Numenware, a blog about neurotheologyFrequently updated blog about neurotheology. Also covers some general neuroscience, Dogen, language, and Japan topics.
Numenware, a blog about neurotheology RSS | Author | Tags Index Numenware A blog about neurotheology Religion. Brain. Dogen. Language. Japan. 2005-11-12 Meditate and thicken your cortex Neuroreport reports research showing that meditation thickens your cortex. We know that meditation changes brain wave patterns. But could that be due to changes in the brains physical structure? Thats the question the researchers asked. They stuck the meditators in an MRI machine, measured their cortical thickness (how?), and found it had increased. From the abstract: Magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess cortical thickness in 20 participants with extensive Insight meditation experience, which involves focused attention to internal experiences. Brain regions associated with attention, interoception and sensory processing were thicker in meditation participants than matched controls, including the prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula. Between-group differences in prefrontal cortical thickness were most pronounced in older participants, suggesting that meditation might offset age-related cortical thinning. Finally, the thickness of two regions correlated with meditation experience. These data provide the first structural evidence for experience-dependent cortical plasticity associated with meditation practice. Thats great, because Ive been really worried about that age-related cortical thinning thing. The article itself is available only by subscription, but according to a news report on the findings : Most of the brain regions identified to be changed through meditation were found in the right hemisphere, which is essential for sustaining attention. And attention is the focus of the meditation. Dogen, in his later years, emphasized that to find the truth you would have to leave your family and join a monastery, but this study was of regular people with jobs and families who meditated just 40 minutes per day on average. It seems obvious that a thicker cortex is a good thing, but why? Is it that new brain cells have grown, or simply that the intra-neuronal geometry and distance changes? Which layer of the cortex grew thicker, and how does that tie into theories of cortical functioning? Finally, if the cortex grows thicker presumably some other parts of the brain are getting compressedwhich ones, and with what effect? Comment [0] Recent Posts 2005-11-12Meditate and thicken your cortex(neurotheology ) 2005-11-09Nabokov on translation(language ) 2005-10-21Bill O'Reilly: unlikely neurotheology advocate(neurotheology ) 2005-10-19Deepak Chopra hits a quantum discontinuity(religion ) 2005-10-16Brad Warner on Genjo Koan(dogen ) 2005-10-14Numenware turns six months old( ) 2005-10-13Landmark Forum: a religiobiological perspective (III)(neurotheology ) 2005-10-11Bill Maher is not a comedian, he's a joke disorder(japan history and culture) 2005-09-29Believe in God, catch the clap(history and culture religion) 2005-09-24Landmark Forum: a religiobiological perspective (II)(neurotheology ) 2005-09-24Landmark Forum: a religiobiological perspective (I)(neurotheology ) 2005-09-20The religiobiological stance(neurotheology ) 2005-09-17Religious music in your brain(music neurotheology) 2005-09-16Tom Coburn (R-OK) on life and death(history and culture ) 2005-09-15Drawing donuts(dogen ) 2005-09-12Buddhists and Christians agree: Katrina was karma(history and culture religion) 2005-09-10Gautama's Darwinian boost?(neurotheology ) 2005-09-09Two types of meditation, two types of brain patterns?(neurotheology ) 2005-09-06Stigmata(neurotheology ) 2005-08-30Book Review: How to Know God, by Deepak Chopra(reading ) Whole web Numenware
The Evolution of Wonder: Religious and Neuroscientific PerspectPaper by Kelly Bulkeley discussing the phenomenon of wonder.
2002 Annual Meeting Papers: Bulkeley WORKING DRAFT: Please do not cite without permission of the author The Evolution of Wonder: Religious and Neuroscientific Perspectives Kelly Bulkeley The Graduate Theological Union ADOBE ACROBAT VERSION Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Religion November 23, 2002 -- Toronto, Canada Person, Culture and Religion Group Session: Critical Dialogue Between Religion and Evolutionary Psychology [Slide 1: specific regions of the cortex involved in word recognition, using PET scan] Who knows what this image represents? (Dont answer yetjust raise your hand if you know.) I suspect few of us can explain what is happening here with any real confidence. Yet we live in a time when such images are playing an increasingly powerful role in society. Im sure youve seen their kind in many different placeson television, in magazines, perhaps in your own experiences with the health care system. Generated by extremely sophisticated technologies (this one comes from a PET, or positron emission tomography scan, which follows radioactive tracers in bloodflow through the brain), these colorful images are widely believed to provide windows on the mind, revealing fantastic new truths about language, memory, reasoning, consciousness, and yes, even religious experience. But if we dont know what such images mean, who does? Who possesses the hermeneutic skill necessary to enlighten us? The primary authority for producing these vibrant images and interpreting their meaning is the field of cognitive neuroscience (which, in my understanding, embraces evolutionary psychology in a broader, biologically-oriented study of the brain-mind system). Cognitive neuroscientists wield a tremendous degree of intellectual authority in present-day society, and the images they create using various modes of neuroimagingPET, fMRI, SPECThave an almost magical impact on the general public [i] . With only slight exaggeration, cognitive neuroscience can be thought of as the greatest mantic art of our era, the most powerful divinatory practice of the 21st century. For this reason alone, religious studies scholars need to engage in greater critical scrutiny of this field. Most obviously, we need to respond to claims that religion as a whole is false, misguided, and or developmentally immature. (See, for example, Francis Cricks The Astonishing Hypothesis (Crick, 1994) and Steven Pinkers How the Mind Works (Pinker, 1997) .) Because of the tremendous social prestige of cognitive neuroscience, these claims carry a weight among the general public that is far out of proportion to their intellectual sufficiency. In my view, a vital task for religious studies is to challenge these poorly reasoned claims and raise pointed questions about the influence of anti-religion bias in the field of cognitive neuroscience. No less scrutiny should be devoted to the works of cognitive neuroscientists who present themselves and their work as friendly to religion and supportive of human spirituality. (I am thinking here of Herbert Bensons Timeless Healing (Benson Stark, 1996) , James Austins Zen and the Brain (Austin, 1998) , and Andrew Newbergs Why God Wont Go Away (Newberg, D'Aquili, Rause, 2001) .) As I will suggest later in this presentation, there are good reasons for rejecting at least some of the pro-religious claims of these researchers. In good scholarship, the enemy of our enemy should not necessarily be our friend. Now, having argued for the importance of the critical task, I want to devote the rest of my presentation to what I believe must come nextthe constructive task. I do this with an eye toward current discussions in the AAR about the uncertain future of religion and psychological studies (Jonte-Pace Parsons, 2001) . I do not agree with those advocate cultural psychology, or post-structuralist critique, or transformational psychoanalysis as the best path to follow (Belzen, 2001; Carrette, 2001; Kripal, 2001; Parsons, 2001) . Much as I value and appreciate each of these approaches, I do not believe they are sufficient to rejuvenate the religion and psychology field and reorient it toward a more fruitful and prosperous future. In this regard I follow the guidance of Paul Ricoeur in his book Freud and Philosophy: [Slide 2: Ricoeur quote] Freuds writings present themselves as a mixed or even ambiguous discourse, which at times states conflicts of force subject to an energetics, and at times relations of meaning subject to a hermeneutics. I hope to show that there are good grounds for this apparent ambiguity, that this mixed discourse is the raison etre of psychoanalysis.The precise task[is] to overcome the gap between the two orders of discourse and reach the point where one sees that the energetics implies a hermeneutics and the hermeneutics discloses an energetics. That point is where the positing or emergence of desire manifests itself in and through a process of symbolization. (Ricoeur, 1970) (65) [ii] Using Ricoeurs philosophical language, the contemporary study of religion and psychology is in danger of losing contact with the energetics of human existence and focusing exclusively on the hermeneutics. Using my own terms, religion and psychology has not sufficiently kept up with the most creative new developments in the study of the brain-mind system, and thus runs the risk of losing touch with the rich insights that come from a truly mixed discourse. This is painfully ironic, because three of religion and psychologys seminal thinkersFreud, Carl Jung, and William Jameswere all deeply versed in the most advanced scientific psychology of their day. Those of us in the present who have been inspired by Freud, Jung, and James would do well to follow their example and develop an informed, critical, and constructive engagement with the most advanced scientific psychology of our day. One path to follow in that regard is suggested by the image I showed you a moment ago [Image: Back to slide 1]. This shows specific regions of the cerebral cortex involved in language. A shows what happens when subjects read a word: the primary visual cortex and visual association cortex are activated. B shows subjects hearing a word, with activation in the temporal cortex and at the junction of the temporal-parietal cortex. C shows subjects speaking a word, which activates Brocas area in the medial frontal cortex. D shows what happens when subjects are asked to respond to the word brain with an appropriate verb [iii] : Brocas and Wernickes areas are activated, as are regions of the frontal cortex responsible for abstract representation. How many of you knew that already? This is my point: very few of us in the religious studies community know about this field of research, yet it has tremendous potential for constructive new research in religious studies. If you have an interest in language, culture, and symbolic expression (and I suspect that covers most of us here), there is a wealth of material in cognitive neuroscience on exactly these topics. The human brain has several highly localized regions devoted to language, and many researchers believe that distinctly human consciousness has co-evolved with the linguistic abilities of our species (Deacon, 1997; Pinker, 1997; Thompson, 2000) . Of course there is much to critique in the work of these researchers. We could spend several minutes discussing the limitations of this particular image, which holds something of an iconic place in the field. But once that critique is madeonce the limitations have been identified, the ideological interests unmasked, and the overweening ambition chastenedI contend that there remains a great deal of valuable information in cognitive neuroscience that we in religious studies can put to fruitful use in our theoretical reflections and practical works. My approach, to put it in a phrase, is one of critical dialogueopening both cognitive neuroscience and religious studies to the challenges of the other, applying a sharply skeptical analysis in both directions, and then following the critique with a self-reflexive attempt at constructive integration. The study of language and symbolic communication is one area to explore using a method of critical dialogue. In my remaining time Id like to share with you the work Ive been doing in another area, namely the evolution of a capacity for wonder. Wonder, as I understand the term [Image 3: quote] , is the emotion excited by an encounter with something novel and unexpected, something that strikes a person as intensely powerful, real, true, and or beautiful. [iv] As I will discuss in a forthcoming book, experiences of wonder have had a significant impact on many of the worlds religious, spiritual, and philosophical traditions. [v] Wonder occurs with remarkable regularity in the realms of dreaming and visionary experience [Image 4: Queen Katherines Dream] , sexual desire [Image 5: American Beauty] , aesthetic experience [Image 6: Rainbow] , and contemplative practice [Image 7: People praying] . To feel wonder in any of these arenas is to experience a sudden decentering of the self. Facing something surprisingly new and unexpectedly powerful, ones ordinary sense of personal identity (the psychoanalytic ego) is dramatically altered, leading to new knowledge and understanding that ultimately recenters the self. An appreciation of this decentering and recentering process led Socrates to make the famous claim in the Theatetus [Image 8: Socrates quote] that a sense of wonder is the mark of the philosopher. Philosophy indeed has no other origin. (Plato, 1961) (860) The psychospiritual impact of wonder is evident in both the intense memorability of the experiences and the strong bodily sensations that often accompany them. People regularly speak of being stunned, dazed, breath-taken, overwhelmed, consumed, astonishedall gesturing toward a mode of experience that exceeds ordinary language and thought and yet inspires a yearning to explore, understand, and learn. This is where the noun wonder transforms into the verb to wonder, when the powerful emotional experience stimulates curiosity and knowledge-seeking behavior. If you take any interest in wonder as a significant feature of human religiosity, an opening immediately presents itself to cognitive neuroscience, because wonder as an emotion is clearly identifiable as a neurophysiological phenomenon that involves distinctive (if unusually intensified) modes of brain-mind activation. This is the opening I wish to explore. What can we say, based on current cognitive neuroscientific research, about the activity of the brain-mind system during experiences of wonder? Let me start with some relatively large-scale, macroscopic anatomical distinctions. [Image 9: Central nervous system] The central nervous system is commonly divided into seven main parts: the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon (which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus), and the cerebral hemispheres. Compared to other mammalian species, the human brain is distinguished by a vastly expanded cerebral cortex [Image 10: cerebral cortex in humans, other mammals], the heavily wrinkled outer layer (cortex coming from the Latin for bark). [vi] The cerebral cortex is conventionally divided into four lobes: occipital, parietal, frontal, and temporal [Image 11: four lobes] . Pierre Paul Broca, one of the pioneers of modern neuroscience, identified a region deep within the cerebral cortex that he called the limbic lobe because of its continuity with the phylogenetically more primitive regions of the brain stem (limbic comes from the latin limbus, border) [Image 12: Limbic system as seen from below] . Contemporary neuroscientists no longer speak of a separate limbic lobe, but rather of a limbic system located deep within the temporal lobe [Image 13: limbic system] . [vii] The limbic system is a multimodal sensory association area (Kandel et al., 2000) (350-351) that serves the twin functions of emotional evaluation and memory creation. The limbic system receives input from all sensory systems (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch), evaluates that input in terms of its emotional salience, and then, if the input is sufficiently important, stores it in memory. Information from the limbic system is then projected to various regions in the frontal lobes, where it is subjected to what most neuroscientists refer to as the highest brain functionsconscious thought, perception, and goal-directed action (Kandel et al., 2000) (350). According to V.S. Ramachandran (co-author of Phantoms in the Brain), the richness of your inner emotional life probably depends on these interactions between the limbic system and the forebrain (Ramachandran Blakeslee, 1998) (177). The limbic system includes several structures that have received extensive study. Most important for our purposes are the hippocampus and the amygdala. The hippocampus (Greek for seahorse) is chiefly responsible for laying down new memories, particularly the spatial features of experiences with a strong emotional charge. Damage to the hippocampus disrupts a persons ability to form new memories (a condition portrayed with great artistry in the 2001 film Memento, directed by Christpher Nolan). The amygdala, so named because of its vaguely almond shape (Latin, amygdala = almond), appears to be involved in mediating both the unconscious emotional state and conscious feeling (Kandel et al., 2000) (992). The amygdala has direct connections to the body via the hypothalamus and the autonomic nervous system; the amygdala thereby influences rapid physiological reactions to novel, frightening, and or stressful stimuli (e.g., the startle response, the orienting response, the fight flight response). At the same time the amygdala also has connections to the prefrontal cortex and thus to the conscious perception of emotion. [viii] So as a first testable claim, I suggest that experiences of wonder regularly involve the selective activation of the limbic system, particularly the hippocampus and amygdala. In addition to the extensive research literature showing the limbic systems key role in strongly emotional and vividly memorable experiences, this claim is supported by two specific pieces of evidence: 1. Dreaming: [Image 14: subject in sleep laboratory] During the several stages of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep we humans experience each night, the time when most (but not all) dreaming occurs, powerful signals are automatically generated in the brainstem that directly stimulate the limbic system, activating what J. Allan Hobson calls our spatial memory bank (the hippocampus) and our emotion register (the amygdala) (Hobson, 1999) (89) (see also (Hobson, Pace-Schott, Stickgold, 2000) ). This selective activation of the limbic system during REM is very likely responsible for the frequency of extremely strong emotions and highly unusual spatial settings among those dreams that people upon awakening report with a sense of wonder. (Bulkeley, 1994, 1995, 1999a, 2000, 2001a) 2. Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: [Image 15: Dostoevsky] Clinical neurologists have long been familiar with the fact that people suffering epileptic seizures localized in the limbic system undergo striking changes in their emotional lives. According to Ramachandran, patients say that their feelings are on fire, ranging from intense ecstasy to profound despair, a sense of impending doom or even fits of extreme rage and terror. Women sometimes experience orgasms during seizures, although for some obscure reason men never do. But most remarkable of all are those patients who have deeply moving spiritual experiences, including a feeling of divine presence and the sense that they are in direct communion with God. They may say, I finally understand what its all about. This is the moment Ive been waiting for all my life. Suddenly it all makes sense. Or, Finally I have insight into the true nature of the cosmos. (Ramachandran Blakeslee, 1998) (179) These clinical reports of temporal lobe epilepsy have many strong descriptive similarities to my characterization of wonder, suggesting the possibility that both are related to a common pattern of neurological activation in the limbic system. Now let me be clearI am not saying that the limbic system is the material place or location where experiences of wonder occur. Still less am I joining with Michael Persinger in making the grandiose claim that the God Experience is an artifact of transient changes in the temporal lobe (Wulff, 1997) (102). Any kind of complex human experience involves a wide-ranging pattern of neural activation, so its an absurdity to speak of wonder, or religion, or God as located in or caused by a specific region of the brain. My claim is much more limited: the limbic system plays a vital, though not exclusive, role in the distinctive pattern of neural activation that is generated in experiences of wonder. What other neural systems play a role in wonder? I suggest that in addition to the limbic system, the hypothalamus is also selectively activated in many experiences of wonder. [Image 16: hypothalamus] Located near the base of the brain, the hypothalamus controls a wide variety of bodily functions by releasing hormones that activate physiological responses to strong emotions, from fear and surprise to sexual arousal and intense pleasure (Thompson, 2000) (16-17). To the extent that experiences of wonder involve strong physiological responses, it appears likely that the hypothalamus is directly involved. [ix] A third likely candidate for selective activation in experiences of wonder is the large expanse of cerebral cortex known as association cortex (Kandel et al., 2000) (349-380). The regions of cortex devoted primarily to sensory and motor activities is virtually the same in all mammals, from the rat to the human (Thompson, 2000) (23). [Image 17: four mammals, differing amounts of association cortex] But in the human brain there has been an immense increase in regions devoted to higher-order integrative functions that are neither purely sensory nor purely motor, but associative[that] serve to associate sensory inputs to motor response and perform those mental processes that intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs (Kandel et al., 2000) (349). I suggest as a testable hypothesis that experiences of wonder have widespread and powerfully stimulating effects on the association cortex, expanding the functional range of those intervening mental processes. Because experiences of wonder are encounters with the novel and unexpected, they defy conventional categories and exceed the normal boundaries of understanding. More than that, they compel the creation of new, more expansive categories and new, more subtly integrated modes of understanding. In experiences of wonder the association cortex is pushed beyond its normal range of functioning and forced to make sense of extremely unusual input. I believe the creative results of that integrative effort by the association cortex have played, and continue to play, an influential role in the worlds religious and spiritual traditions. I also believe that the worlds religious and spiritual traditions have played, and continue to play, an influential role in the ontogenetic development of the association cortex, that is, in prompting an expanded range of integrative functioning in this area of the brain through the course of an individuals life. A major turning point in the recent history of cognitive neuroscience was the research by Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzinga, J.E. Boden, and others on the assymetrical functioning of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex (Kandel et al., 2000) (16). [Image 18: two hemispheres] Many important discoveries have come from this area of researchand so have many preposterous speculations. Claims that people have left-brain or right-brain personalities are plainly unjustified by the findings of current research. Even more outlandish are suggestions that certain religions, philosophies, or whole civilizations have a predominantly left-brain or right-brain orientation (Ashbrook Albright, 1997) (124-127). [x] Once again, there is an urgent need for a vigorous critical response to these sweeping claims, which cloak their biases in the universalizing mantle of science. Having said that, asymetrical functioning in the human brain-mind system is a real phenomenon. Indeed, it is a striking feature of our species, given that evolution exhibits a strong preference for symmetry. While any complex cognitive function depends on the activation of both hemispheres, the past half-century of research has identified the following distinctions in their functioning (Ramachandran Blakeslee, 1998; Solms, 1997; Springer Deutsch, 1998; Thompson, 2000) : n The right hemisphere has primary responsibility for manipulospatial activities, i.e., activities involving movement in imaginal space and mental mapping (Springer Deutsch, 1998) (358); the right hemisphere also has a central role in the detection of anomalies and novelties; and, the right hemisphere is more fully activated in REM sleep. n The left hemisphere has primary responsibility for speech, language, and the imposition of semantic structure on spoken communication; the left hemisphere is also centrally involved in tasks involving sequential analysis, and more generally in the maintenance of a consistent and coherent sense of selfhood. [xi] Bearing in mind the limitations of this area of research, I suggest as a testable hypothesis that experiences of wonder involve a relatively high degree of activation in the right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex. If true, this might open new ways of understanding peoples reports from various religious and spiritual traditions that experiences of wonder defy ordinary verbal description and involve an acute awareness of highly anomalous phenomena and spatial-temporal transformations. Lastly, I suggest there is a relative deactivation in experiences of wonder of those areas of the prefrontal cortex [Image 19: prefrontal cortex] that are responsible for goal-directed cognition, what many neuroscientists regard as the executive functions of the brain-mind system (Kandel et al., 2000) . These areas are typically deactivated in REM sleep (with lucid dreaming being an intriguing exception), and I believe (and propose as a testable hypothesis) that these same prefrontal areas are at least temporarily deactivated during experiences of wonder. Wonder has an auto-telic quality; it generates a strong sense of the fullness of the present, which has the effect of dethroning ordinary plans, purposes, and motivations. Many experiences of wonder are characterized by an unusual receptivity and radical openness (which is not the same as passivity), and in neuroscientific terms I suspect this quality corresponds to a relative deactivation in the prefrontal cortex. To summarize what Ive said so far, [Image 20: summary of neural systems involved in wonder] Im proposing that experiences of wonder regularly involve increased activation of the limbic system (particularly the hippocampus and amygdala), the hypothalamus and autonomic nervous system, and various regions of association cortex, with a relatively greater (though not absolute) contribution of the right hemisphere and diminished activity in the prefrontal cortex. Now if I know my audience, I suspect many of you will be wondering, when is the other shoe going to drop? When am I going to make the leap and claim that these neuroscientific findings provide the key to all religion, the universal origin of mystical experience, the objective foundation for the perennial philosophy? Let me try to surprise you by saying why I think that line of argument is badly misguided, and why my project is moving in a very different direction. In addition to the analysis of macroscopic neuroanatomyhemispheres, lobes, and so fortha critical dialogue between religious thought and cognitive neuroscience requires careful attention to the microscopic dimensions of brain-mind functioning, specifically to the intricate interactions between and among individual neurons. [Image 21: individual neuron] A neuron is a biological cell that has a special capacity to transmit information. The human brain has something in the neighborhood of a trillion (10 to the 12th) neurons, and the average neuron has several thousand dendrites (10 to the 15th) that form synaptic connections with other neurons. [Image 22: clusters of neurons] This generates an almost inconceivable combinatorial power that, to me, is itself a source of wonder. [xii] As Thompson says, The number of possible different combinations of synaptic connections among the neurons in a single human brain is larger than the total number of atomic particles that make up the known universe. Hence the diversity of the interconnections in a human brain seems almost without limit. (Thompson, 2000) (3) This may be the single most important discovery to come from cognitive neuroscience, and one of its many implications is this: Universalistic claims about human religious and psychological experience can find no support in current knowledge about the vast neural complexity of the human brain. As an illustration of this point, we should be suspicious of the sweeping claims of Andrew Newberg in his best-selling book Why God Wont Go Away: The Biology of Belief (Newberg et al., 2001) , in which he correlates the subjective experiences of Buddhist meditators and Franciscan nuns in prayer with data produced by SPECT (single positron emission computed tomography) scans of their brains. Newbergs central argument is that his neuroscientific research proves that all forms of meditation, prayer, mysticism, and ritual activity are ultimately pointing to the same supreme revelation of what he calls Absolute Unitary Being. As his books title suggests, Newberg presents his neuroscientific research as favorable to and supportive of the worlds religious traditions, and his work has been widely acclaimed by a spiritually eager American public. [xiii] But I suggest to you that Newbergs theological speculations (as distinguished from his research data) are leading us into a dead end, because the tremendously complex neural interactions in each individuals brain means that, in neurological terms, no two people are ever having exactly the same experience. On strictly neuroscientific grounds, a universalism like that proposed by Newberg cannot be maintained. Indeed, I believe Newbergs claims about the universal features of religious experience are artifacts of the current state of neuroimaging technology. As this technology improves (and given the amount of money being poured into it, future progress will be rapid), we are sure to discover vast new realms of exquisite complexity and distinctive difference in each individuals neural circuitry [Image 23: Increasing resolution of PET scans 1993-1998] . This makes it quite likely that at some point in the near future we will have imaging data showing how, for example, the experiences of praying Catholic nuns and meditating Buddhists are in fact quite different from one another. Paradoxically, the very technology that Newberg uses to defend a universalistic view of religion will, I predict, become a valuable means of highlighting the radically irreducible plurality of human religious experience. Bringing the microscopic phenomenology of the neuron into our critical dialogue, while fatal to a universalism like Newbergs, provides additional support for my argument that experiences of wonder involve a powerful decentering and recentering of the self. At the level of neural interactions, I suggest (as a testable hypothesis) that experiences of wonder strongly disrupt ordinary neural networks and stimulate the creation of new patterns of connectivity. This claim seems plausible in light of the data from Mark Rosenzweigs famous research on rats being raised in relatively stimulating or impoverished environments : [Image 24: Rosenzweig rats] The rats who were raised in the rich environments (a telling phrase!) had a greater density of neural connectedness than did the rats raised in poor environments (Diamond, 1988) . Rosenzweigs experiment illustrates the direct impact of novel, stimulating experiences on neural circuitry; I believe something very similar is happening in experiences of wonder. I know I have thrown a lot of information at you, and made a number of highly debatable propositions. But whatever you think of my particular project on experiences of wonder, I hope I have at least succeeded in persuading you of the value of a critical dialogue between religious thought and cognitive neuroscience. [xiv] If you ever make use of the concepts of consciousness and the unconscious, if you employ psychoanalytic theories of pre-oedipal development, if you study different cultural modes of symbolic expression, if you work in pastoral ministry or therapyif you do any of these things, I can promise that your awareness, knowledge, and insight will grow tremendously by pursuing such a dialogue. Bibliography Ashbrook, J. B., Albright, C. R. (1997). The Humanizing Brain. Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press. Austin, J. H. (1998). Zen and the Brain. Cambridge: MIT Press. Ayto, J. (1990). Dictionary of Word Origins. New York: Arcade. Belzen, J. A. (2001). The future is in the return: back to cultural psychology of religion. In D. Jonte-Pace W. B. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Benson, H., Stark, M. (1996). Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief. New York: Fireside. Browning, D. S. (1987). Religious Thought and the Modern Psychologies: A Critical Conversation in the Theology of Culture. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Browning, D. S. (1991). A Fundamental Practical Theology: Descriptive and Strategic Proposals. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Bulkeley, K. (1994). The Wilderness of Dreams: Exploring the Religious Meanings of Dreams in Modern Western Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press. Bulkeley, K. (1995). Spiritual Dreaming: A Cross-Cultural and Historical Journey. Mahwah: Paulist Press. Bulkeley, K. (1999a). Visions of the Night: Dreams, Religion, and Psychology. Albany: State University of New York Press. Bulkeley, K. (2000). Transforming Dreams: Learning Spiritual Lessons from the Dreams You Never Forget. New York: John Wiley Sons. Bulkeley, K. (Ed.). (2001a). Dreams: A Reader on the Religious, Cultural, and Psychological Dimensions of Dreaming. New York: Palgrave. Carrette, J. R. (2001). Post-structuralism and the psychology of religion: the challenge of critical psychology. In D. Jonte-Pace W. B. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Crick, F. (1994). The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul. New York: Touchstone. Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Quill. Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. San Diego: Harcourt. Deacon, T. W. (1997). The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York: W.W. Norton. Diamond, M. (1988). Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Anatomy of the Brain. New York: Basic Books. Doniger, W. (1999). The Bed Trick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gleick, J. (1987). Chaos: Making a New Science. New York: Penguin. Hobson, J. A. (1999). Dreaming as Delirium: How the Brain Goes Out of Its Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press. Hobson, J. A., Pace-Schott, E., Stickgold, R. (2000). Dreaming and the Brain: Towards a Cognitive Neuroscience of Conscious States. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(6), 793-842. Homans, P. (1989). The Ability to Mourn: Disillusionment and the Social Origins of Psychoanalysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Homans, P. (Ed.). (2000). Symbolic Loss: The Ambiguity of Mourning and Memory at Century's End. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. Irwin, L. (1994). The Dream Seekers: Native American Visionary Traditions of the Great Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Irwin, L. (2001). Sending a Voice, Seeking a Place: Visionary Traditions among Native Women of the Plains. In K. Bulkeley (Ed.), Dreams: A Reader on the Religious, Cultural, and Psychological Dimensions of Dreaming. New York: Palgrave. James, W. (1958). The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: Mentor. Jones, J. (1993). Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Religion: Transference and Transcendence. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jonte-Pace, D. (2001). Speaking the Unspeakable: Religion, Misogyny, and the Uncanny Mother in Freud's Cultural Texts. Berkeley: University of California Press. Jonte-Pace, D., Parsons, W. B. (Eds.). (2001). Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Kahn, D., Hobson, J. A. (1993). Self-Organization Theory and Dreaming. Dreaming, 3(3), 151-178. Kahn, D., Krippner, S., Combs, A. (2000). Dreaming and the Self-Organizing Brain. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7(7), 4-11. Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., Jessel, T. M. (Eds.). (2000). Principles of Neural Science (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Kripal, J. J. (2001). Re-membering a presence of mythological proportions: psychoanalysis and Hinduism. In D. Jonte-Pace W. B. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Newberg, A., D'Aquili, E., Rause, V. (2001). Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantine. O'Flaherty, W. D. (1976). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley: University of California Press. O'Flaherty, W. D. (1980). Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical Beasts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. O'Flaherty, W. D. (1984). Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. O'Flaherty, W. D. (1988). Other People's Myths. New York: Macmillan. Parsons, W. B. (2001). Themes and debates in the psychology-comparativist dialogue. In D. Jonte-Pace W. B. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Pinker, S. (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton. Plato. (1961). Theaetetus (F. M. Cornford, Trans.). In E. Hamilton H. Cairns (Eds.), Plato: Collected Dialogues. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ramachandran, V. S., Blakeslee, S. (1998). Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Mind. New York: Quill. Rambo, L. (1993). Understanding Religious Conversion. New Haven: Yale University Press. Ricoeur, P. (1970). Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation (D. Savage, Trans.). New Haven: Yale University Press. Shear, J. (2001). Experimental Studies of Meditation and Consciousness. In D. Jonte-Pace W. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge. Solms, M. (1997). The Neuropsychology of Dreams: A Clinico-Anatomical Study. Mahway: Lawrence Erlbaum. Springer, S. P., Deutsch, G. (1998). Left Brain, Right Brain: Perspectives from Cognitive Neuroscience (Fifth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. Tedlock, B. (2001). The New Anthropology of Dreaming. In K. Bulkeley (Ed.), Dreams: A Reader in the Religious, Cultural, and Psychological Dimensions of Dreaming. New York: Palgrave. Tedlock, B. (Ed.). (1987). Dreaming: Anthropological and Psychological Interpretations. New York: Cambridge University Press. Thompson, R. F. (2000). The Brain: A Neuroscience Primer. New York: Worth. Wulff, D. (1997). Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary. New York: John Wiley Sons. Young, S. (1999). Dreaming in the Lotus: Buddhist Dream Narrative, Imagery, and Practice. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Young, S. (2001). Buddhist Dream Experience: The Role of Interpretation, Ritual, and Gender. In K. Bulkeley (Ed.), Dreams: A Reader on the Religious, Cultural, and Psychological Dimensions of Dreaming. New York: Palgrave. [i] PET is positron emission tomography. fMRI is functional magnetic resonance imaging. SPECT is single positron emission computed tomography. [ii] Although I do not have space to pursue the issue here, I believe a good point of contact between Ricoeurs notion of symbolization and cognitive neuroscience is the recent development of chaos theory (Gleick, 1987) , particularly in relation to dreaming (Kahn Hobson, 1993; Kahn, Krippner, Combs, 2000) . [iii] For the experimenters, to think would have been an appropriate response (Kandel, Schwartz, Jessel, 2000) (14). [iv] My usage derives from The Oxford English Dictionary, which gives as the first major definition of wonder something that causes astonishment, and the second as the emotion excited by the perception of something novel and unexpected, or inexplicable; astonishment mingled with perplexity or bewildered curiosity. Also, the state of mind in which this emotion exists. According to John Aytos Dictionary of World Origins, Wonder is something of a mystery word. It is widespread in the Germanic languages (German wunder, Dutch wonder, Swedish undran, and Danish undren), but its ultimate ancestry is unknown. (Ayto, 1990) [v] The Evolution of Wonder: A Critical Dialogue between Religious Studies and Cognitive Neuroscience (Routledge, forthcoming). Although my focus in the present paper is on the latter side of that dialogue, I will in the book bring the works of several scholars into the conversation who can speak to the religious dimensions of human life. Among these scholars are Lee Irwin (Irwin, 1994, 2001) , Wendy Doniger (Doniger, 1999; O'Flaherty, 1976, 1980, 1984, 1988) , William James (James, 1958) , Lewis Rambo (Rambo, 1993) , James Jones (Jones, 1993) , Peter Homans (Homans, 1989, 2000) , Diane Jonte-Pace (Jonte-Pace, 2001) , Don Browning (Browning, 1987, 1991) , Barbara Tedlock (Tedlock, 2001, 1987) , and Serinity Young (Young, 1999, 2001) . [vi] According to Richard Thompson,The remarkable and still mysterious explosion in brain size of the developing humans took place within the past 3 million years or so, beginning with Homo erectus.As yet we have no very clear understanding of why this happened. The massive change in the human brain over the short span of 3 million years is unprecedented in the evolution of other species. (Thompson, 2000) (24). [vii] There seems to be some continuing controversy over this issue among cognitive neuroscientists. [viii] See Damasios work on feeling as the conscious awareness of emotion. (Damasio, 1994, 1999) [ix] Experiences of wonder during meditation or prayer may be an exception to this insofar as many contemplative practices aim at a dramatic reduction of physiological activity. At the same time, the capacity to reduce physiological activity to the extraordinarily low levels reported by experienced meditators may well involve heightened inhibitory activity in the hypothalamus. See (Newberg et al., 2001; Shear, 2001) . [x] Lee Irwin also speaks to the relative cultural influences on left and right hemispheric functioning, but in a much more cautious fashion (Irwin, 1994) . [xi] Ramachandran speculates that the defense mechanisms described by Freud have their neurological correlates in the left hemisphere (Ramachandran Blakeslee, 1998) (127-157). [xii] Presidential Proclamation 6158, which announced the beginning of the Decade of the Brain, starts with this sentence: The human brain, a 3-pound mass of interwoven nerve cells that controls our activity, is one of the most magnificentand mysteriouswonders of creation. July 17, 1990, President George H.W. Bush. [xiii] For example, a Newsweek article of 1-29-01, Searching for the God Within. [xiv] David Wulff, in his monumental book Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary, makes the prediction that [Image 24: Wulff quote] no other approach in the psychology of religion promises as revolutionary a future as the biological one (Wulff, 1997) (112). Wulff chooses his words carefullywe all know that revolutions can have better or worse consequences. The future of the religion and psychology field depends in no small measure on our present efforts to guide the consequences of the biological approach in the most constructive and fruitful directions we can find. [ HOME | About PCR | News | Membership | E-mail list | Search | Contact ] Contact the Webmaster Site created by ; Last revised July 21, 2004
How the Brain Creates GodBroad-ranging overview by Iona Miller, touching on archetypes, NDEs, drugs, trances, TMS, and shamanism.
O.A.K.: HOW THE BRAIN CREATES GOD HOW THE BRAIN CREATES GOD The Emerging Science of Neurotheology Iona Miller , Asklepia Foundation, 2003 The most beautiful emotion we can experience is the mystical. It is the sower of all true art and science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger . . . is as good as dead. --Albert Einstein The Great Unknown Imagine one of our ancient ancestors, suddenly stricken by illness or a near-fatal accident. Hovering near the brink of death, an ordinary person suddenly finds him or herself locked in an immersive visionary experience of shadowy figures, muted voices and blinding luminescence. The cosmos opens its enfolding arms and infinity spreads out in a timeless panoply that dissolves all fear, all separation from the Divine. Fear of death vanishes in a comforting flood of bliss, peace and dazzling light the ultimate holy connection. Overwhelming conviction arises that this is the more fundamental Reality. The welcoming gates of a personal heaven open Suddenly back in the body, returned to ordinary reality, one is left to interpret that transcendent experience to oneself and others. This near-death experience may not have resulted in physical demise, but it has led to the death of the old self the personal self -- and the rebirth, rapture, or resurrection of the soul or spirit. It brings a surge of emotions, conviction and even transformation in its wake. The soul has taken a journey from which one cannot return the same. A descent into psychobiological hell can lead to a transcendent journey toward Heavenor perhaps the yawning abyss of the Void. Shamans, priests, prophets, mystics, and gurus arose to show the Way of navigating these nether regions, of finding healing, the eternal moment, a peaceful heart, and unity. Our human progenitors had to directly confront existential issues of survival, adaptation, stress, mating, birth, loss, and death. They gradually developed stories about the basics of life social, physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual existence. They created myths, beliefs about creation and our creation to give meaning to life. They developed rituals, ceremonies, and practices to heal body and mind, mark life passages, and placate forces beyond their control. These accounted for their origins as well as voices, visions and experiences that seemed to come from the great Beyond. The brain is hard-wired for mystical experiences to modify the threat of our hostile existential reality (Alper). Metaphysical explanations developed for the essentially unknowable, for sudden and irresistible seizures of ecstasy. Some of these accounts were more sophisticated than others depending on their cultural background, but all shared a common core by defining the mystery of the relationship between mankind and the Unknown. It might be called a peak experience, spirit possession, epiphany, religious rapture, nirvana, satori, shaktiput, clear light, or illumination. The difference is only one of degrees of absorption, of fulfillment. The god-experience is a process, a subjective perception, rather than an objectively provable reality. Distractions cease, replaced by the direct impact of oceanic expansion, sudden insight, childlike wonder, ecstatic exaltation above bodily and personal existence, dissolution in a timeless moment, fusion, gnosis. It is direct perception coupled with high emotion and deep realization of what appears to be ultimate truth. It rips away the veil of illusion, revealing the pure ground state of our existence without any emotional, mental, or belief filters. Left with only pure awareness, the natural mind is finally free of earthly trappings. Bathed in emotions of joy, assurance and salvation, Cosmos becomes a living presence. Immortality is sensed, so fear of death vanishes. Many called that numinous mystery God. In some sense, religion is a reaction to what actually is. But to many, when it comes to their religion, those are fighting words for theirs is the true way, the only way. Heaven on Earth cannot be achieved so long as those two realms are separated. God comes down to earth in our own psychophysiology, dwelling within us. Programmed for God? Neurotheology is the marriage of brain science and theology, which systematically studies the relationship of God and the universe. Religion is the expression of theological attitudes and actions. Tradition says God created the heavens and earth, and God created man in his own image. But did God create man and the brain, or does the brain create God? Revelation is the act of God manifesting, disclosing himself, or communicating truth to the mind. These subjective experiences are the basis of mysticism. Perhaps God hid mankinds spirituality where we would least expect it and be least likely to look within ourselves. The religious element of our nature is just as universal as the rational or social one. Could altering brain chemistry by playing some visual and pleasure circuits, while quieting those governing self-image, cognition, orientation, and time sequencing give rise to a transcendental bliss, a god-experience? Can they give rise to the electrochemical supercharge described as kundalini, the serpent power that rises up the spine in illumination? How can we journey along the continuum from pleasure to enthusiasm, to joy, ecstasy and enlightenment? This is the question posed by both theistic and non-believing scientists alike, in an attempt to comprehend our spiritual urge. Religious division is still the global root of conflict in the modern world. Even within ourselves we can experience crises of personal faith, as our worldly outlook vies with our spiritual beliefs. Most religions or spiritual practices have a salvivic value they save us from the banality of human limitation and limitless or meaningless suffering, lifting us up and often conferring a glimpse of the infinite, the Absolute. In his 1962 utopian novel, Island, Aldous Huxley coined the term neurotheology to describe the territory where human wetware interfaces with the divine. Since then it has come to mean the emergent field that describes the neurological phenomena that underlie classical mystical experiences from all spiritual practices. It seems our nervous systems are pre-programmed to experience a variety of religious or spiritual experiences. We can journey within and explore our inner world, just as we can the outer world. However, this human study of the phenomenology of the God-experience doesnt reductively negate the possibly of a divine creative force. Rather, this transdisciplinarian science simply seeks to describe the mechanisms involved in that process. It explores how the divine is translated into the human realm, from the archetypal to the material world. It combines aspects of religion, psychology, and neurology. This new paradigm synthesizes the truths of both science and religion giving birth to neuroshamanism. Our God-program is the means through which humans have traditionally interpreted the meaning of major life passages such as stress, birth, identity, aging, death, and opening to a sense of infinity. It bears heavily on our image of our Self, our relationship with others, and our place in the cosmos and world. It is the source of our faith and the ground of our beliefs. Religious dogma has been created over eons to interpret or account for these dramatic personal encounters with spirit. Taxonomies of religious experience have been created in anthropology, sociology, psychology, and religious studies. They form maps of the territory of spiritual experience from shamanism, to artistic expression and all forms of creativity including transcendent states of consciousness (Gowan; Tart; Grof; Wilber). But as mystics and scholars both admonish, The map is not the territory. A spectrum or continuum of divine interplay is available as flow states induced through trance, creativity, and meditation. But knowing about them is not the same as direct experience of those states, purposefully induced or spontaneous. The former is a conceptualization, while the later is a grace, an epiphany. These states range from spirit possession to simple communion and nature-awe, to loss of self in awesome unitive cosmic consciousness. The God Program Belief and biology are entwined like mind and matter, like the twin serpents of the Caduceus, which represents enlightenment. Neurology, ritual and religion all join in what psychologist Carl Jung (pioneer of the collective unconscious) called a Mysterium Coniunctionis, or Royal Marriage with the divine. The soul becomes lost in the Self; all duality is erased. We have a natural human capacity for spiritual experience, just as we have one for comprehension of language or mathematics. Transpersonal experience, myth, ritual, morals and ethics are undergird by a comprehensive religious ecology. The cognized environment is the stage of experience. Networks of neurophysiological structures orchestrate the play on the stage. Intricate electromagnetic and biochemical mechanisms underlie human ritual, myth, mysticism, and religious phenomena. Whether God exists as an overarching cosmic entity or not, there are certain mechanisms in the brain which mankind has harnessed over thousands of years to facilitate the process of non-ordinary experience. They all manipulate the bodys nervous system either by over- or under-stimulation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of arousal. They lead us toward seeing, hearing, touching and feeling the Lord in an experiential, rather than conceptual way that culminates in fusion. Biologically, heavenly states are dependent on the limbic system or emotional part of the brain, and hormonal secretions. Mystical states are not fantasies, delusions or intangible events they are the end result of complex chemical and neurological processes. They begin with instinctive awe and indefinable thrills, floating sensations, and perhaps spiritual hunger. Ego-death can occur when the hyperactive I submits or gives in to sensory overload, which overwhelms it. Hypoarousal leads to a characteristic silencing of the mind or emptying when the ego voluntarily submits to unification of subject and object, of I and Self. Cortical and subcortical activity become indistinguishably merged. There is no separate I left to perceive objective reality. Thus, dualism is paradoxically obliterated in the maximal excitation of both the hyper- and hypo-arousal systems. Because they produce personal euphoria and creative inspiration, these initial states are common to poets, artists, and mystics. But mystics tell us these ecstasies may be nothing more than overloading of the emotional channels. Ecstasy is a desire for contact, a striving after union. Entering these regions in full consciousness indicates greater spiritual maturity. Stabilizing them at the personality level means the phase of emergence is over and enlightenment becomes a steady state. The neurological changes have become integrated and permanent. The oldest shamanic techniques include fasting, drumming, trance dancing, inner journeys, and mind-altering plants. The relaxation techniques for transcendence include meditation, imagery, prayer, postures, and chanting. All of them work on the physiology to change the chemistry of the mind body and induce oceanic ecstasies that are either all-consuming or ultimately serene. Any constant, rhythmic stimulus to the central nervous system will induce a trance-state and accompanying high. Driving the system toward either polarity of arousal or quiescence leads to a paradoxical reversal into its opposite, much like sexual arousal leads to post-orgasmic afterglow. Similarly, at some point, meditation can release an intense rush of energy and emotion, partly through the limbic system. One methodology produces sensory overload, while the other empties the sensory field by withdrawing attention from sensory signals. There may be sensory melding a phenomenon called synesthesia where one can see music, or taste colors. When the mind body is either exhausted or emptied of external input, the mind is free to process the endless loops of its own manifestation, its own internal processes. Fear and shame give way to grace, a sense of Presence, perception of sanctity, response to realization of the divine. Time, space and the separate ego seem suspended or transcended in the experience of cosmic consciousness. All is One. Beyond the unity experience is the nondual experience of the Void. If perceptual intake is restricted or expanded beyond certain limits, the normal state of consciousness gives way to altered states, each of which has certain characteristics. This universal experience has nine typical qualities: 1) unity, 2) transformation of space and time, 3) deeply felt positive mood, 4) sacredness, 5) objectivity and reality, 6) paradoxicality, 7) alleged ineffability, 8) transiency, and 9) persisting positive changes in subsequent behavior. A direct and unmediated encounter with the source level of reality is felt as Holy, Awful, Ultimate and Ineffable. (Gowan, 1976). Re-creational Ego Death The alchemists sought eternal life by consuming the panacea (cure all), universal medicine, the elixir vitae. Paracelsus, the medieval alchemist and physician, said, He who enters the kingdom of God must first enter his mother and die. If God is the father, Nature is our mother. Death always sits on our shoulder, patiently awaiting each of us in turn. And we are acutely aware of that fact, more so as we age or experience loss and infirmity. We are self-consciously aware that we exist, and that one day we will not. We can react to our knowledge of our own mortality with denial, pragmatism, or unshakeable faith in an afterlife, or reincarnated life. Death will come inexorably in any event at our journeys end. We cannot directly know the nature of that experience until we have gone through it. But even before physical death, the soul can die gradually to outward things; the self is release and transcended. When the senses and mind stop actively functioning, the body becomes like a corpse. Ego-death mirrors the process of the near-death experience (NDE). NDE phases include 1) subjective feeling of being dead; 2) peace and well-being; 3) disembodiment; 4) visions of material objects and events. The transcendental phase includes, 5) tunnel or dark zone; 6) evaluation of ones past life; 7) light; 8) access to a transcendental world, entering in light; 9) encounter with other beings; 10) return to life. Those who have been close to death, or experienced an initiatory death of the ego come back to show and tell what that indescribable experience might be like. They report pain and panic subsides in detachment from the body, bliss and contentment. Then comes entering the darkness, seeing the light, and entering that light. The same is true for mystics when they become dead to the outside world. The body is profoundly affected as breathing, heart rate, and skin conductance change. When it is not sudden, death is a process where oxygen levels drop, carbon dioxide builds up, and neural firing rate decreases. This sequence recounts the stages of brain death -- the shutting down of sensory systems, mental dissociation, large dumps of pain-killing and euphoria-inducing endorphins and dopamine into the brain, the shut down of the visual cortex as nerve cells continue to die, and coma. Darkness descends. Though it is a universal journey, near-death reports incorporate scenery and characters that coincide with cultural programming. For example, Tibetan Buddhists never report seeing Jesus in the tunnel during a near-death experience. In fact, according to the Dalai Lama, they dont even tend to have near-death experiences, or they perceive them in completely different terms. Still, there are certain cross-cultural correlations to the process of loosening the bonds of space, time, and the ego whether death is initiatory or literal in nature: These stages include 1). a return to the womb or unborn primal state, which happens in the death process as the sensory and visual centers shut down and we are left in the dull red glow of our fetal stage. 2). Dissolution, dispersal, dismemberment, or fragmentation loosens our ties to the sense of self, as we move beyond our sorrow, helplessness, rigidities, fear, and pain back toward the primeval unification before our ego emerged. 3). Containment of a lesser thing (personality) by a greater (pleroma). 4). Rebirth, rejuvenation, immersion in the creative energy flow, as experiential contact with the psychedelic groundstate of being floods us with nourishing sensations of well-being. 5). Purification ordeal, as we struggle with any mental resistance, conflicts and remnants of earthly attachments; karmic purging. 6). Solution of problems as any conflicts resolve in the bliss of absorption; healing. 7). Melting or softening process, of final letting go and unification of subject and object; a spiritually healing immersion in the vast ocean of deep consciousness, (Miller, 1993). Resurrection of the dead in the mystical sense thus takes on new meaning. Paradoxically, it describes both the transformation to heightened awareness, the soul becoming more and more absorbed in the contemplation of God, and also the return to ordinary awareness. Rapture, the ascent to heaven, also has the connotation of rising to spiritual heights in the mystic experience, which lifts or elevates one from normal states of awareness. Mystical Circuitry But what happens when the death process doesnt follow through to its mortal conclusion or is merely simulated spontaneously or intentionally with meditation? The relationship between brain physiology and human behavior is notoriously difficult to understand and easy to misapply. Obviously consciousness, subjectivity and human religious experience are not reducible merely to an explanation of neural pathways. We are accustomed to associating it with grace, mind-expansion, intuition, transcendence, ecstasy, metamorphosis and salvation. It remains a mystery whether our hard-wiring creates the powerful God Experience, or our whether God creates our psychophysical wiring. Only soul-searching can provide any personally satisfying answer. It might seem sacrilege to some to conduct experiments in measuring meat to gauge spirituality. Still, this does not negate the beauty of the scientific search for truth through creativity and passion as genuine as any other artform. Knowledge of which body parts are mobilized in this communion doesnt detract from the experience, for the whole is so much more than the sum of its parts. Neurotheology respects both science and spirit. It is a move toward holism, not merely a reductive analysis. Natural expansive experiences occur in a wide numbers of situations, but involve common elements: 1) The attention is gripped, and perception narrowed or focused through a single event or sensation; 2) which appears to be an experience of surpassing beauty or worth; 3) in which unrealized values or relationships are suddenly or instantly emphasized; 4) resulting in the emergence of great joy and an orgiastic experience of ecstasy; 5) in which individual barriers separating the self from others or nature are broken down; 6) resulting in a release of love, confidence, or power; and 7) some kind of change in the subsequent personality, behavior or artistic product after the rapture is over. (Gowan, 1976). Can we pinpoint what regions of the brain turn off and on during religious, visionary or extraordinary states of consciousness? Yes; scientists are using dynamic brain imaging techniques such as SPECT and functional MRI to directly view the activation of brain circuitry. We can watch both blood flow and electrical activity in real time. The roles of the amygdala, hippocampus, temporal lobes, parietal lobe, and pineal gland are fundamental to our sense of well-being, meaningfulness, expansion from personal identity and perception of inner Light. We can now directly see how the brain correlates both external and internal stimuli and our reactions to them. Rather than ancient rituals to placate the gods, our rituals are now scientific experimental protocols. Brain scans of a large sampling of people lost in prayer or deep meditation reveal certain common neurological readings. These correlate with religious states ranging from transcendence, to visions, to enlightenment and feelings of awe. Attention or concentration in the frontal lobes is indicated by activation in this area of the brain during meditation. In meditative states, there is an attitudinal shift and detachment from thoughts other than perhaps love of God. Sound and Vision Our response to religious words is mediated at the juncture of three lobes (parietal, frontal, and temporal) and governs reaction to language. The voice of God probably emanates from electrical activity in the temporal lobes, which are important to speech perception. Inner speech is interpreted as originating outside the self, when Brocas area switches on. Stress can influence our ability to determine origin of a voice. It is part of our fight-flight response, which can mobilize even when we try to relax. Unstressing phenomena can range from panic reactions, heaving sighs, excessive heat to shivers and bristling of the skin, throat constriction, watery eyes, light flashes or waves before the eyes, sudden muscular contractions, tingling sensations, and electric shocks. The right anterior cingulate turns on whether a stimulus originates in the environment or is an auditory hallucination. A wide variety of mystical sounds have been described ranging from the buzzing of bees, to the sounds of bells, stringed instruments, thunder, distant echoes, ocean waves, wind, and muffled talk in unknown languages. The ability to construct internal representations of sensory stimuli underlies perception and cognition. Viewed objectively, these mindscapes are perfectly concrete manifestations but also have a subjective aspect when we become aware of them. Our consciousness is experienced through our perceptions. Any individual perception of the universe can occur as an internal or external experience. We may experience varying forms of an I-Thou dialogue along the continuum of extremely hyper- or hypo-arousal states. Sacred images are generated in the lower temporal lobe, which also responds to ritualistic use of imagery and iconography. Empathy needs a face. Fear and awesomeness originate in the amygdala. Religious emotions originate in the middle temporal lobe, generating bliss, awe, joy and other feelings of well-being, as well as a sense of Presence. Beyond Space and Time Einstein had a virtually mystical understanding of the nature of space and time, which he expressed in The N.Y. Times, March 29, 1972: A human being is a part of a whole, called by us Universe. A part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires, and to affection for a few persons nearest us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty. Nobody is able to achieve this completely, but the striving for such achievement is, in itself, a part of the liberation and a foundation for inner security. A triple prison for the mystic, space, time, and personality define and specify the normal state of consciousness. Mystic ecstasy offers a glimpse of spiritual freedom, and escape from the prison of selfhood. Remaining as motionless as possible facilitates this effect. When the parietal lobes quiet down, a person first feels detachment from the tyranny of the perceptions, then an expansive oneness with the universe of cosmic unity. Time distortion starts the personal escape from time, sign of an attempt to escape from the cocoon. Then the inner marriage between the personal and non-personal aspects of the psyche is consummated. Psychic conflicts are transcended, leaving a whole, complete being. When the orientation area is deprived of neuronal input by gating from the hippocampus, sense of self expands. With no preferred position or direction in space, the local self dissolves in omnidirectional expansion. If one remains motionless, there is no external reference signal to orient in 3-space and no reason for this portion of the brain to activate. Continued meditation can over-drive certain other brain areas and seemingly transport us to another universe. For a mystical experience to occur, perceptions narrow and brain regions that orient us in space and mark the distinction between self and world must go quiet. We give up the past and give up the future we give up our defenses. All feelings cease as the self merges with the numinous element. The mind becomes tranquil, withdraws itself from all sides, becoming firmly established in the supreme Reality. In order to feel that time, fear, and self-consciousness have dissolved, certain brain circuits must be interrupted. This includes damping activity in the fear-registering amygdala, which monitors the environment for threats. Parietal-lobe circuits that give us a sense of physical orientation and a distinction between self and world must quiet down. The orientation area requires sensory input to do its calculations. Intense meditation blocks the brain from forming a distinction between self and world. Frontal and temporal-lobe circuits, which mark time and generate self-awareness, must disengage. When this happens, self-awareness briefly drops out and we feel like our boundaries dissolve. The most immediate experience is that of always having been and being forever. The three illusions space, time and personality are obliterated in cosmic consciousness, as the soul completes its journey to its spiritual home. Human consciousness is eliminated, having been reabsorbed into the primordial essence. All becomes All without differentiation. NeuroMagnetics A Canadian neuropsychologist, Michael Persinger (1987) has spent years exploring the relationship of spiritual phenomena and electromagnetics with many subjects. Low intensity magnetic fields orchestrate communication between lobes of the brain, faster than biolelectrical or biochemical processes of neurons. He has developed a device, called the Octopus to test his theories. Underlying Persingers work is the conviction that anomalous electromagnetic fluctuations produced by solar flares, seismic activity, radio and microwave transmissions, electrical devices, and other external sources or originating in the brain itself can trigger disturbances resembling epileptic seizures. These microseizures, he propses, generate a wide range of altered states, including religious and mystical visions, out-of-body experiences, and even alien-abduction episodes. Persinger conjectures that our sense of self is ordinarily mediated by the brains lef hemisphere more specifically by the left temporal lobe. When the brain is disrupted by a head injury, epileptic seizure, stroke, drugs, psychological trauma, or external electromagnetic pulses our left-brain may detect activity in the right hemisphere as another self, or what Persinger calls a sensed presence. Depending on our circumstances and background, we may perceive the sensed presence as extraterrestrials, ghosts, angels, fairies, muses, demons, or God Almighty. (Horgan) This technoshaman with his electronic art uses solenoids in a helmet for input; a computer controls the fluctuating fields. He sends vast depolarizing waves across millions of cells, releasing all types of memories and fantasies mixed and mashed together. Long-term memory is seated in the surface of the bottom of the temporal lobes in the para hippocampal cortex, closely connected to the hippocampus. Though an atheist, he stops just short of saying the god-experience is just an electrical seizure. However, his research goal is to use his devise to trigger transcendental experiences in nonreligious people face with the fear of death. He admits there is scientific evidence that those with spiritual beliefs are better adapted and statistically healthier. Persinger can artificially produce a wide range of anomalous experiences by driving the brain with his EM helmet and technology. He identifies the temporal lobes as the biological basis of the god-experience. Bombarding the brain with certain frequencies in certain regions produces different results. As impulses move through the temporal lobe and deep into the brain, they interfere and interact with the complex electrical patterns and neural fields. Aimed at the amygdala, Persingers device produces sexual arousal. Focused on the hippocampus it produces an opiate effect without adverse side effects, other than irritation upon withdrawal. Targeting the right hemisphere temporal lobe creates a sense of a negative presence, while stimulating the left hemisphere creates a benevolent presence. Sensed presence becomes more common until the day arrives when Gods presence is something a person feels at all times. In mystical experience language fails. Since we cant experiences two senses of self, one is projected as other, the Beloved, either romantic or spiritual. Thus there is truth in saying that the beloved is God, and that when we love God we are loving ourselves. I and Thou are One. The other becomes the Self. Electrical activity in the amygdala, hippocampus and temporal can spill over into nearby structures. If it ignites the visual area, intense visions emerge. Kindling the olfactory regions leads to unique scents. Somatosensory stimulation leads to buzzing, energetic, or tingling sensations or perceptions of being lifted or floating. Language center activation produces voices, music, or noise. Long-term memory in the lower part of the temporal lobes yields interactive virtual realities, waking dreams. The thalamus is implicated in aura vision; the reticular activating system in life reviews. New patterns spread through the limbic system, producing sensation ranging from subtle to profound. Usually there is seamless integration of past, present and future. But in dj vu, there is too much communication between short-term and long-term memories. Then the present can feel like the past. Present perceptions are shunted through areas that process memories, and we feel we are re-living a moment stored in long-term memory. The opposite happens in jamais vu, when nothing we experience seems to have anything to do with the past. Time distortion is another experiential phenomenon stimulated with the electromagnetic gear. The impulses can induce anything from sleep to alien abductions, including a profound sense of presence or the uncanny, auditory and visionary experiences, or a sense of deep meaning. He notes these experiences are tempered by the persons learning history. God concepts are determined by verbal conditioning; perceptions are constructions. Imagery ranges from vivid landscapes to forms of living things. Sounds, smells, scenes or intense feelings all reflect areas of electrical instability. The Biology of the Inner Light Illumination has been described as being blinded by the manifestation of Gods presence. This brightness has no relation to any visible light. Visionary experience, which has symbolic or religious content, may give way to this dazzling light, which is reported in eastern and western religions. No wonder it is called illumination, and it can confer a palpable glow to the person that is perceptible after the return to ordinary awareness. Imagine suggesting the body makes it own psychedelic drug! This is just what psychiatrist Rick Strassman contends in DMT: The Spirit Molecule (2001). He asserts it is an active agent in a variety of altered states, including mystical experience. This chemical messenger links body and spirit. Pineal activation may awaken normally latent synthetic pathways. Meditation may modulate pineal activity, eliciting a standing wave through resonance effects that affects other brain centers with both chemical and electromagnetic coordination. Resonance can be induced in the pineal using electric, magnetic, or sound energy. Such harmonization resynchronizes both hemispheres of the brain. This may result in a chain of synergetic activity resulting in the production and release of hallucinogenic compounds If this is true, it is easy to see how much this mind-altering chemical could amplify all of the tendencies toward mystical apprehension originating in other parts of the brain, as we have described above. To explore his theory, Strassman conducted extensive testing, injecting volunteers with the powerful psychedelic, synthetic DMT. DMT is so powerful it is physically immobilizing, and produces a flood of unexpected and overwhelming visual and emotional imagery. Taking it is like an instantaneous LSD peak. He suggests the mysterious pineal gland is implicated in the natural production of this mystic molecule, as metaphysical teachers have long claimed. The pineal has been called the spirit gland and may be the biological basis of spiritual experience. The only solitary, or unpaired gland in the brain may initiate and support a variety of altered states of consciousness. The pineal is known to contain high levels of the enzymes and building-blocks for making DMT, and it may be secreted when inhibitory processes cease blocking its production. It may even produce other chemicals, such as beta-carbolines that magnify and prolong its effects. The pineal sits, well-protected in the deep recesses of the brain, bathed in cerebrospinal fluid by the ventricles, the fluid-filled cavities of the brain that feed it and remove waste. It emits its secretions to the strategically surrounding emotional, visual and auditory brain centers. It helps regulate body temperature and skin coloration. It secretes the hormone melatonin. Generally, after the more imaginative period of childhood, the pineal calcifies and diminishes. Endogenous DMT is described as the source of visionary Light in transpersonal experiences. Its primary source, the pineal, has traditionally been referred to as the Third Eye. Curiously, this gland is light sensitive and actually has a lens, cornea, and retina. DMT production is particularly stimulated, according to Strassman in the extraordinary conditions of birth, sexual ecstasy, childbirth, extreme physical stress, near-death, psychosis, and physical death, as well as meditation. Pineal DMT may also play a significant role in dream consciousness. All spiritual disciplines describe quite psychedelic accounts of the transformative experiences, whose attainment motivate their practice. Blinding white light, encounters with demonic and angelic entities, ecstatic emotions, timelessness, heavenly sounds, feelings of having died and being reborn, contacting a powerful and loving presence underlying all of realitythese experiences cut across all denominations. They also are characteristic of fully psychedelic DMT experience. How might meditation evoke the pineal DMT experience? Meditative techniques using sound, sight, or the mind may generate particular wave patterns whose fields induce resonance in the brain. Millennia of human trial and error have determined that certain sacred worlds, visual images, and mental exercises exert uniquely desired effects. Such effects may occur because of the specific fields they generate within the brain. These fields cause multiple systems to vibrate and pulse at certain frequencies. We can feel or minds and bodies resonate with these spiritual exercises. Of course, the pineal gland also is buzzing at these same frequencies . . .The pineal begins to vibrate at frequencies that weaken its multiple barriers to DMT formation. (Strassman). Become Your Own Technoshaman Want to take an active role in your own spiritual life, a safe and easy mind trip? Would you like to glimpse some of the experiences outlined here? Or even just get the mental health benefits of deep relaxation and increased inner focus? Intimidated by the prospect of spending 15 to 20 years learning to meditate to attain life-enhancing benefits? Havent had a near-death experience and dont want one? Too busy to devote your life to alchemy, or spend endless years in transpersonal therapies, or too afraid to allow a mad scientist to zap your brain with EM frequencies, hook your brain up to a high-tech scanning machine, or inject you with psychedelic substances? Modern technology offers an easy, passive alternative. Anyone can employ a safe and easy technique that automatically puts you in the zone. A form of yogatronics is available using a simple CD and headphones with input from subsonic frequencies. This audio technology creates a harmonization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain, and automatically drives the brain harmlessly into the Alpha or Theta brainwave range. This resonance phenomenon, a form of entrainment, is called the frequency-following response, or binaural beat technology. Entrainment is the process of synchronization, where vibrations of one object will cause another to oscillate at the same rate. It works by embedding two different tones in a stereo background. Continuous tones of subtlely different frequencies (such as 100 and 108 cycles per second) are delivered to each ear independently via stereo headphones. The tones combine in a pulsing wah wah tone. External rhythms can have a direct effect on the psychology and physiology of the listener. The brain effortlessly begins resonating at the same rate as the difference between the two tones, ideally in the 4-13 Hz. (Theta and Alpha) range for meditation. All you have to do is sit quietly and put on the headphones. The brain automatically responds to certain frequencies, behaving like a resonator. You may not become immediately enlightened, but hemispheric synchronization helps with a whole host of problems stemming from abnormal hemispheric asymmetries. Problems, often resulting from stress or abuse in early life, include REM sleep problems, narcissism, addictive and self-defeating behaviors. Communication between hemispheres correlates with flashes of insight, wisdom and creativity. Split brain experiments have shown we are of two minds -- one rational, linear, time-bound, and cognitive while the other is emotional, holistic, intuitive, artistic. Even when we know what we should do we do what we want. The main distinction is between thinking and feeling, objective analysis and subjective insight. Each half has its own way of knowing about our being and perceiving external reality. Either mode can lead or follow, or conflict, keeping knowledge such as traumatic memories, from the other. The hemispheres are meant to work in concert with one another. Interactive hemispheric feedback is used to treat disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, ADD, addiction, obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, and a host of other dysfunctions. Disorders of under-arousal include depression, attention-deficit disorder (ADD), chronic pain and insomnia. Overarousal includes anxiety disorders, problems getting to sleep, nightmares, ADHD, hypervigilance, impulsive behavior, anger aggression, agitated depression, chronic nerve pain, and spasticity. Because the brain is functionally plastic in nature, creating and exercising new neural pathways can retrain neural circuitry. In meditation, the halves of the brain become synchronized and exhibit nearly identical patterns of large, slow brainwaves. Rhythmic pulses can modulate collective neuronal synchrony. Then, both lobes automatically play in concert. Rhythm regulates the entire spectrum of activation and arousal by kindling, or pulling more and more parts of the brain into the process. Disorders related to under- and over- arousal, including attentional and emotional problems, can be stabilized by self-organizing restructuring. Depressions, anxiety, worry, fear, and panic can be moderated. Stimulating neglected neural circuitry creates new pathways, improving equilibrium and long-term change, essentially tuning the nervous system. There are many companies promoting this self-regulation technology, both in active clinical neurofeedback programs, and as passive home programs. Perhaps the oldest is the Monroe Institute monroeinstitute.org , which calls its trademarked method Hemi-Synch. Another program offered by Centerpointe Research Institute centerpointe.com is called Holosynch. Another variation uses light pulses from goggles to drive the process, and is marketed as Alpha-Stim alpha-stim.com . Conclusions Are there things we should not know? We are innately geared to crave ecstasy, escape reality, and seek extraordinary or novel experiences on our way to wisdom. The history of mankind recounts the stages of that journey. Religions and mysticism arose from the accounts of spontaneous spiritual experiences. In shamanism, our ancestors sought them in an instinctual or animalistic way. In art, myth and ritual we sought them in a human, if narcissistic and self-expressive reactionary way. In creativity and meditation we seek in a fully conscious way, willfully cooperating and facilitating the process not only of connecting with God, but experiencing oneself in the process of becoming god. The ego no longer perceives itself as a separate expression of consciousness, but as the same essence as All. Of course, we can never fully complete that process. No one can fully embody God, but we can move toward it. The succession of conscious states is toward higher integration, not toward lower dissociation. The process of integration in growth toward positive values has the complementary virtues of being obvious in fact and transcendental in implications. It means we evolve from reactive creatures into an integrated part of the spiritual dimension. As sociologist Eliade described, The ideal of yoga . . . is to live in an eternal present, outside of time. The man, liberated in his life, no longer possesses a personal consciousness . . .but a witnessing consciousness, which is pure lucidity and spontaneity. Meditation is essentially emulation of creation and practice for a lucid passing at death into the Eternal Now. We are all capable of transcendent awareness. What we believe in becomes real in an existential sense. Paradoxically, pure consciousness both generates and is generated by the processes of the brain. Becoming soul journeyers, we can explore self and multiple worlds, transformation, and social flow. We can all become technoshamans, using the process of altering our consciousness through spiritual technologies. Even lesser mystical experiences have significant implications for religion and theology. It is the nature of the mystical mind to have such experiences and they have altered religion. So, a thorough understanding of how the mind body functions to generate them is extremely useful. Paradoxical physiological mechanisms operate in the body under most conditions to chemically prevent the attainment of higher states of arousal on either end of the spectrum. But it is possible, with repeated exposure to the paradoxical situation to function effectively at higher levels of conjoined sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal. The brain can be re-wired to connect more and more areas together as links in the spiritual chain, which leads to so-called enlightenment. The brain seems to hunger for ecstasies to enhance characteristics of our normal way of being, creativity, problem-solving, spirituality, and so on. The task of meditation is essentially letting the body fall as deeply asleep as possible while the mind remains focused. In fact, if it were not for the opposite functions presence, even in the mystical state, we would fall asleep. The REM or dream state is similar: there is extreme cerebral excitation, even though muscular activity is inhibited. Hemispheric synchronization producing long, slow alpha and theta brainwaves with high amplitude is another factor. The deeper the meditation, the slower and stronger the waves. The energy rush of meditation comes when either the arousal or quiescent state spills over into stimulating its complementary system. When both parts of the autonomic nervous system go online simultaneously, the limbic system goes wild with emotion, absorption and oceanic bliss. This is reflected in the gender based, male-female imagery of the kundalini serpent power and the yin and yang of the Tao. When both systems go into maximal discharge, this neurochemical flux is subjectively perceived as Absolute Unity of Being, boundlessness, timelessness, and sacredness. Our relationship to humans, earth, and cosmos is one of a relationship to the Other. Our first formative influence is the experience of empathy. And empathy needs a face. If we find that face in our personal experience of God, who shall say nay? Beyond that lies only the yawning infinity of the Void. REFERENCES Alper, Matthew ( ). The God Part of the Brain. Andresen, Jensine (Editor). Cognitive Models and Spiritual Maps: Interdisciplinary Explorations of Religious Experience. DAquili, Eugene and Newberg, Andrew ( ). The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience. Giovannoli, Joseph et al. The Biology of Belief: How Our Biology Biases Our Beliefs and Perceptions. Gowan, John Curtis (1975). Trance, Art, and Creativity. Buffalo, New York: Creative Education Foundation. Grof, Stanislav (1988). The Adventure of Self-Discovery. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. Horgan, John (2003). Rational Mysticism. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Joseph, Rhawn, et al (2003). Neurotheology: Brain, Science, Spirituality, and Religious Experience. Krippner, Stanley, Etzel Cardena, Stephen Jay Lynn [Eds.] (2000). Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence. American Psychological Assn., Washington D.C. McKinney, Laurence O. (1994). Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the21st Century. American Instit. For Mindfulness. Milkman, Harvey and Sunderwirth, Stanley (1987). Craving for Ecstasy: Consciousness and Chemistry of Escape. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books. Miller, Iona (1993). Chaos as the universal solvent. Chaosophy 93. Wilderville: Asklepia Press. Miller, Iona (2001). Neurotheology 101 Newberg, Andrew and DAquili, Eugene (2001). Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine Books. Persinger, Michael A. (1987). Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs. New York: Praeger. Ramachandra, Vilayanur (1998). Phantoms in the Brain. Strassman, Rick (2001). DMT: The Spirit Molecule. Rochester, Vermont: Park St. Press. Tart, Charles. Altered States of Consciousness. Wilber, Ken (2000). Integral Psychology: Consciousness, Spirit, Psychology, Therapy. Boston: Shambhala. Last update: 4-27-03 FOR MORE INFORMATION For general information on additional books, manuscripts, lecture tours, and related materials and events by Richard Alan Miller, please write to: OAK PUBLISHING, INC. 1212 SW 5th St. Grants Pass, OR 97526 Phone: (541) 476-5588 Fax: (541) 476-1823 Internet Addresses DrRam@MAGICK.net http: www.nwbotanicals.org http: www.herbfarminfo.com also see the Q A section of http: www.richters.com In addition, you can visit Richard Alan Miller's home page for a listing of his writings, also containing links to related subjects, and direction in the keywords Metaphysics, Occult, Magick, Parapsychology, Alternative Agriculture, Herb and Spice Farming, Foraging and Wildcrafting, and related Cottage Industries. Richard Alan Miller is available for lectures and as an Outside Consultant. No part of this material, including but not limited to, manuscripts, books, library data, and or layout of electronic media, icons, et al, may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means (photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of Richard Alan Miller, the Publisher (and Author).
The God GeneCarl Zimmer critically reviews Dean Hamer's book "The God Gene: How Faith Is Hard-wired Into Our Genes".
CarlZimmer.com [ 1999 ] [ 1998 ] [ 2000 ] FAITH-BOOSTING GENES SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, October, 2004 A review of The God Gene: How Faith Is Hard-wired Into Our Genes, by Dean Hamer. By page 77 of The God Gene, Dean H. Hamer has already disowned the title of his own book. He recalls describing to a colleague his discovery of a link between spirituality and a specific gene he calls the God gene. His colleague raised her eyebrows. Do you mean there's just one? she asked. I deserved her skepticism, Hamer writes. What I meant to say, of course, was 'a' God gene, not 'the' God gene. Of course. Why, the reader wonders, didn't Hamer call his book A God Gene? That might not have been as catchy, but at least it wouldn't have left him contradicting himself. Whatever you want to call it, this is a frustrating book. The role that genes play in religion is a fascinating question that's ripe for the asking. Psychologists, neurologists and even evolutionary biologists have offered insights about how spiritual behaviors and beliefs emerge from the brain. It is reasonable to ask, as Hamer does, whether certain genes play a significant role in faith. But he is a long way from providing an answer. Hamer, a geneticist at the National Cancer Institute, wound up on his quest for the God gene by a roundabout route. Initially he and his colleagues set out to find genes that may make people prone to cigarette addiction. They studied hundreds of pairs of siblings, comparing how strongly their shared heredity influenced different aspects of their personality. In addition to having their subjects fill out psychological questionnaires, the researchers also took samples of DNA from some of them. Hamer then realized that this database might let him investigate the genetics of spirituality. He embarked on this new search by looking at the results of certain survey questions that measured a personality trait known as self-transcendence, originally identified by Washington University psychiatrist Robert Cloninger. Cloninger found that spiritual people tend to share a set of characteristics, such as feeling connected to the world and a willingness to accept things that cannot be objectively demonstrated. Analyzing the cigarette study, Hamer confirmed what earlier studies had found: heredity is partly responsible for whether a person is self-transcendent or not. He then looked at the DNA samples of some of his subjects, hoping to find variants of genes that tended to turn up in self-transcendent people. His search led him to a gene known as VMAT2. Two different versions of this gene exist, differing only at a single position. People with one version of the gene tend to score a little higher on self-transcendence tests. Although the influence is small, it is, Hamer claims, consistent. About half the people in the study had at least one copy of the self-transcendence boosting version of VMAT2, which Hamer dubs the God gene. Is the God gene real? The only evidence we have to go on at the moment is what Hamer presents in his book. He and his colleagues are still preparing to submit their results to a scientific journal. It would be nice to know whether these results can withstand the rigors of peer review. It would be nicer still to know whether any other scientists can replicate them. The field of behavioral genetics is littered with failed links between particular genes and personality traits. These alleged associations at first seemed very strong. But as other researchers tried to replicate them, they faded away into statistical noise. In 1993, for example, a scientist reported a genetic link to male homosexuality in a region of the X chromosome. The report brought a huge media fanfare, but other scientists who tried to replicate the study failed. The scientist's name was Dean Hamer. To be fair, it should be pointed out that Hamer offers a lot of details about his study in The God Gene, along with many caveats about how hard it is to establish an association between genes and behavior. But given the fate of Hamer's socalled gay gene, it is strange to see him so impatient to trumpet the discovery of his God gene. He is even eager to present an intricate hypothesis about how the God gene produces self-transcendence. The gene, it is well known, makes membrane covered containers that neurons use to deliver neurotransmitters to one another. Hamer proposes that the God gene changes the level of these neurotransmitters so as to alter a person's mood, consciousness and, ultimately, self-transcendence. He goes so far as to say that the God gene is, along with other faith-boosting genes, a product of natural selection. Self-transcendence makes people more optimistic, which makes them healthier and likely to have more kids. These speculations take up the bulk of The God Gene, but in support Hamer only offers up bits and pieces of research done by other scientists, along with little sketches of spiritual people he has met. It appears that he has not bothered to think of a way to test these ideas himself. He did not, for example, try to rule out the possibility that natural selection has not favored self-transcendence, but some other function of VMAT2. (Among other things, the gene protects the brain from neurotoxins.) Nor does Hamer rule out the possibility that the God gene offers no evolutionary benefit at all. Sometimes genes that seem to be common thanks to natural selection turn out to have been spread merely by random genetic drift. Rather than address these important questions, Hamer simply declares that any hypothesis about the evolution of human behavior must be purely speculative. But this is simply not true. If Hamer wanted, he could have measured the strength of natural selection that has acted on VMAT2 in the past. And if he did find signs of selection, he could have estimated how long ago it took place. Other scientists have been measuring natural selection this way for several years now and publishing their results in major journals. The God Gene might have been a fascinating, enlightening book if Hamer had written it 10 years from now-after his link between VMAT2 and self-transcendence had been confirmed by others and after he had seriously tested its importance to our species. Instead the book we have today would be better titled: A Gene That Accounts for Less Than One Percent of the Variance Found in Scores on Psychological Questionnaires Designed to Measure a Factor Called Self-Transcendence, Which Can Signify Everything from Belonging to the Green Party to Believing in ESP, According to One Unpublished, Unreplicated Study. Copyright 2004 Carl Zimmer
Meditation and the BrainReport on a conference held by MIT's McGovern Institute for Brain Research, bringing together Buddhists and neuroscientists.
Meditation and the Brain Note: If you are viewing this message, either you have a browser with CSS disabled, or are using an older browser. This site, among others, will look better in a browser that supports web standards , but it is accessible to any browser or Internet accessible device. Upgrade your browser if at all possible, although all content is fully accessible. Note: If you are browsing with javascript turned off, you may not be able to experience this site as it was designed for interactivity. Please consider allowing the use of javascript for this site, or refer to our browser upgrade page for more information. Text Size: Infotech Biotech Nanotech Biz Tech Magazine Blogs MIT News Search [1] 2 Next February 2004 Meditation and the Brain New imaging technology makes it possible for scientists to document the brain activity of Buddhist monks. By Curt Newton The Dalai Lama is a revered spiritual figure and Tibet's leader-in-exile. He's also the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize winner and a friendly face on the dust jackets of popular inspirational books. But a wannabe engineer? Indeed, His Holiness has often quipped that engineering would have been his preferred path had he not become a monk. But it was brain science, not engineering, that brought the Dalai Lama to MIT last September for the Investigating the Mind conference, which explored how scientific and Buddhist viewpoints on human consciousness can inform each other. In front of a sellout crowd of 1,200 in MIT's Kresge Auditorium, the Dalai Lama and Buddhist scholars traded insights and questions with neuroscientists and psychologists on such topics as attention, mental imagery, and emotion. Discussions of science are of deep personal interest to the Dalai Lama, who has held similar meetings in private with esteemed scholars for decades. But this conference-organized by the Boulder, CO-based Mind and Life Institute and cosponsored by MIT's new McGovern Institute for Brain Research-was the first such meeting opened to the public. Those involved hope the event will spark more rigorous, collaborative research between Buddhists and Western scientists, who have long held diametrically opposed views on how the brain functions. For example, Buddhists view mental attributes such as temperament as skills to be cultivated, while Western scientists generally believe that such traits are fixed in the brain at a young age. But modern neuroscience and the advent of new imaging technology have challenged scientists to think more broadly about how the brain functions. "This conference will explore how Buddhists and scientists can collaborate in research, to look at the advisability and wisdom of that research, and to plot strategies and methodologies," said Adam Engle, chairman of the Mind and Life Institute, before the event. "The participation of the Dalai Lama along with so many leading scientists and Buddhist scholars will make this conference historic." While the conference certainly pushed the envelope of neuroscience research, the field has already benefited from the study of Buddhist subjects. New imaging technologies are allowing researchers to document the brain activity of monks, and research centers are well equipped to study meditative training and its broader neurological implications. Science and Meditation On a stage filled with sunflowers and white overstuffed chairs, the juxtaposition of tweed coats and saffron robes signaled that this was no ordinary technical session. Instead, the panel addressed such questions as the nature of emotion-the individual's tendency to be happy or angry. The panel compared standard Western and Buddhist models-emotional traits as in-born or subject to training-their underlying assumptions, and the prospects for controlled research on the topic. Such comparisons led to occasional good-natured clashes. For instance, Harvard University psychology professor Stephen Kosslyn, an authority on mental imagery, was at once perplexed and enthralled by reports of trained Buddhist monks maintaining intricate mental images for hours with no loss of detail, exclaiming, "By my understanding of how the brain works, that should not be possible!" Nonetheless, the Dalai Lama's persistent gentle humor helped weave philosophical and scientific perspectives together. While the collaboration seems an unusual pairing at first, it suits the mandates of both Buddhist practice and scientific openness. The Dalai Lama notes that both traditions encourage challenging dogma based on observation and analysis, and a willingness to revise views based on empirical evidence. Western scientists have clearly excelled at both in the external physical realm. Meanwhile, Buddhists have devised rigorous methods to observe and control their inner worlds. And to conference panelist Eric Lander, director of the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research's Center for Genome Research at MIT, shared motivations like curiosity about the world and the desire to alleviate suffering suggest this will be a fruitful partnership. But this desire to collaborate is not new. Scientists began studying meditation several decades ago. In his seminal 1970s research, Harvard Medical School cardiologist Herbert Benson found that even a highly simplified form of meditation produced sustained physiological benefits such as reduced heart, metabolic, and breathing rates. His 1975 bestseller The Relaxation Response detailed the first scientific validation of meditative practice and fostered the growth of stress reduction clinics in workplaces, hospitals, and other settings. But until recently, there has been no reliable way to collect objective data on purported mental effects such as sharpened mental focus, freedom from negative judgments, and increased compassion. Advances in functional magnetic-resonance imaging (fMRI) have opened the dynamics of the human brain to objective study. Recent fMRI studies on brain activity suggest that moods and dispositions are rooted in specific regions of the organ. For example, positive states of mind are marked by high activity in the left frontal area, while activity in the right frontal area coincides with negative states. Just as physiologists study well-trained athletes to understand the body, neuroscientists are focusing on monks, who often meditate more than 10 hours per day, to understand the brain. These preliminary studies, while far from definitive, are challenging scientific views on the brain's ultimate capabilities and point to intriguing directions for future research. In the conference session on emotions, Richard Davidson, a neuroscientist at the University of Wisconsin, detailed some pilot research described in Daniel Goleman's 2003 book Destructive Emotions. Davidson has used fMRI and electroencephalography (EEG) to image the brains of six monks, including conference panelist Matthieu Ricard, during and outside of meditation. When Davidson asked the monks to induce a state of compassion in themselves, they showed a much greater shift toward left frontal brain activity than subjects untrained in meditation. Of course, the monk lifestyle isn't for everyone. So a recently published study on the effects of short meditation sessions with novice practitioners is perhaps of greater relevance to the rest of us. As reported in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine, Davidson and Jon Kabat-Zinn, a medical professor at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, conducted a small controlled study of "mindfulness meditation" training for employees of a small biotech firm. Four months after an eight-week meditation course, the researchers found that emotional and immune system benefits persisted-with just 15-minute meditation sessions only two or three times a week. [1] 2 Next Tool Bar Print Discuss What You Missed Tech for the World Holiday Must-Haves Stealing Baseball Predicting Liver Toxicity Corporate Ethnography Spying on Spyware Controlling Web Ads Google's New Public Space MS Antes Up $30 million Bigger than the Internet Magazine Killer Maps Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo are racing to transform online maps into full-blown browsers, organizing information -- and, of course, ads -- according to geography. The likely winner? You. Table of Contents Magazine Archive Save 41% today Renew Gift Customer Service TR Digital Sponsored Links: About Us Privacy Terms of Use Subscribe Advertise Customer Service Contact Us
Guardian Unlimited | Life | Tests of faithArticle discussing evolutionary, anthropological (Boyer), and neuroscientific (Ramachandran, Newberg) aspects of religion.
Guardian Unlimited | Life | Tests of faith Skip to main content Read today's paper Sign in Register Go to: Guardian Unlimited home UK news World news Newsblog ---------------------- Archive search Arts Books EducationGuardian.co.uk Film Football Jobs MediaGuardian.co.uk Money The Observer Politics Science Shopping SocietyGuardian.co.uk Sport Talk Technology Travel Been there ---------------------- Audio Email services Special reports The Guardian The northerner The wrap ---------------------- Advertising guide Crossword Soulmates dating Headline service Syndication services Events offers Help contacts Feedback Information GNL press office Living our values Newsroom Notes Queries Reader Offers Style guide Travel offers TV listings Weather Web guides Working at GNL ---------------------- Guardian Weekly Money Observer Public Home Badscience Technology Talk Search Tests of faith Religion may be a survival mechanism. So are we born to believe? Ian Sample reports Thursday February 24, 2005 The Guardian First for some figures. Last year, an ICM poll found 85% of Americans believe that God created the universe. In Nigeria, 98% claimed always to have believed in God, while nine out of 10 Indonesians said they would die for their God or religious beliefs. Last month, a survey by the market research bureau of Ireland found 87% of the population believe in God. Rather than rocking their faith, 19% said tragedies such as the Asian tsunami, which killed 300,000 people, bolstered their belief. Polls have their faults, but if the figures are even remotely right they illustrate the prevalence of faith in the modern world. Faith has long been a puzzle for science, and it's no surprise why. By definition, faith demands belief without a need for supporting evidence, a concept that could not be more opposed to the principles of scientific inquiry. In the eyes of the scientist, an absence of evidence reduces belief to a hunch. It places the assumptions at the heart of many religions on the rockiest of ground. So why do so many people believe? And why has belief proved so resilient as scientific progress unravels the mysteries of plagues, floods, earthquakes and our understanding of the universe? By injecting nuns with radioactive chemicals, by scanning the brains of people with epilepsy and studying naughty children, scientists are now working out why. When the evidence is pieced together, it seems that evolution prepared what society later moulded: a brain to believe. One factor in the development of religious belief was the rapid expansion of our brains as we emerged as a species, says Todd Murphy, a behavioural neuroscientist at Laurentian University in Canada. As the frontal and temporal lobes grew larger, our ability to extrapolate into the future and form memories developed. "When this happened, we acquired some very new and dramatic cognitive skills. For example, we could see a dead body and see ourselves in that position one day. We could think 'That's going to be me,'" he says. That awareness of impending death prompted questions: why are we here? What happens when we die? Answers were needed. As well as providing succour for those troubled by the existential dilemma, religion, or at least a primitive spirituality, would have played another important role as human societies developed. By providing contexts for a moral code, religious beliefs encouraged bonding within groups, which in turn bolstered the group's chances of survival, says Pascal Boyer, an anthropologist turned psychologist at Washington University in St Louis, Missouri. Some believe that religion was so successful in improving group survival that a tendency to believe was positively selected for in our evolutionary history. Others maintain that religious belief is too modern to have made any difference. "What I find more plausible is that rather than religion itself offering any advantage in evolutionary terms, it's a byproduct of other cognitive capacities we evolved, which did have advantages," says Boyer. Psychological tests Boyer has run on children go some way to proving our natural tendency to believe. "If you look at three- to five-year-olds, when they do something naughty, they have an intuition that everyone knows they've been naughty, regardless of whether they have seen or heard what they've done. It's a false belief, but it's good preparation for belief in an entity that is moral and knows everything," he says. "The idea of invisible agents with a moral dimension who are watching you is highly attention-grabbing to us." Childish belief is one thing, but religious belief is embraced by people of all ages and is by no means the preserve of the uneducated. According to Boyer, the persistence of belief into adulthood is at least in part down to a presumption. "When you're in a belief system, it's not that you stop asking questions, it's that they become irrelevant. Why don't you ask yourself about the existence of gravity? It's because a lot of the stuff you do every day presupposes it and it seems to work, so where's the motivation to question it?" he says. "In belief systems, you tend to enter this strange state where you start thinking there must be something to it because everybody around you is committed to it. The general question of whether it's true is relegated." While some continue to tease out the reasons for the emergence of religion and its persistent appeal, others are delving into the neuroscience of belief in the hope of finding a biological basis for religious experience. As a starting point, many studies focused on people with particular neural conditions that made them prone to experiences so intense, they considered them to be visions of God. At the University of California in San Diego, neuroscientist VS Ramachandran noticed that a disproportionate number of patients - around a quarter - with a condition called temporal lobe epilepsy reported having deeply moving religious experiences. "They'd tell me they felt a presence or suddenly felt they got the meaning of the whole cosmos. And these could be life-changing experiences," says Ramachandran. The feelings always came during seizures, even if the seizures were so mild, they could only be detected by sensitive electroencephalograms (EEGs). Between the seizures, some patients became preoccupied with thoughts about God. Ramachandran drew up three explanations he thought might explain why the patients with epilepsy seemed so spiritual. First, he considered that the upwelling of emotion caused by the seizure might simply overwhelm, and patients made sense of it by believing that something extremely spiritual was going on. Second, the seizure might prompt the left hemisphere to make up yarns to account for seemingly inexplicable emotions. The ability of the brain's left hemisphere to "confabulate" like this is well known to neuroscientists. Third, he wondered whether seizures disrupted the function of part of the brain called the amygdala which, among other tasks, helps us focus on what is significant while allowing us to ignore the trivial. Ramachandran decided to test a couple of patients using what is called the galvanic skin response. Two electrodes are used to measure tiny changes in the skin's electrical conductivity, an indirect measure of sweating. In most people, conductivity goes up when they are shown violent or sexual pictures, or similarly loaded words. In the test, Ramachandran found that patients with temporal lobe epilepsy responded very differently from others. Violent words such as "beat" and sexual words produced not a flicker, but religious icons and the word "God" evoked a big response. With only two patients involved in the study, Ramachandran says it is impossible to draw any conclusions, but if the results stand up to future testing, it might indicate that seizures in the temporal lobe strengthen certain neural pathways connected to the amygdala, meaning we attribute significance to the banal objects and occurrences. "If those pathways all strengthen indiscriminately, everything and anything acquires a deep significance, and when that happens, it starts resembling a religious experience," he says. "And if we can selectively enhance religious sentiments, then that seems to imply there is neural circuitry whose activity is conducive to religious belief. It's not that we have some God module in our brains, but we may have specialised circuits for belief." At the University of Pennsylvania, radiologist Andrew Newberg has cast a wider net to scan the brains of people performing all manner of spiritual activities. By injecting radioactive tracers into the veins of nuns, Buddhists and others, he has constructed brain maps that show how different practices affect neural processing. "What comes out is there's a complex network in the brain and depending on what you do, it is activated in different ways," says Newberg. "If someone does Tibetan Buddhist mediation they'll activate certain parts of their brain, but if you have a nun praying they'll activate slightly different parts, with someone doing transcendental mediation activating other areas again." Newberg uncovered the neural processing behind the religious experience of "oneness" with the universe. Blood flow drops off in the parietal lobe, a brain structure that helps us orient ourselves by giving us a sense of ourselves. "We think this latter step is critical," says Newberg. "What seems to be happening is that as you block sensory information getting into the parietal lobe, it keeps trying to give you a sense of self, but it no longer has the information to do so. If that happens completely, you might get this absolute feeling of oneness." Newberg has been criticised for his investigations into the essence of spiritual experience - the most vehement attacks coming from atheists. "Some people want me to say whether God is there or not, but these experiments can't answer that. If I scan a nun and she has the experience of being in the presence of God, I can tell you what's going on in her brain, but I can't tell you whether or not God is there," he says. Religious groups point out that there is more to religion than extreme experiences. It is a criticism Newberg acknowledges. "The problem is, the people who have these experiences are so much easier to study," he says. As neuroscientists unpick the biological mechanisms behind religious experience, others are considering what to do with the information. At Laurentian University, Todd Murphy and Michael Persinger are developing devices they think can stimulate parts of the brain to enhance spiritual experiences. Others see the possibility for drugs designed to boost spirituality. Newberg says this would be underpinning a practice that has existed for hundreds of years with scientific understanding. "If you talk to a shamen who takes a substance so they can enter into the spirit world, they don't think that diminishes the experience in any way," he says. Intriguingly, many scientists, while stressing that they have set out to explore religion rather than disprove its basis, say that no matter what they uncover about the nature of spiritual experiences, mass religious belief will continue. The fastest growing religions in the US are the Mormon church and Scientology, both popular, according to Boyer largely because they are new. In other parts of the world, more fundamentalist religions succeed because they give a clear vision of the world. "For two centuries, there's been competition between churches and in the free market of religion, the products get better and better as people want different things," says Boyer. "Will science be the death of religion? As neuroscience, it's interesting to see how brains can create very strange states of consciousness, but in terms of threatening religion, I think it'll have absolutely no effect." Further reading Darwin's Cathedral , University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226901351 David Sloan-Wilson argues religion is evolution at work Religion Explained ,Vintage, ISBN 0099282763 Pascal Boyer on religion as a tool for social integrity Brain-wise Bradford Book, ISBN 026203301 Patricia Smith Churchland on the neural basis of religion What Is Good? ,Weidenfeld Nicolson, ISBN 0297841327 AC Grayling on humanity's search for a moral code www.andrewnewberg.com Todd Murphy will be speaking on the evolution of God at the Art and Mind Festival, Religion, Art and the Brain, March 10-13, Theatre Royal, Winchester. Box office 01962 840440 or www.artandmind.org What did you think of this article? Mail your responses to life@guardian.co.uk and include your name and address. Printable version | Send it to a friend | Save story Privacy policy | Terms conditions | Advertising guide | A-Z index | About this site Guardian Unlimited Guardian Newspapers Limited 2005
BBC - Science Nature - Horizon - God on the BrainIs a part of our brains hardwired to generate religious feelings? Program summary for a BBC neurotheology special.
BBC - Science Nature - Horizon - God on the Brain Home TV Radio Talk WhereILive A-ZIndex 17 November 2005 Accessibility help Text only Animals PrehistoricLife HumanBodyMind Space HotTopics TVRadioFollow-up BBC Homepage Science Nature Homepage In TVRadio follow-up : TV programmes Animal Hospital Big Cat Diary Bill Oddie Goes Wild Britain Goes Wild British Isles: A Natural History Countryfile Cousins Dangerous Passions Dragons Alive Geronimo Hawking Horizon Jungle Leonardo Life on Air Nile Should I Worry About...? Robots State of the Planet Talking with Animals Test Your Pet What Am I Like? Wild Africa Wild Down Under TV radio listings Presenters Contact Us Like this page? Send it to a friend! You are here: BBC Science Nature TV RadioFollow-up Horizon BBC Two, Thursday 17 April, 9pm God on the Brain Coming up Programme summary Questions and answers Transcript Weblinks On 8 May, Horizon follows the air investigators piecing together the Crash of Flight 587 in New York in November 2001. God on the Brain - programme summary Rudi Affolter and Gwen Tighe have both experienced strong religious visions. He is an atheist; she a Christian. He thought he had died; she thought she had given birth to Jesus. Both have temporal lobe epilepsy. Like other forms of epilepsy, the condition causes fitting but it is also associated with religious hallucinations. Research into why people like Rudi and Gwen saw what they did has opened up a whole field of brain science: neurotheology. The connection between the temporal lobes of the brain and religious feeling has led one Canadian scientist to try stimulating them. (They are near your ears.) 80% of Dr Michael Persinger's experimental subjects report that an artificial magnetic field focused on those brain areas gives them a feeling of 'not being alone'. Some of them describe it as a religious sensation. "...a high probability [Ellen White] had temporal lobe epilepsy" Prof Gregory Holmes, Dartmouth Medical School His work raises the prospect that we are programmed to believe in god, that faith is a mental ability humans have developed or been given. And temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) could help unlock the mystery. Religious leaders History is full of charismatic religious figures. Could any of them have been epileptics? The visions seen by Bible characters like Moses or Saint Paul are consistent with Rudi's and Gwen's, but there is no way to diagnose TLE in people who lived so long ago. There are, though, more recent examples, like one of the founders of the Seventh Day Adventist Movement, Ellen White. Born in 1827, she suffered a brain injury aged 9 that totally changed her personality. She also began to have powerful religious visions. Representatives of the Movement doubt that Ellen White suffered from TLE, saying her injury and visions are inconsistent with the condition, but neurologist Gregory Holmes believes this explains her condition. "These patients are more prone to religious belief" Prof Vilayanur Ramachandran, University of California, San Diego Better than sex The first clinical evidence to link the temporal lobes with religious sensations came from monitoring how TLE patients responded to sets of words. In an experiment where people were shown either neutral words (table), erotic words (sex) or religious words (god), the control group was most excited by the sexually loaded words. This was picked up as a sweat response on the skin. People with temporal lobe epilepsy did not share this apparent sense of priorities. For them, religious words generated the greatest reaction. Sexual words were less exciting than neutral ones. Make believe If the abnormal brain activity of TLE patients alters their response to religious concepts, could altering brain patterns artificially do the same for people with no such medical condition? This is the question that Michael Persinger set out to explore, using a wired-up helmet designed to concentrate magnetic fields on the temporal lobes of the wearer. "Feeling something beyond yourself, bigger in space and time, can be stimulated" Dr Michael Persinger, Laurentian University His subjects were not told the precise purpose of the test; just that the experiment looked into relaxation. 80% of participants reported feeling something when the magnetic fields were applied. Persinger calls one of the common sensations a 'sensed presence', as if someone else is in the room with you, when there is none. Horizon introduced Dr Persinger to one of Britain's most renowned atheists, Prof Richard Dawkins. He agreed to try his techniques on Dawkins to see if he could give him a moment of religious feeling. During a session that lasted 40 minutes, Dawkins found that the magnetic fields around his temporal lobes affected his breathing and his limbs. He did not find god. "A talent for religion... some people have and other people don't" Bishop Stephen Sykes, University of Durham Persinger was not disheartened by Dawkins' immunity to the helmet's magnetic powers. He believes that the sensitivity of our temporal lobes to magnetism varies from person to person. People with TLE may be especially sensitive to magnetic fields; Prof Dawkins is well below average, it seems. It's a concept that clerics like Bishop Stephen Sykes give some credence as well: could there be such a thing as a talent for religion? Brain imaging Sykes does, though, see a great difference between a 'sensed presence' and a genuine religious experience. Scientists like Andrew Newberg want to see just what does happen during moments of faith. He worked with Buddhist, Michael Baime, to study the brain during meditation. By injecting radioactive tracers into Michael's bloodstream as he reached the height of a meditative trance, Newberg could use a brain scanner to image the brain at a religious climax. "People meditating describe a loss of sense of self" Dr Andrew Newberg, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania The bloodflow patterns showed that the temporal lobes were certainly involved but also that the brain's parietal lobes appeared almost completely to shut down. The parietal lobes give us our sense of time and place. Without them, we may lose our sense of self. Adherants to many of the world's faiths regard a sense of personal insignificance and oneness with a deity as something to strive for. Newberg's work suggests a neurological basis for what religion tries to generate. Religious evolution If brain function offers insight into how we experience religion, does it say anything about why we do? There is evidence that people with religious faith have longer, healthier lives. This hints at a survival benefit for religious people. Could we have evolved religious belief? Prof Dawkins (who subscribes to evolution to explain human development) thinks there could be an evolutionary advantage, not to believing in god, but to having a brain with the capacity to believe in god. That such faith exists is a by-product of enhanced intelligence. Prof Ramachandran denies that finding out how the brain reacts to religion negates the value of belief. He feels that brain circuitry like that Persinger and Newberg have identified, could amount to an antenna to make us receptive to god. Bishop Sykes meanwhile, thinks religion has nothing to fear from this neuroscience. Science is about seeking to explain the world around us. For him at least, it can co-exist with faith. Back to top of page Read QAs Return to Horizon homepage Science Nature Homepage Animals | PrehistoricLife | HumanBodyMind | Space | HotTopics | TVRadiofollow-up Go to top About the BBC | Help | Terms of Use | Privacy Cookies Policy
Ghosts in a machineOverview article from Times Online, dicussing Persinger, Blanke, Newberg.
Ghosts in a machine - Health - Times Online
The Physical and Psychological Effects of MeditationOnline portions of a book by the same name, reviewing scientific studies, discussing behavioral effects, and giving subjective reports. Searchable bibliography on meditation research.
The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation Introduction, part 1 Introduction by Eugene Taylor, Ph.D. | Next Some Definitions Meditationthat great and mysterious subject which in the past has always conjured up the image of the solitary Asian ascetic sitting in deep tranceis fast appearing in unexpected places throughout modern American culture. Secretaries are doing it as part of their daily noon yoga classes. Preadolescent teenagers dropped off at the YMCA by their mothers on a Saturday morning are learning it as part of their karate training. Truck drivers and housewives in the Stress Reduction Program at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center are practicing a combination of Hindu yoga and Buddhist insight meditation to control hypertension. Star athletes prepare themselves for a demanding basketball game with centering techniques they learned in Zen. [ 1 ] Dhyana is the generic Sanskrit term for meditation, which in the Yoga Sutras refers to both the act of inward contemplation in the broadest sense and more technically to the intermediate state between mere attention to an object (dharana) and complete absorption in it (samadhi). [ 2 ] The earliest known reference to such practice on the Indian subcontinent occurs on one of the seals, a figure seated in the lotus posture, found in the ruins of the pre-Aryan civilizations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro which existed prior to 1500 BCE. Most of the orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy derive their meditation techniques from yoga, but superimpose their own theoretical understanding of consciousness onto the results of the practice. [ 3 ] Meditation is also referred to as a spiritual practice in China.Chinese forms of meditation have their origins in the early roots of popular Taoism which existed long before the codification of Taoism as a formal philosophy during the seventh century, B.C.. However, there is no concrete evidence to prove that meditation first arose in Hindu culture and then spread elsewhere. Thus, for the time being the original meditative traditions in China and India should be considered as separate and indigenous. To further complicate the issue, analogies between meditative states and trance consciousness suggest that even earlier precursors to the Asian meditative arts can be found in shamanic cultures such as those in Siberia and Africa. [ 4 ] As for modern developments, in trying to formulate a definition of meditation, a useful rule of thumb is to consider all meditative techniques to be culturally embedded. This means that any specific technique cannot be understood unless it is considered in the context of some particular spiritual tradition, situated in a specific historical time period, or codified in a specific text according to the philosophy of some particular individual. [ 5 ] Thus, to refer to Hindu meditation or Buddhist meditation is not enough, since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of meditation comes are quite different and even within a single tradition differ in complex ways. The specific name of a school of thought or a teacher or the title of a specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular type of meditation. Vipassana, or insight meditation, for instance, as practiced in the United States is derived from the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, and is usually associated with the teachings of the Burmese monk Mahasi Sayadaw; Transcendental Meditation is associated exclusively with the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, whose tradition is Vedantic Hinduism; and so on. The attempt to abstract out the primary characteristics of meditation from a grab bag of traditions in order to come to some purified essence or generic definition is a uniquely Western and relatively recent phenomenon. This tendency should be considered, however powerful and convincing its claim as an objective, universal, and value-free method, to be an artifact of one culture attempting to comprehend another that is completely different. [ 6 ] At the same time, however, Western styles of meditation have long existed in the form of contemplative prayer, and contemporary interest in Asian practices has kindled a resurgence of interest in Western parallels. Orison, the repetitive and devotional meditation on Christ, repetition of the Holy Names, the spiritual teachings of St. Ignatius, and the Eastern Orthodox practice of the philokalia are examples from the Western contemplative tradition that come nearest to meditation as it has been cultivated in Asian countries. Indeed there is an unbroken tradition of mysticism which can be said to embody forms of meditative practice in the Westfrom the NeoPlatonists such as Plotinus, through the medieval mystics both early and lateJohannes Eriugena, St. Bonaventure, John of the Cross, St. Theresa, St. Bernard of Clarivauxfollowed by such personalities as Robert Parsons, Margaret Mary Alacoque, and Emanuel Swedenborg, to modern Christian contemplatives such as Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Thomas Merton, and now Schlomo Carlbach, Bede Griffiths, and David Steindl-Rast. [ 7 ] But for purposes of carrying on a coherent discussion about the subject, while mystical awakening can be found in some form in all cultures, meditation per se should be taken as a uniquely Asian phenomenon which, wholesale, has only recently come to the attention of the West. In its new Western context, particularly in the United States, however, it has undergone a significant reformulation. In the US it has become indigenized, so that now one can say that Asian forms of meditation have become thoroughly American. [ 8 ] The Americanization of Meditation Ideas about the Eastern meditative traditions began seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity that transplanted themselves to such new settlements as Germantown and Ephrata in William Penn's "Holy Experiment," which he named Pennsylvania. Early framers of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution were influenced by teachings from mystical Sufism and the Jewish Kaballah through their membership in secret fraternities such as the Rosicrucians. Asian ideas then came pouring in during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s, largely influencing the American traditions of spiritualism, theosophy, and mental healing. The Hindu conception of Brahman was reformulated by Ralph Waldo Emerson into the New England vision of God as the Oversoul, while Henry David Thoreau's ideas on civil disobedience arose out of his reading of Hindu scriptures on meditation, yoga, and non-violence. At the same time, spiritualiststhose who believed that science had established communication with the dead through the medium of the group seancealso dabbled in Asian ideas. Helena Blavatsky, co-founder of the International Theosophical Society, is usually credited with introducing Hindu conceptions of discarnate entities into American spiritualist circles. In this context, the Theosophists also translated Hindu texts on meditation and for the first time made them available in popular form to English-speaking audiences. Similarly, New Thought practitionersfollowers of the healer Phineas P. Quimbyalso included meditation techniques such as guided visualizations and the mantra into their healing regimes. In general, by the late nineteenth century Americans appropriated Asian ideas to fit their own optimistic, pragmatic, and eclectic understanding of inner experience. This usually meant adapting ideas such as reincarnation and karma into a very liberal and heavily Christianized, but nevertheless secular, psychology of character development that was closer to the philosophy of transcendentalism than to doctrines in any of the Christian denominations. (Today, the same standard for interpreting Asian ideas persists but in the form of a neo-transcendentalist, Jungian, and counter-cultural definition of higher consciousness.) The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda taught meditation to the spiritualists and New Thought practitioners in New Hampshire and went on to found various Vedanta ashrams around the country in his wake. Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha followed with a 235-day tour of the US teaching the Islamic principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen and the principles of Mahayana Buddhism. By then, the idea of comparative religions had caught on as an academic field of inquiry in the universities. Following the Sacred Books of the East Series, edited by F. Max Mueller, and major translations of the Theravada scriptures by the Pali Text Society in England, the Harvard Oriental Series appeared after 1900 under the editorship of Charles Rockwell Lanman. Meanwhile, the Cambridge Conferences on Comparative Religions, carried on by Mrs. Ole Bull in her Brattle Street home near Harvard University, and the Greenacre School of Comparative Religions, operated by Sarah Farmer in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, had been bringing ideas about meditation to interested New Englanders since the late 1890s. During the 1920s, American popular culture was introduced to the meditative practices of the Hindu yogi Paramahansa Yogananda. Gurdjieff, the Georgian mystic who had toured the US in 1924, was spreading the gospel of meditation in action to American expatriates in Paris by the 1930s. A young Hindu trained in theosophy named Jidhu Krishnamurti had been touring the US around that same time. Settling in Southern California in the 1940s, Krishnamurti would soon be joined by English migrs fleeing the European war, such as Christopher Isherwood, Gerald Heard, and Aldous Huxley, who were themselves writers and practitioners of the meditative arts. During World War Two, Huxley, Heard, and others became disciples of the meditation teacher Swami Prabhavananda, head of the Vedanta Society of Southern California. Together, they produced such influential books as Vedanta for the West and assisted in the popular dissemination of texts such the Hindu Upanishads and the Yoga Sutras. Meanwhile, on the east coast of the United States, Swami Akhilananda of Boston frequently met with leading university intellectuals in psychology, philosophy, and religion, including Gordon Allport, Peter Bertocci, William Ernest Hocking, and George H. Williams. One product of this liason was Akhilananda's Hindu Psychology (1946) , with an introduction by Gordon Allport, a text on the philosophy and psychology of Vedantic meditation. Another momentous event introducing Asian ideas to the West was the arrival in 1941 of Henrich Zimmer, Indologist and Sanskrit scholar, who had been a friend and confidant of C. G. Jung. Zimmer brought the young Joseph Campbell, comparative mythologist and folklorist, to the attention of the newly formed Bollingen Foundation. Subsequently, the Foundation produced the English translation of Jung's collected works, as well as numerous books by Zimmer, which Campbell edited, among other titles. Perhaps the most influential product of this endeavor was the Bollingen edition of the I Ching, or Chinese Book of Changes. The I Ching was a Taoist oracle book revered in Chinese religious history as one of the four great Confucian classics. Translated by Richard Wilhelm with a preface by Jung, the work has continued to enjoy immense popularity since its first publication in 1947. The 1950s represented a major expansion of interest in both meditation and Asian philosophy. Frederick Speigelberg, a professor of comparative religions at Stanford, opened the California Institute of Asian Studies in 1951, which highlighted the work of the modern Hindu mystic and social reformer Sri Aurobindo Ghose. Alan Watts, a student of Zen and former Episcopalian minister, soon joined the faculty and within a few years produced such best-selling books as Psychotherapy East and West and The Meaning of Zen. It was also during this time that Michael Murphy first came under the influence of Speigelberg, was introduced to the teachings of Sri Aurobindo, and began the practice of meditation. With the assistance of Abraham Maslow, Alan Watts, Willis Harman, Aldous Huxley, George Leonard and others, Murphy would soon collaborate with Richard Price to launch Esalen Institute, which quickly became the world's premier growth center for human potential. During the same period of the early 1950s, with the help of Watts, D. T. Suzuki came from Japan to California and introduced Zen to a new generation of Americans. Suzuki settled in New York, where he accepted a visiting professorship at Columbia. His seminars were open to the public and subsequently had a wide influence. Thomas Merton visited him. The neo-Freudians such as Karen Horney and Erich Fromm were his students. Suzuki even took Horney on a three-month tour of the religious shrines in Japan. John Cage heard him, as did J. D. Salinger. Soon, Suzuki was profiled in The New York Times, and many of his previous works on the history and philosophy of Zen, published in relative obscurity, were translated and reprinted for American audiences. Zen, embraced by the beat generation, had suddenly come to the West. What occurred next opened an entirely new era of popular interest in meditation. This was the confluence of three major cultural events in the 1960s: the psychedelic revolution, the Communist invasion of Asia, and the rise of the American counter-culture, especially in terms of widespread opposition to the Vietnam War. By the early 1960s, mind expanding drugs were being taken by a significant segment of the post war baby boom, a generation which numbered some 40 million people born between 1945 and 1955 who came of age in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This led young people in their teens and twenties to collectively open the doors of inward perception, experiment with alternative lifestyles, and question established cultural norms in Western society. An entire generation soon established their own alternative institutions which began to operate in defiance of traditional cultural forms still dominated by the ideology of their parents' generation. Subsequently, this was to have important political, economic, religious, and social consequences in the West, especially in the United States as enduring but alternative cultural norms began to take root in the younger generation of the American middle class. At the same time, the increased Soviet influence in India, the Cultural Revolution in China, the Communist Chinese takeover of Tibet and Mongolia, and the increased political influence of Chinese Communism in Korea and Southeast Asia were key forces that collectively set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West. An entirely new generation of them appeared on the American scene and they found a willing audience of devotees within the American counter-culture. Swami A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, Swami Satchitananda, Guru Maharaji, Kerpal Singh, Nayanaponika Thera, Swami Rama, Thich Nhat Hanh, Chogyam Trungpa, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Swami Muktananda, Sri Bagwan Rujneesh, Pir Viliyat Kahn, and the Karmapa were but a few of the names that found followers in the United States. While there remain numerous contemporary voices, such as Guru Mai, Thich Nhat Hanh, the Maharishi, and Sogyal Rinpoche, there can be little doubt, historically, that the most well known and influential figure in this pantheon today remains Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama of Tibet, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. As a result of such personalities, there has been a tremendous growth in meditation as a spiritual practice in the United States from the 1960s to the present. This phenomenon remains largely underestimated by the pundits of American high culture who see themselves as the main spokespersons for the European rationalist tradition in the New World. In the first place, from a socio-cultural standpoint, it is clear that from the 1920s to the 1960s, Freudian psychoanalysis was the primary socially acceptable avenue through which artists, writers, and aficionados of modernism gained access to their own interior unconscious processes. For a new and younger generation of visionaries, however, psychoanalysis was soon replaced by psychedelic drugs as the primary vehicle for opening the internal doors of perception. This occurred as a result of experiments undertaken in military and university laboratories associated with the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The CIA was interested in developing mind-control drugs for potential use in psychological warfare. At the same time that the CIA began testing substances such as LSD on unsuspecting populations of soldiers, businessmen, and college students, some of these chemicals came into the hands of the scientific and medical community. Researchers themselves began ingesting mescaline and LSD. Soon, by the late 1950s and early 1960s, from the psychiatrists' couches in Hollywood to the hallowed halls of Harvard University, the youthful and educated elite of the American middle class began to experiment with psychedelics in ever-increasing numbers. The counter-culture movement that followed was considered a revolution in consciousness, driven by mind-expanding drugs, as well as defined by spiritual teachings from Asian cultures, each creating the conditions for expansion of the other. As the psychedelic revolution of the 1960s subsided for the post-war baby boomers maturing into the 1970s, meditation, and all that it implied, then became fixed as an enduring ethic of that generation. The belief was that meditative practices not only cleansed consciousness of psychedelics, and confirmed the commitment to pursuing alternative lifestyles, but they also informed the socio-cultural direction that the lives of many young people would soon take in establishing new and permanent forms of lifetime spiritual practice. Now, after thirty years, these developments have produced advanced Western practitioners, who themselves are qualified senseis, roshis, swamis, and tulkus. We known them as Ram Dass, Sivananda Radha, Jiyu Kennet Roshi, Maureen Freidgood, Jack Kornfield, Robert Frager, Richard Baker Roshi, and others. They have begun to teach these Asian traditions to Western audiences. In so doing, they are also partipating in their modification by forming new lineages of meditation practice that, while informed by Asian influences, turn out to be uniquely Western. Such teachings are already being transmitted to a second and third generation of younger people in the United States and Europe as well, altering irrecoverably the shape and direction of spiritual life in contemporary Western culture. Not the least of these influences has been renewed interest in the Western contemplative traditions. Examination of Western mystics had increased dramatically since the 1960s. Witness, for instance, establishment of the Classics in Western Spirituality Series, published by the Paulist Press, or the appearance of the newly formed Mysticism Study Group within the American Academy of Religion. At the same time, popular books on Christian meditation are clearly linked to the spiritual awakening that has occurred in the counter-culture. Avery Brooke's Learning and Teaching Christian Meditation (1975), Joan Cooper's Guided Meditation and the Teachings of Jesus (1982), and Swami Rama's Meditation in Christianity (1983) are but a few of the titles that have enjoyed continuous printings since they first came out. There is also a case to be made for the idea that the fundamentalist revival in the Christian right has been a direct reaction to the larger upsurge of spirituality that has occurred in the American counter-culture. Perhaps the most significant opportunity to arise out of the new stream of Western meditation practitioners has been heightened awareness of Asian cultures, especially in terms of their unique integrity and outlook. While the Judeo-Christian, Greco-Roman, Western European and Anglo-American tradition continues to export its beliefs and values into other cultures on a grand scale, the Asian worldview is also fast asserting itself as a competing economic, political, and social force. But is a clash of worldepistemologies inevitable? Perhaps. Meanwhile, Westerners within a new and younger generation have appeared who are fast becoming skilled interpreters of these non-Western traditions as legitimate worldviews in their own right. Their vehicle, the practice of meditation, could, instead of the predicted clash of cultures, potentially set the stage for an exchange of ideas between East and West that may yet turn out to be unprecedented in the history Western thought. Meditation as a Scientific Study Within this context scientific interest in meditation has grown significantly over the past quarter of a century. This has occurred partly on the justification that science might be able to show us objectively what meditation is and what its effects are, but also because the scientific method represents one of the few ways in which our culture can peer into the depths of another culture so radically different from our own. To objectively study meditative practices, however, requires that they be taken out of their subjective context. One quarter claims that science produces objective truth independent of cultures, while another maintains that the scientific attitude has its own implied philosophical context, so all we are really doing is taking the subject out of its original frame of reference and putting it into one we can more easily understand. The methods and theory surrounding the practice of meditation techniques thereby undergo a radical change. According to this second view, no more quintessential example exists of the Westernization of an Asian idea than the scientific study of meditation. Science, the product of Aristotelian thinking and the European rationalist enlightenment, now turns its attention to the intuitive transformation of personality through awakened consciousness (and other such Asian meanings of the term enlightenment). This means that the faculties of logic and sense perception, hallmarks of the scientific method, are now being trained on the personality correlates of intuition and insight, hallmarks of the traditional inward sciences of the East. To grasp what meditation is has proven to be no easy task. The underlying and usually hidden philosophical assumptions of traditional, rationalist science do not value the intuitive. They do not acknowledge the reality of the transcendent or subscribe to the concept of higher states of consciousness, let alone, in the strictest sense, even admit to the possible existence of unconscious forces active in cognitive acts of perception. Meditation, therefore, is a topic that characteristically would not be taken up by mainstream scientists. One would expect that research funding would be scarce, peer review difficult, and publication channels limited. The evidence shows that, at least until recently, this has been exactly the case. The essential difficulty here is not just the reformulation of meditation techniques to fit the dictates of the scientific method, but rather what might be called a deeper, more subtle, and potentially more transformative clash of world epistemologies. It is not simply that meditation techniques have been difficult to measure but rather that, in the past, meditation has largely been an implicitly forbidden subject of scientific research. Now, however, major changes are currently underway within basic science that presage not only further evolution of the scientific method but also changes in the way science is viewed in modern culture. An unprecedented new era of interdisciplinary communication within the subfields of the natural sciences, a fundamental shift from physics to biology, and the cognitive neuroscience revolution have liberalized attitudes toward the study of meditation and related subjects. Meanwhile, the popular revolution in modern culture grounded in spirituality and consciousness is having a growing impact on traditional institutions such as medicine, religion, mental health, corporate management strategies, concepts of marriage, child rearing, and the family, and more. Increasingly, educated people want to know much more about meditation, while our traditional institutions of high culture remain unprepared as adequate interpreters. The First Edition As a result, when it first appeared, predictably, The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation drew wide attention within the meditation community and eventually sold out. Its authors, Michael Murphy and Steven Donovan, leaders in the American growth center movement and themselves seasoned meditators, presented their bibliography as a project of the Center for Exceptional Functioning, a newly founded program within Esalen Institute. Esalen, which Murphy had co-founded with Richard Price in 1961, was, for many, the premier growth center for personal development in the United States. Interest in meditation actually began out of the earliest programs at Esalen. Alan Watts, the well-known interpreter of Zen to the West, and Al Huang, a Chinese Tai Chi master of movement meditation, both taught meditation-related workshops when Esalen first opened. Throughout the years, figures such as Suzuki Roshi, Baker Roshi, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Lama Anagarika Govinda, and various Tibetan Buddhist tulkus introduced different forms of meditation into the growth center environment and helped to shape the basic theme of the Esalen program. This theme Murphy conceived as nothing less than the transformation of personality. The immediate impulse that launched the bibliographic project, however, was publication of Murphy's speculative fiction Jacob Atabet (1977) . This was a tale, set in modern San Francisco, about a writer, Darwin Fall, who had been investigating various miraculous events for the Catholic Church in Rome and doing research into all kinds of transformative phenomena. Fall meets and begins to chronicle the story of Jacob Atabet, who is actually in the process of transforming every cell of his body into the higher spiritual light. Atabet, for his part, finds in Fall someone who at last understands what he is going through. In the course of the novel, Atabet needs to be instructed in the contents of the massive text summarizing Fall's not yet complete research. The monumental tome, given to Atabet in outline form as a work in progress in that fictional account, later actually became Michael Murphy's voluminous The Future of the Body (1992) . Meanwhile, scientific publications and other material collected in the course of putting together The Future of the Body became the basis for the first edition of the annotated bibliography in meditation research, which appeared in 1988. Before the advent of the revolution in personal computers, before managed care took over the health care industry, and before the full impact of rapid developments in the cognitive neurosciences were felt, Murphy and Donovan had collected a database of some 10,000 articles on various aspects of human potential and higher consciousness. Out of this cache they extracted 1253 scientific and literary studies on meditation which formed the core of the first edition. They introduced their bibliography with a series of essays to make a statement on the physiological, psychological, and behavioral effects of meditative practice as was understood in the Western literature. To this analysis they brought a meditator's reading of both the Eastern and Western contemplative traditions, which provided insightful comparisons to the slow but steadily growing study of meditation according to the methods of Western science. The first edition clearly indicated that the scientific study of meditation was fast becoming a growth industry. In the wake of its publication, Esalen, in cooperation with the Institute of Noetic Sciences, and with financial assistance from Marius Robinson, launched an annual series of invitation-only conferences on advances in meditation research. These conferences, held annually at Esalen from 1988 to 1996, brought practitioners of meditation together with scholars in comparative religions and scientists interested in experimental and clinical investigation in order to generate cross-disciplinary dialogue about the experience and the effect of meditative practice. One fruit of those conferences has been this second edition of the Murphy and Donovan bibliography. The Present Update In the eight years since the first publication of their work, basic experimental studies on the subject of meditation have steadily increased, while outcome research in clinical settings has grown at an even faster rate. At the same time, when compared to what had gone on in the field in the fifty years preceding 1988, the total rate of increase between 1988 and 1996 in articles in scholarly and scientific journals as well as trade books has been nothing short of spectacular. The second edition, in keeping with the first, chronicles mainly scientific and scholarly works, revealing several key trends and changes. Since 1988, not only has government sponsored research increased, but meditation is now a category on the National Library of Medicine's list of computer search subjects. There also has been an increase in the number of studies reported by researchers outside the US, especially from Asian countries. While more studies are being undertaken overall, the majority of research programs appear to be conducted by practitioners of meditation who are also skilled in the techniques of modern experimental methods. Finally, and perhaps most important from the standpoint of basic science, investigation has moved from the level of gross physiology to more detailed points of biochemistry and the voluntary control of internal states. From a philosophical standpoint, these studies have also raised a number of issues about the role of spiritual experiences in both psychology and medicine. TM and the TM-Sidhi Project As Murphy and Donovan pointed out in their first edition, and as the present update of their work has confirmed, the most prolific research on meditation in the United States in sheer numbers of published studies has been and continues to be on Transcendental Meditation. Transcendental Meditation is the specific introductory program taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, a Vedantic meditation teacher originally from Madhyapradesh, India, to thousands of disciples, most of whom are in the West. Meanwhile, the TM-Sidhi program (an anglicized version of the Sanskrit siddhi, meaning supernormal powers) represents more advanced training in the Vedantic interpretation of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The experimental research program into the effects of TM is carried on largely at Maharishi Mahesh International University (MIU) in Fairfield, Iowa (now called the Maharishi International School of Management), but there are other centers and individuals engaged in TM research as well. Over the past two decades, David Orme-Johnson, one of the key investigators at MIU, and his colleagues have complied and edited 508 studies on TM in five volumes under the title Scientific Research on Maharishi's Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program: Collected Papers (Orme-Johnson and Farrow, 1977; Chalmers, Clements, Schenkluhn and Weinless, 1989a, 1989b, 1989c; Wallace,Orme-Johnson and Dillbeck, 1990). These studies are arranged approximately in chronological order in each volume under the headings of physiology, psychology, sociology, and then either theoretical or review oriented papers. Experimental studies reported are about evenly divided between articles in refereed journals and those from TM conferences and in-house TM publications. The content of the collected papers indicates that, historically, TM researchers began by positing the existence of a fourth state of consciousnessa hypometabolic waking state which their physiological measures suggested was distinctly different from either normal waking consciousness, the state of sleep with dreams, or the state of deep sleep without dreams. Studies then began to show effects when TM was applied to medical conditions such as asthma, angina, and high blood pressure. Personality variables became a focus of research. These included measures of intellectual problem-solving ability, thinking and recall, creativity, field independence, sense of self-esteem, and self-actualization. Researchers then moved into applied social situations, looking at the effects of teaching TM to the police, the military, and such populations as juvenile offenders, incarcerated adults, high school students, and athletes, as well as managers in the corporate environment. Meanwhile, more subtle biochemical measures of blood chemistry were also undertaken. These included endocrine levels, effects on neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin, and the measurement of altered cell metabolism. TM was also examined in the context of various psychiatric disorders. By the late 1970s studies began to appear testing the abilities of advanced meditators in the TM-Sidhi program on numerous variables during deep meditation and during what they described as yogic-flying. Along with individual studies, TM researchers also began reporting evidence for an inverse correlation between the amount of meditation going on and sociological variables such as the local and national crime rate for a given period. This has been labeled the Maharishi Effect. Finally, there are numerous papers on TM and world peace. After almost a quarter of a century of scientific investigation, TM researchers now describe their findings in theoretical terms referring to "Vedic psychology" and "Vedic science." Their system clearly acknowledges the reality of the transcendent and subserves materialist methods of Western scientific investigation under the larger domain of spiritual experience within the philosophical and religious context of Hindu monism. Their expertise with certain aspects of Western science has become quite sophisticated, however, creating an altogether new avenue of investigation at the interface between science and spirituality. In the new and more open scientific climate toward research on the subject of meditation, TM researchers have successfully been able to master the blind peer review process and were recently awarded some $2,500,000 in research grants from the National Institutes of Health. Their studies will look at the large scale application of TM in the treatment of alcohol and drug abuse and in such conditions as hypertension. [ 9 ] Their preliminary research has shown that, with regard to drug dependence, the traditional single-cause-for-a-single-illness model is unworkable. Instead, addiction is viewed as a progressive behavior pattern involving a complex of physiological, psychological, and socio-cultural variables that can be successfully influenced by meditative practice at key points. In the case of hypertension, they have shown that psycho-pharmacology is still the preferred medical intervention but remains complicated because of toxic side effects, issues of patient non-compliance, and the fact that drugs work well on preventing stroke but not coronary heart disease. Their previous studies have confirmed that meditation works better than drug placebos, but is slower acting than pharmacologic agents, leading them to confirm the current recommendation that TM is most effective when used in combination with other therapies. Herbert Benson: The Mind-Body Medical Institute Another of the most visible research projects into the effects of meditation originally reported in the first edition of the Murphy and Donovan bibliography has been going on under the direction of Herbert Benson, cardiologist at Harvard Medical School. In the late 1960s, Benson began studying Transcendental Meditation practitioners. He has since expanded his work by looking at Tibetan Buddhist meditators, and generic forms of relaxation capable of being elicited by the general population. His first major work, a trade book entitled The Relaxation Response, appeared in 1975. In it, he described procedures he believed were generic to the onset of meditation and other contemplative practices. The conditions necessary to evoke the relaxation response involve a quiet environment, repetition of a sound or phrase, a passive attitude, and relaxed watchful breathing. Meanwhile, in the medical literature he had identified the relaxation response as a natural reflex mechanism which, when practiced twenty minutes a day, reduced stress and physiologically had the opposite effect of the fight-flight reflex. Beyond the Relaxation Response appeared in 1984, and combined Benson's research into both the relaxation response and the placebo effect. This text emphasized the role that harnessing physiology can play in improving quality of life and character. Benson followed in 1987 with Your Maximum Mind, a text that clearly associates the positive physiological effects of the relaxation response with the hopefulness of the patient's own religious beliefs and values. Since publication of Your Maximum Mind, Benson has launched the Mind-Body Medical Institute, a for-profit research and training initiative in behavioral medicine, in conjunction with the Deaconess Hospital in Boston and the Harvard Medical School. Two major streams of Benson's work on meditation are carried on at this Institute. One involves ongoing programs in scientific research, while the other is dedicated to community education. Since 1967 Benson has been working on identifying the physiological and neurochemical underpinnings of the relaxation response, which he defines as a hypometabolic state of parasympathetic activation, that is, a state of deep rest. Early work showed the effect of the relaxation response on lowering conditions such as essential hypertension, headache, and alcohol consumption. Studies then moved to show the effect of the relaxation response on various forms of heart disease, serum levels in the blood, and on psychiatric disorders such as anxiety. Other studies compared the relaxation response with other forms of relaxation such as hypnosis. The next major phase was to assess the effects of the relaxation response in a variety of clinical situations. Women experiencing moderate forms of PMS were found to benefit from the technique. Patients at a major health maintenance organization were found to utilize the facilities less and to report less illness over time when taught Benson's method. Recently, the Institute has inaugurated a successful relaxation curriculum for high school students. At the same time, Benson has also been investigating advanced meditators. While he began with practitioners of TM, as work on the relaxation response became more sophisticated, Benson turned his attention to measuring the physiological changes in advanced Tibetan Buddhist meditators, using monks who follow the Dalai Lama. These were on-site investigations at monasteries in Nepal in the Himalayas. Most recently, Benson and his colleagues have been testing out the physiological effects of different forms of practice, as well as assessing metabolic and electrophysiologic changes in advanced meditators. On the educational side, The Mind-Body Medical Institute offers regular one-week training programs for health care practitioners in all aspects of the relaxation response. The Institute franchises out its model to hospitals and other health care facilities and periodically launches educational programs for the public. In December of 1995, for instance, the Institute sponsored a major conference on "Spirituality and Healing in Medicine." The three-day program was aimed at clinical practitioners, including physicians, psychologists, nurses, clergy, social workers, allied health professionals, and health care administrators. Perhaps for the first time, scientists, and Western healthcare practitioners joined with scholars in comparative religions to assess the relationship between spirituality and health. Here presentations on scientific evidence as well as historical and thematic scholarship attempted to interpret the life-world of radically different epistemological frames of reference from those of the laboratory scientist. It also meant taking seriously the claims of faith traditions in the West such as Pentacostalism, the Charismatic Catholic movement, and Seventh Day Adventism which the scientific outlook normally rejects. As well, Islamic, Hindu, and Buddhist scholars took up the more difficult task of interpreting the spiritual traditions of non-western cultures as significant sources of healing. Thoughout the conference, the practice of meditation played a central role in these discussions. More recently, Benson has released Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief ( Benson and Stark, 1996 ). In this text he renames the placebo effect "remembered wellness." By using this new term he takes the idea of the placebo, which carries a negative connotation in science as something "not real," and re-examines it as a new psychological tool in medicine. In the term "remembered wellness" he here redefines the old term "placebo" as the person's natural desire for health and the person's right to choose the kind of healing to achieve it. To pharmaceuticals and surgery, Western medicine must now add the patient's own capacity for self-healing. Expectations, beliefs, values, and the practice of meditation, Benson maintains, are among the new forces we must now harness for health and growth. Top of Page | | Next 1999-2004 Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS) To purchase a copy of the book The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation , please contact IONS at: 707-779-8217 or by email: research@noetic.org .
Doubt cast on theory that magnetic fields spark religious feelingsSwedish researchers conduct a double-blind study said to debunk Persinger's theories of magnetic stimulation causing religious experiences, as reported in Nature.
Electrical brainstorms busted as source of ghosts Close window Published online: 9 December 2004; | doi:10.1038 news041206-10 Electrical brainstorms busted as source of ghosts Roxanne Khamsi Doubt cast on theory that magnetic fields spark religious feelings. Ghosts aren't so easy to pin down. Punchstock Studies showing that magnetic stimulation of the brain induces spiritual experiences are being queried by researchers who cannot reproduce key results. If the traditional theory is wrong, scientists will be left struggling to explain how such thoughts and sensations are generated. In the past, scientists have claimed that religious or out-of-body experiences result from excessive bursts of electrical activity in the brain. In the 1980s, Michael Persinger, a neuroscientist at the Laurentian University in Ontario, Canada, began exploring this idea through a series of experiments. Participants wore helmets that targeted their temporal lobes with weak magnetic fields, of roughly the same strength as those generated by a computer monitor. Persinger found that this caused 80% of the people he tested to feel an unexplained presence in the room. Persinger suggested that magnetism causes bursts of electrical activity in the temporal lobes of the brain, and he linked this to the spiritual experiences. Blinding science A group of Swedish researchers has now repeated the work, but they say their study involves one crucial difference. They ensured that neither the participants nor the experimenters interacting with them had any idea who was being exposed to the magnetic fields, a 'double-blind' protocol. When I went to Persinger's lab I had the most extraordinary experiences I've ever had. Psychologist Susan Blackmore Bristol, UK Without such a safeguard, "people in the experimental group who are highly suggestible would pick up on cues from the experimenter and they would be more likely to have these types of experiences," says Pehr Granqvist of Uppsala University, who led the research team. Beyond the double-blind aspect, Granqvist says the nuts and bolts of the experiment mirrored those conducted in the past. He and his colleagues tested 43 undergraduate students by exposing them to magnetic fields that ranged from 3 to 7 microtesla and were aimed just above and in front of the ears, to target the temporal lobes. They also tested a control group of 46 volunteers who wore the helmet but were not exposed to the magnetic field. The volunteers were then asked to complete questionnaires about what they experienced during each session. The researchers report their results online in Neuroscience Letters 1 . Strong spirits In contrast to the results from Persinger and others, the team found that the magnetism had no discernable effects. Two out of the three participants in the Swedish study that reported strong spiritual experiences during the study belonged to the control group, as did 11 out of the 22 who reported subtle experiences. Granqvist acknowledges that this seems to be quite a high level of spiritual experiences overall, but says that it matches the level that Persinger saw in his control groups. The researchers say they do not know what neurological mechanism could be generating the experiences. However, using personality tests they did find that people with an orientation toward unorthodox spirituality were more likely to feel a supernatural presence, as were those who were, in general, more suggestible. Field defence Persinger, however, takes issue with the Swedish attempts to replicate his work. "They didn't replicate it, not even close," he says. He argues that the Swedish group did not expose the subjects to magnetic fields for long enough to produce an effect. He also stresses that some of his studies were double blinded. Although the experimenters knew when the magnetic field was being applied, he says that they did not know what effect the field was expected to induce. Susan Blackmore, a psychologist based in Bristol, UK, is also reluctant to give up on the theory just yet. She has firsthand experience of Persinger's methods. "When I went to Persinger's lab and underwent his procedures I had the most extraordinary experiences I've ever had," she says. "I'll be surprised if it turns out to be a placebo effect." She too thinks that the Swedish researchers may have used magnetic fields that varied subtly from those of Persinger. "But double-blind experiments will ultimately give us the final answer," she says. Top References Granqvist P., et al. Neurosci. Lett., published online doi:10.1016 j.neulet.2004.10.057 (2004). Top Story from news@nature.com: http: news.nature.com news 2004 041206 041206-10.html 2004 Nature Publishing Group | Privacy policy
Body and MindMaterials accompanying a TV special on body and mind, with an brief overview of older theories and notable neurotheology research.
Body and Mind E4 More4 FilmFour FourDocs TVListings Site A-Z NEWS FILM HOMES LIFE ENTERTAINMENT HISTORY SCIENCE COMMUNITY SHOP SPORT CULTURE CARS MONEY VIDEO LEARNING HEALTH MUSIC GAMES Others Human Hobbit Beginner's Anatomy Exorcism Coma Einstein's Brain Face Transplant Mutants Cannibal Genetics Born Freak Battle of the Sexes Sane in Space Pain FAQs Elephant Man Shark Attack Wild Child Birth to Twin Sex Wars Cloning People Fat Clinical Depression Can't Trust Pain Depression Timeline Drug FAQs The Anatomists Anatomy Body Story About this site The Exorcism Ken Hollings February 2005 Great care was taken in the filming of this programme to ensure that the subject of the exorcism was independently assessed by two experienced psychiatrists and not found to be suffering from any form of mental health problems. In addition, the subject is part of a Christian church that provides access to exorcism or 'deliverance ministry' on a monthly basis, and is familiar with the process. There is strong bond of trust between the subject and the minister performing the exorcism. If the programmes on exorcism distress you, there's support available on our helplines website . The American novelist Flannery O'Connor called it 'wise blood' the innate sense of spiritual certainty able to possess an individual so completely that faith seems like a physical fact of existence. Facts, however, are commonly regarded as being of this world rather than the next and, as such, are subject to change. What pertains to the body can be altered, enhanced or even made to disappear entirely. A growing number of personality traits have been linked to specific genetic patterns, meaning that scientists might one day be able to tweak all Seven Deadly Sins out of existence. Sloth, for example, has been linked to a gene that makes neurons more sensitive to dopamine, allowing the brain's pleasure centres to reward themselves. Shut that function down, and the Protestant work ethic stands uncontested. Lengthen the gene for monoamine oxidase A, and wrath becomes a thing of the past. Beef up the number of vasopressin receptors in the brain, and you can say goodbye to lust. Could this mean then that religion too exists only inside our heads? Is spirituality simply another biological fact of existence, or has medical science found a way to mediate the tensions that have traditionally existed between the human body and the human soul? The two have, after all, been kept apart for centuries. The early Christian saints, in imitation of the time Jesus spent in the wilderness, would sever all physical attachments with the world in order to get closer to their god. They were by no means alone in this. The vedantic sadhus of India, the bhikkus of Chinese Bhuddism and the Tantric yogis of Tibet have all been known to shun the snares of the physical world. In 1907, to actually determine the weight of the human soul, Dr Duncan MacDougall of Massachusetts weighed bodies before and after death with a crude beam scale. Precisely 21 grammes, he claimed. Religion on the brain Neuropsychologist Michael Persinger of Canada's Laurentian University in Ontario argues that religious experience is created within the brain. Current studies suggest that our sense of self is produced by the left temporal lobe, located in the logical and precise hemisphere of our brains, which helps maintain the boundary between individual consciousness and the outside world. Shut that lobe down, and you feel at one with the Universe a prime form of religious experience. Stimulate the right temporal lobe, on the creative and more emotional side of our brains, and a right hemispheric sense of self is invoked, which we tend to experience as a 'separate' entity. With an old motorcycle helmet fitted with solenoids emitting mild electromagnetic fields around the wearer's temples, Persinger claims to have stimulated this 'sensed presence' in the minds of over 80% of his test subjects, inspiring within them the feeling of 'something greater' and the 'infinite possibilities to existence'. Persinger's work has put him at the forefront of 'neurotheology', a radical new attempt to study how our brains might have invented God rather than the other way around. Such an approach has some equally shocking precedents. In 1933 Montreal neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield discovered that when he electrically stimulated certain nerve cells in the temporal lobe, the patient would 'relive' previous experiences in convincing sensory detail. During the 1960s, behavioural physiologist Jose Delgado of Yale University went even further, implanting electrodes into the brains of live animals and controlling their behaviour via radio signals. In one famous experiment, he successfully stopped a charging bull in its tracks. In his controversial 1976 publication, The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Princeton psychologist Julian Jaynes argued that the sensation commonly described as 'having a religious experience' is merely a side effect of the feverish interactivity between the right and left halves of our brain. Our ancient ancestors, he suggested, lacked a strong enough sense of individual identity to explain such exchanges as anything but voices and visions from the gods on high. Fields of vision Michael Persinger's original intention had been to stimulate the creative mental state necessary for scientific discovery. The intense electrical activity of the state is centred round the brain's temporal lobes and has long been associated with mystics and visions. It's similar to that of a common type of epileptic seizure that can occur without discernable convulsions. Persinger surmised that by stimulating the temporal lobes with an electromagnetic field programmed to resemble an epileptic seizure, he might trigger incidents of insight and potential significance. Wilder Penfield had similarly postulated that the temporal lobe system recorded all of an individual's experiences, which could be brought back to consciousness by the type of electrical discharge that occurs during an epileptic seizure. Temporal lobe epilepsy has also been offered as an explanation for the intense mystical visions experienced by Ellen White, co-founder of the Seventh Day Adventist Movement. Born in 1827, Ellen was nine years old when she was hit in the face with a rock, breaking her nose and leaving her unconscious for several days. For years afterwards, she complained of impaired memory, nervousness, inability to concentrate and excessive fatigue all symptoms associated with temporal lobe seizures. 'Wave after wave of glory rolled over me until my body grew stiff,' she would later write. This occurred shortly after she had participated in the 'great disappointment' of 1844, when the Second Coming of Christ, confidently predicted by Baptist preacher William Miller, failed to take place. Disillusioned, Miller's followers turned to Seventh Day Adventism or to movements such as the Shakers. Like their antecedents the Quakers, the Shakers tremble in ecstatic fits 'with Risings and Swellings in their Bowels; Shriekings, Yellings, Howlings and Roarings'. Faith seems linked to the body in crisis. Stress, fear and injury, Persinger theorizes, might provoke strange disorders in the electromagnetic fields around us. Environmental disturbances, such as solar flares, oil drilling and earthquakes might also chime with visionary claims, mass religious conversions, UFO sightings and even ghost lights. Right living To show his faith, medieval saint Benoist Labre would consume vermin. (Not until the 19th-century teachings of John Wesley was cleanliness placed next to godliness.) Religious and scientific nonconformists have sought ways ever since to reach the soul through the body and to temper the body via the soul. In 1885, respected zoologist Dr Gustav Jaeger published his two-volume Discovery of the Soul. In it he proposed that the human soul was 'an odorous emanation' detected through our sense of smell. Pleasant fragrances were beneficial, he claimed, promoting cheerful, enterprising and courageous emotions. While unpleasant odours were noxious, causing gloom, depression and diffidence. To allow the soul to breathe properly, Jaeger recommended people should wear all-wool apparel. Dr Jaeger's theories may not have survived, but the knitwear label that bears his name can still be seen on the high street today. Dr John Harvey Kellogg, a fervent Seventh Day Adventist, firmly believed that the bowels were the source of 90% of all ailments. He fed each of his patients half a pint of yoghurt and administered another half pint as an enema. If the patient's condition failed to improve, Dr Kellogg simply removed a portion of the intestine. His idea for 'cornflakes' was developed by his brother Will in 1906, forming the basis for the Kellogg's cereal empire. Austrian psychiatrist Wilhelm Reich, one of Sigmund Freud's most gifted followers, believed that the secret of well-being lay in the orgasm, ultimately claiming that all life was animated by a basic unit of sexual energy he called the 'orgone'. Driven out of Germany by the Nazis, Reich fled to America, where he started manufacturing 'Orgone Accumulators', designed to bathe his patients in orgone energy. The Food and Drug Administration brought an injunction against him for selling an untested medical device. The once respected psychiatrist was sentenced to two years in prison, where he subsequently died of heart failure after serving half his sentence. All in the mind? While neurotheology is a relatively new science, Dr Michael Winkelman of the Department of Anthropology at Arizona State University argues that the basic ideas have been around for millennia. He sees the ancient healing practice of shamanism as a method of stimulating the brain's serotonin and opioid neurotransmitter systems. 'Shamanism enhances both one's health and a sense of well-being because they 'turn on' the body's 'feel-good' chemicals,' he says. Over the past 10 years, MRI scans (magnetic resonance imaging) have helped identify how the left and right hemispheres of the brain work together. So what exactly happens in that moment of intense spiritual awareness? Activity in the brain's amygdala, which monitors the environment for threats and registers fear, is dampened. Parietal lobe circuits, which orient you, go quiet, while circuits in the frontal and temporal lobes, which mark time and generate self-awareness, become disengaged. Using brain-imaging data collected from Tibetan Buddhists during meditation and Franciscan nuns at prayer, Dr Andrew Newberg of the University of Pennsylvania observed that a bundle of neurons in the superior parietal lobe, toward the top and back of the brain, had shut down. This region also helps processes information about orientation and time. Communion with the divine would therefore seem to take place everywhere and nowhere at the same time, during what Dr Newberg calls a 'softening of the boundaries of the self'. With the human brain's 100 billion cells forging over one quadrillion connections, are we now in danger of losing God among the complex details of his creation? 'The fact that spiritual experiences can be associated with distinct neural activity does not necessarily mean that such experiences are mere neurological illusions,' Newberg insists. 'It's no safer to say that spiritual urges and sensations are caused by brain activity than it is to say that the neurological changes through which we experience the pleasure of eating an apple cause the apple to exist.' Find out more Channel 4 is not responsible for the content of third party sites Websites Andrew Newberg www.andrewnewberg.com qna.asp Official site of the MD who has carried out neuroimaging on meditating monks. He maintains that neuroscience can explain the nature of mystical experiences, their importance in human evolution, and why the need for a concept of god is imperative for the survival of the human species. The site has a useful QA section. Demonic possession, demonic oppression and exorcism www.religioustolerance.org chr_exor.htm A reference page on exorcism from the Religious Tolerance website. Doubt cast on theory that magnetic fields spark religious feelings www.nature.com news 2004 041206 pf 041206-10_pf.html In the past, scientists like Michael Persinger have claimed that religious or out-of-body experiences result from excessive bursts of electrical activity in the brain. Swedish researchers tried to replicate these experiments but when they introduced a 'double-blind' protocol, they found no discernible effect. Exorcism www.religionnewsblog.com category 385 Page of articles about exorcism on Religion News Blog. Kirk plans to tackle taboo of possession by evil spirits www.religionnewsblog.com 2561 Article that looks at a new study launched by the Church of Scotland. Meditation mapped in monks http: news.bbc.co.uk 2 hi science nature 1847442.stm Scientists investigating the effect of the meditative state on Buddhist monk's brains have found that portions of the organ previously active become quiet, whilst pacified areas become stimulated. A mystical union www.economist.com printedition displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=2478148 Article that looks at the pioneers currently investigating the neurology of religious experience. Out-of-body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin http: brain.oupjournals.org cgi content abstract 127 2 243 Olaf Blanke of the University Hospital of Geneva in Switzerland describes how the brain generates out-of-body experiences. Professor argues that shamanism is the original neurotheology www.cognitiveliberty.org neuro winkelman1.htm Interesting article that compares the new concept of neurotheology with the ancient healing practice of Shamanism. Your brain on religion mystic visions or brain circuits at work? www.cognitiveliberty.org neuro neuronewswk.htm Newsweek article that looks at the new field of neurotheology where scientists seek the biological basis of spirituality. Books Consciousness, Emotional Self-regulation and the Brain edited by Mario Beauregard (John Benjamin's Publishing, 2003) Presents theoretical and developmental perspectives about emotional self-regulation and provides cutting-edge information with regard to the neural basis of conscious emotional experience. Get this book Creation of the Sacred by Walter Burkert (Harvard University Press, 1998) Burkert makes a serious attempt to extract valid evolutionary roots for religious ideas. Get this book The God Gene: How faith is hardwired into our genes by Dean Hamer (Doubleday, 2004) The author, a geneticist, argues that the human inclination toward religious faith is no accident; spiritual belief may offer an evolutionary advantage by providing humans with a sense of purpose and also increase chances of reproductive survival by helping to reduce stress, prevent disease, and extend life. Get this book Hostage to the Devil: The possession and exorcism of five contemporary Americans by Malachi Martin (Harper San Francisco, 1999) Chilling and highly convincing account of possession and exorcism in modern America. Get this book The Meme Machine by Susan Blackmore (Oxford Paperbacks, 2000) Memes, cultural elements successfully replicating and diffusing through human society much in the same way as genes, are the subject of this book. Blackmore makes a case for the theory that the inner self is merely an illusion created by our memes, which affect our belief systems. Get this book Possessed: The true story of an exorcism by Thomas B Allen (iUniverse.com, 2000) The story of two priests who fervently believed that they had driven a demon from a tormented 13-year-old boy. The priests' experience was the inspiration for the 1973 film The Exorcist. Get this book Religion Explained: The human instincts that fashion gods, spirits and ancestors by Pascal Boyer (Vintage, 2002) Anthropologist Boyer uses findings from anthropology, cognitive science, linguistics, and evolutionary biology to offer a coherent, naturalistic explanation of religion. Get this book Why God Won't Go Away: Brain science and the biology of belief by Andrew Newberg, Eugene D'Aquill and Vince Rause (Ballantine Books, 2002) Using high-tech imaging devices to peer into the brains of meditating Buddhists and Franciscan nuns, the authors attempted to reveal why human beings have a seemingly irrational attraction to god and religious experiences. They conclude that humans seek god because their brains are biologically programmed to do so. Get this book top ^ About C4 | Text Only | Access Advice | Contact Us | Terms and Conditions | Privacy | Help | Ad Sales
Meridian Magazine :: NeurotheologyBYU scholars give a brief overview of neurotheology, and ponder the neurological basis of Joseph Smith's revelations.
Meridian Magazine :: Neurotheology Share the article on this page with a friend. Click here . Is Spirituality All in Your Head? By Daniel C. Peterson and William J. Hamblin A recently emerging field of religious study is known as neurotheologythe study of the neurobiology of religion and spirituality. Neurotheology is a new movement; the first major book on the subject was published in 1998. As such, its findings should be viewed as quite tentative. But they are nonetheless provocative. Psychologists and neurologists are attempting to pinpoint which regions [of the brain] turn on, and which turn off during religious experiences. Or, to more accurately describe the view of some of its practitioners, in what are perceived as religious experiences. In their experiments, neurologists scanned the brains, among others, of a man engaged in Tibetan meditative practices and of Catholic nuns engaged in mystical prayer. They discovered that during these experiences the prefrontal cortex of the brain was highly active, while the superior parietal lobewhich governs orientation in time and spacewas relatively inactive, giving the participants a mystical sense of being outside time and space. Their conclusion: Religious experiences can be correlated with particular types of brain activity. (Interestingly, in surveys of people who have claimed to have unusual moments of spiritual insight or awakening, it was discovered that such experiences increase with education, income and age, apparently giving the lie to claims that education somehow undermines religious belief.) In some ways, neurotheology is an attempt to quantify what many secularists have been arguing for decadesthat religious experiences have no ontological basis outside human brain chemistry. Religious experiences are real only in the sense that humans really experience them. And, precisely as certain regions of the brain are highly active during dreams or hallucinations, specific regions of the brain are also active during religious experiences. Some neurotheologians claim that religious visions are caused by brain abnormalities such as temporal-lobe epilepsy, claiming that Paul, among others, suffered from this malady. (Precisely how such a diagnosis could be made on a man dead for two thousand years is generally not explained, but it seems suspiciously circular in its reasoning: Paul had visions. People with temporal-lobe epilepsy have visions. Therefore Paul must have had temporal-lobe epilepsy.) On the other hand, neurotheologian Andrew Newburg disagrees with secularist claims: Its no safer to say that spiritual urges and sensations are caused by brain activity than it is to say that the neurological changes through which we experience the pleasure of eating an apple cause the apple to exist. There is no way to determine whether the neurological changes associated with spiritual experience mean that the brain is causing those experiences or is instead perceiving a spiritual reality. Thus, although some might attempt to use the findings of neurotheology to declare the debate over the ultimate source of religious experiences definitively over, in reality it has probably only just begun. Another problem with neurotheology is that it reductionistically equates mystical experiences with religious experiences in general. In reality, mystical experiences are only one type of religious experience. Or, as Kenneth L. Woodward puts it: The chief mistake these neurotheologians make is to identify religion with specific [mystical] experiences and feelings. Religion includes experiences of guilt, repentance, obedience, service, singing, and study, as well as quiet meditation. The gifts of the Spirit, as enumerated by Paul, may include, but also certainly transcend, the mystical meditation studied by the neurotheologians. As a final, somewhat wild, speculation, if neurologists could have wired Joseph Smiths brain when he had his first vision, what would they have discovered? From Josephs descriptions of his experiences, he does not fit the pattern neurotheologians believe they have found for religious experiences. Joseph did not claim to have had a sense of transcending time and space, but claimed to have seen two real beings. Would Josephs brain have demonstrated the same patterns scientists found with meditating Buddhists or praying nuns, or would his brain functions have been substantially different? And what, we wonder, would they discover about the brain functions of some of us during our weekly Sunday meetings? Click here to sign up for Meridian's FREE email updates. 2004 Meridian Magazine . All Rights Reserved. About the Authors: Daniel C. Peterson teaches in the Department of Asian and Near Eastern Languages and is co-director of research for BYU's Institute for the Study and Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts. Photo of William J. Hamblin atop the ruins of the huge eighth century Buddhist stupa at Balgas, near Karakorum, Mongolia. Related Articles: Ideas and Society Archive What do you think? Share your thoughts, feelings, comments, and impressions about this article. Format for Print Click Here
Religiosity is associated with hippocampal but not amygdala volumes in patients with refractory epilepsy -- Wuerfel et al. 75 (4): 640 -- Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and PsychiatryJournal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry article finding that epilepsy patients with high religiosity had smaller right hippocampi.
Religiosity is associated with hippocampal but not amygdala volumes in patients with refractory epilepsy -- Wuerfel et al. 75 (4): 640 -- Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS Author Keyword(s) Vol Page [Advanced] This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this link to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Add article to my folders Download to citation manager Google Scholar Articles by Wuerfel, J Articles by Trimble, M R Articles citing this Article PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Wuerfel, J Articles by Trimble, M R Related Collections Other Neurology Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2004;75:640-642 2004 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd SHORT REPORT Religiosity is associated with hippocampal but not amygdala volumes in patients with refractory epilepsy J Wuerfel1 , E S Krishnamoorthy1 , R J Brown1 , L Lemieux2,3 , M Koepp2,3 , L Tebartz van Elst1 and M R Trimble1 1 Raymond Way Neuropsychiatry Research Group, University Department of Clinical Neurology, Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK 2 National Society for Epilepsy Centre for Epilepsy, Chalfont St. Peter, Buckinghamshire, UK 3 Epilepsy Research Group, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK Correspondence to: Professor M R Trimble Box 19, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK; m.trimble{at}ion.ucl.ac.uk Received 12 November 2002 In final revised form 6 May 2003 Accepted 6 June 2003 ABSTRACT Objective: To assess the relationship between the behavioural triad of hyper-religiosity, hypergraphia and hyposexuality in epilepsy, and volumes of the mesial temporal structures. Method: Magnetic resonance images were obtained from 33 patients with refractory epilepsy and mesial temporal structure volumes assessed. Amygdala and hippocampal volumes were then compared in high and low scorers on the religiosity, writing, and sexuality sub-scales of the Neurobehavioural Inventory. Results: Patients with high ratings on the religiosity scale had significantly smaller right hippocampi. Religiosity scores rated by both patient and carer showed a significant negative correlation with right hippocampal volumes in this group. There were no other differences in amygdala or hippocampal volumes between these groups, or between high and low scorers on the writing and sexuality sub-scales. Conclusions: These findings suggest that right hippocampal volumes are negatively correlated with religiosity in patients with refractory epilepsy. Keywords: MRI; amygdala; epilepsy; hippocampus; religiosity Abbreviations: MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NBI, Neurobehavioral Inventory The occurrence of ecstatic religious experiences in patients with epilepsy, although controversial, is well documented. 1 Such experiences often occur in the context of an inter-ictal behavioural syndrome characterised primarily by a triad of symptoms: (a) the tendency to write copiously (hypergraphia), (b) a sustained lack of interest in sexual matters (hyposexuality), and (c) an increased tendency to report spiritual and religious experiences and beliefs (hyper-religiosity). 2 The latter manifests either as a deepening of religious and mystical feelings, or as overt extravagant religious behaviour out of keeping with personal and societal norms. 3 Religious delusions are also commonly observed in the psychoses of epilepsy, occurring both between and immediately following a bout of seizures. 4 In this study, we aimed to investigate the cerebral basis of hypergraphia, hyposexuality and hyper-religiosity components of the Geschwind system in patients with refractory epilepsy, specifically addressing the hypothesis that pathology in the amygdala and or hippocampus is associated with the occurrence of these phenomena. 5 Accordingly, we assessed inter-ictal behaviour in a series of patients with refractory epilepsy and correlated these findings with volumetric measurements of the amygdala and hippocampus obtained through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHOD Thirty three residents (23 males) at the National Society for Epilepsy, Chalfont St. Peter, Buckinghamshire, UK, with refractory partial seizures were recruited via an internal review of psychiatric needs. All participants completed the patient version of the Neurobehavioral Inventory (NBI); 6 an instrument specifically developed to measure inter-ictal psychopathology in patients with epilepsy. A professional carer, who had known the subject for at least 5 years, completed the carer version of the instrument independent of the subject. The NBI is an expanded and revised version of the scale originally developed by Bear Fedio, 16 and consists of 100 items measuring behaviours and attitudes across 20 domains that are considered relevant to temporal lobe epilepsy. True false responses for each of the 100 items are expected, and each sub-scale is scored by adding up all the "true" responses. Overall caseness is determined when a score of 20 is met or exceeded. The instrument has been used extensively in tertiary care, and is the only measure of TLE specific behaviour that is currently in use. Only patients with localisation related epilepsy were included in our study. Patients with primary generalised epilepsy, severe learning disability, or a history of brain surgery (all of which have independent effects on behaviour and may confound results) were excluded. MRI images were acquired at the Chalfont Centre for Epilepsy on a 1.5 T GE Signa scanner (GE Medical Systems, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA) using a T1 weighted inversion recovery prepared volume acquisition (inversion time 450 seconds; repetition time 15 seconds; echo time 4.2 seconds; flip angle 20; 124x1.5 mm thick continuous coronal slices; matrix 256x192; field of view 24x18 cm). Volumetric measurements were performed with the software MRreg ( http: www.erg.ion.ucl.ac.uk MRreg.html ), using methods that have been described elsewhere. 7, 8 Intracranial and total brain volumes were measured using the fully automatic brain segmentation software, Exbrain. 9, 10 The total volumes of the amygdala and hippocampi were corrected for total brain size by division by the intracranial volume. The rater (JW) was blinded to all NBI scores. Intra-rater reliability figures were calculated from repeated measurements of a subset of 15 normal controls and produced consistent figures in the calculated intra-class correlation coefficients (right amydala 0.96; left amydala 0.94; right hippocampus 0.91; left hippocampus 0.97]. Participants were divided into three groups: (a) patients high and low in religiosity; (b) patients high and low in writing; and (c) patients high and low in sexuality on the relevant NBI sub-scales. For the religiosity and sexuality sub-scales, scores 2 were considered to be indicative of caseness. For the writing sub-scale, scores of 1 or more were considered to be indicative of caseness, as scores on this sub-scale were generally low. The reason for the focus on these three sub-scales in hypothesis testing was because of the widespread recognition that this triad of behaviours is closely associated with TLE. Separate groupings were formed for both patient and carer versions of the NBI. The groups were equivalent in terms of seizure frequency and severity as measured by the National Hospital Seizure Severity Scale. 11 RESULTS Median amygdala and hippocampal volumes (expressed as per cent intracranial volumes) for the different patient defined NBI groups are presented in table 1 . Descriptive and inferential statistics for the carer defined NBI groups are not presented because of the small number of participants meeting caseness criteria according to this measure. View this table: [in this window] [in a new window] Table 1 Mean hippocampal and amygdala volumes for patients with and without hyper-religiosity, hypergraphia, and hyposexuality (expressed as percentages of the intra-cranial volume) Mann-Whitney U tests were used to compare the amygdala and hippocampal volumes in the three groups; an alpha value of p 0.05 was adopted for hypothesis driven (two tailed) tests. None of the positive and negative groups was significantly different from one another in terms of amygdala and hippocampal volumes, with one exception; patients meeting criteria for hyper-religiosity had a significantly smaller right hippocampus compared with those who did not display hyper-religiosity (U = 54.0, p = 0.008, two tailed). Significant negative correlations between right hippocampal volumes and both patient (rho = -0.402, p = 0.018, two tailed) and carer (rho = -0.401, p = 0.019, two tailed) reported religiosity scores were also found (fig 1 ). None of the other NBIbrain volume correlations was significant. View larger version (14K): [in this window] [in a new window] Figure 1 Bivariate fit of right hippocampal volume (expressed as percentages of the intra-cranial volume; RHV %IP) and NBI hyper-religiosity scores. DISCUSSION Patients with hyper-religiosity had a significantly smaller right hippocampus compared with those who did not display hyper-religiosity. The reliability of the observed relationship between right hippocampal volumes and religiosity is underscored by the fact that significant negative correlations were obtained with raw NBI scores provided independently by the patient and by an individual directly involved in their care. The religious and non-religious groups were not significantly different in terms of left hippocampal volumes or amygdala volumes on either side. Neither hypergraphia nor hyposexuality were associated with hippocampal or amygdala volumes. It is noteworthy that there were no significant differences between the religiosity groups in terms of amygdala volumes. Previous studies conducted in our unit have shown changes in amygdala volumes in epilepsy in patients with co-morbid affective aggression, co-morbid affective disorder, 12 13 and psychoses of epilepsy. 14 The absence of an association between religiosity and amygdala volumes in the present sample suggests that different mesial temporal structures may be related to different aspects of inter-ictal (epilepsy specific) psychopathology. The only other imaging study we are aware of that has shown an association between the hippocampus and aspects of Geschwind syndrome is the case of Kumagasu Minakata, a Japanese genius devoted to natural history and folklore, and famous for his immense range of works. Using MRI scans to study this mans post-mortem brain, Murai 15 found evidence of right hippocampal atrophy, which correlated with his history, which was suggestive of temporal lobe epilepsy. Many features of Geschwind syndrome (the tremendous number of articles; a tendency to write minuscule letters in compact space; lack of interest in the opposite sex; peculiar ethical concerns; proclivity to become angry on slight provocation; and notably an extraordinary interest in religious matters) were identified in a detailed study of this subjects diaries. The instruments used in this study may be subject to some criticism. The NBI has only been validated in epilepsy based studies, and its psychometric properties have not been subject to rigorous testing. However, it has been used extensively in populations with refractory epilepsy, and is widely believed to measure behavioural features specific to the illness, which are not assessed by conventional instruments. 6 Although inter-rater reliability for our method of MR volumetry has not been examined, the technique has consistently demonstrated good intra-rater reliability. Furthermore, the rater in this study, as in our previous experiments, was blinded to all psychopathology data. We did not correct for multiple comparisons because our study was hypothesis driven and this would have resulted in over-correction. 17 However, given that we looked for abnormalities of two structures, hippocampus and amygdala, the significance of our main finding would survive such a Bonferroni correction. Previous studies in this area have tended to correlate psychopathology of this nature to seizure focus, and predictions such as the "temporolimbic hyperconnection" hypothesis have been proposed. 16 Patients with both frontal and temporal seizures were included in our study, and religiosity was observed in both groups with no significant differences. Although the sample studied was too small for a meaningful interpretation of such data, and the correlation found does not necessarily imply causation, the specific and highly significant association between right hippocampal volumes and religiosity after correcting for intracranial volume is indicative of a critical role for this structure in the development of religiosity. While a full clinical presentation of Geschwind syndrome with significant hyper-religiosity, hypergraphia, and hyposexuality is not common, individual signs and symptoms are frequently noted by neuropsychiatrists. The neurophysiology of hyper-religious behaviour, however, is still far from understood. While our results hint that hippocampal pathology might play a role, we were not able to find any other relevant publication in the literature. Thus, further studies are needed to replicate our finding and to explore the precise pathophysiology of this phenomenon. We believe therefore that our finding linking religiosity in epilepsy, which has a longstanding history in neuropsychiatry, to right hippocampal volumes is interesting and should be explored in prospective studies that involve larger patient cohorts. FOOTNOTES Competing interests: none declared REFERENCES Saver JL, Rabin J. The neural substrates of religious experience. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;9:498510. [Abstract] Blumer D, Wakhlu S, Montouris G, et al. Treatment of the interictal psychoses. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:11022. [Medline] Trevisol-Bittencourt PC, Troiano AR. Interictal personality syndrome in non-dominant temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuropsiquiatr 2000;58:54855. Kanemoto K, Kawasaki J, Kawai I. Postictal psychosis: A comparison with acute interictal and chronic psychosis. Epilepsia 1996;37:5516. [Medline] Trimble MR. The psychoses of epilepsy. New York: Raven Press, 1991. Blumer D. The neurobehavioral inventory: personality disorders in epilepsy. In: Ratey JJ, ed. Neuropsychiatry of personality disorders. Boston: Blackwell Science, 1995:23063. Moran NF, Lemieux L, Maudgil DD, et al. Analysis of temporal lobe resections in MR images. Epilepsia 1999;40:107784. [Medline] Lemieux L, Liu RSN, Duncan JS. Hippocampal and cerebellar volumetry in serially acquired MRI volume scans. Magn Reson Imaging 2000;18:102733. [CrossRef] [Medline] Lemieux L, Hagemann G, Krakow K, et al. Fast, accurate and reproducible automatic segmentation of the brain in T1-weighted volume magnetic resonance image data. Magn Reson Med 1999;42:12735. [CrossRef] [Medline] Lemieux L. Automatic, accurate and reproducible segmentation of the brain and cerebro-spinal fluid in T1-weighted volume MRI scans and its application to serial cerebral and intra-cranial volumetry. Proc SPIE Medical Imaging 2001;4322 in press. Donoghue MF, Duncan JS, Sander JW. The National Hospital Seizure Severity Scale: A further development of the Chalfont Seizure Severity Scale. Epilepsia 1996;37:56371. [Medline] Tebartz van Elst L, Woermann FG, Lemieux L, et al. Affective aggression in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain 2000;123:23443. [Abstract Free FullText] Tebartz van Elst L, Woermann FG, Lemieux L, et al. Amygdala enlargement in dysthymiaa volumetric study of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46:161423. [CrossRef] [Medline] Tebartz van Elst L, Baeumer D, Lemieux L, et al. Amygdala pathology in psychosis of epilepsy: A magnetic resonance imaging study in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain 2002;125:111. [CrossRef] Murai T, Hanakawa T, Sengoku A, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy in a genius of natural historyMRI volumetric study of postmortem brain. Neurology 1998;50:13736. [Abstract] Bear DM. Temporal lobe epilepsy-a syndrome of sensory-limbic hyperconnection. Cortex 1979 Sep;15:35784. [Medline] Perneger TV. What is wrong with Bonferroni adjustments? BMJ 1998;136:12368. This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this link to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Add article to my folders Download to citation manager Google Scholar Articles by Wuerfel, J Articles by Trimble, M R Articles citing this Article PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Wuerfel, J Articles by Trimble, M R Related Collections Other Neurology HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Neurological Correlates of Transformational ExperiencesArticle building on work of Persinger and d'Aquili, looking at near-death experiences with neuroimaging.
Neurological Correlates of Transformational Experiences Meridian Institute RESEARCHING THE SPIRIT-MIND-BODY CONNECTION Neurological Correlates of Transformational Experiences Douglas G. Richards, Ph.D. Abstract A variety of experiences visions, near-death experiences, mystical and numinous experiences - may lead to transformation of the personality, resulting in greater compassion, altruism, and universal love. Cognitive science has explored the reasoning capacities of the human mind brain, but has heretofore paid little attention to these higher functions. There has been previous work on the role of the temporal lobe of the brain in such experiences (e.g., that of Michael Persinger), as well as some neuroimaging on the areas of the brain involved in meditation (e.g., that of Andrew Newberg). My approach here is to extend this work in several ways to explore the neurological correlates of transformational experiences: (1) better quantitative assessment of experiences, going beyond descriptive phenomenology, (2) more diversity of experiences, comparing spontaneous experiences to induced experiences, and particularly exploring the factors involved in positive vs. negative experiences (3) focusing specifically on neuroimaging, with near-death experiences as a model, and (4) using the results of neuroimaging to design experiments to induce experiences for controlled study. This approach has the potential to show coherent mechanisms for these experiences (as opposed to pathology caused by biological deterioration), encouraging further exploration to gain an understanding of their role in human existence. Introduction Central to the concept of higher human functioning is a capacity for feeling connected with a higher or universal power. For some this may take the form of a mystical or numinous experience, for others an intuitive insight. Eastern traditions speak of contemplative knowledge, at a level higher than that of ordinary reasoning. In contemporary Western society, near-death experiences may lead to transformation of the personality, resulting in greater compassion, altruism, and universal love. Cognitive science has explored the reasoning capacities of the human mind brain, but has heretofore paid little attention to these higher functions. Here I propose a research program to study these phenomena using the tools of neurobiology. My specific aim is to systematically explore the neurological correlates of positive, transformational experiences. The major focus in studies of mystical and related experiences has been on the temporal lobe of the brain, an area containing a variety of structures related to perception, cognition, memory and emotion. Much of our knowledge of these temporal lobe correlates has come from the observations of neurologists and psychiatrists working with populations suffering from pathology (Saver Rabin, 1997). People with temporal lobe epilepsy often report visions, contact with spirit beings, and revelations, and can become focused on religious themes. The link with pathology has been difficult to overcome, as most of the medical literature has treated this association as evidence against the reality or value of these types of experiences. However, two research groups stand out for taking a different approach: those of Michael Persinger (e.g., 1993a, 1999) and of Eugene dAquili and Andrew Newberg (e.g., 1999, 2001). Both have gone beyond speculation on the relationship between neurobiology and religious experience based on pathological examples, by conducting experimental studies using either normal individuals, in the case of Persinger, or experienced meditators, in the case of dAquili and Newberg. Persingers work has the strength that it explores the phenomenology of a diversity of experiences, and that it has confirmed observational data by experimentally inducing experiences. But its weakness is that it has focused on the temporal lobe to the exclusion of a more complete model of brain activity, and has no imaging data to support the hypotheses regarding specific brain areas. DAquili and Newbergs work has the strength that it offers an integrated model of brain activity, backed up by imaging experiments. Its weakness is that although the model is wide-ranging, the experiments have dealt only with experiences induced by meditation, and the applicability of the model to a greater diversity of transformational experiences is not yet known. My approach here is to build on the work of Persinger and dAquili and Newberg, extending it in several ways to explore the neurological correlates of transformational experiences: (1) better quantitative assessment of experiences, going beyond descriptive phenomenology, (2) more diversity of experiences, comparing spontaneous experiences to induced experiences, and particularly exploring the factors involved in positive vs. negative experiences (3) focusing specifically on neuroimaging, with near-death experiences as a model, and (4) using the results of neuroimaging to design experiments to induce experiences for controlled study. I take the position that neurobiology alone cannot make a determination of the reality of the experiences or of the insights that may result from them. By analogy, demonstrating neurological correlates of the perception of a chair provides no evidence for or against the reality of a chair outside the brain. In the same way, demonstrating neurological correlates of a mystical or near-death experience cannot be taken as evidence that such experiences are nothing but brain states, or conversely that they are proof of God or life after death. The value of the neurobiological approach is that it has the potential to show coherent mechanisms for these experiences (as opposed to pathology caused by biological deterioration), encouraging further exploration to gain an understanding of their role in human existence. The Temporal Lobe and Transformational Experience The most popular linkage of brain structure with transformational experience has been via the temporal lobe and associated limbic system. Persinger has done by far the most extensive work on experiences related to temporal lobe activity. Following such researchers as Dewhurst and Beard (1970) and Bear and Fedio (1977), Persinger (1983) developed a general hypothesis that mystical and other transformational experiences are artifacts of microseizures in the deep structures of the temporal lobe. Important in his hypothesis was the concept of a continuum that ranges from early morning highs to recurrent bouts of conversion and dominating religiosity. The different basic themes (e.g., space-time distortions, intense meaningfulness, out-of-body experiences, etc.) reflect the inclusion of different amygdaloid-hippocampal structures and adjacent cortices. Later work (e.g., Persinger Makarec, 1987, 1993) demonstrated the existence of a continuum of temporal lobe lability from normal populations to epileptic clinical populations, using extensive questionnaires of experiences based on those evoked by electrical stimulation of the temporal lobes. Persinger (1992, 1993b, et al., 1994) has further elaborated his model of temporal lobe involvement, focusing on left right asymmetry, with the right temporal lobe as the source of experiences attributed to sources outside the self. For example, Munro and Persinger (1992) measured increased theta EEG activity over the right compared to the left temporal lobe in people with a history of sensed presences (e.g., spirits), who also felt detached from the body, and reported fear. Persinger (1993a) also made a distinction between subcortical processes that may generate paranormal-like experiences, and right hemisphere cortical processes that involve the sense of self and religious beliefs. Persinger has not done neuroimaging to objectively identify specific areas of temporal lobe involvement. Instead, Persingers most interesting work has involved experimental induction of temporal lobe experiences. Persingers induction experiments are based on the concept that stimulation of the temporal lobe by weak, external magnetic fields can induce experiences. For example, Cook and Persinger (1997) induced the feeling of a sensed presence in normal subjects and in an exceptional subject with a history of religious experiences. Persinger, Tiller and Koren (2000) induced a synthetic ghost and rushes of fear in a man using magnetic stimulation. Other experiments (Richards, Koren, Persinger, 1992) have succeeded in inducing negative affect (apprehension, anxiety) with magnetic stimulation. But, while these induced experiences appear to have some of the sensory and emotional components of transformational experiences, they do not yet replicate the complete phenomenology, suggesting that we will have to explore the roles of other regions of the brain. In particular, the positive emotional effects and transcendent insights (the cognitive component) have been neglected. Emotions and Transformation The notable prevalence of negative emotions in reports of temporal lobe epilepsy and these stimulation experiments has led researchers coming from a mental illness perspective to focus on the negative aspects of what they classify as religious experience. For example, Persinger (1997) did a study of factors that would lead to endorsement of the statement, If God told me to kill, I would do so in his name, and found elevated temporal lobe signs and history of a religious experience to be significant predictors. Carrazana et al. (1999) discuss the relationship of epilepsy and Voodoo spirit possession. Joseph (2001) dwells on the role of the temporal lobe and limbic system in raw experience and emotion, focusing on the linkage of experiences of Gods, voices, etc. to the negative emotional correlates of some religious behavior: rage, murder, aggression, and sexuality. These views stand in sharp contrast to the reports of mystical experiences emphasizing universal oneness and peace. None of these researchers address the positive aspects of religion such as inspiration, love, oneness, and service, and what brain activity might mediate the emotional tone of experiences in a positive or negative direction. While the dark night of the soul, a feeling of separateness from God, is a common experience among mystics, the significance of transformational experiences lies in these higher qualities as well. To understand the full range of human potential and transcendence, we need to go beyond the temporal lobe and raw experiences. We need to address the complex interconnectedness of the brain, and look at brain activity in other areas that might explain the diversity of experiences and emotional responses to the experiences, to develop an integrated model. Beyond the Temporal Lobe: Integration and Control of Experiences at Higher Levels DAquili and Newberg (1999), and Newberg, dAquili, and Rause (2001) have gone considerably beyond the temporal lobe hypothesis to develop a model for transformational experience that addresses the entire brain. They identify four important brain areas. These include (1) the limbic system, which generates and modulates emotions, (2) the sensory areas (e.g., hearing and vision) and in particular the sensory association areas where there are higher levels of abstraction and integration, (3) the orientation association area in the posterior superior parietal lobe, where the self-world and self-other identity distinction is made, and (4) the attention association area in the prefrontal cortex, which is important in intention, will, and modulation of emotion. It is rare that mystical experiences will occur at a predictable enough time and space to study them, so the challenge has been to go beyond the theoretical model and demonstrate this process in the laboratory. Newberg et al. (2001) in their most recent experimental paper, tested their model with SPECT imaging in Tibetan meditators. Notably, they were able to capture the moment of the peak experience by having the meditators signal for the neuroimaging. In contrast to Persingers work, Newberg et al. found activity in a variety of cortical structures: the cingulate gyrus, inferior and orbital frontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the thalamus, with reduced activity in the left superior parietal lobe (the orientation association area). They relate these changes to an increase in attentive focus and an altered sense of space experienced during meditation. They emphasize that there are intricate central nervous system interactions in this complex neurocognitive task, needing much further research. The importance of this work is that it goes beyond the simple religious experience = temporal lobe approach, and sees the brain as an interacting system of structures and processes. However, by focusing on meditation, DAquili and Newberg have not addressed the diversity of experiences dealt with in Persingers work, nor have they explored the longer-term process of transformation. A More Comprehensive Approach to Transformational Experience My extension of Persingers and Newberg and dAquilis work has three components: (1) a more in-depth, quantitative assessment of phenomenology, (2) a more extensive use of modern imaging technology, and 3) a more sophisticated approach to induction of these experiences based on the phenomenological and imaging data. I have chosen the near-death experience as an example for this discussion, since it is one of the most significant transformational experiences in human life, and has been touched on by both Persinger and Newberg and dAquili. Phenomenology and Psychological Measurement One of the temptations in neurobiological work is to oversimplify the complex phenomenology of mystical experiences in favor of generalizations like temporal lobe symptoms, which has led to the perception of these experiences as pathology. In contrast, Varela (1996) discusses some of the issues in what he calls neurophenomenology. He emphasizes the importance of disciplined first person accounts as elements of a neurobiological proposal. Observers need to have some sophistication in the dimensions of consciousness; such aspects as consciousness of time and body image, and emotion. For example, Newberg and dAquilis work focuses on Tibetan meditators, who have practiced a discipline of observing consciousness. They have made the wise choice of using only experienced meditators. But nowhere in their books do they discuss the diverse varieties of meditative experience (e.g., Goleman, 1977), or psychological assessment tools that might be able to differentiate the experiences of the Tibetan meditators from those of meditators in other traditions. For the purpose of neuroimaging studies there needs to be a way to quantitatively assess the dimensions of the experience. Brown and Engler (1980) took steps toward this goal by validating the concept of stages of practice and enlightenment in Theravada Buddhist meditators. They used a 600-item questionnaire designed to discriminate different types of meditation as well as different levels within the same type of meditation. Their methodology, of phenomenological investigation followed by development of assessment instruments, can yield quantitative estimates of changes in consciousness for comparison with neuroimaging data. These methods can be extended to Christian or other forms of transformational experience as well. My own work (Richards, 1991) has included a study of verbal prayer, in which I identified 19 different types of prayer, with two major dimensions of experience: relationship to God or a higher power and action or perceived outcome, and psychological correlates of those dimensions (e.g., absorption, locus of control). Below I will discuss in detail the application of phenomenology and assessment tools to near-death experiences. Neuroimaging Technologies The basis of functional neuroimaging is that the psychological experiences and behaviors of a person are correlated with the portions of the brain that are the most metabolically active at the time of the experience. This metabolic activity can be localized to specific areas of the brain with such technologies as positron emission tomography (PET), single positron emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The modality chosen in a particular research project may depend on practical considerations of cost and availability. The major tradeoff is between temporal and spatial resolution. Electroencephalograms (EEG) offer very fine temporal resolution of brain electrical events, and have been especially useful in cognitive and perceptual studies where a stimulus is presented at a precise time. PET, SPECT, and fMRI measure brain activity more indirectly, looking at metabolic activity or blood flow. They have poorer time resolution than EEG, but good spatial resolution. SPECT has the lowest spatial resolution, but has the advantages of portability, cost, and allowing the brain activity at a given point in time to be frozen for subsequent measurement. Newberg et al. (2001) took advantage of this feature of SPECT to have meditators signal at the time of the most intense experience. PET has better spatial resolution, but is more expensive and less convenient. fMRI has the best spatial resolution, but the noise from the machine can interfere with the states of consciousness. Dale and Halgren (2001) recommend an integration of multiple imaging modalities, which can now generate estimates of brain activation with high spatial and temporal resolution. Near-Death Experiences DAquili and Newberg (1999) discuss the need to explore mystical experiences that can be attained spontaneously, not just by those whose focused goal is to reach some higher state. They chose the near-death experiences (NDE) as an example of a form of spontaneous mystical experience that could be explored from a neuroscience perspective. The NDE is one of the most compelling experiences that human beings can encounter. Those who have undergone NDEs frequently report major life transformation, including less fear of death, and more compassion and altruism. NDEs are reported by 30-40% of individuals who have come close to death, or about 5% of the adult American population (Greyson, 1993). Although dAquili and Newberg speculate on how the NDE might fit into their framework for mystical experiences, they provide no data or suggestions on how to go about studying NDEs. Persinger (1999) has also addressed near-death experiences in terms of his temporal lobe model. Many of the features of NDEs are the features he has identified in people with high temporal lobe lability: a sensed presence, religious insight, etc. Using magnetic stimulation, he also claims to have simulated NDEs experimentally, eliciting the major components (as well as many not typical of NDEs, such as odd tastes in the mouth). However, he has not performed any imaging to verify that the brain when magnetically stimulated is behaving in the same way it does for an NDE. Following a discussion of psychological measurement considerations, here I propose some ways in which the neurobiological correlates of NDEs can be studied. Psychological Measurement Considerations in NDEs The administration of psychometric instruments to those who have recovered from near-brain-death would allow us to go beyond treating the NDE as a unitary experience occurring in the temporal lobe, and explore all of its cognitive, affective, sensory, and attentional aspects in relation to relevant locations and processes in the brain. To address the complexities of NDEs, Greyson (1983) developed a Near-Death Experience Scale and collected reliability and validity data. The final version of Greysons scale includes 4 subscales based on inter-item correlations: cognitive, affective, paranormal (including sensory-related and out-of-body), and transcendental. These correspond well to the brain functions discussed previously, in the cognitive, affective, attentional, and sensory realms. Greyson (2000) in recent work has explored in depth the relationship between out-of-body experiences and dissociation in NDEs, and Greyson (2001) has also looked at emotionally negative aspects of NDEs and their relationship to post-traumatic stress disorder. All these elements of NDEs are important in understanding the relationship of the phenomenology to the brain mechanisms. Assessing the positive and negative emotional aspects of the near-death experience, in conjunction with neuroimaging, is especially important. Greysons scale is a first step, but considerable progress has been made in what Richard Davidson calls affective neuroscience, as a parallel to cognitive neuroscience (Davidson Sutton, 1995). Below I will discuss some applications of Davidsons methodology to NDEs. Neuroimaging During the Near-Death Process The spontaneous nature of the NDE would at first seem to preclude neuroimaging studies; one does not often have a PET scanner handy during an auto accident. However, neuroimaging is in common use during the dying process in one circumstance: determining brain death in organ donors. The most common form of imaging in use is SPECT, the gold standard for determination of brain death (Kurtek et al., 2000). It has the advantages of portability, does not require withdrawal of medical therapy, and has lower cost than other imaging modalities (Reid et al., 1989). Recovery is rare in such patients, but as an example, 3 patients out of the 15 in the study by Reid et al. (1989) who were clinically thought to be brain dead showed cerebral perfusion on the SPECT scan, and survived the cerebral trauma. In a study specifically looking at the near-death process, individuals with more signs of life might also be examined, increasing the chances of imaging a patient who survives. This would allow an evaluation of the hypothesis that oxygen deprivation of particular brain regions is responsible for the NDEs (e.g., Persinger, 1999). It has the potential for revealing more complex and interesting brain mechanisms. MRI, although more difficult and expensive, has also been recently used to determine brain death. Lovblad et al. (2000) used a new technique of diffusion weighted imaging, a fast technique sensitive to cerebral ischemia, to display changes related to brain death. Future progress in functional imaging might make this and other high-resolution techniques an alternative to SPECT. Long-term Changes Following Near-Death Experiences Those who undergo NDEs frequently report long-term transformation of their entire being. Can this be confirmed by an integration of psychological measurement and brain imaging? Persinger speculates that transformation of the self is related to a loss of neurons due to the near-death trauma. This could promote neuroplasticity new connections to compensate for the damage that could be reprogrammed from the strong positive affect in the experience. Neuroimaging, together with detailed psychological assessment of the changes, should reveal what specific areas of the brain, if any, have changed as a result of the experience. Is there, for example, permanent reduced activity in the left temporal lobe (as compared with pre-NDE), allowing right hemisphere qualities to emerge? Regarding the issue of the subject population, within-individual, before after neuroimaging could be conducted with volunteer cardiac patients, of the sort interviewed by Bruce Greyson and Ian Stevenson in an ongoing prospective study of phenomenology. With baseline imaging data on the whole population, comparisons also could be made between those surviving near-death reporting an NDE, those surviving near-death and not reporting an NDE, and those recovering without a close brush with death. Davidson and his collaborators have done the most interesting work in neuroimaging of emotions. One way to explore transformation of emotional response is with picture tests using emotionally charged memories, pictures or video clips. For example, Lane et al. (1997) found neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness and disgust in different areas of the prefrontal, frontal, and temporal cortex using PET imagery. Their work challenges the simple model (for example, that used by Persinger), that emotions are primarily a right hemisphere function. Employing PET as well, Paradiso et al. (1997) were the first to explore emotional activation of limbic circuitry in elderly normal subjects using emotionally-charged film clips. Specific emotions produced different regional limbic activations, as well as complex activation of other brain regions, suggesting that different pathways may be used for different types of emotional stimuli. Such studies could be extended with before after measurements of NDEers. Induction of NDE-like Experiences Under Non-Life-Threatening Conditions The strength of Persingers work is that he has developed a means of magnetic stimulation to induce temporal-lobe-related experiences in normal volunteers, including components of mystical and near-death experiences. But there are three main weaknesses that need to be addressed. The first is that the subjective reports do not show the coherent phenomenology or the insights typically reported from spontaneous experiences, suggesting that his approach is only tapping into a portion of the complete experience. The second is that his target areas are entirely based on inference from these subjective reports; he has no imaging data to show that the targeted brain locations are, in fact, the relevant areas for the experiences, and no imaging data to show that the magnetic stimulation is having the intended effect. The third weakness is that his means of stimulation is very different from conventional transcranial magnetic stimulation, and his work has not been independently replicated. I propose that these weaknesses be addressed by independent replication with the following improvements: (1) Induction experiments must be preceded by and accompanied by imaging; the imaging can serve to guide placement, form and intensity of stimulation, and to evaluate the effects. (2) The phenomenology of the induced experiences must be documented and quantitatively assessed, and used as a guide to modify stimulation parameters. Particularly important will be an exploration of cognition and belief-related changes in response to these experiences, and a comparison with spontaneous experiences and those induced by meditation and prayer. (3) The parameters for the ideal stimulus need research. The vast majority of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) research uses very high intensity magnetic fields, on the order of 2 Tesla or more, with simple pulsed patterns (Paulus et al., 1999). These have been shown to affect both sensory and emotional experiences (e.g., in the suppression of hallucinations in schizophrenia (Hoffman et al., 1999), and in the relief of depression (George et al., 1999)). Persinger employs a far smaller magnetic field (1 microTesla or one millionth of the usual intensity), and a very complex temporal pattern unlike that used by other researchers. Magnetic stimulation is by no means the only way to induce experiences. For example, Schenk (1999) has used hypnotically-facilitated pseudo near-death experiences for their transformative value in working with clients. Neuroimaging could compare the patterns in these states with those typical of actual NDEs. Acoustic stimulation may also be effective. Robert Monroe has developed audio tapes that synchronize the left and right hemispheres, and induce a variety of experiences. Masluk (1997) has done extensive phenomenological work with these experiences and their potential for personal transformation. Johnson and Persinger (1994) found that Monroe Hemi-Sync tapes led to more intense experiences than Persingers own magnetic stimulation. Conclusion The program proposed here should take us well beyond the current medical model of transformational experiences as a consequence of brain pathology. Beginning with an integration of phenomenology, psychological measurement, and neuroimaging, we can proceed to experimental investigation of these states with techniques ranging from traditional meditation to magnetic stimulation. Neurobiology can play a key role in the quest for new insights about our capability for discovering the nature and meaning of the universe. References Bear DM, Fedio P. Quantitative analysis of interictal behaviors in temporal lobe epilepsy. Archives of Neurology 1977;34:454-467. Brown DP, Engler J. The stages of mindfulness meditation: a validation study. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 1980;12:143-192. Carrazana E, DeToledo J, Tatum W, Rivas-Vasquez R, Rey G, Wheeler S. Epilepsy and religious experiences: Voodoo possession. Epilepsia 1999;40:239-241. Cook CM, Persinger MA. Experimental induction of the sensed presence in normal subjects and an exceptional subject. Percept Motor Skills 1997;85:683-693. Dale AM, Halgren E. Spatiotemporal imaging of brain activity by integration of multiple imaging modalities. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001;11:202-208. DAquili E, Newberg AB. The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experiences. Minneapolis: Fortress Press; 1999. Davidson RJ, Sutton SK. Affective neuroscience: the emergence of a discipline. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995;5:217-224. Dewhurst K, Beard AW. Sudden religious conversion in temporal lobe epilepsy. British Journal of Psychiatry 1970;117:497-507. George MS, Lisanby SH, Sackheim HA. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: applications in neuropsychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry 1999;56:300-311. Greyson B. The Near-Death Experience Scale: construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1983;171:369-375. Greyson B. Dissociation in people who have near-death experiences: out of their bodies or out of their minds? Lancet 2000;355:460-3. Greyson B. Posttraumatic stress symptoms following near-death experiences. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2001;71:368-373. Goleman D. The Varieties of Meditative Experience. New York: Dutton, 1977. Hoffman RE, Boutros NN, Berman RM, Roessler E, Belger A, Krystal JH, Charney DS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex in three patients reporting hallucinated voices. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46:130-132. Johnson CP, Persinger MA. The sensed presence may be facilitate by interhemispheric intercalation: relative efficacy of the Minds Eye, Hemi-Sync tape, and bilateral magnetic field stimulation. Percept Mot Skills 1994;79:351-354. Joseph R. The limbic system and the soul: evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience. Zygon 2001;36:105-136. Kurtek RW, Lai KK, Tauxe WN, Eidelman BH, Fung JJ. Tc-99m hexamethylpropylene amine oxime scintigraphy in the diagnosis of brain death and its implications for the harvesting of organs used for transplantation. Clin Nucl Med 2000;25:7-10. Lane RD, Reiman EM, Ahern GL, Schwartz GE, Davidson RJ. Neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness, and disgust. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:926-933. Lovblad KO, Bassetti C, Bassetti C. Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging in brain death. Stroke 2000;31:539-42. Masluk TJ. Reports of so-called peak experiences during a neurotechnology-based training program. Doctoral dissertation, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, Palo Alto, California, 1997. Munro C, Persinger MA. Relative right temporal-lobe theta activity correlates with Vingianos hemispheric quotient and the sensed presence. Percept Mot Skills 1992;75:899-903. Newberg A, Alavi A, Baime M, Pourdehnad M, Santanna J, dAquili E. The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during the complex cognitive task of meditation: a preliminary SPECT study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Section 2001;106:113-122. Newberg A, dAquili E, Rause V. Why God Wont Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantine Books; 2001. Paradiso S, Robinson RG, Andreasen NC, Downhill JE, Davidson RJ, Kirchner PT, Watkins GL, Ponto LL, Hichwa RD. Emotional activation of limbic circuitry in elderly normal subjects in a PET study. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:384-389. Paulus W, Hallett M, Rossini PM, Rothwell JC (eds.). Transcranial magnetic stimulation. Electroenphalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1999; Supplement 51. Persinger MA. Religious and mystical experiences as artifacts of temporal lobe function: a general hypothesis. Percept Mot Skills 1983;57:1255-1262. Persinger MA. Enhanced incidence of the sensed presence in people who have learned to meditate: support for the right hemispheric intrusion hypothesis. Percept Mot Skills 1992;65:1308-1310. Persinger MA. Paranormal and religious beliefs may be mediated differentially by subcortical and cortical phenomenological processes of the temporal (limbic) lobes. Percept Mot Skills 1993a;76:247-251. Persinger MA. Vectorial cerebral hemisphericity as differential sources for the sensed presence, mystical experiences and religious conversions. Percept Mot Skills 1993b;76:915-30. Persinger MA. I would kill in Gods name: role of sex, weekly church attendance, report of a religious experience, and limbic lability. Percept Mot Skills 1997;85:128-30. Persinger MA. Near-death experiences and ecstasy: a product of the organization of the human brain? In: Della Sala S (ed.) Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. New York: Wiley; 1999, pp. 85-99. Persinger MA, Bureau YR, Peredery OP, Richards PM. The sensed presence as right hemispheric intrusions into the left hemispheric awareness of self: an illustrative case study. Percept Mot Skills 1994;79:1200-1202. Persinger MA, Makarec K. Temporal lobe epileptic signs and correlative behaviors displayed by normal populations. Journal of General Psychology 1987;114:179-195. Persinger MA, Makarec K. Complex partial epileptic signs as a continuum from normals to epileptics: normative data and clinical populations. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1993;49:33-45. Persinger MA, Tiller SG, Koren SA. Experimental simulation of a haunt experience and elicitation of paroxysmal electroencephalographic activity by transcerebral complex magnetic fields: induction of a synthetic ghost? Percept Mot Skills 2000;90:659-74. Reid RH, Gulenchyn KY, Ballinger JR. Clinical use of technetium-99m HM-PAO for determination of brain death. J Nucl Med 1989;30:1621-1626. Richards DG. The phenomenology and psychological correlates of verbal prayer. Journal of Psychology and Theology 1991;19:354-363. Richards PM, Koren SA, Persinger MA. Experimental stimulation by burst-firing weak magnetic fields over the right temporal lobe may facilitate apprehension in women. Percept Mot Skills 1992;75:667-670. Saver JL, Rabin J. The neural substrates of religious experience. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neuroscience 1997;9:498-510. Schenk PW. The benefits of working with a dead patient: hypnotically facilitated pseudo near-death experiences. Am J Clin Hypn 1999;42:36-49. Varela F. Neurophenomenology: a methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies 1996;June. Home | Purpose | People | Projects | Newsletter | Library | Resources Copyright 2002 Meridian Institute
On the Neuropsychology of Religious ExperiencesReview of literature on neuropsychology of religious experiences, including temporal lobe model, D'Aquili's model for meditative states, and substance-induced religious experience.
On the Neuropsychology of Religious Experiences The Utility of a Neuropsychology of Religious Experience The Temporal Lobe Model Implications of Temporal Lobe Models d'Aquli's Model for Meditative States Testing the Model A Cartography of Ecstatic and Meditative Religious States The religious experience and psychoactive drugs The Phenomenology of the Psychedelic Experience The Miracle of Marsh Chapel, The Good Friday Experiment How do these drugs facilitate a religious experience? Implications of a Psychopharmacology of Religion Discussion The Physiological and Chemical Experience Contextualized Implications For Humanity The Utility of a Neuropsychology of Religious Experience William James in The Varieties of Religious Experience ,(1902) claims that there are an indefinite number of inherent impulses that are apparently common to all human beings. These impulses are divided into two types, those that deal with low level instincts and desires and those that concern higher, more profound urges such as the tendency to subject oneself to strenuous challenge and sacrifice. It is the juxtaposition between of these two types of impulses that is the "general basis of al religious experience" (p.86) The dynamics of this relationship between our lower level impulses and needs and our higher level impulses and needs give definition to our religious lives. The religious experience has been defined in a variety of ways. Below is a composite definition from James (1902), Pahnke (1963), Fischer (1978), Pratt (1920). These characteristics can be present in any combination to identify a religious experience and have each been verified as characteristic of a religious experience through observation and self report. Together they address all known cultural expressions of religion. The religious or mystical experience is characterized by: Loss of all awareness of discrete limited being and of the passage of time An obliteration of the self-other dichotomy Visual and auditory hallucinations Feelings of bliss and ecstasy Feelings of transcendence of the ordinary world Preoccupation with religious ritual Feelings of internal unity Feelings of cosmic union and consciousness Feelings of transcendence of space and time Sense of presence of a higher being(s) or reality Sense of insight into the nature of the universe and an overcoming of paradoxes. Entering into trance states Sense of sacredness Sense of ineffability To what extent can neuropsychology give us insight into the religious experience. This paper will examine four neuropsychological models for the religious experience and discuss what the models imply for the understanding of the religious experience. By identifying the universal neuropsychological correlates of the religious experience we can, perhaps, move towards establishing an objective, non-phenomenologically based, alternate (to the one above) definition of the religious experience. This paper will explore the possibility of identifying an underlying, universal, neuropsychology of the religious experience and will discuss how useful it is, for the scientist as well as the religious practitioner. The implications of having a decontextualized, reductionist view will be discussed. It is the position of the author that the religious experience is determined, not by spontaneous, or willed, impulses from the brain structures to be discussed below, but a person's interpretation of these neuropsychological processes. Finally, there is evidence that the religious experience is positively correlated with mental health and self actualization (Larsen, 1972; Wulff, 1991). An attempt will therefore be made to synthesize the information gained from these models in order to develop ideas to optimize the religious experience for purposes of improved mental health. Two neuropsychological models, isolating fundamental components of the religious experience to certain physiological structures, will be presented. These will be followed by a model that allows us to map the entire process of the religious experience to the underlying physiological states presented above. Finally a pharmacological model is presented of the religious experience. This pharmacological section will demonstrate that the religious experience can be chemically facilitated, if not induced, and will offer a neuropsychological explanation of the underlying processes involved. The Temporal Lobe Model Take me to the top The temporal lobe has been associated with disturbances in affect for almost 100 years (Kolb and Wishaw, 1995). Penfield (1975) conducted a series of stimulation experiments with 1,100 patients over a number of years. He found that the temporal lobe was the only area, when artificialy stimulated, that produced altered perception of ongoing experience or induced unreal experience. More recently Bear and Fedio (1977) conducted a study in which they used self report measures given to temporal lobe patients to categorize the characteristics of what is called temporal lobe personality. They came up with the following traits: emotionality, elation and euphoria, sadness, anger, aggression, altered sexual interest, guilt, hypermoralism, obssesionalism, viscosity, sense of personal destiny, circumstantiality, viscosity, sense of personal destiny, hypergraphia, viscosity, sense of personal destiny, hypergraphia, religiosity, philosophical interest, dependence and passivity, humorlessness and sobriety, and finally paranoia. They also found that once these patients had temporal lobectemies all of these symptoms decreased. Research such as this demonstrates the wide effect that the temporal lobe has on our personality and has subsequently lead to the systematic study of the temporal lobe specifically for its role in the religious experience. Michael Persinger (1983) describes a fairly detailed hypothesis that religious and mystical experiences are, in fact, everyday consequences of spontaneous biogenic stimulation of temporal lobe structures. He asserts that the composition and intensity of these experiences for each human being are a result of temporal lobe stability along a continuum. Persinger begins by explaining that the temporal lobe is an optimal location for the experience of religious or mystical states. He points out that amygdaloid and hippocampal structures are associated with "the sense of 'self' in relation to time and space, the memory-dependent conception of their limits and the primary affective components of anticipation, especially of nociceptive events." Research by Mandel (1980) reviewed later in this paper supports this claim. Furthermore he provides evidence that the amygdala contains representations of emotional states and their different affective dimensions. Wingarten, Cherlow, and Holmegren, (1977 as cited in Persinger, 1983) show that crude and wide spread stimulation of the amygdala evokes fear and general anxiety while more subtle stimulation evokes peak experiences and intense meaningfulness. States of intense meaningfulness and peak experience evoked in such a way often occur in together with altered body perceptions or feelings of cosmic communion. (Jasper Rasmussen, 1958 as cited in Persinger, 1983) Persinger also describes three general physiological properties of the temporal lobe that help identify the temporal lobe as the source for religious and mystical experiences: 1)Deep neuronal structures (in this case the amygdala and the hippocampus), he notes, are characterized by post-stimulation electrical instability. The temporal lobe region is also known for its capacity to generate learned seizures (kindling.) These two phenomenon would allow for the existence of transient firing patterns that are not necessarily elicited by concurrent sensory input. 2) Areas in the temporal lobes are prone to vascular anomalies which are considered to be the primary cause of hallucinatory experiences. (Altura and Altura, 1981) 3)He points out that cellular membranes in this region are prone to both interneuronal and neuronal-glial fusion. This is a predisposing factor to psychomotor epilepsy. (Schwartzkroin, 1983) With this background evidence he proposes that a person's religious or mystical experience is evoked by a transient, very focused, electrical display in the temporal lobe. These temporal lobe transients (TLTs) are analogous to electrical microseizures without any obvious motor components. An exception is made for some facial expressions such as ecstasy and for lacrimation. Persinger continually emphasizes that the leap, in terminology, from a TLT to a religious or mystical experience is context dependent. He states that environmental context (e.g. church, public space), how the experience is labeled (e.g. God, cosmic consciousness), and the inclusion of reward versus aversive neuronal centers would determine the nature of the experience. Reward centers might conjure up "good" images such as heaven while aversive ones might stimulate "bad" ones such as hell. Although the content of the TLT experience would reflect a person's personal life experience, the general patterns and themes would be consistent across every culture because of the similarities of temporal lobe function. He cites evidence from Brazier (1972) which suggests that the persistency in patterns of reported experiences are due to "electrical coherence" during which structures that are not usually coordinated interact briefly. Evidence for this includes systematic access to infantile memories of parental images (perhaps even perinatal memories) and to images from before four to five years of age for which there are no normal retrieval processes. The experience of these memories are attributed to extrinsic (ego-alien) sources (Mahl, Rotheberg, Delgado and Hamlin, 1964). He hypothesizes that the first memory experience would be a universal source of God (parent-surrogate) images and the second would be attributed by the experiencer to previous lives or "other memories" Many studies have been conducted to demonstrate the range of experiences capable of being produced by the temporal lobes through surgical stimulation. (Persinger, 1983; Gloor, 1972; Horowitz Adams, 1970; Mandell, 1980) Some of these experiences that are relevant to the religious experience include out-of-body experiences, vestibular sensations (traveling thorough time-and space), auditory experiences (rushing sounds, the voice of God or a spirit creature giving instructions), various perceptual alterations (bright lights, looking down a tunnel), and peacefulness. These experiences are often perceived in a dream-like atmosphere. After examining these experiences, Persinger places TLT religious or mystical experiences along a hypothetical continuum. Extreme symptoms would include circumstantiality, a sense of the personal (e.g. egocentric references, divine guidance), perseveration, hypergraphia, altered affect, and most importantly an overwhelming sense of religiosity. These symptoms he predicts would be evident in pathological populations of people with temporal lobe epilepsy or temporal lobe psychosis. Less severe symptoms would include those that are not thought to involve disorders in thought processes. Some of the examples that Persinger gives are dj-vu experiences; feelings of unreality or depersonalization; peaceful or quiescent periods of diffuse concentration; experiencing the presence of other beings; and distortions in the serial order of time (e.g. telepathic precognitive experiences). Persinger emphasizes that these are normal experiences and that it is only the degree to which they dominate a person's behavior that predicts pathology. According to Persinger's hypothesis there are many thing that can be isolated as predisposing and precipitating factors. People whose brains are prone to membrane fusion and to recurrent low- level epileptogenic foci would be particularly sensitive. This sensitivity changes over the life span with major peaks of TLT's occurring during pubescence and during old age (Kiloh, McComas, Ossleton, 1972). The hypothesis holds that any conditions that increase lability in deep structures, an example being cultural practices, are also important predisposing factors for TLT's. Many stimuli found in everyday experience serve as precipitating factors. Less severe experiences include fatigue, social isolation peaks or shifts in circadian rhythms, music, smells, and vestibular (rocking) stimuli. Intermediate, not so everyday, experiences include hypoglycema (fasting), hypoxia, psychedelic drug use, intense pain, and direct stimulation of certain peripheral limbic afferents by procedures such as yoga. These stimuli can be combined in different patterns. The efficacy of these patterns would be determined by the learned or physiological propensity to stimulate the relevant temporal lobe structures. Particularly strong stimuli would include the anticipation of self demise and the loss of a loved one. Behaviors that lead to desirable TLT states can be easily learned. Persinger argues that these states are intrinsically rewarding experiences. He describes TLTs as "learned microseizures provoked by precipitating stimuli and followed by anxiety reduction." People whose brains are susceptible to self-stimulation, according to Persinger's hypothesis, would be prone to multiple conversions and long periods of religious and mystical experiences. These experiences are consequently often characteristic of temporal lobe psychotic patients (Slater Beard, 1963). Persinger further hypothesizes that, because of the intensity of the TLT reward, antecedent conditions of the episode could become strong secondary reinforces. He outlines a scenario in which a person might seek after personal adversity or crisis since this would persistently be followed by the rewarding TLT high. These people would be prone to periodic bouts of conversion mania, rededications, and repeated "cult jags" (Persinger, Carrey Suess, 1980). Persinger (1983) later developed a 140-item Personal Philosophy inventory designed to measure "temporal lobe signs" or behavior that has been associated with epiliptogenic foci in the temporal lobes. The PPI was then used in some studies to measure religious experience as it was associated with temporal lobe behavior. (Persinger 1983, 1987; Persinger and Makarec 1985, 1987) Using this measure on 441 university students, Persinger and Makarec (1987) found significant positive correlations between the Complex Partial Epileptic Signs (CPES) cluster, referring to experiences frequently reported by temporal lobe patients (e.g. visions or inexplicable odors) and clusters that measured paranormal or mystical experiences and sense of presence (of another being). Another Study conducted by Makarec and Persinger (1985) looked at correlation between PPI scores and EEG measures. Two groups of subjects who had all taken the PPI were exposed to "exotic" rhythmic sounds ranging from seven to ten cycles per second, and then to a diffuse light pulsating at seven cycles per second. Both of these stimuli were designed to elicit various signs of "epilepicity," including Alpha driving (Alpha waves of 8 to 13 cycles per second normally appear in relaxed states). During these periods, EEG measures were taken of temporal lobe and occipital lobe activity. Occipital lobe readings were used as a control. For both groups of subjects the number of EEG spikes in the temporal lobe correlated significantly with three clusters of the PPI: religious belief or dogma, paranormal or mystical experiences, and sense of presence. Spike activity in the occipital lobe was not related to PPI scores. An important side note that Persinger makes is that church attendance has proven to be unrelated to PPI scores or EEG measures implying that institutional training has less influence on our religious experience than does our biological make-up. Persinger's evidence that internal TLT states are more highly correlated with religiosity than is church attendance is strong evidence that a person's environment has little influence in bringing about a religious experience. It might be too hasty, however to dismiss the importance of the religious context. It is quite possible that church attendance is a poor predictor of religiosity and perhaps a higher predictor of adherence to ones culturally driven practices. To isolate these two phenomena perhaps a measure could be devised that would determine which religious activities are highly correlated with an internal sense spiritual significance and which ones are more associated with culturally expected practices. Other researchers have also developed models localizing the religious experience to the temporal lobes. Arnold Mandell (1980) uses evidence of sites and mechanisms of drug actions to discuss the role that the temporal lobes play in this experience. Mandell uses a model that considers three classes of psychoactive drugs, their blocking of the inhibitory effects of serotonin on the temporal lobes, and their consequent ability to induce temporal lobe spiking and kindling. Mandell proposes that it is the loss of serotonin inhibitory regulation of hippocampal CA3 cells that leads to their hyperexcitablity and to a subsequent decrease in their ability to "gate" emotionally laden associations between internal, temporal lobe limbic states, and external events. This inability to gate will lead to hippocampal-septal synchronous discharges and to the emotional flooding known as ecstasy. Implications of Temporal Lobe Models Take me to the top Persinger, who is now working on inducing temporal lobe activity by using a computer-modulated electromagnetic field (DeSano and Persinger, 1987), is a good example of a reductionist in the field of neuropsychology. He boldly states that "The God Experience is an artifact of transient changes in the temporal lobe: (Persinger, 1987, p.137) His work has largely been done with the implicit and sometimes explicit tone that more profound religious experience is nothing more than a pathological reaction to adverse stimuli. He further asserts (Persinger, 1987, 1983) that the God Experience promotes passivity, and because of the random emotional associations will lead to unreasoned decisions. He gives an example of a horrible scenario in which a pivotal world leader undergoing one of these religious TLT states would irrationally decide to trigger a nuclear disaster. What will be considered after presenting the next three models is how data like this can be used in a more constructive way. One must also keep in mind that most of the research done on religiosity as a result of TLTs are done with clinical populations. Although studies using disordered populations are often extremely helpful in finding out mechanisms involved in normal behavior, (since many symptoms are simply normal behaviors exaggerated) for purposes of attaching a value label to normal religious experience they are not enough. While Persinger was able to show that those normals with above average incidence of TLT's tended to be more religious, his assumptions of the pathological tendencies of those with TLT's came from disordered populations and not from pathological observations in normal subjects. The danger of reductionism is that taking the religious experience out of its context, either by the language used to describe it or by using decontextualized methods to facilitate it, will prevent it from addressing our needs which are definitely mediated through our set and setting. If one is intent on determining the universal neuropsychological mechanisms involved in the religious experience, perhaps a more useful way to approach the research is to design it in a way that allows it to be applied to promoting a more healthy and efficient religious experiencing for everyone. This issue will be discussed following descriptions of three more models concerning the neuropsychological basis of the religious experience. The temporal lobe model for the religious experience, as proposed by Persinger and other researchers, is the neurophysiological model for the religious experience which is by far the most prevalent in the literature. A sufficiently different alternate model is presented below. d'Aquli's Model for Meditative States Take me to the top Eugene d'Aquili (1993) has devised a slightly different neuropsychological model of the religious experience. His model is not incompatible with the temporal lobe models, however, instead of focusing on ecstatic states and spontaneous religious thoughts he focuses on meditative states. These states are characterized by a more practiced and intentional experience. d'Aquili proposes that a four structure mechanism is responsible for the religious experience found through mediation. He suggests that the cortical regions directly involved in such a religious experience are: the inferior temporal lobe (ITL); the inferior parietal lobule (IPL); the posterior superior parietal lobule (PSPL) and the prefrontal cortex. The PSPL, he argues is heavily involved in higher order visual, auditory, somatosensory information. He emphasizes the spatial functions of the PSPL by pointing out that the right PSPL is involved in processing objects that might be grasped or manipulated. He also notes that some of the neurons in the left PSPL respond to stimuli just beyond arms reach. He uses these data to suggest that the distinction between self and world arises from the PSPL's ability to judge these two categories of distance. The function of the ITL that is emphasized in this model is the detection of objects from the PSPL and the alerting of the organism to those objects of interest or motivational importance. It is able to do this through its connection with the limbic structures. The IPL, he asserts, is an association area of association areas. This is responsible for generating abstract concepts and relating them to words. It is also involved in conceptual comparison and other general high order grammatical and logical processes. The prefrontal cortex is also essential in this model because of its ability to control intention. In other words a person's will is generally thought to reside in the prefrontal cortex. D'aquili asserts that the prefrontal cortex is the structure that mediates intense concentration. I was unable to find any data that specifically backed this claim. Data provided by Kolb and Wishaw (1995), however, using strategy forming tasks to demonstrate that those people with temporal lobe lesions have difficulty in temporal organization of behavior, offers evidence for the prefrontal cortex being involved in our attempts to organize our thoughts. In providing the basics for his model, d'Aquili also discusses the possible role of some limbic structures in eliciting voluntary religious experience, in this case mediation. He points out that the medial hypothalmic structures are trophotropic and are involved in homeostasis. The lateral hypothalmic structures, on the other hand, are considered ergotropic in nature. They are involved in the "fight or flight" response, sensations of fear, and a great range of other positive emotions. The amygdala is also involved in generating emotion. Unlike the hypothalamus the amygdala's generation of emotion is not necessarily stimulus bound and can persist over time with a slow extinction curve. This is a similar concept as is brought in research by Mandel (1980) and Persinger (1983) who attribute this stimulus-less emotional generation to lack of serotonin inhibition. d'Aquli's model is examined in light of Mandel's research at the end of this section In d'Aquili's model, religious experience is self-induced through meditation. Thus the process must begin with intense concentration that is mediated by the prefrontal cortex, especially the lateral convexity. He offers as support for his model data from Corby (1978) who did a study on a meditating subject with a self reported religious experience. The research showed large amounts of high amplitude alpha and theta waves during the religious experience especially in the prefrontal and parietal areas. D'aquili also discusses the importance of functional deafferantation. He points out that the phenomenon of deafferantation can be partial or total and can be the result of physical interruption or of inhibitory impulse from other nervous system structures. He provides evidence that intrahemispheric information transformation can be partially or totally prevented by impulses originating in the prefrontal cortex. He further argues that, when deafferantation of a structure occurs to a significant degree, the cells within that structure begin to fire either randomly or according to the "internal logic" of that structure. This is because the ordered neuronal activity is no longer determined by input from other parts if the brain. He notes, consequently that almost all known examples of functional deafferentation originate in the prefrontal cortex and are therefore willed by the subject. D'aquili actually proposes two neuropsychological mechanisms for obtaining a religious experience. The first method of undergoing a religious experience is passive meditation. The religious experience through passive meditation begins in the right prefrontal cortex with the will to clear the mind of thoughts. This results in a partial deafferentation of the right PSPL. This partial deafferentation of the PSPL will result in stimulation of the right hippocampus through the rich connections between the two. There is possibly stimulation of the right hippocampus from the right prefrontal cortex. This high stimulation of the hippocampus will result in the stimulation of the right amygdala's trophotropic centers. When the threshold of stimulation to these centers is reached there is stimulation from the amygdala to the ventromedial portion of the hypothalamus which results in the stimulation of the peripheral parasympathetic system. The result so far for the subject will be a sense of relaxation and increasing state of quiescence. He further develops this mechanism in such a way that impulses from the ventromedial structures of the hypothalamus stimulate the right amygdala again. Impulses continue to the right hippocampus, then back to the right prefrontal cortex. Impulses go around in this circuit generating greater electrical activity. This increasing level of neural discharge continues until a maximum level is reached in the trophotropic-parasympathetic system. This results in almost instantaneous maximal stimulation of the ergotrophic-sympathetic system. This maximal stimulation of both systems results in ecstatic and blissful feelings because of intense stimulation to the lateral hypothalamus and the median forebrain bundle. The sensations arising from this mechanism as it has been described so far are usually not enough to be considered a religious experience. d' Aquili further expands this mechanism and its interpretation to explain religious experience. He points out that the total deafferentation of the PSPL can't result in unusual or unmodulated visions, sounds or tactile stimulations, since there is no memory of previous sensations in the PSPL. He concludes that this deafferentation must therefore result in an "absolute subjective sensation of pure space." Because, he claims, the sole purpose of the concept of space is to serve as a matrix in which to relate objects he proposes that this pure space is experienced as absolute unity or wholeness. He then, briefly, turns his attention to the left PSPL. Because it is involved in the self-other self-world dichotomy he proposes that the deafferentation on the left PSPL, eliminating the self-other dichotomy, occurs at the same time as the deafferentation of the right PSPL. Having laid out this mechanism, d'Aquili predicts that the end result is: "the subjects attainment of a state of rapturous transcendence and absolute wholeness which carries such overwhelming power and strength with it that the subject has a sense of experiencing absolute reality. " d'Aquili proposes a second major mechanism for achieving the religious experience. Through active meditation the subject will fixate on a mental image or a physical object to start the process. This focusing on an object, which does not necessarily have to be a religious one, is opposed to the attempt to clear the mind during passive meditation. This mechanism has many of the same components as the one for passive meditation. When a person focuses on an external visual object impulses pass from the prefrontal cortex to the right PSPL. In this case however they are stimulating not deafferenting. The right PSPL fixes an image presented from the ITL which attaches complex associations to the stimulus. When a person focuses on an image from memory the right prefrontal cortex directly stimulates the right ITL. The prefrontal cortex then stimulates the PSPL so that it fixes the image from the ITL. In both cases, d'Aquili proposes, continuous fixation on the image presented by the right ITL begins to stimulate the right hippocampus. This in turn stimulates the right amygdala, which stimulates the lateral portions of the hypothalamus, generating a pleasant sensation. A reverberating loop is established that is identical to that in passive meditation. This stimulation of the ergotropic systems results in maximal stimulation feedback through the limbic structures to the left and right prefrontal cortices. He proposes that this stimulation of the prefrontal cortices will result in the deafferentation of the left PSPL by the left prefrontal cortex as in the previous mechanism. He explains that there is a period of time during which there is conflict on the right side between facilitory and inhibitory mechanisms, and total instantaneous deafferentation of the left PSPL. In this situation the self other dichotomy has again been eliminated while the object of focus still remains fixated upon. This would result in subject's feeling absorbed into the object or becoming one with the object. The length of this experience would depend on the subject's determination to remain fixated on the object of focus. Because of the maximal ergotropic and trophotropic discharge through the limbic systems stimulation of the inhibitory centers of the prefrontal cortex the meditator is eventually forced to surrender and give in to total deafferentation of both sides of the PSPL. The deafferentation of both the left and the right PSPL, he concludes, results in the experience of the "Absolute Unitary Being". Arnold Mandell's research also provides an explanation for meditative states and their neuropsychological ability to induce religious or mystical states. He notes that meditation is speculated to silence serotonin cells and perhaps the reticular-septal circuit by removing sensory driving. d'Aquili's model lends support to this hypothesis, of serotonin inhibitory functions being suspended, by arguing that functional deafferantation caused by the conscious effort in the prefrontal cortex is responsible for allowing cells in the temporal lobe (the amygdala) to fire according to their own internal logic. By removing the regulatory input derived from the reticular formation passed along to sensory collaterals, the "inside world" dominates. This, he posits, will result in a loss of comparator function. He hypothesizes that with a lack of comparative function to provide a source of reference a sense of the "I" is lost. He further hypothesizes that this lost sense of the "I" and a loss of comparator functions will result in the dissolution of dualistic debates and conflicts. Feelings and perceptions of unity will take over. Testing the Model Take me to the top D' Aquili's model can be tested in a variety of ways. One of the first things that must be established empirically is that the prefrontal cortex is in fact the seat of the will. Then in the same way that Persinger tested for EEG spiking in the temporal lobe one could test for spiking in the areas that d'Aquili associates with the religious experience. Those areas that are inhibited by prefrontal cortex "desire" would exhibit less spiking than others. Those areas excited would do the opposite. Serandifites (1965) showed that subjects with temporal lobectomies exhibited far fewer signs of religious behavior after the operation than before. Because there are four separate structures associated with the religious experience in d'Aquili's model studies should be done on patients that have had different combinations of these structures surgically removed. Can these people meditate effectively? If not, in what ways are their experiences lacking? Another question to be answered for any biological model of religious experience is whether or not people are genetically prone to these neural states. This can answered using concordance studies. That is will twins show significantly similar patterns of development of "religious" neural mechanisms? Can physiological symptomology associated with religious experience (e.g. temporal lobe psychosis) be traced down family lines? With an increased understanding of exact mechanisms involved in the religious experience technology, will soon be able to selectively stimulate these mechanisms. What are the clinical implications of this as well as the implications for the future of religion. These issues will be addressed after considering two more models for religious experience. A Cartography of Ecstatic and Meditative Religious States Take me to the top d'Aquili and the proponents of the TLT model both claim to provide the essential insight into the underlying neuropsychological processes involved in the religious experience. Neither model, however, deals directly with the religious experiences explained by the other. One would have to ask if it is possible to synthesize a model that accounts for both meditative religious experiences as well as ecstatic ones. Roland Fischer (1969, 1971, 1978, 1986) believes that, based on neuropsychological as well as behavioral evidence, that these two models can be reconciled since ultimately they will end in the same state. He has therefore developed a cartography which displays meditative and ecstatic states on a circular continuum. The continuum shown in Figure 1 represents different states of subcortical arousal. --------------------------- Insert Figure 1 about here --------------------------- An increase in ergotropic arousal is represented as one moves in one direction along the continuum. This arousal is physically marked by an increase in activity in the sympathetic nervous system, frequency of saccadic movements of the eyes, as well as an increase in cortical activity. Movement in the other direction reflects trophotropic arousal. This hypoarousal or reduced stimulation is characterized by an increase in parasympathetic activity, decreased saccadic frequency, muscle relaxation, and decreased cortical activity. Fischer describes increased ergotropic arousal as being characteristic of creative, psychotic, and ecstatic states. While trophotropic arousal is involved in various forms of meditation. Fischer's cartography of ecstatic and meditative states presents us with a way to examine the physiological correlates of a religious experience. According to Fischer the more one moves in either direction along the continuum, away from the normal state of perception, the greater the objective time-space world transformation for the experiencing "I" the closer one becomes to the end goal or the self. Fischer is able to outline these changes in time and space through a description of various states produced by psychedelic drugs. Although Fischer does not provide any direct evidence, he hypothesizes that similar changes in time and space presumably occur during trophotropic arousal. Research by Mandel, explained later in this paper, provides what could be an explanation for both states by positing a model of the disinhibition of certain areas associated with the religious experience achieved both through drug consumption as well as through meditation. Using either method of arousal (ergotropic or trophotropic), however, results in the same end state: the "self." This state is characterized by a oneness with the universe which is able to accurately perceive beyond the confines of the physical time-space world. Fischer's circular model also takes into account the phenomenon of trophotropic rebound. This is a term he uses to define the process of person, when at the peak of ergotropic arousal, passing from ecstasy into Samadhi, the last stage of yoga. this is explained as a "physiological protection mechanism." It is suggested that the process might be the same process producing Pavlov's transmarginal inhibition. Passage from samadhi to ecstasy, rebound in the opposite direction, is also possible. Gellhorn and Kiely (1972) show evidence for unpredicted increases in heart rate and EEG when experienced yogis pass from samadhi to ecstatic states. Corby (1978) also reported an increase in autonomic activity during mediation for experienced meditators. Based on this evidence of both kinds of arousal occurring together, Fischer does not propose that reciprocal ergotropic and trophotropic have an inverse relation to each other (an increase in one is automatically accompanied by a decrease in the other.) Gellhorn and Kiely suggest that because the observable trophotropic arousal in meditation does not lead to sleep that there is concurrent partial activation of the ergotropic system. They hypothesize that an experienced yogi's attempt to maintain on the trophotropic side of the ergotrophic-trophotropic balance excites the ergotropic system without increasing muscle tone, until the process culminates in the experience of ecstasy. Some researchers, such as Mills and Campbell (1974) argue that Fischer's model cannot explain important differences between different forms of mediation. Fischer (1971) argues however that many of these differences in form of mediation, or indeed any sort of religious experience, result simply from cortical interpretation of subcortical processes. General subcortical activity, ergotropic or trophotropic, can produce general emotional states that can be interpreted in various ways at the cortical level. Using attribution theory to attach a contextual label or cause to certain subconscious processes in accordance with one's experience and beliefs is an important concept to be gained from Fischer's rebuttal of the Mill's and Campbell criticism. Fischer (1971) expands his model even more in light of attribution theory. He claims that cortical "freedom" to interpret subcortical activity decreases as one progresses in either direction along the continuum. The freedom of interpretation finally disappears in the "self" state of ecstasy and samadhi, in which the "I" is dissolved and there is an indistinguishable integration of cortical and subcortical activity. The relevance of contextualized understanding of the neuropsychological approach to religious experience will be discussed after a review of pharmacological research on the nature of the religious experience. Fischer (1972) further speculates that the closer a person moves to the self the more time he or she will spend in the non-verbal right hemisphere. With the increase in arousal in either system the rational "I", which is specific to the prepositional, verbal left hemisphere, will receive less attention as the "self", specific to the intuitive non-verbal right hemisphere, receives more attention. Fischer uses studies of psychedelic drug induced religious experiences to provide evidence for his theory. He observes that as drug induced arousal along the continuum increases the syntactical structure of language becomes more simplified. Fischer weaves together his whole neuropsychological theory by suggesting that the loss of freedom to interpret subcortical activity can also be seen as a freedom from the confining rationality of the left-hemispheric "I." He continues that at moderate levels of arousal the core "self" and the interpretive "I" begin to communicate. The expression of their communication is represented in the subjective symbols of dreams and hallucinations. Fischer (1971), claims that it is these symbols that are the source of art, literature, science, and religion. The religious experience and psychoactive drugs Take me to the top So far the models considered all account for religious experiences that are "natural," that is they account for experiences produced by a person's interaction with their environment. What about model of religious experience that is specific to the ingestion of psychoactive substances. Of what comparative value are these artificially induced experiences? What insight can research in this area give us into the underlying processes of the religious experience? This section will attempt to develop a neuropsychological model for drug induced religious experiences that addresses these questions. Psychoactive drugs have been used for many thousands of years for religious purposes. One of the earliest accounts of ritual drug consumption involves the drug Soma. In Vedic literature Soma is simultaneously a god, a plant, and the plants' juice. This same mushroom played a part in religious rituals in northern Siberia. In Mesoamerica, more that 3500 years ago, hallucinogenic mushrooms were also used for ritual purposes; the Aztecs called their form of mushrooms God's flesh (Wasson, 1961). Robert Graves (1960) notes that edible mushrooms were also known in Greece where they formed essential ingredients in nectar and ambrosia, the food of the Olympic gods. Many Native American groups also have a tradition of using edible forms of cacti for religious purposes. Drug induced religious experience has been investigated more recently, in this century, by many famous people. William James claimed to undergo a religious experience with nitrous oxide while Aldous Huxley, after refuting the validity of the religious experience, had one by consuming mescaline. Much research has been done on the neuropsychological mechanisms involved in the drug induced or facilitated religious experience. The psychoactive drugs most commonly associated with religious experience are the psychedelics (Wulff, 1991). The most commonly used and researched of these being the hallucinogens, LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline. The Phenomenology of the Psychedelic Experience Take me to the top The range of experiences that these drugs produce is actually very wide (Wulff, 1991). They vary by dosage, personality of the subject, education and vocation, and expectation of the subject. The experience is also influenced by the setting, including the physical environment, visual and auditory stimuli present, and the purpose of the occasion. The experience also depends on the number, personal qualities, and expectations of others present. These hallucinogens are characterized by a variety of perceptual changes. One of the first subjective effects of moderate consumption of LSD, mescaline, or psilocybin has been called a "saturnalia" or "orgy" of vision (Unger, 1963). Light and color become intensified, objects seem plastic or alive, and the visual field is filled with fantastic imagery. Sensitivity to sounds, tastes and odors can also be increased. Very common to these experience, as well is the phenomenon known as synesthasia in which perception in one sensory modality stimulates another. Objects considered trivial under normal circumstances may become endlessly fascinating or extremely significant. The subjective experience of time is also radically transformed. Intervals of times that last only minutes can become be so rich, experientially, that they seem to last indefinitely. The concept of a timeless eternity, for some subjects, becomes a reality. The subjective experience of space is also transformed. Areas and object change in size and shape and two dimensional objects can take on a third dimension and faces be reduced to two dimensions. Other perceptual changes, more central to the theme of this paper, involve the perception of the self. Very often there is a dissolution of the "self" which can be called depersonalization or derealization. The body image often undergoes distortion or alteration, tactile sensitivity is reduced, and the ego becomes detached. The sense of self can fade to the extent that a person is no longer the locus of his or her own experience. For example a person can become the music that they were previously listening to or the pain that they feel may no longer seem to be his or her own. This experience of union with the surrounding universe was termed by Huxely (1954), after his mescaline experience, as the "sacramental vision of reality." Experiences such as this have led many researchers and observers to consider drugs magical keys to the mystical experience. Timothy Leary (1964) claims that between 40 and 90 percent of subjects will undergo an intense mystical or revelatory experience. In addition, the lower percentages are a result of studies done with subjects who were patients in psychotherapy, medical personnel, and from settings that are neutral. Higher percentages are expected when the subjects are religious professionals and when the setting is supportive of a religious experience. Using empirical studies of drug induced religious experience we can determine which substances, under which circumstances, are optimal for the facilitation of the religious experience. By controlling set and setting between a control group and an experimental group the effects of a drug can be accurately studied. The simplicity of this design is useful for two reasons: 1)Through successive experimentation those groups and individuals who use psychoactive drugs to facilitate religious experience can develop efficient and safe ways to experience religiously oriented altered states of consciousness. 2)With an awareness of a drug's action in the brain, we can implicate certain structures that mediate the religious experience. Below is an example of an experiment involving drug induced religious experience. It is reviewed in order to get an idea of the type of experimental designs used as well to assess how useful these studies are. The Miracle of Marsh Chapel, The Good Friday Experiment Take me to the top In the early 1960s psychological research into drug induced altered states of consciousness was extremely popular. One of the most prominent researchers in this field was Walter Pahnke. He wanted to determine if the experiences triggered by psychedelic drugs are fundamentally similar to the experiences of acknowledged mystics. Pahnke (1963, 1966) first developed a "typology of the mystical states of consciousness." Pahnke drew heavily on the theories of universal mystical experiences of philosopher Walter Stace (1960). Pahnke divided the religious experience into nine dimensions. Below are brief definitions. 1) Unity 2) Transcendence of space and time 3) A deeply felt positive mood 4) Sense of sacredness 5) Objectivity and reality 6) Paradoxiality 7) Alleged ineffability 8) Transiency 9) Persisting positive changes in attitude and behavior After completing his typology Pahnke, conducted his experiment. He divided a group of 20 male graduate students from a theological seminary into ten pairs. The pairs were matched on the basis of religious background, past religious experience, and general psychological makeup. One student from each pair was assigned randomly to the experimental group while the other served as a control. The group of 20 was then divided into five groups of four students each, on the basis of friendship and apparent compatibility. Each group had two leader assigned to them who were personally familiar with the positive and negative effects of psychedelic drugs. None of the students had taken psychedelic drugs. A five hour session of tests, interviews, and group discussion was held to inform the subjects and to maximize trust and positive expectation. The subjects and their leaders then met in a suite of rooms in Marsh Chapel at Boston University. In their respective rooms they were to hear a live broadcast of a Good Friday service conducted in the main sanctuary. Ninety minutes before the service began, two subjects in each of the five groups consumed capsules of 30 milligrams of psilocybin, one of each pair of leaders was given 15 milligrams of psilocybin. The other students and leaders consumed identical appearing capsules containing 200 milligrams of nicotinic acid, which, at this dosage, produces flushing and tingling sensations. Not only did Pahnke employ a double blind study but he told the subjects that half of them would receive an inert placebo with no side effects. He did this with the hope that those who did receive the control substance would mistake its effects for those of the drug. The service was composed of organ music, solos, readings, prayers, and personal meditation and lasted two and one-half hours. Most of the subjects stayed inside the chapel throughout this period. Immediately after the service, individuals reactions and group discussions were tape-recorded. Each subject then wrote an account of his experience "as soon after the experiment as was convenient" at the experimenter's request. Within a week of the experiment each subject also completed a 147-item questionnaire designed to measure the degree to which subjects experienced each dimension of Pahnke's typology. This was followed by an interview based on the questionnaire. Six months later all of the subjects filled out a follow-up questionnaire designed to reevaluate the composition of their experience and to identify and measure any enduring changes that resulted from it. The qualitative data were quantified through content analysis. The content analysis scores as well as scored from the both questionnaires were converted into three percentages. He conducted a statistical comparison between the experimental groups and the controls after averaging the three scores. The results are shown in Figure 2. --------------------------- Insert Figure 2 about here --------------------------- For all 17 comparisons the experimental group showed significantly higher scores at the .05 level or better. The experimental subjects did not, however, undergo "complete" mystical experiences in that none of them experienced each state to its full extent. The data are nonetheless striking in that the reported experiences of those that consumed psilocybin were much more similar to optimal mystical experiences than for those who "had the same expectation and suggestion from the preparation and setting" (p. 307). Also striking was that eight of the ten receiving psilocybin had, according to the follow up survey, significant and enduring effects of the experience. Pahnke's miracle has since come under some criticism. Timothy Leary (1968, p. 310) who was one of the group leaders in the study noted that, because the experimental and control subjects were in the same room, all of the subjects soon knew who had been given psilocybin and who had not. This eliminated the desired effect of the nicotinic acid to make the control subjects feel as if they had been administered the drug. Had the control subjects continued to believe that they were under the influence of psilocybin the may have scored higher. This could have possibly been done by putting subjects in rooms by themselves or by keeping subjects from talking to each other. This latter solution might be more representative of a real church setting. Ideally an experimenter would introduce the subjects into the church service and separate them. This would be useful because without interacting with fellows subjects, thereby revealing who has the drug or not, they could receive the benefit of a full religious environment. Another important factor that reduced the powerful implications of this study was a result of one experimental subject who was determined to demonstrate that drugs can not produce religious experiences. He was the only subject who had made no religious preparation for the experiment and who reported no evidence of mystical experience. Perhaps this subject, knowing the purpose of the study, deliberately set out to mask his religious experience when reporting it. It is more likely however that his reported experience was sincere. The fact that he did not have a religious experience emphasizes the importance of the mindset that a subject enters a drug facilitated altered state of consciousness with in determining whether or not he or she has a religious experience. Pahnke conducted an even more rigid follow up study with 40 subjects, however he died before he could fully publish the results. He did note similar results however. Other studies have also shown that psychedelic drugs can precipitate religious experience (Leary, 1964; Leary and Clark, 1963; and Clark, 1969). These studies also show that whether or not the set or setting are purposefully religious, at least a third of subject's consuming psychedelics will report that their experience is religious or mystical. None of these studies were as stringent however as Pahnke's experiments. Very strict federal laws now make it almost impossible to research with these drugs in the United States. Legal or publishable data now on the further parameters of the drug induced religious experience cannot be obtained, thereby leaving the complex issues unclarified. How do these drugs facilitate a religious experience? Take me to the top Arnold Mandell (1980) devised a neuropsychological model of the religious experience based on drug interactions as well as temporal lobe function. Using his own research as well as previous research as a foundation, he is one of leading proponents of a model that is based on serotonergic systems and one of the only ones to specifically draw conclusions as to the actual mechanisms involved in a drug facilitated religious experience. His model suggests that amphetamine, cocaine, and hallucinogens are all capable of producing a "neurological state of transcendent consciousness." Because serotonin has an inhibitory effect on temporal lobe limbic structures and because each of these drugs has the capacity to acutely reduce serotonin synthesis and or release, they have a disinhibiting effect on the temporal lobes. This leads to synchronous electrical discharges in temporal lobe limbic structure. This evidence is supported by research from Eidelberg, Lesse, and Gault (1963), Ellinwood (1971), Monroe and Heath (1961), and Radalovackey and Adey (1965). These synchronous discharges in the temporal lobe will last beyond the acute drug effect and are related to increased discharge and resulting cell death in the hippocampus. These events, he claims, are associated with a state of transcendent consciousness. In accordance with other temporal lobe theorists, Mandell concludes that these drugs induce an acute decrease in serotonergic inhibitory regulation of temporal lobe limbic structures. This will result in "affectual and cognitive processes characteristic of religious ecstasy and the permanent personality changes associated with religious conversion. In his model, Mandell also brings to light evidence that shows that because lithium stimulates tryptophan uptake into neurons resulting in an increase in serotonin synthesis. The increase in serotonin levels is seen in the mesolimbic system as well as the hippocampus (Mandel, 1979). Furthermore pretreatment or post treatment with lithium in animals and humans appears to antagonize the effects of amphetamine and cocaine in a way that is consistent with known serotonergic inhibition of stimulant induce behavior. (Segal, Callaghan, Mandell, 1975; Furukawa, 1975; Flemenbaum, 1974; Hollister, Breese, Kuhn, Cooper Schanberg, 1976) Lithium is also shown to produce and almost complete loss of effect of cocaine and LSD (Mandell, 1980). Implications of a Psychopharmacology of Religion Take me to the top If we put aside the legality of most of the substances considered here, another significant issue become apparent. What are the differences between an internally induced altered state of consciousness that is religiously significant and one that is drug induce? What are the implications for religious practitioners and institutions? Jame's Bakalar (1985) identifies three attitudes towards the drug induced religious experience. They are "materialist reductionism, defense of the purity of an orthodox faith, and religion as personal experiences given form and meaning by traditional interpretation." Bakalar points out that those scientists and people who take a reductionist view to the experience are most likely to use evidence such as cited above to argue that the religious experience is immediately less significant. Aldous Huxeley was a proponent of this viewpoint until he tried mescaline in 1953. (Wulff, 1991) Those that take the viewpoint that drug experiences make the religious experience less pure will argue that although certain phenomenology might exist any drug induced religious state is lacking in genuiness. The student in Pahnke's Good Friday experiment who was determined to show the ineffectiveness of drugs on spiritual experiences is and example of a person who holds this view. To describe this viewpoint, Bakalar uses the analogy that a person who lands on a mountain top in a helicopter does not see the same view as the person who struggles up on foot. To test this claim perhaps those that have had drug induced religious experiences can be asked to describe their newly gained insights into spirituality. These responses could then be content analyzed and compared with responses from non-drug using religious practitioners. This would determine if the experiences provide similar spiritual growth. Then using a universal hierarchical categorization of religious thought such as James Fowler's (1980), a judgment could be made as to which method of religious experience (non-drug induced, drug induced, or a combination of both) is more successful at providing significant religious growth. The last type of viewpoint is that a persons drug experience, as it is informed by insight from already established religious traditions, is a beneficial tool for increasing the significance of and growth potential in a religious experience. This attitude is usually adopted by those religious practitioners who actually use the method themselves. Timothy Leary (1968) once claimed that soon religion without drugs would be as pointless and unnatural as astronomy without telescopes. Although there is clearly a chemical aspect to our religious experience one question to be considered concerning any pharmacological enhancements is this. To what extent can we engage in cosmetic pharmacology? That is, is there a point at which we cease to be genuine "selves" and more a composite of the different psychoactive drugs we put in our body? Is such a distinction an artificial one? This is a debate that has arisen recently with the wide-scale introduction of prozac into our society however there are implications for drug induced religious experiences as well. The evidence presented above shows that drug induced religious states simply facilitate naturally occurring physiological states in the body. It is our interpretation of these internal physiological and chemical states that determines whether or not we have a religious experience. It is important then to consider the context of our religious experience as without any sort of context at all drug induced states can not produce a religious experience. This question of context dependency is brought up in the next section. Discussion Take me to the top Areas in the brain that seem to produce the substrates for a religious experience have been isolated according to theories by Persinger and d'Aquili. Fischer and d'Aquili have presented us with models that allow us to map two well established religious processes to these physiological states. Further evidence is provided for a physiological basis for religious experience with the presentation of drug research. The research above shows that there are definite neuropsychological correlates to the religious experience. How one chooses to interpret and apply these data is the concern of the rest of this paper. Religion is a integral component of the human experience both on a societal as well as personal basis. This data is extremely useful, therefore, for any researcher trying to understand the basis of human behavior. Assuming that a universal neuropsychological definition of the religious experience can be established; something that Persinger, d'Aquili, Mandell, and others like them are well on the path to doing; we can establish more objective measures for examining the phenomenological characteristics of the experience. This would be important for religious leaders, whose job it is to promote a successful religious experience in their followers. By nurturing those underlying neuropsychological processes that facilitate religious experience, religious leaders and institutions might develop religious practices that are more efficient in producing significant subjective religious experiences in their practitioners. Here are two examples of how these theories can be tested, then applied by religious leaders and institutions to improve the religious experience. Following Persinger's proposition that brains are more prone to membrane fusion and recurrent low level epileptic foci during pubescence and old age, these age groups could be specifically targeted in order to ensure the optimum chance for conversion or significant religious experience during the life span. Indeed, studies could be done to determine of these two groups are statistically the most prone to religious experience and conversions. Persinger believes that the experience of God as a being has its origin in temporary, temporal lobe-limbic access to normally inaccessible, infantile parental images. Therefore, another way in which Persinger's theory could be tested and applied is to substitute more parental images for God (i.e. God the mother or father) to see if a person's sense of connection with God is increased. Whether or not this parental imaging of God is helpful or not might be determined by a longitudinal study which assesses the dynamics of the infant-parent relationship then examines the correlates in how a practitioner relates to his or her god concept. An understanding of the neuropsychology behind the religious experience would also be of importance to therapists who would be in the position to determine whether someone is experience a religious phenomenon, a pathological one, or both. The therapist would benefit in having a clearer understanding of the neuropsychological processes involved in the religious experience in that he or she would be able to treat pathologies associated with the religious experience appropriately (i.e. without depriving a person of the right to a religious experience), especially with medications. Religious experience, as redefined using neuropsychological models of universal substrates can be useful for constructing "pure" religious activities for those for whom it is useful. While it might be useful for those scientists who are interested in simply isolating the underlying components of behavior, there is a danger in approaching the religious experience in an abstract way. The Physiological and Chemical Experience Contextualized Take me to the top As it has been noted earlier, it is very important to recognize that all of these models assert that the neuropsychology underlying these experiences are for the most part subcortical, decontextualized activities and that it is our own personal history and context that gives rise to their interpretation as religious experiences. Here we can look towards Gazzaniga's concept of an interpreter structure in the midst of a "social brain" which functions to coordinate and order the input from different activities in the brain. (Gazziniga, 1985) This interpreter mediates our subjective experience of neuropsychological events. It is perhaps this hypothetical interpreter structure in the cortex that determines whether or not the many physiological or chemical states discussed above result in a religious experience. Many of the researchers here, while noting the interpretive functions of higher cortical structures can still be considered reductionists. The dangers of reductionism are that the experience is decontextualized which can threaten the its usefulness. By taking subjects out of a religious mindset and environment to test them, most researchers are successful in isolating mechanisms that most likely play a part in religiosity but still fail to provide any useful findings for the religious community. In other words they have successfully isolated a behavior in the brain but, for the most part, have fallen short of applying the data to anything besides "general knowledge." While a somewhat reductionist approach in this case might be necessary in order to determine and isolate universal mechanisms, perhaps a more efficient religious experience can be developed by others using this same data. Implications For Humanity Take me to the top It has been established that there are neuropsychological components of the religious experience and that they can possibly be optimized by the religious institution, the scientist, or the drug using spiritual seeker. Of what practical use is this knowledge? What impact does it have on humanity? Further research should be done on the impact of certain types of religious experience and mental health. A limited study by Larsen (1979) implies that certain types of religious experience, in this case "present-oriented" experiences, lead more readily to self actualization. Another study by Greely (1973) demonstrates that the occurrence of mystical experiences correlates .34 with positive affect as measured by the Positive Affect Scale (measuring psychological well-being) developed by Norman Bradburd (1969) and -.34 with the Negative Affect Scale (related to indicators of poor mental health). When the characteristics of mysticism were more narrowly defined to include passivity, ineffability, a sense of new-life, and the experience of being bathed in light, the correlation with positive affect rose to .52. What characteristics of the religious experience as outlined from a neuropsychological viewpoint would correlate with a high sense of self actualization and subjective well-being? Taking viewpoint that self-actualization and psychological well-being are an important components, if not the goal, of mental health, it is easy to see how useful an understanding is of different experiences, right down to their pure neuropsychological processes, and how they work to effect our subjective sense of how successfully we are living our lives. Perhaps other studies can be done which isolate those religious activities that are beneficial to mental health and in turn educate society in such a way that would allow us to optimize our religious experiences.
Transcendental Meditation Scientific ResearchBibliography of hundreds of scientific studies on the effects of Transcendental Meditation, including improved brain functioning.
About Transcendental Meditation Scientific Research Scientific Research on TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION and TM-SIDHI Programmes Over 500 studies have been completed on the physiological, psychological, and sociological effects of the Maharishi Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programmes, making it perhaps the most intensively studied technology in the field of human development. These studies have been conducted at 210 different universities and research institutions in 27 countries, and articles have now appeared in more than 100 scientific journals. These studies have been gathered in Scientific Research on the Maharishi Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programmes, Volumes 1-6, containing over 4,000 pages of scientific papers and appear below in the Bibliography of 508 TM programme studies . Listed below are some of the findings on this technology relevant to education: Improved Mental Abilities: Increased intelligence, increased creativity, improved learning ability, improved memory, improved reaction time, higher levels of moral reasoning, improved academic achievement, greater orderliness of brain functioning, increased self-actualization. Improved Health: Reduced stress and anxiety, reduced hospitalization, reduced incidence of disease, reduced need for out-patient medical care, reduced health care costs, reduced use of alcohol and drugs, improved cardiovascular health, reduced physical complaints, increased longevity. Improved Social Behavior: Improved self-confidence, reduced anxiety, improved family life, improved relationships at home and at work, increased tolerance, improved job performance, increased job satisfaction. The Transcendental Meditation programme The Transcendental Meditation technique is a simple, natural, effortless procedure practiced for 15-20 minutes in the morning and afternoon while sitting comfortably with the eyes closed. During this technique the individual's awareness settles down and experiences the simplest form of human awareness -- Transcendental Consciousness--where consciousness is open to itself. Transcendental Consciousness has been found by physiological research to be a fourth major state of consciousness, a state of restful alertness, distinct from the commonly experienced states of waking, dreaming, and deep sleep. The experience of Transcendental Consciousness develops the individual's latent creative potential while dissolving accumulated stress and fatigue through the deep rest gained during the practice. This experience enlivens creativity, dynamism, orderliness, and organizing power in one's awareness, which results in increasing effectiveness and success in daily life. In the past four decades the Transcendental Meditation programme has been learned by over four million people of all cultures, religions, and educational backgrounds worldwide. It has been implemented in universities and schools in many countries, including Maharishi University of Management in the U.S.A. (formerly Maharishi International University); and Maharishi Schools of the Age of Enlightenment (primary and secondary schools). In any setting, with any population, this technology has been found to produce the same holistic and beneficial results. The TM-Sidhi programme The TM-Sidhi programme, which includes "Yogic Flying," trains the individual to think and act from the level of Transcendental Consciousness, greatly enhancing the coordination between mind and body, between intention and its actualization. The practice of Yogic Flying has been found to optimize coherence in brain functioning while producing the inner experience of "bubbling bliss." Technology for World Peace Research has further confirmed that large groups practicing the TM-Sidhi programme together in one place-approximately the square root of one percent of the population-radiate an influence of orderliness and harmony in the society at large. This influence has been measured by a wide range of social variables, such as reduced crime, accidents, sickness, violence, and war casualties; improved economic trends; and enhanced quality of life. Validated by more than 40 studies in the past 20 years at the city, state, national and international levels, this phenomenon is called the Extended Maharishi Effect. Through the group practice of these technologies of consciousness, the faculty and students of Maharishi Vedic University will generate an influence of positivity and harmony that will be reflected in positive trends throughout the community--and, depending on the size of the group, throughout the state and nation. American Heart Association journal report: People with high blood pressure may want to medicate and meditate "Results published in today's issue of the American Heart Association journal Hypertension, showed that the Transcendental Meditation technique significantly lowered blood pressure in older African American men and women who were at high risk for five major risk factor groups." (August 5, 1996) Related Stories in the Media: Meditation May Help Treat Heart Disease (5 17)*BY CAITLIN KELLY c.1996 Medical Tribune News Service 'Transcendental Meditation Improves Exercise Tolerance In CAD Patients' Reuters Health Information Services Inc (5 20 96) Transcendental Meditation Reduces Hypertension in High Risk Men and Women American Heart Association Journal Publishes New Study on Stress-Reduction and Hypertension in an Inner City, Older Population. (August 5, 1996) Research Shows TM Programme Can Cut Cost of Hypertension Treatment New study in American Journal of Managed Care indicates savings of up to 75 percent of the cost of commonly used antihypertensive drugs (May 1, 1996) Can The Transcendental Meditation Programme Reduce Health Care Costs? New study published in the American Journal of Health Promotion suggests technique may offer help in cutting spiraling U.S. health bill. (January 19,1996) Transcendental Meditation Found Effective in the Treatment of Hypertension American Heart Association's Journal Hypertension Publishes Study on Stress reduction Techniques in Elderly African Americans. (11 02 95) Transcendental Meditation Technique Reduces Stress-Related Hormones Study published in the November issue of the American Heart Association's journal, Hypertension explains reduction of hypertension, obesity, and other risk factors for heart disease. (11 02 95) Research Overview Summary of Research On the Transcendental Meditation Programme Selection of charts showing research results (Large files! over 120K each): Part 1 (7 Charts) Part 2 (6 Charts) For more information: in New Zealand contact your nearest Maharishi Health Education Centre , or Maharishi Foundation of New Zealand (Inc), phone: (09) 426 4567, fax (09) 426 4563, E-Mail . For the rest of the world please see our TM Links page. If you have a question, try our FAQ . Site Index Home Description of Transcendental Meditation programme Scientific Research on the TM and TM-Sidhi programmes Seven Steps to Learn the TM programme TM-Sidhi programme Advanced techniques of the Transcendental Meditation programme Where to learn TM in New Zealand Where to learn TM in the rest of the world Comments send to: webmaster
Physiology of meditationArticle covering meditation and its relationship to the metabolism, autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and central nervous system.
PT: Physiology of meditation The Physiology of Meditation by Dr. Jooyoung Julia Shin, M.D. Introduction Eastern religious and secular groups, such as the Buddhists, Taoists, and the Indian Yogis have practiced meditation throughout history in order to achieve certain mental and physical ends; these include muscular relaxation and "clearing" the mind, as well as the more esoteric union with nature or God. For these practitioners, meditation further serves to reduce negative tensions in both conscious and subconscious realms, and facilitates the integration of an individual into her or his physical, social and psychological environment. A variety of these ideas were incorporated into the philosophy of the martial arts as they developed in Asia. In contrast to most exercise cultures, the martial arts actively strive to develop both the inner and outer individual, guided by a holistic view of human nature. The union of mind and body lies fundamental to martial art philosophy and practice, which consists of both mental and physical exercises. The practice of meditation characterizes the martial arts as a psychophysical engagement, as opposed to a purely physical activity. Although diverse types of meditation exist, all meditative techniques attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way without discursive or discriminating thought. By muting the analytical, reasoning functions of the mind one achieves a sort of non-discriminatory or relaxed awareness. In the martial arts, this state has been given various descriptions such as "Satori," "enlightenment," or "Zanshin." Eastern philosophers have known for centuries that the practice of meditation allows the human mind to transcend thinking processes into a state of thoughtless awareness. Given the complicated structure of the brain, with its multitude of neurons, infinite possibilities of synaptic connections, and numerous chemical mediators, this transcendent state may one day have a physiological explanation. Indeed, increasing scientific and popular interest in the Eastern practices of meditation has accumulated significant empirical evidence about the physiological modifications produced by the practice of meditation; these include metabolic, autonomic, encephalographic, and psychological effects. These scientific studies clearly show that the meditative state of awareness is distinct from a normal everyday awareness bound by logic and reason, and validate the traditional Eastern belief that mental function has a direct implication on physical function. The Physiology of Meditation A review of the scientific literature on meditation reveals that its practice can provide numerous benefits for the martial artist. For example, meditation can reduce stress and anxiety, enhance motor reflexes, increase motor control, increase exercise tolerance, sharpen perceptions, increase awareness, improve concentration, maintain health, provide a general positive outlook on life, and foster the development of a sense of personal meaning in the world. In general, meditation produces a reduction in multiple biological systems, resulting in a state of relaxation. These changes are, in most studies, significantly different between meditating and non-meditating groups. Benson (1975) argues that this physiological response pattern is not unique to meditation per se, but is common to any passive relaxation procedure. Although some studies have found no physiological or overt behavioral differences between meditation and other relaxation techniques, it is significant to note that subjects report meditational experiences as more profound and enjoyable than their comparative control groups (Cauthen Prymak 1977, Kohr 1977). These subjective differences may have critical relevance from a clinical or research perspective. Scientific studies reveal that meditation produces a specific physiological response pattern that involves various biological systems. The mechanisms most frequently suggested to mediate or produce meditative effects include metabolic, autonomic, endocrine, neurological, and psychological observations. Precisely how these mechanisms are involved in producing the final pattern of responses is yet unclear. The vast complexity of biological organization indicates that the physiological response to meditation probably occurs on a multidimensional, interactive basis. Meditation and Metabolism Mental states can markedly alter physiologic function. For example, stressful situations result in a hypermetabolic state, with increased oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood pressure. In contrast, the majority of scientific studies show meditation to be a wakeful state accompanied by a decreased metabolism. This generalized decrease in body metabolism manifests with a decreased breathing pattern, decreased heart rate, and decreased blood pressure. There is also a marked decrease in the level of oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide elimination by muscle. These findings have been verified by an impressive number of studies.[ FN1 ] Oxygen consumption is generally regarded as a reliable index of physical activity and arousal. For example, exercise requires an increased consumption of oxygen by muscle. During this metabolic process, oxygen is converted to carbon dioxide, which is eliminated by the lungs. If the body is starved of oxygen, reduced oxygen consumption does not lead to a parallel reduction in carbon dioxide elimination because the cells continue to metabolize the remaining oxygen in the blood. Therefore, oxygen starvation causes a decrease in the concentration of oxygen and an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. The relative amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood is called the respiratory quotient. During normal respiratory processes, this quotient remains constant; in abnormal respiratory situations, however, the reduction in available oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide changes the quotient. Wallace et al (1971) found that during the practice of meditation the amount of carbon dioxide elimination drops in proportion to the amount of oxygen consumed; therefore, the respiratory quotient remains constant. In conclusion, the metabolic changes of meditation arise from a natural reduction in metabolic activity at the cellular level, not from a forced reduction of breathing. Circulation, especially in muscle and brain, is closely related to the metabolic requirements of tissues, and is very sensitive and consistent in its response to behavior. A study by Jevning et al (1996) illustrates an interesting redistribution in the blood flow of meditators. Blood flow to the kidneys and liver declined in practitioners, with a surprising increase in cardiac output. These changes of blood flow imply a marked redistribution of blood flow during meditation. It is hypothesized that most of the distributed circulation must be to the brain, a hypothesis that has been supported by direct estimation of increased relative cerebral blood flow (Herzog et al 1990, Jevning et al 1992, Jevning et al 1996). The redistribution of blood flow with an increase in cardiac output has interesting significance for the pattern of metabolic changes elicited by meditation; although the response to meditation is hypometabolic overall, it appears likely that there is a concomitant increase in the metabolism of certain tissues. Meditation and the Autonomic Nervous System Skin resistance to electrical current provides a measure of autonomic nervous system reactivity. An increase in the skin resistance of meditators has been reported by several groups.[ FN2 ] Increase in skin resistance indicates a decrease in skin conduction and a reduction in its fluctuations. It is well established that skin resistance decreases in states of anxiety or stress, and increases during relaxation. The large increases in skin resistance of meditators found in these studies are impressive. Galvanic skin response, or GSR, was used to measure recovery from stress; a study by Orme-Johnson (1973) showed that meditators recovered from stress more quickly than non-meditators. Specifically, habituation of the GSR to stress was faster for meditators than for controls, and meditators made fewer multiple responses during habituation, indicating greater stability in response to stress. In other experiments, meditators produced fewer spontaneous GSR than their non-meditating controls, both during and while out of meditation. Spontaneous GSR is defined as spontaneous fluctuations in skin resistance and the frequency of spontaneous GSR defines the lability of an individual to stress. For example, the frequency rises with anger, fear, and increased epinephrine and norepinephrine blood levels. Those individuals with lower frequencies of spontaneous GSR exhibit more effective behavior in a number of stressful situations, are less impulsive on motor tasks, and have quicker perceptions. Rapid GSR habituation and low levels of spontaneous GSR are reported in the literature to be correlated with physiological and behavioral characteristics associated with good mental health. Therefore, meditation benefits practitioners by decreasing the frequency of spontaneous GSR. In general, these studies indicate that meditators possess a more adaptive pattern of stress response than controls. On another level, meditation produces specific neural activation patterns involving decreased limbic arousal in the brain (Schwartz 1975). Since the limbic system contains the hypothalamus, which controls the autonomic nervous system, reduction in limbic arousal may explain how meditation reduces stress and increases autonomic stability to stress. Ultimately, meditation strengthens and enhances the ability to cope with stress. Meditation and the Endocrine System Based upon the metabolic characteristics of meditation and the subjective reports of meditators, several studies were initiated in order to ascertain whether the blood levels of stress-related chemicals decreased during this practice. A number of endocrine reactions have been identified in the meditative response pattern, including reduced blood levels of lactate, cortisol, and epinephrine (Wallace 1970, Sudsuang et al 1991). The reductions in these blood chemicals denote a state of decreased tension and anxiety. For example, the infusion of lactate can produce anxiety symptoms in normal subjects (Wallace et al 1971); the decrease in lactate concentration during and after meditation may explain the subjective feelings of wakeful relaxation. These studies further reveal that the reduction in stress-related chemicals persists into the post-meditation period. The most likely explanation of these results seems to be that the long-term practice of meditation develops a psychophysiological response of persistent decreased endocrine activity, thereby reducing sensitivity to stress. It has been recently demonstrated that meditation reduces sympathetic adrenergic receptor sensitivity, producing a decreased response to stressful situations (Mills et al 1990). Certain studies have also found unique patterns of blood hormone levels and blood flow to a number of organs including the brain (Jevning O'Halloran 1984). Increased levels of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), melatonin, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) have been reported (Glaser et al 1992, Elias Wilson 1995, Massion et al 1995). Meditation is associated with changes in the secretion and release of several pituitary hormones. The hormonal changes induced by meditation mimic the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. Elias and Wilson (1995) hypothesize that meditation produces its anxiolytic effects by promoting GABA action in specific areas of the brain, via a mechanism similar to the effects of synthetic anxiolytic and tranquilizing agents. Melatonin has been associated with a variety of biologic functions important in maintaining health and preventing disease, and the serum level of the adrenal androgen DHEA-S has also been associated with measures of health and stress. For example, increased levels of DHEA-S has been connected with a reduction in age-related disorders such as cardiovascular diseases and breast cancer. DHEA-S excretion also decreases in times of stress; since meditators have been shown to have an attenuated autonomic response to stressors (Orme-Johnson 1973), the higher DHEA-S levels found in during meditation may provide protection against stressor stimulation of the adrenal gland. That the physical effects of meditation persist after the meditation period itself has ended is demonstrated by the fact that hypertension can be effectively controlled by meditation alone without the use of anti-hypertensive drugs (Schneider et al 1995). Meditation has also been shown to have long-term effects on the endocrine system (Werner et al 1986). Another recent study (Zamarra et al 1996) reveals that meditators have a general increased exercise tolerance and maximal cardiac workload as compared to non-meditators. Meditation and the Central Nervous System Interestingly, the practice of meditation decreases muscle reflex time (Warshal 1980, Robertson 1983). Significant reductions in reflex time provides possible neurological evidence for the improved motor performance skills reported in other studies on meditation, such as higher performance on perceptual-motor speed tests, static motor performance tests, and physical task tests of balance.[ FN3 ] Meditation may somehow accelerate neural conduction or augment the release of neurotransmitters, thereby decreasing synaptic time, resulting in a change in muscle firing threshold and pattern. These findings appear consistent with the development of a heightened sensitivity of the human central nervous system and suggest a neural mechanism underlying the motor performance improvements of those who meditate. Studies of brain physiology during meditation have most frequently employed the electroencephalograph (EEG) for the measurement of brain wave electrical activity. With most meditative practices the EEG patterns exhibit a slowing and synchronization of brain waves, with alpha waves predominating. More advanced practitioners of meditation demonstrate an even greater slowing of their brain waves, with the possible emergence of theta wave patterns.[ FN4 ] These patterns are consistent with deep relaxation. Alpha rhythm is the classical EEG correlate for a state of relaxed wakefulness, also described as relaxed vigilance (Niedermeyer Da Silva 1993). Indeed, emotional tension attenuates or blocks the alpha rhythm. Theta activity is associated with emotional processes and indicates relative maturity of the mechanisms linking the cortex, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus; theta rhythm also occurs during a state of maximal awareness (Niedermeyer Da Silva 1993). Apparently, an alpha wave pattern is most conducive to creativity and to the assimilation of new concepts, while the theta responseseems to be a stage at which the mind is capable of deep insights and intuition. It is significant to note that practiced meditators can continue to exhibit alpha and theta waves after the meditation period has ended (Wallace et al 1971). One study compared different types of breathing during meditation and discovered that diaphragmatic, or deep breathing was associated more with an EEG alpha response than thoracic breathing (Timmons et al 1972). Meditative traditions place a great deal of importance on breathing; indeed, breath becomes the object of awareness in most methods. Specifically, Taoist and Zen traditions of meditation have historically placed great value in abdominal breathing, consistent with the popular belief that the vital center, or hara, is located in the abdomen (Huard 1971). The study by Timmons and collaborators validates the merit of deep abdominal breathing. The cortex of the brain is popularly believed to consist of two halves, the left and right hemispheres. Although simplistic, activities such as speech, logical thinking, analysis, sense of time are thought to function in the left hemisphere, while the ability to recognize faces and comprehend maps is thought to function in the right hemisphere. On the physiological level, it has been demonstrated that the two hemispheres of the cortex are specialized for different modes of information-processing; the left hemisphere operates primarily in a verbal, intellectual, sequential mode, while the right hemisphere operates primarily in a spatial oriented mode. The right hemisphere concerns space more than time, and intuition more than logic or language. The right lobe also houses the purported center of motor skills connected with spatial awareness. Most people, under scientific measurement, demonstrate a marked preponderance towards left hemisphere usage. Several authors hypothesize that systems of meditation alter consciousness by inhibiting cognitive functions associated with the dominant or left cortical hemisphere. Ornstein (1975), for example, states that meditation "turns off" the verbal, linear, analytic style of information processing associated with the normal waking state. By inhibiting the left cortical hemisphere, the sense of time and logic no longer dominate consciousness during meditation. In association with this repression of the left hemisphere occurs a hypothesized shift to the right hemispheric manner of experience, described as holistic, receptive, and beyond language or logic. Since it is nonlinear, the right cortical hemisphere devalues the concept of cause and effect. Davidson (1976) argues that meditation leads to the development of right hemisphere associated abilities. This assertion has been verified by several research projects; meditators show faster reaction times on simple visual reaction time tasks, thus demonstrating that meditation facilitates right hemisphere specific abilities (Appelle Oswald 1974, Holt et al 1978, Pagano Frumkin 1977). Furthermore, EEG alpha and theta wave coherence is most marked in the right cortical hemisphere during the practice of meditation (Gaylord et al 1989). Other analyses suggest the existence of synchronization patterns both between corresponding areas of the two cortical hemispheres and within individual hemispheres (Glueck Stroebel 1978). Some tests indicate that the EEG activation patterns in meditators display a greater flexibility in shifting between hemispheres in response to the demands of specific tasks (Bennet Trinder 1977); this represents an integration of the left and right hemispheres of the brain, synchronizing the logical with the intuitive. Meditation and Psychology The research literature on meditation suggests that practitioners experience subjective phenomena, such as pronounced feelings of "self-transcendence," "felt meaning in the world," "a heightened sense of connectedness with the world," and "a sense of purpose and meaningfulness"[ FN5 ]; these subjective experiences involve radically revised perceptions of self and the external world. Mood changes include happiness, freedom from anxiety, content with self, and greater vitality. Other articles also suggest that meditators gain enhanced confidence, a sense of self-control, empathy, and self-actualization (Hjelle 1974). Several investigators conclude that the practice of meditation improves cognitive task performance, increases mental concentration, and reduces susceptibility to stress.[ FN6 ] As described above, many researchers report that meditation reduces the biological components of anxiety. In general, meditation promotes psychological health (Gaylord et al 1989, Gelderloos et al 1990). Other psychological consequences of meditation include decreased anger aroused in high-anger situations (Dua Swinden 1992) and an increased concentration for mental as well as physical tasks (Dhume Dhume 1991). Indeed, Davidson et al (1976) found that experienced meditators had significantly increased attentional absorption and that attentional absorption increased as the length of meditation experience increased. Long-term meditators appear to possess a more developed ability to voluntarily control attention. A general profile of psychological well-being and perceptual sensitivity emerges from various studies on meditation. Some of the more commonly reported experiences include amplified perceptual clarity, widened range of psychological insights, and greater openness to experience.[ FN7 ] As Walsh writes (1984), "Sensitivity and clarity frequently seem enhanced following a meditation sitting or retreat. Thus, for example, at these times it seems that I can discriminate visual forms and outlines more clearly. It also feels as though empathy is significantly increased and that I am more aware of other people's subtle behaviors, vocal intonations, etc., as well as my own affective responses to them." One of the fundamental objective observations of the enhanced perceptual sensitivity of meditators is a decrease in both absolute and discrimination sensory thresholds[ FN8 ]; these include a more subtle awareness of previously known concepts and an increased perception of previously unrecognized phenomena. Thus, both subjective and objective examinations agree that meditation enhances perceptual sensitivity. Conclusion The concept of meditation arose within the philosophical framework of Eastern religious and spiritual disciplines. These traditions practice meditative techniques in order to maintain physical health, induce altered states of consciousness, develop insight, achieve peace, and gain spiritual strength as well as spiritual purification. In these ways, meditation modifies the perception of the world and promotes a more unified conception of self, nature, and humanity. Martial arts training, by including the practice of meditation, encourages the development of these attributes and fosters a more intuitive way of relating to life. Formal meditation refers to the practice of meditation at specific times, in a specific place and posture, as practiced in a Taekwondo dojang. Informal meditation, however, requires no specifications, but can be practiced at any time and place. The primary goal of meditation in the martial arts is not simply to be able to make a meditative effort during formal sittings, but to maintain and generalize conscious attention to all aspects of martial arts practice and life in general, thereby eliminating mental tension. Ultimately, the greatest achievement in the martial arts is the simultaneous refinement of mind and body. The special training of consciousness effectively regulates every biological system of the body as well as its technical and mechanical facilities. Cultivation of the mind leads to cultivation of the body, leading to further cultivation of the mind and so on, eventually attaining an exquisite level of cooperation and coordination between the two. Notes FN1 Reduced heart rate -- Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Delmonte 1984, Zeier 1984, Sudsuang et al 1991, Telles et al 1995 Decreased Blood Pressure -- Wallace et al 1971, Wallace et al 1983, Delmonte 1984, Sudsuang et al 1991, Schneider et al 1995 Decreased oxygen consumption -- Wallace 1970, Allison 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Hirai 1974, Fenwick et al 1977, Zeier 1984, Wilson et al 1987, Benson et al 1990 Decreased carbon dioxide generation by muscle -- Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Wilson et al 1987, Jevning et al 1992 FN2 Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Orme-Johnson 1973, Delmonte 1984, Telles et al 1995 FN3 Kolb 1974, Orme-Johnson et al 1976, Jedrczak et al 1986, Dhume Dhume 1991, Telles et al 1994 FN4 Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Banquet 1973, Hirai 1974, Corby et al 1978, Dillbeck Vesely 1986, Gaylord et al 1989, Jevning et al 1992 FN5 Osis et al 1973, Kohr 1977, Severtsen Bruya 1986, Bogart 1991 FN6 Blasdell 1973, Orme-Johnson 1973, Appelle Oswald 1974, Keller Seraganian 1984, Severtsen Bruya 1986, Gaylord et al 1989, Dhume Dhume 1991, Jin 1992, Tsai Crockett 1993, Janowiak Hackman 1994, Elias Wilson 1995, Telles et al 1995 FN7 Banquet 1973, Osis et al 1973, Shapiro 1980, Walsh 1984, Brown et al 1984 FN8 Davidson et al 1976, Brown et al 1984, Freed 1989, Colby 1991 Bibliography Allison J. Respiratory change during transcendental meditation. Lancet 1:833-4, Apr 1970 Appelle S Oswald LE. Simple reaction time as a function of alertness and prior mental activity. Perceptual Motor Skills 38:1263-8, 1974 Banquet JP. Spectral analysis of the EEG in meditation. Electroencephalography Clinical Neurophysiology 35: 143-51, 1973 Bennet JE Trinder J. Hemispheric laterality and cognitive style associated with transcendental meditation. Psychophysiology 14:293-6, 1977 Benson H. The Relaxation Response. New York: William Morrow Co, 1975 Benson H, Malhotra MS, Goldman RF, Jacobs GD Hopkins PJ. Three case reports of the metabolic and electroencephalographic changes during advanced Buddhist meditation techniques. Behav Med 16(2):90-5, Summer 1990 Blasdell KS. The effects of transcendental meditation technique upon a complex perceptual-motor task. In K. Kannelakos and J. Lucas (Eds.), The Psychobiology of Transcendental Meditation: A Literature Review. Menlo Park: Stanford Research Institute, 1973. Bogart G. The Use of Meditation in Psychotherapy: A Review of the Literature. Amer J Psychotherapy 45(3):383-412, Jul 1991 Brown D, Forte M Dysart M. Visual sensitivity and mindfulness meditation. Perceptual Motor Skills 58(3):775-84, Jun 1984 Cauthen N Prymak C. Meditation versus Relaxation. J Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45(3):496-7, 1977 Colby F. An analogue study of the initial carryover effects of meditation, hypnosis, and relaxation using native college students. Biofeedback Self Regulation 16(2):157 65, Jun 1991 Corby JC, Roth WT Zarzone VP. Psychophysiological correlates of the practice of tantric yoga meditation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 35:571-80, 1978 Davidson JM. The physiology of meditation and mystical states of consciousness. Perspectives Biol Med 19:345-79, 1976 Delmont MM. Physiological responses during meditation and rest. Biofeedback Self Regulation 9(2):181-200, Jun 1984 Dhume RR Dhume RA. A comparative study of the driving effects of dextroamphetamine and yogic meditation on muscle control for the performance of balance on balance board. Indian J Physiol Pharmacology 35(3):191-4, Jul 1991 Dillbeck MC Vesely SA. Participation in the transcendental meditation program and frontal EEG coherence during concept learning. International J Neuroscience 29(1-2):45-55, Mar 1986 Dua JK Swinden ML. Effectiveness of negative-thought reduction, meditation and placebo training treatment in reducing anger. Scandinavian J Psychology 33(2):135-46, 1992 Elias AN Wilson AF. Serum hormonal concentrations following transcendental meditation: potential role of gamma aminobutyric acid. Med Hypotheses 44(4):287-91, Apr 1995 Fenwick PB, Donaldson S, Gillis L, Bushman J, Fenton GW, Perry I, Tilsley C Serafinowicz H. Metabolic and EEG Changes During Transcendental Meditation: An Explanation. Biological Psychology 5(2):101-18, 1977 Freed S. Induced Specific Immunological Unresponsiveness Conditioned behavioral Reflexes, In Functional Isomorphism-Meditation and Conditioned Specific Unresponsiveness. International J Neuroscience 44(3-4)275-81, Feb 1989 Gaylord C, Orme-Johnson D Travis F. The Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Technique and Progressive Muscle Relaxation on EEG Coherence, Stress Reactivity, and Mental Health in Black Adults. International J Neuroscience 46(1):77-86, May 1989 Gelderloos P, Hermans HG, Ahlscrom HH Jacoby R. Transcendence and psychological Health: Studies with Long-Term Participants of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program. J Psychology 124(2):177-97, Mar 1990 Glaser JL, Brind JL, Vogelman JH, Eisner MJ, Dillbeck MC, Wallace RK Chopra D Orentreich N. Elevated Serum Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate Levels in Practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. J Behavior Med 15(4):327-41, Aug 1992 Glueck BC Stroebel CF. Meditation in the Treatments of Psychiatric Illness. In A. Sugarman R. Tarter (Eds.), Expanding Dimensions of Consciousness. New York: Springer, 1978 Herzog H, Lele VR, Kuwert T, Langen KJ, Kops ER Feinendegen LE. Changed pattern of Regional Glucose Metabolism During Yoga Meditative Relaxation. Neuropsychobiology 23(4):182-7, 1990-91 Hirai T. Psychophysiology of Zen. Tokyo: Igaku Shin, 1974 Hjelle LA. Transcendental Meditation and Psychological Health. Perceptual Motor Skills 39:623-8, 1974 Holt WR, Caruso JL Riley JB. Transcendental Meditation Versus pseudo-Meditation on Visual Choice Reaction Time. Perceptual Motor Skills 46:726, 1978 Huard P. Oriental Methods of Mental and Physical Fitness: The Complete Book of Meditation, Kinesitherapy and Martial Arts in China, India and Japan. New York: Funk Wagnalls, 1971 Janowiak JJ Hackman R. Meditation and College Students' Self-Actualization and Rated Stress. Psychol Rep 75(2):1007-10, Oct 1994 Jedrczak A, Toomey M Clements G. The TM-Sidhi Programme, Age, and Brief Tests of Perceptual-Motor Speed and Nonverbal Intelligence. J Clinical Psychology 42(1):161-4, Jan 1986 Jevning R, Anand R, Beidebach M Fernando G. Effects of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow on Transcendental Meditation. Physiol Behavior 59(3):399-402, Mar 1996 Jevning R O'Halloran JP. Metabolic Effects of Transcendental Meditation: Toward a New Paradigm of Neurobiology. In D. Shapiro R. Walsh (Eds.), Meditation: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984 Jevning R, Wallace RK Beidebach M. The Physiology of Meditation: A Wakeful Hypometabolic Integrated Response. Neuroscience Biobehavior Review 16(3):415-24, Fall 1992 Jin P. Efficacy of Tai Chi, Brisk Walking, Meditation, and Reading in Reducing Mental and Emotional Stress. J Psychosomatic Research 36(4):361-70, May 1992 Keller S Seraganian P. Physical Fitness Level and Autonomic Reactivity to Psychosocial Stress. J Psychosomatic Research 28(4):279-87, 1984 Kohr E. Dimensionality in the Meditative Experience: A Replication. J Transpersonal Psychology 9(2):193-203, 1977 Kolb DA. Improved Reaction Time Following Transcendental Meditation. In D.P. Kanellakos J.S. Lukas (Eds.), The Psychobiology of Transcendental Meditation: A Literature Review. Menlo Park: W.A. Benjamin, 1974 Massion AO, Teas J, Hebert JR, Wertheimer MD Kabat-Zinn J. Meditation, Melatonin and Breast Prostate Cancer: Hypothesis and Preliminary Data. Med Hypotheses 44(1):39-46, Jan 1995 Mills PJ, Schneider RH, Hill D, Walton KG Wallace RK. Beta-Adrenergic Receptor Sensitivity in Subjects Practicing Transcendental Meditation. J Psychosomatic Research 34(1):29-33, 1990 Niedermeyer E Da Silva FL. Electroencephalograpy: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications Related Fields, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 1993 Orme-Johnson DW. Autonomic Stability and Transcendental Meditation. Psychosomatic Med 35:341-9, 1973 Orme-Johnson DW, Kolb D Herbert JR. An Experimental Analysis of the Transcendental Meditation Technique on Reaction Time. In D.W. Orme-Johnson J.T. Farrow (Eds.), Scientific Research on the Transcendental Meditation Program: Collected Papers, Vol 1. Livingston Manor: Maharishi International Press, 1977 Ornstein R. The Psychology of Consciousness. New York: Pelican Books, 1975 Osis K, Bokert E Carlson ML. Dimensions of the Meditative Experience. J Transpersonal Psychology 5(1):109-35, 1973 Pagano R Frumkin L. The Effect of Transcendental Meditation on Right hemispheric Functioning. Biofeedback Self-Regulation. Chicago: Aldine, 1977 Robertson DW. The Short and Long Range Effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on Fractionated Reaction Time. J Sports Med Physical Fitness 23(1):113-20, Mar 1983 Schneider RH, Staggers F, Alexander CN, Sheppard W, Rainforth M, Kondwani K, Smith S King CG. A Randomised Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans. Hypertension 26(5):820-7, Nov 1995 Schwartz G. Biofeedback, Self-Regulation, and the Patterning of Physiological Processes. American Scientist 63:314-25, 1975 Severtsen B Bruya MA. Effects of Meditation and Aerobic Exercise on EEG Patterns. J Neuroscience Nursing 18(4):206-10, Aug 1986 Shapiro DH. Meditation: Self-Regulation Strategy Altered State of Consciousness. New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1980 Sudsuang R, Chentanez V Veluvan K. Effect of Buddhist Meditation on Serum Cortisol and Total Protein Levels, Blood Pressure, Pulse Rate, Lung Volume Reaction Time. Physiology Behavior 50(3):543-8, Sep 1991 Telles S, Hanumanthaiah BH, Nagarathna R Nagendra HR. Plasticity of Motor Control Systems Demonstrated by Yoga Training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacology 38(2):143-4, Apr 1994 Telles S, Nagarathna R Nagendra HR. Autonomic Changes During "OM" Meditation. Indian J Physiol Pharmacology 39(4):418-20, Oct 1995 Timmons B, Salamy J, Kamiya J Girton D. Abdominal, Thoracic Respiratory Movements and Levels of Arousal. Psychonomic Science 27:173-5, 1972. Tsai SL Crockett MS. Effects of Relaxation Training, Combining Imagery, and Meditation on the Stress Level of Chinese Nurses Working in Modern Hospitals in Taiwan. Issues Mental Health Nursing 14(1):51-66, Jan-Mar 1993 Wallace RK. Physiological Effects of Transcendental Meditation. Science 167:1751-4, 1970 Wallace RK, Benson H Wilson A. A Wakeful Hypometabolic Physiologic State. Am J Physiol 221:795-9, 1971 Wallace RK, Silver J, Mills PJ, Dillbeck MC Wagoner DE. Systolic Blood Pressure and Long Term Practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program: Effects of TM on Systolic Blood Pressure. Psychosomatic Med 45(1):41-6, Mar 1983 Walsh R. Initial Meditative Experiences. In D. Shapiro R. Walsh, (Eds.), Meditation: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984 Warshal D. Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Technique on Normal and Jendrassik Reflex Time. Perceptual Motor Skills 50:1103-6, 1980 Werner OR, Wallace RK, Charles B, Janssen G, Stryker T Chalmers RA. Long-Term Endocrinologic Changesin Subjects Practicing the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. Psychosomatic Med 48(1-2):59-66, Jan-Feb 1986 Wilson AF, Jevning R Guich S. Marked Reduction of Forearm Carbon Dioxide Production During States of Decreased Metabolism. Physiology Behavior 41(4):347-52, 1987 Zamarra JW, Schneider RH, Besseghini I, Robinson DK Salerno JW. Usefulness of the Transcendental Meditation Program in the Treatment of Patients with Coronary Artery Disease. Amer J Cardiology 77(10):867-70, Apr 1996 Zeier H. Arousal Reduction with Biofeedback-Supported Respiratory Meditation. Biofeedback Self Regulation 9(4):497-508, Dec 1984 This article was written in April 1997 in fulfillment of Dr. Shin's requirements for 1st degree black belt. This and other papers are available at http: www.dctkd.org , a resource for university martial arts programs. All content copyright D.C. Taekwondo, 19992000. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Reproduction of any material in whole or in part in any form or medium is prohibited without express written permission from D.C. Taekwondo. info@dctkd.org The D.C. Taekwondo web site is designed maintained by Charles A. Buhs chuck@dctkd.org Physical Training January 2000
What Buddhists Know About ScienceWired article on relationship between Tibetan meditation and the brain.
Wired News: What Buddhists Know About Science Welcome to Wired News. Skip directly to: Search Box , Section Navigation , Content . Search: Wired News Wire service news photos Wired Magazine HotBot (the Web) What Buddhists Know About Science Page 1 of 2 next By Daith hAnluain | Also by this reporter 02:00 AM Jul. 22, 2002 PT "I was amazed a couple of years ago when I discovered Thong Len. I had a burnt hand, and (when I used) that technique, it was like an anesthetic had been injected into my arm," said Jack Pettigrew, a renowned Australian physiologist, at a Science and the Mind conference that was attended by the Dalai Lama. Thong Len is a meditative technique developed by Tibetan Buddhists almost 800 years before the discovery of anesthesia. It's explained in that classic of Tibetan Buddhist thought, the Tibetan Book of Living and Dying . It works by imagining someone else's pain, like a burn, and drawing it into oneself. As you take the pain from others, your own hurt disappears. See also TMS: Twilight Zone Science? Thinking Cap or Dunce's Hat? Awareness: Mystery of the Mind Check yourself into Med-Tech Today's Top 5 Stories Is That a Bomb in Your Pocket? Real Story of the Rogue Rootkit Digg Just Might Bury Slashdot Judges Reject Cell-Phone Tracking New Potter Is Not a Rotter Wired News RSS Feeds Special Partner Promotion Rackspace: Get 45 Days of Free Managed Hosting! Special Partner Promotion Find local technology jobs . Adepts of the technique are constantly practicing Thong Len, every minute of the day, drawing pain from those around them and enhancing their own sense of well-being. They've been described as "shit filters," taking negative energy out of the world and replacing it with positive. "You can explain what might be happening when you anesthetize your own arm," Pettigrew said. "But people in a room with a Thong Len practitioner have also said they feel better. How do you explain that?" Scientists don't know, but they know it works, powerfully. Pettigrew believes Western science could use Eastern introspection, or meditative techniques, to deepen its understanding of how the brain works and to provide practical help to people in distress. In a host of fields, Tibetan practices have subsequently proven valid when science finally developed technology sophisticated enough to test them. A recent experiment proved this. Subjects were asked to watch a video of two teams passing a ball. One team wore white shirts, and one black, and subjects were asked to count how many times players in white shirts passed the ball to each other. What subjects didn't notice was the man in a gorilla suit who walked on screen, waved at the audience and walked off again. This established that humans perceive only what they are looking for, not what's there. Oh, and Buddhists figured this out 2,000 years ago, while modern science caught up in the last two decades. The Science and the Mind conference, held last month in Canberra, Australia, explored areas of possible contact and cooperation between Tibetan Buddhism and modern science. "Truly great advances of any kind are about making leaps ... that explode on you seemingly from nowhere," said Allan Snyder, keynote speaker at the conference, who is working on a thinking cap using magnetic pulses to access the creativity of the non-conscious mind. He added that altered states of consciousness, such as Tibetan meditation, could achieve the same end, and it is time for science to explore the synergies between the two traditions. The issue is not that modern science is dumb and Tibetans are smart. Rather, Tibetans have discovered many scientific truths through empirical observation. They also have many other techniques that still mystify scientists, but seem to work, like Thong Len. Max Bennett , professor at the University of Sydney and one of the world's top neurologists, underlined the issue, explaining that it is possible to relieve the suffering of some stroke victims using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation . "But I have to emphasize, we haven't got a clue what's going on," he said. Worse, the problem is potentially huge: "Goodness knows what's happening (when we apply magnetism) to the 100,000 million neurons that make up the brain, each of which has about 10,000 connections with other neurons. We dealing with figure of 10 to the power of 15 connections, and we haven't got a clue which ones are turning off, which ones might be excited by this stimulation. "It's a phenomenon. But in one sense, it does indicate that there are a lot of things that we know nothing about in Western science." He added, however, that neuroscience is on the threshold of an exciting era of discovery with the identification of the human genome. "We know by the year about 2020, the greatest disabling phenomenon for the health of the human race will be depression," Bennett said. "Not cancer, not heart disease, but depression." Story continued on Page 2 Page 1 of 2 next refresh all | expand all | collapse all Rants Raves Start a new thread or reply to a post below. Logout Want to start a new thread or reply to a post? Login Register and start talking! Post Cancel Note: You are reading this message either because you can not see our css files (served from Lygo, a Lycos image server, for performance reasons), or because you do not have a standards-compliant browser. Read our design notes for details. Note: You are reading this message instead of message board comments either because you have javascript turned off, are running software that prevents you from viewing 3rd party javascript files (ours are served from Akamai for performance reasons), or because you do not have a supported browser. Supported browsers currently include Firefox and Internet Explorer 5.5 or higher on a PC, and Safari on a Mac. Frequently Asked Questions Related Stories Blog to Cope With Alzheimer's Fog Jul. 15, 2002 Art as a State of Mind Jul. 01, 2002 Where the Brain Makes Decisions Apr. 22, 2002 TMS: Twilight Zone Science? Apr. 18, 2002 Thinking Cap or Dunce's Hat? Apr. 18, 2002 Awareness: Mystery of the Mind Apr. 15, 2002 Skull Map Dismantled Mar. 11, 2002 Wired News RSS headline feeds Wired News: Staff | Contact Us | Advertising | RSS | Blogs | Subscribe We are translated daily into Korean and Japanese Copyright 2005, Lycos, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Lycos is a registered trademark of Carnegie Mellon University. Your use of this website constitutes acceptance of the Lycos Privacy Policy and Terms Conditions Note: You are reading this message either because you can not see our css files (served from Lygo, a Lycos image server, for performance reasons), or because you do not have a standards-compliant browser. Read our design notes for details.
Study asks whether chemicals and communion are oneArticle from "Science and Theology News" describing the neuroimaging of praying nuns performed by University of Montreal researcher Mario Beauregard.
Science Monday October 11th, 2004 Study asks whether chemicals and communion are one By Jennifer Woods Instead of leading a life devoted to prayer, meditation and personal reflection to achieve a religious experience, people may one day ask scientists to zap their brains. A neuroscientist in Canada said he hopes to find a biological basis for religious experiences. Dr. Mario Beauregard, a neuroscientist from the University of Montreal, is using medicines most powerful brain imaging tools to study Carmelite nuns when they remember Unio Mystica, the Christian mystical union with God. Most nuns only experience the mystic union once or twice in their lifetime, if at all. The mystical union happens when a person finds the center of themselves in God, said Ilia Delio, a neuropharmacologist and professor of spirituality at Washington Theological Union. During this state, the individual is so immersed in God that they couldnt even conceive of their life apart from God, she added. Beauregard said he and his assistant, Vincent Paquette, initially hoped the nuns would have the experience in the lab, but nuns told him it was impossible to self-induce. Instead, the nuns relive the experience by remembering what they felt. Beauregards new field, known as spiritual neuroscience, raises questions about the human soul and God. Hoping to find a biological basis for religious experiences, Beauregard has dealt with criticism from those who are happy with the separation of science and religion, he said. Finding nuns willing to participate in the research hasnt been easy, Beauregard said, as many worry he is trying to prove that religious experiences are simply an illusion of the mind. The Rev. Raymond Lawrence Jr., of New Yorks Presbyterian Hospital, is among the skeptics. The research, he said, has nothing to do with the truth of religion. The experience, he added, will not lead to Gods discovery. At the end of the day, you only have an experience. It doesnt prove the existence of God, Lawrence said. Beauregard said the nine nuns in the study are convinced that were going to find something. In order to understand what is happening in the brain electrically, chemically and physiologically, Beauregards research is divided into three parts. The first part of the study uses electroencephalography, or EEG, to measure the nuns brain waves. As expected, the scientists discovered a slow brain wave pattern in the nuns, which is comparable to those previously found in yogis and Buddhist monks during deep meditative states, Beauregard said. The second trial will use a PET scan, or positron emission tomography, to measure the brains levels of serotonin, which helps regulates a persons moods. In the final phase, Beauregard will use functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, which shows the brains active areas. Through this research, it might be possible to help individuals enhance or even induce a spiritual experience, Beauregard said. He said he hopes his research will lead to helping normal people, not mystics, to have access to that type of experience by perhaps stimulating the brain. Lawrence said replicating the experience would be a catastrophe for religion because it would distort religious meaning. Stimulating the brain to create such an experience is not authentic religion, he added. Delio, on the other hand, said she supports the idea of biologically enhancing someones spiritual experience. I have no problem with that really, because I think sometimes people dont have religious experiences for a number of reasons. For example, she said, some people grow up in abusive or atheist families. Maybe those circuits were never turned on, she said. The scientists are looking for six more nuns to participate in the research. Beauregard expects all three studies will be done in about a year. Delio said it is important to explore the link between science and religion. Were talking about the human person and the human person is not simply spirit. The human person is concrete matter that expresses itself spiritually, she said. Jennifer Woods is an editorial intern at Science Theology News.
Neurotheology ShamanismDr. Michael Winkelman, Anthropology Professor at Arizona State and author of "Shamanism: The Neural Economy of Consciousness", discusses the neurological basis of shamanism, mankind's oldest spiritual practice.
Neurotheology Shamanism Home Top News About Contact Publications Navigate Issues Donate Professor Argues That Shamanism is the Original Neurotheology June 5, 2001 "Neurotheology" is a new concept given widespread exposure in the recent Newsweek article (5 7 2001) God and the Brain How Were Wired for Spirituality. "While the term neurotheology is new, the basic ideas have been around for thousands of years" says Dr. Michael Winkelman, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University. "Many cultures have developed technologies for altering consciousness and inducing spiritual experiences." Winkelman describes shamanism- an ancient healing practice- within the context of neurotheology. Scholars have recognized shamanism as a special form of religious behavior for more than a century. Winkelmans earlier cross-cultural research on shamanism (Shamans, Priests and Witches) demonstrated that there were basic similarities in shamans in cultures around the world. The similarities in shamans include the use of trance or ecstasy--altered states of consciousness (ASC)-- to interact with the spirits and heal. These spirit world interactions are often referred to as "soul journeys," flying, out-of-body experiences and astral projection. These abilities are acquired when the initiate shaman undergoes a "death and rebirth experience" and acquires animal allies and spirit powers. In his new book, Shamanism The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing, Winkelman outlines the neurobiological basis of shamanism--humanitys original spiritual practices-- and explains puzzling aspects of shamanism: its universal presence in the ancient world, as well as its modern resurgence. Similar shamanic practices in diverse parts of the world present a challenge to the rational scientific view that all religion is a delusion. To explain this paradox, Winkelman poses the questions "Why do so these called delusions develop in similar ways in distinct cultures? What is the adaptive basis that enabled these practices to survive for millennia?" "Universals of shamanism are related to basic brain functions" says Dr. Winkelman, who suggests these universals reflect biological principles of the consciousness and the functions of ASC. Shamanism The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing explains basic aspects of brain operation that provide the foundations for shamanic practices and experiences. "The shamans experiences and practices have fundamental similarities around the world because they reflect innate brain process and experiences" says Winkelman. Winkelmans research findings place shamanism in the context of human evolution and suggest that shamanic practices were a key element of the evolution of modern humans some 40,000 years ago. Shamans helped people acquire information and develop new forms of thinking. Shamanism also provided mechanisms for healing and personal development, building alliances and creating group solidarity. "Shamanism is not just an ancient practice nor is it limited to simpler societies," says Winkelman. "The contemporary world has many examples of neoshamanism, current adaptations to these ancient principles of spiritual healing and consciousness." "The resurgence of shamanism in the modern world is an anomaly and contradiction," continues Winkelman. "These kinds of practices were suppose to disappear with the development of modern rationality, yet they persist and grow in popularity, especially among the more educated segments of the population." The perspectives of neurotheology help explain the persistence and revitalization of shamanism, with current practices reflecting the same principles of brain operation that engendered the original manifestations of shamanism tens of thousands of years ago. Winkelmans book Shamanism The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing describes these brain systems, their functions, and how they can be elicited to enhance human health. Alternative healing practices incorporate many shamanic principles and activities. "The rise in popularity of alternative medicine is part of a desire of people to take charge of their own healing" Winkelman points out. "Shamanism was the original self-healing practice, a form of self-empowerment." Winkelmans book elaborates on how shamanic practices help people establish contact with their intuitive powers, manifested in visual symbols. The brains serotonin and opioid neurotransmitter systems are stimulated by shamanic practices "Shamanism enhances both ones health and a sense of well-being because they turn on the bodys feel-good chemicals" says Winkelman. "Our current reliance upon Prozac and other serotonin-reuptake inhibitors, and our societal problems with drug addiction, are consequences of our loss of these vital healing traditions." Winkelman predicts that shamanism will continue to grow in popularity due to its natural basis, and will present papers on these ideas at two seminal conferences this fall. Winkelman has been invited to the "Religious Healing in Urban America" conference in September at the Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, where he will speak on the use of shamanism and drumming as important therapies for addressing drug addiction. Winkelman will present a paper on the "shamanic paradigm" and its use in interpreting healing practices as part of a panel on anthropological studies of consciousness that he organized for the American Anthropological Association meetings in Washington, D.C. He will be the Program Chair for the Anthropology of Consciousness Annual Conference in Tucson, April 10-14, 2002, where there will be panels organized on "Alternative Medicine and Substance Abuse Treatment." The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing, by Michael Winkelman. Greenwood Press 1-800-225-5800 www.greenwood.com ISBN 0-89789-704-8 Home | What's New | Publications | Donations | About | Mailing List | Contact Us | Site Map CCLE Website content - with the exception of images and copyrighted news articles - is licensed under a Creative Commons License .
Zen and the BrainSummary of "Zen and the Brain", James H. Austin's definitive work tracing the neuroscientific aspects of Zen.
CSP - 'Zen and the Brain' by James H. Austin AboutCSP | SiteMap | Search CSP: Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy Thomas B. Roberts, Ph.D. and Paula Jo Hruby, Ed.D. Author Index | Title Index Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness Austin, James H. (1988). Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. ISBN: 0-262-01164-6 Description: Hardcover, xxiv + 844 pages. Contents: Contents in detail, chapters containing testable hypotheses, list of figures, list of tables, preface, acknowledgments, introduction, 158 chapters divided into 8 parts: 1. Starting to Point Toward Zen, 2. Meditating, 3. Neurologizing, 4. Exploring States of Consciousness, 5. Quickening, 6. Turning In: The Absorptions, 7. Turning Out: The Awakenings, 8. Being and Beyond: To the Stage of Ongoing Enlightenment, In Closing, Appendices: A. Introduction to The Heart Sutra, B. Selections from Affirmation of Faith in Mind, C. Suggested Further Reading, glossary, references and notes, source notes, index. Note: The author presents his personal experiences within the context of other meditators' experiences. Moreover, he correlates these two lines of evidence with the latest scientific evidence from multiple disciplines. As a result, the numerous "testable hypotheses" in this book point the way toward future research which could further clarify the mechanisms underlying alternate states of consciousness. MIT Press URL: http: mitpress.mit.edu. Excerpt(s): Preface Aldous Huxley called mankind's basic trend toward spiritual growth the "perennial philosophy." Herein, I take a different perspective. To me, the trend implies a dynamic intimate perennial psychophysiology. It is a series of processes, slowly evolving, that culminate in defining moments of an extraordinary character. What are such "peak" experiences? How could they both profoundly enhance, yet simplify, the workings of the brain? This book summarizes the latest evidence. This is also a story of one neurologist's personal quest and professional search. These two paths converge in ways that lead to one straightforward thesis: awakening, enlightenment, occurs only because the human brain undergoes substantial changes. Does prior meditation help the brain to change in this direction? If so, how? This subject is explored throughout the book. (page xix) By Way of Introduction This book began as a personal quest for information. I had come on sabbatical leave to Kyoto, Japan. As soon as I engaged in Zen meditation, I became puzzled. Nothing in my previous medical or other training had prepared me for this encounter. My ignorance was abysmal in three major areas: (1) Zen-What is it? (2) The human brain-How does it actually function? (3) Meditation and enlightened states-What really goes on during these? Stimulated by these questions, I have gone on to try to answer some of them in this book, to make the conceptual framework a little easier for the next person on the path. We expect scientists to be impersonal about their data. But suppose we wish to move toward that scientific goal which William James had predicted. To reach a "critical science of religions," he said, the basic material must come from "facts of personal experience." In my case this could only mean extracting entries made in my journal. You will be reading material that describes an unusual interior world from the inside. ... No neurologist overtaken by a major alternate state of consciousness is a "nerve doctor" at that very instant. No self-referent ego is there. No special discrimination scans the moment, biased by its years of training. Analysis isn't stunned. It simply isn't there for several seconds. Later, when the episode is over, a few persons might be able to drop such an experience. But what of others like myself, long immersed in the neurosciences, whose commitment to Zen is not so total as that of a monk? (page xxiii) If so, then where does the experience of this Great Self come from? The premise of this book is that it must come from the brain, because the brain is the organ of the mind. The same perspective holds whether mystical or peak experiences arise spontaneously, are cultivated, or are drug-induced. Our thesis is that prior meditative training and daily life practice help release basic, preexisting neurophysiological functions. This thesis will lead to the following proposition: mystical experiences arise when normal functions reassemble in novel conjunctions. (page 18) Gradually, the Western world has come to appreciate that mystical experiences serve several practical functions: (1) They tend to resolve anxieties at various levels and to promote a physiological sense of well-being. (2) They help to actualize potential abilities. (3) To the degree that others have similar experiences, they contribute to the social bond within a group. (4) They prompt people to become directed toward other values and goals beyond themselves, to reevaluate the way they view this everyday world, the universe at large, and their place within it. (5) They stimulate scientists of many kinds to try to explain them. In the process of doing so, we develop a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying both ordinary as well as extraordinary states of consciousness. (pages 29-30) And these early perceptual symptoms offer tantalizing hints about where psychedelics first act on amine circuits in the human brain. But it is a different task to localize the sources of those long-delayed mystical, religious, or other experiences. Why? Because they do not develop until many hours later. One cannot expect to find simple explanations for the experiential flavor of these rare later events. At least not in the known primary effects of the psychedelic drugs. (pages 418-419) Clearly, some of the quickening effects of meditation resemble some of the quickening effects of drugs. Why? Could they both be sharing certain mechanisms, at levels either shallow or deep, that are worth making a serious effort to understand? If so, then do either one of these two agencies-psychedelic drugs or meditative training-have specific effects? The literature clarifies these issues. We have just seen how a gas like nitrous oxide can activate mental processes. Another gas, when inhaled, also releases experiences that in some ways resemble those prompted by LSD. This gas, carbon dioxide, is normally found in low concentrations in our bodies and brains. As an example, Grof found that the kind of reaction he could stimulate by giving his patients arousing concentrations of CO2 would predict which kind of response to LSD they would later develop. Moreover, the next point is especially noteworthy. Each person's response to CO2 also evolved-over days, weeks and months-as did that to LSD. ... What general conclusions can one draw from the above observations? First, that the brain's responses do evolve. ... when the brain is already primed and on the brink, a strongly arousing event may tip it over into different kinds of quickenings and awakenings. (pages 420-421) The emphasis in this book is on the Zen approach to the Middle Way. This means meditation, not medication. Meditation in moderation, not to excess. Indeed, the major meditative disciplines tend to remain very conservative. The fact is, anything that makes the setting and the experience itself more artificial will later make it more difficult to assimilate this brief state in a positive way into the rest of life's ongoing experiences. I do not endorse or use drugs. But many others have tried both routes. Sooner or later, most abandon LSD. It turns out to be an obstacle, not an aid, to their practice of zazen. Watts, recounting his earlier LSD experiments, went on to entitle his later article: "Ordinary Mind Is the Way." "Ordinary mind" meant a state that was clear, stable, and undistracted by hallucinations. This is the Zen Way. (page 425) Only 3 percent of Masters and Houston's psychedelic subjects (6 out of 206 participants) met their criteria for a subcategory called "Unitary Consciousness." It emerged out of their fourth, deepest integral level, and was empty of all "sensuous or conceptual or other empirical content." Who were these six persons? Were they different in other ways? To begin with, they had older brains. All were over forty years of age, intelligent, well-adjusted, and creative. They were also a highly motivated group, for they had either sought out mystical experiences in previous meditative or spiritual disciplines or had long maintained a major interest in integral levels of consciousness in general. Their prior years of preparation had left them with a "somewhat abstracted attitude." During their first, sensory level on LSD, these few mature subjects showed an especially rich array of psychedelic phenomena. However, they then barely skimmed over the second and third level of experiences. As a result, they arrived rather quickly at the threshold of the fourth, integral level of experience. To some, psychedelic mystical experiences "is mystical experience." Yes and no. Some small segments appear authentic. Still, I side with Masters and Houston in concluding as follows: when one takes a critical view of the psychedelic type of experience not in terms of its isolated segments, but in its total context, it differs "diametrically" from that emerging in the Zen meditative context. To cite only three of the reasons why this is so: The trained meditative subject, not exposed to drugs, learns gradually to empty the mind. In contrast, the subject driven by psychedelics is self-propelled into a sustained roller coaster ride, exposed to a heavy barrage of pressing perceptual, affective, and other mental phenomena. The drug experience lasts much longer. Some psychedelic subjects remain in their affect-charged experience at the integral level for from fifteen minutes up to two hours or more. After this encounter, they don't wish to return to another psychedelic experience in the near future. The drug experience transforms less frequently, and to a lesser degree. ... (pages 428-431) It suffices here to emphasize one other important point about vision that we will expand on later. Grof found that his subjects' experiences differed in ways which depended on whether their eyes were closed or opened. Clearly, this is another reason why psychedelic experience varies. To illustrate: the subject whose eyes are closed will experience the tension-free phenomenon of "cosmic unity as an independent, complex, experiential pattern." In contrast, when this same subject opens the eyes, there occurs the sense of "merging with the environment" as well as feelings of "unity" with the objects that are being perceived. At this moment, with the eyes open, the world is then seen as a place of indescribable radiance and beauty. Now the subject, imbued "with feelings of complete security," sees no negative aspects either in the world or "in the very structure of the cosmic design." In this perfection, "everything is as it should be." (page 433) Had the former drug users finally decided to stop taking psychedelics solely as the result of a conscious choice, reached by a purely intellectual decision? Or had they grown up as it were, because a series of other events, deep in the brain had contributed to their loss of taste for LSD? Why do such questions come up? Because our discussion will lead to a set of other explanations why subtle changes in receptors and in brain circuitry could also be responsible for cutting off a person's attachments and cravings at very basic levels, and therefore to other reasons why such changes could extend to include the cutting off of a perceived need for drugs. (pages 583-584) So let us now take a critical look at the state of awakening, kensho-satori, and reexamine it from the same broad biological perspective. At its core is change. Change means shifting from old to new. What is enlightenment's first crucial contribution? What it sheds. What it subtracts. It destructures, deprograms and deconditions in depth. As a result, the brain becomes less top-heavy; its functions are simplified, revitalized. New systems of adaptive behaviors can develop more readily in such a reorganized brain. Accordingly, one can be cautiously optimistic about this unique capacity of the brain to shift into a wide range of alternate states. For herein resides a potential resource, a resource which could serve as the basis both for our long-range biological survival and for our cultural advancement. ... Advanced alternate states of consciousness exemplify the capacities of the human brain for change. Put simply, they help us cast off our outmoded, hard-shelled, stereotyped behavior patterns. Aided by future variations of this same general theme, some of our adaptable descendants-those whose education had gentled them and made them more flexible-could build on their experiences, become increasingly free to adapt creatively, and so be enabled to survive future crises. Moreover, at the same time, awakenings could also help them open up to appreciate new cultural approaches, and to redesign the increasingly more humane ways of living required to benefit both society as a whole and themselves as contributing members. All this would proceed millennia by millennia, much too slowly for anyone to appreciate at the time. Let a few more persons multiply who had survived because they had greater capacities for such adaptability, and the resulting series of events might go on slowly to change the ethical and religious climate of the far distant future. Still, from this Mu perspective, the basic transforming process would remain a biological one. It would be an increasing capacity for change. Biological at its core, the evolutionary process proposed in this qualified hypothesis would continually spin off the related secondary cultural layers. This means that cultural evolution would phase in at every step to provide the essential positive and negative social reinforcements. The cultural influences could be of many kinds: spiritual, for example, or environmental or political or economic. (pages 688-689) This compilation by Thomas B. Roberts Paula Jo Hruby , 1995-2003 CSP back to the top Spiritual Development | Spiritual Practices Spiritual Experience | Spiritual Communities Entheogen Project | EntheogenChrestomathy Society Law | Code of Ethics for SpiritualGuides | Guestbook
Linking Out-of-Body Experience and Self Processing to Mental Own-Body Imagery at the Temporoparietal JunctionPaper by Olaf Blanke and team on the neurocognitive bases of out-of-body (OBE) experiences, from Journal of Neuroscience.
Linking Out-of-Body Experience and Self Processing to Mental Own-Body Imagery at the Temporoparietal Junction -- Blanke et al. 25 (3): 550 -- Journal of Neuroscience HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS QUICK SEARCH: [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year: Vol: Page: The Journal of Neuroscience,January 19, 2005, 25(3):550-557; doi:10.1523 JNEUROSCI.2612-04.2005 This Article Full Text Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Google Scholar Articles by Blanke, O. Articles by Thut, G. Articles citing this Article PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Blanke, O. Articles by Thut, G. Previous Article | Next Article Behavioral Systems Cognitive Linking Out-of-Body Experience and Self Processing to Mental Own-Body Imagery at the Temporoparietal Junction Olaf Blanke,1,2,4,5 Christine Mohr,1,3,4 Christoph M. Michel,1,4 Alvaro Pascual-Leone,6 Peter Brugger,7 Margitta Seeck,2 Theodor Landis,1,4 and Gregor Thut1,4,6 1Functional Brain Mapping Laboratory and 2Presurgical Epilepsy Unit, Department of Neurology, and 3Department of NeuroRehabilitation, University Hospital, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland, 4Department of Fundamental Neuroscience, University Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland, 5Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain-Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland, 6Laboratory for Magnetic Brain Stimulation, Behavioral Neurology Unit, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, and 7Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Neurology, University Hospital, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland The spatial unity of self and body is challenged by various philosophical considerations and several phenomena, perhaps most notoriously the "out-of-body experience" (OBE) during which one's visual perspective and one's self are experienced to have departed from their habitual position within one's body. Although researchers started examining isolated aspects of the self, the neurocognitive processes of OBEs have not been investigated experimentally to further our understanding of the self. With the use of evoked potential mapping, we show the selective activation of the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) at 330-400 ms after stimulus onset when healthy volunteers imagined themselves in the position and visual perspective that generally are reported by people experiencing spontaneous OBEs. Interference with the TPJ by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) at this time impaired mental transformation of one's own body in healthy volunteers relative to TMS over a control site. No such TMS effect was observed for imagined spatial transformations of external objects, suggesting the selective implication of the TPJ in mental imagery of one's own body. Finally, in an epileptic patient with OBEs originating from the TPJ, we show partial activation of the seizure focus during mental transformations of her body and visual perspective mimicking her OBE perceptions. These results suggest that the TPJ is a crucial structure for the conscious experience of the normal self, mediating spatial unity of self and body, and also suggest that impaired processing at the TPJ may lead to pathological selves such as OBEs. Key words: self processing; temporoparietal junction; neurology; transcranial magnetic stimulation; event-related potentials; human Received July 1, 2004; revised November 12, 2004; accepted November 12, 2004. HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright 2005 by Society for Neuroscience.
The "God" Part Of The BrainWebsite for Matthew Alper's book which suggests that "humans are innately hard-wired to perceive a spiritual reality".
The GOD Part Of The Brain - Matthew Alper
Wired for the Ultimate Reality: The Neuropsychology of Religious ExperienceArticle by Drs. Andrew Newberg and Eugene D'Aquili on the biological mechanisms underlying religious and spiritual experience, from the PBS "The Question of God" series.
The Question of God . Other Voices . A. Newberg E. D'Aquili | PBS Francis Collins Peter Sellars O.W. Holmes, Jr. Steve Martin William James A. Newberg E. D'Aquili D.T. Suzuki Evelyn Underhill Dorothy Day Viktor Frankl Simone Weil Corrie ten Boom A. Newberg E. D'Aquili Can religion and spirituality be considered purely as "neural blips and fluxes in brain chemistry"? Using recent advances in brain imaging and neuropsychological research, co-authors Dr. Andrew Newberg and the late Dr. Eugene D'Aquili, both of the University of Pennsylvania, explore that question and arrive at some surprising conclusions about material and spiritual "reality." This article, adapted for Science Spirit magazine from their 1999 book The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experiences, presents an overview of some of their findings. Wired for the Ultimate Reality: The Neuropsychology of Religious Experience It has now become possible to consider asking questions regarding how complex behaviors, thoughts, and feelings occur, even when they are associated with religious and spiritual experience. Our research has been devoted to elucidating the nature of these experiences by determining their underlying biological mechanisms. In fact, in our recent book, The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience, we consider these very questions. Perhaps the most interesting question of all is where exactly a neuropsychological approach leads us, and where do we go from there. We have generally proposed that there are two classes of neuropsychological mechanisms which underlie the development of religious experiences and behaviors. These two classes of mechanisms represent two lines of neurological development involving the evolution of brain structures that comprise what we have previously referred to as the causal operator on the one hand and the holistic operator on the other. "Operators" refer to networks of nerve tissue in the brain which perform specific functions in the first case allowing us to perceive causality and in the second allowing us to perceive wholeness in the midst of diversity. There is growing evidence that such overarching functions exist in the brain. In considering these two operators, we are led to the heart of why human beings use the concept of supersensible forces or powers (i.e. the concept of a deity) to help control their environment in such a way as to attain those needs which the culture defines as fundamental. Furthermore, these operators allow for the movement towards the fulfillment of human needs in a total, absolute, or transcendent fashion, often involving holistic states or experiences. Two cognitive scientists examine the biological mechanisms underlying religious and spiritual experience. Based on our model presented in prior works as well as our book, it seems that all unitary experiences ranging from mild aesthetic experiences such as watching a beautiful sunset to the most profound states that may occur only after years of meditation may have their basis in neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and the flux of neurotransmitters. We have even suggested that there is an aesthetic-religious continuum that is based upon the progressive activation of the holistic operator such that the more profound the experience, the greater the sense of unity. Our recent brain imaging studies of Tibetan Buddhist meditators have begun to provide empirical evidence for the specific mechanisms involved in this continuum of experiences. Many find it deeply disturbing that the experience of God, the sense of the absolute, the sense of mystery and beauty in the universe, the most profoundly moving experiences of which humans are capable, might be reducible to specific brain functions that may even be measurable on advanced brain imaging studies. However, such a pessimistic interpretation misses a few rather important points. First of all, our experience of baseline reality (e.g., chairs, tables, love, hate), indeed of our whole physical and psychological environment, can also be reduced to neural blips and fluxes of brain chemistry. Thus, one can never get at what is "really out there" without its being processed, one way or another, through the brain. So what criteria can we use to evaluate whether God, other hyperlucid unitary experiences, or our everyday world is "more real"? Can we use our subjective sense of the absolute certainty of the objective reality of our everyday world to establish that that world is "really real"? To simplify the issue somewhat, let us for the moment contrast the most extreme unitary state, what we have called Absolute Unitary Being (AUB), with baseline reality. AUB refers to the rare state in which there is a complete loss of the sense of self, loss of the sense of space and time, and everything becomes a infinite, undifferentiated oneness. Such a state usually occurs only after many years of meditation. In comparing AUB to baseline reality, there is no question that AUB wins out as being experienced as "more real." People who have experienced AUB, and this includes some very learned and previously materialistically oriented scientists, regard AUB as being more fundamentally real than baseline reality. Even the memory of it is, for them, more fundamentally real. Thus, if we use the criterion of the sense of certainty of the reality of a particular state, AUB wins hands down. To further clarify this point, let us compare four characteristics of baseline reality with the profound experience of various unitary states. Baseline reality demonstrates the following four fundamental properties: A strong sense of the reality of what is experienced. Endurance of that reality through very long periods of time, usually only interrupted by sleeping. The sense that when elements in baseline reality disappear from all forms of sensory detection, they have ceased to be. High crosssubjective validation both for details of perception and core meaning. In other words, other people corroborate our perceptions of the world, i.e., reality is a collective hunch. The essential characteristics of profound unitary consciousness (i.e., AUB) are the following: An extremely strong sense of reality, to the point of its being absolutely compelling under almost all circumstances. Endurance for short periods of time relative to the sense of time of baseline reality. A sense of its underlying persistence and continued existence even when the perception of the overall state has ended. High crosssubjective validation for core perceptions. Moderate to low crosssubjective validation for perceptual details in those states. We would maintain that it is impossible to determine whether various unitary states or baseline reality is more real (i.e. which represents the ultimate objective reality) without making gratuitous and unsubstantiated assumptions. Clearly, baseline reality has some significant claim to being ultimate reality. However, AUB is so compelling that it is very difficult indeed to write off the assertion of its reality. Actually, for individuals having experienced AUB, it seems virtually impossible to negate that experience. This being the case, it is a foolish reductionism indeed which states that, because unitary consciousness can be understood in terms of neuropsychological processes, it is therefore derivative from baseline reality. Indeed the reverse argument could be made just as well. Neuropsychology can give no answer as to which state is more real, baseline reality or hyperlucid unitary consciousness often experienced as God. We may be reduced to saying that each is real in its own way and for its own adaptive ends. Thus, the essential characteristic of different states of reality are eventually reducible only to the strength of the sense of reality, the phantasia catalyptica of the Stoics, or the Anwesenheit (compelling presence) of certain modern German philosophers. A vivid sense of reality may be the only thing that we can use to help determine what is really real until someone determines a method for going beyond the brain's perception of reality. This conclusion may not be very epistemologically satisfying, but up to now any alternative has escaped us. In The Mystical Mind, we explore the concept of neurotheology as a way to help better answer the epistemological question raised above is AUB or baseline reality more real? It might ultimately be best to consider both versions of reality to be complementary, rather than opposed, to each other. However, this conclusion also has important implications for religion, theology, and the scientific study of religious experiences. As a field, the neuroscientific analysis of religious and spiritual experiences is only in its infancy. Much more research must be pursued before we can begin to better understand these complex experiences. However, we are at least able to begin such an exploration as well as consider the consequences. The result one hopes will be a wonderful journey that will enlighten ourselves as well as the scientific study of religious experience. Reprinted with permission from Science Spirit magazine ( www.science-spirit.org ). Home | Why Freud Lewis? | The Program | Two Different Lives | Join the Discussion | In Their Own Words Discussion Guide | Nine Conversations | Resources | Other Voices | Site Map | Project Credits
Neurology of Spiritual ExperiencesArticles on spiritual experience and magnetic signal brain stimulation by one of Michael Persinger's students.
Persinger and the New Brain Sciences of Neurotheology and Magnetic Neurotechnology. Acknowledgments are due to Michael Persinger. SOFTWARE ARTICLES Downloads Formerly Titled: The New Science of Spiritual Neurology Articles on other websites "The God Spot" "The God Helmet" "Your Brain on God" "God on the Brain" (BBC) "Ghosts in a machine" Interview with the webmaster of this site Spirituality The Brain Neurotheology, Magnetic Brain Stimulation, Deja Vu, Death, God, Sex, Love, and more. How understanding the Brain helps us understand Life after Death, Visions of God, Romantic Love, Enlightenment, Deja Vu, Out Of Body Experiences and more. ARTICLES | REAL-TIME GEOMAGNETIC INFORMATION | SPIRITUAL APTITUDE TEST | | DARWINIAN REINCARNATION | SPIRITUAL TECHNOLOGY | OUT OF BODY EXPERIENCES Credentials Welcome to my website. My name is Todd Murphy, and I'm a Behavioral Neuroscientist associated with Dr. Michael Persinger. Most of my ideas and publications are based on his work, although my emphasis is on the spiritual aspects of neuroscience, and like all researchers, I see things through my own eyes. That means I take a scientific approach, not a clinical one. (I am solely responsible for the contents of this website.) My main interest is in understanding how the brain contributes to mystic, religious, and spiritual experiences. I want to use this understanding to find ways to induce them for those who need them. And to understand the transformations that follow when people have them unexpectedly. Unlike many of my colleagues, I am not closed to psychic phenomena, tales of miracles, visitations by angels, and other experiences. I accept that these are real experiences, even though I may not be able to accept many of the traditional explanations for them. If you have had any "we're not in Kansas anymore, Toto" experiences, and you're not satisfied with the explanations you've been given for them, feel free to send me an e-mail telling your story. Granqvist attempt to replicate Persinger research has several serious flaws Articles on Neurotheology appear below Stimulating My Brain As A Spiritual Path Testimonials The Original "Koren Helmet" Developed By Dr. M.A. Persinger S. Koren Some Templates for audio output licensed by Dr. M.A. Persinger and Stan Koren of Laurentian University Behavioral Neurosciences Program. SHAKTI Spiritual Technology Stimulating My Brain As A Spiritual Path Altered States | Spiritual Process | Consciousness Exploration | Research Electroencephalograms (EEG) signals are the source for most of the magnetic signals used in Shakti Shakti uses magnetic fields that carry signals from the human brain. These allow it to 'target' specific brain structures known to be involved with spirituality and to induce altered states of consciousness. Shakti uses your PC computer's sound card to produce it's signals. Magnetic coils convert the sound card's electrical output to the magnetic signals Shakti works with. RESEARCH REPORTS ON COMPLEX MAGNETIC NEURAL STIMULATION -- REMOTE VIEWING -- OUT- OF- BODY EXPERIENCES -- THE SENSED PRESENCE -- OPIATE EFFECTS THE 8-COIL HEADSET - DESIGNED FOR INTENSE ALTERED STATES The 8-Coil Shakti alternates the magnetic stimulation between two sets of signals building momentum towards more intense experiences. THE SHAKTI HELMET The six coils in the Shakti helmet are located for optimal overall effects. It applies a different signal to each side of the head Safety Testmonials Publications Shakti does not diagnose or treat medical disorders Shakti 2 and 4 coil headsets Neural stimulation technology that uses your sound card to produce signals that you apply using a simple headset driven by Windows software. OUT-OF-BODY LUCID DREAMING REMOTE VIEWING HAPPINESS MEDITATION ENHANCEMENT The Pleasure Center - info Testmonials E-Mail Webmaster | JOURNALISTS MEDIA: CLICK HERE SIGN the Guest book VIEW the Guest book Add to Favorites DISCLAIMER: I am a researcher, not a clinician. Neither I nor Shakti diagnose or treat medical disorders. Basic Reading in Neurotheology A collection of articles. Click HERE for The origins of spirituality in human evolution. "Read me first" Psychology ~ Deja Vu ~ Romantic Experience ~ Sexuality ~ Consciousness ~ Archetypes ~ Meditations ~ Evolution ~ Near-Death Experiences ~ God ~ Enlightenment ~ Enhanced Visual Acuity ~ Sacred Lands ~ FREE SPIRITUAL APTITUDE TEST ~ More ~ WHAT CAUSED THE BIG BANG? (A Speculative hypothesis) VISIONS PAGE - Look at pictures and images from the altered-state experiences of others. Send in your own, or your kid's pictures where others can see them. Featuring a child's guide to out of body experiences. BRAIN NEWS: Click HERE San Francisco Bay Area? Click HERE Articles: The Origins of Spirituality in Human Evolution . When Humans acquired language, we began to think about death in some very new ways. This created a new feeling of being threatened whose source lay in our own thoughts. People responded to this new threat by finding a sense of spirituality that allowed us to come to terms with our mortality. 'Read me first.' People who are interested in Deepak Chopra's work might choose to begin here, especially if they are wondering how this approach differs from the Chopra view of spirituality and science. This article owes many of it's concepts to the work of Dr. Michael Persinger. DARWINIAN REINCARNATION The idea of rebirth takes an important step towards science when it is integrated with Darwin's Theory. Another version of this same paper, complete with thick scientific jargon, has been published by a peer-reviewed scientific journal, The Journal for Near-death Studies, and that qualifies it as a scientific hypothesis for many scientists. Rebirth is now within the domain of science, and it looks very different from the traditional presentations. An earlier draft of this work even received critical approval from the Dalai Lama. Nihongo Questions and Answers on Darwinian Reincarnation. Easier reading on this new hypothesis about a traditional teaching. The Spiritual Personality . Doing spiritual practice (or having a spiritual awakening), has an impact on the brain, the mind, and personality. These changes happen are pretty easy to predict, and very similar processes have been found in people with a certain type of epilepsy, which Hippocrates called "The sacred disease." The altered states of consciousness experienced through spirituality create some interesting 'traits'. DEJA VU The experience of deja vu is one of the most common spiritual experiences known. That is, if you enjoy it. If you don't, its more a matter for the right kind of doctor than a temple. Deja vu is a change in the perception of the present moment, and it can be used to enhance some kinds of meditation practices, such as Zen. This one is for you if you do meditation, are simply trying to live in the present, or if you are one of those who experiences deja vu often. The 'Sensed Presence.' This one is about that odd feeling that you are being 'watched' or that you're 'not alone'. This is the feeling that there is someone behind you, but when you turn to look, there's nobody there. This chapter explains some of the basic theories. A lot of the other material won't make sense without it. 'Read me second.' The Neurology of Romantic Love. In many ways, romantic love looks similar to devotional religious feelings, and its disappointments look very much like 'The Dark Night of the Soul'. Neuroscience for the hopeless romantic. Ever beat yourself up for getting hurt in love? You won't hit as hard after you've read this. People who are interested in Tantra might choose to begin here. Sex and Consciousness Too much drive? Too little? Read this. Enlightenment This essay takes a guess at what may have happened to the Buddha's brain the night of his enlightenment. Guided spiritual exercises from brain science (more effective than you'd think). Most people who respond to these techniques do so almost instantly. Some of the material covered in this chapter has been accepted in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Some of it is too new for that. Glasses for Enhanced Visual Acuity . A first-hand account of how I developed a pair of glasses that induces a stunning enhancement in vision. If you have ever had moments where you were seeing as though your eyes had been polished from the inside, and wondered if it was possible to re-capture those moments, you should read this. GOD The experience of God is one of the most powerful spiritual experiences a person can have. It has deepened the faith of those who have had it, enriching their lives, and inspired people to kill in "His" name. This article talks about how meeting God is one example of a much larger group of experiences called 'Visitor Experiences'. Brain science has reached the point where it can understand these experiences, and although it doesn't arrive at the conclusion that there really is a God, it does find a great value in prayer. This article isn't for people who believe in God, nor is it for atheists who think "there's no God and that's that'. The truth isn't that simple. The God effect may involve several effects. This article owes a debt to Michael Persinger's "Neuropsychological Bases of God-Beliefs". Evolution of God An article based on a lecture given in March 2005 at the Winchester "Art Mind" festival. Easier reading. OUT OF BODY EXPERIENCES A recent study by Dr. Olaf Blanke has implicated the Angular Gyrus, (an area on the surface of the brain) in out of body experiences. This article replies to that study to the effect that there are other areas in the brain that may be involved. If researchers take Dr. Blanke's interpretation of his results at face value, they may miss other avenues of inquiry. THE GAY BRAIN A non-technical article on why some men are gay, and others aren't. We still need more evidence before we can say how valid this hypothesis is, but its a start. SACRED LANDS . A look at HARBIN HOT SPRINGS, a spiritual resort and retreat center in Northern California, that's also in one of the most geologically active places in the world. Geomagnetic changes interact with magnetic processes in the brain, producing 'power spots' where it takes extra awareness just to get by, and where UFOs can occasionally be seen. A close look at this magical place, long held to be sacred by Native Americans in the area, reveals some new facets of human consciousness in its interaction with the earth. INVENTING SHAKTI Non-technical article about how Shakti was invented. STIMULATING MY BRAIN AS A SPIRITUAL PATH This article is a response to a lot of e-mail I've received wanting to know about my own spiritual process. Well, I don't have one. Instead I have a story to tell about learning about my own consciousness. I'm not following enlightenment, I'd just like to enjoy my life while its actually happening, and to be able to be at one, not with the universe, but with my own species, one specimen at a time. My spiritual search brought me to some incredible experiences, but right from the beginning of my awakening, I felt the teachings I was being offered were nonsense. I wanted to look at spirituality again, from the ground up. So, here's my story, more or less. When its finished, you'll find that I accept many of the things that psychics, gurus, and religions teach, but in very different forms. I also accept the idea of surrender to one's chosen path. For me that includes the rules of science as much as 'being here, now.' ARCHETYPES Another way of looking at the Jungian Theory of Archetypes that discusses how we might be more likely to see the archetypes in others than in ourselves. Evolution may have provided us with some hard-wiring that allows us to see them in others, giving us an almost instinctive feeling for how to relate with different types of people. Re-written 5 2000 to remove the technical jargon. TERRORISM "I would kill in God's name" What do people willing to be violent for God have in common? And just how different is a terrorist madman from an ordinary religious believer? FOR SKEPTICS A short essay offering a distinction between skepticism towards beliefs and toward experiences. Beliefs are easily 'debunked', but experiences call for explanations. Mind Control Looking at the possibilities for Mind Control first means deciding what the mind is, and what control consists of. Mind Control seems a lot less possible when we stop to look at what these words mean. Or, perhaps, we find that it's all around us all the time, and just isn't a threat to anyone's freedoms. Meditation controls the mind, but is it mind control? Being Investigated by the FDA The FDA requires pre-marketing approval for all devices promoted for medical use. I learned that promotion includes research proposals. The investigation consisted of a letter from them, and my reply to them. No action was taken. More difficult articles (literary agents - keep out) Consciousness. Where does the phenomena of conscious awareness come from? This hypothesis suggests that consciousness functions to mediate states of consciousness. Simple answer for a vexing question. Not easy reading. Near-Death Experiences (NDEs) in Thailand. The experience of dying is different in different cultures, and Thai NDEs provide one of the best examples of culture-specific 'altered state' experiences uncovered so far. The most common response to these Thai cases (11 in all) by non-specialists is "These are REALLY weird". Unlike western NDEs, Thai NDEs do not usually begin with out of body experiences, but rather with guides from the underworld. One case even includes a gigantic talking turtle. Thai Near-Death experiences in context. This article discusses how Thai NDEs make sense when looked at in terms of their cultural and religious context. Illustrations include downloadable images of Heaven and Hell from Southeast Asia. These graphics are kept larger than usual due to the extensive and fascinating detail. We apologize to those with slow modems. An article accepted for publication by the Journal of Near-Death studies was edited from this study. CLICK HERE for the same article without illustrations. Persinger replies to critics | Persinger Publications | Paranormal Studies A FEW INSPIRATIONAL THOUGHTS HOME PAGE E-mail Shakti - Magnetic Brain Stimulation Deja Vu Darwinian Reincarnation Consciousness Romantic Love and the Brain Origins of spirituality in Human Evolution Sacred Lands "The Sensed Presence" Glasses For Enhanced Visual Acuity God in the Brain Spiritual Aptitude Test Stimulating My BrainAs A Spiritual Path Inventing Shakti Sex_and States of Consciousness The Gay Male Brain - Evolutionary Speculations Visions The Spiritual Personality Enlightenment And the Brain Archetypes A Diet For Epileptics? Odd Experiences - Online Poll Results Brain_News Out-Of-Body Experiences Near-Death Experiences - Thai Case histories The Big Bang Meditations from Brain Science Near-Death Experiences in Thailand - Discussion Downloads The Terrorist Brain Publications by Dr. M.A. Persinger Credentials Hippocrates on Epilepsy END. The rest of this page is webmaster stuff. Don't bother with it. . . . . . FastCounter by LinkExchange SpiritualMinds.com FreeTemplateSite.com steves-templates.com This page was once at www.jps.net brainsci
Neurotheology on WikipediaA brief but balanced overview of the field.
Neurotheology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Neurotheology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Jump to: navigation , search This article is about Neurotheology. Go here for Neuroethology. Neurotheology, also known as biotheology, is the study of the neural basis of spirituality . Neurotheology deals with the neurological and evolutionary basis for subjective experiences traditionally categorized as spiritual. Neurotheology defines spiritual experiences to include subjective reports such as The perception that time, fear or self-consciousness have dissolved Spiritual awe Oneness with the universe Ecstatic trance Sudden enlightenment Altered states of consciousness These subjective experiences are seen as the basis for many religious beliefs and behaviors. 'Neurotheology' as a term is also sometimes used in a less scientific context or a philosophical context. Some of these uses, according to the mainstream scientific community, qualify as pseudoscience . However, it's important to remember that the word "neurotheology" was coined by Aldous Huxley, mainly in a philosophical context. The use of the term neurotheology in published work is currently uncommon. A search on the citation indexing service provided by Institute for Scientific Information returns five articles. Three of these are published in the journal Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, while two are published in American Behavioral Scientist. Work on the neural basis of spirituality has, however, occurred sporadically throughout the 20th century. Keywords for such work are 'deity', 'neurophysiological bases', 'spirituality' and 'mysticism'. Contents 1 History and Methodology 2 Criticism 2.1 Philosophical criticism 2.2 Scientific criticism 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links [ edit ] History and Methodology Aldous Huxley used the word for the first time in the novel Island . Early studies in the 1950s and 1960s used EEGs to study brain wave patterns correlated with spiritual states. During the 1980s Dr. Michael Persinger stimulated the temporal lobes of human subjects with a weak magnetic field . His subjects claimed to have a sensation of "an ethereal presence in the room." This work gained a lot of publicity at the time. Current studies use brain imaging to localize brain regions active, or differentially active, during spiritual experiences. David Wulf , a psychologist at Wheaton College , Massachusetts, suggests that current brain imaging studies, along with the consistency of spiritual experiences across cultures, history, and religions, "suggest a common core that is likely a reflection of structures and processes in the human brain." [ edit ] Criticism An attempt to marry a materialistic approach like Neuroscience to spirituality naturally attracts much criticism. Some of the criticism is philosophical, dealing with the (percieved) irreconcilability between science and spirituality, while some is more methodological, dealing with the issues of studing an experience as subjective as spirituality. [ edit ] Philosophical criticism Critics of this approach, like philosopher Ken Wilber and religious scholar Huston Smith , see the more materialistic formulations of the approach as examples of reductionism and scientism that are only looking at the superficial aspects of the phenomena, and do not constitute a true explanation of spiritual experience. [ edit ] Scientific criticism In 2005 Pehr Granqvist, a psychologist at Uppsala University in Sweden , questioned Dr. Michael Persinger's findings in a paper published in Neuroscience Letters. Dr. Granqvist believes Dr. Persinger's work was not " double blind ." Those conducting Persinger's trials, who were often graduate students, knew what sort of results to expect, with the risk that the knowledge would be transmitted to experimental subjects by unconscious cues. They were also frequently given an idea of what was happening by being asked to fill in questionnaires designed to test their suggestibility to paranormal experiences before the trials were conducted. Dr. Granqvist set about conducting the experiment double blinded and found that the presence or absence of the field had no relationship with any religious or spiritual experience reported by the participants. However, Dr. Persinger has stood by his findings, arguing that several of his previous experiments have explicitly used double-blind protocols, and that Dr Granqvist failed to fully replicate Persinger's experimental conditions [1] . [ edit ] See also Biological psychology Neuroscience Philosophy of mind Dualism Materialism Philosophy of science Psychology of religion Spirituality Zen and the Brain ( MIT Press ) [ edit ] References Matthew Alper. The "God" Part of the Brain: A Scientific Interpretation of Human Spirituality and God James H. Austin. Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness Andrew Newberg, Eugene G. D'Aquili and Vince Rause. Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief [2] . ISBN 0345440331 [ edit ] Further reading NeuroTheology: Brain, Science, Spirituality, Religious Experience by R. Joseph, Andrew Newberg, Matthew Alper, William James, Friederich Neitzshe, Eugene G. d'Aquili, Michael Persinger , Carol Albright. (2nd edition, 2003) University Press. ISBN 0971644586 . Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century by Laurence O. McKinney. (1994) American Institute for Mindfulness. ISBN 0945724012 . [ edit ] External links Your Brain on Religion: Mystic visions or brain circuits at work? ( Newsweek Neurotheology Article, May 2001) Recommended Center for Cognitive Liberty Ethics Neurotheology resource directory This Is Your Brain on God ( Wired magazine , November 1999) Dr. Michael Persinger's page at Laurentian University A symbolic perspective Survey of spiritual experiences, by the University of Pennsylvania Open Directory Project links on Neurotheology Retrieved from " http: en.wikipedia.org wiki Neurotheology " Category : Protoscience Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Create account log in Navigation Main Page Community Portal Current events Recent changes Random article Help Contact us Donations Search Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link In other languages Magyar This page was last modified 18:36, 15 November 2005. All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (see Copyrights for details). Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers
This Is Your Brain on GodWired Magazine interview of Michael Persinger, leading figure in the reductionist school of neurotheology.
Wired 7.11: This Is Your Brain on God print version Search: Wired News Wire service news photos Animations Wired Magazine HotBot (the Web) [an error occurred while processing this directive][an error occurred while processing this directive][an error occurred while processing this directive] Issue 7.11 - Nov 1999 This Is Your Brain on God Michael Persinger has a vision - the Almighty isn't dead, he's an energy field. And your mind is an electromagnetic map to your soul. By Jack Hitt Over a scratchy speaker, a researcher announces, "Jack, one of your electrodes is loose, we're coming in." The 500-pound steel door of the experimental chamber opens with a heavy whoosh; two technicians wearing white lab coats march in. They remove the Ping-Pong-ball halves taped over my eyes and carefully lift a yellow motorcycle helmet that's been retrofitted with electromagnetic field-emitting solenoids on the sides, aimed directly at my temples. Above the left hemisphere of my 42-year-old male brain, they locate the dangling electrode, needed to measure and track my brain waves. The researchers slather more conducting cream into the graying wisps of my red hair and press the securing tape hard into my scalp. After restoring everything to its proper working position, the techies exit, and I'm left sitting inside the utterly silent, utterly black vault. A few commands are typed into a computer outside the chamber, and selected electromagnetic fields begin gently thrumming my brain's temporal lobes. The fields are no more intense than what you'd get as by-product from an ordinary blow-dryer, but what's coming is anything but ordinary. My lobes are about to be bathed with precise wavelength patterns that are supposed to affect my mind in a stunning way, artificially inducing the sensation that I am seeing God. I'm taking part in a vanguard experiment on the physical sources of spiritual consciousness, the current work-in-progress of Michael Persinger, a neuropsychologist at Canada's Laurentian University in Sudbury, Ontario. His theory is that the sensation described as "having a religious experience" is merely a side effect of our bicameral brain's feverish activities. Simplified considerably, the idea goes like so: When the right hemisphere of the brain, the seat of emotion, is stimulated in the cerebral region presumed to control notions of self, and then the left hemisphere, the seat of language, is called upon to make sense of this nonexistent entity, the mind generates a "sensed presence." Persinger has tickled the temporal lobes of more than 900 people before me and has concluded, among other things, that different subjects label this ghostly perception with the names that their cultures have trained them to use - Elijah, Jesus, the Virgin Mary, Mohammed, the Sky Spirit. Some subjects have emerged with Freudian interpretations - describing the presence as one's grandfather, for instance - while others, agnostics with more than a passing faith in UFOs, tell something that sounds more like a standard alien-abduction story. It may seem sacrilegious and presumptuous to reduce God to a few ornery synapses, but modern neuroscience isn't shy about defining our most sacred notions - love, joy, altruism, pity - as nothing more than static from our impressively large cerebrums. Persinger goes one step further. His work practically constitutes a Grand Unified Theory of the Otherworldly: He believes cerebral fritzing is responsible for almost anything one might describe as paranormal - aliens, heavenly apparitions, past-life sensations, near-death experiences, awareness of the soul, you name it. To those of us who prefer a little mystery in our lives, it all sounds like a letdown. And as I settle in for my mind trip, I'm starting to get apprehensive. I'm a lapsed Episcopalian clinging to only a hazy sense of the divine, but I don't especially like the idea that whatever vestigial faith I have in the Almighty's existence might get clinically lobotomized by Persinger's demo. Do I really want God to be rendered as explicable and predictable as an endorphin rush after a 3-mile run? The journey from my home in Connecticut to the mining district north of Lake Huron is, by modern standards, arduous. Given what's in store, it's also strangely fitting. When you think of people seeking divine visions, you imagine them trekking to some mountainous cloister. The pilgrimage to Persinger's lab is the clinical counterpart. The trip involves flying in increasingly smaller puddle-jumpers with increasingly fewer propellers until you land in the ore-rich Ontario town of Sudbury, a place that's been battered by commerce, geography, and climate. Jags of red rock and black iron erupt from the landscape, often bolting right out of the pavement. The weather-beaten concrete exteriors of the city's buildings speak of long, harsh winters. A short car ride through stony suburbs ends at a forlorn cluster of a dozen buildings: Laurentian University. Near Parking Lot 4, I am met by Charles Cook, a grad student of Persinger's. He leads me into the science building's basement, then to the windowless confines of Room C002B, Persinger's lair. Waiting there is Linda St-Pierre, another graduate student, who prompts me to sit down, then launches into a series of psychological questions. I answer a range of true-or-false statements from an old version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, a test designed to ferret out any nuttiness that might disqualify me from serving as a study subject. When read individually, the questions seem harmless, but as a group they sound hopelessly antiquated, as if the folks who devised the exam hadn't checked the warehouse for anachronisms in five decades: I like to read mechanics magazines. Someone is trying to poison me. I have successful bowel movements. I know who is trying to get me. As a child, I enjoyed playing drop-the-handkerchief. I'm escorted into the chamber, an old sound-experiment booth. The tiny room doesn't appear to have been redecorated since it was built in the early '70s. The frayed spaghettis of a brown-and-white shag carpet, along with huge, wall-mounted speakers covered in glittery black nylon, surround a spent brown recliner upholstered in the prickly polymers of that time. The chair, frankly, is repellent. Hundreds of subjects have settled into its itchy embrace, and its brown contours are spotted with dollops of electrode-conducting cream, dried like toothpaste, giving the seat the look of a favored seagulls' haunt. In the name of science, I sit down. Persinger's research forays are at the very frontier of the roiling field of neuroscience, the biochemical approach to the study of the brain. Much of what we hear about the discipline is anatomical stuff, involving the mapping of the brain's many folds and networks, performed by reading PET scans, observing blood flows, or deducing connections from stroke and accident victims who've suffered serious brain damage. But cognitive neuroscience is also a grab bag of more theoretical pursuits that can range from general consciousness studies to finding the neural basis for all kinds of sensations. As the work piles up, many things that we hold to be unique aspects of the "self" are reduced to mere tics of cranial function. Take laughter. According to Vilayanur Ramachandran, professor of neuroscience at UC San Diego, laughter is just the brain's way of signaling that a fearful circumstance is not really so worrisome. At a conference earlier this year, he posited that the classic banana-peel pratfall is funny only when the victim gets up, and that we laugh to alert "other members of [our] kin that, 'Look, there has been a false alarm here; don't waste your resources rushing to help.'" He calls laughter "nature's OK signal." Of course, this type of deromanticizing has been going on for a while - Persinger's brain manipulations have crude antecedents in the 1950s, the roaring decade for behaviorism. Back then, Yale physiologist Jose Delgado earned national renown by implanting electrodes into the brains of live animals and attaching them to a "stimoceiver" under the skull. In a technique called ESB - electronic stimulation of the brain - Delgado sent radio signals through the electrodes to control the animal. In one demonstration in the early 1960s, he used his electronic gizmo to halt a charging bull. Delgado's relatively coarse stunts were a long way from Persinger's quest for the God spot, but Persinger is not the first to theorize that the Creator exists only in the complex landscape of the human noggin. In his controversial 1976 book, The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Julian Jaynes, a Princeton psychologist, argued that the brain activity of ancient people - those living roughly 3,500 years ago, prior to early evidence of consciousness such as logic, reason, and ethics - would have resembled that of modern schizophrenics. Jaynes maintained that, like schizophrenics, the ancients heard voices, summoned up visions, and lacked the sense of metaphor and individual identity that characterizes a more advanced mind. He said that some of these ancestral synaptic leftovers are buried deep in the modern brain, which would explain many of our present-day sensations of God or spirituality. Among practicing neuroscientists, there is no overarching consensus on whether such notions are correct. Persinger is certainly out on a frontier where theory meets the boldest sort of speculation, but there's nothing inherently bizarre about his methods or the questions he's asking. William Calvin, a professor of behavioral sciences at the University of Washington in Seattle, says that Persinger's line of inquiry is no more mysterious than another pursuit that intrigues neuroscientists: trying to understand the sensations of dj vu or its opposite, jamais vu - the feeling, during a familiar routine, that we're doing it for the first time. Maybe these feelings, like God, are just more fritzing in the electricity arcing about our brains. Persinger arrives soon after St-Pierre has judged me sane enough to enter Room C002B. "I see that Mr. Cook has been as punctual as usual," he says, extending a hand in greeting. Persinger, 54, blends a crisp, scientific demeanor with a mischievous smile, but overall he's a very serious man. His erect posture is enhanced by a dark, pin-striped, three-piece suit with a gold chain swag at the bottom of the vest. His sentences are clipped and stripped of any vernacular - so painstakingly scientific that they can be coy. For example, he tells me that he is actually an American who "moved to Canada in July of 1969, because I had a rather major ethical disagreement with my government." It takes me a follow-up or two before I realize he had dodged the draft. As the researchers fit my helmet, I ask: Has anyone ever freaked out in the chair? Persinger smiles slightly and describes when a subject suffered an "adverse experience" and succumbed to an "interpretation that the room was hexed." When I ask if, say, the subject ripped all this equipment from his flesh and ran screaming from the dungeon, Persinger curtly replies: "Yes, his heart rate did go up and he did want to leave and of course he could because that is part of the protocol." One more time: Has anyone freaked out in the chair? "His EKG was showing that he moved very, very quickly and dramatically," Persinger offers, "and that he was struggling to take off the electrodes." Technically speaking, what's about to happen is simple. Using his fixed wavelength patterns of electromagnetic fields, Persinger aims to inspire a feeling of a sensed presence - he claims he can also zap you with euphoria, anxiety, fear, even sexual stirring. Each of these electromagnetic patterns is represented by columns of numbers - thousands of them, ranging from 0 to 255 - that denote the increments of output for the computer generating the EM bursts. Some of the bursts - which Persinger more precisely calls "a series of complex repetitive patterns whose frequency is modified variably over time" - have generated their intended effects with great regularity, the way aspirin causes pain relief. Persinger has started naming them and is creating a sort of EM pharmacological dictionary. The pattern that stimulates a sensed presence is called the Thomas Pulse, named for Persinger's colleague Alex Thomas, who developed it. There's another one called Burst X, which reproduces what Persinger describes as a sensation of "relaxation and pleasantness." A new one, the Linda Genetic Pulse, is named for my psychometrist, Linda St-Pierre. Persinger says St-Pierre is conducting a massive study on rats to determine the ways in which lengthy exposures to particular electromagnetic pulses can "affect gene expression." After spending a little time with Persinger, you get accustomed to the fact that his most polite phrases demand pursuit. Affect gene expression? It sounds so simple, but what he's really talking about is stringing together a number of different electromagnetic fields to prompt a complicated chemical reaction on the genetic level - for example, directing the body's natural self-healing instincts. "We want to enhance what the brain does to help heal the body," Persinger explains. "Among more sensitive individuals, tests show that their skin will turn red if they believe a hot nickel has been placed on their hand. That's a powerful psychosomatic effect of the brain on the body. Suppose we could make it more precise?" Persinger envisions a series of EM patterns that work the way drugs do. Just as you take an antibiotic and it has a predictable result, you might be exposed to precise EM patterns that would signal the brain to carry out comparable effects. Another possible application: Hollywood. Persinger has talked to Douglas Trumbull, the special-effects wizard responsible for the look of everything from 2001: A Space Odyssey to Brainstorm. They discussed the technological possibility of marrying Persinger's helmet with virtual reality. "If you've done virtual reality," Persinger says, "then you know that once you put on the helmet, you always know you are inside the helmet. The idea is to create a form of entertainment that is more real." But he adds, sounding like so many people who've gotten a call from the coast, "we haven't cut a deal yet." I am being withdrawn from my body and set adrift in an infinite existential emptiness. Soon enough, it's time for the good professor to wish me well and lob this last caveat: "If, for whatever reason, you become frightened or want to end the experiment, just speak into your lapel microphone." When the door closes and I feel nothing but the weight of the helmet on my head and the Ping-Pong balls on my eyes, I start giving serious thought to what it might be like to "see" God, artificially produced or not. Nietzsche's last sane moment occurred when he saw a carter beating a horse. He beat the carter, hugged the horse while sobbing uncontrollably, and was then carried away. I can imagine that. I see myself having a powerful vision of Jesus, and coming out of the booth wet with tears of humility, wailing for mercy from my personal savior. Instead, after I adjust to the darkness and the cosmic susurrus of absolute silence, I drift almost at once into a warm bath of oblivion. Something is definitely happening. During the 35-minute experiment, I feel a distinct sense of being withdrawn from the envelope of my body and set adrift in an infinite existential emptiness, a deep sensation of waking slumber. The machines outside the chamber report an uninterrupted alertness on my part. (If the researchers see the easily recognized EEG pattern of sleep, they wake you over the speakers.) Occasionally, I surface to an alpha state where I sort of know where I am, but not quite. This feeling is cool - like being reinserted into my body. Then there's a separation again, of body and soul, and - almost by my will - I happily allow myself to drift back to the surprisingly bearable lightness of oblivion. In this floating state, several ancient childhood memories are jarred loose. Suddenly, I am sitting with Scott Allen on the rug in his Colonial Street house in Charleston, South Carolina, circa 1965, singing along to "Moon River" and clearly hearing, for the first time since then, Scott's infectiously frenzied laughter. I reexperience the time I spent the night with Doug Appleby and the discomfort I felt at being in a house that was so punctiliously clean. (Doug's dad was a doctor.) I also remember seeing Joanna Jacobs' small and perfect breasts, unholstered beneath the linen gauze of her hippie blouse, circa 1971. Joanna was my girlfriend when I was 14. When I was sent off to boarding school, she and I recorded cassette tapes to one another. As a teenager, Joanna was a spiritual woman and talked a lot about transcendental meditation. Off at boarding school, I signed up and got my mantra from the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, right around the time Joanna dropped me to move on to a tougher crowd. If I had to pin down when I felt this dreamy state before - of being in the presence of something divine - it would be back then, in the euphoric, romantic hope that animated my adolescent efforts at meditation. That soothing feeling of near-sleep has always been associ-ated with what I imagined should have happened between Joanna Jacobs and me. Like the boy in James Joyce's The Dead, Joanna was a perfect memory - all the potential of womanly love distilled into the calming mantra-guided drone of fecund rest. I'm not sure what it says about me that the neural sensation designed to prompt visions of God set loose my ancient feelings about girls. But then, I'm not the first person to conflate God with late-night thoughts of getting laid - read more about it in Saint Augustine, Saint John of the Cross, or Deepak Chopra. So: Something took place. Still, when the helmet comes off and they shove a questionnaire in my hand, I feel like a failure. One question: Did the red bulb on the wall grow larger or smaller? There was a red bulb on the wall? I hadn't noticed. Many other questions suggest that there were other experiences I should have had, but to be honest, I didn't. In fact, as transcendental experiences go, on a scale of 1 to 10, Persinger's helmet falls somewhere around, oh, 4. Even though I did have a fairly convincing out-of-body experience, I'm disappointed relative to the great expectations and anxieties I had going in. It may be that all the preliminary talk about visions just set my rational left hemisphere into highly skeptical overdrive. Setting me up like that - you will experience the presence of God - might have been a mistake. When I bring this up later with Persinger, he tells me that the machine's effects differ among people, depending on their "lability" - Persinger jargon meaning sensitivity or vulnerability. "Also, you were in a comfortable laboratory," he points out. "You knew nothing could happen to you. What if the same intense experience occurred at 3 in the morning in a bedroom all by yourself? Or you suddenly stalled on an abandoned road at night when you saw a peculiar light and then had that experience? What label would you have placed on it then?" Point taken. I'd probably be calling Art Bell once a week, alerting the world to the alien invasion. But then, Persinger continued, being labile is itself a fluctuating condition. There are interior factors that can exacerbate it - stress, fear, injury - and exterior sources that might provoke odd but brief disturbances in the usually stable electromagnetic fields around us. Persinger theorizes, for example, that just prior to earthquakes there are deformations in the natural EM field caused by the intense pressure change in the tectonic plates below. He has published a paper called "The Tectonic Strain Theory as an Explanation for UFO Phenomena," in which he maintains that around the time of an earthquake, changes in the EM field could spark mysterious lights in the sky. A labile observer, in Persinger's view, could easily mistake the luminous display for an alien visit. As we sit in his office, Persinger argues that other environmental disturbances - ranging from solar flares and meteor showers to oil drilling - probably correlate with visionary claims, including mass religious conversions, ghost lights, and haunted houses. He says that if a region routinely experiences mild earthquakes or other causes of change in the electromagnetic fields, this may explain why the spot becomes known as sacred ground. That would include the Hopi tribe's hallowed lands, Delphi, Mount Fuji, the Black Hills, Lourdes, and the peaks of the Andes, not to mention most of California. From time to time, a sensed presence can also occur among crowds, Persinger says, thereby giving the divine vision the true legitimacy of a common experience, and making it practically undeniable. "One classic example was the apparition of Mary over the Coptic Church in Zeitoun, Egypt, in the 1960s," he continues. "This phenomenon lasted off and on for several years. It was seen by thousands of people, and the appearance seemed to precede the disturbances that occurred during the building of the Aswan High Dam. I have multiple examples of reservoirs being built or lakes being filled, and reports of luminous displays and UFO flaps. But Zeitoun was impressive." Persinger says there were balls of light that moved around the cross atop the church. "They were influenced by the cross, of course. It looked like a circle with a triangle on the bottom. If you had an imagination, it looked like a person. Upside down, by the way, it was the classical UFO pattern. It's curious that this happened during a marked increase in hostilities between Egyptians and Israelis, and both interpreted the phenomenon as proof that they would be successful. It's just so classical of human beings. Take an anomalous event, and one group will interpret it one way, and another group another." Might it surprise anyone to learn, in view of Persinger's theories, that when Joseph Smith was visited by the angel Moroni before founding Mormonism, and when Charles Taze Russell started the Jehovah's Witnesses, powerful Leonid meteor showers were occurring? Taken together, Persinger's ideas and published studies go awfully far - he's claiming to identify the primum mobile underlying all the supernatural stories we've developed over the last few thousand years. You might think Christians would be upset that this professor in Sudbury is trying to do with physics what Nietzsche did with metaphysics - kill off God. Or you might think that devout ufologists would denounce him for putting neuroscience on the side of the skeptics. "Actually, it's more a mind-set that gets disturbed than a particular belief," offers Persinger. "Some Christians say, 'Well, God invented the brain, so of course this is how it would happen.' UFO types say, 'This is good. Now we can tell the fake UFO sightings from the real ones.'" Oh, I have no doubt. I mean, who among all the churchgoers and alien fiends will let some distant egghead with a souped-up motorcycle helmet spoil their fun? It goes without saying that the human capacity to rationalize around Persinger's theory is far greater than all the replicated studies science could produce. The real tradition Persinger falls into is that of trying to explain away mystical experience. Jaynes thought visitations from God were mere aural detritus from the Stone Age. And just recently, another study suggested that sleep paralysis might account for visions of God and alien abduction. Who knows? Perhaps mystical visions are in fact nothing more than a bit of squelchy feedback in the temporal lobes. But that's such a preposterously small part of what most people think of when they think of God, it seems insanely grandiose to suggest that anyone has explained away "God." It's almost ironic. Every so often during one of America's little creation-science tempests, some humorless rationalist like Stephen Jay Gould steps forward to say that theology is an inadequate foundation for the study of science. Noted. And vice versa. But Persinger's ideas are harder to shake off than that. When I return to America, I am greeted by the news that massive intersections of power lines do not, in fact, cause cancer. For years scientists had advanced the power line-cancer connection, based on the results of Robert Liburdy's benchmark 1992 study. But a tip to the federal Office of Research Integrity initiated an investigation of Liburdy's work; it found that his data had been falsified. Persinger's experiments and resulting theories suggest some new ideas about our waning 20th century, which began with Thomas Edison convincing the world to cocoon itself inside electrically wired shelters, throbbing with pulses of electromagnetic fields. Granted, those fields are quite weak, arguably too tiny to affect our physical bodies in ways Liburdy had suggested. But what about Persinger's notion that such fields may be tinkering with our consciousness? Is it a coincidence that this century - known as the age of anxiety, a time rife with various hysterias, the era that gave birth to existentialism - is also when we stepped inside an electromagnetic bubble and decided to live there? We have never quite comprehended that we walk about in a sea of mild electromagnetism just as we do air. It is part of our atmosphere, part of the containing bath our consciousness swims in. Now we are altering it, heightening it, condensing it. The bubble is being increasingly shored up with newer, more complicated fields: computers, pagers, cell phones. Every day, entrepreneurs invent more novel ways to seduce us into staying inside this web. The Internet is well named. Naturally, many people would presume that such a change must be a malignant force when directed at the delicate gossamer of consciousness. Yet evolution is a tricky business. Accidental changes often turn out to be lifesaving preparations for some other condition that could never have been predicted. A few might see a world of possibility in Persinger's theories. His booth has helped us discover and confirm our true predicament. "Seeing God" is really just a soothing euphemism for the fleeting awareness of ourselves alone in the universe: a look in that existential mirror. The "sensed presence" - now easily generated by a machine pumping our brains with electromagnetic spirituality - is nothing but our exquisite and singular self, at one with the true solitude of our condition, deeply anxious. We're itching to get out of here, to escape this tired old environment with its frayed carpets, blasted furniture, and shabby old God. Time to move on and discover true divinity all over again. Jack Hitt is the author of Off the Road: A Modern-Day Walk Down the Pilgrim's Route Into Spain. Copyright 1993-2004 The Cond Nast Publications Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright 1994-2003 Wired Digital, Inc. All rights reserved.
A Mystical UnionEconomist article giving overview of recent research in neurotheology.
Spiritual neurology | A mystical union | Economist.com Quick jump navigation Skip to search tools Skip to online features Skip to print edition Skip to main navigation Skip to main content Skip to bottom links SEARCH Content to search Economist.com Print Edition only advanced search RESEARCH TOOLS Choose a research tool... Articles by subject Backgrounders Surveys Economics A-Z Style guide Help Activate Subscribe ThursdayNovember17th2005 Welcome LOG OUT = requires subscription My Account Sign up for newsletters ONLINE FEATURES Cities Guide Cities Guide Atlanta Berlin Brussels Buenos Aires Chicago Dubai Hong Kong Johannesburg London Los Angeles Mexico City Milan Moscow Mumbai New York Paris San Francisco Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto Washington, DC Zurich Country Briefings Country Briefings Algeria Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Colombia Czech Republic Denmark Ecuador Egypt Finland France Germany Greece Hong Kong Hungary India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Japan Kazakhstan South Korea Malaysia Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Slovakia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Ukraine Britain United States Venezuela Vietnam Audio Interviews Audio interviews Survey interviews Management interviews Cities Guide interviews Other interviews Classifieds Classifieds Jobs Courses Tenders Property Business Consumer PRINT EDITION Full contents Enlarge current cover Past issues regional covers Quick jump navigation Skip to search tools Skip to online features Skip to print edition Skip to main navigation Skip to main content Skip to bottom links GLOBAL AGENDA POLITICS THIS WEEK BUSINESS THIS WEEK OPINION Leaders Letters WORLD United States The Americas Asia Middle East Africa Europe Britain Country Briefings Cities Guide SURVEYS BUSINESS Management Reading Business Education Executive Dialogue FINANCE ECONOMICS Economics Focus Economics A-Z SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY Technology Quarterly PEOPLE Obituary BOOKS ARTS Catch if you can Style Guide MARKETS DATA Weekly Indicators Currencies Big Mac Index DIVERSIONS RESEARCH TOOLS CLASSIFIEDS DELIVERY OPTIONS E-mail Newsletters Mobile Edition RSS Feeds Economist Intelligence Unit Economist Conferences The World In Intelligent Life CFO Roll Call European Voice Economist Diaries and Business Gifts Quick jump navigation Skip to search tools Skip to online features Skip to print edition Skip to main navigation Skip to main content Skip to bottom links Science Technology Spiritual neurology A mystical union Mar 4th 2004 From The Economist print edition A small band of pioneers is exploring the neurology of religious experience Bridgeman THE renowned French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot once scribbled some notes while under the influence of the psychedelic drug mescaline. Colleagues were puzzled because among the scribbles was the incongruous statement, written in English, I love you Jennifer. Still more puzzling was the question: who was Jennifer? That was not the name of his wife nor of anyone else they thought he knew. Despite the mystery, Dr Charcot's colleagues never thought to question the scientific value of the experiment. The same cannot be said of Mario Beauregard, a brain-imager from the University of Montreal, who has also experimented with mescaline. But that is because Dr Beauregard is interested in one particular, and far more contentious, aspect of the mescaline experiencethe capacity of the drug to inspire feelings of spirituality or closeness to God. It was experiments of the type carried out by Charcot that opened up the possibility of investigating spirituality in a scientific manner, by showing that it could be manipulated. Dr Beauregard is following up on these by trying to discover where in the brain religious experience is actually experienced. Advertisement In the first of what he hopes will be a series of experiments, Dr Beauregard and his doctoral student Vincent Paquette are recording electrical activity in the brains of seven Carmelite nuns through electrodes attached to their scalps. Their aim is to identify the brain processes underlying the Unio Mysticathe Christian notion of mystical union with God. The nuns (the researchers hope to recruit 15 in all) will also have their brains scanned using positron-emission tomography and functional magnetic-resonance imaging, the most powerful brain-imaging tools available. The study has met with scepticism from both subjects and scientists. Dr Beauregard had first to convince the nuns that he was not trying to prove or disprove the existence of God. Scientific critics, meanwhile, have accused him of being too reductionistof pretending to pinpoint the soul in the brain in the same way that the Victorians played phrenology as a parlour game by feeling the contours of each others' skulls to find a bulge of secretiveness or a missing patch of generosity. Dr Beauregard does not, in fact, believe there is a neurological God centre. Rather, his preliminary data implicate a network of brain regions in the Unio Mystica, including those associated with emotion processing and the spatial representation of self. But that leads to another criticism, which he may find harder to rebut. This is that he is not really measuring a mystical experience at allmerely an intense emotional one. This is because the nuns are, so to speak, faking it. They believe that the Unio Mystica is a gift of God and cannot be summoned at will. Most of them have only experienced it once or twice, typically in their 20s. To get around this, Dr Beauregard has drawn on previous experiments he carried out with actors, which showed that remembering an intense emotional experience activates the same brain networks as actually having that experience. In effect, he has asked the nuns to method act, and they are happy to comply. God and the gaps Andrew Newberg, a radiologist at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, who has scanned the brains of Buddhists and Franciscan nuns in meditation or at prayer, is familiar with such criticism. He says that, because religious experience is not readily accessible, unusually high standards of experimental rigour are demanded of this kind of research. We have frequently argued that many aspects of spiritual experiences are built upon the brain machinery that is used for other purposes such as emotions, he says. Very careful research will need to be done to delineate these issues. But that is not a reason for shying away from them, says Olaf Blanke of the University Hospital of Geneva, Switzerland, whose paper in the February edition of Brain describes how the brain generates out-of-body experiences. He points out that plenty of research has been done into another kind of bodily illusion, phantom limbs. This has identified the brain mechanisms responsible, and even suggested treatments for these disabling appendages. The same cannot be said of out-of-body experiences, which can also be disturbing, but occupy a neglected position between neurobiology and mysticism. Having subjected six brain-damaged patients to a battery of neuro-imaging techniques, Dr Blanke's group concludes that damage at the junction of two lobes of the brainthe temporal and parietalcauses a breakdown of a person's perception of his own body. The boundary between personal and extrapersonal space becomes blurred, and he sees his body occupying positions that do not coincide with the position he feels it to be in. Some patients give this a mystical interpretation, some do not. What is interesting is that several of the patients suffered from temporal-lobe epilepsy. An association between this kind of epilepsy and religiosity is well-documented, notably in a classic series of neurological papers written by Norman Geschwind in the 1960s and 1970s. Dr Blanke argues that all the lobes of the brain play a part in something as complex as religious experience, but that the temporo-parietal junction is a prime node of that network. The parietal lobe is thought to be responsible for orienting a person in time and space, and Dr Newberg also found a change in parietal activation at the height of the meditative experience, when his volunteers reported sensing a greater interconnectedness of things. At the end of each recording session, Dr Beauregard asks the nuns to complete a questionnaire which gauges not only feelings of love and closeness to God, but also distortions of time and space. The more intense the experience, the more intense the disorganisation from a spatio-temporal point of view, he says. Typically, time slows down, and the self appears to dissolve into some larger entity that the nuns describe as God. Whether the Unio Mystica has anything in common with out-of-body experiences, or even phantom limbs, remains to be seenthough all are certainly mediated by the brain. According to Dr Blanke, this is only just starting to become an accepted topic of research in neuroscience. Perhaps its acceptance will depend ultimately on how the knowledge is used. Dr Beauregard may have done himself a disservice by arguing that mystical union should not be reserved for the spiritual few, but should be made available to everyone, for the benefit of society. Perhaps, like Charcot, he should stick to describing it, however incongruous the result may be. Back to top Printable page E-mail this Related Items More articles about... Religion Websites Mario Beauregard (in French) and Andrew Newberg have conducted research into religious experience. See also an abstract of Olaf Blankes article published in Brain. Advertisement Advertisement Classifieds Jobs Junior Programme Specialist Call for Candidatures The Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation for the Dial.... Business Consumer WSI Internet - Start Your Own Business Business Opportunity - WSI Internet Start Your Own Busines.... Tenders United Nations Office for Project Services CALL FOR EXPRESSION OF INTEREST (EOI) BENEFICIARY COUNTRY.... Jobs Senior Country Directors CARE Canada seeking senior development relief professionals for Country Director positions..... Tenders Request for Proposals: Learning Programme on Public Policy, Advocacy and Partnerships for Children and Womens Rights Jobs Regulatory Economist Shaping policy in the worlds largest mobile telecommunication company Attractive s.... Sponsors' feature About sponsorship About Economist.com | About The Economist | About Global Agenda | Media Directory | Staff Books | Advertising info | Job Opportunities | Contact us Copyright The Economist Newspaper Limited 2005. All rights reserved. Advertising Info | Legal disclaimer | Accessibility | Privacy policy | Terms Conditions | Help Quick jump navigation Skip to search tools Skip to online features Skip to print edition Skip to main navigation Skip to main content Skip to bottom links
Religion and the Brain.Newsweek article that brought neurotheology widespread popular recognition.
Brain, Mind Emergence - Press Room Home Overview Press Room Logistics Conference Schedule Presenters Contact Us Press Room May 7, 2001, U.S. Edition By Sharon Begley; With Anne Underwood Religion And The Brain: In the New Field of "Neurotheology," Scientists Seek the Biological Basis of Spirituality. Is God All in Our Heads? One Sunday morning in March, 19 years ago, as Dr. James Austin waited for a train in London, he glanced away from the tracks toward the river Thames. The neurologist--who was spending a sabbatical year in England--saw nothing out of the ordinary: the grimy Underground station, a few dingy buildings, some pale gray sky. He was thinking, a bit absent-mindedly, about the Zen Buddhist retreat he was headed toward. And then Austin suddenly felt a sense of enlightenment unlike anything he had ever experienced. His sense of individual existence, of separateness from the physical world around him, evaporated like morning mist in a bright dawn. He saw things "as they really are," he recalls. The sense of "I, me, mine" disappeared. "Time was not present," he says. "I had a sense of eternity. My old yearnings, loathings, fear of death and insinuations of selfhood vanished. I had been graced by a comprehension of the ultimate nature of things." Call it a mystical experience, a spiritual moment, even a religious epiphany, if you like--but Austin will not. Rather than interpret his instant of grace as proof of a reality beyond the comprehension of our senses, much less as proof of a deity, Austin took it as "proof of the existence of the brain." He isn't being smart-alecky. As a neurologist, he accepts that all we see, hear, feel and think is mediated or created by the brain. Austin's moment in the Underground therefore inspired him to explore the neurological underpinnings of spiritual and mystical experience. In order to feel that time, fear and self-consciousness have dissolved, he reasoned, certain brain circuits must be interrupted. Which ones? Activity in the amygdala, which monitors the environment for threats and registers fear, must be damped. Parietal-lobe circuits, which orient you in space and mark the sharp distinction between self and world, must go quiet. Frontal- and temporal-lobe circuits, which mark time and generate self-awareness, must disengage. When that happens, Austin concludes in a recent paper, "what we think of as our 'higher' functions of selfhood appear briefly to 'drop out,' 'dissolve,' or be 'deleted from consciousness'." When he spun out his theories in 1998, in the 844-page "Zen and the Brain," it was published not by some flaky New Age outfit but by MIT Press. Since then, more and more scientists have flocked to "neurotheology," the study of the neurobiology of religion and spirituality. Last year the American Psychological Association published "Varieties of Anomalous Experience," covering enigmas from near-death experiences to mystical ones. At Columbia University's new Center for the Study of Science and Religion, one program investigates how spiritual experiences reflect "peculiarly recurrent events in human brains." In December, the scholarly Journal of Consciousness Studies devoted its issue to religious moments ranging from "Christic visions" to "shamanic states of consciousness." In May the book "Religion in Mind," tackling subjects such as how religious practices act back on the brain's frontal lobes to inspire optimism and even creativity, reaches stores. And in "Why God Won't Go Away," published in April, Dr. Andrew Newberg of the University of Pennsylvania and his late collaborator, Eugene d'Aquili, use brain-imaging data they collected from Tibetan Buddhists lost in meditation and from Franciscan nuns deep in prayer to... well, what they do involves a lot of neuro-jargon about lobes and fissures. In a nutshell, though, they use the data to identify what seems to be the brain's spirituality circuit, and to explain how it is that religious rituals have the power to move believers and nonbelievers alike. What all the new research shares is a passion for uncovering the neurological underpinnings of spiritual and mystical experiences-for discovering, in short, what happens in our brains when we sense that we "have encountered a reality different from--and, in some crucial sense, higher than--the reality of every- day experience," as psychologist David Wulff of Wheaton College in Massachusetts puts it. In neurotheology, psychologists and neurologists try to pinpoint which regions turn on, and which turn off, during experiences that seem to exist outside time and space. In this way it differs from the rudimentary research of the 1950s and 1960s that found, yeah, brain waves change when you meditate. But that research was silent on why brain waves change, or which specific regions in the brain lie behind the change. Neuro-imaging of a living, working brain simply didn't exist back then. In contrast, today's studies try to identify the brain circuits that surge with activity when we think we have encountered the divine, and when we feel transported by intense prayer, an uplifting ritual or sacred music. Although the field is brand new and the answers only tentative, one thing is clear. Spiritual experiences are so consistent across cultures, across time and across faiths, says Wulff, that it "suggest[s] a common core that is likely a reflection of structures and processes in the human brain." There was a feeling of energy centered within me... going out to infinite space and returning. There was a relaxing of the dualistic mind, and an intense feeling of love. I felt a profound letting go of the boundaries around me, and a connection with some kind of energy and state of being that had a quality of clarity, transparency and joy. I felt a deep and profound sense of connection to everything, recognizing that there never was a true separation at all. That is how Dr. Michael J. Baime, a colleague of Andrew Newberg's at Penn, describes what he feels at the moment of peak transcendence when he practices Tibetan Buddhist meditation, as he has since he was 14 in 1969. Baime offered his brain to Newberg, who, since childhood, had wondered about the mystery of God's existence. At Penn, Newberg's specialty is radiology, so he teamed with Eugene d'Aquili to use imaging techniques to detect which regions of the brain are active during spiritual experiences. The scientists recruited Baime and seven other Tibetan Buddhists, all skilled meditators. In a typical run, Baime settled onto the floor of a small darkened room, lit only by a few candles and filled with jasmine incense. A string of twine lay beside him. Concentrating on a mental image, he focused and focused, quieting his conscious mind (he told the scientists afterward) until something he identifies as his true inner self emerged. It felt "timeless and infinite," Baime said afterward," a part of everyone and everything in existence." When he reached the "peak" of spiritual intensity, he tugged on the twine. Newberg, huddled outside the room and holding the other end, felt the pull and quickly injected a radioactive tracer into an IV line that ran into Baime's left arm. After a few moments, he whisked Baime off to a SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) machine. By detecting the tracer, it tracks blood flow in the brain. Blood flow correlates with neuronal activity. The SPECT images are as close as scientists have come to snapping a photo of a transcendent experience. As expected, the prefrontal cortex, seat of attention, lit up: Baime, after all, was focusing deeply. But it was a quieting of activity that stood out. A bundle of neurons in the superior parietal lobe, toward the top and back of the brain, had gone dark. This region, nicknamed the "orientation association area," processes information about space and time, and the orientation of the body in space. It determines where the body ends and the rest of the world begins. Specifically, the left orientation area creates the sensation of a physically delimited body; the right orientation area creates the sense of the physical space in which the body exists. (An injury to this area can so cripple your ability to maneuver in physical space that you cannot figure the distance and angles needed to navigate the route to a chair across the room.) The orientation area requires sensory input to do its calculus. "If you block sensory inputs to this region, as you do during the intense concentration of meditation, you prevent the brain from forming the distinction between self and not-self," says Newberg. With no information from the senses arriving, the left orientation area cannot find any boundary between the self and the world. As a result, the brain seems to have no choice but "to perceive the self as endless and intimately interwoven with everyone and everything," Newberg and d'Aquili write in "Why God Won't Go Away." The right orientation area, equally bereft of sensory data, defaults to a feeling of infinite space. The meditators feel that they have touched infinity. I felt communion, peace, openness to experience... [There was] an awareness and responsiveness to God's presence around me, and a feeling of centering, quieting, nothingness, [as well as] moments of fullness of the presence of God. [God was] permeating my being. This is how her 45-minute prayer made Sister Celeste, a Franciscan nun, feel, just before Newberg SPECT-scanned her. During her most intensely religious moments, when she felt a palpable sense of God's presence and an absorption of her self into his being, her brain displayed changes like those in the Tibetan Buddhist meditators: her orientation area went dark. What Sister Celeste and the other nuns in the study felt, and what the meditators experienced, Newberg emphasizes, "were neither mistakes nor wishful thinking. They reflect real, biologically based events in the brain." The fact that spiritual contemplation affects brain activity gives the experience a reality that psychologists and neuroscientists had long denied it, and explains why people experience ineffable, transcendent events as equally real as seeing a wondrous sunset or stubbing their toes. That a religious experience is reflected in brain activity is not too surprising, actually. Everything we experience--from the sound of thunder to the sight of a poodle, the feeling of fear and the thought of a polka-dot castle--leaves a trace on the brain. Neurotheology is stalking bigger game than simply affirming that spiritual feelings leave neural footprints, too. By pinpointing the brain areas involved in spiritual experiences and tracing how such experiences arise, the scientists hope to learn whether anyone can have such experiences, and why spiritual experiences have the qualities they do. I could hear the singing of the planets, and wave after wave of light washed over me. But... I was the light as well... I no longer existed as a separate 'I'... I saw into the structure of the universe. I had the impression of knowing beyond knowledge and being given glimpses into ALL. That was how author Sophy Burnham described her experience at Machu Picchu, in her 1997 book "The Ecstatic Journey." Although there was no scientist around to whisk her into a SPECT machine and confirm that her orientation area was AWOL, it was almost certainly quiescent. That said, just because an experience has a neural correlate does not mean that the experience exists "only" in the brain, or that it is a figment of brain activity with no independent reality. Think of what happens when you dig into an apple pie. The brain's olfactory region registers the aroma of the cinnamon and fruit. The somatosensory cortex processes the feel of the flaky crust on the tongue and lips. The visual cortex registers the sight of the pie. Remembrances of pies past (Grandma's kitchen, the corner bake shop...) activate association cortices. A neuroscientist with too much time on his hands could undoubtedly produce a PET scan of "your brain on apple pie." But that does not negate the reality of the pie. "The fact that spiritual experiences can be associated with distinct neural activity does not necessarily mean that such experiences are mere neurological illusions," Newberg insists. "It's no safer to say that spiritual urges and sensations are caused by brain activity than it is to say that the neurological changes through which we experience the pleasure of eating an apple cause the apple to exist." The bottom line, he says, is that "there is no way to determine whether the neurological changes associated with spiritual experience mean that the brain is causing those experiences... or is instead perceiving a spiritual reality." In fact, some of the same brain regions involved in the pie experience create religious experiences, too. When the image of a cross, or a Torah crowned in silver, triggers a sense of religious awe, it is because the brain's visual-association area, which interprets what the eyes see and connects images to emotions and memories, has learned to link those images to that feeling. Visions that arise during prayer or ritual are also generated in the association area: electrical stimulation of the temporal lobes (which nestle along the sides of the head and house the circuits responsible for language, conceptual thinking and associations) produces visions. Temporal-lobe epilepsy--abnormal bursts of electrical activity in these regions--takes this to extremes. Although some studies have cast doubt on the connection between temporal-lobe epilepsy and religiosity, others find that the condition seems to trigger vivid, Joan of Arc-type religious visions and voices. In his recent book "Lying Awake," novelist Mark Salzman conjures up the story of a cloistered nun who, after years of being unable to truly feel the presence of God, begins having visions. The cause is temporal-lobe epilepsy. Sister John of the Cross must wrestle with whether to have surgery, which would probably cure her--but would also end her visions. Dostoevsky, Saint Paul, Saint Teresa of Avila, Proust and others are thought to have had temporal-lobe epilepsy, leaving them obsessed with matters of the spirit. Although temporal-lobe epilepsy is rare, researchers suspect that focused bursts of electrical activity called "temporal-lobe transients" may yield mystical experiences. To test this idea, Michael Persinger of Laurentian University in Canada fits a helmet jury-rigged with electromagnets onto a volunteer's head. The helmet creates a weak magnetic field, no stronger than that produced by a computer monitor. The field triggers bursts of electrical activity in the temporal lobes, Persinger finds, producing sensations that volunteers describe as supernatural or spiritual: an out-of-body experience, a sense of the divine. He suspects that religious experiences are evoked by mini electrical storms in the temporal lobes, and that such storms can be triggered by anxiety, personal crisis, lack of oxygen, low blood sugar and simple fatigue--suggesting a reason that some people "find God" in such moments. Why the temporal lobes? Persinger speculates that our left temporal lobe maintains our sense of self. When that region is stimulated but the right stays quiescent, the left interprets this as a sensed presence, as the self departing the body, or of God. I was alone upon the seashore... I felt that I... return[ed] from the solitude of individuation into the consciousness of unity with all that is... Earth, heaven, and sea resounded as in one vast world encircling harmony... I felt myself one with them. Is an experience like this one, described by the German philosopher Malwida von Meysenburg in 1900, within the reach of anyone? "Not everyone who meditates encounters these sorts of unitive experiences," says Robert K.C. Forman, a scholar of comparative religion at Hunter College in New York City. "This suggests that some people may be genetically or temperamentally predisposed to mystical ability." Those most open to mystical experience tend also to be open to new experiences generally. They are usually creative and innovative, with a breadth of interests and a tolerance for ambiguity (as determined by questionnaire). They also tend toward fantasy, notes David Wulff, "suggesting a capacity to suspend the judging process that distinguishes imaginings and real events." Since "we all have the brain circuits that mediate spiritual experiences, probably most people have the capacity for having such experiences," says Wulff. "But it's possible to foreclose that possibility. If you are rational, controlled, not prone to fantasy, you will probably resist the experience." In survey after survey since the 1960s, between 30 and 40 percent or so of those asked say they have, at least once or twice, felt "very close to a powerful, spiritual force that seemed to lift you out of yourself." Gallup polls in the 1990s found that 53 percent of American adults said they had had "a moment of sudden religious awakening or insight." Reports of mystical experience increase with education, income and age (people in their 40s and 50s are most likely to have them). Yet many people seem no more able to have such an experience than to fly to Venus. One explanation came in 1999, when Australian researchers found that people who report mystical and spiritual experiences tend to have unusually easy access to subliminal consciousness. "In people whose unconscious thoughts tend to break through into consciousness more readily, we find some correlation with spiritual experiences," says psychologist Michael Thalbourne of the University of Adelaide. Unfortunately, scientists are pretty clueless about what allows subconscious thoughts to pop into the consciousness of some people and not others. The single strongest predictor of such experiences, however, is something called "dissociation." In this state, different regions of the brain disengage from others. "This theory, which explains hypnotizability so well, might explain mystical states, too," says Michael Shermer, director of the Skeptics Society, which debunks paranormal phenomena. "Something really seems to be going on in the brain, with some module dissociating from the rest of the cortex." That dissociation may reflect unusual electrical crackling in one or more brain regions. In 1997, neurologist Vilayanur Ramachandran told the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience that there is "a neural basis for religious experience." His preliminary results suggested that depth of religious feeling, or religiosity, might depend on natural--not helmet-induced--enhancements in the electrical activity of the temporal lobes. Interestingly, this region of the brain also seems important for speech perception. One experience common to many spiritual states is hearing the voice of God. It seems to arise when you misattribute inner speech (the "little voice" in your head that you know you generate yourself) to something outside yourself. During such experiences, the brain's Broca's area (responsible for speech production) switches on. Most of us can tell this is our inner voice speaking. But when sensory information is restricted, as happens during meditation or prayer, people are "more likely to misattribute internally generated thoughts to an external source," suggests psychologist Richard Bentall of the University of Manchester in England in the book "Varieties of Anomalous Experience." Stress and emotional arousal can also interfere with the brain's ability to find the source of a voice, Bentall adds. In a 1998 study, researchers found that one particular brain region, called the right anterior cingulate, turned on when people heard something in the environment--a voice or a sound--and also when they hallucinated hearing something. But it stayed quiet when they imagined hearing something and thus were sure it came from their own brain. This region, says Bentall, "may contain the neural circuits responsible for tagging events as originating from the external world." When it is inappropriately switched on, we are fooled into thinking the voice we hear comes from outside us. Even people who describe themselves as nonspiritual can be moved by religious ceremonies and liturgy. Hence the power of ritual. Drumming, dancing, incantations--all rivet attention on a single, intense source of sensory stimulation, including the body's own movements. They also evoke powerful emotional responses. That combination--focused attention that excludes other sensory stimuli, plus heightened emotion--is key. Together, they seem to send the brain's arousal system into hyperdrive, much as intense fear does. When this happens, explains Newberg, one of the brain structures responsible for maintaining equilibrium--the hippocampus--puts on the brakes. It inhibits the flow of signals between neurons, like a traffic cop preventing any more cars from entering the on-ramp to a tied-up highway. The result is that certain regions of the brain are deprived of neuronal input. One such deprived region seems to be the orientation area, the same spot that goes quiet during meditation and prayer. As in those states, without sensory input the orientation area cannot do its job of maintaining a sense of where the self leaves off and the world begins. That's why ritual and liturgy can bring on what Newberg calls a "softening of the boundaries of the self"--and the sense of oneness and spiritual unity. Slow chanting, elegiac liturgical melodies and whispered ritualistic prayer all seem to work their magic in much the same way: they turn on the hippocampus directly and block neuronal traffic to some brain regions. The result again is "blurring the edges of the brain's sense of self, opening the door to the unitary states that are the primary goal of religious ritual," says Newberg. Researchers' newfound interest in neurotheology reflects more than the availability of cool new toys to peer inside the working brain. Psychology and neuroscience have long neglected religion. Despite its centrality to the mental lives of so many people, religion has been met by what David Wulff calls "indifference or even apathy" on the part of science. When one psychologist, a practicing Christian, tried to discuss in his introductory psych book the role of faith in people's lives, his publisher edited out most of it--for fear of offending readers. The rise of neurotheology represents a radical shift in that attitude. And whatever light science is shedding on spirituality, spirituality is returning the favor: mystical experiences, says Forman, may tell us something about consciousness, arguably the greatest mystery in neuroscience. "In mystical experiences, the content of the mind fades, sensory awareness drops out, so you are left only with pure consciousness," says Forman. "This tells you that consciousness does not need an object, and is not a mere byproduct of sensory action." For all the tentative successes that scientists are scoring in their search for the biological bases of religious, spiritual and mystical experience, one mystery will surely lie forever beyond their grasp. They may trace a sense of transcendence to this bulge in our gray matter. And they may trace a feeling of the divine to that one. But it is likely that they will never resolve the greatest question of all--namely, whether our brain wiring creates God, or whether God created our brain wiring. Which you believe is, in the end, a matter of faith. back to press room 2003, BRAIN MIND EMERGENCE, JOHN TEMPLETON FOUNDATION, 300 CONSHOHOCKEN STATE ROAD, SUITE 500 WEST CONSHOHOCKEN, PA 19428 TEL 610.941.2828 FAX 610.825.1730
TASTE - The Archives of Scientists' Transcendent ExperiencesCollection of accounts of experiences. New accounts can be added online.
TASTE - The Archives of Scientists' Transcendent Experiences The TASTE Journal and online project is managed by Dr. Charles T. Tart, Editor , and is sponsored by ISSC . Subscribe to Taste Notices or Student Notices email lists for site updates. MIND SCIENCE: Meditation Training for Practical People By Charles T. Tart, Ph.D. 236 pages, Paperback 6" x 9", ISBN 1-93125400-1 US $18.95 (10% discount) To order, click on the Kosmos Bookstore logo: (Editor's note: I am ambivalent about putting anything on TASTE that is in the slightest way commercial, but since I will be using the referral fees from web sales of this just published book to help support the TASTE project, and because the material will be of great practical interest to the kinds of people who visit and contribute to this site, I've decided to make this information available. The following is modified from the book jacket.) Rich with lucid instructions and practical insights, MIND SCIENCE dispels the metaphysical haze that all too often surrounds the subject of meditation. Based on a lively workshop with fellow scientists, Charles Tart shows how the pragmatic and scientifically-inclined among us can bring mindfulness into everyday life without religious baggage while clearly explaining its many spiritual and health benefits. These highly interactive and often witty sessions in front of a skeptical audience anticipate the questions that any practical person might have about meditative mindfulness. If you've been looking for a clear teaching on how and why to meditate that is free of sectarian involvement, this is the book for you. MIND SCIENCE is based on a workshop at the country's leading scientific conference on the study of consciousness, held bi-annually at the University of Arizona at Tucson. Tart's jovial and wide-ranging style makes MIND SCIENCE suitable reading for intelligent lay people with a practical and scientific inclination, as well as for the academically- and scientifically-trained students of consciousness and related fields. MIND SCIENCE is, in fact, the only current book on meditation by an author who is also a well-respected scientist. PRAISE FOR THE WORK OF CHARLES T. TART "Tart is the most important writer [on] the scientific study of expanded consciousness in the world at the moment." Colin Wilson "One of the world's leading experts in the field [of] consciousness research." Frances Vaughn "If all academic scientists had his open and discriminating mind, progress would be made exponentially." C. Norman Sheely, M.D. "A pioneer in the integration of ancient wisdom and contemporary science." Roger Walsh Charles T. Tart. Tart pioneered the field of consciousness studies decades ago, with his classic best-selling anthology Altered States of Consciousness, in print for more than 20 years and selected by Common Boundary as one of the one hundred most influential psychology books of the twentieth century. Tart is credited with almost single-handedly legitimizing the study of altered states, including hypnosis, meditation, lucid dreaming and drug-induced states. He initiated several important lines of research in parapsychology, including teaching ESP and out-of-body experiences. His resume lists more than 250 articles in leading scientific and professional journals including Science and Nature, and numerous well-known books. His Transpersonal Psychologies (Harper Row, 1975), for example, became the core text in the then new field of transpersonal psychology. As one of the world's foremost authorities on the human mind, Dr. Tart is unique in being tough-minded and rigorous, a creative researcher, and a critic of "New Agey" nostrums, but also open-minded and courageous in researching controversial phenomena of the mind. His lifework has been to identify important core facts vital to understanding human consciousness by clearly and substantively distinguishing this data from popular misconceptions or religiously- or scientistically biased beliefs. Among his many other well-known titles are Waking Up; Open Mind, Discriminating Mind; and Living the Mindful Life. Currently a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core faculty member of the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology, Dr. Tart is a rare combination of scientist laboratory researcher, serious student of spiritual disciplines, and talented educator. Order directly from Wisdom Editions by clicking HERE (credit card order over the web, fast shipping) and receive a 10% discount. Or click HERE to go to Charles Tart's web archives and then go to the "CTT Books and Tapes" button to order an autographed copy by mail. All referral fees generated by ordering directly from Wisdom Editions will be used to support The Archives of Scientists' Transcendent Experiences (TASTE) web site project. Web site designed and created by Lu G. Janku and PJ Gaenir . This web domain is hosted by W3Matrix.net . The TASTE name, logo, web site contents and computer graphics are Copyright 1999 by Charles T. Tart. All rights reserved. Please see our Copyright page for info on excerpts, attributions, etc. Visit our Usage page for web site visit statistics. Introduction | Current Edition | Collected Archives Our Sponsor ISSC | Internet Resources | Web Site Feedback Editor's Notes | Privacy Policy | Copyright Info References Etc. | Submit Account | Editorial
The Varieties of Religious ExperienceFull text of the celebrated book by William James, originally published in 1902.
The Varieties of Religious Experience James, William . The Varieties of Religious Experience Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library | The entire work (1110 KB) | Table of Contents for this work | | All on-line databases | Etext Center Homepage | Header Front Matter Lecture 1 Lecture I RELIGION AND NEUROLOGY Lecture 2 Lecture II CIRCUMSCRIPTION OF THE TOPIC Lecture 3 Lecture III THE REALITY OF THE UNSEEN Lecture 4 Lectures IV and V THE RELIGION OF HEALTHY MINDEDNESS Lecture 6 Lectures VI and VII THE SICK SOUL Lecture 8 Lecture VIII THE DIVIDED SELF, AND THE PROCESS OF ITS UNIFICATION Lecture 9 Lecture IX CONVERSION Lecture 10 Lecture X CONVERSION-- Concluded Lecture 11 Lectures XI, XII, and XIII SAINTLINESS Lecture 14 Lectures XIV and XV THE VALUE OF SAINTLINESS Lecture 16 Lectures XVI and XVII MYSTICISM Lecture 18 Lecture XVIII PHILOSOPHY Lecture 19 Lecture XIX OTHER CHARACTERISTICS Lecture 20 Lecture XX CONCLUSIONS Back Matter
Psychology of Religious ExperienceTranscript from the Thinking Allowed TV series of Jeffrey Mishlove interviewing Huston Smith.
Huston Smith: The Psychology of Religious Experience HUSTON SMITH, Ph.D. The Psychology of Religious Experience A transcript from the THINKING ALLOWED Television Series --- Website Guide --- Alphabetical List Home Page Website Search Website Outline About Thinking Allowed Uplink Schedule Host Jeffrey Mishlove Videotape Catalog Ordering Info Online Orders Fax Mail Form New Releases Special Offers Quartets Singles Hourlong Videos Innerwork Videos Books Transcripts Viewer Comments Related Links A videotape of this program is available as a Thinking Allowed Single. The same program is also part of the VideoQuartet The Roots of Consciousness. This videotape also features Joseph Campbell, Stanislav Grof and Arthur M. Young. For a complete list of our Huston Smith video titles, go to The World's Philosophies. JEFFREY MISHLOVE, Ph.D.: Hello and welcome. Our topic this evening is the psychology of religious experience, and my guest tonight is one of America's great scholars of religious traditions, Dr. Huston Smith. Dr. Smith is a former professor of religion and psychology at MIT. He's the author of the great classic, Religions of Man, which has sold over two million copies, as well as six other books on psychology, religion, and philosophy, most recently one called Beyond the Post-Modern Mind. Welcome, Dr. Smith. HUSTON SMITH, Ph.D.: Thank you. MISHLOVE: It's a pleasure to have you here. Your background in religious studies and philosophy and psychology is very extensive, and the topic that we're going to discuss is so very broad in some ways; there are so many religions and they're so diverse. And yet ultimately they all seem to reflect the mind of man. Would you say that as a scholar of religion you've become a more religious person yourself? SMITH: I certainly don't feel that I've become less religious, and I also feel that these studies have deepened and broadened my -- what? -- my beliefs. In that sense I guess one might say more religious. I think I might prefer to say perhaps a little more maturely religious, because I didn't have a strong religious bent from my adolescence on. MISHLOVE: It's, I suppose, always a little delicate for a scholar, who is supposed to be objective, to study something as intense and passionate as religion can be. SMITH: Well, some see it as a problem, but I've been fortunate that it's never been a conflict for me, because it seems to me that the opposite would be very difficult -- that if you were studying something you were not really in love with, or you felt that it could not bear the light of careful analysis and added information, now that would be a real tension, a real conflict. But it's been one of my blessings, I think, that I've been able to spend my professional life working on precisely what concerns me most. MISHLOVE: My first encounter in a personal or a deep way with the psychology of religious experience came from, of course, reading William James's classic -- SMITH: A wonderful book. MISHLOVE: -- in which he described his experiments with nitrous oxide and other drugs at the time. SMITH: That's right, yes. Very courageous, adventuresome mind. MISHLOVE: And also in the mid-sixties, reading a book by Timothy Leary and Ralph Metzner called The Psychedelic Experience, in which they attempted to create the analogy between the pantheon of gods in the Hindu and Buddhist traditions with the dynamic forces working in the subconscious mind. SMITH: Yes, yes. Well, that was a very interesting and indeed important -- what shall I say? -- happening of our time, because this correlation and connection, it's a very delicate one, as we all know. But between artificially induced paranormal experiences and ones that come naturally, they can have, and do at times have, a great deal in common. MISHLOVE: An overlap, at least. SMITH: A huge overlap. And the discovery of these substances -- actually a rediscovery, because knowledge of them goes back at least three thousand years, and perhaps much further than that -- but the fact that we now know how they work on the brain has opened this up as a field of study which it had not been before. MISHLOVE: You were involved in some of the early work at that time. SMITH: Well, actually I was right at the eye of the cyclone. That was 1960, and I was teaching at MIT, and I had arranged to have Aldous Huxley come on an endowed program which enabled luminaries in the humanities to come to MIT. So I was his host for the fall of 1960 at MIT, and of course he had written the book The Doors of Perception, which was one of the opening books in this area. MISHLOVE: Describing his experiences with -- mescaline? SMITH: Mescaline. Well, it just happened that that September, when Aldous Huxley arrived at MIT, was the exact month that Timothy Leary arrived at Harvard from Berkeley. And on the way -- you know the story; it's part of history now -- on his way, he took a vacation swing down into Mexico, and on the edge of a swimming pool one afternoon ingested -- what? -- seven mushrooms which opened up his mind in ways that totally startled, took him by surprise. MISHLOVE: Psilocybin mushrooms, I presume. SMITH: That's right, that's right. He had arrived at Harvard with a blank check. He was a research professor, had accepted an appointment as research professor in the Center for Personality Study, and he could pick his subject, whatever he wanted to work on. And the moment he had that experience, he was of course absolutely fascinated and mystified by how mushrooms could cause that kind of impact upon his mind, but he didn't know what to do with it. But he had read Huxley's book. So I actually had a part in getting the two of them together, and it's true, for that fall the three of us were very much in the ring in this matter. MISHLOVE: This was at a time, of course, when these drugs were perfectly legal. SMITH: Not only legal, but this was respectable. It was research at Harvard University. One of the first things that Leary did was to mount an open study in which people would simply report their experiences, but he found so many of those experiences had a mystical cast to them that he began reaching out for someone who might know something about mysticism. And that's where he tapped me and involved me in the project. MISHLOVE: You had been studying mysticism long before this, I presume. SMITH: That's true, right. MISHLOVE: Had you thought about the relationship between mysticism and drugs prior to your encounters with Leary and Huxley? SMITH: Well, only academically, in that I had read descriptions, also Huxley's in The Doors of Perception, and as he points out there, phenomenologically, which is to say descriptively, if you match descriptions of the experience, they are indistinguishable. I actually conducted an experiment on that in which I took snippets or paragraphs from classic mystical experiences, and then descriptions of experiences under the psychedelics which were mystical. Of course not all experiences under those have that character, but those that did. And then I shuffled them up and gave them to people who were knowledgeable about mysticism, and asked them to sort them in what they thought -- MISHLOVE: Which came from the real mystics and which came from the drug users. SMITH: Exactly. And there was no reliability in their predictions. MISHLOVE: That sounds similar to a more recent piece of work I know Lawrence LeShan did, where he took statements of mystics and statements of physicists and compared them, and they seemed almost indistinguishable as well. SMITH: That's right. I'd like to add one other thing. So phenomenologically, which again means simply descriptively, one cannot tell the difference. But I think I would want to say that that's not the only dimension, because religion is not simply an experience; religion is a way of life. And experiences come and go, but quality of life is what religion is concerned with. So one has to ask also, not only do they feel the same, but is their impact on the life the same? MISHLOVE: Well, I think especially now that we can look back after twenty years from the original psychedelic experiments of that type, you can see distinct differences between psychedelic cults and real deep religious traditions. SMITH: That's right. So I think it's important that, having touched on this subject, we not leave the impression that the two are identical in every respect. Simply descriptively they are indistinguishable. MISHLOVE: What about the original insight that Leary seemed to have in The Psychedelic Experience that the gods really do exist within us? I think what he was saying in effect is that the pantheons of gods from the ancient pantheistic religions are real active forces, even of a paranormal variety, within our own minds, even if we're Jews or Christians. SMITH: Yes. Well, that's another very interesting development in our time -- that in the religions of the West, up to this point divine forces have been imaged externally from the self. But when one comes to think of it, when one talks about things of the spirit geography falls away, because the spirit is not bound by space and time, and therefore the distinction between out there and in here, which in our everyday life is very important -- once one modulates to matters of the spirit this whole framework of space and time and matter sort of drops away. What we are now coming to see is that this talk about out there has a certain naturalness, but also certain limitation. One can just as easily turn the tables and talk about the divine within. If I can put it one other way: when one looks out upon the world, value terms -- that is, what is good, are imaged as up there. The gods -- MISHLOVE: Heaven. SMITH: Heaven; and the gods are on the mountaintops, and angels always sing on high. They don't sing out of the depths, the bowels of the earth. But when we introspect -- and by the way that imagery is natural, because sun and rain come from on high too -- but when we turn our attention inward and introspect, then we reach for the other kind of imagery, of depth. You know, we talk about profound and deep thought. All this is leading up to the fact that in point of fact this distinction between out there and in here is artificial and only metaphorical when we're talking about things of the spirit. And now I think in our time -- this is one of the changes -- having worked in imagery of the divine being out there, now there is a move towards realizing or exploring ways in which the same reality can be discovered within oneself. MISHLOVE: Another related notion, I think, is the one originally developed by Durkheim, the French sociologist, in which he suggests that religions are really representations of the group mind of a society, and that the god of each culture is an embodiment of what he called the group mind. He almost described that in ways that seemed quite paranormal to me, when you begin talking about group mind -- something like a Jungian collective unconscious. SMITH: Well, again, I think it's very useful. For one thing, we are too much given to the notion that the mind is simply attached to the brain, and therefore because the brain has a given geographical locus, then the mind must too. But I remember in a weekend conference down in Tucson a few years ago with Gregory Bateson, he posed to the psychologists Rollo May, Carl Rogers -- all those people were there -- he said, "Where is your mind?" And it sort of took everybody aback. But what he was leading up to is it's quite wrong to think of the mind as lodged inside this skin-encapsulated ego, as Alan Watts used to call it -- that the mind reaches out as far as one's environment extends, in Bateson's notion. MISHLOVE: And of course we can always go back to the argument of Bishop Berkeley that the entire physical universe, that everything we experience -- your TV sets, for example -- exist only in your mind. SMITH: Right. MISHLOVE: There's no other way to identify them. SMITH: And we talk about ecology of nature now, but the ecology of mind, we're just beginning to get used to that idea. And yet it's an experience. One can walk into the room, and in current terminology, feel vibrations. You can sometimes feel like a wall of anger or hostility, but one can also sense an ambiance of peace, and now the physicists are realizing that physical phenomena really float on networks and webs of relationship. So we're only now coming to see that our minds too derive, they sort of factor out and congeal out of a psychic medium that Durkheim, I think, was quite right in identifying. MISHLOVE: You know, I notice though in contemporary religions, particularly amongst the evangelistic Christians who are experiencing such a revival, they're very concerned about certain errors that people fall into -- you know, the notion that one might identify oneself with God in an egotistical way. How do you feel about that? SMITH: Well, I think they've got a point. I mean, if someone comes along and says, "I am God," it's perfectly reasonable to ask, "Well, your behavior doesn't exactly exemplify that fact." God by definition is perfect, and what human being can make that claim? So I think the ministers that you refer to have a good point, but it doesn't annul the concept of the divine within, which remains valid. The distinction can come, even if we think of the divine within, as Hinduism puts it, and they have been perhaps the most explicit of all the great traditions in saying that ultimately, in the final analysis, in their terminology, Atman is Brahman. Atman is the God within, and Brahman is the God without. But then they deal with the point you're raising by saying, well, a lantern may have a functioning light within it, but it may be coated not only with dust and soot, but in egregious cases with mud, to the point where that light does not shine through at all. So both things are true, but both need to be said in the same breath. Namely, I believe that it is true that in the final analysis we are divine and are God, but we should immediately acknowledge how caked and coated we are with dross that conceals that divinity, and it's, one's tempted to say, an endless quest to clean the surface, to let the light shine through. MISHLOVE: We were discussing earlier in the program some of your experiences with some of the very primitive peoples, such as the aborigines in Australia, in their I suppose naive native religions, their having a real sense of contact with this level of reality. SMITH: Well, they do, in two ways, Australian aborigines. One is that they distinguish between our everyday experience and what they call the dreaming. The dreaming is another level of experience, in which they participate in the life of their ancestors, and indeed the creation of the world, in I suppose we might call it a trancelike state, but that doesn't quite do it, because even in the midst of their ordinary life, half of their mind, you might say, is still on or in this dreaming state. But then there's another way in which they're in touch with it, and this has to do with parapsychology as we know the word -- telepathy, specifically. I was in Australia, basically giving a series of lectures at all the universities there, but using my spare time to come in touch with the aborigines, and so I sought out at every university the anthropologists who introduced me and put me in touch with them. And I did not in that entire swing meet an anthropologist who was not convinced that the aborigines had telepathic powers. They simply told me story after story, when they would be with them, and suddenly one of the persons would say, "I must go back to the tribe; so and so has died." MISHLOVE: That's a strong statement coming from anthropologists, who tend to be quite skeptical. SMITH: That's right. Their theory was, insofar as they had a theory, the presumption was that these are normal human powers, but like any power it can atrophy if unused, and also can be short-circuited if our conceptual mind doubts that it is real. MISHLOVE: So would you say there are some religious traditions that encourage the development and the cultivation of the psychic side of human beings more than others? SMITH: Well, it's interesting. I'll put it the other way, slightly differently. That is to say that most of them believe that these powers are there and that they do increase as spiritual advancement occurs. However, they also warn against it, and say if you make this the goal, why, you're settling for too little. And also there are some dangers; for one thing, this is treacherous water where one is not totally benign, but also there's a strong temptation, as these siddhis, as the Indians call them -- MISHLOVE: Powers. SMITH: Powers, yes. As powers become available to you, people's heads get turned, and they become egotistic in their abilities. And so in that way it can be counter-productive to the spiritual quest. So the greatest teachers are quite unanimous in saying they come, but pay no attention to them. MISHLOVE: But aren't there traditions -- the shamanistic tradition, the Tantric tradition -- which really do emphasize these powers? SMITH: That is certainly so. Now, I guess I tipped my hand a little bit in excluding them from the most profound spiritual masters. MISHLOVE: Perhaps you do have some preferences. SMITH: Well, shamanism is immensely fascinating, and extremely important in the history of religion. But sanctity one does not associate with shamans. They have immense power, and it can be misused as well as used. I think on balance it's been used. So I value them, but they're neither -- what shall I say? -- saints nor philosophers. MISHLOVE: Well, perhaps we might liken the psychic abilities in this sense to musical ability, or any other natural talent that could be used in different ways. And some religions cultivate music, I suppose, more than others. SMITH: That's right, that's right. Most shamans are very much linked with the people, in helping them with practical problems of life. But the aspect of religion that has to do with virtues and compassion and loving-kindness, now, this kind of thing is when I speak of profundity, getting into those waters. The shamans, that's not their forte. They have a different role. MISHLOVE: Well, as our program is beginning to wind up, I wonder if you could comment on two things. One is a little bit more on how your exploration of religions has affected you personally, and perhaps we can tie it to our viewing audience a little bit. Is there some message that you would have for those people who would be viewing us right now, in terms of what your studies might convey to them? SMITH: Yes. Well, like any term religion can be defined as one wishes, and if one links it to institutions, I think religious institutions are indispensable, but they're clearly a mixed bag, and we've had the wars of religions; but I tend to think this is the nature of institutions and people in the aggregate. What government has a clean or perfect record, you know? MISHLOVE: We're running out of time. SMITH: In one sentence. But I think if one takes a basic religious world view, this is not only important but it's true, and we need to keep our ears open to those truths. MISHLOVE: In spite of those problems. Dr. Smith, it's been a real pleasure having you with me today. Thank you very much. Go to Thinking Allowed book of transcripts Thinking Allowed Productions , 2560 Ninth St., Suite 123, Berkeley CA 94710 Phone:(510) 548-4415; Fax: (510) 548-4275; Toll free: (800) 999-4415. All rights reserved. 1995-1999 TAP Website designed by HYPERSPHERE .
Alister Hardy Trust: Religious Experience Research CentreInterdisciplinary centre based at the University of Wales. Includes details of current and previous research projects, forthcoming events, and an MA course studying religious and spiritual experiences.
alisterhardytrust.org.uk This page uses frames, but your browser doesn't support them.
University of Kent at CanterburyOne-year MA in the Study of Mysticism and Religious Experience, including study of Kabbalah, Sufism, Buddhism, and Eastern Orthodox Christian theology.
MA in the study of mysticism and religious experience at the University of Kent, UK Religious Studies at the University of Kent (Canterbury, UK) MA in the study of mysticism and religious experience A unique programme of coursework and research available full-time or part-time programme convenors: Dr Peter Moore Dr Leon Schlamm This taught MA programme is distinctive both in subject-matter and in approach, offering an experience of study intermediate between that of a conventional coursework MA and the completely independent mode of study characteristic of a research degree. It gives students the freedom to work on essays and dissertations tailored to their particular interests, and to develop and exchange ideas within a community of like-minded individuals. The study of mysticism and religious experience, centred in the broad field of religious studies, involves disciplines as diverse as philosophy, theology, psychology, parapsychology, anthropology, sociology, classics, history, literature, linguistics, art history, medicine and psychiatry. Who is eligible to register for this programme? Applications are invited from graduates with a good first degree and an academic background in religious studies, theology, philosophy of religion or psychology of religion. Faculty regulations require applicants to submit a recent sample of written work (preferably a marked essay) as evidence of their academic competence. Two academic references are also required. Some of our graduates stay on at Kent to do further research (MPhil or PhD). How long does the programme take to complete? Students may take the course on a full-time basis (in one year), on a part-time basis (over two years), or on a credit basis (module by module over three or more years). Applications are welcome throughout the year. The teaching programme begins in late September and ends at the beginning of June. Dissertations are submitted at the end of August. Most classes take place on Thursdays. What does the programme comprise? The programme comprises six modules worth 180 credits in total: two core modules (30 credits each); one special option module (30 credits); one research skills module (15 credits); one supervised essay module (15 credits); and one dissertation (60 credits). The completion of each module is defined by the submission of an appropriate item of written work by the due deadline . The degree of MA is awarded when all six pieces of work have been completed to a satisfactory standard. 1. Methods and theories in the study of religious experience ( 24 weeks course plus one essay) 2. Mystical traditions: texts and hermeneutics (24 weeks course plus one textual commentary) 3. Selected special option (12 week course plus one essay) 4. Research and computing skills (one annotated bibliography, literature review or set of web pages) 5. History of mystical traditions (one supervised essay) 6. Dissertation (research on an approved topic) The two core modules Methods and theories in the study of religious experience . In Term 1 the course explores the methodological basis for the historical and comparative study of religious experience (and more particularly of the texts dealing with such experience); in Term 2 the course reviews some of the theories and debates informing modern scholarship. In Term 3 final year students give presentations on their dissertation projects. Mystical traditions: texts and hermeneutics (also known as 'The Text Seminar') offers an opportunity for the exegesis and discussion of selected texts from various religious traditions. Students write a commentary on a selected text. Full-time and part-time students complete the two core modules in their first year. Credit students must take the first core module as their first module, and the second core module as their second, third or fourth module. Research and computing skills module For this module students receive advice and instruction relating to skills in information retrieval, word-processing and bibliography. Work for this module is expected to support work done for the other modules, especially the dissertation. Supervisions are arranged on an individual basis, though there are also group sessions and library demonstrations. Further details about this module . The special option In addition to the compulsory core modules, students select one of the following special options: Analytical Psychology and Eastern Mysticism , The Medieval Christian Cosmos , or Perspectives on the Near-Death Experience . These modules typically run for 12 weeks. Subject to the joint approval of the relevant course convenors, candidates may substitute for the special option either a module from another MA programme (e.g. the MA in Applied Theology, the MA in Cosmology and Divination , or the MA in Medieval and Tudor Studies) or a final year module from the Humanities undergraduate programme, or an additional supervised essay. History of mystical traditions (supervised essay) For this module students negotiate a suitable topic with a member of the teaching team. Students are assisted in selecting a theme, text or author from one of the world's mystical traditions, and in devising a research strategy. Dissertation on an approved topic Students select a suitable dissertation topic in consultation with the course convenors, building on ideas and interests emerging from seminars, reading and essay work. The completed dissertation, 12-15,000 words in length, is submitted at the end of August. When does the teaching take place? Courses are scheduled for Thursday and Friday. The two core courses are taught on Thursday afternoons (2.30-4 and 4.30-6). Supporting facilities The University's Templeman Library houses an excellent collection of books and periodicals relating to all the themes represented in the programme. It also provides easy access to the full range of computer-based resources. Staff and students (including past graduates) keep in regular touch with one another via email and the programme's own 'virtual-mystics' discussion list. The University of Kent campus enjoys an ideal location in the South East corner of England, on the outskirts of the town but within easy reach of the centre. There are good road and rail links to London, which is only 60 miles away; and the European mainland is easily accessible via the nearby channel ports and the Channel Tunnel. Established in 1965, the University has about 12,000 students. The MA in the study of Mysticism Religious Experience is taught within the School of European Culture and Languages, which is part of the Faculty of Humanities. How can I find out more about this programme? To receive further information about the programme, and details about how to apply, please contact the Religious Studies secretary, Ms Alison Priest . For details about fees and the payment of fees, please consult the graduate prospectus or the University website . Applying for the programme You can apply either by post or on-line, but either way you are strongly advised to email the programme convenor ( Dr Leon Schlamm ) if and when you have done so. The Recruitment and Admissions Office at the University cannot release your application for approval until two references and a sample of written work have been received. It is in the interests of all applicants to encourage both referees to send in their reports in good time. Recommended reading Initial reading for students applying for or interested in this MA programme. General bibliography illustrating the scope and diversity of the programme. Enquiries are also welcome from those interested in pursuing independent research (for the degree of MA, MPhil or PhD) in the the following subject areas: mysticism, parapsychology, psychology and religion, philosophy of relgion, phenomenology of religion, religion and literature, religion and the arts, sacred art and symbolism. Also available at Kent: MA in Cosmology and Divination . This page last updated: September 2005 web page design: Peter Moore
Heythrop College, University of LondonProgram of study for the only English-language Psychology of Religion Masters degree in the world.
Postgraduate degrees at Heythrop If you can't see the menu below, you will need to download the Flash Player . This is a small download. MA IN PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION One year full-time; two years part-time Detailed Programme Specification for this module Fee information The programme introduces students to the psychological study of religion through a critical and reflective investigation of major psychological approaches to understanding religious beliefs, values and behaviour from the late nineteenth century. It is a Psychology of religion degree rather than a religious psychology degree that is, it approaches religion from the standpoint of psychology, without making any assumptions about particular religious truths and values, and asks what psychology can offer to our understanding of peoples religious beliefs, values, and behaviour. Its contemporary relevance and focus is prompted by rapid social, cultural and technological change, by attempts to understand religious pluralism in modern society and the emergence of conflicts internationally wherein religious outlooks, beliefs and values are constitutive factors. In addressing these issues, the programme explores personal religious experience, the relationship between religious belief and behaviour, and between religion, mental health and well-being generally, and the importance of social, contextual and cultural factors in religious development. It provides an important link between psychology as a social or human science, the different religious traditions and the practice of contemporary theology and philosophy. It offers the possibility of specialisation unavailable elsewhere The programme is intended to be of interest to a wide group of people: teachers of religious education, nurses and mental health professionals, palliative and pastoral care workers, parish counsellors, pastoral assistants, priests and ministers of religion. It is especially suited to those who are trained in psychology or psychotherapy, but is also well suited to those who have an academic background in theology or religious studies and wish to deepen their understanding of how psychology can contribute to these disciplines and their associated areas of practice. Aims of the Degree: To provide a foundation in Psychology of Religion by introducing students to a range of different psychological approaches to the study of religion; To appreciate some aspects of the history of the field and how that history has influenced contemporary approaches to research in the context of religious pluralism; To provide the conceptual tools necessary for insight into the processes and meanings of religious experience, belief and behaviour in the lives of individuals and groups; To enable students to develop a critical and evaluative understanding of different approaches to the psychological study of religion through the options selected; To develop a capacity to present a detailed study of particular topics; To develop a perspective and to undertake research in the psychology of religion at an appropriate level. Entry Qualifications: A first or second class honours degree, or equivalent, in Theology, Religious Studies or Psychology. Applicants whose first language is not English should have an IELTS score of 6.5.
European Diploma of Advanced Studies in Psychology of ReligionDetails of third cycle diploma offered by a number of European Universities.
UCL - European Network in Psychology of Religion UCLUniversit catholique de Louvain Faculty of psychology and educational studies Centre for psychology of religion European Diploma of Advanced Studies in Psychology of Religion A number of European Universities offer a third cycle diploma of advanced studies in psychology of religion. This program is offering to people having a degree in psychology, theology, religious sciences, philosophy, educational sciences, ... who are interested in psychological understanding of religion and religious phenomena as well as interdisciplinarity between psychology and religious studies. It implies the participation in research projects and teams, intellectual openness to different fields, exchanges in international level. In addition to theoretical-research aspect, this program presents an interest for possible applications at work (clinical practice, counseling, understanding contemporary religious phenomena, ...). Universities partners Specific domains of interest Program Duration Conditions Cost For more informations Universities partners - persons to contact Universities partners The advanced studies offering the above diploma can be realized in one of the following universities which constitute the "European Interuinversity Network in Psychology of Religion": -Abo Akademi University (Finland) -Universiteit van Amsterdam (The Netherlands) -Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium) -Universit catholique de Louvain (Belgium) -Lund Universitet (Sweden) -Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen (The Netherlands) -Uppsala Universitet (Sweden) -Universitt Wien (Austria) Coordinator: Universit catholique de Louvain (Belgium) : President: Prof. Jean-Marie Jaspard : The candidate's registration to one of the above universities gives him her the possibility to realize the entire program in that university, but also -that is more desirable- to effect a part of his her studies in another university of the Network. Top of page Specific domains of interest clinical psychology of religion social psychology of religion developmental psychology of religion personality psychology and religion hermeneutical, phenomenological, historical psychology of religion religion and culture (including gender) pastoral psychology Top of page Program The program includes the following elements: a) A research practicum: realization of a research project in psychology of religion, resulting in the writing of a report which will become the object of an official presentation and defense. The project will be developed according to the individual interests of the student in the context of a qualified team of researchers b) Involvement in the scientific communication (written and oral) of research c) A specialized seminar in psychology of religion d) Theoretical and methodological seminars in which special attention will be given to epistemological and ethical problems. Top of page Duration One year. Possibilities to realize the program in two years depend on the host university. Top of page Conditions - second cycle degree on human and social sciences - possibly more restrictive conditions for some universities of the Network (e.g. it may happen that a psychology department accept for this diploma only psychologists) Top of page Cost It depends on each university. Possibility of European students for an Erasmus exchange fellowship in order to do a part of the program in another University. Top of page For more informations For the Network in general and the psotgraduate program at the Universit catholique de Louvain contact vassilis.saroglou @psp.ucl.ac.be For the psotgraduate program in other Universities-partners contact the following corresponding persons Top of page Universities partners - persons to contact - Abo Akademi University Finland ( nholm@abo.fi ) -Universiteit van Amsterdam The Netherlands ( popp@hum.uva.nl ) -Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Belgium ( dirk.hutsebaut@psy.kuleuven.ac.be ) -Universit catholique de Louvain Belgium ( vassilis.saroglou@psp.ucl.ac.be ) - Lund Universitet Sweden ( antoon.geels@teol.lu.se ) -Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen The Netherlands ( j.a.janssen@psych.kun.nl ) - Uppsala Universitet Sweden ( valerie.demarinis@teol.uu.se ) -Universitt Wien Austria ( susanne.heine@univie.ac.at ) Top of page Updated: September 23, 2003 Responsible: V.Saroglou UCL Department of psychology and education Centre for psychology of religion
Blanton-Peale Graduate InstituteA New York based multi-faith graduate institute offering a program in Pastoral Care Studies, and residencies in Marriage and Family Therapy, Pastoral Psychotherapy, and Psychotherapy and Spirituality.
Blanton-Peale Home Page Your browser does not support script 3 West 29th Street New York, NY 10001-4597 Tel.: 212-725-7850 Fax: 212-689-3212 Email: info@blantonpeale.org The Blanton-Peale Institute is a multifaith, non-sectarian educational and service organization that was founded in 1937 by the internationally famous pastor and author, the Rev. Norman Vincent Peale (of Marble Collegiate Church ), and the eminent psychiatrist Dr. Smiley Blanton. Blanton-Peale was established to bring together the insights of the evolving fields of psychiatry and psychotherapy with the wisdom of the great spiritual traditions to help modern men and women, families and caregivers, deal with the psychological, emotional, and spiritual stresses of contemporary life. Blanton-Peale is the hub of a network of affiliated counseling centers and educational institutions that share its philosophy in the tri-state area and nationally. PSYCHOANALYTIC LICENSING On October 20th, 2005, the Blanton-Peale Institute received word from the State Education Department of New York announcing that Blanton-Peale's Psychoanalytic Program is now registered as a licensable program under Subchapter A of the Regulations of the Commissioner of Education (Chapter II of Title 8 of the Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York). In short, our Psychoanalytic Program is now license qualifying. Services and Programs Spiritually based psychoanalytic training: A three-year program that creates mature, skilled therapists familiar with the psychological aspects of the religions and cultural experiences of their patients. While in training a Resident spends a minimum of a 1,000 hours working with patients, and receives more than 200 hours of multidisciplinary supervision. Spiritually based marriage and family therapy training: A two-year program provides 500 hours of working with individuals, couples and familys. The Resident receives more than 200 hours of multi-disceplenary supervison. Pastoral Care: Clergy and lay caregivers attend a continuing education program, which is professionally accredited by the American Association of Pastoral Counselors. Multicultural mental health resources: A high proportion of those enrolled in Blanton-Peale programs are African Americans and Asian Americans working in troubled urban neighborhoods. Affordable counseling: The Blanton-Peale Counseling Center is a licensed, non-profit, non-sectarian, multicultural and multi-faith counseling center. While there are set fees, there is a sliding scale based on income and the total number of family members. Blanton-Peale provides subsidized therapy fees of some $250,000 each year. The 2005 Norman Vincent Peale Awards for Positive Thinking Gala Awards Dinner, honoring Dr. Arthur Caliandro Senior Minister, Marble Collegiate Church and Deborah Toll Reynolds Founder Chairman of the Greenwich Bible Study. Thursday, November 3, 2005 at The Sky Club, New York City Click here to view a letter from Kathryn Madden, our Dean and CEO. Click here to view a Biography of Kathryn Madden. Click here to view the Application Form for our Academic Programs (PDF). Click here to view our Academic Catalog (PDF). Click here to view the Application Form for the Pastoral Care Studies Program (PDF). Click here to view our Pastoral Care Studies Catalog (PDF). Psychological and Spiritual Support and Counseling Service to those seeking psychological and spiritual growth and healing. Blanton-Peale's state licensed Headquarters' Counseling Center at 3 West 29th Street in Manhattan, as well as its many community centers, provide counseling, therapy, psychiatric evaluation and support groups for individuals and families seeking both psychological as well as spiritual help. Education in Spiritually Oriented Psychotherapy The Blanton-Peale Graduate Institute The Institute offers certificate programs for mental health professionals and members of the clergy which emphasize the interrelation of the spiritual and psychological aspects of psychotherapeutic work. Advanced training is offered in professionally accredited programs in Psychoanalysis, Psychoanalytic Pastoral Counseling and Marriage and Family Therapy. The Pastoral Care Studies Program The Program helps clergy and lay leaders from diverse religious traditions develop the psychological awareness needed to deal effectively with the complex needs of their communities while engaging in their own personal psychological and spiritual growth. Research and Publication Blanton-Peale's Research and Publications Committee initiates projects which advance the interdisciplinary field of Psychology and Religion for which the Institute was founded. Blanton-Peale publishes the scholarly Journal of Religion and Health.
Society for the Scientific Study of ReligionOrganization for psychologists and sociologists studying religion. News, membership information, journal, forthcoming conference.
SSSR About SSSR Annual Meetings Membership Change of address Annual Awards and Grants Job Grant Opportunities Newsletters Member Publications Monographs Officers Council Past Presidents Religion Links Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion Author guidelines for JSSR 2005 Annual Meeting Preliminary Program SSSR Exhibit invite! Direct all program corrections and concerns to Larry Greil at fgreil@alfred.edu Audio-Visual Equipment An overhead projector and screen are provided in all conference sessions. If you require any other audio-visual equipment, please contact Larry Greil at fgreil@alfred.edu at as soon as possible. It may not be possible to honor requests for audio-visual equipment that are not made until you arrive at the conference. 2005 Annual Meeting Program Highlights Online Annual Meeting Registration Downloadable Annual Meeting Registration form Online Hotel Registration The phone number for Hyatts central reservation department is 1-800-233-1234. Callers will just need to identify themselves as SSSR RRA conference attendees. Tours Air Travel Ground Transportation Roommate Service FastCounter by central 2005 Annual Meeting Hyatt Regency Rochester 125 East Main St. Rochester NY Nov 4-6 Area attractions, and Restaurants, Rochester New York DISPLAY YOUR BOOKS IN ROCHESTER Sabbatical Grant For Pastoral Leaders Information Renew your membership on-line ! Annual Awards and Grants Nominations JOIN THE SOCIETY "The Society for the Scientific Study of Religion is not an Alfred University organization or in any way affiliated with Alfred University. Alfred University does not compile or maintain any information about the members of SSSR." SSSR Arthur L. Greil, Alfred University Division of Social Sciences Saxon Drive, Alfred New York 14802 USA Telephone 607-871-2215 Fax 607-871-2085 sssr@alfred.edu
Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest GroupRoyal College of Psychiatrists SIG. History of group, full-text articles, reading list, newsletter archives, and online application form.
The College - The Royal College of Psychiatrists Home College Members Publications Training Events Press Parliament CRU Campaigns Mental Health Info The College home What we do Vacancies Divisions Divisions home Eastern Irish College of Psychiatrists London Northern Yorkshire Northern Ireland Northwest Scottish Southeast Southwest Trent Welsh West Midlands Faculties Faculties home Addictions Child adolescent Forensic General community Learning disability Liaison Old age Psychotherapy Rehab social Sections Sections home Perinatal Special interest groups Special interest groups home Adolescent Forensic Psychiatry Eating disorders Gay lesbian Management in psychiatry Mental Health Informatics Neuropsychiatry Philosophy Private independent practice Psychopharmacology Spirituality and psychiatry Transcultural psychiatry Women in psychiatry International Committee structure Library and information Equality and diversity Public members list Ethics Advanced Search Printable Version Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest Group About the Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest Group (SIG) Executive Forthcoming Events Publications Archive Resource List Newsletters How to Join Annual Report 2005 Spirituality and Psychiatry SIG The Special Interest Group was set up in 1999 to provide a forum for psychiatrists to explore the influence of the major religions, which shape the cultural values and aspirations of psychiatrist and patient alike. The spiritual aspirations of persons not identifying with any one particular faith are held to be of no less importance, as well as the viewpoint of those who hold that spirituality is independent of religion. The meetings are designed to enable colleagues to investigate and share without fear of censure the relevance of spirituality to clinical practice. The Special Interest Group aims to contribute a framework of ideas of general interest to the College, stimulating discussion and promoting an integrative approach to mental health care. For patients, there is the need to help the service user feel supported in being able to bring spiritual concerns to the fore. Over recent years, there have been a number of calls for an approach encompassing mind, body and spirit. The College was urged to do so by its patron, HRH the Prince of Wales in 1991. Professor Andrew Sims raised the issue again in 1993 in his Presidential Valedictory Lecture, as did Professor John Cox, the incumbent president of the College, at the Annual College meeting of that same year. In 1997, the Archbishop of Canterbury addressed the Joint Conference of the College and the Association of European Psychiatrists. There has been growing interest in the series of Religion and Psychiatry Conferences held at the Institute of Psychiatry and other regional individual initiatives have been taking place. In 1998, a survey by the Mental Health Foundation revealed that over fifty per cent of service users hold religious or spiritual beliefs, which they see as important in helping them cope with mental illness, and highlighted the need expressed by many patients for encouragement in discussing such concerns with the psychiatrist. Spirituality can be as broad as 'the essentially human, personal and interpersonal dimension, which integrates and transcends the cultural, religious, psychological, social and emotional aspects of the person' or more specifically 'concerned with soul or spirit' (the term 'spiritual' is now included in DSM IV under the heading of 'other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention'). The Special Interest Group has a correspondingly varied and wide-ranging agenda, including consideration of protective factors that spiritually sustain the patient in crisis and otherwise contribute to mental health. Spiritual values have a universality which brings together all involved in mental health care. The Special Interest Group supports the exploration of such fundamental questions as the purpose and meaning of life, which are so important for mental health, as well as the problem of good and evil and a wide range of specific experiences invested with spiritual meaning including birth, death and near-death, mystical and trance states and varieties of religious experience. Both pathological and normal human experiences are considered in order to understand better the overlap and difference between the two. The membership now stands at over 1000. One-day meetings (held at the College) include: 'What do we mean by spirituality and its relation to psychiatry?' (January 2000) 'Fear and Faith - the quandary of the psyche under threat'. (April 2000) 'Avenues to peace of mind'. (October 2000) 'Forgiveness and reconciliation'. (Jan 2001) 'Engaging the spiritual mind'. (May 2001) 'The healing power of love'. (November 2001) 'Good and Evil - the Challenge for Psychiatry'. (February 2002) 'Integrating Mind and Body: psycho-spiritual therapeutics'. (July 2002) 'Pathways to Peace - East meets West'. (November 2002) 'Invited or not, God is here: spiritual aspects of the therapeutic encounter'. (January 2003) 'Minds within Minds: the case for Spirit Release Therapy'. (May 2003) 'Spiritual Issues in Child Psychiatry'. (October 2003) 'Prayer in the Service of Mental Health'. (January 2004) A Fatal Wound? Who and What does Suicide destroy. (October 2004) What Inspires the Psychiatrist? Personal; beliefs, attitudes and values (January 2005) Open conferences have included The Place of Spirituality in Psychiatry held jointly with the Royal Society of Medicine (2002), Beyond Death Does Consciousness Survive? at Kings College Hospital, London (2004) and on May 9th 2005, jointly with the RSM, Healing from Within and Beyond the Therapeutic Power of Altered States. The Executive has submitted detailed proposals to the College for the revised curriculum for Basic Specialist Training and the MRCPsych examinations and requirements for CCST competencies. The Special Interest Group is supporting an important educational initiative launched by the Janki Foundation on Values in Healthcare. Full details can be found in Newsletter No. 15. and enquiries for ordering the pack can be made to values@jankifoundation.org or The Janki Foundation for Global Health Care, Values in Healthcare, 449 451 High Road, London NW10 2JJ, UK. tel: 0208 459 1400 9090 The Special Interest Group has established a College prize of 250 to be awarded annually to the best entry or joint best entries furthering the issue of spirituality as it relates to psychiatry and to enhance psychiatric practice and improve the quality of care delivered to patients and carers. Further details can be found in Newsletter No. 15. Executive Member Position Year of joining Dr Sarah Eagger Chairman 2005 (E) Dr Christopher Findlay Honorary Secretary 2005 (C) Dr Cherrie Coghlan Committee Member 1999 (C) Prof. Christopher Cook Committee Member 2004 (C) Dr Nicola Crowley Committee Member 2001 (C) Dr Larry Culliford Committee Member 1999 (C) Dr Kedar Dwivedi Committee Member 2004 (C) Dr Peter Fenwick Committee Member 1999 (C) Dr Robert Lawrence Committee Member 2001 (C) Dr Andrew Powell Newsletter Editor 1999 (EX) Dr Sherifat Raji Committee Member 2001 (C) Dr Timothy Read Finance Officer 2005 (E) Prof. Andrew Sims Committee Member 2005 (C) E = elected, C = co-opted, O = observer, EX = ex-officio. Forthcoming Events On December 14th, the Special Interest Group is jointly holding a one-day conference jointly with the Faculty of Old Age Psychiatry on 'Spirituality and Religion in Later Life'. Full details of all these events are available in the September 2005 issue No. 19 of the Newsletter. Newsletters Newsletter No. 19 - September 2005 Newsletter No. 18 - June 2005 Newsletter No. 17 - February 2005 Newsletter No. 16 - November 2004 Newsletter No. 15 - July 2004 Newsletter No. 14 - April 2004 Newsletter No. 13 - October 2003 Newsletter No. 12 - June 2003 Newsletter No. 11 - March 2003 Newsletter No. 10 - December 2002 Newsletter No. 9 - August 2002 Newsletter No. 8 - June 2002 Newsletter No. 7 - April 2002 Newsletter No. 6 - December 2001 Newsletter No. 5 - September 2001 How to Join Membership of Special Interest Groups is open to all Members of or Associates of the College. Non-college membership and guest attendance is by invitation only. To join, please complete our online application form or email the College registration department: poconnor@rcpsych.ac.uk Back to Special Interest Group index | The College Home What's New? Site Map Contact Us 2004 Royal College of Psychiatrists
International Association for the Psychology of Religion (IAPR)Primarily European academic society. History of the organization, list of board members, activities, constitution, and membership form.
IAPR - Homepage IAPR International Association for the Psychology of Religion Welcome tothe Homepage of the International Association for the Psychology of Religion - IAPR (Internationale Gesellschaft fr Religionspsychologie - IGRP) Last update: October 2005 Webmaster: Sussan Namini Note: These pages are optimized for Internet Explorer 5 and Netscape 7.0. Disclaimer Home About the IAPR Board Activities IAPR Conference 2006 Membership Constitution Links
International Association of Spiritual PsychiatrySociety promoting the integration of the spiritual dimension into modern medicine, psychology and psychiatry. Details of past conferences, Spiramed mailing list, and contact details.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPIRITUAL PSYCHIATRY INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPIRITUAL PSYCHIATRY "Psychiatry, medicine of the soul" A site in French is available at : http: essence-euro.org The IASP does not function anymore as a non-profit organization, since December 2002. We keep open this site in order to offer an overview of what a spiritual approach to psychiatry could be. Some related texts are available on the website of the founder . Summary General presentation Conferences International participation Journal Internet Forum and Spiramed Golden Book Audiotapes Books Administration Membership Associate site Contact General presentation An International Association of Spiritual Psychiatry was founded in 1994 to promote the integration of the spiritual dimension into modern medicine, psychology and psychiatry. The association rallied about 250 members from many countries who together will try to participate in the creation of a psycho-spiritual medicine integrating scientific thought and mystical insight. Since its creation, the IASP has also been opened to the non-health professionals, in order to encourage a more global reflection. Thus, it was not necessary to be a therapist to become an IASP member. Conferences - London, Saturday June 19th. 1999 : Bridges to Spiritual Awareness - Emerging Approaches to Mental Health. A one day conference. - The IASP has already organized several International conferences. The topics were invitations to offer a new perspective into concepts widely used by conventional approaches to psychology and psychiatry. Most of the abstracts are directly available from this site. April 1994, Lyon, France, "Meditation and Psychotherapy" April 1995, Paris, France, "Psychotherapy and Self-Realization - The ego, the suffering, the end of suffering" October 1995, Cogolin, France, "Spiritual approach to fear - Fear of what? Fear of whom? Who fears?" January 1996, Saint-Louis, USA, "The quest for the true Self" April 1996, Paris, France, "The body, the mind, the absolute - Toward a medicine of Unity" July 13-14, 1996, Seattle, U.S.A., "Love, Therapist and Therapy - The healing power of love" July 27-28, Druyes-les-Belles-Fontaines (near Vezelay), France, "Medicine, Metaphysics and Meditation". October 4-6, 1996, Trimurti center, Riviera, France - "Spiritual approach to depression - Depression, Illusion, Plenitude" April 18-20, 1997, Paris, France, "Love, Therapist and Therapy" June 14-15, 1997, Geneva, Switzerland, "Spiritual approach to dependence - Drug, guru, meditation, steps toward autonomy" January 24-25, 1998, Paris: "The therapeutic accompaniment in the new century - Harmony, therapy and spirituality". This conference is organized by the International Association of Spiritual Psychiatry, the French Transpersonal Association and the International College of Therapists. Three sub-topics: "From the shadow to the light", "Meditation and healing", "Taking care of the being". A round table on "Toward a global vision of health". July 24-26, 1998, Druyes-Les-Belles-Fontaines, France - "Spiritual Therapies - A challenge for the 21st. Century". October 2-4, 1998, Cogolin (Riviera), France: "Spiritual approaches to the couple relationship - Accordance, discordance, transcendance". November 19-22, 1998, Mount Madonna Center, California, USA: " Spiritual Wisdom and Mental Health" . New York City, May 1999: "The question of Self - Scientific and Spiritual Approaches" Lyon, France, December 1998 or February 1999, "Mental Health and Spirituality" July 1999, Finland: "Spiritual approaches to suicide - Death of the body or death of the ego". In parallel, the IASP has developed a work involving religions, aimed at promoting a better understanding of the common denominator of the diverse religions and integrating self-knowledge and self-understanding in the field of religions. Three International conferences have been already organized since 1994 in Israel, country of birth of the three Abrahamic religions: November 1994, Jerusalem, Israel, "Meditation and Spiritual Tradition - Toward the essence of religion" November 1995, Jerusalem, Israel, "Ego's death and inner peace in spiritual traditions" May 8-9, 1997, Tel Aviv, "Love and Religion - The transcending healing power of love" International participation The IASP had also be represented in some International meetings: July 6-10, Lahti, Finland, World Conference on Mental Health, "Cornerstones in mental health". The IASP presented a workshop on "The integration of meditation in psychological and psychiatric treatments". August 21-24, Cambridge, England, "Beyond consciousness". A conference organized by the Scientific and Medical Network . The IASP presented a lecture on "Beyond psychology - A living exploration of that which is beyond the mind". October 26-27, 1997, Faculty of Medicine, Grenoble, France: "1st European conference on transpersonal psychotherapies". A conference organized by the Transpersonal Association Energy with the sponsoring of the International Association of Spiritual Psychiatry and the French Transpersonal Association. Journal Its journal published original articles which try to create a bridge between therapy and spirituality. It is published twice a year, in the spring and in the autumn, is edited in English and French, and contains a detailed members' directory, including biography, training, therapeutic orientation and full addresses. The activities were various: conferences, lectures, workshops, creation of psycho-spiritual medicine centers, forum Internet on spiritual approaches to medicine, psychology and psychiatry, cooperation with other associations, etc.. Internet Forum An Internet forum named 'Spiramed' was created at the beginning of Summer 1995, with the help of the Saint Johns of University, New York, N.Y.C.. Today there are about 200 subscribers and a level of activity of about 10-20 daily messages. The topic of this inspiring forum is "spiritual approach to medicine, psychology and psychiatry". The access is free. A second forum on "Psycho-Spiritual Approaches to Suicide" was set up. You will find some information at http: www.essence-euro.org iasp suicide.html Audiotapes The audio-tapes of most of the conferences are available in French or English (depending the countries). Books The association has published, in French, a first book ("Mditation et Psychothrapie", d. Le Fennec, 1995). Two other books in French and one in English are in preparation. Administration The IASP was using for its administrative functioning the framework of a non-profit association named Essence , based in France. IASP membership As the non profit organization closed in December 2002, there is no possible membership Associate site You are also welcome to visit our IASP Associate Site. Contact For further information about IASP activities, please contact the current IASP coordinator: Jean-Marc Mantel, M.D. info@jmmantel.net This site has been awarded a two-star rating on Mental Health Net, the largest catalog of mental health, psychology, and psychiatry resources online today. Last update: August 27, 2005 RETURN TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE
APA Division 36: Psychology of Religion SpiritualityDivision of the American Psychological Association. Officer contact details, past issues of the quarterly newsletter, and mission statement.
Psychology of Religion - APA Division 36 Division 36 of the American Psychological Association, Psychology of Religion, brings together psychologists who recognize the significance of religion both in the lives of people and in the discipline of psychology. The division is nonsectarian. Membership and division activities are open to members of all faiths as well as to those who are not religiously affiliated or do not profess a particular personal faith commitment. Division 36 seeks a broad dialogue on religion with all the areas of the social sciences. This area is one of the oldest in psychology; research on religious development and experience was conducted over a century ago, and both William James and G. Stanley Hall were leading psychologists of religion. Division 36 is working to re-establish the scientific psychology of religion to the respected status it once held so firmly in our discipline. If you have recommendations for the content of the site, please email them to the Webmaster . News Events: 2006 MID-YEAR MEETING: The registration flyer for the 2006 Mid-Year Meeting, to be held March 3-4 at Loyola College in Maryland, has been posted . UPDATE: Information has been added about the pre-conference training institute, to be held on March 2nd. NEWSLETTER UPDATE: The Fall 2005 issues of the Division Newsletter have been added to the site. Please click on the "Newsletter" link at left to access. Please note that this will be the last paper issue of the newsletter. In the future, all issues will be available through this web site. Members should send their current email address to president Mark McMinn, mark.mcminn@wheaton.edu to receive email notifications when each issue is posted. SOMMERVOGEL ARCHIVE: As a service to members, Division 36 is now supporting electronic access to the Sommervogel Archive, a psychology of religion research database developed by Michael Donahue that contains over 44,000 entries. The database includes books and book reviews as well as research articles. You can access the archive by clicking here: www.psywww.com psyrelig sommervogel.htm INCREASE IN RESEARCH SEED GRANTS: At the Mid-Year Conference, the Executive Committee of the Division voted to increase the amount of funding available from $250 to $1,000. The deadline for submission has also been changed to June 30. Click here for more information about this grant program. A section of this website has been dedicated to advertising of professional opportunities such as faculty positions, post-docs, and graduate programs. Click the "Professional Opportunities" button to the left to view. An email listserve for the Division has been created. If you are interested in subscribing to the list, click on "Electronic Resources" at left for information. Click here to download a PDF file of the Division Bylaws ( Adobe Acrobat Reader required). All content on this website is Psychology of Religion Spirituality-APA Div. 36 or its contributing authors. Do not use without permission. Report any problems to the Webmaster . Last modified Tuesday, October 25, 2005
Person, Culture and Religion Group (PCR)Forum associated with the American Academy of Religion for those with shared backgrounds in the fields of psychology, religion, and cultural theology. Full-text newsletter and papers for download; discussion list.
Person, Culture and Religion Group American Academy of Religion NEW Quick Guide to PCR Sessions at Annual Meeting (pdf) PCR News , Fall 2005 PCR Session Listings for 2005 Meeting in Philadelphia Full AAR meeting program now on AAR site 2004 PCR Session Listing : Annual Meeting November 2004. Draft papers from sessions are still online The Person, Culture Religion Group (PCR) is both an offical Group and an affiliated organization of the American Academy of Religion . It sponsors both formal academic sessions during the AAR Annual meeting each year and pre-sessions that offer a more informal and participatory format. At this site you can find more information about PCR and how to become a Member , and who serves on the Steering Committee . You can read back issues of the PCR News , join the PCR-List Electronic Maillist or take a look at the PCR Bibliography of works inspired by group sessions. You can find information and pre-meeting papers for the Annual Meetings , along with Guidelines for Presenters at PCR sessions. Any other questions? Contact us at pcr-aar@att.net . PCR-LIST: Online Discussion via E-mail PCR-LIST: for ongoing discussions via e-mail PCR offers an electronic forum by way of PCR-LIST@yahoogroups.com PCR-LIST is intended to serve PCR members and other interested persons as a forum for discussion of issues related to our shared concern with the relationships between religion, psychology, and contemporary cultures. The list is intended to offer opportunity for announcements and information regarding conferences, calls for papers, etc.; resources and publications of interest; ongoing discussion of work in progress; and personal support and communication among PCR members. Use this convenient form: Subscribe to pcr-list Powered by groups.yahoo.com OR: send an e-mail message to: pcr-list-subscribe@yahoogroups.com You will receive a confirmation of your subscription, and a list of basic information for the list. Questions? Contact us at pcr-aar@att.net The Person, Culture, and Religion Group presents the information on this Web site as a benefit and service to people interested in the topics addressed by the group. The American Academy of Religion does not administer or manage this Web site and it does not reflect the policies and procedures of that organization. The American Academy of Religion accepts no responsibility for the opinions or information posted on this Web site. Any problems with the content, information, opinions, or design of this venture should be directed to the administrators of the Web site . [ HOME | About PCR | News | Membership | E-mail list | Search | Contact ] Contact the Webmaster Site created by ; Last revised November 17, 2005
Guild of Pastoral PsychologyInformation about talks and conferences in London and Oxford on applied Jungian psychology.
Introduction to the Guild Founder Patron: Dr. C. G. Jung Registered Charity Number: 212662 The Guild of Pastoral Psychology Home Lectures Spring Conference Summer Conference Archives Guild Groups Links Dialogue with Wolfgang Giegerich Application for Membership DR. C. G. JUNG The Guild of Pastoral Psychology offers a rich, dynamic forum for those interested, professionally or otherwise, in understanding the relationship between religion, spirituality and depth psychology, with particular reference to the work and writings of Dr.C.G.Jung. The Guild was begun in 1937 by a group of people, including pioneering clergy and psychologists, under the patronage of Dr.C.G.Jung. Its aim was to encourage the study of psychology among clergy and other spiritual leaders, in the belief that a ministry of spiritual and psychological healing was needed. It was to the Guild, in April 1939, that Jung first gave his talk The Symbolic Life, with its account of how the psyche works in images: "Only the symbolic life can express the need of the soul." (Jung) The Guild logo - the chalice and the serpent, with its ambivalent, multiple associations of wounding and healing, life and death - illustrates this suggestive power of the symbol. The Guild holds monthly Lectures , usually at the Essex Church in London. There is also a one day Spring Conference in London and a 3-day Summer Conference at St Hilda's College, Oxford University. All lectures and conferences are open to the general public. Informal Guild Groups meet outside London, usually in members' homes, particularly for the benefit of members unable to attend the lectures; non-members also can attend. Read More . Publications About 4 lectures a year are printed in pamphlet form, which members receive as part of their subscription entitlement. The Guild has hosted many distinguished speakers, and the pamphlets reflect the history of Jungian endeavour in this country from its beginnings. Cassettes and library books are also available: please see our Archives . Membership Membership has an international representation; anyone may apply. Annual subscription is 36 for members living inside the M25 (48 for joint husband-wife), 32 elsewhere (joint 38). Corporate bodies may also join at the joint rate which admits two members to meetings. Subscription for ministers of religion and the religious is 32 inside the M25 (joint 43), elsewhere 29 (joint 34). Retired members may claim the same privilege. Please apply here or write to The Secretary, The Guild of Pastoral Psychology, Flat 5, 17 Hatton Street, London NW8 8PL. Top Founder Patron: Dr C G Jung Registered Charity Number: 212662 The Guild of Pastoral Psychology Home Lectures Spring Conference Summer Conference Archives Guild Groups Links Application for Membership The Guild of Pastoral Psychology takes the ideas of depth psychology, especially those of C G Jung, in a way that enriches the understanding of our lives. They can show meaning in seemingly random events, and help guide our responses to situations and relationships. Most importantly, perhaps, they can offer ways to become more open in our relationship to the divine, with its life-giving energies, and can enrich our spiritual and religious lives. Many people experience and know a spiritual dimension in their lives and have a sense of the mystery behind creation. For some this is well served by the teachings and rituals of organised religion. For many, however, this is not so. Jung himself did not comment on the existence, or otherwise, of God or an external omniscient presence. However he did recognise a religious instinct in man and that there is an idea of a higher power residing within the psyche. This gives rise to a multifaceted idea of god, which he elaborated at some length, and that he called the god-image. Jung regarded the great religions of the world as guardians of Mysteries - and contact with these to be essential to the life and healing of the Soul. He also realised that for many people the religious and spiritual Mystery had left the established organisation of religions. The Guild was founded in 1937 with Jung as its patron, in order to increase awareness of this spiritual dimension by promoting the knowledge and insights of depth psychology. All our activities have this aim, with the spirit being grounded in the ordinary and everyday aspects of our lives. The Arts and Sciences are also important in our programme, as witness to the creative spirit at work in humankind. The psychology of Jung is like no other - it is both challenging and illuminating. Its insights invite a rigorous examination of oneself, and with psychological honesty deep wounds can be healed. This does not necessarily take away personal pain, but to gain a wider vision can relativise it. Although the Guild does not offer training, its embrace of depth psychology, spirituality and culture enables its many members to find insights that help alleviate the unintelligibility and pain of life. Fellowship in the Guild goes deeper than much everyday social communication. In addition to the monthly lectures the Guild holds a Day Conference in the spring and an Annual Residential Conference in the autumn. These events are our main focus. For those who do not live in London these two conferences can be the main yearly contact with like-minded, searching people. And, of course, being together generates light heartedness and laughter. There are also small discussion groups in different parts of England, some of which have been established for many years and provide continuity in fast changing times. The Guild also has an international membership. Over the years depth psychology has developed and changed considerably. The best of the Guild lectures have been printed in small pamphlets and reflect the changing concerns of depth psychology since the inception of the Guild. They now number around two hundred and eighty and are a gem in the history of analytical psychology (i.e. Jungian psychology). Many are talks given by the pioneers and pupils of Jung. They are informative, as well as enriching the mind and soul. The Symbolic Life given to the Guild by C G Jung is one of the many seminal papers printed as a Guild pamphlet. Top
Journal for the Scientific Study of ReligionPrint and electronic journal covering the psychological, sociological, and anthropological study of religion. Subscription and article submission information.
Journal For The Scientific Study of Religion JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (ISSN 0021-8294) began in 1961 and is now published quarterly in March, June, September, and December by Blackwell Publishers, Inc. with offices at 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA, and 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 JF, UK. Call Us: 1-800-835-6770, fax: 781-388-8232, or e-mail: subscrip@blackwellpub.com Membership in the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion includes a subscription to the journal. Submission of Articles: Please contact Rhys Williams, Editor, Department of Sociology, PO Box 210378, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0378. E-mail rhys.williams@uc.edu. Submit four copies, according to the style guidelines listed on the inside back cover of JSSR. Authors should keep copies of their manuscripts. A processing fee of $10 (US) must accompany submissions by nonmembers of the Society. (In the case of plural authorship, one author most hold membership). Nonmembers outside the United States must send either cash (US dollars) or money orders drawn on a US bank. A nonmember may choose to join the Society at the time when the article is submitted, in which case the fee is waived. Book Reviews: Please contact Joy Charlton, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA 19081. E-mail jcharlt1@swarthmore.edu. Online access to JSSR is now available: JSSR online access SSSR, Alfred University Division of Social Sciences Saxon Drive, Alfred New York 14802 USA Telephone 607-871-2215 Fax 607-871-2085 sssr@alfred.edu
Journal of Religion and HealthPrint and electronic journal sponsored by the Blanton Peale Institute, focusing on the relevance of contemporary religious thought to medical and psychological research. Free access contents and abstracts, author instructions, and subscription information.
SpringerLink - Publication Articles Publications Publishers Home Publication Journal of Religion and Health Publisher:Springer Science+Business Media B.V., Formerly Kluwer Academic Publishers B.V. ISSN:0022-4197 (Paper) 1573-6571 (Online) Subject: Behavioral Science Issues in bold contain content you are entitled to view. Volume 44 Number 3 September 2005 (257 - 357) Number 2 June 2005 (135 - 253) Number 1 April 2005 | Request a sample (3 - 128) Volume 43 Number 4 December 2004 (267 - 394) Number 3 September 2004 (181 - 262) Number 2 June 2004 (87 - 178) Number 1 March 2004 (3 - 83) Volume 42 Number 4 December 2003 (271 - 368) Number 3 September 2003 (179 - 268) Number 2 June 2003 (99 - 176) Number 1 March 2003 (3 - 96) Volume 41 Number 4 December 2002 (295 - 367) Number 3 September 2002 (195 - 292) Number 2 June 2002 (101 - 192) Number 1 March 2002 (3 - 97) Volume 40 Number 4 December 2001 (397 - 443) Number 3 September 2001 (333 - 393) Number 2 June 2001 (259 - 329) Number 1 March 2001 (3 - 256) Volume 39 Number 4 December 2000 (303 - 386) Number 3 September 2000 (207 - 300) Number 2 June 2000 (95 - 204) Number 1 March 2000 (3 - 91) Volume 38 Number 4 December 1999 (285 - 374) Number 3 September 1999 (191 - 281) Number 2 June 1999 (99 - 188) Number 1 March 1999 (3 - 96) Volume 37 Number 4 December 1998 (299 - 392) Number 3 December 1998 (193 - 296) Number 2 June 1998 (91 - 190) Number 1 March 1998 (3 - 88) Volume 36 Number 4 December 1997 (303 - 392) Number 3 September 1997 (203 - 300) Number 2 June 1997 (107 - 200) Number 1 March 1997 (3 - 104) First page Previous page Next page Last page Linking Options About This Journal Editorial Board Manuscript Submission Quick Search Search within this publication... For: Search Title Abstract Only Search Author Search Fulltext Search DOI Table Of Contents Alerting Click the button below to enable Table Of Contents Alerting for this publication. Frequently asked questions | General information on journals and books Springer. Part of Springer Science+Business Media | Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, Copyright Information Remote Address: 212.235.208.157 Server: MPWEB18 HTTP User Agent: IE
Research in the Social Scientific Study of ReligionEdited print series published by Brill focusing on scientific study of religion and spirituality. Most recent issues include contents listings; ordering information.
Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion ISSN1046-8064 This product consists of the following titles: 16 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 16 Volume 16 Edited by Ralph L. Piedmont 15 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 15 Volume 15 Edited by Ralph L. Piedmont and David O. Moberg 14 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 14 Volume 14 Edited by Ralph L. Piedmont and David O. Moberg 13 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 13 Volume 13 Edited by Ralph L. Piedmont and David O. Moberg 12 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 12 Volume 12 Edited by David O. Moberg and Ralph L. Piedmont 11 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 11 Volume 11 Edited by Joanne Marie Greer and David Moberg 10 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 10 Volume 10 Edited by Joanne Marie Greer and David O. Moberg 7 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 7 Volume 7 Edited by Joanne Marie Greer, Monty L. Lynn and David O. Moberg 6 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 6 Volume 6 Edited by Monty L. Lynn and David O. Moberg 4 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 4 Volume 4 Edited by Monty L. Lynn and David O. Moberg Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion (RSSSR) publishes reports of innovative studies that pertain empirically or theoretically to the scientific study of religion, including spirituality, regardless of their academic discipline or professional orientation. It is academically eclectic, not restricted to any one particular theoretical orientation or research method. Most of our articles report the findings of quantitative or qualitative investigations, but some deal with methodology, theory, or applications of social science studies in the field of religion. Tell a friend Recommend to your library More titles in Biblical Studies Religious Studies More titles in Social Sciences
International Journal for the Psychology of ReligionPrint journal. Subscription information and instructions for contributors.
erlbaum.com | Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | Publishers of academic and professional books, journals, and software HOME BOOKS JOURNALS EBOOKS INFORMATION FORAUTHORS CONFERENCES CONTACTLEA Title: THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION Editor(s): Raymond F. Paloutzian Westmont College Associate Editor(s): Dirk Hutsebaut Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Kathleen V. O'Connor University of London, United Kingdom Book Review Editor: David M. Wulff Wheaton College Journal Choose a 2006 Subscription Type: Volume 16, 2006, Quarterly Individual Online and Print US-Canada: $50.00 Individual Online and Print All Other Countries: $80.00 Institution Online and Print US-Canada: $425.00 Institution Online and Print All Other Countries: $455.00 Institution Online Only US-Canada: $385.00 Institution Online Only All Other Countries: $385.00 Institution Print Only US-Canada: $405.00 Institution Print Only All Other Countries: $435.00 ISSN:1050-8619|Online ISSN:1532-7582 Back Volumes Issues: Click here to request back volumes back issues. Future Subscriptions: Click here to pre-order future subscriptions of journals and receive them when they are published. Publication Agreement Editorial Scope: click to expand collapse IJPR is devoted to psychological studies of religious processes and phenomena in all religious traditionsthe only international publication concerned exclusively with the psychology of religion. This journal provides a means for sustained discussion of psychologically relevant issues that can be examined empirically and concern religion in the most general sense. It presents articles covering a variety of important topics, such as the social psychology of religion, religious development, conversion, religious experience, religion and social attitudes and behavior, religion and mental health, and psychoanalytic and other theoretical interpretations of religion. The issues also include a major essay and commentary, plus perspective papers and articles on the field in a specific country. Audience: click to expand collapse Psychologists, theologians, philosophers, religious leaders, neuroscientists, and social scientists. Instructions to Contributors: click to expand collapse Manuscript Submission: Submit five manuscript copies (one with and four without author identification) to Dr. Raymond F. Paloutzian, Department of Psychology, Westmont College, 955 La Paz Road, Santa Barbara, CA 93108-1099, USA; phone (805) 565-6233, fax (805) 565-6116. In a cover letter, state that the findings reported in the manuscript have not been published previously and that the manuscript is not being simultaneously submitted elsewhere. Prepare manuscripts according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Use 8-x 11-in. nonsmear paper; set all margins at 1 in.; type all components of the manuscript double-spaced, including title page, abstract (1,000 characters or fewer, counting spaces between words), text, quotes, acknowledgments, references, appendices, tables, figure captions, and footnotes; indent all paragraphs; single-spaced material is not accepted. Major articles (including references) should be no more than 32 manuscript pages in length, accounts of the psychology of religion in a region or within a tradition no more than 16 pages, and empirical and theoretical reports no more than 25 pages. All manuscripts must include an abstract. If possible, submit a 3" Macintosh or IBM-compatible computer disk in Microsoft Word, WordPerfect, or other popular word-processing formats, plus an ASCII or RTF copy of the file. A computer disk will be required upon acceptance of the manuscript. References: Provide complete, APA-formatted references and text citations and make sure that the two correspond exactly. The APA Manual provides (a) detailed guidelines on preparing references and citations and (b) many excellent sample references and citations. The manual includes the requirement that, when typing a reference for a chapter in an edited book, the inclusive page numbers of the chapter must be added. Figures: Submit (a) professionally prepared black-and-white originals or camera-ready glossy reproductions and (b) photocopies of all figures. Please note that figures in your article will only look as good as what you provide. Make sure lettering and details are crisp, clear, and large enough so that they will be legible upon reduction. (Figures are reduced in size in order to conserve space on the printed page.) Make sure each figure is identified. Assess whether textual information appearing on a piece of artwork might be presented as part of the caption; if so, alter artwork and caption accordingly. Statistics: See APA Manual regarding presentation. Acronyms: Define on first mention. Tests, Scales, Subscales, Factors, Variables, Effects: See APA Manual regarding capitalization. Book Reviews: The book review editor is Dr. David M. Wulff, Psychology Department, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766-2322, USA; phone (508) 286-3691, fax (508) 286-3640, E-mail: dwulff@wheatonma.edu . Books are generally reviewed by invitation only. Persons interested in writing reviews are encouraged to contact the book review editor, indicating their areas of special competence and interest and providing a vita and sample of their writing, preferably a book review or other publication. Reviewers are sent detailed instructions at the time the reviews are commissioned. Electronic versions of reviews may be submitted by e-mail and hard copies by regular mail or fax. Publishers should send book announcements and review copies directly to the book review editor. Two copies of each published review will be forwarded to the book's publisher. Permissions: Authors are responsible for all statements made in their work and for obtaining permission from copyright owners to reprint or adapt a table or figure or to reprint a quotation of 500 words or more. Authors should write to original author(s) and publisher to request nonexclusive world rights in all languages to use the material in the article and in future editions. Provide copies of all permissions and credit lines obtained. Production Notes: Accepted manuscripts are copyedited and typeset into page proofs. Authors are asked to read proofs to correct errors and answer editors' queries. Authors may order reprints of their articles when they receive proofs. Printing considerations do not permit ordering reprints after authors have returned proofs. Abstracted or Indexed in: click to expand collapse PsycINFO Psychological Abstracts; Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts; Religion Index One; Religious and Theological Abstracts; EBSCOhost Products; Family Index Database 2005 Ad Sizes and Rates Full Page (5" x 8"): $500.00 Half Page (5" x 3 3 4"): $400.00 Cover (5" x 8"): $600.00 Advertise or request additional information: Back Volumes Back Issues Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. retains a three year back issue stock of journals. Older volumes are held by our official stockists, Periodicals Service Company, to whom all orders and inquiries should be addressed. Click here for backstock information on our titles. Guaranteed long-term archiving (for volumes purchased only). Periodicals Service Company 11 Main Street Germantown, NY 12526 USA Telephone: +15185374700 Fax: +15185375899 E-mail: psc@periodicals.com All Products Books Journals Software Textbooks Advanced Product Search Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, NJ 074302262 Tel: 2012582200 Fax: 2012360072 Toll Free: 18009BOOKS9 2005LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc. ~ HOME | BOOKS | JOURNALS | E-BOOKS | INFORMATION | FORAUTHORS | CONFERENCES | CONTACTLEA
International Series in the Psychology of ReligionEdited print volumes. Contents listing and ordering information.
Rodopi Advanced search Subscribe to our newsletter and you'll continuously be informed about our new books, series and journals. You can customize this e-mail newsletter to your particular needs and interests. Newsletters include special discount codes. To sign up or change existing preferences press the sign up button Series and Journals International Series in the Psychology of Religion International Series in the Psychology of Religion ISSN 0925-4153 Edited by J.A. Belzen Consulting Editors: B. Beit-Hallahmi (Haifa), D.S. Browning (Chicago), D.E. Capps (Princeton), H. Grzymala-Moszczynska (Cracow), N.G. Holm (bo), R.W. Hood jr. (Chattanooga), D. Hutsebaut (Leuven), J.M. Jaspard (Louvain-la-Neuve),J.W. Jones (New Brunswick), W.W. Meissner (New Haven), H. Mller-Pozzi (Zrich), H. Newton Malony (Pasadena), A. Uleyn (Nijmegen), A. Vergote (Leuven), O. Wikstrm (Uppsala), D.W. Wulff (Norton). Editorial Address: Prof.Dr. J.A. Belzen University of Amsterdam Delenus Institute Oude Turfmarkt 147 1012 GC AMSTERDAM The Netherlands belzen@hum.uva.nl Volumes 14 Religion and Coping in Mental Health Care. , PIEPER, Joseph and Marinus van UDEN NEW 13 Mysticism. , BELZEN, Jacob A. and Antoon GEELS (Eds.) 12 Psychohistory in Psychology of Religion: , BELZEN, Jacob A. (Ed.) 11 Dimensions of Mystical Experiences. , HOOD, Ralph W. JR. 10 Paternity as Function. , SAROGLOU, Vassilis 9 Aspects in Contexts. , BELZEN, Jacob A. (Ed.) 8 Das Heilige im Profanen. , POPP-BAIER, Ulrike 7 Psychoanalysis, Phenomenological Anthropology and Religion. , VERGOTE, Antoon 6 Hermeneutical Approaches in Psychology of Religion. , BELZEN, J.A. (Ed.) 5 Religion, Belief and Unbelief. , VERGOTE, A. 4 Religion, Psychopathology and Coping. , GRZYMALA-MOSZCYNSKA, Halina and Benjamin BEIT-HALLAHMI (Eds.) 3 Belief and Unbelief. , CORVELEYN, Jozef and Dirk HUTSEBAUT (Eds.) 2 Current Studies on Rituals. , HEIMBROCK, Hans-Gnter and H. Barbara BOUDEWIJNSE (Eds.) 1 A Psychology of Ultimate Concern. , ZOCK, Hetty Tijnmuiden 7 1046 AK Amsterdam The Netherlands T: +31-20-611 48 21 F: +31-20-447 29 79 906 Madison Avenue, Union, NJ 07083 USA T: Toll-free (US only): 1-800-225-3998 T: (908) 206-1166 F: (908) 206-0820 info@rodopi.nl
International Journal of Children's SpiritualityElectronic and print journal. Subscription information, contents listings, and instructions for authors.
A Routledge Title: International Journal of Children's Spirituality Contact Us Members of the Group All Products Books Journal Article eBooks Alphabetical Listing Journals by Subject New Journals Advertising Commercial Opportunities Copyright Transfer FAQs Customer Services Email Contents Alerting eUPDATES Instructions for Authors Online Information Online Sample Copies Permissions Press Releases Price List Publish with Us Reprints Subscription Information Special Issues Special Offers Webfirst Arenas Preview LibSite Books eBooks International Journal of Children's Spirituality Editors: Clive Erricker, County Inspector for Religious Education, Hampshire, UK Jane Erricker, University of Winchester, UK Cathy Ota , Education Research Centre, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK Editorial Information Publication Details: Volume 10, 2005, 3 issues per year ISSN 1364-436XISSN Online 1469-8455 2005 Subscription Rates Subscribe Online! Institutional: US$312 190 Individual: US$76 47 Taylor Francis is a member of CrossRef SARA (Free contents alerting service) Online Sample Copy Visit the Education Arena! Special Issue Call for Papers (Children's Spirituality and Children's Rights) Instructions for Authors Table of Contents (Volumes 3-4) Table of Contents (Available Online from Volume 5) Aims and Scope: What do we mean by spirituality and what relevance does it have to schooling and society? This exciting journal seeks to debate such questions through peer reviewed contributions from those in education concerned with these issues. International Journal of Childrens Spirituality provides an international, inter-disciplinary and multi-cultural forum for those involved in research and development of childrens and young people's spirituality, within which this debate can be addressed and widened. This includes examining the nature and possible expressions of spirituality, the philosophical and practical foundations for morality, and their relationship in our rapidly changing world. The need for and the nature of spiritual and moral development in schools and society is of great significance, but whose responsibility is this and how can progress be achieved? The editors believe a constructive and wide-ranging debate is necessary, involving educators, academics, religious communities, parents, local and national government and employers, and that this should take account of international perspectives and contributions from a broad range of subject disciplines. Most educational publications attract a readership that is clearly divided into academics and teachers, so that what is read by one group is seldom consulted by the other. It is also true that many teachers do not consider themselves to be researchers. When exploring the issue of childrens spirituality this lack of communication can result in the failure of any initiative. International Journal of Childrens Spirituality encourages debate across these two cultures, as well as across the cultures of childhood and adulthood, nationhood, ethnicity and religious identity. Articles aim to stimulate further awareness and debate in the field, and to encourage the development of research and the academic study of spirituality in children and young people. Abstracting Information: International Journal of Children's Spirituality is abstracted in ATLA Religion Database, Belief, Culture and Learning Information Gateway; British Education Index; Contents Pages in Education; EBSCOhost EJS; Educational Research Abstracts online (ERA) Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature; and Religious and Theological Abstracts. top Copyright 2005 Taylor Francis Group, an informa business Privacy Policy Terms and Conditions
Journal of Psychology and JudaismElectronic and print journal, discontinued as of 2001. Subscription information and editorial board.
Journal of Psychology and Judaism-Springer Cross-Cultural Psychology Journal Please enable Javascript in your browser to browse this website. Select your subdiscipline Child School Psychology Community Environmental Psychology Cross Cultural Psychology Family Relations Health Psychology Law Psychology Neuropsychology Personality Social Psychology Psychology, general Sexual Behaviour Social Work Stress Coping Home Psychology Cross Cultural Psychology Select a discipline Architecture Design Biomedical Sciences Business Management Chemistry Computer Science Economics Education Engineering Environmental Sciences Geography Geosciences Humanities Law Life Sciences Linguistics Materials Mathematics Medicine Online Journals Archive Philosophy Physics Astronomy Popular Science Psychology Public Health Social Sciences Statistics Please select Africa Asia Australia Oceania Europe France Germany Italy North America South America Switzerland United Kingdom All Author Editor Title ISBN ISSN Series Journal of Psychology and Judaism ISSN: 0700-9801 (print version) ISSN: 1573-370X (electronic version) Journal no. 10932 Springer US Online version available Most viewed articles Most viewed articles Most viewed articles are the full-text articles from this journal that have been accessed most frequently within the last 90 days. The collection of most viewed articles below is updated weekly. 1. Jewish Origins of Freud's Interpretations of Dreams Huttler, M. Published Print: March 1999 2. Does Religiosity Predict Attitudes Toward Psychotherapy? Kaminetzky, G., Stricker, G. Published Print: December 2000 3. Peace in the Home? The Response of Rabbis to Wife Abuse American Within Jewish CongregatinPart 2 Cwik, M.S. Published Print: March 1997 4. Light and Shadow as a Function of the Religious Psyche: The Evil Eye Zecharia, S.A.H. Published Print: June 1999 5. Suicide in Jewish and Christian Thought Published Print: March 2000 Print version Recommend to others E-content Table of Contents Alert Please register: E-mail Retype E-mail Please feel free to send me information from Springer. Additional information Article Reprints Bulk Orders Related subjects Cross Cultural Psychology Help | Login | Contact | Shopping cart | About us | Terms conditions | Impressum Privacy statement | Springer. Part of Springer Science+Business Media
Mental Health, Religion and CultureElectronic and print journal. Subscription information, contents listings, and instructions for authors.
A Routledge Title: Mental Health, Religion Culture Contact Us Members of the Group All Products Books Journal Article eBooks Alphabetical Listing Journals by Subject New Journals Advertising Commercial Opportunities Copyright Transfer FAQs Customer Services Email Contents Alerting eUPDATES Instructions for Authors Online Information Online Sample Copies Permissions Press Releases Price List Publish with Us Reprints Subscription Information Special Issues Special Offers Webfirst Arenas Preview LibSite Books eBooks Mental Health, Religion Culture Now quarterly Editors: Simon Dein, University College London Medical School, UK Kate Miriam Loewenthal, Royal Holloway University of London, UK Dr Christopher Alan Lewis, University of Ulster at Magee College, Londonderry, Northern Ireland, UK Professor Kenneth Pargament, Bowling Green State University, USA Editorial Information Publication Details: Volume 8, 2005, 4 issues per year ISSN Print 1367-4676ISSN Online 1469-9737 2005 Subscription Rates Subscribe Online! Institutional: US$347 210 Individual: US$140 84 Reduced Personal Rate: $50 30 Eligible organizations: BACIP ; APA Division 36; Network of Christians in Psychology; Spirituality Psychiatry SIG (Royal College of Psychiatrists) Taylor Francis is a member of CrossRef SARA (Free contents alerting service) Online Sample Copy Visit the Psychology Arena! Visit the Sociology Arena! Instructions for Authors Table of Contents (Volumes 1-2) Table of Contents (Available Online from Volume 3) (About prEview) "In my view MHRC is an excellent source of information and research; it has quickly become one of the primary journals in the field....Unlike some of the journals in our field of study, you orient the journal with an emphasis on what scientific research has to say about religion. I appreciate this emphasis and the fact that articles need not advocate a particular religious perspective in order to appear in MHRC." Michael Nielsen, Ph.D Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Georgia Southern University Aims and Scope: Mental Health, Religion Culture provides a forum and a single point of reference for the growing number of professionals and academics working in the expanding field of mental health and religion. The journal publishes empirically-based work which explores the relationships between mental health and aspects of religion and culture, and discusses conceptual and philosophical aspects. Contributions are encouraged from a range of disciplines including: psychiatry, psychology, anthropology, sociology and other social sciences, philosophy, theology and religious studies, community and social work, counselling and pastoral work. Published papers include clinical and other case material, observational and interview material, survey, questionnaire, psychometric and other quantified data. There is also scope for scholarly review and presentation of historical material, religious texts and other textual material. Systematic reviews, meta-analysis, and theoretical and philosophical analysis are welcomed. Topics covered include: When and how do religious behaviours become psychiatric symptoms? Cultural variations in psychiatric disease entities: religious influences Religious coping methods and their efficacy Religious healing and mental disorders and their efficacy Religious activities and child-rearing practices and their mental health consequences Religiously-influenced beliefs about the causes of mental disorders Religious group incorporation (conversion) and exiting: mental health consequences Religious aspects of identity and relations with mental health Religious issues in psychotherapy, psychiatry and clinical psychology The role of religious personnel in the multi-disciplinary mental health team Abstracting Information: Mental Health Religion Culture is indexed in Caredata, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), e-psyche, Family Studies Database (NISC), PsycINFO, Theology Digest and Sociological Abstracts. Related Sites: Psychology of Religion Page : A resource for people interested in psychological aspects of religious belief and behavior. top Copyright 2005 Taylor Francis Group, an informa business Privacy Policy Terms and Conditions
Plante, Thomas G.Stress and coping; exercise, personality, and stress; religion and health; professional training issues; sex offending clergy (Santa Clara University, CA).
Santa Clara University - College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology - Faculty -Thomas Plante
McFadden, SusanRole of religion and spirituality in adjustment to the aging process (University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, WI).
Susan Mcfadden Susan McFadden, Ph.D. CF 22 424-2308 mcfadden@uwosh.edu Susan McFadden is the Chair of the UW Oshkosh Psychology Department where she has taught since 1985. Her main interests are in the area of adult development and aging and the psychology of religion. She has combined these interests in a number of research projects and scholarly articles that address the role of religion and spirituality in adjustment to the aging process. Dr. McFadden also works with people with advanced dementia. She is interested in their expressions of creativity, emotion, and sociability, as well as the effects of their living environments on their behavior. Dr. McFadden has many years of teaching experience. She taught high school psychology for one year while she worked on her Master's degree. After earning that degree, she taught psychology at a large community college in New Jersey before she moved to Wisconsin in 1983 and completed her doctoral work in 1984. It has been exciting for her to observe the many changes and developments in psychology since she received her Bachelor's degree from Bucknell University in 1970. She enjoys working with students, especially when they ask good questions and get involved in conducting research. Dr. McFadden received her Ph.D. from Drew University in Madison, NJ. Along the way, from her B.A. to her Ph.D., two children, Kate and Colin, entered her life. She hasn't had much time to develop hobbies through these busy years, although she does love to putter in her flower garden, take long walks, and, of course, read, read, read. She and her husband have a tiny cabin in the Upper Peninsula near Munising where they go for hammock-sitting and eagle-watching, as well as kayaking on Lake Superior. Back to Faculty List Home UW Oshkosh Career Services Faculty Recruitment
Fleuridas, ColetteInterface between spirituality and counseling; family therapy and well being; personal and professional development of counselors; holistic health (St Mary's College, CA).
Saint Mary's Faculty: Colette Fleuridas Colette Fleuridas Professor Graduate Counseling program School of Education Saint Mary's College of California Office: School of Education 103 Email: cfleurid@stmarys-ca.edu Office Phone: (925) 631-8870 Office Fax: (925) 376-8379 Mailing Address: P. O. Box 4350 Moraga, Ca 94575-4350 Research, Scholarly, and Creative Interests The interface of spirituality and counseling. Familial, social and natural environments that promote personal and social wellness. Personal and professional development of counselors. The impact of gender, culture, class and spiritual religious issues on psychological development. Courses Taught Recently Personal and Professional Development of Counselors. Theories of Counseling. Psychological Perspectives of Gender. Colette Fleuridas | Biography | Presentations | Publications | Other Activities | FacultyatSaintMary'sCollege | UpdateYourProfile Last update: 08 14 2003
Mangis, Michael W.Integration of psychology and theology, applications of contemplative Christian spirituality, psychoanalytic psychology, rural psychology, and gender studies. (Wheaton College, IL)
Wheaton College (Wheaton, IL) - Psychology Faculty Psychology Faculty Kimball Buchanan Butman Devries Gregory Mangis McMinn Mcneil Pozzi Schwer-Canning Struthers Vessey Watson, R. Watson, T. Yangarber-Hicks Overview Faculty Staff Courses Programs Research Opportunities Activities Michael W. Mangis Associate Professor, Psychology On faculty since 1989 Phone: (630) 752-5757 Fax: (630) 752-7033 Email: michael.w.mangis@wheaton.edu Education Ph.D. Clinical Psychology, University of Wyoming, 1989 Licensed Clinical Psychologist, Illinois license 071-004331 B.A. Psychology, Wheaton College, 1984 Professional and Personal Interests Dr. Mangis is a practicing a clinical psychologist and with Heartland Counseling in Elburn, Illinois. He is co-founder and Executive Director of the Center for Rural Psychology (www.ruralpsych.org) and founding member of the Chicago Area Christian Training Consortium (CACTC.org). Courses Taught Psychoanalytic Psychology Professional Issues and Ethics Spiritual Direction and Care of the Soul Advanced Psychoanalytic Psychology Spiritual Formation and Psychology Preceptor (supervision) Groups Membership in Professional Societies Christian Association for Psychological Studies CAPS.net National Association for Rural Mental Health NARMH.org Research Dr. Mangis research interests include integration of psychology and theology, applications of contemplative Christian spirituality, psychoanalytic psychology, rural psychology, and gender studies. Papers Published and or Presented Watson, R. A., Mangis, M. W. (2003). Personhood, Spiritual Formation, and Intersubjectivity in the Desert Fathers and Mothers. In T. Speidell, W. School (Eds.). On Being a Person: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Personality Theories. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf Stock. Watson, R. A., Mangis, M. W. (2001). The contribution of the desert tradition to a contemporary understanding of community and spiritual intersubjectivity. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 20(4), 309-323. Mangis, M. W. (2001). The Integration of Psychoanalytic Psychology and Contemplative Theology: Lessons from the History of Spiritual Direction. In T. Phillips M. McMinn (Eds.), The Care of the Soul: Exploring the Intersection of Theology and Psychology. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity. (pp. 187-202) Mangis, M. W. (2000). Spiritual formation and Christian psychology: A response and application of Willard's perspective. Journal of Psychology and Theology 28(4), 286-289. Mangis, M. W. (1999). An alien horizon: The psychoanalytic contribution to a Christian hermeneutic of humility and confidence. Christian Scholars Review, 28(3), 411-431. Mangis, M. W. (1996). Cohabitation. In the Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology (2nd Ed.). Grand Rapids, Baker Book House. Mangis, M. W. (1996). Advice giving. In the Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology (2nd Ed.). Grand Rapids, Baker Book House. Mangis, M. W. (1996). Research into practice: Current research in Psychodynamic Psychology. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 15(1), 73-78. Neal, C. J. Mangis, M. W. (1995). Unwanted sexual experiences among Christian college women: Saying no on the inside. Journal of Psychology and Theology, (23), 171-179. Mangis, M. W. (1995). Religious beliefs, dogmatism, and attitudes toward women. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 14(1), 13-25. Mangis, M. W. (1991). Contemporary Psychoanalysis: The object relations model. In Jones, S. Butman R. Modern Psychotherapies. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity. Home | Academic Life | Admissions Student Life | College Connections | Centers Institutes About us | Contact us | Sitemap | Search
Burris, ChrisReligious orientation constructs and religious group identity; theories of self (St Jerome's University, Waterloo, Canada).
Faculty Staff | SJU skip navigation CONTACT | DIRECTORY | SEARCH Prospective Students Current Students Residence Courses Programs Library Archives Faculty Staff Graduates Friends Catholic Community St. Jerome's Centre Home SJU Handbook Governance, Administration, Policies Procedures Health, Safety Security Faculty Staff Directory Search Again Chris Burris Associate professor Office:STJ 2016 Phone:(519) 884-8110, ext. 8213 (send an email) Department(s): Psychology Sexuality, Marriage, and the Family Degrees: B.A., Grace College M.A., Ball State University Ph.D., University of Kansas Academic Positions: Academic Advisor, St. Jerome's University, Dept. of Psychology Publications: "For God and country: religion and the endorsement of national self-stereotypes" (with N.R. Branscombe and L.M. Jackson) Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, (2000) 31, p. 382-392. "Morality play, or playing morality?: Intrinsic religious orientation and socially desirable responding." (with G.S Navara) Self and Identity, (2002) 1, p. 67-76. "Religion as being: preliminary validation of the Immanence scale" (C.T. Burris and W.R. Tarpley) Journal of Research in Personality (1998) 32, p. 55-79 "Religion as quest: the self-directed pursuit of meaning" (C.T. Burris, L.M. Jackson, W.R. Tarpley, and G. Smith ) Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, (1996) 22, p. 1068-1076 "Social identity and the true believer: responses to threatened self-stereotypes among the intrinsically religious" (with L.M. Jackson) British Journal of Social Psychology, (2000) 39, p. 257-278 Research: For the past several years, I've been predominantly focused on research in the psychology of religion. Recently, I have shifted my focus toward elaborating and testing "amoebic self theory," developed in collaboration with John Rempel (also at St. Jerome's), which asserts that a person's sense of self is constructed and maintained via a multidimensional psychological boundary analogous to the enclosing, protective membrane of a one-celled organism. Initial empirical assessments have been very encouraging, and we hope to publish them soon. Awards: Outstanding early career research contribution award, 1997, APA Division 36 (Psychology of Religion) Interests: As evidenced by many of my "courses taught", I'm attracted to content areas in psychology that "dribble down the chin" -- that concern powerful experiences or unusual behaviors -- particularly if I feel they are understudied or neglected for ideological reasons (e.g., evil, defense mechanisms). At the same time, I am committed to a research-based approach to these topics whenever possible. Thus, my offbeat interests notwithstanding, I am still in this sense very much part of the mainstream. St. Jerome's University in the University of Waterloo | Waterloo, Ontario, Canada | N2L 3G3 | 519 884 8110
McCullough, Michael E.Causes and consequences of forgiveness and gratitude; meta-analytic and longitudinal research on religion (University of Miami, FL).
Mike McCullough's Research and Teaching Web Site Michael E. McCullough, Ph.D. Associate Professor Department of Psychology and Department of Religious Studies University of Miami PO Box 248185 Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751 Phone: 305.284.8057 Fax: 305.284.3402 mikem@miami.edu (click here to send me an e-mail) Curriculum Vitae Learn About the Laboratory for Social and Clinical Psychology Research My research is currently concentrated in three areas (a) Forgiveness and Revenge , (b) Gratitude , and (c) Religion and Spirituality . Find out more about my research and download my papers in these areas by clicking on the appropriate links. Books To Forgive is Human (1997), with Steven J. Sandage and Everett L. Worthington, Jr. Forgiveness: Theory, Research, and Practice (2000), with Kenneth I. Pargament and Carl E. Thoresen Handbook of Religion and Health (2001), co-authored with Harold G. Koenig and David B. Larson The Psychology of Gratitude (2004), by Robert A. Emmons and Michael E. McCullough Research on Altruism and Love (2003), by Stephen G. Post, Byron Johnson, Michael E. McCullough, Jeffrey P. Schloss In the Media Rational Life Choices Guide People's Religiousness Over Time APA Monitor (July, 2005) Hear Mike on "Talk of the Nation" 31 March 2005, on the topic of Petty Revenge . Teaching PSY 625: Graduate Social Psychology ( Syllabus ) Psy 481: Special Topics: Conflict, Aggression, and Peacemaking ( Syllabus ) Presentations See Mike's Presentation on Religion and Depression, Presented at the University of Ottawa, December 6, 2004
Psychology of Religion Research and Teaching ExchangeInternational database of research interests and contact details of professional psychologists of religion, including those without their own webpages.
Nielsen's Psyc of Religion: Research and Teaching Exchange! Back to Psychology of Religion Home Page Psychology of Religion Research and Teaching Exchange: A Resource to Facilitate Research and Study in Psychology and Religion Update | Purpose | Database Participants | Example Latest Update: April 4, 2003 Hello, and welcome! Scroll down this page for the current list of scholars participating in the database. When I have gathered enough information, I will establish a search script that will facilitate its use. Until then, you may examine entries by clicking on the list of names that I have already included. If you would like to be listed in the database, please send me the information that appears below. If you have sent me your name, but it does not appear on this list, please be patient as I work on the database. I will add your data to the collection as I am able. This service will be useful only if you do three things: Send me your name and contact information so that I can include you on this list; Tell other psychologists who study religion about this service, so that we can spread news of its availability (Click the "Recommend-It" button if you'd like to tell someone about this service now) ; Contact the others who are on this list, and do research with them! Thanks, Michael E. Nielsen, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Georgia Southern University Statesboro, GA 30460-8041 USA Purpose In an effort to improve communication among scholars in the field and throughout the world, I am developing a list of psychologists who study religion or who teach psychology and religion courses. For this list I have two primary goals: Increase communication among scholars so that they can collaborate on research. For example, researchers in Canada, Brazil and Italy may join efforts on a study, giving us research that addresses religion in different cultural contexts. Direct students and other people who are interested in learning more about psychology and religion to scholars in their area. My hope is that the database facilitates a sense of "community" among those who study psychology and religion. Information Included in the On-Line Database Name and Title Institutional Affiliation Mailing Address Email Address (Note that I have inserted "_delete_this_" into email addresses in order to reduce the automated harvesting of email addresses for unsolicited commercial email. Delete the _delete_this_ from the email address in order to send email to that person.) One paragraph describing your research interests Citations of up to four representative publications Research Keywords to be used for searching the database -- select any of the following psychological perspectives that best represent your approach to the field Psychoanalytic Analytic Object Relations Transpersonal Phenomenological Measurement Biological Developmental Motivation and Emotion Behavioral Comparative Cognitive Mental Health and Psychopathology Social New Religious Movements Titles of related courses, seminars, or programs taught Degrees or certificates available at your institution Languages spoken When the database becomes large enough to warrant it, I plan to include a search script so that people can use specific terms (research perspectives, countries, languages spoken, etc.) to locate psychologists with whom they might collaborate, or who might serve as a mentor or teacher. To be included in the database, send the above information to: Michael Nielsen, Ph.D. Georgia Southern University Statesboro, Georgia 30460-8041 USA Current Database Participants Jeffrey Adams , USA (Vermont) Tim Allen , UK (Cambridge) Roxanna Anderson , USA (North Carolina) Arne Austad , Norway (Oslo) Eva Basch-Kahre , Sweden (Stockholm) Sergey A. Belorusoff , Russian Federation (Moscow) Mary Ellen Brantley , USA (Georgia) Jrgen Braungardt , USA (California) Chris Burris , Canada (Waterloo) Jim Casebolt , USA (Ohio) Jose Luiz Cazarotto , Brazil (Sao Paulo) Adam Cohen , USA (Pennsylvania) Mariam Cohen , USA (Arizona) Nicole Cohen , USA (California) Peter la Cour , Denmark (Copenhagen) Dereck Daschke , USA (Missouri) Bart Duriez , Belgium (Leuven) Michael J. Donahue , USA (California) John R. van Eenwyk , USA (Washington) Halil Eksi , Turkey (Istanbul) Colette Fleuridas , USA (California) Leslie J. Francis , UK (Bangor, Wales) R. Ruard Ganzevoort , The Netherlands (Kampen) Dana Gaynor , USA (New York) Gerrit Glas , The Netherlands (Utrecht) Rene Gempp , Chile (Temuco) Joseph Guido , USA (Rhode Island) Kenneth Hart , England (Leeds) Michael Herzbrun , USA (New York) Richard A. Hutch , Australia (Queensland) Geoffrey Hutchinson , USA (Texas) Dirk Hutsebaut , Belgium (Leuven) Angelina Iturrian , USA (Missouri) Hasan Kaplan , USA (New York) Ali Kose , Turkey (Istanbul) Stephen Krauss , Romania USA Mark J. Krejci , USA (Minnesota) Naci Kula , Turkey (Gazi) Aryeh Lazar , Israel (Ariel) Ren Lehmann , Switzerland (Lugano) Tnu Lehtsaar , Estonia (Tartu) Christopher A. Lewis , Northern Ireland (Londonderry) Kate C. M. Loewenthal , UK (London) John Maltby , UK (Sheffield) Donald McCormick , USA (California) Michael McCullough , USA (Texas) Susan H. McFadden , USA (Wisconsin) Maureen Miner , Australia (New South Wales) Sebastian Murken , Germany (Trier) William Murray , USA (North Carolina) Carol Musselman , Canada (Ontario) Michael Nielsen , USA (Georgia) Uzeyir OK , Turkey and UK (Birmingham) Raymond F. Paloutzian , USA (California) Tommy Parsons , USA (California) Thomas Plante , USA (California) Natti Ronel , Israel (Tel Aviv) Wade Rowatt , USA (Texas) Eija Saarenmaa , Estonia (Tallinn) Yasser A. Salem , Egypt (Alexandria) Earl S. Schaefer , USA (North Carolina) Tatjana Schnell , Germany (Trier) Kelly Schwartz , Canada (Alberta) Emma Shackle , UK (Oxford) Edward P. Shafranske , USA (California) Gilberto Safra , Brazil (Sao Paulo) Vassilis Saroglou , Belgium (Louvain-la-Neuve) Witold Simon , Poland (Warsaw) Pawel M. Socha , Poland (Krakow) Doug Soderstrom , USA (Texas) Hans Stifoss-Hanssen , Norway (Oslo) Heinz Streib , Germany (Bielefeld) Napoleon Tapia , Costa Rica (San Jose) Brad Thomas , USA (Tennessee) Josue Tinoco , Mexico (Vincentina) Kailash Tuli , India (New Delhi) Douglas Vakoch , USA (California) Nathaniel Wade , USA (Virginia) Robert Warren , USA (Virginia) Fraser N. Watts , United Kingdom (Cambridge) David M. Wulff , USA (Massachusetts) Murat Yildiz , Turkey (Hatay-Izmir) Hetty Zock , The Netherlands (Groningen) Jacob D. van Zyl , South Africa (Nelspruit) Example of a possible database entry NAME: Jonah Doe, Assistant Professor INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION: North Nevada State College MAILING ADDRESS: Department of Social Science, NNSC, Ely, NV 85123, USA EMAIL ADDRESS: JDoe@NNSC.EDU RESEARCH INTERESTS: Religious development, particularly faith development. REPRESENTATIVE PUBLICATIONS: Doe, J. (1995). Faith development among troubled teens. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 43-50. Smith, J., Doe, J. (1992). Constructive search for meaning among teenagers. Journal of Religion and Psychology, 21, 50-58. KEYWORDS: Measurement, Object Relations COURSE TITLES: None DEGREES OFFERED: AA, BA, BS LANGUAGES: English, Spanish Support these pages: Click here for my recommendations on noteworthy books in the field. These are the books that I find to be especially useful or interesting, either for my students or for myself. Purchases from these links help to make the Psychology of Religion pages possible. A more extensive list of books is found on my books page. 2001 - 2002, Michael Nielsen Top of this file Back to Psychology Religion Home Page Send feedback to Dr. Nielsen at
Watts, Fraser N.Psychology and the Church; experimental investigation of religious cognition; concepts of self and God; forgiveness; reductionism in cognitive science and neuroscience (University of Cambridge, UK).
Psychology Christianity Project : Personnel : Fraser Watts Revd Dr Fraser Watts Faculty of Divinity West Road Cambridge CB3 9BS United Kingdom Tel: +44 1223 763027 Fax: +44 1223 763003 Email: fnw1001@cam.ac.uk Position Director, Psychology and Christianity Project Starbridge Lecturer in Theology and Natural Science, University of Cambridge Fellow and Director of Studies in Theology, Queens' College Degrees PhD, Institute of Psychiatry, University of London MSc Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, University of London DipTheol, University of Cambridge MA Psychology Philosophy, University of Oxford Research Interests Reductionism in cognitive science and neuroscience; the nature of scientific and theological discourses; the human emotions in relation to theological anthropology Profile Fraser studied Psychology and Philosophy at the University of Oxford before training as a Clinical Psychologist at the Institute of Psychiatry in the University of London. After a period as Head of the Department of Clinical Psychology at King's College Hospital, Fraser moved to Cambridge to work as a Senior Scientist at the Medical Research Council's Applied Psychology Unit . While with the Unit he founded a research group on information processing approaches to emotional disorders, was the founding editor of the journal Cognition and Emotion , and served as the President of the British Psychological Society . Fraser was ordained in the Church of England in 1990 and is now Vicar-Chaplain of St Edward King and Martyr, Cambridge. In 1994 he took up the Starbridge Lectureship in the Faculty of Divinity. His research has focused particularly on psychology, and he has been Director of the Psychology and Christianity Project in the Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Studies since its foundation in 1996. Research Interests Fraser's research covers two broad fields -- that of the interface between psychology and theology, and that of the psychology of religion. Work carried out in the first of these fields is summarised and integrated in the forthcoming book Theology and Psychology, due to be published in January 2002 by Ashgate. It deals with (a) the relationship between theological and reductionist approaches to the human person, (b) issues and current controversies about religious experience, both sociological and neuropsychological, and (c) the mapping of a psychological perspective on to topics in Christian doctrine. The next major project will be on theological and psychological perspectives on the human emotions. Collaborative work is in progress on the theology and psychology of forgiveness. The recently published Psychology for Christian Ministry (Routledge, 2001), written with colleagues in the Project, presents an approach to the psychology of religion applied to a broad range of the work of the Church. Work is in progress (with a grant from the Templeton Foundation) on the experimental investigation of concepts of God, and the relation between concepts of self and God. Collaborative research with other Project members is also in progress on the organisational psychology of the church and church consultancy. Publications Scientific Publications : Books Cognition and Emotion Information Processing in Anxiety Cognitive Functioning in Depression Health Psychology, Stress and Insomnia General Clinical Psychology Behaviour Therapy Psychiatric Rehabilitation Psychological Therapy Publications in Theology and Religious Studies : Books Eschatology Mind and Brain Theological and Psychological Aspects of Personhood Theology and Science Other Articles and Chapters Scientific Publications Books Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1983 1991). Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (1985). (Ed.) New developments in clinical psychology. Leicester: British Psychology Society. Williams, J.M.G., Watts, F.N., MacLeod, C.M., Mathews, A. (1988 1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (Ed.) (1988). New developments in clinical psychology Volume 2. Leicester: British Psychological Society. Parry, G. Watts, F.N. (Eds) (1989). Skills and methods in mental health research. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum. Watts, F.N. (1990). The efficacy of clinical applications of psychology: An overview of research. Cardiff: Shadowfax Publishing. Watts, F.N. (Ed.) (1993). Neuropsychological perspectives on emotion. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum. Baddeley, A.D., Wilson, B.A. and Watts, F.N. (Eds) (1995). Handbook of memory disorders. Chichester: John Wiley. Cognition and Emotion Watts, F.N. Blackstock, A.J. (1987). Lang's theory of emotional imagery. Cognition and Emotion 1:391-405. Dalgleish,T. Watts, F.N. (1990). Biases of attention and memory in disorders of anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychological Review 10:589-604. Watts, F.N. (1992). Clinical implications ofsome current theories of the emotions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 31:153-167. Watts, F.N. (1993). The current state of jealousy: A review of recent books. Cognition and Emotion 7:217-223. East, M. P. Watts, F. (1999). Jealousy and envy. In T. Dalgleish M. Power (eds.) The handbook of cognition and emotion. Chichester: John Wiley. Information Processing in Anxiety Watts, F.N. Sharrock, R. (1984). Fear and time estimation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59:597-598. Watts, F.N. Sharrock, R. (1984). Questionnaire dimensions of spider phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22:575-580. Watts, F.N. Sharrock, R. (1985). Relationships between spider constructs in phobics. British Journal of Medical Psychology 58:149-153. Watts, F.N., McKenna, F., Sharrock, R. Trezise, L. (1986). Colour-naming of phobia-related words. British Journal of Psychology 77:97-108. Watts, F.N., Sharrock, R. Trezise, L. (1986). Detail and elaboration in phobic imagery. Behavioural Psychotherapy 14:115-123. Watts, F.N. (1986). Cognitive processing inphobias. Behavioural Psychotherapy 14:295-301. Watts, F.N., Trezise, L. Sharrock, R. (1986). Processing of phobic stimuli. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 25:253-259. Watts, F.N. (1988). Agoraphobia: the changing face of treatment. In F.N. Watts (Ed.) New developments in clinical psychology Volume 2. Leicester: British Psychological Society. Watts, F.N. Wilkins, A.J. (1989). The role of provocative visual stimuli in agoraphobia. Psychological Medicine 19:875-885. Watts, F.N. (1989). Attentional strategies and agoraphobic anxiety. Behavioural Psychotherapy 17:15-26. Watts, F.N. (1990). The cohesiveness of phobic concepts. In K.J. Gilhooly et al. (Eds) Lines of thinking: Reflections on the psychology of thought Volume 2. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. Dalgleish, T. (1991). Memory for phobia-related words in spider phobia. Cognition and Emotion 5:313-329. Watts, F.N. and Coyle, K. (1992). Recall bias for stimulus and response anxiety words in spider phobics. Anxiety Research 4:315-323. Watts, F.N., Coyle, K. (1993). Phobics show poor recall of anxiety words. British Journal of Medical Psychology 66:373-382. Watts, F.N. (1995). An information processing approach to compulsive checking. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 2:69-77. Cognitive Functioning in Depression Watts, F.N. Sharrock, R. (1985). Description and measurement of concentration problems in depressed patients. Psychological Medicine 15:317-326. Watts, F.N. Sharrock, R. (1987). Cued recall in depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 26:149-150. Watts, F.N., Morris, L. MacLeod, A.K. (1987). Recognition memory in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 96:297-299. Watts, F.N., MacLeod, A.K. Morris, L. (1988). A remedial strategy for memory and concentration problems in depressed patients. Cognitive Therapy and Research 12:185-193. Watts, F.N., MacLeod, A.K. and Morris, L. (1988). Associations between phenomenal and objective aspects of concentration problems in depressed patients. British Journal of Psychology 79:241-250. Watts, F.N. (1988). Memory deficit in depression: the role of response style. In M. Gruneberg et al (Eds) Practical aspects of memory Volume 2. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. Cooper, Z. (1989). The effects of depression on structural aspects of the recall of prose. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 98:150-153. Watts, F.N., Dalgleish, T., Bourke, P. Healy, D. (1990). Memory deficit in clinical depression: processing resources and the structure of materials. Psychological Medicine 20:345-349. Watts, F.N. (1993). Problems of memory and concentration. In C. G. Costello (Ed.) Symptoms of depression. New York: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (1995). Depression and anxiety. In A.D. Baddeley, B.A. Wilson, F.N. Watts (Eds) Handbook of memory disorders. Chichester: John Wiley. Health Psychology, Stress and Insomnia Watts, F.N. (1980). Behavioural aspects of the management of Diabetes Mellitus: Education, self-care and metabolic control. Behaviour Research and Therapy 18:171-180. Watts, F.N. (1982). Attributional aspects of medicine. In C. Antaki C. Brewin (eds.) Attributions and psychological change. Academic Press. Watts, F.N., Herbert, J., Moore, G.F. vey, A. (1986). Approaches to studying, personality and examination anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences 7:243-245. Herbert., Moore, G.F., de la Riva, C., Watts, F.N. (1986). Endocrine responses and examination anxiety. Biological Psychology 22:215-226. Watts, F.N. (1988). Psychological contributions to the treatment of medical patients. In T.W. Robbins P.J. Cooper (Eds.) Psychology for medical students. London: Edward Arnold. Wing, A.M., Watts, F.N., Sharma, V. (1991). Developmental dynamics of handwriting: Appraising the relation between handwriting and personality. In J. Wann, A. Wing, N. Sovik (eds.) Development of graphic skills: Research perspectives and personal implications. London: Academic Press. Levey, A.B., Aldaz, J.A., Watts, F.N., Coyle, K. (1991). Articulatory suppression and the treatment of insomnia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 29:85-89. Coyle, K. Watts, F.N. (1991). The factorial structure of sleep dissatisfaction. Behaviour Research and Therapy 29:513-520. Watts, F.N., Webster, S.M., Morley, C.J., Cohen, J. (1992). Expedition stress, cognitive coping and personality change. British Journal of Psychology 83:337-341. Watts, F.N., Apps, J., East, M.P. (1993). Personality change produced by expedition stress. Personality and Individual Differences 15:603-605 Watts, F.N., Webster, S.M., Morley, C.J., Cohen, J. (1993). Cognitive strategies in coping with expedition stress. European Journal of Personality 7:255-266. Watts, F.N., Coyle, K., East, M.P. (1994). The contribution of worry to insomnia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 33:211-220. East, M.P. Watts, F.N. (1994). Worry and the suppression of imagery. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32:851-855. Watts, F.N., Cohen, J., Toplis, R. (1994). Personality and coping strategies on a stressful expedition. Personality and Individual Differences 17:647-656. Watts, F.N., East, M.P., Coyle, K. (1995). Insomniacs' perceived lack of control oversleep. Psychology and Health 10:81-95. General Clinical Psychology Watts, F.N. (1980). Clinical judgment and clinical training. British Journal of Medical Psychology 53:95-108. Watts, F.N. (1983). Mental illness: In A. Liddell (Ed.) The practice of clinical psychology in Great Britain. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (1989). Experimental abnormal psychology. In G. Parry F.N. Watts (Eds) Skills and methods in mental health research. Brighton: Lawrence Erlbaum. Good, D. Watts, F.N. (1989). Qualitative research. In G. Parry F.N.Watts (Eds) Skills and methods in mental health research. Brighton: Lawrence Erlbaum. Watts, F.N. (1992). Is psychology falling apart? Presidential Address to the British Psychological Society. The Psychologist 5:489-4944. Behaviour Therapy Watts, F.N. (1971). Desensitisation as an habituation phenomenon I: Stimulus intensity as determinant of the effects of stimulus lengths. Behaviour Research and Therapy 9:209-217. Watts, F.N. (1971). The treatment of stammering by the intensive practice of fluent speech. British Journal of Disorders of Communication 6:144-147. Watts, F.N. (1973). Mechanisms of fluency control in stutterers. British Journal of Disorders of Communication 8:131-138. Powell, G.E. Watts, F.N. (1973). Determinants of expectation in imaginal desensitisation. Perceptual and Motor Skills 37:246. Watts, F.N. (1974). The control of spontaneous recovery of anxiety in imaginal desensitisation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 12:57-59. Watts, F.N. (1976). Self-report of anxiety in imaginal desensitisation. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 15:211-212. Watts, F.N. (1979). The habituation model of systematic desensitisation. Psychological Bulletin 86:627-637. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Watts, F.N. (1976). Social treatments. In H.J. Eysenck G.D. Wilson (Ed.) A textbook of human psychology. MTP Press. Watts, F.N. (1976). The modification of the employment handicaps of psychiatric patients by behavioural methods. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 30:487-491. Watts, F.N. Yu, P.K. (1976). The structure of attitudes in psychiatric rehabilitation. Journal of Occupational Psychology 49:39-44. Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1977). Previous occupational stability as a predictor of employment after psychiatric rehabilitation. Psychological Medicine 7:709-712. Watts, F.N. (1978). A study of work behaviour in a psychiatric rehabilitation unit. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 17:85-92. Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1978). Social deviance in a day hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry 132:455-462. Watts, F.N. Everitt, B.S. (1980). The factorial structure of the General Aptitude Test Battery. Journal of Clinical Psychology 36:763-767. Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1983). Introduction: The concept of rehabilitation. In F.N. Watts D.H. Bennet (eds.) Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1983). Neurotic, affective and conduct disorders. In F.N. Watts D.H. Bennet (eds.) Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (1983). Employment. In F.N. Watts D.H. Bennet (eds.) Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. (1983). Socialization and social integration. In F.N. Watts D.H. Bennet (eds.) Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. Bennett, D.H. (1983). Management of the staff team. In F.N.Watts D.H. Bennett (eds.) Theory and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation. Chichester: John Wiley. Watts, F.N. Lavender, A. (1987). Rehabilitation programmes for psychiatric patients. In S. Lindsey G.E. Powell (Eds.) A handbook of clinical psychology. London: Gower. Watts, F.N. Lavender, A. (1987). Assessment in psychiatric rehabilitation. In S. Lindsey G.E. Powell (Eds.) A handbook of clinical psychology. London: Gower. Psychological Therapy Watts, F.N., Powell, G.E., Austin, S.V. (1973). The modification of abnormal beliefs. British Journal of MedicalPsychology 46:359-363. Watts, F.N. (1975). Individual differences in response to treatment. British Association of the Behavioural Psychotherapy Bulletin 1:7-12. Watts, F.N. (1977). What sort of cognitiveprocesses are involved in cognitive behaviour therapy? British Association of the Behavioural Psychotherapy Bulletin 5:21-26. Watts, F.N. (1983). Strategies of clinical listening. British Journal of Medical Psychology 56:113-123. Watts, F.N. (1985). Individual-centred cognitive counselling for study problems. British Journal of Counselling and Guidance 13:238-247. Watts, F.N. (1989). Listening processes in psychotherapy. In F. Flach (Ed.) Directions in psychiatry Volume 5. London: W.W. Norton. Watts, F.N. (1990). Aversion to personal body hair: A case study in the integration of behavioural and interpretative methods. British Journal of Medical Psychology 63:335-340. Publications in Theology and Religious Studies Books Watts, F.N. Williams, M. (1988). The psychology of religious knowing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Reissued in paperback, 1994. London: Geoffrey Chapman.) Watts, F. (Ed.) (1998). Science meets faith. London: SPCK. Watts, F. (Ed.) (2000). Christians and bioethics. London: SPCK. Watts, F. (Ed.) (2001). Perspectives on prayer. London: SPCK. Watts, F., Nye, R. Savage, S. (2001). Psychology for Christian ministry. London: Routledge. Watts, F. (in press). Theology and psychology. Aldershot: Ashgate. Eschatology Watts, F. (1995). Hell on earth. Epworth Review 22:80-87. Watts, F. (1995). Science and eschatology. Modern Believing 36:46-52. Watts, F. (1996). The ends of humanity. In V. Brummer M. Sorot (Ed.) Happiness, well-being and the meaning of life. Kampen, Pharos. Watts, F. (2000). Propositional and attitudinal aspects of eschatology. In M. Welker J. Polkinghorne (Eds) The end of the world and the ends of God. Trinity Press International. Mind and Brain Watts, F.N. Williams, J.M.G. (1988). The doctrine commission and artificial intelligence. Theology 91:216-217. Watts, F. (1994). Nothing but a pack of neurones. Journal of Consciousness Studies 1:275-279. Watts, F. (1998). Towards a theology of consciousness. In J. Cornwell (Ed.) Consciousness and human identity. New York: Oxford University Press. Watts, F. (1998). Revelation and the mind. In V. White (Ed.) Lincoln lectures on Revelation. Lincoln Cathedral Publications. Watts, F. (1999). Cognitive neuroscience and religious consciousness. In R.J. Russell, N. Murphy, T. Meyering, M. Arbib (eds.) Neuroscience and the person. Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory; Berkeley, California: Centre for Theology and Natural Science. Watts, F. (2000). Artificial intelligence. In R.L. Herrmann (Ed.) Ten scientists consider humility theology. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. Watts, F. (2000). Brain science and religious experience. In R. Stanard (Ed.) God for the 21st Century. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. Theological and Psychological Aspects of Personhood Watts, F. (1997). Psychological and religious perspectives on emotion. Zygon 32:243-260. (reprinted from the International Journal for the Psychology of Religion) Watts, F. (2000). Psychological and religious concepts of the person. In H. Gregersen (Ed.) The person: Perspectives from science and theology. Edinburgh: T T Clark. Watts, F. (2000). Psychological research questions about yoga. Mental Health, Religion and Culture 3:71-84. Watts, F. (in press). Shame, sin and guilt. In M. Sorot A. McFadyen (eds.) Title to be confirmed. Edinburgh: TT Clark. Watts, F. (in press). Psychology of religion. In N. J. Smelser P.B. Baltes (Ed.) International encyclopaedia of the social and behavioral sciences. Oxford: Elsevier Science. Theology and Science Watts, F. (1993). Science and Christian thought: Psychological. In A. E. McGrath (Ed.) The Blackwell dictionary of modern Christian thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Watts, F. (1997). Are science and religion in conflict? Zygon 32:125-138. Watts, F. (1998). Mind, Brain and Soul. In F. Watts (Ed.) Science meets faith. London: SPCK. Watts, F. (1998). Science and religion as complementary perspectives. In N.H. Gregersen W. van Huyssteen (eds.) Rethinking theology and science: Six models for the current dialogue. Grand Rapids: Fortress Press. Watts, F. (1999). Psychology and theology. In C. Southgate (Ed.) Science and religion - a special relationship? Edinburgh: T T Clark. Watts, F. (2000). Christian attitudes to psychology. In A. Hastings (Ed.) Oxford companion to Christian thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Other Articles and Chapters Watts, F.N. (1978). Psychological theory and the religious mind I: Attitudes to success and failure. Theoria to Theory 12:205-212. Watts, F.N. (1978). Psychological theory and the religious mind II: 'Unquiet passions and distracting images'. Theoria to Theory 12:281-290. Watts, F.N. (1979). Psychological theory and the religious mind III: Meditation and perception. Theoria to Theory 13:115-125. Watts, F.N. (1979). Psychological theory and the religious mind IV: Factors affecting the meaningfulness of religious ideas.Theoria to Theory 13:225-238. Watts, F.N. (1986). The spiritual psychology of Rudolf Steiner. In G. Claxton (Ed.) Beyond therapy: The impact of Eastern religion on psychological theory and practice. London: Wisdom Publications. Watts, F. (1991). Cognition, the world and God: A response to Arnheim. New Ideas in Psychology 9:21-24. Watts, F. (1991). Enabling authority: A psychological perspective. Modern Churchman 33:11-19.
Vakoch, DougReligious attitudes toward the possibility of extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI Institute, University of California, Davis).
Home - SETI Institute Member Login | Site Map | Contact us Allen Telescope Array SETI NAI Team Life in the Universe Projects Voyages Through Time Signup for E-Newsletters SETI Institute E-Newsletter Educator's Network Beocme A Member Today! Join TeamSETI ATA Construction Progress 3 Antennas January 2005 Current Goal: 42 Antennas January 2006 Ultimate Goal: 350 Antennas It's up to you! Support the Telescope More Information About the ATA The mission of the SETI Institute is to explore, understand and explain the origin, nature and prevalence of life in the universe. Features [ view all ] November 10, 2005 Saving the Planet Or, How Science Education is Good for Everyone's Future by Seth Shostak November 10, 2005 SETI Institute Principal Investigator Charles (Chuck) Chackerian, Jr. dies at age 71. November 3, 2005 Public Split on Alien Invaders and Spooky Specters by Seth Shostak November 2, 2005 High Lakes Expedition An internationalteam of scientists and technicians led by the SETI Institute's Dr. Nathalie Cabrol areinvestigating high altitude lakes in the Andes Mountains, as this offers the best terrestrial analogy to ancient martian environments. October 27, 2005 Allen Telescope Array Update by David DeBoer October 20, 2005 Cracking the Code of Pre-Earthquake Signals by Friedemann Freund October 17, 2005 SETI and the Cosmic Quarantine Hypothesis [external link] How many technically advanced civilizations exist in our galaxy? With this essay by Steven Soter, Scientist-in-Residence in the Center for Ancient Studies at New York University, Astrobiology Magazine initiates the first in a series of 'Gedanken', or thought, experiments - musings by noted scientists on scientific mysteries in a series of "what if" scenarios. [ view all Features ] What's New [ view all ] Events Calendar SETI Institute's Science Radio program - Are We Alone? This week: Secret Einstein Podcasts available ! We'rehiring an Executive Administrative Assistant, aMajor Giving Manager, and a Receptionist. Learn more Volunteer opportunity Dr. Cynthia Phillips publishes a new book : 101 Things You Didn't Know About Einstein In January 2006, the SETI Institute leads the airborne observing campaign for the reentry of the Stardust Sample Return Capsule In the News [ view all ] Red Star Rising: Small, Cool Stars May Be Hot Spots for Life As every comic-book fan knows, Superman was born on the planet Krypton,which orbited a red star. - story appeared November 7, 2005 at Scientific American.com She Eats Ice-Cream Cones and Spends Her Life Searching for ET Carl Sagan's bestseller, Contact, was made into a movie in 1997 in which Jodie Foster played the role of the ice-cream cone-eating chief protagonist Ellie Arroway. Yet, after all these years, you just can't miss the similarities Ellie shares with her real-life role model Jill Tarter , on whom Sagan based most part of the character. - story appeared November 5, 2005 at Pune Newsline.com Star Search The Dreamer Cosmos Club: In the 1997 film Contact, based on a novel by Carl Sagan, Jodie Foster plays a character inspired in part by astrophysicist Jill Tarter . - story appeared November 2005 in Psychology Today. How to Talk to Aliens On Nov. 16, 1974, astronomer Frank Drake dedicated a new observatory in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, by sending humankind's first deliberate communication to extraterrestrials. - story appeared October 24, 2005 at Forbes.com Frank Drake on Ambiguity Frank Drake is a renowned astronomer whose principal research activities are directed toward the detection of intelligent life in the universe. - story appeared October 24, 2005 at Forbes.com Home | About us | Center for SETI Research | Center for the Study of Life in the Universe | Education and Public Outreach | Support Us SETI Institute - 515 N. Whisman Road - Mountain View, CA 94043 - Tel:650.961.6633 - Fax:650.961.7099 Please send us comments and questions . Copyright 2005, SETI Institute - Unless otherwise indicated, the documents and graphics stored on this Web server, www.seti.org , are copyrighted. Links to these documents are permitted and encouraged. No copies may be made without permission. Copyright 2005
Saroglou, VassilisReligion and close-mindedness; religious personality; religious minorities; function of fatherhood and religious development-maturity; personality; psychological understanding of theological constructs (Universit Catholique de Louvain, Belgium).
UCL - Centre for Psychology of Religion : Vassilis Saroglou UCLUniversit catholique de Louvain Department of psychology and education Centre for psychology of religion Vassilis Saroglou Education Teaching Career Awards Grants Research interests Internat. coordination Publications Links Expertise Contact Education Theology, degree 1984-1988 Univ. of Athens Philosophy, bachelor 1989-1990 Univ. of Louvain Ecclesiastic sc., degree 1990-1992 Univ. of Louvain Psychology, degree 1990-1994 Univ. of Louvain Psychology, Ph.D. 1995-1999 Univ. of Louvain summary Research and academic career Univ. of Louvain (B), Dept of psychology, Centre for psychology of religion associate professor 2004- assist. professor 2001-2004 post-doctoral researcher (ch. de recherche UCL) 1999-2001 doctoral research fellow (asp. FNRS) 1995-1999 post-graduate research training 1993-1995 Univ. catholique de Lille (F), Dept of psychology visiting lecturer 1997-2004 College of William Mary, VA (USA) Dept of psychology visiting Fulbright scholar 01-07.2000 summary Research interests (keywords) Psychology of religion * personality, cognitive, and affective determinants of religion fundamentalism NMR modern spirituality paranormal beliefs * social psychology of religion : stereotypes collective identities values prosocial behavior Personality psychology Big Five, sense of humor, birth order effects, attachment Interdisciplinarity between psychology, theology and religious studies psychological understanding of theological constructs, psychological anthropology in early monastic thought summary Publications papers see list summary Expertise Editorial Board Mental Health, Religion, and Culture (2003- ) Archive for the Psychology of Religion (2003- ) Series "Religion et sciences humaines" , Paris, L'Harmattan (member 1998-2003, director 2004- ) Ad hoc reviewer European Journal of Personality European Review of Applied Psychology International Journal for the Psychology of Religion Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion Journal of Individual Differences Humor: International Journal of Humor Research Mental Health, Religion, and Culture Perceptual and Motor Skills Personality and Individual Differences Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Psychological Science Supervision (DEA, PhD, postdoc) and hosting of visiting scholars professors DEA Isabelle Pichon (2002, France), Philippe Galand (2003, Belgium), Abla Safadi-Bastos (2003, Brasil), Jean-Michel Abrassart (2004, Belgium), Coralie Buxant (2005, Belgium), Jean-Franois Mathijsen (2005, Belgium) PhDs (current) Isabelle Pichon (2002), Coralie Buxant (2003), Matthieu Van Pachterbeke (2004) Postdocs and visiting scholars professors Lucia Adamovova (Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia), October 2003 - January 2004 Antonio Munoz Garcia (University of Granada, Spain), January - February 2003 and September 2005 - August 2006 Louis-Lon Christians (UCL, Law), April 2003 - May 2005 Stefania Casalfiore (UCL, Education), April 2003 - December 2004 Jose Rogerio Machado de Paula (University of Sao Paulo, Brasil), July 2004 - February 2005 Member of PhD committees Brezo Cortes Pozo (UCL-PSOR, 2005), Bernard Mathieu (UCL-PSOR, current), Niko Tiliopoulos (U. of Edinburgh, 2004), Benjamin Thijse (UCL-PSED, current) summary Teaching University of Louvain PSY 2040 Psychology of religion (2000-- ) Content (in French) PSY 2043 Psycholgy of religion: specific topics (2003-- ) Content (in French) PSY2041 Psycholgy of religion of child and adolescent (2000-2003) Content (in French) EDFO 2015 Psychology of human development (1999-- ) Content (in French) PSP1118 Methods of observation in psychology (2004 - ) DROI1220 Introduction to psychology (for law students) (2005 - ) Invited for teaching psychology of religion in other iacademic nstitutions Institute Lumen Vitae, Brussels (1998, 15h) Universit catholique de Lille, France (1997-2004, 20h) University of Porto, Portugal (2003, 8h) University of Grenoble 2, France (2003, 20h) Facults universitaires Saint-Louis, Brussels (2003, 15h) University of Lausanne, Switzerland (2005, 4h) University of Uppsala, Sweden (2005, 12h) summary Awards, Grants, and Fellowships Awards and distinctions 2005 Margaret Gorman Early Career Award, American Psychological Association (APA) - Division 36 2002 Elected member of the Acadmie Internationale des Sciences Religieuses 1999 ISHS Award, Irvine Multicultural Scholarship (USA) 1994 Ranked first in a class of 150 graduates in psychology, 1994, UCL 1984 Ranked first in a class of 500 students admitted in theology after national exams, IKY Award (GR) Grants 2005-2007 Grant from the Fund for Collective Fundamental Research (FRFC, B) 2004-2006 Grant from the Research Council of the University of Louvain (FSR) 2003-2005 Grant from the Federal Belgian Science Policy (B). Program: "Social Cohesion". 2002-2004 Grant from the Research Council of the University of Louvain (FSR) 2000 Fulbright Grant-in-aid (USA, B) 1999 Cathol. Comm. for Cultural Collaboration (I, B), Grant for the English translation (Saroglou, 2001) of a book published originally in French (Saroglou 1997) Fellowships 1995-1999 National Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS, B), Doctoral Fellowship 1992-1994 Fund Alex. ONASSIS (GR), Post-graduate Fellowship 1989-1995 Cathol. Comm. for Cultural Collaboration (I, B), Post-graduate fellowship 1984-1988 National Fund of Fellowships (IKY) (GR) summary International coordination Coordination of the European Network in Psychology of Religion Organisation of an International Symposium " Religion, plurality, and uncertainty " (May 2001) Organisation of an International Workshop (with L.-L. Christians) " Criteria of sectarian drift " (June 2003) Organisation of an Interdisciplinary Workshop (with L.-L. Christians) " Religious intensity and sectarianism " (March 2005) summary Links Centre for psychology of religion UCL Psychology of religion Web pages 1 , APA 36 Division (Psychology of religion) Humor research web page UCL, Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Theology summary Contact * Vassilis Saroglou UCL Dept. of psychology, Centre for psychology of religion Division of social and organizational psychology Pl. du Cardinal Mercier 10, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve ( ++ 32 10 47 82 74 7 ++ 32 10 47 48 34 : vassilis.saroglou@psp.ucl.ac.be summary Updated: July 7, 2005 Responsable: V.Saroglou UCL Department of psychology and education Centre for psychology of religion
Shafranske, EdwardClinical and applied psychoanalysis; theoretical and empirical foundations of the therapeutic process; religious experience; religious and spiritual issues in psychotherapy (Pepperdine University, CA).
Pepperdine University - Graduate School of Education and Psychology - Meet the Faculty WELCOME | ACADEMICS | ADMISSION | STUDENT SERVICES | ALUMNI | NEWS EVENTS | PEPPERDINE XPRESS Academics Academics Education Programs Psychology Programs Meet the Faculty Education Faculty Psychology Faculty Adjunct Education Faculty Adjunct Psychology Faculty Academic Calendars Catalog Class Schedules Course Descriptions Scholarly Activity Meet the Faculty Edward P. Shafranske, Ph.D,. ABPP Professor of Psychology B.A., Immaculate Heart College; M.A., Ph.D., U.S. International University; Ph.D., Southern California Psychoanalytic Institute. Pepperdine University since 1988. Dr. Shafranske is a psychologist psychoanalyst with experience in private practice, community mental health, and university school settings. His primary interests are clinical and applied psychoanalysis, clinical supervision, and the psychology of religion. He is a fellow of APA, member of the American and International Psychoanalytic Associations, past president of APA Division 36, and past chair of the CPA Division of Education and Training. He served as editor of Religion and the Clinical Practice of Psychology, and the forthcoming Spiritually-Oriented Psychotherapy, and is co-author of The Practice of Clinical Supervision: A Competency-based Approach. In 1997, he was named Luckman Distinguished Teaching Fellow. Contact: eshafran@pepperdine.edu Contact Information Courses GSEP Home | Search | Contact Us | A-Z Index | Site Map | University Home Copyright (c) 2003 Pepperdine University
Rowatt, WadeFormation and maintenance of close relationships; individual differences in religiosity and spirituality (Baylor University, TX).
Wade Rowatt WADE C. ROWATT Assistant Professor Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Baylor University Waco, TX 76798-7334 (254) 710-6751 WADE_ROWATT@BAYLOR.EDU ACADEMIC TRAINING B.A., William Jewell College M.A., Ph.D., University of Louisville Specialty areas: Experimental Social Psychology and Personality Psychology COURSES I TEACH RESEARCH INTERESTS AND PUBLICATIONS
Nielsen, Michael E.Development and resolution of psychological and interpersonal conflicts involving religion; religion and interpersonal judgments (Georgia Southern University, GA).
Michael E. Nielsen Michael E. Nielsen January 1, 2004 Department of Psychology Georgia Southern University Statesboro, GA 30460-8041 Internet: mnielsen@georgiasouthern.edu Voice: (912) 681-5344 EDUCATION Ph.D., December 1992 Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois Major: Social-Organizational Psychology M.A., May 1990 Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois Major: Social Psychology B.A., June 1986 Southern Utah State College, Cedar City, Utah Majors: Psychology, Music PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Associate Professor, 2000-present Assistant Professor, 1995-2000, tenured 1999 Temporary Assistant Professor, 1993-1995 Georgia Southern University Statesboro, Georgia Visiting Lecturer, 1993 Lake Forest College Lake Forest, Illinois Adjunct Faculty, 1993 Columbia College at McHenry Community College Crystal Lake, Illinois MEMBERSHIP IN PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS American Psychological Association American Psychological Society Society for the Scientific Study of Religion Religious Research Association Mormon Social Science Association INVITED PUBLICATIONS Bottoms, B., Nielsen, M., Murray, R., Filipas, H. (in press). Religion related child physical abuse: Characteristics and psychological outcome. In J. Mullins (Ed.), Emerging trends and issues in the victimization of children. Binghamton, NY: Hayworth. Nielsen, M. E. (2003). Appalling acts in Gods name. Society 40(3), 16-20. Nielsen, M. E. (2003). Research directions in religion, identity and mental health. Social Psychological Review, 5(2), 82-85. REFEREED PUBLICATIONS Bottoms, B., Nielsen, M. E., Murray, R., Filipas, H. (in press). Religion related child physical abuse: Characteristics and psychological outcome. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma. Nielsen, M. E. (in press). Mormonism and psychology: A broader vision of peace. Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. Nielsen, M. E. (2002). Psychological light on the religious landscape. Clios Psyche, 9, 61-65. Nielsen, M. E. (2002). A window to the Middle-East. Clios Psyche, 8, 195-196. Nielsen, M. E. (2001). The role of religion in the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. North American Journal of Psychology, 3, 377-383. Nielsen, M. E., Stevens, R. (2001). Descriptions of religious experience using personality and affect adjectives: A U.S. Malaysian comparison. North American Journal of Psychology, 3, 77-89. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Descriptions of religious experience using trait and affect adjectives. Psychological Reports, 86, 308-310. McFeeters, A., Smith, E., Nielsen, M. E., Wilson, J. (1998). Projective animal preferences in incarcerated and non-incarcerated men. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, 250. Nielsen, M. E. (1998). An assessment of religious conflicts and their resolutions. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 181-190. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1997). An alternative view of religious complexity. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 7, 23-35. Nielsen, M. E., Miller, C. E. (1997). The transmission of norms regarding group decision rules. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 516-525. Nielsen, M. E. (1996). H-Comp: A program to calculate information complexity. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, Computers, 28, 483-485. Nielsen, M. E. (1995). Operationalizing religious orientation: Iron rods and compasses. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 129, 485-494. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1995). Further examination of religious conflict and religious orientation. Review of Religious Research, 36, 369-381. Fultz, J., Nielsen, M. E. (1993). Anticipated vicarious affect and willingness to be exposed to another's suffering. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14, 273-283. Nielsen, M. E., Miller, C. E. (1992). Expectations regarding the use of group decision rules. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 43-58. Nielsen, M. E. (1991). Religious orientation among Mormons. Association of Mormon Counselors and Psychotherapists Journal, 17, 105-120. OTHER PUBLICATIONS Murray, R., Nielsen, M. E. (in press). Religion-related child abuse. Applied developmental science encyclopedia. Tufts University Press. Nielsen, M. E., Randolph-Seng, B. (in press). Religious groups. Applied developmental science encyclopedia. Tufts University Press. Nielsen, M. E. (in press). [Review of Iron Rod and Compass scales of religious orientation.] In J. Maltby, C. A. Lewis, A. Hill (eds.), Handbook of psychological tests, pp. 334-335. Wales, UK: Edwin Mellen. Nielsen, M. E. (in press). Review of J. A. Belzen (Ed.), Aspects in contexts: Studies in the history of psychology of religion. Mental Health, Religion and Culture. Nielsen, M. E. (in press). [Review of the book Postconventional moral thinking: A Neo-Kohlbergian approach.] Journal of Adolescence. Nielsen, M. E. (in press). Eight entries in the Encyclopedia of religion. Kyiv: Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. a. Psychology of religion in the USA. b. The Anglo-American Tradition in the Psychology of Religion c. The French Tradition in the Psychology of Religion d. The German Tradition in the Psychology of Religion e. Erik Erikson f. James Pratt g. The Psychological Basis of Religion h. Psychological Aspects of Worship Nielsen, M. E. (1994, rev. 2003). Nielsens psychology of religion. [World-Wide-Web resource pages.] Available http: www.psywww.com psyrelig . Nielsen, M. E. (2002-2003). Nonstandard deviations. Regular columns for Sunstone magazine. (a) Lamentation for Peace, December 2002 (b) Opposites in all Things, May 2003 (c) Dad, its not a Key Ring, December 2003 Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Selected web sites for Mormon studies. Mormon Social Science Association Newsletter, 21 (1), 4-6. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Psychology of religion in U.S. colleges and universities. Proceedings of the Conference on the History of Christianity and Contemporary Life. Odessa, Ukraine, May 29-31, 2000, pp. 55-57. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Faith, Science and Religious Behavior Scales (ONLINE). (CD-ROM). Abstracted by Ovid Technologies, Health and Psychosocial Instruments Database. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Iron Rod Compass Religious Orientation Scales (ONLINE). (CD-ROM). Abstracted by Ovid Technologies, Health and Psychosocial Instruments Database. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Psychology of religion in the USA (ONLINE). Accessed http: www.psywww.com psyrelig USA.html. Nielsen, M. E. (2000). [Review of the book Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion.] Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, 3, 173-174. Nielsen, M. E. (1999, March-April). What Makes a Prophet? [Review of the book Prophetic charisma: The psychology of revolutionary religious personalities.] Sunstone, 22(1), 71-73. Nielsen, M. E. (1999). Seven entries in J. D. Schultz (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion in American Politics. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx. a. Benson, Ezra p. 25 b. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, pp. 49-50 c. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints v. United States, 1890, pp. 50-51 d. Cults, p. 68 e. Smith Jr., Joseph, p. 227-228 f. Stark, Rodney, p. 235 g. Young, Brigham p. 269 Nielsen, M. E. (1999). [Review of the book Theory and method in religious studies: Contemporary approaches to the study of religion.] Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, 2, 88-90. Nielsen, M. E. (1998). [Review of Religious influences on personal and societal well-being (Special Issue of the Journal of Social Issues)]. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 8, 67-68. Nielsen, M. E. (1998). [A Self-Complexity Perspective on Self-Cognition]. Bulletin of the 1997 Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Philosophy Institute Conference on Self-Knowledge, Sevastopol, Ukraine, 7, 71-74. Nielsen, M. E. (1998). [Religion and Psychology at the Beginning of a New Millennium]. Bulletin of the 1997 Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Philosophy Institute Conference on Spirituality and Self-Knowledge at the End of the Twentieth Century, Sevastopol, Ukraine, 7, 63-68. Also to be reprinted in the Bulletin of the Ukrainian Religious Researchers Association. Nielsen, M. E., Skomorowskiy, Y. M. (1998). : - . . 9. , 128-132. [Perspectives on the state of contact between psychology and religion. Proceedings of Sevastopol State Technical University: Philosophy and Political Science, 9, 128-132.] Nielsen, M. E. (1998). Renaissance in psychology of religion. [Review of the book Psychology of religion: Classic and contemporary (2nd ed.).] Contemporary Psychology, 43, 290-291. Nielsen, M. E. (1997). [Review of the book Invitation to the psychology of religion, 2nd ed.] Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36, pp. 136, 138. Nielsen, M. E. (1997). Research in psychology and religion. Nielsen, M. E. (1996). [Review of the book The essential Joseph Smith.] Review of Religious Research, 38, 190-191. Nielsen, M. E. (1996, March). Social scientists discuss church growth trends. Sunstone, 19, 71. Nielsen, M. E. (1995, November December). What works: Psychology course project. The Psychology Teacher Network, 5, pp. 8, 10. Reprinted in Bolt, M. (1998). Instructors resources to accompany Myers Psychology (5th ed.) and Exploring Psychology (4th ed.) (CD-ROM). New York: Worth. MANUSCRIPTS IN PREPARATION Nielsen, M. E., Williams, J. Religious orientation and attitudes about stem cell research. Manuscript accepted for publication pending revision, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. Nielsen, M. E., Randolph-Seng, B. Psychology, religion and the internet. Chapter to appear in D. Wulff (Ed.), Handbook of the Psychology of Religion, to be published by Oxford University Press. Nielsen, M. E., Donahue, M. J. Social psychology and religion. Chapter to appear in R. Paloutzian and C. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Religion, to be published by Guilford Press. Nielsen, M. E., Murray, R. The spiritualistic tradition. In E. T. Dowd S. L. Nielsen (Eds.).Exploration of the psychologies in religion, to be published by Springer. Nielsen, M. E., Randolph-Seng., B., Kujawski, J., Winger, A. Effect of expectations on experiences with the Altered States of Consciousness Induction Device. Nielsen, M. E., White, D. Mens grooming and expectations of devotion in a religious congregation. Nielsen, M. E., Pugh, J. Gender, sexual orientation and descriptions of mystical and erotic experiences. Nielsen, M. E. Religious conflict on the internet. Manuscript in preparation. Nielsen, M. E. Psychology, religion, and the future: Doing social science on the world-wide web. Nielsen, M. E., Filipovich, L. Religious orientation and parental attachment among samples of US and Ukrainian students. Nielsen, M. E., Richards, E. K., Salter, R. Religious witnessing as a form of self-disclosure. INVITED LECTURES Nielsen, M. E. (January 26, 2004). Psychology, Religion and the Future. To be delivered at Charleston Southern University, Charleston, South Carolina. Nielsen, M. E. (May 26, 2000). Psychological Research on Religious Conflict. Delivered at Kyiv-Mohyla University, Kyiv, Ukraine. PAPERS PRESENTED Nielsen, M. E., Randolph-Seng, B., Kujawski, J., Winger, A. (October 25, 2003). Expectations Facilitate Mystical Experiences on the Cradle of Creativity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Norfolk, VA. Nielsen, M. E., Bottoms, B., Murray, R., Filipas, H. (October 26, 2003). The Negative Effects of Religion-Related Child Abuse: A Statistical Summary . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Norfolk, VA. Nielsen, M. E., Paloutzian, R., Bottoms, B. (October 26, 2003). Religious Attributions made by Child Abuse Victims. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Norfolk, VA. Nielsen, M. E. (August 14, 2003). A case study of mens grooming in the LDS Church. Paper presented at the Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, UT. Nielsen, M. E. (March 4, 2003). A personal view on religion and war. Georgia Southern University Campus Ministries, Statesboro, GA. Nielsen, M. E., White, D. (2002, November). A case study of mens grooming in the LDS Church. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Salt Lake City, UT. Nielsen, M. E., Williams, J. (2002, November). Religious orientation and attitudes about stem cell research. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Salt Lake City, UT. Nielsen, M. E., Pugh, J. (2001, October). Gender, sexual orientation, and descriptions of mystical and erotic experiences. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Columbus, OH, October 20, 2001. Nielsen, M. E., Smith, E. W. L. (2000, October). Ungrounding and the alteration of consciousness: A preliminary study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Houston, October 19, 2000. Nielsen, M. E. (2000, May). Psychology of Religion in U.S. Colleges and Universities. Paper presented at The History of Christianity and Contemporary Life, sponsored by The Christian Humanitarian and Economical University and the Euro-Asian Accreditation Association. Odessa, Ukraine, May 30, 2000. Nielsen, M. E. (2000, April). Psychology of Religion in U.S. Public Colleges and Universities. Paper presented at the Southeastern Psychological Association Meeting, New Orleans, April 1, 2000. Nielsen, M. E. (1998, July). A View from the Intersection of Psychology and Mormonism. Paper presented at the annual Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, Utah. Nielsen, M. E. (1998, March). Psychology of Religion the Internet: Instructor Resources. Presentation at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Mobile, Alabama. Salter, R., Nielsen, M. E., Richards-Little, E. K. (1998, March). Religious Self-Disclosure as a Norm Violation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Mobile, Alabama. Nielsen, M. E. (1997, November). Religious Conflict and Consonance in Cyberspace. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Religious Research Association, San Diego. Nielsen, M. E. (1997, September). A Self-Complexity Perspective on Self-Cognition. Paper presented at the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Conference on Self-Knowledge, Sevastopol, Ukraine. Nielsen, M. E. (1997, September). Religion and Psychology at the Beginning of a New Millennium. Invited paper presented at the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Conference on Spirituality at the End of the Twentieth Century, Sevastopol, Ukraine. Stevens, R., Nielsen, M. E. (1997, April). Malaysian Moslem students' descriptions of religious and spiritual experiences. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta. Nielsen, M. E. (1996, November). Psychology, religion, and the future: Doing social science on the world-wide web. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Nashville. Nielsen, M. E. (1995, October). Intrapersonal and interpersonal religious conflict: A preliminary investigation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, St. Louis. Nielsen, M. E. (1995, March). H-Comp: A program to calculate information complexity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Savannah. Nielsen, M. E. (1994, November). Descriptions of religious experience using personality and emotion adjectives. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Albuquerque. Slotterback, C., Nielsen, M. E., Saarnio, D. (1993, November). On being mellow: Perceived emotionality of older adults. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, New Orleans. Nielsen, M. E. (1993, August). Religious complexity, predictability, and doubt. Paper presented as part of a symposium, "Thinking About Religion: From Experience to Doubt or Affirmation," at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1992, November). Domain-specific self-complexity: The religious and the intellectual. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Washington, D.C. Miller, C. E., Nielsen, M. E. (1992, May). Factors affecting expectations about group decision making. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1991, November). Self-complexity and religious orientation, conflict, and belief. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Pittsburgh. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1991, November). Religious conflict and religious orientation: A replication and extension. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Pittsburgh. Nielsen, M. E., Fultz, J. (1991, May). Self-complexity in the intellectual and religious domains. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Nielsen, M. E., Miller, C. E. (1991, May). Perpetuation of majority and seniority group decision rules. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Fultz, J., Nielsen, M. E. (1989, May). Is empathic helping mediated by victim-focused attention? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Nielsen, M. E., Miller, C. E. (1989, May). Expectations regarding group decision rules. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Fultz, J., Nielsen, M. E. (1989, April). Anticipated vicarious affect and preference for exposure to another's suffering. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Sociological Association, St. Louis. PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES Professional Organizations President, Mormon Social Science Association, 1999-2001 Editor, Mormon Social Science Association Newsletter, 1994-1999 Workshop participant, John Templeton Foundation Conference on the Teaching of Religion and Science, Jan. 2-7, 1997, Tallahassee. Discussant and Convener, Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1992, 1994, 1998, 1999 Ad Hoc Editorial Consultant, Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology, Society for the Teaching of Psychology, Division Two, American Psychological Association, 1998, 1999 Editorial Board Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought Advisory Board Artha: Journal of Social Sciences, published by Christ College, Bangalore, India Ad Hoc Editorial Consulting: Journals Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (7 reviews, 1994 - 2003) Teaching of Psychology (21 reviews, 1996 - 2003) The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, (10 reviews, 1998-2003) North American Journal of Psychology (7 reviews, 2000 - 2002) Clios Psyche (2 reviews, 2002) Social Psychological Review (2001) Basic and Applied Social Psychology (2000) Theory and Review in Psychology (1997) Review of Religious Research (1996) Research Methods, Instruments, Computers (1995) Law and Human Behavior (1988) Ad Hoc Editorial Consulting: Books Sage Publications, 2003, Peace Psychology Since the Cold War: A Handbook Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000, The Magic of Prayer Allyn Bacon publishers, 1999, Statistical Analysis for the Social Sciences: An Interactive Approach. Routledge Publishers, 1999, Michael Argyles The Psychology of Religion. University of California Press, 1998, Mapping Religion Psychological Studies. Prentice Hall, 1996, Coats Feldman's Classic and Contemporary Readings in Social Psychology (1st Ed.). Wadsworth Inc., 1995, McBurney's Research Methods (3rd Ed.) Dushkin Publishing, 1995, Slife's Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Psychological Issues (9th Ed.) Allyn Bacon Publishers, 1995, Paloutzian's Invitation to the Psychology of Religion (2nd Ed.) Ad Hoc Editorial Consulting: Electronic Media Allyn Bacon Publishers, 1998, 1999, Mind Matters Longman Advanced Media Group: Perdue Hiltons Psychology CD-ROM, 1997, 1999; Whitehurst's CourseNet, 1996; Wade Tavris supplemental web materials, 1998 AWARDS National Science Foundation, Advanced Training Institute in Social Psychology at California State University-Fullerton, January 16-20, 2002. Georgia Southern University, Center for Excellence in Teaching, On-Line Faculty Retreat at St. Simons Island, Georgia, March 1-3, 2000. Georgia Southern University College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Special Initiative Award, $2500, August 13, 1999 Georgia Southern University Faculty Development and Welfare Professional Travel Award, $1200, May 29, 1997 Georgia Southern University College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences nominee for the university systems "Connecting Teachers and Technology" faculty development program, 1996 Success in U Faculty Appreciation Award, Georgia Southern University, 1995 Certificate of Excellence in Programming from the Georgia Resident Assistant Saturday Seminar, February 4, 1995 RECOGNITION RECEIVED Indexed in Directory of American Scholars (11th ed.), Thomson-Gale Publisher Indexed in Whos Who in the World (2000, 2001) Indexed in Whos Who in America (2000, 2001) My Psychology of Religion world-wide-web site, http: www.psywww.com psyrelig , has received recognition by reference libraries, internet resource evaluators, and newspapers. Additional details available at http: www.psywww.com psyrelig endorse.htm. PROFESSIONAL CONSULTATION External reviewer, February 2003, Missouri Institute of Mental Health, School of Medicine. Reviewed the tenure and promotion materials of Dr. Joel Epstein. Expert Witness in the U.S. District Court, District of Maryland, Northern Division case: General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists v. Montgomery County, et al., Case No. JFM-00CV1024, (involved in case from September 2000 to January 2001). SERVICE TO GEORGIA SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY Faculty Senate, 2002-2003. Chair, Faculty Search Committee, Department of Psychology, 2002-2003. College of Liberal Arts Social Sciences Award for Excellence Committee Member, 2003. Department of Literature Philosophy Faculty Search Committee, 2001-2002. Department of Psychology Faculty Search Committee, 2001-2002. College of Liberal Arts Social Sciences Tenure Appeal Committee, 2001 Division of Student Affairs, Eagle Entertainment Faculty Interviewer, 2001. College of Liberal Arts Social Sciences Special Projects Awards Committee, 2000 Thesis Committee for Jason Fors. Thesis defense passed December 8, 2000. Year 2000 Task force, 1998-2000 Subject Pool Coordinator, Department of Psychology, 1994-present Computer Committee Head, Department of Psychology, 1995-2002; member 2002-present Research Sequence Committee, Department of Psychology, 1993-present Full Member of the Graduate Faculty, 1998- present; Associate Member, 1995-1998 Recruitment Committee, Department of Psychology, 1999 MEDIA APPEARANCES Interviewed on the radio program Mind Excursions regarding the role of religion in understanding the terrorist attack on New York City and Washington DC. Two-part interview aired September 22 and October 6, 2001, on Cinq FM 102.3 in Montreal, Canada. Interviewed by Natalia Konstantinovna Vasashenko for Odessa (Ukraine) State Television, regarding psychology and religion. Interview recorded May 29, 2000, for editing and later broadcast (unknown airing). Interviewed for the Tennessee Public Radio program, Ideas and Issues, broadcasted May 23, 1999. MEDIA CONSULTATION Consultant to Becky Nunn, British Broadcasting Corporation (Assistant Producer, Religion) regarding psychological aspects of religion and belief in God. September 8, 2003. Consultant to Anne Stifter, Savannah Morning News reporter, on a story dealing with religious groups and individuals responses to the US Supreme Court ruling on homosexuality. Quote appeared in the newspaper June 27, 2003. Consultant to Anne Stifter, Savannah Morning News reporter, on a story dealing with religion and homosexuality, focusing on the Episcopal church. July 22, 2003. Story appeared July 27, 2003. Consultant to Alan Salkin, Yoga Journal, May 16, 2002, regarding Sri Ravi Shankar and the Art of Living movement. Consultant to Saurabh Bhatacharya, Life Positive Magazine, December 18, 2001, regarding psychology of religion. Consultant to Stacy Willis, Las Vegas Sun newspaper, October 26, 2001, regarding psychological perspectives on religious extremism. Consultant to Ann Stifter, Savannah Morning News writer, September 7, 2001 for a story on charismatics and spiritualism, in the context of State Representative Pelotes claim that she talked with the dead. Consultant to Bill Sones, writer of the syndicated column Strange but True, for a column on factors associated with happiness, August 23, 2001. Consultant to Lia Dosik, associate producer for Paulist Productions, July 27, 2001, for a History Channel television program regarding Judas. Consultant to Pamela Walk, Savannah Morning News, July 2, 2001, for story on baby boomers. Consultant to Martha Allen, Minneapolis Star Tribune, January 25, 2001, for a story devoted to religious and secular rites of passage. Story appeared in the March 24, 2001, edition. Accessed http: www.startribune.com stOnLine cgi-bin article?thisStory=83839304 Consultant to Sandy Bennett, writer for Orange County Family Magazine, for Faith Fate November 2000 cover story (pp. 33-35) on coping with family tragedy. Consultant to Arthur Guray, reporter for the web-based magazine Inasphere, June 19, 2000, regarding teenagers religious experiences. Story posted at http: www.inasphere.com . Consultant to Bruce Bryant-Friedland, The Florida Times-Union, Jacksonville, Florida, regarding psychological aspects of prayer. Story was published March 11, 2000, online version http: jacksonville.com tu-online stories 031100 met_2406319.html. Psychology of Religion consultant to the Infography, http: www.Infography.com. Consultant to Bill Turpie, Odyssey Television Network, on the subject of religious conversion, April 13, 2000. Consultant to Natasha Soma, British Broadcasting Corporation, July 16, 1999. Consultant to Bruce Bryant-Friedland, reporter for the Florida Times-Union, March 6, 1999. Consultant to Amy Wallace, reporter for the Los Angeles Times, August 4, 1997. Consultant to Lynn Neary, reporter for National Public Radio, June 20, 1997. Story was broadcast on All Things Considered, July 28 1997. TEACHING INTERESTS Courses I have taught include: Research Methods; Design and Analysis of Experiments (Statistics); Personality; Social Psychology; Psychology of Religion; Introduction to Psychology; Cross-Cultural Psychology; History Systems, and Abnormal Psychology. I also am prepared to teach Organizational Psychology. Because psychology is a wide-ranging field of inquiry, in each of my courses I emphasize the scientific process. This is based on the rationale that the specifics of what we as psychologists know may change as theories are refined and as research is conducted, but the process of how we study our subject matter acts as a thread to unite the discipline. In my courses, I encourage student involvement by employing individual and group projects and, where appropriate, student research on questions related to the course. These activities make learning an active, cooperative endeavor. Interested students also participate in my research program. This gives them an opportunity to learn the methods of psychology "hands on," and to see first-hand the excitement of discovery that makes psychology a vital, interesting discipline. RESEARCH INTERESTS My primary research program concerns people's perceptions of themselves when they perform religious acts. I have utilized two approaches to address this question. The first of these involves measures of religiousness that are traditionally used in social-psychological studies of religion, while the second applies the self-complexity paradigm to religious thought. I currently am at work on cross-cultural examinations of religious experiences. My future research will build on this theme, focusing both on individuals and on groups. Specifically, I am interested in the conditions that influence the complexity of thought regarding one's own religion, and its possible links with religious conflicts. PROFESSIONAL REFERENCES Dr. Richard Rogers, Chair Department of Psychology Georgia Southern Univ. Statesboro, GA 30460-8041 (912) 681-5539 rrogers@gasou.edu Dr. Elizabeth Weiss Ozorak Department of Psychology Allegheny College Meadville, PA 16335 (814) 332-2394 eozorak@alleg.edu Dr. Bernard Spilka Department of Psychology University of Denver Denver, CO 80208 (303) 871-3782 bspilka@nova.psy.du.edu
Maltby, JohnPsychometrics; relationship of religiosity with personality, mental health, and coping; embarrassment; forgiveness; functional theories of attitude (University of Leicester, UK).
School of Psychology Dr John Maltby School of Psychology Henry Wellcome Building University of Leicester Lancaster Road Leicester LE1 9HN UK Tel: +44 (0) 116 229 7184 Fax: +44 (0) 116 229 7196 Email: jm148@le.ac.uk Consultancy Expertise Teaching Social Behaviour and Development 1 PS2002 PS2017 PS2005 PS20015 Abnormal Psychology and Individual Differences ( lecture notes ) Clinical Statistics 1st Year Personal development Planning Career and Academic Blackboard site Research I am a personality and individual differences researcher interested in correlates of social attitudes and relationships. Areas of interest include celebrity worship, religiosity, forgiveness, belief in good luck and conservatism. As a personality and individual differences researcher I'm particularly interested in psychometric testing . 1. Celebrity worship research 2. Psychology of religion research 3. Forgiveness research 4. Full list of publications Books McCutcheon, L. E., Houran, J., Maltby, J. Ashe, D. (2004). Celebrity Worshippers: Inside the Minds of Stargazers. Frederick, MD : PublishAmerica. Miller, R., Acton, C., Fullerton, D. Maltby, J. (2002). Social Research with SPSS. London: MacMillan. Maltby, J. Day, L. (2001). Early Success with Statistics. London: Prentice Hall. Maltby, J., Lewis, C.A., Hill, A.P. (eds.) (2000). Commissioned Reviews on 250 Psychological Tests. Vol 1. Lampeter, Wales: Edwin Mellen Press. Maltby, J., Lewis, C.A., Hill, A.P. (eds.) (2000). Commissioned Reviews on 250 Psychological Tests. Vol 2. Lampeter, Wales: Edwin Mellen Press. Selected Publications since 2001 Maltby, J. (2005). Protecting the Sacred and Expressions of Rituality: Examining the relationship between dimensions of extrinsic religiosity and unhealthy guilt. Psychology and Psychothera py: Theory, Research and Practice, 78, 77-93. ( pdf ). Maltby, J., Giles, D., Barber, L. McCutcheon, L.E. (2005). Intense-personal Celebrity Worship and Body Image: Evidence of a link among female adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology, 10, 17-32 ( pdf ). Maltby, J. Day, L. (2004). Should never the twain meet? Integrating models of religious personality and religious mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1275-1290. Maltby, J., Day, L. Barber, L. (2004). Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping . Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1629-1641 ( pdf ). Maltby, J., Day, L., McCutcheon, L.E., Gillett, R., Houran, J., Ashe, D. (2004). Celebrity Worship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping. British Journal of Psychology. 95, 411-428. ( pdf ). Maltby, J., Houran, M.A., McCutcheon, L.E. (2003). A Clinical Interpretation of Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with Celebrity Worship. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 25-29. Last updated: 17 December 2004 10:27
Myers, DavidPsychology of religion, teaching of psychology, positive psychology, happiness, social psychology, hearing loss, sexuality (Hope College, MI).
davidmyers Home Page What's new: HarperSanFrancisco has just published What God Has Joined Together? A Christian Case for Gay Marriage (with Letha Dawson Scanzoni). More . . . General Interest Books Pursuit of Happiness American Paradox A Quiet World Intuition What God has Joined Together? Textbooks Psychology Psychology in Modules Exploring Psychology Exploring in Modules Social Psychology Exploring Social Psychology copyright 2005, David G. Myers, Hope College, Holland, Michigan 49422-9000, USA
Krejci, Mark J.Young adult church apostates; acceptance of female God images; religious cognitive schemas; incorporation of religious issues in psychotherapy (Concordia College, MN).
Home Page for mkrejci Mark J Krejci, Ph.D. Professor Chair Psychology PO BOX 325 Dept. of Psychology - Concordia College Moorhead, MN 56562 (Work) 218-299-3254 (Fax) 218-299-4030 Email Address: krejci@cord.edu Teaching Areas Research and Professional Interests Publications and Presentations Concordia College Current Activities Education and Training Teaching Areas Areas of Teaching Experience Abnormal Psychology, Psychology of Religion, Personality Theory and Psychotherapy, Sports Psychology, , Credo Honors: The Search for Mind, General Psychology, Personality Dynamics,Statistics, Pre-May Seminar, May Seminar (International study-travel experience), Principia - Introduction to the Liberal Arts. Research and Professional Interests Psychology of Religion Young adult church apostates Acceptance of female God images Religious cognitive schemas Incorporating Religious issues in psychotherapy International Education Research on internationalizing the curriculum Leader of International Travel Seminars to London, Paris, Munich, Zurich, Vienna, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Prague Rome Publications and Presentations Krejci, M.J., Thompson, K.M., Simonich, H., Crosby, R.D., Donaldson, M.A., Wonderlich, S.A., Mitchell, J.E. (In press). Sexual trauma, spirituality, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse . Krejci, M.J. (2004). Forgiveness in marital therapy. In P.S. Richards A.E. Bergin (Eds.) Spiritual Strategy Case Studies. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association Krejci, M.J. (2003). Self and healthy-mindedness: James Varieties and religion in psychotherapy. Streams of William James , 5, 16-20. Krejci, M.J. (2002, August). Self and Healthy-Mindedness: James Varieties and Religious Psychotherapy. Paper presented at the 110th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Krejci, M.J., Holden, B.K., Cahill, J.R. (2002, August). Cross-Cultural Comparison of Religious Coping. Poster presented at the 110th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Krejci, M.J., Brekke, J., Hostetler, M., Nelson, K., Rothman, T. (2001, August). God Image Modification via Repeated Exposure to Mother God Image. Poster presented at the 109th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. Krejci, M. J. (2000). Accepting female God images: Exposure to facilitate an expanded God-schema hierarchy. Paper presented at the annual meeing of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Houston, TX. Krejci, M.J., Lund, K.E., Bogestad, S.E., Pisk, T., Langdahl, T., Fuder, R. (1999). Response latency comparison of mother and father God images. Poster presented at the 107th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Boston, MA. Sandgren, D., Ellig, N., Hovde, P., Krejci, M., Rice, M., (1999). How international experience affects teaching: Understanding the impact of faculty study abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education, 3, 33-56. Krejci, M.J. (1998). Forgiveness in marital therapy: Explicit and implicit integration of religion. Paper presented at the 106th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California. Krejci, M. J. (1998). Gender comparison of God schemas: A multidimensional scaling analysis. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 8, 57-66. Hovde, P., Ellig, N., Krejci, M., Rice, M. (1997). An evaluation of faculty study abroad: A response to Lamberts strategic questions. International Education Forum, 17, 23-31. Krejci, M. J. (1997). Mere exposure effects of mother God image in prayer. Poster presented at the 105th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, Illinois. Krejci, M.J., Jones, S., Kabaka, L. (1996). Church schemas in young adult apostates and church participants. Poster presented at the 104th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada. Ellig, N., Hovde, P., Krejci, M.J., Rice, M. (1996). The effect of faculty study abroad on teaching: A quantitative comparison. Paper presented at the 37th annual convention of the International Studies Association, San Diego, California. Servaty, H.L., Krejci, M.J., Hayslip, B.Jr. (1996). Relationship among death anxiety, communication apprehension with the dying, and empathy in those seeking occupations as nurses and physicians. Death Studies, 20, 149-160. Rice, M.K., Ellig, N.R., Krejci, M.J., Hovde, P.C. (1995). Assessing the impact of foreign travel on faculty development. Paper presented at the annual Professional and Organizational Development in Higher Education convention, Falmouth, Massachusetts. Krejci, M.J. (1994). Gender Comparison of God Images via Multidimensional Scaling Analysis. Paper presented at the 102nd annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, California. Servaty, H.L., Krejci, M.J. Hayslip, B.H. (1994). Death Anxiety, Communication Apprehension with the Dying, and Empathy in Those Seeking Occupations as Nurses and Physicians. Paper presented at the 16th annual conference of the Association for Death Education and Counseling, Portland, Oregon. Krejci, M.J., Jette, A.M., Anderson, L.J. (1993). God Image Comparison Across Family Development Stages. Poster presented at the 101st annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada. Krejci, M.J., Erickson, L., Aune, J.E. (1992). Images of God: A gender comparison via multidimensional scaling analysis. Poster presented at the 100th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C. Krejci, M.J., Hovde, P.C. (1991). Dimensions of the may seminar experience: Venue, focus, and outcome. Teaching at Concordia, 14(2), 19-25. Krejci, M.J., Jasken, J.L., Johnson, S.L., Niederer, S.K., Swenson, J.V. (1990, August). Efficacy of interactive computer assistedinstruction in abnormal psychology. Poster presented at the 98th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Boston, MA. Krejci, M.J., Sather, M.K., Reich, D.M., (1989). A computer lab for teaching abnormal psychology: An empirical evaluation of a Bush classroom research program. Teaching at Concordia, 13(1), 51-58. Krejci, M.J., Sather, M.K., Reich, D.M., (1989). Computer assisted instruction in abnormal psychology: An empirical evaluation. Poster presented at the 97th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA. Krejci, M.J. (1987). Dimensional analysis of family related constructs: Nonpatient, inpatient, and outpatient families. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN. Merluzzi, T.V., Rudy, T.E., Krejci, M.J. (1986). Social skill and anxiety: Information processing perspectives. In R. Ingram (Ed.) Information Processing Approaches to Psychopathology and Clinical Psychology. New York: Academic Press Krejci, M.J. (1985). Assessment of assertiveness schemata: A multidimensional scaling approach to treatment and no-treatment comparison. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN. Schellenbach, C.J., Krejci, M.J. (1985, May). The coherance of early emotional expressive behaviors. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Schellenbach, C.J., Krejci, M.J. (1985). Methodological considerations in the study of families. In J. Garborino, C. Schellenbach, J. Sebes (Eds.) Troubled Youth, Troubled Families. New York: Aldine Press. Rummel, C.A., Krejci, M.J. (1983). Effects of relocation and behavioral programing with the mentally retarded in a behavioral management unit. Paper presented at the regional meeting of the American Association on Mental Deficiency, Des Moines, IA. Concordia College Current Activities: *Psychology Department Chairperson *Member Faculty Senate *Member of Senate Coordinating Committee Education and Training Ph.D. University of Notre Dame Counseling Psychology 1987 APA internship at Norfolk Regional Center Norfolk, Nebraska M.A. University of Notre Dame Counseling Psychology 1985 B.A. University of North Dakota with study at University of Durham, England Major: Psychology 1982 WWW Links of Interest
Hutch, Richard A.Health and healing, death and dying, individual religious experience, life narrative and human spirituality, religious leadership (University of Queensland, Australia).
The University of Queensland, Australia UQ Home Search Contacts Study News Events Maps Library my.UQ All of UQ People UQ News UQ Events UQ Experts Policies Org. Units UQ Online [ UQ Home ] [ Search ] [ Contacts ] [ Study ] [ Events ] [ Maps ] [ Library ] skip nav Information for Prospective students Current students Prospective staff Current staff Alumni friends The media Learn more about studying at UQ in 2006 Featured events Creative Conservation Child Psychiatry Grand Rounds 2005 Series: Active bodies, healthy minds? Featured links Overseas travel advice Senate election results Programs courses mySI-net Student careers employment A member of Group of Eight Universitas 21 Featured news New therapy for cervical cancer Researchers have pioneered a new approach for the treatment of cervical cancer that targets and turns off single genes in a cell. Coral could rewrite history A UQ archaeologist is teaming up with international researchers to pinpoint exactly when a remote group of Pacific Islands was settled. Researchers turn water into watts Your dirty dishwater could soon be providing the electricity to power wastewater treatment plants if UQ researchers have their way. More UQ News UQ Postgraduate Expo Information about The University locations Research industry partners Teaching learning UQ International Faculties divisions Services facilities Donating to UQ feedback 2005 The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia ABN 63 942 912 684 CRICOS Provider No: 00025B Authorised by: Director, Office of Marketing Communications Maintained by: webservices@uq.edu.au Updated daily
Ganzevoort, R. RuardReligious coping; sexual violence and religion; narrative approaches to psychology of religion and pastoral psychology (Kampen Theological University, Netherlands).
Dr. R. Ruard Ganzevoort [Home] [ Work ] [ Life ] [ Find! ] Quick links to parallel pages Thank you for visiting my website. My name is Ruard Ganzevoort, and I am Professor of Pastoral Theology at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and Associate Professor(Universitair Hoofddocent) at Kampen Theological University (Theologische Universiteit Kampen). My main areas of interest are pastoral theology and psychology, psychology of religion, narrative approaches, crisis and coping, and sexual abuse and religion. I have published or edited 12 books and some 80 scientific or professional publications. Obviously, the links on top will guide you through this site. Work offers full text or summaries of most publications and information on the masters' program on trauma and theology , offered at Kampen Theological University Life brings some personal and career information. F ind! your way using the sitemap and search engine. New on this site is the extended text (in Dutch) of my INAUGURAL ADDRESS ( Oratie ) at the Vrije Universiteit, delivered September 28th, 2005. Please enjoy your stay! If you have any comments, please let me know . My locations www.vu.nl www.thuk.nl At Home Oudegracht 68 3511 AT Utrecht The Netherlands Tel +31-30-238 21 03 Fax +31-30-238 21 06 Mobile +31-6-230 80 850 If any part of this site does not function properly, please let me know: Disclaimer: Copyright of the publications on this site belongs to R.R. Ganzevoort and or the original publishers. Use without prior written permission is not allowed. Last update: 28.09.2005 This site is best viewed in full screen mode A member of the Science and Theology Web Ring [ Previous | Next | Random Site | List Sites ] Copyright 2005 prof. dr. R. Ruard Ganzevoort
Francis, Leslie J.Correlates, antecedents, and consequences of individual differences in attitude toward Christianity; psychology of clergy; psychology of church leaving (University of Wales, Bangor, UK)
Centre for Ministry Studies - Staff Uned Diwinyddiaeth Ymarferol Practical Theology Unit www.bangor.ac.uk rs pt Centre for Ministry Studies 3 June 2003. This site will no longer be updated. A new website for each of the centres of Practical Theology has now replaced this current site. Please click here to view the new site. E-mail any comments or questions to practical_theology@bangor.ac.uk Site created and maintained by Mike Fearn. Last updated Jun 3 2003. Next update due never again... Check out www.bangor.ac.uk rs pt
Van Eenwyk, John R.Jungian approaches to the Christian Bible, religion in the healing of trauma, and the ritual aspects of psychotherapy (University of Washington, WA).
home page The Rev. Dr. John R. Van Eenwyk Welcome to the home page of John R. Van Eenwyk. On this page you will find a brief biographical sketch as well as links to the C. G. Jung Society of Olympia, the International Trauma Treatment Program, and a description of Jungian analysis. My current activities: Jungian Analysis I maintain a private practice in Jungian analysis at 1026 State Avenue East in Olympia, Washington. The phone number is 360-352-2974. In the evening and on weekends, you'll have better luck reaching me at 360-456-7432. St. John's Episcopal Church I am a member of the congregation and perform no ecclesiastical duties. Writing So far, in addition to journal articles on everything from chaos theory and Jung to ways of working therapeutically with patients for whom religion is a primary concern, I have managed to complete one book--Archetypes and Strange Attractors: The Chaotic World of Symbols ( Inner City Books ). There are quite a few tapes of my lectures and workshops floating around, most of which can be purchased through the C. G. Jung Institute of Chicago . Organizations The C. G. Jung Society of Olympia This group was founded in May of 1993. Please click on the link for further information. The International Trauma Treatment Program Founded in November of 1998 by S. Peter Gerard and myself, the ITTP brings practitioners from conflict areas throughout the world for training in the treatment of survivors of organized violence. Individuals and agencies in Olympia volunteer their time to do the training. Please click on the link for further details. Jungian Analysis I maintain a private practice in Jungian analysis (click on the link for a description) at my office at 1026 State Avenue East, in Olympia, Washington. See below for map. Biographical Information Training: AB: Colgate University, 1967 M.Div.: The Episcopal Theological School, 1970 PhD: The University of Chicago, 1981 Propadeuticum: C. G. Jung-Institut Zurich Diploma: C. G. Jung Institute of Chicago Positions: Training Analyst: The C. G. Jung Institute Pacific Northwest Clinical faculty: Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Washington Medical School Executive Council: The International Society for Health and Human Rights Map: Would you like to know where my office is? My email address is jrv@u.washington.edu . Please let me know if there is any information you would like to see included here, or any suggestions you have for the page.
Casebolt, JamesReligious apostasy, terror management theory, liberal religion (especially Unitarian Universalism), religious syncretisms (Ohio University Eastern, OH).
Ohio University Eastern: James Casebolt Dr. James Casebolt Associate Professor M.A., Psychology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Ph.D., Psychology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Psychology 359 Shannon Hall Voice: 740-695-1720 ext. 251 Fax: 740-695-7076 E-mail: Research: Click here for Dr. Casebolt's Research Page Courses: Index of Dr. Casebolt's Psychology courses PSY 101: General Psychology PSY 120: Elementary Statistical Reasoning PSY 221: Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences PSY 226: Experimental Psychology PSY 233: Personality PSY 321: Experimental Design and Analysis PSY 336: Social Psychology PSY 490: Seminar in the Psychology of Religion Dr. Casebolt'a curriculum vita (Requires Acrobat Reader) Return to Faculty and Staff This file (http: www.eastern.ohiou.edu academic casebolj casebolj.htm) was last revised by Dr. James Casebolt. Please send comments or suggestions to the OUE Webmaster . Copyright 2004 Ohio University Eastern
Adams, Jeffrey B.Psychology of religious thought and behavior, particularly dogmatic thinking, religious maturity, and apostacy; social cognition, the interface between social and clinical psychology (St Michael's College, VT).
Adams Faculty Page Psychology Faculty Research Interests: the psychology of religious thought and behavior, pedagogy, and the interface between social and clinical psychology. Courses Taught: General Psychology , Psychological Statistics , Research Methods, Social Psychology , Advanced Topics: Psychology of Religion, Advanced Topics: The Self, and Advanced Social (Graduate Clinical Program). Dr. Jeffrey B. Adams Faculty - Department Home - Department Links
Wulff, DavidPersonality psychology; psychology of religion: history, theories, research methods, and philosophical issues; phenomenology of everyday experiences (Wheaton College, MA).
Wheaton College: Faculty: David Wulff Faculty profiles - - - - - - - - Wheaton catalog Course schedule Academic calendar David Wulff Professor of Psychology Office: Knapton 329 Phone: 508-286-3691 Email: DWulff@wheatoncollege.edu Department(s) and Program(s) Psychology Degrees Ph.D., University of Michigan B.A., Wittenberg University Th.D.(honorary), Lund University, Sweden Main Interests Personality psychology (including theories of personality and methods of assessment); psychology of religion (history, theories, research methods, and philosophical issues); phenomenology of everyday experiences. Research Interests My published scholarly work is mainly in the psychology of religion, including my book, Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary (2nd edition; Wiley, 1997). Current projects include the preparation of a collection of my essays on the psychology of religion for republication, the development of a psychology of the conservative mind, and a reassessment of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, a remarkably popular assessment device inspired by the psychology of C. G. Jung. Teaching Interests In most of my courses, from the basic introductory course to my laboratory in personality assessment, I accent the wide range of perspectives that make up contemporary psychology, from the rigorously scientific approaches at one end of the spectrum to the qualitative-interpretive approaches at the other. My course in the psychology of religion likewise represents a diversity of views. But one of my courses is entirely given over to descriptive-interpretive perspectives: "Experiencing: The Phenomenology of Everyday Life" is a study of phenomenological psychology as it may be applied to a variety of everyday experiences--including reading and writing (the course is writing intensive), driving a car, and occupying a hotel room--as well as to experiences that are foreign to most of us, such as being autistic or totally paralyzed. Other Interests I am book review editor for the International Journal for the Psychology of Religion and serve on the executive boards of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion and Division 36, Psychology of Religion, of the American Psychological Association. I live in the College Hill Historic District of Providence, RI, where I have been restoring an 1828 house for the last 25 years. Selected Publications, Creative Work or Performances Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley Sons, 1997. 760 pp. First edition: 1991. The Psychology of Religion: An Overview. In D. Jonte-Pace and W. B. Parsons (Eds.), Religion and Psychology: Mapping the Terrain. London: Routledge, 2001. Pp. 15-29. Mystical Experience. In E. Cardea, S. J. Lynn, and S. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2000. Pp. 397-440. Psychologists Define Religion: Patterns and Prospects of a Century-Long Quest. In J. G. Platvoet and A. L. Molendijk (Eds.), The Pragmatics of Defining Religion: Contexts, Concepts, and Contests. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Pp. 207-224. Beyond Belief and Unbelief. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 1999, 10, 1-15. Psychology of Religion. Psychology Teacher Network, 1999, May-June, 2-4, 8. Rethinking the Rise and Fall of the Psychology of Religion. In Arie L. Molendijk and Peter Pels (Eds.), Religion in the Making: The Emergence of the Sciences of Religion. Leiden: Brill, 1998. Pp. 181-202. The Psychology of Religion: An Overview. In E. P. Shafranske (Ed.), Religion and the Clinical Practice of Psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1996. Pp. 43-70. Phenomenological Psychology and Religious Experience. In R. W. Hood, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of Religious Experience. Birmingham, Ala.: Religious Education Press, 1995. Pp. 183-199. The Challenge of Resurgent Fundamentalism: A Psychologist's Reflections. Svensk Teologisk Kvartalskrift, 1994, 70, 49-56. Reality, Illusion, or Metaphor? Reflections on the Conduct and Object of the Psychology of Religion. Journal of the Psychology of Religion, 1992, 1, 25-51. Psychological Approaches. In F. Whaling (Ed.), Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Religion, Vol. 2, The Social Sciences. The Hague: Mouton, 1985. (Volume 28 in the "Religion and Reason" series, J. Waardenburg, general editor.) Pp. 21-88. This page is maintained by David Wulff. Last updated on 5 30 03. Questions about this page? Use our query form.
James, William William JamesInformation on and readings from turn of the century American psychologist and philosopher. Information on and readings from American psychologist and philosopher William James Information on and readings from pioneering American psychologist William James.
William James Site Navigation Materials at this site . Essays, Excerpts, Letters, and Reviews . Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on Life's Ideals . The Principles of Psychology . Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking . The Meaning of Truth . The Will to Believe . Essays in Radical Empiricism . On The Varieties of Religious Experience . Other sites on the Internet related to William James. Essays about William James . Bibliographic Information . Reviews of books about William James. Discussion Groups and Chats about William James. Related sites (Dewey, Mead, Peirce). Search the Web for information on William James. Translate Passages or Pages at this Site into one of eight languages. "It has sometimes crossed my mind that James wanted to be a poet and an artist, and that there lay in him, beneath the ocean of metaphysics, a lost Atlantis of fine arts: and that he really hated philosophy and all its works, and pursued them only as Hercules might spin or as a prince in a fairy tale sorts seeds for an evil dragon, or as anyone might patiently do some careful work for which he had no aptitude." John J. Chapman, a friend of William James Material at this site Chronology and photographs of William James . Introducing The Psychologist Malgr Lui , by Morton Hunt. William James: Our Father Who Begat Us , book chapter by Frank Pajares. from the book Educational Psychology: A Century of Contributions . First chapter of Linda Simon's Genuine Reality: A Life of William James . Three of his students write their impression of James . James defines Psychology . Passages from William James on the teaching art , on interest , on how an individual settles into a new opinion , on truth (theory, reality), on genius , on memory , and, of course, on habit . A special bit of Jamesian wisdom . William James and Hobbes . Great minds think alike. James, Dewey, beliefs, and knowledge acquisitions - a model. A model of truth and pragmatism . Outline and study guide of "The Self," Chapter 3 from the Principles (Briefer Course). James on the goal of psychology - a modest little slide show. A thought provoking passage on tenderness in education . As William James said . . . a few quotable quotes. Portion of letter from Carl Jung on meeting James . Study questions used at Emory for Chapter 3 of the Jimmy (The Self). Some excellent advice for professors and researchers . See some of James's sketches . And some sketches of James . And a handwritten letter to Carl . And a brief note turning down a lecture. Would you like William James's autograph ? Essays, excerpts, letters, and reviews "Address at the Annual Meeting of the New England Anti-Imperialist League." Boston: New England Anti-Imperialist League, 1903. "Are We Automata?" 1872, Mind, 4, 1-22. Response to Huxley's "On the Hypothesis that Animals Are Automata, and Its History," 1874 essay. "The Chicago School," 1904, Psychological Bulletin, 1, 1-5. Also here . "The Consciousness of Lost Limbs," 1887, Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1, 249-258. "Does Consciousness Exist?" 1904, Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, 1, 477-491. Mirror . "The Energies of Men." 1907, Science, N.S. 25 (No. 635), 321-332. [James' Presidential Address to the American Philosophical Association.] Mirror . "The Gospel of Relaxation" - Chapter 1 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. "Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment" 1880, Atlantic Monthly, 46(276), 441-459. From Cornell University Library. Mirror here. This paper was initially a lecture given before the Harvard Natural History Society. 1880, October. Notes from Prof. J. Wesley Robbins of Indiana U South Bend . "The Hidden Self." 1890, Scribner's Magazine, 7(3). From Cornell University Library. "Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine." the Ingersall Lecture, 1897. Also here . "Human Immortality." Also here . "The Moral Equivalent of War." Speech given at Stanford University, 1906. Another copy here . And here . "On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings" - Chapter 2 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. "Oration upon the unveiling of the monument to Robert Gould Shaw," Boston Music Hall, May 31, 1987. "The Ph.D. Octopus," first published in the Harvard Monthly, March 1903 . "The Philippine Tangle," Boston Evening Transcript (March 1, 1899). "Pluralism, Pragmatism, and Instrumental Truth", 1907, from A Pluralistic Universe and Pragmatism. "Remarks at the Peace Banquet," speech given on the closing day of the World Peace Congress, 7 October 1904. Also here . "Secretary Taft a Biased Judge," Boston Transcript (May 2, 1904). "Social Value of the College-Bred" Adress delivered November, 1907. Some Problems in Philosophy, 1911, with review by Doug Renselle. "The Stream of Consciousness," 1892, Psychology (chapter XI). Cleveland New York, World. Mirror . "Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide" - essay by James. "What is an Emotion?" 1884, Mind, 9, 188-205. Mirror . "What is an Instinct?" 1887, Scribner's Magazine, 1(3), 355-366. From Cornell University Library. "What Makes a Life Significant?" - Chapter 3 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. "What the Will Effects." 1888, Scribner's Magazine, 3(2), 240-250. From Cornell University Library. Here as a pdf file . "A World of Pure Experience," 1904, Journal of Phil., Psych., and Scientific Methods, 1, 533-543, 561-570. Mirror . James's review of "The Anaesthetic Revelation and the Gist of Philosophy," Atlantic Monthly, November, 1874. Familiar Letters of William James published by the Atlantic Monthly Volume I - early correspondence. Volume II - written prior to publication of the Principles of Psychology. Volume III - written during the last ten years of James's life. From Talks to Teachers Preface Chapter 1 - Psychology and the Teaching Art Chapter 2 - The Stream of Consciousness Chapter 3 - The Child as a Behaving Organism Chapter 4 - Education and Behavior Chapter 5 - The Necessity of Reactions Chapter 6 - Native Reactions and Acquired Reactions Chapter 7 - What the Native Reactions Are Chapter 8 - The Laws of Habit Chapter 9 - The Association of Ideas Chapter 10 - Interest Chapter 11 - Attention Chapter 12 - Memory Chapter 13 - The Acquisition of Ideas Chapter 14 - Apperception Chapter 15 - The Will Excerpts and highlights - chapter by chapter. On the role that psychology plays in education . "The Gospel of Relaxation" - Chapter 1 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. "On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings" - Chapter 2 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. "What Makes a Life Significant?" - Chapter 3 of Talks to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. Four of the talks were published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1899. Cornell University provides scans of the original lectures on Psychology and the Teaching Art . Vol 83(496), pp. 155-162. February 1899. Education and Behavior . Vol 83(497), pp. 320-330. March 1899. Interest and Attention . Vol 83(498), pp. 510-518. April 1899. The Will . Vol 83(499), pp. 617-626. May 1899. Softcover edition of Talks to Teachers back in print !! The Principles of Psychology Professor Christopher Green , of York University , has created a Classics in the History of Psychology internet resource site that includes the full text of The Principles of Psychology . The Classics Site has a mirror at Arizona State University that also houses The Principles . Introduction to The Principles , by Robert Wozniak. Mirror here . Prof. Wozniak's Classics in Psychology: Historial Essays Overview from the Thoemmes Press . Commentary on The Stream of Consciousness , by Dr. C. George Boeree. James defines habit in the Manufacturer and Builder, Vol. 19(5), p. 116, May 1887. William James's Narrative of Habit , by Renee Tursi See the Atlantic Monthly's review of the book , published April 1891, Vo. 67(402). From Cornell University Library. Outline and study guide of "The Self," Chapter 3 from the Principles (Briefer Course). VOLUME 1 Chapter 1 - The Scope of Psychology . Chapter 2 - The Functions of the Brain . Chapter 3 - Conditions of Brain Activity . Chapter 4 - Habit . Chapter 5 - The Automaton Theory . Chapter 6 - The Mind-Stuff Theory . Chapter 7 - Methods Snares of Psychology . Chapter 8 - Minds to Other Things . Chapter 9 - The Stream of Thought . Chapter 10 - The Consciousness of Self . Chapter 11 - Attention . Chapter 12 - Conception . Chapter 13 - DiscriminationComparison . Chapter 14 - Association . Chapter 15 - The Perception of Time . Chapter 16 - Memory . VOLUME 2 Chapter 17 - Sensation . Chapter 18 - Imagination . Chapter 19 - The Perception of 'Things.' Chapter 20 - The Perception of Space . Chapter 21 - The Perception of Reality . Chapter 22 - Reasoning . Chapter 23 - The Production of Movement . Chapter 24 - Instinct . Chapter 25 - The emotions . Chapter 26 - Will . Chapter 27 - Hypnotism . Chapter 28 - Necessary Truths Experience . Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking From the Mead Project at Brock University. Transcribed by Lloyd Gordon Ward and Robert Throop. Table of Contents . Author's Preface . Lecture One: The Present Dilemma in Philosophy . Lecture Two: What Pragmatism Means . Also here . Lecture Three: Some Metaphysical Problems Pragmatically Considered . Lecture Four: The One and the Many . Lecture Five: Pragmatism and Common Sense . Lecture Six: Pragmatism's Conception of Truth . Lecture Seven: Pragmatism and Humanism . Lecture Eight: Pragmatism and Religion . About Pragmatism The Pragmatism Cybrary - the most authorative site on this subject. What Pragmatism Ain't , delightful essay by Philip Nobel. Also here . American Pragmatism , from the Radical Academy. Pragmatism , excellent entry from the Catholic Encyclopedia. Notes on the lecture and Essays on Pragmatic Humanism from Prof. J. Wesley Robbins. Swedenborgian Roots of American Pragmatism:The Case of D. T. Suzuki , by Eugene Taylor. Early American Pragmatism , by Prof. Paul Redding, University of Sydney. Includes excellent links. Questions and Commentary from Prof. William O'Meara of James Madison University. You can purchase audiotapes of Prof. James Campbell's William James, Charles Pierce, and American Pragmatism from Knowledge Products. The Meaning of Truth From the Mead Project at Brock University. Transcribed by Lloyd Gordon Ward and Robert Throop. Table of Contents . Preface Chapter 1 - The Function of Cognition Chapter 2 - The Tigers of India Chapter 3 - Humanism and Truth Chapter 4 - Relation between Knower and Known Chapter 5 - The Essence of Humanism Chapter 6 - A Word More about Truth Chapter 7 - Professor Pratt on Truth Chapter 8 - Truth and its Misunderstandings Chapter 9 - The Meaning of the Word Truth Chapter 10 - The Existence of Julius Caesar Chapter 11 - The Absolute and the Strenous Life Chapter 12 - Professor Hbert on Pragmatism Chapter 13 - Abstractionism and 'Relativismus' Chapter 14 - Two English Critics Chapter 15 - A Dialogue The Will to Believe Complete essay from Marc Fonda. Complete essay from James Madison University. The Ethics of Belief , edited by A. J. Burger (also here ), includes full text of "The Will to Believe" essay by William Clifford (also here ) and here are notes on Clifford and James , and commentary by Burger. Teaching James's "The Will to Believe," by Prof. Guy Axtell, University of Nevada, Reno. Notes from Prof. Robbins, Indiana University. Notes from Prof. Browning at University of Texas, Austin. Notes from Princeton philosophy course. "What is This Place?" William James and Religious Certainty , by Br. Tom. "The Book of James: William James's lectures on religion, a century later, " by Joseph Leconte for The Heritage Foundation William James: Still Salient After All These Years . An outline with commentary provided by Bob Corbett. Essays in Radical Empiricism From the Mead Project at Brock University. Transcribed by Lloyd Gordon Ward and Robert Throop. Table of Contents . Editor's Preface - Ralph Barton Perry. Chapter 1 - Does 'Consciousness" Exist? . Chapter 2 - A World Of Pure Experience . Chapter 3 - The Thing and Its Relations . Chapter 4 - How Two Minds Can Know One Thing . Chapter 5 - Affectional Facts Pure Experience . Chapter 6 - The Experience of Activity . Chapter 7 - The Essence of Humanism . Chapter 8 - La Nocion de Conscience (in French). Chapter 9 - Is Radical Empiricism Solopsistic . Chapter 10 - Mr. Pitkin's Refutation . Chapter 11 - Humanism and Truth Once More . Chapter 12 - Absolutism and Empiricism . As a complete text file . On The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study of Human Nature Full text from Psych Web by Prof. Michael Nielsen. Hypertext Version from American Studies at UVA. Full text from byGosh.com . Lecture Summaries , by John Durhan. Notes from Marc Fonda - Part 1 and Part 2 . Commentary on the Varieties , by Carol Zaleski, Smith College. The Science of Religion , a lecture by Russell McNeil also from Malaspina. James's Gifford Lectures on Natural Religion , delivered at Edinburgh in 1901-1902, are provided by the Council on Spiritual Practices. As with previous sites, these lectures also comprise the entire text of The Varieties of Religious Experience, but they are very nicely organized. The Council on Spiritual Practices offers The William James Awards , Funding for Masters' Theses and Doctoral Dissertations on Primary Religious Spiritual Experience. A brief commentary by Sandra Stahlman. Introductory lecture to the Varieties by Ian Johnston, Malaspina University. Columbia News Video Forum . Scholars Reevaluate the Significance of William James' The Varieties of Religious Experience. One hundred years after the publication of William James' The Varieties of Religious Experience, the Center for the Study of Science and Religion and the John Templeton Foundation brought together a group of influential scholars to reevaluate the significance of the classic work that analyzes religious experience within the context of psychology and philosophy. The link above will take you to a description of each lecture by these prominent scholars. "The Varieties of Religious Experience: William James' Contributions to a Theory of Religion , delivered by Ann Taves "Damned for God's Glory: William James and the Scientific Vindication of Protestant Culture , delivered by David Hollinger "The Varieties of Ordinary Experience , delivered by Jerome Bruner "Pragmatism and an Unseen Order in Varieties ," delivered by Wayne Proudfoot Also view Richard Rorty speak on the Varieties . Other sites on the Net related to William James William James entry from MIT Cognet (excellent site, but requires access through edu server or a subscription). James site from Garth Kemerling with excellent links. Episteme has fine links to philosophy-related sites. Here is the link to James . Links to James sites on the Web from the Alliance for Lifelong Learning . More links, these from Mythos and Logos . These pages are worth checking in case I miss something. William James page from ErraticImpact.com . Check out their Philosophy Research Base . William James page from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Excellent overview. European William James Project , from the Pragmatism Cybrary. William James: Still Salient After All These Years . Search for William James at FindArticles.com . The Philosophy of William James , from The Radical Academy . William James , from Genius in the Family Cameo Biography, PBS. Some quotes by James. No end to them . Ane here is a nice set from the Philosopher's Magazine. Blurb for Jason Gary Horn's book, Mark Twain and William James . Brief biographical sketch . William James Award Competition , from APA Eastern Division. The William James Society . A bit macabre, but here is James's tombstone at the Cambridge Cemetery. Essays about William James Biological Consciousness and the Experience of the Transcendent: William James and American Functional Psychology , by Eugene Taylor. Professor Taylor's essay in Spanish . "The Book of James: William James's lectures on religion, a century later," by Joseph Leconte for The Heritage Foundation Mind and Body : Descartes to William James, by Robert Wozniak of Bryn Mawr. "The Nitrous Oxyde Philosopher" by Dmitri Tymozko. Interesting reading. Introduction to The Principles of Psychology , by Robert Wozniak. Mirror here . Oh Those Fabulous James Boys - William and Henry , by Eugene Taylor. Pure Experience, the Response to William James: An Introduction , by Eugene Taylor and Robert Wozniak. A Review of James' Some Problems of Philosophy , by Doug Renselle. Sartre and James on Freedom , by William O'Meara. "Speaking Terms": William James on Intelligence , by Tom Murphy. "What is This Place?" William James and Religious Certainty , by Tom Murphy. "Why William James Still Matters," by Charles Taylor. Wilhelm Wundt and William James , by Dr. C. George Boeree. And see this commentary on The Stream of Consciousness . William James and the NLP Model , by Michael Hall. "William James and Rudolph Steiner," by Robert McDermott. "William James: Our Father Who Begat Us," by Frank Pajares. William James , an obituary published in the Atlantic Monthly by James Jackson Putnam, 1910. The New York Times obituary . William James and Individual Spirituality - from Susan Landau at Wesleyan. William James and the Tradition of American Public Philosophers , by Cushing Strout, for the Partisan Review. William James on an Unseen Order , by Wayne Proudfoot, from Harvard Theological Review. Is the universe moral or unmoral? William James's Narrative of Habit , by Renee Tursi, from findarticles.com . [may require edu domain access] William James's Selective Individualism , by James O. Pawelski, Albright College. William James et la psychologie exprimentale , by Vincent Guillin (in French). Bibliographic information Russell McNeil keeps a superb William James Consolidated Database at Malaspina University-College, British Columbia. It includes the Library of Congress Catalog and HTML citations, National Library of Canada Citations, the UK's COPAC citations, and tie-ins to Amazon, Blackwell's, and AAUP. One-stop bibliographic information. Visit their Great Books site. Amazon list of available books about William James . Here is my list of books about James (more carefully alphabetized than Amazon's). New books about William James Gerald Myers's William James: His Life and Thought just out, Yale University Press. The Correspondence of William James, Volume 9 , from University Press of Virginia. Prof. Phil Oliver has a new book entitled William James's "Springs of Delight" . It may be ordered from Amazon.com or from Barnes and Noble . AddAll Book Search and Bublos.com will compare prices of new books. So will DirectTextbook.com . TITLE AUTHOR KEYWORD ISBN AddAll.com will also compare prices of used books. Excellent. Nope, I don't get a commission. Just trying to be helpful. Author: Title: Keyword: Book collector or interested in rare books and first editions? Visit the following. Advanced Book Exchange Inc., (ABE) . My favorite. Alibris - nice selection of out-of-print books. Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (ABAA) . Bibliofind , in conjunction with Amazon.com. Bookfinder.com . Scholarly Books.com . UsedBookSearch in the UK. Some Book Reviews Robert Coles, Harvard, on Barzun's A Stroll with William James . Eugene Taylor, Harvard, on James's Manuscript Lectures . Macho men - Tom Lutz on Kim Townsend's Manhood at Harvard. An American Constellation - Sergio Perosa on Lewis's The Jameses. Passionate Tolerance , P. H. Rosenberg on Miller's Democratic Temperament: The Legacy of William James. Timothy Kaufman-Osborn also on Democratic Temperament , for American Political Science Review. The Belief that Works Best , Phillip Johnson on Paul Croce's Science and Religion in the Era of William James. Peter Ochs on Bennett Ramsey's Submitting to Freedom: The Religious Vision of William James . Michael Raposa on Richard Gale's The Divided Self of William James . Scott Stossel on Linda Simon's Genuine Reality for the Boston Phoenix [also here ]. Richard Wakefield on Simon's Genuine Reality . Pat Hoy on The Manly Ideal , for Harvard Magazine. Discussion Groups or Chats about William James Yahoo Discussion Group on William James . You can subscribe to an e-mail discussion group on William James by sending an email message to LISTSERV@austin.cc.tx.us . In the message, write: SUBSCRIBE WILLIAMJAMES-L [Your-First-Name Last-Name] You can also subscribe to an e-mail discussion group on William, Henry, Alice, and other members of The James Family. To do this, send an e-mail message to: listserv@wvnvm.wvnet.edu . In the message area, write: SUBSCRIBE JAMESF-L [Your-First-Name Last-Name] You will receive instructions about accessing the archive and posting your own messages. The William James Lecture Hall is "devoted to all contemplations, musings, and queries concerning William James." It's a discussion group. Join the William James Live Recitation . Related Links The Online Books Page offers selections from William and from Henry. Be sure to stop by the Center for Dewey Studies . Full text of Dewey's Democracy and Education A fine site devoted to Charles S. Peirce . Welcome to George , a site devoted to George Herbert Mead. The Philosophy Pages from Garth Kemerling is as good a site on philosophy as you will find on the Web. Philosophy Links , a great site filled with links to philosophy. From The Netherlands no less. Search the Web, Emory University, York University, Brock University, PsychWeb Search Hints: Use key words, and place quotation marks around terms you do not want separated: "william james" avoids meaningless returns for "william" and for "james." You do not neet to type articles or most prepositions. Simply specify the key terms: "william james" habit. If you want to know when William James was born: "william james" born. Google's smart and usually places the most relevant pages up front. Questions work, but only because key words are read by the search engine. Better just to use key terms. If you're looking for passages, enter, within quotation marks, the piece of the passage you think you know. For example, what was it James said about "becoming perfect teachers"? There is no need to use capitals. Searching the various universities will include the full domain, so please be as specific with your search terms as possible. Search for information on William James This site houses Talks to Teachers and various essays Search WWW Search this site York houses The Principles and Classics in the History of Psychology; Brock houses Pragmatism, Meaning of Truth, and Radical Empiricism Search York University Search Brock University PsychWeb houses The Varieties of Religious Experience Search PsychWeb Translate Passages or Complete Pages at this Site Translate pages at this site. Use the excellent AltaVista Translation service to translate any pages found at this site. Simply copy and paste a particular passage or a URL and the passage or page will be translated from English into one of 9 languages. Note that you can translate passages of text (by typing in copying the passage you want translated) or full pages (by typing in pasting the complete URL of the page you want translated). This is still an "inexact"science at this stage, so the translation you receive may be less than a perfectly accurate reflection of the passage or page you submit. On the whole, however, it will serve you relatively well. Type or Paste text or Web address (beginning with http: ) here: Translate from: English to Spanish English to French English to German English to Italian English to Japanese English to Korean English to Portuguese English to Chinese Chinese to English French to English French to German German to English German to French Italian to English Japanese to English Korean to English Portuguese to English Russian to English Spanish to English This web site was updated on Wednesday, October 13, 2004. Pages at this site were designed for Internet Explorer 5.5+ and for high color. Results will be disappointing with other browsers or with fewer colors (and with some monitors). I am told that most pages look okay on Netscape 7 . I also use color names, and I pay no attention to WC3 guidelines. If it looks good on my monitor, I go with it. Enjoy your visit. A note about copyright . Today is Home | Albert Bandura | Italo Calvino | Self-Efficacy | So long "On ne voit bien qu'avec le cur. L'essentiel est invisible pour les yeux."
Psychology's Two Cultures: A Christian AnalysisJournal article by Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen analysing the stance of Christian psychologists with respect to the "two cultures" in contemporary academic psychology-one of them "positivist and scientistic", the other "post-positivist and humanistic". [Christian Scholar's Review]
CCCU : Resource Center | Psychologys "Two Cultures": A Christian Analysis Resource Center Psychologys "Two Cultures": A Christian Analysis Browse Categories Administrator Resources Advancing Intercultural Competencies Science and Religion Student Resources Trustee Resources Virtual Center for Faculty Development VCFD - Call for Resources Quick Search Psychologys "Two Cultures": A Christian Analysis Christian Scholar's Review Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen View Bibliographic Information In this essay Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen analyzes the stance of Christian psychologists with respect to the "two cultures" in contemporary academic psychology-one of them "positivist and scientistic," the other "post-positivist and humanistic." Ms. Van Leeuwen teaches psychology and interdisciplinary studies at Calvin College. Reproduced by permission from Christian Scholar's Review Psychologists in the Anglo-American tradition suffer from an ironic but seldom admitted schizophrenia.1 I While claiming progressively greater success in exposing hidden influences on the behavior of their clients and subjects, most have assumed that their own theories and methods can in principle be laundered of any personal, social, or metaphysical agenda to which psychologists themselves might privately adhere. There have been historical exceptions to this mentality, of course, the chief of which originated with Freud, who (whatever one may think of his biologically reductionist anthropology) understood only too well that the unanalysed analyst was in danger of muddying, rather than clarifying the therapeutic waters by the operation of his or her own defense mechanisms when confronting patients whose problems struck too close to home. But in general, as a psychologist of Catholic background once put it, "the average psychologist seldom applies his technical knowledge to himself; ostensibly his is the only immaculate perception."2 Self-examination, then, has not been a strong point throughout most of psychologys century-long history as a formalized discipline. But even outside the clinical tradition there has been at least one forum in North America in which questions about paradigms, politics and even (although more rarely) metaphysics have regularly surfaced. I refer to the pages of the American Psychologist, the official monthly organ of the American Psychological Association, now approaching a half-century of continuous publication. In addition to reports of an empirical or theoretical nature, the American Psychologist has a tradition of publishing articles of a "metapsychological" sortones in which the paradigmatic status quo is not simply taken for granted and elaborated, but examined critically. For this paper I have examined a number of articles of the metapsychological sort published in the American Psychologist over the past ten years. From these, and from related writings in psychology and its cognate disciplines, the following three points will be developed: 1) Both theoretically and methodologically, Anglo-American psychology is the uneasy home of two competing and progressively more evenly-matched "cultures," the first positivist and scientistic, the second post-positivist and humanistic. There are subcultural themes within each culture which vary across time and constituency, but the broad contours of each and the gulf that separates the two can be clearly documented, as can the strengths and weaknesses of each. 2) Christian psychologists can be found in both cultures, and in each case can give plausible reasons for maintaining that their preferred camp is where thoughtful Christians should cast their lot. 3) Christians now choosing sides in this debate should consider the possibility of a "third way," one in which their control beliefs enable them to steer a fine line between reductionism and self-deification in psychological anthropology, and between positivism and skepticism in psychological epistemology. Whether Christians have the wit or the will to develop such a position (let alone have it accepted by the discipline at large) is, or course, another story. Tracking the Two Cultures I begin with a pair of companion-articles which appeared in the American Psychologist in 1984. The first, by one of American psychologys elder statesmen, Gregory Kimble of Duke University, was entitled "Psychologys Two Cultures."3 The second, co-authored by Leonard Krasner and Arthur Houts (from state universities in New York and Tennessee respectively) was "A Study of the Value Systems of Behavioral Scientists."4 In recent years the American Psychologist has published several attempts to analyze competing value-systems within its constituency,5 but these two are unique in attempting systematically empirical, as opposed to anecdotal, accounts of these subcultures. That the journal chose to publish two such studies side by side may be seen as a reassertion of empiricist values on the part of the editors, a concession to the growing literature critical of value-free conceptions of science,6 or possibly both. Kimble takes his cue from C. P. Snows 1959 lecture on "The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution," in which, as a practitioner of both the sciences and the humanities, Snow deplored the gap in methods, values, and conceptual language that increasingly seemed to be separating these two major branches of Western culture.7 "In psychology," Kimble asserts, "these conflicting cultures exist within a single field, and those who hold opposing values are currently engaged in a bitter family feud."8 Armed with past analyses of these value conflicts, Kimble developed what he called the "Epistemic Differential"a scale in which each of twelve discipline-related value issues is represented in bipolar form. Respondents rank themselves, on a scale of 1 to 10, with regard to their position on each issuefor example, scientific vs. humanistic values as motivators of scholarship, belief in the determinism vs. indeterminism of behavior, nature vs. nurture as the predominant shaper of human behavior, and objectivity vs. empathy as the best means of understanding behavior. Kimbles responding samples were of three kinds: first, a group of undergraduate students with no previous training in psychology; second, a sample of over half the officers of the various divisions of the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.),9 and third, members of the A.P.A. who belonged to only one of four divisions of the Association: Division 3 (Experimental), Division 9 (The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues), Division 29 (Psychotherapy) or Division 32 (Humanistic). His scoring procedure allowed a total item score to be assigned to each respondent, from -12 (the most extreme "scientistic" position) to +12 (the most extreme "humanistic").10 Results for the first two groups (heterogenous samples of pre-psychology students and A.P.A. officers) showed a roughly normal distribution of scores, with the means in each case very close to the centerthat is, showing no clear evidence for the "two cultures" phenomenon. But once psychologists have sorted themselves into specific A.P.A. interest groups, the picture changes dramatically. Factor analysis of these scores isolated six scale items that could be referred to as the "scientist-humanist cluster."11 On every one of these, members of A.P.A. Division 3 (Experimental) had mean scores in the most extreme scientistic direction. Differences among the other three divisions, while still significant, were generally less pronounced, but all three groups were clearly more committed to the humanistic end of the continuum, with average scores in the predicted order: Division 9 psychologists were the most moderate humanizers, and Division 32 the most extreme. The "two cultures" phenomenon in psychology, Kimble concludes, comes about as the result of a birds-of-a feather phenomenon. People with biases in either the humanist or scientist direction find their way into organizations where these values are dominant. Once they are there a process of socialization takes over. The biases that made the organization attractive in the first place are nurtured and strengthened. In short, the dual processes of selection and emphasis ... are the bases for psychologys two cultures.12 Kimbles data also show that there are very few psychologists totally committed to one extreme or the other. Nevertheless, he affirms the general existence of the "two cultures" in psychology, and notes that "in the very same debate, one group may speak vehemently on points that the other group takes as trivial, or they talk at cross purposes. None of this will come as news to anyone who has attended a session of the A.P.A. council of representatives, or participated in a departmental faculty meeting."13 The companion study by Krasner and Houts is simpler in its sampling strategy, but more complex in its measures of values. It compared a sample of psychologists strongly associated with the development of the behavior modification movement14 with a sample of randomly selected psychologists not identified with that movement, and asked members of each group to complete not one, but three different "values" scales. The first of these, a "Theoretical Orientation Survey," originally developed and used elsewhere, was designed to assess disciplinary commitments according to dimensions quite similar to those used in Kimbles study. The other two scales, designed for this particular study, included an "Epistemological Style Questionnaire" to assess degree of adherence to each of three different scientific "styles" empiricism, rationalism, and metaphorismand a 67-item "Values Survey" to assess respondents views on a wider variety of issues (e.g., degree of ethical constraint appropriate in science, of government involvement in the economy and social services, of science in the solution of environmental and social problems, degree of adherence to a social Darwinist vs. an altruistic social philosophy, and to a theistic vs. an atheistic worldview).15 On the first two scales (assessing discipline-related assumptions) the two groups showed, if anything, even clearer differences than occurred in the Kimble study. Compared to the group of randomly-selected, non-behavioral psychologists, those associated with the behavior modification movement were more anti-theoretical, less convinced of the existence of free will, more tied to purely quantitative and behavioral (as opposed to qualitative and self-report) data, more physically reductionistic in their view of human beings, less accepting of the use of metaphor in theorizing, and more convinced that value-free induction was possible in the conduct of psychological research. On the third, more wide-ranging, "Value Survey Scale" there were no significant differences between the two groups on any of the issues polled: on the average, behavioral and non-behavioral psychologists leaned equally towards the view that science should be about facts not values, yet mixed this with a strong sense of research ethics and a moderate sense of social responsibility regarding the application of research findings. Both groups leaned equally (although not militantly) towards atheism rather than theism as a worldview, shunned social Darwinism while sharing a moderately conservative political philosophy, and were moderately against environmentalist legislation even though they supported more government control of health care delivery. This second study thus supports the "two cultures" hypothesis regarding discipline-specific values, but not the idea that these two cultures might be paralleled by ideological polarization in other areas. Nevertheless, when the authors pooled the data for both groups and looked for certain inter-item correlations among the various scales, some weak yet significant relationships emerged between discipline-specific and other values: Subjects [behavioral or non-behavioral] who endorsed freedom of inquiry as opposed to ethical constraints on research, and who favored social Darwinism as opposed to social altruism also favored behavioral as opposed to experiential content emphasis within psychology. Subjects who endorsed the view that science is value-neutral also favored physiological reductionism and quantitative as opposed to qualitative methods in psychology. In contrast, subjects who endorsed the view that science is value-laden favored an intuitive approach to science.16 The Two Cultures Compete for Control To the Christian analyst, perhaps the most intriguing aspect of these studies is not so much what does differentiate the "two cultures" in psychology as the failure of the theism atheism dimension to enter into the picture at all. According to the second of these studies, theism and atheism are no differently distributed among behavioral and non-behavioral psychologists and, moreover, there is no significant correlation between strength of theistic beliefs on the one hand and patterns of either disciplinary or social values on the other. To a consideration of this point I will return, but for the moment let us consider some reactions to this pair of "two cultures" studies from later issues of the American Psychologist. Interestingly, none of the published responses endorsed the positivistic status quo which dominates academic psychologyperhaps because that which is in ascendancy generates no sense of defensiveness in its adherents. Actual reactions ranged from pleas for methodological reform to those calling for the wholesale replacement of the traditionally-positivist paradigm by a postpositivist one emphasizing the sociologyand even the politicsof psychological knowledge. According to the latter, psychology is as much about values as it is about objective facts. Moreover, psychological theorizing reflects the disguised ideology of its creators in ways that these two studies barely began to tap. Social psychologist Rhoda Unger reported her own research indicating that both socioeconomic background and political allegiance are strongly correlated with psychologists position on the nature nurture controversy. More specifically, psychologists from economically privileged backgrounds and or of conservative political views were much more apt to endorse statements such as "Science has underestimated the extent to which genes affect human behavior": "Most sex differences have an evolutionary purpose"; "Biological sex, sex role, and sexual preference are highly related to each other in normal people"; and "A great deal can be learned about human behavior by studying animals."17 The apparent connection between political conservatism and allegiance to a more biologically-determinist theory of human nature is particularly worrisome to feminist psychologists, because, in Ungers words, [it] may account for the consistent reappearance of biology in controversies involving the empowerment of formerly disenfranchised groups. The assumption of whether a racial or sexual entity is a biological or a social group is fundamental to both political and scientific paradigms. Thus, a shift from the biological position (the study of sex differences) to a social position (the examination of gender) was a necessary step in the development of a new psychology of women.18 But it is not only feminist social psychologists who advocate the politicization of psychology in a more leftist direction. In an earlier American Psychologist article titled "Cognitive Psychology as Ideology," Clark Universitys Edward Sampson argued that current cognitive theory, by emphasizing the mental structures and operations of the individual, "represents a set of values and interests that reproduce and reaffirm the existing nature of the social order"19 Taking his cue from the Frankfurt critical theorists, Sampson asserted that psychologists such as Piaget take the existing object and social worlds as given, and concentrate only on how the individual person schematizes and performs mental operations on these. In doing so, they fail to see how the existing social order may actually influence what persons take to be "given" and "immutable." Far from wanting to remedy this situation by reasserting objectivist ideals Sampson recommended "a critical study of psychology and society, a study that is self-conscious about its context [and] its values... In this we would no longer spend our time describing what is, thereby participating in its reproduction; our aims would be more transformative, designed to increase human welfare and freedom. Of necessity, this would require a transformation of society."20 Thus to Sampson (as to Unger) the problem is not so much that psychology is politicized as the fact that a) it has a tradition of denying its political assumptions by dressing them up in "scientific" language, and b) the political assumptions it does have are hierarchical and privilege maintaining, rather than egalitarian, in their underlying intent. But while this position may be something of an improvement on the attempt to have ones positivist cake and eat it too, its adherents offer no clear reasons (other than phrases such as "It seems a worthy role for the field")21 as to why the implicitly-rightist agenda in psychology should be replaced by an explicitly-leftist one. A more radical variation on this same theme is the movement social psychologist Kenneth Gergen labels "social constructionism."22 Strong on the sociology of knowledge thesis, Gergen rejects the possibility of mapping social reality in a historically decontextualized manner and comes close to defining scientific "truth" purely in terms of professional consensus at a given point in time. He believes, with Unger and Sampson, that psychology should consciously espouse an advocacy role on the side of the weak and disenfranchised. To this end, he would abandon the attempt to establish transtemporal laws of social interaction using the hypothetico-deductive approach, concentrating instead on the development of bold, general theories whose persuasive value alone might provoke social reform. But as with Sampson, although one may approve of Gergens concern to make the value-base of psychology more explicit, it is not clear how he can simultaneously promote epistemological relativism and a particular ethical agenda, however laudable the latter may seem.23 Moreover, those committed to the more traditional combination of positivist epistemology and evolutionist anthropology have not taken the post-positivist challenge lying down. While conceding that they may previously have overestimated the continuity between human and animal learning, underestimated the complexity of the human mind, and paid too little attention to the ethical aspects of their research, these traditionalists offer paradigms for psychology that remain unremittingly naturalistic and scientistic. For example, in a 1981 American Psychologist article, Arthur Staats proposed to unify psychological theory around a "social behaviorist" paradigm which acknowledges reciprocal causality between the person and the environment; in the end, however, the person is still reduced to a product of the environment (now both internal and external, immediate and historical) with the result that such attempts never get beyond a "soft determinist" view of personhood.24 Bolder still are attempts to combine a soft-determinist anthropology with an epistemology which views scientific accounts of persons, at least in principle, as both ultimate and completeeven to the point of providing a moral framework. Such attempts hearken back to B. F. Skinners "experimental ethics,"25 but with a new, physiologically reductionist twist about which Skinner could merely conjecture wistfully. For example, the well-known neuroscientist Roger Sperry published in the 1977 American Psychologist his "unifying view of mind and brain." This was based on his theory that the mind, while not a separate substance from the brain, emerges from the brain to function as a non-reducible, causally-powerful entity which can then affect the natural world from which it originally evolved. It is not Sperrys emergentism per se that is troubling; indeed, at least one philosopher has argued that such a position on the mind-brain question is compatible with the anthropological dualism of traditional Christian theology.26 But Sperry goes on to claim that since values are inevitably a part of this emergent-mind complex, and since scientists have expert knowledge about the evolution and functioning of the brain (or at least possess the best methods for knowing progressively more about these) it follows that scientists are in the best position to dictate ultimate human values. In language worthy of both Carl Sagan and pop Eastern mysticism, he concludes his paper as follows: In the eyes of science, to put it simply, mans creator becomes the vast interwoven fabric of all evolving nature, a tremendously complex concept that includes all the immutable and emergent forces of cosmic causation that control everything from high-energy subnuclear particles to galaxies, not forgetting the causal properties that govern brains and behavior at individual levels. For all of these, science has gradually become our accepted authority offering a cosmic scheme that renders most others simplistic by comparison.... It follows accordingly on the above terms that what is good, right, or to be valued is defined very broadly to be that which accords with, sustains, and enhances the orderly design of evolving nature.... Although man, as part of evolving nature and at the peak of the evolutionary scale, remains the prime consideration, mankind does stand to lose some of the uniqueness and measure of all things status accorded in some previous systems. A sense of higher meaning is preserved with a meaningful relation to something deemed more important than the human species taken by itself.27 Christian Responses to the "Two Cultures" Dispute If the above summary reflects the current state of psychology, we may seem reduced to choosing between the epistemological hubris of positivists and moral self-righteousness of post-positivists.28 Faced with such a choice, Christian psychologists might be forgiven for invoking a plague upon both the houses and starting to build one afresh on their own terms, even as they continue to "plunder the Egyptians" for materials worth preserving from each these competing structures. In point of fact, however, the emergence of such a "third way" has been very slow to develop, at least among confessing Protestants. Why is this the case, and how, in practice, do most of these psychologists deal with the two competing cultures? Let us recall the earlier observation that psychologists position on the theistic-atheistic dimension was unable to predict adherence to either of the two cultures; indeed it could not predict responses to any single item from the three "values surveys" used in the second of the "two cultures" studies. On reflection, perhaps this is not so surprising. With regard to social values at least, Christians with an equally high view of biblical authority can be pacifists or justwar theorists, proponents of minimal or extensive government regulation, free-enterprisers or welfare-statists, and separatist or non-separatist with regard to the larger society. Indeed, one study of self-identified evangelical congressmen in Washington isolated at least four different "religious belief packages," each of which was consistently related to voting patterns running the gamut from extreme political conservatism to extreme liberalism. To come even close to predicting an evangelical congressmans vote (the authors concluded) "you need to know how he interprets his religion, not merely how he labels it."29 What is true of Christians in politics is equally true of Christians in psychology. A minority (as in the political sphere) are thoroughgoing separatists, convinced that the Bible is the sufficient and only valid textbook of human behavior.30 Most, however, have a higher view of common grace, and are prepared to accept theoretical insights which are compatible with Scripture regardless of their origin. Moreover, basic theological differences among evangelicals in psychology appear to be quite minimal, at least as regards the doctrine of persons. None embrace metaphysical determinism, with its total denial of human freedom and moral accountability. Nor do many appear to be "closet humanists" who overemphasize human autonomy to the extent of endorsing narcissistic self-indulgence and or denying the reality and persistence of sin. (There has, however, been a spate of bookssome by Christians with culturally separatist leaningssounding warnings against other Christians judged to be overly in vested in the theories and therapeutic techniques of humanistic psychology.)31 What does seem to account for the apparently even distribution of Christians across psychologys "two cultures" are differences in theological emphasis combined with one or more other factors. Among applied psychologists, professional context appears to be one such factor. Thus, for example, those working with undersocialized persons (certain types of criminals and substance abusers, overly-indulged adolescents from wealthy homes, etc.) may lean heavily on the doctrine of sin, espouse more traditional views of social authority, and make more use of behavioral techniques of a "top-down" variety (e.g., rewards contingent on progressive behavior change, often within a controlled environment). By contrast, those working with oversocialized clients (for example, from abusive, authoritarian, or legalistic homes) are more apt to emphasize the doctrine of grace, the dignity which is part of imago Dei and must be valued and cultivated in all persons, and the advocacy role Christians are called to exercise on behalf of socially marginal groups. Their techniques, predictably, are more likely to be drawn from humanistic psychologies, with Rogerian "active listening" and "unconditional positive regard" high on the list. Whether the theological emphases of each group lead to or result from their respective work settings (or both) is a question which merits further investigation.32 Perspectivalism and Its Problems But among practising Christians in academic settings, what seems to count is the interaction of theological emphasis with a preferred philosophy of science. By and large Christians seem to agree that worldview considerations do, and should, influence the conduct of psychological research; but they differ regarding the points of the research process at which they believe these consideration may operate. Many (perhaps still the majority among evangelicals) hold tha religious convictions should operate only in theoryand hypothesisconstruction at the beginning of the research process, and in the practical application of results at the end. With regard to the intermediate steps, however, they still adhere to the belief that the context of theory justification can be madeat least in principletotally value-free. It is claimed that in psychology, as in other sciences, the best means to this end is the assiduous operationalization and quantification of all variables and, where possible, the design and execution of experiments. Crucial to such a stand is adherence to the "unity of science" thesisthe notion that there is only one method which all genuine sciences employ, and that method consists of giving causal, deterministic explanations which are empirically testable.33 How is such an approach justified theologically, especially given the earlier observation that no Christian psychologists appear to embrace metaphysical determinism, with its reduction of personhood to a complex of mechanical responses to internal and external, past and present stimuli? It is justified by publicly rejecting anthropological reductionism in principle while simultaneously adhering to the unity of science thesisthat is, by embracing methodological, but not metaphysical determinism. On this account, the traditional methods of science yield only one "perspective" on human behavior (a deterministic one) to which others (from the humanities, the arts, and religion) must be added to yield a more complete picture. At the same time, however, it is assumed that the mechanical metaphor is the only legitimate one for academic psychologists to use in the study of human behaviorthat because psychology threw its lot in with the Newtonian-leaning natural sciences a century ago, there can be no compromising this allegiance today. Perspectivalists readily concede that the elimination of "bias" (read: "values") in the context of theory justification is a more difficult process in the social than in the natural sciences, because of the complexities that result when human beings study other human beings; indeed, they admit, such methodological purity may never be achieved, and psychologists may perforce have to become more humble about what their efforts can produce in terms of general laws of human behavior. Nevertheless, such purity remains the ideal of all psychologistsChristian or otherwise committed to the unity of science and the hypothetico-deductive approach. In fact, to at least one Christian perspectivalist adherence to this ideal is part and parcel of concretely visible sanctification. In Donald MacKays words: If we publish results of our investigations, we must strive to "tell it like it is," knowing that the Author is at our elbow, a silent judge of the accuracy with which we claim to describe the world He has created.... If our limitations, both intellectual and moral, predictably limit our achievement of this goal, this is something not to be gloried in, but to be acknowledged in a spirit of repentance. Any idea that it could justify a dismissal of the ideal of value-free knowledge as a "myth" would be as irrationaland as irreligiousas to dismiss the ideal of righteousness as a "myth" on the grounds that we can never perfectly attain that... [Christians must not] forget that, whatever their difficulties in gaining objective knowledge, they are supposed to be in the loving service of the One to whom Truth is sacred, and carelessness or deliberate bias in stating it is an affront.34 But according to some critics, the adherents of this "perspectivalist compromise"35 are both schizophrenic and falsely modest: the former because they disavow reductionism in principle while preserving it in the practice of the discipline, the latter because they disguise academic imperialism in the cloak of epistemological humility. That is, the perspectivalist readily confesses the problems of using the hypothetico-deductive approach in psychology, while at the same time demanding loyalty to that approach of all who would call themselves true (yea, even properly Christian) psychologists. Moreover, critics add, perspectivalists adherence to the unity of science thesis carries with it the assumption that explanation in natural science is always deterministic in character, an assumption belied by modern quantum physical theory.36 Christian critics of perspectivalism further assert that it sidesteps difficult questions about human nature which it is the responsibility of Christian psychologists to consider. What does it mean that persons are formed in the image of God in a way that accords all human beings the potential for creativity, dominion, and moral responsibility? What does it imply for theory and method in psychology that we are simultaneously "dust of the earth" and imagers of God in a way that separates us from the rest of creation? And why (other than for reasons of historical precedent) do perspectivalists hold that psychologists should try to separate these two aspects of human existence, in effect telling their research respondents to put their transcendent qualities on hold while they are subjected to methods of inquiry originally designed for the study of sub-human phenomena?37 These are questions to which Christian perspectivalists have given no answers. Perspectivalists do, however, invoke other theological justifications for a high view of natural science, traditionally conceived. One is the doctrine of creation as espoused by Christians who participated in the formalization of. science itself. The Christian worldview of Pascal, Bacon, Newton, Boyle, and many founders of Britains Royal Society helped make science possible as an independent form of knowledge not beholden to the institutional church, precisely because these men believed in the goodness and the uniformity of Gods creation, and in humanitys creational mandate to exercise responsible dominion over the earth. A number of Christian perspectivalists claim to be continuing in this Reformation-based tradition. But at the same time they tend to gloss over the fact that their role-models predate the 19th-century emergence of the social sciences, and that the continuity of the latter with natural science is precisely the issue under debate.38 Finally, some perspectivalists appeal to another aspect of the doctrine of sanctification the Christian mandate to serve ones neighboras justification for a positivist philosophy of science. Science has so often been the birthplace of technologies which promote human welfare (from split-brain techniques to therapies for traumatic stress) that it seems subject to a kind of "halo effect" in the eyes of Christians whose theology stresses a service-oriented activism. But such a view, however laudable its motive, implicitly reduces science to technology, and explanation to empirical predictiona view of natural science that its most successful practitioners have routinely rejected.39 Moreover, it tends to assume that questions of research ethics can be settled on utilitarian grounds alone: as long as ones research is aimed at the greatest good for the greatest number, questions about informed consent, the use of deception, and the infliction of stress are deemed to be secondary. These issues too are often glossed over by perspectivalists.40 Enter the Humanizers: Dissatisfactions with the perspectivalist compromise can be summarized as follows: perspectivalists not only adhere to the unity of science thesis, but implicitly demand the same adherence of all others who would call themselves social scientists. In doing so, they are not only clinging to an outdated and inaccurate model of how the natural sciences operate, but are additionally producing truncated theories of human functioning by their refusal to consider, at least within the context of their own discipline, any explanations of human behavior other than deterministic ones. As this debate continues to heat up among Christian psychologists, a paper in the 1985 American Psychologist by Notre Dames George S. Howard deserves mention.41 Drawing on the work of philosopher of science Ernan McMullin, Howard begins by educating the periodicals readership about the function of epistemic values in the conduct of natural science. Epistemic values are those standards employed by scientists to choose among competing theoretical explanations. At least six such values seem to have been regularly operative in the history of science, including not only predictive accuracy, but simplicity, internal coherence, consistency with other theories, unifying power (the ability to bring together hitherto disparate areas of inquiry), and fruitfulness (the capacity to supply metaphorical resources which help to resolve anomalies and extend the knowledge base).42 For psychologists still of a positivist bent, the crucial point of the above analysis is that epistemic values function as values, not as strict rules, to guide the work of science. McMullin, Kuhn, and others demonstrated that theory development in the most mature natural sciences is influenced by the selective application of epistemic criteria. This is, of course, a different picture of the operation of science than a traditional logicist would have chosen to paint.43 So far, Howard merely seems to be reinforcing the conclusions of the empirical studies of psychologys "two cultures" described at the beginning of this paper: epistemic values do operate in the context of theory justification in psychology, just as they do in natural science, even though many psychologists (ironically, those who pride themselves in being most "scientific," such as behavioral and experimental psychologists) refuse to acknowledge this. But Howard goes a step beyond affirming psychologys continuity with the rest of science on the basis of its adherence to the same epistemic values. Specifically, he believes that these values may have to be augmented "to the degree necessary to accommodate our subject matters unique characteristics."44 Central among those characteristics, Howard points out, is reflexivity, the capacity of persons to "self-reflect," or deliberate about themselves in a given situation, and so gain a measure of autonomy over what might otherwise determine their behavior. As Howard points out, in science traditionally conceived "the notion of rational objectivity ... required a lack of reciprocal interaction between observer and object. The scientist was to observe nature, but nature was not to reflect upon itself being observed."45 There is, of course, a recurrent theme in science fiction about the chemist who sits alone in his laboratory, brooding about what to do with a strange concoction he has produced, when suddenly it occurs to him that the strange concoction is sitting alone in the test-tube brooding about what do with him. But in reality, as far as we know, reflexivity is a privilege (or a problem, depending on ones viewpoint) reserved to human beings: "No quark ever wondered why a physicist wanted to know that. No protein ever changed an attitude or two to curry favor with a biochemist. And no beetle ever told an entomologist to bug off."46 To mainstream psychologists, human reflexivity is simply a methodological annoyanceand one which can in principle be overcome by tighter experimental controls: one can keep subjects naive, or even deceived, as to the real purposes of the study, or (tighter still) use such unobtrusive techniques that subjects do not even know that they are being studied. The goal here is to give subjects a handicap in the mutual-observation game, thereby (hopefully) reducing them temporarily to the same level as the "pre-reflexive" entities for which the methods of science were originally designed. Hence the social dynamic between the observer and the observed is implicitly adversarial. Moreover, there is a hermeneutic of suspicion operative: one cannot, according to this approach, ever simply ask respondents to give an account of themselves, because their behavior is actually the product of forces beyond their control and largely beyond their ken.47 For Howard, the reality of human reflexivity has first of all an extra-experimental significance: persons are not merely participants in psychological research; they are also consumers of psychological theories. As such, they can, and do, alter their behavior on the basis of what psychologists proclaim. For Howard, possible examples include individuals who actively resist agreeing with others opinions ... because of their knowledge of the results of conformity studies. Or perhaps simply informing depressed clients that depressed people tend to be more self-critical would make them more aware of their self-derogatory tendencies and aid them in actually reversing these tendencies.48 But precisely because public access to the results of psychological research often leads people to "reconstruct" their behavior and self-image accordingly, Howard holds that psychologists have a responsibility not to limit themselves to impoverished models of humanness: by viewing people only as reinforcement maximizers or information processors (for example), psychologists risk becoming "unwitting contributors to a self-fulfilling prophecy wherein humans actually become more like the model."49 Thus it may be all very well to argue for the exclusion of non-epistemic values from natural scientific theorizing; but Howard argues that the reality of human reflexivity makes social scientific theorizing an inescapably moral endeavor: because psychological theories are important "mirrors" by means of which people in Western culture "groom" themselves, and because, moreover, such theories are always underdetermined by empirical data, they can be crafted and disseminated in ways that work to peoples benefit or detriment. The dominant "man-as-machine" metaphor has been beneficial inasmuch as it has helped to temper justice with mercy in legal decisions regarding the reduced responsibility of brain-damaged persons, or those from an environment so abusive that they are driven to desperate measures to escape it. But the same metaphor has also contributed to a sense of fatalism, "learned helplessness," and a dulled sense of personal accountability in our highly psychologized society. Therefore, Howard concludes, the discipline badly needs innovative theories and methods which will at least supplement, if not replace those which have leaned so heavily on exemplars drawn from the pre-20th century natural sciences. Such a conclusion seems to be a reasonable compromise between the outdated positivism of psychologys scientistic subculture and the epistemological skepticism cum political partisanship of much of the humanistic one.50 It should, moreover, be a conclusion attractive to Christians who have found the perspectivalist compromise less than satisfying: not only does it allow for the development of "active agent" theories of social behavior (which are compatible with the biblical notion of accountable dominion as part of the imago Dei); it also allows for a research approach in which the deceptive and adversarial stance between researchers and respondents can be replaced by a more honest and collaborative onean approach which assumes that at least sometimes a hermeneutic of trust can appropriately operate. People may not always know, or be able to say, what they are up to; as finite and sinful creatures, they are often prey to forces outside their present awareness and control. But sometimes they can give an intelligible account of their actions, one which requires no other explanation beyond itself. A major task (heretofore badly neglected) of psychology is the exploration of both types of behavior, as well as the ways in which they interact. For Christians wishing to take up this challenge, some helpful groundwork has been laid by philosopher Stephen Evans. Recognizing the need to deal with anthropological and epistemological questions simultaneously, he also realizes that Christian psychologists must do even this on an interdisciplinary basis, acknowledging the role that philosophical and theological dimensions inevitably play in their theory-building. With regard to anthropology, Evans rejects perspectivalism on the grounds that it embraces only a "relational" anthropology, one which holds that there is nothing unique about human beings per se (substantially or essentially), but instead locates human significance only in how God has chosen to relate to persons in a covenantal fashion. There is a moment of truth in this idea; indeed, it was strongly pushed during the Reformation and beyond as an antidote to human pride: "Nothing in my hands I bring; simply to Thy cross I cling," goes the old pietist hymn. Relational anthropology also seems to allow the perspectivalist to get the best of two worlds: by acknowledging the importance of covenant theology they maintain a Christian identity; at the same time, by asserting that what (if anything) makes humans unique is a strictly empirical, not a revelational question, they spare themselves the embarrassment of seeming like religious fanatics in the eye of their secular colleagues. But Evans rightly asserts that the value of relational anthropology to perspectivalists is also its weakness: If human dignity lies in the fact that God cares about us, or in the possibility of our knowing about him, rather than in some unique human quality, then the theologian [or psychologist] is saved from making any potentially embarrassing claims about the difference between human and other animals. . . . Nor must the theologian [or psychologist] affirm any non-material soul or spirit as a factor in understanding human behavior. . . [But] the advantages of immunity from scientific refutation and a theological barrier to human pride are purchased at a price. The price of immunity from scientific refutation is the danger of lack of relevance to contemporary thought forms. What cannot be refuted by science also cannot be supported by science, and may be difficult to relate to science.51 Evans also recognizes that the desire of Christian perspectivalists not to be "embarrassed" by scientific "findings" about the continuity of human and nonhuman functioning rests on assumptions about the empirical neutrality of science and its independence of metaphysical, religious, and even epistemic values. By contrast, he points to post-positivist scientists and philosophers who hold that in all sciencesbut especially the social sciencesmetaphysical and religious commitments play not only an inevitable, but a positive role. If this is so, writes Evans, then "we ought to allow our Christian assumptions to interpenetrate our actual work as scientists.... The challenge is to go beyond rejection [of science] and conformism [to the current social science paradigm] to doing scientific work ... within a consciously Christian frame of reference."52 By this criterion, the relational anthropology of the perspectivalist could be unapologetically reunited with a substantial anthropology claiming certain biblical "givens" about human nature, such as accountable dominion, sociability, gender identity, the quest for meaning, and a stubborn resistance to truth about ones condition before God. By this criterion, too, the empiricist, "objective" perspective on personhood could well be supplemented, if not replaced, by an interpretivist, or "hermeneutical" approach, in which "observing and explaining human action is strongly analogous, not to the natural sciences, but to the interpretation of a literary text." In Evans words, "recognizing a human action involves understanding its meaning; explaining action is inseparable from understanding the reasons for an action. Nor is this a value-free enterprise. Deciding whether a persons reasons are genuine reasons involves, among other things, reflecting on whether the reasons are good reasons. This is so because actions performed for good reasons in many circumstances require no further explanation, while manifestly inadequate reasons are suspected of being rationalizations."53 There are, of course, hazards lurking in this approach too. Epistemologically, if persons are more like "texts" than like materials in an experiment, can there be any intersubjectively verifiable criteria by which we can judge our readings of them, and if not, can a hermeneutical psychology be "real" science? Anthropologically, if persons are rule-makers and rule-followers whose being is constituted not by nature but by cultural and linguistic activity, as some versions of the hermeneutic approach hold, then is not such autonomy as they do have merely a collective "social construction" (recall Gergen here) which the individual cannot critically transcend to exercise freedom or moral responsibility? On such a view, how can there be any universal criteria for judging among competing systems of rule-governed behavior? There remains only a profound cultural and moral relativism.54 But these problems also afflict the deterministic approach, whether metaphysically or merely methodologically embraced: persons viewed as the products of nature are also "beyond freedom and dignity" (to borrow Skinners phrase), and since values under such a paradigm are similarly determined, there is no way to rank-order the moral or cultural systems to which such persons belong. Moreover, the permeation of even natural science by valuesmetaphysical as well as epistemicrenders it a much more "hermeneutical" endeavor than previously believed; yet theory-adjudication is still possible despiteindeed, even because ofsuch values. So too in textual interpretation: "Reasoned argument and criticism do succeed in showing that some interpretations are warranted and some are not. To say that an enterprise is hermeneutical does not imply then that it is totally subjective and irrational."55 Christians can legitimately use a basic biblical anthropology to navigate such hazardsone which recognizes the impact of nature, culture, and human freedom, but places all of these in the context of creational norms, the reality of sin, and the promise of redemption. As they do so, they can (in Evans words) "join the contemporary conversation and participate in scholarly work, but with a healthy irreverence and suspicion of the contemporary scholarly establishments. [They] need to clearly tell an increasingly secular world what Christians think about human beings, and show them the power of such a perspective."56 1 The author would like to acknowledge the help of Calvin College philosophy department colleagues, both regular and visiting, in criticizing earlier drafts of this paper and making suggestions for its improvement. 2 Michael J. Mahoney, Cognition and Behavior Modification (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1974), pp. 289- 90. 3 Gregory A. Kimble, "Psychologys Two Cultures," American Psychologist, Vol. 39, No. 8 (August, 1994), pp. 833-39. 4 Leonard Krassner and Arthur C. Houts, "A Study of the Value Systems of Behavioral Scientists," American Psychologist, Vol. 39, No. 8 (August, 1984), pp. 840-850. 5 The following is a sampling of such essays published in the American Psychologist over the past decade: George W. Albee, "The Protestant Ethic, Sex, and Psychotherapy" (Vol. 32, 1977, pp. 150-61); Richard C, Atkinson, "Reflections on Psychologys Past and Concerns About Its Future" (Vol. 32, 1977, pp, 205-10); D. L. Bazelton, "Veils, Values, and Social Responsibility" (Vol. 37, 1982, pp. 115-21); Jerome D. Frank, "Nature and Function of Belief Systems: Humanism and Transcendental Religion" (Vol. 32, 1977, pp. 555-59); Frederick H. Kanfer, "Personal Control, Social Control, and Altruism: Can Society Survive the Age of Individualism?" (Vol. 34, 1979, pp. 231-39); David C. McClelland, "Managing Motivation to Expand Human Freedom" (Vol. 33, 1978, pp. 201-10); S. B. Sarason, "An Asocial Psychology and a Misdirected Clinical Psychology" (Vol. 36, 1981, pp. 827-36); Roger W. Sperry, "Bridging Science and Values: A Unifying View of the Mind and Brain" (Vol. 32, 1977, pp. 237-45). 6 See for example Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970); Imre Lakatos and A. Musgrave, eds., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (Cambridge University Press, 1970); Ian 1. Mitroff, The Subjective Side of Science (New York: Elsevier, 1974); Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1958); Frederick Suppe, The Structure of Scientific Theories (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974); Stephen Toulmin, The Philosophy of Science (London: Hutchinson, 1958). 7 Charles P. Snow, The Two Cultures and a Second Look (original essay, plus a retrospective commentary) (London: Cambridge University Press, 1964). 8 Kimble, op. cit., p. 834. 9 As of 1987, the American Psychological Association had 47 different divisions representing a total membership of over 76,000. 10 Each of Kimbles twelve scale items was set out with the humanistic position described at the right, the scientistic position at the left, and the numbers 0-10 between the two. The respondents score was thus the number of items on which he or she took a position to the right of 5, minus the number of items on which the respondent took a position to the left of 5, ignoring all responses of 5. Because there were 12 items on the test, these calculations place each subject on a 25-point scale, from -12 (the most extreme scientistic position) to +12 (the most extreme humanistic position). 11 These items included issues such as importance of scholarly vs. humane values, commitment to determinism vs. indeterminism of behavior, preference for observation vs. intuition as a source of knowledge, commitment to heredity vs. environment as the chief determinant of behavior, and a concept of organisms as primarily reactive or creative. 12 Kimble, op. cit., p. 838. 13 Ibid., p. 838; compare Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 151-152. 14 The sampling strategy for inclusion in the behavioral group included the following criteria: a) self-identification of their work as behavior modification during the period 1946-76; b) citation of the respondents work in publications on behavior modification in the period 1946-76; c) at least one publication or presentation (exclusive of dissertations) prior to 1956; d) professional contact with at least one other member of this group. 15 Krasner and Houts Theoretical Orientation Survey was first designed and used by Richard W. Coan. See his Psychologists: Personal and Theoretical Pathways (New York: Irvington, 1979). The term "metaphorism" in their Epistemological Style Questionnaire refers to a preference for theorizing by reducing complex concepts to familiar metaphorse.g., Freuds "hydraulic" metaphor explaining the interaction of the id, ego, and superego, or Piagets "equilibrium disequilibrium" metaphor to explain the way that cognitive development takes place in children. 16 Krasner and Houts, op. cit., p. 846. 17 Rhoda K. Unger, "Epistemological Consistency and its Scientific Implications" American Psychologist, Vol. 40, No. 12 (December, 1985), pp. 1413-14. 18 Ibid., p. 1414. See also Suzanne J. Kessler and Wendy McKenna, Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) for an elaboration of this view. 19 Edward E. Sampson, "Cognitive Psychology as Ideology," American Psychologist, Vol. 36, No. 7 (July, 1981), pp. 730-43. (Quotation from p. 730.) Related critiques can be found in Susan Buck-Morss, "Socioeconomic Bias in Piagets Theory and Its Implications for Cross-Culture Studies." Human Development, Vol 18 (1975), pp. 35-49, and in Kenneth J. Gergen, "Towards Generative Theory," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 36 (1978), pp. 1344-60. 20 Sampson, op. cit., pp. 741-42, my italics. 21 Ibid., p. 741. Note that when social scientists speak of the "politicizing" of their respective discipline they may mean a) that extra-disciplinary values do in fact play a role, b) that such values should play a role, c) that although a) may hold, b) should not; or d) that both a) and b) hold, but the content of the predominant extra-disciplinary values should change. A helpful analysis of this debate by a sociologist can be found in Richard Perkins, "Values, Alienation, and Christian Sociology," Christian Scholars Review, Vol. XV, No. 1, 1985, pp. 8-27, with a subsequent response by Stephen Evans in Vol. XV, No. 3. See also David Braybrooke, Philosophy of Social Science (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987), and C. Stephen Evans, Psychology as a Human Science: Prospects for a Christian Approach (Grand Rapids: Baker, forthcoming). 22 See for example Kenneth J. Gergen, "Social Psychology as History," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 26 (May 1973), pp. 309-20; Towards Transformation in Social Knowledge (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982); and "The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology," American Psychologist Vol. 30, No. 3 (March 1985), pp. 266-75. Note also the parallels with Paul K. Feyerabends Against Method (New York: Humanities Press, 1976), and with Richard Rortys Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton University Press, 1979). 23 It is possible to be a skeptic about the ability of natural science to deliver ultimate truth and still remain anti-skeptical about morality, but Gergen does not make clear his basis for such a distinction. It is also the case that epistemological relativism can be combined with an ethical agendabut to be consistent, the adherent of such a position has to concede that this agenda has no normative force outside the "language-game" community in which it originated. 24 Arthur W. Staats, "Paradigmatic Behaviorism, Unified Theory Construction Methods, and the Zeitgeist of Separatism," American Psychologist, Vol. 36, No. 3 (March, 1981), pp. 239-56. For a summary of criticisms of soft determinism, or compatibilism (the view that a free action is merely an uncoerced or internally-produced [but still necessarily determined] event), see Richard Taylor, Metaphysics, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), pp. 48-57. See also C. Stephen Evans, Preserving the Person: A Look at the Human Sciences (Downers Grove, Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1976) and Del Ratzsch, Philosophy of Science: The Natural Sciences in Christian Perspective (Downers Grove, Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1987). 25 "B. F. Skinner, Walden Two (New York: MacMillan, 1948); Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Knopf, 1971); About Behaviorism (New York: Knopf, 1974). 26 William Hasker, "The Souls of Beasts and Men," Religious Studies, Vol. 10, 1974, pp. 265-67; "Emergentism," Religious Studies, 1983. See also Karl Popper and John Eccles, The Self and Its Brain (New York: Springer, 1977) and Wilder Penfield, The Mystery of the Mind (Princeton University Press, 1975). 27 Sperry, op. cit., pp. 243-44. 28 But it should be noted from the Sperry quotation that positivists are not lacking in moral-righteousness either. 29 Peter L. Benson and Merton P. Strommen, "Religion on Capitol Hill: How Beliefs Affect Voting in the U.S. Congress," Psychology Today, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Dec. 1981), pp. 46-57. 30 See for example Jay Adams, Competent to Counsel (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1970), and Richard Grenz, "Nouthetic Counselling Defended," Journal of Psychology and Theology, Vol. 4 (1976), pp. 193-205. For summary of a more inclusive kind of Christian separatism as embodied in the so-called "Christian Reconstructionist" movement, see Rodney Clapp, "Democracy as Heresy," Christianity Today, Vol. 31, No. 3 (February 20, 1987), pp. 17-23. 31 See for example David Hunt and T. A. McMahon, The Seduction of Christianity (Eugene: Harvest house, 1985). More balanced is Paul C. Vitz Psychology as Religion: The Cult of Self Worship (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977). For a secular critique of the "culture of narcissism" in psychology, see Michael A. Wallach and Lise Wallach, Psychologys Sanctions for Selfishness (San Francisco: W. H. Free man, 1983). 32 The contrast suggested in this paragraph is based on anecdotal observation only. I know of no systematic study demonstrating these trends, and offer them merely as suggestive. 33 Examples of this "perspectivalist" approach include Rodger Bufford, The Human Reflex: Behavioral Psychology in Biblical Perspective (New York: Harper and Row, 1981); Malcolm A. Jeeves, Psychology and Christianity: The View Both Ways (Leicester, U.K.: Intervarsity Press, 1976); D. Gareth Jones, Our Fragile Brains: A Christian Perspective on Brain Research (Downers Grove, Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1981); Donald M McKay, The Clockwork Image (London: Intervarsity Press, 1974); Human Science and Human Dignity (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979); and Brains, Machines and Persons (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980); David G. Myers, The Human Puzzle: Psychological Research and Christian Belief (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978); see also Myers "Current Trends in Psychology: Myths and Realities" (Keynote address to the Christian Association of Psychological Studies, Grand Rapids, April 1985). 34 Donald M. McKay, "Objectivity in Christian Perspective," Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December, 1984), p. 235. 35 The term "perspectivalism," as used in this section of the paper, was coined by Stephen Evans. See his Preserving the Person, Ch. 9. 36 See for example Rom Harre, ed., Scientific Thought, 1900-1960 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), or Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961). 37 For an elaboration of these criticisms see C. Stephen Evans, "Must Psychoanalysis Embrace Determinism?" Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, Vol. 7 (1984), pp. 339-75. See also Evans "Healing Old Wounds and Recovering Old Insights: Towards a Christian View of the Person for Today," in: Mark Noll and David Wells, eds., Christian Faith and Practice in the Modern World: Theology from an Evangelical Point of View (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, in press) and his "Human Persons as Substantial Achievers" (Unpublished Manuscript, St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn.). See also Stanton L. Jones, ed., Psychology and the Christian Faith (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986), especially the chapters by Jones and Hodges. 38 See for example Myers, The Human Puzzle, Ch. 1, and in particular his appeal to Reijer Hooykaas, Religion and the Rise of Modern Science (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972) and to Robert K. Merton, Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England (New York: Fertig, 1970). 39 Stephen Toulmin, Foresight and Understanding (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1961). 40 This attitude is most apparent in Jones, Our Fragile Brains, but also implicit in the writings of Jeeves, McKay, and Myers. 41 George S. Howard, "The Role of Values in the Science of Psychology," American Psychologist, Vol. 40, No. 3 (March 1985), pp. 255-65. 42 For an elaboration see Thomas Kuhn, The Essential Tension (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), and Ernan McMullin, "Values in Science," in: P. D. Asquity and T. Nickles, eds., Proceedings of the 1982 Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 2. (East Lansing: Philosophy of Science Association, 1983). For a discussion of epistemic values as they relate to psychological theorizing, see Melvin H. Marx and F. E. Goodson, eds., Theories in Contemporary Psychology (New York: MacMillan, 1976), especially the chapter by Goodson and Morgan, pp. 286-99. For an elaboration of the importance of epistemic values to a Christian critique of psychology, see Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen, "Evangelicals and the Social Sciences: A Forty-Year Appraisal," Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, in press. 43 Howard, op. cit., p. 259. His references to Kuhn and McMullin are those cited in Note 42. See also McMullins "Two Faces of Science," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 27, June 1974, pp. 655-76, and "The Ambiguity of Historicism," in Current Research in Philosophy of Science (Philosophy of Science Association, 1978), pp. 58-83. 44 Ibid., p. 260. 45 Ibid., p. 260. 46 Paul Bohannan, "The Mouse that Roars," Science, Vol. 81 (May 1982), pp. 25-26. (Quotation from p. 25.) 47 See also Van Leeuwen, The Sorcerers Apprentice, Ch. 2 and 3, and also her "Reflexivity in North American Psychology: Historical Reflections on One Aspect of a Changing Paradigm," Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, Vol. 35 (Sept., 1983), pp. 162-67. Classic mainstream treatments of reflexivity as subject "reactivity," to be circumvented by methodological means, include Robert Rosenthal and Robert L. Rosnow, Artifact in Behavioural Research (New York: Academic Press, 1969) and E. J. Webb, Donald T. Campbell, R. D. Schwartz, and Lee Sechrest, Unobtrusive Measures (Skokie, Ill.: RandMcNally, 1966). 48 Howard, op. cit., p. 261. 49 Ibid., pp. 263-643. See also Gergen, "Social Psychology as History," and two works on the sociology of popular psychological knowledge by Sherri Turkle: Psychoanalytic Politics: Freuds French Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1978), and The Second Self:Computers and the Human Spirit (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984). 50 It could also be argued that, by taking human reflexivity into account, psychological theorists would merely be appealing to the epistemic value of empirical adequacyi.e., acknowledging that this is an observed, unique, and therefore important characteristic of persons. On such an account, it is not that psychology is differently conducted than the natural sciences, but that psychologists fail to understand how epistemic values inform all the sciences, and should learn to unify their discipline around these values, rather than the outdated unity-of-science thesis. 51 Evans, "Healing Old Wounds and Recovering Old Insights," pp. 5-6. 52 Ibid., pp. 15-16. See also Nicholas Wolterstorff, Reason Within the Bounds of Religion (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976). 53 Evans, "Human Persons as Substantial Achievers," pp. 6-7. For a more detailed application, see also Evans "Must Psychoanalysis Embrace Determinism?" The basic development of this approach by a philosopher of social science is Peter Winchs The Idea of a Social Science (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958), and its most sophisticated application to psychology is probably Rom Harre and Paul Secord, The Explanation of Social Behavior (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1972). Empirical outworkings of this approach in psychology are exemplified in Van Leeuwen, The Sorcerers Apprentice, Ch. 3 and The Person in Psychology, Ch. 11. See also Ronald S. Valle and Mark King, Existential and Phenomenological Alternatives for Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), Braybrooke, op. cit., Evans, Psychology as a Human Science, and George Howard, Dare We Develop a Human Science? (Notre Dame, Ind.: Academic Publications, 1986). 54 This is a position which seems to be strongly implied by Peter Winch in his "On Understanding a Primitive Society," in: D. Z. Phillips, ed., Religion and Understanding (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967). 55 Evans, "Must Psychoanalysis Embrace Determinism?" p. 362. It should be noted that treating persons as texts will lead to a host of questions hitherto of interest mostly to literary critics. When one speaks of the "meaning" of a text, this can mean a) meaning for the author, b) meaning for the individual reader c) meaning for a given historical community receiving the text, and or d) intrinsic meaning (assuming that this can be identified, an assumption with which deconstructionists take issue). Analogous questions can be asked about the "meaning" of individual and group behavior, with parallel debates. On this reading, psychology needs not only to become more hermeneutic in its study of persons, but to become more sophisticated in its understanding of hermeneutical theory as well. My thanks to Lambert Zuidervaart for clarifying these points. 56 Evans, "Human Persons as Substantial Achievers," p. 16. Bibliographic Information Top Author : Van Leeuwen, Mary Stewart Title : Psychologys "Two Cultures": A Christian Analysis.Christian Scholar's Review Publisher : Christian Scholar's Review Copyright : Permission to reproduce materials in the Christian Scholar's Review, beyond what is permitted as "fair use" under Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law, is granted only to classroom teachers, professors, and religious educators for nonprofit educational use. Copies of individual articles or reviews may be distributed for classroom use or course assignments, or placed on library reserve, provided (1) there is no charge to the ultimate user above the actual cost of copying, and (2) each copy includes full citation of source. All copyright permission requests should be sent to David Hoekema (dhoekema@legacy.calvin.edu) and should include the requester's postal mailing address. Publication Date : June 1988 Resource Type : article 2005Council for Christian Colleges Universities All Rights Reserved. CCCU Terms Conditions and Privacy Statement Comments or technical problems? E-mail web@cccu.org . Best viewed using Internet Explorer6.x and above with resolution of 1024 x 768. For additional information to help you use CCCU.org, click here . Also, be sure to visit www.ChristianCollegeMentor.com !
Introduction to Psychoheresy Awareness MinistriesPAM is a ministry to inform and educate Christians about psychoheresy. Psychoheresy is the integration of secular psychological counseling theories and therapies with the Bible
Introduction to Psychoheresy Awareness Ministries God's Word + Psychology = Psychoheresy PSYCHOHERESY? What is that? Psychoheresy: The evidence from Scripture and research! Free eBooks Main Page | Overseas Links (Brazil Spain) PsychoHeresy Awareness Ministries ~ 4137 Primavera Road ~Santa Barbara, CA 93110 www.psychoheresy-aware.org This site is best viewed with
Christian Psychology - Narramore Christian FoundationChristian psychology and mental health organization, offering counseling training programs and missionary renewal seminars. Includes large collection of popular articles by Bruce and Clyde Narramore.
Christian Psychology, Christian Crisis Intervention, Christian Mental Health - Narramore Christian Foundation Narramore Christian Foundation 250 W. Colorado Blvd Suite 200 Arcadia, California 91007 U.S.A. Ph: 1-626-821-8400 Fax: 1-626-821-8409 Report Problems to: NCF Bruce Narramore Ph.D., President Psychology for Living is the official website of the Narramore Christian Foundationa Christian mental health organization dedicated to preventing and solving human problems through psychological counseling. Narramore Christian Foundation is dedicated to training laypersons, Christian workers and their families in the fundamentals of Christian psychology. Psychology for Living eMagazine is now available online. Click here to read more... NCF Friends and Prayer Partners Insightful Online Christian Psychology Articles Psychological Disorders Emotions and Personality Relationships Training Seminars for Mental Health Pastors and Missionaries Couples Parents Missionaries' Sons and Daughters Missionary Psychological Counseling and Services Crisis Intervention Consultation Psychological Counseling Seminars in Member Care and Counseling Reentry Programs for MKs Printed Literature Quarterly Magazine, Psychology for Living Booklets on psychological disorders, relationships, personality, Christian psychology and mental health Books by NCF staff CLICK HERE FOR SITE MAP The Gift of Encouragement by Dr. Clyde M. Narramore T om was all smiles as his high school English teacher handed him his corrected assignment. This is excellent work, it read. Tom glanced at the remark several times, then carefully put it in his notebook. After class the teacher said, Tom, you are a very good student and youre going to go a long way in life. Have you considered going to college? Up until this year, Tom had been on a starvation diet as far as encouragement was concerned. Coming from a dysfunctional family, he was shuffled back and forth from one home to another. Much of his time in high school had been spent hanging around with a gang of near delinquents and underachievers. The farthest thing from his mind was going to college. But this year he had an English teacher who never failed to encourage him. The years passed, and Tom is now married, has a family, andwouldnt you know itis a .... For complete article Office Hours Are 8.30 A.M. 5.00 P.M. (GMT-8) For Local Time in California. [Click HERE] Top All pages in this site 1999-2005 Narramore Christian Foundation
Biblical PsychologyA contemporary and historical survey of Christian understandings of the nature of human beings, by Matthew Cohn. Includes list of relevant key works that are not yet translated into English.
Untitled The Biblical Psychology Web Site Christian Understanding of the Nature of Human Beings Created by Matthew Cohn - UPDATED January 2005 Also, please check out my Books for sale : Popular Christian Books and Christian Theological Literature as well as books on many other subjects - Books for sale INDEX INTRODUCTION MAIN STREAMS OF CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON THE SUBJECT SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF BIBLICAL PSYCHOLOGY MY RESEARCHES TRANSLATION PROJECTS BIBLICAL PSYCHOLOGY ETEXT LIBRARY QUESTIONS AND ISSUES IN BIBLICAL PSYCHOLOGY WHO IS A CHRISTIAN? LINKS The Material presented on this site is copyright Matthew Cohn 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced for profit, republished or altered in any form whatsoever without the author's prior consent. please email me with comments or suggestions ..... cohnmat@yahoo.com.au
Personhood, Human Motivation, and ChangeTeam of psychologists led by William Miller and Harold Delaney working within the Christian Scholars Program to explore a Judeo-Christian perspective on the nature of the human person. Includes an outline of the project and short biographies of the team members.
Psychology Personhood, Human Motivation and Change Project Leaders: William R. Miller Regents Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry Director of Research, CASAA University of New Mexico Harold Delaney Professor of Psychology University of New Mexico Click here for a list of the team members. For most of the twentieth century, scientific psychology emphasized deterministic and reductionistic models of motivation and of how and why people change. It is clear that human behavior is influenced by neurophysiology and by lawful principles of learning and cognition. A Christian perspective on human motivation and change, however, embraces a rather different and broader causal understanding of human conduct, one that emphasizes personal agency and mind, volition and responsibility, the centrality of values, and the potential for radical transformation. The Psychology team would explore five broad and logically related themes to explore and explicate Christian scholarship on human change. T he first is the role of human identity, volition and personal agency. The interaction of mechanistic and agentive influences on human behavior, including phenomena such as choice, decision, conscience, awakening, and commitment, is one area for exploration, in a field focused almost exclusively on reductionistic models. Issues of identity are also central here, for self-perception is powerfully related to motivation and change, and the perception of being changed is itself a component of identity. The second is the role of values in human motivation and change. The belief that one's values underlie and are manifested in behavior is fundamental in any Christian understanding of human nature. The third theme the team will explore will involve whether one can derive scientifically testable hypotheses from Christian teachings, particularly those regarding virtues such as faith, hope, love, and forgiveness. This is seldom done because behavioral scientists rarely look to Christianity for theory,and Christian often regard scientific verification to be irrelevant. A fourth theme is to explore what behavioral science has to offer Christians in promoting their own spiritual development and conformity to the precepts of a Christian life. Clinical, learning, cognitive and social psychology has much to offer to those who seek to direct their lives and behavior toward Christian ideals. There is also much to learn about the power of narrative--why stories can have such a salient impact, why we seem to need to hear and tell them, and how they function to convey faith and identity from generation to generation. Well-established psychological principles (e.g., of learning, conditioning, cognition, social influence) can be applied in promoting adherence to a Christian life. Finally, the team will explore the phenomenon of transformational change. Scientific psychology has focused mostly on what William James termed the "educational" variety of change, which proceeds gradually by successive approximations. James recognized that there is also another variety of change, which is a sudden turnabout. It is captured in literature, (as in the character of Ebenezer Scrooge) and biblical accounts (Saul on the Damascus Road). The possibility of such transformation is central in Christian thinking, yet very little scientific attention has been devoted to this very real and striking form of change.
Resources on Psychology and ReligionOffers David Myers' articles and books relating psychological science and religion.
Psychology and Religion Books Chapters Journal Articles Magazine Articles Resources on Psychology and Faith David's contribution to dialogue between psychology and religion reflects his perspective as a participant in mainstream psychological science and as a person of faith.He hasdanced on the science-faith boundary by: explaining to people of faith the value of psychological science documenting for social scientists some interesting links between faith and personal and social well-being comparing big ideas about human nature found in both psychological research and biblical and theological literatures. For an overview, see Psychology Through the Eyes of Faith , revised edition (HarperSanFrancisco, 2002, co-authored by British cognitive neuroscientist Malcolm Jeeves). This paperback offers 32 short essays that offer introductory level faith-informed reflections on all the major areas of psychological science. For a much briefer overview, see David's short essay in the APS Observer . For more information, there are other books on psychology and faith book chapters on psychology and faith journal articles on psychology and faith magazine articles on psychology and faith a 9.5 minute video interview that explores David's perspective on psychological science and faith. copyright 2005, David G. Myers, Hope College, Holland, Michigan 49422-9000, USA
Center for Church-Psychology CollaborationResources for psychologists and clergy interested in how psychology can serve the church. The Center is headed up by Mark McMinn at Wheaton College, Illinois.
CCPC Welcome Throughout history people have turned to the Church to find care for their troubled souls. With Enlightenment came an increased confidence in human reason, and ultimately the professionalization of soul-care, which has led to the burgeoning professions of counseling, clinical psychology, and psychiatry. We believe there is great value in the prudent practice of these professions, yet we also grieve the loss of the historic role of the Church in promoting emotional and spiritual health and caring for troubled souls. The Center for Church-Psychology Collaboration exists to help reclaim the connection between spirituality, mental health, and community that formed the basis of soul care prior to modernity. The Center for Church-Psychology Collaboration (CCPC) functions under the auspices of the Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology at Wheaton College (IL), providing training for tomorrow's Christian psychologists while partnering with pastors, Christian leaders, and churches throughout the world. The CCPC was founded in 1999 and is supported by donations, grants, and endowment funds associated with the Dr. Arthur P. Rech and Mrs. Jean May Rech Professorship of Psychology. Wheaton College Wheaton, IL Research | Training | Service | Resources | Leadership | Contact Us MCAP | Pastoral Counseling | Newsletter | Web Articles Wheaton College | Department of Psychology | Psy.D. Program 2003 Center for Church-Psychology Collaboration Wheaton College Department of Psychology All rights reserved
Is All Truth God's Truth?Text of tract by Dave Hunt arguing that psychology undermines biblical teaching and that the truth of the Bible does not need supplementing with discoveries from psychology.
Maintenance Sign In My Account Customer Service Search Home About TBC Contact TBC Calendar Email Updates Newsletters Book Store Radio Broadcast Home Maintenance Search Maintenance An unexpected problem has occured with your current page request. This may be a temporary or isolated incident. Please try your request again in a few minutes. If you continue to experience this problem, please contact us with more information and we will look into it as soon as possible. We apologize for any inconvenience Technical information... Bookstore: List of All Products sorted by Author sorted by Name By Dave Hunt: Books Tracts CDs Tapes Videos By T.A. McMahon: Products For Your Computer: eBooks MP 3 Gifts Other Resources: About the Bible Bibles Biographies Calvinism Catholicism Classics Creation Discernment Espanol Evangelism Islam Jehovah's Witness Kids Masonic Lodge Mormon Newsletter Prophecy Psychology Radio Seeker Sensitive Seventh Day Tozer Tracts Videos (DVD) Videos (VHS) Moody DVD Moody VHS Donations click here The Berean Call PO Box 7019 Bend, OR 97708 P: 541-382-6210 F: 541-385-6025
Christian Psychology: Is Something Missing?Essay by Rich Milne taking an overview of Larry Crabb's book "Connecting". Crabb, a leading proponent of the Christian psychology movement, here questions whether the church has become over-reliant on the use of trained counselors.
Christian Psychology: Is Something Missing? Academics Humanities Social Sciences Sciences Theology Academic Integration Faculty Offices Departments Current Issues Publications Conferences Events Apologetics Ministry Tools Bible Studies What's New Special Interest Past Features Other Sites Help LU About LU Privacy Policy Link to LU Feedback Navigation Site Map Site Index Advanced Search Browsing Help LU Home LU Updates Receive LU-Announce Probe Ministries Christian Psychology: Is Something Missing? A Review of Larry Crabb's Book "Connecting" Rich Milne The Church as a Healing Community World views shape the way we think. Psychology, once an outsider both to the sciences and most people's experience, has become a world view for many people today. Evolutionary psychology, the view that our long evolution from animal to human has deeply imprinted all our behavior, is gaining acceptance on a rapidly widening scale. Psychology is often used to provide an explanation for everything from our "religious aspirations" to our behavior as consumers. How should a Christian view psychology, and what does psychology offer the believer? This essay will consider only one small part of the answer to those questions. While specifically Christian counseling was once rare in the church, today it is a recognized part of many churches. As Christian counseling has become more widespread, some see it as the answer for the struggles that seem to plague most of us. The therapeutic world view sees many of our problems and struggles in life as stemming from unresolved problems arising in childhood. The cataloging and diagnosis of psychological disorders has become widespread, both within the church and in the culture at large. Professional counselors are seen as the primary way of dealing with these disorders. How many of us, when faced with someone enduring an ugly divorce, or hounded by problems of self-guilt, or struggling with their self-image, don't think, "This person needs to see a counselor"? Larry Crabb has done much to bring counseling into the American church. Having written books for more than 23 years, Crabb has always seen the church as being central in the counseling process. He has trained many of the counselors working in churches today. He has written books, taught, founded schools, and lectured around the country on Christian psychology. He has successfully questioned the church's distrust of psychology. Now Larry Crabb is asking a new question: Is the common, therapeutic model of Christian psychology really right? Should the church depend on mental health professionals to do all but minor, pat-on-the-back, words-of-cheer kinds of counseling? Is counseling really a matter of education and degrees and specialized training? While being very clear that professional Christian counselors have an important role to play in the Christian community, Crabb is asking, Could we be depending on counselors too much? Could it be that God has given all believers more resources than we think to help one another deal with many of the troubles and struggles we face in daily life? Going even deeper, Crabb asks the heretical question, Are psychological disorders really at the bottom of most of our struggles? "I conclude," says Crabb, "that we have made a terrible mistake. For most of the twentieth century, we have wrongly defined soul wounds as psychological disorders and delegated their treatment to trained specialists."(1) What he proposes in his book, Connecting, is both revolutionary and profound. In giving us new life in Christ, God has put in each of us the power to connect with other believers and to find the good God has put in them. We have the opportunity to heal most wounded souls. This is Larry Crabb's proposal. While he is still solidly behind professional counseling, he has come to see a broader place for healing within the context of Christian relationships. In this essay we will talk about what it means for two people to connect, and how God can use this connection to heal the deepest wounds of life and expose a beautiful vision of God's work in us. What Is Connecting? Some people seem to write a new book as often as most of us buy new shoes. And, like shoes, most of those books don't attract too much attention. But when well-known author Larry Crabb questions the very discipline that he helped establish, his book Connecting may cause more of a stir. Christian psychology views human problems as primarily the result of underlying psychological disorders. We may be angry at a teenager's disobedience, but anger is only the symptom of problems buried within us. Stubborn problems may require deeper exploration of our thinking. Counselors are those people who have special training, enabling them to understand the various disorders we struggle with, and how to fix what's wrong. In this book, Larry Crabb calls this whole picture into question. He describes the most common ways we react to people who are hurting and puts those reactions into two categories: moralistic and psychological. The moralist looks for what scriptures have been disobeyed, rebukes our disobedience, calls us to admit our sin and repent, and sees that we have some sort of accountability in the future. The psychologist listens to us, tries to find out what is wrong internally, and then helps us learn healthier ways of living. This process often takes months of self-exploration to find the roots of our problem, and to chart a course towards self-awareness and better ways of coping with the world. Could there be another way for people to relate to each other when problems arise? Crabb's suggestion is a powerful one. Could it be, Crabb asks, that God has put within each of us His power, which, when we connect with another person, allows us to find the good that God has already put in them, and to release that good so that they can respond to the good urges God has placed there? This is the main premise of the book Connecting. Coming straight to the point, Crabb says, "The center of a forgiven person is not sin. Neither is it psychological complexity. The center of a person is the capacity to connect."(2) The gift of salvation gives us the Holy Spirit, Who allows us first to connect with God the Father, and then, on a new and deeper level, with each other. But what is connecting? Crabb uses an analogy to the Trinity to make his point clear. The Trinity, Crabb writes, is "an Eternal Community of three fully connected persons."(3) They have delighted in each other for eternity, there is no shadow of envy or minute bit of jealousy between them, and they love to do what is best for each other. Since God made us in His image, we too can enjoy one another, but we must rely on the power of God in us to show us what is good in the other person. Connecting is so powerful, Crabb says, because it requires that we look past the surface of people and see the new creation God has already begun. Connecting with someone else requires us to look at what a person could be, not just what he is right now. With God's insight, we look beyond the small amount God may already have done and ask God for a vision of what this person could be like. Connecting finds the spark in someone else and is excited about what it could flame into. Is professional counseling unnecessary? Of course not, says Crabb. But connecting is a powerful way God uses us to bring out His good in others. What keeps us from doing this more? What Keeps Us From Connecting? If connecting is what God has made us for, and if this is what the Holy Spirit equips us to do, then why don't more of us connect with one another? Larry Crabb's answer is developed around four analogies. We tend to be either city builders, fire lighters, wall whitewashers, or well diggers. City builders are those who know what resources they have and how to use them. They know their strengths, and they have a solid sense of their adequacy to meet whatever lies ahead. City builders want to be in control, and fear that they might be found inadequate. City builders have a hard time connecting with someone else because they are looking for affirmation of themselves, not what is good in another. They can work together with other people towards a common goal, but only if it increases their sense of adequacy. Martha Stewart, for example, has built an empire on feeding people's desire to be adequate, able to handle any situation. She is in control of her kitchen, her house, her yard, her life. And she is the one who will show us how to bring our lives under control. God has created us with a desire for good. We want to please others, we want to live in peace, we want to have everything work out right. And in heaven it will. But we are not in heaven, and too often we try to insulate ourselves from the messiness of the world around us. City builders depend on their own resources to bring a sense of control into their lives. Their adequacy comes from themselves and what they can accomplish. But this blocks them from depending on God. God encourages us to seek peace with all men (Rom. 12:18), but at the same time we must realize that following Christ is a path of difficulty, not ease (2 Tim. 3:12). We are being prepared for perfection, but we are not to expect it here on earth. God has prepared a perfect city for us, but we are not to try to create it on our own now (Heb. 11:13-16). Fire lighters are like those people described in Isaiah 50:10-11. They walk in darkness, but rather than trust in God to guide them by His light, they light their own torches, and set their own fires to see by. Fire lighters, Crabb says, are those people who must have a plan they know will work. Their demand of God is the pragmatist's "Tell me what will work!" Fire lighters trust and hold closely to their plans, so connecting is hard for them because it would require them to trust God and not know what might happen next. Connecting requires us to give up our plans and expectations so that we can recognize and enjoy God's plans. We can either trust God or trust our own plans, but we cannot do both. It is not wrong to plan, but we must be willing to give up our plans when Jesus does not fit into them in the way that we want. As C.S. Lewis describes Aslan, the great lion who represents Jesus in The Chronicles of Narnia: "It's not as if he were a tame Lion."(4) Have you ever known people whose primary efforts in life were directed towards protecting themselves and their children from any difficulties? When safety is your top priority, then you have become a wall whitewasher, Crabb says. Wall whitewashers build flimsy walls of protection around themselves and their worlds, and then whitewash them to make them appear stronger than they really are. These people want protection from whatever they fear. They are sure that their lives of dedication to the Lord are a protection from major problems. "Wall whitewashers cannot welcome tribulations as friends. . . Character isn't the goal of a wall whitewasher. Safety is."(5) Many people who feel God's calling in their lives, also assume that God will take care of them and of their families. And He will, but not always in the way that we imagine. As we raise our children and watch the terrible struggles that seem to overcome so many other young people, we may feel that at least God will protect our own children from such affliction. But if our trust is that our serving the Lord is protecting our family, then we have built up a false sense of security. We are trying to cover our own uncertainty about the future with the whitewash of our own good deeds. God builds us up and shows us our need to depend on Him alone in our tribulations, but we often want to hide ourselves and protect our families from the very misfortunes that God wants to use to strengthen us. We are whitewashing a failing wall when we try to put up a hedge around ourselves and our families, sure that God will protect us from trouble. Everything that happens in our lives has come through God first, has been "Father-filtered," as someone once said. But we must depend on the Lord in all circumstances, not just when we feel protected. God loves us perfectly, but His desire is to give us His character, not to protect us from any difficulty. That is why, as James says, we are to greet tribulations as friends, and not with fear. Crabb's fourth class of people who thwart God's purpose in connecting are those he calls well diggers. The image comes from Jeremiah 2, where God marvels at the broken, pitiful wells that the Israelites make instead of coming to Him for real, unlimited water. Well diggers are looking for satisfaction on their terms, and they want to escape pain at any cost. The well digger asks, "Do I feel fulfilled?" If the answer is no, then he renews his quest for something that will give even a moment's pleasure. We judge drug addicts harshly, but what about needing to have a certain position to feel good, or driving a certain kind of car to prove we're reaching our goals? Well diggers also are characterized by something that marks our whole first-world culture: the desire for satisfaction now. Well diggers dig their own wells because it often seems faster than the way God is providing water. We want to be filled, and we want it immediately. We live in a fast-everything world. We stand around the microwave oven, wondering why it takes so long to heat a cup of water. Or, more seriously, we wonder why God is taking so long to bring along the right woman or man, so we find our own ways to satisfy our desires, whether in pornography, or cheap sex, or relationships we know can't last. We want to be satisfied, and if God seems slow, we find our own satisfaction any way we can. God plans for eternity, and builds to last forever. But it takes time, and patience. If we fulfill our own desires, we will be like the Samaritan woman at the well: we will soon thirst again. But if we allow God to provide for our thirst, He fills us with living water, and we are filled in ways we could never have known otherwise. Whether we are city builders, fire lighters, wall washers, or well diggers, we will never be able to deeply connect with another person until we kill these urges of the flesh, and allow God to strengthen our spirit. What will help us connect with other people? Finding What God is Doing in Others To connect with another believer, we "discover what God is up to and join Him in nourishing the life He has already given."(6) This is why Larry Crabb sees connecting as central to the Gospel. To connect with another Christian is to let the power of the Holy Spirit in you, find the good that God has planted in the spirit of another believer. It requires us to get past our flesh, which Paul instructs us to crucify (Gal. 5:24), so that we can be alive to the Spirit, the one Who makes connection possible. Connecting with someone else is a triumph of the Spirit over my own fleshly desires to control my own life (being a city builder), to create a plan I know will work (fire lighter), to protect myself against the uncertainties of life (wall whitewasher), and to find my own ways to feel good when I want to (well digger). To connect with a fellow believer I must see what God sees in him or her, not just what I can see. So how do we see as God sees? God's forgiveness of us provides a clue. Does God forgive me because I am such a nice fellow? No. Does God forgive me because I have such a good heart? No. Am I forgiven because I will always do the right thing in the future? No. God forgives me because He sees Jesus' death in my place. It must be the same when I look at a fellow Christian. I must see him or her as someone whom God cared enough to die for, and as someone worth the incredible price that Christ paid on the cross. Just as God looks past what is bad in my flesh to what He is creating in my spirit, so I must learn to look at other people and find the good that God is working on in them. Have you ever heard a child learning to play a musical instrument? We don't just listen to the noises coming from the violin or piano or drums. We listen to what is behind the music--the effort, the intensity, the desire to do better, the willingness to work. We listen for the spark that might indicate that this child really connects to music. That is just what we need to look for in one another: the sparks of eternity God has placed in each one of us. We need to look for what God is doing in our friends that can delight us, and make us "jump up and down with excitement" at how wonderfully God is remaking them. If we would truly connect with someone else, we must also be putting to death the flesh and feeding the spirit. Larry Crabb goes back to an old Puritan phrase, "mortifying the flesh," to describe what we are to do as we discover urges of the flesh rising up in us. As Crabb emphatically writes: "The disguise [of the flesh] must be ripped away, the horror of the enemy's ugliness and the pain he creates must be seen, not to understand the ugliness, not to endlessly study the pain, but to shoot the enemy."(7) This is an ongoing war, one we will fight until we are home with Jesus, but alongside this battle to "crucify the flesh" (Gal. 5:24) we must also feed the Spirit. By this Crabb means that we are, as a community of believers, to "stimulate one another to love and good deeds" (Heb. 10:24). As we put to death the flesh, we are indeed made alive in the Spirit (Rom. 8:10-14). Discerning a Vision for Others Larry Crabb's book Connecting has two subtitles. The first subtitle is "Healing for Ourselves and Our Relationships." Earlier, we saw how we are healed as we allow Christ to sweep away all of our own methods of dealing with life. Whether we are city builders, fire lighters, wall whitewashers, or well diggers, these are all ways that we try to manage life. Jesus does not ask us to manage our lives. Instead, as a father might take his son through a crowded mall, God asks us to take His hand, and let Him guide us to where He chooses. The urges we need to kill are the very urges that whisper in our ears that we must take care of ourselves. Remarkably, as we abandon our own techniques for survival, and let God use our lives in His own way, we also find that we can approach others much more openly and honestly. We are free to love people for who they are, not what they can do for us. And this opens up what is one of Larry Crabb's most important ideas. When we look at others the way God does, we begin to see what He is doing to make them new and incredible creations, just as He is doing for us. The second subtitle for Connecting is "A Radical New Vision." It is certainly radical when one of the leading voices for Christian psychology suggests that lay Christians themselves can deal with many of the personal problems they often refer to counselors. But the radical view he has most in mind is a new way we can relate to and view one another. Crabb's challenge is for us to kill the bad urges in ourselves so that we are able to begin seeing and hearing what God is doing in other people. This will not be just a warm feeling. We discern visions for a person's life; we do not create them. When a doctor announces "It's a girl!" he is not making her a girl, he is announcing what is already the case. In the same way, Crabb writes, we are, by prayer, listening, and reading God's Word, to discern what God is doing in someone's life and then announce it. And the process of seeing what God is doing in someone's life may not be easy. Larry Crabb's vision for the church is that we will become communities of people who care desperately about one another, so much that we will let down our guard. People can truly know us, and we can see into them. In this process of connecting with a few other people, we will see God take the power of His Holy Spirit, and use that power to see what another person could be. As we walk with the Lord, and grow in godly wisdom, He enables us to see the good in other believers, and to encourage that good in a way that gives that person a vision of why she is here. It is this vision of who we could be in Christ which can transform each of us. But we must be willing to die daily to who we are on our own, and arise daily to do and say the things that God desires us to do and say. Are you ready for a radical new vision? It will fill your whole world with the power God has put in you to release the good He has put in others. What a calling of hope! 1998 Probe Ministries International Notes 1. Larry Crabb, Connecting (Nashville: Word Publishing, 1997), p. 200. 2. Crabb, 38. 3. Crabb, 53. 4. C.S. Lewis, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (New York: Collier Books, 1970), p. 138. 5. Crabb, 121. 6. Crabb, 49. 7. Crabb, 91. About the Author Rich Milne is a former research associate with Probe Ministries. He has a B.A. from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Th.M. from Dallas Theological Seminary. Rich works in the area of the philosophy and history of science, focusing in particular on the origin of the universe and the origin of life, and the history and philosophy of art. He and his wife, Becky, are currently on staff with East-West Ministries in Dallas, Texas. He can be reached via e-mail at rmilne@eastwestministries.org . What is Probe? Probe Ministries is a non-profit corporation whose mission is to reclaim the primacy of Christian thought and values in Western culture through media, education, and literature. In seeking to accomplish this mission, Probe provides perspective on the integration of the academic disciplines and historic Christianity. In addition, Probe acts as a clearing house, communicating the results of its research to the church and society at large. Further information about Probe's materials and ministry may be obtained by writing to: Probe Ministries 1900 Firman Drive, Suite 100 Richardson, TX 75081 (972) 480-0240 FAX (972) 644-9664 info@probe.org www.probe.org Copyright (C) 1996-2005 Probe Ministries Email this to a friend copyright 1995-2005 Leadership U . All rights reserved. This site is part of the Telling the Truth Project . Updated: 14 July 2002
The Bible and PsychologyEssay by John Stoll considering what psychological insights the Bible can offer into the emotional needs of humans and their fulfilment in relation to Christian maturity. Includes a specific analysis of Philippians.
The Bible and Psychology Academics Humanities Social Sciences Sciences Theology Academic Integration Faculty Offices Departments Current Issues Publications Conferences Events Apologetics Ministry Tools Bible Studies What's New Special Interest Past Features Other Sites Help LU About LU Privacy Policy Link to LU Feedback Navigation Site Map Site Index Advanced Search Browsing Help LU Home LU Updates Receive LU-Announce The Bible and Psychology John H. Stoll, Ph.D. Executive Director, ASK, Inc. Today, as never before, people are interested in psychology and what it has to say to mankind. The study of psychology deals with the mind, its senses and human behavior. Since our mind controls our behavior and our behavior influences and is influenced in many ways, it becomes a challenging study. Along with this are the ver-increasing problems of the mind, social relations in a complex world today, mental and moral break-downs, the increase of the occult (e.g. astrology, etc.), and the desire to know the future and the things of the non-physical world. Satanic influence is increasing as never before as I Timothy 4:1, and II Timothy 3:2 state: "Now the spirit speaketh plainly, that in the latter times some shall depart from the faith giving heed to deceiving spirits and doctrines of demons" and "evil men and deceivers shall wax worse and worse, deceiving and being deceived." Since man is constantly trying to explore the mind in human behavior, it seems logical to the Christian that his source of knowledge can best come through an understanding of the One who created the mind of mankind, as well as looking at the textbook He has written on the mind and human behavior. The most authoritative textbook on the subject of human behavior is the Bible. Not only is it authoritative, it is objective, and is the final word on the subject. And whether people accept the principles of God's Word and agree with them or not, all are subject to the principles found in the Bible. Therefore, it behooves us to consider seriously what god has to say on this matter of Biblical psychology. The Bible is not a textbook on psychology, rather it is a text on God and His relationship to mankind, whom He has created. However, in the context there is much stated in the Bible on human behavior, and where the Bible speaks on the subject of psychology it speaks with final authority. Emotions Mankind lives in a day and age which is fraught with many fears and problems, and to a certain degree, as Christians, we have become insulated from these fears and problems. Yes, it is true, we watch the news on television, we read the newspapers, we understand in a measure what is going on in the world, we hear much about the problems that the youth of today experience, the drugs, and all that goes with it. But by the large, as Christians, we are isolated from the realities of the world. Yet in a paradoxical way, because we are human beings, we are caught up many times with the very same problems that the world faces. To a degree the world may be different, and the problems to us may not be as great or dramatic, and not have as much of a traumatic effect upon us as they do on various people in the world---but basically, we all have the same common nature, and all have the same common problems. God, who is our Creator, has an answer for all these problems. There are four sets of emotions common to all---whether we accept by faith the principles in God's Word or reject them---that plague us, and unless we get relief from them they will ultimately destroy us. The first is the fear-anxiety-apprehension syndrome. The world is caught up in this to a great degree because it says, "There is no help for mankind---this is a meaningless universe." The world cares nothing for the individual who is only a number, and though each individual is a unique person there is really no help for that person. Each individual is just one of billions of other people. We live in an amoral world that is hostile to the individual. Therefore, because of this we have fears, anxieties, and apprehensions, as to what is coming. The second set of emotions that bothers us is the anger-hostility-hated syndrome, since basically we are afraid. This is a cover up, and thus we exhibit our fears which come out through anger, hostility, and hatred. And hostility is the direct action to powerlessness in one's life because of what he fears. This bothers the Christian as well as the non-Christian. The third set of emotions that we are plagued with is that of the depression-guilt-psychic pain syndrome. It is interesting to note that the majority of people that occupy hospital beds are there not because of physical illness, but because of emotional, mental and psychological problems. If as human beings we could be rid of these, there would be plenty of beds in all hospitals today. It is an abiding sorrow that bothers every individual. For the non-Christian, it is an unconsciousness sense of guilt, though that person may not acknowledge or recognize it. For the Christian it may be unconfessed sin which therefore leads to depression and guilt feelings. The fourth set of emotions that bothers us is what may be termed as destructive egotism. This is another form of fear; "I am myself, I have an ego, and I have desire to have it built up to a certain degree. And yet in my desires to have my ego built up, there is also a certain amount of fear, and so I am trying to balance my fears with my ego as an individual," and that gives everyone problems. Over against these four sets of adverse emotions needs to be fulfilled, else these destructive tendencies will overcome us as human beings. This is where the principles of God's Word are highly focused in the book of Philippians. In brief, they can be pointed out as follows: The first emotional need that we have to be fulfilled is that of affection---to love and to be loved. Every baby born into the world desires this. Sometime ago, an experiment was made in Colorado, in which a doctor took a group of unwanted babies who had been abandoned. He found that within a year the majority of them died. Yes, they were well cared for and they were fed, and the nurses looked after them; but they died because they lacked affection and love, because every human being needs this. This is why God gave to us mothers, to breast-feed babies, not only for the benefit of the mother's milk that the baby receives, but for that sense of security that the baby gets as it is held in it's mother's arms. That is something that no bottle will ever accomplish, and every human being needs this affection not only as babies, but for the rest of one's life. The second emotion that needs to be fulfilled is that of acceptance---of who one is, and each individual's unique character. We need to feel accepted by other people. This is part of our community of being together. The third emotion is that of appreciation---to have a favorable critical estimate made of one's self: A certain kind of approbation, a slap on the back for a good job well done. We give medals, letters of commendation, watches, appreciation banquets---we pass out awards and rewards, and various sorts of things. Why? Because we all need it. We need to be appreciated. The fourth emotion that all need is that of achievement---not only a sense of satisfaction or accomplishment, but also that which is praiseworthy, so when we achieve a certain goal there comes a certain amount of appreciation for that achievement, and it makes us feel good, so we desire it. These four emotions are basic to every individual, and in order to overcome the emotions that constantly plague us, as well as to counter balance that, in having the emotions fulfilled that one needs, God has provided the answer in the book of Philippians. The Christian and Psychology For the Christian, problems arise in the area of faith and belief. When the supposed, "the fact of science" conflicts with a person's belief, trouble may develop. The conflict in a person stems from how much on believes heredity and environment shape his thinking. If behavior is completely determined by these factors, as some think, then freedom is an illusion. In today's existential and pragmatic world, man is conditioned to become absolutely "free" of all restraints or bonds, that heredity and or environment may inhibit him. For the Christian who lives in the world today, his problem is heightened by the idea of some, that religious beliefs become unrealistic bondage to his "super-ego" (which is thought of as somewhat similar to one's "moral conscience"). To free himself of this control it is often suggested that he should go about and "live it up." To release himself from this so-called bondage, the idea is to suggest that his will loosen (or maybe harden) his conscience so that he will not be anxious in that which he does. This assumes that the "super-ego" is determined by environment (parents, church, other Christians' super-imposed external standards, etc.) and that he must become "free" to act as he will. The ego then becomes more insensitive and the individual less anxious. What actually occurs more often than not, is that the individual becomes more guilt ridden and therefore these anxieties are heightened. What is really needed is a treatment of the real problem of freedom in Christ, through an understanding of the Word of God and a pattern of life consistent with the Bible. Much of the problem in today's Christian society is a super-imposition of do's and don't's on Christian individuals that may or may not have a foundation on the Word of God. It is not the "black" are of life that bothers us (i.e. the don't's of the Ten Commandments) or the "white" are of life (i.e. the do's of the Ten Commandments) that impose problems, but the great "gray" area wherein the Bible does not specifically state exactly what we are to do or not do. The reason the Bible is not specific in the "gray" are is twofold: 1) certain actions are not always right or wrong, but must be considered in a contextual light of times, manners, customs, culture, and; 2) God wishes His children to become spiritually mature and able to make mature judgments based on the principles of His Word, as the person allows the Holy Spirit to guide him into all the truth (John 16:13). This gives the Christian confidence, just as a growing child gains confidence in judgment as his parents increase his allowance to make the judgments. Today, we live in a world dominated by the philosophies of philosophical existentialism (i.e. man exists as an individual in a purposeless world, and that he must oppose the hostile environment by the exercise of his free will) and pragmatism (i.e. the system of philosophy which tests the validity of concepts and actions by their practical results; if it works, it is all right.) The resultant emphasis of these two philosophies shows up in the effects of the depersonalization of society, the break-down of the eternal and traditional elements of faith, and the loss of meaning to present life. Man is essentially free; he is conscious of himself as a being, and he can think and question his own existence. This encourages one to break away from tradition and old patterns in order to find a better and more fulfilling experience in life. Again, for the Christian this poses a real problem in that this philosophy accepts no authority other than experience. God is eliminated as well as are all moral laws. (In one sense, existentialism does have meaning for the Christian when on is faced with the experience of real meaning in life. By the principles of God's Word there is renewed vitality through emphasizing the meaning of a person's relationship with God which deepens that experience. A note of caution should be sounded at this point and that is, that experience and meaning are beneficial when based on Biblical truth and not experience alone. This differs materially from philosophical existentialism which is anti-God and posits a hopeless future.) One of the problems of human experience is what should be done with the unconscious element. Should it be sublimated or ignored hoping that it will go away and become a problem? "Shock" therapy, many times, drives the problems deeper into the unconscious and keeps them there. Evidence seems to point in the direction that unresolved conflicts of the conscience that are pushed into the unconscious do not remain dormant. They rather create greater tensions harder to cope with, because the origins are hidden and forgotten. The more this happens the greater the potential for increased tension and eventually a blow-up of some sort. For the Christian there should be a day-by-day problem dealing, in confession of sin, eliminating the conflict, and allowing the Holy spirit to resolve the problems by guiding the individual in the truth of God's Word. Hence, the need for day-by-day Bible study and prayer, committal of that day into God's hand, and asking for God's grace for each day, that one may walk in the path of God's righteousness. This comes through submission to the direction of the Holy Spirit in the life of the believer. Traits or characteristic patterns of behavior are basic in the development of every individual's unique personality. As our interrelations between these traits are formed, conflicts are created because of difference in interests and goals. This results because of an attempt to create an order in one's life. A Christian desires to avoid inconsistencies and disorder, to be creative and useful and hopefully reduce tension caused by inner conflicts. Thus, the attempt to organize one's life may take on of two forms: 1) by consciously or unconsciously isolating the traits that are causing his conflicts into logic-tight compartments that do not allow for any problem solving or communication. In this way one may lose control over part of his personality and the solution is worse than the problem itself; or, 2) another way to solve the problem is to make one trait an organizing principle and then subordinating all other traits to it. A good example of this is seen in Philippians 1:21 "For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain." This shows the simple trust of the Christian in Christ as an organizing principle in life. This answers the problem of identification with the resultant proper organization. This reduces tension, and if the trait chosen is not a selfish one, as seen in the illustration in Philippians, then the solution is a good one. Sometimes the trait of altruism (the unselfish concern for the welfare of othersbecomes the center and the results seem better. But the problem here is this tends to be an end in itself, and the individual's ultimate fulfillment is limited by human nature. Sometimes people will spend their lives pursuing a goal and then find in the end that it was not worth-while. This is somewhat like the man who climbed the ladder of success, only to find that when he got to the top that the had the ladder leaning against the wrong wall. When this happens disillusionment may set in at a time when the personality is least able to cope with it. This problem of organization resolves itself into finding a proper center for the personality into which all human traits may be channeled, and which are at the same time beyond the human element. In this thought, one would have a center for personality and expansion. This then is the message of Philippians, which gives to us what God considers the normal Christian life. This is also what Paul was talking about in Galatians 2:20, the "ego" or "I", ". . . is crucified in Christ, nevertheless I live, but it is not 'I', but Christ who lives in the through me, and the life 'I' now live in the flesh, is by the grace of God who loves me and gave His Son for me." To develop maturity in the normal Christian life is to form stronger bonds from each trait and relate it all to the center, Christ. The "old nature" interferes with this desire as seen in Ephesians 4:22-24. When this reorganization of the self life is begun, the power that formally had been expended in solving inner conflicts becomes available for constructive purposes. When every aspect of one's personality is truly centered in Christ, these inner conflicts can be eliminated and thus the Christian can become a mentally healthy individual. The most serious problem that plagues Christians is that of the "old" and "new" natures. The two are diametrically opposed to each other, and every Christian has the two within himself. Paul certainly set forth the conflict quite clearly in Romans 7:11-25 wherein he noted "the good which I would I do not, but the evil which I would not, that I do." It then calls for a constant and consistent application to daily living of the integration of the traits of life to the center, which is Christ. Only when this takes place can the latent power of the personality be combined with the power of God to produce a productive usefulness in the Christian life. The Bible and Psychology There are three reasons for which the Bible was written. God gave it first to show the entrance and problem of Sin; second, to show mankind the need for and the provision of Salvation; and third to provide for the Christian the right way to Sanctification of life. The "Sanctify" in Greek is the same as the word translated "holy." And the words "holy" and "sanctify" are synonymous terms in Scripture, which mean "to set apart from evil and to be set apart unto God." When one looks at the Word of God, these three ideas: sin, salvation, sanctification, qualitatively are provided to the individual in this order; for first of all a person needs to know that one is a sinner and needs a Savior; secondly, that God had provided salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ for that person's sins and that once a person becomes a child of God, it is anticipated that thirdly one leads a sanctified life. These are of ultimate importance and are in this order in God's Word. But, when one looks at these three aspects quantitatively, in the Bible, the first two ways---that is of sin and salvation---take up very little of the Bible. It doesn't take God a great amount of space to show human beings the entrance of sin, and the problems that go along with it, and that all of mankind are sinners, nor does it take Him long to show to us what Christ had done for us. But when it comes to the matter of sanctification that becomes an entire lifetime of living. The biographical sketches that one sees in God's Word in the Old Testament, as well as in the New Testament, are given to show out of the lives of men, women, boys, and girls, who have had similar problems as ours, who have had their heights and depths, their "cloud-nine" and their "Monday mornings," how God's children ought to live today. This is why Christ stated in John 10:10, "I am come that ye might have life and that ye might have it more abundantly." The abundant life includes mature mental health, but it includes much more. Generally speaking, mental health is related to the norms of society, but the Christian may not always go along with the current norm, and in order to be faithful to Christ may at times go against it. If an individual's faith in Christ does not result in more in a more satisfying personal life, regardless of the problems or obstacles, there is either something wrong in one's life, or with the application of Biblical principles to that person's daily living. The Bible is given to mold or fashion us after Christ's likeness, and this is sanctification or holy living. God, who is our Creator, has created our psyche or our senses, and by and large we are conditioned by those senses. Whether we like it or whether we don't, we are sensitive people, and there are certain emotions and affections that we have that need to be satisfied in one direction or another. The world is constantly searching for this and constantly failing, and this is why the psychologists get rich, because people go to a psychologist to have a cathartic expression---that is to get off their mind what bothers them, and the psychologist does very little, but after one has "unloaded," he feels better. Then the psychologist tells him, "I'll see you nest week" and the person thinks the psychologist has done a lot for him. We have these burdens that one constantly needs to "unroll" or to "get off his chest." Since God created us with "psyche" or a "sense," He certainly ought to know best how a person should operate in life. Because of this, God has given to mankind these understandings in His Word, and though throughout the Bible there are expressions that minister to one's senses, there is one book, that of Philippians, that has as its objective to combine spiritual health with mental health for the Christian. In concluding this section, it may be suggested there are five ways by which each Christian may live a more satisfying personal life, as well as be a better steward of the grace of God. A by-product of this is mature mental health coupled with a joyful disposition. Integration---In this, Christ becomes the center for all of one's diverse traits of personality. After the initial step of regeneration, the integrating of one's personality becomes a matter of listening to the Holy Spirit's leading. To develop an experiential knowledge of Christ's teaching from His Word provides the key (see Philippians 3:10). Purpose---An important factor in helping a person live a useful life is the knowledge that there is purpose in life. Life is meaningless unless there is purpose to it. In Philippians 1:21, Paul states, "For to me to live is Christ and to die is gain." Here is the thought of personal identification with Christ. The ultimate for the Christian is one's seeking to achieve the will of God in and through his own life. With this in mind a person seeks to translate God's plan for his life into understandable terms for himself, as well as for others. A sense of values in the Christian experience is imperative, for if there are no standards or values, life loses its relevance. On the other hand, when one is clear as to standards and values, these serve to direct rather than repress a person. Contemplation---A person who is mentally healthy and spiritually acute is one who is contemplative. Periodically he pauses to take stock of his spiritual life, and seeks to relate himself to the important concerns of faith and life. Paul clearly taught this in Philippians 2:5, "Let this mind be in you which is also in Christ Jesus." As the Christian reflects o himself, studies the Word of God, and speaks to Him in prayer, the result brings relaxation, positive Christian conduct, insight into life's problems and in making decisions, and indefinable strength in power resulting from the working of the Holy Spirit in his life. This cares for the problem of personal disposition of life. Perspective---When on personally applies the principles of the Christian faith to everyday life and living and these are integrated, the result is an understanding of the ultimate future of life. Paul says in I Corinthians 6:20 that, "Ye are bought with a price therefore glorify God in your body and in your spirit which are God's." This perspective, the realization that things happening today have relevance for the present as well as for eternity, can bring meaning and significance to every incident in life. The expectation of the Christian helps him in this life as I John 3:3 points out, "and every man that hath this hope in Him, purifieth himself even as He is pure." Then as Paul notes in Philippians 3:20, "For our manner of life is in heaven; from whence also we look for the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ." To the Christian, this gives hope and answers the problem of personal priority in life. Outgoing---In Matthew 16:24-26, Christ said, "He that findeth his life shall lose it and he that loseth his life for My sake will find it." Because the Christian's ideal concern is not immediate and selfish goals, his life can become an outflowing of help for others. There is probably a tendency to a greater or lesser degree in all of us, to be inhibited from being outgoing. To be outgoing is something that each person, more or less, has to work on in his own life. A characteristic of a mentally healthy person is an outgoing personality. When we accept Christ's commission in Matthew 28:19, it helps us to become outgoing. When we rely on Paul's thought in Philippians 4:13, "I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me," it shows the help we can and do have in Christ. This gives to the Christian a sense of personal security to trust the Lord for every aspect in one's life. The study of psychology as a scientific field poses problems for the Christian, yet when integrated with the psychological principles as demonstrated in God's Word, it offers the opportunity of opining new insights regarding Christian experiences and understanding of the Biblical truths. An illustration may serve to help underscore this principle. The sulfa drug does not kill the germ. It dissolves the hard protective coating around the germ so that the white corpuscles are able to kill the germ. In a similar fashion, psychology can provide the tools used by God to penetrate more efficiently, and dissolve the defensive shell that people use to insulate themselves from Biblical truths, and from their fellowmen. When this hell is broken, the Spirit of God is able to perform His work in their lives. Each problem raised by life and psychology has its answer in the Word of God. These answers should be sought and found, and when they are, along with personal application, the normal spiritual life that God has for each of us will become evident. Philippians and Psychology In order to overcome the emotions that plague a person and fulfill the emotions that one needs, God has provided the answer in the book of Philippians. In chapter 1, the Apostle Paul answers the problem of Personal Identification. This has to do with Affection. The key to this problem of identification is in Philippians 1:21, "For to me to live is Christ and to dies is gain." Paul was identified with the Lord Jesus Christ in every aspect of his life. He was affected by what Christ had done for him; it affected his whole life. It changed him from being an employee of the Roman government, on the Damascus Turnpike committing people to prison under the name of Saul, and it transformed him so that now he was the Apostle Paul, preaching the claims of Christ. Just as he was at one time all out as an employee of the Roman government, now he was all out ---his whole life was dedicated to the Lord Jesus Christ. What Paul was plainly saying in this verse was that for him to live was Christ, and he was identified in this fashion. This gives to the Christian the Principle for what one might term the normal Christian life. One may ask from a psychological point of view: what is normal? The answer is, no one knows what is normal. Not even the psychologists who are searching for normalcy know, because none of them are normal. Just because the majority of people do a certain in one way or the other does not constitute that which is normal. Only God knows what is normal, and there has been only one normal person that ever appeared on the face of the earth, and that was the Lord Jesus Christ. He was the incarnation of God Himself in human manifestation. This is why Paul said, "For to me to live is Christ." However, God has revealed that which is normal for His children, and the understanding of that normalcy is found in His Word. God created us and thereby He knows what is normal. This is the principle of life which constitutes that which is normal for the child of God. The Bible is to the Christian what the automobile manufacturer's handbook is to the car. Only as the Christian follows the truth of God in His Word is he able to live a normal Christian life. Chapter 2 answers the second emotional need to be fulfilled and that is Acceptance. This answers the problem of Personal Disposition---how one's life is accepted. What does Paul say as to this?---the key is found in verse 5, "Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus." In the disposition of life, the Christian is accepted in the beloved---a child and heir. We have been accepted by Almighty God. This answers the problem of the personal disposition of a person's life, which gives to the Christian the Pattern for the normal Christian life. The Apostle Paul never tells us what to do---which is found in chapter1---but he follows it very quickly with how to do it in chapter 2. When a lady desires to sew a dress, she goes to the store and purchases what is known as a pattern. A pattern is a series of tissue papers that are cut in certain ways to give dimensions. The pattern is placed on the cloth and then the cloth is cut according to the patter, then the cloth is sewn together which becomes the dress. In this analogy, Christ is our pattern, and as Christians we are to cut our life, as it were, after that of the Lord Jesus Christ. Because we have been accepted by God into His family, and our lives are molded by His Word and the Holy Spirit who indwells us, it helps us with the problem of the disposition of life; how one disposes of the time and talent that he has in life. The third emotion that needs to be fulfilled is that of Appreciation. This is considered in chapter 3 and the key is found in verses 13, 14, and 20 which answers the problem of Personal Priorities in life. In the world in which we live today, every person is caught in a myriad of many things, with many avenues of opportunity to control us and spend our time. Because of the multiplicity of involvements, and the choices that constantly need to be made in relation to one's priorities is that which causes much frustration in the lives of people. For example, if a person chooses a certain place to go and is not appreciated by the group of people with whom he associates, or does not appreciate what he has anticipated he would, so that he does not receive a good feeling out of it, he may then become frustrated. Frustration is the game that is played today, for people seem to be out of sorts or frustrated with many things, places, and people. This causes depression, anxieties, and fears which may result in guilt feelings, and there are many negative reactions and reinforcers that constantly pick up speed, so that the person gets caught up in the frustrations of the world from which there seemingly is no escape. For this the Apostle Paul has a satisfying answer in chapter 3, as to how God appreciates His children, and how this helps answer the problem of personal priorities. In 3:13, he says, "Brethren I don't believe I've arrived---I'm not perfect---but there is this one thing I've learned to do, forgetting those which are behind and reaching for those things which are before, I press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus." Then in verse 20 he notes, "For our manner of life is in heaven from whence also we look for the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ." This helps the Christian in his priorities, so that he does not become confused and frustrated in life, and is able to formulate proper priorities and thereby feels a sense of appreciation from God. Chapter 3 helps us in the Passions of the Christian life. Reflect upon what Paul said for a moment. He noted that he had been able to forget those things which were behind, and to keep his eye single before the Lord and to look to those things which were ahead. Think upon this for a moment; at one time the Apostle Paul was an employee of the Roman government hailing Christians to prison on the Damascus Turnpike. God turned him around and Saul became converted, and because of this became the Apostle Paul, now ministering the Word of God in behalf of the Lord Jesus Christ, whom he loved and whom he served. One can easily visualize that as the Apostle Paul went to preach to the Christians at various places, that there were probably people in his congregation to whom he was ministering who may have been, many years before, in prison under his hand, when he was Saul, or had friends, relatives, or neighbors who had been in prison. Now the Apostle Paul was ministering the Word of God to them. It is easy to see how he could have had a great amount of guilt feelings, or a sense of depression or sadness at what he had done. Or, maybe those people had a certain sense of hostility, anger, or fear when it came to receiving the Apostle Paul himself, as well as his ministry. Yet he could say he was able to forget "those things which are behind." One of the greatest psychological hang-ups that Christians have today is that they allow Satan to conjure up the failures of the past in their lives, and hang those things over them like a "cement cloud." Thus it shifts the Christian into neutral and one is unable to "use today for doing good" (Hebrews 3:13), because of depression and guilt feelings along with all kinds of fears and frustrations due to past failure, and sometimes these go back for many years. God has a good catharsis for the Christian in this regard. For this, one doesn't need to go to the psychologist---it's found very simply in I John 1:9, "If we confess our sins He's faithful and just to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness." In the world, people many times are able to forgive but so many times they are unable to forget. However, when God forgives He also forgets, and one doesn't have to worry about the failures of yesterday when he ahs confessed them before God. God wants us to keep a clean slate before Him day by day, and this is why He constantly impresses upon us the fact that every day we need to pray, to read His Word, and to fellowship with Him. We should start every day by saying, "Father, give me the grace to live for You today and lead me in the way of righteousness." It is no wonder that God says, "Dont worry about tomorrow, tomorrow will take care of itself, and don't be concerned about yesterday, you can't recall it, it is past." Live for today; God will take care of your need for tomorrow, and if you have confessed your sins He's faithful and just to forgive you of your sins, and dont worry about what's past; live for today. We are to use today for doing good as Paul tells it in Hebrews 3:13. This is the way that God wants us to live. Why should we live like the people of the world? God appreciates His children when they respond to Him in this fashion. In chapter 4 Paul answers the fourth need that every individual has and that is the need of Achievement. It also answers the problem of Personal Security. Achievement gives to a person a certain sense of Security, and this feeling of well being is what every individual needs. How does Paul apply this? In verse 13 he states, "I can do all things through Christ which strengtheneth me." Paul did not mean by this that he could do anything. No, all people have limitations, but all have certain talents, gifts, and abilities. God does not measure these abilities. God does not measure these abilities on a vertical plain as the world does, like a person who achieves a certain plateau or status in life as he climbs the ladder of success. No, God does not evaluate His children in that fashion, for He evaluates us on the horizontal plain. Every individual has certain responsibilities before God, and God has given every individual the talents and abilities to carry out the responsibilities that he has entrusted to him. As far as God is concerned, it makes no difference whether one is the president of the corporation or the janitor in the factory. Wherever God has placed His child that is his responsibility. In Philippians 2:12 and 13, the Apostle Paul admonishes the child of God to work out the salvation that he has with awe and respect for God, and then he notes, "For it is God who worketh in you both to will and to do of His good pleasure." God both shows us His will through His Spirit, and at the same time gives to us the enablement to carry out His will through the talents that He has entrusted to us. In I Corinthians 4:1, 2, the same Apostle Paul tells us that as Christians we are stewards of the grace of God, and then he notes, "That is it required in stewards that one be found faithful." Faithfulness to that responsibility which God has entrusted to us, is that which will count in the day of reckoning. This is why the Apostle Paul was able to say "I can do all things"---that is, all responsibilities and the area of influences that I have and which God has given to me. I can do all to the glory of God as God gives me the strength to accomplish them. That's achievement. When we know that God looks at it this way, that gives to one a sense of security or assurance of well being, and this is the Power of the normal Christian life. Four things provide for God's children the standard for the normal Christian life: 1) that we live worthy of the gospel, 2) that we stand fast in the faith, 3) that we not be terrified by what is coming, and 4) that we might be willing to suffer for the Lord Jesus Christ---"For me to live is Christ and to die is gain." Our forebearers of the truth stood fast in the midst of persecution so that we might have the gospel, and the love of the Lord Jesus Christ. Should it be any less that we stand fast in the faith, so that if God tarries, our progeny and the generations that shall come will have the same opportunity for salvation that has been provided for us, by those of our loved ones who have gone before, and who have stood fast in the faith? When we cast all our cares upon Him, He does care for us (I Peter 5:7). Copyright 1996-2005 by John H. Stoll. Email this to a friend copyright 1995-2005 Leadership U . All rights reserved. This site is part of the Telling the Truth Project . Updated: 13 July 2002
Faith and TherapyArticle by William Kilpatrick denouncing the blending of Christian faith and practice with the therapeutic practices of self-help and building self-esteem. Originally published in First Things 90:21-26 (February 1999).
Faith Therapy Academics Humanities Social Sciences Sciences Theology Academic Integration Faculty Offices Departments Current Issues Publications Conferences Events Apologetics Ministry Tools Bible Studies What's New Special Interest Past Features Other Sites Help LU About LU Privacy Policy Link to LU Feedback Navigation Site Map Site Index Advanced Search Browsing Help LU Home LU Updates Receive LU-Announce First Things Faith Therapy William Kilpatrick Copyright (c) 1999 First Things 90 (February1999): 21-26. Seventeen years ago in Psychological Seduction I wrote about the dangers of mixing psychology with religious faith. Such a mixing, I cautioned, would result in a dilution of faith. Six years before that, Paul Vitz had made a similar point in Psychology as Religion: psychology, he wrote, had become a substitute for faitha new religion encouraging a cult of selfworship. We both emphasized that this psychological faith, although it bore a surface resemblance to Christianity, was incompatible with, indeed, deeply hostile to, Christian faith. Psychology as faith has proven to be a sturdy creedalmost all of the criticisms we made then could be made today. The concepts of popular psychology are still being blended with Christian faith, and confusion still abounds. The attraction to psychology is not, of course, confined to the area of religion. The assumptions and techniques of psychology and therapy have found their way into business, schools, families, popular entertainment, and even the courtsso much so that it has become common to speak of our society as a "therapeutic culture." As long ago as 1966, Philip Rieffs book The Triumph of the Therapeutic predicted that this psychological mode of understanding society and identity would triumph over all other modes. It would become the frame of reference by which all other beliefs and commitments would be judged. One would expect Christian churches to resist this rival faith. Instead, they have in differing degrees been seduced by it, unable in many cases to say where the psychological faith ends and the Christian faith begins. The continuing temptation to blend psychology and faith suggests the importance of revisiting the arguments against this illadvised ecumenism. The arguments fall roughly into two categories: those of the dontembarrassyourself variety, and those of the more serious dontcutyourownthroat variety. The first line of criticism is employed in a recent article by Paul Vitz entitled "Support from Psychology for the Fatherhood of God" (Homiletic and Pastoral Review, February 1997). He first notes that the Christian concept of God as Father has been under attackmuch of the attack coming from Catholics influenced by feminist psychology. But, says Vitz, much of this psychology, based as it is on an androgynous view of the person, is pass. All the latest research, he continues, shows how very different the sexes are, and how fathers and mothers play distinct roles that are not interchangeable. All the statistics, moreover, clearly demonstrate what happens when fathers cease playing their role in family and society. Indeed, fatherlessness correlates with crime, drug addiction, school dropout rates, and outofwedlock pregnancies better than any other factor. Moreover, it turns out that boys are much more fragile than girls and suffer much more acutely from the absence of fathers. (See, for example, psychologist Michael Gurians two books on the subject, The Wonder of Boys and A Fine Young Man.) Vitz observes that, doctrinal objections aside, it is "bizarre to the point of pathology at this time in our culture to be trying to remove God the Father from our theology." We are just now aware of the widespread social pathology, especially the increase in violence, resulting from fatherlessness in families and the data are staggering! (See David Blankenhorns 1995 book Fatherless America: Confronting our Most Urgent Social Problem.) What worse moment could there be to diminish fatherhood in our theology? We have enough absent fathers without trying to send God the Father away too! To remove God the Father is to remove a major support for positive male identity. In a church that is already far more popular with women than with men, this means the removal of one of the few remaining supports for men. When Christians embrace psychological fads in hopes of keeping up to date, they frequently end up behind the curve when the fads turn out to be just that. The foolishness that can result is illustrated by a recent Christian youth curriculum that includes a crossdressing activity called the Suitcase Relay. It works like this: "On the word Go, a first couple (boy and girl) from each team must run with their suitcase to the opposite end of the room, open the suitcase, and put on everything in the suitcase . . . the boy putting on the ladys dress and the girl putting on the mans suit." One can only urge purveyors of such nonsense to stop embarrassing themselves. Psychologists up to date with the literature on adolescent development no longer counsel gender confusion. Sex roles, they have found, are not to be carelessly tampered with. There are a number of other therapeutic concepts that are now either in dispute or in disrepute with professionals but are nonetheless still tremendously popular with religious educators, parishes, priests, and bishops. Take the concept of selfesteem, now a central element in curricula for Catholic and other Christian youth. In psychological circles serious questions are being raised about the efficacy of high selfesteem, and about whether the trait can even be measured. For example, the measure of selfesteem used in the wellknown American Association of University Women (AAUW) study seems highly questionable. According to that study, girls suffer a sharp drop in selfesteem when they enter high school. But look at the items employed on the selfesteem questionnaire: statements such as "Im happy the way I am," "I like most things about myself," and "Im an important person." To these statements children can choose one of five responses: "always true," "sort of true," "sometimes true sometimes false," "sort of false," or "always false." But what sort of person would answer "always true" to "Im happy the way I am" or "Im an important person"? Someone with insight or someone who feels a need to be defensive or boastful? It is not surprising that boys, who are less selfreflective than girls of the same age, would score higher on this test. Moreover, as Christina Hoff Sommers has pointed out, there seems to be no connection between high selfesteem scores and academic success. A littlereported outcome of the AAUW study is that, although boys tested higher than girls on selfesteem, the very highest average scores were obtained by black girls and black boys. When the results were broken down by race, black boys showed the highest level of selfesteem. Yet, as is wellknown, black boys do not, on average, do well in school, and they do not go on to college in very large numbers. On the other hand, white girlsthe group that scores lowest on selfesteemis the group that displays the greatest academic success. These findings should at least raise doubts about the importance of selfesteem. But theres more. Recent studies by Roy Baumeister of Case Western Reserve University suggest that high selfesteem may be related to anti-social behavior. In fact, the most dangerous youth seem to have highly inflated opinions of themselves. Efforts to raise selfesteem, suggests Baumeister, may actually increase violent behavior. Once again, Christian educators seem to be on the wrong track. At just the moment in our history when youth violence and drug use are at nearrecord highs, at just the moment when adults ought to be talking to youngsters about selfcontrol and self-restraint, their energies are focused instead on teaching children to applaud themselves. We seem bent on giving our children the opposite of what they need. Its the same with the popular concept of nonjudgmentalism. If there ever was a time in which it was important for youngsters to exercise moral judgment, this is it. As psychologist William Coulson has pointed out, "Its precisely the necessity of judgment, not its absence, that must be promoted with the young today, given the magnitude of the drug problem." Yet in Christian education the emphasis is still very often on acceptance, trust, and the absence of judgment. A good example is provided in a curriculum lesson for evangelical children. The lesson presents two children, Amanda, who is fat and unattractive, and Jason, who shows a marijuana joint around school to impress the other boys. The lesson is that students are not to judge either Amanda or Jason, but rather "to accept them as they are." Cathy Mickels and Audrey McKeever, authors of Spiritual Junk Food: The Dumbing Down of Christian Youth, pinpoint the problem. They write, "To equate a girl who is quiet and unattractive with a boy showing an illegal drug around is not only confusing, but is an example of distorted and twisted reasoning." As the authors point out, Jason is probably not the kind of boy you would want your child to associate with, yet there is nothing in the curriculum to indicate that he ought to be avoided or corrected. In 1 Corinthians 15:33 we are told, "Do not be deceived: bad company corrupts good morals," but the world of Christian textbooks does not usually encourage this sort of judgment. Rather, it is a world inhabited by basically good and wellintentioned people who seem to have been barely touched by the effects of original sin. Examples of this sort can be multiplied. Charles Sykes, in his book A Nation of Victims, describes a Colorado church that offers thirteen different weekly support groups ranging from "Debtors Anonymous" through "Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous" to "Codependents of Sex Addicts Anonymous." This parish clearly subscribes to the medical model of human behavior. Meanwhile, other churches have bought into the notion that homosexuality is biologically driven and is therefore not a choice. Yet these are issues that are hotly contested by professional psychologists. The evidence that homosexuality is biologically driven, for instance, is quite skimpy and far from convincing. It seems quite illadvised for Christians to join the chorus of theories suggesting we cant help ourselves, that we are not really responsible for our behavior. The informal alliance formed between evangelical Christians and clinical psychologists during the day care witchhunts of the 1980s provides another example that should be embarrassing to psychologizing Christians. The clinicians had come up with a number of interesting theories that soon gained the force of law: one theory asserted that children never lie about sex, another claimed that repressed memories could be reliably recovered. More ominously, the psychologists had discovered a new syndrome called Ritual Satanic Child Abuse. The symptoms of this disease were legion and included forced sex, occult rituals, and animal sacrifice. Unfortunately, many evangelicals in the affected localities were all too ready to believe that Satan was alive and active in the local day care centers. In many instances they joined forces with the psychologists and law enforcers, and even provided incriminating evidence against the defendants. Dozens of people ended up in prison as a result of the day care scares of the eighties, and many careers and reputations were ruined. We know now that it really was a witch-hunt. The FBI reports that there is no evidence of a single case of ritual satanic child abuse in the United States. We know now that the child witnesses had been subjected to leading questions, threats, and bribes. We know now that most of the testimony was bizarre and fantastic. We know now that, in addition to recovered memories, there are also suggested memoriesmemories of events that never happened. Thankfully, most of the convictions in these cases have now been overturned, but many individuals still linger in prison. The day care cases show that child experts can sometimes be extremely naive, and that Christians can sometimes be remarkably gullible. It should not surprise us that when the two join forces the result can sometimes be credulity compounded. It is embarrassing to be behind the times, and even more embarrassing to be caught up in psychological delusions and hysterias, but embarrassment ought not be the only reason for avoiding illconsidered alliances with the world of psychology. There are reasons of survival, tooreasons of the dontcutyourownthroat variety. The mixing of psychology with faith can be destructive to Christianity; this is especially true when questions of doctrine are involved. Indeed, it is often difficult to distinguish between what is merely embarrassing and what approaches the suicidal. One of the most destructive consequences of carelessly mixing therapy with faith is a diminished sense of sin. The best evidence that this has already happened in the Catholic Church is the tremendous dropoff in the practice of confession over the last thirty years. When we couple this with the nearly 100 percent communion turnout in most parishes, we have to conclude that most parishioners dont have a strong consciousness of sin. They seem to have been so schooled in the gospel of selfacceptance that they cant think of any sins they need to confess. A colleague at Boston College told me a story that reinforces the point. He once asked members of his philosophy class to write an anonymous essay about a personal struggle over right and wrong, good and evil. Most of the students, however, were unable to complete the assignment. "Why?" he asked. "Well," they saidand apparently this was said without irony"We havent done anything wrong." We can see a lot of selfesteem here, but little selfawarenessthe absence of a sense of sin seems strange when one considers that most of these students have had years of Catholic schooling. It is strange as well that this inability to talk about sin, Satan, and the existence of evil comes at a time when the imagination of young people is captivated by performers such as Marilyn Manson who flirt with an aestheticized Satanism. If we want Christian youth to struggle against the temptations of evil in this world, they at least ought to be forewarned that evil exists. They ought to know, also, that Satan is more than just a name dreamed up by a rock band. A relatedif seemingly oppositeproblem resulting from freely mixing faith with psychology is a diminished sense of the sacred. I discovered in a survey of religious texts for Catholic students that they are studded with references to "communications breakdowns," "risktaking," "involvement," "decisionmaking," "personhood," "Iyou relationships," "getting in touch," "selfdisclosure," "awareness," and "assertiveness." The pervasive use of such language carries the implication that all the deep mysteries of faith can be encompassed in secular psychological categories. There is in these texts very little sense that there are any deep mysterieselements of the faith so awesome and unfathomable that they exist far beyond the reach of the social sciences. One of the deep mysteries that has suffered is the mystery of Christs presence in the Eucharist. There are several indications that faith in the Real Presence has undergone a process of erosion. For example, a poll taken a few years ago suggests that many Catholics either do not understand or do not accept the doctrine of the Real Presence. More telling, perhaps, is the marked decline in the practice of benediction of the Blessed Sacrament and in the practice of eucharistic adoration. If many Catholics have become casual about holy communion, it may well be because they have lost the sense that communion is indeed holyan encounter with the Source of all holiness. Philip Rieff has written that a therapeutic society is by its very nature a negation of the sacred order. It has no room for the concept of transcendence. Obsessed with selffulfillment and selfrealization, it is uncomfortable with higher claims on our attention. "Religious man was born to be saved," writes Rieff, "psychological man is born to be pleased." One way of pleasing him is to reduce everything to his size, something at which religious educators have become rather proficient. In religious studies curricula, both Catholic and evangelical, a great deal of energy goes into entertaining the student with games, puzzles, fun activities, and the like. The texts contain happy faces and sad faces, connectthedot games, teddy bears, pictures to color, and stickers to paste. One video curriculum for evangelical children is entitled The Gospel According to St. Bernard. It features, as you might guess, a cuddly St. Bernard dog. Bernies theme song introduces each segment: The questions of life are tough to figure But we found a friend, like us, but bigger He helps when were caught off guard Here comes the Gospel According to Saint Bernard. Bernie loves kids like you and me His doghouse is Florida by the sea He helps us follow Gods plan When we listen to Bernie Its never very hard To love him, hes Bernie The Saint Bernard. The quest for relevance does not abate as students grow older. For junior high and high school students there are blind walks, trust falls, tree hugging exercises, role playing, selfesteem relays, and various touching activities such as the "blush" game and the "lapsit" game. Besides taking away valuable time that might be spent learning Christian doctrine, the use of such games carries the implication that the Christian faith by itself is insufficient. Students may be forgiven if they gain the impression that the faith must be reinforced by secular concepts and activities, that it must be made attractive by blending it with secular forms of entertainment. More insidiously, such presentations subtly erode the sense of awe and reverence with which God ought to be approached. In their quest for what is relevant and recognizable, religious educators often reduce God to a comfortable size. He becomes a chummy friend whom we can approach with an easy and casual familiarity, another reason why for many Catholics receiving communion seems not to be an occasion of soul searching or prior purification. This desacralization process can happen even when materials are free of doctrinal error, and even when sound concepts and accurate Bible narratives are present. A lot depends on the presentation. For example, compare the Faith and Life catechism series published by Ignatius Press with a similar series from Sadlier, Coming to Faith. Book One of Sadlier, Coming to God covers approximately the same content as Book One of Faith and Life, Our Heavenly Father. In the Sadlier volume, the Creation is there, and so is the Fall, the birth of Christ, the Last Supper, Pentecost, the Mass, the sacrament of Baptism, the Our Father, and the Hail Mary. But it is revealing to see what else is present. In addition to Jesus, Mary, Joseph, and the apostles, there is a poem about a fish named Sharkey and a crab named Charlie, a picture of a Tshirt to be colored in with the signs of Easter joy, a poem about Shelly Turtle and her friends, Gator and Froggie, a connectthedots game, a celebration circles game, a puzzle to be cut out and glued together, instructions for making a moon and stars mobile, two pages of stickers, and a pasteyourpicture-in-a-sunflower activity. The average child, of course, is familiar with all this. He has encountered similar activities and games in countless other places. And theres the rub. The continual juxtaposition of the sacred and the secular conveys the (hopefully unintended) message that the two are on the same level. The authors seem afraid to suggest that there is anything outside or beyond the childs experience. Over and over, the events depicted in the Bible are related to everyday and often trivial activities. The illustrations convey the same message. Most depict boys and girls engaged in everyday activities: drinking milk, feeding a cat, shaking hands, playing ball, playing at the seashore, blowing pinwheels, flying kites, and so forthexactly the sort of illustrations that children would find in a public school text. By contrast, the cover of Our Heavenly Father is graced by Raphaels "Creation of the Animals." In this painting God the Creator has a kindly countenance, but at the same time He appears immensely powerful, and He dwarfs the lion standing beside Him. The painting evokes a response of awe and humility. The rest of the text is illustrated with more Raphaels, as well as paintings by Fra Angelico, Barocci, Titian, Velasquez, and Veronese. The sections on the Mass and the sacrament of Baptism are accompanied by photos of a priest reverently saying Mass and administering the sacrament. There are no distracting pictures of boys and girls flying kites, no teddy bears, no fun activities, no stickers to paste. The chapters are short and readable, and present in an understandable sequence the story of Creation, Fall, preparation for the Savior, and the birth, death, and resurrection of Christ. The student encounters the powerful and eternally relevant story that changed the worldand does so undistracted by a supporting cast of stuffed animals and cartoon characters. The text, though simplified, does not pander to the childs immaturity, nor does it convey the notion that the mysteries of faith are comprehensible from within his own experience. On the contrary, the refusal to compromise with fads, gimmicks, and selfesteem activities allows the drama of redemption to shine through as the unique and central event that it is. The trivializing of so many religious texts is, again, but one small reflection of the effect of Rieffs therapeutic culture. Such a culture, he observed, is one focused primarily on the self and its material and psychological needs. A therapeutic society is not simply one in which many people go to therapists, but rather one in which the therapeutic mode of analysis becomes the preferred way of explaining what life is all about, and the therapeutic technique is extended to all areas of life. The most obvious examples of this therapeutic expansion are the television talk shows which provide mass therapies of confession, and which attract huge viewing audiences. These lachrymose entertainments should not distract us, however, from noticing that the therapeutic is essentially a religion, a religion in which faith in God is replaced by faith in the self and its possibilities. The therapeutic can tolerate other religions as long as they conform to its own image and likeness, but it is implacably hostile to religions that make a transcendent or supernatural claim. The message of the therapeutic faith is precisely the reverse of John the Baptists message, "He must increase and I must decrease." Its central creed is nicely captured in the words of the first Humanist Manifesto issued in 1933 by the American Humanist Association: "Religious humanism considers the complete realization of human personality to be the end of mans life and seeks its development and fulfillment in the here and now." This, as the advertisers might say, is not your fathers religion. "The modern individual," writes Rieff, "can only use the community as the necessary stage for his effort to enhance himself." The coopting of faith by therapy culminates in spectacles like that surrounding the death of Princess Diana. Faced with the stark contrast between the lives of Mother Teresa and Princess Di, the masses concluded that both were saints. Mother Teresas project in life was to do Gods work; Dianas project was mainly herself. For years we were treated to open displays of her affairs, her emotions, her sufferings, her illnesses, her charities, her wardrobe, and her confessions. In an earlier age such a life might have elicited responses of pity or contempt, but in a therapeutic culture these are exactly the traits that merit sainthood. The most obvious current example of the therapeutic coopting religion is provided for us by Bill Clinton. It is a marvel to see how easily and smoothly he mixes the therapeutic with the religious, and how effortlessly and shamelessly he bends the vocabulary of faith to serve his own designs. He has "sinned," he seeks "forgiveness," he has a "broken spirit." In a recent issue of the Wall Street Journal, Dick Morris, Clintons former advisor, is quoted as saying, "The people who are going to help [Mr. Clinton] out of this scandal are ministers, clergymen, psychiatrists, and experts on addiction." Shortly afterwards Newsweek reported that the President had asked a trio of ministers to be his "personal accountability group." One of them is the Rev. J. Philip Wogaman, who thinks the President should not resign or be impeached. According to Newsweek, Wogaman believes that such demands would be judgmental, because all men are sinners. The article is immediately followed by a related boxed article reflecting the opinion of therapists. They endorse the ministerial "accountability group" but say Clinton also needs therapy for his "sex addiction." As one of the therapists puts it, "If he can admit his problem and share it with people, he can leave a very powerful legacy of healing." It is very strange, this spectacle of ministers and therapists joining forces to heal the President. It is difficult to say what will come of it, but there is no doubt that the forces of religion have the most to lose from the alliance. Some forty years ago, C. S. Lewis wrote, "If Christianity is untrue, no honest man will want to believe it, however helpful it might be; if it is true, every honest man will want to believe it, even if it gives him no help at all." In a psychological society, however, the question of the truth of religion is beside the point. The main question, the only question, really, is whether or not religion furthers the cause of the self. It is important for people of faith to keep in mind that there can be no real compromise between Christianity and the psychological society. Rieff in a 1991 essay insists that the therapeutic culture is at war with traditional culture and aims to destroy it. This seems overblown at first. If the therapeutic culture is our enemy, it appears rather a tame one. After all, it speaks the language of compassion, sensitivity, and tolerance. But any culture that has no use for truth is ultimately a dangerous culture. If there is no meaning outside the self, there is no meaning. And if there is no meaning, there is no morality. As Dostoevsky famously warned, without God everything is permissibleand the therapeutic culture has no God. It is well on the way to dismantling the moral structure of society through semisincere appeals to tolerance, compassion, and diversity. There is no reason to think it will put limits on what is morally permissible. There is, in the end, not a dimes worth of difference between the nihilism of the therapeutic culture and the nihilism of a Nietzscheexcept that the therapeutic culture lacks Nietzsches sense of the tragic nature of life. The twentieth century has seen many attacks on Christianity, but the frontal attacks of militant atheists, Marxists, and Nazis have not resulted in as much lost ground for Christians as the more insidious attacks of the therapeutic culture. The sense of guilt, the sense of sin, the sense of the sacred, the sense that there is another order of authority by which we are judgedthese have not disappeared entirely from Christian culture, but they have been eroded. If this is difficult to see, it is because of the fog that the culture of therapy emitsan empathic fog which surrounds us and confuses us and prevents us from seeing life clearly. We wander around in this fog thinking our enemy is our friend because he is so exquisitely concerned with our health. The only thing powerful enough to cut through this fog is the light of revelation. Revelation reminds us that physical and emotional health is not the Alpha and Omega of existence. The Gospels tell us that if our hand offends us we should cut it off, it being better to enter into life maimed, than having two hands to go into Hell. Likewise, it may be better to enter the kingdom of Heaven with a repressed psyche than to enter the other place brimming with selfassertiveness. There is no ultimate consolation to be found in the theories propounded by psychologists. Psychology has very little to say to the majority of suffering people in this world, and absolutely nothing to say to the fact that all of us must one day die. The therapeutic cultures welladjusted person, for all his serene sense of self, has one overwhelming problem: he is blinded to the beatific vision. William Kilpatrick is a professor in the School of Education at Boston College. Email this to a friend copyright 1995-2005 Leadership U . All rights reserved. This site is part of the Telling the Truth Project . Updated: 13 July 2002
The Intrusion of Psychology into Christian TheologyEssay by Don Matzat arguing that many theories and practices of modern psychology have been inappropriately introduced into Christian theology and practice. From Issues, Etc. Journal, September 1996, Vol 1(9).
The Intrusion of Psychology into Christian Theology by Don Matzat Issues, Etc. Journal - September 1996 - Vol. 1 No. 9 Psychology and Christianity The Intrusion of Psychology into Christian Theology A three-part discussion of the threat that modern psychology poses to the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Part 1. Sin and Self-Esteem Part 2. Encountering "Encounter" Part 3. Psychological Mysticism Secular Disciplines Introduction by Don Matzat: St. Augustine once said, "All truth is God's truth." This is truth! The principles that drive the internal combustion engine, that cause radio and television to function, that bring into existence computers and cellular phones are not man's inventions, but are simply his discovery of already existing truths and scientific principles. Those truths are not man's truths, but God's truths. But what happens when secular concepts and methods call into question or seek to redefine the truths revealed in Scripture? It is at this point that we must adjust Augustine's dictum to state, "All error is the devil's error." The Church of Jesus Christ presently finds itself doing battle with some of the diverse principles of modern psychology. Are some elements of psychology a threat to the basic fundamental truths of the Gospel of Jesus Christ? I believe so. This is the theme of this month's journal. The Intrusion of Psychology into Christian Theology by Don Matzat There are many issues that divide Christians today, but there is no issue that is more inflammatory than the issue of the relationship between secular psychology and Christian theology. Some popular Christian teachers are willing to embrace the theories and practices of modem psychology and integrate them with Christian biblical truths. After all, as they often explain, "all truth is Gods truth." Others completely reject modern psychology, refer to it disparagingly as "psychobabble," and condemn the writings of those who dare to quote the findings of its practitioners. While I do believe that some of the psychological theories and practices being imported into Christianity dangerously distort important biblical doctrines and potentially pervert the mission and ministry of the Church, I do not demonize or reject modern psychology. As a Lutheran Christian my position on this subject is based upon two important Reformation perspectives: the doctrine of the two kingdoms, and the centrality of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Psychology and the Two Kingdoms Martin Luthers two kingdom theology was, from his perspective, second only in importance to his discovery of the central doctrine of justification. Luther correctly taught that there is a kingdom of the left-hand, ruled over by the Law, involving the interaction of natural man, and a kingdom of the right-hand, which is the Church ruled over by the Gospel. He described these kingdoms as the kingdom of Gods power and the kingdom of Gods grace. Both Luther and Calvin recognized that within the kingdom of power, or the kingdom of the left-hand, natural, sinful man does often exhibit virtuous qualities which are pleasing to God and will be rewarded in this life. Not every person, born out of the root of Adam, is a practicing scoundrel. But when it comes to the righteousness and eternal salvation offered in Christ Jesus, every person, in spite of virtuous qualities and responsible life-style, is a miserable sinner, faces divine judgment, and is in need of the forgiveness of sins and perfect righteousness offered in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Therefore, because of the variety of behavior that exists within the world of sinners, it is the legitimate exercise of psychology to seek to understand the why and wherefore of that diversity. Why do some natural-born sinners act morally and virtuously while others are law-breakers, perverts, and scoundrels? Is there a cause and effect produced by environment, genetics, physiology, or neurology? If so, what is that cause and effect? Thus, you have the study of psychology. So while I accept modern psychology as a legitimate discipline within the social sciences. I reject the notion that psychology can be integrated into biblical theology. Psychology has a place, and it must stay in that place. Focusing Upon the Gospel: Since psychology has crossed the line and invaded Christian teaching, and this is not the fault of secular psychologists, our defense against that invasion must focus primarily upon the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Paul declares that God has chosen to save this world by the preaching of the Gospel (I Corinthians 1: 21). It is the power of God unto salvation (Romans 1: 16). The Gospel is that proclamation of the forgiveness of sins, justification, and eternal salvation gained for us through the sacrificial suffering and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. The Holy Spirit produces saving faith through the hearing of the Gospel (Romans 10: 17). If the Gospel of Jesus Christ is distorted by modern psychology, the very essence of Christianity is being undermined. There are three vital biblical truths that define the purpose of preaching the Gospel, the power of the Gospel, and the Gospel as the means whereby our Lord Jesus Christ comes to us. These three truths are presently being threatened or distorted by the intrusion of modern psychology into the Christian Church. Let me first briefly share these three truths with you and then discuss how psychological theories and techniques have distorted them. 1. The message of the grace of God in Christ Jesus is proclaimed within the context of human sin and depravity. Martin Luther discussed this truth as the relationship between the Law and the Gospel. He said that the key to understanding the Gospel is a proper understanding of human sin. From his perspective, if you get sin wrong, you will get everything else wrong. 2. Sanctification or living the Christian life is the result of the Gospel. Justification, my righteous position before God, and sanctification, my daily living before God, must be distinguished but never separated. The one is the cause of the other. The Christian life is not produced by psychological technique. 3. Scripture defines the manner in which our Lord Jesus comes to us and is sent among us. The Reformers spoke of the "means of grace," and identified the Gospel and the Sacraments as vehicles whereby the living Christ is brought to us, offering to us the benefits of life and salvation. The Bible does not offer psychological mind-games as a "means of grace." Let us discuss these deceptions more in detail: I. SIN AND SELF-ESTEEM For the past one hundred years, secular psychologists have proposed a number of theories to explain the diverse dynamics of human behavior. The two main schools of thought, Freudianism and behaviorism, reduced man to a creature whose behavior was determined by outside forces, either repressed desires or the conditioning produced by rewards and punishments. Reacting against these two schools of thought, the "third force," or humanistic psychology arrived on the scene in the late fifties and early sixties. Man is a self-conscious, responsible being, taught humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, and able to control his own destiny. Out of the dynamic of self-determinism came the notion of self-esteem. Humanists believed that developing a positive self-image would go a long way in improving behavior, emotions, productivity and the like. According to the self-esteem advocates, our behavioral and emotional problems are largely the result of a negative self-image created in us by those who have influenced our lives. Parents who referred to us as "bad little boys and girls," teachers who made us feel bad about ourselves when we failed their tests, and of course the Christian Church with it indubitable "worm theology" became the major culprits. Confidence Before Men The concept of self-esteem is really nothing new. While in the past we did not specifically speak about self-esteem, we were concerned about the dreaded "inferiority complex." Christian parents have always attempted to encourage their children, praise them for jobs well done, and give them reason to feel good about themselves in the light of their hard work and success. I wonder how many Christian parents display the bumper sticker, "my child is an honor roll student..."? Was it wrong for our American Olympic athletes, in view of their years of hard work and dedication, to feel good about themselves when receiving their gold medals and hearing their National Anthem? Didnt you even feel good about yourself as an American citizen? Is this wrong and displeasing to God? Of course not! But, to teach self-esteem or self-confidence before God or to claim that the death of Jesus Christ enhances our sense of self-worth is a gross distortion of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Before God I must declare that I am a poor, miserable, totally depraved sinner in need of his undeserved, mercy, and forgiveness offered in Christ Jesus. Jesus died on the cross not to indicate my value but rather to demonstrate Gods grace upon miserable sinners. False Teachers The intrusion of the self-esteem teaching into Christian theology has not been initiated by secular psychologists who have decided to invade Christianity. Rather, Christian pastors, teachers, and authors have been the culprits. For example, Dr. Robert Schuller writes, "the most serious sin is the one that causes me to say I am unworthy.'" (1) Has Dr. Schuller forgotten the story of the Pharisee and the publican? (Luke 18) While the Pharisee was expressing his self-worth and value before God, the publican was guilty of Dr. Schullers cardinal sin: calling himself "unworthy." Yet, according to our Lord Jesus, it was the Publican, not the Pharisee, who went home justified. Christian counselors who seek to integrate the secular concept of self-esteem into their "Christian" counseling often use the cross of Jesus Christ and the redemption that is in Christ Jesus as the basis for our self-esteem and self worth. One such counselor defines the cross by saying: "It is as if Christ had said, You are of such worth to me that I am going to die; even experience hell so that you might be adopted as my brothers and sisters. (2) Another writes: "Of course, the greatest demonstration of a persons worth to God was shown in giving us his Son." (3) The horrible, sacrificial death of Jesus Christ on the cross is not indicative of our self-worth but rather of the heinous nature of our sin. Consider Martin Luthers attitude toward the cross of Jesus Christ: "The main benefit of Christs passion is that man sees into his own true self and that he is terrified and crushed by this. Unless we seek that knowledge, we do not derive much benefit from Christs passion.... He who is so hard-hearted and callous as not to be terrified by Christs passion and led to a knowledge of self has reason to fear." (4) This very truth that the death of Jesus Christ is indicative of the depth of human sin, a biblical truth that has been taught for centuries and was at the very heart of the Reformation, is now considered anathema in many evangelical circles today. For example, Dr. Ray Anderson, an instructor at Fuller Theological Seminary, states in his book The Gospel According to Judas: "If our sin is viewed as causing the death of Jesus on the cross, then we ourselves become victims of a psychological battering produced by the cross. When I am led to feel that the pain and torment of Jesus death on the cross is due to my sin, I inflict upon myself spiritual and psychological torment." (5) Seeker Sensitivity The attempted integration of self-esteem into Christianity has not only influenced the theology of Christian counselors but has also distorted the mission and proclamation of many evangelical and mainline Protestant churches. Influenced by the Church Growth Movement, church leaders ask the questions: If the people in our community are seeking a sense of self-worth and self-esteem, how can we reach them? How can we be sensitive to the desires of these seekers? How can we produce a Sunday morning service that will allow these poor people with their wounded hearts and victimized lives to go home feeling good about themselves? The answer is obvious. The preaching of the Law, the doctrine of original sin, the confession of sins, the preaching of a bloody cross as the payment for human sin must be given minimal if any attention. As a result, in the thinking of many evangelical "Christians" today, Jesus is no longer primarily the suffering Savior who gave his life for the forgiveness of my sins. Rather, he is the one who gives my life meaning. He causes me to feel good about myself and be happy. He is my good buddy who helps me become a better father or mother, husband or wife. He makes me a good person. He helps me keep my promises. So, instead of gathering together in contrition and repentance, acknowledging sin and hearing the Good News of the forgiveness of sins in Jesus Christ, Christians today often hear sermons on politics, morals, values, and principles for living the alleged Christian life. Whatever happened to sin and grace? The integration of the self-esteem concept into Christianity has produced devastating results. Literally, for heavens sake, we must return to the preaching of human sin and divine grace. After all, what does it profit a man if he feels good about himself in this life, if his psychological "barns" are filled with security, support groups, and a feel-good religion, and he loses his eternal soul. II. ENCOUNTERING ENCOUNTER In 1970, a congregation that I was serving in Michigan decided to bring on staff a full-time "deaconess" to serve as director of youth and Christian education. In preparation to receive our new deaconess, I was invited to attend a gathering of the deaconess graduates from Valparaiso University and the pastors with whom they would be serving in the various congregations. The meeting was over the course of two days at Deaconess Hall in Valparaiso, Indiana. I was totally unprepared for what I was about to encounter. After a general assembly, the pastors and the deaconesses were divided into three smaller mixed groups for what was called "Sensitivity Training," or "Encounter." The groups would spend about 12 hours together. The purpose was to interact in a totally unstructured setting for the purpose of stripping away each others veneer, taking off the "masks," uncovering individual insecurities, being "real," and finally arriving at a place of mutual love, respect, and support. The experience had a profound effect upon my life and ministry. My personality was adjusted. Formerly reserved and aloof, I became a "buggy" person who wanted to "reach out and touch someone." My preaching and teaching also changed. My emphasis was not on the Law and the Gospel, but rather love, joy, and peace. I attempted to create the same encounter dynamic in our congregations small group settings, such as Sunday School teachers meetings and Bible studies. The theme of our Vacation Bible School that summer was the lyrical gospel according to the rock-group The Youngbloods: "Cmon people now, smile on your brother. Everybody get together let us love one another right now." The experience had "opened me up." In fact, I was open to just about anything. I was a candidate for occultism, false doctrine, and Im sure, if the opportunity had provided itself, adultery. But the Lord protected me. I owe a large debt of gratitude to a Christian man from Grand Rapids, Michigan whose influence changed my direction. What is Encounter? As the years have past, I have attempted to understand the "encounter experience." I have arrived at some conclusions, yet the dynamics of human personality remain a mystery. While it is not difficult to understand what happens in the encounter experience, I dont think anyone fully understands why it happens. First of all, the encounter experience has nothing whatsoever to do with Christianity, with the Gospel, or with the Holy Spirit. It is a simple technique of psychology developed by Dr. Kurt Lewin in the 40s and popularized by humanist psychologist Dr. Carl Rogers as a part of his Client-Centered Therapy. Rogers used the technique as a method for developing greater sensitivity, openness, and empathy in therapists. In the 60s and 70s, encounter became the "in thing" in the Human Consciousness Movement and was the early hallmark of the Human Potential Movement. Secondly, within a small group setting, a personality adjusting dynamic occurs when the human veneer is stripped away and the individual participants begin to openly share their feelings. In describing the dynamic of the encounter experience, Carl Rogers writes: "Participants feel a closeness and intimacy which they have not felt even with their spouses or members of their own family, because they have revealed themselves here more deeply and fully than to those in their own family circle. (6) I knew a woman who, in the early 80s, worked at a university counseling center. In speaking about the counselors and therapists with whom she interacted, she said, "they are some of the kindest, most loving, and sensitive people I have ever met, but theyre all atheists." Undoubtedly these counselors and therapists had been through numerous encounter group experiences. Encounter groups are normally facilitated-groups in that a leader, in a non-directive fashion, oversees the group direction. Some groups, such as Erhardt Seminar Training or est, are intrusive. The participants are verbally bombarded by an authoritarian leader until they break-down and finally accept the responsibility for their own lives. They get it, whatever it happens to be. (7) Thirdly, the encounter experience is a temporary "high." In order for the feeling of love, intimacy, openness and honesty to continue, an on-going relationship with the group is necessary. In addition, the experience is contrived and does not replicate the reality of human interaction. The encounter group model has been largely discredited by the psychological community because of the negative after-effects. According to Christian counselor Sarah Leslie, "These groups simply were not equipped to deal with helping participants make the transition back to their normal lives, and as a consequence, many people made rash decisions, became quite depressed, or found their values radically adjusted." (8) But as is often the case, Christians load their wheelbarrows at the garbage dumps of modern psychology. A Quick Trip to Sanctification? Since the encounter dynamic seemingly produces "Christian" virtues, it is not surprising that the technique has been readily embraced by Christians. It appears to be a quick trip into sanctification. In his book Can You Trust Psychology, Dr. Gary Collins quotes from a respected Christian counselor who claimed that "the fruit of the Spirit could all be produced by psychological techniques alone. There was no reason to wait for the Holy Spirit to develop these." (9) Psychological technique does not and cannot produce the fruit of the Spirit since sanctification is not a psychologically contrived human personality adjustment. The process of sanctification in which the fruit of the Spirit is produced is motivated by the dynamic of justification in which the individual accuses self, turns away from self, and embraces the forgiveness and righteousness found in Christ Jesus. While the Bible teaches us to deny self, accuse self, and lose self as we live in a daily conscious faith-relationship with Jesus Christ, secular humanist psychology seeks to induce personality adjustments that turn self into a more loving, intimate, open, honest expression of the "goodness that resides within each human heart." Some have attempted to "Christianize" the encounter experience by blending it with a smattering of Bible study. In so doing they mix the philosophy of secular humanism with Christianity. Since the dynamic of encounter is effective among Christians and non-Christians alike, any life-change that takes place as the Holy Spirit works through the "Bible study" is muddied by the psychological dynamic. Talk about confusion! In the 70s and 80s, Lyman Coleman developed "Serendipity Workshops" which were "Christianized" versions of encounter with some Bible study thrown in. Participants in these groups were taken through four steps: "Can Openers" - activities designed to break down psychological barriers: "Scripture Happenings" - discussion of a biblical topic; "Scripture Heavies" - examining a topic at a deeper level; and "Growth Events" - an encounter experience in which the participants were encouraged to open up and bear their souls. I suggest that these workshops would have been just as effective in producing an emotional, life-affecting experience if the group had studied the Koran or the Book of Mormon instead of the Bible. Two popular movements in the church today, "Christian Marriage Encounter" and "Teens Encounter Christ" are generally structured around Colemans Serendipity model. Two questions: What makes the churchs version of marriage encounter "Christian" and do teenagers really encounter Christ or more accurately, encounter "encounter?" Those who attempt to use the encounter dynamic in a Christian context are often not up-front and honest about their intentions. For example, I attended a "Teens Encounter Christ" weekend as a pastoral participant. At the end, the teens were told to invite their friends to the next gathering but not to tell them what takes place. I have known angry church members who attended a small group Bible study only to be thrown unsuspectingly into a Serendipity encounter dynamic. Some years ago I played golf with a pastor who led "Christian Marriage Encounter" groups. I asked him, "What takes place in these groups?" He responded, "Were not supposed to reveal that. Come and see for yourself." If Christian pastors and lay leaders are foolish enough to impose a technique upon their fellow Christians which the psychological community has by-and-large discredited, a technique based upon the assumptions of secular humanism, they should at least be honest enough to tell them. How is this any different than the "Moonies" using psychological techniques upon their unsuspecting weekend visitors in order to capture them into the cult? Promise Keepers It appears that the latest movement to load its wheelbarrows at psychologys garbage dump is the Promise Keepers. The PK movement involves more than just the large, publicized, rally-type gatherings. One PK-promoting pastor told me that the real work of the Promise Keepers takes place in the small group mens meetings within the local congregations. The question is: what takes place within these small group mens meetings? While it is not possible to generalize since diversity undoubtedly exists, there is one thing for sure: if the groups use the Robert Hicks Masculine Journey Study Guide (Colorado Springs: Navpress, 1993) which is imprinted with the official Promise Keepers logo, the small groups are encounter groups. In their excellent book Beyond Promises, David Hagopian and Doug Wilson write that this study guide "not only foists neo-Freudian and neo-Jungian psychology on the church unawares, it also foists what some have seen as unbiblical encounter group theory." (10) According to Christian counselor Sarah H. Leslie, "The Masculine Journey Study Guide promotes an eight week encounter group session with the artificial flavoring of biblical support, The men are put through various recognizable encounter group stages that strongly resemble the Serendipity Workshops.'" (11) Assessing Encounter Not a great deal has been written by Christian apologists and researchers about the encounter dynamic. Therefore, my assessment of encounter is based primarily upon my own personal experience and observation. In addition to producing confusion over sanctification, I contend that the encounter dynamic, in "cracking the husk," also strips away some of the natural inhibitions of the participants. Values may be radically altered. Some participants experience a "freedom," especially in the area of sexuality. The Promise Keepers Masculine Journey Study Guide, for example, attempts to open up men to speak freely about their sexuality and to reveal intimacies. I believe that natural, conscience-based, human inhibitions, especially in the area of sexuality, are a divinely constructed "check" against promiscuity. There is little doubt that a connection exists between the popularity of encounter groups in the 60s and 70s and the alleged "sexual revolution." If you remember the movie "Bob and Carol, Ted and Alice" (or was it "Ted and Carol, Bob and Alice?"), you recall that being sensitized via encounter led to wife-swapping. Has the popularity of the encounter dynamic produced sexual promiscuity in the church? I believe so. The Charismatic "Discipleship Movement" in the 70s attempted to establish divine government via an authority structure. The local discipleship small group gatherings, under the direction of a "shepherd" who was submitted up-the-line, often replicated encounter groups. I heard a presentation from one of the national leaders encouraging people to "allow their shepherds into their gardens." In other words, open up your lives to others. Years later, one high-ranking Discipleship participant told me that a major problem that developed in these small groups was promiscuity. We read much today about the sexual promiscuity of the clergy. I wonder how many of these fallen clergy had previously been participants in encounter groups, Serendipity Workshops, or in counseling sessions with a woman in which they mutually opened up their lives to each other. This would make a fascinating research project. We have many sensitized "huggy" preachers out there who should reserve their hugs for their wives and not for the women in their congregations. I find much similarity between the Discipleship movement in the 70s and the modern Promise Keepers. I seriously wonder what will be the long-range effect of a large number of Christian men becoming uninhibited over their sexuality. While these men do claim to be "men of integrity," they are, in actuality, like all other men. They have a perverse human nature. I believe that "encounter" is a "psychic experience" in which the devil seeks to counterfeit Christian sanctification. Strangely, after being opened up via encounter, I became very interested in psychic, occult phenomena. I began to read books by Edgar Cayce and Elizabeth Montgomery. In an interview before his death, Carl Rogers said, "If I were a young psychologist today and I knew what I know now, Id probably start looking into the psychic realm." (12) The Christian church needs to seriously scrutinize the encounter dynamic and stop loading its wheelbarrows at psychologys garbage dumps. III. PSYCHOLOGICAL MYSTICISM In the 80s I was one of the speakers at a Charismatic conference at a large Assembly of God church near Chicago. A Roman Catholic priest was also on the program. In his evening presentation, after giving explanation, he invited the huge gathering to participate in an "inner healing" experience. Using visualization, he regressed the group into various past stages of life from birth to the present, asking them to bring into memory traumatic experiences. As he guided the imagery, causing sobs, weeping, and cries of anguish to emanate from the people, he encouraged them to visualize the image of Jesus being present in each traumatic event, bringing his love and healing into the experience. As I watched this incredible scenario unfolding before me, I could not help but wonder, "Where in the world did he get this from?" I had heard about the inner healing movement but had no idea what it was nor how it worked. Being curious, upon returning home I undertook the task of answering that question. After 18 months of research, my first book (which is now out-of-print) Inner Healing: Deliverance or Deception, was the result. In reading the inner healing sources, I was struck by the importance of the theories and philosophy of psychiatrist Dr. Carl G. Jung. Agnes Sanford, who is regarded as the mother of the inner healing movement, often quoted the teachings and theories of Jung to support her inner healing teaching, especially in her book The Healing Gifts of the Spirit. It seems that Agnes Sanford was highly influenced by her son, an Episcopalian priest, John A. Sanford, and her pastor, also an Episcopalian priest, Morton T. Kelsey, who were both Zurich trained (the home of the Jung Institute) Jungian analysts. I discovered that the experience of inner healing was only one part of a wider psychological mysticism built upon the theories of Jung and being visited upon unsuspecting Christians, Protestants and Catholics alike. In order to understand this psychological mysticism, we need to first grapple with the theories of Dr. Carl Gustav Jung. Carl G. Jung In the early part of this century, Carl Jung was a cohort of Sigmund Freud and his hand-picked successor, but their relationship was short-lived. Jung separated from Freud over the issue of the content of the unconscious mind. While Freud believed that the unconscious contained repressed sexual content, Jung theorized, on the basis of his experience, that it also contained religious, mythical content. Freud admonished his young disciple not to abandon the sexual theory but to raise it up as a "bulwark against the black mud of Occultism." (13) Freud was prophetic! Jung also added a new dimension to the Freudian unconscious which he called "the collective unconscious." He theorized that all humanity, past and present, were connected on an unconscious plane. Therefore, deep within each individual was the collective wisdom of the ages, including all religious, mythical content. According to occultists and New Age advocates, Jung placed a "scientific" footing under occult phenomena and mystical experience. Jung was deeply involved in the occult and did his doctoral thesis on parapsychology. He also was interested in Catholic mysticism and conducted seminars on the teachings of Ignatius Loyola. Jung described the content of the collective unconscious as "archetypes" realities held in common by all humanity. He spoke of the warrior, the mother, the wise old man, the self, God etc. as archetypes that often burst into consciousness via dreams and mental images. According to his disciples, Jungs greatest discovery was the use of active imagination or visualization as a means of reaching the content of the collective unconscious. After his traumatic break with Freud, Jung spent seven years claiming to have explored the content of the unconscious via visualization. He journalized his results in his infamous "Red Book." Some suggest that Jung, rather than journeying into the unconscious, was actually experiencing a psychotic breakdown. Jung claimed that the images that emerged into his consciousness had a life of their own. He had made contact with his own spirit-guide "Philemon" who brought greater wisdom into his life. Using the terminology of theologian Rudolf Otto, Jung described the visualized images as "numinous," meaning they possessed a spiritual reality. Inner healing teachers, picking up on Jungs description of his images, teach that the image of Jesus brought into past traumatic experiences is not a product of fantasy or imagination, but is actually the real, spiritual presence of Jesus himself. Popular inner healing teacher Rita Bennett tells the story of a woman who was "saved" by encountering the visualized image of Jesus." (14) Whatever happened to preaching the Gospel? A Framework for Mysticism Carl Jungs teachings on visualization have become the framework for not only the inner healing movement but also the wide proliferation of psychological mysticism in the Christian church. At present, there are many Christian teachers, ministers and priests promoting the technique of visualizing Jesus. Most probably do not have a clue as to its source. Originally, in the 70s and 80s, in addition to the inner healing teachers, mystical visualization was promoted in the church through the writings of Episcopalian priest Morton Kelsey, Quaker Richard Foster, and Charismatic Mark Virkler. Morton Kelsey has written a veritable truckload of books on the manner in which Christian theology is able to be integrated into Jungian thought. His books have been published by a wide range of publishers including Augsburg, a Lutheran house. Kelsey, a former Notre Dame professor, has also presented seminars at Fuller Seminary in Pasadena. He has had a wide influence upon many Charismatic leaders including the Catholics, Lutheran Larry Christensen, and head of the Vineyard fellowships John Wimber. In fact, at the earliest Lutheran Conference on the Holy Spirit held in Ann Arbor back in 1972, Morton Kelsey was one of the main speakers. Kelsey, beginning with the Jungian assumption that all religious and mythical content is found within the deep unconscious mind and that visualization or active imagination is a bridge to the unconscious, teaches Christians to enter into a meditative altered state of consciousness in order to make contact with God. (15) In 1978, Quaker Richard J. Foster authored the very popular Celebration of Discipline (New York: Harper and Row, 1978). The book, together with the film series, was widely popularized. In the book, Foster promotes the inner healing experience, claiming that he learned it from Agnes Sanford (p. 137). He also encouraged the visualization of Bible stories and becoming active participants in the biblical events. In so doing, as he put it, "you can actually encounter the living Christ in this event, be addressed by his voice and be touched by his healing power. It can be more than an exercise of the imagination; it can be a genuine confrontation. Jesus Christ will actually come to you (p. 26). In 1986, Mark Virkler, who at the time was a teacher at a Pentecostal Bible College, came out with the book Dialogue with God (New Jersey: Bridge Publishing). Virkler openly admits in the book, with almost an apologetic attitude, that he had been highly influenced by the liberal Episcopalian priest Morton Kelsey, especially by Kelseys book The Other Side of Silence. Virkler, claiming that he is "Berean," uses some of the worst interpretive methods imaginable in attempting to build his meditative techniques upon biblical truth. He teaches Christians the New Age method of "centering" in order to visualize Jesus, talk to him, hear his voice, and receive his wisdom. Virkler has traveled far and wide presenting his "Dialogue with God" seminars. How Does Jesus Come To Us? Jesus has promised to meet us in his Word and Sacrament. He comes to us through these vehicles, not through some meditative visualization technique initiated by an occult-flavored altered state of consciousness. The Apostle Paul is clear in saying that we do not have to bring Jesus up or call him down. He is near us in the Word that we proclaim (Romans 10:6-8). Martin Luther stated that any spirit that comes to us without using the vehicle of the Word of God is the devil! Since the Bible teaches that Jesus comes to us through the Word and Sacraments, what are those Christians who claim to contact Jesus through visualization actually experiencing? If you study the visualization technique induced by an altered state of consciousness you will discover that the alleged "Christian version" is the same as the New Age occult version. The methodology employed by Dr. Carl Jung for encountering his spirit-guide "Philemon" is no different than that taught by Kelsey, Foster, or Virkler for encountering Jesus. Therefore, we must conclude that the Jesus contacted in visualization is "another Jesus," a demonic impersonation, or at very best, a mere figment of human imagination. Those who defend the mystical visualization of Jesus claim that in New Age occultism the devil is merely counterfeiting a Christian experience. The problem is, the devil would not counterfeit a three dollar bill. There is no biblical command or promise associated with visualizing Jesus. Others say that visualization is similar to prayer - it can be pointed at God or it can be pointed at the devil. If this is true and methodology and technique are neutral, it would follow that we could point a ouija board or tarot cards at God for the purpose of receiving divine direction. Some speak of visualization as "prayer." Prayer is certainly biblical, but Jesus taught his disciples to pray by saying, "Our Father who art in heaven..." He didnt teach his disciples to visualize him so that he could talk to them. Still others argue that the Christian Church has always used pictures and images in Christian teaching. This is true. Children have always been taught Bible stories using pictures. But, it is a major leap to move from Christian artwork to employing an altered state of consciousness, or as some say, "a relaxed frame of find," in order to conjure up images of Jesus and claim that these images produce spiritual results. Think of this: In the visualization technique the eyes are closed and the image is formed on the screen of the imagination. Those who become skilled at visualizing images are able to keep their eyes open and stare into a crystal ball. The same images that form in the imagination will also form in the clouded crystal ball. I suggest that those who wish to promote the visualization technique in the Christian Church should go into producing "Crystal Balls for Christians." It could be profitable. In addition, since the Holy Spirit has chosen to work through tangible objects such as words on paper, water, bread, and wine, perhaps the church would be willing to add crystal balls to the list (My sarcasm is intentional!). In Every Denomination Given the wide distribution of the books promoting psychological mysticism, I believe it is safe to say that this deceptive practice has found its way into every major Christian denomination, including my own denomination, The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod. Let me give you two incidents that demonstrate this: A few months ago, after discussing the mystical visualization technique on my daily radio program, a woman called in and stated that she had attended a Lutheran Singles weekend in which she was taught by the guest speaker to relax and visualize Jesus. She was very disturbed to discover that she had been fed a very deceptive technique in a church-sponsored gathering. As I was working on this very article one evening, I received a phone call from an LCMS pastor who was presenting himself as a potential guest for Issues, Etc. He told me that he had developed a seminar and had presented it in numerous places. (He could have been the presenter at the singles weekend.) He called the seminar "Practicing the Presence of God." He explained that he begins the seminar by leading the people in a Bible study, demonstrating that God has always been present in their lives. He then plays relaxing music and encourages the people to visualize God being with them, hugging them and embracing them, through all their scenes of life. In this way, as he put it, the presence of God becomes real to the people. After first insisting that the Bible was his only source, he finally admitted that he had read Richard Fosters Celebration of Discipline. The presence of God becomes real to us in the Word and Sacraments, not in a mystical visualization technique. CONCLUSION Modern psychology is not an innocent helping-discipline that we can carelessly borrow from the kingdom of the left-hand and merge with our pastoral theology. There are theories and techniques in psychology, such as self-esteem, the encounter dynamic, and psychological mysticism, that can grossly distort Christian truth and inflict grave spiritual damage upon Christian people. While most Christian denominations desire to remain faithful to the truth of Gods Word and dot every theological "i " and cross every theological "t", those same denominations, when it comes to the deceptive offerings of modern psychology, practice minimal discernment. The reason is simple. Pastors and church leaders are not equipped to do so. Most Christian pastors, including myself, have neither sought nor desired academic degrees in psychology. Christian pastors should be primarily concerned with theology, not psychology. If a pastor should happen to embrace strange, deceptive theology and visits the same on his people, he will readily be called to task by the church leaders and his fellow-pastors because they know their theology. But what if that same pastor embraces strange, deceptive psychology, who will challenge him? If a pastor has a doctorate in psychology and is in a position of influence within the denomination, he is virtually untouchable. He can promote any theory, recommend any book, and practice any methodology because he is one of the few professionals in a sea of amateurs. Who has the credentials to challenge him? Those who promote deceptive psychology in the church more often than not hide the roots of their teaching. The priest who presented the inner healing "ministry" at the conference I attended did not say, "This teaching came from Agnes Sanford. It is based upon the theories of Carl Jung who used the visualization technique to contact his spirit-guide." The pastor who wanted to promote his mystical seminars on my radio program claimed he got his stuff straight from Scripture. Those who visit the encounter dynamic upon Christian people invite them to attend a small group "Bible Study." They hide the roots for an obvious reason. If they were honest, no one would buy into their gimmick. If a pastor questions a specific psychological theory or practice, he must spend weeks or months of digging in order to uncover the roots. I suggest that Christian denominations who are concerned by the intrusion of modern psychology into their ranks should appoint a standing-committee made up of apologetic researchers, experts in the occult, and orthodox pastors and lay-people who are academically trained in psychology. It would be the task of this committee to do the research that most busy pastors are unable to do and to offer to the church their conclusions and opinions concerning some of the deceptive offerings of modern psychology. I am in no way suggesting that my thoughts on these subjects are the final word. Undoubtedly there are pastors, theologians, and Christian psychologists who can offer more academically mature opinions than I can, and I would encourage them to do so. It is my hope and prayer that those who read this article will agree with my conclusion. We must carefully discern the theories and practices of modern psychology before we visit them upon the people of God. Table of References 1. Robert Schuller, Self-Esteem: the New Reformation, (Waco, TX: Word, 1982), p. 98. 2. William Kirwin, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), p. 107. 3. Donna Foster, Building a Childs Self-Esteem, (Glendale, CA: Regal, 1977), p. 6. 4. Timothy Lull, Martin Luthers Basic Theological Writings, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), p. 168. 5. Ray S. Anderson, The Gospel According to Judas, (Colorado Springs, CO: Helmer and Howard, 1991), p. 99. 6. Carl R. Rogers, Encounter Groups, (New York: Harrow Books, 1973), p. 9. 7. See Snapping: Americas Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change, (New York: Lippincott, 1978) by Jim Siegelman and Flo Conway, p. 222 8. Sarah H. Leslie, "Promise Keepers: Encountering Guys at Risk," The Christian Conscience, January, 1995. 9. Gary R. Collins, Can You Trust Psychology, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1988), p. 83. 10. Beyond Promises, pp. 85-86. 11. Sarah H. Leslie, op. cit. 12. Snapping, p. 223 13. C. G.. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, (Vintage Books, 1965), p. 150. 14. Rita Bennett, Emotionally Free, (New Jersey: Revel, 1982), pp. 74-89. 15. While many of Kelseys books are a rehashing of the same old stuff, the following are important to obtain an overview of his teaching: The Other Side of Silence, (New York: Paulist Press, 1976); Offers Kelseys perspective on meditation. Adventures Inward, (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1980); Promotes journaling and automatic writing. Published by Lutherans? Transcend, (New York: Crossroad, 1985); Presents Kelseys position on psychic phenomena. Encounter with God; A general perspective on integrating Jung. While the book was originally published by Bethany in 1972, they dropped it from their publishing list after I informed them in 1986 of the occult nature of the book. Paulist Press has since picked it up. NEXT TIME: Feelings, Emotions, and Christian Truth Is there anything wrong with promoting a feel-good Christianity? After all, feeling good is better than feeling bad. Tapes on: Psychology and Christianity Cassettes Journals Program Log Home
Psychology Debunked: Revealing the Overcoming LifeAnti-integration book by former psychotherapist Lisa Bazler and Ryan Bazler. Table of contents, ordering information, short author biographies, and reader reviews.
Christian bipolar medication depression anxiety ADHD. Psychology Debunked, Bazler Exposing Psychology, Exalting Christ TheSituation AbouttheBook AbouttheAuthors ReaderResponses AudioandOtherResources NewsandLinks OrderingInformation Anyone who thinks there is any hope whatsoever in psychotherapy should read this book." --T.A. McMahon, Executive Director of The Berean Call and co-author of The Seduction of Christianity Send me your free monthly email newsletter containing timely updates, news alerts and special events. Full Name: Email: Lisa and Ryan Bazler's timely and informative book, Psychology Debunked: Revealing the Overcoming Life, is available now! Former mental health professional Lisa Bazler and her husband Ryan sound an alarm to help seekers, exposing the true nature of psychology and its impact on the church. Readers discover shocking truths about psychotherapy, 12-step programs, Christian psychology and psychiatric medications. Readers also learn how the beliefs and practices of modern psychology differ from those of biblical Christianity. Why am I unhappy? Do I need more self-esteem? Is my family to blame? Do I have a mental disorder, illness or disease? Do chemical imbalances in my brain determine my behavior? Do I need to see a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist to help me? Readers get answers to these questions and more. The Bazlers offer clear, easy-to-understand, biblical advice on how to overcome depression, anxiety, hyperactivity, addiction, family dysfunction, and other common problems of living. Psychology Debunked--the truth behind psychotherapy, mental health, depression, anxiety, ADD, ADHD, bipolar, self-esteem, Christian counseling, 12-step programs, support groups, Prozac, Ritalin, Paxil, Zoloft, Xanax, Klonopin, Ativan, Dexedrine, Adderall, Effexor, Luvox, Elavil, Pamelor, Valium, Dalmane, lithium, Depakote, Haldol, Risperdal, Navane, Clozaril, Zyprexa, disorders, addictions, diseases and illnesses. Understand why our culture needs this book Learn more about the book Get to know the authors See what other readers thought of the book Read news about the book and psychology in general Visit other psychology-related sites Order Psychology Debunked books, conference tapes CDs and other resources Contact the authors with your question, comment or request Ordering Information [ TheSituation ] [ AbouttheBook ] [ AbouttheAuthors ] [ ReaderResponses ] [ AudioandOtherResources ] [ NewsandLinks ] [ OrderingInformation ] Copyright 2002 - 2005 Lisa Ryan Bazler P.O. Box 864, Cardiff, CA 92007 lisaandryan@psychologydebunked.com Last updated: 03 14 2005
Can Psychology Help a Church in Crisis?APA Monitor article explaining how psychologists can help in combating sexual impropriety and other problems in the church.
Can psychology help a church in crisis? Volume 33, No. 6 June 2002
Misunderstanding PeopleA detailed rebuttal of criticisms by Martin and Deidre Bobgan of the Christian counseling system taught by Dr. Lawrence J. Crabb.
Misunderstanding People MISUNDERSTANDING PEOPLE Introduction The Sufficiency of the Scriptures "Need" Theology Karl Popper and the Philosophy of Science What Crabb Teaches About the Unconscious Is the Doctrine of the Unconscious in the Bible? Confusion, Confusion Drivers and Shapers of Sin The Loss of Man Concluding Remarks Bibliography Martin and Deidre Bobgan have written several books containing criticism of the teaching of Dr Lawrence Crabb. Their criticisms are widely read and frequently quoted, but in my opinion they are thoroughly wrong. The purpose of this essay, Misunderstanding People, is to consider and rebut the Bobgans' criticisms of Crabb's position. I first published the essay in printed form, in 1992, and republished it in 1993. Now, in 2000, I am making it available on the Internet. Copyright Notice I, Trevor James Morrison, assert the right to be identified as the author of this essay and owner of the copyright. You may freely print a single copy of the essay for your own use, but anyone who wishes to print a larger quantity must e-mail me ( Trevor Morrison ) to seek my permission. Trevor Morrison Auckland, New Zealand December, 2000
Why Biblical Counseling is UnbiblicalJohn H. Coe's reply to Jay Adams' and the Bobgans' affirmation of the Bible as the sole source for authority concerning human nature, values and prescriptions for healthy living.
Why Biblical Counseling is Unbiblical | Jay's Hompage | Thinktank | Why Biblical Counseling is Unbiblical CAPS 1991 John H. Coe Rosemead School of Psychology Biola University Copyright 1991 John H. Coe. All rights reserved. A number of Christians both lay and clergy are still uncomfortable with and even hostile to the notion of Christian psychology or counseling.1 Individuals such as Jay Adams (1973, 1976), Dave Hunt (1987) and the Bobgans (1986) have successfully instilled a distrust within large sections of evangelicalism, particularly the more conservative wing, concerning any attempt to address the human moral and spiritual condition from sources outside the biblical text. Instead, they promote and defend what they call the Biblical counseling" position (which I shall refer to as the BC position, cf. Adams, 1973, p.15). This approach to counseling affirms the Bible as its sole source for authority concerning human nature, values and prescriptions for healthy living. 1 Portions of this paper were read at the 1991 Evangelical Theological Society (ETS) Far West Region Annual Meeting. The BC position raises a number of important and deep issues concerning the nature of authority in the scriptures and the social sciences concerning their ability to address values and the human condition. I will explore these issues from the perspective of the scriptures themselves, particularly the OT Wisdom literature, and argue contrary to the BC position for the legitimacy of a science of values which discovers God's moral wisdom in nature, particularly in human phenomena Consequently, I hope to show that a developed OT Wisdom theology provides a biblical framework, mandate and justification for the work of the Christian psychologist. If successful, this will provide the psychologically informed theologian, pastor, counselor as well as psychologist a common ground in the bible from which to speak psychology gently and wisely into an otherwise resistant church. As the OT sage says, the tongue of the wise seeks to make words of knowledge acceptable (fro v. 1 5:2). 1. The BC position Some of the central claims and criticisms of the BC position revolve around the nature of science and authority with respect to understanding human nature and values. The more important and often repeated ones are as follows: (1) Psychology in its purely descriptive and experimental form functions as a legitimate science (e.g. in its study and treatment of organic illness by means of medicine, chemical therapy etc.) (2) Psychology in its therapeutic form (psychotherapy) is a psuedoscience functioning in the role of theology and religion inasmuch as by definition both are prescriptive in nature and, hence, address human nature, health, pathology, values and the mechanisms for change. (3) The Bible alone authoritatively addresses values and the human condition and as such is sufficient for treating all non-organic problems which may arise in counseling. No doubt there are a number of other concerns and criticisms of the BC position beyond those mentioned in (1)-(3). However, these seem most central and are often repeated by proponents of this view.2 Of course, the driving idea behind the BC position is contained in (3) which affirms that the Bible is the sole legitimate source of human values capable of addressing the human condition. In the first place, the proponents of the BC position clearly affirm (1 ) by supporting psychology only insofar as it functions as a purely descriptive science. As a result, they also affirm (2) which repudiates all forms of psychotherapy as unscientific inasmuch as they by nature attempt to address the human condition from a non-organic perspective. According to Adams (1976), Psychology should be a legitimate and very useful neighbor to the pastor. Psychology may make many helpful studies of man (e.g., in the effects of sleep loss). But psychologists with neither warrant nor standard from God by which to do so should get out of the business of trying to change persons. Psychology may be descriptive, but transgresses its boundaries whenever it becomes prescriptive. It can tell us many things about what man does, but not about what he should do [my emphases]. (18) 2 See also J. MacArthur, (Our Sufficiency in Christ: Three Deadly Influences that Undermine Your Spiritual Life) for a recent discussion of Christian psychology. Because this paper was written before MacArthur's book came out, I was unfortunately unable to include it in my discussion. For the most part it agrees with the BC position and (1)-(3). However, MacArthur is less clear and detailed than Adams and the Bobgans concerning the exact nature of science and psychology which makes it more difficult for the reader to understand the scope of his criticism. Furthermore, MacArthur in places seems to be less ideologically committed to the BC position's insistence that unaided reason is incapable of discerning any insights for living. At one place he states,"! have no quarrel with those who use common sense or social sciences as a helpful observer's platform to look on human conduct and develop tools to assist people in getting some external controls in their behavior (69-70) [my emphasis!.. Again, MacArthur is not as precise or exact as we might like concerning the nature of and the plasticity of these notions of common sense and the social sciences with respect to what is included and excluded from their purview. Despite certain similar statements, he appears in general to agree with the BC position such that much of my argument can be applied to his view. But again, there are certain differences which may deserve attention beyond my discussion here. Notice that Adams adheres to the reductionistic interpretation of the social sciences modeled after the nineteenth century natural sciences which prohibits the sciences from addressing values. In particular, he explicitly affirms the positivistic maxim concerning the separation of facts from values such that no observation or facts of nature will be helpful in providing facts about values. Hence, Adam's criticism is not meant to apply to a psychology which stays on its own proper turf and functions as a purely descriptive science in terms of treating organic diseases via medicine etc. However, it is meant to apply to those expressions of psychology which illegitimately cross over to the therapeutic process. According to the BC position, all forms of psychotherapy are prescriptive by definition insofar as they attempt to address human nature in general, pathology, values and mechanisms for change. This activity, in turn, renders them unscientific. Thus, Adams (1976, p.31) objects not to psychology per se but to the "so called clinical and counseling psychology which he insists is not the domain of scientific psychology but of theology and religion. The Bobgans (1987) agree with the criticisms contained in (1 ) and (2) by insisting that one of the main myths of the psychology-as-therapy movement is that it presents itself as a science concerned with simple observation and facts when in reality it transgresses the descriptive prescriptive borders of science and opinion. As the Bobgans state (1 987), Psychological statements which describe human behavior or which report results of research can be scientific. However, when we move from describing behavior to explaining it and particularly changing it, we move from science to opinion [my emphasis]. (29) And again, Whenever we move from what happened in human behavior to why it happened, and especially how to change human behavior, we move from science to conjecture. The move from descriptive to prescriptive is a move from objectivity to opinion. And such opinion about human behavior presented as truth or scientific fact is purely psuedoscience. it rests upon false premises (opinion, guesses, subjective explanations and leads to false conclusions.... One part of the total discipline of psychology which is riddled with pseudoscience is that of psychotherapy [my emphases]. (30) The Bobgans agree with Adams that the only legitimate science is positivistic and reductionistic in nature. But the Bobgans' statement concerning the nature of science is even more explicitly positivistic and rigorous inasmuch as it not only prohibits science from addressing values but also from explaining or addressing the why's of human behavior. But this is not to diminish Adams' commitment to this positivistic view of the social sciences inasmuch as he affirms this claim elsewhere (1976, p.19). Thus, according to the BC position and a strict positivism, all general theories of human nature which attempt to explain and account for all of human behavior go beyond mere description and are, thus, disguised forms of metaphysics and religion. Such theory building, on this view, are excluded from a purely descriptive and experimental psychology which addresses only the mechanisms of behavior and organic illnesses and treatment. Consequently, psychology legitimately addresses the human condition only in terms of its experimental and organic work. Interestingly, this positivistic approach to the sciences feeds into the BC position that no source outside the Bible can legitimately and authoritatively address values and the human condition. Hence, their acceptance of this positivistic approach to the sciences forms a strong apologetic for the BC position and polemic against the psychotherapeutic tradition. Consequently, both Adams and the Bobgans also agree with that part of (2) which insists that clinical psychology and psychotherapy perform the role of theology and religion and not science inasmuch as they by nature address the human condition, values and mechanisms for change. Consequently, on their view, only the Bible is capable of legitimately addressing values and the human condition as in (3). As Adams says (1976), Every statement that is made about man, his problems and the solutions to them is theological. If a Christian, by reading these lines, cannot see the essentially theological nature of the counselor's task, I don't know how to make it clearer to him. The moment a counselor speaks of beliefs, values, behavior, change, problems, solutions, human relationships and other such matters he is knee deep in theology. Whether he knows this or not is irrelevant.... All value judgments boil down to theological judgments. All attempts to change man necessarily require some view of what man is, what he is now, what he ought to become and how. This is theology [my emphases]. (38-39) And according to the Bobgans (1987), Since God has given an Instruction Book on how to live, all ideas about the why's of behavior and the how's of change must be viewed as religious in nature. Whereas the Bible claims divine revelation, psychotherapy claims scientific substantiation. Nevertheless, when it comes to behavior and attitudes and morals and values, we are dealing with religion, either the Christian faith or any one of a number of other religions including that of secular humanism. Psychotherapy fits more reasonably into the category of religion than into a field of science [my emphasis]. (1 1-12) Again notice that the BC position relegates all general theories about human nature, pathology, values and mechanisms for change (i.e., all non-organic diagnosis, treatment and prognosis) to metaphysics and religion. Hence, they conclude that psychotherapy by nature is religious and has usurped the role of Christian counseling. Unlike the Scriptures which are capable of legitimately and authoritatively addressing these issues, psychotherapy's naturalistic counsel and alleged wisdom consist of entirely unwarranted opinions and guesses (cf. Bobgans, 1987, p.13, 30). Consequently, the BC position advises psychology, particularly Christian psychology, to go back to its legitimate (and narrow) turf of being purely descriptive in nature and leave the work of counseling and understanding the human condition to the Christian sufficiently equipped with the Word of God. 2. Legitimate concerns implicit in the BC position The BC position, I think, correctly claims that clinical psychology and psychotherapy are neither value-free nor purely descriptive in nature. However, it is overly hasty and unwarranted to conclude from this that psychotherapy is a psuedoscience and incapable of legitimately addressing values such that only the Bible can authoritatively address the human condition. This conclusion follows only if the positivistic and reductionistic approach to human knowledge, inherited from David Hume and the Enlightenment, can be established which prohibits reason and observation from legitimately addressing human nature and values in general. But this view is entirely controversial, not only in contemporary philosophy of science and ethics (Mallow, 1959; Husserl, 1936; Van Leeuwen, 1982; Browning, 1987; Simpson, 1987; Macintyre, 1984 etc.) but, as I shall argue, from the perspective of the biblical text itself. Now it is true that the BC position's criticism is well directed towards those theories of human nature and approaches to psychotherapy which explicitly claim to follow the natural science model for the social sciences when in fact they address values and generalize about human nature and its condition. D.S. Browning (1986) in particular has argued convincingly that a number of psychological and psychotherapeutic models while claiming to be purely descriptive in nature in fact have a full or partial metaphysics and ethical theory. Consequently, some philosophers and psychologists fully conscious of this are requesting others not only to make these ethical claims explicit but also to engage in developing a full blown science of values (Macintyre, 1984; Maslow, 1959). Thus, even if the BC position is ultimately unwarranted and misguided in their criticisms, certain deep and probing concerns do emerge which are implicit in their criticisms. Some of these are as follows: (a) What kind of science is psychology and psychotherapy? What model(s) are they patterned after? What is the relationship between the social and natural sciences? Can psychology - provide a legitimate general theory of human nature and explanation for the what's and why's of behavior? (b) Can psychology or psychotherapy legitimately diagnose, treat and provide prognoses concerning non-organic human problems? That is, can psychology authoritatively address general theories of health, pathology and values (good and bad) which are therapeutically relevant to the human condition? If so, what type of methodological and justificative procedures are involved so as to avoid the criticism of psychotherapy being an unwarranted psuedoscience? If not, then does psychology have any therapeutic relevance at all? (c) Are all forms of psychotherapy value-laden? If so, are they value-laden only in terms of the therapist imposing her values into research and therapy or also in terms of being a science of values capable of discovering values within the human situation? If they are not value-laden, then on what terms does psychotherapy speak to the human condition? (d) Is the Bible the sole authoritative and legitimate source available to the Christian therapist concerning values and a general theory of human nature and the human condition? These issues could be (and have been) addressed from the standpoint of both philosophy and psychology. As interesting and important as these discussions are, I will respond to the issues contained in (a)-(d) as well as to the criticisms of the BC position in (1)-(3) from the perspective of the biblical text alone, particularly the OT Wisdom literature. I do this not because I think the Bible is the only legitimate and authoritative source from which to determine these issues and provide justification. On the contrary, this paper argues that an OT Wisdom theology mandates the church to develop a science of values and human nature which has its own legitimate and extra-biblical justificative procedures. My reason, then, for arguing from the biblical text alone is to provide common ground on which the psychologically informed believer, pastor and theologian can speak gently and intelligently into a psychologically uninformed and skeptical church. 3. The BC position as unbiblical: Investigation into OT wisdom theology In contrast to the BC position, the scriptures and particularly the Hebrew sage reject a positivistic and reductionistic approach to the human sciences which affirms the fact value distinction. Rather, the OT sage is convinced that one can discover facts about values from facts about nature, particularly from facts about human behavioral, interpersonal and intrapsychic phenomena. Thus, the sage provides us with a primitive and sketchy model for the social sciences as being, in part, a science of values and human nature which is opposed to the BC position. The sage's approach to science and especially a science of values involves the following theses: (I) Objective Source of Values Thesis: There exists an objective extra-biblical source of values and wisdom in the patterns and dynamic structures of nature, particularly in human phenomena, which can be discovered by human observation and reflection. (II) Science of Values Thesis: Values and wisdom for living are discovered from the facts of nature, particularly facts having to do with human behavioral, interpersonal and intrapsychic phenomena, which in turn makes possible a science of values. (III) Nature as Normative Thesis: Both the objective source and science of values are theoretically grounded in the Hebrew cosmology and Creation theology which affirms that (a) "nature. is a normative concept inasmuch as the original creation was created good and that (b) persons created in the image of God in part retain that nature and are capable of discerning it even after the Fall. (IV) Constraints Thesis: Certain constraints, guards and qualifications should be explicitly addressed in a science of values inasmuch as this science must account for the nature of personal agency as well as the radical nature and effects of the Fall. The bulk of this paper will attempt to clarify the above theses, argue that the OT sage affirms them and point out the relevance of this to contemporary social sciences and integration. This, in turn, will address a number of the legitimate concerns raised in (a)-(d) above as well as the criticisms (1)-(3) of the BC position. If the argument is successful, then the so called Biblical Counseling position ironically will prove to be unbiblical. This, in turn, will open up a whole new challenge to speak psychology wisely into sectors of the church. 3.1 Objective source of values thesis First, the scriptures and particularly the OT sage affirm (I) that there is both a biblical and extra-biblical source of wisdom for living well in all areas of life under God. One source, of course, is contained in propositional form (the scriptures) whereby God makes known not only principles for living well but specifically salvific mysteries which are unknowable apart from this Divine speech-act. For the OT sage, the most important of these type of revelations are contained in the Torah (for us it is the NT). Furthermore, the scriptures recognize a non-propositional source of wisdom embedded and evident within the patterns and dynamic structures of both the inorganic and organic world. God Himself through the prophet Jeremiah expresses His loyalty to His covenant and laws in written Torah by likening it with His loyalty towards His covenant and laws evident in nature.3 Moreover, the OT sage appeals to this natural law or cosmic order 3 Israelis belief in a natural law-like structure in nature is evident in the following: Thus says the LORD, if you can break My covenant (befit) for the day and My covenant (befit) for the night, so that day and night will not be at their appointed time, then My covenant (befit) may also be broken with David My servant that he shall not have a son to reign on his throne.... Thus says the LORD, "If my covenant (befit) for the day and night stand not, and the fixed patterns (huqqah) of heaven and earth I have not established, then I would reject the descendants of Jacob and David My servant.... But I will restore their fortunes and will have mercy on them'.(Jer. 33:20-21, 25-25). And again, "Thus says the Lord, Who gives the sun for light by day, And the fixed order (huqqah) of the moon and the stars for light by night, Who stirs up the sea so that its waves roar; The Lord is His name: If this fixed order (heq) departs From before Me,' declares the Lord, 'Then the offspring of Israel also shall cease From being a nation before Me forever"'(Jer. 31:35-36). According to Jeremiah, Yahweh's covenant with Israel and its governing moral laws are as fixed and permanent as His covenant with the cosmos with its as the data base and source for both his natural and social science not only in terms of theoretical, practical and technological knowledge but also wisdom and moral knowledge. In particular, the structure of human behavioral, interpersonal and intrapsychic dynamics provide the psychologist and OT sage a rich source from which to discover general principles for successful living. These natural values and principles, in turn, are expressed in his Proverbs. At least this is what I shall argue in this section. In the first place, the OT sage clearly associates this ordering structure in nature with Yahweh's Wisdom. As he states, The LORD by wisdom founded the earth; By understanding He established the heavens. By His knowledge the deeps were broken up, And the skies drip with dew. (Prov. 3:19-20) God's Wisdom is responsible for the ordered structure, mechanics and causal laws which ontologically ground the natural sciences. This cosmic ordering structure provides the objective data which makes nature comprehensible. Secondly, and more relevant for my discussion, the OT sage identifies this ordering structure with Cosmic Wisdom or the Wisdom of God embedded within the structures of the cosmos. That is, this inherent ordering structure is characterized as God's ordering wisdom such that it appointed times and fixed patterns. Of particular interest is Jeremiah's usage of "fixed patterns" (cf.Jer. 31:35,36; 33:25 usage of hoq and its feminine form huqqah, from the verb "to engrave," thus, "custom, manner, ordinance or statutes). This term is especially used throughout the Torah to denote God's written laws as in the following passage: "You shall not do what is done in the land of Egypt where you lived, nor are you to do what is done in the land of Canaan where I am bringing you; you shall not walk in their statutes (huqqah), to live in accord with them; I am the LORD your God" (Lev. 18:3-4; cf. Ex. 12:17; Num. 19:2; 31: 31). It turns out, then, that as God's statutes in scriptures are binding upon His people, His "statutes" or fixed patterns within the framework of heaven and earth are binding upon the whole of the cosmos. And these patterns which govern all natural phenomena ontologically ground the OT sage's study of the natural and social sciences not only binds all nature and human phenomena but objectively grounds the sage's wisdom principles. The most clear statement of this is in Proverbs 8 where the sage personifies Cosmic Wisdom as the one responsible for providing every good thing to those who cherish her. In order to justify this claim, the sage has Cosmic Wisdom announce Her credentials as being the source of the cause-effect and sow-reap principles evident in natural and human phenomena. As She says, The LORD possessed me at the beginning of His way, Before His works of old. From everlasting I was established, From the beginning, from the earliest times of the earth. When there were no depths I was brought forth, When there were no springs abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, Before the hills I was brought forth; While He had not yet made the earth and fields, Nor the first dust of the world. When He established the heavens, was there; When He inscribed a circle on the face of the deep, When He made firm the skies above, When the springs of the deep became fixed, When He set for the sea its boundary (hog), So that the water should not transgress His command, When He marked out the foundations of the earth; Then was there beside Him, as a master workman; And I was daily His delight, Rejoicing always before Him, Rejoicing in the world, His earth, And having my delight in the sons of men [my emphases]. (Prov. 8:22-31) According to the sage's cosmology, Cosmic Wisdom has no original autonomous ontology. Rather, it has its source in God's creating attribute (Kidner, 1964).4 God's Wisdom functions as The Master Craftsman or Artisan which is responsible for the natural cause-effect laws, boundaries, and overall structure of the natural order as illustrated in the following diagram: 4 D. Kidner, (Proverbs, 79) comments that the sage in Prov. 8 does not understand Cosmic Wisdom as some hypostasis but as a metaphor, "... i.e., as a powerful way of saying that if we must do nothing without wisdom, God himself has made and done nothing without it. The wisdom by which the world is rightly used is none other than the wisdom by which it exists." The above diagram attempts to illustrate the sage's claim that God's wisdom not only creates but is itself imprinted upon and embedded within nature as its pattern, way, and dynamic law-like structure of things(Cosmic Wisdom) [Eichrodt, 1967].5 This ordering or cause-effect structure makes the data of nature discernible for the natural sciences. Consequently, according to the OT sage, all wisdom having to do with theoretical and practical knowledge of nature as well as technological and artisan knowledge and skills are grounded in God's creative wisdom and correspond to this ordering structure of nature.6 5W. Eichrodt, (Theology of the Old Testament, v.ll, 83] comments that "The first point to strike one on reading this LOT wisdom literature is the way in which the concept of wisdom has been radically expanded. Not only the old skill in practical affairs but also the purpose and order discernible in the cosmos are now regarded as effects of wisdom[his emphases].. Although the sage engages in studying the ordering structure of all natural phenomena, he is especially interested in the Wisdom structure which has been imprinted on human nature and, thus, governs the human situation (Prov. 8:31). From this he discovers the moral knowledge and skill necessary for living well in all areas of life. This fact is brought out in his concluding discussion at Proverbs 8. There the sage has Cosmic Wisdom setting forth the existential implications and applications of the fact that She is imprinted upon human nature and responsible for governing the human situation. As She states, Then I was there beside Him, as a master workman; ...And having my delight in the sons of men. Now therefore, O sons, listen to me. For blessed are they who keep my ways. Heed instruction and be wise, And do not neglect it. Blessed is the man who listens to me, Watching daily at my gates, Watching daily at my doorposts. For he who finds me finds life, And obtains favor from the LORD. But he who sins against me injures himself; All those who hate me love death [my emphases]. (Prov. 8:32-36) In the same way Cosmic Wisdom represents the causal laws which govern non-human natural phenomena, She also represents the quasi-causal laws which govern human agents (Crenshaw, 1976; Toy, 1899; Murphy, 1977).7 Thus, Cosmic Wisdom implores persons to listen to Her inasmuch as She governs all human behavioral, interpersonal and intrapsychic phenomena. The following illustration attempts to represent the nature of this dynamic human ordering structure (cf. following page): 6 See especially I Kings 4:29-34 for Solomon's interest in the natural sciences. See also Ex. 28:3, 35:10,25 Is. 40:18-20, 28:23, 31:2 and Il Sam. 14:2 for examples of technological and artisan knowledge and skills. For example, the wise farmer is one who works within the confines of this ordering structure and not against it. He understands the "way" of the seasons, of soil tending, of plant growth etc. (Is. 28:23). Thus, any technological advancements involving some manipulation of nature occur within and on the basis of the natural ordering structures. 7 J.L. Crenshaw ("Prolegomenon" in Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom, 28) makes the sweeping claim that Nit is no longer necessary to justify the claim that the concept of order lies at the heart of wisdom thinking. This conclusion rests on an exhaustive analysis of Israel's wisdom within the context of ancient Near Eastern sapiential literature." See also C.H. Toy's comment in Proverbs, 172, concerning Prov. 8 that the OT sage conceives Wisdom "as present with God in the creation of the world, and directing all human life a conception which thus combines philosophic universality and Jewish theistic belief [my emphasis]." Roland Murphy ("Wisdom-Theses and Hypotheses" in Israelite Wisdom, 36) questions this Creation theology which was first put forward by W. Zimmerli and championed by von Rad. He states that "The basic difficulty I have with this view is that it fails to take into account the fundamental Israelite attitude that the Lord is the primary cause of everything; this does not have any room for him as mid-wife (Koch's term) in the functioning of an order.(36)" This raises deep issues which cannot be dealt with adequately here. Let me just say that this debate with respect to the nature or ontology of the "natural order" has a long history. For example, Augustine and Aquinas advocate an "order as providence" view consistent with Zimmerli's and van Rad's view of Cosmic Wisdom; various Reformers advocate an "order as the mind of God" view consistent with Murphy's claim. However, I think one can reasonably argue that both views are consistent with the fact that an ordered structure in nature is still apparent to the human mind such that natural and moral laws may be discovered. To live in harmony with this ordering structure within one's own nature is wise and generally results in well being; to violate this order and live against the grain of one's nature is foolish and generally results in self injury (Prov. 8:35-36) [cf. Aitken, 1986; Curtis, 1986].8 This general sow and reap structure is paradigmatic of the paths of wisdom life and folly destruction, respectively. 8 K.T. Aitken (Proverbs, 4) states that "The sage has no doubts that the good and successful life is the life lived in conformity with the order of things ordained by God in his world for man's good and blessing [my emphasis]. E.M. Curtis (-Old Testament Wisdom: A Model for Faith Learning Integration" in Christian Scholars Review, IV: 220) agrees that according to the sage "An awareness of the order God has built into the world enables a person to live in harmony with those principles and contributes to his success, and much of the wisdom material reflects man's search for that order [my emphasis]. Consequently, all wisdom and skill for living well is grounded in and corresponds to the Comic Wisdom which governs natural and human functioning. That is, humans were made by Gods wisdom for wise and well living. This involves making choices in life which are in harmony with the intended ordering structure of our interpersonal and intrapsychic functioning (obedience and good). To violate or act contrary to our created "way" is to bring injury and harm to some aspect of human functioning and the human situation (sin and evil). Though the sage recognizes that the scriptures represent a central source of authoritative information for how to live in harmony with our created way, their interpretation is not officially his task but that of the priest who is the authority in Israel concerning the written Torah (Jer. 18:18; Ez. 7:26). And though the sage benefits greatly from the scriptures in developing his counsel and principles for living, his prime directive as authority over counsel within the hierarchy of Israel (Jer. 18:18; Ez. 7:26) is to discern and follow this ordering structure evident in nature itself and human nature in particular in order to live well in all areas of life under God (Aitken. 1986).9 The Proverbs in general represent this attempt. 3.2 Science of values thesis 9 K.T. Aitken (Proverbs, 4) notes that "We need not dig very deeply into the Book [Proverbs] to find that the sage looks at life from a different angle from priest or prophet. Most strikingly, he is little concerned with the privileges of the people as the People of God, with the richness of their faith, or the health of their worship.... Rather the sage conceives himself with people as plain, ordinary individuals who live in the world, and with the wisdom and folly of their attitudes and actions in the common things of life..... Though I think Aitken and others overstate the sage's lack of interest in the covenantal life of Israel, the distinctions in terms of focus between prophet, priest and sage are evident and uncontroversial. The scriptures and the OT sage affirm (11) inasmuch as he is able to discover principles for living and a general account of human nature from his observations and reflections of the Cosmic Wisdom structure within nature. Consequently, he rejects any positivistic approach to studying human phenomena which affirms the fact value distinction. Instead, the sage is given to developing a science of values. As a social scientist with a moral stripe, his goal is to translate his observations and reflections of the human ordering structure into principles for living well in all areas of life under God. The Proverbs in particular represent his attempt at mapping out the quasi-causal laws which regulate human phenomena. Consequently, his work includes observing both the wisdom in written Torah as well as natural torah. The clearest expression of the OT sage's work of discovering values from human phenomena and the natural way of things is found in Proverbs 24. This is the only passage I am aware of in the Proverbs in which the sage draws back the curtain and exposes his modus operandi in apprehending wisdom and moral knowledge. As he states. I passed by the field of the sluggard, And by the vineyard of the man lacking sense; And behold, it was completely overgrown with thistles, Its surface was covered with nettles, And its stone wall was broken down. When I saw, I reflected upon it; I looked, and received instruction. 'A little sleep, a little slumber, A little folding of the hands to rest," Then your poverty will come as a robber, And your want like an armed man [my emphasis]. (Prov. 24:30-34) Though the sage elsewhere acknowledges the scriptures as a source of wisdom (Prov. 29:18), here he informs us that his own reflections and observations were sufficient to gain this piece of practical and moral wisdom. In fact, this pattern seems to fit well with many of his proverbs which do not explicitly depend upon the Torah or some further divine revelation. Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude that the sage's peculiar task in contrast to the priest and prophet involves keenness in observation and reflection for interpreting natural, particularly human phenomena. His reflections result not only in the theoretical and technological knowledge for the natural sciences but especially in moral knowledge for the human sciences (viz. the Proverbs). In the above case, the sage on the basis of observation and reflection discovers that laziness leads to financial ruin and self-injury. The sage, then, is convinced that by observing and reflecting upon the ordering structures particularly of human phenomena he will discover quasi-causal laws which govern the human situation. From these observations he claims to receive instruction and wisdom for living, hence, moral knowledge (Scott, 1965; Curtis, 1986).10 That is, contrary to the BC position which adheres to the modern positivistic and reductionistic model of the social sciences, the OT sage insists that he can discover facts about values from facts about human phenomena (von Rad, 1972).11 Hence, the sage rejects the view that facts about nature are limited to mechanistic and strictly causal phenomena as is the case with the reductionistic approach to the social sciences which limits its findings to "experimental facts which are repeatable and allegedly verifiable falsifiable. 10 According to R.B.Y. Scott (Proverbs, xvii), "Wisdom taught a practical religion through which a good man must find satisfaction in life, in a moral order which had established itself through experience.... The wise men sought for a unified structural principle in life. By generalizing from experience, they propounded rules as indicators of this moral structure of life, and as guideposts in its way. Through reflection and debate, they attempted to reach, within a general religious framework, rational explanations of man's existence and his intellectual and moral problems." Ed Curtis ("OT Wisdom") states that Nit appears legitimate - one might even say necessary - to conclude that there is a level of wisdom that comes out of the crucible of human experience; it can be recognized by man, even after the fall, as he carefully and perceptively studies his world and the people in it. He is able to identify many of the principles by which the natural world operates; he is able to identify many things that contribute to success in living as well as many things that will prevent success.... This may also account for some of the common moral values that Israel shared with her neighbors.... (219).N 11 G.von Rad (Wisdom in Israel, 159) insightfully points out that the fact value split is foreign to the OT sage. He states, The dualism, familiar to us, of rules for human society on the one hand and rules for nature on the other, was unknown to the ancients. The world order rules in nature as it does through the moral laws (as we would say ) over men (159) [my emphasis]. Instead, the OT sage is especially interested in and focuses upon those facts having to do with the dynamic and organic nature of human life and behavior for his social science of values and moral knowledge. These organic" facts reflect human nature and behavior from the perspective of process, growth and development (Hermisson, 1978).12 To exclude these "organic" facts from his human or social sciences would be to ignore those facts which are central to understanding human nature and the wisdom structures which govern healthy and natural functioning. Thus, the BC approach to the social sciences which takes physics as its paradigm is contrary to the science of values inherent in the OT Wisdom theology, particularly the Proverbs. 12 Hans-Jurgen Hermisson ("Observations on the Creation Theology in Wisdom" in Israelite Wisdom, 44) states "As is well known, wisdom searches for the knowledge of order, or, for those to whom this seems to rigid, for a certain regularity within the diversity of the phenomena of the world....ancient wisdom starts from the conviction that the regularities within the human and the historical-social realm are not in principle different from the ones within the realm of nonhuman phenomena. Therefore 'nature wisdom' and 'culture wisdom' are not as far apart as it may seem at first [my emphasis].. Since this developmental aspect of human nature is in part what makes persons peculiar from inorganic nature, the OT sage's approach to the social sciences focuses upon this aspect. That is, the sage is most interested in studying human phenomena from an organic or developmental perspective and, hence, in taking seriously the life-narrative and natural cultural context of persons. The sage, then, recognizes that these "organic" or "developmental" facts are neither repeatable, strictly mechanistic nor experimental by nature. The Proverbs, then, as representing the OT sage's science of values, contain wisdom principles which not only reflect the cosmic and human ordering structures but, in turn, have their own implicit prescriptive law-like structure. In general, these principles take the form of a conditional "If... then... statement which attempts to illustrate the quasi-causal or sow-reap laws which can be discovered by observing and reflecting upon human phenomena (von Rad, 1972).13 Of course, the sage does not explicitly record his moral observations and science of values in such a stilted form. Rather, he employs Hebrew poetry (parallel structure and imagery) for mnemonic and heuristic purposes. 14 Consequently, beneath the poetic and descriptive form in most of the OT sage's proverbs lies a prescription which he assumes persons are capable of discerning. The general structure of these wisdom and moral principles laws for healthy living which the sage discovers in nature are as follows: Q-Conditional: If person S is to live well (be successful) with respect to life in general, then S ought to (must, should, needs to) live in harmony with the quasi cause-effect order of things evident in the human situation.. p-Conditional: If person S is to live well (be successful) with respect to a particular task end goal p, S ought to do x. 13 G. von Rad (Wisdom in Israel, 124-5) comments on this cause and effect structure that "Israel, too, took the trouble to discern in events and occurrences a recognizable set of 'inherent laws'. The next most obvious thing to do was to inquire as to what may have preceded any given event which had to be explained.. Furthermore, von Rad insightfully points out from Prov. 13:12, 15:13, 17:22 etc. that R The law of cause and effect is traced right into the hidden regions of the soul [my emphasis]." According to Hermisson ("Observations on the Creation Theology," 44), "What God created 'in wisdom' can also be comprehended and stated in the sentences of wisdom...[my emphasis]." l4 It is interesting and perhaps instructive that the sage records his human science and educational literature in poetic form which is also noticeably lacking in formal prescriptions for behavior. That is, the sage is less interested in explicitly driving home the prescriptive point to the intellect alone than in (a) moving both mind and affect by poetic imagery and (b) trusting that his audience as valuing creatures will get the prescriptive point and advice embedded in the proverb. The Q-Conditional is supposed to reflect the quasi-causal structure in general which the sage recognizes to be governing human events relevant to all persons, believer and non-believer alike. The p-Conditional reflects the quasi law-like structure which lies behind any particular proverb containing a piece of advice or an implicit prescription relevant to a particular aspect of the human situation. For example, in the case of Prov. 24 quoted above, a person ought to be diligent in work if she is to live well and avoid financial disaster. Notice that the ought. or prescriptive element in both conditionals is grounded in the ordering structure of human phenomena such that values are discovered by observation and reflection and not merely created by human opinions and desires (Aitken, 1986) .15 Events involving inanimate objects as well as most plant and animal behavior typically and somewhat automatically function in accord with the natural way or ordering structure governing or inherent in the thing.16 However, humans do not necessarily instinctively follow their natural way inasmuch as their agency makes it such that they must choose to act in harmony with or against their natural ordering structure. As some existentialists like to say, persons are condemned to choice in contrast with the rest of nature. According to the sage, the nature of the choice determines whether one reaps a life of wisdom and success or a life of folly and self-injury. 15 According to K.T. Aitken (Proverbs, 86), the OT sage's concept of Cosmic Wisdom "was probably designed to express that the rules of good and wise living which they learned through experience of the world were written in its structures and order from the first, and that the wisdom of experience therefore rests upon the divine wisdom which created the world [my emphasis]." 161n such cases involving non-human phenomena, dysfunction is typically the result of external interruption and physiological corruption (e.g. a obstacle stopping a rock from falling or a chimpanzee incurring neural damage as the result of a fall). Consequently, the OT sage's science of values and counseling agrees with those contemporary observers of psychotherapy and the BC position which affirm that therapy is value laden. Certainly this implies minimally that the therapist as a valuing creature cannot escape bringing her values to bear on therapy in terms of methodology, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. These are all value laden notions inasmuch as they have to do with human health and pathology. However, the BC position sees this as a criticism against psychotherapy in general inasmuch as this position affirms that only the Bible - and not science - is legitimately able to address and impose values. On their view, the psychotherapist merely imposes into therapy her unwarranted opinions and guesses about values. In contrast to the BC position, the sage qua OT social scientist insists that he does not merely create or impose values upon his audience but discovers them from his observations and reflections on human phenomena. That is, the OT sage consciously brings to bear upon the counseling situation a theory of human nature, health, pathology, values as well as mechanisms for change which he thinks are objectively discerned from his study of the human situation as well as from the scriptures. The Hebrew sage, unlike the proponents of the BC position, is convinced that instruction for life is available to those who are willing to open their eyes. Because the Hebrew sage's science of values is in part grounded in an account of human nature, his approach to wisdom and moral knowledge has to do with general principles of health and pathology applicable to the species as a whole. As a result, his ethical theory is less "quandary" oriented as is the case in much of contemporary ethics and more focused on human well-being, healthy human character and the overall good life.17 Thus, The OT sage's wisdom is species based and not idiosyncratic in orientation.18 Application of these principles to particular individuals and circumstances, of course, must go beyond understanding the general, universal principles of wisdom to include understanding the particular individual and relevant circumstances. To miss this point is to make the mistake of Job's counselors. It should be apparent, then, that the scriptures and the OT sage affirm a moral science which is dependent upon two sources of moral authority: one in propositional and one in natural form. First, in the written revelation God gives ethical norms and wisdom which are in harmony with the created human ordering structure, particularly with respect to the human capacity for relating with God. Hence, the priest, people and sage receive the written Word on the basis that God has spoken. This structure of authority contained in scriptures can be illustrated as follows (cf. following page): 17 Because the Hebrew sage's science of values is in part grounded in an account of human nature, his approach to wisdom and moral knowledge is in sharp contrast to much, though not all, of contemporary approaches to ethics and morality. For the most part, contemporary approaches to ethics still affirm the fact value distinction and as a result generally are skeptical of any ethical theory which attempts to distinguish what is healthy good from what is pathological bad for persons from a universal and species-wide perspective. Instead, contemporary ethical discussions tend to focus on developing moral principles which uphold the rights of individuals to pursue their own concept of the good and particularly moral principles which are necessary to resolve apparent rights conflicts which arise in particular circumstances and quandaries. 18 Interestingly, this species-based approach to ethics promotes research and understanding of gender issues and their relevance to ethical discussions in a manner which is often overlooked by the Quandary approach to ethics. God as the ultimate source of wisdom God's will expressed in scripture (propositional form) Observations and reflections on scripture Principles for living from interpretations of scripture; Obedience required because Thus says the LORD In general, the scriptures appeal neither to human experience, observation or reflection upon nature as a source for its wisdom nor to human experience etc. for verification of its wisdom being true. This is true of the OT and NT in general with the exception of OT Wisdom literature. The scriptures in general, then, find their authority in the fact that they are given by God. However, the scriptures recognize another source of wisdom as well to which the OT sage appeals for his wise principles. Of course, as a member of the believing community the Hebrew sage recognizes that God is the ultimate source of all wisdom (Prov. 2:6), that a relationship with Him is requisite for a fully wise life (fro v. 1:7) and that the scriptures are necessary for the mental health of a community (Prov. 29:17, 30:5-6). However, as a member of the community of sages he ventures out into the natural order of things - with scriptures in hand and God in mind - in order to discern the wisdom available as well in natural and human phenomena (Eichrodt, 1967).19 Thus, the sage's broader and integrative authority structure can be understood as follows: God as ultimate source of wisdom God's will expressed in propositional and non-propositional form (scripture and nature) Observation and reflection on scripture and nature Principles for living from interpretations of scripture and nature; obedience requested due to the sage's experience. 19 W. Eichrodt (A Theology of the OT, v. II, 92) interestingly comments that because of the sage's common sense approach to discerning wisdom from nature and his belief that all higher wisdom is from God, Israel did not fall into the trap as did Hellenistic religion and culture of seeking a "deeper wisdom. As he states, "The Jew had no need to investigate the 'hidden things,' the 'superfluous' information, with which imagination and illusion led the restless cravings of curiosity into error (92).- Perhaps this type of thinking is behind Paul's admonitions to avoid empty speculations and discussions (cf. Col. 2:8-10, II Tim. 2:23,1 Tim. 4:7, 6:4 etc.). This seems more fitting an interpretation than the one often put forth by the antiphilosophy psychology position which interprets Paul as prohibiting reasonable and commonsense discovery of truths concerning the nature of reality, thought and morality from extrabiblical sources. The sage appeals to scripture and nature as sources of wisdom inasmuch as both inform him as to how to live well. But notice that obedience to his moral principles in general is not required or requested on the basis that God has spoken as is the case in the Torah. Rather, he appeals to his audience on the basis of his experience and reflection (Scott, 1965; Aitken, 1986).20 That is, he appeals to the young and inexperienced. to the son and daughter on the basis of what he has observed in the lives of both those who have wisely lived in harmony with their own human nature and the cosmic order of things and those who have foolishly lived in contrast to them. 21 20 R.B.Y. Scott (Proverbs, xvi) states that Whey [OT wise men] make no direct appeal to the authority of a revealed religion, though their occasional exhortations to piety toward Yahweh (e.g., Prov. 16) presupposes an accepted belief. They speak to and about men primarily as individuals. The authority to which they chiefly appeal is the disciplined intelligence and moral experience of good men.. K.T. Aitken (Proverbs, 4) states, "Furthermore, while prophet and priest make an unequivocal appeal to divine authority for their teaching, the sage is content to speak on his own account or et his sayings speak for themselves, making appeal to the proven canons of human experience, good taste and common sense [my emphasis]." 21 For evidence of the sage's appeal to his experience as justification for listening to his wisdom see Prov. 1:1, 2:1, 3:1,5:1, 6:1, 7:1 etc. Of course, there are proverbs which appeal to Divine revelation and Torah and, hence, appeal to the authority of God for their justification (cf. my discussion below). Furthermore, the sage's claim that the wisdom of God is evident in nature as well as scripture, however, does not distract from his belief that in general only a special act of divine revelation can inform persons as to how to re-establish a relationship with God. Fallen nature including human nature cannot redeem itself. That is, apart from God's work of recreation, no person on the basis of her own unassisted understanding or skill is capable of relating well with God. Nevertheless, the complimentary value and sheer volume of the theoretical, technological, practical and moral knowledge contained in nature motivates the central work of the sage. Perhaps a brief footnote is appropriate concerning the nature of inspiration in Proverbs. Nothing has been said here which denies the inspiration of Proverbs. In this case, God works through the experiences of the sage to produce a body of inspired observations and principles for successful living in all areas of life under of God. A number of proverbs clearly employ insights concerning God and His ways toward persons which could not have been gained from nature alone. Perhaps some of these borrow from insights in the written Torah or are the result of direct revelation from God (cf. 2:17, 3:12, 3:32ff. etc.).However, in the case of Prov. 24:30ff. there is no evidence at all that God directly intervened by giving insight to the sage. In general, the sage does not inform us regarding the inspiration processes involved in Pro verbs. Thus, the manner in which inspiration comes to play may be manifold: by God's direct intervention in giving insight to the sage; by God giving editorial sanctions to the sage (cf. the work of the amen of Hezekiah" at Prov. 25:1); by God's synergistic work in the mind of the sage as is probably the case with many of the NT writers. All of these suggestions are speculative. What is clear, however, is the fact that the sage's own experience of discovering wisdom as exemplified in Prov. 24 is grounded in his own personal observations and reflections apart from direct Divine intervention. And it should be evident that the wisdom he discovers in that particular circumstance referred to in Pro v. 24 as well as much of the wisdom contained in Proverbs could have been discovered by a secular sage of the Ancient Near East or of contemporary America (Scott, 1965; Curtis, 1986).22 Of course, this does not apply to those proverbs which depend upon salvific truths known only through the written Torah or God's special intervention. 22 Interestingly, R.B.Y. Scott (Proverbs, 149) adds the following in his commentary at Prov. 24:30ff.: "Note the Akkadian proverb, 'As long as a man does not exert himself, he will gain nothing"' (citing Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J.B. Pritchard, 2d ea., 425). Ed Curtis ("OT Wisdom": 217) comments that though wisdom in Prov. is ultimately a gift from God, much of it is so only in a Secondary sense-. He continues, "Many of the proverbs articulate principles that can be identified by any insightful person who carefully observes the world around him, and it appears that Israel and her neighbors did, in fact, recognize many of the same principles that contribute to a person's success. It does not require direct revelation from God (what theologians have traditionally called special revelation) to realize the benefit of diligence and the way it contributes to a person's success; the same is true of the problems that a bad temper can generate for a person or the value of patience or the dangers involved in making rash judgments or commitments (217)." See also W. Eichrodt (A Theology of the OT, v. II, 86-87) who claims that This development of the concept of Wisdom gained importance, because it afforded the possibility of acknowledging truths possessed by foreign nations describing them as participating in the divine hokma. For since wisdom is already made known in the creation, she is naturally accessible to all peoples [my emphasis]. The above discussion of authority in OT Wisdom literature raises a number of deep and interesting epistemological issues which because of time constraints cannot be adequately treated here. However, it is interesting to note in passing that the OT sage in general appears neither interested in nor bothered by the skeptical questions so typical of modern philosophy of science concerning methodology and results.23 That is, he is unconcerned with the modern search for certainty and justification. He seems more impressed with the fact that humans can and in fact do recognize values (what is natural and good from what is unnatural and bad) in their experiences of natural and particularly human phenomena (von Had, 1972).24 The skeptical question "But how do you know that you know?" and the compulsion to offer rigorous justification for claims does not appear to arise for the sage. That is, he offers no more justification for his wisdom than is contained in his implicit and often explicit appeal to (a) his own observation and reflection as well as to (b) his audience's own experiences with the cosmic order in terms of sowing reaping goods and beds. The sage writes as if his wisdom will be apparent - in terms of acuteness and justification - once the wise adult and parent understand and reflect upon it vis--vis their own experiences (Scott, 1965; Aitken, 1986).25 The sage reflects no inclination to doubt his own or his audience's ability to recognize values or the sow-reap structure evident in human phenomena. Having such creation skills is consistent with the OT claim that humans are created in the image of God as ruling and valuing creatures. However, insofar as the young and naive have not as yet had sufficient experience for developing these skills, the sage admonishes them to trust his advice on the basis of the experiences of one older and wiser. 23 The types of modern skeptical questions relevant to the sage's science of values have been raised more recently in W.A. Weisskopfts ("Comment. in New Knowledge in Human Values ed. A.H. Maslow, 199-223) criticism against Maslow's similar vision for a species-based science of values ("Psychological Data and Value Theory," 119-136. in New Knowledge in Human values, 119-136). Maslow sought to bypass the fact value split by distinguishing between "factual values" and normative values. That is, though Maslow does not think that his science of values informs one concerning what one ought to do, nevertheless, it does inform one concerning what in fact mentally healthy people do. And he thinks that these descriptions concerning the activities and character of healthy people are species-based and not merely culturally relative. Notice, however, that there does exist the implicit (conditional) prescription in Maslow's claim that if you want to be healthy, you ought (should, must, need) to actuate certain species character tendencies potentialities etc. This implicit prescription, in fact, corresponds quite closely with the Q- and -Conditionals of the OT sage. However, the obvious skeptical questions raised by Weisskopf against Maslow or any species-based science of values have to do with problems involved in determining objective criteria which can be used to distinguish between the "naturals (real, healthy, good) needs and tendencies and the Unnatural" (apparent, pathological, bad) needs and tendencies evident in human phenomena. This, of course, raises the modern skeptical questions concerning methodology and justification. 24 G. Van Rad (Wisdom in Israel, 161-2) argues from Prov. 1:20ff. and 8:35 that "... this primeval order does not exist only in creation; it is orientated towards man, offering him help; it is concerned about him, indeed addresses him directly. This address is not a mystery which can be discerned only by man; it is uttered with full publicity 'in the noisiest places' (Prov. 1:20ff.). All these statements leave us in no doubt that this address can be understood by man without the slightest difficulty [my emphasis]. Though I think there are good reasons for contemporary social or human sciences to apply themselves to justificative procedures for a science of values, this should not be done at the expense of developing a science of values altogether.26 That is, the OT sage would advise contemporary social scientists to beware of letting questions hinder them from engaging in a science of values. To embrace the Cartesian "universal method of doubts as the sole path to knowledge as some moderns have is, as Kierkegaard said, like teaching a soldier to stand upright by having him lie down in a heap. Though certain forms of doubt and critical reflection are central to science as well as personal maturity, the universal method of doubt by its nature removes us from the experiential context in which we form beliefs and knowledge about the world. Unfortunately, this anti-common sense approach to knowledge is endemic to many discussions in philosophy of science and education in general. This problem is humorously brought out in William Buckley's response when asked what he thought about the government being run by the two hundred member Harvard Faculty which represents some of the exemplar educated minds of our time. He replied that this would be the sure ruin of any nation and that he preferred instead the first two hundred names from the Boston telephone directory. The point is that we would be I better off being governed by persons who have not yet educated away their common sense. 25 R.B.Y. Scott (Proverbs, xvi) states concerning the OT sage that that Whey [OT wise men] make no direct appeal to the authority of a revealed religion .... The authority to which they chiefly appeal is the disciplined intelligence and moral experience of good men [my emphasis].. K.T. Aitken (Proverbs, 4) states, "Furthermore, while prophet and priest make an unequivocal appeal to divine authority for their teaching, the sage is content to speak on his own account or let his sayings speak for themselves, making appeal to the proven canons of human experience, good taste and common sense [my emphasis].. 26 Although the OT sage does not include a rigorous justification procedure in his moral science, a contemporary science of values requires this in order to insure some quality control in the social sciences. This is especially true in pluralistic societies in which a number of differing world-views and personal value commitments come into play in observations and theory building. The Hebrew sage had the luxury of working within a culture which shared a more homogeneous world-view and which generally accepted the scriptures as normative, though he was not isolated from other cultures and world-views (cf. I Kings 4:29-34; 10:1ff.,23-35; II Chron. 9:1 ff.,22-24). Furthermore, justificative procedures and critical reflection are important not only in ferreting out unwarranted opinions from our science of values but in disabusing ourselves from personal agendas as well as sinful and pathological influences which interrupt not only good science but healthy personal development. In summary, unlike the BC position's reductionistic approach to the social sciences, the OT sage thinks the human or social sciences should involve a science of values. He agrees with various thinkers such as Aristotle, Aquinas, and Maslow that the careful observer can and does discover species-based values and concepts of health from a study of human phenomena. Moreover, he agrees with the person on the street who still functions in accord with common sense and makes such moral distinctions. Of course, the OT sage as well as Christian integrator and social scientist have the added advantage of having a cosmology given by God in Genesis which gives insight to and ultimately grounds this science of values. 3.3 Nature as normative thesis According to (111), the OT sage's Wisdom theology and science of values is ultimately grounded in the Hebrew cosmology of Genesis. This is the case inasmuch as (a) the sage's ability to recognize values in nature is consistent with the Hebrew view concerning the function of the image of God in persons and (b) the sage's belief that value-facts can be discovered from nature-facts is consistent with the Hebrew view that "natures is a normative notion. Even fallen human beings retain the image of God and, thus, in part retain this normative human "nature" and ability to discern what is natural and good in human phenomena from what is unnatural and sinful. According to the Hebrew Creation theology, Yahweh creates a value-rich world inasmuch as He considers both the inorganic and organic world to be good at creation (Genesis 1:10,12,18,21,25,31). That is, the original creation, its organizing structure (Cosmic Wisdom) and general functioning pleased God. Thus, the original "nature," way or ordered structure of things functions as a normative notion with respect to what is good and pleasing to God's original intentions for creation. In particular, the original Nature ~ or ordering structure of human persons, their growth and maturity functions, tendencies, needs and wants are also normative and, hence, objectively ground all natural human values which the sage is intent on discovering. Furthermore, the fact that persons are created in the image of God accounts for the sage's creation skills of being able to observe this ordering structure in order to discover the theoretical, technological, practical and moral knowledge necessary for ruling the earth (Gen. 1:26ff.). Of course, the BC position might agree that the original "natures was normative and that Adam was capable of discerning its structure. However, they would then insist that on account of the Fall, nature and particularly human nature were so radically altered and their underlying structure so irreparably twisted that either nature is no longer normative or that humans are no longer capable of distinguishing human nature from corrupted human nature. The Fall, of course, did radically alter nature such that the death principle and corruption are ubiquitous throughout the created and particularly human order. However, the OT sage's work depends upon the presence of both healthy tendencies and functioning (nature life) as well as unhealthy tendencies and dysfunction (the unnatural death) particularly within the organic world. This also corresponds with later Christian patristic doctrine which affirmed that evil and sin have no independent ontology but exist only as a privation or corruption of nature or of being (i.e. of what is good). Nature is good; the unnatural is evil. To sin is to misuse one's nature, to corrupt one's natural capacities, needs and tendencies. It is entirely wrongheaded according to the Hebrew cosmology and Christian doctrine to identify fallen, sinful nature and behavior as human "nature per. Rather, fallen human nature represents the corruption of "human natures in a similar way as cancer is the corruption of human tissue. Furthermore, it is equally wrongheaded according to the Hebrew cosmology to think that these normative notions of human "nature" and natural functioning involved in the image of God were utterly effaced in the fall. In fact, the Genesis writer apparently wants to make it clear that humans not only retain the image (cf. Gen. 5:3, 9:6) but are still intent on and have sufficient creation abilities - practical skills and theoretical knowledge - for building a culture (cf. Gen. 4:16-24, 10:10-12, 11:1-9). Of course, their culture is a failure in God's and the Genesis author's eyes inasmuch as it is characterized by pride and violence (Gen. 4:23-24, 6:1113, 11 :4). But this moral failure does not necessarily imply that fallen persons are incapable of recognizing moral knowledge and what is natural from what is unnatural, especially in light of the fact that they can still discover theoretical, technological and practical knowledge. There are clear examples in pagan literature unfamiliar with the Hebrew or Christian tradition which were capable of discerning wisdom or what is natural and healthy from folly or what is unnatural and unhealthy. This only goes to show that the human malady has more to do with agency than intellect.27 In particular, it is wrong to think that these normative notions of human "nature" and "natural" functioning were utterly effaced in the fall inasmuch as the Hebrew sage thinks he is capable of a science of values. 27 0f course, even the best of these accounts which recognized the wisdom structures in natural phenomena were not honest enough to also recognize the Creator of this structure who is just as evident in nature (Rom. 1:18ff.). In fact, the sage's natural and moral science are an extension of the fact that persons are still in the image of God and are capable of engaging in the Creation mandate to rule the earth and build a moral and spiritual culture in accordance with Gods intentions.28 In particular, his ability to discern values in nature and to distinguish the natural good from the unnatural bad is required for his science of values evident in the Wisdom literature and Proverbs. Thus, according to the sage, human moral failure is less an epistemological issue than it is a psychological one involving fallen propensities resulting in the corruption of self and others. Consequently, there are two impulses present in human persons: the unnatural, sinful or death impulse to violate one's own nature as well as others (dysfunction); the natural, obedience or life impulse to live in harmony with one's human nature as well as others (normal functioning). Constraints Thesis Though the scriptures and OT sage affirm a science of values, they also recognize with (IV) certain qualifications, constraints and limitations which must be explicitly addressed within this science on account of the nature of personal agency and the adverse effects of the fall. In the first place, though the sage or contemporary scientist must to a great degree rely upon her skills in observation and reflection, she also is aware of the moral and physical corruption of her creation abilities which adversely affect her work (Prov. 21:2, 19:21, 28:26). Thus, the social scientist must be cautious and aware of her own motivations. character, and general factors having to do with fatigue, weakness, pride, prejudice and a myriad of corrupt personal agendas which may adversely influence her efforts. 28 The work of the sage as natural and social scientist as well as contemporary efforts in the natural and social sciences, then, are grounded in the image of God and the creation mandate. In the OT economy, the priest as authority of Torah received his "call" or mandate from the scriptures while the prophet as authority of Word-revelation received a personal "calls from God Himself. However, the sage as authority of wisdom and counsel received his "calls to serve the believing community from the Creation mandate to build a culture and live well in all of nature under God (cf. Jer 18:18 and Ez 7:26). That is, the work of the sage is a natural concomitant to the development of any culture in which its members wish to discover how to live well in all areas of life. Discovering such wisdom was the task of the sage in the OT and it needs to be the task of Christian social scientists today. Of course, this is all in sharp contrast with the BC position. Secondly, the social scientist must be careful that her work and particularly her counsel does not conflict with Gods wisdom in nature and scriptures (fro v. 21:30). One's own circumstances, weaknesses and strengths can all too easily color one's moral science concerning what is thought to be healthy and pathological. Rather, her work and counsel should aim (implicitly and when appropriate explicitly) at a deeper experience of God for both herself and others (Prov 22:19). In general, the social scientist's relationship with God should in some sense color and frame her motivation and work. Thus, as with the Hebrew sage, the social scientist's identity and work is self-consciously covenantal in nature. Thirdly, according to the sage all of life is connoted in religious terms such that there is no secular sacred split. Right behavior in the market is holy and pleasing to God as is right behavior in the temple (fro v. 21:3, 11 :1). To translate this insight into terms relevant to psychology and psychotherapy, there is no distinction between the mental and spiritual human dimension. Recall from our discussion of the Hebrew cosmology that what is natural is normative. In that case, all forms of healthy functioning whether physical, interpersonal, or intrapsychic are "natural" and, hence, have their source in God and are good and pleasing to Him. All forms of unhealthy functioning (dysfunction) are Unnatural and, hence, bad, evil and displeasing to God. However, the belief that the mental and spiritual dimensions are coextensive with respect to human phenomena does not entail that all wise and legitimate forms of treatment are restricted to and focused upon medical and Divine intervention. I do not want to be misunderstood on this point. There are some counseling models which also identify the mental with the spiritual human dimension but in a different sense than I intend. That is, they claim that all non-organic problems are spiritual but in the sense that these problems can only legitimately and successfully be treated by prayer, meditation on scripture or various forms of warfare prayer which confront demonic oppression. These have their legitimate place in therapy when appropriate. And certainly the desire for God's personal intervention is always at least implicitly appropriate in the mind of the therapist. However, given that the natural is both normative and spiritual, human spiritual diagnosis and treatment also involve the insights and wisdom gained from a study of nature and particularly human nature. Not all personal healing and growth is the result of God's direct intervention. According to Proverbs, much personal healing and growth occurs on account of His providential care as evident when persons (a) discern and follow the wisdom and ordering structures governing human phenomena and (b) experience care and nurture from direct human intervention (von Rad, 1972).29 This in no way discounts the role of the Holy Spirit who works in conjunction with natural wisdom to renew the believer into the image of Christ, the Second Adam. Consequently, according to the OT sage, those counselors who affirm that all non-organic treatment of the human condition necessarily depend upon some sort of direct Divine intervention embrace an unwarranted form of reductionism. That is, they fail to realize that in many cases they would better please God and help their neighbor as well as themselves by also paying attention to God's wisdom staring at them from the doorposts of human phenomena (Prov. 8:34-35). 29 G. von Rad (Wisdom in Israel, 129) rightly points out that the OT Wisdom literature does not focus upon the doctrine of "divine retributions as much as a kind of providential retribution built into the natural order of things. With reference to a number of proverbs he comments that "These sentences are not concerned with a divine juridical act which subsequently deals out to men blessing or punishment, but with an order of life which can be experienced." J.L. Crenshaw ("Prolegomenon," 33-34) is also correct, however, that this judgment of wisdom evident within the created order bears witness to the fact of divine justice working within the natural order. A final caution or constraint that the OT sage and the contemporary social scientist should recognize is that a science of human nature and values can lead to a narrow, mechanistic and legalistic approach to understanding and treating the human condition. The sage and social scientist are intent on discovering the quasi-causal laws which govern human behavior. In fact, the sage is so thoroughly committed to her science of values just because she observes that the sow reap principle and ordering structure governing human phenomena can be so severe and highly probable in their outworking (fro v. 1:22ff). As a covenant member, the sage is thankful to God that humans are not merely condemned to the natural wisdom structures of sow reap which are blin