Based on extensive primary sources, this study brings historical perspective and context to debate about race and immigration in Britain. The focus is on Liverpool and its pioneer but problematic ...
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Based on extensive primary sources, this study brings historical perspective and context to debate about race and immigration in Britain. The focus is on Liverpool and its pioneer but problematic race relations as the once proud Edwardian cosmopolitan ‘second city of empire’ transmogrified into the shock city of post-colonial, post-industrial Britain. As the gateway of empire, the great seaport of Liverpool attracted significant numbers of ‘coloured’ colonials long before the arrival of West Indian migrants on the ‘Empire Windrush’ in 1948. Their legal status as British subjects in the ‘motherland’ notwithstanding, Liverpool's ‘coloured’ community of transients, sojourners and settlers were the first to discover that ‘There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack’. Their struggle against prejudice and discrimination serves as foundation narrative in the making of the black British, an identity obscured and misunderstood by conventional concentration on recent immigration. The warnings emanating from Liverpool's troubled pattern of race relations went unheeded in Britain's uneasy transition to a multi-cultural society, as the empire ‘came home’ following decolonisation. Instead of serving as object lesson, Liverpool was by this time marginalised and denigrated, condemned as an internal ‘other’ at odds with positive developments elsewhere in enterprise Britain. For agencies seeking to regenerate and rehabilitate the city, measures to address racial discrimination and disadvantage were seldom a priority (or even included) in a succession of ill-fated projects to tackle multiple deprivation. In the aftermath of the Toxteth riots of 1981, once proud ‘cosmopolitan’ Liverpool stood condemned for its ‘uniquely horrific’ racism.Less

Before the Windrush : Race Relations in 20th-Century Liverpool

John Belchem

Published in print: 2014-06-01

Based on extensive primary sources, this study brings historical perspective and context to debate about race and immigration in Britain. The focus is on Liverpool and its pioneer but problematic race relations as the once proud Edwardian cosmopolitan ‘second city of empire’ transmogrified into the shock city of post-colonial, post-industrial Britain. As the gateway of empire, the great seaport of Liverpool attracted significant numbers of ‘coloured’ colonials long before the arrival of West Indian migrants on the ‘Empire Windrush’ in 1948. Their legal status as British subjects in the ‘motherland’ notwithstanding, Liverpool's ‘coloured’ community of transients, sojourners and settlers were the first to discover that ‘There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack’. Their struggle against prejudice and discrimination serves as foundation narrative in the making of the black British, an identity obscured and misunderstood by conventional concentration on recent immigration. The warnings emanating from Liverpool's troubled pattern of race relations went unheeded in Britain's uneasy transition to a multi-cultural society, as the empire ‘came home’ following decolonisation. Instead of serving as object lesson, Liverpool was by this time marginalised and denigrated, condemned as an internal ‘other’ at odds with positive developments elsewhere in enterprise Britain. For agencies seeking to regenerate and rehabilitate the city, measures to address racial discrimination and disadvantage were seldom a priority (or even included) in a succession of ill-fated projects to tackle multiple deprivation. In the aftermath of the Toxteth riots of 1981, once proud ‘cosmopolitan’ Liverpool stood condemned for its ‘uniquely horrific’ racism.

The riots that broke out in various British port cities in 1919 were a dramatic manifestation of a wave of global unrest that affected Britain, parts of its empire, continental Europe and North ...
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The riots that broke out in various British port cities in 1919 were a dramatic manifestation of a wave of global unrest that affected Britain, parts of its empire, continental Europe and North America during and in the wake of the First World War. During the riots, crowds of white working-class people targeted black workers, their families, and black-owned businesses and property. One of the chief sources of violent confrontation in the run-down port areas was the ‘colour’ bar implemented by the sailors' trades unions campaigning to keep black, Arab and Asian sailors off British ships in a time of increasing job competition. The book sets out the economic and social causes of the riots and their impact on Britain's relationship with its empire and its colonial subjects. The riots are also considered within the wider context of rioting elsewhere on the fringes of the Atlantic world as black people came in increased numbers into urban and metropolitan settings where they competed with working-class white people for jobs and housing during and after the First World War. The book details the events of the port riots in Britain, with chapters devoted to assessing the motivations and make-up of the rioting crowds, examining police procedures during the riots, considering the court cases that followed, and looking at the longer-term consequences for black British workers and their families. It examines the violent racist conflict that emerged after the First World War and the shockwaves which reverberated around the Empire.Less

Black 1919 : Riots, Racism and Resistance in Imperial Britain

Jacqueline Jenkinson

Published in print: 2009-05-01

The riots that broke out in various British port cities in 1919 were a dramatic manifestation of a wave of global unrest that affected Britain, parts of its empire, continental Europe and North America during and in the wake of the First World War. During the riots, crowds of white working-class people targeted black workers, their families, and black-owned businesses and property. One of the chief sources of violent confrontation in the run-down port areas was the ‘colour’ bar implemented by the sailors' trades unions campaigning to keep black, Arab and Asian sailors off British ships in a time of increasing job competition. The book sets out the economic and social causes of the riots and their impact on Britain's relationship with its empire and its colonial subjects. The riots are also considered within the wider context of rioting elsewhere on the fringes of the Atlantic world as black people came in increased numbers into urban and metropolitan settings where they competed with working-class white people for jobs and housing during and after the First World War. The book details the events of the port riots in Britain, with chapters devoted to assessing the motivations and make-up of the rioting crowds, examining police procedures during the riots, considering the court cases that followed, and looking at the longer-term consequences for black British workers and their families. It examines the violent racist conflict that emerged after the First World War and the shockwaves which reverberated around the Empire.

During the Age of Sail, black seamen could be found in many shipboard roles in the Royal Navy, such as gunners, deck-hands and ‘top men’, working at heights in the rigging. In the later Age of Steam, ...
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During the Age of Sail, black seamen could be found in many shipboard roles in the Royal Navy, such as gunners, deck-hands and ‘top men’, working at heights in the rigging. In the later Age of Steam, black seamen were more likely to be found on merchantmen below deck; as cooks, stewards and stokers. The navy was possibly a unique institution in that black and white could work alongside each other more than in any other occupation. This book examines the work and experience of seamen of African descent in Britain's navy, from impressed slaves to free Africans, British West Indians, and British-born Black sailors. Seamen from the Caribbean and directly from Africa have contributed to both the British Royal Navy and Merchant Marine from at least the Tudor period and by the end of the period of the British Slave Trade at least 3% of all crewmen were black mariners. Black sailors signed off in British ports helped the growth of a black population. In spite of racial prejudice in port, relationships were forged between sailors of different races that frequently ignored expected norms when working and living together in the isolated world of the ship. Black seamen on British ships were not only to be found working in both the foreground and background of naval engagements throughout their long history, but helping to ensure the supply of foodstuffs and the necessities of life to Britain. Their experiences span the gamut of sorrow and tragedy, heroism, victory and triumph.Less

Black Salt : Seafarers of African Descent on British Ships

Ray Costello

Published in print: 2012-06-01

During the Age of Sail, black seamen could be found in many shipboard roles in the Royal Navy, such as gunners, deck-hands and ‘top men’, working at heights in the rigging. In the later Age of Steam, black seamen were more likely to be found on merchantmen below deck; as cooks, stewards and stokers. The navy was possibly a unique institution in that black and white could work alongside each other more than in any other occupation. This book examines the work and experience of seamen of African descent in Britain's navy, from impressed slaves to free Africans, British West Indians, and British-born Black sailors. Seamen from the Caribbean and directly from Africa have contributed to both the British Royal Navy and Merchant Marine from at least the Tudor period and by the end of the period of the British Slave Trade at least 3% of all crewmen were black mariners. Black sailors signed off in British ports helped the growth of a black population. In spite of racial prejudice in port, relationships were forged between sailors of different races that frequently ignored expected norms when working and living together in the isolated world of the ship. Black seamen on British ships were not only to be found working in both the foreground and background of naval engagements throughout their long history, but helping to ensure the supply of foodstuffs and the necessities of life to Britain. Their experiences span the gamut of sorrow and tragedy, heroism, victory and triumph.

This book brings together new research from established and emerging scholars whose work focuses on Britain’s history and memory of transatlantic slavery and the slave trade. These chapters focus on ...
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This book brings together new research from established and emerging scholars whose work focuses on Britain’s history and memory of transatlantic slavery and the slave trade. These chapters focus on the ‘small stories’ of slavery and abolition within the ‘local’ experiences of individuals and communities who were nonetheless part of the ‘national sin’ of slavery. Broken down into two parts, Part One considers some small scale specifics of Britain’s history of slavery and the slave trade, and Part Two considers how this history and its legacies has been remembered (or not) through individual people and in particular places. The book contains chapters which consider how people became involved in the slave trade, slavery and the campaign to end it, and covers such places as the Channel Islands, London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Buckinghamshire and Portsmouth.Less

Britain's History and Memory of Transatlantic Slavery

Published in print: 2017-01-01

This book brings together new research from established and emerging scholars whose work focuses on Britain’s history and memory of transatlantic slavery and the slave trade. These chapters focus on the ‘small stories’ of slavery and abolition within the ‘local’ experiences of individuals and communities who were nonetheless part of the ‘national sin’ of slavery. Broken down into two parts, Part One considers some small scale specifics of Britain’s history of slavery and the slave trade, and Part Two considers how this history and its legacies has been remembered (or not) through individual people and in particular places. The book contains chapters which consider how people became involved in the slave trade, slavery and the campaign to end it, and covers such places as the Channel Islands, London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Buckinghamshire and Portsmouth.

Since the onset of the troubles in the late 1960s, people in Northern Ireland have been working together to bring about a peaceful, non-violent end to the conflict. In doing so, they have used their ...
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Since the onset of the troubles in the late 1960s, people in Northern Ireland have been working together to bring about a peaceful, non-violent end to the conflict. In doing so, they have used their efforts as a means to support the transition to a post-conflict society in the wake of the ceasefires and the Good Friday Agreement. This book examines the different forms of peace and reconciliation work that have taken place. It brings together an international group of scholars to examine initiatives such as integrated education, faith-based peace building, cross-border cooperation and women's activism as well as the impact that government policy and European funding have had on the development of peace and reconciliation organisations. This book demonstrates the contribution that such schemes have made to the peace process and the part they can play in Northern Ireland's future.Less

Building Peace in Northern Ireland

Published in print: 2011-11-23

Since the onset of the troubles in the late 1960s, people in Northern Ireland have been working together to bring about a peaceful, non-violent end to the conflict. In doing so, they have used their efforts as a means to support the transition to a post-conflict society in the wake of the ceasefires and the Good Friday Agreement. This book examines the different forms of peace and reconciliation work that have taken place. It brings together an international group of scholars to examine initiatives such as integrated education, faith-based peace building, cross-border cooperation and women's activism as well as the impact that government policy and European funding have had on the development of peace and reconciliation organisations. This book demonstrates the contribution that such schemes have made to the peace process and the part they can play in Northern Ireland's future.

This collection of twelve essays contributes to the understanding of child welfare and social action in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It challenges many assumptions about the history of ...
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This collection of twelve essays contributes to the understanding of child welfare and social action in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It challenges many assumptions about the history of childhood and child welfare policy, and covers a variety of themes including the physical and sexual abuse of children, forced child migration, and the role of the welfare state.Less

Child Welfare and Social Action in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: International Perspectives

Published in print: 2001-10-01

This collection of twelve essays contributes to the understanding of child welfare and social action in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It challenges many assumptions about the history of childhood and child welfare policy, and covers a variety of themes including the physical and sexual abuse of children, forced child migration, and the role of the welfare state.

This book presents for the first time a visual cultural history of the 1840s Irish Famine, tracing its representation and commemoration from the nineteenth century up to its 150th anniversary in the ...
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This book presents for the first time a visual cultural history of the 1840s Irish Famine, tracing its representation and commemoration from the nineteenth century up to its 150th anniversary in the 1990s and beyond. As the watershed event of nineteenth-century Ireland, the Famine’s political and social impacts profoundly shaped modern Ireland and the nations of its diaspora. Yet up until the 1990s, the memory of the Famine remained relatively muted in public space and heritage. The Famine commemorative boom of the mid-1990s was therefore unprecedented in scale and output, with more than one hundred monuments newly constructed across Ireland, Britain, the United States, Canada and Australia. Drawing on an extensive global survey of recent community and national responses to the Famine’s anniversary, the book explores both popular and official Famine commemorations – the process of their making, the iconography they draw from and create, and their narratives of meaning and becoming. In outlining why these memories matter and to whom, this book argues how the phenomenon of Famine commemoration may be understood in the context of a growing memorial culture worldwide. It offers an innovative look at a well-known migration history whilst exploring how global ethnic communities redefine themselves through acts of public memory and representation.Less

Commemorating the Irish Famine : Memory and the Monument

Emily Mark-FitzGerald

Published in print: 2013-11-15

This book presents for the first time a visual cultural history of the 1840s Irish Famine, tracing its representation and commemoration from the nineteenth century up to its 150th anniversary in the 1990s and beyond. As the watershed event of nineteenth-century Ireland, the Famine’s political and social impacts profoundly shaped modern Ireland and the nations of its diaspora. Yet up until the 1990s, the memory of the Famine remained relatively muted in public space and heritage. The Famine commemorative boom of the mid-1990s was therefore unprecedented in scale and output, with more than one hundred monuments newly constructed across Ireland, Britain, the United States, Canada and Australia. Drawing on an extensive global survey of recent community and national responses to the Famine’s anniversary, the book explores both popular and official Famine commemorations – the process of their making, the iconography they draw from and create, and their narratives of meaning and becoming. In outlining why these memories matter and to whom, this book argues how the phenomenon of Famine commemoration may be understood in the context of a growing memorial culture worldwide. It offers an innovative look at a well-known migration history whilst exploring how global ethnic communities redefine themselves through acts of public memory and representation.

This is a study of Catholic and Protestant Irish in a neglected centre of historic Irish settlement where communal violence and Irish-related antipathy bore the hallmarks of the Liverpool and Glasgow ...
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This is a study of Catholic and Protestant Irish in a neglected centre of historic Irish settlement where communal violence and Irish-related antipathy bore the hallmarks of the Liverpool and Glasgow experiences.Less

Culture, Conflict and Migration : The Irish in Victorian Cumbria

Donald M. MacRaild

Published in print: 1998-01-01

This is a study of Catholic and Protestant Irish in a neglected centre of historic Irish settlement where communal violence and Irish-related antipathy bore the hallmarks of the Liverpool and Glasgow experiences.

This book examines the grass-roots relationship between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the civilian population during the Irish Revolution. It is primarily concerned with the attempts of the ...
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This book examines the grass-roots relationship between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the civilian population during the Irish Revolution. It is primarily concerned with the attempts of the militant revolutionaries to discourage, stifle, and punish dissent among the local populations in which they operated, and the actions or inactions by which dissent was expressed or implied. Focusing on the period of guerilla war against British rule from c. 1917 to 1922, it uncovers the acts of ‘everyday’ violence, threat, and harm that characterized much of the revolutionary activity of this period in the Irish town or parish. It begins by treating the IRA’s challenge to the British state through the campaign against servants of the Crown – policemen, magistrates, civil servants, and others – and IRA participation in local government and the republican counter-state. The book then explores the nature of civilian defiance and IRA punishment in communities across the island before turning its attention specifically to the year that followed the ‘Truce’ of July 1921. This study argues that civilians rarely operated at either extreme of a spectrum of support but, rather, in a large and fluid middle ground. Behaviour was rooted in local circumstances, and influenced by local fears, suspicions, and rivalries. IRA punishment was similarly dictated by community conditions and usually suited to the nature of the perceived defiance. Overall, violence and intimidation in Ireland was persistent, but, by some contemporary standards, relatively restrained.Less

Defying the IRA?

Brian Hughes

Published in print: 2017-01-01

This book examines the grass-roots relationship between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the civilian population during the Irish Revolution. It is primarily concerned with the attempts of the militant revolutionaries to discourage, stifle, and punish dissent among the local populations in which they operated, and the actions or inactions by which dissent was expressed or implied. Focusing on the period of guerilla war against British rule from c. 1917 to 1922, it uncovers the acts of ‘everyday’ violence, threat, and harm that characterized much of the revolutionary activity of this period in the Irish town or parish. It begins by treating the IRA’s challenge to the British state through the campaign against servants of the Crown – policemen, magistrates, civil servants, and others – and IRA participation in local government and the republican counter-state. The book then explores the nature of civilian defiance and IRA punishment in communities across the island before turning its attention specifically to the year that followed the ‘Truce’ of July 1921. This study argues that civilians rarely operated at either extreme of a spectrum of support but, rather, in a large and fluid middle ground. Behaviour was rooted in local circumstances, and influenced by local fears, suspicions, and rivalries. IRA punishment was similarly dictated by community conditions and usually suited to the nature of the perceived defiance. Overall, violence and intimidation in Ireland was persistent, but, by some contemporary standards, relatively restrained.

Between the foundation of the new Irish state in 1921–22 and the early 1970s approximately one-and-a-half million people left independent Ireland, the vast majority travelling to Britain. This book ...
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Between the foundation of the new Irish state in 1921–22 and the early 1970s approximately one-and-a-half million people left independent Ireland, the vast majority travelling to Britain. This book offers an analysis of the twentieth-century Irish exodus to Britain and provides a detailed examination of the many ways in which migration shaped twentieth-century Irish society. It focuses on a number of themes: state policy in Ireland; official responses in Britain; gender dimensions; individual migrant experience; patterns of settlement in Britain; and the phenomenon of return migration.Less

Demography, State and Society : Irish Migration to Britain, 1921–1971

Enda Delaney

Published in print: 2000-10-01

Between the foundation of the new Irish state in 1921–22 and the early 1970s approximately one-and-a-half million people left independent Ireland, the vast majority travelling to Britain. This book offers an analysis of the twentieth-century Irish exodus to Britain and provides a detailed examination of the many ways in which migration shaped twentieth-century Irish society. It focuses on a number of themes: state policy in Ireland; official responses in Britain; gender dimensions; individual migrant experience; patterns of settlement in Britain; and the phenomenon of return migration.