Fig. 1: The Delaware Westward Migration
2000
Rees, Mark A., Gina S. Powell, and Neal H. Lopinot. Delaware Town
Archaeological Survey and site assessment in the James River Valley of
Christian County, Missouri, Center for Archaeological Research Report
No. 1081/1109. Click on map to enlarge.

Removal
of American Indians living
east of the Mississippi River began in the late 1700s. Initially, these
removals were voluntary, resulting from treaty negotiations. On
September 29, 1817, the Treaty of Maumee Rapids was signed by the U.S.
Government, the Delaware, Chippewa, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Seneca, and
Shawnee. In this treaty, these six tribes were to relinquish 4,000,000
acres in Ohio for payments and annuities of varying amounts and
assigned land allotments. Later that same day, the Ottawa, Seneca,
Shawnee, and Wyandot signed the Treaty of St. Mary’s as a supplement to
the Treaty of Maumee Rapids. In the Treaty of St. Mary’s, these four
tribes received additional monies for the cession of the lands
described in the previous treaty and negotiated to own title to the
newly acquired lands.

Unit excavation during 2007 Summer
Field School at Bell Tavern.

Many treaties were signed at St. Mary’s after 1817, but most
important to this area was The Treaty with the Delawares, signed
October 3, 1818. In this treaty, also referred to as the Treaty of St.
Mary’s, the Delaware ceded all lands in the newly formed State of
Indiana (1816) for lands west of the Mississippi and a $4,000 perpetual
annuity to be paid in silver. The treaty permitted the Delaware to
remain in Indiana for three years to prepare for the move. By 1821,
several Delaware leaders and their villages had removed to the James
River near its confluence with Wilson Creek. Although the Delaware land
grant in southwest Missouri comprised 1,971,200 acres, the Delaware
inhabited only 21,120 acres in 1825 and 38,400 acres just prior to
their removal.

Opening units during 2007 Summer Field
School.

The Osage ceded all but their hunting rights to southwest
Missouri
in 1808 in the Treaty with the Osage, signed at Fort Clark (now Fort
Osage) on the Missouri River. This treaty stated that the U.S.
Government would construct a military post to protect white settlers,
and would keep a fully-stocked trading post specifically to provide
supplies to the Osage in exchange for pelts and furs. The U.S. also
promised the Osage a blacksmith, military protection, and a total of
$1,200. In exchange, the Osage were to vacate their territories in
southwest Missouri except for hunting purposes. However, the treaty
stipulated that hunting in any area reserved for other tribes was
prohibited. This article of the treaty became a point of contention
when the Delaware occupied the James River area. Many conflicts between
the Delaware and the Osage are described in letters between Indian
Subagent John Campbell and his superior, Major Richard Graham. Some
correspondence indicates that the son of Delaware leader William
Anderson was killed by the Osage. In 1822, Richard Graham and other
signatories dissolved the agreement to sustain the trading post or
store at Fort Clark (Fort Osage) for the Osage, and the Osage ceded
their lands in Missouri in 1825 for annuities and land in Indian
Territory (Oklahoma).

Prior to 1825, Indian removals largely consisted of voluntary
emigrations from lands east of the Mississippi River to those west of
the big river. As territories became states, the pressure to relocate
native peoples increased. As the result of another treaty with the
Delaware signed on September 24, 1829, the Delaware on the James River
relocated to the modern-day Kansas City area. Euroamerican immigration
was already increasing when Missouri became a state in 1821, the same
year some Delaware removed to the James River area. During this time,
Springfield was becoming a gateway to the west. The intersection of
several major transportation routes (the Springfield to Fayetteville
Road, the Old White River Road, and the Springfield to St. Louis Road)
made the James River even more attractive for agricultural and business
pursuits.

Field school of 2007.

In 1829, President Andrew Jackson established the Indian
Removal
policy. This policy advocated voluntary removal of native peoples to
Indian Territory. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. Most
Native Americans did not want to move from their homelands, but some
agreed to relocate. In 1835, a small, unauthorized faction of Cherokee
signed a treaty with the U.S. in New Echota, Georgia. The Treaty of New
Echota was ratified by Congress in 1836, and ceded all of Cherokee
lands east of the Mississippi to the U.S. in exchange for $5,000,000
and lands in eastern Oklahoma. Fifteen thousand Cherokee opposed the
treaty by signing a petition, but were unable to sway the decision
through the Supreme Court. The Treaty of New Echota gave the Cherokee
two years to remove themselves voluntarily. Voluntary removal began in
1837, though only a small group of Cherokee participated. Thereafter,
Van Buren’s administration initiated forced military removal. By July
1838, more than 13,000 Cherokee were held captive in military
stockades. The Cherokee traveled to Indian Territory over both water
and land routes, collectively known as the Trail of Tears.

The northern route of the Trail of Tears followed several
roads in
Greene and Christian counties: the St. Louis to Springfield Road, the
Old White River Road, and the Springfield to Fayetteville Road. It has
been estimated that 3,000-4,000 Cherokee died during their trek to
present-day Oklahoma due to inadequate clothing, hunger, unsanitary
living conditions, and the diseases resulting from these unhealthy
circumstances. At least 2,000 Cherokee who traversed the northern route
camped at the Bell Tavern at the confluence of the James River and
Wilson Creek. At least one Cherokee named Dreadful Water died at this
place. It is possible that he was buried in Wilson Cemetery very near
the Bell Tavern.