Did Jesus actually die on the cross?

Question: Was Jesus's crucifixion fatal? On the cross, did he die?? Several reports (both Biblical and extra-Biblical) record that Jesus was nailed to a Roman cross to be excecuted (death by crucifixion). Given that Jesus was crucified, did he actually die during the process, or did he survive his crucifixion?

• Paul Maier (Ancient History professor at Western Michigan): “Open nearly any text in ancient history of Western civilization used widely in colleges and universities today, and you will find a generally sympathetic, if compressed, version of Jesus' life, which ends with some variation of the statement that he was crucified by Pontius Pilate and died as a result.” [“The Empty Tomb as History” Christiani oda XIX (1975), 630.]• Luke Timothy Johnson (Christian Origins professor at Emory): “Even the most critical historian can confidently assert that a Jew named Jesus… was executed by crucifixion under the prefect Pontius Pilate and continued to have followers after his death.” [The Real Jesus (Harper, 1996), 123.]• John Crossan (Atheist NT Scholar): “Jesus’ death by crucifixion under Pontius Pilate is as sure as anything historical can ever be.” [Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (HarperOne, 2009), 145.]• Craig Keener (NT professor at Asbury): “To claim that Jesus died by crucifixion is also not controversial;” [The Historical Jesus of the Gospels (Eerdmans, 2009), 323.]• Raymond Brown (NT professor at New York [d. 1998]): “Except for the romantic few who think that Jesus did not die on the cross but woke up in the tomb and ran off to India with Mary Magdalene, most scholars accept the uniform testimony of the Gospels that Jesus died…” [The Death of the Messiah, 2 vols. (Doubleday, 1994), 2:1373.]• Gerd Lüdemann (Atheist NT & Early Christianity professor at Göttingen): “The fact of the death of Jesus as a consequence of crucifixion is indisputable, despite hypotheses of a pseudo-death or a deception which are sometimes put forward. It need not be discussed further here.” [The Resurrection of Jesus Christ: A Historical Inquiry (Prometheus, 2004), 50]

We know this because…• …Roman scourging often caused death before crucifixion.1• …the Gospel report it explicitly (Mt 27:26, Jn 19:1).• …he was consequently incapable of carring his crossbar.2
This is relevant because, even with the best of medical treatment, Jesus was likely doomed to die within hours even before being nailed to the cross.3

In general, victims of verberatio scourging were flogged to death or put in a state wherein they could not recover.

• Philo Judaeus of Alexandria (c. BC 20 – c. AD 50): “…they were flogged …some of them the moment they were carried out died of their wounds, while others were rendered so ill for a long time that their recovery was despaired of.” [Flaccus 75 (trans. by Yong)]

Ben Witherington (NT proessor. at Asbury): “In Roman law, unlike Jewish law, there was no maximum number of lashes; the amount of flogging depended on the malice of the one wielding the flagellum.” [New Testament History: A Narrative Account (Baker Academic, 2003), 156.]• D. A. Carson: “…beaten by several torturers (in the Roman provinces they were soldiers) until they were exhausted, or their commanding officer called them off. For victims who, like Jesus, were neither Roman citizens nor soldiers, the favoured instrument was a whip whose leather thongs were fitted with pieces of bone or lead or other metal. The beatings were so savage that the victims sometimes died. Eyewitness records report that such brutal scourgings could leave victims with their bones and entrails exposed. [“The Gospel According to John” in The Pillar New Testament Commentary (IVP, 1991), 597.]

Their entrails would be visible.

• Titus Flavius Josephus (AD 37 – c. 100 historian): “…whipped till every one of their inward parts appeared naked.” [Jewish Wars 2.612 (trans. by Whiston)]; “…whipped till his bones were laid bare” [Jewish Wars 6.304 (trans. by Whiston)]• Eusebius of Caesarea (c. AD 260/265 – 339/340): “[Victims were] lacerated by scourges even to the innermost veins and arteries, so that the hidden inward parts of the body, both their bowels and their members, were exposed to view.” [Hist. eccl. 4.15.4]

See Mt 27:32, Mk 15:21, Lk 23:26.

So Jesus was a dead man regardless

• Shimon Gibson (NT archaeologist; professor): “The earlier scourging would undoubtedly have led to a massive loss of blood and the effect of carrying the heavy crossbeam on his shoulders to Golgotha would also have brought about substantial dehydration and exhaustion. Hence, it is not surprising that Jesus did not last very long on the cross, perhaps 3 to 6 hours at the most.” [The Final Days of Jesus (Harper Collins, 2009), 123.]

2 reasons to agree:• …our abundant records of crucifixion unanimously end in death.• …death follows even partial-crucifixion.2
This is relevant because Jesus was crucified.3

• Christopher Bryan (NT professor at Sewanee): “I have scarcely more time for suggestions that the New Testament witness was the result of Jesus revival in the tomb. Anyone who imagines that… has very little idea what a crucifixion was like. To put the matter mildly, people did not walk away from it.” [The Resurrection of the Messiah (Oxford, 2011), 163.]

Victims are inclined to die even if they are taken down alive and “have the greatest care taken of them” by a professional physician.

• Titus Flavius Josephus (AD 37 – c. 100 historian): “I saw many captives crucified; and remembered three of them as my former acquaintance. I… went… to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their recovery; yet two of them died under the physician’s hands, while the third recovered.” [The Life of (Flavius) Josephus 1.421 (trans. by Whiston)]

Christopher Bryan (NT Professor at Sewanee): “Jesus was crucified under Pontius Pilate. That, as a matter of history, is just about as certain as anything in antiquity.” [The Resurrection of the Messiah (Oxford, 2011), 3.]

The presiding Roman Centurian felt certain that Jesus was dead, as did the other soldiers (see Mk 15:24).

2 reasons to agree:• …Roman executioners ensure death professionally.• …the Centurion assured Pilate that Jesus was dead.
This is relevant because the Centurion's belief was likely warranted.1, 2

This should be granted. After all, Centurions were professional executioners, and Roman procedures to ensure death were very careful. Soldiers who accidentally allowed capital prisoners to escape suffered the death penalty.

Richard Carrier (Classicist, speaker/author for atheism): “[The Centurion, upon Pilate's inquiry about Jesus's ostensible death,] does not go back to make sure or apply any other tests, but immediately affirms that Jesus is dead” [Why I Don't Buy the Resurrection Story (6th ed., 2006), online].

Perhaps the Centurions belief was unwarranted? By way of response, however, consider three points:
• For a skeptic like Carrier, this assumes a lot about Mark's intentions, accuracy, and knowledge. Notably, it assumes that Mark's report is historically accurate in saying that, after seeing Jesus's ostensible final breath, the Centurion announced “Truly this man was the Son of God!” (this is Carrier's sole justification for saying he “immediately affirms that Jesus is dead”). It also assumes both that Mark meant Jesus's ostensible final breath was the only reason the Centurion believed, and finally it assumes that Mark was right about this.• This assumes that the Centurion's confidence in his belief was strong enough to forgo any confirmation before or after Pilate summoned him. However, even if the Centurion flippantly came to believe/assume Jesus was dead after such a short time, the prior probability of his releasing Jesus's body flippantly, i.e. without any of the Roman soldiers having in any way confirmed death, is unacceptably low. (Notably: The assumption also requires that they didn't spear Jesus's side [contra Jn 19:34]).• This assumes that the Centurion's observing Jesus's ostensible final breath was an unwarranted reason for him to conclude Jesus was dead. But this is unclear. In fact, a crucifixion victim's final weak struggle for breath could be a rather overt indicator.

Mike Licona (NT scholar/historian, apologist): “…the majority opinion is that He died by asphyxiation-or from a lack of oxygen.… A number of ancient sources report the practice of breaking legs in order to expedite death on the cross (Cicero, Orations, Speech 13, 12:27; Gospel of Peter 4:14. In the Gospel of Peter, breaking the legs is forbidden so that the crucified victim would suffer longer.)… Since the muscles used for inhaling are stronger than the muscles used for exhaling, carbon dioxide would build up and the victim would die an uncomfortable death. Experiments on live volunteers, suspended with the inability to touch the ground, revealed that one could not remain conscious longer than twelve minutes in this position, as long as their arms were at a 45- degree angle or less. Breaking the legs of a crucified victim would prevent them from pushing up against the nail in their feet, an excruciating move, in order to make it easier to breath, albeit temporarily. It is the opinion of my two ER physician friends that, due to the trauma already experienced by a crucified victim, once He had died on a cross from a lack of oxygen, and had remained dead in that position for five minutes, there would be no chance of resuscitating Him.”[“Can We Be Certain that Jesus Died On A Cross?” online at 4truth.net]

A Roman soldier speared Jesus in the side to ensure that he was dead.1 (Moreover, “blood and water came out,”2 a symptom of one of two conditions that requires the patient be dead.)3

This should be granted because it is stated explicitly in John 19:33-34 -- but coming to Jesus, when they saw that He was already dead, they did not break His legs. But one of the soldiers pierced His side with a spear, and immediately blood and water came out.

Jn 19:34 reports Jesus was “pierced His side with a spear, and immediately blood and water came out.”

• J.P. Holding (apologist, researcher): “…the testimony of our physician consult [Dr. Ted Noel], who is trained in critical care, says… ‘There is only one circumstance which fits both the story as given and medical science. That is the one where a patient has died and the blood in his heart has pooled long enough to fractionate into packed cells and serum. A spear thrust into the heart would allow these fluids to pour out with exactly the appearance recorded. … One alternative has been proposed with some plausibility. That one states that Jesus's trials lead to the accumulation of a pleural effusion. The apear then allowed that water to flow out. But such a circumstance would not lead to blood flowing out as described. That would require the spear to penetrate the heart.’” [And it is “rare”][Defending the Resurrection (Xulon, 2010), 385.]

Everyone from AD 30 onward persisted in believing that Jesus had died by crucifixion. This should be granted because sources from AD 30 onwards reported Jesus's death. Notably,• It was reported in the New Testament (The gospels, Paul's letters etc.).1• It was reported in non-canonical Christan sources,• It was reported in non-Christian sources. [Forthcoming]

For example, Ignatius to the Trallians 9.1 -- “[Jesus] under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died…” [Trans. by Lightfoot]

Everyone involved in taking down Jesus's corpse, wrapping, and burying it felt that Jesus's body went lifeless (no breathing etc.). This is relevant because, if Jesus was still alive, the individuals handling and carrying Jesus's corpse would have inevitably heard/felt/saw Jesus breathing, pumping blood etc.

Men involved in touching/lifting/carrying Jesus's body included:(a) The Roman soldiers, who still had to manually remove Jesus from the cross(b) Jesus's Jewish buriers (e.g. the servants used by Joseph[Forthcoming]) had buried Jesus in a tomb[Forthcoming].Jesus's buriers had to…• …load and or otherwise transport the corpse to its tomb,• …carry it through the tomb-entrance (typically quite small),• …situate it on its bench,• …clean it,• …anoint it.• …wrap it in linens. In the midst of this, be mindful that

“Tannaitic sources repeatedly emphasize that it is forbidden to treat a person as dead until it is clearly ascertained that he has expired (Semahoth I).”[Shemuel Safrai (Professor emeritus of History of Jewish People at Hebrew U.), The Jewish People in the First Century (Van Goreum Fortress Press, 1976), 773.]

Victims of crucifixion rarely die within three hours (i.e. when Jesus was taken down).

After all… • We know that crucifixion commonly lasted for days.1 So, naturally, • Mk 15:44 -- “Pilate was surprised to hear that he was already dead. Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died.”

But, so what? Jesus was scouraged nearly to death beforehand.2

Seneca, Dialogue 3:2.2 -- “Can anyone be found who would prefer wasting away in pain dying limb by limb, or letting out his life drop by drop, rather than expiring once for all? Can any man be found willing to be fastened to the accursed tree, long sickly, already deformed, swelling with ugly wounds on shoulders and chest, and drawing the breath of life amid long drawn-out agony? He would have many excuses for dying even before mounting the cross”