Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Mr. Brian L. Compton, Ms. Meow Blair and Ms. Wyvette Williams for their superior work in preparing this manual

The Cooperative Extension Program of Kentucky State University is an Equal Opportunity Organization authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, color, sex, age, handicap or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work act of September 29, 1977 in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Harold R. Benson, Administrator, Cooperative Extension Program, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky.

This publication compiles the best works of aquaculture biologists from several states and puts them into one manual for convenient referencing and explains catfish farming in a manner customized for Kentucky residents. The Stocking section of this manual explains these strategies. Ph. stocking strategies unique to Kentucky allow its fish farmers to approach the higher production levels obtained in the deep South.000 acres (in January.
4
. 2000).
Catfish Farming
Catfish farming in the United States began in the early 1960s and has grown to 189. Opportunities for raising catfish profitably in Kentucky are present due to a large pay lake market that consumes about 2 million pounds of catfish a year. Although Kentucky has a slightly shorter growing season than states farther south. local residents.the mega processors in the deep South have a strong hold on the frozen processed fish market but have left the live fresh fish market wide open for local Kentucky fish growers seeking niche markets. grocery stores and restaurants.D.CATFISH FARMING IN KENTUCKY
Compiled and Written by Robert Durborow. These markets include pay lakes. Kentucky-based live-haulers who deliver fish to the pay lakes would prefer to get fish from their own state if they could find enough reliable producers. The live fish market also lies largely untapped by residents in Kentucky .

pumps. storage building. Management Do you already have suitable ponds or a pond site? Do you have most of the equipment (tractors. just as answering no does not mean failure. Answering yes to all or most of the questions does not guarantee success. a checklist is provided below.Decision to Become a Catfish Farmer
To help you determine if catfish farming is feasible for you in your particular situation. It does not cover all of the possibilities. etc. but it does list most of the important considerations. management and risk? G G G G G G G G G G G G Yes G No G
5
.) needed? Do you have the necessary financial resources (about $3000/acre investment and $2500/acre annual production cost)? Have you made an estimate of investment costs and annual cost and return? Have you estimated the impact of changes in fish prices and feed costs on projected income? Will current interest rates and interest costs on investment and operating capital permit a reasonable profit? Will the expected profit provide an adequate return for your labor.

Management you intend to use?
(continued)
Yes G
No G
Is catfish farming the best alternative for the land
Can you afford to forego income until you sell your first crop (usually 15-24 months after starting)? Have you looked at record systems available and picked one best suited to your situation? Can you afford to absorb occasional losses? Are you willing to devote the time and effort required? G G G G G G G G
Marketing Do you know of an established market for your fish? Is there a market for your fish at the time of year you plan to sell them? Will you have harvesting and transport equipment. or do you have a suitable arrangement for harvesting your fish? Will you be able to harvest fish year round? Do you have an alternative marketing strategy? G G G G G G G G G G
6
.

and harvesting? Is the pond bottom suitable for harvesting (smooth and stump free)? Will someone live close enough to the pond to allow frequent observation and necessary management?
Yes G
No G
G
G
G G G
G G G
G G
G G
G
G
G
G
G
G
7
. for feeding. regardless of weather. treating.Physical Factors Will the soil hold water? Is the topography of the land suitable for pond construction? Is there adequate ground water close enough to the surface for catfish farming or is the amount of rain run-off from your watershed sufficient? Is the water quality suitable for fish farming? Is the pond area protected from flooding? Are the drains in existing ponds adequate for rapid draining? Can you prevent wild fish from entering the pond? Is there daily access to the ponds.

8
.these are skills and tolerances you will need on a fish farm. If not. Most farmers were born and raised on a farm. Non-farmers will need to go through a period of on-the-job training.Production Are good quality feeds available at competitive prices? Is there a convenient source for drugs and chemicals? Are fingerlings available at competitive prices? Can you make or purchase needed aeration equipment? Is dependable labor available? Is dependable diagnostic service available? Do you have adequate storage facilities for feed? Are you aware of the government agencies that can provide you with educational and technical assistance? A Note to Non-Farmers
Yes G G G
No G G G
G G G G
G G G G
G
G
A large number of information requests that are received by Extension Offices for fish farming are from non-farming. keep good records and work to find the best markets for their product. great . Successful farmers must have a sound understanding of the economics of their operation. Are you the kind of person who does most of the maintenance and repair work? Can you put up with outdoor work during bad weather and odd hours? If so. you may wish to reconsider before getting into fish farming. In addition. farming today requires much more than just being able to produce a crop. This puts the non-farmer at a considerable disadvantage. urban residents. Very few learned how to farm as an adult.

Larger farms are able to produce fish at a lower price per pound than smaller farms. there are economies of scale in commercial catfish production. financing may be available for less than half of the total initial capital cost. This section explains differences between large and small catfish operations and the importance of direct marketing to the success of small fish farms. day and night. For example. Cooperative Extension budgets show that pond construction. If an aerator fails. 9
.Small Scale Catfish Production
The high capital investment and operating capital requirements of commercial catfish production have prevented many small-scale farmers from participating in this enterprise when they receive less than $1. in order to have fresh feed. equipment and operating expenses may average $5.00 per pound. There are a number of important considerations before beginning small-scale catfish production and direct marketing. Large farms have nighttime oxygen crews that monitor ponds regularly.000 to $500. Since lenders typically require at least 65 percent owner equity for catfish loans. a minimum of 80 to 100 acres of ponds is required. Like many agricultural crops.000 investment capital is needed to start this kind of commercial catfish farm. Large vs Small Farms Large catfish farms are expensive to build and operate. This means that $400.000 per acre before the first fish is harvested. Experts on catfish culture believe that for a catfish farm to be successful. based on sales to processors. fish may die in a matter of minutes. Small-scale catfish production is a lowercost option that can provide an income opportunity for individuals willing to market their fish directly to consumers. Intensive catfish production on a part-time basis is risky because the farmer cannot watch the ponds on a regular basis. Small-scale producers generally get lower yields because they stock and feed at lower rates to reduce the risk of water quality problems. must purchase bagged feed which costs 10 to 20 percent more. large farms can buy catfish feed in bulk by the truckload while smaller producers.

It is obvious that. The dotted line indicates a break-even price of 65¢/lb.Cost of Production Large fish farms typically sell most of their production to fish processing plants. The solid line shows a typical break-even price for a large farm. representing the cost of producing catfish on a small-scale. Larger producers also save a portion of their earnings to allow them to survive periods of low catfish prices when fish production is not profitable. in many years.
80 75
Cents/lb
70 65 60 55 50
1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993
Year small farm production cost large farm production cost
The above chart shows the average price/lb paid by processors over the past 14 years. potential profits are slim to none especially for a small farm. but the large quantity of fish sold allows a farm to operate profitably. Most farmers own shares in these plants that entitle them to sell certain quantities. Profit margins per pound are low.
10
.

Based on these numbers. will add to the profits of the small farmer. For a farmer with a five-acre pond producing 4. even a 2¢/lb profit means a return to labor and management of only $400/year. Having part ownership in a small processing plant. A small operation simply cannot survive by selling to a large scale processor.
11
. The key is that profits are made by selling the fish. allows directs sales of fish to the consumer to be profitable.50/hour because a farmer would easily labor for more than 160 hours a year doing the work of feeding and watching the fish.
Catering fish dinners.9¢/lb. The distribution of processed fish through food brokers and supermarkets adds a mark-up to the price of fish. and provides the consumer with a less expensive product. so the consumer pays far more for the fish than the processing plant receives.
Advantage of Direct Sales Does all this mean that there is no place for a small-scale producer? Not at all. not by raising them. It means that a small-scale producer must look to other markets to sell his or her fish rather than selling only to a large processor. This would provide a wage of less than $2. Bypassing these middlemen avoids such markups. however. especially if the consumer will dress their own fish.000 lb/acre/year (assuming no oxygen or disease problems). the average profit over the 14-year period would be 1.

12
. social organization and political organizations all hold fish fries. As the industry grew. where 10. concerns about contaminants in wild fish have been heightened in recent years. However. churches.000 pound truckloads of fish could be sold at one time. Before starting a catfish farm. and consumers are wary of products on ice or frozen. A successful small-scale operation is possible especially when the producer works to develop a market and sells fish directly to consumers. Direct marketing of fish requires time. money. It is not a way to get wealthy. Commercial catfish production practices can be adapted to small-scale operations.00 to $1. with an additional 35-45¢/lb for cleaning fish. get all the information you can on marketing and know where you will sell your fish. or he/she can cater these events. farms expanded in acreage and moved to selling fish to processors and live haulers. This has resulted in a large and unmet demand for live farm-raised fish. Families. hard work and people skills. Marketing catfish on a small-scale is not for everyone. retail sales of live catfish were common and were critical to the success of a number of new operations. but it provides a way for the smallscale producer to make money in the catfish business. Information on how to raise catfish is readily available from the Cooperative Extension System. Fish are notorious for spoilage. It may be best to start as a part-time business as a means to supplement other income. Returns are higher than what can be obtained from sales to a processor. Fish markets selling wild-caught fish have traditionally supplied the bulk of the market for fresh fish. Farm-raised fish provide an alternative source of high quality fresh fish for local communities.Another factor in favor of direct sales is the freshness of the product. business. Live catfish sold directly to the consumer can bring $1. In the early days of the catfish industry in the deep south. A local producer can supply the desired fresh fish. selling the final cooked product to the public.000-20.35/lb.

This will allow daily
13
. if not.
An existing pond needs to be inspected to determine if it is suitable for commercial catfish culture or.Using Existing Farm Ponds
Thousands of farm ponds dot the Kentucky landscape. formerly SCS) office for assistance in pond inspection and renovation. For commercial catfish culture. it is important to evaluate carefully the condition of an existing pond before using it to start a catfish enterprise.
Existing ponds may be suitable for aquaculture. It is tempting to consider using existing farm ponds for commercial catfish farming because pond construction is a major cost in starting a catfish farm. While it may be possible to do so. If you simply want to raise a few catfish as a hobby or to provide subsistence for your family and friends. what the costs would be to remedy deficiencies. Contact your local USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS. a pond should be accessible by an all-weather road. you should probably consider leaving the pond in its present condition to avoid unnecessary costs. however.

and management tasks such as moving portable aerators are more difficult.000-1. Electric aerators are commonly used in commercial catfish ponds and can be used if electricity is available at the pond. Without aeration. In commercial catfish
14
. there may not be any cost. these are typically some distance apart. Security lighting will deter poachers. If power can be provided to several ponds through one new line. Distant ponds may suffer from a lack of attention. annual fish production is limited to about 1. Many ponds were originally constructed for watering cattle or recreational fishing.500lb/acre. because feeding should be restricted to less than 34 lb/acre/day to maintain water quality. Roads need to be graveled and of sufficient width and sturdiness to allow passage of a hauling truck. Many existing farm ponds are constructed away from roads and houses. Theft can be a major problem because isolated ponds away from houses or located near woods are vulnerable to poachers.pond management as well as providing access at harvest time. fish may not be fed and water quality may not be monitored on a regular basis. Check with your power company for information on your particular situation. This is particularly true for a part-time operation where the owner will have many other concerns to attend to during the day. Modifying Farm Ponds for Catfish Production Existing ponds may not be suitable for commercial catfish production without modification. but require manual operation. It takes more time to feed ponds that are spread out. Installation of three-phase electrical service may involve a charge for ponds located more than several poles away from existing power lines. Where there are a number of farm ponds. Levees at least 16 feet wide are recommended. Diesel or gasoline powered aerators can be used.

silt removal. stump removal. leading to erosion and possible dam failure. For ponds filled by rain water runoff. The only way to reliably harvest commercial ponds is through seining (netting) the entire ponds. It may be impossible to cut grass and weeds on eroded dams. and form channels that can cause leaks or eventual dam failure. Most ponds are constructed with a low section to one side of the dam that allows excess water to exit a full pond during heavy rains. careful attention must be paid to the ponds emergency spillway. Modifications to allow a pond to be seined may prove more expensive than construction of a new pond. Most existing farm ponds will need at least some clearing and levee work before they can be used for commercial catfish culture. Major modifications that may be required by farm ponds are: levee work. pond levees can be damaged by erosion and burrowing animals such as muskrats. Fencing the spillway is not recommended as trash and leaves can clog the mesh and cause water to pour over the top of the dam. Complete or partial draining is usually necessary. water leaving over the emergency spillway should not be over 1 to 2 inches deep. retains fish and is less susceptible to clogging. grading of the pond bottom and installation of a drainpipe. and the tops of levees must be wide enough to allow vehicle traffic. Levee work Over time.
15
. A horizontal bar spillway barrier constructed of parallel iron bars. This spillway must be kept free of trash so that it can function properly. it is essential that you are able to harvest fish from the pond when desired.production. If trees and brush have grown up on the levees. decompose. Trees will also interfere with harvesting equipment and leaves will pollute the water and clog harvest nets. one inch apart. In order for fish to remain in the pond. their roots may penetrate the dam.

In many cases. Costs for removing stumps vary with stump diameter and condition of the pond bottom. Obviously. Because water depths of less than 2½ . a backhoe with mats or hauling in additional earth to mix with the pond bottom mud. Deeper cuts during the reworking process could expose areas of permeable soils. Care is needed in the renovation process. stump removal must be accomplished using other equipment such as a bulldozer with a cable or winch. a backhoe with mats. Grading pond bottom Pond basins that contain deeper pockets or drop-offs are difficult to seine.
16
. the contractor must resort to a dragline. the ends and edges of ponds may need to be deepened to reduce shallow areas. Some contractors may charge by the acre rather than by the number of stumps. smooth and gently sloping pond bottom is desirable for harvesting fish.3 feet promote the growth of aquatic weeds. As with stump removal. If the pond bottom is always wet. there is a risk of breaking the seal of the pond. Reworking farm ponds can lead to seepage problems in some cases. If the pond bottom cannot be dried.Silt removal Many pond sites were not cleared when the ponds were constructed initially. costs for grading work vary tremendously for dry or wet conditions. A bulldozer can push out stumps in the process of grading the pond bottom. and ponds may contain standing timber or stumps. it is impossible or a waste of time to try to grade pond bottoms under wet conditions. causing a leak. ponds with stumps cannot be harvested using a seine. A clean. Stump removal is relatively inexpensive if the pond bottom can be dried. A bulldozer can quickly grade a pond bottom under dry conditions. It should be noted that when stumps are removed. a front end loader or explosives.

Permanent siphon pipes laid on top of the dam restrict access to the dam and increased labor is required to control vegetation. Drainpipe installation Many farm ponds in Kentucky were constructed without drains. While the cheapest way to install or replace a drainpipe is to cut a trench with vertical walls. Cutting a pond levee to install a drain in an existing pond is very expensive. The cut must be made in a v-shape.Ponds may have sealed over time through the accumulation of organic matter which may be disturbed or oxidized during renovation. so that proper compaction of replacement soil can be obtained. allowing water to leak out of the pond when it is refilled. but would require substantial labor. because extensive earthmoving is required in the highest and thickest portion of the dam. Pumping out water at each harvest would be expensive and slow in most cases. There is a risk however. At least partial draining is required for harvesting fish from most farm ponds. of dam failure when this is done. Burying the siphon pipe in the dam would allow vehicle traffic. Without proper compacting. there is a greater likelihood of dam failure. it is very difficult to properly compact the fill material in a vertical cut. Costs of contracting to install drainpipes may be prohibitive for small-scale farmers. Siphons are relatively slow and will quit working if air leaks into the system. but are a lower cost option for draining ponds. Another alternative is to use a siphon structure. Siphons can be constructed over the top of a dam or underground to drain ponds. because many have areas where the water is deeper than the maximum 4 to 5 feet depth that can be harvested with a seine.
17
. Some clay pond bottoms will crack when dried. Check with your local NRCS representative for further help.

longer fish may be sold by the pound. only a portion of the fish in large ponds can be removed by trapping. larger quantities can be obtained by trapping fish with a seine. especially if they are an improved or selected strain. ponds can still be used to produce increased quantities of fish for home consumption. Catfish are sold in all forms of their life stages. When fish are fed on a regular basis and at least a portion of the pond bottom is smooth and free from obstructions. No profits are made until your crop of fish is sold. Food fish are normally three-fourths to two pounds in weight and are sold by the pound.
Marketing
A marketing plan should be the first step taken when one is considering catfish production. Egg masses are sold by the pound. and the price changes annually depending on the supply or success of local hatcheries in spawning fish. In this method a 100-200 foot seine is left in the pond parallel to the bank. Catfish fry are sold by the piece. While repeated trapping can catch a majority of fish in ponds of less than two acres.
18
.Alternatives If modifications required for a pond to be used for commercial catfish production prove to be too expensive. and fingerling fish longer than 1-inch are usually sold singly by the inch up to about six or eight inches. Albino catfish are a novelty sometimes sought by fee-fishing operations or the aquarium trade. Fish can be removed by hook and line or fish traps. Fish are fed regularly in the space between the seine and the shore. Ropes attached to the two ends of the seine allow it to be pulled to the shore. so it cannot be used as the sole harvest method for commercial producers. Some specialty markets exist for brood fish. trapping feeding fish in the seine for harvest.

out of holding tanks or when harvested. if any. Fee-fishing ponds or pay lakes are most successful when they are located near a large urban area. and advertising is usually required to be successful. Profits may be low if fish are sold to a processor wholesale market. Some pay lake operators provide fish cleaning services. They usually want processed fish delivered on a regular basis. Production costs per pound of fish produced are usually higher than those of larger farms because of the economy of scale. Live weight prices for farm raised catfish in Kentucky pay lakes range from about $1. weekly supply of marketsized fish is usually required. Pay lakes offer a good marketing opportunity in some areas. Fish are sold undressed or live through fee-fishing ponds.00 per pound.
19
. Liability insurance is recommended and certain regulations should be adopted. sell concessions and rent fishing equipment. (Some local businesses will run a special if fish cannot be delivered regularly). The small farms usually cannot take advantage of discounts for bulk purchases of feed and seed stock. This is typically a very expensive procedure.40 to $2. Fish can be sold off trucks in areas where there is demand. depending on the location or demand. Ponds are often smaller and more costly to build per acre. Other retail markets include local stores and restaurants.Retail Markets Retail marketing is practiced mostly by smaller. This means regular harvesting and the ability to hand-process fish. and customer satisfaction and service are important for repeat business. Local health department and FDA regulations must be met to process legally. A good. Retail prices are usually influenced by local competition. commercial farms.

and live fish need to be transported and delivered to the customers pond. If this is the case. Many producers do not enjoy doing their own marketing. Results can be excellent to poor.
Retailing fish through pay lakes. and others sell fish only at harvest time. This can be a good business. Some broker fish through local residents who desire to market fish.Producers also sell fish to local residents in a variety of ways. Some producers cater fish fries. innovativeness and local competition. a quality product and good service are required.
Retail markets also exist for the sale of catfish fingerlings or stocker fish.
20
. The value of fish sold depends on location. A higher price is usually obtained compared to wholesale sales to commercial farms. These fish are marketed primarily to people who have recreational or farm ponds. the production capacity. Easy access to fish is needed to fill orders quickly. Advertising is required. Fish can be sold live or dressed. Small-scale producers should consider a directretail market if feasible. depending on efforts and the specific situation. then it is important to carefully evaluate the economic feasibility for a small-scale operation before money is invested in production. It is preferable to be in an area where farm ponds are numerous.

make a list of costs for everything associated with machinery. fingerlings. they can sell to customers who do not follow Fish and Wildlifes strict guidelines and cannot qualify for the free fish.
21
. interest on borrowed money. transport.The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources is also in the business of stocking peoples private ponds. trucks. tractors. These are your fixed costs. They should be charged off some each year of the expected life since they will eventually need to be replaced. feed bins. wells. Finally. These are your variable costs. Next. equipment. make a list of the expendable items you will need to buy each year to produce your fish. This will include feed. a tractor that is used 20 percent of the time for fish farming would show up on your list as 0. tractors or other equipment that is already purchased. This may not be as complicated as you think. fuel. Generally this means estimating the amount of fish you will produce and the price you will receive for them. Private growers are also able to sell fish larger than the small fingerlings stocked by Fish and Wildlife. aerators and buildings. A good way to start is to list the income and expenses you expect. consider the income your fish farming operation will produce. and buy and sell fish. First. Equipment used for other jobs on the farm also needs to be partially charged so each enterprise can stand on its own. Examples include pond construction. For example.20 tractors. A required fish propagation permit from Fish and Wildlife allows a Kentucky resident to raise. etc. pumps. repair. electricity. Although private fish growers cannot compete against their low stocking application fee.
Economics
Taking the plunge into catfish farming should be done only after careful economic planning. Do not overlook the cost of buildings. labor.

time spent finding and developing specialty markets can yield good returns.00/lb to $1. Income can be increased by seeking out different buyers. Propagation Permit Commercial Propagation Permits are required for the production of all fish. keep in mind that the break even cost of $0.66/lb listed in the sample fish farm budget should be modified to fit your exact situation .
Permits Required For Aquaculture in Kentucky
Permits are required in Kentucky for all aspects of aquaculture from pond construction to water discharge.Another way to reduce costs would be to use your own funds instead of borrowing. low price buyers such as processing plants.20/lb. Being established as part-owner of a processing plant can also produce income through profit sharing of the processing plant. Before making your final decision about raising catfish. frogs. and other aquatic organisms.one study concluded that break even costs for small catfish farms are as high as $0. Be creative .811. Please see the section on small-scale catfish production earlier in this booklet. Then the $0.92/lb when considering total costs (Stone et al. The permittee may also sell and transport the species under this
23
. Following are descriptions of these permits.74/lb income listed at the top of the sample fish farming budget may be increased to a value closer to $1. 1997). This is often the best way to earn a profit when selling to high volume. A third way to reduce per-pound production costs would be to get bigger. If you were able to take money out of a Certificate of Deposit yielding 7 percent. your savings on interest over a 12 percent bank loan would be 5 percent or a total of $4. crayfish.

Special authorization is needed for seine nets larger than 10 feet. Transportation Permit Persons hauling any live aquatic organisms in Kentucky must have a Transportation Permit for the species being hauled. No fish or any aquatic organism may be raised in public waters. All endemic species (those occurring naturally in Kentucky) may be cultured and sold with a propagation permit. Grass Carp Triploid (sterile) grass carp require special propagation. telephone (502) 564-3596.permit.
24
. transportation. Floodplain Management Section prior to construction in or along a stream that could obstruct flood flows. Holders of the Propagation Permit are not required to have this Dealers License to buy and sell fish. Live Fish and Bait Dealers License A Live Fish and Bait Dealers License is required for everyone selling live fish retail or wholesale. Pond Construction Permit Pond construction approval is required from the Kentucky Department for Environmental Protection. It is available from the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. An issued metal identification tag must be attached to these seines. Check first with your local NRCS to see if it is necessary to contact the Division of Water. These permits are obtained from the Division of Fisheries. Most exotic species are not permitted for commercial production. Division of Water. These fish may be purchased only from producers who are certified by the Division of Fisheries. This is obtained from the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. and holding and rearing permits.

that no longer have wetland characteristics. TN (901) 544-3471. TN (615) 736-5181. Mississippi River Drainage in Memphis. KY 40601). USDA program benefits may be forfeited or ponds may be required to be filled. or a flooded or saturated root zone. check with the NRCS to see if your land is classified as wetlands. then the U. the State Historic Preservation Officer from Frankfort will evaluate the prospective pond site for its archeological value. unless you are exempted by one of the following:
25
. If a farmed or converted wetland is drained. cleared of trees or altered beyond the effect of original drainage. The Kentucky Department for Environmental Protection. penalties or fines may result. Floodplain Management Sections telephone number is (502) 564-3410 (18 Reilly Road. Frankfort. 1985. Army Corps of Engineers must be contacted at the following numbers (depending on your location): Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers Drainage in Nashville. which are lands producing crops prior to December 23. If the NRCS determines that the land is a wetland. Kentucky River Drainage in Louisville. Exempted are prior-converted wetlands. Division of Water can be contacted at: (502) 564-3410. KY (502) 315-6687. a predominance of wetland vegetation. In some cases. Water Discharge Permit Kentucky Pollution Discharge Elimination System (KPDES) requires that a Discharge Permit is needed in Kentucky.S. or Eastern Kentucky in Huntington. Wetlands are characterized by moist soil. filled. Water Withdrawal Permit A Withdrawal Permit is needed for aquaculture. Wetlands Before constructing ponds.The Division of Water. WV (304) 529-5210.

If you do not meet any of these listed qualifications. The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. The soil should contain preferably at least 20% to 30% clay by weight to minimize seepage. the lake must be stocked at least twice a year with not less than 500 pounds of adult fish per surface acre.000 pounds of food are used each year.000 pounds of coldwater fish are produced each year.C C C C C
Less than 20. Warmwater ponds discharge only during periods of excess runoff.000 pounds of warmwater fish are produced each year. rock fissures or sand should be avoided. Division of Water. you need to obtain a Discharge Permit from the Kentucky Department for Environmental Protection. issues the license. Water is discharged less than 30 days per year. Less than 100.
Pond Site Selection
Subsoils A suitable pond site should have a soil type and composition that holds water economically. Less than 5. must then have a Kentucky fishing license). Pay Lakes In order to qualify as a pay lake. of course. Areas with pockets of gravel. giving them permission to fish at the lake without a fishing license. Division of Water in Frankfort at (502) 564-3410. No Pay Lake Operation License is needed if the pay lake does not distribute fishing permits to its patrons (each person.
26
. A Pay Lake Operation License is needed if the owner issues permits to pay lake patrons.

Hill ponds are not ideal for commercial catfish farming. Check with NRCS or the U.S. It can be flat or hilly. Topography The topography is the lay of the land. Make sure that ponds do not block drainage from a neighbors land or interfere or cause any damage off your property. Make a ball of soil with your fist and drop it to the ground.000 to 6. maintenance and to reestablish fish inventories. Also avoid building ponds on lands classified as wetlands due to legal restrictions. Also use several visual tests to evaluate the suitability of your soil. A dam is usually constructed between two hillsides. Less dirt is moved per acre to construct ponds on flatland compared to watershed ponds of equal size built on hilly terrain. Low. and refer to a soils map for your area for information on the types of soils found on your land. where annual yields reach 3. requires a dependable 27
. Good drainage is important because eventually ponds will require complete draining for repairs. poor quality soils will break apart. wet ground should be carefully evaluated for agricultural chemical residues because these areas receive runoff from surrounding farmland. and the water supply is surface runoff from the surrounding watershed and springs. Roll the soil out like a thread. The intensive production of catfish. but they can be used successfully. Flatland permits construction of large ponds while pond size is limited in areas with slopes of more than 3% to 5%. The topography determines the amount of dirt that has to be moved and also the size of the pond. Water Supply Catfish are raised under various management levels using different sources of water. The topography around ponds should permit drainage by gravity flow during any season. Small wells are also sometimes used to supplement hill ponds.Meet with your County Agricultural Extension Agent and a soil scientist or geologist from the NRCS. A soil with good clay content will remain intact. Army Corps of Engineers for current guidelines.000 pounds per acre.

Ponds used to grow stocker fish (fingerlings) should fill in five days or less. Refer to Table 1 to determine filling times for ponds at different pumping rates. For a quick fill. quantity and location of groundwater. Direct rainfall should be captured in ponds by keeping the water level several inches below the overflow pipe.2 inches per day or more. food fish production ponds should have a filling time of 10 days or less. Contact NRCS. Groundwater maps may be available for your area. One well of 250 gpm to 500 gpm capacity can be used to serve a group of four ponds each about 5 acres in size. or other persons with operating wells to learn more about the availability of water in your area. The availability of groundwater varies with location. The size of well and output in gallons per minute (gpm) should match the water requirements for ponds. local water well drillers. Smaller well water capacities may suffice especially if supplemented with rainwater run-off from a watershed.
28
. then the water requirement will be met for all equal or smaller ponds. These losses can be 0. Water is required to fill ponds and maintain water levels to compensate for losses from evaporation and seepage. The depth to groundwater will determine the cost of pumping water and the cost of the pumping station.1 to 0.year-round supply of water. Analyze the quality of the well water to detect any possible problems with heavy metals or other possible contaminants. pump all water into one pond and fill it completely before distributing water to others. When filling ponds. Determine the desired water requirement for the largest pond. This supplemental water reduces the need for pumping. locate a boat or metal roofing material below the discharge site to minimize scouring and erosion from the force of flowing water. The resources of ponds and wells such as this are available in some western Kentucky counties. Preferably. A test bore well should be drilled to evaluate the quality.

Check the average rainfall amount by month for your area.5 9 18 1.500 0. For hill ponds. Ponds are refilled during the fall and winter and are restocked in the fall or the following spring to produce another crop.5 9 23 45 90 500 1. Fish are often stocked in the spring and harvested completely during the fall when ponds are partially drained.8 4.000 pounds per acre or less.5 0.3 0.0 6.3 4.6 9 18 36 Pumping Rate (gpm) 1. wells and springs may supply water. The annual average should be at least 50 inches.9 2.8 3.000 0.9 1.Table 1. and serious water drawdown can occur during a summer drought. Evaluate the water flow from natural springs during the fall. the ratio of the watershed area to the pond area is important.2 3. Production levels seldom exceed 4.000 0. An undersized watershed area may supply insufficient water to fill the pond in the desired time.000 pounds per acre and are usually closer to 2. Water is not available year-round. An oversized watershed area may damage the dam from excessive water or require a diversion canal.6 1. when discharge is usually 29
.5 3 6
Catfish are also raised in hill ponds where surface runoff.5 9 3.6 1.0 12 2. Estimated pond filling time in days at different pumping rates
Po nd Size (A c r e s ) 200 1 2 5 10 20 4. All watershed ponds should have emergency spillways to prevent damage to the dam and loss of fish from excessive runoff water during heavy rains.000 0.

Remember that spring water is cool. Strip mining pits can serve as a water source for adjacent production ponds.
Coal strip mining pits
Water from Coal Mining Land Water from coal mining land is often a good reliable water source if the coal is low in sulfur content. A retention time of at least three weeks is desirable.lowest. and disease transmission is more likely. Continuous water exchanges often lead to infertile water that is clear and very susceptible to aquatic weed problems. digging a well is not necessary). Low sulfur coal is not typically associated with extremely low pH as is high sulfur coal. the water is pumped laterally from the coal mining pits at a fraction of the cost of pumping from a deep aquafer (and. and a continuous flow through a pond may inhibit growth of warmwater catfish. but must often be used in many situations. Undesirable wild fish are more apt to enter ponds. if spring water will be an important water source. of course. Water pumped from surface waters in rivers or streams is less desirable for intensive production. Activities upstream or in the watershed can contaminate the water and silt loads often are heavy. Mining land can also be reclaimed into production ponds with a large reservoir water
30
.

would first have to be approved by the Kentucky Department of Surface Mining Reclamation. Determine the location of the nearest power line and telephone line and evaluate access cost. The pond layout should also allow for expansion if desired.
31
. The water is constantly replenished. If you are beginning to farm catfish with a commitment to develop it as a sole source of income. Such a reclamation plan. Use of abandoned deep mines is also a feasible source of water. however. maintaining cool. then make sure enough land is available for possible future expansion. services and markets. clean water with a high oxygen content. natural gas or water in the proposed pond site to avoid possible legal problems. Secure legal right-of-way if needed. Livestock feedlots or agricultural production can produce harmful contaminants. Wild fish may enter ponds through open drainpipes. Note activities in the surrounding watershed where surface runoff reaches ponds. Severe flooding can damage levees and ruin a fish crop. General Location Take precautions if the site is in a flood plain or low-lying area. Determine the cost of feed and stocker fish for your area and your proximity to necessary chemicals. water is siphoned from one such mine in Eastern Kentucky and allowed to flow through circular fiberglass tanks that hold rainbow trout. and pond draining may be impossible during times of flooding. Evaluate access to your land from major roads and the condition of roadways that will be used by heavily loaded trucks. Check for the presence of any under or above ground lines for power. supplies.source as a routine part of the mining companys legal obligation to reclaim mined land.

This means that the lowest elevation in the ponds must be higher than the level of water or ground in the ditch where water is drained.
Large ponds in the Mississippi Delta
Drainage Ponds should be laid out and constructed to permit independent draining of each by gravity flow. Unless careful consideration is given to the design and the cost of pond construction.2 feet per 100 feet from the shallow to the deep end. Inside or outside harvest basins are not recommended unless for some special purpose. This elevation difference at the discharge site should be at least two feet to prevent entry of wild fish. All drain lines for a series of adjacent ponds should be at the same end and drain water by gravity flow into a common ditch or drainage area.
32
. This is important when fish are harvested or the pond is drained. The bottom of the pond should be smooth and slope about 0.Pond Construction
Construction of ponds for the commercial production of catfish is one of the most expensive and important aspects in developing a fish farm. you may find the layout is not suitable for the species of fish you want to raise or the cost of building makes it impossible to make a profit.1 to 0.

Attach a chain to the end of the drain and a post either alongside the drain or on the bank. Make sure that the pipe is held in place securely to prevent accidental drainage and possible fish losses. The screening also keeps out debris. The discharge end of the drain should extend at least 5 to 10 feet past the toe of the levee to prevent erosion and soil sloughing at the discharge site. The level of water is determined by raising or lowering the pipe. A modification of the T is the use of a two-foot high vertical valve. The end of the pipe inside the pond is screened and is 5 to 10 feet beyond the toe of the levee to prevent clogging from any sloughing dirt. The pond is drained completely by removing the cap at the end of the T.
33
. The height of the upward vertical standpipe maintains the desired water level in the pond. The end of the T is capped. This method allows rapid draining of water from the pond and prevents entry of wild fish through the drainpipe. Maintenance and repair of the underwater swivel joint are difficult and dangerous unless the pond is drained (the force of water draining into the standpipe can easily hold a person underneath and lead to drowning). Some riprap may be desirable to minimize erosion in the drainage ditch. The drain is located at the lowest elevation in the ponds and extends through the levee. The end of the T has an alfalfa (sunshine) valve for adjusting the water level or draining the pond. The outside end of the pipe is fitted with a T. especially at the discharge pipe. They should also be large enough to drain any ponds in the desired time. Water level is maintained by opening the alfalfa valve to remove any excess rainwater. The standpipe also functions as an overflow pipe or trickle tube to discharge any overflow following heavy rains. Drains can also be placed outside the pond. turtles and fish.Drain structures vary in design and location. This minimizes obstruction in the pond during harvesting and allows easier access for maintenance and use. Refer to Table 2 for discharge rates in gpm for drainpipes of various sizes. The most common design is the turndown pipe.

Construct one or more ramps from the nearest road to the levees for access to the ponds. Slopes of 4:1 or higher create shallower water along the bank where aquatic weed problems are most common. Shallower water makes it more likely that nuisance aquatic weeds will grow & clog your pond. Freeboard and Water Depth The freeboard is the difference in elevation between the top of the levee and the normal water level in the ponds. due to poor soil texture. Levees need to be wide enough for easy feeding. Levee Width and Slope For large commercial ponds. the levee should be at least 16 feet wide at the top. The maximum depth should not exceed eight feet at the toe of the levee at the deep end. The minimum water depth for pumped ponds should not be less than three feet at the toe of the levee at the shallow end.
34
. A 4:1 slope is recommended only if the levee will not hold a 3:1 slope. harvesting and loading of fish. This is more difficult and dangerous with steeper slopes. The freeboard should be about 18 inches and no more than two feet or no less than one foot. Large ponds in areas with strong winds that can produce large waves should have a 2-foot freeboard. A 3:1 slope on the outside of the levee can be tractor mowed. The slope of the levees can be 3:1 if the soil is compacted well.It is desirable for the drainpipe to remove poorer quality water from the bottom of the pond rather than higher quality water from the surface. Increasing the slope will increase the cost to build ponds and impound less water surface area. making it harder to seine. The ramps should be well constructed and not too steep for easy travel by large trucks.

but frequent back and forth traffic by heavy equipment works satisfactorily. trees and roots should be removed to prevent leakage through the levees by way of the root systems. especially during drought. Remember that levees do settle or shrink in height over time. The base of the levee should tie into mineral subsoil rather than unmoved topsoil that contains a higher content of organic matter. Also. Avoid the use of loamy soils and organic matter as fill material for the levee. A settling allowance should be included when the unsettled height of the levee is determined. An earthen spillway with grass cover should be built beside the dam on watershed ponds to allow rapid 36
. Levee Building For large ponds. Topsoil can also be stockpiled and used later to top dress the levee. A minimum depth of four feet at the shallowest end and six to ten feet at the deepest end is recommended for ponds of this type. The scraper works well to shape the pond and levees and grade the pond bottom. Each layer of dirt should be well compacted as it is put down to build up the levee. Well constructed levees with good clay soils generally do not settle more than 5% to 10%. The equipment can be pulled by large tractors or bulldozers. This soil is more desirable for establishing a vegetative cover than are heavy clay subsoils.Ponds without a year-round supply of dependable water should be deeper to allow for natural water drawdown. Sheeps-foot rollers do a good job of compacting soil layers. A core trench is usually required to key the levee into underlying subsoils to prevent lateral seepage under the base of the levee. These materials can cause slumping in the levee as they settle or decay. Soil with a heavy clay content should not be worked if it is too dry or wet. The dirt buckets move dirt economically over long distances and can put dirt where needed. dirt buckets and earth scrapers (pans) are used to build levees economically. The amount of settling depends on the soil type and degree of compaction during levee building.

Gravel on top of levees allows for vehicle access to the ponds in all types of weather.
37
.discharge of water during heavy rains without doing damage to the dam. This kind of pond is feasible on gently rolling land with adequate flat land at the base of the hill. on the other hand. Three-sided ponds are found frequently in the rolling hills of western Alabama and eastern Mississippi. Rainwater runs off of the hill filling and maintaining the ponds water level. are often too deep to manage efficiently for commercial aquaculture. a small well is sometimes used as a supplemental water source. The main levees are the most important to gravel. They have drains in the levee opposite the hill and have smooth. gradually sloping bottoms which facilitate seining the ponds for harvesting. A manageable depth allowing efficient harvesting is usually a characteristic of this pond type. which are built with a dam at the base of two converging hills. Ravine ponds.
A new catfish pond under construction
Three-Sided Ponds The term three-sided ponds is applied to ponds with three levees constructed against a hill that serves as the fourth side.

The production cycle from spawning to marketable fish can range from 16 to 24 months in Kentucky. This practice assures a year-round supply of fish to processing plants or other markets. it is advisable to contact your NRCS office. grading or topping off the largest. Firsttime producers should consider not stocking more than 3. and length of culture period. Factors that determine a suitable stocking rate include amount of time that the producer can spend with the fish. they may be harvested several times during the year. experience of the producer. availability of water and aeration equipment.000 fish per acre of water. maximum daily feeding limit. Marketable food fish can range from three-fourths to two pounds or more. marketable-sized ones. It is advisable to grow a fish crop successfully at a moderate risk level.
Stocking
Fingerlings six inches or longer are stocked into growout ponds with the goal of producing a market-sized fish.500 fish per acre in aerated ponds if desired market size is 1¼ pounds or more. stocking rates usually vary from 1. They will help you in pond design.000 pounds per acre in watershed ponds without aeration to about 8. depending on the customer. Once most of the fish reach marketable weight. Annual production ranges from 1. then consider increasing the stocking rate after acquiring some pond management experience.000 to 6.
38
. The number of fish stocked at this final stage in the production cycle varies widely. With these factors in mind.Before taking the first step in constructing ponds. desired fish size at harvest.000 pounds per acre in levee ponds supplied with pumped well water and aeration.

The number and size of fish stocked in a pond are important.
39
. Table 3. stocking date and initial size determine the time required for fish to reach market size.000
100
3. Food Fish Stocking Rates
Pond S ituation S ugge s te d Max imum Fe e ding Rate (Pounds / ac re / day) S ugge s te d Max imum S toc king Rate (Fis h/ ac re )
Watershed po nd. The preferred stocking rate in commercial ponds should be based on the maximum safe and economical feeding rate. Stocking rates are based on the surface area of water in the ponds and not the volume of water. the desired size of fish at harvest and the food consumption rate reached at the maximum feeding rate. Management level.500 to 6.000 depending o n ex perience and tim e available
Catfish fingerlings are weighed before stocking. Values vary depending on experience and specific site conditions. Refer to Table 3 below for maximum feeding rates for different pond situations. no aeratio n Po nd with aeratio n and well
34
1.

7 2. A good money-making fish for the producer is a fish weighing between one to one and a half pounds that converts feed efficiently.
Fish Size
Average Weight Po unds 0. Pay lakes usually prefer a larger fish. This method is more difficult to use for ponds with mixed fish sizes that represent a more complex situation. average desired fish size at harvest and estimated feed consumption rate at harvest.000 1.50 Po unds per 1.5 2.06 0.
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. Estimated percent body weight consumed by channel catfish of different sizes at water temperature above 70ºF.75 1.02 0.500 Estimated Percent Bo dy Weight Co nsumed Daily 4.25 0.0 3.50 0.2 1.The size of fish desired at harvest should be acceptable to customers and economical to produce.6 1. gains weight well and does not take too long to produce.
Table 4.00 1. A desired stocking rate can be determined by knowing the maximum feeding rate.0 2.3
Determine the number of fish to restock after topping by recording the total weight of fish harvested and determining the weight of a sample of harvested fish.000 Fish 20 60 250 500 750 1.

The harvested fish are replaced. When ponds are topped.60/lb or less). avoid stocking wild fish into ponds when catfish are stocked. Make .Example:
700 pounds of fish were harvested. Fish handle best at temperatures below 70ºF Special precautions are required .g. sure that ponds contain no wild fish before they are stocked with catfish. Fish can be stocked into ponds anytime of the year when ponds are at least one-half full and filling and fish are available. and a random sample of 50 fish weighed 62 pounds. Risk of loss to disease is increased when fish are handled at temperatures higher than 70ºF The best months for growth are April to October. usually by stocking one 5inch or longer fingerling for each fish harvested. usually one-fourth to one-third of the fish are harvested. 3.
41
. when fish are handled at warmer temperatures. 5.70/lb or higher). 62 lbs = 565 Fish Economic research on stocking rates has shown that stocking light (e. Use of a fish toxicant or pond draining and drying may be required to eliminate undesirable fish. while higher stocking rates (e.500/acre) in intensive culture ponds is more profitable when farm gate prices are low (around $0.
Number fish to restock = Fish in sample x total harvest weight Weight of fish sampled = 50 fish x 700 lbs. Many commercial producers partially harvest or top the larger fish in ponds when they reach market size.g.000 or more/acre) are more profitable when prices are high ($0. Also.

43
./1000) were stocked in early October. Approximately 2000 channel catfish fingerlings per acre averaging about 7 inches long (100 to 110 lbs./ 1000) and were able to reach 1 ½ pounds by the end of the growing season in late October. catfish can be seen only when they are coming up to feed. winter/early spring the fish were fed a 32% protein feed to satiation when temperatures rose above 50ºF By the third week . Catfish feed that lacks all essential nutrients in the proper amounts is called supplemental feed and has no place in a production system where stocking rates are at or above 1. allowing the young fish to grow at an increased rate during the last few weeks of the growing season and during warm periods throughout winter and early spring. in April the fingerlings averaged 9 inches in size (186 to 192 lbs. Feed must contain all essential nutrients at adequate levels to meet total nutritional requirements of catfish for normal growth and health. at best. and their feeding behavior can be an important clue to general health and the pond condition.
Feeding
Feeding is the most important task in the intensive pond production of catfish.000 fish per surface acre. Use of a supplemental feed when catfish are stocked at higher densities will. Nutritional Requirements Feed used in intensive pond culture of catfish must be nutritionally complete. In a normal situation. result in poor growth and. at worst. Potential problems with the fish or pond water quality can be recognized early by noticing abnormal feeding behavior.University involves an early stocking of fingerlings into low-density grow-out ponds in early fall. death of the fish due to a nutritionally-induced disease. They were fed a 36% protein feed at 1 to 3% of their body weight daily until temperatures dropped below 50ºF In late .

If you wait until the fish completely quit feeding at the surface. Meal and crumbles are used for fry and small fingerlings. Form and size of feed available include four types: C C C C meal crumbles floating (expanded or extruded) pellets sinking (hard or compacted) pellets
Feed size and form used depends on fish size. water temperature and type of management. Because the kind or amount of ingredients needed to provide essential nutrients for catfish is not secret. as ingredient prices change.Most catfish feed manufacturers now use the least cost. Most producers feel that seeing the fish when they are feeding is well worth the extra cost. usually about 60º-63ºF (16º-17ºC). costing the producer money. within limits. maximum growth is not achieved. Sinking feed is used when the water temperature falls below 65ºF (18ºC) or slightly higher. instead of fixed feed method of feed formulation where the formula varies. the feed manufacturer should be willing to reveal the type and amount of ingredients in his feed. it must also be palatable to the catfish and of a size that can be eaten. The feed must be offered in a way and at a time that promotes total consumption.
44
. If they dont eat or cant eat it. Although extruded or floating feed is more expensive than sinking pellets. it may be difficult to get them to accept sinking feed. it is generally preferred when water temperatures are above 65ºF (18ºC) because feeding behavior is much easier to monitor.
Form and Size Not only must the feed contain all of the essential nutrients.

mounted on a truck bed or pulled by a tractor. Hand feeding more than 10 acres of intensively cultured catfish ponds is too time consuming and laborious.to 3-ton hopper. Feeders Catfish may be fed by hand from the bank or boat. the size of catfish in a pond at any given time may vary from 4 inches to 2 pounds or larger.If a topping-off or multiple harvest scheme is used in intensive pond production of catfish. most farmers compromise by feeding a 3/16.to 3/8. Since it is not practical to feed the catfish two or more sizes of feed every day. or by using some type of mechanical feeder. The blower type feeder can be calibrated to blow a known amount of feed per minute or can be equipped with a scale that allows the operator to know the amount that has been fed. The hopper of the blower is filled from a bulk storage tank.inch pellet.
Small acres of catfish can be fed by hand. The blower type feeder with a 1. is best.
45
. thus some type of mechanical feeder should be used on larger farms.

The demand feeder is activated by the catfish. The automatic feeder is programmed to release specific amounts of feed at predetermined times during the day. It must be carefully monitored to avoid over or underfeeding the catfish. aggressive fish to consume most of the feed. thus allowing a few large. quickly learn to use demand feeders and may consume more feed than the catfish. particularly coots. When demand feeders are used in intensive production ponds.Two other types of mechanical feeders are the demand feeder and the automatic feeder. Waterfowl. such as: C C C C water temperature water quality size of the feed palatability or taste of the feed
46
.
Feeding Rates Several factors affect the amount of feed a catfish will eat. there is a large difference in the size of the fish produced. Unless large numbers of automatic feeders are used. Neither has any place in intensive pond production of catfish because frequent observation during feeding is not possible.
This feeder blows feed into the pond. many catfish will not get enough feed while a small number of the more aggressive fish will eat most of the feed.

C C C C C C

frequency of feeding the way fish are fed location of feeding sites type of pellet used (floating or sinking) health of the fish size of the fish

Table 6 (on page 52) gives the amount to feed daily, based on average expected gains, at stocking rates of 1,000 6-inch fingerlings per acre. To get the amount to feed per acre at higher stocking rates, divide the number of catfish stocked per acre by 1,000 and multiply the answer by the daily amount to feed per acre in Table 6. Amount to feed daily = % body wt fed x total wt fish in pond Example: 40,000 pounds of catfish in a pond are being fed at a rate of 2.5% of their body weight daily. Amount to feed daily = 0.025 x 40,000 lbs. = 1,000 lbs of feed The amount fed daily must be adjusted at least every 2 weeks or the catfish soon will be underfed causing a reduction in both growth and profits. This is best done by taking a sample of fish from the pond, usually by seine, and counting and weighing them. Then use the formula given to calculate the total weight of catfish in the pond at that time. Total weight in pond = wt. fish in sample x no. fish in pond ÷ no. fish in sample Example: There are 45,000 catfish stocked in a 10 acre pond that are being fed at 3% of their body weight daily. To adjust the amount to 47

be fed daily for the next 2 weeks, a sample of fish is seined, counted and weighed. The sample contains 200 fish weighing 80 pounds. The new amount to feed daily is calculated: Total weight in pond = wt of fish in sample x no. fish in pond ÷ no. fish in sample = 80 lbs x 45,000 fish ÷ 200 fish = 18,000 lbs of catfish in the pond Lbs. to feed daily for next 2 weeks = 3% x 18,000 lbs = 0.03 x 18,000 lbs = 540 lbs of feed Rather than seining a sample of fish and counting and weighing them every 2 weeks, growth of the fish can be estimated. Some assumptions can be based on your ponds historical data or on industry averages about the percent of body weight fed daily and feed conversion factors. Table 6 is a feeding guide which shows how to make these calculations. It can be used with good results, but it is much better to use feed conversion ratios and percent of body weight to feed daily which are valid for your ponds. It is a good practice to remove a sample of fish occasionally for counting and weighing to calculate the weight of fish present and see how close your growth estimates have been. Another method of estimating the amount of feed to use daily when the water temperature is above 65ºF (18ºC) is to feed the fish what they will eat in 10 to 15 minutes. If feed is still floating on the surface at the end of 15 minutes, the fish are being overfed which increases costs.

Feeding Practices Manner and time of feeding, as well as the amount and type of feed, can have a profound effect on the growth and size variation and the quality of the catfish produced. A large variation in the size of catfish produced usually is the result of underfeeding (feeding 48

the fish less than they should have) or feeding in a small area of the pond. In underfeeding, the larger, more aggressive catfish eat a larger share of the feed and become bigger at the expense of the smaller catfish. This also happens when feed is offered in only a small area of the pond since the larger, more aggressive catfish quickly learn where the feed will be put in the pond and are there waiting for it. Thus, to produce catfish uniform in size, and to maximize profits, it is equally important that catfish are fed the proper amount of feed daily and the food is distributed as evenly over the pond as possible. Feeding twice daily, if possible, will usually improve feed consumption and feed conversion. This means that one-half of the daily allowance is fed in the early morning, and the other half later in the day. If the catfish are fed only once a day, morning is the preferred time since feeding in the late afternoon increases the amount of fat deposited, and this can affect the quality of the processed fish. Feed should not be offered until the oxygen level of the pond water is at least 4 parts per million (ppm) or higher because feed consumption goes down dramatically at lower oxygen concentrations. Oxygen requirements for catfish increase greatly during feeding, so it is best not to feed in the early evening when oxygen concentrations in the water are decreasing.

Record Keeping You must be able to closely estimate the number of fish and the weight of fish in every pond at any given time if you want to be successful at raising fish. If the weight of fish in a pond is underestimated, not enough food will be fed, resulting in poor growth, poor feed conversions, and increased time required to get the fish to harvestable size. If the weight of fish in a pond is overestimated, the result will be overfeeding, poor feed conversions, and very likely, severe water quality problems.

49

Other information concerning disease treatments.. weekly weight gain and weight of fish harvested for each pond. Manual forms are also effective. which should be completed as soon as the pond is harvested. etc. can be noted in the remarks section. Most of the information required on this form is self-explanatory. Column (4) is an accumulated or running total of the original stocking weight plus the weekly gains. When harvesting is completed.An important reason for keeping good records is that many lending institutions require good records before they will lend money. The estimated conversion ratio should be determined by you from experience gained from previous years. amount of food fed weekly. stocking rates and weights. Column (2) is derived each week from the Daily Feeding Record. The estimated conversion ratio can be obtained from Pond Conversion Ratio Calculations. Column (3) is obtained by dividing each entry in Column (2) by the estimated conversion ratio. the total harvested weight is subtracted from the last figure in Column (4) so that
50
. weed control. Also. Weekly Pond Record (on Page 54) Record date of stocking. Ask your state aquaculture specialist about available computer programs for catfish record keeping. and you cant identify problem areas. without good records you dont know if you are making or losing money. Daily Feeding Record (on Page 53) Record the amount fed daily to each pond on this form. Column (1) of the Weekly Pond Record (on Page 54) is for the feed week just ended and need not be for the calendar week. Column (5) is for any removal of fish from the pond either by loss or harvesting. 2. 1. At the end of the week total the amount fed for the week.

3 above) 5. Totals of columns (2) and (5) are made for use on other forms for calculations of conversion ratios and production. If an estimate of fish weight in the pond determined by sampling indicates feed conversion is lower or higher than previously estimated. Total feed fed from pond records 6. an entry should be made in the Remarks column (column 7) that an adjustment has been made. treatments for parasites or disease. Column (7) may be used for notations of importance such as average size fish (total fish weight divided by the total number of fingerlings). Subtract or add to the Total Fish Weight column (Column 4) the appropriate poundage of fish and adjust conversion rates accordingly.
RECAP AND ADJUSTMENT CALCULATIONS FOR FEED FED 1. 3. or explanations for losses. Total feed purchased 3. Use the table (below) for calcualting the amount to adjust. Correction factor (4 ÷ 5 above) (enter at the top of table on page 55) = __________ = __________ = __________ = __________ = __________ = __________
51
. it is necessary to adjust the total feed fed during the year (or any period.Column (4) always reflects the total fish weight in the pond. Adjustment Calculations for Feed Fed Since the feeding quantities are estimated. Feed used (1 + 2 . but certainly not less than once per year) after all ponds are harvested. Ending feed inventory 4. Beginning feed inventory 2.

9 18. they will lose about 9 percent of their body weight .8 27. Cost of feed in cents to produce a one-pound fish at different feed conversion rates and feed prices.0 17.0 23. However.5 1. catfish can gain as much as 20 percent of their body weight during this same period.5 24. It may mean more profit for the farmer. Winter Feeding Although some research indicates that winter feeding is not necessary.0 23. Record the information required in columns (1).0 16.0 20.).7 1.0 2.9 2. Calculate Column (5) by subtracting the value in Column (3) from Column (4) and then dividing this result into the value in Column (2).6 1.8 1. (3) and (4).4 24.5 28.1 21. multiply the correction factor by column (1) (estimated lb of feed fed).0 19.2 $200 15.0 20.8 18.
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. Some research has shown that when catfish are not fed from November 15 to March 15 (121 days).1 2.0 19.0 18.4 22. when put on a winter feeding program.0 22.5 27.F record it on the feed .0 31.3 22. Conversion Ratio Calculation Form.0 28.5 21.0 25. and the catfish may be in better condition during the winter and spring to withstand stresses that can cause disease outbreaks.0 21.3 24.5 30.1 27.6 22.0 Cost Per Ton $225 $250 16.8 26.9 30.4 23. To obtain Column (2) (actual lb feed fed).3 20. many biologists feel that it is an important management practice.6 26.Table 7.3 $300 22.
FCR 1.4 25.0
Feed Conversion Ratio Calculations After obtaining the correction factor (C.5 $275 20.5 33.

5 to 1 percent body weight whenever the water temperature at a depth of 3 feet is 54ºF (12ºC) or higher. Storage should be adequate for at least one weeks supply. (page 58)
Feed Storage bins for large feed volumes
57
. Fresh feed assures quality and palatability.5 to 1 percent of the body weight on alternate days when water temperature is above 49ºF (9ºC): or.There are two basic winter feeding programs: (1) feed sinking food at 0. Make sure feed is at air temperature before it is off-loaded into a feed bin. During the summer. refer to Table 8. dry area. (2) feed sinking food at 0. Feed Storage Feed should be stored properly in a cool. To estimate the storage time of feed for two sizes of feed bins for several farm sizes and feeding rates. feed should not be stored longer than 30 to 45 days. Poor storage conditions can produce mold or changes in feed that can be toxic to fish.

the weight of fish that can be produced in a pond is limited by the ability of that pond to provide adequate oxygen.3 17.0 6.3 10.1 3. To achieve production in excess of 1.
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.7 61.7 15. a total loss of all fish in the pond. (not only to keep the fish alive but to enable them to metabolize their food and grow) and to break down nitrogenous wastes. Thus.0 23.0 5.6 4. at best. Remember that the fish in the pond are living in their own wastes.000 pounds per acre per year.9 4.0 9.
Farm Size in Water Acres 15 40 70 100 140
50 lbs/acre/day 75 lbs/acre/day 100 lbs/acre/day Bin size Bin size Bin size 10 Ton 23 Ton 10 Ton 23 Ton 10 Ton 26.6 3.8 40. at worst.8 2. the farmer must be able to insure that good water quality is maintained 24 hours a day.9 4.7 6. Failure to do so will result.8 8.2 2. 365 days a year.1 2. in poor growth and high feed conversions or.4
23 Ton 30.9 6.6 1.3 5. Capacity in days of feed for two sizes of bulk storage feed bins for five farm sizes and three feeding rates.5 6.7 11.3
Water Quality
Maintaining good water quality in production ponds is absolutely essential.Table 8.9 13.0 2.4 1.7 13.

Physical Properties C Water changes temperature more slowly than the surrounding air or soil changes temperature. Rate of diffusion can be increased by agitation which allows more contact of surface water with air. etc.
Diffusion . Source of oxygen in water. The rate at which oxygen diffuses into water is governed by physical laws which relate to the solubility of gases. carbon dioxide .the single most important source of oxygen in pond water. The atmosphere is 21-23 percent oxygen at sea level. (CO2).).
Oxygen Oxygen is necessary for all life to make available energy contained in food. water (H2O). C In still water. A waste product of this process is oxygen which is given off and is dissolved in the water.of minor importance. C Considerable force is required to break down stratification if temperature differences are great. Photosynthesis . P K.
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. and energy from sunlight to make their food. differences in temperature cause a layering effect known as stratification. It does not combine chemically with water. Oxygen dissolves in water and occurs as a simple solution. All green plants manufacture food by a process called photosynthesis. The reverse is true in winter. Upper layers are warm and bottom layers are cool in summer. Plants use nutrients (N.

O2 concentration at dark must be high enough to meet Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) during the night with enough left to keep fish healthy. (see Table 9).
Midnight
Time of Day
Figure 1.Oxygen cycle. 24-hour oxygen cycle in ponds.
Oxygen Concentration in ppm
Midnight
6 a. O2 concentration is highest in mid afternoon.m. Figure 1 illustrates a typical 24-hour oxygen cycle in a pond. Amount of oxygen that water can hold depends mostly on temperature: As temperature increases. The oxygen concentration in water changes from minute to minute depending on many factors but essentially it follows a definite pattern during any 24-hour period.
Noon
6 p.m. O2 concentration is lowest at sun-up. the amount of oxygen that can stay in solution decreases.
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In this reaction.Algae die-off . etc. the pond is said to be stratified. Addition of water devoid of oxygen . Because there is no mixing of the two layers of water. the iron is changed chemically and forms a reddish-brown precipitate.Chemical reactions are constantly going on in pond water and mud. Chemical reactions . the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water decreases (see Table 9). light penetration and warming are restricted to the upper layers of water. can result in an oxygen depletion. hot days the surface water warms rapidly.As algae blooms become denser in the spring and early summer.Color of water will usually change from greenish to a blackish.. and these layers tend to resist mixing. and heavy rain or high winds which can force algae to the bottom where there may be oxygendeficient water causing a die-off. This can be caused by chemical treatments. still. the bottom layer (hypolimnion) becomes devoid of oxygen by respiration and can develop a high biological oxygen demand. excessive algae blooms which can release material toxic to itself or other types of algae. Anything that causes a mixing (turn-over) of these low layers.As temperature increases. Temperature of water . When this happens. The surface water is warm and less dense than the cool water at the bottom. such as high winds. brownish or clear color. On bright. seining.This is typical of most well water and reduces available oxygen by dilution.
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. aerators. resulting in marked differences in water temperature from top to bottom. oxygen is removed from the water. # When well water that is devoid of oxygen but rich in iron is pumped into a pond. and many of these reactions require oxygen. cold rain. Turn-over .

Aeration should be started before dissolved oxygen concentrations drop to 4 ppm. indicate which ponds are likely to develop oxygen problems during the night so these ponds can be monitored closely. mid-depth. Take corrective action when oxygen concentration drops below 4 to 5ppm It is best if the oxygen is monitored in at least two places in each pond. If a straight line is drawn between these two points and extended to the point where it crosses a line drawn from the 4 ppm oxygen concentration. Take readings at surface. however.
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. A simplified method for predicting nighttime oxygen depletions in fish ponds is described. Measure the dissolved oxygen concentration at dusk and plot this point on a graph. Remember. Many factors can influence the rate at which oxygen is removed from pond water during the night. you can estimate the time during the night when oxygen concentration reaches a level where corrective action should be taken (see Figures 2-4). then measure the oxygen again 2 or 3 hours later and plot this point. and bottom.# Time & methods to take oxygen measurements Take measurements at the same time every day. This method is based on the fact that a decline in dissolved oxygen in ponds during the night is usually a straight line with respect to time. It does. Take oxygen profile of deep end at least twice a day. it will indicate whether or not a problem is likely to develop and the approximate time to take measures to prevent a low oxygen stress situation. this method is not foolproof. Although it will not replace keeping close watch on all of your ponds and using common sense management programs.

Figure 2. channel catfish will suffer from stress. channel catfish will not begin to come to the surface piping or gasping until the oxygen concentration in the pond drops to about 0. Depending on the health of the fish and the parasite load on their gills. However. it is important to try to maintain at least 4 ppm oxygen in the pond at all times even though healthy catfish usually wont begin to die until the oxygen drops to 1 ppm or less.0 ppm. Although they might not die.m. Time
4 6 a. the stress caused by low oxygen levels may cause the fish to go off feed or develop a bacterial infection that could result in serious losses.Using this method along with close observation will put manpower and equipment on the pond bank when the fish need help. Graphic method of predicting nighttime oxygen depletions in catfish pond. it is predicted that no problem will develop in the pond during the night.0 ppm.
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.
OXYGEN CONCENTRATION IN PPM
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 PREDICTED VALUE MEASURED VALUE (1) MEASURED VALUE (2)
8 10 MN 2 p. as the oxygen concentration drops below 4. In this example.m. make sure the equipment and management expertise are on the pond when they are needed. Thus. no matter what method is used to monitor oxygen levels.75 to 1. Remember.

# Correcting oxygen depletions Pump oxygen rich water from adjacent pond(s) if available.use an aerator to mechanically add oxygen to the pond.
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. Time
4 6 a. In this example.m. This is the most effective way to provide oxygen to keep fish alive in a pond with oxygen problems.m. Prevent turnovers by checking oxygen concentration at the bottom of the pond and draining the bottom layer when it becomes devoid of oxygen. thus indicating that corrective measures should be taken before 3:00 am. # Preventing oxygen depletion Turn-overs occur when a pond is allowed to stratify or become layered because of temperature differences. or by using a paddlewheel aerator to break up layering before it can become a serious problem. it is predicted that the oxygen concentration will drop to 4 ppm by about 3:30 am. Graphic method of prediciting nighttime oxygen depletions in catfish pond. Algae die off .OXYGEN CONCENTRATION IN PPM
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 PREDICTED VALUE MEASURED VALUE (1) MEASURED VALUE (2)
8 10 MN 2 p.
Figure 3.

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.
Figure 4. Depth at which the paddlewheel is placed is also very important.Research has shown that the paddlewheel aerator with a spiraling pattern of paddles is most effective at adding oxygen to the water and most economical in terms of cost per pound of oxygen added. it is predicted that the oxygen concentration will drop to 4 ppm by about 11:30 pm. however. The power of the tractor. Increasing paddlewheel depth from 4 to 14 inches on a tractor pto-powered paddlewheel aerator tripled the oxygen transfer rate but only increased fuel consumption by about ½ gallon per hour.m.OXYGEN CONCENTRATION IN PPM
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 MEASURED VALUE (1) MEASURED VALUE (2) PREDICTED VALUE
8 10 MN 2 p..
Paddlewheel Aerators .Graphic method of prediciting nighttime oxygen depletions in catfish pond. In this example. thus indicating possible corrective measures should be taken before 10:30 pm. Time
4 6 a.m. will limit the depth at which the paddles can be submersed. Unless emergency measures are taken a severe fish kill will probably occur at about 2:00 am.

fountain aerators and others that draw water from underneath the aerator.
The number of paddlewheels to use and the site in the pond where they should be located depends on the situation. the surface aerators that draw water from underneath are often a good economical choice for small ponds. for example. Other Aerators . be careful not to strand the fish by removing the aeration device before the oxygen is high enough to support them. the side-winder paddlewheel aerator.Stationary floating paddlewheel aerator. Many of these can be the aerator-of-choice for specific cases. thus avoiding low oxygen emergencies.Other types of aerators include impeller pump sprayers. Also. Circulators are very useful in preventing stratification. A relatively new type of aerator. while impeller pump sprayers that direct water along the shore line where fish congregate during low-oxygen situations are recommended for these emergencies. Be sure the fish are in this area and not trapped in another area of the pond. Positioning of aeration equipment in a pond is critical. circulators. Place equipment in an area where the oxygen concentration is highest. is oriented to move and spray water parallel to the pond bank. and air diffusion aerators. aspirators.
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# Under normal conditions. e. # Each one unit change in pH represents a 10 fold change in the H+ ion concentration.0 denote increasing acidity (H+ions). and ammonia.pH pH is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance or the relationship between hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions.0 the number of H+ and OH. pH of pond water has a 24-hour cycle and is changing constantly depending on many factors.5 to 9. # pH affects the toxicity of certain chemicals.0 denote increasing alkalinity (OH-ions). # Values below pH 7. and respiration of the living organisms present. pH 4 and pH 11are the acid and alkaline death points of fish. Fintrol. # pH values for a given body of water reflect complex interactions between various types of plants. In daylight.
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. basic chemical composition of the water supply. This must be done to calculate the amount of toxic un-ionized ammonia in the water. # At pH 7. the pH is checked only when ammonia is present.0. # pH values always fall between 0 and 14 on the pH scale. copper sulfate. Values above pH 7..ions are equal and the solution is neutral. (antimycin A). Optimum pH range for fish culture is about 6.g. amount of photosynthesis taking place. aquatic plants remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the water during photosynthesis so pH increases during the day and decreases at night (Figure 5).

06 ppm.
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.2 pounds of ammonia are being added to the pond. # There are several sources of ammonia in water: 1. however. The Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN) concentration in pond water is the sum of the ionized plus un-ionized ammonia present (NH4+ + NH3 = TAN). especially water run-off from a barnyard with livestock. Effective removal of ammonia from the pond depends primarily on biological processes. Nitrogen (N). # Un-ionized ammonia (NH3) is toxic to fish. # A level of 1 ppm TAN indicates pollution. metabolic wastes from animals and plants. about 2.Ammonia Ammonia is present in water in two forms. 2. a major component of protein. The amount of un-ionized ammonia increases in two ways: as the pH increases and as temperature increases (Table 10) . The 96 hour LC50 varies from 0. For each 100 pounds of catfish feed fed. 4. Ammonia gets into a pond in several ways. reduced growth and gill damage occur at concentrations as low as 0. Watch for high ammonia levels after a bloom die-off.4-3 ppm. but the main source is feed. is necessary for all life forms. (See Figure 6) # Ionized ammonia (NH4+) is non-toxic to fish. uneaten feed. inflowing water. ionized and un-ionized. The major source of ammonia in pond water is fish feed. and 2-3 ppm is cause for concern. 3. decaying plants and animals.

giving the fish brown blood disease. # Nitrites are taken in across the gill membranes and are tied up with hemoglobin (the oxygen carrying part of blood) forming a compound called methemoglobin which cannot transport oxygen. Flush pond .Choose a lower feeding rate for long term (gradual) reduction of ammonia concentration.
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. summer. however. Nitrite Nitrite (NO2) causes brown blood disease # Nitrite is normally not present in natural water. Remember. the addition of phosphorus will stimulate algae growth. Add 20 pounds of triple super phosphate (0-46-0) per surface acre. Treating ammonia in this manner should probably be avoided during the summer. # Check ammonia concentrations every week during spring. Fish act as if they are suffering from an oxygen depletion. that the increased algae bloom can lead to oxygen problems and the pond must be watched closely. thus removing ammonia in the water in 2 to 3 days. and fall. The blood turns brown. Build-up of nitrites in water is due to a breakdown in the nitrogen cycle prompted by an abundance of nitrogen entering production ponds by way of feed protein. Insure adequate oxygen is available during the period of high ammonia.this does not remove the ammonia but does provide a diluted area where the fish can go until the problem is corrected. Since phosphorus is the limiting factor in the use of ammonia by plants.

The amount of each of these required to give 1 ppm chloride per acre foot of water is: Sodium chloride (NaCl) = 4.
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.5 pounds of salt/ acre-foot/ppm.Use the following formula to calculate the concentration of chloride (Cl-) needed for treatment.. Chloride needed = (10 x 7) .5 pounds of salt/ac-ft/ppm = 954 pounds of salt. calculate the pounds of salt (NaCl) needed as follows: 1 acre x 4 feet x 53 ppm chloride x 4.6 lb To calculate the amount of sodium chloride to add to a pond. the concentration of chloride to add to the pond. 2H20). 2H20) = 5. if 53 ppm chloride were needed in a one-acre pond that averages 4 feet deep.C where: concentration of chloride in ppm in water = C concentration of nitrite in ppm in water = N 10 to obtain the desired 10:1 ratio of chloride to nitrite Example: Chloride in pond water = 17ppm Nitrite in pond water = 7 ppm Thus . anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2) or dihydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2.3 lb Dihydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2. or about 1/2 ton of salt. Concentration of chloride needed = (10 x N) . Using the above example.5 lb Anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2) = 4. you would use the formula Acres x average depth x ppm chloride needed x 4. There are three different forms of chloride that can be used as a pond treatment for brown blood disease: sodium chloride (NaCl).17 = 53 ppm.

# Water with a total hardness higher than 300 ppm (mg/1) can cause some management problems.# Catfish that have some infectious disease are much more susceptible to brown blood and require a higher chloride concentration for protection. # Nitrites are usually more of a problem during the cool months but can occur at any time. it is necessary to check for chlorides. If nitrites are present. Total Hardness Total hardness is a measure of the total concentration of divalent metal ions. Therefore. usually calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++). a 15:1 chloride : nitrite ratio should be used if the catfish have an infectious disease present. # Concentration less than 20 ppm may cause problems in hatcheries but can be corrected usually by adding calcium in the form of calcium chloride (CaCl2). but there is no practical way to reduce total hardness to desirable levels.
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. in water and is expressed in ppm (mg/1) of equivalent calcium carbonate. # Desirable range is from 20 to 300 ppm. you should check all ponds at 2 to 3 day intervals because nitrites can increase to toxic levels very rapidly. # Many farmers maintain a protective concentration of chloride in their ponds of around 30 to 100 ppm in case the nitrites increase suddenly. Therefore.

Stress caused mainly by excessive stocking densities or poor water quality is the main cause of fish diseases.Fish Diseases
Prevention Preventing fish diseases from occurring is much more effective for avoiding losses than waiting until fish start dying and then trying to put out the fire with chemical or medicated feed treatments. Diseases can be broken down into two broad categories.5 ppm or higher can all lead to stress. Disease can be defined in many terms. they are very crowded and commonly acquire heavy loads of gill flukes which may lead to high mortalities. Routinely monitoring water quality and taking corrective action when needed also prevents fish diseases. causing disease either immediately or several days after the exposure. infectious and non-infectious. Channel Catfish Virus Disease as well as bacterial infections also occur more readily in crowded ponds. but perhaps the easiest is that disease is any process than can cause a fish discomfort and can lead to death. Some have stocked as many as one or two million per acre as small fry.4 ppm and nitrite levels of 0.
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. Dissolved oxygen concentrations below 4 ppm as well as toxic ammonia concentrations above 0.000 food fish per acre when aeration is available or 150. as they become fingerlings of a few inches in length.000 catfish fingerlings per acre. A classic example of over-stocking is the fingerling producer who gets a larger-thanexpected hatch and runs out of pond space for his fingerlings. Experienced growers should not exceed about 6.

An organism that lives in or on another at the expense of its host is a parasite.
Enteric Septicemia of Catfish (ESC) is caused by the bacteria Ewardsiella ictaluri.Infectious diseases (caused by a living organism) # Parasite. There are many different kinds that can cause serious losses of catfish. Specialized laboratory techniques are necessary for their isolation and identification.
Trichophrya is a protozoan parasite It has tentacles appearing like pins struck into a pin cushion. They can be internal or can occur on the skin and gills. both internal and external. Most problems are caused by protozoans (single-cell animals) that live on the gills.
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.
# Bacteria. ranging from the very small to some that are 5-6 inches long. There are many different kinds of parasites.

Submicroscopic particles that live within the cells of living organisms are called viruses. Vitamin deficiencies in the food can also lead to nutritional disease. # Chemical toxicants.# Fungi are a specific group that lack chlorophyll and are mainly secondary invaders of fish. Usually they can grow only on dead organic matter and often indicate there is something else wrong with the fish. Caused by too much or too little food or by the use of old food. Sophisticated laboratory techniques are required for diagnosis. # Viruses. gas bubble disease.
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. The environment changes so rapidly or to such a degree that the fish are not able to adjust to the changes. etc. is caused by an active invasion of the fish by fungus. Their location makes them almost impossible to treat with chemicals or drugs.
Non-infectious diseases (causes other than living organisms) # Nutritional. toxic algae. # Environmental. overtreatment. brown blood disease. Oxygen depletions. ammonia.
Winter Saprolegniasis (fungus). Pesticides. Winter Fungus Disease (Saprolegniasis) however.

external and internal frayed fins popeye (exophthalmia) curved backbone swollen belly pale internal organs # Behavior. Any unusual behavior or abnormal physical appearance should be a red flag that something is wrong and should be checked immediately. Usually the first indication that fish may be sick is a reduction in feeding activity. very important that the person feeding the fish be an experienced fish culturist to detect any change in feeding behavior. Here are some abnormal behavior patterns to look for: listless reduced activity piping or gasping (anoxia. It is. therefore. lack of oxygen) flashing or scratching convulsions or erratic behavior grouping in shallow water grouping around in.or outflowing water death
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. Failure to do so could result in the loss of some or all of the fish in the pond. Here are some abnormalities to look for: sores discolored areas bloody spots. You must know how normal fish act.external and internal. # Physical .Symptoms or Clinical Signs of Disease Appearance or actions can indicate the fish is not normal. You must know what normal fish look like to be able to tell if abnormalities are present.

pH values of 4 or below and 11 or above are the acid and alkaline death points. Copper sulfate on the other hand is more toxic at a low pH than at a high pH. # Nutrition. fat carbohydrates or minerals # Improper feeding practices feeding during low oxygen and/or the wrong time of day feeding prior to transport
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. Temperature dependence of diseases . Temperature dependence of host immune system .Each disease organism has an optimum growth temperature.fish must be acclimated to new temperatures. Ideal pH is between 6. Immunity is efficient at temperatures between 75º and 90ºF and is most efficient at about 86ºF (30ºC). # pH. fall and winter leave fish with a compromised immune system especially when rapid cooling occurs. Temperature affects the toxicity of certain chemicals added to fish ponds.5 and 9.Effective immune response is hindered by temperatures that are too high or too low.0. Ammonia becomes more toxic at a high pH and less toxic at a low pH. Cool temperatures of spring. pH of 5 or lower and 10 or higher cause fish to eat less and convert feed to flesh less efficiently. lack of vitamins lack of essential amino acids excess or lack of protein.

# Handling rough handling holding too long in confinement # Chemical toxicants improper dosage used in treatment improper chemicals used in treatment improper application of chemical treatment accidental application of agricultural chemical residue in soil or feed # Poor water quality increase in number of disease organisms reduced ability of fish to resist infection Disease Treatments Before treating any fish. prognosis. know the following four factors:
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. Does the loss rate and the type of disease warrant treatment? Before any treatment is started. and what is the possibility of a successful treatment? 2. Can the fish withstand the treatment considering their condition? 5. considering the cost. or will the cost of treating exceed the value of the fish? 4. What is the prognosis? Is the disease treatable. handling. consider the following questions and decide whether or not treatment is warranted: 1.? 3. Is it worthwhile to treat. Is it feasible to treat the fish where they are. etc.

To optimize the responses to a fish kill. producers should be prepared in advance. # Have the type of container(s) needed to ship samples. # Know the fish. Submit a good fish and water sample to a qualified fish health professional.
Submitting a Sample for Fish Disease Diagnosis When fish kills or disease outbreaks occur on a catfish farm. it is usually an emergency situation. bus. # Know how to collect appropriate samples. Certain fishe species are mor sensitive to some of the chemicals used for disease treatment. # Know the disease. The effect of water chemistry on the toxicity of the chemical should also be known. air freight. # Know the telephone number and address of the fish disease diagnostic laboratory in your area. Know the volume of water of the holding or rearing unit to be treated. How can I best be prepared for a fish kill or disease problem? To minimize fish losses. the following preparations should be made # Have a water quality test kit and know how to use it.# Know your water. Know the toxicity of the chemical to the particular species of fish to be treated. it is one which is widely disregarded. Although this factor appears to be selfevident.
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. and know the chemical and physical properties of the water before treating. and # Determine the best method of transportation (personal delivery. # Call the laboratory & inquire about how they prefer samples to be shipped & what days & times samples can be delivered. overnight express) and schedule that will ensure prompt delivery. # Know your chemical.

In ponds. In addition. An excellent sample would include several (three to six) live fish that exhibit obvious physical disease signs such as: # open sores # yellowish or light-colored. Other tests may be appropriate depending on results of the initial screening. any time fish appear stressed or fish mortalities are observed water quality should be evaluated immediately for dissolved oxygen. Even water from deep wells and springs can change over time.
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. color and mucus that still appear as those of live fish are fairly good samples if live sick fish are unavailable. # swollen gills. Commercial fish farmers should not rely on diagnostic laboratory results to identify water quality problems. or in the mouth. It is extremely important and cost effective to have a water quality test kit. eyes. fins. pH. Water quality does not remain constant. slightly eroded areas on the body. and be able to interpret the results. gills. and nitrite. An excellent sample would also include fish exhibiting abnormal or unusual behavior such as lying listlessly in shallow water or at the water surface or swimming erratically or in circles. or # eroded or bloody fins. total ammonia. know how to use it.How can I determine if I have a water quality problem? Poor water quality can cause massive fish kills and is often a major factor contributing to fish disease and parasite infections.
What type of sample should be submitted for evaluation? In most instances live. Recently-dead fish that have gills. Water quality should be monitored routinely to identify problems before fish kills occur. it can change dramatically over a few hours. sick fish and a water sample are required to have a high probability of determining the cause of a fish kill.

a minimum of three to six sick fish should be submitted for examination. What is the best method to collect sick fish? The best method for collecting sick fish is to walk around the pond bank with a dip net or cast net and selectively remove fish which are at the surface. Therefore. toxic fish waste products such as ammonia and nitrite are responsible for the death of the fish. How many fish and how much water should be included in the sample? Ideally. Sometimes. but the quality of the resulting information will be well worth it. the healthiest fish in the pond will still be actively feeding. one fish is usually not completely representative of a population. the use of a rod and reel to collect fish will result in a sample of the most healthy fish. The worst way to collect sick fish is by hook and line. because most of the fish in the pond are probably healthy. Therefore. It is difficult to tell if the bacteria found in the dead fish were responsible for its disease condition. a representative sample is essential for good management decisions. It may take extra effort to find and catch sick fish in this manner. which will be of little or no diagnostic value. or otherwise appear abnormal.Dead fish that have floated to the surface of a pond are useless for diagnostic purposes. however. A water sample without fish. Most fish disease outbreaks involve more than one problem. A water sample should be submitted to the diagnostic laboratory along with the fish sample. however. Sick fish usually do not eat. is usually of little value in determining the cause of a fish kill. A random sample of fish taken from a seine has a poor probability of identifying the cause of the fish loss. at the waters edge. If only one fish is submitted it is possible that an inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis will result.
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.

Sick or recently dead fish can be frozen and used for bacterial cultures but are of little value for parasite identification on skin. Do not combine fish and water in the same container.A one-pint water sample should be collected from the pond for analysis. The water sample. sick fish should be transported live. The bag is sealed and is placed in an insulated shipping box with ice to keep the water temperature cool. sick fish can be transported in a container of water. What containers are best for shipping samples to a diagnostic laboratory? Ideally. For longer shipping times. Sick fish can also be shipped live in a plastic bag with water and oxygen for several hours. It is usually best to use next day delivery service to avoid delays that could render your sample useless to the laboratory. and transported with ice packs (or a large amount of ice) in a cooler or Styrofoam lined shipping box. this parameter cannot be accurately measured at the laboratory. fins. should be transported on ice with the fish sample. Dissolved oxygen should be checked by the producer at the pond bank. of at least a pint in volume. Make sure that the container is thick enough to not break in the mail carriers truck. Water samples can be collected in any clean glass or plastic jugs or jars. sick fish or fish that have just died should be placed in a plastic bag (without water). If the diagnostic lab is within an hours drive. and gills. allowing the melted ice to leak from the container (most ice chests purchased at convenience stores are too thin).
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. address. 1. Date when fish were last stocked (include number.) 3. A list of disease diagnostic laboratories in the southern United States follows on page 109. Any water quality information collected by the owner. and average size of fish stocked. Name. Information For more details on fish diseases. 2. (Are fish still eating? If not. number. and size stocked). including treatment date and amount of chemical used. Number of fish that have died per day since mortalities were first noticed. including depth. 4. 473 (Use of Medicated feed in Food Fish) and 474 (The Role of Stress in Fish Diseases). 9. Species. 6. Name or designation of pond or tank from which fish were removed. species. Amount fed per day. and phone number of the owner of the fish. Date when mortalities were first noticed. when did they stop eating?) 7. 8. The most recent treatment used. 10.What information should be provided with the samples? The following information should be included with each sample submitted to a fish disease laboratory. (Note: Fish collected from different ponds or tanks should be labeled and put in separate plastic bags and accompanied by a water sample from each unit. 5. Dimensions of pond or tank. please refer to Southern Regional Aquaculture Center (SRAC) publications 472 (Submitting a Sample for Fish Kill Investigation).

Emergent plants are rooted and can use nutrients in the mud. the phytoplankton community competes effectively for nutrients and also restricts the penetration of light so that aquatic weeds that germinate on the bottom do not receive enough light to continue growing. and rooted plants can use the nutrients in the bottom muds for growth. Nursery ponds have more weed problems because they are managed differently than food-fish pond. Rooted submersed aquatic weeds tend to establish in ponds with low supplies of nutrients in the water. and other plant nutrients dissolved in the water. expansive growth of emergent plants may be present. This results in high concentration of plant nutrients in the water which favors the 88
. their establishment is also favored by low nutrient levels in the water. If the levees or banks of the pond are eroded and have large areas of shallow water. Once established. Thus. Food-fish ponds contain large numbers of fish and receive large amounts of feed.Weeds
Occurrence of Weed Problems Some plant life will always be present in catfish ponds. These ponds often are clear with light penetrating to the bottom. Some submersed plants also produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of phytoplankton. Many weed problems are found in fry nursery ponds. Established stands of submersed weeds compete for nutrients and light and prevent phytoplankton from becoming established. phosphorus. but the type of aquatic plant community that becomes established in a pond depends on the relative abilities of particular plants to compete for resources. Emergent plants usually colonize only the margins of ponds where the water is less than 2 ½ feet deep. The growth of phytoplankton is favored in waters with high concentrations of nitrogen. Phytoplankton are efficient at using dissolved nutrients and reproduce rapidly.

and this favors the growth of rooted submersed weeds such as Najas spp. This results in clear water with low nutrient levels. Such procedures should become part of common pond management and may help avoid the use of chemical control measures. It is easier and less expensive to disc under terrestrial plants that may start growing in the empty pond bottom than it is to rid a pond of submersed weeds. If the area of the pond where light can penetrate to the bottom is reduced. Food-fish ponds are rarely drained and once the phytoplankton community is established. (Please refer to levee width and slope section on page 34). Ponds should also have an adequate supply of water so they can be filled quickly. Also grass carp may be stocked to prevent growth of nuisance weeds. Refilling an empty levee pond A pond full of clear water with no nutrient input will quickly be colonized by nuisance weeds. it should be fertilized to encourage a phytoplankton bloom. Fry nursery ponds are usually drained every year and refilled with water in late winter or early spring so they will be ready for stocking with fry in late spring or summer. Pond construction Most noxious weed growth starts in the shallow (less than 2 ½ feet) areas of ponds. Prevention of Aquatic Weeds Certain management procedures can be used to minimize the chances of infestations of submersed and emergent plants and filamentous algae. Every effort should be made to minimize the shallow areas of the ponds by increasing the slope of the pond margin as much as is practical. it remains the dominant plant form in the pond year after year. Nursery ponds receive no feed for several weeks before stocking. or filamentous algae such as Chara spp.growth of phytoplankton. rooted plants have less chance to become established. When the pond is to be
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. If a pond must be filled well in advance of stocking.

it should be flooded as quickly as possible. ponds should be filled in winter. To avoid weed problems. however. The key ingredient in fish pond fertilizers is phosphorus. alkaline water.
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. The best way to do this is to add inorganic fertilizers to the pond. Most of the phosphorus reacts with bottom muds and never reaches the water. Liquid fertilizers are more effective than granular fertilizers at stimulating a phytoplankton bloom. By increasing water depth as quickly as possible. this is not an efficient form of phosphorus for fish pond fertilizers. It is better to fill ponds one at a time rather than to slowly fill several ponds at once from a common water supply. establish a phytoplankton bloom as quickly as possible after filling the ponds. Fertilization The implementation and continued use of the proper fertilization program is perhaps the best method of preventing the growth of troublesome weeds in fry nursery ponds. especially in hard. plants that grow up from the pond bottom have less chance to become established. granular fertilizers is triple superphosphate (0-46-0). The most common phosphorus source in bagged. When triple superphosphate is broadcast over ponds.filled. If the supply of water is limited and logistics allow. it settles to the bottom because the granules are very insoluble. Many higher aquatic plants are dormant or grow slowly in cold water allowing for the development of a phytoplankton community that will shade the water and prevent weed growth when the water warms. Granular fertilizers should be put on an underwater platform or in a porous container such as a live minnow holder so they can dissolve slowly into the water before they contact the mud bottom. The phosphorus in liquid fertilizers is already in solution and immediately available for uptake by the phytoplankton.

all these fish have undesirable characteristics that make their use impractical in commercial catfish ponds. Care should be taken to remove as much of the rootstock or rhizome as possible to minimize regrowth. The rate used successfully by commercial catfish producers in Mississippi is about 1 quart per acre applied every other day for about 4 applications. They are most often used to control submersed plants or filamentous algae. Biological Control of Aquatic Plants Biological weed control in catfish ponds involves the use of fish to consume unwanted aquatic vegetation. and best. The grass carp or white amur was introduced into the United States from southeast Asia in 1963 and is now widespread especially in the southeastern states. Liquid fertilizer is heavier than water. As small areas of the pond margin become infested.The most common. analysis for liquid fertilizers runs from about 10-34-0 to 13-38-0. and tilapia. Mechanical removal of filamentous algae or submersed plants almost always proves to be futile. The fish is banned in more
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. plants are removed manually. Manual harvesting of weeds is only suited for controlling emergent vegetation in relatively small ponds. This general analysis of about three times as much phosphorus (expressed as P2O5) as nitrogen (expressed as N) has been found to have an excellent balance. so it should first be diluted in water before it is applied to the pond. It can be sprayed from the bank or applied from a boat outfitted for chemical applications. These fish include the grass carp. common carp. With the exception of the grass carp. Several fish species have been evaluated as biological control agents in warmwater ponds. preventing it from sinking into the bottom muds. Manual harvesting Removing potentially noxious emergent weeds by hand is another management practice that may reduce the possibility of having to use chemicals.

The controversy over the distribution and use of grass carp is based on the potential effect of this fish on native fish and wildlife. as much as 5 to 10 pounds a year.
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. It must consume large quantities of plant material to grow and may consume 2 to 3 times its weight in plant material per day. Considerable discretion should be used when planning to stock these fish into catfish ponds and every effort should be made to prevent their escape into natural water. triploid carp be used in the state. Small grass carp (less than 1-2 pounds) are almost completely herbivorous and will not compete to a significant degree with catfish for feed. Fry nursery ponds usually are drained each year and grass carp must be restocked each year. triploid grass carp. Fibrous plants such as grasses and smartweed are less preferred and grass carp will not eat these plants if more preferred plants are available. Grass carp prefer to eat succulent submersed plants such as Najas spp. Where legal and available. Grass carp tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions: they can survive at water temperatures of 33º to 105ºF and are nearly as tolerant as catfish to low dissolved oxygen concentration. Grass carp should be stocked into nursery ponds prior to stocking the catfish fry to prevent weed growth rather than waiting until weeds develop to treat the problem. To further diminish the likelihood that grass carp will reproduce and thrive in natural water. The fish grows rapidly.than 30 states and some states allow only sterile. this fish is a valuable tool to control nuisance aquatic weeds. and Chara spp. Food consumption by grass carp is greatest at a water temperature of 80º to 85ºF and the fish stops . it is required by Kentucky law that only sterile. The grass carp has several traits that make it a good species to polyculture with channel catfish. feeding when the temperature falls below about 55ºF .

Usually weed problems have been controlled by this time and a phytoplankton community has developed which prevents further weed growth. 5-10 small (3-6 inch) carp per acre should be stocked. The same stocking rate is also adequate if the pond is lightly infested with weeds. considerable time is required for grass carp to reduce weed infestations.Grass carp also are used by some catfish producers to control existing weeds in food-fish ponds. particularly if coverage is extensive. Grass carp must be stocked at a size large enough to prevent them from being eaten by predator fish such as bass and large catfish. 1015 fish per acre should be stocked. When used to prevent the establishment of submersed weeds. Food-fish ponds are usually not drained each year and grass carp become a permanent inhabitant of the ponds. even chemical treatment fails to eradicate established weed problems. However. it is usually quicker and more effective to use herbicides than any other method. Larger grass carp learn to feed on pelleted feeds and often do little to control weeds in the second or third year they are present. A high percentage of the time. Results may take a year to be realized. For more severe weed problems. Chemical Control of Aquatic Plants Control of aquatic weeds with chemicals is the most common means of eradicating weeds in catfish ponds. The stocking rate of grass carp depends on the severity of the weed problem. In cases where prevention measures have not been taken and weeds become established. For heavily weed infested ponds.
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. any grass carp also captured in the seine can be removed. however. stocking rates can be increased to 15-25 per acre or greater. As the catfish are harvested.

Emergent Weeds. (Table II) summarizes the type of weed and the herbicides used to control them. and label instructions should be followed carefully. In a short-cut approach to choosing an appropriate herbicide for a particular weed one can. The following table.
WEED Filamentous Algae (excluding Pithophora) Pithophora Submersed Weeds Emergent Weeds Floating Weeds HERBICIDE Copper Sulfate or Chelated Copper Hydrothol 191 Reward or Aquathol or Aquathol K Rodeo or 2. and Floating Weeds. first of all. categorize weeds into 4 separate groups: Algae. Submersed Weeds. 4-D liquid
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. Prefered herbicides for controllong aquatic weeds.
Table 11. Only herbicides labeled for use in food-fish ponds should be used by catfish farmers. 4-D liquid Reward or 2. Skin and eye protection should be worn when working with all chemicals to prevent absorption into the body. Most of these are illegal to use in water that constitute a fishery and even fewer can be used in waters used to raise food fish.Many different herbicides have been used in and around water.

Pithophora is a filamentous algae. it requires Hydrothol 191. The other major algae weed problem is muskgrass or Chara which has a garlic or skunk-like odor when crushed.Algae and weed types in a pond. however. is not controlled by copper compounds.
Most algae can be controlled by copper-based herbicides such as copper sulfate. 95
. The filamentous algae Pithophora. Pithophora feels like wet wool as opposed to most other filamentous algae which feel slick and slimy (often Spirogyra). Copper-based compounds can be used to control Chara.

and willows are rooted in the pond bottom and emerge prominently from the water. blooms. cattails.
Smartweed is an emergent weed. Submersed weeds are controlled by either Reward or Aquathol or Aquathol K. and stems sometimes breaking the water surface. Rodeo or 2.
Heavy pondweed growth. They include Najas and other types of pondweed.Submersed weeds are mostly underwater with leaves.
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.
Emergent weeds which include smartweed.4-D liquid work well in controlling emergent weeds.

Duckweed floats on the ponds surface
Harvesting
Methods and Considerations Different methods can be used successfully to harvest fish.4-D liquid. seining is the most efficient method to harvest a predictable large volume of fish with one effort. On commercial farms. Fish can become wary of this method and difficult to catch unless it is
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. Duckweed and watermeal are common floating weeds. trapping or seining. type of pond and harvest strategy. and irregular bottoms and banks. Trapping fish with a seine is best accomplished when fish are feeding well and ponds are several acres and larger. For hill or watershed ponds with deeper water.Floating weeds float on the water surface and have relatively shallow roots suspended in the water column but not rooted in the pond bottom. Fish can be harvest by fishing. they are controlled by Reward or 2. partial harvesting can be done by trap-seining using various techniques. The method used depends on the production system.

Labor shortages may also be a problem. Draining ponds and refilling means lost feeding days and a fuel bill if pumping is required. Gravel on the main levees helps to make harvesting in poor weather possible.
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. The annual ownership cost of harvesting equipment can be excessive for small farms with infrequent harvesting. When complete harvesting is desired.used infrequently (only once every week or longer). Harvesting the last remaining fish (scraping out) from a pond is time consuming. Levees and roadways need to be large enough for travel by large trucks. fish are removed by seining and the few remaining fish are harvested by dipnetting. large lift nets with centrally located feeding rings have been somewhat successful when used infrequently. The only way to harvest all fish from a pond is by draining. especially if many pot holes or low areas exist in the pond basin. This method is often referred to as topping and became popular in the 1970s. without other high cost equipment. The purchase of a seine only. is often satisfactory for small farms. That decision is best determined by an economic analysis of the situation. A big decision is whether to purchase harvesting equipment or pay for a custom harvesting service if it is available. Large farms often have their own harvesting crews and equipment because of frequent harvesting and available labor. Many producers use a seine to harvest only the market-sized fish from levee ponds that have graded bottoms. In small ponds. smaller fish remain in the pond. A seine with a selected mesh size is used along with other grading devices to capture fish of a desired minimum size.

Feed fish at the time of day that trapping is desired. Fish often do not resume normal feeding until several days after trap-seining. a seine about 150 to 200 feet long and six to eight feet deep should be used. Locate the seine in an area that has water less than four feet deep and is smooth and unobstructed. Harvesting small numbers of fish a few at a time may be achieved by use of trot lines or by snagging fish from the deep end of the pond using two treble hooks attached to a fishing rod line. and move slowly to avoid scaring fish out of the area. 99
. Stretch the seine parallel to and away from the bank by about 50 feet. At least two people are required to operate a seine trap. Feed in the area between the bank and seine until fish are feeding well in the trapping area. Some feed placed outside the catch area can help lure wary fish. For trap-seining.Using a seine net to harvest a small pond by hand
Equipment and Procedures The equipment required for pond seining depends on the size of pond. Harvest fish anytime many fish are feeding in the trap area by pulling both ends of the seine to the bank. making sure to keep the mud line on the bottom or many fish can escape. Pull in the seine. pounds of fish harvested. and cost and labor considerations. Coil about 50 feet of the seine at each end and connect a rope from each end to a stake on the bank.

These special nets can be attached and detached from the harvesting seine using a loading frame and drawstrings. The two tractors pull the seine in a zigzag manner to prevent tight stretching of the seine.
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. A tractor is used to pull each end of the seine. The boat can be used to push the seine with a catch bar and herd fish in the direction the seine is pulled. The mesh of the seine should be sized to catch the smallest desired fish. Seines made of nylon should be treated with a net coating to prevent catfish spines from hanging in the seine. Fish should be harvested near the water inlet and preferably in water at least three feet deep. The seine should be about 1. levees should be at the same elevation & banks cleared of high grass. Long seines (>200 to 300 feet) are difficult to pull because of their weight and dragging action on the pond bottom. Refer to Table 12 for information on recommended mesh sizes for catfish of different sizes.5 times as long and deep as the width and depth of the pond. allowing fish to escape. While the seine is being pulled. A device (bracket or catch bar) mounted on the bow of a boat can be used to push the seine and dump mud as it accumulates. Fish can also be further crowded and graded using shorter cutting seines of various mesh sizes. A mud line or bottom-line rollers are recommended to lessen digging into the bottom. The cutting seine is pulled inside of the larger harvesting seine. a person should be walking the seine along the toe of the levee to prevent the seine from rising off the bottom. weeds or trees. One tractor pulls a hydraulic-operated seine reel mounted on a two-wheeled trailer that stores and reels the seine. A heavy duty commercial harvesting seine is required.More equipment is involved to harvest catfish from ponds five to ten acres and larger. Crowded fish can be put into live cars or socks for further grading or holding. Both methods work well. Fish are easily harvested from live cars with loading baskets. ponds should have a regular shape. Polyethylene seines require no coating treatment. With this procedure.

More time is required for grading. then stake the seine securely to prevent the aerator current from rolling up the seine.Once fish are crowded into live cars or seines. Pumped well water or an aerator should be used to maintain good water quality at all times. If an aerator is used. Larger mesh sizes reduce the chance of harvesting undesirably small fish.
A live car or sock holds fish and allows them to grade. Seines can be held in place with seine support rods (dead men). Seine mesh size needed to retain catfish of various sizes Square Mesh Size (in inches) 2 1 Holds Fish Larger (or Equal to) 2 pounds 1 3/4 pounds 1 ½ pounds 1 pound 3/4 pound
f
1 3/4 1 5/8 1½ 1d 1
½ pound
5 ounces
Note: Fish are more difficult to grade in cool water.
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.
Table 12. good water quality must be maintained during holding.

or a strong metal pole can be chained to a lift on a back hoe. seined fish can be harvested from ponds by dipnetting them into large tubs or plastic fish baskets that are carried to a vehicle. Transportation stresses fish due to crowding.
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. In large. so it is desirable to avoid harvesting and handling fish during the summer. at cooler water temperatures. Fish may become spined or water quality conditions can quickly deteriorate. fish grade slower. Consider using a larger mesh seine during cool temperatures to minimize the harvest of smaller fish that should not be harvested. Sick or weak fish will probably die. This delayed reaction is common. The boom can be mounted on a truck.
Transporting
Catfish. changing temperature conditions. Fish not handled properly may develop a disease or die one to seven days after they are transported. are sensitive to changes that occur when they are handled. Fish have to be in good condition and healthy before they are transported. Fish handle best in cool weather. Fish are unloaded from the fish basket directly into compartments in fish tanks for delivery to the market destination. like other livestock. crowded fish are loaded into a fish basket by scooping the basket into the fish or by dipnetting. and general over excitement from handling. The basket is attached to a hydraulic boom and in-line scales are used to record fish weights. Also.In small ponds. commercial ponds. or a disease problem will worsen.

in water 45º to 50ºF Use ice or cool well water to lower the . About one-half pound of ice per gallon water is required to reduce the water temperature about 10ºF. and any regurgitated food or expelled fecal matter fouls the hauling water. Fish should be hauled at cool water temperatures to lower their metabolic rate. . fish should be hauled in water 60º to 65ºF and in winter. require a narrower temperature difference.
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. temperature during summer.This fish hauler has multiple hauling tanks
The following steps should be taken to prepare fish for hauling. In summer. calm them and lower their oxygen consumption. Fish should not be stocked directly into hauling tank waters if the temperature difference is more than about 5ºF Smaller fish . Fish with full stomachs handle poorly. Do not feed fish for at least two to three days in the summer and four to five days in the winter before they are transported. and use well water or sunlight to warm water during winter.

Hauling tank on the back of pick-up truck. Transport fish in good quality well or spring water if possible, rather than pond water, unless the water is cool and clear, or if only a short trip is required from pond to pond. Pond water with an algae bloom should be avoided unless absolutely necessary and the trip is short. Catfish appear to haul better in water with a total hardness and alkalinity above 50 to 100 ppm. Calcium chloride can be added to raise the hardness. Handle fish during the coolest time of the day, and avoid time out of water, especially when it is hot or windy. Do not overload dip nets and loading baskets, and try to move fish in a cushion of water. Make sure all nylon seines and dip nets are coated to avoid injury to fish when they are released from entanglement. Be sure water has adequate aeration both during the loading and hauling of fish. Salt is often used to reduce stress at a concentration of 0.1% to 0.3%, while many catfish live-haulers in Kentucky are now successfully using up to 0.8% salt in their hauling water; they add about 6 pounds of salt per 100 gallons of water for stress reduction.

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During long trips, know where non-chlorinated water can be obtained if required. Carry an extra agitator for backup and any essential spare parts and tools in case equipment failure occurs. Before fish are unloaded, check for water temperature differences. Catfish have more difficulty when transferred into water warmer than their hauling water temperature more so than being stocked into water cooler than their hauling water. Pump water from the receiving water into the hauling containers to gradually acclimate (tempor) the fish to their new water. The acclimation is not only for temperature adjustment but for other less apparent water quality factors such as pH and hardness. Acclimation is easily done using a 12-volt submersible pump to mix pond water with the hauling water before fish are unloaded. A chute hung on the door of the haul tank works well to unload fish without excessive handling. Disinfect tanks between different loads of fish to prevent possible spread of disease. Dry each compartment thoroughly or use a chlorine solution. Loading Rates Catfish are transported in tanks made of fiberglass, wood or metal. Insulated tanks are recommended for long transport trips in summer. Aeration is usually from agitators, air-blowers or liquid oxygen. A backup system is common. The transport tank should be vented to permit the escape of carbon dioxide gas. The loading rates in transport tanks can vary considerably, depending on design of tank, aeration system, size and health of fish, water quality, temperature, and transport time. Table 13 provides some guidelines for catfish hauled in tanks with water at 65ºF with a source of pure oxygen gas bubbled into the water.

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Table 13. Estimated pounds of channel catfish that can be hauled safely per gallon of 65ºF water for various times.

Adjustments are required when fish are transported at higher temperatures or longer transport times. Reduce the pounds hauled by 25% for each 10ºF rise in temperature. Note: the number of gallons used to calculate hauling rates should be the amount of water before fish are added. For example, 600 gallons of water loaded at 5 lbs of fish per gallon (3,000 lbs) will bring the water level up to the 1000 gallon mark in the tank.