Zimbabwe has an area of 390 757 square kilometres. It extends from
latitudes 15o37 S to 22 o24 S and
from longitudes 25 o14 E to 33 o 04E.
It is landlocked, bordering Mozambique to the east, South Africa to
the south, Botswana to the west and Zambia to the north (Figure 1).
Altitude ranges between 197 m and 2592 m. About 80% of the land is
higher than 600 m and less than 5% is above 1500 m, with the highest
part in the Eastern Highlands. The Zambezi, Save and Limpopo are the
major rivers. Harare is the capital city and is situated in the northern
part of the country. Bulawayo, the second largest city, is found in
the southern part of the country. Good rail and road networks connect
major towns and cities. The population was estimated at 12,236,805
in July 2006, with a growth rate of 0.62% (World
Factbook).

Figure 1  Map of Zimbabwe

In the late 1990s Zimbabwe had one of the most developed
industrial sectors in Africa. Agriculture was the most important economic
activity (Rukuni, 1994) with about 60% of industry being agro-based.
Furthermore, the agricultural sector consumed about 20% of total output
of industry (CFU, 2000).The agricultural sector employed a large proportion
of the countrys labour force and also contributed about 18%
of GDP and 40% of export earnings annually in a normal year (Rukuni,
1994).The major exports in the 1990s were are tobacco, cotton, sugar,
maize, tea, coffee, horticultural crops, fruits, vegetables and beef
(Table 1). The beef exports go mainly to the European Union and South
Africa.
[Since this profile was first prepared there have been many changes
in Zimbabwe and the impact of these changes on the agricultural, pastoral
and livestock industries may not be adequately reflected here].

About 70% of the population is dependent on farming
for a livelihood. However, more than 80% of Zimbabwe is subject to
conditions which make dry land cropping a risky undertaking because
of low and erratic rainfall. Livestock and crop production are therefore
important enterprises in most areas.The major ruminant species kept
are cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle are the most important; donkeys,
pigs and poultry are also kept. Natural grazing is the most important
source of livestock feed. The number of domestic livestock fluctuates
widely because of variations in annual rainfall (Table 2).

There are four major farming sectors in Zimbabwe (Table
3):large-scale commercial, small-scale commercial, communal and resettlement.
Large-scale commercial farms, owned mainly by white farmers, have
an average size of 2 200 ha, with about 55% being located in high
potential areas.These farms are characterised by relatively high levels
of investment. In contrast, small-scale commercial farms occupy the
smallest land area with an average farm size of about 125 ha. Land
is held under either free-hold or lease-hold title. The farms are
leased from government.

Table 3. Major characteristics of the farming
sectors and existing levels of investment.

Parameter

Large scale farms

Small scale farms

Communal areas

Resettlement areas

Land tenure

Free-hold & lease-hold

Free-hold & lease-hold

Lease-hold

Lease-hold

Number of households

4 660

8 653

> 1 million

51 410

Land area (106 ha)

11.22

1.38

16.35

3.79

Farm size (ha)

2 200

125

2.5a

5 a

Agricultural land potential

High

Marginal

Marginal

Medium

Macro-level investmentb

Roads

4

2

2

2

Credit facilities: short-term

4

2

1

2

Medium term

3

3

-

2

Research

3

1

1

1

Extension

4

2

3

2

Marketing outlets

3

2

2

2

Irrigation development

3

1

1

1

Grazing schemes (fencing)

4

3

1

1

Micro-level investmentb

Fertiliser use

4

2

1

2

Use of improved seed

4

2

2

2

aRefers only to arable land holding.b1 and 4 denote lowest and highest levels of investment,
respectively. (Source: Rukuni, 1994).

The communal farming sector has the highest human population
density. About 74% of communal farmland is on inherently infertile
sandy soils in marginal areas characterised by low and erratic rainfall.
Arable land holdings are generally less than 2.5 ha. There is considerable
pressure on the land because of the increasing human population growth
rate (3% per annum). The high pressure on land results in conversion
of grazing land to arable, which in turn, leads to serious environmental
problems like deforestation and soil erosion. When Zimbabwe gained
independence in 1980, one of the primary aims of the new government
was to relieve pressure on communal lands by resettling people on
formerly white-owned large-scale commercial farms. Farms were acquired
on a willing-seller willing buyer basis. As of 2000, more than 51,410
families have been resettled on 3,790,000 ha. Tenants are given permits
to settle, cultivate land and keep livestock. Land is held under lease-hold
title. There are serious problems relating to land ownership in Zimbabwe.
Landless people from communal areas are currently "invading"
white-owned large-scale commercial farms and the land ownership issue
has a very high profile with ongoing legal battles.

The country can be divided into six general physical
regions (Figure 1). Anderson et al., 1993 described these regions
as follows:

Eastern Highlands. This is a series of mountain ranges
extending some 250 km along the border with Mozambique. Altitude
ranges between 2 000 m and 2 400 m. The high elevation gives this
region a characteristic microclimate and vegetation.

Highveld. Consists of a more or less gently undulating
plateau above 1 200 m. A northern subregion extends from Chinoyi
to Rusape and south to Gweru. Karoi is centred on an outlier of
this subregion to the northwest. A southern, more arid, subregion
extends and narrows southwest from Gweru to Plumtree.

Middleveld. Borders the Highveld. Elevation ranges between
900 m and 1 200 m. Undulating to rolling, with common rock outcrops
and locally dissected, it comprises a subregion 80 to 160 km wide
southeast of the Highveld and two more complex subregions to the
northeast and northwest of the Highveld.

Kalahari Sandveld. This is an extensive area in western
Zimbabwe influenced by a mantle of deep aeolian Kalahari sands.
It is flat to undulating with an altitude less than 1 200 m.

Zambezi Valley. This can be divided into two subregions
separated by the Kariba gorge. The Upper Zambezi Valley and Sanyati-Sengwa
Basin subregion, mainly at elevations between 500 m and 900
m, shows strong structural control, resulting in the Matuzviadonha
and Chizarira plateaux.The Mid Zambezi Valley subregion downstream
of the Kariba Gorge and demarcated by the precipitous Zambezi Escarpment,
declines northwards from about 600 m elevation at the escarpment
foot to about 350 m at the Mozambique border. It is generally less
broken than the Upper Zambezi Valley, particularly east of the Manyame
River where the landform shape is almost flat to undulating but
with a finely dissected microrelief in places.

Southeast Lowveld and Middle Save Valley. This is a broad
peneplain at elevations under 900 m. East of the middle reaches
of the Save River, there is a marked rise through the foothills
of the Eastern Highlands. Elsewhere, the transition to Middleveld
is gradational. Landform is very subdued, generally almost flat
to gently undulating.

Geology and soils

Soils are closely related to the underlying rocks. Nyamapfene
(1991) gives a detailed description of the soils of Zimbabwe. Diverse
geological materials occur in the country. Igneous and metamorphosed
igneous rocks occupy 65% and materials of aeolian (e.g. Kalahari sands)
and sedimentary origin (e.g. Karoo sandstones) 25% of the area. Granites
are the dominant (46%) igneous rocks. The granites give rise to infertile
light textured sandy soils. Relatively small inclusions of other rocks
referred to as the gold belt formations (complexes of metamorphosed
basaltic and andesitic lavas and sediments) are important sources
of minerals and also give rise to agriculturally important heavy textured
red soils. A unique feature of Zimbabwes geology is the 540-km
long Great Dyke that stretches in a nearly straight line from the
northern Highveld region near the Zambezi escarpment southwards into
the Southeast Lowveld region. It is composed of mafic and ultramafic
rocks that give rise to soils that are characterised by the dominance
of magnesium and toxic levels of heavy minerals such as chrome and
nickel that are associated with characteristic flora such as Andropogon
gayanus and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Nyamapfene, 1991).

Zimbabwe lies entirely within the tropics but much of
the Highveld and Eastern Highlands have a subtropical to temperate
climate due to the modifying effect of altitude. Three seasons are
recognised in Zimbabwe. These are: (1) a hot wet season from mid-
November to March (summer); (2) a cold dry season from April to July
(winter), and a hot dry season from August to mid-November (spring).

Air temperatures are closely related to altitude with
mean annual temperature ranging from about 25oC in parts
of the Zambezi Valley to less than 15oC above 1800 m in
the Eastern Highlands. Maximum temperatures are lowest in June or
July and highest in October. During winter, mean daily temperature
ranges between 11 and 20oC. Mean maximum daily temperatures
can exceed 32oC during spring.

Frost may occur in most areas between May and September,
with the highest incidence in June and July. It occurs more frequently
and more severely at mid and high altitudes. Severe frosts are associated
with an influx of cold dry southwesterly air that mostly affects the
Kalahari Sandveld and southern Highveld regions. Local topography,
however, is the main determinant of frost risk with valleys, vleis
and other sites which receive and retain cold night air being especially
susceptible. The Mid Zambezi Valley is probably the only frost-free
region.

Rainfall varies widely both temporally and spatially.The
reliability of rainfall increases with altitude and from south to
north. Coefficients of variability range from >40% in areas south
of Bulawayo to <20% in some parts of the Highveld and Eastern Highlands.
About 90% of the total rainfall in Zimbabwe is associated with thunderstorm
activity producing falls of short duration and high intensity. Periods
of drizzle and light rain ("guti") are only significant
in the southeast of the central watershed, but total amounts contributed
by this type of rainfall are small.Local variation in the regional
rainfall pattern caused by orographic effects occurs in several areas.

Agro-ecological zones

Vincent and Thomas (1960) divided Zimbabwe into five
main natural regions according to differences in effective rainfall
(Figure 2; Table 4).

Figure 2  Map of agro-climatic zones
and farming regions

Table. 4. Agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe
and the recommended
farming systems in each zone (Vincent and Thomas, 1960).

Natural Region

Area (km2)

Rainfall (mm yr-1)

Farming system

I

7 000

>1 000

Specialised and diversified
farming

II

58 600

750  1 000

Intensive farming

III

72 900

650 - 800

Semi-intensive farming

IV

147 800

450 - 650

Semi-extensive farming

V

104 400

<450

Extensive farming

Annual rainfall is highest in Natural region I which
covers approximately 2% of the land area. It is a specialised and
diversified farming region with plantation forestry, fruit and intensive
livestock production.Tea, coffee and macadamia nuts are grown in frost-free
areas. Natural region II covering 15% of the land area, receives lower
rainfall than region I, nevertheless is suitable for intensive farming
based on crops or livestock production.

Natural region III is a semi-intensive farming region
covering 19% of Zimbabwe. Although rainfall in this region is moderate
in total amount, severe mid season dry spells make it marginal for
maize, tobacco and cotton, or for enterprises based on crop production
alone. The farming systems are therefore based on both livestock (assisted
by the production of fodder crops) and cash crops.

Natural region IV is a semi-extensive farming region
covering about 38% of Zimbabwe. Rainfall is low and periodic seasonal
droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season are common.
Crop production is therefore risky except in certain very favourable
localities, where limited drought resistant crops are grown as a sideline.The
farming is based on livestock and drought resistant fodder crops.

Natural region V is an extensive farming region covering
about 27% of Zimbabwe. Rainfall in this region is too low and erratic
for the reliable production of even drought resistant fodder and grain
crops, and farming is based on grazing natural pasture. Extensive
cattle or game ranching is the only sound farming system for this
region.

Both large-scale commercial and smallholder ruminant
livestock production are practised in Zimbabwe. Beef and dairy cattle
production are the important commercial enterprises while in the smallholder
sector farmers keep beef, dairy and small ruminants (sheep and goats)
under a mixed farming system.

Commercial production

Beef and dairy production are important in the large-scale
commercial sector (Table 5). Beef and milk are consumed locally and
also exported. Exports of beef to the EU and South Africa generate
foreign exchange.

European breeds (Bos taurus), indigenous breeds
(Bos indicus) and crosses are used for beef production. Systems
range from extensive systems (ranching), which require large areas
of land, to intensive systems, which require relatively smaller areas
of land. Generally, extensive systems are practised in Natural regions
IV and V where rainfall is too low and erratic for crops. In contrast,
intensive systems of production such as pen-fattening of slaughter
stock are practised in high rainfall areas (Natural regions II and
III) where herbage production is higher and less variable and farmers
can grow high-energy feeds like maize.

Natural grazing is the primary source of feed for beef
animals, but cereal crop residues and planted pastures may assume
this role for short periods in medium and high rainfall areas (Natural
regions I and II). Animals are usually grazed at conservative (light)
stocking rates on rangeland in fenced paddocks. Rotational grazing
systems are used with five to eight paddocks per herd.

The quantity and quality of herbage varies spatially
and temporally (Weinman, 1948; Elliot and Folkertsen, 1961). Rainfall
is a major determinant of grass production (Dye and Spear, 1982).
There is a linear relation between grass production and annual rainfall
in areas receiving less than 900 mm. It is difficult for producers
to match animal numbers with available herbage. Farmers therefore
use conservative stocking rates in order to prevent overgrazing. This
strategy, however, results in under-utilisation of herbage in years
of above-average rainfall.

Beef cattle are fed supplements because of seasonal
changes in the feeding value of grazing: this involves the use of
protein supplements during the dry season, phosphorus in the wet season
and occasionally energy supplements in spring and early summer (Sibanda,
1998).

Some farmers also reinforce rangeland with legumes in
order to improve the quality of grazing. Several herbaceous and browse
legumes are used (these are described below).

A key player in the Zimbabwean beef industry is the
Cold Storage Company (CSC) that supplies breeding stock to both commercial
and smallholder farmers, and beef to the domestic market during periods
when there are reduced supplies. CSC is a former parastatal organisation
that was privatised recently; has ranches and feedlots in different
parts of the country and practices both extensive and intensive beef
production. Its mandate is to support national beef production and
marketing. It supports national beef production by buying animals
from farmers in drought-stricken areas. These are kept on ranches
during drought years and then either sold or loaned to farmers for
restocking after drought. The supply of slaughter stock in Zimbabwe
is seasonal. Few farmers supply animals for slaughter in the dry season
and early-growing season. Thus, CSC maintains the supply of beef to
both the domestic and export markets by slaughtering animals that
are fattened on high-energy diets in pens during these seasons.

Commercial beef production has declined drastically
since 1992 (Table 5). This has been attributed to an unfavourable
macro-economic environment that is characterised by high inflation
and interest rates. Farmers are increasingly unable to borrow money
to purchase breeding stock, especially after drought. Some farmers
are therefore switching away from beef production to more profitable
enterprises such as wildlife farming.

Dairy cattle

Dairying is an important industry that supplies milk
to the domestic market (Table 6). It is a specialised enterprise requiring
proper feeding of the cow and handling of the milk. To produce milk,
a cow should be fed a balanced diet. Feeding systems are generally
based on maize and its by-products for energy, and cotton and soybean-oil
cakes for protein (Pascoe, 1987). Natural grazing, veld hay, maize
silage and where irrigation is available, oats, Midmar rye grass,
lucerne and planted pastures are important sources of roughage.

Table 6. Number of dairy animals and producers,
and the amount of milk delivered (million litres) to Dairiboard Zimbabwe
(Ltd).

Year

Number of dairy females

Number of producers

Raw milk intake

1982

93 350

472

150.5

1983

93 999

495

172.5

1984

104 464

521

181.1

1985

103 837

520

187.9

1986

196 763

538

202.1

1987

105 107

561

223.9

1988

108 433

540

236.7

1989

112 868

534

241.0

1990

141 000

524

256.0

1991

149 000

495

253.5

1992

136 900

461

237.6

1993

-

430

204.0

(Source: Nyathi and Gambiza, 1994).

Feeding systems vary depending on climate and hence
the farmers ability to grow feeds economically. In marginal
rainfall areas (Natural regions III and IV) most farmers purchase
concentrates and use rangeland in summer months to provide roughage.
Maize silage and veld hay provide roughage during winter months. In
contrast, farmers in high potential areas (Natural regions I and II)
grow maize for roughage (silage) and energy (grain). Thus, farmers
in high potential regions normally only purchase high concentrate
protein mixes. Although many farmers graze animals in summer, there
is an increasing trend towards zero grazing with maize silage forming
the bulk of the roughage intake (Pascoe, 1987). Where irrigation is
available, most farmers produce green feed for use in winter. Popular
forages are oats, Midmar rye grass and grass pastures.

The high costs of purchased feeds are affecting the
viability of many dairy enterprises adversely. Farmers are increasingly
producing feeds on-farm in order to reduce costs. Production of high
quality forages is being researched at various government-funded research
institutes. The major aim is to investigate cheaper systems for milk
production from dryland grass and grass/legume pastures.

The commonest dairy breeds are Friesland-Holstein, Jersey,
Guernsey, Ayrshire and Red Dane. Natural service and artificial insemination
using imported semen of proven sires are regularly used in breeding
programmes.

Smallholder production

Beef cattle and small ruminants

Cattle are the most important livestock in the smallholder
sector where they are kept for multiple purposes; they provide draught
power, manure, milk, cash and meat. Beef production is ranked lower
than provision of draught power in terms of the value of cattle. There
is therefore a strong relation between crop and cattle production
in the smallholder sector (Table 7). Crop production increases as
herd size increases. Farmers who own cattle till their lands timeously
leading to higher crop yields. Moreover, cattle manure is used as
an organic fertiliser which improves soil structure and fertility
thereby reducing the amounts of inorganic fertilisers that have to
be purchased. Cattle owners therefore obtain higher crop yields and
incomes than non-cattle owners and greater food security is associated
with cattle ownership.

Table 7. Relation between size of the cattle
herd and maize production in the communal sector.

Herd size

Area under maize (ha)

Area manured (ha)

Manure applied (tonnes)

Maize yield (kg ha-1)

1-4

1.0

0.38

4.01

903

5-8

1.2

0.57

4.19

1148

9-12

1.3

0.69

4.21

1249

>12

1.3

0.94

4.57

1831

(Source: Rukuni, 1994).

Offtake of cattle from the smallholder sector is generally
low (less than 7%) (Rukuni, 1994). Farmers tend to sell old (9-10
years) and unproductive animals. The low offtake is attributed to
cattle being kept for multiple purposes. Furthermore, farmers have
small herds (4-5 head per household). About 40% of households in the
smallholder sector have no cattle and depend on cattle owners for
draught power. Farmers therefore aim at purchasing and building herds
leading to reduced offtake.

Unlike cattle, small ruminants are primarily kept for
meat, cash sales and manure. Small ruminants complement cattle in
providing households needs (Rukuni, 1994). Table 8 shows flock
sizes and ownership patterns of small ruminants in communal areas.
Ownership of goats and flock size increase with aridity. This is attributed
to the goats ability to survive in harsh environments. In contrast,
ownership of sheep and flock size are similar across the five agro-ecological
regions of the country.

Table 8. Flock size and ownership pattern
of small ruminants and donkeys by natural region (NR) in communal
areas.

Flock or herd size

NR II

NR III

NR IV

NR V

Goats

3.2

2.6

6.2

7.9

Sheep

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

Donkeys

0.2

0.4

0.7

1.2

Households owning (%)

Goats

62.9

51.6

57.3

74.8

Sheep

3.6

4.0

3.6

3.4

Donkeys

4.0

14.1

35.1

37.8

(Source: Rukuni, 1994)

Cattle and small ruminants graze natural pasture during
summer and in winter they feed on crops residues, waterways, fallow
land and uncultivated areas within arable lands. Cattle are grazed
at high stocking rates (1 LU: 1 ha) on communal grazing land and numbers
and productivity fluctuate with annual rainfall leading to boom and
bust production cycles (Campbell et al., 2000). Thus, cattle
numbers increase during years with above-average rainfall whereas
numbers decline dramatically in drought years. For example, during
the 1991/1992 drought, up to 90% of cattle died in some areas. Farmers
keep indigenous breeds such as the Mashona, Tuli and Nkone that have
been shown to have high fertility (calving percentage exceeds 85%
under adequate feeding and disease control). Animals are neither fed
protein supplements during the dry season nor dosed and vaccinated
against diseases.

Dairy cattle

Dairy production in the smallholder sector is a post-independence
(1980) phenomenon. The Agricultural and Rural Development Authority
(ARDA), a parastatal organisation, has been at the forefront in promoting
milk production in the smallholder sector. Several smallholder dairy
schemes are now operational in different parts of the country. These
schemes are now delivering milk to the market (Table 9). The Dairy
Development Programme (DDP) of ARDA has a mandate to promote dairy
development. It provides farmers with financial and technical assistance
to set up dairy enterprises. Milk is produced from crossbred cows.

Table 9. Size of the dairy herd, milk production
and sales (litres) in the smallholder sector.

Year

Dairy herd
(number)

Home retention
(106 litres)

DZLa
sales (106 litres)

Local sales
(106 litres)

Total production
(106 litres)

1990

0.38

1.18

0.08

1.64

1991

0.47

1.41

0.16

2.04

1992

0.43

1.11

0.32

1.86

1993

0.46

1.11

0.42

1.99

1994

4 734

0.65

1.66

0.52

2.83

1995

4 962

0.81

1.94

0.80

3.56

1996

5 474

0.75

1.73

0.71

3.18

1997

5 569

0.73

1.26

0.85

2.84

1998

5 657

0.58

0.54

0.87

1.99

1999

5 327

0.37

0.37

0.74

1.48

(Source: ARDA-DDP Annual Report; 1998/99)

(aDZL is Dairiboard Zimbabwe
Limited, a former parastatal organisation that markets milk).

Dairy animals are grazed and also fed home-grown feeds
and commercial concentrates. Several problems have been experienced
in the smallholder sector leading to reduced milk production and sales.
The major constraints are (ARDA-DDP Annual Report, 1998/99):

insufficient feed;

high costs of commercial feeds;

poor fertility of cows because of low nutrition;

use of old cows because of high cost of replacement heifers;

poor calf management leading high calf mortality, and

insufficient knowledge of how to process milk and market milk
products.

Despite these problems concerted efforts are being made
to improve smallholder dairy production. There is greater emphasis
on training farmers to feed and manage dairy animals.

Livestock numbers and production statistics in the
period of 1996-2005

There have been considerable changes in Zimbabwe since
this profile was first drafted. As separate data for the commercial
and smallholder sectors are not available Table 10 contains statistics
for livestock numbers, meat and milk production and some import and
export data (from FAOSTAT) for the period 1995-2004 for the whole
of Zimbabwe. There appears to have been little change in livestock
numbers since 2000 and meat and milk production has stagnated or declined
(apart from pig and poultry meat production). Beef and veal exports
have declined and since 2001 there has been a negative trade balance
in dairy products. In 2000 there was a balance of US$ 6M in dairy
exports over imports but by July 2003 there was a (negative) balance
of minus US$ 3M.

Table 10. Zimbabwe statistics for livestock numbers,
meat and milk production,
live animal and beef exports and milk imports for the period 1996-2005

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Cattle nos.
(,000,000)

5.4

5.4

5.5

6.1

5.7

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.4

5.4

Goat nos.
(,000,000)

2.7

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

Sheep nos. (,000,000)

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

Beef and veal prod. (,000 mt.)

67.4

73.6

73.7

95.4

101.3

101.3

99.0

96.8

96.8

96.8

Goat meat prod. (,000 mt.)

11.6

11.6

12.0

12.8

12.8

12.8

12.7

12.8

12.8

12.8

Sheep meat prod. (,000 mt)

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

Game meat prod. (,000 mt.)

22.0

23.0

24.0

25.0

26.0

27.0

28.0

30.0

32.0

32.0

Pig & chicken meat prod. (,000 mt)

33.4

33.7

36.3

36.4

45.7

64.9

62.0

64.0

64.0

64.0

Cow milk prod. (,000 mt.)

300.0

280.0

290.0

300.0

310.0

310.0

280.0

248.0

248.0

248.0

Live cattle exports nos. (,000)

3.0

2.3

19.4

11.2

20.6

2.5

0.7

0

0.1

n.r.

Live goat exports nos. (,000)

3.0

5.2

9.6

6.2

1.7

1.7

0

0

0

n.r.

Beef & veal exports (,000 mt)

6.7

6.9

7.5

11.6

12.0

0.03

4.4

4.4

0.04

n.r.

Milk equiv. imports (,000 mt)

9.8

11.4

12.1

17.4

7.6

6.6

15.3

12.3*

11.2

n.r.

Source: FAOSTAT 2006; n.r. no record
* Valued at US$4,186,000, but partly offset by exports valued at
US$1,154,000

Natural grazing is the cheapest and most important source
of livestock feed in Zimbabwe. It has been divided into sourveld,
sweetveld and mixedveld based on animal body weight changes in the
dry season. Sourveld describes grazing where animals gain weight during
the growing season but lose weight during the dry season because of
the poor quality of herbage (crude protein content less than 30 g
kg-1). It is found in the highveld region that receives
more than 800 mm annual rainfall at altitudes above 1200 m. Sweetveld
refers to grazing where animals gain weight during the growing season
and in winter, and are able to at least maintain their body weight.
Sweetveld is in low-lying (< 900 m) semi-arid areas that receive
low rainfall (<600 mm). The ability of domestic herbivores to maintain
weight is partly attributed to the availability of palatable browse
which tends to be high in protein. The middleveld is intermediate
between these two extremes and is usually in areas of intermediate
altitude and rainfall.

Herbage production is highly variable spatially and
temporally; major factors influencing it are annual rainfall, shading
by woody plants and soil type. There is a linear relation between
grass production and annual rainfall (up to about 900 mm) (Dye and
Spear, 1982). For each millimetre of rain, 2 kg dry matter of grass
ha-1 year-1 are produced in areas cleared of
woody plants on clayey soils, while 1 kg DM ha-1 year-1
is produced in cleared areas on sandy soils (Dye and Spear,
1982). There is a negative exponential relation between woody plant
cover and grass production (Frost, 1996).

The quality of herbage varies seasonally. The crude
fibre content increases with plant maturity and is therefore highest
at the end of the growing season. In contrast, the crude protein content
of grasses is highest during the early growing season (November /December)
and lowest during the dry season (Tables 11, 12). Ruminants lose body
weight during the dry season in areas where the crude protein content
of herbage is less than 60 g kg-1. In the large-scale commercial
sector, animals are commonly fed protein supplements during the dry
season to prevent weight loss.

There are eight major grass vegetation types in Zimbabwe
(Rattray, 1957). They are described in terms of the dominant grass
species (Figure 3). The grass vegetation types vary in grazing capacity.
Generally, grazing capacity is highest in areas of high rainfall and
lowest in those of low rainfall.

Hyparrheniaother species grassveld. It
occurs mainly on the watershed at altitudes above 1 200 m where
rainfall is less than 750 mm. This is a sourveld of tall perennial
grasses varying from tree savanna to more open savanna on the drier
parts of the countrys main watershed. It has a grazing capacity
of 1 LU: 4-5 ha. The common grass species are similar to the previous
type. The grass cover is, however, less dense and several additional
species such as Eragrostis jeffreysii and E. gummiflua
appear in this type. Associated woody species are Terminalia
sericea, Burkea africana, Combretum spp and Acacia species.
In overgrazed veld, grass species that become dominant are similar
to those outlined in the previous type excluding Sporobolus pyramidalis.
Eragrostis rigidior also increases in abundance in overgrazed
areas.

Heteropogon other species grassveld. Is a mixedveld
of medium height perennial grasses with some annuals in tree savanna
or tree bush savanna, occurring between Hyparrhenia veld
and Eragrostis veld. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 5-6
ha. Common grass species are Heteropogon contortus, Themeda triandra,
Cymbopogon plurinodis, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Bothriochloa insculpta
and Eragrostis superba. It is sensitive to over-grazing.
Cymbopogon plurinodis, H. contortus, B. insculpta and various
annuals and woody species (e.g. Acacia karroo) increase in
abundance in overgrazed veld.

Eragrostisother species grassveld. It occurs
on light textured soils at altitudes between 450 m and 1 050 m with
rainfall ranging between 375 mm and 500 mm. This is sweet-to mixed
veld with predominantly medium height perennial grasses and a high
proportion of annuals in tree bush savanna. Annuals increase in
drought years. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 7.5-10 ha. Common
grasses are Eragrostis rigidior, E. superba, Schizachyrium jeffreysii,
Heteropogon contortus, Schmidtia pappaphoroides, Pogonarthria squarrosa,
Brachiaria nigropedata, Urochloa pullulans, Digitaria pentzii, Enneapogon
cenchroides and Aristida species. Associated woody species
are Terminalia sericea, Combretum spp., Commiphora
spp., Acacia spp., Colophospermum mopane, Grewia spp.
and in the northern part of the country Brachystegia boehmii
and B. spiciformis. It is sensitive to overgrazing. Enneapogon
cenchroides, E. rigidior and various annuals increase in abundance
in overgrazed veld.

Cenchrus other species grassveld. It occurs on
heavy clay basaltic soils at altitudes ranging from 450 m to 1 000
m where rainfall varies from 325 mm to 400 mm. This is sweetveld
in a tree bush savanna with medium-height perennial grasses and
a high proportion of annual grasses. Perennials decrease in dry
years. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 7.5-10 ha. Common grasses
are Cenchrus ciliaris, Bothriochloa radicans, Chloris myriostachya,
Pennisetum spp. Panicum maximum and Enneapogon cenchroides.
Associated woody species are Colophospermum mopane, Grewia
species and Acacia species. It is sensitive to overgrazing.
Enneapogon cenchroides and various annuals increase in abundance
in overgrazed veld.

Aristida-Dactyloctenium-Eragrostisother species
grassveld. Itoccurs in the Zambezi and Limpopo River
Valleys below 600 m where annual rainfall ranges between 300 mm
and 600 mm. This is sweetveld mainly in woodland or bush scrub savanna
with mainly sparse short annual grasses. It has a grazing capacity
of 1 LU: 12-20 ha. Common grasses are Aristida adscensionis,
Eragrostis viscosa, Dactyloctenium giganteum, Chloris virgata
and on deeper soils with more moisture Urochloa spp., Panicum
spp., Cenchrus ciliaris and Digitaria species. Associated
woody species are Combretum celestroides, Adansonia digitata,
Commiphora spp., Schrebera spp. and Colophospermum
mopane. Extremely sensitive to overgrazing. Annual species increase
in abundance in overgrazed veld. Large areas of bare ground are
formed because of overgrazing.

There are several other less extensive grassland types
that are interspersed within the major types. Examples are Setaria
veld, serpentine veld and sodic veld. Setaria veld is a sour
to mixed veld type found on vertisols in higher rainfall (> 400
mm) areas in tree savanna or open grasslands situations. Common grasses
are Setaria porphyrantha, S. sphacelata, Dichanthium papillosum
and Ischaemum afrum. These grasses are associated with Acacia
species. It has a grazing capacity of 1 LU: 3-4 ha. Serpentine veld
is a sour to mixed veld on the Great Dyke. Characteristic species
are Andropogon gayanus, A. schirensis, Themeda triandra, Bewsia
biflora, Aristida spp. and Loudetia species. It has a grazing
capacity of 1 LU: 5 ha. Sodic veld is a sweetveld in tree bush or
bush clump savanna on sodic soils often near granite drainage lines.
Common grasses are Sporobolus ioclodes, Chloris virgata and
Dactyloctenium aegyptium. Associated woody species are Colophospermum
mopane, Acacia gerrardii and A. mellifera. It has a grazing
capacity of 1 LU: 14-20 ha.

Reinforced (improved) rangeland

The only feasible means by which range productivity
can be raised above natural levels is by reinforcement with legumes
(Clatworthy, 1998). Several legumes can be used for reinforcing rangeland
(Robinson and Clatworthy, 1980; Maclaurin and Wood,1987) (Table 13).
In Zimbabwe, rangeland reinforcement has consisted mainly of planting
rows of improved herbaceous forages, usually legumes, into the topland
veld, and grasses into vleis. It has generally been more successful
in the higher rainfall areas and on the more fertile soils.

Table 13. Legumes and grasses commonly used for
reinforcing rangeland in Zimbabwe.

Species

Soil type

Rainfall (mm)

Altitude (m)

Remarks

Legumes

Chamaecrista rotundifolia (Cassia)

sands

650 - 800

1 300

Semi-prostrate annual. Prolific seeder.
Seeding rate: 2 kg ha-1.

Stylosanthes guianensis (Graham stylo)

sands/ sandy clays

> 800

<1 300

Perennial.
Seeding rate: 3 kg ha-1.
Good resistance to anthracnose.

Stylosanthes hippocampoides (Oxley fine-stem
stylo)

sands

600 -1 000

>1 200

Perennial. Seeding rate is 3-4 kg ha-1.
Susceptible to anthracnose.

Stylosanthes hamata (Verano stylo)

sands/ sandy clays

650 -1 000

<1 300

Drought tolerant.
Seeding rate: 3 kg ha-1.

Stylosanthes scabra (Shrubby stylo)

sands/ sandy clays

>650

<1 300

Perennial and erect.
Seeding rate: 3 kg ha-1.

Macrotyloma axillare (Archer)

sands/ sandy clays

>800

>1 000

Perennial and twining. Seeding rate: 3- 5 kg
ha-1.

Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro)

sands/ sandy clays

650 -1 000

<1 500

Perennial and twining. Seeding rate: 6- 9 kg
ha-1.

Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena)

sands/clays

650 - 1 000

<1 300

Perennial shrub or tree. Planted in rows 3
m apart.

Grasses

Acroceras macrum (Nile grass)

sands/ sandy clays

>1 000

<1 500

Prostrate and stoloniferous. Used to reinforce
vleis from runners.

Panicum repens (Torpedo grass)

Sands/ sandy clays

>1 000

<1 500

Rhizomatous. Used to reinforce vleis from runners.

Paspalum urvellei (Upright paspalum)

sands/ sandy clays

>1 000

<1 500

Tall bunch grass for reinforcing vleis. Seeding
rate: 15 kg ha-1.

Planted pastures

In high rainfall areas integrating crops and livestock
through use of pastures can lead to greater and more stable farm production
(Clatworthy, 1998). Planted or sown pastures range from unfertilised
grass fallows to heavily fertilised irrigated pastures. Examples of
plants that could be used in planted pastures are given in Tables
14-16.

Table 14. Legumes and grasses commonly used
for temporary dry land pastures (leys)

The major problems of pasture plants are the availability
of seed and poor persistence of some species under heavy grazing.
Pasture seeds are generally expensive. Furthermore, most legumes require
inoculation with Rhizobia and application of phosphatic fertiliser
at establishment. Inorganic fertilisers are generally expensive for
smallholder farmers.

There are three main ways in which pasture resources could be improved.
First, where natural pasture is the major feed, a conservative stocking
rate strategy could be adopted (Gammon, 1978). This would reduce overgrazing
and ensure adequate feed in drought years. The farmer would need to
assess the condition of the pasture annually and make necessary adjustments
to stocking rates. This is a form of adaptive management that requires
the farmer to keep detailed records on rainfall, animal performance
(calving rates, weaning weights, growth rates), vegetation (pasture
composition, basal cover, density of palatable species) and soil (erosion,
compaction, termite activity). The major problem with a conservative
stocking strategy is that there is under-utilisation of herbage in
years of above average rainfall; it is difficult to apply where land
is grazed communally.

Second, range can be reinforced with herbaceous and browse legumes.
Legumes have been shown to improve soil fertility and reduce weight
loss of grazing animals during the dry season. Establishing legumes
in grazing areas could therefore reduce the costs of protein supplementation
thereby increasing economic returns. However, the major problems with
range reinforcement with legumes are (1) high initial fertiliser costs
(phosphate is required by most legumes), (2) poor establishment of
legumes especially during drought years, and (3) poor persistence
of herbaceous legumes. More research is needed on legumes for overseeding
and for use in sown pastures.

Third, fodder banks could be developed to feed animals during drought.
Fodder could also be used to feed selected classes of stock such as
lactating cows and draught animals. The last two strategies depend
on the availability of seed of forage plants. It may therefore be
necessary to increase seed production.

There are several key institutions in Zimbabwe which
carry out research and promote the development of forages. These include
government, parastatal and private organisations. The departments
of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS) and Agricultural,
Technical and Extension Services (Agritex) under the Ministry of Lands
and Agriculture, are the two most important government departments.
DR&SS has a mandate to conduct research on sustainable livestock
production from rangeland and pastures while Agritex provides technical
advice on livestock and crop production to farmers. The contact person
in DR&SS is Dr P. Nyathi. His address is: Department of Research
and Specialist Services, P.O. Box CY 594, Causeway, Harare.

Universities in Zimbabwe also conduct research on rangeland
management, animal production and nutrition. Contacts at the University
of Zimbabwe are:

Matowanyika, J.Z.Z. 1998. Land resources.
In: Chenje, M., Sola, L. and Paleczny, D. (eds.). The State of Zimbabwes
Environment 1998. Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe, Ministry
of Mines, Environment and Tourism, Harare, Zimbabwe.

J. Gambiza is a lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe,
Department of Biological Sciences. He has several years of experience
on rangeland research and management in Zimbabwe. He will be responsible
for updating this profile.

Ms Cynthia Nyama:

Address: Grasslands Research Station, P.B. 3701, Marondera,
Zimbabwe.

Ms Cynthia Nyama is a Senior Research Technician at
Grasslands Research Station. She has over 13 years of experience on
rangeland research and animal production.

[The profile was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds
in November/December 2005 and livestock data modified in August 2006.
No changes have been made to the profile to reflect developments in
Zimbabwe since late 2000]