Vitruvio - De Architectura - Book V

Introduction

1. Those, O Emperor, who at great length have explained their inventions and doctrines, have
thereby given to their writings an extended and singular reputation. Would that such were the
case with my labours, so that amplification might bring reputation with it. That, however, I
believe is not probable, since a treatise on Architecture is not like History or Poetry. History
interests the reader by the various novelties which occur in it; Poetry, on the other hand, by its
metre, the feet of its verses, the elegant arrangement of the words, the dialogue introduced into it,
and the distinct pronunciation of the lines, delighting the sense of the hearer, leads him to the
close of the subject without fatigue.

2. This cannot be accomplished in Architectural works, because the terms, which are unavoidably
technical, necessarily throw an obscurity over the subject. These terms, moreover, are not of
themselves intelligible, nor in common use; hence if the precepts which are delivered by authors
extend to any length, and are otherwise explained than in few and perspicuous expressions, the
mind of the reader is bewildered by the quantity and frequent recurrence of them. These reasons
induce me to be brief in the explanation of unknown terms, and of the symmetry of the parts of a
work, because the matter may thereby be more easily committed to and retained by the memory.

3. I am moreover inclined to be concise when I reflect on the constant occupation of the citizens
in public and private affairs, so that in their few leisure moments they may read and understand
as much as possible. Pythagoras and his followers wrote the precepts of their doctrines in cubical
arrangement, the cube containing two hundred and sixteen verses, of which they thought that not
more than three should be allotted to any one precept.

4. A cube is a solid, with six equal square faces, which, however it falls, remains steady and
immoveable till removed by force: such are the dice which are thrown on a table by gamesters.
From this circumstance they seem to have adopted the cube, since like the cube, this number of
verses makes a more lasting impression on the memory. The Greek comic poets also divided the
action of their stories, by the interposition of the chorus to ease the principal actors, so that a
cubical proportion is observed.

5. Since the ancients therefore used these methods, founded on the observance of natural effects,
seeing that the subject I treat of will be new and obscure to many, I thought it would be
preferable to divide it into small portions, that it might more easily strike the understanding of
the reader. The subjects are so arranged, that those of the same nature are classed together. Thus,
O Cæsar, I explained the proportions of temples in the third and fourth books; in this I intend to
describe the arrangement of public buildings; and that of the forum first, because therein public
no less than private affairs are regulated by the magistrates.

Chapter 1

1. The Greeks make their forum square, with a spacious and double portico, ornamenting it with
columns placed at narrow intervals, and stone or marble epistylia, and forming walks above on
the timber framed work. In the cities of Italy, however, this practice is not followed, because the
antient custom prevails of exhibiting the shows of gladiators in the forum.

2. Hence, for the convenience of the spectators, the intercolumniations must be wider; and the
bankers’ shops are situated in the surrounding porticos with apartments on the floors over them,
which are constructed for the use of the parties, and as a depôt of the public revenue. The size of the forum is to be proportioned to the population of the place, so that it be not too small to
contain the numbers it should hold, nor have the appearance of being too large, from a want of
numbers to occupy it. The width is obtained by assigning to it two-thirds of its length, which
gives it an oblong form, and makes it convenient for the purpose of the shows.

3. The upper columns are to be made one-fourth less than those below; and that because the
latter being loaded with a weight, ought to be the stronger: because, also, we should follow the
practice of nature, which, in straight growing trees, like the fir, cypress, and pine, makes the
thickness at the root greater than it is at top, and preserves a gradual diminution throughout
their height. Thus, following the example of nature, it is rightly ordered that bodies which are
uppermost should be less than those below, both in respect of height and thickness.

4. The basilica should be situated adjoining the forum, on the warmest side, so that the
merchants may assemble there in winter, without being inconvenienced by the cold. Its width
must not be less than a third part, nor more than half its length, unless the nature of the site
prevent it, and impose a different proportion; if, however, that be longer than necessary, a
chalcidicum is placed at the extremity, as in the Julian basilica and the one at Aquileia.

5. The columns of basilicæ are to be of a height equal to the breadth of the portico, and the
width of the portico one-third of the space in the middle. The upper columns, as herein above
described, are to be less than those below. The parapet between the upper columns should be
made one-fourth less than those columns, so that those walking on the floor of the basilica may
not be seen by the merchants. The proportions of the architrave, frieze, and cornice may be learnt
from what has been said on columns in the third book.

6. Basilicæ, similar to that which I designed and carried into execution in the Julian colony of
Fano, will not be deficient either in dignity or in beauty. The proportions and symmetry of this
are as follow. The middle vault, between the columns, isone hundred and twenty feet long, and
sixty feet wide. The portico round it, between the walls and columns, is twenty feet wide. The
height of the columns, including the capitals, is fifty feet, their thickness five feet, and they have
pilasters behind them twenty feet high, two feet and a half wide, and one and a half thick,
supporting beams which carry the floor of the portico. Above these, other pilasters are
placed,eighteen feet high, two feet wide, and one foot thick, which also receive timbers for
carrying the rafters of the portico, whose roof is lower than the vault.

7. The spaces remaining between the beams, over the pilasters and the columns, are left open for
light in the intercolumniations. The columns in the direction of the breadth of the vault are four
in number, including those on the angles right and left; lengthwise, in which direction it joins the
forum, the number is eight, including those at the angles; on the opposite side, including all the
angular columns, there are six columns, because the two central ones on that side are omitted, so
that the view of the pronaos of the temple of Augustus may not be obstructed: this is placed in
the middle of the side wall of the basilica, facing the centre of the forum and the temple of Jupiter.

8. The tribunal is in the shape of a segment of a circle; the front dimension of which is forty-six
feet, that of its depthfifteen feet; and is so contrived, that the merchants who are in the basilica
may not interfere with those who have business before the magistrates. Over the columns round
the building architraves are placed. These are triple, each of them two feet in size, and are
fastened together. At the third column, on the inside, they return to the antæ of the pronaos, and
are carried on to meet the segment on the right and left.

9. Over the architraves, upright with the capitals, piers are built three feet high and four feet
square, on which are laid beams well wrought, joined together in two thicknesses of two feet each, and thereon the beams and rafters are placed over the columns, antæ, and walls of the
pronaos, carrying one continued ridge along the basilica, and another from the centre thereof,
over the pronaos of the temple.

10. Thus the two-fold direction of the roof gives an agreeable effect outside, and to the lofty
vault within. Thus the omission of the cornices and parapets, and the upper range of columns,
saves considerable labour, and greatly diminishes the cost of the work; and the columns in one
height brought up to the architrave of the arch, give an appearance of magnificence and dignity
to the building.

Chapter 2

1. The treasury, prison, and curia are to adjoin the forum, to which their dimensions are to be
proportionate. First of the curia, which must be suitable to the importance of the community or
state. If square, its height is to be once and a half its width; but if oblong, the length and width
must added together, and one half of their sum assigned for the height up to the lacunaria.

2. The walls, moreover, at half their height, are to have cornices run round them of wood or
plaster. For if such be not provided, the voices of the disputants meeting with no check in their
ascent, will not be intelligible to the audience. But when the walls are encircled round with
cornices, the voice, being thereby impeded, will reach the ear before its ascent and dissipation in
the air.

Chapter 3

1. When the forum is placed, a spot as healthy as possible is to be chosen for the theatre, for the
exhibition of games on the festival days of the immortal gods, according to the instructions given
in the first book respecting the healthy disposition of the walls of a city. For the spectators, with
their wives and children, delighted with the entertainment, sit out the whole of the games, and
the pores of their bodies being opened by the pleasure they enjoy, are easily affected by the air,
which, if it blows from marshy or other noisome places, infuses its bad qualities into the system.
These evils are avoided by the careful choice of a situation for the theatre,

2. taking especial precaution that it be not exposed to the south; for when the sun fills the cavity
of the theatre, the air confined in that compass being incapable of circulating, by its stoppage
therein, is heated, and burns up, extracts, and diminishes the moisture of the body. On these
accounts, those places where bad air abounds are to be avoided, and wholesome spots to be chosen.

3. The construction of the foundations will be more easily managed, if the work be on a hill; but
if we are compelled to lay them on a plain, or in a marshy spot, the piling and foundations must
be conducted as described for the foundations of temples in the third book. On the foundations,
steps (gradationes) are raised, of stone and marble.

4. The number of passages (præcinctiones) must be regulated by the height of the theatre, and are
not to be higher than their width, because if made higher, they will reflect and obstruct the voice
in its passage upwards, so that it will not reach the upper seats above the passages
(præcinctiones), and the last syllables of words will escape. In short, the building should be so
contrived, that a line drawn from the first to the last step should touch the front angle of the tops
of all the seats; in which case the voice meets with no impediment.

5. The entrances (aditus) should be numerous and spacious; those above ought to be unconnected
with those below, in a continued line wherever they are, and without turnings; so that when the people are dismissed from the shows, they may not press on one another, but have separate
outlets free from obstruction in all parts. A place which deadens the sound must be carefully
avoided; but, on the contrary, one should be selected in which it traverses freely. This will be
effected, if a place is chosen wherein there is no impediment to sound.

6. The voice arises from flowing breath, sensible to the hearing through its percussion on the air.
It is propelled by an infinite number of circles similar to those generated in standing water when
a stone is cast therein, which, increasing as they recede from the centre, extend to a great
distance, if the narrowness of the place or some obstruction do not prevent their spreading to the
extremity; for when impeded by obstructions, the first recoil affects all that follow.

7. In the same manner the voice spreads in a circular direction. But, whereas the circles in water
only spread horizontally, the voice, on the contrary, extends vertically as well as horizontally.
Wherefore, as is the case with the motion of water, so with the voice, if no obstacle disturb the
first undulation, not only the second and following one, but all of them will, without
reverberation, reach the ears of those at bottom and those at top.

8. On this account the antient architects, following nature as their guide, and reflecting on the
properties of the voice, regulated the true ascent of steps in a theatre, and contrived, by musical
proportions and mathematical rules, whatever its effect might be on the stage (scena), to make it
fall on the ears of the audience in a clear and agreeable manner. Since in brazen or horn wind
instruments, by a regulation of the genus, their tones are rendered as clear as those of stringed
instruments, so by the application of the laws of harmony, the antients discovered a method of
increasing the power of the voice in a theatre.

Chapter 4

1. Harmony is an obscure and difficult musical science, but most difficult to those who are not
acquainted with the Greek language; because it is necessary to use many Greek words to which
there are none corresponding in Latin. I will therefore explain, to the best of my ability, the
doctrine of Aristoxenus, and annex his diagram, and will so designate the place of each tone, that
a person who studiously applies himself to the subject may very readily understand it.

2. The inflexion of the voice is two-fold; first, when it is monotonous, second, when it proceeds
by intervals. The first is not limited by cadences at the close, nor in any other place; no
perceptible difference of tone being discoverable between its beginning and ending, the time
between each sound is however distinctly marked, as in speaking, when we pronounce the words,
sol, lux, flos, nox. Herein the ear does not perceive any difference of tone between the beginning
and ending, by the voice rising higher or descending lower; neither, that from a high pitch it
becomes lower, nor the contrary. But when the voice moves by intervals, it is differently inflected,
being sometimes at a high pitch, and sometimes at a low one, and resting at different times on
different tones; by doing which with quickness and facility, it appears unfixed. Thus in singing,
the variety of inflexion produces an air. In short, by the use of different intervals, the tones are so
marked and determined, that we perceive the pitch at which it begins, and that at which it
finished, though the intermediate tones are not heard.

3. There are three sorts of modulation, the enharmonic (aJrmoniva ), the chromatic ( crw’ma),
and the diatonic (diavtonoV), so called by the Greeks. The enharmonic is so constructed by art,
as to be full of majesty and pathos. The chromatic by the skilful contrivance and closeness of its
intervals has more sweetness. The diatonic, whose intervals are more simple, is most natural. The
disposition of the tetrachords, in these genera, are dissimilar. The enharmonic tetrachord consists
of two dieses, and two whole tones; a diesis being the fourth part of a tone, and two of them consequently equal to a semitone. In the chromatic tetrachord, there are two consecutive semitones,
and the third interval contains three semitones. The diatonic tetrachord has two consecutive
tones, and an interval of a semitone. Thus in each genus, the whole tetrachord is equal to two
whole tones and a semitone. But the intervals in each genus, differ when considered separately.

4. For nature has made the divisions of tones, semitones, and tetrachords, and has established
those proportions of the intervals, by which workmen are guided in making and assigning their
just proportions to instruments.

5. Each genus consists of eighteen sounds, which the Greeks call fqovggoi (phthongi ). Of these,
eight sounds in each of the genera, vary neither in sound nor situation. The remaining ten in each
are not common to the other two genera. Those which do not vary, contain between them the
variable sounds, and are the limits of the tetrachords in all the genera. Their names are as follow:
proslambanomenos, hypatè hypatôn, hypatè mesôn, mesè, netè synèmmenôn, paramesè , netè
diezeugmenôn , netè hyperbolæôn . The variable, which lie between those that are not variable,
change their places according to the genus. Their names are parhypatè hypatôn, lichanos
hypatôn, parhypatè mesôn , lichanos mesôn, tritè synèmmenôn , paranetè synèmmenôn, tritè
diezeugmenôn , paranetè diezeugmenôn , tritè hyperbolæôn , paranetè hyperbolæôn.

6. Those sounds which shift their places, change also their nature, and are at different intervals,
as, for instance, the interval between hypatè and parhypatè, which in the enharmonic genus is
only a diesis or quarter tone, in the chromatic genus a semitone. So the lichanos is only a
semitone distant from the hypatè in the enharmonic genus; whereas in the chromatic it is two
semitones distant, and in the diatonic three semitones. Thus, the ten sounds, by their situation in
the different genera, make three different sorts of melody.

7. There are five tetrachords. The Greeks call the lowest u[paton (hypaton); the second, which is
in the middle, mevson ( meson). The third, which is joined to the two preceding, is called
sunhmmevnon (synèmmenon). The fourth, which is disjoined, called diezeugmevnon
(diezeugmenon). The fifth, which is the highest, the Greeks call uJperbovlaion( hyperbolæon ).
The natural consonances, which the Greeks call sumfwnivai ( symphoniæ ), are six in number;
diatessarôn (fourth), diapente (fifth), diapasôn (octave), diapasôn with diatessarôn (eleventh),
diapasôn with diapente (twelfth), and disdiapasôn (fifteenth).

8. These names are given them from the number of tones which the voice passes through in going
to them, counting that on which the voice begins as one; thus, moving through them to the
fourth sound is called diatessarôn; to the fifth, diapente . to the eighth diapasôn, to the eleventh
diapasôn with diatessarôn , to the twelfth diapasôn with diapente, to the fifteenth disdiapasôn.

9. For between two intervals, either in a melody sung by a voice, or played on a stringed
instrument, neither with the third, sixth nor seventh can there be consonances, but only, as above
shewn, with the diatessarôn and diapente up to the diapasôn do natural consonances arise, and
those are produced by an union of those sounds which the Greeks called fqovggoi (phthongi).

Chapter 5

1. On the foregoing principles, the brazen vases are to be made with mathematical proportions,
depending on the size of the theatre. They are formed so, as when struck, to have sounds, whose
intervals are a fourth, fifth, and so on consecutively to a fifteenth. Then, between the seats of the
theatre, cavities having been prepared, they are disposed therein in musical order, but so as not to
touch the wall in any part, but to have a clear space round them and over their top: they are
fixed han half a foot high: and openings are left towards the cavities on the lower beds of the steps,
eachtwo feet long, and half a foot wide.

2. The following is the rule for determining the situations of these vases. If the theatre be of
moderate size they must be ranged round at half its height. Thirteen cavities are prepared at
twelve equal distances from each other, so that those tones above-named, producing netè
hyperbolæon, are to be placed in the cavities at the extreme ends; second, from the ends, the
vessels are to be of the pitch of netè diezeugmenon, bearing an interval of one fourth from the
last mentioned. The third netè paramesôn, an interval of another fourth. The fourth, netè
synemmenôn, another fourth. The fifth, mesè, a fourth. The sixth, hypatè mesôn, a fourth: in the
centre of the range, hypatè hypatôn, a fourth.

3. By the adoption of this plan, the voice which issues from the scene, expanding as from a
centre, and striking against the cavity of each vase, will sound with increased clearness and
harmony, from its unison with one or other of them. If, however, the theatre be on a larger scale,
the height is to be divided into four parts, so that three ranges of cavities may be provided, one
for harmonic, the second for chromatic, and the third for diatonic vases. That nearest the bottom
is for the harmonic genus as above described, for a lesser theatre.

4. In the middle range on the extremities, vases producing the chromatic hyperbolæon are placed:
in the second cavities the chromatic diezeugmenon, a fourth from the last: in the third, at another
interval of a fourth, the chromatic synèmmenon: in the fourth, the chromatic meson, another
fourth: in the fifth, the chromatic hypaton , another fourth: in the sixth, the paramesè, which is a
fifth to the chromatic hyperbolæon, and a fourth to the chromatic meson.

5. In the centre none are to be placed, because no other sound in the chromatic genus can be in
consonance therewith. In the upper division and range of the cavities, the vases on the extremities
are constructed to produce the tones of the diatonic hyperbolæon: in the next cavities, those of
the diatonic diezeugmenon , a fourth: in the third, of the diatonic synèmmenon, a fourth: in the
fourth, of the diatonic meson, a fourth: in the fifth, of the diatonic hypaton, a fourth: in the
sixth, proslambanomenos, a fourth: in the centre, mesè , between which and proslambanomenos
is an octave, and a fifth between it and the diatonic hypaton.

6. He who is desirous of more fully understanding these matters, must refer to the musical
diagram at the end of the book, which is that left to us by Aristoxenes, who with much
intelligence and labour, formed a general scale of the tones. Hence, he who carefully attends to
these rules, to the nature of the voice, and to the taste of the audience, will easily learn the
method of designing theatres with the greatest perfection.

7. Some one may perchance urge, that many theatres are yearly built in Rome, without any
regard to these matters. But let him not be herein mistaken, inasmuch as all public theatres which
are constructed of wood, have many floors, which are necessarily conductors of sound. This
circumstance may be illustrated, by consideration of the practice of those that sing to the harp,
who when they wish to produce a loud effect, turn themselves to the doors of the scene, by the
aid of which their voice is thrown out. But when theatres are constructed of solid materials, that
is of rubble, squared stones or marble, which are not conductors of sound, it is necessary to build
them according to the rules in question.

8. If it be asked what theatre in Rome can be referred to as an example of their utility, we cannot
produce one, but such may be seen in some of the provinces in Italy, and many in the Grecian
States. We moreover know that L. Mummius on the destruction of the theatre at Corinth,
brought to Rome some of its brazen vases, and dedicated them as spoils at the temple of Luna.in an inverted position, and one the side towards the scene are supported by wedges not less Many clever architects who have built theatres in small cities, from the want of other, have made
use of earthen vessels, yielding the proper tones, and have introduced them with considerable
advantage.

Chapter 6

1. The form of a theatre is to be adjusted so, that from the centre of the dimension allotted to the
base of the perimeter a circle is to be described, in which are inscribed four equilateral triangles,
at equal distances from each other, whose points are to touch the circumference of the circle. This
is the method also practiced by astrologers in describing the twelve celestial signs, according to
the musical division of the constellations. Of these triangles, the side of that which is nearest the
scene will determine the face thereof in that part where it cuts the circumference of the circle.
Then through the centre a line is drawn parallel to it, which will separate the pulpitum of the
proscenium from the orchestra.

2. Thus the pulpitum will be more spacious than that of the Greeks, and be better, on account of
our actors remaining chiefly on the scena. In the orchestra , seats are assigned to the senators,
and the height of its pulpitum must not exceed five feet, so that those who sit in the orchestra
may be enabled to see all the motions of the actors. The portions between the staircases (cunei) of
the theatre are so divided that the angles of the triangles, which touch the circumference, point to
the directions of the ascents and steps between the cunei, on the first præcinction or story. Above
these steps are placed alternately, and form the upper cunei in the middle of those below.

3. The angles thus pointing to staircases will be seven in number, the remaining five will mark
certain points on the scene. That in the middle, for instance, will mark the situation of the royal
doors, those on the right and left, the doors of guests, and those at the extremities, the points at
which the road turns off. The seats (gradus) on which the spectators sit are not to be less than
twenty inches in height, nor more than twenty-two. Their width must not be more than two feet
and a half, nor less than two feet.

4. The roof of the portico, which is on the last step, should be on a level with the top of the
scene; by which arrangement the voice will extend and be distinct to those on the upper seats and
roof. For if it be not equally high, were that height is deficient, the voice, first striking thereon,
will be stopped.

5. One sixth part of the diameter of the orchestra is taken between the lowest steps, and level
with that dimension the lower seats are disposed. A continuation of this line on the scene marks
the height of the entrances: for thus proportioned, they will be of sufficient altitude.

6. The length of the scene must be double the diameter of the orchestra. The height of the
podium, or pedestal, with its cornice and base, from the level of the pulpitum, is a twelfth part of
the diameter of the orchestra. The columns on the podium, with their capitals and bases, are to
be one-fourth of its diameter high. The architraves and cornices of those columns one-fifth of
their height. The upper pedestal, including the base and cornice, half the height of the lower
pedestal. The columns on this pedestal one-fourth less in height than the lower columns. The
architrave and its cornice a fifth of the columns. If there is to be a third order, the upper pedestal
is to be half the height of that under the middle order, and the architrave and cornice a fifth of
the columns.

7. It is not, however, possible to produce the same effect in every theatre by the same
proportions; but it behoves the architect to consider the proportions which symmetry requires,
and those adapted to the nature of the place or the size of the work. Some things there are which their use requires of the same size in a large as in a small theatre; such as the steps, præcinctions,
parapets, passages, stairs, pulpita, tribunals, and others which occur; in all which, the necessity of
suiting them to their use, makes it impossible to form them symmetrically. So, also, if the
materials are not provided in sufficient quantity, such as marble, wood, and the like, the
diminution of or addition to the dimensions, so that it be not too much, and made with
judgment, may be permitted: and this will be easily managed by an architect who is a man of
experience, and who possesses ingenuity and talent.

8. The parts of the scene are to be so distributed, that the middle door may be decorated as one
of a royal palace; those on the right and left, as the doors of the guests. Near these are the spaces
destined to receive the decorations; which places the Greeks call periavktoi , from the turning
triangular machines. Each of these machines has three species of decoration, which, when the
subject changes, or on the appearance of a god, are moved round with sudden claps of thunder,
and alter the appearance of the decoration. Near these places the turnings run out, which give
entrance to the scene from the forum and from the country.

9. There are three sorts of scenes, the Tragic, the Comic, and the Satyric. The decorations of these
are different from each other. The tragic scenes are ornamented with columns, pediments, statues,
and of the royal decorations. The comic scene represents private buildings and galleries, with
windows similar to those in ordinary dwellings. The satyric scene is ornamented with trees, caves,
hills, and of the rural objects in imitation of nature.

Chapter 7

1. In the theatres of the Greeks the design is not made on the same principles as those above
mentioned. First, as to the general outline of the plan: whereas, in the Latin theatre, the points of
four triangles touch the circumference, in the theatres of the Greeks the angles of three squares
are substituted, and the side of that square which is nearest to the place of the scene, at the points
where it touches the circumference of the circle, is the boundary of the proscenium . A line drawn
parallel to this at the extremity of the circle, will give the front of the scene. Through the centre
of the orchestra, opposite to the proscenium, another parallel line is drawn touching the
circumference on the right and left, with a radius equal to the distance from the left point,
describe a circle on the right and scene of the proscenium , and placing the foot of the compasses
on the left hand point, with the distance of the right hand interval, describe another circle on the
left side of the proscenium.

2. Thus describing it from three centres, the Greeks have a larger orchestra, and their scene is
further recessed. The pulpitum , which they call logei’on, is less in width: wherefore, among
them, the tragic and comic performers act upon the scene; the rest going through their parts in
the orchestra. Hence the performers are distinguished by the names of Scenici and Thymelici. The
height of the pulpitum is not less than ten feet, nor more than twelve. The directions of the stairs,
between the cunei and seats, are opposite to the angles of the squares on the first præcinction.
Above it the other stairs fall in the middle between the lower ones, and so on according to the
number of præcinctions.

Chapter 8

1. When these matters are arranged with great care and skill, particular attention must be
bestowed on the choice of a place were the voice falls smoothly, and reaches the ear distinctly
without an echo. Some places are naturally unfavourable to the diffusion of the voice. Such are
the dissonant, which in Greek are called kathcou’nteV; the circumsonant, which the Greeks call
perihcou’nteV; the resonant, which they call anthcou’nteV; and the consonant, which they call sunhcou’nteV. The dissonant places are those in which the voice, rising first upwards, is
obstructed by some hard bodies above, and, in its return downwards, checks the ascent of its
following sounds.

2. The circumsonant are those where the voice, wandering round, is at last retained in the centre,
where it is dissipated, and, the final syllables being lost, the meaning of words is not
distinguished. The resonant are those in which the voice, striking against some hard body, is
echoed in the last syllables so that they appear doubled. Lastly, the consonant are those in which
the voice, aided by something below, falls on the ear with great distinctness of words. Hence, if
due care be taken in the choice of the situation, the effect of the voice will be improved, and the
utility of the theatre increased. The differences of the figures consist in this, that those formed by
means of squares are used by the Greeks, and those formed by means of triangles by the Latins.
He who attends to these precepts will be enabled to erect a theatre in a perfect manner.

Chapter 9

1. Behind the scenes porticos are to be built; to which, in the case of sudden showers, the people
may retreat from the theatre, and also sufficiently capacious for the rehearsals of the chorus: such
are the porticos of Pompey , of Eumenes at Athens, and of the temple of Bacchus; and on the left
passing from the theatre, is the Odeum, which, in Athens, Pericles ornamented with stone
columns, and with the masts and yards of ships, from the Persian spoils. This was destroyed by
fire in the Mithridatic war, and restored by king Ariobarzanes. At Smyrna was the Strategeum: at
Tralles were porticos on each side over the stadium, as in the scenes of theatres. In short, in all
cities which possess skilful architects, porticos and walks are placed about the theatre,

2. which ought to be constructed double, with their exterior columns of the Doric order, whose
architraves, and cornices are to be wrought after the Doric method. Their width is to be thus
proportioned: the height of the exterior columns is equal to the distance from the lower part of
the shaft of the exterior columns to that of those in the middle, and from them to the walls which
surround the walks of the portico is an equal distance. The middle range of columns is one fifth
part higher than the exterior range; and is of the Ionic or Corinthian order.

3. The proportions and symmetry of these columns are not to be guided by the rules delivered for
those of sacred buildings. For the style used in the temples of the gods should be dignified;
whereas, in porticos and similar works, it may be of a lighter character. If, therefore, the columns
be of the Doric order, their height, including the capitals, is to be divided into fifteen parts, of
which one is taken as a module. By this all the work is set out, making the thickness of the lower
part of the column equal to two modules. The intercolumniation is of five modules and a half.
The height of a column, exclusive of the capital, fourteen modules; the height of the capital one
module, the width of it two modules and a sixth. The proportions of the rest of the work are to
be the same as those described for sacred buildings in the fourth book.

4. If Ionic columns be used, the shaft, exclusive of the base and capital, is to be divided into eight
parts and a half, of which one is assigned to the thickness of the column. The base, with its
plinth, is half a module high; and the formation of the capital is to be as shewn in the third book.
If Corinthian, the shaft and base are to be the same as the Ionic; but the capital is to be
proportioned as directed in the fourth book; and the addition on the pedestal is made by the
scamilli impares, mentioned in the third book. The architraves, coronæ, and all the other parts,
are set out in proportion to the columns as explained in the foregoing books.

5. The central space between the porticos should be ornamented with verdure, inasmuch as
hypæthral walks are very healthy; first, in respect of the eyes, because the air from green plants being light and volatile, insinuates itself into the body when in motion, clears the sight, removing
the gross humours from the eyes, leaves the vision clear and distinct. Moreover, when the body is
heated by the exercise of walking, the air, extracting its humours, diminishes corpulency,
dissipating that which is superabundant in the body.

6. That this is the case, may be proved by observing, that from fountains in covered places, or
those which are under ground, no moist vapours rise; whilst in open places exposed to the air,
when the rising sun darts his rays upon the earth, he raises the vapours from humid and marshy
places, and, gathering them into masses, carries them into the air. If, therefore, in open places, the
noxious humours of bodies are carried off by the air, as they are from the earth by means of
clouds, there can be no doubt of the necessity of making spacious and pleasant walks open to the
air in every city.

7. That they may always be dry and free from mud, the following method must be adopted. They
must be dug out and drained to the lowest possible level; and on the right and left sewers must be
constructed; and in the walls thereof, towards the walk, drains are laid, with an inclination to the
sewer. When this is done, the place is filled in with coals; over which the walks are strewed with
gravel, and levelled. Thus, from the natural porosity of the coals, and the inclination of the drains
towards the sewer, the quantity of water is carried off, and the passages remain dry and
unaffected by the moisture.

8. In these places the antients also made depôts for the reception of things necessary for the use
of the city. For in case of the city being under blockade, all things are more easily provided than
wood. Salt is with facility laid in beforehand; corn, from the public or private stores, is soon
collected; and the want of that is remedied by the use of garden herbs, flesh, or pulse. Water is
obtained either by digging new wells, or by collecting it from the roofs of buildings; but wood,
which is absolutely necessary for cooking the food, is provided with difficulty and trouble; and
that which is slowly procured is quickly consumed.

9. In such times these walks are opened, and an allowance distributed to the tribes, according to
their numbers. Thus they are conducive to two good purposes; to health in time of peace, and to
preservation in time of war. If walks are provided after these directions not only behind the scene
of the theatre, but also adjoining the temples of all the gods, they will be of great utility in every
city. As they have been sufficiently explained, the method of arranging the different parts of baths
will now follow.

Chapter 10

1. First, as warm a spot as possible is to be selected, that is to say, one sheltered from the north
and north-east. The hot and tepid baths are to receive their light from the winter west; but, if the
nature of the place prevent that, at all events from the south, because the hours of bathing are
principally from noon to evening. Care must be taken that the warm baths of the women and
men adjoin, and have the same aspect; in which case the same furnace and vessels will serve both.
The caldrons over the furnaces are to be three in number, one for hot water, another for tepid
water, and a third for cold water: and they must be so arranged, that hot water which runs out of
the heated vessel, may be replaced by an equal quantity from the tepid vessel, which in like
manner is supplied from the cold vessel, and that the arched cavities in which they stand may be
heated by one fire.

2. The floors of the hot baths are to be made as follows. First, the bottom is paved with tiles of a
foot and a half inclining towards the furnace, so that if a ball be thrown into it, it will not remain
therein, but roll back to the mouth of the furnace; thus the flame will better spread out under thefloor. Upon this, piers of eight inch bricks are raised, at such a distance from each other, that tiles
of two feet may form their covering. The piers are to be two feet in height, and are to be laid in
clay mixed with hair, on which the above-mentioned two feet tiles are placed, which carry the
pavement.

Tiling from the baths at the Roman river port of Castellum Amerinum, now Serípola near Orte:
these are indeed sesquipedales, tiles one and a half Roman feet on a side. (I did a rough
measurement on the spot. ) Notice the brick stamp.

3. The ceilings, if of masonry, will be preferable; if, however, they are of timber, they should be
plastered on the under side, which must be done as follows. Iron rods, or arcs, are prepared and
suspended by iron hooks to the floor as close as possible. These rods or arcs are at such distances
from each other, that tiles, without knees, may rest on and be borne by every two ranges, and
thus the whole vaulting depending on the iron may be perfected. The upper parts of the joints are
stopped with clay and hair. The under side towards the pavement is first plastered with pounded
tiles and lime, and then finished with stucco or fine plastering. If the vaulting of hot baths is
made double it will be better, because the moisture of the steam cannot then affect the timber, but
will be condensed between the two arches.

4. The size of baths must depend on the number of persons who frequent them. Their
proportions are as follow: their width is to be two thirds of their length, exclusive of the space
round the bathing vessel (schola labri) and the gutter round it (alveus). The bathing vessel
(labrum) should be lighted from above, so that the bye standers may not cast any shadow
thereon, and thereby obstruct the light. The schola labri ought to be spacious, so that those who
are waiting for their turn may be properly accommodated. The width of the alveus between the
wall of the labrum and the parapet must not be less than six feet, so that it may be commodious
after the reduction of two feet, which are allotted to the lower step and the cushion.

5. The laconicum and sudatories are to adjoin the tepid apartment, and their height to the
springing of the curve of the hemisphere is to be equal to their width. An opening is left in the
middle of the dome from which a brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so
lowered and raised as to regulate the temperature. It should be circular, that the intensity of the
flame and heat may be equally diffused from the centre throughout.

Chapter 11

1. Though not used by the people of Italy, it seems proper that I should explain the form of the
palæstra, and describe the mode in which it was constructed by the Greeks. The square or oblong
peristylia of palestræ, have a walk round them which the Greeks call divauloV, two stadia in
circuit: three of the sides are single porticos: the fourth, which is that on the south side, is to be
double, so that when showers fall in windy weather, the drops may not drive into the inner part
of it.

2. In the three porticos are large recesses (exedræ) with seats therein, whereon the philosophers,
rhetoricians, and others who delight in study, may sit and dispute. In the double portico the
following provision is to be made: the ephebeum is to be in the middle, which is in truth nothing
more than a large exedra with seats, and longer by one third than its width, on the right is the
coriceum, immediately adjoining which is the conisterium, near which, in the angle of the
portico, is the cold bath, which the Greeks call loutrovn. On the left of the ephebeum is the
elæothesium, adjoining that is the frigidarium , whence a passage leads to the propigneum in the
angle of the portico. Near, but more inward, on the side of the frigidarium, is placed the vaulted
sudatory, whose length is double its width; on one side of this is the laconicum, constructed as before described: on the other side is the hot bath.

3. The peristylia of the palæstra are to be carefully set out as above mentioned. Exteriorly three
porticos are constructed, one through which those who come out of the palæstra pass; and
stadial ones on the right and left, of which, that towards the north is double, and of considerable
width. The other is single, and so formed that as well on the side next the wall, as on that where
the columns stand, there are margins for paths of not less than ten feet, the centre part is sunkone
foot and a half from the path, to which there is an ascent of two steps; the sunken part is not to
be less than twelve feet in width. Thus, those who in their clothing walk round the paths, will not
be incommoded by the anointed wrestlers who are practising.

4. This species of portico is called xystus (xusto`V) by the Greeks; for the wrestlers exercise in
covered stadia in the winter time. Xysti ought, between the two porticos, to have groves or
plantations, with walks between the trees and seat of cemented work. On the sides of the xystus
and double portico are open walks which the Greeks call peridrovmideV, but with us they are
termed xysti, on which the athletæ exercise themselves, when the weather is fine, in the winter.
Behind the xystus the stadium is set out, of such dimensions that a great number of people may
commodiously behold the contending wrestlers. I have now given rules for the proper distribution
of such buildings as are within the walls.

Chapter 12

1. I must not omit to speak of the formation of harbours, but explain in what manner ships are
secured therein in stormy weather. If they are naturally well situated, and have rocks or long
promontories jutting out, which from the shape of the place, form curves or angles, they are of
the greatest utility; because, in that case, nothing more is necessary than to construct porticos and
arsenals round them, or passages to the markets; and then erect a tower on each side, wherefrom
chains may be suspended across by means of machinery.

2. But, if the place be not thus fitted by nature, nor secure for ships in stormy weather, and there
be no river there to prevent it, but on one side there is a proper shore, then on the other side, by
means of building or heaps of stones, a projection is run out, and in this the enclosures of
harbours are formed. Building in the sea is thus executed. That powder is procured, which is
found in the country between Cumæ and the promontory of Minerva, and is mixed with the
water in the proportion of two parts thereof to one of lime.

3. Then, in the place selected, dams are formed in the water, of oaken piles tied together with
chain pieces, which are driven firmly into the bottom. Between the ranges of piles, below the level
of the water, the bed is dug out and levelled, and the work carried up with stones and mortar,
compounded as above directed, till the wall fills the vacant space of the dam. If, however, from
the violence of the waves and open sea the dams cannot be kept together, then on the edge of the
main land, a foundation for a wall is constructed of the greatest possible strength; this foundation
is laid horizontally, throughout rather less than half its length; the remainder, which is towards
the shore, is made to overhang.

4. Then, on the side towards the water, and on the flanks round the foundation, margins,
projecting a foot and a half, are brought up to the level already mentioned. The overhanging part
is filled up underneath with sand, brought up level with the foundation. On the level bed thus
prepared, as large a pier as possible is built, which must remains for at least two months to set.
The margin which incloses the sand is then removed, and the sand being washed away by the
action of the waves causes the fall of the mass into the sea, and by a repetition of this expedient
the work may be carried forward into the sea.

5. When the place does not afford the powder named, the following method is to be adopted.
Double dams are constructed, well connected with planks and chain pieces, and the cavity
between them is filled up with clay and marsh weed well rammed down. When rammed down
and squeezed as close as possible, the water is emptied out with screw pumps or water wheels,
and the place is emptied and dried, and the foundations excavated. If the bottom be of loose
texture, it must be dug out till a solid bottom is come to, wider than the wall about to be erected,
and the wall is then built of stone, lime, and sand.

6. But if the bottom be very soft, alder, olive, or oak piles, previously charred, must be driven,
and the intervals between them filled with coals, as directed above for the foundations of theatres
and walls. The wall is then raised with squared stones, the joints of which are to be as long as
possible, in order that the middle stones may be well tied in. The inside of the wall is then filled
with rubble or masonry; and on this, even a tower might be erected.

7. When this is completed, the arsenals are to be constructed chiefly with a northern aspect; for if
they are to the south, the heat will generate and nourish the rot, the worm, the ship worm, and
other noxious insects; and timber should be sparingly used in these buildings on account of fire.
No rule can be given for the size, but they must be suited to receive the largest ships, so that, if
drawn ashore, there may be plenty of room for them. In this book, as far as it has occurred to
me, I have treated of the public buildings necessary for the use of a city: in that following, I shall
treat of the convenience and symmetry of private houses._____________________________