"Those who don't know history are destined to repeat it."
Edmund Burke. What happened on this Day in History?

Tuesday, July 2, 2013

This Day in History: Jul 2, 1881: President Garfield shot

Only four months into his administration, President James A. Garfield is shot as he walks through a railroad waiting room in Washington, D.C.
His assailant, Charles J. Guiteau, was a disgruntled and perhaps insane
office seeker who had unsuccessfully sought an appointment to the U.S.
consul in Paris. The president was shot in the back and the arm, and
Guiteau was arrested.

Garfield, mortally ill, was treated in Washington and then taken to the seashore at Elberon, New Jersey, where he attempted to recuperate with his family. During this time, Vice President Chester A. Arthur
served as acting president. On September 19, 1881, after 80 days,
President Garfield died of blood poisoning. The following day, Arthur
was inaugurated as the 21st president of the United States.

Garfield
had three funerals: one in Elberon; another in Washington, where his
body rested in state in the Capitol for three days; and a third in
Cleveland, Ohio, where
he was buried. Charles Guiteau's murder trial began in November, and in
January 1882 he was found guilty and sentenced to death. In June 1882,
he was hanged at his jail in Washington.

Bullying the President

Charles Guiteau turned to politics after failing in several ventures,
including theology, a law practice, bill collecting, and time in the
utopian Oneida Community. He wrote a speech in support of Ulysses S. Grant
called "Grant vs. Hancock", which he later revised to "Garfield vs.
Hancock" after Garfield won the Republican nomination in the 1880
presidential campaign. Guiteau never delivered the speech in a public
setting, instead printing up several hundred copies,[3] but he believed that this speech along with his other efforts were largely responsible for Garfield's narrow victory over Winfield S. Hancock in the election of 1880. Guiteau believed he should be awarded a diplomatic post for his vital assistance, first asking for Vienna, then settling for Paris.[4] He loitered around Republican headquarters in New York City during the 1880 campaign, expecting rewards for his effort, to no avail.[5]
Still believing he would be rewarded, Guiteau arrived in Washington on
March 5, 1881, the day after Garfield's inauguration, and obtained
entrance to the White House and saw the President on March 8, 1881,
dropping off a copy of his speech.[6]
He spent the next two months roaming around Washington, shuffling back
and forth between the State Department and the White House, approaching
various Cabinet members and other prominent Republicans and seeking
support, to no avail. Guiteau was destitute and increasingly slovenly
due to wearing the same clothes every day, the only clothes he owned,
but he did not give up. On May 13, 1881, he was banned from the White
House waiting room. On May 14, 1881, Secretary of StateJames G. Blaine told him never to return: "Never speak to me again of the Paris consulship as long as you live."[7]

Guiteau's family had judged him to be insane in 1875 and attempted to have him committed, but Guiteau escaped.[8]
Now his mania took a violent turn. After the encounter with Blaine,
Guiteau decided that he had been commanded by God, he is quoted in
saying, "I leave my justification to God..."[9] to kill the ungrateful President. Guiteau borrowed $15 and went to purchase a revolver. He knew little about firearms, but knew that he would need a large caliber gun. He chose to buy an ivory-handled .44 Webley British Bulldog revolver over a similar wooden-handled Webley because he thought it would look good as a museum exhibit after the assassination.[10] (The revolver was recovered and displayed by the Smithsonian in the early 20th century but has since been lost.[11]) He spent the next few weeks in target practice—the kick from the revolver almost knocked him over the first time[10]—and
stalking the President. He wrote a letter to Garfield, saying that he
should fire Blaine, or "you and the Republican party will come to
grief."[12] The letter was ignored, as was all the correspondence Guiteau sent to the White House.

Guiteau continued to prepare carefully, writing a letter in advance to Commanding General of the United States ArmyWilliam Tecumseh Sherman asking for protection from the mob,[13][14] and writing other letters justifying his action as necessary to heal dissension between factions of the Republican Party.[15]
He went to the District of Columbia jail, asking for a tour of the
facility to see where he'd be incarcerated. (He was told to come back
later.)[16]
Guiteau spent the whole month of June following Garfield around
Washington. On one occasion, he trailed Garfield to the railway station
as the President was seeing his wife off to a beach resort in Long Branch, New Jersey, but he decided to shoot him later, as Mrs. Garfield was in poor health and he did not want to upset her.[17][18]

Assassination

Garfield was scheduled to leave Washington on July 2, 1881 for his summer vacation.[19] On that day, Guiteau lay in wait for the President at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad station, on the southwest corner of present day Sixth Street and Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, D.C.[20]

As President Garfield entered the waiting room of the station Guiteau
stepped forward and pulled the trigger from behind at point-blank
range. "My God, what is that?" Garfield cried out, flinging up his arms.
Guiteau fired again and Garfield collapsed.[21] One bullet grazed Garfield's shoulder; the other hit him in the back, passing the first lumbar vertebra but missing the spinal cord before coming to rest behind his pancreas.[22]
Guiteau put his pistol back in his pocket and turned to leave the
station for the cab he had waiting outside, but he was apprehended
before he could leave by policeman Patrick Kearney, who was so excited
at having arrested the man who shot the president that he neglected to
take Guiteau's gun from him until after their arrival at the police
station.[23] The rapidly gathering crowd screamed "Lynch him!" but Kearney took Guiteau to the police station a few blocks away.[21] As he surrendered to authorities, Guiteau uttered the exulting words, repeated everywhere: "'I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts! I did it and I want to be arrested! Arthur is President now!'"[24] This statement briefly led to unfounded suspicions that Arthur or his supporters had put Guiteau up to the crime.[25] The Stalwarts were a Republican faction loyal to ex-President Grant; they strongly opposed Garfield's Half-Breeds.[26]
Like many Vice Presidents, Arthur was chosen for political advantage,
to placate his faction, rather than for skills or loyalty to his
running-mate. Guiteau, in his delusion, had convinced himself that he
was striking a blow to unite the two factions of the Republican Party.[27]

Garfield's suffering and death

Garfield, conscious but in shock, was carried to an upstairs floor of the train station.[28] One bullet remained lodged in his body, but doctors could not find it.[29]
His son, James Rudolph Garfield and James Blaine both broke down and
wept. Robert Todd Lincoln, deeply upset and thinking back to the death
of his father, said "How many hours of sorrow I have passed in this
town."[29]

Garfield was carried back to the White House. Although doctors told
him that he would not survive the night, the President remained
conscious and alert.[30] The next morning his vital signs were good and doctors began to hope for recovery.[31]
A long vigil began, with Garfield's doctors issuing regular bulletins
that the American public followed closely throughout the summer of 1881.[32][33]
His condition fluctuated. Fevers came and went. Garfield struggled to
keep down solid food and spent most of the summer eating little, and
then only liquids.[34]

In an effort to relieve the sick man from the heat of a Washington
summer, Navy engineers rigged up an early version of the modern air conditioner.
Fans blew air over a large box of ice and into the President's
sickroom; the device worked well enough to lower the temperature twenty
degrees.[35] Doctors continued to probe Garfield's wound with dirty, unsterilized fingers and instruments, attempting to find the location of the bullet.[36]Alexander Graham Bell devised a metal detector
specifically for the purpose of finding the bullet lodged inside
Garfield, but the metal bed frame on which Garfield lay made the
instrument malfunction.[37]
Because metal bed frames were relatively rare, the cause of the
instrument's deviation was unknown at the time. On July 29, Garfield met
with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were
under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything
upsetting.[38]
Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to
infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in
the White House with fevers and extreme pains. Garfield's weight dropped
from over two hundred pounds to 135 pounds as his inability to keep
down and digest food took its toll.[39] Because of his inability to digest food, nutrient enemas were given in an attempt to extend his life.[40]Blood poisoning and infection set in and for a brief period the President suffered from hallucinations.[41] Pus-filled abscesses spread all over Garfield's body as the infections raged.[42]

On September 6, Garfield was taken to the Jersey Shore to escape the Washington heat, in the vain hope that the fresh air and quiet there might aid his recovery.[41] Garfield was propped up in bed before a window with a view of the beach and ocean.[43] New infections set in, as well as spasms of angina. He died of a ruptured splenic artery aneurysm,[44] following blood poisoning and bronchial pneumonia, at 10:35 pm on Monday, September 19, 1881, in Elberon, New Jersey.
The wounded president died exactly two months before his 50th birthday
and remains one of the only two Presidents who died before their 50th
birthday, the other being John F. Kennedy, who was also assassinated
when he was just 46 years and 177 days old. During the eighty days
between his shooting and death, his only official act was to sign an extradition paper.

Most historians and medical experts now believe that Garfield
probably would have survived his wound had the doctors attending him
been more capable.[45][46] Unfortunately for Garfield, most American doctors of the day did not believe in anti-sepsis measures or the need for cleanliness to prevent infection.[47]
Several inserted their unsterilized fingers into the wound to probe for
the bullet, and one doctor punctured Garfield's liver in doing so.
Also, self-appointed chief physician D. Willard Bliss
and the other doctors had guessed wrong about the path of the bullet in
Garfield's body. They had erroneously probed rightward into Garfield's
back instead of leftward, missing the location of the bullet but
creating a new channel which filled with pus. The autopsy not only
discovered this error but revealed pneumonia in both lungs and a body
that was filled with pus due to uncontrolled septicemia.[48]

Chester Arthur was at his home in New York City when word came the
night of September 19 that Garfield had died. After first getting the
news, Arthur said "I hope—my God, I do hope it is a mistake." But
confirmation by telegram came soon after. Arthur took the presidential
oath of office, administered by a New York Supreme Court judge, then
left for Long Branch to pay his respects before going on to Washington.[49]
Garfield's body was taken to Washington, where it lay in state for
two days in the Capitol Rotunda before being taken to Cleveland, where
the funeral was held on September 26.[50]

Guiteau's trial and execution

Guiteau went on trial in November.[51]
Represented by his brother-in-law, George Scolville, Guiteau became
something of a media darling during his trial for his bizarre behavior,
including constantly insulting his defense team, formatting his
testimony in epic poems which he recited at length, and soliciting legal
advice from random spectators in the audience via passed notes. He
claimed that he was not guilty because Garfield's murder was the will of
God and he was only an instrument of God's will.[52] He sang "John Brown's Body" to the court.[53] He dictated an autobiography to the New York Herald, ending it with a personal ad for a nice Christian lady under thirty.[54]
He was blissfully oblivious to the American public's outrage and hatred
of him, even after he was almost assassinated twice himself. At one
point, he argued that Garfield was killed not by him but by medical malpractice
("I deny the killing, if your honor please. We admit the shooting"),
which was essentially true, if one discounts the fact that Guiteau was
the reason the President required medical attention in the first place.[55] Throughout the trial and up until his execution, Guiteau was housed at St. Elizabeths Hospital in the southeastern quadrant of Washington, D.C.

Guiteau's trial was one of the first high profile cases in the United States where the insanity defense was considered.[56]
Guiteau vehemently insisted that while he had been legally insane at
the time of the shooting, he was not really medically insane, which was
one of the major causes of the rift between him and his defense lawyers
and probably also a reason the jury assumed Guiteau was merely trying to
deny responsibility.

To the end, Guiteau was actively making plans to start a lecture tour
after his perceived imminent release and to run for President himself
in 1884, while at the same time continuing to delight in the media
circus surrounding his trial. He was dismayed when the jury was
unconvinced of his divine inspiration, convicting him of the murder. He
was found guilty on January 25, 1882.[57] He appealed, but his appeal was rejected, and he was hanged on June 30, 1882 in the District of Columbia.
At his execution, Guiteau famously danced his way up to the gallows and
while on the scaffold he waved at the audience, shook hands with his
executioner and, as a last request, recited a poem he had written called
"I am Going to the Lordy".[58] He had requested an orchestra to play as he sang his poem, but this request was denied.

Garfield's assassination was instrumental to the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act on January 16, 1883. Garfield himself had called for civil service reform in his inaugural address[61] and supported it as President in the belief that it would make government more efficient.[62] It was passed as something of a memorial to the fallen President.[63] Arthur lost the Republican Party nomination in 1884 to Blaine, who went on to lose a close election to Democrat Grover Cleveland.

The Sixth Street rail station was later demolished. The site is now occupied by the West Building of the National Gallery of Art. No plaque or memorial marks the spot where Garfield was shot,[64] but a few blocks away, a Garfield memorial statue stands on the southwest corner of the Capitol grounds.

The question of Presidential disability was not addressed. Article II, section 1, clause 6
of the Constitution says that in case of the "Inability [of the
President] to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the
same shall devolve on the Vice President", but gives no further
instruction on what constitutes inability or how the President's
inability should be determined. Garfield had lain on his sickbed for 80
days without performing any of the duties of his office except for the
signing of an extradition paper, but this did not prove to be a
difficulty because in the 19th century the federal government
effectively shut down for the summer regardless. During Garfield's
ordeal, the Congress was not in session and there was little for a
President to do. Blaine suggested the Cabinet declare Arthur acting
President, but this option was rejected by all, including Arthur, who
did not wish to be perceived as grasping for power.[39][65]

Congress did not deal with the problem of what to do if a President
was alive but incapacitated as Garfield was. Nor did the Congress take
up the question 38 years later, when Woodrow Wilson suffered a stroke that put him in a coma
for days and left him partially paralyzed and blind in one eye for the
last year and a half of his Presidency. It was not until the
ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1967 that United States law provided a procedure for what to do if the President were incapacitated.

Only sixteen years had passed between the first and second
Presidential assassinations. Nevertheless, whereas Lincoln's
assassination had taken place in the closing stages of the Civil War,
both the public and the country's political leaders were keen to
consider Garfield's murder to be an isolated act unlikely to be repeated
in peacetime.[citation needed]
Perhaps because the outrage as expressed in newspaper editorials
focused specifically on the failure to adequately deal with the rejected
office-seeker Guiteau as opposed to the inadequate security protecting
the President,[citation needed] the Congress failed to take any measure to provide for Presidential protection. It was not until after the assassination of William McKinley twenty years after Garfield's assassination, that the Congress charged the United States Secret Service, originally founded to prevent counterfeiting, with Presidential security.[66]

The Garfield Tea House, built by the citizens of Long Branch, New Jersey
with the railroad ties that had been laid down specifically to give
Garfield's train access to their town, still stands today near the
location where Garfield died.[67]