The organization opened its offices in Denver in 1967 and began administering the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) test until the Reagan administration in 1982 made the decision to privatize the test, which is now administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). That decision threatened the very existence of the Commission, leading to the virtual closing of ECS's Information Clearinghouse, the laying off or early retirement of half of its 117-member staff and a 50% cut in the organization's budget.

Each member jurisdiction (state, territory, and the District of Columbia) has seven seats on the Commission, including the governor and six appointed members, usually including members of the state legislature and education officials, such as the state education commissioner or head of the state education agency.

1.
Education in the United States
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Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-age children attend schools, about 10% attend private schools. Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state and this requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, education is divided into three levels, elementary school, middle or junior school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, there are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, the United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015 the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U. S. high school students #40 globally in Math and #24 in Science and Reading. ”King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U. S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U. S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, government-supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian Common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs and also history and geography, States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 and 1917. They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture, by 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. His movement spread to many other Southern states to small colleges for Colored or Negro students entitled A. & M. or A. & T. some of which later developed into state universities. By 1910,72 percent of children attended school, private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and — in the rural centers — land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in increasing public high school enrollment. By 1930,100 percent of children attended school, during World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v, in 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B

2.
History of education in the United States
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The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States, the first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. At first, the rudiments of literacy and arithmetic were taught inside the family, literacy rates were much higher in New England because much of the population had been deeply involved in the Protestant Reformation and learned to read in order to read the Scriptures. Literacy was much lower in the South, where the Anglican Church was the established church, single working-class people formed a large part of the population in the early years, arriving as indentured servants. The planter class did not support public education but arranged for private tutors for their children, by the mid-19th century, the role of the schools in New England had expanded to such an extent that they took over many of the educational tasks traditionally handled by parents. All the New England colonies required towns to set up schools, in 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made proper education compulsory, other New England colonies followed this example. Similar statutes were adopted in colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. The schools were all male and all white, with few facilities for girls, in the 18th century, common schools were established, students of all ages were under the control of one teacher in one room. Although they were supplied at the local level, they were not free. Students families were charged tuition or rate bills, the larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school. The most famous was the Boston Latin School, which is still in operation as a high school. Hopkins School in New Haven, Connecticut, was another, by the 1780s, most had been replaced by private academies. By the early 19th century New England operated a network of high schools, now called prep schools, typified by Phillips Andover Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy. They became the major feeders for Ivy League colleges in the mid-19th century and these prep schools became coeducational in the 1970s, and remain highly prestigious in the 21st century. Residents of the Upper South, centered on the Chesapeake Bay, in late 17th century Maryland, the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students. Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools, during the colonial years, some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling. In March 1620, George Thorpe sailed from Bristol for Virginia and he became a deputy in charge of 10,000 acres of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school. The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when George Thorpe was killed in the Indian Massacre of 1622, in Virginia, rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish

3.
Education reform
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Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed, however, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs. In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market, where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests, as a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations. This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition, as a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth. Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed reforms in the United States. The one constant for all forms of education includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students, from ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time personal tutor, historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education, related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on why, and which questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles and this path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers, some reformers incorporated several motivations, e. g. Maria Montessori, who both educated for peace, and to meet the needs of the child. Reform has taken many forms and directions, throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations, Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. Compulsory learning never sticks in the mind, an educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. Though educational reform occurred on a level at various points throughout history

4.
Primary education in the United States
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Primary education in the United States refers to the first eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school. Preschool programs, which are formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of education is commonly referred to as kindergarten. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12. In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary schools in the United States, some private schools, and some public schools, are offering pre-kindergarten as part of elementary school. The first three to five years of a life can be the most critical period of their education. Since 1965, the government has promoted the growth of state-funded programs such as Head Start. In 2007, it served over 22 million preschool-aged children and their families, Head Start works to educate the whole child in addition to providing health and nutrition services to low-income families. Students may attend either a 6-year or 7-year public or private elementary school, elementary school usually runs from kindergarten through either grade 5 or grade 6, depending on the region. Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case the student will proceed to High School. In most U. S. elementary schools, students have all their classes from one or two homeroom teachers. In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to students in areas such as Art. Education in the United States Education in New York City Homeschooling in the United States Secondary education in the United States Primary education Primary school

5.
Secondary education in the United States
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The United States historically had a demand for general skills rather than specific training/apprenticeships. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of education followed by four years of high school. At the turn of the 20th Century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entrance to fewer than 5 percent of the population in preparation for college, most were expected to be ready for a job or a family after junior high school. The first public schools started around the 1830s and 40s within the wealthier areas of similar income levels. There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, the shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, there was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools. In 1954 the Supreme Court case Brown v. By 1955, in 1965 the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum and it emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The bill also aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing every child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education, after 1980, the growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down. Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new Charter schools developed during the 1980s and were embraced by the American Federation of Teachers in 1988. These would be legally and financially autonomous public school free from state laws and district regulations. Minnesota was the first state to pass a school law in 1991. By 2009 charter schools were operating in 41 states and 59% of these had waiting lists, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Standards-based education has been embraced in most states which changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, by 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to ensure that all graduates had achieved these standards. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs, the U. S. government may also propose, but cannot enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally lie beyond its jurisdiction. Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum, the level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in. Many states require that courses in the areas of English, science, social studies. The majority of high schools require four English credits to graduate, generally, three science courses are required

6.
Higher education in the United States
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Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education. These may be public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, according to the National Student Clearinghouse, US college enrollment has declined for five consecutive years and is projected to continue declining for the next two decades. Unlike Tertiary education system of UK, American education is unique in the world to place emphasis on Liberal Arts education in its higher education curriculum. As of 2012, the latest figures available in 2015, the US has a total of 4,726 Title IV-eligible, the US had 21 million students in higher education, roughly 5. 7% of the total population. About 13 million of these students were enrolled full-time which was 81,000 students lower than 2010. Colleges and universities in the U. S. vary in terms of goals, some may emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, many combine some or all of the above, being a comprehensive university. Almost all colleges and universities are coeducational, during a dramatic transition in the 1970s, all but a handful of mens colleges started accepting women. Over 80 percent of the colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged. Over 100 historically black colleges and universities operate, both private and public, Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations, independent of the government, to vouch for the quality of competing degrees. Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results, non-accredited institutions exist, such as Bible colleges, but the students are not eligible for federal loans. Community colleges are often, though, not always two-year colleges and they have open admissions, with generally lower tuition than other state or private schools. Graduates receive the associates degree such as an Associate of Arts upon graduating, many students earn an associate degree at a two-year institution, before transferring to a four-year institution to study another two years to earn a bachelors degree. Four-year colleges usually have a number of students, offer a greater range of studies. They are either primarily undergraduate institutions or the institution of a university. Some states, such as Washington, now offer schools simply known as colleges, the elevation in status comes from a cooperation between the community college and local universities. There are two distinctions between colleges and community colleges that arise from this arrangement. The second primary difference is that colleges, in cooperation with university, some colleges go so far as to offer particular, specialized 4-year bachelors degrees, on behalf of the university. Four-year institutions in the U. S. emphasizing the arts are liberal arts colleges, entirely undergraduate institutions

7.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

8.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance

9.
United States territory
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United States territory is any extent of region under the sovereign jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, including all waters and all U. S. naval vessels. The United States asserts sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving and this extent of territory is all the area belonging to, and under the dominion of, the United States federal government for administrative and other purposes. The United States total territory includes a subset of political divisions, the United States territory includes any geography under the control of the United States federal government. Various regions, districts, and divisions are under the supervision of the United States federal government, the United States territory includes clearly defined geographical area and refers to an area of land, air, or sea under jurisdiction of United States federal governmental authority. The extent of territory is all the area belonging to, and under the dominion of, under Article IV of the U. S. Constitution, territory is subject to and belongs to the United States. This includes tracts of land or water not included within the limits of any State, Congress possesses power to set territorial governments within the boundaries of the United States. The power of Congress over such territory is exclusive and universal, congressional legislation is subject to no control, unless in the case of ceded territory. The U. S. Congress is granted the exclusive and universal power to set a United States territorys political divisions, all territory under the control of the federal government is considered part of the United States for purposes of law. From 1901–1905, the U. S. Supreme Court in a series of known as the Insular Cases held that the Constitution extended ex proprio vigore to the territories. However, the Court in these cases also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation, a Supreme Court ruling from 1945 stated that the term United States can have three different meanings, in different contexts, The term United States may be used in any one of several senses. It may be merely the name of a sovereign occupying the position analogous to that of sovereigns in the family of nations. It may designate the territory over which the sovereignty of the United States extends, or it may be the name of the states which are united by. The United States Department of the Interior is charged with managing federal affairs within U. S. territory, the Interior Department has a wide range of responsibilities. The contiguous United States, Hawaii, and Alaska are divided into administrative regions. These are called counties in 48 of the 50 states, and they are called boroughs in Alaska, a county can include a number of cities and towns, or just a portion of either type. These counties have varying degrees of political and legal significance, a township in the United States refers to a small geographic area. Territories are subdivided into legally administered tracts—e. g, geographic areas that are under the authority of a government. The District of Columbia and territories are under the authority of Congress

10.
American Samoa
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American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of Samoa. American Samoa consists of five islands and two coral atolls. The largest and most populous island is Tutuila, with the Manuʻa Islands, Rose Atoll, All islands except for Swains Island are part of the Samoan Islands, located west of the Cook Islands, north of Tonga, and some 300 miles south of Tokelau. To the west are the islands of the Wallis and Futuna group, the 2010 census showed a total population of 55,519 people. The total land area is 199 square kilometers, slightly more than Washington, American Samoa is the southernmost territory of the U. S. and one of two U. S. territories south of the Equator, along with the uninhabited Jarvis Island. Tuna products are the exports, and the main trading partner is the United States. American Samoa is noted for having the highest rate of enlistment of any U. S. state or territory. Most American Samoans are bilingual and can speak English and Samoan fluently, Samoan is the same language spoken in neighboring independent Samoa. Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century, dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first known European to sight the Samoan Islands in 1722. This visit was followed by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville who named them the Navigator Islands in 1768, contact was limited before the 1830s, when English missionaries and traders began arriving. The site of battle is called Massacre Bay. Mission work in the Samoas had begun in late 1830 when John Williams of the London Missionary Society arrived from the Cook Islands, by that time, the Samoans had gained a reputation for being savage and warlike, as violent altercations had occurred between natives and European visitors. In March 1889, an Imperial German naval force entered a village on Samoa, three American warships then entered the Apia harbor and prepared to engage the three German warships found there. Before any shots were fired, a typhoon wrecked both the American and German ships, a compulsory armistice was then called because of the lack of any warships. Forerunners to the Tripartite Convention of 1899 were the Washington Conference of 1887, the Treaty of Berlin of 1889, the following year, the USA formally occupied its portion, a smaller group of eastern islands, one of which contains the noted harbor of Pago Pago. The Navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in 1900, the territory became known as the US Naval Station Tutuila. On July 17,1911, the US Naval Station Tutuila, in 1918 during the final stages of World War I, the flu pandemic had taken its toll, spreading rapidly from country to country. The result of Poyers quick actions earned him the Navy Cross from the US Navy, with this distinction, American Samoans regarded Poyer as their hero for what he had done to prevent the deadly disease

11.
Guam
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Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 210 sq mi and a population density of 770/sq mi. It is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia, among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest density at 3, 691/sq mi, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119/sq mi. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 406 meters above sea level, the Chamorros, Guams indigenous people, settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first European to visit the island on March 6,1521, Guam was colonized in 1668 with settlers, like Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons, during the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21,1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10,1898, Guam is among the seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories of the United Nations. Before World War II, Guam and three other territories – American Samoa, Hawaii, and the Philippines – were the only American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean. On December 7,1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, during the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. Guam endured hostilities when American forces recaptured the island on July 21,1944, since the 1960s, the economy has been supported by two industries, tourism and the United States Armed Forces. The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC and they evolved into the Chamorro people. The ancient-Chamorro society had four classes, chamorri, matua, achaot, the matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also makåhna, skilled in healing and medicine, belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans, Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands, they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built, Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top

12.
Northern Mariana Islands
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The CNMI includes all islands in the Mariana Archipelago except Guam which is the southernmost island of the chain and a separate U. S. territory. The United States Department of the Interior cites a landmass of 183.5 square miles, according to the 2010 United States Census,53,883 people were living in the CNMI at that time. The vast majority of the population resides on Saipan, Tinian, the administrative center is Capitol Hill, a village in northwestern Saipan. However, most publications consider Saipan to be the capital because the island is governed as a single municipality, the first people of the Mariana Islands immigrated at some point between 4000 BC and 2000 BC from Southeast Asia. After first contact with Spaniards, they became known as the Chamorros, a Spanish word similar to Chamori. The ancient people of the Marianas raised colonnades of megalithic capped pillars called latte stones upon which they built their homes, the first European explorer of the area, the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, arrived in 1521. He landed on Guam, the southernmost island of the Marianas, the Spanish ships were met offshore by the native Chamorros, who delivered refreshments and then helped themselves to a small boat belonging to Magellans fleet. This led to a clash, in Chamorro tradition, little property was private and taking something one needed, such as a boat for fishing. The Spanish did not understand this custom, and fought the Chamorros until the boat was recovered, three days after he had been welcomed on his arrival, Magellan fled the archipelago. Spain regarded the islands as annexed and later made part of the Spanish East Indies. In 1734, the Spanish built a palace in Guam for the governor of the islands. Its remains are visible even in the 21st century, see the Plaza de España article, Guam operated as an important stopover between Manila and Mexico for galleons carrying gold between the Philippines and Spain. Some galleons sunk in Guam remain, in 1668, Father Diego Luis de San Vitores renamed the islands Las Marianas in honor of his patroness the Spanish regent Mariana of Austria, widow of Felipe IV. Most of the native population died from Spanish diseases or married non-Chamorro settlers under Spanish rule. New settlers, primarily from the Philippines and the Caroline Islands, were brought to repopulate the islands, the Chamorro population gradually recovered, and Chamorro, Filipino, and Carolinian languages and other ethnic differences remain in the Marianas. During the 17th century, Spanish colonists forcibly moved the Chamorros to Guam, by the time they were allowed to return to the Northern Marianas, many Carolinians from present-day eastern Yap State and western Chuuk State had settled in the Marianas. Both languages, as well as English, are now official in the Commonwealth, the Northern Marianas experienced an influx of immigration from the Carolines during the 19th century. Both this Carolinian subethnicity and Carolinians in the Carolines archipelago refer to themselves as the Refaluwasch, the indigenous Chamoru word for the same group of people is gupalao

13.
District of Columbia
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

14.
James Bryant Conant
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James Bryant Conant was an American chemist, a transformative President of Harvard University, and the first U. S. Ambassador to West Germany. Conant obtained a PhD in Chemistry from Harvard in 1916, during World War I he served in the U. S. Army, working on the development of poison gases. He became an assistant professor of chemistry at Harvard in 1919, in 1933, Conant became the President of Harvard University with a reformist agenda that involved dispensing with a number of customs, including class rankings and the requirement for Latin classes. He abolished athletic scholarships, and instituted an up or out policy and his egalitarian vision of education required a diversified student body, and he promoted the adoption of the Scholastic Aptitude Test and co-educational classes. During his presidency, women were admitted to Harvard Medical School, Conant was appointed to the National Defense Research Committee in 1940, becoming its chairman in 1941. In this capacity, he oversaw vital wartime research projects, including the development of rubber, and the Manhattan Project. Truman to use atomic bombs on Japan, while in this position, he would advise the president against starting a development program for the hydrogen bomb. In his later years at Harvard, Conant taught undergraduate courses on the history and philosophy of science, on returning to the United States, he criticized the education system in works such as The American High School Today, Slums and Suburbs and The Education of American Teachers. Between 1965 and 1969, Conant, suffering from a condition, worked on his autobiography. He became increasingly infirm, suffered a series of strokes in 1977, James Bryant Conant was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on March 26,1893, the third child and only son of James Scott Conant, a photoengraver, and his wife Jennett Orr née Bryant. Conant was one of 35 boys who passed the admission exam for the Roxbury Latin School in West Roxbury in 1904. He graduated near the top of his class in 1910 and he was also an editor of The Harvard Crimson. He joined the Signet Society and Delta Upsilon, and was initiated as a brother of the Omicron Chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1912 and he graduated Phi Beta Kappa with his Bachelor of Arts in June 1913. He then went to work on his doctorate, which was an unusual double dissertation, the first part, supervised by Richards, concerned The Electrochemical Behavior of Liquid Sodium Amalgams, the second, supervised by Kohler, was A Study of Certain Cyclopropane Derivatives. Harvard awarded Conant his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1916, in 1915, Conant entered into a business partnership with two other Harvard chemistry graduates, Stanley Pennock and Chauncey Loomis, to form the LPC Laboratories. In 1916, the departure of organic chemist Roger Adams created a vacancy at Harvard that was offered to Conant, since he aspired to an academic career, Conant accepted the offer and returned to Harvard. On November 27,1916, there was an explosion at the plant, Pennock and two other workers were killed and the plant was completely destroyed. One of the causes was Conants faulty test procedures

15.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model‍—‌many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge‍—‌but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified

16.
John W. Gardner
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John William Gardner, was Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President Lyndon Johnson. A native of California, Gardner attended Stanford University, as an undergrad he set several swimming records and won a number of Pacific Coast championships, and graduated with great distinction. After earning a Ph. D. in Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley in 1938, Dr. Gardner taught at Connecticut College, during the early days of World War II he was chief of the Latin American Section, Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service. He subsequently entered the United States Marine Corps and was assigned to the O. S. S. He joined the staff of the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1946, and in 1955 he became president of that group, and concurrently, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. He also served as an advisor to the U. S. delegation to the United Nations and as a consultant to the U. S. Air Force, which awarded him the Exceptional Service Award in 1956. He was a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and of the Educational Testing Service and he served as chairman of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Panel on Education, and was chief draftsman of that groups widely circulated report, The Pursuit of Excellence. He was also the founder of two influential national U. S. organizations, Common Cause and Independent Sector and he authored books on improving leadership in American society and other subjects. He was also the founder of two prestigious fellowship programs, The White House Fellowship and The John Gardner Fellowship at Stanford University and he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. In 1966 Gardner was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, gardners term as Secretary of HEW was at the height of Johnsons Great Society domestic agenda. Gardner resigned as head of HEW because he could not support the war in Vietnam, Gardner was featured on the cover and in an article of the January 20,1967 Time magazine, and later that year also presided over the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. He served on the Stanford University Board of Trustees from 1968 to 1982, in 1970, Gardner created Common Cause. He also founded the Experience Corps, in 1973, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. In 1980-1983 he co-founded Independent Sector, which lobbies and does PR on behalf of tax-exempt organizations in order to retain the charitable deduction. In September 2000, Gardner lent his name and support to the John W. Gardner died of cancer in San Francisco on February 16,2002 and he was buried in San Francisco National Cemetery there. Excellence, Can We Be Equal and Excellent Too, the John Gardner Fellowship Program was established in 1985 by Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley to honor Gardner. The fellowship encourages highly motivated graduating seniors to pursue careers in public, three fellows from each university are chosen annually and provided with placement assistance, a $27,500 stipend, and a senior mentor in their placement organization. Past placements have included the White House, the United States Department of State, over time, additional supporters have contributed to the program

17.
Carnegie Corporation
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected corporation for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Corporations capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31,1999. During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, as the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for purposes in Canada. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth. During the corporations early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee, James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions, soon after Carnegies death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board. Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegies personal philanthropies, until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools. In his letter of gift to his trustees, Carnegie wrote, Conditions upon erth inevitably change, hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths. I disclaim any intention of doing so, on the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement, thus, over the years, the corporations priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational. After Carnegies death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research, convinced of the nations need to increase scientific expertise and scientific management, the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. At this time, the corporation developed a interest in adult education. During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore opportunities for adults. The foundations grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes, widely heralded, Myrdals book American Dilemma had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and his cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations

18.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

19.
Governor of North Carolina
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The Governor of North Carolina is the head of the executive branch of North Carolinas state government and serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The current governor is Roy Cooper who took office on January 1,2017, among other responsibilities, the governor heads the Council of State. The Governor of North Carolina was the last state chief executive to receive veto power, the Governor of North Carolina has extensive powers of appointment of executive branch officials, some judges, and members of boards and commissions. Nevertheless, the office has an amount of institutional power compared to governors in other states. Originally, under the first North Carolina Constitution, the office was very weak, dudley became the first governor elected by the people in 1836. Governors served two-year terms from 1836 until a new constitution was adopted in 1868, since then, well into the twentieth century, the North Carolina state constitution made the states governor one of the weakest in the nation. Until an amendment was added to the constitution in 1971, North Carolina Governors could only serve a single four-year term. After the amendment was passed, in 1980 James B. Hunt became the first governor in history to be elected to a second term. Governors are still limited to two consecutive four-year terms, but they may run for further non-consecutive terms. Governor Hunt did just that, winning election to a third, the Lieutenant Governor is also limited to two consecutive four-year terms. North Carolina was also the last state in the Union to give its governors veto power over legislation, after the state gained its independence from Britain, the state constitution deliberately weakened the executive branch of state government and strengthened the legislative branch. Since the end of Reconstruction in the 1870s the overwhelming majority of the governors have been Democrats. The only Republican to be elected Governor between 1876 and 1972 was Daniel L. Russell, who served 1897–1901, even so, Republicans have still had difficulty in winning gubernatorial elections in North Carolina, and the office has usually remained in Democratic hands. The Governor lives in the North Carolina Executive Mansion, a Queen Anne style Victorian house in downtown Raleigh and his or her principal office is located in the North Carolina State Capitol. com North Carolina Encyclopedia

20.
Terry Sanford
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James Terry Sanford was a United States politician and educator from North Carolina. A member of the Democratic Party, Sanford was the 65th Governor of North Carolina, Presidential candidate in the 1970s and a U. S. Senator. From 1969 to 1985, Sanford was President of Duke University, an Eagle Scout as a youth, Sanford became an FBI agent after graduating from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1939. During World War II, he saw combat in the European Theatre, Sanford was born in 1917 in Laurinburg, North Carolina, the son of Elizabeth Terry and Cecil Leroy Sanford, both of English descent. He became an Eagle Scout in Laurinburgs Troop 20 of the Boy Scouts of America, shortly before he died, Sanford related his Scouting experience to journalist David Gergen and said that it probably saved my life in the war. Boys who had been Scouts or had been in the CCC knew how to look after themselves in the woods, what I learned in Scouts sustained me all my life, it helped me make decisions about what was best. The BSA recognized him with its Distinguished Eagle Scout Award, Sanford graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1939 and then served as a special agent in the FBI for two years. He married Margaret Rose Knight on July 4,1942, during World War II, he enlisted as a private in the US Army and later attained the rank of first lieutenant. He parachuted into France with the 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment and subsequently fought in the Battle of the Bulge and he was awarded the Bronze Star and Purple Heart for his bravery and wounds, respectively. Sanford was honorably discharged in 1946, Sanford later served as a company commander with the rank of captain in Company K of 119th Infantry Regiment of the North Carolina Army National Guard from 1948 to 1960. Sanford was an assistant director of the Institute of Government of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill from 1946 until 1948, Sanford served one term as a state senator, and chose not to run for a second term. He ran for governor of North Carolina in 1960, defeating I, beverly Lake, Sr. Malcolm Buie Seawell, and John D. Larkins in the Democratic primary and Robert Gavin in the general election. Elected to a term, Sanford served from January 1961 through January 1965. Driven by his belief that a person could accomplish anything with a good education and he began consolidating the University of North Carolina system to ensure its solvency and strength and oversaw the creation of the North Carolina Community College System. He conceived the idea for the Governors School of North Carolina and he fought for racial desegregation, and even sent his son to a desegregated public school at a time when such a position was politically unpopular and possibly dangerous. He also established the North Carolina Fund under the leadership of George Esser to fight poverty, controversial tax increases were made to finance these educational programs. One such tax, on food, roused much opposition and was decried as regressive by many, the food tax, nicknamed Terrys Tax, and other taxes implemented by Sanford diminished his popularity and were heavily criticized by his political opponents. Governor Sanford was a political ally of President John F. Kennedy

21.
Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver

22.
National Assessment of Educational Progress
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The National Assessment of Educational Progress is the largest continuing and nationally representative assessment of what U. S. students know and can do in various subjects. NAEP is a congressionally mandated project administered by the National Center for Education Statistics, the first national administration of NAEP occurred in 1969. Congress created the 26-member Governing Board in 1988, NAEP results are designed to provide group-level data on student achievement in various subjects, and are released as The Nation’s Report Card. There are no results for students, classrooms, or schools. NAEP reports results for different demographic groups, including gender, socioeconomic status, assessments are given most frequently in mathematics, reading, science and writing. Other subjects such as the arts, civics, economics, geography, technology and engineering literacy, in addition to assessing student achievement in various subjects, NAEP also surveys students, teachers, and school administrators to help provide contextual information. Questions asking about participants race or ethnicity, school attendance, and academic expectations help policy makers, researchers, and the general public better understand the assessment results. Teachers, principals, parents, policymakers, and researchers all use NAEP results to assess student progress across the country, NAEP has been providing valid and reliable data on student performance since 1969. Data is also provided on students with disabilities and English language learners, there are two NAEP websites, the NCES NAEP website and The Nation’s Report Card website. The first site details the NAEP program holistically, while the second focuses primarily on the releases of data. NAEP began in 1964, with a grant from the Carnegie Corporation to set up the Exploratory Committee for the Assessment of Progress in Education, the first national assessments were held in 1969. Voluntary assessments for the states began in 1990 on a trial basis, in 2002, selected urban districts participated in the state-level assessments on a trial basis and continue as the Trial Urban District Assessment. The development of a successful NAEP program has involved many, including researchers, state officials, contractors, policymakers, students. There are two types of NAEP assessments, main NAEP and long-term trend NAEP and this separation makes it possible to meet two objectives, As educational priorities change, develop new assessment instruments that reflect current educational content and assessment methodology. Main NAEP assessments are conducted in a range of subjects with fourth-, eighth-, assessments are given most frequently in mathematics, reading, science, and writing. Other subjects such as the arts, civics, economics, geography, technology and engineering literacy and these assessments follow subject-area frameworks that are developed by the NAGB and use the latest advances in assessment methodology. Under main NAEP, results are reported at the level, and in some cases. National NAEP reports statistical information about student performance and factors related to performance for the nation

23.
Educational Testing Service
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Educational Testing Service, founded in 1947, is the worlds largest private nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization. It is headquartered in Lawrence Township, New Jersey, but with a Princeton address, in total, ETS annually administers 20 million exams in the U. S. and in 180 other countries. ETS is a U. S. ETS was formed in 1947 to take over the activities of its founders. This broad-based research program attracted many individuals who distinguished themselves in their fields, often while at ETS, patricia Cross, Samuel Ball, and David Rosenhan. Not including its subsidiaries, ETS employs about 2,700 individuals, including 240 with doctorates. To help support its educational mission, ETS, like many other nonprofits, conducts business activities that are unrelated to that mission. Under US tax law, these activities may be conducted by the nonprofit itself, about 25% of the work carried out by ETS is contracted by the College Board, a private, nonprofit membership association of universities, colleges, school districts, and secondary schools. The most popular of the College Boards tests is the SAT, since 1983, ETS has conducted the National Assessment of Educational Progress, known as the Nations Report Card, under contract to the US National Center for Education Statistics. NAEP is the only representative and continuing assessment of what US students know. ETS is responsible for coordination among the nine NAEP Alliance contractors, for development, and for design, data analysis. These tests include the Graduate Record Examinations, the Test of English as a Foreign Language, the Test of English for International Communication, and the Praxis Series. In England and Wales ETS Europe, a unit of the ETS Global for-profit subsidiary, was contracted to mark and process the National Curriculum assessments on behalf of the government. ETS Global took over this role in 2008 from Edexcel, a subsidiary of Pearson, the opposition Conservative party criticized the awarding of the contracts to ETS, and produced a dossier listing previous problems with ETSs service. The ETS contract with the QCA was terminated in August 2008, with an agreement to pay back £19. 5m, subsequently, the contract for National Curriculum assessment marking and processing was again awarded to Edexcel. In 2009, ETS released the My Credentials Vault Service with Interfolio, ETS has been criticized for being a highly competitive business operation that is as much multinational monopoly as nonprofit institution. Due to its status as a non-profit organization, ETS is exempt from paying federal corporate income tax on many. Problems administering Englands national tests in 2008 by ETS Europe were the subject of thousands of complaints recorded by the Times Educational Supplement and their operations were also described as a shambles in the UK Parliament, where a financial penalty was called for. Complaints included papers not being marked properly, or not being marked at all and it has even been suggested that the quality of service is so poor that the Department for Children, Schools and Families might not be able to publish the 2008 league tables of school performance

24.
Jurisdiction
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Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area

25.
State legislature (United States)
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A state legislature in the United States is the legislative body of any of the 50 U. S. states. The formal name varies from state to state, in 25 states, the legislature is simply called the Legislature, or the State Legislature, while in 19 states, the legislature is called the General Assembly. In Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the legislature is called the General Court, while North Dakota, every state except Nebraska has a bicameral legislature, meaning that the legislature consists of two separate legislative chambers or houses. In each case the smaller chamber is called the Senate and is referred to as the upper house. This chamber typically, but not always, has the power to confirm appointments made by the governor. Members of the chamber represent more citizens and usually serve for longer terms than members of the larger chamber. In 41 states, the chamber is called the House of Representatives. Five states designate the larger chamber the Assembly and three states call it the House of Delegates, members of the larger chamber usually serve for terms of two years. The larger chamber customarily has the power to initiate taxing legislation. In 1964, the United States Supreme Court announced the one man, one vote standard, Nebraska originally had a bicameral legislature like the other states, but the lower house was abolished following a referendum, effective with the 1936 elections. The remaining unicameral legislature is called the Nebraska Legislature, but its members continue to be called senators, as a legislative branch of government, a legislature generally performs state duties for a state in the same way that the United States Congress performs national duties at the national level. During a legislative session, the legislature considers matters introduced by its members or submitted by the governor, businesses and other special interest organizations often lobby the legislature to obtain beneficial legislation, defeat unfavorably perceived measures, or influence other legislative action. A legislature also approves the operating and capital budgets, which may begin as a legislative proposal or a submission by the governor. Under the terms of Article V of the U. S, under Article II, state legislatures choose the manner of appointing the states presidential electors. Formerly, state legislatures appointed the U. S, Senators from their respective states until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913 required the direct election of Senators by the states voters. Generally, the bodies and their committees use either Masons Manual of Legislative Procedure or an amended form thereof. During official meetings, a parliamentarian is available to ensure that legislation. The lawmaking process begins with the introduction of a bill in either the House of Representatives or the Senate, bills may be introduced in either house, sometimes with the exception of bills increasing or decreasing revenue, which must originate in the House of Representatives

26.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain

27.
John H. Chafee
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John Lester Hubbard Chafee was an American politician. He served as an officer in the United States Marine Corps, as the 66th Governor of Rhode Island, as the Secretary of the Navy, Chafee was born in Providence, Rhode Island to a politically active family. He was the son of Janet and John S. Chafee and his great-grandfather, Henry Lippitt, was governor of Rhode Island and among his great-uncles were a Rhode Island governor, Charles Warren Lippitt, and United States Senator Henry Frederick Lippitt. His uncle, Zechariah Chafee, was a Harvard law professor, and his cousin was Frederick Lippitt, former House Minority Leader for the Rhode Island House of Representatives. He had four sons and two daughters, one of whom is former Rhode Island Governor and former United States Senator Lincoln Chafee, John Chafee graduated from a coeducational primary school, Providences Gordon School, in 1931 and then attended Providence Country Day School. In 1940, he graduated from Deerfield Academy in Massachusetts, Chafee was in his third year as an undergraduate at Yale University when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. After receiving his commission as a Second Lieutenant, he fought in the Battle of Okinawa in the spring of 1945, following the war, he received degrees from Yale University in 1947 and Harvard Law School in 1950. At Yale, he was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon and Skull, Chafee became active in behind-the-scenes Rhode Island politics by helping elect a mayor of Providence in the early 1950s. He successfully ran for a seat in the Rhode Island House of Representatives in 1956 and he was re-elected in 1958 and 1960, the latter a year when many Republicans were swept from office in his state. Chafee was elected governor in 1962, helping create the public transportation administration as well as what was known as the Green Acres program. In 1968 he served as chair of the Republican Governors Association and he served as governor until 1969, when he was surprisingly defeated by underdog Democrat Frank Licht. He was appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1969 by President Richard Nixon, Chafees tenure as Secretary was marked by a willingness to make bold decisions and stand by them. His action as Secretary of the Navy that is most clearly remembered is his disapproval of the recommendation to court martial Commander Lloyd Bucher and he served as Secretary of the Navy until 1972 when he resigned to run for the U. S. Senate. He joined the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in 1977 and made environmental matters a chief concern and he chaired that committee during his last term in office from 1995 to 1999. As a result of his work, Chafee was a recipient of the Lady Bird Johnson Environmental Award, among the bills Chafee fostered while in the minority was the Clean Water Act of 1986, and the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act. He also was an architect of the 1980 Superfund program to clean up hazardous waste sites as well as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, Chafee authored the Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982, establishing the Coastal Barrier Resources System. Upon Chafees death in 1999, the CBRS was renamed the John H. Chafee Coastal Barrier Resources System, Chafee was pro-choice on abortion and supported the North American Free Trade Agreement. He took a stance on taxes and government assistance to the needy

28.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island

29.
Charles L. Terry, Jr.
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Charles Layman Charlie Terry Jr. was an American lawyer and politician from Dover, in Kent County, Delaware. He was a member of the Democratic Party and served as Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court as well as Governor of Delaware, Terry was born at Camden, Delaware, son of Charles Layman Sr. and Elizabeth Maxon Terry. He attended Wesley College and the University of Virginia, receiving his Law degree from Washington, at Virginia, Terry was initiated into the Psi Chapter of the Phi Sigma Kappa Fraternity. Terry married Jessica Irby and had one child, Charles III and they were members of Christ Episcopal Church in Dover. Terry was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1924 and practiced in Dover, serving as attorney for the Kent County Levy Court, in 1936, he was appointed Delaware Secretary of State. He then served as Associate Justice of the Delaware Superior Court from December 7,1938 until April 29,1957 and, as President Judge from that date, until July 23,1962. He was then appointed Associate Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court and in May 1963 became its Chief Justice, henry R. Terry had political ambitions and with the support of the incumbent governor, Elbert N. Carvel, resigned as Chief Justice. He was elected as Governor of Delaware in 1964, defeating Republican David P. Buckson, a former acting Governor. ”In particular, the practice of paying fees to these based on the number of cases was ended. A second change occurred with the purchase of Woodburn, the official Governors House, Governor Terry and his family were the first occupants. Terry’s other major initiative was the founding of the Delaware Technical and Community College, the former judge was proving to be a very effective governor, as deft, charming, and authoritative as appropriate. But Delaware could not escape the key issues of the 1960s, in the Delaware General Assembly there were lengthy debates about equal housing, but no significant legislation could be agreed upon. In the streets of Wilmington a few nights of shootings in 1967 resulted in a curfew, Terry went to the Delaware General Assembly and demanded and received the authority to declare a state of emergency with crowd control powers. He immediately put the emergency into effect and although the violence was ended in a week, then, a year later, real problems came with murder of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4,1968. A few days later Wilmington exploded in two days of rioting, looting and burning. Terry again responded with a declaration and sent the National Guard in to assist the city police. A week later, when the situation seemed under control, the mayor lifted the curfew, believing there was more violence to come, Terry refused. It was not until Terry left office, eight months later, while all this was simmering, students at Delaware State College in Dover shouted down Terry during a speech and briefly occupied the administration building. Terry responded by closing down the school for a month, Terry had become known by some as “The Great Divider. ”Terry was not without considerable support for his notable accomplishments and for the way he handled the violence in Wilmington

30.
Delaware
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Delaware is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic and/or Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland, to the northeast by New Jersey, the state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and Virginias first colonial governor. Delaware occupies the portion of the Delmarva Peninsula and is the second smallest, the sixth least populous. Delaware is divided into three counties, the lowest number of counties of any state, from north to south, the three counties are New Castle, Kent, and Sussex. While the southern two counties have historically been agricultural, New Castle County has been more industrialized. Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century, Delaware was inhabited by groups of Native Americans, including the Lenape in the north. It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near the present town of Lewes, Delaware was one of the 13 colonies participating in the American Revolution. On December 7,1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, the Delaware Indians, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source. The surname de La Warr comes from Sussex and is of Anglo-Norman origin and it came probably from a Norman lieu-dit La Guerre. This toponymic could derive from the Latin word ager, from the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin varectum, the toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire also appear in old texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word gara means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr, Delaware is 96 miles long and ranges from 9 miles to 35 miles across, totaling 1,954 square miles, making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania, to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean, small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending 12 miles from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle and this boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. This is the only nominally circular state boundary in the United States, to the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland. The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc, the Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delawares claim was confirmed. Delaware is on a plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, the northernmost part of the state is part of the Piedmont Plateau with hills and rolling surfaces

31.
Calvin L. Rampton
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Calvin Lewellyn Cal Rampton was the 11th Governor of the state of Utah from 1965 to 1977. Following his graduation from Davis High School in 1931, Rampton took over his familys automobile business and he sold the business in 1933 and entered the University of Utah, graduating in 1936. Rampton served as Davis County Attorney from 1938-1940, the other public office he would be elected to until becoming Governor in 1965. Rampton married Lucybeth Cardon on March 10,1940, they had four children and he also studied at The George Washington University Law School. The Calvin L. Rampton Complex in Taylorsville, which houses the Utah Department of Transportation and he was the first, and to date, the only governor of Utah to serve three full consecutive terms, and was one of the most popular governors in the state. In 2007, Rampton died of cancer, aged 93, in Holladay, shortly after his death, the Salt Palace Convention Center in Salt Lake City was also named in his honor. Cal Rampton, Former three-term governor dies at 93 Utah History Research Center An Interview with Former Gov. Rampton

32.
Utah
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The Utah Railway is a class III railroad operating in Utah and Colorado, and owned by Genesee & Wyoming Inc. The Utah Railway Company was incorporated on January 24,1912, with the name of Utah Coal Railway, shortened to Utah Railway in May of the same year. It was founded to haul coal from the mines to Provo, Utah, in reaction to company disappointment in the service and route of the existing Denver. In addition, the Utah Railway was the first to equip its air brakes with fourteen-pound tension springs instead of the standard seven-pound springs and these gondolas were known to the railroads employees as Battleships. Parent company Mueller Industries, a manufacturer of products, sold the Utah Railway in 2002 to Genesee & Wyoming Inc. a railroad holding company. As of January,2017, the no longer hauls coal. The Utah Railway also owns a railroad, the Salt Lake City Southern Railroad. In addition, switching services are provided in Ogden and elsewhere, the earliest logo was simply the words Utah Railway Company, spelled out on the locomotives and cabooses, and Utah Coal Route on the drop-bottom gondolas. On paper, however, the logo for many years was a circle with a white background. The wording and image in these circular logos changed over the years, the 1948 logo included the words Utah Railway surrounding a gondola with the initials U. C. R. The 1999 logo was an oval with an image of an SD diesel locomotive, in later years the symbol of the Utah Railway Company was the beehive, which is also the Utah state symbol. Genesee & Wyoming corporate website Trainwebs Utah Railway UtahRails. net Utah Railway page

33.
Robert E. McNair
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Robert Evander McNair Sr. was the 108th governor of South Carolina, a Democrat, who served from 1965 to 1971. McNair was born in Cades, a town in Williamsburg County, in 1944, he married Josephine Robinson of Allendale, South Carolina. He served in the U. S. Navy during World War II, after the war, he completed his bachelors degree in 1947 at the University of South Carolina, where he was a member of the Euphradian Society. He received a law degree at the school in 1948. While attending USC, McNair served as the first Governor of the South Carolina Student Legislature and was initiated into the Kappa Sigma Fraternity and he practiced law in Moncks Corner and Allendale, South Carolina, from which he was elected in 1950 to the South Carolina House of Representatives. McNair won the 1966 general election over State Representative Joseph O. Rogers, Jr. of Manning, after his term as governor, he originated McNair Law Firm, P. A. in Columbia. He was inducted into the South Carolina Hall of Fame, and awarded a doctorate in 2005 by Francis Marion University. On May 21,2009, McNair was inducted into the South Carolina Business Hall of Fame, McNair was governor during the Orangeburg Massacre in 1968, which he blamed on Black Power advocates, and called it a stain on the states good record in civil rights. He said it was one of the saddest days in the history of South Carolina, following this, McNair became much more proactive in working to defuse tensions that were present during the integration of the public schools. McNair was diagnosed with a brain tumor during a checkup on September 28,2007. The following week, on November 25,2007, the late Governor McNairs widow, former First Lady of South Carolina, Josephine Robinson McNair, on December 19,2007, about a month after her parents died, Claudia Crawford McNair, died at age 50. She was from Jamestown in Berkeley County, South Carolina, on January 22,2008, Governor and Mrs. McNairs only son, Robert E. McNair, Jr. of Columbia, died at age 60 after a seven-year battle with cancer

34.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation

35.
Tom McCall
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Thomas Lawson Tom McCall was an American politician and journalist in the state of Oregon. A Republican, he was the 30th Governor of Oregon from 1967 to 1975, a native of Massachusetts, he grew up there and in Central Oregon before attending the University of Oregon. After college he worked as a journalist including time at Portlands The Oregonian during World War II, later he worked in radio and then in television as a newscaster and political commentator. He made a bid for Congress in 1954, losing in the general election to Edith Green. While working for TV station KGW, he produced a documentary on pollution in Oregon, which helped to spur environmental cleanup of the air, in 1964, McCall won his first political office, Oregon Secretary of State, followed by two terms as Governor of Oregon. As governor he worked towards environmental cleanup, the Oregon Bottle Bill, Tom McCall Waterfront Park in Portland is one of several items named in his honor. McCall was born in Egypt, Massachusetts on March 22,1913 and he was the grandson of copper-king Thomas Lawson and Massachusetts governor and congressman Samuel W. McCall. As a child he divided his time between Thomas Lawsons Massachusetts estate named Dreamwold and his father’s ranch near Prineville, Oregon named Westernwold, upon graduation from Redmond High School, McCall enrolled at the University of Oregon. Due to his familys growing financial problems he was forced to sit out long periods, after graduating, he moved to Moscow, Idaho in February 1937 to write for the News-Review, and following a merger, the Daily Idahonian. While on assignment in Moscow in February 1939, McCall met Audrey Owen and they had two children, Thomas Tad McCall, an environmental consultant, and Sam McCall. Audrey McCall, died in 2007 at the age of 92, in March 1942 he was fired from the News-Review and traveled to Portland, Oregon to look for work. At the time the economy of Portland was booming due to World War II and journalists and he was quickly offered a job at The Oregonian at nearly triple his wages in Idaho. McCall later put his career on hold for service in the United States Navy and while in the Navy. While working on a story, an official of radio station KGW approached McCall about reading a public announcement over the air. The station management was impressed by his voice and offered him a job as a news announcer. He worked at KGW radio until 1949, when he became assistant to Oregon Gov. Douglas McKay. In 1952 McCall returned to KGW radio, where he served as a newscaster and political commentator until 1955, McCall was a newscaster and commentator at KPTV, Oregons first TV station, for about a year and a half. In November 1956 he followed colleague Ivan Smith out the door during a dispute with management over placement of a sponsors product on the news set

36.
Russell W. Peterson
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Russell Wilbur Russ Peterson was an American scientist and politician from Wilmington, Delaware. He served as Governor of Delaware as a member of the Republican Party, an influential environmentalist, he served as chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality and president of the National Audubon Society. Peterson was born in Portage, Wisconsin, the son of Anton, the eighth of nine children, his father Anton was an immigrant from Sweden who worked as a bartender and barber. Peterson attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison where he received a B. S. in 1938, working as a dishwasher in the lab to pay the bills. In 1937 he married Lillian Turner, with whom he had four children, R. Glen, Peter J. Kristin P. Havill and he married his second wife, June Jenkins, who had been recently widowed, in 1995. He was a member of the Unitarian Universalist Association, at Wisconsin, Peterson was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa Society. After graduate school, Peterson was recruited by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours, for over 26 years he held prominent jobs in research, manufacturing and sales, and finally in corporate management, becoming director of research and development in 1963. All the while, Peterson had become a well known civic activist from suburban New Castle County and his leadership skills inspired Henry B. du Pont to appoint him to the executive committee of the Greater Wilmington Development Council. He was put in charge of the Neighborhood Improvement Program, tasked with solving poverty in the black community, accordingly, Peterson was elected Governor of Delaware in 1968, narrowly defeating the incumbent Governor Charles L. Terry, Jr. His first act was to remove the National Guard from Wilmington, delaware’s executive departments had been run by commissions, appointed by the governor, but with considerable policy independence, and overlapping terms. As a result, the governor had control over his departments only through persuasion, the newly enacted law provided for an eleven-man cabinet organization, with department leadership provided by persons serving at the pleasure of the Governor. In all, Peterson eliminated 100 commissions and boards, Peterson was also a dedicated environmentalist and the guiding force behind the Coastal Zone Act of 1971. This act protected Delawares inland bays and waterways by banning heavy industry from a strip of Delawares 115 mile coastline. The major consequence of the Act was preventing Shell from building an oil refinery. This piece of legislation has since used by other states to protect their shorelines. During his tenure as governor Peterson chaired the Education Commission of the States from 1970 to 1971, the Act was unsuccessfully challenged in court, and Peterson led the environmental movement in Delaware by sporting a badge on his lapel that said To Hell with Shell. In 1972, Delaware became the last state to outlaw flogging as a form of punishment, removing Red Hannah, meanwhile, in spite of warnings, Peterson seemed to be unaware of growing financial problems for the state. Finally, in June 1971, Peterson admitted he had made revenue miscalculations resulting in a $5 million deficit, the mistake opened the door to opponents of the other changes to unleash a barrage of criticism

37.
Robert W. Scott
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Robert Walter Bob Scott was the 67th Governor of the state of North Carolina from 1969 to 1973. He was born in Haw River, North Carolina, Scott unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1980, losing in the Democratic primary. His daughter, Meg Scott Phipps served as North Carolina Commissioner of Agriculture from 2001 to 2003, Scott was honored in 2008 by the North Carolina Society for preserving state archives and historic artifacts and his efforts to increase awareness of the states history. Scott died in 2009 at the age of 79 and is buried in Hawfields Presbyterian Church Cemetery in Mebane and his fathers farm and birthplace, the Kerr Scott Farm, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987

38.
Winfield Dunn
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Bryant Winfield Culberson Dunn is an American politician, dentist, and medical industry official, who served as Governor of Tennessee from 1971 to 1975. He was the states first Republican governor in fifty years, and was just the sixth since the Civil War, Dunn was an unsuccessful candidate for a second term in 1986, losing to Ned McWherter. He has remained active in the Republican Party and the field since the end of his term as governor. Dunn was born in Meridian, Mississippi, the son of Aubert C, Dunn, a prominent attorney and politician, and Dorothy Dunn. In 1944, during World War II, he enlisted in the U. S. Navy and he subsequently served as a reserve lieutenant in the U. S. Air Force. Dunn graduated with a B. B. A. from the University of Mississippi in 1950 and that same year, he married Betty Prichard, the daughter of a Memphis dentist. After working in the industry for several years, he obtained his D. D. S. from the University of Tennessee Medical Units in Memphis in 1955. He initially practiced with his father-in-law before opening his own practice in Memphis, inspired by Barry Goldwaters views on conservatism, Dunn ran unsuccessfully for the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1962. He was elected Chairman of the Shelby County Republican Party, and he was a delegate to the 1968 Republican National Convention, and campaigned for the eventual nominee, Richard Nixon. In 1970, Dunn sought the Republican nomination for governor, boosted in part by a large turnout in his populous home county of Shelby, Dunn won the nomination, edging his nearest opponent, Jarman, by ten thousand votes. His opponent in the election was John Jay Hooker, the Democratic nominee. Prior to the 1970 election, Democrats had controlled the office for 50 years. The social policies of the administrations of John F. Kennedy. Johnson, however, had alienated many Southern Democrats, Republicans began showing signs of life in the 1966 Senate race, when Republican Howard Baker, Jr. defeated charismatic governor Frank G. Clement. In 1968, Nixon won the electoral votes, Republicans won control of the state House of Representatives. With future federal judge Harry W. Wellford and future governor Lamar Alexander steering his campaign, Dunn defeated Hooker,557,024 votes to 498,757, upon taking office, Dunn sought to unify the state, and offered state appointments to both Republicans and Democrats. In 1972, Ned McWherter was elected speaker, and proved more open to cooperation with the Republican governor. In spite of frequent Democratic opposition, Dunn managed to obtain a 0. 6% increase in the sales tax, allowing him to boost highway construction

39.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River

40.
Reubin Askew
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Reubin ODonovan Askew was an American politician, who served as the 37th Governor of the U. S. state of Florida from 1971 to 1979. He led on tax reform, civil rights, and financial transparency for public officials, Askew was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma, one of the six children of Leon G. Askew and Alberta Askew. His parents divorced, in part because of what Askew said was his fathers serious drinking problem, two of his brothers later had similar problems. Askew chose to be a teetotaller and non-smoker. In 1937, his mother moved with Reubin to Pensacola, Florida, askew’s middle name, O’Donovan, was his mother’s maiden name. His signature used the initial in her honor. In 1944, Askew was initiated as a member of Escambia Chapter Order of DeMolay and he graduated from Pensacola High School in 1946. Later that year, Askew entered the Army as a paratrooper, Askew next attended Florida State University, where he was a brother of Delta Tau Delta and Alpha Phi Omega. At FSU, Askew was elected as Student Body President, beginning his career in politics. He graduated from Florida State University in 1951 with a B. S. degree in Public Administration and he later completed law school at the University of Florida Levin College of Law. During the Korean War, Askew served in the Air Force from 1951 to 1953 and he oversaw the program for taking and analyzing airplane reconnaissance photographs of Western Europe. He felt uncomfortable with this task as it violated existing treaties, in 1955, Askew returned to Pensacola, Florida, where he formed a law firm with David Levin. The firm was called Levin & Askew, and now is named Levin Papantonio Law Firm, in 1956, Askew was elected Assistant County Solicitor of Escambia County, Florida as a Democrat. In 1958, he was elected to the Florida House of Representatives, after serving two terms in the House, in 1962 Askew was elected to the Florida Senate from the 2nd district, also representing Escambia. He was reelected to a seat encompassing both Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties in 1966, and again in 1967 and 1968. From 1969 to 1970, he served as president pro tempore of the Senate, in 1971 he received the Legion of Honor from the International Supreme Council of the Order of DeMolay. The state houses had been apportioned by county, resulting in inequities that did not represent current state conditions. Urban areas were underrepresented in the legislature, as was typical of many states, rural legislators had resisted reapportionment in order to retain power

41.
Florida
–
Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St

42.
John C. West
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John Carl West, Sr. was an American Democratic Party politician who served as the 109th Governor of South Carolina from 1971 to 1975. From 1977 to 1981, he was the U. S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia, West was born in Camden, South Carolina. He was reared in the Kershaw County farming community of Charlotte Thompson, in May 1923, his father, along with seventy-six other persons, was killed in a fire at the nearby Cleveland School. His mother and maternal grandmother escaped unharmed from the fire, West was hence reared by his determined single mother. In 1942, he married his sweetheart, Lois Rhame. The couple had three children, a daughter and two sons, Shelton, Douglas, and John, Jr, following the war, West earned a law degree in 1948 from the University of South Carolina in the capital city of Columbia. From 1948 to 1952, he served on the South Carolina Highway Commission, from 1955 to 1967, West served in the state senate from Kershaw County. At the time he was a segregationist but felt uncomfortable denying basic rights to African Americans, West was the 80th Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina, having served from 1967 to 1971. The GOP had also made a presidential bid in the state in 1960. In the 1970 gubernatorial election, in which McNair was constitutionally barred from seeking a full term. Representative Albert W. Watson, a Democrat-turned-Republican who carried Thurmonds backing, Watson finished with 45.9 percent of the ballots cast. A former state legislator, Alfred W. Bethea of Dillon, as governor, West was known for his accessibility with the media and his openness with legislators. In carrying out his duties, he kept an eye on history. He worked to increase employment opportunities in the state, the Orangeburg Times and Democrat wrote that Wests greatest single success was in the field of economic growth. With the states growing income and new jobs, the trend of out-migration. was halted. Under West, South Carolina in October 1971 held its first ever integrated state fair in Columbia, on March 28,1973, the South Carolina Legislature ratified an amendment to the state constitution that allowed restaurants to serve mixed drinks. S. and Saudi Arabia. He began by setting up visits by members of Congress, including Senator Jacob Javits, to them to see firsthand the problems. In a five-point formula for potential peace in the region, Carter endorsed the creation of a Palestinian state, an issue still opposed by conservatives and defenders of Israel

43.
Arch A. Moore, Jr.
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Arch Alfred Moore Jr. was an American lawyer and Republican politician from West Virginia. He began his career as a state legislator in 1952. He was elected the 28th and 30th Governor of West Virginia from 1969 until 1977, amid allegations of corruption he ran for reelection in 1988, but was unseated by Democrat Gaston Caperton. He was eventually prosecuted for and pleaded guilty to five felony charges, in 1990 he was sentenced to five years and ten months in prison. He served over three years before his release, as a result of his conviction, Moore was disbarred and forfeited his state pension. In 1995, he paid a settlement of $750,000 to the state, Moore was born in Moundsville, West Virginia, in the states industrial northern panhandle, the son of Genevieve and Archie Alfred Moore. He briefly attended Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, before he was drafted for World War II service and he was in the Army Specialized Training Program training to be an engineer, but military manpower requirements changed and he was sent to the infantry. He received a wound in the jaw from enemy machine gun fire in Germany. Moore was left for dead for two days in a German farmers beet field after 33 of the 36 members of his died in battle. Sergeant Moore was decorated with the Purple Heart, Bronze Star, Combat Infantrymans Badge and he then entered West Virginia University graduating in 1948 and then from its law school in 1951. The event has become a permanent part of the schools calendar and he was also a member of the Beta Psi chapter of Beta Theta Pi at West Virginia University and was a recipient of the fraternitys Oxford Cup. Moore was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1952, in 1954, Moore made his first run for the US Congress, challenging incumbent Democratic Congressman Bob Mollohan, but lost. In 1956, Moore was elected to the seat following Mollohan having vacated it to run for Governor of West Virginia, in 1962, his district was merged with the 3rd District of longtime Democratic incumbent Cleveland M. Bailey, Moore won by just 762 votes. Moore was subsequently re-elected in 1966, before seeking the office in 1968. His terms in the House were marked by strong support for public works projects, Moore became the ranking Republican on the House Subcommittee on Immigration and Nationality in 1960. Moore became the first person re-elected governor in 1972, defeating Jay Rockefeller, moores first two terms as governor are best remembered for improvements in the states highway system and for the Buffalo Creek Flood disaster. In 1975 Moore and his 1972 campaign manager were accused by prosecutors of extorting $25,000 from the president of a holding company seeking a state charter for a new bank. In the last week of his term in 1977, Moore accepted a $1 million payment from Pittston Coal Company to settle accounts from the Buffalo Creek Disaster

44.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP

Education in the United States
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Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-a

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A teacher and her students in an elementary school classroom

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A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado

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A building of New York Institute of Technology on its Manhattan campus

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Cost of US college education relative to the consumer price index (inflation).

History of education in the United States
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The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States, the first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. A

4.
Excerpt from The New England Primer of 1690, the most popular American textbook of the 18th century

Education reform
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Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed, however, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs. In the United States, educ

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Joseph Lancaster

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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John Dewey

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Horace Mann, regarded as the father of American public education

Primary education in the United States
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Primary education in the United States refers to the first eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school. Preschool programs, which are formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of education is commonly referred to as kindergarten. Subsequent ye

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A teacher and her students in an elementary school classroom

Secondary education in the United States
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The United States historically had a demand for general skills rather than specific training/apprenticeships. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of education followed by four years of high school. At the turn of the 20th Century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entranc

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Winnebago Lutheran Academy, a private, Lutheran high school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS)

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A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado

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West Orange-Stark High School, a college preparatory high school in Texas

Higher education in the United States
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Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education. These may be public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, according to the National Student Clearinghouse, US college enrollment has declined for five consecutive years and is projected to conti

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The Great Dome of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a university adopting the polytechnic university model.

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The DeSeversky Mansion on the Old Westbury campus of New York Institute of Technology.

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Saint Anselm College, a New England liberal arts college

United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a

2.
United States Congress

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In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.

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George Washington presiding over the signing of the United States Constitution.

U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of

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U.S. states

United States territory
–
United States territory is any extent of region under the sovereign jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, including all waters and all U. S. naval vessels. The United States asserts sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving and this extent of territory is all the area belonging to, and under the dominion of, the

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Original copy of the Constitution.

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A map of the Earth, showing the fifty U.S. states in green.

American Samoa
–
American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of Samoa. American Samoa consists of five islands and two coral atolls. The largest and most populous island is Tutuila, with the Manuʻa Islands, Rose Atoll, All islands except for Swains Island are part of the Samoan Islands, located we

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Coastline of American Samoa

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Flag

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1896 map of the Samoa Islands.

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German, British and American warships in Apia Harbor, Samoa, 1899.

Guam
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Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 21

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Marines laying fire on a Japanese sniper nest (July 28, 1944).

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Flag

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Guam from satellite

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Aerial view of Apra Harbor

Northern Mariana Islands
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The CNMI includes all islands in the Mariana Archipelago except Guam which is the southernmost island of the chain and a separate U. S. territory. The United States Department of the Interior cites a landmass of 183.5 square miles, according to the 2010 United States Census,53,883 people were living in the CNMI at that time. The vast majority of th

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Colonial tower, vestige of the ex-Spanish colony.

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Flag

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Saipan under the administration of Japan

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Marine infantrymen in Garapan, Saipan

District of Columbia
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any

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Clockwise from top left: Smithsonian Institution Building, Rock Creek Park, National Mall (including the Lincoln Memorial in the foreground), Howard Theatre and the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site

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Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the retrocession

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Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865 assassination of President Lincoln

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Crowds surrounding the Reflecting Pool during the 1963 March on Washington

James Bryant Conant
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James Bryant Conant was an American chemist, a transformative President of Harvard University, and the first U. S. Ambassador to West Germany. Conant obtained a PhD in Chemistry from Harvard in 1916, during World War I he served in the U. S. Army, working on the development of poison gases. He became an assistant professor of chemistry at Harvard i

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James Bryant Conant in 1948

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Signature

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Award of honorary degrees at Harvard to Robert Oppenheimer (left), George C. Marshall (third from left) and Omar N. Bradley (fifth from left) in June 1947. Conant sits between Marshall and Bradley. Marshall used the occasion to announce the Marshall Plan.

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Conant attending a meeting at the University of California, Berkeley in 1940. From left to right: Ernest O. Lawrence, Arthur H. Compton, Vannevar Bush, Conant, Karl T. Compton, and Alfred L. Loomis

Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberali

John W. Gardner
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John William Gardner, was Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President Lyndon Johnson. A native of California, Gardner attended Stanford University, as an undergrad he set several swimming records and won a number of Pacific Coast championships, and graduated with great distinction. After earning a Ph. D. in Psychology at the Univers

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Gardner as Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare

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Gardner from White House Fellows release

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Vice President

Carnegie Corporation
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions,

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Carnegie Corporation of New York

New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is

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British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga in 1777.

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Flag

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1800 map of New York from Low's Encyclopaedia

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The Erie Canal at Lockport, New York in 1839

Governor of North Carolina
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The Governor of North Carolina is the head of the executive branch of North Carolinas state government and serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The current governor is Roy Cooper who took office on January 1,2017, among other responsibilities, the governor heads the Council of State. The Governor of North Carolina was the las

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Incumbent Pat McCrory since January 5, 2013

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Seal of the Governor

Terry Sanford
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James Terry Sanford was a United States politician and educator from North Carolina. A member of the Democratic Party, Sanford was the 65th Governor of North Carolina, Presidential candidate in the 1970s and a U. S. Senator. From 1969 to 1985, Sanford was President of Duke University, an Eagle Scout as a youth, Sanford became an FBI agent after gra

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Terry Sanford

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Terry Sanford School of Public Policy at Duke University

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Sanford at 1992 campaign rally

Denver
–
Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the Sou

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Former Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver visited his namesake city in 1875 and in 1882.

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The "Bronco Buster", a variation of Frederic Remington 's " Bronco Buster " western sculpture at the Denver capitol grounds, a gift from J.K. Mullen in 1920

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"Pioneer Mothers of Colorado" statue at The Denver Post building

National Assessment of Educational Progress
–
The National Assessment of Educational Progress is the largest continuing and nationally representative assessment of what U. S. students know and can do in various subjects. NAEP is a congressionally mandated project administered by the National Center for Education Statistics, the first national administration of NAEP occurred in 1969. Congress c

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NAEP Logo

Educational Testing Service
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Educational Testing Service, founded in 1947, is the worlds largest private nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization. It is headquartered in Lawrence Township, New Jersey, but with a Princeton address, in total, ETS annually administers 20 million exams in the U. S. and in 180 other countries. ETS is a U. S. ETS was formed in 1947

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ETS' welcome sign, as seen from Rosedale Road in Lawrence Township

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Messick Hall at ETS headquarters

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Lord Hall at ETS headquarters

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Pond behind Messick and Lord Halls.

Jurisdiction
–
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction

1.
United States Federal Civil Procedure doctrines

State legislature (United States)
–
A state legislature in the United States is the legislative body of any of the 50 U. S. states. The formal name varies from state to state, in 25 states, the legislature is simply called the Legislature, or the State Legislature, while in 19 states, the legislature is called the General Assembly. In Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the legislature

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The Iowa State Capitol building, where the Iowa General Assembly convenes

North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlot

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North Carolina topographic map

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Flag

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The Blue Ridge Mountains as seen from the Blue Ridge Parkway.

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Deer in the Eno River as it flows through the Piedmont region of North Carolina

John H. Chafee
–
John Lester Hubbard Chafee was an American politician. He served as an officer in the United States Marine Corps, as the 66th Governor of Rhode Island, as the Secretary of the Navy, Chafee was born in Providence, Rhode Island to a politically active family. He was the son of Janet and John S. Chafee and his great-grandfather, Henry Lippitt, was gov

1.
John Chafee

2.
Official portrait in the Rhode Island State House

3.
Statue in Colt State Park

Rhode Island
–
Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusett

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Verrazzano Monument, Providence, Rhode Island.

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Flag

3.
Terrain Map of Rhode Island

4.
Shoreline in Newport, Rhode Island

Charles L. Terry, Jr.
–
Charles Layman Charlie Terry Jr. was an American lawyer and politician from Dover, in Kent County, Delaware. He was a member of the Democratic Party and served as Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court as well as Governor of Delaware, Terry was born at Camden, Delaware, son of Charles Layman Sr. and Elizabeth Maxon Terry. He attended Wesley Co

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Governors

Delaware
–
Delaware is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic and/or Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland, to the northeast by New Jersey, the state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and Virginias first colonial governor. Delaware occupies the portion of the Delmarva

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The Blackbird Pond on the Blackbird State Forest Meadows Tract in New Castle County, Delaware

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Flag

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A field north of Fox Den Rd., along the Lenape Trail in Middle Run Valley Natural Area.

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Sunset in Woodbrook, New Castle County, Delaware

Calvin L. Rampton
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Calvin Lewellyn Cal Rampton was the 11th Governor of the state of Utah from 1965 to 1977. Following his graduation from Davis High School in 1931, Rampton took over his familys automobile business and he sold the business in 1933 and entered the University of Utah, graduating in 1936. Rampton served as Davis County Attorney from 1938-1940, the othe

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Calvin Lewellyn Rampton

Utah
–
The Utah Railway is a class III railroad operating in Utah and Colorado, and owned by Genesee & Wyoming Inc. The Utah Railway Company was incorporated on January 24,1912, with the name of Utah Coal Railway, shortened to Utah Railway in May of the same year. It was founded to haul coal from the mines to Provo, Utah, in reaction to company disappoint

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Former Union Pacific CA-1 Caboose on display in Helper. The Utah Railway purchased eight of these cabooses from the UP between 1918 and 1927.

Robert E. McNair
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Robert Evander McNair Sr. was the 108th governor of South Carolina, a Democrat, who served from 1965 to 1971. McNair was born in Cades, a town in Williamsburg County, in 1944, he married Josephine Robinson of Allendale, South Carolina. He served in the U. S. Navy during World War II, after the war, he completed his bachelors degree in 1947 at the U

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J. Rutledge

South Carolina
–
South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vot

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Released in 2000

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Flag

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Table Rock State Park in the mountains of South Carolina

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Francis Marion National Forest in Berkeley County

Tom McCall
–
Thomas Lawson Tom McCall was an American politician and journalist in the state of Oregon. A Republican, he was the 30th Governor of Oregon from 1967 to 1975, a native of Massachusetts, he grew up there and in Central Oregon before attending the University of Oregon. After college he worked as a journalist including time at Portlands The Oregonian

Russell W. Peterson
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Russell Wilbur Russ Peterson was an American scientist and politician from Wilmington, Delaware. He served as Governor of Delaware as a member of the Republican Party, an influential environmentalist, he served as chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality and president of the National Audubon Society. Peterson was born in Portage, Wisconsin,

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Governors

Robert W. Scott
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Robert Walter Bob Scott was the 67th Governor of the state of North Carolina from 1969 to 1973. He was born in Haw River, North Carolina, Scott unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1980, losing in the Democratic primary. His daughter, Meg Scott Phipps served as North Carolina Commissioner of Agriculture from 2001 to 2003, Scott was honored in 2008 by

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Robert Walter "Bob" Scott

Winfield Dunn
–
Bryant Winfield Culberson Dunn is an American politician, dentist, and medical industry official, who served as Governor of Tennessee from 1971 to 1975. He was the states first Republican governor in fifty years, and was just the sixth since the Civil War, Dunn was an unsuccessful candidate for a second term in 1986, losing to Ned McWherter. He has

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Betty and Winfield Dunn in 2007

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Dunn (right) with President Gerald Ford at the White House in 1974

Tennessee
–
Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachia

1.
Monument near the ancient site of Tanasi in Monroe County

2.
Flag

3.
View from atop Mount Le Conte in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, April 2007

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Autumn in Tennessee. Roadway to Lindsey Lake in David Crockett State Park, located a half mile west of Lawrenceburg

Reubin Askew
–
Reubin ODonovan Askew was an American politician, who served as the 37th Governor of the U. S. state of Florida from 1971 to 1979. He led on tax reform, civil rights, and financial transparency for public officials, Askew was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma, one of the six children of Leon G. Askew and Alberta Askew. His parents divorced, in part becaus

1.
Reubin Askew

3.
Secretary of State

Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most p

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St. Augustine is the oldest city in the U.S., established in 1565 by Spain.

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Aerial view of Castillo De San Marcos (Florida).

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The five flags of Florida from the right, Spain (1565–1763), the Kingdom of Great Britain, Spain (1784–1821), the Confederacy, and the United States. France (flag not shown) also controlled part of Florida.

John C. West
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John Carl West, Sr. was an American Democratic Party politician who served as the 109th Governor of South Carolina from 1971 to 1975. From 1977 to 1981, he was the U. S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia, West was born in Camden, South Carolina. He was reared in the Kershaw County farming community of Charlotte Thompson, in May 1923, his father, along wit

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John C. West

Arch A. Moore, Jr.
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Arch Alfred Moore Jr. was an American lawyer and Republican politician from West Virginia. He began his career as a state legislator in 1952. He was elected the 28th and 30th Governor of West Virginia from 1969 until 1977, amid allegations of corruption he ran for reelection in 1988, but was unseated by Democrat Gaston Caperton. He was eventually p

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Arch A. Moore, Jr.

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Boreman

West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of

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Thomas Lee, the first manager of the Ohio Company of Virginia.

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A celebration at a slave wedding in Virginia, 1838

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On October 24, 1861, when voters from 41 counties voted to form a new state, voter turnout was 34%. The name was subsequently changed from Kanawha to West Virginia.

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Bob Graham signing books at the Miami Book Fair International 2011.

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Former Senator Graham (center), with former Florida Governor Buddy MacKay (right) at the dedication ceremony for Pugh Hall, home of the Graham Center for Public Service at the University of Florida.

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Lt. Governor Robb speaks to guests at a luncheon during the Virginia General Assembly 's tour of Marine Corps Base Quantico on February 1, 1981.

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Senator Robb and fellow Virginia Senator John Warner at the commissioning ceremony for the USS Arleigh Burke with Arleigh Burke and wife present and Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney delivering the keynote address on July 4, 1991.

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U.S. Representative Keith Ellison speaking at the site of the I-35W Mississippi River Bridge collapse in Minneapolis. He is flanked by Governor Pawlenty on the picture's left. To right: Mayor R. T. Rybak, Secretary of Transportation Mary Peters behind Ellison, Betty McCollum, and Senator Norm Coleman

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A United States Postal Service vehicle advertising its use of E85 fuel during the Saint Paul Winter Carnival parade in January 2007.