Cognitive styles or Learning styles could be defined as an individual's orientation
for approaching learning tasks, or preferred way in which a learner processes
information. Learning styles characterize a person's typical manner of thinking,
remembering or problem solving, they simply denote a tendency to behave in a
certain manner, and they are consider to be bipolar dimensions. Unlike Learning
styles, abilities describe peak performance in a unpopular fashion ranging from
zero to a maximum value.

The Theory of Experiential Learning: David A. Kolb

One of the main exponents of Learning styles is David A. Kolb who in his book
"Experiential Learning" (1984) proposes a Theory of Experiential Learning
in which he identifies four principal stages: Concrete Experiences (CE), Reflective
Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation
(AE). The CE/AC and AE/RO dimensions are polar opposites in terms of learning
styles, and Kolb suggests four types of learners: Divergers, Assimilators, Convergers,
and Accommodators, depending upon their position on these two dimensions.

The concept of experiential learning explores the cyclical pattern of all learning
from Experience through Reflection and Conceptualising to Action and on to further
Experience. Kolb's work builds on the work of Piaget, Dewey and Lewin, and it
explores the processes associated with making sense of concrete experiences
and the learning styles involved in doing so.

Experiential learning occurs as a direct result of the learner's participation
in events, it utilises the participants' own experience and their own reflection
about that experience. It is a learner centred approach which starts with the
premise that people learn best from experience (learning-by-doing). It is particularly
effective due to its holistic approach of addressing cognitive, emotional and
the physical aspect of the learner.

The learning cycle has been determined by observing that learning invariably
follows a pattern that can be divided into four stages. Kolb argues that the
learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points however, the following
is the most often suggested pattern for the learning process:

Stage I - Concrete Experience

An individual carries out a particular action and then observes the effect
of the action in this situation. Experiencing or immersing oneself in the "doing"
of a task is the stage in which the learner simply carries out the task assigned.
The engaged person is usually not reflecting on the task at this time but rather
just carrying it out with intention.

Stage II - Reflective Observation

Reflection involves stepping back from task involvement and reviewing what
has been done and experienced. The skills of attending, noticing differences,
and applying terms helps identify subtle events. One's paradigm (values, attitudes,
values, beliefs) influences whether one can differentiate certain events. Understanding
of the effects of an action in the particular instance is required in order
to anticipate what would follow from the action if it was to be taken again
under the same circumstances.

Stage III - Abstract Conceptualization

Conceptualization involves interpreting the events that have been noticed
and understanding the relationships among them. It is at this stage that theory
may be particularly helpful as a template for framing and explaining events.
One's paradigm again influences the interpretive range a person is willing to
entertain. Understanding the general principle under which the particular instance
falls does not imply ability to express the principle in a symbolic medium.

Stage IV - Active Experimentation

Application through action in a new circumstance within the range of generalization.
Within this context planning enables taking the new understanding and translates
it into predictions about what is likely to happen next or what actions should
be taken to refine the way the task is handled.

The timing of the Learning cycle is consider to be particularly important.
On the one hand, if one waits until after a task is completed there is no opportunity
to refine it until a similar task arises on the other hand, continual reflection
leaves the person spending more time on thinking than getting the task done.
The logic of the learning cycle is to make many small and incremental improvements.

Two aspects of the Learning Cycle can be seen as especially noteworthy: the
use of concrete, 'here-and-now' experience to test ideas; and use of feedback
to change practices and theories.

Experiential learning is charectirised by the following:

Recognises that people learn best from their own experiences and their own
reviews.

Subscribes to the notion that what people do is more important than what
they know.

Moves beyond knowledge and into skill by generating a learning experience.

Understands that to be remembered over a long period of time the learning
process should be enjoyable, motivating and rewarding.

Respects the individuals ideas and choices.

Provides opportunity to take on challenge in an atmosphere of support.

Generates space and time to stand back and reflect when pressures or doubts
become too strong.

Cultivates a realisation that the attempt at doing something new or different
is more significant than the result.

David Kolb's Learning Styles

David Kolb and Roger Fry argue that effective learning entails the possession
of four different preferred manners of dealing with information processing:
concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and
active experimentation. As a result they developed a learning style inventory
(Kolb 1976) which was designed to place people on a line between concrete experience
and abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation and reflective observation.
Using this Kolb and Fry proceeded to identify four basic types of learners:
Convergers, Divergers, Assimilators, and Accommodators.

Convergers grasp experience through abstract conceptualization and transform
their experience through experimentation. The convergers prefer dealing with
objects, rather than people, and are often considered unemotional. They are
strong in practical application of ideas, can focus on hypo-deductive reasoning
on specific problems, and are believed to have narrow interests.

Convergers (abstract conceptualization/active experimenter) are motivated to
discover the relevancy or "how" of a situation. Application and usefulness
of information is increased by understanding detailed information about the
system's operation.

Divergers grasp experience through concrete modes and transform their
experience through reflective observation. They are good at generating ideas,
tend to be more "people oriented", and are usually more emotional.
They are strong in imaginative ability, good at seeing things from different
perspectives, and are believed to have broad cultural interests.

Divergers (concrete/reflexive learners) are motivated to discover the relevancy
or "why" of a situation. They like to reason from concrete specific
information and to explore what a system has to offer and they prefer to have
information presented to them in a detailed, systematic, reasoned manner.

Assimilators grasp experience through abstract conceptualization and
transform their experience through reflective observation. They tend to be less
interested in people and more interested in concepts. They are strong at creating
theoretical models and excels in inductive reasoning.

Assimilator (Abstract conceptualization/Reflective observer) are motivated
to answer the question, "what is there to know?" They like accurate,
organized delivery of information and they tend to respect the knowledge of
the expert. They aren't that comfortable randomly exploring a system and they
like to get the 'right' answer to the problem.

Accommodators grasp experience through concrete experience and transform
their experience through active experimentation. They are intuitive and often
become impatient when a problem does not conform to their ideas. Their greatest
strength is doing things, they are more of a risk taker and they perform well
when required to react to immediate circumstances.

Accommodators (Concrete experience/Active experimenter) are motivated by the
question, "what would happen if I did this?" They look for significance
in the learning experience and consider what they can do, as well as what others
have done previously. These learners are good with complexity and are able to
see relationships among aspects of a system.

Kolb recognizes that there are strengths and weaknesses associated with each
style and that being 'locked into' one style can put a learner at a serious
disadvantage.