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1 POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH ON SCIENCE TEACHING AND TEACHERS' KNOWLEDGE Charles W. Anderson 1 The central fact with which any discussion of science teachers' knowledge must contend is the failure of our present system of science education. This failure is not of recent origin, nor is it absolute, but recent evidence from a variety of sources has documented the nature and extent of our failure more thoroughly than ever before. For example, when Yager and Yager (1985) tested students' ability to select correct definitions for terms from the biological and physical sciences, they found evidence that seventh graders did better than third graders, but there was no improvement at all between seventh and eleventh grades, despite the fact that most students take several science courses in between. In the most recent studies of science achievement by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (1988), American high school seniors were dead last among 13 ranked countries in their assessed biological knowledge; they ranked eleventh in chemistry, ninth in physics. Jon Miller (1988) found that only 48 percent of American adults knew both that (a) the earth revolves around the sun, rather than the other way around, and (b) that it takes a year to do so, rather than a month or a day. This pattern of failure is not a surprise to anyone who has spent much time observing science classrooms. A lot of science teaching is dull and meaningless stuff--an amalgam of boring lectures, cookbook "experiments," and worksheets or written work. Textbooks are for the most part poorly written and overloaded with technical vocabulary. Even what we normally call "good" science teaching generally fails to engage students deeply enough to help them achieve a meaningful understanding of science (cf., Anderson and Smith, 1987). These observations lead to an obvious question: Why do teachers keep teaching this way? Don't they know any better? This paper focuses on the issue of what teachers know and what they need to know to teach science more successfully. The main section of the paper is devoted to an analysis of the knowledge that underlies successful teaching practice. The implications of this analysis for practice are also considered. The Knowledge Needed to Teach Science Well Although the pattern of failure described above is widespread, it is not universal. Some teachers are successful in engaging their students in meaningful science learning. Let us consider a brief episode 1 Charles Anderson, associate professor of education at Michigan State University, is a senior researcher with the Institute for Research on Teaching. His research interests focus on classroom science teaching and science teacher education. 1

2 from the teaching of one such teacher. This teacher, whom I will call Ms. Copeland, taught a seventh grade ecology class in a suburban school district that served mostly working- and middle-class families (cf., Hollon and Anderson, 1987). The vignette below comes from a unit on photosynthesis. The main point of the unit can be simply stated: Plants use light to make their own food through a process known as photosynthesis. However, easy this may seem, many middle school students (and adults) find this idea and its implications difficult and confusing (cf., Anderson and Roth, in press). Ms. Copeland's Teaching The first day of Ms. Copeland's unit focused not on food for plants, but on a topic more familiar to the students: food for people. The students had discussed whether each of a variety of substances could be considered a kind of food. Most substances they had agreed about easily. For example, they had no trouble agreeing that meat and potatoes were food. They also agreed that even though babies sometimes eat dirt, dirt was not food for people. Water, though, was a problem. The students knew that they needed water to survive, yet they would starve to death if they only drank water. Was water a food or wasn't it? Initially, the students were unable to reach consensus about this question. Ms. Copeland suggested a resolution to the problem based on the scientific definition of food offered in the textbook. FOOD refers only to materials that contain energy for living things. All living things must use food to grow and keep all their parts working properly. (Roth and Anderson, 1987, p. 16) Given this definition of food, most students had agreed that water was not food. Staci, however, had continued to argue vehemently that water was a kind of food. The issue had not been fully resolved when the first lesson of the unit ended. Ms. Copeland began the second lesson of the photosynthesis unit with a short review of the previous day's lesson concerning the nature of food for plants and the definition of food as energy-containing matter. Staci, who had argued the day before that water was food, commented: Now I'm convinced. The people I polled say you need food and water to survive.... I asked my dad and he said food has to have calories so I believe that. After discussing the role of water, Ms. Copeland posed several questions about how plants obtain food. By now, most of the students had become silent and appeared puzzled by the questions. Ms. Copeland explained that items "like plant food and food sticks make it sound like a plant reaches out and munches food." 2

3 At this point, Ms. Copeland told students to write down their thoughts about how plants get food and how food moves in a plant. She then asked students to talk about how food moves around inside plants. Several students described food entering through the roots of the plant, from carbon dioxide in the air, and from water in the soil. On the blackboard she wrote, "How Plants Get Food," and listed students' responses. The list included "water from the soil," "carbon dioxide from the air," "soil," "sunlight," "rain," "other plants," "roots and leaves," and "themselves." It is notable that the list contains several substances, including water, that the class had just decided were not food. To many students, though, this still did not seem unreasonable. Yesterday's discussion had been about food for people; this was food for plants. Ms. Copeland, however, did not let them off the hook so easily. As they discussed items on the list, she continued to bring up the scientific definition of food from the day before. T: Look at the list up there. If they get it from the soil, is it like there's little "Big Macs" in there? S1: It's minerals and nutrients... T: Do minerals supply energy? S2: Yeah... things like potato peels in the soil give it minerals. T: Do plants make the food or are minerals the food? Do minerals supply energy? S3: Sometimes... T: Does that mean "just on some days"? Anybody think more on that one? S4: If they supply energy, they'd be food, right? But wouldn't that be the same as saying water is food? T: How many calories in minerals? Is food for plants the same as food for people? If that were true, all you'd have to do is give them minerals... After discussing each item on the list, Ms. Copeland asked if any of the items were really food for plants. A few individuals insisted that some items were food while others made comments like, "I'm confused... where are we?" One student volunteered, "All that stuff just helps the plant make its food." Ms. Copeland repeated the statement, emphasizing the words "help" and "make", then repeated the original question about the plant: 3

4 T: Where does it get its food? S: (several call out) They make it! At this point most of Ms. Copeland's students were on their way to developing a basic minimal understanding of what it means to say that plants make their own food. The unit, however, continued for another week as the students considered an array of related questions: How did the plants make their own food? If all those other substances listed on the board were not food for plants, then what were they? How did plants use them? Why did plants die in the dark? How was it possible for seeds to sprout and start growing underground, where there was no light? How do humans and other animals depend on photosynthesis? Ms. Copeland's students figured out the answers to some of the above questions themselves; others were answered initially by Ms. Copeland or by the text. Several questions provoked lively discussions as students worked out for themselves whether the answers made sense and how they were connected with the answers to other, related questions. The students wrote about their ideas and participated in laboratory activities as well as talking and reading. In one activity for example, the students used iodine to test for the presence of starch in various parts of plants, including seeds (such as beans), stems, leaves, and roots (such as potatoes). They then wrote explanations of how the plants had made, transported, and stored the food that they had detected. Although Ms. Copeland treated student ideas with respect, she expected her students, in the end, to produce answers that reflected canonical scientific understanding. Easy Answers to Hard Questions What is there to see in the vignette above? What does it tell us about Ms. Copeland and her knowledge of teaching? I believe that most educational professionals--teachers, professors, or administrators--would find aspects of Ms. Copeland's performance that they considered praiseworthy, at least in comparison with the text-dominated teaching that prevails in most science classrooms. Explanations of what is good about her teaching, however, would be many and varied. Many of those explanations are associated with "catch phrases" that purport to capture the essence of what Ms. Copeland knew or what she was doing. She was engaged in "student-centered" teaching or "inquiry" teaching, she was "teaching process as well as content," she was "using wait time," and so on. The problem with these analyses is not that they are wrong; they often capture something important about the nature of good teaching. At the same time, however, these catch phrases and instant analyses all tend to encourage the belief that there is some relatively straightforward "key idea" that explains Ms. Copeland's teaching--some small set of prescriptions that would enable other teachers 4

5 to teach like Ms. Copeland if they would only follow them. In spite of their differences, these analyses all ultimately convey the impression that good teaching is like, say, safe driving: A relatively simple pattern of behavior based on skills and attitudes that teachers could master if they were willing to do so. Simple characterizations of good teaching may sometimes be useful, but they become troublesome when they are used as a basis for policy. Administrators see little reason why teachers should continue teaching in dull and ineffective ways when more interesting and effective methods are available, so they search for sanctions or incentives that will convince teachers to abandon their hidebound ways, or they try to develop workshops that will train teachers in the skills that they lack. Teachers, in contrast, tend to attribute their failure to teach like Ms. Copeland to factors beyond their control. They must cover so much content that they don't have time for discussions of the students' ideas, for instance, or Ms. Copeland's style of teaching is really more appropriate for students that are older, or younger, or richer, or poorer, than the ones that they are teaching. The flaw in the reasoning on both sides of these debates lies in the implicit assumption that Ms. Copeland simply "decided" to engage her students in the discussion quoted above, or that she was exercising some generalizable and easily mastered "teaching skills." In fact, what she was doing was more complicated than that. Neither is it true that Ms. Copeland simply possessed some inexplicable talent or personality trait that enabled her to do things that other teachers could not. In fact, Ms. Copeland's "talent" consisted primarily (though not exclusively) of skill and knowledge that she had developed through years of hard work. Ms. Copeland's achievement was more like building a well designed house than like learning to drive safely. It was a complex, multifaceted endeavor that relied on an extensive and well organized body of knowledge. The complexity of teachers' work and knowledge often goes unrecognized because, unlike houses, the "structures" that teachers build are largely invisible. Nevertheless, they are real and important. The above episode, for example, could not just "happen" in most classrooms. To understand how and why it happened in Ms. Copeland's classroom, we must see that Ms. Copeland and her students acted as they did because they understood this particular discussion to be part of a much larger pattern of practice that extended across the school year. Ms. Copeland's pattern of practice was complex and multifaceted. It included the social norms and expectations that prevailed in her classroom, the kinds of work that her students did and her ways of evaluating it, the judgments that she made about what science content to teach and how to teach it, her ways of treating individual students who encountered problems, and many other facets. The following sections are devoted to explicating the nature of Ms. Copeland's pattern of practice and discussing the knowledge that made it possible. First, I will discuss the social and pedagogical knowledge that Ms. Copeland used to create and maintain the patterns of social interaction in her classroom. Then I will discuss the nature of the knowledge of science and the knowledge of 5

6 students that Ms. Copeland used and communicated in her teaching. Social and Pedagogical Knowledge As a teacher, Ms. Copeland functioned as the leader of a "learning community" that operated within her classroom. The participants in this community, Ms. Copeland and her students, had developed shared understandings of their roles and responsibilities, the ways that they should speak and act, the kinds of work that they would do, and so forth. This section focuses on three aspects of life in Ms. Copeland's classroom community: (a) social norms and expectations that Ms. Copeland established in her classroom, (b) the kinds of academic work in which she engaged her students, and (c) the teaching strategies that she used. The section concludes with a discussion of the knowledge that she needed to create and maintain these particular aspects of her pattern of practice. Social norms and expectations. The first thing that a casual visitor to Ms. Copeland's room might have noticed while watching the events described above might have been that the class seemed enthusiastic, but not completely orderly. Sometimes students called out answers or questions without raising their hands, sometimes more than one student talked at a time. At this level, an observer's evaluation might be based on the relative importance that he or she attached to enthusiasm and order. There is more to see than enthusiasm and order, though. The vignette also provides evidence of other, more subtle norms and expectations that are probably more important in terms of their effects on students' understanding of science. Consider Staci's behavior, for example. It was interesting and somewhat unusual for a seventhgrade girl. She held on to her opinion against the opposition of her teacher and most of her classmates, continued to discuss the question with other people outside of class, and conceded in the end that she had been wrong all along. This is not typical behavior for 12-year-old girls, who are more likely to avoid intellectual arguments and confrontations with their teachers or their classmates, talk about anything but science outside of science class, and avoid at all costs being wrong when everyone else is right. So why did Staci continue talking outside of class about a scientific question? Why did she not seem embarrassed or concerned when she admitted that she had been wrong? It could be, of course, that Staci was simply unusually assertive and interested in science. There is nothing in the episode, however, to indicate that anyone considered Staci's behavior atypical, and other observations of Ms. Copeland's teaching seem to indicate that several other students besides Staci were also unusually assertive and interested in science. Although Staci's behavior would be unusual in other classrooms, it was not in Ms. Copeland's. In fact, Staci's behavior was part of a normal and expected pattern in Ms. Copeland's classroom. Ms. Copeland had succeeded in creating a social environment where sense-making behavior was highly 6

7 valued, and face-saving behavior was not. Most students believed that science was supposed to be coherent and sensible, for them personally as well as for others, and that they had a right to argue and ask questions if it did not. In Ms. Copeland's class these questions and arguments were perceived as worthwhile and enjoyable, and it was recognized that a cogent defense of an incorrect position might contribute more to the individual and collective sense making of the class than simply knowing the right answer. Correct answers were important, but so were good questions and good arguments, especially good arguments that helped clarify the reasoning behind the correct answers. Academic tasks. Walter Doyle (1986) argues that teachers inform students about their curriculum--their goals and expectations for student learning--primarily through their accountability systems. To know a teacher's real curriculum, Doyle argues, we should look not at formal statements of goals and objectives but at the work that students are engaged in and the ways that the work is evaluated. What sorts of work were Ms. Copeland's students engaged in and what did that reveal about her curriculum? At a superficial level, the academic work in her class seems pretty ordinary: Class discussions, worksheets, laboratory activities, and so forth. At a deeper level, though, there were important differences between her students' work and the work of students in other science classrooms. Her students rarely copied facts and definitions or answered questions about laboratory procedures. Instead, there was a heavy emphasis in their work on using scientific knowledge, particularly to explain how and why things happen in the natural world. Which direction does food normally travel in the stem of a plant? Why do green plants die in the dark? What will happen to a raindrop that soaks into the soil around a large bean plant? By way of comparison, consider the academic work associated with the chapters of photosynthesis in typical life science textbooks: The method of making food by storing light and energy is called. (McLaren, Stasik, and Levering, 1981, p. 55) Plants usually get their food a. by absorbing it from the soil directly b. from fertilizers that are found in organic material c. from other plants and animals d. by absorbing minerals and water and then making food (Oxenhorn, 1981, p. 74) What conditions are necessary in order for a leaf to carry on photosynthesis? (Kilburn and Howell, 1981, p. 390) Thus teachers who wish to teach for understanding must learn to reject or modify the academic tasks 7

8 supplied to them in most textbooks and other teaching materials. These "teaching aids" support a kind of teaching that leads to rote memorization of facts and definitions, not teaching that helps students deepen their understanding of the natural world. Teaching strategies. Textbook developers have good reasons for providing academic work that consists primarily of relatively easy but useless questions. The most important of these reasons is consumer demand: Many teachers want textbooks with these sorts of questions and would reject academic tasks like those used by Ms. Copeland as "too difficult" for their students. In a sense, they are right; most students cannot learn to answer questions like those that Ms. Copeland focused on without the help of sophisticated and demanding teaching strategies. Such teaching strategies are neither new nor unknown. In fact, many people who have no training in professional education routinely use strategies more sophisticated and effective than those employed by most science teachers. Examples from out-of-school contexts include masters working with apprentice craftsmen (Collins, Brown, and Newman, in press) and mothers teaching their toddlers how to speak (Greenfield, 1984). Collins, Brown, and Newman (in press) point out that such successful everyday learning situations have a number of common features. They occur within the context of a "culture of expert practice" where the learners are strongly motivated to master come skills or tasks that will help them become full-fledged members of that culture. Teachers and learners together generally work their way through a succession of activities in which responsibility of doing the task gradually passes from the teacher to the learner. Collins, Brown, and Newman summarize this sequence as modeling (the teacher does the task while the learner observes), coaching (the learner does the task with support and guidance from the teacher), and fading (the learner gradually assumes full control). As Collins, Brown, and Newman (in press) point out, making teaching strategies like these work in a public school setting is fraught with difficulty. It is much easier to establish a "culture of expert practice" in an environment where "experts" outnumber learners than in a school setting, where learners are a large majority. The students often are not strongly motivated to learn in public school settings. In contrast to the visible activities of children learning to speak or apprentices learning a craft, students in a science classroom are learning patterns of thought and reasoning that are often silent and invisible. Thus Ms. Copeland's achievement was a considerable one. She created a social environment where students were intrinsically motivated to learn science and where they were willing to express their thoughts. When students "made their thoughts visible" to the class, Ms. Copeland could help them see the strengths and weaknesses in their thinking and engage in the modeling, coaching, and fading of canonical scientific reasoning. Ms. Copeland's social and pedagogical knowledge. This section has been devoted to describing what Ms. Copeland did as she taught her unit on photosynthesis. The pattern of Ms. Copeland's practice included the social environment that she created in her classroom, the academic 8

9 work that she engaged her students in, her teaching strategies, and much more. To describe this pattern of practice, however, is not to say what Ms. Copeland knew that made it possible for her to create and maintain it. Describing Ms. Copeland's social and pedagogical knowledge is difficult in part because her knowledge was personal and context-bound in at least two senses. First, her knowledge was tied to her particular teaching situation. The evidence for the extent of her knowledge takes the form of her success in developing a rich and effective pattern of practice with those particular students, in that particular course, using the particular teaching materials and other resources available to her at that time. It is hard to say to what extent Ms. Copeland knew how to develop this pattern of practice in a more general sense. Ms. Copeland's social and pedagogical knowledge was also personal and context-bound in that it was largely tacit knowledge; she lacked a language or a set of categories to describe and explain what she knew. The language of simplistic solutions that prevails in workshops and methods courses is obviously inadequate to describe what Ms. Copeland knew and did. So is the language of the "teaching suggestions" in the teacher's editions of textbooks. We don't really know very much about how Ms. Copeland developed the tacit knowledge that she used to lead her classroom community, develop academic tasks, and decide on teaching strategies. We believe that, like most teachers, she had no choice but to develop this knowledge largely through reflection on her own teaching experience. Although this method of developing knowledge seems to have worked reasonably well for Ms. Copeland, there are two important reasons for believing that it is not working very well for the profession as a whole. The first is obvious: Without more effective forms of support most teachers fail to develop patterns of practice as sophisticated or as effective as Ms. Copeland's. The second is more subtle: The absence of an adequate language for organizing and expressing their knowledge of practice condemns each generation of science teachers to rediscovering the knowledge of their predecessors through personal experience rather than building on the knowledge of previous successful science teachers. Knowledge of Science As a teacher Ms. Copeland was poised between two subcultures: an adult subculture of scientists and their work and a very different subculture of the twelve-year-old children in her classroom. Her job was to transform the children, to make them somehow more like scientists than they were before they came to her. This left Ms. Copeland with a great many choices about what to teach, for her children were unlike scientists in a great many ways. It also left her with an immense problem, because the scientific subculture in its adult form is distant and inaccessible to most students. Scientists have access to a vast and complex body of knowledge that they communicate to each other in an arcane 9

10 jargon full of technical terms. They work in ways that require a great deal of knowledge and technical skill, and often immense patience and perseverance, trying to answer questions that are often themselves incomprehensible to children. Thus in order to transform her students Ms. Copeland had to transform science. She had to create a body of scientific knowledge and a version of the scientific subculture that were accessible to her students. In transforming science Ms. Copeland had to deal, at least implicitly, with some difficult and philosophically profound questions: What is science and what are its component parts? Out of the entire scientific enterprise and its products, what is important for seventh-grade to learn now and what can wait until later? What is comprehensible to twelve-year-olds and what is beyond their reach? It is possible, of course, to teach science without thinking explicitly about the above questions at all. Teachers have access to a variety of materials that provide, or purport to provide, ready-made answers; foremost among these are textbooks and curriculum guides. Unfortunately, there many reasons to question the adequacy of the textbooks' representation of the scientific enterprise, including the statistics on students' learning at the beginning of this paper. Science as represented in most textbooks seems to be pretty dull and disconnected stuff, certainly not something that most children would want to find out about in their spare time. Even more troubling, the culture of most classrooms where those textbooks are used has little in common with the culture of adult science. Most adult scientists, for example, spend relatively little time copying facts and definitions out of books, yet that is the primary activity of many students in science classes. For many children, exposure to science textbooks and to the culture of science classrooms results not in understanding but in alienation from science. Ms. Copeland's classroom and some other classrooms demonstrate that this alienation is not inevitable. It is possible to construct learning environments that represent the culture of science in a rich, full, and interesting way. Ms. Copeland succeeded in helping her students to see how science incorporates a useful and coherent body of knowledge, and she constructed a classroom environment that conveyed something of the nature of science as a social enterprise. Each of these characteristics of her teaching is discussed below. Scientific knowledge as useful. Textbooks typically depict scientific knowledge as consisting of "content"--an array of facts, definitions, formulas, and so forth--and "process skills" that scientists use then they are discovering new content. Both parts of this depiction are troublesome. There is strong reason to doubt whether science process skills exist at all, at least as the generalizable and content-free skills often depicted in the science education literature (Kuhn, Amsel, and O'Laughlin, 1988; Millar and Driver, 1987). As for content, the typical textbook depiction of science makes it hard to understand what makes all those facts and definitions worth knowing. The textbooks are full of answers, but they generally fail to inform their readers about the questions that scientists were asking when they invented 10

11 those answers. What is missing, in other words, from the textbooks' depiction of science content is a sense of why scientists seek their knowledge and what they do with their knowledge once they have it. Scientific knowledge provides us not just with statements about the nature of the world, but with a wide array of conceptual and technological tools. People who use these tools--the language, theories, and instruments of science--are capable of describing, explaining, making predictions about, and controlling the world with a precision, power, and depth of understanding that would be otherwise impossible. For example, the idea that plants use light to make their own food can be treated as a simple statement of fact; this is what most textbooks (and most science teachers) do. Used as a tool, however, this same idea can help to explain many things about green plants: Why they have leaves, why their leaves turn toward the sun, why they die without light, why animals depend on them, and so forth. Furthermore, the tools of science provide those who master them with access to the community of scientists and to the knowledge and power that community possesses. There is no clear line of demarcation between "scientific" and "unscientific" description, explanation, prediction, and control. People engage in these activities scientifically to the extent that they use the conceptual and technological tools of science to increase the power and precision of their performance. These thoughts suggest a view of the science curriculum in which students develop a progressively deeper understanding of science by engaging in activities that use scientific knowledge as a tool. Children entered Ms. Copeland's class already describing, explaining, predicting, and trying to control the world around them, though often in ways that lacked power and precision. Ms. Copeland gave her students opportunities to increase the power and precision with which they engaged in these important activities, rather than limiting them to less significant activities such as recalling facts. In contrast, many other science teachers teach students about the conceptual tools of science without teaching them how to use those tools. In these classrooms, students are generally exposed to large numbers of facts and vocabulary words, tested for recall, and moved on to the next topic (cf. Eaton, Anderson, and Smith, 1984; Hollon and Anderson, 1987). The facts and vocabulary words are considered to be "understood" when students can associate them with other facts, definitions, or vocabulary words. They are rarely used for the purposes of describing, explaining, predicting, or controlling the real world. This instructional pattern is sometimes justified, implicitly or explicitly, by the assertion that students need to learn "basic facts" before moving on to "higher order thinking." Teachers argue that they can expose students to these facts and concepts early on, but that students will develop meaningful understandings of these ideas only later, when they are capable of abstract thinking. This reasoning is an empty rationalization. Children begin to engage in the activities labeled as "higher order thinking"--description, explanation, prediction, and control of the world around them--before they learn to memorize facts and reproduce them on demand. Students who are made to 11

12 memorize and reproduce facts are practicing an activity that has little in common with meaningful uses of scientific knowledge and which does little to prepare them to use scientific knowledge meaningfully. A common instructional pattern in the classrooms of skilled and experienced science teachers is one in which the teacher uses scientific knowledge meaningfully during lectures and discussions, but not the students. The students witness the teacher's performance and often participate in it in a limited way, providing important words or bits of information as requested by the teacher. However, their independent academic work still consists primarily of producing small bits of information on demand. Consider, for example, the way one such teacher, whom we shall call Mr. Barnes, taught the same lesson on photosynthesis as Ms. Copeland. Like Ms. Copeland, he made a list on the board of students' ideas about where plants get their food. The discussion then proceeded as follows: T: Let's go back to what we talked about yesterday. We said, we gave a definition for food. What was the definition of food? S: Energy? Anything you can eat that is energy? T: All right. In talking about food for ourselves, we say it's the things that we eat but it's to obtain energy for life processes. (Writes on board: Food: Materials that contain energy to help living live and grow.) That's close... on p. 2 they gave a definition (he reads it aloud)... So that's pretty close to a scientific definition of food. S: You left "things" out. T: Yes. We could say "organisms." If a plant is a living thing.... Is a plant a living thing? S: (several nod yes) T: Sure, we all understand that plants are living things. If a plant is a thing, then it has to use some food for energy. What they want you to struggle with is where do they get food from. All too often we're brainwashed- -the stuff we get from the store is labelled "plant food." That does help plants grow but does it contain energy? S: (very quietly) No. T: It's hard to visualize whether it does contain energy. It does seem to help plants grow. But it's like vitamins.... We came to this conclusion yesterday, didn't we? That vitamins don't give us energy but do help us live and grow. It's the same situation with plant food, the stuff we buy at 12

13 the store. It's improperly labelled. They're fertilizers that help the plan grow but the don't contain energy. (pointing to "minerals" on the students' list on the board) Minerals from the soil are fertilizer types of stuff but there's not really energy in minerals you get from the soil. (Pointing to "air" on the list on the board) The air does contain things that plants use but they really don't contain energy. Yesterday we saw a filmstrip. Anybody remember where did all the energy come from that plants were using? The same general pattern prevailed in most of Mr. Barnes' classes. He told his students much more about plants and photosynthesis than Ms. Copeland. Furthermore what he told them was generally accurate, well organized, and modeled the usefulness of scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, Ms. Copeland's students did better on a posttest assessing their understanding of photosynthesis. These results are in keeping with a general pattern (cf. Anderson and Roth, in press): In order to master new scientific knowledge, most students need to use that knowledge themselves to make sense of the world around them. By helping her students to do this, Ms. Copeland conveyed to them a powerful and effective message about the particular scientific ideas that they were studying and about the nature of science in general. Science as coherent. It is notable in the vignette of Ms. Copeland's teaching that the primary language of discussion is the language of the students, not the specialized language of science. The class discussed "food," "calories," and "potato peels" rather than "organic compounds," "chemical potential energy," and "carbohydrates." In doing this she seemed to sacrifice much of the power and precision of scientific language. She made this sacrifice, however, in order to represent science faithfully in another, more important way. Ms. Copeland's willingness to use her students' words when talking about science was one of several ways in which she made them aware that scientific knowledge is strongly connected with their personal knowledge of the world. She helped her students to see science not as a list of strange and obscure facts but as a coherent conceptual system that was linked to the students' "common sense" understandings. Students should expect the two types of knowledge to fit together into a single integrated understanding of the world. Ultimately, the coherence of scientific knowledge can be fully expressed only in the specialized language, verbal and mathematical, of science. Ms. Copeland recognized this and devoted much of her time to helping students understand new words, such as "photosynthesis" and scientific usages of familiar words, such as food or energy. Unlike Mr. Barnes, though, who tended to use a lot of scientific terms to maximize the coherence of his own presentations, Ms. Copeland used fewer scientific terms sought to maximize the coherence of her students' understanding. Science as a social enterprise. Recent work in the history and philosophy of science (Kuhn, 13

14 1970; Mayr, 1982; Toulmin, 1961, 1972) depicts scientists as engaged in a collective attempt to understand the natural world. They constantly search for new and more powerful ways to understand and control the world. Scientists who believe that they have developed some new knowledge communicate that knowledge to the community of their peers, and the knowledge is considered valid only after it has been reviewed and accepted by that community. No individual scientist knows all that is known about a topic; the growing body of scientific knowledge is the product, and the possession, of the entire scientific community. In her classroom Ms. Copeland created an environment where students felt that, like scientists, they were engaged in a process of collective sense making. Their high level of involvement can be explained by the fact that within her classroom the students, not the teacher or the textbook, were the ultimate arbiters of new knowledge. New ideas from any source--the teacher, the textbook, or the students themselves--were subjected to "peer review" by the students. Most students undoubtedly realized that the ideas in the textbook would "win out" in the end, but they also understood that that was not really the point. They were enthusiastic in accepting their right, and their obligation, to demand that any new idea make sense to them, be useful to them, and be integrated into the growing body of their own scientific knowledge. Ms. Copeland recognized and rewarded the contributions of students who, like Staci, could mount sustained and reasonable defenses of incorrect points of view. She did so because arguments like Staci's were valuable to the sense-making enterprise of the students as individuals and of the classroom community as a whole. The ideas that in learning science students should "act like scientists" is not a new one. It was the basis for the development of "discovery" or "inquiry-oriented" science programs during the 1960s. The failure of those programs (cf., Roth, 1984; Smith and Anderson, 1984) can, I believe, be attributed in part to two related factors. First, the inquiry programs concentrated on imitating the procedures that individual scientists follow in their laboratories rather than on the collective sense-making functions of scientific communities. Second, students in inquiry programs were often given few opportunities to use their scientific knowledge or to connect it with their own personal beliefs about the world. Thus the "hands-on" activities of inquiry programs imitated the form of scientific research, but I believe that Ms. Copeland's class activities came closer to representing its underlying substance. Ms. Copeland's knowledge of science. Ms. Copeland chose to present science to her students in a way that emphasized some aspects of the scientific subculture, especially its individual and collective sense-making functions, while deemphasizing traditional "content" and "process" goals. Some educators, especially those who are highly scientifically literate like Mr. Barnes, may regard this as basically a value judgement, a choice among alternative reasonable goals. However, there is a growing body of empirical evidence (reviewed in Anderson and Smith, 1987) that this is not the case. Ms. Copeland's students did not just learn different knowledge, they learned more. Most students simply 14

15 cannot make sense of and remember science as it is typically taught. Thus it is incumbent upon the education community to help more teachers learn how to present science as Ms. Copeland did. Clearly, Ms. Copeland could not have taught as she did without knowing quite a bit about science. What she knew, however, was not the same as the "science" included in most science textbooks. Neither was it the same as (or a subset of) the science taught in most university science courses. University science courses are designed to provide an insider's view of science: to help induct new members into the scientific subculture, to prepare college students to communicate with scientists in their language and work with scientists on their terms. Ms. Copeland, however, was not communicating and working with scientists; she was communicating and working with children. Rather than acting as a member of the scientific subculture, she worked as a mediator between the subculture of science and the very different subculture of children. Thus the nature of their work demands that Ms. Copeland and other science teachers develop an outsider's as well as an insider's view of science. They must decide what is essential to the scientific enterprise and what is peripheral, which aspects of scientific thought and language are accessible to the children they teach and which are not, how scientific thinking is like their students' thinking and how it is different. Like her knowledge of practice, that portion of Ms. Copeland's knowledge of science that went beyond what it taught in science courses was largely a personal construction, knowledge developed in response to the problems that she experienced while trying to teach middle school science. The curriculum materials that were supposed to support her in this aspect of her work provided little useful guidance; they tended to focus on the superficial form of the scientific enterprise rather than its underlying substance: the collective search for coherent and useful knowledge of the natural world. Most universities offer courses that address these issues, but they tend to be hidden away in subdisciplines such as the history and philosophy of science that are not usually viewed as relevant to the training of teachers. Ms. Copeland was able to overcome these difficulties and construct in her classroom a rich and meaningful representation of the scientific enterprise. Most teachers, unfortunately, are not. Knowledge of Students The essence of Ms. Copeland's job was transforming students--or more accurately helping them to transform themselves--into people who are more scientifically literate than they were before they came to her. She could not do this job well without knowing quite a bit about her students and how they understand the world. This knowledge included both an understanding of how her students think about specific science topics and an understanding of how her students' learning of science is influenced 15

16 by more general social, cultural, and economic factors. Students' knowledge of specific scientific topics. In order to understand science meaningfully, students must connect canonical scientific knowledge with their own personal knowledge of the world. Students who fail to do so end up viewing science as a collection of facts, definitions, and formulas that are about topics too distant from their own lives to have any personal meaning or significance. Too often, this is exactly the kind of learning that occurs in science classrooms. It is often hard to see how scientific knowledge connects with students' personal beliefs about the world. Most of Ms. Copeland's students, for example, knew little or nothing about photosynthesis per se before she began teaching them about the topic. This does not mean, however, that the students had no relevant prior knowledge. In fact, the vignette from Ms. Copeland's teaching shows that the students had lots of ideas about food, and about plants, and about food for plants (see also Anderson and Roth, in press). Some of these ideas were useful and scientifically correct: The association between food and energy (or calories), for example. Other ideas were incompatible with canonical scientific knowledge, such as the students' tendency to associate food and eating. Middle school students know that food is what you eat. They reason, therefore, that food for plants is what plants "eat": Water and soil minerals (or "plant food"). The students' beliefs about plants' structure and function showed a similar mixture of scientifically acceptable and unacceptable beliefs. Most middle school students, for example, understand that plants are living organisms. Thus they naturally try to understand how plants work by analogy with more familiar organisms, such as animals. In their attempts to make plants comprehensible, they reason that they must engage in functions similar to those of animals, including eating and digestion. Thus to understand photosynthesis, students must go through a complex process of conceptual change. They must abandon their assumptions about the metabolic similarities between plants and humans and restructure their thinking about the nature of food. Without this involved process of restructuring and integration of personal knowledge with scientific knowledge, students cannot be successful in using knowledge about photosynthesis to make reasonable predictions and explanations of real-world phenomena. In order to help her students transform their thinking, Ms. Copeland had to guide them through the conceptual change process. Social and cultural influences. From the time of its origins in the 17th century through the mid-19th century, modern science was virtually the exclusive province of upper class, western European, white males, mostly men of independent means who could practice science without outside financial support. Naturally, these men tended to make science in their own image, depending on the patterns of thought and language and the assumptions about the relationship between man and nature that were most comfortable and familiar to them. There can be no doubt that these men succeeded in constructing a body of knowledge that has 16

17 significance for all humans. People of all cultures have accepted the validity and importance of Western science and have set about trying to master it. In contrast, Western views of history, or religion, or political philosophy have gained far less universal acceptance. At the same time, though, modern science retains some of the marks of its origins, and this is a problem for teachers of socially and culturally diverse groups of students. For example, Keller (1985) points out that modern science still tends to rely on metaphors and modes of thought that are associated with masculinity in our society. Many scientists continue to be interested in finding ways of controlling nature and of discovering the laws to which "she" is subject. Warmth, empathy, and love are regarded as dangerous emotions, as threats to the skepticism and cool objectivity that are necessary for the development of reliable scientific knowledge. Thus many girls get the subtle message that to be feminine and to be scientific are mutually exclusive alternatives. Differences in language and culture can also affect the ease with which students master scientific reasoning and knowledge. Some of these difficulties may be quite specific. For example, Orr (1987) argues that students who speak Black English Vernacular often use "function words" such as prepositions and conjunctions in nonstandard ways, and that these nonstandard usages influence the way that they understand, and are understood, when they are dealing with quantitative problems expressed in standard English. Other culture-related difficulties are more general in nature. For example, there is a large and complex literature on the effects of culture and literacy on patterns of reasoning (cf., Egan, 1987; Olson, 1986; Scribner and Cole, 1983). This research indicates that the patterns of our reasoning are influenced by the culture in which we are raised. Egan, for example, uses historical and anthropological evidence to contrast "literacy" and "orality" as alternate ways of knowing, each embedded in a rich cultural context. He notes, for example, the explanatory challenge posed by the Homeric epics. How could Homer (who was apparently illiterate), have constructed such a complex and extensive work of art? How could he even remember a sequence of works more than 28,000 lines long? Recent archeological evidence indicates that many of the events described in the Iliad actually occurred. How did an illiterate society keep this memory intact for half a millennium? Egan responds that the Homeric epics, and similar myths in other oral cultures, were far more than just stories; they were the "libraries" of oral societies, the repositories of the accumulated knowledge of those cultures. The framework of the epics' story lines and a variety of technical devices, including rhyme, meter, and an array of repeated phrases, made it possible for illiterate poets not to remember a fixed text, but to "stitch together" their poems as they sang. In this way, the members of oral cultures could routinely perform what seem to us extraordinary feats of memory and preserve the accumulated knowledge of their cultures. The knowledge accumulated by oral cultures took a form, however, quite different from 17

18 knowledge as we think of it today. There were no clear divisions between fact and fiction, between myth and reality, between stories and theories. These sorts of distinctions, as well as innovations such as syllogistic reasoning, were made possible by the development of writing as an alternate form of memory and our resultant freedom to manipulate and analyze texts and ideas. Egan makes this point by quoting a passage from Levi-Bruhl on the oral peoples that he studied: This extraordinary development of memory, and a memory which faithfully reproduces the minutest details of sense-impressions in the correct order of their appearance, is shown moreover by the wealth of vocabulary and the grammatical complexity of the languages. Now the very men who speak these languages and possess this power of memory are (in Australia or northern Brazil, for instance) incapable of counting beyond two and three. The slightest mental effort involving abstract reasoning, however rudimentary it may be, is so distasteful to them that they immediately declare themselves tired and give it up. (Levi-Bruhl, 1910/1985, p. 115) Egan argues that orality did not disappear with the advent of literacy; modern cultures are complex mixtures of oral and literate traditions. Western science is, of course, the product of a highly literate class within a literate cultural tradition, so it depends strongly on literate rather than oral modes of thinking. Thus in scientific contexts, myth, metaphor, and story telling are devalued, while literate modes of thought involving clear distinctions and syllogistic reasoning are highly valued. This can be a problem for students whose own cultural traditions have strong oral roots. The purpose of this argument is to suggest that science has deep-seated characteristics that tend to make it more easily accessible to men then to women and more easily accessible to people who were raised in highly literate environments. Thus, at present, our schools succeed in teaching science to those students whose cultural roots are most compatible with the culture of science. We have an obligation, though, to nurture the scientific understanding of students whose social and cultural backgrounds are less easily compatible with the values and habits of thought characteristic of the scientific subculture. Ms. Copeland's knowledge of students. Both Ms. Copeland's teaching and our interviews with her revealed that she knew a lot about her students and their thinking. She was able, for example, to predict in considerable detail how they would respond to questions about the nature of food and the functioning of plants, even before she began teaching the unit. Like her knowledge of practice, though, her knowledge of students was mostly personal and context-bound. She had developed this knowledge through her reflection on experience, with little help from teacher's guides, her university courses, or inservice teacher education programs. This was true in spite of the fact that the past decade has seen a revolution in our research-based understanding of students and their scientific thinking (cf., Novak, 1987; Osborne and Freyberg, 1985), as well as research like that cited above concerning the effects of culture on knowledge and reasoning. 18

19 The products of this research, though, are still mostly hidden away in the research literature and in graduate courses; they have so far had little influence on the developers of teaching materials or on the education of intending or inservice teachers. Implications for Policy This paper focuses on the question: What do teachers need to know in order to teach science well? In the introduction to this paper I compared science teaching to building a house, suggesting that both were complex, multifaceted achievements requiring an extensive and well-organized body of knowledge. The main body of the paper has been devoted to explaining the nature of this achievement for one good science teacher and to discussing the knowledge that made her achievement possible. The main point of this discussion is that successful teaching requires a lot of knowledge about social arrangements in classrooms, about pedagogy, about science, and about students. I would now like to return to the house-building analogy in order to make a second point: Although achievements like house building and science teaching always require a lot of knowledge, the exact nature of the knowledge required depends on the context in which people work and the tools that they use. Consider two extended "case studies" of house building: Laura Ingalls Wilder's description of how her father built a log cabin in Little House on the Prairie and Tracy Kidder's (1985) account of the building of a house in modern New England. The building of both houses required knowledge and skill. Here is an excerpt from Wilder's account of how her father made the floor of their cabin: One day the last log was split, and next morning Pa began to lay the floor. He dragged the logs into the house and laid them one by one, flat side up. With his spade he scraped the ground underneath, and fitted the round side of the log firmly down into it. With his ax he trimmed away the edge of bark and cut the wood straight, so that each log fitted against the next, with hardly a crack between them. Then he took the head of the ax in his hand, and with little, careful blows he smoothed the wood. He squinted along the log to see that the surface was straight and true. He took off last little bits, here and there. Finally he ran his hand over the smoothness, and nodded. "Not a splinter!" he said. "That'll be all right for little bare feet to run over." He left that log fitted into its place, and dragged in another. (Wilder, 1935/1971, pp ) By way of comparison, the following passage describes how Jim Locke planned the support structure for the floor of the Souwaine house. He has to decide where to put a lot of sticks, so that the fewest possible are used and the 19

20 least amount of cutting is required. Plywood comes in four-foot-by-eight-foot sheets. He has to make sure that the floor joists are spaced in such a way that two edges of every sheet of plywood come to rest on something solid. He also has to determine exactly the boundaries of each room because some will be floored with oak, some with tile, some with carpeting, and each of those surfaces calls for a different quality and thickness of plywood. The trickiest part, though, is the girders, the beams they'll make to hold up the floor joists. Bill wants a sunken floor in the living room. At one edge of that room a very heavy hearth occurs. In essence there's a place where floors of three different levels will meet. Jim stacks one set of girders onto another, and goes on. One section of floor is a little too wide for those joists. Or he could use two-by-twelves of spruce. Or he could use Douglas fir two-by-tens. Which is cheaper? Which takes less time to install? Jim has settled on Douglas fir. It comes from the Pacific Northwest. His supplier has to order it specially, and Jim hopes that it will arrive on time. (Kidder, 1985, pp ) As Resnick (1987) suggests, the knowledge that Charles Ingalls needed in his head and his hands is now built into the tools and materials that are routinely available to modern house builders. This does not mean that house building is now simple. Rather, by developing tools, materials, and support systems that were not available to Charles Ingalls, we have made it possible for modern house builders to construct houses that are far more complex, and far more comfortable, than the Ingalls' little log cabin. In the process, we have changed the nature of house builders' work and the knowledge that it requires. Thus there can be no single answer to the question of what teachers need to know to teach science well. It will always depend on the nature of the contexts in which they work and the tools and materials available for them to use. I have suggested in this paper that Ms. Copeland's work was more like Charles Ingalls' house building than like the house building process described in Kidder's book. In building her pattern of practice, Ms. Copeland was faced with a constant struggle to compensate for the deficiencies of the materials that she was using and the training that she had been given. It is still necessary for teachers like Ms. Copeland to devote much of their knowledge, time, and energy to doing this; I am not sure that the solution to our problems in science education lies mainly in trying to train other teachers to do the same. The challenge that we face is not simply one of finding talented teachers or of improving science teachers' skills or attitudes. We must find ways of helping thousands of science teachers build patterns of practice that are more sophisticated and more effective than those that prevail today. Among the many science teachers that my colleagues and I have observed in our research and teacher education work, Ms. Copeland stands out as a rare (though not unique) exception. Most of the teachers we have seen have been sincere, hard-working people who developed patterns of practice that were far less functional than Ms. Copeland's. In the main, they succeeded in keeping their students well organized 20

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