In late 1960s recreational drug use becomes fashionable among young, white,
middle class Americans. The social stigmatization previously associated with
drugs lessens as their use becomes more mainstream. Drug use becomes
representative of protest and social rebellion in the era's atmosphere of
political unrest.

The Johnson administration consolidates several drug agencies into the Justice
Dept.'s Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD). The move is intended to
diminish turf wars between the various agencies, but tensions between the BNDD
and Customs continue.

Psychiatrist Dr. Robert DuPont conducts urinalysis of everyone entering
the D.C. jail system in August of 1969. He finds 44% test positive for heroin.
DuPont convinces the city's Mayor Walter Washington to allow him to provide
methadone to heroin addicts.

In an attempt to reduce marijuana smuggling from Mexico, the Customs Dept.,
under Commissioner Myles Ambrose, subjects every vehicle crossing the
Mexican border to a three-minute inspection. The operation lasts two weeks and
wreaks economic havoc on both sides of the border. Mexico agrees to more
aggressively attack marijuana trade, but the operation didn't seriously impact
the flow of marijuana into U.S.

The Nixon administration provides funds to allow Dr. Robert DuPont to
expand his methadone program in Washington D.C. The program is controversial
because some believe methadone to be nothing more than a substitute for heroin,
and others feel there are racial undertones behind the effort. However, one
year after the program begins, burglaries in D.C. decrease by 41%.

Congress
passes the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act
This law consolidates previous drug laws and reduces penalties for marijuana
possession. It also strengthens law enforcement by allowing police to conduct
"no-knock" searches. This act includes the Controlled Substances Act, which establishes five categories ("schedules") for regulating drugs based on their medicinal value and potential for addiction.

At a press conference Nixon names drug abuse as "public enemy number one in the
United States." He announces the creation of the Special Action Office for
Drug Abuse Prevention (SAODAP), to be headed by Dr. Jerome Jaffe, a
leading methadone treatment specialist. During the Nixon era, for the only
time in the history of the war on drugs, the majority of funding goes towards
treatment, rather than law enforcement.

Operation
Golden Flow goes into effect in order to attack habits of U.S.
servicemen.

In June 1971, the U.S. military announces they will begin urinalysis of all
returning servicemen. The program goes into effect in September and the
results are favorable: only 4.5% of the soldiers test positive for heroin.

The Nixon Administration creates the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement
(ODALE) to establish joint federal/local task forces to fight the drug trade at
the street level. Myles Ambrose is appointed director.

U.S. and French law enforcement initiate a series of successful busts of the
"French Connection," a Marseilles-based heroin industry controlled by Corsican
gangsters and the U.S. Mafia. The results are soon evident in a heroin
shortage on the U.S. East Coast.

President Nixon sets up this "super agency" to handle all aspects of the drug
problem. The DEA consolidates agents from the BNDD, Customs, the CIA and ODALE. The administrator of the new agency is John R. Bartels.

The Domestic Council Drug Abuse Task Force releases a report that recommends
that "priority in Federal efforts in both supply and demand reduction be
directed toward those drugs which inherently pose a greater risk to the
individual and to society." The White Paper names marijuana a "low priority
drug" in contrast to heroin, amphetamines and mixed barbiturates.

Colombian police seize 600 kilos of cocaine from a small plane at the Cali
airport--the largest cocaine seizure to date. In response, drug traffickers
begin a vendetta--"Medellin Massacre." 40 people die in Medellin on one
weekend. This event signals the new power of Colombia's cocaine industry,
headquartered in Medellin.

Noting that several states had already decriminalized marijuana, Jimmy Carter
campaigns in favor of relinquishing federal criminal penalties for possession
of up to one ounce of marijuana. Carter's drug czar, Dr. Peter Bourne
does not view marijuana, or even cocaine, as a serious public health threat.

Troubled by the presence of marijuana at her 13-year old daughter's birthday
party, Keith Schuchard and her neighbor Sue Rusche form Families in Action, the
first parents' organization designed to fight teenage drug abuse. Schuchard
writes a letter to Dr. Robert DuPont, then head of the National
Institute of Drug Abuse, which leads DuPont to abandon his support for
decriminalization.

A May 30, 1977 Newsweek story on cocaine is later accused to have
glamorized the drug's affects and underestimated its dangers. The story
reports that "Among hostesses in the smart sets of Los Angeles and New York, a
little cocaine, like Dom Perignon and Beluga caviar, is now de rigueur
at dinners. Some partygivers pass it around along with the canapes on silver
trays... the user experiences a feeling of potency, of confidence, of energy."

The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act is amended. It now
allows law enforcement to seize all money and/or "other things of value
furnished or intended to be furnished by any person in exchange for a
controlled substance [and] all proceeds traceable to such an exchange."

Carlos Lehder, a key member of the alliance that would become the Medellin
cartel, revolutionizes the cocaine trade with his purchase of 165 acres on the
Bahamian island of Norman's Cay. Lehder is the first to use small
planes for transporting the drug. He uses the island as a hub for planes to
refuel between Colombia and the U.S.

The alliance between the Ochoa family, Pablo Escobar, Carlos Lehder and Jose
Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha strengthens into what will become known as the
"Medellin Cartel." The traffickers cooperate in the manufacturing,
distribution and marketing of their cocaine. The kidnapping of Marta Ochoa by
Colombian guerrillas consolidates the alliance. The traffickers form a group
named MAS, a Spanish acronym for "Death to Kidnappers," announcing the imminent
execution of any guerrilla kidnappers. Marta Ochoa is released without harm
several months later.

The U.S. and Colombia ratify a bilateral extradition treaty, which they had
previously approved in 1979. When Reagan assumes office and prioritizes the
war on drugs, extradition becomes the greatest fear of the Colombian traffickers.

In response to U.S. pressure, the Bahamian government begins to crack down on
Carlos Lehder's operation on Norman's Cay. Lehder moves his residence from
the island in 1982, but operations continue for another year.

Deal
between Escobar and Noriega allows cocaine transport through Panama.

Panamanian General Manuel Noriega and Pablo Escobar cut a deal which allows
Escobar to ship cocaine through Panama for $100,000 per load. The two had met
in 1981 when Noriega mediated negotiations for the release of Marta Ochoa.

Outraged by the drug trade's increasing violence in their city, Miami citizens
lobby the federal government for help. Reagan responds by creating a
cabinet-level task force, the Vice President's Task Force on South Florida.
Headed by George Bush, it combines agents from the DEA, Customs, FBI, ATF, IRS,
Army and Navy to mobilize against drug traffickers. Reagan later create s
several other regional task forces throughout the U.S.

Escobar cultivates an image of "Robin Hood" by building low-income housing,
handing out money in Medellin slums and appearing throughout the city
accompanied by Catholic priests. Escobar is elected an alternate
representative from Envigado, but he's driven out of Congress in 1983 by
Colombia's crusading Minister of Justice, Rodrigo Lara Bonilla.

Largest
cocaine seizure ever raises U.S. awareness of Medellin cartel.

The seizure of 3,906 pounds of cocaine, valued at over $100 million wholesale,
from a Miami International Airport hangar permanently alters U.S. law
enforcement's approach towards the drug trade. They realize Colombian
traffickers must be working together because no single trafficker could be
behind a shipment this large.

By tracking the illegal sale of massive amounts of ether to Colombia, the DEA
and Colombian police discover Tranquilandia, a laboratory operation deep in the
Colombian jungle. In the subsequent bust, law enforcement officials destroy 14
laboratory complexes, which contains 13.8 metric tons of cocaine, 7 airplanes,
and 11,800 drums of chemicals, conservatively estimated at $1.2 billion. This
bust confirms the consolidation of the Medellin cartel's manufacturing operation.

Assassination
of the Colombian attorney general fuels the extradition controversy.

Colombian Minister of Justice Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, who had crusaded against
the Medellin cartel, is assassinated by a gang of motorcycle thugs. President
Belisario Betancur who opposed extradiction, announces "We will extradite
Colombians." Carlos Lehder is the first to be put on the list. The crackdown
forces the Ochoas, Escobar and Rodriguez Gacha to flee to Panama for several months. A few months later, Escobar
is indicted for Lara Bonilla's murder and names the Ochoas and Rodriguez Gacha
as material witnesses.

Jorge and Juan David Ochoa speak about Lara Bonilla's assassination and the resulting controversy over extradition.

The Washington Times runs a story which details DEA informant Barry
Seal's successful infiltration into the Medellin cartel's operations in Panama.
The story was leaked by Oliver North show the Nicaraguan Sandanistas'
involvement in the drug trade. Ten days later, Carlos Lehder, Pablo Escobar,
Jorge Ochoa and Jose Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha are indicted by a Miami federal
grand jury based on evidence obtained by Seal. In february 1986, Seal is
assassinated in Baton Rouge by gunmen hired by the cartel.

Read the interview with Fernando Arenas, a pilot for Carlos Lehder, who claims the Ochoas had Barry Seal killed.

The DEA and Mexican officials raid a large marijuana cultivation and processing
complex in the Chihuahua desert owned by kingpin Rafael Caro Quintero. 7000
campesinos work at the complex, where between 5000-10,000 tons of high-grade
marijuana worth $2.5 billion is found and destroyed. Time magazine
calls this "the bust of the century" and it reveals the existence of Mexico's
sophisticated marijuana smuggling industry.

Spanish police arrest Jorge Ochoa on a U.S. warrant and both the U.S. and
Colombia apply for his extradition. The Medellin cartel publicly threatens to
murder 5 Americans for every Colombian extradition. The Spanish courts
ultimately rule in favor of Colombia's request and Ochoa is deported. He serves
a month in jail on charges of bull-smuggling before he is parolled.

Colombia extradites four drug traffickers to Miami. Within days, the U.S.
becomes aware of a Medellin cartel "hit list" which includes embassy members,
their families, U.S. businessmen and journalists.

Because of the South Florida Drug Task Force's successful cracdown on drugs
traffickers turn to Mexican marijuana smugglers to move cocaine across the 2000
mile U.S.-Mexican border. By the mid-1980s it becomes the major transportation
route for cocaine into the U.S.

Camarena's disappearance spotlights the pervasive drug corruption in Mexican
law enforcement. The Mexicans' lack of cooperation leads Commissioner of
Customs William Von Raab to order a six-day Operation Intercept-style crackdown
on the Mexican border. Camarena's body is found within a week of the border
closing, but evidence of a coverup by Mexican officials is clear.

Bogota Superior Court Judge Tulio Manuel Castro Gil, who had indicted
Escobar for the murder of Lara Bonilla, is assassinated as he climbs into a
taxi. Throughout 1985 judicial harassment and intimidation becomes commonplace
in Colombia.

Upping the ante in the battle against extradition, guerillas linked to the
Medellin cartel attack the Colombian Palace of Justice. At least 95 people are
killed in the 26-hour siege, including 11 Supreme Court justices. Many court
documents, including all pending extradition requests, are destroyed by fire.

Crack, a potent form of smokeable cocaine developed in the early 1980s, begins
to flourish in the New York region. A November 1985 New York Times
cover story brings the drug to national attention. Crack is cheap and
powerfully addictive and it devastates inner city neighborhoods.

Reagan signs an enormous omnibus drug bill, which appropriates $1.7 billion to
fight the drug crisis. $97 million is allocated to build new prisons, $200
million for drug education and $241 million for treatment.
The bill's most consequential action is the creation of mandatory minimum
penalties for drug offenses. Possession of at least one kilogram of heroin or
five kilograms of cocaine is punishable by at least ten years in prison. In
response to the crack epidemic, the sale of five grams of the drug leads to a
mandatory five-year sentence. Mandatory minimums become increasingly
criticized over the years for promoting significant racial disparities in the
prison population, because of the differences in sentencing for crack vs.
powder cocaine.

A U.S. federal grand jury in Miami releases the indictment of the Ochoas, Pablo
Escobar, Carlos Lehder and Jose Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha under the RICO statute.
The indictment names the Medellin cartel as the largest cocaine smuggling
organization in the world.

Guillermo Cano Isaza, editor-in-chief of El Espectador is
assassinated while driving home from work. Cano frequently wrote in favor of
stiffer penalties for drug traffickers. His murder leads to a national outrage
comparable to the assassination of Lara Bonilla, and a subsequent government
crackdown on traffickers.

Carlos Lehder is captured by the Colombian National Police at a safe house
owned by Pablo Escobar in the mountains outside of Medellin. He is extradited
to the U.S. the next day. On May 19, 1988 Lehder is convicted of drug
smuggling and sentenced to life in prison without parole, plus an additional
135 years.

Ochoa is held in prison on the bull-smuggling charge for which he was
extradited from Spain. Twenty-four hours later a gang of thugs arrive at the
house of Juan Gomez Martinez, the editor of Medellin's daily newspaper El
Colombiano. They present Martinez with a communique signed by "The
Extraditables," which threatens execution of Colombian political leaders if
Ochoa is extradited. On December 30, Ochoa is released under dubious legal
circumstances. In January 1988, the murder of Colombian Attorney General
Carlos Mauro Hoyos is claimed by the Extraditables.

At a 1988 meeting, President-elect Bush tells President-elect Salinas he
must prove to the U.S. Congress that he is cooperating in the drug war--a
process called certification. The U.S. pressures Mexico to arrest Miguel Angel
Felix Gallardo, the drug lord believed to have been responsible for the murder
of DEA Agent Enrique Camarena.

A federal grand jury in Miami issues an indictment against Panamanian General
Manuel Noriega for drug trafficking. Noriega had allowed the Medellin cartel
to launder money and build cocaine laboratories in Panama.

Fernando Arenas, one of Carlos Lehder's pilots, describes Noriega's involvement with the cartel.

President Bush appoints William Bennett to lead the new Office of National Drug
Control Policy (ONDCP). As drug 'czar' he campaigns to make drug abuse
socially unacceptable, an approach he calls denormalization. Federal spending
on treatment and law enforcement increase under Bennett's tenure, but treatment
remains less than 1/3 of the total budget.

On the eve of the Mexican presidential election between Carlos Salinas and
Cuahtemoc Cardenas, two key Cardenas aides are found shot to death in Mexico
City. The two had been responsible for ensuring that the elections would be
clean and fair. It is widely believed that Cardenas actually won the election
and that vote fraud by the PRI was responsible for Salinas' election.

Guillermo Gonzalez Calderoni leads a team of federal agents who
arrest the drug lord in a residential suburb of Guadalajara. Gallardo is
imprisoned on charges relating to Enrique Camarena's kidnapping and murder.
His nephews, the Arellano-Felix brothers inherit part of his
drug-trafficking empire.

A congressional subcommittee on Narcotics, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy,
chaired by Senator John Kerry (D-MA), finds that U.S. efforts to combat drug
trafficking were undermined by the Reagan administration's fear of jeopardizing
its objectives in the Nicaraguan civil war. The report concludes that the
administration ignored evidence of drug trafficking by the Contras and
continued to provide them with aid.

Luis Carlos Galan, a presidential candidate who spoke in favor of
extradition, is assassinated at a campaign rally near Bogota. That evening,
President Virgilio Barco Vargas issues an emergency decree reestablishing the
policy of extradition. In response, the'Extraditables' declare all-out war
against the Colombian government, and begin bombing/murder campaign that would
last until January 1991.

For 22 days, General Manuel Noriega eludes capture by the U.S. Military. After
seeking asylum in the Vatican embassy he eventually surrenders to the DEA on
January 3, 1990 in Panama and is brought to Miami the next day. On July 10,
1992 Noriega is convicted on eight counts of drug rafficking, money laundering
and racketeering, and sentenced to 40 years in federal prison.

Colombian President Cesar Gaviria Trujillo offers the traffickers reduced
prison sentences to be served in Colombia, in order to entice them to
surrender. All three Ochoa brothers surrender to the Colombian
police by January 1991.

While attempting to stop an air shipment of Colombian cocaine, Mexican Federal
Police are killed by Mexican army members, in the pay of the traffickers.
Embarrassed, President Salinas orders an investigation, which results in the
imprisonment of a Mexican General. He is quietly released several months later.

Carlos Salinas imposes the first written regulations on DEA officers in
Mexico.

The regulations limit the number of agents in Mexico, designate certain cities
in which they must live, deny the officers diplomatic immunity, require all
information to be turned over to Mexican authorities, and prohibit agents to
carry weapons.

President Clinton signs the North American Free Trade Agreement, which results
in an enormous increase in legitimate trade across the U.S.-Mexican border.
The volume of trade makes it more difficult for U.S. Customs officials to find
narcotics hidden within legitimate goods.

Pablo Escobar is finally hunted down by the Colombian police with the aid of
U.S. technology. The technology could recognize Escobar's voice on a cell
phone and give police an estimated location of where he is. They find his safe
house and kill Escobar as he attempts to flee with one of his bodyguards.

The U.S. Sentencing Commission, which administers federal sentencing
guidelines, releases a report which notes the racial disparities in cocaine vs.
crack sentencing. The commission proposes reducing the discrepancy, but for the
first time in history, Congress overrides their recommendation.

In a series of arrests during the summer of 1995, five leaders of the Cali
cartel are captured. The Cali cartel had become the most powerful
drug-trafficking organization in Colombia after the dismantling of the Medellin
cartel. By September 1996, all of the Cali kingpins are imprisoned.

In his State of the Union address, President Clinton nominates Army General
Barry McCaffrey, a veteran of Vietnam and Desert Storm, as director of ONDCP.
Two days later, the appointment is confirmed by the Senate without debate.

Operation Casablanca, the largest money-laundering probe in U.S. history, leads
to the indictment of 3 Mexican and 4 Venezuelan banks, and 167 individual
arrests. Mexico and Venezuela are furious over the undercover operation, which
they consider a threat to their national sovereignty. John Hensley
oversaw the operation for the U.S. Customs Service.

As a result of Mexico's anger about U.S. actions in Operation Casablanca,
Attorneys General Janet Reno and Jorge Madrazo Cuellar draft the Brownsville
Agreement. Both nations pledge to inform each other about sensitive
cross-border law enforcement operations.

In a series of raids named "Operation Millennium," law enforcement in Mexico,
Colombia and Ecuador arrest 31 for drug trafficking, including Fabio Ochoa.
Ochoa is indicted in a Ft. Lauderdale court for importing cocaine into the U.S.
The U.S. requests his extradition in December 1999.

The Arellano-Felix brothers are charged with 10 counts of drug trafficking,
conspiracy, money laundering and aiding and abetting violent crimes. The U.S.
State Department offers a $2 million reward for information leading to their
arrest and conviction.

To assist Colombian President Andres Pastrana's $7.5 billion Plan Colombia,
President Clinton delivers $1.3 billion in U.S. aid to fund 60 combat
helicopters and training for the Colombian military, among other initiatives.