One Laptop per Child (OLPC) is a non-profit initiative established with the goal of transforming education for children around the world; this goal was to be achieved by creating and distributing educational devices for the developing world, and by creating software and content for those devices.

Its primary goal continues to be to transform education, by enabling children in low-income countries to have access to content, media and computer-programming environments, at the time that the program launched, the typical retail price for a laptop was considerably in excess of $1,000 (US), so it was infeasible to achieve this objective without also bringing a low-cost machine to production. This became the OLPC XO Laptop, a low-cost and low-power laptop computer, the project was originally funded by member organizations such as AMD, eBay, Google, Marvell Technology Group, News Corporation, Nortel. Chi Mei Corporation, Red Hat, and Quanta provided in-kind support.

The OLPC project has been the subject of extensive praise and criticism, it was praised for pioneering low-cost, low-power laptops and inspiring later variants such as Eee PCs and Chromebooks; for assuring consensus at ministerial level in many countries that computer literacy is a mainstream part of education; for creating interfaces that worked without literacy in any language, and particularly without literacy in English. It has been criticized from many sides regarding its US-centric focus that ignores bigger problems, high total costs that may actually even be quite cost-ineffective, low focus on maintainability and training and its limited success so far.

The OLPC program has its roots in the pedagogy of Seymour Papert, an approach known as constructionism, which espoused providing computers for children at early ages to enable full digital literacy. Papert, along with Nicholas Negroponte, were at the MIT Media Lab from its inception. Papert compared the old practice of putting computers in a computer lab to books chained to the walls in old libraries. Negroponte likened shared computers to shared pencils. However, this pattern seemed to be inevitable, given the then-high prices of computers (over $1,500 apiece for a typical laptop or small desktop by 2004).

In 2005, Negroponte spoke at the World Economic Forum, in Davos; in this talk he urged industry to solve the problem, to enable a $100 laptop, which would enable constructionist learning, would revolutionize education, and would bring the world's knowledge to all children. He brought a mock-up and was described as prowling the halls and corridors of Davos to whip up support,[1] despite the reported skepticism of Bill Gates and others, Negroponte left Davos with committed interest from AMD, News Corp, and with strong indications of support from many other firms. From the outset, it was clear that Negroponte thought that the key to reducing the cost of the laptop was to reduce the cost of the display. Thus, when, upon return from Davos, he met Mary Lou Jepsen, the display pioneer who was in early 2005 joining the MIT Media Lab faculty, the discussions turned quickly to display innovation to enable a low-cost laptop. Convinced that the project was now possible, Negroponte led the creation of the first corporation for this: the Hundred Dollar Laptop Corp.

In the first years of the project, the Association managed development and logistics, and the Foundation managed fundraising such as the Give One Get One campaign ("G1G1").

OLPC XO-1 original design proposal

Intel was a member of the association for a brief period in 2007. It resigned its membership on January 3, 2008, citing disagreements with requests from OLPC's founder, Nicholas Negroponte, for Intel to stop dumping their Classmate PCs.[3][4]

In 2008, Negroponte showed some doubt about the exclusive use of open-source software for the project,[5] and made suggestions supporting a move towards adding Windows XP, which Microsoft was in the process of porting over to the XO hardware.[6] Microsoft's Windows XP, however, is not seen by some as a sustainable operating system.[7] Microsoft announced that they would sell them Windows XP for $3 per XO,[8] it would be offered as an option on XO-1 laptops and possibly be able to dual boot alongside Linux.[9] In response, Walter Bender, who was the former President of Software and Content for the OLPC project, left OLPC[10][11] and founded Sugar Labs to continue development of the open source Sugar software which had been developed within OLPC. No significant deployments elected to purchase Windows licenses.

Advertisements for OLPC began streaming on the video streaming website Hulu and others in 2008. One such ad has John Lennon advertising for OLPC, with an unknown voice actor redubbing over Lennon's voice.[15]

In 2008 OLPC lost significant funding, their annual budget was slashed from $12 million to $5 million which resulted in a restructuring on January 7, 2009. Development of the Sugar operating environment was moved entirely into the community, the Latin America support organization was spun out and staff reductions, including Jim Gettys, affected approximately 50% of the paid employees, the remaining 32 staff members also saw salary reductions.[16][17] Despite the downsizing, OLPC continued development of the XO-1.5 laptops.

In 2010, OLPC moved its headquarters to Miami, the Miami office currently oversees sales and support for the XO-1.5 laptop and its successors, including the XO Laptop version 4.0 and the OLPC Laptop.

Funding from Marvell, finalized in May 2010, revitalized the foundation and enabled the 1Q 2012 completion of the ARM-based XO-1.75 laptops and initial prototypes of the XO-3 tablets. OLPC is now taking orders for mass production of the XO 4.0, and has shipped over 2.5 million XO Laptops to children around the world.[citation needed]

At the World Summit on the Information Society held by the United Nations in Tunisia from November 16–18, 2005, several African representatives, most notably Marthe Dansokho (a missionary of United Methodist Church), voiced suspicions towards the motives of the OLPC project and claimed that the project was using an overly "U.S. mindset", pointing out that the presented solutions were not applicable to specifically "African problems". Dansokho said the project demonstrated misplaced priorities, stating that African women would not have enough time to research new crops to grow, she added that clean water and schools were more important. Mohammed Diop specifically criticized the project as an attempt to exploit the governments of poor nations by making them pay for hundreds of millions of machines and the need of further investments into internet infrastructure.[18] Others have similarly criticized laptop deployments in very low income countries, regarding them as cost-ineffective when compared to far simpler measures such as deworming and other expenses on basic child health.[19]

Lee Felsenstein, a computer engineer who played a central role in the development of the personal computer, criticized the centralized, top-down design and distribution of the OLPC.[20]

The project originally aimed for a price of 100 US dollars; in May 2006, Negroponte told the Red Hat's annual user summit: "It is a floating price. We are a nonprofit organization. We have a target of $100 by 2008, but probably it will be $135, maybe $140."[21] A BBC news article in April 2010 indicated the price still remained above $200.[22]

In April 2011, the price remained above $209;[23] in 2013, more than 10% of the world population lived on less than US$2 per day.[24] The latter income segment would have to spend more than a quarter of its annual income to purchase a single laptop, while the global average of ICT spending is 3% of income.[25] Empirical studies show that the borderline between ICT as a necessity good and ICT as a luxury good is roughly around the "magical number" of US$10 per person per month, or US$120 per year.[25]

John Wood, founder of Room to Read (a NPO which builds schools and libraries), emphasizes affordability and scalability over high-tech solutions. While in favor of the One Laptop per Child initiative for providing education to children in the developing world at a cheaper rate, he has pointed out that a $2,000 library can serve 400 children, costing just $5 a child to bring access to a wide range of books in the local languages (such as Khmer or Nepali) and English; also, a $10,000 school can serve 400–500 children ($20–$25 a child). According to Wood, these are more appropriate solutions for education in the dense forests of Vietnam or rural Cambodia.[26]

The Scandinavian aid organization FAIR proposed setting up computer labs with recycled second-hand computers as a cheaper initial investment. Negroponte argued against this proposition, stating the expensive running cost of conventional laptops.[27]Computer Aid International doubted the OLPC sales strategy would succeed, citing the "untested" nature of its technology. CAI refurbishes computers and printers and sells them to developing countries for £42 a piece (compare it to £50 a piece for the OLPC laptops).[28]

The OLPC project has also been criticized for allegedly adopting a "one-shot" deployment approach with little or no technical support or teacher training, and for neglecting pilot programs and formal assessment of outcomes in favor of quick deployment, some authors attribute this unconventional approach to the OLPC promoters' alleged focus on constructivist education and 'digital utopianism'.[19]Mark Warschauer, a Professor of University of California at Irvine and Morgan Ames, at the time of writing, a PhD candidate at Stanford University, have pointed out that the laptop by itself does not completely fill the need of students in underprivileged countries. The "children’s machines", as they have been called, have been deployed to several countries, for example Uruguay, Peru, and in the US, Alabama, but after a relatively short time, their usage has declined considerably, sometimes because of hardware problems or breakage, in some cases, as high as 27% to 59% within the first two years, and sometimes due to a lack of knowledge on the part of the users on how to take full advantage of the machine. However, another factor has recently been acknowledged; a lack of a direct relation to the pedagogy needed in the local context to be truly effective. Uruguay reports that only 21.5% of teachers use the laptop in the classroom on a daily basis, and 25% report using it less than once a week. In Alabama, 80.3% of students say they never or seldom use the computer for class work, and Peru, teachers report that in the first few months, 68.9% use the laptop three times per week, but after two months, only 40% report such usage. Those of a low socio-economic level tend to not be able to effectively use the laptop for educational purposes on their own, but with scaffolding and mentoring from teachers, the machine can become more useful. According to one of the returning OLPC executives, Walter Bender, the approach needs to be more holistic, combining technology with a prolonged community effort, teacher training and local educational efforts and insights.[29]

The organization has been accused of simply giving underprivileged children laptops and "walking away", some critics claim this "drive-by" implementation model was the official strategy of the project. While the organisation has learning teams dedicated to support and working with teachers, Negroponte has said in response to this criticism that "You actually can" give children a connected laptop and walk away, noting experiences with self-guided learning.[30]

In 2009, OLPC announced an updated XO (dubbed XO-1.5) that takes advantage of the latest component technologies. The XO-1.5 includes a new VIAC7-M processor and a new chipset providing a 3D graphics engine and an HD video decoder. It has 1GB of RAM and built-in storage of 4 GB, with an option for 8 GB, the XO-1.5 uses the same display, and a network wireless interface with half the power dissipation.[34]

Early prototype versions of the hardware were available in June 2009, and they are available for software development and testing available for free through a developer's program.[35]

An XO-1.75 model was developed that used a Marvell ARM processor, targeting a price below $150 and date in 2011.[36]

The XO-2 two sheet design concept was canceled in favor of the one sheet XO-3.

An XO-3 concept resembled a tablet computer and was planned to have the inner workings of the XO 1.75.[37] Price goal is below $100 and date is 2012.[38]

As of May 2010, OLPC was working with Marvell on other unspecified future tablet designs;[39] in October 2010, both OLPC and Marvell signed an agreement granting OLPC $5.6 million to fund development of its XO-3 next generation tablet computer. The tablet was to use an ARM chip from Marvell.[40][41]

At CES 2012, OLPC showcased the XO-3 model, which featured a touchscreen and a modified form of SugarLabs "Sugar".[42] In early December 2012, however, it was announced that the XO-3 would not be seeing actual production, and focus had shifted to the XO-4.[43]

The XO-4 was launched at International CES 2013 in Las Vegas[44] The XO Laptop version 4 is available in two models: XO 4 and XO 4 Touch, with the latter providing multi-touch input on the display, the XO Laptop version 4 uses an ARM processor to provide high performance with low power consumption, while keeping the industrial design of the traditional XO Laptop.

The laptops include an anti-theft system which can, optionally, require each laptop to periodically make contact with a server to renew its cryptographic lease token. If the cryptographic lease expires before the server is contacted, the laptop will be locked until a new token is provided, the contact may be to a country-specific server over a network or to a local, school-level server that has been manually loaded with cryptographic "lease" tokens that enable a laptop to run for days or even months between contacts. Cryptographic lease tokens can be supplied on a USB flash drive for non-networked schools,[45] the mass production laptops are also tivoized, disallowing installation of additional software or replacement of the operating system. Users interested in development need to obtain the unlocking key separately (most developer laptops for Western users already come unlocked), it is claimed that locking prevents unintentional bricking and is part of the anti-theft system.[46]

In 2006, the OLPC project was heavily criticised over Red Hat's non-disclosure agreement (NDA) with Marvell concerning the wireless device in OLPC, especially in light of the OLPC project being positioned as an open-source friendly initiative. An open letter for documentation was inked by Theo de Raadt (a recipient of the 2004 Award for the Advancement of Free Software), and the initiative for open documentation has been supported by Richard Stallman, the President of the Free Software Foundation.[47] De Raadt later clarified that he finds an issue with OLPC having proprietary firmware files that are not allowed to be independently re-distributed (even in the binary form) by third-party operating systems like OpenBSD, as well as receiving no documentation to write the necessary drivers for the operating system.[48][49] De Raadt has pointed out that the OpenBSD project requires no firmware source code, and no low-level documentation to work on firmware, only requiring the binary distribution rights and documentation to interface with the said binary firmware that runs outside of the main CPU, a quite simple request that is generally honoured by many other wireless device vendors like Ralink.[50] Stallman fully agreed with de Raadt's request to open up the documentation,[47][not in citation given] since Stallman is known to hold an even stronger and more idealistic position in regards to the proprietary components, and requires that even the firmware that runs outside of the main CPU must be provided in its source code form, something de Raadt does not require. De Raadt later has had to point out that such more idealistic and less realistic position has instead been misattributed to OpenBSD's more practical approach to make it look unreasonable, and stood on record that OpenBSD's position is much easier to satisfy, yet it nonetheless remained unresolved.[48]

OLPC's dedication to "Free and open source" was questioned with their May 15, 2008, announcement that large-scale purchasers would be offered the choice to add an extra cost, special version of the proprietary Windows XP OS developed by Microsoft alongside the regular, free and open Linux-based operating system with the SugarLabs "Sugar OS" GUI. Microsoft developed a modified version of Windows XP and announced in May 2008 that Windows XP will be available for an additional cost of 10 dollars per laptop.[51] James Utzschneider, from Microsoft, said that initially only one operating system could be chosen.[52][53] OLPC, however, said that future OLPC work would enable XO-1 laptops to dual boot either the free and open Linux/Sugar OS or the proprietary Microsoft Windows XP. Negroponte further said that "OLPC will sell Linux-only and dual-boot, and will not sell Windows-only [XO-1 laptops]". OLPC released the first test firmware enabling XO-1 dual-boot on July 3, 2008.[52][54][55][56][57] This option did not prove popular, as of 2011, a few pilots had received a few thousand total dual-boot machines, and the new ARM-based machines do not support Windows XP. No significant deployment purchased Windows licenses.[58] Negroponte stated that the dispute had "become a distraction" for the project, and that its end goal was enabling children to learn, while constructionism and the open source ethos was more of a means to that end.[12]Charles Kane concurred, stating that anything which detracted from the ultimate goal of widespread distribution and use was counterproductive.[12]

The organization has been criticized for its lack of troubleshooting support. Teachers in Peru are told to handle problems in one of two ways. If the problem is a software issue, they are to flash the computer, and if it is a hardware problem, they are to report it; in the classroom environment this black-boxing approach is being criticized for causing the teachers and students to feel disconnected with, and confused by the laptop, which results, in many cases, in the laptops eventually going unused.[59] Several defects in OLPC XO-1 hardware have emerged in the field, and laptop repair is often neglected by students or their families (who are responsible for maintenance) due to the relatively high cost of some components (such as displays).[19]

On the software side, the Bitfrost security system has been known to deactivate improperly, rendering the laptop unusable until it is unlocked by support technicians with the proper keys. (This is a time-consuming process, and the problem often affects large numbers of laptops at the same time). The Sugar interface has been difficult for teachers to learn, and the mesh networking feature in the OLPC XO-1 was buggy and went mostly unused in the field.[19]

The OLPC XO-1 hardware lacks connectivity to external monitors or projectors, and teachers are not provided with software for remote assessment, as a result, students are unable to present their work to the whole class, and teachers must also assess students' work from the individual laptops. Teachers often find it difficult to use the keyboard and screen, which were designed with student use in mind.[19]

In 2005 and prior to the final design of the XO-1 hardware, OLPC received criticism because of concerns over the environmental and health impacts of hazardous materials found in most computers,[60] the OLPC asserted that it aimed to use as many environmentally friendly materials as it could; that the laptop and all OLPC-supplied accessories would be fully compliant with the EU's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS); and that the laptop would use an order of magnitude less power than the typical consumer netbooks available as of 2007 thus minimizing the environmental burden of power generation.[61]

The XO-1 delivered (starting in 2007) uses environmental friendly materials, complies with the EU's RoHS and uses between 0.25 and 6.5 watts[62] in operation. According to the Green Electronics Council's Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool, whose sole purpose is assessing and measuring the impact laptops have on the environment, the XO is not only non-toxic and fully recyclable, but it lasts longer, costs less, and is more energy efficient. The XO-1 is the first laptop to have been awarded an EPEAT Gold level rating.[63][64]

Other discussions question whether OLPC laptops should be designed to promote anonymity or to facilitate government tracking of stolen laptops. A June 2008 New Scientist article critiqued Bitfrost's P_THEFT security option, which allows each laptop to be configured to transmit an individualized, non-repudiable digital signature to a central server at most once each day to remain functioning.[65]

The laptops are sold to governments,[66] to be distributed through the ministries of education with the goal of distributing "one laptop per child", the laptops are given to students, similar to school uniforms and ultimately remain the property of the child. The operating system and software is localized to the languages of the participating countries.

OLPC now also works directly with program sponsors from the public and private sectors to implement its educational program in entire schools and communities, as a non-profit organization, OLPC does require a source of funding for its program so that the laptops are given to students at no cost to child or to his/her family.

Approximately 500 developer boards (Alpha-1) were distributed in mid-2006; 875 working prototypes (Beta 1) were delivered in late 2006; 2400 Beta-2 machines were distributed at the end of February 2007;[67] full-scale production started November 6, 2007.[68] Around one million units were manufactured in 2008.

OLPC initially stated that no consumer version of the XO laptop was planned,[69] the project, however, later established the laptopgiving.org website to accept direct donations and ran a "Give 1 Get 1" (G1G1) offer starting on November 12, 2007. The offer was initially scheduled to run for only two weeks, but was extended until December 31, 2007 to meet demand, with a donation of $399 (plus US$25 shipping cost) to the OLPC "Give 1 Get 1" program, donors received an XO-1 laptop of their own and OLPC sent another on their behalf to a child in a developing country. Shipments of "Get 1" laptops sent to donors were restricted to addresses within the United States, its territories, and Canada.

Some 83,500 people participated in the program. Delivery of all of the G1G1 laptops was completed by April 19, 2008.[70] Delays were blamed on order fulfillment and shipment issues both within OLPC and with the outside contractors hired to manage those aspects of the G1G1 program.[71]

OLE Nepal, One Laptop Per Child image from Nepal

Between November 17 and December 31, 2008, a second G1G1 program[72] was run through Amazon.com and Amazon.co.uk.[73] This partnership was chosen specifically to solve the distribution issues of the G1G1 2007 program, the price to consumers was the same as in 2007, at US$399.

The program aimed to be available worldwide. Laptops could be delivered in the US, in Canada and in more than 30 European countries, as well as in some Central and South American countries (Colombia, Haiti, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay), African countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar, Rwanda) and Asian countries (Afghanistan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Nepal),[74] despite this, the program sold only about 12,500 laptops and generated a mere $2.5 million, a 93 percent decline from the year before.[75]

In October 2007, Uruguay placed an order for 100,000 laptops, making Uruguay the first country to purchase a full order of laptops, the first real, non-pilot deployment of the OLPC technology happened in Uruguay in December 2007.[79] Since then, 200,000 more laptops have been ordered to cover all public school children between 6 and 12 years old.

President Tabaré Vázquez of Uruguay presented the final laptop at a school in Montevideo on October 13, 2009,[80] over the last two years 362,000 pupils and 18,000 teachers have been involved, and has cost the state $260 (£159) per child, including maintenance costs, equipment repairs, training for the teachers and internet connection.[81] The annual cost of maintaining the programme, including an information portal for pupils and teachers, will be US$21 (£13) per child.[81]

The country reportedly became the first in the world where every primary school child received a free laptop on October 13, 2009 as part of the Plan Ceibal (Education Connect).[81][82]

Unfortunately, even though roughly 35% of all OLPC computers went to Uruguay, a 2013 study by the Economics Institute (University of the Republic, Uruguay) of the Ceibal plan concluded that use of the laptops did not improve literacy and that the use of the laptops was mostly recreational, with only 4.1% of the laptops being used "all" or "most" days in 2012. The main conclusion was that the results showed no impact of the OLPC program on the test scores in reading and math.[83]

Originally, OLPC announced the United States would not be part of the first-year effort; in 2008, Nicholas Negroponte said "OLPC America already has a director and a chairman and will likely be based in Washington, D.C.,"[84] however such an organization was not set up. As of 2010, Birmingham, Alabama is the largest deployment in the US, some said the changing economic landscape forced OLPC to adjust their distribution strategy. Negroponte cited patriotism, "building critical mass", and providing a means for children all over the world to communicate.

On January 26, 2012, prime minister Ara Harutyunyan and entrepreneur Eduardo Eurnekian signed a memorandum of understanding launching an OLPC program in Artsakh, the program is geared towards elementary schools throughout Artsakh. Eurnekian hopes to decrease the gap by giving the war-zoned region an opportunity to engage in a more solid education, the New York-based nonprofit, Armenian General Benevolent Union, is helping to undertake the responsibility by providing on-the-ground support. The government of Artsakh is enthusiastic and is working with OLPC to bring the program to fruition.[85]

Lagos Analysis Corp., also called Lancor, a Lagos, US-based Nigerian-owned company, sued OLPC in the end of 2007 for $20 million, claiming that the computer's keyboard design was stolen from a Lancor patented device.[86] OLPC responded by claiming that they had not sold any multi-lingual keyboards in the design claimed by Lancor,[87] and that Lancor had misrepresented and concealed material facts before the court;[88] in January 2008, the Nigerian Federal Court rejected OLPC motion to dismiss LANCOR's lawsuit and extended its injunction against OLPC distributing its XO Laptops in Nigeria. OLPC appealed the Court's decision, the Appeal is still pending in the Nigerian Federal Court of Appeals; in March 2008, OLPC filed a lawsuit in Massachusetts to stop LANCOR from suing it in the United States.[89] In October 2008, MIT News magazine erroneously reported that the Middlesex Superior Court granted OLPC’s motions to dismiss all of LANCOR’s claims against OLPC, Nicholas Negroponte, and Quanta,[90] on October 22, 2010 OLPC voluntarily moved the Massachusetts Court to dismiss its own lawsuit against LANCOR.

In 2007, XO laptops in Nigeria were reported to contain pornographic material belonging to children participating in the OLPC Program;[91] in response, OLPC Nigeria announced they would start equipping the machines with filters.[91][92]

India's Ministry of Human Resource Development, in June 2006, rejected the initiative, saying "it would be impossible to justify an expenditure of this scale on a debatable scheme when public funds continue to be in inadequate supply for well-established needs listed in different policy documents".[93][94] Later they stated plans to make laptops at $10 each for schoolchildren. Two designs submitted to the Ministry from a final year engineering student of Vellore Institute of Technology and a researcher from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in May 2007 reportedly describe a laptop that could be produced for "$47 per laptop" for even small volumes.[95] The Ministry announced in July 2008 that the cost of their proposed "$10 laptop" would in fact be $100 by the time the laptop became available;[96] in 2010, a related $35 Sakshat Tablet was unveiled in India, released the next year as the "Aakash".[97][98] In 2011, each Aakash sold for approximately $44 by an Indian company, DataWind. DataWind plans to launch similar projects in Brazil, Egypt, Panama, Thailand and Turkey.[99] OLPC later expressed support for the initiative.[100]

In 2009, a number of states announced plans to order OLPCs. However, as of 2010, only the state of Manipur had deployed 1000 laptops.

^Fildes, Jonathan (May 15, 2008). "'$100 laptop' embraces Windows XP". Microsoft has joined forces with the developers of the "$100 laptop" to make Windows available on the machines. BBC News. Retrieved May 15, 2008.

^Ina Fried (May 15, 2008). "Microsoft, OLPC officially team up". Retrieved December 7, 2008. Microsoft, meanwhile, said the first XO laptops with Windows that start rolling out in June will not be dual-boot machines.

1.
Miami, Florida
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region

2.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St

3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

4.
Nicholas Negroponte
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Nicholas Negroponte is a Greek American architect. He is the founder and Chairman Emeritus of Massachusetts Institute of Technologys Media Lab, Negroponte was born to Dimitri John, a Greek shipping magnate, and grew up in New York Citys Upper East Side. He is the brother of John Negroponte, former United States Deputy Secretary of State. Another brother Michael Negroponte is an Emmy Award-winning filmmaker, and his other brother and he attended Buckley School in New York City, Le Rosey in Switzerland, and The Choate School in Wallingford, Connecticut, from which he graduated in 1961. Subsequently, he studied at MIT as both an undergraduate and graduate student in Architecture where his research focused on issues of computer-aided design and he earned a masters degree in architecture from MIT in 1966. Despite his accomplished career, Negroponte has spoken publicly about his dyslexia. Negroponte joined the faculty of MIT in 1966, for several years thereafter he divided his teaching time between MIT and several visiting professorships at Yale, Michigan and the University of California, Berkeley. In 1967, Negroponte founded MITs Architecture Machine Group, a combination lab, in 1985, Negroponte created the MIT Media Lab with Jerome B. As director, he developed the lab into the pre-eminent computer science laboratory for new media, Negroponte also became a proponent of intelligent agents and personalized electronic newspapers, for which he popularized the term the Daily Me. In 1992, Negroponte became involved in the creation of Wired Magazine as the first investor, from 1993 to 1998, he contributed a monthly column to the magazine in which he reiterated a basic theme, Move bits, not atoms. Being Digital was a bestseller and was translated into twenty languages. Negroponte is a digital optimist who believed that computers would make life better for everyone, however, critics such as Cass Sunstein have criticised his techno-utopian ideas for failing to consider the historical, political and cultural realities with which new technologies should be viewed. In 2000, Negroponte stepped down as director of the Media Lab as Walter Bender took over as Executive Director, however, Negroponte retained the role of laboratory Chairman. The price has increased to US$180, however, the project is part of a broader program by One Laptop Per Child, a non-profit organisation started by Negroponte and other Media Lab faculty, to extend Internet access in developing countries. Negroponte is an angel investor and has invested in over 30 startup companies over the last 30 years, including Zagats, Wired, Ambient Devices, Skype. He sits on boards, including Motorola and Velti. He is also on the board of TTI/Vanguard. The committee was formed as part of the merger of Dow Jones with News Corporation, negropontes fellow founding committee members are Louis Boccardi, Thomas Bray, Jack Fuller, and the late former Congresswoman Jennifer Dunn

5.
Seymour Papert
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Seymour Aubrey Papert was a South African-born American mathematician, computer scientist, and educator, who spent most of his career teaching and researching at MIT. He was one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence, and of the constructionist movement in education and he was co-inventor, with Wally Feurzeig and Cynthia Solomon, of the Logo programming language. Papert attended the University of the Witwatersrand, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy in 1949 followed by a PhD in mathematics in 1952 and he then went on to receive a second doctorate, also in mathematics, at the University of Cambridge, supervised by Frank Smithies. At MIT, Papert went on to create the Epistemology and Learning Research Group at the MIT Architecture Machine Group which later became the MIT Media Lab. Here, he was the developer of a theory on learning called constructionism, Papert had worked with Piaget at the University of Geneva from 1958 to 1963 and was one of Piagets protégés, Piaget himself once said that no one understands my ideas as well as Papert. Papert has rethought how schools should work, based on theories of learning. Papert used Piagets work in his development of the Logo programming language while at MIT and he created Logo as a tool to improve the way children think and solve problems. A small mobile robot called the Logo Turtle was developed, a main purpose of the Logo Foundation research group is to strengthen the ability to learn knowledge. Papert insisted a simple language or program that children can learn—like Logo—can also have advanced functionality for expert users. Counter-free automata,1971, ISBN 0-262-13076-9 Perceptrons, MIT Press,1969, ISBN 0-262-63111-3 Mindstorms, Children, Computers, Constructionism, research reports and essays 1985 -1990 by the Epistemology and Learning Research Group, the Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Ablex Pub. He was one of the principals for the One Laptop Per Child initiative to manufacture, Papert also collaborated with the construction toy manufacturer Lego on their Logo-programmable Lego Mindstorms robotics kits, which were named after his groundbreaking 1980 book. He was a figure in the revolutionary socialist circle around Socialist Review while living in London in the 1950s. Papert was also a prominent activist against South African apartheid policies during his university education, Papert was married to Dona Strauss, and later to Androula Christofides Henriques. Paperts third wife was MIT professor Sherry Turkle, and together wrote the influential paper Epistemological Pluralism. In his final 24 years, Papert was married to Suzanne Massie and he was moved to a hospital closer to his home in January 2007, but then contracted septicemia which damaged a heart valve, which was later replaced. By 2008 he had returned home, could think and communicate clearly and walk almost unaided and his rehabilitation team used some of the very principles of experiential, hands-on learning that he had pioneered. Papert died at his home in Blue Hill, Maine, on July 31,2016, paperts work has been used by other researchers in the fields of education and computer science. In 1981, Papert along with others in the Logo group at MIT

6.
Mary Lou Jepsen
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Mary Lou Jepsen is a technical executive, inventing and leading groups in the fields of display, imaging and computer hardware. Her most recent endeavor is OpenWater, a startup aiming to make fMRI-type imaging inside the body practical at the level of consumer electronics. In 2016, she joined the board of directors of Lear Corporation and she was previously an executive at Facebook / Oculus VR. Among her objectives at Facebook was leading an effort to bring Virtual Reality to the next level. In other words from wall size interaction, television, video conferencing and gaming to virtual reality without having to wear anything on your face or body. She is also founder and former CEO of Pixel Qi in Taipei, Taiwan, focused on innovative opto-electronic architectures, Pixel Qi delivers high performance, low-power, sunlight-readable screens for mobile devices. She was named to the Time 100, an annual list of the 100 most influential people in the according to Time Magazine. Jepsen studied Studio Art and Electrical Engineering at Brown University and she received a Master of Science in Holography from the MIT Media Lab, and then returned to Brown to receive a Ph. D. in Optical Sciences. Her contributions have had worldwide adoption in head-mounted display, HDTV, Jepsen has created some of the largest ambient displays ever. In Cologne, Germany she built a replica of pre-existing buildings in the citys historic district. This system inspired a new subfield of holographic video and received numerous awards, from 2003 until the end of 2004, she was the chief technology officer of Intel’s Display Division. In 2005 Jepsen joined the faculty of the MIT Media Lab as a professor with a tenure-track position, here she started the Nomadic Displays Group. She simultaneously co-founded One Laptop per Child, then, hooked on the impact that OLPC was having using the massive factory infrastructure of the world, she left Boston to split her time between Silicon Valley and Asia. In January 2005, Jepsen joined Nicholas Negroponte to start One Laptop per Child and led the design, architecture, partnering, development, as of 2013, millions of units have shipped and revenues are beyond the billion dollar mark. Every child in Uruguay has an OLPC laptop, there are deployments in over 50 other countries and in more than 25 different languages. OLPC is credited with changing the equation for what a minister of education can do to improve the education of a countrys children, for the entire first year of the effort she was the only employee of One Laptop per Child. By the end of 2005, she had completed the architecture, led the development of the first prototype. By the end of 2007 she had led the laptop through development, the XO laptop was the lowest-power laptop ever made

7.
Alan Kay
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Alan Curtis Kay is an American computer scientist. He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and he is best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface design. He is the president of the Viewpoints Research Institute, and an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of California and he is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. Until mid-2005, he was a Senior Fellow at HP Labs, a Visiting Professor at Kyoto University, after 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became Ataris chief scientist for three years. Kay is also a professional jazz guitarist, composer, and theatrical designer. In an interview on education in America with the Davis Group Ltd, Alan Kay said, I had the fortune or misfortune to learn how to read fluently starting at the age of three. So I had read maybe 150 books by the time I hit 1st grade, and I already knew that the teachers were lying to me. Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay attended the University of Colorado at Boulder, earning a Bachelors degree in Mathematics, before and during this time, he worked as a professional jazz guitarist. In 1966, he began school at the University of Utah College of Engineering, earning a masters degree. His doctoral thesis was entitled FLEX, A Flexible Extendable Language, while at the University of Utah, he worked with Ivan Sutherland, who had done pioneering graphics programs including Sketchpad. This greatly inspired Kays evolving views on objects and programming, as he grew busier with ARPA research, he quit his career as a professional musician. In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the Logo programming language and this led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of constructionist learning. In 1970, Kay joined Xerox Corporations Palo Alto Research Center, in the 1970s he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk. These inventions were later commercialized by Apple Computer in their Lisa, Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, which he named, along with some colleagues at PARC. Some of the original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words object, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept which defined the conceptual basics for laptop and tablet computers and E-books, and is the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface. He wrote, As with Simulas leading to OOP, this encounter final hit me with what the destiny of personal computing really was going to be. Not a personal vehicle, as in Engelbart’s metaphor opposed to the IBM “railroads”, but something much more profound. With a vehicle one could wait until high school and give “drivers ed”, starting in 1984, Kay was an Apple Fellow at Apple Computer until the closing of the ATG, one of the companys R&D divisions

8.
Developing country
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Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs

9.
OLPC XO
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The XO was developed by Nicholas Negroponte, a co-founder of MITs Media Lab, and designed by Yves Behars Fusebox company. The laptop is manufactured by Quanta Computer and developed by One Laptop per Child, the subnotebooks are designed for sale to government-education systems which then give each primary school child their own laptop. Pricing was set to start at $188 in 2006, with a goal to reach the $100 mark in 2008. When offered for sale in the Give One Get One campaigns of Q42006 and Q42007 and these rugged, low-power computers use flash memory instead of a hard drive, and come with an operating system derived from Fedora Linux as their pre-installed operating system with the Sugar GUI. The latest version of the OLPC XO is the XO-4 Touch, the device shown was a rough prototype using a standard development board. Negroponte estimated that the screen alone required three months of development. The first working prototype was demonstrated at the projects Country Task Force Meeting on May 23,2006, in 2006 there was a major controversy because Microsoft had suddenly developed an interest in the XO project and wanted the formerly open source effort to run Windows. Negroponte agreed to provide assistance to Microsoft to facilitate their efforts. During this time, the mission statement changed to remove mentions of open source. A number of developers, such as Ivan Krstić and Walter Bender, Quanta Computer, the projects contract manufacturer, said in February 2007 that it had confirmed orders for one million units. Quanta plans to offer very similar to the XO-1 on the open market. The One Laptop Per Child project originally stated that a version of the XO laptop was not planned. The project later established, in 2007 the laptopgiving. org website for outright donations, for each computer purchased at a cost of $399, an XO is also sent to a child in a developing nation. OLPC again restarted the G1G1 program through Amazon. com in November 2008, on May 20,2008, OLPC announced the next generation of XO, OLPC XO-2 which was thereafter cancelled in favor of the tablet-like designed XO-3. In late 2008, the NYC Department of Education began a project to purchase large numbers of XO computers for use by New York schoolchildren, the design received the Community category award of the 2007 Index, Award. The XO-1 is designed to be low-cost, small, durable and it is shipped with a slimmed-down version of Fedora Linux and a GUI named Sugar that is intended to help young children collaborate. The XO-1 includes a camera, a microphone, long-range Wi-Fi. In addition to a standard plug-in power supply, human power and solar sources are available

10.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick

11.
AMD
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While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company became fabless after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. AMDs main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, AMD is the second-largest supplier and only significant rival to Intel in the market for x86-based microprocessors. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete Graphics Processing Unit market, Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated on May 1,1969, by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor. In September 1969, AMD moved from its location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale. To immediately secure a base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild. AMD first focused on producing logic chips, in November 1969, the company manufactured its first product, the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter and its best-selling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available. In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101 and that year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year end the companys total annual sales reached $4.6 million. AMD went public in September 1972, the company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102, Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971. By 1975, AMD entered the market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080. In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, Siemens purchased 20% of AMDs stock, giving AMD an infusion of cash to increase its product lines. When the two companies vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens stake in the U. S. division in 1979, AMD closed its Advanced Micro Computers subsidiary in late 1981, after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors. Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and in 1979, in 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation. Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978, in 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intels x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981, the technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company. The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995, the agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one years notice. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips, in 1983, it introduced INT. STD.1000, the highest manufacturing quality standard in the industry

12.
EBay
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EBay Inc. is a multinational e-commerce corporation, facilitating online consumer-to-consumer and business-to-consumer sales. It is headquartered in San Jose, California, eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995, and became a notable success story of the dot-com bubble. Today it is a business with operations in about 30 countries. The company manages eBay. com, an auction and shopping website in which people and businesses buy and sell a broad variety of goods. It previously offered online money transfers, which was a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay from 2002 until 2015, the website is free to use for buyers, but sellers are charged fees for listing items and again when those items are sold. The AuctionWeb was founded in California on September 3,1995 by French-born Iranian-American computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as part of a personal site. One of the first items sold on AuctionWeb was a laser pointer for $14.83. Astonished, Omidyar contacted the winning bidder to ask if he understood that the pointer was broken. In his responding email, the buyer explained, Im a collector of broken laser pointers and this was revealed in Adam Cohens book, The Perfect Store, and confirmed by eBay. Reportedly, eBay was simply a hobby for Omidyar until his Internet service provider informed him he would need to upgrade to a business account due to the high volume of traffic to his website. The resulting price increase forced him to start charging those who used eBay and it resulted in the hiring of Chris Agarpao as eBays first employee to handle the number of checks coming in for fees. Jeffrey Skoll was hired as the first president of the company in early 1996, growth was phenomenal, in January 1997 the site hosted 2,000,000 auctions, compared with 250,000 during the whole of 1996. The company officially changed the name of its service from AuctionWeb to eBay in September 1997, originally, the site belonged to Echo Bay Technology Group, Omidyars consulting firm. Omidyar had tried to register the domain name echobay. com, but found it already taken by the Echo Bay Mines, in 1997, the company received $6.7 million in funding from the venture capital firm Benchmark Capital. Meg Whitman was hired as eBay President and CEO in March 1998, at the time, the company had 30 employees, half a million users and revenues of $4.7 million in the United States. EBay went public on September 21,1998, and both Omidyar and Skoll became instant billionaires, eBays target share price of $18 was all but ignored as the price went to $53.50 on the first day of trading. As the company expanded product categories beyond collectibles into almost any saleable item, in February 2002, the company purchased iBazar, a similar European auction web site founded in 1998, and then bought PayPal on October 3,2002. By early 2008, the company had expanded worldwide, counted hundreds of millions of registered users,15, after nearly ten years at eBay, Whitman decided to enter politics

13.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024

14.
Marvell Technology Group
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Marvell Technology Group, Limited, is a producer of storage, communications and consumer semiconductor products. The company was founded in 1995 and has approximately 7,000 employees, marvells U. S. operating headquarters is located in Santa Clara, California, and the company operates design centers in places including Canada, Europe, Israel, India, Singapore and China. Marvell is a manufacturer of semiconductors that ships more than one billion integrated circuits per year. Its market segments include the enterprise, cloud, automotive, industrial, Marvell was founded in 1995 by Sehat Sutardja, his wife Weili Dai, and brother Pantas Sutardja. The initial public offering on June 27,2000 raised $90 million, after quickly raising from $19 to over $63 per share, three days later it was $55.25. At the time, the five largest customers, Samsung Electronics, Hitachi, Seagate Technology, Fujitsu and Toshiba, the shares dropped sharply in December when insiders were allowed to sell. The company is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda. The US operations known as Marvell Semiconductor, Incorporated, are located in Silicon Valley, through the years, Marvell acquired smaller companies to enter new markets. Marvells first products were sold for computer storage devices. In March 2000, computer networking products for the Ethernet family were first shipped, in October 2002, the Yukon brand Gigabit Ethernet controller was announced. On June 27,2006, the sale of Intels XScale assets was announced, intel agreed to sell the XScale business to Marvell for an estimated USD600 million in cash and the assumption of unspecified liabilities. The acquisition was completed on November 9,2006, in 2009, Marvell announced that the SheevaPlug, a small, low-power, SoC-based ARM architecture computer, would be released with full schematics. Marvell supplied the Wi-Fi chip for the original Apple iPhone, Marvell Mobile Hotspot is an in-car Wi-Fi connectivity. The 2010 Audi A8 was the first automobile in the market to feature a factory-installed MMH, googles Chromecast products are powered by Marvell SoCs. Namely the Marvell ARMADA1500 Mini SoC for the Chromecast 1st gen, in 2012, Marvell was named one of Thomson Reuters top 100 global innovators. In 2006, the US Securities and Exchange Commission started an inquiry on the stock option grant practices. An investigation determined grant dates were chosen with the benefit of hindsight to make the more valuable. The press estimated that the founders and other executives had made $760 million in gains from the options, the SEC asked to interview the company general counsel Matthew Gloss, but Marvell claimed attorney-client privilege

15.
News Corporation
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The original News Corporation or News Corp. was an American multinational mass media corporation headquartered in New York City. It was the worlds fourth-largest media group in 2014 in terms of revenue, board members include prominent former Spanish prime minister José María Aznar. News Corporation was a traded company listed on the NASDAQ. Formerly incorporated in Adelaide, South Australia, the company was re-incorporated under Delaware General Corporation Law after a majority of shareholders approved the move on 12 November 2004. News Corporation was headquartered at 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York and its major holdings at the time of the split were News Limited, News International, Dow Jones & Company, the book publisher HarperCollins, and the Fox Entertainment Group. News Corp was created in 1979 by Rupert Murdoch as a company for News Limited. News Limited was created in 1923 in Adelaide, subsequently the controlling interest was bought by The Herald, in 1949, Sir Keith Murdoch took control of The Adelaide News. When he died in 1952, his son Rupert inherited a controlling interest in an Adelaide afternoon tabloid, News Limited operates today as News Corporations Australian brand, The Australian operating out of Surry Hills, in Sydney. News Ltd. made its first acquisition in the United States in 1973, soon afterwards it founded the National Star, a supermarket tabloid, and in 1976 it purchased the New York Post. In 1981, News Corp bought half of the movie studio 20th Century Fox, in 1985, News Corp announced it was buying the Metromedia group of stations, setting the stage for the launch of a fourth U. S. commercial broadcasting television network. On 4 September 1985, Murdoch became a citizen to satisfy the legal requirement that only United States citizens could own American television stations. In 1986, the Metromedia deal closed, and the Fox Broadcasting Company was launched and this network, known on-screen as Fox, can now be picked up in over 96% of U. S. households. In 1986 and 1987, News Corp moved to adjust the production process of its British newspapers, a number of senior Australian media moguls were brought into Murdochs powerhouse, including John Dux, who was managing director of the South China Morning Post. This led to a confrontation with the printing unions National Graphical Association and Society of Graphical, the move of News Internationals London operation to Wapping in the East End resulted in nightly battles outside the new plant. Delivery vans and depots were frequently and violently attacked, in 1993, News Corp acquired a 63. 6% stake of the Hong Kong-based STAR TV satellite network for over $500 million, followed by the purchase of the remaining 36. 4% in July 1995. Murdoch declared that, have proved a threat to totalitarian regimes everywhere. Satellite broadcasting makes it possible for residents of many closed societies to bypass state-controlled television channels. In 1995, the Fox network became the object of scrutiny from the FCC when it was alleged that its Australian base made Murdochs ownership of Fox illegal, the FCC, however, ruled in Murdochs favour, stating that his ownership of Fox was in the publics best interests

16.
Nortel
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It was founded in Montreal, Quebec in 1895 as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company. At its height, Nortel accounted for more than a third of the valuation of all the companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange. Nortel had filed for protection from its creditors in the United States, Canada, in June 2009, the company announced it would cease operations and sell off all of its business units. The period of protection was extended to February 2,2013. As part of the proceedings in the United States, Nortel Networks Inc. publishes monthly operating reports outlining cash receipts and disbursements. By 2016 Nortel had sold billions of dollars worth of assets and he later refined its design at Brantford after producing his first working prototype in Boston. In addition to phones, four years later, the department started manufacturing its first switchboard, the small manufacturing department expanded yearly with the growth and popularity of the telephone to 50 employees in 1888. By 1890 it had transformed into its own branch of operations with 200 employees. As the manufacturing branch expanded, its production ability increased beyond the demand for phones and this was a problem because the Bell Telephone Company of Canadas charter would not allow them to build other products. This company was incorporated as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited, Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited was incorporated on 7 December 1895, by the following corporate members, Charles Fleetford Sise Sr. McFarlane, manager, all of the city and district of Montreal, the initial stock capital was $50,000 at $100 per share, with 93 percent held by the Bell Telephone Company of Canada and the remainder held by the seven corporate members above. The first general meeting was held on March 24,1896. In December 1899, The Bell Telephone Company of Canada bought a company for $500,000. Northern Electric and Manufacturing further expanded its line in 1900. In 1911 the Wire and Cable company changed its name to the Imperial Wire, the construction of a new manufacturing plant started in 1913 at Shearer Street in Montreal, Canada, as preparations began for the two manufacturing companies integration. This facility at Shearer Street was the manufacturing centre until the mid-1950s. Edward Fleetford Sise was the president and his brother Paul Fleetford Sise was the vice-president, during the First World War Northern Electric manufactured the Portable Commutator, a one-wire telegraphic switchboard for military operations in the field. In 1922, Northern started to produce, for $5, the Peanut vacuum tube, the use of alternating current was still under development during this time

17.
Red Hat
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Red Hat, Inc. is an American multinational software company providing open-source software products to the enterprise community. Founded in 1993, Red Hat has its headquarters in Raleigh, North Carolina. Red Hat has become associated to an extent with its enterprise operating system Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Red Hat also offers Red Hat Virtualization, a virtualization product. Red Hat provides storage, operating system platforms, middleware, applications, management products, and support, training, Red Hat creates, maintains, and contributes to many free software projects. It has acquired several proprietary software product codebases through corporate mergers, as of March 2016, Red Hat is the second largest corporate contributor to the Linux kernel version 4.5 after Intel. In 1993, Bob Young incorporated the ACC Corporation, a business that sold Linux. In 1994, Marc Ewing created his own Linux distribution, which he named Red Hat Linux, Ewing released the software in October, and it became known as the Halloween release. Young bought Ewings business in 1995, and the two merged to become Red Hat Software, with Young serving as executive officer. Red Hat went public on August 11,1999, achieving the eighth-biggest first-day gain in the history of Wall Street, matthew Szulik succeeded Bob Young as CEO in December of that year. Bob Young went on to found the print on demand and self-publishing company. Before its IPO, Red Hat had received funding from Joyce Young. When Red Hat went public, she cashed in enough stock to recoup her initial investment, then left the remaining stock to linger, for fun. Her return on investment was so great that, by January 2000 she was a millionaire, on November 15,1999, Red Hat acquired Cygnus Solutions. Cygnus provided commercial support for software and housed maintainers of GNU software products such as the GNU Debugger. One of the founders of Cygnus, Michael Tiemann, became the technical officer of Red Hat. Later Red Hat acquired WireSpeed, C2Net and Hells Kitchen Systems, in February 2000, InfoWorld awarded Red Hat its fourth consecutive Operating System Product of the Year award for Red Hat Linux 6.1. Red Hat acquired Planning Technologies, Inc in 2001 and AOLs iPlanet directory, Red Hat moved its headquarters from Durham to North Carolina State Universitys Centennial Campus in Raleigh, North Carolina in February 2002

18.
Asus Eee PC
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The Asus Eee PC is a netbook computer line from ASUSTeK Computer Incorporated, and a part of the Asus Eee product family. At the time of its introduction in late 2007, it was noted for its combination of a lightweight, Linux-based operating system, solid-state drive, newer models added the options of Microsoft Windows operating system, rotating media hard disk drives and initially retailed for up to 500 euros. The first Eee PC was a milestone in the computer business, launching the netbook category of small. According to Asus, the name Eee derives from the three Es, an abbreviation of its slogan for the device, Easy to learn, Easy to work. In January 2013, Asus officially ended production of their Eee PC series, citing declining sales due to consumers favoring tablets, however, they subsequently restarted the line with the release of the EeeBook series in 2015. Asus announced two Eee PC models at Computex Taipei 2007, the 701 and the 1001, the 701 base model Eee PC 4G was released on October 16,2007 in Taiwan. Both the price and the size of the device are small in comparison with similar Ultra-Mobile PCs, the Eee series is a response to the XO-1 notebook from the One Laptop per Child initiative. At the Intel Developer Forum 2007, Asus demonstrated the Classmate PC and the Eee PC, and listed specifications for four models of the Eee PC. In some countries, the products have the marketing names EeePC 8G, 4G, 4G Surf, the 4G Surf uses socketed RAM but some revisions do not have a door to access the slot. Asus released a version of the Eee PC with Microsoft Windows XP pre-installed in January 2008, in Japan, the version is known as the 4G-X. Some users of the 701 physically modified the machine to replace the 4 GB solid state drive, the 8 GB versions of the 700 series leave the SSD area on the motherboard empty and connect their SSD as an internal PCI Express Mini Card. Replacing the SSD requires only an SSD compatible with the connector, the SSD area on the motherboard may also be used to install other devices, or accommodate physically larger SSDs, or even to hard-solder an SSD salvaged from a 2 GB or 4 GB700 model. As this requires only soldering on a new device without removing an old one, the Eee 900 series was launched in Hong Kong on April 16,2008, and in the UK on May 1,2008 for £329. It was launched in the US on May 12,2008, the Eee 900 series dimensions are a little larger than the 70x models–measuring 225 ×165 ×35 mm and weighing around 1 kg. The machine has a multi-touch trackpad allowing two-finger scroll and zoom via a pinch gesture, the Intel Atom version is named the EeePC 900a and comes with an 8GB or 16 GB SSD. Some of these Eee PCs also have a 4 GB SSD installed similarly to that in the 701 for a storage space of 20GB. Those that do not are named the Asus EEE900 16G, the MS Windows XP version is named the EeePC900 Win and also comes in two versions, one with a total storage of 12 GB and one with 16 GB. The Linux 20G version is sold for the price as the MS Windows 12G version

19.
Chromebook
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A Chromebook is a laptop running the Linux-based Chrome OS as its operating system. The devices were designed to be used primarily while connected to the Internet, with most applications. The original Chromebook was an example of a thin client, the first Chromebooks for sale, by Acer Inc. and Samsung, began shipping on June 15,2011. In addition to models, a desktop version, called a Chromebox, was introduced in May 2012. Chromebooks are primarily sold directly from Google and from the companys retail partners. By 2012, schools had become the largest category of customer and that October, Google broadened its marketing strategy to include first-time computer users and households seeking an additional computer. In October 2012, Simon Phipps, writing in InfoWorld, said, from January to November 2013,1.76 million Chromebooks were sold in US business-to-business channels. ABI Research have shown them most popular in the US K–12 education market, at Google I/O2016, it was announced that Android applications would be available to run on supported Chromebooks, via the Google Play Store, that will result in having two app stores in Chrome OS. The first Chromebooks for sale, by Acer Inc. and Samsung, were announced at the Google I/O conference in May 2011, Lenovo, Hewlett Packard and Google itself entered the market in early 2013. In December 2013, Samsung launched a Samsung Chromebook specifically for the Indian market that employed the companys Exynos 5 Dual core processor. In addition to models, a desktop version, called a Chromebox, was introduced in May 2012. The all-in-one is named the Chromebase and that complaint dissipated later in reviews of machines from Acer and Samsung that were priced lower. In February 2013, Google announced and began shipping the Chromebook Pixel, the Pixel C is based on Android. Initial hardware partners for Chromebook development included Acer, Adobe, Asus, Freescale, Hewlett-Packard, Lenovo, Qualcomm, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, Intel, Samsung, and Dell. Chromebooks ship with Google Chrome OS, a system that uses the Linux kernel. Enabling developer mode allows the installation of Linux distributions on Chromebooks, crouton is a script that allows the installation of Linux distributions from Chrome OS, and running both operating systems simultaneously. Some Chromebooks include SeaBIOS, which can be turned on to install, with limited offline capability and a fast boot-time, Chromebooks are primarily designed for use while connected to the Internet. Instead of installing traditional applications such as processing and instant messaging

20.
Constructionism (learning theory)
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Constructionist learning is when learners construct mental models to understand the world around them. Constructionism advocates student-centered, discovery learning where students use information they already know to acquire more knowledge, further, constructionism holds that learning can happen most effectively when people are active in making tangible objects in the real world. In this sense, constructionism is connected with experiential learning and builds on Jean Piagets epistemological theory of constructivism, from constructivist theories of psychology we take a view of learning as a reconstruction rather than as a transmission of knowledge. Then we extend the idea of manipulative materials to the idea that learning is most effective part of an activity the learner experiences as constructing a meaningful product. Paperts ideas became known through the publication of his seminal book Mindstorms, Children, Computers. Papert described children creating programs in the Logo educational programming language and he likened their learning to living in a mathland where learning mathematical ideas is as natural as learning French while living in France. Constructionist learning involves students drawing their own conclusions through creative experimentation, the constructionist teacher takes on a mediational role rather than adopting an instructional role. Teaching at students is replaced by assisting them to help one another to understand—problems in a hands-on way. The teachers role is not to be a lecturer but a facilitator who coaches students to attaining their own goals and this kind of learning can be very effective in mathematics classes because students try to solve the problems in many different ways, stimulating their minds. The following five strategies make problem-based learning more effective, The learning activities should be related to a larger task, the learner needs to be supported to feel that they are beginning to have ownership of the overall problem. An authentic task should be designed for the learner and this means that the task and the learners cognitive ability have to match the problems to make learning valuable. Reflection on the content being learned should occur so that learners can think through the process of what they have learned, allow and encourage the learners to test ideas against different views in different contexts. Not only can constructionism be applied to mathematics but to the sciences as well. This would require students to locate these areas without using prepared resources, Papert has been a huge proponent of bringing technology to classrooms, beginning with his early uses of the Logo language to teach mathematics to children. More recently it has gained a foothold in applied linguistics in the field of language acquisition. One such application has been the use of the popular game SimCity as a means of teaching English using constructionist techniques. Beginning in the 1980s, The LEGO Group funded research of Paperts research group at the MIT Media Laboratory, which at the time was known as the Epistemology and Learning Group. When LEGO launched its LEGO Mindstorms Robotics Invention System in 1998, in The LEGO Groups LEGO Serious Play project, business people learn to express corporate issues and identity through the medium of plastic bricks

21.
World Economic Forum
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The World Economic Forum is a Swiss nonprofit foundation, based in Cologny, Geneva. The Forum is best known for its meeting at the end of January in Davos. The meeting brings together some 2,500 top business leaders, international leaders, economists. Often this location alone is used to identify meetings, participation, and participants with such phrases as, a Davos panel, beside meetings, the foundation produces a series of research reports and engages its members in sector specific initiatives. The forum was founded in 1971 by Klaus Schwab, a German-born business professor at the University of Geneva and he then founded the WEF as a nonprofit organization based in Geneva and drew European business leaders to Davos for the annual meetings each January. Political leaders soon began to use the meeting as a neutral platform. The Davos Declaration was signed in 1988 by Greece and Turkey, in 1992, South African President F. W. de Klerk met with Nelson Mandela and Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi at the annual meeting, their first joint appearance outside South Africa. At the 1994 annual meeting, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres and PLO chairman Yasser Arafat reached an agreement on Gaza. In late 2015, the invitation was extended to include a North Korean delegation for the 2016 forum, in view of positive signs coming out of the country, North Korea has not been attending the WEF since 1998. In 2017, the World Economic Forum in Davos attracted considerable attention when for the first time and he sharply rebuked the current populist movements that would introduce tariffs and hinder global commerce, warning that such protectionism could foster isolation and reduced economic opportunity. Headquartered in Cologny, the forum also has offices in New York, Beijing, on October 10,2016, the Forum announced the opening of its new Center for the Fourth Industrial Revolution in San Francisco. The World Economic Forum strives to be impartial and is not tied to any political, partisan, the foundation is committed to improving the State of the World. Until 2012, it had observer status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, the foundations highest governance body is the foundation board. During its annual meeting, more than 2,500 participants from slightly fewer than 100 countries gather in Davos, approximately 1,500 are business leaders, drawn from its members,1,000 of the worlds top companies. The foundation is funded by its 1,000 member companies and these enterprises rank among the top companies within their industry and/or country and play a leading role in shaping the future of their industry and/or region. Membership is stratified by the level of engagement with forum activities, with the level of membership fees increasing as participation in meetings, projects, and initiatives rises. As of 2011, an annual membership costs $52,000 for a member, $263,000 for Industry Partner. An admission fee costs $19,000 per person, in 2014, WEF raised annual fees by 20 percent, making the cost for Strategic Partner from SFr500,000 to SFr600,000

22.
Bill Gates
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William Henry Bill Gates III is an American business magnate, investor, author, and philanthropist. In 1975, Gates and Paul Allen co-founded Microsoft, which became the worlds largest PC software company, during his career at Microsoft, Gates held the positions of chairman, CEO and chief software architect, and was the largest individual shareholder until May 2014. Gates has authored and co-authored several books, since 1987, Gates has been included in the Forbes list of the worlds wealthiest people and was the wealthiest from 1995 to 2007, again in 2009, and has been since 2014. Between 2009 and 2014, his wealth doubled from US$40 billion to more than US$82 billion, between 2013 and 2014, his wealth increased by US$15 billion. Gates is currently the richest person in the world, with a net worth of US$85.6 billion as of February 2017. Gates is one of the entrepreneurs of the personal computer revolution. He has been criticized for his business tactics, which have been considered anti-competitive, Gates stepped down as chief executive officer of Microsoft in January 2000. He remained as chairman and created the position of chief architect for himself. In June 2006, Gates announced that he would be transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to part-time work and he gradually transferred his duties to Ray Ozzie and Craig Mundie. He stepped down as chairman of Microsoft in February 2014, taking on a new post as adviser to support the then newly appointed CEO Satya Nadella. Gates was born in Seattle, Washington on October 28,1955 and he is the son of William H. Gates Sr. and Mary Maxwell Gates. His ancestry includes English, German, Irish, and Scots-Irish and his father was a prominent lawyer, and his mother served on the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way. Gates maternal grandfather was JW Maxwell, a bank president. Gates has one sister, Kristi, and one younger sister. He is the fourth of his name in his family, but is known as William Gates III or Trey because his father had the II suffix, early on in his life, Gates parents had a law career in mind for him. When Gates was young, his family attended a church of the Congregational Christian Churches. The family encouraged competition, one reported that it didnt matter whether it was hearts or pickleball or swimming to the dock. There was always a reward for winning and there was always a penalty for losing, at 13, he enrolled in the Lakeside School, a private preparatory school

23.
Davos
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Davos is a municipality in the Prättigau/Davos Region in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. It has a permanent population of 11,109, Davos is located on the river Landwasser, in the Rhaetian Alps, between the Plessur and Albula Range. At 1,560 m, it is the highest town in Europe, Davos is host to the World Economic Forum, an annual meeting of global political and business elites and the home of one of Switzerlands biggest ski resorts. At the end of year it serves as the site of the annual Spengler Cup ice hockey tournament. The current settlement of the Davos area began in the High Middle Ages with the immigration of Rhaeto-Romans, the village of Davos is first mentioned in 1213 as Tavaus. Natives still speak a dialect that is atypical for Graubünden, showing similarities with German idioms of western parts of Switzerland, in 1436, the League of the Ten Jurisdictions was founded in Davos. Robert Louis Stevenson, who suffered from tuberculosis, wintered in Davos in 1880 upon the recommendation of his Edinburgh physician Dr. George Balfour, arthur Conan Doyle wrote an article about skiing in Davos in 1899. A sanatorium in Davos is also the inspiration for the Berghof Sanitorium in Thomas Manns novel Der Zauberberg, between 1936 and 1938, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, then at the end of his life and living in Davos since 1917, depicted Davos and the Junkerboden. His painting has a both Romantic and pantheistic atmosphere and simplified formal structure, during the natural ice era of winter sports, Davos and the Davos Eisstadion were a mecca for speed skating. Many international championships were held here, and many records were set. The only European Bandy Championship was held in the town in 1913, subsequently, Davos became a famous ski resort, especially frequented by tourists from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. After peaking in the 1970s and 1980s, the city settled down as a leading, Davos has an area, of 283.98 km2. Of this area, about 35. 0% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,2. 3% is settled and 40. 5% is unproductive land. In the 2004/09 survey a total of 337 ha or about 1. 2% of the area was covered with buildings. Over the same period, the amount of recreational space in the municipality increased by 10 ha and is now about 0. 22% of the total area. Of the agricultural land,1,296 ha is fields and grasslands and 9,056 ha consists of alpine grazing areas, since 1985 the amount of agricultural land has decreased by 736 ha. Over the same period the amount of forested land has increased by 481 ha. Rivers and lakes cover 285 ha in the municipality, until 2017 the municipality was located in the Davos subdistrict of the Prättigau/Davos district, after 2017 it was part of the Prättigau/Davos Region

24.
United Nations Development Program
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The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition

25.
One Laptop per Child
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Its primary goal continues to be to transform education, by enabling children in low-income countries to have access to content, media and computer-programming environments. This became the OLPC XO Laptop, a low-cost and low-power laptop computer, the project was originally funded by member organizations such as AMD, eBay, Google, Marvell Technology Group, News Corporation, Nortel. Chi Mei Corporation, Red Hat, and Quanta provided in-kind support, the OLPC project has been the subject of extensive praise and criticism. It has received criticism both specific to its mission, and criticism that is typical of such systems, such as support, ease-of-use, security, content-filtering. Officials in some countries have criticized the project for its appropriateness in terms of price, cultural emphasis and priority as compared to other basic needs of people in third-world settings. The OLPC program has its roots in the pedagogy of Seymour Papert, a known as constructionism. Papert, along with Nicholas Negroponte, were at the MIT Media Lab from its inception, Papert compared the old practice of putting computers in a computer lab to books chained to the walls in old libraries. Negroponte likened shared computers to shared pencils, however, this pattern seemed to be inevitable, given the then-high prices of computers. In 2005, Negroponte spoke at the World Economic Forum, in Davos and he brought a mock-up and was described as prowling the halls and corridors of Davos to whip up support. Despite the reported skepticism of Bill Gates and others, Negroponte left Davos with committed interest from AMD, News Corp, from the outset, it was clear that Negroponte thought that the key to reducing the cost of the laptop was to reduce the cost of the display. Convinced that the project was now possible, Negroponte led the creation of the first corporation for this, at the 2006 World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the United Nations Development Program announced it would back the laptop. UNDP released a statement saying they would work with OLPC to deliver technology, in the first years of the project, the Association managed development and logistics, and the Foundation managed fundraising such as the Give One Get One campaign. Intel was a member of the association for a period in 2007. It resigned its membership on January 3,2008, citing disagreements with requests from OLPCs founder, Nicholas Negroponte, microsofts Windows XP, however, is not seen by some as a sustainable operating system. Microsoft announced that they would sell them Windows XP for $3 per XO and it would be offered as an option on XO-1 laptops and possibly be able to dual boot alongside Linux. No significant deployments elected to purchase Windows licenses, charles Kane became the new President and Chief Operating Officer of the OLPC Association on May 2,2008. In late 2008, the NYC Department of Education purchased some XO computers for use by New York schoolchildren, advertisements for OLPC began streaming on the video streaming website Hulu and others in 2008. One such ad has John Lennon advertising for OLPC, with a voice actor redubbing over Lennons voice

26.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board

27.
Classmate PC
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The Classmate PC, formerly known as Eduwise, is Intels entry into the market for low-cost personal computers for children in the developing world. It is in some similar to the One Laptop Per Child trade associations Childrens Machine. Although made for profit, the production of the Classmate PC is considered an Information and Communication Technologies for Development project, the device falls into the then popular category of netbooks. Intels World Ahead Program was established May 2006, the program designed a platform for low cost laptops that third party manufacturers could use to produce low cost machines under their own respective brands. The Classmate PC is a design by Intel. Intel does not build the subnotebooks, but does produce the chips that power them, the reference design is then used by original equipment manufacturers worldwide to build their own branded Classmate PC. Lenovo and Intel launched a new Classmate PC in 2011, Intel has had various partners with its iterations of the Classmate PC. Recently, the company has signed up Lenovo as a partner for the latest model, reviews of the machine say that its faster and more tamper proof. It will also come with up to 2 GB of RAM, a standard netbook style 10. 1-inch LCD screen, an option of either an 8 or 16 GB SSD or a 160 or 250 GB hard drive. Other features include 802. 11b/g/n Wi-Fi, 10/100 Mbit Ethernet, the Classmate+ PC will only be available to qualified education and government customers through Lenovo or its channel partners.2 used for the theft control feature. The successor of the original Classmate design was announced in April 2008, later on, different photos of the successor leaked. Photos of Classmate PC3 as a tablet PC are available, the second generation Classmate was unveiled on 3 April 2008 at Intels Developer Forum. Significant upgrades include, Available 30 GB PATA hard disk drive, built-in webcam Available 9 LCD Up to 512 MB RAM802. 11s Available 6-cell battery for up to 6. It comes with a camera and an accelerometer, the Intel-Powered Convertible Classmate PC had its official release at CES in January 2009 and was aimed at students, teachers, and parents. The Convertible Classmate can be converted from a laptop to a tablet PC to allow children to write. This model was designed by TEAMS Design Shanghai and won several awards such as the Appliance Design EID Award,2008 Spark Award. Intel is not using Windows XP Embedded as initially planned, Intel has been actively working with various international and local Linux distributions in various countries. Intel has worked with Mandriva to customize their Linux distribution for Classmate PC, regardless of the hardware chosen, the Brazilian government announced that it would use the Linux operating system

28.
Open-source software
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source

29.
Windows XP
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Windows XP is a personal computer operating system that was produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It was released to manufacturing on August 24,2001, however, in January 2000, both projects were shelved in favor of a single OS codenamed Whistler, which would serve as a single OS platform for both consumer and business markets. Windows XP was an advance from the MS-DOS based versions of Windows in security, stability. It introduced a significantly redesigned graphical user interface and was the first version of Windows to use product activation in an effort to reduce its copyright infringement. Despite some initial concerns over the new licensing model and product activation system, Windows XP eventually proved to be popular and widely used. It is estimated that at least 400 million copies of Windows XP were sold globally within its first five years of availability, sales of Windows XP licenses to original equipment manufacturers ceased on June 30,2008, but continued for netbooks until October 2010. Windows XP remained popular even after the release of newer versions, vistas 2009 successor, Windows 7, only overtook XP in total market share at the end of 2011. Extended support for Windows XP ended on April 8,2014, as of November 2016, Windows XP desktop market share makes it the fourth most popular Windows version after Windows 7, Windows 10 and Windows 8.1. Windows XP is still popular in some countries, Africa as a whole and in Asia, e. g. in China. A number of activity centers were planned, serving as hubs for email communications, playing music, managing or viewing photos, searching the Internet, however, the project proved to be too ambitious. Microsoft discussed a plan to delay Neptune in favor of an interim OS known as Asteroid, which would have been an update to Windows 2000, and since Neptune and Odyssey would be based on the same code-base anyway, it made sense to combine them into a single project. In June 2000, Microsoft began the technical beta testing process, Whistler was expected to be available in Personal, Professional, Server, Advanced Server. At PDC on July 13,2000, Microsoft announced that Whistler would be released during the half of 2001. Build 2257 featured further refinements to the Watercolor theme, along with the introduction of the two-column Start menu. Microsoft released Whistler Beta 1, build 2296, on October 31,2000, build 2410 in January 2001 introduced Internet Explorer 6.0 and the Microsoft Product Activation system. Making it very friendly for the user to use. Builds 2416 and 2419 added the File and Transfer Settings Wizard, on February 5,2001, Microsoft officially announced that Whistler would be known as Windows XP, where XP stands for experience. As a complement, the version of Microsoft Office was also announced as Office XP

30.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office

31.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing

32.
Multi-booting
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Multi-booting is the act of installing multiple operating systems on a computer, and being able to choose which one to boot. The term dual-booting refers to the configuration of specifically two operating systems. Multi-booting may require a boot loader. Multi-booting allows more than one operating system to reside on one computer, for if you have a primary operating system. Another reason for multi-booting can be to investigate or test a new operating system without switching completely, multi-booting allows a new operating system to configure all applications needed, and migrate data before removing the old operating system, if desired. A possible alternative to multi-booting is virtualization, where a hypervisor is used to host one or more virtual machines running guest operating systems, multi-booting is also useful in situations where different software applications require different operating systems. A multi-boot configuration allows a user to use all of software on one computer. This is often accomplished by using a boot loader such as NTLDR, LILO, multi-booting is also used by software developers when multiple operating systems are required for development or testing purposes. Having these systems on one machine is a way to reduce hardware costs, in a multi-boot computer each of the multiple operating systems can reside on its own storage device, or some storage devices might contain more than one operating system in different partitions. An example of a computer with one operating system per storage device is a computer that stores Windows on one disk drive. No special disk partitioning is necessary when each operating system has its own dedicated disk drive, an example of a computer with multiple operating systems per storage device is a dual-booting computer that stores both Windows and Linux on the same disk drive. In this case a multi-booting boot loader is necessary, also, the disk must be partitioned to give each operating system its own partition on the disk drive. The basic concept involves partitioning a disk to accommodate each planned installation, usually including separate partitions for boot, root, data storage, vistas partitioners may not be compatible with XP/2000. If you use Windows 2000/XP, probably the safest approach is to use a CHS partition table alignment that is chosen by Windows XP/2000. The alignment can be checked with Ranish Partition Manager, All partitions should start at the beginning of a head, if nothing is shown in red you probably have a disk with a standard CHS partition table alignment. If you wish to edit the partition table with Linux, first run sfdisk with --show-geometry and --show-pt-geometry. If these return the same geometry, it should be safe to use GParted, so long as it is set to round to cylinders, and you only add partitions to the end of the partition table. If you add a partition to the middle of the partition table

33.
Walter Bender
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Walter Bender is technologist and researcher who works in the field of electronic publishing, media and technology for learning. From the MIT Media Labs founding 1985 through 2006, Bender directed the labs Electronic Publishing Group, previous to the labs creation, the group had also existed in the Architecture Machine Group. The research group is one of the Media Labs oldest and one of a few that predates the creation of the lab, while at the lab, Bender held the Alexander W. Dreyfoos Chair. Benders research has attempted to build upon the styles associated with existing media. He has participated in research in the field of electronic publishing, from 2000 through 2006, Bender was executive director of The Media Lab. In 2006, Bender took leave of absence from the Media Lab to help launch One Laptop per Child where he was the organizations President for Software and Content. In this role, Bender oversaw the design and development of the Sugar graphical interface for the XO-1 Childrens Machine computer from 2006 to 2008, after leaving OLPC in 2008, Bender founded Sugar Labs — a non-profit organization that aims to continue development of Sugar. An expert in computers and learning and strongly influenced by constructionism, Bender is an advocate for the use of Free Software for learning projects and works with like-minded educators and engineers around the world

34.
Sugar Labs
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Sugar Labs is a software-development and learning community, which makes a collection of tools that learners use to explore, discover, create, and reflect. It distributes these tools freely and encourages its users to them, taking ownership. Helping learners all around the globe to learn how to learn Sugar Labs is a software project whose mission is to produce, distribute. Sugar Labs supports the community of educators and software developers who want to extend the platform, a community project, Sugar is available under the free software GNU General Public License and free to anyone who wants to use or extend it. Sugar Labs is a member of the Software Freedom Conservancy, a composed of free software projects. As a fiscal sponsor for FOSS projects, the Conservancy provides member projects with financial and administrative services. On roughly a six-month cycle, the Sugar Labs community releases a new version of the Sugar software, the most recent stable release is Version 0.108. Release Candidate Sucrose 0.110 unstable release is available for testing, the Sugar Labs community participates in events for teachers, students and software developers interested in the Sugar software, such as the Montevideo Youth Summit and Turtle Art Day. Sugar Labs also participates in Google Code-in, which serves as an outlet for young programmers

35.
Sugar (software)
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Sugar is a free and open source computer desktop environment designed for interactive learning by children. Developed as part of the One Laptop per Child project, Sugar was the interface on OLPC XO-1 laptop computers. The OLPC XO-1.5 and later provided the option of either the Gnome or Sugar interfaces, Sugar is available as a Live CD, as Live USB, a package installable through several Linux distributions. It can run in a Linux virtual machine under Windows and Mac OS, unlike most other desktop environments, Sugar does not use the desktop, folder and window metaphors. Instead, Sugars default full-screen activities require users to focus on one program at a time. Sugar implements a journal which automatically saves the users running program session and allows them to use an interface to pull up their past works by date, activity used. Sugar is a system which reinvents the use of computers for education in our society. Collaboration, reflection and discovery are incorporated straightforwardly into the user interface, Sugar encourages “studio thinking” and “reflective practice”. Through Sugar’s clarity of environment, young learners and educators have the choice to utilize PCs in all alone terms, students can reshape, reinvent, and reapply both software and content into intense learning exercises. Sugar’s concentration on sharing, criticism, and investigation is grounded in the culture of free software, information is about nouns, learning is about verbs. The Sugar interface is the first serious endeavor to make an environment that is based on both cognitive and social constructivism which is designed for children. Sugar is based on three principles,1. Everybody is an instructor and a learner,2, humans by nature are social beings and,3. These are the pillars of an experience for learning. Sugar also considers two more truisms,1, if you want to learn more and more, then for that You have to do more and more. Love is far more significant than duty-you want people to participate in things that are authentic to them, the Sugar platform is characterized by three qualities, -1. Sugar Maintains a “Journal” for each user so that task is reflected on it,3. Through its excellent design, Sugar is discoverable, it can suit a wide assortment of learners with various levels of aptitude

36.
Streaming media
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Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while being delivered by a provider. A client end-user can use their player to begin to play the data file before the entire file has been transmitted. For example, in the 1930s, elevator music was among the earliest popularly available streaming media, the term streaming media can apply to media other than video and audio such as live closed captioning, ticker tape, and real-time text, which are all considered streaming text. As of 2017, streaming is generally taken to refer to cases where a user watches digital video content or listens to audio content on a computer screen. With streaming content, the user does not have to download the digital video or digital audio file before they start to watch/listen to it. There are challenges with streaming content on the Internet, as of 2016, two popular streaming services are the video sharing website YouTube, which contains video and audio files on a huge range of topics and Netflix, which streams movies and TV shows. Live streaming refers to Internet content delivered in real-time, as events happen, Live internet streaming requires a form of source media, an encoder to digitize the content, a media publisher, and a content delivery network to distribute and deliver the content. Live streaming does not need to be recorded at the origination point, in the early 1920s, George O. Attempts to display media on computers date back to the earliest days of computing in the mid-20th century, however, little progress was made for several decades, primarily due to the high cost and limited capabilities of computer hardware. From the late 1980s through the 1990s, consumer-grade personal computers became powerful enough to various media. These technological improvement facilitated the streaming of audio and video content to users in their homes and workplaces. The band Severe Tire Damage was the first group to live on the Internet. On June 24,1993, the band was playing a gig at Xerox PARC while elsewhere in the building, as proof of PARCs technology, the bands performance was broadcast and could be seen live in Australia and elsewhere. Microsoft Research developed a Microsoft TV application which was compiled under MS Windows Studio Suite, realNetworks was also a pioneer in the streaming media markets, when it broadcast a baseball game between the New York Yankees and the Seattle Mariners over the Internet in 1995. The first symphonic concert on the Internet took place at the Paramount Theater in Seattle, the concert was a collaboration between The Seattle Symphony and various guest musicians such as Slash, Matt Cameron, and Barrett Martin. When Word Magazine launched in 1995, they featured the first-ever streaming soundtracks on the Internet.4 in 1999, in June 1999 Apple also introduced a streaming media format in its QuickTime 4 application. It was later widely adopted on websites along with RealPlayer. In 2000 Industryview. com launched its worlds largest streaming video archive website to help promote themselves

37.
Hulu
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Hulu is an American subscription video on demand service owned by Hulu LLC, a joint venture with The Walt Disney Company, 21st Century Fox, Comcast, and as of August 10,2016, Time Warner. It is primarily oriented towards television series, carrying current and past episodes of series from its owners respective television networks, the subscription service is, in turn, divided into advertising-supported and mostly ad-free tiers. In 2016, Hulu spun out its content into a joint venture with Yahoo. called Yahoo. View and announced plans for a television streaming service some time in 2017. The name Hulu comes from two Mandarin Chinese words, húlú, calabash, bottle gourd, and hùlù, interactive recording, the company blog explains, In Mandarin, Hulu has two interesting meanings, each highly relevant to our mission. The primary meaning interested us because it is used in an ancient Chinese proverb that describes the Hulu as the holder of precious things and it literally translates to gourd, and in ancient times, the Hulu was hollowed out and used to hold precious things. The secondary meaning is interactive recording and we saw both definitions as appropriate bookends and highly relevant to the mission of Hulu. Key executives instrumental in the founding of Hulu include Bruce Campbell, Peter Chernin, JB Perrette, Michael Lang, Beth Comstock, the venture was announced in March 2006 with AOL, Comcast, Facebook, MSN, Myspace, and Yahoo. planned as initial distribution partners. Kilar was named the CEO in June 2006, the name Hulu was chosen in late August 2007, when the website went live, with an announcement only and no content. It invited users to leave their addresses for the upcoming beta test. In October, Hulu began the private beta testing by invitation, Hulu launched for public access in the United States on March 12,2008. The first product to launch was the HULU Syndication network, which was designed and developed by the NBC Universal team from New York, on October 29,2007, followed by the Hulu. com destinations site. Hulu began a campaign during NBCs broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII with an initial ad starring Alec Baldwin titled Alec in Huluwood. The ad intended to reveal the shocking secret behind Hulu. Advertisements have since aired featuring Eliza Dushku, Seth MacFarlane, Denis Leary, with its investment came a seat on the board of directors, where Providence was said to act as an independent voice on the board. In October 2012, Providence sold its 10 percent stake to Hulus media owners, ComScore says monthly video streams reached 903 million in January 2010, over three times the figure for a year earlier, and second only to YouTube. On August 16,2010, a report revealed that Hulu was planning an Initial Public Offering which could value the company at more than $2 billion. On June 21,2011, The Wall Street Journal reported that an unsolicited offer caused Hulu to begin weighing whether to sell itself

38.
John Lennon
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John Winston Ono Lennon, MBE was an English singer and songwriter who co-founded the Beatles, the most commercially successful and musically influential band in the history of popular music. He and fellow member Paul McCartney formed a songwriting partnership. Born and raised in Liverpool, Lennon became involved in the craze as a teenager, his first band, the Quarrymen, first became the Silver Beatles. After his marriage to Yoko Ono in 1969, he added Ono as one of his middle names, Lennon disengaged himself from the music business in 1975 to raise his infant son Sean, but re-emerged with Ono in 1980 with the new album Double Fantasy. He was murdered three weeks after its release, Lennon revealed a rebellious nature and acerbic wit in his music, writing, drawings, on film and in interviews. By 2012, Lennons solo album sales in the United States exceeded 14 million and, as writer, co-writer, or performer, he is responsible for 25 number-one singles on the US Hot 100 chart. In 2002, a BBC poll on the 100 Greatest Britons voted him eighth and, in 2008, Rolling Stone ranked him the fifth-greatest singer of all time. He was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987, and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, in 1988 as a member of the Beatles and in 1994 as a solo artist. Lennon was born in war-time England, on 9 October 1940 at Liverpool Maternity Hospital, to Julia and Alfred Lennon, a merchant seaman of Irish descent and his parents named him John Winston Lennon after his paternal grandfather, John Jack Lennon, and then-Prime Minister Winston Churchill. When he eventually came home six months later, he offered to look after the family, after her sister, Mimi Smith, twice complained to Liverpools Social Services, Julia handed the care of Lennon over to her. In July 1946 Lennons father visited Smith and took his son to Blackpool, Julia followed them—with her partner at the time, Bobby Dykins—and after a heated argument his father forced the five-year-old to choose between them. Lennon twice chose his father, but as his mother walked away, he began to cry and followed her, according to author Mark Lewisohn, Lennons parents agreed that Julia should take him and give him a home as Alf left again. A witness who was there that day, Billy Hall, has said the scene often portrayed with a young John Lennon having to make a decision between his parents never happened. It would be 20 years before he had contact with his father again, Throughout the rest of his childhood and adolescence he lived at Mendips,251 Menlove Avenue, Woolton with his aunt and uncle, Mimi and George Smith, who had no children of their own. His aunt purchased volumes of stories for him, and his uncle. In September 1980, Lennon commented about his family and his rebellious nature, Part of me would like to be accepted by all facets of society, but I cannot be what I am not. I was the one who all the other boys parents—including Pauls father—would say, the parents instinctively recognised I was a troublemaker, meaning I did not conform and I would influence their children, which I did. I did my best to disrupt every friends home, partly out of envy that I didnt have this so-called home

39.
Jim Gettys
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Jim Gettys is an American computer programmer. From 2009 through 2014, he worked at Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs, until January 2009, he was the Vice President of Software at the One Laptop per Child project, working on the software for the OLPC XO-1. He is one of the developers of the X Window System at MIT and worked on it again with X. Org. He previously served on the GNOME foundation board of directors and he worked at the World Wide Web Consortium and was the editor of the HTTP/1.1 specification in the Internet Engineering Task Force through draft standard. Gettys helped establish the handhelds. org community, from which the development of Linux on handheld devices can be traced, Gettys worked at DECs Cambridge Research Laboratory. He won the 1997 Internet Plumber of the Year award on behalf of the group who worked on HTTP/1.1, Gettys is one of the keepers of the Flame on behalf of The X Window System Community at Large. One of his goals at OLPC was to review and overhaul much of standard Linux software, in order to make it run faster and consume less memory. In this context, he has pointed out a common fallacy among programmers today and this, he claims, is often false on current hardware, given fast CPUs and the long time it takes to recover from a potential cache miss. Since 2010 Gettys has been a member of the group investigating Bufferbloat. He holds a BSc degree from MIT in Earth and Planetary Sciences

40.
World Summit on the Information Society
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One of its chief aims was to bridge the global digital divide separating rich countries from poor countries by spreading access to the Internet in the developing world. The conferences established 17 May as World Information Society Day, the WSIS+10 Process marked the ten-year milestone since the 2005 Summit. In 2015, the process culminated with a High-Level meeting of the UN General Assembly on 15–16 December in New York. In the last decades of the 20th century the new Information and Communication Technology was implemented, using ICT changed the modern society in many ways which is known as digital revolution, and therefore new opportunities and threats had been raised. The worlds leaders were hopeful to solve problems using ICT. In 2001, the ITU Council decided to hold the Summit in two phases, the first from 10 to 12 December 2003, in Geneva, and the second from 16 to 18 November 2005 in Tunis. According to this resolution, the General Assembly related the Summit to the United Nations Millennium Declaration to implement ICT to facilitate achieving Millennium Development Goals and it also emphasized on the multi-stakeholder approach to use all stakeholders including civil society and private sector beside the governments. In 2003 at Geneva, delegates from 175 countries took part in the first phase of WSIS where they adopted a Declaration of Principles and this is a road map for achieving an information society accessible to all and based on shared knowledge. A Plan of Action sets out a goal of bringing 50 percent of the worlds population online by 2015 and it does not spell out any specifics of how this might be achieved. The Geneva summit also left unresolved more controversial issues, including the question of Internet governance, when the 2003 summit failed to agree on the future of Internet governance, the Working Group on Internet Governance was formed to come up with ideas on how to progress. According to the Geneva Plan of Action the WSIS Action Lines are as follows, the role of public governance authorities and all stakeholders in the promotion of ICTs for development C2. Access to information and knowledge C4, building confidence and security in the use of ICTs C6. ICT Applications, E-government E-business E-learning E-health E-employment E-environment E-agriculture E-science C8, cultural diversity and identity, linguistc diversity and local content C9. Ethical dimensions of the Information Society C11, International and regional cooperation The second phase took place from November 16 through 18,2005, in Tunis, Tunisia. It resulted in agreement on the Tunis Commitment and the Tunis Agenda for the Information Society, just on the eve of the November 2005 Tunis event, the Association for Progressive Communications came out with its stand. APC said it had participated extensively in the governance process at the World Summit on Information Society. Ensuring internet access is universal and affordable, APC argued, The internet is a global public space that should be open and accessible to all on a non-discriminatory basis. The internet, therefore, must be seen as a public infrastructure

41.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General

42.
Deworming
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Deworming is the giving of an anthelmintic drug to a human or animal to rid them of helminths parasites, such as roundworm, flukes and tapeworm. In dogs and cats, purge dewormers come in forms including a granular form to be added to food, pill form, chew tablets. Deworming a sheep is usually done with a specific drenching gun that squirts an anthelmintic into the sheeps throat, mass deworming campaigns of school children have been used both as a preventive as well as a treatment method for helminthiasis which includes soil transmitted helminthiasis in children. Children can be treated by administering for example mebendazole and albendazole, according to the World Health Organization, over 870 million children are at risk of parasitic worm infection. Infected children are too sick or tired to concentrate at school

43.
Lee Felsenstein
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Lee Felsenstein is an American computer engineer who played a central role in the development of the personal computer. He was one of the members of the Homebrew Computer Club and the designer of the Osborne 1. Before the Osborne, Felsenstein designed the Intel 8080 based SOL computer from Processor Technology, the PennyWhistle modem, many of his designs were leaders in reducing costs of computer technologies for the purpose of making them available to large markets. His work featured a concern for the impact of technology and was influenced by the philosophy of Ivan Illich. In 2016, Lee was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum, as a young man, Felsenstein was a New Left radical. From October through December 1964, he was a participant in the Free Speech Movement and was one of 768 arrested in the climactic Sproul Hall Sit-In of December 2–3,1964 and he also wrote for the Berkeley Barb, one of the leading underground newspapers. He received a B. S. in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science from the University of California, from 1981–1983 Felsenstein was employed at the Osborne Computer Corporation. At Osborne, he was the designer of the Osborne 1 and he then returned to freelance consulting. In 1992, he joined Interval Research Corporation, where he worked until 2000 before joining Pemstar Pacific Consultants, throughout, he acted as an occasional free-lance consulting designer or worked at his own design firm. Many of his designs were leaders in reducing the costs of technologies for the purpose of making them available to large markets. His work featured a concern for the impact of technology. The Community Memory project, begun as a project of Resource One, Felsenstein was influenced in his philosophy by the works of Ivan Illich, particularly Tools for Conviviality. This book advocated an approach to design which allowed users of technologies to learn about the technology by encouraging exploration, tinkering. Others were – To change the rules, change the tools, Felsenstein was one of the original members of the Homebrew Computer Club, which formed in 1975 in response to the appearance of the Altair 8800 computer kit. With a handy yard stick, Felsenstein moderated meetings at the SLAC Auditorium and he was less a chair than a keeper of chaos. These existed in a space with early generation hobbyist microcomputers from Altair, IMSAI, Morrow Designs, Cromemco. In 1998, Felsenstein founded the Free Speech Movement Archives as a repository of historical information relating to that event, its antecedents. In 2003, while working with the Jhai Foundation of San Francisco, he designed an open-source telecommunications and this system was dubbed the Pedal-Powered Internet by The New York Times Magazine due to its reliance on pedal power generation