Monologue and dialogue

usually for a scripted performance but it can include an individual speaking for a long period of time

monologues are directed at listeners who make no spoken contribution

can be prepared or spontaneous

Dialogue is spoken language that involves more than one speaker

uses language to interact with each other

exchanges can be short but in longer conversation one of the speakers may take the major role with the other mainly listening and only contributing occassionally

can be prepared or spontaneous- most conversations between characters on TV or in plays or films are scripted by a writer by conversations between friends are unprepared- speakers respond to the different cues and context that come up

Spontaneous- meant for the speakers to be involved, conversations that take place in public places or between strangers are more formal

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Similarities in prepared and spontaneous speech

Prepared and spontaneous speech also have some features in common

discourse structure

prepared speech has a beginning, middle and end. themes and ideas are introduced at different points and usually finishes on a positive note

spontaneous speech also has formulaic beginnings and endings

Non-verbal communication- related to body language, gestures and facial expressions. It emphasies certain words or phrases in both prepared and spontaneous speech- can be disruptive if overdone

Prosodic features- include stress, rhythm, pitch, tempo and intonation. they are useful in prepared speech, where a speaker can use the devices to keep an audience interested over a long period of time

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Spontaneous speech features

Ellipsis

where part of a grammatical structure is omitted without affecting understanding e.g You going to come round later? it makes the tone more casual than the full version

Phatic expressions

play a key role in spontaneous speech, especially when you're initiating a conversation

the comments have no great meaning or interest in themselves, but are designed to help conversations get started

False starts

regularly occur in conversation

the speaker changes their train of though halfway through and begins the utterance again

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Spontaneous speech features

Back-channelling

used to feed back to a speaker that what they're saying is being understanding e.g. I see or another repeated utterance

you can also give feedback non-verbally e.g. nodding or shaking your head

Deitic expressions

are pointers that refer the listener backwards, forwards or outside the text

most common are words such as, this, that, here and there

you can't understand deictic expressions unless you know their context

Non-fluency features

devices that interrupt the flow of talk

hesitation or repetition, fillers such as er or um, interruptions and overlaps are also non-fluency features

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spontaneous speech features

Elision

slurring together of sounds or syllables e.g gonna, rather than going to- this saves time and is less formal

Hedging

shows uncertainty in a conversation

words like perhaps, probably and maybe are used to weaken the force of what you're saying

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Features of all conversations

Openings

an informal conversation may begin with a simple familiar starter

these are usually greetings such as hello, or alright?

more formal conversations often include inquiries like 'I wonder if you could help me?' to get someone's attention

Techniques when initiating conversation

most participants in a conversation will offer a contribution without waiting to be asked- if you waited to be asked to speak in every conversation you may never speak at all

you might get a conversation started by showing an interest in the other people involved

if you're talking to an unfamiliar person, appropriate phatic expressions and questioning can help get things started e.g. use tag questions

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techniques when sustaining conversation

fluent speaking (following adjacency patterns and turn-taking rules) showing an interest (feedback) and generally enjoying talking are all factors that help people sustain conversation

speaker empathy is important- if people are exploring shared interests or opinions then the conversation is more likely to be sustained, listeners might make it clear that they share the speaker's views by using feedback e.g. mm and yeah

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Techniques when ending conversation

social convention makes us not want to appear rude, cut people short or walk away when they're not ready- so phatic expressions are used to signal closure in a socially recognisable way e.g. I should probably get going

there are also non-verbal cues that signal a speaker is about to end the conversation e.g. starting to get up from a seat, or increasing the distance between the speakers

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Managing and controlling conversations

prepared/formal situations

these are the types of conversation where there is a defined power relationship between the participants, e.g. conducting an interview with someone or being interviewed yourself

prepared situations (like a tutorial, job interview or debate) have a specific subject area on the agenda. you may not know precisely how the conversation will go, but you know what is likely to be discussed and the level of formality expected

there's usually a person overly in charge of the exchanges, like a lecturer, interviewer or chairperson, whose authority to change the conversation at will is already acknowledged before it starts

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Managing and controlling conversations

unprepared/ Informal situations

informal social conversations are less likely to be prepared, and could involve any topic, but these still tend to be controlled by certain individuals

people who are louder, quicker and more forceful than other speakers often tend to dominate informal conversations

it is easy for less confident and less assertive speakers to be inhibited or intimidated and to end up contributing very little