Far East Kingdoms

South Asia

Kalinga
/ Orissa

Many small kingdoms existed in northern
India while the powerful
kingdom of Magadha
dominated in north-eastern India during the first millennium BC, and
occasionally extended its influence across the entire Ganges Plain
towards the modern border with
Pakistan. Like Magadha,
the kingdom of Kalinga (roughly the Puri, Ganjam and Cuttack districts
of modern Orissa (or Odisha since 2011) in central south-eastern India
and part of Andhra Pradesh), was founded by
Indo-Europeans who
migrated into India from around 1500 BC, but who were originally from
Central Asia. This specific group of Indo-Europeans called themselves
Aryans (meaning the 'civilised' or 'respectable', although the rather
tainted 'Aryan' term has been replaced by modern scholars with the more
accurate 'Indo-Aryan').
This rather elitist naming was presumably in reaction to the apparently
barbarous people they encountered, with them displacing (or sometimes
integrating with) the native
Elamo-Dravidian
peoples.

Mentioned in the Mahabharata, Kalinga probably played host to more
than one small kingdom. Two early capitals were at Dantapura and Rajapura,
but its historical beginnings are very hazy. The royal line of Kalinga is
said to have originated from King Vali, who may have been the king of
Magadha, along with the originally non-Vedic lines of
Anga,
Pundra, Suhma, and
Vanga.

Srutayus is one of the leaders in the Kurukshetra War in the
Mahabharata on the side of Kauravas. Other allies include Jayatsena
of Magadha.
Bhagadatta of the Naraka
kings is also involved in the war, as are the
Utkalas of Kalinga, who only form
their own kingdom after Kalinga's fall in the third century BC.

Srutayus is killed by Bhima, one of the heroes of the Mahabharata,
who slays him at the Battle of Kalingas on a black day for all of
Kalinga's heroes.

Orissa has a rich cultural and architectural heritage, but in
terms of major kingdoms it seems to be regarded as something of
a backwater

c.1260? BC

The Kalinga kingdom based at Dantapura is defeated by Sahadeva, prince of
Indraprastha, one of the
five Pandeva brothers.

Chitrangada

Chitrangada has a capital at Rajapura. His daughter marries Duryodhana.

? - c.324 BC

?

Unnamed last king of the ancient Kalinga kingdom.

by 324 BC

The kingdom is defeated by the Nanda king of
Magadha, Mahapadma Nanda.
This is the point at which it emerges from obscurity and semi-mythology into
history, as a region of the great Magadhan kingdom.

Toshali Dynasty

In 273-269 BC
there was a war of succession in the
Mauryan empire. Kalinga
probably took this opportunity to reassert its independence, apparently
recreating a powerful Kshatriya (Vedic warrior caste) state with a capital
at Toshali. Almost nothing is known of this state, so the matter of any
links back to the Kalingan kingdom conquered by 324 BC is completely
speculative. Also unknown is whether there was one king or several during
its short life span, or whether the 'kingdom' was in fact a republic, quite
a popular theory.

Another matter is the name of the king at the time at which the kingdom
was reconquered by Ashoka Maurya. Guha-Siva has been shown as a king
who may have restored the kingdom to independence in the early third
century and may still have been ruling at the reconquest. However a
'Kumar' has also been claimed as the king who was defeated by Ashoka,
as has Raja Anantha Padmanabhan. So far no definitive answer has
emerged.

(Additional information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)

? - c.261 BC

Guha-Siva

Restored the kingdom to independence?

c.261 BC

Kumar

Defeated by Ashoka Maurya.

c.261 BC

Anantha Padmanabhan

'Raja'. Defeated by Ashoka Maurya.

c.261 BC

Perhaps due to its Jain religion, the kingdom is crushed by
the Buddhist Mauryans in a
destructive conflict which devastates large swathes of the Kalinga populace and the
Mauryan army under Ashoka. Around 100,000 people are killed, while 150,000
are taken away into captivity. The kingdom is not able to regain its
independence until the Mauryan empire begins to decay. The
Utkala people, previously part of
Kalinga, eventually emerge with their own kingdom in what is now eastern
Orissa.

Chedi Dynasty / Mahameghavahana Dynasty of Kalinga

In 185 BC, with the fall of the
Mauryans, the
Macedonian kings of
Bactria
annexed the western half of the former empire and the
Sungas took over the
remaining territory in northern India. In former Kalinga itself, according
to the Hatigumpha Pillar inscription, the Mauryan-appointed Sardar of Chedi
assumed control as an independent king. However, the kingdom was apparently
struck by severe weather events and then troubled by the Dravidian kings of
southern India, so the reign of the dynasty's first king, Megavanavarman, was
not a smooth one.

The Chedi dynasty is also known as the Mahameghavahana. Its greatest
king was Kharavela, who took what was a small, poor and disgraced state and
created a strong, powerful and vast empire. At its height it extended from
Takshashila and Nepal
in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. Kharavela's fame spread across the
length and breadth of India. Dates for all kings in this dynasty are very
approximate, and much of the information comes from the Hatigumpha Pillar
inscription, which was created by Kharavela himself. Although it states he
opposed Demetrius, it doesn't say which of the three
Indo-Greek Demetrius' it was,
although the likelihood is that it was the first. If it was the last, that
would place the meeting at around 105 BC (however, some scholars place
Kharavela as late as 50 BC), but this would make Kharavela too young to have
faced the Sunga king, Brihaspathimitra. It is possible that Kharavela claimed
some of the achievements of his predecessors as his own, but until more
evidence comes to light to swing the argument conclusively, Kharavela has
been left to meet Demetrius I, and the timescale means that Maha
Megavanavarman proclaimed independence against the weakening Mauryans,
rather than following their destruction.

(Additional information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha, and from A History of
the Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism, Hampa Nagarajaiah (1999), from a
History of Jainism, Kailash Chand Jain (2010), and from A Textbook
of Medieval Indian History, Sailendra Sen (2013).)

c.232 - 197 BC

Maha Megavanavarman

Former sardar of Chedi.

c.197 - 177 BC

Vakradeva / Kudela

Son?

c.177 - 152 BC

Kharavela / Kharvela

Brother. Born 209 BC.

c.175 BC

Kharavela is claimed as Kalinga's greatest Jain warrior
king, responsible for promoting Jainism in eastern
India. In the second year of
his reign he makes a raid against King Shathakarni, from a kingdom in the
Sattavahana territory bordering Kalinga to the west. Subsequently, during
an attack by Kharavela against the
Sungas of Magadha, Demetrius
of
Bactria invades Magadha from the west, crossing the Ganges for the first
time. Rather than press home his own attack, Kharavela turns on the Bactrian
king and forces him to retreat. (This must be towards the very end of
Demetrius' reign and at the beginning of Kharavela's for them to be ruling
simultaneously.)

The Hatigumpha Pillar inscription in modern Orissa, ancient
Kalinga, which is the main source of information about Kharavela,
the most famous of the Chedi kings of Orissa

c.173 BC

Kharavela takes the areas of
Berar,
Ahmednagar and Khandesh from
Sattavahana.

c.167 - 166 BC

Attacked by the Dravidians from the south in the tenth year of his reign,
Kharavela defeats them soundly and then turns against the kingdom of
Takshashila, annexing the capital, Uttarapatha. His army then marches
towards the old enemy, Magadha, and its
Sunga king, Brihaspathimitra,
who agrees peace terms before any blood is shed.

fl c.152 BC

Vadukha / Koodepa

Little
is known about the death of Kharavela or the rule of his descendents.
Several generations of Chedis continue to rule Kalinga and parts of
neighbouring Andhra, but afterwards the Kalinga kingdom is apparently
swallowed up by its neighbours. Some modern online sources have stated the
fifth century for the kingdom's disappearance, but without providing any
supporting evidence. Kalinga is divided into separate petty states under
regional chieftains, some of whom may be subject to the authority of the
others. Each of these chieftains bears the title kalingadhipathi,
meaning 'Lord of Kalinga'. One of those kingdoms may be that of
Utkala, in northern Kalinga.

Coincidentally, perhaps, the late fifth century is also when the kingdom
of the Eastern Gangas first
appears in Kalinga. A chieftain by the name of Indravarma defeats the
Vishnukundin ruler, Indrabhattaraka, and establishes his own expanded
kingdom.

Utkala Kingdom of Orya / Orissa

The Utkalas took part in the Kurukshetra War as depicted by the
Mahabharat, as part of
Kalinga's ancient peoples.
They fought on the side of the Kauravas and faced the Pandava Prince
Nakula in battle. The Utkala kingdom was located in the eastern portion
of the modern state of Orissa in
India
(Odisha since 2011), and the northern region of Kalinga. It seemingly
arose during a period in which a single kingdom within Kalinga had
ceased to exist, and any centres of power were little more than petty
tribal power bases. This new kingdom's borders were formed by the
River Ganga in the north and the River Godavari in the south, and
by the Amarkantak Hills to the west and the Bay of Bengal in the
east.

Mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, the Utkala kingdom is
referred to by the names Utkala, Utpala, Okkal and Okkali. The Sanskrit
text, Brahmanotpatti-martanda, states that a king named Utkala
invited Brahmins from the Gangetic Valley to perform a yajna in Jagannath
Puri. When the yajna ended, the visiting Brahmins laid the foundations
of the worship of Lord Jagannath there, and settled down to continue
serving the Lord. Shlokas (hymns) in another Sanskrit text mention a king
named Sudyumna, who was born of King Ila of the Ishkvaku dynasty. Sudyumna
had three sons who founded their own kingdoms. One son, Utkala, founded
Utkala state, with its capital at Puri. Another son, Gaya, founded Gaya
in Bihar, while the third son, Haritasca, founded a state in the east.

(Original information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha, with additional information
from A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, Sailendra Sen (2013).)

c.400s?

The preceding Chedi kingdom of
Kalinga appears to linger on in obscurity until the fifth century. Following
that, Kalinga is divided into separate petty states under regional chieftains,
some of whom may be subject to the authority of the others. Each of these
chieftains bears the title kalingadhipathi, meaning 'Lord of Kalinga',
and one of those kingdoms may be that of Utkala, in northern Kalinga.

The vast empire of the Guptas encompassed much of northern India
at this time, although the south remained a fairly stable
patchwork of smaller but persistent kingdoms which constantly
strove to outdo each other when it came to expanding their own
borders (click on map to view full sized)

Sudyumna

Son of King Ila of the Ishkvaku dynasty.

King Sudyumna has three sons who found their own kingdoms. One son,
Utkala, founds the kingdom of Utkala, with its capital at Puri. Another
son, Gaya, founds the kingdom of Gaya in Bihar, while the third son,
Haritasca, founds a state in the east.

Utkala

Eponymous founder, mentioned in
Brahmanotpatti-martanda.

c.496

The late fifth century is also when the kingdom of the
Eastern Gangas first appears
in Kalinga. A chieftain by the name of Indravarma defeats the Vishnukundin
ruler, Indrabhattaraka - occupier of southern Kalinga - and establishes
his own expanded kingdom, with Kalinganagara as his capital. The Utkalas
may fall under the domination of this new, powerful kingdom, but they
survive with their own separate identity intact for at least the next
three hundred years.

810 - 850

Devapala of the Palas
defeats the Utkala, whose king (read 'tribal chieftain') flees from his
capital city (read 'principal settlement, village'). No other information
on the kingdom appears to be available, along with any idea of the effect
the defeat may have on the regionally powerful
Eastern Gangas.

1224

During his rule of nearby
Bengal, Sultan Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Khilji builds up a powerful navy and takes on
Vanga (a former Iron Age state
in eastern Bengal), Kamrupa (Assam),
the Utkalas, and Tirhut (northern Bihar). The Utkalas clearly still exist as
a minor but notable regional force. The
Eastern Gangas to the immediate
south of the Utkalas appear to escape any major attacks.

Eastern Gangas (Orya / Orissa)c.AD 496 - 1434

The Eastern Ganga kingdom was comprised of regions in
Orissa (Odisha since 2011), West Bengal, Chattisgad, Jharkand and Andhra
Pradesh in India.
The ruling dynasty emerged around AD 500 and held regional power for almost
a millennium. During that time they constructed the famous temples of
Jagannatha and Konark (a world heritage site) which are a testimony to
the level of architecture supported by the Gangas and also to their
grandeur.

The Eastern Gangas have been claimed as an offshoot of the
Western Gangas,
who themselves ruled the Mysore regions of Karnataka. The Eastern Gangas
had their capital at Kalinganagara (Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district of
modern Andhra Pradesh and Srimukhalingam in the Srikakulam district of
Andhra Pradesh), with a secondary capital at Dantapura (Palur). Opinion
over their relationship to the Western Gangas seems to be divided down
the middle. They appeared while the Western Gangas were relatively
powerful, but seem not to have flourished themselves until the end of
the ninth century. Orissa is a great deal removed from Mysore, far
to the north-east and abutting West
Bengal. If they were indeed
related then it must have been a relationship that was severed when (if)
the Western Gangas migrated southwards at an unknown date before the
Western Ganga kingdom emerged. However, opponents to this theory point
to epigraphical evidence that supports a southern origin for all Gangas,
so it seems likely that the Eastern Gangas proceeded northwards from
Mysore to found their own kingdom.

As far as the Ganga kings are known, their early representatives are
little more than a list of names, mostly taken from inscriptions which
are dated to the Ganga era. The Regents of Nations list is very
similar to that of the History of Odisha website down AD 895,
and is alluded to by Chakravarti with his eighty-four kings plus seven
more to 895. All names shown below are from Regents, but where
History shows the name in a different form, this has been added.
After 895, Mukunda Rao's work seems to be the best for kings between
895 and a little after 1211. After that all available lists are more
or less the same. The early dates can be somewhat variable between
sources. Samantavarman, for instance, has also been placed at AD 562,
with a corresponding knock-on effect to the dates for his successors.

(Original information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha, with a complete revision
by Stephen Barr, and with additional information from Regents of
Nations, Part 3, Peter Truhart (Antiquity Worldwide), from Eastern
Ganga Kings of Orissa, M Chakravarti, from the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 72, Part 1 to Volume 73, Part 1,
M Chakravarti, from Kalinga Under the Eastern Gangas, Mukunda
Rao (1991), from A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, Sailendra
Sen (2013), from Literary and Historical Studies in Indology,
Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi, from Ancient India, Ramesh Chandra
Majumdar, and from External Links:
History of
Odisha, and a rival site,
History of Odisha.)

c.496 - 535

Indravarman I

Early Eastern Ganga king. Dynasty founder.
'Trikalingadhipati'.

c.496

The preceding Chedi kingdom of
Kalinga appears to linger on in obscurity until the fifth century. Following
that, Kalinga is divided into separate petty states under regional chieftains,
some of whom may be subject to the authority of the others. Each of these
chieftains bears the title kalingadhipathi, meaning 'Lord of Kalinga',
and one of those kingdoms may be that of
Utkala, in northern Kalinga.

The vast empire of the Guptas encompassed much of northern India
at this time, although the south remained a fairly stable
patchwork of smaller but persistent kingdoms which constantly
strove to outdo each other when it came to expanding their own
borders (click on map to view full sized)

Coincidentally, perhaps, the late fifth century is also when the kingdom of
the Eastern Gangas first appears in Kalinga. A chieftain by the name of
Indravarma (actually shown as Adhiraja on the Godavari plates) unites with
other chieftains to defeat the Vishnukundin ruler, Indrabhattaraka -
occupier of southern Kalinga. A notable fighting method employed by
Indravarman which makes mention of him recognisable in more than one source
is the use of 'four-tusked' elephants, although this is fairly conventional
anyway. Then he establishes his own expanded kingdom. Kalinganagara (better
known today as the village of Mukhalingam in northern Andhra Pradesh)
becomes his capital, while Dantapura serves as the kingdom's second 'city'.

c.535 - 554

Samantavarman / Sartlantavarman

'Trikalingadhipati'.

c.537/538

A
Devendravarman is known from the issuance of a grant in the 'thirty-ninth
year of the Ganga era'. The thirtieth year of the Ganga era can be equated
to AD 528/529, which is also the calculated latest date for the accession
of the Vishnukundin king, Indrabhattarakavarman (at least, according to
the scholar, Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi, who seems to have a good grasp of the
complexities of these calculations).

This would appear to place the issuance of the grant two years after the
death of Indravarman and during the reign of Samantavarman. However,
reconciling this with the lists of kings that can be assembled is rather
tricky as none of them show a Devendravarman here. Could it simply be a
misreading of Indravarman, with the dating being two years adrift?

c.554 - 583

Hastivarman / Ranabhita Rajasimha

'Lord of [all] Kalingas'.

c.583 - ?

Indravarman II

Son?

Danarnava

Chakravarti places him at c.770. May not have ruled.

606 - 647

Harshavardhana of the
Thaneshwar kingdom becomes one of the most illustrious of Indian emperors.
At the peak of his reign, his kingdom covers Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Orissa, Bengal and the
entire Gangetic belt as far as the River Narmada. Whether or not his conquests
in the Orissa region deliver him the subjugation of the Eastern Gangas is
unknown.

The early story of the Eastern Gangas is recorded to some
extent on copper plates like the ones shown here, although
how historically accurate that story is cannot be confirmed

fl c.624

Indravarman III

Son of Danarnava.

Gunarnava (I)

Probably did not rule, but did supply the next
ruler.

fl c.679

Devendravarman I

Son.

fl c.700

Anantavarman I

Son.

fl c.717

Nandavarman

Son.

fl c.734

Kamarnava I

Shown on the Chakravarti list only.

fl c.747

Devendravarman II

Brother of Nandavarman.

fl c.770

Rajendravarman I

Chakravarti has Danarnava here.

fl c.780

Anantavarman II

Son.

fl c.803

Devendravarman III

Brother.

fl c.809

Rajendravarman II

History has Anantavarman II here.

fl c.810

Kamarnava II

Shown on the Chakravarti list. Regents has him at
880.

810 - 850

Devapala of the Palas
defeats the Utkalas of Orissa, whose
king flees from his capital city. No other information on the kingdom
appears to be available, along with any idea of the effect the defeat
may have on the Gangas.

fl c.845

Devendravarman IV

History has Rajendravarman II here.

fl c.847

Satyavarman

Son. History has Devendravarman IV here.

fl c.856

Anantavarman III / Sri Vajrahasa I

Brother. History has Satyavarman here.

fl c.860

Madhu-Kamarnava I

History has Anantavarman IV here.

fl c.810

Ranarnava

Shown on the Chakravarti list only.

fl c.865

Vajrahasa II

Shown on the Chakravarti list only.

fl c.870

Anantavarman IV

History has Bhupendravarman here.

fl c.875

Devendravarman V

History has Anantavarman V here.

fl c.877

Virasimha

History has Devendravarman V here.

bef 880

Kamarnava II / III

Chakravarti has him at c.810 and a Kamarnava III here.

aft 895?

Gunarnava (II)

Duplicated as the Gunarnava of pre-679?

c.895

One online source of dubious reputation has Gunarva's reign (which is not
shown there) coinciding with the reign of Devendravarman IV, placing the
latter king around half a century later than is shown here. Chakravarti
shows Gunarnava as being the second such incumbent. Mukunda Rao shows him as
Gunamaharnava but fails to provide a date for him. This form of the name is
repeated by the History of Odisha website. From this point the
Regents list appears to become less reliable. Instead, Rao's list
provides the best reading between now and about 1211, although most of his
names are repeated in one or more of the other lists.

India of AD 900 was remarkably unchanged in terms of its general
distribution of the larger states - only the names had changed,
although now there was a good deal more fracturing and regional
rule by minor states or tribes (click on map to view full sized)

fl c.896

Vajrahasta I

Also listed as Vajrasta III.

10th century

Kalinga (Orissa) is conquered by the
Eastern Chalukyas and
subsequently by the
Chola kings, Rajaraja
the Great and Rajendra. The Eastern Gangas remain in obscurity until their
re-emergence under Vajrahasta Anantavarman in the early eleventh century.
So intensely obscure are the Ganga kings (more probably regional chieftains,
at best), even the ancestry of the later Gangas cannot definitively be
linked to the earlier kings.

These obscure Eastern Ganga kings can be found in charters issued by
Vajrahasta Anantavarman from 1038 onwards. Altogether, seven copper plate
grants have come to light and these grants present an identical genealogy
for this group along with the number of years in which they reigned. To
better illustrate the period of intense obscurity in which the Gangas fall,
their 'kings' are shown in light grey
text.

fl c.921

Potankusa

Shown only in Regents. A 'Gunarnaharnava' is an
alternative.

fl c.936

Kalinglankusa

Shown in Regents & by Chakravarti. A 'Vajrasta'
is an alternative.

940 - 943

Gundama I

Son.

943 - 978

Kamarnava (I) IV

Brother. The numbering for this name has become confused.

978 - 981

Vinayaditya

Brother.

981 - 1015

Vajrahasta II / Aniyankabhima

Family connection unknown.

1000/1004

The Cholas under Rajaraja
Chola I capture Talakad and force the
Western Gangas to
accept their overlordship (AD 1004 is an alternative date for this event).
The devastating defeat begins a decline of Western Ganga authority until
they fade away entirely.

1015 - 1018

Kamarnava (II) V

Son. Again, two options are provided for numbering.

1018 - 1019

Gundama II

Brother.

1019 - 1038

Madhukamarnava / Madhu-Kamarnava II

Brother.

1038 - 1070

Vajrahasta III Anantavarman

Later Eastern Ganga king and founder of the resurgent
dynasty.

1038

The Gangas are resurgent under Vajrahasta Anantavarman, the son of
Kamarnava (II) V. They emerge as powerful rulers within Kalinga during
his reign and re-establish themselves. Vajrahasta himself is titled the
trikalingadhipati, showing his domination of the three main regions
of Kalinga. He is also claimed as the ruler during the founding of the
Madhukeshwara Temple in Mukhalingam.

1070 - 1078

Rajaraja Devendravarma

Son.

1070 - 1075

During the rein of Pala
king Mahipala II, the Sena
king, Vijaya Sena, takes advantage of a revolt in the Varendra region of
Samatata (in modern
Bangladesh). He
gradually consolidates his position (through a matrimonial alliance with
the daughter of the king of Orissa, presumably Rajaraja) in western Bengal
and ultimately assumes a fully independent position for the Sena dynasty.

1077 - 1130

Pala king Ramapala
restores much of the past glory of his lineage and then extends his empire
farther, reaching as far as Orissa. However, the Kalingan kingdom of the
Eastern Gangas appears to remain independent of his rule.

1078 - 1147

Anantavarman Chodaganga

Son. Co-ruler with his father.

1078

Anantavarman formally ascends the throne after a period in which he assists
his father in the rule of the kingdom. He assumes the descriptive title of
trikalingadhipathi, which denotes him as being the ruler of the three
Kalingas - Kalinga proper, Utkal in the north north, and Koshal in the west.

The king gives shelter to the Eastern
Chalukya king, Vijayaditya, which provokes the wrath of his rival,
Chola King Kulotunga,
who twice attacks Kalinga. However, Anantavarman recovers his kingdom and
also wrests Vizagapatnam from the Cholas (this is recovered later by Kulotunga
Chola).

Not content with restoring the Eastern Gangas to regional
greatness, Anantavarman also oversaw the construction of the
famous temple of Jagannatha at Puri, a sacred Hindu centre on
India's eastern coast

Later in his reign, Annatavarman invades the
Pala territories, taking
territory as far as the Hooghli district (although after Anantavarman's
death, these territories are conquered by the
Sena kings). The Gangas
of this period also conquer other parts of Orissa and the king titles
himself 'Lord of Utkala' and 'Lord of Trikalinga'.

1147 - 1157

Kamarnava VI / VII

Numbering here becomes even more confused, omitting a VI?

1157 - 1170

Raghava

1170 - 1190

Rararajadeva II

1190 - 1198

Anangabhima II

Son of Anantavarman. Regents has him ruling from
1182.

1198 - 1211

Rajaraja II / Rajarajadeva III

Grandson. Rao shows his reign ending in 1207/

1205

Rajaraja resists attacks by Mohameddans under Muhammed
Bakhtyar who invade Orissa after occupying formerly
Sena-controlled Bengal.
The conquered areas become a province under the control of the slave dynasty at
Delhi. The kingdom
of Kalinga is reduced in status and power.

1211 - 1238

Anangabhima III

Son.

1224 - 1227

During
his rule of Bengal,
Sultan Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Khilji builds up a powerful navy and takes on
Vanga (a former Iron Age state
in eastern Bengal), Kamrupa (Assam),
the Utkalas, and Tirhut (northern Bihar).
The Eastern Gangas themselves appear to escape any major attacks to start
with.

However, Anangabhima is soon forced to resist these Mohammedan attacks
from the north as Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Khilji attempts to expand his territory.
Apparently successful, Anangabhima also successfully fights the
Kalachuris
of Tumanna, but he finds himself defeated by the
Kakatiya ruler, Ganapati.

1238 - 1264

Narsimha I /
Narsinghadev

Son.

1243 - 1246

Narsinghadev invades southern
Bengal, and
the ruler there, Tughral Tughan Khan, tries to counter the Oriyan army.
Although initially successful, the Oriyan army strikes back and Tughral
finds himself cornered. He seeks help from
Delhi, and the
sultan, Allauddin Masud Shah, asks the governor of Oudh, Tughlaq Tamar Khan,
to go to Bengal's rescue. But after having repulsed the Oriyan attack,
Tughlaq himself assumes the governorship of Bengal, forcing Tughral to
flee to Delhi. In compensation, the sultan makes Tughral governor
of Oudh.

Mukteshwar Temple (or Mukteshvara) at Bhubaneshwar represents
an ultimate development of previous forms of temple construction
- it was build during Ganga rule of the region, at some point
around AD 950-975

1257

After repulsing the king of Orissa (presumably Narsimha) from south-western
Bengal, the ruler
there, Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Iuzbak, proclaims himself to be independent
and adopts the title 'Sultan Mughisuddin Abul Mujaffar Iuzbak'. The
ambitious Iuzbak then makes the mistake of taking on the sultan of
Delhi when he
attacks and occupies Bihar. Buoyed by his success, he invades
Kamarupa
(Assam), but this proves
disastrous and Iuzbak is killed in battle.

1264 - 1279

Bhanudeva II

Son. Possibly
also known as Vira Bhanu Deva I.

1279 - 1281

Mughisuddin Tughral of
Bengal ransacks
Jajnagar in Orissa and recovers a large amount of booty, before being
attacked himself by Sultan Balban and a huge army from
Delhi. Bhanudeva II
is the first of a series of weaker Ganga kings who oversee a slow decline in
the kingdom's power.

1279 - 1306

Narsimha II

Son.

? - 1296

Narsimha recovers Ganga territories from Islamic
Bengal. He also advances
as far as the banks of the Ganges, from where he issues various land grants
in 1296.

1306 - 1328

Bhanudeva II

Son.

1324

Bengal is attacked by
Sultan Tughlaq Shah of Delhi
and its king is taken prisoner and hauled off to Delhi. Bengal becomes a
governed province. The sultanate of Delhi also attacks the Eastern Gangas
in Kalinga under the command of Ulugh Khan, but they are repulsed by Bhanudeva
II.

1328 - 1352

Narsimha III

Son.

1353 - 1378

Bhanudeva III

Son.

The Eastern Gangas suffer greatly during repeated invasions by Shamsuddin
Ilyas Shah of Bengal,
Bukka of the Vijayanagar
empire (by 1374), and lastly Firoz Tughluq of
Delhi. Bhanudeva submits
to the Tughlaqs, but reaffirms his independence after the Delhi sultan's
departure.

1379 - 1424

Narsimha IV

Son.

1406 - 1422

During Narsimha's reign the Muslim rulers of the
Deccan (the
Vijayanagar
empire), Jaunpur and Malwa lead military expeditions into Orissa, but
Narsimha stoically resists their attacks. The rising
Gajapatis in Orissa
launch their own attacks against the Vijaynagar empire, effectively taking
over the king's duties.

1424 - 1434

Bhanudeva IV

Son. 'The mad king'.

1434

With
Bhanudeva apparently unfit to rule, his throne is usurped by his minister,
Kapilendra. The minister starts his own independent dynasty called the
Suryavamsas, marking the end of
the Ganga dynasty in Orissa.

The Suryavansha Gajapati kingdom was established in Orissa in the fifteenth
century and lasted only until the following century, surviving for barely a
hundred years. Their rule was built on
the ruins of the Eastern Ganga
kingdom of Orissa, and they began taking a more prominent role in the region
as early as the reign of Narsimha IV, when it was they and not the fading
Eastern Gangas who launched attacks in retaliation for the attempted
invasion by the
Vijaynagar
empire.

Kapilendra Deva claimed descent from the solar dynasty and because of this
name Suryavamsa (or Suryavamsha) came to be associated with his line of
rulers. The kings also took the ancient royal title of Gajapati. Kapilendra
was a minister of the Eastern Gangas to begin with, until he rebelled in the
face of their decline and established his own rule. The borders of his territory extended into regions of
Bengal, which was under the
Raja Ganesha
dynasty, and Andhra Pradesh.

(Information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)

1427

While Kapilendra Deva is still a vassal of the
Eastern Gangas, the
Vijaynagar ruler
Deva Raya II defeats the Gajapatis three times, starting in this year. This
is in retaliation for the Gajapati attacks against the empire shortly
before.

1435 - 1466

Kapilendra Deva

Former minister and Suryavamsa dynasty founder.

1436

The newly-established kingdom is defeated again by the
Vijaynagar ruler,
Deva Raya II. This is just one in a series of battles that the new kingdom
has to fight to ensure its survival. During Kapilendra's reign there are
also attacks from the sultans of Bengal (the
Iliyas
Shahs) and Jaunpur but these are warded off. There is also an attack by
the Rajamundhari king from the Andhra region. The king's son, Hamvira, wards
off most of them, and the kingdom gains territory in Andhra Pradesh and
Bengal.

1441

As part of a continuing series of attacks and counter-attacks,
Vijaynagar ruler
Deva Raya II defeats the Gajapatis in battle for the third time.

The Rath Yatra festival still takes place in the sacred land of
Jagannath Puri in Orissa

1454 - 1463

The Gajapatis conquer Rajamahendri in 1454, taking it from the
Vijaynagar empire.
They also capture Udayagiri and Chandragiri in 1463.

1466

After the death of Kapilendra there follows a succession war between his
younger son and chosen heir, Purshottam, and Hamvira, the effective
protector of the kingdom. The war takes six years before Hamvira declares
himself the victor and king.

1466 - 1472

Purshottam Deva

Son. Official heir but challenged by elder brother.

1472 - 1476

Hamvira

Brother. Gained kingdom after succession war.

1476

Purshottam Deva regains the kingdom, but the details are not known. Nor is
the fate of Hamvira. During his reign, Purshottam defeats the
Vijaynagar ruler at Kanchipuram,
which is under his control, and marries his daughter, Padmavati.

1476 - 1497

Purshottam Deva

Restored.

1491

Despite taking firm hold of the reigns of power,
Vijaynagar
ruler Saluva Narasimha faces continual rebellions and uprisings, and
between 1489-1491 he loses Udayagiri to the Gajapatis.

1497 - 1540

Prataprudra Deva

Son.

1540 - 1541

Kalua Deva

Son. On the throne for barely a year.

1541

Kakharua Deva

Brother. Last Gajapati king

1541

Kakharuadeva is killed by his own prime minister, Govinda
Vidyadhara. Govinda goes on to establish his
Bhoi ruling dynasty in Orissa. The
Gajapati dynasty still manages to survive in a reduced fashion in Parlakhemundi,
but does not rule again.

Bhoi Dynasty of Orissa (and Khurda)AD 1541 - 1818

The Bhoi dynasty was established by Govinda Vidyadhara,
who served as the prime minister of the last of the
Gajapati kings of Orissa before
killing him. However, the independence of the kingdom was short-lived and
Orissa soon became the plaything of greater powers in
India. In 1566,
the region was conquered by the sultan of
Bengal. Orissa came
under Moghul
rule as a result, via the authority of the governor of Bengal. In the
mid-eighteenth century Orissa was ceded by Nawab AlÓwirdi Khan to the
Marathas (in the form of
Raghuji Bhosale of
Nagpur).

(Information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha.)

1541 - 1549

Govinda Vidyadhara

Former prime minister. Founded the dynasty.

1549 - ?

Chakrapratap

Son. Killed by his son and throne usurped.

Narsingha

Son. Usurper.

Raghuram

Son. A weak king. Throne usurped by Mukunda.

? - 1566

Mukunda
Deva Harichandan 'Gajapati'

Former commander of Cuttack fort. Killed by Ramchandra.

During his reign, Mukunda is challenged for his control of
the usurped throne by one of his ministers, Danardana Vidyadhara (who also
has Bhoi blood). However, the king retains the throne and even fends off
Afghan attacks on the kingdom from
Bengal.
The king may use 'Gajapati' as a title or nickname to indicate his
legitimacy and rightful inheritance of power from the
Gajapatis themselves.

A modern view of the Jagannath Temple of Puri showing little
change before a clean-up

1565 - 1566

Suleiman Khan Karrani of
Bengal sends his son, Bayazid Khan Karrani,
and the famous general Kala Pahada against Mukunda. Orissa is defeated and brought under Bengal's control.
However, Mukunda is not killed by the Bengalis. He is killed by Ramchandra,
his successor.

With control of the kingdom now compromised by
Bengal's
intrusion and overlordship, Ramchandra moves his capital to Khurda (otherwise
known as Khorda, between
Puri and Cuttack). Following him there are further Bhoi rulers, all
seemingly insignificant. The kingdom appears to remain a vassal state for the
rest of its existence.

1592

Overlordship of Orissa is removed from Syed Khan of
Bengal
and passes directly into the hands of the
Moghuls.
Despite being vassals, the Bhoi kings fight Moghul overlordship, and it
seems that the Bengalis still retain an interest in the region.

Ramchandra's reign is brief and tumultuous. He
is forced to marry the daughter of the late Murshid Quli Khan, nawab of
Bengal,
and is declared an outcast. Thanks to this he forfeits the right to enter
the Jagannath temple. After his marriage he remains at Narsingarh, but even
during his brief period on the throne, he had faced an attack by one Taki Khan
against Puri.

1732 - 1743

There appears to be an interregnum in the
kingdom, perhaps due to the expulsion of Ramchandra. There is no known king
for a span of eleven years, until the region has undergone a change of
overlord.

1740 - 1742

Under
the command of the Peshwa, the
Maratha army
reaches Rajasthan
in 1735,
Delhi in 1737, and Orissa and
Bengal
by 1740. In 1742, Orissa is ceded by Nawab AlÓwirdi Khan of Bengal to the Marathas (in the form of Raghuji Bhosale of
Nagpur).