..Moreover, several lines of evidence demonstrate that transitions to asexuality result from two mechanisms: a complete spontaneous loss of sex and repeated gene flow from essentially asexual lineages into sexual ones...

Genetic architecture of sexual and asexual populations of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi based on allozyme and microsatellite markers

..Observed heterozygosities were from 0.021 to 0.760. These microsatellite markers should prove to be a useful tool for estimating the population genetic structure, host-plant specialization and migration capacity of this insect...