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Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/20/20-481.html
AUTHOR: Steen, Gerard J. TITLE: Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage SUBTITLE: A methodological analysis of theory and research SERIES TITLE: Converging Evidence in Language and Communication Research 10 PUBLISHER: John Benjamins YEAR: 2009

Stephen Pihlaja, Faculty of English Language Studies, The Open University

SUMMARY

Gerard Steen's ''Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage'' began as a joint project with the noted cognitive linguist Ray Gibbs, but eventually became solely Steen's work, focused on metaphor and language rather than on language and thought. The resulting book is a comprehensive survey of the current state of metaphor research. Steen takes issue with the tendency of metaphor researchers to cross lines of enquiry between grammar and usage, language and thought, and symbol and behaviour without careful consideration to the key differences in these types of metaphor research. This book is then an attempt to lay out the distinct forms of metaphor research as Steen sees them, describe how research into each distinct field has been undertaken, and critique current research. Current areas of metaphor research are broken into eight broad categories: first, metaphor in grammar approached as symbolic structure in language (1) and as thought (2), and approached as behaviour in language (3) and thought (4); and second, metaphor in usage approached as symbolic structure in language (5) and as thought (6), and approached as behaviour in language (7) and thought (8).

Steen states that his goal is two-fold: 'First of all, I will argue that caution needs to be observed when evidence from different domains of investigation is crossed. [Second,] I will argue that obtaining converging evidence in the field of metaphor research can best be promoted by applying a form of methodological pluralism within each of the various areas of research' (Steen 2007: 21). The importance of drawing distinctions between research areas is a major theme in this book because, Steen argues, it allows for appropriate applications of findings that do not confuse areas of enquiry and over-generalise. Given the different perspectives used to approach metaphor, there is the possibility that questions about metaphor could be answered in different ways, depending on the perspective of the researcher. In the first chapter, Steen writes that his concern '…with present day research is that different schools and researchers conflate these perspectives in diverging ways, confounding or concealing issues which need to be kept distinct' (Steen 2007: 4). This can be seen, for example, in enquiry into metaphor in grammar vs. metaphor in usage, which Steen argues are distinct and should not be confused with each other.

Steen first presents the deductive approach to metaphor research as 'eminently suitable for testing' (Steen 2007: 28), and therefore, valuable to help create reliability and replicability. The approach works by first, postulating a relationship between two phenomena; second, observing, often through experimentation; and third, deciding whether the first proposition stands. He then goes on to describe four conceptualisations of metaphor: the two domain approach (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; 1999), the many space approach (Fauconnier and Turner 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002), the class inclusion approach (Glucksberg 1991, 2001; Glucksberg, Brown, and McGlone 1993), and the career of metaphor approach (Bowdle and Genter 2005). Steen presents these models and discusses how metaphor can be seen as a relationship between two, three, or four conceptual structures, depending on the conceptual model one chooses to adopt, but are regarded as based in non-literal similarity. Steen then discusses the operationalization of metaphor research, discussing how the conceptual metaphor, class-inclusion, and career of metaphor theories would identify words as metaphorical or not in instances of both grammar and usage. Finally, he presents different applications of the methods, looking at the different kinds of data collection that are available to researchers (introspection, observation, and manipulation) and how this data might be used in analysis (quantitative and qualitative methods).

After the introductory chapters, each chapter addresses a different question (or set of questions) related to the particular category of research and argues for the same procedure in addressing any given question: first, discussing the deductive approach to the research question; second, discussing conceptualization and operationalization in the particular approach; and third, discussing introspection, observation, and manipulation in terms of data collection for the approach. This layout allows for quick reference between the chapters as each subsection is the same in any given section. Each chapter sets forth the theoretical frameworks and methods used in each category of research, with Steen commenting on the validity and effectiveness of each. Each chapter deals with the issues in great detail, discussing the research process in depth at each level.

Part One: Foundations

Chapter One: Mapping the field; An overview of the book as whole, Steen's concerns about overlapping metaphor research, and his grid of eight approaches to metaphor research.

Chapter Two: The deductive approach; An introduction to the deductive approach to metaphor research.

Chapter Four: Operationalization; An explanation of operationalization in metaphor research.

Chapter Five Application: Data collection and analysis; An overview of different methods of data collection and analysis, focusing on different available forms of data collection and qualitative vs. quantitative analysis of data.

A general overview is a very welcome addition to the metaphor studies literature given the increasing diversity of the theoretical and methodological frameworks. This book is a key starting place for any linguist interested in understanding metaphor research in general terms and, more importantly, the frameworks and methods that various metaphor researchers are employing. Steen's argument that evidence across different categories of metaphor research needs to be applied with caution is also very timely, as lack of distinction between different areas of research (e.g., careless application of cognitive science findings to discourse analysis) is likely to skew the results of research. Moreover, Steen's clear writing and decision to format all chapters around the same layout welcomes comparison and quick reference, a very helpful feature for a researcher interested in developing their methods. With a consistent single voice throughout the text, this book offers an extremely coherent approach to the field that would be unlikely in an edited volume on the same subject.

These strengths, however, bring with them the inherent weakness of having only one voice speaking on what are heavily contested issues in the field, particularly that metaphor studies could (or should) be condensed to eight research questions, as Steen argues. Although the grid of eight areas of metaphor research is a clean, easy-to-understand way to conceptualise the field, that scholars in each of the categories may not see their work as necessarily separate from the others or agree to this division of research interests seems unlikely. For example, Steen's strong distinction between grammar and usage, although well-argued and reasonable, would not likely go unchallenged by other scholars. Additionally, the pursuit of replicability and reliability through use of the deductive method begs the question whether or not all research can be fit into the same procedure and runs the risk of creating a positivist paradigm that cannot be reasonably applied to the field. These points, however, are given ample consideration in the book and Steen's style invites questions and consideration rather than being a defensive polemic from one perspective.

Essentially, this is a book about methodology and as Steen states at the end, his hope in the text is, in a small way, to reduce personal bias and increase validity and reliability of metaphor research. With a continued focus on operationalization of metaphor research and step-by-step instructions for making judgments about what is or is not metaphorical, the book reads in many ways like a very useful handbook that the researcher could use to investigate metaphoricity in their given pursuit. With the text covering such a broad overview of the field, Steen manages to effectively compare and contrast across the categories and draw distinctions between the different perspectives that are available without becoming especially evangelistic for any one method or conceptualization. This even-handed approach is a welcome addition, especially for researchers who are new to the field and have not yet established clear positions on the contested issues.

This book is an essential read for any metaphor researcher or linguist looking for a broad overview of the field and a starting point for further reading. For the researcher interested in contextualising their work in the broad field, this book is also essential for its comprehensive approach to metaphor research, past and present. Moreover, Steen's focus on validity and reliability is a timely one for metaphor researchers to consider as the field would benefit greatly from less biased research and clearly developed methods of metaphor identification and analysis which draw distinctions between different areas of enquiry. The text is vital starting point for understanding the field of metaphor research, regardless of one's theoretical or methodological convictions.

Stephen Pihlaja is a research degree student at the Open University (OU) in Milton Keynes, UK, but is originally from the suburbs of Chicago. He holds an MA in Applied Linguistics from the University of Birmingham, is now completing a Master of Research at the OU before continuing on to a PhD beginning this autumn. His research interests include Metaphor Theory, Computer Mediated Communication, Complex Systems Theory, and Religious Discourse. When not academically engaged, he enjoys Haruki Murakami novels and entertaining his two beautifully precocious daughters.