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Socio-Religious Life of Vedic People

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The cultural twilight of the Harappan age brightened into dawn with the inauguration of Vedic civilisation. The Indian cultural identity which was at its formative stage began to take a concrete shape during this period. Thus, in a sense, the Vedic civilisation broadened and enriched the cultural heritage and tradition of India.

In the words of Mac Iver, culture is “an expression of human nature in their modes of living, thinking, religion, recreation and enjoyment.” Accordingly in the Vedic civilisation there were supreme manifestations of the above mentioned aspects of human living. During this period Indian culture became matured, progressive, refined and all-pervasive.

The masters of this civilisation were none else than the Aryans, who migrated to India from Central Asia. The word ‘Arya’ literally means ‘independent-minded’ or one with ‘noble character’. They belonged to the Indo-European group of human race who lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps mountains known as Eurasia.

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The only source of information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature known as the Vedas. As historical sources, the Vedic texts have given vivid description of the social, political, economic and religious picture of the-then society.

The Vedic age covers a period from 1800 BC to 600 BC, being divided into two phases:

1. Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic Age

2. Later Vedic Age

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The four Vedas are divided into these two phases. In the early phase only the Rig Veda was composed. In the words of R.K. Mukherjee, “Rig Veda is the earliest book not merely of Indians but of the entire Aryan race.” The starting point of our study of Vedic culture begins with the Rig Veda. The later Vedic culture has been reflected in the composition of Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. These voluminous Vedic literatures give us adequate information about the culture of the period.

Each of the four Vedas constitutes four parts namely Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. For a clear understanding of the Vedic literature, knowledge of each of these parts is essential. Each of these parts spreads the rich heritage of Vedic literature in a composite way and the flavour prevails till today.

As per the description in the Rig Veda, the Aryans began their early settlements in the Sapta Sindhu region which roughly corresponds to the present Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Kandahar. The area was also known as Brahmavarta. It was only during the later period that the civilisation expanded towards the east. In their eastward progress, the Aryans came into contact with native residents of the land known as Dasyas or slaves. Terms like mlechchha have also been used for these non-Aryan tribes.

When the Aryans began to move eastward, they marched towards the middle of the country or madhyadesha and new kingdoms were established. Gradually they occupied the whole of northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from the western sea to the east. Later on this part of the land came to be known as Aryavarta.

The Vedic texts are primary sources that throw light on the life of the Vedic Aryans. These are the oldest works of the Indo- Aryans. Although the texts mainly deal with devotional, spiritual and metaphysical concepts they throw ample light on socio­economic, religious and political life of the Vedic Aryans.

Vedic Society:

Vedic texts reveal to the posterity the existence of an advanced civilisation, quite unlike the urban civilisation of the Harappan people. Vedic civilisation concerns a nomadic rural people with an agricultural economy within the bounds of an organised society.

The motto of Vedic life style can be summarized in the dictum- simple living and high thinking. The Aryans preferred to lead a simple life determined by intellectually higher and nobler thoughts. Therefore, their social life was highly ethical and moralistic, for which they hated evil and bad habits. Anything beyond the written code of conduct was abhorred.

Their simple way of living is reflected in the pastoral character of the society. It centred around a tightly-knit village life. The Vedic Aryans preferred the simplicity of rural family settings, unlike the urban flourishes of Harappa. The members of the family were attached to each other with a strong bond of love, affection and attachment. Their simple, unassuming and non- materialistic life style manifested itself in various aspects of their social life.

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Family:

Family was the pivot of the Vedic society. The Vedic Aryans had developed a very healthy family chain. Kula (literally meaning a unitary family) was the smallest unit, which included all members living under one single roof (otherwise called griha).

The social organisation of the Vedic period was based on patriarchal system. The father dominated the family. He was known as kulapa, kulapati or grihapati. Father had the final say in all family matters. He used to pass on his authority to the eldest son. So the birth of a son in a family was considered to be an absolute necessity.

The system of joint family was a very important feature of the Vedic society. Besides the husband and his wife, the family consisted of other members like their parents, brothers, sisters, sons, daughters etc. Generally the relation among the members was very cordial. The spirit of mutual help and cooperation was a great factor behind the existence of strong familial bond. Sometimes, however, disputes over property related to land, cattle, ornaments etc. did crop up among the members of a family and led to the breakup of the same. But such cases were exceptions rather than the rule.

Food and Drink:

The Vedic Aryans were very simple in their habits of eating. Their diet was both balanced and enriching. They were both herbivores and carnivores. Wheat, barley, rice, fruits and vegetables comprised their main diet. Milk and milk products like curd, cheese, butter and ghee were quite favorite among the Vedic Aryans. On festive occasions and social gatherings, they preferred non-vegetarian dishes of mutton, sheep, fish and birds.

The drinking water of the Aryans used to be drawn from rivers, streams and wells. The Vedas give reference to some intoxicating drinks like somarasa and sura. These specially prepared liquors were usually consumed during festivals and religious occasions of sacrifice. Hence, these beverages were considered sacred by the Aryans. Somarasa was a type of liquor extracted from Soma plant and other wines were prepared from different corns. In spite of these beverages, in general, the food and drink habits of the Vedic Aryans were quite simple and wholesome.

Dress and Ornament:

In any civilized society, patterns of dress and ornament are given equal importance along with food and drinking habits. The Aryans generally used cotton and woolen garments which were both single coloured and multi-coloured. Deer skin was also in use. An Aryan gentleman wore a dress of three parts – Nivi, Vasa and Adhivasa. Nivi or Nivibasa was used for the lower part of the body, i.e., waist downwards. Vasa or Paridhan was used for the upper portion of the body from waist upwards. Adhiuasa or atka or drapi was the head-dress. But there was not much difference between the dress habits of males and females. However, the rich people wore more attractive, embroidered and colorful silken clothes than the common people who often wore coarse cotton garments.

Equally interesting is the Aryans’ habit of wearing ornaments. Both men and women were fond of ornaments which were made of gold and other precious stones. Ornaments were worn on various parts of the body like ear, nose, ankle, wrist, neck etc. Beautiful pieces of stone were set on these ornaments to make them more attractive. Stylish combing of hair was quite common. Gentlemen used to grow moustache or beard while the ladies used to decorate their hair with floral braids. Men used to shave with khura, i.e., a razor with a handle. The Aryans were also adept in using precious stones for the purification of the body on special occasions.

Education:

For the noble-minded Vedic Aryans, education was a very essential part of human life. Their education centred around Gurukula (literally meaning the ‘home of the teacher’) where a pupil was sent to stay and receive education. The acharya or the teacher the pupils Vedic texts which the pupils learnt by heart. Such education was imparted, by the teacher orally. Much importance was paid to enunciation and pronunciation. The primary aim of Vedic education was building of character.

Education on different branches of knowledge like ethics, grammar, philosophy, religion, warfare etc. was given to the pupils to put into practice their motto of simple living and high thinking. Vedic education was knowledge-oriented. It is mainly due to the laborious and systematic way of imparting such knowledge that a huge mass of Vedic literature has been saved for posterity.

Recreation and Amusement:

The Vedic Aryans were very sportive and entertainment-loving people. They used to spend their leisure and refresh their minds in various ways. Since they lived in villages, they were fond of outdoor games. Hence, pastimes like gambling, dancing, chariot-racing, hunting and war-dances were very popular. Along with singing and dancing they played different musical instruments like flute, lute and drums.

The female folk were equally enthusiastic about singing, dancing and other forms of merry-making. Thus, the Aryans enjoyed their leisure hours by socializing and pursuing creative talent. We also find references to the holding of Samana (fairs) at different periods of the year where people exhibited their feats of bravery in sporting events. As the Aryans’ social life became more and more complex, other hobbies were also included. For example, although playing dice was restricted, it was permitted to some extent in certain quarters.

Caste System:

In the beginning of the Vedic civilisation caste system, as formulated on the basis of a person’s birth, was very much absent. Members of one family took to different professions. They used to perform their own duties and preferred to lead a happy and contented life.

This concept is clearly illustrated in the following hymn of the Rig Veda, where a person says:

I am a singer

My father is a physician

My mother is a grinder of corn.

Having various occupations,

desiring riches we remain (in the world)

like cattle (in the stalls).

O God! May your blessings

increase the volume of our peace.

It is quite clear from the above writing that there was freedom and mobility in the adoption of a profession to earn one’s living. The concept of hereditary trade and occupation was not there. The caste system among the Aryans thus seems to have begun in the later Vedic age.

With the increase in number of professions, the society was gradually divided into four distinct Varnas — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. The teachers and priests were called Brahmanas; rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas; farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaisyas, while artisans and labourers came to be known as Sudras. However, at first these vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and choice. It had not become strictly hereditary and was not rigid, as it became later. The caste system of the Aryans provided stability and versatility to their society.

Position of Women:

Women enjoyed a very high position in the Vedic society. They were held in high esteem and dignity by male members. They enjoyed equal status with the men folk in almost all spheres of life. Monogamy was the usual practice, while polygamy was not totally absent. However are no references to polyandry and child marriage. Women enjoyed the freedom to choose their husbands under whose protection and care they led a normal married life.

Although father was the head of the family, the autonomy of women in household affairs was supreme. They controlled the entire household and participated in religious sacrifices and other social ceremonies with dignity and honour. There was no restriction on their movement in the public. They availed educational facilities. Some prominent women of the Vedic age re so learned in different shastras that they composed mantras and hymns after the fashion of the rishis. Apala, Visvavara and Ghosha are some of the illustrious women of the Vedic age.

Widow remarriage was prevalent during this period. The so-called sati system was totally absent and there was no use of purdah. The tradition was such that a woman depended on her father before her marriage, on her husband after her marriage and on her son in her old age. Thus the entire setup of a woman’s life was so designed as to make her lead a comfortable life. Women’s position and dignity were perhaps higher than is the case now.

Knowledge of Medicine:

The Vedic Aryans had sufficient knowledge about plants and herbs having medicinal qualities. There were Vedic physicians who used to prepare curative medicines. At times they also performed some preliminary surgical operations. Miraculous cures were attributed to Ashiwini Kumars – the divine doctors who were great healers of fatal diseases.

In general, the social life of the Vedic Aryans was highly developed and disciplined. They maintained a high degree of morality in their conduct. Simple food and dress habits, happy family life, education as builder of character, high position of women, absence of social complexities like caste system etc. had brought about a value-based society. The result was a peaceful, contented, healthy and refined social life in the early Vedic period.

However, the high standard of social life was lost with the march of time. Social and religious norms and practices became more rigid and complex in the later Vedic age. Various social evils like caste system, degradation in the position of women, consequent curtailing of their freedom and many other social taboos and customs destroyed the very lofty ideals of Vedic life. The openness of the Vedic fabric of life gave way to a confined system and a general degradation set in with the advancement of age.

Vedic Religion:

The origin of Hinduism can be traced to the Vedas which depict the Divine Truth revealed by the rishis and sages in their state of supernormal consciousness. The heart of the Vedic culture was their religion which manifested itself with the chanting of Vedic mantras.

Nature Worship:

The religion of the Vedic people was very simple in nature. The Aryans led pastoral life and spent their time amid the bounties of nature. The towering peaks of the mountains, vast green fields, boundless seas encircling the land on three sides, the splendor of changing seasons all these produced a purifying effect on them.

These lustrous natural phenomena inspired the Vedic Aryans to worship nature with awe and reverence. They were conscious of both the creative and destructive aspects of natural forces. So they wanted to please these forces to receive their blessings and keep away their wrath and destruction. The “Vedic gods worshipped by the Aryans were generally personified powers of nature. These gods can be classified into three categories corresponding to three orders.

This classification is founded on the basis of natural forces that the deities represent. Hence, such a division is quite practical and is least open to objection. All the gods worshipped by the Aryans numbered thirty-three divided into the above three groups.

The gods are described to have been born, though not simultaneously, but are immortal, unlike human beings. In appearance, however, they are humans, though sometimes they are conceived as having figures of animals. For example, Dyaus appears as a bull and Surya as a swift horse. These gods usually travel in the air by chariots driven by steeds and occasionally by other animals.

Human food articles like milk, grain, flesh etc. becomes the food of the gods when offered during sacrifice. On the whole, the Aryan gods were benevolent. But some of them had malevolent traits like Rudra (Fire) and Marut (Air or Wind). Splendor, strength, knowledge and truth were common attributes of the deities. It was the firm belief of the Aryans that gods subdued forces of evil, regulated the natural and social order, rewarded the righteous and punished the sinner.

Brief description of Gods of different spheres:

The Vedic sages conceived the existence of individualized spiritual principles behind the inert matter. For instance, Prithvi was mentioned as a personification of earth. Usha was regarded as the goddess of dawn to whom a number of hymns were addressed. Ratri was the spirit of the night who had a beautiful hymn to herself. Aranyani was the goddess of the forest – a deity of lesser importance.

India was the most powerful god of the Vedic age who fulfilled the dual functions of the gods of war and weather. Marut was the god of wind whose chief sphere of action was the ethereal middle region. Surya (Sun) was the destroyer of darkness. He embodied light, energy, life and wealth. Agni, the god of fire, was the intermediary between gods and acted like a coordinator among all divinities.

The offerings poured into the holy fire were supposed to be sent by Agni to various other deities. So every family had a hearth to invoke Agni. Soma was a divinity of special character. He was regarded as the god of wine but afterwards the priests identified him with the moon. Varna was the god of Truth and no sinner could escape from his clutches. Mitra, a god with solar characteristics, was mainly connected with vows and compacts. Yama, the god of the dead, was the guardian of the world of the ancestors. In addition to these divinities, others like Prajanya, Savitri, Saraswati, Brihaspati were also venerated by the Vedic Aryans.

Mode of Worship:

A very simple mode of worship was adopted by the Aryans to worship these gods and goddesses. Prayers and offerings to these divine figures were made not only for material gains but also for enlightenment and knowledge. Gayatri mantra was the most popular in this regard which was recited daily—a practice still in vogue in India.

The Aryans were not worshippers of images or idols. They could ignite fire with sacred wood by chanting different mantras or reciting hymns. This tradition of fire ceremony or yajna was a characteristic ritual to worship the gods and goddesses. Milk, ghee, grains, fruits, Somarasa (wine) etc. were offered to this holy fire. They believed that such rituals would please the gods who in return would shower their bounties on the devotees.

Every Aryan family had a special place of worship. All the members of the family gathered there to participate in the religious offerings and sacrifices. They believed that such offerings would bring in material, prosperity. Vedic literatures also refer to the holding of annual sacrifices. Ashvamedha yajna was specially performed by emperors to mark their military supremacy. It may be mentioned here that in spite of such rituals the method of early Vedic worship was quite simple and acceptable to all.

This simple flavour of early Vedic religion, however, underwent profound changes in the later Vedic period. One glaring example is that in the early Vedic age every householder was his own priest who performed religious ceremonies and rituals in the precincts of his own family. But with the introduction of Varnashram and division of the society according to birth and profession, the institution of priesthood came into prominence in the later Vedic age.

Belief in Monotheism:

As discussed above, the Aryans used to worship various manifestations of nature. The worshipping of various forces of nature as gods generally gives the impression that Aryans were polytheists. However, that was not the real case. Behind the worshipping of several natural phenomena, the Aryans sincerely believed in a single Absolute Truth permeating all natural phenomena.

The following is one of the oft-quoted hymns of the Rig Veda that signifies the unity of one godhead:

Indram Mitrarn Varunamagnimahu

Atho Divya sa Suparno Gurutmana

Ekam Sat Vipra Vahudha Badanti

Agnim Yamam Matariswan Mahu

[Truth is one and is variously named by the Vedic sages as Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, Yama and Matariswan. All these divinities are one and indivisible and belong to the Absolute one.]

Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration of Soul:

Vedic religion had attached much importance to doctrine of Karma or action. In other words, a good soul who performed good deeds was rewarded whereas the evil soul was punished for evil deeds. So the concept of heaven and hell dominated the Aryans’ religious belief.

Apart from the doctrine of Karma the Aryans strongly believed in the concept of transmigration of soul, meaning life after death. Action determines the destiny of man. However, soul is immortal and leaves the body, which dies, to be reborn elsewhere. It enjoys or suffers according to the action performed in this mundane world. The Aryans used to burn their dead and then consigned the ashes to the water because they believed that only then would the soul rest in peace.

Later Vedic Age:

The period that followed the Rig Veda is known as the Later Vedic Age (roughly from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C.). Great significant changes took place in the religious life of the people during this age. The old gods like Varuna, Indra, Agni and Surya were worshipped with lesser zeal. New gods like Shiva, Vishnu and Vasudeva Krishna came into prominence. Snake-worship and the concept of Devasura (god-demon) battle received much attention.

Another change that took place during this period was the elaboration of rites and ceremonies concerning the old Vedic religion. In the later Vedic age animal sacrifice became an important part of religion. Indeed, gods played second role to such sacrifices. It was firmly believed that the gods would be happy if animals were sacrificed at religious altars. Superstitions, belief in spirits, charms, imps and witchcraft found a place in the Vedic religion. Ceremonial aspects of religion became more elaborate, complicated, expensive and fashionable. A separate class of priests emerged to supervise and conduct such rituals and sacrifices.

Nevertheless, a high sense of duty and morality influenced the later Vedic religious thought. People began to believe that life was a duty and responsibility. Man was believed to be born with certain debts that should be properly repaid by performing certain duties. He had a debt to repay to gods, rishis, ancestors, members of his family and society and above all, to himself. Following the truth, performance of duty, respect for parents, love for fellow-beings, abstinence from theft, adultery, murder and such other sins were considered to be essential for a pure life.

Another current of the later Vedic religious thought was the ascetic ideal of life. Tapa or austerity and brahmacharya or celibacy were emphasized. An ascetic was a person who had renounced worldly life and retired to the solitude of the forest to meditate upon spirituality. For the purification of soul he had to practise self-mortification. This belief became more prominent in the Epic

Age or the Age of Puranas which constituted the last part of the Vedic Age. Thus, it is seen that the religious simplicity was gradually lost and religion became more and more rigid and complex. New philosophies and systems made it more confusing for the common man. To sum up, the spirit of sacrifice, restraint and harmony through love and desire for attainment of immortality came to be the dominant factors of the cultural life of the Aryans.

No one can understand the significance of the cultural spirit of India unless he keeps in view these predominant trends of inner thought — the life of the land. Swami Sivananda has rightly remarked, “One in the many, unity in diversity, harmony not discord, is the perennial message of Vedic India.”

The last Sukta of the Rig Veda breathes this feeling unequivocally in the following manner:

“Assemble together, speak in one voice, let your minds be all of one accord … Let all priests deliberate in a common way. Common be their assembly, common be their mind, so be their thoughts united … united be the thoughts of all that all may live happily, that ye may all happily reside.”