Cultured meat is produced using many of the same tissue engineering techniques traditionally used in regenerative medicine.[2] The concept of cultured meat was popularized by Jason Matheny in the early 2000s after co-authoring a seminal paper[3] on cultured meat production and creating New Harvest, the world's first non-profit organization dedicated to supporting in vitro meat research.[4]

In 2013, Mark Post, professor at Maastricht University, was the first to showcase a proof-of-concept for in-vitro lab grown meat by creating the first lab-grown burger patty. Since then, several cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention: however, because of limited dedicated research activities, cultured meat has not yet been commercialized.[5] In addition, it has yet to be seen whether consumers will accept cultured meat as meat.[6]

The production process still has much room for improvement, but it has advanced in most recent years, leading up to 2018, under various companies.[7] Its applications lead it to have several prospective health, environmental, cultural, and economic considerations in comparison to conventional meat.[8]

Besides cultured meat, the terms in vitro meat, vat-grown[9], lab-grown meat[10], cell-based meat[11], clean meat, and synthetic meat[12] have all been used by various outlets to describe the product.

Clean meat is an alternative term that is preferred by some journalists, advocates, and organizations that support the technology. According to the Good Food Institute,[13] the name better reflects the production and benefits of the meat[14][15] and surpassed "cultured" and "in vitro" in media mentions as well as Google searches.[16]

The theoretical possibility of growing meat in an industrial setting has long captured the public imagination. Winston Churchill suggested in 1931: "We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium."[17]

In vitro cultivation of muscular fibers was performed as early as 1971 by Russell Ross. Indeed, the abstract was

Smooth muscle derived from the inner media and intima of immature guinea pig aorta were grown for up to 8 weeks in cell culture. The cells maintained the morphology of smooth muscle at all phases of their growth in culture. After growing to confluency, they grew in multiple overlapping layers. By week 4 in culture, microfibrils (110 A) appeared within the spaces between the layers of cells. Basement membrane-like material also appeared adjacent to the cells. Analysis of the microfibrils showed that they have an amino acid composition similar to that of the microfibrillar protein of the intact elastic fiber. These investigations coupled with the radioautographic observations of the ability of aortic smooth muscle to synthesize and secrete extracellular proteins demonstrate that this cell is a connective tissue synthetic cell.[18]

The culturing of stem cells from animals has been possible since the 1990s, including the production of small quantities of tissue which could, in principle be cooked and eaten. NASA has been conducting experiments since 2001, producing cultured meat from turkey cells.[19][20] The first edible sample was produced by the NSR/Touro Applied BioScience Research Consortium in 2002: goldfish cells grown to resemble fish fillets.[21][22][23]

In 1998 Jon F. Vein of the United States filed for, and ultimately secured, a patent (US 6,835,390 B1) for the production of tissue engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat cells would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products such as beef, poultry and fish.

In 2003, Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr of the Tissue Culture and Art Project and Harvard Medical School exhibited in Nantes a "steak" a few centimetres wide, grown from frog stem cells, which was cooked and eaten.[26]

The first peer-reviewed journal article published on the subject of laboratory-grown meat appeared in a 2005 issue of Tissue Engineering.[27]

In 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to the first company to bring lab-grown chicken meat to consumers by 2012.[28] The Dutch government has put US$4 million into experiments regarding cultured meat.[19] The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a group formed by international researchers interested in the technology, held the first international conference on the production of cultured meat, hosted by the Food Research Institute of Norway in April 2008, to discuss commercial possibilities.[21]Time magazine declared cultured meat production to be one of the 50 breakthrough ideas of 2009.[29]
In November 2009, scientists from the Netherlands announced they had managed to grow meat in the laboratory using the cells from a live pig.[30]

As of 2012, 30 laboratories from around the world have announced that they are working on cultured meat research.[31]

The first cultured beef burger patty, created by Dr. Mark Post at Maastricht University, was eaten at a demonstration for the press in London in August 2013.[32] It was made from over 20,000 thin strands of muscle tissue.[33] This burger cost Dr. Post over $300,000 to make and over 2 years to produce.[34] Two other companies have also begun to culture meat; Memphis Meats in the US and SuperMeat in Israel.[35]

As of February 2017, a recent report has shown that the price of these cultured burgers has dropped dramatically. Going from roughly over $300,000 to $11.36 in just 3 and a half years.[36] This cost is now only 9-10 times more expensive per pound than standard ground beef.[37]

On August 5th 2013, the world's first lab-grown burger was cooked and eaten at a news conference in London. Scientists from Maastricht University in the Netherlands, led by professor Mark Post, had taken stem cells from a cow and grown them into strips of muscle which they then combined to make a burger. The burger was cooked by chef Richard McGeown of Couch's Great House Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted by critics Hanni Rützler, a food researcher from the Future Food Studio and Josh Schonwald.[32] Rützler stated,

There is really a bite to it, there is quite some flavour with the browning. I know there is no fat in it so I didn't really know how juicy it would be, but there is quite some intense taste; it's close to meat, it's not that juicy, but the consistency is perfect. This is meat to me... It's really something to bite on and I think the look is quite similar.[38]

Tissue for the London demonstration was cultivated in May 2013, using about 20,000 thin strips of cultured muscle tissue. Funding of around €250,000 came from an anonymous donor later revealed to be Sergey Brin.[39] Post remarked that "there's no reason why it can't be cheaper...If we can reduce the global herd a millionfold, then I'm happy".[40]

It's just a matter of time before this is gonna happen, I'm absolutely convinced of that. In our case, I estimate the time to be about 3 years before we are ready to enter the market on a small scale, about 5 years to enter the market on a larger scale, and if you'd ask me: "When will [cultured meat] be in the supermarket around the corner?" That'll be closer to 10 than to 5 years, I think.

Since the first public trial, several startups have made advances in the field.
Mosa Meat co-founded by Mark Post continuous research with a focus on cultured beef. The company was able to significantly lower the costs of production.[42]

Memphis Meats, a Silicon Valley startup founded by a cardiologist, launched a video in February 2016 showcasing its cultured beef meatball.[42][43][44] In March 2017, it showcased chicken tenders and duck a l'orange, the first cultured poultry-based foods shown to the public.[45][46][47]

Finless Foods, a San Francisco-based company aimed at cultured fish, was founded in June 2016. In March 2017 it commenced laboratory operations and progressed quickly. Director Mike Selden said in July 2017 to expect bringing cultured fish products on the market within two years (by the end of 2019).[54]

In March 2018, JUST, Inc. (in 2011 founded as Hampton Creek in San Francisco) claimed to be able to present a consumer product from cultured meat by the end of 2018. According to CEO Josh Tetrick the technology is already there, and now it is merely a matter of applying it. Just has about 130 employees and a research department of 55 scientists, where lab meat from poultry, pork and beef is being developed. They would have already solved the problem of feeding the stemcells with only plant resources. Just receives sponsoring from Chinese billionaire Li Ka-shing, Yahoo! cofounder Jerry Yang and according to Tetrick also from Heineken International amongst others.[55]

The Dutch startup Meatable, consisting of Krijn de Nood, Daan Luining, Ruud Out, Roger Pederson, Mark Kotter and Gordana Apic among others, reported in September 2018 it had succeeded in growing meat using pluripotent stem cells from animals' umbilical cords. Although such cells are reportedly difficult to work with, Meatable claimed to be able to direct them to behave using their proprietary technique in order to become muscle cells or fat cells as needed. The major advantage is that this technique bypasses fetal bovine serum, meaning that no animal has to be killed in order to produce meat.[56] That month, it was estimated there were about 30 cultured meat startups across the world. A Dutch House of Representatives Commission meeting discussed the importance and necessity of governmental support for researching, developing and introducing cultured meat in society, speaking to representatives of three universities, three startups and four civil interest groups on 26 September 2018.[41]

Myoblasts are one precursor to muscle cells, and their fibers are shown in yellow and nuclei shown in blue.

The initial stage of growing cultured meat is to collect cells that have a rapid rate of proliferation (high cell reproduction rate). Such cells include embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, myosatellite cells, or myoblasts. Stem cells proliferate the quickest, but have not yet begun development towards a specific kind of cell, which creates the challenge of splitting the cells and directing them to grow a certain way. Fully developed muscle cells are ideal in the aspect that they have already finished development as a muscle, but proliferate hardly at all. Therefore, cells such as myosattelite and myoblast cells are often used as they still proliferate at an acceptable rate, but also sufficiently differentiate from other types of cells.[3]

The cells are then treated by applying a protein that promotes tissue growth, which is known as a growth medium. These mediums should contain the necessary nutrients and appropriate quantity of growth factors. They are then placed in a culture medium, in a bio-reactor, which is able to supply the cells with the energetic requirements they need.[60]

Muscle tissue is developed from the growth medium and organized in a three-dimensional structure by the scaffold for end product.

To culture three-dimensional meat, the cells are grown on a scaffold, which is a component that directs its structure and order. The ideal scaffold is edible so the meat does not have to be removed, and periodically moves to stretch the developing muscle, thereby simulating the animal body during normal development. Additionally the scaffold must maintain flexibility in order to not detach from the developing myotubes (early muscle fibers). Scaffold must also allow vascularization (creation of blood vessels) in order for normal development of muscle tissue.[61][62]

Scaffold-based production techniques can only be appropriately used in boneless or ground meats (processed). The end result of this process would be meats such as hamburgers or sausages. In order to create more structured meats, for example steak, muscle tissue must be structured in directed and self-organized means or by proliferation of muscle tissue already existing. Additionally, the presence of gravitational, magnetic, fluid flow, and mechanical fields have an effect on the proliferation rates of the muscle cells. Processes of tension such as stretching and relaxing increased differentiation into muscle cells.[63]

The first cultured hamburger, ready to be fried on 5 August 2013.

Once this process has been started, it would be theoretically possible to continue producing meat indefinitely without introducing new cells from a living organism.[64] It has been claimed that, conditions being ideal, two months of cultured meat production could deliver up to 50,000 tons of meat from ten pork muscle cells.[65]

The price of cultured meat at retail outlets like grocery stores and supermarkets may decrease to levels that middle-class consumers consider to be "inexpensive" due to technological advancements.[67][better source needed]

The science for cultured meat is an outgrowth of the field of biotechnology known as tissue engineering.[68] The technology is simultaneously being developed along with other uses for tissue engineering such as helping those with muscular dystrophy and, similarly, growing transplant organs.[19][69] There are several obstacles to overcome if it has any chance of succeeding; at the moment, the most notable ones are scale and cost.[19][21]

Proliferation of muscle cells: Although it is not very difficult to make stem cells divide, for meat production it is necessary that they divide at a quick pace, producing the solid meat.[69] This requirement has some overlap with the medical branch of tissue engineering.

Culture medium: Proliferating cells need a food source to grow and develop. The growth medium should be a well-balanced mixture of ingredients and growth factors. Scientists have already identified possible growth media for turkey,[70] fish,[71] sheep[72] and pig[73] muscle cells. Depending on the motives of the researchers, the growth medium has additional requirements.

Commercial: The growth medium should be inexpensive to produce. A plant-based medium may be less expensive than fetal bovine serum.[69]

Animal welfare: The growth medium should be devoid of animal sources (except for the initial "mining" of the original stem cells).[69]

Non-Allergenic: While plant-based growth media are "more realistic," will be cheaper, and will reduce the possibility of infectious agents, there is also the possibility that plant-based growth media may cause allergic reactions in some consumers.[74]

Bioreactors: Nutrients and oxygen need to be delivered close to each growing cell, on the scale of millimeters. In animals this job is handled by blood vessels. A bioreactor should emulate this function in an efficient manner. The usual approach is to create a sponge-like matrix in which the cells can grow and perfuse it with the growth medium.

Additionally, there is no dedicated scientific research discipline for cellular agriculture and its development. The past research undertaken into cellular agriculture were isolated from each other, and they did not receive significant academic interest. Although it currently exists, long-term strategies are not sufficiently funded for development and severely lack a sufficient amount of researchers.[75]

Large-scale production of cultured meat may or may not require artificial growth hormones to be added to the culture for meat production.[68][76]

Researchers have suggested that omega-3 fatty acids could be added to cultured meat as a health bonus.[19] In a similar way, the omega-3 fatty acid content of conventional meat can also be increased by altering what the animals are fed.[77] An issue of Time magazine has suggested that the cell-cultured process may also decrease exposure of the meat to bacteria and disease.[21]

Due to the strictly controlled and predictable environment, cultured meat production has been compared to vertical farming, and some of its proponents have predicted that it will have similar benefits in terms of reducing exposure to dangerous chemicals like pesticides and fungicides, severe injuries, and wildlife.[78]

Concern in regards to developing antibiotic resistance due to the use of antibiotics in livestock, livestock and livestock-derived meat serving as a major source of disease outbreaks (including bird flu, anthrax, swine flu, and listeriosis), and long-term processed meat consumption being associated with increased heart disease, digestive tract cancer, and type 2 diabetes currently plague livestock-based meat. In regards to cultured meat, strict environmental controls and tissue monitoring can prevent infection of meat cultures from the outset, and any potential infection can be detected before shipment to consumers.[79]

In addition to the prevention and lack of diseases, and lack of the use of antibiotics or any other chemical substances, cultured meat can also leverage numerous biotechnology advancements, including increased nutrient fortification, individually-customized cellular and molecular compositions, and optimal nutritional profiles, all making it much healthier than livestock-sourced meat.[79]

Although cultured meat consists of genuine animal muscle cells that are the same as in traditional meat, consumers may find such a high-tech approach to food production distasteful (see appeal to nature). Cultured meat has been disparagingly described as 'Frankenmeat'.[80]

If cultured meat turns out to be different in appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other factors, it may not be commercially competitive with conventionally produced meat. The lack of fat and bone may also be a disadvantage, for these parts make appreciable culinary contributions. However, the lack of bones and/or fat may make many traditional meat preparations, such as buffalo wings, more palatable to small children.[81]

Research has suggested that environmental impacts of cultured meat would be significantly lower than normally slaughtered beef.[82] For every hectare that is used for vertical farming and/or cultured meat manufacturing, anywhere between 10 and 20 hectares of land may be converted from conventional agriculture usage back into its natural state.[83] Vertical farms (in addition to cultured meat facilities) could exploit methane digesters to generate a small portion of its own electrical needs. Methane digesters could be built on site to transform the organic waste generated at the facility into biogas which is generally composed of 65% methane along with other gasses. This biogas could then be burned to generate electricity for the greenhouse or a series of bioreactors.[84]

A study by researchers at Oxford and the University of Amsterdam found that cultured meat was "potentially ... much more efficient and environmentally-friendly", generating only 4% greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the energy needs of meat generation by up to 45%, and requiring only 2% of the land that the global meat/livestock industry does.[85][86] The patent holder Willem van Eelen,[25] the journalist Brendan I. Koerner,[87] and Hanna Tuomisto, a PhD student from Oxford University all believe it has less environmental impact.[88] This is in contrast to cattle farming, "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases"[89] and causing more damage to the environment than the combined effects of the world's transportation system. Vertical farming may completely eliminate the need to create extra farmland in rural areas along with cultured meat.[90] Their combined role may create a sustainable solution for a cleaner environment.[90]

One skeptic is Margaret Mellon of the Union of Concerned Scientists, who speculates that the energy and fossil fuel requirements of large-scale cultured meat production may be more environmentally destructive than producing food off the land.[28] However, S.L. Davis has speculated that both vertical farming in urban areas and the activity of cultured meat facilities may cause relatively little harm to the species of wildlife that live around the facilities.[91]Dickson Despommier speculated that natural resources may be spared from depletion due to vertical farming and cultured meat, making them ideal technologies for an overpopulated world.[92] Conventional farming, on the other hand, kills ten wildlife animals per hectare each year.[91] Converting 4 hectares (10 acres) of farmland from its man-made condition back into either pristine wilderness or grasslands would save approximately 40 animals while converting 1 hectare (2 acres) of that same farmland back into the state it was in prior to settlement by human beings would save approximately 80 animals.

Additionally, the cattle industry uses a large amount of water for producing animal feed, animal rearing, and for sanitation purposes. It is estimated that the water recycled from livestock manure is contributing "33% of global nitrogen and phosphorus pollution," "50% of antibiotic pollution," "37% of toxic heavy metals," and "37% of pesticides" which contaminate the planet's freshwater.[93]

Techniques of genetic engineering, such as insertion, deletion, silencing, activation, or mutation of a gene, are not required to produce cultured meat. Furthermore, cultured meat is composed of a tissue or collection of tissues, not an organism. Therefore, it is not a genetically modified organism (GMO). Since cultured meats are simply cells grown in a controlled, artificial environment, some have commented that cultured meat more closely resembles hydroponic vegetables, rather than GMO vegetables.[94]

More research is being done on cultured meat, and although the production of cultured meat does not require techniques of genetic engineering, there is discussion among researchers about utilizing such techniques to improve the quality and sustainability of cultured meat. Fortifying cultured meat with nutrients such as beneficial fatty acids is one improvement that can be facilitated through genetic modification. The same improvement can be made without genetic modification, by manipulating the conditions of the culture medium.[95] Genetic modification may also play a role in the proliferation of muscle cells. The introduction of myogenic regulatory factors, growth factors, or other gene products into muscle cells may increase production past the capacity of conventional meat.[95]

To avoid the use of any animal products, the use of photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria has been proposed to produce the main ingredients for the culture media, as opposed to the very commonly used fetal bovine or horse serum.[96] Some researchers suggest that the ability of algae and cyanobacteria to produce ingredients for culture media can be improved with certain technologies, most likely not excluding genetic engineering.[97]

The Australian bioethicist Julian Savulescu said
"Artificial meat stops cruelty to animals, is better for the environment, could be safer and more efficient, and even healthier. We have a moral obligation to support this kind of research. It gets the ethical two thumbs up."[98]Animal welfare groups are generally in favor of the production of cultured meat because it does not have a nervous system and therefore cannot feel pain.[28][64][69] Reactions of vegetarians to cultured meat vary:[99] some feel the cultured meat presented to the public in August 2013 was not vegetarian as fetal calf serum was used in the growth medium.[100] However, since then lab grown meat has been grown under a medium that doesn't involve fetal serum.[101]

Independent inquiries may be set up by certain governments to create a degree of standards for cultured meat.[102] Laws and regulations on the proper creation of cultured meat products would have to be modernized to adapt to this newer food product.[102] Some societies may decide to block the creation of cultured meat for the "good of the people" – making its legality in certain countries a questionable matter.[102]

Independent inquiries may be set up by certain governments to create a degree of standards for cultured meat.[104] Once cultured meat becomes more cost-efficient, it is necessary to decide who will regulate the safety and standardization of these products. Prior to being available for sale, the European Union and Canada will require approved novel food applications. Additionally, the European Union requires that cultured animal products and production must prove safety, by an approved company application, which became effective as of January 1st, 2018.[105] Within the United States, there is discussion of whether or not cultured meat regulation will be handled by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) or the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). The main point of content is whether or not cultured meat is labeled as "food" and regulated by the FDA or as a "meat food product" and regulated by the USDA. Under the FDA, cultured meat would need to follow the FFDCA and have a Food Safety Plan (FSP). Under the USDA, cultured meat would need be regulated by the FSIS who must deem the ingredients safe and usable. It could also be regulated by both government organizations.[106]

Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree whether cultured meat is kosher (food that may be consumed, according to Jewish dietary laws). However, most rabbis agree that if the original cells were taken from a kosher animal then the cultured meat will be kosher. Some even think that it would be kosher even if coming from non-kosher animals like pigs, however some disagree.[107] Some Muslim scholars have stated that cultured meat would be allowed by Islamic law if the original cells and growth medium were halal.[108] Within Hindu culture, there is significant importance of cattle in religion where the majority of Hindus reject consumption of a cow's meat. The potential of a "meatless beef" has driven debate among Hindus on the acceptance of eating it. A significant number of Hindus reject the meat due to the high prevalence of a vegetarian diet.[109]

The production of cultured meat is currently very expensive – in 2008 it was about US$1 million for a piece of beef weighing 250 grams (0.55 lb)[21] – and it would take considerable investment to switch to large-scale production. However, the In Vitro Meat Consortium has estimated that with improvements to current technology there could be considerable reductions in the cost of cultured meat. They estimate that it could be produced for €3500/tonne (US$5424/tonne in March 2008),[110][111] which is about twice the cost of unsubsidized conventional European chicken production.[22][110]

In a March 2015 interview with Australia's ABC, Mark Post said that the marginal cost of his team's original €250,000 burger was now €8.00. He estimates that technological advancements would allow the product to be cost-competitive to traditionally sourced beef in approximately ten years.[112] In 2016, the cost of production of cultured beef for food technology company Memphis Meats was $18,000 per pound ($40,000/kg).[113] As of June 2017 Memphis Meats reduced the cost of production to below $2,400 per pound ($5,280/kg).[114]

The Starship Enterprise from the TV and movie franchise Star Trek apparently provides a synthetic meat or cultured meat as a food source for the crew,[115] although crews from The Next Generation and later use replicators.

In February, 2014, a biotech startup called BiteLabs ran a campaign to generate popular support for artisanal salami made with meat cultured from celebrity tissue samples.[117] The campaign became viral on Twitter, where users tweeted at celebrities asking them to donate muscle cells to the project.[118] Media reactions to BiteLabs variously identified the startup as a satire on startup culture,[119] celebrity culture,[120] or as a discussion prompt on bioethical concerns.[121] While BiteLabs claimed to be inspired by the success of Sergey Brin's burger, the company is seen as an example of critical design rather than an actual business venture.

In late 2016, cultured meat was involved in a case in the episode "How The Sausage Is Made" of CBS show Elementary.

^ abThe Vertical Farm Project. 2009. "Agriculture for the 21st Century and Beyond."

^ abS.L. Davis (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet". Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp. 449–450.

1.
World Economic Forum
–
The World Economic Forum is a Swiss nonprofit foundation, based in Cologny, Geneva. The Forum is best known for its meeting at the end of January in Davos. The meeting brings together some 2,500 top business leaders, international leaders, economists. Often this location alone is used to identify meetings, participation, and participants with such phrases as, a Davos panel, beside meetings, the foundation produces a series of research reports and engages its members in sector specific initiatives. The forum was founded in 1971 by Klaus Schwab, a German-born business professor at the University of Geneva and he then founded the WEF as a nonprofit organization based in Geneva and drew European business leaders to Davos for the annual meetings each January. Political leaders soon began to use the meeting as a neutral platform. The Davos Declaration was signed in 1988 by Greece and Turkey, in 1992, South African President F. W. de Klerk met with Nelson Mandela and Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi at the annual meeting, their first joint appearance outside South Africa. At the 1994 annual meeting, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres and PLO chairman Yasser Arafat reached an agreement on Gaza. In late 2015, the invitation was extended to include a North Korean delegation for the 2016 forum, in view of positive signs coming out of the country, North Korea has not been attending the WEF since 1998. In 2017, the World Economic Forum in Davos attracted considerable attention when for the first time and he sharply rebuked the current populist movements that would introduce tariffs and hinder global commerce, warning that such protectionism could foster isolation and reduced economic opportunity. Headquartered in Cologny, the forum also has offices in New York, Beijing, on October 10,2016, the Forum announced the opening of its new Center for the Fourth Industrial Revolution in San Francisco. The World Economic Forum strives to be impartial and is not tied to any political, partisan, the foundation is committed to improving the State of the World. Until 2012, it had observer status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, the foundations highest governance body is the foundation board. During its annual meeting, more than 2,500 participants from slightly fewer than 100 countries gather in Davos, approximately 1,500 are business leaders, drawn from its members,1,000 of the worlds top companies. The foundation is funded by its 1,000 member companies and these enterprises rank among the top companies within their industry and/or country and play a leading role in shaping the future of their industry and/or region. Membership is stratified by the level of engagement with forum activities, with the level of membership fees increasing as participation in meetings, projects, and initiatives rises. As of 2011, an annual membership costs $52,000 for a member, $263,000 for Industry Partner. An admission fee costs $19,000 per person, in 2014, WEF raised annual fees by 20 percent, making the cost for Strategic Partner from SFr500,000 to SFr600,000

2.
Cell culture
–
Cell culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. Most cells require a surface or an artificial substrate whereas others can be free floating in culture medium. The historical development and methods of culture are closely interrelated to those of tissue culture. Viral culture is related, with cells as hosts for the viruses. The laboratory technique of maintaining live cell lines separated from their original tissue source became more robust in the middle 20th century. In 1885, Wilhelm Roux removed a portion of the plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in a warm saline solution for several days. Ross Granville Harrison, working at Johns Hopkins Medical School and then at Yale University, published results of his experiments from 1907 to 1910, Cell culture techniques were advanced significantly in the 1940s and 1950s to support research in virology. Growing viruses in cell cultures allowed preparation of purified viruses for the manufacture of vaccines, the injectable polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk was one of the first products mass-produced using cell culture techniques. Cells can be isolated from tissues for ex vivo culture in several ways, cells can be easily purified from blood, however, only the white cells are capable of growth in culture. Mononuclear cells can be released from soft tissues by enzymatic digestion with enzymes such as collagenase, trypsin, or pronase, alternatively, pieces of tissue can be placed in growth media, and the cells that grow out are available for culture. This method is known as explant culture, cells that are cultured directly from a subject are known as primary cells. With the exception of some derived from tumors, most primary cell cultures have limited lifespan, numerous cell lines are well established as representative of particular cell types. For the majority of isolated cells, they undergo the process of senescence. Cells are grown and maintained at a temperature and gas mixture in a cell incubator. Culture conditions vary widely for each type, and variation of conditions for a particular cell type can result in different phenotypes. Aside from temperature and gas mixture, the most commonly varied factor in culture systems is the growth medium. Recipes for growth media can vary in pH, glucose concentration, growth factors, the growth factors used to supplement media are often derived from the serum of animal blood, such as fetal bovine serum, bovine calf serum, equine serum, and porcine serum. One complication of these blood-derived ingredients is the potential for contamination of the culture with viruses or prions, current practice is to minimize or eliminate the use of these ingredients wherever possible and use human platelet lysate

3.
Winston Churchill
–
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland

4.
Turkey (bird)
–
The turkey is a large bird in the genus Meleagris, which is native to the Americas. One species, Meleagris gallopavo, is native to the forests of North America, from Mexico, throughout the midwest and eastern United States, the other living species is Meleagris ocellata or the ocellated turkey, native to the forests of the Yucatán Peninsula. Males of both species have a distinctive fleshy wattle or protuberance that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges, as in many galliformes, the male is larger and much more colorful than the female. Turkeys are classed in the family of Phasianidae in the order of Galliformes. The genus Meleagris is the extant genus in the subfamily Meleagridinae, formerly known as the family Meleagrididae. There are two theories for the derivation of the turkey for this bird, according to Columbia University professor of Romance languages Mario Pei. The name of the North American bird thus became turkey fowl or Indian turkeys, the other theory arises from turkeys coming to England from the Americas via merchant ships from the Middle East where they were domesticated successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird, because these merchants were called Turkey merchants as much of the area was part of the Ottoman Empire, hence the name Turkey birds or, soon thereafter, turkeys. In 1550, the English navigator William Strickland, who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a turkey-cock in his pride proper, William Shakespeare used the term in Twelfth Night, believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term had widespread reach, in many countries, the names for turkeys have different derivations. Ironically, many of these names incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such as diiq Hindi in Arabian countries, dinde in French, индюшка in Russia, indyk in Poland, and Hindi in Turkey. These are thought to arise from the thought that Christopher Columbus had originally believed that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage, in Portuguese a turkey is a peru, the name is thought to derive from the eponymous country Perú. The anhinga is sometimes called a turkey, from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying. A number of turkeys have been described from fossils, the Meleagridinae are known from the Early Miocene onwards, with the extinct genera Rhegminornis and Proagriocharis. The former is probably a basal turkey, the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys, a turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to Meleagris is known from the Late Miocene of Westmoreland County, Virginia. In the modern genus Meleagris, a number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now considered junior synonyms, one, the well-documented California turkey Meleagris californica, became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers

5.
Goldfish
–
The goldfish is a freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae of order Cypriniformes. It was one of the earliest fish to be domesticated, and is one of the most commonly kept aquarium fish, a relatively small member of the carp family, the goldfish is a domesticated version of a less-colourful carp native to east Asia. It was first domesticated in China more than a thousand years ago, Goldfish breeds vary greatly in size, body shape, fin configuration and colouration. The mutation that gave rise to the goldfish is also known from other cyprinid species, such as common carp. Starting in ancient China, various species of carp have been domesticated and reared as food fish for thousands of years, some of these normally gray or silver species have a tendency to produce red, orange or yellow colour mutations, this was first recorded during the Jin dynasty. During the Tang dynasty, it was popular to raise carp in ornamental ponds, a natural genetic mutation produced gold rather than silver colouration. People began to breed the gold variety instead of the silver variety, on special occasions at which guests were expected, they would be moved to a much smaller container for display. By the Song dynasty, the domestication of goldfish was firmly established, in 1162, the empress of the Song Dynasty ordered the construction of a pond to collect the red and gold variety. By this time, people outside the family were forbidden to keep goldfish of the gold variety. This is probably the reason why there are more orange goldfish than yellow goldfish, the occurrence of other colours was first recorded in 1276. During the Ming dynasty, goldfish also began to be raised indoors, the first occurrence of fancy-tailed goldfish was recorded in the Ming Dynasty. In 1603, goldfish were introduced to Japan, in 1611, goldfish were introduced to Portugal and from there to other parts of Europe. During the 1620s, goldfish were highly regarded in southern Europe because of their metallic scales and it became tradition for married men to give their wives a goldfish on their first anniversary, as a symbol for the prosperous years to come. This tradition quickly died, as goldfish became more available, losing their status, Goldfish were first introduced to North America around 1850 and quickly became popular in the United States. Selective breeding over centuries has produced several variations, some of them far removed from the golden colour of the originally domesticated fish. There are also different body shapes, fin and eye configurations, some extreme versions of the goldfish live only in aquariums—they are much less hardy than varieties closer to the wild original. However, some variations are hardier, such as the Shubunkin, currently, there are about 300 breeds recognised in China. The vast majority of goldfish breeds today originated from China, some of the main varieties are, Chinese tradition classifies goldfish into four main types

6.
Fillet (cut)
–
A fillet is a cut or slice of boneless meat or fish. In the case of beef, the term most often refers to beef tenderloin in the United States, chicken fillets, sometimes called inner fillets, are a specific cut of meat from the chicken. There are two fillets in a chicken, and they are each a few inches long and about 1 inch or less wide and they lie under the main portion of the breast just above the ribcage around the center of the sternum. They are separated from the main breast by filament, chicken fillets are very popular in supermarkets in many countries. They can come attached to the main breast itself or separated from the breast in packages of four or more fillets. In preparation for filleting, the scales on the fish should be removed, the contents of the stomach also need careful detaching from the fillet. Fish fillets are generally obtained by slicing parallel to the spine, cuts of fish performed perpendicular to the spine are known as steaks or cutlets, and often include bone. The remaining bones with the flesh is called the frame. As opposed to whole fish or fish steaks, fillets do not contain the fishs backbone, they yield less flesh, special cut fillets are taken from solid large blocks, these include a natural cut fillet, wedge, rhombus or tail shape. Fillets may be skinless or have skin on, pinbones may or may not be removed, a fletch is a large boneless fillet of halibut, swordfish or tuna. There are several ways to cut a fish fillet, Cutlet This fillet is obtained by slicing from behind the head of the fish, round the belly and tapering towards the tail. J Cut This fillet is produced in the way as a single fillet

7.
University of Amsterdam
–
The University of Amsterdam is a public university located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Established in 1632 by municipal authorities and later renamed for the city of Amsterdam and it is one of the largest research universities in Europe with 31,186 students,4,794 staff,1,340 PhD students and an annual budget of €600 million. It is the largest university in the Netherlands by enrollment, the main campus is located in central Amsterdam, with a few faculties located in adjacent boroughs. The university is organised into seven faculties, Humanities, Social and Behavioural Sciences, Economics and Business, Science, Law, Medicine, the University of Amsterdam has produced six Nobel Laureates and five prime ministers of the Netherlands. In 2014, it was ranked 50th in the world, 15th in Europe, in January 1632, the Athenaeum Illustre of Amsterdam was founded by the municipal authorities in Amsterdam. It was mainly devoted to medical teaching, the first two professors were Gerardus Vossius and Caspar Barlaeus. The Athenaeum Illustre provided education comparable to higher education institutions. After training at the Athenaeum, students could complete their education at a university in another town, Amsterdams large degree of religious freedom allowed for the establishment of these institutions. Students of the Colegium Chirugicum and the institutions regularly attended classes at the Athenaeum Illustre. ”The Athenaeum began offering classes for students attending non-academic professional training in pharmacy. The Athenaeum remained an institution until the 19th century, with no more than 250 students. Alumni of the Athenaeum include Cornelis Petrus Tiele, in 1877, the Athenuem Illustre became the Municipal University of Amsterdam and received the right to confer doctoral degrees. This gave the university the same privileges as national universities while being funded by the city of Amsterdam, the professors and lecturers were appointed by the municipal council. This resulted in a staff that was in ways more colorful than the staffs of national universities. The University of Amsterdams municipal status brought about the relatively early addition of the faculties of Economics, after the World War II the dramatic rise in the cost of university education put a constraint on the university’s growth. In 1961 the national government made the university a national university, giving it its current name, funding was now given by the national government instead of the city and the appointment of professors was transferred to the Board of Governors. The city of Amsterdam retained a limited influence until 1971, when the appointment was handed over to the Executive Board, the protest lasted for days and was eventually broken up by the police. During the 1970s and 1980s, the university was often the target of nationwide student actions, the university saw considerable expansion since becoming a national university, from 7,500 students in 1960 to over 32,000 in 2010. In 2007, UvA undertook the construction of the Science Park Amsterdam, much of the park has now been completed

8.
Utrecht University
–
Utrecht University is a university in Utrecht, the Netherlands. It is one of the oldest universities in the Netherlands, established March 26,1636, it had an enrollment of 30,449 students in 2012, and employed 5,295 faculty and staff. In 2011,485 PhD degrees were awarded and 7,773 scientific articles were published, the 2013 budget of the university was €765 million. The universitys motto is Sol Iustitiae Illustra Nos, which means Sun of Justice and this motto was gleaned from a literal Latin Bible translation of Malachi 4,2. Utrecht University is led by the University Board, consisting of prof. dr, bert van der Zwaan and Hans Amman. This section incorporates text translated from the Dutch Wikipedia article Utrecht University was founded on March 26,1636, the influential professor of theology Gisbertus Voetius delivered the inaugural speech, and Bernardus Schotanus became the universitys first rector magnificus. Initially, only a few dozen students attended classes at the university, seven professors worked in four faculties, philosophy, which offered all students an introductory education, and three higher-level faculties. Utrecht University flourished in the century, despite competition with the older universities of Leiden, Franeker and Groningen. Leiden, in particular, proved a strong competitor and made further improvement necessary, a botanical garden was built on the grounds of the present Sonnenborgh Observatory, and three years later the Smeetoren added an astronomical observatory. The university attracted students from abroad. They witnessed the intellectual and theological battle the proponents of the new philosophy fought with the proponents of the strict Reformed theologian Voetius, Leiden, Louvain, Groningen, Utrecht and Ghent were the five universities of the new state, and Leiden received the title of eerste hoge school. Two of the universities became part of the new Belgian state after it separated from the northern Netherlands in 1830 and this left Utrecht one of only three Dutch universities. Utrecht played a prominent role in the age of Dutch science. Around 1850 the Utrechtian School of science formed, with Pieter Harting, Gerardus J. Mulder, buys Ballot and Franciscus Donders among the leading scientists. They introduced the educational laboratory as a learning place for their students. The University is represented in the Stichting Academisch Erfgoed, a foundation with the goal of preserving university collections, the other five faculties and most of the administrative services are located in De Uithof, a campus area on the outskirts of the city. University College Utrecht is situated in the former Kromhout Kazerne, which used to be a Dutch military base, University College Roosevelt is located off-campus in the city of Middelburg in the south-west of the Netherlands. Utrecht University counts a number of distinguished scholars among its alumni and faculty, on the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities list, the University of Utrecht was ranked 56th in the world and the highest in the Netherlands

9.
Eindhoven University of Technology
–
The Eindhoven University of Technology is a university of technology located in Eindhoven, Netherlands. Its motto is Mens agitat molem, the university was the second of its kind in the Netherlands, only Delft University of Technology existed previously. Until mid-1980 it was known as the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven, in 2011 QS World University Rankings placed Eindhoven at 146th internationally, but 61st globally for Engineering & IT. In 2003 a European Commission report ranked TU/e at third place among all European research universities, the Eindhoven University of Technology was founded as the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven on 23 June 1956 by the Dutch government. The University was acknowledged for its research in Automobile sector and it was the second institute of its kind in the Netherlands, preceded only by the Delft University of Technology. It is located on its own campus in the center of Eindhoven and it is currently home to about 240 professors,7200 students,250 PDEng-students,600 Ph. D. students,200 post-doc students and 3000 regular employees. It supports about 100 student associations and 15 alumni associations, yearly, the Eindhoven University of Technology produces almost 3000 scientific publications,140 PhD-awards, and 40 patents. The Eindhoven University of Technology is main participant in the top institutes DPI. One of its students is Gerard Kleisterlee, a former CEO of Philips. The university is in an area where several companies active in technology are doing their research, like Philips, ASML, the university maintains close contacts with most of these companies. As of 29 April 2005, Prof. dr. ir, C. J. van Duijn has the position of rector magnificus. In 2006, the university celebrated its 50th birthday, in a 2003 European Commission report, TU/e was ranked as 3rd among European research universities, based on the impact of its scientific research. In The Times Higher Education Supplement World University Ranking 2005 and it was ranked 74th among world universities, and 67th in 2006. Also, the university maintains partnerships with several Dutch universities and announced a partnership with the Universiteit Utrecht on 3 January 2011. Arno Peels presented the universitys strategic vision document for the period up to 2020, particularly the science park of the vision is costly, with an expected 700 million euro investment in the campus needed for realization of the plan. The Eindhoven University of Technology is a university of the Netherlands. As such its structure and management is determined by the Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek. The College provides oversight for the departments, the service organizations, the College consists of three people, plus a secretary, The chairman The chairman is the chairman of the college and the main face of the university to the outside world

10.
Nantes
–
Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River,50 km from the Atlantic coast. The city is the sixth largest in France, with almost 300,000 inhabitants within its limits. Together with Saint-Nazaire, a located on the Loire estuary. Nantes is the seat of the Loire-Atlantique département and of the Pays de la Loire région. Historically and culturally, Nantes belongs to Brittany, a former duchy, the fact that it is not part of the modern administrative Brittany région is subject to debate. Nantes appeared during the Antiquity as a port on the Loire and it became the seat of a bishopric at the end of the Roman era, before being conquered by the Breton people in 851. Nantes was the residence of the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century. The French Revolution was a period of turmoil resulted in an economic decline. Nantes managed to develop a strong industry after 1850, chiefly in ship building, however, deindustrialisation in the second half of the 20th century pushed the city to reorient its economy towards services. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Nantes as a Gamma- world city and it is the fourth highest ranking city in France after Paris, Lyon and Marseilles. The Gamma- category gathers other large cities such as Algiers, Orlando, Porto, Turin, Nantes has often been praised for its quality of life and it was awarded the European Green Capital Award in 2013. The settlement is mentioned in Ptolemys Geography as Κονδηούινϰον and Κονδιούινϰον, during the Gallo-Roman period, this name was latinised and adapted as Condevincum, Condevicnum, Condivicnum, Condivincum, etc. Condevincum seems to be related to the Gaulish word condate meaning confluence, at the end of the Roman period, Condevincum became known as Portus Namnetum and civitas Namnetum. This phenomenon can be observed on most of the ancient cities of France throughout the 4th century, for instance, Lutecia became Paris, city of the Parisii, Darioritum became Vannes, city of the Veneti. Portus Namnetum evolved in Nanetiæ and Namnetis in the 5th century, the name of the Namnetes people could either come from the Gaulish root *nant-, from the pre-Celtic root *nanto or from the other tribe name Amnites, which could mean men of the river. The name Nantes is pronounced and the city inhabitants are called Nantais, in Gallo, the romance dialect traditionally spoken in the region around Nantes, the city is called Naunnt or Nantt, according to the various spelling systems. The Gallo pronunciation is the same as the French one, although northern speakers pronounce it with a long, in Breton language, Nantes is known as Naoned or An Naoned. The latter, meaning the Nantes, is common and reflects the fact that articles are more frequent in Breton toponyms than in French ones

11.
Norway
–
The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him

12.
Polperro
–
Polperro is a village and fishing harbour on the south-east Cornwall coast in the south west of England, within the civil parish of Lansallos. Polperro, through which runs the River Pol, is 7 miles east of Fowey and 4 miles west of the town of Looe and 25 miles west of the major city. The name Polperro derives from the Cornish Porthpyra, meaning harbour named after Pyran, however Ekwall suggests that Pyra or Pira may not be a personal name and suggests that Perro could be a name for the stream. Early forms are Portpira,1303, and Porpira,1379, the chapel of St Peter de Porthpyre is mentioned in 1398 and the following forms are recorded from the reign of King Henry VIII, Polpyz explained as fish-pool, Poulpirrhe, Poul Pier and Poulpyrre. As early as the 13th century Polperro was a fishing settlement. The date of the building of Polperros older quay is uncertain and it was probably built under the patronage of the lord of the manor of Raphael who owned the harbour and its rights. Polperros newer quay, also of antiquity, is sited almost on an east-west alignment a little further out to sea. It was built before 1774 when it suffered damage in a storm, following which Thomas Long, of Penheale and lord of the manors of Raphael and Lansallos. The damage was estimated at £2,000 but no lives were lost, in November 1824 the worst ever storm occurred, three houses were destroyed, the whole of one pier and half the other were swept away and nearly 50 boats in the harbour were dashed to pieces. Of the six boats that survived, only one of which was a Gaffer, Polperros new pier was designed to afford better protection for the future. The East Indiaman Albemarle was blown ashore with a cargo of diamonds, coffee, pepper, silk. Jonathan Couch was the doctor for many years, and wrote the history of the village as well as various works of natural history. The History of Polperro,1871, was published after his death by his son, Thomas Quiller Couch, the welfare of the fishermen and the prosperity of the fisheries were in his care together with his medical and scientific work. Polperros beauty has long been a magnet for artists, the celebrated Czech painter Oskar Kokoschka, upon discovering Polperro, spent a year in the village between 1939 and 1940. Smuggling is understood to have prospered since Polperro developed as a port in the 12th century, by the late 18th century, much of the success of the smuggling trade through Polperro was controlled by Zephaniah Job, a local merchant who became known as the Smugglers Banker. A more organised Coast Guard service was introduced in the 19th century together with the deterrent of stiff penalties, part of the South West Coast Path was originally used by Revenue Officers as they patrolled the coast in search of smugglers. Whilst the South West Coast Path is maintained by the National Trust, some months later, Lakes commanding officer Sir Alexander Cochrane learned of what had happened and immediately ordered Lake to retrieve Jeffery. When Recruit arrived at Sombrero, Jeffery could not be found, eventually the story got out and Lake was discharged from the Royal Navy by Court Martial for his actions

Cultured HeLa cells have been stained with Hoechst turning their nuclei blue, and are one of the earliest human cell lines descended from Henrietta Lacks, who died of cervical cancer from which these cells originated.

The confluence of the Erdre and the Loire (where Nantes was founded) in an 1890s photochrom. The river channels in the picture were diverted and filled in during the 1920s and subsequently replaced with roads.