Zen Master Dogen (1200-1253) is often referred to within
Chinese sources as ‘道元禅师’ (Dao Yuan Ch’an Shi), with the
Japanese pronunciations of ‘Do’ (道) and ‘Gen’ (元)
literally translating as ‘Way Origination’, or ‘Way Essence’.He was also known by the other Dharma-names
of ‘Xi Xuan’ (希玄) or ‘Rare Mystery’, ‘Dao Xuan’ (道玄) or ‘Way
Mystery’ and ‘Fo Fa Fang’ (佛法房), or ‘Buddha Dharma Residence’.[3]Dogen is recorded as being born into the
noble Minamoto family of Kyoto in 1200 CE.[4]
The Chinese language sources refer to Dogen’s family as ‘贵族家庭’
(Gui Zu Jia Ting), which translates as an ‘aristocratic household’.This is an important distinction, as Dogen is
believed to have been related to the 62nd Japanese Emperor Murakami
(926-967 CE)[5],
and as such entitled to hold a high office within the Japanese imperial system.
This biographical story associated with Dogen is reminiscent of the life-story
attributed to the historical Buddha who lived in ancient India, and who was
also of a high caste birth, and entitled to rule.Dogen – like the Buddha – relinquished his
birth right of high office and instead decided to dedicate his life to the
pursuance of the Dharma.Dogen’s
dissatisfaction with the ordinary world appears to have been formulated in his
early childhood, when his father died when he was 3 years old.This tragic event was followed by the loss of
his mother when he was only 8 years old.This created a trauma in his mind that resulted in him deciding not to
pursue a political career, but instead to renounce the world and become an
ordained Buddhist monk.[6]From the age of 8 to the age of 13, Dogen
intensely studied the Buddhist texts at home, before finally leaving to become
a monk.[7] In
fact, the Japanese language source records describe Dogen as ‘escaping’ the
family home at 13 years old (1212 CE), and heading to Mount Hiei (比叡山- Bi Rui Shan - situated northeast of Kyoto), to seek the
advice of his uncle - the monk known as Ryokan.At the age of 14 (1213 CE) his head was shaved by the monk named Koen (a
prominent Tendai School practitioner) and received the Bodhisattva Precepts.[8]It was here on Mount Hiei that Dogen studied
the Buddhist texts extensively and realised that Buddhism contains both a deep
(internal) and shallow (external) teaching.This led to Dogen formulating the following question:

‘Both exoteric and
esoteric teachings explain that a person in essence has true dharma nature and
is originally a body of “Buddha nature.”If so, why do all Buddhas in the past, present, and future arouse the
wish for and seek enlightenment?’[9]

The Japanese tradition of the Tendai School had its
historical roots in the Tiantai (天台) or ‘Divine-sky Platform’ tradition
of China.However, by the time of
Dogen’s existence in the Kamakura Period, it had diverted dramatically away
from the Chinese tradition, as it adapted to local conditions.Tendai had adopted the philosophical thinking
associated with the Shingon School, and had incorporated elements of Zen
Buddhism together with the Vinaya Discipline into its rubric.This led to a form of ‘quietism’ that allowed
the Tendai monks to work exclusively as scribes, and spend their time
copying-out sutras.The intellectual and
spiritual vigour had become muted, which was exasperated by the fact that the
Tendai School on Mount Hiei had split into two armed camps, with each camp
centred around two competing temples.A
new type of Buddhist cleric arose on Mount Hiei, namely that of the ‘monk
soldier’ (僧兵, - Seng Bing),
or ‘sohei’ in Japanese.These monks
trained in armed and unarmed martial arts were used by politicized temples to
project power beyond the temple confines.This confusion of distinct Buddhist philosophies, and the emergence of
politicized Buddhism, led to a diversion away from genuine spiritual
investigation, and probably explains why Dogen could not find adequate
spiritual instruction upon the mountain.[10]Dogen studied the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, and was particularly struck by the
following passage:‘Sakyamuni Buddha said: “All
sentient beings everywhere originally possess the Buddha-nature; the Tathagata
exists eternally and is without change”.’[11]

This passage served to focus the young Dogen’s mind, and led
him to seek-out an enlightened master who could genuinely show him his own
Buddha-nature.His master – the Abbot
Koen – sent Dogen away from Mount Hiei to study with the learned monk named
Koin of Onjo-ji (園城寺– Yuan Cheng
Si) in an attempt to further his education.It was Koin who first suggested to Dogen that he should consider studying
the Zen method and travel to Song Dynasty China, and seek a profound answer to
his spiritual question.To this end,
Koin introduced Dogen to the Tendai practitioner (and abbot) who had just
returned from studying Ch’an (Zen) in China – the monk named as ‘Yosai’ or ‘Myōan
Eisai’ [明菴栄西 – Ming An Rong Xi] (1141-1215) of Kennin-ji (建仁寺– Jian Ren Si) in Kyoto.Yosai had inherited the Huang Long (黃龍) or ‘Oryu’
branch of the Linji tradition [临济宗– Lin Ji
Zong] (or ‘Rinzai’) School of Ch’an (Zen) in China, but he passed away in 1215
(from an epidemic of dysentery), only one year after apparently meeting Dogen
in 1214.[12]Following Yosai’s death, Dogen was taken as a
Zen student by the new abbot of Kennin-ji – the monk named Myozen [明全– Ming Quan] (1183-1225).Myozen was the Dharma-inheritor of Yosai, but in the Japanese
biographical records there is disagreement as to whether Dogen met with, and
trained under Yosai for a year between 1214-1215, or whether he entered Kennin-ji
much later (in 1217) and simply began his training under Myozen. [13]Whatever the facts of the matter, it was with
Myozen that Dogen would study Rinzai Zen and Tendai Buddhism, and eventually
receive Dharma-transmission in the Rinzai Zen tradition in 1221 – at just 21
years of age.This made Dogen the tenth
Patriarch of the Japanese lineage of the Huang Long Rinzai School of Zen
Buddhism.In Japan at the time there was
much political turmoil and warfare, and this probably influenced Dogen to an
ever greater degree to over-come the doubts he harboured about life and death.This is despite the fact that he was engaged
in meditation practice, and through Myozen’s strict influence, was keeping the
Bodhisattva precepts, and the transmission precepts associated with the Huang
Long lineage.[14]
Dogen’s time spent at the Zen temple – Kennin-ji – in his younger years, served
as a foundational training for his eventual visit to China.As good as the masters were around him, Dogen
could not progress his realisation beyond a certain point of understanding.At this time, many Buddhists in Japan viewed
China as the depository of true Buddhist knowledge and the place where true
progression and profound understanding was to be found.Dogen travelled to China as a means to seek
enlightenment, and it is important to understand that Dogen was already a
Dharma-inheritor of the Rinzai Zen School (and had extensively studied the
Teachings of the Tendai School) before leaving Japan for China.Although young, Dogen had ordained (taking
Bodhisattva Precepts), been highly motivated in his studies, and had received a
good education within Japanese Buddhism.

Dogen in Southern
Song Dynasty China

Dogen and his teacher Myozen, together with two other monks,
left Kyoto (by boat) on the 27th day of the third month of 1223, and
arrived in the middle of the 3rd month at Hakata Port.[15]
Hakata Port is located in the northern area of the southern Japanese island of
Kyushu.By the time Dogen set sail for
China (on a merchant vessel),[16]
Hakata had been an important port linking Japan to China for centuries.On the voyage, Dogen records that he fell ill
with diarrhea.However, Dogen’s mind was
‘focused’ by a terrible wind that made the crossing to China highly dangerous.He forgot about his illness and the symptoms
disappeared.At the beginning of the fourth
month of 1223, Dogen, Myozen and the two other monks arrived safely in China –
he was 24 years old.Their ship made
land at a place recorded as ‘Mingzhou’ (明州), situated
in Qingyuan (庆元) prefecture.Today, this corresponds to the Ningbo (宁波) area
of northeast Zhejiang province.[17]Zhejiang is a coastal province situated to
the south-east of China.Dogen’s
biography suggests that there was a bureaucratic delay when he reached China,
due to the ‘incompatibility’ of the ordination he received in Japan.[18]
His ordination may have been viewed as incomplete by the Chinese authorities
due to the fact that he had taken the Bodhisattva Precepts, but had not yet
received the Vinaya Precepts.In effect
this meant that Dogen was not a fully ordained Buddhist monastic, but only
considered a novice of a lesser status.Dogen spent three months aboard ship before the Chinese authorities
permitted him to land.In this regard,
considering the uncertainty of the situation, Dogen exercised considerable
patience, understanding and endurance.This is remarkable fortitude for a young man of just 24 years of
age.During this time Dogen continued
his practice (whilst staying in his cabin and reading the Buddhist sutras), and
compiled information about the many monasteries and temples in Zhejiang area of
China and beyond.Dogen’s master –
Myozen – was allowed off the ship much earlier, and immediately set about
visiting the Jing Fu Temple (景福寺– Jing Fu
Si) in Mingzhou, and the Jing De Temple (景德寺– Jing De Si) situated on Mount Tiantong (天童山 Tian
Tong Shan).Jing De Temple was very
significant for Myozen, as his teacher – Yosai – had trained there in 1189
during his visit to China.Indeed, it
was in the Jing De Temple that Yosai inherited the Huang Long branch of the
Linji School of Ch’an Buddhism from Ch’an Master Xuan Huai Chang (虚庵怀敞).[19]

The motivation for Dogen to visit China – at least
officially – was to pay homage to the Linji School of Ch’an Buddhism in
general, and to the Huang Long School in particular.The Huang Long School can be traced to Ch’an
Master Huang Long Huinan (黃龍慧南) [1002-1069] who lived during the
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127).He
originally came from Xinzhou (an area now located to the east of Nanchang
city), which is situated in Jiangxi province – southeast China – but
established his school on ‘Yellow Dragon Mountain’ (黃龍山– Huang Long Shan).This school is recorded as lasting over 150 years operating from this
mountain.Huinan originally trained with
Ch’an Master Letan Chenggong of the Yunmen (雲門) School,
but after failing to achieve the final breakthrough in his self-cultivation, he
was sent to study under Ch’an Master Shishuang Chuyuan of the Linji School.[20]An example of the enlightening Ch’an
dialogues exchanged between these two masters is as follows:

‘When Huang Long
visited Shishuang in his abbot’s room, Shishuang said, “Chenggong studied under
Yunmen’s Ch’an, so he must surpass Yunmen’s teaching.When Yunmen spared Dongshan Shouchu three
blows with the staff, did Dongshan suffer the blows or not?”

Huang Long said, “He
suffered the blows.”

Shishuang said
fiercely, “From morning till night the magpies cry and the crows caw, all of
them in response to the blows they’ve suffered.”

Shishuang then sat in
a cross-legged position, and Huang Long lit incense and bowed to him.

Shishuang later asked,
“Zhaozhou said, ‘The old lady of Mount Tai – I’ll go check her out for
you.’But where was the place he checked
her out?”

Huang Long sweated
profusely but he couldn’t answer.

The next day Huang
Long went to Shishuang’s room again.Shishuang berated him unceasingly.Huang Long said, “Is cursing a compassionate way of carrying out the
teaching?”

Shishuang yelled, “Try
cursing and see!”

At these words Huang
Long experienced a great awakening.He
then wrote the following verse:

The eminent adapt ZhaozhouHad his reasons for checking out the old ladyNow the four seas are like a mirror,And a pilgrim no longer hates the road.’[21]

This example may be taken as indicative of the type of
‘encounter dialogue’ utilised within the Huang Long branch of Linji Ch’an, and
the method its masters used to enlighten their students.In and of itself, the Huang Long branch,
although lineally distinct, does not divert in practice from the Chinese Ch’an
in general, or the Linji tradition in particular.It may also be reasonably assumed that a
similar encounter occurred between Yosai and his master Xuan Huai Chang,
between Yosai and his student Myozen, and between Myozen and his student –
Dogen.It was Myozen’s judgement that
Dogen had attained complete enlightenment, and that this made him suitable to
inherit the Huang Long lineage in Japan, and become fully recognised and
acknowledged as the Tenth Patriarch.It
was this ‘Tenth Patriarch’ of the Huang Long lineage that the Chinese
authorities made wait for three months before allowing him onto Chinese soil,
but when he did land, he embarked upon a tour of prominent Linji temples and
monasteries in and around the Ningbo area.As Dogen – despite being enlightened – still retained ‘doubts’ about the
true nature of existence, he sought-out the wisdom of enlightened Ch’an masters
on the Chinese mainland.The retainment
of some doubt after the initial enlightenment experience is not unknown within
the Ch’an literature, and does not invalidate the awakening experience
itself.Although the empty mind ground
can be penetrated and understood (in all its implications) in an instantaneous
manner, it is also correct to acknowledge that in many awakening incidents,
initial enlightenment, (although profound), often requires a clarification
process.This can be seen in the case of
Ch’an Master Dongshan Liangjie (洞山良价) [807–869] – the founder of the
Caodong lineage (曹洞宗 – Cao Dong Zong) of Ch’an
Buddhism.He was the student of – and
Dharma-heir to – Ch’an Master Yunyan Tansheng (雲巖曇晟) [700-841].The following dialogue explains the
circumstances surrounding Dong Shan’s enlightenment:

‘The master then took
leave of Kuei Shan and went straight to Yun Yen to whom he related the
circumstances leading to his present call.He immediately asked Yun Yen: ‘When inanimate objects expound the
Dharma, who can hear it?’Yun Yen
replied: ‘The inanimate can.’The master
asked:‘Does the venerable sir hear
it?’Yun Yen replied: ‘If so, you will
not hear my expounding of the Dharma.The master asked: ‘Why do I not hear it?’Yun Yen raised his dust-whisk and asked: ‘Do
you hear it?’The master replied: ‘No.’
Yun yen said: ‘If you do not hear the Dharma expounded by me, how can you hear
that expounded by inanimate objects?’The master asked: ‘From what sutra is quoted the sentence “All inanimate
objects expound the Dharma”?’Yun Yen
said: ‘Have you not read the Amitabha Buddha Sutra which says: “Streams, birds,
trees and groves (in the Western Paradise) all intone Buddha and Dharma”?’Thereupon, the master was awakened (to the
profound meaning) and chanted the following gatha:

‘It is so wonderful, so wonderful.Dharma taught by the inanimate cannot be conceived.To hear it with the ears is naught to understand,Only can it be known when voice is heard by eyes.”’[22]

‘(in spite of the
farewell chat), the master still harboured some doubt about what Yun Yen had
said to him.Later, he happened to cross
a stream and upon seeing his reflection in the water, he was awakened to the
(profound) meaning (of Yun Yen’s words) and chanted the following gatha:

“Shun elsewhere to seek ‘him’Or from him you will stray.As I go on aloneI meet him everywhere.He is what I am nowBut I’m not what he is.Such should one’s comprehension beTo unite with thatness.”’[23]

The Ch’an Tang Dynasty records are replete with numerous
similar examples.From this fact can be
ascertained that Dogen was following a well-established Ch’an tradition by
travelling to China to seek-out other masters close to the source of transmission
– in Dogen’s case (and that of his teacher Myozen), this was the Huang Long
(Linji) tradition of Ch’an.The problem
that Dogen experienced was that he did not feel that any of the Linji masters
he met in China possessed the ability to effectively ‘turn his words’ and
remove his final doubt.Whilst
experiencing this quandary, a pivotal moment presented itself in Dogen’s life
as his Japanese Zen master – the Venerable Myozen – passed away.This event occurred in 1225 when Dogen had
been in China for two years.Myozen
(like his teacher Yosai), had been a strict observer of both the Vinaya
Discipline, and the Bodhisattva Precepts, and it was this emphasis upon correct
behaviour, that Myozen used to teach and convey the Huang Long lineage.Records suggest that Dogen – as the Tenth
Patriarch of Huang Long – also accepted and upheld this practice, and
inherently linked meditation practice to right conduct.Myozen – the Ninth Patriarch of Huang Long –
died in a temple on Mount Tiantong.Although gravely ill at the time of his death, Myozen possessed
extraordinary will-power and exhibited uncommon spiritual attainment.Myozen passed away sat-upright in a perfect
meditation posture – following the well-known tradition established in
antiquity by advanced Indian and Chinese Ch’an masters.In this simple and yet profound act, Myozen
proved beyond a shadow of a doubt, that he was indeed, truly the Ninth
Patriarch of the Huang Long lineage.Buddhist monastics and large numbers of lay-Buddhists flocked to the area
to view Myozen’s body – which was eventually cremated.During the cremation process, witnesses
recorded seeing five different colours radiate from the fire, and when the
ashes were examined, three white pearls were discovered, along with 360
fragments of bone.Due to the
extraordinary nature of these events, a statue was erected in honour of Myozen
on Mount Tiantong.Myozen’s departure
demonstrates the strength of the (Linji) Huang Long tradition, and proves that
he was a worthy inheritor of this tradition.[24]This is indicative of the strength of Chinese
Ch’an lineage that Dogen inherited in Japan as the Tenth Patriarch of Huang
Long, and implies that the Huang Long transmission to Japan was not a
sub-standard transmission.Dogen’s
continuing great doubt was a natural product of the requirement to deepen his
understanding after the achievement of the all-important initial breakthrough,
and not a fault of the Linji Ch’an tradition he had inherited.

Just prior to this time, however, Dogen was on a pilgrimage
of the major Linji sites in Zhejiang province, when he met an old monk who
informed him that the abbot of Tiantong Temple had passed away, and that a new
abbot – named Rujing – had taken over.Dogen was advised to hurry back to Mount Tiantong because Rujing was
highly skilled in teaching of the Ch’an Dharma.[25]Dogen’s brief biography (written in Chinese
script) reads for the year 1225:

The Western year ‘1225’ has been added for clarity by modern
scholars.Dogen at the time used the
traditional dating method of the number of years associated with emperors and
imperial era names.For example, 1225
corresponds to the first year of the reign of the Southern Song Emperor Lizong
(理宗), and the first era of his rule was known a ‘Baoqing’ [宝庆]
(1225-1227).At the same time in Japan,
Emperor Go-Horikawa (後堀河) was on the throne, and his era
name for 1225 was ‘Karoku’ [嘉禄] (1225-1227). The above extract of Dogen’s biography
translates into English as follows:

‘(Year 1225 CE): First
Year of the Bao Qing Era (in China); First Year of the Karoku Era (in
Japan).

In the spring of this
year, whilst in Taizhou (on the east-coast of Zhejiang province), I travelled
to the Xiao Cuiwei Yan area, where I met with the master known as Panshan
Zhou.I then travelled to the Pingtian
area (of Mount Tiantai) to visit the Wan Nian Temple, where I met with the
master known as Yuanzi, who granted me the honour of viewing the book (of Ch’an
transmission).I then visited the Hu
Sheng Temple on Mount Damei – where I stayed the night.That night I had a dream where the Dharma
protector of Mount Damei presented me with a branch of plum blossoms.In the same year, on the 1st day
of the 5th lunar month, at the Tiantong Temple, I first met with Master
Rujing.It was here that Master Rujing
transmitted the Dharma to me - face-to-face.In the summer I travelled to Mount Ayuwang (i.e. Mount Ashoka), where I
visited the Guangli Temple.In that
temple I met a monk who was originally from Sichuan province – who served as
the Guest Master – and we discussed the meaning of the Buddha-dharma.On the 2nd day of the 7th
lunar month, I entered the abbot’s room of Ch’an Master Rujing, where I
respectfully requested instruction in the Dharma.After spending the summer with Master Rujing,
I finally gained enlightenment and thoroughly understood the
Buddha-dharma.My mind and body fell
away.On the 18th day of the
9th lunar month, I received the true transmission of the Dharma as
followed by all the Buddhas of the past, as well as the Bodhisattva
Patriarchs.Later that year, at a place
called Huanxi – I read the Dharma-transmission book of the Fayan lineage of
Ch’an.’

Later, after returning to Japan, Dogen recalled this first
meeting with Master Rujing in greater detail:

‘I first offered
incense and bowed formally to my late master, old Buddha Tiantong, in his
abbot’s room on the first day, fifth month, of the first year of Baoqing of
Great Song.He also saw me for the first
time.Upon this occasion, he transmitted
dharma, finger to finger, face to face, and said to me, “The dharma gate of
face-to-face transmission from buddha to buddha, ancestor to ancestor, is
realised now.’[27]

The passing of Myozen freed Dogen to study earnestly under
Ch’an Master Rujing – who was of the Caodong lineage - and their conversations
are recorded in Dogen’s personal diary of their meetings entitled in the
Japanese language as ‘Hokyo-ji’ (宝庆记– Bao Qing
Ji), or ‘Bao Qing Record’.[28]Master Rujing’s approach to Ch’an training
is encapsulated in the following quote:

‘身心脱落者坐禅也。只管打坐时，离五欲、除五盖也。’

This translates into English as:

‘Body and mind are
discarded when engaged in the practice of seated meditation.During the practice of intense seated
meditation - thoughts do not arise.When
this (beyond-thought) state is achieved, the five desires cease – and the five
obscurations fall away.’[29]

Ch’an Master Tiantong Rujing [天童如净]
[1163-1228] came from Zhejiang province and was the Dharma heir of Zu’an
Zhijian.During his lifetime he stayed
at a number of famous temples in other parts of China before settling on Mount
Tiantong.He was renowned as a good
Caodong Ch’an teacher who could ‘turn words’ with a poetic graceful ease.Although Dogen recorded Master Rujing’s
existence and method, Master Rujing is also included in other Chinese language
texts such as the ‘Five Lamps Meeting at the Source’.[30]An example of Master Rujing’s use of words is
as follows:

‘Ch’an Master Tiantong
Rujing entered the hall.Striking the
ground with his staff he said, “This is the realm of vertical Precipice.”

Striking the floor
again he said, “Deep, profound, remote, and distant.No one can reach it.

He struck again and
said, “But supposing you could reach this place, what would it be like?Aieee!I smile and point to the place where apes call.There is yet another realm where the numerous
traces may be found.”’[31]

Through a combination of correct meditative practice,
coupled with the dynamic and precise probing of his mind by Master Rujing –
Dogen attained enlightenment through the Caodong method.What this means in reality is that the final
great doubt was removed by a slightly different, and yet very similar approach
to Ch’an practice.It is interesting to
note that Master Rujing (although representing the Caodong lineage) made
extensive use of both the gong an (公案) and hua tou (話頭)
methods whilst teaching Ch’an, and although he recognised the importance of
seated meditation practice, he did not limit his approach to it.In other words, within the Southern Song
Dynasty, a dichotomy did not exist between the Linji and Caodong
traditions.Indeed, the complete lack of
any such separation can be seen by the fact that the previous abbot of Tiantong
(Wu-chi Liao-p’ai) was a Linji master who passed on the post of abbot to Master
Rujing – who was of the Caodong line.[32]Master Rujing did not accept the prevalent
view held at the time in China that the Five Houses of Ch’an each utilised a
different method to realise the same enlightenment.For Master Rujing, all methods were merely
expedient devices used to arouse inner potential and break the mind free from
lifetimes of deluded activity.In
pursuit of enlightening all beings, Master Rujing stated:

‘Once when sitting in
his abbot’s quarters, Ch’an Master Tiantong Rujing said, “Gouge out
Bodhidharma’s eyeball and use it like a mud ball to hit people!”Then he yelled, “Look!The ocean has dried up and the ocean floor is
cracked!The billowing waves are striking
the heavens!”’[33]

Following his first meeting with Master Rujing, Dogen was
granted permission to visit the abbot’s room at any time of the day or night,
whilst staying at Tiantong Temple as a resident monk fully committed to its
rigorous and strict monastic regime.This was an unusual honour, as Master Rujing was renowned for refusing
entry to his temple.These two years
allowed Dogen to fully appreciate and penetrate the Sangha practice of Chinese
Ch’an Buddhism as conveyed by Master Rujing, through the perpetuation of his
all-embracing Caodong method.During
intensive meditation training in the summer of 1225, Dogen was sitting
diligently in the meditation hall when he heard Master Rujing shout at another
monk for falling asleep.Master Rujing
stated:

“When you study under
a master, you must drop the body and mind; what is the use of single-minded
intense sitting?”[34]

When Dogen heard – ‘…you must drop the body and mind’ – he
was instantaneously awakened.This
demonstrates that although Dogen was hard at work disciplining his mind through
the act of strict meditation, it was the ability of Master Rujing to ‘turn
words’ that finally broke the last barrier of Dogen’s great doubt.The meditative practice and monastic regime
built-up the inner potential (or qi energy) within Dogen’s mind and body – and
with Master Rujing’s skilful prompting of another disciple – the subtle
illusion of mind and body for Dogen finally fell away.Dogen was presented with the Caodong
transmission documents in 1225 (making him the Thirteenth Patriarch descendent
of Masters Liangjie and Benji – the founders of the Caodong lineage) – and
spent the next two years assessing and refining this experience before
returning to Japan in 1227.One year
after Dogen returned to Japan – Ch’an Master Rujing passed away in 1228.Whilst back in Japan, Dogen successfully
established the Chinese Ch’an lineage of Caodong – known in Japanese as
‘Soto’.The central practice for the
Japanese Zen School of Soto is termed ‘Shikantaza’ (只管打坐– Zhi Guan Da Zuo), which translates as ‘Single-minded
Intense Meditation’, and which was taught and emphasised by Master Rujing (who
is thought to have invented the term) in China.However, despite the fact that Master Rujing continuously stated to
Dogen that his particular branch of the Caodong lineage was unique, and
conveyed the ‘true’ Dharma, it is also correct to state that in fact Master
Rujing’s method was more or less in-line with that of the Tang Dynasty Ch’an
masters (representing any of the Five Houses), and this meant that Master Rujing
– as a competent Ch’an master living in the Southern Song Dynasty – successfully
and correctly conveyed what might be described as ‘mainstream’ Ch’an at a time
when there appeared to be many distortions of this teaching.Indeed, although Master Rujing continuously
discussed the importance of the correct practice and implications of authentic
meditation, his instructions to Dogen were always based primarily upon the
teachings contained within the Northern Song Dynasty text entitled ‘Seated
Meditation Record’ (坐禅仪– Zuo Ch’an
Yi), and did not go beyond it.[35]Although ostensibly dating to 1103, this text
is believed to have existed prior to this time, and consists of practical
instruction for the correct practice of meditation as conceived within the
Chinese Ch’an School.For instance, the
Zuo Ch’an Yi states:

‘Do not give rise to
good and bad thoughts.When a thought
arises – be aware of it – awareness dissolves the thought.When this method is applied over a long
period of time - all thoughts are forgotten and oneness is attained.This is important to master the skill of seated
meditation (Zuo Ch'an).’[36]

Dogen would later base his own meditation regulation – the
‘Zazen-Gi’ – upon the content of the Chinese ‘Zuo Ch’an Yi’. Dogen interprets
the above extract as:

‘Sit solidly in
samadhi and think not-thinking.How do
you think not-thinking?Non-thinking.This is the art of
zazen.’[37]

At no point in the Zuo Ch’an Yi is the practice of ‘Silent
Illumination Ch’an’ (默照禪- Mo Zhao Ch’an) mentioned, and it
is clear that the Caodong Ch’an Master Rujing did not advocate or teach this
method to Dogen whilst he was in China.However, upon returning to Japan, it is also clear that Dogen developed
an interpretation of Japanese Soto Zen Buddhism that assumed an inherent
integration of Master Rujing’s conventional Ch’an practice of ‘Zhi Guan Da Zuo
(i.e. ‘Shikantaza’), with that known as ‘Silent Illumination’.[38]When Japanese Soto Zen Buddhism spread to the
West, (and its concepts were translated into Western languages for the first
time), Dogen’s association was interpreted to mean that the practice of
‘Shikantaza’ was exactly the same as the practice of ‘Silent Illumination’ (Mo
Zhao), and that the two terms were interchangeable – with the further
assumption being that ‘Silent Illumination’ was an older (or ‘original’) term
for ‘Shikantaza’.The following
contemporary Chinese text discusses the differences between ‘Silent
Illumination’ and ‘Shikantaza’, and explains that they are two distinct (but
related) approaches toward meditational development:

‘‘Single-minded
Intense Meditation’ (Shikantaza) is a Ch’an method that is advocated by the
Japanese Soto Zen master known as Dogen.Dogen received Dharma transmission from the 13th century
Chinese Ch’an master known as Rujing.The Chinese Caodong tradition however, has also been associated with the
practice of ‘Silent Illumination’ (Mo Zhao) as well as that of ‘Single-minded
Intense Meditation’, but there are differences between these two methods:

1) Silent Illumination
Ch’an (默照禪 – Mo Zhao Ch’an).Originally this method was advocated by the Ch’an master known as
Hongzhi Zhengjue.The term ‘silent’ (mo)
equates to a ‘non-moving suchness’, which means that the mind remains
unaffected by the outside environment, and exists in the suchness of the present
moment.Whereas the term ‘illumination’
(zhao) refers to a state of (an all-encompassing) pure brightness that
permeates the (inner) and outer environment.The establishment of this state is considered to correlate with the
realisation of enlightenment.Absorption
within suchness is considered the achievement of samadhi, which equates with
enlightened illumination.This generates
a profound wisdom that supports and sustains the practice and realisation of
‘Silent Illumination’.Samadhi and
wisdom support one another, and within the realised state of samadhi wisdom,
all duality is transcended.

Within ‘Silent
Illumination Ch’an’, the term ‘silent’ can be further divided into two levels;

a) Seeing the Way (道 – Dao)
before (attainment).b) Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after
(attainment).

These two levels of
‘silent’ practice are different and distinct.To ‘See the Way (道 – Dao) before (attainment) silence’, is designed to deal
with the coarse and delusive activity of the unenlightened mind.It is a method that calms the haphazard
surface movements of the mind, and eventually reverses (and annuls) the heavy
effects of delusion.This is required
because the delusion that exists in the minds of all beings is very powerful.This habit of greed, hatred, and delusion
obscures the (true essence) of the mind, and infects ‘mind, body, and
environment’ with ignorance.A mind that
is trained to be ‘silent’, (or ‘still’), is a mind that has put an end to
delusional thinking.This uproots the
negative karma associated with bad habits in the mind, and facilitates the
direct perception of illumination in the mind that thoroughly permeates the
‘(inner) and outer environment’.When
delusionary habits of the mind are uprooted and all ignorance is brought to an
end – this state is called ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after (attainment)’,
because now there is only a still and shining mind – (within which all things
appear to arise and pass away).The mind
is ‘no longer impure, or infected with dirt, but is clean and unhindered by
delusion’.As this purity extends into
the surrounding environment, ‘all is experienced as free of trouble,
comfortable and serene’.Ch’an Master
Farong says in his ‘Mind Inscription’ text that ‘It is directly perceived here
and now without contrived effort.Non-substantiality manifests, because non-substantiality is reality’,
and ‘When external forms are integrated with the inner mind, they are
extinguished as separate entities.Both
are located in the unborn, which is serene, harmonious, empty and bright.’These statements can be favourably compared
with that of Ch’an Master Yongjia, who said, ‘Have you not seen the man of Dao
at his ease, and in his non-active and beyond learning states, who neither
suppresses thoughts nor seeks the real?’These are descriptions of an expanded consciousness that envelops its
environment.

This is the silent
(mind) that is ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after (attainment)’, a mind that exists in an
untroubled manner whilst ‘integrated with its environment’.Whilst pursuing the path of ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao)’, a
Ch’an student puts an end to ‘all ego-clinging’, by ‘focusing the mind through
Dharmic practice’, which puts an end to deluded behaviour.Through the persistent practice of ‘silent
illumination’ that does not waiver, deluded thought is cut-off at the root and
does not arise.This is a naturally
occurring state that puts an end to all delusion in the mind.However, if deluded thought is not renounced,
and truth is not sincerely sought, the mind remains in a deluded state, and
cannot expand to embrace its environment.In this troubled state, ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after (attainment)’,
cannot be achieved, due to the continuation of an ‘ego that separates’ the mind
from integrating with its environment.When this separation is transcended, then ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after
(attainment)’, is achieved and ‘ego is permanently overcome’.

If the ‘realisation of
the essence of prajna emptiness’, is not achieved through ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after
(attainment) through the practice of silence (i.e. ‘stillness’)’, then the
attainment of ‘meditation samadhi’ becomes one-sided and incomplete.In this situation, the ‘attainment of
enlightenment’ is not possible, and it is easy to fall into the deluded states
of ‘non-seeing’, or ‘abiding in non-effort’, and mistake these erroneous states
for the true attainment of ‘seeing the Way (前 – Dao).Ch’an masters Dahui Zonggao and Hongzhi
Zhengjue both lived in the same era.Dahui criticised ‘Silent Illumination Ch’an’ as a diversion away from
the correct meditation method, and a falling into ‘dead wood heretical
Ch’an’.Ch’an Master Hongzhi, on the
other hand, understood that there is a trap associated with ‘Silent
Illumination Ch’an’, and wrote in his text entitled ‘Silent Illumination
Inscription’ that, ‘Being truly ‘silent’ is a profound teaching, whilst the
concept of ‘illumination’ is universal.To be truly ‘Silent’ is not to be empty of any particular thing, but is
rather a profound state that is beyond language, where the mind dwells in the
extinction of delusion, and experiences an all embracing essential emptiness,
that expands to embrace all things.’He also
said, ‘The principle of ‘Silent Illumination’ is an all-embracing roundedness
that is like a lotus that opens up and dispels all illusion.’Therefore it can be said that ‘Silent
Illumination’ is the cultivation of a profound harmony that is the essence of
the realised nature of the Tathagata.

Regardless of whether
one is in the state of ‘Seeing the Way (道 – Dao) before (attainment)’, or ‘Seeing the Way (前 – Dao) after
(attainment)’, it is all part of the developmental process associated with the
method of ‘Silent Illumination’. The
concepts of ‘silent’ and ‘illumination’ are mutually supportive of one another,
and although individually distinct, no difference can be found between
them.Initially, when being ‘Silent’ is
practiced, the mind is agitated and restless because it has not yet found the
correct path.Then sometimes the mind
settles, disengages from attachments to external phenomena and becomes calm,
but it does not expand, and does not become all-embracing and shine with
wisdom.Ch’an Master Hongzhi, when
discussing the possibility of the mind failing to shine when practicing ‘Silent
Illumination’, said, ‘If the true principle of being ‘Silent’ is not achieved,
then there is nothing but humiliation.’This is nothing but the mind falling into the torrent of delusion.Ch’an Master Hongzhi describes this state as,
‘The functioning of a dead, cold mind that rests in a warped logic.’In such a situation, the mind should be
roused from attachment to this negative state, and whilst keeping away from
involvement with the world, put a stop to all deluded thought, so that the
innate wisdom can shine automatically, and become fully embracing of the
environment.This type of Buddhist
meditation is very similar to the method found within the ‘Complete
Enlightenment Sutra ’, which states, ‘Generating wisdom to breakup ignorance is
not easy, but out of ignorance, enlightenment emerges.This is not a gradual realisation.’The concepts of ‘silent’ and ‘illumination’
are exactly the same as Ch’an Master Yongjia’s statement when he says, ‘Silent
and clear-minded; clear-minded and silent.’Here, ‘silent’ means ‘stillness’, and ‘samadhi’, whilst ‘clear-minded’
refers to ‘correct perception’ and ‘wisdom’.Whether viewed as ‘Silent Illumination’, ‘Illuminated Silence’, or
‘Silent and clear-minded; clear-minded and silent’, this realised state
indicates a perfect integration of ‘concentration and wisdom’ attained through
the correct practice of Dharma meditation.

2) Single-minded
Intense Meditation’ (只管打坐 – Zhi Guan
Da Zuo).Within the Japanese tradition of Soto Zen Buddhism, the practice of
‘Silent Illumination’ is considered an improvement upon ‘Single-minded Intense
Meditation’.This is because
‘‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’ only emphasises the practice of ‘exact
mediation as exact meditation’, which is the awareness of the mind limited only
to the correct perception of various mind-body sense stimuli, be it numbness
and aching, itching, or the surge of joy.No matter what phenomena of mind or body arise and pass away – the mind
remains indifferent, and unconcerned, practicing a quiet form of observational
awareness that does not go beyond that which it is sensing – hence it is called
‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’.Another criticism of ‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’, is that it
limits Dharma meditation to just sitting quietly in the upright posture.In the text entitled ‘Single-minded Seated
Meditation Law Essentials’, it clearly states that the act of meditation can be
practiced anywhere, regardless of whether a person is standing, sitting, or
lying, and should not be limited to just the sitting posture.Therefore, ‘Single-minded Intense
Meditation’ should not be limited to merely the sitting posture – as effective
meditation can be practiced in any posture.With regards to ‘intense meditation’, the purpose is to attain a unified
mind that is pure, bright, and clean, and which abides in the present moment –
here and now.This is achieved by purifying
the six sense roots, and removing sensual desire that obscures the mind.When practicing ‘only sitting’, the
‘immediate environment’ must be peaceful and secure.In this way, ignorance is dispelled with a
flash of enlightenment in the mind, which transcends all discriminatory
categories, and leaves behind all distinctions between ‘ordinary’ and ‘sagely’,
and ‘love’ and ‘hate’, etc.However,
this type of realisation often remains limited to the mind and body, and lacks
the ability to expand and integrate with the outer environment.This is the case even if the mind is calmed
and no delusion arises.Wisdom can be
developed through ‘contemplation’, but this takes time and requires a
particular set of circumstances not available to everyone.This is why ‘Silent Illumination’ meditation
is better suited for ordinary people, as it can be practiced anywhere, in any
position, even if a minority of its practitioners fall into error of ‘dead wood
sitting’.In the
Māhaprajñāparamitopadeśa it says, ‘The Buddhas and Mahasattvas understand that
conduct, and awareness are inter-related.They know that when the body is alive, it is living; they know when the
body is sitting, it is sitting, and they know when the body is lying down, it
is lying down.This is how the conduct
of the body is always known.’This is
how ‘awareness is generated’ so that the individual can live in the present
moment, here and now.This is the
development of mindfulness that is the product of correct awareness.Delusion no longer arises, as the mind and
body remain pollution free – a realised state that is the product of correct
intention.As behaviour and awareness
are inter-related, this is where ‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’ and ‘Silent
Illumination’ can be reconciled – providing those who practice the former are
willing to allow their purified mind-awareness to expand through the senses and
into the environment.Those who practice
‘Silent Illumination’ can benefit from ‘‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’ by
‘focusing’ their mind during practice and making the training more efficient in
the process.’ [39]

It is clear that Master Rujing made extensive use of the
gong an and hua tou methods in his meditation hall as a means to push his
students beyond the ‘calm mind state’ induced through the ‘Single-minded
Intense Meditation’ method – and that his style of teaching Ch’an was reliant
upon this inter-play of a cultivated ‘still mind’ shaken-out of its complacency
by the dramatic and vigorous enlightening action of a qualified teacher.Indeed, this is in accordance with the
teaching of Ch’an Master Xu Yun (1840-1959), who often spoke of three phases to
Ch’an training:

i) Deluded – ordinary mind at the outset of training.ii) Relative enlightenment (an empty-mind that has not yet
expanded into embracing its environment – also referred to as ‘sitting atop a
hundred-foot pole).iii) An all-embracing mind that is not attached to the void,
nor hindered by phenomena. [40]

When viewed in terms of the Caodong method of the Five Ranks
of ‘guest’ and ‘host’, the progression from delusion to full enlightenment can
be interpreted as:

For Dogen – as the Tenth Patriarch of the Huang Long (Linji)
Ch’an tradition – he was probably aware of the views of his Dharma-ancestor Dahui
Zonggao (大慧宗杲) [1089–1163], if not in Japan then certainly in
China.As Dahui was criticising Hongzhi
Zhengjue (宏智正覺) [1091-1157], this could explain where Dogen first
became aware of the ‘Silent Illumination’ method.It is also well-known that Master Rujing
respected and admired Hongzhi Zhengjue – and this association must be
interpreted as another direction from which Dogen could have become aware of
‘Silent Illumination’ – even if Master Rujing did not overtly emphasis this
practice.Through the administration of
the Five Ranks system, however, the Caodong masters had taught what might be
described as an ’original’ form of meditation, from which the methods of
‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’ and ‘Silent Illumination’ eventually emerged
as partial representations.Although
Hongzhi Zhengjue did use the term ‘Silent Illumination’, he was also renowned
for his extensive gong an collection– a
fact that makes a mockery of Dahui’s withering criticisms of a type of ‘Silent
Illumination’ that emphasised ‘silent sitting’, or ‘dead sitting’ – which Dahui
erroneously associated with Hongzhi’s tradition. [42]Furthermore, Dahui was not entirely opposed
in principle to the practice of ‘silent sitting’, particularly for monastic
practitioners, but believed that certain Caodong masters misinterpreted its
meaning and function. [43]In
a sense, Dogen reassembles the full Ch’an method through his integration of
Shikantaza and Silent Illumination, and although Master Rujing does not appear
to overtly emphasis Silent Illumination, it is likely that its implications
were present in his otherwise robust system of prolonged meditation practice
and vigorous gong an and hua tou usage.It is apparent that Master Rujing did not reject gong an or hua tou
practice in his method, and it is a curious fact that Soto Zen in Japan became
associated with an ‘anti-gong an’ attitude as a defining characteristic of its
teaching method.This position is
paradoxical, as it makes Master Rujing – the Chinese forefather of Japanese
Soto Zen – appear to be a rampaging Linji (i.e. ‘Rinzai’) adherent.Perhaps this is not as paradoxical as it
first seems, but simply serves to demonstrate the fact that the Linji and
Caodong lineages share a common heritage, and are more alike in theory and
practice than many realise them to be.

Shikantaza (Zhi Guan Da Zuo) is a
legitimate Chinese Ch’an developmental technique designed to assist the Ch’an
student to ‘return’ the sensory-data received from the environment – via the
six sensory-organs – to its ‘empty’ root, or ‘perceptual origination’ within
the mind.Although Ch’an Master Rujing
is believed to have coined the term ‘Single-minded Intense Meditation’ (只管打坐
- Zhi Guan Da Zuo), he did not invent the method associated with its
practice.The principle of ‘stilling’
the mind through ‘returning’ sensory-stimulus to its ‘empty’ root, is present
in the Surangama Sutra (大佛頂首楞嚴經– Da
Fu Ding Shou Leng Yen Jing) - which was first translated into the Chinese
language in 705 CE, by the Indian master named Paramiti.This sutra advocates the ‘untying’ of the six
sensory ‘knots’ through the method of intense introspection.[44]It also contains the theoretical basis for
the practice of ‘Silent Illumination’ (默照禪- Mo Zhao Ch’an), through its teaching regarding the Ten
Stages of Bodhisattva Attainment (Dasabhumi). [45]The Surangama Sutra demonstrates, in minute
detail, that the mind must be disentangled from the six sense organs, the
sensory data they receive, and the corresponding six sensory objects that
constitute the physical world.When the
mind is ‘stilled’ (the stage of relative enlightenment), attachment to a
one-sided ‘emptiness’ must be ‘uprooted’ if the full function of the mind is to
be recovered and consciousness is realised to be all-embracing.Enlightenment is not a ‘new’ or ‘induced’
state of being imported into the mind through an act of concentrated will – but
is rather the ‘recovery’ of the mind’s pristine state before it was sullied
eons ago by deluded thought.This
assumes that the ‘ordinary’ mind of delusion is functioning inside out, or the
wrong way around.The Ch’an method of
gong an and hua tou usage is designed specifically to ‘turn words’ from their
usual deluded direction of travel (that assumes a priori that the world is
premised upon a duality of subject-object interaction), to that of being in accordance
with a fully functioning mind that is all-embracing of its environment,
essentially empty and yet containing all things, non-attached to emptiness and
not hindered by phenomena (or sensory stimuli).This is the mind that is the ‘right way around’ – a state that all Ch’an
masters have attained, and the position they teach from.It is the expedient position of the unmovable
‘host’ who greets all ‘guests’ with a precise indifference designed to shake
them out of their inverted thinking by showing them their true-mind essence,
and although all Ch’an masters teach an immediate method of enlightenment, this
is understood in the mind of the student in many different ways.Depending upon the perceptual awareness of
the student, the Ch’an master’s method will appear either ‘instantaneous’ or
‘gradual’, when in reality the empty mind ground (空心地 –
Kong Xin Di) – or in Sanskrit ‘Cittabhumi’ is clearly presented ‘here and
now’.As the minds of individuals vary
from person to person, and as karmic conditioning is diverse, the Ch’an masters
must apply their method of ‘disentangling’ in many different ways that are
applicable to the student.At one point
the mind will need to be ‘stilled’, whilst at another time an emphasis is
required for the development of all-embracing reality.This means that Shikantaza and Mo Zhao are
complementary methods, which can only be perceived as incorrect if there exists
a one-sided attachment to either method that excludes the other as a legitimate
practice.Dahui’s warning against
falling into ‘dead’ meditation is applicable for all Ch’an students practicing
any type of Ch’an meditation and cannot be limited to the practice of ‘Silent
Illumination’ alone.