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2 Copyright 2012 by Yale University. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Yale University Press books may be purchased in quantity for educational, business, or promotional use. For information, please sales. (U.S. office) or (U.K. office). Publisher: Mary Jane Peluso Editorial Assistant: Elise Panza Project Editor: Timothy Shea Production Controller: Aldo Cupo Designed by James J. Johnson. Set in Arno Roman type by Integrated Composition Systems. Printed in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Keller, Andrew, 1960 Learn to read Greek / Andrew Keller, Stephanie Russell. p. cm. Text in English and Greek. Includes index. ISBN (part 1) ISBN (part 2) 1. Greek language Grammar. 2. Greek language Grammar Problems, exercises, etc. 3. Greek language Readers. I. Russell, Stephanie, 1946 II. Title. pa258.k '421 dc A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z (Permanence of Paper) Cover illustration: Rembrandt van Rijn, Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Purchase, special contributions and funds given or bequeathed by friends of the Museum, 1961 (61.198). Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

12 P r e f a c e Learn to Read Greek is closely modeled on Learn to Read Latin, our textbook published by Yale University Press in LTRG is both an introductory grammar and a first reader for the Attic dialect of ancient Greek. The book aims to help students acquire as quickly as possible an ability to read and appreciate the great works of ancient Greek literature. Learning the language of ancient Greece is a lifelong challenge and an abiding pleasure for the curious intellect. Many factors combine to make ancient Greek a difficult language to master: a large, nuanced vocabulary (more than three times the number of words in extant Latin); extensive and inconstant morphology for nouns, adjectives, and verbs; and a wide variety of dialects offering many variants in spelling, syntax, and word usage. In addition, various authors have their own specially developed vocabularies, syntactic habits, and writing styles. One must, in effect, learn the Greek of Thucydides, the Greek of Sophocles, the Greek of Homer. If the task is difficult, however, the rewards for the devoted effort of serious students are great: what is to be gained is nothing less than direct access to the words and thoughts of Plato, Euripides, Aristophanes, and many others. LTRG differs from many other beginning Greek books in offering students interesting and rewarding samples of real Greek texts for reading practice from the third chapter on. These readings quickly become substantial and challenging, and, in our view, are a far better means for studying the language than fabricated stories in Greek such as often appear in other textbooks. While LTRG is an Attic Greek text, we include readings containing forms from other dialects (with appropriate explanatory notes) in order to expose students to a wider range of authors and to accustom them to non-attic forms that they will encounter in Attic Greek texts. We also include readings from Greek writers of the Roman period who wrote in Attic Greek, which by then was recognized as an important literary language and used by a select number of educated writers. Our Latin and Greek texts both drew inspiration from books written by our former colleagues at the Brooklyn College of CUNY Latin/Greek Institute: Latin: An Intensive Course, by Floyd L. Moreland and Rita M. Fleischer, and Greek: An Intensive Course, by Hardy Hansen and Gerald M. Quinn. Floyd Moreland, founder of the Latin/Greek Institute, provided us with our most important guiding principles for teaching Latin and Greek: first, if clearly and completely presented, no element of these languages is more difficult for students to learn than any other; and second, excessive simplification and omission are harmful, not helpful. Summer after summer at the LGI and for many years in our own teaching, these principles have been tested and vindicated, and we have used them to guide our decision making throughout the writing of LTRG. We could not have produced LTRG in its present form without the aid of the digital version of the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae. This excellent online resource made it possible to choose vocabulary for each xv

13 xvi Copyright 2012 Yale University Preface chapter based on each word s frequency in a selected list of major authors and texts. In this way we could be sure that students using this textbook will learn words that they will encounter regularly when reading classical Greek. Special effort was made to include in the early chapters the words that occur most often in Attic Greek. Searching the TLG also helped us find for each chapter appropriate readings drawn from a wide range of prose and poetry. These are the authors that we used most frequently in our searches not only to find passages for inclusion but also to answer questions of meaning and usage: Aeschines Aeschylus Aristophanes Demosthenes Euripides Herodotus Isocrates Lysias plato Sophocles Thucydides Xenophon To resolve broader questions of usage, word frequency, or morphology, or to confirm impressions we had formed from our initial searches, we often searched the works of every TLG author from the eighth to the fourth centuries b.c.e. In some instances, particularly to confirm the rarity of Greek forms, we searched the works of every TLG author from the eighth century b.c.e. to the first century c.e. These searches allowed us to include information in the textbook about the rarity of particular words, the occurrence of verbs in certain moods and voices, and the existence or nonexistence of certain forms. They also informed our decisions about the order of presentation in the textbook and led us to exclude forms and words that we discovered were uncommon in Attic Greek. Statements in the textbook about the frequency of certain forms or about the most common meanings of Greek words are based on our examination of evidence gathered from the TLG.

14 H o w t o U s e L E A R N T O R E A D G R E E k The following is a detailed description of the components of Learn to Read Greek, accompanied by suggestions for their most effective use by students and teachers. Only if the textbook is used in partnership with the workbook can the best results be achieved. Overview: Components and Organization The main text of LTRG comprises sixteen chapters, divided into two parts, that present all the basic morphology and syntax for an elementary course in Attic Greek. Depending on the amount of time available for one s course (meetings per week, minutes per meeting), these sixteen chapters can be studied in two or three college semesters or in two or three years in high school. 1 The actual teaching and learning units of this book are the sections, and there are approximately ten sections in each chapter. Two or three weeks in college (perhaps twice as much in high school) should be devoted to the study of each chapter. Substantial vocabulary lists and complex Greek sentences (both synthetic and authentic) allow students to significantly advance their knowledge of syntax and to practice and refine their reading skills. The book as a whole, as well as each of the chapters taken individually, aims not at hasty coverage of material but at thorough understanding and engagement as soon as possible with Greek literary texts. Vocabulary Lists Each chapter begins with a list of new words to be memorized, placed first for ready reference. The vocabulary has been chosen to provide students with words that appear commonly in a wide variety of Greek authors. In many chapters certain pieces of morphology and syntax must be presented before new vocabulary is learned, but the vocabulary list is given prominence to emphasize its importance and to encourage its acquisition by students as early as possible in the study of each chapter. As the book progresses and chapters are devoted to more advanced syntax, words that are commonly found with the constructions to be learned in those chapters are included in the vocabulary. At the back of both the textbook and the workbook are complete Greek English and English Greek 1. An ideal arrangement for a three-semester course would be to begin in the spring term or semester and cover six chapters, then complete the book over the two semesters of the following year. This would allow ample time for readings. xix

15 xx Copyright 2012 Yale University How to Use Learn to Read Greek vocabulary lists containing all the words that appear in the chapter vocabularies. Some additional meanings and idioms that appear only in the vocabulary notes or elsewhere in the textbook are included. These lists also include the names of the gods and cardinal and ordinal numbers. Vocabulary Notes Vocabulary notes follow the word list in each chapter. Since essential information about the forms, meanings, and usage of new vocabulary words is contained in these notes, students should always read them, and the teacher should emphasize the most important points. Particularly in the early chapters, important information about the forms of vocabulary entries (adjectives, principal parts of verbs, etc.) and new morphology is included in the vocabulary notes. This information should be presented in conjunction with the new material in the chapters. It is included in the vocabulary notes for ease of reference, and students should consult these notes frequently while mastering the material in the chapter. (For those who would like to learn more about the development of the Greek language, information has also been included about word formation and Indo-European linguistic features.) Immediately following the vocabulary notes in each chapter are lists of English derivatives and cognates for many of the new words in the chapter. Although by no means exhaustive, the lists allow students to see how Greek words are related to English words. Summaries and Synopsis Blanks When beginning each new chapter, students should tear out from the back of the workbook all the summaries for that chapter. These summaries include a copy of the vocabulary list, a list of the new verbs with information about the voices in which they occur and their meanings in different voices, and most important one or two pages of compact summaries of the new morphology and syntax introduced in the chapter. These summaries should be consulted when drills on new material are being done in class, and they can serve as valuable learning aids as students work toward mastery of the material presented in each chapter. Included after the summaries for all the chapters are verb synopsis blanks that can be torn out and used to make multiple copies for drills. Sections and Drills The sections that present new morphology and syntax are numbered consecutively from Part 1 through Part 2 of the textbook, as in a reference grammar. Frequently throughout these sections (as well as in the vocabulary notes), brief instructions appear in capital letters (for example, Memorize this irregular form ). These instructions are addressed directly to students and are intended to ensure that no essential point is overlooked. Following many of the morphology and syntax sections are sentences pointing to appropriate drills in the workbook for individual sections or groups of sections. The drills are designed to reinforce new material as it is presented. The sentences pointing to appropriate drills indicate the natural breaks within chapters, and they can be used to determine how much material to introduce in a class period.

16 How to Use Learn to Read Greek xxi Drills on new forms and syntax include only vocabulary from earlier chapters, unless new morphology or syntax requires the use of new vocabulary. For example, when the morphology of a particular type of third-declension noun is introduced, it is necessary to include new nouns in the corresponding drills to reinforce the new morphology. Also, additional drills on new verbs are added in appropriate places in order to provide more complete coverage of the morphology of new verbs. Drills are provided in such sufficiently large numbers that some can be done at sight in class, others assigned for homework, and still others used for individual work or quizzes. Exercises Following the drills in each chapter in the workbook, exercises are provided that allow comprehensive practice of all new vocabulary, morphology, and syntax introduced in a chapter, while reinforcing material presented in earlier chapters. The exercises, consisting of synthetic sentences, are divided into three sections. After the first two chapters, the first section contains Greek sentences without accents, and correct accents must be added before the sentences are translated; the second section offers Greek sentences for translation; and the third section provides sentences in English to be translated into Greek. This last section gives students practice in writing clear, correct Greek in plausible Greek word order. The exercises should not be assigned until all new material in a chapter has been introduced, unless a teacher selects only those exercise sentences that contain material already presented. In the synthetic Greek sentences (drills, exercises, and examples used in the textbook), we have tried to include only usages found in extant Attic Greek; often exact phrases from Greek texts have been included in these sentences. In our experience, LTRG works best when translations of some exercise sentences are assigned as written homework, while class time is devoted to the reading of other exercise sentences at sight. As many as sixty such sentences are provided in the early chapters, but this number is gradually reduced as it becomes possible to reinforce new material through unabridged Greek passages. Readings Beginning in Chapter 3, the introduction of new material is followed by a section of short readings, unabridged Greek passages drawn from a wide range of ancient authors. Each short reading is preceded by a brief introduction to establish context. 2 Beneath each reading are vocabulary glosses for words that do not appear in the chapter vocabulary lists. 3 The inclusion of these short readings, which steadily increase in number and length, reflects our belief that the best way to learn to read Greek is to study specimens of authentic Greek as soon as possible. The short readings have been chosen to reinforce the vocabulary, morphology, and syntax of the chapters in which they appear and to provide examples of various word orders from Greek prose and poetry. Many of these short readings can be read at sight in class, and some 2. Introductions are usually not provided for short readings that are identified as fragments. 3. Vocabulary glosses for each reading are listed in the order in which the words appear in the passage for ease of use by the student. A dagger ( ) indicates a word requiring a special note.

17 xxii Copyright 2012 Yale University How to Use Learn to Read Greek may be read before all the new material of a chapter has been introduced, provided that they not contain material that has not yet been presented. Beginning in Chapter 6, each section of short readings is followed by a section of longer readings, also unabridged Greek passages. 4 In addition to introductions and vocabulary glosses, at the first appearance of an author or a work we have included brief biographies of the authors and descriptions of the works from which the readings are taken. A list of authors and passages allows students and teachers to refer to this material when authors or works appear again in subsequent longer readings or to investigate further when short readings feature these authors or works. To help give students a basic knowledge of the history and development of Greek literature and to foster their interest in further study, we have organized all readings from ancient authors in each chapter in chronological order by author. (Works by the same author are arranged alphabetically.) Since the texts of Greek literature that survive contain examples of the language as each writer in each period chose to style it, this chronological arrangement helps students observe the evolution of various styles of both prose and poetry. Through the short and longer readings, LTRG is meant to become in part a literary venture, and there are many opportunities for consideration of rhetoric and style as well as of forms and syntax. Names and Meter A section on the names of the Greek gods and one on basic meters of Greek poetry are included after chapters 5 and 6, respectively. Information presented in these sections is incorporated in subsequent readings in the textbook, and students may either learn the material in these sections or look back at them when necessary, knowledge of which will enhance their reading and appreciation of the authentic Greek passages in the readings. 4. As a general rule, longer readings are those that have ten or more vocabulary glosses.

19 Figure 1. This chart shows the principal languages of the Indo-European family, arranged in a diagrammatic form that displays their genetic relations and loosely suggests their geographic distribution. Copyright 1981 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Adapted and reproduced by permission from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.

20 I n t r o d U C T I o n 1. The Greek Language and Its Dialects The Greek language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. The name Indo-European indicates the geographic area where these languages were originally spoken. The family includes most of the languages spoken in Europe, as well as those spoken as far east as ancient Persia, Afghanistan, and India. By the careful comparison of vocabulary, morphology, and syntax, scholars have shown that all these languages descended from a common ancestor that is called either Indo-European (IE) or Proto-Indo-European (PIE), which was probably spoken some time in the fifth millenium b.c.e. (see figure 1). The people who spoke this original language are supposed to have gradually dispersed throughout Europe, Asia, and India, and the language over time changed differently in different places until the variety of languages belonging to this family gradually appeared. No direct evidence, written or archaeological, survives either for PIE or for the people who spoke it. What is known of the language comes from the comparative study of the languages that descended from it. The study of these languages began at the end of the eighteenth century when Sir William Jones, a lawyer and student of eastern languages, first asserted publicly that Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, were descended from a common source. The scientific study of the Indo-European languages began in the early part of the nineteenth century when Franz Bopp compared the forms of the verb in Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, ancient Persian, and the Germanic languages, of which English is one. The Indo-European languages have been analyzed and divided into various subgroups, and Greek belongs to the subgroup called Hellenic. Hellenic comprises many varieties of ancient Greek, which are called dialects, for which written evidence has survived. The earliest Greek dialect for which there is surviving written evidence is Mycenean, which was written in a script called Linear B. Evidence for this language and this script has been found in several sites in mainland Greece and on Crete and dates from as early as the late fifteenth century b.c.e. For reasons that are still uncertain, Mycenean culture had experienced a sharp decline by the end of the thirteenth century b.c.e., and the Linear B script in which the Mycenean dialect was written ceased to be used. No Greek writing survives from the next several centuries, but by the beginning of the eighth century b.c.e. a new alphabet was being used, and various forms of writing from this period onward are extant. Linguists now identify about two dozen dialects of Greek (see figure 2 for their geographical distribution), which are known from the thousands of inscriptions that survive, and al- 1

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