-evolutionary arms race-rapid genetic changes to keep up with adaptations of opponent to become different

Gregor Mendel

-Australian Monk in 1800's-first person to come up with genetics

In 1865, Mendel discovered..

-distinct characteristics passed from generation to generation- no blending

Mendel ExampleGerman HoneybeeItalian Honeybee

-hoped to get a perfect hybrid-results were the bee did very little work and attacked people

What did Mendel switch his work to in 1856?

peas

Monohybrid Cross White vs Purple

F1= all purpleF2= 705 purple, 224 white (3:1 ratio)

Monohybrid CrossRound vs. Wrinkled

F1= all roundF2= 5474 round, 1850 wrinkled (3:1 ratio)

Law of Peas

-alternative forms of factors-for each inherited characteristic, there are 2 alleles-pollen and eggs have one allele from each characteristic-when two alleles are different, one is fully expressed and one is masked

-parents are clinically normal-siblings are only affected relatives-males and females are affected equally-parents may be in the same blood line

Cystic Fibrosis

-most common genetic disorder in US-1 in 2500 whites-1 in 25 are carriers-causes by mutant protein-interferes with cell's ability to manage chloride-Untreated= die within 5 years-Treated= can live to 30's

Autosomal dominant

-single bad gene

Charecteristics of autosomal dominant disease

-affected individual will have half normal kids and half affected kids-normal children will have normal children-males and females are affected equally

Huntington's Disease

-95% penetrance-1 in 5000 individuals in US--degenerative disease of the nervous system-carried on because of the late onset of symptoms-children have a 50% chance

-organisms have a built in drive towards perfection-became adapted when using or not using their parts: Appendix in humans-modifications during a lifetime could be passed onto the next generation

What was Lanmark right about?

-Earth was old-evolution is gradual-adaptation is important

When did Darwin and Wallace publish their findings?

1859

Observations made by Darwin and Wallace

-without environmental pressure every species multiplies exponentially-under field conditions, population sizes seem stable over long periods of time -large amount of variation within species-variation is largely heritable

Conclusions made by Darwin and Wallace

-not all eggs and sperm become zygotes-not all zygotes become adults-individuals with heritable variations that are favorable will survive in greater numbers and reproduce more offspring

The process of Natural Selection

-a differential survival and reproduction of individuals that have different heritable traits-gene codes for lower indivdual reproduction success (eventually eliminated under selection pressure)-genes successful in fertile mates is increased-heritable traits are pheonotypes

Causes of Natural Selection

environment, biotic, and abiotic

Consequences of Natural Selection

-certain phenotypes leave more offspring than others in a particular environment

-marked, released, and recaptured moths-Relative survivals were caused by differential survival due to differential predation of birds-current environment plays a role on with moth was favored

Myocrobacterium Tuberculosis example

-5% of 8 million people have drug resistant TB (MDRTB)-changes TCG to TTG (rpoB)-prevents rifampin from binding to proteins effectively

Evolution

change in genetic make up over time

Population Genetics

-extension of Mendelian genetics-describe frequencies of alleles in genotypes for a whole population

Population

group of individuals of the same species in a localized area that can potentially interbreed

AA AA Aa Aa aaFrequency of AFrequency of aFrecuency of carriersFrequency of affected

A: 6/10a: 4/10carriers: 2/5affected: 1/5

Hardy Weinberg Law

in sexually reproducing population, a single generation of random mating will produce stable frequency of alleles and genotypes under certain conditions

p+q=

1

What is p?

the frequency of the dominant allele

What is q?

the frequency of the recessive allele

What is p²?

frequency of homozygous dominant

What is q²?

the frequency of homozygous recessive

What is 2pq?

the frequency of heterozygous

How many babies in the US have PKU?

1 out of 10,000

PKU example1 out of 10,000 babiesq?p?2pq?

q= .01p= .992pq= .0198

p+q+r=

1

Why doesn't Blood Type O people become extinct in the Cholera pandemics?

Balance with the other blood types

What are Blood Type O people more susceptibile to?

Vibro paraciteMalariaSyphilis

What are the Blood Type AB people resistant to?

Vibrio

Why are Blood Type O people resistant to syphilis

syphilis originated in the Native American era

p²+2pq+2pr+q²+2qr+r²=

1

What are the 5 assumptions from Hardy Weinberg?

-large populations means there is no room for chance-no mutation-no migrations means there are no genes entering or leaving-random mating-all genotypes have equal reproductive success which means there is no natural selection

What happens if the Hardy Weinberg assumptions hold?

No evolution

Directonal Selection

-one extreme phenotype is favored over the other-shifts phenotype in one direction-gradual replacement of allele

Example of Directional Selection

Cliffswallows

-both extremes are favored over the intermediate-intermediate is lowest

Example of Disruptive Selection

Black Bellied Seed Crackers

-intermediate selected over extremes-increase frequency of average phenotype-reduced amounts of genetic variation

Example of stabilizing selection

Human Baby weights

What does Stabilizing Selection favor in the weight of human babies?

5lbs to 9 lbs

Fitness

-indivuduals reproductive contribution to gene pool of next generation-survival and reproduction

Relative Fitness

¯W¯-Survival and reproduction of phenotype compared to best phenotype in a particular environment

Selection of coefficient=

s

s= 1-¯W¯

-relative measure of selection against inferior phenotype0 to 1, 1 is lethal

What was the industrial melanin peppered moth's slection?

Directional

Fixation

approaching 100%

What can directional selection lead to?

Fixation

What base pair is changed in Sickle Cell Anemia?

A to T

What codon is changed in Sickle Cell Anemia?

GAG to GUG

HB+

Normal Allele for hemoglobin

HBs

Sickle Cell

HBsHBsphenotype:relative survival:

Anemia20%

HBsHB+phenotype:relative survival:

mild anemia90%

HB+HB+phenotype:relative survival:

normal100%

What is the HBs allele resistant to?

Malaria

In countries with malaria:HbsHbsphenotype:relative survival:

anemia, resistant to malaria20%

In countries with malaria:HbsHb+phenotype:relative survival:

mild anemia, resistant to malaria100%

In countries with malaria:Hb+Hb+phenotype:relative survival:

normal, susceptible to malaria75%

What mode of selection is selected for in Malaria environments?

Stabilizing

What mode of selection is favored for in normal, no malaria environment?

-numerous species emerge from a common ancestor-ancestor has a lot of variation

-Many types of beaks specialized for what they eat-14 species

What kinds of birds are the 14 Darwin Finches?

6 ground finches6 tree finches2 warblow finches

Where did the original Darwin Finches come from?

South America

How many Darwin Finches are on each island?

3 to 10

Why don't the 14 species of Darwin Finches breed?

-reproductive isolation

Outcomes of Secondary Contact

-Fuse back together into one population-Continue to diverge-Form hybrid zone-Extinction of one population-Hybrid offspring create 3rd species

Example of a hybrid zone

Grolar Bears

-unrestricted growth-no environmental restrictions-rate depends of the number of individuals in a population-no population can maintain exponential growth-only find in early phases of growth, when resources are abunddant

Cod Fish exponential growth

Only 6 years to fill up the Atlantic Ocean

House Fly exponential growth

half a year to get 5.5 trillion flies

Discrete Exponential Growth

N=NoRo^t

Ro=(discrete)

net reproductive rate# of females produced¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯# of females current

-transmission to new hosts, before old one dies-establish within a new host

Transmission Adaptations: Schistosoma Mansumi

Male and female worms in veins around intestines and mate → eggs → leave body with feces to freshwater → hatch into mircidum and has 24 hours to infect a fresh water snail → inside snail and asexually reproduce to cercria → pentrate into broken skin in humans

-mate competition-competition within a sex to get the best territory/resources

Intersexual selection

-preference of members of one sex for particular traits of the other sex -female mate choice-females prefer particular traits-linked to mate quality-females improve their reproductive success by getting quality mates -directly benefit by getting food, territory-indirectly benefit by passing on good genes

-highest of tropical mountaintops because of ecological specialization-narrow bands of climate

Where is there great beta diversity?

Great Smoky Mountains

Where is species diversity greatest?

lowlands and tropics

Geographical variation

-genetic and morphological diversity between populations across a geographical range

Millentia/Centuries

range changeinvasions of exotic species

Interchanges between North and South America

placental carnivores, horses, camels, llamas came from North Americasloths, anteaters, and possums came from South America

Centuries/decades

-orderly development of communities with increasing physical, taxonomic, and ecological diversity-ecological succession

Ecological succession: Ross Biological Reserve

60 years olduse for a model for ecological restoration

How many plant species does South America have?

1/3 of all plants

Lauracea trees

Tropical: hundreds of speciesNorth America: sassafras and spice bush

Rain fall, sunlight, temperature

primary productivity and stability

Resource abundance, variety, reliability

local diversity

Range of food types

extends the resource space and morphological niche space for consumers

Long term stability and subtle seasonality

permit ecological specialization and similarity

Why do tropical species tend to have small geographical ranges?

to be specialized ecologically

Why do tropical species tend to have complex interdependencies?

they are sensitive to change

How many King Fishers are in Manu? US?

5 and 1

Physical evidence to global climate change

-glaciers, sea, and atmospheric temperatures -Artic sea has shrunk to half the size since 1980 at 7 million km2-glaciers are accelerating because of lubrication by melting water

Biological evidence of global climate change

-41% levels of CO2 above from historical levels

Global Climate Change: Superstorm Sandy

-highest hurricane-warmer and higher searearranged pressure systems over the North Atlantic-came farther North and turned in

Sustainability

-can be continued for the foreseeable future-supportable without degrading

How many amphibians are extinct or endangered?

1/3

Reduction in area and increasing isolation

-lowers viability of smaller populations-local extinction-

How many bird species were lost due to turning Barro Colorado into the Panama Canal?

50

Small/Large patches lose species fastest

Small

Minimizing extinction probabilities

-current population size and history-productivity of environment for that species-growth potential-variability of above factors-projected long-term changes in environment-immigration/emigration-risk factors of extinct and endangered species

What do you need to know to create ecological restoration?

recovery potential, ecological requirements, fix pollution threats

Local Extinction

diversity in habitat remnants decline as species tolerances are over come

Global extinction

6th mass extinctiongreatest

Thousands of birds and mammals have gone extinct since ____

human expansion

Impact= Population x Affluence X Technology

human population growth

Ecosystem

-consists of all the organisms and environments in a given area-all communities and abiotic factors in an area-most inclusive level of hierarchy in a biological organization-function as a self-sufficient unit

Emergent properties

-comes out t a particular level that is hidden at lower levels-energy flow-nutrient cycling

Food chains

-start with an autotrophic organism-primary consumers that are herbivores-secondary consumers that are carnivores that eat herbivores-tertiary consumers that are carnivores that eat carnivores-detrivores that derive energy from organic waste

How much energy is used by producers?

1% to 3% from light energy

Food web

complete set of food links in a community

Energy flow

-all consumers get energy directly or indirectly from producers in an ecosystem -rate at which light energy goes to chemical energy-total rate in an ecosystem from light energy to chemical energy-amount of energy available to consumers

Total rate in an ecosystem from light energy to chemical energy

gross primary productivity GPP

Rate at which light energy goes to chemical energy

primary productivity

amount of energy available to consumers

GPP-RSP= net primary productivity (NPP)

First law of thermodynamics

-conservation of energy-energy input is either stored or used to do workGPP= NPP+RSP

Second Law of thermodynamics

-total amount of energy in the universe is declining-always increases in an isolated system-RSP is the energy cost for maintaining order

What sets an energy budget for ecosystems?

amount of energy extracted from sunlight by producers

Why is there a loss of energy at each trophic level?

-they don't consume all energy-90% lost

When limits the food chain length?

inefficiency energy transfer

Biomass

-total weight of organisms

What is an efficient way to get calories?

eat lower on the food chain

How many amino acids do we get from eating mean?

8

Biological Magnification

-toxic substances are dumped into ecosystems at an alarmingly high rate

Toxic substances are persistent in the environment

-they cannot be degraded-organisms acquire toxic chemicals from the environment

As toxic substances are retained they_____

become more concentrated in successive trophic levels

-increased concentration of 10000x as it goes up the food chain-in eagles DDT interfered with egg shell production

When was DDT banned in the US?

1972

2004 treaty

banned persistent organic pollutants

Atrazine in frogs

herbicide common in USmale frogs become hermaphrodites

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