This chapter is from the book

This chapter is from the book

Advances in ultra-high-definition and 3D-video technologies as well as high-speed Internet and mobile computing have led to the introduction of new video services.

Digital images and video refer to 2D or 3D still and moving (time-varying) visual information, respectively. A still image is a 2D/3D spatial distribution of intensity that is constant with respect to time. A video is a 3D/4D spatio-temporal intensity pattern, i.e., a spatial-intensity pattern that varies with time. Another term commonly used for video is image sequence, since a video is represented by a time sequence of still images (pictures). The spatio-temporal intensity pattern of this time sequence of images is ordered into a 1D analog or digital video signal as a function of time only according to a progressive or interlaced scanning convention.

We begin with a short introduction to human visual perception and color models in Section 2.1. We give a brief review of analog-video representations in Section 2.2, mainly to provide a historical perspective. Next, we present 2D digital video representations and a brief summary of current standards in Section 2.3. We introduce 3D digital video display, representations, and standards in Section 2.4. Section 2.5 provides an overview of popular digital video applications, including digital TV, digital cinema, and video streaming. Finally, Section 2.6 discusses factors affecting video quality and quantitative and subjective video-quality assessment.

2.1 Human Visual System and Color

Video is mainly consumed by the human eye. Hence, many imaging system design choices and parameters, including spatial and temporal resolution as well as color representation, have been inspired by or selected to imitate the properties of human vision. Furthermore, digital image/video-processing operations, including filtering and compression, are generally designed and optimized according to the specifications of the human eye. In most cases, details that cannot be perceived by the human eye are regarded as irrelevant and referred to as perceptual redundancy.

2.1.1 Color Vision and Models

The human eye is sensitive to the range of wavelengths between 380 nm (blue end of the visible spectrum) and 780 nm (red end of the visible spectrum). The cornea, iris, and lens comprise an optical system that forms images on the retinal surface. There are about 100-120 million rods and 7-8 million cones in the retina [Wan 95, Fer 01]. They are receptor nerve cells that emit electrical signals when light hits them. The region of the retina with the highest density of photoreceptors is called the fovea. Rods are sensitive to low-light (scotopic) levels but only sense the intensity of the light; they enable night vision. Cones enable color perception and are best in bright (photopic) light. They have bandpass spectral response. There are three types of cones that are more sensitive to short (S), medium (M), and long (L) wavelengths, respectively. The spectral response of S-cones peak at 420 nm, M-cones at 534 nm, and L-cones at 564 nm, with significant overlap in their spectral response ranges and varying degrees of sensitivity at these range of wavelengths specified by the function mk (λ), k = r, g, b, as depicted in Figure 2.1(a).

Figure 2.1 Spectral sensitivity: (a) CIE 1931 color-matching functions for a standard observer with a 2-degree field of view, where the curves , , and may represent mr (λ), mg (λ), and mb (λ), respectively, and (b) the CIE luminous efficiency function l(λ) as a function of wavelength λ.

The perceived color of light f (x1, x2, λ) at spatial location (x1, x2) depends on the distribution of energy in the wavelength λ dimension. Hence, color sensation can be achieved by sampling λ into three levels to emulate color sensation of each type of cones as:

where mk (λ) is the wavelength sensitivity function (also known as the color matching function) of the kth cone type or color sensor. This implies that perceived color at any location (x1, x2) depends only on three values fr, fg, and fb, which are called the tristimulus values.

It is also known that the human eye has a secondary processing stage whereby the R, G, and B values sensed by the cones are converted into a luminance and two color-difference (chrominance) values [Fer 01]. The luminance Y is related to the perceived brightness of the light and is given by

where l(λ) is the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) luminous efficiency function, depicted in Figure 2.1(b), which shows the contribution of energy at each wavelength to a standard human observer’s perception of brightness. Two chrominance values describe the perceived color of the light. Color representations for color image processing are further discussed in Section 2.3.3.

Now that we have established that the human eye perceives color in terms of three component values, the next question is whether all colors can be reproduced by mixing three primary colors. The answer to this question is yes in the sense that most colors can be realized by mixing three properly chosen primary colors. Hence, inspired by human color perception, digital representation of color is based on the tri-stimulus theory, which states that all colors can be approximated by mixing three additive primaries, which are described by their color-matching functions. As a result, colors are represented by triplets of numbers, which describe the weights used in mixing the three primaries. All colors that can be reproduced by a combination of three primary colors define the color gamut of a specific device. There are different choices for selecting primaries based on additive and subtractive color models. We discuss the additive RGB and subtractive CMYK color spaces and color management in the following. However, an in-depth discussion of color science is beyond the scope of this book, and interested readers are referred to [Tru 93, Sha 98, Dub 10].

RGB and CMYK Color Spaces

The RGB model, inspired by human vision, is an additive color model in which red, green, and blue light are added together to reproduce a variety of colors. The RGB model applies to devices that capture and emit color light such as digital cameras, video projectors, LCD/LED TV and computer monitors, and mobile phone displays. Alternatively, devices that produce materials that reflect light, such as color printers, are governed by the subtractive CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black) color model. Additive and subtractive color spaces are depicted in Figure 2.2. RGB and CMYK are device-dependent color models: i.e., different devices detect or reproduce a given RGB value differently, since the response of color elements (such as filters or dyes) to individual R, G, and B levels may vary among different manufacturers. Therefore, the RGB color model itself does not define absolute red, green, and blue (hence, the result of mixing them) colorimetrically.

When the exact chromaticities of red, green, and blue primaries are defined, we have a color space. There are several color spaces, such as CIERGB, CIEXYZ, or sRGB. CIERGB and CIEXYZ are the first formal color spaces defined by the CIE in 1931. Since display devices can only generate non-negative primaries, and an adequate amount of luminance is required, there is, in practice, a limitiation on the gamut of colors that can be reproduced on a given device. Color characteristics of a device can be specified by its International Color Consortium (ICC) profile.

Color Management

Color management must be employed to generate the exact same color on different devices, where the device-dependent color values of the input device, given its ICC profile, is first mapped to a standard device-independent color space, sometimes called the Profile Connection Space (PCS), such as CIEXYZ. They are then mapped to the device-dependent color values of the output device given the ICC profile of the output device. Hence, an ICC profile is essentially a mapping from a device color space to the PCS and from the PCS to a device color space. Suppose we have particular RGB and CMYK devices and want to convert the RGB values to CMYK. The first step is to obtain the ICC profiles of concerned devices. To perform the conversion, each (R, G, B) triplet is first converted to the PCS using the ICC profile of the RGB device. Then, the PCS is converted to the C, M, Y, and K values using the profile of the second device.

Color management may be side-stepped by calibrating all devices to a common standard color space, such as sRGB, which was developed by HP and Microsoft in 1996. sRGB uses the color primaries defined by the ITU-R recommendation BT.709, which standardizes the format of high-definition television. When such a calibration is done well, no color translations are needed to get all devices to handle colors consistently. Avoiding the complexity of color management was one of the goals in developing sRGB [IEC 00].

2.1.2 Contrast Sensitivity

Contrast can be defined as the difference between the luminance of a region and its background. The human visual system is more sensitive to contrast than absolute luminance; hence, we can perceive the world around us similarly regardless of changes in illumination. Since most images are viewed by humans, it is important to understand how the human visual system senses contrast so that algorithms can be designed to preserve the more visible information and discard the less visible ones. Contrast-sensitivity mechanisms of human vision also determine which compression or processing artifacts we see and which we don’t. The ability of the eye to discriminate between changes in intensity at a given intensity level is quantified by Weber’s law.

Weber’s Law

Weber’s law states that smaller intensity differences are more visible on a darker background and can be quantified as

where ΔI is the just noticeable difference (JND) [Gon 07]. Eqn. (2.5) states that the JND grows proportional to the intensity level I. Note that I = 0 denotes the darkest intensity, while I = 255 is the brightest. The value of c is empirically found to be around 0.02. The experimental set-up to measure the JND is shown in Figure 2.3(a). The rods and cones comply with Weber’s law above -2.6 log candelas (cd)/m2 (moonlight) and 2 log cd/m2 (indoor) luminance levels, respectively [Fer 01].

Figure 2.3 Illustration of (a) the just noticeable difference and (b) brightness adaptation.

Brightness Adaptation

The human eye can adapt to different illumination/intensity levels [Fer 01]. It has been observed that when the background-intensity level the observer has adapted to is different from I, the observer’s intensity resolution ability decreases. That is, when I0 is different from I, as shown in Figure 2.3(b), the JND ΔI increases relative to the case I0 = I. Furthermore, the simultanenous contrast effect illustrates that humans perceive the brightness of a square with constant intensity differently as the intensity of the background varies from light to dark [Gon 07].

It is also well-known that the human visual system undershoots and overshoots around the boundary of step transitions in intensity as demonstrated by the Mach band effect [Gon 07].

Visual Masking

Visual masking refers to a nonlinear phenomenon experimentally observed in the human visual system when two or more visual stimuli that are closely coupled in space or time are presented to a viewer. The action of one visual stimulus on the visibility of another is called masking. The effect of masking may be a decrease in brightness or failure to detect the target or some details, e.g., texture. Visual masking can be studied under two cases: spatial masking and temporal masking.

Spatial Masking

Spatial masking is observed when a viewer is presented with a superposition of a target pattern and mask (background) image [Fer 01]. The effect states that the visibility of the target pattern is lower when the background is spatially busy. Spatial busyness measures include local image variance or textureness. Spatial masking implies that visibility of noise or artifact patterns is lower in spatially busy areas of an image as compared to spatially uniform image areas.

Temporal Masking

Temporal masking is observed when two stimuli are presented sequentially [Bre 07]. Salient local changes in luminance, hue, shape, or size may become undetectable in the presence of large coherent object motion [Suc 11]. Considering video frames as a sequence of stimuli, fast-moving objects and scene cuts can trigger a temporal-masking effect.

2.1.3 Spatio-Temporal Frequency Response

An understanding of the response of the human visual system to spatial and temporal frequencies is important to determine video-system design parameters and video-compression parameters, since frequencies that are invisible to the human eye are irrelevant.

Spatial-Frequency Response

Spatial frequencies are related to how still (static) image patterns vary in the horizontal and vertical directions in the spatial plane. The spatial-frequency response of the human eye varies with the viewing distance; i.e., the closer we get to the screen the better we can see details. In order to specify the spatial frequency independent of the viewing distance, spatial frequency (in cycles/distance) must be normalized by the viewing distance d, which can be done by defining the viewing angle θ as shown in Figure 2.4(a).

The normalized vertical spatial frequency can be defined similarly in the units of cycles/degree. As we move away from the screen d increases, and the same number of cycles per picture width fw appears as a larger frequency fθ per viewing degree. Since the human eye has reduced contrast sensitivity at higher frequencies, the same pattern is more difficult to see from a larger distance d. The horizontal and vertical resolution (number of pixels and lines) of a TV has been determined such that horizontal and vertical sampling frequencies are twice the highest frequency we can see (according to the Nyquist sampling theorem), assuming a fixed value for the ratio d/w—i.e., viewing distance over picture width. Given a fixed viewing distance, clearly we need more video resolution (pixels and lines) as picture (screen) size increases to experience the same video quality.

Figure 2.4(b) shows the spatial-frequency response, which varies by the average luminance level, of the eye for both the luminance and chrominance components of still images. We see that the spatial-frequency response of the eye, in general, has low-pass/band-pass characteristics, and our eyes are more sensitive to higher frequency patterns in the luminance components compared with those in the chrominance components. The latter observation is the basis of the conversion from RGB to the luminance-chrominance space for color image processing and the reason we subsample the two chrominance components in color image/video compression.

Temporal-Frequency Response

Video is displayed as a sequence of still frames. The frame rate is measured in terms of the number of pictures (frames) displayed per second or Hertz (Hz). The frame rates for cinema, television, and computer monitors have been determined according to the temporal-frequency response of our eyes. The human eye has lower sensitivity to higher temporal frequencies due to temporal integration of incoming light into the retina, which is also known as vision persistence. It is well known that the integration period is inversely proportional to the incoming light intensity. Therefore, we can see higher temporal frequencies on brighter screens. Psycho-visual experiments indicate the human eye cannot perceive flicker if the refresh rate of the display (temporal frequency) is more than 50 times per second for TV screens. Therefore, the frame rate for TV is set at 50-60 Hz, while the frame rate for brighter computer monitors is 72 Hz or higher, since the brighter the screen the higher the critical flicker frequency.

Interaction Between Spatial- and Temporal-Frequency Response

Video exhibits both spatial and temporal variations, and spatial- and temporal-frequency responses of the eye are not mutually independent. Hence, we need to understand the spatio-temporal frequency response of the eye. The effects of changing average luminance on the contrast sensitivity for different combinations of spatial and temporal frequencies have been investigated [Nes 67]. Psycho-visual experiments indicate that when the temporal (spatial) frequencies are close to zero, the spatial (temporal) frequency response has bandpass characteristics. At high temporal (spatial) frequencies, the spatial (temporal) frequency response has low-pass characteristics with smaller cut-off frequency as temporal (spatial) frequency increases. This implies that we can exchange spatial video resolution for temporal resolution, and vice versa. Hence, when a video has high motion (moves fast), the eyes cannot sense high spatial frequencies (details) well if we exclude the effect of eye movements.

Eye Movements

The human eye is similar to a sphere that is free to move like a ball in a socket. If we look at a nearby object, the two eyes turn in; if we look to the left, the right eye turns in and the left eye turns out; if we look up or down, both eyes turn up or down together. These movements are directed by the brain [Hub 88]. There are two main types of gaze-shifting eye movements, saccadic and smooth pursuit, that affect the spatial- and spatio-temporal frequency response of the eye. Saccades are rapid movements of the eyes while scanning a visual scene. “Saccadic eye movements” enable us to scan a greater area of the visual scene with the high-resolution fovea of the eye. On the other hand, “smooth pursuit” refers to movements of the eye while tracking a moving object, so that a moving image remains nearly static on the high-resolution fovea. Obviously, smooth pursuit eye movements affect the spatio-temporal frequency response of the eye. This effect can be modeled by tracking eye movements of the viewer and motion compensating the contrast sensitivity function accordingly.

2.1.4 Stereo/Depth Perception

Stereoscopy creates the illusion of 3D depth from two 2D images, a left and a right image that we should view with our left and right eyes. The horizontal distance between the eyes (called interpupilar distance) of an average human is 6.5 cm. The difference between the left and right retinal images is called binocular disparity. Our brain deducts depth information from this binocular disparity. 3D display technologies that enable viewing of right and left images with our right and left eyes, respectively, are discussed in Section 2.4.1.

Accomodation, Vergence, and Visual Discomfort

In human stereo vision, there are two oculomotor mechanisms, accommodation (where we focus) and vergence (where we look), which are reflex eye movements. Accommodation is the process by which the eye changes optical focus to maintain a clear image of an object as its distance from the eye varies. Vergence or convergence are the movements of both eyes to make sure the image of the object being looked at falls on the corresponding spot on both retinas. In real 3D vision, accommodation and vergence distances are the same. However, in flat 3D displays both left and right images are displayed on the plane of the screen, which determines the accommodation distance, while we look and perceive 3D objects at a different distance (usually closer to us), which is the vergence distance. This difference between accommodation and vergence distances may cause serious discomfort if it is greater than some tolerable amount. The depth of an object in the scene is determined by the disparity value, which is the displacement of a feature point between the right and left views. The depth, hence the difference between accommodation and vergence distances, can be controlled by 3D-video (disparity) processing at the content preparation stage to provide a comfortable 3D viewing experience.

Another cause of viewing discomfort is the cross-talk between the left and right views, which may cause ghosting and blurring. Cross-talk may result from imperfections in polarizing filters (passive glasses) or synchronization errors (active shutters), but it is more prominent in auto-stereoscopic displays where the optics may not completely prevent cross-talk between the left and right views.

Binocular Rivalry/Suppression Theory

Binocular rivalry is a visual perception phenomenon that is observed when different images are presented to right and left eyes [Wad 96]. When the quality difference between the right and left views are small, according to the suppression theory of stereo vision, the human eye can tolerate absence of high-frequency content in one of the views; therefore, two views can be represented at unequal spatial resolutions or quality. This effect has lead to asymmetric stereo-video coding, where only the dominant view is encoded with high fidelity (bitrate). The results have shown that perceived 3D-video quality of such asymmetric processed stereo pairs is similar to that of symmetrically encoded sequences at higher total bitrate. They also observe that scaling (zoom in/out) one or both views of a stereoscopic test sequence does not affect depth perception. We note that these results have been confirmed on short test sequences. It is not known whether asymmetric view resolution or quality would cause viewing discomfort over longer videos with increased period of viewing.