Awdough de monf and date of Jesus' birf are unknown, by de earwy-to-mid fourf century de Western Christian Church had pwaced Christmas on December 25,[23] a date dat was water adopted in de East.[24][25] Today, most Christians cewebrate on December 25 in de Gregorian cawendar, which has been adopted awmost universawwy in de civiw cawendars used in countries droughout de worwd. However, some Eastern Christian Churches cewebrate Christmas on December 25 of de owder Juwian cawendar, which currentwy corresponds to January 7 in de Gregorian cawendar, de day after de Western Christian Church cewebrates de Epiphany. This is not a disagreement over de date of Christmas as such, but rader a preference of which cawendar shouwd be used to determine de day dat is December 25. Moreover, for Christians, de bewief dat God came into de worwd in de form of man to atone for de sins of humanity, rader dan de exact birf date, is considered to be de primary purpose in cewebrating Christmas.[26][27][28][29]

Etymowogy

"Christmas" is a shortened form of "Christ's mass". It is derived from de Middwe EngwishCristemasse, which is from Owd EngwishCrīstesmæsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038[9] fowwowed by de word Cristes-messe in 1131.[32]Crīst (genitiveCrīstes) is from Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), a transwation of HebrewMāšîaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ), "Messiah", meaning "anointed";[33][34] and mæsse is from Latin missa, de cewebration of de Eucharist.

The form Christenmas was awso historicawwy used, but is now considered archaic and diawectaw;[35] it derives from Middwe Engwish Cristenmasse, witerawwy "Christian mass".[36]Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particuwarwy in print, based on de initiaw wetter chi (Χ) in Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), "Christ", dough numerous stywe guides discourage its use;[37] it has precedent in Middwe Engwish Χρ̄es masse (where "Χρ̄" is an abbreviation for Χριστός).[36]

Oder names

In addition to "Christmas", de howiday has been known by various oder names droughout its history. The Angwo-Saxons referred to de feast as "midwinter",[38][39] or, more rarewy, as Nātiuiteð (from Latinnātīvitās bewow).[38][40] "Nativity", meaning "birf", is from Latin nātīvitās.[41] In Owd Engwish, Gēowa (Yuwe) referred to de period corresponding to December and January, which was eventuawwy eqwated wif Christian Christmas.[42] "Noew" (or "Nowew") entered Engwish in de wate 14f century and is from de Owd French noëw or naëw, itsewf uwtimatewy from de Latin nātāwis (diēs) meaning "birf (day)".[43]

Nativity

The canonicaw gospews of Luke and Matdew bof describe Jesus as being born in Bedwehem in Judea, to a virgin moder. In de Gospew of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travew from Nazaref to Bedwehem for de census, and Jesus is born dere and waid in a manger.[44] It says dat angews procwaimed him a savior for aww peopwe, and shepherds came to adore him.

The Nativity stories of Matdew and Luke are prominent in de gospews and earwy Christian writers suggested various dates for de anniversary. The first recorded Christmas cewebration was in Rome in 336.[45][46] Christmas pwayed a rowe in de Arian controversy of de fourf century. In de earwy Middwe Ages, it was overshadowed by Epiphany. The feast regained prominence after 800, when Charwemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day.

Associating it wif drunkenness and oder misbehavior, de Puritans banned Christmas in de 17f century.[47] It was restored as a wegaw howiday in 1660, but remained disreputabwe. In de earwy 19f century, Christmas was revived wif de start of de Oxford Movement in de Angwican Church.[48]

Charwes Dickens and oder writers reinvented de howiday by emphasizing Christmas as a time for famiwy, rewigion, gift-giving, and sociaw reconciwiation as opposed to de revewry dat had been common historicawwy.[48]

Choice of December 25 date

In de 3rd century, de date of birf of Jesus was de subject of bof great interest and great uncertainty. Around AD 200, Cwement of Awexandria wrote:

“

There are dose who have determined not onwy de year of our Lord's birf, but awso de day; and dey say dat it took pwace in de 28f year of Augustus, and in de 25f day of [de Egyptian monf] Pachon [May 20] … Furder, oders say dat He was born on de 24f or 25f of Pharmudi [Apriw 20 or 21].[49]

”

In oder writing of dis time, May 20, Apriw 18 or 19, March 25, January 2, November 17, and November 20 are aww suggested.[9][50] Various factors contributed to de sewection of December 25 as a date of cewebration: it was de date of de winter sowstice on de Roman cawendar; it was about nine monds after March 25, de date of de vernaw eqwinox and a date winked to de conception of Jesus.

Sowstice date

December 25 was de date of de winter sowstice on de Roman cawendar.[51][52] Jesus chose to be born on de shortest day of de year for symbowic reasons, according to an earwy Christmas sermon by Augustine: "Hence it is dat He was born on de day which is de shortest in our eardwy reckoning and from which subseqwent days begin to increase in wengf. He, derefore, who bent wow and wifted us up chose de shortest day, yet de one whence wight begins to increase."[53]

Linking Jesus to de Sun was supported by various Bibwicaw passages. Jesus was considered to be de "Sun of righteousness" prophesied by Mawachi: "Unto you shaww de sun of righteousness arise, and heawing is in his wings."[54] John describes Jesus as "de wight of de worwd."[55]

Such sowar symbowism couwd support more dan one date of birf. An anonymous work known as De Pascha Computus (243) winked de idea dat creation began at de spring eqwinox, on March 25, wif de conception or birf (de word nascor can mean eider) of Jesus on March 28, de day of de creation of de sun in de Genesis account. One transwation reads: "O de spwendid and divine providence of de Lord, dat on dat day, de very day, on which de sun was made, March 28, a Wednesday, Christ shouwd be born, uh-hah-hah-hah.[9][56]

In de 17f century, Isaac Newton argued dat de date of Christmas was sewected to correspond wif de sowstice.[57]

According to Steven Hijmans of de University of Awberta, "It is cosmic symbowism ... which inspired de Church weadership in Rome to ewect de soudern sowstice, December 25, as de birdday of Christ, and de nordern sowstice as dat of John de Baptist, suppwemented by de eqwinoxes as deir respective dates of conception, uh-hah-hah-hah."[58]

Cawcuwation hypodesis

The Cawcuwation hypodesis suggests dat an earwier howiday hewd on March 25 became associated wif de Incarnation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[59] Modern schowars refer to dis feast as de Quartodecimaw. Christmas was den cawcuwated as nine monds water. The Cawcuwation hypodesis was proposed by French writer Louis Duchesne in 1889.[60][61] In modern times, March 25 is cewebrated as Annunciation. This howiday was created in de sevenf century and was assigned to a date dat is nine monds before Christmas, in addition to being de traditionaw date of de eqwinox. It is unrewated to de Quartodecimaw, which had been forgotten by dis time.[62]

Earwy Christians cewebrated de wife of Jesus on a date considered eqwivawent to 14 Nisan (Passover) on de wocaw cawendar. Because Passover was hewd on de 14f of de monf, dis feast is referred to as de Quartodecimaw. Aww de major events of Christ's wife, especiawwy de passion, were cewebrated on dis date. In his wetter to de Corindians, Pauw mentions Passover, presumabwy cewebrated according to de wocaw cawendar in Corinf.[63] Tertuwwian (d. 220), who wived in Latin-speaking Norf Africa, gives de date of passion cewebration as March 25.[64] The date of de passion was moved to Good Friday in 165 when Pope Soter created Easter by reassigning de Resurrection to a Sunday. According to de Cawcuwation hypodesis, cewebration of de qwartodecimaw continued in some areas and de feast became associated wif Incarnation, uh-hah-hah-hah.

The Cawcuwation hypodesis is considered academicawwy to be "a doroughwy viabwe hypodesis", dough not certain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[65] It was a traditionaw Jewish bewief dat great men wived a whowe number of years, widout fractions, so dat Jesus was considered to have been conceived on March 25, as he died on March 25, which was cawcuwated to have coincided wif 14 Nisan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[66] A passage in Commentary on de Prophet Daniew (204) by Hippowytus of Rome identifies December 25 as de date of de nativity. This passage is generawwy considered a wate interpewwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. But de manuscript incwudes anoder passage, one dat is more wikewy to be audentic, dat gives de passion as March 25.[67]

In 221, Sextus Juwius Africanus (c. 160 – c. 240) gave March 25 as de day of creation and of de conception of Jesus in his universaw history. This concwusion was based on sowar symbowism, wif March 25 de date of de eqwinox. As dis impwies a birf in December, it is sometimes cwaimed to be de earwiest identification of December 25 as de nativity. However, Africanus was not such an infwuentiaw writer dat it is wikewy he determined de date of Christmas.[68]

The tractate De sowstitia et aeqwinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae, fawsewy attributed to John Chrysostom, awso argued dat Jesus was conceived and crucified on de same day of de year and cawcuwated dis as March 25.[69][70] This anonymous tract awso states: "But Our Lord, too, is born in de monf of December ... de eight before de cawends of January [25 December] ..., But dey caww it de 'Birdday of de Unconqwered'. Who indeed is so unconqwered as Our Lord...? Or, if dey say dat it is de birdday of de Sun, He is de Sun of Justice."[9]

History of rewigions hypodesis

The rivaw "History of Rewigions" hypodesis suggests dat de Church sewected December 25 date to appropriate festivities hewd by de Romans in honor of de Sun god Sow Invictus.[59] This feast was estabwished by Aurewian in 274. An expwicit expression of dis deory appears in an annotation of uncertain date added to a manuscript of a work by 12f-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Sawibi. The scribe who added it wrote:

"It was a custom of de Pagans to cewebrate on de same 25 December de birdday of de Sun, at which dey kindwed wights in token of festivity. In dese sowemnities and revewries de Christians awso took part. Accordingwy when de doctors of de Church perceived dat de Christians had a weaning to dis festivaw, dey took counsew and resowved dat de true Nativity shouwd be sowemnised on dat day." [71]

In 1743, German Protestant Pauw Ernst Jabwonski argued Christmas was pwaced on December 25 to correspond wif de Roman sowar howiday Dies Natawis Sowis Invicti and was derefore a "paganization" dat debased de true church.[72] It has been argued dat, on de contrary, de Emperor Aurewian, who in 274 instituted de howiday of de Dies Natawis Sowis Invicti, did so partwy as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date awready important for Christians in Rome.[73]

Hermann Usener[74] and oders[32] proposed dat de Christians chose dis day because it was de Roman feast cewebrating de birdday of Sow Invictus. Modern schowar S. E. Hijmans, however, states dat "Whiwe dey were aware dat pagans cawwed dis day de 'birdday' of Sow Invictus, dis did not concern dem and it did not pway any rowe in deir choice of date for Christmas."[58] Moreover, Thomas J. Tawwey howds dat de Roman Emperor Aurewian pwaced a festivaw of Sow Invictus on December 25 in order to compete wif de growing rate of de Christian Church, which had awready been cewebrating Christmas on dat date first.[75] In de judgement of de Church of Engwand Liturgicaw Commission, de History of Rewigions hypodesis has been chawwenged[76] by a view based on an owd tradition, according to which de date of Christmas was fixed at nine monds after March 25, de date of de vernaw eqwinox, on which de Annunciation was cewebrated.[69]

Wif regard to a December rewigious feast of de deified Sun (Sow), as distinct from a sowstice feast of de birf (or rebirf) of de astronomicaw sun, one schowar has commented dat, "whiwe de winter sowstice on or around December 25 was weww estabwished in de Roman imperiaw cawendar, dere is no evidence dat a rewigious cewebration of Sow on dat day antedated de cewebration of Christmas".[77] "Thomas Tawwey has shown dat, awdough de Emperor Aurewian's dedication of a tempwe to de sun god in de Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probabwy took pwace on de 'Birdday of de Invincibwe Sun' on December 25, de cuwt of de sun in pagan Rome ironicawwy did not cewebrate de winter sowstice nor any of de oder qwarter-tense days, as one might expect."[78] The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks on de uncertainty about de order of precedence between de rewigious cewebrations of de Birdday of de Unconqwered Sun and of de birdday of Jesus, stating dat de hypodesis dat December 25 was chosen for cewebrating de birf of Jesus on de basis of de bewief dat his conception occurred on March 25 "potentiawwy estabwishes 25 December as a Christian festivaw before Aurewian's decree, which, when promuwgated, might have provided for de Christian feast bof opportunity and chawwenge".[79]

Introduction of feast

As Christmas was unknown to de earwy Christian writers, it must have been introduced sometime after 300. Irenaeus and Tertuwwian omit it from deir wists of feasts. In 245, Origen of Awexandria, writing about Leviticus 12:1–8, commented dat Scripture mentions onwy sinners as cewebrating deir birddays, namewy Pharaoh, who den had his chief baker hanged (Genesis 40:20–22), and Herod, who den had John de Baptist beheaded (Mark 6:21–27), and mentions saints as cursing de day of deir birf, namewy Jeremiah (Jeremiah 20:14–15) and Job (Job 3:1–16).[80] In 303, Arnobius stiww ridicuwed de idea of cewebrating de birddays of gods, a passage cited as evidence dat Arnobius was unaware of any nativity cewebration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[81] But since Christmas does not cewebrate Christ's birf "as God" but "as man", dis does not necessariwy show dat Christmas was not a feast at dis time.[9]

The earwiest known Christmas cewebration is recorded in a fourf-century manuscript compiwed in Rome.[45] This manuscript is dought to record a cewebration dat occurred in 336. It was prepared privatewy for Furius Dionysius Fiwocawus, a Roman aristocrat, in 354. The reference in qwestion states, "VIII kaw. ian, uh-hah-hah-hah. natus Christus in Betweem Iudeæ"[46] transwated as "8 Kawends January[a] Birf of Christ in Bedwehem, Judea."[82] This reference is in a section of de manuscript dat was copied from earwier source materiaw.[83] The document awso contains de earwiest known reference to de feast of Sow Invictus.[84] The fact de Donatists of Norf Africa cewebrated Christmas suggests dat de feast was estabwished by de time dat church was created in 311.[85][86]

Rewation to concurrent cewebrations

Many popuwar customs associated wif Christmas devewoped independentwy of de commemoration of Jesus' birf, wif certain ewements having origins in pre-Christian festivaws dat were cewebrated around de winter sowstice by pagan popuwations who were water converted to Christianity. These ewements, incwuding de Yuwe wog from Yuwe and gift giving from Saturnawia,[92] became syncretized into Christmas over de centuries. The prevaiwing atmosphere of Christmas has awso continuawwy evowved since de howiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnivaw-wike state in de Middwe Ages,[93] to a tamer famiwy-oriented and chiwdren-centered deme introduced in a 19f-century transformation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[94][95] In fact, de cewebration of Christmas was banned on more dan one occasion widin certain Protestant groups, such as de Puritans, due to concerns dat it was too pagan or unbibwicaw.[47][96]Jehovah's Witnesses awso reject de cewebration of Christmas.

Mosaic of Jesus as Christus Sow (Christ de Sun) in Mausoweum M in de pre-fourf-century necropowis under St Peter's Basiwica in Rome.[97]

Prior to and drough de earwy Christian centuries, winter festivaws—especiawwy dose centered on de winter sowstice—were de most popuwar of de year in many European pagan cuwtures. Reasons incwuded de fact dat wess agricuwturaw work needed to be done during de winter, as weww as an expectation of better weader as spring approached.[98] Many modern Christmas customs have been directwy infwuenced by such festivaws, incwuding:

The Egyptian deity Horus, son to goddess Isis, was cewebrated at de winter sowstice. Horus was often depicted being fed by his moder, which awso infwuenced de symbowism of de Virgin Mary wif baby Christ.

The pre-Christian Germanic peopwes—incwuding de Angwo-Saxons and de Norse—cewebrated a winter festivaw cawwed Yuwe, hewd in de wate December to earwy January period, yiewding modern Engwish yuwe, today used as a synonym for Christmas.[100] In Germanic wanguage-speaking areas, numerous ewements of modern Christmas fowk custom and iconography stem from Yuwe, incwuding de Yuwe wog, Yuwe boar, and de Yuwe goat.[100] Often weading a ghostwy procession drough de sky (de Wiwd Hunt), de wong-bearded god Odin is referred to as "de Yuwe one" and "Yuwe fader" in Owd Norse texts, whiwe oder gods are referred to as "Yuwe beings".[101]

In eastern Europe awso, owd pagan traditions were incorporated into Christmas cewebrations, an exampwe being de Koweda,[102] which was incorporated into de Christmas carow.

Middwe Ages

The Nativity, from a 14f-century Missaw; a witurgicaw book containing texts and music necessary for de cewebration of Mass droughout de year

In de Earwy Middwe Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on de visit of de magi. But de medievaw cawendar was dominated by Christmas-rewated howidays. The forty days before Christmas became de "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, de feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[93] In Itawy, former Saturnawian traditions were attached to Advent.[93] Around de 12f century, dese traditions transferred again to de Twewve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time dat appears in de witurgicaw cawendars as Christmastide or Twewve Howy Days.[93]

The coronation of Charwemagne on Christmas of 800 hewped promote de popuwarity of de howiday

By de High Middwe Ages, de howiday had become so prominent dat chronicwers routinewy noted where various magnates cewebrated Christmas. King Richard II of Engwand hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and dree hundred sheep were eaten, uh-hah-hah-hah.[93] The Yuwe boar was a common feature of medievaw Christmas feasts. Carowing awso became popuwar, and was originawwy a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a wead singer and a ring of dancers dat provided de chorus. Various writers of de time condemned carowing as wewd, indicating dat de unruwy traditions of Saturnawia and Yuwe may have continued in dis form.[93] "Misruwe"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambwing—was awso an important aspect of de festivaw. In Engwand, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and dere was speciaw Christmas awe.[93]

Christmas during de Middwe Ages was a pubwic festivaw dat incorporated ivy, howwy, and oder evergreens.[103] Christmas gift-giving during de Middwe Ages was usuawwy between peopwe wif wegaw rewationships, such as tenant and wandword.[103] The annuaw induwgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card pwaying escawated in Engwand, and by de 17f century de Christmas season featured wavish dinners, ewaborate masqwes, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted dat a pway be acted on Christmas night and dat de court induwge in games.[104] It was during de Reformation in 16f–17f-century Europe dat many Protestants changed de gift bringer to de Christ Chiwd or Christkindw, and de date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[105]

Reformation to de 18f century

Pubwic notice in Boston issued by de Puritans deeming Christmas iwwegaw and sacriwegious

However, in 17f century Engwand, some groups such as de Puritans, strongwy condemned de cewebration of Christmas, considering it a Cadowic invention and de "trappings of popery" or de "rags of de Beast".[47] In contrast, de estabwished Angwican Church "pressed for a more ewaborate observance of feasts, penitentiaw seasons, and saints' days. The cawendar reform became a major point of tension between de Angwican party and de Puritan party."[111] The Cadowic Church awso responded, promoting de festivaw in a more rewigiouswy oriented form. King Charwes I of Engwand directed his nobwemen and gentry to return to deir wanded estates in midwinter to keep up deir owd-stywe Christmas generosity.[104] Fowwowing de Parwiamentarian victory over Charwes I during de Engwish Civiw War, Engwand's Puritan ruwers banned Christmas in 1647.[47][112]

Protests fowwowed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in severaw cities and for weeks Canterbury was controwwed by de rioters, who decorated doorways wif howwy and shouted royawist swogans.[47] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against de Puritans, and makes note of Owd Engwish Christmas traditions, dinner, roast appwes on de fire, card pwaying, dances wif "pwow-boys" and "maidservants", owd Fader Christmas and carow singing.[113]

The Examination and Triaw of Fader Christmas, (1686), pubwished after Christmas was reinstated as a howy day in Engwand

The Restoration of King Charwes II in 1660 ended de ban, but many Cawvinist cwergymen stiww disapproved of Christmas cewebration, uh-hah-hah-hah. As such, in Scotwand, de Presbyterian Church of Scotwand discouraged de observance of Christmas, and dough James VI commanded its cewebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant.[114] The Parwiament of Scotwand officiawwy abowished de observance of Christmas in 1640, cwaiming dat de church had been "purged of aww superstitious observation of days".[115] It was not untiw 1958 dat Christmas again became a Scottish pubwic howiday.[116]

Fowwowing de Restoration of Charwes II, Poor Robin's Awmanack contained de wines: "Now danks to God for Charwes return, / Whose absence made owd Christmas mourn, uh-hah-hah-hah. / For den we scarcewy did it know, / Wheder it Christmas were or no."[117] The diary of James Woodforde, from de watter hawf of de 18f century, detaiws de observance of Christmas and cewebrations associated wif de season over a number of years.[118]

In Cowoniaw America, de Piwgrims of New Engwand shared radicaw Protestant disapprovaw of Christmas.[96] The Pwymouf Piwgrims put deir woading for de day into practice in 1620 when dey spent deir first Christmas Day in de New Worwd working – dus demonstrating deir compwete contempt for de day.[96] Non-Puritans in New Engwand depwored de woss of de howidays enjoyed by de waboring cwasses in Engwand.[119] Christmas observance was outwawed in Boston in 1659.[96] The ban by de Puritans was revoked in 1681 by Engwish governor Edmund Andros, however it was not untiw de mid-19f century dat cewebrating Christmas became fashionabwe in de Boston region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[120]

At de same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed de howiday freewy. Pennsywvania German Settwers, pre-eminentwy de Moravian settwers of Bedwehem, Nazaref and Lititz in Pennsywvania and de Wachovia Settwements in Norf Carowina, were endusiastic cewebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bedwehem had de first Christmas trees in America as weww as de first Nativity Scenes.[121] Christmas feww out of favor in de United States after de American Revowution, when it was considered an Engwish custom.[122]George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on de day after Christmas during de Battwe of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popuwar in Germany dan in America at dis time.

19f century

In de UK, Christmas Day became a bank howiday in 1834, Boxing Day was added in 1871.[125]

In de earwy-19f century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfewt cewebration, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 1843, Charwes Dickens wrote de novew A Christmas Carow dat hewped revive de "spirit" of Christmas and seasonaw merriment.[94][95] Its instant popuwarity pwayed a major rowe in portraying Christmas as a howiday emphasizing famiwy, goodwiww, and compassion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[126]

Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a famiwy-centered festivaw of generosity, winking "worship and feasting, widin a context of sociaw reconciwiation, uh-hah-hah-hah."[127] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of de howiday, in what has been termed "Carow Phiwosophy",[128] Dickens infwuenced many aspects of Christmas dat are cewebrated today in Western cuwture, such as famiwy gaderings, seasonaw food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[129] A prominent phrase from de tawe, "Merry Christmas", was popuwarized fowwowing de appearance of de story.[130] This coincided wif de appearance of de Oxford Movement and de growf of Angwo-Cadowicism, which wed a revivaw in traditionaw rituaws and rewigious observances.[131]

An image of de British royaw famiwy wif deir Christmas tree at Windsor Castwe created a sensation when it was pubwished in de Iwwustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of dis image was pubwished in de United States in 1850.[136][137] By de 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.[136]

In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in de 1820s by severaw short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Owd Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted Engwish Christmas festivities he experienced whiwe staying in Aston Haww, Birmingham, Engwand, dat had wargewy been abandoned,[138] and he used de tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Owd Engwish Christmas traditions, dat he had transcribed into his journaw as a format for his stories.[104]

In 1822, Cwement Cwarke Moore wrote de poem A Visit From St. Nichowas (popuwarwy known by its first wine: Twas de Night Before Christmas).[139] The poem hewped popuwarize de tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonaw Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.[140] This awso started de cuwturaw confwict between de howiday's spirituaw significance and its associated commerciawism dat some see as corrupting de howiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New Engwand, Harriet Beecher Stowe incwudes a character who compwains dat de true meaning of Christmas was wost in a shopping spree.[141]

Whiwe de cewebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in de U.S., Henry Wadsworf Longfewwow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New Engwand" in 1856. "The owd puritan feewing prevents it from being a cheerfuw, hearty howiday; dough every year makes it more so."[142] In Reading, Pennsywvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hiderto steadfastwy ignored Christmas—drew open deir church doors and assembwed in force to cewebrate de anniversary of de Savior's birf."[142]

The First Congregationaw Church of Rockford, Iwwinois, "awdough of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubiwee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.[142] By 1860, fourteen states incwuding severaw from New Engwand had adopted Christmas as a wegaw howiday.[143] In 1875, Louis Prang introduced de Christmas card to Americans. He has been cawwed de "fader of de American Christmas card".[144] On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formawwy decwared a United States federaw howiday.[145]

20f century

Up to de 1950s, in de UK, many Christmas customs were restricted to de upper cwasses and better-off famiwies. The mass of de popuwation had not adopted many of de Christmas rituaws dat water became generaw. The Christmas tree was rare. Christmas dinner might be beef—certainwy not turkey. In deir stockings chiwdren might get an appwe, orange and sweets. Fuww cewebration of a famiwy Christmas wif aww de trimmings onwy became widespread wif increased prosperity from de 1950s.[146] Nationaw papers were pubwished on Christmas Day untiw 1912. Post was stiww dewivered on Christmas Day untiw 1961. League footbaww matches continued in Scotwand untiw de 1970s whiwe in Engwand dey ceased at de end of de 1950s.[147][148]

Under de state adeism of de Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas cewebrations—awong wif oder Christian howidays—were prohibited in pubwic.[149] During de 1920s, 30s and 40s, de League of Miwitant Adeists encouraged schoow pupiws to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as de Christmas tree, as weww as oder Christian howidays, incwuding Easter; de League estabwished an antirewigious howiday to be de 31st of each monf as a repwacement.[150] At de height of dis persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, chiwdren in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against de howiday.[151] It was not untiw de dissowution of de Soviet Union in 1991 dat de persecution ended and Ordodox Christmas became a state howiday again for de first time in Russia after seven decades.[152]

As Christmas cewebrations began to be hewd around de worwd even outside traditionaw Christian cuwtures in de 20f century, some Muswim-majority countries have banned de practice of Christmas, cwaiming it undermines Iswam.[154]

Customs and traditions

Map of countries where Christmas is a formaw pubwic howiday eider on December 24/25 or January 6/7

Map of countries where Christmas is not a formaw pubwic howiday eider on December 24/25 or January 6/7

Christmas Day is cewebrated as a major festivaw and pubwic howiday in countries around de worwd, incwuding many whose popuwations are mostwy non-Christian, uh-hah-hah-hah. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former cowoniaw ruwe introduced de cewebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in oders, Christian minorities or foreign cuwturaw infwuences have wed popuwations to observe de howiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popuwar despite dere being onwy a smaww number of Christians, have adopted many of de secuwar aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees.

Among countries wif a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas cewebrations have devewoped dat incorporate regionaw and wocaw cuwtures. For Christians, participating in a rewigious service pways an important part in de recognition of de season, uh-hah-hah-hah. Christmas, awong wif Easter, is de period of highest annuaw church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found dat 47% of American househowds attend church services during dis time.[155] In de United Kingdom, de Church of Engwand reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 miwwion peopwe at Christmas services in 2015.[156]

In Cadowic countries, peopwe howd rewigious processions or parades in de days preceding Christmas. In oder countries, secuwar processions or parades featuring Santa Cwaus and oder seasonaw figures are often hewd. Famiwy reunions and de exchange of gifts are a widespread feature of de season, uh-hah-hah-hah. Gift-giving takes pwace on Christmas Day in most countries. Oders practice gift giving on Saint Nichowas Day, and January 6, Epiphany.

Decorations

A typicaw Neapowitanpresepe or presepio, or Nativity scene. Locaw crèches are renowned for deir ornate decorations and symbowic figurines, often mirroring daiwy wife.

The practice of putting up speciaw decorations at Christmas has a wong history. In de 15f century, it was recorded dat in London it was de custom at Christmas for every house and aww de parish churches to be "decked wif howm, ivy, bays, and whatsoever de season of de year afforded to be green".[157] The heart-shaped weaves of ivy were said to symbowize de coming to earf of Jesus, whiwe howwy was seen as protection against pagans and witches, its dorns and red berries hewd to represent de Crown of Thorns worn by Jesus at de crucifixion and de bwood he shed.[158][159]

Cwifton Miww in Cwifton, Ohio is de site of dis Christmas dispway wif over 3.5 miwwion wights.

Nativity scenes are known from 10f-century Rome. They were popuwarised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, qwickwy spreading across Europe.[160] Different types of decorations devewoped across de Christian worwd, dependent on wocaw tradition and avaiwabwe resources, and can vary from simpwe representations of de crib to far more ewaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions incwude de cowourfuw Kraków szopka in Powand,[161] which imitate Kraków's historicaw buiwdings as settings, de ewaborate Itawian presepi (Neapowitan, Genoese and Bowognese),[162][163][164][165] or de Provençaw crèches in soudern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines cawwed santons.[166] In certain parts of de worwd, notabwy Siciwy, wiving nativity scenes fowwowing de tradition of Saint Francis are a popuwar awternative to static crèches.[167][168][169] The first commerciawwy produced decorations appeared in Germany in de 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah.[170] In countries where a representation of de Nativity scene is very popuwar, peopwe are encouraged to compete and create de most originaw or reawistic ones. Widin some famiwies, de pieces used to make de representation are considered a vawuabwe famiwy heirwoom.

The traditionaw cowors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gowd. Red symbowizes de bwood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion, whiwe green symbowizes eternaw wife, and in particuwar de evergreen tree, which does not wose its weaves in de winter, and gowd is de first cowor associated wif Christmas, as one of de dree gifts of de Magi, symbowizing royawty.[159]

The officiaw White House Christmas tree for 1962, dispwayed in de Entrance Haww and presented by John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie.

From Germany de custom was introduced to Britain, first via Queen Charwotte, wife of George III, and den more successfuwwy by Prince Awbert during de reign of Queen Victoria. By 1841 de Christmas tree had become even more widespread droughout Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[135] By de 1870s, peopwe in de United States had adopted de custom of putting up a Christmas tree.[136] Christmas trees may be decorated wif wights and ornaments.

Since de 16f century, de poinsettia, a native pwant from Mexico, has been associated wif Christmas.[176] Oder popuwar howiday pwants incwude howwy, mistwetoe, red amarywwis, and Christmas cactus. Awong wif a Christmas tree, de interior of a home may be decorated wif dese pwants, awong wif garwands and evergreen fowiage. The dispway of Christmas viwwages has awso become a tradition in many homes during dis season, uh-hah-hah-hah. The outside of houses may be decorated wif wights and sometimes wif iwwuminated sweighs, snowmen, and oder Christmas figures. Mistwetoe features prominentwy in European myf and fowkwore (for exampwe de wegend of Bawdr), it is an evergreen parasitic pwant which grows on trees, especiawwy appwe and popwar, and turns gowden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistwetoe in de house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneaf it may be kissed. Mistwetoe has sticky white berries, one of which was traditionawwy removed whenever someone was kissed under it. This is probabwy a fertiwity rituaw. The mistwetoe berry juice resembwes semen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[177]

Outdoor Christmas decoration and wighting

Oder traditionaw decorations incwude bewws, candwes, candy canes, stockings, wreads, and angews. Bof de dispwaying of wreads and candwes in each window are a more traditionaw Christmas dispway. The concentric assortment of weaves, usuawwy from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreads and are designed to prepare Christians for de Advent season, uh-hah-hah-hah. Candwes in each window are meant to demonstrate de fact dat Christians bewieve dat Jesus Christ is de uwtimate wight of de worwd.[178]

Christmas wights and banners may be hung awong streets, music pwayed from speakers, and Christmas trees pwaced in prominent pwaces.[179] It is common in many parts of de worwd for town sqwares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and dispway decorations. Rowws of brightwy cowored paper wif secuwar or rewigious Christmas motifs are manufactured for de purpose of wrapping gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionawwy taken down on Twewff Night, de evening of January 5.

Music and carows

The earwiest extant specificawwy Christmas hymns appear in fourf-century Rome. Latin hymns such as "Veni redemptor gentium", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Miwan, were austere statements of de deowogicaw doctrine of de Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of de Fader's wove begotten") by de Spanish poet Prudentius (d. 413) is stiww sung in some churches today.[180] In de 9f and 10f centuries, de Christmas "Seqwence" or "Prose" was introduced in Norf European monasteries, devewoping under Bernard of Cwairvaux into a seqwence of rhymed stanzas. In de 12f century de Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popuwar songs, introducing someding cwoser to de traditionaw Christmas carow.

By de 13f century, in France, Germany, and particuwarwy, Itawy, under de infwuence of Francis of Assisi, a strong tradition of popuwar Christmas songs in de native wanguage devewoped.[181] Christmas carows in Engwish first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdway, a Shropshire chapwain, who wists twenty-five "carowes of Cristemas", probabwy sung by groups of wassaiwers, who went from house to house.[182]

The songs we know specificawwy as carows were originawwy communaw fowk songs sung during cewebrations such as "harvest tide" as weww as Christmas. It was onwy water dat carows began to be sung in church. Traditionawwy, carows have often been based on medievaw chord patterns, and it is dis dat gives dem deir uniqwewy characteristic musicaw sound. Some carows wike "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceswas", and "The Howwy and de Ivy" can be traced directwy back to de Middwe Ages. They are among de owdest musicaw compositions stiww reguwarwy sung. "Adeste Fidewes" (O Come aww ye faidfuw) appears in its current form in de mid-18f century, awdough de words may have originated in de 13f century.

Singing of carows initiawwy suffered a decwine in popuwarity after de Protestant Reformation in nordern Europe, awdough some Reformers, wike Martin Luder, wrote carows and encouraged deir use in worship. Carows wargewy survived in ruraw communities untiw de revivaw of interest in popuwar songs in de 19f century. The 18f-century Engwish reformer Charwes Weswey understood de importance of music to worship. In addition to setting many psawms to mewodies, which were infwuentiaw in de Great Awakening in de United States, he wrote texts for at weast dree Christmas carows. The best known was originawwy entitwed "Hark! How Aww de Wewkin Rings", water renamed "Hark! de Herawd Angews Sing".[183]

Fewix Mendewssohn wrote a mewody adapted to fit Weswey's words. In Austria in 1818 Mohr and Gruber made a major addition to de genre when dey composed "Siwent Night" for de St. Nichowas Church, Oberndorf. Wiwwiam Sandys' Christmas Carows Ancient and Modern (1833) contained de first appearance in print of many now-cwassic Engwish carows, and contributed to de mid-Victorian revivaw of de festivaw.[184]

Compwetewy secuwar Christmas seasonaw songs emerged in de wate 18f century. "Deck de Hawws" dates from 1784, and de American "Jingwe Bewws" was copyrighted in 1857. In de 19f and 20f century, African American spirituaws and songs about Christmas, based in deir tradition of spirituaws, became more widewy known, uh-hah-hah-hah. An increasing number of seasonaw howidays songs were commerciawwy produced in de 20f century, incwuding jazz and bwues variations. In addition, dere was a revivaw of interest in earwy music, from groups singing fowk music, such as The Revews, to performers of earwy medievaw and cwassicaw music. John Rutter has composed many carows incwuding "Aww Bewws in Paradise", "Angews' Carow", "Candwewight Carow", "Donkey Carow", "Jesus Chiwd", "Shepherds' Pipe Carow" and "Star Carow".

Traditionaw cuisine

A speciaw Christmas famiwy meaw is traditionawwy an important part of de howiday's cewebration, and de food dat is served varies greatwy from country to country. Some regions, such as Siciwy, have speciaw meaws for Christmas Eve, when 12 kinds of fish are served. In de United Kingdom and countries infwuenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meaw incwudes turkey, goose or oder warge bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetabwes, sometimes bread and cider. Speciaw desserts are awso prepared, such as Christmas pudding, mince pies, fruit cake and Yuwe wog cake.[185][186]

In Powand and oder parts of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, fish often is used for de traditionaw main course, but richer meat such as wamb is increasingwy served. In Sweden it is common wif a speciaw variety of smörgåsbord, where ham, meatbawws and herring pway a prominent rowe. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popuwar droughout de worwd. The Mawtese traditionawwy serve Imbuwjuta taw-Qastan,[187] a chocowate and chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Mass and droughout de Christmas season, uh-hah-hah-hah. Swovaks prepare de traditionaw Christmas bread potica, bûche de Noëw in France, panettone in Itawy, and ewaborate tarts and cakes. The eating of sweets and chocowates has become popuwar worwdwide, and sweeter Christmas dewicacies incwude de German stowwen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of de few fruits traditionawwy avaiwabwe to nordern countries in winter, oranges have been wong associated wif speciaw Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweeteneddairy-based beverage traditionawwy made wif miwk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frody texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished wif a sprinkwing of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.

Cards

Christmas cards are iwwustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and famiwy members during de weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditionaw greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much wike dat of de first commerciaw Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cowe in London in 1843.[188] The custom of sending dem has become popuwar among a wide cross-section of peopwe wif de emergence of de modern trend towards exchanging E-cards.

Christmas cards are purchased in considerabwe qwantities, and feature artwork, commerciawwy designed and rewevant to de season, uh-hah-hah-hah. The content of de design might rewate directwy to de Christmas narrative, wif depictions of de Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbows such as de Star of Bedwehem, or a white dove, which can represent bof de Howy Spirit and Peace on Earf. Oder Christmas cards are more secuwar and can depict Christmas traditions, mydicaw figures such as Santa Cwaus, objects directwy associated wif Christmas such as candwes, howwy and baubwes, or a variety of images associated wif de season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes and de wiwdwife of de nordern winter. There are even humorous cards and genres depicting nostawgic scenes of de past such as crinowined shoppers in ideawized 19f-century streetscapes.

Commemorative stamps

A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postaw customers wiww often use dese stamps to maiw Christmas cards, and dey are popuwar wif phiwatewists. These stamps are reguwar postage stamps, unwike Christmas seaws, and are vawid for postage year-round. They usuawwy go on sawe some time between earwy October and earwy December, and are printed in considerabwe qwantities.

Gift giving

Christmas gifts under a Christmas tree

The exchanging of gifts is one of de core aspects of de modern Christmas cewebration, making it de most profitabwe time of year for retaiwers and businesses droughout de worwd. On Christmas, peopwe exchange gifts based on de Christian tradition associated wif Saint Nichowas,[189] and de gifts of gowd, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to de baby Jesus by de Magi.[190][191] The practice of gift giving in de Roman cewebration of Saturnawia may have infwuenced Christian Christian customs, but on de oder hand de Christian "core dogma of de Incarnation, however, sowidwy estabwished de giving and receiving of gifts as de structuraw principwe of dat recurrent yet uniqwe event", because it was de Bibwicaw Magi, "togeder wif aww deir fewwow men, who received de gift of God drough man's renewed participation in de divine wife."[192]

The best known of dese figures today is red-dressed Santa Cwaus, of diverse origins. The name Santa Cwaus can be traced back to de Dutch Sinterkwaas, which means simpwy Saint Nichowas. Nichowas was a 4f-century Greekbishop of Myra, a city in de Roman province of Lycia, whose ruins are 3 kiwometres (1.9 mi) from modern Demre in soudwest Turkey.[194][195] Among oder saintwy attributes, he was noted for de care of chiwdren, generosity, and de giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be cewebrated in many countries wif de giving of gifts.[105]

Saint Nichowas traditionawwy appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by hewpers, inqwiring about de behaviour of chiwdren during de past year before deciding wheder dey deserved a gift or not. By de 13f century, Saint Nichowas was weww known in de Nederwands, and de practice of gift-giving in his name spread to oder parts of centraw and soudern Europe. At de Reformation in 16f–17f-century Europe, many Protestants changed de gift bringer to de Christ Chiwd or Christkindw, corrupted in Engwish to Kris Kringwe, and de date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[105]

The modern popuwar image of Santa Cwaus, however, was created in de United States, and in particuwar in New York. The transformation was accompwished wif de aid of notabwe contributors incwuding Washington Irving and de German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902). Fowwowing de American Revowutionary War, some of de inhabitants of New York City sought out symbows of de city's non-Engwish past. New York had originawwy been estabwished as de Dutch cowoniaw town of New Amsterdam and de Dutch Sinterkwaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nichowas.[196]

In 1809, de New-York Historicaw Society convened and retroactivewy named Sancte Cwaus de patron saint of Nieuw Amsterdam, de Dutch name for New York City.[197] At his first American appearance in 1810, Santa Cwaus was drawn in bishops' robes. However, as new artists took over, Santa Cwaus devewoped more secuwar attire.[198] Nast drew a new image of "Santa Cwaus" annuawwy, beginning in 1863. By de 1880s, Nast's Santa had evowved into de modern vision of de figure, perhaps based on de Engwish figure of Fader Christmas. The image was standardized by advertisers in de 1920s[199] and continues drough de present day.[200][201]

Fader Christmas, a jowwy, stout, bearded man who typified de spirit of good cheer at Christmas, predates de Santa Cwaus character. He is first recorded in earwy 17f century Engwand, but was associated wif howiday merrymaking and drunkenness rader dan de bringing of gifts.[173] In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match dat of Santa. The French Père Noëw evowved awong simiwar wines, eventuawwy adopting de Santa image. In Itawy, Babbo Natawe acts as Santa Cwaus, whiwe La Befana is de bringer of gifts and arrives on de eve of de Epiphany. It is said dat La Befana set out to bring de baby Jesus gifts, but got wost awong de way. Now, she brings gifts to aww chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. In some cuwtures Santa Cwaus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Bwack Peter. In oder versions, ewves make de toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Cwaus.

There has been some opposition to de narrative of de American evowution of Saint Nichowas into de modern Santa. It has been cwaimed dat de Saint Nichowas Society was not founded untiw 1835, awmost hawf a century after de end of de American War of Independence.[202] Moreover, a study of de "chiwdren's books, periodicaws and journaws" of New Amsterdam by Charwes Jones reveawed no references to Saint Nichowas or Sinterkwaas.[203] However, not aww schowars agree wif Jones's findings, which he reiterated in a book-wengf study in 1978;[204] Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theowogicaw Seminary, maintains dat de tradition of cewebrating Sinterkwaas in New York was awive and weww from de earwy settwement of de Hudson Vawwey on, uh-hah-hah-hah.[205]

Current tradition in severaw Latin American countries (such as Venezuewa and Cowombia) howds dat whiwe Santa makes de toys, he den gives dem to de Baby Jesus, who is de one who actuawwy dewivers dem to de chiwdren's homes, a reconciwiation between traditionaw rewigious bewiefs and de iconography of Santa Cwaus imported from de United States.

In Souf Tyrow (Itawy), Austria, Czech Repubwic, Soudern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Swovakia, and Switzerwand, de Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Swovak) brings de presents. Greek chiwdren get deir presents from Saint Basiw on New Year's Eve, de eve of dat saint's witurgicaw feast.[206] The German St. Nikowaus is not identicaw wif de Weihnachtsmann (who is de German version of Santa Cwaus / Fader Christmas). St. Nikowaus wears a bishop's dress and stiww brings smaww gifts (usuawwy candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Awdough many parents around de worwd routinewy teach deir chiwdren about Santa Cwaus and oder gift bringers, some have come to reject dis practice, considering it deceptive.[207]

Muwtipwe gift-giver figures exist in Powand, varying between regions and individuaw famiwies. St Nichowas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Centraw and Norf-East areas, de Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common in Greater Powand, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is uniqwe to Upper Siwesia, wif de Littwe Star (Gwiazdka) and de Littwe Angew (Aniołek) being common in de Souf and de Souf-East. Grandfader Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is wess commonwy accepted in some areas of Eastern Powand.[208][209] It is worf noting dat across aww of Powand, St Nichowas is de gift giver on de Saint Nichowas Day on December 6.

Date according to Juwian cawendar

Some jurisdictions of de Eastern Ordodox Church, incwuding dose of Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusawem, mark feasts using de owder Juwian cawendar. As of 2018, dere is a difference of 13 days between de Juwian cawendar and de modern Gregorian cawendar, which is used internationawwy for most secuwar purposes. As a resuwt, December 25 on de Juwian cawendar currentwy corresponds to January 7 on de cawendar used by most governments and peopwe in everyday wife. Therefore, de aforementioned Ordodox Christians mark December 25 (and dus Christmas) on de day dat is internationawwy considered to be January 7.[4]

A furder compwication is added by de fact dat de Armenian Apostowic Church continues de originaw ancient Eastern Christian practice of cewebrating de birf of Christ not as a separate howiday, but on de same day as de cewebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a pubwic howiday in Armenia, and it is hewd on de same day dat is internationawwy considered to be January 6, because de Armenian Church in Armenia uses de Gregorian cawendar.

However, dere is awso a smaww Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusawem, which maintains de traditionaw Armenian custom of cewebrating de birf of Christ on de same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses de Juwian cawendar for de determination of dat date. As a resuwt, dis church cewebrates "Christmas" (more properwy cawwed Theophany) on de day dat is considered January 19 on de Gregorian cawendar in use by de majority of de worwd.

In summary, dere are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark de birf of Christ, given in de tabwe bewow.

After de Ediopian insertion of a weap day in what for de Juwian cawendar is September, Christmas is cewebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain de exact intervaw of 9 30-day monds and 5 days of de chiwd's gestation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[210] The Eritrean Ordodox Tewahedo Church uses de same cawendar but, wike de Coptic Church, does not make dis adjustment.

Economy

Christmas is typicawwy a peak sewwing season for retaiwers in many nations around de worwd. Sawes increase dramaticawwy as peopwe purchase gifts, decorations, and suppwies to cewebrate. In de U.S., de "Christmas shopping season" starts as earwy as October.[211][212] In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before Hawwoween (October 31), and step up deir marketing fowwowing Remembrance Day on November 11. In de UK and Irewand, de Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around de time when high street Christmas wights are turned on, uh-hah-hah-hah.[213][214] In de United States, it has been cawcuwated dat a qwarter of aww personaw spending takes pwace during de Christmas/howiday shopping season, uh-hah-hah-hah.[215] Figures from de U.S. Census Bureau reveaw dat expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 biwwion in November 2004 to $31.9 biwwion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In oder sectors, de pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, dere being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewewry stores. In de same year empwoyment in American retaiw stores rose from 1.6 miwwion to 1.8 miwwion in de two monds weading up to Christmas.[216] Industries compwetewy dependent on Christmas incwude Christmas cards, of which 1.9 biwwion are sent in de United States each year, and wive Christmas Trees, of which 20.8 miwwion were cut in de U.S. in 2002.[217] In de UK in 2010, up to £8 biwwion was expected to be spent onwine at Christmas, approximatewy a qwarter of totaw retaiw festive sawes.[214]

In most Western nations, Christmas Day is de weast active day of de year for business and commerce; awmost aww retaiw, commerciaw and institutionaw businesses are cwosed, and awmost aww industries cease activity (more dan any oder day of de year), wheder waws reqwire such or not. In Engwand and Wawes, de Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents aww warge shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotwand is currentwy pwanning simiwar wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Fiwm studios rewease many high-budget movies during de howiday season, incwuding Christmas fiwms, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas wif high production vawues to hopes of maximizing de chance of nominations for de Academy Awards.

One economist's anawysis cawcuwates dat, despite increased overaww spending, Christmas is a deadweight woss under ordodox microeconomic deory, because of de effect of gift-giving. This woss is cawcuwated as de difference between what de gift giver spent on de item and what de gift receiver wouwd have paid for de item. It is estimated dat in 2001, Christmas resuwted in a $4 biwwion deadweight woss in de U.S. awone.[218][219] Because of compwicating factors, dis anawysis is sometimes used to discuss possibwe fwaws in current microeconomic deory. Oder deadweight wosses incwude de effects of Christmas on de environment and de fact dat materiaw gifts are often perceived as white ewephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to cwutter.[220]

Modern schowars such as E. P. Sanders, Geza Vermes and Marcus Borg consider bof Gospew narratives of de birf of Jesus to be non-historicaw, arguing dat dere are contradictions between dem.[226][227][228] Many bibwicaw schowars view de discussion of historicity as secondary, given dat gospews were primariwy written as deowogicaw documents rader dan historicaw accounts.[229][230][231][232]

Secuwarization controversies

Some Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson's American Center for Law and Justice cite awweged attacks on Christmas (dubbing dem a "war on Christmas").[233][234][235] Such groups cwaim dat any specific mention of de term "Christmas" or its rewigious aspects is being increasingwy censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retaiwers, government (prominentwy schoows), and oder pubwic and private organizations. One controversy is de occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Howiday trees.[234] In de U.S. dere has been a tendency to repwace de greeting Merry Christmas wif Happy Howidays, which is considered incwusive at de time of de Jewish cewebration of Hanukkah.[236] In de U.S. and Canada, where de use of de term "Howidays" is most prevawent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using de term "Christmas" as being powiticawwy correct.[237][238][239] Groups such as de American Civiw Liberties Union have initiated court cases to bar de dispway of images and oder materiaw referring to Christmas from pubwic property, incwuding schoows.[240] Such groups argue dat government-funded dispways of Christmas imagery and traditions viowate de First Amendment to de United States Constitution, which prohibits de estabwishment by Congress of a nationaw rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[241] In 1984, de U.S. Supreme Court ruwed in Lynch v. Donnewwy dat a Christmas dispway (which incwuded a Nativity scene) owned and dispwayed by de city of Pawtucket, Rhode Iswand, did not viowate de First Amendment.[242] In November 2009, de federaw appeaws court in Phiwadewphia uphewd a schoow district's ban on de singing of Christmas carows.[243] The Supreme Court of de United States decwined to hear an appeaw.[244]

^Agadjanian, Awexander (2016). Armenian Christianity Today: Identity Powitics and Popuwar Practice. Routwedge. p. 113. ISBN9781317178576. The Armenian Apostowic Church fowwows de owdest Jerusawem version of Canons of Cawendar, based on de Juwian Cawendar, and derefore cewebrates Christmas and Theophany on de same day, January 6

^Severaw branches of Eastern Christianity dat use de Juwian cawendar awso cewebrate on December 25 according to dat cawendar, which is now January 7 on de Gregorian cawendar. Armenian Churches observed de nativity on January 6 even before de Gregorian cawendar originated. Most Armenian Christians use de Gregorian cawendar, stiww cewebrating Christmas Day on January 6. Some Armenian churches use de Juwian cawendar, dus cewebrating Christmas Day on January 19 on de Gregorian cawendar, wif January 18 being Christmas Eve.

^Forbes, Bruce David (October 1, 2008). Christmas: A Candid History. University of Cawifornia Press. p. 27. ISBN978-0-520-25802-0. In 567 de Counciw of Tours procwaimed dat de entire period between Christmas and Epiphany shouwd be considered part of de cewebration, creating what became known as de twewve days of Christmas, or what de Engwish cawwed Christmastide.
On de wast of de twewve days, cawwed Twewff Night, various cuwtures devewoped a wide range of additionaw speciaw festivities. The variation extends even to de issue of how to count de days. If Christmas Day is de first of de twewve days, den Twewff Night wouwd be on January 5, de eve of Epiphany. If December 26, de day after Christmas, is de first day, den Twewff Night fawws on January 6, de evening of Epiphany itsewf.
After Christmas and Epiphany were in pwace, on December 25 and January 6, wif de twewve days of Christmas in between, Christians graduawwy added a period cawwed Advent, as a time of spirituaw preparation weading up to Christmas.

^Crump, Wiwwiam D. (September 15, 2001). The Christmas Encycwopedia (3 ed.). McFarwand. p. 39. ISBN9780786468270. Christians bewieve dat a number of passages in de Bibwe are prophecies about future events in de wife of de promised Messiah or Jesus Christ. Most, but not aww, of dose prophecies are found in de Owd Testament ... Born in Bedwehem (Micah 5:2): "But dou, Bedwehem Ephratah, dough dough be wittwe among de dousands of Juda, yet out of dee shaww he come forf unto me dat is to be ruwer in Israew; whose goings forf have been from of owd, from everwasting."

^Tucker, Ruf A. (2011). Parade of Faif: A Biographicaw History of de Christian Church. Zondervan, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 23. ISBN9780310206385. According to gospew accounts, Jesus was born during de reign of Herod de Great, dus sometime before 4 BCE. The birf narrative in Luke's gospew is one of de most famiwiar passages in de Bibwe. Leaving deir hometown of Nazaref, Mary and Joseph travew to Bedwehem to pay taxes. Arriving wate, dey find no vacancy at de inn, uh-hah-hah-hah. They are, however, offered a stabwe, most wikewy a second room attached to a famiwy dwewwing where animaws were shewtered—a room dat wouwd offer some privacy from de main famiwy room for cooking, eating, and sweeping. This "city of David" is de wittwe town of Bedwehem of Christmas-carow fame, a starwit siwhouette indewibwy etched on Christmas cards. No sooner was de baby born dan angews announced de news to shepherds who spread de word.

^The Liturgicaw Year. Thomas Newson. November 3, 2009. ISBN978-1-4185-8073-5. Retrieved Apriw 2, 2009. Christmas is not reawwy about de cewebration of a birf date at aww. It is about de cewebration of a birf. The fact of de date and de fact of de birf are two different dings. The cawendricaw verification of de feast itsewf is not reawwy dat important ... What is important to de understanding of a wife-changing moment is dat it happened, not necessariwy where or when it happened. The message is cwear: Christmas is not about marking de actuaw birf date of Jesus. It is about de Incarnation of de One who became wike us in aww dings but sin (Heb. 4:15) and who humbwed Himsewf "to de point of deaf-even deaf on a cross" (Phiw. 2:8). Christmas is a pinnacwe feast, yes, but it is not de beginning of de witurgicaw year. It is a memoriaw, a remembrance, of de birf of Jesus, not reawwy a cewebration of de day itsewf. We remember dat because de Jesus of history was born, de Resurrection of de Christ of faif couwd happen, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^"The Christmas Season". CRI / Voice, Institute. Retrieved Apriw 2, 2009. The origins of de cewebrations of Christmas and Epiphany, as weww as de dates on which dey are observed, are rooted deepwy in de history of de earwy church. There has been much schowarwy debate concerning de exact time of de year when Jesus was born, and even in what year he was born, uh-hah-hah-hah. Actuawwy, we do not know eider. The best estimate is dat Jesus was probabwy born in de springtime, somewhere between de years of 6 and 4 BC, as December is in de middwe of de cowd rainy season in Bedwehem, when de sheep are kept inside and not on pasture as towd in de Bibwe. The wack of a consistent system of timekeeping in de first century, mistakes in water cawendars and cawcuwations, and wack of historicaw detaiws to cross reference events has wed to dis imprecision in fixing Jesus' birf. This suggests dat de Christmas cewebration is not an observance of a historicaw date, but a commemoration of de event in terms of worship.

^The Schoow Journaw, Vowume 49. Harvard University. 1894. Retrieved Apriw 2, 2009. Throughout de Christian worwd de 25f of December is cewebrated as de birdday of Jesus Christ. There was a time when de churches were not united regarding de date of de joyous event. Many Christians kept deir Christmas in Apriw, oders in May, and stiww oders at de cwose of September, tiww finawwy December 25 was agreed upon as de most appropriate date. The choice of dat day was, of course, whowwy arbitrary, for neider de exact date not de period of de year at which de birf of Christ occurred is known, uh-hah-hah-hah. For purposes of commemoration, however, it is unimportant wheder de cewebration shaww faww or not at de precise anniversary of de joyous event.

^Awister McGraf (February 13, 2006). Christianity: An Introduction. John Wiwey & Sons. p. 15. ISBN9781405108997. For Christians, de precise date of de birf of Jesus is actuawwy someding of a non-issue. What reawwy matters is dat he was born as a human being, and entered into human history.

^ abRoweww, Geoffrey (December 1993). "Dickens and de Construction of Christmas". History Today. 43 (12). Retrieved December 28, 2016. There is no doubt dat A Christmas Carow is first and foremost a story concerned wif de Christian gospew of wiberation by de grace of God, and wif incarnationaw rewigion which refuses to drive a wedge between de worwd of spirit and de worwd of matter. Bof de Christmas dinners and de Christmas dinner-carriers are bwessed; de cornucopia of Christmas food and feasting refwects bof de goodness of creation and de joy of heaven, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is a significant sign of a shift in deowogicaw emphasis in de nineteenf century from a stress on de Atonement to a stress on de Incarnation, a stress which found outward and visibwe form in de sacramentawism of de Oxford Movement, de devewopment of richer and more symbowic forms of worship, de buiwding of neo-Godic churches, and de revivaw and increasing centrawity of de keeping of Christmas itsewf as a Christian festivaw. ... In de course of de century, under de infwuence of de Oxford Movement’s concern for de better observance of Christian festivaws, Christmas became more and more prominent. By de water part of de century cadedraws provided speciaw services and musicaw events, and might have revived ancient speciaw charities for de poor – dough we must not forget de probwems for warge: parish-church cadedraws wike Manchester, which on one Christmas Day had no wess dan eighty coupwes coming to be married (de signing of de registers wasted untiw four in de afternoon). The popuwarity of Dickens' A Christmas Carow pwayed a significant part in de changing consciousness of Christmas and de way in which it was cewebrated. The popuwarity of his pubwic readings of de story is an indication of how much it resonated wif de contemporary mood, and contributed to de increasing pwace of de Christmas cewebration in bof secuwar and rewigious ways dat was firmwy estabwished by de end of de nineteenf century.

^Newton, Isaac, Observations on de Prophecies of Daniew, and de Apocawypse of St. John (1733). Ch. XI. A sun connection is possibwe because Christians considered Jesus to be de "Sun of righteousness" prophesied in Mawachi 4:2: "But for you who fear my name, de sun of righteousness shaww rise wif heawing in its wings. You shaww go out weaping wike cawves from de staww."

^"Awdough dis view is stiww very common, it has been seriouswy chawwenged" – Church of Engwand Liturgicaw Commission, The Promise of His Gwory: Services and Prayers for de Season from Aww Saints to Candwemas (Church House Pubwishing 1991 ISBN978-0-71513738-3) qwoted in "The Date of Christmas and Epiphany".

^Michaew Awan Anderson, Symbows of Saints: Theowogy, rituaw, and kinship in music for John de Baptist and St. Anne (1175–1563) The University of Chicago, UMI / ProQuest Dissertations Pubwishing, Ann Arbor 2008, pp. 42–46, ISBN978-0-54956551-2.

^McCracken, George, Arnobius of Sicca, de Case Against de Pagans, Vow. 2, p. 83. "Therefore if dis is a fact, how can Jupiter be god if it is agreed dat god is everwasting, whiwe de oder is represented by you to have a birdday, and frightened by de new experience, to have sqwawwed wike an infant."
G. Brunner, "Arnobius eine Zeuge gegen das Weihnachtsfest? " JLW 13 (1936), pp. 178–181.

^Shawcross, John T. (January 1, 1993). John Miwton. University Press of Kentucky. p. 249. ISBN978-0-8131-7014-5. Miwton was raised an Angwican, trained to become an Angwican minister, and remained an Angwican drough de signing of de subscription books of Cambridge University in bof 1629 and 1632, which demanded an awwegiance to de state church and its Thirty-nine Articwes.

^Browne, Sammy R. A Brief Andowogy of Engwish Literature, Vowume 1. p. 412. ISBN978-1-105-70569-4. His fader had wanted him to practice waw but Miwton considered writing poetry his wife's work. At 21 years owd, he wrote a poem, "On de morning of Christ's Nativity," a work dat is stiww widewy read during Christmas.

^Owd, Hughes Owiphant (2002). Worship: Reformed According to Scripture. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 29. ISBN978-0-664-22579-7. Widin a few years de Reformed church cawendar was fairwy weww estabwished. The heart of it was de weekwy observance of de resurrection on de Lord's Day. Instead of witurgicaw seasons being observed, "de five evangewicaw feast days" were observed: Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost. They were chosen because dey were understood to mark de essentiaw stages in de history of sawvation, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Carw Phiwipp Emanuew Nodaft (October 2011). "From Sukkot to Saturnawia: The Attack on Christmas in Sixteenf-Century Chronowogicaw Schowarship". Journaw of de History of Ideas. University of Pennsywvania Press. 72 (4): 504–505. JSTOR41337151. However, when Thomas Mocket, rector of Giwston in Hertfordshire, decried such vices in a pamphwet to justify de parwiamentary 'ban' of Christmas, effective since June 1647...

^Christmas in France. Worwd Book Encycwopedia. 1996. p. 35. ISBN978-0-7166-0876-9. Carows were awtered by substituting names of prominent powiticaw weaders for royaw characters in de wyrics, such as de Three Kings. Church bewws were mewted down for deir bronze to increase de nationaw treasury, and rewigious services were banned on Christmas Day. The cake of kings, too, came under attack as a symbow of de royawty. It survived, however, for a whiwe wif a new name—de cake of eqwawity.

^Mason, Juwia (December 21, 2015). "Why Was Christmas Renamed 'Dog Day' During de French Revowution?". HistoryBuff. Retrieved November 18, 2016. How did peopwe cewebrate de Christmas during de French Revowution? In white-knuckwed terror behind cwosed doors. Anti-cwericawism reached its apex on 10 November 1793, when a Fête de wa Raison was hewd in honor of de Cuwt of Reason, uh-hah-hah-hah. Churches across France were renamed "Tempwes of Reason" and de Notre Dame was "de-baptized" for de occasion, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Commune spared no expense: "The first festivaw of reason, which took pwace in Notre Dame, featured a fabricated mountain, wif a tempwe of phiwosophy at its summit and a script borrowed from an opera wibretto. At de sound of Marie-Joseph Chénier's Hymne à wa Liberté, two rows of young women, dressed in white, descended de mountain, crossing each oder before de 'awtar of reason' before ascending once more to greet de goddess of Liberty." As you can probabwy gader from de above description, 1793 was not a great time to cewebrate Christmas in de capitaw.

^Hutton, Ronawd (February 15, 2001). The Stations of de Sun: A History of de Rituaw Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-157842-7.

^Forbes, Bruce David (October 1, 2008). Christmas: A Candid History. --University of Cawifornia Press. p. 62. ISBN978-0-520-25802-0. What Dickens did advocate in his story was "de spirit of Christmas". Sociowogist James Barnett has described it as Dickens's "Carow Phiwosophy", which "combined rewigious and secuwar attitudes toward to cewebration into a humanitarian pattern, uh-hah-hah-hah. It excoriated individuaw sewfishness and extowwed de virtues of broderhood, kindness, and generosity at Christmas. ... Dickens preached dat at Christmas men shouwd forget sewf and dink of oders, especiawwy de poor and de unfortunate." The message was one dat bof rewigious and secuwar peopwe couwd endorse.

^Moore's poem transferred de genuine owd Dutch traditions cewebrated at New Year in New York, incwuding de exchange of gifts, famiwy feasting, and tawes of "sinterkwass" (a derivation in Dutch from "Saint Nichowas", from whence comes de modern "Santa Cwaus") to Christmas.The history of Christmas: Christmas history in America, 2006.

^Connewwy, Mark (2000). Christmas at de Movies: Images of Christmas in American, British and European Cinema. I.B.Tauris. p. 186. ISBN978-1-86064-397-2. A chapter on representations of Christmas in Soviet cinema couwd, in fact be de shortest in dis cowwection: suffice it to say dat dere were, at weast officiawwy, no Christmas cewebrations in de adeist sociawist state after its foundation in 1917.

^Ramet, Sabrina Petra (November 10, 2005). Rewigious Powicy in de Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN978-0-521-02230-9. The League sawwied forf to save de day from dis putative rewigious revivaw. Antirewigioznik obwiged wif so many articwes dat it devoted an entire section of its annuaw index for 1928 to anti-rewigious training in de schoows. More such materiaw fowwowed in 1929, and a fwood of it de next year. It recommended what Lenin and oders earwier had expwicitwy condemned—carnivaws, farces, and games to intimidate and purge de youf of rewigious bewief. It suggested dat pupiws campaign against customs associated wif Christmas (incwuding Christmas trees) and Easter. Some schoows, de League approvingwy reported, staged an anti-rewigious day on de 31st of each monf. Not teachers but de League's wocaw set de programme for dis speciaw occasion, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Zugger, Christopher Lawrence (2001). Cadowics of de Soviet Empire from Lenin Through Stawin. Syracuse University Press. p. 210. ISBN978-0-8156-0679-6. As observed by Nichowas Brianchaninov, writing in 1929–1930, after de NEP and just as de worst of cowwectivization was beginning, de Soviets deemed it necessary to drive into de heads of de peopwe de axiom dat rewigion was de syndesis of everyding most harmfuw to humanity. It must be presented as de enemy of man and society, of wife and wearning, of progress. ... In caricatures, articwes, Bezbozhnik, Antirewigioznik, League of Miwitant Adeists propaganda and fiwms. Schoow courses [were give] on conducting de struggwe against rewigion (how to profane a church, break windows, objects of piety). The young, awways eager to be wif de watest trend, often responded to such propaganda. In Moscow in 1929 chiwdren were brought to spit on de crucifixes at Christmas. Priests in Tiraspow diocese were sometimes betrayed by deir own young parishioners, weading to deir imprisonment and even deaf, and tearing deir famiwies apart.

^Fritz Awwhoff, Scott C. Lowe (2010). Christmas. John Wiwey & Sons. His biographer, Eddius Stephanus, rewates dat whiwe Boniface was serving as a missionary near Geismar, Germany, he had enough of de wocaws' reverence for de owd gods. Taking an axe to an oak tree dedicated to Norse god Thor, Boniface chopped de tree down and dared Thor to zap him for it. When noding happened, Boniface pointed out a young fir tree amid de roots of de oak and expwained how dis tree was a more fitting object of reverence as it pointed towards de Christian heaven and its trianguwar shape was reminiscent of de Christian trinity.

^Cowwins, Ace (Apriw 20, 2010). Stories Behind de Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 17. Retrieved Apriw 10, 2012. The wegend of St. Nichowas, who became de bishop of Myra in de beginning of de fourf century, is de next wink in de Christmas-gift chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Legend has it dat during his wife de priest rode across Asia Minor bestowing gifts upon poor chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Cowwins, Ace (Apriw 20, 2010). Stories Behind de Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 17. Retrieved Apriw 10, 2012. Most peopwe today trace de practice of giving gifts on Christmas Day to de dree gifts dat de Magi gave to Jesus.

^Berking, Hewmuf (March 30, 1999). Sociowogy of Giving. SAGE Pubwications. p. 14. ISBN978-0-85702-613-2. For de Enwightenment educationawist, gift-giving turned out to be a rewic of a pagan custom, namewy, de Roman Saturnawia. After de introduction of de Juwian cawendar in Rome, de 25f of December became de day of Sow invictus when peopwe greeted de winter sowstice. It was de day of de Sun's rebirf, and it was de day of de Christmas festivities – awdough it was onwy in de year 336 AD dat it appears to have become estabwished as de day of Jesus's birf (see Pannenberg 1989: 57). The Eastern Church adopted dis date even water, towards de end of de 4f century, having previouswy regarded de 6f of January as de day of gift-giving, as it stiww is in de Itawian community of Befana. The winter sowstice was a time of festivity in every traditionaw cuwture, and de Christian Christmas probabwy took its pwace widin dis mydicaw context of de sowar cuwt. Its core dogma of de Incarnation, however, sowidwy estabwished de giving and receiving of gifts as de structuraw principwe of dat recurrent yet uniqwe event. 'Chiwdren were given presents as de Jesus chiwd received gifts from de magi or kings who came from afar to adore him. But in reawity it was dey, togeder wif aww deir fewwow men, who received de gift of God drough man's renewed participation in de divine wife' (ibid.: 61).

^Domenico, Roy Pawmer (2002). The regions of Itawy: a reference guide to history and cuwture. Greenwood Pubwishing Group. p. 21. ISBN0-313-30733-4. Saint Nichowas (Bishop of Myra) repwaced Sabino as de patron saint of de city... A Greek from what is now Turkey, he wived in de earwy fourf century.

^Cowwins, Ace (2009). Stories Behind Men of Faif. Zondervan, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 121. ISBN978-0-310-56456-0. Nichowas was born in de Greek city of Patara around 270 AD. The son of a businessman named Theophanes and his wife, Nonna, de chiwd's earwiest years were spent in Myra... As a port on de Mediterranean Sea, in de middwe of de sea wanes dat winked Egypt, Greece and Rome, Myra was a destination for traders, fishermen, and merchant saiwors. Spawned by de spirit of bof de city's Greek heritage and de ruwing Roman government, cuwturaw endeavours such as art, drama, and music were mainstays of everyday wife.

^Mary Ann Georgantopouwos (December 25, 2007). "Miracwe on Mass. Ave.: City Santa takes suit seriouswy". The Boston Gwobe. Retrieved November 22, 2012. ... Meaf, who is in his first year of being a fuww-time Santa, makes appearances around Massachusetts at pwaces such as Swing City in Newton, uh-hah-hah-hah....