This list of conceptual understandings regarding the nature and process of science is aligned across grade levels to help instructors identify age-appropriate learning goals for their students and understand how concepts taught at one grade level lay the groundwork for more sophisticated concepts later on. Access a printable pdf version of this document. To search for teaching materials that address these concepts, visit the teachers' lounge for your grade level: K-2, 3-5 , 6-8, 9-12, or Undergraduate.

The conceptual framework is aligned with the 2012 Framework for K-12 Science Education and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). In the table below, conceptual alignment is indicated by a code that follows each aligned concept. For example, P3 indicates correspondence to "Planning and carrying out investigations," the third of eight Science and Engineering Practices listed in those documents, and NOS2 indicates correspondence to the second concept outlined in NGSS's appendix on the nature of science, "Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence." Read more about Understanding Science and the NGSS/Framework alignment.

Scientists look for patterns in their observations and data. (P4, P5, NOS2)

Scientists look for patterns in their observations and data.

Raw data must be analyzed and interpreted before we can tell whether a scientific idea is likely to be accurate or inaccurate. (P4, P5)

Raw data must be analyzed and interpreted before we can tell whether a scientific idea is likely to be accurate or inaccurate. (P4, P5)

Analysis of data usually involves putting data into a more easily accessible format (visualization, tabulation, or quantification of qualitative data). (P4, P5)

Raw data must be analyzed and interpreted before we can tell whether a scientific idea is likely to be accurate or inaccurate.

Analysis of data usually involves putting data into a more easily accessible format (visualization, tabulation, or quantification of qualitative data).

Scientists try to be objective and work to identify and avoid bias.

Scientists try to be objective and work to identify and avoid bias.

Scientists try to be objective and work to identify and avoid bias.

Scientists don't always agree with one another. (P7)

Scientists don't always agree with one another. (P7)

Different scientists may interpret the same data in different ways. (P7)

Different scientists may interpret the same data in different ways. (P7)

Different scientists may interpret the same data in different ways; data interpretation can be influenced by a scientist's assumptions, biases, and background.

Researchers share their findings with the scientific community through scientific publications. (P8)

Researchers share their findings with the scientific community through scientific publications.

Scientists aim for their studies to be replicable.

Scientists aim for their studies to be replicable.

When a study of a phenomenon cannot be replicated, it may suggest that our current understanding of the phenomenon or our methods of testing are insufficient.

Scientists aim for their studies to be replicable.

When a study of a phenomenon cannot be replicated, it may suggest that our current understanding of the phenomenon or our methods of testing are insufficient.

Hypotheses and theories

K-2

3-5

6-8

9-12

13-16

Hypotheses are potential explanations for what we observe in the natural world. (P6)

Hypotheses are proposed explanations for a narrow set of phenomena. (P6)

Hypotheses are proposed explanations for a narrow set of phenomena.

Hypotheses are usually inspired and informed by previous research and/or observations. They are not guesses. (P6)

Hypotheses are usually inspired and informed by previous research and/or observations. They are not guesses. (P6)

Hypotheses are usually inspired and informed by previous research and/or observations. They are not guesses.

Theories are powerful explanations for a wide range of phenomena. (P6, NOS4)

Theories are powerful explanations for a wide range of phenomena.

Accepted scientific theories are not tenuous; they must survive rigorous testing and be supported by multiple lines of evidence to be accepted. (P6, NOS4)

Accepted scientific theories are not tenuous; they must survive rigorous testing and be supported by multiple lines of evidence to be accepted. (P6, NOS2, NOS4)

Accepted scientific theories are not tenuous; they must survive rigorous testing and be supported by multiple lines of evidence to be accepted.

The social side of science

K-2

3-5

6-8

9-12

13-16

Scientists share their ideas with each other. (P7, P8)

Scientists explain their ideas and evidence to one another. (P7, P8)

Science depends on communication within the scientific community. (P7, P8)

Science depends on communication within the scientific community. (P7, P8)

Science depends on communication within the scientific community.

Scientists work together.

Scientists work together.

Scientists usually work collaboratively.

Scientists usually work collaboratively. (NOS7)

Scientists usually work collaboratively.

Scientists check each other's work, often through peer review. (P7)

Scientists scrutinize each other's work through peer review and other processes. (P7, NOS5)

Through a system of checks and balances (which includes peer review), the scientific community helps ensure science's accuracy and helps detect bias, fraud, and misconduct. (P7, NOS5)

Scientists scrutinize each other's work through peer review and other processes.

Through a system of checks and balances (which includes peer review), the scientific community helps ensure science's accuracy and helps detect bias, fraud, and misconduct.

The scientific community motivates researchers in their investigations by providing recognition and, sometimes, a sense of competition.

Science relies on the accumulated knowledge of the scientific community to move forward. (NOS5)

Science relies on the accumulated knowledge of the scientific community to move forward.

Many different sorts of people do science. (NOS7)

The scientific community is diverse. (NOS7)

The scientific community is global and diverse. (NOS7)

The scientific community is global and diverse. (NOS7)

The diversity of the scientific community helps facilitate specialization and provides different points of view that invigorate problem solving and balance biases.

Scientists are influenced by their personal experiences and cultures. (NOS7)

The scientific community is global and diverse.

The diversity of the scientific community helps facilitate specialization and provides different points of view that invigorate problem solving and balance biases.

Scientists are influenced by their personal experiences and cultures.

Anyone can do science.

Anyone can do science.

Anyone can participate in science.

Anyone can participate in science, but the pursuit of science as a career often requires extensive formal training.

Anyone can participate in science, but the pursuit of science as a career often requires extensive formal training.

Scientists are creative.

Scientists are creative. (NOS7)

Scientists are creative. (NOS7)

Scientists are creative. (NOS7)

Scientists are creative.

Scientific misconduct can occur when a scientist doesn't fairly evaluate other scientists' work, doesn't honestly report results, doesn't fairly assign credit, or doesn't work within the ethical guidelines of the community.

Problem-solving and decision-making benefit from a scientific approach.

Problem-solving and decision-making benefit from a scientific approach.

Problem-solving and decision-making benefit from a scientific approach.

Problem-solving and decision-making benefit from a scientific approach.

Authentic scientific controversy and debate within the community contribute to scientific progress by encouraging careful examination of the research.

Controversies about the ethicality of particular scientific methods or about the applications of scientific ideas may occur within the broader society, but do not necessarily represent a rift in science. (NOS8)

Controversies about the ethicality of particular scientific methods or about the applications of scientific ideas may occur within the broader society, but do not necessarily represent a rift in science.