The State of the Birds
United States of America
2009
Cover photos from top, left to right: Magnolia Warbler by Pamela Wells; Saguaro National Monument,
Arizona, by Gerrit Vyn, Greater Prairie-Chicken by Gerrit Vyn; Pacific forest, Opal Creek, Oregon, by
Gerrit Vyn; Snowy Owl by Gerrit Vyn; arctic coastal plain tundra, Colville River Delta, Alaska, by
Gerrit Vyn; Osprey by James Livaudais. This page: Scarlet Tanager by Gerrit Vyn.
Facing page: Bar-tailed Godwit nest by Gerrit Vyn.
2
Birds are a priceless part of America’s heritage.
They are beautiful, they are economically
important—and they reflect the health of our
environment. This State of the Birds report
reveals troubling declines of bird populations
during the past 40 years—a warning signal of
the failing health of our ecosystems. At the
same time, we see heartening evidence that
strategic land management and conservation
action can reverse declines of birds. This report
calls attention to the collective efforts needed
to protect nature’s resources for the benefit of
people and wildlife.
Contents
Foreword. 3
Overview . 4
Aridlands . 6
Grasslands. 8
Game Birds. 10
Urban Birds. 11
Forests. 12
Arctic . 16
Wetlands. 18
Waterfowl . 20
Marsh Birds. 21
Coasts. 22
Oceans. 24
Hawaiian Birds. 26
Endangered Species. 28
Challenges. 30
Our Approach. 33
Acknowledgements. 34
Foreword
Birds Are Important Indicators
of Our Nation’s Environmental Health
The United States is blessed with diverse landscapes, a wealth of
natural resources, and spectacular wildlife, including more than 800
bird species. Birds are a national treasure and a heritage we share
with people around the world, as billions of migratory birds follow
the seasons across oceans and continents. Our passion for nature is
evident: Wildlife watching generates $122 billion in economic output
annually, and one in every four American adults is a bird watcher.
In the past 200 years, however, the U.S. human population has
skyrocketed from about 8 million to 300 million. As we have
harvested energy and food, grown industries, and built cities, we
have often failed to consider the consequences to nature. During our
history, we have lost a part of our natural heritage—and degraded
and depleted the resources upon which our quality of life depends.
We have lost more than half of our nation’s original wetlands, 98%
of our tallgrass prairie, and virtually all virgin forests east of the
Rockies. Since the birth of our nation, four American bird species
have gone extinct, including the Passenger Pigeon, once the world’s
most abundant bird. At least 10 more species are possibly extinct.
Birds are bellwethers of our natural and cultural health as a nation—
they are indicators of the integrity of the environments that provide
us with clean air and water, fertile soils, abundant wildlife, and the
natural resources on which our economic development depends. In
the past 40 years, major public, private, and government initiatives
have made strides for conservation. Has it been enough? How are
birds faring?
In an unprecedented partnership, government wildlife agencies
and conservation groups have come together to produce this first
comprehensive analysis of the state of our nation’s birds. The results
are sobering: bird populations in many habitats are declining—a
warning signal of the failing health of our ecosystems. Where we
have been negligent too long, such as in Hawaii, we are on the verge
of losing entire suites of unique and beautiful birds and native plant
communities.
At the same time, we see heartening evidence that birds can respond
quickly and positively to conservation action. Many waterfowl
species have undergone significant increases in the past 40 years, a
testament to coordinated conservation efforts in wetlands. Through
focused conservation efforts, we have brought magnificent Peregrine
Falcons and Bald Eagles back from the brink of extinction.
We ask you to join us in continuing to reverse the damage to our
nation’s habitats and protect our remaining natural landscapes—the
foundation upon which our precious resources, our wildlife, and
the lives of our children depend. Cooperative conservation efforts
among the government, conservation organizations, and ordinary
citizens—private landowners, hunters, and bird watchers—really are
making a difference.
It is imperative that we redouble our efforts now, before habitat loss
and degradation become even more widespread, intractable, and
expensive to solve. Together, we can ensure that future generations
will look back at this first State of the Birds report with disbelief that
their common birds could ever have been so troubled.
North American Bird Conservation
Initiative, U.S. Committee
American Bird Conservancy
Association of
Fish and Wildlife Agencies
Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Klamath Bird Observatory
National Audubon Society
The Nature Conservancy
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey
Bar-tailed Godwit nest, Alaska.
3
Overview
The State of Our Nation’s Birds
The United States is home to a tremendous diversity of native birds, with
more than 800 species inhabiting terrestrial, coastal, and ocean habitats,
including Hawaii. Among these species, 67 are federally listed as endan-gered
or threatened. An additional 184 are species of conservation concern
because of their small distribution, high threats, or declining populations.
Successful conservation requires information about the population status
of every species to ensure the survival of endangered birds and to manage
common species so they never become threatened. This report presents a
new synthesis of major bird-monitoring databases, including data from
thousands of citizen scientists and professional biologists. We used data
from three continentwide monitoring programs to create bird population
indicators for major U.S. habitats, reflecting the health of these habitats and
the environmental services they provide. These habitat indicators are based
on the population changes of obligate species—those that are restricted to a
single habitat and are most sensitive to environmental changes. We supple-mented
this information with data from many other surveys that focus
on species that are rare, endangered, or difficult to monitor, such as ocean
birds. (See pages 33–34 for methods.)
The results reflect the influence of human activities and global change on
our nation’s birds. Every U.S. habitat harbors birds in need of conserva-tion.
Hawaiian birds and ocean birds appear most at risk, with populations
in danger of collapse if immediate conservation measures are not imple-mented.
Bird populations in grassland and aridland habitats show the most
rapid declines over the past 40 years. Birds that depend on forests are also
declining.
In contrast, wetland species, wintering coastal birds, and hunted waterfowl
show increasing populations during the past 40 years, reflecting a strong
focus during this period on wetlands conservation and management.
Species of Conservation Concern
Habitat
Oceanic
Coastal
Arctic
Grassland
Aridland
Wetland
Urban
Forest
Hawaiian
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Percentage of Species
Federally threatened
or endangered
Additional species of
conservation concern
Hawaiian Birds in Crisis
More than one-third of all U.S. listed bird species occur in Hawaii and 71
bird species have gone extinct since humans colonized the islands in about
300 AD. At least 10 more birds have not been seen in as long as 40 years and
may be extinct. Proven conservation measures are urgently needed to avert
this global tragedy, including increasing investment in protecting remaining
forests, eliminating exotic predators, and captive breeding.
Declining Seabirds Signal Stressed Oceans
At least 39% of the U.S. birds restricted to ocean habitats are declining.
These birds face threats from pollution, over-fishing, and warming sea tem-peratures
caused by climate change, as well as threats at island and coastal
nesting sites. Declining seabirds may be our most visible indication of an
ocean ecosystem under stress.
Percentage of
bird species that
are threatened,
endangered, and of
conservation concern
in each habitat.
The `I`iwi is a bird unique to the Hawaiian Islands. More bird species are
vulnerable to extinction in Hawaii than anywhere else in the United States.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
4
High Concern for Coastal Shorebirds
Although some coastal birds are increasing, shorebirds that rely on coastal
habitats for breeding and refueling on migration are besieged by human
disturbance and dwindling food supplies. Sea level rise caused by acceler-ating
climate change will inundate shoreline habitats. Half of all coastally
migrating shorebirds have declined; for example, Red Knots have declined
by an alarming 82%. Because of their relatively small and highly threatened
global populations, shorebirds are of high conservation concern.
Wetland Birds Show Amazing Resilience
The upward trend for wetland birds in the U.S. is a testament to the amaz-ing
resilience of bird populations where the health of their habitat is sus-tained
or restored. The overwhelming success of waterfowl management,
coordinated continentally among Canada, the United States, and Mexico,
can serve as a model for conservation in other habitats.
Bird Population Indicators
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wetlands
Forests
Aridland
Grassland
Grasslands and Aridlands:
Degraded, Neglected
Dramatic declines in grassland and aridland birds signal alarming neglect and
degradation of these habitats. Incentives for wildlife-compatible agricultural
practices in grasslands and increased protection of fragile desert, sagebrush,
and chaparral ecosystems are urgently needed to reverse these declines.
Forest Birds Face an Uncertain Future
Although forest birds have fared better overall than birds in other habi-tats,
many species have suffered steep declines and remain threatened by
unplanned and sprawling urban development, unsustainable logging,
increased severity of wildfires, and a barrage of exotic forest pests and
diseases.
Conservation Successes for Endangered
and Common Birds
The will of our nation to prevent extinction and reverse environmental
degradation is exemplified by the remarkable recovery of the Bald Eagle,
Peregrine Falcon, and other bird populations after the banning of DDT and
other harmful pesticides. Targeted conservation programs for listed species
remain necessary, and proactive measures involving voluntary partnerships
between local, state, tribal, and federal government, nongovernmental or-ganizations,
and private citizens are needed to maintain the integrity of U.S.
habitats and to keep our common birds common.
Over the last two decades, unprecedented private-public partnerships,
called Joint Ventures, have been highly effective at leveraging scarce funds
to conserve millions of acres of wetlands and other wildlife habitat. Also,
bird conservation initiatives such as Partners in Flight, the U.S. Shorebird
Conservation Plan, and the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan
have raised awareness and inspired conservation action at continental and
regional scales. The North American Bird Conservation Initiative (www.
nabci-us.org) provides opportunities for coordinating these vital activities.
Bird population
indicators based on
trends for obligate
species in four major
habitats.
Black Oystercatchers inhabit coastal areas
where habitat loss is a threat. Coastal
reserves help ensure that oystercatchers
and humans can coexist.
Gerrit Vyn
5
Consider This:
PP Aridlands harbor more than 80 nesting
bird species, including many unique
and beautiful birds found only in
deserts, sagebrush, or chaparral.
PP More than 75% of birds that nest only
in aridlands are declining and 39%
of all aridland birds are species of
conservation concern.
PP Habitat loss from urban development,
habitat degradation from overgrazing
and invasive plants, and a changing
climate are causing significant
problems for many aridland birds.
PP A regional system of protected areas
is critically needed to accommodate
increasing development while
meeting the habitat requirements for
keeping bird populations stable.
The State of Aridland Birds
Of 83 aridland-breeding bird species, 39% are spe-cies
of conservation concern, including 10 feder-ally
listed as endangered or threatened. These
species are especially vulnerable because of their
small ranges or restricted habitat requirements, or
both.
Sixty percent of all aridland species and 76%
of aridland obligate species have declined. The
aridland birds indicator, based on 17 of 30 obli-gate
species with sufficient data, shows a steady
decline over the past 40 years, to nearly 30%
below the baseline value. An additional 13 species,
including nine species of conservation concern,
are not adequately monitored.
Aridland Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Aridland Obligates (17)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: California
Condor, (Northern)
Aplomado Falcon, (San
Clemente) Loggerhead
Shrike, (Least) Bell’s
Vireo, Black-capped
Vireo, Golden-cheeked
Warbler. Threatened:
(Western) Snowy
Plover, (Coastal) California Gnatcatcher, (Inyo)
California Towhee, (San Clemente) Sage Sparrow.
• Endangered Golden-cheeked Warblers depend
on ash-juniper woodlands that are being cleared
for agriculture or suburban development in the
Texas hill country.
• Species such as Elf Owl, Bendire’s and LeConte’s
thrashers, and Gilded Flicker are of conservation
concern because of their small range, known
threats, or declining populations.
• Resident game birds that depend on aridlands,
including Greater and Gunnison’s sage-grouse
and Scaled Quail, have suffered significant
declines and are threatened by continued deg-radation
of their fragile habitats. About 45% of
potential sagebrush habitat has been converted
to other habitat types, including agriculture and
urban areas.
Greg Lavaty
Aridlands
Unique Birds of the Aridlands
Face Loss and Degradation of
Habitat
6
Gerrit Vyn
Golden-cheeked Warbler
Greater Sage-Grouse by Ted Schroeder
Aridlands in the U.S. include the Sonoran Desert (shown here),
Chihuahuan, Mojave, and Great Basin deserts, and major shrub-scrub
ecoregions (coastal California chaparral, Edwards Plateau,
Colorado Plateau). Aridlands are characterized by low annual
precipitation with variability from one year to the next.
Major Threats
Development and Energy
Unplanned and sprawling urban development
is by far the greatest threat to aridlands. Some of
our nation’s fastest growing cities are in aridlands
(e.g., Los Angeles, Phoenix, Las Vegas, San Diego).
Coastal sage and chaparral of southern Califor-nia
represent a global biodiversity hotspot with
numerous threatened or endangered plants and
animals. About 40% of the area is now urban or
suburban, supporting nearly half of California’s
human population.
Energy development and exploration have major
impacts on aridland birds. Poorly planned energy
infrastructure degrades and fragments habitat and
provides conditions favorable for invasive plant
species.
Agriculture and Invasive Species
Invasive nonnative plants are a serious threat
to virtually all aridlands. In the Great Basin and
other areas, more than 17% of remaining sage-brush
is dominated by introduced grasses such
as cheatgrass. Invasive grasses fuel wildfires that
devastate sagebrush and desert plant communi-ties,
eliminating native plants that evolved in the
absence of fire.
Unsustainable livestock ranching practices have
degraded habitat and damaged soils, fostering
areas dominated by nonnative plants.
Climate Change
The impact of climate change in aridlands is diffi-cult
to predict, but warmer conditions and chang-es
in precipitation may dramatically affect the
production of seeds needed by birds. Improved
monitoring of bird populations may provide the
first indications of changes to habitats.
Solutions
• Proactive conservation measures, such as ensur-ing
sustainable agriculture and environmentally
sustainable energy development, are needed to
reverse declines of native aridland birds.
• Linking the protected lands system with “smart
growth” in communities will provide oppor-tunities
for people to enjoy birds, as well as for
birds to move and adapt to increasing pressure
from development.
• Immediate, innovative efforts are needed to
encourage the coexistence of agriculture and na-tive
birds, including wildlife-compatible grazing
practices, maintenance of native habitat patches,
and planting native seed mixes in disturbed
areas.
• Continual efforts must be made to prevent
invasive plants from spreading in areas most
affected by wildfire.
Beyond Our Borders
More than 50% of aridland birds are permanent
residents of the U.S. borderlands. Effective con-servation
requires close collaboration with the
Mexican government and private conservation
organizations. Most migratory species winter in
Mexico and Central America, including the endan-gered
Golden-cheeked Warbler. New and existing
international partnerships must be supported to
ensure the survival of aridland birds.
Reasons for Hope
Endangered Cali-fornia
Condors and
Aplomado Falcons
have been reintro-duced
to areas where
they had been extir-pated
in the United
States. Public lands
have provided impor-tant
habitats for these
species. Today, 174 condors are flying free, and
the number grows each year.
Vast areas of public land managed by the Bureau
of Land Management and Department of De-fense
offer opportunities to protect and manage
habitats for aridland birds.
Unplanned urban growth is by far the greatest threat to aridland birds.
A regional system of protected areas can enhance quality of life for
people and enable birds to survive.
Brian L. Sullivan
Harris's Hawk by Gerrit Vyn
7
California Condor
8
Consider This:
PP Grassland birds are a vital part of
North American landscapes. Forty-eight
species nest in U.S. grasslands,
including ducks, grouse, hawks, and
songbirds.
PP Grassland birds are among the fastest
and most consistently declining
birds in North America; 48% are of
conservation concern and 55% are
showing significant declines.
PP Only about 2% of the tallgrass prairie
that existed in the early 1800s still
remains. Although birds may settle
in pastures and haylands, frequent
haying, burning, and overgrazing can
create “ecological traps” where birds
try to nest but fail to raise their young.
PP Farmland conservation programs
provide the best hope for birds and
other wildlife. Agricultural practices
can become more compatible with
birds, and land can be managed
inexpensively for birds with funding
from conservation programs.
The State of Grassland Birds
Of 46 grassland-breeding birds, 48% are spe-cies
of conservation concern, including 4 with
populations that are federally endangered. Eight
of twelve sparrow species are listed as of con-servation
concern. Of the 42 grassland species
with sufficient monitoring data, 23 are declining
significantly.
The grassland birds indicator, based on data for
24 of 25 obligate species, dropped by nearly 40%
from the baseline value, with a slight recovery
evident in the last five years.
Grassland Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Grassland Obligates (24)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: (Northern)
Aplomado Falcon,
(Attwater’s) Greater
Prairie-Chicken,
(Masked) Northern
Bobwhite, (Florida)
Grasshopper Sparrow.
• Some of the Ameri-can
landscape’s most
iconic birds are showing steep declines. Eastern
and Western meadowlarks, Bobolinks, Short-eared
Owls, and Northern Bobwhites have
declined by 38–77% since 1968.
• Six species that breed in the Great Plains of the
United States and Canada and that winter in
Mexico’s Chihuahuan grasslands are show-ing
steep declines of 68–91%: Mountain Plover,
Sprague’s Pipit, Lark Bunting, Baird’s Sparrow,
Chestnut-collared Longspur, and McCown’s
Longspur.
• Lesser and Greater prairie-chicken, Sharp-tailed
Grouse, Northern Bobwhite, and Northern
Pintail—all popular game birds—have declined
from historic levels because of loss and frag-mentation
of grasslands. Lesser Prairie-Chicken
is a candidate for listing under the Endangered
Species Act.
Grasslands
America’s Heartland is
Home to Our Nation’s Fastest
Declining Birds
Native grasslands once stretched across the United States from
Canada to Mexico, and east from the Rocky Mountains as far as
Ohio. More than 95% of the tallgrass prairie has been converted
to agriculture and other uses. Short- and mixed-grass prairies
continue to be converted to agriculture.
Greater Prairie-Chicken by Gerrit Vyn
South Dakota by ? Strizich
Western Meadowlark
Donald Metzner
Judd Patterson
9
Bobolink by Gerrit Vyn
Major Threats
Agriculture
Grassland birds have declined because of the
intensification of agriculture, including larger
fields with fewer grassy edges, native weeds, and
insects, as well as the spread of row crops into
drier regions.
Pastures cannot support many birds if overgrazed,
burned too frequently, or burned at the beginning
of the nesting season or the end of the grass-grow-ing
season.
Grasslands in public lands and parks are often
mowed too frequently and kept too short to
provide bird habitat. Open areas are frequently al-lowed
to revert to forest instead of being managed
as grassland.
Energy and Climate Change
High commodity prices and demand for biofuels
contribute to reduced acreage for farm conser-vation
programs, which may reverse the recent
improvement in grassland bird populations.
Wind turbines, if improperly sited, can fragment
grasslands and disrupt nesting activity of game
birds such as Lesser Prairie-Chickens.
Global warming is expected to increase drought
conditions in grassland regions, leading to lower
productivity and reduced food supply for birds.
Solutions
• Farm conservation programs remain our best
tool for restoring and maintaining grasslands for
birds, especially in areas of row-crop agriculture
and across the short-grass prairie.
• Haying, grazing, mowing, and burning can be
conducted in ways that are compatible with
birds, usually at very small cost to the producer.
These costs can be compensated by conservation
programs that provide other benefits as well,
such as erosion control.
• Wetland conservation programs should con-tinue
to include adjacent grasslands because
such areas are valuable for both grassland and
wetland birds.
• Many national, state, and local parks could be
managed to benefit grassland birds, and new
acquisitions from willing landowners should be
explored. Management should include a balance
of disturbance to eliminate woody vegetation
while allowing a healthy tall grassland.
Beyond Our Borders
More than half of grassland obligate species
depend on Canadian prairie habitats, as well as
those in the central United States. Chihuahuan
Desert grasslands in Mexico host a wide variety
of U.S.-breeding birds in winter, but more than a
million acres have been converted to agriculture in
the past five years. Ranchlands are often over-grazed,
causing desertification.
Migrants such as Bobolink, Upland and Buff-breasted
sandpipers, American Golden-Plover,
and Swainson’s Hawk fly to South America where
grasslands are being converted to agricultural
production.
Farm conservation programs provide millions of acres of protected grasslands
that are essential for the birds in a landscape where little native prairie remains.
Reasons for
Hope
After recent, alarm-ing
declines in some
grassland specialists,
such as Henslow’s
Sparrow, increases
have resulted from
the Conservation
Reserve Program and other programs that have
restored wildlife habitat. Healthy populations of
these birds will require maintaining or increas-ing
acreages and conservation practices.
Birds that use wet grass and grass adjacent to
wetlands are doing better than average, per-haps
because these species have been the focus
the Conservation Reserve Program, Wetlands
Reserve Program, conservation easements, and
other initiatives.
Greg Lavaty
Henslow's Sparrow
Upland game bird hunting in the United States
generated nearly $2 billion and provided
recreation for nearly 3 million licensed hunters
in 2006. Because management for the 19 native
resident game bird species falls under the
jurisdiction of state wildlife agencies, regional
partnerships such as the Northern Bobwhite
Conservation Initiative and North American
Grouse Partnership formed so states can work
together on rangewide management efforts.
These efforts target landscape-level habitat
changes that benefit both game and non-game
species. In addition, volunteer organizations assist
management efforts for resident game birds,
including the National Wild Turkey Federation,
Quail Unlimited, Pheasants Forever, and the
Ruffed Grouse Society.
The State of
Resident Game Birds
Of 19 native resident game bird species, 47% are
species of conservation concern and 2 are federally
endangered. Based on the best data from a variety
of sources, Greater Sage-Grouse, Gunnison’s Sage-
Grouse, Greater Prairie-Chicken, Lesser Prairie-
Chicken, Sooty Grouse, and Northern Bobwhite
are thought to have declined by more than 50% in
the last 40 years, and Scaled Quail have declined by
33%. For these species, further research is required
to understand fully the limiting factors. Introduced
Chukar, Ring-necked Pheasant, and Gray Partridge
show stable overall populations; however their
numbers are augmented by captive-breeding and
release programs because of demand for recreation-al
hunting.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: (Attwater’s)
Greater Prairie-Chicken, (Masked) Northern Bob-white.
Northern Bobwhite has declined by 75% over the
past 40 years because of alteration of grassland-shrub
communities in pine, agricultural and graz-ing
lands where the limiting factor is nesting and
brood-rearing habitat.
Both Greater and Lesser prairie-chickens are
highly social species that are sensitive to loss and
fragmentation of native grasslands. Encroachment
by osage orange, western red cedar, and invasive
grasses also reduces habitat quality.
Despite state and federal measures to avoid, mini-mize,
and mitigate known threats, Greater Sage-
Grouse continues to be threatened by the spread
of invasive grass species, degradation and loss
of sagebrush habitat from livestock grazing, the
development of renewable energy, and the spread
of West Nile virus.
Heavy livestock grazing and subsequent inva-sions
of nonnative plants have eliminated under-story
flowering plants and grasses from habitat
used by Montezuma Quail in southern Arizona
and northern Mexico.
Reasons for Hope
Farm Bill programs that result in the retirement
of millions of acres of intensely cropped lands
offer the greatest hope for the long-term man-agement
of many resident game birds. Greater
Prairie-Chicken populations have benefited from
the creation of core grasslands in several states,
and population goals for recovery of Northern
Bobwhite have been written into recent Farm Bill
initiatives.
By the early 1900s, most Wild Turkey populations
had been wiped out in North America. As late
as the Great Depression, fewer than 30,000 Wild
Turkeys remained in the entire United States. Re-introduction
programs, active management, and
regulated hunting have allowed the Wild Turkey
population to expand to more than 7 million birds
by 2008.
Sustainable forest management provides forest
habitat diversity for Ruffed Grouse, which inhabit
young forest.
Cooperative partnerships have implemented
landscape-level management benefiting both
game and non-game bird species.
Spotlight on Resident Game Birds
Managing Land for Game Birds Helps All Birds
Northern Bobwhites have declined
by 75% during the past 40 years.
Recent Farm Bill initiatives
include goals for recovery of
bobwhite populations.
Gerrit Vyn
10
11
In general, urban-adapted species from eastern
forests, especially permanent residents, have
shown stable or increasing populations, whereas
migratory birds, such as Common Nighthawk,
Chimney Swift, and Wood Thrush, show the same
declining trends as many eastern forest obligates.
This suggests that birds living in urban habitats
year-round benefit from higher overwinter sur-vival.
In the West, a majority of common urban/
suburban species are declining, especially birds
native to southwestern aridlands and Pacific Coast
forests.
The wide variety of native birds that thrive
in urban areas underscores the importance of
these artificial habitats to the survival of many
bird populations. Creating greenspace in urban
environments, landscaping with native plants in
backyards and parks, adopting architecture and
lighting systems that reduce collisions, and keep-ing
pets indoors will provide the greatest benefit
to breeding birds and migrants seeking safe places
to rest and find food during their spectacular
journeys.
Urban Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Urban Birds (114)
Exotic Bird Species
The most common birds in nearly every urban
environment are exotic species introduced from
other parts of the world. Exotic species also occur
in most natural habitats in North America and many
have significant negative effects on native birds,
other wildlife, and humans. European Starlings can
damage seed and fruit crops and compete with na-tive
birds for nest cavities. Mute Swans, introduced
from Eurasia in the 19th century, have displaced
ducks and geese from wetlands and have over-grazed
aquatic vegetation. Other exotic birds have
positive economic impacts, such as Ring-necked
Pheasant, a popular species with hunters.
Of the 17 exotic species considered in this report,
some have been established for more than a century
and now occur across the continent. These birds,
including Rock Pigeon, European Starling, and
House Sparrow, show stable or declining trends over
the past 40 years. In contrast, populations of some
recently introduced species are growing, including
Eurasian Collared-Doves, whose abundance and
distribution have increased exponentially since they
colonized Florida from the Bahamas in the 1970s.
The impacts of exotic species on the well-being of
humans and our native flora and fauna are not well
studied. Exotic birds merit
closer monitoring, and
careful vigilance will
be needed to protect
against negative
impacts to our native birds.
Introduced to the Bahamas in the
1970s, Eurasian Collared-Doves
have spread to Florida and across the
United States.
Spotlight
on Urban Birds
Habitat for Birds and People
Although bird communities in urban environ-ments
are often dominated by a few exotic and
ubiquitous species such as Rock Pigeons and
House Sparrows, a surprising number of native
birds have adapted to life around humans.
American Robins can thrive in many habitats,
including lawns with abundant earthworms. Cali-fornia
Quail and Abert’s Towhees find suburban
plantings a suitable substitute for native aridland
habitats. Gulls, vultures, and crows seek abun-dant
food at garbage dumps and along roadsides.
Hummingbirds, chickadees, sparrows, finches,
woodpeckers, and other birds take advantage of
bird feeders. Even hawks and owls find increas-ingly
safe nesting sites and abundant prey in our
towns and cities.
The urban/suburban indicator, based on data for
114 native bird species, shows a steady, strong
increase during the past 40 years, driven primar-ily
by a small number of highly successful species
such as Wild Turkey, Double-crested Cormorant,
vultures, gulls, doves, House Finch, and Great-tailed
Grackle. This indicator may represent a
sensitive “first alert” to environmental changes
from urban and suburban development.
Vicki Lackey
Creating greenspace for birds in cities
can help adaptable urban birds as well
as migrants stopping over during
their long journeys.
Gregg Lee
American Robins can thrive
in many habitats, including
urban yards and parks.
The State of Forest Birds
Of 310 forest-breeding birds nationwide, 22%
are species of conservation concern, including
11 federally listed as endangered or threatened.
Roughly one-third of all forest-breeding species
have declined. The overall indicator for obligate
forest birds, based on 96 species with adequate
data, declined by roughly 10% through 1980, then
recovered slightly in recent years (see graph, page
5). Bird population trends in forests differed across
four geographic regions (see pages 14–15).
The eastern forests indicator, based on data for 25
obligate species, declined steadily over the past 40
years, dropping by nearly 25% since 1968.
In western forests, the indicator based on 38
obligate species shows a slightly declining trend;
however, monitoring data were unavailable for
40% of western forest obligates, including 10 spe-cies
of conservation concern. Many western forest
birds, such as Montezuma Quail, Elegant Trogon,
White-headed Woodpecker, and Hermit Warbler,
are at risk because of their small geographic range
or small and threatened populations.
The indicator for boreal forests, based on 31 of 37
obligate species with adequate data, has fluctu-ated
greatly with a generally declining trend over
the first 25 years, and then a general increase more
Consider This:
PP North America has a tremendous
diversity of forests harboring more
than 300 breeding bird species.
PP Some forest birds are doing
well, giving hope for continued
conservation efforts, but roughly
one-third of all forest-breeding
species have declined.
PP Forests are threatened by unplanned
and sprawling urban development,
unsustainable logging, intense
wildfires following decades of fire
suppression, overbrowsing by
deer, and tree pests and diseases
exacerbated by a changing climate.
PP Opportunities abound for forest bird
management, including a balance of
economically viable but sustainable
forestry and grazing practices; the
U.S. manages 193 million acres of
National Forests.
recently. Many boreal
birds are not well moni-tored
over large parts
of their range, however,
reducing our confidence
in this indicator.
Similarly, in subtropical
forests of South Texas
and Florida, monitoring
data were insufficient to
create a bird population indicator. Many species
in these regions are known to be expanding their
range northward, perhaps in response to warming
temperatures.
Forest Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Eastern (25)
Western (38)
Boreal (31)
Forests
Healthy Forests Are Key to
the Future of Birds and Our
Natural Resources
As many as five billion birds
fly south from the boreal forest
each fall, according to the Boreal
Songbird Initiative. Many of
these birds spend the winter in
the United States.
Sustainable forestry, landowner incentives for forest
preservation, and urban greenspace initiatives can
protect natural resources and help ensure the
long-term viability of many forest birds.
Scarlet Tanager by Gerrit Vyn
Elegant Trogon
Gary H. Rosenberg
12
Courtesy Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society
Major Threats
Development and Disturbance
Rapid urban growth threatens forests in all
regions. Development increased from 15 million
to 60 million acres during 1945–2002 and is still
increasing exponentially.
The loss of economic incentives for private for-estry
has led to the sale and subdivision of forest
industry lands and a rapid rise in second-home
and other ex-urban development, causing forest
loss and fragmentation.
Decades of unnatural fire suppression have
created fuel for more intense fires, dramatically
increasing the acreage burned in recent years (e.g.,
9.8 million acres burned in 2006). Historically,
natural fires burned large areas of some forest
types annually, but were less intense. These fires
were essential for the health of forests and their
wildlife.
Resource Use
The U.S. harvests 21.2 billion cubic feet of timber
from forests annually. Harvest increased by 40%
during 1950–1980, but has declined since 1985.
More than half of all timber comes from south-eastern
forestlands, 87% of which are privately
owned. Only a small portion of timber originates
from federal lands, but important forest types
such old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest
and Alaska remain available for logging.
Invasive Species
Nearly every important tree species is afflicted by
an exotic insect pest or disease, which will likely
be exacerbated by a changing climate. Mountain
pine beetle has killed vast areas of western pine
forests and the hemlock woolly adelgid threatens
eastern hemlock with extinction within 50 years.
Unnaturally high populations of white-tailed deer
have destroyed the shrubby understory of many
eastern forests, contributing to declines in forest-nesting
birds.
Solutions
• The U.S. manages 193 million acres in 155
National Forests, 80% of which are in western
states. By 2008, 13% of forestlands in the west-ern
U.S, 6% in the East, and 26% in Alaska had
been set aside in forest reserves. Conservation
of roadless areas and additional reserves and
improved management, such as sustainable
forestry and grazing practices, would ensure the
long-term viability of many forest birds.
• Sustainable forestry practices improve the
long-term health of forests. Economically viable
practices on private lands and incentives for pri-vate
landowners can provide a mosaic of forest
ages and structure to benefit diverse birds and
prevent development.
• Smart growth and urban greenspace initiatives
are critical for stemming the tide of suburban
sprawl and preserving the integrity and connec-tivity
of forest ecosystems. Incentive programs
that enable landowners to keep their land as
forest need to be expanded.
Beyond Our Borders
Half of all forest bird species migrate from breed-ing
habitats in the U.S. and Canada to winter in
the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South
America. Collaborative initiatives involving inter-national
partnerships are essential for successful
conservation of these species and their habitats.
Reasons for Hope
Forest-breeding
raptors, such as
Cooper’s Hawk, Red-shouldered
Hawk,
and Merlin, as well
as tree-nesting Bald
Eagle and Osprey,
have responded
positively to protec-tion
from shooting,
banning of harmful pesticides, and abundant
prey in urban areas.
The Cerulean Warbler is one of more than 40 species of colorful
wood-warblers that breed in U.S. forests. They migrate thousands
of miles annually to winter in the Neotropics. Many long-distance
migrants are threatened by loss and degradation of
forests across the hemisphere.
Cerulean Warbler by Greg Lavaty
Shane R. Conklin
13
Red-shouldered Hawk
An eastern deciduous forest turns ablaze
with color in fall. Eastern forests include
northern hardwood and other mixed forests
of the Northeast and upper Midwest,
oak-hickory and other deciduous forests of
the Appalachians, coastal plain, and river
valleys, and southeastern longleaf and
slash pine forests.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Wood Stork,
Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Red-cockaded Wood-pecker,
Bachman’s Warbler, Kirtland’s Warbler.
Threatened: Florida Scrub-Jay.
The eastern U.S. has lost two forest species to
extinction: Passenger Pigeon and Carolina Para-keet.
Hope is dimming for Bachman’s Warbler
and Ivory-billed Woodpecker.
Many eastern forest birds are suffering consistent and troubling declines:
• Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Brown-headed Nuthatch, and Bachman’s
Sparrow, year-round residents of mature southern pine forests, especially
the highly threatened longleaf pine ecosystem.
• Neotropical migrants that require large blocks of intact forests, such as
Kentucky Warbler, Wood Thrush, and Eastern Wood-Pewee. The Ceru-lean
Warbler is threatened by mountaintop-removal coal mining along
Appalachian ridges and clearing of riverine forests.
• Species dependent on disturbed or early successional forest or natural
disturbance (including pine barrens) including the Golden-winged War-bler,
Whip-poor-will, Prairie Warbler, Eastern Towhee, and Field Spar-row,
and popular game species such as Northern Bobwhite and American
Woodcock.
Reasons for Hope
Wild Turkeys were close to extinction in the early
1900s but have increased tremendously (8.9%
per year since 1968) in response to reintroduction
programs, management, and forest regeneration.
Many characteristic eastern forest birds, includ-ing
woodpeckers, chickadees, hawks, and owls,
have adapted to urban and suburban plantings
and parks, buffering them from the effects of
habitat loss and fragmentation.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as threatened: Marbled Murre-let,
(Northern) Spotted Owl, (Mexican) Spotted
Owl, (Southwestern) Willow Flycatcher.
Several groups of birds are declining:
• Specialized permanent residents, such as
Pinyon Jay (threatened by massive die-off of
pinyon pines), Oak Titmouse (threatened by
loss of California oak woodlands), and Yellow-billed
Magpie (threatened by loss of oaks and by West Nile virus).
• Temperate migrants dependent on mature pine forests, including Lewis’s
Woodpecker, Plumbeous Vireo, Grace’s Warbler, and Cassin’s Finch.
• Neotropical migrants such as Black Swift, Western Wood-Pewee, and
Black-throated Gray Warbler. The steeply declining Black Swift is vulner-able
to increasing drought conditions because it nests behind waterfalls.
• Many Pacific forest birds, including Marbled Murrelet, Spotted Owl,
Olive-sided Flycatcher, Varied Thrush, Band-tailed Pigeon, Rufous Hum-mingbird,
and Chestnut-backed Chickadee. Murrelets and Spotted Owls
require structurally diverse old-growth forests.
Reasons for Hope
Vast areas of western forests on public lands are
protected from permanent conversion to other
land uses. Improved forest management, such
as restoring natural fire regimes and fencing
riparian areas to prevent overgrazing, can benefit
many forest birds.
Redwood and Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific
Coast are some of the tallest forests in the
world. Western forests also include conifer,
pine-oak, and pinyon-juniper forests of the
mountains, riparian ribbons of deciduous forest
along major rivers, and oak woodlands.
Golden-winged Warbler Lewis’s Woodpecker
Wild Turkey
Spotted Owl
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
James Livaudais
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Roger Ericksson
14
Eastern Forest Western Forest
The boreal forest stretches south from the arctic
tundra across an area larger than the Amazon
rainforest, a blanket of spruces, birch, peat bogs, and
other wetlands. Occurring mostly within Canada,
the North American boreal forest extends into the
United States in Alaska, in states bordering the
Great Lakes, and in northern New England.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Whooping
Crane.
• Lesser Scaup and White-winged Scoter nest
in boreal forests and winter in coastal regions;
both have declined by more than 50% in 40
years.
• The U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan identi-fies
four boreal-nesting species that are of high
conservation concern: Whimbrel, Hudsonian Godwit, Solitary Sandpiper,
and Short-billed Dowitcher. Lesser Yellowlegs and Least Sandpiper also
are experiencing long-term declines.
• Harris’s Sparrow and Rusty Blackbird are temperate migrants that winter
entirely within the U.S.; causes of their steep declines have yet to be de-termined
(Rusty Blackbirds have declined by 75% in 40 years).
• Birds that periodically come south in winter, such as Bohemian Waxwing,
Pine Siskin, White-winged Crossbill, and Evening Grosbeak, have experi-enced
long-term declines.
• Many Neotropical migrants show consistent declines, including boreal
specialists such as Blackpoll Warbler, Cape May Warbler, and Connecticut
Warbler.
Reasons for Hope
Boreal wetland birds such as Common Gold-eneye,
Bufflehead, and Bonaparte’s Gull have
increased. Management efforts for Trumpeter
Swans throughout their historic range have been
highly successful.
Vast areas of virgin boreal forest still remain, pre-senting
opportunities for large-scale conservation.
In 2007 and 2008, Ontario and Quebec promised
to protect more than 120 million acres of Canada’s boreal forest—one of the
largest conservation actions in North American history if implemented.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Wood Stork.
Threatened: (Audubon’s) Crested Caracara.
• Smooth-billed Ani in Florida and Groove-billed
Ani in Texas have declined dramatically
for unknown reasons.
• Other less-common species of the Rio Grande
Valley, such as Altamira and Audubon’s
orioles, also have declined, possibly due to
Bronzed and Brown-headed cowbirds that lay eggs in the orioles’ nests.
Reasons for Hope
Couch’s Kingbird, Long-billed
Thrasher, and Olive Sparrow
are among many species that
are moving northward in Texas,
perhaps in response to warming
temperatures.
Acquisition and restoration ef-forts
by the U.S. Fish and Wild-life
Service, the state of Texas,
The Nature Conservancy, and
National Audubon Society have
created a string of protected areas
along the Lower Rio Grande that
are vital to many subtropical for-est
specialists. The newly formed
Lower Rio Grande Joint Venture
is a public-private partnership striving to protect and restore additional
remnant forests in south Texas and northeastern Mexico.
Nearly all of south Florida’s remaining subtropical forests are protected
within Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress National Reserve.
A forest of live oaks in Tree Tops Park,
Florida. Subtropical forests in the
United States occur only in south
Texas (Tamaulipan thorn forest) and in
peninsular Florida (bald cypress and
hardwood hammocks).
Rusty Blackbird
Trumpeter Swan
Altamira Oriole
Deb Simon
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Sam Crowe
Jack Bartholomai
Mark Keithly
Garth Lenz
Green Jay
15
Boreal Forest Subtropical Forest
Consider This:
PP Millions of birds travel from around
the globe to the arctic each year.
Eighty-five bird species rely on
the arctic’s long summer days and
abundant insect prey to raise their
young.
PP Because the arctic is vast and remote,
data are lacking for many species.
Some birds, such as geese and gulls,
seem to be faring well, but many
shorebirds and landbirds are showing
worrisome declines.
PP Disturbance to tundra from energy
exploration and changes caused by
global warming are affecting the
birds’ food base and transforming
arctic habitats. Arctic-breeding birds
also face numerous threats during
extensive spring and fall migrations.
PP Reducing emissions is critical to
slow global climate change, which is
already affecting the arctic. Energy
development and transportation plans
should incorporate the conservation
needs of birds.
Arctic & Alpine
Key Nesting Areas Are
Threatened by Global Warming
and Energy Development
Snowy Owl by Gerrit Vyn
The State of Arctic
and Alpine Birds
Of the 85 species that breed in arctic and alpine
regions, 38% are of conservation concern, includ-ing
3 federally listed as endangered or threatened.
The arctic and alpine indicator, based on 27 obli-gate
species, has increased steadily over the past
40 years. Dramatic increases in four arctic-nesting
geese contribute to this overall trend. Because of
the remoteness of these regions, however, the indi-cator
represents only 46% of obligate arctic and al-pine
species. A group of 10 landbird species shows
a declining trend over the same period, with
steepest declines evident in alpine-nesting rosy-finches.
Some sea ducks and many shorebirds
are also declining; two-thirds of all arctic-nesting
shorebirds are species of conservation concern.
Arctic and Alpine Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Arctic Obligates (27)
Arctic Landbirds (10)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: Eskimo
Curlew. Threatened:
Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider.
• In arctic Canada, the
Ivory Gull has de-clined
dramatically in
the last decade. This
enigmatic and beauti-ful
species depends on arctic sea ice for feeding,
and is especially vulnerable to global warming.
• Arctic-breeding ducks that winter in marine
waters have declined. The nonbreeding dis-tribution
of threatened Spectacled Eider was
unknown until recent satellite imagery revealed
important concentrations in arctic waters off
Alaska.
• At least 38% of arctic-nesting shorebirds are de-creasing
and population trends are unknown for
25%. A monitoring program to assess shorebird
populations is critically needed.
Arctic-Nesting Geese
1,300
800
300
0
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Arctic Geese (4)
Alaska's arctic coastal plain tundra includes some of
the world's most productive wetlands for migratory
shorebirds and waterfowl. The arctic region also
includes drier northern uplands and treeless alpine
areas on mountaintops.
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Ivory Gull
16
Major Threats
Climate Change
Warming temperatures are more extreme at the
poles than in other places on earth. Thawing per-mafrost
in the southern arctic is lowering the wa-ter
table and drying out coastal tundra supporting
the highest densities of breeding shorebirds and
waterfowl.
Warming temperatures may cause a mismatch
between the timing of nesting and availability of
food. Melting sea ice cover will affect seabirds,
such as Ivory Gull, by causing shifts in their
marine food resources. Changes to vegetation and
snowpack could affect lemmings, important prey
for Snowy Owls and other birds.
Energy
Oil exploration and production threaten major
areas of great importance to arctic-breeding birds.
Arctic warming will make it easier to develop off-shore
energy facilities and to transport products,
increasing the risk of fuel spills that kill or harm
birds.
Development and Disturbance
Predators that thrive near human development,
such as arctic foxes and gulls, prey on the eggs
and young of ground-nesting birds. Predators
introduced to islands can devastate bird
populations.
Solutions
• Reducing emissions is the only direct way to
slow effects of global climate change. Better
monitoring is needed to understand the effects
of climate change on arctic wildlife.
• Energy and commercial development plans
should avoid key breeding and staging areas,
minimize effects on breeding birds from oil
spills and other hazards, and include adequate
disaster responses.
• A system of protected areas in productive re-gions
of the arctic is needed to ensure that birds
have areas to use as conditions change in the
arctic.
• Management actions continue to be needed to
control the overpopulation of geese that nega-tively
affect the habitat for other species such as
shorebirds.
• As arctic birds respond to a changing climate,
increased monitoring efforts will be required in
areas that are difficult to access, to determine
population redistribution and impacts, and to
develop conservation strategies.
Beyond Our Borders
Most arctic and alpine breeding birds have large
populations in Canada, and some also inhabit
arctic Europe and Asia. Birds that breed in the
arctic may winter in habitats from South America
to southern Canada, so protection of international
wintering and migratory areas is essential. Of 51
shorebird species that breed in northern North
America, substantial populations of 40 species
(78%) winter in Latin America, Asia, Australia,
Polynesia, and Europe.
Reason for Hope
Oil and gas leasing
has been deferred
for 10 years around
Alaska's Teshekpuk
Lake, which supports
high densities of
breeding shorebirds
and large numbers of
molting geese.
The future of arctic habitats and birds
depends on our ability to curb global
climate change and to explore energy
resources with minimal impact to wildlife.
Long-tailed Jaeger by Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
17
Consider This:
PP Nearly one-quarter of all U.S. birds
rely on freshwater wetlands, including
more than 50 shorebird species, 17
long-legged waders, and 44 species
of ducks, geese, and swans.
PP Wetland bird populations are well
below historic levels but management
and conservation measures have
contributed to increases of many
wetland birds, including hunted
waterfowl.
PP Degradation and destruction of
wetlands reduce clean water and
other benefits to society and eliminate
critical areas needed by wetland birds.
PP Bird-related conservation programs
have contributed significantly to the
restoration of wetlands. For example,
“Duck Stamps” and the North
American Wetlands Conservation Act
have generated billions of dollars and
protected nearly 30 million acres.
The State of Wetland Birds
Of 163 bird species that breed in freshwater wet-lands,
24% are species of conservation concern,
including 10 federally listed as endangered or
threatened. Half of the remaining high-concern
species are shorebirds that breed in the arctic,
boreal forest, or grasslands. The wetland birds
indicator, based on data for 139 species, shows a
steady increase beginning in the late 1970s, coin-ciding
with major policy shifts from draining to
protecting wetlands. Dramatic increases in many
wetland generalist species, as well as arctic-nest-ing
geese and cavity-nesting ducks, contribute to
this overall trend.
Wetland Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wetland Species (139)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Wood Stork,
(Everglades) Snail
Kite, (Yuma) Clapper
Rail, Whooping Crane,
(Mississippi) Sandhill
Crane, Piping Plover,
Least Tern. Threat-ened:
Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider, Bald
Eagle (Sonoran Desert population only).
• Green Heron and Spotted Sandpiper are among
the few wetland generalists that show long-term
declines. Other declining wetland species
include prairie-nesting Franklin's Gull and Black
Tern, southeastern marsh specialists such as
King Rail, boreal-nesting White-winged Scoters,
Lesser Yellowlegs, and Rusty Blackbirds, and
many arctic-nesting shorebirds.
• See pages 9, 15, and 16 for more information on
wetland birds in grasslands, boreal forests, and
arctic habitats.
Wetlands
Wetlands Restoration:
A Model for Bird Conservation
More than half of our nation's
original wetlands have been
drained or converted to other
uses. Many wetlands are
within other habitats, such as
grasslands, boreal forest, and
arctic tundra.
Green Heron by Steve Wolfe
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Marianne DiAntonio
Although many wetland birds show troubling declines,
conservation programs have protected millions of acres
and contributed to thriving populations of herons, egrets,
hunted waterfowl, and other birds.
Wood Stork
18
Major Threats
Agriculture
Excessive chemicals, nutrients, and sediments
from unsustainable agriculture can disrupt the
function of wetlands, dramatically reducing clean
water and other environmental benefits, and
eliminating critical areas needed by wetland birds.
Disturbance
Impacts of floods and drought on wetland birds
are exacerbated by degradation from stream
channelization, construction of levees, dikes, and
dams, depositing of fill, and unsustainable for-estry
practices.
Energy
Rising corn prices and conversion of wetlands and
adjacent grasslands for biofuel production threat-ens
the nesting habitat of several duck species and
other birds in the Prairie Pothole region.
Global climate change will degrade wetlands, af-fecting
birds and other wildlife. Warming temper-atures
and more storms, droughts, and floods will
cause unpredictable changes in hydrology, plant
communities, and prey abundance.
Solutions
• Widespread public education efforts and
government regulations helped reverse the
loss of wetlands starting in the 1970s. Continu-ing
education about the value of wetlands and
management techniques are vital for successful
landowner incentive programs.
• Creative policies based on incentives and regu-lation,
such as the Wetlands Reserve Program
and enforcement of regulations, have enabled
private landowners to maintain agriculture and
timber production while managing wetlands.
• Increasingly, hunting leases, bird watching,
and ecotourism are providing landowners with
economic opportunities that are enhanced by
management of quality wetlands.
• Land purchases can be the most secure form of
wetlands conservation. With more than 96 mil-lions
acres on 548 refuges, the National Wildlife
Refuge System is our nation’s only public land
base dedicated solely to the conservation and
protection of wildlife, with a high priority for
migratory birds. This network can be increased
in key areas.
• Small wetlands need special attention because
of their vulnerability to conversion during
droughts and their noteworthy value to wet-lands
birds.
Beyond Our Borders
The U.S. shares many wetland breeding bird popu-lations
with Canada. In addition, many water-birds
from arctic, boreal, and grassland regions of
the United States migrate to Latin American and
Caribbean countries for the winter. Continental
programs such as the North American Waterfowl
Management Plan provide a solid foundation to
expand vital international cooperation.
Reasons for Hope
Our national bird,
the Bald Eagle,
recovered from
near extinction in
the lower 48 states
after protection from
shooting, restora-tion
of wetlands,
and banning of DDT
and other harmful
pesticides. Most Bald Eagle populations were
removed from listing under the Federal Endan-gered
Species Act in 2007, after three decades of
conservation work to restore the species.
Wetlands management and restoration also
have contributed to thriving populations of
many wetland generalists, including American
White Pelican, Double-crested and Neotropic
cormorants, herons, egrets, Osprey, Sandhill
Crane, Black-necked Stilt, gulls, and kingfish-ers.
A majority of colonial-nesting wading birds,
such as egrets, herons, and White Ibis, continue
to recover from populations devastated by the
plume trade and market hunting in the early
20th century. Once nearly confined to rookeries
in south Florida, many of these species have
expanded west into Louisiana and Texas, and
north along the Atlantic Coast.
Osprey by James Livaudais
Wilber Suiter
19
Bald Eagle
The rich tradition of waterfowl hunting in North
America has ensured a sustainable population of
waterfowl across the continent. Federal Migratory
Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps (“Duck
Stamps”), purchased primarily by hunters, have
provided more than $700 million for wetlands
conservation. The North American Wetlands Con-servation
Act (NAWCA), enacted in 1989, set the
stage for creative partnership funding to protect
vital wetlands. In an unparalleled conservation
partnership among Canada, the United States, and
Mexico, NAWCA partners have raised more than
$3 billion dollars and have conserved nearly 25
million acres of wetlands and associated upland
habitats.
Waterfowl habitat conservation in North America
serves as an example for other conservation
challenges and offers hope that through synergy,
planning, collaboration, and persistence, we can
conserve and restore wetland habitats for the ben-efit
of both wildlife and future generations.
The State of Our Nation’s
Waterfowl
Among 44 species of ducks, geese, and swans,
2 are listed as federally threatened and 2 are
of conservation concern (Emperor Goose and
Trumpeter Swan). The waterfowl indicator, based
on 39 hunted species, has increased steadily over
the past 40 years, reflecting the success of man-agement
efforts. Many ducks, such as Mallard,
Gadwall, Wood Duck, and Redhead, show stable
or increasing populations, and most arctic-nesting
geese, as well as Trumpeter Swans, have increased
dramatically. Reintroduced populations of resi-dent
Canada Geese in the lower 48 states have
been so successful that the geese have become a
problem in many urban areas. However, a few
duck populations, notably Lesser Scaup, Northern
Pintail, and several sea ducks, continue to show
troubling declines.
Waterfowl Indicator
0
100
150
200
-100
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Waterfowl (39 hunted species)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as threatened: Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider.
Significant declines of Northern Pintail and Lesser
Scaup represent continued challenges for water-fowl
management. Pintail numbers dropped to 2.6
million in 2008, 36% below the long-term average.
Although not as well monitored as other species,
several “sea ducks” such as King Eider, White-winged
Scoter, and Long-tailed Duck appear to be
declining—perhaps reflecting increasing threats in
their coastal wintering habitats.
Reasons for Hope
In 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimat-ed
that there were 37.3 million breeding ducks, an
increase of 11% above historical averages through
2007. Redheads reached a record high and esti-mates
for the Green-winged Teal were the second
highest on record. Changes in precipitation, land
use, and management practices encouraged by
the North American Waterfowl Management Plan
have contributed to recent waterfowl recoveries.
Ross’s Goose was estimated at only 2,000 to 3,000
individuals in 1931, prior to stringent hunting
regulation. After regulation, the population recov-ered
to 188,000 breeding birds in 1988, and growth
continues. Most other arctic-nesting geese have
increased dramatically as well.
Wood Ducks have responded well to nest-box
programs throughout their range; populations
increased by more than 200% in the past 40 years.
Long-tailed Ducks by Gerrit Vyn
Spotlight on Waterfowl
Conservation Partnerships Produce Results!
Successful waterfowl conservation in
North America is a model for wide-spread
habitat protection that has
reversed declines of many bird species.
20
Spotlight on
Marsh Birds
Secretive Marsh Birds Require
Closer Monitoring
Thirty-three wetland bird species, including
ducks, grebes, bitterns, and rails, depend on
emergent vegetation in freshwater marshes for
breeding. Many widespread marsh-nesting birds
have shown stable or increasing populations over
the past 40 years, but marsh specialists in the
Midwest and Southeast have suffered declines.
The State of Marshland Birds
Of the 33 obligate marsh species, 21% are species
of conservation concern, including the federally
endangered Snail Kite and freshwater races of
Clapper Rail. Other birds of high concern include
Yellow Rail, Black Rail, and King Rail. For 31 spe-cies
with adequate data, the marsh bird indicator
shows a steady decline until about 1990, followed
by wide fluctuations over the last two decades,
perhaps reflecting precipitation patterns. Because
many marsh birds are notoriously difficult to
detect, the indicator may not accurately reflect the
status of these populations.
Marsh Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Marsh (31)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Snail Kite.
Marsh-nesting birds of Midwest prairies, such
as Horned, Eared, and Clark’s Grebe, Cinnamon
Teal, Franklin’s Gull, Clapper Rail, and Black Tern
have shown population declines that are probably
linked to loss and degradation of wetlands.
Several southeastern marsh specialists, notably
King Rail and Purple Gallinule, also have experi-enced
steep declines. Migratory populations of
King Rail are listed as endangered or threatened
by most states within its northern range.
Reasons for Hope
Widespread marsh species, such as Pied-billed
Grebe, Least Bittern, Virginia Rail, and Common
Moorhen can take advantage of small or ephem-eral
wetlands and have maintained stable range-wide
populations over the past 40 years.
Everglades National Park protects the largest
freshwater wetland in the United States; recent
efforts to restore the greater Everglades ecosystem
represent one of the largest conservation initia-tives
in U.S. history. Although populations of
many wading birds remain well below historic es-timates
in the Everglades, several species, such as
White Ibis, have benefited from the conservation
effort there. The endangered Florida population of
Snail Kite (the “Everglades Kite”) has responded
well to conservation efforts, reaching a population
of 685 individuals in 2008.
Marshes respond quickly to management and res-toration
efforts, and small but productive marshes
can support very large numbers of birds. Wetland
restoration projects, such as Wakodahatchee in
Florida and Sweetwater Wetlands in Arizona, are
a mecca for waterbirds, as well as for bird watch-ers
and wildlife photographers.
Common Moorhen by Clark Rushing
21
Marshes respond
quickly to
management
and restoration
efforts, and even
small marshes
can support large
numbers of birds.
Consider This:
PP Although coastal areas occupy less
than 10% of our nation’s land area,
they support a large proportion of our
living resources, including more than
170 bird species.
PP Generalist birds, such as gulls,
have been extremely successful in
developed areas, but specialized
species, such as migrating shorebirds,
have declined.
PP Coastal habitats continue to suffer
from unplanned and unsustainable
housing development, pollution, and
warming oceans caused by climate
change.
PP The USFWS National Wildlife Refuge
System manages extensive public
lands in coastal zones. At least
161 coastal refuges may be at risk
because of ongoing and predicted sea
level rises.
The State of Coastal Birds
Of 173 bird species that use coastal habitats at
any time of year, 53 are species of conservation
concern and 14 are federally listed as endangered
or threatened. Fourteen of twenty-seven shore-bird
species that primarily use coastal habitats have
declined.
Based on 50 species that winter exclusively in
coastal habitats, the indicator shows a steady
increase over the past 40 years, to roughly 20%
above the 1968 baseline. Large increases in Com-mon
Eider, Northern Gannet, Laughing, Heer-mann’s,
and Western gulls, contribute to this
overall trend. Sea ducks, such as King Eider and
White-winged Scoter, as well as wintering shore-birds
such as Wandering Tattler and Purple and
Rock sandpipers, have shown steep declines.
Wintering Coastal Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wintering Coastal (50)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: Brown
Pelican, Wood Stork,
(California) Clapper Rail,
(Light-footed) Clapper
Rail, Whooping Crane,
(California) Least Tern,
Roseate Tern, (Cape
Sable) Seaside Sparrow.
Threatened: Spectacled
Eider, Steller’s Eider, Piping Plover, Snowy Plover,
Marbled Murrelet.
• Plovers, terns, and other beach-nesting birds
are vulnerable to people and pets who inadver-tently
destroy or disturb nests. Wilson’s Plovers
have declined by 78% in 40 years. With a U.S.
population of about 6,000, they are vulnerable to
development and catastrophic hurricanes.
��� Small populations of coastal marsh birds, such
as rails and sparrows, are vulnerable to habitat
loss and degradation from pollution and chang-ing
water levels that affect feeding areas and
plant cover. Seaside and Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed
sparrows are found only in coastal saltmarshes
of eastern North America.
• Common Murres are still one of the most nu-merous
seabirds in the Northern Hemisphere,
but local populations can be severely reduced
by climate change, disturbance, fishing, intro-duced
nest predators, and oil spills. They have
declined by 76% over the past 40 years.
• East Coast populations of Red Knots have de-clined
by an alarming 82%. Semipalmated Sand-piper,
Sanderling, and Dunlin have also shown
dramatic declines.
Coasts
Where Land Meets Sea,
Coastal Protection Offers
Hope for Birds
Coastal ecosystems include
coastlines, nearshore islands,
nearshore waters, estuaries, and
tidally-influenced sections of
rivers and creeks—productive
habitats for abundant wildlife.
Gerrit Vyn
Common Murres by Gerrit Vyn
Bill Dalton
Least Tern
22
Major Threats
Development
Nearly half of the U.S. population lives and works
in coastal areas, with resident populations expect-ed
to increase by 25 million people by 2015. More
than 180 million people visit the shore for recre-ation
every year. These recreational uses often
conflict with the needs of birds and other wildlife.
Conversion of marsh to open water from dredg-ing,
water control, boat traffic, and a changing
climate have caused 93% of the coastal habitat loss
that occurred from 1998 to 2004.
Resource Use
Red Knots and other shorebirds depend on horse-shoe
crab eggs for food. Overharvesting of horse-shoe
crabs during the past decade has reduced the
density of crab eggs along the eastern seashore
by up to 99%, which is believed to be a principal
cause of steep declines of many shorebird species.
Diving birds such as loons, grebes, gannets, ducks,
and shearwaters die from entanglement in fishing
gill nets. Overfishing of forage fish (e.g., menha-den
along the Atlantic Coast) and bycatch of fish
(e.g., in small-mesh shrimp trawls) may deplete
food needed by fish-eating birds.
Pollution and Climate Change
From 1998 to 2002, sediments in about half of es-tuaries
in the U.S. had one or more contaminants
exceeding benchmarks for “possible or probable
adverse effects” on aquatic life. Excess nutrients
from agricultural runoff deplete oxygen in coastal
waters, forcing fish, shrimp, crabs, and the birds
that feed on them to move from the area or die.
Oil spills, as well as chronic pollution from bilge
pumping, outboard engines, and mishandling
of petroleum products, kill untold numbers of
coastal birds and can be linked to declining or
depressed local populations of birds such as Com-mon
Murres and Marbled Murrelets.
Global climate change causes sea level rise,
increased storm surge events, changes in marsh
distribution, and changes in the food resources
for some birds. In the Southeast, rising sea levels
in the next century are expected to flood 30% of
habitat in National Wildlife Refuges.
Additionally, birds nesting on beaches and near-shore
islands suffer from some of the same threats
as island birds, including predation and habitat
damage from invasive species (see page 26).
Solutions
• Federal or state incentives can encourage coastal
management benefiting people and wildlife.
Neighboring communities can cooperate to re-strict
sprawling development and create green-ways
and natural areas.
• Incentives can be developed to create seaside
preserves such as the Cape Cod National Sea-shore,
with private or public ownership and
local, state, or federal management.
• Nest sites can be protected from unintentional
disturbance by fencing and other measures.
• Sustainable fishing will prevent overharvest
of important food sources for birds, including
horseshoe crabs.
Beyond Our Borders
Many of our nation’s coastal birds spend part
of the year in Canada, Mexico, and Central and
South America. The international Western Hemi-sphere
Shorebird Reserve Network is vital to the
conservation of these long-distance travelers.
Reasons for Hope
Since 1990, under
the Federal Coastal
Grants Program,
about $183 million
in grants have been
awarded to acquire,
protect or restore
more than 250,000
acres of coastal wet-lands.
The U.S. Department of Interior Ocean and
Coastal Activities Implementation Plan provides
better integration of coastal habitat management
programs across agencies with ocean, coastal,
and Great Lakes stewardship.
Fish-eating birds, such as Brown Pelican and
Northern Gannet, rebounded after the pesticide
DDT was banned in the U.S.
Whooping Cranes wintering in and around the
Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in Texas have
increased from 15 birds in 1941 to 266 in 2008,
the result of successful endangered species con-servation
and management.
Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow by Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Half of all coastally migrating
shorebirds have declined, indicating
stress in coastal habitats besieged
by development, disturbance, and
dwindling food supplies.
23
Brown Pelican
Jane Ogilvie
Consider This:
PP At least 81 bird species inhabit our
nation’s marine waters, spending their
lives at sea and returning to islands
and coasts to nest.
PP At least 39% of bird species in U.S.
marine waters are believed to be
declining, but data are lacking for
many species. Improved monitoring is
imperative for conservation.
PP Ocean birds travel through waters
of many nations and are increasingly
threatened by fishing bycatch,
pollution, problems on breeding
grounds, and food supplies altered by
rising ocean temperatures.
PP The health of our oceans and wildlife
will improve with policies that address
sustainable fishing, changes in food
supply, and pollution.
The State of Ocean Birds
Of 81 ocean bird species, almost half are of
conservation concern, including 4 that are feder-ally
listed as endangered or threatened. Based on
available data, 39% of ocean bird species are de-clining,
37% stable, and 12% increasing. Too little
data exist to determine the population trends for
12% of ocean birds. There were insufficient data
to generate an indicator similar to those presented
for other habitats in this report, so trend categories
were based on a variety of data sets and expert
opinion.
Trends for Ocean Bird Species
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Apparent
Stable Unknown
Percentage of Species
in Category
Decline Increase
Biologically significant
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Short-tailed
Albatross, Hawaiian
Petrel. Threatened:
(Newell’s) Townsend’s
Shearwater, Marbled
Murrelet.
• Mortality from
incidental capture in
commercial fisheries
(bycatch) is the most significant source of mor-tality
for Black-footed and Laysan albatrosses,
both species of high conservation concern.
• The Black-capped Petrel nests locally in the
Caribbean and forages off the eastern U.S. sea-board,
but little is known about the population
size or threats to this rare species.
• The Ashy Storm-Petrel faces threats at its nest-ing
colonies in southern California and Baja
California. In marine foraging areas, it is vulner-able
to contaminants, petroleum products, and
plastics encountered while foraging.
Oceans
Far at Sea: Birds Face Hazards
from Fishing, Pollution, and
Altered Food Supplies
Oceans may appear homogeneous
but are composed of distinct
habitats created by massive
circulating currents. Human
activity has affected the health
of our oceans even far from land.
Nearly half of ocean birds in the U.S. are of conservation
concern, indicating deteriorating ocean conditions.
Management policies and sustainable fishing regulations are
essential to ensure the health of our oceans.
Black-capped Petrel
Brian L. Sullivan
Black-footed Albatross by Brian L. Sullivan
Brian L. Sullivan
24
The Black-footed Albatross, a species of
conservation concern, wanders the North
Pacific for most of the year and returns to
remote islands to breed.
Major Threats
Resource Use
Overfishing by humans reduces and alters the
food supply for many seabirds.
Longline fisheries worldwide unintentionally
injure and drown as many as 60 bird species, espe-cially
surface-feeding seabirds such as albatrosses.
Pollution
Pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and oil harm
ocean birds. Major oil spills kill thousands of
birds, but small spills and chronic releases from
boats and ports also cause significant harm.
Many seabirds consume floating plastic and may
feed it to their chicks. Ninety percent of Laysan
Albatrosses surveyed on the Hawaiian Islands
had plastic debris in their stomachs.
Climate Change
Sea-surface temperatures have risen up to 4
degrees Fahrenheit in the North Sea and are
expected to continue increasing across the world’s
oceans, affecting important food sources for ocean
birds.
Breeding failures of some seabirds in northern
latitudes have been attributed in part to increased
pests and diseases that survive in warmer winters.
Kittlitz’s Murrelet population declines probably
result from cyclical changes in the oceanic envi-ronment
and glacial melting, affecting their ability
to find food.
In addition to the threats noted above, ocean birds
face challenges on their nesting grounds including
development, disturbance, invasive species, and
sea level rise. (See pages 22 and 26.)
Solutions
• Fisheries laws provide the platform to ensure a
sustainable ocean environment and can include
provisions to reduce bycatch, orient marine fish-ery
policy toward ecosystem management, and
separate conservation and allocation decisions.
• International efforts, such as the Agreement on
the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, can
set a standard for cooperative management of
seabirds.
• Coordinated, regionwide programs are needed
to collect, assess, and distribute data to better
assess the status of seabird populations.
• Increased monitoring of ocean birds and their
food base are essential to measure change in
ocean health and help develop more effective
conservation actions.
Reasons for Hope
Regulations and
voluntary measures
to minimize bycatch
have been estab-lished
for U.S. fisher-ies
in Alaska and
Hawaii, resulting in
significant decreases
in ocean bird mor-tality,
especially for
Black-footed, Laysan, and Short-tailed alba-tross.
The recent protection of 335,561 square miles in
four Marine National Monuments will greatly
improve the health of our oceans, benefiting
people as well as birds and other ocean life.
Laysan Albatross
Brian L. Sullivan
Black-footed Albatross by Brian L. Sullivan
25
More bird species are vulnerable to extinction in
Hawaii than anywhere else in the United States.
Before the arrival of humans, the Hawaiian
Islands supported 113 bird species unique in the
world, including flightless geese, ibis, rails, and 59
species of Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Since humans arrived, 71 bird species have be-come
extinct and 31 more are federally listed as
threatened or endangered. Of these, 10 have not
been seen in as long as 40 years and may be ex-tinct.
Humans have introduced many bird species
from other parts of the world: 43% of 157 species
are not native. Among landbirds, 69% are intro-duced
species.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Short-tailed
Albatross, Hawaiian
Petrel, Nēnē, Hawaiian
Duck (Koloa), Laysan
Duck, Hawaiian Hawk
(`Io), Hawaiian Moorhen
(`Alae `Ula), Hawaiian
Coot (`Alae Ke`oke`o),
Hawaiian Stilt (Ae`o),
Hawaiian Crow (`Alalā), O`ahu Elepaio, Nihoa
Millerbird, Kāma`o, Oloma`o, Puaiohi, Kaua`i `Ō`ō,
Laysan Finch, Nihoa Finch, `Ō`ū, Palila, Maui Par-rotbill,
Kaua`i `Akialoa, Nukupu`u, `Akiapōlā`au,
Hawai`i Creeper, O`ahu `Alauahio, Kākāwahie,
Hawai`i `Ākepa, Maui `Ākepa, `Ākohekohe,
Po`ouli. Threatened: Newell’s Shearwater.
after becoming confused by bright lights. Downed
shearwaters often die of exhaustion, are hit by
cars, or are killed by predators.
Reasons for Hope
Endangered Laysan
Ducks, numbering 600
on Laysan Island, have
been translocated to
Midway Atoll, where
the population now
exceeds 200 after just a
few years.
Population growth
of forest birds such
as Hawai`i Creeper and `Akiapōlā`au has been
dramatic in the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife
Refuge, where the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
is fencing to exclude feral mammals, aggressively
managing invasive plants, and replanting
endangered plants. Application of these successful
methods is urgently needed elsewhere.
Rats were eradicated from Midway Atoll in 1997,
resulting in an increase of Bonin Petrels from an
estimated 5,000 pairs in 1979 to more than 100,000
pairs in 2008, and recolonization by Tristram’s
Storm-Petrels and Bulwer’s Petrels.
The 7,500-acre Hanawi Natural Area Reserve supports some of
Hawaii’s most important concentrations of native birds, including
`Ākohekohe and Maui Parrotbill. Hawaii’s islands were once forested
with native trees such as koa, `ohia, mānele, and sandalwood. Since
human colonization, approximately half of these forests have been lost.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Hawaiian Stilt
`Akiapōlā`au
Eric VanderWerf
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Spotlight on the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands
The Race to Save Hawaiian Birds
Nearly all native Hawaiian forest birds are declin-ing,
their populations devastated by nonnative
disease-carrying mosquitoes, predators, feral cat-tle
and pigs, and loss of habitat. The Palila, found
only on the Big Island, has declined from 6,600
birds in 2003 to 2,200 in 2008. The `Akikiki and
`Akeke`e of Kauai have also declined dramatically
since 1970 and are proposed for listing under the
Endangered Species Act.
Exotic plants and diseases can wreak havoc on na-tive
habitats. Golden crownbeard is overwhelming
the breeding habitat of Black-footed and Laysan
albatrosses in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
`Ohia rust threatens one of the most important food
plants of endangered Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Seabirds that nest on islands, including the
endangered Hawaiian Petrel, face severe threats
from feral cats and other introduced species, and
habitat damage by feral ungulates.
Since 1979, approximately 30,000 Newell’s Shear-waters,
a threatened species, have collided with
utility lines and structures or have been grounded
26
Saving Hawaii’s Birds
• Restoration and protection of mid-elevation
forest is essential for the recovery of endan-gered
species such as `Akiapōlā`au, Hawai`i
and Maui `Ākepas, and Hawai`i Creeper.
• A highest priority action with the greatest po-tential
benefits for native birds is the fencing
of habitats to exclude feral ungulates. This im-proves
habitat quality and reduces numbers of
disease-carrying mosquitoes (trampled areas
and downed tree ferns collect water where
mosquitoes breed).
• Protecting all groups of native Hawaiian birds
by federal law should be explored and imple-mented,
such as for Hawaiian honeycreepers,
which are not protected under the Migratory
Bird Treaty Act.
• Targeted trapping and use of rodenticides to
reduce numbers of nonnative predators such
as rats, cats, and mongoose will improve nest-ing
success and survivorship of birds.
• Focused efforts are urgently needed to re-duce
the spread of invasive, exotic plants in
areas important to threatened birds. Golden
crownbeard needs to be eradicated from the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, especially
on Midway Atoll where the plant threatens
to overwhelm nesting areas for the world’s
largest colonies of Laysan and Black-footed
albatrosses.
• Some bird species require captive breeding to
ensure the continued existence and recovery
of wild populations. Release of captive-bred
Palila and translocation of wild birds has
resulted in the establishment of a small breed-ing
population in a second location on the Big
Island.
• Nesting albatrosses on Midway Atoll can en-counter
lead-based paint peeling from World
War II era buildings. On Midway Atoll, as
many as 10,000 Laysan Albatross chicks die
from lead poisoning each year. Cost-effective
measures of reducing this threat should be
further explored.
Island Birds: Vulnerable and
Often Overlooked
Most island birds evolved on remote archipela-goes,
so they are extremely vulnerable to inva-sive
plants, wildlife introduced by humans, the
onslaught of new predators, habitat degradation,
and disease. In the last five centuries, 87% percent
of bird extinctions worldwide have taken place on
islands.
Most of Hawaii’s conservation crises result from
the introduction of nonnative plants and animals,
but climate change is a growing concern. The
leading threats to Hawaiian birds include habi-tat
degradation from trampling and grazing by
introduced ungulates; nonnative predators (e.g.,
feral cats, mongooses, rats); nonnative plants and
diseases; and bird diseases spread by introduced
mosquitoes.
Most native birds are now largely restricted to
forests above the mosquito line at about 5,000 feet,
a haven that is expected to shrink as increasing
global temperatures enable mosquitoes to survive
at higher altitudes. In addition, rising sea level is
projected to inundate important breeding sites for
many species, especially for seabirds on the low-lying
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
More Online
Visit www.stateofthebirds.org for information
on birds of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands,
Guam, Northern Marianas, American Samoa,
remote Pacific Islands, and Navassa Island.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Palila by jackjeffreyphoto.comy
The endangered `Ākohekohe lives in the native forests of Maui.
In its very restricted range, `Ākohekohe are vulnerable to habitat
degradation by introduced plants and by the grazing of introduced
cattle, pigs, and goats. Fencing to control feral mammals will help to
stabilize or reverse population declines.
Hawaii’s native birds and habitats are
under siege from invasive species and
disease. Immediate action is needed to
prevent birds from going extinct
within our lifetimes.
27
28
Taxon Status
Year of
Listing Habitat(s)
Estimated Population at
Listing/Historic Numbers Trend Since Listing
Current
Population
Hawaiian Goose (Nene) E 1973 Islands Low of 30 Gradual increase 1,700
Hawaiian Duck E 1973 Islands <500 in 1949 Gradual increase 2,400
Laysan Duck E 1973 Islands Low of 7; ~500 at listing Significant recent increase 650
Steller’s Eider T 1997 Arctic, Coasts Unknown Likely remained stable (staging) 75,000
Spectacled Eider T 1993 Arctic, Coasts 3,400; hard to survey Likely increase 7,000
Greater Prairie-Chicken (Attwater’s) E 1973 Grasslands 1 million in early 20th Century Decreasing 72
Northern Bobwhite (Masked) E 1973 Grasslands Extirpated late 1800s Never fully established 10
Short-tailed Albatross E 1973 Ocean Believed extinct before 1950 Significant Increase 2,400
Hawaiian Petrel E 1973 Ocean, Islands Unknown Decreasing 15,000
Newell’s Shearwater T 1975 Ocean, Islands Unknown Decreasing At least 36,000
Brown Pelican (Gulf Coast, California) E 1973 Coasts Less than 1,000 in CA, almost
extirpated along Gulf Coast
Steady increase 46,000
Wood Stork E 1984 Wetlands, Coasts ~5,000 at listing Steady increase 22,000
California Condor E 1973 Aridlands 22 in 1987 Gradual increase 330
Snail Kite (Everglades) E 1973 Marsh 65 Increase with fluctuations 685
Bald Eagle (Sonoran Desert) T 1973 Wetlands, Coasts 21 in 1975 Steady increase 100
Hawaiian Hawk (`Io) E 1973 Islands ~2,000 Stable 2,000
Crested Caracara (Florida) T 1987 Subtropical Forest 100 Initial increase; since stable 1,000
Aplomado Falcon (Northern) E 1986 Grasslands, Aridlands Extirpated in the 1950s Slow increase 100
Clapper Rail (California) E 1973 Coasts Unknown Likely remained stable 1,350
Clapper Rail (Yuma) E 1973 Marsh 750 Likely remained stable 1,000
Clapper Rail (Light-footed) E 1973 Coasts 406 in 1980 Apparent steady increase 800
Common Moorhen (Hawaiian) E 1973 Islands 57 in the 1960s Gradual increase <1,000
Hawaiian Coot E 1973 Islands ~1,000 Gradual increase 3,000
Sandhill Crane (Mississippi) E 1973 Wetlands 40 Slight increase 100
Whooping Crane E 1973 Wetlands, Coasts 16 in 1941 Gradual increase 540
Snowy Plover (Western, Pacific Coast) T 1993 Coasts Unknown Gradual increase 2,300
Piping Plover (Atlantic, Great Plains) T 1985 Coasts, Wetlands Unknown Gradual increase 7,000
Piping Plover (Great Lakes) E 1985 Coasts Unknown Increase with fluctuations 110
Black-necked Stilt (Hawaiian) E 1973 Islands ~1000 Gradual increase 1,500
Eskimo Curlew E 1973 Arctic Historically abundant Likely extinct Unknown
Least Tern (Interior) E 1985 Wetlands 5,000 but surveys incomplete Probably stable 18,000
Least Tern (California) E 1973 Coasts 1,200 Steady increase 13,000
Roseate Tern (Florida) T 1987 Coasts Unknown Decreasing 350
Roseate Tern (Northeast) E 1987 Coasts ~6,000 Fluctuating 6,000
Marbled Murrelet T 1992 Coasts, Forests Unknown Decreasing 25,000
Spotted Owl (Northern) T 1990 Western Forest Unknown Decreasing 8,500
Spotted Owl (Mexican) T 1993 Western Forest Unknown Unknown (in U.S.) 1,500
Endangered Species
The Long Road to Recovery
In 1973, the United States Congress passed the
Endangered Species Act to protect and recover
imperiled species and the ecosystems upon
which they depend. The Act has succeeded
more often than it has failed, and some success-es
have been spectacular, such as the increase
of the Aleutian Canada Goose from fewer than
1,000 birds to more than 60,000, and the remark-able
comebacks of the Bald Eagle and Peregrine
Falcon.*
However, the possibility of extinction is still a
cold reality for many birds: 13 species may no
longer exist in the wild (10 species from Hawaii,
plus Bachman’s Warbler, Ivory-billed Wood-pecker,
and Eskimo Curlew). Several species
face unprecedented conflict with humans for
land at peak economic value (for example, in
peninsular Florida, mid-continental prairies,
coastal California, Texas hill country, and the
Pacific Northwest).
Of the 74 bird species, subspecies, and popu-lations
listed in the United States, 30 have in-creased
since listing, 16 have remained stable,
15 have decreased, and 13 are possibly extinct.
Snail Kite by Martjan Lammertink
29
Taxon Status
Year of
Listing Habitat(s)
Estimated Population at
Listing/Historic Numbers Trend Since Listing
Current
Population
Red-cockaded Woodpecker E 1973 Eastern Forest 10,000 Steady increase 20,000
Ivory-billed Woodpecker E 1973 Eastern Forest Unknown Unknown Near or at zero
Willow Flycatcher (Southwestern) E 1995 Eastern Forest 700; surveys incomplete Apparent increase 2,000
Kaua`i `O`o E 1973 Islands ~10 Likely extinct late 1980s 0
Loggerhead Shrike (San Clemente) E 1977 Aridlands 50 Gradual increase 230
Bell’s Vireo (Least) E 1986 Aridlands 600 Steady increase 6,000
Black-capped Vireo E 1987 Aridlands Unknown Some increases noted 12,000
Florida Scrub-Jay T 1987 Eastern Forest 11,000 Decreasing 6,500
Hawaiian Crow (`Alala) E 1973 Islands 96, including captive flock Extinct in the wild (all captive) 60
Elepaio (Oahu) E 2000 Islands Unknown Decreasing 2,000
California Gnatcatcher (Coastal) T 1993 Aridlands Unknown Decreasing; habitat loss (in U. S.) 5,000
Millerbird (Nihoa) E 1973 Islands ~400 Fluctuating (in 1996) 155
Kama`o E 1973 Islands 350 Likely extinct early 1990s 0
Oloma`o E 1973 Islands Ten or fewer Likely extinct 1980s 0
Puaiohi E 1973 Islands Unknown Gradual small increase 350
Bachman’s Warbler E 1973 Eastern Forest Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct Unknown
Golden-cheeked Warbler E 1990 Aridlands Unknown Likely decreasing 21,000
Kirtland’s Warbler E 1973 Eastern Forest 167 Steady increase 3,000
California Towhee (Inyo) T 1987 Aridlands 100 Steady increase 750
Sage Sparrow (San Clemente) T 1977 Aridlands Unknown Likely stable 300
Grasshopper Sparrow (Florida) E 1986 Grasslands 600 Stable or slight decrease 400
Seaside Sparrow (Cape Sable) E 1973 Coasts 6,000+ Decreasing 3,200
Laysan Finch E 1973 Islands ~11,000 Fluctuating ~11,000
Nihoa Finch E 1973 Islands ~3,000 Unknown, likely fluctuating 2,800
`O`u E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. late 1980s 0
Palila E 1973 Islands Unknown Decreasing 2,200
Maui Parrotbill E 1973 Islands 500 Stable 500
Greater `Akialoa (Kaua`i) E 1973 Islands Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct c. 1960s 0
Nukupu`u E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. 1995 0
`Akiapola`au E 1973 Islands ~1,200 Likely stable 1,200
Hawai`i Creeper E 1975 Islands ~12,000 Decline 6,300
O`ahu `Alauahio E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. 1990 0
Kakawahie E 1973 Islands Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct 0
`Akepa (Maui) E 1973 Islands 10 in 1980 Likely extinct 1980s or 1990s 0
`Akepa (Hawai`i) E 1973 Islands ~14,000 Stable 14,000
`Akohekohe E 1973 Islands ~3,800 Stable 3,750
Po`ouli E 1975 Islands ~20 Likely extinct in 2004 0
In the continental United States, populations
of more species that were listed early-on have
increased than those listed more recently, ac-cording
to the American Bird Conservancy.
This indicates that long-term conservation ef-forts
can pay great dividends.
An Urgent Need for Protection
Some species languish on the candidate list ow-ing
to lack of resources for listing. The highest
priority candidates must be quickly protected
so that urgently needed conservation actions
can be mounted. Funding for endangered Ha-waiian
birds must be increased: only 4.1% of
all state and federal funding for federally listed
bird species is spent on Hawaiian birds, which
represent 44% of all listed species.
The most cost-effective solution of all is to stop
bird species from declining before they require
Endangered Species Act protection. Coopera-tive
conservation measures involving govern-ment
and tribal agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, and private landowners are es-sential
to keep common birds common and to
recover failing bird populations while there is
still time.
For more on endangered species, including
birds listed in the U.S. island territories, visit
www.stateofthebirds.org.
Key:
E—Endangered, T—Threatened
Population estimates include captive and
wild populations where known. Estimates
are approximate except for species with very
small populations.
* Fully delisted: Aleutian race of the Canada
Goose, and American and arctic races of the
Peregrine Falcon. Partial delisting: Bald Eagle,
Brown Pelican.
Challenges
Successful bird conservation requires giving birds a long-term
chance to survive and reproduce. Humans have created numerous
threats to birds in addition to the natural challenges that birds
constantly face from starvation, predation, and severe weather.
Based on decades of research, conservationists have identified the
most important threats to birds, including the greatest threat of all—
habitat loss. Addressing these conservation challenges can ensure a
safe future for birds and improve the quality of life for people too.
Here, we summarize the major challenges affecting bird populations.
Residential and Commercial Development
The accelerated pace of urban, suburban, and commercial development in
the United States threatens the integrity of every major habitat, from con-tinued
draining of wetlands and destruction of coastal marshes, to loss and
fragmentation of forests, aridlands, and grasslands because of suburban
sprawl. Unlike timber production and livestock grazing, urbanization and
sprawl cause permanent loss of natural habitats. Increased development in
rural areas, such as second-home development, has equal or greater eco-logical
consequences than growth of urban centers.
Steep declines in many bird populations are a direct result of unplanned
and sprawling urbanization. Birds that are particularly hard hit include
farmland species such as meadowlarks and Bobolink; eastern birds de-pendent
on shrubby habitats, such as American Woodcock and Brown
Thrasher; and birds of western deserts and chaparral, such as Bendire’s and
California thrashers. Fragmentation of forests by development can increase
risk of predation for forest-interior birds, such as Wood Thrush, Kentucky
Warbler, and Cerulean Warbler, and can contribute to nest failures from
increasing numbers of cowbirds, which lay their eggs in these birds’ nests.
Coastal development causes loss of beach dunes and threatens fragile salt
marshes, harming birds such as Black Rail and Seaside Sparrow, as well as
migratory shorebirds and other water birds dependent on tidal mudflats
and estuaries.
As many as one billion birds each year may die from collisions with man-made
obstacles, including windows, transmission towers, power lines, and
wind turbines. Tall, lighted buildings and other structures along coastlines
kill millions of migrating birds each year. Conservationists are explor-ing
and implementing innovative ways to reduce this grim toll, but much
remains to be done.
Agriculture
The way that we use land to grow our food has significant impacts on birds.
Because of conversion of grasslands to agriculture, grasslands are the most
endangered ecosystem in North America. The Conservation Reserve Pro-gram
and other initiatives pay farmers to keep areas with erodible soils and
sensitive habitats out of production. Farmer participation in this success-ful
program varies. In 2008, for example, farmer involvement was affected
by high commodity prices for corn and other grain caused by the growing
demand for food and biofuels. In the future, millions of program acres will
expire or will not be renewed, putting vital grassland habitat in jeopardy.
Suburban sprawl and other causes of habitat
loss are the biggest threats to birds.
Eric Epstein
30
Energy Production and Mining
Energy development has significant negative effects on birds in North
America including habitat loss, reduction in habitat quality, direct mortality,
and disruption. Construction, operation, and associated infrastructure of
energy development such as oil and gas fields, wind farms, and geothermal
fields reduce and fragment habitat. Oil and gas development in the West
is affecting birds such as Greater Sage-Grouse by fragmenting large blocks
of habitat. Energy field development alters natural environments in ways
that favor invasive plants and animals. Gulls that prey on other birds are
subsidized by garbage dumps at drilling facilities in Alaska. Surface water
created as a result of coalbed methane extraction allows mosquitoes that
transmit diseases such as West Nile virus to breed. Roads used for construc-tion
often become paths for invasive plants such as cheatgrass to spread.
Deaths of birds and nesting failures are associated with spills during trans-portation
of petroleum products and oil field practices such as discharging
oily waste into uncovered pits. Collisions with wind turbines, offshore oil
rigs, and powerlines cause significant mortality. Construction and opera-tions
of energy fields can displace birds and disrupt nesting. Prairie-chick-ens
and sage-grouse avoid nesting near tall structures. Studies show that
they usually abandon breeding areas near drilling rigs or wind turbines.
Mining can cause extensive habitat disturbance, degradation, and loss. For
example, coal mining that blasts mountaintops to reveal coal seams below
has removed large areas of eastern forests and buried nearby streamside
habitats under tons of debris. This contributes to the decline of birds that
breed in interior forests, such as Cerulean Warblers.
Natural Resource Use
The intentional killing of birds has been a significant factor in the past,
including egrets killed for plumes,
shorebirds for food, and raptors
for sport. Hunting is no longer a
cause of bird population declines in
the United States, thanks to strong
regulations and harvest manage-ment.
However, numerous other
practices related to resource use are
still a deadly factor for birds.
Most U.S. forest ecosystems have
been affected by logging, road
construction, monocultural tree plantations, and fire suppression. These
have caused fragmentation; a lack of mature trees, snags, and natural early
successional forests; degradation of streamside habitats; and overgrowth of
brush and small trees because of fire exclusion, all of which can have nega-tive
consequences for wildlife. For example, more than 85% of old-growth
forest in the Pacific Northwest has been eliminated, leading to the listing of
the Northern Spotted Owl and Marbled Murrelet as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act.
In arid regions of the West, excessive grazing has degraded grasslands
and denuded streamside areas where most bird species forage and breed.
Overfishing in oceans has led to the starvation and nesting failures of birds.
Overharvesting of horseshoe crabs has been attributed to rapid declines of
Red Knots, which must gorge on horseshoe crab eggs in Delaware Bay to
finish their annual migration to the arctic. Many fishing practices such as
long-lining, gill nets, and trawling can hook or entangle seabirds or disrupt
their food supply.
Invasive and Problem Species
Invasive species are those that spread uncontrollably after being introduced
to an area where they are not native. Invasive plants and animals are major
threats to native bird species in numerous ways.
Nonnative predators have the greatest single impact by killing adult birds
as well as eggs and young. Domestic and feral cats kill hundreds of millions
of birds each year. Island nesting birds, particularly seabirds, are very vul-nerable
since they mostly nest on the ground or in burrows and are easily
captured by rats, foxes, cats, dogs, and mongooses.
Invasive plants also impact birds by rendering the habitat unsuitable.
Because of the aggressive shrub saltcedar, areas along southwestern water-ways
have become extremely poor habitat for Willow Flycatcher, Yellow-billed
Cuckoo, and other species. Saltcedar has also crowded out beaches
needed by nesting Snowy Plovers. Cheatgrass has modified millions of
acres of sagebrush habitat, lowering its value for species of concern such as
Greater Sage-Grouse, Sage Thrasher, and Sage Sparrow.
The number and scope of severe threats to birds is
daunting, but implementing solutions immediately and
widely will pay off in benefits to society, the economy,
and the health of our environment.
Unsustainable logging in the boreal forest destroys
habitat needed by wildlife.
Peter Lee
31
Introduced diseases are a major threat to some bird species. Avian malaria
has contributed significantly to the decline and extinction of many Hawai-ian
birds, including the Kaua`i `Ō`ō. Birds on the mainland are also vulner-able
to introduced diseases such as West Nile virus, which has been found
in more than 200 bird species in the U.S. and which has caused significant
mortality of American Crows and related species.
Many bird species have been introduced to the U.S. from other parts of the
world and some have established self-sustaining populations. European
Starlings and House Sparrows compete aggressively with native birds for
nesting sites and frequently displace birds such as woodpeckers, swallows,
and bluebirds.
Pollution
Pesticides, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals such as lead and mercury
cause significant bird mortality and reduce breeding success. These effects
are sometimes hard to detect, but can produce dramatic population declines
over time. DDT caused the thinning and breakage of eggshells, nearly wip-ing
out several bird species in the U.S., including Peregrine Falcons, Brown
Pelicans, and Bald Eagles.
The U.S. applies approximately five billion pounds of pesticides annually. A
pesticide poisoning database documents more than 2,500 incidents, in-cluding
113 pesticides implicated in the deaths of more than 400,000 birds.
Carbofuran has been responsible for more than 20% of all incidents, and
the deaths of more than 40,000 birds. Many of the pesticides highly toxic
to birds have been eliminated from use in the U.S., but continue to be used
legally in Latin America where migratory birds are exposed to them during
the winter.
Lead, mercury, and selenium also harm birds. Ingested lead fragments
and shot in game carcasses may have toxic effects on eagles, vultures, and
other scavengers. Mercury deposition in forests and on surface waters from
burning coal becomes concentrated in foods eaten by fish-eating birds and
forest songbirds. High selenium concentrations in wetlands impair the
hatching of eggs and reproduction of waterfowl and shorebirds. Industrial
chemicals such as dioxins and PCBs, once linked to many poisonings, have
been regulated and largely cleaned up, but new chemicals such as PBDE
fire-retardants are emerging as contaminants that accumulate in plants and
wildlife, with unknown effects on birds and humans.
Climate Change
The U.S. has warmed by an aver-age
of 1 degree Fahrenheit during
the last century, primarily because
of greenhouse gas emissions. Our
nation is also 5–10% wetter on aver-age
now than historically, though
most of this can be attributed to
severe weather events, which can
damage habitats without alleviating
drought. Most estimates suggest
that without action, the U.S. will
warm by another 5–9 degrees over
the next century and the sea level will rise by more than 1.5 feet.
Climate change already has influenced the abundance, distribution, and
timing of migration and breeding for many bird species. A recent study by
the National Audubon Society showed that more than half of the birds com-monly
found on the Christmas Bird Count are wintering farther north now
than 40 years ago. American Robins are now arriving approximately 14
days earlier than they did in 1981 on their breeding grounds in the Colora-do
Rocky Mountains. Tree Swallows have advanced their breeding date by
up to nine days earlier from 1959 to 1994. Red-winged Blackbirds, Eastern
Bluebirds, and eastern populations of Song Sparrows now lay their eggs
earlier because spring temperatures are warmer. A great concern is that the
earlier arrival of migrating birds may be out of sync with food availability.
In addition to these effects on migration and breeding, birds are at grave
risk from habitat changes caused by climate change, especially in arctic tun-dra,
alpine meadows, sea ice and glaciers, coastal wetlands, marine atolls,
and ocean ecosystems. Many specialized birds live in these habitats, includ-ing
Ivory Gulls that scavenge polar bear kills on floating sea ice, rosy-finch-es
that depend on high altitude meadows, rails and saltmarsh sparrows that
depend on brackish coastal areas, and Kittlitz’s Murrelets that appear to
depend on glaciers. These species may face severe conservation challenges
in the coming decades. Sea level rise will inundate islands, jeopardizing
nesting birds. The potential spread of mosquito-borne avian malaria to
highland refugia for Hawaiian honeycreepers is also a serious concern.
Climate change can affect the survival and reproduction of many bird spe-cies.
Changes in prey distribution and abundance, reduced productivity,
shrinking habitats, and competition and stresses from increasing popula-tions
will present a great challenge to birds on land and at sea.
Birds are at grave risk from habitat changes caused
by climate change, including inundated nesting
areas and altered food supplies. Gerrit Vyn
32
31
7
4
8
6
3
9
5 10
11
35
22
16
27
34
19 28
18
33
2
17
12
14
24
13
21 25
32 29
36
23
37
20
30
1
26
15
OUR APPROACH
The State of the Birds: Focus on Habitats
To develop this first State of the Birds report for the United States, our team of experts drew upon a variety of sources
to determine the conservation status and population trends of more than 800 bird species that occur regularly within
the continental U.S., Hawaii, and U.S. oceans.
Healthy bird populations depend on maintenance
of both the quality and quantity of habitats. These
same habitats provide resources that are essential
for human survival and quality of life. Trends in
bird populations can give us initial insight into
the health of these habitats, and thus provide an
indication of environmental sustainability.
We began by assigning each bird species to one
of seven primary habitats: oceans, coasts, wet-lands,
arctic, forests, grasslands, or aridlands.
Hawaiian landbirds were treated separately. We
defined habitats following the 2008 Heinz Foun-dation
report, The State of the Nation’s Ecosystems. A
complete list of the birds in each habitat, as well as
habitat trends from the Heinz report can be found
at www.stateofthebirds.org.
Birds that are restricted to a single habitat for
breeding were defined as habitat obligates, rep-resenting
an important group of species that are
most characteristic of a habitat and that should be
most sensitive to environmental problems. Birds
found in three or more habitats were considered
generalists. We recognized birds that use urban and
suburban landscapes as occupying a secondary
habitat.
Bird Population Indicators:
A Measure of Environmental
Health
To assess the health of habitats, we created bird
population indicators based on the best available
monitoring data for groups of species in each hab-itat.
The concept of wild bird indicators has been
applied widely throughout the world in other
State of the Birds reports and has been accepted
as an important measure of environmental health.
Each indicator represents the change in abun-dance
for a group of bird species combined into a
single indicator line. We chose 1968 as a base year
Map Key
Coasts
Arctic
Boreal Forest
Eastern Forest
Subtropical Forest
Grasslands
Western Forest
Arridlands
www.stateofthebirds.org
Visit our website for additional details about
the science behind bird population indicators as
well as information about bird conservation and
monitoring programs.
Numbers refer to bird conservation regions created by the North
American Bird Conservation Initiative. See www.stateofthebirds.org.
33
Suggested Citation for this Report:
North American Bird Conservation Initiative, U.S. Committee, 2009. The State of the Birds, United States
of America, 2009. U.S. Department of Interior: Washington, DC. 36 pages.
Contributors:
Project Leads: Bob Ford, Paul Schmidt
Science Team: Brad Andres, Laurel Barnhill, Bob Blohm, Brad Bortner, Greg Butcher, Jorge Coppen,
Charles Francis, Debbie Hahn, Mark Koneff, David Mehlman, David Pashley, Kenneth V. Rosenberg, John
R. Sauer, Jennifer Wheeler
Communications Team: John Bowman, Connie Bruce, Miyoko Chu, Ashley Dayer, Steve Holmer, Pat
Leonard, Alicia King, Ellen Marcus, Gemma Radko, Nicholas Throckmorton, Blythe Thomas, Nancy
Severance, Joshua Winchell
Lead Analyst: John R. Sauer
Editor: Miyoko Chu
Designer: Susan Steiner Spear
We thank the following people for reviewing or contributing to the development of this report:
John Alexander, Eleanora Babij, Breck Carmichael, Tom Cooper, Martha Desmond, Dan Dessecker,
George Fenwick, John Fitzpatrick, Krishna Gifford, Richard Gregory, Catherine Hickey, Dave Howell,
Dave Krueper, Marcia Maslonek, Larry Neel, Daniel K. Niven, Mike Parr, Melissa Pitkin, Terry Rich,
Diane Tessaglia-Hymes, Scott Yaich, Emily Silverman, George Wallace, Jeff Wells, Roger Wells.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service took the lead in creating this report through an unprecedented
partnership involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State wildlife agencies, and nongovernmental
organizations as a subcommittee of the U.S. North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI).
A Special Thank You to Volunteers
Our understanding of the long-term health of birds depends largely on the
thousands of bird watchers and biologists who volunteer each year for the
Breeding Bird Survey, Christmas Bird Count, or many other monitoring programs.
The dedication and skill of these citizen scientists reflects their love of birds
and the natural world, as well as their concern for the health of habitats and
our environment.
Without the continued
involvement of this
army of volunteer
observers, this and
any future State of
the Birds reports
would simply not be
possible. For more on
how to participate
in bird-monitoring
programs see www.
stateofthebirds.org.
for these indicators, reflecting the 40-year span of reliable bird-monitoring
data for many species, as well as a period of environmental consciousness
and habitat protection in the U.S.
Species of Conservation Concern
Because reliable long-term trend data were not available to create bird
population indicators for all U.S. habitats, we also used the proportion of
species of conservation concern in each habitat as a separate indicator of
health or threats to that habitat. Our last line of defense against extinction
is the Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973, which lists 67 bird species as
either endangered or threatened (see page 28).
We also recognize an additional 184 species of conservation concern, based
on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s 2008 Birds of Conservation Concern,
and the 2007 WatchList, produced by the American Bird Conservancy and
the National Audubon Society from information compiled by bird conser-vation
partnerships. These species show elevated levels of risk based on
small range or population size, high threats, or declining trends. Proac-tive
conservation efforts aimed at keeping these species from becoming
federally listed constitute the primary focus of Partners in Flight, the U.S.
Shorebird Conservation Plan, Waterbirds for the Americas, and the North
American Bird Conservation Initiative.
The State of Our Bird Monitoring Data
In this first U.S. State of the Birds report, we relied on long-term trend data
from three primary bird population surveys. The North American Breeding
Bird Survey (BBS), administered by the U.S. Geological Survey and Cana-dian
Wildlife Service, and conducted at more than 4,000 sites by volunteer
observers, provided data for 365 breeding species since 1968. For 120 spe-cies
that breed outside the area of reliable BBS coverage, but winter primar-ily
within the U.S., we used trends from the National Audubon Society’s
Christmas Bird Count. Finally, trends for 13 waterfowl species were pro-vided
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Service
from the Waterfowl Breeding Population and Habitat Survey, conducted by
trained pilots and wildlife biologists across the northern U.S. and Canada.
Analysis for this State of the Birds report represents the first integration of
long-term results across these three important surveys, using new statisti-cal
techniques developed by scientists at the USGS and National Audubon
Society. Our analysis also highlights the lack of reliable long-term data for
many poorly monitored bird groups, most notably arctic-nesting shore-birds,
colonial seabirds, and oceanic species. New monitoring efforts for
these species and habitats are essential for future State of the Birds reports.
Diane Tessaglia-Hymes
34
Back cover photos from top, left to right: Greater Sage-Grouse by Ted Schroeder; Hanawi Natural Area Reserve, Maui,
Hawaii , by Eric VanderWerf; Cassin's Finch by Darrell E. Spangler, Pacific Coast, Big Sur, California, by Gerrit Vyn,
Common Murres by Gerrit Vyn, Everglades by Kenneth V. Rosenberg. This page: Sandhill Cranes by David Quanrud.
The birds we see in our backyards, fields, forests, deserts, and oceans have much
to tell us about the health of the environment. Each year, thousands of citizen-science
participants contribute data from across the United States, making it
possible to identify birds in trouble. By understanding the message from birds
and taking action, we can help them thrive and safeguard our own future.
35

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The State of the Birds
United States of America
2009
Cover photos from top, left to right: Magnolia Warbler by Pamela Wells; Saguaro National Monument,
Arizona, by Gerrit Vyn, Greater Prairie-Chicken by Gerrit Vyn; Pacific forest, Opal Creek, Oregon, by
Gerrit Vyn; Snowy Owl by Gerrit Vyn; arctic coastal plain tundra, Colville River Delta, Alaska, by
Gerrit Vyn; Osprey by James Livaudais. This page: Scarlet Tanager by Gerrit Vyn.
Facing page: Bar-tailed Godwit nest by Gerrit Vyn.
2
Birds are a priceless part of America’s heritage.
They are beautiful, they are economically
important—and they reflect the health of our
environment. This State of the Birds report
reveals troubling declines of bird populations
during the past 40 years—a warning signal of
the failing health of our ecosystems. At the
same time, we see heartening evidence that
strategic land management and conservation
action can reverse declines of birds. This report
calls attention to the collective efforts needed
to protect nature’s resources for the benefit of
people and wildlife.
Contents
Foreword. 3
Overview . 4
Aridlands . 6
Grasslands. 8
Game Birds. 10
Urban Birds. 11
Forests. 12
Arctic . 16
Wetlands. 18
Waterfowl . 20
Marsh Birds. 21
Coasts. 22
Oceans. 24
Hawaiian Birds. 26
Endangered Species. 28
Challenges. 30
Our Approach. 33
Acknowledgements. 34
Foreword
Birds Are Important Indicators
of Our Nation’s Environmental Health
The United States is blessed with diverse landscapes, a wealth of
natural resources, and spectacular wildlife, including more than 800
bird species. Birds are a national treasure and a heritage we share
with people around the world, as billions of migratory birds follow
the seasons across oceans and continents. Our passion for nature is
evident: Wildlife watching generates $122 billion in economic output
annually, and one in every four American adults is a bird watcher.
In the past 200 years, however, the U.S. human population has
skyrocketed from about 8 million to 300 million. As we have
harvested energy and food, grown industries, and built cities, we
have often failed to consider the consequences to nature. During our
history, we have lost a part of our natural heritage—and degraded
and depleted the resources upon which our quality of life depends.
We have lost more than half of our nation’s original wetlands, 98%
of our tallgrass prairie, and virtually all virgin forests east of the
Rockies. Since the birth of our nation, four American bird species
have gone extinct, including the Passenger Pigeon, once the world’s
most abundant bird. At least 10 more species are possibly extinct.
Birds are bellwethers of our natural and cultural health as a nation—
they are indicators of the integrity of the environments that provide
us with clean air and water, fertile soils, abundant wildlife, and the
natural resources on which our economic development depends. In
the past 40 years, major public, private, and government initiatives
have made strides for conservation. Has it been enough? How are
birds faring?
In an unprecedented partnership, government wildlife agencies
and conservation groups have come together to produce this first
comprehensive analysis of the state of our nation’s birds. The results
are sobering: bird populations in many habitats are declining—a
warning signal of the failing health of our ecosystems. Where we
have been negligent too long, such as in Hawaii, we are on the verge
of losing entire suites of unique and beautiful birds and native plant
communities.
At the same time, we see heartening evidence that birds can respond
quickly and positively to conservation action. Many waterfowl
species have undergone significant increases in the past 40 years, a
testament to coordinated conservation efforts in wetlands. Through
focused conservation efforts, we have brought magnificent Peregrine
Falcons and Bald Eagles back from the brink of extinction.
We ask you to join us in continuing to reverse the damage to our
nation’s habitats and protect our remaining natural landscapes—the
foundation upon which our precious resources, our wildlife, and
the lives of our children depend. Cooperative conservation efforts
among the government, conservation organizations, and ordinary
citizens—private landowners, hunters, and bird watchers—really are
making a difference.
It is imperative that we redouble our efforts now, before habitat loss
and degradation become even more widespread, intractable, and
expensive to solve. Together, we can ensure that future generations
will look back at this first State of the Birds report with disbelief that
their common birds could ever have been so troubled.
North American Bird Conservation
Initiative, U.S. Committee
American Bird Conservancy
Association of
Fish and Wildlife Agencies
Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Klamath Bird Observatory
National Audubon Society
The Nature Conservancy
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey
Bar-tailed Godwit nest, Alaska.
3
Overview
The State of Our Nation’s Birds
The United States is home to a tremendous diversity of native birds, with
more than 800 species inhabiting terrestrial, coastal, and ocean habitats,
including Hawaii. Among these species, 67 are federally listed as endan-gered
or threatened. An additional 184 are species of conservation concern
because of their small distribution, high threats, or declining populations.
Successful conservation requires information about the population status
of every species to ensure the survival of endangered birds and to manage
common species so they never become threatened. This report presents a
new synthesis of major bird-monitoring databases, including data from
thousands of citizen scientists and professional biologists. We used data
from three continentwide monitoring programs to create bird population
indicators for major U.S. habitats, reflecting the health of these habitats and
the environmental services they provide. These habitat indicators are based
on the population changes of obligate species—those that are restricted to a
single habitat and are most sensitive to environmental changes. We supple-mented
this information with data from many other surveys that focus
on species that are rare, endangered, or difficult to monitor, such as ocean
birds. (See pages 33–34 for methods.)
The results reflect the influence of human activities and global change on
our nation’s birds. Every U.S. habitat harbors birds in need of conserva-tion.
Hawaiian birds and ocean birds appear most at risk, with populations
in danger of collapse if immediate conservation measures are not imple-mented.
Bird populations in grassland and aridland habitats show the most
rapid declines over the past 40 years. Birds that depend on forests are also
declining.
In contrast, wetland species, wintering coastal birds, and hunted waterfowl
show increasing populations during the past 40 years, reflecting a strong
focus during this period on wetlands conservation and management.
Species of Conservation Concern
Habitat
Oceanic
Coastal
Arctic
Grassland
Aridland
Wetland
Urban
Forest
Hawaiian
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Percentage of Species
Federally threatened
or endangered
Additional species of
conservation concern
Hawaiian Birds in Crisis
More than one-third of all U.S. listed bird species occur in Hawaii and 71
bird species have gone extinct since humans colonized the islands in about
300 AD. At least 10 more birds have not been seen in as long as 40 years and
may be extinct. Proven conservation measures are urgently needed to avert
this global tragedy, including increasing investment in protecting remaining
forests, eliminating exotic predators, and captive breeding.
Declining Seabirds Signal Stressed Oceans
At least 39% of the U.S. birds restricted to ocean habitats are declining.
These birds face threats from pollution, over-fishing, and warming sea tem-peratures
caused by climate change, as well as threats at island and coastal
nesting sites. Declining seabirds may be our most visible indication of an
ocean ecosystem under stress.
Percentage of
bird species that
are threatened,
endangered, and of
conservation concern
in each habitat.
The `I`iwi is a bird unique to the Hawaiian Islands. More bird species are
vulnerable to extinction in Hawaii than anywhere else in the United States.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
4
High Concern for Coastal Shorebirds
Although some coastal birds are increasing, shorebirds that rely on coastal
habitats for breeding and refueling on migration are besieged by human
disturbance and dwindling food supplies. Sea level rise caused by acceler-ating
climate change will inundate shoreline habitats. Half of all coastally
migrating shorebirds have declined; for example, Red Knots have declined
by an alarming 82%. Because of their relatively small and highly threatened
global populations, shorebirds are of high conservation concern.
Wetland Birds Show Amazing Resilience
The upward trend for wetland birds in the U.S. is a testament to the amaz-ing
resilience of bird populations where the health of their habitat is sus-tained
or restored. The overwhelming success of waterfowl management,
coordinated continentally among Canada, the United States, and Mexico,
can serve as a model for conservation in other habitats.
Bird Population Indicators
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wetlands
Forests
Aridland
Grassland
Grasslands and Aridlands:
Degraded, Neglected
Dramatic declines in grassland and aridland birds signal alarming neglect and
degradation of these habitats. Incentives for wildlife-compatible agricultural
practices in grasslands and increased protection of fragile desert, sagebrush,
and chaparral ecosystems are urgently needed to reverse these declines.
Forest Birds Face an Uncertain Future
Although forest birds have fared better overall than birds in other habi-tats,
many species have suffered steep declines and remain threatened by
unplanned and sprawling urban development, unsustainable logging,
increased severity of wildfires, and a barrage of exotic forest pests and
diseases.
Conservation Successes for Endangered
and Common Birds
The will of our nation to prevent extinction and reverse environmental
degradation is exemplified by the remarkable recovery of the Bald Eagle,
Peregrine Falcon, and other bird populations after the banning of DDT and
other harmful pesticides. Targeted conservation programs for listed species
remain necessary, and proactive measures involving voluntary partnerships
between local, state, tribal, and federal government, nongovernmental or-ganizations,
and private citizens are needed to maintain the integrity of U.S.
habitats and to keep our common birds common.
Over the last two decades, unprecedented private-public partnerships,
called Joint Ventures, have been highly effective at leveraging scarce funds
to conserve millions of acres of wetlands and other wildlife habitat. Also,
bird conservation initiatives such as Partners in Flight, the U.S. Shorebird
Conservation Plan, and the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan
have raised awareness and inspired conservation action at continental and
regional scales. The North American Bird Conservation Initiative (www.
nabci-us.org) provides opportunities for coordinating these vital activities.
Bird population
indicators based on
trends for obligate
species in four major
habitats.
Black Oystercatchers inhabit coastal areas
where habitat loss is a threat. Coastal
reserves help ensure that oystercatchers
and humans can coexist.
Gerrit Vyn
5
Consider This:
PP Aridlands harbor more than 80 nesting
bird species, including many unique
and beautiful birds found only in
deserts, sagebrush, or chaparral.
PP More than 75% of birds that nest only
in aridlands are declining and 39%
of all aridland birds are species of
conservation concern.
PP Habitat loss from urban development,
habitat degradation from overgrazing
and invasive plants, and a changing
climate are causing significant
problems for many aridland birds.
PP A regional system of protected areas
is critically needed to accommodate
increasing development while
meeting the habitat requirements for
keeping bird populations stable.
The State of Aridland Birds
Of 83 aridland-breeding bird species, 39% are spe-cies
of conservation concern, including 10 feder-ally
listed as endangered or threatened. These
species are especially vulnerable because of their
small ranges or restricted habitat requirements, or
both.
Sixty percent of all aridland species and 76%
of aridland obligate species have declined. The
aridland birds indicator, based on 17 of 30 obli-gate
species with sufficient data, shows a steady
decline over the past 40 years, to nearly 30%
below the baseline value. An additional 13 species,
including nine species of conservation concern,
are not adequately monitored.
Aridland Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Aridland Obligates (17)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: California
Condor, (Northern)
Aplomado Falcon, (San
Clemente) Loggerhead
Shrike, (Least) Bell’s
Vireo, Black-capped
Vireo, Golden-cheeked
Warbler. Threatened:
(Western) Snowy
Plover, (Coastal) California Gnatcatcher, (Inyo)
California Towhee, (San Clemente) Sage Sparrow.
• Endangered Golden-cheeked Warblers depend
on ash-juniper woodlands that are being cleared
for agriculture or suburban development in the
Texas hill country.
• Species such as Elf Owl, Bendire’s and LeConte’s
thrashers, and Gilded Flicker are of conservation
concern because of their small range, known
threats, or declining populations.
• Resident game birds that depend on aridlands,
including Greater and Gunnison’s sage-grouse
and Scaled Quail, have suffered significant
declines and are threatened by continued deg-radation
of their fragile habitats. About 45% of
potential sagebrush habitat has been converted
to other habitat types, including agriculture and
urban areas.
Greg Lavaty
Aridlands
Unique Birds of the Aridlands
Face Loss and Degradation of
Habitat
6
Gerrit Vyn
Golden-cheeked Warbler
Greater Sage-Grouse by Ted Schroeder
Aridlands in the U.S. include the Sonoran Desert (shown here),
Chihuahuan, Mojave, and Great Basin deserts, and major shrub-scrub
ecoregions (coastal California chaparral, Edwards Plateau,
Colorado Plateau). Aridlands are characterized by low annual
precipitation with variability from one year to the next.
Major Threats
Development and Energy
Unplanned and sprawling urban development
is by far the greatest threat to aridlands. Some of
our nation’s fastest growing cities are in aridlands
(e.g., Los Angeles, Phoenix, Las Vegas, San Diego).
Coastal sage and chaparral of southern Califor-nia
represent a global biodiversity hotspot with
numerous threatened or endangered plants and
animals. About 40% of the area is now urban or
suburban, supporting nearly half of California’s
human population.
Energy development and exploration have major
impacts on aridland birds. Poorly planned energy
infrastructure degrades and fragments habitat and
provides conditions favorable for invasive plant
species.
Agriculture and Invasive Species
Invasive nonnative plants are a serious threat
to virtually all aridlands. In the Great Basin and
other areas, more than 17% of remaining sage-brush
is dominated by introduced grasses such
as cheatgrass. Invasive grasses fuel wildfires that
devastate sagebrush and desert plant communi-ties,
eliminating native plants that evolved in the
absence of fire.
Unsustainable livestock ranching practices have
degraded habitat and damaged soils, fostering
areas dominated by nonnative plants.
Climate Change
The impact of climate change in aridlands is diffi-cult
to predict, but warmer conditions and chang-es
in precipitation may dramatically affect the
production of seeds needed by birds. Improved
monitoring of bird populations may provide the
first indications of changes to habitats.
Solutions
• Proactive conservation measures, such as ensur-ing
sustainable agriculture and environmentally
sustainable energy development, are needed to
reverse declines of native aridland birds.
• Linking the protected lands system with “smart
growth” in communities will provide oppor-tunities
for people to enjoy birds, as well as for
birds to move and adapt to increasing pressure
from development.
• Immediate, innovative efforts are needed to
encourage the coexistence of agriculture and na-tive
birds, including wildlife-compatible grazing
practices, maintenance of native habitat patches,
and planting native seed mixes in disturbed
areas.
• Continual efforts must be made to prevent
invasive plants from spreading in areas most
affected by wildfire.
Beyond Our Borders
More than 50% of aridland birds are permanent
residents of the U.S. borderlands. Effective con-servation
requires close collaboration with the
Mexican government and private conservation
organizations. Most migratory species winter in
Mexico and Central America, including the endan-gered
Golden-cheeked Warbler. New and existing
international partnerships must be supported to
ensure the survival of aridland birds.
Reasons for Hope
Endangered Cali-fornia
Condors and
Aplomado Falcons
have been reintro-duced
to areas where
they had been extir-pated
in the United
States. Public lands
have provided impor-tant
habitats for these
species. Today, 174 condors are flying free, and
the number grows each year.
Vast areas of public land managed by the Bureau
of Land Management and Department of De-fense
offer opportunities to protect and manage
habitats for aridland birds.
Unplanned urban growth is by far the greatest threat to aridland birds.
A regional system of protected areas can enhance quality of life for
people and enable birds to survive.
Brian L. Sullivan
Harris's Hawk by Gerrit Vyn
7
California Condor
8
Consider This:
PP Grassland birds are a vital part of
North American landscapes. Forty-eight
species nest in U.S. grasslands,
including ducks, grouse, hawks, and
songbirds.
PP Grassland birds are among the fastest
and most consistently declining
birds in North America; 48% are of
conservation concern and 55% are
showing significant declines.
PP Only about 2% of the tallgrass prairie
that existed in the early 1800s still
remains. Although birds may settle
in pastures and haylands, frequent
haying, burning, and overgrazing can
create “ecological traps” where birds
try to nest but fail to raise their young.
PP Farmland conservation programs
provide the best hope for birds and
other wildlife. Agricultural practices
can become more compatible with
birds, and land can be managed
inexpensively for birds with funding
from conservation programs.
The State of Grassland Birds
Of 46 grassland-breeding birds, 48% are spe-cies
of conservation concern, including 4 with
populations that are federally endangered. Eight
of twelve sparrow species are listed as of con-servation
concern. Of the 42 grassland species
with sufficient monitoring data, 23 are declining
significantly.
The grassland birds indicator, based on data for
24 of 25 obligate species, dropped by nearly 40%
from the baseline value, with a slight recovery
evident in the last five years.
Grassland Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Grassland Obligates (24)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: (Northern)
Aplomado Falcon,
(Attwater’s) Greater
Prairie-Chicken,
(Masked) Northern
Bobwhite, (Florida)
Grasshopper Sparrow.
• Some of the Ameri-can
landscape’s most
iconic birds are showing steep declines. Eastern
and Western meadowlarks, Bobolinks, Short-eared
Owls, and Northern Bobwhites have
declined by 38–77% since 1968.
• Six species that breed in the Great Plains of the
United States and Canada and that winter in
Mexico’s Chihuahuan grasslands are show-ing
steep declines of 68–91%: Mountain Plover,
Sprague’s Pipit, Lark Bunting, Baird’s Sparrow,
Chestnut-collared Longspur, and McCown’s
Longspur.
• Lesser and Greater prairie-chicken, Sharp-tailed
Grouse, Northern Bobwhite, and Northern
Pintail—all popular game birds—have declined
from historic levels because of loss and frag-mentation
of grasslands. Lesser Prairie-Chicken
is a candidate for listing under the Endangered
Species Act.
Grasslands
America’s Heartland is
Home to Our Nation’s Fastest
Declining Birds
Native grasslands once stretched across the United States from
Canada to Mexico, and east from the Rocky Mountains as far as
Ohio. More than 95% of the tallgrass prairie has been converted
to agriculture and other uses. Short- and mixed-grass prairies
continue to be converted to agriculture.
Greater Prairie-Chicken by Gerrit Vyn
South Dakota by ? Strizich
Western Meadowlark
Donald Metzner
Judd Patterson
9
Bobolink by Gerrit Vyn
Major Threats
Agriculture
Grassland birds have declined because of the
intensification of agriculture, including larger
fields with fewer grassy edges, native weeds, and
insects, as well as the spread of row crops into
drier regions.
Pastures cannot support many birds if overgrazed,
burned too frequently, or burned at the beginning
of the nesting season or the end of the grass-grow-ing
season.
Grasslands in public lands and parks are often
mowed too frequently and kept too short to
provide bird habitat. Open areas are frequently al-lowed
to revert to forest instead of being managed
as grassland.
Energy and Climate Change
High commodity prices and demand for biofuels
contribute to reduced acreage for farm conser-vation
programs, which may reverse the recent
improvement in grassland bird populations.
Wind turbines, if improperly sited, can fragment
grasslands and disrupt nesting activity of game
birds such as Lesser Prairie-Chickens.
Global warming is expected to increase drought
conditions in grassland regions, leading to lower
productivity and reduced food supply for birds.
Solutions
• Farm conservation programs remain our best
tool for restoring and maintaining grasslands for
birds, especially in areas of row-crop agriculture
and across the short-grass prairie.
• Haying, grazing, mowing, and burning can be
conducted in ways that are compatible with
birds, usually at very small cost to the producer.
These costs can be compensated by conservation
programs that provide other benefits as well,
such as erosion control.
• Wetland conservation programs should con-tinue
to include adjacent grasslands because
such areas are valuable for both grassland and
wetland birds.
• Many national, state, and local parks could be
managed to benefit grassland birds, and new
acquisitions from willing landowners should be
explored. Management should include a balance
of disturbance to eliminate woody vegetation
while allowing a healthy tall grassland.
Beyond Our Borders
More than half of grassland obligate species
depend on Canadian prairie habitats, as well as
those in the central United States. Chihuahuan
Desert grasslands in Mexico host a wide variety
of U.S.-breeding birds in winter, but more than a
million acres have been converted to agriculture in
the past five years. Ranchlands are often over-grazed,
causing desertification.
Migrants such as Bobolink, Upland and Buff-breasted
sandpipers, American Golden-Plover,
and Swainson’s Hawk fly to South America where
grasslands are being converted to agricultural
production.
Farm conservation programs provide millions of acres of protected grasslands
that are essential for the birds in a landscape where little native prairie remains.
Reasons for
Hope
After recent, alarm-ing
declines in some
grassland specialists,
such as Henslow’s
Sparrow, increases
have resulted from
the Conservation
Reserve Program and other programs that have
restored wildlife habitat. Healthy populations of
these birds will require maintaining or increas-ing
acreages and conservation practices.
Birds that use wet grass and grass adjacent to
wetlands are doing better than average, per-haps
because these species have been the focus
the Conservation Reserve Program, Wetlands
Reserve Program, conservation easements, and
other initiatives.
Greg Lavaty
Henslow's Sparrow
Upland game bird hunting in the United States
generated nearly $2 billion and provided
recreation for nearly 3 million licensed hunters
in 2006. Because management for the 19 native
resident game bird species falls under the
jurisdiction of state wildlife agencies, regional
partnerships such as the Northern Bobwhite
Conservation Initiative and North American
Grouse Partnership formed so states can work
together on rangewide management efforts.
These efforts target landscape-level habitat
changes that benefit both game and non-game
species. In addition, volunteer organizations assist
management efforts for resident game birds,
including the National Wild Turkey Federation,
Quail Unlimited, Pheasants Forever, and the
Ruffed Grouse Society.
The State of
Resident Game Birds
Of 19 native resident game bird species, 47% are
species of conservation concern and 2 are federally
endangered. Based on the best data from a variety
of sources, Greater Sage-Grouse, Gunnison’s Sage-
Grouse, Greater Prairie-Chicken, Lesser Prairie-
Chicken, Sooty Grouse, and Northern Bobwhite
are thought to have declined by more than 50% in
the last 40 years, and Scaled Quail have declined by
33%. For these species, further research is required
to understand fully the limiting factors. Introduced
Chukar, Ring-necked Pheasant, and Gray Partridge
show stable overall populations; however their
numbers are augmented by captive-breeding and
release programs because of demand for recreation-al
hunting.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: (Attwater’s)
Greater Prairie-Chicken, (Masked) Northern Bob-white.
Northern Bobwhite has declined by 75% over the
past 40 years because of alteration of grassland-shrub
communities in pine, agricultural and graz-ing
lands where the limiting factor is nesting and
brood-rearing habitat.
Both Greater and Lesser prairie-chickens are
highly social species that are sensitive to loss and
fragmentation of native grasslands. Encroachment
by osage orange, western red cedar, and invasive
grasses also reduces habitat quality.
Despite state and federal measures to avoid, mini-mize,
and mitigate known threats, Greater Sage-
Grouse continues to be threatened by the spread
of invasive grass species, degradation and loss
of sagebrush habitat from livestock grazing, the
development of renewable energy, and the spread
of West Nile virus.
Heavy livestock grazing and subsequent inva-sions
of nonnative plants have eliminated under-story
flowering plants and grasses from habitat
used by Montezuma Quail in southern Arizona
and northern Mexico.
Reasons for Hope
Farm Bill programs that result in the retirement
of millions of acres of intensely cropped lands
offer the greatest hope for the long-term man-agement
of many resident game birds. Greater
Prairie-Chicken populations have benefited from
the creation of core grasslands in several states,
and population goals for recovery of Northern
Bobwhite have been written into recent Farm Bill
initiatives.
By the early 1900s, most Wild Turkey populations
had been wiped out in North America. As late
as the Great Depression, fewer than 30,000 Wild
Turkeys remained in the entire United States. Re-introduction
programs, active management, and
regulated hunting have allowed the Wild Turkey
population to expand to more than 7 million birds
by 2008.
Sustainable forest management provides forest
habitat diversity for Ruffed Grouse, which inhabit
young forest.
Cooperative partnerships have implemented
landscape-level management benefiting both
game and non-game bird species.
Spotlight on Resident Game Birds
Managing Land for Game Birds Helps All Birds
Northern Bobwhites have declined
by 75% during the past 40 years.
Recent Farm Bill initiatives
include goals for recovery of
bobwhite populations.
Gerrit Vyn
10
11
In general, urban-adapted species from eastern
forests, especially permanent residents, have
shown stable or increasing populations, whereas
migratory birds, such as Common Nighthawk,
Chimney Swift, and Wood Thrush, show the same
declining trends as many eastern forest obligates.
This suggests that birds living in urban habitats
year-round benefit from higher overwinter sur-vival.
In the West, a majority of common urban/
suburban species are declining, especially birds
native to southwestern aridlands and Pacific Coast
forests.
The wide variety of native birds that thrive
in urban areas underscores the importance of
these artificial habitats to the survival of many
bird populations. Creating greenspace in urban
environments, landscaping with native plants in
backyards and parks, adopting architecture and
lighting systems that reduce collisions, and keep-ing
pets indoors will provide the greatest benefit
to breeding birds and migrants seeking safe places
to rest and find food during their spectacular
journeys.
Urban Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Urban Birds (114)
Exotic Bird Species
The most common birds in nearly every urban
environment are exotic species introduced from
other parts of the world. Exotic species also occur
in most natural habitats in North America and many
have significant negative effects on native birds,
other wildlife, and humans. European Starlings can
damage seed and fruit crops and compete with na-tive
birds for nest cavities. Mute Swans, introduced
from Eurasia in the 19th century, have displaced
ducks and geese from wetlands and have over-grazed
aquatic vegetation. Other exotic birds have
positive economic impacts, such as Ring-necked
Pheasant, a popular species with hunters.
Of the 17 exotic species considered in this report,
some have been established for more than a century
and now occur across the continent. These birds,
including Rock Pigeon, European Starling, and
House Sparrow, show stable or declining trends over
the past 40 years. In contrast, populations of some
recently introduced species are growing, including
Eurasian Collared-Doves, whose abundance and
distribution have increased exponentially since they
colonized Florida from the Bahamas in the 1970s.
The impacts of exotic species on the well-being of
humans and our native flora and fauna are not well
studied. Exotic birds merit
closer monitoring, and
careful vigilance will
be needed to protect
against negative
impacts to our native birds.
Introduced to the Bahamas in the
1970s, Eurasian Collared-Doves
have spread to Florida and across the
United States.
Spotlight
on Urban Birds
Habitat for Birds and People
Although bird communities in urban environ-ments
are often dominated by a few exotic and
ubiquitous species such as Rock Pigeons and
House Sparrows, a surprising number of native
birds have adapted to life around humans.
American Robins can thrive in many habitats,
including lawns with abundant earthworms. Cali-fornia
Quail and Abert’s Towhees find suburban
plantings a suitable substitute for native aridland
habitats. Gulls, vultures, and crows seek abun-dant
food at garbage dumps and along roadsides.
Hummingbirds, chickadees, sparrows, finches,
woodpeckers, and other birds take advantage of
bird feeders. Even hawks and owls find increas-ingly
safe nesting sites and abundant prey in our
towns and cities.
The urban/suburban indicator, based on data for
114 native bird species, shows a steady, strong
increase during the past 40 years, driven primar-ily
by a small number of highly successful species
such as Wild Turkey, Double-crested Cormorant,
vultures, gulls, doves, House Finch, and Great-tailed
Grackle. This indicator may represent a
sensitive “first alert” to environmental changes
from urban and suburban development.
Vicki Lackey
Creating greenspace for birds in cities
can help adaptable urban birds as well
as migrants stopping over during
their long journeys.
Gregg Lee
American Robins can thrive
in many habitats, including
urban yards and parks.
The State of Forest Birds
Of 310 forest-breeding birds nationwide, 22%
are species of conservation concern, including
11 federally listed as endangered or threatened.
Roughly one-third of all forest-breeding species
have declined. The overall indicator for obligate
forest birds, based on 96 species with adequate
data, declined by roughly 10% through 1980, then
recovered slightly in recent years (see graph, page
5). Bird population trends in forests differed across
four geographic regions (see pages 14–15).
The eastern forests indicator, based on data for 25
obligate species, declined steadily over the past 40
years, dropping by nearly 25% since 1968.
In western forests, the indicator based on 38
obligate species shows a slightly declining trend;
however, monitoring data were unavailable for
40% of western forest obligates, including 10 spe-cies
of conservation concern. Many western forest
birds, such as Montezuma Quail, Elegant Trogon,
White-headed Woodpecker, and Hermit Warbler,
are at risk because of their small geographic range
or small and threatened populations.
The indicator for boreal forests, based on 31 of 37
obligate species with adequate data, has fluctu-ated
greatly with a generally declining trend over
the first 25 years, and then a general increase more
Consider This:
PP North America has a tremendous
diversity of forests harboring more
than 300 breeding bird species.
PP Some forest birds are doing
well, giving hope for continued
conservation efforts, but roughly
one-third of all forest-breeding
species have declined.
PP Forests are threatened by unplanned
and sprawling urban development,
unsustainable logging, intense
wildfires following decades of fire
suppression, overbrowsing by
deer, and tree pests and diseases
exacerbated by a changing climate.
PP Opportunities abound for forest bird
management, including a balance of
economically viable but sustainable
forestry and grazing practices; the
U.S. manages 193 million acres of
National Forests.
recently. Many boreal
birds are not well moni-tored
over large parts
of their range, however,
reducing our confidence
in this indicator.
Similarly, in subtropical
forests of South Texas
and Florida, monitoring
data were insufficient to
create a bird population indicator. Many species
in these regions are known to be expanding their
range northward, perhaps in response to warming
temperatures.
Forest Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Eastern (25)
Western (38)
Boreal (31)
Forests
Healthy Forests Are Key to
the Future of Birds and Our
Natural Resources
As many as five billion birds
fly south from the boreal forest
each fall, according to the Boreal
Songbird Initiative. Many of
these birds spend the winter in
the United States.
Sustainable forestry, landowner incentives for forest
preservation, and urban greenspace initiatives can
protect natural resources and help ensure the
long-term viability of many forest birds.
Scarlet Tanager by Gerrit Vyn
Elegant Trogon
Gary H. Rosenberg
12
Courtesy Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society
Major Threats
Development and Disturbance
Rapid urban growth threatens forests in all
regions. Development increased from 15 million
to 60 million acres during 1945–2002 and is still
increasing exponentially.
The loss of economic incentives for private for-estry
has led to the sale and subdivision of forest
industry lands and a rapid rise in second-home
and other ex-urban development, causing forest
loss and fragmentation.
Decades of unnatural fire suppression have
created fuel for more intense fires, dramatically
increasing the acreage burned in recent years (e.g.,
9.8 million acres burned in 2006). Historically,
natural fires burned large areas of some forest
types annually, but were less intense. These fires
were essential for the health of forests and their
wildlife.
Resource Use
The U.S. harvests 21.2 billion cubic feet of timber
from forests annually. Harvest increased by 40%
during 1950–1980, but has declined since 1985.
More than half of all timber comes from south-eastern
forestlands, 87% of which are privately
owned. Only a small portion of timber originates
from federal lands, but important forest types
such old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest
and Alaska remain available for logging.
Invasive Species
Nearly every important tree species is afflicted by
an exotic insect pest or disease, which will likely
be exacerbated by a changing climate. Mountain
pine beetle has killed vast areas of western pine
forests and the hemlock woolly adelgid threatens
eastern hemlock with extinction within 50 years.
Unnaturally high populations of white-tailed deer
have destroyed the shrubby understory of many
eastern forests, contributing to declines in forest-nesting
birds.
Solutions
• The U.S. manages 193 million acres in 155
National Forests, 80% of which are in western
states. By 2008, 13% of forestlands in the west-ern
U.S, 6% in the East, and 26% in Alaska had
been set aside in forest reserves. Conservation
of roadless areas and additional reserves and
improved management, such as sustainable
forestry and grazing practices, would ensure the
long-term viability of many forest birds.
• Sustainable forestry practices improve the
long-term health of forests. Economically viable
practices on private lands and incentives for pri-vate
landowners can provide a mosaic of forest
ages and structure to benefit diverse birds and
prevent development.
• Smart growth and urban greenspace initiatives
are critical for stemming the tide of suburban
sprawl and preserving the integrity and connec-tivity
of forest ecosystems. Incentive programs
that enable landowners to keep their land as
forest need to be expanded.
Beyond Our Borders
Half of all forest bird species migrate from breed-ing
habitats in the U.S. and Canada to winter in
the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South
America. Collaborative initiatives involving inter-national
partnerships are essential for successful
conservation of these species and their habitats.
Reasons for Hope
Forest-breeding
raptors, such as
Cooper’s Hawk, Red-shouldered
Hawk,
and Merlin, as well
as tree-nesting Bald
Eagle and Osprey,
have responded
positively to protec-tion
from shooting,
banning of harmful pesticides, and abundant
prey in urban areas.
The Cerulean Warbler is one of more than 40 species of colorful
wood-warblers that breed in U.S. forests. They migrate thousands
of miles annually to winter in the Neotropics. Many long-distance
migrants are threatened by loss and degradation of
forests across the hemisphere.
Cerulean Warbler by Greg Lavaty
Shane R. Conklin
13
Red-shouldered Hawk
An eastern deciduous forest turns ablaze
with color in fall. Eastern forests include
northern hardwood and other mixed forests
of the Northeast and upper Midwest,
oak-hickory and other deciduous forests of
the Appalachians, coastal plain, and river
valleys, and southeastern longleaf and
slash pine forests.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Wood Stork,
Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Red-cockaded Wood-pecker,
Bachman’s Warbler, Kirtland’s Warbler.
Threatened: Florida Scrub-Jay.
The eastern U.S. has lost two forest species to
extinction: Passenger Pigeon and Carolina Para-keet.
Hope is dimming for Bachman’s Warbler
and Ivory-billed Woodpecker.
Many eastern forest birds are suffering consistent and troubling declines:
• Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Brown-headed Nuthatch, and Bachman’s
Sparrow, year-round residents of mature southern pine forests, especially
the highly threatened longleaf pine ecosystem.
• Neotropical migrants that require large blocks of intact forests, such as
Kentucky Warbler, Wood Thrush, and Eastern Wood-Pewee. The Ceru-lean
Warbler is threatened by mountaintop-removal coal mining along
Appalachian ridges and clearing of riverine forests.
• Species dependent on disturbed or early successional forest or natural
disturbance (including pine barrens) including the Golden-winged War-bler,
Whip-poor-will, Prairie Warbler, Eastern Towhee, and Field Spar-row,
and popular game species such as Northern Bobwhite and American
Woodcock.
Reasons for Hope
Wild Turkeys were close to extinction in the early
1900s but have increased tremendously (8.9%
per year since 1968) in response to reintroduction
programs, management, and forest regeneration.
Many characteristic eastern forest birds, includ-ing
woodpeckers, chickadees, hawks, and owls,
have adapted to urban and suburban plantings
and parks, buffering them from the effects of
habitat loss and fragmentation.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as threatened: Marbled Murre-let,
(Northern) Spotted Owl, (Mexican) Spotted
Owl, (Southwestern) Willow Flycatcher.
Several groups of birds are declining:
• Specialized permanent residents, such as
Pinyon Jay (threatened by massive die-off of
pinyon pines), Oak Titmouse (threatened by
loss of California oak woodlands), and Yellow-billed
Magpie (threatened by loss of oaks and by West Nile virus).
• Temperate migrants dependent on mature pine forests, including Lewis’s
Woodpecker, Plumbeous Vireo, Grace’s Warbler, and Cassin’s Finch.
• Neotropical migrants such as Black Swift, Western Wood-Pewee, and
Black-throated Gray Warbler. The steeply declining Black Swift is vulner-able
to increasing drought conditions because it nests behind waterfalls.
• Many Pacific forest birds, including Marbled Murrelet, Spotted Owl,
Olive-sided Flycatcher, Varied Thrush, Band-tailed Pigeon, Rufous Hum-mingbird,
and Chestnut-backed Chickadee. Murrelets and Spotted Owls
require structurally diverse old-growth forests.
Reasons for Hope
Vast areas of western forests on public lands are
protected from permanent conversion to other
land uses. Improved forest management, such
as restoring natural fire regimes and fencing
riparian areas to prevent overgrazing, can benefit
many forest birds.
Redwood and Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific
Coast are some of the tallest forests in the
world. Western forests also include conifer,
pine-oak, and pinyon-juniper forests of the
mountains, riparian ribbons of deciduous forest
along major rivers, and oak woodlands.
Golden-winged Warbler Lewis’s Woodpecker
Wild Turkey
Spotted Owl
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
James Livaudais
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Roger Ericksson
14
Eastern Forest Western Forest
The boreal forest stretches south from the arctic
tundra across an area larger than the Amazon
rainforest, a blanket of spruces, birch, peat bogs, and
other wetlands. Occurring mostly within Canada,
the North American boreal forest extends into the
United States in Alaska, in states bordering the
Great Lakes, and in northern New England.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Whooping
Crane.
• Lesser Scaup and White-winged Scoter nest
in boreal forests and winter in coastal regions;
both have declined by more than 50% in 40
years.
• The U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan identi-fies
four boreal-nesting species that are of high
conservation concern: Whimbrel, Hudsonian Godwit, Solitary Sandpiper,
and Short-billed Dowitcher. Lesser Yellowlegs and Least Sandpiper also
are experiencing long-term declines.
• Harris’s Sparrow and Rusty Blackbird are temperate migrants that winter
entirely within the U.S.; causes of their steep declines have yet to be de-termined
(Rusty Blackbirds have declined by 75% in 40 years).
• Birds that periodically come south in winter, such as Bohemian Waxwing,
Pine Siskin, White-winged Crossbill, and Evening Grosbeak, have experi-enced
long-term declines.
• Many Neotropical migrants show consistent declines, including boreal
specialists such as Blackpoll Warbler, Cape May Warbler, and Connecticut
Warbler.
Reasons for Hope
Boreal wetland birds such as Common Gold-eneye,
Bufflehead, and Bonaparte’s Gull have
increased. Management efforts for Trumpeter
Swans throughout their historic range have been
highly successful.
Vast areas of virgin boreal forest still remain, pre-senting
opportunities for large-scale conservation.
In 2007 and 2008, Ontario and Quebec promised
to protect more than 120 million acres of Canada’s boreal forest—one of the
largest conservation actions in North American history if implemented.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Wood Stork.
Threatened: (Audubon’s) Crested Caracara.
• Smooth-billed Ani in Florida and Groove-billed
Ani in Texas have declined dramatically
for unknown reasons.
• Other less-common species of the Rio Grande
Valley, such as Altamira and Audubon’s
orioles, also have declined, possibly due to
Bronzed and Brown-headed cowbirds that lay eggs in the orioles’ nests.
Reasons for Hope
Couch’s Kingbird, Long-billed
Thrasher, and Olive Sparrow
are among many species that
are moving northward in Texas,
perhaps in response to warming
temperatures.
Acquisition and restoration ef-forts
by the U.S. Fish and Wild-life
Service, the state of Texas,
The Nature Conservancy, and
National Audubon Society have
created a string of protected areas
along the Lower Rio Grande that
are vital to many subtropical for-est
specialists. The newly formed
Lower Rio Grande Joint Venture
is a public-private partnership striving to protect and restore additional
remnant forests in south Texas and northeastern Mexico.
Nearly all of south Florida’s remaining subtropical forests are protected
within Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress National Reserve.
A forest of live oaks in Tree Tops Park,
Florida. Subtropical forests in the
United States occur only in south
Texas (Tamaulipan thorn forest) and in
peninsular Florida (bald cypress and
hardwood hammocks).
Rusty Blackbird
Trumpeter Swan
Altamira Oriole
Deb Simon
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Sam Crowe
Jack Bartholomai
Mark Keithly
Garth Lenz
Green Jay
15
Boreal Forest Subtropical Forest
Consider This:
PP Millions of birds travel from around
the globe to the arctic each year.
Eighty-five bird species rely on
the arctic’s long summer days and
abundant insect prey to raise their
young.
PP Because the arctic is vast and remote,
data are lacking for many species.
Some birds, such as geese and gulls,
seem to be faring well, but many
shorebirds and landbirds are showing
worrisome declines.
PP Disturbance to tundra from energy
exploration and changes caused by
global warming are affecting the
birds’ food base and transforming
arctic habitats. Arctic-breeding birds
also face numerous threats during
extensive spring and fall migrations.
PP Reducing emissions is critical to
slow global climate change, which is
already affecting the arctic. Energy
development and transportation plans
should incorporate the conservation
needs of birds.
Arctic & Alpine
Key Nesting Areas Are
Threatened by Global Warming
and Energy Development
Snowy Owl by Gerrit Vyn
The State of Arctic
and Alpine Birds
Of the 85 species that breed in arctic and alpine
regions, 38% are of conservation concern, includ-ing
3 federally listed as endangered or threatened.
The arctic and alpine indicator, based on 27 obli-gate
species, has increased steadily over the past
40 years. Dramatic increases in four arctic-nesting
geese contribute to this overall trend. Because of
the remoteness of these regions, however, the indi-cator
represents only 46% of obligate arctic and al-pine
species. A group of 10 landbird species shows
a declining trend over the same period, with
steepest declines evident in alpine-nesting rosy-finches.
Some sea ducks and many shorebirds
are also declining; two-thirds of all arctic-nesting
shorebirds are species of conservation concern.
Arctic and Alpine Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Arctic Obligates (27)
Arctic Landbirds (10)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: Eskimo
Curlew. Threatened:
Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider.
• In arctic Canada, the
Ivory Gull has de-clined
dramatically in
the last decade. This
enigmatic and beauti-ful
species depends on arctic sea ice for feeding,
and is especially vulnerable to global warming.
• Arctic-breeding ducks that winter in marine
waters have declined. The nonbreeding dis-tribution
of threatened Spectacled Eider was
unknown until recent satellite imagery revealed
important concentrations in arctic waters off
Alaska.
• At least 38% of arctic-nesting shorebirds are de-creasing
and population trends are unknown for
25%. A monitoring program to assess shorebird
populations is critically needed.
Arctic-Nesting Geese
1,300
800
300
0
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Arctic Geese (4)
Alaska's arctic coastal plain tundra includes some of
the world's most productive wetlands for migratory
shorebirds and waterfowl. The arctic region also
includes drier northern uplands and treeless alpine
areas on mountaintops.
Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Ivory Gull
16
Major Threats
Climate Change
Warming temperatures are more extreme at the
poles than in other places on earth. Thawing per-mafrost
in the southern arctic is lowering the wa-ter
table and drying out coastal tundra supporting
the highest densities of breeding shorebirds and
waterfowl.
Warming temperatures may cause a mismatch
between the timing of nesting and availability of
food. Melting sea ice cover will affect seabirds,
such as Ivory Gull, by causing shifts in their
marine food resources. Changes to vegetation and
snowpack could affect lemmings, important prey
for Snowy Owls and other birds.
Energy
Oil exploration and production threaten major
areas of great importance to arctic-breeding birds.
Arctic warming will make it easier to develop off-shore
energy facilities and to transport products,
increasing the risk of fuel spills that kill or harm
birds.
Development and Disturbance
Predators that thrive near human development,
such as arctic foxes and gulls, prey on the eggs
and young of ground-nesting birds. Predators
introduced to islands can devastate bird
populations.
Solutions
• Reducing emissions is the only direct way to
slow effects of global climate change. Better
monitoring is needed to understand the effects
of climate change on arctic wildlife.
• Energy and commercial development plans
should avoid key breeding and staging areas,
minimize effects on breeding birds from oil
spills and other hazards, and include adequate
disaster responses.
• A system of protected areas in productive re-gions
of the arctic is needed to ensure that birds
have areas to use as conditions change in the
arctic.
• Management actions continue to be needed to
control the overpopulation of geese that nega-tively
affect the habitat for other species such as
shorebirds.
• As arctic birds respond to a changing climate,
increased monitoring efforts will be required in
areas that are difficult to access, to determine
population redistribution and impacts, and to
develop conservation strategies.
Beyond Our Borders
Most arctic and alpine breeding birds have large
populations in Canada, and some also inhabit
arctic Europe and Asia. Birds that breed in the
arctic may winter in habitats from South America
to southern Canada, so protection of international
wintering and migratory areas is essential. Of 51
shorebird species that breed in northern North
America, substantial populations of 40 species
(78%) winter in Latin America, Asia, Australia,
Polynesia, and Europe.
Reason for Hope
Oil and gas leasing
has been deferred
for 10 years around
Alaska's Teshekpuk
Lake, which supports
high densities of
breeding shorebirds
and large numbers of
molting geese.
The future of arctic habitats and birds
depends on our ability to curb global
climate change and to explore energy
resources with minimal impact to wildlife.
Long-tailed Jaeger by Gerrit Vyn
Gerrit Vyn
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
17
Consider This:
PP Nearly one-quarter of all U.S. birds
rely on freshwater wetlands, including
more than 50 shorebird species, 17
long-legged waders, and 44 species
of ducks, geese, and swans.
PP Wetland bird populations are well
below historic levels but management
and conservation measures have
contributed to increases of many
wetland birds, including hunted
waterfowl.
PP Degradation and destruction of
wetlands reduce clean water and
other benefits to society and eliminate
critical areas needed by wetland birds.
PP Bird-related conservation programs
have contributed significantly to the
restoration of wetlands. For example,
“Duck Stamps” and the North
American Wetlands Conservation Act
have generated billions of dollars and
protected nearly 30 million acres.
The State of Wetland Birds
Of 163 bird species that breed in freshwater wet-lands,
24% are species of conservation concern,
including 10 federally listed as endangered or
threatened. Half of the remaining high-concern
species are shorebirds that breed in the arctic,
boreal forest, or grasslands. The wetland birds
indicator, based on data for 139 species, shows a
steady increase beginning in the late 1970s, coin-ciding
with major policy shifts from draining to
protecting wetlands. Dramatic increases in many
wetland generalist species, as well as arctic-nest-ing
geese and cavity-nesting ducks, contribute to
this overall trend.
Wetland Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wetland Species (139)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Wood Stork,
(Everglades) Snail
Kite, (Yuma) Clapper
Rail, Whooping Crane,
(Mississippi) Sandhill
Crane, Piping Plover,
Least Tern. Threat-ened:
Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider, Bald
Eagle (Sonoran Desert population only).
• Green Heron and Spotted Sandpiper are among
the few wetland generalists that show long-term
declines. Other declining wetland species
include prairie-nesting Franklin's Gull and Black
Tern, southeastern marsh specialists such as
King Rail, boreal-nesting White-winged Scoters,
Lesser Yellowlegs, and Rusty Blackbirds, and
many arctic-nesting shorebirds.
• See pages 9, 15, and 16 for more information on
wetland birds in grasslands, boreal forests, and
arctic habitats.
Wetlands
Wetlands Restoration:
A Model for Bird Conservation
More than half of our nation's
original wetlands have been
drained or converted to other
uses. Many wetlands are
within other habitats, such as
grasslands, boreal forest, and
arctic tundra.
Green Heron by Steve Wolfe
Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Marianne DiAntonio
Although many wetland birds show troubling declines,
conservation programs have protected millions of acres
and contributed to thriving populations of herons, egrets,
hunted waterfowl, and other birds.
Wood Stork
18
Major Threats
Agriculture
Excessive chemicals, nutrients, and sediments
from unsustainable agriculture can disrupt the
function of wetlands, dramatically reducing clean
water and other environmental benefits, and
eliminating critical areas needed by wetland birds.
Disturbance
Impacts of floods and drought on wetland birds
are exacerbated by degradation from stream
channelization, construction of levees, dikes, and
dams, depositing of fill, and unsustainable for-estry
practices.
Energy
Rising corn prices and conversion of wetlands and
adjacent grasslands for biofuel production threat-ens
the nesting habitat of several duck species and
other birds in the Prairie Pothole region.
Global climate change will degrade wetlands, af-fecting
birds and other wildlife. Warming temper-atures
and more storms, droughts, and floods will
cause unpredictable changes in hydrology, plant
communities, and prey abundance.
Solutions
• Widespread public education efforts and
government regulations helped reverse the
loss of wetlands starting in the 1970s. Continu-ing
education about the value of wetlands and
management techniques are vital for successful
landowner incentive programs.
• Creative policies based on incentives and regu-lation,
such as the Wetlands Reserve Program
and enforcement of regulations, have enabled
private landowners to maintain agriculture and
timber production while managing wetlands.
• Increasingly, hunting leases, bird watching,
and ecotourism are providing landowners with
economic opportunities that are enhanced by
management of quality wetlands.
• Land purchases can be the most secure form of
wetlands conservation. With more than 96 mil-lions
acres on 548 refuges, the National Wildlife
Refuge System is our nation’s only public land
base dedicated solely to the conservation and
protection of wildlife, with a high priority for
migratory birds. This network can be increased
in key areas.
• Small wetlands need special attention because
of their vulnerability to conversion during
droughts and their noteworthy value to wet-lands
birds.
Beyond Our Borders
The U.S. shares many wetland breeding bird popu-lations
with Canada. In addition, many water-birds
from arctic, boreal, and grassland regions of
the United States migrate to Latin American and
Caribbean countries for the winter. Continental
programs such as the North American Waterfowl
Management Plan provide a solid foundation to
expand vital international cooperation.
Reasons for Hope
Our national bird,
the Bald Eagle,
recovered from
near extinction in
the lower 48 states
after protection from
shooting, restora-tion
of wetlands,
and banning of DDT
and other harmful
pesticides. Most Bald Eagle populations were
removed from listing under the Federal Endan-gered
Species Act in 2007, after three decades of
conservation work to restore the species.
Wetlands management and restoration also
have contributed to thriving populations of
many wetland generalists, including American
White Pelican, Double-crested and Neotropic
cormorants, herons, egrets, Osprey, Sandhill
Crane, Black-necked Stilt, gulls, and kingfish-ers.
A majority of colonial-nesting wading birds,
such as egrets, herons, and White Ibis, continue
to recover from populations devastated by the
plume trade and market hunting in the early
20th century. Once nearly confined to rookeries
in south Florida, many of these species have
expanded west into Louisiana and Texas, and
north along the Atlantic Coast.
Osprey by James Livaudais
Wilber Suiter
19
Bald Eagle
The rich tradition of waterfowl hunting in North
America has ensured a sustainable population of
waterfowl across the continent. Federal Migratory
Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps (“Duck
Stamps”), purchased primarily by hunters, have
provided more than $700 million for wetlands
conservation. The North American Wetlands Con-servation
Act (NAWCA), enacted in 1989, set the
stage for creative partnership funding to protect
vital wetlands. In an unparalleled conservation
partnership among Canada, the United States, and
Mexico, NAWCA partners have raised more than
$3 billion dollars and have conserved nearly 25
million acres of wetlands and associated upland
habitats.
Waterfowl habitat conservation in North America
serves as an example for other conservation
challenges and offers hope that through synergy,
planning, collaboration, and persistence, we can
conserve and restore wetland habitats for the ben-efit
of both wildlife and future generations.
The State of Our Nation’s
Waterfowl
Among 44 species of ducks, geese, and swans,
2 are listed as federally threatened and 2 are
of conservation concern (Emperor Goose and
Trumpeter Swan). The waterfowl indicator, based
on 39 hunted species, has increased steadily over
the past 40 years, reflecting the success of man-agement
efforts. Many ducks, such as Mallard,
Gadwall, Wood Duck, and Redhead, show stable
or increasing populations, and most arctic-nesting
geese, as well as Trumpeter Swans, have increased
dramatically. Reintroduced populations of resi-dent
Canada Geese in the lower 48 states have
been so successful that the geese have become a
problem in many urban areas. However, a few
duck populations, notably Lesser Scaup, Northern
Pintail, and several sea ducks, continue to show
troubling declines.
Waterfowl Indicator
0
100
150
200
-100
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Waterfowl (39 hunted species)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as threatened: Spectacled Eider,
Steller’s Eider.
Significant declines of Northern Pintail and Lesser
Scaup represent continued challenges for water-fowl
management. Pintail numbers dropped to 2.6
million in 2008, 36% below the long-term average.
Although not as well monitored as other species,
several “sea ducks” such as King Eider, White-winged
Scoter, and Long-tailed Duck appear to be
declining—perhaps reflecting increasing threats in
their coastal wintering habitats.
Reasons for Hope
In 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimat-ed
that there were 37.3 million breeding ducks, an
increase of 11% above historical averages through
2007. Redheads reached a record high and esti-mates
for the Green-winged Teal were the second
highest on record. Changes in precipitation, land
use, and management practices encouraged by
the North American Waterfowl Management Plan
have contributed to recent waterfowl recoveries.
Ross’s Goose was estimated at only 2,000 to 3,000
individuals in 1931, prior to stringent hunting
regulation. After regulation, the population recov-ered
to 188,000 breeding birds in 1988, and growth
continues. Most other arctic-nesting geese have
increased dramatically as well.
Wood Ducks have responded well to nest-box
programs throughout their range; populations
increased by more than 200% in the past 40 years.
Long-tailed Ducks by Gerrit Vyn
Spotlight on Waterfowl
Conservation Partnerships Produce Results!
Successful waterfowl conservation in
North America is a model for wide-spread
habitat protection that has
reversed declines of many bird species.
20
Spotlight on
Marsh Birds
Secretive Marsh Birds Require
Closer Monitoring
Thirty-three wetland bird species, including
ducks, grebes, bitterns, and rails, depend on
emergent vegetation in freshwater marshes for
breeding. Many widespread marsh-nesting birds
have shown stable or increasing populations over
the past 40 years, but marsh specialists in the
Midwest and Southeast have suffered declines.
The State of Marshland Birds
Of the 33 obligate marsh species, 21% are species
of conservation concern, including the federally
endangered Snail Kite and freshwater races of
Clapper Rail. Other birds of high concern include
Yellow Rail, Black Rail, and King Rail. For 31 spe-cies
with adequate data, the marsh bird indicator
shows a steady decline until about 1990, followed
by wide fluctuations over the last two decades,
perhaps reflecting precipitation patterns. Because
many marsh birds are notoriously difficult to
detect, the indicator may not accurately reflect the
status of these populations.
Marsh Birds Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Marsh (31)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as endangered: Snail Kite.
Marsh-nesting birds of Midwest prairies, such
as Horned, Eared, and Clark’s Grebe, Cinnamon
Teal, Franklin’s Gull, Clapper Rail, and Black Tern
have shown population declines that are probably
linked to loss and degradation of wetlands.
Several southeastern marsh specialists, notably
King Rail and Purple Gallinule, also have experi-enced
steep declines. Migratory populations of
King Rail are listed as endangered or threatened
by most states within its northern range.
Reasons for Hope
Widespread marsh species, such as Pied-billed
Grebe, Least Bittern, Virginia Rail, and Common
Moorhen can take advantage of small or ephem-eral
wetlands and have maintained stable range-wide
populations over the past 40 years.
Everglades National Park protects the largest
freshwater wetland in the United States; recent
efforts to restore the greater Everglades ecosystem
represent one of the largest conservation initia-tives
in U.S. history. Although populations of
many wading birds remain well below historic es-timates
in the Everglades, several species, such as
White Ibis, have benefited from the conservation
effort there. The endangered Florida population of
Snail Kite (the “Everglades Kite”) has responded
well to conservation efforts, reaching a population
of 685 individuals in 2008.
Marshes respond quickly to management and res-toration
efforts, and small but productive marshes
can support very large numbers of birds. Wetland
restoration projects, such as Wakodahatchee in
Florida and Sweetwater Wetlands in Arizona, are
a mecca for waterbirds, as well as for bird watch-ers
and wildlife photographers.
Common Moorhen by Clark Rushing
21
Marshes respond
quickly to
management
and restoration
efforts, and even
small marshes
can support large
numbers of birds.
Consider This:
PP Although coastal areas occupy less
than 10% of our nation’s land area,
they support a large proportion of our
living resources, including more than
170 bird species.
PP Generalist birds, such as gulls,
have been extremely successful in
developed areas, but specialized
species, such as migrating shorebirds,
have declined.
PP Coastal habitats continue to suffer
from unplanned and unsustainable
housing development, pollution, and
warming oceans caused by climate
change.
PP The USFWS National Wildlife Refuge
System manages extensive public
lands in coastal zones. At least
161 coastal refuges may be at risk
because of ongoing and predicted sea
level rises.
The State of Coastal Birds
Of 173 bird species that use coastal habitats at
any time of year, 53 are species of conservation
concern and 14 are federally listed as endangered
or threatened. Fourteen of twenty-seven shore-bird
species that primarily use coastal habitats have
declined.
Based on 50 species that winter exclusively in
coastal habitats, the indicator shows a steady
increase over the past 40 years, to roughly 20%
above the 1968 baseline. Large increases in Com-mon
Eider, Northern Gannet, Laughing, Heer-mann’s,
and Western gulls, contribute to this
overall trend. Sea ducks, such as King Eider and
White-winged Scoter, as well as wintering shore-birds
such as Wandering Tattler and Purple and
Rock sandpipers, have shown steep declines.
Wintering Coastal Bird Indicator
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2007
Percentage Change
Year
Wintering Coastal (50)
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as
endangered: Brown
Pelican, Wood Stork,
(California) Clapper Rail,
(Light-footed) Clapper
Rail, Whooping Crane,
(California) Least Tern,
Roseate Tern, (Cape
Sable) Seaside Sparrow.
Threatened: Spectacled
Eider, Steller’s Eider, Piping Plover, Snowy Plover,
Marbled Murrelet.
• Plovers, terns, and other beach-nesting birds
are vulnerable to people and pets who inadver-tently
destroy or disturb nests. Wilson’s Plovers
have declined by 78% in 40 years. With a U.S.
population of about 6,000, they are vulnerable to
development and catastrophic hurricanes.
��� Small populations of coastal marsh birds, such
as rails and sparrows, are vulnerable to habitat
loss and degradation from pollution and chang-ing
water levels that affect feeding areas and
plant cover. Seaside and Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed
sparrows are found only in coastal saltmarshes
of eastern North America.
• Common Murres are still one of the most nu-merous
seabirds in the Northern Hemisphere,
but local populations can be severely reduced
by climate change, disturbance, fishing, intro-duced
nest predators, and oil spills. They have
declined by 76% over the past 40 years.
• East Coast populations of Red Knots have de-clined
by an alarming 82%. Semipalmated Sand-piper,
Sanderling, and Dunlin have also shown
dramatic declines.
Coasts
Where Land Meets Sea,
Coastal Protection Offers
Hope for Birds
Coastal ecosystems include
coastlines, nearshore islands,
nearshore waters, estuaries, and
tidally-influenced sections of
rivers and creeks—productive
habitats for abundant wildlife.
Gerrit Vyn
Common Murres by Gerrit Vyn
Bill Dalton
Least Tern
22
Major Threats
Development
Nearly half of the U.S. population lives and works
in coastal areas, with resident populations expect-ed
to increase by 25 million people by 2015. More
than 180 million people visit the shore for recre-ation
every year. These recreational uses often
conflict with the needs of birds and other wildlife.
Conversion of marsh to open water from dredg-ing,
water control, boat traffic, and a changing
climate have caused 93% of the coastal habitat loss
that occurred from 1998 to 2004.
Resource Use
Red Knots and other shorebirds depend on horse-shoe
crab eggs for food. Overharvesting of horse-shoe
crabs during the past decade has reduced the
density of crab eggs along the eastern seashore
by up to 99%, which is believed to be a principal
cause of steep declines of many shorebird species.
Diving birds such as loons, grebes, gannets, ducks,
and shearwaters die from entanglement in fishing
gill nets. Overfishing of forage fish (e.g., menha-den
along the Atlantic Coast) and bycatch of fish
(e.g., in small-mesh shrimp trawls) may deplete
food needed by fish-eating birds.
Pollution and Climate Change
From 1998 to 2002, sediments in about half of es-tuaries
in the U.S. had one or more contaminants
exceeding benchmarks for “possible or probable
adverse effects” on aquatic life. Excess nutrients
from agricultural runoff deplete oxygen in coastal
waters, forcing fish, shrimp, crabs, and the birds
that feed on them to move from the area or die.
Oil spills, as well as chronic pollution from bilge
pumping, outboard engines, and mishandling
of petroleum products, kill untold numbers of
coastal birds and can be linked to declining or
depressed local populations of birds such as Com-mon
Murres and Marbled Murrelets.
Global climate change causes sea level rise,
increased storm surge events, changes in marsh
distribution, and changes in the food resources
for some birds. In the Southeast, rising sea levels
in the next century are expected to flood 30% of
habitat in National Wildlife Refuges.
Additionally, birds nesting on beaches and near-shore
islands suffer from some of the same threats
as island birds, including predation and habitat
damage from invasive species (see page 26).
Solutions
• Federal or state incentives can encourage coastal
management benefiting people and wildlife.
Neighboring communities can cooperate to re-strict
sprawling development and create green-ways
and natural areas.
• Incentives can be developed to create seaside
preserves such as the Cape Cod National Sea-shore,
with private or public ownership and
local, state, or federal management.
• Nest sites can be protected from unintentional
disturbance by fencing and other measures.
• Sustainable fishing will prevent overharvest
of important food sources for birds, including
horseshoe crabs.
Beyond Our Borders
Many of our nation’s coastal birds spend part
of the year in Canada, Mexico, and Central and
South America. The international Western Hemi-sphere
Shorebird Reserve Network is vital to the
conservation of these long-distance travelers.
Reasons for Hope
Since 1990, under
the Federal Coastal
Grants Program,
about $183 million
in grants have been
awarded to acquire,
protect or restore
more than 250,000
acres of coastal wet-lands.
The U.S. Department of Interior Ocean and
Coastal Activities Implementation Plan provides
better integration of coastal habitat management
programs across agencies with ocean, coastal,
and Great Lakes stewardship.
Fish-eating birds, such as Brown Pelican and
Northern Gannet, rebounded after the pesticide
DDT was banned in the U.S.
Whooping Cranes wintering in and around the
Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in Texas have
increased from 15 birds in 1941 to 266 in 2008,
the result of successful endangered species con-servation
and management.
Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow by Kenneth V. Rosenberg
Half of all coastally migrating
shorebirds have declined, indicating
stress in coastal habitats besieged
by development, disturbance, and
dwindling food supplies.
23
Brown Pelican
Jane Ogilvie
Consider This:
PP At least 81 bird species inhabit our
nation’s marine waters, spending their
lives at sea and returning to islands
and coasts to nest.
PP At least 39% of bird species in U.S.
marine waters are believed to be
declining, but data are lacking for
many species. Improved monitoring is
imperative for conservation.
PP Ocean birds travel through waters
of many nations and are increasingly
threatened by fishing bycatch,
pollution, problems on breeding
grounds, and food supplies altered by
rising ocean temperatures.
PP The health of our oceans and wildlife
will improve with policies that address
sustainable fishing, changes in food
supply, and pollution.
The State of Ocean Birds
Of 81 ocean bird species, almost half are of
conservation concern, including 4 that are feder-ally
listed as endangered or threatened. Based on
available data, 39% of ocean bird species are de-clining,
37% stable, and 12% increasing. Too little
data exist to determine the population trends for
12% of ocean birds. There were insufficient data
to generate an indicator similar to those presented
for other habitats in this report, so trend categories
were based on a variety of data sets and expert
opinion.
Trends for Ocean Bird Species
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Apparent
Stable Unknown
Percentage of Species
in Category
Decline Increase
Biologically significant
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Short-tailed
Albatross, Hawaiian
Petrel. Threatened:
(Newell’s) Townsend’s
Shearwater, Marbled
Murrelet.
• Mortality from
incidental capture in
commercial fisheries
(bycatch) is the most significant source of mor-tality
for Black-footed and Laysan albatrosses,
both species of high conservation concern.
• The Black-capped Petrel nests locally in the
Caribbean and forages off the eastern U.S. sea-board,
but little is known about the population
size or threats to this rare species.
• The Ashy Storm-Petrel faces threats at its nest-ing
colonies in southern California and Baja
California. In marine foraging areas, it is vulner-able
to contaminants, petroleum products, and
plastics encountered while foraging.
Oceans
Far at Sea: Birds Face Hazards
from Fishing, Pollution, and
Altered Food Supplies
Oceans may appear homogeneous
but are composed of distinct
habitats created by massive
circulating currents. Human
activity has affected the health
of our oceans even far from land.
Nearly half of ocean birds in the U.S. are of conservation
concern, indicating deteriorating ocean conditions.
Management policies and sustainable fishing regulations are
essential to ensure the health of our oceans.
Black-capped Petrel
Brian L. Sullivan
Black-footed Albatross by Brian L. Sullivan
Brian L. Sullivan
24
The Black-footed Albatross, a species of
conservation concern, wanders the North
Pacific for most of the year and returns to
remote islands to breed.
Major Threats
Resource Use
Overfishing by humans reduces and alters the
food supply for many seabirds.
Longline fisheries worldwide unintentionally
injure and drown as many as 60 bird species, espe-cially
surface-feeding seabirds such as albatrosses.
Pollution
Pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and oil harm
ocean birds. Major oil spills kill thousands of
birds, but small spills and chronic releases from
boats and ports also cause significant harm.
Many seabirds consume floating plastic and may
feed it to their chicks. Ninety percent of Laysan
Albatrosses surveyed on the Hawaiian Islands
had plastic debris in their stomachs.
Climate Change
Sea-surface temperatures have risen up to 4
degrees Fahrenheit in the North Sea and are
expected to continue increasing across the world’s
oceans, affecting important food sources for ocean
birds.
Breeding failures of some seabirds in northern
latitudes have been attributed in part to increased
pests and diseases that survive in warmer winters.
Kittlitz’s Murrelet population declines probably
result from cyclical changes in the oceanic envi-ronment
and glacial melting, affecting their ability
to find food.
In addition to the threats noted above, ocean birds
face challenges on their nesting grounds including
development, disturbance, invasive species, and
sea level rise. (See pages 22 and 26.)
Solutions
• Fisheries laws provide the platform to ensure a
sustainable ocean environment and can include
provisions to reduce bycatch, orient marine fish-ery
policy toward ecosystem management, and
separate conservation and allocation decisions.
• International efforts, such as the Agreement on
the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, can
set a standard for cooperative management of
seabirds.
• Coordinated, regionwide programs are needed
to collect, assess, and distribute data to better
assess the status of seabird populations.
• Increased monitoring of ocean birds and their
food base are essential to measure change in
ocean health and help develop more effective
conservation actions.
Reasons for Hope
Regulations and
voluntary measures
to minimize bycatch
have been estab-lished
for U.S. fisher-ies
in Alaska and
Hawaii, resulting in
significant decreases
in ocean bird mor-tality,
especially for
Black-footed, Laysan, and Short-tailed alba-tross.
The recent protection of 335,561 square miles in
four Marine National Monuments will greatly
improve the health of our oceans, benefiting
people as well as birds and other ocean life.
Laysan Albatross
Brian L. Sullivan
Black-footed Albatross by Brian L. Sullivan
25
More bird species are vulnerable to extinction in
Hawaii than anywhere else in the United States.
Before the arrival of humans, the Hawaiian
Islands supported 113 bird species unique in the
world, including flightless geese, ibis, rails, and 59
species of Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Since humans arrived, 71 bird species have be-come
extinct and 31 more are federally listed as
threatened or endangered. Of these, 10 have not
been seen in as long as 40 years and may be ex-tinct.
Humans have introduced many bird species
from other parts of the world: 43% of 157 species
are not native. Among landbirds, 69% are intro-duced
species.
Birds in Trouble
Federally listed as en-dangered:
Short-tailed
Albatross, Hawaiian
Petrel, Nēnē, Hawaiian
Duck (Koloa), Laysan
Duck, Hawaiian Hawk
(`Io), Hawaiian Moorhen
(`Alae `Ula), Hawaiian
Coot (`Alae Ke`oke`o),
Hawaiian Stilt (Ae`o),
Hawaiian Crow (`Alalā), O`ahu Elepaio, Nihoa
Millerbird, Kāma`o, Oloma`o, Puaiohi, Kaua`i `Ō`ō,
Laysan Finch, Nihoa Finch, `Ō`ū, Palila, Maui Par-rotbill,
Kaua`i `Akialoa, Nukupu`u, `Akiapōlā`au,
Hawai`i Creeper, O`ahu `Alauahio, Kākāwahie,
Hawai`i `Ākepa, Maui `Ākepa, `Ākohekohe,
Po`ouli. Threatened: Newell’s Shearwater.
after becoming confused by bright lights. Downed
shearwaters often die of exhaustion, are hit by
cars, or are killed by predators.
Reasons for Hope
Endangered Laysan
Ducks, numbering 600
on Laysan Island, have
been translocated to
Midway Atoll, where
the population now
exceeds 200 after just a
few years.
Population growth
of forest birds such
as Hawai`i Creeper and `Akiapōlā`au has been
dramatic in the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife
Refuge, where the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
is fencing to exclude feral mammals, aggressively
managing invasive plants, and replanting
endangered plants. Application of these successful
methods is urgently needed elsewhere.
Rats were eradicated from Midway Atoll in 1997,
resulting in an increase of Bonin Petrels from an
estimated 5,000 pairs in 1979 to more than 100,000
pairs in 2008, and recolonization by Tristram’s
Storm-Petrels and Bulwer’s Petrels.
The 7,500-acre Hanawi Natural Area Reserve supports some of
Hawaii’s most important concentrations of native birds, including
`Ākohekohe and Maui Parrotbill. Hawaii’s islands were once forested
with native trees such as koa, `ohia, mānele, and sandalwood. Since
human colonization, approximately half of these forests have been lost.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Hawaiian Stilt
`Akiapōlā`au
Eric VanderWerf
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Spotlight on the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands
The Race to Save Hawaiian Birds
Nearly all native Hawaiian forest birds are declin-ing,
their populations devastated by nonnative
disease-carrying mosquitoes, predators, feral cat-tle
and pigs, and loss of habitat. The Palila, found
only on the Big Island, has declined from 6,600
birds in 2003 to 2,200 in 2008. The `Akikiki and
`Akeke`e of Kauai have also declined dramatically
since 1970 and are proposed for listing under the
Endangered Species Act.
Exotic plants and diseases can wreak havoc on na-tive
habitats. Golden crownbeard is overwhelming
the breeding habitat of Black-footed and Laysan
albatrosses in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
`Ohia rust threatens one of the most important food
plants of endangered Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Seabirds that nest on islands, including the
endangered Hawaiian Petrel, face severe threats
from feral cats and other introduced species, and
habitat damage by feral ungulates.
Since 1979, approximately 30,000 Newell’s Shear-waters,
a threatened species, have collided with
utility lines and structures or have been grounded
26
Saving Hawaii’s Birds
• Restoration and protection of mid-elevation
forest is essential for the recovery of endan-gered
species such as `Akiapōlā`au, Hawai`i
and Maui `Ākepas, and Hawai`i Creeper.
• A highest priority action with the greatest po-tential
benefits for native birds is the fencing
of habitats to exclude feral ungulates. This im-proves
habitat quality and reduces numbers of
disease-carrying mosquitoes (trampled areas
and downed tree ferns collect water where
mosquitoes breed).
• Protecting all groups of native Hawaiian birds
by federal law should be explored and imple-mented,
such as for Hawaiian honeycreepers,
which are not protected under the Migratory
Bird Treaty Act.
• Targeted trapping and use of rodenticides to
reduce numbers of nonnative predators such
as rats, cats, and mongoose will improve nest-ing
success and survivorship of birds.
• Focused efforts are urgently needed to re-duce
the spread of invasive, exotic plants in
areas important to threatened birds. Golden
crownbeard needs to be eradicated from the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, especially
on Midway Atoll where the plant threatens
to overwhelm nesting areas for the world’s
largest colonies of Laysan and Black-footed
albatrosses.
• Some bird species require captive breeding to
ensure the continued existence and recovery
of wild populations. Release of captive-bred
Palila and translocation of wild birds has
resulted in the establishment of a small breed-ing
population in a second location on the Big
Island.
• Nesting albatrosses on Midway Atoll can en-counter
lead-based paint peeling from World
War II era buildings. On Midway Atoll, as
many as 10,000 Laysan Albatross chicks die
from lead poisoning each year. Cost-effective
measures of reducing this threat should be
further explored.
Island Birds: Vulnerable and
Often Overlooked
Most island birds evolved on remote archipela-goes,
so they are extremely vulnerable to inva-sive
plants, wildlife introduced by humans, the
onslaught of new predators, habitat degradation,
and disease. In the last five centuries, 87% percent
of bird extinctions worldwide have taken place on
islands.
Most of Hawaii’s conservation crises result from
the introduction of nonnative plants and animals,
but climate change is a growing concern. The
leading threats to Hawaiian birds include habi-tat
degradation from trampling and grazing by
introduced ungulates; nonnative predators (e.g.,
feral cats, mongooses, rats); nonnative plants and
diseases; and bird diseases spread by introduced
mosquitoes.
Most native birds are now largely restricted to
forests above the mosquito line at about 5,000 feet,
a haven that is expected to shrink as increasing
global temperatures enable mosquitoes to survive
at higher altitudes. In addition, rising sea level is
projected to inundate important breeding sites for
many species, especially for seabirds on the low-lying
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
More Online
Visit www.stateofthebirds.org for information
on birds of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands,
Guam, Northern Marianas, American Samoa,
remote Pacific Islands, and Navassa Island.
jackjeffreyphoto.com
Palila by jackjeffreyphoto.comy
The endangered `Ākohekohe lives in the native forests of Maui.
In its very restricted range, `Ākohekohe are vulnerable to habitat
degradation by introduced plants and by the grazing of introduced
cattle, pigs, and goats. Fencing to control feral mammals will help to
stabilize or reverse population declines.
Hawaii’s native birds and habitats are
under siege from invasive species and
disease. Immediate action is needed to
prevent birds from going extinct
within our lifetimes.
27
28
Taxon Status
Year of
Listing Habitat(s)
Estimated Population at
Listing/Historic Numbers Trend Since Listing
Current
Population
Hawaiian Goose (Nene) E 1973 Islands Low of 30 Gradual increase 1,700
Hawaiian Duck E 1973 Islands <500 in 1949 Gradual increase 2,400
Laysan Duck E 1973 Islands Low of 7; ~500 at listing Significant recent increase 650
Steller’s Eider T 1997 Arctic, Coasts Unknown Likely remained stable (staging) 75,000
Spectacled Eider T 1993 Arctic, Coasts 3,400; hard to survey Likely increase 7,000
Greater Prairie-Chicken (Attwater’s) E 1973 Grasslands 1 million in early 20th Century Decreasing 72
Northern Bobwhite (Masked) E 1973 Grasslands Extirpated late 1800s Never fully established 10
Short-tailed Albatross E 1973 Ocean Believed extinct before 1950 Significant Increase 2,400
Hawaiian Petrel E 1973 Ocean, Islands Unknown Decreasing 15,000
Newell’s Shearwater T 1975 Ocean, Islands Unknown Decreasing At least 36,000
Brown Pelican (Gulf Coast, California) E 1973 Coasts Less than 1,000 in CA, almost
extirpated along Gulf Coast
Steady increase 46,000
Wood Stork E 1984 Wetlands, Coasts ~5,000 at listing Steady increase 22,000
California Condor E 1973 Aridlands 22 in 1987 Gradual increase 330
Snail Kite (Everglades) E 1973 Marsh 65 Increase with fluctuations 685
Bald Eagle (Sonoran Desert) T 1973 Wetlands, Coasts 21 in 1975 Steady increase 100
Hawaiian Hawk (`Io) E 1973 Islands ~2,000 Stable 2,000
Crested Caracara (Florida) T 1987 Subtropical Forest 100 Initial increase; since stable 1,000
Aplomado Falcon (Northern) E 1986 Grasslands, Aridlands Extirpated in the 1950s Slow increase 100
Clapper Rail (California) E 1973 Coasts Unknown Likely remained stable 1,350
Clapper Rail (Yuma) E 1973 Marsh 750 Likely remained stable 1,000
Clapper Rail (Light-footed) E 1973 Coasts 406 in 1980 Apparent steady increase 800
Common Moorhen (Hawaiian) E 1973 Islands 57 in the 1960s Gradual increase <1,000
Hawaiian Coot E 1973 Islands ~1,000 Gradual increase 3,000
Sandhill Crane (Mississippi) E 1973 Wetlands 40 Slight increase 100
Whooping Crane E 1973 Wetlands, Coasts 16 in 1941 Gradual increase 540
Snowy Plover (Western, Pacific Coast) T 1993 Coasts Unknown Gradual increase 2,300
Piping Plover (Atlantic, Great Plains) T 1985 Coasts, Wetlands Unknown Gradual increase 7,000
Piping Plover (Great Lakes) E 1985 Coasts Unknown Increase with fluctuations 110
Black-necked Stilt (Hawaiian) E 1973 Islands ~1000 Gradual increase 1,500
Eskimo Curlew E 1973 Arctic Historically abundant Likely extinct Unknown
Least Tern (Interior) E 1985 Wetlands 5,000 but surveys incomplete Probably stable 18,000
Least Tern (California) E 1973 Coasts 1,200 Steady increase 13,000
Roseate Tern (Florida) T 1987 Coasts Unknown Decreasing 350
Roseate Tern (Northeast) E 1987 Coasts ~6,000 Fluctuating 6,000
Marbled Murrelet T 1992 Coasts, Forests Unknown Decreasing 25,000
Spotted Owl (Northern) T 1990 Western Forest Unknown Decreasing 8,500
Spotted Owl (Mexican) T 1993 Western Forest Unknown Unknown (in U.S.) 1,500
Endangered Species
The Long Road to Recovery
In 1973, the United States Congress passed the
Endangered Species Act to protect and recover
imperiled species and the ecosystems upon
which they depend. The Act has succeeded
more often than it has failed, and some success-es
have been spectacular, such as the increase
of the Aleutian Canada Goose from fewer than
1,000 birds to more than 60,000, and the remark-able
comebacks of the Bald Eagle and Peregrine
Falcon.*
However, the possibility of extinction is still a
cold reality for many birds: 13 species may no
longer exist in the wild (10 species from Hawaii,
plus Bachman’s Warbler, Ivory-billed Wood-pecker,
and Eskimo Curlew). Several species
face unprecedented conflict with humans for
land at peak economic value (for example, in
peninsular Florida, mid-continental prairies,
coastal California, Texas hill country, and the
Pacific Northwest).
Of the 74 bird species, subspecies, and popu-lations
listed in the United States, 30 have in-creased
since listing, 16 have remained stable,
15 have decreased, and 13 are possibly extinct.
Snail Kite by Martjan Lammertink
29
Taxon Status
Year of
Listing Habitat(s)
Estimated Population at
Listing/Historic Numbers Trend Since Listing
Current
Population
Red-cockaded Woodpecker E 1973 Eastern Forest 10,000 Steady increase 20,000
Ivory-billed Woodpecker E 1973 Eastern Forest Unknown Unknown Near or at zero
Willow Flycatcher (Southwestern) E 1995 Eastern Forest 700; surveys incomplete Apparent increase 2,000
Kaua`i `O`o E 1973 Islands ~10 Likely extinct late 1980s 0
Loggerhead Shrike (San Clemente) E 1977 Aridlands 50 Gradual increase 230
Bell’s Vireo (Least) E 1986 Aridlands 600 Steady increase 6,000
Black-capped Vireo E 1987 Aridlands Unknown Some increases noted 12,000
Florida Scrub-Jay T 1987 Eastern Forest 11,000 Decreasing 6,500
Hawaiian Crow (`Alala) E 1973 Islands 96, including captive flock Extinct in the wild (all captive) 60
Elepaio (Oahu) E 2000 Islands Unknown Decreasing 2,000
California Gnatcatcher (Coastal) T 1993 Aridlands Unknown Decreasing; habitat loss (in U. S.) 5,000
Millerbird (Nihoa) E 1973 Islands ~400 Fluctuating (in 1996) 155
Kama`o E 1973 Islands 350 Likely extinct early 1990s 0
Oloma`o E 1973 Islands Ten or fewer Likely extinct 1980s 0
Puaiohi E 1973 Islands Unknown Gradual small increase 350
Bachman’s Warbler E 1973 Eastern Forest Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct Unknown
Golden-cheeked Warbler E 1990 Aridlands Unknown Likely decreasing 21,000
Kirtland’s Warbler E 1973 Eastern Forest 167 Steady increase 3,000
California Towhee (Inyo) T 1987 Aridlands 100 Steady increase 750
Sage Sparrow (San Clemente) T 1977 Aridlands Unknown Likely stable 300
Grasshopper Sparrow (Florida) E 1986 Grasslands 600 Stable or slight decrease 400
Seaside Sparrow (Cape Sable) E 1973 Coasts 6,000+ Decreasing 3,200
Laysan Finch E 1973 Islands ~11,000 Fluctuating ~11,000
Nihoa Finch E 1973 Islands ~3,000 Unknown, likely fluctuating 2,800
`O`u E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. late 1980s 0
Palila E 1973 Islands Unknown Decreasing 2,200
Maui Parrotbill E 1973 Islands 500 Stable 500
Greater `Akialoa (Kaua`i) E 1973 Islands Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct c. 1960s 0
Nukupu`u E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. 1995 0
`Akiapola`au E 1973 Islands ~1,200 Likely stable 1,200
Hawai`i Creeper E 1975 Islands ~12,000 Decline 6,300
O`ahu `Alauahio E 1973 Islands Unknown Likely extinct c. 1990 0
Kakawahie E 1973 Islands Probably extinct before listing Likely extinct 0
`Akepa (Maui) E 1973 Islands 10 in 1980 Likely extinct 1980s or 1990s 0
`Akepa (Hawai`i) E 1973 Islands ~14,000 Stable 14,000
`Akohekohe E 1973 Islands ~3,800 Stable 3,750
Po`ouli E 1975 Islands ~20 Likely extinct in 2004 0
In the continental United States, populations
of more species that were listed early-on have
increased than those listed more recently, ac-cording
to the American Bird Conservancy.
This indicates that long-term conservation ef-forts
can pay great dividends.
An Urgent Need for Protection
Some species languish on the candidate list ow-ing
to lack of resources for listing. The highest
priority candidates must be quickly protected
so that urgently needed conservation actions
can be mounted. Funding for endangered Ha-waiian
birds must be increased: only 4.1% of
all state and federal funding for federally listed
bird species is spent on Hawaiian birds, which
represent 44% of all listed species.
The most cost-effective solution of all is to stop
bird species from declining before they require
Endangered Species Act protection. Coopera-tive
conservation measures involving govern-ment
and tribal agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, and private landowners are es-sential
to keep common birds common and to
recover failing bird populations while there is
still time.
For more on endangered species, including
birds listed in the U.S. island territories, visit
www.stateofthebirds.org.
Key:
E—Endangered, T—Threatened
Population estimates include captive and
wild populations where known. Estimates
are approximate except for species with very
small populations.
* Fully delisted: Aleutian race of the Canada
Goose, and American and arctic races of the
Peregrine Falcon. Partial delisting: Bald Eagle,
Brown Pelican.
Challenges
Successful bird conservation requires giving birds a long-term
chance to survive and reproduce. Humans have created numerous
threats to birds in addition to the natural challenges that birds
constantly face from starvation, predation, and severe weather.
Based on decades of research, conservationists have identified the
most important threats to birds, including the greatest threat of all—
habitat loss. Addressing these conservation challenges can ensure a
safe future for birds and improve the quality of life for people too.
Here, we summarize the major challenges affecting bird populations.
Residential and Commercial Development
The accelerated pace of urban, suburban, and commercial development in
the United States threatens the integrity of every major habitat, from con-tinued
draining of wetlands and destruction of coastal marshes, to loss and
fragmentation of forests, aridlands, and grasslands because of suburban
sprawl. Unlike timber production and livestock grazing, urbanization and
sprawl cause permanent loss of natural habitats. Increased development in
rural areas, such as second-home development, has equal or greater eco-logical
consequences than growth of urban centers.
Steep declines in many bird populations are a direct result of unplanned
and sprawling urbanization. Birds that are particularly hard hit include
farmland species such as meadowlarks and Bobolink; eastern birds de-pendent
on shrubby habitats, such as American Woodcock and Brown
Thrasher; and birds of western deserts and chaparral, such as Bendire’s and
California thrashers. Fragmentation of forests by development can increase
risk of predation for forest-interior birds, such as Wood Thrush, Kentucky
Warbler, and Cerulean Warbler, and can contribute to nest failures from
increasing numbers of cowbirds, which lay their eggs in these birds’ nests.
Coastal development causes loss of beach dunes and threatens fragile salt
marshes, harming birds such as Black Rail and Seaside Sparrow, as well as
migratory shorebirds and other water birds dependent on tidal mudflats
and estuaries.
As many as one billion birds each year may die from collisions with man-made
obstacles, including windows, transmission towers, power lines, and
wind turbines. Tall, lighted buildings and other structures along coastlines
kill millions of migrating birds each year. Conservationists are explor-ing
and implementing innovative ways to reduce this grim toll, but much
remains to be done.
Agriculture
The way that we use land to grow our food has significant impacts on birds.
Because of conversion of grasslands to agriculture, grasslands are the most
endangered ecosystem in North America. The Conservation Reserve Pro-gram
and other initiatives pay farmers to keep areas with erodible soils and
sensitive habitats out of production. Farmer participation in this success-ful
program varies. In 2008, for example, farmer involvement was affected
by high commodity prices for corn and other grain caused by the growing
demand for food and biofuels. In the future, millions of program acres will
expire or will not be renewed, putting vital grassland habitat in jeopardy.
Suburban sprawl and other causes of habitat
loss are the biggest threats to birds.
Eric Epstein
30
Energy Production and Mining
Energy development has significant negative effects on birds in North
America including habitat loss, reduction in habitat quality, direct mortality,
and disruption. Construction, operation, and associated infrastructure of
energy development such as oil and gas fields, wind farms, and geothermal
fields reduce and fragment habitat. Oil and gas development in the West
is affecting birds such as Greater Sage-Grouse by fragmenting large blocks
of habitat. Energy field development alters natural environments in ways
that favor invasive plants and animals. Gulls that prey on other birds are
subsidized by garbage dumps at drilling facilities in Alaska. Surface water
created as a result of coalbed methane extraction allows mosquitoes that
transmit diseases such as West Nile virus to breed. Roads used for construc-tion
often become paths for invasive plants such as cheatgrass to spread.
Deaths of birds and nesting failures are associated with spills during trans-portation
of petroleum products and oil field practices such as discharging
oily waste into uncovered pits. Collisions with wind turbines, offshore oil
rigs, and powerlines cause significant mortality. Construction and opera-tions
of energy fields can displace birds and disrupt nesting. Prairie-chick-ens
and sage-grouse avoid nesting near tall structures. Studies show that
they usually abandon breeding areas near drilling rigs or wind turbines.
Mining can cause extensive habitat disturbance, degradation, and loss. For
example, coal mining that blasts mountaintops to reveal coal seams below
has removed large areas of eastern forests and buried nearby streamside
habitats under tons of debris. This contributes to the decline of birds that
breed in interior forests, such as Cerulean Warblers.
Natural Resource Use
The intentional killing of birds has been a significant factor in the past,
including egrets killed for plumes,
shorebirds for food, and raptors
for sport. Hunting is no longer a
cause of bird population declines in
the United States, thanks to strong
regulations and harvest manage-ment.
However, numerous other
practices related to resource use are
still a deadly factor for birds.
Most U.S. forest ecosystems have
been affected by logging, road
construction, monocultural tree plantations, and fire suppression. These
have caused fragmentation; a lack of mature trees, snags, and natural early
successional forests; degradation of streamside habitats; and overgrowth of
brush and small trees because of fire exclusion, all of which can have nega-tive
consequences for wildlife. For example, more than 85% of old-growth
forest in the Pacific Northwest has been eliminated, leading to the listing of
the Northern Spotted Owl and Marbled Murrelet as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act.
In arid regions of the West, excessive grazing has degraded grasslands
and denuded streamside areas where most bird species forage and breed.
Overfishing in oceans has led to the starvation and nesting failures of birds.
Overharvesting of horseshoe crabs has been attributed to rapid declines of
Red Knots, which must gorge on horseshoe crab eggs in Delaware Bay to
finish their annual migration to the arctic. Many fishing practices such as
long-lining, gill nets, and trawling can hook or entangle seabirds or disrupt
their food supply.
Invasive and Problem Species
Invasive species are those that spread uncontrollably after being introduced
to an area where they are not native. Invasive plants and animals are major
threats to native bird species in numerous ways.
Nonnative predators have the greatest single impact by killing adult birds
as well as eggs and young. Domestic and feral cats kill hundreds of millions
of birds each year. Island nesting birds, particularly seabirds, are very vul-nerable
since they mostly nest on the ground or in burrows and are easily
captured by rats, foxes, cats, dogs, and mongooses.
Invasive plants also impact birds by rendering the habitat unsuitable.
Because of the aggressive shrub saltcedar, areas along southwestern water-ways
have become extremely poor habitat for Willow Flycatcher, Yellow-billed
Cuckoo, and other species. Saltcedar has also crowded out beaches
needed by nesting Snowy Plovers. Cheatgrass has modified millions of
acres of sagebrush habitat, lowering its value for species of concern such as
Greater Sage-Grouse, Sage Thrasher, and Sage Sparrow.
The number and scope of severe threats to birds is
daunting, but implementing solutions immediately and
widely will pay off in benefits to society, the economy,
and the health of our environment.
Unsustainable logging in the boreal forest destroys
habitat needed by wildlife.
Peter Lee
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Introduced diseases are a major threat to some bird species. Avian malaria
has contributed significantly to the decline and extinction of many Hawai-ian
birds, including the Kaua`i `Ō`ō. Birds on the mainland are also vulner-able
to introduced diseases such as West Nile virus, which has been found
in more than 200 bird species in the U.S. and which has caused significant
mortality of American Crows and related species.
Many bird species have been introduced to the U.S. from other parts of the
world and some have established self-sustaining populations. European
Starlings and House Sparrows compete aggressively with native birds for
nesting sites and frequently displace birds such as woodpeckers, swallows,
and bluebirds.
Pollution
Pesticides, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals such as lead and mercury
cause significant bird mortality and reduce breeding success. These effects
are sometimes hard to detect, but can produce dramatic population declines
over time. DDT caused the thinning and breakage of eggshells, nearly wip-ing
out several bird species in the U.S., including Peregrine Falcons, Brown
Pelicans, and Bald Eagles.
The U.S. applies approximately five billion pounds of pesticides annually. A
pesticide poisoning database documents more than 2,500 incidents, in-cluding
113 pesticides implicated in the deaths of more than 400,000 birds.
Carbofuran has been responsible for more than 20% of all incidents, and
the deaths of more than 40,000 birds. Many of the pesticides highly toxic
to birds have been eliminated from use in the U.S., but continue to be used
legally in Latin America where migratory birds are exposed to them during
the winter.
Lead, mercury, and selenium also harm birds. Ingested lead fragments
and shot in game carcasses may have toxic effects on eagles, vultures, and
other scavengers. Mercury deposition in forests and on surface waters from
burning coal becomes concentrated in foods eaten by fish-eating birds and
forest songbirds. High selenium concentrations in wetlands impair the
hatching of eggs and reproduction of waterfowl and shorebirds. Industrial
chemicals such as dioxins and PCBs, once linked to many poisonings, have
been regulated and largely cleaned up, but new chemicals such as PBDE
fire-retardants are emerging as contaminants that accumulate in plants and
wildlife, with unknown effects on birds and humans.
Climate Change
The U.S. has warmed by an aver-age
of 1 degree Fahrenheit during
the last century, primarily because
of greenhouse gas emissions. Our
nation is also 5–10% wetter on aver-age
now than historically, though
most of this can be attributed to
severe weather events, which can
damage habitats without alleviating
drought. Most estimates suggest
that without action, the U.S. will
warm by another 5–9 degrees over
the next century and the sea level will rise by more than 1.5 feet.
Climate change already has influenced the abundance, distribution, and
timing of migration and breeding for many bird species. A recent study by
the National Audubon Society showed that more than half of the birds com-monly
found on the Christmas Bird Count are wintering farther north now
than 40 years ago. American Robins are now arriving approximately 14
days earlier than they did in 1981 on their breeding grounds in the Colora-do
Rocky Mountains. Tree Swallows have advanced their breeding date by
up to nine days earlier from 1959 to 1994. Red-winged Blackbirds, Eastern
Bluebirds, and eastern populations of Song Sparrows now lay their eggs
earlier because spring temperatures are warmer. A great concern is that the
earlier arrival of migrating birds may be out of sync with food availability.
In addition to these effects on migration and breeding, birds are at grave
risk from habitat changes caused by climate change, especially in arctic tun-dra,
alpine meadows, sea ice and glaciers, coastal wetlands, marine atolls,
and ocean ecosystems. Many specialized birds live in these habitats, includ-ing
Ivory Gulls that scavenge polar bear kills on floating sea ice, rosy-finch-es
that depend on high altitude meadows, rails and saltmarsh sparrows that
depend on brackish coastal areas, and Kittlitz’s Murrelets that appear to
depend on glaciers. These species may face severe conservation challenges
in the coming decades. Sea level rise will inundate islands, jeopardizing
nesting birds. The potential spread of mosquito-borne avian malaria to
highland refugia for Hawaiian honeycreepers is also a serious concern.
Climate change can affect the survival and reproduction of many bird spe-cies.
Changes in prey distribution and abundance, reduced productivity,
shrinking habitats, and competition and stresses from increasing popula-tions
will present a great challenge to birds on land and at sea.
Birds are at grave risk from habitat changes caused
by climate change, including inundated nesting
areas and altered food supplies. Gerrit Vyn
32
31
7
4
8
6
3
9
5 10
11
35
22
16
27
34
19 28
18
33
2
17
12
14
24
13
21 25
32 29
36
23
37
20
30
1
26
15
OUR APPROACH
The State of the Birds: Focus on Habitats
To develop this first State of the Birds report for the United States, our team of experts drew upon a variety of sources
to determine the conservation status and population trends of more than 800 bird species that occur regularly within
the continental U.S., Hawaii, and U.S. oceans.
Healthy bird populations depend on maintenance
of both the quality and quantity of habitats. These
same habitats provide resources that are essential
for human survival and quality of life. Trends in
bird populations can give us initial insight into
the health of these habitats, and thus provide an
indication of environmental sustainability.
We began by assigning each bird species to one
of seven primary habitats: oceans, coasts, wet-lands,
arctic, forests, grasslands, or aridlands.
Hawaiian landbirds were treated separately. We
defined habitats following the 2008 Heinz Foun-dation
report, The State of the Nation’s Ecosystems. A
complete list of the birds in each habitat, as well as
habitat trends from the Heinz report can be found
at www.stateofthebirds.org.
Birds that are restricted to a single habitat for
breeding were defined as habitat obligates, rep-resenting
an important group of species that are
most characteristic of a habitat and that should be
most sensitive to environmental problems. Birds
found in three or more habitats were considered
generalists. We recognized birds that use urban and
suburban landscapes as occupying a secondary
habitat.
Bird Population Indicators:
A Measure of Environmental
Health
To assess the health of habitats, we created bird
population indicators based on the best available
monitoring data for groups of species in each hab-itat.
The concept of wild bird indicators has been
applied widely throughout the world in other
State of the Birds reports and has been accepted
as an important measure of environmental health.
Each indicator represents the change in abun-dance
for a group of bird species combined into a
single indicator line. We chose 1968 as a base year
Map Key
Coasts
Arctic
Boreal Forest
Eastern Forest
Subtropical Forest
Grasslands
Western Forest
Arridlands
www.stateofthebirds.org
Visit our website for additional details about
the science behind bird population indicators as
well as information about bird conservation and
monitoring programs.
Numbers refer to bird conservation regions created by the North
American Bird Conservation Initiative. See www.stateofthebirds.org.
33
Suggested Citation for this Report:
North American Bird Conservation Initiative, U.S. Committee, 2009. The State of the Birds, United States
of America, 2009. U.S. Department of Interior: Washington, DC. 36 pages.
Contributors:
Project Leads: Bob Ford, Paul Schmidt
Science Team: Brad Andres, Laurel Barnhill, Bob Blohm, Brad Bortner, Greg Butcher, Jorge Coppen,
Charles Francis, Debbie Hahn, Mark Koneff, David Mehlman, David Pashley, Kenneth V. Rosenberg, John
R. Sauer, Jennifer Wheeler
Communications Team: John Bowman, Connie Bruce, Miyoko Chu, Ashley Dayer, Steve Holmer, Pat
Leonard, Alicia King, Ellen Marcus, Gemma Radko, Nicholas Throckmorton, Blythe Thomas, Nancy
Severance, Joshua Winchell
Lead Analyst: John R. Sauer
Editor: Miyoko Chu
Designer: Susan Steiner Spear
We thank the following people for reviewing or contributing to the development of this report:
John Alexander, Eleanora Babij, Breck Carmichael, Tom Cooper, Martha Desmond, Dan Dessecker,
George Fenwick, John Fitzpatrick, Krishna Gifford, Richard Gregory, Catherine Hickey, Dave Howell,
Dave Krueper, Marcia Maslonek, Larry Neel, Daniel K. Niven, Mike Parr, Melissa Pitkin, Terry Rich,
Diane Tessaglia-Hymes, Scott Yaich, Emily Silverman, George Wallace, Jeff Wells, Roger Wells.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service took the lead in creating this report through an unprecedented
partnership involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, State wildlife agencies, and nongovernmental
organizations as a subcommittee of the U.S. North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI).
A Special Thank You to Volunteers
Our understanding of the long-term health of birds depends largely on the
thousands of bird watchers and biologists who volunteer each year for the
Breeding Bird Survey, Christmas Bird Count, or many other monitoring programs.
The dedication and skill of these citizen scientists reflects their love of birds
and the natural world, as well as their concern for the health of habitats and
our environment.
Without the continued
involvement of this
army of volunteer
observers, this and
any future State of
the Birds reports
would simply not be
possible. For more on
how to participate
in bird-monitoring
programs see www.
stateofthebirds.org.
for these indicators, reflecting the 40-year span of reliable bird-monitoring
data for many species, as well as a period of environmental consciousness
and habitat protection in the U.S.
Species of Conservation Concern
Because reliable long-term trend data were not available to create bird
population indicators for all U.S. habitats, we also used the proportion of
species of conservation concern in each habitat as a separate indicator of
health or threats to that habitat. Our last line of defense against extinction
is the Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973, which lists 67 bird species as
either endangered or threatened (see page 28).
We also recognize an additional 184 species of conservation concern, based
on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s 2008 Birds of Conservation Concern,
and the 2007 WatchList, produced by the American Bird Conservancy and
the National Audubon Society from information compiled by bird conser-vation
partnerships. These species show elevated levels of risk based on
small range or population size, high threats, or declining trends. Proac-tive
conservation efforts aimed at keeping these species from becoming
federally listed constitute the primary focus of Partners in Flight, the U.S.
Shorebird Conservation Plan, Waterbirds for the Americas, and the North
American Bird Conservation Initiative.
The State of Our Bird Monitoring Data
In this first U.S. State of the Birds report, we relied on long-term trend data
from three primary bird population surveys. The North American Breeding
Bird Survey (BBS), administered by the U.S. Geological Survey and Cana-dian
Wildlife Service, and conducted at more than 4,000 sites by volunteer
observers, provided data for 365 breeding species since 1968. For 120 spe-cies
that breed outside the area of reliable BBS coverage, but winter primar-ily
within the U.S., we used trends from the National Audubon Society’s
Christmas Bird Count. Finally, trends for 13 waterfowl species were pro-vided
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Service
from the Waterfowl Breeding Population and Habitat Survey, conducted by
trained pilots and wildlife biologists across the northern U.S. and Canada.
Analysis for this State of the Birds report represents the first integration of
long-term results across these three important surveys, using new statisti-cal
techniques developed by scientists at the USGS and National Audubon
Society. Our analysis also highlights the lack of reliable long-term data for
many poorly monitored bird groups, most notably arctic-nesting shore-birds,
colonial seabirds, and oceanic species. New monitoring efforts for
these species and habitats are essential for future State of the Birds reports.
Diane Tessaglia-Hymes
34
Back cover photos from top, left to right: Greater Sage-Grouse by Ted Schroeder; Hanawi Natural Area Reserve, Maui,
Hawaii , by Eric VanderWerf; Cassin's Finch by Darrell E. Spangler, Pacific Coast, Big Sur, California, by Gerrit Vyn,
Common Murres by Gerrit Vyn, Everglades by Kenneth V. Rosenberg. This page: Sandhill Cranes by David Quanrud.
The birds we see in our backyards, fields, forests, deserts, and oceans have much
to tell us about the health of the environment. Each year, thousands of citizen-science
participants contribute data from across the United States, making it
possible to identify birds in trouble. By understanding the message from birds
and taking action, we can help them thrive and safeguard our own future.
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