Characteristics

Wool's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so that they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have a greater bulk than other textiles, and retain air, which causes the product to retain heat. Insulation also works both ways; Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes to keep the heat out.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as 1 to 2. Hair, by contrast, has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed, and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products.

Wool fibers are hygroscopic, meaning they readily absorb and give off moisture. Wool can absorb moisture almost one-third of its own weight.[3] Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. Wool is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.

Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has lower rate of flame spread, low heat release, low heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[4] it forms a char which is insulating and self-extinguishing, and contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products, when used in carpets.[5] Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for fire-fighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[5]

Wool is resistant to static electricity, as the moisture retained within the fabric conducts electricity. This is why wool garments are much less likely to spark or cling to the body. The use of wool car seat covers or carpets reduces the risk of a shock when a person touches a grounded object. Wool is considered by the medical profession to be hypoallergenic.[citation needed]

Processing

Wool straight off a sheep, known as "grease wool" or "wool in the grease", contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, and vegetable matter. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water, or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali, and specialized equipment.[6] In commercial wool, vegetable matter is often removed by chemical carbonization.[7] In less processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand, and some of the lanolin left intact through use of gentler detergents. This semi-grease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams.

After shearing, the wool is separated into four main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), broken, bellies, and locks.[8] The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person called a wool classer groups wools of similar gradings together to maximise the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia, before being auctioned all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.

Quality

Various types and natural colours of wool, and a picture made from wool

The quality of wool is determined by the following factors, fiber diameter, crimp, yield, colour, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.

Merino wool is typically 3-5 inches in length and is very fine (between 12-24 microns).[9] The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically more coarse, and has fibers that are 1.5 to 6 inches in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.[10]

Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:

Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling.

The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool that is 16.9 micron and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British Wool as applied today by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.[13]

History

As the raw material has been readily available since the widespread domestication of sheep - and of goats, another major provider of wool - the use of felted or woven wool for clothing and other fabrics characterizes some of the earliest civilizations. Prior to invention of shears - probably in the Iron Age - the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BCE, was preserved in a Danish bog.[14] Wool fibers from wild goats found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia as far back 34,000 BCE suggest that wool fabrics were made even earlier than this.[15][16]

In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; the cotton of India was a curiosity that only naturalists had heard of; and silk, imported along the Silk Road from China, was an extravagant luxury. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with a superior fleece, but which required special care.

In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins; the network that the sequence of annual fairs developed meant that the woollens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople (Braudel, 316). The wool trade developed into serious business, the generator of capital. In the thirteenth century, the wool trade was the economic engine of the Low Countries and of Central Italy; by the end of the following century Italy predominated, though in the 16th century Italian production turned to silk (Braudel p 312). Both pre-industries were based on English raw wool exports - rivaled only by the sheepwalks of Castile, developed from the fifteenth century - which were a significant source of income to the English crown, which from 1275 imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom". The importance of wool to the English economy can be shown by the fact that since the 14th Century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack", a chair stuffed with wool.

Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10% of English wool production (Cantor 2001, 64); the English textile trade grew during the fifteenth century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woollens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699 English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.

A great deal of the value of woollen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting-out" system, or "cottage industry", and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, until recently perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the thirteenth-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275 (Braudel, 317) The system effectively by-passed the guilds' restrictions.

Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato", established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the sixteenth century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market - based on sheep of Spanish origin - did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woollens production.

Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.[17][18][19]

Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so that it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales" from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape.[20]

In December 2004, a bale of the world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 micron, sold for $3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne, Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was $AUD279,000 for the bale.[21] The finest bale of wool ever auctioned sold for a seasonal record of 269,000 cents per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield and had a 43 Newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.[22]

During 2007 a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home.[23]

Production

Global wool production is approximately 1.3 million tonnes per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia is the leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep. New Zealand is the second-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. China is the third-largest producer of wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Tukidale, Drysdale and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets.

In the United States, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). There is also a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers who raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece.

Organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia.[25] It is becoming easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based Nylon or Polypropylene) as a material for carpets as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues.

Marketing

Australia

About 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction. Sale by Sample is a method in which a mechanical claw takes a sample from each bale in a line or lot of wool. These grab samples are bulked, objectively measured, and a sample of not less than 4 kg is displayed in a box for the buyer to examine. The Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) conducts sales primarily in Sydney, Melbourne, Newcastle, and Fremantle. There are about 80 brokers and agents throughout Australia.

About 7% of Australian wool is sold by private treaty on farms or to local wool-handling facilities. This option gives wool growers benefit from reduced transport, warehousing, and selling costs. This method is preferred for small lots or mixed butts in order to make savings on reclassing and testing.

About 5% of Australian wool is sold over the internet on an electronic offer board. This option gives wool growers the ability to set firm price targets, reoffer passed in wool and offer lots to the market quickly and efficiently. This method works well for tested lots as buyers use these results to make a purchase. 97% of wool is sold without sample inspection however as of dec 2009, 59% of wool listed had been passed in from auction. Growers through certain brokers can allocate their wool to a sale and what price their wool will be reserved at.

Sale by tender can achieve considerable cost savings on wool clips large enough to make it worthwhile for potential buyers to submit tenders. Some marketing firms sell wool on a consignment basis, obtaining a fixed percentage as commission.

Forward selling: Some buyers offer a secure price for forward delivery of wool based on estimated measurements or the results of previous clips. Prices are quoted at current market rates and are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by actual test results when available.[26]

Another method of selling wool includes sales direct to wool mills.

Other countries

The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.

Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% for farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.[27] Some businesses in New Zealand like Blue House Yarns have turned to selling organic wool, a new trend on wool production.

United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.[28]

Uses

Woollen garments in the wool samples area of a wool store, Newcastle, New South Wales.

In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, felt, wool insulation (also see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.

Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment able to cover a wet diaper while inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.

Yarns

Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers.[30] As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a micro-economy in this area for many years.

Ragg is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications like gloves.

Woollen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting.[31] In traditional weaving, woollen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.[32]

Events

A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year.

In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 micron and finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country.[33] In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name.

Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world’s finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale.[34]

The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, every two years (in even numbered years) around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more.

In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively-measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, there were 475 entries from all states of Australia with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales fleeces.[35]

From LoveToKnow 1911

"WOOL 28.805). - The functions of " supply "
and "demand," of " free-trade " and " controlled trade " in the
wool industry, during the decade 1910 -20, form a very interesting
study for the economist. The situations before, during, and after
the war are best shown separately: I. Before The War (1911 to 1914)
(a) Wool Production. - The best available statement of the
world's sheep and wool production is given in Table 1; it includes
figures of the pre-war and post-war periods.

r

Sheep

Wool in lb.

Pre-war

Post-war

Pre-war

Post-war

Europe .

177,981,207

171,026,261

803,400,043

751,104,667

Australasia.

96,189,727

107,467,005

645,132,880

852,122,484

S. America.

118,638,046

72,342,762

482,640,707

487,180,000

N. America

54, 0 53,4 0 9

49,549,45 8

303,473,000

327,829,531

Asia. .

92,318,419

9 6 ,735,54 6

273,146,000

326,505,000

Africa .

6 3,43 2 ,755

69,114,685

219,919,000

219,919,000

Central

America

and W.

Indies .

710,380

750,000

750,000

Total .

603,3 2 3,943

5 66, 2 35,7 1 7

2,728,461,630

2,965,410,682

TABLE I. The World's Sheep and Wool.' 1 Chiefly from
the Wool Review of the National Association of Wool
Manufacturers, United States.

From these statistics the following interesting deductions are
to be drawn. It is somewhat surprising to find Europe heading the
list of wool-growing continents. This is largely due to the flocks
of European Russia: 320,000,000 lb. of wool (pre-war) are credited
under this head, and this probably explains the source of German
wool clothing during the latter days of the war. What had become of
this huge quantity latterly was not on record in 1921. Incidentally
it would certainly appear that the continent of Europe as a
wool-growing continent had not claimed the attention merited. In
most respects Europe compared more than favourably with other
continents, and it was only owing to the diversity of interests,
languages, etc., that this was not more in evidence. If the nations
of Europe would all pull together, that continent would probably
have more to give to the world than to receive.

Europe and North America, being by far the greatest
manufacturing centres in the world, have practically consumed the
whole of the very large surplus stocks from the other woolgrowing
countries, apparently in the proportions of 80% for Europe and 20%
for North America. The marked difference in the weights of the
fleeces produced as indirectly shown by this table is obviously
worthy of careful consideration.

(b) Wool Distribution

The detailed figures respecting local supplies, importations and
reexportations are very confusing. The figures in Table 2 may be
taken - with exceptions to be presently noted - as an indication of
the wool each important manufacturing country received. One or two
questions Table 2.
Wool-manufacturing Countries. ' These figures require
careful consideration. Probably a large proportion of this wool is
usually manufactured in other countries - notably Germany and
Britain.

here arise. The United Kingdom is credited with manufacturing
90,000,000 lb. approximately of a 120,000,000 lb. clip. It must not
be forgotten, however, that a very considerable amount of the
world's wool supply passes through the London or Liverpool wool
sales, as is shown by Table 3: Table 3. United Kingdom Imports and
Exports (1911).

Imports

Exports

Retained

Colonial. .

659,511,000

Foreign. .

135,004,000

Totals. .

794,515,000

304,208,000

490,307,000

The colonial (and foreign) wool not accounted for by Table 3 is
no doubt sold direct to the manufacturing countries. This is
indicated by the sales of South African wools for the year 1913
(Table 4).

1913

1919

United Kingdom. ... .

96,028,737

96,462,203

Germany. ... .

61,123, 7 1 3

-

Belgium. .. .. .

20,695,225

12,662,059

France. .. .. .

4,898,212

9,588,452

Italy .

924,852

43,002

United States. ... .

221,522

71,502,522

Japan. .

-

39,800,648

Table 4. Distribution of
South African Wools. An analysis of S. American exports would,
no doubt, show by far the larger porportion of S. American wools
passing directly to Belgium, France, Germany and the United States,
a large quantity, of course, passing through the Antwerp
sale-rooms.

(c) Tendencies in Production and Distribution

In wool production from 1910 to 1914 there is little to note. S.
Africa made a valiant attempt to improve both the quality and
quantity of her wool, and succeeded in both objects to a certain
extent. In Australia certain developments of sheep-growing
districts are to be noted, but these, with the increase in the
weights of the individual fleeces, probably only just served to
balance losses through drought and in other directions. Falkland
Island wool (fine crossbred) made a name for itself as a good
hosiery wool, but unfortunately the increase up to 1914 was not
great. S. America generally proved disappointing, in view of the
demand for its wools, not only from the European continent but also
from Great Britain, following the decline in the prejudice against
them.

Total Sheep

Merinos

1910. .. ... .

23,480, 707

1,868,805

1917. .. ... .

2 5, 2 7 0 ,3 86

1,063,491

1920. .. ... .

23,914,506

803,589

Undoubtedly the greatest wool problem prior to the war was the
provision of a sufficient quantity of fine merino wool. This Table 5. New Zealand Wool.
is illustrated in Table 5. S. Africa partly met this
deficiency, but Australia pinned her faith on mutton rather than on
wool, so that the tendency to eliminate the pure-bred merino is
still in evidence.

So far as the distribution of the wool manufacturing industry
was concerned there was an undoubted tendency in Britain to
relinquish wool manufacture owing to severe competition. The
continental European competition took the form of efficiency in
manipulation and excellence in the goods produced. How Yorkshire
was going to face the importation of certain continental goods was
a problem - and one that had still to be faced after the war. The
competition with the United States was apparently controlled by the
tariff charges, but it is more than probable that the excellence of
American manufactured goods was already beginning to tell against
European importations; although America still had to start her
export trade. Yorkshire, however, appeared to be falling between
two stools - she was not producing goods of the excellence of the
continental styles and thereby forcing a way into neutral markets;
nor was she organized on such a scale that she could face the
United States' markets - indeed the American manufacturers were
surpassing her in scale of organization. It would not be
overstating the case to say that the year opened with many
misgivings so far as the British wool manufacturing industry was
concerned. The war came, and temporarily dominated everything. But
the conditions of 1914 were likely to reappear afterwards, and
would have to be faced sooner or later.

II. .THE WAR Period (1914
to 1918) The Slump in Trade. - Fear of the unknown
naturally created the trade slump observable during the early
months of the World War. Britain, a country whose very life
depended upon. the importation of the raw material and exportation
of the semimanufactured or fully manufactured article, naturally
had most to fear. This fear was further aggravated by the fact that
British manufacturers had huge financial interests involved with
Germany; and, conversely, Germany had financial interests with
Britain. With trade universally in a state of suspended animation,
and the sequence of delivery of goods and payment of accounts
seriously interfered with, many British firms - and especially
those in the wool, top and yarn trade - were at once in serious
financial difficulties. The Government, however, tided over the
difficulty by. the " moratorium," which, by the " time easement "
given, enabled the greater proportion of firms eventually to meet
their liabilities.

A period of suspense followed, during which the exact trend of
many matters was being worked out. By the middle of 1915, however,
the idea that, when the British and French armies got going, they
would sweep the Germans back into the Fatherland, had practically
gone. In the meantime Germany had been swept from the seas. It was
now evident that Germany, from the wool point of view, would have
to be self-contained, neither importing raw wool 1 nor exporting
manufactured goods; that France was seriously incapacitated as a
manufacturing country owing to the invasion of much of her
manufacturingi territory; that Russia would seriously have to draw
upon: British stocks of manufactured goods; in fact, that Britain'
must be the mainstay of the Allies - and of the world, with the
exception of the United States and Japan - so far as wool
manufactured goods were concerned. The extent to which, Germany
deliberately crippled France both during the war period and
subsequently will be realized from the following quotation from the
Yorkshire Observer in March 1921: " The Fourmies District
remained practically the whole time away from actual fighting range
and did not suffer from gunfire, but, this notwithstanding, the
destruction by hammer, pick, dynamite and fire was complete, the
Fourmies woollen plants having always proved most serious
competitors of those of Germany. The enemy reached the district on
Aug. 26 1914, and' left it on Nov. 9 1918. When they arrived there
were 75 textile works in full activity; they destroyed all except
five worsted spinning plants,1 one woollen spinning plant and one
combing plant. The steam! engines were broken or otherwise damaged;
the boilers removed and: rendered unserviceable, the safes were
broken into and all records! of manufacture, samples, reference
data, representing 30 years of! activity, removed to Germany.. ..
Immediately the Germans occupied the northern departments of
France, not a single woolcombing machine was left throughout the
country; there remained! in activity throughout the land only
160,000 worsted spindles out! of 2,400,000; only half the total of
700,000 woollen spindles; only; about 11,000 weaving Iooms out of
56,000." By 1916, two other factors had come into play. The drain
on the man-power of Great Britain was becoming serious. But, it was
now fully revealed that in the wool industry there was a vast
surplus of labour ready to maintain output, at least at a very high
rate. By April, scarcity of shipping was threatened. Thus early in
1916, if the serious limitation of the supply of raw materials was
not actually felt, it was in sight.

The Difficulties Leading to Wool Control. - The British
War Office, having in the very early days of the war experienced
the difficulty of clothing in khaki the large army in course of
formation, organized itself to overcome this difficulty, and by the
inevitable restrictions indirectly placed on the manufacture of
civilian clothing had so far succeeded fairly well in its direct
object. But by the early days of 1916 the War Office was seriously
alarmed at the future prospects of supplies of raw materials and
sought outside advice. As illustrating the method of working the
following may be taken as typical. On Feb. 2 1916 a War Office
official (who, incidentally, knew nothing of wool) visited the
university of Leeds and asked for certain estimates respecting
British combs and spindles, to be supplied to him four days later
when the Army Council would meet to discuss supplies. In Table 6
the figures then supplied are given, and alongside the estimates
are given also the actual figures, kindly supplied some years later
by the same official. The estimate for 1916 was 337,500,000 lb., as
against an actual production of 309,443,185 lb., based on the first
half of 1917.

The following figures were also supplied on the
same date: Wool available for use in the United Kingdom.
800,000,000 lb.

Less clothing wools used in the woollen trade.. 200,000,000
Available for combing.. Less shrinkage and tearage in scouring and
combing (4 0%) .

Wool available for " tops " .

The estimated shrinkage and tearage of 40% would have been much
too low - as average Australian merino gives a shrinkage of about
50% and a tearage of from 5 to r to 8 to 1 - but for the endeavour
made to save shipping space by shipping in the scoured state only,
and by reason of the large quantities of washed home-grown wools
and low-yielding colonial crossbreds included. The effect of this
is clearly shown (Table 7) in Mr. Norman Rae's figures published in
the Yorkshire Observer of Friday, Aug. Io 1917. From these
figures it is evident - (a) that the Government by 1917 had fears
of being unable to 1 With the exception noted with reference to
Russian wools.

keep the Allies' wool industries supplied with wool, and much
under-estimated the yields - although they had the Leeds University
suggestion of 40% for yield and tearage before them; (b)
that the industry was feeling the shortage of wool and was
regarding the future with misgivings; (c) that leading wool men
thought it actually expedient to question the Government figures,
and, if possible, to obtain at once a greater wool distribution;
(d) that as subsequent figures seem to show, the university figures
of 40% average loss between raw wool and finished top and the other
figures supplied were most nearly correct, and would have served
well as a basis to work upon. All these figures, however, are
chiefly useful as illustrating the difficulties involved not only
in estimating the workable supplies of wool during the war period
but in estimating the yields and in averaging up the quantities of
clean wool which the actual deliveries might be expected to
give.

How serious was the problem of supplying wool to the home trade,
and to such of the Allies as could manufacture it, is shown in
Tables 8 and g. To the quantities shown in these tables should be
added something over 300,000,000 lb. of remanufactured materials,
probably derived as follows (in 1914 figures): - Of the wool
manufactured in Great Britain, 500,000,000 lb., about 3
(166,000,000 lb.) is retained at home, and about half this (or
84,000,000 lb.) is torn up each year; rags imported amount to
ioo,000,000 lb.; so that the total remanufactured materials
(excluding noil) amount to 184,000,000 lb. But this is probably an
under-statement, as the figures collected by the Board of Trade
during the war period show an average approximating to 200,000,000
lb. Thus it would appear that the woollen industry of Great Britain
roughly consumes per annum: - 200,000,000 lb. greasy wool 1,
200,000,000 lb. remanufactured materials, and 60,000,000 lb. of
noil, or a total of 460,000,000 lb.

These figures reveal - (1) the continuous reduction in the
quantity of British wool grown and, excepting during the war
period, manufactured in Britain; (2) an increase in supplies 1 This
figure is questionable as large quantities of so-called clothing
wools may be employed for combing purposes.

of colonial and foreign wools, if we take into account the fact
that there is possibly still some of the 1919 period wool to be
accounted for; (3) the increase in the quantity of colonial and
foreign wool manufactured in Britain; (4) the large increase in the
foreign and colonial importation in 1915; (5) the effects of the
German submarine campaign on the 1918 importation, and the making
up of lost ground in 1919; (6) the fact that the average
importation of colonial and foreign wool for the five years ending
1919 is much below the five years ending 1914. Had wool gone
elsewhere, or had it not been grown? It may be noted (7) that
Turkey mohair (sent to Britain by parcel post during the first year
of the war) would disappear until 1919, the large increase shown on
1919 being no doubt partly Turkey mohair and partly Cape mohair;
and (8) that alpaca, being free, was largely employed to take the
place of merino wool during 1917 and 1918, - the clipping of
immature fibre led to the marked increase in 1918 and the
consequent reduction iri 1919.

Table 9. War Period and
Post-war Period Supplies of Raw Materials. (In millions of
lb.) 3 Average for five years = 72 4 (see Table 8).

These facts and figures, although somewhat prematurely placed
here, may be usefully borne in mind in studying all phases of the
subject.

In April 1916 the Army Contracts Department of the War Office
began to commandeer hosiery yarns on the financial basis of a fixed
margin to cover the processes of manufacture.

A little later restrictions were imposed upon the export of raw
wool - possibly owing to rumours of it reaching enemy countries and
certainly because wool supplies for home purposes were becoming
very restricted. By June 1916 the War Office knew that further
control was almost certainly inevitable, and circulated compulsory
requests for particulars of stocks of wool, tops and yarn, which
requests, of course, were very disquieting to the trade. Later in
the same month, so serious was the position judged to be that the
War Office prohibited the opening of the British wool fair of
Kettering, and, eventually, after some debate, purchased the whole
of the British clip at 35% above July 1914 prices. The British
clips of 1917 and 1918 were also bought.

Anxiety with reference to the possibility of supplying the army
with the wool goods it really needed continually increased. In
April 1917 the open market for wool was closed and the sales by
auction abolished. In May, in anticipation of the lack of wool to
keep the factories going and of labour disturbances, an army
council order was issued which resulted in the reduction of working
hours in the factories from 551 per week to 45 per week, unless
permission was obtained from the director of army contracts to work
full time. This order was not withdrawn until May 18 1918,
following the enormous demand for flannel goods.

Following the revolt, already referred to, of Yorkshire
manufacturers in Aug. 1917, due to War Office restrictions of
supplies and of estimates of future supplies, and following the
failure of the trade itself to supply reliable data, came the
formation of a " Board of Control." Wool Control. - The
Board of Control was organized with Sir Arthur Goldfinch as
director of raw material supplies, Col.

F. V. Willey as controller of wool supplies, and Sir Charles
Sykes as director of wool textile production. The department was
housed in the Great Northern Hotel, Bradford, and was given
complete control of both supplies of raw material and output of
finished clothing. The activities of the department followed
briefly the following lines: - (1) A reasonably exact basis of "
yields " was ascertained and all wools dealt with on the " clean
wool " basis. (2) Reliable statistics were obtained and made the
basis of the distribution of supplies of raw materials. (3) A
method of " rationing " the margin of wool supplies (about 20% of
the available supplies) available for the civilian trade was worked
out. (4) Difficulties of a minor nature, such as the supply of oils
for oiling wool, soaps for scouring, etc., were faced and usually
satisfactorily surmounted. (5) A standard clothing scheme was
introduced, the intention of which was, no doubt, good, and its
failure only to be attributed to the failure to employ the
technical skill actually available in the industry in the designing
and displaying of the goods manufactured. Exhibitions were held up
and down the country and attracted much attention, but little
demand for the fabrics was exhibited. Last, but perhaps not least,
the department had to face the problem of relinquishing control on
the termination of the war. Those who know the anxiety caused,
years before the war was over, by the clearly foreseen difficulties
of disbanding an enormous army, will know something of the
anxieties of the Wool Control Board to close down with credit to
itself and no less to either the wool grower or the wool
manufacturer.

Provision for After the War. - The Armistice brought
with it the determination of those whose trade had been taken from
them by the Wool Control Board to oust the Board and regain their
own back again. The Board's function, on realizing the inevitable,
was to dissolve (1) with credit to itself, and (2) with due regard
to the interests of the wool growers and wool merchants, of the
wool manufacturers, and of the consuming public. With the huge
demand for goods following the Armistice prices soared up and up,
and it was only human that the Board should tend to retain command
to its own financial advantage, and also to attempt to prevent
undue inflation of values to the detriment of the consuming public.
So far as British wools were concerned the removal of control was
so simple that no preliminary action was considered necessary, and
the restrictions were actually removed in time for the wool fairs
in 1919.

To meet the difficulty with reference to Australian wools the
Imperial Government had decided to purchase the Australian clip for
one year after the war. To further facilitate matters, a Wool
Council, which included imperial representatives, was formed by the
War Office.

With reference to the interests of the manufacturers and
consumers the Government again asked for advice from the university
of Leeds through one of its representatives. In a personal
interview with the official in question the probable trend of trade
after the war was outlined and the suggestion given that, in view
of the almost certain shortage of immediately available supplies
and the huge demand for fine merino wools, certain manufacturing
restrictions - such as spinning only to fine counts of yarn -
should be imposed. Unfortunately this suggestion was not
sufficiently acted upon, with the result that the army's revolt
from rough khaki to fine blue serge sent merino wools soaring up to
unthought of heights, all other qualities. following suit. The
intention of the Wool Council was undoubtedly good, but again the
direction of the matter was primarily in the hands of those who
knew little or nothing about the wool industry, who could not even
judge who were giving them sound advice and who were giving them
questionable advice. It may be conceded that to control speculation
under the conditions prevailing from 1918 to 1921 was apparently
impossible. Apparently the only thing to be done was to unload
stocks as rapidly as possible - although one authority did suggest
that the way to reduce prices was to keep. large stocks of wool and
not to sell.

During this period there was much unrest in the labour world and
a great deal of talk about " profiteering." As an indirect result
of this the Whitley Act was passed by Parliament, and note should
here be made of the endeavours made by the British woollen and
worsted industries to take advantage of this Act and form "
Industrial Councils " composed of employers and employees, also of
the formation of the " National Wool Textile Industrial Council,"
the final draft-constitution Of which - prepared by Mr. Ernest
Marsh (chairman) and Mr.

G. H. Wood (secretary) - as adopted on Dec. 10 1918, was as
follows (Yorkshire Observer, Nov. 27 1918): " The title
selected is the National Wool (and Allied) Textile Industrial
Council, and its objects are defined as follows: - To promote the
development of the industry and to secure that wages, methods of
production, and conditions of employment shall be systematically
reviewed and decisions agreed upon which shall have as their object
the improvement of the relations between employers and
employees.

In furtherance of these objects the Council shall: - (a) Consider
wages, hours, and working conditions in the industry as a whole,
and the fixing of standard rates of wages for similar occupations
in the industry. It shall also consider the employment of
scientific and agreed methods of fixing wages, and of adjusting
wages to new conditions, and the securing to the employees of a
share in any increased prosperity of the industry; (b) Consider the
best means of securing the highest efficiency of the industry,
including any improvement in machinery, invention, or method by
which the prosperity of the industry is to be increased; secure
that such invention or improvement in method shall give to each
party a fair distribution of the benefits derived from the
increased efficiency; utilize to the fullest extent the practical
knowledge and experience of the workpeople, and secure that such
knowledge may receive consideration; (c) Consider the existing
machinery for the settlement of differences between different parts
and sections in the industry, and the establishment of regular
methods of negotiation on anticipated issues between employers and
employees, and upon differences which may be reported with a view
to the prevention of differences and their equitable adjustment;
(d) Consider the supervision of the entry into and training of
employees for the industry, and cooperation with the educational
authorities in arranging educational facilities for the industry in
all its branches; (e) Make comparative studies of the workings and
methods of the industry in this and other countries, and when
desirable publish reports; (f) Secure to the workman a greater
share in and responsibility for the determination and observance of
the conditions under which he works, in so far as it relates to his
material comfort and well-being; make efforts for the
decasualisation and permanent security of employment, having regard
to the conditions surrounding changes of occupation between one
employer and another; consider means toward the improvement of
conditions with a view to removing the danger to health in the
industry, and toward providing special treatment where necessary
for employees in the industry; (g) Make reports to Government
departments and local authorities of the needs and opinions of the
industry; consider any questions bearing on such matters which may
be referred to the Industrial Council by the Government or by a
Government department; consider jointly all proposed legislation
affecting the industry and take joint action where such legislation
is likely to interfere with its prosperity; (h) Consider the best
means of insuring the observance of the decisions of the Council
and of agreements made between organizations of employers and
employees; (i) Consider means ' whereby the employers and
employees shall be brought within their respective associations."
This Council steadily extended its activities, and may ultimately
be the deciding factor in helping Great Britain to maintain and
possibly to extend her manufacturing position.

Another indirect result of the war was the development of
industrial and scientific research. The university of Leeds (so far
as the wool industry was concerned) here took the lead, and, in
conjunction with the West Riding County Council and with the help
of many prominent manufacturers in the various manufacturing
districts, raised approximately 5-,000 per annum for a period of
five years. With the development of the Government Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, however, came the question of
overlapping, and the university, while naturally retaining its own
research status, not only gave way to the new department but
strenuously helped in the development of " The Research Association
for the Woollen and Worsted Industries " now housed in Leeds. This
Research Department is designed to cover the requirements of Great
Britain and Ireland.

III. After The War (1918 to 1921) Withdrawal of Control from
British Wools. - Under political pressure the Government freed
the wool fairs of 1919 from State control. But a curious tendency
now made itself felt. Owing to the limitation of supplies of
colonial crossbreds and other 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920
1921 ! N..

crossbred wools, woollen manufacturers had been constrained to
use British Down wools and Down crosses. These were discovered to
possess just the characteristics sought for in certain woollen
goods. They were also the wools sought for by the hosiery
manufacturer; and as hosiery now took a wonderful development the
Down wools went soaring away in price, at last almost rivalling
colonial merinos. When the slump came, Down wools stood out against
it even longer than merinos, and it seemed probable that when trade
should revive Down wools would again come into their own. In view
of the great future before Down wools it was regrettable that more
British farmers did not follow the suggestion to grow Down crosses,
as strenuously advocated by qualified representatives of the
universities of Edinburgh and Leeds.

The changes in values of British wools and tops are shown for
the decade in Chart I.

Of course the high values shown in this chart are fictitious in
more senses than one, but it would seem that if the 1921 prices of
these wools had been brought to the 1914 basis they must be so
cheap that demand for goods manufactured from them would have been
immediate. Probably the large stocks of manufactured goods still
held in 1921 by the middleman kept the prices of these goods at an
artificial height and thus lamentably interfered with trade.

Withdrawal of Control from Colonial Wools

The Wool Council of the War Office on the cessation of
hostilities found itself in great difficulties with reference to
colonial wools. Just as on the outbreak of war no one knew what
would happen, so in this case it was impossible to foresee whether
the enhanced values of the war period would be maintained or prices
rapidly fall. If prices had rapidly fallen it is possible that the
wool grower would have held the Wool Council to its bargain, and Chart 2 Values of Colonial Wools
and Tops.

no one could well have found fault with their attitude. But
prices rapidly rose, and so it came about that the colonial wool
grower felt aggrieved that he was not going to profit by the
enhanced wool values like the home wool grower. Thus it came about
that the Imperial War Council agreed to share the very substantial
prospective profits with the colonial wool grower. Unfortunately
much of the 1919 wool had not been brought under the hammer before
the slump started (May 1920), but it was stated that, after the
British Treasury had been reimbursed for the expenditure it had
incurred, there was at the end of 1920 a clear profit of
14,000,000, half of which belonged to the growers, bringing their
total receipts up to 180,896,09. In addition to this there remained
unsold (Dec. 1 9 20) 1,800,000 bales, half of which belonged to the
growers.

1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 The change in the Values of
colonial wools and tops during the decade are shown in Chart 2.

Up to May 1920 the endeavour of the Wool Council was rather to
maintain than to inflate values, and much fault was found with the
Council for not making greater progress with the disposal of the
wool to hand - the manufacturers were crying out for it. To meet
this demand the Antwerp sales were reopened on Oct. 25 1919 and
extensive sales in the United States of America were also promoted,
one of the first being held in Philadelphia in Sept. 1919.
Apparently the fall in the prices of wool was almost coincident
with the release of ships for transport. Unfortunately few realized
the large stocks of wool on hand - or rather they estimated their
consumption at the 1919 rate and consequently minimized their
stocks. Thus it came about that, following a period when every
conceivable bale of wool was called for and (from the sellers'
point of view) ought to have been placed on the market, came a
period when with bated breath one heard the word " unloading," and
all too soon new wool and old wool were on the market together.

Wool Values Adjusted to 1914 Values.

Adjustment of Sale of Old and New Wool

In the early days of 1920 those starting new works in the
colonies, India and elsewhere, were asking - can we obtain
sufficient wool to run our factories? And there was every
inducement to wool growers - particularly growers of the finer
sorts - to extend operations. Toward the end of 1920 almost all
factory building the world over was suspended or carried on very
leisurely; and with the fall in wool values many sheep breeders
were already looking on wool as an almost valueless by-product.
Probably both extremes were wrong. Table io gives a fair idea of
the world's wool stocks about the end of 1920 or early in 1921.

Prior to the war the world's yield of wool was about 2,728;
461,630 lb., and it might be taken that about this amount was
yearly absorbed. It would thus appear that the surplus wool on hand
was equivalent to about 14 or 15 months' normal world's
consumption.' Now if there were serious depletion of stocks of
manufactured goods, and if there were likely to be a greater demand
from the better paid workers of the world, and from countries
likely to demand wool goods which previously had not consumed such
goods in great quantities (India for example), then the stock of
wool would appear hardly sufficient to meet the probable demand.
Possibly these brighter conditions might have been realized, but
for over speculation in the wool industry and the general slump in
prices. Actually, however, what did happen was that the countries
which could purchase were inundated with the goods which, under
normal conditions,. would have been spread over a broader field and
the slump followed storage of goods and lack of sales. The reaction
probably went much too far - for the home market in Britain was
good in the middle of 1921. BLit the Wool Council had not only to
face this surplus of wool but the new wool (1920 clip and in
prospect the 1921 clip) coming on to the market at the reopened
sales in Australia. The adjustment of this prospective difficulty
was exemplified as shown in table r 1 in the quantities of old and
new wools - offered, sold and withdrawn - in both London and
Australia in June 1921. Of these quantities, about 79,500 bales,
TABLE II. London Colonial Wool Sales (Feb.
22 to March 5 1921).

On Government

Account

On Importers'

Account

Bales

Bales

Sydney

24,567

9,889

Queensland .

4,991

6,435,

Port Philip .

12,862

3,274

Adelaide

5,286

1,542

Tasmania .

2,648

279

Western Australia

3,599

10,507. r

New Zealand

20,264

10,213

Cape

3,134

Punta Arenas

..

3,487

Falkland Islands.

..

577

River Plate. ` .

..

165

Sundries

..

724

Total,. .

74,4 1 7

50,226

of which approximately 76,000 bales were colonial, were sold;
44, 000 bales were taken for export, including 2,000 bales Punta
Arenas and Falkland Islands; 8,000 bales went to America. At the
April 1921 London sales the reserve prices of the old wool were so
high that, no bids were forthcoming and all of this wool was
withdrawn. Owing to the formation of the British Australian Wool
Realization Association not being completed, or rather its policy
not being decided upon, all the Australian old wool sales for April
1921 were also cancelled.

The difficulties of adjustment, actually realized later, were
foreseen and deemed so great that when Mr. Hughes (Prime Minister
of the Commonwealth and a stalwart fighter for the 1 The U.S.A.
normally holds 400,000,000 lb. of wool in stock.

IN Pence 5 8 development of Australian wool industries) proposed
to form an association of Australian wool growers and British
Government representatives, with the object of realizing at
reasonable values the large stocks of wool held in Australia and
England, the Wool Council accepted the proposed control. Indirectly
the Wool Council was apparently sacrificing the possibility of
cheap wool for the manufacturers of this country: but it regarded
the pocket of the whole country as coming first and the
manufacturers' demand for cheap wool as coming second. The
Australian Board was thinking chiefly of the interest of the
Australian grower. The association was registered in April 1921, as
follows: " British Australian Wool Realization Association, Ltd.,
Caxton House, West Tothill Street, Westminster, London, S.W.I.
Incorporated in the State of Victoria, Australia. Registered April
14, to acquire and take over (a) one-half share of, or interest in,
all Australian wool bought by the British Government through the
Government of the Commonwealth of Australia and still undisposed
of, and in all real and personal property acquired in connexion
therewith and still undisposed of; (b) one-half share of,
or interest in, any surplus profit on resale of Australian wool so
bought still undistributed. Also to take over and assume one-half
of all or any liabilities and obligations connected with and
chargeable to such wool, property and surplus profits not yet
liquidated. Nominal capital £25,000,000 in 25,000,000 shares of £1
each. Names of persons authorized to accept service; Sir Arthur
Horne Goldfinch, K.B.E., 8 Rosecroft Avenue, Hampstead, London,
N.W. (Governing Director British Australian Wool Realization
Association, Ltd., Delegate General Chilean Nitrate Producers
Association); James Alexander Cooper, C.B.E., F.S.A.A., Mentmore
House, Uxbridge Road, Kingston on Thames, Surrey (Assistant
Governing Director, British Australian Wool Realization
Association)." With the lack of demand for goods and consequent
lack of consumption of wool the world over, even the best merino
continued to fall in value up to May 1921, and the poorer sorts in
some cases were below 1914 values (see Chart 3). Whether
the enhanced values realized in May by both merinos and crossbreds
would be maintained was questionable. Table 11, from the
Yorkshire Observer of May. 16, showed a turn of the tide -
if there were no set-backs. Demand from the United States in
anticipation of the new tariff might be, at least in part, the
explanation. Germany had already commenced to buy wool.

1914

Description

1921

1921

July

d. per lb.

32

Combing

70's super fleeces .

, May 7

d. per lb.

40/42

May 12

d. per lb.

40/44

30-

64/67's good medium fleeces .

35

36

30

60/64's good medium fleeces .

27

30

28

64's good pieces.. .

30

33/36

27

60's good pieces.. .

30

33/36

27

60's good pieces .

23

26/28

29

58/60's good medium fleeces .

30

30

26

56's fine crossbred fleeces

24

24

231

50/56's fine crossbred fleeces .

17

18

18

46/50's crossbred fleeces .

14

15

17

46's crossbred fleeces. .

12

13

16

44's crossbred fleeces. .

10

I I

151

36/40's crossbred fleeces .

9

9

Capes

27

10/12 months' combing Capes.

28/30

None

24

6/7 months' good clothing

Capes. .

None

None

Carbonizing

26

60/64's good carbonizing pieces

23

26

25

60/64's carbonizing pieces and

bellies

20

24

20

64's average locks. .

16

18

-

64's average lambs. .

20

20

Table 12 Iv. Prospects In 1921 Wool Manufacturing. -
Australian combed tops were on the Bradford market, on the American
market, and were also being worked up in Japan in 1921. Did this
presage a re-distribution of the world's wool manufacturing
industry, and if so what was the line of distribution likely to be
followed?

The astounding prosperity of the British wool-manufacturing
industry following the Armistice attracted world-wide attention,
and it was but natural that every one with any connexion with the
industry the world over should wish to share in the prosperity.

There were two types of country in which the development of
manufacturing would undoubtedly be attempted, and in which the
attempt is undoubtedly justified, (I) the wool-producing continents
or countries, Australasia, S. Africa, and S. America, and (2) new
wool-consuming countries such as India, Japan, Brazil. In Australia
some few mills were developing before the war, and after the war,
under private enterprise, stimulated by the energy of Mr. Hughes
and others, and, in some cases, further encouraged by the
mother-country financiers. Australia made strenuous endeavours to
develop a huge wool-manufacturing industry. Her ideal was to
manufacture one-tenth of her wool production per annum - say, 50 to
60,000,000 lb., and in 1921 nearly 4 o wool manufacturing mills
were already in existence. Similarly South Africa, stimulated by
Gen. Enslin, was also making a bid for wool manufacturing.

In the case of Australia no forethought or skill was being
spared. The mills were being equipped with the finest machinery -
French-made combs, for example, had so far been given preference
over the speedier but less exact British (Noble). combs - and the
best skilled workers were engaged in many of the mills. Excellently
combed Australian tops were already on the Bradford market.

So long as profits remained high and high rates of wages were
maintained, the appeal to the financial instincts of the worker,
even in the case of Australia, might be expected to hold him in the
mill. But if the conditions of 1914 came round again and the skill
and temperament of the newly developed Australian industry were
pitted against the skill and temperament of the older industrial
countries, which would win out? Broadly speaking, in anything be y
ond combing it would be the older countries' fault if they did not
dominate. Again, with the need for harder conditions in the
factories which must almost inevitably follow severe competition,
it was a question which operatives would best stand the strain.
Australia, and possibly S. Africa and S. America, might develop
quite considerable wool manufacturing industries, but it would seem
inevitable that the old manufacturing countries would almost
entirely retain their hold on the bulk of the world trade in
manufactured wool goods. In the case of India, Brazil and more
particularly Japan, it was probable that the growing demand for
wool goods would be only partly met by local production, and for
some years to come the outside demand of these countries for
manufactured goods seemed more likely to develop than to
contract.

So far as the British wool manufacturing industry is concerned
everything depended upon (r) the introduction of scientific method
into the works; (2) efficiency in manipulative skill, and (3)
efficiency in organization. With reference to the first and second
points the introduction of automatic machinery was day by day
placing an enhanced value on careful, thoughtful workmanship. The
Englishman likes to get a job done, he prefers " driving force " to
thoughtfulness. The, continental controllers and workers are too
often years ahead of the British managers and workers; in
thoughtful outlook the American managers and workers are up to the
British in bulk production and threaten to pass them even in
excellency of output.

With reference to the third point, organization depends upon
both directors and workers. An unsympathetic attitude on the part
of. either will lead to trouble and disaster. The scale of
organization had probably been set by the United States. There the
Arlington mills each day treat the fleeces of about 35,000 sheep -
say, 200,000 lb. of wool: and this is said by no means to be the
largest wool manufacturing company in the United States. Along with
this enormous organization goes an efficiency in organization and
cleanliness in installation which puts most European mills to
shame. The American manufacturer ' has no time to develop that "
secrecy " which is far too much in evidence in European concerns;
he relies upon progressive efficiency.

To sum up, it would seem that while wool-growing countries may
develop quite considerable wool-manufacturing industries, these
will not be to the exclusion of the older manufacturing countries.
On the other hand, American enterprise (and possi bly Japanese
enterprise) will severely test the resources of the older
industrial countries, and success will rest in the future with the
country developing the most thoughtful captains and rank and file
of industry.

(b) Wool Production

During the high prices period of 1918 to 1921 the demand for
wool was so great, and future prospects for the wool-grower seemed
so rosy, that likely and unlikely fields for the development of
sheep-breeding were considered.

With the slump in prices the future prospects of the woolgrower
suffered an apparent eclipse. No doubt in 1920 prospects were
considered too rosy, but equally in 1921 prospects were regarded in
altogether too sombre a light. A few broad glances at the situation
will clear the way.

If we take the United States as practically a self-contained
country, and allow the approximately ten million negro population
(wearing little or no wool) to balance the extra wool required for
garments in the northern states, where cold winters have to be
faced, we get this interesting result: - Wool consumed, 600,000,-
000 lb.; population, 100,000,000; or 6 lb. of wool per head per
annum. Even if we allow for a considerable quantity of
re-manufactured material and also for the negro population, this
can only be regarded as a " miserable statement," for the 6 lb. is
greasy wool yielding about 3 lb. of clean wool, or half a suit or
half a dress length per annum for each male and female in the
United States. In this allowance are included the imports of wool
materials (other than raw wool) amounting to an average of over
30,000,000 lb. per annum. Neither Great Britain, France nor Germany
shows any advance on this.

The world's wool statistics and population only serve to
emphasize the lack of supplies; for taking the pre-war figure
(given in Table I) of 2,728,461,630 lb., and allowing an average
yield of 60% clean wool, this leaves about 1,400,000,000 lb. of
clean wool to serve for a world's population of I,606,542,000 or. 9
lb. of wool per male or female. To make this discrepancy even
clearer, however, take only the population of Britain, Canada,
Australia, the United States, France, Germany, Austria, European
Russia and the Netherlands - these total up to approximately
282,000,000 souls, consuming hardly 6 lb. per head per annum. The
problem of the future would seem to be: - How to develop such
conditions of livelihood the world over that the greatest possible
number become substantial purchasing (or exchanging) units?

N. and Central America

3042

. 6

" "

547?

Asia 2731

923

3

Africa 2199

3

634

Average

Total

Period

Sheep

Weight of

Fleece

Weight

1890-3. .. .

60,000,000

3 lb. 9 oz.

213,700,000

1900-3. .. .

36,000,000

6 lb. 3 oz.

222,750,000

1916-9. .

35,000,000

8 lb. 7 oz.

295,310,000

What possibilities of increased supplies are there? These may be
grouped under two heads: (I) an increased yield from the present
flocks, and (2) the opening up of new tracts of sheep-rearing land.
The first point is admirably illustrated by particulars taken from
Table I, the weights of fleeces for the several continents working
out as follows: Europe 80 1780 } Oceania 645 96 S. America 4826 }
1186 In some cases the sheep-lands are too poor to be expected to
do better, but it will probably be found that this is very rarely
the case. It is stated, for example, that Herdwick sheep, living on
Cumberland hills which will hardly support rabbits, will produce
fleeces from 5 lb. to io lb. weight. But what may be effected
through careful selection is best illustrated by the following
record of New South Wales flocks: - Thus with 25 million fewer
sheep in 1916 as against 1890 some 80,000,000 lb. more wool was
produced. Great Britain has seriously taken these figures to heart,
and under the auspices of the Research Association for the Woollen
and Worsted Industries strenuous endeavours are being made, (a) to
increase the quality and yield of the well-established breeds of
sheep, and (b) to improve the quality of the wool in
certain mountain types by crossing with better quality sheep,
especially Down sheep.

With reference to the second point, although nothing like the
development of a second Australia is to be expected, it is already
obvious that marked developments of sheep-growing tracts of land
may be expected. In the spring of 1921, for example, Col. Robert
Stordy, on behalf of the Peruvian Government, sailed from Britain
with cargoes of Southdown, Suffolk Down, Shropshire, Rambouillet
(merino) and Soay rams, with the object of developing wool growing
in Peru. Wool analysis of the Peruvian wools grown in 1921 on the
degenerate sheep of the country, as analyzed by the university of
Leeds, revealed remarkable qualities specially acceptable to the
hosiery manufacturer. The development of Peru as a wool-growing
country is one of the most fascinating possibilities.

The Duke of Devonshire, Governor-General of Canada until 1921,
was specially interested and concerned in the development of the
prairie lands of the Dominion on the four years' rotation basis,
and one of the years will mean sheep. Thus it is quite possible
that in the near future Canada will produce more wool of the Down
type and possibly of the merino type: for if Russia can raise
merinos amid the snows of winter, why not Canada? The Indians and
Japanese are both making inquiries with the idea not only of
improving the breed of such sheep as they have but also of
developing large tracts of land which probably could well carry
sheep.

(c) Wool Distribution

The question as to where the wool of the world will be
distributed for manufacture and re-distributed for wear, is largely
a matter of surmise. and, after the extraordinary change from the
conditions prevailing in the early months of 1920 to the conditions
prevailing in the early months of 1921, even the most reliable
authorities hesitated to commit themselves. If the world becomes
more stabilized, and the suppressive effects of vested interests on
the one hand and of " ca'canny " on the other are brought within
reasonable limits, then it may be that conditions as rosy as 1918
to 1921. will return with accompanying similar conditions in other
industries. To meet such conditions, should they arise, will
necessitate the employment of every possible type of automatic
machine, and a developed skill depending on the quality of "
thoughtfulness " on the part of the individual worker in using such
automatic machinery. It will thus be evident that forethought,
efficiency and skill will play a greater part than ever in deciding
the peoples to whom the bulk of the world's wool shall pass to be
manufactured. Australia will undoubtedly manufacture an increasing
quantity of wool - but she may possibly grow an even greater
quantity than that demanded to balance for the manufacturing in her
own mills. S. Africa, S. America, India and Japan will no doubt all
claim their quota for manufacturing purposes. But the great bulk of
the wool will be manufactured elsewhere: and it is safe to say that
will be where scientific method and scientific management and a
broad, humane outlook dominate. And the manufactured material of
course will go to those peoples who have something to offer in
exchange. It is true that the immediate outlook in 1921 was dark.
But the reason why was becoming apparent. And when this was fully
realized the world would be well on the way to adjust its economic
condition to facilitate production and exchange to the advantage of
all its peoples. (A. F. B.)

Definition from Wiktionary, a free dictionary

English

Proper
noun

From BibleWiki

one of the first material used for making woven cloth (Lev13:47ff; Lev19:19). The first-fruit of
wool was to be offered to the priests (Deut18:4). The law prohibiting
the wearing of a garment "of divers sorts, as of woollen and linen together" (Deut22:11) may, like some
other laws of a similar character, have been intended to express
symbolically the separateness and simplicity of God's covenant
people. The wool of Damascus, famous for its whiteness, was of
great repute in the Tyrian market
(Ezek27:18).