In 1821, on the recommendation of Wellington, Brisbane was appointed Governor of New South Wales, a post he held until 1825. Brisbane took over the government on 1 December 1821, and at once proceeded to carry out some of the reforms recommended in the report of John Bigge. While Governor he tackled the many problems of a rapidly growing and expanding colony. He worked to improve the land grants system and to reform the currency. Brisbane's keen interest in science led him to accept the invitation to become the first President of the Philosophical Society of Australasia that later became the Royal Society of New South Wales, the oldest learned institution in the Southern Hemisphere. He also set up the first agricultural training college in New South Wales and was the first patron of the New South Wales Agricultural Society. He conducted experiments in growing tobacco, cotton, coffee and New Zealand flax in the colony.

However, Brisbane did not always receive loyal support from his administrative officers, and in particular from Frederick Goulburn, the colonial secretary. A reference to Brisbane's dispatch to Earl Bathurst dated 14 May 1825 shows that Bigge's recommendations had been carefully considered, and that many improvements had been made.[4] Brisbane did not limit his attention to Bigge's report. Early in April 1822 he discovered with some surprise the ease with which grants of land had hitherto been obtained. He immediately introduced a new system under which every grant had the stipulation that for every 100 acres (400,000 m2) granted the grantee would maintain free of expense to the crown one convict labourer. He also encouraged agriculture on government land, streamlined granting of tickets of leave and pardons and introduced, in 1823, a system of calling for supplies by tender. When Dr. Robert Wardell and William Wentworth brought out their paper the Australian in 1824, Brisbane tried the experiment of allowing full latitude of the freedom of the press.

In 1823 Brisbane sent Lieutenant John Oxley to find a new site for convicts who were repeat offenders. Oxley discovered a large river flowing into Moreton Bay. A year later, the first convicts arrived at Moreton Bay. Brisbane visited the settlement in December 1824. Oxley suggested that both the river and the settlement be named after Brisbane. The convict settlement was declared a town in 1834 and opened to free settlement in 1839.

Brisbane was doing useful work, but he could not escape the effects of the constant faction fights which also plagued previous governors. Henry G. Douglass, the assistant-surgeon, was the centre of one of the bitter conflicts. Consequently, charges of various kinds against Brisbane were sent to England. The worst of these, that he had connived at sending female convicts to Emu Plains for immoral purposes, was investigated by William Stewart, the lieutenant-governor, John Stephen, assistant judge, and the Rev. William Cowper, senior assistant-chaplain, and found to be without the slightest foundation. Brisbane discovered that Goulburn, the colonial secretary, had been withholding documents from him and answering some without reference to the governor, and in 1824 reported his conduct to Lord Bathurst. In reply, Bathurst recalled both the governor and the colonial secretary in dispatches dated 29 December 1824.

Brisbane was a keen astronomer throughout his career. He had an observatory built at his ancestral home in 1808. From this observatory he was able to contribute to the advances in navigation which took place over the next hundred years. He took telescopes, books and two astronomical assistants, Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker and James Dunlop to New South Wales with him. On arrival he had the first properly equipped Australian observatory built at Parramatta while waiting for his predecessor, Governor Macquarie to complete his final arrangements. The Parramatta observatory recorded stars of the southern hemisphere, the first detailed observations from the continent. Its major contribution was Rumker's rediscovery of Enke's comet in 1822. Brisbane left his equipment and books in the colony when he returned to Scotland. Remnants of this collection survive in the Sydney Observatory.

Brisbane left Sydney in December 1825 and returned to Scotland. In 1826 he was made Colonel of the 34th (Cumberland) Regiment of Foot. He added the name of Makdougall before Brisbane, and settled down to the life of a country gentleman and took interest in science, his estate, and his regiment. He was elected president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1832) in succession to Sir Walter Scott, and in 1836 he was created a baronet.[5] In the same year he was offered the command of the troops stationed in Canada and two years later the chief command in India, but declined both. He continued his astronomical researches, and did valuable work.

Brisbane died much respected and honoured on 27 January 1860 in Largs. His four children predeceased him. He is buried in the Brisbane Aisle Vault, which is in the small kirkyard next to Skelmorlie Aisle, Largs Old Kirk.

1.
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position

2.
Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order
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The Royal Guelphic Order, sometimes also referred to as the Hanoverian Guelphic Order, is a Hanoverian order of chivalry instituted on 28 April 1815 by the Prince Regent. Named for the House of Guelph, of whom of the Hanoverians were a branch, after the defeat and forced dissolution of the Kingdom of Hanover by the Kingdom of Prussia, the order continued as a house order to be awarded by the Royal House of Hanover. Today, its current chancellor is the Hanoverian head of the house, Ernst August, the honour is named after the House of Guelph to which the Hanoverian kings belonged, and its insignia were based on the white horse of that kingdoms arms. The Order includes two Divisions, Civil and Military and it originally had three classes, but with several reorganizations since 1841, as house order today it has four classes and an additional Cross of Merit. The initial GCG was also used, and held to be more correct

3.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair

4.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October

5.
Governor of New South Wales
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The Governor of New South Wales is the viceregal representative of the Australian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in the state of New South Wales. In an analogous way to the Governor-General of Australia at the national level, the Governor is appointed by the queen on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales, for an unfixed period of time—known as serving At Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the norm. The current Governor is retired General David Hurley, who succeeded Dame Marie Bashir on 2 October 2014, the office has its origin in the 18th-century colonial governors of New South Wales upon its settlement in 1788, and is the oldest continuous institution in Australia. The office of Governor is required by the New South Wales Constitution Act,1902, besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor-designate. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct the governor-designate as a Companion of the Order of Australia. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The premier may therefore recommend to the Queen that the remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor may also resign and three have died in office, furthermore, if the Lieutenant Governor becomes incapacitated while serving in the office of Governor, the next most senior judge of the Supreme Court is sworn in as the Administrator. Between 1788 and 1957, all governors were born outside of New South Wales and were members of the Peerage. Taylor once noted that out and governing New South Wales became the British aristocracys abiding consolation. Coincidentally the first Australian-born Governor, Sir John Northcott on 1 August 1946, was also the first Australian-born Governor of any state, the first Governors were all military officers and the majority of governors since have come from a military background, numbering 19. Samuels was the first governor in New South Wales history without either a political, public service or military background, the first woman to hold this position is also the first Lebanese-Australian governor, Dame Marie Bashir. In this capacity, the governor will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council, the Governor alone is constitutionally mandated to summon parliament. The governor grants Royal Assent in the Queens name, legally, if the governor withholds the Queens assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill, with most constitutional functions delegated to Cabinet, the governor acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Australias royal family, as well as foreign royalty, also as part of international relations, the governor receives letters of credence and of recall from foreign consul-generals appointed to Sydney. The governor is also tasked with fostering unity and pride, the governor also traditionally serves as Honorary and Regimental Colonel in the Royal New South Wales Regiment and as Honorary Air Commodore of No.22 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force. Since 1946, the governor has also always made the Chief Scout of New South Wales

6.
Lachlan Macquarie
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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, a chain of islands off the West Coast of Scotland. He was a gentleman of the Scottish Highland family clan MacQuarrie which possessed Ulva, Staffa, and a region of the Isle of Mull for over one thousand years, and his forebears were buried on Iona. Governor Macquaries father, a man of Intelligence, polite, and much of the world, supposedly attained the age of 103 years and his mother was the daughter of a Maclaine chieftain who owned a castle on the Isle of Mull. Macquarie left the island at the age of 14, if he did attend the Royal High School of Edinburgh, as tradition has it, it was only for a very brief period because, at the same age, he volunteered for the army. Macquarie joined the 84th Regiment of Foot on 9 April 1777, as a new recruit on the way to America he participated in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first naval victory for a British merchant ship over an American privateer and he was initially stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was commissioned as an ensign five months after his arrival. On 18 January 1781, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the 71st Regiment of Foot, and served them in New York City, Charleston. In June 1784 he returned to Scotland as a half-pay lieutenant, three years later, on Christmas Day 1787 he received his commission as lieutenant in the 77th Regiment, where he saw service with the army in India and Egypt. Macquarie became a Freemason in January 1793 at Bombay, in Lodge No.1 and he was promoted Captain on 9 November 1789, Major on 12 March 1801. Two years later,1803, he was in London, as Assistant Adjutant General to Lord Harrington, in 1803 and 1804 saw him on active service in India. In 1793 he married Jane Jarvis, daughter of the Chief Justice of Antigua, three years later she died of tuberculosis. In November 1807, Macquaries cousin Elizabeth Henrietta Campbell became his second wife, in April 1809 Macquarie was appointed Governor of New South Wales. At the head of troops he was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. Macquarie was promoted to Colonel in 1810, Brigadier in 1811 and Major-General in 1813, the Macquaries departed from England in May 1809 aboard HMS Dromedary, accompanied by HMS Hindostan. They reached Sydney on 28 December 1809 and he started as a governor on 1 January 1810 and he appointed John Campbell as his secretary. The first task Macquarie had to tackle was to restore orderly, lawful government, Macquarie was ordered by the British government to arrest both John Macarthur and Major George Johnston, two of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion

7.
Ralph Darling
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General Sir Ralph Darling, GCH was Governor of New South Wales from 1825 to 1831. He is popularly described as a tyrant, accused of torturing prisoners and banning theatrical entertainment, local geographical features named after him include the Darling River and Darling Harbour in Sydney. The controversy of his Australian tenure somewhat obscures his remarkable early career, Darling seems to have been unique in the British Army of this period, as he progressed from an enlisted man to become a general officer with a knighthood. Born in Ireland, he was the son of a sergeant in the 45th Regiment of Foot who subsequently gained the unusual reward of promotion to rank as a lieutenant. Ralph Darling enlisted at the age of fourteen as a private in his fathers regiment, eventually, as an act of charity to the family, young Ralph was granted an officers commission as an ensign on 15 May 1793, without having to make the usual payment. By the time he returned to Britain in 1802, still aged only twenty-nine, in this role, Darling was subsequently promoted to brevet-colonel on 25 July 1810, major-general on 4 June 1813, and deputy adjutant general in 1814. On 13 October 1817, the 46-year-old general married the 19-year-old Eliza Dumaresq, a religious young woman whose father had been a colonel in the army. In spite of the difference in age and background, the marriage appears to have been a happy one, producing seven children. Between February 1819 and February 1824, General Darling commanded the British troops on Mauritius, notwithstanding the criticism from some quarters, it was largely on account of his service in Mauritius that Darling was appointed the seventh Governor of New South Wales in 1824. Darling initiated the construction, from 1826, of the convict-built Great North Road, settlers were only permitted to take up land within these counties. From 1831 the granting of free land ceased and the land that was to be made available for sale was within the Nineteen Counties. When Darling was commissioned as governor, the Colony’s western boundary – set in 1788 at 135 degrees east longitude – was extended by 6 degrees west to the 129 degrees east longitude and this line of longitude subsequently became the border dividing Western Australia and South Australia. He proclaimed Van Diemens Land as a colony on 3 December in 1825. As a result, he came into conflict with the liberal emancipists who wished to introduce political and social freedom in New South Wales. Their accusations of tyrannical misrule were publicized by newspapers in England. In keeping with official policy and the governors own disciplinarian instincts, as an example to others, the Governor had them placed in irons and assigned to a chain gang, leading to the death of Sudds. This was due to an illness which the governor had not been properly informed about. Governor Darling is also said to have ruthlessly and implacably countered all attempts to establish a theatre in Sydney and he even introduced a law effectively banning the performance of drama

8.
Largs
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Largs is a town on the Firth of Clyde in North Ayrshire, Scotland, about 33 miles from Glasgow. The original name means the slopes in Scottish Gaelic, a popular seaside resort with a pier, the town markets itself on its historic links with the Vikings and an annual festival is held each year in early September. In 1263 it was the site of the Battle of Largs between the Norwegian and the Scottish armies, the National Mòd has also been held here in the past. Largs evolved from the estates of North Cunninghame over which the Montgomeries of Skelmorlie became temporal lords in the seventeenth century, sir Robert Montgomerie built Skelmorlie Aisle in the ancient kirk of Largs in 1636 as a family mausoleum. Today the monument is all that remains of the old kirk, from its beginnings as a small village around its kirk, Largs evolved into a busy and popular seaside resort in the nineteenth century. Large hotels appeared and the pier was constructed in 1834 and it was not until 1895, however, that the railway made the connection to Largs, sealing the towns popularity. Largs has historical connections much further back, however, the Norwegians and islemen had been raiding the Scottish coast for some time, and the Scots under Alexander III had been following the fleet, attempting to catch its raiding parties. The outcome of this confrontation is uncertain, as both sides claim victory in their respective chronicles and sagas and the independent source of the war fails to mention the battle at all. The battle was followed soon after by the death of the 59-year-old King Haakon in Bishops Palace on Orkney, during World War II, the Hollywood Hotel was designated HMS Warren, which was Headquarters, Combined Training. The decision that the invasion of Europe would take place in Normandy was made at this conference, King Haakon VII of Norway, then in exile in Britain due to the German occupation of his kingdom, visited Largs in 1944 and was made the towns first honorary citizen. Largs has hosted the National Mòd in 1956,1965 and 2002, theatres and venues include Barrfields Pavilion and the Vikingar centre. In 2014, it was rated one of the most attractive areas to live in Scotland. Largs hosts the popular Largs Live on the last weekend in June where the towns hosts live music around their pubs, restaurants, despite its diminished status as a holiday resort, much of Largs is still geared towards tourism. St. Columbas Parish Church is situated opposite Nardinis and contains a Heritage Centre, the church itself was built in 1892 and is notable for its stained glass windows and Willis organ. Also of interest is a neolithic tomb behind Douglas Park, known as the Haylie Chambered Tomb, it was once covered by a cairn of stones. When it was uncovered in the twentieth century the tomb was dated to around 3000 to 2000 BC. Skelmorlie Aisle, adjoining the museum, is in the care of Historic Scotland and is open during the summer. Kelburn Castle, situated between Largs and Fairlie, is the home of the Boyle family, the hereditary Earls of Glasgow

9.
Ayrshire
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Ayrshire is a historic county in south-west Scotland, located on the shores of the Firth of Clyde. It is also, under the name the County of Ayr and its principal towns include Ayr, Kilmarnock and Irvine. Like the other counties of Scotland, it currently has no function, instead being sub-divided into the council areas of North Ayrshire, South Ayrshire. It has a population of approximately 366,800, the three islands were part of the County of Bute until 1975 and are not always included when the term Ayrshire is applied to the region. The same area is known as Ayrshire and Arran in other contexts, Ayrshire is one of the most agriculturally fertile regions of Scotland. Ayrshire shares with Dumfries and Galloway some rugged hills country known as the Galloway Hills and these hill lie to the west of the A713 and they run south from the Loch Doon area almost to the Solway Firth. To the east of this route through the hills lie the Carsphairn and Scaur Hills which lie to the south east of Dalmellington, glen Afton runs deep into these hills. Glasgow Prestwick International Airport, serving Glasgow and the West of Scotland more generally, is located more than 30 miles away from Glasgow in Ayrshire. Moreover it has a niche in history as the only place in Britain visited by Elvis Presley. The area that today forms Ayrshire was part of the south of the Antonine Wall which was briefly occupied by the Romans during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius. It was inhabited by the Damnonii, who are presumed to have been Britons, later, it formed part of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde, which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Scotland during the 11th century. In 1263, the Scots successfully drove off of the Norwegian leidang-army in a known as the Battle of Largs. A notable historic building in Ayrshire is Turnberry Castle, which dates from the 13th century or earlier, the historic shire or sheriffdom of Ayr was divided into three districts or bailieries which later made up the county of Ayrshire. The three districts were, Carrick in the south and it was situated between the Doon and the wild district of Galloway in the adjoining Stewartries, an area that was little else than a vast tract of hills and mosses. Cunninghame in the north included the royal burgh of Irvine was that part of the county which lay north of the Irvine water. The area used to be heavily industrialised, with making, coal mining and in Kilmarnock numerous examples of production-line manufacturing. In more recent history, Digital Equipment had a manufacturing plant near Ayr from about 1976 until the company was taken over by Compaq in 1998. Some supplier companies grew up to service this site and the more distant IBM plant at Greenock in Renfrewshire, however, unemployment in the region is above the national average

10.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website

11.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century

12.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany

13.
Peninsular War
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The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Guerra de la Independencia Española, which began with the Dos de Mayo Uprising on 2 May 1808 and ended on 17 April 1814. The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas, the British Army, under the then Lt. Gen. Arthur Wellesley, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French in Spain alongside the reformed Portuguese army. The demoralised Portuguese army was reorganised and refitted under the command of Gen, in the following year Wellington scored a decisive victory over King Josephs army at Vitoria. The years of fighting in Spain were a burden on Frances Grande Armée. The Spanish armies were beaten and driven to the peripheries. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had provoked a total war. War and revolution against Napoleons occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain, and ushered in an era of social turbulence, political instability and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion, revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spains American colonies, the Treaties of Tilsit, negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon, concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition. With Prussia shattered, and Russia allied with France, Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom, furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I, had declined to join the emperors Continental System against British trade. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne, meanwhile the Portuguese governments resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junots corps to cross the frontier into Spain, while all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleons marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, the treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and the part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy, the rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junots invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns, Gen. Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Capt. Gen. Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas, Gen. Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, and cooperate with Junots main force

14.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805

15.
Army Gold Cross
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It was not a general medal, since it was issued only to those whose rank was no less than that of battalion commander. The medal came in three styles, the Large Medal, the Small Medal, and the Peninsular Cross, each style was supplemented with clasps identifying the battles involved. The Large Medal was restricted to generals, while lower-ranking officers were awarded the Small Medal, the Peninsular Cross, in cross pattée style, was awarded to those with four or more actions. The first four actions were marked on the arms of the cross, when the medal was first established, a new one was issued for each action. In 1813 an order was created, instructing that only one medal be worn and this was a new establishment of the bar tradition which was followed by all later medal awards. Another new development was the naming of the recipient on the rim of the medal, the total of all styles awarded were 165 Peninsular Crosses and clasps,88 Large Medals and clasps, and 596 Small Medals and clasps. The highest award was given to the Duke of Wellington, a Cross with nine bars for a total of 13 actions and it can be viewed on his uniform in the basement at Apsley House. Following the Peninsular War, rules governing the award of the Order of the Bath were altered, allowing recognition for military commands, in 1847 the Military General Service Medal was authorised, to be retrospectively awarded to all surviving veterans of the campaigns, irrespective of rank. Holders of the medals, crosses or additional clasps were not eligible to claim identical clasps on the MGSM. The eligible engagements for the MGSM were identical, with the addition of Egypt, the design of the cross is very similar to the later Victoria Cross and is considered to have provided the inspiration. Category, Recipients of the Army Gold Medal Category, Recipients of the Army Gold Cross Duckers, Medals which were awarded to Officers of the Royal Regiment of Artillery for Service in the Peninsular War -1808 to 1814. British Medals, Army Gold Medal British Medals, Army Gold Cross

16.
Astronomer
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An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary science, solar astronomy, there are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fit into two types, Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work, there are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology. Today, that distinction has disappeared and the terms astronomer. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph. D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments. The number of astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other such as physics, geology. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in research at the Ph. D. level. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year, analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes, most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a background in maths, sciences. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable, in college/university most astronomers get a Ph. D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive

17.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement

18.
Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst
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Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst KG PC was a High Tory, High Church Pittite from the end of the Second Empire. For thirty years an MP and whence ennobled one of the governments main stalwarts on Colonial policy. Not a good speaker in debates, he was nevertheless a competent administrator, a personal friend of William Pitt he became a broker of deals across cabinet factions during the volatile Napoleonic era. After the wars he was on the wing of the Liberal Tory party. Lord Bathurst was the son of Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, by his wife Tryphena. He was educated at Eton from 1773 to 1778 and then up to Christ Church, the college was always considered the most academic, and he went up with his closest companions at Eton William Wyndham Greville, Richard, Lord Wellesley and Canon Bathurst, his cousin. The influences on his strong, but affable character were aristocratic, whiggish at the beginning of the industrial revolution, britain had lost the American colonies but gained a larger empire in the Far East. Affable man of character, learning and wit, Bathurst was known in society for a sense of humour. He was a book-lover, which he inherited from his parents, his fathers learning had acquired a library, while his mother was artistic. It was however his mother who was more business-like, and from her he learnt some cunning and he was a bad godfather to his religious charges, but a good father to his children. Not especially religious or church-going, Bathurst was worldly and intelligent, aged sixteen he matriculated at Christ Church on 22 April 1779. His father was overjoyed, and from 1790 he bought a living at Sapperton, where the family farmed the estate, then in 1781 he decided to embark on a Grand Tour of Europe. Without taking a degree he left Oxford for Germany where he travelled with Greville, from Switzerland he went to Italy, before moving north to Paris. On hearing that Shelburnes government was challenged by a Fox-North coalition he headed back to London in February 1783, the old enemy France had been defeated on every continent, and on every ocean. Immediately on entering politics he admired the patriotism and oratory of a youthful garrulous drinker William Pitt, Bathurst liked the young dissolute parliamentarian, but refused to join his frequent bouts. Pitt was tall and slender from a Navy family, but Bathurst was more self-restrained, the beauty aesthetic rendered Bathurst more sensitive, studious and scholarly towards departmental duties. The strongest quality he possessed was loyalty to his friends, he was the only society family that would entertain Lady Wellesley, later when appointed head of the Gloucestershire Militia and it embodied he owed it to Wellesley, a born soldier in 1798 who made his name in India. High Anglicanism meant antiquarian attitudes to assiduous recording of letters and correspondence and this was how he came to the conclusion that slavery was cruel, but was wary about voting for a franchise extension

19.
Brisbane
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Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station

20.
38th (1st Staffordshire) Regiment of Foot
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The 38th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1705. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 80th Regiment of Foot to form the South Staffordshire Regiment in 1881, the regiment was first raised by Colonel Sir John Guise as Sir John Guises Regiment of Foot in 1688 and then disbanded in England in 1694. It was raised a second time by General Luke Lillingston as Luke Lillingstones Regiment of Foot with personnel from the regiment in 1694. The regiment was raised a third time at Lichfield by General Luke Lillingston as Luke Lillingstones Regiment of Foot in March 1705 and it was ranked as the 38th regiment in 1747. It was posted to Ireland later in the year and then sent to the West Indies in 1707 and it returned to Ireland in 1764 and then went to Boston in Massachusetts in 1774. It fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the regiment took a county title as the 38th Regiment of Foot in 1782 and returned to Ireland in 1790. The 1st battalion also took part in the disastrous Walcheren Campaign in autumn 1809, meanwhile the 2nd battalion took part in the Battle of Bussaco in September 1810 and the Siege of Badajoz in March 1812. It returned to England in May 1836 and proceeded to Ireland in May 1837 before embarking for Zante in the Ionian Sea in September 1840 and it went on to Gibraltar in March 1843 and to Jamaica in November 1845 before proceeding to Halifax in April 1848. After returning to England in August 1851, it was dispatched to the Crimea for service in the Crimean War in April 1854 and it took part in the Battle of Alma in September 1854, Battle of Inkerman in November 1854 and the Siege of Sevastopol in winter 1854. The regiment then embarked for India in August 1857 and saw action at the Capture of Lucknow in March 1858 during Indian Rebellion and it also took part in the expedition against the Black Mountain tribes in 1868 before returning to England in 1871. 19 at Whittington Barracks in Lichfield, on 1 July 1881 the Childers Reforms came into effect and the regiment amalgamated with the 80th Regiment of Foot to form the South Staffordshire Regiment. Luke Lillingston disbanded 1694 Second raising 1694–1696, Brig-Gen, Luke Lillingston disbanded 1696 Third raising 1702–1705, vacant. Luke Lillingston 1708–1711, Col. James Jones 1711–1717, Col. Francis Alexander 1717–1729, Col. Richard Lucas 1729–1735, Hon. Robert Murray 1738–1739, Gen. Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough, KG 1739–1750, Lt-Gen. Richard Philipps 38th Regiment of Foot 1751–1756, Lt-Gen, cadwallader Blayney, 9th Baron Blayney 1775–1796, Gen. Sir Robert Pigot, Bt. 38th Regiment of Foot - 1796–1805, Gen. James Rooke 1805–1836, Gen. George James Ludlow, 3rd Earl Ludlow, GCB 1836–1836, Sir Charles James Greville, KCB 1836–1840, Gen. Sir Henry Pigot, GCMG 1840–1843, Lt-Gen, Sir Jasper Nicolls, KCB 1843–1862, Gen. Hon. Sir Hugh Arbuthnot, KCB 1862–1876, Gen, Sir William Mansfield, 1st Baron Sandhurst, GCB, GCSI 1876–1881, Gen. James Pattoun Sparks, CB Freer, Major William J. The Thirty-Eighth Regiment of Foot, now the First Battalion of the South Staffordshire Regiment, a history of the South Staffordshire Regiment

21.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries

22.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present

23.
3rd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)
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The 3rd Division, known at various times as the Iron Division, 3rd Division, Montys Iron Sides or as Iron Sides, is a regular army division of the British Army. The division is sometimes referred to as the Iron Division. The divisions other battle honours include, the Battle of Waterloo, the Crimean War, the Second Boer War and it was commanded for a time, during the Second World War, by Bernard Montgomery. The division was to have part of a proposed Commonwealth Corps, formed for a planned invasion of Japan in 1945–46. During the Second World War, the became the pattern of three — a black triangle trisected by an inverted red triangle, created by Bernard Montgomery to instil pride in his troops. The 3rd held their ground and pushed on with other divisions to capture the village of Arinez. The 3rd Division was also present at the Battle of Quatre Bras, 5/390 5x9lb guns 1x5.5 inch Howitzer Cleeves Field Brigade Kings German Legion 6/209 5x9lb guns 1x5. The 3rd Division served on the Western Front in France and Belgium for four years, during this time, it was nicknamed The Iron Division. Its first commander during the war, Major-General Hubert Hamilton, was killed by shellfire near Béthune in October 1914, 2nd Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment 4th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment The following battalions joined the brigade for periods in 1915 and 1916. After the end of the First World War, the division was stationed in southern England where it formed part of Southern Command, in 1937, one of its brigades, the 9th Infantry Brigade, was commanded by Brigadier Bernard Montgomery. He assumed command of the 3rd Division shortly before Britain declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The 3rd Infantry Division, under the command of Major General Bernard Montgomery, was sent overseas to France in late September 1939, there the division became part of Lieutenant General Alan Brookes II Corps of the British Expeditionary Force. However, unlike in the First World War, where the division was almost immediately engaged in desperate fighting, Montgomery instantly began training the men of his division in a tough training regime. As with most of the rest of the BEF, training was hampered by a shortage of modern equipment. In May 1940, after months of relative inactivity, the German Army launched its attack in the west which resulted in the BEF being split up from the French Army. Due to Montgomerys strict training regime, the 3rd Division suffered comparatively few casualties, the 3rd British Infantry Division was the first British formation to land at Sword Beach on D-Day,6 June 1944, as part of the invasion of Normandy, part of the larger Operation Overlord. For the assault landing, 3rd British Division was organised as a Division Group and these included 27th Armoured Brigade and 22nd Dragoons, 1st Special Service Brigade and No. The divisions own artillery were all self-propelled and the SP field guns, after D-Day the 3rd Infantry Division fought through the Battle for Caen, in Operation Charnwood and Operation Goodwood

24.
Battle of Vitoria
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In July 1812, after the Battle of Salamanca, the French had evacuated Madrid, which Wellingtons army entered on 12 August 1812. Wellington spent the winter reorganising and strengthening his forces, by contrast, Napoleon withdrew many soldiers to rebuild his main army after his disastrous invasion of Russia. The French retreated to Burgos, with Wellingtons forces marching hard to cut them off from the road to France. Wellington himself commanded the central force in a strategic feint. Wellington launched his attack with 57,000 British,16,000 Portuguese and 8,000 Spanish at Vitoria on 21 June, after hard fighting, Thomas Pictons 3rd Division broke the enemys centre and soon the French defence crumbled. About 5,000 French soldiers were killed or wounded and 3,000 were taken prisoner,151 cannons were captured, but Joseph Bonaparte, erstwhile King of Spain, narrowly escaped. The battle led to the collapse of Napoleonic rule in Spain, the battlefield centres on the Zadorra River, which runs from east to west. As the Zadorra runs west, it loops into a hairpin bend, on the south of the battlefield are the Heights of La Puebla. To the northwest is the mass of Monte Arrato, Vitoria stands to the east, two miles south of the Zadorra. Five roads radiate from Vitoria, north to Bilbao, northeast to Salinas and Bayonne, east to Salvatierra, south to Logroño, Jourdan was ill with a fever all day on 20 June. Because of this, few orders were issued and the French forces stood idle, an enormous wagon train of booty clogged the streets of Vitoria. A convoy left during the night, but it had to leave siege artillery behind because there were not enough draft animals to pull the cannons, Gazans divisions guarded the narrow western end of the Zadorra valley, deployed south of the river. Maransins brigade was posted in advance, at the village of Subijana, the divisions were disposed with Leval on the right, Daricau in the centre, Conroux on the left and Villate in reserve. Only a picket guarded the western extremity of the Heights of La Puebla, further back, dErlons force stood in a second line, also south of the river. DArmagnacs division deployed on the right and Cassagnes on the left, dErlon failed to destroy three bridges near the rivers hairpin bend and posted Avys weak cavalry division to guard them. Wellington directed Hills 20, 000-man Right Column to drive the French from the Zadorra defile on the side of the river. While the French were preoccupied with Hill, Wellingtons Right Centre column moved along the bank of the river. Grahams 20, 000-man Left Column was sent around the side of Monte Arrato

25.
Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups, on operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops, however, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use regiment instead of brigade, a brigades commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer, the brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander, the headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached, the headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the organizational unit. The brigade as a military unit came about starting in the 15th century when the British army, as such a field army became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of control, especially in regard to combined arms operations. The terms origin is found in two French roots, which together, meant roughly those who fight, the so-called brigada was a well-mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, designated for a special task. The size of such brigada ranged from a company of up to two regiments. The brigada was the forerunner of the battalion task force, battle group. The brigade was improved as a unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus

26.
Battle of Plattsburgh
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The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states of the United States during the War of 1812. Downies squadron attacked shortly after dawn on 11 September 1814, but was defeated after a fight in which Downie was killed. When the battle took place, American and British delegates were meeting at Ghent in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, retaining territory they held at the end of hostilities. The Treaty of Ghent, in which captured or occupied territories were restored on the basis of Status quo ante bellum, was signed three months after the battle, in 1814, most of Britains army was engaged in the Peninsular War. Then in April, Napoleon I abdicated the throne of France and this provided Britain the opportunity to send 16,000 veteran troops from the Peninsula and other garrisons to North America. Several experienced Major-Generals were also detached from the Duke of Wellingtons army to command them, Prévost lacked the means to transport the troops necessary for an attack on Sacketts Harbor and the supplies for them up the Saint Lawrence River. Prévost therefore prepared to launch his offensive to Lake Champlain. Prévosts choice of route on reaching the lake was influenced by the attitude of the American state of Vermont, to spare Vermont from becoming a seat of war, Prévost therefore determined to advance down the western, New York State, side of the lake. The main American position on this side was at Plattsburgh, Prévost organized the troops which were to carry out the invasion into a division commanded by Major General Sir Francis de Rottenburg, the Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada. Each brigade was supported by a battery of five 6-pounder guns, a squadron of the 19th Light Dragoons was attached to the force. The force numbered 11,000 in total, however, some units were detached and some sick men did not take part, so the actual number of troops present at Plattsburgh was just over 8,000. There was some tension within the force between the brigade and regimental commanders who were veterans of the Peninsular War or of earlier fighting in Upper Canada, and Prévost and his staff. Prévost had not endeared himself by complaining about the standards of dress of the troops from the Peninsular Army, on the American side of the frontier, Major General George Izard was the commander of the Northern Army, deployed along the Northeast frontier. In late August, Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered Izard to take the majority of his force, about 4,000 troops, Izards force departed on 23 August, leaving Brigadier General Alexander Macomb in command at Plattsburgh with only 1,500 American regulars. Most of these troops were recruits, invalids or detachments of odds and ends, Macomb ordered General Benjamin Mooers to call out the New York militia and appealed to the governor of Vermont for militia volunteers. Up to 2,000 militia eventually reported to Plattsburgh, however, the militia units were mostly untrained, and hundreds of them were unfit for duty. Macomb put the militiamen to use digging trenches and building fortifications, Macombs main position was a ridge on the south bank of the Saranac River. Its fortifications had been out by Major Joseph Gilbert Totten, Izards senior Engineer officer

27.
Charles C. Platt Homestead
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Charles C. Platt Homestead is a historic home located at Plattsburgh in Clinton County, New York. It was built about 1802 and is a two storey, rectangular plan dwelling on a foundation in the Federal style. It features a one storey, gable roof wing with a board. In 1814, it was used as the headquarters for Major-General Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane during the Battle of Plattsburgh and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982

28.
Battle of the Pyrenees
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After initial success the offensive ground to a halt in face of increased allied resistance under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington. Soult abandoned the offensive on 30 July and headed toward France, the Battle of the Pyrenees involved several distinct actions. On 25 July, Soult and two French corps fought the reinforced British 4th Division and a Spanish division at the Battle of Roncesvalles. The Allied force successfully held off all attacks during the day, also on the 25th, a third French corps severely tried the British 2nd Division at the Battle of Maya. The British withdrew from the Maya Pass that evening, Wellington rallied his troops a short distance north of Pamplona and repelled the attacks of Soults two corps at the Battle of Sorauren on 28 July. Instead of falling back to the northeast toward Roncesvalles Pass, Soult made contact with his corps on 29 July. On 30 July, Wellington attacked Soults rearguards at Sourauren, driving some French troops to the northeast, rather than use the Maya Pass, Soult elected to head north up the Bidassoa River valley. He managed to evade Allied attempts to surround his troops at Yanci on 1 August, the French suffered nearly twice as many casualties as the Allied army. After the decisive French defeat at the Battle of Vitoria, Marshal Soult consolidated the remnants of four armies into a force of 80,000 troops. Soult ordered General of Division Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte dErlon commanding one corps to attack, General of Division Honoré Reille was ordered by Soult to attack and seize the Roncesvalles Pass with his corps and the corps of General of Division Bertrand Clausel. Marshal Soult’s plan was to relieve the siege at Pamplona first, Clausels Lieutenancy of the Left consisted of the infantry divisions of Generals of Division Nicolas François Conroux, Edmé-Martin Vandermaesen, and Eloi Charlemagne Taupin. Conrouxs 4th Division had 7,056 men in nine battalions, Vandermaesens 5th Division counted 4,181 troops in seven battalions, Taupins 8th Division numbered 5,981 infantry in nine battalions. DErlons Lieutenancy of the Center included the divisions of Generals of Division Jean Barthélemy Darmagnac, Louis Jean Nicolas Abbé. Darmagnacs 2nd Division counted 6,961 troops in eight battalions, Reilles Lieutenancy of the Right had the divisions of Generals of Division Maximilien Sebastien Foy, Antoine Louis Popon de Maucune, and Thomas Mignot de Lamartinière. Foys 1st Division numbered 5,922 soldiers in nine battalions, Maucunes 7th Division had 4,186 infantry in seven battalions, each Corps had a single cavalry regiment attached for scouting purposes, for a total of 808 horsemen. The French Reserve under General of Division Eugene-Casimir Villatte held the defences on the lower Bidassoa River near the Bay of Biscay. In addition, General of Division Pierre Benoît Soult commanded 3,981 light cavalrymen in 10 regiments, the two cavalry divisions remained in the rear. There were about 7,900 gunners, sappers, wagon drivers, General of Brigade Louis Emmanuel Rey and 3,000 troops garrisoned San Sebastián while General of Brigade Louis Pierre Cassan held Pamplona with a 3, 500-man garrison

29.
Battle of Nivelle
–
The Battle of Nivelle took place in front of the River Nivelle near the end of the Peninsular War. After the Allied siege of San Sebastian, Wellingtons 80,000 British, Portuguese, after the Light Division, the main British army was ordered to attack and the 3rd Division split Soults army into two. By 2 oclock, Soult was in retreat and the British in an offensive position. Soult had lost 4,351 men to Wellingtons 2,450, in the Siege of San Sebastian, the Anglo-Portuguese stormed and captured the port at the beginning of September 1813. In the Battle of San Marcial on 31 August, Soult failed to break through the Spanish defences in his attempt to relieve the siege. The French army then fell back to defend the Bidassoa River, at dawn on 7 October the Anglo-Allied army overran the French river defences in the Battle of the Bidassoa in a surprise crossing. During this action, the allies also captured several fortified positions in the area of La Rhune mountain, both sides lost about 1,600 men in these actions. Soults lines stretched from the shores of the Atlantic on the French right flank to the pass of Roncesvalles on the left. With only 60,000 men, Soult was stretched to an almost impossible point and this also means that he could not hold troops back as reserves, something which may have turned the tide of the battle. As Soult moved back to his base at Bayonne, his position strengthened but he was not quick enough, the French position was dominated by the Greater Rhune, a gorse-covered, craggy mountain nearly 3,000 feet high. Separated from the Greater Rhune by a ravine, roughly 700 yards below it, is the Lesser Rhune along the precipitous crest of which the French had constructed three defensive positions. If the French defences on La Rhune could be taken Soults position would become dangerous as it would open him to attack from all elements of the British three point pincer plan. Wellingtons plan was to distribute troops along the whole of Soults line, any breakthrough in the centre or the French left flank would enable the British to cut off the French right Flank. So, Wellington ordered that the British left would be led by Sir John Hope and would involve the 1st, Wellington decided to attack on the 10th of November. The battle started just before dawn as the Light Division headed towards the plateau on the summit of the Greater Rhune, the objective of the division was to sweep the three defensive forts the French had constructed out of the battle. They moved down into the ravine in front of the Lesser Rhune and were ordered to lie down, after the signal from a battery of cannon, the offensive began. It started with the men of the 43rd, 52nd and 95th - with the 17th Portuguese Caçadores in support - storming the redoubts on the crest of the Rhune. Despite this being a move and the men being almost exhausted

30.
Battle of Orthez
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The Battle of Orthez saw the Anglo-Portuguese Army under Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington attack a Imperial French army led by Marshal Nicolas Soult in southern France. The outnumbered French repelled several Allied assaults on their right flank, at first the withdrawal was conducted in good order, but it eventually ended in a scramble for safety and many French soldiers became prisoners. The engagement occurred near the end of the Peninsular War, in mid-February, Wellingtons army broke out of its small area of conquered territory near Bayonne. Moving east, the Allies drove the French back from several river lines, after a pause in the campaign, the western-most Allied corps surrounded and isolated Bayonne. Resuming their eastward drive, the remaining two Allied corps pushed Soults army back to Orthez where the French marshal offered battle, in subsequent operations, Soult decided to abandon the large western port of Bordeaux and fall back east toward Toulouse. The next action was the Battle of Toulouse, the Battle of the Nive ended on 13 December 1813 when Wellingtons army repulsed the last of Soults assaults. This ended the fighting for the year, Soult had found the Allied army divided by the Nive River but failed to inflict a damaging defeat. The French then pulled back within Bayonnes defenses and entered winter quarters, heavy rains brought operations to a standstill for the next two months. After the Battle of Nivelle on 10 November 1813, Wellingtons Spanish troops had gone out of control in seized French villages, since his men were paid and fed by the British government, Pablo Morillos Spanish division remained with the army. Wellingtons policy paid dividends, his soldiers found that guarding the roads in his armys rear areas was no longer required. In January 1814, Soult sent reinforcements to Napoleon, transferred to the Campaign in Northeast France were the 7th and 9th Infantry Divisions and Anne-François-Charles Trelliards dragoons. Marshal Soult also commanded 7,300 gunners, engineers and wagon drivers plus the garrisons of Bayonne, stapleton Cotton commanded three British light cavalry brigades under Henry Fane, Hussey Vivian and Edward Somerset. There were also three independent infantry brigades,1,816 British led by Matthew Whitworth-Aylmer,2,185 Portuguese under John Wilson and 1,614 Portuguese directed by Thomas Bradford. Wellington planned to use the greater part of his army to drive the bulk of Soults army well to the east, away from Bayonne. Once the French army was pressed sufficiently far to the east, because Soults army was weakened by three divisions, Wellingtons forces were superior enough to risk dividing them into two bodies. Soult wished to contain his opponent in a wedge of occupied French territory, strongly garrisoned Bayonne blocked the north side of the Allied-occupied area. East of the city, three French divisions held the line of the Adour to Port-de-Lanne, the east side of the Allied-occupied area was defended by four French divisions along the Joyeuse River as far south as Hélette. Cavalry patrols formed a cordon from there to the fortress of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port in the Pyrenees, on 14 February, Wellington launched his offensive toward the east

31.
Battle of Toulouse (1814)
–
The Battle of Toulouse was one of the final battles of the Napoleonic Wars, four days after Napoleons surrender of the French Empire to the nations of the Sixth Coalition. Toulouse, the capital, proved stoutly defended by Marshal Soult. One British and two Spanish divisions were badly mauled in bloody fighting on 10 April, with Allied losses exceeding French casualties by 1,400. As Wellington pulled back to reorganize his shattered units, Soult held the city for a day before orchestrating an escape from the town with his entire army. Wellingtons entry on the morning of 12 April was acclaimed by a number of French Royalists. That afternoon, the word of Napoleons abdication and the end of the war reached Wellington. Soult agreed to an armistice on 17 April, the city of Toulouse was garrisoned by around 42,000 French troops, under the command of Marshal Soult, Duke of Dalmatia. Allied campaigning had gradually pushed French forces out of Spain during 1813, after Soults defeat by Wellington at the Battle of Orthez in late February 1814, the French Marshal retreated north behind the Adour River to Saint-Sever. Soult was on the horns of a dilemma and he could defend Bordeaux to the north-west or Toulouse to the east, but he could not protect both. The French army would have difficulty obtaining food near Bordeaux and it would place the Garonne River in their rear, therefore, Soult elected to base himself on Toulouse. With Soult moving east, Wellington sent Beresford and two divisions to seize Bordeaux, the third-largest city of France, to make up for this subtraction of strength, the British general called up 8000 Spanish infantry and the British heavy cavalry as reinforcements. Fearful that the Spanish would plunder the French countryside and incite a war, Wellington put his allies on the British payroll. Meanwhile, the British-Portuguese-Spanish army pushed the French out of Aire-sur-lAdour on 2 March in a skirmish, Soult pulled back to Plaisance and Maubourget, facing west. A ten-day lull followed, during which time Wellingtons reinforcements began to arrive, on 12 March, Beresford captured Bordeaux without resistance. Leaving the 7th Division as a garrison, he rushed back to join Wellington with the 4th Division, meanwhile, on 17–18 March, in a raid with 100 French cavalrymen, Captain Dauma circled the Allied armys south flank and attacked Saint-Sever where he captured 100 men. At the same time, Wellington launched his offensive, hoping to ensnare Soults army, by rapidly marching east to Saint-Gaudens and north-east to Toulouse, the French avoided the British flanking columns. Reaching Toulouse, Soult placed his soldiers behind the citys walls, the Toulouse 1814 Order of Battle lists the Allied and French units and organisations that were present at the battle. Toulouse lies on the Garonne, which runs into the city from the south-west, then turns, just east of the Garonne, the smaller Hers-Mort runs past the city from the south-east to the north-east, forming a narrow corridor

32.
Military General Service Medal
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The Military General Service Medal was a campaign medal approved in 1847, for issue to officers and men of the British Army. Each battle or action covered by the medal was represented by a clasp on the ribbon, twenty-nine were sanctioned, the medal was never issued without a clasp. The Duke of Richmond, who had fought at Waterloo, was responsible for the belated institution of the Military General Service Medal for all survivors of the campaigns between 1793 and 1814. Senior officers had received the Army Gold Medal thirty years before, a point to note is that the medal was only awarded to surviving claimants, one had both to have survived until 1847 and then to actively apply for it. A combination of factors, from general illiteracy to limited publicity for the new medal meant that many did not, there are substantially fewer medals issued compared with the number of men who served during this period. The medal was awarded only to surviving claimants, next of kin could not apply for a medal on behalf of a deceased relative. However, the medal was awarded to next of kin of those claimants who had died between the date of their application and the date of presentation, in total there were 26,091 awarded. This medal and its counterpart, the Naval General Service Medal, were amongst the first real British campaign medals. An earlier Army Gold Medal had been awarded to officers for their successful commands. To distinguish between the two medals, the MGSM was referred to as the silver medal, Medals Yearbook —2005, Token Publishing. Joslin, Litherland, and Simpkin, British Battles and Medals, Spink Military General Service Medal Roll

33.
Battle of the Nive
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The Battles of the Nive were fought towards the end of the Peninsular War. Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellingtons Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish army defeated Marshal Nicolas Soults French army in a series of battles near the city of Bayonne, unusually, for most of the battle, Wellington remained with the Reserve delegating command to his senior Lieutenant-Generals Rowland Hill and John Hope. Wellingtons army had pushed the French army out of Spain, over the Pyrenees. After his defeat at Nivelle, Marshal Soult fell back to a line south of the town of Bayonne along the Adour. The rivers and the Bay of Biscay near Bayonne form a rough Greek letter Pi, the left vertical leg is the coast, the right vertical leg is the Nive and the crossbar is the Adour. Bayonne is located where the Nive joins the Adour, initially, Wellingtons army was confined to the area between the Bay of Biscay and the Nive. To gain room to manoeuvre, the British general had to establish his army on the east bank of the Nive, Wellingtons dilemma was that by separating two wings of his army, he would leave himself open to defeat in detail. Soult, a wily strategist, understood this and tried to take advantage of the situation, by moving the French army through the fortified city of Bayonne, Soult could easily switch his army from one bank of the Nive to the other. Despite poor weather, Hill led five Anglo-Portuguese divisions across to the east bank of the Nive near Ustaritz on 9 December, meanwhile, the remainder of the British force under Hope launched diversionary attacks towards Bayonne on the west bank of the Nive. Wellingtons Reserve included the 4th and 7th Divisions, about 630 casualties were suffered in these operations. The right flank of Hopes line was held by one brigade of the 7th Division at the bridge of Urdains, Charles Altens Light Division defended the centre near Bassussary. The left, under John Wilson, was held by Bradford, the ravine-filled terrain forced the French into these three corridors of attack. The 5th Division lay three miles to the rear while the 1st Division and Lord Aylmers independent British brigade were ten miles away, though Wellington ordered the line to be fortified, Hope failed to do this. The four divisions leading the attack were fresh while the troops were tired from skirmishing with Hills troops. The Light Divisions outpost line alertly detected the attack, though 50 men were cut off. The French advance soon came upon the ridge of Arcangues, topped by a chateau, Aylmers brigade arrived about 2 pm. The picket line on Hopes left flank was quickly gobbled up by Reilles attack and 200 men captured, for the most part, the Portuguese held sturdily, but one unit was broken by French cavalry. Fighting their way back to Barroilhet, the Portuguese held onto the village, the 5th Division arrived, but, due to a staff blunder, was low on ammunition

34.
John Bigge
–
John Thomas Bigge was an English judge and royal commissioner. Bigge was born at Benton House, Northumberland, England, the son of Thomas Charles Bigge and he was educated at Newcastle Grammar School and Westminster School, and in 1797 entered Christ Church, Oxford. Bigge was called to the Bar in 1806 and was appointed Chief Judge of Trinidad in 1814, since 1817, Lord Bathurst had wanted to examine whether transportation was an effective deterrent to crime. The commissioner may also have been appointed in response to complaints to London from leaders of the community of settlers including John Macarthur. On 5 January 1819, Bigge was appointed a commissioner to examine the government of the Colony of New South Wales by Lord Bathurst, the Secretary of State for War. Together with his secretary Thomas Hobbes Scott, Bigge arrived in Sydney on 26 September 1819, Bigge finished gathering evidence February 1821 and on 10 February, sailed back to England aboard the ship Dromedary. While Bigge was in Australia, there was friction between himself and Governor Macquarie and he spent much time in the company of the Macarthurs. Bigge’s first report was published in June 1822 and his second, elements of Bigge’s reports criticised Governor Macquarie’s administration including his emancipist policy, expenditure on public works and management of convicts. Macquarie answered criticisms to the secretary of state, Lord Bathurst in 1822, Bigges reports are now viewed as not showing sufficient detachment and, although there were many excellent recommendations, there were also trifling recommendations and hyper-critical detail. Many of the recommendations from Bigges second report were incorporated into the New South Wales Act 1823 and it also provided for a separate administration for Van Diemens Land. Bigges third report was the most impartial and least contentious and it afforded a generally clear picture of farming and grazing in the Sydney district and west of the Blue Mountains. It did not sufficiently acknowledge the important developments of the Illawarra district, otherwise it was well presented and included useful accounts of the state of revenue, trade and the countrys economic position. In 1824, Governor Brisbane approved the sale of land in accordance with one of Bigge’s recommendations. Previously only a nominal quit rent was required for grants by the crown, the establishment of the limits of location, also known as the Nineteen Counties, also resulted from Bigges recommendations. From 1823, Bigge was given an appointment to examine the government of the Cape Colony, Mauritius. In 1829 he had returned to England for the last time and he continued in poor health and was too indisposed to accept a position to report on clerical establishments in 1832. He never married and lived a life in retirement until his accidental death on 22 December 1843 at the Grosvenor Hotel in London. He was buried as directed by his will without ceremony or superfluous expense and his nephews Frederick William Bigge and Francis Edward Bigge were pioneer pastoralists in Queensland

35.
Royal Society of New South Wales
–
The Royal Society of New South Wales is a learned society based in Sydney, Australia. It is the oldest such society in Australia and in the Southern Hemisphere, the Governor of New South Wales is the vice-regal patron of the Society. The Society was established as the Philosophical Society of Australasia on 27 June 1821, in 1850, after a period of informal activity, the Society was revived and its name became the Australian Philosophical Society and, in 1856, the Philosophical Society of New South Wales. The Society was granted Royal Assent on 12 December 1866 and at time was renamed the Royal Society of New South Wales. Membership is open to any person interested in the promotion of studies in Science, Art, Literature, the Society is based in Sydney and has an active branches in Mittagong in the Southern Highlands of NSW. Regular monthly meetings and public lectures are attended by both members and visitors. The Society publishes a journal, the Journal and Proceedings of The Royal Society of New South Wales. The Society was formed with a view to enquiring into the branches of physical science of this vast continent. On his arrival in Sydney late in 1821, the newly appointed Governor, following a period of informal activity, the Society was revitalised and renamed the Australian Philosophical Society on 19 January 1850. The society was renamed the Philosophical Society of New South Wales in 1856, on 12 December 1866, Queen Victoria granted Royal Assent to change its name to The Royal Society of New South Wales. The Society was incorporated by Act of the New South Wales Parliament in 1881, the rules of the Society provided that the Governor of New South Wales should be President ex officio. After the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the Governor-General became Patron of the Society, from 1938 to 2014, the Society was under the joint patronage of the Governor-General of Australia and the Governor of NSW. The Society now has a single Vice-Regal Patron, the Governor of NSW, the Societys journal, the Journal and Proceedings of The Royal Society of New South Wales is one of the oldest peer-reviewed publications in the Southern Hemisphere. Much innovative research of the 19th and early 20th centuries was first brought to the attention of the world through the Journal. The Journal and Proceedings are exchanged with hundreds of institutions worldwide, issues are published June and December each year. The Society welcomes scholarly work to be considered for publication in the Journal, preference is given to work done in Australia which has relevance to New South Wales. Intending authors must read the style guide, available via the Society’s web site, the Society recognises outstanding contributions to science, art, literature or philosophy with the position of Distinguished Fellow. Distinguished Fellows of the Society are entitled to use the postnominal Dist FRSN, there can be up to 25 Distinguished Fellows at any one time

36.
New Zealand flax
–
New Zealand flax describes the common New Zealand perennial plants Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi, known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They have played an important part in the cultural and economic history of New Zealand for both the Māori people and the later European settlers. Both species and their cultivars have now been widely distributed to temperate regions of the world as ornamental garden plants - and to lesser extent for fibre production. Although the Māori made textiles from a number of plants, including tī kōuka, tōī, pingao, kiekie, toetoe and the paper mulberry. As Captain Cook wrote, “Of the leaves of plants, with very little preparation, they make all their common apparel. They also made baskets, mats, and fishing nets from the undressed flax, the Māori practised advanced weft twining in phormium fibre cloaks. Leaves were cut near the base of the plant using a mussel shell or specially shaped rocks. The flax fibre, called muka, is washed, pounded. The cords form the base cloth for intricate cloaks or garments such as the highly prized traditional feather cloak. Different type of cloaks, such as kahu kiwi and kahu kākā, were produced by adorning them with colourful feathers from different native birds, such as kiwi, kākā, tui, huia and kererū. The handmade flax cording and ropes had such great strength that they were used to successfully bind together sections of hollowed out logs to create huge ocean-going canoes. With the help of wakas, pre-European Māori deployed seine nets which could be one thousand metres long. The nets were woven from green flax, with weights and light wood or gourd floats. It was also used to make rigging, sails and lengthy anchor warps, frayed ends of flax leaves were fashioned into torches and lights for use at night. The dried flower stalks, which are light, were bound together with flax twine to make river rafts called mokihi. For centuries, Māori have used nectar from the flowers for medicinal purposes, boiled and crushed harakeke roots were applied externally as a poultice for boils, tumours and abscesses, as well as to varicose ulcers. Juice from pounded roots was used as a disinfectant, and taken internally to relieve constipation or expel worms, the pulp of pounded leaves was applied as dressings to bullet, bayonet or other wounds. The gum-like sap produced by harakeke contains enzymes that give it blood clotting, splints were fashioned from korari and leaves, and fine cords of muka fibre utilise the styptic properties of the gel before being used to stitch wounds

37.
William Wentworth
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William Charles Wentworth was an Australian explorer, journalist, politician and author, and one of the leading figures of early colonial New South Wales. He was the first native-born Australian to achieve a reputation overseas, William Wentworth was born in August 1790 to DArcy Wentworth and Catherine Crowley. DArcy was the impecunious distant offspring of the aristocratic Wentworth family and he was born in Ireland in 1762, but had left to train as a surgeon in London. To maintain his lifestyle he became a highwayman but soon found himself in trouble with the law. After being acquitted four times of highway robbery, to avoid a further prosecution DArcy took the position of assistant surgeon to the new colony of New South Wales and he boarded the Neptune sometime in December 1789. On board the ship was a girl from Ireland, who was being transported to Sydney following a conviction for stealing some clothing. On board ship, DArcy Wentworth and Catherine Crowley became lovers, the Neptune arrived in Sydney as part of the Second Fleet on 29 June 1790. DArcy and Catherine, now pregnant, departed for Norfolk Island on the Surprize. While anchored off Norfolk Island in August, possibly the 13th, although born less than nine months after they first met, DArcy acknowledged the boy as his. There has always been confusion about the date and circumstances of Wentworths birth, the text of his obituary in the Sydney Morning Herald of 6 May 1872, says about the year 1792. Burkes Colonial Gentry, 1891–1896, Page 96, says he was born in 1793, describes his mother as Catherine Parry, in the biography William Charles Wentworth by A. C. V. Melbourne. M. A. PhD, Associate Professor of History, University of Queensland and his mother is believed to have been a Catherine Williams, who had been a convict on the Neptune, where Darcy first became acquainted with her. 26 October 1793 was celebrated as his date for some years. His coffin had attached to it a plate of silver which bore the simple inscription, William Charles Wentworth, born 26 October 1793 died March. In 1796 DArcy and Catherine Wentworth moved from Norfolk Island to Sydney, the family lived at Parramatta, where his father became a prosperous landowner. In 1802 William was sent to England, where he was educated at a school in London, in about 1807, DArcy Wentworth sold 450 acres at the Brush Farm to Gregory Blaxland for £1,500. William returned to Sydney in 1810, where he was appointed acting Provost Marshal by Governor Lachlan Macquarie, and given a land grant of 1,750 acres on the Nepean River. On 15 October 1810, at Hyde Park, now in the centre of Sydney, as a reward he was granted another 1,000 acres

38.
John Oxley
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John Joseph William Molesworth Oxley was an explorer and surveyor of Australia in the early period of British colonisation. John Oxley was born in 1785 at Kirkham Abbey near Westow in Yorkshire and he was baptised in Bulmer in Yorkshire on 6 July 1785. In 1799, he entered the Royal Navy when he was aged 15 as a midshipman on the Venerable and he travelled to Australia in October 1802 as masters mate of the naval vessel Buffalo, which carried out coastal surveying. In 1805 Governor King appointed him acting lieutenant in charge of the Buffalo, in 1806 he commanded the Estramina on a trip to Van Diemens Land. He returned to England in 1807 and was appointed first lieutenant of Porpoise, in 1809 Porpoise visited Van Diemens Land, carrying as a passenger Governor William Bligh, who had been deposed in the Rum Rebellion. Oxley had obtained an order from the Colonial Office for a grant of 600 acres near the Nepean River, Oxley had to surrender these in 1810, but Governor Macquarie granted him 600 acres near Camden which he increased in 1815 to 1,000 acres again. In 1810 he wrote a report on the settlements in Van Diemens Land before sailing for England in Porpoise in May. In London he applied for the post of Naval Officer in Sydney, Oxley denied that he had been a partisan of Macarthur when Bligh was deposed, but his letters show that he was on very intimate terms with the rebel leader. In 1812 he became engaged to Elizabeth Macarthur, this was broken off when her father discovered the extent of Oxleys debts, by that time, through the influence of Macarthurs friend Walter Davidson, Oxleys second application for the surveyor-generalship had been successful. In 1811 he had retired from the navy, and in May 1812 sailed for Sydney in the Minstrel to take up his new duties, in March 1817 John Oxley was instructed to take charge of an expedition to explore and survey the course of the Lachlan River. He left Sydney on 6 April with George Evans as second-in-command, Evans had discovered a portion of the Lachlan River west of Bathurst in 1815. Oxleys party reached Bathurst after a week, where they were detained by bad weather. They reached the Lachlan River Depot on 25 April 1817 and commenced to follow its course, as the exploring party travelled westward the country surrounding the rising river was found to be increasingly inundated. On 12 May, west of the present township of Forbes and they travelled down a northern branch of the river to Mt Mulguthery they were forced to return up the river. By the end of May the party found themselves in a dry scrubby country north east of Yenda where they ascended several peaks in the Cocoparra National Park, shortage of water and the death of two horses forced Oxleys return passing near Rankins Springs to the Lachlan River. On 23 June the Lachlan River near Merrigal Bridge was reached and they followed the course of the Lachlan River through Hillston and Booligal for a fortnight. The party encountered much flooded country, and reached a point 5km south west of Booligal which was their last camp site, Oxley resolved to turn back and after resting for two days Oxleys party began to retrace their steps along the Lachlan River. Oxley travelled to Dubbo on 12 June 1818 and he wrote that he had passed that day over a very beautiful country, thinly wooded and apparently safe from the highest floods

39.
Moreton Bay
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The Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia 14 kilometres from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queenslands most important coastal resources, the waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are used by commercial operators who provide seafood to market. The Port of Brisbane coordinates large traffic along the channel which crosses the northern section of the bay. The bay serves as an approach to the airport and reduces noise pollution over the city to the west of the runway. A number of barge, ferry and water-taxi services also travel over the bay, Moreton Bay was the site of conflict between the indigenous Quandamooka people and early European settlers. It contains environmentally significant habitats and large areas of sandbanks, the bay is the only place in Australia where dugong gather into herds. Many parts of the foreshore and southern islands are settled. Moreton Bay is described as lagoonal because of the existence of a series of barrier islands that restrict the flow of oceanic water. The tidal range is moderate at 1. 5–2 metres in range, Moreton Bay has an average depth of 6.8 metres. This shallow depth lets light filter through to the seafloor, allowing an array of plants to grow which support a diverse range of fauna. The bay itself covers 1,523 square kilometres and has a catchment area 14 times larger, the waters of the bay are mostly blue in colour. Western parts of the bay are sometimes tinted green from algae, Moreton Bay was formed roughly 6000 years ago as the sea level rose and inundated what was then the floodplains of the Brisbane River. Moreton Bay and its islands were inhabited by indigenous tribes, in indigenous economy was very rich, one of the strongest for its productive yields of edible natural resources on the Australian continent. In the 1840s, resident white administrators estimated the population of the area to be around 4,000. They were only outnumbered with the influx over the five year period of 1850-1855 with saw the disembarkation of 3,000 European migrants on their land. The name Mortons Bay was given by Captain Cook when he passed the area on 15 May 1770, honouring Lord Morton, the spelling Moreton was an error in the first published account of Cooks voyage. Cook gave the only to the bight formed by the northern end of Stradbroke Island. He was unaware of the South Passage between the two islands, and did not sail into what is the present Moreton Bay, matthew Flinders was the first recorded European to enter the bay in 1799 touching down at the Pumicestone Passage, Redcliffe and Coochiemudlo Island

40.
Brisbane River
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The Brisbane River is the longest river in South East Queensland, Australia, and flows through the city of Brisbane, before emptying into Moreton Bay. John Oxley, the first European to explore the river, named it after the Governor of New South Wales, the penal colony of Moreton Bay later adopted the same name, eventually becoming the present city of Brisbane. Early travellers along the waterway admired the beauty, abundant fish. From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes, the river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875. By the late 1920s, water quality in the river had significantly deteriorated, the river travels 344 km from Mount Stanley. The river is dammed by the Wivenhoe Dam, forming Lake Wivenhoe, the waterway is a habitat for the rare Queensland lungfish, Brisbane River cod and bull sharks. The largest ship built on the river was the Robert Miller, the 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the 1974 Brisbane flood. While not the highest experienced along the river since European settlement, major floods also occurred in January 2011 and multiple times during 1893. Extensive port facilities have been constructed on the Fisherman Islands, now known as the Port of Brisbane, there are 16 major bridges that cross the river. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the rivers first underground crossing for road transport, the CityCat ferry service collects and delivers passengers along the inner-city reaches of the river. Brisbane Rivers source is located in the Great Dividing Range, east of Kingaroy and it then makes its way south, past Mount Stanley, and townships including Moore and Toogoolawah before being joined by the Stanley River, just south of Somerset Dam. The river runs from there into Lake Wivenhoe, created by the Wivenhoe Dam, beyond the dam, the river meanders eastward, meeting the Bremer River near Ipswich, then making its way through Brisbanes western suburbs, including Jindalee, Indooroopilly and Toowong. The river is traversed by CityCats and other ferries in Brisbane, Water from the highest point in the catchment has fallen from Mount Langley in the Conondale Range,868 m above sea level. On the southern side of the river, opposite Gardens Point, are the Kangaroo Point Cliffs and this was in the vicinity of Edward Street ferry terminal. The volcanic rock Ignimbrite which formed the cliffs was deposited in the Triassic period about 220 million years ago and they currently form the banks of the Brisbane River. On the southside Bulimba Creek, Norman Creek, Oxley Creek, the language group common to most of the area was the Yugarabul language group. Four European navigators, namely Captain Cook, Matthew Flinders, John Bingle and William Edwardson, all visited Moreton Bay, the exploration by Flinders took place during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay in 1799. He spent a total of 15 days in the area, touching down at Woody Point and several other spots and this is consistent with accounts of many other rivers along the east coast of Australia, which could not be found by seaward exploration but were discovered by inland travellers

41.
Emu Plains, New South Wales
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Emu Plains is a suburb of Sydney in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is 58 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district, Emu Plains is on the western side of the Nepean River, located at the foot of the Blue Mountains. The local Darug people were known as the Mulgoa who lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle governed by traditional laws and they lived in huts made of bark called gunyahs, hunted kangaroos and emus for meat, and gathered yams, berries and other native plants. It was first referred to by its current name by Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1814 when William Cox started building his road over the Blue Mountains from there, a government farm with convict labour was established in 1813 with 1326 convicts working on growing local agriculture. It closed down in 1833 and the land was Gazetted and sold to establishment the village of Emu Plains, Emu Ferry Post Office opened on 1 April 1863 and was renamed Emu Plains in 1882. The removal of river-stones from the Nepean River for concrete and road-base was begun by the Emu and Prospect Gravel, a railway siding, which was to be ultimately expanded into a short branch, was first laid in from the Main Western Line at Emu Plains in 1884. Railway operations, which included their own locomotives, continued until 1967, after only a siding, shunted by Government trains. All railway operations ceased in 1993, Emu Plains has a number of landmark buildings, The railway station is a notable building of brick and sandstone, with Tudor chimneys, built in 1883. It is unusual for railway stations because it has two storeys, it has a Local Government Heritage Listing, Emu Hall is a substantial home by the Nepean River. It was built in 1851 by Toby Ryan, who occupied the house until 1875, the house has a Local Government Heritage Listing. St Pauls Anglican Church was built in 1848 and has a cemetery, the former Arms of Australia Inn was built in 1833 to service the roads through the area. It has been restored by the Nepean District Historical Society with government funding and is used as a historical museum and it has a Local Government Heritage Listing. At the corner of Russell Street and the Great Western Highway is the original Emu Plains post office, the main commercial centre is Lennox Village, named after David Lennox is a shopping centre that features Aldi and Woolworths. Emu Plains railway station is situated on the North Shore, Northern & Western Line of the Sydney Trains network and it is the last station on the suburban line with Lapstone, the next station to the west, considered part of the Intercity network. While a long distance from Sydney city, there are express services from Emu Plains to the city. Emu Plains is also serviced by the Blue Mountains Bus Company, Emu Plains can easily be accessed from Penrith via the Great Western Highway. Access from further east is best obtained by the M4 Western Motorway, if travelling east from the Blue Mountains, access is best obtained by the Great Western Highway. The local government primary school is Emu Plains Public School and the school is Nepean Creative

42.
Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories, space based, airborne, ground based, ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes, for optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a percentage of clear nights per year, dry air. At high elevations, the Earths atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence, sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile. Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility, beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the mid-20th century, a number of observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m, was the worlds highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory. As a result, the resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price, Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all, Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earths atmosphere

43.
James Dunlop
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James Dunlop FRSE was a Scottish astronomer, noted for his work in Australia. He later became the Superintendent of Paramatta Observatory when it was sold to the New South Wales Government. James Dunlop was born in Dalry, Ayrshire, Scotland, the son of John Dunlop, a weaver, Dunlop was educated at a primary school in Dalry and went to work at a thread factory in Beith when he was 14. He also attended a night-school in Beith kept by a man named Gardiner and he became interested in astronomy at an early age and was constructing telescopes in 1810. By fortune in 1820, he made the acquaintance of the astronomical inclined Sir Thomas Brisbane, in the same year, Brisbane was appointed as the new Governor of New South Wales, who then decided to set up an astronomical observatory in the new Colony. Prior to leaving Britain, Dunlop was then appointed as his scientific assistant. Also employed was the German born Carl Ludwig Christian Rümker, or simply Karl Rümker, Dunlop was not a professionally trained astronomer, so he importantly lacked the necessary mathematical skills to do astrometric reductions. He had soon learned the necessary skills from the more able Rümker. By the beginning of March 1826, he left the Paramatta Observatory and continued working at his own home in Hunter Street, Paramatta. Sir Thomas Brisbane, before finally departing Sydney for the last time in December 1825, Dunlop left Sydney for Scotland in February 1827 and was employed for four years at the observatory of Sir Thomas Brisbane. He had done good work as an observer in New South Wales. He was later to be the first in Great Britain to rediscover this comet on 26 October 1829 and he had been awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London on 8 February 1828. Sir John Herschel, when making the presentation, spoke in the highest terms of the value of the work done by Dunlop in New South Wales, in April 1831, Dunlop was appointed superintendent of the Government observatory at Parramatta. Here he was to succeed Rümker with the reasonable good salary of £300 a year and he arrived at Sydney on 6 November 1831 and found the observatory in a deplorable condition, rain had entered the building, roofing plaster had fallen down, and many important records were destroyed. In August 1847, he resigned his position, and went to live on his farm on Brisbane Waters and he died on 22 September 1848. In 1816 Dunlop married his cousin Jean Service, who survived him, in addition to the medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Dunlop was awarded medals for his work by the King of Denmark in 1833, and the Institut Royal de France in 1835. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1832 and he found many new open star clusters, globular clusters, bright nebulae and planetary nebulae, most previously unknown to visual observers. His most famous discovery is likely the radio galaxy NGC5128 or Centaurus A, dunlops other major observational work was of 256 southern double stars or pairs below the declination of about 30° South

44.
Parramatta, New South Wales
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Parramatta is a suburb of Sydney, Australia,23 kilometres west of its central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the seat of the City of Parramatta, one of four cities within the Sydney metropolitan area. Parramatta, founded by the British in 1788, the year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Australia. Since 2000, government agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force, Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the ninth largest shopping centre in Australia. It is colloquially known as Parra, radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in Parramatta from around 30,000 years ago. The Darug people who lived in the area before European settlement regarded the area as rich in food from the river, the Parramatta Eels Rugby League club chose their symbol as a result of this phenomenon. Parramatta was founded in 1788, the year as Sydney. As such, Parramatta is the second oldest city in Australia, during 1788, Governor Arthur Phillip had reconnoitred several places before choosing Parramatta as the most likely place for a successful large farm. Parramatta was the furthest navigable point inland on the Parramatta River and also the point at which the river became freshwater, as a settlement developed, Governor Phillip gave it the name Rose Hill after George Rose, Secretary for the British Treasury. In 1791 he changed the name to Parramatta, approximating the term used by the local Aboriginal people, a neighbouring suburb acquired the name Rose Hill. In an attempt to deal with the crisis, Phillip in 1789 granted a convict named James Ruse the land of Experiment Farm at Parramatta on the condition that he develop a viable agriculture. There, Ruse became the first person to grow grain in Australia. The Parramatta area was also the site of the pioneering of the Australian wool industry by John Macarthurs Elizabeth Farm in the 1790s, Philip Gidley Kings account of his visit to Parramatta on 9 April 1790 is one of the earliest descriptions of the area. Walking four miles with Governor Phillip to Prospect he saw undulating grassland interspersed with magnificent trees, Governor Arthur Phillip built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. It was used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s, the house, Old Government House, is currently a historic site and museum within Parramatta Park and is Australias oldest surviving public building. In 1803, another incident occurred in Parramatta, involving a convicted criminal named Joseph Samuel. Samuel was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging, in the second attempt, the noose slipped off his neck. In the third attempt, the new rope broke, Governor King was summoned and pardoned Samuel, as the incident appeared to him to be divine intervention

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Kni

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Most Honourable Order of the Bath

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A painting by Edmund Leighton depicting a fictional scene of a knight receiving the accolade

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Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, KB, with sash.

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Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister, who used the Order of the Bath as a source of political patronage

Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order
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The Royal Guelphic Order, sometimes also referred to as the Hanoverian Guelphic Order, is a Hanoverian order of chivalry instituted on 28 April 1815 by the Prince Regent. Named for the House of Guelph, of whom of the Hanoverians were a branch, after the defeat and forced dissolution of the Kingdom of Hanover by the Kingdom of Prussia, the order con

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Royal Guelphic Order

2.
Star and badge of a Commander 1st Class.

Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually u

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The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London

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The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge

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John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society

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Mace granted by Charles II

Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes peop

1.
The Royal Society building, at the junction of George Street and Hanover Street in the New Town

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The cover of a 1788 volume of the journal Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. This is the issue where James Hutton published his Theory of the Earth.

Governor of New South Wales
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The Governor of New South Wales is the viceregal representative of the Australian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in the state of New South Wales. In an analogous way to the Governor-General of Australia at the national level, the Governor is appointed by the queen on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales, for an unfixed period of time—known as

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Incumbent David Hurley AC, DSC since 2 October 2014

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Sir John Northcott, the first Australian-born person appointed as Governor (1946–57).

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Sir Eric Woodward, the first New South Wales-born person appointed as Governor (1957–65)

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The Lord Wakehurst takes the oath of office upon his arrival in Sydney in 1937.

Lachlan Macquarie
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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of th

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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB

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An illustration from 1888

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Brass breast plate presented to the Aboriginal leader Coborn Jackey of the Burrowmunditory tribe by the squatter James White in the district of present-day Young, New South Wales

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Macquarie Mausoleum

Ralph Darling
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General Sir Ralph Darling, GCH was Governor of New South Wales from 1825 to 1831. He is popularly described as a tyrant, accused of torturing prisoners and banning theatrical entertainment, local geographical features named after him include the Darling River and Darling Harbour in Sydney. The controversy of his Australian tenure somewhat obscures

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General Sir Ralph Darling GCH

Largs
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Largs is a town on the Firth of Clyde in North Ayrshire, Scotland, about 33 miles from Glasgow. The original name means the slopes in Scottish Gaelic, a popular seaside resort with a pier, the town markets itself on its historic links with the Vikings and an annual festival is held each year in early September. In 1263 it was the site of the Battle

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Largs

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The Brisbane family vault in Largs.

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The "Pencil" monument commemorating the Battle of Largs, which stands just over 1 mile (1.6 km) south of the town centre

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Largs Main Street

Ayrshire
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Ayrshire is a historic county in south-west Scotland, located on the shores of the Firth of Clyde. It is also, under the name the County of Ayr and its principal towns include Ayr, Kilmarnock and Irvine. Like the other counties of Scotland, it currently has no function, instead being sub-divided into the council areas of North Ayrshire, South Ayrsh

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Ayrshire, with rivers and several towns.

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Ayrshire

Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma

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The Alma Mater statue by Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the University of Havana in Cuba.

University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19t

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King James's College, c. 1647

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The University Of Edinburgh

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The university's Old College

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The university's New College building

British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least on

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Men of the Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007.

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John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, was one of the first generals in the British Army, fighting campaigns in the War of the Spanish Succession.

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The extinction of the Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the Battle of Culloden in 1746

Peninsular War
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The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Gu

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The Second of May 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes by Francisco de Goya, 1814

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The Portuguese royal family escapes to Brazil

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Second of May 1808: the defenders of Monteleón make their last stand

War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, t

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Clockwise from top: damage to the US Capitol after the Burning of Washington; the mortally wounded Isaac Brock spurs on the York Volunteers at the battle of Queenston Heights; USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere; The death of Tecumseh in 1813 ends the Indian armed struggle in the American Midwest; Andrew Jackson defeats the British assault on New Orleans.

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Press gang: oil painting by Luke Clennell

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James Madison, U.S. President, (1809–1817).

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Lord Liverpool, British Prime Minister, (1812–1827).

Army Gold Cross
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It was not a general medal, since it was issued only to those whose rank was no less than that of battalion commander. The medal came in three styles, the Large Medal, the Small Medal, and the Peninsular Cross, each style was supplemented with clasps identifying the battles involved. The Large Medal was restricted to generals, while lower-ranking o

Astronomer
–
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary scie

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The Astronomer by Johannes Vermeer

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Galileo is often referred to as the Father of modern astronomy

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Guy Consolmagno (Vatikan observatory), analyzing a meteorite, 2014

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Emily Lakdawalla at the Planetary Conference 2013

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also

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Wellesley spent much of his early childhood at his family house in Dangan Castle, engraving 1842.

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The Duke of Wellington, by Sir Thomas Lawrence. Painted in 1814, a few months before the Battle of Waterloo.

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Beginning in 1787, Wellesley served at Dublin Castle (pictured) as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland.

Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst
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Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst KG PC was a High Tory, High Church Pittite from the end of the Second Empire. For thirty years an MP and whence ennobled one of the governments main stalwarts on Colonial policy. Not a good speaker in debates, he was nevertheless a competent administrator, a personal friend of William Pitt he became a broker of dea

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Portrait of Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst by William Salter

Brisbane
–
Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometr

38th (1st Staffordshire) Regiment of Foot
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The 38th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1705. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 80th Regiment of Foot to form the South Staffordshire Regiment in 1881, the regiment was first raised by Colonel Sir John Guise as Sir John Guises Regiment of Foot in 1688 and then disbanded in England in 1694.

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Uniforms of the 38th Regiment, 1856

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The remnants of the regiment's light company parade before Lieutenant-General Sir John Campbell in 1855

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Luke Lillingston, founder of the regiment

Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The off

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The Sack of Antwerp in 1576, in which about 7,000 people died.

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Flag

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Winter scene by Sebastian Vrancx, 1622

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1609 map of the county of Flanders

West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In th

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West Indies

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Lesser Antilles islands (West Indies)

3rd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)
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The 3rd Division, known at various times as the Iron Division, 3rd Division, Montys Iron Sides or as Iron Sides, is a regular army division of the British Army. The division is sometimes referred to as the Iron Division. The divisions other battle honours include, the Battle of Waterloo, the Crimean War, the Second Boer War and it was commanded for

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Men of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, advancing through a wheat field during the final assault on Caen.

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Insignia of the 3rd Division

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Men of the 1st Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment in action in the Netherlands, November 1944

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A memorial to the 3rd Division in Caen which commemorates the division's participation in the D-Day landing on 6 June 1944, and its role in the liberation of Caen on 9 July 1944.

Battle of Vitoria
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In July 1812, after the Battle of Salamanca, the French had evacuated Madrid, which Wellingtons army entered on 12 August 1812. Wellington spent the winter reorganising and strengthening his forces, by contrast, Napoleon withdrew many soldiers to rebuild his main army after his disastrous invasion of Russia. The French retreated to Burgos, with Wel

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Monument to the Battle, Vitoria

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Recreation with model figures of the battle, displayed at the Armory Museum (Museo de Armería) in Vitoria-Gasteiz.

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Map of the battle

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The French withdrawal, Monument to the Battle, in Vitoria-Gasteiz.

Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include

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A U.S. infantry brigade of around 3,200 personnel, formed into eight battalion -sized groups

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Standard NATO symbol for an infantry brigade

Battle of Plattsburgh
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The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states of the United States during the War of 1812. Downies squadron attacked shortly after dawn on 11 September 1814, but was defeated after a fight in which Downie was killed. When the battle took place, American and British delegates w

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Naval battle on Lake Champlain. Engraving in 1816 by B. Tanner

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Battle of Plattsburgh

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Plattsburgh fortifications

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Naval action

Charles C. Platt Homestead
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Charles C. Platt Homestead is a historic home located at Plattsburgh in Clinton County, New York. It was built about 1802 and is a two storey, rectangular plan dwelling on a foundation in the Federal style. It features a one storey, gable roof wing with a board. In 1814, it was used as the headquarters for Major-General Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisba

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Charles C. Platt Homestead

Battle of the Pyrenees
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After initial success the offensive ground to a halt in face of increased allied resistance under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington. Soult abandoned the offensive on 30 July and headed toward France, the Battle of the Pyrenees involved several distinct actions. On 25 July, Soult and two French corps fought the reinforced Briti

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Battle of the Pyrenees, July 28th 1813 by Thomas Sutherland

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Wellington at Sorauren by Thomas Jones Barker

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Battle of the Pyrenees, 25 July 1813

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Fog at Roncesvalles

Battle of Nivelle
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The Battle of Nivelle took place in front of the River Nivelle near the end of the Peninsular War. After the Allied siege of San Sebastian, Wellingtons 80,000 British, Portuguese, after the Light Division, the main British army was ordered to attack and the 3rd Division split Soults army into two. By 2 oclock, Soult was in retreat and the British i

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Gravure of the battle

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A map of the battle

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John Colborne

Battle of Orthez
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The Battle of Orthez saw the Anglo-Portuguese Army under Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellington attack a Imperial French army led by Marshal Nicolas Soult in southern France. The outnumbered French repelled several Allied assaults on their right flank, at first the withdrawal was conducted in good order, but it eventually ended in a

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The Final Charge of the British Cavalry at the Battle of Orthez by Denis Dighton

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A map of the battle

Battle of Toulouse (1814)
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The Battle of Toulouse was one of the final battles of the Napoleonic Wars, four days after Napoleons surrender of the French Empire to the nations of the Sixth Coalition. Toulouse, the capital, proved stoutly defended by Marshal Soult. One British and two Spanish divisions were badly mauled in bloody fighting on 10 April, with Allied losses exceed

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Battle of Toulouse, 10 April 1814

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Map of the battle

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British infantry exchanging fire with the French during the battle of Toulouse in 1814. Print after Henri Dupray.

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Monument commemorating the Battle of Toulouse (1814)

Military General Service Medal
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The Military General Service Medal was a campaign medal approved in 1847, for issue to officers and men of the British Army. Each battle or action covered by the medal was represented by a clasp on the ribbon, twenty-nine were sanctioned, the medal was never issued without a clasp. The Duke of Richmond, who had fought at Waterloo, was responsible f

Battle of the Nive
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The Battles of the Nive were fought towards the end of the Peninsular War. Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Wellingtons Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish army defeated Marshal Nicolas Soults French army in a series of battles near the city of Bayonne, unusually, for most of the battle, Wellington remained with the Reserve delegating command to his senior L

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A map of the battles

John Bigge
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John Thomas Bigge was an English judge and royal commissioner. Bigge was born at Benton House, Northumberland, England, the son of Thomas Charles Bigge and he was educated at Newcastle Grammar School and Westminster School, and in 1797 entered Christ Church, Oxford. Bigge was called to the Bar in 1806 and was appointed Chief Judge of Trinidad in 18

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Portrait of John Thomas Bigge

Royal Society of New South Wales
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The Royal Society of New South Wales is a learned society based in Sydney, Australia. It is the oldest such society in Australia and in the Southern Hemisphere, the Governor of New South Wales is the vice-regal patron of the Society. The Society was established as the Philosophical Society of Australasia on 27 June 1821, in 1850, after a period of

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The Royal Society of New South Wales

New Zealand flax
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New Zealand flax describes the common New Zealand perennial plants Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi, known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They have played an important part in the cultural and economic history of New Zealand for both the Māori people and the later European settlers. Both species and their cultivars have

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Hone Heke (centre) wearing a short checked flax and feather cloak and flax skirt. His uncle Kawiti is on the right in a flax cloak.

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New Zealand flax (harakeke in Māori)

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Māori stone pestle for flax fibers

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Flax fibers (muka)

William Wentworth
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William Charles Wentworth was an Australian explorer, journalist, politician and author, and one of the leading figures of early colonial New South Wales. He was the first native-born Australian to achieve a reputation overseas, William Wentworth was born in August 1790 to DArcy Wentworth and Catherine Crowley. DArcy was the impecunious distant off

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c. 1861

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William Charles Wentworth – Journal of his expedition across the Blue Mountains. Held at the The State Library of New South Wales

John Oxley
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John Joseph William Molesworth Oxley was an explorer and surveyor of Australia in the early period of British colonisation. John Oxley was born in 1785 at Kirkham Abbey near Westow in Yorkshire and he was baptised in Bulmer in Yorkshire on 6 July 1785. In 1799, he entered the Royal Navy when he was aged 15 as a midshipman on the Venerable and he tr

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John Oxley

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Oxley's map of the interior of NSW, 1822

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1817 and 1818 Expeditions of Oxley

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Request for leave due to illness dated 5 July 1824

Moreton Bay
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The Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia 14 kilometres from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queenslands most important coastal resources, the waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are used by commercial operators who provide seafood to market. The Port of Brisbane coordinat

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Map of Moreton Bay made in 1842 by Robert Dixon (high resolution image)

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Land for sale in Manly in 1887

Brisbane River
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The Brisbane River is the longest river in South East Queensland, Australia, and flows through the city of Brisbane, before emptying into Moreton Bay. John Oxley, the first European to explore the river, named it after the Governor of New South Wales, the penal colony of Moreton Bay later adopted the same name, eventually becoming the present city

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Brisbane River, showing the Story Bridge and the CBD.

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Brisbane River and Moreton Bay

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Mermaid Reach

Emu Plains, New South Wales
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Emu Plains is a suburb of Sydney in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is 58 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district, Emu Plains is on the western side of the Nepean River, located at the foot of the Blue Mountains. The local Darug people were known as the Mulgoa who lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle governed by traditional

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Emu Plains Railway Station

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Emu Hall

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Former Arms of Australia Inn

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St Paul's Anglican Church

Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatori

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The Sphinx Observatory on a mountain top in the Swiss Alps at 3,571 m (11,716 ft)

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Paranal Observatory, Chile, home of the VLT at 2,635 m (8,645 ft)

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Atacama Large Millimeter Array, Chile, at 5,058 m (16,594 ft)

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The Mauna Kea Observatories, Hawaii, home of several of the world's largest optical telescopes at 4,205 m (13,796 ft)

James Dunlop
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James Dunlop FRSE was a Scottish astronomer, noted for his work in Australia. He later became the Superintendent of Paramatta Observatory when it was sold to the New South Wales Government. James Dunlop was born in Dalry, Ayrshire, Scotland, the son of John Dunlop, a weaver, Dunlop was educated at a primary school in Dalry and went to work at a thr

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James Dunlop, painted by Joseph Backler.

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Jane Dunlop

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The headstone of James Dunlop (1793-1848) at St. Paul's Anglican Church, Kincumber, New South Wales, Australia

Parramatta, New South Wales
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Parramatta is a suburb of Sydney, Australia,23 kilometres west of its central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the seat of the City of Parramatta, one of four cities within the Sydney metropolitan area. Parramatta, founded by the British in 1788, the year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Au

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Canberra, with the old and new Parliament House in the centre, viewed from Mount Ainslie

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Blundells Cottage, built around 1860, is one of the few remaining buildings built by the first settlers of Canberra.

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The opening of Parliament House in May 1927.

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Two of Canberra's best-known landmarks, Parliament House and Old Parliament House (foreground). Commonwealth Place runs alongside the lake and includes the International Flag Display. Questacon is on the right.