The Phantom is a large fighter with a top speed of over Mach 2.2. It can carry more than 18,000 pounds (8,400 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground missiles, and various bombs. The F-4, like other interceptors of its time, was designed without an internal cannon. Later models incorporated an M61 Vulcan rotary cannon. Beginning in 1959, it set 15 world records for in-flight performance,[4] including an absolute speed record, and an absolute altitude record.[5]

The F-4 was used extensively during the Vietnam War, it served as the principal air superiority fighter for both the Navy and Air Force, and became important in the ground-attack and aerial reconnaissance roles late in the war. The Phantom has the distinction of being the last U.S. fighter flown by pilots who attained ace status in the 20th century. During the Vietnam War, one U.S. Air Force pilot, two weapon systems officers (WSOs),[6] one U.S. Navy pilot and one radar intercept officer (RIO) became aces by achieving five aerial kills against enemy fighter aircraft.[7] The F-4 continued to form a major part of U.S. military air power throughout the 1970s and 1980s, being gradually replaced by more modern aircraft such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 in the U.S. Air Force, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat in the U.S. Navy, and the F/A-18 Hornet in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps.

As of 2017, nearly 60 years after its introduction, the F-4 remains in service with Iran, Japan, South Korea, and Turkey. The aircraft has most recently seen service against the Islamic State group in the Middle East.

In 1952, McDonnell's Chief of Aerodynamics, Dave Lewis, was appointed by CEO Jim McDonnell to be the company's preliminary design manager,[13] with no new aircraft competitions on the horizon, internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type: an attack fighter.[14]

The McDonnell F3H-G/H mockup, 1954

In 1953, McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its F3H Demon naval fighter, seeking expanded capabilities and better performance, the company developed several projects including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine,[15] and variants powered by two Wright J65 engines, or two General Electric J79 engines.[16] The J79-powered version promised a top speed of Mach 1.97. On 19 September 1953, McDonnell approached the United States Navy with a proposal for the "Super Demon". Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular—it could be fitted with one- or two-seat noses for different missions, with different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon, or 56 FFAR unguided rockets in addition to the nine hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage. The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-scale mock-up of the F3H-G/H, but felt that the upcoming Grumman XF9F-9 and Vought XF8U-1 already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter.[17]

The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with 11 external hardpoints for weapons and on 18 October 1954, the company received a letter of intent for two YAH-1 prototypes, on 26 May 1955, four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and, within an hour, presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements. Because the Navy already had the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk for ground attack and F-8 Crusader for dogfighting, the project now had to fulfill the need for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor. A second crewman was added to operate the powerful radar.[2]

Wind tunnel testing had revealed lateral instability requiring the addition of 5° dihedral to the wings.[19] To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12°, which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan, the wings also received the distinctive "dogtooth" for improved control at high angles of attack. The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack while still keeping the tailplane clear of the engine exhaust;[18] in addition, air intakes were equipped with variable geometry ramps to regulate airflow to the engines at supersonic speeds. All-weather intercept capability was achieved thanks to the AN/APQ-50 radar. To accommodate carrier operations, the landing gear was designed to withstand landings with a sink rate of 23 ft/s (7 m/s), while the nose strut could extend by some 20 in (51 cm) to increase angle of attack at takeoff.[19]

On 25 July 1955, the Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five YF4H-1 pre-production examples, the Phantom made its maiden flight on 27 May 1958 with Robert C. Little at the controls. A hydraulic problem precluded retraction of the landing gear but subsequent flights went more smoothly. Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the distinctive addition of 12,500 holes to "bleed off" the slow-moving boundary layer air from the surface of each intake ramp. Series production aircraft also featured splitter plates to divert the boundary layer away from the engine intakes, the aircraft soon squared off against the XF8U-3 Crusader III. Due to operator workload, the Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on 17 December 1958 the F4H was declared a winner. Delays with the J79-GE-8 engines meant that the first production aircraft were fitted with J79-GE-2 and −2A engines, each having 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of afterburning thrust. In 1959, the Phantom began carrier suitability trials with the first complete launch-recovery cycle performed on 15 February 1960 from Independence.[19]

There were proposals to name the F4H "Satan" and "Mithras";[19] in the end, the aircraft was given the less controversial name "Phantom II", the first "Phantom" being another McDonnell jet fighter, the FH-1 Phantom. The Phantom II was briefly given the designation F-110A and the name "Spectre" by the USAF, but neither name was officially used.[20]

Early in production, the radar was upgraded to the Westinghouse AN/APQ-72, an AN-APG-50 with a larger radar antenna, necessitating the bulbous nose, and the canopy was reworked to improve visibility and make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic,[21] during its career the Phantom underwent many changes in the form of numerous variants developed.

The USAF received Phantoms as the result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the military, after an F-4B won the "Operation Highspeed" fly-off against the Convair F-106 Delta Dart, the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them F-110A "Spectre" in January 1962, and developed requirements for their own version. Unlike the navy's focus on interception, the USAF emphasized a fighter-bomber role, with McNamara's unification of designations on 18 September 1962, the Phantom became the F-4 with the naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C. The first air force Phantom flew on 27 May 1963, exceeding Mach 2 on its maiden flight.[22]

The USN operated the F4H-1 (re-designated F-4A in 1962) with J79-GE-2 and -2A engines of 16,100 lbf (71.62 kN) thrust and later builds receiving -8 engines. A total of 45 F-4As were built and none saw combat and most ended up as test or training aircraft,[23] the USN and USMC received the first definitive Phantom, the F-4B which was equipped with the Westinghouse APQ-72 radar (pulse only), a Texas Instruments AAA-4 Infra-red search and track pod under the nose, an AN/AJB-3 bombing system and powered by J79-GE-8,-8A and -8B engines of 10,900 lbf (48.5 kN) dry and 16,950 lbf (75.4 kN) afterburner (reheat) with the first flight on 25 March 1961. 649 F-4Bs were built with deliveries beginning in 1961 and VF-121 Pacemakers receiving the first examples at NAS Miramar.[23]

The F-4J had improved air-to-air and ground-attack capability; deliveries begun in 1966 and ended in 1972 with 522 built.[24] It was equipped with J79-GE-10 engines with 17,844 lbf (79.374 kN) thrust, the Westinghouse AN/AWG-10 Fire Control System (making the F-4J the first fighter in the world with operational look-down/shoot-down capability),[25] a new integrated missile control system and the AN/AJB-7 bombing system for expanded ground attack capability.[26]

The F-4N (updated F-4Bs) with smokeless engines and F-4J aerodynamic improvements started in 1972 under a U.S. Navy-initiated refurbishment program called "Project Bee Line"[27] with 228 converted by 1978, the F-4S model resulted from the refurbishment of 265 F-4Js with J79-GE-17 smokeless engines of 17,900 lbf (79.379 kN), AWG-10B radar with digitized circuitry for improved performance and reliability, Honeywell AN/AVG-8 Visual Target Acquisition Set or VTAS (world's first operational Helmet Sighting System), classified avionics improvements, airframe reinforcement and leading edge slats for enhanced maneuvering.[28] The USMC also operated the RF-4B with reconnaissance cameras with 46 built.[29]

Phantom II production ended in the United States in 1979 after 5,195 had been built (5,057 by McDonnell Douglas and 138 in Japan by Mitsubishi).[3] Of these, 2,874 went to the USAF, 1,264 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers,[3] the last U.S.-built F-4 went to South Korea, while the last F-4 built was an F-4EJ built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan and delivered on 20 May 1981.[30] As of 2008, 631 Phantoms were in service worldwide,[31] while the Phantoms were in use as a target drone (specifically QF-4Cs) operated by the U.S. military until December 21, 2016, when the Air Force officially ended use of the type.[32]

To show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development:[3] All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records. Except for Skyburner, all records were achieved in unmodified production aircraft. Five of the speed records remained unbeaten until the F-15 Eagle appeared in 1975.[4]

Operation Top Flight: On 6 December 1959, the second XF4H-1 performed a zoom climb to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m).[5][33] Commander Lawrence E. Flint, Jr., USN accelerated his aircraft to Mach 2.5 (2,660 km/h; 1,650 mph) at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle. He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude, as the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight.[34]

Operation LANA: To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Naval aviation (L is the Roman numeral for 50 and ANA stood for Anniversary of Naval Aviation) on 24 May 1961, Phantoms flew across the continental United States in under three hours and included several tanker refuelings. The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes, earning the pilot (and future NASA Astronaut), Lieutenant Richard Gordon, USN and RIO, Lieutenant Bobbie Young, USN, the 1961 Bendix trophy.[5][35][36][37]

Operation Sageburner: On 28 August 1961, a F4H-1F Phantom II averaged 1,452.777 kilometers per hour (902.714 miles per hour) over a 3 mi (4.82 km) course flying below 125 feet (38.1 m) at all times.[5] Commander J.L. Felsman, USN was killed during the first attempt at this record on 18 May 1961 when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch damper failure.[38]

Operation Skyburner: On 22 November 1961, a modified Phantom with water injection piloted by Lt. Col. Robert B. Robinson, set an absolute world record average speed over a 20-mile (32.2 km) long 2-way straight course of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h).[5][39][40]

On 5 December 1961, another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of 66,443.8 feet (20,252 m).[5]

The F-4 Phantom is a tandem-seat fighter-bomber designed as a carrier-based interceptor to fill the U.S. Navy's fleet defense fighter role. Innovations in the F-4 included an advanced pulse-Doppler radar and extensive use of titanium in its airframe.[42]

Despite imposing dimensions and a maximum takeoff weight of over 60,000 lb (27,000 kg),[43] the F-4 has a top speed of Mach 2.23 and an initial climb rate of over 41,000 ft/min (210 m/s).[44] The F-4's nine external hardpoints have a capability of up to 18,650 pounds (8,480 kg) of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, and unguided, guided, and thermonuclear weapons.[45] Like other interceptors of its day, the F-4 was designed without an internal cannon.[46]

The baseline performance of a Mach 2-class fighter with long range and a bomber-sized payload would be the template for the next generation of large and light/middle-weight fighters optimized for daylight air combat.[47]

In air combat, the Phantom's greatest advantage was its thrust, which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will,[48] as a massive fighter aircraft designed to fire radar-guided missiles from beyond visual range, it lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents and was subject to adverse yaw during hard maneuvering. Although thus subject to irrecoverable spins during aileron rolls, pilots reported the aircraft to be very communicative and easy to fly on the edge of its performance envelope; in 1972, the F-4E model was upgraded with leading edge slats on the wing, greatly improving high angle of attack maneuverability at the expense of top speed.[49]

The J79 engines produced noticeable amounts of black smoke (at mid-throttle/cruise settings), a severe disadvantage in that the enemy could spot the aircraft,[50] this was solved on the F-4S fitted with the −10A engine variant which used a smokeless combustor.[51]

The F-4's biggest weakness, as it was initially designed, was its lack of an internal cannon, for a brief period, doctrine held that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and little effort was made to teach pilots air combat maneuvering. In reality, engagements quickly became subsonic, as pilots would slow down in an effort to get behind their adversaries. Furthermore, the relatively new heat-seeking and radar-guided missiles at the time were frequently reported as unreliable and pilots had to use multiple shots (also known as ripple-firing), just to hit one enemy fighter. To compound the problem, rules of engagement in Vietnam precluded long-range missile attacks in most instances, as visual identification was normally required. Many pilots found themselves on the tail of an enemy aircraft but too close to fire short-range Falcons or Sidewinders, although by 1965 USAF F-4Cs began carrying SUU-16 external gunpods containing a 20 mm (.79 in) M61A1 Vulcan Gatling cannon, USAF cockpits were not equipped with lead-computing gunsights until the introduction of the SUU-23, virtually assuring a miss in a maneuvering fight. Some Marine Corps aircraft carried two pods for strafing; in addition to the loss of performance due to drag, combat showed the externally mounted cannon to be inaccurate unless frequently boresighted, yet far more cost-effective than missiles. The lack of a cannon was finally addressed by adding an internally mounted 20 mm (.79 in) M61A1 Vulcan on the F-4E.[49]

By the time of the Tonkin Gulf incident, 13 of 31 deployable navy squadrons were armed with the type. F-4Bs from Constellation made the first Phantom combat sortie of the Vietnam War on 5 August 1964, flying bomber escort in Operation Pierce Arrow,[56] the first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on 9 April 1965 when an F-4B from VF-96 "Fighting Falcons" piloted by Lieutenant (junior grade) Terence M. Murphy and his RIO, Ensign Ronald Fegan, shot down a Chinese MiG-17 "Fresco", the Phantom was then shot down, probably by an AIM-7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen.[19] There continues to be controversy over whether the Phantom was shot down by MiG guns or, as enemy reports later indicated, an AIM-7 Sparrow III from one of Murphy's and Fegan's wingmen,[57] on 17 June 1965, an F-4B from VF-21 "Freelancers" piloted by Commander Louis Page and Lieutenant John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war.[58][59]

On 10 May 1972, Lieutenant Randy "Duke" Cunningham and Lieutenant (junior grade) William P. Driscoll flying an F-4J, call sign "Showtime 100", shot down three MiG-17s to become the first American flying aces of the war. Their fifth victory was believed at the time to be over a mysterious North Vietnamese ace, Colonel Nguyen Toon, now considered mythical, on the return flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy surface-to-air missile. To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew their burning aircraft using only the rudder and afterburner (the damage to the aircraft rendered conventional control nearly impossible), until they could eject over water.[7]

During the war, U.S. Navy F-4 Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Js, and F-4Ns, the Navy claimed 40 air-to-air victories at a cost of 73 Phantoms lost in combat (seven to enemy aircraft, 13 to SAMs, and 53 to AAA). An additional 54 Phantoms were lost in mishaps.[60]

In 1984, the F-4Ns had been retired, and by 1987 the last F-4Ss were retired in the U.S. Navy deployable squadrons, on 25 March 1986, an F-4S belonging to the VF-151 "Vigilantes," became the last active duty U.S. Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier, in this case, Midway, on 18 October 1986, an F-4S from the VF-202 "Superheats", a Naval Reserve fighter squadron, made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing while operating aboard America. In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4S aircraft were replaced by F-14As, the last Phantoms in service with the Navy were QF-4 target drones operated by the Naval Air Warfare Center at NAS Point Mugu, California.[19] These airframes were subsequently retired in 2004.[61]

The Marine Corps received its first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the "Black Knights" of VMFA-314 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, California becoming the first operational squadron. Marine Phantoms from VMFA-531 "Gray Ghosts" were assigned to Da Nang airbase on South Vietnam's northeast coast on 10 May 1965 and were initially assigned to provide air defense for the USMC, they soon began close air support missions (CAS) and VMFA-314 'Black Knights', VMFA-232 'Red Devils, VMFA-323 'Death Rattlers', and VMFA-542 'Bengals' soon arrived at the primitive airfield.[62] Marine F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs (two while on exchange duty with the USAF) at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat, mostly to ground fire, and four in accidents. VMCJ-1 Golden Hawks (now VMAQ-1 and VMAQ-4 which has the old RM tailcode) flew the first RF-4B photo recon mission on 3 November 1966 from Da Nang and remained there until 1970 with no RF-4B losses and one damaged by AAA.[63]VMCJ-2 and VMCJ-3 (now VMAQ-3) provided aircraft for VMCJ-1 in Da Nang and VMFP-3 was formed in 1975 at MCAS El Toro, CA consolidating all USMC RF-4Bs in one unit that became known as "The Eyes of the Corps." VMFP-3 disestablished in August 1990 after the Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System was introduced for the F/A-18D Hornet.[23] The F-4 continued to equip fighter-attack squadrons in both Marine Corps active and reserve units throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s and into the early 1990s; in the early 1980s, these squadrons began to transition to the F/A-18 Hornet, starting with the same squadron that introduced the F-4 to the Marine Corps, VMFA-314 at MCAS El Toro, California. On 18 January 1992, the last Marine Corps Phantom, an F-4S in the Marine Corps Reserve, was retired by the "Cowboys" of VMFA-112, after which the squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets.[64]

Unlike the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, which flew the Phantom with a Naval Aviator (pilot) in the front seat and a Naval Flight Officer as a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat, the USAF initially flew its Phantoms with a rated Air Force Pilot in front and back seats. While the rear pilot (GIB, or "guy in back") could fly and ostensibly land the aircraft, he had fewer flight instruments and a very restricted forward view, the Air Force later assigned a rated Air Force Navigator qualified as a weapon/targeting systems officer (later designated as weapon systems officer or WSO) in the rear seat instead of another pilot.[68] However, all USAF Phantoms retained dual flight controls throughout their service life.[citation needed]

On 10 July 1965, F-4Cs of the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 15th TFW, on temporary assignment in Ubon, Thailand,[69] scored the USAF's first victories against North Vietnamese MiG-17s using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles,[70] on 26 April 1966, an F-4C from the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron scored the first aerial victory by a U.S. aircrew over a North Vietnamese MiG-21 "Fishbed".[71] On 24 July 1965, another Phantom from the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron became the first American aircraft to be downed by an enemy SAM, and on 5 October 1966 an 8th Tactical Fighter Wing F-4C became the first U.S. jet lost to an air-to-air missile, fired by a MiG-21.

Early aircraft suffered from leaks in wing fuel tanks that required re-sealing after each flight and 85 aircraft were found to have cracks in outer wing ribs and stringers.[52] There were also problems with aileron control cylinders, electrical connectors, and engine compartment fires. Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on 30 October 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike reconnaissance missions, the USAF Thunderbirds used the F-4E from the 1969 season until 1974.[10]

Although the F-4C was essentially identical to the Navy/Marine Corps F-4B in flight performance and carried the AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived in June 1967 equipped with AIM-4 Falcons. However, the Falcon, like its predecessors, was designed to shoot down heavy bombers flying straight and level, its reliability proved no better than others and its complex firing sequence and limited seeker-head cooling time made it virtually useless in combat against agile fighters. The F-4Ds reverted to using Sidewinders under the "Rivet Haste" program in early 1968, and by 1972 the AIM-7E-2 "Dogfight Sparrow" had become the preferred missile for USAF pilots. Like other Vietnam War Phantoms, the F-4Ds were urgently fitted with radar homing and warning (RHAW) antennas to detect the Soviet-built S-75 Dvina SAMs.[72]

From the initial deployment of the F-4C to Southeast Asia, USAF Phantoms performed both air superiority and ground attack roles, supporting not only ground troops in South Vietnam but also conducting bombing sorties in Laos and North Vietnam, as the F-105 force underwent severe attrition between 1965 and 1968, the bombing role of the F-4 proportionately increased until after November 1970 (when the last F-105D was withdrawn from combat) it became the primary USAF tactical ordnance delivery system. In October 1972 the first squadron of EF-4C Wild Weasel aircraft deployed to Thailand on temporary duty,[73] the "E" prefix was later dropped and the aircraft was simply known as the F-4C Wild Weasel.

Sixteen squadrons of Phantoms were permanently deployed between 1965 and 1973, and 17 others deployed on temporary combat assignments.[74] Peak numbers of combat F-4s occurred in 1972, when 353 were based in Thailand.[75] A total of 445 Air Force Phantom fighter-bombers were lost, 370 in combat and 193 of those over North Vietnam (33 to MiGs, 30 to SAMs, and 307 to AAA).[75]

The RF-4C was operated by four squadrons,[76] and of the 83 losses, 72 were in combat including 38 over North Vietnam (seven to SAMs and 65 to AAA).[75] By war's end, the U.S. Air Force had lost a total of 528 F-4 and RF-4C Phantoms. When combined with U.S. Navy and Marine Corps losses of 233 Phantoms, 761 F-4/RF-4 Phantoms were lost in the Vietnam War.[77]

On 28 August 1972, Captain Steve Ritchie became the first USAF ace of the war,[6] on 9 September 1972, WSO Capt Charles B. DeBellevue became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories.[6] and WSO Capt Jeffrey Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on 13 October 1972.[78] Upon return to the United States, DeBellevue and Feinstein were assigned to undergraduate pilot training (Feinstein was given a vision waiver) and requalified as USAF pilots in the F-4. USAF F-4C/D/E crews scored 107½ MiG kills in Southeast Asia (50 by Sparrow, 31 by Sidewinder, five by Falcon, 15.5 by gun, and six by other means).[75]

On 31 January 1972, the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron/183d Tactical Fighter Group of the Illinois Air National Guard became the first Air National Guard unit to transition to Phantoms from Republic F-84F Thunderstreaks which were found to have corrosion problems.[79] Phantoms would eventually equip numerous tactical fighter and tactical reconnaissance units in the USAF active, National Guard, and reserve.

On 2 June 1972, a Phantom flying at supersonic speed shot down a MiG-19 over Thud Ridge in Vietnam for the first supersonic gun kill, at a recorded speed of Mach 1.2, Major Phil Handley's shoot down was the first and only recorded gun kill while flying at supersonic speeds.[80][81]

On 15 August 1990, 24 F-4G Wild Weasel Vs and six RF-4Cs were deployed to Shaikh Isa AB, Bahrain, for Operation Desert Storm, the F-4G was the only aircraft in the USAF inventory equipped for the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) role, and was needed to protect coalition aircraft from Iraq's extensive air defense system. The RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera, and was used for a variety of reconnaissance missions; in spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities. One F-4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase, the last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from 561st Fighter Squadron, were retired on 26 March 1996. The last operational flight of the F-4G Wild Weasel was from the 190th Fighter Squadron, Idaho Air National Guard, in April 1996,[82] the last operational USAF/ANG F-4 to land was flown by Maj Mike Webb and Maj Gary Leeder of the Idaho ANG.

Like the Navy, the Air Force has operated QF-4 target drones, serving with the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida, and Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico.[83] It was expected that the F-4 would remain in the target role with the 82d ATRS until at least 2015, when they would be replaced by early versions of the F-16 Fighting Falcon converted to a QF-16 configuration.[84] Several QF-4s also retain capability as manned aircraft and are maintained in historical color schemes, being displayed as part of Air Combat Command's Heritage Flight at air shows, base open houses, and other events while serving as non-expendable target aircraft during the week,[85] on 19 November 2013, BAE Systems delivered the last QF-4 aerial target to the Air Force. The example had been in storage for over 20 years before being converted, over 16 years, BAE had converted 314 F-4 and RF-4 Phantom IIs into QF-4s and QRF-4s, with each aircraft taking six months to adapt. As of December 2013, QF-4 and QRF-4 aircraft had flown over 16,000 manned and 600 unmanned training sorties, with 250 unmanned aircraft being shot down in firing exercises, the remaining QF-4s and QRF-4s held their training role until the first of 126 QF-16s were delivered by Boeing.[86] The final flight of an Air Force QF-4 from Tyndall AFB took place on 27 May 2015 to Holloman AFB,[87] after Tyndall AFB ceased operations, the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group at Holloman became the fleet of 22 QF-4s' last remaining operator. The base continued using them to fly manned test and unmanned live fire test support and Foreign Military Sales testing, with the final unmanned flight taking place in August 2016,[88] the type was officially retired from US military service with a four–ship flight at Holloman during an event on 21 December 2016.[89] The remaining QF-4s were to be demilitarized after 1 January 2017.[90]

In 1979, the Egyptian Air Force purchased 35 former USAF F-4Es along with a number of Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Maverick missiles from the U.S. for $594 million as part of the "Peace Pharaoh" program.[93] An additional seven surplus USAF aircraft were purchased in 1988.[94] Three attrition replacements had been received by the end of the 1990s.[91]

The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) initially ordered the reconnaissance RF-4E in 1969, receiving a total of 88 aircraft from January 1971;[95] in 1982, the initially unarmed RF-4Es were given a secondary ground attack capability; these aircraft were retired in 1994.[96]

McDonnell RF-4E Phantom II of the Luftwaffe's AKG52 unit in 1977

In 1973, under the "Peace Rhine" program, the Luftwaffe purchased the F-4F (a lightened and simplified version of the F-4E) which was upgraded in the mid-1980s.[97] 24 German F-4F Phantom IIs were operated by the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing of the USAF at Holloman AFB to train Luftwaffe crews until December 2004. In 1975, Germany also received 10 F-4Es for training in the U.S. In the late 1990s, these were withdrawn from service after being replaced by F-4Fs.[98] Germany also initiated the Improved Combat Efficiency (ICE) program in 1983, the 110 ICE-upgraded F-4Fs entered service in 1992,[97] and were expected to remain in service until 2012.[99] All the remaining Luftwaffe Phantoms were based at Wittmund with Jagdgeschwader 71 (fighter wing 71) in Northern Germany[100] and WTD61 at Manching. The German Air Force retired its last F-4Fs on 29 June 2013. German F-4Fs flew 279,000 hours from entering service on 31 August 1973 until retirement.[101][102]

In 1971, the Hellenic Air Force ordered brand new F-4E Phantoms, with deliveries starting in 1974; in the early 1990s, the Hellenic AF acquired surplus RF-4Es and F-4Es from the Luftwaffe and U.S. ANG.[103][104]

Following the success of the German ICE program, on 11 August 1997, a contract was signed between DASA of Germany and Hellenic Aerospace Industry for the upgrade of 39 aircraft to the very similar "Peace Icarus 2000" standard,[19] the Hellenic AF operated 34 upgraded F-4E-PI2000 (338 and 339 Squadrons) and 12 RF-4E aircraft (348 Squadron) as of September 2013.

On 5 May 2017, the Hellenic Air Force officially retired the RF-4E Phantom II during a public ceremony.[105]

In the 1960s and 1970s when the U.S. and Iran were on friendly terms, the U.S. sold 225 F-4D, F-4E, and RF-4E Phantoms to Iran. The Imperial Iranian Air Force saw at least one engagement, resulting in a loss, after an RF-4C was rammed[106] by a Soviet MiG-21 during Project Dark Gene, an ELINT operation during the Cold War.

On 5 June 1984, two Saudi Arabian fighter pilots shot down two Iranian F-4 fighters, the Royal Saudi Air Force pilots were flying American-built F-15s and fired air-to-air missiles to bring down the Iranian planes. The Saudi fighter pilots had KC-135 aerial tanker planes and Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS surveillance planes assist in the encounter, the aerial fight occurred in Saudi airspace over Persian Gulf near the Saudi island Al Arabiyah, about 60 miles northeast of Jubail.[110]

Iranian F-4s were in use as of late 2014;[111] the aircraft reportedly conducted air strikes on ISIS targets in the eastern Iraqi province of Diyala.[112]

The Israeli Air Force was the largest foreign operator of the Phantom, flying both newly built and ex-USAF aircraft, as well as several one-off special reconnaissance variants, the first F-4Es, nicknamed "Kurnass" (Sledgehammer), and RF-4Es, nicknamed "Orev" (Raven), were delivered in 1969 under the "Peace Echo I" program. Additional Phantoms arrived during the 1970s under "Peace Echo II" through "Peace Echo V" and "Nickel Grass" programs. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat during Arab–Israeli conflicts, first seeing action during the War of Attrition;[113] in the 1980s, Israel began the "Kurnass 2000" modernization program which significantly updated avionics.[19] The last Israeli F-4s were retired in 2004.[114]

Of these, 96 F-4EJs were modified to the F-4EJ Kai (改, modified) standard.[118] 15 F-4EJs were converted to reconnaissance aircraft designated RF-4EJ, with similar upgrades as the F-4EJ Kai. Japan had a fleet of 90 F-4s in service in 2007, after studying several replacement fighters[119][120] the F-35 Lightning II was chosen in 2011.[121] Delays with the F-35 program have meant that some F-4s have remained in service, as of 2017 all three of the JASDF's remaining Phantom squadrons are based at Hyakuri Air Base in Ibaraki prefecture north of Tokyo. Some F-4s are also operated by the Air Development and Test Wing in Gifu Prefecture.

A South Korean F-4E, armed with an AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missile, 19 February 1979

The Republic of Korea Air Force purchased its first batch of secondhand USAF F-4D Phantoms in 1968 under the "Peace Spectator" program, the F-4Ds continued to be delivered until 1988. The "Peace Pheasant II" program also provided new-built and former USAF F-4Es.[122]

The Spanish Air Force acquired its first batch of ex-USAF F-4C Phantoms in 1971 under the "Peace Alfa" program. Designated C.12, the aircraft were retired in 1989. At the same time, the air arm received a number of ex-USAF RF-4Cs, designated CR.12. In 1995–1996, these aircraft received extensive avionics upgrades. Spain retired its RF-4s in 2002.[123][124]

The Turkish Air Force (TAF) received 40 F-4Es in 1974, with a further 32 F-4Es and 8 RF-4Es in 1977–78 under the "Peace Diamond III" program, followed by 40 ex-USAF aircraft in "Peace Diamond IV" in 1987, and a further 40 ex-U.S. Air National Guard Aircraft in 1991.[125] A further 32 RF-4Es were transferred to Turkey after being retired by the Luftwaffe between 1992 and 1994;[125] in 1995, Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) implemented an upgrade similar to Kurnass 2000 on 54 Turkish F-4Es which were dubbed the F-4E 2020 Terminator.[19] Turkish F-4s, and more modern F-16s have been used to strike Kurdish PKK bases in ongoing military operations in Northern Iraq,[126] on 22 June 2012, a Turkish RF-4E was shot down by Syrian air defenses while flying a reconnaissance flight near the Turkish-Syrian border.[127][128] Turkey has stated the reconnaissance aircraft was in international airspace when it was shot down, while Syrian authorities stated it was inside Syrian airspace.[129] Turkish F-4s remained in use as of 2015.[111]

On 24 February 2015, two RF-4Es crashed in the Malatya region in the southeast of Turkey, under yet unknown circumstances, killing both crew of two each.[130][131][132] On 5 March 2015, an F-4E-2020 crashed in central Anatolia killing both crew,[133][134] after the recent accidents, the TAF withdrew RF-4Es from active service. Turkey was reported to have used F-4 jets to attack PKK separatists and the ISIS capital on 19 September 2015,[135] the Turkish Air Force has reportedly used the F-4E 2020s against the more recent Third Phase of the PKK conflict on heavy bombardment missions into Iraq on 15 November 2015, 12 January 2016, and 12 March 2016.[136][137][138]

An F-4J of the U.S. Navy (foreground), alongside an F-4K of the Fleet Air Arm (background) wait to be catapulted from the USS Independence, March 1975; one of the major differences can be seen by the British aircraft's extendable nose wheel. Both variants were eventually used by the RAF

The United Kingdom bought versions based on the U.S. Navy's F-4J for use with the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, the main differences were the use of the British Rolls-Royce Spey engines and of British-made avionics. The RN and RAF versions were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service with the British military aircraft designations Phantom FG.1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance).[139][140] Initially, the FGR.2 was used in the ground attack and reconnaissance role, primarily with RAF Germany, while 43 Squadron was formed in the air defence role using the FG.1s that had been intended for the Fleet Air Arm for use aboard HMS Eagle. The superiority of the Phantom over the English Electric Lightning in terms of both range and weapon load, combined with the successful introduction of the SEPECAT Jaguar, meant that, during the mid-1970s, most of the ground attack Phantoms in Germany were redeployed to the UK to replace air defence Lightning squadrons.[141] A second RAF squadron, 111 Squadron, was formed on the FG.1 in 1979 after the disbandment of 892 NAS.

In 1982, during the Falklands War, three Phantom FGR2s of No. 29 Squadron were on active Quick Reaction Alert duty on Ascension Island to protect the base from air attack.[142] After the Falklands War, 15 upgraded ex-USN F-4Js, known as the F-4J(UK) entered RAF service to compensate for one interceptor squadron redeployed to the Falklands.[97]

Around 15 RAF squadrons received various marks of Phantom, many of them based in Germany, the first to be equipped was No. 228 Operational Conversion Unit at RAF Coningsby in August 1968. One noteworthy operator was No. 43 Squadron where Phantom FG1s remained the squadron equipment for 20 years, arriving in September 1969 and departing in July 1989. During this period the squadron was based at Leuchars.[143]

NASA used the F-4 to photograph and film Titan II missiles after launch from Cape Canaveral during the 1960s. Retired U.S. Air Force Colonel Jack Petry described how he put his F-4 into a Mach 1.2 dive synchronized to the launch countdown, then "'walked the (rocket's) contrail' up to the intercept point, tweaking closing speed and updating mission control while camera pods mounted under each wing shot film at 900 frames per second." Petry's Phantom stayed with the Titan for 90 seconds, then broke away as the missile continued into space.[148]

NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center acquired an F-4A on 3 December 1965, it made 55 flights in support of short programs, chase on X-15 missions and lifting body flights. The F-4 also supported a biomedical monitoring program involving 1,000 flights by NASA Flight Research Center aerospace research pilots and students of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School flying high-performance aircraft, the pilots were instrumented to record accurate and reliable data of electrocardiogram, respiration rate and normal acceleration. In 1967, the Phantom supported a brief military-inspired program to determine whether an airplane's sonic boom could be directed and whether it could be used as a weapon of sorts, or at least an annoyance. NASA also flew an F-4C in a spanwise blowing study from 1983 to 1985, after which it was returned.[149]

QF-4E AF Serial No. 74-1626 at McGuire AFB in May 2007 with an A-10 in the background

F-4A, B, J, N and S

Variants for the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps. F-4B was upgraded to F-4N, and F-4J was upgraded to F-4S.

F-110 Spectre, F-4C, D and E

Variants for the U.S. Air Force. F-4E introduced an internal M61 Vulcan cannon, the F-4D and E were the most numerously built, widely exported, and also extensively used under the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) U.S. air defense system.

F-4G Wild Weasel V

A dedicated SEAD variant for the U.S. Air Force with updated radar and avionics, converted from F-4E, the designation F-4G was applied earlier to an entirely different U.S. Navy Phantom.

An F-4F on display described as the "World's largest distributor of MiG parts", because of the high number of this type of enemy aircraft shot down

The Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its career, some of these names included "Snoopy", "Rhino", "Double Ugly",[150] "Old Smokey",[68] the "Flying Anvil", "Flying Footlocker", "Flying Brick", "Lead Sled", the "Big Iron Sled" and the "St. Louis Slugger";[151] in recognition of its record of downing large numbers of Soviet-built MiGs,[152] it was called the "World's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts".[150] As a reflection of excellent performance in spite of its bulk, the F-4 was dubbed "the triumph of thrust over aerodynamics."[153] German Luftwaffe crews called their F-4s the Eisenschwein ("Iron Pig"), Fliegender Ziegelstein ("Flying Brick") and Luftverteidigungsdiesel ("Air Defense Diesel").[154]

Imitating the spelling of the aircraft's name, McDonnell issued a series of patches. Pilots became "Phantom Phlyers", backseaters became "Phantom Pherrets", fans of the F-4 "Phantom Phanatics", and call it the "Phabulous Phantom". Ground crewmen who worked on the aircraft are known as "Phantom Phixers".[3]

The aircraft's emblem is a whimsical cartoon ghost called "The Spook", which was created by McDonnell Douglas technical artist, Anthony "Tony" Wong, for shoulder patches, the name "Spook" was coined by the crews of either the 12th Tactical Fighter Wing or the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing at MacDill AFB. The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on many items associated with the F-4, the Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions; for example, the British adaptation of the U.S. "Phantom Man"[150] is a Spook that sometimes wears a bowler hat and smokes a pipe.[155]

^The aircraft was originally designated the AH, and later re-designated F4H, by the United States Navy, while the original designation by the U.S. Air Force was "F-110A Spectre", the F-4 designation came about in 1962 when the designation systems for all branches of the U.S. military were unified by the order of U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara. Within McDonnell Aircraft, the F-4 was referred to as Model 98.[2]

^"More QF-4s – And A New Trick for Old Dogs?"Defense Industry Daily, 22 January 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2008. Quote: "These large 2-seat multi-role fighters were a triumph of thrust over aerodynamics, and formed the mainstay of the USAF and U.S. Navy fleets for many years."

Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons: A Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of All RAF Squadrons and Their Antecedents Since 1912:. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2nd edition, 2001. ISBN1-84037-141-2

1.
United States Air Force
–
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source

2.
82d Aerial Targets Squadron
–
The 82d Aerial Targets Squadron is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group and stationed at Tyndall Air Force Base, the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron was the last USAF unit which flew the F-4 Phantom II, flying the QF-4E, -G, and QRF-4C versions in the role of an aerial target. The 82 ATRS also had a Detachment at Holloman AFB to fly QF-4s in support of DoD testing in the White Sands Missile Range Complex. A secondary mission was the use of man-rated QF-4s in support of the USAF Heritage Flight program at military air shows, the squadron also maintains three 120-foot drone recovery vessels and two smaller vessels to recover aerial targets and support range safety, patrol, and salvage operations. Squadron members also operate the Air Force’s only two E-9A Widgets, a version of the de Havilland Canada DHC-8. In 2013, the squadron commenced acquisition of the first batch of QF-16 aircraft, the QF-16 has replaced the QF-4 in the Full Scale Aerial Target role. The 82d Fighter Squadron saw combat in the European Theater of Operations from 13 April 1943 to 25 April 1945, and training, maneuvers and it was part of the occupation forces in Germany from August 1946 to June 1947. It served in air defense in United States from January 1949 to March 1953, during the Cold War, the then-82d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was an Air Defense Command tenant unit based at Travis Air Force Base, California. On 22 October 1962, before President John F. However, before the crisis was over, on 26 October, in 1966, the 82 FIS was deployed to Naha Air Base, Okinawa. The prime aircraft of the squadron was the F-102 Delta Dagger, or Deuce, in order to deploy to Naha, each plane was configured with refueling probes and required extensive pilot training. This was one of the few times such a modification was done to a relatively short-ranged jet fighter-interceptor, in January 1968, the 82d was scrambled to South Korea in response to the Pueblo Incident, where North Korea had seized the intelligence ship USS Pueblo. The 82d Fighter Interceptor Squadron maintained a presence in South Korea with a detachment of temporarily assigned aircraft and personnel to Suwon Air Base, ROK. The squadron continued this service until 31 May 1971 when the 51st Fighter Inteceptor Wing, along all the other operational. On 1 July 1981 the 82d Tactical Aerial Targets Squadron was assigned to the 325th Fighter Weapons Wing at Tyndall AFB, on 15 October 1983, the 82d Tactical Aerial Targets Squadron was transferred to the 475th Weapons Evaluation Group. It is now part of the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group, the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron is very unusual by the type of aircraft it operates. This squadron is the unit left in the USAF to fly the venerable F-4 Phantom II reduced to the role of aerial targets. Located at Tyndall AFB, Florida, the 82 ATRS is a subordinate of the 53d Weapons Evaluation Group assigned to Air Combat Commands 53d Wing at Eglin AFB, both bases are located at short distances from each other in the Florida panhandle. During these exercises, the 82 ATRS provides drone targets such as the QF-4 in the Full Scale Aerial Target role next to the MQM-107 Streaker and BQM-34 Firebee as Sub-Scale Aerial Targets

3.
White Sands Missile Range
–
White Sands Missile Range is a United States Army military testing area of almost 3,200 sq mi in parts of five counties in southern New Mexico. Just seven days later, the first atomic bomb test, code named Trinity was exploded at Trinity Site, designated historic sites on WSMR land include, Trinity Site, Selected in November 1944 for the Trinity nuclear test conducted on 16 July 1945. White Sands V-2 Launching Site, A V-2 static test firing was 15 March 1946, the White Sands Test Center headquartered at the WSMR Post Area has branches for Manned Tactical Systems & Electromagnetic Radiation and conducts missile testing and range recovery operations. White Sands Hall of Fame, which inducts members such as the first range commander, Col. Harold Turner,1972 DoD Centers for Countermeasures, which evaluate precision guided munitions and other devices in electronic counter- and counter-countermeasures environments. 1963 NASA White Sands Test Facilitys ground station for Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, the North Oscura Peak facility of the AFRL Directed Energy Directorate 1930, Robert Goddard began rocket testing in New Mexico. 1940s, When the range was formed, ranchers land was leased and, in the 1970s, 1941-12, Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range established near the West Texas Bombardier Triangle. 1941-12, Executive Order No.9029 canceled grazing leases on the newly established Alamogordo Bombing, 1942-07, Goddards rocket research group moved from Roswell, New Mexico, to Annapolis, Maryland. 1944-02, War Department and the Corps of Engineers Ordnance Department teams looked for a US missile test site, 1945-07-13, McDonald Ranch House, Manhattan Project location for the final assembly of the prototype Fat Man plutonium bomb. 1945-07-16, Trinity test of the bomb, the first nuclear weapon tested in the world. 1945-02-20, The Secretary of War approved establishment of WSPG, 1945-04-01, The first Private F launch was at WSPG. 1945-06-25, WSPG construction began with drilling of water wells, 1945-07, First of 300 railroad cars of German V-2 components began to arrive at Las Cruces, New Mexico. 1945-09, The blockhouse at Army Launch Area 1 was completed, 1945-09-16, First WAC Corporal test firing. 1945-11, GE contractors began to identify, sort, and reassemble V-2 components in Building 1538,1946,35 of the Operation Paperclip scientists from Germany were working at WSPG. 1946-05-26, The 4th U. S. V-2 launch was tracked by two AN/MPQ-2 stations,1946 summer, New WSPG quarters were completed and the Medical Detachment and 3 batteries moved from Ft Bliss. 1946-09, First static firing of a Nike missile was at WSPG,1947, A merging of military areas established the New Mexico Joint Guided Missile Test Range. 1947-11-14, The USAFs Alamogordo Guided Missile Test Base on the range had its first GAPA missile launch, 1948-05 to 1949-4, First six flight attempts for the Project Bumper two-stage V-2 SRBM/WAC Corporal two-stage research vehicles as the worlds first high-speed multistage rockets to be launched. 1949, German scientists transferred from New Mexico to Alabama 1949-07, 1951-07, The AGMTB became a sub-base of Floridas Air Force Missile Test Center until 31 August 1952. 1951-08-22, Broomstick Scientists in a unit of the 9393 Technical Service Unit conducted their first launch, 1952-05, An additional 40 mi ×117 mi was set aside for the Alamogordo bombing range, White Sands proving ground, and the Fort Bliss antiaircraft range

4.
Interceptor aircraft
–
An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to prevent successful missions by enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. For daytime operations, conventional fighters normally fill the interceptor role, few aircraft can be considered dedicated daytime interceptors. Night fighters and bomber destroyers are, by definition, interceptors of the heavy type, examples of classic interceptors of this era include the F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15 and English Electric Lightning. Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Tornado F3, Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat. The first dedicated interceptor squadrons were formed up during World War I in order to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins, early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their targets prior to take-off from a centralized command center in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to intercept the Gotha G. IV bombers. Before Second World War started, offensive bomber speeds had improved so much that it appeared that the mission would be effectively impossible. The visual and acoustic detection had a range on the order of a few miles. This could be addressed by a cover of aircraft. The conclusion at the time was that the bomber will always get through, the introduction of radar upset this equation. Radar was able to detect aircraft at long range, on the order of 100 miles even for early systems and this provided enough time for fighters to start up, climb to altitude and chase down their targets. The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps 200 miles per hour to 600 miles per hour in a single step, although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defenses ability to communicate information to the pilots that the method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task. In the 1950s, during the Cold War, an interceptor force was crucial for the great powers. Hence for a period of time they faced rapid development. Thus, the doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening and their utility waned as the role became blurred into the role of the heavy air superiority fighters dominant in military thinking at the time

5.
Fighter-bomber
–
A fighter-bomber is a fighter aircraft that has been modified, or used primarily, as a light bomber or attack aircraft. Although still used, the term fighter-bomber has less significance since the introduction of rockets, modern aircraft with similar duties are now typically called multirole combat aircraft or strike fighters. Prior to World War II, general limitations in available engine, engine power grew dramatically during the early period of the war, roughly doubling between 1939 and 1943. It had two Bristol Mercury XV radial engines of 920 hp each, a crew of three, and its payload was just 1,200 lbs of bombs. The Blenheim suffered disastrous losses over France in 1939 when it encountered Messerschmitt Bf 109s, in contrast, the Vought F4U Corsair fighter — which entered service in December 1942 — had in common with its eventual U. S. With less airframe and crew to lift, the Corsairs ordnance load was either four High Velocity Aircraft Rockets or 2,000 lbs of bombs, increased engine power meant that many existing fighter designs could carry useful bomb loads, and adapt to the fighter-bomber role. Notable examples include the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, Hawker Typhoon and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, larger twin-engined aircraft were also used in the fighter-bomber role, especially where longer ranges were needed for naval strikes. Examples include the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the Bristol Beaufighter, the Beaufighter MkV had a Boulton-Paul turret with four 0.303 in machine guns mounted aft of the cockpit but only two were built. Bristols Blenheim was even pushed into service as a fighter during the Battle of Britain, equipped with an early Airborne Interception radar set, however, it proved to be an effective night fighter. The first single seat fighters to drop bombs were on the Western Front, when fighter patrols were issued with bombs and ordered to drop them at random if they met no German fighters. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied aircraft of the First World War with 1,294 enemy aircraft downed, was losing its edge by 1918, the Royal Aircraft Factory S. E.5. was used in the same role. The Royal Flying Corps received the first purpose-built fighter-bomber just as the war was ending and it was not called a fighter bomber at the time, but a Trench Fighter as that was what it was designed to attack. The Sopwith Salamander was based on the Sopwith Snipe fighter but had armour plating in the nose to protect the pilot, originally it was intended to have two machine guns jutting through the cockpit floor so as to spray trenches with bullets as it passed low overhead. But this did not work and it was fitted with four Cooper bombs and it was ordered in very large numbers, but most were cancelled after the Armistice. In February and April 1918 the Royal Flying Corps conducted bombing tests at Orfordness, both WW1 fighter bombers were used with novice and experienced pilots. Best results were achieved with a dive into the wind using the Aldis Sight to align the aircraft. But they were not considered enough to justify the expected casualty rate. When war broke out in Europe, Western Allied Air Forces employed light twin-engined bombers in the role for low level attack

6.
McDonnell Aircraft
–
The McDonnell Aircraft Corporation was an American aerospace manufacturer based in St. Louis, Missouri. McDonnell Aircraft later merged with the Douglas Aircraft Company to form McDonnell Douglas in 1967, McDonnell & Associates in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1928 to produce a personal aircraft for family use. The economic depression from 1929 ruined his plans and the company collapsed and he went to work for Glenn L. Martin. He left in 1938 to try again with his own firm, McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, based near St. Louis, Missouri, world War II was a major boost to the new company. It grew from 15 employees in 1939 to 5,000 at the end the war and became a significant aircraft parts producer, McDonnell also developed the LBD-1 Gargoyle guided missile. McDonnell Aircraft suffered after the war with an end of government orders and a surplus of aircraft, the advent of the Korean War helped push McDonnell into a major military fighter supply role. In 1943, McDonnell began developing jets when they were invited to bid on a US Navy contest, Dave Lewis joined the company as Chief of Aerodynamics in 1946. He led the development of the legendary F-4 Phantom II in 1954, Lewis became Executive Vice President in 1958, and finally became President and Chief Operating Officer in 1962. Lewis went on to manage Douglas Aircraft Division in 1967 after the McDonnell Douglas merger, in 1969, he returned to St. Louis as President of McDonnell Douglas. The company was now a major employer, but was having problems, with no civilian side of the company, every peacetime downturn in procurement led to lean times at McDonnell. McDonnell Aircraft and Douglas Aircraft began to sound each other out about a merger, inquiries began in 1963, Douglas offered bid invitations from December 1966 and accepted that of McDonnell. The two firms were merged on April 28,1967 as the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. In 1967, with the merger of McDonnell and Douglas Aircraft, Dave Lewis, then president of McDonnell, was named chairman of what was called the Long Beach, Lewis managed the turnaround of the division. McDonnell Douglas would later merge with Boeing in August 1997, boeings defense and space division is based in St. Louis, Missouri, U. S. and is responsible for defense and space products and services. McDonnell Douglass legacy product programs include the F-15 Eagle, AV-8B Harrier II, F/A-18 Hornet, McDonnell, nephew of founder and later President, CEO and Chair of McDonnell Douglas. Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920, McDonnell Aircraft history 1939-45 McDonnell Aircraft history 1946-56 McDonnell Aircraft history 1957-67 McDonnell Gemini Space Program 1963-1966 List of all McDonnell model numbers through 1974

7.
McDonnell Douglas
–
McDonnell Douglas was a major American aerospace manufacturing corporation and defense contractor formed by the merger of McDonnell Aircraft and the Douglas Aircraft Company in 1967. Between then and its own merger with Boeing in 1997, it produced a number of commercial and military aircraft such as the DC-10 airliner. The corporation was based at Lambert–St, the company was formed from the firms of James Smith McDonnell and Donald Wills Douglas in 1967. Both men were of Scottish ancestry, graduates of MIT and had worked for the aircraft manufacturer Glenn L. Martin Company, Douglas had been chief engineer at Martin before leaving to establish Davis-Douglas Company in early 1920 in Los Angeles. He bought out his backer and renamed the firm the Douglas Aircraft Company in 1921, McDonnell & Associates in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1926. His idea was to produce an aircraft for family use. The economic depression from 1929 ruined his ideas and the company collapsed and he worked at three companies with the final being Glenn Martin Company in 1933. He left Martin in 1938 to try again with his own firm, McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, World War II was a major earner for Douglas. The company produced almost 30,000 aircraft from 1942 to 1945, both companies suffered at the end of hostilities, facing an end of government orders and a surplus of aircraft. After the war Douglas continued to new aircraft, including the DC-6 in 1946. The company moved into jet propulsion, producing its first for the military – the conventional F3D Skyknight in 1948, in 1955, Douglas introduced the first attack jet of the United States Navy with the A4D Skyhawk. Designed to operate from the decks of the World War II Essex class aircraft carriers, the Skyhawk was small, reliable, variants of it continued in use in the Navy for almost 50 years, finally serving in large numbers in a two-seat version as a jet trainer. Douglas also made commercial jets, producing the DC-8 in 1958 to compete with the Boeing 707, the Korean War-era Banshee and later the F-4 Phantom II produced during the Vietnam War helped push McDonnell into a major military fighter supply role. Douglas created a series of experimental high-speed jet aircraft in the Skyrocket family, Douglas also gained contracts from NASA, notably for part of the enormous Saturn V rocket. The two companies were now major employers, but both were having problems, Douglas was strained by the cost of the DC-8 and DC-9, while McDonnell suffered lean times during any downturns in military procurement. The two companies began to sound each other out about a merger, inquiries began in 1963, Douglas offered bid invitations from December 1966 and accepted that of McDonnell. The two firms were merged on 28 April 1967 as the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. The two companies were a fit for each other

8.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress

9.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships

10.
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force
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The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force is the aviation branch of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army. The present Air Force came into being in the early 1980s when the former Imperial Iranian Air Force was renamed, the Air Force has attempted with some success to maintain in service the large number of American-built aircraft which Iran acquired during the Shahs regime. The Air Force has turned to purchases of Soviet and Chinese aircraft, as well as pressing ex-Iraqi aircraft into service, and indigenously built aircraft, in order to maintain a capable force. As of June 2016, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force possesses 348 fighters, making it the ninth most powerful air arm in the world, on paper. The IRIAF came into being when the former Imperial Iranian Air Force was renamed following the Islamic Revolution in Iran, due to strained relations with the west, Iran had to procure new equipment from Brazil, Russia and the Peoples Republic of China. Since the Revolution, the composition of the IRIAF is hard to determine. Many aircraft belonging to the Iraqi Air Force took refuge in Iran during the Persian Gulf War in 1991, and many were put into service with the IRIAF or taken apart for spare parts. Due to the spare parts shortages faced by the air force. In 2002, Iran with the co-operation of Ukraine, successfully started the manufacture of the Iran-140, simultaneously, Iran began construction of two domestically produced fighters, upgraded using technology from the F-14 Tomcat and the F-5 Tiger II. The fighters have been named the Azarakhsh and the Shafaq, since then the country has also become self-sufficient in the manufacture of helicopters. The country claims that it is capable of producing the old U. S. AH-1 Cobra gunship, additionally, Iran also produces Bell Helicopter Bell 212 and Bell 206 helicopters in serial production. These are known respectively as the Shabaviz 2-75 and the Shabaviz 206, a series of purges and forced retirements resulted in the manpower of the service being halved between February 1979 and July 1980, leaving the IRIAF ill-prepared for the Iran–Iraq War. The Iranians retaliated with operation Kaman-99 which involved 206 F-4, F-5, on 23 September 1980, Iran launched Operation Kaman 99 as 40 F-4 Phantoms, armed with Mark 82, Mark 83 and Mark 84 bombs and AGM-65 Maverick missiles, took off from Hamadan. After refueling in mid-air the Phantoms reached the Iraqi capital Baghdad, meanwhile, eight More F-4s took off from Tehran and launched a second attack on the al-Rashid airbase. Iran proceeded to launch 58 F-5E Tiger IIs from Tabriz, which were sent to attack Mosul Airbase, after the attack on Mosul Airbase, another 50 F-5Es were dispatched to strike Nasiriyah Airbase, which was heavily damaged. As all 146 Iranian F-4s and F-5s had been sent for a raid on Iraq,60 F-14 Tomcats were scrambled to defend Iranian airspace against a possible Iraqi retaliation. Iranian F-14s managed to down 2 Iraqi MiG-21s and 3 Iraqi MiG-23s, Iraqi MiG-23s managed to down 2 F-5Es, while Iraqi MiG-21s also downed 2 F-5Es. Iraqis also by mistake shot down one of their own Il-76MD strategic airlifters with a SA-3 SAM, saddam Hussein and the Iraqi military were dealt a heavy blow when Iranian Air Force vulnerabilities failed to materialize

11.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common

12.
Tandem
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Tandem is an arrangement in which a team of machines, animals or people are lined up one behind another, all facing in the same direction. The tandem harness allows additional animals to provide pulling power for a designed for a single animal. The English word tandem derives with a play from the Latin adverb tandem. Tandem seating may be used on a bicycle where it is alternative to sociable seating. Tandem can also be used generally to refer to any group of persons or objects working together. The Messerschmitt KR200 was an example of a small automobile that used tandem seating. A tandem arrangement may also be used for cars parked in a residential garage, in heavy trucks tandem refers to two closely spaced axles. Legally defined by the distance between the axles, mechanically there are many configurations, either or both axles may be powered, and often interact with each other. The two seating configurations for trainer, night and all-weather interceptor or attack aircraft are pilot and instructor side by side or in tandem, usually, the pilot is in front and the instructor behind. Attack aircraft and all-weather interceptors often use a crew member to operate avionics such as radar. Bombers such as the Convair B-58 Hustler seated three crew members in tandem, a common engineering adaptation is to lengthen the cockpit or fuselage to create a trainer with tandem seating from a single-seater aircraft. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing XB-52 bombers used fighter-style tandem seating, the Grumman A-6 Intruder, General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, Sukhoi Su-24 or the Sukhoi Su-34 are examples of combat aircraft that use this configuration. For training aircraft, it has the advantage that pilot and instructor can see each others actions, allowing the pilot to learn from the instructor, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. In some cases, such as the Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler, three Men In a Carriage Drawn by a Tandem Horse Team. Tandem Horse Teams Museum Victoria official site, illustration

13.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route

14.
Supersonic aircraft
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A supersonic aircraft is an aircraft able to fly faster than the speed of sound. Supersonic aircraft were developed in the half of the twentieth century and have been used almost entirely for research. Only two, Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144, ever entered service for use as airliners. Fighter jets are the most common example of supersonic aircraft, the aerodynamics of supersonic flight is called compressible flow because of the compression associated with the shock waves or sonic boom created by any object travelling faster than sound. Aircraft flying at speeds above Mach 5 are often referred to as hypersonic aircraft, the first aircraft to fly supersonically in level flight was the American Bell X-1 experimental plane which was powered by a 6000-lb thrust rocket powered by liquid oxygen and ethyl alcohol. The majority of aircraft have been military or experimental aircraft. In the 1960s and 70s, many design studies for supersonic airliners were done, however political, environmental and economic obstacles and one fatal Concorde crash prevented them from being used to their full commercial potential and these aircraft are no longer flying. Supersonic flight brings with it substantial technical challenges, as the aerodynamics of flight are dramatically different from those of subsonic flight. In particular, aerodynamic drag rises sharply as the passes the transonic regime, requiring much greater engine power. To keep drag low, wing span must be limited, which reduces the aerodynamic efficiency when flying slowly. Since a supersonic aircraft must take off and land at a slow speed. However, swinging affects the longitudinal trim of the aircraft and the mechanism adds weight and cost. Another technique that has used is a delta-wing design, such as used on Concorde. This has the advantage that it can attain a high angle of attack at low speeds, other kinds of wings are the Short thin wing, Sweep back wing and the swept forward wing. Another problem is the heat generated by friction as the air flows over the aircraft, most supersonic designs use aluminium alloys such as Duralumin, which are cheap and easy to work but lose their strength quickly at high temperatures. This limits maximum speed to around Mach 2.2, some early supersonic aircraft, including the first, relied on rocket power to provide the necessary thrust, although rockets burn a lot of fuel and so flight times were short. Early turbojets were more fuel-efficient but did not have enough thrust, the invention of the afterburner, in which extra fuel is burned in the jet exhaust, made these mixed powerplant types obsolete. The turbofan engine passes additional cold air around the core, further increasing its fuel efficiency

15.
Jet aircraft
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A jet aircraft is an aircraft propelled by jet engines. Jet aircraft generally cruise at faster than about M0.8 at altitudes around 10, Frank Whittle, an English inventor and RAF officer, developed the concept of the jet engine in 1928, and Hans von Ohain in Germany developed the concept independently in the early 1930s. He wrote in February 1936 to Ernst Heinkel, who led the construction of the worlds first turbojet aircraft, however, it can be argued that the English engineer A. A. Griffith, who published a paper in July 1926 on compressors and turbines, also deserves credit. After the first instance of powered flight, large number of jet powerplants were suggested, rené Lorin, Morize, Harris proposed systems for creating a jet efflux. Rocket-powered jet aircraft were pioneered in Germany, the first aircraft to fly under rocket power was the Lippisch Ente, in 1928. The Ente had previously flown as a glider. The next year, in 1929, the Opel RAK.1 became the first purpose-built rocket plane to fly, the turbojet, was invented in the 1930s, independently by Frank Whittle and later Hans von Ohain. The first turbojet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 V1 first prototype of the German Air Force, the first flight of a jet engined aircraft to come to popular attention was the Italian Caproni Campini N.1 motorjet prototype that flew on August 27,1940. It was the first jet aircraft recognised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, Campini had proposed the motorjet in 1932. The British experimental Gloster E. 28/39 first took to the air on May 15,1941, the United States produced the Bell XP-59A using two examples of a version of the Whittle engine built by General Electric, which flew on October 1,1942. The Meteor was the first production jet as it entered production a few months before the Me 262, which itself had been in development since before the start of the war as Projekt 1065. The first operational jet fighter was the Messerschmitt Me 262, made by Germany during World War II and it was the fastest conventional aircraft of World War II – although there were faster aircraft propelled by unconventional means, such as the rocket-powered Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet. USSR tested its own Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1 in 1942, but the project was scrapped by Joseph Stalin in 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy also developed jet aircraft in 1945, including the Nakajima J9Y Kikka, a modified, and slightly smaller version of the Me 262 that had folding wings. By the end of 1945, the US had introduced their next jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star into service and the UK its second fighter design, the US introduced the North American B-45 Tornado, their first jet bomber, into service in 1948. Although capable of carrying nuclear weapons it was used for reconnaissance over Korea, the UK put the English Electric Canberra into service in 1951 as a light bomber. It was designed to fly higher and faster than any interceptor, BOAC operated the first commercial jet service, from London to Johannesburg, in 1952 with the de Havilland Comet jetliner. This highly innovative aircraft travelled far faster and higher than the aircraft, was much quieter, smoother

16.
Mach number
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In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. M = u c, where, M is the Mach number, u is the flow velocity with respect to the boundaries. By definition, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound, Mach 0.65 is 65% of the speed of sound, and Mach 1.35 is 35% faster than the speed of sound. The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of the surrounding medium, the Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a liquid, the boundary can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as a nozzle, diffusers or wind tunnels channeling the medium. As the Mach number is defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number, if M <0. 2–0.3 and the flow is quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and simplified incompressible flow equations can be used. The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, as the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit, the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead of 2 Mach. This is somewhat reminiscent of the modern ocean sounding unit mark, which was also unit-first. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Machs number, never Mach 1, Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar manner at a given Mach number, regardless of other variables. As modeled in the International Standard Atmosphere, dry air at sea level, standard temperature of 15 °C. For example, the atmosphere model lapses temperature to −56.5 °C at 11,000 meters altitude. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referred to, generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. Flight can be classified in six categories, For comparison. At transonic speeds, the field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M >1 flow appear around the object, in case of an airfoil, this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to only in a normal shock. As the speed increases, the zone of M >1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges

17.
Hardpoint
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A hardpoint is a location on an airframe designed to carry an external or internal load. In aeronautics, the station is used to refer to a point of carriage on the frame of an aircraft. A station is rated to carry a certain amount of payload. It is a number which already has taken the rated g-forces of the frame into account. Multiplied by the load factor which the aircraft will sustain when these items are carried. In civilian aviation a station is used to carry an external engine or a fuel tank. As engines are usually a fixed installation, operators usually refer to them with the designation of the engine, therefore, the term is mostly being used for load points meant for non-fixed installation. In the military, a station can also be called weapons station, most stations on a military aircraft serve to carry pods or weapons. A minor number of stations can serve to carry external fuel tanks. These stations are called wet, a general term referring to usage of fuel like wet thrust. The term wet is also carried over to the adapters, such as a pylon, wing stations require pylons to carry objects. The F-111s outermost pair of hardpoints do not swivel, and can only be used while the wing is fully extended and this restricts the aircraft to subsonic flight only while these pylons are fitted, usually fitted with fuel tanks during ferry flights. The pylons are automatically jettisoned if the wing sweep moves past 26 degrees, stations may be numbered for reference or not at all. The numbering is not necessarily consistent and may originate from elsewhere like station 559 on the B-52, there is not necessarily an order in which numbers are assigned. The order can be for example from left to right or vice versa, or mirrored, the often unique centerline station is no exception. A pylon serves to connect the frame of an aircraft to an item or object that is being carried, hence, the use of a pylon is necessary to clear the carriage item of control surfaces as well as prevent undesired disturbance of the flow of air toward the wing. Pylons are usually designed to be aerodynamic to reduce air resistance, there are many different forms, sizes and designs of pylons distinctly termed accordingly like a wedge adaptor or stub wing pylon. Stealth aircraft like the F-22 or F-35 can use jettisonable pylons to retain stealth, while most pylons are part of a modular system which is compatible with numerous stores, certain weapons and aircraft can require special pylons or adapters to carry a specific load

18.
M61 Vulcan
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The M61 Vulcan is a hydraulically or pneumatically driven, six-barrel, air-cooled, electrically fired Gatling-style rotary cannon which fires 20 mm rounds at an extremely high rate. The M61 and its derivatives have been the principal armament of United States military fixed-wing aircraft for fifty years. The M61 was originally produced by General Electric, after several mergers and acquisitions, it is currently produced by General Dynamics. At the end of World War II, the United States Army began to consider new directions for future military aircraft guns, the higher speeds of jet-powered fighter aircraft meant that achieving an effective number of hits would be extremely difficult without a much higher volume of fire. While captured German designs showed the potential of the revolver cannon. The Army wanted something better, combining extremely high rate of fire with exceptional reliability, in 1947, the Air Force became a separate branch of the military. The new Air Force made a request for a new aircraft gun, a lesson of World War II air combat was that German, Italian and Japanese fighters could attack American aircraft from long range with their cannon main armament. American fighters with.50 cal main armament, such as the P-51 and P-47, had to be close to the enemy in order to hit, in response to this requirement, the Armament Division of General Electric resurrected an old idea, the multi-barrel Gatling gun. With multiple barrels, the rate of fire per barrel could be lower than a revolver cannon while providing a greater overall rate of fire. In 1946, the Army issued General Electric a contract for Project Vulcan, the first GE prototypes of the 0. 60-inch caliber T45 were ground-fired in 1949, it achieved 2,500 rpm, which was increased to 4,000 rpm by 1950. By the early 1950s, the USAF decided that high velocity alone might not be sufficient to ensure target destruction and these variants of the T45 were known as the T171 and T150 respectively, and were first tested in 1952. Eventually, the 20×102 mm cartridge was determined to have the balance of projectile and explosive weight. A linkless ammunition feed system was developed for the upgraded M61A1, in 1993, General Electric sold its aerospace division, including GE Armament Systems along with the design and production tooling for the M61 and GEs other rotary cannon, to Martin Marietta. After Martins merger with Lockheed, the cannon became the responsibility of Lockheed Martin Armament Systems. Lockheed Martin Armament Systems was later acquired by General Dynamics, who produce the M61. Each of the six barrels fires once in turn during each revolution of the barrel cluster. The multiple barrels provide both a high rate of fire—around 100 rounds per second—and contribute to prolonged weapon life by minimizing barrel erosion. Mean time between jams or failures is in excess of 10,000 rounds, making it a reliable weapon

19.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades

20.
Air superiority fighter
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Air superiority fighters are designed primarily to effectively engage enemy fighters, more than other types of aircraft, although some may have a secondary role for air-to-ground strikes. They are usually expensive and procured in smaller numbers, compared to multirole fighters which are designed with a balance between air-to-air and air-to-ground capabilities. In order to maximize their effectiveness and strategic usefulness, air superiority fighters usually operate under the control/co-ordination of an airborne early warning. During World War II and through the Korean War, fighters were classified by their role, heavy fighter, interceptor, escort fighter, night fighter, and so forth. These aircraft would sacrifice high maneuverability, and instead focus on remaining performance characteristics, combat experiences during the Vietnam War proved BVR proponents wrong. Owing to restrictive rules of engagement and the failings of 1960s missile and radar technology, the two designs were built to achieve air superiority and significant consideration was given during the development of both aircraft to allow them to excel at the shorter ranges of fighter combat. Both aircraft also serve as interceptors due to their maximum speed. By contrast, the Soviets developed and continue to operate types of air superiority. For the US Navy, the F-14 Tomcat was initially deployed solely as an air superiority fighter, by contrast, the multirole F/A-18 Hornet was designed as strike fighter while having only enough of an edge to defend itself against enemy fighters if needed. In the 1990s, the US Navy added LANTIRN pods to its F-14s, the F-15 Eagle was envisioned originally as an air superiority fighter and interceptor under the mantra not a pound for air-to-ground. However, the F-15C can carry dumb and GPS guided bombs, the F-16 Fighting Falcon was originally designed as an air superiority fighter but has evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft. The Eurofighter Typhoon and Dassault Rafale are classified as multirole fighters, the Rafale is regarded as a more balanced design which sacrifices air-to-air ability for being able to carry more ordinance. Interceptor aircraft Fighter aircraft Glossary of Nato Definitions Rand, Revival of the Air-Superiority Fighter

21.
Attack aircraft
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This class of aircraft is designed mostly for close air support and naval air-to-surface missions, overlapping the tactical bomber mission. Designs dedicated to non-naval roles are often known as ground-attack aircraft, Strike fighters, which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from the broad concept of an attack aircraft. The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during, the precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the US and UK, attack aircraft were based on light bombers, sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like the B-25G. In Germany and USSR, where they were known as schlachtflugzeug or sturmovik, in the late-war era, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a change that continued in the post-war era. Jet powered examples were relatively rare, but not unknown, like the Blackburn Buccaneer, the US Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A-series, but these were purely light and medium bombers. Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been introduced, the US A-10 Thunderbolt II and Soviet Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. One oddity belonging to class is the AC-130, which features as its primary armament high-caliber artillery guns adapted for aircraft use. A variety of attack aircraft exist, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft. Presently, U. S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in A-6 Intruder, however, until the end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for the Army aircraft. The US Navy used a separate system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers or torpedo bombers. For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the attack designation, as with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U. S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission, Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an attack mission. In United States Navy vocabulary, the designation for the same activity is a strike mission. Attack missions are divided into two categories, air interdiction and close air support. In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U. S. designation system, an aircraft is designed primarily for air-to-surface

22.
Aerial reconnaissance
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Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of intelligence, observation of enemy maneuvers. The balloon found its first use in the 1794 conflict with Austria, moreover, the presence of the balloon had a demoralizing effect on the Austrian troops which improved the likelihood of victory for the French troops. After the invention of photography, primitive aerial photographs were made of the ground from manned and unmanned balloons, starting in the 1860s, an example was Arthur Batuts kite-borne camera photographs of Labruguière starting from 1889. In the early 20th century, Julius Neubronner experimented with pigeon photography, the pigeons carried small cameras with timers. Ludwig Rahrmann in 1891 patented a means of attaching a camera to a large calibre artillery projectile or rocket, Alfred Nobel in 1896 had already built the first rocket carrying a camera, which took photographs of the Swedish landscape during its flights. The first use of airplanes in combat missions was by the Italian Air Force during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, on 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capt. The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the First World War, as used for reconnaissance purposes were outfitted with cameras to record enemy movements. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, frederick Charles Victor Laws started experiments in aerial photography in 1912 with No.1 Squadron RAF using the British dirigible Beta. The dirigibles were eventually allocated to the Royal Navy, so Laws formed the first aerial unit of fixed-wing aircraft. Germany was one of the first countries to adopt the use of a camera for aerial reconnaissance, opting for a Görz, French Military Aviation began the war with several squadrons of Bleriot observation planes, equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time, the camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Empire made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No.1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front and this was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Beginning 5 January, they flew with an escort to ward off enemy fighters. In 1928, the RAF developed a heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing, although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and this led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants

23.
Flying ace
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A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down several enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The actual number of aerial victories required to qualify as an ace has varied. The few aces among combat aviators have historically accounted for the majority of victories in military history. Aerial combat became a prominent feature with the Fokker Scourge, in the last half of 1915 and this was also the beginning of a long-standing trend in warfare, showing statistically that approximately five percent of combat pilots account for the majority of air-to-air victories. Use of the ace to describe these pilots began in World War I. The British initially used the term star-turns, while the Germans described their elite fighter pilots as Überkanonen, in the Luftstreitkräfte the Pour le Mérite was nicknamed Der blaue Max/The Blue Max, after Max Immelmann, who was the first fighter pilot to receive this award. Initially, German aviators had to destroy eight Allied aircraft to receive this medal, as the war progressed, the qualifications for Pour le Mérite were raised, but successful German fighter pilots continued to be hailed as national heroes for the remainder of the war. Victories were also counted for aircraft forced down within German lines and these victories were usually included in a pilots totals and in citations for decorations. Nonetheless some pilots did become famous through press coverage, making the British system for the recognition of successful fighter pilots much more informal and somewhat inconsistent. One pilot, Arthur Gould Lee, described his own score in a letter to his wife as Eleven, five by me solo — the rest shared, adding that he was miles from being an ace. This shows that his No.46 Squadron RAF counted shared kills, also evident is that Lee considered a higher figure than five kills to be necessary for ace status. Aviation historians credit him as an ace with two aircraft destroyed and five driven down out of control, for a total of seven victories. Other Allied countries, such as France and Italy, fell somewhere in between the very strict German approach and the relatively casual British one and they usually demanded independent witnessing of the destruction of an aircraft, making confirmation of victories scored in enemy territory very difficult. The Belgian crediting system sometimes included out of control to be counted as a victory, American newsmen, in their correspondence to their papers, decided that five victories were the minimum needed to become an ace. While ace status was generally won only by pilots, bomber. The most notable example of an ace in World War I is Charles George Gass with 39 accredited aerial victories. There were two theaters of war that produced flying aces between the two world wars and they were the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Spanish ace Joaquín García Morato scored 40 victories for the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War, part of the outside intervention in the war was the supply of volunteer foreign pilots to both sides

24.
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
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The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle is an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter aircraft designed by McDonnell Douglas to gain and maintain air supremacy in aerial combat. Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas design in 1967 to meet the services need for an air superiority fighter. The Eagle first flew in July 1972, and entered service in 1976 and it is among the most successful modern fighters, with over 100 victories and no losses in aerial combat, with the majority of the kills scored by the Israel Air Force. The Eagle has been exported to Israel, Japan, and Saudi Arabia, the F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air superiority aircraft. Its design included a secondary ground-attack capability that was largely unused, the aircraft design proved flexible enough that an all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed and entered service in 1989. The F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the U. S. Air Force past 2025, newer models are still being produced for foreign users. The F-15 production line is set to end in 2019,47 years after the types first flight. The F-15 can ultimately trace its origins to the Vietnam War, when the U. S. Air Force, at the time, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara was pressing for both services to use as many common aircraft as possible, even if there were performance sacrifices involved. The former were capable in the tactical role, while the latter might be less so. If the Air Force did choose a design, maintaining air superiority would be a top priority. The next month, a report on light tactical aircraft suggested the Air Force purchase the F-5 or A-7 and this point was reinforced after the loss of two Republic F-105 Thunderchief aircraft to obsolete MiG-15s or MiG-17s on 4 April 1965. In April 1965, Harold Brown, at that time director of the DDR&E, stated the position was to consider the F-5. On 1 August, Gabriel Disosway took command of Tactical Air Command and reiterated calls for the F-X, an official requirements document was finalized in October, and sent out as a request for proposals to 13 companies on 8 December 1965. Following a downselect, four companies were asked to further developments. In total, they developed some 500 design concepts, typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weighed over 60,000 pounds, included a top speed of Mach 2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75. When the proposals were studied in July 1966, the aircraft were roughly the size and weight of the TFX, and like that aircraft, through this period, studies of combat over Vietnam were producing worrying results. Previous doctrine had stressed long-range combat using missiles, and optimized aircraft for this role, the result was highly loaded aircraft with large radars and excellent speed, but limited maneuverability and often lacking a gun. In early 1967, they proposed that the design had a thrust-to-weight ratio of near 1,1, a maximum speed further reduced to Mach 2.3, a weight of 40,000 pounds

25.
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time

26.
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
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The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is an American supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navys Naval Fighter Experimental program after the collapse of the F-111B project, the F-14 was the first of the American teen-series fighters, which were designed incorporating air combat experience against MiG fighters during the Vietnam War. The F-14 first flew in December 1970 and made its first deployment in 1974 with the U. S. Navy aboard USS Enterprise, replacing the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. The F-14 served as the U. S. Navys primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor, the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night pod system were added in the 1990s and the Tomcat began performing precision ground-attack missions. In the 1980s F-14s were used as land-based interceptors by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force during the Iran–Iraq War, where they saw combat against Iraqi warplanes. Iranian F-14s reportedly shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the war, while only 12 to 16 Tomcats were lost, the Tomcat was retired from the U. S. Navys active fleet on 22 September 2006, having been supplanted by the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. The F-14 remains in service with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, the U. S. Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense aircraft with a more powerful radar and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II carried to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. The Navy was directed to participate in the Tactical Fighter Experimental program with the U. S. Air Force by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. The Navy strenuously opposed the TFX as it feared compromises necessary for the Air Forces need for an attack aircraft would adversely impact the aircrafts performance as a fighter. Weight and performance issues plagued the U. S. Navy F-111B variant for TFX, the F-111 manufacturer General Dynamics partnered with Grumman on the Navy F-111B. With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements, in 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its 303 design, the Navy studied the need for VFAX, an additional fighter that was agiler than the F-4 Phantom for air-combat and ground-attack roles. Grumman continued work on its 303 design and offered it to the Navy in 1967, the company continued to refine the design into 1968. In July 1968, the Naval Air Systems Command issued a request for proposals for the Naval Fighter Experimental program, VFX called for a tandem two-seat, twin-engined air-to-air fighter with a maximum speed of Mach 2.2. It would also have a built-in M61 Vulcan cannon and a close air support role. The VFXs air-to-air missiles would be either six AIM-54 Phoenix or a combination of six AIM-7 Sparrow, bids were received from General Dynamics, Grumman, Ling-Temco-Vought, McDonnell Douglas and North American Rockwell, four bids incorporated variable-geometry wings. McDonnell Douglas and Grumman were selected as finalists in December 1968, Grumman was selected for the contract award in January 1969. Upon winning the contract for the F-14, Grumman greatly expanded its Calverton, Long Island, much of the testing, including the first of many compressor stalls and multiple ejections, took place over Long Island Sound

27.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
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The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft. Designed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latters YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of other nations and, since 1986, by the U. S. Navys Flight Demonstration Squadron. The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 and it can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20-mm M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high thrust-to-weight ratio, the F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading edge extensions. The fighters primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses, air interdiction, close air support, the Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the design for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger. In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14, grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Forces Lightweight Fighter program, the Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. On 2 May 1975, the Navy announced its selection of the YF-17, since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977, Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18 would be named Hornet. Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latters experience in building carrier aircraft. On the F-18, the two agreed to evenly split component manufacturing, with McDonnell Douglas conducting final assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage, while Northrop would build the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the contractor for the naval versions. The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was modified from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened. To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds, by enlarging the dorsal spine, a snag was added to the wings leading edge and stabilators to prevent an Aeroelastic flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator

28.
Wild Weasel
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The Wild Weasel concept was developed by the United States Air Force in 1965, after the introduction of Soviet SAM missiles and their downing of U. S. strike aircraft over the skies of North Vietnam. The program was headed by General Kenneth Dempster, the modern term used in the U. S. Armed Forces for this profile is Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses. While an effective airframe, the F-100F Wild Weasel did not have the characteristics to survive in a high threat environment. The first Wild Weasel squadron was the 354th Tactical Fighter Squadron based at Takhli Royal Thai Air Base, the Wild Weasel II version was the first unsuccessful attempt to use the F-4C as the Wild Weasel platform. When that effort failed, the Wild Weasel role was passed to the F-105F in the summer of 1966. The F-105F was converted for the role and was designated Wild Weasel III, the F-105F was equipped with more advanced radar, jamming equipment, and a heavier armament. Anti-radiation missiles were outfitted that could seek out radar emplacements, the F-105F Wild Weasel airframes were eventually modified with improved countermeasures components in a standardized configuration and designated the F-105G. The F-105G was also designated Wild Weasel III,61 F-105F units were upgraded to F-105G specifications, although in some documentation the F-105F was referred to as an EF-105F, that designation never existed in the operational flying squadrons. The F-105 had gone out of production by 1964, with severe combat attrition of the F-105 inventory, the need for a still more sophisticated aircraft resulted in the conversion of 36 F-4C Phantom II aircraft, designated F-4C Wild Weasel IV. The F-4C Wild Weasel IV was also not designated as an EF-4C, the F-4E, the most advanced Phantom variant with extensive ground-attack capabilities and an internal gun, became the basis for the F-4G Wild Weasel V. A total of 134 F-4G models were converted from F-4Es with the first one flying in 1975, f-4Gs were deployed to three active wings. F-4Gs from George AFB and Spangdahlem AB saw combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, after an investigation into the loss of the aircraft which occurred during several aborted landing attempts in a sandstorm, it was determined that a fuel cell was punctured by anti-aircraft fire. The pilot and EWO safely ejected after the shut down when the aircraft ran out of fuel attempting to land at a forward airstrip. After Desert Storm, some of the George AFB aircraft were assigned to the 124th Wing of the Air National Guard at Boise, Idaho, 190th Fighter Squadron. Aircraft from Spangdahlem, Clark, and the remainder from George were assigned to the 57th Fighter Wing assigned to Nellis AFB at Las Vegas, by this time the F-4G was the last operational variant of the Phantom II in the US forces. Many of the airframes were used as target drones and Aircraft Battle Damage Repair training aids. A change in design theory to stress versatile multi-role aircraft meant that the F-4G was the last aircraft in the USAF inventory specifically outfitted for the SEAD role

29.
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses
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Suppression can be accomplished both by physically destroying the systems or by disrupting and deceiving them through electronic warfare. In modern warfare SEAD missions can constitute as much as 30% of all sorties launched in the first week of combat, one quarter of American combat sorties in recent conflicts have been SEAD missions. While crude, these tactics were effective for their time, during the Battle of Britain, the German Luftwaffe attempted to destroy Great Britains Chain Home radar stations in order to degrade the British air defense network. However, German High Command failed to realize the efficiency of not only the stations themselves but the command. After initial optimism regarding the sites destruction, it was eventually decided to halt these attacks altogether except for exceptional circumstances. As the air war in Europe shifted in favor of the Allies and this was borne out in Allied aircraft losses between 1943 and 1944, where losses to enemy fighters was cut in half but losses to flak increased tenfold. A change in tactics saw bomber formations flying higher and more out to avoid the effects of flak. The P-47 Thunderbolt in particular was chosen for this due to its ability to survive enemy fire. The effect of these missions varied, with losses suffered by fighter-bombers much higher—up to 40% in some cases—on account of their low-altitude attacks. Artillery also played a role in suppressing air defenses, with the British Army the first to develop what became known as counterflak or Apple Pie missions. These missions were first employed to limited effect during the Battle of France, in the Pacific Theater, the Japanese had made only limited progress in developing radar for air defense and what systems they did have were primitive and easy to avoid. Nevertheless, as the Americans began the campaign against Japan there was concern over the large number of radar sites located on the home islands. For this purpose B-24 Liberators and B-29 Superfortresses were fitted with radar-homing devices to conduct missions to locate. The information brought back from these missions was used to outfit other B-29s with radar jammers, b-25 Mitchells were also outfitted with radar-homing equipment and used to lead hunter-killer teams of other B-25s in locating and destroying Japanese early-warning radar sites. While there were technological changes between World War II and the Korean War, many of the tactics for dealing with enemy air defenses remained the same. For aircraft performing missions at low altitudes, AAA remained a constant danger, the terrain and weather of the Korean Peninsula also contributed to the dangers associated with ground-attack missions. Nevertheless, the advent of jet aircraft brought about many changes, compared to propeller aircraft jets were much faster, could climb more steeply, were more resistant to damage and were quieter in operation. As the war progressed, the Communists developed a highly centralized integrated air defense network, incorporating early-warning radars, ground-controlled interception and AAA

30.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991

31.
United States Air Force Thunderbirds
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The USAF Air Demonstration Squadron is the air demonstration squadron of the United States Air Force. The Thunderbirds are assigned to the 57th Wing, and are based at Nellis Air Force Base, the Thunderbirds Squadron tours the United States and much of the world, performing aerobatic formation and solo flying in specially marked aircraft. The squadrons name is taken from the creature that appears in the mythologies of several indigenous North American cultures. On 1 March 2013, the USAF announced that due to cuts, aerial demonstration team performances would cease indefinitely. On 6 December 2013 the Thunderbirds announced their 2014 schedule and the resumption of their appearances, the Thunderbirds Squadron is a named USAF squadron, meaning it does not carry a numerical designation. It is also one of the oldest squadrons in the Air Force, its origins dating to the organization of the 30th Aero Squadron, formed at Kelly Field, officers serve a two-year assignment with the squadron, while enlisted personnel serve three to four years. As the squadron performs no more than 88 air demonstrations each year, replacements must be trained for half of the team each year. In addition to their air demonstration responsibilities, the Thunderbirds are part of the USAF combat force and if required, since 15 February 1974 the Thunderbirds have been a component of the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB. Since 1953, they have flown in front of more than 300 million people, the Thunderbirds perform aerial demonstrations in the F-16C Fighting Falcon, and they also fly two F-16D twin-seat trainers. The F-16 has been the aircraft for the Thunderbirds since the 1983 season. In January 1982,4 members of the squadron were killed in what known as the Diamond Crash of T-38 Talon aircraft which the squadron had flown since 1974. The F-16, however, had considered for transition prior to the accident. Beginning in June 1982, the F-16 Thunderbirds were led by Major Jim Latham, the team continues to fly the F-16, having switched from the F-16A to the F-16C in 1992. Only a few minor modifications differentiate a Thunderbird from an operational F-16C, all of the modification work is performed at the maintenance depot at Hill AFB near Ogden, Utah. They also operated the two-seat F-16B during this time for training new pilots and for VIP flights, Lockheed Martin F-16C/D Fighting Falcon The block 32H/J aircraft currently assigned to the Thunderbirds were built in 1986 and 1987, and operated by the Thunderbirds from 1992 to 2008. At their retirement, they were some of the oldest operational F-16s in the Air Force, Lockheed Martin F-16C/D Fighting Falcon In the 2009 show season the Thunderbirds transitioned to an updated version of the F-16 fighter. The Block 52s have an upgraded avionics package that brings the Thunderbird fleet into alignment with the rest of the worldwide F-16 fleet, additionally, the more powerful Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 engine adds an additional 3,600 lbf of thrust. This in turn increases the maximum gross weight for ground handling, taxi, takeoff

32.
Blue Angels
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The Blue Angels is the United States Navys flight demonstration squadron, with aviators from the Navy and Marines. The Blue Angels team was formed in 1946, making it the second oldest formal flying aerobatic team in the world, an estimated 11 million spectators view the squadron during air shows each full year. The Blue Angels also visit more than 50,000 people in a standard show season in schools and hospitals, since 1946, the Blue Angels have flown for more than 260 million spectators. On 1 March 2013 the U. S. Navy announced that due to sequestration actions aerial demonstration team performances including that of the Blue Angels would cease from 1 April 2013, the Blue Angels show season runs each year from March until November. During their aerobatic demonstration, the Blues fly six F/A-18 Hornet aircraft, split into the Diamond Formation, most of the show alternates between maneuvers performed by the Diamond Formation and those performed by the Solos. The Diamond, in formation and usually at lower speeds, performs maneuvers such as formation loops, rolls. The Solos showcase the performance capabilities of their individual aircraft through the execution of high-speed passes, slow passes, fast rolls, slow rolls. The highest speed flown during an air show is 700 mph, some of the maneuvers include both solo aircraft performing at once, such as opposing passes and mirror formations. The Solos join the Diamond Formation near the end of the show for a number of maneuvers in the Delta Formation, the high show requires at least an 8, 000-foot ceiling and visibility of at least 3 nautical miles from the shows centerpoint. The minimum ceilings allowed for low and flat shows are 3,500 feet and 1,500 feet, when initially formed, the unit was called the Navy Flight Exhibition Team. The squadron was redesignated as the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron in December 1974. The official Blue Angels insignia was designed by team leader Lt. Cmdr. R. E. Dusty Rhodes and Virginia Porter. It is nearly identical to the current design, in the cloud in the upper right quadrant, the aircraft were originally shown heading down and to the right. Over the years, the plane silhouettes have changed along with the squadrons aircraft, additionally, the lower left quadrant, which contains the Chief of Naval Air Training insignia, has occasionally contained only Naval Aviator wings. Originally, demonstration aircraft were navy blue with gold lettering, the current shades of blue and yellow were adopted when the team transitioned to the Bearcat in 1946. For a single year, in 1949, the team performed in a scheme with blue markings. The Blues McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets are former fleet aircraft that are nearly combat-ready, the standard demonstration configuration has a spring tensioned with 40 pounds of force installed on the control stick as to allow the pilot minimal room for uncommanded movement. The Blues do not wear G-suits, because the air bladders inside them would repeatedly deflate and inflate, instead, Blue Angel pilots tense their muscles to prevent blood from rushing from their heads and rendering them unconscious

33.
Japan Air Self-Defense Force
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The Japan Air Self-Defense Force, or JASDF, is the aviation branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces - responsible for the defense of Japanese airspace and for other aerospace operations. The JASDF carries out combat air patrols around Japan, while maintaining an extensive network of ground. The branch also has a team known as Blue Impulse and has recently become involved in providing air transport in several UN peacekeeping missions. The JASDF had an estimated 50,324 personnel as of 2013, before forming the Japanese Self-Defense Forces after World War II, Japan did not have a separate air force. Aviation operations were carried out by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service, following World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were dissolved and later replaced by the JSDF with the passing of the 1954 Self-Defense Forces Law, with the JASDF as the aviation branch. Major units of the JASDF are the Air Defense Command, Air Support Command, Air Training Command, Air Development and Test Command, the Air Support Command is responsible for direct support of operational forces in rescue, transportation, control, weather monitoring and inspection. The Air Training Command is responsible for flying and technical training. The Air Development and Test Command, in addition to overseeing equipment research and development, is responsible for research. All four regional headquarters control surface-to-air missile units of both the JASDF and the JGSDF located in their respective areas, in the late 1980s, the system was modernized and augmented with E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning aircraft. The nation relies on aircraft and surface-to-air missiles to intercept hostile aircraft. Both of these systems were improved from the beginning of the late 1980s, outmoded aircraft were replaced in the early 1990s with more sophisticated models, and Nike-J missiles have been replaced with the modern Patriot PAC-2 and PAC-3 system. The JASDF also provides air support for ground and sea operations of the JGSDF, base defenses were upgraded in the late 1980s with new surface-to-air missiles, modern antiaircraft artillery and new fixed and mobile aircraft shelters

34.
Republic of Korea Air Force
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The Republic of Korea Air Force, also known as the ROK Air Force, is the aerial warfare service branch of South Korea, operating under the Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense. Shortly after the end of World War II, the South Korean Air Construction Association was founded on August 10,1946 to publicize the importance of air power, on September 13,1949, the United States contributed 10 L-4 Grasshopper observation aircraft to the South Korean air unit. An Army Air Academy was founded on January,1949, the 1950s were a critical time for the ROKAF as it expanded tremendously during the Korean War. The North Korean air force had acquired a number of Yak-9 and La-7 fighters from the Soviet Union, dwarfing the ROKAF in terms of size. However, during the course of the war, the ROKAF acquired 110 aircraft,79 fighter-bombers, three fighter squadrons, and one fighter wing. The first combat aircraft received were North American F-51D Mustangs, along with a contingent of US Air Force instructor pilots under the command of Major Dean Hess, the ROKAF participated in bombing operations and flew independent sorties. After the war, the ROKAF Headquarters was moved to Daebangdong, Air Force University was also founded in 1956. To counter the threat of possible North Korean aggression, the ROKAF underwent a capability enhancement. The ROKAF acquired North American T-28 Trojan trainers, North American F-86D Sabre night- and all-weather interceptors, Northrop F-5 fighters, Air Force Operations Command was established in 1961 to secure efficient command and control facilities. Air Force Logistics Command was established in 1966, and emergency runways were constructed for use during wartime. The ROKAF was posed with a security risk, with an increasingly belligerent North Korea throughout the 1970s, the South Korean government increased its expenditure on the ROKAF, resulting in purchase of Northrop F-5E Tiger II fighters in August 1974 and F-4E fighter bombers. Support aircraft, such as Fairchild C-123 Providers and Grumman S-2 Trackers were also purchased at the time, the ROKAF concentrated on qualitative expansion of aircraft to catch up to the strength of North Korean Air Force. In 1982, Korean variants of the F-5E, the Jegong-ho were first produced, the ROKAF gathered a good deal of information on the North Korean Air Force when Captain Lee Woong-pyeong, a North Korean pilot, defected to South Korea. The Korean Combat Operations Information center was formed and the Air Defence System was automated to attain air superiority against North Korea. When the 1988 Seoul Olympics was held in South Korea, the ROKAF contributed to the success of this event by helping to oversee the security system. The ROKAF also moved its headquarters and the Air Force Education & Training Command to other locations, forty General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters were purchased in 1989. South Korea committed its support for coalition forces during the Persian Gulf War, the ROKAF also provided airlift support for peacekeeping operations in Somalia in 1993. The increased participation in international operations depicted the ROKAFs elevated international position, over 180 KF-16 fighters of F-16 Block 52 specifications were introduced as part of the Peace Bridge II & III program from 1994

35.
Turkish Air Force
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The Turkish Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The Turkish Armed Forces initiated a $160 billion modernization program, $45 billion is earmarked to go to the overhaul of the Turkish Air Force. As part of program, Ankara aims to commission new combat aircraft. The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911, the Ottoman flight squadrons participated in the Balkan Wars and World War I. The fleet size reached its apex in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation had 90 active combat aircraft, the General Inspectorate of Air Forces trying to reconstruct itself on July 29,1918 had no personnel, but only remained as a title on paper. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish pilots joined the Konya Air Station, a few damaged aircraft belonging to the GNA were repaired, and afterwards used in combat. On 1 February 1921, the Branch of Air Forces was renamed as the General Directorate of Air Forces at Eskişehir and on 5 July 1922 reorganized as the Inspectorate of Air Forces at Konya. After the proclamation of independence and sovereignty with the Treaty of Lausanne, originally consisting of 3 normal and 1 naval aviation units, and an air school, the number of units was increased to 10 normal and 3 naval aviation units. Starting in 1924, personnel were sent abroad for flight education, in 1925 the Air School was reestablished in Eskişehir and its first students graduated in that same year. The Inspectorate of Air Forces was reorganized as Underdecretariat of the Ministry of Defense in 1928, some personnel were sent to United Kingdom and France for training, others were sent to the United States and Italy in 1930. On July 1,1932, air regiments were considered to be a combat arm. The Turkish aviators began to wear uniforms from 1933. Sabiha Gökçen became the first female pilot in military history in 1937. Another key event in 1937 was the establishment of the Air War College, by 1940, Turkish air brigades had more than 500 combat aircraft in its inventory, becoming the largest air force in the Balkans and the Middle East. The growing inventory of air brigades required another structural change, which was made in 1940, the Air Undersecretariat under the Ministry of National Defense for logistical affairs and the General Staff for educational affairs were united to form the Air Force Command in 1944. Thus, the Air Force became a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The first Commander of the Turkish Air Force was General Zeki Doğan, Turkey did not enter World War II on the side of the Allies until February 1945. Within a year, Turkeys borders were surrounded by German forces in the northwest and west, the large cities in western Turkey were darkened at nights, and anti-aircraft guns and searchlights were deployed for defence against possible enemy planes

36.
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
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ISIL gained global prominence in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. This group has been designated a terrorist organisation by the United Nations, ISIL is widely known for its videos of beheadings of both soldiers and civilians, including journalists and aid workers, and its destruction of cultural heritage sites. The United Nations holds ISIL responsible for human rights abuses and war crimes, ISIL originated as Jamaat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in 1999, which pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda and participated in the Iraqi insurgency following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by Western forces. The group proclaimed itself a caliphate and began referring to itself as Islamic State or IS in June 2014. As a caliphate, it claims religious, political, and military authority over all Muslims worldwide and its adoption of the name Islamic State and its idea of a caliphate have been widely criticised, with the United Nations, various governments, and mainstream Muslim groups rejecting its statehood. As of 2015, ISIL is estimated to have a budget of more than USD$1 billion. In April 2013, having expanded into Syria, the group adopted the name ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah fī l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām, while the use of either one or the other acronym has been the subject of debate, the distinction between the two and its relevance has been considered not so great. Of greater relevance is the name Daesh, which is an acronym of ISILs Arabic name al-Dawlah al-Islamīyah fī al-ʻIrāq wa-al-Shām. This name has been used by ISILs Arabic-speaking detractors, although – and to a certain extent because – it is considered derogatory, as it resembles the Arabic words Daes. Within areas under its control, ISIL considers use of the name Daesh punishable by flogging or cutting out the tongue, in late June 2014, the group renamed itself ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah, declaring itself a worldwide caliphate. The name Islamic State and the claim to be a caliphate have been widely rejected, with the UN, various governments. Frances Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius said This is a terrorist group, I do not recommend using the term Islamic State because it blurs the lines between Islam, Muslims, and Islamists. The Arabs call it Daesh and I will be calling them the Daesh cutthroats, the group is very sensitive about its name. They will cut your tongue out even if you call them ISIS – you have to say Islamic State, the Islamic State is mocked on social media websites such as Twitter and YouTube, with the use of hashtags, mock recruiting ads, fake news articles and YouTube videos. ISIL is a theocracy, proto-state and a Salafi or Wahhabi group and it follows an extremist interpretation of Islam, promotes religious violence, and regards Muslims who do not agree with its interpretations as infidels or apostates. According to some observers, ISIL emerged from the ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and it adheres to global jihadist principles and follows the hard-line ideology of al-Qaeda and many other modern-day jihadist groups. However, other sources trace the roots to Wahhabism. For their guiding principles, the leaders of the Islamic State, are open and clear about their almost exclusive commitment to the Wahhabi movement of Sunni Islam

37.
David S. Lewis
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David Sloan Lewis, Jr. was an aeronautical engineer who led aerospace and defense giant General Dynamics for 14 years. David Lewis was born in 1917, in North Augusta, South Carolina, as a child, he loved to read aviation books and build model aircraft. Lewis attended the University of South Carolina, and transferred to Georgia Tech for his last two years and he graduated in 1939 with a degree in aeronautical engineering. While at Georgia Tech, he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, after college Lewis began his work career at the Glenn L. Martin Company. Then in 1946, he moved to McDonnell Aircraft Company and became chief of aerodynamics and he was the program manager for the F-4 Phantom II, which was a highly successful jet fighter. Following the merger of McDonnell and Douglas Aircraft Company in 1967, Lewis became the head of General Dynamics in 1970. He was influential in having the F-16 design team choose the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine following his experience with the engine in the McDonnell Douglas F-15 fighter, upon his retirement, the investigation was halted and he remained on the board of directors through 1993. He also served on the Board of Directors for Ralston Purina, Meade Paper Company, Lewis was inducted into the South Carolina Business Hall of Fame in 2000. He was a member of the Georgia Tech Council of Distinguished Engineering Graduates and he was named a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and the National Academy of Engineering. He was married to his wife, Dorothy, for 62 years, pentagon Watchdog Urges Suspension Of Firms Chairman, Sun-Sentinel, May 4,1985 Pace to Head General Dynamics, Los Angeles Times, December 9,1985 The Fugitive Accuser, Time, April 8,1985

38.
James Smith McDonnell
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James Smith Mac McDonnell was an American aviator, engineer, and businessman. He was a pioneer and founder of McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, later McDonnell Douglas. Born in Denver, Colorado, McDonnell was raised in Little Rock, Arkansas and he was a graduate of Princeton University class of 1921, and earned a Masters of Science in Aeronautical Engineering from MIT in 1925. While attending MIT he joined the Delta Upsilon Fraternity, after graduating from MIT, he was hired by Tom Towle for the Stout Metal Airplane Division of the Ford Motor Company. In 1927, he was hired by the Hamilton Metalplane Company to develop similar metal monplanes and he then went on to Huff Daland Airplane Company. In 1928, McDonnell left Huff Daland and set up J. S, McDonnell & Associates, and with the help of two other engineers, McDonnell set out to design his first aircraft with his company name. This aircraft would then compete in a safe airplane contest sponsored by the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics and his design was the Doodle Bug. McDonnell resigned from Martin in 1938 and founded McDonnell Aircraft Corporation in 1939, in 1967, McDonnell Aircraft merged with the Douglas Aircraft Company to create McDonnell Douglas. The new combined company also developed the F-15 Eagle and F/A-18 Hornet fighters and he served as chairman of the United Nations Association of the United States, and in 1958 his company became the first organization in the world to celebrate United Nations Day as a paid holiday. In 1980 McDonnell was awarded the NAS Award in Aeronautical Engineering from the National Academy of Sciences and he was succeeded as Chair of MD by his nephew Sanford N. His first marriage, to Mary Elizabeth Finney, took place in Baltimore, Maryland and they had two children, James Smith McDonnell, III, born January 28,1936, and John Finney McDonnell, born March 18,1938. Mary McDonnell died on July 6,1949 and he married Priscilla Brush Forney on April 1,1956, and adopted her three children from a previous marriage. McDonnell died of a stroke on August 22,1980 and he was buried in Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis. McDonnell Foundation in 1950, which supports scientific, educational, and charitable causes on a local, national, the McDonnell Center for the Space Sciences is named after him, which he co-founded - established in 1974. McDonnell Park in St. Louis County is named in honor of James Smith McDonnell, as are the McDonnell Planetarium of the Saint Louis Science Center in Forest Park, the James S. McDonnell classroom and laboratory building at Princeton University, the James S McDonnell Hall at Washington University in St Louis, the Arkansas Aviation Historical Society selected McDonnell in 1980 as one of five initial inductees in the Arkansas Aviation Hall of Fame

39.
McDonnell F3H Demon
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The McDonnell F3H Demon was a subsonic swept-wing United States Navy carrier-based jet fighter aircraft. The successor to the F2H Banshee, the Demon was redesigned with the J71 engine after severe problems with the Westinghouse J40 engine that was part of the original design but ultimately abandoned. It was withdrawn before it could serve in Vietnam when both it and the Crusader were replaced on Forrestal-class and similar supercarriers by the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. McDonnells Phantom, which was capable against ground, fighter and bomber targets, bears a strong family resemblance. The supersonic United States Air Force F-101 Voodoo was similar in layout, but was derived from the earlier XF-88 Voodoo, development work began in 1949, using a swept wing from the start rather than adapting a straight-winged design as was done with the Grumman F9F Panther. A competing contract was awarded for the delta wing Douglas F4D Skyray. The Skyray, with a top speed of 722 mph, would become the Navys first fighter to fly supersonic in level flight, while the Demon would never reach that level of performance. Departing from its tradition of using two engines, the Demon would be McDonnells only single-engined carrier-based fighter, adopting under some Navy pressure, the Westinghouse J40 engine. That engine was being promoted by the Navy for its generation of aircraft. It was the first swept-wing design produced by McDonnell and among the first U. S. aircraft to have missile armament, the Navy desperately needed a high performance fighter to meet the challenge of the swept-wing MiG-15 encountered over Korea. Production of the F3H-1N was hastily ordered even before the first flight of the XF3H-1 prototype on 7 August 1951 by test pilot Robert Edholm, the first test flights of the operational design did not occur until January 1953, when the Korean War was winding down. The F3H Demon was originally designed around Navys ambitious new Westinghouse J40 which was to offer enough power to use just one engine in a number of new aircraft designs, but the engine would ultimately fail to produce the promised thrust or run reliably. The engine was a disappointment, producing only half of the expected power. Worse, it was temperamental and unreliable, of 35 F3H-1N aircraft flown with the J40 engine, eight were involved in major accidents. The first production Demons were grounded after the loss of six aircraft, time magazine called the Navys grounding of all Westinghouse-powered F3H-1 Demons a fiasco, with 21 unflyable planes that could be used only for Navy ground training at a loss of $200 million. One high point of the J40 was the 1955 setting of an unofficial record, in a Demon. The proposed F3H-1P reconnaissance version was never built, the J40 program was terminated sometime in 1955. All the aircraft it was to power were either canceled or redesigned to use other engines, notably the J57, the F4D Skyray had been designed to accept larger engines in case the J40 did not work out, and was eventually powered by the Pratt & Whitney J57

40.
Wright J65
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The Wright J65 was an axial-flow turbojet engine produced by Curtiss-Wright under license from Armstrong Siddeley. A development of the Sapphire, the J65 powered a number of US designs, Curtiss-Wright purchased a license for the Sapphire in 1950, with plans to have the production lines running in 1951. The fabricated assembly, a more practicable production job at one fifth the cost was subsequently adopted for the Sapphire. Another design change which was evaluated for the Sapphire. Ramps were installed at the entry to the compressor and they were raised at low RPM to prevent stalling. By service introduction the Pratt & Whitney J57 was on the market, problems Grumman had with the engine in the F11F Tiger, particularly below-spec after-burning thrust, caused them to specify the J79 for the Grumman F11F-1F Super Tiger. A6, 500–10,380 shp turboprop version of the J65 was developed by Curtiss-Wright as the Wright T49, and a commercial derivative, the Wright TP51A2 was also designed. The T49 first ran in December 1952 at 8,000 shp, world Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition. Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited, kay, Anthony L. Turbojet History and Development 1930-1960. A1952 advert for the Sapphire/J65 Anglo-American Jewel - Engineering Details of the Wright J65 Sapphire Revealed - a 1954 Flight article on the J65

41.
General Electric J79
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The General Electric J79 is an axial-flow turbojet engine built for use in a variety of fighter and bomber aircraft and a supersonic cruise missile. The J79 was produced by General Electric Aircraft Engines in the United States, market the benefits of a bypass engine over the existing Avon turbojet. In 1959 the gas generator of the J79 was developed as a stationary 10MW-class free-turbine turboshaft engine for power, power generation. Its first application was in the research hydrofoil USS Plainview, the J79 was developed in the 1950s for reliable Mach 2 performance. Had a requirement to power their next generation bomber which became the Convair B-58, the first flight of the engine was on 20 May 1955 where the engine was placed in the bomb bay of a J47-powered B-45C. The J79 was lowered from the bay and the four J47s were shut down leaving the B-45 flying on the single J79. The YF-104 was the airplane to fly with the J79 followed by a re-engined Grumman F11F Tiger in a Navy-sponsored program to gain experience with the engine before the first flight of the F4H. The J79 was used on the F-104 Starfighter, B-58 Hustler, F-4 Phantom II, A-5 Vigilante, IAI Kfir and it was produced for more than 30 years. Over 17,000 J79s were built in the United States, and under license in Belgium, Canada, Germany, Israel, Italy, and Japan. A downgraded version of the F-16 Fighting Falcon with a J79 was proposed as a low-cost fighter for export, anyone new to variable stators had to overcome the complexity of the linkages and the difficulty of sealing the pivots and airfoil root/casing clearances. Two spools needed more knowledge about bearings and sealing, GE studied both options for nearly a year before deciding, in 1952, that they should pursue variable stators for the 12,1 pressure ratio compressor. Rolls-Royce had tested a rig compressor with four stages of variable stators in 1949, connors tells us that Pratt and Whitney chose two spools for the 12,1 J57 as they knew a lot more about bearings and sealing than about variable stators. The J79 was originally known as the X-24A and was supported by a demonstrator engine, the compressor blades are made of stainless steel and are mounted on disks and spaced with corrosion-resistant steel spacers. The J79 makes a howling sound at certain throttle settings. This strange feature led to the NASA operated F-104B Starfighter, N819NA, early engines also produced noticeable quantities of smoke, especially at mid-throttle/cruise settings, a disadvantage in a combat aircraft making them easier to visually spot. Later models were redesigned to be smokeless, the turboshaft counterpart to the J79 is the General Electric LM1500, used for land and marine applications. Many J79 derived engines have found uses as gas turbine generators in remote locations. The J79 has two derivatives, CJ805-3, and the CJ805-23 fitted to the Convair CV-880 and the Convair CV-990 respectively

42.
Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket
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The Mk 4 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket, also known as Mighty Mouse, was an unguided rocket used by United States military aircraft. 2.75 inches in diameter, it was designed as a weapon for interceptor aircraft to shoot down enemy bombers. The advent of jet engines for fighters and bombers posed new problems for interceptors, the FFAR was developed in the late 1940s by the US Navy Naval Ordnance Test Center and North American Aviation. Mass production was established at the facilities of the Norris-Thermador Corp, los Angeles, and the Hunter Douglas Division of the Bridgeport Brass Co. Riverside, California Fuzes were manufactured by the Bulova Watch Co. Jackson Heights, Queens, wilmington, Delaware, metal parts supplied by Aerojet General, Downey, California, and miscellaneous spare parts were made by North American Aviation. The original Mk 4 FFAR was about 4 ft long and weighed 18.5 lb and its maximum effective range was about 3,700 yards. Because of its low accuracy, it was generally fired in large volleys. FFARs were the primary armament of many NATO interceptor aircraft in the early 1950s, including the F-86D, F-89, F-94C, and they were also carried by the F-102 Delta Dagger to supplement its guided missile armament. The Mk 4 was dubbed Mighty Mouse in service, after the cartoon character. The Mighty Mouse was to prove a poor aerial weapon, although it was powerful enough to destroy a bomber with a single hit, its accuracy was abysmal. As a result, by the late 1950s it had largely abandoned as an aircraft weapon in favor of the guided air-to-air missiles then becoming available. The Mk 4 found other uses, however, as an air-to-ground weapon, a volley of FFARs was as devastating as a heavy cannon with far less weight and recoil, and in the ground-attack role its marginal long-range accuracy was less important. It was fitted with a powerful motor to become the Mk 40. The Mk 40 was a universal motor developed from the Mk 42.75 FFAR, pods were created for various applications, and a wide variety of specialized warheads were developed for anti-personnel, anti-tank, and target-marking use. The FFAR has been developed into the modern Hydra 70 series, the United States was the primary user of this type of weapon and developed a number of different launching pods for it. Initially pods were intended to be disposed of by launching aircraft, with the advent of the armed helicopter, the need for launching pods that were reusable became apparent. Though the rocket was developed by the US Navy, the US Air Force. These pods were ground reloadable and were semi-permanent aircraft parts, the mounting point had been used to mount booms for 3 SS-11 Launchers on each side for anti-tank missions

43.
Grumman F-11 Tiger
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The Grumman F11F/F-11 Tiger was a supersonic, single-seat carrier-based United States Navy fighter aircraft in operation during the 1950s and 1960s. Originally designated the F11F Tiger in April 1955 under the pre-1962 Navy designation system, the F11F/F-11 was used by the Blue Angels flight team from 1957–1969. Grumman Aircraft Corporation made 200 Tigers, with the last aircraft being delivered to the U. S. Navy on 23 January 1959. The F11F Tiger origins can be traced back to a privately funded 1952 Grumman concept to modernize the F9F-6/7 Cougar by implementing the area rule and this Grumman company project was known as the G-98, and when it was concluded it was a complete design departure from the Cougar. The designs potential for performance and reduced transonic drag stirred interest in the U. S. Navy. By 1953, redesigns led to a new aircraft bearing no more than a familial resemblance to the Cougar. The new wing had leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps with roll control achieved using spoilers rather than traditional ailerons. For storage on aircraft carriers, the F-11 Tigers wings manually folded downwards, anticipating supersonic performance, the tailplane was all-moving. The aircraft was designed for the Wright J65 turbojet, a version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire. The U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics was sufficiently impressed to order two prototypes, designated XF9F-8 even though the new fighter was clearly a new design. To add to the confusion, the prototypes were then redesignated XF9F-9 with the XF9F-8 designation going to more straightforward Cougar derivative. Since the afterburning version of the J65 was not ready, the first prototype flew on 30 July 1954 with a non-afterburning engine, in spite of this, the aircraft nearly reached Mach 1 in its maiden flight. The second prototype, equipped with the engine, became the second supersonic U. S. Navy aircraft. In April 1955, the received the new designation F11F-1. Carrier trials started on 4 April 1956 when an F11F-1 Tiger landed on, the F-11 Tiger is noted for being the first jet aircraft to shoot itself down. On 21 September 1956, during a test-firing of its 20 mm cannons, in the late 1950s, the Royal Canadian Air Force evaluated the F-11-1F as a replacement for the F-86 Sabre, then its primary jet fighter. World War II Spitfire pilot, and later colonel, R. G. Middlemiss, W/C DFC, CD, SSM, and RCAF test pilot Jack Woodman, as a result of their recommendations, the Canadian government selected the F-104

44.
Vought F-8 Crusader
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The first F-8 prototype was ready for flight in February 1955. The F-8 served principally in the Vietnam War, the Crusader was the last American fighter with guns as the primary weapon, earning it the title The Last of the Gunfighters. The RF-8 Crusader was a development and operated longer in U. S. service than any of the fighter versions. RF-8s played a role in the Cuban Missile Crisis, providing essential low-level photographs impossible to acquire by other means. U. S. Naval Reserve units continued to operate the RF-8 until 1987, in September 1952, the United States Navy announced a requirement for a new fighter. It was to have a top speed of Mach 1.2 at 30,000 ft with a rate of 25,000 ft/min. Korean War experience had demonstrated that 0.50 inch machine guns were no longer sufficient, in response, the Vought team led by John Russell Clark, created the V-383. Unusual for a fighter, the aircraft had a wing which necessitated the use of a fuselage-mounted short. The Crusader was powered by a Pratt and Whitney J57 turbojet engine, the engine was equipped with an afterburner that, unlike on later engines, was either fully lit, or off. The engine produced 18,000 lb of thrust at full power, the Crusader was the first jet fighter in US service to reach 1,000 mph, U. S. Navy pilot R. W. Windsor reached 1,015 mph on a flight in 1956. The most innovative aspect of the design was the wing which pivoted by 7° out of the fuselage on takeoff. This allowed a greater angle of attack, increasing lift without compromising forward visibility and this innovation helped the F-8s development team win the Collier Trophy in 1956. Simultaneously, the lift was augmented by leading-edge slats drooping by 25°, the armament, as specified by the Navy, consisted primarily of four 20 mm autocannon, the Crusader happened to be the last U. S. fighter designed with guns as its primary weapon. They were supplemented with a tray with 32 unguided Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket. Vought also presented a tactical reconnaissance version of the called the V-392. In May 1953, the Vought design was declared a winner and in June, the first prototype flew on 25 March 1955 with John Konrad at the controls. The aircraft exceeded the speed of sound during its maiden flight, the development was so trouble-free that the second prototype, along with the first production F8U-1, flew on the same day,30 September 1955. On 4 April 1956, the F8U-1 performed its first catapult launch from Forrestal, in parallel with the F8U-1s and -2s, the Crusader design team was also working on a larger aircraft with ever greater performance, internally designated as the V-401

45.
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
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The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a single seat subsonic carrier-capable attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta winged, single turbojet engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company and it was originally designated A4D under the U. S. Navys pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk is a lightweight aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds and has a top speed of more than 670 miles per hour. The aircrafts five hardpoints support a variety of missiles, bombs, the A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, from the A-4E onwards, the Pratt & Whitney J52 was used. Skyhawks played key roles in the Vietnam War, the Yom Kippur War, the Skyhawk was designed by Douglas Aircrafts Ed Heinemann in response to a U. S. Navy call for a jet-powered attack aircraft to replace the older Douglas AD Skyraider. Heinemann opted for a design that would minimize its size, weight, the result was an aircraft that weighed only half of the Navys weight specification. It had a wing so compact that it did not need to be folded for carrier stowage, the diminutive Skyhawk soon received the nicknames Scooter, Kiddiecar, Bantam Bomber, Tinker Toy Bomber, and, on account of its nimble performance, Heinemanns Hot-Rod. The tail is of cruciform design, with the horizontal stabilizer mounted above the fuselage, the choice of a delta wing combined speed and maneuverability with a large fuel capacity and small overall size, thus not requiring folding wings, albeit at the expense of cruising efficiency. The leading edge slats were designed to drop automatically at the speed by gravity and air pressure, saving weight and space by omitting actuation motors. The wing structure itself could be lighter with the overall strength. The turbojet engine was accessed for service or replacement by removing the aft section of the fuselage and this obviated the need for access doors with their hinges and latches, further reducing aircraft weight and complexity. The A-4 pioneered the concept of buddy air-to-air refueling and this allows the aircraft to supply others of the same type, eliminating the need for dedicated tanker aircraft—a particular advantage for small air arms or when operating in remote locations. A designated supply A-4 would mount a center-mounted buddy store, an external fuel tank with a hose reel in the aft section. This aircraft was fueled up without armament and launched first, Attack aircraft would be armed to the maximum and given as much fuel as was allowable by maximum takeoff weight limits, far less than a full tank. Once airborne, they would proceed to top off their fuel tanks from the tanker using the A-4s fixed refueling probe on the starboard side of the aircraft nose. They could then sortie with both full armament and fuel loads, while the capability of the A-4 was rarely used in U. S. service after the KA-3 Skywarrior became available as a tanker from the larger deck carriers. The versatility of the capability and the retirement of the Skywarrior meant that the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet now includes this capability. The A-4 was also designed to be able to make a landing, in the event of a hydraulic failure

46.
AIM-7 Sparrow
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Sparrow and its derivatives were the Wests principal beyond visual range air-to-air missile from the late 1950s until the 1990s. It remains in service, although it is being phased out in aviation applications in favor of the more advanced AIM-120 AMRAAM, the Self-Defence Forces of Japan also employ the Sparrow missile, though it is being phased out and replaced by the Mitsubishi AAM-4. NATO pilots use the brevity code Fox One in radio communication to signal launch of a Semi-Active Radar Homing Missile such as the Sparrow. The Sparrow was used as the basis for a missile, the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow. Fired at low altitude and flying directly at its target though the lower atmosphere, with the retirement of the Sparrow in the air-to-air role, a new version of the Sea Sparrow was produced to address this concern, producing the much larger and more capable RIM-162 ESSM. The Sparrow emerged from a late-1940s United States Navy program to develop a rocket weapon for air-to-air use. In 1947 the Navy contracted Sperry to build a beam riding version of a standard 5-inch HVAR, the weapon was initially dubbed KAS-1, then AAM-2, and, from 1948 on, AAM-N-2. The airframe was developed by Douglas Aircraft Company, the diameter of the HVAR proved to be inadequate for the electronics, leading Douglas to expand the missiles airframe to 8-inch diameter. The prototype weapon began unpowered flight-tests in 1947, and made its first aerial interception in 1952, after a protracted development cycle the initial AAM-N-2 Sparrow entered limited operational service in 1954 with specially modified Skyknights all weather carrier night fighters. And in 1956, they were carried by the F3H-2M Demon, compared to the modern versions, the Sparrow I was more streamlined and featured a bullet-shaped airframe with a long pointed nose. Sparrow I was a limited and rather primitive weapon, the limitations of beam-riding guidance restricted the missile to attacks against targets flying a straight course and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target. Only about 2,000 rounds were produced to this standard, as early as 1950 Douglas examined equipping the Sparrow with an active radar seeker, initially known as XAAM-N-2a Sparrow II, the original retroactively becoming Sparrow I. In 1952 it was given the new code AAM-N-3, the active radar made the Sparrow II a fire and forget weapon, allowing several to be fired at separate targets at the same time. By 1955 Douglas proposed going ahead with development, intending it to be the weapon for the F5D Skylancer interceptor. It was later selected, with controversy, to be the primary weapon for the Canadian Avro Arrow supersonic interceptor. For Canadian use and as a source for US missiles. The small size of the forebody and the K-band AN/APQ-64-radar limited performance. After considerable development and test firings in the U. S. and Canada, Canadair continued development until the Arrow was cancelled in 1959