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Chapter 26: Grammar

26

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Grammar

To use grammar correctly, you need to understand the eight parts of speech and the role each plays in a sentence. The eight parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. See also the Parts of Speech Chart.

Noun

Classes of Nouns

Nouns are divided into five classes: proper, common, concrete, abstract, and collective.

Proper Noun

A proper noun names a specific person, place, thing, or idea and is always capitalized.

Bill Gates

Nasdaq Stock Market

Shanghai Tower

World Federalism

Common Noun

A common noun is a general name for a person, a place, a thing, or an idea and is lowercased.

entrepreneur

stock exchange

sky scraper

ideology

Concrete Noun

A concrete noun names something tangible. It can be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted.

odor

desk

piano

Yosemite

Lake Erie

Alabama

Abstract Noun

An abstract noun names something that cannot be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted. It is usually an idea, a condition, or a feeling.

War on Poverty

democracy

Buddhism

freedom

success

happiness

Collective Noun

A collective noun names a group or a unit. Collective nouns can be used in either the singular or the plural form. (See also Number of a Noun.)

herd

Green Bay Packers

committee

staff

Human Resources Department

Forms of Nouns

Nouns are grouped according to their gender, case, and number.

Gender of Noun

Gender of a noun indicates whether a noun is masculine, feminine, neuter, or indefinite. (Also see more on inclusive language.)

Masculine: father, nephew, buck, drake, Latino

Feminine: sister, niece, doe, hen, Latina

Neuter (without sex): rock, keyboard, lake

Indefinite (masculine or feminine): mayor, firefighter, deer, Latinx

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Case of a Noun

Case tells how a noun functions in a sentence. Three cases of nouns are nominative, possessive, and objective.

Nominative case describes a noun used as the subject of a clause.

Bill Gates heads a multibillion-dollar software company that he founded.

Nominative case also describes a noun when it is used as a predicate noun (or predicate nominative). A predicate noun follows a form of the be verb (for example, is, are, was, were, been) and repeats or renames the subject.

Business handbooks are useful tools for every office.

Possessive case describes a noun that shows possession or ownership. A possessive noun functions as an adjective.

An employee’s desk is a construction site.

Note:
Be sure to follow the rules of punctuation when it comes to possessives, especially the placement of apostrophes in plural words or words expressing joint ownership. (See rules for forming plural possessives.)

Objective case describes a noun used as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition.

The delete key can give writers nightmares.(Nightmares is the direct object of can give;writers is the indirect object.)

But writing without a delete key is also scary.
(Delete key is the object of the preposition, without.)

Reflexive and Intensive

Forms of Personal Pronouns

The form of a personal pronoun indicates its number (singular or plural), its person (first, second, or third), its case (nominative, possessive, or objective), and its gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter).

Number of a Pronoun

The number of a pronoun can be either singular or plural. Singular personal pronouns include I, you, he, she, it. Plural personal pronouns include we, you, they. Notice that the pronoun you can be singular or plural.

Have you(singular)
completed the tax forms?

Looking at the applicants, he said, “I will contact each of you(plural)
within a week.”

Person of a Pronoun

The person of a pronoun indicates whether that pronoun is speaking, is spoken to, or is spoken about. (See also Forms of Pronouns.)

Singular

Plural

First Person

I(am)

we(are)

Second Person

you(are)

you(are)

Third Person

he / she / it (is)

they(are)

Case of a Pronoun

The case of a pronoun indicates how it is used in a sentence. There are three cases of personal pronouns: nominative (or subjective), objective, and possessive.

A Closer Look

Nicole greeted the committee with her distinctive smile.
(Both the pronoun her and its antecedent Nicole are singular, third person, and feminine.)

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Verb

A verb expresses either action (run, flip, twist) or state of being (is, are, seem). The different forms of a verb indicate its number (singular or plural); person (first, second, or third); voice (active or passive); and tense (present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect).

Number and Person of a Verb

Number indicates whether a verb is singular or plural. Person indicates whether the verb is correctly used with a first-, second-, or third-person subject.

Singular

Plural

First Person

(I)
am.

(We)
are.

Second Person

(You)
are.

(You)
are.

Third Person

(She)
is.

(They)
are.

Voice of a Verb

Voice of a verb indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

Active Voice

Active voice means that the subject does the action of the verb.

The partners debated the proposal.

Active sentences are concise and direct: The subject does the action of the verb, and often a direct object receives the action.

Passive Voice

Passive voice means that the subject receives the action of the verb. (Passive verbs always begin with a form of “be”—am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been, etc.)

Many topics were discussed by the committee.

Passive sentences are indirect: The subject receives the action of the verb, and the doer of the action often appears in a prepositional phrase that begins with by. To convert a passive sentence to an active sentence, ask yourself, “Who or what is doing the action of the verb?” and make your answer into the subject of the rewritten sentence. Often, the previous subject becomes the direct object.

The committee discussed many topics.

Active and Passive Voice

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Tense of a Verb

The tense of a verb indicates when the action is taking place or when the condition exists.

Present Tense

Present tense indicates action that is happening at the present time or that happens continually.

More people work in the service industry than in any other industry.

Past Tense

Past tense indicates action that was completed in the past.

In the early twentieth century, heavy industry employed most of the workforce.

Note:
Usually the past tense of a verb is formed by adding ed; however, many irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. (See Common Irregular Verbs.)

Future Tense

Future tense indicates action that will take place in the future.

Many workers wonder if Social Security will survive baby-boomer retirees.

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Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense indicates action that began in the past but continues in the present or is completed in the present.

Lately, airlines have struggled with rising costs and fewer customers.

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense indicates a past action that began and was completed in the past.

The investors had expected to see returns.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense indicates action that will begin in and be completed by a specific time in the future.

By the end of December, the company will have been sold.

Active and Passive Verbs Through the Tenses

Active Voice

Tense

Singular

Plural

Present

I seeyou seehe/she/it sees

we seeyou seethey see

Past

I sawyou sawhe saw

we sawyou sawthey saw

Future

I will seeyou will seehe will see

we will seeyou will seethey will see

Present Perfect

I have seenyou have seenhe has seen

we have seenyou have seenthey have seen

Past Perfect

I had seenyou had seenhe had seen

we had seenyou had seenthey had seen

Future Perfect

I will have seenyou will have seenhe will have seen

we will have seenyou will have seenthey will have seen

Passive Voice

Tense

Singular

Plural

Present

I am seenyou are seenhe/she/it is seen

we are seenyou are seenthey are seen

Past

I was seenyou were seenIt was seen

we were seenyou were seenthey were seen

Future

I will be seenyou will be seenit will be seen

we will be seenyou will be seenthey will be seen

Present Perfect

I have been seenyou have been seenit has been seen

we have been seenyou have been seenthey have been seen

Past Perfect

I had been seenyou had been seen it had been seen

we had been seenyou had been seenthey had been seen

Future Perfect

I will have been seenyou will have been seenit will have been seen

we will have been seenyou will have been seenthey will have been seen

Classes of Verbs

Verbs can be divided into these classes: auxiliary (or helping), linking, transitive, and intransitive.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs(am, is, are, was, were, can, could, will, would, shall, should, etc.) help to form some of the tenses and the voice of the main verb.

Forming tense:

I enjoy skiing.
(present tense verb)

I will enjoy skiing.
(future tense verb formed by adding the auxiliary verb will)

Forming voice:

The gang devoured your salad!
(active voice verb)

Your salad was devoured in no time!
(passive voice verb formed by adding the auxiliary verb was)

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Linking Verbs

A linking verb is a special type of intransitive verb that links a subject to its complement—a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective in the predicate of a sentence.

Poorly organized reports are not very helpful.
(The subject reports is linked to the predicate adjective helpful.)

Incorrect:
This is her.
(A linking verb cannot connect the objective pronoun her to the subjective pronoun this.)

Correct:
This is she.
(A linking verb can connect the subjective pronoun she to the subjective pronoun this.)

Transitive Verbs

A transitive verb indicates action transferred to an object (or, in the passive voice, the subject). In the active voice, a transitive verb transfers its action to a direct object.

Many people enjoy their jobs.
(Jobs is the direct object of the verb enjoy.)

A transitive verb may also have an indirect object, which receives the action indirectly.

Samantha gave Matthew a reassuring glance.
(Glance is the direct object of the verb gave, and Matthew is the indirect object.)

In the passive voice, a transitive verb transfers the action to the subject of the sentence.

An attempt to fix the copier was made by the receptionist.
(The subject attempt receives the action of the verb was made.)

Intransitive Verbs

An intransitive verb indicates action that is not transferred to anyone or anything. This verb does not need a direct object.

The worst public speakers mumble and dawdle.

Special Verb Forms

A verbal is derived from a verb but functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. There are three types of verbals: gerunds, infinitives, and participles. (See also Verbal Phrases.)

Gerund

A gerund ends in ing and is used as a noun.

Arriving at work on time is important. (subject)

Another key to success is accomplishing your tasks. (predicate noun)

Infinitive

An infinitive is usually introduced by the word “to” and can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

To write well is not always easy.
(noun)

This is an important point to remember.
(adjective)

Writers are wise to practice their writing often.
(adverb)

Participle

A participle ends in ing or ed and is used as an adjective.

That employee making clay models is very creative. The completed models will be on display in the coming weeks.
(Making modifies employee; completed modifies models.)

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Common Irregular Verbs

Present Tense

Past Tense

Past Participle

am, be

was, were

been

arise

arose

arisen

bear

bore

borne

begin

began

begun

bind

bound

bound

bite

bit

bitten, bit

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

build

built

built

burst

burst

burst

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

cling

clung

clung

come

came

come

deal

dealt

dealt

dive

dived, dove

dived

do

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

dream

dreamed

dreamed

dreamt

dreamt

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

drive

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

flee

fled

fled

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

forgive

forgave

forgiven

freeze

froze

frozen

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

hang (execute)

hanged

hanged

hang (suspend)

hung

hung

hide

hid

hidden

know

knew

known

lay (put)

laid

laid

lead

led

led

lend

lent

lent

lie (deceive)

lied

lied

lie (recline)

lay

lain

light

lit, lighted

lit, lighted

mistake

mistook

mistaken

prove

proved

proved, proven

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise (get up)

rose

risen

run

ran

run

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

set (place)

set

set

shake

shook

shaken

shine (emit light)

shone

shone

show

showed

shown

shrink

shrank

shrunk

sing

sang

sung

sink

sank

sunk

sit

sat

sat

slay

slew

slain

speak

spoke

spoken

spring

sprang

sprung

steal

stole

stolen

strike

struck

struck, stricken

swear

swore

sworn

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

tear

tore

torn

throw

threw

thrown

wake

woke, waked

woken, waked

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove

woven

wring

wrung

wrung

write

wrote

written

Irregular Verbs

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Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes, limits, or in any other way modifies a noun or a pronoun. (The articles a, an, and the are adjectives.) Adjectives can appear in different positions. They often come before the words they modify; but as predicate adjectives, they come after the words they modify.

The beautiful day ended with Marcia in tears. She was overjoyed. (The and beautiful modify the noun day; overjoyed is a predicate adjective and modifies the pronoun she.)

Common and Proper Adjectives

Like nouns, adjectives can be common (lowercased) or proper (capitalized).

The professors at Oxford University agreed that Americanized English was unusual.

Note:
Since Americanized is derived from the proper noun America, it is considered a proper adjective and is always capitalized. The and unusual are common adjectives; the is capitalized only because it is the first word of the sentence.

A Closer Look

Don’t add adjectives to nouns that don’t need them. The adjectives listed below are unnecessary and only repeat what the noun already says.

Positive Adjective

Comparative Adjective

The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares two persons, places, things, or ideas.

Good employees are a more important assets than good buildings.

Superlative Adjective

The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares three or more persons, places, things, or ideas.

Good employees are the most important assets a business can possess.

Note:
Most one-syllable and some two-syllable adjectives take the -er and -est endings. Most adjectives of two or more syllables use more and most (and less and least).

Forms of Adjectives

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

bad

worse

worst

cold

colder

coldest

crabby

crabbier

crabbiest

impressive

more impressive

most impressive

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Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (or verbal), an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs tell how, when, where, why, how often, or how much. (Not and never are adverbs.)

The business was sold quickly. (Quickly modifies the verb was sold.)

The staff was extremely concerned. (Extremely modifies the adjective concerned.)

Management moved very quickly to reassign employees. (Very modifies the adverb quickly, which modifies the verb moved.)

Note:
Most adverbs have an ly ending. Some adverbs can be written either with or without an ly; when in doubt, use the ly form.

deep, deeply; tight, tightly; loud, loudly

A Closer Look

Adverbs can be placed in different positions in a sentence. Usually, they appear in front of the words they modify, but they can correctly follow the words as well. Caution: Adverbs should not be placed between a verb and its direct object.

The secretary carefully prepared the report.
(adverb before the verb)

The secretary prepared the report carefully.
(adverb after the verb and its direct object)

If the problem isn’t addressed, these customers will definitely leave.
(adverb between verbs)

Forms of Adverbs

Adverbs have three forms: positive, comparative, and superlative.

Positive Adverb

The positive form describes an action without making any comparisons.

This copier operates efficiently.

Comparative Adverb

The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares the actions of two persons, places, things, or ideas.

This copier operates more efficiently than the one downstairs.

Superlative Adverb

The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares the actions of three or more persons, places, things, or ideas.

This copier operates most efficiently of all the copiers in the building.

Special Adverb Form

Conjunctive Adverbs

A conjunctive adverb can both modify and connect words, phrases, and clauses. It can be used at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.

Consequently, we believe the profit/earnings ratio will not meet our expectations. We do wish, however, to evaluate your stock again in six months. We will buy another stock instead.

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Preposition

A preposition is a word (or word group) used in front of a noun or a pronoun to form a phrase that modifies some other word in the sentence.

The paperwork has been piled onto the file cabinet.
(The preposition onto begins a phrase that acts as an adverb modifying the verb has been piled.)

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, the object of that preposition, and the modifiers of the object.

The flowers on the luncheon table are wilted.
(preposition on, object table, and modifiers the and luncheon)

Common Prepositions

aboard

contrary to

onto

about

despite

on top of

above

down

opposite

according to

down from

out

across

due to

out of

across from

during

outside

after

except

outside of

against

except for

over

ahead of

excepting

over to

along

for

owing to

alongside

from

past

alongside of

from among

prior to

along with

from between

regarding

amid

from under

round

among

in

round about

apart from

in addition to

save

around

in back of

since

as

in behalf of

subsequent to

as for

in case of

together with

aside from

in front of

through

at

in place of

throughout

away from

in regard to

till

back of

inside

to

because of

inside of

toward

before

in spite of

under

behind

instead of

underneath

below

into

unlike

beneath

like

until

beside

near

unto

besides

near to

up

between

notwith-standing

upon

beyond

of

up to

by

off

via

by means of

on

with

concerning

on account of

within

considering

on behalf of

without

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Conjunction

A conjunction is the part of speech used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Used properly, conjunctions can add continuity to your writing.

Kinds of Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunction

Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an independent clause, completing the meaning of the dependent clause.

If the trailer is still here tomorrow, it will be impounded.
(The dependent clause if the trailer is still here tomorrow depends on the rest of the sentence to complete its meaning.)

Correlative Conjunction

Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs, linking items of equal weight.

She decided to neither buy nor lease a new car.

Coordinating Conjunction

Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equivalent elements, that is, a word to a word, a phrase to a phrase, or a clause to a clause.

“It’s not the most intellectual job in the world, but I do have to know the letters.”