The researchers used the same helium dating method that Flowers employs, as well as a second technique: They looked at marks left behind by radioactive atoms spontaneously fissioning and plowing through the apatite crystal.

In brushite stone formers, similar to calcium oxalate stone formers, there is evidence of cell injury and interstitial fibrosis in the inner medullary collecting ducts adjacent to apatite crystal deposits following gastric bypass surgery.

Such high concentrations of carbonate and magnesium are likely to reside at crystal surfaces since during growth such disruptive ions would be recrystallised to the outer regions of growing apatite crystals.

Self-etching primers have limited demineralization and impregnation depths because of wet dentin and the ionic effects of high calcium and phosphate concentrations, which limit the dissolution of apatite crystals.

4 Studies with synthetic hydroxyapatite showed that zinc is readily acquired by the apatite as it competes with calcium and can attain position on the apatite crystal making hydroxyapatite resistant to the acid dissolution.

This could be due to the formation of silica gel layer which eventually gets transformed into bone like apatite layer and it is well known that proteins bind to the apatite crystal surface of the ceramic favoring secondary nucleation, thereby affecting the dissolution and reprecipitation process on the ceramic (24).

By comparing the X-ray diffraction patterns of HA and MgHA was found that the presence of Mg decreases the crystallinity and reduces the size of the apatite crystals are and low crystallinity in turn increases the solubility and thus leads to improved bioactivity.

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