CHAPTER 2 THERMOPLASTICS Acetal (POM) Acetal polymers are formed from the polymerization of formaldehyde. They are also given the name polyoxymethylenes.

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Presentation on theme: "CHAPTER 2 THERMOPLASTICS Acetal (POM) Acetal polymers are formed from the polymerization of formaldehyde. They are also given the name polyoxymethylenes."— Presentation transcript:

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CHAPTER 2 THERMOPLASTICS Acetal (POM) Acetal polymers are formed from the polymerization of formaldehyde. They are also given the name polyoxymethylenes (POMs)

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Acetals are highly crystalline, typically 75 percent crystalline, with a melting point of 180°C. Compared to polyethylene (PE), the chains pack closer together because of the shorter C-O bond. As a result, the polymer has a higher melting point. It is also harder than PE. The high degree of crystallinity imparts good solvent resistance to acetal polymers. The polymer is essentially linear with molecular weights (M n ) in the range of 20,000 to 110,000. Acetal resins are strong and stiff thermoplastics with good fatigue properties and dimensional stability

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Acetal resins are available for injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion. During processing, it is important to avoid overheating, or the production of formaldehyde may cause serious pressure buildup. The polymer should be purged from the machine before shutdown to avoid excessive heating during start-up. Acetal resins should be stored in a dry place. The apparent viscosity of acetal resins is less dependent on shear stress and temperature than polyoleﬁns, but the melt has low elasticity and melt strength. The low melt strength is a problem for blow molding applications. For blow molding applications, copolymers with branched structures are available. Crystallization occurs rapidly with post mold shrinkage complete within 48 hr of molding. Because of the rapid crystallization, it is difﬁcult to obtain clear ﬁlms

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Biodegradable Polymers In selecting a polymer that will undergo biodegradation, it is important to ascertain the method of disposal. Will the polymer be degraded in the presence of oxygen and water, and what will be the pH level? Biodegradation can be separated into two types: chemical and microbial degradation. Chemical degradation includes degradation by oxidation, photodegradation, thermal degradation, and hydrolysis. Microbial degradation can include both fungi and bacteria. The susceptibility of a polymer to biodegradation depends on the structure of the backbone. For example, polymers with hydrolyzable backbones can be attacked by acids or bases, breaking down the molecular weight.

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Polymers that ﬁt into this category include most natural-based polymers, such as polysaccharides, and synthetic materials, such as polyurethanes, polyamides, polyesters, and polyethers. Polymers that contain only carbon groups in the backbone are more resistant to biodegradation Photodegradation can be accomplished by using polymers that are unstable to light sources or by the used of additives that undergo photodegration. Copolymers of divinyl ketone with styrene, ethylene, or polypropylene are examples of materials that are susceptible to photodegradation. The addition of a UV absorbing material will also act to enhance photodegradation of a polymer. An example is the addition of iron dithiocarbamate. The degradation must be controlled to ensure that the polymer does not degrade prematurely.

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Polyvinyl alcohol has been considered in applications requiring biodegradation because of its water solubility Cellulose-based polymers are some of the more widely available naturally based polymers. They can therefore be used in applications requiring biodegradation. For example, regenerated cellulose is used in packaging applications. This material ﬁnds application in blister packaging, transparent window envelopes, and other packaging applications Starch-based products are also available for applications requiring biodegradability. The starch is often blended with polymers for better properties. For example, polyethylene ﬁlms containing between 5 and 10 percent cornstarch have been used in biodegradable applications

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Blends of starch with vinyl alcohol are produced by Fertec (Italy) and used in both ﬁlm and solid product applications. The content of starch in these blends can range up to 50 percent by weight, and the materials can be processed on conventional processing equipment A product developed by Warner-Lambert call Novon is also a blend of polymer and starch, but the starch contents in Novon are higher than in the material by Fertec. In some cases, the content can be over 80 percent starch Polylactides (PLAs) and copolymers are also of interest in biodegradable applications. This material is a thermoplastic polyester synthesized from ring opening of lactides. Lactides are cyclic diesters of lactic acid

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A similar material to polylactide is polyglycolide (PGA). PGA is also thermoplastic polyester but formed from glycolic acids. Both PLA and PGA are highly crystalline materials. These materials ﬁnd application in surgical sutures and resorbable plates and screws for fractures, and new applications in food packaging are also being investigated. Polycaprolactones are also considered in biodegradable applications such as ﬁlms and slow-release matrices for pharmaceuticals and fertilizers. Polycaprolactone is produced through ring opening polymerization of lactone rings with a typical molecular weight in the range of 15,000 to 40,000. It is a linear, semicrystalline polymer with a melting point near 62°C and a glass transition temperature about –60°C

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Cellulose Cellulosic polymers are the most abundant organic polymers in the world, making up the principal polysaccharide in the walls of almost all of the cells of green plants and many fungi species. Plants produce cellulose through photosynthesis. Pure cellulose decomposes before it melts and must be chemically modiﬁed to yield a thermoplastic The plant source does affect molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, degrees of orientation, and morphological structure

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Crystalline modiﬁcations result in celluloses of differing mechanical properties, and Table 2.1 compares the tensile strengths and ultimate elongations of some common celluloses Cellulose, whose repeat structure features three hydroxyl groups, reacts with organic acids, anhydrides, and acid chlorides to form esters. Plastics from these cellulose esters are extruded into ﬁlm and sheet and are injection molded to form a wide variety of parts. Cellulose esters can also be compression molded and cast from solution to form a coating

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Fluoropolymers Fluoropolymers are noted for their heat-resistance properties. This is due to the strength and stability of the carbon-ﬂuorine bond The ﬁrst patent was awarded in 1934 to IG Farben for a ﬂuorine containing polymer, polychlorotriﬂuoroethylene (PCTFE). This polymer had limited application, and ﬂuoropolymers did not have wide application until the discovery of polytetraﬂuorethylene (PTFE) in In addition to their high-temperature properties, ﬂuoropolymers are known for their chemical resistance, very low coefﬁcient of friction, and good dielectric properties. Their mechanical properties are not high unless reinforcing ﬁllers, such as glass ﬁbers, are added

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Nylons Nylons are an important thermoplastic also known as polyamides, are synthesized by condensation polymerization methods, often an aliphatic diamine and a diacid Nylon is a crystalline polymer with high modulus, strength, and impact properties, and low coefﬁcient of friction and resistance to abrasion. They all contain the amide (-CONH-) linkage in their backbone

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There are ﬁve main methods to polymerize nylon. Reaction of a diamine with a dicarboxylic acid Condensation of the appropriate amino acid Ring opening of a lactam Reaction of a diamine with a dicarboxylic acid Reaction of a diisocyanate with a dicarboxylic acid The type of nylon (nylon 6, nylon 10, etc.) is indicative of the number of carbon atoms in the repeat unit. Many different types of nylons can be prepared, depending on the starting monomers used. The type of nylon is determined by the number of carbon atoms in the monomers used in the polymerization. The number of carbon atoms between the amide linkages also controls the properties of the polymer. When only one monomer is used (lactam or amino acid), the nylon is identiﬁed with only one number (nylon 6, nylon 12)

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When two monomers are used in the preparation, the nylon will be identiﬁed using two numbers (nylon 6,6, nylon 6,12). The ﬁrst number refers to the number of carbon atoms in the diamine used (a) and the second number refers to the number of carbon atoms in the diacid monomer (b + 2), due to the two carbons in the carbonyl group.

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Nylon properties are affected by the amount of crystallinity. This can be controlled to a great extent in nylon polymers by the processing conditions. A slowly cooled part will have signiﬁcantly greater crystallinity (50 to 60 percent) than a rapidly cooled, thin part (perhaps as low as 10 percent). Not only can the degree of crystallinity be controlled, but also the size of the crystallites. In a slowly cooled material, the crystal size will be larger than for a rapidly cooled material. The glass transition temperature of aliphatic polyamides is of secondary importance to the crystalline melting behavior. Dried polymers have T g values near 50°C, while those with absorbed moisture may have T g s in the range of 0°C. The glass transition temperature can inﬂuence the crystallization behavior of nylons. For example, nylon 6,6 may be above its T g at room temperature, causing crystallization at room temperature to occur slowly leading to post mold shrinkage. This is less signiﬁcant for nylon 6

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Nylons are processed by extrusion, injection molding, blow molding, and rotational molding, among other methods. Nylon has a very sharp melting point and low melt viscos- ity, which is advantageous in injection molding but causes difﬁculty in extrusion and blow molding. When used in injection molding applications, nylons have a tendency to drool, due to their low melt viscosity. Special nozzles have been designed for use with nylons to reduce this problem. Nylons show high mold shrinkage as a result of their crystallinity. Average values are about cm/cm for nylon 6,6

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A variety of commercial nylons are available, including nylon 6, nylon 11, nylon 12, nylon 6,6, nylon 6,10, and nylon 6,12. The most widely used nylons are nylon 6,6 and nylon 6 Specialty grades with improved impact resistance, improved wear, or other properties are also available. Polyamides are used most often in the form of ﬁbers, primarily nylon 6,6 and nylon 6, although engineering applications are also of importance Additives such as glass or carbon ﬁbers can be incorporated to improve the strength and stiffness of the nylon. Mineral ﬁllers are also used. A variety of stabilizers can be added to nylon to improve the heat and hydrolysis resistance

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Polyacrylonitrile Polyacrylonitrile is prepared by the polymerization of acrylonitrile monomer using either free radical or anionic initiators Polyacrylonitrile will decompose before reaching its melting point, making the materials difﬁcult to form. The decomposition temperature is near 300°C

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Suitable solvents, such as dimethylformamide and tetramethylenesulphone, have been found for polyacrylonitrile, allowing the polymer to be formed into ﬁbers by dry and wet spinning techniques. Polyacrylonitrile is a polar material, giving the polymer good resistance to solvents, high rigidity, and low gas permeability. Although the polymer degrades before melting, special techniques allowed a melting point of 317°C to be measured. Most of the acrylonitrile consumed goes into the production of ﬁbers. Copolymers also consume large amounts of acrylonitrile. In addition to their use as ﬁbers, polyacrylonitrile polymers can be used as precursors to carbon ﬁbers

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Polyamide-imide (PAI) Polyamide-imide (PAI) is a high-temperature amorphous thermoplastic that has been available since the 1970s under the trade name of Torlon PAI can be produced from the reaction of trimellitic trichloride with methylenedianiline as shown in Fig. 2.11

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Polyamide-imides can be used from cryogenic temperatures to nearly 260°C. They have the temperature resistance of the polyimides but better mechanical properties, including good stiffness and creep resistance. PAI polymers are inherently ﬂame retardant, with little smoke produced when they are burned. The polymer has good chemical resistance, but at high temperatures it can be affected by strong acids, bases, and steam. PAI has a heat deﬂection temperature of 280°C, along with good wear and friction properties. Polyamide-imides also have good radiation resistance and are more stable than standard nylons under different humidity conditions. The polymer has one of the highest glass transition temperatures, in the range of 270 to 285°C

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Polyamide-imide can be processed by injection molding, but special screws are needed due to the reactivity of the polymer under molding conditions. Low-compression-ratio screws are recommended. The parts should be annealed after molding at gradually increased temperatures. For injection molding, the melt temperature should be near 355°C, with mold temperatures of 230°C. PAI can also be processed by compression molding or used in solution form. For compression molding, preheating at 280°C, followed by molding between 330 and 340°C with a pressure of 30 MPa, is generally used.

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Polyamide-imide polymers ﬁnd application in hydraulic bushings and seals, mechanical parts for electronics, and engine components. The polymer in solution has application as a laminating resin for spacecraft, a decorative ﬁnish for kitchen equipment, and as wire enamel. Low coefﬁcient of friction materials may be prepared by blending PAI with polytetraﬂuoroethylene and graphite

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Polyarylate Polyarylates are amorphous, aromatic polyesters. Polyarylates are polyesters prepared from dicarboxylic acids and bis-phenols The polymer is ﬂame retardant and shows good toughness and UV resistance Polyarylates are transparent and have good electrical properties. The abrasion resistance of polyarylates is superior to that of polycarbonate. In addition, the polymers show very high recovery from deformation.

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Polarylates are processed by most of the conventional methods. Injection molding should be performed with a melt temperature of 260 to 382°C, with mold temperatures of 65 to 150°C. Extrusion and blow molding grades are also available. Polyarylates can react with water at processing temperatures, and they should be dried prior to use Polyarylates are used in automotive applications such as door handles, brackets, and headlamp and mirror housings. Polyarylates are also used in electrical applications for connectors and fuses. The polymer can be used in circuit board applications, because its high temperature resistance allows the part to survive exposure to the temperatures generated during soldering

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The excellent UV resistance of these polymers allows them to be used as a coating for other thermoplastics for improved UV resistance of the part. The good heat resistance of polyarylates allows them to be used in applications such as ﬁre helmets and shields.

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Polybutylene (PB) Polybutylene polymers are prepared by the polymerization of 1-butene using Ziegler- Natta catalysts. The molecular weights range from 770,000 to 3,000,000. Copolymers with ethylene are often prepared as well. The chain structure is mainly isotactic and is shown in Fig

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The glass transition temperature for this polymer ranges from –17 to –25°C strength, tear resistance, and puncture resistance. As with other polyoleﬁns, polybutylene shows good resistance to chemicals, good moisture barrier properties, and good electrical insulation properties Pipes prepared from polybutylene can be solvent welded, yet the polymer still exhibits good environmental stress cracking resistance. The chemical resistance is quite good below 90°C but, at elevated temperatures, the polymer may dissolve in solvents such as toluene, decalin, chloroform, and strong oxidizing acids

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Polybutylene is a crystalline polymer with three crystalline forms. The ﬁrst crystalline form is obtained when the polymer is cooled from the melt. This ﬁrst form is unstable and will change to a second crystalline form upon standing over a period of 3 to 10 days. The third crystalline form is obtained when polybutylene is crystallized from solution. The melting point and density of the ﬁrst crystalline form are 124°C and 0.89 g/cm 3 respectively. On transformation to the second crystalline form, the melting point increases to 135°C, and the density is increased to 0.95 g/cm 3 The transformation to the second crystalline form increases the polymer’s hardness, stiffness, and yield strength.

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Polybutylene can be processed on equipment similar to that used for low-density polyethylene. Polybutylene can be extruded and injection molded. Film samples can be blown or cast. The slow transformation from one crystalline form to another allows polybutylene to undergo post forming techniques, such as cold forming of molded parts or sheeting. A range of 160 to 240°C is typically used to process polybutylene. The die swell and shrinkage are generally greater for polybutylene than for polyethylene. Because of the crystalline transformation, initially molded samples should be handled with care.

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An important application for polybutylene is plumbing pipe for both commercial and residential use. The excellent creep resistance of polybutylene allows for the manufacture of thinner wall pipes compared to pipes made from polyethylene or polypropylene. Polybutylene pipe can also be used for the transport of abrasive ﬂuids. Other applications for polybutylene include hot melt adhesives and additives for other plastics. The addition of polybutylene improves the environmental stress cracking resistance of polyethylene and the impact and weld line strength of polypropylene. Polybutylene is also used in packaging applications.

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Polycarbonate Polycarbonate (PC) is often viewed as the quintessential engineering thermoplastic due to its combination of toughness, high strength, high heat deﬂection temperatures, and transparency PC has limited chemical resistance to numerous aromatic solvents, including benzene, toluene, and xylene and has a weakness to notches. Applications where PC is blended with ABS increase the heat distortion temperature of the ABS and improve the low- temperature impact strength of PC. The favorable ease of processing and improved economics make PC/ABS blends well suited for thin-walled electronic housing applications such as laptop computers.

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Blends with PBT are useful for improving the chemical resistance of PC to petroleum products and its low-temperature impact strength. PC alone is widely used as vacuum cleaner housings, household appliance housings, and power tools. These are arenas where PC’s high impact strength, heat resistance, durability, and high-quality ﬁnish justify its expense. It is also used in safety helmets, riot shields, aircraft canopies, trafﬁc light lens housings, and automotive battery cases. Design engineers take care not to design with tight radii where PC’s tendency to stress crack could be a hindrance. PC cannot withstand constant exposure to hot water and can absorb 0.2 percent of its weight of water at 33°C and 65 percent relative humidity. This does not impair its mechanical properties but, at levels greater than 0.01 percent, processing results in streaks and blistering.

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Polyester Thermoplastics The broad class of organic chemicals called polyesters are characterized by the fact that they contain an ester linkage and may have either aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon units. As an introduction, Table 2.4 offers some selected thermal and mechanical properties as a means of comparing polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polycyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate (PCT), and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET).

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Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCPs) Liquid crystal polyesters, known as liquid crystal polymers, are aromatic copolyesters The presence of phenyl rings in the backbone of the polymer gives the chain rigidity, forming a rod-like chain structure. This chain structure orients itself in an ordered fashion, both in the melt and in the solid state, as shown in Fig. 2.15

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Liquid crystal polymers are used in automotive, electrical, chemical processing, and household applications. One application is for oven and microwave cookware. Because of their higher costs, the material is used only in applications where its superior performance justiﬁes the additional expense.

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Poly(ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) There are tremendous commercial applications for PET: as an injection-molding-grade material, for blow-molded bottles, and for oriented ﬁlms. The density of amorphous PET is g/cm 3 while the density of a PET crystal is g/cm 3 Once the density is known, the fraction of crystalline material can be determined.

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Polyethylene (PE) Polyethylene (PE) is the highest-volume polymer in the world. Its high toughness, ductility, excellent chemical resistance, low water vapor permeability, and very low water absorption, combined the ease with which it can be processed, make PE of all different density grades an attractive choice for a variety of goods. PE is limited by its relatively low modulus, yield stress, and melting point. PE is used to make containers, bottles, ﬁlm, and pipes, among other things. It is an incredibly versatile polymer with almost limitless variety due to copolymerization potential, a wide density range, a MW that ranges from very low (waxes have a MW of a few hundred) to very high (6 × 106), and the ability to vary MWD.

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PE homopolymers are made up exclusively of carbon and hydrogen atoms and, just as the properties of diamond and graphite (which are also materials made up entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms) vary tremendously, different grades of PE have markedly different thermal and mechanical properties. While PE is generally a whitish, translucent polymer, it is available in grades of density that range from 0.91 to 0.97 g/cm 3 The density of a particular grade is governed by the morphology of the back- bone: long, linear chains with very few side branches can assume a much more three- dimensionally compact, regular, crystalline structure. Commercially available grades are low-density PE (LDPE), linear low-density PE (LLDPE), high-density PE (HDPE), and ultra-high-molecular-weight PE (UHMWPE)

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Very-Low-Density Polyethylene (VLDPE). This material was introduced in 1985 by Union Carbide, is very similar to LLDPE, and is principally used in ﬁlm applications. VLDPE grades vary in density from to g/cm 3 Its properties are marked by high elongation, good environmental stress cracking resistance, and excellent low temperature properties, and it competes most frequently as an alternative to plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). The inherent ﬂexibility in the backbone of VLDPE circumvents plasticizer stability problems that can plague PVC, and it avoids odor and stability problems that are often associated with molding EVAs

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Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE). LDPE combines high impact strength, toughness, and ductility to make it the material of choice for packaging ﬁlms, which is one of its largest applications. Films range from shrink ﬁlm, thin ﬁlm for automatic packaging, heavy sacking, and multilayer ﬁlms (both laminated and coextruded), where LDPE acts as a seal layer or a water vapor barrier. It has found stiff competition from LLDPE in these ﬁlm applications due to LLDPE’s higher melt strength. LDPE is still very widely used

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Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE). This product revolutionized the plastics industry with its Enhanced tensile strength for the same density compared to LDPE. Table 2.5 compares mechanical properties of LLDPE to LDPE

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As is the case with LDPE, ﬁlm accounts for approximately three-quarters of the consumption of LLDPE. As the name implies, it is a long linear chain without long side chains or branches. The short chains, which are present, disrupt the polymer chain uniformity enough to prevent crystalline formation and hence prevent the polymer from achieving high densities Density ranges of to g/cm 3 are polymerized with Ziegler catalysts, which orient the polymer chain and govern the tacticity of the pendant side groups

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High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE). HDPE is one of the highest-volume commodity chemicals produced in the world. In 1998, the worldwide demand was 1.8 × 10 kg. The most common method of processing HDPE is blow molding, where resin is turned into bottles (especially for milk and juice), housewares, toys, pails, drums, and automotive gas tanks. It is also commonly injection molded into housewares, toys, food containers, garbage pails, milk crates, and cases. HDPE ﬁlms are commonly found as bags in supermarkets, department stores, and as garbage bags

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Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE). UHMWPE is identical to HDPE but, rather than having a MW of 50,000 g/mol, it typically has a MW of between 3 × 10 6 and 6 × 10 6 The high MW imparts outstanding abrasion resistance, high toughness (even at cryogenic temperatures), and excellent stress cracking resistance, but it does not generally allow the material to be processed conventionally. The polymer chains are so entangled, due to their considerable length, that the conventionally considered melt point doesn’t exist practically, as it is too close to the degradation temperature although an injection-molding grade is marketed by Hoechst. Hence, UHMWPE is often processed as a ﬁne powder that can be ram extruded or compression molded. Its properties are taken advantage of in uses that include liners for chemical processing equipment, lubrication coatings in railcar applications to protect metal surfaces, recreational equipment such as ski bases, and medical devices

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A recent product has been developed by Allied Chemical that involves gel spinning UHMWPE into lightweight, very strong ﬁbers that compete with Kevlar in applications for protective clothing

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Polypropylene (PP) Polypropylene is a versatile polymer used in applications from ﬁlms to ﬁbers, with a worldwide demand of over 21 million lb. It is similar to polyethylene in structure except for the substitution of one hydrogen group with a methyl group on every other carbon. On the surface, this change would appear trivial, but this one replacement changes the symmetry of the polymer chain. This allows for the preparation of different stereoisomers, namely, syndiotactic, isotactic, and atactic chains.

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Polypropylene (PP) is synthesized by the polymerization of propylene, a monomer derived from petroleum products through the reaction shown in Fig Although in many respects polypropylene is similar to polyethylene, both being saturated hydrocarbon polymers, they differ in some signiﬁcant properties. Isotactic polypropylene is harder and has a higher softening point than polyethylene, so it is used where higher stiffness materials are required. Polypropylene is less resistant to degradation, particularly high-temperature oxidation, than polyethylene, but it has better environmental stress cracking resistance.

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The decreased degradation resistance of PP is due to the presence of a tertiary carbon in PP, allowing for easier hydrogen abstraction compared to PE. As a result, antioxidants are added to polypropylene to improve the oxidation resistance. The degradation mechanisms of the two polymers are also different. PE cross-links on oxidation, while PP undergoes chain scission This is also true of the polymers when exposed to high-energy radiation, a method commonly used to cross-link PE. Polypropylene is one of the lightest plastics, with a density of 0.905

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The nonpolar nature of the polymer gives PP low water absorption. Polypropylene has good chemical resistance, but liquids such as chlorinated solvents, gasoline, and xylene can affect the material. Polypropylene has a low dielectric constant and is a good insulator. Difﬁculty in bonding to polypropylene can be overcome by the use of surface treatments to improve the adhesion characteristics. With the exception of UHMWPE, polypropylene has a higher T g and melting point than polyethylene. Service temperature is increased, but PP needs to be processed at higher temperatures

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Because of the higher softening, PP can withstand boiling water and can be used in applications requiring steam sterilization. Polypropylene is also more resistant to cracking in bending than PE and is preferred in applications that require tolerance to bending. This includes applications such as ropes, tapes, carpet ﬁbers, and parts requiring a living hinge. Living hinges are integral parts of a molded piece that are thinner and allow for bending. One weakness of polypropylene is its low-temperature brittleness behavior, with the polymer becoming brittle near 0°C. This can be improved through copolymerization with other polymers such as ethylene.

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Comparing the processing behavior of PP to PE, it is found that polypropylene is more non-Newtonian than PE and that the speciﬁc heat of PP is lower than polyethylene. The melt viscosity of PE is less temperature sensitive than PP. Mold shrinkage is generally less than for PE but is dependent on the actual processing conditions. Unlike many other polymers, an increase in molecular weight of polypropylene does not always translate into improved properties. The melt viscosity and impact strength will increase with molecular weight but often with a decrease in hardness and softening point. A decrease in the ability of the polymer to crystallize as molecular weight increases is often offered as an explanation for this behavior

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Polypropylene can be processed by methods similar to those used for PE. The melt temperatures are generally in the range of 210 to 250°C. Heating times should be minimized to reduce the possibility of oxidation. Blow molding of PP requires the use of higher melt temperatures and shear, but these conditions tend to accelerate the degradation of PP. Because of this, blow molding of PP is more difﬁcult than for PE. The screw metering zone should not be too shallow so as to avoid excessive shear. For a 60-mm screw, the ﬂights depths are typically about 2.25 mm, and they are 3.0 mm for a 90 mm screw

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In ﬁlm applications, ﬁlm clarity requires careful control of the crystallization process to ensure that small crystallites are formed. This is accomplished in blown ﬁlm by extruding downwards into two converging boards. In the Shell TQ process, the boards are covered with a ﬁlm of ﬂowing, cooling water. Oriented ﬁlms of PP are manufactured by passing the PP ﬁlm into a heated area and stretching the ﬁlm both transversely and longitudinally. To reduce shrinkage, the ﬁlm may be annealed at 100°C while under tension. Highly oriented ﬁlms may show low transverse strength and a tendency to ﬁbrillate. Other manufacturing methods for polypropylene include extruded sheet for thermoforming applications and extruded proﬁles.

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If higher stiffness is required, short glass reinforcement can be added. The use of a coupling agent can dramatically improve the properties of glass ﬁlled PP. Other ﬁllers for polypropylene include calcium carbonate and talc, which can also improve the stiffness of PP. Other additives such as pigments, antioxidants, and nucleating agents can be blended into polypropylene to give the desired properties. Carbon black is often added to polypropylene to impart UV resistance in outdoor applications. Antiblocking and slip agents may be added for ﬁlm applications to decrease friction and prevent sticking. In packaging applications, antistatic agents may be incorporated

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The addition of rubber to polypropylene can lead to improvements in impact resistance. One of the most commonly added elastomers is ethylene- propylene rubber. The elastomer is blended with polypropylene, forming a separate elastomer phase. Rubber can be added in excess of 50 percent to give elastomeric compositions. Compounds with less than 50 percent added rubber are of considerable interest as modiﬁed thermoplastics. Impact grades of PP can be formed into ﬁlms with good puncture resistance.

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Copolymers of polypropylene with other monomers are also available, the most common monomer being ethylene. Copolymers usually contain between 1 and 7 weight percent of ethylene randomly placed in the polypropylene backbone. This disrupts the ability of the polymer chain to crystallize, giving more ﬂexible products. This improves the impact resistance of the polymer, decreases the melting point, and increases ﬂexibility. The degree of ﬂexibility increases with ethylene content, eventually turning the polymer into an elastomer (ethylene propylene rubber). The copolymers also exhibit increased clarity and are used in blow molding, injection molding, and extrusion

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Polypropylene has many applications. Injection molding applications cover a broad range from automotive uses such as dome lights, kick panels, and car battery cases to luggage and washing machine parts. Filled PP can be used in automotive applications such as mounts and engine covers. Elastomer-modiﬁed PP is used in the automotive area for bumpers, fascia panels, and radiator grills. Ski boots are another application for these materials. Structural foams, prepared with glass-ﬁlled PP, are used in the outer tank of washing machines. New grades of high-ﬂow PPs are allowing manufacturers to mold high-performance housewares.

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Polypropylene ﬁlms are used in a variety of packaging applications. Both oriented and nonoriented ﬁlms are used. Film tapes are used for carpet backing and sacks. Foamed sheet is used in a variety of applications including thermoformed packaging. Fibers are another important application for polypropylene, particularly in carpeting, because of its low cost and wear resistance. Fibers prepared from polypropylene are used in both woven and nonwoven fabrics.

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Polyurethane (PUR) Polyurethanes are very versatile polymers. They are used as ﬂexible and rigid foams, elastomers, and coatings. Polyurethanes are available as both thermosets and thermoplastics. In addition, their hardnesses span the range from rigid material to elastomer Polyurethanes ﬁnd application in many areas. They can be used as impact modiﬁers for other plastics. Other applications include rollers or wheels, exterior body parts, drive belts, and hydraulic seals. Polyurethanes can be used in ﬁlm applications such as textile laminates for clothing and protective coatings for hospital beds

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They are also used in tubing and hose in both unreinforced and reinforced forms because of their low-temperature properties and toughness. Their abrasion resistance allows them to be used in applications such as athletic shoe soles and ski boots. Polyurethanes are also used as coatings for wire and cable Polyurethanes can be processed by a variety of methods, including extrusion, blow molding, and injection molding. They tend to pick up moisture and must be thoroughly dried prior to use. The processing conditions vary with the type of polyurethane; higher hardness grades usually require higher processing temperatures. Polyurethanes tend to exhibit shear sensitivity at lower melt temperatures. Post-mold heating in an oven, shortly after processing, can often improve the properties of the ﬁnished product. A cure cycle of 16 to 24 hr at 100°C is typical

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Styrenics The styrene family is well suited for applications where rigid, dimensionally stable molded parts are required. PS is a transparent, brittle, high-modulus material with a multitude of applications, primarily in packaging, disposable cups, and medical ware. When the mechanical properties of the PS homopolymer are modiﬁed to produce a tougher, more ductile blend, as in the case of rubber-modiﬁed high-impact grades of PS (HIPS), a far wider range of applications becomes available. HIPS is preferred for durable, molded items including radio, television, and stereo cabinets as well as compact disc jewel cases.

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Copolymerization is also used to produce engineering-grade plastics of higher performance as well as higher price, with acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and styrene- acrylonitrile (SAN) plastics being of greatest industrial importance. General-Purpose Polystyrene (PS). PS is one of the four plastics whose com- bined usage accounts for 75 percent of the worldwide usage of plastics. These four commodity thermoplastics are PE, PP, PVC, and PS. PS’s popularity is due to its transparency, low density, relatively high modulus, excellent electrical properties, low cost, and ease of processing

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The amorphous morphology provides not only transparency but, in addition, the lack of crystalline regions means that there is no clearly deﬁned temperature at which the plastic melts. PS is a glassy solid until its T g of ~100°C is reached, whereupon further heating softens the plastic gradually from a glass to a liquid. Advantage is taken of this gradual transition by molders who can eject parts that have cooled to beneath the relatively high Vicat temperature. Also, the lack of a heat of crystallization means that high heating and cooling rates can be achieved, which reduces cycle time and also promotes an economical process. Lastly, upon cooling, PS does not crystallize the way PE and PP do. This gives PS low shrinkage values (0.004 to mm/mm) and high dimensional stability during molding and forming operations.

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Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Polyvinyl chloride polymers (PVC), generally referred to as vinyl resins, are prepared by the polymerization of vinyl chloride in a free radical addition polymerization reaction. Vinyl chloride monomer is prepared by reacting ethylene with chlorine to form 1,2-dichloroethane. The 1,2 dichloroethane is then cracked to give vinyl chloride. The polymerization reaction is depicted in Fig

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The microstructure of PVC is mostly atactic, but a sufﬁcient quantity of syndiotactic portions of the chain allow for a low fraction of crystallinity (about 5 percent). The polymers are essentially linear, but a low number of short-chain branches may exist. The monomers are predominantly arranged head to tail along the backbone of the chain. Due to the presence of the chlorine group, PVC polymers are more polar than polyethylene. The molecular weights of commercial polymers are M w = 100,000 to 200,000; M n = 45,000 to 64,000. M w /M n = 2 for these polymers.

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The glass transition temperature of PVC varies with the polymerization method but falls within the range of 60 to 80°C. PVC is a self-extinguishing polymer and therefore has application in the ﬁeld of wire and cable. PVC’s good ﬂame resistance results from removal of HCl from the chain, releasing HCl gas. Air is restricted from reaching the ﬂame, because HCl gas is more dense than air. Because PVC is thermally sensitive, the thermal history of the polymer must be carefully controlled to avoid decomposition. At temperatures above 70°C, degradation of PVC by loss of HCl can occur, resulting in the generation of unsaturation in the backbone of the chain

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This is indicated by a change in the color of the polymer. As degradation proceeds, the polymer changes color from yellow to brown to black, visually indicating that degradation has occurred. The loss of HCl accelerates the further degradation and is called autocatalytic decomposition. The degradation can be signiﬁcant at processing temperatures if the material has not been heat stabilized, so thermal stabilizers are often added at additional cost to PVC to reduce this tendency. UV stabilizers are also added to protect the material from ultraviolet light, which may also cause the loss of HCl.

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There are two basic forms of PVC: rigid and plasticized. Rigid PVC, as its name suggests, is an unmodiﬁed polymer and exhibits high rigidity. Unmodiﬁed PVC is stronger and stiffer than PE and PP. Plasticized PVC is modiﬁed by the addition of a low-molecular- weight species (plasticizer) to ﬂexibilize the polymer. Plasticized PVC can be formulated to give products with rubbery behavior. Common plasticizers for PVC include dioctyl phthalate, di- isooctyl phthalate, and dibutyl phthalate, among others The plasticizer is normally added to the PVC before processing. Since the plasticizers are considered solvents for PVC, they will normally be absorbed the polymer with only a slight rise in temperature

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This reduces the time the PVC is exposed to high tempera- tures and potential degradation. In addition, the plasticizer reduces the T g and T m therefore lowering the processing temperatures and thermal exposure. Plasticized PVC can be processed by methods such as extrusion and calendering into a variety of products. Rigid PVC can be processed using most conventional processing equipment. Because HCl can be given off in small amounts during processing, corrosion of metal parts is a concern. Metal molds, tooling, and screws should be inspected regularly. Corrosion-resistant metals and coatings are available but add to the cost of manufacturing. Rigid PVC products include house siding, extruded pipe, thermoformed, and injection- molded parts. Rigid PVC is calendered into credit cards. Plasticized PVC is used in applications such as ﬂexible tubing, ﬂoor mats, garden hose, shrink wrap, and bottles.

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ADDITIVES There is a broad range of additives for thermoplastics. Some of the more important additives include plasticizers, lubricants, anti-aging additives, colorants, ﬂame retardants, blowing agents, cross-linking agents, UV protectants and fillers. Plasticizers are considered nonvolatile solvents. They act to soften a material by separating the polymer chains, allowing them to be more ﬂexible. As a result, the plasticized polymer is softer, with greater extensibility. Plasticizers reduce the melt viscosity and glass transition temperature of the polymer. For the plasticizer to be a “solvent” for the polymer, it is necessary for the solubility parameter of the plasticizer to be similar to the polymer

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As a result, the plasticizer must be selected carefully so it is compatible with the polymer. One of the primary applications of plasticizers is for the modiﬁcation of PVC. In this case, the plasticizers are divided into three classes, namely, primary and secondary plasticizers and extenders. Primary plasticizers are compatible, can be used alone, and will not exude from the polymer. They should have a solubility parameter similar to that of the polymer. Secondary plasticizers have limited compatibility and are generally used with a primary plasticizer. Extenders have limited compatibility and will exude from the polymer if used alone. They are usually used along with the primary plasticizer

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Plasticizers are usually in the form of high-viscosity liquids. The plasticizer should be capable of withstanding the high processing temperatures without degradation and discoloration, which would adversely affect the end product. The plasticizer should be capable of withstanding any environmental conditions that the ﬁnal product will see. This might include UV exposure, fungal attack, or water. In addition, it is important that the plasticizer show low volatility and migration so that the properties of the plasticized polymer will remain relatively stable over time. There is a wide range of plasticizer types. Some typical classes include phthalic esters, phosphoric esters, fatty acid esters, fatty acid esters, polyesters, hydrocarbons, aromatic oils, and alcohols.

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Lubricants are added to thermoplastics to aid in processing. High-molecular-weight thermoplastics have high viscosity. The addition of lubricants acts to reduce the melt viscosity to minimize machine wear and energy consumption. Lubricants may also be added to prevent friction between molded products. Examples of these types of lubricants include graphite and molybdenum disulphide. Lubricants that function by exuding from the polymer to the interface between the polymer and machine surface are termed external lubricants. Their presence at the interface between the polymer and metal walls acts to ease the processing. They have low compatibility with the polymer and may contain polar groups so that they have an attraction to metal.

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Lubricants must be selected based on the thermoplastic used. Lubricants may cause problems with clarity, ability to heat seal, and printing on the material Examples of these lubricants include stearic acid or other carboxylic acids, parafﬁn oils, and certain alcohols and ketones for PVC. Low-molecular- weight materials that do not affect the solid properties, but act to enhance ﬂow in the melt state, are termed internal lubricants. Internal lubricants for PVC include amine waxes, montan wax ester derivatives, and long-chain esters. Polymeric ﬂow promoters are also examples of internal lubricants. They have solubility parameters similar to the thermoplastic, but lower viscosity at processing temperatures. They have little effect on the mechanical properties of the solid polymer. An example is the use of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers with PVC.

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Anti-aging additives are incorporated to improve the resistance of the formulation. Examples of aging include attack by oxygen, ozone, dehydrochlorination, and UV degradation. Aging often results in changes in the structure of the polymer chain such as crosslinking, chain scission, addition of polar groups, or the addition of groups that cause discoloration. Additives are used to help prevent these reactions. Antioxidants are added to the polymer to stop the free-radical reactions that occur during oxidation. Antioxidants include compound such as phenols and amines. Phenols are often used because they have less of a tendency to stain. Peroxide decomposers are also added to improve the aging properties of thermoplastics.

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These include mecaptans, sulfonic acids, and zinc dialkylthiophosphate. The presence of metal ions can act to increase the oxidation rate, even in the presence of antioxidants. Metal deactivators are often added to prevent this from taking place. Chelating agents are added to complex with the metal ion. The absorption of ultraviolet light by a polymer may lead to the production of free radicals. These radicals react with oxygen resulting in what is termed photodegradation. This leads to the production of chemical groups that tend to absorb ultraviolet light, increasing the amount photodegradation. To reduce this effect, UV stabilizers are added. One way to accomplish UV stabilization is by the addition of UV absorbers such as benzophenones, salicylates, and carbon black. They act to dissipate the energy in a harmless fashion. Quenching agents react with the activated polymer molecule. Nickel chelates and hindered amines can be used as quenching agents. Peroxide decomposers may be used to aid in UV stability.

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In certain applications, ﬂame resistance can be important. In this case, ﬂame retarders may be added. They act by one of four possible mechanisms. They may act to chemically interfere with the propagation of ﬂame, react or decompose to absorb heat, form a ﬁre resistant coating on the polymer, or produce gases that reduce the supply of air. Phosphates are an important class of ﬂame retarders. Tritolyl phosphate and trixylyl phosphate are often used in PVC. Halogenated compounds such as chlorinated parafﬁns may also be used. Antimony oxide is often used in conjunction to obtain better results. Other ﬂame retarders include titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, zinc borate, and red phosphorus. As with other additives, the proper selection of a ﬂame retarder will depend on the particular thermoplastic.

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Colorants are added to produce color in the polymeric part. They are separated into pigments and dyes. Pigments are insoluble in the polymer, while dyes are soluble in the polymer. The particular color desired and the type of polymer will affect the selection of the colorants. Blowing agents are added to the polymer to produce a foam or cellular structure. Peroxides are often added to produce cross-linking in a system. Peroxides can be selected to decompose at a particular temperature for the application. Peroxides can be used to cross-link saturated polymers.

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POLYMER BLENDS There is considerable interest in polymer blends. This is driven by consideration of the difﬁculty in developing new polymeric materials from monomers. In many cases, it can be more cost effective to tailor the properties of a material through the blending of existing materials. One of the most basic questions in blends is whether the two polymers are miscible or exist as a single phase. In many cases, the polymers will exist as two separate phases. In this case, the morphology of the phases is of great importance. In the case of a miscible single phase blend, there is a single T g, which is dependent on the composition of the blend

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Where two phases exist, the blend will exhibit two separate T g s—one for each of the phases present. In the case where the polymers can crystallize, the crystalline portions will exhibit a melting point (T m ), even in the case where the two polymers are a miscible blend. Although miscible blends of polymers exist, most blends of high-molecular-weight polymers exist as two-phase materials. Control of the morphology of these two-phase systems is critical to achieve the desired properties. A variety of morphologies exist, such as dispersed spheres of one polymer in another, lamellar structures, and continuous phases. As a result, the properties depend in a complex manner on the types of polymers in the blend, the morphology of the blend, and the effects of processing, which may orient the phases by shear.

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Miscible blends of commercial importance include PPO-PS, PVC- nitrile rubber, and PBT-PET. Miscible blends show a single T g that is dependent on the ratios of the two components in the blend and their respective T g s. In immiscible blends, the major component has a large effect on the ﬁnal properties of the blend. Immiscible blends include toughened polymers in which an elastomer is added, existing as a second phase. The addition of the elastomer phase dramatically improves the toughness of the resulting blend as a result of the crazing and shear yielding caused by the rubber phase. Examples of toughed polymers include high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), modiﬁed polypropylene, ABS, PVC, nylon, and others. In addition to toughened polymers, a variety of other two-phase blends are com- mercially available. Examples include PC-PBT, PVC- ABS, PC-PE, and PC- ABS.