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Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\ql \li4680\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4680\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4680\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4680\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4680\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4680\sb92\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs24 The Year So Far in FTAIA \par\pard\ql \li4473\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4473\ri4310\sb31\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 By Michael Jacobs and Kaisa Adams \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Published in \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Competition Law360 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1416\sb2\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 Congress enacted the Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act of 1982, 15 U.S.C. § 6a (\u8220?FTAIA\u8221?), in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1982 with the stated goal of clarifying the extent to which United States antitrust laws apply to foreign or \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 international transactions. FTAIA provides, in part, that the Sherman Act \u8220?shall not apply to conduct \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 involving trade or commerce (other than import trade or import commerce) with foreign nations unless 1) \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 such conduct has a direct, substantial and reasonably foreseeable effect . . . [on United States domestic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commerce] . . . and 2) such effect gives rise to a claim\u8221? under the Sherman Act. FTAIA has been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 described as \u8220?inelegantly phrased\u8221? and using \u8220?rather convoluted language.\u8221? \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Turicentro, S.A. v. Am. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Airlines, Inc.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , 303 F.3d 293, 300 (3d Cir. 2002); \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 see also Minn-Chem, Inc. v. Agrium, Inc.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , No. 10-1712, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2011 U.S. App. LEXIS 19433, at *17 (7th Cir. Sept. 23, 2011) (FTAIA \u8220?awkwardly phrased\u8221?).\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 In sum and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 substance, however, FTAIA articulates a general rule that U.S. antitrust laws do not apply to trade or \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commerce with foreign nations. The statute then creates two exceptions to this general rule, when the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct at issue either: (1) involves import trade or commerce, or (2) has sufficient effects in the United \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 States to give rise to a Sherman Act claim. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1440\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 During the first nine-plus months of 2011, several courts\u8212?including two federal Courts of Appeal\u8212?have \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 grappled with FTAIA in the context of antitrust claims involving foreign and international commerce. This \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 article provides a brief survey of the FTAIA landscape so far this year. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Animal Sci. Prods., Inc. v. China Minmetals Corp. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 In the first federal appellate decision of 2011, the Third Circuit, in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , No. 10-2288, 2011 \par\pard\ql \li1439\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 U.S. App. LEXIS 17046 (3d Cir. Aug. 17, 2011), addressed whether FTAIA imposes a \u8220?substantive \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1274\sb14\sl-228\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 merits\u8221? limitation or a \u8220?jurisdictional\u8221? bar to Sherman Act claims. \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 involved claims on behalf \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of domestic purchasers of magnesite alleging that Chinese producers and exporters engaged in a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conspiracy to fix prices for product exported to and sold in the United States. The district court \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 sua sponte \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 dismissed the plaintiffs\u8217? claims on the basis that the court lacked subject matter jurisdiction under FTAIA, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 but granted the plaintiffs leave to amend their complaint to provide \u8220?evidentiary proof allowing the [District] \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Court to conduct a \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 factual determination\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 . . . and to conclusively satisfy itself as to the presence or lack of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 subject matter jurisdiction over this action.\u8221? 596 F. Supp. 2d 842, 881 (D.N.J. 2008) (emphasis in original). \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 After an amended complaint was filed, the district court\u8212?engaging in what the Third Circuit characterized \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as \u8220?extensive fact-finding\u8221?\u8212?concluded that the plaintiffs had failed to demonstrate that either FTAIA \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 exception applied, and again dismissed the claims. \par\pard\ql \li1439\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1439\ri1273\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The distinction between a substantive limitation versus a jurisdictional bar can have practical significance. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 If FTAIA imposes a substantive limitation, a motion to dismiss would be decided under the procedural \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 framework applicable to Rule 12(b)(6), in which the defendant carries the burden and a court generally \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 must accept all alleged facts as true. In contrast, if FTAIA imposes a jurisdictional bar, a motion to dismiss \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 would be decided under the framework applicable to Rule 12(b)(1), in which case the plaintiff has the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 burden of establishing the existence of subject matter jurisdiction and the court may examine evidence \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and resolve factual disputes. \par\pard\ql \li1439\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Turicentro \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Carpet Group Int\u8217?l v. Oriental Rug Imps. Ass\u8217?n\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , 227 F.3d 62 (3d Cir. 2000), the Third \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1394\sb12\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Circuit concluded that FTAIA constituted a jurisdictional bar. However, following \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Arbaugh v. Y & H Corp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 546 U.S. 500 (2006)\u8212?in which the U.S. Supreme Court held that a threshold limitation is jurisdictional \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 only if the legislature \u8220?clearly states\u8221? as much\u8212?the Third Circuit overturned that aspect of its prior \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decisions and concluded that FTAIA instead imposes a substantive limitation. In so ruling, the Third \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Circuit disagreed with the Seventh Circuit\u8217?s pre-\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Arbaugh\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 en banc\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 decision in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United Phosphorus, Ltd. v. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Angus Chem. Co.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , 322 F.3d 942 (7th Cir. 2003). \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb25\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 1 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1328\sb60\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 The Third Circuit remanded the \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 matter to the district court \u8220?with two brief instructions\u8221? if \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the FTAIA question were again addressed. First, with respect to the \u8220?import trade or commerce\u8221? \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exception, the Court of Appeals noted that, while the exception \u8220?must be given a relatively strict \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 construction,\u8221? it does not require that the defendants function as the physical importer of goods. Rather, it \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 is enough that the conduct target import goods or services. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1881\sb228\sl-233\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Second, with respect to the \u8220?effects\u8221? exception, the Court of Appeals observed that the \u8220?reasonably \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreseeable\u8221? language does not impose a \u8220?subjective intent\u8221? requirement. Instead, it imposes an \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?objective\u8221? standard under which \u8220?the requisite \u8216?direct\u8217? and \u8216?substantial\u8217? effect must have been \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \u8216?foreseeable\u8217? to an objectively reasonable person.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Minn-Chem, Inc. v. Agrium, Inc. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1461\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 The Seventh Circuit also addressed FTAIA in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Minn-Chem\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , a putative class action by U.S. purchasers of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 potash against seven of the world\u8217?s largest potash producers. While the defendants\u8217? operations are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 located primarily in Belarus, Canada and Russia, the plaintiffs alleged that collusive conduct\u8212?including \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 anticompetitive conduct aimed at the potash markets in Brazil, China and India\u8212?resulted in significant \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price increases in the U.S. market. Among other allegations, the plaintiffs asserted that agreements by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the defendants with buyers in those counties \u8220?directly influence prices in other major markets,\u8221? including \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the U.S. When the defendants moved to dismiss the plaintiffs\u8217? claims, arguing that subject matter \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 jurisdiction was lacking under FTAIA, the district court denied the motion but certified its order for \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 immediate appellate review. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 On appeal, the Seventh Circuit called into question its prior ruling in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 United Phosphorus\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 that FTAIA\u8217?s \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1474\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 requirements are jurisdictional\u8212?a view rejected by the Third Circuit. Nevertheless, the Court of Appeals \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 did not resolve that issue because, in its view, the defendants were entitled to dismissal regardless of \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 how the motion was framed. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1304\sb230\sl-231\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The Seventh Circuit held that the district court had erred by essentially conflating the \u8220?import commerce\u8221? \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and \u8220?direct effects\u8221? exceptions in its analysis of FTAIA. Citing the Third Circuit\u8217?s recent ruling in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , the Court of Appeals noted that the relevant inquiry under the \u8220?import commerce\u8221? exception is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?whether the defendants\u8217? alleged anticompetitive behavior \u8216?was directed at an import market.\u8217?\u8221? The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 plaintiffs\u8217? specific factual allegations, however, described anticompetitive conduct aimed at the potash \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 markets in other countries, not the U.S. import market. While the complaint also generally alleged that the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 defendants conspired with respect to prices at which potash would be sold in the U.S., the Seventh \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Circuit held that such a conclusory statement was insufficient under \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Twombly \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Iqbal\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 With respect to the \u8220?direct effects\u8221? exception, the court held that an effect is \u8220?direct\u8221? if \u8220?it follows as an \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 immediate consequence of the defendant\u8217?s activity.\u8221? Applying this standard, it concluded that the \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1337\sb0\sl-232\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?generalized allegations\u8221? of a \u8220?benchmark\u8221? effect on prices in the U.S. by prices in Brazil, China and India \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were insufficient. Instead, \u8220?[t]o satisfy the requirements of \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Twombly\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and the FTAIA, the plaintiffs needed \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to provide enough factual content\u8212?that is, they needed to provide some factual description of the way in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 which prices in China, Brazil and India serve as a \u8216?benchmark\u8217? for American prices\u8212?to permit a plausible \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inference that the defendants\u8217? anticompetitive conduct in these foreign markets has a direct, substantial, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and reasonably foreseeable effect on potash prices in the United States.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb219\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Precision Assocs. v. Panalpina World Transp. (Holding) Ltd. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1315\sb24\sl-228\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 In addition to the Third and Seventh Circuits, various federal district courts have also addressed FTAIA in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2011. \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Precision Associates\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , No. 08-CV-42 (JG)(VVP), 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 51330 (E.D.N.Y. Jan. 4, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2011) is a putative class action concerning an alleged price fixing conspiracy in the international \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commercial freight forwarding industry. The plaintiffs sued 65 domestic and foreign freight forwarders and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 two trade associations. The defendants moved to dismiss the claims relating to alleged conduct that took \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 place outside the United States. \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb85\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 2 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1270\sb72\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 Relevant to the discussion above concerning \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , the defendants argued that FTAIA deprived \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the court of subject matter jurisdiction over the plaintiffs\u8217? claims. The district court observed\u8212?as did the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Third Circuit\u8212?that the party asserting jurisdiction has the burden of establishing jurisdiction. The district \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 court, however, treated the defendants\u8217? motion to dismiss as asserting a \u8220?facial\u8221? (as opposed to an \u8220?in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fact\u8221?) attack on jurisdiction and therefore reviewed whether the plaintiffs\u8217? complaint alleged facts, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 accepted as true, that would be sufficient to invoke jurisdiction over their claims. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1505\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The focus of the FTAIA analysis in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Precision Associates \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 concerned whether the alleged conduct of the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign freight forwarder defendants involved \u8220?import trade or commerce.\u8221? The foreign defendants \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 asserted that they were merely local intermediaries between their cargo-shipping customers and the air \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 carriers that actually transported the goods into the United States, thereby placing the locus of their \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 conduct entirely within other countries. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Citing the Third Circuit\u8217?s decisions in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Carpet Group \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Turicentro\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , the district court observed that the \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1362\sb12\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 term \u8220?import\u8221? generally denotes a product, or perhaps a service, that has been brought into the U.S. from \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 abroad, and furthermore that under FTAIA, the Sherman Act not only reaches import commerce itself but \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 also \u8220?conduct \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 involving\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 import commerce.\u8221? Examining the plaintiffs\u8217? allegations, the district court \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 disagreed with the defendants\u8217? characterization of their conduct as the mere charging of fixed prices at \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 locations abroad, but instead involved \u8220?the illegal agreement to fix prices for the freight forwarders\u8217? \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 services on various routes entering the United States.\u8221? The district court found that the claims directly \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 implicated import commerce given that the alleged unlawful surcharges were imposed on shipments \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 between foreign locations and the United States. \par\pard\ql \li1439\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1439\ri1462\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Alternatively, the court found that the alleged conduct had a \u8220?direct, substantial, and foreseeable effect\u8221? \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 on import trade or commerce, which gave rise to jurisdiction. A key allegation that appears to have \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 differentiated the plaintiffs\u8217? claims in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Precision Associates\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 from cases that \u8220?involve[d] wholly foreign \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct with minimal connection to United States markets,\u8221? was that \u8220?each surcharge was connected to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 freight forwarding services for the transport of goods between the United States and other countries.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 In re TFT-LCD (Flat Panel) Antitrust Litig. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1440\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 TFT-LCD Antitrust \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 MDL, No. 1827, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 33364 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 16, 2011) involves \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 allegations that producers of flat panel LCD displays engaged in a global price-fixing conspiracy. In an \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 individual action, Dell \u8212?a manufacturer of desktop and laptop computers\u8212?alleged that it paid artificially \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inflated prices to the defendants as a result of the conspiracy. The complaint encompassed not only \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 transactions that took place in the United States, but also between the defendants and certain of Dell\u8217?s \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign affiliates. The defendants asserted, in a motion to dismiss, that the court lacked subject matter \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 jurisdiction over those latter transactions. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1350\sb228\sl-233\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Dell alleged that it had entered into master purchase agreements with the defendants, which set forth the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 terms and conditions by which Dell \u8220?and all of Dell\u8217?s subsidiaries and corporate affiliates\u8221? made their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 purchases. Those agreements provided that the price for flat panel displays would be negotiated with \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Dell\u8217?s procurement team in Austin, Texas. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The district court concluded that Dell had sufficiently shown that the domestic effects of the foreign \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct proximately caused Dell\u8217?s alleged foreign injuries. After examining the leading cases on the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1293\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 question, including \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Empagran\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 from the D.C. Circuit, and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Centerprise (DRAM)\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 from the Ninth Circuit, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 court noted that Dell\u8217?s allegations differed significantly from the circumstances in those cases, in which no \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 proximate causation was found. First, unlike the plaintiff in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Empagran\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , Dell is a U.S. company, not a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign company alleging injury based solely on foreign transactions. Second, the negotiation of global \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 prices from Dell\u8217?s U.S. headquarters established a \u8220?concrete link between defendants\u8217? conduct, its \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 domestic effect and Dell\u8217?s foreign injury that is far stronger than the tenuous arbitrage theory rejected in \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 [\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Empagran \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Centerprise\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 ].\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The district court reached a similar conclusion in a subsequent FTAIA ruling involving Motorola\u8217?s claims \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 against the flat panel manufacturers. \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In re TFT-LCD (Flat Panel) Antitrust Litig\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 ., MDL No. 1827, 2011 U.S. \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb179\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 3 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb60\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 Dist. LEXIS 42692 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 28, 2011). Like Dell, Motorola alleged that its procurement teams in the \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 U.S. negotiated all of Motorola\u8217?s purchases worldwide. In arriving at its conclusion that Motorola \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sufficiently alleged proximate causation, the district court explicitly disagreed with a ruling from the \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Northern District of California in the \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 DRAM \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 MDL. In that decision, involving claims asserted by Sun \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1372\sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Microsystems against DRAM manufacturers, the district court had ruled that while the negotiation of an \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inflated global price might constitute a \u8220?domestic effect,\u8221? such an effect cannot be the proximate cause of \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 higher prices paid abroad. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1327\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In another FTAIA ruling, the district court rejected an argument by the targets of a criminal indictment that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the government had failed to allege sufficient facts to satisfy FTAIA and bring the defendants\u8217? foreign \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct within the reach of the Sherman Act. \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In re TFT-LCD (Flat Panel) Antitrust Litig\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 ., MDL No. 1827, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 42345 (N.D. Cal. Apr. 18, 2011). The court observed the lack of authority \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 regarding whether FTAIA applies to criminal cases brought under the Sherman Act. Nevertheless, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 court concluded that FTAIA did not bar criminal prosecution of an alleged conspiracy that \u8220?involve[d] \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct in furtherance of the conspiracy both inside and outside of the United States.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-229\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1316\sb22\sl-229\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Most recently, the district court denied a FTAIA motion by the defendants to dismiss claims brought by an \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 indirect purchaser class \u8220?based on foreign sales.\u8221? \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 In re TFT-LCD (Flat Panel) Antitrust Litig\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 ., MDL No. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1827, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 115212 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 5, 2011). Unlike the Dell or Motorola lawsuits, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 claims at issue in this motion involved \u8220?indirect\u8221? purchases of flat panel displays that had been integrated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 into other products, such as laptops or televisions. According to the defendants, the majority of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 purchases in question involved panels that had been manufactured overseas and then sold to a foreign \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 company that assembled the panels into a final product before being sold to a U.S. company and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 imported into this country. The defendants argued that such conduct is entirely foreign in nature and that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 any effects in the U.S. were \u8220?indirect.\u8221? The plaintiffs, in contrast, pointed to evidence that, inter alia, the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conspiracy was deliberately aimed at the U.S. market, that the defendants used their U.S. employees in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 furtherance of the conspiracy, and that the supracompetitive prices of the LCDs were \u8220?passed through\u8221? to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 class members, regardless of how the panels made their way into the U.S. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 As an initial matter, the district court looked to the recent \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Minn-Chem\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 decisions \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1327\sb0\sl-231\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 discussed above and concluded that FTAIA does not implicate subject matter jurisdiction, and therefore \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 treated the defendants\u8217? motion as one for summary judgment. On the merits, the court agreed with the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 plaintiffs that the conduct at issue satisfied the \u8220?direct effects\u8221? exception to FTAIA. In rejecting the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 defendants\u8217? position, the court observed that looking only at the financial effects of the \u8220?first sale\u8221? would \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?exclude from the Sherman Act\u8217?s reach a significant amount of anticompetitive conduct that has real \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 consequences for American consumers.\u8221? And while the district court recognized that the \u8220?direct effect\u8221? \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 requirement places \u8220?concrete limits on the ability of a plaintiff to invoke the federal antitrust laws,\u8221? it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 concluded that \u8220?[w]here, as here, the nature of the effect does not change in any substantial way before it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 reaches the United States consumer, the effect is an \u8216?immediate consequence\u8217? of the defendant\u8217?s \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 anticompetitive behavior.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb220\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 In re Transpacific Passenger Air Transp. Antitrust Litig. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1296\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Transpacific Passenger Air\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 MDL, No. C 07-05634 CRB, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 49853 (N.D. Cal. May \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 9, 2011) involves allegations that 26 airlines conspired to fix prices for transpacific air passenger travel. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The defendants moved to dismiss the plaintiffs\u8217? claims with respect to alleged overcharges on flights \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 originating in Asia, arguing that FTAIA deprived the court of subject matter jurisdiction over claims of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign injury. The district court agreed and granted the defendants\u8217? motion to dismiss on FTAIA grounds. \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1317\sb222\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The court concluded that the \u8220?import commerce\u8221? exception did not apply, remarking that \u8220?[i]t is too great a \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 leap to equate air passenger travel with the importing of people. . . \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .\u8221? In addition, the court held that the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1339\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?domestic effects\u8221? exception did not apply. While the plaintiffs sufficiently alleged a direct effect on U.S. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commerce\u8212?in the form of U.S. residents and citizens paying more for air passenger transportation\u8212?the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 court concluded that the plaintiffs could not demonstrate whether the domestic effects of the foreign \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct directly caused the foreign injury. Citing \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Centerprise\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Empagran\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , the court concluded that the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign effect was not proximately caused by the domestic effect, but merely was of the same overall \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb185\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 4 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-226\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-226\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-226\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-226\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-226\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1306\sb84\sl-226\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 conspiracy that also caused the domestic effect. In so concluding, the court noted its disagreement with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 another FTAIA ruling from the same district in the\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 SRAM Antitrust Litig.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , No. 07-md-01819 CW, 2010 U.S. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Dist. LEXIS 141968 (N.D. Cal. Dec. 31, 2010), in which the district court had determined that the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 domestic effects exception was satisfied in the context of an alleged global price-fixing conspiracy. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Fond du Lac Bumper Exch., Inc. v. Jui Li Enter. Co. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1306\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Fond du Lac Bumper Exchange\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , No. 09C0852, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 72198 (E.D. Wis. July 6, 2011) is a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 putative class action involving allegations that Taiwanese manufacturers of sheet metal aftermarket auto \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 parts, and their U.S. subsidiaries, conspired to fix prices and engaged in other unlawful, coordinated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conduct. On a request for reconsideration of the court\u8217?s denial of their motion to dismiss under Rules \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12(b)(1) and 12(b)(6), the defendants argued that the alleged conduct involved solely foreign commerce, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 not import or domestic commerce, because the defendants sold the parts in question to the plaintiffs in \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Taiwan. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1326\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The district court reaffirmed its prior conclusion that the alleged conduct involves import conduct, and is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 therefore subject to the Sherman Act. According to the court, the evidence suggested that the alleged \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conspiracy focused on setting the price of parts manufactured for sale in the United States and that the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 defendants negotiated the sales to importers at prices established by the conspiracy. The court \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 concluded that, even if the defendants did not themselves ship the parts into the U.S., but transferred title \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 overseas, in light of the agreement aimed at the U.S. and the other steps taken, the conduct involved \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 import commerce. To hold otherwise, the court noted, \u8220?would have the perverse effect of encouraging \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 companies to engage in off-shore anti-competitive activity designed to harm American consumers and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 importers.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs20 Global Reinsurance Corp. - U.S. Branch v. Equitas, Ltd. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1393\sb24\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 In addition to the federal decisions discussed above, the Appellate Division (First Dept.) of the Supreme \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Court of New York in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Global Reinsurance Corp.\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , 921 N.Y.S.2d 1 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) addressed FTAIA \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in the context of claims brought under New York\u8217?s Donnelly Act. The plaintiff alleged that the defendants \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were at the hub of a conspiracy in a worldwide market for non-life retrocessional reinsurance coverage, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 with a geographic submarket consisting of \u8220?the Lloyd\u8217?s marketplace,\u8221? a collection of hundreds of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 syndicates in London. The plaintiff alleged that the individual underwriting members, facing financial ruin \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in 1996 from unexpectedly large claims on certain business lines, engaged in concerted action to reduce \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 claims payments on pre-1993 business while continuing to compete on new business. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1328\sb24\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The Supreme Court of New York County granted the motion to dismiss on various grounds. On appeal, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the defendants argued that New York courts lacked subject matter jurisdiction over the plaintiff\u8217?s claims \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 under FTAIA. The Appellate Division, \u8220?[a]ssuming the applicability of FTAIA,\u8221? concluded that the plaintiff\u8217?s \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 allegations of injury satisfied the requirement that the challenged conduct had a \u8220?direct, substantial and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 reasonably foreseeable effect.\u8221? The court further noted that the plaintiff alleged that the defendant \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 engaged in anticompetitive claims handling in New York. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb21\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The dissent, in contrast, concluded that the plaintiff\u8217?s allegations did not involve domestic commerce: \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1395\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8220?Where alleged anticompetitive effects in the U.S. are based on a theory that the globally interconnected \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 nature of the marketplace enabled foreign conduct to affect the U.S. market, that effect is not considered \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \u8216?direct\u8217? within the meaning of the federal statute.\u8221? \par\pard\ql \li5575\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5575\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs20 Conclusion \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 Courts have continued so far this year to grapple with the extent to which the Sherman Act reaches \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1258\sb14\sl-226\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 transnational economic activity. As illustrated by the cases discussed above, whether particular foreign \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 transactions constitute import commerce or activity, or otherwise satisfy the effects test, turns on the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 specific factual circumstances involved. Indeed, at the margins, district courts do not necessarily agree \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 from case to case whether similar circumstances are sufficient to bring foreign conduct within the reach of \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb121\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 5 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1292\sb60\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 the U.S. antitrust laws. Perhaps the most interesting development to watch is whether, in light of the Third \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Circuit\u8217?s ruling in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Animal Science\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 , more complaints survive motions to dismiss on FTAIA grounds. As the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Seventh Circuit\u8217?s decision in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Minn-Chem\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 cautions, however, even if considered under Rule 12(b)(6), \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 allegations that would bring foreign commerce under the exceptions set forth in FTAIA still must satisfy \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the pleading requirements set forth in \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Twombly \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Iqbal\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs20 . Whatever the ultimate outcome of that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 question, with the globalization of commerce, the reach of the Sherman Act over foreign commerce is an \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 issue that will continue to confront the courts in the months and years ahead. \par\pard\ql \li1673\sb230\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ** \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-228\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1271\sb24\sl-228\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Michael Jacobs is a partner in the Minneapolis office of Zelle Hofmann Voelbel & Mason LLP. Kaisa \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Adams is an associate in the firm\u8217?s Minneapolis office. Zelle Hofmann is a national law firm representing \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 clients in their most challenging insurance-related disputes, antitrust/competition and other complex \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 business litigation. The views and opinions expressed herein are solely those of the authors and do not \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 reflect the views or opinions of Zelle Hofmann or any of its clients. For additional information about Zelle \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Hofmann, please visit www.zelle.com. \par\pard\ql \li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li6052\sb53\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 6 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24}