The Field Museum of Natural History, also known as The Field Museum, is a natural history museum in the city of Chicago, and is one of the largest such museums in the world.[3] The museum maintains its status as a premier natural history museum through the size and quality of its educational and scientific programs,[4][5] as well as due to its extensive scientific specimen and artifact collections,[6] the diverse, high quality permanent exhibitions,[7] which attract up to two million visitors annually, range from the earliest fossils to past and current cultures from around the world to interactive programming demonstrating today's urgent conservation needs.[8][9] It is named in honor of its first major benefactor, Marshall Field.

Additionally, the Field Museum maintains a temporary exhibition program of traveling shows as well as in-house produced topical exhibitions,[10] the professional staff maintains collections of over 24 million specimens and objects that provide the basis for the museum’s scientific research programs.[3][6][11] These collections include the full range of existing biodiversity, gems, meteorites, fossils, as well as rich anthropological collections and cultural artifacts from around the globe.[6][12][13][14] The Field Museum Library, which contains over 275,000 books, journals, and photo archives focused on biological systematics, evolutionary biology, geology, archaeology, ethnology and material culture, supports the Field Museum’s academic research faculty and exhibit development.[15]

The Field Museum academic faculty and scientific staff engage in field expeditions, in biodiversity and cultural research on all continents, in local and foreign student training, in stewardship of the rich specimen and artifact collections, and work in close collaboration with public programming exhibitions and education initiatives.[11][16][17][18]

The Field Museum and its collections originated from the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition and the artifacts displayed at the fair.[19][better source needed] In order to house the exhibits and collections assembled for the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair for future generations, Edward Ayer convinced the merchant Marshall Field to fund the establishment of a museum.[20] Originally titled the Columbian Museum of Chicago in honor of its origins, the Field Museum was incorporated by the State of Illinois on September 16, 1893, for the purpose of the "accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, and the preservation and exhibition of artifacts illustrating art, archaeology, science and history."[21] The Columbian Museum of Chicago occupied the only building remaining from the World's Columbian Exposition in Jackson Park, the Palace of Fine Arts, which now houses the Museum of Science and Industry.[9]

In 1905, the museum's name was changed from Columbian Museum of Chicago to Field Museum of Natural History to honor its first major benefactor, Marshall Field, and to reflect its focus on the natural sciences.[22] During the period from 1943[23][24] to 1966,[25] the museum was known as the Chicago Natural History Museum; in 1921, the Museum moved from its original location in Jackson Park to its present site on Chicago Park District property near downtown.[26] By the late 1930s the Field emerged as one of the three premier museums in the United States, the other two being the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH, New York) and the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC).[4]

The Field Museum has maintained its reputation through continuous growth, expanding the scope of collections and its scientific research output, in addition to the its award-winning exhibitions, outreach publications, and programs.[5][11][16][27] The Field Museum is part of Chicago’s lakefront Museum Campus that includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium and the Adler Planetarium.[8]

In 2015, it became public that an employee had defrauded the museum of $900,000 over a seven-year period to 2014.[28]

Animal exhibitions and dioramas such as Nature Walk, Mammals of Asia, and Mammals of Africa that allow visitors an up-close look at the diverse habitats that animals inhabit. Most notably featured are the infamous Lions of Tsavo.

The Grainger Hall of Gems and its large collection of diamonds and gems from around the world, and also includes a Louis Comfort Tiffany stained glass window. The Hall of Jades focuses on Chinese jade artifacts spanning 8,000 years.

The Underground Adventure gives visitors a bugs-eye look at the world beneath their feet. Visitors can see what insects and soil look like from that size, while learning about the biodiversity of soil and the importance of healthy soil.

Inside Ancient Egypt offers a glimpse into what life was like for ancient Egyptians. Twenty-three human mummies are on display as well as many mummified animals, the exhibit features a tomb that visitors can enter, complete with 5,000-year-old hieroglyphs. There are also many interactive displays, for both children and adults, as well as a shrine to the cat goddess Sekhmet and her kinder, less hostile form, Bastet. A popular feature of the exhibit is the replica (with original materials) of the chapel in the tomb of Unis-Ankh, the son of Unas (the last pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty).

Evolving Planet follows the history and the evolution of life on Earth over 4 billion years, from the first organism to present-day life. Visitors can see how mass extinctions in Earth’s history helped shape all the organisms. There is also an expanded dinosaur hall, with dinosaurs from every era, as well as interactive displays.

The Ancient Americas displays 13,000 years of human ingenuity and achievement in the Western Hemisphere, where hundreds of diverse societies thrived long before the arrival of Europeans. In this large permanent exhibition visitors can learn the epic story of the peopling of these continents, from the Arctic to the tip of South America.

DNA Discovery Center - Visitors can watch real scientists extract DNA from a variety of organisms. Museum goers can also speak to a live scientist through the glass every day and ask them any questions about DNA.

McDonald's Fossil Prep Lab - The public can watch as paleontologists prepare real fossils for study.

The Regenstein Pacific Conservation Laboratory - 1,600-square-foot (150 m2) conservation and collections facility. Visitors can watch as conservators work to preserve and study anthropological specimens from all over the world.

Other exhibitions include sections on Tibet and China, where visitors can view traditional clothing. There is also an exhibit on life in Africa, where visitors can learn about the many different cultures on the continent and an exhibit where visitors may "visit" several Pacific Islands, the museum houses an authentic 19th century Māori Meeting House, Ruatepupuke II,[29] from Tokomaru Bay, New Zealand. There are also a few vintage Mold-A-Rama machines that create injection-molded plastic dinosaurs collected by Chicago children.

On May 17, 2000, the Field Museum unveiled Sue, the most complete and best-preserved Tyrannosaurus rexfossil yet discovered. Sue is 12.3 m (40 feet) long,[30] stands 3.66 m (12 feet) high at the hips[31] and is 67 million years old. The fossil was named after the person who discovered it, Sue Hendrickson, and is commonly referred to as female, though the fossil's actual sex is unknown,[32] the original skull, located on the balcony overlooking Sue, was not mounted to the body due to the difficulties in examining the specimen 13 feet off the ground, and for nominal aesthetic reasons (the replica does not require a steel support under the mandible). An examination of the bones revealed that Sue died at age 28, a record for the fossilized remains of a T. rex.

Professionally managed and maintained specimen and artifact collections, such as those at the Field Museum of Natural History, are a major research resource for the national and international scientific community, supporting extensive research that tracks environmental changes, benefits homeland security, public health and safety, and serves taxonomy and systematics research.[33] Many of Field Museum’s collections rank among the top ten collections in the world, e.g., the bird skin collection ranks fourth worldwide;[34][35] the mollusk collection is among the five largest in North America;[36] the fish collection is ranked among the largest in the world.[37] The scientific collections of the Field Museum originate from the specimens and artifacts assembled between 1891 and 1893 for the World Columbian Exposition.[11][21][38][39][40] Already at its founding, the Field Museum had a large anthropological collection.[41] A large number of the early natural history specimens were purchased from Ward’s Natural History Establishment[42] in Rochester, New York. An extensive acquisition program, including large expeditions conducted by the museum’s curatorial staff resulted in substantial collection growth.[9][11][43] During the first 50 years of the museum’s existence, over 440 Field Museum expeditions acquired specimens from all parts of the world;[44] in addition, material was added through purchase, such as the Strecker butterfly collection[45] in 1908 for example. Extensive specimen material and artifacts were given to the museum by collectors and donors, such as the Boone collection of over 3,500 East Asian artifacts, consisting of books, prints and various objects; in addition, “orphaned collections” were and are taken in from other institutions such as universities that change their academic programs away from collections-based research. For example, already beginning in 1907, Field Museum accepted substantial botanical specimen collections from universities such as University of Chicago, Northwestern University and University of Illinois at Chicago, into its herbarium, these specimens are maintained and continuously available for researchers worldwide.[11] Targeted collecting in the US and abroad for research programs of the curatorial and collection staff continuously add high quality specimen material and artifacts; e.g., Dr. Robert Inger’s collection of frogs from Borneo as part of his research into the ecology and biodiversity of the Indonesian fauna.[13][46][47] Collecting of specimens and acquisition of artifacts is nowadays subject to clearly spelled-out policies and standards, with the goal to acquire only materials and specimens for which the provenance can be established unambiguously. All collecting of biological specimens is subject to proper collecting and export permits; frequently, specimens are returned to their country of origin after study. Field Museum stands among the leading institutions developing such ethics standards and policies; Field Museum was an early adopter of voluntary repatriation practices of ethnological and archaeological artifacts.[9][41]

Field Museum collections are professionally managed[48] by collection managers and conservators, who are highly skilled in preparation and preservation techniques; in fact, numerous maintenance and collection management tools were and are being advanced at Field Museum. For example, Carl Akeley’s development of taxidermy excellence produced the first natural-looking mammal and bird specimens for exhibition as well as for study.[49] Field Museum curators developed standards and best practices for the care of collections.[50] Conservators at the Field Museum have made notable contributions to the preservation of artifacts including the use of pheromone trapping for control of webbing clothes moths;[51] in a modern collections-bearing institution, the vast majority of the scientific specimens and artifact are stored in specially designed collection cabinets, placed in containers made of archival materials, with labels printed on acid-free paper, and specimens and artifact are stored away from natural light to avoid fading. Preservation fluids are continuously monitored and in many collections humidity and temperature are controlled to ensure the long-term preservation of the specimens and artifacts. Field Museum was an early adopter of positive-pressure based approaches to control of environment in display cases,[52] using control modules for humidity control in several galleries where room-level humidification was not practical,[53][54] the museum has also adopted a low-energy approach to maintain low humidity to prevent corrosion in archaeological metals using ultra-well-sealed barrier film micro-environments.[55] Other notable contributions include methods for dyeing Japanese papers to color match restorations in organic substrates,[56] the removal of display mounts from historic objects,[57] testing of collections for residual heavy metal pesticides,[58][59] presence of early plastics in collections,[60] the effect of sulfurous products in display cases,[61] and the use of light tubes in display cases.[62] Concordant with research developments, new collection types, such as frozen tissue collections, requiring new collecting and preservation techniques are added to the existing holdings.[63][64]

Collection management requires meticulous record keeping. Handwritten ledgers captured specimen and artifact data in the past. Field Museum was an early adopter of computerization of collection data beginning in the late 1970.[11][65] Field Museum contributes its digitized collection data to a variety of online groups and platforms, such as: HerpNet, VertNet and Antweb,[66] Global Biodiversity Information Facility or GBif,[67] and others. All Field Museum collection databases are unified and currently maintained in KE EMu software system, the research value of digitized specimen data and georeferenced locality data is widely acknowledged,[68] enabling analyses of distribution shifts due to climate changes, land use changes and others.[69]

During the World's Columbian Exposition, all acquired specimens and objects were on display;[38] the purpose of the World’s Fair was exhibition of these materials. For example, right after opening of the Columbian Museum of Chicago the mollusk collection occupied one entire exhibit hall, displaying 3,000 species of mollusks on about 1,260 square feet. By 1910, 20,000 shell specimens were on display, with an additional 15,000 ‘in storage’.[70]

In today’s museum, only a small fraction of the specimens and artifacts are publicly displayed, the vast majority of specimens and artifacts are used by a wide range of people in the museum and around the world. Field Museum curatorial faculty and their graduate students and postdoctoral trainees use the collections in their research and in training e.g., in formal high school and undergraduate training programs. Researchers from all over the world can search online for particular specimens and request to borrow them, which are shipped routinely under defined and published loan policies, to ensure that the specimens remain in good condition,[71] for example, in 2012, Field Museum’s Zoology collection processed 419 specimen loans, shipping over 42,000 specimens to researchers, per its Annual Report.[72] The collection specimens are an important cornerstone of research infrastructure in that each specimen can be re-examined and with the advancement of analytic techniques, new data can be gleaned from specimens that may have been collected more than 150 years ago.[73]

The library at the Field Museum was organized in 1893 for the museum's scientific staff, visiting researchers, students, and members of the general public as an resource for research, exhibition development and educational programs, the 275,000 volumes of the Main Research Collections concentrate on biological systematics, environmental and evolutionary biology, anthropology, botany, geology, archaeology, museology and related subjects.[citation needed] The Field Museum Library includes the following collections:

This private collection of Edward E. Ayer, the first president of the museum, contains virtually all the important works in the history of ornithology and is especially rich in color-illustrated works.[citation needed]

The Photo Archives contain over 250,000 images in the areas of anthropology, botany, geology and zoology and documents the history and architecture of the museum, its exhibitions, staff and scientific expeditions; in 2008 two collections from the Photo Archives became available via the Illinois Digital Archives (IDA): The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893[74] and Urban Landscapes of Illinois.[75] In April 2009, the Photo Archives became part of the Flickr Commons.[76]

The Field Museum offers opportunities for informal and more structured public learning. Exhibitions remain the primary means of informal education, but throughout its history the Museum has supplemented this approach with innovative educational programs, the Harris Loan Program, for example, begun in 1912, reaches out to children in Chicago area schools, offering artifacts, specimens, audiovisual materials, and activity kits.[78] The Department of Education, begun in 1922, offers classes, lectures, field trips, museum overnights and special events for families, adults and children.[citation needed] The Field has adopted production of the YouTube channel The Brain Scoop, hiring its host Emily Graslie full-time as 'Chief Curiosity Correspondent'.[citation needed]

The Museum's curatorial and scientific staff in the departments of Anthropology,[79] Botany,[80] Geology,[81] and Zoology[82] conducts basic research in systematic biology and anthropology, besides its responsibility for collections management, and educational programs, since its founding the Field Museum has been an international leader in evolutionary biology and paleontology, and archaeology and ethnography.[citation needed] It has long maintained close links, including joint teaching, students, seminars, with the University of Chicago and the University of Illinois at Chicago.[83] Professional symposia and lectures, like the annual A. Watson Armour III Spring Symposium, present scientific results to the international scientific community and the public at large.[citation needed]

Both exterior and interior views of the Field Museum of Natural History were used in the horror film Damien: Omen II (1978), the sequel to The Omen (1976), this included shots of the main hall, upper galleries and use of the front exterior for the final scene.

The Field Museum served as the setting in the horror film The Relic (1997). Many parts of the film, though, were created with computer graphics or with sets that bear only a passing similarity to the actual museum.

^Shopland, JM and L Breslauer (1998). The Anthropology Collections of the Field Museum. Chicago: The Field Museum.

^ abResetar, A and HK Voris (1997). Herpetology at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago: the First Hundred Years. Lawrence, Kansas: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.

^Lowther, P 1995. Ornithology at the Field Museum, pp145-161. In: Davis, W.E. Jr. and J.A. Jackson (eds). Contributions to the History of North American Ornithology. Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, 12, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

^Lowther1995, P (1995). "Ornithology at the Field Museum. In: Davis, W.E. Jr. and J.A. Jackson (eds). Contributions to the History of North American Ornithology". Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club. 12: 145–161.

^ abMeyer, AB (1905). Studies of the museums and kindred institutions of New York City, Albany, Buffalo, and Chicago, with notes on some European institutions [published in English, translated from German, in-depth comparative review of Field Museum exhibits, collections and operations around 1899- 1900]. Smithsonian Institution, Government Printing office, No 138. pp. 311–608.

^Emerson, SB (1989). "Introduction, in: Emerson, S.B. (ed.) Contributions in celebration of the distinguished scholarship of Robert F. Inger on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday". Fieldiana, Zoology, Festschrift: v–vii.

^Kong, CP (1989). "My field trip to Ulu Kinabatangnan, North Borneo, with Robert Inger, in: Emerson, S.B. (ed.) Contributions in celebration of the distinguished scholarship of Robert F. Inger on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday". Fieldiana, Zoology, Festschrift: vii–viii.

^Minderop, J; C Podsiki; RE Norton (2007). "Deinstallation and cleaning of the 1950s galleries of ethnographical and archaeological material from the Americas at the Field Museum, Chicago". Objects Specialty Group Postprints. 11: 103–125.

1.
Florida Museum of Natural History
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The Florida Museum of Natural History is the State of Floridas official state-sponsored and chartered natural history museum. Its main facilities are located at 3215 Hull Road on the campus of the University of Florida in Gainesville, the main research facility and former public exhibits building, Dickinson Hall, is located on the east side of campus at the corner of Museum Road and Newell Drive. On April 18,2012, the AIAs Florida Chapter placed Dickinson Hall on its list of Florida Architecture,100 Years,100 Places as the Florida Museum of Natural History / Formerly Florida Museum of Natural Sciences. Powell Halls permanent public exhibits focus on the flora, fauna, fossils, the museum does not charge for admission to most exhibits, the exceptions are the Butterfly Rainforest and certain traveling exhibits. The museums collections were first used for teaching at Florida Agriculture College in Lake City in the 1800s, the museum was chartered as the states official Natural History Museum by the Florida Legislature in 1917. The role of the Florida Museum of Natural History as the natural history museum for the State of Florida is defined by Florida Statute §1004. Dickinson Hall, opened in 1971, is located on Museum Road and it also houses a state-of-the-art Molecular Systematics and Evolutionary Genetics lab. Located in the University of Florida Cultural Plaza, Powell Hall was constructed in 1995 on Hull Road near S. W. 34th Street and it serves, along with the connected McGuire Center, as the main exhibits and public programs facility. This research and education program is an extension of the museums Southwest Florida Project, in 2008 the Randell Research Center completed a two-year program to plant more than 800 native trees that replace ones destroyed in the 2004 Hurricanes Charley and Frances. In 2000, William W. McGuire, then CEO of UnitedHealth Group, gave a $4.2 million gift to establish the William W. and Nadine M. McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity. This gift was one of the largest private gifts ever given to research on insects and was matched from the State of Florida Alec Courtelis Facilities Enhancement Challenge Grant Program. The McGuires later gave another $3 million to fund construction of the center. This new $12 million facility for Lepidoptera research and public exhibits opened in August 2004 and it started with around four million specimens, with space for significant further expansion. The collection brings together those from the Allyn Museum in Sarasota, other University of Florida collections, the McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity serves both research and public education functions. Some of the laboratories and collection can be viewed through glass panels at the back of the museum. The Butterfly Rainforest is a display of butterflies in a large. It is the exhibit in the McGuire Center which is accessed from the main entrance of Powell Hall. At any given time, the exhibit contains 60 to 80 butterfly and moth species, the butterflies are brought from around the world as chrysalises and released into the exhibit after emerging as adults

2.
Lake Shore Drive
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Lake Shore Drive is an expressway running parallel with and alongside the shoreline of Lake Michigan through Chicago, Illinois, USA. Except for the north of Foster Avenue, Lake Shore Drive is designated as part of U. S. Highway 41. From the Chicago River south to 57th Street was named Leif Ericson Drive in 1927, the roadway was nicknamed Field Boulevard. The entire road was named Lake Shore Drive in 1946, Lake Shore Drives origins date back to Potter Palmer, who coerced the city to build the street adjacent to his lakefront property to enhance its value. Palmer built his castle at 1350 N, the drive was originally intended for leisurely strolls for the wealthy in their carriages, but as the auto age dawned it took on a different role completely. In 1937, the double-decker Link Bridge over the Chicago River opened, along with viaducts over rail yards, the lower level was intended for a railroad connection, but it was never used until LSD was rebuilt in 1986. At the time the bridge was built, it was the longest and widest bascule bridge in the world, the Lake Shore Drive and Link Bridge Photograph Album, c1937, documents the bridges construction. The album is held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago, North of the river, LSD intersected Ohio Street at grade, and then passed over Grand Avenue and Illinois Street on its way to the bridge South of the river. LSD came from the south on its current alignment, but continued straight at the north of Monroe Street. It intersected Randolph Street at grade and then continued north above the Illinois Central Railroads yard, at the river, it made a sharp turn to the right, and another sharp turn to the left onto the bridge. This reverse curve was known locally as the S-Curve or the S-Turn, the landfill used for the 1930s extension was mostly dirt, but the 1950s extension included rubble and debris from the destruction of homes razed for the construction of the Congress Expressway. Portions of the drive between Irving Park Road and Foster Avenue still contain the original concrete from the 1930s, Sheridan Road south of Foster narrows to 2 lanes of traffic with street parking on each side as well. In the 1950s and 1960s, Illinois and Cook County presented plans for an Interstate 494 to run part of LSD. After I-494 was moved to the Crosstown Expressway, a new I-694 designation was formed for the LSD upgrade that never came to be, when Wacker Drive was extended east to LSD in the 1970s, its upper level ended at LSD at the west curve. A new development at the northeast corner of the Randolph Street intersection resulted in an extension of Randolph across LSD, construction began in 1982 on a realignment of LSD south of the river. A whole new alignment was built, greatly smoothing the S-curve, the northbound side opened in October 1985, and the southbound side opened in November 1986. A new lower level was built, using the level of the bridge, and providing access to the new Wacker Drive. The old road south of Randolph became a Cancer Survivors Plaza, the rest, between Randolph and Wacker, was kept for several years as Field Boulevard, but was demolished in 1994

3.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage

4.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation

5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

6.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate

7.
Graham, Anderson, Probst & White
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Graham, Anderson, Probst & White was a Chicago architectural firm that was founded in 1912 as Graham, Burnham & Co. This firm was the successor to D. H. Burnham & Co. through Daniel Burnhams surviving partner, Ernest R. Graham, and Burnhams sons, Hubert Burnham and Daniel Burnham Jr. In 1917, the Burnhams left to form their own practice, which eventually became Burnham Brothers, and Graham, – Graham, Peirce Anderson, Edward Mathias Probst, and Howard Judson White – formed the resulting practice. The firm also employed Victor Andre Matteson, Graham, Anderson, Probst & White was the largest architectural firm under one roof during the first half of the twentieth century. The firms importance to Chicagos architectural legacy cannot be overstated, nor can its connection to Burnham, the firm was headquartered in Burnhams own Railway Exchange Building. Its only close rival was the equally prolific Holabird and Root, GAP&W also created the iconic Terminal Tower in Cleveland and Federal Reserve Bank in Kansas City. Anderson died in 1924, with Graham and White following just weeks apart in 1936, surviving partner Edward M. Probst took over the firm, assisted by his sons Marvin Probst and Edward E. Probst. After Mr. Probsts death in 1942, son Marvin G. Probst took over as firm president, Edward E. Probst left the firm about 1947. Just prior to Marvin Probsts death in 1970, the firm was sold to an employee, from 1970 to 1993 William Surman was president of the firm. After his death in 1993, the practice was run by his son Robert Surman till the firm closed its doors in the fall of 2006 and those early buildings are still popular favorites today. The firms ultimate expression of the Art Deco style was found in its design of the 1931 Field Building and it was matched that year by Holabird and Roots equally stunning Chicago Board of Trade Building. After 1931, GAP&W for the most part stopped referencing the Beaux-Arts style, Field Museum of Natural History Conway Building,1913 Continental and Commercial Bank Building,1914 Marshall Field & Co. Shedd Aquarium, 1925–31 Pittsfield Building, 1926–27 State Line Generating Plant, 1926–29 Terminal Tower, Public Square, Cleveland, like most of the other prominent architectural firms of the early 20th Century, GAP&W frequently used sculpture to decorate its building designs. As was the custom of the era GAP&W had specific artists that preferred to work with

8.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art

9.
Natural history museum
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Some museums have public exhibits to share the beauty and wonder of the natural world with the public, these are referred to as public museums. Some museums feature non-natural history collections in addition to their collections, such as ones related to history, art. Renaissance cabinets of curiosities were private collections that typically included exotic specimens of natural history, sometimes faked, the first natural history museum was possibly that of Swiss scholar Conrad Gessner, established in Zürich in the mid-16th century. The Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle, established in Paris in 1635, was the first natural history museum to take the form that would be recognized as a history museum today. Early natural history museums offered limited accessibility, as they were private collections or holdings of scientific societies. The Ashmolean Museum, opened in 1683, was the first natural history museum to grant admission to the general public, see List of natural history museums for examples grouped by country

10.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene

11.
Conservation (ethic)
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Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the world, its fisheries, habitats. Secondary focus is on conservation, including non-renewable resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels, and energy conservation. Those who follow the conservation ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work toward conservation goals are termed conservationists, the terms conservation and preservation are frequently conflated outside of the academic, scientific, and professional literatures. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that is protection is carried out is the key difference, Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use, during the environmental movement of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged, conservationists and preservationists. More Utilitarian schools of conservation seek a proper valuation of local and global impacts of human activity upon nature in their effect upon human well being, now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and this is a view common in the modern environmental movement. These movements have diverged but they have deep and common roots in the conservation movement, in the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of Henry David Thoreaus Walden established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man, in common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. Carl F. Jordan defines the term as, biological conservation as being a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish. While this usage is not new, the idea of conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, biogeography, anthropology, economy. The term conservation itself may cover the concepts such as diversity, genetic diversity. These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity, especially by Greens, much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to commercialism and globalization. Slow food is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc, — a long time before there were national parks and national nature reserves. Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the live, still enjoy very little effective management. The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the areas in developing

12.
Marshall Field
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Marshall Field was an American entrepreneur and the founder of Marshall Field and Company, the Chicago-based department stores. His business was renowned for its level of quality and customer service. Field is also known for some of his donations, providing funding for the Field Museum of Natural History. Marshall Field was born on a farm in Conway, Franklin County, Massachusetts and his family was descended from Puritans who had come to America as early as 1650. At the age of 17, he moved to Pittsfield, Berkshire County, Massachusetts and he left Massachusetts at the age of 18 for new opportunities in the rapidly expanding West. Field quickly rose through the ranks of Cooley, Farwell & Co. to become partner in 1862. Due to Cooleys having to leave the firm for financial reasons, John V. Farwell appreciated Field’s keen business acumen, however, when it came to personality, the two were very different. Field’s stuffy efficiency rode on Farwell’s more relaxed and cheery demeanor, at a time of much more personal interactions, this partnership wouldn’t last long. In 1862, Field purchased a partnership with the firm of Farwell. In January 1865, Field and a partner, Levi Leiter, the new firm became known as Field, Palmer, Leiter & Co. In 1867, after Field and Leiter could afford to buy him out, Palmer withdrew from the firm, in 1867 Field, Leiter & Company reported revenues of $12 million. Like many Chicago businessman, Fields company was affected by the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The company also survived the Panic of 1873 because of their low levels of debt. By 1881 Field had forced Leiter to sell his share of the business, unconditional refunds, consistent pricing and international imports are among the Field innovations that became standards in quality retailing. Fields employees were instructed not to push products on uninterested customers as was common practice in stores of the period. Though most famous today for his business, during his lifetime his wholesale business made far more money. During the 1880s, Fields wholesale business generated 5 times more revenue than retail annually, the wholesale business even had its own landmark building, the Marshall Fields Wholesale Store, erected in 1887. Revenue from the Marshall Fields retail business did not surpass the companys wholesale business until after Fields death, Field was highly suspicious of organized labor throughout his career, and prohibited unionization among his employees

13.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”

14.
Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)
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The Museum of Science and Industry is located in Chicago, Illinois, in Jackson Park, in the Hyde Park neighborhood between Lake Michigan and The University of Chicago. It is housed in the former Palace of Fine Arts from the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition, based on 2009 attendance, the Museum of Science and Industry was the second largest cultural attraction in Chicago. David R. Mosena has been President and CEO of the Museum since 1998, the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition was designed by Charles B. Atwood for D. H. Burnham & Co, unlike the other White City buildings, it was constructed with a brick substructure under its plaster facade. After the Worlds Fair, it housed the Columbian Museum. When the Field Museum moved to a new building near downtown Chicago in 1920, Art Institute of Chicago professor Lorado Taft led a public campaign to restore the building and turn it into another art museum, one devoted to sculpture. However, after a few years, the building was selected as the site for a new science museum, at this time, the Commercial Club of Chicago was interested in establishing a science museum in Chicago. Julius Rosenwald, the Sears, Roebuck and Company president and philanthropist, during its conversion into the MSI, the buildings exterior was re-cast in limestone to retain its 1893 Beaux Arts look. The interior was replaced with a new one in Art Moderne style designed by Alfred P. Shaw, Rosenwald established the museum organization in 1926 but declined to have his name on the building. For the first few years, the museum was called the Rosenwald Industrial Museum. In 1928, the name of the museum was changed to the Museum of Science. Rosenwalds vision was to create a museum in the style of the Deutsches Museum in Munich, sewell Avery, another businessman, had supported the museum within the Commercial Club and was selected as its first president of the board of directors. The museum conducted a search for the first director. MSIs Board of Directors selected Waldemar Kaempffert, then the editor of The New York Times. He assembled the museums staff and directed the organizing and constructing the exhibits. In order to prepare the museum, Kaempffert and his staff visited the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Science Museum in Kensington, Kaempffert was instrumental in developing close ties with the science departments of the University of Chicago, which supplied much of the scholarship for the exhibits. The new Museum of Science and Industry opened to the public in three stages between 1933 and 1940, the first opening ceremony took place during the Century of Progress Exposition. Two of the presidents, a number of curators and other staff members

15.
Jackson Park (Chicago)
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Jackson Park is a 500-acre park on Chicagos South Side, located at 6401 South Stony Island Avenue in the Woodlawn community area. It extends into the South Shore and Hyde Park community areas, bordering Lake Michigan, the parkland was first developed as the host site of the Chicago Worlds Fair in 1893, memorialized today by the Statue of the Republic. The Museum of Science and Industry resides in the palace in the park from that era. The park includes trails, playing fields, a beach, golf course. It is the site of the Barack Obama Presidential Center. After the state created the South Park Commission in 1869. However, their designs were not put into place at that time, one of the landmarks that recalls the 1893 Columbian Exposition is the Statue of the Republic, only it is now a replica one-third the size of the original. The designers used the Statue of Liberty as inspiration when they were creating the original, today the statue stands at the site of the 1893 Expositions Administration Building. Known originally as South Park, the landscape had eastern and western divisions connected by a boulevard named the Midway Plaisance. The eastern division became known as Lake Park, however, in 1880 the commission asked the public to suggest official names for both the eastern and western divisions, the names Jackson and Washington were proposed. In the following year, Lake Park was renamed Jackson Park to honor Andrew Jackson, in 1890, Chicago won the honor of hosting the Worlds Columbian Exposition. In 1891, Jackson Park was selected as its site, Olmsted and Chicagos architect and planner, Daniel H. Burnham, with his partner John Wellborn Root, laid out the fairgrounds. A team of architects and sculptors created the White City of plaster buildings, the historic Worlds Fair opened to visitors on May 1,1893. It was Roots last project, as he caught pneumonia and died in January 1891, after the fair closed, the site was transformed back into parkland, as the fair buildings were not designed to be permanent structures. Jackson Park featured the first public course west of the Alleghenies. Most of the park burned to the ground after the fair closed,1894 read THE WHITE CITY IN FLAMES, FIRE DESTROYS THE FAIREST OF THE BEAUTIFUL BUILDINGS. The Palace of Fine Arts decayed after the fair until it was reopened as the Museum of Science, sears, Roebuck & Company president Julius Rosenwald donated the initial investment. During World War II, vandals damaged the Japanese Garden

16.
Museum Campus
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Museum Campus sits adjacent to Northerly Island along the waterfront. The area is landscaped with greenery and flora as well as jogging paths, a picturesque promenade along Solidarity Drive, an isthmus, links Northerly Island to the mainland. The Museum Campus opened on June 4,1998, when the northbound lanes of Lake Shore Drive were moved west of Soldier Field following the route of the southbound lanes. By removing the roadway which bisected the area, Museum Campus was created into a space for the enjoyment of both residents and tourists. In 2014, a consortium of museums in or near the University of Chicago, however, these plans were cancelled in June 2016 due to opposition from the Friends of the Parks advocacy group

17.
Shedd Aquarium
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Shedd Aquarium is an indoor public aquarium in Chicago, Illinois in the United States that opened on May 30,1930. The aquarium contains 32,000 animals, and was for some time the largest indoor aquarium in the world with 5,000,000 US gallons of water, Shedd Aquarium was the first inland aquarium with a permanent saltwater fish collection. Located on Lake Michigan, it is surrounded by Museum Campus Chicago, which it shares with the Adler Planetarium and it contains 1500 species including fish, marine mammals, birds, snakes, amphibians, and insects. The aquarium received awards for best exhibit from the Association of Zoos and Aquariums for Seahorse Symphony in 1999, Amazon Rising in 2001, Shedd Aquarium was the gift of retail leader John G. Shedd, a protégé of Marshall Field, to the city of Chicago. Although Shedd only lived long enough to see the architects first drawings for the aquarium, his widow, Mary R. Shedd, the aquarium cost $3,000,000 to build, and initially included 132 exhibit tanks. Groundbreaking took place on November 2,1927, and construction was completed on December 19,1929, as one of the first inland aquariums in the world, the Shedd had to rely on a custom-made railroad car, the Nautilus, for the transport of fish and seawater. In 1930,20 railroad tank cars made eight round trips between Key West and Chicago to transport 1,000,000 US gallons of seawater for the Shedds saltwater exhibits, in 1933, Chicago hosted its second worlds fair, the Century of Progress. The Aquarium was located north of the fairgrounds, and the museum gained exposure to a large international crowd. In 1971, Shedd Aquarium added one of its most popular exhibits and that same year, the aquarium acquired its first research vessel, a 75-foot boat for exploring the Caribbean, manned by a crew to conduct field research and collect specimens. In 1985, this boat was replaced with the current vessel. In 1987, Shedd Aquarium was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, Ted A. Beattie has been the president and CEO of the aquarium since 1994. Coughlin will be taking over duties as President and CEO of the company in the Spring of 2016, there are several permanent exhibits at Shedd, Waters of the World, Caribbean Reef, Amazon Rising, Wild Reef, and the Abbott Oceanarium. The oldest galleries in the aquarium feature exhibits on oceans, rivers, islands and lakes, species on exhibit include Haraldmeiers mantella, a giant Pacific octopus, Gymnarchus, blue iguana, starfish, seahorses, and alligator snapping turtle. The Caribbean Reef exhibit was built in 1971, on the site of the very first exhibit. A feature of this exhibit is a diver interacts with the animals while talking with the people. A part of the exhibit is a 90, 000-US-gallon circular tank that allows for maximum walk-around viewing and it was one of the first habitats to display schooling fish. It is also home to the green sea turtle, Nickel, as well as bonnethead sharks, stingrays. The tank is near the center of the first floor and it is adjacent to Amazon Rising and Waters of the World, and above Wild Reef

18.
Adler Planetarium
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The Adler Planetarium is a public museum dedicated to the study of astronomy and astrophysics. It was founded in 1930 by Chicago business leader Max Adler and it is located on the northeast tip of Northerly Island at the shore of Lake Michigan in Chicago, Illinois. The Adler is Americas first planetarium and part of Chicagos Museum Campus, the Adlers mission is to inspire exploration and understanding of the Universe. The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on May 12,1930, for its design, architect Ernest A. Grunsfeld, Jr. was awarded the gold medal of the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1931. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987, the Adler is home to three full size theaters, extensive space science exhibitions, and a significant collection of antique scientific instruments and print materials. In addition, the Adler boasts the Doane Observatory, one of the only research-active and this lakeside observatory is the only place in Chicago where the public can see planets, stars, and galaxies up-close and in person. In 1923, Oskar von Miller of the Deutsches Museum commissioned the Carl Zeiss Works to design a mechanism that projects an image of celestial bodies onto a dome and this was achieved by Walther Bauersfeld and the invention became known as a planetarium when it debuted the next year. Its popularity quickly spread, and by 1929, there were fifteen in Germany, two in Italy, one in Russia, and one in Austria. Max Adler, a executive with Sears, Roebuck & Co. in Chicago, Illinois, had recently retired to focus on philanthropic endeavors, primarily on behalf of the local musical. However, after listening to a describe a Munich planetarium. Adler visited the Munich planetarium with his cousin, architect Ernest Grunsfeld and he also learned about a sale of astronomical instruments and antiques by W. M. Mensing in Amsterdam, which he purchased the following year. The Mensing Collection became the focus of the Astronomical Museum, Adler offered $500,000 in 1928 for the construction of the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere. The planetarium was originally considered for part of the Museum of Science and Industry, Rosenwald was determined to convert the former Palace of Fine Arts of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition into a museum, but was struggling to manage the many required renovations. These delays caused Adler to look elsewhere for a location, the Adler Planetarium and Astronomical Museum opened on Adlers birthday, May 12,1930. The Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects awarded Grunsfield a gold medal for his design, the planetarium hosted the 44th meeting of the American Astronomical Society later that year. 1923 - Walther Bauersfeld, scientific director of the firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena, Germany, with this innovation, the modern planetarium is born. 1928 - Max Adler and architect Ernest Grunsfeld travel to Germany, Adler is so impressed by the modern planetarium that he donates funds to construct the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere. 1930 - Max Adler purchases the collection of A. W, Mensing at an auction in Amsterdam

19.
Triceratops
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It is one of the last known non-avian dinosaur genera, and became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. The term Triceratops, which literally means three-horned face, is derived from the Greek τρί- meaning three, κέρας meaning horn, and ὤψ meaning face, the exact placement of the Triceratops genus within the ceratopsid group has been debated by paleontologists. Two species, T. horridus and T. prorsus, are considered valid, research published in 2010 suggested that the contemporaneous Torosaurus, a ceratopsid long regarded as a separate genus, represents Triceratops in its mature form. The view was disputed and examination of more fossil evidence is expected to settle the debate. Triceratops has been documented by numerous remains collected since the genus was first described in 1889, Paleontologist John Scannella observed, It is hard to walk out into the Hell Creek Formation and not stumble upon a Triceratops weathering out of a hillside. Forty-seven complete or partial skulls were discovered in just that area from 2000 to 2010, specimens representing life stages from hatchling to adult have been found. The functions of the frills and three distinctive facial horns on its head have long inspired debate, traditionally, these have been viewed as defensive weapons against predators. Individual Triceratops are estimated to have reached about 7.9 to 9.0 m in length,2.9 to 3.0 m in height, the most distinctive feature is their large skull, among the largest of all land animals. The largest known skull is estimated to have been 2.5 metres in length when complete, and could reach almost a third of the length of the entire animal. A specimen of T. horridus named Kelsey measured 7.3 metres long with a 1.98 metres skull, stood about 2.3 metres tall, a Triceratops 8 metres long has been estimated by Gregory S. Paul to have massed 9.3 tonnes. It bore a single horn on the snout, above the nostrils, in 2010, paleontologists revealed a fossil with 115-centimetre-long horn cores, housed and displayed at the Museum of the Rockies in Montana. To the rear of the skull was a short, bony frill. Most other ceratopsids had large fenestrae in their frills, while those of Triceratops were noticeably solid, T. horridus can be distinguished from T. prorsus by having a shallower snout. Triceratops species possessed a sturdy build, with limbs, short hands with three hooves each, and short feet with four hooves each. Although certainly quadrupedal, the posture of these dinosaurs has long been the subject of some debate, originally, it was believed that the front legs of the animal had to be sprawling at angles from the thorax in order to better bear the weight of the head. This stance can be seen in paintings by Charles Knight and Rudolph Zallinger, the hands and forearms of Triceratops retained a fairly primitive structure compared to other quadrupedal dinosaurs such as thyreophorans and many sauropods. In those two groups, the forelimbs of quadrupedal species were usually rotated so that the hands faced forward with palms backward as the animals walked. In Triceratops, the weight of the body was carried by only the first three fingers of the hand, while digits 4 and 5 were vestigial and lacked claws or hooves

20.
Tsavo lion
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The Tsavo Man-Eaters were a pair of man-eating Tsavo lions responsible for the deaths of a number of construction workers on the Kenya-Uganda Railway from March through December 1898. As part of the construction of a railway linking Uganda with the Indian Ocean at Kilindini Harbour, the project was led by Lieutenant-Colonel John Henry Patterson. During the next nine months of construction, two maneless male Tsavo lions stalked the campsite, dragging Indian workers from their tents at night, after the new attacks, hundreds of workers fled from Tsavo, halting construction on the bridge. Patterson set traps and tried several times to ambush the lions at night from a tree, after repeated unsuccessful attempts, he shot the first lion on 9 December 1898. Twenty days later, the lion was found and killed. The first lion killed measured 9 feet 8 inches from nose to tip of tail and it took eight men to carry the carcass back to camp. The construction crew returned and finished the bridge in February 1899, the exact number of people killed by the lions is unclear. Patterson gave several figures, overall claiming that there were 135 victims, Patterson writes in his account that he wounded the first lion with one bullet from a high-calibre rifle. This shot struck the lion in its leg, but it escaped. Later, it returned at night and began stalking Patterson as he tried to hunt it and he shot it through the shoulder, penetrating its heart with a more powerful rifle and found it lying dead the next morning not far from his platform. The second lion was shot at most nine times, five with the same rifle, the first was fired from atop a scaffolding Patterson had built near goat kills done by the lion. Two, both from the rifle were shot into it eleven days later as the lion was stalking Patterson. He claimed it died gnawing on a tree branch, still trying to reach him. After 25 years as Pattersons floor rugs, the skins were sold to the Chicago Field Museum in 1924 for a sum of $5,000. The skins arrived at the museum in very poor condition, the lions were then reconstructed and are now on permanent display along with their skulls. The two lion specimens in Chicagos Field Museum are known as FMNH23970, the mount and FMNH23969. This analysis estimated that FMNH23969 ate the equivalent of 10.5 humans and it appears that Colonel Patterson may have exaggerated his claims as have subsequent investigators. The diet of the victims would also affect their isotopic signature, a low meat diet would produce a signature more typical of herbivores in the victims, affecting the outcome of the test

21.
Louis Comfort Tiffany
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Louis Comfort Tiffany was an American artist and designer who worked in the decorative arts and is best known for his work in stained glass. He is the American artist most associated with the Art Nouveau, Tiffany was affiliated with a prestigious collaborative of designers known as the Associated Artists, which included Lockwood de Forest, Candace Wheeler, and Samuel Colman. Tiffany designed stained glass windows and lamps, glass mosaics, blown glass, ceramics, jewelry, enamels and he was the first Design Director at his family company, Tiffany & Co. founded by his father Charles Lewis Tiffany. Louis Comfort Tiffany was born in New York City, the son of Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany and Company and he attended school at Pennsylvania Military Academy in West Chester, Pennsylvania, and Eagleswood Military Academy in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. His first artistic training was as a painter, studying under George Inness in Eagleswood, New Jersey and Samuel Colman in Irvington and he also studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City in 1866–67 and with salon painter Leon-Adolphe-Auguste Belly in 1868–69. Bellys landscape paintings had a influence on Tiffany. Tiffany started out as a painter, but became interested in glassmaking from about 1875, in 1879, he joined with Candace Wheeler, Samuel Colman and Lockwood de Forest to form Louis Comfort Tiffany and Associated American Artists. The business was short-lived, lasting four years. The group made designs for wallpaper, furniture, and textiles and he later opened his own glass factory in Corona, New York, determined to provide designs that improved the quality of contemporary glass. Tiffanys leadership and talent, as well as his fathers money and connections and he commissioned Tiffany, who had begun to make a name for himself in New York society for the firms interior design work, to redo the state rooms, which Arthur found charmless. The Tiffany screen and other Victorian additions were all removed in the Roosevelt renovations of 1902, a desire to concentrate on art in glass led to the breakup of the firm in 1885 when Tiffany chose to establish his own glassmaking firm that same year. The first Tiffany Glass Company was incorporated December 1,1885, in the beginning of his career, Tiffany used cheap jelly jars and bottles because they had the mineral impurities that finer glass lacked. When he was unable to convince fine glassmakers to leave the impurities in, Tiffany used opalescent glass in a variety of colors and textures to create a unique style of stained glass. Use of the glass itself to create stained glass pictures was motivated by the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement. Tiffany, Duffner and Kimberly, along with La Farge, had learned their craft at the same glasshouses in Brooklyn in the late 1870s. In 1889 at the Paris Exposition, he is said to have been Overwhelmed by the work of Émile Gallé. He also met artist Alphonse Mucha, in 1893, his company also introduced the term Favrile in conjunction with his first production of blown glass at his new glass factory. Some early examples of his lamps were exhibited in the 1893 Worlds Fair in Chicago, at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, he won a gold medal with his stained glass windows The Four Seasons He trademarked Favrile on November 13,1894

22.
Jade
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Jade is an ornamental green rock. The middle member of series with an intermediate composition is called actinolite. The higher the content, the greener the colour. Jadeite is a sodium- and aluminium-rich pyroxene, the precious form of jadeite jade is a microcrystalline interlocking growth of jadeite crystals. The English word jade is derived from the Spanish term piedra de ijada or loin stone, from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of the loins, nephrite is derived from lapis nephriticus, a Latin translation of the Spanish piedra de ijada. Nephrite and jadeite were used from prehistoric periods for hardstone carving, jadeite has about the same hardness as quartz. Nephrite is slightly softer but tougher than jadeite and it was not until the 19th century that a French mineralogist, Alexis Damour, determined that jade was in fact two different minerals. Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, additionally, jade was used for adze heads, knives, and other weapons, which can be delicately shaped. As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects. Jadeite measures between 6.0 and 7.0 Mohs hardness, and nephrite between 6.0 and 6.5, so it can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, of the two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today, Burma and Guatemala are the principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area of Mogaung in the Myitkyina District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite. Nephrite jade was used mostly in pre-1800 China as well as in New Zealand, the Pacific Coast and the Atlantic Coast of North America, Neolithic Europe, in addition to Mesoamerica, jadeite was used by Neolithic Japanese and European cultures. Dushan Jade was being mined as early as 6000 BC, in the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings. Jade was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to jade burial suits, Jade was considered the imperial gem. There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in quarries and as pebbles. The river jade collection is concentrated in the Yarkand, the White Jade, jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, pink, lavender, orange and brown colours was imported from Burma to China only after about 1800. The vivid green variety became known as Feicui or Kingfisher Jade, in the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had a special significance, comparable with that of gold and diamonds in the West

23.
Insect
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Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea

24.
Soil
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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake

25.
Egyptians
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The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that Ancient Egypt was a predominately Black civilization, as the term is currently understood in modern American ethic perception. Mainstream scholars recognize that many indigenous Egyptians, including several Pharaohs, were of ancestry that, in the modern era, the Black Egyptian hypothesis goes a lot further, claiming that Egypt, from north to south, was a black civilization. At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic script in Cairo in 1974, some modern scholars such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Chancellor Williams, Cheikh Anta Diop, John G. Jackson, Ivan van Sertima, Martin Bernal, the frequently criticized Journal of African Civilizations has continually advocated that Egypt should be viewed as a Black civilization. Diop and others believed the views were fueled by scientific racism. Diop used an approach to counteract prevailing views on the Ancient Egyptians origins. Since the second half of the 20th century, most scholars have held that modern notions of race to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. The focus of some experts who study population biology has been to consider whether or not the Ancient Egyptians were primarily biologically North African rather than to which race they belonged, in 1975, the mummy of Ramesses II was taken to France for preservation. The mummy was also tested by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Professor Ceccaldi determined that, Hair, astonishingly preserved, showed some complementary data - especially about pigmentation, the description given here refers to a fair-skinned person with wavy ginger hair. Keita wrote that There is no reason to believe that the primary ancestors of the Egyptian population emerged and evolved outside of northeast Africa. Stuart Tyson Smith writes in the 2001 Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt that Any characterization of race of the ancient Egyptians depends on modern cultural definitions, not on scientific study. Thus, by modern American standards it is reasonable to characterize the Egyptians as black, several Ancient Greek historians noted that Egyptians had complexions that were melanchroes. There is considerable controversy over the translation of melanchroes, most scholars translate it as black. Alan B Lloyd wrote that there is no justification for relating this description to negroes. Melanchroes could denote any colour from bronzed to black and negroes are not the physical type to show curly hair. These characteristics would certainly be found in many Egs, ancient and modern, some of the most often quoted historians are Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus. Herodotus states in a few passages that the Egyptians were black/dark, lucian observes an Egyptian boy and notices that he is not merely black, but has thick lips

26.
Mummy
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Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 CE. Mummies of humans and other animals have found on every continent. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats, in addition to the well-known mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE. The oldest known naturally mummified corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old. These substances were defined as mummia, the OED defines a mummy as the body of a human being or animal embalmed as a preparation for burial, citing sources from 1615 CE onward. However, Chambers Cyclopædia and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows, also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow. Wasps of the genus Aleiodes are known as mummy wasps because they wrap their prey as mummies. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith, British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922, pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands, more than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique, in more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally unwrap mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle. Mummies are typically divided into one of two categories, anthropogenic or spontaneous

27.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters, cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts are derived from hieroglyphic writing, the writing system continued to be used throughout the Late Period, as well as the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, with the closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost, and the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphs would only be solved in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός, a compound of ἱερός and γλύφω, supposedly a calque of an Egyptian phrase mdw·w-nṯr gods words. The glyphs themselves were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ γράμματα the sacred engraved letters, the word hieroglyph has become a noun in English, standing for an individual hieroglyphic character. As used in the sentence, the word hieroglyphic is an adjective. Hieroglyphs emerged from the artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c.4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing, proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called Scorpion I recovered at Abydos in 1998. The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, by the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000. However, given the lack of evidence, no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt. Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, as writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic and demotic scripts. These variants were more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental, the Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule, and after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish true Egyptians from some of the foreign conquerors, another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally

28.
Sekhmet
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In Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet (/ˈsɛkˌmɛt/ or Sachmis is a warrior goddess as well as goddess of healing. She is depicted as a lioness, the fiercest hunter known to the Egyptians and it was said that her breath formed the desert. She was seen as the protector of the pharaohs and led them in warfare. Her cult was so dominant in the culture that when the first pharaoh of the dynasty, Amenemhat I, moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy. Religion, the lineage, and the authority to govern were intrinsically interwoven in ancient Egypt during its approximately three millennia of existence. Sekhmet also is a Solar deity, sometimes called the daughter of the sun god Ra and often associated with the goddesses Hathor and she bears the Solar disk and the uraeus which associates her with Wadjet and royalty. With these associations she can be construed as being an arbiter of the goddess Maat in the Judgment Hall of Osiris, associating her with the Wadjet. Sekhmets name comes from the Ancient Egyptian word sekhem which means power or might, Sekhmets name suits her function and means the powerful. She also was given such as the Before Whom Evil Trembles, Mistress of Dread, Lady of Slaughter. In order to placate Sekhmets wrath, her priestesses performed a ritual before a different statue of the goddess on each day of the year and this practice resulted in many images of the goddess being preserved. It is estimated more than seven hundred statues of Sekhmet once stood in one funerary temple alone. She was envisioned as a lioness, and in art, was depicted as such, or as a woman with the head of a lioness, who was dressed in red. Sometimes the dress she wears exhibits a pattern over each breast, an ancient leonine motif. Occasionally, Sekhmet was also portrayed in her statuettes and engravings with minimal clothing or naked, tame lions were kept in temples dedicated to Sekhmet at Leontopolis. To pacify Sekhmet, festivals were celebrated at the end of battle, participation in the festival was great, including the priestesses and the population. Historical records of tens of thousands attending the festival exist and these findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed some characteristics of Sekhmet. These temple excavations at Luxor discovered a porch of drunkenness built onto the temple by the Pharaoh Hatshepsut, in a myth about the end of Ras rule on the earth, Ra sends Hathor or Sekhmet to destroy mortals who conspired against him. Mistaking the beer for blood, she became so drunk that she gave up the slaughter, Sekhmet later was considered to be the mother of Maahes, a deity who appeared during the New Kingdom period

29.
Unas
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Unas /ˈjuːnəs/ or Wenis, also spelled Unis, was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi, little is known of Unas activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia, Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara, the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom. These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris, whose cult was on the rise in Unas time, Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him. Manetho, an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt, Unas was succeeded by Teti, the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, possibly after a short crisis. The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom, the cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom. This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials. In parallel to the cult, Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period. Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him, Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I. Unas name is present on the Saqqara Tablet and on the Turin canon. The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign and these sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne. This relative chronology is corroborated by evidence, for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings. In addition to sources, Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh Onnos reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Onnos is believed to be the form for Unas. The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas activities are the reliefs from his pyramid complex. Excluding these, surprisingly few documents dating to Unas reign have survived to this day, excavations at Abusir, the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty, have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas. They explicitly mention his third, fourth, sixth and eighth years on the throne, Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine, next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia

30.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan

31.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing

32.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace

33.
Pacific Islands
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The Pacific Islands is a term broadly referring to the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Depending on the context, it may refer to countries and islands with common Austronesian origins, islands once or currently colonized, in English, the umbrella term Pacific Islands may take on several meanings. Sometimes it refers to only those islands covered by the continent of Oceania, there are many other islands located within the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean that are not considered part of Oceania. This list includes all islands found in the geographic Pacific Ocean, with an area larger than 10,000 square kilometers

34.
Wharenui
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A wharenui is a communal house of the Māori people of New Zealand, generally situated as the focal point of a marae. Wharenui are usually called meeting houses in New Zealand English, or simply called whare, also called a whare rūnanga or whare whakairo, the present style of wharenui originated in the early to middle nineteenth century. The houses are carved inside and out with stylized images of the iwis ancestors. Modern meeting houses are built to regular building standards, photographs of recent ancestors may be used as well as carvings. The houses always have names, sometimes the name of an ancestor or sometimes a figure from Māori mythology. Some meeting houses are built where many Māori are present, even though it is not the location of a tribe, typically, a school or tertiary institution with many Māori students. While a meeting house is considered sacred, it is not a church or house of worship, on most marae, no food may be taken into the meeting house. The building often symbolises an ancestor of the wharenuis tribe and it also serves as an area on which to debate issues. Meeting houses are the centre of any cultural, business, or any affair which is relevant to the iwi as a whole, typically, visitors to the village would be allowed to stay in the meeting house at night. Ceremonial occasions, including wedding and funeral typically take place in the house or on the marae ātea in front of the house. Strict rules of conduct generally govern the use of the wharenui, if anyone should become irate or physically violent, they would be asked to leave the house until they can control their temper. Māori culture Māori language Longhouse This picture is the opening of Te Wheke Hall on December 30,1901, the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois has an original Māori meeting house, called Ruatepupuke II as shown in this photo. The British Museum has a collection of Māori art

35.
Tokomaru Bay
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Tokomaru Bay is a small beachside community located on the isolated East Coast of New Zealand’s North Island. It is 91 km north of Gisborne, on State Highway 35, the district was originally known as Toka-a-Namu, which refers to the abundance of sandflies. Over the years the name was altered to Tokomaru Bay, the two hapu or sub-tribes that reside in Tokomaru Bay are Te Whanau a Ruataupare and Te Whanau a Te Ao Tawarirangi. The ancestral mountain of Tokomaru Bay is Marotiri, the seven-kilometre wide bay is small but sheltered, and was a calling place for passenger ships until the early 20th century. Captain Cook spent time here on his 1769 journey of discovery, a visit by Missionaries Williams, Colenso, Matthews and Stack heralded the coming of Christianity to the district in 1838 and their crusade proved very successful with the local people. The area around the bay has long been a Maori stronghold, the nearby pa at Te Mawhai was refortified during the battles between colonials and Maori in the 1860s. The towns modern prosperity derives mainly from agriculture and forestry, with some tourism and its population is predominantly Maori, with the area being a stronghold of the Ngati Porou iwi. The most common occupation in Tokomaru Bay is professionals, followed by managers and labourers Sometimes Southern Right Whales come into bay to calve or rest, Tokomaru Bay was the birthplace of Ngoi Pēwhairangi, famous Maori composer and performance artist, and former All Black, Buff Milner. Photo and description Ngati Porou in their own language Biography of Ngoi Pēwhairangi

36.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu

37.
Mold-A-Rama
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Mold-A-Rama is a brand name for a type of vending machine that makes blow-molded plastic figurines. Mold-A-Rama machines debuted in late 1962 and grew in prominence at the 1964 New York Worlds Fair, the machines can still be found operating in dozens of museums and zoos. American inventor John H. Tike Miller is credited with conceiving a free-standing plastic-molding machine in the 1950s and he licensed his mold-making patent and related technology to the Automatic Retailers Association, a vending-machine company, which operated Mold-A-Rama machines as a subsidiary company through 1969. As of 2010, two US companies own and operate Mold-A-Rama machines, the William A. Jones Company in Illinois, as of November 2015, there are 124 machines in a total of eight different states. Plastic forming machine William A. Jones Company official website Replication Devices official website Mold-A-Rama Machines category on Waymarking. com

38.
Sue (dinosaur)
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Sue is the nickname given to FMNH PR2081, which is the largest, most extensive and best preserved Tyrannosaurus rex specimen ever found at over 90% recovered by bulk. It was discovered in August of 1990, by Sue Hendrickson, a paleontologist, and was named after her. It has a length of 12.3 meters, stands 3.66 m tall at the hips, in one of these studies, estimations by Hutchinson et al. point out to a figure of 13.99 metric tonnes being the average estimate. Authors have stated that their upper and lower estimates were based on models with error bars. Historically older estimations have produced figures as low as 6.4 metric tonnes for this specimen, by the end of the summer, the group had discovered Edmontosaurus bones and was ready to leave. However, a tire was discovered on their truck before the group could depart on August 12. While the rest of the group went into town to repair the truck, as she was walking along the base of a cliff, she discovered some small pieces of bone. She looked above her to see where the bones had originated and she returned to camp with two small pieces of the bones and reported the discovery to the president of the Black Hills Institute, Peter Larson. He determined that the bones were from a T. rex by their distinctive contour, later, closer examination of the site showed many visible bones above the ground and some articulated vertebrae. The crew ordered extra plaster and, although some of the crew had to depart, Hendrickson, the group was excited, as it was evident that much of the dinosaur had been preserved. Previously discovered T. rex skeletons were usually missing over half of their bones and it was later ascertained that Sue was a record 90 percent complete by bulk. Scientists believe that this specimen was covered by water and mud soon after its death which prevented animals from carrying away the bones. Additionally, the water mixed the skeleton together. When the fossil was found the hip bones were above the skull, the large size and the excellent condition of the bones were also surprising. The skull was nearly five feet long, and most of the teeth were still intact, soon after the fossils were found, a dispute arose over their legal ownership. Williams later claimed that the money had not been for the sale of the fossil, williams was a member of the Sioux tribe, and the tribe claimed the bones belonged to them. However, the property that the fossil had been found within was held in trust by the United States Department of the Interior, thus, the land technically belonged to the government. In 1992, the FBI and the South Dakota National Guard raided the site where The Black Hills Institute had been cleaning the bones, the government transferred the remains to the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, where it was stored until the legal dispute was settled

39.
Tyrannosaurus
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Tyrannosaurus is a genus of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex, is one of the most well-represented of the large theropods, Tyrannosaurus lived throughout what is now western North America, on what was then an island continent known as Laramidia. Tyrannosaurus had a wider range than other tyrannosaurids. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Maastrichtian age of the upper Cretaceous Period,68 to 66 million years ago and it was the last known member of the tyrannosaurids, and among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Like other tyrannosaurids, Tyrannosaurus was a carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long. Relative to its large and powerful limbs, Tyrannosaurus fore limbs were short. The most complete specimen measures up to 12.3 m in length, up to 3.66 meters tall at the hips, some experts, however, have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger. The question of whether Tyrannosaurus was a predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest ongoing debates in paleontology. It is accepted now that Tyrannosaurus rex acted as a predator, more than 50 specimens of Tyrannosaurus rex have been identified, some of which are nearly complete skeletons. Soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens, the abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology, including its life history and biomechanics. The feeding habits, physiology and potential speed of Tyrannosaurus rex are a few subjects of debate and its taxonomy is also controversial, as some scientists consider Tarbosaurus bataar from Asia to be a second Tyrannosaurus species while others maintain Tarbosaurus is a separate genus. However, not every adult Tyrannosaurus specimen recovered is as big, Hutchinson et al. found that the maximum weight of Sue, the largest complete Tyrannosaurus specimen, was between 9.5 and 18.99 metric tons for this specimen. Other estimations have concluded that the largest known Tyrannosaurus specimens had masses approaching or exceeding 9 tonnes. Holtz has also suggested that it is reasonable to suspect that there were individuals that were 10,15. The neck of Tyrannosaurus rex formed a natural S-shaped curve like that of other theropods, the forelimbs had only two clawed fingers, along with an additional small metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit. In contrast the hind limbs were among the longest in proportion to size of any theropod. The tail was heavy and long, sometimes containing over forty vertebrae, in order to balance the massive head, to compensate for the immense bulk of the animal, many bones throughout the skeleton were hollow, reducing its weight without significant loss of strength. The largest known Tyrannosaurus rex skulls measure up to 1.45 meters in length, large fenestrae in the skull reduced weight and provided areas for muscle attachment, as in all carnivorous theropods

40.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral

41.
Sue Hendrickson
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Susan Sue Hendrickson is an American paleontologist. Hendrickson is best known for her discovery of the remains of a Tyrannosaurus rex in South Dakota on August 12,1990 and her discovery was the largest specimen of a T. rex found and one of the most complete skeletons. This skeleton is now known as Sue in honor of her discovery and it is on display at the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois. She has also other important fossils and artifacts around the world. Hendrickson was born in Chicago, Illinois, to Lee and Mary Hendrickson, her family moved to nearby Munster, Indiana. She has two siblings, a brother, John, and her younger sister, Karen. Her father was a successful railroad purchasing agent, while her mother worked at American Airlines, in 1955, Hendrickson was enrolled at Munsters public elementary, frequently being praised by her teachers as a good student and obedient child. A strong swimmer who had once been on her high schools team, Hendrickson quickly learned to dive and began collecting tropical fish off the Florida Keys to sell to aquarists. Aside from her work as a diver, Hendrickson also worked part of the year as a lobster fisherman, and would occasionally take the summer off to volunteer on paleontological digs. In 1963, Hendrickson had a circle of friends in the diving business, and one day was invited to participate in a salvage diving expedition off the Florida Keys. Her job was to retrieve valuable building materials that were stored in a freighter which ran aground on a coral reef. While continuing her work in salvage, Hendrickson soon found herself exploring old shipwrecks and she was fascinated by working in the company of archeologists and fell in love with the country, visiting the island often. By the mid-1980s, Hendrickson had also tried her hand at mining in the Dominican mountains. She had become one of the largest amber providers for scientists, Hendrickson also found three perfect 23-million-year-old butterflies, which make up half of the whole worlds total collection. She also met Swiss paleontologist Kirby Siber, who allowed her to join his team consisting of paleontologists Carlos Martin and Peter Larson. The group began excavating Miocene baleen whale fossils at an ancient seabed in Peru, and Hendrickson joined the team for several summers, discovering fossilized dolphins, seals and she later accompanied Larson to the Black Hills Institute in South Dakota. By this time, paleontology had become her main passion, the find would later be named Sue in her honor. In 1992, Hendrickson joined a team of archaeologists headed by Franck Goddio

42.
Herman Strecker
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Ferdinand Heinrich Herman Strecker was an American entomologist specialising in butterflies and moths. Streckers parents, Ferdinand and Anna were from Germany and his father, who had trained as a sculptor in Europe, settled in Reading where he made and traded in marble sculptures. The young man showed great aptitude for trade, starting to work at twelve years. But sculpture was not lucrative enough and young Strecker also made tombstones, as a young man, Strecker frequented the library of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia where he studied natural history and more particularly the butterflies. A polyglot, he traveled extensively, in particular in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America where he studied Aztec monuments and his collection occupied a whole floor of his house in Reading. At the time of his death in 1901, Streckers collection was the largest and most important private collection of butterflies and it was purchased in 1908 by the Field Museum of Natural History of Chicago. In spite of his resources, he published, from 1872 to 1878, Lepidoptera Rhopaloceres and Heteroceres, Indigenous and Exotic, with Descriptions. Richly illustrated by himself, the work identifies 251 new species, in 1878, he published Butterflies and Moths of North America which also details methods for the preparation, breeding, collection, the classification and the conservation of the butterflies. In addition to building his own collection, Strecker was a dealer of butterfly, in 1890, he received an honorary doctorate from Franklin and Marshall College. Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres and Heteroceras, Indigenous and Exotic, with Descriptions, Reading, PA, Owens Steam Book and Job Printing Office,143 p. XV plates. Entomological News, and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, reconciling the “Mystery Letter”, Frémont’s Fourth Expedition, John Kern Strecker, and the Baylor University Museum

43.
Herbarium
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A herbarium is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study. The term can refer to the building or room where the specimens are housed. The specimens in a herbarium are used as reference material in describing plant taxa. The same term is used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi. A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood, the term hortorium has occasionally been applied to a herbarium specialising in preserving material of horticultural origin. During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimise damage, for some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. The sheet is placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the plant is frozen or poisoned. Certain groups of plants are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets, for these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes, representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as mosses and lichens, are often air-dried and packaged in paper envelopes. No matter the method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant was collected, habitat, color, and the name of the collector is usually included. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of “types”, that is and it is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. Most herbaria utilize a system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong, groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus. The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard selected for use by the herbarium. Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and it also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name. Modern herbaria often maintain electronic databases of their collections, many herbaria have initiatives to digitize specimens to produce a virtual herbarium

44.
Robert F. Inger
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Robert Frederick Inger is an American herpetologist. Robert Inger is the son of Jacob Inger and Anna Bourd, in 1946 he married Mary Lee Ballew who died of cancer in 1985. In 1991 he married Tan Fui Lian, Ingers high school biology teacher was Julian Steyermark who became Curator of Botany at the Field Museum. Steyermark was the model that led Inger to the Field Museum to volunteer where he was interviewed by Karl P. Schmidt, Dwight Davis. As a result of volunteer work, Inger had authored or coauthored five publications before graduating from high school. In 1942, Inger received a Bachelor of Science from the University of Chicago. After first being turned down due to poor eyesight, he was drafted into the Army Corps of Engineers and placed in a unit of General Pattons Army in France and he was discharged in 1945 near St. Louis. Ingers herpetology career began with work at the Field Museum where he was eventually hired as Assistant Curator of Fishes in 1949. He then succeeded Clifford Pope as Curator of Amphibians and Reptiles in 1954 and he retired from this position in September 1994, however he continues lab and field work in the museum as Curator Emeritus. Inger served as president of the Society of Systematic Zoology in 1971, president of American Society of Ichthyology and Herpetology in 1974 and he was an editor for Evolution and the American Midland Naturalist and a sectional editor for Copeia. He has also served on the board of the Illinois Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, in January 2007 Yang di-Pertua Negeri Tun Abang Muhammad Salahuddin Abang Barieng conferred on Inger the honorary Panglima Setia Bintang Sarawak, which carries the title Datuk. This honor was conferred in recognition of Ingers 50 years of work in Borneo describing, cataloguing and publishing on the taxonomy. Over 40 species are named in his honor, Amphibians Ameerega ingeri Fishes Gastromyzon ingeri Osteochilus ingeri Stenogobius ingeri Over 75 species have been described by him. He has written 8 books and more than 130 peer-reviewed articles,1957 Living Reptiles of the World with Karl Patterson Schmidt 1966 The Reptiles 1989 The Frogs of Sabah with R. B. Stuebing 1996 The Natural History of Amphibians and Reptiles in Sabah with Tan Fui Lian 1997 A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo with R. B, stuebing 1999 A Field Guide to the Snakes of Borneo with R. B. Stuebing 2005 A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo 2nd Edition with R. B, stuebing 2010 Natural History Of Amphibians And Reptiles In Sabah 2nd Edition with Tan Fui Lian 1942. Copeia 1942, 163-170 with P. J. Clark 1942, scale reduction in certain non-colubrid snakes. Copeia 1942, 230-232 with P. J. Clark 1942, differential selection of variant juvenile snakes

45.
Collections care
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Collections care, which is sometimes called preventive conservation, involves any actions taken to prevent or delay the deterioration of cultural heritage. The primary goal is to identify and reduce hazards to heritage with thoughtful control of their surroundings. The professions most influenced by collections care include conservator-restorers, curators, collection managers, effects stemming from these issues can be treated and sometimes reversed with interventive conservation after the damage has occurred. However, many of the sources of danger mentioned above are controllable, environmental conditions are highly controllable in most indoor situations. They include the temperature, relative humidity, light levels present in a space on any given day. Two types of light offer potential decay to cultural heritage, ultraviolet light, contaminants can come in many forms including naturally occurring chemical breakdowns in certain compounds, particulate pollutants, and accidental human contamination. Protecting collections from contaminants can be as simple as creating barriers to prevent abuse or as complicated as taking preventive actions to protect an object from its own chemical breakdown, different materials react to temperature in different ways. For example, ceramics are vulnerable to heat on a mechanical level. Human comfort levels must also be considered, in galleries, however, viewers must feel comfortable enough with the temperature to spend time there, otherwise the collection will simply not be viewed and lose its purpose in being on display. This phenomenon is naturally reversible within a range of 50% ± 15% RH, moisture has strong effects on nearly all cultural heritage materials, with ceramics and glass being exceptions to these effects in most cases. Metals face the risk of corrosion as RH increases, a risk which is enhanced by surface contaminants, additionally, mold growth is far more likely as humidity increases, which not only could cause allergic reactions for viewers but it also weakens the collections afflicted and attracts other pests. In contrast to this requisite for dry conditions, if the atmosphere is not humid enough wooden objects could crack or warp, although minor and gentle fluctuations in RH can reasonably be withstood by most collections, quick or drastic shifts can be harmful. Anistropic materials such as wood and ivory are especially responsive to humidity changes, the metal acts as a restraint, hindering the organic materials’ ability to expand and contract as needed. Visual light, measured in lux or foot-candles, cannot be eliminated, unfortunately, this means that harmful oxidation effects which visual light makes possible also cannot be eliminated, but merely reduced to the amount necessary for the task at hand. In recent decades the cumulative nature of light degradation has become better understood by conservation science, practical compromise between protection of cultural heritage and allowing the artifacts to fulfill their visual purpose means there is an allowance of some physical risk. Even with this flexibility, light interaction should be limited to moments when an object is on view or undergoing study, and the level of lighting should be chosen accordingly. Moderately sensitive materials, such as oils and acrylics on board and composite inorganic objects, the traditional levels recommended for the least light-sensitive materials, such as stone, ceramics, metals, and glass, are not more than 300 lux or 30fc. Because lighting effects are cumulative, any limit in exposure – whether in time or in intensity – prevents material degradation, a period of intense or lengthy light exposure should be balanced out with periods of low exposure

46.
Mollusca
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The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion

47.
Ornithology
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Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. The word ornithology derives from the ancient Greek ὄρνις ornis and λόγος logos, several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of studies undertaken by amateurs working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology, most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, the origins of the word ornithology come from the Greek ornithologos and late 17th-century Latin ornithologia meaning bird science. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland. Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds, traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine, hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world, artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their scripts, many of which. Early written records provide information on the past distributions of species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria, other old writings such as the Vedas demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and includes the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel. Like writing, the art of China, Japan, Persia and India also demonstrate knowledge. Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium noted the habit of migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese, around 77 AD, Pliny the Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis. The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II, falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen learned about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie