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Table of Contents

Maps

xi

Chronologies

xii

Preface

xiii

Map Essay before Part One

Part One The Ancient World: Foundation of the West to A.D. 500

2

(194)

The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

4

(29)

The Rise to Civilization

5

(6)

The Paleolithic Age

5

(3)

The Neolithic Revolution

8

(1)

The First Civilizations

9

(2)

Mesopotamian Civilization

11

(6)

Religion: The Basis of Mesopotamian Civilization

12

(3)

Government and Law

15

(1)

Business and Trade

16

(1)

Writing, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Medicine

16

(1)

Egyptian Civilization

17

(6)

From the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom

17

(1)

Religion: The Basis of Egyptian Civilization

18

(1)

Divine Kingship

19

(1)

Science and Mathematics

20

(1)

The New Kingdom and the Decline of Egyptian Civilization

21

(2)

Empire Builders

23

(5)

Hittites

24

(1)

Small Nations

25

(1)

Assyria

25

(1)

The Neo-Babylonian Empire

26

(1)

Persia: Unifier of the Near East

27

(1)

The Religious Orientation of the Near East

28

(5)

A Mythmaking World-View

29

(1)

Near Eastern Achievements

30

(3)

The Hebrews: A New View of God and the Individual

33

(17)

Outline of Hebrew History

34

(5)

The Israelite Kingdom

35

(1)

Conquest, Captivity, and Restoration

36

(2)

The Hebrew Scriptures

38

(1)

God: One, Sovereign, Transcendent, Good

39

(1)

The Individual and Moral Autonomy

40

(1)

The Covenant and the Law

41

(2)

The Hebrew Idea of History

43

(1)

The Prophets

44

(4)

Social Justice

45

(1)

Universalism

46

(1)

Individualism

47

(1)

The Legacy of the Ancient Jews

48

(2)

The Greek City-State: Democratic Politics

50

(24)

Early Aegean Civilizations

52

(2)

The Rise of Hellenic Civilization

54

(3)

Homer, Shaper of the Greek Spirit

54

(2)

Greek Religion

56

(1)

Evolution of the City-State

57

(5)

The Break with Theocratic Politics

57

(1)

Sparta: A Garrison State

58

(1)

Athens: The Rise of Democracy

59

(3)

Athenian Greatness

62

(5)

The Persian Wars

62

(1)

The Delian League

62

(1)

The Mature Athenian Democracy

63

(3)

Pericles: Symbol of Athenian Democracy

66

(1)

The Decline of the City-States

67

(2)

The Peloponnesian War

67

(2)

The Fourth Century

69

(1)

The Dilemma of Greek Politics

69

(5)

Greek Thought: From Myth to Reason

74

(28)

Philosophy

75

(14)

The Cosmologists: A Rational Inquiry into Nature

76

(2)

The Sophists: A Rational Investigation of Human Society

78

(1)

Socrates: The Rational Individual

79

(3)

Plato: The Rational Society

82

(4)

Aristotle: A Synthesis of Greek Thought

86

(3)

Art

89

(1)

Poetry and Drama

89

(7)

Aeschylus

93

(1)

Sophocles

93

(1)

Euripides

94

(1)

Aristophanes

95

(1)

History

96

(2)

Herodotus

96

(1)

Thucydides

97

(1)

The Greek Achievement: Reason, Freedom, Humanism

98

(4)

The Hellenistic Age: Cultural Diffusion

102

(17)

Alexander the Great

105

(1)

Hellenistic Society

106

(4)

Competing Dynasties

106

(1)

Cosmopolitanism

106

(3)

Hellenism and the Jews

109

(1)

Hellenistic Culture

110

(7)

Literature, History, and Art

110

(1)

Science

111

(1)

Philosophy

112

(5)

The Hellenistic Legacy

117

(2)

The Roman Republic: City-State to World Empire

119

(22)

Evolution of the Roman Constitution

120

(4)

Roman Expansion to 146 B.C.

124

(6)

The Uniting of Italy

124

(1)

Conquest of the Mediterranean World

125

(2)

Consequences of Expansion

127

(3)

Culture in the Republic

130

(2)

Collapse of the Republic

132

(9)

Crisis in Agriculture

133

(1)

The Gracchan Revolution

134

(1)

Rival Generals

135

(1)

Julius Caesar

136

(2)

The Republic's Last Years

138

(3)

The Roman Empire: A World-State

141

(30)

Augustus and the Foundations of the Roman Empire

142

(4)

The Pax Romana

146

(12)

The Successors of Augustus

147

(3)

The ``Time of Happiness''

150

(3)

Roman Culture and Law During the Pax Romana

153

(5)

Signs of Trouble

158

(4)

Internal Unrest

158

(1)

Social and Economic Weaknesses

159

(1)

Cultural Stagnation and Transformation

159

(1)

The Spread of Mystery Religions

160

(1)

The Spiritualization of Philosophy

161

(1)

The Decline of Rome

162

(7)

Third-Century Crisis

162

(2)

Diocletian and Constantine: The Regimented State

164

(1)

Tribal Migrations and Invasions

164

(2)

Reasons for Rome's Decline

166

(3)

The Roman Legacy

169

(2)

Early Christianity: A World Religion

171

(25)

Origins of Christianity

172

(7)

Judaism in the First Century B.C.

173

(2)

Jesus: The Inner Person

175

(2)

Saint Paul: From a Jewish Sect to a World Religion

177

(2)

The Spread and Triumph of Christianity

179

(5)

The Appeal of Christianity

179

(2)

Christianity and Rome

181

(1)

Christianity and Greek Philosophy

182

(2)

The Growth of Christian Organization, Doctrine, and Attitudes

184

(4)

The Primacy of the Bishop of Rome

184

(1)

The Rise of Monasticism

185

(1)

Scriptural Tradition and Doctrinal Disputes

185

(1)

Christianity and Society

186

(1)

Christianity and the Jews

187

(1)

Saint Augustine: The Christian World-View

188

(4)

Christianity and Classical Humanism: Alternative World-Views

192

(4)

Part Two The Middle Ages: The Christian Centuries 500--1400

196

(102)

The Heirs of Rome: Byzantium, Islam, and Latin Christendom

198

(30)

Byzantine Civilization: The Medieval Christian East

199

(5)

Conflict with the Roman Church

200

(1)

Imperial Growth and Decline

200

(4)

The Bequest of Byzantium

204

(1)

Islamic Civilization: Its Development and Dissemination

204

(6)

The Prophet: The Founding of a New Religion

204

(2)

The Muslim State and Society

206

(1)

The Muslim Golden Age

207

(2)

Mongol Invasions and Ottoman Dominance

209

(1)

Latin Christendom: The Rise of Europe

210

(3)

Political and Economic Transformation

210

(2)

The Waning of Classical Culture

212

(1)

The Church: Shaper of Medieval Civilization

213

(3)

The Church as Unifier

213

(1)

Monks and the Papacy

214

(2)

The Kingdom of the Franks

216

(5)

The Era of Charlemagne

217

(1)

Carolingian Renaissance

218

(2)

The Breakup of Charlemagne's Empire

220

(1)

Medieval Society

221

(3)

Vassalage

222

(1)

Feudal Law

223

(1)

Feudal Warriors

223

(1)

Noblewomen

224

(1)

Agrarian Life

225

Art Essay: The Art of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages after

224

(4)

The High Middle Ages: Vitality and Renewal

228

(30)

Economic Expansion

229

(7)

Agricultural Revolution

229

(3)

Revival of Trade

232

(2)

Rebirth of Towns

234

(2)

The Rise of States

236

(5)

England

237

(1)

France

238

(2)

Germany

240

(1)

The Emergence of Representative Institutions

241

(1)

The Growth of Papal Power

241

(13)

The Sacraments

242

(1)

Gregorian Reform

242

(4)

The Crusades

246

(4)

Dissenters and Reformers

250

(3)

Innocent III: The Apex of Papal Power

253

(1)

Christians and Jews

254

(4)

The Flowering of Medieval Culture: The Christian Synthesis

258

(21)

Revival of Learning

259

(3)

The Medieval World-View

262

(2)

The Universe: Higher and Lower Worlds

263

(1)

The Individual: Sinful but Redeemable

264

(1)

Philosophy-Theology

264

(6)

Saint Anselm and Abelard

265

(2)

The Recovery of Aristotle

267

(1)

Saint Thomas Aquinas: Synthesis of Christian Belief and Reason

268

(2)

Strict Aristotelianism: The Challenge to Orthodoxy

270

(1)

Science

270

(2)

The Recovery of Roman Law

272

(1)

Literature

273

(2)

Architecture

275

(4)

The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Dissolution

279

(19)

An Age of Adversity

280

(5)

Economic Problems, Black Death, and Social Tension

280

(4)

The Hundred Years' War

284

(1)

The Decline of the Papacy

285

(4)

Conflict with France

285

(2)

Critics of Papal Power

287

(1)

The Great Schism and the Conciliar Movement

287

(2)

Fourteenth-Century Heresies

289

(1)

Breakup of the Thomistic Synthesis

289

(1)

The Middle Ages and the Modern World: Continuity and Discontinuity

290

(8)

Part Three Early Modern Europe: From Renaissance to Enlightenment 1350--1789

298

(2)

The Renaissance: Transition to the Modern Age

300

(23)

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance

302

(6)

Political Evolution of the City-States

303

(3)

Renaissance Society

306

(2)

The Renaissance Outlook: Humanism and Secular Politics

308

(3)

Humanism

308

(2)

A Revolution in Political Thought

310

(1)

Renaissance Art

311

(5)

Early Renaissance Art

312

(2)

Late Renaissance Art

314

(2)

The Spread of the Renaissance

316

(4)

Erasmian Humanism

317

(1)

French Humanism

318

(1)

Spanish Humanism

318

(1)

English Humanism

319

(1)

The Renaissance and the Modern Age

320

(1)

Art Essay: The Renaissance after

320

(3)

The Reformation: The Shattering of Christendom

323

(26)

The Medieval Church in Crisis

325

(3)

Wycliffe and Hus

325

(1)

Mysticism and Humanism

326

(1)

The End of the World

327

(1)

The Lutheran Revolt

328

(7)

Luther: Humanist, Prophet, and Conservative

328

(1)

Luther's Break with Catholicism

328

(3)

But Who Is Saved?

331

(1)

The Creation and Spread of Lutheranism

331

(1)

Religious Reform or Social Revolution?

332

(3)

The Spread of the Reformation

335

(8)

Calvin and Calvinism

336

(2)

France

338

(2)

England

340

(1)

Southern and Eastern Europe

341

(1)

The Radical Reformation

342

(1)

The Catholic Response

343

(2)

The Reformation and the Modern Age

345

(4)

European Expansion: Economic and Social Transformations

349

(28)

European Expansion

351

(8)

Forces Behind Expansion

352

(1)

The Portuguese Empire

353

(2)

The Spanish Empire

355

(2)

Black Slavery and the Slave Trade

357

(2)

The Price Revolution

359

(2)

The Expansion of Agriculture

361

(2)

The Old Pattern of Farming

361

(1)

Enclosure

361

(1)

Convertible Husbandry

362

(1)

Agricultural Change in Eastern Europe

363

(1)

The Expansion of Trade and Industry

363

(5)

The Domestic System

363

(1)

Innovations in Business

364

(1)

Patterns of Commercial Development

365

(3)

The Growth of Capitalism

368

(2)

What Is Capitalism?

368

(1)

The Fostering of Mercantile Capitalism

368

(2)

The Elite and the People

370

(4)

Traditional Popular Culture

370

(1)

The Reform of Popular Culture

371

(1)

Witchcraft and the Witch Craze

372

(2)

Economic and Social Transformations

374

(3)

The Rise of Sovereignty: Transition to the Modern State

377

(31)

Monarchs and Elites as State Builders

380

(1)

The Rise and Fall of Hapsburg Spain

381

(5)

Ferdinand and Isabella: Unity and Purity of ``Blood'' and Religion

381

(2)

The Reign of Charles V: Hapsburg, King of Spain, and Holy Roman Emperor