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Introduction

A disease is a condition that impairs the proper function of the body or of one of its parts. All living things can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by certain viruses.

Hundreds of different diseases exist in nature, and every disease has a cause, though the causes of some remain to be discovered. Each disease has a particular set of symptoms and signs—clues that assist in diagnosis. A symptom is something a patient can detect, such as nausea, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something that a doctor can observe in a patient. Furthermore, a sign can be quantified, or measured, while a symptom cannot. For example, chest pain is a symptom—its presence does not indicate its cause, and the pain itself cannot be measured. An abnormal heart rate, however, is a sign—it can be measured and otherwise evaluated by the physician. The results of this evaluation help determine the cause of the abnormal heart rate, which could be due to many different factors. (See alsodiagnosis.)

All diseases display a cycle consisting of the onset, or beginning of symptoms; the course, or time span of affliction; and the resolution, or end of the disease. This may occur when the disease and its signs and symptoms disappears via a cure or through the death of the patient. Some diseases, such as polio, are considered “resolved” even though the victim is left disabled (seepoliomyelitis).

How Disease Is Classified

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Diseases can be classified in a number of ways, depending on the information needed by the doctor or scientist. One way to classify diseases is by the population groups they affect or the way they spread. This is called epidemiology, and it is a very important science. Public health officials use epidemiology to study and manage society’s response to disease.

An epidemiologist looks for several types of information about a disease. For example, he may ask if certain diseases appear mostly among children. If so, he may then recommend large-scale immunization programs, such as those used for the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine. Epidemiologists also look for associations between certain habits and diseases, such as the connection between smoking and lung disease.

Epidemiologists also try to predict how likely it is that one or more diseases will occur in an area where the population is affected by a common circumstance, such as untreated drinking water. These predictions are based on mathematical formulas that determine the chance, or probability, of an outcome given particular circumstances.

It should be no surprise that epidemiologists are also concerned with epidemic diseases—that is, diseases that strike many persons or entire populations within a relatively short period. History has seen many devastating epidemics, from the plague in Europe during the Middle Ages, to the influenza pandemic (global epidemic) of 1918–19, to the AIDS crisis currently gripping much of the world. When a disease stubbornly remains in the same region year after year, it is called an endemic disease. Yellow fever, for instance, is endemic to tropical South America and Africa, prompting many countries to require travelers to and from those regions to present proof of inoculation against the disease.

Diseases are generally defined as either acute or chronic. An acute disease has a quick onset; most run a relatively short course, during which symptoms may be mild or severe. The common cold is a relatively mild acute disease of fairly short duration. SARS, or severe acute respiratory syndrome, also has a quick onset; but unlike a cold, SARS can rapidly become very serious, even fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and a long duration that can last for years. Rheumatoid arthritis is an example of a chronic ailment with a very long course. Some diseases, such as bronchitis, have both acute and chronic forms.

One of the most important ways of classifying diseases is to distinguish between infectious and noninfectious diseases. Infectious diseases are caused by living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoans, viruses, and parasites. Whatever the causative agent may be, it survives in the “host” person—in other words, it is infectious. If it can be passed on to another person, it is also communicable. Noninfectious diseases are not caused by a living organism; and because they are not passed from one person to another, they also are noncommunicable. Noninfectious diseases have a wide range of causes, such as substances in the environment (silicosis and black lung), diet deficiencies (rickets and scurvy), disorders of the body’s immune system (lupus), or inheritable genetic defects (Tay-Sachs disease).

Frequently, diseases are classified according to the organ or organ system that has been affected. There are diseases of the respiratory system (pneumonia), cardiovascular system (coronary artery disease), nervous system (multiple sclerosis), and endocrine system (diabetes mellitus), among many others.

Diseases and their associated signs and symptoms are further distinguished by the extent of their spread in the body. A local, or localized, ailment or symptom is confined to a particular site or single organ system, whereas a systemic disease affects the entire body. This is an important factor in treatment. For example, an infected cut may be treated with a topical antibiotic cream if the infection is limited to the site of the injury. If the infection invades deeper tissues and spreads to the bloodstream, the infectious organism can be carried to every organ in the body. To treat this, doctors must prescribe a systemic drug; this is usually an oral or injectable medication that can enter the bloodstream and fight the infection at all affected sites. Not all systemic diseases are infectious, however. Cancer and diabetes mellitus are two examples of noninfectious systemic diseases.

Infectious Diseases

Humans live in a world where many other living things compete for food and places to breed. Some of these organisms—bacteria, for instance—live within the human body and contribute to bodily functions such as digestion. Ordinarily, the immune system keeps these microbes from causing damage.

Sometimes, however, harmful bacteria penetrate the body’s defenses. In other cases, organisms living harmlessly within the body become too numerous or acquire harmful characteristics. They then become pathogenic, or disease-causing, organisms (called pathogens or simply germs). The same is true for fungi, viruses, and parasites.

How Germs Invade the Body

Dr. Richard Facklam/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some, such as the virus that causes the common cold, are inhaled, while others, such as the bacterium that causes leprosy, enter through direct contact between human bodies. Many pathogens, such as those that cause gastroenteritis, or stomach flu, get into the body through contaminated food, water, or utensils. Certain pathogens are transmitted only through sexual activity with an infected individual.

Some germs may enter the body through the bite of an animal. Mosquitoes transmit West Nile virus and Plasmodium, the parasite that causes malaria. Typhus is caused by infection with rickettsial bacteria transmitted by lice. Lyme disease is spread through the bite of a tick, while rabies is transmitted via the bite of an infected mammal. Organisms that deliver an infectious agent to a host are called carriers. In many cases, carriers themselves do not become ill. For example, mosquitoes are unaffected by the parasites and viruses they carry. Other diseases, such as rabies, cause illness in carrier and host alike.

To acquire certain contagious diseases, a person need only be in the presence of someone who is already ill, or come in contact with infected bodily fluids such as blood or urine. Infectious diseases are called contagious if they can be passed between people. Anyone suffering the frank symptoms of a contagious disease can pass it on to others while the disease is running its course. However, some pathogens can be transmitted during the incubation period of a disease—the period between infection and the onset of symptoms. Some pathogens can be transmitted even when the initial victim is recovering from the disease. Like animals, some people can be asymptomatic carriers, carrying an infectious organism without ever falling ill.

Most infectious diseases are species-specific—that is, a disease such as parvovirus, which affects dogs, will not affect humans. However, a large number of diseases can strike both humans and animals and can be passed between them (though most commonly these are transmitted from animals to humans and not vice versa). These diseases are called zoonoses. Zoonotic diseases are a public health concern, though some are more serious than others. Ringworm, for example, is relatively mild and can be treated with antifungal drugs. Other zoonoses, such as rabies, avian influenza virus, and plague, are extremely serious and can lead to epidemics.

Once an infectious organism gains a foothold in the body, it begins to multiply. The length of the incubation period depends on the pathogen. Symptoms of the common cold appear within days, while those of kuru, a rare disease of the nervous system, can appear years after infection.

Several factors determine whether a person will fall ill after being infected. These include the number of invading germs, or the dose of the infection; the body’s ability to fight the disease; and the virulence of the pathogen. Virulence is a measure of a pathogen’s ability to do harm. Highly virulent pathogens, such as the Ebola virus, cause severe disease that progresses so rapidly that, in most cases, death results despite the best efforts of medical personnel.

Many pathogenic species include some strains that are highly virulent and others that are not. For example, all influenza strains have the potential to cause severe illness, though most of the strains seen each winter are low in virulence, causing a short course of unpleasant but controllable illness in most victims. The devastating influenza pandemic of 1918 was caused by a highly virulent flu strain that killed at least 20 million people around the world within one year. Low virulence should not be confused with harmlessness, however: even organisms with low virulence can cause serious illness if left untreated.

How Infections Are Fought

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As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers against infection. The skin and
mucous membranes covering the body and lining its cavities offer considerable resistance to invasion by infectious organisms. If these barriers are injured or burned, however, resistance drops. In that case, the body calls up its second line of defense: the immune system. Circulating through the blood and lymph, white blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize and suppress the infection. Some white blood cells, such as macrophages, engulf and digest the pathogens in a process known as phagocytosis.

Lymphocytes, another group of white blood cells, play a key role during this line of defense. Lymphocytes are divided into two main classes, or types: T cells and B cells. T cells use several methods to kill pathogens directly, in some cases tagging them with markers so that other cells can attack them. B cells manufacture and release protective proteins called antibodies, which are “custom-designed” by the B cells to target specific pathogens. Some B cells remain in the body for years after the pathogen has been eliminated. This creates a biological “memory,” giving the body a long-lasting immunity against future attacks by the same kind of invader. (See alsoimmune system.)

Drug therapy

Since the advent of antibiotic therapy in the 20th century, a broad range of infection-fighting drugs has been developed to work in conjunction with the body’s immune system. The antibiotics penicillin and tetracycline, for instance, are very effective against some bacterial infections, such as gonorrhea and acne. However, antibiotics have no effect on infections caused by viruses, fungi, protozoa, or other parasites. Thus nonbacterial infectious diseases are treated with other classes of drugs. For example, some herpesvirus infections respond to the antiviral drug acyclovir. Herpesvirus does not respond to antibiotics, however, because the infection is not caused by bacteria. Similarly, antifungal drugs are used to treat fungal infections, antiprotozoal medicines treat diseases caused by infection with protozoa, and anthelmintics fight worm infestations such as trichinosis, which is caused by intestinal roundworms.

Drug resistance

Some individual microbes are naturally resistant to certain drugs. After repeated exposure to a drug, however, some nonresistant microbes may gain resistance by a chance mutation; others may acquire genes for resistance from a resistant bacterium. Over time these bacteria form a new drug-resistant strain, forcing doctors to prescribe multiple drugs to fight infections with these germs—which may later gain resistance to the new drugs.

Incorrect antibiotic use has led to a rise of drug-resistant pathogens, producing a global public health issue. Once-powerful drugs such as penicillin have become ineffective against new drug-resistant bacteria strains, such as those that cause tuberculosis and staphylococcal infections. As a result, the incidence of these once-controllable diseases is steadily increasing. (See alsoantibiotic.)

Vaccines

Many dangerous diseases have been controlled or eradicated (stamped out) through the use of vaccines. Some vaccines protect against viruses, such as measles; others guard against some bacterial infections, such as diphtheria, or toxins, such as tetanus. The once-widespread viral disease called smallpox was eradicated around the world in the 20th century, thanks to an international effort aimed at wide-scale vaccination. (See alsosmallpox; vaccine.)

Cardiovascular Diseases

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Disease of the heart and/or the blood vessels, called cardiovascular disease, is the leading cause of death in most developed countries, particularly those of North America and Europe. It claims millions of lives every year around the world—more than a million per year in the United States and more than 70,000 in Canada.

Coronary Artery Disease

Disease of the coronary arteries that supply oxygen and nutrients to the heart is the most common heart ailment. Coronary artery disease accounts for more than a third of all deaths among males in the United States between the ages of 35 and 55. It also strikes many women past the age of 50. Hypertension (high blood pressure), overweight, cigarette smoking, diabetes mellitus, excess cholesterol, triglycerides and other fats in the blood, and lack of regular exercise contribute to the chance of developing this disease.

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Coronary artery disease is characterized by formation of one or more atheromas. These are fatty deposits of cholesterol that form beneath the inner lining of the artery and obstruct the passage of blood needed to nourish the heart muscle. This also sets up conditions for a blood clot in the coronary artery (seeblood). Atheroma formation seems to run in families. However, eating foods rich in saturated animal fat and cholesterol are also contributing factors.

Many persons with coronary artery disease do not experience any symptoms. However, if the obstruction is bad enough, it may cause angina pectoris, myocardial infarction (heart attack), or heart enlargement and failure. Angina pectoris is a severe, squeezing chest pain that occurs when the coronary blockage prevents adequate oxygen from reaching the heart, especially during periods of exertion. Rest and medication often relieve the pain. Unlike a heart attack, angina is a temporary condition, and heart muscle is not destroyed.

Myocardial infarction is the medical term for a heart attack. When the coronary artery becomes so obstructed that the myocardium, or heart muscle, does not receive oxygen, the muscle tissue dies, or becomes infarcted. For many years doctors believed that the infarction was caused by a blood clot blocking the coronary artery. However, later studies revealed that most clots form in the artery after the infarction.

The first hours after a heart attack are critical because abnormal heart rhythms, or arrhythmias, may develop. Without swift medical intervention, death follows in three or four minutes after an attack. Patients are usually treated in the coronary care unit of a hospital for a few days to enable electronic monitoring of the heart rate and rhythm (seehospital).

Repeated heart attacks can strain the remaining healthy heart muscle, leading to heart failure. As attacks destroy more and more heart muscle, the remaining muscle enlarges to compensate. Increased pressure in the weakened heart causes fluid to back up into the lungs. As a result, the heart output—that is, the volume of blood pumped out with each contraction—cannot keep pace with the body’s oxygen demands. (See alsoheart.)

Heart Rhythm and Pacemakers

A node of special cells in the heart controls its rhythm by regularly producing energizing electrical signals. Sometimes, abnormal signals cause extra heartbeats, or tachycardia. At other times, especially in older persons, the signals might be conducted poorly, thus slowing the rate of beating. When a person’s heart rate drops below 40 beats a minute, he usually feels faint and cannot function well. In that case, he often can be fitted with an artificially powered heart pacemaker.

Rheumatic Heart Disease

Rheumatic heart disease has both an acute form and a chronic form. The acute form, rheumatic fever, inflames joints and heart muscle. Although the joints recover, if the condition becomes chronic the heart valves may become scarred. Rheumatic fever most often affects the mitral, or bicuspid, valve of the heart, producing a blockage called mitral stenosis.

Rheumatic fever is caused by an overactive immune response to infection with a strain of beta-hemolytic streptococcal bacteria, which causes strep throat and scarlet fever. Unlike most pathogens, the cell wall of beta-hemolytic Streptococcus includes a protein that is also found in human heart muscle. When a person with strep throat or scarlet fever develops antibodies against the bacterial protein, the same antibodies may also attack that person’s own heart muscle. The antibodies continue to damage the muscle over many years. This scenario is typical of an autoimmune response, a process in which the immune system attacks the host’s own tissues (see “Autoimmune Diseases” in this article).

Penicillin and other antibiotics treat the initial streptococcal infection; in some cases, timely treatment can prevent heart damage. In severe cases, however, surgery might be needed after many years to repair or even replace a damaged heart valve.

Hypertensive Heart Disease

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a fairly common disorder. Ordinarily, the pumping action of the heart creates sufficient pressure to move blood throughout the body. Increased resistance to blood flow from the arteries causes the blood pressure to rise above normal. Because the heart must then work harder to maintain the higher pressure, it enlarges.

Blood pressure is regulated by a complex interaction between the heart, the nervous system, and the hormone renin, which is produced in the kidneys. Some persons with hypertension have too much renin in their blood. In other individuals, lifestyle issues such as diet and stress play a role in developing the disease. High blood pressure increases the wear and tear on blood vessels and can cause heart failure, strokes, and kidney disorders. If detected early, however, it can be treated with drugs.

Congenital and Inflammatory Heart Disease

If the heart does not form properly during fetal development, this will result in a child born with a congenital heart defect. There are numerous types of congenital heart problems: the heart’s valves might be too narrow or missing altogether, or the septum—a wall separating the heart chambers—might be incomplete, leaving a hole between the heart chambers. Some congenital problems correct themselves as the child grows; others must be surgically repaired.

Some substances are dangerous to the heart. Excessive alcohol drinking weakens and enlarges the heart. The heart tissues are vulnerable to infection by microbes and parasites, as well as infiltration by toxins and other agents. Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocarditis), pericardium (pericarditis), inner lining (endocarditis), valves, and related tissues is always serious and requires swift medical intervention and intensive care. Persons with faulty valves or congenital heart disease are susceptible to bacterial endocarditis.

Blood Vessel Disorders

Atherosclerosis, the thickening and hardening of arterial walls, may occur in many arteries. Cholesterol and other fats that form in the process obstruct the affected arteries and, at times, produce a thrombus, or clot, in them. Sometimes, these clots break away, especially from the heart, and embolize, or travel to some other part of the circulatory system, where they can block a blood vessel and prevent oxygen from reaching tissues.

A brain embolism can cause the cardiovascular accident known as stroke. A stroke occurs when bloodflow to the brain tissues is blocked, depriving the brain tissue of oxygen and destroying key nerve cells. A blood clot in one of the brain’s blood vessels, a hemorrhage from a broken blood vessel in the brain, the hardening of a brain artery—any of these conditions may result in a stroke. Depending upon the brain area affected, a stroke can culminate in loss of limb use—particularly the arms—speech difficulties, and partial blindness. Some strokes are minor; with time and treatment, many victims regain most or all of the impaired body functions. In severe cases, extensive physical or speech therapy is needed for rehabilitation; the degree of recovery for these patients varies.

The vascular disorder called aneurysm occurs when the walls of a large artery weaken and balloon out. Small aneurysms may not be critical, but large aneurysms can rupture. If the ruptured vessel is a major one, such as the aorta, or is located in the brain, death can follow quickly unless the patient undergoes emergency surgery. A wide range of conditions, from atherosclerosis to syphilis, can promote aneurysm development.

Varicose veins, bulging veins in the leg, develop when the walls of the veins weaken. The condition may be inherited or may stem from phlebitis, an inflammation of the veins. Phlebitis may trigger clots in the veins, which sometimes break away, travel to the lungs, and form a pulmonary embolus. Drugs used to prolong clotting time often correct the disorder (seeblood).

Respiratory System Diseases

The lungs
are spongy organs through which vital oxygen enters the body and needless carbon dioxide exits. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in and out of capillaries in the many tiny air sacs, or alveoli, in the lungs. Although they are susceptible to disease, the breathing passages—the nose, throat, trachea, and bronchi—are lined with mucous membranes that form an initial line of defense against pathogens and irritants (seelung). The lungs, however, are highly vulnerable to invading organisms and irritants and can become seriously diseased. Lung diseases are also referred to as pulmonary diseases.

Upper Respiratory Diseases

Although they are lined with membranes that offer initial defense against pathogens, the nose, throat, and other breathing passages are vulnerable to infection by bacteria or viruses. Untreated or long-term infection of the bronchi and bronchioles can result in chronic bronchitis. It is marked by cough and increased production of sputum, an accumulation of saliva, mucus, and pus. Air pollution and cigarette smoking both can aggravate the condition. Frequent bouts of chronic bronchitis can permanently scar the airways, critically impairing their protective lining. Persons who suffer from chronic bronchitis are vulnerable to developing pneumonia and other infectious diseases of the lower respiratory system.

Infectious Lower Respiratory Diseases

Pneumonia

Pneumonia, or acute infection or inflammation of the lungs, may occur suddenly in a seemingly healthy person. It is usually marked by fever, cough, and chest pain. X rays of the lungs show patches of inflammation. Viral pneumonia, though serious, is generally self-limiting. Both bacterial and fungal pneumonia, however, can be quite serious, depending upon the infecting pathogen. Drug therapy, particularly a vaccine against pneumococcal bacteria—a group that causes especially serious disease in the elderly and in children—has proved vital in fighting bacterial pneumonia.

Inflammatory diseases

Pleurisy is another disease affecting the lower respiratory system. It is caused by inflammation of the pleura, the double membranes that surround each lung and line the chest cavity. Pleurisy can occur as a complication of pneumonia or may result from direct infection of the pleura.

Inflammation of the muscle surrounding the airways results in the chronic disease called asthma. Signs include wheezing or whistling sounds accompanying each breath. Many cases arise in connection with chronic bronchitis or respiratory allergies; however, exposure over long periods to almost any airborne irritant results in asthma. Most cases are treated with inhalable drugs that reduce the inflammation and relax the bronchiolar muscle. Serious cases may require oral corticosteroids.

Fungal diseases

Fungal invasion of the lungs produces symptoms that resemble influenza or pneumonia. Fungal pulmonary disease can range from mildly serious to life-threatening. After invading the lungs, some fungi may disseminate, or spread, to other organs, including the heart and the meninges (the tissue covering the brain and spinal cord). Systemic fungal diseases are among the most difficult infectious diseases to treat, and often require hospitalization and intravenous administration of powerful drugs. Among the most serious fungal pulmonary diseases are histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, aspergillosis, coccidioidomycosis, and Candida pneumonia.

Lung abscess

Development of a lung abscess is possible with any infectious respiratory disease, though many such abscesses are associated with periodontal, or gum, disease. In these cases, bacteria associated with the latter are inhaled into the lungs, where they colonize the tissue, eventually forming an abscess—an accumulation of pus inside a cyst-like mass. If the abscess ruptures, or bursts, pus is spread into the surrounding tissue, and may enter the bloodstream. The ruptured abscess leaves behind a cavity inside the lung tissue. A lung abscess not only damages the lung itself, but it also can spread infection to other parts of the body.

Tuberculosis

One of the most serious diseases in humans is tuberculosis (TB), a complex disease that most often strikes the lungs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is transmitted from person to person through the air. In the lung the bacteria establish colonies; these attract a large immune response that produces granulomas—solid masses of immune cells that trap and destroy the bacteria. Granulomas remain dormant in the lungs for years; however, they can reactivate, triggering a fresh immune reaction that destroys the granulomas themselves and leaves cavities, or holes, in the lung. The tissue destruction from TB seriously impairs lung function producing cough, chest pain, fever, blood in the sputum, and weight loss.

TB is generally treated with the oral antibiotics isoniazid and rifampin. To effectively defeat the disease, however, the drugs must be taken by the patient for almost one year. Inadequate treatment of TB—for example, among patients who do not complete the entire course of drug therapy—leads to the development of drug resistance among the bacteria remaining in the lungs. These newly resistant bacteria multiply and spread to other individuals, setting up conditions for outbreaks against which traditional antibiotics are ineffective.

Before the advent of drug therapy in the 20th century, TB—historically called consumption—was a leading public health problem, particularly among poor people living in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. Antibiotics radically changed the course of the disease; within decades outbreaks were less common and prevalence greatly decreased. However, lack of compliance by patients to complete the entire course of therapy later led to rebounding of the disease and an alarming rise in drug resistance. By the late 20th century, the global incidence of tuberculosis—once one of the most remarkable triumphs of antibiotic therapy in public health medicine—was steadily increasing due to the rise of multi–drug-resistant strains.

Noninfectious Respiratory Diseases

Emphysema

Emphysema is a serious lung disease that follows destruction of the elastic and connective tissue fibers supporting the lung. It is linked with advancing age, though certain forms of emphysema are inherited. Heavy cigarette smoking and long exposure to air pollutants seem to encourage the disease. A person with emphysema, lacking sufficient lung elasticity, wheezes and has trouble breathing. Furthermore, air movement in the lungs is reduced and the patient is easily fatigued because he fails to get enough oxygen or get rid of enough carbon dioxide.

Pulmonary edema

Because of their physiologic relationship, the heart and the respiratory system often are linked in disease. Acute pulmonary edema results when fluid quickly accumulates in the lungs and fills the alveoli. The fluid buildup is caused by heart trouble that, in turn, produces back pressure in the pulmonary veins and the left atrium of the heart to which they carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. A person suffering acute pulmonary edema suddenly becomes breathless and turns blue because of oxygen-poor blood. The condition is treated with oxygen, digitalis to strengthen heart action, and diuretics to speed fluid removal by the kidneys.

Occupational lung diseases

Miners and some industrial workers are extremely vulnerable to developing respiratory disease because of the conditions in which they work. Pneumoconiosis, which means “dust disease,” is the name given to this family of disorders. Silicosis results from inhaling quartz dust; asbestosis is found among workers exposed to asbestos dust. Inhalation of coal and quartz dust leads to the development of anthracosilicosis, sometimes called black lung disease. Textile mill workers are vulnerable to developing byssinosis, also known as brown lung disease. It results from long-term exposure via inhalation of cotton and other fibers found in textile mills. In general, workers who develop these diseases are prone to later complications such as heart failure, emphysema, and cancer.

Respiratory distress syndrome

Formerly called hyaline membrane disease, respiratory distress syndrome is an often-fatal disorder of some prematurely born infants. A protein material lines the alveoli of the lungs in afflicted babies, limiting the amount of oxygen their blood can receive.

Cancer

Courtesy National Cancer Institute

The word cancer refers collectively to more than 100
different diseases, all characterized by the rampant and abnormal growth and spread of cells. It is the second leading cause of death in most developed countries and claims millions of lives worldwide each year. Cancer can affect almost every type of tissue in the body. Many forms of cancer occur in a solid tissue or organ, where the rapidly multiplying cells form one or more masses, or tumors. Some cancers do not form tumors, however, and are manifested as malignant (abnormal and rapidly growing) cells that circulate in the blood or lymph.

Cancer is categorized according to the tissue type in which it develops. Cancer that arises in muscle, bone, connective tissue, blood vessels, and fatty tissue is called a sarcoma. Cancers found in cells that line the body’s cavities and organs, and in some skin cells, are classified as carcinomas. Cancer types are named and further classified by the specific location where they arise. Leukemia is so named because it is an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells, which are sometimes called leukocytes (from the Greek leuk-, meaning white, and -cyte, meaning cell). Cancer of the bone is called osteosarcoma (the prefix osteo- is from the Greek word for bone). Basal cell carcinoma, the most common type of cancer in the world, is a form of skin cancer (basal cells are part of the skin).

Cancer can strike any part of the body. Some cancerous tumors are especially fast growing and can double their size within a month or so. Others are slow growing and may not spread for many months or even years. If cancer develops within a vital organ or tissue, such as the lung or liver, normal function will be impaired, with possibly fatal results.

Globally, breast cancer is the leading form of cancer in women and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in many countries. In the United States, it is second only to lung cancer in claiming the lives of female cancer patients. The prevalence of cervical cancer in the United States has decreased dramatically thanks to the Pap test, one of the most successful cancer screening methods developed (seecancer, “Breast and Uterine Cervix”). Globally, however, cervical cancer remains the second most important cancer in women.

Cancer of the prostate gland is the leading form of cancer among men in the United States, though lung cancer accounts for more deaths. Lung cancer is the most important form of cancer, both in prevalence and mortality, among men worldwide. (See alsocancer.)

Skin Diseases

Because of its exposure, the skin is perhaps more susceptible to disease than any other organ. Composed of several thick layers of specialized cells, the skin forms a tough barrier that prevents foreign substances, both biologic and chemical, from entering the body. The skin itself is part of the first line of immune defense, serving as a barrier to invasion by toxins and microbes. Any break in the skin, as from a cut or scrape, gives foreign material an opportunity to sneak into the body’s interior.

The skin is richly supplied with sweat glands, nerves, and blood vessels (seeskin). If the body’s temperature rises, the sweat glands perspire, producing a fluid composed mostly of water and salts. As this evaporates on the skin surface, it cools the skin, thus helping the body to remain at a constant normal temperature. In cases of anhidrosis—a condition in which the body cannot perspire—body temperature can rise to dangerous levels. Anhidrosis can occur as a result of injury to large portions of the skin. It is also a serious complication of heatstroke.

The skin contains many oil glands, which lie adjacent to hair follicles. The glands produce oil, or sebum, which helps lubricate the skin. When sebum is overproduced it accumulates in the hair follicles, attracting bacteria from the normal skin flora. This combination of sebum and bacteria produces whiteheads, blackheads, and pimples. Whiteheads are a mix of bacteria and oil that form whitish bumps just below the skin’s surface. Pimples contain the same materials but are also inflamed. Dead skin cells accumulate in the hair follicles, producing blackheads, whose characteristic dark color comes from melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color.

Acne is an outcropping of all three types of blemishes. It is typically seen in adolescence and may be related to the hormonal changes that accompany sexual maturity. Acne is not caused by food, emotions, or uncleanliness. Antibiotics are used to treat severe acne, but most cases respond well to local application of special lotions or creams that dry the blemishes, allowing them to peel away. (See alsoacne.)

Warts are rough, benign (non-cancerous) growths of the top skin layer caused by infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). Warts may occur on any body surface and are spread from person to person through direct contact. HPV transmitted via sexual activity produces genital warts. There is no single effective treatment for warts; depending upon the number of warts, their location, and the patient’s age, the growths may be removed with chemicals that “burn” the wart away. Other treatments include the use of liquid nitrogen to freeze the wart (which then crumbles away), or excision by laser or simple surgery. Despite treatment, some warts may later reappear.

Hives, or urticaria, are acute, itchy, whitish elevations of the skin. Hives usually result from an allergic reaction to foods or medicines. Antihistamine drugs, both oral and topical, offer some relief for mild bouts. Severe cases of hives can be treated with a series of desensitizing shots (seeallergy).

Eczema, or dermatitis, is a superficial inflammation of the skin. It can result from an allergic reaction to poison ivy, dyes, or drugs. Such irritants as acids, solvents, or excessive use of soap or detergents also can provoke an outbreak, as can sunburn. Some forms of eczema, such as infantile eczema and seborrheic dermatitis, stem from unknown causes. However, nearly all types of eczema can be relieved by the application of corticosteroid creams.

Like all body systems, the skin is prone to infection. Athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection of the skin between the toes. The infected area is scaly, moist, and itchy. It usually has a disagreeable smell. Athlete’s foot can be relieved with daily application of topical antifungal drugs such as griseofulvin. In most parasitic infections, such as scabies or lice infestation, parasites burrow under the skin to lay eggs, producing intense inflammation characterized by severe itching and reddened patches of skin. Bacteria can produce mild to severe infections, depending upon the infecting strain and the extent of the infection. Several types of bacteria produce the serious condition called necrotizing fasciitis. One form of this, caused by an aggressive strain of Streptococcus, is called the flesh-eating disease, because the infection travels so rapidly and destroys so much tissue that amputation is sometimes required. Without treatment, the patient becomes toxic and goes into shock within days. Even with surgical intervention, death rapidly follows in many of these cases.

Nervous System Diseases

The nervous system is the rapid communication system of the body. Information from the outside world enters the body through the sense organs and is sent to the spinal cord for instant response or is relayed to the brain for further processing. (See alsonervous system; brain and spinal cord.)

Nerves and the membranes that protect portions of the nervous system are susceptible to breakdown or infection. The microorganisms that cause such diseases as mumps or infectious hepatitis can infect the nervous system, too.

Nervous System Infections

Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, or membranes around the brain and spinal cord. The disease commonly results through infection with microbes, such as viruses and bacteria. Some cases develop without infection; reactions to certain drugs or noninfectious brain diseases may produce meningitis. Viral meningitis is the most common form of the disease. Although serious and mildly contagious, it usually runs a short course from which most people recover completely. More severe is bacterial meningitis, which requires immediate medical attention and can be fatal if not treated aggressively. A common sign of meningitis, in addition to fever, is the presence of a stiff neck.

Shingles, or herpes zoster, is an inflammation of certain nerve tissues. Painful skin bumps occur over the line of the inflamed nerve or its branches. Shingles and chicken pox are both caused by the same virus.

Noninfectious Nerve Disorders

Neuritis and neuralgia

Neuritis is an inflammatory condition caused by the degeneration of one or more nerves. It is often marked by a pins-and-needles feeling, a burning sensation, or a stabbing pain. Neuritis can result from infection, especially of the facial nerve, hard body blows, or bone fracture causing nerve injury. Repetitive movements, such as using a computer mouse, can also trigger neuritis.

Neuralgia is often confused with neuritis but it is a distinct problem. Neuralgia is characterized by sudden, sharp bursts of pain along any of the sensory nerves near the body surface. Trigeminal neuralgia is a disorder of the trigeminal nerve, or fifth cranial nerve, whose branches are distributed along the cheek and to the eye, nose, jaw, and mouth areas (seenervous system). Attacks occur suddenly and last for several seconds, during which a severe, stabbing pain shoots across the side of the face.

Inflammation

Inflammation of nerves generally produce localized symptoms, though in some cases pain can be “referred.” For example, an inflamed nerve in the hip can produce pain in the knee. Sciatica is a disorder characterized by severe leg pain resulting from an inflamed sciatic nerve, which extends down the back of the leg. Sciatica is usually caused by a ruptured, or “slipped,” disk—one of the pads between the spinal vertebrae of the spine—that presses on the nerve’s root near the spine.

Vertigo

Some nerve disorders result from problems in the sense organs. Vertigo is a dizziness or disorientation in which the sufferer feels as though he is falling through space. It results from problems with the body’s balancing system, part of which is located in the inner ear (seeear).

Parkinson’s disease

Parkinsonism, or Parkinson’s disease, is a chronic disease that stems from decreased production of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is produced in the brain. The reason for this remains unclear despite intensive research. People with Parkinson’s experience episodes when mobility is limited; they may move with a slow, shuffling gait, have decreased facial expressivity, and experience muscle tremors, or shakes. They also have trouble speaking and swallowing. Parkinson’s is a progressive disease, which means that its symptoms worsen with time. There is no cure for Parkinson’s; however, the disease may be treated with a drug called levodopa, or L-dopa, which is converted into dopamine in the brain. Several other drugs may offer modest relief of some symptoms. Physical, occupational, and speech therapy are also helpful to patients. Surgical treatment is also used in some cases.

Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, degenerative disease of the central nervous system. In MS, the fatty myelin sheath that surrounds the nerves is progressively destroyed, thus interfering with proper nerve-signal transmission to muscles and organs (seenervous system). MS develops slowly but eventually involves the entire brain and spinal cord. Muscle control, vision, mental abilities, and many other body functions are eventually impaired.

Most experts agree that MS is an autoimmune disease. However, the precise trigger for the onset of MS remains unclear, and there is no cure. Treatment is geared toward relieving symptoms, reducing inflammation, and regulating the immune system. Some forms of the disease are relatively mild; with treatment, these patients may be able to pursue normal, though modified, activities. In other forms, however, the disease progresses rapidly, producing severe debilitation.

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which nerve signals “fire” abnormally and cause convulsive seizures, or alternating muscle contractions and relaxations. Scar tissue in the brain can provoke some seizures. In many cases, however, doctors cannot pinpoint the reason for an epileptic attack. Some individuals might have a seizure once and never have another. Other people may have repeated episodes.

There are several types of epilepsy, including grand mal, petit mal, and infantile spasms. A grand mal attack is usually marked by rigid muscle contractions, loss of consciousness, and collapse. The attack may last from two to five minutes and is often followed by confusion and deep sleep. A petit mal attack usually comes as a lapse of awareness for less than a minute. The victim then resumes whatever activity he was engaged in before the attack without realizing anything out of the ordinary took place. Infants under the age of three sometimes have infantile spasms during which sharp muscle contractions force the body to jackknife for a few seconds.

Anticonvulsive drugs are used to treat and prevent epilepsy. Surgical removal of seizure-producing brain tissue may be indicated in extreme cases where drug therapy is ineffective.

Endocrine, Metabolic, and Deficiency Diseases

Disease can sometimes result from alterations in normal body metabolism caused by deficiencies in diet, hormones, and vitamins. It can also stem from malfunctions in the body’s immune system.

Endocrine Disorders

The endocrine system consists of a large number of glands that produce hormones—chemical compounds composed either of proteins or of steroids (a group of compounds derived from cholesterol) that travel through the blood to specific target organs (seehormones). Like the nervous system, the endocrine system allows organs to communicate; but while the nervous system is a rapid responder, endocrine “messengers” work at a slower pace.

For the system to function properly, hormone production must be exquisitely balanced. Both over- and underproduction of hormones can lead to disease.

Growth hormone disorders

Abnormal output of growth hormone from the pituitary gland early in life can result in one of two disorders—dwarfism if there is too little or gigantism if there is too much. Overproduction of growth hormone in middle-aged adults can cause acromegaly, a serious disorder in which bones, cartilage, and other organs become severely oversized.

Adrenal disorders

Excess production of cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal glands, results in Cushing’s syndrome; its symptoms range from severely weakened bones to increased blood sugar and high blood pressure. Inadequate production of cortisol leads to Addison’s disease, resulting in muscle wasting, fatigue, dangerously low blood pressure, and other signs.

Sex hormone disorders

Both males and females produce both androgens and estrogens. Androgen is known as the male sex hormone because it is responsible for the development of male sexual characteristics, such as facial and body hair. Estrogen is called the female sex hormone because it aids breast development and other female sex traits. Over- and underproduction of either hormone in either gender can produce problems. For example, underproduction of androgens in males can result in a higher pitched voice; increased estrogen production may cause breast development in males. Increased androgens in females can result in hirsutism, or excessive body and facial hair. Abnormal sex hormone production in either gender can also affect libido, or sex drive.

Diabetes mellitus

One of the better known endocrine diseases is diabetes mellitus, a common disease caused either by a lack of insulin, or an inability to utilize insulin that is produced. Insulin is secreted by the pancreas and helps to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where it can be used for energy. There are three forms of diabetes—Type I, in which the pancreas cannot produce insulin; Type II, in which the pancreas produces insulin but the body’s cells are unable to utilize it; and gestational diabetes, which arises during pregnancy in some women. Dietary control is essential in all forms of diabetes; persons with Type I disease also may require daily injections of insulin. Long-term diabetes is often associated with blood vessel degeneration, which can lead to heart disease, stroke, blindness, kidney failure, gangrene of the feet, and serious neuritis. (See alsodiabetes mellitus.)

Metabolic Diseases

Gout

Courtesy of the Historical Division, The Cleveland Health Sciences Library

One of the oldest known human diseases is gout,
which has been recognized by physicians for at least 2,000 years. For much of that time it was characterized as a “rich man’s disease,” because it was seen most commonly in wealthy people who tended to overindulge in a diet rich in meat and alcoholic drinks. Today scientists know that gout is caused by faulty metabolism of purine, a substance found in certain foods. Ineffective breakdown of purine results in the accumulation of uric acid in the blood and urate salts in the tissues. These salts frequently settle in the joints where they cause painful arthritis.

Gout may stem from an inborn error of metabolism or from other diseases. It usually strikes middle-aged men. The joint at the base of the big toe is the typical site of an acute attack of gout. The affected joint becomes red, hot, swollen, and painful. Fever accompanies the attack. Joints of other limbs might become similarly affected. Attacks of gout recur, but the sufferer enjoys complete relief in between them. Some patients develop chronic arthritis from gout. Gout is treated with drugs that reduce inflammation, and also with drugs that lower the uric acid level of the blood. In addition, sufferers must restrict their intake of certain foods and alcohol.

Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder involving the pancreas and the lungs. It appears during the first 10 years of life, though sometimes it is not discovered until later. The exocrine pancreatic glands, which produce important digestive enzymes, become plugged by thick mucus. This results in severe intestinal problems. Furthermore, because of similar mucus secretions, the lungs suffer scarring, infection, and eventually emphysema. Cystic fibrosis is treated with substitute pancreatic enzymes, as well as enzymes to clear lung secretions and antibiotics to control secondary infections.

Phenylketonuria and galactosemia

Phenylketonuria (PKU) and galactosemia also are genetically inherited metabolic diseases. Both result from the lack of a key enzyme needed to convert one type of chemical compound into another. PKU is caused by an inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. People with galactosemia cannot change galactose, one type of sugar, into glucose, another type. Both diseases can result in intellectual disability in children if not corrected in time. (See alsoheredity.)

Malnutrition and Deficiency Diseases

Robin Laurance—Impact Photos/Imagestate

Malnutrition can be defined as either overnutrition or undernutrition. Overnutrition—that is, the intake of more calories
than are needed—results in overweight and obesity, which in turn can lead to high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes.

Undereating can stifle the development of both body and mind. Kwashiorkor is a condition that affects children mostly age five and younger whose diet is deficient in protein even though it may contain adequate calories. Children with kwashiorkor lack an appetite and appear lethargic and sullen; symptoms may include a swollen face, distended belly, muscle wasting, enlarged liver, and chronic diarrhea. Marasmus is a condition seen in young children whose diet lacks both adequate calories and protein. Children with marasmus are always hungry and generally more alert than victims of kwashiorkor; symptoms include extreme muscle wasting and a pinched expression that gives the face a wizened, “old” look.

Kwashiorkor and marasmus are common in underdeveloped nations, particularly after a famine or epidemic (seefood and nutrition). Although less common, malnutrition can occur in the developed world; sufferers include people with chronic diseases such as AIDS, and those who are impoverished.

Vitamin deficiencies are uncommon among people in developed nations, except in the cases of pregnant women and those who breast-feed their babies. Since ample vitamins are in the general diet in those lands, there is no medical justification for daily doses of multivitamins to stimulate vigor or prevent colds or infections. In underdeveloped countries, however, such diseases as rickets (due to a lack of vitamin D) and scurvy (from deficient vitamin C) remain endemic. (See alsovitamin.)

Mineral deficiencies can also produce body disorders. Iron is indispensable for the prevention of anemia. Deficiency of magnesium, a cofactor in many enzymes, causes dizziness, weakness, and convulsions. Iodine is a major part of the thyroid hormones. Without it a person can develop a goiter. Fluorine is not considered essential, but it plays a great part in minimizing dental caries, or cavities. Trace elements, such as chromium, cobalt, and manganese, are also needed for a healthy body.

Autoimmune Diseases

The immune system has numerous ways to differentiate between cells recognized as “self” and those recognized as foreign. In some individuals, for reasons that remain poorly understood, this system suddenly malfunctions—the body fails to recognize its own tissues, and makes antibodies targeting them. These malfunctions can affect any organ or tissue in the body, resulting in the suite of chronic disorders defined as autoimmune disease. Rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus are two of the more than 80 such disorders that have been identified. Many scientists have concluded that multiple sclerosis and Type I diabetes are autoimmune in origin.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic crippling disease that deforms bone joints and their adjacent tissues. It can strike nearly anyone at any age. It is marked by inflammation of an entire joint, including its synovial lining. Tendon coverings and bursas, or fluid-filled cushions, can become inflamed, too. Cartilage in the joint and adjacent bone is destroyed, causing painful stiffness and eventual ankylosis, or “freezing,” of the joint. Skin over the joint is taut, shiny, and clammy. The rheumatoid factor, a large protein molecule, is present in the blood of many adult patients; its detection aids in the diagnosis of the disease. Rheumatoid arthritis is usually treated with rest, physical therapy, and aspirin and other anti-inflammatory drugs.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or lupus, is a serious degenerative disease that can strike one or many body systems over a period of years. The blood serum of afflicted persons contains a number of peculiar proteins, including the so-called L.E. factor, an antibody characteristic of the disease. Symptoms of SLE resemble other diseases, including cancer and tuberculosis, but can be distinguished by lesions around the nail beds and fingertips that are a hallmark of lupus. Other signs may include enlarged lymph glands in the neck and armpits and an enlarged spleen. SLE can damage the pericardium, heart valves, kidneys, and portions of the central nervous system. Although anyone may be affected, females between the ages of 20 and 40 years most often develop this incurable, yet controllable, disease.

Bone and Muscle Diseases

Because of their close anatomic and functional relationships, bone and muscle share a similar vulnerability to disease and other malfunctions. Both are strongly affected by genetics and nutrition, and both can be seriously injured by a fall. Both bone and muscle are prone to a range of disorders, from congenital defects to infectious disease to cancer.

Because they are rigid, bones can break, or fracture. The degree of repair needed depends on what bone is broken—that is, its location and function in the body—and the extent of damage. Trauma—especially compound fractures, in which part of the broken bone pierces the skin—brings the risk of a bone infection, or osteomyelitis. Because bone has such a large blood supply, a bone infection can readily spread into the bloodstream and become systemic. For this reason, osteomyelitis is always treated with intravenous antibiotics.

Osteoarthritis is a painfully disabling disease of the spine and other weight-bearing joints. Cartilage in the joint is destroyed, followed by overgrowth of nearby bone. Another bone disease seen in aging persons is osteoporosis. In this disease, the bone becomes thin and brittle, making it easier for the individual to fall and sustain a fracture. Osteoporosis is especially common among older women due to hormonal changes that occur around menopause. Both diseases develop with advancing age but are highly preventable with the correct diet. Osteoporosis prevention is linked to getting adequate calcium in the diet, and to exercise.

Ankylosing spondylitis is a disabling and deforming disease of the spine, the pelvic joints, and sometimes the shoulders, hips, and knees. The lining of the affected joint becomes inflamed, the bone is weakened by loss of calcium, and the spine is bent forward. Eventually, the spinal vertebrae fuse and the spine becomes locked in the deformed position.

Temporary muscle disorders, such as tendonitis or torn muscles, result from injury or overexertion. True diseases of the muscles arise from a wide array of causes, from drug reactions to cancer. The cause of some diseases, such as fibromyalgia, a painful disease of the muscle fibers, is unknown.

A large number of muscle diseases result from a genetically inherited error in metabolism. One of the better known diseases in this group is muscular dystrophy (MD), a term that encompasses a group of diseases whose primary sign is severe muscle wasting and profound weakness. The disease has an early onset; in Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the most common form, signs are noted during early childhood. Most children who inherit this form lose the ability to walk by age 12 and must use a wheelchair for the rest of their lives. Different muscle groups progressively weaken; eventually the respiratory muscles fall to the disease, and the patient dies, usually before reaching the late 20s. Signs of Becker muscular dystrophy, a milder form of Duchenne, may not be apparent until the child has begun school, or even into the 20s. Symptoms are frequently less severe than those of the Duchenne form, and sufferers may live a normal life span. Muscular dystrophy is treated symptomatically; physical therapy and steroids may offer some relief. Despite intensive research, a cure remains elusive.

Kidney and Genital Diseases

Disease can affect any of the parts of the closely related urinary and genital systems. Both can be infected or may malfunction because of a shortcoming in development.

Kidney Disorders

Inflammatory diseases

Glomerulonephritis is a serious inflammatory disease of the kidneys. It generally is triggered by a prior infection—usually bacterial—which inflames the glomeruli, the tiny tufts through which blood is filtered (seekidney). The inflammation may go away after a few weeks or may slowly destroy all the glomeruli. In the early stages, the inflammation may reduce filtration enough to cause blood to retain some excess fluid, salts, and wastes. Blood pressure might also rise. If the inflammation persists, the glomeruli are destroyed, blood pressure soars, and urine formation may stop. Mechanical means must be taken to cleanse the blood.

Pyelonephritis is a bacterial infection of the inner portions of the kidneys and the urine. If quickly treated, the infection can be cured. If untreated, however, the infection may scar and eventually destroy kidney tubules, resulting in a need for mechanical cleansing of the blood. Once damaged by pyelonephritis, the kidneys are easily reinfected.

Calculi

Calculus disease occurs when certain substances in urine crystallize into compact stones called calculi. A stone may be formed within a kidney and become swept by urine into the ureters and the bladder. It may cause pain, obstruct urine flow, or grow large enough to damage the kidney or bladder. Small calculi may be passed in urine, and large ones can be pulverized without surgery by means of energetic sound waves. Calculi can consist of calcium, urates, cystine, or other crystals. The tendency to form kidney stones sometimes runs in families

Other kidney disorders

Preeclampsia, or toxemia of pregnancy, is a disorder experienced by some women in the last half of pregnancy. During a pregnancy, the kidneys must work more than usual. However, the kidneys of a woman entering pregnancy with a preexisting kidney disease may be unable to increase their function. This leads to increased blood pressure and protein in the urine—conditions that affect the mother and the fetus. In severe cases, the fetus may die, or may need to be aborted to save the mother’s life. In lesser cases, however, medical treatment poses little risk to either life. Once a woman develops preeclampsia, she is likely to develop it again in later pregnancies.

Polycystic disease, an inherited failure of normal kidney development, strikes infants as well as adults. Many fluid-filled cysts spring up throughout the kidneys and cause them to malfunction. Polycystic disease sufferers eventually become uremic.

Uremia literally means “urine in blood.” It describes the condition in which the kidneys fail to operate effectively. This leads to a buildup in the blood of nitrogenous waste products from protein metabolism, which are usually removed by the kidneys. The concentration of many electrolytes, or salts, also increases in the blood. Symptoms include nausea, confusion, and breath or perspiration that smells of urine. Many types of kidney ailments can cause uremia. Special machines can be used to cleanse the blood of uremic patients (seebioengineering). In severe cases, patients may require a kidney transplant.

Reproductive System Disorders

Sometimes portions of the reproductive system fail to develop normally. In some rare cases, the gonads—the male’s testes and the female’s ovaries—or other sexual characteristics fail to develop at all. Without gonads, a person neither achieves puberty nor develops secondary sexual characteristics, such as breasts and uterus growth in females and penis growth and muscle development in males.

Infections such as gonorrhea can cause sterility by blocking the oviducts in females or the vas deferens in males. In males, gonorrhea may also interfere with urination. (See alsosexually transmitted disease.)

The prostate gland at the neck of the bladder in males enlarges slowly with age. It eventually may hamper urination and need surgical correction. (See alsoreproductive system.)

Research Against Disease

Although medical science has made great strides to eradicate disease, many ailments remain unconquered. Medical scientists have not yet discovered what causes sudden death syndrome, or crib death, a disease that fatally strikes infants less than a year old. They know what causes AIDS but have not yet found a cure for it. Nevertheless, research is under way against these and other baffling diseases in the hope that someday they will be wiped out or at least made manageable.

Medical scientists perform many kinds of experiments when they are researching a disease. They may grow cells in test tubes, infect them with germs or chemicals, and watch the aftereffects. Or they might infect a laboratory animal with a disease and observe how its body fights off or succumbs to the ailment. Medical scientists also may test the effects of a drug, a pathological environment, or a possible disease organism on human volunteers. However, human volunteers must be fully aware of the harmful as well as helpful consequences possible before taking part in the research. Prior experiments will have been made on laboratory animals to establish some idea of the project’s safety, and before the study can begin, the volunteers must give their informed consent to any unconventional treatment.

Medical research is an ongoing and global endeavor. Among the largest research institutions are the Institut Pasteur in France, the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Germany, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in the United States. Government agencies such as the U.S. National Institutes of Health also engage in disease research (seehealth agency). Medical schools and major hospitals maintain research programs for the benefit of their patients with unchecked or rare diseases. Research programs are also undertaken at many universities.

In the late 20th century, researchers made great strides in biotechnology, especially in genetic engineering. Although not without controversy, the use of genetically manipulated microorganisms in medicine has had considerable success. The most notable example is the production of genetically engineered insulin, which has been used successfully for more than 20 years in the treatment of diabetes.

Prior to the 1980s, the insulin used by diabetics was extracted from the pancreas of animals, usually pigs or sheep. Researchers then developed a technique for inserting the human gene for insulin into the plasmid of the bacterium Escherichia coli. The bacteria are cultivated of a special solution in large vats that hold millions of microbes, each of which then produces human insulin from the inserted gene. The bacteria excrete the insulin into the solution; it can then be purified and used by humans. Studies have shown that the human insulin has better success than pig insulin in treating the disease in humans. Furthermore, it is less costly to produce and eliminates the use of animals in its production. (See alsogenetic engineering; health; hospital; medicine; nursing; physiology; surgery.)

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