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2.1 fuels and combustion

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1. Fuels and Combustion 1. FUELS AND COMBUSTION Syllabus Introduction to Fuels, Properties of Fuel oil, Coal and Gas, Storage, handling and preparation of fuels, Principles of Combustion, Combustion of Oil, Coal, and Gas This chapter is a prelude to boilers and furnaces1.1 Introduction to FuelsThe various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available for firing inboilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. The selection of right type of fueldepends on various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed costof fuel.The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purposeand efficient use of the fuel. The following characteristics, determined by laboratory tests, aregenerally used for assessing the nature and quality of fuels.1.2 Properties of Liquid FuelsLiquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application. Thevarious properties of liquid fuels are given below.DensityThis is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a referencetemperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer. Theknowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. Theunit of density is kg/m3.Specific gravityThis is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the samevolume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is calledspecific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is aratio, it has no units. The measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The specific gravityof various fuel oils are given in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Specific Gravity of Various Fuel Oils Fuel Oil L.D.O Furnace oil L.S.H.S Light Diesel Oil Low Sulphur Heavy Stock Specific Gravity 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98Bureau of Energy Efficiency 1

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1. Fuels and CombustionViscosityThe viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends ontemperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosityhas no meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes /Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Saybolt or Redwood. Each type ofoil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is madewith an instrument called Viscometer.Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influencesthe degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil istoo viscous, it may become difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on thewalls. Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.Flash PointThe flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that thevapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point forfurnace oil is 66oC.Pour PointThe pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooledunder prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at whichfuel oil is readily pumpableSpecific HeatSpecific heat is the amount of kcals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1oC. Theunit of specific heat is kcal/kgoC. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specificgravity. The specific heat determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oilto a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have ahigher specific heat.Calorific ValueThe calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either asgross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being the latent heat ofcondensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross calorificvalue (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully condensed.Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products withoutfully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash, moisture content andthe type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent. The typical GrossCalorific Values of some of the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:Bureau of Energy Efficiency 2

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1. Fuels and Combustion Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg) Kerosene - 11,100 Diesel Oil - 10,800 L.D.O - 10,700 Furnace Oil - 10,500 LSHS - 10,600SulphurThe amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to alesser extent on the refining process. The normal sulfur content for the residual fuel oil(furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %.Typical figures are: Fuel oil Percentage of Sulphur Kerosene 0.05—0.2 Diesel Oil 0.05 – 0.25 L.D.O 0.5 – 1.8 Furnace Oil 2.0 – 4.0 LSHS < 0.5The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed duringand after combustion, and condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre heater andeconomiser.Ash ContentThe ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash levels of distillatefuels are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents. These saltsmay be compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum,nickel, etc.Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03-0.07 %. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can causefouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips,causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperaturecorrosion and fouling of equipments.Carbon ResidueCarbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hotsurface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable constituents evaporate.Residual oil contains carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more.Water ContentWater content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinerysite is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard.Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside furnacesurfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also causeBureau of Energy Efficiency 3

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1. Fuels and Combustionspluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame and reducing theflame temperature or lengthening the flame.Typical specification of fuel oil is summarised in the Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Typical Specification of Fuel Oils Properties Fuel Oils Furnace LS.H.S. L.D.O. Oil Density (Approx. g/cc at 150C) 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98 0.85-0.87 Flash Point (0C) 66 93 66 Pour Point (0C) 20 72 18 G.C.V. (Kcal/kg) 10,500 10,600 10,700 Sediment, % Wt. Max. 0.25 0.25 0.1 Sulphur Total, % Wt. Max. Upto 4.0 Upto 0.5 Upto 1.8 Water Content, % Vol. Max. 1.0 1.0 0.25 Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02Storage of Fuel oilIt can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. A better practice is to store it incylindrical tanks, either above or below the ground. Furnace oil, that is delivered, maycontain dust, water and other contaminants.The sizing of storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage estimate is toprovide for at least 10 days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks aregenerally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above ground. It is prudent for safety andenvironmental reasons to build bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.As a certain amount of settlement of solids and sludge will occur in tanks over time, cleaningshould be carried out at regular intervals-annually for heavy fuels and every two years forlight fuels. A little care should be taken when oil is decanted from the tanker to storage tank.All leaks from joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended at the earliest. Fuel oil should befree from possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge and water before it is fed to thecombustion system. LOSS OF EVEN ONE DROP OF OIL EVERY SECOND CAN COST YOU OVER 4000 LITRES A YEARBureau of Energy Efficiency 4

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1. Fuels and CombustionRemoval of ContaminantsFurnace oil arrives at the factory site either in tank lorries by road or by rail. Oil is thendecanted into the main storage tank. To prevent contaminants such as rags, cotton waste,loose nuts or bolts or screws entering the system and damaging the pump, coarse strainer of10 mesh size (not more than 3 holes per linear inch) is positioned on the entry pipe to thestorage tanks.Progressively finer strainers should be provided at various points in the oil supply system tofilter away finer contaminants such as external dust and dirt, sludge or free carbon. It isadvisable to provide these filters in duplicate to enable one filter to be cleaned while oilsupply is maintained through the other. The Figure 1.1 gives an illustration of the duplex system of arrangement of strainers. Figure. 1.1 Duplex Arrangement of Strainers in a PipelineThe Table 1.3 gives sizing of strainers at various locations. Table 1.3 Sizing of Strainers Location Strainer Sizes Mesh Holes/Linear inch Between rail/tank lorry decanting point and main storage tank 10 3 Between service tank and pre-heater 40 6 Between pre-heater and burner 100 10PumpingHeavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive displacement pumps, as they are able to getfuel moving when it is cold. A circulation gear pump running on LDO should give between7000-10000 hours of service. Diaphragm pumps have a shorter service life, but are easier andless expensive to repair. A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the oil viscosityincreases, the efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horsepower required increases.Light fuels are best pumped with centrifugal or turbine pumps. When higher pressures arerequired, piston or diaphragm pumps should be used.Storage Temperature and Pumping TemperatureThe viscosity of furnace oil and LSHS increases with decrease in temperature, which makesit difficult to pump the oil. At low ambient temperatures (below 25o C), furnace oil is notBureau of Energy Efficiency 5

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1. Fuels and Combustioneasily pumpable. To circumvent this, preheating of oil is accomplished in two ways: a) theentire tank may be preheated. In this form of bulk heating, steam coils are placed at thebottom of the tank, which is fully insulated; b) the oil can be heated as it flows out with anoutflow heater. To reduce steam requirements, it is advisable to insulate tanks where bulkheating is used.Bulk heating may be necessary if flow rates are high enough to make outflow heaters ofadequate capacity impractical, or when a fuel such as Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) isused. In the case of outflow heating, only the oil, which leaves the tank, is heated to thepumping temperature. The outflow heater is essentially a heat exchanger with steam orelectricity as the heating medium.Temperature ControlThermostatic temperature control of the oil is necessary to prevent overheating, especiallywhen oil flow is reduced or stopped. This is particularly important for electric heaters, sinceoil may get carbonized when there is no flow and the heater is on. Thermostats should beprovided at a region where the oil flows freely into the suction pipe. The temperature atwhich oil can readily be pumped depends on the grade of oil being handled. Oil should neverbe stored at a temperature above that necessary for pumping as this leads to higher energyconsumption.1.3 Properties of CoalCoal ClassificationCoal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. Howeverthere is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal fromgeological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatilecontent and practically no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective.It is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixedcarbon. Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements.Volatile matter refers to those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal isheated.The common coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. Thegradation of Indian coal based on its calorific value is as follows: Grade Calorific Value Range ( in kCal/kg) A Exceeding 6200 B 5600 – 6200 C 4940 – 5600 D 4200 – 4940 E 3360 – 4200 F 2400 – 3360 G 1300 – 2400Bureau of Energy Efficiency 6

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1. Fuels and CombustionNormally D,E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry.The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. The propertiesof coal are broadly classified as 1. Physical properties 2. Chemical propertiesPhysical PropertiesHeating Value:The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field. The typical GCVs for variouscoals are given in the Table 1.4. Table 1.4 GCV for Various Coals Parameter Lignite Indian Coal Indonesian Coal South African Coal (Dry Basis) GCV (kcal/kg) 4,500* 4,000 5,500 6,000* GCV of lignite on ‘as received basis’ is 2500 –3000Analysis of CoalThere are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis. The ultimate analysisdetermines all coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysisdetermines only the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The ultimateanalysis is determined in a properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist, whileproximate analysis can be determined with a simple apparatus. It may be noted thatproximate has no connection with the word “approximate”.Measurement of MoistureDetermination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of powdered raw coal of size200-micron size in an uncovered crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108+2 oC alongwith the lid. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss inweight represents moisture.Measurement of Volatile MatterFresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and heated in afurnace at 900 + 15 oC. For the methodologies including that for carbon and ash, refer to IS1350 part I:1984, part III, IV. The sample is cooled and weighed. Loss of weight representsmoisture and volatile matter. The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash).Bureau of Energy Efficiency 7

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1. Fuels and CombustionMeasurement of Carbon and AshThe cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible is heated overthe Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue is weighed, which is theincombustible ash. The difference in weight from the previous weighing is the fixed carbon.In actual practice Fixed Carbon or FC derived by subtracting from 100 the value of moisture,volatile matter and ash.Proximate AnalysisProximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash,and Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matterdirectly contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generatorduring burning. High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash contentis important in the design of the furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution controlequipment and ash handling systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of variouscoal is given in the Table 1.5. TABLE 1.5 TYPICAL PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS COALS (IN PERCENTAGE) Parameter Indian Coal Indonesian South Coal African Coal Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5 Ash 38.63 13.99 17 Volatile matter 20.70 29.79 23.28 Fixed Carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22Significance of Various Parameters in Proximate Analysisa) Fixed carbon:Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It consistsmostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen not drivenoff with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of coalb) Volatile Matter:Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, andincombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile matteris an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%. Volatile Matter • Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal. • Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume. • Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects. • Influences secondary oil supportc) Ash Content:Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40%Bureau of Energy Efficiency 8

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1. Fuels and Combustion %H = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM -0.1xA) - 0.0035M2 (1-0.02M) %N2 = 2.10 -0.020 VMwhere C = % of fixed carbon A = % of ash VM = % of volatile matter M = % of moistureNote: The above equation is valid for coal containing greater than 15% Moisture content.Storage, Handling and Preparation of CoalUncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequenthandling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, spaceconstraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associatedwith the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal hasthe same effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the totalloss.The main goal of good coal storage is to minimise carpet loss and the loss due to spontaneouscombustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal dust and soil causes carpet loss.On the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on account of oxidation maylead to spontaneous combustion of coal in storage.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 10

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1. Fuels and CombustionThe measures that would help in reducing the carpet loses are as follows:1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon.2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems. Itwould be advisable to minimise the handling of coal so that further generation of fines andsegregation effects are reduced.Preparation of CoalPreparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving goodcombustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.3. Increase of unburnts in the ash.4. Low thermal efficiency.(a) Sizing of CoalProper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper coalsizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning,reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency. Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economicalfor smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system, crushingis limited to a top size of 6 or 4mm. The devices most commonly used for crushing are therotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill. It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to thecrusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices incoal crushing are: 1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine generation in crushing. 2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may damage the crusher.The Table 1.8 gives the proper size of coal for various types of firing systems Table 1.8 Proper Size of Coal for Various Types of Firing System S. No. Types of Firing System Size (in mm) 1. Hand Firing (a) Natural draft 25-75 (b) Forced draft 25-40 2. Stoker Firing (a) Chain grate i) Natural draft 25-40 ii) Forced draft 15-25 (b) Spreader Stoker 15-25 3. Pulverized Fuel Fired 75% below 75 micron* 4 Fluidized bed boiler < 10 mm*1 Micron = 1/1000 mmBureau of Energy Efficiency 11

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1. Fuels and Combustion(b) Conditioning of CoalThe fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of segregation effects.Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be reduced to a great extent by conditioningcoal with water. Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps due to surface tensionof the moisture, thus stopping fines from falling through grate bars or being carried away bythe furnace draft. While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that moistureaddition is uniform and preferably done in a moving or falling stream of coal.If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal can decrease the percentageof unburnt carbon and the excess air level required to be supplied for combustion. Table 1.9shows the extent of wetting, depending on the percentage of fines in coal. Table 1.9 Extent of Wetting: Fines Vs Surface Moisture in Coal Fines (%) Surface Moisture (%) 10 - 15 4 - 5 15 - 20 5 - 6 20 - 25 6 - 7 25 - 30 7 - 8(c) Blending of CoalIn case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is advisable to blend the predominantly lumpedcoal with lots containing excessive fines. Coal blending may thus help to limit the extent offines in coal being fired to not more than 25%. Blending of different qualities of coal mayalso help to supply a uniform coal feed to the boiler.The proximate and ultimate analysis of various coals are given in Table 1.10 and 1.11. Table 1.10 Proximate Analysis of Typical Coal Lignite Bituminous coal Bituminous Coal Indonesian (Sample I) (Sample II) Coal Moisture (%) 50 5.98 4.39 9.43 Ash (%) 10.41* 38.65 47.86 13.99 Volatile matter (%) 47.76* 20.70 17.97 29.79 Fixed carbon (%) 41.83* 34.69 29.78 46.79 *Dry BasisBureau of Energy Efficiency 12

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1. Fuels and CombustionLPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at normal atmosphericpressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature, by the applicationof moderate pressures. Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored andtransported as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of handling. Liquid LPGevaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas.LPG vapour is denser than air: butane is about twice as heavy as air and propane about oneand a half times as heavy as air. Consequently, the vapour may flow along the ground andinto drains sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a considerabledistance from the source of leakage. In still air vapour will disperse slowly. Escape of evensmall quantities of the liquefied gas can give rise to large volumes of vapour / air mixture andthus cause considerable hazard. To aid in the detection of atmospheric leaks, all LPG’s arerequired to be odorized. There should be adequate ground level ventilation where LPG isstored. For this very reason LPG cylinders should not be stored in cellars or basements,which have no ventilation at ground level.Natural GasMethane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about 95% of the totalvolume. Other components are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, CarbonDioxide, and traces of other gases. Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are alsopresent. Since methane is the largest component of natural gas, generally properties ofmethane are used when comparing the properties of natural gas to other fuels.Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no storage facilities. It mixes with airreadily and does not produce smoke or soot. It has no sulphur content. It is lighter than airand disperses into air easily in case of leak. A typical comparison of carbon contents in oil,coal and gas is given in the table 1.13. Table 1.13 Comparison of Chemical Composition of Various Fuels Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas Carbon 84 41.11 74 Hydrogen 12 2.76 25 Sulphur 3 0.41 - Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75 Ash Trace 38.63 - Water Trace 5.98 -1.5 Properties of Agro ResiduesThe use of locally available agro residues is on the rise. This includes rice husk, coconutshells, groundnut shells, Coffee husk, Wheat stalk etc. The properties of a few of them aregiven in the table 1.14 and 1.15.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 14

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1. Fuels and Combustion Table 1.14 Proximate Analysis of Typical Agro Residues Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95 Ash 18.46 16.73 1.63 3.52 Volatile Matter 59.81 56.46 81.22 61.91 Fixed Carbon 14.62 16.02 17.15 20.62 Table 1.15 Ultimate Analysis of Typical Agro Residues Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95 Mineral Matter 19.77 16.73 1.63 3.52 Carbon 36.59 33.95 48.55 44.95 Hydrogen 4.15 5.01 6.99 4.99 Nitrogen 0.82 0.91 0.80 0.56 Sulphur 0.54 0.09 0.10 0.08 Oxygen 31.02 32.52 41.93 31.94 GCV (Kcal/kg) 3151 3568 4801 45651.6 CombustionPrinciple of CombustionCombustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, orheat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequatesupply of oxygen.Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air.Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changedto a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases.Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements.Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to obtainthe oxygen required for combustion.Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels anddiluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchangesurfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travelthrough the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuelair mixture.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 15

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1. Fuels and CombustionThis nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) toproduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants.Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbondioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8084 kcals, 28922 kcals & 2224 kcalsof heat respectively. Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen toform Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430kcals/kg of carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per pound of fuel thanwhen CO or smoke are produced. C + O2 → CO 2 + 8084 kCals/kg of Carbon 2C + O2 → 2 CO + 2430 kCals/kg of Carbon 2H 2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28,922 kCals/kg of Hydrogen S + O2 → SO2 + 2,224 kCals/kg of SulphurEach kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430).3 T’s of CombustionThe objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This isaccomplished by controlling the "three Ts" of combustion which are (1) Temperature highenough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of thefuel and oxygen, and (3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.Commonly used fuels like natural gas and propane generally consist of carbon and hydrogen.Water vapor is a by-product of burning hydrogen. This robs heat from the flue gases, whichwould otherwise be available for more heat transfer.Natural gas contains more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and as suchproduces more water vapor. Consequently, more heat will be carried away by exhaust whilefiring natural gas.Too much, or too little fuel with the available combustion air may potentially result inunburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation. A very specific amount of O2 is needed forperfect combustion and some additional (excess) air is required for ensuring completecombustion. However, too much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 16

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1. Fuels and CombustionNot all of the heat in the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed by the steam generationequipment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned and most boiler fuels, allowablewith todays air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. So the main challenge incombustion efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or incompletely burnedgas), which forms CO instead of CO2.1.7 Combustion of OilHeating Oil to Correct ViscosityWhen atomizing oil, it is necessary to heat it enough to get the desired viscosity. Thistemperature varies slightly for each grade of oil. The lighter oils do not usually require pre-heating. Typical viscosity at the burner tip ( for LAP, MAP & HAP burners) for furnace oilshould be 100 Redwood seconds-1 which would require heating the oil to about 105oC.Stoichiometric CombustionThe efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on efficiency ofthe combustion system. The amount of air required for Rules for combustion of oilcomplete combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental 1. Atomize the oilconstituents of the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and completely to produce aSulphur etc. This amount of air is called stoichiometric air. fine uniform sprayFor ideal combustion process for burning one kg of a typical 2. Mix the air and fuelfuel oil containing 86% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen, 2% Sulphur, thoroughlytheoretically required quantity of air is 14.1 kg. This is the 3. Introduce enough air for combustion, but limit theminimum air that would be required if mixing of fuel and air excess air to a maximumby the burner and combustion is perfect. The combustion of 15%products are primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water vapor 4. Keep the burners in good(H2O) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), which pass through the conditionchimney along with the Nitrogen (N2) in the air,.After surrendering useful heat in the heat absorption area of a furnace or boiler, thecombustion products or fuel gases leave the system through the chimney, carrying away asignificant quantity of heat with them.Calculation of Stoichiometric AirThe specifications of furnace oil from lab analysis is given below: Constituents % By weight Carbon 85.9 Hydrogen 12 Oxygen 0.7 Nitrogen 0.5 Sulphur 0.5 H2O` 0.35 Ash 0.05GCV of fuel : 10880 kcal/kgBureau of Energy Efficiency 17

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1. Fuels and CombustionMoles of O2 in flue gas = 178.68 / 32 = 5.58Moles of N2 in flue gas = 1685.75 / 28 = 60.20 Moles of CO2Theoritical CO2 % by volume = x 100 Total moles (dry ) 7.16 = x 100 7.16 + 0.016 + 5.58 + 60.20 7.16 = x 100 = 10% 72.956 5.58 x100Theoretical O2% by volume = x 100 = 7.5% 72.956Optimizing Excess Air and CombustionFor complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil 14.1 kg of air is needed. In practice,mixing is never perfect, a certain amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion andensure that release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil. If too much air than what isrequired for completing combustion were allowed to enter, additional heat would be lost inheating the surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result in increased stacklosses. Less air would lead to the incomplete combustion and smoke. Hence, there is anoptimum excess air level for each type of fuel.Control of Air and Analysis of Flue GasThus in actual practice, the amount of combustion air required will be much higher thanoptimally needed. Therefore some of the air gets heated in the furnace boiler and leavesthrough the stack without participating in the combustionChemical analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps in achieving finer aircontrol. By measuring carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) in flue gases by continuousrecording instruments or Orsat apparatus or portable fyrite, the excess air level as well asstack losses can be estimated with the graph as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3. Theexcess air to be supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. For optimumcombustion of fuel oil, the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained at 14 -15% in caseof CO2 and 2-3% in case of O2..Bureau of Energy Efficiency 21

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1. Fuels and Combustion 100 90 80 70 Excess air % 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8.4 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Carbon dioxide % Figure 1.2 Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for Fuel Oil 250 Excess air (%) 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Residual Oxygen (%) Figure 1.3: Relation between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air Oil Firing BurnersThe burner is the principal device for the firing of fuel. The primary function of burner is toatomise fuel to millions of small droplets so that the surface area of the fuel is increasedenabling intimate contact with oxygen in air. The finer the fuel droplets are atomised, morereadily will the particles come in contact with the oxygen in the air and burn. Normally, atomisation is carried out by primary air and completion of combustion isensured by secondary air. Burners for fuel oil can be classified on the basis of the techniqueto prepare the fuel for burning i.e. atomisation. Figure 1.4 shows a simplified burner head. The air is brought into the head by means ofa forced draft blower or fan. The fuel is metered into the head through a series of valves. Inorder to get proper combustion, the air molecules must be thoroughly mixed with the fuelmolecules before they actually burn. The air in the center is the primary air used foratomization and the one surrounding is the secondary air which ensures completecombustion.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 22

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1. Fuels and Combustion Figure 1.4 Burner HeadThe mixing is achieved by burner parts designed to create high turbulence. If insufficientturbulence is produced by the burner, the combustion will be incomplete and samples takenat the stack will reveal carbon monoxide as evidence. Since the velocity of air affects the turbulence, it becomes harder and harder to get goodfuel and air mixing at higher turndown ratios since the air amount is reduced. Towards thehighest turndown ratios of any burner, it becomes necessary to increase the excess airamounts to obtain enough turbulence to get proper mixing. The better burner design will beone that is able to properly mix the air and fuel at the lowest possible air flow or excess air. An important aspect to be considered in selection of burner is turndown ratio.Turndown ratio is the relationship between the maximum and minimum fuel input withoutaffecting the excess air level. For example, a burner whose maximum input is 250,000 Kcalsand minimum rate is 50,000 Kcals, has a ‘Turn-Down Ratio’ of 5 to 1.1.8 Combustion of CoalFeatures of coal combustion1 kg of coal will typically require 7-8 kg ofair depending upon the carbon, hydrogen,nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur content forcomplete combustion. This air is also knownas theoretical or stoichiometric air.If for any reason the air supplied isinadequate, the combustion will beincomplete. The result is poor generation ofheat with some portions of carbon remainingunburnt (black smoke) and forming carbonmonoxide instead of carbon dioxides. Figure 1.5 Coal CombustionAs in the case of oil, coal cannot be burnt with stoichiometric quantity of air. Completecombustion is not achieved unless an excess of air is supplied.The excess air required for coal combustion depends on the type of coal firing equipment.Hand fired boilers use large lumps of coal and hence need very high excess air. Stoker firedboilers as shown in the Figure 1.5 use sized coal and hence require less excess air. Also inBureau of Energy Efficiency 23

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1. Fuels and Combustionthese systems primary air is supplied below the grate and secondary air is supplied over thegrate to ensure complete combustion.Fluidised bed combustion in which turbulence is created leads to intimate mixing of air andfuel resulting in further reduction of excess air. The pulverized fuel firing in which powderedcoal is fired has the minimum excess air due to high surface area of coal ensuring completecombustion.Clinker formationClinker is a mass of rough, hard, slag-like material formed during combustion of coal due tolow fusion temperature of ash present in coal. Presence of silica, calcium oxide, magnesiumoxides etc. in ash lead to a low fusion temperature. Typically Indian coals contain ash fusiontemperature as low as 1100oC. Once clinker is formed, it has a tendency to grow. Clinker willstick to a hot surface rather than a cold one and to a rough surface rather than a smooth one.1.9 Combustion of GasCombustion Characteristics of Natural GasThe stoichiometric ratio for natural gas (and most gaseous fuels) is normally indicated byvolume. The air to natural gas (stoichiometric) ratio by volume for complete combustion varybetween 9.5:1 to 10:1Natural gas is essentially pure methane, CH4. Its combustion can be represented as follows: CH4 +2O2 = CO2 + 2H2OSo for every 16 kgs of methane that are consumed, 44 kgs of carbon dioxide are produced.(Remember that the atomic weights of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are 12, 16 and 1,respectively.)Methane burns, when mixed with the proper amount of air and heated to the combustiontemperature. Figure 1.6 shows the process with the amount of air and fuel required forperfect combustion.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 24

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1. Fuels and Combustion Figure 1.6 Combustion of Natural GasLow-And High-Pressure Gas Burners.The important thing in all gas-burning devices is a correct air-and-gas mixture at the burnertip. Low-pressure burners (figure 1.7), using gas at apressure less than 0.15 kg/cm2 (2 psi), are usually of themulti-jet type, in which gas from a manifold is suppliedto a number of small single jets, or circular rows ofsmall jets, centered in or discharging around the innercircumference of circular air openings in a block ofsome heat-resisting material. The whole is encased in arectangular cast-iron box, built into the boiler settingand having louver doors front to regulate the air supply. Figure 1.7 Low Pressure Gas BurnerDraft may be natural, induced, or forced.In a high-pressure gas mixer (figure 1.8), theenergy of the gas jet draws air into themixing chamber and delivers a correctlyproportioned mixture to the burner. Whenthe regulating valve is opened, gas flowsthrough a small nozzle into a venturi tube (atube with a contracted section). Entrainmentof air with high-velocity gas in the narrowventuri section draws air in through largeopenings in the end. The gas-air mixture ispiped to a burner. The gas-burner tip may bein a variety of forms. In a sealed-in tip type,the proper gas-air mixture is piped to the Figure 1.8 High Pressure Gas Mixerburner, and no additional air is drawn inaround the burner tip. Size of the air openings in the venturi tube end is increased ordecreased by turning a revolving shutter, which can be locked in any desired position. Excessair levels in natural gas burner is in the order of 5%.Bureau of Energy Efficiency 25

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1. Fuels and Combustion1.10 Draft SystemThe function of draft in a combustion system is to exhaust the products of combustion intothe atmosphere. The draft can be classified into two types namely Natural and MechanicalDraft.Natural DraftIt is the draft produced by a chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight betweenthe column of hot gas inside the chimney and column of outside air of the same height andcross section. Being much lighter than outside air, chimney flue gas tends to rise, and theheavier outside air flows in through the ash pit to take its place. It is usually controlled byhand-operated dampers in the chimney and breeching connecting the boiler to the chimney.Here no fans or blowers are used. The products of combustion are discharged at such a heightthat it will not be a nuisance to the surrounding community.Mechanical DraftIt is draft artificially produced by fans. Three basic types of drafts that are applied are :Balanced Draft: Forced-draft (F-D) fan (blower) pushes air into the furnace and an induced-draft (I-D) fan draws gases into the chimney thereby providing draft to remove the gasesfrom the boiler. Here the pressure is maintained between 0.05 to 0.10 in. of water gaugebelow atmospheric pressure in the case of boilers and slightly positive for reheating and heattreatment furnaces.Induced Draft: An induced-draft fan draws enough draft for flow into the furnace, causingthe products of combustion to discharge to atmosphere. Here the furnace is kept at a slightnegative pressure below the atmospheric pressure so that combustion air flows through thesystem.Forced Draft: The Forced draft system uses a fan to deliver the air to the furnace, forcingcombustion products to flow through the unit and up the stack.1.11 Combustion ControlsCombustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air supply, (fuel to airratio), and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficiency. The amountof fuel supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity ofsteam required. The combustion controls are also necessary as safety device to ensure thatthe boiler operates safely.Various types of combustion controls in use are:On/Off ControlThe simplest control, ON/OFF control means that either the burner is firing at full rate or it isOFF. This type of control is limited to small boilers.High/Low/Off ControlBureau of Energy Efficiency 26

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1. Fuels and CombustionSlightly more complex is HIGH/LOW/OFF system where the burner has two firing rates.The burner operates at slower firing rate and then switches to full firing as needed. Burnercan also revert to low firing position at reduced load. This control is fitted to medium sizedboilers.Modulating ControlThe modulating control operates on the principle of matching the steam pressure demand byaltering the firing rate over the entire operating range of the boiler. Modulating motors useconventional mechanical linkage or electric valves to regulate the primary air, secondary air,and fuel supplied to the burner. Full modulation means that boiler keeps firing, and fuel andair are carefully matched over the whole firing range to maximize thermal efficiency. QUESTIONS1) Name two liquid fuels, solid fuels and gaseous fuels used in boilers.2) Which parameter influences the Viscosity of liquid fuel?3) Which element in fuel oil influences corrosion?4) What is the significance of pre-heating furnace oil before burning?5) What are the effects of contaminants in liquid fuels?6) Explain the difference between gross calorific value and net calorific value.7) What is the difference between proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of coal?8) What are the uses of proximate and ultimate analysis?9) Explain why natural gas requires least amount of excess air?10) What is the effect of fines on coal combustion and how to overcome them?Bureau of Energy Efficiency 27

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1. Fuels and Combustion11) What are the major constituent of LPG and Natural gas?12) Why excess air is required for complete combustion?13) What is the typical stoichomatric air fuel ratio for furnace oil?14) The measured CO2 is 8% in an oil fired boiler flue gas. Theoretical CO2 content for the fuel fired is 16%. Estimate the %excess air level? REFERENCES1. Combustion Engineering and Fuel Technology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Company - A.K.Shaha www.pcra.orgBureau of Energy Efficiency 28