Benedict de Spinoza

Benedict de Spinoza, Hebrew forename Baruch, Latin forename Benedictus, Portuguese Bento de Espinosa, (born November 24, 1632, Amsterdam—died February 21, 1677, The Hague), Dutch Jewish philosopher, one of the foremost exponents of 17th-century Rationalism and one of the early and seminal figures of the Enlightenment.

Early life and career

Spinoza’s Portuguese parents were among many Jews who were forcibly converted to Christianity but continued to practice Judaism in secret (seeMarranos). After being arrested, tortured, and condemned by the inquisition in Portugal, they escaped to Amsterdam, where Spinoza’s father, Michael, became an important merchant and eventually served as one of the directors of the city’s synagogue. Spinoza’s mother, Hannah, died in 1638, shortly before his sixth birthday.

The Jewish community in Amsterdam was unique in its time. It originally comprised people who had been raised in Spain, Portugal, France, or Italy as Christians and who had fled to Amsterdam to escape persecution and to practice their ancestral religion freely. The community was granted toleration by the Dutch authorities on the condition that it not cause scandal or allow any of its members to become public charges.

The community developed many social and educational institutions, including an all-male Talmud-Torah school founded in 1638. The students there were taught by adult males, many of whom had been trained at Roman Catholic schools before their arrival in Amsterdam. They taught the younger men more or less what they themselves had learned but also added instruction in various Jewish subjects, though it is not clear how much traditional Judaism was included in the curriculum. As a student in this school, the young Baruch Spinoza probably learned Hebrew and studied some Jewish philosophy, including that of Moses Maimonides.

When he was 18 or 19 years old, Spinoza and his brother went into business selling tropical fruit. At his stall on the main canal in Amsterdam, Spinoza met other young businessmen from different religious backgrounds, some of whom became his lifelong friends.

There is some evidence that Spinoza began to attract attention as a potential heretic when he was in his early 20s. After he and two other young men began teaching classes in Sabbath school, all three were charged with improprieties, though in Spinoza’s case the record of the investigation does not survive. The two other men were accused of raising doubts in their students’ minds about the historical accuracy of the Bible and about whether there might be other accounts of human history with an equal or even better claim to the truth.

In 1655 a book titled Prae-Adamitae (Latin: “Men Before Adam”), by the French courtier Isaac La Peyrère, appeared in Amsterdam. It challenged the accuracy of the Bible and insisted that the spread of human beings to all parts of the globe implies that there must have been humans before Adam and Eve. La Peyrère concluded that the Bible is the history of the Jews, not the history of humanity. Although it is not known whether Spinoza met La Peyrère at this time, one of Spinoza’s teachers, Menasseh ben Israel, was acquainted with La Peyrère and even challenged him to a debate in 1655. (Menasseh also wrote a refutation of the work, which was never printed.) Prae-Adamitae was soon condemned in the Netherlands and elsewhere, and it came to be regarded as one of the most dangerous pieces of heresy in print. Spinoza owned a copy of the work, and many of La Peyrère’s ideas about the Bible later appeared in Spinoza’s writings.

Excommunication

La Peyrère’s heresies may well have been the starting point of Spinoza’s falling out with the synagogue in Amsterdam. In the summer of 1656 he was formally excommunicated. A series of horrendous curses were cast upon him, and members of the synagogue were forbidden to have any relationship with him, to read anything he had written, or to listen to anything he had to say. The statement of excommunication, or herem (Hebrew: “anathema”), reads like a wild attack, suggesting that Spinoza was very much hated and despised. In the late 20th century it was discovered that the herem pronounced against Spinoza used a formulation that was given to the Amsterdam Jewish community by the Venetian Jewish community in 1617 and was specifically intended for heretics.

Despite the severity of the excommunication, it was apparently undertaken with some reluctance. According to Spinoza’s later account, the community offered to rescind it and even to pay him a pension if he would agree to appear at High Holiday services and to keep quiet while he was there. Spinoza apparently declined. Some time after his excommunication, he changed his given name from the Hebrew Baruch to the Latin Benedictus, both of which mean “blessed.” Despite being formally excluded from the Jewish community, he seems to have remained in contact with some members, even taking part in a Jewish theological discussion group in the late 1650s.

There is still much debate about why Spinoza was excommunicated. Many scholars have naturally tried to find an explanation in Spinoza’s religious views. Yet they have rarely taken into account the fact that the Jewish community in Amsterdam was very broad-minded and that its social and political leaders (the parnassim) were businessmen rather than rabbis. Although the Amsterdam synagogue excommunicated more than 280 people in its first century of existence, most of the cases concerned the enforcement of rules and regulations (e.g., the payment of dues and the fulfillment of marriage contracts), and only a handful involved heresy. Furthermore, although rabbis could recommend excommunication, only the parnassim could carry it out. In Spinoza’s case it is plausible to assume that the parnassim would have been most reluctant to excommunicate the son of a recently deceased parnas (Michael Spinoza died in 1654) for ideological reasons.

The American scholar Steven Nadler has contended that Spinoza’s excommunication resulted from his denial of the immortality of the soul. But Spinoza had written nothing on this subject and did not directly discuss the issue in his later philosophy. It is only by implication that it is clear that he did not believe in individual immortality. Other scholars have tried to make Spinoza’s adherence to the philosophy of René Descartes the central problem, but it is unclear that Spinoza had even studied Descartes by this time; in any event, it is unlikely that the parnassim would have been greatly exercised by the views a young man might hold about Cartesianism. Another possibility is that Spinoza was excommunicated because of his views about the interpretation of the Bible and the truth of biblical claims.

Ultimately, however, his excommunication may have had more to do with the presentation rather than the content of his beliefs. As suggested by some strongly worded sections of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (published anonymously in 1670), Spinoza may have been aggressively obnoxious in his criticism of established religion and insensitive to the suffering that older Marranos in the community had undergone (see belowTractatus Theologico-Politicus).

Although the herem forbade Jews to read Spinoza’s writings, there is no evidence that he had written anything other than commercial documents up to that time. Accordingly, many scholars have postulated the existence of lost heretical books. It is more likely, however, that Spinoza was still developing his own doctrines during this time. An indication of this is given in an account by an Augustinian friar of a theological discussion group attended by Spinoza in Amsterdam. He reported that Spinoza and a fellow excommunicant, Juan de Prado, held that God exists, but only “philosophically.” This statement contains the germs of the theory that Spinoza was soon to develop.

Association with Collegiants and Quakers

By 1656 Spinoza had already made acquaintances among members of the Collegiants, a religious group in Amsterdam that resisted any formal creed or practice. Some scholars believe that Spinoza actually lived with the Collegiants after he left the Jewish community. Others think it more likely that he stayed with Franciscus van den Enden, a political radical and former Jesuit, and taught classes at the school that van den Enden had established in Amsterdam.

A few months after his excommunication, Spinoza was introduced to the leader of a Quakerproselytizing mission to Amsterdam. The Quakers, though not as radical as the Collegiants, also rejected traditional religious practices and ceremonies. There is some reason to believe that Spinoza became involved for a while in a project to translate one or more Quaker pamphlets into Hebrew. In this he would have been aided by Samuel Fisher, a member of the Quaker mission who had studied Hebrew at the University of Oxford. Fisher, it seems, shared Spinoza’s skepticism of the historical accuracy of the Bible. In 1660 he published a book in English of more than 700 pages, Rusticus ad Academicos; or, The Country Correcting the University and Clergy, in which he raised almost every point of biblical criticism that Spinoza was later to make in the Tractatus.

In 1661 Spinoza was visited by a former Collegiant, Pieter Balling, who belonged to a philosophical group in Amsterdam that was very interested in Spinoza’s ideas. Shortly after his visit, Balling published a pamphlet, Het licht op den kandelar (Dutch: “Light on the Candlestick”), that attempted to justify the tenets of Quakerism. The work, which eventually became a standard piece of Quaker theology, contains a fair amount of terminology that Spinoza later employed, which suggests that Spinoza helped to formulate this basic statement of Quaker doctrine.

Rijnsburg and The Hague

In 1661 Spinoza moved from Amsterdam to the coastal town of Rijnsburg. Most traditional accounts assume that he had tired of his isolation from the Jewish community in Amsterdam or that he desired a quiet place in which to pursue his philosophical work. Spinoza himself, however, reported that he left Amsterdam because someone had tried to kill him with a knife as he emerged from a theatre. (He kept the coat he had been wearing, torn by the knife, for the rest of his life.) In Rijnsburg Spinoza lived alone in a modest but comfortable cottage, where he worked on his philosophy and supported himself by grinding lenses.

Shortly after Spinoza’s arrival in Rijnsburg, he was visited by Henry Oldenburg, who later became secretary of the Royal Society. Oldenburg had probably heard of Spinoza through Peter Serrarius, a millenarian merchant in Amsterdam who handled Spinoza’s dealings with the outside world. Oldenburg subsequently put Spinoza into contact with the eminent British scientist and theologian Robert Boyle. Oldenburg, who seems to have regarded Spinoza as a kindred spirit, was keen to promote Spinoza’s ideas among the radical Protestants with whom he associated in England. Oldenburg and Spinoza corresponded until the very end of Spinoza’s life.

In 1661 Spinoza began writing the Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione (Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect), a presentation of his theory of knowledge, which he left unfinished. In about 1662 he completed his only work in Dutch, Korte verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelfs welstand (Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being), a brief survey of his overall philosophy. During this period he was also working on the Ethics, as his correspondence shows.

In 1663 Spinoza published Renati des Cartes Principiorum Philosophiae (1663; René Descartes’s Principles of Philosophy), the only one of his works to be published under his own name in his lifetime. An exposition of Descartes’sPrincipia Philosophiae (1644; Principles of Philosophy), it showed a profound understanding of Descartes’s system. Although Spinoza generally accepted Descartes’s physics, he rejected Cartesian metaphysics, objecting to three features: the transcendence of God, the conception of mind as a “mental substance” radically distinct from matter (seemind-body dualism), and the ascription of free will both to God and to human beings. In Spinoza’s eyes the combination of these doctrines made the world unintelligible. It was impossible to explain the relation between God and the world or the causal interaction of mind and body or to account for events occasioned by free will. Spinoza also showed that Descartes’s definition of substance, which Spinoza accepted, implied that there cannot be more than one substance in the world. Spinoza’s monism is therefore the logical outcome of Cartesianism (see belowThe period of the Ethics).

In the mid-1660s Spinoza moved again, to the outskirts of The Hague, where he spent the rest of his life. He began to acquire a wide circle of intellectual acquaintances, beginning with a philosophical-spiritual group in Amsterdam that conducted discussions with him by mail and occasionally in person. Recognized as a significant intellectual figure, especially after the publication of the Tractatus in 1670, Spinoza found himself in the company of professors, diplomats, and writers of great renown.

The publication of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus in 1670 made Spinoza notorious. Although his name did not appear on the work, he was quickly known as its author. The Tractatus was one of the few books to be officially banned in the Netherlands during this period, though it could be bought easily. It was soon the topic of heated discussion throughout Europe.

The Tractatus combines biblical criticism, political philosophy, and philosophy of religion with germs of Spinoza’s developing metaphysics.The early chapters can be seen as the culmination of Spinoza’s long-standing skepticism regarding the Bible. The themes that the Bible is not historically accurate, that it is full of inconsistencies, and that some of its content can be explained through scientific study of the language, history, and beliefs of past times probably date from the period before Spinoza’s excommunication. The first seven chapters in particular contain many borrowings from La Peyrère’s Prae-Adamitae and from Book III of Leviathan (1651), by the English philosopher (and atheist) Thomas Hobbes.

Spinoza denies that the Jewish prophets possessed any knowledge beyond that of ordinary mortals, and he denies that the history of the Jews is any more extraordinary than that of other peoples. He contended that much of the content of the Bible was determined by the peculiarities of Hebrew history from the time of the Exodus onward. The particular rituals it describes were relevant to the circumstances in which the ancient Hebrews found themselves but no longer made sense in a modern age; hence, the ceremonial law of the ancient Hebrews could be disregarded. Although most of the discussion concerns Judaism and the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), Spinoza also briefly indicates that Christian ceremonial law is also historically determined and therefore not binding on the modern believer. He cites in support of his conclusion the fact that Dutch Christians in Japan were willing to set aside all of their religious paraphernalia and practice during their trading visits in the country.

A more radical side of Spinoza’s view emerges in his discussion of divine law and scripture. According to Spinoza, divine law is necessary and eternal; it cannot be changed by any human or divine action. Hence, miracles, which by definition are violations of divinely created laws of nature, are impossible. Alleged miracles must have a rational, scientific explanation, and anyone who believes in the reality of miracles is thus simply ignorant. Scientific developments will explain all alleged miracles once all of the laws of nature have been discovered.

Spinoza then turns his attention to the study of the Bible, arguing that it should be studied in almost the same way in which nature should be studied. Scripture should be examined in terms of linguistic development and historical context. Using his naturalistic approach to language, he argued that the scriptures were simply a collection of Hebrew writings by different persons from different times and places. Indeed, the examination of conflicting passages reveals that there must have been many authors, not just Moses and the prophets. Deuteronomy, for example, must have had more than one author, since the alleged author, Moses, describes his own death. While the scriptures may provide an interesting picture of ancient Hebrew life and times, they contain no superhuman dimension.

Spinoza derides those who reinterpret scripture in order to see a rational message in it—as Moses Maimonides did—as well as those who accept its unreasonableness on faith. Instead, one should dispense with the view that the scriptures are a divine document and simply accept them as a historical one.

This line of thought leads Spinoza to assert that the message of the scriptures is to be found not in any collection of ancient parchments but rather in the spirit that pervades them. He reduces this message to a simple set of propositions that any rational person could determine for himself: that God exists, that God causes everything, and that a person should treat others as he would wish others to treat him.

Spinoza’s scientific approach to the scriptures has implications for his view of the origins of political societies in human history. According to Spinoza, they develop not from supernatural forces but in response to human needs and human values. Spinoza accepted Hobbes’s view of the justification of political authority: people cede their own power to a sovereign in order to preserve themselves from the violence and chaos that must attend a state of nature. In a society so constituted, religion can play a significant role in promoting people’s obedience to the sovereign. Spinoza proposes wide toleration of different religions as long as they help to make the people obedient and as long as they are subordinate to the state.

Spinoza insists that the obligation to obey the sovereign is absolute; the people have no right of rebellion in any circumstances, no matter how badly the sovereign may rule. In this respect his view is more authoritarian than that of Hobbes, who believed that the people would be justified in rebelling against the sovereign if they were in fear of their lives or if they felt that their condition had become no better than it would be in a state of nature.

At the end of the Tractatus, Spinoza argues for complete freedom of thought and of speech, claiming that no one can be forced to have one thought rather than another and that people should be allowed to develop their thoughts by themselves. People should be allowed to say and publish whatever they wish, so long as it does not interfere with the state. Spinoza ended the work with a declaration that this is what he thinks and, if the state thinks otherwise, he would be glad to change his text—which of course he never did.

In 1673 Spinoza was invited to Utrecht to meet Louis II, prince de Condé, whose armies had occupied much of the Netherlands since 1672. There he also met the French poet Saint Évremonde. When he returned to The Hague with presents from the prince, he was immediately accused of being in league with the country’s enemy. One year earlier the political leaders of the Netherlands, Johan De Witt and his brother Cornelius, who had been accused of conspiring against the young prince of Orange, William III, had been torn apart by an angry mob. At this point Spinoza, concerned for his safety, seems to have wanted to leave the Netherlands, and he considered an invitation from Louis II to move to Paris, as well as an offer of a professorship from the University of Heidelburg. He ultimately decided against going to Paris, because he feared that Louis did not have enough power to protect him from bigots in France, and he declined the offer from Heidelburg because he did not think he would have complete freedom to teach as he wished. His famous letter to the Heidelburg authorities, which contains an impressive defense of academic freedom, may in fact have been composed after the offer was withdrawn. At any rate, Spinoza seems to have reconciled himself to staying in the Netherlands for the rest of his life.

Spinoza resumed work on his masterpiece, the Ethica (Ethics), finishing a five-part version by 1675. He delayed its publication, however, after being advised that it would cause even greater controversy than the Tractatus. It was finally published, together with the Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect and an unfinished work on politics, the Tractatus Politicus, at the instigation of some of his Collegiant friends a few months after his death in 1677.

The bulk of the Ethics is written as a geometric proof in the style of Euclid’s Elements, though its more direct inspiration was probably Proclus’s Institutio theologica (Elements of Theology), an axiomatic presentation of Neoplatonicmetaphysics composed in the 5th century ce. Spinoza apparently believed that a geometric presentation of his ideas would be clearer than the conventional narrative style of his earlier works. Accordingly, he begins with a set of definitions of key terms and a series of self-evident “axioms” and proceeds to derive from these a number of “theorems,” or propositions. The early portion of the work contains no introductory or explanatory material to aid the reader, apparently because Spinoza initially thought it unnecessary. By the middle of Part I, however, he had added various notes and observations to ensure that the reader would understand the significance of the conclusions being developed. By the end of Part I he had also added polemical essays and introductions to various topics. The form of the work as a whole is therefore a mixture of axiomatic proof and philosophical narrative.

The Ethics relies on three Jewish sources, which were probably familiar to Spinoza from his early intellectual life. The first is the Dialogues on Love by Leone Ebreo (also known as Judah Abravanel), written in the early 16th century. Spinoza had a copy in Spanish in his library. This text is the source of the key phrases that Spinoza uses at the end of Part V to describe the culmination of human intellectual activity—namely, seeing the world “from the aspect of eternity” and having as an ultimate aim the “intellectual love of God.” Spinoza also used at least one argument from the 15th-century Spanish Jewish philosopher Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas, whose critique of Aristotle had been printed in the mid-16th century in Hebrew. Last, Spinoza seems to have had access to the Gate of Heaven by Abraham Cohen de Herrera, the most philosophically sophisticated Kabbalist of the 17th century. A disciple of Isaac ben Solomon Luria and an early member of the Amsterdam congregation, Herrera knew a vast amount of ancient, Islamic, Jewish, and Christian philosophy, as well as Kabbalistic thought. The Gate of Heaven, his major work, circulated in Amsterdam in Spanish and appeared in a Hebrew abridgement in 1655.

Spinoza begins by stating a set of definitions of eight terms: self-caused, finite of its own kind, substance, attribute, mode, God, freedom, and eternity. These definitions are followed by a series of axioms, one of which supposedly guarantees that the results of Spinoza’s logical demonstrations will be true about reality. Spinoza quickly establishes that substance must be existent, self-caused, and unlimited. From this he proves that there cannot be two substances with the same attribute, since each would limit the other. This leads to the monumental conclusion of Proposition 11: “God, or substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence, necessarily exists.” From the definition of God as a substance with infinite attributes and other propositions about substance, it follows that “there can be, or be conceived, no other substance but God” (Proposition 14) and that “whatever is, is in God, and nothing can be or be conceived without God” (Proposition 15). This constitutes the core of Spinoza’s pantheism: God is everywhere, and everything that exists is a modification of God. God is known by human beings through only two of his attributes—thought and extension (the quality of having spatial dimensions)—though the number of God’s attributes is infinite. Later in Part I, Spinoza established that everything that occurs necessarily follows from the nature of God and that there can be no contingencies in nature. Part I concludes with an appended polemic about the misreading of the world by religious and superstitious people who think that God can change the course of events and that the course of events sometimes reflects a divine judgment of human behaviour.

Part II explores the two attributes through which human beings understand the world, thought and extension. The latter form of understanding is developed in natural science, the former in logic and psychology. For Spinoza, there is no problem, as there is for Descartes, of explaining the interaction between mind and body. The two are not distinct entities causally interacting with each other but merely different aspects of the same events. Spinoza accepted the mechanistic physics of Descartes as the right way of understanding the world in terms of extension. Individual physical or mental entities are “modes” of substance: physical entities are modes of substance understood in terms of the attribute of extension; mental entities are modes of substance understood in terms of the attribute of thought. Because God is the only substance, all physical and mental entities are modes of God. Whereas the modes are natura naturata (“nature-created”) and transitory, God, or substance, is natura naturans (“nature-creating”) and eternal.

Physical modes that are biological have a feature beyond simple extension, namely, conatus (Latin: “exertion” or “effort”), a desire and drive for self-preservation. Unconsciously, biological modes are also driven by emotions of fear and pleasure to act in certain ways. Human beings, as biological modes, are in a state of bondage as long as they act solely from emotions. In Part V of the Ethics, “Of Human Freedom,” Spinoza explains that freedom is achieved by understanding the power of the emotions over human actions, by rationally accepting things and events over which one has no control, and by increasing one’s knowledge and cultivating one’s intellect. The highest form of knowledge consists of an intellectual intuition of things in their existence as modes and attributes of eternal substance, or God; this is what it means to see the world from the aspect of eternity. This kind of knowledge leads to a deeper understanding of God, who is all things, and ultimately to an intellectual love of God (amor Dei intellectualis), a form of blessedness amounting to a kind of rational-mystical experience.

Last years and posthumous influence

Soon after he completed the Ethics, Spinoza was visited by several important people, including Ehrenfried Walter von Tschirnhaus (in 1675), a scientist and philosopher, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (in 1676), who was, like Spinoza, one of the leading rationalists of the time. Leibniz, having heard of Spinoza as an authority on optics, had sent him an optical tract and had then received from Spinoza a copy of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, which deeply interested him. According to Leibniz’s own account, he “conversed with him often and at great length.” Spinoza, however, was now in an advanced stage of consumption that was aggravated by the inhaling of glass dust from grinding lenses. He died in 1677, leaving no heir, and his few possessions were sold at auction. They included about 160 books, the catalog of which has been preserved.

Spinoza has an assured place in the intellectual history of the Western world. Because his philosophical system was completely severed from any specific religious or historical perspective, and because he was strongly opposed to any form of supernaturalism, he was almost universally misunderstood (and denounced) as an atheist for nearly a century after his death. The tone was set by the French philosopher Pierre Bayle, whose Dictionnaire historique et critique (1697; “Historical and Critical Dictionary”) asserted that Spinoza was the first philosopher to make atheism into a philosophical system. A much more discerning assessment, however, was given in the late 18th century by the German poet Novalis, who said that Spinoza was a “God-intoxicated man.” The intensely religious—yet entirely rational and undogmatic—character of Spinoza’s thought has been appreciated and admired by philosophers as well as poets ever since.