The drowning rate fluctuated in the range 1.5 to 2.0 deaths per 100,000 over 1992-1998.

Young children aged 1-4 years recorded the highest drowning rate of any age group.

Information on drowningIn ABS mortality statistics, accidental deaths are grouped according to the nature of the accident, in accordance with the International Classification of Disease version 9 (ICD-9). The majority of accidental drownings are coded to:

code E830 - Accident to watercraft causing submersion;

code E832 - Other accidental submersion or drowning in water transport accident;

code E910 - Accidental drowning and submersion.

Most of this article is based on information regarding deaths grouped to these three codes.

Since 1992, additional information has been extracted from coroners' files and added to the statistical records, to identify the general circumstances and location of each drowning. This assists those planning water safety policies, and has been used in this article.

The long-term trend in accidental drowning in Australia (since the 1920s) has been a decline.1 In the 1990s, accidental drowning was relatively rare, causing fewer than 2 deaths per 100,000 population per year and accounting for less than 1% of all deaths. Nevertheless, drowning is a focus of public concern because these deaths are often premature and avoidable. The National Water Safety Council is a coordinating body promoting water safety across areas and levels of government and to the general public. The Council’s Water Safety Plan promotes specific measures in the area of research, management of aquatic locations and water safety education. The plan also encourages a focus on key demographic groups, such as 1-4 year olds, known to have a higher risk of drowning.2

AVERAGE AGE-SPECIFIC ACCIDENTAL DROWNING RATES(a), BY SEX, 1992-1998

(a) Registered deaths, classified to codes E830, E832 and E910 (ICD–9). Age-specific death rate is the number of deaths per 100,000 of the estimated mid-year population. Age-specific death rates 1992–1998 were averaged over the period.

Source: Unpublished data, Causes of Death collection.

Magnitude and age patternOver the years 1992-1998, 2,199 people died from accidental drowning, including 343 who drowned as a result of water craft accidents. There was an average of 314 deaths per year, with four times as many males as females drowning (an average of 251 per year compared to 63). The age-standardised death rate from accidental drowning fluctuated annually, and ranged from 1.5 deaths per 100,000 (1998) to 2.0 (1992).Children under five years had the highest average drowning rate of any age group (4.6 deaths per 100,000). The rate for males was 5.7 deaths per 100,000 and for females it was 3.4 per 100,000.

The average death rates were higher for males than for females in every age group. The difference was least in the 0-5 years age group in which the rate for males was 70% higher than that for females. It was greatest in the 15-24 and 25-34 years age group. In these two age groups the average rates for males were more than seven times higher than the average rates for females.

Circumstances and locationsDrownings over 1992-1998 occurred in a variety of circumstances and locations, and highlighted diverse issues in water safety.

Drowning is seasonal, with a peak in December-January, the hottest months and also a holiday period. Of all drownings over the period, 13% took place in January and 13% in December while the trough occurred in May (4%). (Data was adjusted to take account of differences in the number of days per month).

Many deaths took place during recreational use of water. As well as 600 drownings while swimming, paddling or wading, there were 83 drownings while skin diving or spear fishing, 20 drownings while surfboard riding and 2 drownings while water skiing.

However, a substantial number of deaths resulted from people accidentally falling or wandering into water. Indeed, more deaths in swimming pools and in lakes, dams or lagoons, were attributed to people accidentally entering the water than to swimming, paddling or wading. Almost 40% of the 748 drownings due to falling or wandering into water were of children aged 1-4 years.

After deaths from falling or wandering into water, and while swimming paddling or wading, water craft accidents claimed the most lives through drowning.Each year a small number of people drown while trying to save others; there were 41 such deaths over the period.

As well as the more common locations, (major types of natural water body and swimming pools), drownings occur in other sites. Bathtubs are a hazard for infants, people with certain medical conditions, and those prone to falls, such as the elderly. There were 131 drownings in bathtubs over the period. The hazards of ditches or shafts on building sites, and irrigation canals on farms, have been recognised in various regulations. Storm water drains are also a hazard, especially to children who play in them. There were 34 deaths in trenches, irrigation canals or storm water drains over the period. Dams, creeks and water holes are included in the location category with lakes. A recent report highlights drowning as a safety hazard on farms, especially for children.3 Over 1989-92 there was an average of 22 drownings a year on farms, with more than half occurring in dams. Children under 15 years made up 57% of farm drownings.

In most circumstances more males drowned, but more females drowned in bathtubs. The circumstances and locations of drowning also varied by age. Quite different reasons account for the peak in death rates at under five years, the predominance of male deaths, especially among younger adults, and the higher drowning rates among those aged over 64 years than among other adults.

LOCATION OF SELECTED DROWNINGS(a), 1992-1998

(a) Death registered to ICD–9 code E910 and which occurred while swimming, paddling or wading, or after falling or wandering into water.

Source: Unpublished data, Causes of Death collection.

Children under five Children under five are physically vulnerable to drowning. They are also unaware of water hazards and are dependent on the vigilance of adults to protect them. International data shows that children of this age who drown tend to do so in whatever hazards are in or near their homes. For example, locations of drowning which are quite common in other countries but not in Australia include canals (the Netherlands), sunken bathtubs (Japan), ornamental garden ponds (the United Kingdom), and industrial buckets used in the home (the United States).4

In Australia, the most common location of drowning of children under five years over 1992-1998 was a private swimming pool (45%). The great majority of children of this age who drowned had fallen or wandered into water (72%). Only a small proportion drowned while swimming, paddling or wading (7%). This may reflect the fact that children of this age are not normally allowed to swim, paddle or wade without adult supervision. If they get into difficulties while supervised, an adult may often be able to rescue them, and if necessary, resuscitate them and call for medical assistance.

A study of drownings and near-drownings of children in Brisbane over a number of years identified several issues relating to supervision.4 As well as less common circumstances which were considered to show neglect, these included situations where the child was not supervised, or there was confusion about who was supervising the child at the time (dichotomy of care), or a degree of disruption to routine (vulnerable period for child or parent). The findings also suggest that there was some confusion about the degree of supervision necessary. While most children of five and over can understand parents’ instructions, some parents were unrealistic in thinking younger children could be trained not to go near a pool or that the presence of older children was sufficient supervision. The study also found some over-reliance on buoyancy aids (‘floaties’).

The major associated factors identified by the study, however, related to the adequacy of the pool fencing. Safety advocates regard isolation fencing, with a childproof gate which is kept closed by those who use it, as the most important measure to protect children in houses with private pools.5 While pool fencing legislation of some sort applies in most areas of Australia, isolation fencing is not always required. Other issues relating to the pool environment which arose in the Brisbane Drowning Study were the presence of attractive objects in the water and the misuse of safety features.

Circumstances associated with drowning and near-drowning of children, Brisbane(a)

SELECTED CIRCUMSTANCES AND LOCATION OF DROWNINGS OF CHILDREN AGED LESS THAN FIVE YEARS(a), 1992-1998

no.

%

Drowned in a bathtub

67

16

Total fell or wandered into water

297

72

Fell or wandered into private pool

173

42

Fell or wandered into lake, lagoon etc.

69

17

Total who were swimming, paddling or wading

29

7

Were swimming, paddling or wading in private pool

14

3

Were swimming, paddling or wading in lake etc.

8

2

Total(b)

411

100

(a) Classified to E830, E832 and E910.(b) Includes drownings in other and unspecified circumstances.

Source: Unpublished data, Causes of Death collection.

Youth and adults to age 64Whereas the peaks in the age pattern of drowning among young children and older adults reflect physical vulnerability, the rise among youth (15-24 years), and the much higher rate among males than females sustained through adult years, are regarded as reflecting behavioural differences. Greater involvement in water recreation, less supervision than applies to those under 15, and a greater tendency to take risks may explain these patterns.

In contrast to the pattern for young children, only 3% of drownings of people aged 15-64 years that occurred between 1992 and 1998 were in private swimming pools. Drowning while swimming, paddling or wading was the most common circumstance (33%), while 30% followed falling or wandering into water, and 20% were due to watercraft accidents. The majority of both swimming, paddling and wading drownings (68%), and those which followed falling or wandering into water (56%) occurred in an ocean, coastal or river environment. Of the 1,377 people who drowned in this broad age group, 86% were male, and males made up at least 75% of deaths in all circumstances except for the 46 drowning in private pools (65% were males), and the 36 in bathtubs (33% were males).

Older peopleIn contrast to younger adults, the largest group of drownings of those aged over 64 years resulted from falling or wandering into water (41%). This was the most common circumstance among both men and women (78 and 35 deaths respectively). Among men, watercraft accidents (48 deaths), and drowning while swimming paddling and wading (40 deaths) were the next most common. Among women, bathtub drownings (17 deaths) and swimming, paddling or wading drownings (11 deaths) were the next most common circumstances. Only four men of this age drowned in a bathtub and only four women drowned in watercraft accidents.

Overseas touristsWater-based recreations such as swimming, scuba diving or snorkelling attract tourists. The deaths of tourists undertaking some of these activities has generated concern about safety standards and contributed to discussion regarding the systems of medical checks which operate.6

In the period 1992-98 nearly all drownings were of Australian residents. Nevertheless there were 102 deaths of people whose usual residence was overseas. In contrast to the pattern for all drownings, 60% drowned while swimming, paddling and wading, with surf beaches the most common location (38 deaths). About 20% drowned while skin diving or spear fishing. In fact, overseas residents made up 24% of all skin diving or spear fishing drownings.

AlcoholThere has been concern voiced by water safety experts that alcohol may be involved in some drowning deaths, particularly in those resulting from boating accidents.4 Alcohol and drug abusers, and those on some medications, are also at risk of drowning after losing consciousness in a bath. These aspects of water safety cannot be investigated directly from statistical deaths data. However, the National Drug Research Institute has estimated that about 70 drownings were alcohol-related in 1997.7

Incidental drowningsSince 1992, information from coroners' files has been used by statistical officers to note some additional drownings which were not classified to the accidental drowning codes E830, E832 or E910. In these cases, the underlying cause of death is either another type of accident, such as a motor vehicle accident, or a medical condition, such as epilepsy. They include drownings due to floods, storms or earth movements (which are classified to codes E908 and E909). Information on incidental drownings is used in this article to add to knowledge of the range of circumstances that may result in drowning.

Incidental drowningsOver 1992-1998, 291 deaths were noted as incidental drownings. There were 40 drownings due to floods, storms and earth movements. The medical conditions which were the most common underlying causes of incidental drownings were epilepsy and heart conditions. Motor vehicle accidents were prominent as the major accidental cause in this group. A variety of other types of accident were also represented including aircraft accidents and falls. Drownings due to machinery accidents or electrocution remind of the need for vigilance in using electrical and other equipment near water.

INCIDENTAL DROWNINGS(a), 1992-1998

Males

Females

Persons

no.

no.

no.

%

Motor vehicle accident

71

25

96

33

Flood, storm, earth movement(b)

32

8

40

14

Aircraft accident

7

2

9

3

Fall

8

1

9

3

Machinery accident/electrocution

8

2

10

3

Epilepsy

50

8

58

20

Heart attack/condition or stroke

17

3

20

7

Other accident or condition

34

15

49

15

Total

227

64

291

100

(a) Deaths registered to ICD-9 codes other than E830, E832, E910 and noted by statistical officers as drownings on the basis of information in coroners’ files. Homicides, suicides and deaths which were undetermined as purposeful or accidental are excluded. (b) Deaths registered to codes E908 and E909 and noted as drownings.