History

The symptoms of atherosclerosis vary widely. Patients with mild atherosclerosis may present with clinically important symptoms and signs of disease and MI, or sudden cardiac death may be the first symptom of coronary heart disease. However, many patients with anatomically advanced disease may have no symptoms and experience no functional impairment.

The spectrum of presentation includes symptoms and signs consistent with the following conditions:

Asymptomatic state (subclinical phase)

Stable angina pectoris

Unstable angina (ie, ACS)

AMI

Chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy

Congestive heart failure

Sudden cardiac arrest

History may include the following:

Chest pain

Shortness of breath

Weakness, tiredness, reduced exertional capacity

Dizziness, palpitations

Leg swelling

Weight gain

Symptoms related to risk factors

Progressive luminal narrowing of an artery due to expansion of a fibrous plaque results in impairment of flow once at least 50-70% of the lumen diameter is obstructed. This impairment in flow results in symptoms of inadequate blood supply to the target organ in the event of increased metabolic activity and oxygen demand. Stable angina pectoris, intermittent claudication, and mesenteric angina are examples of the clinical consequences of this mismatch.

Rupture of a plaque or denudation of the endothelium overlying a fibrous plaque may result in exposure of the highly thrombogenic subendothelium and lipid core. This exposure may result in thrombus formation, which may partially or completely occlude flow in the involved artery. Unstable angina pectoris, MI, transient ischemic attack, and stroke are examples of the clinical sequelae of partial or complete acute occlusion of an artery. Atheroembolism is a distinct clinical entity that may occur spontaneously or as a complication of aortic surgery, angiography, or thrombolytic therapy in patients with advanced and diffuse atherosclerosis.

Angina pectoris is characterized by retrosternal chest discomfort that typically radiates to the left arm and may be associated with dyspnea. Angina pectoris is exacerbated by exertion and relieved by rest or nitrate therapy. Unstable angina pectoris describes a pattern of increasing frequency or intensity of episodes of angina pectoris and includes pain at rest. A prolonged episode of angina pectoris that may be associated with diaphoresis is suggestive of MI.

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Physical Examination

Tachycardia is common in persons with ACS and AMI. Heart rate irregularity may signal the presence of atrial fibrillation or frequent supraventricular or ventricular ectopic beats. Ventricular tachycardia is the most common cause of death in persons with AMI.

High or low blood pressure may be noted. Hypotension often reflects hemodynamic compromise and is a predictor of poor outcome in the setting of AMI. Diaphoresis is a common finding. Patients often have rapid breathing (ie, tachypnea). Signs and symptoms of congestive heart failure (CHF) may indicate cardiogenic shock or a mechanical complication of AMI, such as ischemic mitral valve regurgitation.

An S4 gallop is a common early finding. The presence of an S3 is an indication of reduced left ventricular function. Heart murmurs, particularly those of mitral regurgitation and ventricular septal defect, may be found after the initial presentation; their presence indicates a grave prognosis. The murmur of aortic insufficiency may signal the presence of aortic dissection as a primary etiology, with or without the complication of AMI. Central obesity is often seen. Patients may develop xanthelasmas, livedo reticularis, or both. Patients may have scarring from CABG or similar surgeries.

References

Anderson JL, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-Elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Unstable Angina/Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction) developed in collaboration with the American College of Emergency Physicians, the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interve... J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007 Aug 14. 50(7):e1-e157. [Medline].

Chou R, for the High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians. Cardiac screening with electrocardiography, stress echocardiography, or myocardial perfusion imaging: advice for high-value care from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Mar 17. 162(6):438-47. [Medline].

Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002 Dec 17. 106(25):3143-421. [Medline].

Ryden L, Grant PJ, Anker SD, et al, for the European Society of Cardiology, European Association for the Study of Diabetes Task Forces. ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD: The Task Force on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and developed in collaboration with the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Eur Heart J. 2013 Aug 30. [Medline].

Stress nuclear imaging showing anterior, apical, and septal wall perfusion defect during stress, which is reversible as observed on the rest images. This defect strongly suggests the presence of significant stenosis in the left anterior descending coronary artery.

Cardiac catheterization and coronary angiography in the left panel shows severe left anterior descending coronary artery stenosis. This lesion was treated with stent placement in the left anterior descending coronary artery, as observed in the right panel.

A vulnerable plaque and the mechanism of plaque rupture.

Positive and negative arterial remodeling.

H and E, low power, of an atheromatous plaque of the coronary artery. The wall is thickened and no internal or external elastic lamina is seen. There is a thick fibrous cap containing some neovascularization in the lower left.

H and E, low power, of an atheromatous plaque of the coronary artery. There is marked luminal narrowing. The fibrous cap on the left contains a central lipid core containing macrophages and cholesterol clefts (lower center). Calcification (dark purple) is seen on the right.

George A Stouffer III, MD Henry A Foscue Distinguished Professor of Medicine and Cardiology, Director of Interventional Cardiology, Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory, Chief of Clinical Cardiology, Division of Cardiology, University of North Carolina Medical Center