Superhero

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Superhero, superhero, a fictional hero—widely popularized in comic books and comic strips, television and film, and popular culture and video games—whose extraordinary or “superhuman” powers are often displayed in a fight against crime and assorted villains, who in turn often display superhuman abilities. Superman was the first wildely hailed superhero, appearing in Action Comics #1 in June 1938, and he was the prototype for the many costumed superheroes that followed. Superheroes and comic books—like the mediums of radio, film, and television that would so affect their history—largely developed in the United States through American popular culture and then spread to the world, and the history of their advancement and commercial success have been defined by several “ages”: the Golden Age (1938–54), the Silver Age (1956–69), the Bronze Age (1970–80), the Late Bronze Age (1980–84), and the Modern Age (1985–present).

Golden Age (1938–54)

In the view of many readers, the histories of superheroes and comic books are interchangeable, but historically the comic book came first.

The first modern comic books

The precursor to the modern comic book has a long and interesting history with roots lying deep in the European development of the comic strip. The modern comic strip developed in the United States in the late 19th century, and by the end of the century collections of newspaper comic strips and cartoons began appearing on low-grade pulp paper in a variety of sizes and were generally distributed as promotional items. The characters featured in these publications—such as the Yellow Kid and The Katzenjammer Kids—were almost entirely comical, earning the nicknames “the funnies” or “funny papers.” Dell Publishing introduced The Funnies, which resembled a Sunday newspaper comics section, in 1929. An anthology of Sunday newspaper strips, Famous Funnies #1 debuted as a monthly periodical in May 1934, and this is acknowledged as the precursor to the conventional comic book (although this series was preceded a year earlier by two similarly formatted one-shots, Funnies on Parade and Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics).

Parallel with the rise of comics and comic books came pulp magazines, which catered to readers craving adventure and thrills. The “pulps,” collections of prose short stories published on pulp paper with an illustrated (usually painted) cover image, emerged in the early 20th century and were tremendously popular, particularly in the 1920s through the 1940s. From anthologies like Weird Tales to solo titles featuring mysterious heroes like The Shadow (whose pulp series lasted an astounding 326 issues from 1931 to 1949), the pulps offered breathtaking action and chilling suspense.

It was only a matter of time before these two modes of popular culture converged. Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, a retired soldier and author of pulp stories in the late 1920s and early 1930s, started his own publishing house in 1935—National Allied Publications—and in February of that year released New Fun #1, the first comic-book series exclusively consisting of new material—in this case, comic strips. Adventure-oriented comics with new material followed, most notably Detective Comics #1, released in March 1937 by Wheeler-Nicholson and his new partners, Harry Donenfeld and Jack Liebowitz, who both then took over the company, renaming it National Comics—even though it was (and still is) commonly called DC.

The birth of the superhero

In the first four decades of the 20th century, there were notable and popular fictional characters that foreshadowed and inspired the superheroes to come: Zorro in prose and film, Doc Savage in pulp magazines, the Shadow in the pulps and on radio, the Green Hornet on radio, and the Phantom in comic strips. The first masked crime fighter in comic books was the Clock, whom Centaur Publications introduced in 1936. But it was two young men from Cleveland who created the character who truly launched the superhero genre.

The Green HornetLobby Card for The Green Hornet (1940).Universal Studios

DC Comics introduced the first costumed superhero, Superman, in Action Comics #1 (June 1938). Superman’s creators, writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, had unsuccessfully tried to sell the series to newspaper syndicates as a daily strip. DC then took an enormous risk in 1938 by publishing the untried character, given the depressed economic climate of the day. But Siegel and Shuster’s faith in their superpowered champion never faltered, and readers of the day reciprocated the creators’ enthusiasm: Action #1 sold phenomenally well.

At the time, Superman was not labeled or marketed as a “superhero,” even though he perfectly personified the term as it is commonly defined today: a heroic character with an altruistic mission, who possesses superpowers, wears a defining costume, and functions in the “real world” in his or her alter ego. According to Mike Benton, in Superhero Comics of the Golden Age: The Illustrated History (1992), “Although the term ‘superhero’ was used as early as 1917 to describe a public figure of great talents or accomplishments, the early comic book heroes of the 1940s were usually referred to by their creators as ‘costumed characters’ or as ‘long-underwear’ or ‘union-suit’ heroes.” They were also called “mystery men.” Nonetheless, the superhero had been established and was about to multiply in number through American popular culture.

In Superman’s footsteps

Encouraged by Superman’s success, DC introduced the Crimson Avenger in Detective #20 (October 1938), the Sandman in New York World’s Fair Comics #1 (April 1939), and Batman in Detective #27 (May 1939). It published Superman #1, spinning off the “Man of Steel” into his own solo series, in the summer of 1939.

Victor Fox was an accountant for DC Comics who knew a good thing when he saw it. After witnessing the profits generated by Superman, Fox quit his day job and started his own publishing company, Fox Features Syndicate. The overly ambitious Fox was sued by his former employer upon the May 1939 release of Wonder Comics #1, which featured “the daring, superhuman exploits” of Wonder Man, a superpowered character who was created by Will Eisner and was too close to Superman for DC’s comfort. Wonder Man did not return for a second appearance, but Fox continued to publish comics, introducing the Flame, the Green Mask, and the Blue Beetle.

Entrepreneurs other than Fox also took notice of the success of Superman, and comic-book publishers—from talented visionaries to fly-by-night shysters—sprouted up instantly, spurring a slew of new “long-underwear heroes,” including Lev Gleason Publications’ Silver Streak; Quality Comics Group’s Doll Man; Brookwood Publications’ Shock Gibson; Centaur Publications’ Amazing-Man, the Arrow, the Iron Skull, and the Fantom of the Fair; and MU Publications’ the Wizard.

A publisher that would later become DC’s chief competitor entered the field in November 1939: Timely Comics. Its first superheroes—the first Human Torch, the Sub-Mariner, and the original Angel—premiered that month in an anthology that bore the eventual name of the company: Marvel Comics #1.

Comic books were the perfect entertainment form for Great Depression audiences: their heroic, larger-than-life characters stirred the demoralized masses, and the very format of the magazines themselves—usually 64 pages of original material at the mere cost of a dime—was a bargain during those times of economic hardship.

The superhero boom

The years 1940 and 1941 heralded an eruption of new comic-book superheroes. Included among their legion: DC’s the Flash, Hawkman, the Spectre, Hourman, Dr. Fate, Green Lantern, the Atom, Starman, Green Arrow, and Aquaman; Fawcett Publications’ Spy Smasher, Bulletman, Ibis the Invincible, and the “World’s Mightiest Mortal,” Captain Marvel; plus Cat-Man, Blue Bolt, the Black Terror, Hydroman, the Ray, Plastic Man, Midnight, the Human Bomb, Magno (the Magnetic Man), Daredevil, the Black Hood, the Comet, and Will Eisner’s the Spirit.

Superhero subcategories also quickly arose. For example, there were the sidekicks, pre-teen or teenage junior superheroes who worked alongside their adult mentors. Starting this trend was Robin the Boy Wonder, “the sensational character find of 1940,” first seen in Detective #38. Robin was introduced by Batman creator Bob Kane as a gateway for young readers to live vicariously through their hero’s adventures and as a means to soften the rather gruesome tone of Batman’s first year of publication in which the character, originally more anti-hero than superhero, hurled mobsters off rooftops. More kid heroes followed, like Toro and Captain Marvel Jr. Superheroines also began to appear in the man’s world of superheroics: Wonder Woman, the Woman in Red, Phantom Lady, Lady Luck, and Black Cat were among the first. These two subcategories dove-tailed with the introduction of female sidekicks, such as Flame Girl, Bulletgirl, Hawk-girl, Mary Marvel, and Cat-Man’s partner, Kitten. And in the winter of 1940, the superteam was born, as the Flash, Green Lantern, Hawkman, and other DC superheroes joined forces as the Justice Society of America.

These early superheroes (except for Timely’s anti-hero, the Sub-Mariner, and its flaming android, the Torch) had secret identities: they ob-tained superpowers through bizarre, often scientifically based occurrences, or through acquisition of power-inducing devices; they hid their actual identities behind a mask, a costume, and often a cape; they adopted a flamboyant appellation; they engaged in bizarre or outlandish escapades, and they dedicated their lives and their abilities to fighting crime—or to fighting Nazis.

Superheroes, like their readers, widely joined the war effort. Superman, a symbol of American patriotism in his blue-and-red uniform, fought tyrants and dictators and even apprehended both Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin in a special comic prepared in 1940 for Look magazine. Captain Marvel and other superheroes also clobbered Nazi and Japanese soldiers on the covers of their comics, even before the December 1941 bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the conflict.

It was MU Publications—the company that would later be known as Archie Comics—that introduced the first specifically patriotic superhero: the Shield, in Pep Comics #1 (January 1940), a red-white-and-blue-garbed crime fighter who used his superpowers, obtained from a secret formula, to protect American soil from enemy saboteurs and spies. The best-known patriotic superhero premiered in March 1941: Marvel (then Timely) Comics’ Captain America. “Cap,” originally a weakling intensely loyal to his country, took a government-invented “super soldier serum” to transform into a superhero. The Shield and Captain America were merely two of a contingent of starred-and-striped heroes who appeared prior to and after America’s entrance in the war: Miss Victory, U.S. Jones, the Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy (a kid hero with an adult sidekick), Pat Patriot, Captain Victory, the Fighting Yank, Captain Flag, the American Eagle, the Spirit of 76, American Crusader, Captain Fearless, Flag-Man, Yankee Girl, Liberty Belle, and Minute-Man (the One Man Army) were just some of the dozens of superpatriots of the World War II era. Even Uncle Sam, the symbol of U.S. Army recruitment, was a superhero during the 1940s.

A superhero was not required to wear stars and stripes to fight the Axis. The grimly clad Hangman punched out Nazis, Batman and Robin sold war bonds, and even the undersea terrorist Sub-Mariner—dressed in nothing but green swim trunks—redirected his aggression from attacking New York landmarks toward sinking Japanese subs. Fawcett Publications’ Spy Smasher’s garb was rather mundane when compared to his fellow flashy freedom fighters: he sported an aviator’s helmet, khakis, a bomber jacket, and a crimson cape. But with his noiseless Gyrosub—plane, submarine, helicopter, and speedboat rolled into one—Spy Smasher crippled saboteurs’ vessels and ferreted out enemy agents, flying into his own 12-chapter movie serial in 1942.

Real-life German and Japanese soldiers inspired fictional foes in Golden Age comic books, including Captain Nazi, the Red Skull, Baron Gestapo, Captain Nippon, and Captain Swastika. The Claw, a jaundiced “Oriental” with fearsome fangs, appeared in Gleason Publications’ Dare-devil series, as did Hitler himself in the legendary Daredevil Battles Hitler #1 (a.k.a. Daredevil #1) in 1941.

Comics sell millions

The comic-book industry flourished from a mere six companies in the pre-Superman days of 1936 to two dozen by the early 1940s, some of them manufacturing comics in unsavory, assembly-line conditions that resembled sweatshops. Original art pages shuffled down lines of artists, each with his or her own task: one would letter the word balloons, one would ink faces, one would ink figures, and one would ink backgrounds. Artists and writers of the era sometimes huddled collectively into New York City apartments for an entire weekend of all-nighters, grinding out pages at a frantic pace. A 1943 Newsweek article cited 25 million copies of comic books being sold each month. By the mid-1940s, eager would-be publishers were blockaded from entering this expanding field by the paper shortages of World War II. Kids were encouraged to donate their used comics to paper drives, resulting in their rarity in the 21st century; high-grade copies of 1940s comics can now command prices in the tens of thousands of dollars.

Voraciously reading these comics were millions of American boys. The medium spoke to them, its superheroes offering inspiration during a trying time. Captain America, striking an “Uncle Sam Wants You” recruitment pose, was featured in house ads encouraging young readers to join his “Sentinels of Liberty” club and to “wear a badge that proves you are a loyal believer in Americanism.” Not to be outdone, Superman enticed readers to become one of the “Supermen of America.” Boys would regularly congregate for “swaps,” haggling trades of their well-read comics.

Although no one at the time referred to it as such, this era of comics, particularly superhero comics, is considered the medium’s Golden Age. In retrospect, the era is better remembered for its novelty and profusion, not for the quality of its material. Most superhero stories at this time were primitively scripted and crudely drawn, yet audiences then were less discerning, seeking escapism rather than artistic or intellectual engagement.

There were exceptions, though. One excellent such series was Quality Comics’ Kid Eternity, first seen in Hit Comics #25 (December 1942). The “kid”—he has no actual name—dies, along with his grandfather, when the merchant marine ship they are on is torpedoed by Nazis. The boy’s death is deemed a heavenly mistake, and he is returned to Earth, accompanied by a ghostly guardian, Mr. Keeper. As Kid Eternity, he commands a magic word (“Eternity!”) to summon famous historical figures into the present to fight crime for him.

Ethnic stereotyping

Cultural stereotyping, reflecting the social prejudices of the day, was rampant during the Golden Age of superheroes. Captain Aero’s “little Chinese pal,” Chop Suey; the Lone Ranger’s “faithful Indian companion,” Tonto; and Mandrake the Magician’s “obedient African aide,” Lothar, were among the characters that marginalized the value of minorities.

To be fair, there was no bigoted board of comics creators orchestrating these characterizations. Comic books, like movies, novels, and radio, simply reflected America’s perception of non-whites as second-class citizens—and minorities were in no position to argue at the time. Interestingly, Germans—other than Adolf Hitler, a short, comical-looking man ripe for caricature—were rarely stereotyped physically, given their physiological similarities to Anglo-Americans. Yet they spoke with thick accents and were referred to by the derogatory term “Krauts.” However, the Japanese—“Japs”—were rendered with fangs or with buck teeth, colored with yellow skin, and sometimes represented with pointed ears. But these pejorative portrayals were justified, many thought in the early 1940s. After all, the Japanese were the enemy, the “devil” who had perpetrated the attack on Pearl Harbor, and so they “got what they deserved” with such depictions.

And they “got what they deserved” from superheroes, too. Comics covers routinely showed their stars attacking Japanese (and Germans and, on a few occasions, Italians), but perhaps no cover was more graphic in its anti-Japanese sentiment than Timely (Marvel) Comics’ The Human Torch #12 (1943), presenting the flaming hero burning off the arm of a fanged Japanese torturer.

The Torch’s acrimonious foe-turned-ally, Namor the Sub-Mariner, was comics’ first mixed- race superhero, the offspring of a land dweller and a water breather. His multicultural heritage was often referenced in passing but never fully explored during the Golden Age. Some historians have theorized that Namor’s patented anger stems from his crossbreeding—he never felt truly accepted by either of his races, leading him to take out his frustrations on others.

“Oriental” menaces, representing the “Yellow Peril” fear of world conquest, were a staple of the “pulp” magazines of the 1930s, with characters like Shiwan Khan from The Shadow and author Sax Rohmer’sFu Manchu, inspiring comic book villains like the Claw. First seen in Lev Gleason’s Silver Streak Comics #1 (1939), the Claw was a sharp-toothed, insidious monster, with pointy ears, razor-sharp fingernails, fiery breath, and the ability to grow to humongous proportions. World War II only worsened the Asian stereotype. Kato, the Japanese houseboy and high-kicking companion to the Green Hornet, became a Filipino after the Pearl Harbor bombing.

On the rare occasions they appeared in print, African Americans were shown as manservants or comic-relief sidekicks. Mexicans were “filthy bandits,” as Zorro and other Western heroes constantly reminded readers. And Native Americans grunted in broken English, as did Chief Skullface, nemesis of the Golden Age hero Black Owl, who routinely threatened to “scalpum” his feathered foe.

Yet some favorable multicultural depictions did occur during the Golden Age, most notably in Blackhawk. Premiering in Quality’s Military Comics #1 (1941), the Blackhawks were a squad of international fighter pilots, crusading for the Allied forces but pledging allegiance to no single coun-try—although their number included a buck-toothed and portly cook, Chop Chop. But Chinese typecasting was nowhere to be seen in “Carnival of Fiends,” the Torch tale in All Winners Comics #1 (1941): the Chinese are referred to as Chinese Americans, and they gallantly rally behind the Allied war effort.

The Cold War and self-censorship code

The end of World War II nearly marked the end of the superhero. With the Axis forces eliminated as the menace du jour, the number of superhero titles dwindled. Publishers went out of business, and those that survived pivoted not on superheroes but on new genres of comics like funny animals, Westerns, horror, crime, romance, and science fiction, although sales of such titles were lucky to reach half of the readership generated during the World War II boom.

Common themes also changed. Postwar America, despite its illusion of prosperity, was gripped by the fear of nuclear war and the spread of communism, and comics reflected the audience’s awareness of both. The cover of Captain Marvel Adventures #66 (1946) depicts the hero standing amid a decimated city, with warheads sailing his way, its blurb proclaiming, “Captain Marvel Battles the Dread Atomic War!” Similarly, Superman, Fighting Yank, and other superheroes lamented nuclear warfare, while neo-heroes Atomic Man, Atoma, Atoman, and the Atomic Thunderbolt capitalized on it. Radiation-spawned monsters became a recurring theme in superhero comics by the 1950s; Plastic Man fought giant ants, and Batman and Robin were plagued by giant bees. Marvel Comics, which had canceled its superhero comics in the late 1940s, resurrected Captain America, Sub-Mariner, and the Human Torch as “Commie busters” in the early 1950s, and artist Jack Kirby and his partner Joe Simon launched a short-lived superhero parody, Fighting American, taking on the Red scare with tongue placed firmly in cheek.

By the mid-1950s, only DC’s Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman continued to star in their own titles, and they were about to meet a real-life menace who would endanger them further: Dr. Frederic Wertham. A psychologist, Wertham published a 1954 book titled Seduction of the Innocent, indicting comic books for causing juvenile delinquency and moral decay among youth. In response, the Senate Judiciary Committee created a Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency in the United States, which held widely publicized hearings between April and June 1954 to investigate the validity of Wertham’s claims. Rather than fall under the wrath of the federal government, in September of that year the comic-book industry created the Comics Magazine Association of America (CMAA), an organization made up of all comic-book publishers that wanted to get their comic books distributed. The CMAA immediately went to work adopting the self-censoring Comics Code Authority (CCA), whose 41 standards described strict editorial guidelines for depicting sex, crime, horror, and violence within the pages of comics.

Despite the industry’s good intentions in pursing a path of self-censorship, the majority of comics publishers went out of business or can-celed entire lines of books during the 1950s, while those that remained—most notably, DC—“dumbed down” their stories in an effort to meet the re-quirements of the code and to appeal to a nation in the thrall of strict moral standards. Sales shrunk even more, as many parents forbade their children from reading comics. It was comics’ darkest hour. The Golden Age of superheroes was over.