ISBN 978-1-4419-9712-8
e-ISBN 978-1-4419-9713-5
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9713-5
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Preface
The Dictionary of Food Ingredients is a unique, easy-to-use source of
information on over 1,000 food ingredients and additives. Like the
previous editions, the fifth edition provides clear and concise information on currently used additives, including natural ingredients, FDAapproved artificial ingredients, and compounds used in food processing.
The dictionary entries, organized in alphabetical order, include information on ingredient functions, chemical properties, and uses in food
products. This revised and updated fifth edition also features a new
section, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food Definitions and Formulations,â&#x20AC;? a thoroughly expanded
list of food ingredients approved for use in the European Union, with
E numbers, as well as new information on existing and more recently
approved ingredients.
Users of the four previous editions have commented favorably on
the dictionaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s straightforward and clearly written definitions, and so
I have endeavored to maintain that standard in this new edition. My
hope is that this book will continue to be a valuable reference for the
food scientist, food processor, food product developer, nutritionist,
extension specialist, food customer service personnel, and student.
Robert S. Igoe

Part IV— Additives/Substances for Use in Foods:
Listed under Title 21 of the Code
of Federal Regulations........................................ 207
Part 73—Listing of Color Additives Exempt
from Certification......................................................
Part 74—Listing of Color Additives Subject
to Certification...........................................................
Part 82—Listing of Certified Provisionally
Listed Colors and Specifications................................
Part 172—Food Additives Permitted for Direct
Addition to Food for Human Consumption.............
Part 182—Substances Generally
Recognized as Safe......................................................
Part 184—Direct Food Substances Affirmed
as Generally Recognized as Safe.................................
Part 186—Indirect Food Substances Affirmed
as Generally Recognized as Safe.................................

209
210
212
213
219
222
228

Part V— Food Additives E Numbers in the
European Union.................................................. 231

Dictionary of Food Ingredients
c­ atalysts or by the direct acetylation of edible monoglycerides with
acetic anhydride without the use of catalysts. It is characterized by
sharp melting points, stability to oxidative rancidity, film forming,
stabilizing, and lubricating properties. It is used as a protective coating for meat products, nuts, and fruits to improve their appearance,
texture, and shelf life. The coatings are applied by spraying, panning, and dipping. It is used in cake shortening and fats for whipped
topping to enhance the aeration and improve foam stabilization.
It is found in dry-mix whipped topping.

Acetyl Tartrate Mono- and Diglyceride—See Diacetyl Tartaric
Acid Esters of Mono- and Diglycerides.
Acid Calcium Phosphate—See Monocalcium Phosphate.
Acid Casein—The principle milk protein which is prepared from
skim milk by precipitation with an acid, such as lactic, sulfuric, or
hydrochloric acid, to lower the pH of the milk to 4.4–4.7. Caseins
are identified according to the type of acid used, but in this form
have little utility in foods, though they are used to some extent in
cereal and bread fortification. Neutralization of the caseins yields
the salts of which sodium and calcium caseinates are the most common. See Casein.
Acid-Modified Corn Starch—See Cornstarch, Acid-Modified.
Acid Sodium Pyrophosphate—See Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate.
Acidulants—Acids used in processed foods for a variety of functions
that enhance the food. They are used as flavoring agents, preservatives in microbial control, chelating agents, buffers, gelling and
coagulating agents, and in many other ways.
Aconitic Acid—A flavoring substance which occurs in the leaves and
tubers of Aconitum napellus L. and other Ranunculaceae. Transaconitic
acid can be isolated during sugar cane processing, by precipitation
as the calcium salt from cane sugar or molasses. It may be synthesized by sulfuric acid dehydration of citric acid but not by the methanesulfonic acid method. It is used in a maximum level, as served,
of 0.003% for baked goods, 0.002% for alcoholic beverages, 0.0015%
for frozen dairy products, 0.0035% for soft candy, and 0.0005% or
less for all other food categories.

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Acrolein—This is used in the etherification of food starch up to 0.6%
and for the esterification and etherification of food starch up to
0.3% with vinyl acetate up to 7.5%.
Adipic Acid—An acidulant and flavoring agent. It is characterized as
stable, nonhygroscopic, and slightly soluble, with a water solubility
of 1.9 g/100 ml at 20°C. It has a pH of 2.86 at 0.6% usage level at
25°C. It is used in powdered drinks, beverages, gelatin desserts, lozenges, and canned vegetables. It is also used as a leavening acidulant
in baking powder. It can be used as a buffering agent to maintain
acidities within a range of pH 2.5–3.0. It is occasionally used in edible oils to prevent rancidity.
Adipic Anhydride—An esterifier for food starch in combination
with acetic anhydride.
Agar—A gum obtained from red seaweeds of the genera Gelidium,
Gracilaria, and Eucheuma, class Rhodophyceae. It is a mixture of the
polysaccharides agarose and agaropectin. It is insoluble in cold
water, slowly soluble in hot water, and soluble in boiling water,
forming a gel upon cooling. The gels are characterized as being
tough and brittle, setting at 32–40°C, and melting at 95°C. A rigid,
tough gel can be formed at 0.5%. Agar mainly functions in gel formation because of its range between melting and setting temperatures, being used in piping gels, glazes, icings, dental impression
material, and microbiological plating. Typical use levels are
0.1–2.0%.
Agar-Agar—See Agar.
Agave Nectar—A sweetener obtained from the core of the Blue Agave
(botanical name: Agave tequilana Weber). It is predominantly fructose and is approximately 30% sweeter than sugar on a relative
sweetness basis. It is a good source of inulin. It functions as a sweetener, flavor enhancer, and fermentation aid. Also termed agave
syrup.
Albumin—Any of several water-soluble proteins that are coagulated
by heat and are found in egg white, blood serum, and milk. Milk
albumin is termed lactalbumin and milk albuminate and it contains
28–35% protein and 38–52% lactose. It is used as a binder in imitation sausage, soups, and stews.
Aldehyde C-9—See Nonanal.
Aldehyde C-16—See Ethyl-Methyl-Phenyl-Glycidate.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Aldehyde C-18—See (Gamma)-Nonalactone.
Algin—Gum derived from alginic acid which is obtained from brown
seaweed genera, such as Macrocystis pyrifera. The derivatives are
sodium, ammonium, and potassium alginates of which the sodium
salt is most common. They are used to provide thickening, gelling,
and binding. A derivative designed for improved acid and calcium
stability is propylene glycol alginate. The algins are soluble in cold
water and form nonthermoreversible gels in reaction with calcium
ions and under acidic conditions. Algin is used in ice cream, icings,
puddings, dessert gels, and fabricated fruit.
Alginate—A gum derived from alginic acid that is used to provide
thickening, gelling, and binding. See Algin.
Alginic Acid—The acidic, insoluble form of algin that is a white to
yellowish fibrous powder obtained from brown seaweed genera,
such as Macrocystis pyrifera. The derivatives are soluble and include
sodium, potassium, and ammonium alginate and propylene glycol
alginate. It is used as a tablet disintegrant and as an antacid
ingredient.
All-Purpose Flour—A flour that is intermediate between long-patent flours (bread flour) which contain more than 10.5% protein and
0.40–0.50% ash and short-patent flours (cake flour) which generally
contain less than 10% protein and less than 0.40% ash. It is made
from hard or soft wheat and is used in baking and in gravies. It is
also termed family flour.
Allspice—A spice made from the dried, nearly ripe berries of Pimenta
officinalis, a tropical evergreen tree. It has an aroma and flavor resembling that of a blend of nutmeg, cinnamon, and cloves. For labeling
purposes, allspice refers to the spice of Jamaican origin. It is used in
fruit pies, cakes, mincemeat, plum pudding, soups, and sauces.
Allyl Anthranilate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a light yellow colored liquid of green leaf-wine odor. It is stable but may cause
discoloration. It should be stored in glass or tin containers. It is used
as flavoring for its wine note and has application in beverages and
candy at 1–2 ppm.
Allyl Caproate—See Allyl Hexanoate.
Allyl Cinnamate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a fairly stable,
hazy, colorless to light yellow colored liquid of cherry odor. It is

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used for its cherry note in flavors and has application in baked goods
and candies at 1–2 ppm.
Allyl-2,4-Hexadienoate—See Allyl Sorbate.
Allyl Hexanoate—A liquid flavoring agent with a strong pineapple
odor and pale yellow color. It is practically insoluble in propylene
glycol and miscible with alcohol, most fixed oils, and mineral oil.
It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It can be used alone or in combination with other flavoring substances or adjuvants. It is also
termed allyl caproate.
Allyl Isothiocyanate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately stable, colorless to pale yellow liquid of pungent and irritating
odor. It should be stored in glass containers. It is used as an artificial
oil of mustard and as an imitation horseradish flavor with application in condiments, meats, and pickles at 87 ppm. It is also termed
mustard oil.
Allyl Isovalerate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass
or tin containers. It has usage in fruit flavors with applications in
beverages, baked goods, ice cream, and candy at 8–50 ppm.
Allyl Mercaptan—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of garlic-like odor. It should be stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in artificial garlic flavors for application in
condiments at 3 ppm, and in baked goods at 2 ppm. It is also termed
2 propylene-1 thiol.
Allyl Nonanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity-cognac odor. It should be stored
in glass or tin containers. It is used in fruit flavors like melon and
pineapple for application in candy, ice cream, and beverages at
0.70–5 ppm.
Allyl Octanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a colorless to
light yellow liquid and has a fruity odor. It is alkali and mineral acid
unstable and should be stored in glass, tin, or resin-lined containers.
It is used to give flavors a fruity note and has application in dessert
gels, puddings, beverages, and candy at 3–25 ppm.
Allyl Phenoxyacetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless to light yellow liquid of heavy fruit note odor. It should be
stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in pineapple, quince, and
fruit flavors with applications in candy and beverages at 1–3 ppm.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Allyl Phenylacetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless to light yellow liquid with a fruity odor of banana and
honey. It should be stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in
flavors for honey and has application in candy and baked goods at
10–15 ppm.
Allyl Sorbate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a colorless to light
yellow liquid of sharp fruity odor. It is subject to polymerization and
should be stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in pineapple
and other fruit flavors which have application in puddings, candy,
and beverages at 1–2 ppm. It is also termed allyl-2,4-hexadienoate.
Almond—A nut obtained from the almond tree Prunus amygdalus.
It exists as a sweet or bitter variety, with the sweet variety being used
as edible nuts and the bitter variety being used as a source of almond
oil. The obtainable forms range from whole nuts to slices to powder.
The nuts are used as snacks, as a garnish on pastries, and as a
flavorant.
Almond Oil—The oil of the bitter almond after the removal of hydrocyanic acid. It is a colorless to slightly yellow liquid having a strong
principally almond-like aroma. It is used mainly in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry and also as a food flavoring agent.
Almond Paste—A paste made by cooking sweet and bitter almonds
which have been ground and blanched in combination with sugar.
It consists approximately of two parts almond to one part sugar. It is
used in pastries and cakes.
Alpha-Tocopherol—See Tocopherol.
Alum—A preservative, the inclusive term for several aluminum-type
compounds such as aluminum sulfate and aluminum potassium
sulfate. It is used with EDTA to prevent discoloration of potatoes
and to maintain the firmness of shrimp packs. It is also used in pickles and pickle relish.
Aluminum Ammonium Sulfate—A general purpose food additive
that functions as a buffer and neutralizing agent. Its solubility is 1 g
in 7 ml of water at 25°C and 1 g in 0.3 ml of boiling water. It is used
in baking powders.
Aluminum Calcium Silicate—An anticaking agent used in vanilla
powder. It is also used in salt up to 2%.

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Aluminum Nicotinate—The aluminum salt of nicotinic acid. It is a
source of niacin in foods of special dietary use.
Aluminum Oleate—The aluminum salt of oleic acid which is used
as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent. It is practically insoluble in water.
Aluminum Sodium Sulfate—A general purpose food additive that
functions as a buffer, neutralizing agent, and firming agent. It is
anhydrous and slowly soluble in water. The dodecahydrate form is
readily soluble in water. It is also termed soda alum.
Aluminum Sulfate—A starch modifier and firming agent. The
anhydrous form has a slow rate of solution while the hydrate form
has a solubility of 1 g in approximately 2 ml of water and a 1% solution pH of approximately 3.5. It is used up to 2% in combination
with not more than 2% of 1-octenyl succinic anhydride. It is used as
a firming agent in pickle and vegetable processing and as a processing aid in baked goods, gelatins, and puddings.
Amidated Pectin—The low-methoxyl pectin that results when some
of the methoxyl groups are transformed into amide groups during
deesterification with ammonia. These pectins function best in applications between 30 and 65% soluble solids content and pH 3.0–4.5.
They usually require no more calcium ions than are already present
in the fruit to obtain gelation. The gels formed are heat reversible.
Below pH 3.5, the gels are rigid and rubbery; above pH 3.5, the gels
are spreadable. Applications include flans and tart glazing. See
Pectin.
Amino Acids—The food additive amino acids may be safely used as
nutrients added to foods. The food additive consists of one or more
of the following individual amino acids in the free, hydrated, or
anhydrous form or as the hydrochloride, sodium, or potassium salts:
l-alanine, l-arginine, l-asparagine, l-aspartic acid, l-cysteine, l-cystine, l-glutamic acid, l-glutamine, aminoacetic acid (glycine), l-histidine, l-isoleucine, l-leucine, l-lysine, dl-methionine (not for infant
foods), l-methionine, l-phenylalanine, l-proline, l-serine, l-threonine, l-tryptophan, l-tyrosine, or l-valine. The additive(s) is used to
significantly improve the biological quality of the total protein in a
food containing naturally occurring, primarily intact protein that is
considered a significant dietary protein source. The amount of the
additive added for nutritive purposes plus the amount naturally
present in free and combined (as protein) form should not exceed

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

the levels of amino acids expressed as percent by weight of the total
protein of the finished food.
Amioca—See Waxy Maize Starch.
Ammoniated Glycyrrhizin—See Glycyrrhizin.
Ammonium Alginate—A gum that is the ammonium salt of alginic
acid. It is cold water soluble and forms viscous solutions. It functions as a stabilizer and thickener and its uses include bakery fillings, gravies, and toppings.
Ammonium Bicarbonate—A dough strengthener, a leavening
agent, a pH control agent, and a texturizer. Prepared by reacting
gaseous carbon dioxide with aqueous ammonia. Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate are precipitated from solution and subsequently
washed and dried.
Ammonium Carbonate—A dough strengthener, a leavening agent,
a pH control agent, and a texturizer. It is prepared by the sublimation of a mixture of ammonium sulfate and calcium carbonate, and
occurs as a white powder or a hard, white translucent mass.
Ammonium Caseinate—The ammonium salt of casein. It has a
high nutritional value and low sodium content and is used in foods
and pharmaceuticals. See Caseinates.
Ammonium Chloride—A dough conditioner and yeast food that
exists as colorless crystals or white crystalline powder. Approximately
30–38 g dissolves in water at 25°C. The pH of a 1% solution at 25°C
is 5.2. It is used as a dough strengthener and flavor enhancer in
baked goods and as a nitrogen source for yeast fermentation. It is
also used in condiments and relishes. Another term for the salt is
ammonium muriate.
Ammonium Citrate, Dibasic—A flavor enhancer and pH control
agent. It is the diammonium salt of citric acid, being prepared by
partially neutralizing citric acid with ammonia. It is used in nonalcoholic beverages and certain cheeses.
Ammonium Glutamate—See Monoammonium l-Glutamate.
Ammonium Hydroxide—An alkaline that is a clear, colorless solution of ammonia which is used as a leavening agent, a pH control
agent, and a surface finishing agent. It is used in baked goods, cheese,
puddings, processed fruits, and in the production of caramels.

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Ammonium Muriate—See Ammonium Chloride.
Ammonium Persulfate—A bleaching agent for food starch that is
used up to 0.075% and with sulfur dioxide up to 0.05%.
Ammonium Phosphate Dibasic—A general purpose food additive
that is readily soluble in water, with approximately 57 g dissolving
in 100 g of water at 0°C. A 1% solution has a pH of 7.6–8.2. It is used
as a dough strengthener, firming agent, leavening agent, and pH
control agent. Its uses include baked goods, alcoholic beverages,
condiments, and puddings. In bakery products, up to 0.25 part per
100 parts by weight of flour is used.
Ammonium Phosphate Monobasic—A general purpose food
additive which is readily soluble in water. A 1% solution has a pH of
4.3–5.0. It is used as a dough strengthener and leavening agent in
baked goods and as a firming agent and pH control agent in condiments and puddings. It is also used in baking powder with sodium
bicarbonate and as a yeast food.
Ammonium Phosphatide—An emulsifier which is a mixture of
ammonium salts and phosphorylated glycerides. It is used in chocolate to reduce the viscosity. It is also used in vegetable fat coatings. It
can be used with lecithin and PGPR (Polyglycerol polyricinoleate).
Ammonium Sulfate—A dough conditioner, firming agent, and processing aid which is readily soluble in water with a solubility of
approximately 70 g in 100 g of water at 0°C. The pH of a 0.1 molar
solution in water is approximately 5.5. It is used in caramel production and as a source of nitrogen for yeast fermentation. In bakery
products, up to 0.25 part per 100 parts by weight of flour is used.
Ammonium Sulfite—An additive used in the production of
caramel.
Amylcinnamaldehyde—A flavoring agent that is a yellow liquid
with an odor similar to jasmine. It is insoluble in glycerin and
­propylene, soluble in fixed oils and mineral oil. It is obtained by
chemical synthesis. It can be used alone or in combination with
other flavoring substances or adjuvants. It is also termed
amylcinnomaldehyde.
Anhydrous Milkfat—See Butter Oil.
Anise—A spice that is the dried, ripe fruit of Pimpinella anisum, a small
herb. The flavor is similar to fennel or licorice while the seed

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

r­ esembles caraway seed. It is used in beverages, soups, candy, liquors,
and sweet pastries.
Anise Aldehyde—See p-Methoxybenzaldehyde.
Anisyl Butyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of sweet cassic odor. It should be stored in glass or tin
containers. It will intensify vanilla flavor and is used as a fixative.
It is used in ice cream, candy, and baked goods at 5–15 ppm.
Anisyl Formate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a fairly stable,
colorless to light yellow liquid of floral odor. It should be stored in
glass, tin, or resin-lined containers. It is used in berry flavors for
applications in beverages, candy, and baked goods at 3–10 ppm.
Anisyl Propionate—A synthetic flavoring agent this is a stable, colorless liquid with a heliotrope odor. It should be stored in glass or
tin containers. It is used in small concentrations to intensify vanilla,
plum, and quince flavor for applications in beverages, baked goods,
and candy at 6–20 ppm.
Annatto—A color source of yellowish to reddish-orange color
obtained from the seed coating of the tree Bixa orellanna. The oilsoluble annatto consists mainly of bixin, a carotenoid soluble in fats
and oils with the color which is produced in the fat portion of the
food. It has a yellow hue, very good oxidation stability, fair light
stability, and good heat stability, but it is unstable above 125°C. The
water-soluble annatto is norbixin (the product resulting when bixin
is saponified and the methylethyl group is split off) which is dissolved as a potassium salt in lye. It is readily soluble in aqueous
alkalis with the coloring occurring in the protein and starch fraction
of the food. It has a yellow to orange hue and precipitates in most
acid foods. The usage level is 0.5–10 ppm in the finished food. It is
used in sausage casings, oleomargarine, shortening, and cheese.
Annatto Extract—See Bixin.
Anoxomer—A nondigestible, polymeric antioxidant used in food at
a level of not more than 5,000 ppm based on fat and oil content of
the food.
Anticaking Agents and Free-Flow Agents—Substances added to
finely powdered or crystalline food products to prevent caking,
lumping, or agglomeration. Agents include calcium silicate, iron
ammonium citrate, silicon dioxide, and yellow prussiate of soda.

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Antimicrobial Agents—See Preservatives.
Antioxidants—Substances used to preserve food by retarding deterioration, rancidity, or discoloration due to oxidation. The most
commonly used antioxidant formulations contain combinations of
BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene),
and propyl gallate. Natural antioxidants such as tocopherols and
guaiac gum usually lack the potency of BHA, BHT, and propyl gallate combinations. Antioxidants are effective at low concentrations,
that is, 0.02% or less.
Apple Vinegar—See Cider Vinegar.
Arabic—A gum obtained from breaks or wounds in the bark of Acacia
trees. It dissolves in hot or cold water forming clear solutions which
can be up to 50% gum acacia. The solubility in water increases with
temperature. It is used in confectionary glazes to retard or prevent
sugar crystallization and acts as an emulsifier to prevent fat from
forming an oxidizable, greasy film. It functions as a flavor fixative in
spray-drying to form a thin film around the flavor particle. It also
functions as an emulsifier in flavor emulsions, as a cloud agent in
beverages, and as a form stabilizer. It is also termed acacia.
Arabinogalactan—A gum, being the plant extract obtained from
larch trees. It is soluble in hot and cold water, the water solutions up
to 60% being fluid and above 60% forming a thick paste. It is stable
over a wide pH range and is relatively unaffected by electrolytes. Its
limited uses include dressings and pudding mixes. It is also termed
larch gum.
Arginine—A nonessential amino acid that exists as white crystals or
powder. It is soluble in water. It is used to improve the biological
quality of the total protein in a food which contains naturally occurring primarily intact proteins and as a nutrient and dietary
supplement.
Arrowroot—A starch obtained from Mananta arundinacea, a perennial that produces starchy rhizomes. It is neutral in flavor and of
clear color. It is used as a thickener, using one-third to one-half as
much as the flour or cornstarch level. It is used in fruit sauce, pie
fillings, and puddings.
Artificial Coloring—See Colors and Coloring Adjuncts.
Artificial Flavors—See Flavoring Agents and Adjuvants.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Ascorbic Acid—It is termed vitamin C, a water-soluble vitamin that
prevents scurvy, helps maintain the body’s resistance to infection,
and is essential for healthy bones and teeth. It is the most easily
destroyed vitamin and processing is recommended in stainless steel
or glass. Storage at below −18°C is recommended. In its dry form it
is nonreactive, but in solution it readily reacts with atmospheric
oxygen and other oxidizing agents. One part ascorbic acid is equivalent to one part erythorbic acid. It is used as a vitamin supplement
in beverages, potato flakes, and breakfast foods; and as a dough conditioning agent to strengthen and condition bread roll doughs. It is
also used as an antioxidant to increase shelf life in canned and frozen processed foods. It is used in conjunction with BHA, BHT, and
propyl gallate to regenerate them following the chemical changes
they undergo when they prevent fat rancidity in bologna and other
meats. Other forms of ascorbic acid are isoascorbic (erythorbic) acid,
sodium ascorbate, and sodium isoascorbate.
Ascorbyl Palmitate—An antioxidant formed by combining ascorbic acid with palmitic acid. Ascorbic acid is not fat soluble but ascorbyl palmitate is, thus combining them produces a fat-soluble
antioxidant. It exists as a white or yellowish white powder of citriclike odor. It is used as a preservative for natural oils, edible oils, colors, and other substances. It acts synergistically with alpha-tocopherol
in oils/fats. It is used in peanut oil at a maximum level of 200 mg/kg
individually or in combination.
Aspartame—A high-intensity sweetener that is a dipeptide, providing 4 cal/g. It is synthesized by combining the methyl ester of
­phenylalanine with aspartic acid, forming the compound N-l-alphaaspartyl-l-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester. It is approximately 200
times as sweet as sucrose and tastes similar to sugar. It is comparatively sweeter at low usage levels and at room temperature. Its minimum solubility is at pH 5.2, its isoelectric point. Its maximum
solubility is at pH 2.2. It has a solubility of 1% in water at 25°C. The
solubility increases with temperature. Aspartame has a certain instability in liquid systems which results in a decrease in sweetness.
It decomposes to aspartylphenylalanine or to diketropiperazine
(DKP) and neither of these forms is sweet. The stability of aspartame
is a function of time, temperature, pH, and water activity. Maximum
stability is at approximately pH 4.3. It is not usually used in baked
goods because it breaks down at the high baking ­temperatures. It
contains phenylalanine, which restricts its use for those afflicted
with phenylketonuria, the inability to metabolize ­phenylalanine.

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Uses include cold breakfast cereals, desserts, topping mixes, chewing gum, beverages, and frozen desserts. The usage level ranges from
0.01 to 0.02%.
Aspartic Acid—A nonessential amino acid that exists as colorless or
white crystals of acid taste. It is slightly soluble in water. It functions
to improve the biological quality of a total protein in a food containing naturally occurring primarily intact protein and as a nutrient and dietary supplement.
Azodicarbonamide—A dough conditioner that exists as a yellow to
orange-red crystalline powder practically insoluble in water. It is
used in aging and bleaching cereal flour to produce a more manageable dough and a lighter, more voluminous loaf of bread. It is used
in bread flours and bread as a dough conditioner. It can be used with
the oxidizing agent potassium bromate. A typical use level is less
than 45 ppm.

B
Babassu Oil—The oil obtained from the nut of the babassu palm,
which is native to Brazil. It is similar to coconut oil and acts as a
substitute, being used in vegetable fat-based products.
Baker’s Yeast Extract—A flavoring agent resulting from concentration of the solubles of mechanically ruptured cells of a selected
strain of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It may be concentrated or
dried. It is used at a level not to exceed 5% in food.
Baker’s Yeast Glycan—The dried cell walls of yeast, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, obtained from brewing. Bakers’ yeast glycan is used as an
emulsifier and thickener in salad dressing.
Baker’s Yeast Supplement—A nutrient supplement which is the
insoluble proteinaceous material remaining after the mechanical
rupture of yeast cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and removal of
whole cell walls by centrifugation and separation of soluble cellular
materials.
Baking Powder—A leavening agent that consists of a mixture of
sodium bicarbonate, one or more leavening agents such as sodium
aluminum phosphate or monocalcium phosphate, and an inert
material such as starch. The inert material keeps the reactive components physically separated and minimizes premature reaction.
It should yield not less than 12% of available carbon dioxide.
Baking Soda—See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Balsam Peru Oil—A flavoring agent, which is liquid, and yellow to
pale green in color. It is viscous and has a sweet balsamic odor. It is
insoluble in glycerin, slightly soluble in propylene glycol, soluble
and turbid in mineral oil, and soluble in fixed oils. It is obtained by
extraction or distillation of Peruvian Balsam obtained from Myroxylon
pereirae Royal Klotsche of the Leguminosae family. It can be used
alone or in combination with other flavoring substances or
adjuvants.
Barley—A cereal grain of which there are winter and spring types.
It is used in malting (the conversion of grain to malt used in beer
production) as malted barley. Malt flour is used in baking, cereals,
and sauces. Pearled barley, in which the hull and outer kernel are
16

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removed by abrasive action, is found in barley soups. Barley flour
and flakes are used in baked products. Barley is high in carbohydrates and contains protein, calcium, phosphorus, and B vitamins.
Barley Beta Fiber—It is the ethanol precipitated soluble fraction of
cellulose and alpha-amylase hydrolyzed whole grain barley. It is a
source of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Barley, Malted—See Malted Barley.
Basil—A spice obtained from the dried leaves and tender stems of
Ocimum basilicum L. The fresh basil resembles licorice in flavor and
the dried leaves have a lemony anise-like quality. This delicate herb
can be used generously and has an affinity for tomato-based products. It is used in tomato-based recipes, with vegetables, and in
tomato sauce. It is also termed sweet basil.
Bay Leaves—A spice flavoring that consists of the dried leaves
obtained from the evergreen tree Laurus nobilis, also called sweet bay
or laurel tree. They have a sweet, herbaceous flavor and are used as
an herb. They are aromatic when crushed and find use in meat,
soup, and stew.
Beeswax—The purified wax obtained from the honeycomb of the
bee is insoluble in water and is sparingly insoluble in cold alcohol.
It is used to glaze candy, in chewing gum, in confections, and as a
flavoring agent.
Beet Extract—A natural red colorant obtained from beets that is of
very good water solubility and has fair pH stability, poor heat stability, and good light stability. It is colored by betacyanins which
include red and yellow compounds, the major red pigment being
betanin. The betanin accounts for 75–95% of the total pigment content. It is available in concentrate and powder forms and is used in
yogurt, beverages, candies, and desserts.
Beets, Dehydrated—See Beet Extract.
Beet Sugar—See Sugar.
Benne—See Sesame Seed.
Bentonite—A general purpose additive that is used as a pigment and
colorant and to clarify and stabilize wine.
Benzaldehyde—A flavoring agent which is liquid and colorless, and
has an almond-like odor. It has a hot (burning) taste. It is oxidized

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

to benzoic acid when exposed to air and deteriorates under light.
It is miscible in volatile oils, fixed oils, ether, and alcohol; it is sparingly soluble in water. It is obtained by chemical synthesis and by
natural occurrence in oils of bitter almond, peach, and apricot
­kernel. It is also termed benzoic aldehyde.
Benzoate of Soda—See Benzoic Acid.
Benzoic Acid—A preservative that occurs naturally in some foods
such as cranberries, prunes, and cinnamon. It is most often used in
the form of sodium benzoate because of the low aqueous solubility
of the free acid. Sodium benzoate is 180 times as soluble in water at
25°C as benzoic acid. The salt in solution is converted to the acid
which is the active form. The optimum pH range for microbial inhibition is pH 2.5–4.0. It is used in acid foods such as carbonated beverages, fruit juices, and pickles. It is also termed benzoate of soda.
Benzoic Aldehyde—See Benzaldehyde.
Benzoyl Peroxide—A colorless, crystalline solid with a faint odor of
benzaldehyde resulting from the interaction of benzoyl chloride
and a cooled sodium peroxide solution. It is insoluble in water. It is
used in specified cheeses at 0.0002% of milk level. It is used for the
bleaching of flour, slowly decomposing to exert its full bleaching
action, which results in whiter flour and bread.
Benzyl Propionate—A flavoring agent which is liquid, colorless and
has a sweet, fruity odor. It is soluble in most fixed oils and alcohol,
slightly soluble in propylene glycol, and insoluble in glycerin.
Beta-Apo-8¢-Carotenal—A colorant that is a carotenoid producing
a light to dark orange hue. It has fair light stability, poor oxidation
stability, and good pH stability. It is insoluble in water but is available in water-dispersible, oil-dispersible, and oil-soluble forms. It
has vitamin A activity. It is used in cheese and cheese sauces, and
dressings. The maximum usage level is 33 ppm. Related colorants
are beta-carotene and canthaxanthin.
Beta-Carotene—A colorant that is a carotenoid producing a yellow
to orange hue. It has good tinctorial strength, fair light stability,
poor oxidation stability, and good pH stability. It is insoluble in
water but is available in water-dispersible, oil-dispersible, and oilsoluble forms. It has vitamin A activity. It has a natural resistance to
ascorbic acid reduction in beverages and thus is used in orangecolored liquid products. It is used in margarine, oils, cheese, and

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puddings at levels required to produce the desired color. Related
colorants are canthaxanthin and beta-apo-8¢-carotenal.
BHA—See Butylated Hydroxyanisole.
BHT—See Butylated Hydroxytoluene.
Bicarbonate of Soda—See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Biotin—A water-soluble vitamin that is a nutrient and dietary supplement. It is relatively stable to heat and storage and is found in eggs,
liver, peanuts, milk, and meat. It functions in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is essential for the activity of
many enzyme systems.
Birch—An artificial flavoring used in soft drinks such as birch beer.
Bixin—A carotenoid that is the main coloring component of annatto.
It is obtained from the Bixa orellana tree. Bixin is soluble in fats and
oils and the produced color is found in the fat fraction of the food.
It has a yellow hue, very good oxidation stability, fair light stability,
and good heat stability, but it is poor at very high temperatures,
such as above 125°C. One part bixin is equivalent to 1.5 parts carotene. It is used at 0.5–10 ppm in finished foods, such as margarine,
salad dressings, popcorn oil, and baked goods. It is also termed
annatto extract. See Annatto.
Bleached Flour—Flour that has been whitened by the removal of
the yellow pigment. The bleaching can be obtained during the natural aging of the flour or can be accelerated by chemicals that are
usually oxidizing agents which oxidize the carotenoid pigments to
a nearly colorless product. The oxidizing agents also improve the
flour performance by their effect on the protein. The process
improves the baking quality by allowing the formation of high ratio
cakes that would be likely to collapse if prepared with untreated
flour.
Bleaching Agents—See Flour Treating Agents.
Bodying Agent—See Stabilizers and Thickeners.
Bran—The seed husks or outer coatings of cereals, such as wheat, rye,
and oats, that are separated from the flour. It is used in bran flakes
cereal.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Bread Flour—A hard-wheat flour, which generally contains in excess
of 10.5% protein and is obtained from straight or long patent flours.
These flours have high absorption and good mixing tolerance which
make them suitable in yeast-leavened breads.
Brillant Blue FCF—See FD&C Blue #1.
Bromated Whole Wheat Flour—A whole wheat flour to which
potassium bromate is added at a level not to exceed 75 ppm. It is
used in baked goods.
Brominated Vegetable Oil—(BVO) A vegetable oil whose density
has been increased to that of water by combination with bromine.
Flavoring oils are dissolved in the brominated oil which can then be
added to fruit drinks. The adjustment of the specific gravity makes
it possible to obtain stable finished beverages. If the oil phase gravity is too low the emulsion will form a ring, and if it is too high a
white precipitate may form. It is also used in formulating cloud
agents. Its use is limited to 15 ppm.
Brown Sugar—A sweetener that consists of sucrose crystals covered
with a film of cane molasses. Molasses gives it the characteristic
color and flavor. There are three grades: light, medium, and dark,
which vary in sucrose content and color. It is used in baked goods,
glazes, toppings, and fillings.
Bulgur—A precooked cracked wheat that retains the bran and germ
fraction of the grain. It resembles whole wheat nutritionally and is
sometimes termed parboiled wheat. It is an excellent source of whole
grain, protein, and carbohydrates. It is reconstituted by cooking or
soaking in liquid. It can be used in bread, casseroles, and salads, or
can be eaten as such.
Bulgur Wheat—Whole wheat kernels that are cleaned, cooked (parboiled), dried, ground, and sifted for sizing. The resulting wheat has
a nut-like flavor, extended shelf life, and is higher in most nutrients
than rice. It can impart texture, water absorption, fiber, and nutrients. It is used in taboule salads, pilaf, soups, stuffings, and bakery
products.
Bulking Agents—See Stabilizers and Thickeners.
Butter, Clarified—Butter that has undergone purification by the
removal of solid particles or impurities that may affect the color,
odor, or taste.

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Butter Fat—See Milkfat.
Buttermilk—The product that remains when fat is removed from
milk or cream in the process of churning into butter. Cultured buttermilk is prepared by souring buttermilk, or more commonly skim
milk, with a suitable culture that produces a desirable taste and
aroma. It is used as a beverage, as an ingredient in baked goods, and
in dressings.
Buttermilk, Dried—The powder form of buttermilk. It is similar in
composition to nonfat dry milk but of higher fat concentration,
much of which is phospholipids which provide good emulsifying
and whipping properties. It is used in dry mix, desserts, soups, and
sauces.
Butter Oil—The clarified fat portion of milk, cream, or butter
obtained by the removal of the nonfat constituent. It contains not
less than 99.7% milkfat, not more than 0.2% moisture, and not
more than 0.05% milk solids nonfat. It is used in frozen desserts,
puddings, and syrups. It is also termed anhydrous milkfat, or ghee.
Butyl Acetate—A flavoring agent which is a clear, colorless liquid
possessing a fruity and strong odor. It is sparingly soluble in water
and miscible in alcohol, ether, and propylene glycol. It is also termed
n-butyl acetate.
Butylated Hydroxyanisole—(BHA) An antioxidant that imparts
stability to fats and oils and should be added before oxidation has
started. It is a mixture of 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 2-tertbutyl-4-hydroxyanisole. In direct addition, the fat or oil is heated to
60–70°C and the BHA is added slowly under vigorous agitation. The
maximum concentration is 0.02% based on the weight of the fat or
oil. It may protect the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. It is used
singly or in combination with other antioxidants. It is used in cereals, edible fat, vegetable oil, confectionary products, and rice.
Butylated Hydroxytoluene—(BHT) An antioxidant that functions
similarly to butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) but is less stable at high
temperatures. It is also termed 2,6-di-tert-butyl-para-cresol. See
Butylated Hydroxyanisole.
Butyl Butyryllactate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless to light yellow liquid with the odor of cooked butter. It is
miscible with alcohol and most fixed oils, soluble in propylene glycol,

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

and insoluble in glycerin and water. It should be stored in glass, tin,
or resin-lined containers. It is used in butter flavors with applications in baked goods and candy at 14–60 ppm.
Butyl Heptanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It is stored in glass or tin containers.
It is used in flavors such as apple, blackberry, and ginger beer with
applications in candy and baked goods at 25 ppm.
Butylhydroquinone—See Tertiary Butylhydroquinone.
Butylparaben—See Parabens.
Butyric Acid—A fatty acid that is commonly obtained from butter
fat. It has an objectionable odor which limits its uses as a food acidulant or antimycotic. It is an important chemical reactant in the
manufacture of synthetic flavoring, shortening, and other edible
food additives. In butter fat, the liberation of butyric acid which
occurs during hydrolytic rancidity makes the butter fat unusable.
It is used in soy milk-type drinks and candies.

C
Cacao Butter—See Cocoa Butter.
Caffeine—A white powder or needles that are odorless and have a
bitter taste. It occurs naturally in tea leaves, coffee, cocoa, and cola
nuts. It is a food additive used in soft drinks for its mildly stimulating effect and distinctive taste note. It is used in cola-type beverages
and is optional in other soft drinks up to 0.02%.
Cake Flour—A soft wheat flour that is generally a short patented
flour containing less than 10% protein. Such flours are low in water
absorption and are of short mixing time and tolerance. It is used in
chemically leavened cakes, cookies, and pastries.
Calciferol—A fat-soluble vitamin, termed vitamin D2¢ which is stable
unless oxidized. It is necessary for growth and maintenance of teeth
and bones and the normal utilization of calcium and phosphorus; it
is used medicinally in the treatment of rickets and as a dietary supplement. Its sources include fish liver and vitamin D-fortified milk.
Calcium—An alkaline earth element that contributes toward bone
and teeth formation, muscle contraction, and blood clotting. It
occurs in milk, vegetables, and egg yolk.
Calcium Acetate—The calcium salt of acetic acid which functions
as a sequestrant and mold control agent. It contains approximately
25% calcium. It is a white odorless powder which is readily soluble
in water with a solubility of approximately 37 g in 100 g water at
0°C. Its solubility decreases with increasing temperature, with a solubility of approximately 29 g in 100 g of water at 100°C.
Calcium Acid Phosphate—See Monocalcium Phosphate.
Calcium Alginate—The calcium salt of alginic acid which functions
as a stabilizer and thickener. The partial obtainment of calcium alginate by the reaction of the water-soluble alginate with calcium ions
is used to obtain viscosity and gel formation. It is used in icings,
imitation pulp, dessert gels, and fabricated fruits.
Calcium Ascorbate—The salt of ascorbic acid which is a white to
slightly yellow crystalline powder. It is soluble in water and the pH
of a 10% solution is 6.8–7.4. It functions as an antioxidant and preservative. See Ascorbic Acid.
23

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Calcium Biphosphate—See Monocalcium Phosphate.
Calcium Bromate—A dough conditioner and maturing and bleaching
agent which exists as a white crystalline powder. It is very soluble in
water and is used in flour and dough.
Calcium Carbonate—The calcium salt of carbonic acid which is
used as an anticaking agent and dough strengthener. It is available
in varying particle sizes ranging from coarse to fine powder. It is
practically insoluble in water and alcohol, but the presence of any
ammonium salt or carbon dioxide increases its solubility while the
presence of any alkali hydroxide reduces its solubility. It has a pH of
9–9.5. It is the primary source of lime (calcium oxide) which is made
by heating limestone in a furnace. Calcium carbonate is used as a
filler in baking powder, for calcium enrichment, as a mild buffering
agent in doughs, as a source of calcium ions in dry mix desserts, and
as a neutralizer in antacids. It is also termed limestone.
Calcium Carrageenan—See Carrageenan.
Calcium Caseinate—The calcium salt of casein. Properties include
low viscosity, settling out of water, opaqueness, no heat stability,
and chalky texture. It contains the range of essential amino acids
present in sodium caseinate but has a higher concentration of calcium. It is useful in applications requiring low absorption properties. It is used as a protein source in imitation cheese, and in special
diet foods to replace sodium caseinate where sodium must be
restricted. It is used to improve the whipping properties of vegetable
whipped toppings, and as a binder. See Caseinates.
Calcium Chloride—A general purpose food additive, the anhydrous
form being readily soluble in water with a solubility of 59 g in 100 ml
of water at 0°C. It dissolves with the liberation of heat. It also exists
as calcium chloride dihydrate, being very soluble in water with a
solubility of 97 g in 100 ml at 0°C. It is used as a firming agent for
canned tomatoes, potatoes, and apple slices. In evaporated milk, it
is used at levels not more than 0.1% to adjust the salt balance so as
to prevent coagulation of milk during sterilization. It is used with
disodium EDTA to protect the flavor in pickles and as a source of
calcium ions for reaction with alginates to form gels.
Calcium Citrate—The calcium salt of citric acid which functions
as a sequestrant, buffer, and firming agent. It is a white, odorless
powder which is slightly soluble in water. It is used as a firming

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25

agent for peppers and lima beans and is used to improve the baking
properties of flour.
Calcium Diacetate—The salt of acetic acid which is used as a preservative and sequestrant.
Calcium Disodium EDTA—See Disodium Calcium EDTA.
Calcium Gluconate—A white crystalline granule or powder that
functions as a firming agent, formulation aid, sequestrant, and stabilizer. At room temperature the anhydrous form has a solubility of
approximately 1 g in 30 ml of water, which improves in boiling
water to approximately 1 g in 5 ml of water. It also exists as calcium
gluconate (monohydrate). It is used as a source of calcium ions for
sodium alginate gels, and as a calcium fortifier in baked goods, puddings, and dairy product analogs. It functions as a coagulation aid
in milk and instant pudding powders and as a means of masking the
bitter aftertaste of some artificial sweeteners.
Calcium Glycerophosphate—A nutrient and dietary supplement
which is a white odorless powder of poor water solubility. It is used
in dental impression material and baking powder.
Calcium Hydrate—See Calcium Hydroxide.
Calcium Hydroxide—A general food additive made by adding water
to calcium oxide (lime). It has poor water solubility with a solubility
of 0.185 g in 100 g of water at 0°C. The pH of a water solution at
25°C is approximately 12.4. It is used to promote dispersion of ingredients in sauces, creamed spinach, and a frozen pea/potato dish. It
is used at 0.1% to stabilize the potassium iodide of iodized salt, and
it is used as a neutralizer for soured cream prior to buttermaking. It
is also termed hydrated lime, calcium hydrate, and slaked lime.
Calcium Iodate—A source of iodine that is a white powder of slight
solubility in water, but greater solubility in water containing iodides
or amino acids. It is more stable than the iodide form. It is used as a
dough conditioner in bread and is a source of iodine in table salts.
Calcium Lactate—The calcium salt of lactic acid which is soluble in
water. It has a solubility of 3.4 g/100 g of water at 20°C and is very
soluble in hot water. It is available as a monohydrate, trihydrate,
and pentahydrate. The trihydrate and pentahydrate have solubilities of 9 g in 100 ml of water at 25°C. It contains approximately 14%

26

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

calcium. It is used to stabilize and improve the texture of canned
fruits and vegetables by converting the labile pectin to the less soluble calcium pectate. It thereby prevents structural collapse during
cooking. It is used in angel food cake, whipped toppings, and
meringues to increase protein extensibility which results in an
increase of foam volume. It is also used in calcium fortified foods
such as infant foods and is used to improve the properties of dry
milk powder.
Calcium Lactobionate—The calcium salt of lactobionic acid (4-(B,
d-galactosido)-d-gluconic acid) produced by the oxidation of lactose. It is soluble in water and is used as a firming agent in dry pudding mixes.
Calcium Oxide—A general food additive consisting of white granules
or powder of poor water solubility. It is obtained by heating limestone
(calcium carbonate) in a furnace. It is also termed lime or quicklime.
It is used as an anticaking agent, firming agent, and nutritive supplement in applications such as grain products and soft candy.
Calcium Pantothenate—A nutrient and dietary supplement which
is the calcium chloride double salt of calcium pantothenate. It is a
white powder of bitter taste and has a solubility of 1 g in 3 ml of
water. It is used in special dietary foods.
Calcium Pectinate—The salt of pectin which is obtained from citrus or apple fruit. It results from the interaction of low-methoxyl
pectin with calcium ions to form a gel. It is used as a gel coating for
meat products and to form food gels. See Low-Methoxyl Pectin.
Calcium Peroxide—A dough conditioner which exists as a white or
yellowish powder or granule that is insoluble in water. It improves
dough strength, grain, and texture, and increases absorption and
crumb resiliency. It is used in bakery products.
Calcium Phosphate—A compound existing in several forms which
include the monobasic, dibasic, and tribasic forms of calcium phosphate. As calcium phosphate monobasic, also termed monocalcium
phosphate, calcium biphosphate, and acid calcium phosphate, it is
used as a leavening agent and acidulant. Calcium phosphate dibasic, also termed dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, is used as a dough
conditioner and mineral supplement. Calcium phosphate tribasic,
also termed tricalcium phosphate and precipitated calcium phosphate, is used as an anticaking agent, mineral supplement, and conditioning agent.

Calcium Phosphate Monobasic—See Monocalcium Phosphate.
Calcium Phosphate Tribasic—See Tricalcium Phosphate.
Calcium Propionate—The salt of propionic acid which functions
as a preservative. It is effective against mold, has limited activity
against bacteria, and no activity against yeast. It is soluble in water
with a solubility of 49 g/100 ml of water at 0°C and insoluble in
alcohol. It is less soluble than sodium propionate. Its optimum
effectiveness is up to pH 5.0 and it has reduced action above pH 6.0.
It is used in bakery products, breads, and pizza crust to protect
against mold and “rope.” It is also used in cold-pack cheese food
and pie fillings. Typical usage level is 0.2–0.3% and 0.1–0.4% based
on flour weight.
Calcium Pyrophosphate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that
exists as a white odorless powder, insoluble in water. It is used in
dental impression materials and as a buffer.
Calcium Saccharin—A sweetener that is the calcium form of saccharin, existing as white crystals of powder with a solubility of 1 g
in 1.5 ml of water. Sodium saccharin is the more common form, but
calcium saccharin is available for nonsodium diets. In this form, it
is about 500 times as sweet as sucrose. See Saccharin.
Calcium Silicate—An anticaking agent that exists in different forms,
which are insoluble in water. It is used in salt to enhance flowability
under extremely high humidity conditions. It is also used in baking
powder and fabricated chips to absorb water or other liquids.
Calcium Sorbate—A preservative that is the calcium salt of sorbic
acid. It is not the most common form. Its solubility in water or fat
is very limited and therefore it is used on surfaces for preservation.
It is permitted in cheese and wrapping materials.
Calcium Stearate—The calcium salt of stearic acid which functions
as an anticaking agent, binder, and emulsifier. It is used in garlic salt,
dry molasses, vanilla and vanilla-vanillin powder, salad dressing
mix, and meat tenderizer. It can be used for mold release in the
tableting of pressed candies.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Calcium Stearyl-2-Lactylate—A mixture of calcium salts of stearyl
lactylic acids and minor proportions of other calcium salts of related
acids. It is manufactured by the reaction of stearic acid and lactic
acid and conversion to the calcium salts, and is used as follows: as a
dough conditioner in yeast-leavened bakery products and prepared
mixes for yeast-leavened bakery products in an amount not to
exceed 0.5 part for each 100 parts by weight of flour used; as a whipping agent in liquid and frozen egg white at a level not to exceed
0.05%; in whipped vegetable oil topping at a level not to exceed
0.3% of the weight of the finished whipped vegetable oil topping;
and as a conditioning agent in dehydrated potatoes in an amount
not to exceed 0.5% by weight.
Calcium Sulfate—A general additive available as both calcium sulfate anhydrous, made by the high-temperature calcining of gypsum
which is then ground and separated, and calcium sulfate dihydrate,
which is made by grinding and separating gypsum containing about
20% water of crystallization. Calcium sulfate anhydrous contains
approximately 29% calcium, and calcium sulfate dihydrate contains
approximately 23% calcium. It is used, among other things, as a
filler and baking powder for standardization purposes; a firming
agent in canned potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, lima beans, and peppers; in dough as a source of calcium ions (because the absence of
calcium ions causes bread dough to be soft and sticky and to produce bread of poor quality); in soft-serve ice cream to produce dryness and stiffness; as a calcium ion source for reaction with alginates
to form dessert gels; and as a calcium source for food enrichment.
Cananga Oil—A flavoring agent. It is a yellow liquid with a harsh,
flowery odor. It is soluble in most fixed oils and mineral oil, and
insoluble in glycerin and propylene glycol. It is obtained by distillation of flowers of Cananga odorato Hook and Thomas (tree of the
Anonaceae family).
Candelilla Wax—A lubricant and surface finishing agent obtained
from the candelilla plant. It is a hard, yellowish-brown, opaque-totranslucent wax. Candelilla wax is prepared by immersing the plants
in boiling water containing sulfuric acid and skimming off the wax
that rises to the surface. It is composed of about 50% hydrocarbons
with smaller amounts of esters and free acids. It is used in chewing
gum and hard candy.

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Cane Sugar—See Sugar.
Canola Oil—See Rapeseed Oil, Low Erucic Acid.
Canthaxanthin—A synthetic red colorant that is the carotenoid of
most intense red color. It is available in oil-soluble, oil-dispersible,
and water-dispersible forms. It has fair pH, heat, light, and chemical
stability with a low tinctorial strength. Unlike the carotenoids betacarotene and beta-apo-8¢-carotenal, it does not possess vitamin A
activity. Maximum usage level is 66 ppm. Uses include carbonated
soft drinks, salad dressing, and spaghetti sauce.
Caprylic Acid—A flavoring agent considered to be a short or medium
chain fatty acid. It occurs normally in various foods and is commercially prepared by oxidation of n-octanol or by fermentation and
fractional distillation of the volatile fatty acids present. It is used in
maximum levels, as served, of 0.13% for baked goods; 0.04% for
cheeses; 0.005% for fats and oils, frozen dairy desserts, gelatins and
puddings, meat products, and soft candy; 0.016% for snack foods;
and 0.001% or less for all other food categories. It is also termed
octanoic acid.
Caramel—A colorant that is an amorphous, dark brown product
resulting from the controlled heat treatment of carbohydrates such
as dextrose, sucrose, and malt syrup. It is available in liquid and
powdered forms, providing shades of brown. In coloring a food with
caramel, the food components must have the same charge as the
particles of caramel, otherwise the particles will attract one another
and precipitate out. Caramel can exist as several types, for example,
acid-proof caramel of negative charge which is used in carbonated
beverages, acidified solutions, bakers’ and confectioners’ caramel
which are used in baked goods; and dried caramel for dry mixes.
Major uses are in coloring beverages such as colas and root beers and
in baked goods.
Caraway—A spice that is a seed obtained from the tree Carum carvi.
It has a flavor similar to dill. It is used in rolls, bread, meats, and
some cheeses.
Carbonated Water—A beverage made by absorbing carbon dioxide
in water. The carbon dioxide influences flavor because increased carbonation increases mouth feel. Gas retention is more common in
low calorie-type beverages because of the absence of sugar solids.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Carbon Dioxide—A gas obtained during fermentation of glucose
(grain sugar) to ethyl alcohol. It is used in pressure-packed foods as
a propellant or aerating agent and is also used in the carbonation of
beverages. It is released as a result of the acid carbonate reaction of
leavening agents in baked goods to produce an increase in volume.
As a solid, it is termed dry ice and is used for freezing and chilling.
Carboxymethylcellulose—(CMC) A gum that is water-soluble cellulose ether manufactured by reacting sodium monochloroacetate
with alkali cellulose to form sodium carboxymethylcellulose. It dissolves in hot or cold water and is fairly stable over a pH range of
5.0–10.0, but acidification below pH 5.0 will reduce the viscosity
and stability except in a special acid-stable type of CMC. A variety of
types are available which differ in viscosity and degree of substitution (the number of sodium groups per unit). It functions as a thickener, stabilizer, binder, film former, and suspending agent. It is used
in a variety of foods to include dressings, ice cream, baked goods,
puddings, and sauces. The usage range is from 0.05 to 0.5%. Also
termed cellulose gum.
Cardamon—A spice that is a dried, ripe seed of Elettaria cardamomum, a biennial plant. It has a pungent aroma and is reddish-brown
in color. The flavor is sweet and spicy with a camphoraceous note.
It is used in whole form to flavor hot fruit punches, pickles, and
marinades. It is used in the ground form in bread, cookies, desserts,
and meats.
Carmine—The red colorant aluminum lake of carminic acid which is
the coloring pigment obtained from dried bodies of the female
insect Coccus cacti. It is brilliant red to purplish in color, having a
low tinctorial strength, and can be solubilized in ammonia. It is
used in a pink color in coatings.
Carnauba Wax—A general purpose food additive that is a hard and
brittle wax. It is obtained from the leaf buds and leaves of the
Brazilian wax palm Copernicia cerifera. It is the hardest wax known
and is used in candy glaze.
Carob—A cocoa substitute obtained from the pods of the carob tree
Ceratonia siliqua. The pods are kibbled, roasted, and ground into a
powder which is similar in appearance and fragrance to cocoa powder. Carob powder has less than 1% fat and 42–48% sugar, while
cocoa powder has approximately 23% fat and 5% sugar. Cocoa does
not contain any measurable amounts of fructose so the presence of

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carob in cocoa can be detected by the presence of fructose. It is used
in candy, drinks, bakery products, and dairy applications, and as a
single ingredient in health food products.
Carob Gum—See Locust Bean Gum.
Carotene—A colorant and provitamin, being a hydrocarbon which is
one of two subgroups of the carotenoids (yellow, orange, or red pigments). The other subgroup is xanthophylls. Carotene functions as
a colorant with beta-apo-8¢-carotenal being a red-orange carotenoid
and beta-carotene being a yellow carotenoid. It is also a vitamin A
precursor that is converted by the body to vitamin A. It is used in ice
cream, cheese, and other dairy products.
Carrageenan—A gum that is a seaweed extract obtained from red
seaweed Chondrus crispus (also known as Irish moss), Gigartina, and
Eucheuma species. Chondrus crispus yields kappa and lambda carrageenans. Gigartina yields kappa and lambda carrageenans. Eucheuma
yields kappa and iota carrageenans. It exists as various salts or mixed
salts of a sulfate ester. It is classified mainly as kappa, iota, and
lambda types which differ in solubility and gelling properties. The
kappa and iota types require hot water (above 71°C) for complete
solubility and can form thermally reversible gels in the presence of
potassium and calcium cations, respectively. The kappa gels are brittle with syneresis while the iota gels are more elastic without syneresis. The lambda type is cold-water soluble and does not form gels.
Kappa and iota carrageenan are very reactive with milk protein
products. Carrageenan is used to stabilize milk protein at 0.01–0.05%
and to form water gels at 0.5–1.0%. Its uses include dairy products,
water gel desserts, and low-calorie jellies. A typical use level in water
systems is 0.2–1.0% and milk systems is 0.01–0.25%. Also termed
Chondrus extract.
Carubin—See Locust Bean Gum.
Carvacrol—A flavoring agent that is a colorless to pale yellow liquid.
It has a spicy and pungent odor, resembling thymol. It is insoluble in
water and soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a mixture of the isomeric
carvacrols (isopropyl o-creols), and is obtained by chemical synthesis.
It is also an ingredient of savory, a fragrant herb in nature.
Casein—The principal milk protein which is prepared commercially
from skim milk by the precipitation with lactic, hydrochloric, or
sulfuric acid. It can also be produced by the use of lactic acid-producing bacteria. Caseins are usually identified according to the acid

32

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

used, such as lactic acid casein, hydrochloric acid casein, and sulfuric
acid casein. The principal form in which casein is used is casein
salts, of which sodium and calcium caseinate are the most common.
Rennet casein is obtained from skim milk by the precipitation with
a rennet-type enzyme. Casein is used in the protein fortification of
cereals and bread, and in fabricated cheeses.
Caseinates—Salts of casein that are produced by neutralizing acid
casein to pH 6.7 with calcium or sodium hydroxide, producing the
most common forms, which are calcium caseinate or sodium caseinate. Other forms of casein are potassium and ammonium caseinate.
The caseinates provide a source of protein and function as ­emulsifiers,
water binders, and whipping aids. The relative water absorption of
casein salts is calcium caseinate: 130%, potassium caseinate: 200%,
sodium caseinate: 250%. Its uses include processed meats, whipped
toppings, coffee whiteners, egg substitutes, and diet foods.
Castor Oil—A release and antisticking agent used in hard candy production. Its concentration is not to exceed 500 ppm. It is used in
vitamin and mineral tablets, and as a component of protective
coatings.
Cayenne Pepper—See Pepper, Cayenne.
Celery Seed—A spice made from the dried, ripe fruit of the herb
Apium graveolens, related to the parsley family. It is used lightly so as
not to dominate in flavor. It is used in sauces, salads, meats, and
soups.
Cellulose—A carbohydrate polymer made up of glucose units. It consists of fibrous particles and is used as a fiber source and bulking
agent in low-calorie formulations.
Cellulose Gel—See Microcrystalline cellulose.
Cellulose Gum—See Carboxymethylcellulose.
Cheese Culture—Bacteria used in the coagulation of the milk protein casein in the formation of cheese. It converts milk into cheese
curd by the reduction of pH followed by processing to precipitate
the protein as a curd.
Cheese Powder—A dry form of cheese prepared by slurrying cheese
in water to 35–45% solids and further processing into a powder
form. Cheese powders are water soluble. They are used in instant
soups, dry spaghetti sauce, dry sauces, and snack foods.

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Chelating Agents—See Sequestrants.
Chervil—A spice derived from the plant Anthriscus cerefolium which
is related to the parsley family. It is used in soufflés, sauces, meats,
and fish.
Chewing Gum Base—A base, containing masticatory substances
such as chicle, used in the manufacture of chewing gum.
Chicle—A natural masticatory substance of vegetable origin which is
used in chewing gum base. It is the latex of the sapodilla tree,
obtained by cutting the bark to yield the latex which is boiled to
remove about two-thirds of the water. The resulting semisolid mass
is molded into chicle blocks which form the base for chewing gum.
Chicory Root Fiber—The extract obtained from the chicory root by
a hot water extraction process which is filtered to remove insolubles.
It is a source of inulin, a soluble fiber. The fresh roots contain 20–25%
inulin while the extract contains up to 98% inulin.
Chilte—A substance of vegetable origin used as a masticatory
­substance in chewing gum base.
Chiquibul—A substance of vegetable origin used as a masticatory
substance in chewing gum base.
Chives—A spice from the Allium schoenoprasum plant whose slender
rush-like green leaves are chopped and used to provide a subtle
onion flavor and to enhance food appearance. It is also used as a
garnish and topping.
Chlorine—A gas used to age and bleach flour.
Chlorine Dioxide—A gas used in bleaching and aging flour. It acts
on the flour almost instantly, resulting in improved color and dough
properties. Because usage levels are low, the bleaching action is
limited.
Chloropentafluoroethane—A propellant and aerating agent for
foamed or sprayed foods.
Chlorophyll—A colorant that is a green pigment present in all green
plants. It is used in sausage casings, oleomargarine, and shortening.
Chocolate—A solid or semiplastic food made from chocolate liquor
derived from cocoa nibs, which are obtained from the cocoa bean.
Chocolate contains more fat and less protein than cocoa. The products derived from chocolate include bitter or plain chocolate; sweet

34

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

chocolate containing sugar, milk, flavoring, and cocoa butter; and
milk chocolate, which is made from sweet or bitter chocolate plus a
milk source with or without cocoa butter and flavoring. It is used as
a flavor in candy, dairy products, and baked goods.
Chocolate Liquor—See Cocoa Liquor.
Cholic Acid—An emulsifier that exists as colorless plates or a white
crystalline powder which has a bitter taste with a sweetish aftertaste.
It is slightly soluble in water. It functions as an emulsifying agent in
egg white.
Choline—A substance grouped as a member of the vitamin B ­complex,
although not a vitamin by definition. It is water soluble and is
important in nerve function and fat metabolism. It occurs in egg
yolk, beef liver, and grains.
Chondrus Extract—See Carrageenan.
Cider Vinegar—The product made by the alcoholic and subsequent
acetous fermentation of apple juice or concentrate thereof. It contains not less than 4 g acetic acid in 100 cm3 at 20°C. It has a light
to medium amber color. It is used in salad dressings, mayonnaise,
and sauces. The term vinegar refers to cider vinegar, also termed
apple vinegar.
Cinnamic Acid—A flavoring agent that consists of crystalline scales,
white in color, with an odor resembling honey and flowers. It is
slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, chloroform, acetic acid,
acetone, benzene, and most oils, and alkali salts soluble in water.
It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed 3-phenylpropenoic acid.
Cinnamon—A spice made from the dried bark of the evergreen tree
Cinnamomum cassia. Commercial types are Saigon Cassia and Batavia
Cassia. Ceylon cinnamon is the dried inner bark of shoots of
C. zeylanicum Nees. In the ground form it is used in beverages,
­desserts, and fruits while in the stick form it is used in beverages,
meats, and fruits.
Cinnamyl Anthranilate—A flavoring agent that is a powder which
may be red or yellow. It has an odor resembling anthranilates, fruity
and characteristically balsamic. It is insoluble in water, and soluble
in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. It is obtained by chemical
synthesis.

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Cinnamyl Isobutyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a
moderately stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of dry fruity color.
It is stored in glass or tin containers. It is used to give a lift to jasmine
with applications in baked goods and candy at 8 ppm.
Citral—A liquid flavoring agent, light yellow in color with a citrus
odor. It occurs in lemon and lemongrass oils. It is usually obtained
from citral-containing oils by chemical means but may also be prepared synthetically. It is soluble in fixed oils, mineral oil, and propylene glycol. It is moderately stable and should be stored in glass,
tin, or resin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for lemon with
applications in candy, baked goods, and ice cream at 20–40 ppm.
It is also termed 2,6-dimethyl-octadian-2-6-al-8.
Citric Acid—An acidulant and antioxidant produced by mold fermentation of sugar solutions and by extraction from lemon juice,
lime juice, and pineapple canning residue. It is the predominant
acid in oranges, lemons, and limes. It exists in anhydrous and monohydrate forms. The anhydrous form is crystallized in hot solutions
and the monohydrate form is crystallized from cold (below 36.5°C)
solutions. Anhydrous citric acid has a solubility of 146 g and monohydrate citric acid has a solubility of 175 g/100 ml of distilled water
at 20°C. A 1% solution has a pH of 2.3 at 25°C. It is a hygroscopic,
strong acid of tart flavor. It is used as an acidulant in fruit drinks and
carbonated beverages at 0.25–0.40%, in cheese at 3–4%, and in
­jellies. It is used as an antioxidant in instant potatoes, wheat chips,
and potato sticks, where it prevents spoilage by trapping the metal
ions. It is used in combination with antioxidants in the processing
of fresh frozen fruits to prevent discoloration.
Citronellal—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, faintly yellow with an
intense odor resembling lemon, citronella, and rose. It is soluble in
alcohol and most fixed oils, slightly soluble in mineral oil and propylene glycol, and insoluble in water and glycerin. It is obtained by
chemical synthesis; the aldehyde may be obtained from natural oils,
such as citronella oil. It is also termed 3,7-dimethyl-6-octen-1-A1.
Citronellyl Propionate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately stable, colorless liquid of light rose-fruity odor. It is practically insoluble in water but is miscible with alcohol. It is stored in
glass or tin containers. It has application in baked goods, candy,
beverages, and ice cream at 3–19 ppm.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Citrus Oil—A flavorant obtained by pressing the oil from the rind of
citrus fruits. It is largely composed of terpenes and sesquiterpenes
plus the flavor-imparting oxygenated components. It is partly water
soluble, not stable, and is used in beverages.
Clarified Butter—See Butter, Clarified.
Clarifying Agents—See Processing Aids.
Clear Flour—The portion of straight flour (all the flour that can be
milled from a wheat blend) that remains after the removal of the
patent streams. Clear flours from hard wheat are generally high in
ash, dark in color, and high in protein. It is used to increase the
strength of flour and is used in rye, dark bread, and pastries.
Clouding Agents—See Processing Aids.
Clove—A spice that is the unripened bud from the clove tree Eugenia
caryophyllata Thumb. It is very pungent and is used in the whole
form in fruit punches, relishes, marinades, and sauces. In the ground
form, it is used in cakes, cookies, and meat sauces.
Coarse-Ground Wheat—See Crushed Wheat.
Cochineal—A red colorant extracted from the dried bodies of the
female insect Coccus cacti. The coloring is carminic acid in which
the water-soluble extract is cochineal. It precipitates at pH 3, has
good stability at pH 4, and excellent stability at pH 5–8. It has low
tinctorial strength and has excellent stability to heat and light. It is
also stable in retorted protein systems where other food dyes are
unstable. It is used in foods requiring red coloring.
Cocoa Butter—The fat obtained by pressing chocolate liquor,
obtained from roasted cocoa nibs, to yield cocoa butter and presscake. It has a melting point of approximately 33°C but is a hard,
brittle solid at room temperature. It is used in the manufacture of
coatings for candies, the coatings consisting mainly of mixtures of
roasted cocoa nibs, sugar, and cocoa butter. It is also used in confections. It is also termed cacao butter.
Cocoa Liquor—The liquor obtained by the grinding of cocoa nibs
from the cocoa bean. The liquor converts into cocoa powder and
cocoa butter as end products. It is a primary ingredient in chocolate
manufacture. It is also termed chocolate liquor.
Cocoa Powder—The powder produced by the grinding, pulverizing,
and air classification of the cocoa presscake, which is obtained by

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compressing the cocoa liquor, obtained from cocoa nibs, into a
presscake and cocoa butter. There are two main types of powder –
alkalized and natural. The alkalized (Dutch processed) has a pH
range of 6.5–8.1, a red-brown shade which tends to develop redbrown end products, and a mild flavor. It is used in beverages, retail
cocoa powder, puddings, and ice cream. The natural has a pH range
of 5.2–5.9 and a yellow-orange color with a tendency to produce
light brown end products. It is used in the baking industry to impart
color and flavor and also used in candy, syrups, and toppings.
Coconut—The nut obtained from the coconut palm. It provides a
source of coconut meat and coconut oil.
Coconut, Desiccated—The dried coconut meat whose reduced
moisture content increases its stability. It is available in various
shapes and sizes. It is used to impart flavor in desserts, baked goods,
and candies.
Coconut Oil—The oil obtained from the kernel of the nuts of the
coconut palm. It has a sharp melting character (narrow plastic range)
in that it changes abruptly from a hard, brittle solid to a clear oil
with a temperature change of a few degrees, and the transition
occurs at room temperature range. It melts at 25°C and is more completely solid than butter at 10°C. These properties make it suited for
the preparation of shortenings where brittleness and a large change
in consistency with a small temperature change are undesirable.
Partially hydrogenated coconut oil has hydrogen added to part of
the unsaturated carbon bonds to provide a more solid consistency.
It is used in confections, baked goods, and margarine.
Collagen—A protein that is the principal constituent of connective
tissue and bones of vertebrates; it can be converted to gelatin and
glue by boiling in water.
Colors and Coloring Adjuncts—Substances used to impart, preserve, or enhance the color or shading of a food, including color
stabilizers, color fixatives, color-retention agents, etc. Legally, they
are usually designated artificial (synthetic) or natural, which indicates that they are, respectively, synthetically manufactured or
obtained from natural sources. Synthetic color additives “certified”
by the Food and Drug Administration are designated FD&C (Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic). Those acceptable food colors not designated
“certified” are designated “approved” and consist of natural organic
and synthetic inorganic colorants used in certain applications.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Confectionary Fat—A fat that is hard at room temperature and soft
at body temperature, such as hydrogenated coconut oil or cocoa
butter.
Copper—A metal necessary for the maintenance of normal erythropoiesis and the prevention of iron deficiency anemia, iron being
essential in hemoglobin synthesis.
Copper Gluconate—A light blue powder used as a dietary
supplement.
Copper Sulfate—A nutrient supplement and processing aid most
often used in the pentahydrate form. This form occurs as large, deep
blue or ultramarine, triclinic crystals, as blue granules, or as a light
blue powder. The ingredient is prepared by the reaction of sulfuric
acid with cupric oxide or with copper metal. Copper sulfate may be
used in infant formula. It is also termed cupric sulfate.
Coriander—A spice that is the dried, ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum L.
It has a pleasing, aromatic taste. It is used in sausage, variety meats,
and curry powder in the ground form, and in pickles, baked goods,
and stuffing in the whole form.
Corn—The maize grain, which is the source of various ingredients.
It is used in the kernel form for food; it is dry milled into flour, grits,
and meal, and it is wet milled into starches, dextrins, dextrose, and
other byproducts. The kernel consists of four basic parts which are
the starch section, corn germ, gluten, and hull. The starch section
comprises approximately 61% of the kernel, while the corn germ
comprises approximately 4% of the kernel. The term corn refers to
other cereal crops in different areas of the world.
Corn Bran—A dry-milled product of high fiber content obtained
from corn. It can be used to increase the fiber content of breads,
cookies, and cereals, and to thicken gravies and soups.
Corn Flour—A finely ground flour made from milling and shifting
maize or obtained as a byproduct of cornmeal. It is used as pancake
flour.
Corn Gluten—A nutrient supplement which is the principal protein
component of corn endosperm. It consists mainly of zein and glutelin. Corn gluten is a byproduct of the wet milling of corn for starch.
The gluten fraction is washed to remove residual water-soluble
proteins. Corn gluten is also produced as a byproduct during the
conversion of the starch in whole or various fractions of dry milled

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corn syrups. The ingredient is used in food with no limitation other
than current good manufacturing practice. It is also termed corn
gluten meal.
Cornmeal—A ground corn of specified mesh profile that is made
from white or yellow maize. It is used in cornbread mix.
Corn Oil—The oil obtained from the germ of the maize plant. The
unsaturated fatty acids linoleic and oleic make up 80–85% of the
total fatty acids. The tocopherols prevent the oil from oxidizing
­rapidly. It has a low melting point of −18°C to −10°C. It is used in
mayonnaise, margarine, salad oil, and bakery products.
Corn Silk and Corn Silk Extract—Flavor agents used in baked
goods and baking mixes (30 ppm), nonalcoholic beverages (20 ppm),
frozen dairy desserts (10 ppm), soft candy (20 ppm), and all other
food categories (4 ppm). Corn silk is the fresh styles and stigmas of
Zea mays L. collected when the corn is in milk. The filaments are
extracted with dilute ethanol to produce corn silk extract. The
extract may be concentrated at a temperature not exceeding 60°C.
Cornstarch—The starch made from the endosperm of corn, containing amylose and amylopectin starch molecules. When starch is
heated in water it forms a viscous, opaque paste. The paste forms
semisolid gels upon cooling and has the ability to form strong adhesive films when spread and dried. Cornstarch is not freeze–thaw
stable and is used widely except when clarity or the lack of gel
­formation is desired. It exists as fine or coarse powders. The coarse
starch is sometimes termed pearl starch. It is used in sauces, gravies,
puddings, pie fillings, and salad dressings. The typical usage level is
1–5%. It is also termed maize starch and common cornstarch, regular cornstarch, or unmodified cornstarch.
Cornstarch, Acid-Modified—A starch produced by treating
­suspended cornstarch in water with dilute mineral acid at high temperatures for varying time periods. This is followed by neutralization
with sodium carbonate upon obtainment of the desired viscosity.
This produces starches that have decreased viscosity when warm but
still form gels when cooled. It is used in the manufacture of starchbased gum candies. It is also termed thin-boiling starch. Esters and
ethers can be formed in which only one end of the addition molecule is attached to the starch molecule. These starches have freeze–
thaw stability, shear resistance, and acid resistance, and are used in
sauces, gravies, and frozen foods.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Cornstarch, Oxidized—See Oxidized Cornstarch.
Corn Sugar—See Dextrose.
Corn Sugar Vinegar—The product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentation of corn sugars according to federal
regulations. It is of amber color and has a minimum of 4% acid
(expressed as acetic acid). It functions as an acidulant in foods.
Corn Syrup—A corn sweetener that is a viscous liquid containing
maltose, dextrin, dextrose, and other polysaccharides. It is obtained
from the incomplete hydrolysis of cornstarch. It is classified according to the degree of conversion which is expressed as the dextrose
equivalent (DE), which is the measure of sweetness of the corn syrup
as compared to that of a sucrose syrup. Generally, the greater the
degree of conversion, the sweeter the syrup. Corn syrup is used as a
replacement for sucrose but is less sweet than sucrose. It can control
crystallization in candy making, contribute body in ice cream, and
provide pliability in confections. It is also termed glucose syrup.
Corn Syrup Solids—The dry form of corn syrup used where it is
impractical to use the liquid syrup. See Corn Syrup.
Cracked Wheat—The wheat prepared by cracking or cutting cleaned
wheat, other than durum wheat and red durum wheat, into angular
fragments. The proportions of the natural constituents, other than
moisture, remain unaltered. The moisture content does not exceed
15%.
Cracker Flour—Flour that is long patented or straight grades of soft
wheat flour, containing 9–10.5% protein. It is of low absorption and
has short mixing requirements.
Cranberry Extract—A natural red colorant with good pH stability
and fair heat, light, and chemical stability. The anthocyanidin pigments in cranberry are peonidin and cyanidin. The extract has low
tinctorial strength and good stability at pH 3–4. Because the color is
affected by pH, it can only be used in acidic mediums such as
beverages.
Cream—That portion of milk that is high in milkfat and will rise to
the top of undisturbed milk. It is obtained by the separation of the
fat fraction of the milk to concentrations ranging from 18 to 40%
fat. Cream is labeled according to the fat content: heavy whipping
cream has a minimum of 36% fat; light whipping cream has 30–36%
fat; and light, coffee, or table cream has 18–30% fat. The lower fat

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creams are usually prepared by blending a high-fat cream with milk.
Cream is used in ice cream mix, whipped toppings, and sauces.
Cream of Tartar—The acid potassium salt of tartaric acid occurring
as crystals or powder. It is relatively poorly soluble having a solubility in 100 ml of water at 0.8 g at 25°C and 6.1 g at 100°C. A 1%
solution at 30°C has a pH of 3.4. Chemical names are potassium
acid tartrate, potassium hydrogen tartrate, and potassium bitartrate.
It functions to complex with heavy metal ions and to regulate pH;
it can have a gentle laxative action if given at adequate levels. The
acidulant is used in chemical leavening to release carbon dioxide
which produces the loaf volume. It has limited reactivity in the cold
so when used in reduced-temperature batters it has little gas evolution during the initial mixing. At room temperatures, it has a relatively fast reaction rate. It functions as a taste regulator in sugar
icing and in controlled crystallization of toffees and fondants by the
regulated inversion of sucrose. It is used in baked goods, crackers,
candy, and puddings.
Cresyl Acetate—A flavoring agent that is a clear and colorless liquid
with a strong, flowery odor. It is soluble in most fixed oils and propylene glycol, moderately soluble in mineral oil, and insoluble in
glycerin. It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed p-toyl
acetate.
Crown Gum—A product of vegetable origin used as a masticatory
substance in chewing gum base.
Crushed Wheat—The wheat prepared by crushing cleaned wheat,
other than durum wheat and red durum wheat. The proportions of
the natural constituents, other than moisture, remain unaltered.
The moisture content does not exceed 15%. It is also termed coarseground wheat.
Cumin—A spice that is the dried, ripe fruit of Cuminum cyminum L. It
is usually obtained in the ground form. It has a warm, pleasant, balsamic flavor. It is used in cheese, soups, relishes, and meats.
Cuminic Aldehyde—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, colorless to
yellow in appearance, with a strong pungent odor resembling cumin
oil. It is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol and ether. It is
obtained from cumin oil. It is also termed p-cuminic aldehyde, cumaldehyde, and cuminal.

42

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Curdlan—A polymer produced by fermentation from the bacteria
Alcaligenes faecalis var. myxogenes. It forms a gel when heated in
water, initially required to be dispersed and suspended in water since
it is insoluble until heated. Above 80°C a high-set gel that is irreversible and stable to freezing is formed. A low-set gel is obtained by
heating to 55–60°C and then cooling below 40°C; this gel is thermoreversible. It is capable of gelling over pH range of 2–10. The heat
gelling properties allow improved water retention in sausage and
ham, improved consistency in Oriental-style noodles, and provide
viscosity and texture.
Curry Powder—A blend of spices used as seasoning in curries, sauces,
and meats. Typical spices in the blend include coriander, ginger,
nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, red pepper, and onion salt.
Cyanocobalamin—Vitamin B12¢ a water-soluble vitamin required for
the normal development of red blood cells. Its deficiency causes pernicious anemia. It is stable in neutral conditions and is more stable
for storage than for processing conditions. It is found in meat, fish,
and milk.
Cyclohexyl Acetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It is stored in glass, tin, or resin-lined
containers. It is used for flavors such as apple, banana, blackberry,
and raspberry with applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and
baked goods at 15–110 ppm.
Cyclohexyl Butyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass, tin, or
resin-lined containers. It is used in pineapple, apricot, banana, and
berry flavor with applications in beverages, ice cream, and candy at
4–9 ppm.
Cyclohexyl Cinnamate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It is stored in glass
or tin containers. It is used in peach and cherry flavors with applications in ice cream, candy, and baked goods at 5–20 ppm.
Cyclohexyl Formate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately stable, colorless liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in
glass or tin containers. It is used in apple or plum flavors and gives
a lift to fruity flavors. It has application in beverages, candy, ice
cream, and baked goods at 3–11 ppm.

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Cyclohexyl Propionate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of fruity odor. It is stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in fruit flavors such as pineapple with applications in
beverages, candy, ice cream, and baked goods at approximately
3 ppm.
Cydonia Seed—See Quince Seed.
Cysteine—A nonessential amino acid that functions as a nutrient
and dietary supplement. It is used in foods to prevent oxygen from
destroying vitamin C and is used in doughs to reduce mixing time.
Cystine—A nonessential amino acid that acts as a nutrient and dietary
supplement. It is very slightly soluble in water and in alcohol.
It improves the biological quality of the total protein in foods containing naturally occurring intact protein.

D
d-Limonene—A

flavoring agent that is a liquid, colorless with a
pleasant odor resembling mild citrus. It is miscible in alcohol, most
fixed oils, and mineral oil; soluble in glycerin; and insoluble in water
and propylene glycol. It is obtained from citrus oil. It is also termed
­ -p-mentha-1,8,diene and cinene.
d

Danish Agar—See Furcelleran.
1-Decanol, Natural—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, colorless,
with a flowery odor similar to orange blossoms. It is insoluble in
water and glycerin, and soluble in alcohol, ether, and mineral oil.
Defoaming Agents—See Surface-Active Agents.
Dehydroacetic Acid—(DHA) A preservative that is a crystalline
powder with a solubility of less than 0.1 g in 100 g of water at 25°C.
It can undergo a variety of chemical reactions which give it utility
in many applications. It is used at 0.01–0.5% for microbiological
growth inhibition in various foods. It is used for cut or peeled squash,
with no more than 65 ppm remaining in or on the prepared
squash.
Dextrin—A partially hydrolyzed starch formed from the treatment of
starch by dry heat, acid, or enzymes. It can be formed from amyloseand amylopectin-type starches. They are white or yellow (canary) in
color. As compared to unmodified starch, dextrins have increased
water solubility, viscosity stability, and reduced paste viscosity. Uses
include dough improvement and binding.
Dextrose—A corn sweetener that is commercially made from starch
by the action of heat and acids or enzymes, resulting in the complete hydrolysis of the cornstarch. There are two types of refined
dextrose commercially available: dextrose hydrate, which contains
9% by weight water of crystallization and is the most often used,
and anhydrous dextrose, which contains less than 0.5% water.
Dextrose is a reducing sugar and produces a high-temperature
browning effect in baked goods. It is used in ice cream, bakery products,
and confections. It is also termed glucose and corn sugar.
Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Mono- and Diglycerides—
A hydrophilic emulsifier used in oil-in-water emulsions. The ­connecting
44

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of glycerol with tartaric acid prior to esterification of the other part
of the glycerol increases the hydrophilicity of the emulsifier. It functions as a dough conditioner in freestanding breads and rolls to
strengthen the gluten which improves crumb softness, crust, and
increased volume. It is used in coffee whiteners for dispersion. It is
used in chocolate couverture to adjust the consistency, viscosity,
and adhesion ability. In reduced-calorie breads, it reduces the quantity of shortening required and maintains volume. It is also termed
acetylated tartaric acid monoglyceride, and acetyl tartrate monoand diglyceride.
Dibasic Calcium Phosphate, Anhydrous—See Dicalcium
Phosphate, Anhydrous.
Dibasic Calcium Phosphate,
Phosphate, Dihydrate.

Dihydrate—See

Dicalcium

Dicalcium Phosphate, Anhydrous—A mineral supplement and
dough conditioner. It contains approximately 29% calcium. It is
practically insoluble in water, with a solubility of 0.02 g/100 ml of
water at 25°C. It is also termed calcium phosphate, dibasic anhydrous and dibasic calcium phosphate, anhydrous. It is used as a
mineral supplement in prepared breakfast cereals, enriched flour,
and noodle products.
Dicalcium Phosphate, Dihydrate—A source of calcium and phosphorus that also functions as a dough conditioner and bleaching
agent. It functions as a dough conditioner in bakery products, as a
bleaching agent in flour, as a source of calcium and phosphorus in
cereal products, and as a source of calcium for alginate gels. It contains approximately 23% calcium. It is practically insoluble in water.
It is also termed dibasic calcium phosphate, dihydrate and calcium
phosphate dibasic, hydrous. It is used in dessert gels, baked goods,
cereals, and breakfast cereals.
Diacetyl—A flavoring agent that is a clear yellow to yellowish green
liquid with a strong pungent odor. It is also known as 2,3-butanedione and is chemically synthesized from methyl ethyl ketone. It is
miscible in water, glycerin, alcohol, and ether, and in very dilute
water solution it has a typical buttery odor and flavor.
Diethyl Sebacate—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, colorless to
pale yellow in appearance with a slight odor. It is insoluble in water
and miscible in alcohol, ether, and other organic solvents. It is
obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed ethyl sebacate.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Diglyceride—A lipophilic emulsifier prepared by direct esterification
of two fatty acids with glycerol, or by interesterification between
glycerol and other triglycerides. It often occurs as a blend with
monoglycerides. It is widely used in numerous foods such as ice
cream, puddings, margarine, doughs, shortenings, peanut butter,
and coffee whiteners. It has numerous functions including the provision of dough conditioning, prevention of fat separation, and the
provision of emulsion stability and dispersibility.
Dilauryl Thiodipropionate—(DLTDP) An antioxidant that exists
as white crystalline flakes of sweetish ester-like odor. It is insoluble
in water but soluble in inorganic solvents. It is used in fats and oils
to prevent rancidity. It is used in food when the total antioxidant
content is not over 0.02% of the fat or oil content.
Dill and Its Derivatives—A flavoring agent that is the herb and
seeds from Anethum graveolens L., dill (Indian), and the herb and
seeds from Anethum sowa, D.C. Its derivatives include essential oils,
oleoresins, and natural extractives obtained from these sources of
dill.
Dill Seed—A spice that is the dried, ripe fruit of the plant Anethum
graveolens L. It is extremely pungent and slightly dominant. It is
used in dips, spreads, sauces, and meats.
Dill Weed—A spice made from the leaf of the dill plant. While dill
seed has a camphorous, slightly bitter taste and fragrance, the weed
has a delicate bouquet which enhances rather than dominates. It is
used in meats and sauces.
Dimethyl Dicarbonate—(DMDC) A microbial control agent used
in wine; ready-to-drink teas; nonjuice-containing beverages;
carbonated,dilute beverages containing juice, fruit flavor or both
with the juice content not exceeding 50%.
Dimethylpolysiloxane—An antifoaming agent used in fats and
oils. It prevents foaming and spattering when oils are heated and
prevents foam formation during the manufacture of wine, refined
sugar, gelatin, and chewing gum. It is also termed methyl polysilicone and methyl silicone.
Dioctyl Sodium Sulfosuccinate—A wetting and emulsifying agent
that is slowly soluble in water, having a solubility of 1 g in 70 ml of
water. It functions as a wetting agent in fumaric acid-containing
powdered fruit drinks to help the acid dissolve in water. It is used as

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47

a stabilizing agent on gums at not more than 0.5% by weight of the
gum. It is used as a flavor potentiator in canned milk where it
improves and maintains the flavor of the sterilized milk during storage. It also functions as a processing aid in the manufacture of unrefined sugar. It is also termed sodium dioctylsulfosuccinate.
Dipotassium Monohydrogen Orthophosphate—See Dipotas­
sium Phosphate.
Dipotassium Monophosphate—See Dipotassium Phosphate.
Dipotassium Phosphate—The dipotassium salt of phosphoric acid
which functions as a stabilizing salt, buffer, and sequestrant. It is
mildly alkaline with a pH of 9 and is soluble in water with a solubility of 170 g/100 ml of water at 25°C. It improves the colloidal solubility of proteins. It acts as a buffer against variation in pH. For
example, it is used in coffee whiteners as a buffer against pH variation in hot coffee and to prevent feathering. It also functions as
an emulsifier in specified cheeses and as a buffering agent for
processed foods. It is also termed dipotassium monohydrogen
orthophosphate, potassium phosphate dibasic, and dipotassium
monophosphate.
Disodium Calcium EDTA—A sequestrant and chelating agent
whose complete name is disodium calcium ethylenediamine tetraacetate. It is a nonhygroscopic powder that is colorless, odorless,
and tasteless at recommended use levels. A 1% solution has a pH of
6.5–7.5. It is used to control the reaction of trace metals with some
organic and inorganic components in food; to prevent deterioration
of color, texture, and development of precipitates; and to prevent
oxidation. Its function is comparable to that of disodium dihydrogen EDTA. It is also termed calcium disodium EDTA. See EDTA.
Disodium Dihydrogen EDTA—A sequestrant and chelating agent
whose complete name is disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate.
It is a nonhygroscopic powder that is colorless, odorless, and tasteless at recommended use levels. A 1% solution has a pH of 4.3–4.7.
It is used to control the reaction of trace metals to include calcium
and magnesium with other organic and inorganic components in
food to prevent deterioration of color, texture, and development of
precipitates and to prevent oxidation. Its function is comparable to
that of disodium calcium EDTA. See EDTA.

48

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Disodium Dihydrogen Pyrophosphate—See Sodium Acid
Pyrophosphate.
Disodium Diphosphate—See Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate.
Disodium Guanylate—A flavor enhancer which is a crystalline
powder, colorless or white, and has characteristic taste. It is soluble
in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, and practically insoluble in
ether. It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed sodium
5¢-guanylate and disodium guanosine-5¢-monophosphate.
Disodium 5¢-Inosinate—A flavor enhancer which performs as a
disodium guanylate does, but only when present at approximately
twice the level. See Disodium Guanylate.
Disodium Monohydrogen Orthophosphate—See Disodium
Phosphate.
Disodium Monohydrogen Orthophosphate Dihydrate—See
Disodium Phosphate.
Disodium Monophosphate—See Disodium Phosphate.
Disodium Phosphate—The disodium salt of phosphoric acid which
functions as a protein stabilizer, buffer, dispersant, and coagulation
accelerator. It is mildly alkaline with a 1% solution having a pH of
9.2. It is moderately soluble in water with a solubility of 12 g in
100 ml at 25°C. It is used in farina and macaroni to shorten the
cooking time by making the particles swell faster and cook more
thoroughly. In evaporated milk it acts as a buffer and prevents gelation, also acting as a buffer in coffee whiteners. It is an accelerator of
the setting time in instant puddings. In cream sauce and whipped
products it functions as a dispersant by producing a swelling of protein. It is also termed disodium monohydrogen orthophosphate;
disodium monohydrogen orthophosphate dihydrate; sodium phosphate, dibasic; sodium phosphate, dibasic dihydrate; and disodium
monophosphate.
Disodium Phosphate, Duohydrate—An emulsifier, buffer, and
mineral supplement. It is moderately soluble in water with a solubility of 15 g in 100 ml of water at 25°C. A 1% solution has a pH of 9.1.
It is used in processed cheese for uniform texture and smoothness.
It is also termed disodium phosphate, dihydrate and sodium phosphate dibasic, dihydrate.

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49

Disodium Tartrate—See Sodium Tartrate.
Dispersants—See Surface-Active Agents.
Distilled Monoglyceride—An emulsifier containing a minimum of
90% monoglyceride derived from edible fat and glycerin. It is an
active monoglyceride produced by distillation to obtain the monoglyceride fraction, which is the part that functions as an emulsifier
or food quality improver. Commercially termed monoglycerides
also contain diglycerides, triglycerides, and so on. It is used in margarine, peanut butter, shortenings, bakery goods, and whipped desserts to improve texture and consistency. Typical usage levels are
0.1–1.0%.
Distilled Vinegar—See Vinegar, Distilled.
Dodecyl Gallate—An antioxidant used in cream cheese, instant
mashed potatoes, margarine, fats, and oils.
Dough Conditioner—A blend of minerals used in baked goods. It is
usually contained within yeast foods as a blend of calcium salts,
sulfates, and phosphates which toughen the gluten. Usage of hard
water generally results in better breads so the minerals serve to minimize the effect of variables in water conditions. It is also termed
yeast food.
Dough Strengtheners—Substances used to modify starch and gluten, thereby producing a more stable dough.
Dried Buttermilk—See Buttermilk, Dried.
Dried Milk—See Whole Milk Solids.
Dried Skim Milk—See Milk Solids-Not-Fat.
Dry Ice—See Carbon Dioxide.
Dry Milled Barley—Barley is produced from dehulled barley grain
and is a source of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Dry Whole Milk—See Milk Powder.
Durum Flour—The fine powder obtained from durum wheat, which
is fine enough to pass through a number 100 U.S. sieve. It is used
principally in macaroni and spaghetti products because it provides
the desired texture and consistency. See Durum Wheat.
Durum Granular—The product obtained from durum wheat by
grinding to obtain semolina to which flour is added so that 7–20%

50

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

passes through a number 100 U.S. sieve. It is used in macaroni and
spaghetti. See Durum Wheat.
Durum Semolinaâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;See Semolina.
Durum Wheatâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;The wheat obtained from the durum wheat kernel.
It differs from other hard wheats in that the starch swelling capacity
is greater and the gluten has different characteristics which result in
tough, elastic doughs. As compared to hard wheat dough, it can be
extruded through a small hole at lower pressure and in breads results
in lower loaf volume. It is used almost exclusively in macaroni and
spaghetti products because it is easily processed to produce a smooth,
mechanically strong product of desired color which when cooked
will maintain its shape and be of firm consistency. Products derived
from the wheat include durum flour, durum granular, and durum
semolina.

E
EDTA—The abbreviation for ethylenediaminetetraacetate, a sequestrant
and chelating agent that functions in water but not in fats and oils.
It is used to control the reaction of trace metals with some organic
and inorganic components to prevent deterioration of color, texture,
and development of precipitates, as well as to prevent oxidation
which results in rancidity. The reactive sites of the metal ions are
blocked, which prevents their normal reactions. The most common
interfering metal ions in food products are iron and copper. It can
be used in combination with the antioxidants BHT and propyl gallate. It is used in margarine, mayonnaise, and spreads to prevent the
vegetable oil from going rancid. It is used in canned corn prior to
retorting to prevent discoloration caused by trace quantities of copper, iron, and chromium. It also inhibits copper-catalyzed oxidation
of ascorbic acid. It occurs as disodium calcium EDTA and disodium
dihydrogen EDTA. Its use is approved in specified foods, with an
average usage level being in the range of 100–300 ppm.
Egg—The hard-shelled reproductive body of poultry. The shell is
largely composed of calcium carbonate, and represents approximately 11% of its total weight. Inside the shell are the shell membranes, which are principally protein. The yolk, which represents
approximately 31% of the egg’s weight, contains protein, fat, and all
the known vitamins except vitamin C. Most of the egg’s calories
come from the yolk. The egg white is protein and represents approximately 58% of the weight. The white does not appear white in color
until beaten or cooked. There is a thick and thin white, which consists
mainly of ovalbumin, conalbumin, ovoglobulin, ovomucoid, and
ovomucin. Eggs are used whole, as egg white, as yolk, or any combination thereof. They are used for coagulation, foam formation,
emulsification, nutrition, flavor, and color.
Egg Albumen—The protein fraction of egg, which is also termed egg
white. It represents approximately 65% of the edible egg and is composed of approximately 87% water, 11% protein, and 1% carbohydrate. It provides a source of protein and provides foam upon
whipping. It is used in meringues, cakes, and desserts.

51

52

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Egg White—See Egg Albumen.
Egg Yolk—The yellow portion of the egg, representing approximately
35% of the edible egg. It is composed of approximately 49% water,
16% protein, 32% fat, and trace carbohydrate. It is used as an emulsifier in mayonnaise, salad dressing, and cream puffs. It is also used
as a source of color.
Emulsifiers and Emulsifier Salts—Substances which reduce the
surface tension between two immiscible phases at their interface,
allowing them to become miscible. The interface can be between
two liquids, a liquid and a gas, or a liquid and a solid. Most emulsions involve water and oil or fat as the two immiscible phases, one
being dispersed as finite globules in the other. The liquid as globules
is referred to as the dispersed or internal phase, while the medium
in which they are suspended as the continuous or external phase.
There are two types of oil/water emulsions depending on the composition of the phases. In an oil-in-water emulsion such as milk and
mayonnaise, the water is the external phase and the oil is the internal phase. In a water-in-oil emulsion such as butter, the oil is the
external phase and the water is the internal phase. Emulsifiers have
the following major functions:
• Complexing—Reaction with starch in bakery products which
retards the crystallization of the starch, thus retarding the firming
of the crumb which is associated with staling.
• Dispersing—The reduction of interfacial tension which creates an
intimate mixture of two liquids that normally are immiscible, an
example being oil-in-water emulsions such as salad dressing.
• Crystallization control—Control of crystallization in sugar and fat
systems, i.e., chocolate, where it allows for brighter initial gloss
and prevention of solidified fat on the surface.
• Wetting—Allows the surface to be more attracted to water, such as
powders, i.e., coffee whitener, in which the addition of surfactant
aids the dispersion of the powder in the liquid without lumping
on the surface.
• Lubricating—Functions as a lubricant, such as in caramels, by
reducing their tendency to stick to cutting knives, wrappers, and
teeth.
Enriched Bleached Flour—Flour that has been whitened by
removal of the yellow pigments and fortified with vitamins and
minerals. The added vitamins are thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, or

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53

niacinamide, and may include vitamin D. The minerals are iron and
may include calcium. It is used in baked goods.
Enriched Flour—Flour that contains 2.9 mg of thiamin, 1.8 mg of
riboflavin, 24 mg of niacin, 0.7 mg of folic acid, and 20 mg of iron
in each pound of flour. It may contain added calcium, monocalcium
phosphate, vitamins, minerals, and wheat germ.
Entire Wheat Flour—See Whole Wheat Flour.
Epsom Salt—See Magnesium Sulfate.
Ergosterol—A steroid alcohol that when irradiated with ultraviolet
light yields calciferol (Vitamin D2). Irradiated ergosterol is added to
milk for vitamin D fortification.
Erythorbic Acid—A food preservative that is a strong reducing agent
(oxygen accepting) which functions similarly to antioxidants. In
the dry crystalline state it is nonreactive, but in water solutions it
reacts readily with atmospheric oxygen and other oxidizing agents,
making it valuable as an antioxidant. During preparation, dissolving and mixing should incorporate a minimum amount of air, and
storage should be at cool temperatures. It has a solubility of
43 g/100 ml of water at 25°C. One part erythorbic acid is equivalent
to one part ascorbic acid and equivalent to one part sodium erythorbate. It is used to control oxidative color and flavor deterioration in
fruits at 150–200 ppm. It is used in meat curing to speed and control
the nitrite curing reaction and prolong the color of cured meat at
levels of 0.05%.
Erythritol—A sweetener (polyol) manufactured by fermentation of
glucose, the glucose-rich substrate being obtained by the enzymatic
hydrolysis of starch. It is 60–70% as sweet as sugar, has excellent
heat and acid stability, a high digestive tolerance, and a caloric
value of 0.2 kcal/g. It is the only polyol produced by fermentation.
It can be used as a sugar replacement in confectioneries, beverages,
and desserts.
Erythrosine—See FD&C Red #3.
Ethoxylated Mono- and Diglycerides—An emulsifier prepared by
the glycerolysis of edible vegetable fats and reacting with ethylene
oxide. It is hydrophilic, being soluble in water and partially soluble
in oil. It contributes to freeze–thaw stability and overrun in whipped
toppings. It functions as a dough conditioner/emulsifier in baked
goods and as an emulsifier in coffee whiteners, icings, and frozen

54

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

desserts. Typical usage levels are 0.20–0.45%. It is also termed polyglycerate 60 and polyoxyethylene (20) mono- and diglycerides of
fatty acids.
Ethoxyquin—An antioxidant used in the preservation of color in
chili powder, ground chili, and paprika.
Ethyl Acrylate—A flavoring agent that is a clear, colorless liquid.
Its odor is fruity, harsh, penetrating, and lachrymatous (causes tears).
It is sparingly soluble in water and miscible in alcohol and ether,
and is obtained by chemical synthesis.
2-Ethylbutyric Acid—A flavoring agent that is a clear liquid, colorless, with a rancid odor. It is miscible in alcohol and ether, sparingly
soluble in water, and is obtained by chemical synthesis.
Ethyl Cellulose—Used as a binder and filler in dry vitamin preparations, as a component of protective coatings for vitamin and mineral tablets, and as a fixative in flavoring compounds. It is a cellulose
ether containing ethyoxy groups attached by an ether linkage and
containing an anhydrous basis of not more than 2.6 ethoxy groups
per anhydroglucose unit.
Ethyl Crotonate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately
stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of sharp winey note. It should
be stored in glass, tin, or resin-lined containers. It is used in fruit
flavors for application in baked goods, beverages, and candy at
2–7 ppm.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetate—See EDTA.
Ethylene Oxide Polymer—Foam stabilizer in fermented malt beverages which is the polymer of ethylene oxide. It is used at a level
not to exceed 300 ppm by weight of the fermented malt beverage.
The label of the additive bears directions for use to ensure compliance with the legal limit.
Ethyl Formate—A flavoring agent that occurs naturally in some
plant oils, fruits, and juices but does not occur naturally in the animal kingdom. It is used in food at a maximum level, as served, of
0.05% in baked goods; 0.04% in chewing gum, hard candy, and soft
candy; 0.02% in frozen dairy desserts; 0.03% in gelatins, puddings,
and fillings; and 0.01% in all other food categories. It is an ester of
formic acid and is prepared by esterification of formic acid with
ethyl alcohol or by distillation of ethyl acetate and formic acid in
the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid.

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55

Ethyl-2,4-Hexadieonate—See Ethyl Sorbate.
Ethyl Isobutyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of dry, fruity odor. It should be stored in tin, glass, or
resin-lined containers. It is used to give fruity effects to flavors for
applications in candy, baked goods, and beverages at 10–100 ppm.
Ethyl Lactate—A solvent manufactured from l(+) lactic acid which
is miscible in water and most organic solvents and is cleared for use
as a flavoring agent. It is a naturally occurring constituent of
California and Spanish sherries. It is a clear, colorless, nontoxic
­liquid of low volatility, having a pH of 7–7.5. It is used as a food and
beverage flavoring agent.
Ethyl Maltol—A flavoring agent that is a white, crystalline powder.
It has a unique odor and a sweet taste that resembles fruit. The melting point is 90°C. It is sparingly soluble in water and propylene glycol and soluble in alcohol and chloroform. It is obtained by chemical
synthesis.
Ethyl-Methyl-Phenyl-Glycidate—A synthetic flavoring agent that
is a glycidic acid ester. It is a colorless to pale yellow liquid with a
strong fruit odor suggestive of strawberries. It is unstable to alkali
and moderately stable to weak organic acids. It should be stored in
glass, tin, or aluminum containers. It is soluble in fixed oils and in
propylene glycol. It is used in flavors for strawberry note and has
application in candy, beverages, and ice cream at 6–20 ppm. It is
also termed aldehyde C-16.
Ethyl Nonanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of fruit cognac odor. It is practically insoluble in water
and is miscible with alcohol and propylene glycol. It should be
stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in flavors such as apple,
pear, and cognac with applications in beverages, ice cream, candy,
and alcohol beverages at 4–20 ppm.
Ethyl Oxyhydrate—See Rum Ether.
Ethyl Paraben—See Parabens.
Ethyl Propionate—A flavoring agent that is a transparent liquid,
colorless, with an odor resembling rum. It is miscible in alcohol and
propylene glycol, soluble in fixed oils, mineral oil, and alcohol, and
sparingly soluble in water. It is obtained by chemical synthesis.

56

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Ethyl Sorbate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately stable, light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass or
tin containers. It is used in flavors such as pineapple, papaya, and
passion fruit with applications in ice cream, beverages, candy, and
baked goods at 6–18 ppm. It is also termed ethyl-2,4-hexadienoate.
Ethyl Vanillin—A flavoring agent that is a synthetic vanilla flavor
with approximately three and one-half times the flavoring power of
vanillin. It has a solubility of 1 g in 100 ml of water at 50°C. It is
used in ice cream, beverages, and baked goods.
Eugenol—A flavoring obtained from clove oil and also found in carnation and cinnamon leaves. It is a stable, light yellow-green liquid
of clove odor. It is slightly soluble in water and miscible in alcohol.
It should be stored in glass or tin, avoiding iron containers. It is used
in spice oils for application in condiments and meats at 100–200 ppm
and in baked goods and candy at approximately 30 ppm.
Extract—An alcohol or alcohol–water solution that contains a
flavoring ingredient obtained from a spice or some other ingredient
and which is used as a flavorant. It is used in baked goods, beverages,
and ice cream.
Extract of Malted Barley and Corn—See Malted Cereal Syrup.

F
Family Flour—See All-Purpose Flour.
Farina—Wheat, other than durum or red durum wheat, from which
the bran and most of the germ has been removed. It is ground so
that not more than 3% passes through a number 100 U.S. sieve.
Fast Green FCF—See FD&C Green #3.
Fat—Water-insoluble material of plant or animal origin, consisting
predominantly of glyceryl esters of fatty acids (triglycerides). Fat
ordinarily refers to triglycerides that are semisolid at room temperature. Fat in its liquid state is called oil.
Fatty Acids—Aliphatic acids that may be saturated or unsaturated,
consisting of a mixture of certain monobasic carboxylic acids and
their associated fatty acids. Fatty acids plus glycerol result in a fat
characterized by the fatty acid components. A fatty acid may be
used as a lubricant, a binder, a food processing defoamer, and an
emulsifier.
FD&C Blue #1—A colorant. It has a solubility in water of 20 g in
100 ml at 25°C. It has good pH stability with only slight fading after
1 week at pH 3, 7, and 8 but is unstable in alkalis such as 10% sodium
carbonate and 10% ammonium hydroxide. It has good stability in
10% sugar systems. It has fair stability to light, fair to poor stability
to oxidation, and good stability to heat. It has a greenish-blue hue
with excellent tinctorial strength. It is used with other primary colors to produce a variety of shades, for example, in combination with
FD&C Yellow #5, it gives green. It has good compatibility with food
components. It is used in candies, baked goods, soft drinks, and
desserts. The common name is brilliant blue FCF.
FD&C Blue #2—A colorant. It has poor pH stability in that after 1 week
at pH 3 and 5 it will appreciably fade, at pH 7 considerably fade, and
at pH 8 fade completely. It is the least soluble of all food colors, with
a solubility of 1.6 g in 100 ml of water at 25°C. Complete fading
occurs in alkalis such as 10% sodium carbonate and 10% sodium
hydroxide, with fading also occurring in 10% sugar systems. It has
very poor light stability and oxidation stability, and moderate stability
to heat; it has a deep blue hue with poor tinctorial strength. It is the

57

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

only food color that has good resistance to reducing agents, but has
very poor compatibility with food components. The major use is in
pet food, but it is also used in candies, confections, and baked goods.
The common name is indigotine.
FD&C Green #3—A colorant. It has good pH stability, showing after
1 week a slight fade at pH 3, a very slight fade at pH 5 to 7, and slight
fade and appreciably bluer color at pH 8. It has excellent solubility
in water with a solubility of 20 g in 100 ml at 25°C. It has fair to
good stability to light, poor stability to oxidation, and shows no
appreciable change in 10% sugar systems. It has a bluish-green hue,
with excellent tinctorial strength. It has good compatibility with
food components and is occasionally used in cereals, soft drinks,
beverages, and desserts. The common name is fast green FCF.
FD&C Red #3—A colorant. It is not recommended for use below pH
5.0, being insoluble at pH 3–5 but being stable at pH 7 and 8. It has
a solubility in water of 9 g/100 ml at 25°C. It has fair stability to oxidation and poor to fair stability to light, while having good stability
in 10% sugar systems. It has exceptional clarity and brilliance, having
a bluish pink hue with very good tinctorial strength. It has poor
compatibility with food components and is used in candies and confections as well as cherry dyeing. The common name is erythrosine.
FD&C Red #40—A colorant. It has good stability to pH changes from
pH 3 to 8, showing no appreciable change. It has excellent solubility
in water with a solubility of 22 g/100 ml at 25°C. It has very good
stability to light, fair to poor stability to oxidation, good stability to
heat, and shows no appreciable change in stability in 10% sugar
systems. It has a yellowish-red hue and has a very good tinctorial
strength. It has very good compatibility with food components and
is used in beverages, desserts, candy, confections, cereals, and ice
cream. The common name is Allura® red AC.
FD&C Yellow #5—A colorant. It has good stability to changes in pH,
showing no appreciable change at pH 3–8. It has excellent solubility
in water with a solubility of 20 g in 100 ml at 25°C. It has good stability to light and heat, fair stability to oxidation, and shows no
appreciable change in 10% sugar systems. It has a lemon-yellow hue
and has good tinctorial strength. It has moderate compatibility with
food components and is used in beverages, baked goods, pet foods,
desserts, candy, confections, cereal, and ice cream. The common
name is tartrazine.

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59

FD&C Yellow #6—A colorant. It has good stability to changes in pH,
showing no appreciable change at pH 3–8. It has excellent solubility
in water with a solubility of 19 g in 100 ml at 25°C. It has moderate
stability to light, fair stability to oxidation, good stability to heat,
and shows appreciable change in 10% sugar systems. It has a reddishyellow hue and has good tinctorial strength. It has moderate compatibility with food components and is used in beverages, bakery
goods, dessert confections, and ice cream. The common name is
sunset yellow FCF.
Fennel—A spice that is the dried, ripe fruit of the herb Foeniculum
vulgare Mil. It is a seed with licorice flavor. It is used in meat, fish,
and sauces as a seasoning.
Fenugreek—The seed, usually in ground form, of the herb Trigonella
foenumgraecum. It has a maple-like flavor and burnt sugar taste. It is
used in curry powder, imitation maple flavor, chutney, and pickles.
Ferric Ammonium Citrate—A nutrient supplement that is a source
of iron. It is prepared by the reaction of ferric hydroxide with citric
acid, followed by treatment with ammonium hydroxide, evaporation, and drying. The resulting product occurs in two forms, i.e.,
ferric ammonium citrate, brown with 16.5–18.5% iron and ferric
ammonium citrate, green with 14.5–16% iron.
Ferric Chloride—A nutrient and dietary supplement that serves as a
source of iron.
Ferric Citrate—A nutrient supplement that is prepared from reaction of citric acid with ferric hydroxide. It is a compound of indefinite ratio of citric acid and iron. The ingredient may be used in
infant formula. It is also termed iron (III) citrate.
Ferric Orthophosphate—An inert white powder that is a source of
iron and produces no discoloration or rancidity. It contains approximately 28% iron. It is used as a mineral supplement where rancidity
is not a problem. It is used in frozen egg substitute, pasta products,
and rice products.
Ferric Oxide—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a source of
iron.
Ferric Phosphate—A nutrient supplement that is an odorless, yellowish white to buff-colored powder and contains one to four molecules
of water of water of hydration. It is prepared by reaction of sodium
phosphate with ferric chloride or ferric citrate. It is also termed iron
(II) phosphate.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Ferric Pyrophosphate—A nutrient supplement, tan or yellowish
white in color, prepared by reacting sodium pyrophosphate with
ferric citrate. The ingredient may be used in infant formula. It is also
termed iron (III) pyrophosphate.
Ferric Sulfate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a source
of iron.
Ferrous Ascorbate—A nutrient supplement, blue-violet in color,
containing 16% iron. It is a reaction product of ferrous hydroxide
and ascorbic acid. It may be used in infant formula.
Ferrous Carbonate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a
source of iron.
Ferrous Citrate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a source
of iron.
Ferrous Fumarate—A reddish orange to red-brown powder that is a
source of iron. It has high bioavailability and can be used in foods
where the red color can be masked. It contains approximately 33%
iron. It is used as a dietary supplement in breakfast cereals, poultry
stuffing, enriched flour, and instant drinks.
Ferrous Gluconate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a
source of iron and a coloring adjunct. It is a yellowish gray to pale
greenish yellow powder or granules with a burnt sugar odor. It has a
solubility of 1 g in approximately 10 ml of water with slight heating.
It is used by the pharmaceutical industry as an iron supplement in
vitamin pills. It is used by olive growers to darken the olives to a
uniform black color. It can function as an iron fortifier in corn and
soy products, breakfast cereals, beverages, and dietary foods.
Ferrous Lactate—Ferrous salt of lactic acid which functions to
enrich and fortify. It is of neutral color and flavor, and is soluble. It
is used in acid foods below a pH of 4.5, where there is less susceptibility to oxidation and conversion to the ferric form, which results
in discoloration. In higher pH foods, the instability can be prevented
by complexing with ligands which prevent browning discoloration.
It is used in fortification of drinks and juices.
Ferrous Sulfate—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is a source
of iron. It is a white to grayish odorless powder. Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate contains approximately 20% iron, while ferrous sulfate
dried contains approximately 32% iron. It dissolves slowly in water
and has high bioavailability. It can cause discoloration and rancidity.

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It is used for fortification of baking mixes. In the encapsulated form
it does not react with lipids in cereal flours. It is used in infant foods,
cereals, and pasta products.
Fish Protein Isolate—A food supplement that consists principally
of dried fish protein prepared from the edible portion of fish after
removal of the heads, fins, tails, bones, scales, viscera, and intestinal
contents. The additive is prepared by extraction with hexane and
food-grade ethanol to remove fat and moisture.
Flavor Enhancers—Substances added to supplement, enhance, or
modify the original taste and/or aroma of a food, without imparting
a characteristic taste or aroma of its own. See Flavoring Agents
and Adjuvants.
Flavoring Agents and Adjuvants—Substances added to impart or
help impart a taste or aroma in food. They are classified into the
major groups of spices, natural flavors, and artificial or synthetic
flavors. Aliphatic, aromatic, and terpene compounds refer to synthetic chemicals and isolates from natural sources. This classification encompasses the largest group of flavoring materials. The
flavors used are natural, artificial, or combinations and exist in liquid or dry form. General flavor types available include fruit, dairy,
meat, vegetable, beverage, and liquor.
Flaxseed—Seed from flax which is rich in omega-3 fatty acid (up to
24% by weight), total dietary fiber, and lignans. Flaxseed is also
termed linseed. It is used in cereal-based products and cereal mix.
Flour—The food prepared by grinding and bolting cleaned wheat,
other than durum wheat and red durum wheat. The baking quality of
the flour depends upon the type of wheat, milling process, and treatment applied after milling. Flours classified by process are straight,
patent, and clear flour. Flours classified by usage are all-purpose, bread,
cake, cracker, and pastry flour. Flours treated after milling include
bleached, bromated, enriched bleached, instantized, phosphated,
and self-rising flour. Flours from other grains are identified according
to the grain source, for example, soy flour. See specific flour.
Flour Treating Agents—Substances added to milled flour, at the
mill, to improve its color and/or baking qualities, including
bleaching and maturing agents.
Foaming Agents—See Surface-Active Agents.
Folacin—See Folic Acid.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Folic Acid—A water-soluble B-complex vitamin that aids in the formation of red blood cells, prevents certain anemias, and is essential
in normal metabolism. High-temperature processing affects its stability. It is best stored at lower than room temperatures. It is also
termed folacin. It is found in liver, nuts, and green vegetables.
Food Starch, Modified—See Modified Starch.
Formic Acid—A flavoring substance that is liquid and colorless, and
possesses a pungent odor. It is miscible in water, alcohol, ether, and
glycerin, and is obtained by chemical synthesis or oxidation of
methanol or formaldehyde.
Fructooligosaccharide—(FOS) A fructan being a natural constituent of inulin and found in artichokes, chicory roots, asparagus,
onions, garlic, and leeks. It is obtained from the partial enzymatic
hydrolysis of inulin and can also be enzymatically synthesized from
sucrose. Its properties include functioning as a prebiotic to promote
growth of bifidogenic and other probiotic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract, as a soluble dietary fiber, as a sweetener and to increase
calcium absorption. In fruit preparations with aspartame or acesulfame potassium, it provides a synergistic taste affect and improves
mouthfeel, it reduces stickiness in soy protein bars, binds water, and
increases shelf life in baked goods. Also termed oligofructose.
Fructose—A sweetener that is a monosaccharide found naturally in
fresh fruit and honey. It is obtained by the inversion of sucrose by
means of the enzyme invertase and by the isomerization of corn
syrup. It is 130–180 in sweetness range as compared to sucrose at
100 and is very water soluble. It is used in baked goods because it
reacts with amino acids to produce a browning reaction. It is used as
a nutritive sweetener in low-calorie beverages. It is also termed levulose and fruit sugar.
Fructose Corn Syrup—A sweetener that is an isomerized corn syrup
derived from isomerization of glucose in the syrup to fructose by the
enzyme isomerase. Varying levels of fructose syrup are available,
being designated 42, 55, and 90% fructose. The 42% high-fructose
corn syrup (HFCS) is a liquid mixture of dextrose, fructose, maltose,
isomaltose, and higher saccharides, of which 42% is fructose (dry
basis). The 55% and 90% HFCS are liquid mixtures of fructose,
dextrose, and higher saccharides containing 55% and 90% fructose
(dry basis), respectively. The range of relative sweetness as compared
to sucrose at 100 is 42% HFCS: 90–95; 55% HFCS: 95–100; 90%

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HFCS: 100–130. HFCS is used in carbonated beverages, canned fruit,
frozen desserts, and dairy drinks. It is also termed isomerized syrup,
levulose-bearing syrup, and high-fructose corn syrup.
Fruit Sugar—See Fructose.
Fumaric Acid—An acidulant that is a nonhygroscopic, strong acid
of poor solubility. It has a solubility of 0.63 g in 100 ml of distilled
water at 25°C. It dissolves slowly in cold water, but if mixed with
dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate its solubility improves. The solubility
rate also increases with smaller particle size. A quantity of 0.317 kg
of fumaric acid can replace 0.453 kg of citric acid. It is used in dry
mixes such as desserts, pie fillings, and candy. It is used in dry beverage mixes because it is storage stable, free flowing, and nonhygroscopic. It functions as a synergistic antioxidant with BHA and BHT
in oil- and lard-base products. In gelatin desserts, it improves the
flavor stability and increases shelf life and gel strength.
Furcelleran—A gum that is the extract of the red alga Furcellaria
fastigiata. It swells in cold water and requires heating to 75–80°C for
solubilization. It forms thermoreversible gels after heating and cooling and has properties between agar and carrageenan. It is also
termed Danish agar. It is used in milk puddings, flans, jelly, jam, and
gelled meat products.

G
Garlic—A spice that is cloves of the herb Allium sativum. In its dehydrated form, the flavor enzyme is released only when in combination with water. It exists in powder form and also as salt, chips, and
seasoning powder. It is used to flavor meats, vegetables, and sauces.
Garlic Salt—A seasoning that is a mix of garlic powder and salt. It is
used in sauces and breads.
Gelatin—A protein that functions as a gelling agent. It is obtained
from collagen derived from beef bones and calf skin (Type B) or pork
skin (Type A). Type B is derived from alkali-treated tissue and has an
isoelectric point between pH 4.7 and 5.0. Type A is derived from
acid-treated tissue and has an isoelectric point between pH 7.0 and
9.0. It forms thermally reversible gels which set at 20°C and melt at
30°C. The gel strength is measured by means of a Bloom Gellometer
and ranges from 50 to 300 with a 250 Bloom being the most common.
It is used in desserts at 8–10% of the dry weight, in yogurt at 0.3–0.5%,
in ham coatings at 2–3%, and in confectionery and capsules at
1.5–2.5%.
Gellan Gum—A gum obtained by fermentation of the microorganism
Sphingomonas elodea. The constituent sugars are glucose, glucuronic
acid, and rhamnose in the molecular ratio of 2:1:1, being linked
together to give a primary structure consisting of a linear tetrasaccharine repeating unit. Direct recovery yields the gum in its native
or high acyl form in which two acyl substituents, acetate and glycerate,
are present. Gels from that form are elastic and cohesive. Recovery
after deacetylation has the acyl groups removed to yield the low acyl
form; those gels are strong and brittle. In general, high acyl gellan
gum dispersed in water swells to form a thick suspension and upon
heating, it loses its viscosity upon hydration. Low acyl gellan gum is
only partially soluble in cold water and is dissolved by heating to
70°C or greater. Gelation occurs upon cooling and reaction with
ions, predominantly calcium ions. Gellan gum is sensitive to ions.
Uses include bakery fruit fillings, confectioneries, icings, dairy products, beverages, and coatings.
Geranyl Isovalerate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately
stable, light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass

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or tin containers. It is used in fruit flavors such as apple or pear with
applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked goods at
4–11 ppm.
Geranyl Phenylacetate—A flavoring agent that is a yellow liquid
with an odor resembling honey and roses. Miscible in alcohol, chloroform, and ether, and insoluble in water, it may contain other isomeric and closely related terpenic esters. It is obtained by chemical
synthesis.
Ghatti—A gum that is a plant exudate obtained from the Anogeissus
latifolia tree. The gum is formed as a protective sealant when the
bark is damaged. It forms viscous mixtures in water at concentrations of 5% or greater. Only about 90% of the gum is actually soluble
in water and has a pH of 4.5. It has similar uses as gum arabic. It is
also termed Indian gum. It is used in buttered syrup and as a stabilizer for emulsions.
Ghee—See Butter Oil.
Ginger—A spice that is the dried and peeled rhizome of the ginger
plant Zingiber officinale. The fragrance ranges from pungent to
piquant at once; the flavor can be sharp or cooling depending on
the food with which it is used. Fresh (green) ginger is obtained from
the cleaned, peeled, and cured rhizome; dried ginger is the fresh
product which has been cured and ground for spice. It is used in
desserts, meats, sauces, relishes, baked goods, and beverages.
Glacial Acetic Acid—An acidulant that is a clear, colorless liquid
which has an acid taste when diluted with water. It is 99.5% or
higher in purity and crystallizes at 17°C. It is used in salad dressings
in a diluted form to provide the required acetic acid. It is used as a
preservative, acidulant, and flavoring agent. It is also termed acetic
acid, glacial.
Gluconic Acid—An acidulant that is a mild organic acid which is the
hydrolyzed form of glucono-delta-lactone. It is prepared by the
fermentation of dextrose, whereby the physiological d-form is
produced. It is soluble in water with a solubility of 100 g/100 ml at
20°C. It has a mild taste and at 1% has a pH of 2.8. It functions as
an antioxidant and enhances the function of other antioxidants.
In beverages, syrups, and wine, it can eliminate calcium turbidities.
It is used as a leavening component in cake mixes, and as an acid
component in dry-mix desserts and dry beverage mixes.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Glucono-Delta-Lactone—(GDL) An acidulant. It hydrolyzes to
form gluconic acid in water solution and thereby creates the desired
pH. The rate of acid formation is affected by temperature, concentration, and the pH of the solution. It has low acid release at room
temperature and accelerated conversion into gluconic acid at high
temperatures. It is readily soluble with a solubility of 59 g in 100 ml
of water at 20°C. It functions as a leavening agent, acidulant, curing
and pickling agent, and pH control agent. It is comparatively less
tart/sour than other food acids. It is used in baked goods, fish products,
desserts, and dressings.
Glucose—See Dextrose.
Glucose Syrup—See Corn Syrup.
Glutamic Acid—An amino acid that is a white crystalline powder of
slight solubility in water. The salt is monosodium glutamate (MSG)
which functions as a flavor enhancer in meats. It also is a nutrient,
dietary supplement, and salt substitute.
Glutamic Acid Hydrochloride—A flavoring, salt substitute that is
soluble in water and very slightly soluble in alcohol and ether. It is
obtained by chemical synthesis.
Gluten—A protein complex formed when water is kneaded with
wheat flour which brings about the removal of a large portion of the
starch. It forms the elastic framework of dough, entrapping the gas
produced by the fermentation of leavening action which results in
a risen dough of desired loaf volume and structure. Gliadin is of
lower molecular weight and provides extensibility as compared to
glutenin, which is of higher molecular weight and contributes elasticity. Gluten is available as wheat gluten, corn gluten, and zein.
Vital wheat gluten is the most widely used. See Wheat Gluten.
Gluten Flour—See Gluten.
Glycerin (Glycerol)—A polyol (polyhydric alcohol) that functions
as a humectant, crystallization modifier, and plasticizer. It is a bittersweet liquid which has a high solubility of 71 g/100 g of water at
25°C. It is 75% as sweet as sugar. It is a fair oil solvent and has a
medium to high hygroscopicity. It is used to maintain a certain
moisture content to prevent the drying-out of foods; at 10–15% in
raisins, it keeps them from drying out and prevents their moisture
from migrating into cereal. It is used in confections to maintain the
initial level of crystallization of the soft sugar. In reduced-fat frozen

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desserts, it helps prevent ice crystal formation. It also functions as a
flavor solvent. Applications include marshmallows, candy, and
baked goods.
Glycerol—See Glycerin.
Glycerol Ester—A density adjuster prepared from glycerol of nonanimal sources and refined wood rosin of pine trees. It is used to adjust
the specific gravity of the citrus oil or oil phase to be similar to the
specific gravity of the beverage emulsion and thus prevent the oil
from rising or settling in the finished beverage. It also imparts some
cloudiness. It is soluble in aromatic and petroleum hydrocarbons,
terpenes, esters, ketones, citrus, and essential oils. It is used in lemon
and orange drinks and also as a masticatory substance in chewing
gum base. It is technically termed glyceryl abietate and is also called
glycerol dihydroabietate.
Glyceryl-Lacto Esters of Fatty Acids—Lipophilic emulsifiers that
are the lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides. They are made
by the reaction of mono- and diglycerides or propylene glycol ester
with lactic acid, resulting in a compound with more surface activity
and slightly more hydrophilicity than the regular mono- and diglycerides. They are used as emulsifiers, plasticizers, and promoters of
starch gelatinization. They are used where aeration is required, such
as in toppings, cakes, and icings, at levels necessary to obtain the
technical effect.
Glyceryl-Lacto-Stearate—An emulsifier that is a glyceryl-lacto ester
of fatty acids. It is a monoglyceride esterified with lactic acid which
increases the hydrophilicity of the emulsifier. It is used in whipped
vegetable toppings, shortenings, cake mixes, and chocolate coating.
Glyceryl Monolaurate—A monoglyceride emulsifier produced by
the esterification of glycerin and lauric acid. It has a melting point
of 56°C, a maximum iodine value of 0.5, and a saponification value
of 200–206. In a highly purified form, it shows antimicrobial properties against microorganisms with the exception of gram-negative
organisms. It is effective against gram-negative organisms when formulated with BHA or EDTA. It is used in baked goods, whipped toppings, frosting, glazes, and cheese products.
Glyceryl Monooleate—A flavoring agent that is prepared by esterification of commercial oleic acid that is derived either from edible
sources or from tall oil fatty acids. It contains glyceryl monooleate

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

and glyceryl esters of fatty acids present in commercial oleic acid. The
ingredient is also used as an adjuvant and as a solvent and vehicle.
Glyceryl Monostearate—Glyceryl monostearate, also known as
monostearin, is a mixture of variable proportions of glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monopalmitate, and glyceryl esters of fatty acids
present in commercial stearic acid. Glyceryl monostearate is prepared by glycerolysis of certain fats or oils that are derived from
edible sources or by esterification, with glycerin, of stearic acid that
is derived from edible sources.
Glyceryl Triacetate—A colorless, oily liquid of slight fatty odor and
bitter taste. It is soluble with water and is miscible with alcohol and
ether. It functions in foods as a humectant and solvent. It is also
termed triacetin.
Glyceryl Tristearate—A formulation aid, lubricant, and release
agent, prepared by reacting stearic acid with glycerol in the presence
of a suitable catalyst. The additive is used as a crystallization accelerator in cocoa products; a formulation aid in confections; a formulation in fats and oils; and a winterization and fractionation aid in
fat and oil processing.
Glycine—A nonessential amino acid that functions as a nutrient and
dietary supplement. It has a solubility of 1 g in 4 ml of water and is
abundant in collagen. It is used to mask the bitter aftertaste of saccharin, for example, in artificially sweetened soft drinks. It retards
rancidity in fat.
Glycyrrhizin—A flavorant and foaming agent derived from the separation of flavonoids found in the whole licorice extract from the
licorice root Glycyrrhiza glabra. It is 50–100 times as sweet as sugar, is
soluble in water, and has a licorice taste. It has good heat stability
but prolonged heating can result in some degradation. It is stable
within pH 4–9; below pH 4 there could be precipitation. It has foaming and emulsifying properties in water, being used in cocktail mixes
and soft drinks. It is used as a flavorant in bacon and imitation
whipped products. It is synergistic with sugar, the sweetness being
amplified to 100 times that of cane sugar alone. It is used as a sweetener
in sugar-free chewing gum and low-fat sugar-free frozen desserts. It
is also termed ammoniated glycyrrhizin. Monoammonium glycyrrhizinate is obtained by additional refinement.

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Golden Apple Seed—See Quince Seed.
Graham Flour—See Whole Wheat Flour.
Graham’s Salt—See Sodium Hexametaphosphate.
Grain Vinegar—An acidulant made by the acetous fermentation of
dilute distilled alcohol, containing not less than 4 g of acetic acid
per 100 ml at 20°C. It is used in mayonnaise, salad dressing, sauces,
and catsup. It is also termed distilled vinegar and spirit vinegar.
Granulated Sugar—See Sugar.
Grape Color Extract—An aqueous solution of anthocyanin grape
pigment made from Concord grapes, or a dehydrated water-soluble
powder prepared from the aqueous solution. It contains the common components of the grape juice, but not in the same proportions. It has a red color pigment, with greatest color stability below
pH 4.5. The color is stable in the presence of light and some heat.
The color intensity increases as the pH declines. It is used at the
0.05–0.8% range. It may be used for coloring nonbeverage foods.
Grape Seed Oil—The oil obtained from grape seeds which contain
an average of 15% oil. It is used as a drying oil with seeded raisins to
improve their appearance and to prevent sticking. It is also termed
raisin seed oil.
Grape Skin Extract—A natural red colorant with a high concentration of red anthocyanic pigments which provide its physicochemical properties. These pigments are responsible for the red, purple,
violet, and blue hues of flowers and fruits. It is prepared by aqueous
extraction of the fresh seedless marc remaining after the grapes have
been pressed in the production of grape juice and wine. It contains
the common components of grape juice, but in different proportions. The color depends upon the medium and the pH. In an acid
medium and up to pH 4.5–5.5, the color is violet and becomes blue
at pH 6.5. It has excellent water solubility and fair heat, light, and
chemical stability. It can be used in soft drinks at 0.2–0.4%, and in
candies at 0.5–1.5%.
Guaiacol—A precursor of vanillin and santalidol (a synthetic sandalwood fragrance). It is obtained from wood tar by the destructive
distillation of hardwood, by the distillation of the phenol fraction
of coal tar, or through the use of o-dichlorobenzene. It is processed
to yield vanillin.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Guar—A gum that is a galactomannan obtained from the seed kernel
of the guar plant Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. It has a mannose:galactose
ratio of approximately 2:1. It is dispersible in cold water to form
viscous sols which upon heating will develop additional viscosity.
A 1% solution has a viscosity range of 2,000–3,500 cP at 25°C. It is
a versatile thickener and stabilizer used in ice cream, baked goods,
sauces, and beverages at use levels ranging from 0.1 to 1.0%. It is
scientifically termed guaran.
Guaran—See Guar.
Gum Arabic—See Ghatti.
Gum Base—The component of chewing gum that is insoluble in
water and remains after chewing. It is prepared by blending and
heating several ingredients to include a masticatory substance of
vegetable or synthetic origin such as chicle, crown gum, petroleum
wax, lanolin, polyethlyene, polyvinyl acetate, or rubber, with a plasticizer such as paraffin and with antioxidants. The gum base is
15–30% of chewing gum, of which a sweetener is the principal
ingredient.
Gum Ghatti—See Ghatti.
Gum Quince Seed—See Quince Seed.
Gums—Polysaccharides that function as water-control agents by
increasing viscosity (resistance to flow) or by forming gels. Gums are
classified by source according to the following principal groupings:
plant exudates, which include arabic, tragacanth, karaya, and ghatti;
seaweed extracts, which include agar, alginates, carrageenan, and
furcelleran; plant seed gums, which include guar, locust bean, tamarind, psyllium, and quince; plant extracts, which include pectin
and arabinogalactan; fermentation gums, which include xanthan
gum, gellan gum, and dextran; and cellulose derivatives, which
include carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose,
and microcrystalline cellulose. Gum derivatives include propylene
­glycol alginate and low-methoxyl pectin. They are also termed
hydrocolloids.
Gum Tragacanth—See Tragacanth.

H
Heptanone—A flavoring agent that is miscible in alcohol and ether,
slightly soluble in water. It is obtained by chemical synthesis. This
flavoring substance or its adjuvant may be safely used in food in the
minimum quantity required to produce its intended flavor. It can be
used alone or in combination with other legally approved flavoring
substances or adjuvants. It is also termed methyl amyl ketone.
Heptyl Cinnamate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a fairly stable,
yellow liquid with a hyacinth odor. It should be stored in glass or tin
containers. It is used to smooth out fruity flavors and has application
in gelatins and puddings at approximately 20 ppm and in candy,
beverages, and ice cream at 2–6 ppm.
Heptyl Formate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately
stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should be
stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in fruit flavors such as
apricot, pear, and plum with applications in beverages, ice cream,
candy, and baked goods at 1–4 ppm.
Heptyl Isobutyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass or tin containers. It is used in flavors for pineapple, pear, and orange with
applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked goods at
1–3 ppm.
Heptyl Paraben—A preservative and antimicrobial agent. It is very
slightly soluble in water. It may be used in fermented malt beverages
to inhibit microbial spoilage and is permitted in beer. It is also
termed N-heptyl-para-hydroxybenzoate.
Hesperidin—A flavoring agent that is a bioflavonoid found in citrus
pulp. It has minor use as a flavorant.
High-Fructose Corn Syrup—(HFCS) A sweetener that is an isomerized corn syrup derived from the isomerization of the glucose in the
syrup to fructose by the enzyme isomerase. Varying concentrations
of fructose syrup are available, designated 42, 55, and 90% fructose.
The 42% HFCS is a liquid mixture of dextrose, fructose, maltose,
isomaltose, and higher saccharides, of which 42% is fructose, dry
basis. The 55 and 90% HFCSs are liquid mixtures of fructose,

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

­ extrose, and higher saccharides containing 55 and 90% fructose,
d
dry basis, respectively. The range of relative sweetness as compared
to sucrose at 100 is 42% HFCS: 90–95; 55% HFCS: 95–100; 90%
HFCS: 100–130. It is used in carbonated beverages, canned fruit, frozen desserts, and dairy drinks. It is also termed isomerized syrup,
levulose-bearing syrup, and fructose corn syrup.
Homogenized Milk—Milk that has been mechanically treated to
reduce the size of the fat globules such that after 48 h of quiescent
storage at about 7°C no visible cream separation occurs and the
percentage of fat of the upper 100 ml in 946 ml of milk does not
differ by more than 10% from the fat percentage of the remaining
milk. Homogenization makes the milk more homogeneous but also
decreases the heat stability of the milk proteins. It is used as a beverage and constituent of other food products. Practically, all whole
milk sold retail in the USA is homogenized.
Honey—A sweetener that is a natural syrup. It is similar to invert
sugar, with a small but variable excess of levulose (fructose). It is
formed by the action of the enzyme honey invertase on nectar gathered by bees. The composition and flavor varies with the plant
source of the nectar, processing, and storage. A typical composition
is 41% fructose, 34% glucose, 18% water, and 2% sucrose with a pH
of 3.8–4.2. It is 1–1.5 times sweeter than sugar. It also functions to
provide moisture, browning, and shelf life extension in some products.
It is used in baked goods, cereals, and beverages.
Horseradish—A spice, the granules obtained from the horseradish
plant. The flavor is released with moisture. It has a hot flavor character and has good stability. It is used in sauces.
Hydrated Lime—See Calcium Hydroxide.
Hydrocolloids—See Gums.
Hydrochloric Acid—An acid that is the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride of varying concentrations. It is miscible with water and
with alcohol. It is used as an acidulant and neutralizing agent.
Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysate—Polyhydric alcohols (polyols) that do not contain a specific polyol as the majority component. Maltitol syrup is an example.
Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil—Oil that has been hydrogenated to
modify the texture from a liquid to a semisolid or solid. The hydrogenization, which is the chemical addition of hydrogen, raises the

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melting point and converts the oil to a more desirable texture and
consistency. It is used in farinaceous foods, confectionery, and
desserts.
Hydrolyzed Cereal Solids—These are maltodextrins of low DE
(dextrose equivalent). They function as anticaking agents, bodying
agents, carriers, and crystallization inhibitors and are used in dry
mixes and desserts.
Hydrolyzed Protein—A general name for protein hydrolyzates. See Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein.
Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein—(HVP) The common name of
vegetable protein hydrolyzates. The ingredient is specific to the protein source such as hydrolyzed soy protein. They are flavor enhancers obtained from vegetable proteins such as yeast extract, soy
protein, wheat gluten, corn gluten, defatted soy flour, and defatted
cottonseed. The proteins are hydrolyzed into their component
amino acids after which the reaction mixture is neutralized with
sodium carbonate and refined. The refined liquid HVP consists of
amino acids, monosodium glutamate, amino acid derivatives, salt,
and water. After being stored for several months, the liquid HVP is
concentrated into a paste, dried, and ground. A typical dried HVP
consists of 40–45% salt, which is generated during the neutralization process and serves to enhance the mouth feel of the HVP and
provide preservation properties. It normally contains 9–12% monosodium glutamate and the remaining fraction consists of flavor solids. There are two basic types: pale HVP, which functions as a flavor
enhancer with delicate spray flavors used in cream-type soups and
sauces, and poultry; and dark HVP, which functions as a flavor donor
with strong meaty flavors used in stews and broths. HVP is stable
under varying processing conditions. It is used to improve flavors in
soups, dressings, meats, snack foods, and crackers. It is also termed
hydrolyzed protein.
Hydroxylated Lecithin—An emulsifier and clouding agent that is
a modified crude lecithin of improved water dispersibility. It is manufactured by treating soybean lecithin with peroxide to increase the
hydrophilic properties of lecithin. It is partially soluble in water but
hydrates readily to form emulsions. It is used in bakery products
because it has an apparent synergy with mono- and diglycerides. It
is also used in dry-mixed beverages and margarine. It is also termed
hydroxylated soybean lecithin.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Hydroxylated Soybean Lecithin—See Hydroxylated Lecithin.
4-Hydroxymethyl-2,6-Di-Tert-Butylphenol—An antioxidant used
alone or in combination with other permitted antioxidants. The
total amount of all antioxidants added to food must not exceed
0.02% of the oil or fat content of the food, including the essential
(volatile) oil content of the food.
Hydroxypropyl Cellulose—A gum that is nonionic water-soluble
cellulose, obtained from the reaction of alkali cellulose with propylene oxide at high temperatures and pressures. It is soluble in water
below 40°C, is precipitated as a floc between 40°C and 45°C, and is
insoluble above 45°C. The precipitation is reversible with the original viscosity being restored upon cooling below 40°C and stirring. It
is used in whipped toppings as a stabilizing and foaming aid; in
edible food coatings as a glaze and oil/oxygen barrier; and in fabricated foods as a binder. Typical usage level is 0.05–1.0%.
Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose—A gum formed by the reaction
of propylene oxide and methyl chloride with alkali cellulose. It will
gel as the temperature is increased in heating and upon cooling will
liquefy. The gel temperature ranges from 60°C to 90°C, forming
semifirm to mushy gels. It is used in bakery goods, dressings, breaded
foods, and salad dressing mix for syneresis control, texture, and to
provide hot viscosity. Usage level ranges from 0.05 to 1.0%.

I
Indian Gum—See Ghatti.
Indigotine—See FD&C Blue #2.
Indole—A flavoring agent that is a white, flaky crystalline product. It
has an unpleasant odor when concentrated and a flowery odor when
diluted. It is soluble in most fixed oils and propylene glycol and
insoluble in glycerin and mineral oil. It is obtained from decomposition of a protein.
Instantized Flour—A flour made by a milling or agglomerating procedure which makes it readily pourable, providing convenience.
Inulin—A nondigestible oligosaccharide containing fructose which
provides texture, rheology, dietary fiber properties, and selective fermentation by colon bacteria. Commercially obtained from chicory
root; common sources include onion, garlic, leek, asparagus, and
Jerusalem artichoke. It is a hygroscopic powder with solubility in
water dependent on water temperature. With increasing concentration, viscosity gradually increases, and at about 30% concentration,
it can form discrete particle gels which are characterized as creamy
and fat-like. It is not hydrolyzed by the digestive system. It functions as a prebiotic, passing into the colon where it is preferentially
fermented by healthy bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli
to increase their proliferation and inhibit unwanted bacteria. It is
used in ice cream products to replace fat and sugar, and in baked
goods.
Invert Sugar—A sweetener that is a mixture of equal weights of dextrose (glucose) and levulose (fructose). It is more soluble than sucrose
and has higher moisture-retaining properties because of the fructose
content. It resists crystallization. It is used in candy and icings
because it is sweeter, more soluble, and crystallizes less readily than
sucrose.
Invert Sugar Syrup—A sweetener produced by an inversion process. It is produced by solubilizing sucrose in water followed by
hydrolization to a mixture of dextrose and fructose using acids,
invertase enzyme, or ion exchange resins to catalyze the reaction.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Several invert syrups are obtained, such as medium invert consisting
of 50% sucrose, 25% dextrose, 25% fructose; and total invert consisting of 3–5% sucrose, 48% dextrose, and 47% fructose. It has improved
microbiological stability because of its high solids content, and it is
used in soft drinks. It is also termed sugar syrup, invert.
Iodine—A halogen element extracted from Chilean nitrate-bearing
earth or from seaweed. It functions by its presence in the thyroid
hormones. Iodine deficiency is associated with goiter. Sources are
potassium and cuprous iodide and potassium and calcium iodate, of
which the iodate form is preferred because of better stability. It is
used as a food supplement.
Irish Moss—A name sometimes used to denote carrageenan. It is a
species of red seaweed known as Chondrus crispus, from which kappa
and lambda carrageenans are obtained. See Carrageenan.
Iron—A mineral used in food fortification that is necessary for the
prevention of anemia, which reduces the hemoglobin concentration and thus the amount of oxygen delivered to the tissues. Sources
include ferric ammonium sulfate, chloride, fructose, glycerophosphate, nitrate, phosphate, pyrophosphate and ferrous ammonium
sulfate, citrate, sulfate, and sodium iron EDTA. The ferric form (Fe3+)
is iron in the highest valence state and the ferrous form (Fe2+) is iron
in a lower valence state. The iron source should not discolor or add
taste and should be stable. Iron powders produce low discoloration
and rancidity. It is used for fortification in flour, baked goods, pasta,
and cereal products.
Iron Ammonium Citrate—An anticaking agent used in salt. It is
the chemical green ferric ammonium citrate. See Ferric ammonium citrate.
Iron–Choline Citrate Complex—This special dietary additive is
made by reacting approximately equimolecular quantities of ferric
hydroxide, choline, and citric acid, and is used as a source of iron.
Iron, Elemental—A nutrient supplement, metallic iron is obtained
by any of the following processes: reduced iron, electrolytic iron,
and carbonyl iron.
Iron Oxide—A trace mineral used as a pigment and colorant. It is
used to color pet food.
Iron, Reduced—Iron in a lower valence state, such as the ferrous
form (Fe2+). It is used in dry-mix oatmeal.

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Isoamyl Acetoacetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of light green leaf-fruity odor. It should be stored in
glass or tin containers. It is used in currant and berry flavors for
applications in beverages, candy, and ice cream at 5–15 ppm.
Isoamyl Butyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless liquid of strong fruity odor. It is usually prepared by esterification of isoamyl alcohols with butyric acid. It is soluble in most fixed
oils and mineral oil and is insoluble in glycerin and propylene glycol. Storage should be in glass, tin, or resin-lined containers. It is
used in fruit flavors such as pineapple, raspberry, and strawberry
and has application in dessert gels, puddings, and baked goods at
50–60 ppm.
Isoamyl Formate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately
stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of pungent pear-plum odor,
being soluble in most fixed oils, mineral oil, and propylene glycol.
Storage should be in a glass or tin container. It is used in fruit flavors
such as pear, plum, and peach for application in dessert gels, puddings, candy, and ice cream at 14–28 ppm.
Isoamyl Hexanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It is soluble in alcohol, fixed oils, and
mineral oil. Storage should be in glass, tin, or resin-lined containers.
It is used in fruit flavors such as banana and pineapple for applications in desserts, candy, and ice cream at 4–22 ppm.
Isoascorbic Acid—See Ascorbic Acid.
Isobutyl Acetate—A flavoring agent that is a clear colorless liquid
with a fruity odor resembling banana when diluted. It is soluble in
alcohol, propylene glycol, most fixed oils, and mineral oil, and
slightly soluble in water. It is obtained by synthesis.
Isobutyl Cinnamate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It is miscible with alcohol, chloroform, and ether but is practically insoluble in water.
Storage should be in glass or tin-lined containers. It is used in fruit
flavors such as cherry and prune with applications in beverages, ice
cream, candy, and baked goods at 1–5 ppm.
Isobutyl Formate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. Storage should be in glass or tin
containers. It is used in fruit flavors such as pear, raspberry, and
other berry flavors with applications in beverages, ice cream, candy,
and baked goods at 2–18 ppm.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Isobutyric Acid—A flavoring agent that is a colorless liquid with a
strong, penetrating odor, resembling butter. It is miscible in alcohol,
propylene glycol, glycerin, mineral oil, and most fixed oils and soluble in water. It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed
isopropylformic acid.
Isolated Soy Protein—See Soybean Protein Isolate.
Isomerized Syrup—See High-Fructose Corn Syrup.
Isopropyl Citrate—An antioxidant that reacts with metal ions that
might catalyze oxidative reactions and thus will prevent rancidity. It
is made by reacting citric acid (not soluble in fats and oils) with isopropyl alcohol (which readily dissolves in oil) and thus enables the
citrate to dissolve in oil. It is used in vegetable oils.

J
Juniper Berries Oilâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;A flavoring agent that is a liquid which may
be colorless, yellow, or greenish in appearance. Its odor is characteristic with an aromatic, bitter taste. Storage is accompanied by polymerization. It is soluble in most fixed oils and mineral oil, insoluble in
glycerin and propylene glycol. It is obtained from dried ripe fruit of
Juniperus communis L. var. erecta Pursh of the Cupressaceae family.

79

K
Karaya—A gum, the dried exudate from the Sterculia urens tree which
is native to India. It does not dissolve in water but swells to form
a colloidal sol with a rate of hydration depending on mesh size.
A 3–4% sol will result in a heavy gel and for higher concentrations
the gum must be cooked under steam pressure to solubilize. It has a
pH of 4.5–4.7. It functions as a binder and adhesive. It is used in
baked goods, denture adhesives, toppings, and frozen desserts. It is
also termed sterculia gum.
Kelp—A brown seaweed that grows in ocean water. The principal
commercial species include Macrocystis pyrifera and Laminaria hyperboria. It is a source of alginic acid, which is used to produce alginate
gum which functions as a water control agent. It contains the trace
minerals potassium, sodium, calcium, and iodine. It is used as a
source of iodine, as a flavor enhancer, as a nutrient and dietary supplement, and as a source of alginates.
Kola Nut—The seed of Cola nitida or other Cola species. The nut contains approximately 1.5% caffeine and is used in beverages and as
an adjunct with other flavors.
Konjac—A gum obtained from the tuber of the konjac plant. It has
the highest molecular weight and viscosity among thickeners; a 1%
solution has viscosities in the 20,000–40,000 cP range at 30°C.
Konjac is a glucomannan that can form thermo-reversible and
thermo-irreversible gels under varying conditions. For example,
with xanthan gum a cohesive, elastic thermo-reversible gel can be
formed. Inclusion of a mild alkali such as calcium hydroxide to
remove some of the konjac acetyl groups will result in a heat stable
gel upon heating and cooling. It should be dispersed in cold water
and then heated to solubilize completely. It is synergistic with
­carrageenan, xanthan gum, locust bean gum, starch. Uses include
­noodles, confectionary, puddings, dessert gels, juices. Also known as
konjac flour, konjac glucomannan.

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L
Lactalbumin—A milk protein obtained from whey by acidifying to
pH 5.2, the isoelectric point, followed by coagulation by heat. It is
not coagulated by rennin as is casein and is nonfunctional in its
properties. It is used for nutritional purposes as a source of protein.
It is used in cereals and breads where its relative inertness minimizes
complications caused by other milk proteins during baking. It is also
termed milk albuminate.
Lactase Enzyme Preparation—An enzyme preparation from
Kluyveromyces lactis used to convert lactose to glucose and galactose.
It is derived from the nonpathogenic, nontoxicogenic yeast
Kluyveromyces lactis (previously named Saccharomyces lactis), and
contains the enzyme B-galactoside galactohydrase, which converts
lactose to glucose and galactose. It is prepared from yeast that has
been grown in a pure culture fermentation and by using materials
that are generally recognized as safe or food additives that have been
approved for this use. This ingredient is used in milk to produce
lactase-treated milk, which contains less lactose than regular milk,
or lactose-reduced milk, which contains at least 70% less lactose
than regular milk.
Lactate—Salts of lactic acid (calcium, sodium, aluminum, ammonium, ferrous, potassium, magnesium, manganese, and zinc) used
to enrich and fortify diet foods, drinks, and juices.
Lactic Acid—An acidulant that is a natural organic acid present in
milk, meat, and beer, but is normally associated with milk. It is a
syrupy liquid available as 50 and 88% aqueous solutions, and is miscible in water and alcohol. It is heat stable, nonvolatile, and has a
smooth, milk acid taste. It functions as a flavor agent, preservative,
and acidity adjuster in foods. It is used in Spanish olives to prevent
spoilage and provide flavor, in dry egg powder to improve dispersion and whipping properties, in cheese spreads, and in salad dressing mixes.
Lacticol—A polyhydric alcohol (polyol) derived from lactose by
catalytic hydrogenation. It is 30–40% as sweet as sucrose. It has a
taste profile and solubility that is comparable to sugar. Uses include
bakery products, chewing gum, and tablets.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Lactoglobulin—A protein that is a complex of closely related proteins known as beta-globulins obtained from the whey fraction of
milk. It is crystallizable and heat-denaturable.
Lactose—A disaccharide carbohydrate that occurs in mammalian
milk except that of the whale and the hippopotamus. It is principally obtained as a cows’ milk derivative. It is also termed milk sugar
and it is a reducing sugar consisting of glucose and galactose. Its
most common commercial form is alpha-monohydrate, with the
beta-anhydride form available to a lesser extent. All forms in solution
will equilibrate to a beta:alpha ratio of 62.25:37.75 at 0°C. It is about
one-sixth as sweet as sugar and is less soluble. It functions as a flow
agent, humectant, crystallization control agent, and sweetener. It is
used in baked goods for flavor, browning, and tenderizing and in
dry mixes as an anticaking agent.
Lactylated Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol and Propylene
Glycol—An emulsifier made by the reaction of a propylene glycol
ester with lactic acid. It has more surface activity and is slightly more
hydrophilic than mono- and diglycerides. It is used mainly where
aeration is required, such as in toppings, cake mixes, and icings. It is
used at levels required to produce the intended effect, such as 0.6%
in fluid whipped topping and 0.5% in coffee whitener.
Lactylic Esters of Fatty Acids—An emulsifier that is mixed fatty
acid esters of lactic acid and its polymers. It is dispersible in water
and soluble in organic solvents and vegetable oils. It functions as a
foaming agent in starch/protein systems and is used in puddings
and coffee whiteners.
Larch Gum—See Arabinogalactan.
Lard—A fat rendered from hogs, consisting principally of oleic and
palmitic fatty acids. It has a Wiley melting point of 88–110°F. It is
rapidly chilled, resulting in an opaque, firm consistency rather than
a translucent, greasy appearance. It is used in cake mix.
Lauric Acid—A fatty acid obtained from coconut oil and other vegetable fats. It is practically insoluble in water but is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. It functions as a lubricant, binder, and
defoaming agent.
Leavening Agents—Acidic agents that chemically react with alkaline
sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas. This reaction is
initiated by moisture and completed by heat as the prepared mixture is baked. The value of the leavening agent relates to the rate

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83

upon which carbon dioxide is released from sodium bicarbonate,
the suitability of the release rate to the product, and the mixing–
raising–baking cycle. Leavening agents include tartaric acid, monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium aluminum
phosphate, and acetic acid.
Lecithin—An emulsifier that is a mixture of phosphatides which are
typically surface-active. It is now commercially obtained from soybeans; previously it was obtained from egg yolk. It is used in margarine as an emulsifier and antispatter agent; in chocolate manufacture
it controls flow properties by reducing viscosity and reducing the
cocoa butter content from 3 to 5%; it is used as a wetting agent in
cocoa powder, fillings, and beverage powders; an antisticking agent
in griddling fat; and in baked goods to assist the shortening mix
with other dough ingredients and to stabilize air cells. Typical usage
levels range from 0.1 to 1.0%.
Lecithinated Soy Flour—Soy flour to which lecithin is added. The
lecithin contributes emulsification and pan release properties. It is
used in breading, caked foods, and dough mixes.
Lemon Oil—A flavoring agent that is the oil obtained from lemon
fruit. It is used to impart lemon flavor and is used in reconstituted
lemon juice.
Levulose—See Fructose.
Levulose-Bearing Syrup—See High-Fructose Corn Syrup.
Licorice—A flavoring agent made from dried root portions of
Glycyrrhiza glabra. The obtainable forms are licorice root, licorice
extract powder, and licorice extract. The extract is used in candy,
baked goods, and beverages; the major licorice use is in tobacco.
Lime—See Calcium Oxide.
Limestone—See Calcium Carbonate.
Limonene—An antioxidant and flavoring agent that occurs in lemons, oranges, and pineapple juice, being obtained from the oils. It is
a colorless liquid which is insoluble in water and propylene glycol,
very slightly soluble in glycerin, and miscible with alcohol, most
fixed oils, and mineral oil. It prevents or delays enzymatic browning-type oxidation.
Linalyl Isobutyrate—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, slightly
yellow in color with a fruity odor. It is miscible in alcohol, ether,

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

and chloroform, and insoluble in water. It is obtained by chemical
synthesis. It is also termed 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadien-3-yl isobutrate.
Locust Bean Gum—A gum that is a galactomannan obtained from
the plant seed from the locust bean tree known as Ceratonia siliqua.
It has a mannose:galactose ratio of approximately 4:1. Its properties
include swelling partially in cold water but requiring heating to
approximately 82°C for complete solubility. It provides high viscosity, forms gels with xanthan gum upon heating and cooling of the
solution, and functions as a water binder. It can make agar or carrageenan gels more elastic. Its uses include processed cheese, ice
cream, bakery products, soups, and pies. Typical usage level is 0.1–
1.0%. It is also called carob gum or Saint John’s bread, and is scientifically called carubin.
Low-Methoxyl Pectin—A gum derived from pectinic acid. It differs
from pectin in having a lower degree of methylation, less than 50%.
It is also not as sensitive to pH and does not require sugar for gel
formation. It forms thermally reversible gels with calcium salts and
boiling may be required for solubility if the methoxyl content is
low. It is used in low-calorie jellies at levels of 0.8–1.4%, in dessert
and bakery jellies at levels of 1–1.5%, and in fruit gels at levels of
0.5–1.4%.

M
Mace—A spice that is the aril or skin covering of the nutmeg Myristica
fragrans Houtt. It is more pungent in flavor than nutmeg. The whole
mace is used in cooked fruit, pickles, and preserves, while ground
mace is used in breads, cakes, chocolate pudding, and fruit salad.
Magnesium—A metallic element that is involved in certain bodily
functions. Sources of magnesium include magnesium chloride and
magnesium oxide. It functions as a nutrient and dietary supplement.
Magnesium Carbonate—An anticaking agent and general purpose
food additive. It is practically insoluble in water but is more soluble
in water containing carbon dioxide. It imparts a slightly alkaline
reaction to the water. It is used as an alkali in sour cream, butter, and
canned peas. It is used as an anticaking agent in table salt and dry
mixes. It assists in providing clarity in algin gels and functions as a
filler in dental impression materials.
Magnesium Caseinate—The magnesium form of caseinate which is
marginal in functionality as compared to other forms of caseinates.
It can be used in bakery goods, drinks, and dietary applications. See
Caseinates.
Magnesium Chloride—A source of magnesium, a color-retention
agent, and firming agent. It exists as colorless flakes or crystals and
is very soluble in water.
Magnesium Hydroxide—An alkali that is a general purpose food
additive. It exists as a white powder and has poor solubility in water
and in alcohol. In frozen desserts it will increase the tendency for fat
globules to clump, which results in an increase in dryness. It reacts
with triglycerides in fatty acids to form soaps. It also functions as a
drying agent in foods.
Magnesium Laurate—The magnesium salt of lauric acid which
functions as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Magnesium Myristate—The magnesium salt of myristic acid which
functions as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Magnesium Oleate—The magnesium salt of oleic acid which functions as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Magnesium Oxide—A source of magnesium which functions as a
nutrient and dietary supplement. It exists as a bulky white powder
termed light magnesium oxide or as a dense white powder known as
heavy magnesium oxide. It is practically insoluble in water and is
insoluble in alcohol.
Magnesium Palmitate—The magnesium salt of palmitic acid which
functions as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Magnesium Silicate—A white powder that is insoluble in water and
functions as an anticaking agent. It is used in salt. It is also a processing aid and adsorbent which functions as an anticaking agent and
remover of undesirable proteins during filtration. It is insoluble and
a 10% slurry has a pH of approximately 7.0. It aids in the processing
of beverages, food products, and pharmaceuticals by removing protein/tannin complex constituents through surface area and adsorptive effects.
Magnesium Stearate—The magnesium salt of stearic acid which
functions as a lubricant, binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent. It
is a white powder that is insoluble in water. It is used as a lubricant
or die release in tableting pressed candies and is also used in sugarless gum and mints.
Magnesium Sulfate—A nutrient and dietary supplement. It is soluble in water and its solutions are neutral. It exists as crystals with a
cooling, saline, bitter taste. It is also termed Epsom salt.
Maize Meal—The meal obtained by grinding maize (Indian corn).
Maize Starch—See Cornstarch.
Malic Acid—An acidulant that is the predominant acid in apples.
It exists as white crystalline powder or granules and is considered
hygroscopic. As compared to citric acid, it is slightly less soluble but
is still readily soluble in water with a solubility of 132 g/100 ml at
20°C. It has a stronger apparent acid taste and has a longer taste
retention than citric acid which peaks faster but does not mask the
aftertaste as effectively. A quantity of 0.362–0.408 kg of malic acid is
equivalent to 0.453 kg of citric acid and to 0.272–0.317 kg of fumaric
acid in tartness. At temperatures above 150°C it begins to lose water
very slowly to yield fumaric acid. It is used in soft drinks, dry-mix
beverages, puddings, jellies, and fruit filling. It is used in hard candies because it has a lower melting point (129°C) than citric acid
which improves the ease of incorporation.

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87

Malt—A source of the enzyme alpha-amylase which hydrolyzes starch
to fermentable sugars such as dextrins and maltose. It is produced
by the controlled sprouting of grains, usually barley, followed by
drying to produce three general classes of malt differing in amylase
content. These classes are brewer’s malt, distiller’s malt, and gibberellin malt. Malt is used in the brewing industry and as a supplement
to flour to increase the alpha-amylase content.
Malted Barley—The barley produced under the controlled sprouting
of the barley grain followed by drying to obtain the formation of
high levels of alpha-amylase and some increase in beta-amylase.
These enzymes hydrolyze starch to dextrins and maltose. There are
three general classes of malt: brewer’s malt, distiller’s malt, and
gibberellin malt. It is principally used in the brewing industry. In
doughs, the malt increases the fermentation rate and improves
baking properties.
Malted Cereal Syrup—The syrup obtained from barley and other
grains, as differentiated from malt syrup which is obtained only
from barley. It is used to contribute flavor in baked goods and is a
nutrient in yeast fermentation. It is also termed extract of malted
barley and corn.
Malt Extract—A flavorant formed by extracting the water-soluble
enzymes from barley and evaporating to form a concentrate that
contains d-alpha-amylase enzyme. This enzyme hydrolyzes starch
to dextrin and maltose. It is used to provide malt flavor, and in conjunction with spices, seasonings, and flavors.
Malt Flour—The flour prepared by the drying and grinding of barley
or wheat sprouted under controlled conditions. It can be used as a
malt supplement or converted to malt syrups. The malt functions to
modify starch during initial stages of baking.
Maltitol—A polyhydric alcohol (polyol) produced by hydrogenation
of maltose. It is approximately 90% as sweet as sucrose, has good
stability, and is nonhygroscopic. Uses include chewing gum, dry nut
bakery products, and chocolate.
Maltodextrin—Short-chain saccharide polymers obtained from the
partial acid or enzymatic hydrolysis of starch, in the same manner
as corn syrup except the conversion process is stopped at an earlier
stage. It consists of d-glucose units linked principally by alpha-1,4
bonds, has a dextrose equivalent of less than 20 and basically is not
sweet and is not fermentable. It has fair solubility. It functions as a

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

bodying agent, bulking agent, texturizer, carrier, and crystallization
inhibitor. It is used in crackers, puddings, candies, and sugar-free ice
cream.
Maltol—A flavor enhancer used as a synthetic flavoring substance, the
function of which is related to ethyl maltol. It occurs naturally in
chicory, cocoa, coffee, and cereals. It does not contribute a flavor of
its own, but modifies the inherent flavors. As compared to ethyl
maltol, it is one-half to one-sixth as effective. It is less soluble, having
a solubility of 1 g in 82 ml of water at 25°C. It has a melting range of
160–164°C. It is used to enhance the flavor and aroma of fruit,
vanilla, and chocolate flavored foods and beverages. It is also used in
beverages and desserts with a typical usage range of 10–200 ppm.
Maltose—A sweetener formed by the enzymatic action of yeast on
starch. It consists of two dextrose molecules. Maltose dissolves and
crystallizes slowly in aqueous solutions, and is less sweet and more
stable than sucrose. It is used in combination with dextrose in bread
and in instant foods, and is also used in pancake syrups.
Malt Syrup—The syrup obtained from barley by extraction and
evaporation of the worts to 80 to 81% solids. It is used as a malt
flavor component, as a source of malt and protein, and to provide
color. It is used in bakery goods such as rolls and bagels at 1–3% of
the flour weight, in soybean milk at 3–7%, and in malt base at
1–3%.
Malt Vinegar—A vinegar made by the alcoholic and subsequent
acetous fermentation of an infusion of malted barley and/or cereals
or a concentrate thereof, which has been enzymatically converted
by the malting process. It contains a minimum of 4% acid content
expressed as acetic acid and is brown to dark brown in color. It functions as an acidulant and preservative in foods.
Manganese—A metallic element that functions as a nutrient and
dietary supplement. It is necessary for normal bone and tendon
structure, central nervous system functionality, and glucose utilization. Sources include manganese carbonate, chloride, oxides, and
sulfates. These sources differ in solubility.
Manganese Chloride—A source of manganese that functions as a
nutrient and dietary supplement. It exists as crystals which are readily
soluble in room temperature (22°C) water and are very soluble in
hot water. See Manganese.

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Manganese Citrate—A nutrient supplement that is a pale orange or
pinkish white powder. It is obtained by precipitating manganese
carbonate from manganese sulfate and sodium carbonate solutions.
The filtered and washed precipitate is digested first with sufficient
citric acid solutions to form manganous citrate and then with
sodium citrate to complete the reaction. It is used in baked goods,
nonalcoholic beverages, dairy product analogs, fish products, and
poultry products. The ingredient may be used in infant formulas.
Manganese Gluconate—A nutrient supplement that is a slightly
pink-colored powder. It is obtained by reacting manganese carbonate with gluconic acid in aqueous medium and then crystallizing
the product. The supplement is used in baked goods, nonalcoholic
beverages, dairy product analogs, fish products, meat products, milk
products, and poultry products. The ingredient may be used in
infant formulas.
Manganese Sulfate—A source of manganese that functions as a
nutrient and dietary supplement. It exists as a powder which is readily
soluble in water. See Manganese.
Mannitol—A polyol (polyhydric alcohol) produced from hydrogenation from fructose that functions as a sweetener, humectant, and
bulking agent. It has low hygroscopicity and poor oil solvency. It
has 1.6 kcal/g. It is approximately 22% soluble in water and is
approximately 72% as sweet as sugar, exhibiting a cool, sweet taste.
It functions as a dusting agent with starch in chewing gum. It is
used in sugarless candy, chewing gum, cereal, and pressed mints.
Maple Sugar—A sweetener obtained by concentrating the sap of the
maple sugar tree. It consists of approximately 95% sucrose, 2%
invert sugar, and ash. This is the dry form of maple syrup which is
used in syrups and candy.
Maple Syrup—A sweetener made by concentrating the sap of the
sugar maple tree by boiling at atmospheric pressure. The characteristic
color and flavor are developed by heating above 100°C. The concentration at reduced pressure or by freeze-drying gives a sweet, colorless syrup. The characteristic flavor is derived from the volatile oil in
the sap. On a dry basis it is approximately 95% sucrose, 2% invert
sugar, and ash. It is used in syrups and candies.
Margarine—A product whose consistency and application are similar
to those of butter. It is made by emulsifying vegetable oils with milk,

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followed by crystallization and kneading. Vegetable oils or mixtures
of vegetable oils and animal fat may be used. It contains not less
than 80% fat and is also termed oleomargarine. It is used as a spread
and as a source of fat for baked goods and desserts.
Marjoram—A spice that is the dried leaves of the herb Majorana
hortensis Moench. It has a mellow flavor and is distinctively aromatic. The flavor is close to that of oregano. Marjoram is used in
soups, sauces, meats, and fish.
Menhaden Oil—A fish oil which is a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids associated with nutritional and health benefits. It is
generally recognized as safe with specific limitations. Uses include
eggs, baked goods, salad dressings, and health supplements.
Methacrylic Acid–Divinylbenzene Copolymer—A carrier of
vitamin B12 in foods for special dietary use, produced by the polymerization of methacrylic acid and divinylbenzene. The divinylbenzene functions as a cross-linking agent and constitutes a minimum
of 4% of the polymer.
Methyl B-Naphthyl Ketone—A flavoring agent that is a crystalline
solid (white or nearly white) with orange blossom-like odor. It is
soluble in most fixed oils, slightly soluble in mineral oil and propylene
glycol, and insoluble in glycerin. It is obtained by chemical synthesis.
It is also termed 2¢-acetonaphthone.
Methylcellulose—A gum composed of cellulose in which the methoxyl groups replace the hydroxyl groups. It is soluble in cold water
but insoluble in hot water. Solutions increase in viscosity upon
heating, gel at 50–55°C, and liquefy upon cooling. It is used in baked
goods for moisture retention, and in fruit pie fillings for the reduction
of water absorption into the pie crust during baking. It is also used
in breaded shrimp where it functions to form an oil barrier film.
Methyl Cyclopentenolone—A flavoring agent that is a white crystalline powder. It has a nutty odor suggesting a maple-licorice aroma
when diluted. It is soluble in alcohol and propylene glycol, slightly
soluble in most fixed oils, and sparingly soluble in water. It is obtained
by synthesis. It is also termed 3-methyl-cyclopentane-1,2-dione.
Methyl Ethyl Cellulose—An aerating, emulsifying, and foaming
agent. The methoxy content should be not less than 3.5% and not
more than 6.5%, and the ethoxy content should be not less than
14.5% and not more than 19%, both measured on the dry sample.

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Methyl 2-Methylthiopropionate—A synthetic flavoring agent
that is a colorless liquid of slightly fruity odor with a suggestion of
sulfur. It polymerizes slowly and should be stored in glass or tin
containers. It is used in pineapple flavors to give the true note of
pineapple. It has applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and
baked goods at 0.5–1 ppm.
Methylparaben—An antimicrobial agent which is a white free-flowing
powder. It is active against yeast and molds over a wide pH range.
See Parabens.
Methyl p-Hydroxybenzoate—See Parabens.
Methyl Polysilicone—See Dimethylpolysiloxane.
Methyl Silicone—See Dimethylpolysiloxane.
3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde—A synthetic flavoring agent that
is a colorless to light yellow liquid with an intense meat odor. It
polymerizes with age and is stable in a 50% alcohol solution. It
should be stored in glass containers. It is used at low concentrations
for meat and broth flavors for applications in meats and condiments
at 3 ppm and in baked goods and beverages at 0.5 ppm.
Microcrystalline Cellulose—A gum that is the nonfibrous form of
cellulose, an alpha-cellulose. It is dispersible in water but not soluble,
requiring considerable energy to disperse and hydrate. In this form
it is used in dry applications such as tableting, capsules, and shredded
cheese where it functions as a non-nutritive filler, binder, flow aid,
and anticaking agent. By the addition of carboxymethylcellulose to
the alpha-cellulose prior to drying, improved functional properties
of hydration and dispersion are obtained. This product is designed
for use in water dispersions, being insoluble in water but dispersing
in water to form colloidal sols below 1% and white opaque gels
above the 1% usage level. It is used as a heat shock stabilizer and
bodying agent in frozen desserts, as an opacifier in low-fat dressings,
as a foam stabilizer in whipped toppings, and as an emulsifier in
dressings. Also termed cellulose gel.
Microparticulated Protein Product—A fat replacer prepared
from egg whites or milk protein or combination of egg whites and milk
protein. These protein sources may be used alone or in combination
with other safe and suitable ingredients to form the microparticulated
product. The mixture of ingredients is high-shear heat processed to
achieve a smooth and creamy texture similar to that of fat. The

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

ingredient is used in food as a thickener or as a texturizer. It is used in
frozen desserts, cheese, dressings, baked goods, and dairy products.
Milk—The natural secretion of the mammary glands of female mammals for the feeding of their young. It is commercially considered
here as cows’ milk which consists, on the average, of 3.5% fat, 5%
lactose, 3.5% protein, and 0.7% ash. It has a bland, slightly sweet
flavor, a yellowish white color, and a specific gravity of 1.032. It
functions as a base for ice cream, yogurt, beverages, and cheese. It is
also the source of skim milk, cream, whey, casein, lactose, and milk
solids-not-fat. It is also termed whole milk.
Milk Albuminate—See Lactalbumin.
Milk Chocolate—See Chocolate.
Milkfat—The fat of milk which exists in milk as an emulsion of small
fat globules in an aqueous phase. It is the only fat in which butyric
acid is a component of the glycerides. It has a delicate and pleasant
flavor. Approximately 95% of the total milk lipids are triglycerides.
The average fat content of milk is 3.5–3.8%. It is used as a source of
fat in bakery products, confections, and frozen desserts. It is also
termed butter fat.
Milkfat, Anhydrous—See Butter Oil.
Milk Powder—See Whole Milk Solids.
Milk Solids-Not-Fat—The dry form of skim milk. It contains not
more than 1.5% fat and not more than 5% moisture. It has excellent
flavor, nutritional value, and functional properties such as water
binding, emulsification, and foam formation. It is used in ice cream
mix, baked goods, and desserts. It is also termed nonfat dry milk,
skim milk powder, and dried skim milk.
Milk Sugar—See Lactose.
Mint—A spice derived from any one of the plants of the mint family
(Labiatae) of which there are numerous varieties. Only spearmint and
peppermint are commercially important. Mint is used in mint sauce,
fruit cocktails, and beverages in either its dried or fresh forms.
Modified Food Starch—See Modified Starch.
Modified Hop Extract—A flavoring agent in the brewing of beer. It
is manufactured from a hexane extract of hops, with simultaneous

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isomerization and selective reduction in an alkaline aqueous medium
with sodium borohydride. It is added to the wort before or during
cooking in the manufacture of beer.
Modified Starch—The product resulting from the treatment of starch
with certain chemicals to modify the physical characteristics of the
native starch. This produces more desirable or useful characteristics
such as improved solubility, acid stability, and texture. It is used in
desserts, pie fillings, sauces, gravies, and fabricated foods as a thickener, binder, and stabilizer. It is also termed modified food starch.
Molasses—The byproduct of the manufacture of sugar from sugar
cane in which the syrup is separated from the crystals. The highest
grade is edible molasses which is most often found as table syrup.
The lowest grade is blackstrap molasses. Molasses is a strongly flavored, dark colored syrup containing 70–80% solids of which
50–75% is sucrose and invert sugar. It is used in syrups and in the
production of caramel.
Monoammonium Glutamate—See Monoammonium l-Gluta­mate.
Monoammonium Glycyrrhizinate—A flavoring and sweetening
agent obtained from licorice flavonoids. It has a slight licorice flavor
and an intense and rounded sweetness. It is soluble in water, glycerin,
and propylene glycol and has good thermal stability but can degrade
under prolonged heating. It is stable over a pH of 3.5–9 but could
precipitate below pH of 3.5. It can be used in beverages, desserts, confectionary products, soups, and dressings. See Glycyrrhizin.
Monoammonium l-Glutamate—A flavor enhancer and salt substitute that is crystalline powder (white, free-flowing) and odorless.
It is soluble in water, insoluble in common organic solvents, and is
obtained by chemical synthesis. It is a low sodium alternative to
monosodium glutamate. It is used in meats, soups, gravies, and sausage. It is also termed ammonium glutamate and monoammonium
glutamate.
Monocalcium Phosphate—An acidulant, leavening agent, and
nutritional supplement that exists as white crystals or granular powder.
It is sparingly soluble in water. It is used as an acidulant in breads
and dry-mix beverages; as a source of calcium in fruit jellies, preserves,
and cereals; and as a component of dough conditioners. It is also of
restricted use as a chemical leavening agent because it releases about
67% of the carbon dioxide during the initial mixing and this is

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

generally too rapid. It is also termed calcium acid phosphate, calcium phosphate monobasic, calcium biphosphate, and acid calcium
phosphate.
Monoglyceride—A lipophilic emulsifier prepared by the direct esterification of fatty acids with glycerol or by the interesterification
between glycerol and other triglycerides. It is insoluble in water. It
provides emulsion stability, prevents fat separation, and also functions as a foaming agent, defoaming agent, and dispersant. It is most
often used in combination with a diglyceride. It is used in ice cream,
peanut butter, puddings, and numerous other applications. The
typical usage level is 0.05–0.40%.
Mono- and Diglycerides—A lipophilic emulsifier that consists of
both monoglycerides and diglycerides. It is made by reacting glycerol
with specific fats or oils. The consistency varies from yellow liquid
to ivory-colored plastic to hard solids of bland odor and taste. It is
the most commonly used emulsifier in foods. It is used in numerous
applications, for example, in baked goods, frozen desserts, whipped
toppings, and margarine for a variety of functions. Typical usage
levels range from 0.05 to 0.50%. It is also termed monosodium
phosphate derivatives of mono- and diglycerides.
Monoglyceride Citrate—A sequestrant that is a mixture of glyceryl
monooleate and its citric acid mono-ester. It is soluble in common
fat solvents and alcohol and is insoluble in water. It is used in antioxidant formulations for addition to fats and oils at less than
200 ppm. It functions as an antioxidant synergist in peanut oil at a
maximum usage level of 100 mg/kg individually or in combination.
In margarine, it is used at no more than 0.01%.
Monoglyceride, Distilled—See Distilled Monoglyceride.
Monoisopropyl Citrate—A sequestrant used in fats and oils.
Monopotassium Glutamate—A flavor enhancer that is a low
sodium alternative to monosodium glutamate. It is used in meats,
soups, sauces, gravies, and sausage.
Monopotassium Monophosphate—See Monopotassium Phos­­
phate.
Monopotassium Phosphate—A buffer, neutralizing agent, and
sequestrant. It is mildly acid, with a pH of 4.5, and fairly soluble in
water, with a solubility of 25 g in 100 ml at 25°C. It is used in

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whole eggs for color preservation and is also used in low-sodium
­products, milk products, and meat products. Typical usage ranges
from 0.1 to 0.5%. It is also termed potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate, potassium phosphate monobasic, and monopotassium
monophosphate.
Monosodium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate—See Monosodium
Phosphate.
Monosodium Glutamate—(MSG) A flavor enhancer that is the
sodium salt of glutamic acid, an amino acid. It is a white crystal that
is readily soluble in water. It intensifies and enhances flavor but does
not contribute a flavor of its own. It may be present as one of the
amino acids or in a free form, which is how it effectively enhances
the flavor of foods. It is produced through a fermentation process of
molasses. It is used at 0.1–1.0% in meats, soups, and sauces.
Monosodium Monophosphate—See Monosodium Phosphate.
Monosodium Phosphate—An acidulant, buffer, and sequestrant
that is mildly acid, with a pH of 4.5, and very soluble in water, with
a solubility of 87 g/100 ml of water at 25°C. It is used as an acidulant
in effervescent powders and laxatives. It is also used in soft drink
dry-mix formulations, in cheese, and in carbonated beverages. It is
also termed monosodium dihydrogen orthophosphate; sodium
phosphate, monobasic; sodium biphosphate; sodium acid phosphate; and monosodium monophosphate.
Monosodium Phosphate Derivatives of
Diglycerides—See Mono- and Diglycerides.

Mono-

and

Mono-Tertiary-Butylhydroquinone—See Tertiary Butylhydro­
quinone.
Mustard—A flavorant made from the dried, ripe seed of several
closely related genera, species, and varieties of the family Cruciferae;
the seed of a plant of the cabbage family. It is used as a flavorant in
baked goods, sauces, and salad dressings. It also functions as an
emulsifier in salad dressings. The ground seed is used for spices.
Mustard Flour—The ground seed of the mustard plant from which
some of the oil and most of the hulls have been removed. It is used
in salad dressings and sauces, and as a condiment.
Mustard Oil—See Allyl Isothiocyanate.

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Mustard Seedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;A spice of which there are several varieties, the dry
mustards being of the hot or mild type. It is used in meats, sauces,
and salad dressings.
Myristic Acidâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;A fatty acid obtained from coconut oil and other
fats. It has poor water solubility but is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. It is used as a lubricant, binder, and defoaming
agent.

N
Natamycin—A preservative for use as a coating on the surface of
Italian cheeses to prevent the growth of mold or yeast. It is tasteless,
odorless, colorless, and does not penetrate the cheese. It is very
active against virtually all molds and yeasts, but does not affect
bacteria, thus not affecting the ripening and flavor improvement
process of cheese. It can be applied as a dip, spray, or by other methods
such as incorporation into the cheese coatings. It is used at levels
ranging from 300 to 2,000 ppm. It is also termed pimaricin.
Natural Sugar—See Turbinado Sugar.
Neotame—A high intensity sweetener and flavor enhancer for use in
foods, except in meat and poultry. It is 7,000–13,000 times sweeter
than sugar and has a clean, sweet taste. It is a derivative of the dipeptide composed of amino acids, aspartic acid, and phenylalanine. It
can be blended with nutritive sweeteners such as sucrose and high
fructose corn syrup as well as with high intensity sweeteners such
as aspartame and sucralose. Uses include beverages, baked goods,
desserts, cereals. It functions as a flavor enhancer in certain applications and flavor systems, such as mint-flavored chewing gum.
Nerol—A flavoring agent that is a colorless liquid with an odor resembling fresh, sweet roses and contains geranoils and other terpenic
alcohols. It is miscible in alcohol, chloroform, and ether insoluble
in water. It is obtained by synthesis. It is also termed cis-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadien-1-ol.
Niacin—A water-soluble B-complex vitamin that is necessary for the
growth and health of tissues. It prevents pellagra. It has a solubility
of 1 g in 60 ml of water and is readily soluble in boiling water. It is
relatively stable in storage and no loss occurs in ordinary cooking.
Sources include liver, peas, and fish. It was originally termed nicotinic acid and also functions as a nutrient and dietary supplement.
Niacinamide—A nutrient and dietary supplement that is an available
form of niacin. Nicotinic acid is pyridine beta-carboxylic acid and
nicotinamide, which is another term for niacinamide, is the corresponding amide. It is a powder of good water solubility, having a
solubility of 1 g in 1 ml of water. Unlike niacin, it has a bitter taste;

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

the taste is masked in the encapsulated form. Used in fortification of
cereals, snack foods, and powdered beverages.
Nicotinamide—See Niacinamide.
Nicotinic Acid—See Niacin.
Nisin—An antimicrobial agent derived from pure culture fermentations of certain strains of Streptococcus lactis Lancefield Group N.
Nisin preparation contains nisin, a group of related peptides with
antibiotic activity. It is used to inhibit the outgrowth of Clostridium
botulinum spores and toxin formation in pasteurized cheese spreads
and pasteurized process cheese spreads; pasteurized cheese spread
with fruits, vegetables, or meats; and pasteurized process cheese
spread with fruits, vegetables, or meats.
Nitrate—The salt of nitric acid. It is used in meat curing to develop
and stabilize the pink color associated with cured meat. By itself, it
is not effective in producing the curing reaction until it is chemically reduced to nitrite. It has an effect on flavor and also functions
as an antioxidant. It is available as sodium and potassium nitrate,
with the sodium form being more common.
Nitrite—The salt of nitrous acid. It is used in meat curing to develop
and stabilize the pink color associated with a cured meat and to
affect flavor and function as an antioxidant. Nitrites convert to
nitric oxide, which reacts with the myoglobin pigments (purple-red)
to form nitrosomyoglobin (dark red). Nitrosomyoglobin plus heating to 130–140°F results in the formation of the stable pigment
nitrosohemochrome, resulting in the cured meat color. It has bacteriostatic properties as an inhibitor of Clostridia organisms, especially
Clostridium botulinum, and, therefore, nonsterile canned hams can
be produced. Sources are sodium and potassium nitrite, with the
sodium form being more commonly used.
Nitrous Oxide—A noncombustible gas used as a propellant in certain
dairy and vegetable fat whipped toppings contained in pressurized
containers.
(Gamma)-Nonalactone—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a colorless to yellow liquid of strong, coconut-like odor. It is soluble in
most fixed oils, mineral oil, and propylene glycol. It is stable in acids
and unstable in alkali and should be stored in glass, tin, or aluminum containers. It is used in coconut flavors and has application in
gelatins, puddings, baked goods, candy, and ice cream at 11–55 ppm.
It is also termed aldehyde C-18.

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Nonanal—A flavoring agent that is a colorless or light yellow liquid,
with a strong odor resembling an essence of orange and rose. It is
soluble in alcohol, most fixed oils, mineral oil, and propylene glycol,
but insoluble in glycerin. It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is
also termed aldehyde C-9 and pelargonic aldehyde.
Nonfat Dry Milk—See Milk Solids-Not-Fat.
Norbixin—See Annatto.
Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid—(NDGA) An antioxidant that has
poor solubility and shows evidence of discoloration in the presence
of metal salts. It is used to a limited extent to retard rancidity.
Nutmeg—A spice obtained from the nutmeg tree Myristica fragrans. It
is related to mace, which is obtained from the covering of nutmeg.
Nutmeg is used in eggnog, cakes, fruit, and puddings.

O
Oat—A grain of high nutritional value , being high in protein, calcium,
fiber, and Vitamin E; it has no gluten. It has a hard, outer hull which
is removed, resulting in whole oat groats or milled rolled oats. It is
used in porridge, breads.
Oat Bran—Produced by grinding oat groats or rolled oats and separating the resulting oat flour into fractions with the bran fraction
being not more than 50% of the original material. It is a source of
beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Oat Flour, Whole—See Whole Oat Flour.
Oat Groats—Whole oat in which the oat’s outer hull is removed by
minimal processing. It consists of an inedible outer husk and whole
grain containing bran, germ, and endosperm. Grinding oat groats
produces oat bran and whole oat flour.
Oats, Rolled—See Rolled Oats.
Oatmeal—See Rolled Oats.
Oatrim—It is the soluble fraction of alpha-amylase hydrolyzed oat
bran or whole oat flour, being produced from oat bran or whole
wheat flour. It is a source of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
(Gamma)-Octalactone—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless to slightly yellow liquid of peach odor. It should be stored
in glass or tin containers. It is used in flavors for peach with applications in baked goods, candy, and ice cream at 5–17 ppm.
Octanoic Acid—See Caprylic Acid.
1-Octanol—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a colorless, stable liquid
of sharp fatty odor. It is soluble in alcohol, most fixed oils, mineral
oil, and propylene glycol. It should be stored in glass or tin containers.
It is used in essential oils for application in beverages, candy, and
baked goods at 1–3 ppm. It is also available in the natural form,
obtained from natural precursors. It is also termed octyl alcohol.
Octyl Acetate—A flavoring agent that is a colorless liquid with a
fruity odor resembling orange and jasmine. It is miscible in alcohol,
oils, and other organic solvents, and insoluble in water. It is obtained
by chemical synthesis.
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Octyl Alcohol—See 1-Octanol.
Oil of Rue—A flavoring agent that is the natural substance obtained
by steam distillation of the fresh blossoming plants of rue, the perennial herb of several species of Ruta (Ruta montana L., Ruta graveolens
L., Ruta bracteosa L., and Ruta calepensis L.). It is used in baked foods
and baking mixes (10 ppm); frozen dairy desserts and mixes
(10 ppm); soft candy (10 ppm); and other food categories (4 ppm).
Oleic Acid—An unsaturated fatty acid that functions as a lubricant,
binder, and defoamer.
Oleic Acid Derived from Tall Oil Fatty Acids—An additive consisting of purified oleic acid separated from refined tall oil fatty acids.
It is used in foods as a lubricant, binder, and defoaming agent, and
as a component in the manufacture of other food-grade additives.
To ensure safe use of the additive, the label should show the common
or usual name of the acid, and the words “food grade.”
Oleomargarine—See Margarine.
Oleoresin Paprika—A seasoning and colorant that is the solventfree extraction containing the volatile and nonvolatile flavor components of paprika. It is the closest replacement for paprika. As a
colorant, the pigment is a red-orange carotenoid of which the principal carotenoid is capsanthin. It has fair pH and heat stability, and
poor light and chemical stability. It is used in sausages, meat products,
condiment mixtures, and salad dressings.
Oleoresins—Solvent-free extractions from spices that contain the
volatile and nonvolatile flavor components. They are the closest
replacements for a spice, and are used in seasonings for a variety of
foods.
Olestra—A fat replacer (sucrose polyester) manufactured using vegetable oil and sucrose to produce a product that is not absorbed or
metabolized, passing undigested through the digestive tract. Fatsoluble vitamins A, D, E, and K can be carried out of the body with
olestra. It is noncaloric because it is not hydrolyzed by digestive
lipases. Approved for use in savory snack foods; advisory labeling is
required. It is used in fat-free chips and crackers.
Oligofructose—See Fructooligosaccharide.
Olive Oil—The oil obtained from the fruit of olive trees, Olea ­europaea.
It is used mainly for salad and cooking oils.

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Onion—A flavorant, the vegetable Allium cepa L., commercially processed into powder, salt, minced, and toasted forms. It is used in
meats, sauces, soups, and dips.
Orange Oil, Bitter—A flavoring agent that is a yellow-brown liquid
with an aromatic odor resembling Seville orange, and an aromatic
and bitter taste. Its substance is degraded by light, and its alcohol
solutions are neutral to litmus. It is miscible in absolute alcohol and
glacial acetic acid, soluble in fixed oils and mineral oil, slightly soluble
in propylene glycol, and insoluble in glycerin. It is obtained by cold
expression of fresh peel of the fruit of Citrus aurantium L. of the
Rutaceae family.
Oregano—A spice made from the dried leaves of Lippia graveolens, a
perennial of the mint family. There are two strains available. One
strain, common to the Mediterranean region, is delicate in fragrance
and taste and the other, which is common to Mexico, is quite pungent. It is used in sauces, soups, and pizza.
Orthophosphates—Salts of phosphoric acid containing one phosphorous atom. They are made by partially or fully neutralizing phosphoric acid with an alkali. Monobasic orthophosphates have one
hydrogen atom replaced with the alkali metal, dibasic have two
replaced, and tribasic have three replaced. Examples of orthophosphates include tricalcium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, disodium phosphate, and trisodium phosphate. Heating under controlled
conditions forms condensed phosphates or polyphosphates.
Functions include buffering, sequestering, and chelating.
Orthophosphoric Acid—See Phosphoric Acid.
Ox Bile Extract—A yellowish-green soft solid with a part-sweet,
part-bitter, disagreeable taste. It is the purified portion of the bile of
an ox obtained by evaporating the alcohol extract of concentrated
bile. The ingredient is used as a surfactant in food, a surfactant also
known as purified oxgall or sodium choleate.
Oxidized Cornstarch—Starch produced by treating an aqueous
starch suspension with dilute sodium hypochlorite containing a
small excess of caustic soda until the desired degree of oxidation is
reached. The slurry is then treated with an antichlor, such as sodium
bisulfate, adjusted to the desired pH, filtered, washed, and dried.
It still retains its original granule structure and is insoluble in water.
It is extremely white, has decreased viscosity, is relatively clear, and
shows a reduced tendency to thicken when cooled. Its food applications are those where high solids and low viscosity are desired.

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Oxidizing and Reducing Agentsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Substances which chemically
oxidize or reduce another food ingredient, thereby producing a
more stable product.
Oxystearinâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;A crystallization inhibitor and release agent that is a
modified fatty acid composed of the glycerides of partially oxidized
stearic and other fatty acids. It is used in vegetable oils to prevent
them from clouding in the refrigerator and in griddling fats and oils
to prevent food from sticking to the frying pan.

P
p-Anisaldehyde—See p-Methoxybenzaldehyde.
p-Methoxybenzaldehyde—A flavoring agent that is a colorless or
faintly yellow liquid, hawthorn-like odor. It is miscible in alcohol,
ether, and most fixed oils, soluble in propylene glycol, insoluble in
glycerin, water, and mineral oil. It is obtained by synthesis. It is also
termed anise aldehyde and p-anisaldehyde.
Palmitic Acid—A fatty acid which is a mixture of solid organic acids
from fats consisting principally of palmitic acid with varying
amounts of stearic acid. It functions as a lubricant, binder, and
defoaming agent.
Palm Kernel Oil—An oil obtained from palm kernels. It consists
mainly of lauric, myristic, and oleic fatty acids. It resembles coconut
oil and is used interchangeably with coconut oil. It is a possible
source of stearine, which is a substitute for cocoa butter. It is used in
margarine and confectionery.
Palm Oil—The oil obtained from the fruit of the palm tree. It has a
narrower plastic range than lard and most shortenings which is a
disadvantage in shortening applications. It can be used in mixtures
with only a moderately adverse effect on the plastic range. It consists mainly of palmitic, oleic, and linoleic fatty acids. It is used in
margarine and shortenings.
Pantothenic Acid—Vitamin B5¢ which is a water-soluble vitamin. It is
required for proper growth and maintenance of the body and is
involved in body processes such as energy release from carbohydrates and metabolism of fatty acids. It is relatively stable through
storage and is found in liver, eggs, and meat.
Papain—A tenderizer that is a protein-digesting enzyme obtained
from the papaya fruit. The enzyme, used in a patented process, is
injected into the circulatory system of the live animal and is activated
by the heat of cooking to break down the protein, thus tenderizing
the beef. The enzyme is inactivated by stomach acids.
Paprika—A spice and colorant made from the ground, dried, ripe
fruit of the herb Capsicum annuum L. It contributes flavor and color

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to foods. The pod provides red color and has good tinctorial strength,
good pH stability, and poor stability to light and oxidation. It is used
in meat, fish, sauces, and salad dressings. It is also termed sweet pepper or pimiento. See Oleoresin Paprika.
Parabens—Antimicrobial agents that are esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid. The most common esters are methyl p-hydroxybenzoate
and propyl p-hydroxybenzoate. The ethyl and butyl esters have
some applications. It is related to benzoic acid and sodium benzoate
but is effective over a wide pH range. The parabens are most active
against yeasts and molds and are stable to high temperature. They
are a white free-flowing powder of fair water solubility at room temperature which improves if the water is heated to 70°C. Methyl paraben is more soluble (0.25 g/100 ml of water at 25°C) but less effective
in mold inhibition than propyl paraben (0.04 g/100 ml of water at
25°C). It is used in meat and poultry products.
Para-Hydroxybenzoic Acid—See Parabens.
Parboiled Rice—The rice that results from the process of soaking
rice in water, draining, pressure cooking to completely gelatinize the
starch, drying, and milling. The parboiling process aids the development of stability toward cooking and heat processing. It is used in
canned rice products such as soups, casseroles, meat, and rice dinners, such as Spanish rice. The milling of parboiled rice produces
parboiled bran.
Parsley—A spice made from the dried leaves of Petroselinum hortense,
of bright green color. It has a high content of vitamins A and C and
also contains iron, iodine, copper, and manganese. It is used for
garnishing and seasoning, with application in sauces, salads, and
soups.
Partially Hydrogenated Coconut Oil—See Coconut Oil.
Partially Hydrogenated Oil—Oil that has been partially hydrogenated (chemical addition of oxygen) to modify the texture from liquid to semisolid. This conversion raises the melting point. It is used
in farinaceous foods, confectionery, and desserts.
Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum—A source of soluble dietary
fiber extracted from guar gum. It does not affect taste or viscosity.
It is soluble in cold water with minimal viscosity. It can function to
replace fat, increase moisture retention, and stabilize. Uses include
cereal, soups, confections, and baked goods.

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Pastry Flour—A flour obtained from soft wheat. Either straight or
clear flour grades may be used because color is not an essential
requirement. It is used in white sauces and pastry.
Patent Flour—Flour made from the separation of 40–90% of that
portion of the grain that can be milled from a wheat blend. There
are various streams to include long patent, medium patent, short
patent, first patent, and fancy patent flours.
Peanut flour—A dry powder formed after the partial extraction of
oil from roasted peanuts. It has about 50% protein and available
forms include 12% and 28% fat. It is used to provide peanut flavor,
protein, and aroma to foods including baked goods, nutrition bars,
sauces, and dressings.
Peanut Oil—The oil obtained from peanuts, consisting principally of
the unsaturated fatty acids oleic and linoleic. It is liquid at room temperature, has a specific gravity at 38°C of approximately 1.89–0.90,
and an iodine number of 85–95. It is removed from the nuts by one
of two processes, namely, the expeller method, in which the shelled
peanuts are cooked with steam, and fed into an expeller press which
physically presses the oil from the meal; or the pre-press solvent system, which is comparable to the expeller method except that less
pressure is applied, which leaves more oil in the meal, and the remaining meal is solvent-washed, usually with hexane, to dissolve the oil
from the meal. The obtained crude oil is refined. The major use of
peanut oil is in cooking oils and salad oils. Peanut oil is used in deepfat frying because of its long frying life and high smoke point. In salad
oil, it contributes to the suspension of solids. Other applications
include shortening ingredient for doughnuts and cakes.
Pearl Starch—See Cornstarch.
Pectic Acid—Those pectic substances that are essentially void of methoxyl groups and have carboxyl groups only. They have varying degrees
of neutralization. The divalent salts are slightly soluble in water and
must be converted to the sodium or potassium forms for dissolution.
It gels in the presence of calcium or other divalent cations.
Pectin—A gum that is the methylated ester of polygacturonic acid. It
is obtained from citrus peels and apple pomace. The degree of methylation (DM) or esterification (DE) refers to the percentage of acid
groups which are present as the methyl ester. Pectin is divided into
two main groups: high methoxy (HM) pectin, having 50% or greater
esterification, and low methoxy (LM) pectin, having less than 50%

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esterification. These pectins gel under different conditions. The LM
pectins are subdivided into low methoxy amidated pectin and low
methoxy conventional pectin. See Pectin, High Methoxy; Pectin,
Low Methoxy; Amidated Pectin.
Pectin, High Methoxy—A pectin with a degree of esterification of
50% or greater. These pectins gel under acid conditions (pH 3.5 or
lower) and high soluble solids (55% or higher). The resulting gel sets
at varying temperatures into a rigid gel that is not thermally reversible.
Applications include jams, jellies, preserves, and bakery fillings.
See Pectin.
Pectinic Acid—A broad group of pectic substances that contain more
than a negligible proportion of methyl ester groups and all the unesterified carboxyl groups are free. The divalent salts of pectinic acid
are only slightly soluble in water and must be converted to the
sodium or potassium form for dissolution.
Pectin, Low Methoxy—A pectin with a degree of esterification of
less than 50%. These pectins gel with divalent ions, such as calcium,
over a broad range of pH and soluble solids. The resulting gel is
spreadable with some gel structure and sets at varying temperatures.
The gel is thermoreversible. Applications include low calorie jams,
jellies, and preserves, tomato-based sauces, and low pH milk beverages.
See Pectin.
Pelargonic Aldehyde—See Nonanal.
2-Pentanone—A flavoring agent that is a clear liquid, colorless, with
flowery odor. It is miscible in alcohol and ether and soluble in water.
It is obtained by chemical synthesis. It is also termed methyl propyl
ketone.
Pentasodium Tripolyphosphate—See Sodium Tripolyphos­phate.
Pepper—A spice made from a berry from the vine Piper nigrum L. which
produces black and white pepper. Black pepper is picked slightly
underripe and dried, during which time the characteristic black,
wrinkled appearance is attained. White pepper is picked fully ripe and
dried, after which the outer hull is removed by attrition to expose
the white core. It is used in meat, vegetables, soups, and salads.
Pepper, Cayenne—A spice that is not related to the true pepper vine
but to the paprika, bell peppers of the Capsicum family. It is hot and
fiery and used in spreads, dips, and chili sauce.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Pepper, Red—The pod of the genus Capsicum, variety C. annuum L.
and C. frutescens L. It has a hot, pungent flavor. It is used in barbecue
sauce, spicy sauces, and chili powder.
Peptone—A polypeptide used as a beer stabilizer.
Petrolatum—A release agent, lubricant, and defoaming agent that is
a purified mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It varies in color from white to yellow. It is used in bakery
products, dehydrated fruits and vegetables, and egg white solids.
Petroleum Wax—A wax used as a masticatory substance in chewing
gum base. It is also used as a protective coating on raw fruits and
vegetables and as a fruit defoamer.
PGPR—See Polyglycerol Polyricinoleate.
Phenethyl Phenylacetate—A flavoring agent that is a colorless or
pale yellow liquid, with an odor resembling roses and hyacinth,
which becomes solid at <26°C (78.8°F). It is soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water. It is obtained by chemical synthesis.
Phenylacetic Acid—A flavoring agent that is crystalline (white, glistening), with unpleasant, persisting odor resembling geranium leaf
and rose when diluted. It is soluble in most fixed oils and glycerin,
slightly soluble in water, and insoluble in mineral oil. It is obtained
by chemical synthesis. It is also termed A-toluic acid.
Phenylethyl Anthranilate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a
stable, white to yellow crystal of grape and orange blossom odor. It
should be stored in glass or polyethylene-lined containers. It is used
for flavors such as grape and cherry in applications such as beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked goods at 2–6 ppm.
Phenylethyl Isobutyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a
stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor of floral note. It
is soluble in alcohol and practically insoluble in water. It should be
stored in glass or tin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for peach
with applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked goods at
3–13 ppm.
Phosphate—Any salt of phosphoric acid. The salts include disodium
phosphate, trisodium phosphate, sodium hexamethaphosphate, and
others. They play a variety of roles such as sequestrants, emulsifiers,
solubility enhancers, and buffers in a variety of foods.

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Phosphated Flour—Flour to which monocalcium phosphate is
added at not less than 0.25% and not more than 0.75%. It is used in
baked goods.
Phosphoric Acid—An acidulant that is an inorganic acid produced
by burning phosphorus in an excess of air, producing phosphorus
pentoxide which is dissolved in water to form orthophosphoric acid
of varying concentrations. It is a strong acid which is soluble in
water. The acid salts are termed phosphates. It is used as a flavoring
acid in cola and root beer beverages to provide desirable acidity and
sourness. It is used as a synergistic antioxidant in vegetable shortenings. In yeast manufacture, it is used to maintain the acidic pH and
provide a source for phosphorus. It also functions as an acidulant in
cheese. It is also termed orthophosphoric acid.
Pimaricin—See Natamycin.
Pimiento—See Paprika.
Piperonyl Acetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of heliotrope odor. It should be stored in
glass or resin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for berry notes
with applications in beverages, candy, ice cream, and baked goods at
50–90 ppm.
Piperonyl Isobutyrate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a moderately stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should
be stored in glass or resin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for
cherry, berry, and peach aroma with applications in beverages,
candy, and baked goods at 1–4 ppm.
Plasticizer—See Softener.
Polydextrose—A bulking agent that is a randomly bonded condensation polymer of dextrose containing small amounts of bound sorbitol and citric acid. It is a water-soluble powder providing a pH
range of 2.5–3.5. It is partially metabolized which results in a caloric
value of 1 cal/g. As a reduced-calorie bulking agent, it can partially
replace sugars and in some cases fats in reduced-calorie foods. It also
functions as a bodying agent and humectant. Applications include
desserts, specific baked goods, frozen dairy desserts, chewing gum,
and candy. Usage levels vary according to application, but examples
are frozen dessert, 13–14%; puddings, 8–9%; and cake, 15–16%.
Polyethylene Glycol—A binder, coating agent, dispersing agent,
flavoring adjuvant, and plasticizing agent that is a clear, colorless,

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

viscous, hygroscopic liquid resembling paraffin (white, waxy, or
flakes), with a pH of 4.0–7.5 in 1:20 concentration. It is soluble in
water (MW 1,000) and many organic solvents.
Polyglycerate 60—See Ethoxylated Mono- and Diglycerides.
Polyglycerol Esters of Fatty Acids—Emulsifiers that are mixed
partial esters formed by reacting polymerized glycerols with edible
fats, oils, or fatty acids. They vary in degree of polymerization, and
by varying the proportions and fats to be reacted, a diverse class of
products is obtainable. The esters range from hydrophilic to lipophilic. They are used in cake mixes for volume and texture, in confectionery for gloss, in whipped toppings for aeration, and in flavors
and colors as a solubilizer. Typical usage range is from 0.1 to 1.0%.
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate—An emulsifier which is a yellowish,
viscous liquid composed of polyglycerol esters of polycondensed
fatty acids from castor oil. It is lipophilic , being soluble in fats and
oils but insoluble in water. It is used in reducing the friction of
chocolate particles to obtain better flow when melted. It also functions to reduce the fat content of chocolate when replacing cocoa
butter. Uses include chocolate candy bars, confectionary. Also
termed PGPR.
Polyoxyethylene (20) Mono- and Diglycerides of Fatty Acids—
See Ethoxylated Mono- and Diglycerides.
Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Ester—See Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan
Fatty Acid Esters.
Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Fatty Acid Esters—Emulsifiers made
by reacting ethylene oxide with sorbitan esters to increase their
hydrophilic properties. They are generally used in oil and water
emulsions in combination with lipophilic emulsifiers such as monoand diglycerides or sorbitan monostearates to produce a wide variety of effects. They are also termed polysorbates, which include
polysorbate 80 (polyoxyethylene [20] sorbitan monooleate), polysorbate 60 (polyoxyethylene [20] sorbitan monostearate), and polysorbate
65 (polyoxyethylene [20] sorbitan tristearate). They can solubilize
essential and vitamin oils. They are used in panned coatings to
reduce panning time, in coffee whiteners to prevent oiling-off, and
in ice cream to produce dryness and overrun. Typical usage level
ranges from 0.05 to 0.10%.

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Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Monooleate—An emulsifier
produced by reacting oleic acid with sorbitol to yield a product
which is reacted with ethylene oxide. It is a nonionic, water-dispersible
surface-active agent that is very soluble in water. It is also termed
polysorbate 80. It is used in ice cream and frozen desserts for overrun and dryness; as a disperser of flavors and colors in pickles; and
for volume and texture in baked goods. It is frequently used with
mono- and diglycerides at usage levels ranging from 0.05 to 0.10%.
Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Monostearate—An emulsifier
manufactured by reacting stearic acid with sorbitol to yield a product which is reacted with ethylene oxide. It is a nonionic, waterdispersible surface-active agent which is very hydrophilic. It is also
termed polysorbate 60. It is used in whipped vegetable toppings for
overrun and lightness; in cakes for increased volume and fine grain;
in icings and confectionery for lightness and syneresis control; and
in salad dressing for emulsion stability. It is frequently used with
sorbitan monostearate or mono- and diglycerides. The typical usage
range is 0.10–0.40%.
Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Tristearate—An emulsifier manufactured by reacting stearic acid with sorbitol to yield a product
which is then reacted with ethylene oxide. It is a nonionic surfaceactive agent which is dispersible in fat, oil, and water. It is also
termed polysorbate 65. It is used in frozen desserts, cakes, and coffee
whiteners. It is frequently used with sorbitan monostearates or
mono- and diglycerides. Typical usage range is 0.10–0.40%.
Polyoxyl (40) Stearate—An emulsifier and antifoaming agent used
in processed foods, fruit jellies, and sauces.
Polyphosphates—Phosphates containing two or more phosphorous
atoms per molecule, being formed when orthophosphates are heated
under controlled conditions. Pyrophosphates have two phosphorous atoms (for example, sodium acid pyrophosphate); tripolyphosphates having three phosphorous atoms (for example, sodium
tripolyphosphate). Further heating polyphosphates and chilling
forms a longer chain (for example, sodium hexametaphosphate).
Functions include sequestering, buffering, and chelating. They are
also termed condensed phosphates.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Polysorbate 60—See Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Monostea­
rate.
Polysorbate 65—See Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Tristearate.
Polysorbate 80—See Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitan Monooleate.
Polysorbates—See Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Fatty Acid Eaters.
Pomace—Ground apple or fleshy fruit in the dry form.
Popcorn—Indian corn that explodes when exposed to dry heat due
to the expansion of the kernel.
Poppy Seed—A seasoning that is a seed of Papaver somniferum L. Poppy
seeds have a nutty flavor. They are used in breads, cakes, and butter
sauce for vegetables, lending a nutlike flavor.
Potassium Acid Tartrate—See Cream of Tartar.
Potassium Alginate—A gum that is the potassium salt of alginic
acid. It is soluble in cold water, forming a viscous colloidal solution.
It functions as a stabilizer, thickener, and gelling agent. It is used in
dietetic foods, low-sodium foods, dry mixes, and dental impression
material. Typical usage levels range from 0.05 to 0.50%.
Potassium Bicarbonate—An alkali and leavening agent obtained
as colorless prisms or white powder. It is very soluble, with 1 g dissolving in 2.8 ml of water. Upon heating, it liberates carbon dioxide
which provides leavening in baked goods. It is also used in confectionary products.
Potassium Bisulfite—A preservative that retards bacterial action,
prevents discoloration, and functions as an antioxidant. It is not
used in meats or in food recognized as a source of vitamin B1¢ and it
is not used on fruits or vegetables intended to be served raw or presented as fresh.
Potassium Bitartrate—See Cream of Tartar.
Potassium Bromate—A dough conditioner that exists as white
crystals or powder and is soluble in water. It exists in the anhydrous
form as white granular powder and in the hydrated form as small
white crystals or granules. It is used to age and improve the baking
properties of flour. It is used with potassium iodate and azodicarbonamide to modify the protein in bread flour to promote the desired
properties of loaf volume and shape. It is used in baked goods.

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Potassium Carbonate—A general purpose food additive and alkali.
It is hygroscopic and the aqueous solutions are strongly alkaline. It
has a solubility of 1 g in 1 ml of water at 25°C. It is used as a flavoring
agent and processing aid, and to control pH. It is used in soups to
neutralize acidity.
Potassium Carrageenan—See Carrageenan.
Potassium Caseinate—See Caseinates.
Potassium Chloride—A nutrient, dietary supplement, and gelling
agent that exists as crystals or powder. It has a solubility of 1 g in
2.8 ml of water at 25°C and 1 g in 1.8 ml of boiling water. Hydrochloric
acid, and sodium chloride and magnesium chloride diminish its
solubility in water. It is used as a salt substitute and mineral supplement. It has optional use in artificially sweetened jelly and preserves.
It is used as a potassium source for certain types of carrageenan gels.
It is used to replace sodium chloride in low-sodium foods.
Potassium Citrate, Monohydrate—A sequestrant and buffer that
exists as crystals or powder. It is slightly hygroscopic and possesses
the advantageous properties of citric acid without having its acid
reaction. A 1% solution has a pH of 7.5–9.0. It reacts with metal ions
such as calcium, magnesium, and iron to form a complex. It is soluble
in water with a solubility of 1.8 g in 1 ml of 20°C water and 2 g in
1 ml of 80°C water. It is found in artificially sweetened jelly and in
certain milk and meat products. Uses include processed cheese, puddings, and dietetic foods in which sodium is undesirable. It is also
termed tripotassium citrate.
Potassium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate—See Monopotassium
Phosphate.
Potassium Gluconate—A nutritional source of potassium used in
fortification. It has solubility in water at 20°C of greater than 900 g/l,
and a pH of approximately 7.0 at 1% solution. It can be used as a
partial replacement for sodium chloride to reduce the level of
sodium, such as in cheese and bakery goods.
Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate—See Cream of Tartar.
Potassium Hydroxide—A water-soluble food additive and bleaching
agent. Upon exposure to air it readily absorbs carbon dioxide and
moisture and deliquesces. It is used to destroy the bitter chemical
constituents in olives that will be used as black olives.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Potassium Iodate—A source of iodine made by reacting iodine with
potassium hydroxide. It is a crystalline powder which is more stable
than iodide. It has a solubility of 1 g in 15 ml of water. It is used as
a fast-acting dough improver; it is used with potassium bromate as
an oxidizing agent to modify the protein in bread flour which promotes loaf volume and shape. It is used in baked goods.
Potassium Iodide—A source of iodine and a nutrient and dietary
supplement. It exists as crystals or powder and has a solubility of 1 g
in 0.7 ml of water at 25°C. It is included in table salt for the prevention of goiter.
Potassium Lactate—A flavor enhancer that is the potassium salt of
lactic acid. It is a hygroscopic, white, odorless solid and is prepared
commercially by the neutralization of lactic acid with potassium
hydroxide. It is used as a flavoring agent and enhancer in some meat
and poultry products, a humectant, and a pH control agent.
Potassium Metabisulfite—A chemical preservative and antioxidant obtained as white or colorless crystals, powder, or granules. It
is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. The sulfite salt yields
sulfurous acid at a low pH. It is used as a food preservative.
Potassium Metaphosphate—A substitute for sodium phosphate in
low-sodium foods. It also functions as a fermentation nutrient and
buffer.
Potassium Nitrate—A preservative and color fixative in meats
which exists as colorless prisms or white granules or powder. It has
a solubility of 1 g in 3 ml of water at 25°C. See Nitrate.
Potassium Nitrite—A color fixative in meats which exists as white
or yellowish granules or cylindrical sticks. It is very soluble in water.
See Nitrite.
Potassium Oleate—The potassium salt of oleic acid. It is used as a
binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Potassium Palmitate—The potassium salt of palmitic acid. It is
used as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Potassium Phosphate Dibasic—See Dipotassium Phosphate.
Potassium Phosphate Monobasic—See Monopotassium Phos­
phate.
Potassium Sodium Tartrate—See Sodium Potassium Tartrate.

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Potassium Sorbate—A preservative that is the potassium salt of sorbic acid. It is a white crystalline powder which is very soluble in
water, with a solubility of 139 g in 100 ml at 20°C. This solubility
allows for solutions of high concentration which can be used for
dipping and spraying. It is effective up to pH 6.5. It has approximately 74% of the activity of sorbic acid, therefore requiring higher
concentrations to obtain comparable results as sorbic acid. It is effective against yeasts and molds and is used in cheese, bread, beverages,
margarine, and dry sausage. Typical usage levels are 0.025–0.10%.
Potassium Stearate—The potassium salt of stearic acid. It is used as
a binder, emulsifier, anticaking agent, and as a plasticizer in chewing
gum base.
Potassium Sulfate—A flavoring agent that occurs naturally, consisting
of colorless or white crystals or crystalline powder having a bitter,
saline taste. It is prepared by the neutralization of sulfuric acid with
potassium hydroxide or potassium carbonate.
Potato Starch—A starch obtained from potatoes. It provides long
body and clarity to food. It is used mainly in those countries in
which it is the principal commercial starch. Applications include
Danish desserts, soups, and gravies.
Powdered Sugar—A sweetener obtained by pulverizing granulated
sugar and adding approximately 3% cornstarch. The blend is ground
to the desired fineness, that is, 4×, 6×, or 8×. It is very soluble in
water. Applications include confectioneries and icings.
Precipitated Calcium Phosphate—See Tricalcium Phosphate.
Pregelatinized Starch—Starch that has been processed to permit
swelling in cold water, unlike natural starch which requires heating.
The processing usually consists of cooking starch slurries, drying, and
grinding to a fine powder. It is used in instant puddings, cake mixes,
and soup mixes at 1–5%. It is also termed gelatinized wheat starch.
Preservatives—Antimicrobial agents used to preserve food by preventing growth of microorganisms and subsequent spoilage, including
fungicides, mold, and rope inhibitors. The preservatives most widely
used are the benzoates (sodium benzoate), sorbates (sorbic acid and
potassium sorbate), and the propionates (sodium or calcium propionate), which are organic acids or their salts. Acidulants are used as
preservatives because they increase the acidity of food, which can
reduce growth of bacteria. Acidulants used include acetic acid, adipic
acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, and phosphoric acid.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Processing Aids—Substances used as manufacturing aids to enhance
the appeal or utility of a food or food component, including clarifying agents, clouding agents, catalysts, flocculents, filter aids, and
crystallization inhibitors.
Propane—An aerating agent used in combination with chloropentafluoroethane or octafluorocyclobutane as a propellant and aerating
agent for foamed or sprayed foods.
Propellants, Aerating Agents, and Gases—Gases used to supply
force to expel a product or used to reduce the amount of oxygen in
contact with the food in packaging.
Propionic Acid—The acid source of the propionates. Propionic acid
in the liquid form has a strong odor and is corrosive, so it is used as
the sodium, calcium, and potassium salts as a preservative. These
yield the free acid in the pH range of the food in which they are used.
It functions principally against mold. See Calcium Propionate;
Sodium Propionate.
Propylene Glycol—A humectant and flavor solvent that is a polyhydric alcohol (polyol). It is a clear, viscous liquid with complete solubility in water at 20°C and good oil solvency. It functions as a
humectant, as do glycerol and sorbitol, in maintaining the desired
moisture content and texture in foods such as shredded coconut
and icings. It functions as a solvent for flavors and colors that are
insoluble in water. It is also used in beverages and candy.
Propylene Glycol Alginate—A gum that is the propylene glycol
ester of alginic acid, which is obtained from kelp. As compared to
sodium alginates, it has reduced sensitivity to acid and calcium salts.
It functions in acidic systems. It functions as a thickener, stabilizer,
and emulsifier in beer, salad dressings, syrups, and fruit drinks.
Propylene Glycol Ester—See Propylene Glycol Mono- and
Di-Esters.
Propylene Glycol Mono- and Di-Esters—A lipophilic emulsifier
that consists of propylene glycol esters of fatty acids, such as palmitic
and stearic. It is used to increase the whipping ability and aeration
in cake batters and whipped toppings.
Propylene Glycol Monostearate—A lipophilic emulsifier that is a
propylene glycol ester. It is used as a dispersing aid in nondairy
creamers; as a crystal stabilizer in cake shortenings and whipped

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toppings; and as an aeration increaser in cake batters, icings, and
toppings. It is also used in oils and shortenings.
Propyl 2-Furanacrylate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to light yellow liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored
in glass or tin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for apple, pear,
and raspberry with applications in beverages, candy, and baked
goods at 1–3 ppm.
Propyl Gallate—An antioxidant that is the n-propylester of 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid. Natural occurrence of propyl gallate has not
been reported. It is commercially prepared by esterification of gallic
acid with propyl alcohol followed by distillation to remove excess
alcohol.
Propyl Heptanoate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable,
colorless liquid of fruity odor. It should be stored in glass, tin, or
resin-lined containers. It is used in apple flavors and modified coffee. It has applications in beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked
goods at 4–18 ppm.
Propyl p-Hydroxybenzoate—See Parabens.
Propyl Paraben—See Parabens.
Psyllium—A gum obtained from the plant of the Plantago genus. It
hydrates slowly to form a viscous dispersion of concentrations up to
1%. A clear, gelatinous mass is formed at 2%. It is used in bulk laxatives. Psyllium husk, having a purity of no less than 95% is a source
of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Pyridoxine—Vitamin B6, a water-soluble vitamin with a solubility of
1 g in 5 ml of water. It functions in the utilization of protein and is
an essential nutrient in enzyme reactions. It is necessary for proper
growth. During processing, there is a loss due to leaching of the
vitamin in water. It is destroyed by high temperatures, high irradiation, and exposure to light. During storage, loss increases with temperature and storage time. It is found in liver, eggs, and meats. See
Pyridoxine Hydrochloride.
Pyridoxine Hydrochloride—An acid form of vitamin B6, a watersoluble vitamin. It is soluble in water, and slightly soluble in alcohol. It is slowly affected by sunlight and is reasonably stable in air.
It has a pH of 2.3–3.5. It is also termed vitamin B6 hydrochloride.
See Pyridoxine.

Q
Quicklime—See Calcium Oxide.
Quince Seed—A gum produced from the fruit of the quince tree
Cydonia oblonga. It hydrates slowly to form a highly viscous dispersion
at concentrations up to 1.5%. Above 2%, a slimy, muscilaginous
mass is formed. It is principally used in the cosmetic industry. It is
also termed gum quince seed, semen cydonia, golden apple seed,
and cydonia seed.
Quinine—A flavorant naturally obtained from the cinchona tree. It is
used as a bitter flavoring in beverages such as quinine water, tonic
water, and bitter lemon. Quinine sulfate and quinine hydrochloride
are cleared for use as a flavor in carbonated beverages at levels less
than 83 ppm.

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R
Raisin—A dried grape used as a fruit and as an ingredient in cereals,
baked goods, and desserts.
Raisin Seed Oil—See Grape Seed Oil.
Rapeseed Oil—The oil derived from seeds of Brassica campestris or B.
napus of the family Cruciferae and related trees. It can function as a
stabilizer and thickener in peanut butter and as an emulsifier in cake
mix shortenings.
Rapeseed Oil, Fully Hydrogenated—A stabilizer and thickener. A
mixture of triglycerides in which the fatty acid composition is a
mixture of saturated fatty acids. The fatty acids are present in the
same proportions which result from the full hydrogenation of fatty
acids occurring in natural rapeseed oil. Obtained from the napus and
campestris varieties of Brassica of the family Cruciferae. Prepared by
full hydrogenation of refined and bleached rapeseed oil at 310°F,
using a catalyst such as nickel, until the iodine number is 4 or less.
Used as a stabilizer and thickener in peanut butter.
Rapeseed Oil, Low Erucic Acid—Fully refined, bleached, and deodorized oil obtained from certain varieties of Brassica napus or B. campestris of the family Cruciferae. Chemically, low erucic acid rapeseed oil is
a mixture of triglycerides, composed of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, with an erucic acid content of no more than 2% of
the component fatty acids. It may be partially hydrogenated to reduce
the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Low erucic acid rapeseed oil
and partially hydrogenated low erucic acid rapeseed oil are used in
food, except in infant formula. It is also termed canola oil.
Rapeseed Oil, Superglycerinated Fully Hydrogenated—An
emulsifier that is a mixture of mono- and diglycerides with triglycerides as a minor component. The fatty acid composition is a mixture
of saturated fatty acids present in the same proportions as those resulting from the full hydrogenation of fatty acids in a natural rapeseed
oil. It is made by adding excess glycerol to the fully hydrogenated
rapeseed oil and heating, in the presence of a sodium hydroxide catalyst, to 330°F under partial vacuum and steam sparging agitation. The
ingredient is used as an emulsifier in shortenings for cake mixes.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Raw Sugar—A sweetener that is an intermediate product, containing
nonsugar impurities, thus being less refined than white sugar. It is
made by crushing and shredding sugar cane to extract the juice
which is processed to yield raw sugar and upon further processing
yields refined cane sugar.
Rebaudioside A—A natural, highly processed calorie free sweetener
obtained from the leaves of the plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. It is
a steviol glycoside in which the steviol’s carboxyl and hydroxyl
hydrogen atom is replaced with glucose, it has three linked glucose
molecules at the hydroxyl site. Rebaudiana (Reb A) is 300–400 times
sweeter than sugar and the least bitter of the glycosides. It is pH and
heat stable with good solubility in water. Uses include beverages,
table top sweetener, general foods. It is also termed Reb A, stevia
extract, stevia.
Reb A—see Rebaudioside A.
Red Durum Wheat—Wheat obtained from the durum wheat kernel.
It is used in macaroni and spaghetti products. See Durum Wheat.
Reduced Lactose Whey—The portion of milk obtained by the
removal of lactose from whey; the lactose content of the finished
dry product does not exceed 60%. As with whey, reduced lactose
whey can be used in fluid, concentrate, or a dry product form. The
acidity of reduced lactose whey may be adjusted by the addition of
safe and suitable pH-adjusting ingredients.
Reduced Minerals Whey—The substance obtained by the removal
of a portion of the minerals from whey; the dry product does not
contain more than 7% ash. As with whey, reduced minerals whey
can be used in fluid, concentrate, or a dry product form. The acidity
of reduced minerals whey may be adjusted by the addition of safe
and suitable pH-adjusting ingredients.
Reducing Sugar—A sugar that can chemically react with copper in
an alkaline solution. It combines with nitrogen compounds at elevated temperature to produce a browning “Maillard” reaction which
contributes to the production of a brown crust in baked goods. It is
used in the production of caramel color. Dextrose and fructose are
reducing sugars.
Regular Constarch—See Cornstarch.
Rennet—A milk coagulant that is the concentrated extract of rennin
enzyme obtained from calves’ stomachs (calf rennet) or adult bovine

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stomachs (bovine rennet). The commercial saline extract of rennin
contains a little pepsin, some sodium chloride, and some boric acid,
sodium benzoate, or propylene glycol as a preservative. In the paste
form, it also contains lipase. In the paste form it is used in Italiantype cheeses. It is used to coagulate milk into curd in making cheese
and junket. A microbial rennet and a pepsin rennet also exist. See
Rennin.
Rennet Casein—The product that results from the precipitation of
pasteurized milk with a rennet enzyme. Rennet casein requires a pH
above 9 to dissolve, as compared to acid casein, which can be dissolved in alkali at a pH as low as 6.5. Rennet casein can be dispersed
at lower pH by adding a complex phosphate such as sodium tripolyphosphate. This results in a casein of good emulsifying, whipping,
foam stability, and water-binding properties. Uses include imitation
cheese.
Rennin—A milk coagulant that is an enzyme obtained from the abomasum portion of the stomach of suckling mammals. It is most
active at pH 3.8. One part purified rennin will coagulate more than
five million parts of milk. The commercial extract of rennin is termed
rennet. It is used to coagulate milk in making cheese, junket, and
custard. See Rennet.
Retinol—The fat-soluble vitamin A which is required for new cell
growth and prevention of night blindness. There is no appreciable
loss by heating or freezing, and it is stable in the absence of air.
Sources include liver, fortified margarine, egg, and milk. Vitamin A
palmitate can be found in frozen egg substitute.
Rhodinol—A flavoring agent that is a colorless liquid, with an odor
resembling rose. It is soluble in most fixed oils, mineral oil, and propylene glycol, insoluble in glycerin. It is usually obtained from
reunion germanium oil.
Riboflavin—The water-soluble vitamin B2¢ required for healthy skin
and the building and maintaining of body tissues. It is a yellow to
orange-yellow crystalline powder. It acts as a coenzyme and carrier
of hydrogen. It is stable to heat but may dissolve and be lost in
cooking water. It is relatively stable to storage. Sources include leafy
vegetables, cheese, eggs, and milk.
Rice Bran Oil—An oil made from rice bran that consists mainly of
oleic, linoleic, and palmitic fatty acids. It is used in salad oil, cooking
oil, and hydrogenated shortenings.

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Rice Bran Wax—A refined wax obtained from rice bran. It is insoluble
in water. It is used in candy, fresh fruits, and vegetables as a coating
and as a plasticizing material in chewing gum.
Rice Flour—The flour made from different varieties of long-, medium-,
and short-grain rice, usually obtained from the broken milled rice.
The chemical composition is the same as that of the whole rice. The
flour does not contain gluten and, as a result, doughs made from it
do not retain the gases generated during baking. Rice flours from different varieties display characteristic viscosity patterns during the
heating and cooling of their pastes. In general, rice with starch of an
amylose content greater than 22% has a relatively low peak viscosity
and forms a rigid gel on cooling (high set-back viscosity). Rice with a
starch low in amylose has a high peak and low set-back viscosity.
Rice flour is used in formulated baby foods, breakfast foods, meat
products, and breading.
Rice Starch—The starch obtained from rice. It forms tender, opaque
gels. It has some use in puddings.
Rochelle Salt—See Sodium Potassium Tartrate.
Rolled Oats—Oats produced from 100% dehulled oat groats by
steaming, cutting, rolling, and flaking. It is a source of beta-glucan
soluble fiber. Also known as oatmeal.
Rosemary—A spice made from the dried leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis L., an evergreen shrub. It has a medicinal, menthol flavor. It is
available in whole and ground forms. It is used in soups, poultry,
and meats, especially lamb.
Rum Ether—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a stable, colorless to
yellow liquid of ethereal rum-like note. It should be stored in glass
and stainless steel containers. It is used to intensify rum flavors for
application in beverages, candy, and ice cream at 67–320 ppm and in
alcoholic beverages at 1,600 ppm. It is also termed ethyl oxyhydrate.
Rye—A cereal crop that is a source of rye flour. It is used as a bread
grain.
Rye Flour—The flour obtained by milling rye. It is available in white,
medium, and dark grades and has a distinct flavor. It is usually
diluted with wheat flour in order to make it more palatable. It is
used in bread making.

S
Saccharin—A non-nutritive synthetic sweetener which is 300–400
times sweeter than sucrose. It is nonhygroscopic and has a bitter
aftertaste and a stability problem in cooked, canned, or baked goods.
It is slightly soluble in water with a solubility of 10 g in 100 g of
water at 25°C, but the solubility improves in boiling water. As
sodium saccharin, there are two forms: 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one1,1-dioxide, sodium salt dihydrate, with a solubility of 1 g in 1.2 ml
of water; and 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one-1,1-dioxide, sodium salt.
Calcium saccharin (chemical name: 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one-1,­
1-dioxide, calcium salt) is used where low sodium content and reduced
after-taste are required. It is used in low-calorie foods such as jam,
beverages, and desserts. It is also termed sodium benzosulfimide.
Saccharose—See Sugar.
Safflower Oil—An unsaturated oil obtained from the safflower seed
of the plant Carthamus tinctorius. It consists mainly of linoleic and
oleic fatty acids. It is used principally as a drying oil in the USA.
Saffron—A spice obtained from the dried stigmas of the fall-flowering Crocus sativus L. The flower stigma is of intense yellow color. It
has a powerful, somewhat bitter aroma. It is used in breads, fish,
chicken, sauces, and rice dishes.
Sage—A spice made from the dried leaves of the shrub Salvia officinalis L. It has a strong, fragrant odor. It is available industrially as whole
leaf, cut, rubbed, and ground to determined granulations. It is used
in pork, soups, poultry seasonings, and fish.
Sago Starch—The starch obtained from the sage palm Metroxylon
sagus or M. rumphii and the palm fern Cycas circinalis. It forms highstrength gels which lose their clarity upon standing. It is used in
confections and puddings.
Saint John’s Bread—See Locust Bean Gum.
Salt—A seasoning and preservative whose chemical composition is
sodium chloride, about 40% sodium and 60% chlorine by weight.
It contains not less than 97.5% sodium chloride after drying, while
high-grade salt contains 99.8% sodium chloride. Salt production

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can be by solar evaporation, rock salt mining, and vacuum pan
evaporation. The method selected depends on climate, character of
the deposit, and type of salt required. Sea salt is obtained from the
sea. Seasoned salt contains added flavors. It is available in several
particle sizes (coarse, flake, fine) and shapes (flake, cube) which
relate to density, solubility, flow, blending, and adherence. It is used
as a carrier for dry or semidry ingredients or as an ingredient in prepared mixes. It is used in cheese, butter, and salted nuts for flavor. It
is used in cheese manufacture to help remove the whey and suppress the growth of unwanted organisms, in sausage as a seasoning
and curing agent, and in baked goods, pickles, and sauerkraut for
flavor and fermentation control.
Salt, Sea—Salt consisting of sodium and chloride made by evaporation of sea water with little processing. In its pure form, contains
98% sodium chloride and the balance is trace minerals. The trace
minerals contribute to a different flavor and color as compared to
table salt. Salt with additional refinement and of various mesh sizes
is available. See Salt.
Salt, Table—Salt consisting of sodium and chloride which is usually
derived from salt mines, but can be obtained from sea water, and is
heavily processed. It is 99.9% sodium chloride because the trace
minerals are lost during processing. It contains iodine and anticaking agents as additives; noniodized is also available. See Salt.
Santalol—A flavoring agent that is a colorless or pale yellow liquid,
with odor resembling sandalwood. It is soluble in alcohol, fixed oils,
mineral oil, and propylene glycol; and insoluble in water and glycerin. It is obtained from a sandalwood oil source.
Savory—A spice that is the dried leaves and flowering tops of the
plant Satureia hortenis L. The two distinct varieties are summer savory
and winter savory. Summer savory is generally preferred because it
has a more delicate flavor and is less resinous. It is used in soups,
salads, and sauces.
Self-Rising Flour—White flour to which sodium bicarbonate and
one or more of the acid-reacting substances are added, that is, monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, or sodium aluminum phosphate. It is seasoned with salt. The inclusion of these
ingredients provides a leavening system that allows the flour to rise
when wetted in the preparation of baked goods.

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Semen Cydonia—See Quince Seeds.
Semolina—The purified ground middlings of durum wheat. It contains
bran specks. Durum semolina is ground so that not more than 3%
passes through a number 100 U.S. sieve. It takes longer to cook and
is more resistant to overcooking than flour and results in less cloudiness in the water. It has a 50% relative protein efficiency as compared to nonfat dry milk. It is used in macaroni and spaghetti
products. It is also termed durum semolina.
Sequestrants (Chelating Agents)—Substances which combine
with polyvalent metal ions to form a soluble metal complex, to
improve the quality and stability of products. Examples include calcium citrate, calcium diacetate, calcium hexametaphosphate, citric
acid, dipotassium phosphate, disodium phosphate, isopropyl citrate,
monobasic calcium phosphate, monoisopropyl citrate, potassium
citrate, sodium acid phosphate, sodium citrate, sodium gluconate,
sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium metaphosphate, sodium phosphate, sodium pyrophosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate, stearyl
citrate, and tetra sodium pyrophosphate.
Sesame Oil—The oil obtained from sesame seeds. It consists principally of oleic and linoleic fatty acids. It has resistance to oxidation.
It is used in vegetable shortenings, salad oil, and cooking oil, and is
found in frozen chicken chow mein.
Sesame Seed—The seed of the plant Sesamum indicum L. It has a
sweet, “nutty” flavor. It yields sesame oil. It is used in breads, meats,
and vegetables. It is also termed benne.
Shallot—Allium ascalonicum, a member of the onion family. It ranges
in size from walnut to small fig and is milder than the onion. It can
be substituted for the onion and is used in sauces, dressings, soups,
and meats.
Shortening—Any animal or vegetable fat or oil that “shortens” or
retards the development of gluten strands in baked goods for the
purpose of producing a tender, crisp texture. Solid fats are most
commonly used instead of oils because of their plastic nature. It is
used in baked goods.
Silica, Amorphous—See Silicon Dioxide.
Silicon Dioxide—An anticaking agent, carrier, and dispersant that
can absorb approximately 120% of its weight and remain free flowing.
It is used in salt, flours, and powdered soups to prevent caking caused

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by moisture. It is also used in powdered coffee whitener, vanilla
powder, baking powder, dried egg yolk, and tortilla chips. The usage
level ranges from 1 to 2%. It is also termed silica, amorphous.
Skeletal Meat—The edible part of the animal that is muscle tissue
attached to the bone. It includes the shoulder and side of pork, brisket,
flank, and round of beef. It is an ingredient in sausage.
Skim Milk—Milk from which sufficient fat has been removed to
reduce the milkfat content to less than 0.5%. It is used in the manufacture of certain cheese varieties, casein, and lactose. It is an ingredient in frozen desserts, baked goods, and confectionery. It is also
consumed as a beverage.
Skim Milk Powder—See Milk Solids-Not-Fat.
Slaked Lime—See Calcium Hydroxide.
Smoke Flavoring—A flavorant that can be obtained in the form of
liquid smoke derived from burning hardwoods such as maple and
hickory or as synthetic smoke made by synthesis. It is used to impart
flavor and aroma to bacon, ham, and sausage.
Soda Alum—See Aluminum Sodium Sulfate.
Sodium—A metal element that performs bodily functions.
Sodium Acetate—A source of acetic acid that is obtained as crystals
or powder. It has a solubility of 1 g in 0.8 ml of water.
Sodium Acetate, Anhydrous—A source of acetic acid obtained as
a granular powder. It has a solubility of 1 g in 2 ml of water.
Sodium Acid Carbonate—See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Sodium Acid Phosphate—See Monosodium Phosphate.
Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate—A leavening agent, preservative,
sequestrant, and buffer which is mildly acidic with a pH of 4.1. It is
moderately soluble in water, with a solubility of 15 g in 100 ml at
25°C. It is used in doughnuts and biscuits for its variable gas release
rate during the mixing, bench action, and baking process. It is used
in baking powder as a leavening agent. It is used in canned fish products to reduce the level of undesired struvite crystals (magnesium
ammonium phosphate hexahydrate) by complexing the magnesium.
It is used to sequester metals in processed potatoes. It is also termed
SAPP, disodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate, acid sodium pyrophosphate, disodium diphosphate, and sodium pyrophosphate.

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Sodium Alginate—A gum obtained as a sodium salt of alginic acid,
which is obtained from seaweed. It is cold- and hot-water soluble,
producing a range of viscosities. It forms irreversible gels with calcium salts or acids. It functions as a thickener, binder, and gelling
agent in dessert gels, puddings, sauces, toppings, and edible films.
Sodium Aluminosilicate—See Sodium Silicoaluminate.
Sodium Aluminum Phosphate, Acidic—A leavening agent,
slowly soluble in water, which gives it a delayed leavening reaction.
It has a pH of 2.8. Approximately 20% of the carbon dioxide is
released during the mixing period and the remainder is released during
the baking period when the batter is exposed to heat. It has a high
tolerance to variation in batter preparation. It is used in prepared
mixes such as cake and pancake mixes.
Sodium Aluminum Phosphate, Basic—An emulsifier that is a
white powder which is barely soluble in water. It has a pH of 9.2. It
may be used in processed cheese to provide consistency and to aid
in eliminating surface crystals.
Sodium Aluminum Sulfate—A leavening agent that releases the
majority of the gas during baking, and is not used alone but in combination with a faster-acting leavening agent such as monocalcium
phosphate. This results in a double-acting baking powder. It is
almost nonreactive until heat is applied. It is used in baked goods.
Sodium Ascorbate—An antioxidant that is the sodium form of
ascorbic acid. It is soluble in water and provides a nonacidic taste. A
10% aqueous solution has a pH of 7.3–7.6. In water, it readily reacts
with atmospheric oxygen and other oxidizing agents, making it
valuable as an antioxidant. One part sodium ascorbate is equivalent
to 1.09 parts of sodium erythorbate. See Ascorbic Acid.
Sodium Benzoate—A preservative that is the sodium salt of benzoic
acid. It converts to benzoic acid, which is the active form. It has a
solubility in water of 50 g in 100 ml at 25°C. Sodium benzoate is 180
times as soluble in water at 25°C as is the parent acid. The optimum
functionality occurs between pH 2.5 and 4.0 and it is not recommended above pH 4.5. It is active against yeasts and bacteria. It is
used in acidic foods such as fruit juices, jams, relishes, and beverages. Its use level ranges from 0.03 to 0.10%.
Sodium Benzosulfimide—See Saccharin.
Sodium Bicarbonate—A leavening agent with a pH of approximately 8.5 in a 1% solution at 25°C. It functions with food grade

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

phosphates (acidic leavening compounds) to release carbon dioxide
which expands during the baking process to provide the baked good
with increased volume and tender eating qualities. It is also used in
dry-mix beverages to obtain carbonation, which results when water
is added to the mix containing the sodium bicarbonate and an acid.
It is a component of baking powder. It is also termed baking soda,
bicarbonate of soda, sodium acid carbonate, and sodium hydrogen
carbonate.
Sodium Biphosphate—See Monosodium Phosphate.
Sodium Bisulfite—A preservative that exists as a powder, with a
solubility of 1 g in 4 ml of water. It prevents discoloration and inhibits bacterial growth. It is used in dried fruit to inhibit browning and
maintain the bright color. It is found in reconstituted lemon juice.
See Sulfur Dioxide.
Sodium Calcium Aluminosilicate, Hydrated—An anticaking
agent for use at levels not to exceed 2%. It is also termed sodium
calcium silicoaluminate.
Sodium Calcium Silicoaluminate—See
Aluminosilicate, Hydrated.

Sodium

Calcium

Sodium Caprate—The sodium salt of capric acid. It functions as a
binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Sodium Caprylate—The sodium salt of caprylic acid. It functions as
a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Sodium Carbonate—An alkali that exists as crystals or crystalline
powder and is readily soluble in water. It has numerous functions:
an antioxidant, a curing and pickling agent, a flavoring agent, a
processing aid, a sequestrant, and an agent for pH control. It is used
in instant soups to neutralize acidity. It is used in alginate water dessert gels to sequester the calcium, allowing the alginate to solubilize.
It is also used in puddings, sauces, and baked goods.
Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose—See Carboxymethylcellulose.
Sodium Carrageenan—See Carrageenan.
Sodium Caseinate—The sodium salt of casein, a milk protein. It is
used as a protein source and for its functional properties such as
water binding, emulsification, whitening, and whipping. It is used
in coffee whiteners, nondairy whipped toppings, processed meat,
and desserts.

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Sodium Chloride—See Salt.
Sodium Citrate—A buffer and sequestrant obtained from citric acid
as sodium citrate anhydrous and as sodium citrate dihydrate or
sodium citrate hydrous. The crystalline products are prepared by
direct crystallization from aqueous solutions. Sodium citrate anhydrous has a solubility in water of 57 g in 100 ml at 25°C, while
sodium citrate dihydrate has a solubility of 65 g in 100 ml at 25°C.
It is used as a buffer in carbonated beverages and to control pH in
preserves. It improves the whipping properties in cream and prevents feathering of cream and nondairy coffee whiteners. It provides emulsification and solubilizes protein in processed cheese. It
prevents precipitation of solids during storage in evaporated milk.
In dry soups, it improves rehydration which reduces the cooking
time. It functions as a sequestrant in puddings. It functions as a
complexing agent for iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum.
Typical usage levels range from 0.10 to 0.25%. It is also termed
trisodium citrate.
Sodium Diacetate—A preservative, sequestrant, acidulant, and flavoring agent that is a molecular compound of sodium acetate and
acetic acid which yields acetic acid. It is a white crystalline powder
which is hygroscopic. It functions against mold and bacteria and is
used in bread. It is also termed sodium hydrogen diacetate.
Sodium Dioctylsulfosuccinate—See Dioctyl Sodium Sulfo­
succinate.
Sodium Erythorbate—An antioxidant that is the sodium salt of
erythorbic acid. In the dry crystal state it is nonreactive, but in water
solution it readily reacts with atmospheric oxygen and other oxidizing agents, a property that makes it valuable as an antioxidant.
During preparation, a minimal amount of air should be incorporated and it should be stored at a cool temperature. It has a solubility
of 15 g in 100 ml of water at 25°C. On a comparative basis, 1.09
parts of sodium erythorbate are equivalent to 1 part of sodium ascorbate; 1.23 parts of sodium erythorbate are equivalent to 1 part erythorbic acid. It functions to control oxidative color and flavor
deterioration in a variety of foods. In meat curing, it controls and
accelerates the nitrite curing reaction and maintains the color
brightness. It is used in frankfurters, bologna, and cured meats and
is occasionally used in beverages, baked goods, and potato salad. It
is also termed sodium isoascorbate.

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Sodium Ferric Pyrophosphate—See Sodium Iron Pyrophos­
phate.
Sodium Ferrocyanide—See Yellow Prussiate of Soda.
Sodium Hexametaphosphate—A sequestrant and moisture binder
that is very soluble in water but dissolves slowly. Solutions have a
pH of 7.0. It permits peanuts to be salted in the shell by making it
possible for the salt brine to penetrate the peanuts. In canned peas
and lima beans, it functions as a tenderizer when added to the water
used to soak or scald the vegetables prior to canning. It improves
whipping properties in whipping proteins. It functions as a sequestrant for calcium and magnesium, having the best sequestering
power of all the phosphates. It prevents gel formation in sterilized
milk. It is also termed sodium metaphosphate and Graham’s salt.
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate—See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Sodium Hydrogen Diacetate—See Sodium Diacetate.
Sodium Hydrogen Malate—An acidulant.
Sodium Hydroxide—An alkali that is soluble in water, having a
solubility of 1 g in 1 ml of water. It is used to destroy the bitter
chemicals in olives that are to become black olives. It also functions
to neutralize acids in various food products.
Sodium Hypophosphite—An emulsifier or stabilizer that is a white,
odorless, deliquescent granular powder with a saline taste. It is also
prepared as colorless, pearly crystalline plates. It is soluble in water,
alcohol, and glycerol. It is prepared by neutralization of hypophosphorous acid or by direct aqueous alkaline hydrolysis of white
phosphorus.
Sodium Hyposulfite—See Sodium Thiosulfate.
Sodium Iron EDTA—See Iron.
Sodium Iron Pyrophosphate—A nutrient and dietary supplement
that is a source of iron. It contains approximately 14.5% iron and
is insoluble in water. It is utilized for the enrichment of foods that
are susceptible to rancidity. It is also termed sodium ferric
pyrophosphate.
Sodium Isoascorbate—See Sodium Erythorbate.
Sodium Lactate—A humectant that is the sodium salt of lactic acid
which is low melting and hygroscopic with a mildly saline taste.

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It is used in sponge cake and Swiss roll to produce a tender crumb
and to reduce staling. It provides a protein plasticizing effect in biscuits. It is used in frankfurter-type sausages as a replacement for
sodium chloride to extend shelf life and as a dehydrating salt or
humectant in uncured hams. It can function as a flavoring agent
and enhancer in some meat and poultry products.
Sodium Laurate—The sodium salt of lauric acid. It functions as a
binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate—An emulsifier and whipping aid that has
a solubility of 1 g in 10 ml of water. It functions as an emulsifier in
egg whites. It is used as a whipping aid in marshmallows and angel
food cake mix. It also functions to aid in dissolving fumaric acid.
Sodium Metabisulfite—A preservative and antioxidant that exists
as crystals or powder having a sulfur dioxide odor. It is readily soluble in water. It is used in dried fruits to preserve flavor, color, and to
inhibit undesirable microorganism growth. It prevents “black spots”
due to oxidative deterioration in shrimp. It is used in maraschino
cherries. It is found in lemon drinks as a preservative. See Sulfur
Dioxide.
Sodium Metaphosphate—See Sodium Hexametaphosphate.
Sodium Myristate—The sodium salt of myristic acid. It functions as
a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Sodium Nitrate—The salt of nitric acid that functions as an antimicrobial agent and preservative. It is a naturally occurring substance
in spinach, beets, broccoli, and other vegetables. It consists of colorless, odorless crystals or crystalline granules. It is moderately deliquescent in moist air and is readily soluble in water. It is used in
meat curing to develop and stabilize the pink color. See Nitrate.
Sodium Nitrite—The salt of nitrous acid that functions as an antimicrobial agent and preservative. It is a slightly yellow granular
powder or nearly white, opaque mass or sticks. It is deliquescent in
air. It has a solubility of 1 g in 1.5 ml of water. It is used in meat curing for color fixation and development of flavor. See Nitrite.
Sodium Oleate—The sodium salt of oleic acid. It functions as a
binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.
Sodium Palmitate—The sodium salt of palmitic acid. It functions
as a binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent.

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Sodium Phosphate, Dibasic—See Disodium Phosphate.
Sodium Phosphate, Dibasic Dihydrate—See Disodium Phos­
phate.
Sodium Phosphate, Monobasic—See Monosodium Phosphate.
Sodium Phosphate, Tribasic—See Trisodium Phosphate.
Sodium Potassium Tartrate—A buffer and sequestrant that is the
salt of I, (+) – tartaric acid. It has a solubility in water of 1 g in 1 ml.
It is also termed Rochelle salt and potassium sodium tartrate.
Sodium Propionate—An antimicrobial agent that is the sodium salt
of propionic acid. It occurs as colorless, transparent crystals or a granular crystalline powder. It is odorless or has a faint acetic–butyric acid
odor, and is deliquescent. It is prepared by neutralizing propionic acid
with sodium hydroxide. It is used in baked goods; nonalcoholic
beverages; cheeses; confections and frostings; gelatins, puddings, and
fillings; jams and jellies; meat products; and soft candy.
Sodium Pyrophosphate—See Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate.
Sodium Pyrophosphate, Tetrabasic—See Tetrasodium Pyro­
phosphate.
Sodium Saccharin—See Saccharin.
Sodium Sesquicarbonate—A pH control agent that is prepared by:
(1) partial carbonation of soda ash solution followed by crystallization, centrifugation, and drying; (2) double refining of trona ore, a
naturally occurring impure sodium sequicarbonate. It is used in cream
manufacture at a level of the ingredient sufficient to control lactic
acid prior to pasteurization and churning of cream into butter.
Sodium Silicate—A product used as a preservative for eggs.
Sodium Silicoaluminate—An anticaking and conditioning agent
used to improve flow properties and prevent caking. It absorbs moisture up to 75% of its weight. It functions as a moisture absorbent,
moisture barrier, carrier, and processing aid. It is used in salt, cake
mixes, powdered sugar, nondairy creamers, and dry mixes. Usage
level ranges from 1 to 2%. It is also termed sodium aluminosilicate.
Sodium Sorbate—A preservative that is the salt of sorbic acid. It is
partially soluble in water and is used effectively against yeasts and
molds up to pH 6.5. It is not usually used as a replacement for sorbic
acid or potassium sorbate. It is used in cheese and baked goods.

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Sodium Stearate—The sodium salt of stearic acid. It functions as a
binder, emulsifier, and anticaking agent. It is used as a plasticizer in
chewing gum base.
Sodium Stearyl Fumarate—A dough conditioner and conditioning agent that is a white powder practically insoluble in water. It is
used as a dough conditioner in yeast-raised baked goods. It is used
as a conditioning agent in dehydrated potatoes. It also functions as
a maturing and bleaching agent.
Sodium Stearyl Lactylate—A dough conditioner, emulsifier, and
whipping agent that is the reaction product of stearic and lactic
acids neutralized to a sodium or calcium salt, for example, calcium
stearyl lactylate and sodium stearyl lactylate. It is used to improve
the tolerance of bread dough to processing and to improve gas retention. It is used as an emulsifier in coffee whiteners, puddings, and
low-fat margarine. It functions as a whipping aid in egg products
and vegetable fat toppings. It complexes starch in dehydrated potatoes to allow for production of thicker, more uniform sheets.
Sodium Sulfate—The salt of sulfuric acid that is readily soluble in
water and exists as crystals or crystalline powder. It is used in caramel production.
Sodium Sulfite—See Sulfur Dioxide.
Sodium Tartrate—A sequestrant and stabilizer that is the disodium
salt of L(+)—tartaric acid. It is soluble in water. It functions as a
sequestrant and stabilizer in meat products and sausage casings. It is
also termed disodium tartrate.
Sodium Tetrametaphosphate—A sequestrant and emulsifier that
is infinitely soluble in water. It is used as a water binder in cured
pork. It is also termed Graham’s salt.
Sodium Thiosulfate—A sequestrant, antioxidant, and formulation
aid that is a powder soluble in water. It can be used in alcoholic beverages at 5 ppm and in table salt at 0.1%. It is also termed sodium
hyposulfite.
Sodium Triphosphate—See Sodium Tripolyphosphate.
Sodium Tripolyphosphate—A binder, stabilizer, and sequestrant
that is mildly alkaline, with a pH of 10, and moderately soluble in
water, with a solubility of 15 g in 100 ml of water at 25°C. It is used
to improve the whipping properties of egg-containing angel food

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cake mix and meringues. It reduces gelling of juices and canned
ham and tenderizes canned peas and lima beans. It is a moisture
binder in cured pork and protects against discoloration and reduces
shrinkage in sausage products. In algin desserts, it functions as a
calcium sequestrant. It is also termed pentasodium tripolyphosphate
and sodium triphosphate.
Softener—A term used for ingredients that soften. Softening relates
to the hygroscopicity and the ability of the polyhydric alcohol, such
as propylene glycol or glycerin, to retain moisture. Softeners are
used in shredded coconut, pet foods, and chewing gum to maintain
moistness. It is also termed plasticizer.
Sorbic Acid—A preservative that is effective against yeasts and molds.
It is effective over a broad pH range up to pH 6.5, being ineffective
above pH 7.0. It is a white, free-flowing powder which is slightly
soluble in water with a solubility of 0.16 g in 100 ml of water at
20°C. Its solubility in water increases with increasing temperatures,
although it is not recommended in foods that are pasteurized
because it breaks down at high temperatures. The salts are potassium, calcium, and sodium sorbate. It is used in cheese, jelly, beverages, syrup, and pickles. Typical usage levels range from 0.05 to
0.10%.
Sorbitan Ester—A lipophilic emulsifier whose permitted type in
foods is sorbitan monostearate. It is used in cakes, chocolate, and
coffee whitener. It is also termed sorbitan fatty acid ester.
Sorbitan Fatty Acid Ester—See Sorbitan Ester.
Sorbitan Monostearate—A lipophilic emulsifier that is a sorbitan
fatty acid ester, being a sorbitol-derived analog of glycerol monostearate. It is a nonionic, oil-dispersible surface-active agent. It is used
as a gloss enhancer in chocolate coatings; as a dispersant aid in coffee whiteners; to increase volume in cakes and icings; and often in
combination with polysorbates. Typical usage level ranges from 0.30
to 0.70%.
Sorbitol—A humectant that is a polyol (polyhydric alcohol) produced by hydrogenation of glucose with good solubility in water
and poor solubility in oil. It is approximately 60% as sweet as sugar,
and has a caloric value of 2.6 kcal/g. It is highly hygroscopic and has
a pleasant, sweet taste. It maintains moistness in shredded coconut,
pet foods, and candy. In sugarless frozen desserts, it depresses the
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used in low-calorie beverages to provide body and taste. It is used in
dietary foods such as sugarless candy, chewing gum, and ice cream.
It is also used as a crystallization modifier in soft sugar-based
confections.
Sorghum Oil—An oil consisting mainly of linoleic and oleic fatty
acids. It is similar in composition and properties to corn oil.
Soybean—A legume of high protein content, containing 40% or
greater protein and approximately 18% oil. The protein contains all
the essential amino acids. Soybeans are processed to produce soybean flour, protein concentrate, protein isolate, and soybean oil.
Soybean Flour—The flour made from defatted soybean, having a
protein content in excess of 50%. It is used in doughnuts, cereal,
bread, and sausage products for protein fortification and binding.
Soybean Oil—The oil obtained from the seed of the soybean legume.
It consists of approximately 86% unsaturated fatty acids with linoleic and oleic being the principal two fatty acids. It exists in hydrogenated and unhydrogenated forms. It is used in shortenings and
margarine in the hydrogenated form. It has some use in salad and
cooking oils in the unhydrogenated form, but is limited by its tendency to develop undesirable odor and flavor when in contact with
air or when heated to frying temperatures. It is also termed soy oil.
Soybean Protein—The protein obtained from soybeans, containing
the essential amino acids. The most common forms are soybean
flour (approximately 50% protein), soybean concentrate (approximately 70% protein), and soybean protein isolate (approximately
90% protein). It is used in sausages, snack foods, and meat analogs
to provide emulsification, binding, moisture control, texture control, and protein fortification. It is also termed soy protein.
Soybean Protein Concentrate—The concentrate obtained by processing soybean flour to remove the soluble carbohydrates. The protein content is approximately 70%. In the powder form, it is used in
processed meat products and sausage products for moisture and fat
binding as well as texture. In baby food, cereal, and snack food it
provides protein fortification. In the granular form, it is used in
ground meat food items for texture. It is also termed soy protein
concentrate.
Soybean Protein Isolate—The isolate prepared from soybean flour
by extracting the protein and precipitating it to yield a product of

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approximately 90% protein. It functions to increase the protein
content in foods, to reduce shrinkage, and to provide structure and
appearance by emulsifying, stabilizing, and binding the fat and
water. It is used in frozen spaghetti and meatballs, whipped toppings, and snack foods. It is also termed isolated soy protein and soy
protein isolate.
Soy Flour—The powdered product obtained from defatted soybean.
It has 50% or more protein content. It is used in doughnuts, bread,
cereals, and sausage products as a nutrient and binder.
Soy Flour, Lecithinated—See Lecithinated Soy Flour.
Soy Flour, Textured—See Textured Soy Flour.
Soy Oil—See Soybean Oil.
Soy Protein—See Soybean Protein.
Soy Protein Concentrate—See Soybean Protein Concentrate.
Soy Protein Isolate—See Soybean Protein Isolate.
Spelt Flour—Flour obtained from spelt grain which is in the wheat
family. It has a nutty flavor, high protein and high nutritional profile. Being similar to whole wheat flour, it can be used as a substitute.
The gluten breaks down fairly easily so over mixing should be controlled. It is used in bread, cookies, pasta, and crackers.
Spice—A variety of dried plant products that exhibit an aroma and
flavor and from which no volatiles or other flavoring principles have
been removed.
Spirit Vinegar—The product made by the acetous fermentation of
dilute distilled alcohol, containing not less than 4 g of acetic acid
per 100 cm3 at 20°C. It functions as an acidulant and provider of
flavor. It is used in mayonnaise, sauces, and salad dressings. It is also
termed distilled vinegar and grain vinegar.
Stabilizers and Thickeners—Substances used to produce viscous
solutions or dispersions, to impart body, improve consistency, or
stabilize emulsions, including suspending and bodying agents, setting agents, jellying agents, and bulking agents, etc.
Stannous Chloride—An antioxidant and preservative that exists as
white or colorless crystals, being very soluble in water. It reacts readily with oxygen, preventing its combination with chemicals and

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foods which would otherwise result in discoloration and undesirable
odors. It is used for color retention in asparagus at less than 20 ppm.
It is also used in carbonated drinks.
Starch—A carbohydrate consisting of glucose units containing amylose and amylopectin which contribute to varying starch properties.
Starch is insoluble in cold water, but upon heating the starch granules swell and burst forming starch paste. Starch sources include
arrowroot, corn, potato, rice, sage, tapioca, waxy corn, and wheat.
Starches are modified by treatment to alter their functional properties. Terminology designating these starches includes acid-modified
cornstarch, food starch modified, modified food starch, oxidized
cornstarch, pregelatinized starch, thin-boiling starch, and wheat
starch, gelatinized. See specific starch.
Stearic Acid—A fatty acid that is a mixture of solid organic acids
obtained principally from stearic acid and palmitic acid. It is practically insoluble in water. It functions as a lubricant, binder, and
defoamer. It is used as a softener in chewing gum base.
Stearyl Citrate—An antioxidant made by reacting citric acid, which
is not soluble in fats and oils, with stearyl alcohol, which readily
dissolves in oils, thus enabling the citrate to dissolve in oil. It prevents metal ions from catalyzing oxidative reactions which cause
rancidity. It is related to isopropyl citrate. It is used in vegetable oils
and margarines.
Stearyl Lactylate—A dough conditioner, emulsifier, and whipping
agent that is the reaction product of stearic and lactic acid neutralized to a sodium or calcium salt, for example, calcium stearyl lactylate and sodium stearyl lactylate. It is used to improve the tolerance
of bread dough to processing and to improve gas retention. It is used
as an emulsifier in coffee whiteners, puddings, and low-fat margarine. It functions as a whipping aid in egg products and vegetable fat
toppings. It complexes starch in dehydrated potatoes to allow for
production of thicker, more uniform sheets.
Stearyl Monoglyceridyl Citrate—An emulsion stabilizer prepared
by controlled chemical reaction of citric acid, monoglycerides of
fatty acids, and stearyl alcohol. It is used in or with shortenings containing emulsifiers.

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Stearyl Propylene Glycol Hydrogen Succinate—See Succi­
stearin.
Sterculia Gum—See Karaya.
Stevia—The plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni whose leaves provide steviol glycosides, the compounds responsible for the sweet taste of the
leaves. It sometimes refers to the sweetener component. See Steviol
glycosides.
Stevia Extract—See Reb A, Stevioside.
Steviol Glycosides—The family of chemical substances that provide
the sweet taste to the leaves of the plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni.
Stevioside and Reb A are the predominant sweetener components.
See Stevioside and Reb A.
Stevioside—A natural, calorie-free sweetener obtained from the leaves
of the plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. It is a steviol glycoside in which
steviol’s carboxyl and hydroxyl hydrogen atom is replaced with glucose; it has two linked glucose molecules at the hydroxyl site. It is the
major steviol glycoside found in the stevia plant and is 250–300
times sweeter than sugar. It is heat and pH stable. It has been associated with a bitter and licorice taste. See Steviol Glycoside.
Straight Flour—All of the flour that can be milled from a wheat
blend, or approximately 72% of the wheat kernel which equates to
100% separation.
Succinic Acid—An acidulant that is commercially prepared by the
hydrogenation of maleic or fumaric acid. It is a nonhygroscopic acid
but is more soluble in 25°C water than fumaric and adipic acid. It
has low acid strength and slow taste build-up; it is not a substitute
for normal acidulants. It combines with proteins in modifying the
plasticity of bread dough. It functions as an acidulant and flavor
enhancer in relishes, beverages, and hot sausages.
Succinic Anhydride—An acidulant that hydrolyzes very slowly to
succinic acid in water. It has thermal stability and a low melting
point of 118°C which permits it to be used in products at comparatively low temperatures. It is used as a leavening acidulant for baking powder.
Succinylated Monoglycerides—Emulsifiers and dough conditioners
made by the dissociation of succinylated monoglycerides. They
are used in baked goods at 0.056–0.113 kg per 45.4 kg of flour to

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provide dough strength, improve shelf life, and improve texture.
They are also used in shortenings.
Succistearin—An emulsifier that is the reaction product of succinic
anhydride, fully hydrogenated vegetable oil (predominantly C16 or
C18 fatty acid chain length), and propylene glycol. It is used in or
with shortenings and edible oils intended for use in cakes, cake
mixes, fillings, icings, pastries, and toppings. It is also termed stearyl
propylene glycol hydrogen succinate.
Sucralose—High intensity sweetener manufactured by replacing
three hydroxyl groups on the sucrose molecule with three chlorine
atoms. The results are a sweetener of 0 cal that is not digested. It is
600 times as sweet as sugar with a similar flavor profile. It is heat
stable, readily soluble, and maintains its stability at elevated temperatures. It has been approved for use in specific categories that
include baked products, beverages, confectioneries, and certain
desserts and toppings.
Sucromalt—A full calorie sweetener derived from sucrose and maltose. It is 60–70% as sweet as sugar and has a lower glycemic response
than sugar and glucose. It is a syrup having a moisture content of
20–25% and mainly consists of fructose and higher saccharides.
Uses include cereals, beverages, confectionary, yogurt.
Sucrose—See Sugar.
Sucrose Acetate Isobutyrate—Weighting agent for beverages made
from sugar. It increases the specific gravity of flavoring oils used in
citrus beverages to prevent separation. It is odorless and flavorless at
usage levels. It is also termed SAIB.
Sucrose Fatty Acid Esters—Emulsifiers, texturizers that are the
mono-, di-, and triesters of sucrose with fatty acids and are derived
from sucrose and edible tallow, or hydrogenated edible tallow or
edible vegetable oils. Ethyl acetate or methyl ethyl ketone or dimethyl sulfoxide and isobutyl alcohol (2-methyl-1-propanol) may be
used in the preparation of sucrose fatty acid esters. Sucrose fatty acid
esters may be used as follows: as emulsifiers in baked goods and baking mixes, in dairy product analogs, in frozen dairy desserts and
mixes, and in whipped milk products; as texturizers in biscuit mixes;
as components of protective coatings applied to fresh apples, avocados,
bananas, banana plantains, limes, melons (honeydew and cantaloupe), papaya, peaches, pears, pineapples, and plums to retard
ripening and spoiling.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Sugar—A sweetener that is the disaccharide sucrose, consisting of
one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose. It is obtained
as cane or beet sugar. It has relatively constant solubility and is a
universal sweetener because of its intense sweetness and solubility.
It is available in various forms which include granulated, brown,
and powdered. It is used in desserts, beverages, cakes, ice cream,
icings, cereals, and baked goods. It is also termed beet sugar, cane
sugar, saccharose, and sucrose.
Sugar Beet Extract Flavor Base—A flavor that is the concentrated
residue of soluble sugar beet extractives from which sugar and glutamic acid have been recovered, and which has been subjected to
ion exchange to minimize the concentration of naturally occurring
trace minerals. It is used as a flavor in food.
Sugar, Brown—See Brown Sugar.
Sugar, Fruit—See Fructose.
Sugar, Natural—See Turbinado Sugar.
Sugar, Powdered—See Powdered Sugar.
Sugar, Raw—A natural sugar that has been washed to remove the
impurities. It has a light golden color resulting from the molasses
and a larger crystal size than granulated sugar. It is used where the
flavor of natural sugar is desired, such as in cookies, bread, and
cakes.
Sugar, Reducing—See Reducing Sugar.
Sugar, Superfine—See Superfine Sugar.
Sugar Syrup—A sweetener that is clear solutions of sucrose existing
in varying grades. There is a water-white grade which is a sparkling
clear syrup used in canned goods and beverages. There is also a light
straw grade which has small amounts of color and nonsugar
components.
Sugar Syrup, Invert—See Invert Sugar Syrup.
Sugar, Washed Raw—See Turbinado Sugar.
Sulfur Dioxide—A preservative, being a gas that dissolves in water
to yield sulfurous acid. Sulfite salts, such as sodium and potassium
sulfite, sodium and potassium bisulfite, and sodium and potassium
metabisulfite, yield free sulfurous acid at low pH. Sulfur dioxide prevents the discoloration of foods by combining with the sugars and

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enzymes. It also inhibits bacterial growth. It is used in beverages,
cherries, wines, and fruits.
Sulfuric Acid—An acidulant that is a clear, colorless, odorless liquid
with great affinity for water. It is prepared by reacting sulfur dioxide
with oxygen and mixing the resulting sulfur trioxide with water, or
by reacting nitric oxide with sulfur dioxide in water. It is very corrosive. It is used as a modifier of food starch and is used in caramel
production and in alcoholic beverages.
Sunflower Oil—A highly polyunsaturated oil obtained from sunflower seeds. There are two types of sunflower grown: an oilseed
type used as a vegetable oil, and a nonoilseed type used for human
food and bird seed. The composition of sunflower oil varies according to location and growing temperature. In general, sunflowers
grown above the 39th parallel are high in linoleic acid and those
grown below are high in oleic acid. The high linoleic variety is used
for margarine and salad oil, while the high oleic variety is used in
frying applications. This bland-flavored oil has a smoke point of
485–490°F (252–254°C) which gives it utility in baking, cooking,
and frying foods. It is also used as a salad oil. In the hydrogenated
form, it is used in margarine and shortenings.
Sunset Yellow FCF—See FD&C Yellow #6.
Superfine Sugar—Regular sugar ground into small crystals which
increase the rate of dissolving. Used in beverages, finely textured
cakes, and fruits.
Surface-Active Agents—Agents used to modify surface properties
of liquid food components for a variety of effects, other than emulsification. Agents include solubilizing agents, dispersants, detergents, wetting agents, rehydration enhancers, whipping agents,
foaming agents, and defoaming agents.
Surface-Finishing Agents—Agents used to increase palatability,
preserve gloss, and inhibit discoloration of foods, including glazes,
polishes, waxes, and protective coatings. Examples include coumarone-indene resin, methyl esters of fatty acids produced from e fats
and oils, microcapsules for flavoring substances, morpholine,
­oxidized polyethylene, petroleum naphtha, polyacrylamide,
­sulfated butyl oleate, synthetic paraffin and succinic derivatives,
and ­terpene resin.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Sweet Basil—See Basil.
Sweet Pepper—See Paprika.
Sweet Rice Flour—See Waxy Rice Flour.
Synthetic Glycerin Produced by Hydrogenolysis of Carbo­
hydrates—An emulsifier produced by the hydrogenolysis of carbohydrates may be safely used in food. It contains equal to or less than
0.2% by weight of a mixture of butanetriols.
Synthetic Petroleum Wax—A wax that is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons, paraffinic in nature, prepared by catalytic polymerization
of ethylene. Synthetic petroleum wax is used in chewing gum base
as a masticatory substance, on cheese and raw fruits and vegetables
as a protective coating, and as a defoamer in food.

T
Tallow—Animal fat obtained by separation from connected tissue,
usually in mutton or beef. It consists principally of oleic and palmitic acid. It is a source of fat and is used in cake mix. It is used mostly
in shortening and cooking oils.
Tangerine Oil, Expressed—A flavoring agent that is a red, brown,
or orange oily liquid with a pleasant aroma. Oil obtained from
unripe fruit may be green. It is soluble in most fixed oils and mineral
oil, slightly soluble in propylene glycol, insoluble in glycerin. It is
obtained by expression of oils from peels of ripe fruit of Dancy tangerine and related varieties.
Tannic Acid—A sequestrant that refers to a mixture of hydrolyzable
tannins of a more complex structure than gallic acid. It is used in
clarifying beer and wine. See Tannins.
Tannins—These are phenolic compounds that have several hydrolyzable groups. They are classified as (a) hydrolyzable, yielding phenols such as gallic acid in the presence of acid and heat; and (b)
condensed, obtained from the extract of oak trees and not hydrolyzable. Tannins are used for taste and chemical properties and as a
sequestrant. They affect the color and flavor of fruits and vegetables.
They are used in fruits, wine, and beer to remove undesirable material by forming insoluble complexes with the proteins.
Tapioca Starch—A starch obtained from the cells of tubers from the
Cassava or Manioc plant. The native starch has a bland flavor and a
long, cohesive texture with limited use. The modified starch has
altered properties to improve its heat, acid, and shear stability. Uses
include pie fillings, puddings, sauces, soups, dairy products.
Tara Gum—A gum that is a galactomannan obtained from the seed
of the tara plant, Cesalpiniea Spinoza .It has a mannose:galactose
ratio of 3:1, placing it between guar gum and locust bean gum. It is
partly cold water soluble and increases in viscosity upon heating
and cooling. It reacts synergistically with certain carrageenans and
xanthan gum to provide increased viscosity and gelation. It functions
as a thickener, stabilizer, and gelling agent. Uses include ice cream,
dairy products, baked goods, sauces at use levels ranging from 0.1
to 0.8%.
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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Taro—The tropical tuber Colocasia esculenta which can be used to
make poi. Poi is carbohydrate food made by cooking the underground stem (corm) of the taro plant. The corms must be cooked
because the calcium oxalate crystals present in the raw vegetable
will act as tiny needles in the mouth.
Tarragon—The dried leaves and flowering tops of the herb Artemisia
dracunculus L. It has a distinct aroma and anise-like flavor. It is used
in salads, fish, sauces, and vinegar.
Tartaric Acid—An acidulant that occurs naturally in grapes. It is
hygroscopic and rapidly soluble, with a solubility of 150 g in 100 ml
of distilled water at 25°C. It has a slightly tarter taste than citric acid,
with a tartness equivalent of 0.8–0.9. It augments the flavor of fruits
in which it is a natural constituent. It is used in grape- and limeflavored beverages and grape-flavored jellies. It is used as an acidulant in baking powder and as a synergist with antioxidants to prevent
rancidity.
Tartrazine—See FD&C Yellow #5.
TBHQ—See Tertiary Butylhydroquinone.
Terpene Resin—A moisture barrier that is the betapinene polymer
obtained by polymerizing terpene hydrocarbons derived from wood.
It is used on soft gelatin capsules in an amount not to exceed 0.07%
of the weight of the capsule, and on powders of ascorbic acid or its
salts in an amount not to exceed 7% of the weight of the powder.
Tertiary Butylhydroquinone—(TBHQ) An antioxidant that exhibits an excellent stabilizing effect in unsaturated fats and oils. It has
good solubility in fats and oils, with a maximum usage level of
0.02% based on the weight of the fat or oil or the fat content of the
food product. It shows no discoloration in the presence of iron and
produces no discernible flavor or odor. It can be combined with BHA
and BHT. It is used in edible fats and vegetable oils to retard rancidity. It is used in potato chips and dry cereal. It is also termed butylhydroquinone and mono-tertiary-butylhydroquinone.
Tetrahydrofurfuryl Acetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a
stable, colorless liquid of slightly fruity odor. It should be stored in
glass or tin containers. It is used in fruit flavors for application in
candy and baked goods at 2–20 ppm.
Tetrahydrofurfuryl Propionate—A synthetic flavoring agent
that is a stable, colorless liquid of chocolate note. It should be stored

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in glass or tin-lined containers. It is used in flavors for chocolate
with applications in beverages and ice cream at 2 ppm, and in candy
and baked goods at 20 ppm.
Tetrasodium Diphosphate—See Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate.
Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate—A coagulant, emulsifier, and
sequestrant that is mildly alkaline, with a pH of 10. It is moderately
soluble in water, with a solubility of 0.8 g/100 ml at 25°C. It is used
as a coagulant in noncooked instant puddings to provide thickening. It functions in cheese to reduce the meltability and fat separation. It is used as a dispersant in malted milk and chocolate drink
powders. It prevents crystal formation in tuna. It is also termed
sodium pyrophosphate, tetrasodium diphosphate, and TSPP.
Textured Soy Flour—Soy flour that is processed and extruded to
form products of specific texture and form, such as meatlike nuggets. The formed products are crunchy in the dry form and upon
hydration become moist and chewy.
Textured Vegetable Protein—A vegetable protein that is processed
and extruded to form beeflike strips, meatlike nuggets, or other analogs. In the dehydrated form, the analogs are crunchy and upon
hydration become moist and chewy. Soy protein is the most popular
protein source, but other vegetable proteins include peanut and
wheat. It is used as meat analogs. It is also termed textured soy flour
or textured soy protein.
Thaumatin—A flavor enhancer that is a protein which is approximately 3,000 times as sweet as sucrose. The onset of sweetness may
take several seconds and can be affected by heat. It is used in chewing gum.
THBP—An antioxidant (2,4,5-trihydroxybutyrophenone) that is used
alone or in combination with other permitted antioxidants. The
total antioxidant content of a food containing the additive will not
exceed 0.02% of the oil or fat content of the food, including the
essential (volatile) oil content of the food.
Thiamine—The water-soluble vitamin B1, required for normal digestion
and functioning of nerve tissues and in the prevention of beriberi.
It also acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates.
During processing, the higher and longer the heating period, the
greater the loss. The loss is reduced in the presence of acid. Thiamine
hydrochloride and thiamine mononitrate are two available forms.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

The mononitrate form is less hygroscopic and more stable than the
hydrochloride form, making it suitable for use in beverage powders.
It is used in enriched flour and is found as thiamine mononitrite in
frozen egg substitute and crackers.
Thiamine Mononitrate—See Thiamine.
Thin-Boiling Starch—See Cornstarch, Acid-Modified.
Thiodipropionic Acid—An antioxidant used to prevent fats and
oils from going rancid. It has the same functionality as BHA, BHT,
and propyl gallate.
Thyme—The dried leaves and flowering tops of the shrub Thymus
vulgaris L. There are two important variations: French thyme, which
has a narrow leaf; and lemon thyme, which has a variegated leaf. It
is used in soups, cheese, sauces, and appetizers.
Titanium Dioxide—A white pigment that disperses in liquids and
possesses great opacifying power. The crystalline modifications of
titanium dioxide are rutile and anatase, of which only anatase finds
use as a color additive.
Tocopherol—Fat-soluble vitamin E, which is a light yellow oil readily degradable by heat. As a vitamin, it is essential for normal muscle
growth and prevents vitamin A destruction by deterioration. It also
functions as an antioxidant. It prevents the oxidation of certain
fatty acids and is stable unless the food becomes rancid. Vegetable
oils contain a higher concentration of natural antioxidants, including tocopherols, than animal fats and are thus more stable.
Tocopherol is obtained from vegetable oils, beans, eggs, and milk. It
is also termed alpha-tocopherol.
Tofu—A soybean curd product. Soybeans are soaked, ground, and filtered, with the remaining mixture being heated to 75°C and a coagulant added, which results in the formation of the soy curd and
whey. The soy curd is pressed to separate it from the whey and then
washed and cooled. It is low in calories and saturated fats while high
in vitamins, minerals, and digestible protein. It is tasteless, but takes
on the flavors of the products with which it is cooked. Uses include
frozen desserts and meat products.
Tomato Paste—The paste prepared from tomatoes which are processed
by heat to prevent spoilage. The paste contains not less than 24%
tomato soluble solids.

T

147

Tragacanth—A gum produced from a bush of the genus Astragalus.
It swells in water to give a highly viscous sol or paste. A 1% solution
of the purest gum has a viscosity of approximately 3,400 cps, and
about 2% can form a paste. Solutions have a pH of 5–6. It is stable at
low pH and is an effective suspending agent because of its stability
and acid resistance. It is used in salad dressings, sauces, fruit fillings,
and citrus beverages. It is also termed gum tragacanth.
Triacetin—See Glyceryl Triacetate.
Tribasic Calcium Phosphate—See Tricalcium Phosphate.
Tributyrin—A flavoring agent that is the triester of glycerin and
butyric acid. It is prepared by esterification of glycerin with excess
butyric acid. It is used in the following foods: baked goods; alcoholic
beverages; nonalcoholic beverages; fats and oils; frozen dairy desserts and mixes; gelatins, puddings and fillings; and soft candy. It is
also termed butyrin and glyceryl tributyrate.
Tricalcium Orthophosphate—See Tricalcium Phosphate.
Tricalcium Phosphate—An anticaking agent and calcium source
that is a white powder that is almost insoluble in water. It is used as
an anticaking agent in table salt and dry vinegar. It is used as a
source of calcium and phosphorus in cereals and desserts. It functions as a bleaching agent in flour and in lard, and prevents undesirable coloring and improves stability for frying. It is also termed
tribasic calcium phosphate, tricalcium orthophosphate, calcium
phosphate tribasic, and precipitated calcium phosphate.
Tricalcium Silicate—An anticaking agent used in table salt.
Triethyl Citrate—A sequestrant that is an oily liquid, slightly soluble in water. It is found in lemon drinks.
Trihydroxybutyrophenone—See THBP.
Tripotassium Citrate—See Potassium Citrate, Monohydrate.
Trisodium Citrate—A buffer and sequestrant that is the trisodium
salt of citric acid. See Sodium Citrate.
Trisodium Monophosphate—See Trisodium Phosphate.
Trisodium Orthophosphate—See Trisodium Phosphate.
Trisodium Phosphate—An emulsifier and buffer that is strongly
alkaline, with a pH of 12. It is moderately soluble in water, with a

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

solubility of 14 g/100 ml at 25°C. It functions as an emulsifier in
processed cheese to improve texture. It maintains viscosity and prevents phase separation in evaporated milk and is also found in cereals.
It is also termed trisodium orthophosphate, sodium phosphate
tribasic, and trisodium monophosphate.
Trisodium Phosphate Crystals—An emulsifier and buffer with a
solubility in water of 50 g/100 ml at 25°C. It is used in processed
cheese as an emulsifier and it is also used in denture cleaner
formulations.
Turbinado Sugar—Washed raw sugar of light gold color and larger
grain size than regular sugar. It has a thin film of molasses which
contributes toward the distinctive flavor. It is also termed natural
sugar and washed raw sugar.
Turmeric—A spice and colorant that is the rhizome or root of
Curcuma longa. As a spice, it has a taste related to mustard. As a vegetable color, it has a bright yellow to greenish-yellow hue. The yellow pigment is curcumin. It is water miscible and has excellent heat
stability, poor light and pH stability, and good tinctorial strength. It
exists as an extract and oleoresin. It is used in meat, poultry, fish,
and rice dishes.

U
(Gamma)-Undecalactone—A synthetic flavoring agent that is a
colorless to yellow liquid of strong peach fruit odor. It is unstable to
alkali and stable to weak organic acids. It should be stored in glass or
tin containers. It is used in flavors for its peach note and has application in gelatins, puddings, beverages, ice cream, and candy at
7–11 ppm.
Undecanal—A flavoring agent that is a liquid, colorless or pale yellow,
with a sweet odor. It is soluble in most fixed oils, mineral oil, and
propylene glycol; insoluble in glycerin. It is obtained by chemical
synthesis. It is also termed aldehyde C-11 undecyclic and n-undecyl
aldehyde.
Unmodified Cornstarch—See Cornstarch.

149

V
Vanaspati—A vegetable fat used in candy.
Vanilla—A flavorant obtained from the cured vanilla bean. The
vanilla or vanilla bean refers to the fully grown, unripe, cured, and
dried fruit pod of the vanilla vine Vanilla planifolia. Those beans
produced in Madagascar and its neighboring islands are termed
“Bourbon beans”; those produced in Indonesia are termed “Java
beans.” The bean contains 1.5–3.0% vanillin, the most powerful
flavorant in the cured bean, along with approximately 10% of other
extractives. It is used in the comminuted form in “Philadelphia”
type ice cream or as a vanilla flavorant in sauces or liquids by suspending the whole bean in them. Most vanilla flavoring is done
with vanilla extract.
Vanilla Extract—A flavorant made from vanilla bean extract. It is a
solution containing not less than 35% alcohol of the components
extracted from one or more units of vanilla constituent. One unit is
0.378 kg of vanilla beans containing not more than 25% moisture.
A double-strength solution (twofold) contains twice the quantity of
beans. It is used in desserts, baked goods, and beverages.
Vanilla Flavor, Artificial—A flavorant that consists of vanilla reinforced with synthetic vanillin. The best imitation vanillas contain
vanillin, ethyl vanillin, or very little coumarin with or without
vanilla, while the poorer ones contain high levels of coumarin. It is
used in desserts, baked goods, and beverages.
Vanilla Sugar—A flavorant consisting of sugar mixed with vanilla
extract. It is used in desserts and other food products.
Vanillin—A flavorant made from synthetic or artificial vanilla which
can be derived from lignin of whey sulfite liquors and is synthetically processed from guaiacol and eugenol. The related product,
ethyl vanillin, has three and one-half times the flavoring power of
vanillin. Vanillin also refers to the primary flavor ingredient in
vanilla, which is obtained by extraction from the vanilla bean.
Vanillin is used as a substitute for vanilla extract, with application in
ice cream, desserts, baked goods, and beverages at 60–220 ppm.

150

V

151

Vanillin Acetate—A synthetic flavoring agent that is moderately
stable, white to yellow crystals of vanilla odor. It should be stored in
glass or polyethylene-lined containers. It is used in flavors for vanilla
note, with application in beverages, ice cream, candy, and baked
goods at 11–28 ppm.
Vegetable Gums—Gums that are water thickeners obtained from a
plant source.
Vegetable Oil, Hydrogenated—See Hydrogenated Vegetable
Oil.
Vegetable Oils—Oils obtained from a vegetable source, including
soy beans, peanuts, cottonseeds, and palms. They are used in cooking and salad oils and dressings.
Vegetable
Protein.

Protein,

Textured—See

Textured

Vegetable

Vinegar—An acidulant and flavorant that, with regard to general
types, is the product produced from cider, grapes, sucrose, glucose,
or malt by successive alcoholic and acetous fermentations in which
acetic acid is the principal measured component. The term vinegar
applies only to cider vinegar, also termed apple vinegar. The acetic
acid content is measured in grains, where 10 grains equals 1% acetic
acid. It is used in salad dressings and sauces.
Vinegar, Distilled—The product made by the acetous fermentation
of dilute distilled alcohol without addition of color, containing not
less than 4 g of acetic acid per 100 cm3 at 20°C. The acetic acid content is measured in grains, where 10 grains equal 1% acetic acid. It
is used in mayonnaise and salad dressing. It is also termed spirit
vinegar and grain vinegar.
Vital Wheat Gluten—A powder of high protein content obtained
by drying freshly washed gluten under controlled temperature conditions. It absorbs approximately twice its weight of water and readily forms a cohesive, elastic dough. It is used in bread, rolls, and
buns. See Wheat Gluten.
Vitamin A—See Retinol.
Vitamin B1—See Thiamine.
Vitamin B2—See Riboflavin.
Vitamin B5—See Pantothenic Acid.

W
Washed Raw Sugar—See Turbinado Sugar.
Water—A colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid formed by the combination of two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms. It allows substances
to dissolve and functions as a solvent, dispersing medium, hydrate,
and promoter of chemical changes. It is a major constituent in
meats, fruits, and vegetables. Distilled water is obtained by condensation of water vapor.
Waxy Corn—A corn consisting essentially of amylopectin (pure
branched-chain polymers), which differentiates it from regular corn,
which consists of amylose and amylopectin. The amylopectin content
results in a starch which upon heating forms a clear, cohesive paste
that does not form a true gel upon cooling. It has a high waterbinding capacity and is resistant to gel formation and retrogradation.
It is used in puddings and sauces.
Waxy Maize Starch—The starch portion of waxy corn, consisting
essentially of amylopectin. It yields pastes that are almost clear upon
cooling and are noncongealing. It forms a translucent, water-soluble
coating when dried in thin films. It is used to thicken a variety of
foods such as sauces and puddings. It is also termed waxy starch and
amioca.
Waxy Rice Flour—A flour obtained from waxy rice, which contains
almost no amylose. It is comparable in viscosity characteristics to
waxy corn flour. It has less than 0.5% amylose in the starch and
contains alpha-amylose. It has excellent resistance to syneresis during
freeze–thaw cycles. It is used in frozen sauces and gravies. It is also
termed sweet rice flour.
Waxy Rice Starch—A rice starch that contributes freeze–thaw stability to sauces and puddings but may provide objectionable flavor.
Waxy Sorghum—A type of sorghum characterized by having paste
clarity, high water-binding capacity, and resistance to gel formation
and retrogradation. The unmodified form results in a stringy, cohesive paste. It is used in dressings with other starches.

153

154

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Waxy Starch—See Waxy Maize Starch.
Wetting Agents—See Surface-Active Agents.
Wheat—A cereal grain in which the kernel is separated by milling
into flour, bran, and germ. It is used in all types of farinaceous foods.
See Flour; Wheat Flour.
Wheat, Bulgur—See Bulgur Wheat.
Wheat Flour—A fine powdery substance obtained by milling wheat
with application in farinaceous foods.
Wheat Germ—The oil-containing portion of the wheat kernel.
Wheat Gluten—The water-insoluble complex protein fraction separated from wheat flours. Gum gluten is wheat gluten in its freshly
extracted wet form. Dry gluten is approximately 70–80% protein
but is deficient in the amino acid lysine. It absorbs two to three
times its weight in water. The differences in properties of wheat gluten in comparison to almost all other food proteins are largely due
to the low polarity level of the total amino acid structure. Most food
proteins have polar group levels of 30–45% and have a net negative
charge, while wheat gluten has a polar group level of approximately
10% with a net positive charge. This results in the repulsion of excess
water and the close association of the wheat gluten molecules and
resistance to dispersion. In baked goods, this results in the ability to
form adhesive, cohesive masses, films, and three-dimensional networks. Gluten formation is utilized in the baking industry to impart
dough strength, gas retention, structure, water absorption, and
retention with breads, cakes, doughnuts, and so on. It is also used as
a formulation aid, binder, filler, and tableting aid. See Gluten;
Vital Wheat Gluten.
Wheat Starch—A starch obtained from wheat. It produces lower
viscosity and more tender gels than starch obtained from corn or
sorghum. It has a gelatinization range about 10°C lower than corn
or waxy maize starch. It is used in the baking industry to permit the
use of hard wheat flour in baked goods. It functions as a binder in
breading and batter mixes. It is used in soups, pie fillings, sauces,
and gravies.
Wheat Starch, Gelatinized—See Pregelatinized Starch.
Whey—The portion of milk remaining after coagulation and removal
of curd. There are two principal types: sweet whey obtained during

W

155

the making of rennet-type hard cheeses like Cheddar and Swiss,
with a pH of approximately 6.1; and acid whey obtained during the
making of acid-type cheeses such as cottage cheese, with a pH of
approximately 4.4–4.6. Whey is used as a source of lactose, milk
solids, and whey proteins. It is used in baked goods, ice cream, and
dry mixes.
Whey Protein Concentrate—Concentrated whey which is obtained
from cheese originally consisting of approximately 12% protein,
0.5% fat, and 65–70% lactose. The whey concentrate increases the
protein content, usually ranging from 33 to 55%. Properties provided are water control, increase in viscosity, opacity, and network
interruption as a fat replacer. Uses are as a fat replacement in cheese,
frozen desserts, dairy products, and baked goods.
Whey Solids—The solid fraction or dry form of whey. It is used as a
replacement for milk solids-not-fat to provide a source of protein,
solids, and flavor. It is used in baked goods, ice cream, dry mixes,
and beverages.
Whole Fish Protein Concentrate—A protein supplement that is
derived from whole hake and hakelike fish, herring of the genera
Clupea, menhaden, and anchovy of the species Engraulis mordax.
The additive consists essentially of a dried fish protein processed
from the whole fish without removal of heads, fins, tails, viscera, or
intestinal contents. It is prepared by solvent extraction of fat and
moisture with isopropyl alcohol or with ethylene dichloride followed by isopropyl alcohol, except that the additive derived from
herring, menhaden, and anchovy is prepared by solvent extraction
with isopropyl alcohol alone. Solvent residues are reduced by conventional heat drying and/or microwave radiation and there is a
partial removal of bone.
Whole Grain Barley—It is dehulled barley which is a source of betaglucan soluble fiber.
Whole Milk—See Milk.
Whole Milk Solids—The product resulting from the drying or desiccation of milk. It contains not less than 26% fat and not more than
5% moisture. The dry form offers convenience of transportation,
utility, and stability. It is used in dry mixes such as puddings, soup
mixes, and desserts. It is also termed dried milk, dry whole milk, and
milk powder.

156

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Whole Oat Flour—Produced from 100% dehulled oat groats by
steaming and grinding resulting in no significant loss of oat bran in
the final product. It is a source of beta-glucan soluble fiber.
Whole Wheat Flour—The flour obtained by grinding cleaned
wheat, other than durum wheat or red durum wheat, with the proportions of the natural constituents, other than moisture, remaining
unaltered. The moisture content is not more than 15%. Optional
ingredients include malted wheat, wheat flour, and barley flour for
compensation for any natural deficiency of enzymes; ascorbic acid;
and bleaching ingredients. It is also termed graham flour and entire
wheat flour.
Wine Vinegar—The vinegar made by the alcoholic and acetous fermentation of the juices of grapes or wine. It contains a minimum of
4 g/100 cm3 acid expressed as acetic acid. There is red wine vinegar,
which has a rose to deep red color, and white wine vinegar, which
has a pale yellow to off-white color. It is used in salad dressings,
marinades, and sauces.
Worcestershire Sauce—A sauce consisting of water, vinegar, soy
sauce, corn syrup, salt and spices, or variations of these ingredients.
It is used as a flavorant and is found in barbeque sauce and sweet-andsour sauces.

X
Xanthan Gum—A gum obtained by microbial fermentation from
the Xanthomonas campestris organism. It is very stable to viscosity
change over varying temperatures, pH, and salt concentrations. It is
also very pseudoplastic which results in a decrease in viscosity with
increasing shear. It reacts synergistically with guar gum and tara gum
to provide an increase in viscosity and with carob gum to ­provide an
increase in viscosity or gel formation. It is used in salad dressings,
sauces, desserts, baked goods, and beverages at 0.05–0.50%.
Xylitol—A polyhydric alcohol that is a natural sugar substitute commercially made from xylan-containing plants (birch) hydrolyzed to
xylose. It is as sweet as sucrose, dissolves quickly, and has a negative
heat of solution which results in a cooling effect. It has 24 kcal/g.
It is used in chewing gum, throat lozenges, and chocolate.

157

Y
Yeast—A leavening and fermentation agent that is a single-celled
plant that can convert sugar to carbon dioxide. It is used as a leavening
agent in bread and dough-type mixtures. It provides a yeasty flavor
and tender crust. It has slow action as a leavening agent. One pound
of active dry yeast replaces approximately 2 lb of fresh yeast. Selected
yeast strains are used in wine fermentation.
Yeast Extract—A flavor contributor and flavor enhancer consisting
of a combination of nucleic acids, peptides, polypeptides, amino
acids, and other constituents. It is obtained from the yeast cells of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, formed in the brewing of beer. It is used to
provide the same functions as monosodium glutamate, although
not to the same extent. It is used as a partial substitute for meat
extract and also functions with other flavor ingredients such as
hydrolyzed vegetable proteins. It is used in soups, gravies, spreads,
dressings, and meat products. Typical usage levels range from 0.1 to
0.5%.
Yeast Food—A complete food used in doughs. It contains dough
conditioner ingredients such as calcium salts, sulfates, and phosphates which strengthen the gluten. It also contains ammonium
salts and phosphates which function as yeast nutrients. It is used in
bread dough and in the fermentation of alcoholic beverages.
Yeast-Malt Sprout Extract—A food enhancer produced by partial
hydrolysis of yeast extract (derived from Saccharomyces cereviseae,
Saccharomyces fragilis, or Candida utilis) using the sprout portion of
malt barley as the source of enzymes. The additive contains a maximum of 6% 5¢ nucleotides by weight.
Yellow Prussiate of Soda—An anticaking agent and crystallizing
agent. It is sometimes added as a crystallizing agent to salt when it
crystallizes to generate lagged and bulky crystals which resist caking. It also functions as a water-soluble anticaking agent. It is also
termed sodium ferrocyanide.
Yogurt—A custard-like or soft gel product made by fermenting milk
with bacterial cultures, specifically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophilus, to a pH range of usually 4.0–4.5. It is used as
a snack; as a meal; or in desserts, salad dressings, and baked goods.
158

Y

159

Yucca Plant Extract—A foaming agent obtained from the yucca
plant species Yucca brevifolia and Yucca schidigera. It is available in
liquid concentrate or dried form, is dark brown, and has a slight bittersweet flavor and a pH of 4.0. It is stable over a wide pH range and
heat treatment and is readily soluble in water. It is used in applications where a frothy appearance and foam stability are desired, such
as in root beer, cocktail mixes, and whipped beverages. Usage level
is 50–150 ppm.

Z
Zein—A corn protein produced from corn gluten meal. It lacks the
amino acids, lysine and tryptophan, so it is not suitable as a sole
source of dietary protein. It is insoluble in water and alcohols but is
soluble in aqueous alcohols, glycols, and glycol ethers. It functions
as a film and coating to provide a moisture barrier for nuts and grain
products. It also functions as a coating for confections and a glaze
for panned goods.
Zinc—(Zn) A metallic element that functions as a nutrient and dietary
supplement. It is believed to be necessary for nucleic acid metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell growth. Sources of zinc include zinc
acetate, carbonate, chloride, citrate, gluconate, oxide, stearate, and
sulfate. The gluconate form is used in lozenges. The sulfate form
exists as prisms, needles, or powder. It has a solubility of 1 g in 0.6 ml
of water and is found in frozen egg substitutes.
Zinc Acetate—See Zinc.
Zinc Carbonate—See Zinc.
Zinc Chloride—See Zinc.
Zinc Citrate—See Zinc.
Zinc Gluconate—See Zinc.
Zinc Oxide—See Zinc.
Zinc Methionine Sulfate—A source of dietary zinc that is the product of the reaction between equimolar amounts of zinc sulfate and
dl-methionine in purified water. It has a zinc content of 19–22%,
dl-methionine of 46–50% and not more than 0.05 ppm of caduim.
It is used in tablet form.
Zinc Stearate—See Zinc.
Zinc Sulfate—See Zinc.

160

Part II

Ingredient Categories

ACIDULANTS
Acidulants are acids used in processed foods for a variety of functions that enhance the food. Acids are used as flavoring agents, preservatives in microbial control, chelating agents, buffers, gelling and
coagulating agents, and in many other ways. Examples of these functions are:
• Flavoring agent—Contributes and enhances flavor in carbonated
beverages, fruit drinks, and desserts.
• Preservative—An acid medium restricts the growth of spoilage
organisms in mayonnaise and tomato sauce, and retards the activity of enzymes involved in discoloration in fruits.
• Chelating agent—Aids in binding metals that can cause oxidation
in fats and oils, and discoloration in canned shrimp.
• Buffer—Maintains and controls acidity during processing, and
maintains acidity within a given range in prepared desserts.
• Gelling agent—Controls the gelling mechanism of algin and pectin gels such as desserts and jams.
• Coagulating agent—Reduction of pH results in coagulation of
milk protein which is used in the preparation of direct acidified
cheese and desserts.
Acidulant selection depends upon the application or processed
food. The properties to consider are flavor profile, pH, solubility rate,
solubility, and hygroscopicity. Flavor profile refers to the perceived
sharpness or blandness contributed by the acid. Tartaric and citric
acids provide a sharp taste as compared to lactic acid, which provides
a blander taste. Fumaric acid and tartaric acid provide the greatest
degree of sourness. Comparing acids relative to similarity of taste to
citric acid, the relative equivalents are citric acid: 100; fumaric acid:
55; tartaric acid: 70; malic acid: 75; succinic acid: 87; lactic acid: 107;
and glucono-delta-lactone: 310. The acids provide different pHs at
similar concentrations, falling generally in the range of pH 2–3 at 1%
concentration. The solubility rate determines how rapidly the acid
dissolves and contributes toward the flavor profile. In a beverage powder
dissolved in cold water, rapid solubility is required, so perhaps citric
acid would be used. The solubility of the acid refers to the quantity in
solution. Cream of tartar and fumaric acid have low solubilities, which
makes them suitable for bakery applications in controlling leavening
systems. Phosphoric acid, a liquid, is miscible with water and used in
beverage syrups. Hygroscopic acids will absorb moisture, and

­ ygroscopicity needs to be considered when the application is dry
h
mixes. If hygroscopic acids, such as citric or tartaric acids, are used in
dry mixes, proper packaging is essential. Alternative less hygroscopic
acids are adipic and fumaric acid.
Table 1 illustrates the properties of the principal acids used in the
food industry.

ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are chemical compounds that provide stability to fats
and oils by delaying oxidation (which involves the loss of electrons and
the gain of oxygen). The oxidation of fats and oils is believed to occur
as a series of chain reactions in which oxygen from the air is added to
the free fat radical. The fat molecule loses a hydrogen atom and becomes
an unstable free radical with a high affinity for oxygen. Oxygen is added
and the fat molecule, to complete its electron structure, reacts with
another fat molecule and removes a hydrogen atom. This produces
another free radical and results in a chain reaction. The antioxidant
functions by replacing the fat molecule as the hydrogen atom donor in
order to complete the electron structure of the free radical, thus terminating the chain reaction. Thus oxidative rancidity, which results in
off-flavors and odors, is retarded until the antioxidant supply is used.
The most commonly used antioxidant formulations contain combinations of BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene), and propyl gallate. These formulations usually contain a
chelating agent (reacts with metal to form a complex and thus prevents the metal from acting as a catalyst in oxidative reactions), of
which citric acid is the most common. Natural antioxidants such as
the tocopherols and guaiac gum usually lack the potency of BHA, BHT,
and propyl gallate combinations.
Antioxidants are effective at low concentrations, that is, 0.02% or
less, based on the fat or oil content of the food. Examples of applications are:
• Rendered animal fat, such as lard
• Vegetable oils, such as cottonseed oil and corn oil
• Food products of high fat content, such as doughnuts and potato
chips
• Food products of low fat content, such as cereals and dehydrated
potatoes

Antioxidants should be added to fats and oils before oxidation has
started in order to be effective. The antioxidant cannot reverse the
oxidation process nor regenerate a product that has become rancid.
The oxidation process is accelerated by heat, light, moisture, metals,
and other factors.
Antioxidants include trihydroxybutyrophenone (THBP), dilauryl
thiodipropionate (DLTDP), nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), guaiac
gum, thiodipropionic acid, tocopherols, lecithin, sodium erythorbate,
ascorbic acid, and ascorbyl palmitate.

CHELATING AGENTS (SEQUESTRANTS)
Chelation is an equilibrium reaction between a chelating (complexing) agent and a metal ion which forms a complex. Trace metal ions in
foods can produce undesirable effects such as discoloration, turbidity,
and oxidation. The chelating agents can form a complex with the
unwanted trace metals, thus blocking the reactive sites of the metal
ions and rendering them inactive. The complex formed is termed a
chelate, that is, metal + chelating agent = metal complex.
An equilibrium constant K defines the ratio of chelated metal to
unchelated metal. The log K is the stability constant, measuring the
affinity of the complexing agent for the metal ion. A high K value
indicates a high affinity of the complexing agent for the metal ion and
thus a low value for free metal ion concentration. Stability constants
for some metal ions are shown in Table 2.
The most problematic metal ions in foods are iron and copper. In a
system containing several metal ions, the ones with the highest

Table 2 Metal Ion Stability Constants
Metal

Log K

Fe3+
Cu2+
Ni2+
Zn2+
Co2+
Fe2+
Mn2+
Ca2+
Mg2+

25.70
18.80
18.56
16.50
16.21
14.30
13.56
10.70
8.69

Ingredient Categories

167

s­ tability constants will be chelated first, followed in order of highest
stability constant until the chelating agent is used.
Chelating agents are used to control the reactions of trace metals in
foods to principally prevent discoloration, such as that occurs in potatoes when iron reacts with phenolic compounds in the presence of
oxygen. They are also used with antioxidants to complex trace metals,
thus preventing the metal from acting as a catalyst in oxidative reactions. Application examples are the use of:
• Phosphates in soft drinks to chelate heavy metal ions that interfere with carbonation.
• EDTA in mayonnaise to eliminate the oxidative activities of trace
metals and protect flavor.
• Sodium acid pyrophosphate to prevent discoloration in potatoes.
• Sodium hexametaphosphate to sequester calcium ions and permit
the solubilization of alginates.
Examples of chelating agents include calcium disodium EDTA,
disodium dihydrogen EDTA, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, citric
acid, monoisopropyl citrate, phosphoric acid, and monoglyceride
phosphate.

COLORS
Colors are usually designated artificial or natural, which indicates
that they are, respectively, synthetically manufactured or obtained
from natural sources. Synthetic color additives “certified” by the Food
and Drug Administration are designated FD&C (Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic) and are traditionally termed primary colors. These colors
are shades of red, yellow, blue, and green. Secondary colors are blends
of certified primary colors, with or without diluents. Table 3 lists the
physical and chemical properties of the certified food colors.
Those acceptable food colors not designated “certified” are designated “approved” and consist of natural organic and synthetic inorganic colorants used in certain applications (see Table 4). Colors are
available in powders, liquids, granules, pastes, and other forms.
Colorant determination includes desired hue, water solubility, and
stability. The following groupings are used to illustrate different color
groups.

Artificial Coloring
Water-soluble colors are designated as FD&C, followed by the color
name and number designation, for example, FD&C Blue #2. They
have a corresponding common name, for example, indigotine. The
colors vary in hue, solubility, and other properties, which relates to
the intended application. The water-soluble colors include FD&C Blue
#1, Blue #2, Green #3, Red #40, Yellow #5, and Yellow #6.
Water-insoluble colors are termed FD&C aluminum lakes. Lakes are
prepared by the absorption of a certified dye on an insoluble substrate,
aluminum hydroxide, and as such include the standard colors. Lakes
are used to color dry ingredients, increase stability, and reduce color
migration. Lakes can be used to color foods with a high oil or fat content, in dry mixes and coated candies, and for other purposes.

Natural Coloring
Natural colors are usually extracted from botanical sources and
often contain several pigments and, as such, are not used as direct
replacements for FD&C colors. The colors have low tinctorial strength
due to a low quantity of pigment present and thus are used at higher
levels than FD&C colors. These colors generally have poor stability in
that their color and rate of degradation are affected by pH, temperature, and other conditions. Some natural colorings are:
• Annatto—The pigment bixin found in the coating of the annatto
seed. The color hue ranges from yellow to reddish-orange.
• Turmeric—Contains curcumin obtained from turmeric root. The
color hue varies from greenish-yellow to yellow-orange.
• Paprika—Produces a red to red-orange color.
• Beet—Produced from red beets and has a deep reddish-purple
color.

CORN SWEETENERS
Corn sweeteners are the products made by using mild conversion
techniques to produce starch hydrolysates, that is, dextrin, maltodextrin, and corn-syrup solids. These carbohydrates vary according to

Ingredient Categories

171

sugar composition, which accounts for their differences in properties.
They are classified in terms of dextrose equivalent (DE), a standard
that expresses the level of reducing sugar calculated as dextrose (see
Table 5). Complete conversion of cornstarch yields dextrose, also
termed corn sugar, which has a DE of 92. When the reaction is stopped
at the intermediate stage, corn syrup, consisting of dextrose, maltose,
and polysaccharides, is obtained. It can be manufactured to have the
desired DE based on desired properties. A common distribution is
28–38 DE (low conversion) to 58–68 DE (high conversion). Partial
hydrolysis of cornstarch commercially produces maltodextrins of DE
ranging from 13 to 22 and dextrin, with a DE range of 7–12. In highfructose corn syrup, a fraction of the dextrose has been converted
enzymatically to fructose, thus making a sweeter syrup.

EMULSIFIERS
Emulsifiers are products that function to reduce the surface tension
between two immiscible phases at their interface, allowing them to
become miscible. The interface can be between two liquids, a liquid
and a gas, or a liquid and a solid. Most emulsions involve water and
oil or fat as the two immiscible phases, one being dispersed as finite
globules in the other. The liquid as globules is referred to as the dispersed or internal phase, while the medium in which they are suspended is the continuous or external phase. There are two types of
emulsions depending on the composition of the phases. In an oil-inwater emulsion such as milk and mayonnaise, the water is the external phase and the oil is the internal phase. In a water-in-oil emulsion
such as butter, the oil is the external phase and the water is the internal phase. By use of the proper emulsifier, the two phases will mix and
separation is prevented or delayed.
Table 5 Comparison of Properties Relative to Dextrose Equivalent (DE)
DE

Product

0
6–20
20–58
100

Starch
Maltrodextrin
Corn syrup
Corn sugar
(dextrose)

Solubility

Sweetness

Viscosity

Bodying
Agent

4
3
2
1

4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

Range: 1 = greatest; 4 = least

172

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

The emulsifier consists of a hydrocarbon chain which has affinity
for fats and oils (lipophilic group) and a polar group which is attracted
to water or aqueous solutions (hydrophilic group). The emulsifier
tends to concentrate at the interface between two immiscible liquids,
with the hydrophilic portion in the water and the lipophilic portion
in the oil. In such fashion, the surface properties are altered by the
orientation of the emulsifiers at the interface which reduces the resistance of the two substances to combine. They are frequently used as
blends for obtaining the most stable emulsion system. Emulsifiers
have the following major functions:
• Complexing—Reaction with starch in bakery products which
retards the crystallization of the starch, thus retarding the firming
of the crumb which is associated with staling.
• Dispersing—The reduction of interfacial tension which creates an
intimate mixture of two liquids that normally are immiscible, an
example being oil-in-water emulsions such as salad dressing.
• Crystallization control—Control of crystallization in sugar and fat
systems, i.e., chocolate, where it allows for brighter initial gloss
and prevention of solidified fat on the surface.
• Wetting—Allows the surface to be more attracted to water, such as
powders, i.e., coffee whitener, in which the addition of surfactant
aids the dispersion of the powder in the liquid without lumping
on the surface.
• Lubricating—Functions as a lubricant, such as in caramels, by reducing their tendency to stick to cutting knives, wrappers, and teeth.
Emulsifiers are also classified according to their solubility, being
hydrophilic (water-loving) or lipophilic (oil-loving). The HLB, or
hydrophilic/lipophilic balance, is a measure of the emulsifier’s affinity
to oil or water. The HLB range is 0–20, where 0 indicates completely
lipophilic and 20 indicates completely hydrophilic. The behavior of
emulsifiers in water according to the HLB range is shown in Table 6.
Table 7 lists the FDA names of food-grade emulsifiers and the Title
21 Code of Federal Regulations reference number for each.

FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils belong to a group of substances classified as lipids
which consist of the higher fatty acids and compounds associated with
them. Lipids are characterized by their solubility in fat solvents, their

insolubility­in water, and their greasy feel. Fats and oils are of similar
chemical structure but differ physically in that at ordinary temperatures, fats are solids and oils are liquids. They are complex mixtures of
predominantly mixed triglycerides, which are the compounds formed
by ­combining one molecule of glycerol with three molecules of fatty
acids. The fatty acids may be the same, two different fatty acids, or all
different. Fatty acids are composed of a chain of carbon with hydrogen atoms, terminating in a carboxyl group. Fatty acids contain carbon chain lengths ranging from 4 to 24 and are identified according
to the number of carbon atoms and whether they are saturated or
unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids contain only single-bond carbon
linkages and cannot accept additional hydrogen; unsaturated fatty
acids have one or more double bonds and thus fewer hydrogen atoms
and can accept hydrogen. Mono-unsaturated indicates that hydrogen
can be accepted at one double-bond site; polyunsaturated indicates
that hydrogen can be accepted at more than one double-bond site.
The most highly unsaturated fats are oils, while fats of low unsaturation tend to be solids at room temperature. Hydrogenation (chemical
addition of hydrogen to the double bond of unsaturated fatty acids) of
a fat makes it firmer and more plastic, raises the melting point, and
slows the development of rancidity by reducing the rate of reaction
with oxygen. These fats are termed hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils. Fats and oils are composed of varying percentages of fatty
acids which account for their respective properties. Some useful properties to consider in determining a suitable fat or oil include:
• Iodine value—An expression of the degree of unsaturation, which
can serve as a guide in evaluating fat stability.
• Melting point—The temperature at which a solid changes to a
liquid when heated.
• Solid fat index—A number indicating the proportion of solid to
liquid present in the fat at a given temperature, which will reflect
the consistency.
Fats and oils are used by themselves or as components of a food.
Some examples of nomenclature are:
• Shortenings—Usually solid fats instead of oils used in baked goods
to impart tenderness, soft crumb, etc.
• Spreads—Usually butter or margarine, which contains 80% or
more fat.
• Salad oils—Oils which include olive, corn, cottonseed, soybean,
sunflower.

Ingredient Categories

175

• Cooking fat—Any edible fat or oil.
• Frying fat—A bland-flavored fat or oil of high smoking temperature to allow for heating to 400°F without smoking.
• Confectionary fat—A fat that is hard at room temperature and
soft at body temperature, such as hydrogenated coconut oil or
cacao butter.
Table 8 lists fats and oils with their principal component fatty
acids.

FLAVORS
Flavors are classified into the major groups of spices, natural flavors,
and artificial flavors. A spice is an aromatic vegetable substance in a
whole, broken, or ground form which is used as a seasoning. Natural
flavors are flavor constituents derived from plant or animal sources.
Artificial flavors are flavorings containing all or some portion of nonnatural materials.

Materials that can be used for flavorings can be grouped as follows:
spices and herbs; essential oils and their extracts; fruits and fruit juices;
and aliphatic, aromatic, and terpene compounds. Spices and herbs
consist of dried plant products that exhibit flavor and aroma. They are
derived from true aromatic vegetable substances from which the volatile and flavoring principles have not been removed. Essential oils and
their extracts are odorous oils obtained from plant material and have
the major odor that is characteristic of that material. Most have poor
water solubility and most contain terpenes (hydrocarbons of formula
C10H16 and their oxygenated derivatives C10H16O or C10H18O) which
contribute to the poor water solubility as well as possibly contributing
to the off-flavor. Examples are essential oils of bitter almond, anise,
and clove. Terpeneless oils are extensions of concentrated essential
oils in which the unwanted terpenes are removed. These oils are usually more concentrated and of increased stability and water solubility.
Common oils in the terpeneless form are citrus oil, spearmint, and
peppermint. Fruit and fruit juices are natural flavorings obtained from
fruits. Whole, crushed, or pureed fruit may be used, but, more commonly, the juice or concentrate is used. Fruit extracts are made by
extraction with a waterâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;alcohol mixture. Aliphatic, aromatic, and terpene compounds refer to synthetic chemicals and isolates from natural materials. This classification encompasses the largest group of
flavoring materials.
Flavors can be quite complex and the number of available flavors is
extensive. Flavor is that property of a substance that causes a sensation
of taste. Four basic tastes are perceived by taste buds on the tongue:
sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. The flavors used are natural, artificial, or
combinations and exist in liquid or dry form. General flavor types
available include fruit, dairy, meat, vegetable, beverage, and liquor.

FLOUR
Flour, also referred to as white flour, wheat flour, and plain flour, is
the food prepared by grinding and bolting cleaned wheat other than
durum wheat and red durum wheat (Code of Federal Regulations).
Flour from other sources is available, identified according to its grain
source. The properties of wheat flour vary according to the type of
wheat, milling procedures, and treatment applied after milling.
Flour milling involves the separation of the endosperm, which is
about 83% of the kernel, from other parts of the kernel, that is, bran

Ingredient Categories

177

and germ. The processing involves tempering, grinding, and sifting
the large chunks of endosperm or “middlings” to yield the flour which,
in the USA, will represent about 72% of the wheat kernel. By processing, size classification is achieved as flour streams. The streams
include:
1. Straight flour—All the flour that can be milled from a wheat blend,
or 72% of the wheat kernel which equates to 100% separation.
2. Long patent flour—90–95% separation.
3. Medium patent flour—80–90% separation.
4. Short patent flour—70–80% separation.
5. Short family or first patent flour—60–70% separation.
6. Extra short or fancy patent flour—40–60% separation.
7. Clears—Portion of straight flour remaining after removal of ­patent
streams.
Flour properties depend upon the type of wheat, which is classified
as hard or soft. Hard wheats are high in protein and the resulting
flours have a high protein content and form a tenacious, elastic gluten
with good gas-retaining properties and high water absorption capacity
which makes it suitable for yeast-leavened bread. Soft wheats are low
in protein and the resulting flour has poor gas-retaining properties
and low water absorption capacity which makes it suitable for chemically leavened cakes and pastries.
The protein content of the flour is important because it forms the
protein complex termed gluten when water and flour are kneaded
together. The gluten formed accounts for the mixing and dough-handling characteristics as well as in the formation of the framework of
the baked product.
Different flours are used for different purposes. Some of these
include:
• Bread flour, which generally contains in excess of 10.5% protein
and is obtained from straight or long patent flours, has high
absorption and good mixing tolerance.
• Cake flour, which generally contains less than 10% protein and is
generally short patent flours, is low in absorption, and has short
mixing time and tolerance.
• All-purpose (family) flour, which is intermediate between bread
and cake flour.
• Pastry flour, which is obtained from soft wheat and can be straight
or clear flour grades because color is not an essential requirement.

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Dictionary of Food Ingredients

• Cracker flour, which generally contains 9–10.5% protein obtained
from long patent or straight flours, is of low absorption, and has
short mixing requirements.
Flours can be modified by various treatments to alter characteristics
such as color, nutritional value, and baking qualities. Some of these
modified flours include:
• Enriched flour—Flour that has been enriched by the inclusion of
vitamins and minerals.
• Bromated flour—Potassium bromate has been added for improvement of baking qualities.
• Phosphated flour—Monocalcium phosphate has been added for
improvement of baking qualities.
• Bleached flour—Flour in which the yellow carotenoid pigment
has been converted to a nearly colorless product.
Other specific grain flours are obtained, with the term flour referring
to that degree of grinding and sifting which results in a fine, powdery
substance. The grain flours in Exhibit 1 are designated according to
the grain from which they are obtained and include corn, rye, and
durum flours.

GUMS
Gums are classified by source according to the following principal
groupings: plant exudates, which include arabic, tragacanth, karaya,
ghatti; seaweed extracts, which include agar, alginates, carrageenan,
furcelleran; plant seed gums, which include guar, locust bean, tara,
tamarind, psyllium, quince; plant extracts, which include pectin and
arabinogalactan; fermentation gums, which include xanthan gum,
gellan gum, and dextran; and cellulose derivatives, which include carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose. Gum derivatives include propylene glycol alginate and
low-methoxy pectin. Galactomannans are polysaccharides consisting
of a mannose backbone with galactose side groups. Included in this
family are guar gum, tara gum, locust bean gum with respective
mannose:galactose ratios 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, with the higher amounts of
galactose resulting in more solubility. Starches and gelatin function as
water-control agents but are not included in this grouping.
The selection of a gum is based on the desired function and food
application. By thickening or gelling the water, gums perform numerous roles such as stabilizers, film formers, binders, suspending agents,
whipping agents, coating agents, and crystallization inhibitors. The
gums perform these functions by themselves or in combination with
other gums. Food properties considered in selecting a gum include pH,
shelf stability, ingredient compatibility, texture, processing requirements, and ultimate consumer method of preparation. The differentiating properties of gums include viscosity, compatibility, pH stability,
gel-forming capabilities, temperature stability, flow properties, and
solubility. Within the same family of gums, there may be differences
relative to salt type which will have an effect on its functional characteristics, that is, solubility, dispersibility, gel-forming capabilities, flow
properties, and stability. TablesÂ 9 and 10 list, respectively, comparative
and relative properties of gums.

PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are antimicrobial agents. The preservatives most
widely used are the benzoates (sodium benzoate), sorbates (sorbic
acid and potassium sorbate), and the propionates (sodium or calcium
propionates), which are organic acids or their salts (see TableÂ 11).

Yes

No, except lambda
and sodium salts
No

Yes, swells

Methylcellulose

Low-methoxy pectin

Swells, requires
heat
Yes, depends on
methoxy content
Yes

Some

Yes

Hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose
Karaya

Locust bean gum

No, insoluble
above 45°C
No

Yes

Hydroxypropyl cellulose

No

Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

No
No
Yes
Yes

Gellan gum, high acyl
Gellan gum, low acyl
Ghatti
Guar

Yes

No swells

Yes

Gelatin

Furcelleren

Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes

Arabic (Acacia)
Carboxymethyl
cellulose
Carrageenan

Yes
Yes

No
Yes

Agar
Alginate, sodium

Hot Water
Solubility

Cold Water
Solubility

Gums

Table 9 Comparative Properties of Gums

Yes, at elevated temp

Yes

No

Yes, at elevated temp.
depending on type
No

No

Yes
Yes
No
No

Yes

Yes

Yes, except lambda

No
No

Yes
Yes

Gel Former

Viscosity decreased by acids or
electrolytes
Between pH 5 and 8, at higher or lower
values get considerable variation
Form gels between pH 2.5 and 6.5
depending on system
pH 3–11

Set – room
At some fixed
Set 50–99°C
temperature
temperature
to 50°C,
depending
depending
on system
on ion
concentration

75–90°C

Gellan gum,
low acyl

Xanthan
Gum/
Locust
Bean Gum

182
Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Kappa —
transparent
in pot. form

Turbid

Brittle

Yes

Trans­
parency

Texture

Syneresis

Iota — elastic
Kappa — yes
Iota — no

Yes

No

Elastic

Some

Elastic,
cohesive

Opaque

Some

Firm, brittle

Clear

Thermo- ThermoNonreversible
reversreversible
ible

Pot. form —
Transtransparent.
parent
Ca form —
turbid

Thermoreversible

Iota — transparent
in both
forms
Kappa — brittle Brittle/elastic

Thermoreversible

Reversibility Thermoreversible

Yes

Brittle

Turbid,
transparent

Thermoreversible

Some

Brittle/
elastic

Nonreversible;
will melt
but not
reset
Clear

Some

Elastic

Clear

Nonreversible

No

Elastic

Turbid

Thermoreversible

Ingredient Categories
183

184

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Table 11 Preservatives
Preservative Category

Activity

Use Level (%)

Benzoates
(sodium benzoate)

Yeasts, molds, and bacteria, but usually
not recommended for bacterial control
because of restricted use level and
lower activity at higher pH; best
activity at pH 2.5–4.0
Yeasts and molds, least activity
against bacteria and on a selective
basis; best activity up to pH 6.5
Yeasts and molds, less active against
bacteria, especially gram-negative;
effective up to pH 8.0
Molds, slightly antibacterial action except
against “rope”; effective up to pH 6.0

0.01–0.10

Sorbates (sorbic acid,
potassium sorbate)
Parabens

Propionates (propionic
acid, Ca, Na propionate)

0.03–0.10

0.10 range

0.20–0.50

The activity of preservatives is due to the undissociated form of the
molecule and thus pH is a major factor in their effectiveness.
Increasing the acidity of foods is a method of controlling the growth
of microorganisms. The survival and proliferation of microorganisms depend in part upon the pH of the food. Foods with a pH
below 4.6 are considered acidic, and many bacteria will not proliferate in acidic foods. Acidulants are used to reduce the pH and thus
provide a means of controlling microorganism growth. Acidulants
used include acetic acid, adipic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic
acid, and phosphoric acid. Greater effectiveness is achieved in
acidic systems. Sorbic acid and potassium sorbate have the best
activity up to pH 6.5, calcium and sodium propionate up to pH 5.0,
and sodium benzoate up to pH 4.5.
Sorbic acid and potassium sorbate are effective against yeast and
mold inhibition with little activity against bacteria. Common uses are
in cheese, sausage, and baked goods not including yeast-raised goods.
Sorbic acid has low solubility in water which increases with increasing
temperature, while potassium sorbate is readily soluble in water.
Potassium sorbate has the same antimycotic properties as sorbic acid
and on an equivalent weight basis has 74% of the activity of sorbic
acid. Thus, higher concentrations are required to obtain the same
yeast and mold-inhibiting effects (four parts potassium sorbate equal
three parts sorbic acid).
Calcium and sodium propionate are effective against molds and
have slight antibacterial action and little action on yeasts. Application

Ingredient Categories

185

areas include baked goods and processed cheese. Because they have
little action against yeasts, they can be used in yeast-baked goods and
are the most common preservative in baked goods.
Sodium benzoate is effective against yeasts and slightly effective
against bacteria and molds. The most effective range is pH 2.5–4.0
with a maximum pH of 4.5. It is used in acidulated beverages, jams,
jellies, and relishes.
Parabens, which are esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid, are related
to benzoic acid but are effective over a wider pH range. They are active
against yeasts and molds and are used in baked goods and beverages.

SPICES
Spices consist of dried plant products that exhibit flavor and aroma.
Spices are obtained from vegetable substances from which none of the
volatile or other flavoring substances have been removed. Spices are
grouped into (a) tropical spices such as pepper and cloves; (b) herbs,
such as sage and rosemary; (c) spicy seeds such as mustard and anise;
and (d) dehydrated aromatic vegetables such as onion and garlic.
Spices in the ground form have an increased surface area and consequently the oil glands are ruptured, causing the evaporation of the essential oil and loss of aroma. Spice flavor is also obtained by use of an extract
or essential oil which carries the spice aroma in a concentrated form.
These oils are volatile and as such do not contain the nonvolatile constituents. The compound containing both the essential oil and the nonvolatile constituents is commercially known as oleoresins, which contain
all the odorous and flavor principles of the spice. Oleoresins offer flavor
uniformity, stability, freedom from bacteria, and flavor concentration.
Spices are used predominantly in prepared meats, luncheon meats,
sauces, salads, soups, and dressings. Other important users are bakers,
pickle packers, condiment manufacturers, and the canning industry.
A list of spices and other natural seasonings and flavorings, found
in Title 21, Section 182.10, of the Code of Federal Regulations, is in
Table 12.

Note: Spices and other natural seasonings and flavorings are listed in Title 21. Section 182.10
of the Code of Federal Regulations

188

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

branched chains containing 20–25 glucose units each. A visible difference
is that amylose is more soluble and less viscous than amylopectin and
facilitates gel formation. Starches vary in their amylose content.
Waxy starches, so termed because the cut endosperm resembles
hard, opaque wax, contain mostly amylopectin, while ordinary cornstarch consists of about 24% amylose and 76% amylopectin. The waxy
starches form thick, clear pastes but gel only at high concentrations
such as 30%, while 4–5% cornstarch will form a gel. The paste viscosity of the waxy maize starch remains the same hot or cold. Highamylose starches contain 50–70% amylose and have unique properties
for functioning as film formers, oxygen and fat barriers, quick-setting
stable gels, and binders.
Starch is not soluble in cold water, but forms a suspension. Upon
heating the suspension to the gelatinization temperature (60–70°C),
the starch granules suddenly swell, the opaque suspension slowly
becomes translucent upon continued heating, and the viscosity
increases to the thickness of a boiled starch paste. Most starches require
heating to 90°C in order to obtain a firm gel upon cooling, when the
viscosity increases and may form a gel depending on the type of starch.
During storage of a starch paste or gel, the molecules become less soluble and tend to aggregate and partially crystallize; the change is termed
retrogradation, which is the opposite of gelatinization. The starch gel
shrinks and some of the liquid separates from the gel. Retrogradation
does not occur in waxy starches because they do not contain amylose.
Starches can be modified (they are then termed modified starches) by
chemical modification or cross-linking, to provide desired properties
not found in natural starch. By the production of cross-links or bridges
from one starch molecule to another, starch can be made more resistant to hydrolysis, thus preventing the loss of viscosity. The resistance
of starch to shear or mixing is directly proportional to the degree of
cross-linking. Other properties obtained include viscosity control,
freeze–thaw stability, heat resistance, and acid resistance. These
starches find application in sauces, gravies, pie filling, frozen foods,
and other products where specific properties are required.
Pregelantinized starch is a starch processed to swell to some degree
in cold water unlike regular starch, which requires heating. The most
common method involves heating a starch paste to its gelatinization
temperature, drying on a drum dryer, and grinding the dried starch to
a powder. Upon reconstitution with water, the pregelatinized starch
has less thickening power and tendency to gel than pastes of the parent starch. This starch is used in applications requiring more rapid

Ingredient Categories

189

hydration or room temperature preparation, such as instant desserts,
puddings, and soups. Based on abundance and cost, cornstarch is the
most commonly used. Other available starches include grain sorghum,
rice, wheat, potato, tapioca, arrowroot, and waxy varieties.

SWEETENERS
Sweeteners can be classified as natural or artificial. The natural
sweeteners are carbohydrates consisting of molecules of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The simplest form of carbohydrate is the monosaccharide or simple sugar and includes glucose (dextrose), fructose
(levulose), and galactose, which are six-carbon (hexose) sugars.
The combination of two monosaccharides forms a disaccharide
sugar, which can also be formed by the breakdown of longer-chain
carbohydrates termed polysaccharides. The following combinations of
monosaccharides form the respective disaccharides: glucose + frucose = sucrose; glucose + galactose = lactose; glucose + glucose = maltose.
A trisaccharide consists of three monosaccharides, such as raffinose
which consists of galactose, glucose, and fructose. A tetrasaccharide such
as stachyose consists of four monosaccharides. These more complicated
sugars are not digestible so they are not used as sweeteners. A polysaccharide is a longer-chained carbohydrate which exists in digestible and
nondigestible forms. The digestible forms are starch, a polymer of glucose
units from which corn sweeteners are obtained, and glycogen, a polymer
of glucose which is the carbohydrate reserve of animals. The nondigestible form includes cellulose, lignin, and gums such as pectin and algin.
Polyhydric alcohols (polyols) in foods consist of glycerine, sorbitol,
mannitol, propylene glycol, and xylitol. When used at low levels, the
taste of the polyols is of minor consequence; but when used as a major
ingredient, such as in sugarless chewing gum, the polyol is the major
source of sweetness.
Sucrose is the most widely used natural sweetener and is usually the
reference relative to sweetness, taste profile, and cost. Corn sweeteners,
fructose, and high intensity sweeteners are other widely used sweeteners.
Sweeteners are also grouped as nutritive and non-nutritive. Nutritive
sweeteners include sucrose, fructose, dextrose, lactose, maltose, honey,
high fructose corn syrups, and polyols. Non-nutritive sweeteners (artificial sweeteners) include saccharine, aspartame, acesulfame-K, sucralose, neotame, and rebaudioside A.

The relative sweetness of sweeteners relative to sucrose can vary
according to concentration, temperature, etc. (Table 13).
Polyols (polyhydric alcohols, sugar alcohols) are produced by
­hydrogenating the corresponding reducing sugars, for example, sorbitol – hydrogenated from glucose. They provide the bulk and texture of
sucrose but have less kilocalories/gram. Polyols include sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, erythritol, lacticol, maltitol, and isomalt (Table 14).

High-Intensity Sweeteners
High-intensity sweeteners are products intended to imitate the taste
of sucrose and function as non-nutritive replacements; they provide
basically 0 cal. Saccharin, discovered in 1878, has the longest history
of food use.

Note: Relative sweetness can vary according to concentration
and temperature

The properties of high intensity sweeteners vary according to source,
relative sucrose sweetness, taste profile, solubility, stability to temperature
and pH, synergies, and applications. These sweeteners are used singly
or in combination to maximize the beneficial properties of each
(Table 15).

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal body
growth and maintenance. They are classified into groups: fat-soluble
vitamins – vitamins A, D, E, and K; and water-soluble vitamins – vitamins B and C. Vitamins are measured in very low concentrations, such
as 1–100 mg. Through biochemical action, they perform various functions in such processes as cell growth, normal digestion, manufacture
of red blood cells, and absorption of calcium and phosphorus.
Inadequate vitamin intake can be the result of food deficiency,
increased vitamin requirements, and increased vitamin loss. The vitamins of determined importance include A (retinol), B1 (thiamine), B2
(riboflavin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B12 (cyanocobalamin), C (ascorbic acid), D2 (calciferol), E (tocopherol), K, niacin, folic
acid, and biotin.
Table 16 describes the functions and provides sources for fat- and
water-soluble vitamins.

Necessary for bone and teeth growth;
deficiency causes rickets
Functions as antioxidant, preventing the
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and
protecting vitamins such as vit. A
Essential for blood clotting

CHEESE
Cheese is the product resulting from the coagulation of the milk
Â­ rotein, casein, by suitable enzymes and/or acid-producing bacteria to
p
produce a curd which is separated from the whey and can be in the
ripened or unripened form. Examples are
Cheddar cheese: A firm bodied cheese produced by subjecting milk, nonfat milk,
or cream to the action of a lactic acid-producing bacteria culture and clotting
enzyme (rennet). It contains not more than 39% moisture by weight and not
less than 50% milk fat by weight of the solids.
Cottage cheese: A soft, uncured cheese prepared by mixing cottage cheese dry curd
with a creaming mixture. It contains not more than 80% moisture and not less
than 4% milk fat by weight of the finished food.
Cream Cheese: The soft, uncured cheese made from pasteurized dairy ingredients
containing not less than 33% milk fat by weight of the finished food and not
more than 55% moisture by weight.

CREAM PRODUCTS
Cream is the product obtained from milk by increasing the fat content by separation or by blending a high fat cream with milk to obtain
a desired fat content. There are several types of cream products which
differ principally in their fat content.
Half-and-half: A mixture of milk and cream which contains between
10.5 and 18.0% milk fat.
Light cream: Cream which contains between 18 and 30% milk fat.
Light whipping cream: Cream which contains between 30 and 36%
milk fat.
Heavy cream: Cream which contains not less than 36% milk fat.
Imitation cream: A cream product using vegetable fat to replace the
milk fat portion.
Sour cream, plain is the product containing not less than 18% fat
produced by the acidification (souring) by lactic acid-producing bacteria to obtain a titratable acidity, calculated as lactic acid, of not less
than 0.5%.
Acidified sour cream, plain is the product containing not less than
18% fat produced by the acidification (souring) by suitable acidulants
with or without lactic acid-producing bacteria to obtain a titratable
acidity, calculated as lactic acid, of not less than 0.5%.
Sour cream dressing is the product resembling sour cream, containing
not less than 18% milk fat and having a titratable acidity, calculated as
lactic acid, of not less than 0.5%, but does not comply with their
standard of identity in that other dairy ingredients have been substituted for cream and/or milk solids.
R.S. Igoe, Dictionary of Food Ingredients, Fifth Edition
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9713-5_3,
ÂŠ Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

DRESSINGS
Mayonnaise: An emulsified oil in water semisolid food, containing
vegetable oil, acidulant, egg yolk, and other ingredients, which contains not less than 65% by weight of vegetable oil and not less than
2.5% by weight acidity, calculated as acetic acid.
Example Composition
Percent
Vegetable oil
Water
Vinegar, white (100 grain)
Egg yolk
Salt
Sugar
Mustard
Monosodium glutamate
Flavoring
EDTA

80.0
6.9
2.4
7.0
1.5

100.00

Salad dressing: An emulsified semisolid food prepared from vegetable oil, acidulant, egg yolk, starch, and other ingredients, which contains not less than 30% by weight of vegetable oil and not less than
the equivalent of 4% egg yolk solids by weight of liquid egg yolks.

French dressing: The separating liquid food or emulsified viscous
fluid food prepared from vegetable oils, acidulants, and other ingredients. It contains not less than 35% by weight of vegetable oil.
Example Composition

FROZEN DESSERTS
Frozen desserts are food products prepared by freezing, while stirring, pasteurized mixes composed of ingredients varying according to
the type of frozen dessert.
Ice cream contains a minimum of 10% by weight of milk fat, 6%
milk solids nonfat, and 20% total milk solids except when a bulky
ingredient such as chocolate, fruit, nuts are used which allows for a
reduction but to not less than 8% milk fat and 16% total milk solids;
overrun 90â&#x20AC;&#x201C;100%. One gallon contains not less than 1.6Â lb of total
solids and weighs not less than 4.5Â lb to the gallon.
Ice milk contains more than 2% but not more than 7% milk fat and
not less than 11% total milk solids. One gallon contains not less than

Fruit sherbet contains 1–2% milk fat and 2–5% total milk solids
with a titratable acidity, calculated as lactic acid, of not less than
0.35%; depending on the fruit source, must contain not less than 2%
by weight of citrus fruit, 6% of berry fruit, or 10% of other fruits; overrun 50–60%. One gallon weighs not less than 6 lb.
Fruit water ice is comparable to requirements for fruit sherbets
except that milk solids are not utilized and there are no provisions for
emulsifiers; overrun 50–60%.
Example Formulations
Milk fat (%)
Milk solids, nonfat (%)
Sugar (%)
Corn syrup solids (%)
Stabilizer (%)
Citric acid solution/flavor (%)

Sherbet

Water Ice

1.5
3.0
23.0
7.0
0.5
Not less than

–
–
23.0
7.0
0.5
Required amounts

Mellorine contains not less than 6% fat, being animal or vegetable
fat. One gallon contains not less than 1.6 lb of total solids and weighs
not less than 4.5 lb to the gallon.

FRUIT SPREADS
Fruit jelly is the gelled product made from a mixture of one or more
permitted fruit juice ingredients and the optional ingredients, i.e., sweetener, spice, acidulant, pectin, buffering agent, preservative, antifoam agent,

Food Definitions and Formulations

199

which is concentrated with or without heat; the product has not less
than 45 parts by weight of fruit juice ingredients to each 55 parts by
weight of sweetener and a soluble solids content of the jelly being not
less than 65%.
Grape Jelly Formulation
Percent
Grape juice
Sugar
Pectin, slow set
Acid solution to pH

45.0
54.8
â&#x20AC;&#x201A; 0.2
â&#x20AC;&#x201A; 3.2

Preserves, jams are viscous or semisolid products composed of a
mixture of one or more permitted fruit ingredients and the optional
ingredients, i.e., sweetener, spice, acidulant, pectin, buffering agent,
preservative, antifoaming agent which is concentrated with or without heat; depending on the fruit, the product has not less than 47 or
45 parts by weight of the fruit ingredient to each 55 parts by weight of
the sweetener and a soluble solids content of not less than 65%.
Example Strawberry Jam Formulation
Percent
Strawberries
Sugar
Water
Pectin, rapid set
Acid solution

26.65
58.40
14.60
0.35
To pH 3.3

Artificially sweetened fruit preserves are viscous or semisolid foods
made from a fruit ingredient, an artificial sweetening ingredient, and
with or without water and a gelling ingredient with other permitted
optional ingredients; the product contains not less than 55% by weight
of fruit ingredient and is heated to prevent spoilage.
Artificially sweetened fruit jelly is the gelled product made from a
fruit juice ingredient, an artificial sweetening ingredient, and a gelling
ingredient with other permitted optional ingredients; the product
contains not less than 55% by weight of fruit juice ingredients and is
heated to prevent spoilage.

MACARONI AND NOODLE PRODUCTS
Macaroni products are prepared by drying formed units of dough
made from semolina, durum flour, farina, flour, or any combination of
two or more of these with water. Optional ingredients which may be
used are egg white (from 0.5 to 2.0%); disodium phosphate (from 0.5
to 1.0%); onion, celery, garlic, bay leaf, salt; gum gluten (in quantities
such that the protein content of the finished food does not exceed
13% by weight); concentrated glycerol monostearate (not greater than
2.0%). The finished macaroni product contains not less than 87% of
total solids.
Macaroni products are defined by their shape and size as follows:
• Macaroni—Tube-shaped, more than 0.11 in. but not more than
0.27 in. in diameter.
• Spaghetti—Tube-shaped or cord-shaped, more than 0.06 in. but
not more than 0.11 in. in diameter.
• Vermicelli—Cord-shaped, not more than 0.06 in. in diameter.
Macaroni products can exist as enriched, enriched with fortified
protein, milk macaroni, nonfat milk macaroni, enriched nonfat milk
macaroni, vegetable macaroni, enriched vegetable macaroni, whole
wheat macaroni, wheat and soy macaroni.
Noodle products are prepared by drying formed units of dough
made from semolina, durum flour, farina, flour, or any combination of
two or more of these with egg or egg yolks. Optional ingredients which
may be used are onions, celery, garlic, bay leaf; salt; gum gluten (in
quantities such that the protein content of the finished food does not
exceed 13% by weight); concentrated glycerol monostearate (not
greater than 3%). The finished noodle product contains not less than

Food Definitions and Formulations

201

87% of total solids and the total solids contain not less than 5.5% by
weight of the solids of egg or egg yolk.
Noodle products are defined by their shape and size as follows:
• Noodles, egg noodles—Ribbon-shaped.
• Egg macaroni—Tube-shaped, more than 0.11 in. but not more
than 0.27 in. in diameter.
• Egg spaghetti—Tube-shaped or cord-shaped (not tubular), more
than 0.06 in. but not more than 0.11 in. in diameter.
• Egg vermicelli—Cord-shaped, not more than 0.06 in. in diameter.
Noodle products can exist as enriched noodles, vegetable noodles,
enriched vegetable noodles, wheat and soy noodles.

MARGARINE AND BUTTER
Margarine (oleomargarine) is the plastic or liquid emulsion which
resembles butter and consists of not less than 80% vegetable or rendered animal fat with water and/or milk and/or milk products, with or
without protein, and containing not less than 15,000 international
units of vitamin A per pound of margarine; other optional ingredients
are permitted, i.e., vitamin D, salt, sweeteners, emulsifiers, preservatives, colorants, flavors, acidulants, alkalizers.
Butter is the plastic food product made from milk and/or cream with
or without salt and added color, containing not less than 80% by weight
of milk fat; it may be produced from sweet or ripened cream by a churning process which converts the cream fat to butter granules.
Imitation margarine is margarine containing less than 80% fat.

MILKS
Milk is the lacteal secretion, practically free of colostrum, which is
obtained by the complete milking of cows. There are several types of
milks which varying principally according to their fat content.
• Milk: Contains not less than 8.25% milk solids nonfat and not
less than 3.25% milk fat.
• Low fat milk: Contains not less than 8.25% milk solids nonfat and
between 0.5 and 2.0% milk fat. The 2% milk is commercially
­designated 2% milk.

202

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

• Skim milk: Contains not less than 8.25% milk solids nonfat and
not more than 0.5% milk fat.
• Filled milk: A milk-type product which uses skim milk as a base
and nondairy fats (vegetable fats) as a substitute for the milk fat.
• Imitation milk: A milk-type product in which nondairy fats (vegetable fats) substitute for the milk fat and in which the carbohydrates and/or proteins may be other than provided by the natural
dairy ingredients.
Example Formulations
Filled Milk
Water
Milk solids nonfat
Vegetable fat

• Evaporated milk: The partially concentrated milk obtained by
removal of water, resulting in a product containing not less than
6.5% by weight milk fat, not less than 16.5% by weight of milk
solids not fat, and not less than 23% by weight of total milk solids;
vitamin D is added at 25 international units per fluid ounce of
evaporated milk; the product is homogenized and processed by
heat to prevent spoilage.
• Sweetened condensed milk: The partially concentrated milk
obtained by removal of water, resulting in a product containing

Food Definitions and Formulations

203

not less than 8.5% milk fat and 28% total milk solids with ­sufficient
sweetener to prevent spoilage; the product is pasteurized and may
be homogenized.
• Acidified milk: Food produced by souring either cream, milk, partially skimmed milk, skim milk, alone or in combination with an
acidifying ingredient (various acids). Optional ingredients are permitted. It contains not less than 3.25% milk fat and not less than
8.25% milk solids not fat and has a titratable acidity of not less
than 0.5%, expressed as lactic acid.
• Cultured milk: Food produced by culturing either cream, milk,
partially skimmed milk, skim milk alone or in combination with
characterizing microbial organisms. Optional ingredients are permitted. It contains not less than 3.25% milk fat and 8.25% milk
solids not fat and has a titratable acidity of 0.5%, expressed as
lactic acid.
• Nonfat dry milk: Product obtained by the removal of water only
from pasteurized skim milk. It contains not more than 5% moisture and not more than 1.5% by weight of milk fat unless otherwise indicated.
• Dry whole milk: Product obtained by removal of water from pasteurized milk. It contains not less than 26% but less than 40% by
weight of milk fat and contains not more than 5% by weight of
moisture on a milk solids not fat basis.

PROCESS CHEESE
Process cheese is the cheese product prepared by the blending and
heating of ripened cheese with other ingredients resulting in a homogeneous product normally packaged in slice or loaf form. There are
three principal classifications: pasteurized process cheese, pasteurized
process cheese food, and pasteurized process cheese spread, which differ in the composition of ingredients and fat and moisture content.
The product is named according to the variety of cheese used, i.e.,
pasteurized process cheddar cheese.
Comparative:
Pasteurized process (cheddar) cheese:
• moisture: less than 40%
• fat: not less than 30%

204

Dictionary of Food Ingredients

Pasteurized process (cheddar) cheese food:
• contains optional dairy ingredients
• moisture: not more than 44%
• fat: not less than 23%
Pasteurized process (cheddar) cheese spread:
• may contain gums at not more than 0.8% of the weight of the
finished food
• moisture: more than 44% but not more than 60%
• fat: not less than 20%

SYRUPS
Table syrup is the liquid food consisting of one or more sweeteners
with or without water and containing not less than 65% soluble sweetener solids by weight; optional ingredients are butter, fats and oils,
emulsifiers, stabilizers, flavorings, colorants, salt, preservatives, deforming agents, pH agents.
Example Formulation

Maple syrup is the liquid food obtained by concentrating and heating the sap of the maple tree or by the solution in water of maple sugar
obtained from maple sap containing not less than 66% by weight of
soluble solids derived solely from such sap. Optional ingredients are
salt, preservatives, defoaming agents.

TOMATO PRODUCTS
Tomato paste is the product obtained from the concentration of
tomato liquid, containing not less than 24.0% of natural tomato soluble solids, with optional ingredients salt, lemon juice or organic acids,

Food Definitions and Formulations

205

spice, flavoring, sodium bicarbonate. The product is processed by heat
to prevent spoilage.
Tomato puree, also termed tomato pulp, is the product obtained
from the concentration of tomato liquid, containing not less than 8.0%
but less than 24.0% of tomato soluble solids with the optional ingredients salt, lemon juice or organic acids, spice flavoring, sodium bicarbonate. The product is being processed by heat to prevent spoilage.
Catsup, ketchup, catchup is the product obtained from the concentration of tomato liquid which is optionally seasoned with vinegar,
spices, flavoring, onion or garlic, and nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners.
The product is processed by heat to prevent spoilage.
Example Catsup Formulation
Percent
Tomato paste (26% tomato solids)
Water
Sugar
Vinegar (100 grain)
Salt
Seasoning

Tomato juice is the unconcentrated liquid extracted from mature
tomatoes of Reddish varieties. It has a tomato soluble solids content of
not less than 5% by weight.

YOGURT
Yogurt is the food produced by culturing cream, milk, partially
skimmed milk, or skim milk alone or in combination with a bacterial
culture that contains the lactic acid-producing bacteria Lactobacillus
bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Optional ingredients such as
Vitamin A and D, dairy ingredients, flavors, colors, stabilizers may be
included. Before inclusion of bulky flavors, the yogurt contains not
less than 3.25% milk fat, not less than 8.25% milk solids not fat, and
has a titratable acidity of not less than 0.9% expressed as lactic acid.
Lowfat yogurt contains not less than 0.5% and not more than 2%
milk fat.
Nonfat yogurt contains less than 0.5% milk fat.

Part IV

Additives/Substances
for Use in Foods
Listed under Title 21 of the Code
of Federal Regulations

Note: Refer to Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, for complete information on usage.

PART 182—SUBSTANCES GENERALLY
RECOGNIZED AS SAFE
While not including all substances that are generally recognized as
safe (GRAS) for their intended use, such as salt, pepper, and vinegar,
this listing includes substances that, when used for that purpose indicated and in accordance with good manufacturing practice, are
regarded as GRAS for such uses.

PART 184—DIRECT FOOD SUBSTANCES
AFFIRMED AS GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS SAFE
The list of direct human food ingredients are considered GRAS under
the conditions prescribed and shall be used in accordance with current good manufacturing practice.

PART 186—INDIRECT FOOD SUBSTANCES
AFFIRMED AS GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS SAFE
The list of indirect human food ingredients are considered GRAS
for the purpose and conditions prescribed, providing they comply
with the purity specifications or are of a purity suitable for their
intended use.