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Introduction

The
Rainforest Indians of South America have traditionally inhabited a vast territory dominated by the basin of the Amazon River. The Rainforest culture area includes all of what are now the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), most of Brazil, and parts of Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela. The climate is generally hot, rainy, and humid. The dense tropical rainforests found in much of the area are home to an extraordinary variety of plants and animals. There are also swamps, dry forests, and savannas.

Traditional Culture

Peoples and Languages

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A
great variety of peoples with very diverse cultures lived in the Rainforest when Europeans arrived in the Americas. They spoke hundreds of languages. Tribes belonging to the Arawakan and Cariban language families lived mainly north of the Amazon River. Arawakan-speaking peoples included the coastal Arawak as well as the Achagua and Palicur. Cariban speakers included the Barama River Carib, Taulipang, and Makushí. Tupian speakers were widespread south of the Amazon. Among them were the Tupinambá, Mundurukú, and Kawaíb. Speakers of Ge languages lived mainly in what is now central Brazil. They included the Timbira, Kayapó, Suyá, Xavante, Xerente, and Kaingang.

Food

Victor Englebert—Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

Many
Rainforest peoples combined farming with hunting, fishing, and gathering. Among their game animals were deer, tapirs, peccaries, monkeys, birds, large rodents, and turtles. Their crops included cassava and other tubers and roots, corn, beans, squash, tropical vegetables and fruits, and tobacco. The cassava they grew was mostly the bitter type, which contains a poison. The Indians developed a way to remove the poison and used cassava flour for baking bread.

Despite the rainforests’ lush growth, the soil was generally not good for farming. Heavy rainfall leached nutrients out of the soil. Tribes who lived along the Amazon and other rivers, however, had good soil and farmed intensively. Along the riverbanks the land flooded seasonally, and the floodwaters enriched the soil with silt from the rivers. The Indians who lived along the floodplains stored harvested crops to eat during the flood season. They also fished and hunted, and some kept turtles in corrals. Fish and shellfish formed an important part of the diet of coastal communities. Away from the rivers and coasts, Indians probably relied more on hunting and on gathering and cultivating fruits, berries, and nuts. Many scholars believe that the rainforests today have a higher proportion of trees that are useful to humans because of the Indians.

Today, Indians of the Rainforest commonly prepare their fields by slashing and burning the thick forest growth. They choose an area, cut a band of bark off the larger trees to kill them (a process called girdling), and then burn the remaining forest plants. After some years of farming, the soil becomes unproductive, so they abandon their villages and fields and establish new ones. Some scholars believe that slash-and-burn agriculture was less common before the Indians received steel axes from Europeans. It would have required great expenditures of time and labor to girdle trees and clear an area of the dense forest with stone axes. For this reason, Indians in some areas may have farmed cleared land for longer periods of time by enriching the soil.

Settlements and Housing

Overall, the immense Rainforest area was sparsely populated. In most of the territory, the Indians were dispersed in numerous small tribes. Clusters of villages existed mainly along the coast and the floodplains of the principal rivers, particularly the Amazon. Many scholars believe that these villages sustained fairly large populations for long periods of time. Many of the villages were probably home to several hundred people. Some settlements likely had several thousand residents, and a few may have had tens of thousands or more. Among the larger settlements were those on Marajó Island, a vast island in the mouth of the Amazon River, and at what is now the city of Santarém, Brazil. The latter was a settlement of the Tapajó chiefdom, which existed from about ad 1000 to 1550. The culture on Marajó Island lasted from about ad 400 to 1300.

Houses in the Rainforest were typically made of log frames covered with palm leaves or grass. Some peoples built large rectangular communal houses called malocas. Others built large roofed enclosures with an open side facing a central yard. Both these and the malocas could hold 200 or more individuals, even an entire tribe. Each family had its own living space. Other groups built one large communal house for adolescent boys and men, and either another large communal house or smaller houses for women and children. Regardless of the form of housing, hammocks were often the only furniture.

In several areas that flooded seasonally, including Marajó Island, Indians built settlements on top of man-made earthen mounds. Often earthen causeways (elevated roads) connected the mounds. Some villages also had fortifications such as moats or palisades, high fences made of sharpened poles.

Clothing

In the hot, humid climate, most Rainforest Indians wore little or no clothing. They preferred to paint their bodies and faces with geometric designs or pictures of animals. Besides being decorative, the markings often had religious meanings or indicated one’s clan or age group. The Indians may also have applied these paints to repel insects. Some peoples, such as the Mundurukú and many Arawak tribes, tattooed their bodies. To create a tattoo, they pierced the skin in a pattern with animal teeth or thorns and rubbed in a dye.

Rainforest Indians also adorned themselves with jewelry made of shells, nuts, wood, stones, and feathers. They often pierced their ear lobes, noses, and lips. Many Ge peoples, for example, wore large wooden or stone disks or plugs that stretched their lips or ear lobes. Indians of the area also wore colorful headdresses and cloaks made from the feathers of tropical birds. Tribes that wore clothes made cotton tunics, skirts, and belts.

Technology and Arts

The Rainforest Indians made almost all of their utensils and tools from plant or animal material. In much of the area stones for making axes, arrowheads, and other objects were scarce. Tribes in the west made some metal items. Some peoples in the Rainforest imported some stone, gold, and silver items from Andean cultures.

Rainforest peoples were very inventive. They developed many types of harpoons, arrows, traps, snares, and blowguns. Some used poisons such as curare on their arrows and blowgun darts. In fishing the Indians released poisons into streams to stun or kill the fish without making them inedible. Throughout the region, tribes built rafts and dugout canoes for river travel, a key form of transport. Using palm leaves and shafts of bamboo, they made many kinds of baskets and hampers as well as sifters, traps, fans, mats, and other household items. They also used looms to weave hammocks, baby slings, and other textiles.

Nomadic peoples often used gourds and calabashes as storage containers and drinking cups, but more settled groups produced pottery. Indians made a variety of ceramic goods such as pots, plates, jars, bottles, baked-clay cooking stoves, griddles, smoking pipes, ocarinas (spherical flutes), rattles, and statues. In some societies, numerous ceramic items were included in elaborate burials.

The earliest known pottery in the Americas has been found in the Amazon River basin. Pottery from the Pedra Pintada cave near Monte Alegre, Brazil, dates back some 5,000 to 7,500 years. Similarly ancient pottery was found at Taperinha, a large mound made of shells near Santarém, Brazil. The pottery at these sites consists mainly of simple bowls. Peoples in the Rainforest first began making pottery that was ornately decorated with animal motifs and geometric patterns about 4,000 to 2,000 years ago.

From the 1st millennium ad, many cultures made complex pottery painted in several colors. On Marajó Island, for instance, Indians created sophisticated pottery with red and black designs painted on a white background. They also engraved designs into the surface of the clay and carved them in low relief. Often animal and human figures modeled in clay were attached to the pottery. The pottery included bowls, plates, jars, statues, and stools. Like many other groups in the Rainforest, these Indians also made ceramic urns in which they buried the bones of their dead. Other peoples known for their fine pottery included the Omagua of the upper Amazon and the Tapajó.

In several places in the Rainforest, Indians built extensive public works made of earth. Thousands of mounds have been found in the area, and more were still being discovered in the 21st century. Mounds and clusters of mounds commonly served as platforms for houses and as cemeteries. Other mounds, including some shaped like people and animals at Sangay in eastern Ecuador, may have been monuments for ceremonial purposes. Many of the mounds are small, but the largest ones are tens of feet high and cover many acres. Inside, the earthen mounds often have fill layers of household refuse and large amounts of broken pottery. Along the coasts there are also numerous mounds made mainly of shells, not dirt.

The Indians also built earthen causeways and roads and maintained paths through the forest. People of the Moxos Plains of what is now eastern Bolivia built at least 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) of causeways. To create shortcuts for canoe travel across meandering rivers, Rainforest Indians built earthen canals. They also used canals for irrigation and drainage.

In swamps and seasonally flooded savannas, Indians built numerous raised fields—clusters of earthen platforms, ridges, or mounds on which they grew crops. Such fields kept the crops dry, so their roots did not rot. They also allowed farmers to improve the soil by aerating and enriching it. Drainage canals surrounding the fields collected nutrient-rich runoff, which the farmers reapplied to the soil.

Society

Many scholars believe that complex societies known today as chiefdoms developed in several places in the Rainforest. The earliest of these societies probably arose some 2,000 years ago. Many of the chiefdoms were clustered along the Amazon, Orinoco, and other main rivers. The villages were densely populated. Some chiefdoms had territories that stretched for thousands of square miles and included both main settlements and colonies. These societies were headed by “chiefs,” but they varied greatly in their degrees of central organization. In those with the greatest central administration, a paramount chief had authority over many local chiefs to control an entire region. Those societies were warlike and fought to expand their territory. Some chiefdoms seem to have had ranked social classes, with nobles, commoners, servants, and slaves captured in warfare. Warriors, craftspeople, and others specialized in performing particular types of labor. In some societies, women as well as men were able to become high-ranking chiefs and leaders of religious rituals.

Many of the chiefdoms produced abundant corn and other crops and made tools, fine pottery, and other crafts on a large scale. The Indians produced some of these items for trade. Extensive trade networks along the rivers linked far-flung chiefdoms within the Rainforest area. Rainforest societies also traded with groups in the Andes.

In other areas and in earlier times, peoples probably lived more like Indians of the Rainforest do today, in numerous smaller seminomadic groups. Their societies would not have had much central organization, and tribe members would have been mostly social equals.

Household communities and kinship groups in the Rainforest were based mainly on relations through either the male or female line. Tribes that traced their lineage through the male line were more numerous. Chiefs and high-ranking men were often allowed to have more than one wife. In many Rainforest cultures, young men and young women underwent elaborate initiation rites, involving difficult ordeals and tests, when they reached puberty.

Religion

Like Rainforest tribes today, the Indians of the area probably believed that their well-being depended on being able to control countless supernatural powers that inhabited objects, plants, animals, and nature in general. The Indians of the Rainforest often used stimulants and narcotics as part of their religious rituals. Some practices were reserved for the shaman, who performed magic rites and led religious ceremonies. The shaman was also thought to communicate with the spirits and to cure the sick. The Indians worshipped a variety of gods and in some tribes also chiefly ancestors. The Tapajó, for example, mummified the bodies of important people and venerated them as gods. In the chiefdoms, burials were often elaborate.

European Contact and Cultural Change

In the early days the Amazon River was the only means of access into the rainforest. The Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana descended the main course of the Amazon from the Ecuadoran and Peruvian Andes to the Atlantic Ocean in 1541–42. Nearly a century later, the Portuguese explorer Pedro Teixeira went from Belém, Brazil, to Quito, Ecuador, and the region increasingly became known through the explorations of the Portuguese.

The early European explorers of the Amazon seized the food supplies and canoes of the Indians they met. Large numbers of Indians were taken into slavery, especially during raids (called bandeiras) organized by the Portuguese from the 1500s to the 1700s. Many others died of such European diseases as influenza, measles, and smallpox. The result was a complete breakdown of native life and a sharp decrease in the Indian population; survivors fled to remote sections of the Amazon Basin. As late as 1906 there were reports of the capture of Indians who were enslaved to tap rubber, which was plentiful and commanded a high price on the world market.

Settlement by Europeans and mestizos (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) was minimal until the 1870s and ’80s. At that time victims of severe droughts in northeastern Brazil began to move into the Amazon Basin to profit from the booming rubber industry. Another wave of immigration began at the end of World War II, spurred by the rapid economic development of the region. Beginning in the mid-1940s a number of “penetration roads” have been built from the populous highlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia into the basin. These roads brought great numbers of landless peasants into the lowlands. They also encouraged the development of major oil discoveries and timber resources. Such activities led to widespread displacement of Indian groups, who were either forced onto new reservations or left to survive as best they could.

Gold mining reached a feverish pitch in the 1980s, stimulated by high world prices of gold. At the height of the Amazon “gold rush,” as many as a half million miners came to central Brazil to search for the mineral. Some miners trespassed on reservations, including the lands of the Yanomami people, where violent confrontations occurred in the 1980s and ’90s. In addition, large amounts of the mercury used to extract the gold were released into rivers and caused the fish, which are so important in the local diet, to become unsafe to eat. Since the 1990s mercury contamination has grown among Amazonian peoples, especially those groups that are more isolated and eat large amounts of fish.

In the early 1990s the Indian population of the Amazon Basin numbered about 600,000, about one third of whom lived in Brazil and the rest in Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela. However, by the early 21st century the Indian population had dropped to fewer than 200,000, partly as a result of deforestation and commercial exploitation on their lands. Most of the surviving Indian peoples live in the remote areas of the basin. There are still known to be “undiscovered” Indian groups living in the Amazon region—that is, those located so remotely that they have yet to be encountered or who have intentionally been left alone by outsiders.

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