1.1. Definitions of low value/trash
fish

"Low value/trash fish" is a loosely used term that describes
fish species with various characteristics but they are generally small in size,
have low consumer preference and have little or no direct commercial value. The
term is not really appropriate in many cases as these fish form the basis of
human nutrition in many coastal areas in Asia-Pacific. Fish can be trash for one
community but preferred in another, making a precise definition difficult. For
this report we first define some characteristics of low value/trash fish and
compare usage across a sample of countries.

Once caught, fish are either (i) retained or (ii) discarded
(Figure 1). Of those retained, they are either used for (i) human food (in a
range of product forms and markets), (ii) livestock/fish food (either fed
directly to livestock/fish or used indirectly through processing into fish
meal/oil that is used to make pellets or (iii) other uses (such as
fertilisers).

The use of the terms "low value" and "trash fish" varies
across the Asia-Pacific region (see Table 1) and can also change both seasonally
and with location. However, in the six countries studied in Asia, low
value/trash fish was recognised as being always of low economic value, generally
small in size (though it can include larger fish if of low quality or waste from
other uses) and having a low consumer preference. They are usually taken as a
bycatch[1] (in the sense that it was caught by
non-selective fishing gear). A portion is often thrown away or discarded at sea,
although this practice is quite minimal in many Asian fisheries.

Figure 1: Major categories of
fish in Asia-Pacific

The main difference in use of the term is whether it includes
those fish eaten by humans or whether it is restricted only to fish used in
animal feeds. In the Philippines and Viet Nam the term refers to fish that is
both eaten by humans and used in livestock/fish food (manufactured into fish
meal/oil or fed directly to animals). The term trash fish is more restricted in
Thailand and China where it only includes the livestock/fish food component. In
Bangladesh and India, less is converted into livestock/fish food and it is
mainly directly used for human consumption. In China (and to a lesser degree in
Viet Nam), it includes a large amount of fish that are targeted for processing
into fish meal/oil, for example Japanese anchovy and chub mackerel.

Table 1: Some characteristics of low value/trash fish in
six countries in Asia-Pacific

In view of the different uses of the terms in different
countries, in this report we refer to all low value fish as low value/trash
fish. It was decided to make the definition broad and emphasise that the two
different categories of use had to be included in any description of low
value/trash fish. The working definition of low value/trash fish is:

Fish that have a low commercial value by virtue of their
low quality, small size or low consumer preference. They are either used for
human consumption (often processed or preserved) or used to feed livestock/fish,
either directly or through reduction to fish meal/oil.

It also noted that inland low value/trash fish share the same
issues as marine low value/trash fish but are outside of the scope of this
review while recognising their importance as human food, particularly for the
rural poor.

It is stressed that it is more important to focus on the
issues and types of use for these fish, rather than insisting on a regionally
accepted generic term. However, it is important within the region, to use the
same term for the different categories of fish that are included under the
umbrella term - low value/trash fish. There is an urgent need for a more
consistent use of the term. Rather than trying to come up with an agreed
definition, all countries should record low value/trash fish under their
categories for use, i.e.

A fuller description of the use of the term low value/trash
fish in these different countries is given below. Further insight into the
species composition, production trends and use is given in Sections 2.1 and
2.2.

Bangladesh

Low value/trash fish in Bangladesh is low-value fish caught as
bycatch from small mesh drift nets - a gill net (that targets hilsha fish);
large mesh drift (that targets Indian salmon) and shrimp trawl with its twin rig
trawl (that targets shrimp). Some of the bycatch is commercially valuable fish
(by-products) while others are less valued and do not have a specified use.
However, in the Bangladesh context, any fish has a value and, with the exception
of the shrimp trawl fishery, almost all the fish species are landed and are
consumed locally.

China

China has a rather detailed ecological and economic
description of "trash fish", which explicitly states that it is fish "not
suitable for direct human consumption". "Low value fish" refers to those eaten
by humans. The nature of Chinas fisheries is such by small pelagic
species, some of which have potential economic value if not caught as juveniles.
More recently, fish that were once considered "trash" and were discarded at sea
(such as Japanese anchovy and Chub mackerel) have become target species in trawl
and purse net fisheries as a result of fisheries resources overexploitation and
the increasing demand from aquaculture, which provides a ready market for these
species. This has become a common trend in several of the countries covered by
this review.

Low value/trash fish generally comprise fish with small body
sizes (with relatively low flesh ratios) and low economic values. They often
decay more easily than the other more valuable fish and are very vulnerable to
mechanical damage. Under normal weather conditions, they deteriorate and lose
further processing value before they are landed.

India

The term low value/trash fish is often used in different ways
throughout India and some confusion exists on what it actually means. It is
often used interchangeably with the term bycatch. A case in point is bycatch
from shrimp trawls, where the ratio of target species to the bycatch may be as
low as 1 to 20. This incidental catch includes several species of fin and
shellfish, which have varying values in the market. Those fish, by virtue of
their small size or low consumer preference, have either little or no value and
are therefore called low value/trash fish. In some fisheries a proportion of
this low value/trash fish is discarded overboard (often to make space). Even
within the landed catch there are some species whose size, appearance, and
consumer preference constrain them from being readily accepted as human food. In
general, prices can be used as criteria for considering fish as low value/trash
fish (e.g. fish fetching less than $0.10 per kg).

Fish may be considered as low value/trash fish in one season
but not so in another season and may be considered as low value/trash fish in
one region but may find consumer acceptance elsewhere, and hence possibly not
considered as trash.

Philippines

The term trash fish or "dyako" in local dialect has been used
since the trawl era in the 1950s to refer to the lowest category of trawl-caught
species. It is the least valued fish group mainly composed of juveniles of
commercially important food species, as well as lesser known food species (both
young and adult). In the present context, commercially-important food fish
landed by pelagic fisheries that are spoiled and/or damaged (due to rough
handling and poor post-harvest practices) that could still be used for
industrial purposes are also considered as low value/trash fish.

Thailand

Trash fish are defined as those used for livestock/fish feeds,
the majority being used for fish meal/oil. "Low value food fish" includes the
very extensive use of fish for processing for human food in artisanal fisheries
throughout Thailand. "True" trash fish is used for those species that are small
in size even when they mature. However, juveniles of high value marine fishes
make up a significant proportion of the total trash fish. Thai people refer to
trash fish as "Pla ped", which literally means "fish for ducks", most likely
because the fish have been traditionally used to feed ducks and other livestock.
With the emergence of coastal cage-fish aquaculture, this fish is now
increasingly diverted to aquaculture.

Viet Nam

In general, trash fish in Viet Nam is only bycatch. However,
it is the most important fish product in terms of both weight and value. Trash
fish is caught mainly from trawling for higher value fish, crustaceans and
molluscs. There are many trash fish species, the composition of which depends on
the fishing area and the type of gear. There are three categories and terms for
trash fish in Vietnamese: trash fish, trawling fish and "pig fish", the latter
being the lowest quality and therefore having a more restricted meaning than the
other two terms.

The identification of trash fish is not always clear.
Previously it was fish of low or no economic value but such fish are now being
converted into value-added products. Leatherjacket is a very bony fish, which
was rarely eaten before the development of processing technology. It was either
only salted and converted into fish sauce, or even used as a fertiliser in
southern Viet Nam. Recently, a process was introduced involving drying it for
export and now it has economic value and is not considered a "trash fish". Pony
fish also used to have a low value but now it is used to feed grouper, cobia and
other species, and its value is increasing.

1.2. Asia-Pacific
fisheries

The fisheries sector in the Asia-Pacific region can generally
be divided into:

In 2003, total world fishery production was reported to be 136
million tonnes, representing an increase of some 30 percent since 1990 (Figure
2). Marine capture fisheries production was 85.9 million tonnes in 2003 (FAO,
2005). In 2003, capture fishery production from Asia-Pacific accounted for half
of world production, and the production from aquaculture reached almost 90
percent of the global aquaculture production of fish and shellfish.

Figure 2: World fishery
production (million tonnes)

Source: FAO (2005) and FAO
database.

In 2003, of the 20 top producers of marine capture fisheries,
10 were from the Asia-Pacific region (Table 2).

Three factors differentiate fisheries in the region from
larger-scale temperate fisheries:

1. The dominance of small-scale fisheries, with
most operations lasting from a day to a few days, irrespective of the economic
value of the catch;

2. The tropical characteristics of the ecosystem, with
individual species having a relatively small stock size compared to those in
temperate waters. As a consequence, fishers use a large number of gears and
depend on a larger number of species for their livelihoods; and

3. The inherent flexibility of markets, since these are based
on a long tradition of consuming a wide range of catch species, each in
relatively small volumes and using extremely diverse local processing
techniques.

According to official statistics, production in a number of
Asia-Pacific fisheries peaked in the last two decades and is now stable or
declining, depending on the area being fished. Highly intensive fishing,
especially in trawl fisheries, targeting shrimp and other demersal species has
also led to a change in catch composition. The share in landings of fast growing
and short-lived species and the catch of small-sized juveniles of commercially
important fish species is steadily increasing (so-called "fishing down the food
chain"). There is also evidence (e.g. Gulf of Thailand) that the abundance of
species at higher levels in the food chain has seriously declined with a
resulting higher risk to biodiversity and increased vulnerability of fisheries.
There is little doubt that the quality of stocks has deteriorated faster than
the volume and value of fish caught. However, it appears that many fisheries
remain financially viable due to strong market demand and low opportunity cost
of attracting labour into the fishing profession.

Small-scale artisanal fisheries are typically labour-intensive
fishing activities, often carried out as one of several income-generating
activities. Small-scale, coastal fishing operations have been estimated to
account for as much as 75 percent of the total fish catch from the region,
although there are no really firm data on this. Regional variations to this
figure obviously exist, for example, it is noted in FAO (2001) that some 88
percent of the demersal catch of 0.86 million tonnes in the Gulf of Thailand is
taken by medium or large-sized industrial trawlers (i.e. vessels larger than 14
m in length). Catches from small-scale fisheries are regarded to be
under-reported in many cases and the overall impact of small-scale fishing
activities is not always appreciated. Conversely, industrial vessels represent
only a small proportion of overall catches, although their impact on fisheries
is more easily monitored and regulated through various administrative and
technical means (e.g. vessel registration, gear restrictions, zoning,
etc.).

In terms of involvement of people (employment and coastal
livelihoods) of the countries covered by this review, the fisheries sector is
dominated by small-scale fisheries. Hence, managing the industrial and
small-scale fisheries that mostly target coastal fisheries resources needs to
take into account both the social, economic and cultural considerations as well
as the biophysical and ecological factors. The management of fishing capacity is
generally addressed in relation to three key issues now affecting Asia-Pacific
fisheries: declining resources, coastal degradation, and the threat of increased
poverty in fishing communities.

Subsistence fishing[3] still
exists in some countries, although this is often confined to freshwater capture
fisheries. The bulk of marine fisheries catch is sold, either in local or export
markets (i.e. a "cash crop"). Thus, in addition to providing full-time and
part-time employment to millions of people directly or indirectly involved in
fishing, fisheries contribute to foreign currency generation.

Bangladesh and India

Small-scale artisanal and coastal fishing are important
livelihoods in Bangladesh and India. Bangladesh reports about 1.2 million people
engaging in full-time fisheries and another 10.2 million part-time fishers. The
artisanal fishing sector contributes more than 90 percent of total fisheries
landing in Bangladesh. There is almost the same number of non-mechanised and
mechanised boats in Bangladesh, both adding up to a total of about 44 000 units.
The main fishing gear is gill net, which contributes more than half of the
catch, about 37 percent of which are hilsha (Tenualosa ilisha), a pelagic
fish that school in coastal waters and migrate up river to spawn.

In India, there are about 1.45 million fishers, and another 10
million people in fishing related business, including processing and marketing.
Fishing is conducted from traditional fishing crafts, motorised boats (most
converted from traditional boats) and small mechanised boats. The mechanised
fishing fleet contributes about 68 percent of the total marine landing. Common
gears used are hook and lines, gill nets and boat seines. About 70 percent of
landing comes from the west coast (Arabian Sea), and the rest is from the Bay of
Bengal.

About 25 percent of total marine fisheries landing in India
consist of demersal species, mainly caught by trawling. The rise in motorised
and mechanised fishing gears and the increasing number of offshore fishing
vessels is being driven by estimates of potential growth in demersal fishing in
these waters. In contrast, the trawl fishery is relatively small in Bangladesh.
A total of 80 trawlers were in the fleet in 2002, 44 are shrimp and 36 fish
trawlers. Despite this, trawlers contribute about 30 percent of total fisheries
landings and the number of large vessels being purchased by fishing companies is
increasing.

China

About 1.2 million people are directly engaged in fishing in
China and another 280 000 people in processing and marketing. There are about
280 000 small fishing vessels in the marine fisheries. Gears used include
trawls, fixed nets, small-scale drift nets, purse seines and other gears. Trawl
fishing (both otter trawls and pair trawls) contribute about 45 percent of total
landing, with the rest caught by small-scale fishing gears and off-shore pelagic
gears. Trawls are used to catch demersal species such as croakers, with the
dominant species being the largehead hairtail. There is a large fishery that
targets Japanese anchovy and juvenile chub mackerel to supply a large part of
the fish used for livestock/fish feed.

Philippines

The Philippines splits the marine fisheries sector into
"municipal" (small-scale, using vessels of three tonnes or less) and
"commercial" (using vessels weighing more than 3 tonnes) types. Despite this
separation the municipal fishing sector clearly consists of commercial fisheries
(i.e. catching fish that are destined to be sold). Municipal fishing takes place
in inland or coastal waters, using either fixed gears or small vessels, and
employs more people (about 676 000 persons) than commercial fisheries, although
it contributes only 25 percent of total marine landing. Many gears are used by
this sector including gill nets, hook and line, beach seine, fish corral,
ringnet, baby trawl, spear and longline. Purse seine, targeting pelagic fish
such as round scad, Indian sardines, frigate tuna, skipjack, etc., contributes
about half of the entire commercial landing.

Thailand

There are about 57 800 marine fishing households in Thailand,
most of which engage in small-scale fisheries. Vessels less than 14 m in length
are considered small-scale. In such households, most family members, including
women, are involved in fishing, using mainly shrimp trammel nets and crab gill
nets or fish traps.

Rapid development of the industrial trawl fishery took place
in Thailand in the mid to late 1960s, followed by Malaysia (early 1970s) and
then Indonesia. In Thailand, this development meant a tripling of the number of
otter board trawls, pair trawls and beam trawls within a period of ten years. By
1989, the number of Thai trawlers peaked at about 13 100 boats. Adding to this
was a small number of push nets that targeted demersal fishes. The catch per
unit effort declined from over 300 kg/hour in 1963 to about 50 kg/hour in the
1980s, and 20 - 30 kg/hour in the 1990s. This was accompanied by a decline in
mean trophic level of catches in the Gulf of Thailand (Pauly and Chuenpagdee,
2003).

1.3. Fishing in the context of
poverty

Fishers and their families in the Asia-Pacific region are
often considered to be among the poorest of the poor. These families often have
small land parcels unsuited to agriculture or are landless occupying marginal
coastal lands. Often the only significant possession is the fishing vessel that
supports their livelihood. This is closely linked to their high exposure and
vulnerability to accidents, natural disasters and other shocks.

This raises the issue of whether fisher folk are poor because
they are fishers or whether they are fishers because they are poor. These two
paradigms are shown in Figure 3. The first paradigm in Figure 3 is called
conventional wisdom and relates to the open access nature of fisheries that
allows more and more people to enter the fishery which, because of the "tragedy
of the commons" leads to biological and economical over exploitation of the
resource, the dissipation of rent and finally impoverishment of the fishing
community. This is the classical Malthusian concept of poverty: over
exploitation of the resource results in low catch, which equates with low income
and poverty. From this perspective, therefore, the problems lie solely within
the fishery sector itself and the solution is better fisheries
management.

The second is the low opportunity paradigm. Poverty is
explained by using the concept of low opportunity incomes due to the lack of
alternative incomes outside of the fisheries sector that drives (or keeps)
fishers incomes at a low level. Thus the the solution is to improve the
economic situation outside the subsector. In this scenario, it is important to
note that a small-scale fisheries subsector is extremely mobile, with people
moving into and out of fishing, both seasonally and over longer time scales,
depending on the relative attractiveness of other activities compared with
fishing at any given time.

Linking these two paradigms creates the perception that
fisheries, because of its "open-access" nature, as well as lack of alternative
opportunities, often offer employment of last resort. Some see this safety valve
aspect of small-scale fisheries as a desirable aspect and not necessarily an
undesirable attribute as espoused by the conventional wisdom. All these
arguments, however, all end up with the same conclusion that "small-scale
fisheries = poverty".

Figure 3: Relationship between
small-scale fisheries and poverty as conceptualised in the literature (redrawn
after Béné (2002))

There are considerable difficulties in, firstly, defining who
is a fisher and, secondly, what is a fishing community. There is added
complexity in measuring poverty in small-scale fishing communities, but despite
these difficulties FAO (2002c) has estimated the number of income-poor,
small-scale fishers worldwide. Estimates suggest that 5.8 million (or 20
percent) of the be small-scale fishers, earning less than $1 per day, the
majority of which live in the Asian region. These estimates exclude aquaculture
activities. Related activities, such as boat building, marketing and processing,
may involve a further 17.3 million income-poor people. These figures suggest an
overall estimate of 23 million income-poor people, plus their household
dependents, relying on small-scale fisheries, predominantly in Asia (Table 3).
It is also probably fair to say that these figures are underestimates.

Table 3: Poverty in Asian small-scale fisheries (1 000
people)

Asia

World

Share of Asia

% of population on < $1 per day

25.6%

-

-

Income-poor fishers

4 821

5 759

-

Related income-poor jobs

14 464

17 278

-

Total income-poor

19 286

23 037

84%

Source: FAO (2002c).

Many countries have committed themselves to gradually
introducing rights-based fisheries management systems for regulating access to
coastal and marine resources. This process is planned to go hand-in-hand with
the decentralisation of fisheries management authority and functions to
subnational administrative levels, increased participation of the stakeholders
and the introduction of co-management. It is assumed that the closer the
small-scale coastal fisheries management authorities are to resource users, the
better they can accommodate specific socio-economic, political and ecological
local characteristics into their particular management systems.

Despite this move towards rights-based fishery, there is still
a need to resolve the multiple objective framework of management policies on
national and regional levels. Policy goals can often be contradictory and
inter alia include:

reduction of user
conflicts;

increase in fish
production;

safeguarding employment and
incomes;

resource
sustainability;

expansion of aquaculture and
offshore operations; and

export promotion.

Although many countries have their own policy, legal and
institutional or regulatory frameworks to manage their respective fisheries,
these systems are generally based on short-term objectives and goals such as
increasing production levels, rather than the long-term comprehensive and
sustainable management of fisheries (Vichitlekarn, 2004). In the long run,
policy-makers and managers will have to realise that trade-offs will be required
to meet the priorities for the country, and priority objectives will have to be
agreed.

[1] The term "bycatch" is a
generic term referring to catch that is incidental to the target species, noting
that in many fisheries using non-selective gears, such as fish trawls, the term
is sometimes used interchangeably for the unwanted portion of the catch that is
discarded or sometimes to refer to the less desirable fish that are landed, i.e.
low value/trash fish.[2] Examples of how these two
subsectors are defined in several different counties are given in Appendix
1.[3] "Subsistence fishing" as
the term is used here, refers to fishing activities where the catch is largely
used for home consumption and is not substantially traded.