relationships for uniform circular motion. In this subsection, dθ/dt is assumed constant, independent of time, consequently, d r d t = lim Δ t →0 r − r Δ t = d ℓ d t

14.
English people
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The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age

15.
Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants

16.
David Gregory (mathematician)
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David Gregory FRS was a Scottish mathematician and astronomer. He was professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, Savilian Professor of Astronomy at the University of Oxford, and a commentator on Isaac Newtons Principia. The fourth of the fifteen children of David Gregorie, a doctor from Kinnairdy, Banffshire, after his university studies, still only 16 years old, Gregory visited several countries on the continent, including the Netherlands and France, and did not return to Scotland until 1683. The same year he was elected to be a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1692, he was elected a Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. At the age of 24 he was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Edinburgh, during 1694, he spent several days with Isaac Newton, discussing a second edition of Newtons Principia, but these plans came to nothing. At the Union of 1707, he was given the responsibility of reorganising the Scottish Mint and he was an uncle of philosopher Thomas Reid. Gregory and his wife, Elizabeth Oliphant, had nine children, on his death in Maidenhead, Berkshire he was buried in Maidenhead churchyard. OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. David Gregory, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, significant Scots, David Gregory Papers of David Gregory David Gregroy Catoptricæ et dioptricæ sphæricæ elementa - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library

17.
Scottish people
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The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders

18.
Astronomer
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An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary science, solar astronomy, there are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fit into two types, Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work, there are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology. Today, that distinction has disappeared and the terms astronomer. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph. D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments. The number of astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other such as physics, geology. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in research at the Ph. D. level. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year, analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes, most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a background in maths, sciences. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable, in college/university most astronomers get a Ph. D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive

19.
Abel Tasman
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Abel Janszoon Tasman was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company. In 1633 he sailed from Texel to Batavia in the service of the Dutch East India Company, Tasman took part in a voyage to Seram Island, the locals had sold spices to others than the Dutch. He had a escape from death, when in an incautious landing several of his companions were killed by people of Seram. In August 1637 he was back in Amsterdam, and the year he signed on for another ten years. On 25 March 1638 he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, in 1639 he was second-in-command of an exploration expedition in the north Pacific under Matthijs Quast. The fleet included the ships Engel and Gracht and reached Fort Zeelandia and this expedition used two small ships, the Heemskerck and the Zeehaen. According to Marco Polo, Locach was a kingdom where gold was “so plentiful that no one who did not see it could believe it”, Beach was in fact a mistranscription of Locach. Locach was Marco Polo’s name for the southern Thai kingdom of Lavo, or Lop Buri, in Chinese, Lavo was pronounced “Lo-huk”, from which Marco Polo took his rendition of the name. In the German cursive script, “Locach” and “Boeach” look similar and they seem to have drawn on the map of the world published in Florence in 1489 by Henricus Martellus, in which provincia boëach appears as the southern neighbour of provincia ciamba. Book III of Marco Polo’s Il Milione described his journey by sea from China to India by way of Champa, Java, Locach, after a chapter describing the kingdom of Champa there follows a chapter describing Java. Locach, located between Champa and Sumatra, was likewise misplaced far to the south of Java, by some geographers on or near an extension of the Terra Australis. Gerard Mercator did just that on his 1541 globe, placing Beach provincia aurifera in the northernmost part of the Terra Australis in accordance with the faulty text of Marco Polo’s Travels. Following Mercator, Abraham Ortelius also showed BEACH and LVCACH in these locations on his map of 1571. Confirmation that land existed where the maps showed Beach to be had come from Dirk Hartog’s landing in October 1616 on its west coast, which he called Eendrachtsland after the name of his ship. In accordance with Visschers directions, Tasman sailed from Batavia on 14 August 1642 and arrived at Mauritius on 5 September 1642, the reason for this was the crew could be fed well on the island, there was plenty of fresh water and timber to repair the ships. Tasman got the assistance of the governor Adriaan van der Stel, because of the prevailing winds Mauritius was chosen as a turning point. After a four-week stay on the island both ships left on 8 October using the Roaring Forties to sail east as fast as possible. On 7 November snow and hail influenced the ships council to alter course to a more north-eastern direction, on 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman reached and sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour

20.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously

21.
Moritz Cantor
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Moritz Benedikt Cantor was a German historian of mathematics. He came from a family that had emigrated to the Netherlands from Portugal, in his early youth, Moritz Cantor was not strong enough to go to school, and his parents decided to educate him at home. Later, however, he was admitted to a class of the gymnasium in Mannheim. In 1863, he was promoted to the position of assistant professor, Cantor was one of the founders of the Kritische Zeitschrift für Chemie, Physik, und Mathematik. In 1859 he became associated with Schlömilch as editor of the Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik, taking charge of the historical, since 1877, through his efforts, a supplement to the Zeitschrift was published under the separate title of Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik. Cantors inaugural dissertation, Über ein Weniger Gebräuchliches Coordinaten-System, gave no indication that the history of exact sciences would soon be enriched by a work by him. His first important work was Über die Einführung Unserer Gegenwärtigen Ziffern in Europa and his greatest work was Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik. In 1900 Moritz Cantor received the honor of giving an address at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris. Jewish Encyclopedia,1906 Works written by or about Moritz Cantor at Wikisource Florian Cajori, Moritz Cantor, The historian of mathematics, oConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Moritz Cantor, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Moritz Cantor at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Literature by and about Moritz Cantor in the German National Library catalogue

The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England who speak the English language. The English identity is …

"The Arrival of the First Ancestors of Englishmen out of Germany into Britain": a fanciful image of the Anglo-Saxon migration, an event central to the English national myth. From A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)

In mathematics, the abscissa (plural abscissae or abscissæ or abscissas) and the ordinate are respectively the first …

Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane, showing the absolute values of the coordinates of the points (2, 3), (0, 0), (–3, 1), and (–1.5, –2.5). The first value in each of these signed ordered pairs is the abscissa of the corresponding point, and the second value is its ordinate.