Encyclopedia of

Homosexuality and bisexuality

Definition

Homosexuality is the consistent sexual and emotional attraction, including
fantasy, interest, and arousal to a person of the same sex. Bisexuality is
the sexual and emotional attraction to members of both sexes.

Description

References to homosexuality and bisexuality can be found in recorded
history and literature dating back thousands of years. They are part of a
trio of classifications referred to collectively as sexual orientation.
The third is heterosexuality, the sexual and emotional attraction to
members of the opposite sex. Both male and female homosexuals are commonly
referred to as gay while homosexual females are called lesbians.

The earliest documentation of homosexuality in Western civilization occurs
in ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were considered normal by
society. Although there were some homosexual relationships between adult
males, most were between men and boys. Although there is some disagreement
among historians, a number of historical figures were believed to be gay,
including Alexander the Great (356 B.C.–323 B.C.), Plato (20
B.C.–45 A.D.) Virgil (Vergil) (70 B.C.–19 B.C.), Leonardo da
Vinci (1452–1519), and Michelangelo (1475–1564).
Homosexuality in Asian, especially Japanese and Chinese, cultures has been
documented since at least 600 B.C.

Social attitudes towards homosexuality and bisexuality have varied over
the centuries, from complete rejection, or homophobia, through covert
acceptance, to complete normalization, with many degrees in between. The
religious response to homosexuality varies, though in the three major
Western religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) homosexuality and
bisexuality are considered sins.

In some cultures, especially those influenced by homophobic religions,
homosexuality is considered a perversion and has been outlawed; in some
jurisdictions homosexual behavior is a crime punishable by death.
Persecution of homosexuals in such cultures is common. In Nazi Germany,
homosexuals and bisexuals were sent to concentration camps and were
murdered in gas chambers along with other minority and religious groups.

The modern gay rights movement began in the late 1960s and included the
development of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in
colleges and universities. This focus led to changes in social acceptance
and in the media portrayal of homosexuality and bisexuality. In 1973, the
American Psychiatric Association (APA) removed homosexuality from its list
of mental disorders. The legalization of same-sex marriage and
non-gender-specific civil unions is one of the major goals of gay rights
activism. Toward the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s, a number
of jurisdictions relaxed or eliminated laws curbing homosexual behavior,
including sodomy laws and laws preventing homosexuals from serving in
armed forces. This trend culminated on June 26, 2003, with the landmark
U.S. Supreme Court decision
Lawrence v. Texas
which overturned all sodomy laws in the United States.

In 2003, Canada legalized same-sex marriages, according the same rights to
gay married couples as to heterosexual married couples. Gay marriage is
also legal in The Netherlands and Belgium. In 2004, due to several local
and state actions, gay marriages were legalized in San Francisco;
Massachusetts; Portland, Oregon; and several other areas. They were as of
2004 all under legal challenge, and the California Supreme Court nullified
the San Francisco gay marriages in mid-2004. The Defense of Marriage Act,
signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996, prevents federal recognition of
same-sex marriage and allows states to ignore same-sex licenses from
outside their borders.

The correct term or terms to use when referring to homosexuals varies
widely by location and culture. In the United States and Europe, even the
use of the word homosexual can be seen as insulting. In Washington state,
The Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's
Glossary for School Employees
advises that
gay
is the preferred synonym for homosexual and goes on to advise avoiding
the term homosexual, because it is clinical, distancing, and archaic.

The causes of homosexuality and bisexuality are unknown, although there
are many controversial theories. These include genetic, biological,
psychological, and social factors, as well as conscious choice. A majority
of researchers believe sexual orientation is most likely determined by a
combination of factors. Since about the 1970s, researchers have tended to
rule out conscious choice. The reason can be answered in a question: Why
would anyone choose a lifestyle which may well bring them discrimination,
hatred, and even violence?

Much research suggests sexual orientation is set in early childhood. In
surveys of gay men and lesbians, most say they believe they were born that
way. This awareness usually occurs during
puberty
but sometimes earlier. Many experts believe sexual orientation, whether
homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual, is determined by a complex
interaction between anatomical and hormonal influences during fetal
development.

There is also no definitive research on the percentage of the population
that is homosexual or bisexual. Studies in the 1940s and 1950s by
biologist and sex researcher Alfred C. Kinsey (1894–1956) found
that 2 percent of women and 10 percent of men were exclusively homosexual
and that 37 percent of men reported having at least one same-sex
experience after
adolescence
.
The validity of this research, while often cited in scientific
literature, is questionable, since most of the study subjects were over 30
years old, white, and not randomly selected.

School age

Several studies suggest that first sexual attraction, whether for
homosexuals, bisexuals, or heterosexuals, begins in middle childhood at
about age 10. At this time, the adrenal glands begin to produce sex
steroids, which motivate sexual attraction as well as social and emotional
behavior.

Development of sexual identity in middle childhood and early adolescence
is a natural process but is more stressful for homosexual adolescents,
according to the American School Health Association (ASHA). To avoid
rejection and hostility, homosexual adolescents feel obliged to hide their
sexual identities. Professionals generally agree that homosexual identity
development usually occurs in stages, according to a March 2003 article in
ASHA
Journal of School Health.

The first stage is identified as "sensitization" or early
awareness, where, around age 10, a child experiences same-sex attraction
and feelings of being different than other children. The second stage is
"identity confusion," in which simple awareness is no longer
ignored. Gay male and lesbian children usually try to hide their sexual
identities because society encourages heterosexuality. This stage is
usually resolved by denying or hiding homosexual feelings, repressing
same-sex attraction, or taking on a homosexual identity.

The next stage is "identity assumption," in which the person
accepts their homosexuality but usually limits disclosure to others. The
final stage is "identity consolidation," also known as
"coming out," in which disclosure may be expanded and the
homosexual identity may be incorporated into social activities.

After identifying themselves as homosexual or bisexual, adolescents face
the often-difficult problem of deciding whom to tell that they are gay or
bisexual. According to a 1999 report by Cornell University, the average
coming-out age for a gay and lesbian young person in the United States is
14–15 years, significantly younger than the average age of
19–23 during the late 1970s and early 1980s, according to the
advocacy group Tolerance.com. Confidence and openness about their sexual
orientation at a younger age, however, almost invariably exposes young
people to homophobia and abuse at an early age, the group states on its
Web site (http://www.tolerance.org).

Common problems

In hiding their sexual identities, homosexual and bisexual adolescents
deprive themselves and each other of positive role models. However,
disclosure to
family
members may lead to pressure to change through psychological or religious
"conversion" therapies, which the ASHA regards as
ineffective. The ASHA and most other professional organizations say family
support when an adolescent discloses that they are gay or bisexual is
crucial to the child's mental and emotional health. Children and
teens who reveal that they are gay or bisexual to non-supportive families
are much more likely to become runaways and resort to prostitution for
financial support.

Research shows inconsistencies regarding disclosure. To test how a family
will react, a gay or bisexual child or teen will often first tell a
sibling whom they feel they can trust and whom they believe is most likely
to be supportive, most often a sister. Mothers are more often disclosed to
than fathers because fathers tend to have a more negative reaction.
Studies also show that parents react more negatively when a son tells them
he is gay or bisexual than when a daughter reveals she is lesbian or
bisexual.

Numerous studies show that gay and bisexual youth are at a higher risk of
dropping out of school, of being kicked out of their homes, and becoming
prostitutes, than their heterosexual peers. They also have a higher
incidence of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. Studies have also shown that
gay and bisexual adolescents are two to seven times more likely to commit
or attempt
suicide
compared to heterosexual children and teens. Other studies have found
that 45 percent of gay males and 20 percent of lesbians were victims of
verbal or physical abuse in middle and high school and were two to four
times more likely to be threatened with a weapon compared to heterosexual
students.

Parental concerns

Studies have shown that parents usually go through a series of stages when
they learn a child is gay or bisexual. In the first stage, nearly all
parents go through a grieving period after learning their child is gay or
bisexual. The parents mourn the loss of what they assumes was their
child's heterosexuality and "traditional" lifestyle,
the lack of grandchildren and their role as potential grandparents, and
the improbability of changing their child's sexual orientation.

Soon after disclosure, parents often experience
fear
and guilt and may deny their child is gay or bisexual. They may urge
their child to change their sexual orientation
or urge them to keep their sexuality secret. Also, parents often become
angry and seek to blame someone for their child's sexual
orientation, such as a gay teacher, a sexual abuser, or as often is the
case with gay males, to blame the father for a lack of engaging the child
in perceived masculine activities such as
sports
. During this anger stage, parents often threaten or abuse the child or
try to force them to change. Any of these actions tends to drive a wedge
between the parents and child and is the primary reason many gay and
bisexual youth run away from home. Sometimes they are thrown out of the
house by their parents and are forced to live on the streets, often
turning to prostitution to survive.

The anger stage is usually followed by the bargaining stage, where parents
try to get their child to change their sexual orientation, sometimes
through God or religion, or through psychological intervention. In this
stage, parents sometimes experience one or a combination of emotions,
including shame, guilt, and depression.

The final stage is resolution, where the parents either accept or deny
that their child is gay or bisexual, though studies show few fully accept
it. Some families remain in denial indefinitely. Others ostracize the
child through eviction from the home or family.

When to call the doctor

Gay and bisexual adolescents may need psychological help in dealing with
their sexual orientation. The vast majority of experts say this counseling
should be supportive and not seek to change the child's sexual
orientation. Counseling that offers emotional support may be helpful for
teens who are uncomfortable with their sexual orientation. Therapy may
also help the adolescent adjust to personal, family, or school-related
problems.

Therapy directed specifically at changing homosexual or bisexual
orientation is not recommended and may be harmful for an unwilling teen,
according to a behavioral health advisory issued in 2002 by the journal
Clinical Reference Systems.
It may create more confusion and
anxiety
by reinforcing negative thoughts and emotions with which the child is
already struggling, the advisory states.

Signs that a child or teem may be gay or bisexual and is having problems
dealing with it include social isolation, avoiding school, threats of
running away
, poorly developed dating skills, low
self-esteem
, self hatred, alcohol and/or drug abuse, harassment at school or home,
feelings of inferiority, depression, threats of suicide, and eating
disorders.

Advice for healthcare professionals

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has issued guidelines for
pediatricians in dealing with gay and bisexual adolescents. An article in
the June 2004 issue of the AAP journal
Pediatrics
states: "Pediatricians should be aware that some youths in their
care may have concerns about their sexual orientation or that of siblings,
friends, parents, relatives, or others. Health care professionals should
provide factual, current, nonjudgmental information in a confidential
manner."

The article states that pediatricians and other health-care professionals
should be attentive of various psychological difficulties, offer
counseling or refer for counseling when necessary, and ensure that all
sexually active youths receive a physical examination, immunizations,
appropriate laboratory tests, and counseling about
sexually transmitted diseases
, and appropriate treatment if necessary.

The
Pediatrics
article also states: "Not all pediatricians may feel able to
provide the type of care [necessary]. Any pediatrician who is unable to
care for and counsel nonheterosexual youth should refer these patients to
an appropriate colleague."

Most gay and bisexual youth seen by pediatricians and other healthcare
providers will not raise the issue of sexual orientation on their own.
Therefore, healthcare professionals should raise issues of sexual
orientation and sexual behavior with all adolescent patients or refer them
to a colleague who can these issues, according to the AAP. Pediatricians
should also consider displaying posters and offering brochures that
demonstrate support for gay and bisexual teens. The AAP publishes a
brochure dealing with sexual orientation, "Gay, Lesbian, and
Bisexual Teens: Facts for Teens and their Parents."

Advice for teachers, counselors, and other school employees

Because students who discover they are gay or bisexual often experience
rejection, discrimination, isolation, and violence, it is important for
teachers and administrators to be supportive and highly sensitive to the
stress gay and bisexual youth feel, according to the American School
Health Association. Schools are legally obligated to protect students from
discrimination and harassment from other students, from teachers, and from
all other school employees. In 1996, a federal appeals court ruled that
school officials can be held liable under the Equal Protection Clause of
the U.S. Constitution for not protecting gay and bisexual students from
harassment and discrimination.

The non-profit group Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG)
makes the following recommendations for all schools:

have a harassment policy or student bill of rights that explicitly
includes sexual orientation

provide annual, mandatory training for all school employees about sexual
orientation and on intervention against bullying of gay and bisexual
students

have a support group for gay, bisexual, and straight students

have information on display and readily available in the library on gay
and bisexual issues

include gay and bisexual issues in the curriculum, including history,
social studies, literature, political science, health, and arts

KEY TERMS

Adrenal glands
—A pair of endocrine glands (glands that secrete hormones
directly into the bloodstream) that are located on top of the kidneys.
The outer tissue of the glands (cortex) produces several steroid
hormones, while the inner tissue (medulla) produces the hormones
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

Coming out
—The process by which gays and bisexuals become public or tell
others about their sexual orientation.

Rosenberg, Miriam. "Recognizing Gay, Lesbian, and Transgendered
Teens in a Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Practice."
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
(December 2003): 1517–1521.

Saltzburg, Susan. "Learning that an Adolescent Child Is Gay or
Lesbian: The Parent Experience."
Social Work
(January 2004): 109–118.