356-323 BC: born to Philip II of Macedon and tutored by Aristotle. Conquered Greece, Egypt, Persia, and more, but not India. Alexander's conquests spread Greek culture and language, helping the future expansion of Christianity.

384-322 BC: Greek philosopher, student of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great. Emphasized the value of experience, and founded the Lyceum (a school resembling a university with specimens and a library)

A fierce type of people (AD 1200-1521), also known as "the Mexica," from Central Mexico who built a glorious capital city titled Tenochtitlan, and established three causeways to connect it to the mainland.

the major Mesopotamian city in the ancient Middle East, its greatest ruler was Hammurabi. Babylon developed Cuneiform, used base-60 numbers, defeated ancient Sumer about 2000 BC, and was later cruel to Hebrews.

Collection of Hebrew (Old Testament) and Christian (New Testament) Scriptures. Foretells the coming of a Messiah for the Hebrews, and recounts ancient history including the origin of farming, the origin of multiple languages (Tower of Babel) and the Great Flood.

AD 600s-900s: Dynasty that started with Charles Martel and his descendants, including Charlemagne, whose revival of education became known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The crowning of Charlemagne in 800 is considered the birth of the "Holy Roman Empire", also known as the Carolingian empire.

Small nations consisting of only a single city each, especially in ancient Greece. Examples included Sparta, Athens and Corinth. They fought each other, but also banned together to defeat the Persians when that great empire sought to absorb Greece.

551-479 BC: the most prominent Chinese philosopher, who taught about ethics and social conduct, with an emphasis on education, self-discipline, and compassion; he said, "By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest."

(AD 1099-1204): a series of four major military expeditions by Christians to free Jerusalem and make it safe for pilgrimages, beginning with the successful First Crusade but later including the looting of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.

A Japanese feudal lord who owned lots of land. Agricultural workers (peasants) would work under the daimyos, who began their importance after a civil war in AD 1467.

Darius the Great

the king of Persia (522-486 BC) and one of the greatest rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty, best known for his failed attempts to conquer Greece; in 492 a storm destroyed his fleet, and in 490 BC Athens defeated his army at Marathon

Formed in 477 BC as an alliance consisting of Athens and other Greek city-states to guard against the Persia (Achaemenid) empire after the Persian Wars; but Athens misused it to impose taxes and fund Athenian projects.

tribes that settled Greece, 1100-1000 BC, having an oppressive military ruling class. The "Doric order" is the simplest form of Greek architecture, consisting of a straight column without any artistic trim at the top.

way of life in Europe (particularly Western and Central Europe) in the early Middle Ages, consisting of a "lord" who owned land (given by the king) on which "peasants" or "serfs" farmed in exchange for food and protection.

between Rome and Carthage in 254-241 BC: Rome conquered the island of Sicily and developed a navy; although Rome was no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy, Romans did invent a corvus that allowed them to board enemy ships and win the war

in Buddhism: (1) suffering is universal, (2) craving or desire causes it, (3) the cure is to eliminate the craving or desire, and (4) following the Eightfold Path helps eliminate this desire in order to attain "nirvana" (complete contentment).

Germanic tribes settling in the northern part of the Roman empire (including northern France), rising in power and territory from AD 330-751 and defeating barbarians; Charles the Hammer and Charlemagne were Franks

One of the most significant popes, who used church money for non-religious purposes such as paying for public projects such as roads, supporting armies, and establishing government programs for the poor; this later caused controversies.

A heresy, false teaching or distortion of the Christian faith that still exists today. Gnostics believed only in what could be supported by human reasoning, and attempted to add to the New Testament and edit out information that was hard to prove.

architecture of the late Middle Ages, featuring tall, perpendicular structures, long or stained-glassed rose windows, pointed arches, and flying buttresses (stone supports on the outer walls of churches)

202 BC - AD 220, this was the greatest of all the Chinese dynasties and was similar to the Roman empire in expanding territory, administering justice, and enjoying peace like the Pax Romana. The Han dynasty valued education highly, and created a scholar class of people known as "shi".

(460-377 BC) "The father of medicine" in ancient Greece who developed the Hippocratic Oath, which was an ethical code that included a prohibition on abortion, and which all medical students traditionally repeated as a condition of graduation.

4 BC-AD 33, and beyond: The Holy Messiah of the Christian faith, and the only son of God who was promised to save all humanity. He was the only founder of a religion to perform miracles to cure the suffering, the only one to emphasize the power of faith, and the only one to give up His life for the salvation of others.

AD 1412-1431: 17-year-old girl who led the French army to a remarkable military victory over the English in AD 1429, and was later captured and martyred by the English and made a saint by the Catholic Church

AD 258: One of the earliest Christian martyrs, killed for serving the poor during the anti-Christian era of the Roman empire. He was roasted to death on a grid, but stayed true until the end. He even said during his execution, "Turn me over. I am done on this side!"

an important Christian figure who launched the Protestant Reformation in AD 1517 and founded the Lutheran Church based on a theory of salvation by faith alone, causing a split in the Catholic Church in Central Europe, then in Western and Northern Europe.

The civilization of the Mayans existed in Mesoamerica (including where Guatemala is today) from about AD 300-900. They were advanced in math and astronomy and had a written pictographic language; today 4 million people still speak the Mayan language.

ancient people who lived and traded goods on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, developing a new language using an alphabet of 22 letters, on which Greek, Latin, English, French, etc., are based.

Pillars of Islam

the five basic rules of Islam: submit to Allah, pray, fast, give to the poor, and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca (in Saudi Arabia today)

AD 1157-1199: King of England and leader of the third Crusade, the only Christian leader feared by Muslims. He supposed to free the Jerusalem but his French partner king Philip left the Crusade and supported his brother revolt against him. He is known for his chivalry and adhering of Christian values.

This special status was attained by living in along the Tiber River, being born to Roman citizens, or serving in the army for 25 years. Privileges associated with citizenship included the right to serve as a priest or magistrate and the right to appeal to Caesar. Roman citizens could not be scourged or crucified.

(27 BC-AD 476) Began when Augustus Caesar ended the Roman Republic and became the emperor of Rome's vast territory, and ended 500 years later when barbarians overran it; the Roman empire laid foundations to cities in Southern, Western and Central Europe, built roads, established laws, and eventually spread Christianity.

509-27 BC: The first republic in history with a senate and a constitution, it was located in Rome and inspired some of the principles of the government of the United States. The Roman republic ended when Augustus Caesar took full power and established the Roman empire.

Roman senate

300 members representing wealthy families in Rome, it dominated the Roman republic; similar to the U.S. Senate today

Romanesque

architecture popular in the early Middle Ages, featuring thick walls, rounded arches and small windows

between Rome and Carthage in 218-202 BC; Carthage's leader Hannibal led his army with elephants over the Alps to surprise the Romans, but could not conquer Rome itself; by the end Rome had acquired Spain

Romans conquered and destroyed Carthage in 146 BC and then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat them in revenge for having helped Hannibal; Rome then controlled the entire western civilized world (all the land around the Mediterranean).

A type of drama or poetic saga that has an unhappy ending. Common in ancient Greece, this type of work focused on the followed the fall of a character, often because of a specific character flaw such as envy or greed.

A representative of the poorer lower class (plebians) in the Roman republic. The Assembly of Tribes elected these officials, and they could present the plebe's resolutions before the Senate for ratification.

AD 269: A Christian martyr, Valentine is honored by our present-day holiday, Saint Valentine's Day. He was a physician who also conducted marriages contrary to Roman law (marriage was outlawed so that more men would be free to join the army). Before he was executed by Romans on February 14th, he left a note for the jailer's daughter -- the very first valentine.

Second longest river in Asia; known also as Huang He and "the cradle of Chinese civilization," it runs westward from the Yellow Sea and has a tendency to flood surrounding lands such its course can change with devastating results

Emperor of the Mauryan Empire of India (273-232 B.C.). Upset by the horrors of war (despite winning), he converted to Buddhism and recorded Buddha's teachings on thousands of rock pillars.

Aztecs

An aggressive type of people from Central Mexico who adopted many legends and customs from their ancestors. They built a capital city called Tenochtitlan, and established three causeways to connect it to the mainland.

In August 490 B.C., King Darius I of Persia brought his army to the plains of Marathon to invade Athens. Despite being outnumbered ten to one, the Athenian army defeated the Persians.

Battle of Chalons

451 BC: one of the bloodiest battles in world history and the last major victory of the Roman empire, when it defeated Attila the Hun in what is now France; Attila returned later for revenge and could have looted Rome

The title given by Pope Alexander VI to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, whose marriage in 1469 unified Spain led to its conversion back to a Catholic nation from Islam (the "Reconquest").

The founder of the Mauryan Empire in India who ruled between 320 and 293 B.C. The first Indian emperor to be converted to Jainism, he eventually renounced his throne and joined a group of nomadic Jain monks.

A Roman hero for whom the city of Cincinnati, Ohio is named. In 458 B.C., he raised an army in Rome and came to the aid of the consul Minucius and his men, who were trapped by the Aequians. Cincinnatus also voluntarily giving up power, surpassed only by George Washington in that respect.

Roman emperor who became ruler after his nephew Caligula's assassination, he ruled from 41-54 AD, when he was poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Britain came under Roman rule during his reign, and his edict expelling the Jews from Rome is mentioned in the Book of Acts in the Bible.

Seven Egyptian queens of Greek decent that ruled from 193 BC until 30 BC during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The most famous, Cleopatra VII Philopator, Egypt's last independent ruler, had affairs with both Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

A Chinese ethical and moral philosophy based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius that focuses on human morality and right action. It has had a significant influence on the development on the culture and history of East Asia.

A government with a constitution that acknowledges a monarch as head of state with varying degrees of influence in the running of the country. Countries with constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Denmark, the Netherlands and Spain.

The Coptic Church originated in Egypt around 50 AD when St. Mark the Evangelist traveled to Alexandria, and is one of the oldest Christian denominations. Its leader is the Patriarch of Alexandria, who is called Pope.

A ancient Greek statesman who spoke against Philip II of Macedonia in speeches that came to be known as "Philippics". He also attempted to convince Greeks to rise up against Macedonian rule after the death of Philip's son, Alexander the Great.

The last Barrack Emperor of Rome, he ruled from 284-305 AD. He divided the Roman Empire into eastern and western regions in an attempt to save the empire, and formed a tetrarchy of four rulers, two for each region. He required the military to worship the Roman pagan gods, making it impossible for Christians to be soldiers, and persecuted them.

Tribes that settled in Greece between 1100 BC and 1000 BC, and had a military ruling class, which persisted in Sparta and Crete even after democracy was established in Athens. These tribes created the simplest style of Greek architecture, known as the Doric order, which consisted of unadorned, straight columns.

Draco

a tyrant in Athens during the early Greek empire (600s B.C.) who established a set of written laws that were so strict that the term "draconian" today refers to overly harsh rules of punishment

A philosophy founded by Epicurus in the late 4th century that holds the belief that great happiness is achievable through the avoidance of pain and fear. It does not believe in divine power interacting with humanity.

The Roman name for the area comprising modern-day France and Belgium, and parts of northern Italy, western Switzerland and Germany, and the Netherlands. This area was under Roman rule for most of its existence.

The third of the "Five Good Emperors" of the Roman Empire, Hadrian ruled from AD 117 to 138 and had two main achievements: he ended Rome's costly territorial expansion, fortifying her boundaries with numerous "Walls of Hadrian," and he effectively "Hellenized" Rome by anointing Athens the empire’s cultural center, thereby enhancing learning.

Originally a regent for her son, Thutmose III, Hatshepsut was the longest reigning female ruler of Egypt. She ruled during the eighth dynasty from 1479-1458 B.C. She established trade networks for Egypt and thus collected most of the wealth of the eighth dynasty. She was eventually dethroned when her son took power at the age of 22. Her monuments are the Temple of Karnak, Deirle-Bahri, and Speos Artemidos.

Greek culture after the death of Alexander in 323 B.C., when Greek influence extended throughout the territory he conquered; Hellenistic culture was renowned for its strict code of ethics, its culinary prowess, and its use of metal.

(1337-1453) This war was fought between France and England. It lasted for 116 years. It started when the English king Edward III tried to take the French throne because France lacked a successor to the late Capetian king.

If government allows free enterprise to flourish on its own, without interference by government, then an “invisible hand” harnesses the power of self-interest for the overall good of society. Companies are guided by this “invisible hand” to work in a way that is beneficial to others, and the overall wealth and progress of society will increase.

This empire peaked in A.D. 1200 in modern Cambodia, thriving on rice production and trade with China and India. The Khmer empire built the Angkor Wat, a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu with mixed Southeast Asian and Indian art.

An important break in the mountains between Pakistan and Afghanistan, pivotal in military campaigns by Alexander the Great, Aryans, Muslims, and later the British, who had to overcome defensive positions taken from above by local tribesman.

(1452-1519) Leonardo da Vinci was considered a “Renaissance man.” He was a painter, a scientist, a mathematician and many more. He created one of the best paintings in the world, The Mona Lisa. He was said to have draw up designs for flying machines and armored tanks. When he wrote he wrote backwards so that you would have to look in a mirror to read it.

A type of soil derived form glacial deposits consisting of fine yellow silt that is extremely crumbly. The silt from Loess Plateau of north-west China, carried along by the Yellow River, has given that river its distinctive name.

the later of the two great schools of Buddhism, chiefly in China, Tibet, and Japan, characterized by eclecticism and a general belief in a common search for salvation, sometimes thought to be attainable through faith alone.

A small town about 26 miles from Athens where the Greeks won a key battle against the Persians in 490 B.C., and a messenger ran the distance to deliver the news to Athens, inspiring the modern marathon race today.

Tropical storms, particularly in the climate of India, where the "southwest monsoon" occurs from about mid-June to the first week in October, and consists of winds carrying heavy rainfall from the Indian Ocean and resulting in widespread flooding

Muhammad Ali was a professional boxer during the 1960’s and 70’s he was perhaps the most famous Muslim of the western world at this time. During the Vietnam war he refused to be drafted because it was not a “holy war.”

Lived from 635 BC- 562 BC, was King of the Chaldeans and final conqueror of the Southern Kingdom of Israel, called "Judah." He was the first of many heads of state of foreign superpowers to come to a possibly salvific knowledge of God.

Petra was an ancient city that lasted from some time in 6th century B.C. to 360 AD when an earthquake destroyed their water supply. The city is famous for its buildings carved in red sandstone and given the name the pink city. Also Indiana Jones was filmed there.

An athlete sent by Athens to run 150 miles to Sparta as they needed help in their battle against Persia, where they were outnumbered 10 to 1. His remarkable ability continues to inspire ambitious joggers today.

A Plebian was one of the lower classes in the early Roman world, such as small farmers and shopkeepers, similar to a commoner in Medieval Europe. This status was inherited in ancient Rome, though it could change through marriage or (rarely) promotion.

The god of the sea, rivers, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and the creator of horses; known as the "Earth Shaker". He is a son of Cronus and Rhea and brother to Zeus and Hades. In classical artwork, he was depicted as a mature man of sturdy build with a dark beard, and holding a trident.

A Greek philosopher mathematician (569-475 B.C.), best known for his Pythagorean Theorem which equates the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle to the sum of the squares of each side. His philosophy included abstracting 2 ships + 2 ships = 4 ships to the more general truth that 2 of anything plus 2 of anything = 4 of anything.

Rome obtained its name from Romulus and Remus, who were twins, and by legend the the sons of Mars who were rescued from death by a mother wolf after his uncle threw him into the Tiber river out of jealousy.

Slavic people who settled the Steppe and cultivated the soil in AD 100. They lived in tribes and villages and were vulnerable to nomadic fighters like the Huns. They established a trade city known as Kiev which exists to this day.

About 50 years after the fall of the Tang dynasty, the Song dynasty united China again under centralized rule. This dynasty governed for about 300 years, from A.D. 960 to 1279. It emphasized education even more than the Tang dynasty did. Art and literature thrived. Paper money was invented during the Song dynasty.

The second of the two main Greek philosophical schools of thought. Stoicism sought to find a sense of divine justice, deemphasizing pain and pleasure for the goal of reason, logic, and self discipline.

The Sui dynasty established centralized rule in China in A.D. 589 for the first time since the Han dynasty in A.D. 220. In other words, China went without a centralized government for over 300 years, from 220 to the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in 589.The Sui dynasty ruled for only a very brief period of 29 years, until A.D. 618. But in that brief period of time it accomplished something magnificent: it built the Grand Canal to connect northern and southern China.

(AD 55-120) Was the Roman author of Histories, Annals, and Germania, describing first century Rome. His work chronicles Nero's blaming of the Christians for the fire in Rome and the resulting large scale persecution of Christians that ensued.

The Tang dynasty ruled for nearly 300 years, from A.D. 618 to 907. This is known as the golden age of art and poetry in China. New territories were acquired, including Manchuria, Tibet, Korea and northern Vietnam.

The world's first psychological novel. Was written in the 1000s and about Japanese culture.

Teotihuacan

Known as "City of the gods," Teotihuacan (AD 100-900) was perhaps the most powerful and largest city-state in Mesoamerica. They worshiped many gods and lived in barrios (suburbs or ghettos) around the city.

Thales of Miletus (ca. 624 BC–ca. 546 BC) was the first Greek philosopher. He successfully predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC and posited that water was the basic principle of all matter in the world.

A religious conflict as Catholic states sought to suppress Protestantism. It began as a fight between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618, and soon became a political conflict for power that included Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Sweden, and the Habsburg dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire. The war ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

A triumvirate is a system of governance led by 3 leaders. The two most important triumvirates of ancient times were those of Rome: one led by Julius Caesar, Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") and Marcus Crassus; the other led by Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. It was the failings of these triumvirates that lead to the downfall of the Republic, and the emergence of the Roman Empire.

A group of Jews in the 1st century AD who sought the violent overthrow and expulsion of Rome from Israel. Their most famous battle (and defeat) came at Masada, a mountain fortress that still holds spiritual significance for Israel today.