November 24 – Anna Sewell's novel Black Beauty, his grooms and companions: the autobiography of a horse "translated from the equine" is published by Jarrolds of Norwich in England. Her only book, published five months before her death arising from long-standing illness, it rapidly establishes its position as an all-time best-seller, going on to sell fifty million copies[4] and becoming the sixth best seller in the English language.[5]

^Johannsen, Albert (1950). "Wheeler, Edward L". The House of Beadle and Adams and its dime and nickel novels: the story of a vanished literature. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Libraries. Retrieved 2014-05-30.

1.
1870 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1871. March 7 – Thomas Hardy meets his first wife, Emma Gifford, march 28 – Serialisation of Kenward Philps The Bowery Detective in The Fireside Companion begins, the first known story to include the word detective in the title. April—September – Serialisation of Charles Dickens last novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood, spring – Serial publication begins of Aleksis Kivis only novel Seitsemän veljestä, the first significant Finnish language novel. September 17 – First performance of Alexander Pushkins play Boris Godunov at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg, september 20 – Friedrich Engels moves permanently to London from Manchester. December 18 – The Russian literary weekly Niva is first published by Adolf Marks in Saint Petersburg, karl May begins a second 4-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds, at Waldheim, Saxony. The David Sassoon Library in Bombay is completed

2.
1871 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1871. January 1 – The childrens literary magazine Young Folks begins publication in the United Kingdom as Our Young Folks Weekly Budget, january – John Ruskin begins publishing Fors Clavigera, his monthly letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain. November 25 – First performance of The Bells starring Henry Irving at the Lyceum Theatre, London, on the same night, he breaks up permanently with his wife when she criticises his choice of profession. December – Publication of George Eliots novel Middlemarch in eight parts commences, George Allen and Sons, publishers, predecessors of Allen & Unwin, established in London. Alcott – Little Men Lewis Carroll – Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There George MacDonald – At the Back of the North Wind Johanna Spyri – A Leaf on Vronys Grave W. S

3.
1872 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1872. March – Sheridan Le Fanus Gothic vampire novella Carmilla concludes serialization in the monthly The Dark Blue and is included in his collection In a Glass Darkly, set in Styria, it is influential in introducing the lesbian vampire genre. July 7 – Paul Verlaine abandons his family to go to London with Arthur Rimbaud, september 30 – George MacDonald arrives in Boston to begin a lecture tour of the United States. December 3 – George Smith presents the first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh to a meeting of the Society of Biblical Archaeology in London. December 22 – Jules Vernes novel Around the World in Eighty Days concludes serialization in the daily newspaper Le Temps the day following the date of the narrative. The Federation of Madrid expels all signatories of an article in La Emancipación. Benito Pérez Galdós begins writing the series of historical novels known as Episodios Nacionales with Trafalgar. Rose la Touche rejects John Ruskin for the last time, lafcadio Hearn becomes a reporter on the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer. The first university course in American Literature is taught at Princeton University by John Seely Hart, the Scottish Gaelic magazine Féillire is first published as Almanac Gàilig air son 1872 in Inverness. Machado de Assis – Ressurreição Mary Elizabeth Braddon – To the Bitter End Rhoda Broughton Good-bye, D.1 Warren Felt Evans – Mental Medicine Friedrich Nietzsche – The Birth of Tragedy Henry Wilson – History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, vols. 1 &2 January 31 – Zane Grey, American Western novelist April 4 – Frida Uhl, Austrian writer May 21 – Teffi, born Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya, Russian-born humorist May 31 – W. M

4.
1875 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1875. January 16 – Henry James Byrons comedy Our Boys opens at the Vaudeville Theatre in London and it becomes the worlds longest-running play up to this time, with 1,362 performances until April 1879. It also opens this year in New York, at the New Fifth Avenue Theatre, henley has also met his future wife while in hospital and written the poems collected as In Hospital. October 1 – American poet and short story writer Edgar Allan Poe is reburied in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Baltimore, Maryland, some controversy arises years later as to whether the correct body was exhumed. This introduces his innovative sprung rhythm and metre but, being rejected for publication in 1876, is not published until 1918, flammarion publishing house founded in Paris, France. Isaac K. Funk establishes the house of I. K. Funk & Company, predecessor of Funk & Wagnells, in the United States, caroline M. Hewins begins a childrens library in Hartford, Connecticut. Nebelspalter is founded by Jean Nötzli of Zürich as a humorous political weekly. W. Harrison Ainsworth – The Goldsmiths Wife R. D. J. W

5.
1881 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1881. February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert in France, april – William Poels production of Shakespeares Hamlet at St. Georges Hall, London, reverts to the first quarto text and avoids elaborate scene changes. April 23 – Gilbert and Sullivans Patience, a satire on Oscar Wilde and aestheticism, july 29 – Law on the Freedom of the Press passed in France. August 17 – The Pushkin Prize is established by the Russian Academy of Sciences, the first of the three-volume History of Woman Suffrage, is published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States, aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoys historical drama Tsar Boris receives its première, posthumously, at Anna Brenkos Pushkin Theater in Moscow. The literary review and movement La Jeune Belgique is founded by poet Max Waller, the Pali Text Society is founded by British scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids for the study of Pali texts. Dominics Mrs. G. John H. Watson first meet at Bart’s Hospital, London, prior to the events commencing on March 4 narrated in Conan Doyles A Study in Scarlet

6.
1876 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. February 24 – Première of first stage production of the poetic drama Peer Gynt by Henrik Ibsen with incidental music by Edvard Grieg, in Christiania, Norway. M. Moores first book of verse, The Sentimental Song Book, was published in Grand Rapids, and quickly went into a second printing. A copy fell into the hands of one James F. Ryder, Ryder sent out numerous review copies to newspapers across the country, with a cover letter filled with low key mock praise. And so Moore received national attention, following Ryders lead, contemporary reviews were amusedly negative. For instance, The Rochester Democrat wrote of Sweet Singer, that Shakespeare, could he read it, if Julia A. Moore would kindly deign to shed some of her poetry on our humble grave, we should be but too glad to go out and shoot ourselves tomorrow. Toru Dutt, A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, Verse Translations and Poems, Bhowanipur, Calcutta, B. M. J

7.
1877 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. In the annals of poetasting,1877 stands out as a historic year, so wrote William Topaz McGonagall a Scottish weaver, actor, and poet who would become comically renowned as one of the worst poets in the English language. Also this year Poetaster Julia A. Moore, following up on the renown of her first book of verse, The Sweet Singer of Michigan Salutes the Public of 1876, decided to appear before her public. She gave a reading and singing performance, with accompaniment, at a Grand Rapids, Michigan. Moore managed to interpret the jeering as criticism of the orchestra

8.
1877 in archaeology
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The year 1877 in archaeology involved some significant events. Artist and photographer William Henry Jackson participates in the Hayden Survey of the Western United States, producing maps of Chaco Canyon, french diplomat and archaeologist Ernest de Sarzec begins excavation at Girsu in Mesopotamia. City architect Charles Edward Davis begins extended excavation and reconstruction at the Roman Baths in England, george Smith excavates Later Stone Age tools in caves near Smithfield, Free State. John Postlethwaite - Mines and Mining in the Lake District, ephraim G. Squier - Peru, Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas

9.
1877 in architecture
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The year 1877 in architecture involved some significant events. Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, designed by Giuseppe Mengoni, is completed, galleria dellIndustria Subalpina in Turin, designed by Pietro Carrera, is completed. Manchester Town Hall in Manchester, England, designed by Alfred Waterhouse, is completed, trinity Church in the United States, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, is consecrated. New railway stations for the North Eastern Railway are completed at York, largely designed by Thomas Prosser, maria Pia Bridge in Porto, Portugal, built by Gustave Eiffel, is completed. Rebuilt Ardverikie House in Scotland, designed by John Rhind, is completed, march 22 - Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings established by William Morris and others meeting in Bloomsbury, London. Richard Norman Shaw appointed architect to Bedford Park, London, RIBA Royal Gold Medal - Charles Barry

11.
L'Assommoir
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LAssommoir is the seventh novel in Émile Zolas twenty-volume series Les Rougon-Macquart. LAssommoir begins with Gervaise and her two sons being abandoned by Lantier, who takes off for parts unknown with another woman. Though at first she swears off men altogether, eventually she gives in to the advances of Coupeau, a teetotal roofing engineer, and they are married. The marriage sequence is one of the most famous set-pieces of Zolas work, through a combination of happy circumstances, Gervaise is able to realise her dream and raise enough money to open her own laundry. The couples happiness appears to be complete with the birth of a daughter, Anna, however, later in the story, we witness the downward trajectory of Gervaises life from this happy high point. Coupeau is injured in a fall from the roof of a new hospital he is working on, in only a few months, Coupeau becomes a vindictive, wife-beating alcoholic, with no intention of trying to find more work. Gervaise struggles to keep her home together, but her excessive pride leads her to a number of embarrassing failures, Gervaise becomes infected by her husband’s newfound laziness and, in an effort to impress others, spends her money on lavish feasts, leading to uncontrolled debt. The home is disrupted by the return of Lantier, who is warmly welcomed by Coupeau - by this point losing interest in both Gervaise and life itself, and becoming seriously ill. The ensuing chaos and financial strain is too much for Gervaise, eventually, she too finds solace in drink and, like Coupeau, slides into heavy alcoholism. All this prompts Nana - already suffering from the life at home. Gervaise’s story is told against a backdrop of an array of other well drawn characters with their own vices and idiosyncrasies. Notable amongst these being Goujet, a metal worker, who wastes his life in unconsummated love of the hapless laundress. Eventually, sunk by debt, hunger and alcohol Coupeau and Gervaise both die, the latter’s corpse lying for days in her unkempt hovel before it is even noticed by her disdaining neighbours. His shocking descriptions of conditions in working-class 19th-century Paris drew widespread admiration for his realism, LAssommoir was taken up by temperance workers across the world as a tract against the dangers of alcoholism, though Zola always insisted there was considerably more to his novel than that. The novelist also drew criticism from some quarters for the depth of his reporting, either for being too coarse, Zola rejected both these criticisms out of hand, his response was simply that he had presented a true picture of real life. The title LAssommoir cannot be translated into English. It is adapted from the French verb assommer meaning to stun or knock out, perhaps the closest equivalent terms in English are the slang adjectives hammered and plastered. In the absence of a noun, English translators have rendered it as The Dram Shop, The Gin Palace, The Drunkard

12.
Les Rougon-Macquart
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Les Rougon-Macquart is the collective title given to a cycle of twenty novels by French writer Émile Zola. Early in his life, Zola discovered the work of Honoré de Balzac and this had a profound impact on Zola, who decided to write his own, unique cycle. However, in 1869, he explained in Différences entre Balzac et moi, why he would not make the kind of book as Balzac, In one word. My work, mine, will be something else entirely, I dont want to describe the contemporary society, but a single family, showing how the race is modified by the environment. My big task is to be strictly naturalist, strictly physiologist, as a naturalist writer, Zola was highly interested by science and especially the problem of heredity and evolution. He notably read and mentioned the work of the doctor Prosper Lucas, Claude Bernard and this led him to think that people are heavily influenced by heredity and their environment. He intended to prove this by showing how these two factors could influence the members of a family, in a letter to his publisher, Zola stated his goals for the Rougon-Macquart, 1° To study in a family the questions of blood and environments. 2° To study the whole Second Empire, from the coup détat to nowadays, since his first goal was to show how heredity can affect the lives of descendants, Zola started working on the Rougon-Macquart by drawing the family tree for the Rougon-Macquart. Though it was to be modified many times over the years, with some members appearing or disappearing, the original tree shows how Zola planned the whole cycle before writing the first book. The tree provides the name and date of birth of each member, along with properties of his heredity and his life, The prepotency. It is part of a theory that tries to determine how heredity transmits traits through generations. Zola apply this theory to the state of his protagonists and uses terms from the work of the doctor Lucas, Election du père, Election de la mère. Physical likeness, Whether the member looks like his mother or his father, biographical information, his job and important facts of his life. Additionally, for still living at the end of Le Docteur Pascal. Otherwise, the date of death is included, soldat To study the Second Empire, Zola thought of each novel as a novel about a specific aspect of the life in his time. For example, in the list he made in 1872, he intended to make a novel, a novel about the defeat, a scientific novel. The first three ideas led to Son Excellence Eugène Rougon, La Débâcle, and Le Docteur Pascal, however, the last idea would never be made into a book. Indeed, at the beginning, Zola didnt know exactly how many books he would write, in the first letter to his publisher, he mentioned ten episodes

13.
Robert Louis Stevenson
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Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson was a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer. His most famous works are Treasure Island, Kidnapped, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, a literary celebrity during his lifetime, Stevenson now ranks as the 26th most translated author in the world. M. Barrie, and G. K. Chesterton, who said of him that he seemed to pick the word up on the point of his pen. Stevenson was born at 8 Howard Place, Edinburgh, Scotland, on 13 November 1850, to Thomas Stevenson, a lighthouse engineer. He was christened Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson, at about age 18, Stevenson was to change the spelling of Lewis to Louis, and in 1873, he dropped Balfour. Lighthouse design was the profession, Thomass father was the famous Robert Stevenson. Indeed, even Thomass maternal grandfather, Thomas Smith, had been in the same profession, however, Roberts mothers family were not of the same profession. Margarets natal family, the Balfours, were gentry, tracing their lineage back to a certain Alexander Balfour who had held the lands of Inchyra in Fife in the fifteenth century. Margarets father, Lewis Balfour, was a minister of the Church of Scotland at nearby Colinton, and her siblings included the physician George William Balfour, Stevenson spent the greater part of his boyhood holidays in his maternal grandfathers house. Now I often wonder, wrote Stevenson, what I inherited from this old minister, I must suppose, indeed, that he was fond of preaching sermons, and so am I, though I never heard it maintained that either of us loved to hear them. Lewis Balfour and his daughter both had weak chests, so they often needed to stay in warmer climates for their health, Stevenson inherited a tendency to coughs and fevers, exacerbated when the family moved to a damp, chilly house at 1 Inverleith Terrace in 1851. The family moved again to the sunnier 17 Heriot Row when Stevenson was six years old, illness would be a recurrent feature of his adult life and left him extraordinarily thin. Contemporary views were that he had tuberculosis, but more recent views are that it was bronchiectasis or even sarcoidosis, Stevensons parents were both devout and serious Presbyterians, but the household was not strict in its adherence to Calvinist principles. His nurse, Alison Cunningham, was fervently religious. Her Calvinism and folk beliefs were a source of nightmares for the child. But she also cared for him tenderly in illness, reading to him from Bunyan, Stevenson recalled this time of sickness in The Land of Counterpane in A Childs Garden of Verses, dedicating the book to his nurse. In any case, his frequent illnesses often kept him away from his first school and he was a late reader, first learning at age seven or eight, but even before this he dictated stories to his mother and nurse. He compulsively wrote stories throughout his childhood and his father was proud of this interest, he had also written stories in his spare time until his own father found them and told him to give up such nonsense and mind your business

14.
Leo Tolstoy
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Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828, he is best known for the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, often cited as pinnacles of realist fiction. He first achieved acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth. Tolstoys fiction includes dozens of stories and several novellas such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness. He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays, in the 1870s Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed by what he regarded as an equally profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession. His literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. Tolstoy also became an advocate of Georgism, the economic philosophy of Henry George. Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres southwest of Tula, the Tolstoys were a well-known family of old Russian nobility, tracing their ancestry to a mythical Lithuanian noble Indris. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Tolstoys parents died when he was young, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In 1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan University and his teachers described him as both unable and unwilling to learn. Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much of his time in Moscow, in 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the army. It was about time that he started writing. Others who followed the path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed an execution in Paris. Writing in a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere. Tolstoys concept of non-violence or Ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural and he later instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice. His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugos newly finished Les Misérables, the similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugos novel and Tolstoys War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoys political philosophy was influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

15.
Anna Karenina
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Anna Karenina is a novel by the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, published in serial installments from 1873 to 1877 in the periodical The Russian Messenger. Tolstoy clashed with editor Mikhail Katkov over political issues that arose in the installment, therefore. Widely regarded as a pinnacle in realist fiction, Tolstoy considered Anna Karenina his first true novel, after he came to consider War, fyodor Dostoyevsky declared it flawless as a work of art. His opinion was shared by Vladimir Nabokov, who admired the flawless magic of Tolstoys style, and by William Faulkner. The novel remains popular, as demonstrated by a 2007 Time poll of 125 contemporary authors in which Anna Karenina was voted the greatest book ever written, Princess Anna Arkadyevna Karenina, Stepan Oblonskys sister, Karenins wife and Vronskys lover. Count Alexei Kirillovich Vronsky, Lover of Anna, a cavalry officer Prince Stepan Stiva Arkadyevich Oblonsky, a servant and Annas brother. His nickname is a Russianized form of Steve, Princess Darya Dolly Alexandrovna Oblonskaya, Stepans wife,33 Count Alexei Alexandrovich Karenin, a senior statesman and Annas husband, twenty years her senior. Konstantin Kostya Dmitrievich Lëvin/Lyovin, Kittys suitor, old friend of Stiva, Nikolai Dmitrievich Lëvin/Lyovin, Konstantins elder brother, an impoverished alcoholic. Sergej Ivanovich Koznyshev, Konstantins half-brother, a writer,40. Princess Ekaterina Kitty Alexandrovna Shcherbatskaya, Dollys younger sister and later Levins wife,18, although Vronsky and Anna go to Italy, where they can be together, they have trouble making friends. Back in Russia, she is shunned, becoming isolated and anxious. Despite Vronskys reassurances, she grows increasingly possessive and paranoid about his imagined infidelity, a parallel story within the novel is that of Konstantin Levin, a wealthy country landowner who wants to marry Princess Kitty, sister to Dolly and sister-in-law to Annas brother Oblonsky. Konstantin has to propose twice before Kitty accepts, the novel details Konstantins difficulties managing his estate, his eventual marriage, and his personal issues, until the birth of his first child. The novel explores a range of topics throughout its approximately one thousand pages. The novel is divided into eight parts and its epigraph is Vengeance is mine, I will repay, from Romans 12,19, which in turn quotes from Deuteronomy 32,35. Dolly has discovered his affair with the governess, and the household. Stiva informs the household that his sister, Princess Anna Arkadyevna Karenina, is coming to visit from Saint Petersburg. Meanwhile, Stivas childhood friend, Konstantin Dmitrievich Levin, arrives in Moscow with the aim of proposing to Dollys youngest sister, Levin is a passionate, restless, but shy aristocratic landowner who, unlike his Moscow friends, chooses to live in the country on his large estate

16.
The Russian Messenger
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The Russian Messenger or Russian Herald has been the title of three notable magazines published in Russia during the 19th century and early 20th century. Since 1991, in Moscow, a new publication named the Russian Messenger has appeared once again and it is published weekly and its editor-in-chief from 1991-2013 was Alexei Senin, from 2014 Oleg Platonov. The first publishing period of the Russian Messenger falls within the period 1808 to 1820, relocated to Moscow, the monthly journal was edited by writer Sergey Glinka. It was sponsored by the minister and adjutant general Count Fyodor Rostopchin, the second publishing period falls in the years from 1841 to 1844 and appeared in Saint Petersburg. On its creation, the publisher, editor, journalist and publicist Nikolay Gretsch and writer, playwright, journalist, another employee was the historian Ivan Snegiryov. The third publishing period of the Russian Messenger falls in the years from 1856 to 1887, appeared in Moscow, and 1887 to 1906, appeared in St. Petersburg. The magazine was founded in 1856 by a group of writers and scholars, among them as an editor Mikhail Katkov. In 1887 it was bought by Count Friedrich von Berg and moved to Saint Petersburg, but later he abandoned the magazine due to the lack of finances, and eventually the magazine was shut down. It is published weekly as a national newspaper and its editor-in-chief from 1991 to 2013 was Alexei Senin. The newspaper has the motto Those who love the Tsar and Russia, another theme of the newspaper should strike deep into old wounds, reunion with Little Russia and Belarus as legitimate union of unjustly separated people. All these aspects, so the self-statement continues, should be treated in terms of a rebirth of the Orthodox faith in Russia. Russian Messenger online the Russian Messenger - information page

17.
Deadwood Dick
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Deadwood Dick is a fictional character who appears in a series of stories, or dime novels, published between 1877 and 1897 by Edward Lytton Wheeler. The name became so known in its time that it was used to advantage by several men who actually resided in Deadwood. He was dubbed Deadwood Dick by fellow gamblers, Palmer was the hero of Beadles half-dime novels. Clarkes work was managed by publicity man Bert Bell, among other assignments, Clarke was sent east to invite then-U. S. Clarke appreciated the celebrity status so much that he continued playing Deadwood Dick until his death on May 5,1930 Cornishman Richard Bullock, gunman and bullion guard on the Deadwood Stage. Others more briefly associated with the name were Richard Palmer, who died in Cripple Creek, Colorado, in 1906, and Robert Dickey, who died in a Denver hospital jail in 1912. In the story line, Deadwood Dick is created by the town leaders because so many tourists come to Deadwood, soon Buffalo Bill invites Deadwood Dick to join the Wild West Show. Deadwood Dick, invigorated by a burst of courage, saves the town banker in a hold-up and promises to return to Deadwood, full-text issues of Deadwood Dick Library at Northern Illinois University

18.
American frontier
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Frontier refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. As defined by Hine and Faragher, frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states. They explain, It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, thus, Turners Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said, No other nation has taken a time and place from its past, the frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s, Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the frontier line as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The West was the settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered western, have a frontier heritage along with the western states. In the 21st century, however, the term American West is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River, in the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they settled down. French settlement was limited to a few small villages such as Kaskaskia. They created a rural settlement in upstate New York. Areas in the north that were in the stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, the class of landless poor was small. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming, there might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor, and there were a number of landless laborers. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were transformed into plantation agriculture