17318-11017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ARCHITECTONICS. 123
have completed the cycle of noble and dignified productions for which it had, as Hellenic art, received its destination. The creative activity,—the real central point of the entire 2 activity of art,—which fashions peculiar forms for peculiar ideas, must have nagged in its exertions when the natural circle of ideas among the Greeks had received complete plastic embodiment, or it must have been morbidly driven to abnormal inventions. We find, therefore, that art, during this 3 period, with greater or less degrees of skill in execution, delighted now in fantastical, now in effeminate productions calculated merely to charm the senses. And even in the better and nobler works of the time there was still on the whole something,—not indeed very striking to the eye, but which could be felt by the natural sense,—something which distin guished them from the earlier works—the striving after effect
1. Hoc idem (eminentissima ingenia in idem artati temporis spatium congregari) evenisse .. , plastis, pictoribus, scalptoribusque, si quis tern-porum institerit notis, reperiet, et eminentia cujusque opens *artissimis temporum claustris circumdata, Vellei. i, 17. Visconti's theory of the long continuance of Greek art in a state of equal excellence, throughout gix centuries (l'e*tat stationnaire de la sculpture chez les anciens depuis Pericles jusqu'aux Antonins), which found acceptance in ITrance and now also to some extent in Germany, cannot even be reconciled with the general history of the human mind. [K5hler In Bdttiger's ArchaoL und K. I. S. 16.]
2. A comparison with the history of the other arts, especially oratory, is here useful, (comp. §. 103, rem. 3); in it the Asiatic and Rhodian styles-of rhetoric arose side by side during this period, principally through the influence of the Lydians and Phrygians, who were naturally more inclined to pathos, bombast and parade.
2. ARCHITECTONICS.
149. Architecture, which had formerly the temple as its 1 chief subject, seemed at this period much more active in ministering to the comfort of life and the luxury of princes, and in laying out cities so as to produce a splendour of general effect. Among these Alexandria constituted an epoch. 2 It was built after the design of Deinocrates, whose powerful genius alone kept pace with Alexander's spirit of enterprise. The fitness and regular beauty of this plan, the magnificence 3 and colossal magnitude of the public, and the solidity of the private buildings, made this city a pattern for the rest of the world, (vertex; omnium cwitatum^ according to Ammian)* But, 4 however, if we leave out of consideration the grandiose fabrics to which commerce gave occasion, it is probable that Antioch,
17318-11117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
124 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. IT.
when it was completely built, produced a still more striking and pleasing impression ; its magnificent edifices remained throughout antiquity models for all similar undertakings in that part of the world (§. 192).
2. DEINOCRAEES (Deinochares, Cheirocrates, Stasicrates, Timochares) was the architect of Alexandria, the restorer of the Temple at Ephe-sus,— the same who, according to Pliny xxxiv, 42, proposed to transform Mount Athos into a kneeling figure ; he is also said to have undertaken the magnetic temple of the second Arsinoe (01. 133) ; from which entirely fabulous "building we must distinguish the real temple of Arsinoe-Aphrodite Zephyritis (Valckenaer ad Theocr. Adon. p. 355 b). Auson. Mos. 311 — 17. [Booking in his ed. 1845 assumes that this Dinochares was different from the founder Dinocrates, with Tross, whom Osann opposes in the Mem. d. Inst. I. p. 341 sqq. The variation in the form of the names is customary, Lobeck Aglaoph. p. 996. 1301.] The building of Alexandria was conducted by Cleomenes of Kaucratis (Justin, xiii, 4. €omp. Fr. Dubner), together with whom Olynthius, Erateus, and Libius* sons Heron and Epithermus (T), are named as architects by JuL Tale-rius (de It. G. Ales, i, 21. 23). At the same period lived CRATES the canal-builder (Diog. Laert. iv, 23. Strah. ix. p. 407. Steph. Byz. s. v. 'A3«&wM)j SOSTBAETTS the Cnidian was somewhat later (OL 115); on his hanging portico, Eirt, Gesch. ii, 160. Amphilochus, son of Lagus, a celebrated architect of Rhodes, perhaps also at this period (Inscr. in Clarke's Travels ii, i. p. 228). C. I. n. 2545. Satyrus the architect, Phoenix the machine-maker tinder PtoL II. Plin. xxxvi, 14, 3. Ctesibius under PtoL Euergetes II. Becker's Gallus L S. 187.
3. On Ai^BXAMMRiAy comp. Hirt ii, 78. 166. Mannert, Geogr. x, i. p. 612. The city extended in an oblong form, divided at a ri^ht angle by two main streets upwards of 100 feet in breadth, the longer one stretching 30 stadia, from the west gate which led to the necropolis, to the east gate, that of Canobus. About a fourth of the -whole was occupied by the acropolis (Bruchion) on the north-east, with the palace, the mausoleum (o^ee), the museum and propylsea (consisting of four gigantic pillars on which arose a round temple with a cupola, according to the description in Aphthonius, which is however rather obscure, Progymn. 12. p. 106. Walz.) [On the citadel of Alexandria after Aphthonius by Heffter. Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1839. n. 48. On the so-called Pompey's Pillar, see §. 193. K A similar granite column " next to this one the largest in the world," without base and capital, 37 f. 8 in. high, 5 f. 3 in. in diameter (that of Alexandria is 9 feet) and in one piece, was seen by Clarke at Alexandria Troas on a hill above the city, and he conjectured therefore that both were intended to carry a statue of Alexander. Trav. ii. 1. p. 149. (iii. p. 188, 8vo. ed.). This is wrong, as seven other columns of precisely the same dimensions are still to be seen lying in the quarries not far from thence, and like those of one block, unbroken and without trace of a pedestal. Sir Ch. Fellows Asia Minor, p. 61 sq. (Many of the same kind lie in the quarries above Carystus.) Abdollatif saw in Alexandria four hundred columns broken in two or three pieces, of the same stone as those enormous ones, and of a third or fourth of the size as it would seem. Abdoll. traduit par Silv. de Sacy, p. 282.]
17318-11217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PALACES, TOMBS. 125
4. ANTIOOH consisted of four towns with separate walls, enclosed by a great wall; the 1st and 2d were built under Seleucus L, on the south bank of the Orontes, the walls by the architect Xenseus; the 3d under Seleucus II. and Antiochus III. on an island in the river, very regular with streets intersecting each other at right angles; in the northern portion the large and magnificent palace of the king with double colonnades behind, over the wall of the city; the 4th under Antiochus IV. on the slope of Mount Silpion, which quarter of the city comprehended the acropolis and the catacombs, likewise, in the lower portion, the principal street 36 stadia in length, lined with two covered colonnades and intersected by another of the same description at right angles, with triumphal arches (rergcMn/-7io($) at all the crossings. The author's Antiochense Dissertationes (1834).
150. The more splendid fitting up of apartments, which 1 was unknown to republican Greece, suck as we afterwards find it at Rome, and such as Vitravius describes it, certainly originated at this period, as can be gathered indeed from the names of the Cyzican, Corinthian and Egyptian rooms (oeci). An idea of it may be formed from the inventive magnificence 2 and splendour with which the Dionysian tent of the second and the Nile-ship of the fourth Ptolemy were fitted up, and all this merely for single festal and pleasure partiea But 3 besides the palaces of the rulers the mass of the population in the great cities was cared for by the erection of theatres^ probably also thermae and nymphasa (§. 292, 1. 4), and the literary men had their museums (§. 292, 5).
2. On the Dionysian tent for the pompa of Ptolemy the Second (§. 147, 4. 244, 5.) Callixenus in Athen. v. p. 196 sq. Colossal columns of the form of palms and thyrsi; on the architraves, under the roof of the tent which arose in the form of a cupola (ov£«wV*o$), there were grottos in which personages of Tragedy, Comedy and the Satyric Drama, apparently living, sat at table, Caylus, M6m. de 1'Acad. des Inscr. xxxi. p. 96. Hirt, s, 170. —On the vows &**.#f6viyos of Ptolemy the IT., a floating palace, CalHxenus, ibid. p. 204. In it there was an cecos with Corinthian capitals of ivory and gold; $he ivory reliefs on the golden frieze, however, were but of ordinary workmanship; a temple of Aphrodite in form of a cupola (similar to the Cnidian chapel, §. 127, 4) with a marble image; a Baconian hall with a grotto, a dining-room with Egyptian columns, and many things of the kind. [Alexandrina belluata conchyliata tapetia, together with peristromata picta Campanica, Plautus Pseud, i, 2,16,]
151. This epoch was equally magnificent in its sepulchral 1 monuments, in which species of edifice the Mausoleum of the Carian queerx Artemisia, even before the time of Alexander, challenged emulation. Even the funeral piles destined for 2 the flames, were at this period sometimes raised to a towering height, with a senseless waste of money and art
1. Mausolus died 106, 4. Pytheus (§. 109, in.) and Satyrus, the architects of his monument. An almost square building (412 £) with a •peristyle (25 yards high) supported a pyramid of 24 steps; on which stood a quadriga, aere-vacuo pendentia Mausolea, Martialis de spectac. 1.
17318-11317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
126 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEB. IV.
Height of the whole 104 f. Reliefs on the frieze by Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas, Timotheus (Praxiteles according to Yitruvius) of which there are still probably remains on the citadel of Budrun. (Of these reliefs, partly Amazonian battles, there is some account in R. Dalton's Antiq. and Yiews in Greece and Egypt, L. 1791. Appendix ; Ionian Antiq. ii. pL 2 add. in the 2d ed. [Five pieces were brought to London in 1846. They contain 22 groups which are described by Ulricas in Gerhard's Archseol. Zeitung 1847, S. 169-176, and Gerhard ibid. 177-185 gives an account of the Mausoleum after Chas Newton in the Classical Museum xvi. comp. W. R. Hamilton in the Trans, of the Royal Soc. of Literature 1847. ii. p. 251-257.308.] On a beautiful Caryatid torso likewise from thence, Bullet. d. Inst. 1832. pi. 168). See Caylus, Mem. de PAc. xxvi. p. 321. Chois. Gouff. Toy. Pitt. i. pL 98. Hirt, s. 70. Tf. 10,14. Philo de septem orbis spectac. c. 4 and in Orelli's Ed. p. 127. Leonis Allatii diatr. and p. 133 Ouper. denummo Mausoleum Artem. exhib. Quatrem&re de Quincy Rec. de Dissert, 1. A similar monument at Mylasa, R. Rochette in the Journ. des Sav. 1837. p. 202. This form of monument is to be found widely diffused in Syria; similar to it was the tomb erected in Palestine about the 160th * Olympiad, by the high priest Simon to his father and brothers,—& building surrounded with columns and serving as a foundation to seven pyramids. Joseph. Ant. xiii, 6.
2. The so-called Monument of Hephaestion was only a funeral pile (at/go, Diod. xvii, 115) ingeniously and fantastically constructed by Deino-crates in pyramidal terraces (for 12,000 talents 1). The pyre of the elder Dionysius (Athen. v. p. 206) described by Timseus was probably similar, and the rogi of the Cesars on coins present the same fundamental form. Comp. §. 294, 7. Ste Croix, Examen p. 472. Caylus, Hist, de 1'Ac. des Inscr. xxxi. p. 76. Q. de Quincy? M6m. de FInst. Royal iv. p. 395, Mon. Resfatttes ii. p. 105.
1 152u Mechanics, however, the favourite science of the period^ showed itself still, more worthy of admiration, in large and curiously constructed chariots, in boldly devised warlike machines, and, above all, gigantic ships with which the princes
2 of Egypt and Sicily tried to outdo one another. Hydraulics was applied to manifold water-works with equal success.
1. On the state-chariot (&gf&a,f&»£a) for Alexander's body, Hist, de TAcad. des Inscr. xxxi, p. 86. Ste Croix p. 511. Q. de Quincy, Me"m. de Flnst. Roy. iv. p. 315. Mon. Restitue*s ii. p. 1.—The beleaguering machine of Demetrius Poliorcetes, Helepolis, built by Epimachus, frustrated by Diognetus, 01.119,1. About the same time (Titruv. vii. Prsef.), perhaps, however already under the administration of Lycurgus, Philo built for the Athenians the large ship-houses. The machines of Archimedes at Syracuse, 01. 141, 3. The Tarentine machine-builder Hera-elides, inventor of the Sambuca, contemporaneous. Polyb. xiii,, 4. Athen. xiv. p. 634. Polyaen. v, 17.—Enormous ship of Ptolemy the Fourth with 40 banks of oass* Hiero the Second's great ship with 3 decks and 20 banks of oars, built by Archias of Corinth, and launched by Archimedes.—There are a few details on the history of mechanics among the Greeks (there is a great deal unknown) in Kastner's G-esch. der Mathematik ii. s. 98. Comp. Hirt, ii. s. 259,
17318-11417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
TEMPLES. 127
2. CtesiMus of Alexandria, under Ptol. VII. His pupil Heron the hy-draulist.
153. It must be understood, however, that temple-archi- 1 tecture also was by no means neglected at a time which took so much delight in building, and which moreover liberally indulged in magnificent display towards the gods. The Corin- 2 thian order now became more and more common, and took its place among the chosen and established forms which the Roman artists retained. But all the stately edifices erected 3 by the Greek rulers in the east, as well as Grecian civilization itself, have vanished and scarcely left a vestige behind; Athens 4 alone, which now did little by its own exertions, but was emulously adorned by foreign monarchs, has still some traces remaining.
2. At this time it was a favourite practice to adorn the Corinthian capitals with foliage of gilded bronze, as in the Museum at Alexandria (Aphthonius). Comp. §. 150, Bern. 2.
3. TEMPLES OP THE PERIOD. Temple of Apollo at Daphne, at the time of the Emperor Julian, amphiprostyle, with internal colonnades (Jo, Chrysost. de Babyla c. Julianum c. 17. 21). Temple of Bel and Atergatis (Zeus and Hera) at Hierapolis or Bambyce, "built "by Stratonice (about • 123), the model of Palmyra, Over the naos arose the thalamos (the choir); the walls and roof were entirely gilded. Lucian, De Dea Syria.
Probably to this time also belonged all the important buildings at Cyzicus, especially the temple, according to Dio Gass. Ixx, 4, the largest and most beautiful of all temples, with monolith (?) columns 75 feet high and 24 in circumference. [Similar monoliths §. 149. K 3.] This is perhaps the magnificent temple of Zeus whose marble seams were marked by gold threads (Plin. xxxvi, 22). An earthquake destroyed it under Antoninus Pius, who restored it iu honour of Hadrian. See Aristides, Paneg. Cyzic. i. p. 241. Malalas, p. 119. Yen, The temple of Apollonis at Cyzicus was built by Attalus II., one of her four sons, after OL 155,3; comp. §. 157, 2, Regarding the plan of Cyzicus (it was similar to that of Carthage, Rhodes and Massalia), Plin. ibid. Strab. xii. p. 575. xiv. p. 653; the ruins have not been yet properly investigated (Uenouard de Bussieres, Lettres sur 1'Orient i. p. 165. pi. 11).
Temple of Olympian Zeus at Syracuse built by Hiero the Second. Diodor. xvi, 83. Cic. Verr. iv, 53. [Serradifalco iv. tav. 28 sq. p. 153.]
The Doric ruin at Halicarnassus (Chois. G-ouff. i. pi. 99 sq.) perhaps belonging to the time after Mausolus, shows the order in its decline; It is without character. [At Cnidos a Corinthian pseudoperipteral prostyle^ Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 1. pi. 5 sqq., a Doric temple, about 200 years before Christ (p. 30) pi. 26; at Aphrodisius Ibid. ch. 2 a Corinthian, pi. 23, A Corinthian temple at Labranda, Fellows Asia Minor, p. 261, perhaps later.]
4. At Athens edifices were reared by the kings (Gymnasian of Ptol. II.; Portico of Eumenes, and of Attalus, an Odeion of the Ptolemies?), above all Antiochus Epiphanes, who, about the 153d Olympiad, caused
17318-11517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
128 HISTO&Y OF GREEK ARft. [FEB. IV.
the temple of Zeus Olympius (§. 80, i, 4) to be Ranged into the Corinthian style by Cossutius a Roman (C. 1.363. comp. p. 433) ; however it was first completed by Hadrian. Stuart Hi. clu 2. Comp. Ersch EncydL Attika s. 233. At a later period Ariobarzanes II. of Cappadocia renewed the Odeion of Pericles which was burnt 173, 3, by Aristion. The architects were C. and M. StaUius and Menalippus. C. I. 357. The octagonal horologic building of Andronicus Cyrrhestes with peculiar Corinthian columns also belongs to this time. Stuart i. ch. 3. Hirt, s. 152. There was at Rome an imitation of it, but with 12 figures of the winds* See Polenus, Exercit. Titruv. ii, 2. p. 179. [Magnificent gymnasia in Asia Minor, §. 292, R. 2.]
2. THE PLASTIC A.&T.
1 154 Together mtli tne Immediate scholars of Praxiteles, the Sicyonian school in an especial manner flourished from the beginning of this period, till the 120th Olympiad and even somewhat later. In it "brass-casting was practised in its ancient perfection and nohle style, hy Enthycrates, indeed, with more severity (austerim) than the taste of the time ap-
2 proredL According to historical accounts the art of brass-
3 casting afterwards died out (cessamt deinde ars); and although for a while very meritorious statuaries were still active in Asia Minor, yet casting in brass, and art in general were visibly declining, till at the end of this period, by the study of earlier works, a restoration of art was brought about at Athens, which coincided with the ascendancy of Greek taste at Rome.
Plastic artists of this period, whose time is known: Aristodemus, brass-caster, 118. ETTTYCHUMBS of Sicyon, a scholar of Lysippus, brass-caster and painter, 120. Dahippus and Beda, sons and scholars of Ly-sippus, EUTHYCEATES and Phoenix, scholars of Lysippus, brass-casters, 120. Zeuxiades, a scholar of Silanion, brass-caster, 120 (comp. Welcker in the Kunstblatt 1827. No. 82). Dsetondas of Sicyon, brass-caster, 120, Polyeuctus, brass-caster at Athens, about 120 (1). CHARES of Lindus, scholar of Lysippus, 122—125. Praxiteles, the younger, brass-caster, 123 (in the Testament of Theophrastes 1). jEtion (Eetion) of Amphipo-lis, carver, about 124 (Theoc. Ep. 7. Callimach. Ep. 25). TISI CRATES of Sicyon, a scholar of Euthycrates, sculptor, 125. Piston, brass-caster, contemporary of Tisicrates (?). Cantharus of Sicyon, scholar of Euty-chides, sculptor, 125. Hermocles of Rhodes, brass-caster, 125. PYRO-MACHUS, brass-caster and painter, 125 (120 according to Pliny) till 135 (comp. §. 157*). Xenocrates, scholar of Tisicrates (or Euthycrates), brass-caster, 130. Isigonus, Stratonicus, Antiochus [rather Antigonus, from Plin. xxxiv, 8, 84 Sillig], brass-casters, about 135 and later. Micon, son. of Itficeratus, of Syracuse, brass-caster, 142. JSginetes, plastes, 144. Stadieus 150. Alexandras, son of king Perseus, toreutes, 153 (Plutarch Paulus 37). Antheus, CaBistratus, Polycles, Athengeus \1), Gallixenus, Pythocles, Pythias, and Timocles and Timarchides, the sons of Polycles (Paus. x, 34, 3. 4.), brass-casters, also inpart sculptors, 155. The sons of
17318-11617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
SCULPTURE, RHODIAN SCHOOL. 129
Tiinarchides, sculptors, 158, See §. 159 [A series of Rhodian brass-casters was discovered by L. Ross on the acropolis of Lindus, partly from Soli, Ca-lymna and other places, Archimenidas, Epicharmus, father and son, Xeno, Mnasitimus, Peithandrus, Protus, Pythocritus, Sosipatrus, all of whom he places before the time of the Roman supremacy, and the majority even pretty far back into the Macedonian period. H. Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 161 f.]
155. The Rhodian school was an immediate off-shoot 1 from the school of Lysippus at Sicyon; Chares of Lindus, a scholar of Lysippus, executed the largest of the hundred colossi of the sun at Rhodes. As the Rhodian eloquence was 2 more flowery than the Attic, and more allied to the spirit of the Asiatic, we may readily believe that the plastic art likewise at Rhodes was distinguished from that of Athens by the striving after dazzling effect Rhodes flourished most 3 from the time of the siege by Demetrius (119, 1) till it was laid waste by Cassius (184, 2); at this time also the island may probably have been most a centre of the arts.
1. The Colossus was 70 Greek cubits in height, cast in separate parts, said to be of the metal of Helepolis, executed from 122,1. to 125,1. It stood near the harbour, but not over the entrance—only till the earthquake, 139,1. (Thus according to the chronographers; but according to Polybius v, 88, the earthquake took place before 138, 2; in that case the statue must also have been executed somewhat earlier). See PEn. xxxiv, 7,18. Philo of Byzantium, Be vii. mundi miraculis (evidently a later work by a rhetorician) c. 4. p. 15. together with Allatius* and Orelli's Remarks, p. 97—109. Caylus, Mem. de FAc. Laser, xxiv. p. 360. Ton Hammer, Topograph. Ansichten von Rhodes, s. 64. On the other colossi, Meurs. Rhod. i, 16. The Jupiter of Lysippus at Tarentum 40 cubits high.
3. Hermocles the Rhodian executed the brazen statue of the eunuch Combabus; but it is quite uncertain whether the numerous other statues of heroes and kings in the temple at Hierapolis were also by him.
156. To this time, then, probably belongs the Laocoon: a I miracle of art as regards the noble and refined taste in the solution of so difficult a problem, and the profound science displayed in the execution, but evidently calculated for dazzling effect and exhibition of skill, and. of a certain theatrical char racter compared with the works of earlier ages. At the *saine 2 time the pathos in this production appears to be worked up as high as the taste of the ancient world and the nature of the plastic art could ever admit, and much higher than the time of Phidias would have allowed,
1. PJin. xxxvi, 4,11: Laocoon, qui est in Titi Imp. dome, opus omnibus et picturae et statuariae artis prseponendum (L e. a work of sculpture of such boldness in composition as brass-casting and painting can hardly attain)* Ex uno lapide eum et liberos oraconumque mirabiles nexus de consilii sententia fecere sununi artifices, Agesander et Polydorus et
I
17318-11717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
130 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [PER. IV.
Athenodonis Rhodii (Athenodoms was the son of Agesander, according to an inscription). Similiter (viz. also de consilii sententia) Palatinas Caess. domes, etc. Discovered in 1506 in the neighbourhood of the baths of Titus; in six pieces; the right arm restored after models by Giov. Agnolo. Some portions of the sons are also new. Race, 1. M. PioCL ii, 39. Piranesi, Statue. M. Fran9« iv, 1. M. Bouill. ii, 15. A pyramidal group arranged in a vertical plane. The secondary figures also subordinated according to size, as in Mobe. Three acts of the same tragedy; the father in the middle, in whom energy and pathos at the highest pitch. Antique heads of Laocoon in the collection of Prince Arensberg, and at Bologna [in the Yilla Litta at Lamata near Milan]. Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 101 ff. comp, ii. s. 203 ff. Heyne Antiq. Aufs. ii, s. 1. Lessing's Laocoon. Propylseen Bd. i. St. 1. Thiersch Epochen, s, 322. The head of the Duke of Arensberg at Brussels, in the Mon. d. Inst. ii, 416, comp, Schorn AnnaH ix. p. 153., on that at Milan p. 160. [The former is not antique, Das. Akad. Kunstmus. at Bonn 1841. S. 14; the Earnesian head referred to by Wmckelmann seems to represent Capaneus.]
1 157. Tlie Farnesran Bull, the work * of Trallian artists, which was brought from Rhodes to Borne, also appears to belong to the Rhodian school It is outwardly imposing indeed,
2 but without a satisfying spiritual import The representation of the scene was at that time a favourite subject in Asia Minor, and it is exactly the same as in the temple of Apollonis at Cyzicus (§. 153), whose reliefs, representing, in numerous mythological and historical groups, examples of the piety of sons toward their mothers, are deserving of notice as a work of fine conception and skilful invention towards the end of this period.
1. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 10: Zethus et Amphion ac Dirce et taurus, vin-culumque, ex eodem lapide, Ehodo advecta opera Apollonii et Taurisci. Probably restored even at the time of Caracalla, then again in modem times, and overloaded with unsuitable figures (such as Antiope [?]). Piranesi, Statue. [Gal. Myth. pi. 140. Glarac pL 811. 811 St.] Maffei, Race. 48. Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s, 128 ff. (eomp. ii. s. 233.) vii. s. 190. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. ii. s. 182. Er. Paganuzzi, Sopra la mole scultoria volg. den. il Toro Farnese. [The author's Annali ix.p. 287—92. Two mural paintings and other monuments in Avellino Descriz. di una Casa di Pompei 1843. p. 40. Welcker Alte Denkm. 5, 352-370.]
2. The same group on a coin of Thyatira, Eckhel IT. Anecd. tb. 15,1, and probably also at Antioch, Malalas, p. 99. Ven.—It is also described in the Epigr. on the Cyzican iCeliefs, AnthoL Pal. iii (ciy* xal ix TAV^O x.a&ix.'TrTsrs BfVXocxa (retgyv, otygae, aif*,&$ vvgy rsjerBi Kara, ffXo%oi»), These reliefs (oryXocr/i/ax/oft, the way in which they were put on is difficult to determine) represented, for example: Dionysus conducting Semele to Olympus, Telephus discovering Auge, Pytho slain by Apollo and Artemis, down to the Catanaean brothers, deobis and Biton, and Romulus and Kemus. On the subjects, comp. especially Polyb. xxiii, 18. As to the test, Visconti, Iscr. Triopee, p. 122. Jacobs, Exc. Grit, in Scriptt. Vet. ii. p. 139. Animadv. ad Anth. iii, iii. p. 620. [Hall. Litt. Zeit. 1836. Oct. S. 2^6 f, Letronne Append, aux Lettres d'un antiqu. p. 85.]
17318-11817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PERGAMMIA.N AND EPHESIAN SCULPTORS. 131
]57.* Before this, Pyromachus had acquired at Pergamus 1 the chief renown as an artist He made a famous statue of Esculapius in the splendid temple of that deity there. He 2 was the first of the artists who celebrated the victories of At-talus the First and Eumenes the Second over the Celts by groups of brazen statues, to which some famous statues of antiquity, distinguished for impressive and affecting representation, are indebted for their first origin. An eminent school of 3 artists seems to have flourished contemporaneously at Ephesus, at that time a rich and prosperous city, and to have represented similar battle-scenes; of which an excellent specimen, worthy of Lysippian models, is still preserved to us.
1. On Pyromachus' PERGAMEHTAN ESCTTLAPITTS, Polyb. xxxii, 25. Bio-dor. Exc. p. 588. together with Yalesius and Wesseling. We can recognise the figure with tolerable certainty as the most usual representation of the god on numerous coins of Pergamus, (Chois. G-ouff. Yoy. Pitt. iL pi. 5); the statue, Gal. di Fir. 27, corresponds most with it, and many others also, but less accurately. Comp. §. 394.
2. With regard to these CELTIC BATTLES, Plin. xxxiv, 19. The Defeat of the Celts, which was dedicated by Attalus at Athens, was also a group of statues (Paus. i, 25, 2. comp. with Plut. Anton. 00). IL Ro-chette sur les represent, d'Atlas, p. 40, takes these for reliefs, and distinguishes from them the group of statues in Plutarch. To these, in the first place, belongs, in all probability, the DYING GLADIATOR, who indeed puts us in mind of Ctesttaus' wdneratus defitiens (Plin. xxxiv, 19,14), but is distinctly shown to be a Celt by his moustache, the arrangement of Ms hair, the chain round his neck, 17318-11917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
132 HISTOEY OF GEEEK ART. [PER. IY.
69.], an athlete, according to Gibelin, ibid. iv. p. 492, and Hirt, a player at ball, according to Q. de Quincy, Mem. de 1'Inst. Roy. iv. p. 165, a hop-litodromos) is most probably a warrior with shield and lance warding off a horseman, and was perhaps taken by Agasias from a larger battle-group in order to finish it with particular refinement of art. Maffeir Eacc. 76, Piranesi, Stat. 13. M. Eoy. i; 8. Clarac, pi. 304 comp. §. 328, 4. The so-called JASOK (§. 412) might also come in here.
158, In the cities where the Macedonian rulers resided, the temple statues, however, were executed more after the model of earlier works of celebrity than according to more modern ideas of artists. On the contrary, the task most frequently imposed on artists at that time—the glorification of the kings by portrait statues—gave occasion to many new and ingenious productions, especially as the identification of the princes with particular deities in form of body, costume, and attributes, afforded great scope to the artistic fancy. In the first generations after Alexander there were still doubtless produced many works of the kind, conceived in the noble and grand style of Lysippus; but it can be very plainly seen* 2rom the coins of these dynasties how soon the portrait representations of the Seleucidae, the Ptolemies, and the kings of Macedonia, degenerated into mean and insignificant effigies. £ the same time flattery, which was carried to an extrava-ifit height, often prescribed the most precipitate execution; SG, theyrwere satisfied with merely changing the heads or offcccScriptions on existing statues. With the likenesses of th rulers were often also combined statues of the city-god-les (T-J^CW vroXtcav); a species of figures which were at that ^ very prevalent, and which could be individualized in an p^resting manner, by a regard to localities and productions.
The Daphnaean Apollo of Bryaxis, a colossal acrolith (§. 84), was very similar to the Palatine Apollo of Scopas, only that he poured out a libation from a goblet with the right hand. The Olympian Zeus which was erected at Daphne by Antiochus the Fourth was in material and form quite a copy of that of Phidias. See the author's Antiochense Dissert, i, 17, 24, The chief statue of Serapis at Alexandria is ascribed in Clemens, Protr. p. 14. Sylb. (the account is very confused) to Bryaxis^ and by JuL Yalerius i, 35. to the architect Parmenion.
2. In the divine costume of the kings Alexander was the model of the Macedonian dynasties ; he even appeared in his later days sometimes adorned with the drapery and horns of Zeus Ammon, and sometimes with the lion's hide and club of Hercules (Athen. xii. p. 537), and wished also to be represented by the artists in that manner (Clemens, Protr. 4. j>. 16. Sylb. comp. Paus. v, 24, 3). I have no doubt therefore-that, 1st, the head with the horn of Ammon and the diadem on the beautiful coins of Lysimachus, which is to be found on later coins of the Macedonian nation at the time of the Romans, with the legend , and 2d, the head with the lion's hide, with features more or
17318-12017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
MACEDONIAN SCULPTORS. 133
less resembling, on the coins of many cities of Asia and some in Europe, during Alexander's reign, and afterwards on those of the Macedonian nation with the same legend, and copied exactly on later contorniati (Eck-hel, D. N. viil. p. 289), must represent Alexander. Alexander with the hide of an elephant on a coin of ApoHonia in Caria, and of Ptolemy the 1st (Kke Demetrius of India in later times) is an ingenious modification of the latter idea. See on this question Eckhel, D. N. iL p. 108 (with him Arneth. Wien. Jahrb. xlvii. s. 171, against Alexander with the lion's hide), Visconti, Iconogr. ii. p. 43 (in favour, with limitations), Ohois. Gouff. Toy. Pitt. ii. p. 41, Stieglitz Archaol. Unterhalt. ii, s. 107, especially the more recent investigations of Cadalvene Becueil des M6d. p. 107, 260, and Cou-sine"ry Toy. dans la Mace"d. i. p. 229. pL 3—5. comp. Mionnet SuppL ii pi. 8. iii. pi. 10. D. A. K. Tf. 39. After Alexander, Demetrius Poliorce-tes, a new son of Dionysus and Poseidon, was represented with the horns of a bull and in the attitude of the god of the sea (thus on a Hercula-nean bronze, Yisconti ii. p. 58. pi. 40, 3. 4) ; in like manner Seleucus the First (Appian Syr. 57. Libanius T. L p. 301. Reiske, on coins) and At-talus the First (Paus. x, 15, 2) as ravgoxsguf, many of the Macedonian kings with goats' horns on account of the legends of Oaranus (Vise. ii. p. 61. 69. 341); the princes surnamed Epiphanes especially with the rays of Helius, but others also (Vise. ii. p. 337). Lysimachus' figure was quite like that of Hercules (AnthoL Pal ii. p. 654. Plan, iv, 100).
3. There is in the Louvre (No. 680) a iragment of a bust, in a grand style, of Demetrius Poliorcetes (whose fine and noble aspect, according to Plut. Dem. 2, no artist could approach). On the whole, the busts of the successors of Alexander are rare, the name of Ptolemy is often incorrectly applied; Visconti only assigns two Herculanean bronze busts to Ptolemy the First and his queen Berenice, pi. 52,3.4. 6. 7. Busts less to be relied on, Antich. di Ercolano v. tv. 61 sqq« M. Borb. vxi, 12. Spec. of ancient Sculpture ii, 40, 41. Arsinoe ii, 39. a female Ptolemy. Musa £hz17318-12117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
134 HISTORY OF GEEEK AET. [PEE. IT.
Campana at Eome, and a miniature copy in bronze in the Collegium Ro-manum]. Diss. Antioch. i, 14. A great many city-goddesses of Asia were copied from this one. — In the Tychaeon of Alexandria (as it appears) the goddess of Fortune stood in the middle crowning the Earth, and the latter Alexander, Libanius iv. p. 1113. Reiske. In the temple of Homer, erected by Ptolemy the Fourth, his reputed native cities [seven in number] stood around the throne of the bard. j9Elian V. H. xiii, 21. comp. §. 405.
1 159. In these seats of royalty were made an immense number of ingeniously embossed and engraved vessels; Syria, Asia Minor, even Sicily was full of such treasures of art; however the real bloom of this art was past when the Ro~
2 mans conquered the East. Probably belonged also to this period, which aimed at the striking in so many things, the so-called ^iK§6n^vot9 under which name are always quoted during antiquity the toreutse Myrmelides of Athens, or Miletus, and Callicrates the Lacedaemonian (the ancient Theodoras of Samos only from misapprehension).
Mentor indeed, the mast skilful cselator argenti ), belonged to the preceding period (§. 124), and Boethus (not a Carchedonian but a Galchedonian) [Wiener Jahrb. xxxix, 149,] seems to have been Ms contemporary ; but Acragas, Antipatrus, Stratonicus and Tauriscus of Cyzicus, must have belonged to this period. Antiochus the Fourth had many dealings with toreutse. Athen. v. p. 193. d.
2. The great problem was always an iron quadriga (comp. §. 311, 5) which a fly could cover. The works in ivory were only visible when back bristles were held upon them. See the passages in Facius ad Plu-tarcM Exc. p. 217. Osann ad Apulei. de Orthogr. p. 77* Bockh, 0. 1. i, p. 872 sq,
1 160. Notwithstanding all the exertions of luxury, we may however assume with certainty that art had sunk even at the time of Philip, the enemy of the Romans, and of Antiochus the Great, and while it was stirred by no great ideas it
2 even fell behind more and more in technical perfection. But half a century later there appeared, especially at Athens, brass-casters, and at the same time sculptors, who, although standing according to Pliny far beneath the earlier artists, yet achieved what was excellent, because they adhered with right feeling and fine taste to the great models furnished by
3 the true period of bloom in art. This band of restorers of art was joined by Cleomenes the Athenian, who deserves high admiration for his Aphrodite, as a successful cultivator of the
4 ideal created by Praxiteles, his son Cleomenes, distinguished by his soft handling of marble, also> in the following generations indeed, the Athenians Glycon (§. 129. Rem, 2) and ApoK
17318-12217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
RESTORATION OF ART. 135
lonius, son of Nestor (§. 411, 3), who chiefly adhered to the models of Lysippus. The reliefs on the monument of Cyrrhes- 5 tes (§. 153), however excellent they may be in the plastie embodiment of the eight principal winds represented in them (§. 401), betray in the execution a much ruder style of technical treatment than can be ascribed to these revivers of the formative art.
2. Among the brass-casters of the 155th Olympiad were Polycles and Tiinocles;—probably the family of Attic artists known through Paus. x, 34. comp, vi, 12: Polycles with two sons, Timocles and Timarchides. At that time Metellus built with Grecian architects (§. 180) the great portico with the temples of Jupiter and Juno, and evidently employed on the sculptures with which they were adorned, various artists then living (and therefore in part not mentioned by Pliny in his chronological lists, which were derived from Greek sources). We can gather from Pliny xxxvi, 4,10, that Polycles, Timarchides and his sons were then at Rome, as well as Dionysius and Philiscus of Rhodes. At Elatea there was a bearded Esculapius and an Athena Promachus, whose shield was aa imitation of that in the Parthenon at Athens, by Timocles and Timarchides. Comp. Hirt, Gesch. der Bild. Kunst. s. 295, where will be found what is most essential for the history of the Restoration of Art; only the passage in Pliny does not require the alteration he would make. [L, v. Jan Jen. Litt. Zeit. 183& S. 256—58.]
3. Cleomenes of Athens, the son of Apollodorus and who executed the Medicean Venus, was probably also the sculptor of the Thespiades, in the possession of Asinius Pollio (from which are, to be distinguished those in the temple of Felicitas). Comp on him and his son Visconti Decade philos. et litter, an. x. n. 33, 34. Yolkel's Nachlass, s. 139. The Medicean Yenus is composed of eleven pieces; only the hands and a portion of the arms were wanting. There were ornaments in the ears, and her elegantly arranged hair was gilded. She is sprung from the Cnidian Yenus, only her nakedness did not now need to be accounted for by the bath (the dolphin too is merely a support, and does not bear reference to any sea-journey) ; and the countenance has the smaller and more delicate forms of the refined art of that time. M. Franc, ii, 5. comp. §. 377, 3.
4. Cleomenes, son of Cleomenes, was, according to the inscription, sculptor of the statue in the Louvre 712, usually called Germanicus, according to Clarac Marius Gratidianus (see on this point Gb'tt. G. A. 1823. s. 1325), according to Thiersch's idea Quintius Flamininus (whose countenance on a stater probably struck in Greece, in. Mionnet, SuppL iii p. 260. Yisconti, Iconogr. Rom. pi. 42, 2 is very different from this statue), at all events a Roman or Greek of later times, who is pointed out by his costume of Hermes and his gestures to be an orator. The workmanship is excellent, but the statue has little life, M. Franc;, iv, 19. Clarac, pi. 318.
5. The same Apollonius [Nestor's son] whose name appears on thfe Torso, is said to be also named on a statue of Esculapius at Rome. Spon, Miscell. Brud. Antiq. p. 122 [and is named on a Satyr, WinckeL Yorrede der Ktmstgesch. S. xiii. (1809), mentioned also by Dati Yita de* pittoria
17318-12317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
136 # HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. IT.
p. 118]. In both names, Apollonius and Glycon, there are to be observed letters which pass into the cursive character (w). These made their appearance in inscriptions on stone not long before the Christian era*
THE ART OE EKGBAVIira STONES AND
1 161. The luxury in engraved stones was carried to a greater height particularly by the custom, derived from the east and now chiefly maintained by the court of the Seleucidae, of adorning with gems, cups, craters, lamps and other works in precious
2 metals. For this and other purposes, where the figure on the stone was merely intended to be ornamental and not to form impressions as a seal, the gems were cut in high relief, as cameos, for which variegated onyxes were preferred (§. 313).
3 To this class belong the cups and goblets entirely composed of engraved precious stones (onyx-vessels) which made their ap-
4 pearance at the same time. In this sort there were executed real wonders In beauty and technical perfection, at the earlier stages of this period when art was still animated by a higher spirit.
1. According to the letters of Parmenion (Athen. xi. p. 781) there were among Alexander's Persian spoils cups set with gems (vorqyei x/3o-xoXTurra) weighing 56 Babylonian talents, 34 minae. Theophrastes' braggart (Char. 23) also brought home X/SmoXXwroc irvrtya, from Alexander's expedition, and therefore considered the Asiatic superior to the European artists. On the luxury of the Seleucidae in these matters, Cic. Verr. iv, 27, 28, 32, Athen. v. p, 199. compared with Tirgil JEn. i. 729. A -faxrfy &a$ee£ix3f x/SckoxXftf with other silver vessels presented by Seleucus II. to the Didymseon, Corp. Inscr. no. 2852,48,
3t Mithridates, whose Mngdom was the great mart of precious stones, had, according to Appian (Mithr. 115), two thousand cups of onyx with gold chasings. In Cic. Verr. iv, 27. Yas vinarium ex una gemma per-grandi, trulla excavata.
4. The noblest wort is the G-onzaga cameo (now in the possession of the Russian emperor) with the heads of Ptolemy the Second and the first Arsinoe (according to Yisconti) almost half a foot long, in the most beautiful and ingenious style. Yisconti Iconogr. pi. 53. That of Yienna with the heads of the same Ptolemy and the second Arsinoe is an excellent work although not so grand in style. Eckhel, Choix des Pierres grav. pi. 10. The same Ptolemy is very ingeniously costumed in a fragment to be seen at Berlin. Beger. Thes. Brand, p. 202. A beautiful cameo with the heads of Demetrius the First and Laodice of Syria in Yisconti pi. 46. The cameo in Millin M. I. ii. pi. 15. p. 117, belongs to this time. Compare the description of the very skilfully cut agate, with Apollo and the Muses, which was in the possession of Pyrrhus, in Pliny xxxvii, 3. Nicomedes IY. of Bithynia, Impronte gemm. iv, 85.
17318-12417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
COINS. PAINTING. 137
162. The degeneracy of art in the Macedonian dominions 1 is manifested more clearly in the coins than in anything else, and at the same time in the most certain and authentic manner. During the first half of the period they display gener- 2 ally excellent design and execution, such as those of Alexander himself, Philip Arrhidaeos, Antigonus and Demetrius Poli-orcetes, of Lysimachus, of Seleucus Nicator, Antiochus Soter and Theus, especially the coins of Agathocles, Hicetas and Pyrrhus, struck in Sicily, which cannot be surpassed in delicate handling, but are however far inferior to earlier works in power and grandeur. The Macedonian coins fron Anti- 3 gonus G-onatas, and the Syrian coins from Antiochus II. downwards, are of much less value; even the Sicilian coins of Hiero II. and his family (Philistis,* Gelon and Hieronymus) are inferior to the earlier ones. In like manner, among the 4 coins of the Ptolemies, which however are not generally of high excellence, the older ones are distinguished as the best. But among the coins which were struck by Grecian states after the time of Alexander many will be found remarkable for easy and powerful handling, none however to which can be awarded the praise of genuine perfection in art.
2, 3, Mionnet's impressions give sufficient examples; and the custom wMch began with Alexander of putting portraits of the princes on coins facilitates very much the chronological arrangement; although, especially in the case of the Ptolemies, where distinct surnames are wanting, the assigning of the coins to the rulers who caused them to be struck has its difficulties. Yaillant's Seleucidar. Imperium and Hist. Ptolemaeorum, Prohlich's Ann. Regum Syrise, P. van Damme Kecueil de M6<1 des Eois Grecs,
4. The. money of the Achaian league from Olympiad 133—158 (Cou-sine*ry, Sur les Monn. d'Arg. de la Ligue Ache*enne.), the Cistophori struck in anterior Asia Minor about 01.130—140 (Neumann H. V. ii. p. 35, tb. 1), the large Athenian and Ehodian silver coins, which can be easily distinguished from those of earlier times, form particularly important classes for the history of art. Cavedoni Oss. sopra le antich. monete di Atene. Modena 1836, Bullett. 1837. p. 142.
4 PAINTING.
163. Painting was zealously cultivated, especially at the l beginning of this period, in the three schools "which flourished during the preceding period; no one however of the successors made even a distant approach to the fame of the great masters of the time immediately previous. At Sicyon, where artists 2 were assembled in greatest number, the works of the earlier masters were more admired about L the 134th Olympiad than
17318-12517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
138 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEE. IV.
3 augmented by similar productions. The tendencies which were peculiar to this period gave birth sometimes to pictures which ministered to a low sensuality, sometimes to works which attracted by their effects of light, and also to carica-
4 tures and travesties of mythological subjects. Hasty painting, which was rendered necessary by the state-processions in the cities where the kings resided (§. 147), must have ruined
o many an artist. At this time also rhyparography (so-called still-life) probably made its appearance, and scenography was applied to the decoration of the palaces of the great (§. 209).
6 As the love of magnificence among the great now also demanded the decoration of painting on their floors, the mosaic art arose, and quickly developing itself, undertook to represent great combats of heroes and highly animated battle-
7 scenes. The painting of earthen vases, which was so favourite an occupation in earlier times, died out in the course of this period, and sooner, so far as can be observed, among the Greeks of the mother country and the colonies than in many of the but superficially Hellenised districts of Lower Italy, where these vases continued longer to be esteemed as objects of luxury, but thereby also present very clearly to the eye the degeneracy of design into a careless manufacture-work, or a system of mannerism and aifected ornament.
1, Moruit circa PMlippum et usque ad successores Alexandri pictura praecipue, sed diversis virtutibus, Quintil. xii, 10. comp. Plaut. Poenul. v, 4,103. Artists of note: AjrarpHiiitrs from Egypt, a pupil of Gteside-mus, 112—116 (it doe® not necessarily foKow from the circumstance of Ms painting Alexander as a boy that he had seen him when a hoy), Aristides, son and pupil of Aristides of Thebes, about 113. CTESILOOHTJS, brother and scholar of Apelles (Ionic school),115. Aristides, brother and scholar of Mcomachus (Sicyonic school), ahout 116. Mcophanes and Pausanias (school of Sicyon) at the same time as it appears. PHILOXENUS of Eretria and Oorybas, a scholar of Mcomachus (school of Sicyon), about 116. Helena, daughter of Timon, contemporaneous. Aristocles, Nico-machus* son and scholar (school of Sicyon), about 116. Omphalion, a scholar of Mcias (Attic school), about 118. Mcerus and Aristo, sons and scholars of Aristides of Thebes, 118. Antorides and Euphranor, scholars of Aristides (Aristo?), 118. Perseus, scholar of Apelles (Ionic school), 118. Theodoras (Sillig. 0. A. p. 443), 118. Arcesilaus, son of Tisicrates, about 119. Clesides, 120 (?). Artemon, 120 (1). Diogenes, 120. Olbiades (Paus. i, 3, 4), '125. Mydon of Soli [Cod. Bamberg. Monac. Milo], scholar of the brass-caster Pyromachus, 130. Nealces of Sicyon, 132. Leontiscus (school of Sicyon), about 134. The second Timanthes of Sicyon, 135 (as it seems). Erigonus the colour-grinder of iTealces, 138. Anaxandra, daughter of Nealces, 138 (Clem. Alex. Strom, iv. p. 523). Pasias, scholar of Erigonus (Sicyonic school), 144. Heraclides, from Macedonia, ship-painter, encaustes, 150. Metrodorus, at Athens, philo^ sopher and painter, 150.
2. On the Sicyonic school, particularly Plut. Arat. 13. The Anacre-*
17318-12617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PAINTING. KK>
ontic poem (28), where painting is called the Ehodian art, belongs for that very reason to the time after Protogenes.
3. Polemon in Athen. xiil p. 567 mentions Aristides (probably him of the 116th Olympiad) together with Mcophanes and Pausanias as 9rooyoyg«.o$ civ^^a,*;, Plut.
de aud. poet. 3. The boy blowing the fire by Antiphilus, Plin.; he first painted grylli (§. 435). A parturient Zeus by Ctesilochus [in vases parodies on Hercules, as queller of the Cercopes (d'Hancarville iii, 88. Saint Non Voy. Pitt. T. ii. p. 243), the judgment of Paris, &c.]; on such paro-dic treatment of mythi, see Hirt, Gesch. s. 265, and below §. 390, 6. Galaton's spitting Homer was certainly meant as a hit at the Alexandrine poets*
4. Pausias (jjpeegww? vrtvet%)9 Mcomachus, but especially Philoxenus (hie celeritatem prseceptoris secutus, breviores etiamnum quasdam pic-turae vias et compendiarias invenit), and afterwards Lala figured as rapid painters, Quintilian xii, 10, celebrates ila&facilitas of Antiphilus. The passage Petron. 2 is enigmatical: Pictura quoque non alium exitum fecit, postquam JEgyptiorum audacia tarn magnse artis compendiariam invenit,
5. Pyreicus (time unknown) tonstrinas sutrinasque pinxit et asellos et obsonia ac similia: ob hoc cognominatus rhyparographos, in iis con-summatse voluptatis, Quippe eae pluris veniere quam maximae multorum. Comp. Philostratus i, 31. ii, 26 (Xenia). Khopography, on the other hand, denotes the representation of restricted scenes in nature—a small portion of a wood, a brook and the Eke. Welcker ad Philostr. p. 397. [Obsonia ac similia, fruits and flowers, §. 211. E. 1. 434. B. 2. are not dirty, even shops, laden asses, the class generally are not conceived by a healthy sense under the aspect of dirt adhering to them; the name would not be trivial but a disgusting term of reproach; it cannot be a Grecian artistic expression. Besides Cicero the Etym. M. gives /sWoygacpoyg-, from paKss, V'XTJ, The appellation of Pyreicus refers to another kind of j&aToy^onp/sfc, from ^TTO^, miscellaneous wares which the merchant ship brings (JEschyl. fr. Hect. Bekker. Anecd. p. 61). Such fanog were displayed in the booths, asses were laden with them, even fish may be comprehended under that name. To this refers an obscurely composed article in Phot. Suid. and Zonaras, and the allusion of Leonidas Tar. fa-Tn&d yQwfytipkya, in jocular double entendre (Syll. Epigr. Gr. p. 98.), On the contrary rhyparographus rests solely on the passage in Pliny, and emendation therein, which is even rejected by Passow and Pape in their dictionaries. The explanation of still-life is, as the author himself remarked, contested by A. W. Becker de com. Romanor. fab. p 43. Fruit pieces were also specially called Xenia, Philostr. i, 31. Yitruv. vi, 7.4. ideo pictores ea quae mittebantur hospitibus picturis imitantes Xenia appellaverunt, whereby the conjectured explanation to Philostratus is confirmed.]
6. The first mosaics which are mentioned are the unswept room (or*o? dffei^Tos) of Sosus the Pergamenian, of clay tesserae, Plin. xxxvi, 60; the cantharus there introduced with the doves drinking and sunning themselves is imitated, but imperfectly however, in the mosaic from Hadrian's YiHa, M. Cap. iv, 69 [a more perfect repetition found at
17318-12717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
140 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. IV.
Naples in 1833], Then the floors of several apartments in Hiero's great shijr (§. 152,1) of stone mosaic, which represented the entire mythus of Ilion [on which. 300 workmen were employed for a year, Hiero, 01. 127, 3 —148]. Among those that have been preserved, that which was dug up. in the Cam del Fauna at Pompeii on the 24th of Oct. 1831 [now in the Museum at Naples, in the Hall of Flora], consisting of small pieces of marble [of glass, as has been shown by more recent investigation] is most deserving of being assigned to this period. It gives an idea of the lively, almost tumultuous manner, departing considerably from the Greek taste, in which battle scenes were conceived by the painters of this time, among whom Philoxenus painted a battle of Alexander with Darius, and Helena the battle of Issus, The mosaic certainly represents one of Alexander's battles,—that of Issus (Curtius iii, 27), according to the opinion of Quar-anta, also adopted by Minutoli, Notiz iiber den 1831 gefundenen Mosaik-Fussboden B. 1835. [by G. B. Baizini Due Lettere, Bergamo 1836., Heeren in the (lotting. Anz. 1837. No. 89, also in the Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 506], which is the most probable,—according to AveUino [and Janelli, Nuove riness. sul gran. mus. 1834,] that at the Granicus,—according to Niccolini [and Roulez Not. sur la mos. de Pompei 1836.] that of Arbela,—according to Hirt that with the Mardi on account of Bucephalus. M. Borb. viiL tv. 36—id. Kunstblatt 1832. N. 100. Schulzeitung 1832. N. 33. Berlin. Jahrb. 1832. ii, 12. [The author's D. A. K. 1 Tf. 55. Zahn Ornam. Neue Folge Taf. 91—93. Mistake of Schreiber Die MarceHusschlacht in Clastidium, Freiburg 1843, 4to. not materially rectified by the turn given to it by Bergk, Zeitschr. f. A. W. 1844. No. 34 f.]
7. If the Nola vases, which are distinguished by elegance of form and design, fine varnish and agreeable dark yellow colour, may belong to the time of Philip and Alexander, when the people were greatly attached to everything Greek (DionySr Hal. Exc. p. 2315. Reiske); so, on the contrary, the vases of Apulia (from Barium, Rubi, Oanusium), mostly large and slender, of curious forms and mannered design, as well as those of a similar description which were found in the interior of Lucania (Armento), will belong to a period when art, in an already degenerate state, found its way together with Grecian luxury to the Sabello-Oscan tribes (perhaps at the time of Pyrrhus). The subjects, which bear reference sometimes to the luxurious enjoyment of life, sometimes to the mysteries of Bacchus, and are handled in a very arbitrary and unrestrained manner, point at the condition of Lower Italy before the SO, de Baccana-libus, 564, a. u. c. (comp. Gerhard, Bullet, d. Inst. 1832. p. 173). Large ' vase from Ruvo with a variety of scenes Md. L ii, 30—32. B. Braun Annali viii. p. 99, Another with reliefs on the neck and handles, paintings on the belly, Hall. L. Z. Intell. 1838. N. 91. Others from Apulia, ibid. 1837. N. 30. In the same way may the decline of art be traced on the Campanian vases, comp. §. 257, and, on the last epoch of vase paint-ing, §. 177.
PILLAGE AIH> DEVASTATION IK GREECE.
164 The carrying away works of art, which, appeared as 1 robbery of sanctuaries in the mythological times, as real art is-
17318-12817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 141
ic plundering in the Persian wars, and as the work of pecu-tiaiy want especially in the Phocian war, [as robbery on he part of the tyrants here and there,] now became under he Romans a regular recompense which they appropriated >n account of their victories. In this, however, they had be- 2 ore them the example of many of the earlier Macedonian )rinces, who hardly all adorned their residences by purchase. There were also many monuments destroyed from hatred of grants (as by Aratus), and numerous temples, by the JEto-lians especially, from sheer brutality.
1. To this class belongs the stealing of Palladia, and the like, as well ELS the deorum evocationes. In the Xoanephori of Sophocles the gods themselves carried their images out of Ilion. Later also statues were still oftener stolen from pious motives. See the examples in Pausanias viii, 46. Gerhard's Prodronms, s. 142. Xerxes took the Apollo of Canachus (§. 86) and the Attic tyrannicides (§. 88). Then the melting of works of art by the leaders of the Phocian mercenaries (o^o£rEg/17318-12917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
142 * HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. IV.
1. THE GENERALS. On the moderation of Marcellus (01.14% 1), Cia Yerr. iv, 3, 52. On that of Fabius (142, 4), Liv. xxvii, 16; but on the other hand, Strab. vi. p. 278. Pint, Fab. 22. Marcellus even gave presents to Grecian temples, Samothrace for instance, Plut. Marc. 30. On the treasures of art at Capua (01.142, 2). Idv. xxvi, 34.
2. T. Quinctius Flamininus' triumph over PhiHp the Third, 01. 146, 3., introduced all sorts of works of art from the cities of the Macedonian party. L. Scipio Asiaticus over Antiochus the Third, 147, 4, (vasa caelata, triclinia aerata, vestes Attalicse, see especially Plin. xxxiii, 53. xxxvii, 6. Liv. xxxix, 6). Triumph of Fulvius Isfobilior over the JStokans and Am-bracia (285 brazen figures, 230 of marble, comp. §. 144.180), OL 148, 1. (Reproaches for plundering temples, lav. xxxviii, 44). Cn. Manlius over the Asiatic Gauls, OL 148, 2 (also particularly vases, triclinia asratay abaci, Plin, xxxiv, 8. and xxxvii, 6). L. ^Bmilius Paulus over Perseus, 153, 2 (250 chariots full of works of art). Quintus Caecilius Metellua Macedonians over Pseudophilip, 158, 2, particularly statues from Dion. Destruction of Corinth by Mummius, 158, 3. On Mummius' barbarity (without malice however), VelleL i, 13. Dio Chrys. Or. 37. p. 137 sq. Roman soldiers play at dice on the Dionysus and suffering Hercules of Aristides, Polyb. xl, 7. From this time forward a taste at Rome for signa Corinthia and tabulae pictae, Plin. xxxiif, 53. xxxvii, 6. But every thing did not come to Rome; many went to Pergamon; much also was thrown away. Other regions of Greece were also plundered at that time. Comp. Petersen, Einleitung, s, 296. Carthage destroyed at the same time, where there were in like manner Greek and Sicilian works of art (Phalaris' Bull, BSckh ad Pind. SchoL p- 310, the great Apollo, Plut. Flamin. 1).—Somewhat later, 161, 3, the bequest of Attalus the Third fo-ought particularly Attaiica auZcea, perijpetasmata to Rome.—In the Mithridatic war Sylla conquered and plundered Athens (173, 2) and Boaotia, and caused the treasures of Olympia, Delphi and Epidaurus to be delivered to him. The whole army plundered and stole (comp. Sallust. CatiL 11).—Lucullus about 01.177 acquired many fine things, but chiefly for himself.—The pirates plundered, before 178, 2, the temples of Apollo at darus, Miletus, Actium, and in Leucas, of Poseidon on the Isthmus, Tsenarum, and Calauria, of Hera in Samos, at Argos and Crotona, of Demeter at Hermione, of Esculapius at Epidaurus, of the Cabiri in Samothrace, until they were overcome by Pompey. Plut. Pomp. 24. Pom-pey's triumph over Mithridates (179, 4) brought especially engraved stones (Mithridates' Dactyliotheca), figures of gold, pearls and such valuables to Rome; victoria ilia Pompeii primum ad margaritas gem-masque mores inclinavit. Plin, xxxvii, 6. Octavian procured treasures of art for Rome from Alexandria (187, 8) and also from Greece.
5. THE GOVEBITOBS. Verres' systematic plunder in Achaia, Asia, and particularly in Sicily (01.177) of statues, pictures and vasa ccdata. Pra-guier, Sur la GaMrie de Terras, Me*m. de 1'Ac. des Inscr. ix. Facius Mis-cellen. s. 150. Comp. §. 196, 2.—Plena domus tune omnis et ingens stabat acervus numorum, Spartana chlamys, conchylia Coa, et cum Parr-hasii tabulis signisque Myronis Phidiacum vivebat ebur, nee non Poly-cleti multus ubique labor: rarae sine Mentore mensae. Inde Dolabellse atque hinc Antonius, inde sacrilegus Verres referebant navibus altis
17318-13017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 143
occulta spolia et plures de pace triumphos, Juvenal viii, 100. Cn. Dola-bella, Cons. 671, Proc. in Macedonia and Cn. Dolabella, prsetor of Sicily (Verres was his Quaestor) were both accused repetundarvm; Cn. Dolabella, Cicero's son-in-law, plundered the temples of Asia. Cic. Phil, xi, 2. A proconsul plundered the Athenian Poecile according to Synesius, Ep. 135. p. 272 Petav. Bot tiger, Archseol. der Mahlerei, s. 280.
THE EMPERORS. Especially Caligula, Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 235; Nero, who out of envy threw down the statues of the victors in Greece, brought 500 statues from Delphi for the Golden House, 17318-13117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
EPISODE.
OH GBEEK AET AMONG THE ITALIAN NATIONS BEFQEE
OLYMPIAD 158, 3 (A. C. 146, A. TL 606, ACCOEDING
TO THE CATOK ERA),
1. OBIGHOL GBEEK RACB.
1 166. There can he no doubt that the inhabitants of Lower and Central Italy were on the whole more closely allied to the Pelasgian Greeks than to any other Indo-Germanic race.
2 Hence even the striking resemblance, not to be explained merely by external conditions of locality, of the old city-walls in the mountainous regions of Central Italy to those of an-
3 cient Greece; perhaps too the same connexion of race and culture may account for many of the older architectural structures in Italy and the neighbouring islands, especially the circular buildings resembling the treasuries of the Greeks
1. On this point Niebuhr's Roman History L p. 26 sqq. (2d ed.) The author's Etrusker L s. 10 ff. Further illumination on this subject depends entirely on the investigations into the Latin tongue and the remains of the Umbrian and Oscan languages, [Grotefend Budim. i. Umbriacse P. 1—8.1836—39.4to. Bud. i. Oscae 1839.4to. TL Momrn-sen OsMsche Studien B. 1845. Nachtrage 1846].
2. The so-called Cyclopean walls are found chiefly crowded within the ancient country of the Aborigines or Cascans, which was afterwards occupied by the Sabines (here Yarro already found the ruins of cities and ancient sepulchres very remarkable, Dionys. i. 14,) among the neighbouring Marsi, Hernici (herw, rocks), in Eastern and Southern Latium, likewise in Samniuin. So in Lista, Batia, Trebula Sufiena, Tiora; Alba Fucentis, Atina; Aktrium, Anagnia, Signify Pr&neste; Sora, Norba, Cora; Arpinum, Fundi, Circeii, Anxur, Bovianum, Calatia, JBsernia; comp. §. 168. Nearly all of limestone, therefore in the neighbourhood of the Apennines, but by no means however throughout Italy, only in the portion between the Arnus and Tulturnus. These structures clearly belong to an older system, and can hardly be derived even in Signia and Norba from Roman colonies, although building with large polygonal masses was a practice maintained much longer in substructions, especially of streets. The walls are almost all in the second Cyclopean manner (§. 46), the doors pyramidal with a huge stone as a lintel, or altogether converging to the top. Here and there are to be found traces of
17318-13217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
THE ETBTJSGANS. 145
phallic figures hewn upon them, as at Alatrium and Arpinum. [Comp. with the gates in Dionigi tv. 54. those at Choeronea, Thoricus, Missolongi, Diaulis in Dodwell, Views, pi 16,22. 27. 44 sq. 28. 31. Several ia Abeken Mitfcelitalien, Tf. 2.] The Letter of Marcus Aurelius to Pronto (e cod. Yatic. ed. Mai. iv. 4) shows how full these walls were of antique structures, at Anagnia not a corner without a temple; in like manner there were found at Norba numerous substructions of old buildings composed of polygons. M. I. d. Inst. tv. 1, 2. Ann. i. p. 60 sq. As to the rest, besides the literary sources quoted at §. 46: Marianna Dionigi, Tiaggi in alcune citt& del Lazio. R. 1809. fol. Middleton, Grecian Remains in Italy. L. 1812. fol. Micali, Ant. Monumenti tv. 13. Gerhard, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 36 sq. iiL p. 408. Memorie i. p. 67. Dodwell, Bull. d. Inst. 1830. p. 251. 1831. p. 43. 213. Petit-Radel also in the Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 1. and 233 sqq. iv. p. 350. Memorie i. p. 55. Bunsen, Garta delsito dei pifr antichi stabilimenti Italici nell agro Eeatino e le sue adjacenze M. d. I. ii, 1. Annali vi, p. 99—145. comp. p. 35. [W. Abeken Mittelitalien vor den Zeiten Romischer Herrschaft, nach s. Denkmalen dargesteUt, with 11 pi. J.843, Hist, Einl. Archit. S. 121. Plastik und Malerei S. 263. TJeber-sicht der Kiinste in ihrer Tecnnik und ihren Leistungen S. 355].
3. At Norba sometimes quadrangular, sometimes circular chambers with converging layers of stones instead of a vault. The same system is observed in an ancient aqueduct at Tusculum, Donaldson, Airfciq. of Athens, Suppl. p. 31. pL 2. [Ganina Tusculo tv* 14.] Li ancient times there were in Sardinia in the so-called lolsean towns (Paus. x. 17,4) architectural works reputed to be Daedalian (Diod. iv? 30), among them vaulted buildings (5o'Ao/) after the Hellenic manner, Ps. Aristot. MiraK Ausc. 104. These have been discovered in the so-called iwrJwj^ mostly symmetrical groups of conical monuments, composed of horizontal layers of rather rude stones, piled up without mortar, and arched in the manner of the thesauri. Petit-Badel's work on the subject, quoted at §. 46. Bull. 1833. p. 121. Similar to the Talajots in Majorca and Minorca, BulL 1834. p. 68. Arch. Intell. 1834. St. (34) Phoenician \ Micali, Ant. Monum. tv. 71. Hallische ALZ. 1833. Intell. p. 13 (101). These, however, are probably not earlier than the time of the Etruscans: comp. the author's Etruscans ii s. 227, and §. 170, 3. In Sicily, the Cyclopean structure of Cefalu (Gephalcedion), see in particular G. F. ISfott, Ann. d. Inst, iii. p. 270. M. I. tv. 28, 29 (Daedalus was, according to tradition, also architect of colossal walls in Sicily, comp. §. 50. 81, especially on Mount Eryx, at Gamicus, Diod. iv, 78. comp. Paus. viii, 46, 2). The Torre de Giganki ip. Gozzo (Gaulos) seem to bear some resemblance to the nur-hag$. Houel, Toy. Pitt. T. iv. pi. 249—251. Mazzera, Temple Antediluvien; Kunst-blatt 1829. N. 7. Capt. W. H. Smyth, Notice of some Remains at Grozza near Malta. Archseologia, Vol. xxiL p. 294, pi. 26—28. Giant Tower. Four divisions of the ground by walls, two round cells with terraces and inner enclosures. (Said not to be depended on.)
2. THE ETRUSCANS.
167* However, we see the striving at tlie erection of stu- 1 pendous time-defying monuments, such as it nrast have been
K
17318-13317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
146 GREEK ART IK ITALY.
in earlier times, afterwards disappear among the Oscan and Sabellian races (from whom the Romans themselves were sprung), and the native peoples of Central and Lower Italy lose
2 almost all significance for the history of art. On the other hand, Northern Italy, as far down as the Tiber, was overspread by the Etruscans or Rasenians, a race which, judging from the evidence of the language, was originally very foreign to the Grecian, but nevertheless had adopted more of the Hellenic civilization and art than any other race not of the Greek family,
3 in those early times. The principal reason is probably furnished by the colony of the Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians which was driven from Southern Lydia (Torrhebis), and established itself chiefly around Caere (Agylla) and Tarquinii (Tarchonion). The latter city maintained for a while the dignity of a lead-
• ing member among the confederate cities of Etruria, and always remained the chief point from which Greek civilization radiated over the rest of the country. [Connexion with
4 Corinth about OL 30. §. 75.] However, the Etruscans received much that was Hellenic from intercourse with the Lower Italian colonies, especially after they settled at Vulturnum (Capua) and Nola, as well as in later times by their trade with Phocsea and Corinth.
An extract from the views unfolded by the author in the Introduction to his work on the Etruscans. With Niebuhr these Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians -are aboriginal Siceli; with others (such, as Raoul-Eochette) the Etruscans were altogether a Pelasgian tribe.
1 168. The Etruscans, then, appear in general as an industrious people (^/XoVsp^vov S5w>£), of a bold and lofty spirit of enterprise, which was greatly favoured by their priestly aris-
2 tocratic constitution. Massive walls, mostly of irregular blocks, surround their cities (not merely their acropoleis);
3 the art of protecting the country from inundations by the construction of canals, and outlets from lakes, was very zea-
4 lously practised by them. For the purpose of draining the low marshy ground and carrying away the filth, the Tarquin-ian princes built the Cloacae at Rome, particularly the Cloaca Maxima for the Forum: enormous works in which, even before Democritus (§. 107), the art of arching by means of cuneiform stones was employed in a quite effectual and ex-
5 cellent manner. The Italian construction of houses with a principal room in the middle to which the drop from the surrounding roof was directed, was also derived from the Etrus-
6 cans, or at least received from them an established form. In the laying out of cities and camps, as well as in all kinds of demarcation, there was displayed a feeling for regular and invariable forms which was strengthened by the disciplina Etrusca.
17318-13417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
THE ETRUSCAK& 147
2. Cities walled in the Etruscan manner: Volaterrse (whose arched gate however is pointed out as a Roman restoration, Bull* d, Inst. 1831, p. 51), Vetuloniunij Eusellse, Fsesulas, Populonia, Cortona, Pemsia, Veii (W. GelL Memorie d. Inst. i). The walls of Saturnia (Aurinia), Cosa, Falerii (Winckelm. W. iii. s. 167), as well as the Umbrian walls of Ameria, Spoletium, &c. consist of polygonal blocks, Micali tv. 2—12.
3. The Canals of the Padus diverted its waters into the ancient lagune of Adria, the Septem maria. There were similar canals at the mouths of the Arnus. Etrusker i. s. 213, 224. The emissary of the Alban lake, which was occasioned, perhaps also conducted, by an Etruscan haruspex, was excavated in hard volcanic rock, 7,500 feet long, 7 deep and 5 broad. Sickler, Almanach aus Rom. i. s. 13. tf. 2. Hirt, Gesch. der Bau-kunst ii. s. 105 ff. Mebuhr's Roman History ii. p. 504. On similar canals in Southern Etruria, Mebuhr i. p. 129.
4. In order to remove the doubts thrown out by Hirt as to the age of the Cloaca, GescL i. s. 242. comp. Bunsen, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, i. s. 151, Ann. d. Inst. i, p. 44, who agrees with Piranesi, Magttifi-cenza de' Romani, t. 3.
5. The cavcedivm is called by a Tuscan word atrium; the middle of which is the implmiwm or ampluviwn. The most simple cavaedium at Rome was called Tmcanicum, afterwards Ufrcafofam, Oorinthnm. Varro de L. L. v, 33. §. 161. Vitrav. vi, 10. Diod. v, 40.
169. The Tuscan temple-architecture was an offshoot fiom 1 the Doric, not however without considerable deviations. The columns, provided with bases, were more slender (14< moduli according to Vitruvius) and stood further apart (an-CBosbylwri), as they only carried a wooden entablature, with the ends of the beams jutting out (mutuli) over the architrave, far-projecting cornice (grundd) and lofty pediment The plan of the 2 temple received modifications in reference to the consecrated enclosure for the observation of auspices,—the augural tern-plum ; the basement became more like a square, the cella or several cellae were carried to the back (postica), ranges of columns filled the anterior half (antica), so that the principal door fell exactly to the middle of the building. The Capito- 3 line temple with three cellar was built according to this rule by the Tarquinian princes. Although elegant and rich in the execution, this style of architecture never attained the solemnity and majesty of the Doric, but had always something flat and heavy. No remains of it now exist; the Etruscan 4 cinerary urns betray in the architectonic enrichments a corrupted Greek taste of later times.
1. Vitruv, iii, 3, 5. On the Tuscan columnar ordinance Marcpiea Bi-cerche dell' ordine Dorico, p. 109 sqc[. Stieglitz Archa&oL der, Baukunst ii, i, s. 14. Hirt, Gesch. i. s. 251 ff. Klenze Versuch der "Wiederherstel-lung des Toscanischen Tempels, Munchen 1821. Inghirami, Mon. Etr, iv. p. 1. tv. 5. 6. [Memorie per le beHe arti, T. 3. p. cclxx.] There is
17318-13517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
148 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
nothing of it preserved except perhaps two fragments of columns at Y<>lci and Bomarzo, M. I. d. Inst. tv. 41, 2 e. Ann, iv. p. 269. On the mutuli, especially the Puteolian Inscription, Piranesi Magnific. tv. 37. Scheppig liber Capitaler von besondrer Form in Yolci, Toscanella, &c. Annali d. Inst. vii p. 187. Monum. ii, 20.
2.' Comp. with this the author's Etrusker ii. s. 132 ff. and tf. 1.
3. The Capitoline temple (207J X 192J feet large) contained three cellae: those of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva; the anterior space was called ante cellos. Towed and built from about the 150th year of Rome downwards : dedicated in 245. Stieglitz, Archseol. der Baukunst ii, i. s. 16. Hirt, Abh. der Berl. Akad. 1813. Gesch. i. s. 245. Tf. 8,1. Comp. Etrusker ii. s. 232. The massive substructions, Piranesi, Magnific. tv. 1. The same style is also presented in the wall of the peribolus of the Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban MIL
1 170. In edifices also for games we find Grecian fundamental forms, just as the games themselves were in great
2 part Greek. Sepulchres, on which the Etruscans bestowed more attention than the elder Greeks, were in many cases excavations in the rocks, whose construction was determined by the nature of the ground, being subterranean when plains extended, and on the surface where walls of rock presented themselves. Above the excavated sepulchral chambers mounds frequently arose, which sometimes, by their substructions and great dimensions, recal the monuments of Lydian rulers (§.
3 241*). In the monuments which were entirely walled the favourite form was that of conic towers^ which sometimes contained chambers for the dead (like the Sardinian nur-hags), sometimes were only placed as ornaments on a quadrangular substruction; the latter form appears developed in a quite fantastic manner in the legends of Porsena's Mausoleum.
1. The Circi (at Rome under Tarquin I.) correspond to the Hippodromes. Ruins of Theatres at Faesulse, Adria on the Po, Arretium, Falerii (Bull. d. Inst. 1829. p. 72). AmpMtheatres for gladiators, perhaps of Tuscan origin; several ruins. An Etruscan fountain discovered at Fiesole, Ann. vii. p. 8.
2. a. Subterranean tombs in the tuff under plains with stairs or galleries leading down, and a vestibule; often consisting of several chambers disposed symmetrically; sometimes buttresses left standing in them; the roof horizontal, but also rising in the gable shape. On the same plan the tombs of Yolci (see particularly Fossati, Ann. d, Inst. i. p. 120. Lenoir and ELnapp, iv. p. 254 sqq. M. I. tv. 40. 41), similar ones at Clusium, Volaterrse and elsewhere. Grori, M. Etr. iii. cl. 2 tb. 6 sqq. b. Subterranean tombs in the tuff, and tumuli above them; with horizontal galleries, but stairs likewise, mostly small single chambers, in other respects like those of the first kind. Of this sort were the most of those at Tar-quinii, in which the bodies were found lying on stone-beds (see 0. Awolta^ Ann. d. Inst. i. p, 91. tv. B. Lenoir and Knapp, ibid. Inghirami,
17318-13617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. 149
,tv. 22. Micalij tv. 64. Millingen, Transact, of the Royal Society of Literature ii, i. p. 77). c. Sepulchral chambers., above which tumuli faced with masonry, with a tower-like structure therein, like the so-called Cocu-mella at Yolci, the diameter of which is 200 feet (Micali, tv. 62, 1). Similar walled tumuli at Tarquinii and Viterbo. d. Chambers hewn out of the perpendicular walls of rock, with simple or ornamented entrance to the interior, at Tuscania or Toscanella (Micali, tv. 63) and Bomarzo (Ann. d. Inst. Iv. p. 267. 281. 284). e. Chambers hewn out of rocky walls of the same description, with facades over the entrance, which is more concealed. These sometimes exhibit merely door-ornaments, as at the Tarquinian town Axia, sometimes Doric temple-frontons enriched with scrolls in the Etruscan taste, as at Orchia. Orioli, Opuscoli Lett, di Bologna i. p. 36. ii. p. 261. 309. [The same author, Ann. v. p. 18—56. in Mon. d. I. i, 48 and 60., Tombs of Norchia and Castel d'asso, Castelaccio.] In Inghi-rami, iv. p. 149,176. Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 18. Comp. Ann. iv. p. 289. M. L tv. 48.
3, [Fr. Orioli del sepolcrali edifizi dell5 Etr, media e in generale dell' archit. Tuscanica, Poligrafia Fiesol. 1826, 4to.] Walled sepulchral cham--bers, for example at Cortona (the so-called Grotto of Pythagoras), sometimes also vaulted, Gori, M. Etrusc. iii. cl. 2. tb. 1. 2. p. 74. Inghirami iv. tv. 11. Tombs near Cervetri (Caere), M. d. Inst. ii. 19. Ann. viL p. 177. Comp. Hall. A. L. Z. 1834. Int. Bl. No. 38. 1836. Int. BL Ho. 6. Tombs at Caere with pointed vault, ibid. 1836. No. (30) Bull 1836. p. 56. [Heideloff liber die Spitzbogen der alten 1843. 4to. eomp. Edin. Rev. clvi. p. 449. P. E. Visconti Mon. Sepolc. di Ceri E. 1836. foi Oamm Descr. di Cere ant. R. 1838. fol. comp. Bull. 1838. p. 169. KunstbL 1839. No. 40. The large and particularly rich tomb, Mus. Gregor. ii tv. 107. Tombs of Caere and Monterone, Micak M. 1.1844. tv. 55—57. p. 355]. A tomb at Perugia, published by Speroni, Bull. 1834. p. 191. Yermig-lioli il sep. de7 Yolumni Scop, in Perugia nel 1840. Perugia 1840. 4to. very valuable. Cavedoni osserv. supra un Sepolcreto Etrusco nella collina Modenese; Mod. 1842. 8vo. comp. Bull. 1841. p. 75> Sepulchral monuments at Sovana, M. d. I. iii, 55—57. Ann. xv. p. 223. 233. comp. Bull. 1843, p. 155.] Monuments of a conic form near Yolaterrae similar to the nur-hags. Inghir. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 20. tv. A. Conic pointed columns on a cubic substruction in the so-called tomb of the Horatii near Albano. Bartoli, Sepolcri Ant. tv. 2. Inghir. vi. tv. F 6, and on Etruscan urns (at the decursio funebris R. Rochette M. I. i. pi. 21, 2. On the tomb of Porsena, Plm. xxxvi, 19, 4; early treatises by Corte-novis, Tramontani, Orsini, more recent by Qu. de Quincy, Mon. Re-stitues i. p. 125, the Due. de Luynes, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 304 (M. L tv. 13), Letronne, ibid. p. 386. [E. Braun II laberinto di Porsenna comparato coi sep. di Poggio-Gojella ultimamente dissotterati nel agro Clusino R. 1840. fol. Comp. Bull. 1840. p. 147. 1841. p. 6.]
1Y1. Among the branches of the formative art, working 1 infiatilia especially flourished in Etruria. Vases of clay were 2 made in Etruscan cities in very different styles, sometimes jnore after the Greek model, and sometimes in native manners deviating from that standard. In the latter the love for ' plastic ornaments is everywhere observable. In like manner S
17318-13717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
150 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
temple ornaments (antefixa), reliefs or statues in the tympana, statues on the acroteria and in the temples, all of clay, were in use in Italy; of which the quadriga on, and the Jupiter painted red on festivals, in the Oapitpline temple, are examples. The former was executed at Veil, the latter by a Volscian, Turrianus of Fregellse.
1. Elaborata haec ars Italise et maximse Etrurise, Plin. N. H. xxxv, 45.
2. Tmcum fictile, catinum, in Persius and Juvenal. They are divided into the following principal classes: 1. Yases manufactured and painted in the Greek style, see §. 177. 2. Blackish vases, mostly unburnt, of clumsy, even canobus-nke form, sometimes with single figures in relief on the feet and handles, sometimes with encircling rows of faintly impressed little figures of men, animals, and monsters: an antique Arabesque, in which also oriental compositions (§. 178), and sometimes Grecian mythi, especially that of the Gorgons, are introduced; these were chiefly the produce of Clusium. Dorow, Kotizie int. alcuni vasi Etruschi, in the Memorie Rom. iv. p. 135. and at Pesaro 1828. Toy. Archeologique dans Fane. Etmrie. P. 1829. p. 31 sq. BuH d. Inst. 1830. p. 63. fficali, tv. 14—27. [Mon. ined. 1844, tv. 27—34.] M. Etrusco Chiusino. F. 1830 sqq. (comp. BulLd. Inst. 1830. p. 37. 1831. p. 52. 1832. p. 142). On the blackening of the vases at Chiusi, Bull. 1837. p, 28. [Besides at Chiusi there are many of them especially in the mus. at Florence.] 3. Shining black vases with ornaments in relief of beautiful Greek design, found at Yolaterras. 4. Arretine vases, manufactured as late as the time of the Cesars, coral-red, with ornaments and figures in relief. Plin., Martial, Isidor. Inghir. v. tv. 1. Excavations, Bull. 1834. p. 102. 1837. p. 105. Fragments of Modenese vases, Bull. 1837, p. 10. [A. Fabbroni Storia degli ant, v. fitt. Aretini cong. tav. Arezzo 1841.8vo.]
3. The proofs, Etrusker ii. s. 246. The existence and native place of Turrianus indeed depend very much on particular manuscripts of Pliny. [The distinction between Yeii and Volscian is not well grounded according to MSS. not interpolated, L. v. Jan, Jen. Litt. Zeit. 1838. s. 258.] From the country of the Volscians, however, come the very antique painted reliefs: Bassirilievi Yolsci in terra cotta dipinti a van colori trovati nella cittk di Yelletri da M. Carloni (Text by Beccheti). B. 1785. M. Borb. x, 9—12. Inghir. vi. tv. T—x, 4. comp. Micali, tv. 61. They represent scenes from life, chiefly agones. There is not otherwise much of this branch of art remaining besides the cinerary cistae (of Clusium), as to which see §. 174. Comp. Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Studien, s. 206.
1 172. With the plastic art, in the original sense of the word, was also connected brass-casting among the Tuscans.
2 Brazen statues were very numerous in Etruria: Volsinii had about 2,000 of them in the 487th year of the city; gilded bronze statues also adorned the pediments; there were colossi and statuettes, of which latter a great number is still preserved.
3 Only it is often difficult to distinguish the genuine Etruscan ' amid the mass of later Roman works*
17318-13817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ETRUSCAN STATUARY. 151
2. Metrodorus in Pliny xxxiv. 16. Vitruv. iii, 2. Tuscanicus Apollo L pedum a pollice, dubium aere mirabilior an pulchritudine, Plin. xxxiv, 18. Tyrrhena sigilla, Hor.
3, The following are celebrated works: a. The Chimaera of Arreti-um at Florence (full of power and life), Dempster, Etr. Reg. L tb. 22. Inghir, iii. t. 21. Micali, Mon. tv. 42, 2. b. The she-wolf in the Capitol, probably that mentioned by Dionysius i, 79, and Liv. x, 23. which was consecrated in the year of the city 458, and stood beside the Rimii-nal fig-tree, of stiff design as to the hair, but powerful in expression. Winckelm. W. vii. tf. 3. c, Micali, tv. 42, 1. [Urliehs de lupa aenea in the Rhein. Mus. iv. p. 519. Lord Byron Childe Harold iv, 25.] c. The Aule Meteli, called Arringatore or haruspex, at Florence, a carefully handled portrait, but not remarkable for spirit, Dempster i. tb. 40. cL The Minerva of Arezzo, at Florence, a graceful form of art now be come effeminate, Gori, M. Flor. iii. tb. 7. M. Etr. T. i. tb. 28. e. Apollo In archaic Greek form with Etruscan necklace and sandals, M. Etr. i. tb. 32.; one at Paris, Journ. des Sav. 1834. p. 285. £ The boy standing, with the goose, a figure of graceful and naive character, in the Mus. of Ley-den, Micali, tv. 43. g. The Mars of Todi, Bull. 1837. p. 26. Int. BL der A. L. Z. 1836. No. 6. Kunstbl. 1838. No. 65; an unknown combatant perfectly similar in England, specimens of anc. sculp, ii, 4. [and in the Mus. at Florence, Micali, Mon. 1833. tv. 39. Copy of the warrior of Todi Mus. Chiaram. ii tv. B. M. Gregor. L tv, 29. 32—39. 45,] Comp. also, besides Gori M. Etr. i, Micali, tv. 29. 32—39. 42—44, especially 32, 2. 6 and 33, as examples of the odd and disproportioned kind; 29,2. 3, orientalizing figures with wings (from a sepulchre at Perugia); 39> te early Greek figure of a hero, but with Etruscan peculiarities of costume y 35,14 (Hercules), 36, 5 (Pallas), 38, 1 (a hero) similar to the early Greek works, but more clumsy and awkward; 38? 5, as an example of Etruscan exaggeration in the expression of force; 44,1, the boy of Tarquinii in a later style, but still harder than the one above described at £ Perugia furnishes most bronze figures, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Studien, s. 202. Eleven small figures, Mon. d. Inst. ii, 29. Annali viii, p, 52. [The oldest of all a female bust from the so-called grotta Egizia near the Polledrara at Vulci, in Braun's possession, Bull. 1844. p. 106. Comp. Micali, Mon. in6d. 1844. tv. 4—8. ibid. tv. 11—16. Bronze figures and implements from Falterona in 1838. tv. 17—19. other bronze figures and reliefs. There is also from Vulci one of the finest bronze statues, in Grecian style, of the period of the emperors, erroneously taken for Pallas Ergane, from a helmet found at the same time, as the head which had been fixed on was wanting in Munich, Bull. 1835. p. 11.120. 1836 p. 145. Kunstbi 1838. s. 78. 349. Zschr. f. AW. 1839. s. 192. M. Chiaram. ii. tv. 1].
173. Moreover, the work of the toreutes (ciseleur, grawwr.> orffore) was especially prized in Etrnria, nay Tyrrhenian bowls of embossed gold, and all sorts of bronze works, such as candelabra, were in demand at Athens itself, even at the time when art was at its highest point of cultivation; in like manner silver cups, thrones of ivory and precious metal, as the curule chairs, facings of brass, silver and gold for state-qhariots (cwru$ triumphales, thensce\ and richly decorated ar~
17318-13917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
X52 GREEK ART IK ITALY.
mour were made in great quantity and of Mgh. excellence.
2 There have been even preserved in sepulchres many specimens of embossed work, which served as ornaments for such
3 articles. They are handled in an antiquely elegant and careful style. To this class likewise belong the bronze mirrors (formerly called pat&rc&)} together with the so-called mystic cistce, which latter were derived from Latium indeed, but at a time when Etruscan styles in art were still prevalent there.
1. On Etruscan vessels of bronze and precious metals, Athen. i. 28 b. xv, 700 c. and the enumeration in the author's Etrusker ii. s. 253. On the triumphal chariots and thensse, i s. 371. ii. s. 199. Handle of an Etruscan brazen vessel in fantastic style, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. cL
2. A collection of Tyrrhene candelabra displaying a bold invention, especially in animal and monster ornaments, in MicaJi, tv. 40. There were found in a sepulchre at Perugia in the year 1812, beside various Tonnd figures, several bronze plates which adorned a chariot; some of them remained at Perugia, and some were brought to Munich (n. 32 —38); they present in embossed relief with engraved lines, and in a rude Tuscan style, monsters, gorgons, beings compounded of fish and men or horses, and a boar-hunt. Yermiglioli, Saggio di Bronzi Etr. tro-vati nell' agro Perugino. 1813. Inghir. iii. tv. 18. 23 sqq. Ragion. 9. Micali, tv. 28. [A bronze chariot from Yulci very much patched together and with a few winged figures, as facing pieces, the two wheels very large, the end of the axle-tree a beautiful ram's head, in the poss. of the prince of Mussignano at Rome. Fine tripod from Vulci, M. d. I. iii, 43. Armr xiv. p. 62. Three others, Hon. ii, 42. Annali ix. p. 161. An incomparable candelabram from Yulci, §* 63. B. 1. Bronze vessels of all sorifiy also with sculptures, from the tombs of Cere, Yulci, Bomarzo Mus. Gregor. L tv* 1—21. 38—42. 46—75. iL tv. 101—106. (Statuettes only i, 43. ii, 103. L. Grin Monum. di Cere ant. B. 1841. foL 12. pi. extremely antique and sometimes rude.] From Perugia are also derived three other plates, which form the foot of a candelabrum, with figures of deities in relief (Juno Sospita, Hercules, Hebe?), at Munich (n. 47) and Perugia, IngMr. iii. tv. 7, 8. Ragion. 3. Micali, tv. 29. Further, the fragmentary bronze plates exhibiting remarkable care in the antique treatment, which represent a war-chariot, and, as it seems (?), an Amazonian battle (Micali, tv. BQ), together with other interesting articles of a similar description. Moreover, embossed silver plates with ornaments of gold riveted on them (therefore works of the empsestic art, §. 59), which represent an equestrian fight, and a battle of wild beasts, now in the British Museum. MiUingen, Tin. Mon. ii, 14. Micali, tv. 45. In 1829 eleven bronze shields were found in a Tarquinian sepulchre with heads of lions and panthers, and bulls with human countenance embossed; the eyes coloured in enamel. Bull. d. Inst. 1829. p. 150. Micali, tv. 41,1—3. Other shields with stripes of figures of men and animals, see Ann, i. p. 97. Silver vase from Clusium, with the representation of a pompa in the archaic style. Dempster i. tb. 78. Inghir. iii. tv. 19. 20. [An Etr. mirror case in arabesque style. Spec, ii, 6. Gold fibulae, Micali, tv. 45, 3. Gerhard Bull. 1830. p. 4—9. [One of the most remarkable Etr. works is the large sepuL lamp (AI^O^), found in 1741 from the neighbourhood of Crotona
17318-14017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ETRUSCAN TOREUTICS. 153
placed in the public Museum there. Bull. 1840. p. 164. Mem. d. I. iii3 41. 42, ATVQ. xiv. p. 53. Micali, M. I. 1844. tv. 9. 10; on the bottom a Medusa, 16 lights around, and as many figures, satyrs and sirens alternately ; 170 Tuscan pounds in weight. Plin. xxxiv, 8. placuere et lychnuchi pensiles in delubris—also in tombs. Tripod from Yulci, Luynes Nouv, Ann. de Plnst. Arche"ol. ii. p. 237. pi. 24. 51 tripods in pi. C.]
3. The so-called paterae, as mystic mirrors, are treated off in greatest detail by Inghir. ii. p. 7 sqq. R, Rochette, M. I. p. 187; however, the use of mirrors in the mysteries of the Etruscans has not yet been pointed out; the author holds them to be mirrors (%cfcA^« IO-OTTT^) which were put into the grave with the dead among other utensils and treasures of life (xregiffpccra). Gott. G. A. 1828. s. 870. 1830. s. 953. [No one any longer doubts that they were mirrors, neither will the distinction into domestic and mystical hold good. Only Micali defended the paterae and adheres to them even in his last work, as Thiersch did in the Jahresberichte der k. Berl. Akad. of 1829-31. vii. s. 53 £ Lanzi, L. Vescovali and Inghirami recognised them as mirrors, and such are often found painted on vases, for example, with judgments of Paris and in wall paintings (Pitt. d'ErcoLiu, 26). Zahn New Series ii, 10.] There are also extant mirror-covers in a similar style. (Ao17318-14117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
154 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
nulii, Plautii are Praenestines, Grotefend A. L. Z. 1834 No. 34. [but tne Novios who executed the work at Rome was an Oscan from Capua; comp. Mommsen Oskische Studien, S. 72. A drawing in Gerhard's Spiegel iy 2, Father Marchi will publish one worthy of the great artist. Another work on this incomparable cista by Emil Braun with most excellent designs will appear in Leipzig, and the designs of Bourpis, a legacy from Brondsted, have already appeared at Copenhagen, engraved at Paris by de Cogny. Comp. Heyne Ant. Aufs. i. 48. M. PioCl. i. p. 81. The Rom. Coll. possesses two other works of Oscan artists, a Jupiter with C. POMPOFIO QYIRINA (the tribus) FECID and a beautiful Medusa with C. OPIOS FECID. Pupidiis Stenisis was an Oscan vase painter, Bull. 1846. p. 98. Cscan goblets in the Mus. at Berlin, No. 1613-18 of the vase collection.] 2. The one found in 1826, in which cista, lid and mirror are ornamented with the mythi of Achilles, in R. Rochette, M. I. pi. 20. p. 90. Stackelberg, KunstbL 1827. St. 32. 33. [47. Gal. Omer. 167.] 3. The one found in 1786, in the British Museum, with the sacrifice of Polyxena, and at the same time of Astyanax, in R. Rochette, pi. 58. In opposition to this, Welcker in the Rhein, Mus. iii, 605. [Gerhard Etr, Spiegel. Tf. 15. 16 as a dead offering of Achilles for Patrocles.] On the Brondsted and nine other cistae which have become known, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Studien, s. 90. R. Rochette, p. 331. A cista with patera found at Palestrina in 1794 described by Uhden. See Gerhard Archaeol. Intell. BL 1836. s. 35. Brondsted de cista aerea Prsenestina Havn. 1834. A mirror in it with Aurora. [The fifth was found at Prseneste in 1817, Mem. Sulle belle arti R. 1817. Apr. p. 65. Fr. Peter in the Ann. d. Acad. di Lucca, KunstbL 1818. No. 2. Cistse of this kind were found also at Yulci, and one at Baseggio in Rome, The fine cista from the Academy of S. Lucas is now in the Mus. Gregor. i, 37.]
1 174 There was less attention paid in Etruria to carving in wood (clay images supplied the want of the Grecian |dom)
2 and to sculpture in stone; only a few stone figures show by their careful and severe treatment that they come down from
3 the nourishing era of Etrurian art; the usually painted, sometimes gilded bas- and haut-reliefs of the cinerary urns,—which sprang out of abridged stone-coffins,—belong, with few exceptions, to a handicraft-like style of technical treatment characteristic of later times, probably in great part to the period of Roman ascendancy.
1. Plin. xiv, 2. xxxvi, 99. [? xxxiv, 16. xxxv; 45.] Yitruv. ii, 7. The marble of Luna not yet employed in sculpture. See Quintino, Mem. della. R. Ace. di Torino. T. xxvii. p. 211 sq.
2. So the reliefs on cippi and bases of columns in Gori, M. Btr. i. tb. 160. iii. cl. 4. tb. 18. 20. 21, in Inghir. vi. tv. A. (Mi Afiles Tites, £c.) c. D. E. L P. 5. z a, Micali, tv. 51,1. 2. 52—56 (Reliefs dug up at Clu-sium and in the neighbourhood, which mostly represent funeral ceremonies, and have a simple antique character; comp. Dorow, Voy. Archeol. pL 10, 3. 12, 2. [Micali, M. Ined. 1844. tv. 22. a four-cornered pedestal with death-bed, funeral procession, banquet and games from the neigh-
17318-14217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ETRUSCAN SCULPTURES AND GEMS. 155
bourhood of Chiusi, now in Berlin; similar tv. 23—26. Sepulchral reliefs, tav. 48. 49, Gorgon masts, 50. 51.] Rudely executed and obscene reliefs on a wall of rock at Corneto, Journ. des Sav, 1829. Mars. To this class belong the antique figures of animals, sphinxes and men hewn out of a sort of peperino which are found on the Gocumella and the entrances of the sepulchres of Volci, M. I. d. Inst. tv. 41, 9. 12, Micali, tv. 57, 7.
3. The urns were of alabaster (Yolaterrae), calcareous tufa, travertine, and very often of terracotta (Clusium). The subjects: 1. From the Greek, chiefly the tragic mythology, with frequent reference to death and the infernal world; moreover Etruscan figures of Mania, Mantus (Charan) with the hammer, the furies. Ambrosch de Charonte Etr. Yratisl. 1837. 4to. E. Braun Ann. ix. p. 253. [Charon XAPY, on an Etruscan vase together with the death of Ajax, and with Penthesilea, Mon. del I. ii, 9. Ann. vi. p. 274. On an amphora with Alcestis Charon with his hammer beside another death-demon with a serpent. But on an earthen cista Charon appears with hammer and the oar, which was denied by Ambrosch; the entrance for the dead enwreathed with skulls of animals. Charon's hammer, Archaol. Zeit. 1846, s. 350.] 2. Scenes of splendour from life: triumphal processions, pomps, banquets. 3. Representations of death and the life to come; leave-takings; death-scenes; journeys on horseback, on sea-monsters. 4. Fantastic figures and mere decorations. The composition mostly skilful, the execution rude* The same groups are repeated with different signification. The reclining figures above (accumbentes) are often portraits^ hence the disproportioned size of the heads. The Bacchian worship was already banished from Italy at the time of these works; only one older sarcophagus from Tarquinii (Micali, tv. 59,1) has the figure of a priest of Bacchus on the lid. The inscriptions mostly contain merely the names of the deceased, in a later character. (The Etruscan language and character perished after Augustus^ and before Julian.) Uhden, Abhandl. der Akad. von Berlin vom J. 1816. s. 25. 1818. s.l. 1827. s. 201. 1828. s. 233. 1829. s. 67. Inghir. i. and vi. v 2. Micali, tv. 59. 60.104—112. Several published by Zoega (Bassir. i. tv. 38—40, R. Rochebte, Clarac and others. Individual examples, §. 397-412, 2. 416, 2. 431. and elsewhere. [Urns from Cere, Bomarzo and other places partly of clay, Mus. Gregor, i. tv. 92—97. Those of a tomb at Perugia, with inscriptions, Bull. 1845. p. 106.}
175. The Etruscans, who took pains to adorn the body in 1 every way, and were therefore very fond of rings, practised engraving on precious stones at an early period; several scar- 3J abaei of the oldest style, judging from the characters inscribed * on them and the places where they were found, are decidedly Etruscan. The steps by which the art advanced, have been 3 stated above (§. 97); on the highest which the Etruscans attained there is combined an admirable delicacy of execution with a predilection for violent postures and overcharged display of the muscles, whereby even the choice of the subjects was mostly determined. Circular plates of gold also, with en- 4
17318-14317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
156 GREEK AET IN ITALY.
graved or even Impressed figures of an arabesque description, have been found in tlie most recent excavations, by which altogether the richness of the Etruscans in articles of decoration which was made known to us by the ancients, has received a remarkable confirmation.
2. For the Etruscan origin Yermiglioli, Lezioni di Archeol. i. p. 202. Etrusker ii. s. 257. comp. also R. Eochette's Cours, p. 138. [Scarabseus with Greek inscr. found in Jilgina and also in Greece, Finlay in the Bull.. 1840. p. 140. Since then many have come to light there.] To the earlier known chefs-d'oeuvre—the gem with the five heroes against Thebes (found at Perugia), Theseus in the infernal world, Tydeus acroiyo^sz/og-, Peleus squeezing the water from his hair (Winckelm. M. I. ii. n. 101.105. 106.107.125. Werke viL tf. 2. 3. a similar figure, Micali, tv. 116,13.), are now added Hercules slaying Cycnus (Impronti d. Inst. i, 22. MicaH, tv. 116, 1), Hercules sorrowfully musing (Micali, tv. 116, 5), Hercules opening the cask of Pholus (Micali, tv. 116, 7), and others, found particularly at Volci and Clusium. [The so-called Etruscan gem-border.]
4 There are various of these engravings on gold-rings given in the Impronti d. Inst. I, 57—62, III, 58—62, very Phoenician, and in Micali, tv. 46,19—23; in all there is exhibited a striving at monstrous combinations, which took advantage especially of Babylonio-Phoenician works of the kind. There is in Micali, tv. 45. 46, a collection of gold buckles (one very large put together in a rude taste, and adorned with engraved combatants, lions, birds ill-proportioned in design) and clasps (which are sometimes very finely decorated with sphinxes and lions), necklaces, and pendants (among them Egyptian Phthas-idols of enamelled terracotta, in Etruscan chasing), diadems, chains, rings, and other articles of decoration. Comp. Gerhard, Hyperbor. Rom. Studien, s. 240. A neck ornament, Hon. d. Inst. ii, 7. Annali vi. p. 243. Discoveries at Caere, Bull. 1836, p^ 60. 1839. p. 19% 72 (this last similar to Micali, 45, 3). [The different crowns and garlancbs, sacerdotal breast-plates, the necklaces and bracelets, rings and clasps, and so forth of the new papal collection, Mus. Gregor. i, tv. 67—91. Grifi Mon. di Cere, tv. 1. 2. P. Secchi Tesoretto di Etr. arredi in oro del Cav. Campana, Bull. 1846. p. 3. The Campana collection is rich in the most curious articles, which are not confined to the Etruscan, and which display a skill and delicacy of workmanship now unattainable, although it is inferior to the Mus. Gregor. in numbers. The bracelet mostly as an Italic national ornament according to 3L F. Hermann Gott. GeL Anz. 1843. s. 1158. 1844 s. 504. Schiassi sopra una ar-milla d'oro del M. di Bologna. BoL 1815. 8vo.]
1 176. In coins the Etruscans liad at first their native system —cast pieces of copper, perhaps originally four-cornered, which
2 represented the pound with its parts. The types are sometimes very rude; they show, however, an acquaintance with Greek coin-figures of JSgina, Corinth, and other places (tortoises, Pegasus, shells, and the like); many of them have even
3 a noble Greek style. Etruria came nearer to Greece in her silver and gold coins> but such were struck only by a few cities.
17318-14417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ETRUSCAN PAINTINGL 107
1. There is ^Bs grave of Volaterrse, Camars, Telamon, Tuder, Yetto-na and Iguvium, Pisaurum and Hadria (in Picemrm), Rome (since Serving) and many unknown places. The as, originally equal to the Wyr17318-14517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
158 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
which axe inscribed with Etruscan characters, can afford a sure criterion by which to distinguish Etruscan and Greek productions,
2. £, The Etruscan sepulchral paintings fall into two classes. 1. The earlier ones, approaching nearer to the Greek style, also adhere in the subjects to Greek customs and ideas. To this class belong a. the grotto del fondo Querciola (discovered in 1831), of remarkably pure and simple design; banquets of the dead; a procession to the tomb which is filled with vases placed over one another. M. I. d. Inst. tv. 33. b. The grotto-del fondo Marzi (1830); the style of drawing Etruscan exaggerated, banquets and dances of the dead in vine-arbours and gardens, as in Pindar, after Orphean sources, M. I. d. Inst. tv. 32. c. d. e. The three sepulchres opened in 1827, and delineated by Baron v. Stackelberg and Kestnery previously made known [the engravings have been lying for years with. Cotta] by Micali, tv. 67. 68, The inscriptions, Bullet, d. Inst. 1833. fol. 4. Banquets (of the deceased or those performing the obsequies), procession, to the tomb, gymnic games, chariot races with spectators on platforms. The least carefully painted grotto is remarkable for the Etruscan proper names over the figures of those celebrating the festival of the dead, Comp. B* Rochette, Journ. des Savans 1828. p. 3. 80. Kestner, Ann, d. Inst. L p. 101. Stackelberg in Jahn's Jahrb. i. s. 220. [Hypogsei or sep. caverns of Tarquinii by Eev. C. Byres, edited by Prank Howard, L. 1842. foL Mus. Chiusin. ii. tv. 181—185. The pictures of the Tarquinian grottoes also in the Mus. Gregor. i. tv. 99—104, after the copies on the walls of the museum as well as at Munich.] f. Grotto of Clusium (also in 1827) with chariot races and gymnic games, which are painted on the tufa itself in a careless but bold style. On the last discovered subterranean pictures in sepuL of Ghiusi, Arm all vii. p. 19. 2. The later ones, which have nothing of the severity of the old style but an easy and sometimes, by overstretching the figures, caricatured design; here also the subjects are taken more Iroin Etruscan religion, perhaps from the Achemntian books of the day. Of this class is the Taxquinian tomb in which white and black genii, armed with hammers, contend for the possession of the deceased. See Wil-cox, Philosoph. Trans, liii. tv. 7—9. Agincourt, Hist, de TArchit. pL 10, I. 2. Inghir. iv. tv. 25—27, and vi. tv. c 3. Micali, tv. 65. Another tomb (Dempster ii. tb. 88. Aginc. pi. 11, 5. Inghir. tv. 24) shows the damned hung up and punished with instruments of torture. The earlier accounts of the painted hypogaea of Etruria are summed up by Inghir. iv. p. Ill—144; comp. C, Awolta, Ann, d. Inst. p. 91* Bull. 1831. p. 81. Gerhard, Hyperb. Bom. Stud. s. 129. comp. p. 234. On three newly discovered Tarquinian sepulchres with excellent paintings, Bullet. 1832. p. 213. [Kestner on two sepulchres discovered in Vulci at Ponte della Badia,Bull. 1833. p. 73. M. d. L ii. 2—5. Orioli Ann. vi. p. 153—190. Wall paintings of a tomb at Veii, decorated with figures of athletes, in Micali, M. I. 1844. tv. 58; of one with sphinxes, horses, panthers in the style of Thericles, see Bull. 1843. p. 99 sqq. Other tombs at Yeii have been since opened by Campana.]
5. Among the vases of Yolci there are only three that have Etruscan inscriptions which refer to the subjects painted; [there is one in Braun with a sentence in the Etr. character; Prince Borghese found at Bomarzo
17318-14617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
DEVELOPMENT OF ART. 159
early in 1845 a small vase with the Efcr. alphabet complete, comp. Mus. Gregor. ii. tv. 103; two goblets from Bomarzo with names. Bull. 1846. p. 105 J on several others, of rudest workmanship, there are painted Etruscan names of persons (Kale Mukathesa) according to Gerhard, Ann. d, Inst. iii. p. 73.175. Micali, tv. 101. In subsequent excavations instituted by Baron Beugnot other two pictures of a vase were found, which by the mixture of Etruscan genii and the inscriptions (Aivas, Charun; Turms, Pentasila) maintain a great resemblance to the cinerary cistae. "Hallische ALZ. 1833. IntelL 46. M. d. I. ii, 8. Aivas throwing himself on his sword. Ataiun attacked by dogs, ii. 9. A. Aivas stabbed by another, a gladiatorial conceit, Charu present. B. A woman (HIN0IA), Charon (TVPMVCAS), a woman (nENTASILA), yellow figures, extremely rude drawing, Arm, vi. p. 264. Vase from Perugia, Ann. iv. tv. a. comp. v. p. 346. [Meloger and Atalanta according to JZannom in the Antologia di Firenze.] Mirror with numerous inscriptions, Bull 1835. p. 122,158. A bowl found at Clusium has a gorgoneion with Etruscan inscription^ Micali, tv. 102, 5. A fragment of a vase, of better workmanship it seems, with Etruscan inscription (Tritun, Alacca) in Inghir. v. tv. 55, 8. There was also found at Volci a goblet with the voyage of Odysseus past the Island of the Sirens, and the inscription Fecetiai pocolom (ALZ^ibid.), and also at Tarquinil a vase with a figure of Eros in later style, and the; words VoUani pocolom. Levezow BerL T. no. 909, in Orte two drinking cups with rude figures, Lavernae pocuium, Salutes pocuium, Bull 1837. p. 130, proofs that painted vases were still manufactured in Etruria even when it was subject to the Romans in the sixth century of the city* [Millingen was last in possession of the two Durand goblets, not Fecetiai but JEcetisB pocolom, so that Secchi (erroneously) read Egeriae and Be-lolai pocolom. In the Gregor. Mus. Lavernse pocolom and Keri pocolom* (that is, Oeri Mani.) Etruscan vases in Micali, M. Ined. 1844. tv. 35—? 47, in Berlin after Gerhard's newly acquired monuments, n. 1620—29. 1790—95. Of those goblets there are according to Millingen's statements about 6 known with Etruscan characters, and another with inscriptioa but without figures.]
178. Now what results, for tlie entire development of art 1 in Etruria—partly from the consideration of these different species of art and classes of monuments, and partly from some intimations of the ancients—is nearly this: that the power- £ ful, indeed, but, at the same time, sombre and severe spirit of the Etruscan nation, which was denied the free creative fancy of the Greeks, showed itself in art much more receptive than productive, inasmuch as at its early acquaintance with the works of Greek, especially Peloponnesian artists, it faithfully appropriated their style, and adhered to it for centuries; not 3 neglecting, nevertheless, to avail itself also, for decorative statuary, of the unintelligible, but for that very reason more interesting forms which commerce with the East introduced^ while at the same time the taste for bizarre compositions and distorted shapes which was inborn in the Etruscan race> manir
17318-14717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
160 GREEK ART Dff ITALY.
Tested itself here and there in different ways and in all sorts 4 of works;—but that when art in Greece attained its highest stage, the intercourse of the two nations, on the one hand, was too restricted by reason of various events,—especially the Samnitic conquest of Campania about the year of Rome 332 —and on the other, the Etruscan nation itself was already too much broken, too degenerate and inwardly decayed, and after all did not possess sufficient artistic spirit to be able to appropriate art in an equal degree when carried to perfection; .5 hence, notwithstanding the excellence of particular performances, the art of the Etruscans, on the whole, declined into a sort of plodding handicraft, and lost all pretension to Greek 6 elegance and beauty. Accordingly, the art of design was always a foreign plant in Etruria, foreign in forms, foreign in materials which she borrowed almost entirely, not from the national superstition, which was but ill-adapted to artistic representations, but from the divine and heroic mythi of the Greeks.
2—5, Accordingly the Etruscan works fall into five classes: 1. The real Tuscanica, QuintiL xii, 10. Ti/jopy/^, Strab. xvii. p. 806 a., works which are placed in the same rank with the earliest of Greek art. Heavier forms, and details of costume, as well as the almost universal want of "beard in the Etruscan works of art, constitute the difference. To this class belong many bronzes and engraved works, some stone statues, many gems, some paterae, and the older wall-paintings. 2. Imitations of oriental, chiefly Babylonian, figures which had become diffused by tapestries and engraved stones; always merely in decorative statuary of an arabesque character. Thus on the Olusinian vases, whose figures often recur on, Perso-Babylonian stones (as the woman holding two lions in. Dorow, Voy. ArcMoL pL 2,1. b., is very similar to that in. Ouseley, Travels i. pL 2Jy 16), and at the same time bear a great resemblance to those on the so-called Egyptian vases (§. 75), (for instance, quite the same female figure strangling two geese, appears on both, Micali, tv. 17,5. 73,1); and on engraved stones, especially where there are animal compositions (comp. §. 175), and battles of wild beasts similar to those of Persepolis. That the Greek monstra did not yet satisfy the Etruscans is shown by the figure of the scarabseus in Micali, tv. 46,17; a centaur of the antique form, with gorgon-head, wings on the shoulders, and the fore-feet like the claws of an eagle. 3. Intentionally distorted shapes, especially in bronzes (§. 172) and in mirror-designs. Comp. Gerhard, Sformate Imagini di Bronzo, Bullet, d. Inst. 1830. p. 11. The later wall-paintings (§. 177) also belong to this class. 4. Works in a fine Greek style, very rare; only a few mirror-designs and bronzes. 5. Works of the later mechanical exercise of art, which is to be observed in nearly all cinerary tuns. On the peculiar Etruscan profile in ancient works in stone, and its difference from the Egyptian, Lenoir, Ann, d. Inst. iv. p. 270. [Epochs of Etr. art according to Micali, Arrpa.1i xv. p. 352 s. On Etruscan antiquities. Quarterly Review, 1845. K. cli. by an eminent connoisseur.]
LITERATUBE of the Etruscan antiquities of art. Thomas Dempster's work (written in 1619) De Etruria Regali, 1. viii. ed. Tho. Coke. F. 1723.
17318-14817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
DEVELOPMENT OF ART. 101
2 vols. fo. The engravings of works of art and explanations have been added by Ph. Buonarotti. A. F. Gori, Museum Etruscum 1737-43. 3 vols. (with Passerfs Dissert.) The same author's Musei Gruamacci Ant. Mon. Etrusca 1744M. Saggi di Dissertazioni dell' Acad. Etrusca di Cor-tona beginning from 1742, 9 vols. 4to. Museum Cortonense a Fr. Ya-lesiOj A. E. Gorio et Rod. Venuti Illustr. 1750 fo. Scipione Mafei, Osser-vazioni Letterarii, T. iv. p. 1—243. v. p, 255—395, vi. p. 1—178. J. B. Passeri in Dempsteri libros de E. R. Paralipomena, 1767 fo. Gruarnacci Origini Italiche, 1767—72,3 vols. fo. Heyne's Treatises in the Isfov. Com-mentarr. G-ott. iii. v. vi. vii. Opusc. Acadd. T. v. p. 392. Luigi Lanzi, Saggio di Lingua Etrusca 1789. 3 vols. (who after the example of Winck-elmann and Heyne in some measure cleared up the field which was before in confusion). Franc. Inghirami, Monument! Etruschi o di Etrusco nome, 7 vols. text in 4to. 6 vols. engravings, fo. 1821—1826. Micali, Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani, 1832. 3 vols. a new edition of the work Italia avanti il Dominio de* Romani, the atlas of which, entitled Antichi Monumenti, far surpasses earlier ones in copiousness and importance of the monuments comprised in it, and therefore ia here alone made use of. [The last collection not less rich, Mon. ined. a illustraz. della storia d. ant. pop. ItaL Firenze, 1844, 2. vols. foL Comp. Aim all xv. p. 346. R. Rochette Journ. des Sav. 1845. p. 349. Cavedoni Oss. crit. sopra i mon. Etr. del Micali, Modena 1844. 8vo.] Etr. Museo Chiusroo da! suoi possessor! pubbl. con brevi espos. del Cav. Fr. IngMraf mi, P. 1.1833. P. II. 1832 (sic). [Musei Etnisci quod Gregorius XVL in sedd. Tatic. constituit. P. L IL 1842. 2 vols. foL] Smaller works by Ter-miglioli, Orioli, Cardinali and otheirs*
3. ROME BEFORE THE YEAR OF THE CITY 606 (OL. 158, 3).
179. Rome, which was an inconsiderable town before the 1 dominion of'the Etruscans, received through them the structures that an Etruscan capital required, and at the same time a circuit of very considerable extent (about seven millia). Its 2 temples also were now provided with statues of which Rome is said to have been entirely destitute before; however, the 3 gods of Rome long remained of wood and clay, the work of Etruscan artists or handicraftmen.
1. To these belong the great Cloaca (§, 168), the laying out of the Forum and Comitium, the Circus (§. 170), the Capitoline temple (§. 169), the prison (robur Tullianum, S. Pietro in Carcere), which sprang from the fatomia of the Capitoline hill, the temple of Diana on the Avemtin% the wall of Tarquinius or S^rvius (Niebuhr i. p. 394), and the Servian, walls (Bunsen, Beschreibung Roms L s. 623). On the substructions of the Yia Appia in the vale of Aricia and the tomb of the Horatii and Cu-riatii M, d. L ii, 39. Canina Amu ix. p. 10.
2. On the worship without idols at Rome before the first Tarquin, Zoega de Obel. p. 225.
& Comp. Varro in Plin. xxxv, 45. with Plin. xrriv, 16.
L
17318-14917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
162 GREEK AET IN ITALY.
1 180. At the time of the republic the practical sense of the Romans, which was directed to the common good, urged them much less to what is called fine architecture than to the construction of grand works in water- and road-architecture; however, the military roads, which had a hottom of gravel, and were paved with large stones, did not make their appearance till the sixth century, and the extensive aqueducts
2 on arcades till the "beginning of the seventh. Temples indeed in great number were vowed and dedicated at an early period even to allegorical deities; but few before those of Metellus
3 were distinguished by their materials, size or art Men of course were lodged still more meanly than the gods; there was long even a want of great public courts and halls; and buildings for games were but slightly constructed for the temporary
4 object And yet of the arts of design, architecture was most adapted to the Eoman customs and views of life; a Roman named Cossutius built for Antiochus at Athens about 590 (§.
£ 153, Rem. 4). The sarcophagi of the Scipios show how Greek forms and decorations had everywhere found entrance, but also how they were combined and mingled after the example of the Etruscans, without regard to destination and character.
1, The care of the Romans about road-making, aqueducts, and removal of filth, is placed by Stralbo v. p. 235 in contrast with the indifference of the Greeks as to these things. Braining of the Alban lake about 359 (§. 168), of the Velinus by Curius 462. (Mebuhr iii. p. 265.) Aqueducts: Aqua Appia (under ground for 10 millia, 300 feet on arches) 442, Artio Vetus 481, Marcia 60S, the Tepula 627, the Julia by Agrippa 719, (Frontinus de aqueduct. 1.) New Cloacae 568. 719. Braining of the Pomptine marshes 592 (again under Caesar and Augustus). Roads: Tia Appia, 442 (at first unpaved; 460 it was paved with basaltic lava to a distance of 10 millia from the city); Flaminia 532. 565; improvement in road-making during the censorship of Fulvius Flaccus 578; excellent roads of C. Gracchus about 630. Bridges over the Tiber. Comp. Hirt, Oesch. der Baukunst ii. s* 184 ff.
2. The temple vowed by the Dictator Postumius, and dedicated in 261 by Sp. Cassius to Ceres, Liber, and Libera, near the Circus Maximus, is worthy of notice,—Yitruvius* model of the Tuscan order, the first, according to Pliny, which was adorned by Greeks, Bamophilus and Gor-gasus, as painters and statuaries in clay. The Temple of Yirtus and Honor, dedicated by Marcellus 547, and decorated with Greek works of art. Temple of Fortuna Equestris, 578, built by Q. Fulvius Flaccus, systyle according to Vitruv. iii. 3; the half of the marble tiles of the Hera Lacinia were to have formed the roof, Liv. xln, 3. The Temple of Hercules Musarum at the Circus Flaminius, built by M. Fulvius Nobilior, the friend of Ennius, 573, and adorned with brazen statues of the Muses from Ambracia. See Plin. xxxv, 36,4., together with Harduin, Eumenius pro restaur. schol. c. 7, 3. and the coins of Pomponius Musa. Q. Metellus Macedonicus built 605, with the spoils of the Macedonian war, two temples to Jupiter Stator and Juno, ia which marble first made its ap-
17318-15017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
BUILDINGS AND SCULPTURES OF EARLY ROME. 163
pearance, surrounded by a large portico (in 722, named after Octavia). Jupiter's temple peripteral, that of Juno prostyle, according to Vitru-vius and the Capitoline plan of Rome. The former, according to Vitru-vius, was built by Hermodorus of Salamis; according to Pliny, the columns were executed by Sauras and Batrachus of Lacedsemon (lacerta atque rana in columnarum spiris; comp. Winckelmann, W. i. s. 379, 3?ea, s. 459). Comp. Sachse, Gesch. der Stadt. Rom. i. s. 537. On the statues therein, § 160, 2. Hermodorus of Salamis also built the temple of Mars at the Circus Maminius after 614. Hirt ii. s. 212.
3. A rude rebuilding of the city with unburnt bricks, 365. The first basilica mentioned (pourfaixq aro») was by Cato 568; at an earlier period the temples of Janus served as places of assembly. Edifices by the censor Fulvius Nobilior 573 for intercourse. A Senatus consultum against permanent theatres (theatrum perpetuuni) 597. comp. Lipsius ad Tac, Ann. xiv. 20. The columna rostrata of Duilius in the first Punic war. On other honorary columns, Plin. xxxiv, 11.
5. See especially the Sarcophagus of Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbates Gnaivod patre prognatus, etc. (Consul 454) in Piranesi Monumenti degli Scipioni, t, 3. 4, Winckelm. W. i. tf. 12. Hirt, tf. 11. F. 28. On the insignificant remains of republican Rome, Bunsen i. s. 161. On the tombs of the Scipios, Gerhard Beschr. Roms ii, 2. s. 121.
181. The plastic art, which was at the beginning very little 1 exercised among the Romans, gradually became important to them, through political ambition. The senate and people, 2 foreign states from gratitude, the Thurinians first, erected to meritorious men statues of brass in the forum and elsewhere; many even did so to themselves, as Spurius Cassius, according to Pliny, had already done about 268. The images of their 3 ancestors in the atrium, on the other hand, were not statues, but masks of wax designed to represent the deceased at processions. The first brazen statue of a deity was, according to 4 Pliny, one of Ceres, which was cast from the confiscated property of Spurius Cassius. From the time of the Samnitic wars, when the dominion of Rome began to extend over Magna Grecia, statues and colossi were likewise, according to the Greek custom, raised to the gods as consecrated gifts.
1. Pliny (xxxiv, 11 sqq.) indeed gives out many brazen statues as works of the time of the kings and the early republic, and even believes in statues of Evander's time, and in the dedication of a Janus by -NTum% which indicated the number 355 by bending the fingers in the manner of the Greek mathematicians. But the most of those mentioned by hm evidently belonged to a later period. The statues of Romulus and Gamil-lus were in heroic nudity quite contrary to the Roman custom, unless Pliny (ex his Romuli est sine tunica, sicut et Gamilli in Rosins) is to be explained from Asconius in Scaur, p. 30. OrelL Romuli et Tatji stattue in Capitolio et Camilli in rostris togataa sine tunicis. Romulus was an ideal figure, the head of which is preserved on coins of the Memmian family; the same applies to Numa (Visconti, Icomogr, Rom. D!. IV, on the
17318-15117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
164 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
contrary, Ancus Marcius appears to have retained a family likeness of the Marcii. The following are more genuine works of the earlier period, viz., the Attus Favius (comp. with Pliny Cic, de Div. i. 11), the Minu-cius of the year 316, and the probably Greek statues of Pythagoras and Alcihiades (erected about 440), and of Hermodorus of Ephesus, a participator in the decemviral legislation. Comp. Hurt Gesch. der Bild. Kunst s. 271. Statues of Romans before Pyrrhus (454) Cicero CaeL §. 39. c. intpp.
2. See Plin. xxxiv, 14. In the year 593 the censors P. Corn. Scipio and M. Popilius took away all statues of magistrates around the forum which had not been erected by the people or senate. A statue of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, stood in the portico of Metellus.
3. On the Imagines Majorum, Polyb. vi, 53. with Schweighauser's note. Lessing Sammtl. Schriften Bd. x. s. 290. Eichstadt iii. Prolu-^siones. Qu. de Quincy, Jup. Olymp. p. 14. 36. Hugo's Rechtsgesch. (eleventh ed.) s. 334. Appius Claudius first dedicated images of his ancestors on shields (comp. §. 345*) in the temple of Bellona, which was vowed in the year 456 (not 259). Plin, xxxv, 3.
5. The Hercules dedicated on the capitol in 448 is worthy of remark (Liv. ix. 44); and also the colossal Jupiter consecrated by Spurius Car-vilius on the capitol after 459, visible from the Jupiter Latiaris. It was cast from the magnificent armour of the sacred legion of the Samnites (comp. Liv. ix, 40. x, 38); at its feet was the statue of Carvilius cast from the filings (reliquiis limce). Plin. xxxiv, 18. IsTovius Plautius, worker in brass at Rome, about the year 500, §. 173. Rem. 4.
1 182. In the consular and family coins (as those marked •with the names of the superintendents of the Mint, especially the tresmri momtales, were called) the art gives evidence of great rudeness during the first century after the coining of silver began (483); the impression is flat, the figures clumsy, the Roma-head ugly. Even when the more multiplied family-types made their appearance, the art still remained rude and
2 imperfect The early occupation with painting, especially in the case of Fabius Pictor, contrasting as it did with the
3 customs of Rome otherwise known to us, is remarkable. However, the application of painting to the perpetuating of warlike exploits and the adorning of triumphs also contributed to its being held in honour among the Romans.
1. The oldest consular coins had on the obverse the head with the winged helmet (Roma, according to others Pallas) j on the reverse the Dioscuri, instead of whom, however, a chariot and horses (bigati, serrati) were soon introduced. The family coins had at first the general Roman emblems of the consular coins, only different gods were represented on the chariot; afterwards different types made their appearances bearing reference to the religion and history of the families. The denarius of the Pompeian family with the she-wolf, the children, and fhefostlm is interesting. The wolf is well designed, probably after the Etruscan one (§. 172); every thing else still bad and rude. The principal works on this
17318-15217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
EARLY ROMAN PAINTINGS. 165
portion of Numismatics "by Car. Patin, Yaillaiit, Morelli, and Havercamp. Eckhel D. N, ii, v. p. 53 sqq. especially 111. Stieglitz, Distributio nu-morum familiarum Roman, ad typos accommodata (an instructive book), Lips. 1830. B. Borghesi on family coins in Giornale Acad. T. Ixiv. Ixv. Cavedoni Monete ant. italiche impresse per la guerra civile, Bullett. 1837. p. 199.
2. Fabius Pictor painted the temple of Salus, and that too in a masterly manner, in 451. lav. x, 1. Plin. xxxv, 7. Val. Max. viii, 14, 6, Dion. Hal. Frgm. by Mai xvi, 6. Letronne Lettres d'un Antiquiare, p. 412. Append., p. 82. denies that the passage in Dionysius refers to Fabius. M. Pacuvius of Rudise, the tragedian (half a Greek), painted the temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium about 560. Postea non est spectata (haec ars) honestis manibus, Plin. A painter named Theodotus in Nse-vius (Festus, p. 204. Lindem.) [Panofka in the Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 133 ff.] about 530, was evidently a Greek, as well as the rtnxpyt*Qo$ Demetrius, 590. Diodor. Exc. Vat. xxxi, 8. comp. Osann, Kunstblatt 1832. N,
74. [ro^oy^ipof is only Osann's conjecture for ro7roygoi(pQ£ ; roirioygoitpQZ
is more likely in the sense which we discover from Yitruvius, fromtopia; R, Rochette Suppl. au Oatal. des artistes, p. 271 sqq. prefers although ToVog- cannot be pointed out in the sense of landscape.]
3. Examples in Pliny xxxv, 7, especially M. Valerius MessaJa's battle against the Carthaginians in Sicily, 489, and Lucius Scipia's victory over Antiochus about 564 Lucius HostiHus Mancinus in 606 explained to the people himself a picture representing the conquest of Ckrthage. Triumphs made pictures necessary (Petersen, Einleit. s. 58) ; for iisat purpose JSmilius Paulus got Metrodorus firom Athens (ad excolendum triumphum), PEn. xxxv, 40, 30.
FIFTH PERIOD,
FROM THE YEAR 606 OF THE CITY (OLYMPIAD 158, 3) TILL THE MIDDLE AGES.
1. GENERAL REJECTIONS ON THE CHARACTER AND SPIRIT OF
TIME.
183. As the wliole Mstory of civilized mankind (with tie 1 exception of India), so also was the history of art now concentrated at Borne; but merely through the political supremacy, ,not on account of the artistic talents of the Romans. The Romans, although on one side intimately allied to the Greeks, were yet as a whole of coarser, less finely organized materials. Their mind was always directed to those external relations of 2 men to one another, "by which their activity in general is
17318-15317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
166 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. V.
conditioned and determined (practical life); at first more to those which concern the community (politics), then, when freedom had outlived itself, to those which exist between in-
3 dividuals (private life), especially such as arose with reference to external possessions. To preserve, increase, and protect the res familiaris, was nowhere so much as here regarded as a
4 duty. The careless, unembarrassed, and playful freedom of mind which, heedlessly abandoning itself to internal impulses, gives birth to the arts, was a stranger to the Romans; even religion, in Greece the mother of art, was among them designedly practical, not only in its earlier form as an emanation of Etruscan discipline, but also in its later, when the
£ deification of ethico-political notions prevailed. This practical tendency, however, was among the Romans combined with a taste for magnificence which despised doing things by halves, or in a paltry style, which satisfied every necessity of life in a complete and comprehensive manner by great undertakings, and thereby upheld architecture at least among the arts,
3. Compare on this point (a principal cause of the great perfection of the civil law) Hugo's History of Law, eleventh ed, p. 76. Juvenal xiv. shows how avaritia was inoculated in the young as good husbandry. Horace often places as In A. P. 323. the economico-practical education of the Romans in contrast with the more ideal culture of the Greeks. Omnibus, diis, hominibusque, formosior videtur massa auri, quam quidquld Apelles, Phidiasque, Graeculi delirantes, fecerunt. Petron. 88.
1 184 The character of the Roman world in reference to art, throughout this period, can be best understood if viewed in
2 four stages: 1st From the conquest of Corinth to Augustus. The endeavours of the great to impose, and to gain the people by the magnificence of triumphs, and games of unprecedented
3 splendour, drew artists and works of art to Rome. In individuals there was awakened a genuine taste for art, for the most part indeed united mth great luxury, like the love for
4 art of the Macedonian princes. The charm of these enjoyments was only enhanced in private life by the resistance of a party who cherished old-Roman predilections, although in
5 public life these had apparently the ascendancy. Hence Rome was a rallying point for Greek artists, among whom there were many of great excellence who vied with the an-
6 cients; artistic science and connoisseurship here fixed their seat.
2. See §. 182, 3. M. j33milius Scaurus, fiuttceprimgnus, in 694. brought to Rome for his games as aedile the pledged statues of Sicyon, Plin. xxxv, 40, 24. xxxvi, 24, 7. Pictures also were spoiled from want of skill, in cleaning for such purposes, xxxv, 36,19. In Cicero's time magistrates often lent one another works of art from a distance, Cic. Verr. iv. 3.
17318-15417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 167
Scenographic pictures, in which illusion was the highest aim, were also employed at the games. Plin. xxxv, 7.
4. See Cato's speech (557), Liv. xxxiv, 4. Plin. xxxiv, 14. Cicero was afraid to he held by the judges a connoisseur iix art: nimirum didici etiam dum in istum inquire artificum nomina. Terr, iv, 2, 7. Cicero's love for art, however, was very moderate, see Epp. ad Div. vii, 23. Parad. 5, 2. Not so with Damasippus, Epp. ibid. Horat. Sat. ii, 3, 64.
6. The intelligentes stood in contradistinction to the /o;&ir#/, Cic. ibid. But evenPetronms^ Trimalchio says amid the most ridiculous explanations of art: Meum enim intelligere nulla pecunia. vendo. Important passages on connoisseurship in Dionys. de Dinarcho, p. 664. de vi Dem. p. 1108. [Juv. i, 56 doctus spectare lacunar.] The test was: non inscriptis auo torem reddere signis, Statius, Silv. iv, 6, 24. The idiotce, on the contrary, were often deceived with famous names. Beck, De KOHL Artif. in Mo-num. artis interpoktis. 1832.
185. II. The Time of the Julii and Flcmi, 723 to 848 1 A. IF. (96 A. D.). Prudent princes, by means of magnificent undertakings which also procured to the common people extraordinary comforts and enjoyments, brought the Romans into entire oblivion of political life; half insane successors, by the gigantic schemes of their folly, gave still ample occupation to the arts. Although art even in such times must 2 have been far removed from the truth and simplicity of the best ages of Greece, still, however, It everywhere manifested during this century spirit and energy; the decline of taste Is yet scarcely observable.
1. The saying of Augustus: that he would leave the city marmorea which he had received lateritia* Nero's burning and rebuilding.
186. III. From Nerva to the so-caUed Tviginta Tyranny 1 96 to about 260 years after Christ. Long-continued peace in the Roman empire; splendid undertakings even in the provinces; a transitory revival of art in Greece itself through Hadrian; magnificent erections in the East. With all this 2 zealous and widely-extended exercise of art, the want of internal spirit and life is shown more and more distinctly from the time of the Antonines downwards, along with the striving after external show; vapidity and inflation combined, as* in oratory and literature. The force of the spirit of Greco- 3 Roman culture was broken by the inroad of foreign ideas; the general want of satisfaction with the hereditary religions, the blending together of heterogeneous superstitions must have been in many ways pernicious to art. The circumstance 4 that a Syrian sacerdotal family occupied for a while the Roman throne had considerable influence. Syria and Asia Mi- 5 nor were at that time the most flourishing province^ and an Asiatic .character emanating from thence, is dearly observabler in the arts of design as well as in literature.
17318-15517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
168 HISTORY OF aREEK ART. [Paa. Y.
3. The worship of Isis, which made violent intrusion about the year 700 a. u. and often served as a cloak to licentiousness, became gradually so prevalent that Commodus and Caracalla openly took part in it.—The worship of Mithras, a mixture of Assyrian and Persian religion, became first known in the Roman world through the pirates, before Pompey, and was established at Rome from the time of Domitian, and still more from the time of Commodus. The Syrian worship was in favour even under Nero, but became prevalent particularly from the time of Septi-mius Severus.—Add to this, the Chaldsean Genethliology; Magic amulets, §. 206; theurgic philosophy. Comp, Heyne, Alexandri Severi Imp. religiones miscellasprobantis judicium, especially Epim. vi.: de artis fin-gendi et sculpendi corruptelis ex religionibus peregrinis et superstitioni-bus profectis, Opusc. Acadd. vi. p. 273.
4, Genealogy also is of importance to the history of art:
Bassianus Priest of the sun at Emesa
______________I______________
JTJLIA DOBOTA JFMA MJESA
the wife of Septimius Severus |
Bassianus Septimius Caracalla Geta SOJBMIAS by a Roman senator i Heliogabalus JULIA MAMMJBA by a Syrian Severus Alexander.
1 187. IV. From the Triginta Tyranni to the Byzantine times.
2 The ancient world declined, and with it art. The old Roman patriotism lost, through political changes and the powerless-ness of the empire, the hold which the rule of the Caesars had
8 still left it The living faith in the gods of heathendom disappeared; attempts to preserve it only gave general ideas for personal substances. At the same time was altogether lost the manner of viewing things to which art is indebted for its existence,—the warm and living conception of external nature,
4 the intimate union of corporeal forms with the spirit. A dead system of forms smothered the movements of freer vital power; the arts themselves were taken into the service of a tasteless half-oriental court-parade. Before the axe was laid externally to the root of the tree the vital sap was already dried up within.
ARCHITECTONICS.
1 188. Even before the Caesars Rome was provided with all kinds of edifices which seemed necessary to adorn a great
2 city, after the manner of the Macedonian structures;—ele-
17318-15617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
STRUCTURES AT THE CLOSE OF THE REPUBLIC. 169
gantly built temples, although none of considerable extent; cwriw and basilica?, which became more and more necessary to 3 the Romans as places of assembly and business, as Veil as markets (fora) surrounded with colonnades and public buildings; buildings also for games which the Roman people was 4 formerly accustomed to see even although magnificent, constructed only for a short duration, were now built of stone and in gigantic masses. In the same way luxury in pri- 5 vate buildings, after it had timidly and hesitatingly taken the first steps, soon advanced rapidly and unprecedently to a great height; at the same time the streets were crowded with 6 monuments, and superb villas swallowed up the space destined for agriculture.
2. Temple of Honor and Virtus built by the architect C. Mutius for Marius, according to Hirt ii. s. 213 5 others (as Sachse i. s, 450) hold it to be that of Marcellus, §. 180. Rem. 2. The new capitol of Sulla and Catulus with unaltered plan, dedicated in 674. The temple of Yenus Grenitrix on the Forum Juliurn, vowed in. 706; Temple of JDivus Julius, begun in 710.
3. The Curia of Pompey 697; the magnificent Basilica of JEmiEus Paulus, the consul 702;, with Phrygian columns (Basilica Emilia et FoU via, Varro de L. L. vi §. 4). The Basilica Julia, which Augustus completed and then renewed, at the south-west corner of the Palatine* See Gerhard, Delia Basilica Giulia. R. 1823. Adjoining it wasthenewFoOTm Julium, completed by Augustus. On the design of a Forum §. 295*
4. In the year 694 M. JEmilius Scaurus as aedile fitted up magnificently a wooden theatre; the wall around the stage consisted of three tiers of pillars (episcenia), behind which the wall was of marble below, then of glass, and then of gilded wainscot; 3,000 brazen statues, many pictures and tapestries. Curio the tribune's (702) two wooden theatres were united into an amphitheatre. Pompey's theatre (697), the first of stone, for 40,000 spectators, was copied from that of Mitylene. On the upper circuit stood a temple of Venus Victrix. Hirt iii. s. 98. [Canina sul teatro di Pompeo in the Mem. d. acad, Archeol. 1833.] The first amphitheatre of stone erected by Statilius Taurus under Augustus. The circus Maximus was fitted up for 150,000 men in the reign of Caesar.
5. The censor L. Crassus was much censured about the year 650 on account of his house with six small columns of Hymettic marble. The first that was faced with marble (a luxury which now crept in) belon^l to Mamurra, 698; but even Cicero lived in a house which cost Hisxxrr, that is ,£26,090. Mazois, Palais de Scaurus, ftagm. d'un voyage fait & Rome vers la fin de la republ. par Merovir prince des Sueves, In. German with notes by the brothers Wtistemann. G-otha 1820.
6. Lucullus' villas, Petersen Einl p. 71. Varro's Ormfton (aHer &e tower of the Winds at Athens, de R. B. iii, 3). Monument of Cecilia Metella, the wife of Crassus, almost the only ruin of that time.—Architects in the time of Cicero, Hirt ii. s. 257. Cyrus in dcero's letters.
17318-15717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
170 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. V.
1 189. In the time of the first Csesars Roman architecture in public buildings cultivated a character of grandeur and magnificence, which -was certainly the most conformable to the relations and ideas of a people that governed the world.
2 Pillars and arches took their place in considerable buildings as a leading form, together with the columns and their entablature, while at the same time the fundamental law was observed that both forms, but each preserving its own place, should go side by side, so that the arches formed the internal construction of the building, the columns the external front, and where no roof rested upon their entablature should fulfil
3 their end as supports to statues. However, there were more severe scholars of the Greek masters, such as Vitruvius, who were even already forced to complain of the mixture of hete-
4 rogeneous forms; a reproach, that must also indeed apply to the so-called Roman capital which did not make its appearance till after Vitruvius. Purity of architecture required to be even at that time learned from the edifices of the Grecian mother country and Ionia
3. See Titruv. iy 2. iv, 2. on the blending of the Ionic dentels with the Doric triglypbs. It is found exemplified in the theatre of Marcellus. Yitruvius complains more loudly of scenography which mocked at all architectonic principles, §. 209,
4. The Roman or Composite capital places the Ionic corner-capital entire over the lower two-thirds of the Corinthian, into which however the former had been already taken up in the most suitable manner; it loses thereby all unity of character. The columns are carried to a height of 9 to 9| diameters. First introduced in the arch of Titus.
1 190. Augustus, with a true princely disposition, comprehended all branches of a Roman order of architecture: he found the field of Mars still for the most part unoccupied, and together with Agrippa and others converted it into a superb city agreeably interspersed with groves and verdant
2 lawns, which eclipsed all the rest of the city. The succeeding emperors crowded with their buildings more around the Palatine and the Via Sacra; one enormous fabric here arose
3 on the ruins of another. In the room of the gigantic edifices of Nero, which only ministered to the debauchery and vanity of .the builder, the Flavii planted structures of public utility; in their time, however, a perceptible decline of good taste
4 took place. A terrible event in the reign of Titus has preserved to posterity the animated spectacle of a whole Roman country-town, in which, notwithstanding the utmost economizing of space, and on the whole a slight and cheap style of building, there are to be found nearly all kinds of public buildings which a capital possessed, and a taste for elegant form and pleasing ornament are seen everywhere diffused.
17318-15817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPEROHS. 171 1. UITPER AUGUSTUS (Monum. Ancyranum):
I. IH ROME, a. Built by the Emperor. Temple of Apollo Palatinus, completed in. 724, of Carrara, and the colonnades around of Punic marble; libraries in it. Sachse ii. s. 10, Petersen Einl. s. 87. Temple of Jupiter Tonans, now of Saturn (three Corinthian columns together with entablature on the Capitoline MR are remains of a restoration, Besgodetz, Les Edifices Antiques de Rome, ch. 10); of Quirinus, a dipteros; of Mars Ultor on the capitol, a small monopteros, which, we still see on coins, and in the forum of Augustus a large temple, of which three columns still remain. Piale, Atti dell' Ace. Archeol. Rom. ii. p. 69. The Roman fora according to Bunsen, Mon. d. Instit. ii, 33. 34. Theatre of Marcellus, built into the Palace Orsini, 378 feet in diameter (see Guattani M 1.1689, Glenn. Febr. Piranesi, AntichitS, Rom. T. iv. t. 25—37. Besgodetz, ch. 23). Portico of Octavia (formerly of Metellus) together with a curia, schola, library and temples—a vast structure. A few Corinthian columns of it remaining, as is thought (comp. Petersen Einl. s. 97 if). Mausoleum of Augustus together with the Bustum on the field of Mars beside the Tiber; remains of it. Agwz. V^ce, * [The bust at the Corso, Reschr, Roms iii. 3 Einleitung.]
b. Buildings of other great personages (Sueton. August. 29). By M. Agrippa, great harbours and cloacae; the portico of Neptune or the Argonauts ; the Septa Julia and the Biribitorium with enormous roof (Plin. xvi, 76, and xxxvi. 24, 1. e cod. Bamberg. Bio Oass. Iv, 8); the large Thermae. The Pantheon formed am advanced building in front (727); a circular edifice 132 feet high and broad within, with a portico of Uf Corinthian columns of granite; the walls reveted with marble, the laen-naria adorned with gilded rosettes. Brazen beams supported the roof of the portico, the tiles were gilded, Bedicated to the gods of the Julian family (Jupiter as Ultor, Mars, Venus, B. Julius and three others), colossal statues of whom stood in niches.—[Instead of the words Pantheon lovi Ultori in the second passage of Pliny, the Cod. Bamb, has vidit orbis: non et tectum diribitom? There are only six niches]—Other statues in tabernacles, the Caryatides of Diogenes on columns. Colossi of Augustus and Agrippa in the portico. Restored 202 after Christ. S. Maria Rotonda. Besgodetz, ch. 1. Hirt ia the Mus. der Alterthums W. Bd. L s. 148. Guattani 1789. Sett. Mem. Encycl. 1817. p. 48. [Beschr. Roms iii, 3. s. 339—59.] Four [legal] documents by Fea. 1806 and 1807, [on. the removal of the adjoining houses]. "Wiebeking RurgerL Bauktmst,, Tt 24. Rosini's Vedute. By Asinius Pollio the atrium of Libertas with a bibliotheca and busts of literary men. See Reuvens in Thorbecke, Be Asinio Pollione. Cornelius Balbus' Theatre.—Pyramid of Cestius.
On the picturesque appearance (scenography) of the Campus Martins at this time, Str. v. p. 256, Comp. Piranesi's imaginative panoramic; view; Campus Martius. R. 1762.
II. OUT OF ROME. In Italy the arches in honour of Augustus at Himini (see Briganti's work), Aosta and Susa (Maffei, Mus. Teroru p. 234. Work by Massazza), which are still standing. Road out through the hill of Posilippo by T. Cocceius Auctus. R, Roohette, Lettre & M, Schorn. p. 92. In the provinces, several temples of Augustus and Roma; ruins at Pola. The stoa of Athena Arehegetijs at the new forum of
17318-15917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
172 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEB. V.
Athens with an equestrian statue of L. Caesar (slender Doric columns) about 750. C. I. n. 342. 477. Stuart i. ch. 1. Remains of a small temple of Augustus have been lately discovered (C. I. 478). Nicopolis near Ac-tium, and near Alexandria built by Augustus. Ara maxima built to Augustus in 744 by the nations of Gaul, on an inscription in Osann Zeitsehr. f. A. W. 1837. s. 387. Sumptuous buildings by Herod the Great in Ju-dsea (Hirt, in the Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1816) ; the new temple endeavoured to bring the old style of Solomon into harmony with the Greek taste now prevailing in architecture. Temple of C. and L. Csesar at Ne-mausus, Msmes, an elegant Corinthian prostyle pseudopeript., built 752 (1 after Christ). Clerisseau, Antiquite's de Nismes. Comp. §. 262, 2.
2. THE CLATTDII. The camp of the Praetorians (A. D. 22) marks the time of Tiberius, and the street-like bridge of vessels across the bay of Baise that of Caligula (Mannert Geogr. ix, 1. s. 731). Claudius' great harbour of Ostia with gigantic moles and a pharos on an artificial island, afterwards still more improved by Trajan (Schol. Juven. xii, 76); his aqueducts (aqua Claudia et Anio novus) and draining of the lake Fucinus. [Completed by Hadrian, Martiniere Geogr. Lex. iv. s. 1973 sq.] Bunsen A-nrifl.il d, Inst. vi. p. 24. tav. d'agg. A. B. [L. Canina sulla sta-gione delle navi di Ostia, sul porto di Claudio 1838. Atti del acad. pontef.] Claudius' triumphal arch on the Maminian way (on coins, Pedrusi vi. tb. 6, 2), buried ruins of it. Bullet, d. Inst. 1830. p. 81. Palatine palaces of the Caesars. Del palazzo de' Cesari opera postuma da Franc. Bianchini. Ter. 1738. A new Rome regularly built arose from Nero's conflagration (65). The golden house (on the site of the transitona) extended across from the Palatine to the Esquiline and Caelius, with porticoes several miJJia in length and large parks laid out in the interior, and indescribable splendour particularly in the dining-halls. The architects were Celer and Severus. The Flavii destroyed the greatest part; numerous chambers have been preserved in the Esquiline, behind the substruction-walls of the baths of Titus. See Ant. de Romanis, Le antiche Camere Esquiline 1822, and Canina's Memorie Rom. ii. p. 119. comp. §. 210. Nero's baths on the Campus. [Canina sul porto Neroniano di Ostia, R. 1837. from the Atti d. acad. pontef.]
3. THE FifAvii. The third capitol, by Vespasian, higher than the earlier ones (on coins, Eckhel D. ET. iv. p. 327); the fourth, by Domitian, still always according to the same ground-plan but with Corinthian pillars of Pentelic marble, within richly gilded (Eckhel, p. 377). Temple of Peace, by Yespasian (Eckhel, p. 334); extensive ruins on the Via Sacra. The cross-arch of the centre-nave was supported by eight Corinthian columns; at each side three subordinate compartments. Bra-mante borrowed from them the idea of St. Peter's, According to others it belonged to a basilica of Constantine (Fibby del tempio d. Pace et della bas. di Constant. 1819. La has. di Constant, sbandita della Via Sacra per lett. dell' Av. Fea. 1819). Desgodetz, ch. 7. Comp. Caristie, Plan et Coupe du Forum et de la Voie Sacree. Amphitheatrum Flavi-um (Coliseum) dedicated by Titus, in the year 80, and used at the same time as a Naumachia. The height 158 Parisian feet, the small axis 156 (Arena) and 2 X 156 (Seats), the large, 264 and 2 X 156. Desgodetz, ch. 21. Guattani 1789. Febr. Marzo. Five small treatises by Fea.
17318-16017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OE THE EMPERORS. 170
Wagner de Flav. Amph. Commentationes. Marburghi 1829—1831. comp. §* 290, 3. 4. Titus' palace and thermae. Domitian built many magnificent edifices, as to which Martial, Stat. Silv. iv, 2, 48. Large domed hall on the Palatium by Rabirius. The Alban citadel (Piranesi, Anti-chit^, d'Albano). Forum Palladium of Domitian or Nerva with richly decorated architecture; chamfered corona; modillions and dentels together; see Moreau, Fragmens d'Architecture, pi. 7.8.11.12.13.14.17.18. Guattani 1789. Ottobre. Arch of Titus on the Via Sacra, the architecture somewhat overloaded, the corona channelled. Bartoli, Yet. Arcus August, cum notis I. P. Bellorii ed. lac. de Rubeis 1690. Desgodetz, ch. 17. comp. §. 294, 9. [Gius. Yaladier Farraz. artist, dell' operate nel ristauro dell' arco di Tito. In Roma 1822. 4to.]
4. Under Titus (A. D. 79), POMPEII, HERCin&ANEirM and STABLE buried. History of their discovery, §. 260. Pompeii is highly interesting as a miniature picture of Rome. A third portion of the city has been laid open, and here there are a principal forum, with the temple of Jupiter (2), a basilica, the Chalcidicum and Crypta of the Eumachia, and the Collegium of the Augustales (1), the fontm rerwn, vendKum, two theatres (the unroofed one built by Antoninus Primus, M. Borbon. i, 38), thermsa, numerous temples mostly small, among them an Iseum, many private buildings, in part very stately dwellings provided with atrium and peristyle, such as the so-called house of Arrms Diomedes, that of SaHust, of Pansa, and those called after the tragic poet and tlxe faun; the street of sepulchres before the gate towards Heroiilaneum \ separated from tiiese the amphitheatre to the east. Almost everything oin a small houses low (also on account of earthquakes), but neat, clean, and fortable, slightly built with rubble stones, but cast with excellent plaster ; beautiful floors of particoloured marble and mosaic. The columns mostly of the Doric order with slender shafts, but sometimes Ionic with singular deviations from the regular form, and with a coating of paint (Mazois, Livr. 25), also Corinthian. The most antique structure is the so-called temple of Hercules. Much had not yet been restored after the earthquake of 63 A. D,
Principal Books: Antiquites de la Grande Grece, grav. par. Fr. Pirar nesi d'apres les desseins de J. B. Piranesi et expL par A. J. GuattanL P. 1804. 3 vols. fo. Mazois' splendid work, Antiquites de Pompel, begun in 1812, continued since 1827 by Gau. [Completed with the fourth part 1838.] Sir "W. Gell and Gandy, Pompeiana or Observations on the Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii. L. 1817. New Series 1830, in 8vo. Goro von Agyagfalva's Wanderungen durch Pompeii, Wien 1825. R. Rochette and Bouchet, Pomp6i. Choix d'Edifices In&Irts, !be~ gun Paris 1828. [contains Maison du poete trag. broken off at the M part, 22 pi.] Cockburn and Donaldson, Pompeii illustrated with pio-turesque Views. 2 vols. fo. W. Clarke's Pompeii, translated at Leipzig 1834. M. Borbonico. Comp. §, 260, 2. The latest excavations. Bull 1837. p. 182 [Engelhardt Beschr. der in Pompeii ausgegraBenen Ge-baude, Berlin 1843. 4to. (from Crelle's Journal for Archit.) The Horary of Entertaining Knowledge. Pompeii 2 vols. 2d Ed. London 1833. &. Rossini le antichrt& di Pompeii delin. sulle scoperte iatte sino 1'anno 1830. R, foL max. 75 tav.]
17318-16117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
174 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. V.
1 191. The vast buildings erected by Trajan, the structures of Hadrian which vie with everything earlier, and even particular edifices reared under the Ante-nines, present architecture in its last period of bloom, on the whole still as noble and great as it was rich and elegant, although, in particular works, the crowding and overloading with ornaments, to which
2 the time had a tendency, was already very sensible. We find also, even from the time of Dornitian, the insulated pedestals of columns (stylobates) which arose from continuous posta-ments (stereobates). They have no other ground and aim than the straining at slender forms and the greatest possible interruption and composition.
1. TEAJAN'S Forum, the most stupendous in all Home according to ATp.mia.Ti. xvi, 10; with a brazen roof -which must have been perforated (Paus. v, 12, 4. x, 5, 5. gigantei contexts, Ammian.); many columns and fragments of granite found there recently. In the middle the column (113 A. j>.) with the brazen statue of the emperor (now St. Peter). Pedestal 17 feet; base, shaft, capital and pedestal of the statue 100 feet. The shaft 11 feet thick "below and 10 above. Composed of cylinders of white marble; with a stair inside. The band with the reliefs becomes broader as it ascends, which diminishes the apparent height, Bartoli's Columna Trajana. [1673. Col. Traj. 134. sen. tabulis insc. quse olim Mu-tianus incidi cur. cum expl. Ciaccom, nunc a C. Losi reperta imprimitur. R. 1773.] Piranesi's superb work 1770. Raph. Eabretti, Be Columna Tra-janL R. 1683. Against the traces of colours which Semper and others asserted, Morey in the Bull. 1836. p. 39. The Basilica Ulpia adorned with numerous statues, on bronze coins (Pedrusi vi. tb. 25). A great number of architectural works,—thermae^ odeion, harbour, aqueduct (on coins), Trajanus herba parietaria. Almost all by ApoUodorus, Dio Cass. Ixix, 4, as likewise the bridge over the Danube, A. D. 105. Comp. Eckhel D. K. vi. p. 419. Arches of Trajan are still in existence at Ancona (very fine, of large masses of stone), and at Benevento, of almost Palmyrenian architecture. Works on these by Giov. di Nicastro and Carlo Nolli. The correspondence with Pliny the younger shows the Emperor's knowledge, and his interest in the buildings in all the provinces. Pliny's Villas (Mustius the architect,) treatises upon them by Marquez and Carlo Fea.
HADRIAN, himself an architect, put Apollodorus to death from hatred and jealousy. Temple of Yenus and Roma, pseudodipt. decast., in a forecourt with a double colonnade, chiefly of marble with Corinthian columns, large niches for the statues, beautiful lacunaria and brazen roof. See Caristie, Plan et Coupe n. 4. The front view (with the history of Romulus on the pediment) on the bas-relief in R. Rochette M. I. i. pi. 8. Tomb on the further side of the Tiber, described by Procopius, Bell. Goth, i, 22. Now the castle of S. Angelo, Piranesi, Antichit^ iv. t. 4— 12. Restorations, Hirt Gesch. Tf. 13, 3 4. 30, 23. Bunsen (after Major Bavari's investigations) Beschr. Roms ii. s. 404. A structure square below supported a circular building which probably diminished upwards in three stages. [Circus in the neighbourhood of the Mausoleum, a treatise thereon by Canina, 1839, in the Mem. d. Acad. Rom. di Archeol.] Tibur-
17318-16217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ARCHITECTUBAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 175
tine villa, full of imitations of Greek and Egyptian buildings (Lyceum, Academia, Prytaneum, Canopus, Poecile, Tempe, [Lesche, in great part preserved] a labyrinth of ruins, 7 millia in circuit, and a very rich mine of statues and mosaics. Pianta della villa Tiburt. di Adriano by Pirro Ligorio and Franc. Contini. R. 1751. Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 291. As euer-getes of Greek cities Hadrian completed the Olympieion at Athens (OL 227, 3, comp. C. L n. 331), and built a new city to which he gave his name; the arch over the entrance to it is still standing; there were there a Hera?,on, Pantheon, and Panhellenion, with numerous Phrygian and Libyan columns. Probably the very large portico 376 X 252 feet, north from the citadel, with stylobates, is also one of Hadrian's edifices. Stuart i. ch. 5 (who takes it to be the Poecile), Leake, Topogr. p. 120. To the Attic monuments of the time belongs also that in commemoration of the Seleucid Philopappus' admission to the citizenship of Athens, erected in the Museion about the year 114 under Trajan. Stuart iii. ch. 5. Grandes Tues de Cassas et Bence, pi. 3, Bockh C. I. 362, In Egypt Antinoe (Besa), beautifully and regularly laid out in the Grecian style, with columns of the Corinthian order, but of free forms however. Description, de 1'Egypte, T. iv. pi. 53 sqq. Decrianus, architect and mechanician, §. 197.
Under AFTONINTTS PITTS, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, at first probably destined only for the latter, a prostyle with beautiful Corinthian capitals, the cornice already greatly overloaded. Desgodetz 8. Moreau pi. 23. 24. Yilla of the Emperor at Lanuvrom. The column ia honour of Antoninus Pius erected by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Terns, merely a column of granite, of which nothing more than the marble postament is preserved, in the garden of the Yatican, §. 204, 4; Yignola de Col. Antonini. R. 1705. [Seconda Lettera del sgr. M. A. de la Chausse sopra la col. d. apoth. di A. P. Nap. 1805.] Column of Marcus Aurelius, less imposing than that of Trajan (the bas-relief band is of the same height throughout). [The col. of Marcus Aurelius, after P. S. Bartoli's designs, by Bellori 1704.] A triumphal arch erected at the same time in the Flaminian way, the reliefs of which are still preserved in the palace of the Conservator!, Herodes Atticus, the preceptor of M. Aurelius and L. Yerus (comp. Fiorillo and Yisconti on his inscriptions) showed an interest in Athens by the embellishment of the stadion and by building an odeion. A theatre at New-Corinth. [A temple, supposed to have been built in the time of the Antonines at Jaeckly near Mylasa, Ion. An-tiq. i. ch. 4.1
192. After tlie time of Marcus Aurelius, although the love 1 of building did not cease, a more rapid decline in architectural taste took place. Decorations were crowded to such a degree 2 that all clearness of conception was destroyed, and so many intermediate mouldings were everywhere introduced between, the essential members that the principal forms, especially the corona, completely lost their definite and distinctive character By seeking to multiply every simple form, interrupting the $ rows of columns together with the entablature by frequent advancings and retirings, sticking half-columns to pilasters,
17318-16317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
176 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEB. V.
making one pilaster jut out from another, breaking the ver-tical Hue of the shafts with consoles for the support of statues, making the frieze belly out, and fining the walls with a great number of niches and frontispieces, they deprived the column, the pillar, the entablature, the wall and every other member, of its significance and peculiar physiognomy, and* together with a bewildering perplexity produced at the same & time an extremely tiresome monotony. Although the technical construction on the whole was excellent, the workmanship, however, in detail become more and more clumsy, and the care in the execution of the enriched members diminished in pro-
5 portion as these were multiplied. The taste of the nations of Syria and Asia Minor had evidently the greatest influence on this tendency of architecture; and there likewise are to be found the most distinguished examples of this luxuriant and
6 florid style. Even native structures in the East may not have escaped all influence; the mixtures of Greek with indigenous forms in barbaric countries, which can be pointed out, appear chiefly to belong to this period.
1. Under COMMODUS, the temple of Marcus Aurelius with convex frieze (built into the Dogana). The arch of SEPTIMITTS SEVEBTTS, bungled in the design (the middle columns advance without any aim), overloaded with tracery of rude workmanship. [Suaresius Arcus Sept. Sev. R. 1676. foL] Another arch erected by the Argentarii. Desgodetz, ch. 8.19. Bel-lori. - Septizonium quite ruinous in the 16th century. A labyrinth built by Qu. Julius Miletus as an institution for the recreation of the people. Welcker, Sylloge, p. xvii. CAKACALLA'S thermae, an enormous structure with excellent masonwork; light vaulted roofs of a composition of pumice-stone, of great span, particularly in the cdla solearis (a swimming bath towards the east), comp. Spartian Carae. 9. (The chief mine of the larnesian statues, the earlier of excellent, the more recent of ordinary workmanship.) A. Blouet's Restauration des Thermes d'Ant. Caracalla. On new excavations, Gerhard, Hyperb. Bom. Studien, s. 142. The so-called circus of Caracalla (probably of Maxentius; the inscription however does not entirely decide) before the Porta Capena, badly built. Lately laid open. Investigation on the subject by Nibby; Kunstblatt 1825. N. 22. 50. 1826. K. 69. HELIOGABALUS dedicated to the god after whom he was named a temple on the Palatium. SEVERTJS AIEXANBEB, Thermae and other bathing establishments; many earlier buildings were then renewed. There are many things besides at Rome which have come down from the time of florid architecture, such as the so-called temples of Jupiter Stator, Fortuna Yirilis (now Maria Bgiziana), and Concordia (a later restoration of a temple to Divus Yespasianus, according to Fea).
5. In SYEIA, ANTIOCH was adorned by almost every emperor with buildings, particularly aqueducts, thermae, nymphsea, basilicas, xysta, and edifices for games, and its ancient splendour (§, 149) was often restored after earthquakes. At HELIOPOLIS (Baalbeck) the great temple of Baal built in the time of Antoninus Pius (Malalas, p. 119. Yen.), peript. decast. 280 X 155 Par. F., with a quadrangular and a hexagonal fore-
17318-16417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ABCHITECTTJEAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 177
eourt; a smaller temple peript. hexast. with a thalamus (comp. §. 15&. Bern. 3); a strangely designed tholus. R» Wood, The Ruins of Baalbeck, otherwise HeHopolis. L, 1757. Cassas, Toy. pittor. en Syrie iL pi. 3—-57. Souvenirs pendant un voy. en orient (1832. 33.) par M. Alph. de Lamax-tine, P. 1835, T. iiL p. 15 sqq. Magnificent description on the temple of .the Sun, data by Russegger, in the Butt. 1837, p. &4 sq_. PAIMYBA (Tadmor) sprang up as a place of traffic in the desert in the first century after Christ, and flourished, after "being restored by Hadrian, during the peaceful reign of the Antonines, afterwards as the residence of Qdenafcus and Zenobia, till its conquest by Aurelian. See Heeren, Commentate. Soa Oott, rec, vii. p. 39, Diocletian also caused baths and churches to be built there, and Justinian renewed them (according to Procopius and Malalas). Temple of Helios (Baal) octast, pseudodipt. 185 X 97 feet, with columns having metal foliage fixed on, in a large court (700 feet long and broad) with Propyte&a, on the east. Small temple prost. hexast* on the west. Between them a street of columns 3,500 feet ia length, an imitation of that at Antioch. Round about ruins of a palace, basilica^ open colonnades, markets, aqueducts, honorary monuments, tombs (feat of lambUchus built A. p. 103, of very remarkable architecture); for games only a small stadium. Wood, The Rains of Palmyra, otherwise Tadmor. 1753. Gassas i pi. 26 sqq. In similar style were kid out the cities of DECAPOMS, east from the Jordan, especially Cterasa {on, widish Burcfc-hardt treats in his Travels in Syria, jx 253, and Buckingham, ia | detail, Trav. in Palestine^ p* 353 s
17318-16517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
178 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. V.
tirely into rudeness which neglected the fundamental forms
2 and principles of ancient architecture. Columnar was so combined with arched architecture that the arches were at first made to rest on the entablature, and afterwards were even made to spring immediately from the abacus in violation of the laws of statics, which require undiminished and angular pillars under the arch; at length they went so far as to give the entablature itself, together with the dentels
3 and modillions, the form of an arch. They placed columns and pilasters on consoles, which projected from the walls in order to support arches or pediments; they began to give the shafts screw-channelled and otherwise convoluted forms.
4 Covering members were on account of the multiplicity of the parts regarded as the principal thing, and were loaded on those lying beneath in a most unwieldy manner, as the cornice was on the entablature in general, and in its separate
5 subordinate parts. The execution was universally meagre; tame and rude, without roundness or effect; there was left however, as a remnant of the Eoman spirit, a certain grandeur in the design; and in the mechanical details things were
6 still done worthy of admiration. In consequence of the new organization of the empire fewer buildings were undertaken
7 at Kome itself, but on the other hand provincial cities, especially from the time of Diocletian, flourished with new splen-
8 dour. What injured Rome most was the transference of the throne to Constantinople.
6. Gallienus' arch, of travertine, in a simple style destitute of art. Under Aurelian the walls of Rome were widened, attention to security began (Nibby's statements in Mura di Roma 1821 are not always correct, see Stef. Piale in the Dissert, dell' Ace. Archeol. ii. p. 95). Great double temple of Bel and Eelius. Salaried teachers of architecture. Diocletian's Thermae in tolerable preservation; the circular hall in the centre, the groined vault of which is supported by eight granite columns, was converted by Michael Angelo in 1560 into the beautiful church S. Maria degli Angeli. Desgodefcz 24. Le Terme Diocl. misur. e disegn. da Seb. Oya. R 1558. Strong castle and villa of the Ex-emperor near Salona (at Spalatro) in Dalmatia, 705 feet long and broad. Adam's Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, 1764. fol. The column in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria (otherwise Pompey's pillar) is very large indeed (8SJ Par. f.) but in bad taste. Descr. de 1'Egypte T. v. pi. 34. Anti-quite*s, T. iL ch. 26. Append^ Horry Descr. de la Colonne de Pompee, Hamilton's jEgyptiaca, pi. 18, CassasiiL pi 58. [(§. 149. R. 2). Clarke Travels ii, 2. a title plate, Dalton Mus, Or. et Mg. or Antiquities from drawings, pi. 43. The shaft is good in style, the capital and base bad, on which account Norry, Leake in the Classical Journal, vol. 13. p. 153, and Wilkinson Topogr. of Thebes 1835, regard it as a Grecian work of the flourishing period of Alexandria, and suppose from the inscription 20 feet high which was restored by Villoison and Leake, that it was only at last dedicated to Diocletian. J. White JUgyptiaca, Oxf. 1801, thought that
17318-16617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ARCHITECTURE IN Tfl^ DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 170
Pfcol. Philad. raised it to his father- Only Zoega de obel. p. 607 has shown that Apthonius in his description of the acropolis of Alexandria, Progymn. 12 speaks of this column as the far-conspicuous central point of the buildings on the acropolis which were derived from the Ptolemies (ot^ai it. xL p. 39. There are still preserved the obelisk of Ebeodbsius; the porphyry column in the ancient forum, 100 feet high, on wMdi stood the
ie of Constantino, and afterwards that of Theodomus, renewed by , Oomu^nus; the marble pointed columns, 91 feet Iiighj which Con-
17318-16717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
180 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. Y.
stantine Porphyrogenitus or his grandson caused to be covered with gilded bronze ; the pedestal of the Theodosian column (§, 207) and some other things of less importance. See Carbognano, Descr. topogr. dello stato presente di Cpoli, 1794. Pertusier, Promen. Pittoresques dans Constantinople, 1815. V. Hammer's Constantinopolis und der Bosporus, 2 bde 1822. Raczynski's Malerische Reise, s. 42 ff. Among the principal buildings were the aqueducts (such as that of Valens), and the cis-TEENS, large fabrics, but petty in detail, which also prevailed in other parts of the East (for example at Alexandria, Descript. de 1'Egypte T. v. pi. 36. 37), and served as models for Arabic buildings. In Byzantium there are eight, partly open, partly vaulted over with small domes ; only one still used, that beside the hippodrome 190 X 166 feet large, in three stories, each of which consists of 16 X 14 columns. The columns are mostly Corinthian, but also with other quite abnormal capitals. Walsh's Journey from Constantinople to England, ed. 2. 1828. Count Andreossy's Constantinople et le Bosphore. P. 1828. L. iii. ch. 5. 8.
During tMs period was developed the Christian church-architecture, not from the Grecian temple, hut, conformably to the wants of the new religion, from the basilica, inasmuch as old hasilicas were sometimes fitted up for that purpose, and sometimes new ones built, but after Constantine
2 chiefly with plundered pieces of architecture. A portico (pro • naos, narthex), the interior entirely roofed, several aisles, the central one higher, or all equally high; behind in a circular recess (concha, sanctuarium) the elevated tribune. By lengthening this and adding side-porticoes, the later form of Italy
3 arose. Besides these, there were at Eome as baptisteries particular round buildings, whose form and disposition were derived from the bath-rooms of the Romans (§. 292, 1); but in the East, even as early as Constantine, churches also were
4 built of a round form with wide-vaulted cupolas. This form was on the whole very grandiose, although in the individual parts developed in a paltry taste in the church of St. Sophia, which was erected in the time of Justinian; it afterwards became prevalent in the Eastern empire, and even the later Greek churches, with their main and subordinate cupolas, pay
5 homage to this taste. The edifices of the Ostrogothic time, especially from Amalasuntha downwards, did not probably arise without the influence of Byzantine architects.
1. Church of Saint Anges founded "by Constantia, the daughter of Constantine, a "basilica with three aisles, and with two ranges of columns, one above the other. A five-aisled basilica of S. Paul outside the walls, according to some, by Constantine, the columns of different kinds, as also in St. John of the Lateran, the curious carpenter-work originally overlaid with gold; recently burned down (Rossini's Vedute). N. M, Mcolai Bella Basilica di San Paolo. E. 1815 foL The five-aisled basilica of St. Peter on the Vatican (Bunsen, Beschreibung von Rom ii. s. 50 sq.) connected by porticoes with the bridge across the Tiber as St. Paul's was with the city. St. Clemens, a model of the ancient disposition, of basilicas.
17318-16817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. isi
Ghitensohn and Knapp, Monumenti della ReL Christiana R. begun 1822. Besides, Agincourt, Hist, de TArt par les monumens depuis sa decadence, T. iv, pL4—16.64. Platner, Beschreibung Roms, i. s. 417. The description of the church built by Constantine at Jerusalem corresponded in all the main points with these Roman basilicas, Buseb. V. Const, iii, 25 —40; the same remark applies to the Church of the Apostles built by Constantine and Helena at Byzantium, Banduri, T. ii. p. 807. Par.
3. The so-called Baptistery of Constantine is a circular building of this sort, Ciampini Opp. T. ii. tb. 8. On the Baptistery in St. Peter's, Bunsen ii. s. 83. The description by a rhetor (Walz Rhetores i. p. 638) of a Bap-tisterion (^s^vstov ~&. ch, ii. p. 744-— Other architects and ^JJX^OTTO/O/ of the time: Ghxysas of Alexandria and Joannes of Byzantium.
5. In Ravenna there is the church of San Vitale, which is quite peri-pherically built, on an octagonal ground-plan, with rude forms in the capitals of the columns, a building of the last Gothic period; Justinian caused it to be adorned with mosaic work by Julianus Argentarius, and to be-provided with a narthex (Rumohr, Ital. Forschungen iii. s. 200). Agin-court iv. pL 18. 23. Theodoric*s Mausoleum (at least a work of the time), now S. Maria Rotonda, is a btulding composed of very large blocks of freestone, and of simple although heavy forms. Smirke, Archaeologia yrm. p. 323. Comp. Schoiu Reisen in Italien s. 398 £, and oa Theodoricys buildings in Rome, Ravenna, and Ticinum [on the height at TerracinaJ. see Mansors Gresclu des O. Gothischen Reichs s. 124. 396 £. Rumohr s. 198 ff. speaks against the derivation of Italian structures from Byzantium. AloisiuSj architect at Rome about 500 A. D. Cassiodor, Var. ii. 39. —Bellermann Die aeltesten christlichen BegrabnissteUen, im Be&ondem die Katacomben zu Neapel mit den Wandgemalden, Hamb. 1839.4to.
At Rome we have only further to mention the column of the emperor JPhocas (F. A. Tisconti, Lett, sopra la coL delF Imp. Foca> 1813} erected about the year 600; it was plundered from another monument*
195. Thraugh the new requirements of a new leEgiQa, and 1 the fresh spirit which the subversion of aE relations breathed at least here and there into a now decrepit race, architecture received a new spark of life* The forms indeed continued
17318-16917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
182 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. V.
rude in detail, nay they always became more and more clumsy and disproportioned, but at the same time, however, the works of the Justinian and Ostrogothic period manifested a freer and more peculiar feeling, which conceived more clearly the significance of the building as a whole than was the case with the latest Roman architects; and the vast spaces of the basilicas, with their simple lines and surfaces undisturbed by mosaic work, produced a more powerful impression than the "over-rich
2 Palmyrenian architecture. This style of architecture (the early Gothic, the Byzantine) quickened anew for new ends, and in almost all individual forms still remaining allied to the later Roman style, prevailed throughout Christian Europe during the first half of the Middle Ages, fostered and perfected by the architectural corporations which were kept up from Roman antiquity, and perhaps always continued in connexion
3 with Greece. It prevailed until the Germanic spirit, outflanking that of southern Europe, began thoroughly to alter the Roman forms according to an entirely new system, and in conformity with its own fundamental ideas and feelings.
4 The pointed gable and arch, and the least possible interruption in the continuation 6f the vertical lines denote the external, climatic, as well as the internal fundamental tendencies rooted in the mind, of this style of architecture so directly opposed to the ancient, but which never became altogether naturalized in Italy, and was therefore very quickly expelled in the fifteenth century by the revived architecture of the times of the Roman emperors.
2. Passages where architectural works are characterized in the 10th and llth century by more GrcBcorum, ad consuetudinem Grcecorum, and mention is also made of Grecian architects, in Stieglitz liber die Go-thische Baukunst, s. 57. General assembly of niasons at York in 926"?
3. The so-called Gothic architecture in Italy and England is described as opus Teutonicum and the like, see Fiorillo Gesch. der Kunst in Deutsch-land ii, s. 269 ff. Vasari sometimes calls it stilo Tedesco^ sometimes Gotico.
3. THE PLASTIC ART.
1 196. Artists flocked more and more from the conquered countries to Rome; at the time of Sylla, Pompey, and Octa-vian, we find that nearly all the eminent toreutae, brass-casters, and sculptors that then existed, were assembled at Rome.
2 Pasiteles distinguished himself as a very industrious and careful artist, who never worked but from accurately finished models. The models of Arcesilaus were in themselves more highly prized than the statues of other artists. Decius ven-
17318-17017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
SCULPTURE AT THE CLOSE OF THE REPUBLIC. 163
tured to measure himself with Chares In brass-casting, and everywhere was manifest the influence of the restoration of art produced by the study of the best models, which took its rise principally from Athens. Neither was there any lack of 3 workers in vessels, although none came up to those of earlier times; wherefore argentum wtus was used as synonymous with finely-wrought In coins the best age did not begin till the 4 year 700; we have denarii of that time which rival the coins of Pyrrhus and Agathocles in delicacy of workmanship and beauty of design, although indeed the spirit and grandeur of earlier Greek coins are still found wanting in these.
2. PASITELES from Magna Grecia, toreutes and "brass-caster, (Hvis Bom. 662; he executed perhaps sometime earlier tlie statue for Metellus* temple of Jupiter, Plin. xxxvi, 4,10,12. comp. however Sillig Amalttu iii, 294. Golotes, a scholar of Pasiteles, toreutes about 670 (1). Stephanu% a scholar of Pasiteles, sculptor (Thiersch, Epochen s. 295) about 670, Tlepolemus, modeller in wax, and Hiero, painter, brothers, of Cibyra, Tei> res' canes venatici, about 680. ABCESILA.TJS, plastes, brass-caster, and sculptor, 680—708. (Venus G-enitrix for Caesar's Forum)* Posis^ plaste% 690. Goponius, brass-caster, 690. MENELATJS, scholar of Stephanu% sculptor, about 690 (§. 416). DBCXTO, brass-caster, about 695. PBAXI-TEI*ES [Pasiteles], Poseidonius, Leostratides, Zopyrus, toreutss and workers in vessels, about 695. (Silver mirrors come into lasMon. through Praxiteles [Pasiteles], he made a figure of the yo, ung Boscius. (Sew de Mv. i, 36). Aulanius Euandrus of Athens, toreutes and plastes, 710—724-Lysias, sculptor, about 7M. DIOGENES of Athens, sculptor, 727. Cephi-sodorus, at Athens, about 730 (?). C, I. 364. Eumnestus, Sosicratides* son, at Athens, about 730. G. I. 359. Add. Pytheas, Teucer, toreutae about that time. Maecenas' freedman Junius Thaletio, flatwrarim sigiEa-nw, Gruter Thes. laser. 638, 6 (§. 306). Gold-workers of Livia, in the inscriptions of the Columbarium. [Eubulides and Eucheir at Athens, alternately for three generations, d I. n. 916. E. Eochette SuppL au Oa* tal. des Artistes, p. 306.]
3. Zopyrus* trial of Orestes before the Areopagus, is thought to "be recognised on a cup found in the harbour of Antium, Winckelni. M. L n* 151. Werke vii. tf. 7. Subito ars hsec ita exQkvti ut sola jam vetustate censeatur, Plin. xxxiii, 55.
4. Thus, for example, on the denarius of L. Manlius, with Sulla on the triumphal car, the reverse in particular is still very poorly handled, The denarius of A. Plautius is much better, with the Jew BaccMm, of the time of Pompey's Asiatic wars. That of Ferius with the head of Jupiter is very excellent, of 703. Equally fine is that of Gornuficius with Jup. Amnon (I explain the reverse thus: Juno Sospita has sent a favourable omen to Gorauficius when taking the auspice% hence she carries the crow on her shield, and now crowns him as conqueror)* lake^ wise that of Sextus Pompeius with the head of his father, and on the reverse the brothers of Gatana (comp. §. 157. Eem, fy, and, Neptune as, ruler of the sea, although this one shows a certain dryness of style*
17318-17117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
l&t HISTORY OF GEEEK ART. [PER, V.
That of Lentulus Oossus (after 729), with the refined countenance of ^Augustus and the honest face of Agrippa, is exceedingly beautiful.
1 197. In the time of the Caesars the arts appear, from the general opinion, to have been degraded into handmaids of the luxury and caprice of princes. The effeminacy of the times, says Pliny, has annihilated the arts, and because there are no longer any souls to represent, the body also is neglected
2 However, there were ingenious and excellent sculptors who filled the palaces of the Caesars with eminently beautiful
3 groups; and in Nero's time arose Zenodorus, at first in Gaul, and then at Rome, as a great brass-caster, who executed the commission to represent the emperor as Helius in a colossus
4 of 110 feet in height However near he may have approached the earlier artists in dexterity of modelling and enchasing (for he also imitated the cups of Calamis so as to deceive), he could not, however, notwithstanding the greatest external advantages, again restore the more refined technical processes of metal casting, which were now lost.
1. Luxurise ministri, Seneca Epist. 88.—Plin. xxxv, 2.
2. Similiter Palatinas domos Csesarum replevere probatissimis signis Craterus cum Pythodoro, Polydectes cum Hermolao, Pythodorus alius cum Artemone; et singularis Aphrodisius Trallianus; Plin. xxxvi, 4,11. [These are earlier artists whose works filled the palace,] There is no certain knowledge of any other sculptors of the time except a Julius Chimserus who executed statues for Germanicus, according to an inscription [Statuas et sediculam effecit, sedes marmoreas posuit, consecrated]; and Menodorus (under Caligula 1) in Pausan. [A. Pantuleius of Ephesus made at Athens the statue of Hadrian, C. I. n. 339. M. Cossutius Kerdon worked for the villa of Antoninus Pius at Lanuvium.] Nero himself turned his attention to toreutics and painting. Demetrius, a goldsmith at Ephesus, Acts of the Apostles. The names of artists in Virgil do not appear to refer to real persons,
3. The Colossus should have been a Nero, "but was dedicated as Sol, 75. A. P. It had seven rays around the head, as Nero also has rays encircling his in the bust in the Louvre (n. 334) and elsewhere. The colossus stood in front of the Golden House on the site afterwards occupied by the temple of Venus and Eoma, to make way for which it was taken to another place by Decrianus, with the assistance of 24 elephants. Spar-tian Hadr. 19. comp. Eckhel "D. N. vi. p, 335. It was afterwards transformed into Commodus. Herod, i, 15.
1 198. The most authentic sources of the history of art for that time are, 1st, THE SCULPTURES ON PUBLIC MONUMENTS, of which, however, there are none to be found till the time of the Flavii, the earlier works of this kind having perished.
2 The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Titus, representing the apotheosis of the emperor and the triumph over Judea, are
17318-17217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
TIME OF THE JULII AND FLAVIL 185
good In point of invention, and tasteful in the disposition, but carelessly worked out • and in those of the temple of Pallas 3 in the forum of Domitian, the design in general is more deserving of praise than the execution, especially that of the draperies.
2. Bartoli and Bellori, Admiranda Komse tl>. 1—9. Arcus i. Gomp. tlie coins with the Judaea capta, Pedrusi vi. tb. 12. H. Reland Be spoiiis templi Hierosolymitani in arcu Titiano. Traject. 1716.
3. "We here see Pallas instructing women in domestic tasks, Bartoli tb. 35—42 (63—70). Comp. the Ed. Winckelm. vi; ii. s. 334.
199. Secondly, THE BUSTS AND STATUES OF THE EMPEEOBS 1 which go hack, at least in the original, to the time of their reigns. They fall into different classes, which are also distinguished, and with greatest certainty, by their costume: 1. Such as reflect the individuality of the subjects without exal- 2 tation, and therefore also preserve the costume of life,—either the peaceful dress of the toga drawn over the head with reference to priesthood, or the accoutrements of war, in which 3 case the usual attitude is that of addressing armies (aHo-cutio); in both kinds there axe good statues of the time. To this class likewise belong statues on horseback, or an id- 4 umphal cars, which at first actually denoted mawMog at the head of an army, and triumphs or important conquests over the enemy, but were soon raised on all occasions from adular tion and vanity. 2, Such as were intended to exhibit tlte 5 individual in an exalted., heroic, or deified character, to which belong the statues without drapery, and with a lance in the hand, which became usual from the time of Augustus, and which, according to Pliny, were called Achillean statues, as 6 well as those in a sitting posture, with the upper part of the "body naked, and a pallium around the loins, which commonly suggest the idea of Jupiter; altogether, the practice of blending individuals with gods continued, and the art of elevating portraits into an ideal character was then still exercised with as much spirit as that of representing real characters in a simple and life-like manner. The statues also of women belonging T to the reigning families fall into the two classes just laid down. On the other hand it is to be observed, that the solemn repre- 8 sentation of theDivus, the emperor consecrated by the senate, requires no ideal costume, but a sedent figure in the toga (which is often also drawn about the head), with the sceptre in the hand, and the crown of rays. Statues of cities and 9 provinces were often now, as well as in the time of the Macedonians, combined with monuments of the prmees^ and this species of figures was generally treated by distinguished ar-tists, as to which the coins also bear testimony*
17318-17317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
186 HISTOET OP GREEK ABT. [PEA, V.
2. Simulacrum aureum Caligula iconicum} Sueton. 22. Statuse civili hafotu (Orelli Laser, n. 1139. 3186) or togatse, for example the Tiberius with, beautiful toga, from Capri in the Louvre (111.) M. de Bouillon ii, 34. Augustus in priestly dress, from the basilica of Otricoli PioCl. ii, 46. Head of Augustus of basalt, found in 1780 at Canopus, Specim. of Anc. Sculpture ii, 46, Statue of Augustus in the Capitol, Race. 16, of Jul. Caesar, ibid. Race. 15. Drusus from Herculaneum, Ant. di Ere. vi, 79. M. Borbon. vii, 43. [Seven excellent colossal statues excavated at Ccrvetri, now restored by de Fabris, in the Lateran, Germanicus, Drusus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Agrippina and another female statue, together with the head of Augustus, Bull. 1840. p. 5. Canina Etr. Marit. I. 2. Mon. cretto in Cere all3 imper. Claudio dai dodici principal! popoli dell' Etruria. There were also excellent colossal statues found in ancient Privernurn, supposed to be from the Curia or the Augusteum of the city which Augustus, Tiberius and Claudius reared anew j the head of Claudius, Mus. Chiusamonti ii. tv. 32. In like manner colossal statues were raised by Yeii to Augustus and Tiberius. Ibid not. 3 Ibid. tv. 31. Comp. Canina Antich. di Yeji, p. 83 sq. Colossal heads of Augustus and Tiberius were found in 1824 with the colossal statues of Tiberius and Germanicus. Claudius from the Ruspoli palace; tv. 31. Titus with Julia found in 1828.]
3. Statuse pedestres habitu militari (Capitolin. Macrin. 6) or thoracatse, for example, the colossal Augustus in the palace Grimani, see Thiersch, Reisen i. s. 250 fF. [Tiberius Canina Tusculo, tv. 29. Fine bust of Caligula found at Colchester Archseol. L. xxxi. pi. 15. p. 446; similar Caylus i. pi. 65, under the name of Claudius.] Drusus, son of Tiberius, in the Louvre, Mongez, Iconogr. Romaine pi. 23, 1. Titus in the Louvre 29. pL 33, 1. 34, 1. 2. Bouill. ii, 41. Domitian and Marcus Aurelms from the Giustiniani palace, Race. 89. 90. [Domitian M. Chiar. ii. tv. 36.] Domitian from the Giustiniani palace, M. Chiar. ii. tv. 36.
4. The statua equestris of Augustus on the bridge over the Tiber (see Dio liii, 225 and the denarii of L. Yinicius) at least pointed at warlike
1 plans. The colossal equestrian statue of Domitian in the Forum (Statius S. i, 1. Fr. Schmieder, Programm 1820), represented him as the conqueror of Germany, with the Rhine under the horse's forefeet; the left carried a Pallas holding out a Gorgoneion, the right commanded peace (comp. §. 335). Domitian with bust of Pallas on his shoulder, relief in Yaillant de Canopo, p. 11; supposed statua equestris of Augustus, Race. 52. [Equestrian statue of Theodoric before the palace of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Ohapelle, by Bock Jahrb. des Rhein. Alterth. Vereins v. s. 1.] Augustus appears in guadrigis on a triumphal arch, attended by two Par-thians, after recovering the standards of Crassus, Eckhel. D. N. vi. p. 101. Statues in ligis were raised at first to magistrates on account of fhepompaj in the circus, but chariots with four horses (even six-horse cars, which came in since the time of Augustus) without any regard to triumphs and pomps, and equestrian statues were erected even in the houses of advocates, Martial ix. 69. Tacit, de Orat. 8. 11. Juvenal vii, 126. Appulei. Elor. p. 136 Bipont. To the Emperors, on the other hand, were erected cars yoked with elephants, see Plin. xxxiv, 10, and the coins with the image of Divus Yespasianus, comp. Capitol., Maximin 26.
5. Status Acfiittece, Plin. xxxiv, 10. To this class appears to belong
17318-17417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
STATUES OF THE JULII A¥D FLAVII. 187
[the splendid Pompey in the Spada palace,] the colossal Agrippa (the dolphin is restored) in the palace Grimani, said to be from the Parthenon. Pococke Trav. ii. pi. 97. Visconti Icon. Roman, pi. 8. Augustus in the Oasa Rondanini, Winckelm. vii s. 217. Claudius, Ant. di Ere. vi, 78. Domitian, G-uattani M. I. 1786, p. xvi Comp. the examples in Levezow*& Antinous, s. 51. There is often a pallium around the body, as in the otherwise Achillean Germanicus from the basilica of Gabii in the Louvre 141. Mongez, pi. 24, 3. and the Nero, Louvre 32. Clarac, pL 322.
6. Herod erected in Csesarea colossal statues of Augustus-Jupiter and Roma, Joseph. B. I. i, 21. comp. §. 203. The sedent colossal statues of Augustus and Claudius from Herculanum in regard to dress have the costume of Jupiter, M. Borbon. iv. 36. 37. An Augustus of bronze as a standing Jupiter with the thunderbolt, Ant. di Ere. vi, 77, The fine bust of Augustus at Munich 227, and in the Louvre 278, Mongez, pL 18, has indeed the crown of oak-leaves, but otherwise it is quite a portrait. The sitting statue of Tiberius from Piperno has the costume of Jupiter, and his horrible countenance is rendered as noble as possible. Mongez, pL 22. Comp. the Yeientine statue, Guattani Mem. EncicL 1819, p. 74^ and the splendid head from Gabii, BouilL ii, 75. Caligula even wished to convert the Zeus at Olympia into a statue of himself. The magnificent colossal bust in Spain represents Claudius as a god, Admir. Romse, 80. Mongez, pL 27, 3. 4, but even deified he retains a doltish look, A grandly treated colossal head of Vitellius at Tienna*—Augustus as Apollo, §. 362, 2.
7. Portrait statues: Livia as priestess of Augustus from Pompeii, M. Borbon. iii, 37. Avellino, Atti d. Acad. ErcoL ii. p. 1. The first Agrippina in the capitol, splendid in the disposition of the entire figure, less deserving of praise in the drapery, M. Cap. T. iiL t. 53. Monger, pi. 24,* 1. 2, Similar in Florence, Wicar iii, 4. Farnesian statue of the second (T) Agrippina grandly handled, Mongez, pi. 27, 6. 7. M. Borbon. iii, 22.—Livia as Ceres (L. 622. Bouill. ii, 54. comp. R. Rochette, Ann, d. Inst. i. p. 149. on this costume), Magna Mater (§. 200), Testa (on coins Eckhel vi. p 156). Julia, daughter of Augustus, as Cora, L. 77. BouilL ii, 53. Agrippina, Drusilla, and Julia, Caligula's sisters, on coins as Seen-ritas, Pietas, and Fortuna, Eckhel vi. p. 219.—[Two of Julia, daughter of Titus M. Chiaram, ii, 34. 35.]—Among the most excellent of the portrait statues are the matron and virgin (the latter also found in a copy) from Herculanum at Dresden, n. 272—274. Bekker August. 19—24 comp. Race. 91, reckoned by Hirt to be Caligula's mother and two Asters. Family of Marcus Nonius Balbus from Herculanum, two eqi^strian statues (§. 434) from the basilica, and seven statues on foot from the theatre, viz-Balbus with his father, mother, and four daughters. NeapeFs Ant. s. 17 fl*
8. Thus, for example, Divus Julius on the Cameo, §. 200, 2. b., Divus Augustus on coins of Tiberius, 17318-17517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
188 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [PEE. Y.
s. 296. These were certainly statues: on the other hand eight figures of cities in relief still existing at Rome and Naples (Visconti M, PioCl. iii, p. 61. M. Borbon. iii, 57. 58), are better assigned to the attic of the portico of Agrippa. On the great altar of Augustus at Lugdunum (known from coins) there were figures of 60 Gallic tribes. Strab. iv. p. 192.—The pedestal of the statue of Tiberius, which the urbes restitutes caused to be erected to Augustus, is still preserved at Puteoli with the figures of 14 cities of Asia Minor, which are executed in a very characteristic manner. See L. Th. Gronov, Thes. Ant. Gr. vii p. 432. Belley, Mem, de PAc. des Inscr. xxiv. p. 128. Eckhel D, N. vi. p. 193. Comp. §. 405.
1 200. Equally important materials for the history of art are furnished by GEMS. Dioscorides, who engraved the head of Augustus with which the emperor himself sealed, was the
2 most distinguished worker of the time in intaglios. But still more important than the stones preserved under his name, is a series of cameos which represent the Julian and Claudian families at particular epochs, and besides the splendour of the material and dexterity in using it, are also in many other re-
3 spects deserving of admiration. In all the principal works of the kind the same system prevails of representing those princes as divine beings presiding over the world with benignant sway, as present manifestations of the most exalted deities.
4 The design is careful and full of expression, although there is no longer to be found in them the spirit in handling and nobleness of forms which distinguish the gems of the Ptolemies (§. 161); on the contrary, there is here as well as in the reliefs of triumphal arches and many statues of the emperors, a peculiarly Roman form of body introduced, which is distinguished considerably from the Grecian by a certain heaviness.
1. Seven gems of Dioscorides have been hitherto considered genuine, two with the head of Augustus, a so-called Maecenas, a Demosthenes, two Mercuries, and a palladium-theft (Stosch, Kerres Grav. pi. 25 sqq. Bracci, Mem. degli Lacis. tb. 57. 58. Winckelm. W. vi. tf. 8. b.): but even as to these more accurate investigations are still to be looked for. Augustus Impr. gemm. iv, 93. [Onyx-cameo, Augustus in the green vault at Dresden.] Dioscorides' sons, Erophilus (Ed. "Winck. vi, 2. s. 301), Eutyches (R. Rochette, Lettre & Mr. Schorn, p. 42). Contemporaries, Agathangelus (head of Sextus Pompeius 1), Saturninus, and Pergamus, a worker in gems, of Asia Minor? R. Rochette, p. 51.47. comp. p. 48. Solon, Gnseus, Aulus and Admon are also assigned to this period. JElius, under Tiberius, Euodus, under Titus (Julia, daughter of Titus, on a beryl at Florence. Lippert. i, ii, 349),
2. CAMEOS. The three largest: a. That of Yienna, the Gemma Au-gustea, of the most careful workmanship, 9X8 inches in size. Eckhel, Pierres Grav. pi. 1. [Clarac pi. 1053.] Kohler iiber zwei Gemmen der KK. Sammlung zu Wien. Tf. 2. [Comp. Morgensterns Denkschr. on Kohler, s. 16 sq.] Millin G. M. 179, 677. Mongez, pi. 19.* Arneth, Beitrage zur ®esch. von Oesterreich ii. s. 118. Representation of the Augustan family
17318-17617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
ENGRAVE!* STOHES AND COINS. 18®
in the year 12. Augustus (beside Mm his horoscope, comp. Eckhel IX IT. vL p. 109), with the lituus as a symbol of the auspices, sits enthroned as Jupiter Victorious together with Roma; Terra, Oceanus, Abundantia surround the throne, and are in the act of crowning him. Tiberius triumphing over the Pannonians, descends from the car, which is guided by a Victory, in order to prostrate himself before Augustus. Gennani-cus at the same time receives honores triumpkales. Below, a tropaeon is erected by Roman legionaries and auxiliaries (here the scorpion on a shield perhaps refers to the horoscope of Tiberius). Sueton. Tib. 520. Passow has last contributed to the explanation in Zimmennann's Zeit-schrift fur Alterthumsw. 1834 N. 1. 2. [after Thiersch Epochen s. 305.]
b. The Parisian Cameo, by Baldwin the II. from Byzantium to St. Louis; de la Ste Chapelle (there called Joseph's dream), now in the Cabinet du BoL Le Boy, Achates Tiberianua 1683. Millin G, M, 181, 676. Mongez, pL 26. [Clarac, pL 1052.] The largest of all, 13 X 11 in. ; a sardonyx of five layers [which is usually thought to be a work of the Augustan age, but is by some assigned to the third century]. The Augustan family some time after the death of Augustus. Abwe: Augustus in heaven welcomed by JEneas, Dims Julius and Drusus* In the middle; Tiberius as Jupiter JEgiochus beside Livia-Ceres, under whose auspices Germanicus goes to the East in the year 17. Around them, the elder Agrippina, Caligula (comitatus patrem et in Syriaca expeditione, Suet, CaEg. 10. comp. M. Borbon. v, 36), Drusus II, a prince of the Araacidse (f); Clio, and Polymnia. Bdow; The nations of Germany and the East conquered. Explained in the same way by Bckhel, ViscontI, Monge% Icono-graphie and Mem. de 1'Inst. Boy. viiL p. 370 (Saoerdoce de la &mile de Tib&re pour le culte d'Auguste), particularly by TMerseh Epochen, & 306. On the contrary, Hirt, Analekten i, ii. s. 32% explains it as Nero's adoption into the Julian family, at the same time with which there happened to be an arrival of captives from the Bosporus. Fleck Wissensch. Eeise durch das siidliche Beutschland, Italien u. s. w, i, 1. s. 172. [The apotheosis of Augustus in a relief in the Sacristy of San Vital! at Eavenna, with &onra, Claudius, JuL Csesar, Livia as Juno, Augustus as Jupiter.]
c» That of the Ifetherlands (de Jonge, Notice sur le Cab. des H&-daiUes du Roi des Pays-Bas, i Suppl 1824, p. 14), [Clarac, pL 1054, Claudius and his femily, Germanicus and Agrippina, pL 1055—1057.] a Slr~ donyx of three layers, 10 inches high, excellent in design, but much inferior in execution to the others. Millin G. M. 177,678. Monge% pL 29. Claudius as Jupiter triumphant (after the Britannic victory), MessaEna, Octavia and Britannicus in a chariot drawn by Centaurs as trophy-bearers ; Victory flying on before.
The representation of Grermanicus and Agrippina travelling over tiie world as Triptolemus and Demeter Thesmophorus (with the sxsrioil), on a fine cameo at Paris, is designed in the same spirit of ingenious adufeioiL M&n. de 1'Aa des Inscr. i p. 276. Millin G, M. 48*220, Hoiagez, pi 24*, 3.—A silver goblet in the KK. Antiken-Cabinet, which wm foimd at Aquileia, exhibits a similar composition excellently designed. On the upper field, between Jupiter and Ceres, Proserpina and Hecate, fennani-cus, as it seems, is represented, in relief (the drapery gilded) about to sacrifice at an altar to these deities, in order afterwaards to mount the
17318-17717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
190 xixDl'ORY OF Glij^K ART. [PER. Y.
dragon-chariot as a new Triptolemus; the Earth-goddess lies beneath. [Pobl by the author, Mon. d. I. iii. tv. 4. Ann. xL p. 78 ]
Other works of this time, which was very fertile in fine cameos, in Mon-gez, pi. 24*, 5. 29, 3. and Eckhel, pi 2. 5. 7—12. Augustus and Livia, Impr. dell' Inst. ii, 79. Livia as Magna Mater holding a bust of Divus Augustus, Kohler ibid. A head of Agrippa of exceeding beauty on a Niccolo at Vienna. [The Carpegna stone, now in the Yatican, in Buona-rotti Madaglioni, p. 427, together with another.]
4. It is found almost universally that the body is long in proportion to the legs; it is remarked by Runaohr that this is a national peculiarity of the Roman form, Itai Forschungen i. s. 78.
1 201. In the COINS, especially the bronze medals struck by the senate, of the emperors of the Julian and Flavian families, art appears to have remained stationary at the same height;
2 the heads are always full of life, characteristic and nobly conceived, the reverses more rarely, but yet also sometimes of per-
3 feet execution, especially on bronzes of Nero. The mythico-allegorical compositions of these coins, which were intended to represent the situation of the empire and the imperial house (§. 406), are full of spirit and ingenious invention, although* the figures are handled in a traditional and hasty manner.
1. The transcripts in Mediobarbus and Strada are not to be depended on any more than the ill-reputed ones of G-olzius, neither are, according to EckhePs account, even the beautiful representations in Grori's M. Flo-rentinum. Those in the works on the coins of the emperors by Patinus, Pedrusi, Banduri (from Decius downwards) and Morelli are more trustworthy. Bossi&re, M6daillons du Cab. du Roi. Lenormant TrSsor de Glyptique.
1 202. In the time of TRAJAN were executed the reliefs which
2 represent his victory over the Dacians. Powerful forms in natural and appropriate attitudes, character and expression in the countenances, ingenious motives to relieve the monotony of military order, feeling and depth in the representation of pathetic scenes, such as that of the women and children praying for mercy, give to these works a high value, notwithstanding many faults in the handling both of the nude and
3 the draperies.—The statues of the emperors, as well as the copies of tnem on coins and cameos, were during this time scarcely inferior to those of the immediately preceding period;
4 it would, however, be rash to conclude from the excellence of these that as much was achieved in other subjects.
2. See the Ed. of Winckelm. vi, 2. s. 345. As to the historical events, see, besides Bellori, Heyne de Col. Traj. in Engel's Commentatio de Ex-peditione Trajani. To these belong also the sculptures on the arch of
17318-17817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
SCULPTURES OF TRAJAN'S AND HADRIAN'S TIME, m
Constantine, where, besides Trajan, Hadrian also with Antinotis appears, Admir, Romse, tb. 10—27; the tropsea of the Parthian campaign from the caMdlum aquce Marci&, now in the Oapitol; and other reliefs with warriors from a monument of Trajan, which Wmckelm. describes vi, L s. 283. Kindred representations on coins, for example rex Parthorum vie-tusj Pedrusi vi, 26, 7. Tex Parthu datw, regna assignata. [The exceEent alto relievo of Trajan from the Aldobrandini palace, in the sale Borgia of the Vatican is supposed to be from the forum of Trajan, as well as many other monuments of that house, perhaps also the highly animated wrestlers (called Bares and Entellus) which are now also there, M. Chiaram. ii. 21. 22; where there are also tv. 49—51 splendid pieces of frieze from the Basilica and the Bibliotheca Ulpia.]
3. Pine colossal statue of Nerva in the Vatican, PioGL iii, 6. Mon-gez, pi. 36, 1. 2. A fine statua tkoracata of Trajan in the Louvre 4& (G!a-rac, pi. 337)? colossal head 14. Mongez, pi. 36, 3. 4. Large brome bust of Hadrian in the Mus. of the Capitol. Mongez, pi 38. On others, Winckelm. vi, i. s. 306. Statue Race. 104. Statues of Hadrian were raised by all the Greek cities. C. I. 321 sqq. On the nwmi (mid nvmximi modtdi, which began with Hadrian, the head of that emperor is very ingeniously and successfully handled; the reverses too are fine. Hadrian in warlike costume on cameos, Ickhel, Pierres Grav. pL 8. Apotheosis, Mongez, pL 38, 7. Sabina, Race. 107. Impr. gemni. iv, 99.
4, Dio Chrysost. Or. 21. p, 273, declares the statues of the athletes at Olympia to "be the later the worse, and the w&yv v*k*fovf Keu$a,$ to be the best.
203. Through HADBIA^'S love of art, although in a great 1 measure affected, It was now enabled to take a higher flight, whereas it had hitherto gradually become merely the repre-senter of external reality. The countries which were then 2 flourishing anew, Greece and more especially anterior Asia Minor, produced artists who understood how to reanimate art in such a way as to gratify the wishes and inclinations of the emperor. This Is particularly seen in the statues of Antinous 3 which were executed at this period and in these countries. The most surprising thing Is the certainty with which this 4 character is, on the one hand, modified by the artists in different gradations, as man, hero, and god, but on the other, is nevertheless adhered to and carried out in its peculiar essence. Besides, Hadrian's tjx^e was also that in which the Egyptian 5 style was most exercised, sometimes in more severe sometimes in milder form, as is shown by the statues from the Villa Tiburtina and a peculiar class of the representations of Anti-nous. They are chiefly of black stone, so-called basalt, for at this time the taste for the splendour of coloured stones had even invaded the plastic art to a great extent (comp. §. 309).
1. Hadrian was himself a Polyclitus or Euphraaor according to Victor. Artists of the time: PAPIAS and AKISTEAS of Aphrodisias, who give their names as authors of two centaurs of marmo "bigio from the Tibur-
17318-17917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
192 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEB. Y.
tine villa (M. Cap. iv, 32); one of them resembles the famous Borghese centaur (§. 389), Winck. vi, 1. s. 300. A Zeno also in several inscriptions, Gruter, p. 1021,1. Winckelm, vi, 1. s. 278. 2. s. 341. R. Rochette, Let-tre & M. Schorn, p. 91, and the Attilianus (Atticion?) on the statue of a muse at Florence, both also from that place, led Winckelmann to the assumption of an Aphrodisian school An Ephesian avlgtetvroiroios A. Pan-tuleius, C. I. 339, Xenophantes of Thasos, 336.
3. Antinous, who was from Claudiopolis in Bithynia, in poedagogiis Ccesaris, was drowned in the Kile near Besa (§. 191,), or fell the victim oY a gloomy superstition (an extremely enigmatical story) about the year 130 A. D. The Greeks apotheosised him. to please Hadrian, Spart. 14; Ms worship in Bithynia and Mantinea (because the Bithynians were mythically derived from Mantinea, Paus. viii, 9). Numerous statues and representations on reliefs and coins. See Levezow iiber den Antinous. B. 1808. Petit-Radel, M. Kapol. iii p. 91—113. Mongez T. iii. p. 52. Antinous as Ganymede, Spec, of Anc. Sculpt, ii, 52.1 Eckhel B. 1ST. vi. p. 528. Recognised by his fine head of hair, his eye-brows, his full mouth, which has something sombre about it, his broad high-arched chest, and so forth. —Worshipped at Mantinea as another Dionysus (also on coins as Dionysus, lacchus, and Pan with all sorts of Bacchic insignia). Of this description are the colossal statue from Palaestrina in the Braschi palace [now in the Lateran], Levezow Tf. 7. 8. (that at Dresden 401. August. 18. similar) [a good statue of Antinous-Bacchus also in Villa Casali.]; the magnificent bust in Villa Mondragone, now in the Louvre, formerly coloured slightly [of marble of a light-reddish colour], the eyes of precious stones, grapes and pine-cones of metal, the character earnestly and sternly conceived, Bouill. ii, 82. Levezow 10 (a repetition at Berlin 141); the Cameo with the head of Antinous, to which a Silenus-mask serves as a covering, Eckhel, Pierres Grav. 9. As Agathodsemon (the cornucopia formed from an elephant's trunk) at Berlin 140. Bouill. ii, 51. M. Roy. ii, 1. As Hermes on Alexandrine coins, head with wings at Berlin 142. As Hercules in the Louvre £34. darae. pL 267. Bouill. ii, 50. As Aristaeus in the Louvre 258. BouilL ii, 48. As a new Pythius on coins. An Antinous-Apollo of marble found at Lycopolis, in the Drovetti collection.— The Capitoline Antinous in heroic form (witn short-curled hair and powerful frame), M. Cap. iii. 56. BouilL ii, 49. Levezow, 3.4. Similar at Berlin 134. ' A.vrtvw$ qgas u.ya$to$ on coins. But even as a hero he is sometimes also represented as Bacchian, sitting upon the panther, as on coins of Tios.—More individual, among others in the bust, N. 49 in the Louvre. Mongez, pi. 39, 3. PioCL vi, 47. Race. 121. Beautiful bust on Bithynian coins, Mionnet, SuppL v. pi. 1,1.—The celebrated group of Ildefonso is referred by Visconti (su due Musaici, p. 31), Mongez (T. iii. p. 55. pi. 39), and others to Antinous on account of the resemblance of the head of one of the figures, (which is however held by others to be foreign to the figure); the other youth would then, most probably, be the life-genius of Hadrian. Hypnos and Thanatos, according to Lessing, Gerhard Venere Pros. p. 49, R. Rochette M. I. p. 176, 218. Welcker Akad. Kunstmuseum S. 53.
6. On the Egyptian Antinous, Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 299 £ 2, 357. vii, 36. Bouill. ii, 47, Levez. 11. 12. Comp. besides §, 408.
17318-18017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
THE AHTOHINES. im
204 During the long reign of tlie AOTOHIHES the Roman 1 world reposed from its exliaustion without being able to recover its ancient energies. As Asiatic "bombast on the one hand, and dull insipidity on the other, prevailed more and more in the oratorical, so also both tendencies seem to hare been manifested in the plastic arts. Nay, even in the busts 2 of the emperors, which are often very carefully executed, both may in some measure be seen at the same time, inasmuch as the hair of the head and beard luxuriates in an exaggerated profusion of curls, and a studied elegance is found in all the other accessories, whilst the features of the countenance are conceived and rendered with the most signal triviality. The $ coins also degenerated in art, although those struck at Rome were still much better, especially in the conception of the imperial physiognomy, than the bronze medals which were then struck in great numbers in the cities of Asia Minor and Thrace, on which these cities, with the vanity of sophistic rhetoricians, exhibited their images of gods, their temples^ their local mythi, and works of art, without however themselves producing any thing worthy of notice In the same 4 way must be limited the praise of artistic perfection in other productions of this period. Pausaaia® considered the masters 5 who then lived scarce worth mentioning,
2. See especially the two colossal busts of Marcus Aureliiis ani lor cius Yerus in the Louvre, 138, 140 (Villa Borgh. St> 5, 20.2L BouilL n, 85), from Acqua Traversa, near Rome, the latter of which in particular (also in Mongez, pi. 43,1. 2) is a master-piece of its kind. Kne Farne-sian statue of L. Verus in the M. Borbon. s:, 27, Race. 106, Silver sta~ tues were raised to M. AureL and Faustina in the temple of Venus, and a golden one of her was brought to the theatre when she appeared. Bio Oass, Ixxi, 31. On the busts of Socrates, M. AureHus and others found at Marathon (Herodes Atticus), see Dubois, Oatal. d*Antiq[. de Choise-ol-Gouff. p. 21, The M. AureEus in the Louvre 26 (Clarac, pi 314) is a work of little value notwithstanding the careful execution of the corslet, —The hair on those busts is very laboriously worked out, and perforated with the auger. The eyelids lie close in a leathery manner, the mouth is compressed, the wrinkles about the eyes and mouth strongly marked. The marking of the eyeballs and eyebrows is also to be found in busts of Antinous,—[The bust said to be that of Herodes Atticus from a tomb at Marathon in the Cab. PourtaBs. pL 37.]—In the busts of women of rank. 'such as Flotina, Marciana and Matidia even in Trajan's time) the sculptor took the greatest pains to represent faithfully the absurd headdress. A puffiness in the treatment of \ —^bfe im the draperies. ^
3. Many of the large bronze coins of Anto%k it equal to the best of Hadrian, although the countenanS^^ ' ^ed in a less spirited manner; especially those which 17318-18117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
194 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [FEB. V.
with the inscription a-ronnd the bust of Antoninus, Antoninus Aug. Pius P. P. Tr. P. Cos. iii., is particularly fine ; on the reverse Hercules discovering his son Telephus suckled by the hind. The coins of Marcus Aurelius are universally inferior. On the city coins see below : locality §. 255. — Race. 105. [The circular pedestal with Antonine who was from Lanuvium, his two sons, Juno Lanuvina, Victoria, Roma, Mars, Venus, in Villa Pamfili was brought thither from the neighbourhood, where Antonine had estates.]
4. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the square of the Capitol (formerly before S. Giovanni in the Lateran), of gilded brass, is a respectable work, but both horse and man stand at an immense distance from a Lysippian production. Perrier, tb. 11. Sandrart ii, 1. Falconet Sur la Statue de M. Aurele. Amst. 1781. Race. 14. Cicognara Stor, della Scultura iii. tv. 23. Mongez, pi. 41, 6. 7. Antique pedestal of the equestrian statue, Bull. 1834. p. 112. Deification of Antoninus and the elder Faustina on the base of the granite column, §. 191, a fine relief; the decursio funebris on the sides shows a great inferiority. PioCl. v? 28 — 30. [The entire pedestal is now restored, de Fabris il Piedestallo d. col. Antonina collocato nel giardino della pigna, R. 1846. 4to.] The reliefs also on the attic of Constantine's arch bear reference to Antonine. The column of Marcus Aurelius is interesting on account of the scenes from the war with the Marcomanni (with the representation of the tempest, Bellori, tb. 15, comp. Kastner's Agape, s. 463 — 490) ; the workmanship is much poorer than on Trajan's column, Apotheosis of the younger Faustina from the arch of Marcus Aurelius, M. Cap. iv, 12.
5. The expression of Pausanias : uya^poc.™ re^vis ?%$ srf ypav vi, 21. cannot possibly be one of praise. He praises the statue of gold and ivory in the Athenian Olympieion cci£ we look to the impression of the great whole," i, 18, 6. As to artists he only mentions altogether after the 120th Olympiad two or three certain names. Did Crito and Kicolaus, who made the Caryatides [in Villa Albani, according to Winckelmann, of the time of Cicero] found in the Via Appia near Rome, belong to this period? Guattani M. 1. 1788. p. Ixx. A skilful wood-carver, Saturninus at (Ea in Africa, Appulei de magia, p. 66. Bip. On works of art to which Herod gave occasion, Winckelm, vi, 1. s. 319.
1 205. The more unsettled times of OOMMODUS, Ms immediate successors, SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS and his family, adhered in art to the style which had been formed in the time of the Antonines, with still more distinct symptoms however of de-
2 clension. The best works of the period are the busts of the emperors which the slavish disposition of the senate greatly promoted; yet the most carefully wrought are precisely those in which turgidity and manner are most apparent in the
3 treatment. Perukes, and drapery of coloured stones corre-
4 spond to the taste in which the whole is treated. To these busts are closely allied those on bronze medals and cameos; hexe also the blending of individual with ideal forms still continued to produce many interesting works, although it ceased
5 to be so intimate a combination as in earlier times. In the
17318-18217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
COMMODIJS, SEPTIMIUS, CARACALLA. 195
time of Oaracalla there were sculptured many statues—especially of Alexander the Macedonian; Alexander Severus also was particularly favourable to statues, in so far as he could regard them as memorials of eminent men. The reliefs on & the triumphal arches of Septimius, especially the smaller one, &re executed in a mechanical style.
2. Commodus sometimes appears young (like a gladiator), sometimes in riper years. On bronze medals we see Ms bust in youthful form, with athletic body, the crown of laurel and the segis. A fine head in the ca-pitoL Good bust of Pertinax in the Yatican from Yelletri, Cardinal! Mem. Bomane iii. p. 83. Engraved stones, Lippert i, ii, 415. Crispina, Maffei 108. Septimius Severus next to L. Verus most frequently in busts. PioCL vi, 53 (with Gorgoneion on the breast); from Gabii, in the Louvre 99. Mon. Gab. n. 37. Mongez, pi. 47, 1. 2. The workmanship, however, is still drier than in the Antonines. Bronze statue of Severus, [in the Barbarini palace, now in the Sciarra] Maffei Race. 92, very carefully executed, especially in the accessories. Excellent busts of Caracalla with an affected expression of rage, at Naples (M. Borbon. iii, 25), in the PioCL (vi, 55), the Capitol and Louvre (68. Mongez, pi. 49,1). See the Ed. of Winck. vi. s. 383. Comp. the Gem, Lippert i, ii, 430, which is executed with care, but in a spiritless manner. Youthful equestrian statue in the Eamese palace at Rome, Race, 54. Some busts of Heliogaba^ lus are valued on account of fine workmansMp, at Munich 21% in the Louvre 83. Mongez, pL 51,1, 2; PioGL vi, 5& The short-cxopjred hair and shaved beard again came in with Alexander Severus.—Of artists- we know Atticus in the time of Commodos, C. I. p. 399, and Xenas by a bust of Clodius Albinus in the Capitol.
3. In the empresses the mode of wearing the hair became more and more absurd; in Julia Domna, Soaemias, Mammasa and Plautilla (the wife of Caracalla) it was evidently perukes, galeri, galeruida, mtilia, textilia capiZZamenta. A head of Lucilla with hair of black marble that could be taken off, Winck. v. s. 51. comp. on similar cases the Ed. s. 360. after Yisconti and Bottiger. Er. Eicolai On the use of false hair and perukes, s. 36. Julia Mammaea in the Capitol, Race. 18.
4. Commodus, according to Lamprid. 9, received statues in the costume of Hercules; some of the kind are still extant. Epigram on this subject in Bio Cass. in Mai's £Tova ColL ii. p. 225. Head of Herculesr-Commodus on gems, Lippert i, ii, 410. A beautiful medal exhibits on the one side the bust of Hercules-Commodus, and on the other how he as Hercules founded Rome anew (as a colony of Commodus), according to the Etruscan rite; Here. Rom. Conditori P. M. Tr. P. xviii. Cos. viL P. P. Eckhel vii. p. 131. comp. p 122. According to later chronograpirero 0®m-
jnodus placed his head on the colossus of Rhodes, which had been ra-erected by Yespasian or Hadrian; Allatius ad Philon. p, 107* Orelli Septimius Severus with his two sons (1) as Jupiter, Hercules and Bacchus, at Luna (Fanti scritti di Carrara), Gius, A. duattaniin Hie Dissert, dell* Ace. Rom. di Arch. T. L p. 321. GalEenus also loved to be represented as Sol, and appeared at processions radmtus. IfrebelL 16L18.
It was very common at this time to represent the empresses as Yenus
17318-18317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
196 HISTORY OF GREEK ART.
with, scanty drapery. The insipid character of the portrait, often also the mode of dressing the hair, then, usually form a striking contrast with the representation. Thus Marciana, Trajan's sister, St. di S. Marco ii, 20. Winckelm. vi. 284, comp. v, 275; Julia Sosemias (with moveable hair), PioClement. ii, 51; Sallustia, the wife of Severus Alexander, Ve-nerifelici sacrum, PioCL ii, 52. The representation of the two Faustinas as Ceres and Proserpine was nobler, R. Rochette Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 147.'
5. Caracalla's aping of Alexander called forth everywhere statues of the Macedonian, also Janus figures of Caracalla and Alexander, Herodian iv, 8. Of this time was the tumulus of Festus near Ilion (yet it might •also be the tomb of Musonius under Valens, see Eunapius in Mai Vet. Scr. nova coll. T. i. p. 171.), Ghoiseul Gouff. Yoy. Pitt. T. ii. pi. 30. On Severus Alexander, who collected artists from all quarters and erected numerous statues, Lamprid. 25.
6. Victories of Septimius Severus over the Parthians, Arabians, and Adiabenians. Arcus Sept. Sev. anaglypha cum explic. Suaresii. R. 1676. fo. On the arch of the Argentarii figures of the emperor, Julia Domna, Geta (destroyed) and Caracalla, engaged in sacrifice.
1 206. However, even the century of the Antonines and their successors was not without a productiveness of Its own, which added new links to the series of developments furnished
2 by the ancient world of art. The reliefs on sarcophagi, which did not come into general use until this period, through the influence of un-Grecian ideas, treated subjects derived from the cycles of Demeter and Dionysus, and also from heroic mythology, so as that the hope of a second birth and emancipation of the soul should be thereby expressed in a variety
3 of ways. The fable of Bros and Psyche also was often employed for that purpose, being one which unquestionably represents the pangs of the soul when separated from the heavenly Eros: judging likewise from the literary notices of the mythus, the ingeniously composed but indifferently executed groups of Eros and Psyche will scarcely be assigned to an earlier age
4 than that of Hadrian. At the same time art endeavoured 'more and more to embody the ideas which the invasion of
oriental culture introduced; and after it had in the second century produced many works of distinguished merit in Egyptian figures of the gods modified by the Grecian spirit, it now applied itself, already become more rude and incapable, to the worship of Mithras, of the images belonging to which there is nothing of any excellence remaining except perhaps two sta-
5 tues of Mithraic torch-bearers (§. 408, 7). In the representation of the tri-form Hecate (§ 397, 4) and in the numerous Panfhea signa (§. 408, 8) there is manifested a want of satisfaction with the established forms of the ancient Hellenic images of the gods, a longing for more comprehensive and universal expressions, which must necessarily have strayed into
6 abnormal shapes. The eclectic superstition of the time em-
17318-18417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
NEW SUBJECTS AND DECLINE OF ART. 197
ployed gems as magic amulets against diseases and daemonic influences (§. 433), placed favourable and benign constellations on signet-rings and coins (§. 400, S), and by blending together Egyptian, Syrian and Grecian creeds, especially at Alexandria, gave birth, to the pantheistic figure of lao-Abraxas •with all the various kindred forms of the so-called Abraxas-gems (§. 408, 8).
2. On the introduction of sarcophagi, Yisconti PioCL Iv. p. is. On, the tendency of the mythi represented, Gerhard Beschr. Boms s. 320 £ below §. 358, 1. 397, 2. Ans. Feuerbach der Vatic. Apollo s. 317. "A whole cornucopia of poetic flowers was on Boman sarcophagi poured omt on the resting-place of the dead., a truly inexhaustible riches of delicate allusions. The many coloured series of mythical forms which here gain a new and deeper significance from the very place which they served ta adorn, might be compared to stories with which an ingenious- author beguiles the hours of sadness." The reference to the buried person is perfectly evident when, for example, the head of a Bacchiaa Ero&, who Is carried away drunk from the banquet (the banquet of life, of which he tas enjoyed enough), is left unexecuted, because it was to receive (either by sculpture or painting) the features of him who was laid in the sarcophagus. M. PioCL v, 13. Gerhard in the Beschr. Boms % % & 146*— Grecian steles in later style, Annali d, Inst. L p, 143.
3. A coin of Kicomedia struck about ^36* in ffionnefe SuppL v. jp. 1,3* shows Psyche prostrate and beseeching Amor. See bemctes §. 391, & However, Brotes and Psychse wreathing flowers are to be seen, cm it picture from Pompeii M. Borbon. iv, 47. Gerhard Ant. BEdw. rsr> 6% 2.
207. The turgidity and luxuriance of art gradually passed 1 over into tameness and poverty. On coins, which are our 2 most certain guides, the heads are contracted in order that more of the figure and the accessories may he introduced; tut at the end of the third century the busts lose all relief, 3> the design becomes inaccurate and school-boy like, the whole representation flat, characterless, and so destitute of individuality, that even the different persons are only distinguishable by the legends^ and that utterly lifeless style makes its appearance, in which the Byzantine coins are executed. 'Hie 4? elements of art were lost in a remarkably rapid manner; such 6f the reliefs on the arch of Constantine as were not stolen are rude and clumsy; those on the Theodosian column, as well as on the pedestal of the obelisk which Theodbsius erected in &e Mppodrome at Byzantium, are hardly less so. In sarcophagi, 5 after the turgid works of the later Roman period^ wMdk we^e crowded with figures in alto rilievo mostly in animated action, we find in Christian monuments a monotonous arrangement often influenced by architectonic conditions, and the driest and poorest workmanship. The Christian world from the out- 6
17318-18517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
19a HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. Y.
set made far less use of the plastic art than of painting; however, the erection of honorary statues survived art for a very long time in the different parts of the Roman empire, especially at Byzantium; nay, the distinction was eagerly coveted, although indeed more regard was had to the due designation of rank by situation and drapery than to the representation of character and individuality; as all life at that period must have been completely smothered under the mass of empty r forms. Ornamental vessels of precious metal and sculptured stones—a luxury in which the highest point was attained in the later times of the Romans, still continued to be executed with a certain dexterity; there was also much labour expended on ivory writing-tablets or diptycha—a kind of works-peculiar to Rome in its decline (§. 312, 3); and thus in various ways did technical and mechanical skill endure beyond the life of art itself.
2. Thus in the case of Gordianus Pius, Gallienus, Probus, Carus, Numerianus, Carinus, Maximiaims. This striving to give more of the figure is shown also in the busts. Thus the Gordianus Pius from G-abii in the Louvre 2., in Mongez, pi. 54, 1. 2.
3. The coins of Constantine exemplify the style here described; the Byzantine manner begins with the successors of Theodosius (Du Cange, Banduri).—The decline of art is also shown in the coins of consecration (under Gallienus); as well as in the contorniati distributed at public games.—Statues of the time: Constantine in the Lateran, notwithstanding the clumsy forms of the limbs, is praised on account of its natural attitude. Winck. vi, 1. s. 339. 2. s. 394. Mongez, pi. 61,1. 2. Oonstan-tinus II. (1) on the Capitol, Mongez, pi. 62, 1—3. Julian in the Louvre 301. Mongez, pL 63,1—3. a very lifeless figure. Comp. Seroux d'Agin-
r court Hist, de 1'Art, iv, ii. pi. 3 —The workmanship of the hair was made at this time more and more easy, inasmuch as holes were only bored here and there in the thick masses of stones.
4. The arch of Constantine (the bands over the smaller side-arches-refer to the conquest over Maxentius and the capture of Rome) in Bel-lori, comp. Agincourt, pi. 2. Hirt Mus, der Alterthumsw. i. s. 266. The Theodosian column appears to have been erected by Arcadius in honour of Theodosius (according to others by Theodosius the Second to Arcadius) ; it was of marble, with a stair inside, an imitation of Trajan's; there is nothing more now standing than the pedestal at Constantinople. Col. Theod. quam vulgo historiatam vocant, ab Arcadio Imp. Constan-tinopoli erecta in honorem Imp. Theodosii a Gent. Bellino delineata nunc primum sere sculpta (Text by Menetrius) P. 1702. Agincourt, pi. 11. Heliefs from the pedestal of the obelisk, Montfaucon Ant. Expl. iii, 187. Agincourt, pi. 10. Comp. Fiorillo Hist, of Art in Italy, p. 18.—A circular stone figure turned round by two-winged Seasons is described by Max. Planudes in Boissonade Anecd. Gr. ii. p. 320.
5. See especially the sarcophagus with Christ, the apostles, evange-* lists and Elias, in the Louvre 764. 76. 77, in Bouillon iii. pi. 65 (Clarac
17318-18617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
COHSTANTINE AMJD HIS SUCCESSORS. 199
pL 227), and comp* tlie plates immediately following. Many from the catacombs in. Roman museums [especially in the library of the Tatican, also in the Lateran. Museum, in Pisa and other places], in Aringhi and Aginc. pi 4—6. Gerhard Ant. Bildw. 75, 2. Comp. Sickler Almanach L «. 173. A sculptor named Daniel under Theodoric had a privilegium for marble sarcophagi, Cassiodor. Yar. iii, 19. Eutropus, an artist of the same description, Fabretti Inscr. v, 102. Christian artists among the martyrs (Baronius Ann, ad a. 303). A Christian artifex signaiim Mura-tori, p. 963, 4.
6. On the honour of statues in later Rome, see the Ed. "Winck. (after Fea) vi. s. 410 ff., under the Ostrogoths, Manso, G-esch. des Ostgotb. Reichs, s. 403. As a reward to poets, in Merobaudes, see Niebuhr Merok p. viL (1824); at Byzantium even female dancers had statues erected to them. Anth. Planud. iv, 283 sqq.—The equestrian statue of Justinian in the Augustseon (which, according to Malalas, had formerly represented Arcadius) was in heroic costume, which at that time already seemed strange, but held in his left hand the terrestrial globe with the cross, according to Procop. de sedif. Just, i, 2. Rhetor, ed. Walz. L p. 578. Magnificent picture of the emperor with the globe in his hand, Basilius in Vales, ad Ammian. xxv, 10, 2. A memoir by Marulli on the bronze eolossus at Barletta in Apulia (Fea, Storia delle Arti ii. tv. 11); accord-Ing to Tisconti (Icon. Rom. iv. p. 165.) it is Heraclius, [Theodosius according to Marulli II colosso di bronzo esistente nella eitt& di Barletta, Hap. 1816. 8vo.] In the projected treaty between JusMnim and Theo-datus, in Procopius, it was formally arranged-that the Gothic Mng ahouM have no statue without the emperor, and should always stand on the left. —Even now the f&erovygoi$etv was very common. Ed. "Winck. vl s. 405. comp. §. 158. R. 4. P. Er. Muller gives a very accurate picture of the spirit of the time De genio sevi Theodos. p. 161 sq^.
7. The use of gems, mostly indeed cameos, on vases (GaUienus himself made some of the Mnd, Trebeli. 16), on the MLtem, the ffadat) caHgm^ and socci (Heliogabalus wore gems by the first artists on his feet, Lani-prid. 23), was very much diffused at this later period of the emperors. The conqueror of Zenobia dedicated in the temple of the Sun garments joined together with gems, Vopisc. AureL 28; Claudian describes the court dress of Honorius as sparkling with amethysts and hyacinths; after the emperor Leo (Codex ad, 11), certain works of the kind were only allowed to be made by the Palatini artifices.—Hence the caxeful workmanship on gems and cameos down to a late period. A sardonyx in the Cabinet du Roi at Paris: Constantine on horseback smiting down Ms adversary; a sardonyx at St. Petersburg: Constantine and Fausta, Mongez, pL 61, 5; Constantinus II. on a large agate onyx, Idppert i% ii, 460; a sapphire at Florence: a chase by the emperor Constaaatros at Csesarea in Cappadocia, Ereher, Sapphirus Constantii Imp. Banduri Hu-mism. SuppL tb. 12.—are celebrated. At Byzantium cameos of Wocid jasper in particular were carefully wrought; several of the kind with Christian subjects in the cabinet of antiques at Vienna*—Helas mrgmr-taring died 405. Gruter, p. 1053, 4.
Heyne, Artes ex Coristantrnopoli nunctuam prtffisus earafeate. Com-Grott. iii. p. 3.
17318-18717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
200 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [PER. V.
4 PAINTING.
1 208, Painting came fortli at the time of Caesar in a second
2 bloom which soon faded. Subjects of the highest tragic suffering,—the deeply mortified Ajax brooding over his wrath, Medea before the murder of her children, full of fury, and compassion at the same time in her weeping eyes,—then seemed to the most distinguished artists materials of especial excel-
3 lence. Portrait-painting was at the same time in request; Lala painted chiefly women, also her own likeness from a mirror. '
1. Timomachus of Byzantium, about 660 (Zumpt ad Cic. Verr. iv, 60). Lala of Cyzicus—then one of the chief seats of painting—about 670 (et penicillo pinxit et cestro in ebore). Sopolis, Dionysius, contemporaries. Arellius, about 710. The dumb boy Pedius, about 720. The Greek painter of the temple of Juno at Ardea lived perhaps about 650 —700. Comp. Sillig C. A. p. 246. and the author's Etrusker ii. s. 258.
2. Timomachus* Ajax and Medea, pictures much praised in epigrams, purchased by Cassar for 80 talents (probably from the Cyzicans) Cic, ibid* comp. Plin. xxxv, 9.), and dedicated in the temple of Tenus Genetrix. Bottiger, Vasengemalde ii. s. 188. Sillig C. A. p. 450. The Medea is recognised irom the epigrams of the anthology in a figure from Hercula-neum (Ant. di Ercol. i, 13. M. Borbon. x, 21.) and a picture found in Pompeii (M. Borbon. v, 33), and in gems (Mppert, Suppl. i, 93, &c.) Panof ka Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 243. On the Ajax, Welcker, Rhein. Mus. iii, i. s. 82. Timomachus* Orestes and Iphigenia in Tauris (as we must infer from Pliny xxxv, 40, 30) were also from tragedy. [A Diogenes Albi-nus pictor in Gaul is assigned to the end of the first century, from the characters of the Latin inscription, Bevue arch£ol. iii. p. 511. 583.]
I 209. At the time of the emperors we find easel painting
—which was alone held to "be true art, at least its main branch
—neglected, and wall-painting practised in preference, as the
H2 handmaid of luxury. Pliny in the time of Vespasian regards
**" painting as a perishing art; he complains that with the most
splendid colours nothing worth speaking of was produced.
3 Scenography, which had taken a fantastic direction, especially in Asia Minor, in which it scouted all the rules of architecture, was now transferred to the decoration of apartments, where it was developed if possible in a still more arbitrary manner; artists delighted in playing a transparent and airy architecture over into vegetable and strangely compounded
4 forms. Landscape-painting was also conceived in a peculiar manner by Ludius in the time of Augustus, and unfolded into a new species. He painted as room-decorations villas and porticoes, artificial gardens (topiaria opera), parks, streams,
17318-18817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
AT THE TIME OF THE MEST CJiSAES, S0L
canals, sea-ports and marine views, enlivened with figures in rural occupations and all sorts of comic situations—very sprightly and pleasing pictures. The time also delighted in 5 tricks of all kinds; in Nero's golden house a Pallas by Fabul-lus was admired, which looked at every one who directed his eyes towards her. The picture of Nero, 120 feet high, on canvass, is justly reckoned by Pliny among the fooleries of the age.
1. Painters of the time: Ludius, about 730. Antistius Labeo [the manuscripts Titedius, Titidius] vir praetorius, about 40 A. D. Turpilius Labeo Ec[. Bom. about 50. I>orotheus, 60. Fabullus (Amulius), .the painter of the golden house (the prison of his art), 60. Cornelius Pinus, Accius PriscuSj who painted the walls of the Temple of Honour and Virtue, 70. Artemidorus, 80. Publius, animal painter, about 90. Martial i, 110. Workers in mosaic at Pompeii: Dioscurides of Samos, ML Borb. iv, 34 Heraclitus, Hall. ALZ. 1833. InteJL 57. comp. §. 210, &
2. See Plin. xxxv, 1. 2.11. 37. Comp. the later testimony of Petro-niuSy c. 88. [Philostr. Imag. ed. Jacobs, p. lix sq.] On the external luxury, Plin. xxxv, 32. and Yitruv. vii, 5, Quam subtilitas artificis ad-jiciebat operibus auctoritatem, nunc dominicus sumptus efficit ne desi-deretur.
3. See Yitruvius' (vii, 5) accounts of a scene which Apafemus of Ala-banda fitted up and painted in a small theatre at IMles* licMus * mathematician occasioned the destruction of the Alabandian work; Yitruvius wishes that his time had one like it. Pinguntur tectoriis naon-stra potius quam ex rebus finitis imagines certse. Pro columnis enim statuuntur calami, pro fastigiis harpaginetuli striati cum crispis foliis et volutis; item candelabra aediculariun sustinentia figuras, etc.
4. Plin. xxxv, 37.—Yitruvius speaks altogether of the following classes of wall-paintings: 1. Imitations of architectural mouldings, marble-tablets in rooms and the like, as being the earEest decorations in colours; 2. Architectural views on a large scale, in the scenographic manner; 3. Tra^c^^comic, and satyric scenes in large rooms (exedrae); 4. Landscape pictureT^Va^etates topiorum) in the ambulationes; 5. Historical pictures (megalograpEm)^4gJires of the gods, mythological scenes; also accompanied with landscapes
5. Plin. ib. Comp. laician De Dea Syr.
210. With this character of art, which ^begathere?17318-18917318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
202 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE. Y.
ancient buildings found here and there, In all of which the art exhibits, even in its degenerate state, inexhaustible inven-£ tion and productiveness. The spaces divided and disposed in the most tasteful manner; arabesques of admirable richness of fancy; scenographies quite in that playful and light architectural style; the roofs in the form of arbours hung with garlands interspersed with fluttering winged forms; landscapes in the manner of Ludius, for the most part but slightly indi-
6 cated; moreover figures of deities and mythological scenes, many carefully, the greater number hastily designed, but often possessing an inimitable charm (especially those floating freely in the middle of larger compartments); all this and more in lively colours and simple illumination, clearly and agreeably arranged and executed, with much feeling for har-
7 mony of colour and an architectonic general effect Much of this was certainly copied from earlier painters, nay the whole study of many artists consisted in the accurate reproduction of old pictures.
2. Histoire Critique de la Pyramide de G. Cestius par FAbbe* Rive (with engravings from designs by M. Caiioni). P. 1787.—Description des Bains de Titus—sous la direction de Ponce. P. 1787. 3 Livraisons. Terme di Tito, a large work with plates after drawings by Smugliewicz, engraved by M. Carloni. Sickler's Almanack ii. Tf. 1—7. s. 1.
3. Antichita di Ercolano, i—iv. vii. Pitture Antiche. U. 1757 sqq. 65. 79. Gli ornati delle pareti ed i pavimenti delle stanze dell' antica Pompeii incisi in rame. N. 1808. 2 vols. fo. Zahn, Neuentdeckte Wand-gemalde in Pompeii in 40 Steinabdriicken. The same author, Die Schonsten Ornamente und merkwiirdigsten Gemalde aus Pomp, Here. u. Stabia [1828, 100 pi. 2d Series 1842. 1844.100 pi. Real. Museo Borbon. R. Rochette, Peintures de Pompee from 1844. 3 livr. Wandgem. aus Pompeii u. Herculanum von W. Ternite, Berlin, Reimer 3 Lief, and Beimarus also 3 Lief, up to this time. Text of the first part by K. 0. Mutter, of the rest by Welcker.] Much in Mazois, Gell, Go^R. Rochette (see §. 190, 4). [Pianta de} scavi della Villa QM^rf^a, Ercolano ed Oplonti Nap. No. 24, 27.]
4. P. S. Bartoli: GHxtichi Sepolcri. R. 1797, (Veterum sepulcra, "Thes. Antiqq. Gr. xxf: By the same: Le pitture ant. delle grotte di
Boma e del ser^kro dei Nasoni (of the time of the Antonines, discovered Q. 1721. fo,, with explanations by BeHori and Causeus (also in Latin. R. 1738), [and in the Thes. Ant. Rom. Thes. T. xii.]. Bartoli Recueil de Peintures Antiques T. I. ii. Sec. e*d. P. 1783. Collection de Peintures Antiques qui ornaient les Palais, Thermes, (fee. des Emp. Tite, Trajan, Adrien et Gonstantin. R. 1781. [Ponce Bains de Titus. P. 1786. fol. Paintings from the baths of Titus Sickler Almanach aus Rom. ii. Tf. 1—7. Landon Ghoix des plus eel. peint. P. 1820. 4to.] Arabesques Antiques des Bains de Livie et de la VUle Adrienne, engraved by Ponce after Raphael. P. 1789. Pitture Antiche ritrov. nello scavo aperto 1780, incise e pubbl. da G. M. Cassini. 1783. Cabott, Stucchi figurati essist. in
17318-19017318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
PAIFTIFG AT THE TIME OF THE FIRST OUSARS. 203
im antlc^%?r,olcro fuori delle mura di Roma. R. 1795. Parietiaas Pic-turas intr \ et Yiminalem Gollem super, anno detectas in raderibus
private Antonini Pii sevo depictas (two pictures in the Pein-
tures qui 4. if it be the same picture, quite correspond
with the representation on the coin of Lucilla, Num. Mus. Pisani tb. 25, 3) in tabulis expressas ed. d Buti Archit. Raph. Mengs del CamparoMi sc. 1788. 7 very fine plates (Pitture antiche della villa Hegroni}. [The picture in the Vatican from Torre Marancia in the Mon. Amaranziani. R* 1843. Wall paintings of a dwelling house in Catania, Ann. d. Inst. ix. p. 60.177. of another in Anaphe, Ross in the Abhdl. der Munchner Akad. ii. Tf. 3 A. s. 449, of a tomb in Apulia, ArchaoL Int. Bl. 1835. s. 11. comp. 1837. s. 49. Others in Cyrene, in Pacho. Comp, the passages of Aris~ tides on Corinth, of Bio and Themistius in R. Rochette Peint. Ant. p» 198, Clem, Alex. Protr. p. 52 s. Pott. Sidonius Apoliinaris Epist. E, 11.] For general accounts comp. Winck. v. s. 156 fF*
6. Besides these floating forms of dancing nymphs^ centaurs and bacchantes, Pitt, Ere. i. 25—28, Winckelmann praises most the four pictures, iv, 41—44. Designs (retouched 3) by Alexander of Athens on marble, i, 1—4. [which H. Meyer on Winck, v. s. 473 appreciates better than W. himself.] Among the historical pictures of Pompeii the carrying away of Briseis by Achilles is particularly noted (R. Rochelte M. I. i, 19. (Ml New 8. 39.40, Zahn Wandgem. 7) [as well as the Chiyseis and the visit of Hera to 2feus on Ida from the same sO'-cmlled Homeris krase]; of others, the picture in IL Rochette 3£» E i, 9. (Ml 83. dfetmgnMied by its treatment of the light (Hypnus and Basithm according i® ffir% Mars and Ilia according to R. Rochette, Dionysus and Aura according to Lenormant, D. and Ariadne according to Cruarini, Zepbyros and Flora according to Janelli and others, see BulL d. Inst. 1834. p. 186 sq.);
the enigmatical picture, Gell. 48. Zahn 20. R, Rochettey Pomp€i, pL 15, representing the birth of Leda, or a nest with Erotes (Hirt, Ann. d. Inst. L p. 251). [Certainly the former, with reference to the legend in the CyprJ Others in the 2d Part. On the pieces of rhyparography [rhopo-graphy] Welcker ad Philostr. p. 397- The pictures consisting of mere blurs of paint, and only intelligible at a distance ((ML, p. 165), remind tts of the compend* via §* 163*
7. [These paintings form two classes, imitations of earlier works of every kind, andnewy Roman pictures: Bull. 1841. p. 107.] Quintal x. SL ut describere tabulas mensuris ac lineis sciant. Lucian Zeusis 3, 1%
amiy'ga(po$ Ivrt wv 'A&^yifff/ vfjipg c&vr$» exisijnrt* eutgtfiu tf
[exemplar quod apographon vocant, Plin, 40, 23. pipyifta Pausan. viii, 9,4. cf.
211. In the age of Hadrian painting also ttragfe ta^e TO- 1 vived once more with the other arta To it belonged JEtibn, whom Lucian ranks with the first masters, and whSafi® etiasm-ing picture of Alexander and Roxane^ with, Erofes busted about them and the king's armour* he c^anot snffidtently praise. On the whole^ however, painiing continued to sink 2
17318-19117318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
204 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PER. V.
gradually into a mere daubing of colours; and It was commonly an occupation of slaves to fill the walls with pictures in the most expeditious manner, according to the pleasure and caprice of their masters.
1. JEtion is elsewhere placed in the time of Alexander (even by Hirt Gesch. der. Bild. Hiinste, s. 265), but Lucian says distinctly that he did not live in ancient times, but quite recently (r& rstevrou* rowr* Herod. 4), therefore probably in the age of Hadrian and the Antonines, Comp. besides Imagg. 7. Hadrian himself was a rhyparographer [§. 163. R. 5.]; Apollodorus said to him: * AsrsxSs xu,l rd$ xtiKax,vv§ot$ ygaQe. Bio C. Ixix, 4. Suidas s. v.' A&g/awV. Also Diognetus, about 140. Eumelus (painted a Helena) about 190. Aristodemus from Garia, a scholar of Eumelus (?), a guest of the elder Philostratus, also a writer on the history of art,, about 210.—Later, 370 A. B., there was at Athens a painter called Hila-rius from Bithynia*
2. In Trimalchio's house (Petron. 29) he was painted as Mercury, as was also his whole career, then the Iliad and Odyssey and Lsenatis gladiatorum. Pictures of gladiators (of the commencement of which Pliny speaks xxxv, 33) and other games were now very much in request. Capit. Gord. 3. Vopisc. Carin. 18. §. 424. Gladiators—Mosaic found at Torrenuova in 1834, similar to Winck. M. Ined. tv. 197.198, Kellermamx Hall. A. L. Z. 1834, Int. Bl. no. 69. [W. Henzen Explic. musivi in Villa Burghesia asservati quo certamina amphitheatri reprsesentata extant, praemio donata. Rom. 1845. 4to. II musaico Antoniniano rappr, la scuola. degli atleti, trasferito al paL Lateranese, Roma 1843, by J. P. Secchi, Prof, in the Coll. Eom.] In Juven. ix. 145. some one wishes that he had among his domestics a curvus cselator et alter, qui multas facias pingat cito. Painting slaves also occur in legal sources. See Fea's note ia Winckelmann W* v. s. 496.
1 212. The decline of art is afterwards so much the more perceptible; the earlier luxuriance of arabesques and architectonic decorations disappears; clumsy simplicity takes its place, as for instance in nearly all the pictures of the time of
2 Constantine. With these may be classed the oldest Christian pictures in the catacombs, which still continue to retain much of the manner of the earlier times of the Emperors;
3 as well as the miniature paintings of some heathen and Christian manuscripts, the best of which are very instructive as regards the understanding of the subjects in ancient art.
4 Although encaustic painting was still very much exercised at Byzantium (§. 320), in the decoration of churches as well as palaces, the employment of Mosaic however was preferred, a branch of art which rose very much in estimation at this period, and was very diligently exercised throughout the whole of the Middle Ages at Byzantium, and also by Byzantines in. Italy.
17318-19217318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
EARLIEST OHEISTIAH ARf* 20^
1* The paintings from tlie Baths of Ctenstantine [in the Rospigliosi palace], Bartoli, pi. 42 sq. Agincourt T. v, pL 4, As to whether the pic-* ire of Roma in the Barberini palace really belongs to the time of Con-/fcantine, see Winckelm. W. v. s. 159, Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst ii. s. 440. SicHer and Keinhart's Almanach Bd- i s, 1. T£ 1. Painting P. (X Mul~ ler Be genio aevi Theodos. p. 161.
2. On the catacombs: Bosio, Roma sotterranea. R. 1632. (Engravings by Cherubino Alberti). Aringhi Roma Subterranea novissima. R. 1651. Bottari Sculture e Pitture sagre estratte dai Cimiterii di Roma. 1737—54, Artaud Voy. dans les Catac. de Rome. P. 1810. 8vo. Bartoli's work, §. 210, 4to. Agincourt, pi. 6—12. KosteH Beschr. Roms L & 410. [The work begun by Pater Marchi after extensive investigations, three parts of which have already appeared.]
3. The Ambrosian Iliad (Mai, Iliad. Fragm. Antiquiss. c. picturis Med. 1819), the pictures of which come nearest to classic antiquity [also Rome 1835, small foL Homeri Iliados picturaa ant. ex Cod. MedioL Ibid. 1835, Yirgilii picturae ant. ex Codd. Vaticanis]. The Tatican Virgil (of the 4th or 5th century 1). See Bartoli Figurse Antiquae e Cod. Virg. Vatic, (embellished). Agincourt 20—25. Millin G. M. pi 175 b. sqq. Beschr. Roms ii, 2. s. 345. The Vatican Terence with scenes from comedy, Berger De personis 1723, Beschr. Roms ibid. s. 346. The Vatican manuscript of Cosmas Indoplemstes. The oldeet mMatures of the books of the Bible, especially those in the Vatican on Joshua, approach the Homeric ones above referred to in costume and composition.
4. See Cassiodor. Var. i, 6. vii, 5. Symmachus Ep* vi, 49. viii, 42. Justinian's Chalke contained large mosaic pictures of his warlike achievements, Procop. Be sad. Justin, i, 10. On a wall-painting of Theodoric in mosaic, Procop. B. Goth, i, 24, Rumohr ItaL Forschungen i. s. 183, Manso less accurate s. 403. Comp. Miiller De genio @evi Theod.p. 168. Accounts of the mosaics in basilicas, which are never wanting there: Sartorius* ,Regierung der Ostgothen s. 317. n. 21.—Specimens are furnished by A. Ciampini among others. Opera, K 1747. Furietti de Musivis. R. 1752, Agbicourt v. ;pL 14 sqq. Ghitensohn und Knapp (§. 194), Comp. §. 322. Two pictures in the Bibl. Coisliniana, Nicephorus Botoniates with a monk and emperor and empress, over whom Christ hovers touching both crowns.
213. Notwithstanding tlie disappearance of all living study l of nature, and the loss of all higher technical dexterities3 the practice of painting and sculpture which again degenerated into mechanical drudgery, still adhered however to many of the principles and forms of ancient art. The Christian reli- 2 gion appropriated at first for the decoration of churches7 tombs and signet-rings, not merely many forms and even some subjects of ancient art, but also created for itself a plastic and pictorial cycle, partly from historical and partly from allegorical materials; only it repelled, by a purer and more severe •conception, all adoration of artistic shapea Constant and 3
17318-19317318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
206 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [PEE, V.
established forms therefore were adopted for sacred personages, the more so as it was thought that, by going back to the oldest images which they possessed, the actual shape assumed
4 by these characters was retained. The countenances at the same time were fashioned after an ideal, although at the same time rudely treated fundamental form; the costume was substantially Greek, and the drapery was disposed in large masses
£ after the antique manner. Mediaeval peculiarities in dress and mien only penetrated by degrees into the world of antiquity, and that more in newly acquired than in old tradi-
6 tional figures. Everywhere at that period traces of an ancient school, nowhere a peculiar living conception of nature, from the renewed study of which emanated, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the fresh efflorescence of art, and emancipation from those typical and lifeless forms which continue to exist in the Greek church till the present day, as the last remnant of a perished world of art,
1. Cod, Theod. xiii, 4. de excusationibus artificum,
2. The catacombs of the Christians show how even heathen subjects (especially Orpheus) were adopted into Christian allegory. Vintage, Gerhard, Beschr. Boms ii, 2. s. 234. The porphyry urn of Constantia is adorned with Bacchian scenes, Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 342; a river god on the sarcophagus Bouill. iii. pi. 65. The first Christian emperors have on coins personified representations of cities, and other subjects borrowed from heathendom. Constantine wears the labarum and the phoenix (fe-licium temporum reparatio), Constantius while holding the labarum is crowned by a Victory. B. Walsh, Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals and Gems as illustrating the progress of Christianity, p. 81 sqq. B. Bochette Premier Mem. sur les antiq. chre"tiennes. Peintures des catacombes. P. 1836. Deux Me*m. Pierres sepulcr. 1836. [Trois. Me*m. objets deposes dans les tombeaux ant. qui se retrouvent en tout ou en partie dans les cimeti&res chr6tiens. 1838.] But newly formed subjects also, such as the good shepherd, appear to have been conceived at this time in an artistic manner. Bumohr describes a meritorious statue of the good shepherd at Borne, ItaL Forsch. i. s. 168; a good figure of the kind as a sarcophagus in the Louvre 772. Clarac, pi. 122. On the gemma pastoralis see Thes. gemm. astrif. iii. p. 82. Constantine caused the good shepherd as well as
. many scenes from the Old and New Testament to be sculptured (Busek v. Const, iv. 49), among the former Daniel, who, together with Jonah, was the most favourite subject of typical representation. In the emblems of the earliest Christians indeed (Miinter, Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellun-gen der alten Christen. 1825} there is much pettiness and trifling (as in the fish, IX0T2), partly from the frequently enjoined effort to avoid everything like idols even in signet-rings; yet there are others that are happily conceived even on the score of art (the lamb, the thirsting hart, the dove with the olive branch). The sentiments of reflecting Christians were from the first much divided, at Rome on the whole they were more for art, in Africa more strict. Tertullian, Augustine, and Clemens of Alexandria speak with severity against all exercise of sculpture and
17318-19417318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
DESTRUCTION OF W0KKS OF ART. 207
painting. The councils, among which that of IHiberis (albout 300) was the first to occupy itself with such matters, were on the whole more hostile to plastic than painted images. Comp, Neander K. G-esch. ii, s. 61& Jacobs Acad. Reden i. s. 547 f. Gruneisen iiber die Ursachen u. Granzeu des Ktmsthasses in den drei ersten Jahrh. n. Chr,, KunstbL 1831. N. 29. In P. C. Miiller Be genio sevi Theod. p. 267 sq. Passages from Chrysos-torn and others on the state of art.
3. There were images of Christ pretty early, for Alexander Sevens had Christ in his Lararium; afterwards the Carpocratians had such images, with which even heathen superstition was carried on in Egypt. (Reuvens Lettres & Mr. Letronne i. p. 25). On the other hand the Edessa image was an invention, and the statue of Paneas, with the woman of Samaria, probably a misunderstood antique group (Hadrian and Judaea, according to Iken). The Christ-ideal was developed on the whole much less by sculpture than by mosaics and paintings, A Christian painter who tried to transform it into the Jupiter Ideal had Ms hand withered^ according to Cedrenus p. 348. Par. Theodoret Exc. hist. eccL i, 15* [On the origin of Christian art, and its religious ideals, from a consideration of the earliest works of Christian sculpture, and later Greek painting in Sicklers u. Reinhart's Almanach aus Rom. i. s. 153—196.]—Rumohr in especial shows how Christian art long remained antique in technical treatment and forms, having only taken another direction in its subjects^ ItaL Forschungen 1 &. 157 ff.—What is here said is mostly borrowed from Rumohr's excellent book; and JEL Rochette in agreement therewith, shows in his Discours sur Forigine, le developpemmt ei le camelfee des types imitatifs qm constituent Fart du Ghrisiaaniscoe, P, I834y tw^ after the first indeterminate and characterless attempts, certain ideal types of the Saviour, the Virgin, and the Apostles were formed at art early period, under the influence of ancient art; but that the subjects which were foreign to antiquity—the representations of sacred sufferings—the Crucifixion and the Martyrdoms, did not enter into this world of art until the seventh and eighth centuries.
DBSTRTJCTIOH OF WOBKS OF ABT.
214 After all this, it is not to be denied that the removal i of the seat of empire to Byzantium "was productive of baneful in£ mce on the arts in Italy; that to ancient art in general 2 Chi ^tianity was not less injurious, as well in consequence oC its internal tendency, as from the natural and necessary hostility of its external position; and that the invasions and S conquests of the Germanic tribes were also destructive^ less however from intentional demolition than from ihe natural effects of incursions, sieges, and subjugations; for the Goths especially, who were of an honourable nature and susceptible of cultivation, can scarcely in any instance be charged with wanton destruction of works of art and historical records. The vast amount of distress arising from wars, famine, pesti- 4
17318-19517318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
208 HISTORY OF UEEEK ART. [Pm, Y.
lence, aad all kinds of calamities, to which. Rome was subjected in the sixth and seventh centuries, is certainly to be taken into consideration in the history of the decay of ancient art; and intervals of prosperity were but the more dangerous to old architectural edifices which were then turned to account for the erection of new buildings. And yet it was not these external events that principally brought about and are chargeable with the decline of art; it was the inward exhaustion and enfeeblement of the human mind, the decay of all ancient sentiment, the destruction—whose causes lay in internal laws of life—of the entire spiritual world from which art itself had emanated. Even without those external shocks the fabric of ancient art must of itself have sunk in ruins.
1. See Heyne: Priscse artis opera quae Oonstantinopoli extitisse me-morantur, Commentat. G-ott. xi. p. 3. De interitu operum turn antiquse turn serioris artis quse Constantinopoli fuisse memorantur, ibid. xii. p. 273. Peterseii, Einleitung s. 120.
Constantine "brought works of art from Rome, Greece, and especially from Asia Minor, to Byzantium. On the statues of gods, heroes and historical personages in the Bath of Zeuxippus which Severus erected and Oonstantine embellished, Christodorus' Anthol. Palat. ii. Cedremis p. 369. The brazen statues with which Constantine adorned the principal streets were melted for Anastasius* colossus in the/onm TaurL Malalas xv. p. 42. Before the time of Justinian there stood 427 statues in the area at the church of St. Sophia. We hear also of enormous colossal statues of Hera and Hercules in the history of FranMsh devastation (Mcetas). In detail, however, little can be said with certainty; the Byzantines are wont to call the images of the gods after the chief seat of their worship (the Samian Hera, the Cnidian Aphrodite, the Olympian Zeus). Kome^was also plundered through the exarchate, particularly in 633 under Constans IL, even of the bronze tiles of the Pantheon.
At Byzantium there was destruction from fire, especially in 404, 475 (the Lauseion), 532 (the bath of Zeuxippus), 17318-19617318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
THE EGYPTIANS. 200
struefeloa of tae temple of Eleusia, But, on the other hand, there were always new endeavours to preserve the monuments of antiquity. For the protection of worts of art there was at Eome a centurio, then, a tri~ bwMU} comes} rerum nitmtwm* Vales* ad ATrvrma.tu xvi, 6, Artists are honoured in the Cod. Theodos. xiiL t. 4. The earKer Popes Hkewise had sometimes a sense of the splendour which the remains of antiquity imparted to their city, especially Gregory *he Great, who has Ibeen justified by Fea.
3. Greece was laid waste ver^x^X/jf it was overran several times by the so-called Scythians under ^2y»us, they plundered also the Ephe-sian temple; in Attica thej/were defeated by Dexippus at the sack of the city, Trebellius Gallien. 6.13 (Gomp. C. I. EL 380). Alaric threatened Athens in 395: however, Athena Promachus, according to Zosimus, averted the destruction (and it was precisely at Athens that antiquity subsisted longest uninjured in its monuments, religion, and customs), Eome was besieged by Alaric in 408, and many statues of precious meW were melted in order to appease him; in 410 he took and pillage*! it, The sack by Genseric the Vandal, in 455, was more terrible. The treasures of art in the Capitol were taken to Africa. Theodoric, who was educated at Byzantium, carefully protected antiquity and art. Restoration of Pampey's theatre, Tkeodoriem nx Roma fdix inscribed oa bricks from the fcaftis of OaraeaBa, Gomp. the defence of the Goths in. Sarforius, p, 191 sq. Wittig besieged Rome in 537; the Greeks defended Hadrian's Mausoleum witfe statues. Totila's plan of dev&etetion in 5461 Wars of the Longobards aaod Greeks. Cfomp, for a general a«swHQ% Gibbon, ch. 71. Winck. vi, I. a. 340 ff. together mtfa the notes, lea Bovine di Roma in the ItaL translation of Winckelmam,n? HoKhaiise*s notes to Byron's Childe Harold^ Petersen, Einleitung s. 124 ft, MelwhrTs KL Schrifteni, s. 42S ffl Circumstances which lead to the conclusion thafe there was a sudden stagnation in artistic enterprise, are adduced by WiaoL vi, 1. s. 337, and also by the Ed. s. 390.
APPENDIX.
THE NATIONS NOT OF GREEK RACE,
Chinese, Judsean and Egyptian antiquities are at the best but curiosities ; it is very well to make one's self and the world acquainted wifck them; but they are of alight avail for moral or aesthetic ctdtece*— Gothe Werke xxiii & 278.
I. EGYPTIANS, I. GBHBBAL REMABK&
215. The Egyptians were qtdte a peculiar tasaacli of the Caucasian race, in tlie wider sense of tfcat wori Bieir form of body was elegant and slender, more cmlcdbtecl for perse-
0
17318-19717318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
210 EGYPTIAN ART.
vering labour and steadfast endurance than for a heroic dis-
3 play of strength. Their language, which can he recognised in the Coptic, was closely allied to the Semitic tongues in its structure, but depended still more on external agglutination, and was therefore so much the more removed from the internal
4 organic richness of the Greek. This people was found from the earliest times throughout the whole extent of the valley of the Nile; the Ethiopians of the kingdom of Meroe, though indeed seldom politically united with the Egyptians, were, however, connected with them by their corresponding customs, re-
5 ligion, art, and nationality in general. As this river-country, on account of its sharply-defined boundaries and great annual inundation, had, especially in Egypt, a very fixed and distinct character—something settled and uniform; so we find that, from the earliest ages, all life was extremely formal, and, as it
£ were, benumbed. The religion, which was a nature-worship, was cultivated and unfolded by priestly science into a tedious ceremonial; a complicated system of hierarchy and castes wound itself through all branches of public activity, as well as art and industry; every business had its followers assigned it by inheritance.
1. The Egyptians were not negroes, although the nearest to them of all the Caucasians. The lips larger, the nose more turned up than among the Greeks. Comp. the heads of Copts with the ancient statuary, Denon, Toy. T. L p. 136. 8. Gau's Anti
17318-19817318ANCIENT ART AND ITS REMAINS; OR A MANUAL OF THE ARCHEOLOGY OF ART.C.O.MULLER--
EGYPTIAN CHARACTEBS. 211
them, to papyrus, by tlie abbreviation and simplification of signs; lastly, the demotic — wMcli is in its turn connected witfc the latter — is more alphabetical in its nature, and most simplified in the form of the signs.
S. The discovery of the phonetic hieroglyphics rested at first on the comparison of the name of Ptolemy on the Rosetta stone (§. 217, 4), with that of Cleopatra on the obelisk at Philse. First set on foot by Young; Encyclopaedia Britannica. Supplement, Article Egypt. 1819. Account of some recent discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature and Egyptian Antiquities. 1823, More fully carried out by ChampolHon le Jeune. Lettre & M. Dacier relative ^'alphabet des hieroglyphes phon^tiques. 1822. Pr&-cis du systeme hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens. 1824. Confirmed by H. Salt's Essay on Dr. Young's and M. Champollion's Phonetic sya-tem of Hieroglyphics. A correct judgment on what ChampolHon has done, by Rosengaxten in the BerL Jahrb, 1831 n.94 ff. An opposite system, now abandoned, in Seyflarth's Rudimenta Hieroglyphices. 1826, Lepsius sur Falphabet hierogl. Annali d, Inst. ix, p. 1 tav. d'agg. A. B.
On rolls of papyrus, which seem to belong to a kind of liturgy, and to contain hymns. The same species of writing is found in fragments of folded papyras* (comp. Herod, iiy 100), with the names of the kings and the years of their reigns, in the Turin collection. See Quintino Lezxoni intorno a diversl argomenti d^Arcfceologia. 1825. Mai's (Malogo ioy£tf