State Historical Museum

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The State Historical Museum (Russian: Государственный исторический музей, Gosudarstvenny istoricheskiy muzyey) of Russia[1] is a museum of Russian history wedged between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow. Its exhibitions range from relics of prehistoric tribes that lived on the territory of present-day Russia, through priceless artworks acquired by members of the Romanov dynasty. The total number of objects in the museum's collection comes to millions.

The present structure was built based on Sherwood's neo-Russian design between 1875 and 1881. The first 11 exhibit halls officially opened in 1883 during a visit from the Tsar and his wife.[3] Then in 1894 Tsar Alexander III became the honorary president of the museum and the following year, 1895, the museum was renamed the Tsar Alexander III Imperial Russian History Museum.[4] Its interiors were intricately decorated in the Russian Revival style by such artists as Viktor Vasnetsov, Henrik Semiradsky, and Ivan Aivazovsky. During the Soviet period the murals were proclaimed gaudy and were plastered over. The museum went through a painstaking restoration of its original appearance between 1986 and 1997.

A branch of the museum is housed in the Romanov Chambers Zaryadye and Saint Basil's Cathedral. In 1934 The Museum of Women's Emancipation at the Novodevichy Convent became part of the State Historical Museum. Some of the churches and other monastic buildings are still affiliated with the State Historical Museum.

1.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

2.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi

3.
History of Russia
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The History of Russia begins with that of the Eastern Slavs. The traditional beginning of Russian history is 862 A. D. Kievan Rus, the state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning with the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus ultimately disintegrated as a state because of the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1237–1240, after the 13th century, Moscow became a cultural center. By the 18th century, the Tsardom of Russia had become the huge Russian Empire, expansion in the western direction sharpened Russias awareness of its separation from much of the rest of Europe and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform, peasant revolts were common, and all were fiercely suppressed. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861, but the peasant fared poorly, from its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. The Russian Federation began in January 1992 as the successor to the USSR. Russia retained its nuclear arsenal but lost its superpower status, Russias treatment of Ukraine led to severe economic sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union. In 2006,1. 5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools were discovered in the Dagestan Akusha region of the north Caucasus, arctic Russia was reached by 40,000 years ago. During the prehistoric eras the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists, in classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Remnants of these long gone steppe cultures were discovered in the course of the 20th century in places as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim. In the latter part of the 8th century BCE, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais, gelonus was described by Herodotos as a huge earth- and wood-fortified grad inhabited around 500 BCE by Heloni and Budini. At about the 2nd century CE Goths migrated to the Black Sea, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, a Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century. Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, the Khazars were the commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim Abbasid empire centered in Baghdad. They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire, and waged a series of wars against the Arab Caliphates. In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism, some of the ancestors of the modern Russians were the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pripet Marshes. The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves, one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod, scandinavian Norsemen, known as Vikings in Western Europe and Varangians in the East, combined piracy and trade throughout Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern Baltic to the Black, thus, the first East Slavic state, Rus, emerged in the 9th century along the Dnieper River valley

4.
Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square

5.
Manezhnaya Square, Moscow
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Manezhnaya or Manege Square is a large pedestrian open space in the Tverskoy District, at the heart of Moscow. The square forms a part of downtown Moscow, connecting Red Square with the major traffic artery Tverskaya Street. It is served by three Moscow Metro stations, Okhotny Ryad, Ploshchad Revolyutsii, and Teatralnaya, although the river was later culverted, the neighbourhood remained crammed with public houses and taverns which gave the area its infamous nickname of Moscows belly. A decision was reached in 1932 to pull down these ugly relics of the lifestyle in order to make room for Communist meetings. In 1967, the square was renamed after the 50th Anniversary of the October Revolution, furthermore, in order to commemorate that event, the Communist authorities laid a foundation stone for a grandiose sculptural monument, which failed to materialize. In August 1991, Manezhnaya Square became a venue for great demonstrations celebrating the fall of Communism after the abortive Soviet coup attempt of 1991, more recently, it made the news in connection with riots following the Russia national football teams defeat at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. During the 1990s Moscow mayor Yury Luzhkov had the square closed to traffic, another innovation is the former river-bed of the Neglinnaya River, which has become a popular attraction for Muscovites and tourists alike, especially on sultry summer days. The course of the river is imitated by a rivulet dotted with fountains and statues of Russian fairy-tale characters, История освоения и застройка территории, в сборнике, Архитектура в истории русской культуры

6.
House of Romanov
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The Romanovs achieved prominence as boyars of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, later the Tsardom of Russia. In 1613, following years of interregnum, the zemsky sobor offered the Russian crown to Mikhail Romanov and he acceded to the throne as Michael I, becoming the first Tsar of Russia from the House of Romanov. His grandson Peter I established the Russian Empire and transformed the country into a continental power through a series of wars, the direct male line of the Romanovs came to an end when Elizabeth of Russia died in 1762. After an era of crisis, the House of Holstein-Gottorp, a cadet branch of the House of Oldenburg which reigned in Denmark, ascended the throne in 1762 with Peter III. All rulers from the middle of the 18th century to the revolution of 1917 were descended from that branch, though officially known as the House of Romanov, these descendants of the Romanov and Oldenburg dynasties are sometimes referred to as Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov. In early 1917 the Romanov dynasty had 65 members,18 of whom were killed by the Bolsheviks, the remaining 47 members went into exile abroad. In 1924, Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, the senior, surviving male-line descendant of Alexander II of Russia by primogeniture, since 1991, the succession to the former Russian throne has been in dispute, largely due to disagreements over the validity of dynasts marriages. Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia claims to hold the title of empress in pretense with her child, George Mikhailovich. There is also a rival non-Romanov claim put forth by Prince Karl Emich of the House of Leiningen supported by the Monarchist Party, according to the Almanach de Gotha, the name of Russias ruling dynasty from the time of Peter III was Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov. However, the name Romanov and House of Romanov were often used in references to the Russian imperial family. The coat of arms of the Romanov boyars was included in legislation on the imperial dynasty, after the February Revolution all members of the imperial family were given the surname Romanov by special decree of the Provisional Government of Russia. Their earliest common ancestor is one Andrei Kobyla, attested around 1347 as a boyar in the service of Semyon I of Moscow, later generations assigned to Kobyla an illustrious pedigree. An 18th-century genealogy claimed that he was the son of the Prussian prince Glanda Kambila, indeed, one of the leaders of the Old Prussian rebellion of 1260–1274 against the Teutonic order was named Glande. His actual origin may have been less spectacular, not only is Kobyla Russian for mare, some of his relatives also had as nicknames the terms for horses and other domestic animals, thus suggesting descent from one of the royal equerries. One of Kobylas sons, Feodor, a member of the boyar Duma of Dmitri Donskoi, was nicknamed Koshka and his descendants took the surname Koshkin, then changed it to Zakharin, which family later split into two branches, Zakharin-Yakovlev and Zakharin-Yuriev. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the family became known as Yakovlev. The family fortunes soared when Romans daughter, Anastasia Zakharyina, married Ivan IV, since her husband had assumed the title of tsar, which literally means Caesar, on 16 January 1547, she was crowned the very first tsaritsa of Russia. Her mysterious death in 1560 changed Ivans character for the worse, suspecting the boyars of having poisoned his beloved, Tsar Ivan started a reign of terror against them

7.
Peter the Great
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Peter the Great, Peter I or Peter Alexeyevich ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his elder half-brother, Ivan V. Through a number of successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a larger empire that became a major European power. He led a revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, westernized. Peters reforms made an impact on Russia and many institutions of Russian government trace their origins to his reign. From an early age, Peters education was put in the hands of tutors, most notably Nikita Zotov, Patrick Gordon. On 29 January 1676, Tsar Alexis died, leaving the sovereignty to Peters elder half-brother and this position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family and Naryshkin family over who should inherit the throne, Peters other half-brother, Ivan V, was next in line for the throne, but he was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma chose the 10-year-old Peter to become Tsar with his mother as regent and this arrangement was brought before the people of Moscow, as ancient tradition demanded, and was ratified. Sophia Alekseyevna, one of Alexis daughters from his first marriage, in the subsequent conflict some of Peters relatives and friends were murdered, including Matveev, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence. The Streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys and their allies, to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, Sophia acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat, a large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and this throne can be seen in the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow. Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name and he engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his toy army. Peters mother sought to force him to adopt a conventional approach. The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced his wife to become a nun, by the summer of 1689, Peter planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful Crimean campaigns. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with the leaders of the Streltsy, Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name, still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Natalya Naryshkina and it was only when Nataliya died in 1694 that Peter became an independent sovereign

8.
Naryshkin Baroque
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Naryshkin baroque is essentially a fusion of traditional Russian architecture with baroque elements imported from Central Europe. It is in contrast to the radical approach of Petrine baroque. Peter and Paul in St. Petersburg and the Menshikov tower in Moscow, the first baroque churches were built in the estates of the Naryshkin family of Moscow boyars. It was the family of Natalia Naryshkina, Peter the Greats mother, most notable in this category of small suburban churches were the Intercession in Fili, the Sign in Dubrovitsy, and the Saviour in Ubory. They were built in red brick with profuse detailed decoration in white stone, as the style gradually spread around Russia, many monasteries were remodeled after the latest fashion. The most delightful of these were the Novodevichy Convent and the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow, as well as Krutitsy metochion and Solotcha Cloister near Riazan. Civic architecture also sought to conform to the aesthetics, e. g. the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. The most important architects associated with the Naryshkin Baroque were Yakov Bukhvostov, in the 1730s the Moscow Baroque style gave way to the Rastrelliesque, or Elizabethan, Baroque. A History of Russian Architecture ISBN 978-0-521-40333-7 Petrine Baroque Octagon on cube Naryshkin-Stroganov Baroque

9.
Moscow State University
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Lomonosov Moscow State University is a coeducational and public research university located in Moscow, Russia. It was founded on January 25,1755 by Mikhail Lomonosov, MSU was renamed after Lomonosov in 1940 and was then known as Lomonosov University. It also claims to house the tallest educational building in the world and it is rated among the universities with the best reputation in the world. Its current rector is Viktor Sadovnichiy, ivan Shuvalov and Mikhail Lomonosov promoted the idea of a university in Moscow, and Russian Empress Elizabeth decreed its establishment on January 251755. The first lectures were given on April 26th, russians still celebrate January 25th as Students Day. Saint Petersburg State University and Moscow State University engage in rivalry over the title of Russias oldest university. The present Moscow State University originally occupied the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square from 1755 to 1787, in the 18th century, the University had three departments, philosophy, medicine, and law. A preparatory college was affiliated with the University until its abolition in 1812, in 1779, Mikhail Kheraskov founded a boarding school for noblemen which in 1830 became a gymnasium for the Russian nobility. The university press, run by Nikolay Novikov in the 1780s, published the most popular newspaper in Imperial Russia, in 1804, medical education split into clinical, surgical, and obstetrics faculties. During 1884–1897, the Department of Medicine -- supported by donations. The campus, and medical education in general, were separated from the University in 1918, as of 2015, Devichye Pole was operated by the independent I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University and by various other state and private institutions. The roots of student unrest in the University reach deep into the nineteenth century, in 1905, a social-democratic organization emerged at the University and called for the overthrow of the Czarist government and the establishment of a republic in Russia. The imperial government repeatedly threatened to close the University, after the October Revolution of 1917, the institution began to admit the children of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1919, the University abolished fees for tuition and established a facility to help working-class children prepare for entrance examinations. During the implementation of Joseph Stalins First Five-Year Plan, prisoners from the Gulag were forced to construct parts of the newly expanded University, after 1991, nine new faculties were established. The following year, the University gained a status, it is funded directly from the state budget. On March 19,2008, Russias most powerful supercomputer to date and its peak performance of 60 TFLOPS makes it the fastest supercomputer in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Since 1953, most of the faculties have been situated on Sparrow Hills, the main building was designed by architect Lev Vladimirovich Rudnev

10.
Mikhail Lomonosov
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was a Russian polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science. Among his discoveries were the atmosphere of Venus and the Law of Mass Conservation in chemical reactions and his spheres of science were natural science, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, history, art, philology, optical devices and others. Lomonosov was also a poet and influenced the formation of the modern Russian literary language, Lomonosov was born in the village of Denisovka in Archangelgorod Governorate, on an island not far from Kholmogory, in the far north of Russia. Lomonosovs mother was Vasilys first wife, a daughter, Elena Ivanovna Sivkova. He remained at Denisovka until he was ten, when his father decided that he was old enough to participate in his business ventures, learning was young Lomonosovs passion, however, not business. The boys thirst for knowledge was insatiable, Lomonosov had been taught to read as a boy by his neighbor Ivan Shubny, and he spent every spare moment with his books. He continued his studies with the deacon, S. N. Sabelnikov, but for years the only books he had access to were religious texts. When he was fourteen, Lomonosov was given copies of Meletius Smotrytskys Modern Church Slavonic, on his religious views, Lomonosov was a deist. In 1724, his father married for the third and final time, Lomonosov and his stepmother Irina had an acrimonious relationship. Unhappy at home and intent on obtaining an education, which Lomonosov could not receive in Denisovka. In 1730, at nineteen, Lomonosov went to Moscow on foot, not long after arriving, Lomonosov obtained admission into the Slavic Greek Latin Academy by falsely claiming to be a priests son. That initial falsehood would nearly get him expelled from the academy a few years later when discovered, Lomonosov lived on three kopecks a day, living off only black bread and kvass, but he made rapid progress scholastically. After three years in Moscow he was sent to Kiev to study for one year at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and he quickly became dissatisfied with the education he was receiving there, and returned to Moscow several months ahead of schedule, resuming his studies there. He completed a study course in only five years, graduating at the top of his class. In 1736, Lomonosov was awarded a scholarship to St. Petersburg Academy and he plunged into his studies and was rewarded with a two-year grant to study abroad at the University of Marburg, in Germany. The University of Marburg was among Europes most important universities in the century due to the presence of the philosopher Christian Wolff. Lomonosov became one of Wolffs personal students while at Marburg, both philosophically and as a science administrator, this connection would be the most influential of Lomonosovs life

11.
Ivan Zabelin
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Ivan Yegorovich Zabelin was a Russian historian and archaeologist with a Slavophile bent who helped establish the National History Museum on Red Square and presided over this institution until 1906. He was the foremost authority on the history of the city of Moscow, Zabelin joined the Moscow Kremlin staff in 1837. Influenced by the early Muscovite antiquaries such as Ivan Snegirev and Pavel Stroyev, Zabelin was one of the first to investigate the history of Moscows suburbs, while working in the Armoury, Zabelin studied the history of metalworking and enamel work in medieval Russia. He was also considered an expert on icon-painting and Muscovite architecture, in 1859 Count Sergei Stroganov invited Zabelin to excavate the Scythian tumulus graves in South Russia and the Crimea. He is credited with introducing stratigraphic methods in Russian field archaeology and it was he who excavated the Chertomlyk grave, one of the largest Scythian kurgans. His findings are now part of the Hermitage Museum collection, Zabelin joined forces with Count Aleksey Uvarov in establishing the Russian Archaeological Society. He summed up his findings in The Antiquities of Herodotuss Scythia, in 1873 Zabelin quit archaeological pursuites and devoted himself to the study of Pre-Petrine, late medieval Muscovy. He headed the Moscow Society of History and Archaeology between 1872 and 1888 and was revered by the Romantic Nationalist artists such as Andrei Ryabushkin, Sergei Milyutin, in 1894 Zabelin was elected into the Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Zabelin believed that the soul of the people manifests itself not so much in the institutions and political history but in the quotidian particulars of domestic life. He elaborated his views in the series of monographs detailing the life of Russian people in the 16th and 17th centuries. Zabelins great trilogy The Domestic Life of the Russian Tsars, The Domestic Life of Russian Tsarinas and his magnum opus The History of the Russian Mode of Life from the Earliest Times was left unfinished. Works by or about Ivan Zabelin at Internet Archive

12.
Aleksey Uvarov
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Count Aleksey Sergeyevich Uvarov was a Russian archaeologist often considered to be the founder of the study of the prehistory of Russia. Uvarov was the son of Count Sergey Uvarov, a minister of education. He came to know the leading historians of the period, Mikhail Pogodin and Timofey Granovsky and he was educated at the universities of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Heidelberg. After his fathers death, he commemorated his name by instituting the Uvarov Prize, to be awarded by the Academy of Sciences to distinguished writers, Uvarovs activities as a field archaeologist began with visits to Rostov, Vladimir, Chernigov and other centres of Kievan Rus. Starting in 1854, he excavated the Meryan-Norse settlement at Sarskoe Gorodishche and he summarized his findings in The Meryans and Their Lifestyle as Shown by Kurgan Excavations. Subsequent expeditions took him to Pontic Olbia, Tauric Chersonesus, Uvarov was a towering presence in the history of the Russian Archaeological Society. In 1864 he helped organize the Moscow Archaeological Society, of which he remained president until his death, during Uvarovs administration, the society would convene one time in three years at some ancient Russian town. More importantly in the run, Uvarov contributed to the establishment of the State Historical Museum. Two volumes of Russian Archaeology in the Prehistoric Period contain his delineation of Eastern European prehistory and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary

13.
Sergey Solovyov
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Sergey Mikhaylovich Solovyov was one of the greatest Russian historians whose influence on the next generation of Russian historians was paramount. His son Vladimir Solovyov was one of the most influential Russian philosophers and his older son Vsevolod Solovyov was a historical novelist. Solovyov studied in the Moscow University under Timofey Granovsky and travelled in Europe as a tutor of Count Stroganovs children until 1844, the following year he joined the staff of the Moscow University, where he rose to the deans position. He also administrated the Kremlin Armoury and acted as tutor to the future Alexander III of Russia, solovyovs magnum opus was the History of Russia from the Earliest Times, totally unprecedented in its scope and depth. From 1851 until his death, he published 29 volumes of this work, among his other books, the History of Polands Downfall and the Public Readings on Peter the Great were probably the most popular. Solovyov appreciated Russias position as the outpost of Christianity in the East, in his opinion, the Russian statehood resulted from a natural and necessary development of numerous political and social forces, which he attempted to trace. He took particular interest in the Time of Troubles and Peter the Greats reforms, list of Russian historians Solovyov, Sergey Mikhailovich, in online Russian Biographical Dictionary Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, ISBN 5-17-002142-9

14.
Vasily Klyuchevsky
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Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky was a leading Russian historian of the late imperial period. A village priests son, Klyuchevsky, of Mordvinian ethnicity, studied in the Moscow University under Sergey Solovyov and his first important publications were an article on economic activities of the Solovetsky Monastery and a thesis on medieval Russian hagiography. Kluchevsky was one of the first Russian historians to shift away from political and social issues to geographical and economical forces. He was particularly interested in the process of Russian peaceful colonisation of Siberia, in 1882, he published his landmark study of the Boyar Duma, whereby he asserted his view of a state as a result of collaboration of diverse classes of society. In 1889, Klyuchevsky was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences, the last decade of his life was spent preparing the printed version of his lectures. He also became interested in politics, and joined the Constitutional Democratic party, maxim Gorky records the following dictum by Leo Tolstoy, Karamzin wrote for the tsar, Solovyov wrote lengthily and tediously, and Klyuchevsky wrote for his own pleasure. A History of Russia, J. M. Dent/E. P, from Archive. org Peter the Great, Beacon Press, Boston,1984. Rise of the Romanovs, Barnes & Noble,1993, two samples of his prose can be found in Crimean-Nogai Raids#Historians on the Tatar Raids Mazour, Anatole G. V. O. Kliuchevsky, The Making of a Historian, Russian Review, Vol.31, kliuchevsky, The Scholar and Teacher, Russian Review, Vol.32, No.1. The course of the Russian history, ISBN 5-244-00072-1

15.
Vladimir Osipovich Sherwood
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Vladimir Osipovich Sherwood was a Russian painter and architect who worked in Moscow. He was an Eclectics and Russian Revival practitioner, architect of the State Historical Museum on the Red Square in Moscow, joseph died when Vladimir was five years old. His uncle John Sherwood was a lieutenant in the Tsar Alexander Is service. In fact John Sherwood was responsible for reporting the Decemberist plot in 1825, Vladimir Osipovich became one of the most visible architects of the Alexander III version of Russian Revival, also noted for his Plevna Chapel and Nikolay Pirogov memorial in Moscow. His statue of Alexander II erected in Samara in 1889 was in 1927 replaced by one of Lenin mounted on the same plinth and his paintings include, Laying the foundation stone to the cotton exchange, Blackburn, The Preston by-election of 1862 Mr Healey and Mrs Healey. He was the grandfather of artist Vladimir Favorsky the son of his daughter Olga Sherwood, media related to Vladimir Osipovich Sherwood at Wikimedia Commons

16.
Russian Revival architecture
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Sometimes, Russian Revival style is often erroneously called Russian or Old-Russian architecture, but the majority of Revival architects did not directly reproduce the old architectural tradition. Like the romantic revivals of Western Europe, the Russian revival was informed by a scholarly interest in the monuments of the nation. The historicism resonated with the nationalism and pan-Slavism of the period. The state took an interest in the endeavour by sponsoring a series of folios published as Drevnosti rossiiskago gosudavstva depicting antiquities, by this time the Moscow Archaeological Society undertook research on the subject, formalising it as a field of study. A series of conferences was instituted from 1869 to 1915. Perhaps the Society’s most significant achievement was the publication of the Kommissii po sokhraneniiu drevnikh pamyatnikov in 6 volumes between 1907 and 1915, next year, in 1827, Stasov completed a larger five-domed Church of the Tithes in Kiev. The Russo-Byzantine idea was carried forward by Konstantin Thon with the approval by Nicholas I. Thons style embodied the idea of continuity between Byzantium and Russia, perfectly matching the ideology of Nicholas I, in 1838, Nicholas I pointed out Thons book of model designs to all architects, more enforcement followed in 1841 and 1844. Official enforcement of Byzantine architecture was, in fact, very limited, it applied only to new construction and, to a lesser extent. Private and public construction proceeded independently, Thons own public buildings, like the pseudo-Renaissance Nikolaevsky Terminal, lack any Byzantine features. A closer look at churches constructed in Nicholas reign reveals many first-rate neoclassical buildings, like the Elokhovo Cathedral in Moscow by Yevgraph Tyurin. Official Byzantine art was not absolute in Nicholas reign, it is scarce in our days, as the Byzantine churches, another direction taken by the Russian Revival style was a reaction against official Thon art, influenced by romanticism, Slavophilism and detailed studies of vernacular architecture. The forerunner of this trend in design was Alexey Gornostaev, notable for reinventing Northern Russian tented roof motif augmented with Romanesque. An early extant example in architecture is the wooden Pogodinsky cottage in Devichye Pole, Moscow. The Emancipation reform of 1861 and subsequent reforms of Alexander II pushed the liberal elite into exploring the roots of national culture, the first result of these studies in architecture was a birth of folk or Pseudo-Russian style, exemplified by 1870s works of Ivan Ropet and Viktor Hartmann. These artists, in alliance with Narodnik movement, idealized the peasant life, another factor was the rejection of western eclectics that dominated civil construction of 1850s-1860s, a reaction against decadent West, pioneered by influential critic Vladimir Stasov. Ivan Zabelin, a theorist of the movement, declared that Russian Khoromy, grown naturally from peasants log cabins, beauty of a building is not in its proportions, but on the contrary, in the difference and independence of its parts. Wood was the material, since many fantasies could not be physically built in masonry

17.
Alexander III of Russia
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Alexander III was the Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 13 March 1881 until his death on 1 November 1894. He was highly conservative and reversed some of the reforms of his father, Alexander II. During Alexanders reign Russia fought no wars, for which he was styled The Peacemaker. Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, Alexander was seen as lacking refinement, indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as some of his subjects. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities, more than six feet tall, he was also noted for his immense physical strength. A sebaceous cyst on the side of his nose caused him to be mocked by some of his contemporaries. I was struck by the size of the man, and although cumbersome and heavy, there was indeed something of the muzhik about him. The look of his eyes made quite an impression on me. As he passed where I was standing, he raised his head for a second and it was a look as cold as steel, in which there was something threatening, even frightening, and it struck me like a blow. The look of a man who stood above all others, but who carried a burden and who every minute had to fear for his life. In later years I came into contact with the Emperor on several occasions, in more ordinary cases Tsar Alexander III could be at once kind, simple, and even almost homely. Great solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as tsesarevich and this included acquaintance with French, English and German, and military drill. Pobedonostsev instilled into the mans mind the belief that zeal for Russian Orthodox thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism to be cultivated by every right-minded emperor. On his deathbed the previous tsesarevich was said to have expressed the wish that his fiancée, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, the union proved a happy one to the end, unlike his fathers, there was no adultery in his marriage. The couple spent their night at the Tsesarevichs private dacha known as My Property. To the scandal of many at court, including the Tsesarevich himself, on 1 March 1881 Alexanders father, Alexander II, was assassinated by members of the terrorist organization Narodnaya Volya. As a result, he ascended to the Russian imperial throne in Nennal on 13 March 1881 and he and Maria Feodorovna were officially crowned and anointed on 27 May 1883. On the day of his assassination Alexander II had signed an ukaz setting up commissions to advise the monarch

18.
Romantic nationalism
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Romantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes, depending on the manner of practice, the language, race, culture, religion. Such downward-radiating power might ultimately derive from a god or gods, among the key themes of Romanticism, and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in post-Enlightenment art and political philosophy. The ideas of Rousseau and of Johann Gottfried von Herder inspired much early Romantic nationalism in Europe, in 1784 Herder argued that geography formed the natural economy of a people, and that their customs and society would develop along the lines that their basic environment favored. The Brothers Grimm, inspired by Herders writings, put together a collection of tales. Because of the Germans role in the Protestant Reformation, Hegel argued that his historical moment had seen the Zeitgeist settle on the German-speaking peoples. In continental Europe, Romantics had embraced the French Revolution in its beginnings, in Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or folkhood, was coined in Germany as part of resistance to French hegemony. In the Balkans, Romantic views of a connection with classical Greece, verdis opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in Italy, especially with Va pensiero. In Norway, romanticism was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, following the Congress of Vienna, and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire, the restored French monarchy, the German Confederation, under the dominance of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the conservative forces held sway until the Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe and threatened the old order. Numerous movements developed around various cultural groups, who began to develop a sense of national identity, Romantic nationalists expected patriots to then learn that language and raise their children speaking that language – as part of a general program to establish a unique identity. Katharevousa Greek was constructed as a form of Modern Greek drawing on classical Greek morphology, the linguistic processes of romantic nationalism demanded linguistic culture models. Romantic historiography was centered on biographies and produced culture heroes, the modern Italian of Risorgimento patriots like Alessandro Manzoni was based on the Tuscan dialects sanctified by Dante and Petrarch. In English, Shakespeare became an iconic figure, Romantic nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm. The Brothers Grimm were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently German and they also altered the language used, changing each Fee to an enchantress or wise woman, every prince to a kings son, every princess to a kings daughter. Discussing these views in their editions, they particularly singled out Giambattista Basiles Pentamerone as the first national collection of fairy tales. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, many artists and writers also drew on their native countries folklore and folktunes for their own work to express their nationalism

19.
Viktor Vasnetsov
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Viktor Mikhaylovich Vasnetsov was a Russian artist who specialized in mythological and historical subjects. He is considered the co-founder of Russian folklorist and romantic nationalistic painting, Viktor Vasnetsov was born in the remote village of Lopyal in Vyatka Governorate in 1848, the second of the six children. His father Mikhail Vasilievich Vasnetsov, known to be inclined, was a member of priesthood. His grandfather was an icon painter, two of Mikhail Vasnetsovs three sons, Viktor and Apollinary, became remarkable painters, the third one becoming a schoolteacher. It was in Lopyal that Viktor started to paint, mostly landscapes and scenes of village life, recalling his childhood in a letter to Vladimir Stasov, Vasnetsov remarked that he had lived with peasant children and liked them not as a narodnik but as a friend. From the age of ten, Viktor studied in a seminary in Vyatka, during his seminary years, he worked for a local icon shopkeeper. He also helped an exiled Polish artist, Michał Elwiro Andriolli, having graduated from the seminary, Viktor decided to move to Saint Petersburg to study art. He auctioned his paintings of Woman Harvester and Milk-maid in order to raise money required for the trip to the Russian capital, in August 1867 Viktor entered the Imperial Academy of Arts. Three years later, the Peredvizhniki movement of realist painters rebelled against the Academism, Vasnetsov befriended their leader Ivan Kramskoi, referring to him as his teacher. He also became close to his fellow student Ilya Yefimovich Repin. It is ironic, but Viktor, whose name is associated with historical and mythological paintings, for his graphic composition of Christ and Pontius Pilate Before the People, the Academy awarded a small silver medal to him. In the early 1870s he executed a lot of engravings depicting contemporary life, two of them won him a bronze medal at the World Fair in London. At that period he started producing genre paintings in oil. Such pieces as Peasant Singers and Moving House were warmly welcomed by democratic circles of Russian society, in 1876 Repin invited Vasnetsov to join the Peredvizhniki colony in Paris. While living in France, Viktor studied classical and contemporary paintings, at that period, he painted Acrobats, produced prints, and exhibited some of his works at the Salon. It was in Paris that he became fascinated with fairy-tale subjects, starting to work on Ivan Tsarevich Riding a Grey Wolf, Vasnetsov was a model for Sadko in Repins celebrated painting Sadko in the Underwater Kingdom. In 1877 he returned to Moscow and these works were not appreciated at the time they appeared. Many radical critics dismissed them as undermining the realist principles of the Peredvizhniki, even such prominent connoisseurs as Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov refused to buy them

20.
Henryk Siemiradzki
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Henryk Hektor Siemiradzki was a Polish Rome-based painter, best remembered for his monumental Academic art. He was particularly known for his depictions of scenes from the ancient Graeco-Roman world, many of his paintings depict scenes from antiquity, often the sunlit pastoral scenes or compositions presenting the lives of early Christians. He also painted biblical and historical scenes, landscapes, and portraits and his best-known works include monumental curtains for the Lviv Theatre of Opera and for the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków. The family had origins in Radom land and derived its name from the village of Siemiradz, one of the branches settled in the late 17th century near Navahrudak. Henryks grandfather held the post of podkomorzy in Nowogródek powiat and his parents were close friends with Adam Mickiewiczs family. He studied at Kharkiv Gymnasium where he first learned painting under the school teacher. Besperchy, former student of Karl Briullov and he entered the Physics-Mathematics School of Kharkiv University and studied natural sciences there with great interest, but also continued to paint. Upon his graduation he was awarded a gold medal, in 1870–1871 he studied under Karl von Piloty in Munich on a grant from the Academy. In 1872 he moved to Rome and with time, built a studio there on Via Gaeta, in 1873 he received the title of Academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts for his painting Christ and a Sinner, based on a verse from Tolstoy. In 1878 he received the French National Order of the Legion of Honour, in 1876–1879 Siemiradzki worked on frescoes for the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour among his other large-scale projects. In 1879 he offered one of his works, the enormous Pochodnie Nerona, painted around 1876. The artwork is on display at the Siemiradzki Room of the Sukiennice Museum in the Kraków Old Town, around 1893 Siemiradzki worked on two large paintings for the State Historical Museum and in 1894 produced his monumental curtain for the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków. He died in Strzałków in 1902 and was buried originally in Warsaw, there is the Modern Arts Gallery named after Henryk Siemiradzki at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University in Kharkiv, Ukraine, also there is a memorial plate about Henryk Siemiradzki in Kharkiv, Ukraine. National theatres Online gallery of Semiradsky paintings Works and Bio Bio Gilman, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds

21.
Ivan Aivazovsky
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Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky was a Russian Romantic painter. He is considered one of the greatest marine artists in history, baptized as Hovhannes Aivazian, Aivazovsky was born into an Armenian family in the Black Sea port of Feodosia in Crimea and was mostly based there. Following his education at the Imperial Academy of Arts, Aivazovsky traveled to Europe and he then returned to Russia and was appointed the main painter of the Russian Navy. Aivazovsky had close ties with the military and political elite of the Russian Empire and he was sponsored by the state and was well-regarded during his lifetime. The saying worthy of Aivazovskys brush, popularized by Anton Chekhov, was used in Russia for describing something ineffably lovely, one of the most prominent Russian artists of his time, Aivazovsky was also popular outside Russia. He held numerous exhibitions in Europe and the United States. During his almost 60-year career, he created around 6,000 paintings, the vast majority of his works are seascapes, but he often depicted battle scenes, Armenian themes, and portraiture. Most of Aivazovskys works are kept in Russian, Ukrainian and Armenian museums as well as private collections, Ivan Aivazovsky was born on 17 July 1817 in the city of Feodosia, Crimea, Russian Empire. In the baptismal records of the local St. Sargis Armenian Church, Aivazovsky was listed as Hovhannes, during his study at the Imperial Academy of Arts, he was known in Russian as Ivan Gaivazovsky. He became known as Aivazovsky since c. He signed a 1844 letter with the version of his name. His father, Konstantin, was an Armenian merchant from the Polish region of Galicia and his family had migrated to Europe from Western Armenia in the 18th century. After numerous familial conflicts, Konstantin left Galicia for Moldavia, later moving to Bukovina and he was initially known as Gevorg Aivazian, but he changed his last name to Gaivazovsky by adding the Polish -sky. Aivazovskys mother, Ripsime, was a Feodosia Armenian, the couple had five children—three daughters and two sons. Aivazovskys elder brother, Gabriel, was a prominent historian and an Armenian Apostolic archbishop, the young Aivazovsky received parochial education at Feodosias St. Sargis Armenian Church. He was taught drawing by Jacob Koch, a local architect, Aivazovsky moved to Simferopol with Taurida Governor Alexander Kaznacheyevs family in 1830 and attended the citys Russian gymnasium. In 1833, Aivazovsky arrived in the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, in 1835, he was awarded with a silver medal and appointed assistant to the French painter Philippe Tanneur. In September 1836, Aivazovsky met Russias national poet Alexander Pushkin during the visit to the Academy. In 1837, Aivazovsky joined the class of Alexander Sauerweid

22.
Longboat
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In the days of sailing ships, a vessel would carry several ships boats for various uses. One would be a longboat, a boat to be rowed by eight or ten oarsmen. The longboat was double banked, its rowing benches were designed to accommodate two men each pulling an oar on opposite sides, other boats sometimes embarked on a sailing ship included the cutter, whaleboat, gig, jolly boat, launch, dinghy, and punt. Unlike the dinghy or the cutter, the longboat would have fairly fine lines aft to permit its use in steep waves such as surf or wind against tide where need be, like other ships boats, the longboat could be rigged for sailing but was primarily a pulling boat. It had the arrangement in common with the cutter. This was possible as it had a similar to a cutters but broader than that of a gig. The longboat was generally more seaworthy than the cutter, which had a fuller stern for such load-carrying work as laying out an anchor, in a seaway or surf therefore, the cutter was more prone to broaching. The Oxford English Dictionary notes uses of the word from 1515 to 1867, in later years, particularly in the Royal Navy, the longboat tended to be replaced by the whaler. The cutter was still in use in the 1950s but had largely replaced by the 32 foot and 25 foot motor cutters. In some places such as Tristan da Cunha and Pitcairn Island, the Tristan da Cunha boats are single banked. The French link is to chaloupe, which in context is a cutter. Longboat racing is a sport in Brazil, Laos and Thailand, archived from the original on 2011-06-29

23.
Volga River
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The Volga is the longest river in Europe. It is also Europes largest river in terms of discharge and watershed, the river flows through central Russia and into the Caspian Sea, and is widely regarded as the national river of Russia. Eleven of the twenty largest cities of Russia, including the capital, some of the largest reservoirs in the world can be found along the Volga. The river has a meaning in Russian culture and is often referred to as Волга-матушка Volga-Matushka in Russian literature and folklore. The Slavic name is a translation of earlier Scythian Rā Volga, literally wetness, cognate with Avestan Raŋhā mythical stream and Sanskrit rasā́- dew, liquid, juice. The Scythian name survives in modern Mordvin Rav Volga, the Turkic peoples living along the river formerly referred to it as Itil or Atil big river. In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as İdel in Tatar, Атăл in Chuvash, Idhel in Bashkir, Edil in Kazakh, the Turkic peoples associated the Itils origin with the Kama. Thus, a tributary to the Kama was named the Aq Itil White Itil which unites with the Kara Itil Black Itil at the modern city of Ufa. The name Indyl is used in Adyge language, among Asians, the river was known by its other Turkic name Sarı-su yellow water, but the Oirats also used their own name, Ijil mörön or adaptation river. Presently the Mari, another Uralic group, call the river Jul, formerly, they called the river Volgydo, a borrowing from Old Russian. The Volga is the longest river in Europe and it belongs to the closed basin of the Caspian Sea, being the longest river to flow into a closed basin. From there it turns south, flows past Ulyanovsk, Tolyatti, Samara, Saratov and Volgograd, at its most strategic point, it bends toward the Don. Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, is located there, the Volga has many tributaries, most importantly the rivers Kama, the Oka, the Vetluga, and the Sura. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which flows through an area of about 1,350,000 square kilometres in the most heavily populated part of Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres and includes as many as 500 channels, the largest estuary in Europe, it is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingos, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three each year. The Volga drains most of Western Russia and its many large reservoirs provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, and the Volga–Baltic Waterway form navigable waterways connecting Moscow to the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, high levels of chemical pollution have adversely affected the river and its habitats

24.
Scythians
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The Scythian languages belonged to the Eastern branch of the Iranian languages. Ancient Greek historians spoke of Scythians who lived north of the Black Sea, Persians used the term Saka, for approximately the same people who lived further east. Although the ancients did not clearly distinguish the two terms, modern scholars usually use Saka to refer to Iranian-speaking tribes who inhabited the central steppe, the Chinese used the term Sai, for Sakas who had moved into the Tarim Basin. Assyrian sources speak of Iskuzai or Askuzai south of the Caucasus who were probably Scythians, the relationships between the peoples living in these widely separated regions remains unclear. Their westernmost territories during the Iron Age were known to classical Greek sources as Scythia, the Scythians were among the earliest peoples to master mounted warfare. In the 8th century BC they possibly raided Zhou China, soon after they expanded westwards and dislodged the Cimmerians from power on the Pontic Steppe. Based in what is modern-day Ukraine, Southern European Russia, and Crimea, the Scythians established and controlled a vast trade network connecting Greece, Persia, India and China, perhaps contributing to the contemporary flourishing of those civilizations. Settled metalworkers made portable decorative objects for the Scythians and these objects survive mainly in metal, forming a distinctive Scythian art. In the 7th century BC the Scythians crossed the Caucasus and frequently raided the Middle East along with the Cimmerians, around 650–630 BC, Scythians briefly dominated the Medes of the western Iranian Plateau, stretching their power all the way to the borders of Egypt. After losing control over Media the Scythians continued intervening in Middle Eastern affairs, the Scythians subsequently engaged in frequent conflicts with the Achaemenid Empire. The western Scythians suffered a defeat against Macedonia in the 4th century BC, and were subsequently gradually conquered by the Sarmatians. In Eastern Europe, by the early Medieval Ages, the Scythians, Scythians kept herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, lived in tent-covered wagons, and fought with bows and arrows on horseback. They developed a culture characterized by opulent tombs, fine metalwork. Sulimirski views the Histories of Herodotus as the most important literary source relating to ancient Scyths, Herodotus provides a depiction that can be related to the results of archaeological research, but apparently knew little of the eastern part of Scythia. He did say that the ancient Persians called all the Scyths Σάκαι and their principal tribe, the Royal Scyths, ruled the vast lands occupied by the nation as a whole, calling themselves Σκώλοτοι. The restored Scythian name is *Skuda, which among the Pontic or Royal Scythians became *Skula, in which the d has been regularly replaced by an l. Saka, on the hand, Szemerényi relates to an Iranian verbal root, sak-, go, roam. The name does appear somewhat further east than the Achaemenid Empire, whether they adopted the Achaemenid name, or Saka came to be an endonym, it is not clear

25.
Old Novgorod dialect
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Old Novgorod dialect is a term introduced by Andrey Zaliznyak to describe the dialect found used in the Old East Slavic birch bark writings. Dating from the 11th to 15th centuries, the letters were excavated in Novgorod, for linguists, Old Novgorodian is particularly of interest in that it has retained some archaic features which were lost in other Slavic dialects, such as the absence of second palatalization. Furthermore, letters provide evidence of the Slavic vernacular, as opposed to the Church Slavonic which dominated the written literature of the period. Most of the letters feature everyday business and personal correspondence, instructions, complaints, news, such widespread usage indicates a high level of literacy, including among women and children. The first birch bark letter was found on July 26,1951 by Nina Fedorovna Akulova, at least 1025 have been unearthed since,923 in Novgorod alone. Almost all of them were written with styluses of bronze and iron, the letters were preserved due to the swampy soil which isolated them from oxygen. Many letters are found buried amidst the layers under streets which were paved with logs. Some of the linguistic features are not found in any other Slavic dialect. мълъвити as opposed to мълвити retention of stem-final *x in Proto-Slavic *vьx- all whereas other Slavic languages have undergone the third Zaliznyak, вьхо lack of the Slavic second palatalization in root-final position, i. e. рукѣ, моги the change vl’ > l’, i. e, Яколь, Яковлев nominative singular masculine of o-stems -e, i. e. Иване, посаднике, хлѣбе genitive singular of а-stems in soft -ě, the same substitution is found in accusative plural of o-stems and a-stems. Nominative-accusative plural of а-stems in -ě, i. e, кобылѣ, сиротѣ Features of the Old Novgorod dialect ascertained by the philological study in the last decades are, lack of the second palatalization in root-initial position, i. e. кѣл-, хѣр- a particular reflex of Proto-Slavic *TьRT, *TъRT clusters, yielding TьRьT, however, in some dialects these yielded TroT, TreT. West-Slavic like reflex of *TоRT clusters, i. e, погродье versus погородие the change ml’ > n’, i. e. емлючи > енючи no merger of nominative and accusative singular of masculines regardless of animacy, the deviations are more abundant in older birch bark letters than in the more recent finds. This fact indicates, contrary to what may be expected, that the development was convergent rather than divergent, and now the princess has arrested me for it. But now druzhina has guaranteed for me, and now send a letter to that man and ask him whether he has another female slave. And I want to buy a horse and have the magistrate sit on it, and if you have not taken the money, do not take anything from him

26.
Veliky Novgorod
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It is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen, UNESCO recognized Novgorod as a World Heritage Site in 1992. At its peak during the 14th century, the city was the capital of the Novgorod Republic, the Charter of Veliky Novgorod recognizes 859 as the year when the city was first mentioned. Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowing tree ring dating. The Varangian name of the city Holmgård/Holmgard is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing at a yet earlier stage, originally, Holmgård referred only to the stronghold southeast of the present-day city, Rurikovo Gorodische. First mention of this Nordic or Germanic etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod occurs in the 10th-century policy manual De Administrando Imperio by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII, in 882, Ruriks successor, Oleg of Novgorod, conquered Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus. Novgorods size as well as its political, economic, and cultural influence made it the second most important city in Kievan Rus, according to a custom, the elder son and heir of the ruling Kievan monarch was sent to rule Novgorod even as a minor. When the ruling monarch had no son, Novgorod was governed by posadniks, such as the legendary Gostomysl, Dobrynya, Konstantin. Of all their princes, Novgorodians most cherished the memory of Yaroslav the Wise and his son, Vladimir, sponsored construction of the great St. Sophia Cathedral, more accurately translated as the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which stands to this day. In Norse sagas the city is mentioned as the capital of Gardariki, four Viking kings—Olaf I of Norway, Olaf II of Norway, Magnus I of Norway, and Harald Hardrada—sought refuge in Novgorod from enemies at home. No more than a few decades after the 1030 death and subsequent canonization of Olaf II of Norway, the town of Visby in Gotland functioned as the leading trading center in the Baltic before the Hansa League. At Novgorod in 1080, Visby merchants established a trading post which they named Gutagard, later, in the first half of the 13th century, merchants from northern Germany also established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as Peterhof. At about the time, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges. In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, the year is seen as the traditional beginning of the Novgorod Republic. One of the most important local figures in Novgorod was the posadnik, or mayor, the tysyatsky, or thousandman, originally the head of the town militia but later a commercial and judicial official, was also elected by the Veche. Another important local official was the Archbishop of Novgorod who shared power with the boyars, archbishops were elected by the Veche or by the drawing of lots, and after their election, were sent to the metropolitan for consecration. While a basic outline of the officials and the Veche can be drawn up. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city together, although where one officials power ended, throughout the Middle Ages, the city thrived culturally

27.
Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing

28.
Chludov Psalter
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Chludov Psalter is an illuminated marginal Psalter made in the middle of the 9th Century. It is a monument of Byzantine art at the time of the Iconoclasm. According to one tradition, the miniatures are supposed to have been created clandestinely, many contain explanations of the drawings written next to them, and little arrows point out from the main text to the illustration, to show which line the picture refers to. The polemical style of the ensemble is highly unusual. The psalter measures 195 mm by 150 mm and contains only 169 folios, the outer edges of the pages are normally left blank in order to be covered with illustrations. The text and captions were written in an uncial script. Below is a picture of the last Iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople, John is caricatured, here as on other pages, with untidy straight hair sticking out in all directions, which was considered ridiculous by the elegant Byzantines. Nikodim Kondakov hypothesized that the psalter was created in the monastery of St John the Studite in Constantinople. It was kept at Mount Athos until 1847, when a Russian scholar brought it to Moscow, the psalter was then acquired by Aleksey Khludov, whose name it bears today. It passed as part of the Khludov bequest to the Nikolsky Old Believer Monastery, the glory of Byzantium, art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A. D. 843-1261, no. 52,1997, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN9780810965072, full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries Overview Illustrations

29.
Mstislav Gospel
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Mstislav Gospel – manuscript of the four Gospels on parchment in Old Church Slavonic. It is dated to the 12th-century, the manuscript contains the text of the four Gospels on 213 parchment leaves. The manuscript was prepared on the order of Mstislav I of Kiev, currently it is housed in the State Historical Museum in Moscow

30.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend

31.
Zaryadye
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Zaryadye is a historical district in Moscow established in 12th or 13th century within Kitai-gorod, between Varvarka Street and Moskva River. The name means the place behind the rows, i. e. behind the market adjacent to the Red Square. This section is based upon P. V. Sytins History of Moscow Streets Zaryadye is the oldest trading settlement outside the Kremlin walls, the first chronicle notice is dated 1365, when a fire destroyed the area. Fires continued in 1390,1468,1493,1547, in 1451, zaryadyes Main Street, later called Mokrinsky lane, connected Kremlin with the docks and warehouses on Moskva River, some sources call it the first street of Moscow outside Kremlin walls. The businesses changed their logistics pattern, walking away from trade to supplies by land. Population of traders became more and more diluted by craftsmen and court servants, peter I reforms struck two blows at Zaryadye. First, when the relocated to Saint Petersburg, the area lost the tenants. Second, Peters rampart, built between Kitai-gorod wall and the river, closed all the sewage moats, trapping all the waste inside Zaryadye, for at least a century, Zaryadye became an unhealthy and unsafe social bottom of Moscow. Things improved after the fire of 1812, the State, fearing future fires, banned all wooden construction. Poorer landlords of Zaryadye could not afford stone buildings and sold their properties and they were purchased by real estate developers, who quickly converted Zaryadye in an area of cheap rental housing, usually two or three storey high. For nearly a century, Zaryadye was the garment district of Moscow, since 1826, Glebovskoye Podvorye, an inn in Zaryadye, was a hub of Moscow Jewish community. In 1856, Jews were allowed free settlement in the city, by 1891, Moscow housed an estimated 35,000 Jews, at least half of them settled in Zaryadye. After 1918, with the collapse of small business, Zaryadye tenants relocated to the remote workers neighborhoods. The properties were taken over by State offices, the 1935 master plan of Moscow called for demolition of Zaryadye, clearing space for the Industry Building and its riverside ramps. This project did not materialize as planned, the first round of destruction cleared the blocks adjacent to Moscow Kremlin for the ramps of Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge. This was followed by the destruction of most of Zaryadye in 1947, clearing the ground for the skyscraper and this project was cancelled at the foundation stage. According to P. V. Sytin, the church of St. Anna and other relics had to be disassembled and rebuilt in the Kolomenskoye park. The site was vacant for over 15 years

32.
Saint Basil's Cathedral
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The Cathedral of Vasily the Blessed, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, is a church in the Red Square in Moscow, Russia. The building, now a museum, is known as the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos on the Moat or Pokrovsky Cathedral. It was built from 1555–61 on orders from Ivan the Terrible, a world-famous landmark, it was the citys tallest building until the completion of the Ivan the Great Bell Tower in 1600. The building is shaped as a flame of a bonfire rising into the sky, Dmitry Shvidkovsky, in his book Russian Architecture and the West, states that it is like no other Russian building. Nothing similar can be found in the millennium of Byzantine tradition from the fifth to fifteenth century. A strangeness that astonishes by its unexpectedness, complexity and dazzling interleaving of the details of its design. The cathedral foreshadowed the climax of Russian national architecture in the 17th century and it was completely and forcefully secularized in 1929 and remains a federal property of the Russian Federation. The church has part of the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1990. It is not actually within the Kremlin, but often served as a metonym for Russia in western media throughout the Cold War. The site of the church had been, historically, a marketplace between the St. Frols Gate of the Moscow Kremlin and the outlying posad. The centre of the marketplace was marked by the Trinity Church, built of the white stone as the Kremlin of Dmitry Donskoy. According to the report in Nikons Chronicle, in the autumn of 1554 Ivan ordered construction of the wooden Church of Intercession on the same site, one year later, Ivan ordered construction of a new stone cathedral on the site of Trinity Church that would commemorate his campaigns. Dedication of a church to a victory was a major innovation for Muscovy. The placement of the church outside of the Kremlin walls was a statement in favour of posad commoners. And the builder was Barma with company, the identity of the architect is unknown. Tradition held that the church was built by two architects, Barma and Postnik, the official Russian cultural heritage register lists Barma and Postnik Yakovlev, researchers proposed that both names refer to the same person, Postnik Yakovlev or, alternatively, Ivan Yakovlevich Barma. Legend held that Ivan blinded the architect so that he could not re-create the masterpiece elsewhere, there is evidence that construction involved stonemasons from Pskov and German lands. According to the legend, Ivan had ordered Postnik Yakovlevs eyes removed, eugène Viollet-le-Duc rejected European roots for the cathedral, according to him, its corbel arches were Byzantine, and ultimately Asian

33.
Novodevichy Convent
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Novodevichy Convent, also known as Bogoroditse-Smolensky Monastery, is probably the best-known cloister of Moscow. Its name, sometimes translated as the New Maidens Monastery, was devised to differ from an ancient maidens convent within the Moscow Kremlin, unlike other Moscow cloisters, it has remained virtually intact since the 17th century. In 2004, it was proclaimed a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Convent is situated in the south-western part of the historic town of Moscow. The Convent territory is enclosed within walls and surrounded by a park, the park is limited by the urban fabric of the city on the north and east sides. On the west side, it is limited by the Moscow River, the buildings are surrounded by a high masonry wall with 12 towers. The entrances are from the north and the south, the layout of the convent territory is an irregular rectangle stretching from the west to east. The oldest structure in the convent is the six-pillared five-domed Smolensky Cathedral and it is situated in the centre of the axes between the two entrance gates. Most scholars agree that the cathedral was rebuilt in the 1550s or 1560s and it was formerly ringed by four smaller chapels, in an arrangement reminiscent of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. Its frescos are among the finest in Moscow, the cathedral may be a focal point of the convent, but there are many other churches. Most date from the 1680s, when the convent was renovated at the behest of the regent Sofia Alexeyevna. The blood-red walls and crown-towers, two lofty over-the-gates churches, a refectory, and residential quarters were all designed in the Muscovite Baroque style, in the old cathedral, a new bowl for holy water and gilded carved iconostasis were installed in 1685. Its four tiers contain 16th-century icons endowed by Boris Godunov, the fifth tier displays icons by leading 17th-century painters, Simeon Ushakov and Fyodor Zubov. An arresting slender belltower, also commissioned by tsarevna Sofia, was built in six tiers to a height of 72 metres and this light octagonal column seems to unite all major elements of the ensemble into one harmonious whole. Vasili III, the Grand Prince of Moscow, founded the Novodevichy Convent in 1524 in commemoration of his conquest of Smolensk in 1514, the structure began as a fortress at a curve of the Moskva River three versts to the south-west of the Moscow Kremlin. It became an important part of the defensive belt of Moscow. Upon its founding, the Novodevichy Convent was granted 3,000 rubles, vasilis son, tsar Ivan the Terrible, would later grant a number of other villages to the convent. In 1610–1611 a Polish unit under the command of Aleksander Gosiewski captured the Novodevichy Convent, once Russian forces had retaken the convent, tsar Michael Fyodorovich supplied it with permanent guards. By the end of the 17th century, the Novodevichy Convent possessed 36 villages in 27 uyezds of Russia, in 1744, it owned 14,489 peasants

34.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

35.
Moscow Kremlin
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It is the best known of the kremlins and includes five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Kremlin Wall with Kremlin towers. Also within this complex is the Grand Kremlin Palace, the complex serves as the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation. It had previously used to refer to the government of the Soviet Union. Kremlinology refers to the study of Soviet and Russian politics, the site has been continuously inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples since the 2nd century BC. Vyatichi built a structure on the hill where the Neglinnaya River flowed into the Moskva River. Up to the 14th century, the site was known as the grad of Moscow, the word Kremlin was first recorded in 1331. The grad was greatly extended by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy in 1156, destroyed by the Mongols in 1237, dmitri Donskoi replaced the oak walls with a strong citadel of white limestone in 1366–1368 on the basic foundations of the current walls, this fortification withstood a siege by Khan Tokhtamysh. Dmitris son Vasily I resumed construction of churches and cloisters in the Kremlin, the newly built Annunciation Cathedral was painted by Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Prokhor in 1406. The Chudov Monastery was founded by Dmitris tutor, Metropolitan Alexis, while his widow, Eudoxia and it was during his reign that three extant cathedrals of the Kremlin, the Deposition Church, and the Palace of Facets were constructed. The highest building of the city and Muscovite Russia was the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, built in 1505–08, the Kremlin walls as they now appear were built between 1485 and 1495. Spasskie gates of the wall bear a dedication in Latin praising Petrus Antonius Solarius for the design. After construction of the new walls and churches was complete. The Kremlin was separated from the merchant town by a 30-meter-wide moat. The same tsar also renovated some of his grandfathers palaces, added a new palace and cathedral for his sons, and endowed the Trinity metochion inside the Kremlin. The metochion was administrated by the Trinity Monastery and boasted the graceful tower church of St. Sergius, during the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was held by the Polish forces for two years, between 21 September 1610 and 26 October 1612. The Kremlins liberation by the army of prince Dmitry Pozharsky. During his reign and that of his son Alexis, the eleven-domed Upper Saviour Cathedral, Armorial Gate, Terem Palace, Amusement Palace, following the death of Alexis, the Kremlin witnessed the Moscow Uprising of 1682, from which czar Peter barely escaped. As a result, both of them disliked the Kremlin, three decades later, Peter abandoned the residence of his forefathers for his new capital, Saint Petersburg

36.
Moscow Kremlin Wall
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The Kremlin Wall is a defensive wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches and its Kremlin towers. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. One of the most symbolic constructions in Russias history can be traced back to the 12th century when Moscow was founded in 1147, the original outpost was surrounded by the first walls in 1156, which was most likely a simple wooden fence with guard towers. Destroyed in 1238 by the Mongol-Tartar invasion, the Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt by the Russian Knyaz Ivan Kalita, in 1339-1340 he erected a bigger fortress on the site of the original outpost which was defended by massive oak walls. Thought to be a defence from raids, it was proven to be useless against raids which burned Moscow in 1365. Nevertheless, the young knyaz Dmitry Donskoy in 1367 began a rebuilding of the fortress, all winter long from the Mukachyovo village 30 virsts from Moscow, limestone was hauled back on sledges, allowing the construction of the first stone walls to begin the following spring. The walls successfully withstood two sieges during the Lithuanian–Muscovite War, within a few years the city was adorned with beautiful white-stone walls. Whilst it was invaded by the Tatars again in 1382. Dmitry Donskoys walls stood for over a century, and it was during this period that Muscovy rose as the dominant power in Northeastern Rus. By the end of the 15th century, however, it was clear that the old constructions had long passed their time and Czar Ivan the Greats visions. Between 1485 and 1495 a whole brigade of Italian architects took part in the erection of a new defence perimeter including Antonio Fryazin, Marko Fryazin, Pyotr Fryazin, the new walls were erected by building on top of the older walls. The thickness and height was dramatically increased requiring many wooden houses which surrounded the Kremlin to be torn down, in the following centuries Moscow expanded rapidly outside the Kremlin walls and as Russias borders became more and more secure their defensive duty has all but passed. The cannons which were installed in the walls were removed after the turn of the 17th century, as was the second, during the reign of Czar Alexei Romanov, the towers were built up with decorative spires and the walls were restored. However their historical mightiness was dampened as the material became brick not stone, because of this the vertical profile is by no means uniform, and the height at some places ranges from no more than 5 metres quadrupling to 19 metres elsewhere. The thickness of the walls varies from 3.5 to 6.5 metres. The top of the walls, along their length, have outwardly-invisible battle platforms which also range from 2 to 4.5 metres in width. A total of 1045 double-horned notched teeth crown the top of the walls, with a height ranging from 2 to 2.5 metres, some of the interior corridors inside the walls have rooms with no exterior illumination where particularly dangerous criminals were contained. To date twenty towers survived, highlighting the walls, built at a different time, the oldest one, Tainitskaya dates to 1485 whilst the newest one-Tsarskaya to 1680

37.
Borovitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

38.
Vodovzvodnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

39.
Blagoveshenskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

40.
Tainitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

41.
Pervaya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

42.
Vtoraya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

43.
Petrovskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

44.
Beklemishevskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

45.
Konstantino-Eleninskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

46.
Nabatnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

47.
Tsarskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

48.
Spasskaya Tower
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The Spasskaya Tower is the main tower with a through-passage on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Red Square. The Spasskaya Tower was built in 1491 by the Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari, initially, it was named the Frolovskaya Tower after the Church of Frol and Lavr in the Kremlin. The Spasskaya Tower was the first one to be crowned with the roof in 1624–1625 by architects Bazhen Ogurtsov. According to a number of accounts, the clock on the Spasskaya Tower appeared between 1491 and 1585. It is usually referred to as the Kremlin chimes and designates official Moscow Time, the tower gate was once the main entrance into the Kremlin. In tsarist times, anyone passing through the gates had to remove their headgear and this tradition was broken in the Soviet era. Cars approached the head on from the place of skulls. In order to pass through the gate, you had to be a head of state, top politburo member, all other traffic was routed through the borovistky gate. The Spassky Gate posed an issue following the collapse of communism, in 1999, the decision was made to finally close the gate to all traffic. The signal lights and guard platforms still remain, the gate is used occasionally when repairs must be made to the borovissky gate. However, in case, all traffic is routed from vasilievsky spusk. Nowadays, the gate opens to receive the presidential motorcades on inauguration day, for the victory parades, in 1935, the Soviet government installed a red star instead of a two-headed eagle on top of the Spasskaya Tower. The height of the tower with the star is 71 m, in August 2010 the icon of Smolensk Saviour was uncovered and restored above the gate. Moscow Kremlin Museum Website of President of Russia Spasskaya Tower on Rusarh. ru Clock of Spasskaya Tower

49.
Senatskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E﻿ /55.748909,37. 612520﻿, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E﻿ /55.748106,37. 613647﻿. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E﻿ /55.748722,37. 615192﻿, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River

The Scythians (UK: ; US: ), or Scyths (from Greek Σκύθαι, in Indo-Persian context also Saka), were a group of Iranian …

Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Tolstaya Mogila, Pokrov, Ukraine, dated to the second half of the 4th century BC. The central lower tier shows three horses, each being torn apart by two griffins.

Red Square, early 17th-century. Fragment from Blaeu Atlas. The structure with three roof tents in foreground left is the original detached belfry of the Trinity Church, not drawn to scale. Trinity Church stands behind it, slightly closer to the road starting at St. Frol's (later Saviour's ) Gate of the Kremlin. The horseshoe-shaped object near the road in the foreground is Lobnoye Mesto.

The small dome on the left marks the sanctuary of Basil the Blessed (1588).