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…Europe developed out of the royal councils, which were powerful bodies of nobles appointed by the monarch. From the division of labour within these bodies the monarchs’ secretaries, initially given low status within a council, emerged as perhaps the first professional civil servants in Europe in the modern sense. The…

history of

…on the model of the royal council in Richelieu’s days, a High Council (Conseil d’en Haut) consisting of only three or four members and excluding the king’s own relatives. Members of this council were known as ministers, but they held no formal right to the title and ceased to be…

The old royal council, a council of great nobles advising the king, was transformed into a bureaucratic body for the execution of royal policy, staffed by a prelate, three nobles, and eight or nine lawyers. These lawyers, mostly drawn from the poor hidalgo class, were entirely dependent…