Frequently Asked Questions file (FAQ) on the Civil War

Archive-name: civil-war-usa/faq
Last-modified: 1994/9/19
Version: 2.05
alt.war.civil.usa FAQ v2.05 (19 September 1994)
This is a collection of answers to frequently asked questions in
alt.war.civil.usa (and some not-so-frequently, too!) and is posted
on or about the 20th of each month. It was compiled by Justin M.
Sanders (jsanders@orph01.phy.ornl.gov) who tried to be as complete
and accurate as possible, but who is definitely human and has
probably made several errors.
Please send comments, suggestions, or corrections to the address above.
The topics covered are (a plus means a new entry, an asterisk means a
revised entry):
Part 0: alt.war.civil.usa and other net stuff
Q0.1: What is this group anyway?
Q0.2: Are the FAQ and Reading List archived somewhere?
Q0.3: Where can I find Civil War images, documents, and so
forth on-line?
Part 1: The beginning of the War
Q1.1: When did state X secede?
Q1.2: Was there a declaration of war or something?
Q1.3: What were the populations of the states at the outbreak of
the war?
Part 2: Battles and fighting forces
Q2.1: What are the alternate names of various battles?
Q2.2: Who were the U.S. Generals at the out-break of the war, and
who were the first Generals appointed after the war began?
Q2.3: Who were the first C.S. Generals appointed?
Q2.4: What were the naval ranks during the Civil War?
Q2.5: What were the organization and strengths of various units
in the armies?
Q2.6: What is the difference between grapeshot and canister?
+Q2.7: How did prisoner exchanges and paroles work?
Part 3: The end of the War
Q3.1: When did the war end?
Q3.2: If the rebel states were never considered legally out of the
Union, how was Reconstruction justified?
Part 4: Genealogy and Unit Histories
Q4.1: My ancestor fought in the war-- how do I find out about
his service?
*Q4.2: How can I find information about a particular regiment?
Part 5: Miscellaneous
Q5.1: What is the "Stars and Bars"?
Q5.2: What changes to the U.S. flag occurred during the war?
Q5.3: How was the state of West Virginia created?
Q5.4: What war records did the post-war presidents have?
Q5.5: What are the various alternate names for the war?
*Q5.6: What are good books on the war?
Q5.7: How can I get the soundtrack to Ken Burn's "Civil War"?
Q5.8: Who was the last surviving veteran of the Civil War?
Q5.9: Did U.S. Grant and R.E. Lee both own slaves and free them?
Q5.10: What is the recipe for hardtack?
Answers
Part 0: alt.war.civil.usa and net stuff
Q0.1: What is this group anyway?
The USENET newsgroup alt.war.civil.usa was created in the Spring
of 1992 at the suggestion of Patrick L. Dunn (Thanks!).
The charter of alt.war.civil.usa reads:
The purpose of this group is the discussion of topics
related to the United States Civil War (1861-65). Topics can
involve military, political, social, economic or other factors
which impacted upon this period of history. This newsgroup will
also serve as a source of information, assistance, or referral
for persons seeking guidance via responses from more
knowledgeable subscribers.
Q0.2: Are the FAQ and Reading List archived somewhere?
Yes, the latest versions of the FAQ and Reading List are
available for anonymous ftp at:
rtfm.mit.edu /pub/usenet/alt.war.civil.usa/U.S._Civil_War_FAQ
/pub/usenet/alt.war.civil.usa/U.S._Civil_War_Reading_List
Q0.3: Where can I find Civil War images, documents, and so forth on-line?
[This is a particularly new section which will probably change
a lot in coming months. Your humble FAQ maintainer asks the
net cruisers among you to keep him notified of changes and
errors.]
A large collection of e-texts relating to the Civil War
including the Confederate Constitution, secession ordinances,
Lincoln's Inaugurals, the Emancipation Proclamation, lists of
CS Navy ships, the autobiography of CSA Gen. D.H. Maury, plus
images of famous people on both sides are available at the
anonymous ftp archive site
byrd.mu.wvnet.edu /pub/history/military/civil_war_usa
(Lincoln things are under /pub/history/political/united_states)
For those who can use WWW and related services, Brian Boyle is
providing a central Civil War URL
http://www.digimark.net/bdboyle/index.html
which links to many of the documents mentioned above. The
Library of Congress also has a Civil War image collection for
WWW at the URL
http://rs6.loc.gov/amhome.html
Part 1: The beginning of the War
Q1.1: When did state X secede?
Before Lincoln's call for troops, the following states seceded:
1. South Carolina, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession,
20 Dec 1860
2. Mississippi, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 9 Jan 1861
3. Florida, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 10 Jan 1861
4. Alabama, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 11 Jan 1861
5. Georgia, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 19 Jan 1861
6. Louisiana, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 26 Jan 1861
7. Texas, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 1 Feb 1861, to
take effect 2 Mar 1861 provided it was ratified by the voters
on 23 Feb 1861. Texas admitted to the Confederacy, 2 Mar 1861.
After Lincoln's call for troops on 15 Apr 1861, the following
states seceded:
8. Virginia, Convention rejected secession 4 Apr 1861, Convention
passed Ordinance of Secession 17 Apr 1861 and ratified C.S.A.
Constitution, both subject to ratification of voters 23 May 1861.
Virginia admitted to CSA 7 May 1861.
9. Arkansas, Convention rejected secession ordinance on 18 Mar 1861
and called for referendum in August, Convention passed Ordinance
of Secession 6 May 1861. Arkansas admitted to C.S.A. 20 May 1861.
10. North Carolina, Voters rejected calling a Convention 28 Feb 1861,
Legislature called Convention 1 May 1861, Convention passed
Ordinance of Secession 20 May 1861. North Carolina provisionally
admitted to CSA 17 May 1861.
11. Tennessee, Voters rejected calling a Convention 9 Feb 1861,
On 6 May 1861 Legislature passed "Declaration of
Independence" and ratification of CSA Constitution subject
to referendum on 8 June 1861. Tennessee admitted to CSA
17 May 1861.
The following two states never seceded via any mechanism provided
by a legitimate government:
12. Missouri, Convention rejected secession 9 Mar 1861, rump
legislature passed Ordinance of Secession 31 Oct 1861 and
requested admission to CSA. Missouri admitted to CSA
28 Nov 1861.
13. Kentucky, southern sympathizers called for convention Oct 1861,
Convention passed Ordinance of Secession 18 Nov 1861. Kentucky
admitted to the CSA 10 Dec 1861.
Sources: Civil War Day-by-Day; Official Records, Ser. IV, Vol 1.
Q1.2: Was there a declaration of war or something?
1. The United States never declared war. This was in keeping with
its position that the rebel states did not form a new nation,
rather they were states in which a rebellion was taking place.
Abraham Lincoln issued a Proclamation that an insurrection
existed in the states of SC, GA, FL, AL, MS, LA, and TX on
15 Apr 1861 (Messages & Papers of the Presidents,V,p3214).
2. The Confederate States passed "An Act recognizing the existence
of war between the United States and the Confederate States" on
6 May 1861. This act exempted MD, NC, TN, KY, AR, MO, DE, and
the territories of AZ and NM, and the Indian Territory south of
KS.
Sources: McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom; Official Records, Ser. IV,
Vol. 1
Q1.3: What were the populations of the states at the outbreak of the war?
The following statistics are from J.C.G. Kennedy, Supt. of Census,
_Population of the United States in 1860_ (Washington, G.P.O., 1864)
State White Free Colored Slave Total[1] Military[2]
AL 526,271 2,690 435,080 964,201 99,967
AR 324,143 144 111,115 435,450 65,231
CA 323,177 4,086 0 379,994 169,975
CT 451,504 8,627 0 460,147 94,411
DE 90,589 19,829 1,798 112,216 18,273
FL 77,747 932 61,745 140,424 15,739
GA 591,550 3,500 462,198 1,057,286 111,005
IL 1,704,291 7,628 0 1,711,951 375,026
IN 1,338,710 11,428 0 1,350,428 265,295
IA 673,779 1,069 0 674,913 139,316
[3] KS 106,390 625 2 107,206 27,976
KY 919,484 10,684 225,483 1,155,684 180,589
LA 357,456 18,647 331,726 708,002 83,456
ME 626,947 1,327 0 628,279 122,238
MD 515,918 83,942 87,189 687,049 102,715
MA 1,221,432 9,602 0 1,231,066 258,419
MI 736,142 6,799 0 749,113 164,007
MN 169,395 259 0 172,023 41,226
MS 353,899 773 436,631 791,305 70,295
MO 1,063,489 3,572 114,931 1,182,012 232,781
NH 325,579 494 0 326,073 63,610
[4] NJ 646,699 25,318 18 672,035 132,219
NY 3,831,590 49,005 0 3,880,735 796,881
NC 629,942 30,463 331,059 992,622 115,369
OH 2,302,808 36,673 0 2,339,511 459,534
OR 52,160 128 0 52,465 15,781
PA 2,849,259 56,949 0 2,906,215 555,172
RI 170,649 3,952 0 174,620 35,502
SC 291,300 9,914 402,406 703,708 55,046
TN 826,722 7,300 275,719 1,109,801 159,353
TX 420,891 355 182,566 604,215 92,145
VT 314,369 709 0 315,098 60,580
[5] VA 1,047,299 58,042 490,865 1,596,318 196,587
WI 773,693 1,171 0 775,881 159,335
Territories 76,214 (all terr.)
CO 34,231 46 0 34,277
DK 2,576 0 0 4,837
NE 28,696 67 15 28,841
[6] NV 6,812 45 0 6,857
[7] NM 82,979 85 0 93,516
UT 40,125 30 29 40,273
WA 11,138 30 0 11,594
DC 60,763 11,131 3,185 75,080 12,797
The bottom line:
White Free Colored Slave Total Military
Union* 21,475,373 355,310 432,650 22,339,989 4,559,872
CSA 5,447,220 132,760 3,521,110 9,103,332 1,064,193
*includes MO and KY, DC, and territories
The following statistics are from J.C.G. Kennedy, Supt. of Census,
_Preliminary Report on the Eighth Census, 1860_ (Washington,
G.P.O., 1862)
The Five Civilized Tribes
Tribe White Free Colored Slave Indian[8]
Choctaw 802 67 2,297 18,000 (est.)
Cherokee 713 17 2,504 22,000 (est.)
Creek 319 277 1,651 15,000 (est.)
Chickasaw 146 13 917 5,000 (est.)
Seminole 8 30 0 5,000 (est.)
Total 65,680
The following statistics are from J.C.G. Kennedy, Supt. of Census,
_Agriculture in the United States in 1860_ (Washington: G.P.O.,
1864) [ratios calculated by JMS]
State Slave- Slaveholders/ slaves/
holders white pop. (%) slaveholder
AL 33,730 6.4 12.9
AR 11,481 3.5 9.7
DE 587 0.65 3.1
FL 5,152 6.6 12.0
GA 41,084 6.9 11.2
KY 38,645 4.2 5.8
LA 22,033 6.1 15.0
MD 13,783 2.7 6.3
MS 30,943 8.7 14.1
MO 24,320 2.3 4.7
NC 34,658 5.5 9.6
SC 26,701 9.2 15.1
TN 36,844 4.4 7.5
TX 21,878 5.2 8.3
VA 52,128 5.0 9.4
Total 393,967 4.9 [9] 10.0
The number for slaveholders includes just the slaveholder, not
the spouse or children. An average family size was about 5, so
the percentages above may be multiplied by 5 to arrive at the
usual rule of thumb that about 25% of Southern households owned
slaves.
Notes:
[1] Total includes other racial/ethnic groups.
[2] White males aged 18-45
[3] KS became a state in 1861; it was a territory during the Census.
[4] "Slaves" are "colored apprentices for life."
[5] Includes the present state of WV
[6] NV became a state in 1864.
[7] White includes "half-breeds."
[8] Only the total Indian population was given the report. The
breakdown by tribe is estimated from the slave/Indian ratio
reported for each tribe.
[9] White population used was the total of the 15 states in the
table.
Part 2: Battles and fighting forces
Q2.1: What are the alternate names of various battles?
Union Confederate
Bull Run, VA Manassas 21 July 1861
Wilsons Creek, MO Oak Hills 10 Aug 1861
Logan's Cross Roads, VA Mill Springs 19 Jan 1862
Pea Ridge, AR Elkhorn Tavern 6-8 Mar 1862
Pittsburg Landing, TN Shiloh 6-7 Apr 1862
Bull Run, VA (2nd) Manassas 29-30 Aug 1862
Antietam, MD Sharpsburg 17 Sept 1862
Chapell Hills, KY Perryville 8 Oct 1862
Stones River, TN Murfreesboro 30 Dec 1862-2 Jan 1863
Elk Creek, Ind. Terr. Honey Springs 17 July 1863
Sabine Cross Roads, LA Mansfield 8 Apr 1864
Opequon Creek, VA Winchester 19 Sept 1864
Q2.2: Who were the U.S. Generals at the out-break of the war, and who
were the first Generals appointed after the war began?
[Contributed by Carlton Andrews (andrews@mls.ed.ray.com)]
USA Generals - Prior to Army Expansion
Name Rank *Commission Date Age 7/1/61
---- ---- -------------- ----------
Winfield Scott M.G. 6/25/1841 75
John Ellis Wool B.G. 6/25/1841 77
David Emanuel Twiggs B.G. 6/30/1846
[Twiggs was dismissed 3/1/1861 for handing/surrendering all
men and equipment in Texas to the state of Texas]
William Selby Harney B.G. 6/14/1858 60
[Harney went to Europe rather than fight for either side]
Joseph E. Johnston QM-B.G. 6/28/1860 [staff appt.]
Edwin Vose Sumner B.G. 3/16/1861 64
ARMY EXPANSION May 1861
-----------------------
Regular Commissions
George Brinton McClellan M.G. 5/14/1861 34
John Charles Fremont M.G. 5/14/1861 48
Henry Wager Halleck M.G. 5/19/1861 46
Joseph K. F. Mansfield B.G. 5/06/1861 57
Irvin McDowell B.G. 5/14/1861 42
Robert Anderson B.G. 5/15/1861 56
William Starke Rosecrans B.G. 5/16/1861 41
Volunteer Commissions
John Adams Dix M.G. 5/16/1861 62
Nathaniel Prentiss Banks M.G. 5/16/1861 45
Benjamin Franklin Butler M.G. 5/16/1861 42
37 officers B.G. 5/17/1861
* Commission Date is date to rank from, not date appointed.
Q2.3: Who were the first C.S. Generals appointed?
[31 Aug 1861 will be the cut-off date for this answer.]
Generals in the CS Army (all were appointed on 31 Aug 1861, to
date from the date given below):
Samuel Cooper 16 May 1861 (Adjt & Insp. Gen)
Albert Sidney Johnston 30 May 1861
Robert Edward Lee 14 Jun 1861
Joseph Eggleston Johnston 4 Jul 1861
Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard 21 Jul 1861
Prior to 16 May 1861, the highest rank in the CS Regular Army was
Brigadier General (5 were authorized):
Samuel Cooper 16 Mar 1861 (Adjt & Insp. Gen)
Robert Edward Lee 14 May 1861
Joseph Eggleston Johnston 14 May 1861
In addition to the CS Regular Army, there was the Provisional
Army (PACS). Which had the ranks of Brigadier and Major General.
Major Generals (PACS):
David Emanuel Twiggs 22 May 1861
Leonidas Polk 25 Jun 1861
The first Brigadier General (PACS) was
Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard 1 Mar 1861
at least 35 others appointed between Mar and Aug 1861
The rank of Lieutenant General was authorized for the PACS
on 18 Sep 1862.
Q2.4: What were the naval ranks during the Civil War?
From: roy_wells@qm.vitalink.COM (Roy H. Wells)
Here is a short discourse from a friend and fellow
re-enactor, Richard Staley (who commands the 69th NY
Infantry in the NCWA):
Todd's American Military Equippage: 1851-1870 lists naval ranks
during the CW as:
Admiral (grade created for David Farragut 25 July, 1866)
Vice Admiral (grade created 21 December, 1864, Farragut being the
first to hold this rank)
Flag Officer (title created 16 July, 1862)
Commodore (courtesy title until 16 July, 1862 when the grade was
formally adopted)
Captain
Commander
Lieut. Commander (grade created 16 July, 1862)
Lieutenant
Master (grade existed throughout the period; originally "sailing
master"; became a commissioned rank in 1862 and after the
period was changed to Lieutenant Junior Grade.)
Ensign (title for a passed Midshipman after 16 July, 1862)
Passed Midshipman (Midshipman who had passed his examination for
promotion to Lieutenant; called Ensign after 1862 although
the term continued in use.)
Midshipman (grade given undergraduates of the U.S. Naval Academy;
not strictly in the line of the Navy in the latter part of
the century).
Master's Mate
Shipped or Rated Master's Mate (usually a warrant officer).
Q2.5: What were the organization and strengths of various units in the
armies?
[Compiled with the assistance of:
Stephen Schmidt and
Dominic J. Dal Bello ]
(A good source of information is Richard Zimmermann, _Unit
Organizations of the Civil War_.)
First, always remember that most Civil War units in the field
were only at anywhere between 20% to 40% of their full strength.
Thus, while in theory a company contained 100 men, and would be
recruited at that size, by the time they reached the army they'd
be down to 60 or so and after the first battle down to 40 or so.
The full-strength sizes are given below, so remember to knock
them down by 50% or more when reading about units engaged in
battles.
Second, due to casualties among the officers, frequently units
would find themselves commanded by an officer one or two grades
below the rank he should have for the job (e.g., a regiment
commanded by a lieutenant colonel or major).
Third, keep in mind that in the early stages of the war and in
the more remote areas (such as the Trans-Mississippi), unit
organizations tended to deviate more from the norm. What follows
will be the ideal, your mileage may vary.
I. Infantry.
COMPANY.
The basic unit is the company, commanded by a captain
100 men = 2 platoons = 4 sections = 8 squads
A company has the following officers (commissioned and non-coms):
Captain (1), 1st. Lieut. (1), 2nd. Lieut. (1)
1st Sgt. (1), Sgts. (4) and Corporals (8).
When the company was divided into platoons, the captain commanded
one and the 1st Lt. the other. There was a sergeant for each
section, and a corporal for each squad. The 1st Sgt. "ran" the
whole company.
BATTALION and REGIMENT.
Battalions and regiments were formed by organizing companies
together. In the volunteers (Union and Confederate), 10 companies
would be organized together into a regiment. The regiment was
commanded by a colonel. A regiment has the following staff (one
of each):
Col.; Lt. Col.; Major; Adjutant (1st Lt); Surgeon (maj.);
Asst Surgeon (capt.); Quartermaster (lieut); Commissary (lieut);
Sgt-Major; Quartermaster Sgt.
There were also volunteer organizations containing less than 10
companies: if they contained from 4-8 companies, they were called
battalions, and usually were commanded by a major or lieutenant
colonel.
The (Union) Regular regts organized before the war (1st-10th)
were 10 company regiments like the volunteers. When the NEW
Regular regts. were authorized, a different organization was
used. The new Regular regts were organized 8 companies to a
battalion and 2 battalions to the regiment. Thus new Regular
regts contained 16 companies. These regiments frequently fought
as battalions rather than as single regiments. However, often
the 2nd battalion could not be recruited up to strength, in which
case they fought as a single regiment.
BRIGADE
A brigade is formed from 3 to 6 regiments and commanded by a
brigadier general. The South tended to use more regiments than
the North, thus having bigger brigades. At some times in the
war, some artillery would be attached to the infantry brigade:
see the Artillery section below. Each brigade would also have a
varying number of staff officers.
DIVISION
A division is commanded by a major general and is composed of
from 2 to 6 brigades. In the North usually 3 or 4, but in the
South normally 4 to 6. Thus, a Southern division tended to be
almost twice as large as its Northern counterpart, if the
regiments are about the same size. At some times in the war, some
artillery or, less often, cavalry might be attached: see the
Cavalry and Artillery sections below. Each division would also
have a varying number of staff officers.
CORPS.
A corps is commanded by a major general (Union) or a lieutenant
general (Confederate) and is composed of from 2 to 4 divisions.
Again the North tended to have 2 or 3, while the South had 3 or 4.
Each corps would also have a varying number of staff officers.
ARMIES.
Corps within a geographic department were aggregated into armies.
The number of corps in an army could vary considerably: sometimes
an army would contain only 1 corps and other times as many as 8.
Armies were commanded by major generals in the North, and usually
by full generals in the South. Corps and armies usually had some
artillery and cavalry attached: again, see below. Each army
would also have a varying number of staff officers.
To summarize, the nominal strengths and commanding officers were:
UNIT MEN Commander Example NAME
Company 100 Captain Co. A, B-K (not J, looks like I)
Regiment 1000 Colonel 5th N.Y. Infantry
Brigade 4000 Brig Genl 3rd Brigade (US) **
Division 12000 Maj. Genl Cleburne's Division (CS) **
Corps 36000 Maj. Genl* IIIrd Corps (US) **
Army Maj. Genl+ Army of Tennessee (CS) ++
* or Lt. Gen. in the South
+ or Gen. in the South
** Numerical designation was used in the North, the Commander's
name was typically used in the South, e.g. Forrest's Corps
++ The South mainly used the name of the area or state where the
army operated. Rivers were used primarily as names in the
North, e.g. Army of the Cumberland.
II. Cavalry.
COMPANY or TROOP.
The basic unit is the troop or company, organized pretty much the
same way as an infantry company. The nominal strength was 100.
If the troop dismounted for battle, 1 man in 4 would stay behind
to guard the horses.
BATTALION and REGIMENT.
In the Union volunteers, 12 cavalry troops form a regiment
commanded by a colonel. The Confederate Cavalry used a 10
company regiment. Again, the (Union) Regulars had a different
organization: in the Regular units 2 troops form a squadron, 2
squadrons form a battalion, and 3 battalions form a regiment.
And again, there were groups of 4-8 companies of volunteer
cavalry which are called battalions.
Initially, each Union cavalry regiment was assigned to an
infantry division. The Confederates brigaded their cavalry
together. The Union eventually adopted this organization as well.
As the war progressed, both sides formed cavalry divisions (again
the South took the lead). The North also formed cavalry corps,
and the South later also adopted this innovation.
III. Artillery
BATTERY.
The basic unit of artillery is the battery, which has 4 to 6
guns, is commanded by a captain, and has 4 lieutenants, 12 or so
noncoms, and 120 or so privates. It typically had 4 guns in the
South and 6 guns in the North. Batteries were a subdivided into
gun crews of 20 or so, and into sections of 2 gun crews, 2 or 3
sections per battery. A gun crew was commanded by a sergeant and
a section by a lieutenant.
BATTALION or BRIGADE.
At the start of the war, each side assigned one battery attached
to each infantry brigade, plus an artillery reserve under the
army commander. By mid-1862, larger organizations were used. The
basic unit contained 3 or 4 batteries of artillery; it was called
a battalion in the South and a brigade in the North (same unit,
just a different name) and it was commanded by a colonel,
lieutenant colonel, or major.
ARTILLERY RESERVE.
After 1862, it was typical for each infantry division to have an
artillery battalion attached, and each corps or army to have a
reserve of two to five battalions. Each division's artillery
usually fought along side the infantry, while the corps/army
reserves were used to form the massed batteries. The artillery
reserve was commanded by a brigadier general or colonel.
IV. Other Units
LEGION.
The Confederacy also organized a number of units known as
legions. They were mixed-arms units, usually containing 6-8
companies of infantry, 2-3 companies of cavalry, and a couple
artillery pieces. Generally as soon as they reached the
battlefield they were broken apart, the infantry forming a
battalion, the cavalry being reassigned to some other unit, and
the artillery joining the reserve. Sometimes the infantry
retained the name legion, more frequently it got renamed to
battalion.
MARINES.
Both sides had a rudimentary Marine Corps which fought along the
Atlantic coast. The US Marines contained about 3,000 men and were
organized into companies. There doesn't seem to have been any
organization higher than that: they rarely operated in larger
units than a few companies anyway. The Confederate Marines had a
strength of about 300 men organized in four companies and was
nominally commanded by a colonel.
HEAVY ARTILLERY.
The Union organized some "heavy artillery" units, regiments
containing 10 artillery batteries (about 1800 men) which had
training both as infantry and as artillerists. They were
organized in much the same way as infantry units, but were quite
a bit larger to provide enough men to run the guns. Originally
raised to man the defenses of Washington, in 1864 they joined the
Grant's army, and then served more as infantry.
ENGINEERS.
Both sides raised special regiments of engineers. They were
organized similarly to the infantry regiments and were expert in
building forts, entrenchments, bridges, and similar military
construction. They were combatants but usually didn't do any
fighting, instead continued to work on construction even when
under fire.
SHARPSHOOTERS.
Both sides raised special sharpshooter units. The Confederate
units tended to be independent companies, but the Union raised
two sharpshooter regiments (Berdan's 1st and 2nd US
Sharpshooters). These regiments were organized as infantry.
Usually they were assigned to skirmish duty, or they would be
allowed to roam around the battlefield to find good positions
from which to shoot at enemy officers in the rear.
Q2.6: What is the difference between grapeshot and canister?
Here is a list of the various ammunitions used in the war.
References are:
[1] "Ammunition", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed (1911).
[2] F.T. Miller, ed., "Photographic History of the Civil War,"
vol. 5, "Forts and Artillery" (1957 edition).
[3] "Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War"
The main division is between shot (did not carry its own explosive
charge) and shell (carried an explosive charge).
For shot:
1. solid shot-- the standard cannon ball (or bullet shape in the in
case of a rifled gun)
2. canister-- smaller shot placed in a sheet iron cylinder. The
cylinder disintegrated when the gun was fired.
3. grape-- smaller shot layered between iron plates and held together
by a central bolt. Presumably the bolt broke when the gun fired
allowing the shot to scatter. Examples of grape shot can be seen
in [2] pp. 76, 76 and 191.
4. quilted grapeshot-- small shot covered in canvass and tied up with
rope which a gave it a quilted look. An example of quilted shot
can be seen in [2], p. 177.
5. chain shot-- two shot joined by a chain. Used to destroy rigging
of sailing ships.
6. bar shot-- two shot joined by a solid bar (like a dumbbell). Used
to destroy rigging to sailing ships.
7. red hot shot-- shot heated before firing. Used to start fires on
ships.
For shell:
1. standard shell-- hollow iron projectile filled with explosive
2. shrapnel shell-- hollow iron projectile filled with explosive and
with small solid shot which scattered upon explosion. The
spherical version of this was called "spherical case" or simply
"case." The term "case" was also used for the name of the class of
rounds which scattered small shot, thus canister, grape, and
spherical case were all classified together as "case shot."
(confusing, isn't it?)
Shell was fitted with either a timed fuse (which ignited the charge
after some fixed delay) or a percussion fuse (which ignited the
charge upon impact).
Standard solid shot and standard shell were primarily for destruction
of materiel (viz. fortifications or ships). Canister, grape, quilted
shot and shrapnel were used against personnel. However, there were
also varieties of (non-shrapnel) shell designed for use against
personnel (the hollow was shaped so the shell would split into a
relatively few large pieces about the size of small shot).
+Q2.7: How did prisoner exchanges and paroles work?
Prisoner exchanges were a way for captors to avoid the
responsibility and burden of guarding, housing, feeding, clothing, and
providing medical care for POW's.
Exchange of prisoners began with informal agreements between the
commanders of the armies after particular battles, but the practice
was codified by a cartel between the USA and CSA in July 1862. The
cartel was suspended by the US in May 1863, but individual commanders
again arranged exchanges and paroles until the US called a halt to
all exchanges in early 1864. When the CSA agreed to correct some
irregularities in its earlier exchanges, and when it agreed to treat
captured black troops equally with whites, the 1862 cartel was again
put into operation in early 1865.
Commissioners of exchange were appointed by each government,
and they exchanged and compared lists and computed how many on each
side were to be exchanged. There were official points where prisoners
were to be taken for exchange: City Point, VA in the East and
Vicksburg in the West. Equal ranks were exchanged equally, and
higher ranks could be exchanged for some number of lower ranks
according to an agreed upon list of equivalents (e.g. 1 colonel
equaled 15 privates). If one side still had prisoners left, after the
other side had exhausted its supply of prisoners by exchange, those
excess prisoners would be released on parole.
Paroled prisoners were returned to their side, but were prohibited
by an oath of honor from taking up arms or performing any duty that
soldiers normally performed (like garrison or guard duty) until they
were properly exchanged. Generally each side maintained parole camps
where their paroled soldiers were kept while they awaited exchange,
but in other cases the parolee was allowed to return home until
exchanged.
[Sources: Boatner, Civil War Dictionary; Miller, ed, "Prisons and
Hospitals", vol 8, Photographic History of the Civil War]
Part 3: The end of the War
Q3.1: When did the war end?
9 April 1865, Gen. R.E. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern
Virginia at Appomattox Courthouse, VA
26 April 1865, Gen. J.E. Johnston surrendered the Army of
Tennessee et al. at Durham, NC
4 May 1865, Gen. Richard Taylor surrendered Dept. of Alabama,
Mississippi, and Eastern Louisiana at Citronelle, AL
13 May 1865, engagement at Palmito Ranch, near Brownsville, TX,
often taken to be the last engagement of the war
2 June 1865, Gen. E.K. Smith surrendered the Trans-Mississippi
Department at Galveston, TX (the surrender had been agreed to
by Smith's representative, Lt Gen S.B. Buckner, in New Orleans
on 26 May)
23 June 1865, Brig. Gen. Stand Watie's troops in the Indian
Territory surrendered at Doaksville. Watie was the last
general to surrender his troops.
13 June 1865, Pres. Johnson proclaimed the insurrection in Tennessee
at an end. (Messages and Papers of the Presidents, V, p3515)
4 Nov 1865, The raider CSS Shenandoah surrendered in Liverpool to
British authorities. For several months after the surrender
of ground forces, this last of the CSA's naval vessels had
been burning USA shipping, with her captain, James I.
Waddell, still thinking the war was in progress. Her last
fight was against a whaling fleet in the Bering Sea on 28 Jun
1865. After this, the vessel was the object of a worldwide
search. On August 2, Waddell had contact with a British
ship, whose captain informed him that the CSA was no more.
With this in mind, he put guns below decks and sailed to
England, where the ship was surrendered to the British
Admiralty. Upon the boarding of the vessel by British
authorities, the last sovereign Confederate flag was furled.
[contrib. by PDunn]
2 Apr 1866, Pres. Johnson proclaimed the insurrection ended
in all the former Confederate States except Texas. This was
his recognition of the legitimacy of the governments formed
under his Reconstruction proclamation. (Mess. & Pap. V, p3627)
20 Aug 1866, Pres. Johnson proclaimed that Texas had complied with
the conditions of his Reconstruction proclamation and declared
the insurrection in Texas at an end. (Mess. & Pap. V, p3632)
Q3.2: If the rebel states were never considered legally out of the
Union, how was Reconstruction justified?
Although the states remained part of the U.S., they had no
loyal governments, and the authority for the federal government
to provide mechanisms to erect loyal state governments was derived
from Article IV, Sec. 4 of the Constitution. That section provides
that the United States shall guarantee to each state a republican
form of government.
Another provision of the Constitution which is important was
Article I, Sec. 5 which provides that each House of Congress shall
be the judge of the qualifications of its members. This allowed
the Congress to refuse to seat delegations from former rebel states
until the states had met the conditions of the Reconstruction Acts.
The authoritative constitutional justification for reconstruction
can be found in the Supreme Court's decision in Texas v. White
(74 U.S. 227-243) delivered 12 Apr 1869.
Part 4: Genealogy and Unit Histories
Q4.1: My ancestor fought in the war-- how do I find out about his service?
First, here are two good reference books that contain much more
information than can be given in this FAQ:
George K. Schweitzer, Civil War Genealogy,
available from: G.K. Schweitzer, 7914 Gleason C-1136,
Knoxville, TN 37919
B.H. Groene, Tracing Your Civil War Ancestor
ISBN 0-345-36192-X
An additional reference dealing in Confederate records is
James C. Neagles, Confederate Research Sources: A Guide to
Archive Collections (ISBN 0-916489-11-6, Ancestry Publications,
P.O. Box 476, Salt Lake City, UT 84110)
The basic information on your ancestor that you will need to know
is his state, regiment, and (if possible) company, for example:
Levi Lindsey Sanders, 6th Texas Cavalry (CSA), Company I. If you don't
know the regiment name, you can often find it in 19th century county
histories for the county your ancestor lived in. Also be careful
with Confederate regiments; they were frequently referred to by
the commander's name when they in fact had a numerical designation,
for example: 2nd Texas Partisan Rangers a.k.a. Stone's Regiment
a.k.a. Chisum's Regiment. There are frequently indexes listing all
the soldiers from a state which were published in the 19th century
as well (this is almost without exception for the Union states, more
rare for the Confederate states). The National Archives has published
a Consolidated Index to Compiled Confederate Service Records on
microfilm which is available in many large historical libraries (the
service records themselves are also frequently on microfilm at the
library). A useful bibliography of regimental and state histories
is C.E. Dornbusch, Military Bibliography of the Civil War (4 vols).
Assuming that you have the above information, you can obtain copies
of your ancestor's service records by writing to the National
Archives. Write to:
Reference Services Branch (NNIR),
National Archives and Records Service,
8th and Pennsylvania Ave, NW,
Washington, DC 20408
and request NATF Form 80. You may wish to request 3 or more copies,
especially if you are researching a Union veteran or multiple veterans.
When you have the forms, fill one out as completely as possible and
check "military service" (Schweitzer recommends that you write in red
ink next to the veteran's name "Please send complete contents of
files.") If your ancestor fought for the Union, he may have a pension
file; you may fill out a second Form 80 and check "pension record"
(again Schweitzer recommends requesting the entire contents of the
file). (The National Archives will not have pension records for
Confederate veterans, but some former Confederate state did give
pensions and their archives may have the records, details can be
found in the above references especially Neagles.) Some weeks later,
the Archives will send you a letter indicating what they have located
and how much it will cost to copy it.
*Q4.2: How can I find information about a particular regiment?
For the Union side, the definite first place to look for a brief
history of a regiment is
F.H. Dyer, _A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion_, 2 vols.
It contains, among lots of other useful information, brief
histories of just about every Northern regiment.
On the Confederate side, there is, unfortunately, no counterpart
to Dyer's two-volume work. For this reason, it may be best to
go immediately to Dornbusch (see below). However,
C.E. Evans , _Confederate Military History_
is a 13 volume work (a later reprint was expanded to 15 vols),
and each volume deals with one or two of the Confederate States.
There was no attempt to write a sketch on every regiment in every
state, so there is no guarantee that your particular regiment
will be mentioned. Another source, for 6 of the Confederate
States, is
Stewart Sifakis, _Compendium of the Confederate Armies_(New
York: Facts on File, 1991-), 5 vols. (maybe more).
Known volumes in this series are for VA, TN, AL, FL and AR, and
NC.
A useful bibliography of regimental histories, both North and
South, is
C.E. Dornbusch, _Military Bibliography of the Civil War_, 4
vols.
It contains entries on books and articles which have been written
about Civil War regiments through about 1987.
Finally, you can consult the Index volume to the _Official
Records of the Union and Confederate Armies_ and start wading
through the O.R. This may be your only alternative for
particularly obscure units. The index lists the regiments by
*state. It is a good idea to check the index for the name of the
*regiment's commander and perhaps for the brigade commander.
Keep in mind the regiment's place in the army structure.
Histories of battles or campaigns may not mention every regiment,
but they may mention the brigade or division the regiment is in.
As an example, Ludwell Johnson's _Red River Campaign_ indexes
very few regiments, but the brigade commanders are indexed and the
brigades are shown on the maps. The 2nd Texas Partisan Rangers
was in Major's cavalry brigade and Green's division, so its
activities can be inferred by following the action at the brigade
or division level even though the regiment itself is not mentioned
anywhere in the book.
Part 5: Miscellaneous
Q5.1: What is the "Stars and Bars"?
The "Stars and Bars" IS NOT the familiar "rebel" flag one
sees adorning license plates and carried by the KKK-- that
is the CS Naval Jack, based on the CS battle flag.
The Stars and Bars design was approved by a committee
of the Provisional Congress on 4 Mar 1861, but was never made
official by law. The bottom red stripe ran the entire length
of the flag and was 6 units long and 1 unit wide. Above it,
and to the left was a blue square, 2 units on a side. In the
blue square, a circle of stars (one for each state, initially
seven, to represent the original seven Confederate States,
eventually thirteen). To the right of the square, two stripes,
white below, red above, each 1 unit wide and 4 units long.
The Stars and Bars' similarity to the U.S. flag caused
problems of mistaken identity at 1st Bull Run/Manassas, so a
battle flag for the Army of Northern Virginia was designed.
It was blue saltire ("X" shape) on a red SQUARE field. On the
saltire was placed stars equal to the number of Confederate
States (in principle, eleven at the time of the initial design,
but up to thirteen by the end of 1862). This flag design was
soon picked up by the other armies and branches of service. The
CS Navy flew an oblong version as a Naval Jack which is identical
to the oblong "rebel" flags seen today.
By a law approved 1 May 1863, a new national flag was
adopted by the Confederate States-- the "Stainless Banner".
It was a field of white twice as long as wide, in the upper
left was the battle flag (square) with a side two-thirds the
width of the field. This flag had the drawback that when
partially wrapped around the flagstaff, the non-white part
was covered. This made it look like a white flag of surrender.
Furthermore, its length to width ratio of 2 to 1 made it an
unusually long flag which exacerbated the problem.
A law approved 4 Mar 1865, modified the "Stainless Banner"
to correct its problems. The revised flag was 10 units wide and
15 units long. In the upper left was an oblong battle flag 6
units wide and 7 units long. The field was white, as before,
except on the fly end there was a vertical red bar 4 units wide.
The above dimensions, in terms of units, are derived from the
much more convoluted description given by the flag act. This
flag was the last national flag of the Confederacy.
Q5.2: What changes to the U.S. flag occurred during the war?
The admission of two states affected the U.S. flag during the
war. By the Flag Act of 1818, a new star was added on the 4 July
following the admission of a state. Stars were added on 4 July
1861 for Kansas (admitted 29 Jan 1861, the 34th state) and
on 4 July 1863 for West Virginia (admitted 20 June 1863, the 35th
state). Nevada, the 36th state, was admitted during the war
on 31 Oct 1864, so its star was added 4 July 1865 after
hostilities were over (more or less, see Q3.1).
Q5.3: How was the state of West Virginia created?
On 17 Apr 1861, the Va Secession Convention passed an
ordinance of secession (to be ratified by the people). A mass
meeting was held in Clarksburg and called for a Convention of
western/unionist counties to meet in Wheeling. The 1st Wheeling
Convention met 13 May 1861 with 425 delegates from 25 counties,
it decided to adjourn until after the vote on the secession
ordinance. The ordinance of secession was ratified by popular
vote on 23 May 1861 at which time new legislators were also
elected.
The 2nd Wheeling convention met 11 June 1861 and included the
western counties' members-elect to the VA legis. On 19 June, the
convention passed an ordinance "reorganizing" the state government
(creating a "loyal" one), and on 20 June, Francis Pierpont was chosen
governor. On 1 July 1861, the members of the legislature elected on
23 May and some holdovers from the old legislature met, finished the
organization of the Reorganized state govt., and elected 2 U.S.
Senators-- this government was recognized as legitimate by the U.S.
On 6 Aug, the Wheeling convention reconvened, and on 20 Aug 1861
passed an ordinance to divide the state. The division ordinance was
ratified by the people on 24 Oct. From 26 Nov 1861 to 18 Feb 1862,
the convention wrote a constitution for the proposed new state which
was approved by the voters on 11 Apr 1862. Lincoln signed the
enabling act on 31 Dec 1862 which admitted W.VA on the condition that
its constitution include a provision for the gradual abolition of
slavery.
The Convention reconvened yet again, and amended the state
constitution to abolish slavery on 12 Feb 1863. This amendment was
approved by the voters on 26 Mar 1863. Lincoln proclaimed (on 20
Apr 1863) that W.Va would officially be admitted in 60 days. During
the interval, W VA elected new officers-- A.I. Boreman was elected 1st
governor, and VA unionist government under Gov. Pierpont was moved to
Alexandria. On 20 June 1863, West Virginia was officially admitted
to the Union.
In 1866, Virginia repealed the act approving the division, and
brought suit in the U.S. Sup. Crt. to have the division overturned.
In particular, it wanted Berkeley and Jefferson Cos. returned.
On 10 Mar 1866, Congress passed a joint resolution approving the
previous transfer of the counties to W.Va. In 1871 the Supreme
Court decided in favor of W.Va., thus settling the matter of division.
Source: Virginia and West Virginia articles in Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 10th ed.
Q5.4: What war records did the post-war presidents have?
From: tecump@sulu.ucsb.edu (Dominic J. Dal Bello)
OK, I have looked up what the presidents after Lincoln and up
to McKinley did in the war (from _The Complete Book of US
Presidents_ or something like that.)
ANDREW JOHNSON: In March, 1862, President Lincoln appointed
Johnson military governor of Tennessee with the rank of brigadier
general.
ULYSSES GRANT: No intro necessary (lieut. general)
RUTHERFORD B. HAYES: served with the 23d Ohio Infantry from
June, 1861, entering service as a major. October '61: promoted
to lt. colonel; Oct. '62 promoted to colonel, commanding the 23d.
After Cedar Creek (Oct. '64), promoted to brigadier general of vols.
Received one of the infinitely many brevets dated March 13, 1865
to major general, vols. Resigned June, 1865.
JAMES GARFIELD: Commissioned a lt. col in the 42nd Ohio,
Aug. 1861, and promoted to Col. in November, '61. Commanded the
18th Brig. at Middle Creek, Jan. '62, defeating superior numbers,
and was subsequently promoted to brigadier general. January, 1863--
appointed Chief of Staff to Rosecrans, "In a daring ride under
enemy fire, during which his horse was wounded, he conveyed vital
information from flank to flank. For this he was promoted to major
general." Rosecrans said of him: "I feel much indebted to him for
both counsel and assistance in the administration of this army...He
possesses the instinct and energy of a great commander." Elected to
Congress in Sept., 1863 Garfield resigned in Dec., 1863.
CHESTER A. ARTHUR: Served in New York State militia from Feb. '58
to Dec. '62, rising from brigade judge advocate to quartermaster
genl. In Jan, '61, appointed engineer-in-chief with rank of
brigadier general. Apr, '61, promote asst. QM genl; Feb '62 inspect.
genl; July `62, QM general. Spring `62 inspected NY troops in
Virginia. War Gov. Edwin D Morgan said: "He was my chief reliance
in the duties of equipping and transporting troops and munitions of
war. In the position of Quarter Master General he displayed not
only great executive ability and unbending integrity, but great
knowledge of Army Regulations. He can say No (which is important)
without giving offense."
GROVER CLEVELAND: Drafted, but purchased a substitute. Paid $150
to George Brinske (or Benninsky), a 32-year-old Polish immigrant
to serve in his place.
BENJAMIN HARRISON: 17th Indiana Infantry, starting as a 2nd Lt in
July, 1862. Eventually rose to brigadier general. "I am not a
Julius Caesar, nor a Napoleon, but a plain Hoosier colonel, with no
more relish for a fight than for a good breakfast and hardly so
much." Commanded a brigade under Hooker in the Atlanta campaign.
Hooker recommended him for promotion to brigadier general for
foresight, discipline and fighting spirit.
WILLIAM McKINLEY: 23d Ohio Infantry from June 61 to July '65,
starting out as a private. April '62 commissary sergeant; for
valor at Antietam (in getting rations to the men) promoted to 2nd
Lt. commd'g Co. D, but put on Col. Rutherford Hayes' staff. Feb 63,
promoted 1st Lt.; July 64, promoted captain. Served on staffs of
George Crook and Winfield S Hancock. March, 1865, breveted major.
In uniform, cast his first vote in 1864 (for Lincoln). Hayes said
of him: "Young as he was, we soon found that in the business of a
soldier, requiring much executive ability, young McKinley showed
unusual and unsurpassed capacity, especially for a boy of his age.
When battles were fought or service was to be performed in warlike
things, he always filled his place."
Q5.5: What are the various alternate names for the war?
From: pdunn@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu (Patrick L Dunn)
>From Davis, B. (1982). -The Civil War: Strange and Fascinating Facts
(Originally published as "Our Incredible Civil War). ISBN 0-517-37151-0
Chapter 13. Which War?
pp. 79-80.
The War for Constitutional Liberty
The War for Southern Independence
The Second American Revolution
The War for States' Rights
Mr. Lincoln's War
The Southern Rebellion
The War for Southern Rights
The War of the Southern Planters
The War of the Rebellion
The Second War for Independence
The War to Suppress Yankee Arrogance
The Brothers' War
The War of Secession
The Great Rebellion
The War for Nationality
The War for Southern Nationality
The War Against Slavery
The Civil War Between the States
The War of the Sixties
The War Against Northern Aggression
The Yankee Invasion
The War for Separation
The War for Abolition
The War for the Union
The Confederate War
The War of the Southrons
The War for Southern Freedom
The War of the North and South
The Lost Cause
The War Between the States
The Late Unpleasantness
The Late Friction
The Late Ruction
The Schism
The Uncivil War
and of course....
THE War, "as if the planet had not heard a shot fired in anger
since '65."
*Q5.6: What are good books on the war?
Steve Schmidt (whale@leland.Stanford.EDU) has compiled a
recommended reading list which will be posted periodically as a
supplement to this FAQ.
Other lists are archived at
byrd.mu.wvnet.edu/pub/history/military/civil_war_usa
in that directory are two files
civ_war_biblio_1.txt, which is an annotated bibliography of
Civil War bibliographies, and
civ_war_biblio_2.txt, which is a bibliography of Civil War
books arranged by subject, similar to Schmidt's, but without
descriptions.
Q5.7: How can I get the soundtrack to Ken Burn's "Civil War"?
From Wayne J. Warf (WWARF@ucs.indiana.edu):
The Civil War
Elektra Nonesuch #9 79256-2 copyright 1990
ISBN# 0-681-92609-0
Songs of the Civil War
Produced by Ken Burns and Don DeVito
Columbia #CK 48607
Copyright 1991 by Sony Music Entertainment
no ISBN# listed
Q5.8: Who was the last surviving veteran of the Civil War?
[from Paul Cowan (cowan@anl.gov)]
1. At the time of his death, Dec. 19, 1959, at age 117, Walter
Washington Williams was accorded the honors of the last surviving
veteran of the Civil War. Williams, who was granted the honorary
title of "General" late in life, had been an enlisted man in the
CSA. Williams spent the War as a forager for Hood's Texas Brigade
and later served with Quantrill's Raiders. He claimed to have never
fired a shot, but to have heard some.
2. As there was some controversy over whether in fact Mr.
Williams had served in the CSA, it is worth mentioning that the
penultimate survivor was John Salling of Slant, Va., also a
Confederate, who died March 19, 1959, in Kingsport, Tenn.
3. Albert Woolson of Minnesota was the last member of the Grand
Army of the Republic to pass, and therefore is very likely the
last survivor of the Union army. Woolson was a Union drummer boy
who died in 1956.
4. The last surviving Civil War general was Union Brig.Gen.
Adelbert Ames, who died in 1933 at age 97.
5. The last surviving Confederate general was Lt. Gen. Simon
Bolivar Buckner, who died in 1914 at age 90.
Sources: Ron Kolakowski (rkola@ida.org ); Stephen E. Brown
(sebrown@prairienet.org); _The Civil War Notebook_, by A.A.
Nofi; _New York Times_ article, Dec. 19, 1959;_Civil War
Dictionary_, by M.M. Boatner.
Q5.9: Did U.S. Grant and R.E. Lee both own slaves and free them?
[from Paul Cowan (cowan@anl.gov) with amendments by JMS]
1. R. E. Lee personally owned at least one slave, an elderly
house servant that he inherited from his mother. It is said
that Lee continued to hold the slave as a kindness, since he
was too feeble to have made his way as a free man. Although it
is commonly believed that Lee owned the Arlington Plantation and
the associated slaves, these and two other plantations totalling
over 1,000 slaves were the property of Lee's father-in-law, George
Washington Parke Custis. Upon Mr. Custis's death in 1858, Lee did
not personally inherit either the plantations or slaves, but was
named the executor of the estate. Mr. Custis willed that his slaves
should be freed within 5 years. Legal problems with the fulfillment
of other terms of the will led Lee to delay in the execution of the
terms of manumission until the latest specified date. As it happened,
the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect before that date
was reached.
2. In 1858, while attempting to make a go in civilian life as a
farmer near St. Louis, Mo., U.S. Grant bought a slave named
William Jones from his brother-in-law. Grant gave Jones his
freedom within a year of the purchase, despite the fact the Grant
desperately needed the money he might have recovered by selling
him. Grant's wife owned about four slaves in her own name, and
there is no record of these slaves having been freed prior to
emancipation in Missouri in 1865.
Sources: _Lee & Grant_, by Gene Smith; __The Civil War: Strange
and Fascinating Facts_, by Burke Davis; _Let Us Have Peace:
Ulysses S. Grant and Politics of War and Reconstruction_ by
Brooks D. Simpson
Q5.10: What is the recipe for hardtack?
Recipes for hardtack vary from extremely simple to more elaborate.
The simplest is:
6 parts flour to 1 part water, mix, knead, roll out thin, and
bake until hard.
From: tecump@sulu.ucsb.edu (Dominic J. Dal Bello)
For about 10 crackers (1 ration):
3 cups flour
1 1/2 or so tsp baking soda
1 1/2 tsp salt
water to form to a workable dough.
Kneed the dough. Crackers should be cut to about 3"x3" (although
some contractors made 'em 5x5, even 7x7). When you cut the
dough, I have found that it should not "pull away" - if it does,
it is still too wet. With a nail, or similar object, punch
about 16 holes in each cracker (4x4 pattern - although this was
not the only way to do it). Put in oven at about 375F for about
50 minutes - this is what I find to work for me; different ovens
may act differently. In any event, it should be brownish on the
bottom. Your not "baking" cookies here, you are essentially
trying to heat all the water out of the cracker. Take out and
cool. - they should get hard.
"Evidence" indicates that hardtack was made with
"self-rising" flour. If I recall right, however, no
specifications have been found as to what the government actually
called for. Some recipes call for oil, but I have found that it
has no effect on the final product. In any event, experiment
with kneeding, etc., time to bake to get a final product which
is a nice hard slab of flour.
From: zursch@solaris.wpd.sgi.com (Jeff Zurschmeide)
2 cups flour
1/2 cup buttermilk
2 tbsp baking soda
2 tbsp vegetable oil
salt to taste
water to consistency
mix up well, (dry ingredients first, then wet) roll out thin,
bake at 450 degrees about 15 minutes, or to tooth-breaking
quality.
From Merle Kirck:
We make it for our Living History programs. here it is:
3 cups milk
8 cups plain flour
8 tbl spoons shortening (crisco)
6 tea spoon brown sugar (opt)
3 tea spoon salt
mix, roll on floured board, to 1/2" thickness. cut into 3"
squares, punch holes 3 rolls of 3 with ice pick, Lightly grease
baking pan, Bake in oven 400 deg for 45 min or till golden brown,
cool in open air. Don't store in plastic (no plastic in 1800's)
because of moisture.
This recipe is the same they used except the sugar. We have
found that a good dose of cinnamon, and not cooking it as long is
good eatin'
***End of alt.war.civil.usa FAQ
--
Justin M. Sanders "Science is not so much an advance
Research Associate toward Truth as it is a retreat
Physics Division, ORNL from Ignorance."
jsanders@orph01.phy.ornl.gov --paraphrasing Wayne Throop
.