a disease that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of certain hormones; it can cause weight loss, muscle weakness, tiredness and low blood pressure

affluent

wealthy

AFL/CTO

a federation or group of labour

aggravated

made worse

aggressor

someone who attacks or behaves in a hostile way

Allies / Allied

countries that combined forces in World War 2 to defeat, Hitler, Mussolini and Hirohito, they included Britain, the USSR and the USA

American dream

the idea held by many in the USA (and the hope of new settlers there) that through hard work, courage and determination one can achieve prosperity

amplification

expansion, addition

amplify

add to

anarchical

without any form of political authority; in a state of lawlessness and disorder

annul

cancel

anomaly

deviation from normal

antagonism

hostility that results in opposition

apostle

one who pioneers an important reform movement, cause, or belief; a strong supporter

apparatus

equipment

apprehension

dread, uneasy thoughts about the future

arbiters

people with the power to settle matters or decide things

area bombing

strategy of dropping large amounts of bombs on geographical areas such as entire towns rather than on individual structures

arrears

being behind, being in debt

aspersions

unfavourable remarks, attacks on a person's character

Assembly (General Assembly of the United Nations)

All member states of the United Nations are represented in the Assembly, which can discuss and vote on any subject within the scope of the UN, except those disputes being dealt with by the Security Council.

atom bomb / atomic bomb

This bomb gets its explosive power from the energy released when the nuclei of atoms of elements such as plutonium or uranium split (fission) in a chain reaction. This produces a shockwave that can destroy buildings and intense heat that can start fires for a range of several miles. Currents created by the explosion of the bomb suck dust and other material up into a fireball, creating a mushroom-shaped cloud, and fallout of radioactive materials from the atmosphere contaminates air, water and soil. The first atomic bombs were built in the USA and used against Japan during World War 2, immediately killing an estimated 66,000 in Hiroshima and 39,000 in Nagasaki, with more dying later on.

atrocities

appalling acts, especially acts of unusual cruelty done to civilians or prisoners by an armed force

wealth in the form of money or property used or gained in business; material wealth used in the production of more wealth; capitalists as a group

capitalism

an economic system based on private ownership of capital, where the means of production and distribution are privately owned and people make profits in a free market

capitalist

a person who invests capital in a business, especially a large business; someone who believes in the capitalist system where people are free to profit by owning their own businesses

capitulation

the act of giving up, surrender

Castro, Fidel

leader of Cuba from 1959 who made his country the first communist state in the western hemisphere and became a symbol of communist revolution in Latin America

caustic

cutting, sarcastic

cessation

an end, a ceasing

cession

a surrendering of territory to another country in a treaty

charade

an obvious pretence

Chiang Kai-Shek

leader of the Nationalist government in China from 1928 and leader of that government in exile in Taiwan, after defeat by Mao in 1949, until his death in 1975

Churchill, Winston

British Prime Minister in the war years 1940-5 and again in 1951-55

civil rights

the legal rights and freedoms belonging to the citizens of a state

Civil Rights Act, 1964

a law that changed United States society by banning discrimination in public facilities, government and employment, outlawing segregation of the races in schools and housing, and protecting women from discrimination as well as men

civil war

a war between two or more groups from within the same country

clauses

sections of a formal or legal document

clique

a small exclusive group of people

collective security

a system for international peace, a belief that unity between countries and joint action will provide protection against aggressive nations

collectivisation

Soviet government policy forcing peasants to give up their individual farms and join large group (collective) farms shared by many farmers

combustible

capable of catching fire and burning

commencement

start

Communism

a form of socialism that abolishes private ownership, a theory of social organisation where property is owned collectively (not by private individuals) and labour is organised for the common advantage of everyone (a classless society), in practice it can mean a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and an authoritarian party holds power

commutation

reduction of a penalty to a less severe one

complexion

character or appearance, viewpoint or attitude

component

a part e.g. a part for a machine

conceivable

reasonable; likely; possible

conciliation

the settlement of a dispute through friendly behaviour and agreement

condemn

to express strong disapproval

condominium

joint rule by two or more nations or a plan to achieve it

conflagration

large uncontrolled destructive fire

conformity

acting according to certain standards or opinions, acting in agreement with

constitution

the system of basic laws and principles that describe the purpose and limits of government in the USA

consul

official appointed by a government to act on its behalf in a foreign country

contingency plans

plans for how to deal with possible future events

countenance

consent to; allow

countermeasures

actions taken to counter or oppose another action, e.g. if planes come to bomb a city, the city might have anti-aircraft guns as a countermeasure

covenant

promise or agreement, in this case the founding document of the League of Nations

a mockery; a play that isnâ€™t serious; an empty show; a ridiculous performance

fascism

A political movement founded in 1919 by Mussolini, the name also came to be used for similar political movements in other countries e.g. National Socialism in Germany. It stands for a system of government with centralised authority under a dictator, strong controls over society and the economy, suppression of any opposition, often with attitudes of nationalism and racism.

fascist

a person who believes in or practises fascism

FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

an organisation of law enforcement agents set up in 1908 and led by J Edgar Hoover from 1924-72, it often investigated political activists who were not accused of any crime

federal law

law made by the central US government (as opposed to those laws made by the individual states)

fervour

enthusiasm; intense feelings; passion; seriousness

filibuster

the use of blocking tactics, especially very long speech-making, for the purpose of delaying laws being passed

firebreaks

strips of land that can stop the spread of a fire because there is nothing on them to burn easily (a river could also work in the same way)

firestorm

an unusually powerful fire in which strong winds are created that add to the intensity and in which temperatures can reach thousands of degrees

flash burns

burns from brief exposure to intense radiation (different to flame burns caused by the flames from a fire)

flouted

showed contempt for; ignored

formulated

developed, mapped out

fraternal

brotherly; relating to brothers; relating to a fraternity (a group of people joined by a common purpose or interest)

Also called a thermonuclear bomb, this weapon produces a shockwave that can destroy buildings within several miles, light intense enough to cause blindness, heat that can start fires for a range of many miles, and fallout of radioactive materials from the atmosphere that contaminates air, water and soil worldwide. Its great power comes from an uncontrolled chain reaction in which isotopes of hydrogen combine under very high temperatures to form helium in a process that releases energy (nuclear fusion). This is a different process to an atomic explosion and thermonuclear bombs can be thousands of times more powerful than atomic bombs. They can also be made small enough to fit in ballistic missiles to send them long distances to their target.

of or relating to ideology (a set of ideas that form the basis of a political, economic, social or cultural system)

illiteracy

an inability to read

illuminating

lighting, glowing

illustrative

acting as an illustration, making clear by use of examples, serving to demonstrate

impending

about to happen

imperialist

of or relating to imperialism - the policy and practice of extending a nation's authority over other nations by taking their territory or by establishing economic and political domination over them.

impotence

the quality of lacking strength or power

improbable

unlikely to happen

impunity

freedom from punishment or penalty

incendiary

a bomb designed to start fires, causing fire

incitement

the act of provoking; the act of urging on or encouraging

induce

to bring something about by persuasion

industrialisation

to develop industry; to organise the production of something as an industry

industrialise

organise production into an industry (e.g. instead of people making clothes in their own homes for themselves, they buy clothes from a factory where people are organised to produce clothes together using machinery)

industry

sector of an economy made up of manufacturing activities (processing raw materials into finished products, often using machinery in factories); the organised act of making goods for sale; also a specific branch of manufacturing e.g. the mining industry

inherent

an essential part or characteristic of something

innumerable

too many to count

inoperable

unable to be used, not working

inopportune

badly timed

instigated

urged on

integration

the bringing of people of different racial groups together in society; desegregation

intercede

to plead on another's behalf

interposition

the act of intervening; putting in an action or remark that interrupts; the act of placing one thing (or oneself) between others; coming between things

laws in the Southern states that separated blacks from whites (with so-called â€˜separate but equalâ€™ facilities), allowed discrimination, and prevented black people from voting (see the Background page for more information)

First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953â€“64 and premier of the Soviet Union from 1958â€“64

Ku Klux Klan

a secret society set up in the South after the Civil War to threaten the black population with assaults, arsons and murders, it was revived in 1915 and spread outside the Southern States to terrorise various ethnic and religious minorities and oppose the Civil Rights movement

a civil rights organisation founded in 1909 and dedicated to ending inequality and segregation for blacks through non-violent protest, it had both white and black participants, and made significant gains for civil rights through ground-breaking legal cases

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)

This is a military alliance established in 1949 to create a counterbalance to Soviet armies in central and eastern Europe. Members agreed that an armed attack against one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The original members were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK and the US. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, West Germany in 1955, and other countries were admitted in the 1980s and 1990s.

negligible

so small that it's not significant

non-ferrous metals

relating to metals other than iron

novel

new; unusual; different

nullification

the act of making something invalid or making it have no effect; the refusal of a US state to recognise or enforce a federal law within its boundaries

This organisation was formed to provide for collective security and promote economic, military and cultural cooperation among its members, which include most of the independent countries of the western hemisphere. It has traditionally been anti-communist and Cuba's membership was suspended in 1962.

a social class made up of those who do manual labour or who work for wages; the class of industrial wage earners who must earn a living by selling their labour because they don't own capital or any means of production

person with a belief that one race is superior to others; policy or practice based on racial considerations

radical

extreme; wanting great changes in current practices or conditions

rationalisation

the act of organising something according to a system; the organisation of a business according to principles of management to try to increase efficiency

realisable

achievable

re-armament

the act of equipping a person or group or country with weapons again

reconsecrate

to dedicate oneself again to a purpose or goal

Reconstruction

the period after the American Civil War, the late 1860s and 1870s, when the Southern states rejoined the United States of America, the slaves were freed, and civil rights legislation was brought in (only to be overturned a few years later)

rectification

the act of setting right, correcting or adjusting

redeem

to rescue; to restore the honour of; to save from sin (relates to the Christian belief that people were saved from sin due to the suffering of Jesus)

redemptive

the act of redeeming or the condition of having been redeemed (see redeem)

re-exports

imported goods exported back out of a country again

refraining

holding oneself back from doing something

repercussion

result or consequence of some action

reprisals

acts that are payback for another action, for example using political or military force (short or war) in return for damage or loss suffered

resolute

firm, determined

resonant

having a lasting presence or effect; powerful; strong and deep in tone; loud

a penalty e.g. a ban on the sale or transport of goods, an action usually taken by several countries acting together to penalise a nation that violates international law

sanitized

made more acceptable by removing unpleasant aspects or features

scapegoat

a person who is blamed for events for which other people are responsible

scrupulously

very carefully and exactly; conscientiously

Security Council (of the United Nations)

an organisation whose job is maintaining world peace and security, it has 15 members â€“ 5 permanent members and 10 seats held by other nations elected by the Assembly for 2 years

segregation

the practice of separating people of different races or classes in schools, housing or public facilities; a form of discrimination

Selassie, Haile

emperor of Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

self-purification

mentioned in a letter by Martin Luther King where he referred to civil rights activists preparing themselves for non-violent protest and asking themselves if they had what it took to stay non-violent even when being attacked or sent to jail

separatism

a social system that provides separate facilities for minority groups; a system of separation of cultural or racial groups

separatist

person who wants cultural or racial separation

shock-brigades

group of people especially chosen to lead an attack or a movement

simultaneously

at the same time

SNCC (Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee)

US political organisation formed in 1960 by black college students who wanted to end segregation and have a voice in the civil rights movement

socialism

theories or systems of social organisation in which the means of producing and distributing goods is owned by the state

established to co-ordinate non-violent civil rights protests, with Martin Luther King as its president from its founding in 1957 until his death in 1968, this umbrella organisation gained its strength from the power and independence of black churches in the South

speculate

to buy or sell something in the hope of making a profit from ups and downs in the market

sporadic

happening occasionally or at irregular intervals; appearing singly or at scattered places

Stalin, Joseph

secretary-general of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922â€“53 who ruled the Soviet Union as dictator

strategic

important to a strategy or plan of action, essential to the effective fighting of a war, meant to destroy the military ability of an enemy e.g. strategic bombing

strategy

plan of action or scheme to achieve a particular goal, often dealing with military command and the planning and conduct of a war

stature

status; high level of respect

strenuous

energetic, forceful, requiring great effort

subversion

the act of trying to overthrow a legal government, the act of destroying someone's or some group's loyalty

succour

assistance in a time of difficulty

succumb

give in

symbolic

serving as a visible sign or symbol standing for some idea; representing; having the character of

military science that deals with achieving objectives set by strategy eg directing troops or aircraft to do particular things or aim for certain targets in order to achieve a strategic goal, a way to achieve a goal, a manoeuvre

tenement

a building people live in, especially one rented to tenants

theodolite station

a survey instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, it is a small telescope on a tripod

This treaty established in 1955 a mutual defence organisation for the Soviet Union, Albania (to 1968), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania. It provided a unified military command and allowed Soviet troops to be on the territories of the other countries, strengthening the Soviet control over its satellites.