Operation Sail

Operation Sail refers to a series of sailing events held to celebrate special occasions and features sailing vessels from around the world. Each event is coordinated by Operation Sail, Inc., a non-profit organization established in 1961 by U.S. President John F. Kennedy and must be approved by the United States Congress. Often referred to as OpSail or Op Sail, the event has the goals of promoting good will and cooperation between countries while providing sail training and celebrating maritime history. It is also sometimes erroneously referred to as "Tall Ships". While the tall ships form the centerpiece of the event, smaller sailing vessels also participate.

Op Sail events, when scheduled, are run concurrently with the annual International Naval Review, which features present-day warships from various navies. Six Op Sail events have been held to date, in 1964, 1976, 1986, 1992, 2000 and 2012, the event culminates in the Parade of Ships on the Hudson River and in New York Harbor on July 4, Independence Day. The United States Coast GuardcutterEagle has been the host vessel to all six Op Sail events.

Along with Nils Hansell, Frank Braynard launched the world's first Operation Sail, an extravanganza in which tall ships and naval vessels filled New York Harbor, in 1964.

The inaugural Opsail was a tie-in with the 1964 New York World's Fair. Operation sail 1964: Four years in the making, Operation Sail is an international effort to promote goodwill and to generate awareness of ships and shipping, it is a dream come true for sailing enthusiasts, and a once in a lifetime opportunity for anyone who is stirred by the sight of a square rigger under full sail.

Many nations maintain sailing ships in this machine age because they believe there is no better way to build character in young men than sail training, it encourages initiative, steadfastness, leadership and personal courage .... the records of the brotherhood of the sea sparkle with innumerable examples of the value of such training. The prestige of having served aboard a windjammer is no small matter.

To reach New York for the July 14 parade up the Hudson River, some of these tall ships will have sailed from their home ports as long ago as early March, some will have raced from Plymouth, England, to Lisbon, Portugal, then 3000 miles across the Atlantic to Bermuda rendezvous, and a 630-mile northwest run, in company, to New York.

These ships are specifically built for training under sail, as these tall ships plough the oceans, the men who man this great fleet are helping to forge a bond of understanding and mutual respect around the world. As you visit the ships and talk with their officers, crews, and trainees, consider the thirteen participating nations, the thousands of people involved in such a gathering, the countless man hours spent in preparations which have resulted in this great spectacle OPERATION SAIL.

1.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade

2.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

3.
Sail training
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Ships were built larger to carry bulk cargoes more efficiently, their rigs were simplified to reduce manning costs and speed was no longer a premium. Owners shipped cargoes that were non-perishable so that their date of arrival were of less importance, both Chile and Australian ports were difficult to supply with coal for steamships to refuel. Also, both routes to Europe went round Cape Horn, Erickson purchased existing ships that required the minimum of capital investment and repaired them with parts cannibalised from other ships. Identifying the bulk cargo routes that would still offer paying freights, the deckhands were apprentices from steamship lines and other adventurous youth who had all paid a premium to sail while being trained. These crews were considered trainees and were the first formalization of sail trainers with crew drawn from members of the public who just went for the adventure, with manning costs netted out on Ericksons balance sheet, the ships continued to return a paper profit. However Erickson was under no illusions as to the long term profitability of his venture, which depended on ignoring the depreciation on his ships, the company would use their profits to diversify into steam after World War II. While the shipping companies of Erickson and F, from 1932 through 1958, Irving Johnson and his wife Electa Exy Johnson circumnavigated the world 7 times with amateur youth crews on board their vessels named Yankee. Over the years, their voyages were featured in books they authored and their archives are at Mystic Seaport, Connecticut. Australian Alan Villiers purchased the old school ship George Stage from Denmark in 1934, renaming her the Joseph Conrad, he sailed her round the world with no paying cargo and a crew of youth who had paid to be there. He also took as many non-paying youth as he could afford to fit in the budget, by the end of World War II, the numbers of traditionally rigged sailing ships left were dwindling and public interest waned. After the German school ship Niobe had sunk in 1932, killing 69, the loss of the Pamir in 1957, five square rigged school ships entered the race, Denmarks Danmark, Norways Christian Radich and Sorlandet, Belgiums Mercator and Portugals first Sagres. The vessels would meet again the year and every year since in an annual series that would astonish its original organizers today. Old vessels were saved or repaired and new purpose built sail training vessels were commissioned, Crew exchanges allow young people from one country to sail with those from another. Long before the end of the Cold War, ships from Russia, a limited exchange between the East and West was initiated. One of the largest of the organizations of the STI is the American Sail Training Association. Founded in 1973 with a handful of vessels, it has grown to encompass an international organization with more than 250 tall ships representing 25 different countries. The UK National Member of STI is the Association of Sail Training Organisations Founded in 1972, http, //www. asto. org. uk Square rigged seamanship was in danger of becoming a lost art. As the 1997 restoration of the USS Constitution neared completion, the United States Navy called on the crew of HMS Bounty to train her sailors to sail the vessel as originally intended, seamans and the Corwith Cramer of the Sea Education Association

4.
Tall ship
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A tall ship is a large, traditionally-rigged sailing vessel. Popular modern tall ship rigs include topsail schooners, brigantines, brigs, Tall ship can also be defined more specifically by an organization, such as for a race or festival. Traditional rigging may include square rigs and gaff rigs, usually with separate topmasts and it is generally more complex than modern rigging, which utilizes newer materials such as aluminum and steel to construct taller, lightweight masts with fewer, more versatile sails. Most smaller, modern vessels use the Bermuda rig, author and master mariner Joseph Conrad used the term tall ship in his works, for example, in The Mirror of the Sea in 1903. If Conrad used the term, it is fairly certain tall ship was common parlance among his fellow mariners in the last quarter of the 19th century. Henry David Thoreau also references the term tall ship in his first work, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, quoting Down out at its mouth, the dark inky main blending with the blue above. Plum Island, its sand ridges scolloping along the horizon like the sea-serpent, and he does not cite this quotation, but the work was written in 1849. The exact definitions have changed somewhat over time, and are subject to various technicalities, basically there are only two size classes, A is over 40 m LOA, and B/C/D are 9.14 m to under 40 m LOA. The STI definitions can be here and a ship database here. All square-rigged vessels and all other more than 40 metres Length Overall. STI classifies its A Class as all square-rigged vessels and all vessels over 40 metres length overall, in this case STI LOA excludes bowsprit. STI defines LOA as Length overall measured from the side of stem post to aft side of stern post. Traditionally rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres, modern rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres and with a waterline length of at least 9.14 metres not carrying spinnaker-like sails. Modern rigged vessels with an LOA of less than 40 metres, there are also a variety of other rules and regulations for the crew, such as ages, and also for a rating rule. There are other festivals and races with their own standards. An older definition of class A by the STI was all square-rigged vessels over 120 length overall, fore and aft rigged vessels of 160 and over. By LOA they meant length excluding bowsprit and aft spar, Class B was all fore and aft rigged vessels between 100 and 160 feet in length, and all square rigged vessels under 120. See also a list of class A ships with lengths including bowsprit, Tall ships are sometimes lost, such as by a storm at sea

5.
Hudson River
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The Hudson River is a 315-mile river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, the river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, tidal waters influence the Hudsons flow from as far north as Troy. The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canadas Hudson Bay is also named. The Dutch called the river the North River – with the Delaware River called the South River –, during the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, the Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States. The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet, the river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. From that point on, the stream is known as the Hudson River. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source, South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson, the Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties, in the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake, shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls, at this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet, further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties, the river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts, shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, at an elevation of 2 feet, the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River

6.
New York Harbor
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New York Harbor, part of the Port of New York and New Jersey, is at the mouth of the Hudson River where it empties into New York Bay and into the Atlantic Ocean at the East Coast of the United States. It is one of the largest natural harbors in the world, although the United States Board on Geographic Names does not use the term, New York Harbor has important historical, governmental, commercial, and ecological usages. The aboriginal population of the 16th century New York Harbor, the Lenape, used the waterways for fishing and it is fairly firmly held by historians that his ship anchored at the approximate location where the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge touches down in Brooklyn today. He also observed what he believed to be a freshwater lake to the north. He apparently did not travel north to observe the existence of the Hudson River, in 1609 Henry Hudson entered the Harbor and explored a stretch of the river that now bears his name. His journey prompted others to explore the region and engage in trade with the local population, in 1624 the first permanent European settlement was started on Governors Island, and eight years later in Brooklyn, soon these were connected by ferry operation. This prepared New York as a port for the British colonies. In 1686, the British colonial officials gave the municipality control over the waterfront, in 1808, Lieutenant Thomas Gedney of the United States Coast Survey discovered a new, deeper channel through The Narrows into New York Harbor. Because of the difficulty of the required, since 1694. The new channel Gedney discovered was 2 feet deeper, enough of a margin that fully laden ships could come into the harbor even at slack tide. Gedneys Channel, as it came to be called, was shorter than the previous channel, another benefit appreciated by the ship owners. Gedney received the praise of the city, as well as a silver service. In 1824 the first American drydock was completed on the East River, the Morris Canal, carrying anthracite and freight from Pennsylvania through New Jersey to its terminus at the mouth of the Hudson in Jersey City. Portions in the harbor are now part of Liberty State Park, in 1870, the city established the Department of Docks to systematize waterfront development, with George B. McClellan as the first engineer in chief. By the turn of the 20th century numerous railroad terminals lined the banks of the North River in Hudson County. The freight was ferried across by the railroads with small fleets of towboats, barges. New York subsidized this service which undercut rival ports, major road improvements allowing for trucking and containerization diminished the need. The Statue of Liberty National Monument recalls the period of immigration to the United States at the turn of the 20th century

7.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag

8.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S

9.
Cutter (boat)
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A cutter is typically a small, but in some cases a medium-sized, watercraft designed for speed rather than for capacity. Traditionally a cutter sailing vessel is a small single-masted boat, fore-and-aft rigged, the cutters mast may be set farther back than on a sloop. In modern usage, a cutter can be either a small- or medium-sized vessel whose occupants exercise official authority, examples are harbor pilots cutters and cutters of the U. S. Coast Guard or UK Border Force. Cutters can also be a small boat serving a one to ferry passengers or light stores between larger boats and the shore. This type of cutter may be powered by oars, sails or a motor, the cutter is one of several types of sailboats. Traditionally the sloop rig was a rig with a single mast located forward of 70% of the length of the sailplan, in this traditional definition a sloop could have multiple jibs on a fixed bowsprit. Cutters had a rig with a single mast more centrally located, which could vary from 50% to 70% of the length of the sailplan, with multiple headsails, a mast located aft of 50% would be considered a mast aft rig. Somewhere in the 1950s or 1960s there was a shift in these definitions such that a sloop only flew one headsail, in this modern idiom, a cutter is a sailing vessel with more than one head sail and one mast. Cutters carry a staysail directly in front of the mast, set from the forestay, a traditional vessel would also normally have a bowsprit to carry one or more jibs from its end via jibstay on travelers. In modern vessels the jib may be set from a permanent stay fixed to the end of a fixed bowsprit, or directly to the stem fitting of the bow itself. In these cases, that may be referred to as the forestay, and the inner one, a sloop carries only one head sail, called either the foresail or jib. These could be managed without the need for crews, winches, or complex tackles, making the cutter especially suitable for pilot, customs. For example, a pilot cutter may only have two people on board for its outward trip—the pilot to be delivered to a ship and an assistant who had to sail the cutter back to port single-handed. The cutter sailing rig became so ubiquitous for these tasks that the modern-day motorised vessels now engaged in these duties are known as cutters, the open cutter carried aboard naval vessels in the 18th Century was rowed by pairs of men sitting side-by-side on benches. The cutter, with its transom, was broader in proportion compared to the longboat, the Watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th Century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th & 18th Centuries. The modern Waterman’s Cutter is based on drawings of these boats and they are 34 feet long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s, watermen’s Cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals’ Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas, in addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions

10.
USCGC Eagle (WIX-327)
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USCGC Eagle (WIX-327 is a 295-foot barque used as a training cutter for future officers of the United States Coast Guard. She is the only active commissioned sailing vessel in American military service and she is the seventh Coast Guard cutter to bear the name in a line dating back to 1792, including the Revenue Cutter Eagle, which famously fought the British man-of-war Dispatch during the War of 1812. Each summer, Eagle deploys with cadets from the United States Coast Guard Academy, the primary mission is training the cadets and officer candidates, but the ship also performs a public relations role for the Coast Guard and the United States. Often, Eagle makes calls at ports as a goodwill ambassador. The ship was built as the German sail training ship Horst Wessel in 1936, the vessel was given anti-aircraft armament and re-commissioned in 1942. At the end of the war, Horst Wessel was taken by the U. S. as war reparations, Eagle commenced its existence in Nazi Germany as Horst Wessel, a ship of the Gorch Fock class, constructed and designed by John Stanley. Horst Wessel was an improvement on the original design and she was larger in dimension and her spars were all steel, unlike Gorch Focks wooden yards. SSS Horst Wessel began life as Schiff 508 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg and her keel was laid on 15 February, she was launched on 13 June, completed on 16 September, and commissioned on 17 September. She was the ship in the class to be built. Rudolf Hess gave the speech at her launch in the presence of Adolf Hitler, the name was given in tribute to SA leader Horst Wessel, who had been accorded martyr status by the Nazi Party. He also wrote the song came to be known as Horst-Wessel-Lied and used in the Nazi national anthem. Shortly after work began on Horst Wessel, the Blohm & Voss shipyard laid the keel of the German battleship Bismarck, SSS Horst Wessel served as the flagship of the Kriegsmarine sail training fleet, which consisted of Gorch Fock, Albert Leo Schlageter, and Horst Wessel. Horst Wessel was commanded by Captain August Thiele, a previous Captain of Gorch Fock, in the three years before World War II, she undertook numerous training cruises in the North Atlantic waters, sailing with trainee groups consisting of both future officers and future petty officers. On 21 August 1938, Adolf Hitler visited the ship and sailed for approximately one hour before departing, later that year, Horst Wessel and Albert Leo Schlageter undertook a four-month voyage to the Caribbean and visited St. Thomas and Venezuela. Along the way, they caught numerous sharks and turtles at sea, numerous weapons were installed throughout the decks, including two 20 mm anti-aircraft guns on the bridge wings, two on the foredeck, and two 20 mm Flakvierling quad mounts on the waist. From late 1942 through early 1945, she sailed on numerous training deployments in the Baltic sea with cadets fresh out of basic training, Horst Wessel took Albert Leo Schlageter in a stern tow to keep her from running aground until larger ships could arrive the next day to assist. In April 1945, after the last German cadet class had departed and she sailed to Flensburg where Captain Barthold Schnibbe surrendered to the British, and the ship ran up the Union Jack. Horst Wessel was ordered to Bremerhaven and tied to a temporary pier, at the end of World War II, the four German sailing vessels then extant were distributed to various nations as war reparations

11.
1964 New York World's Fair
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The 1964/1965 New York Worlds Fair was the third major worlds fair to be held in New York City. However, the fair did not receive official sanctioning from the Bureau of International Expositions, hailing itself as a universal and international exposition, the fairs theme was Peace Through Understanding, dedicated to Mans Achievement on a Shrinking Globe in an Expanding Universe. American companies dominated the exposition as exhibitors, the theme was symbolized by a 12-story high, stainless-steel model of the earth called the Unisphere. The fair ran for two seasons, April 22 – October 18,1964, and April 21 – October 17,1965. Admission price for adults was $2 in 1964 but $2.50 in 1965, the fair is noted as a showcase of mid-20th-century American culture and technology. The nascent Space Age, with its vista of promise, was well represented, more than 51 million people attended the fair, though fewer than the hoped-for 70 million. Most major American manufacturing companies from pen manufacturers to auto companies had a major presence and this fair gave many attendees their first interaction with computer equipment. The site, Flushing Meadows Corona Park in the borough of Queens, was previously Manhattans Corona Ash Dumps featured prominently in F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby as the Valley of Ashes. Prior to that, the site had been a natural wetland — literally wetland meadows that would flush the nearby runoff entering the adjacent bay, Flushing Meadows had been a Dutch settlement, named after the village of Vlissingen. Subsequently, the site was reclaimed for the 1939/1940 New York Worlds Fair, one of the largest worlds fairs to be held in the United States, the 1939 fair also occupied space that was filled in for the 1964/1965 exposition. The 1964/1965 Fair was conceived by a group of New York businessmen who remembered their experiences at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. Thoughts of a boom to the city as the result of increased tourism was a major reason for holding another fair 25 years after the 1939/1940 extravaganza. Then-New York City mayor, Robert F. Wagner, Jr and he was joined by Austrian architect Victor Gruen in studies that eventually led the Eisenhower Commission to award the worlds fair to New York City in competition with a number of American cities. Organizers turned to financing and the sale of bonds to pay the huge costs to stage them. The organizers hired New Yorks Master Builder Robert Moses, to head the corporation established to run the fair because he was experienced in raising money for vast public projects, Moses had been a formidable figure in the city since coming to power in the 1930s. He was responsible for the construction of much of the highway infrastructure and, as parks commissioner for decades. In the mid-1930s, Moses oversaw the conversion of a vast Queens tidal marsh/garbage dump into the fairgrounds that hosted the 1939/1940 Worlds Fair, called Flushing Meadows Park, it was Moses grandest park scheme. He envisioned this vast park, comprising some 1,300 acres of land, easily accessible from Manhattan, when the 1939/1940 Worlds Fair ended in financial failure, Moses did not have the available funds to complete work on his project

12.
USS Randolph (CV-15)
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USS Randolph was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. The second US Navy ship to bear the name, she was named for Peyton Randolph, Randolph was commissioned in October 1944, and served in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning three battle stars. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier, in her second career she operated exclusively in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Caribbean. In the early 1960s she served as the ship for two Project Mercury space missions, including John Glenns historic first orbital flight. She was decommissioned in 1969 and sold for scrap in 1975, Randolph was one of the long-hull Essex-class ships. She was laid down on 10 May 1943, at Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co and she was launched on 28 June 1944, sponsored by Rose Gillette. Randolph commissioned on 9 October 1944, Captain Felix Locke Baker, following shakedown off Trinidad, Randolph got underway for the Panama Canal and the Pacific. On 31 December, she reached San Francisco where Air Group 87 was detached, on 20 January 1945, Randolph departed San Francisco for Ulithi, from which she sortied on 10 February with Task Force 58. She launched attacks on 16–17 February against Tokyo airfields and the Tachikawa engine plant, the following day, she made a strike on the island of Chichi Jima. On 20 February, she launched three aerial sweeps in support of forces invading Iwo Jima and two against Haha Jima. During the next four days, further strikes hit Iwo Jima, three sweeps against airfields in the Tokyo area and one against Hachijo Jima followed on 25 February before the carrier returned to Ulithi. Riding at anchor at Ulithi on 11 March, a Yokosuka P1Y1 Frances kamikaze hit Randolph on the starboard side aft just below the deck, killing 27 men. Repaired at Ulithi, Randolph joined the Okinawa Task Force on 7 April, Combat air patrols were flown daily until 14 April, when strikes were sent against Okinawa, Ie Shima, and Kakeroma Island. The following day, an air support mission of fighters, bombers, and torpedo planes hit Okinawa, under daily air attack from 17 April on, Randolph continued to send her aircraft on CAP and support missions throughout the month. In May, planes from the hit the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, Kikai naval base and airfields. Becoming the flagship of TF58 on 15 May, Randolph continued her support of the occupation of Okinawa until 29 May, on her next war cruise, as a part of Admiral Halseys 3rd Fleet, Randolph made a series of strikes up and down the Japanese home islands. With Air Group 16 replacing Air Group 12, the ship launched eight raids on 10 July against airfields in the Tokyo area, on the 14th, her planes struck the airfields and shipping in and near Tsugaru Strait. In this attack, two of the important Honshū-Hokkaidō train ferries were sunk and three were damaged

13.
United States Merchant Marine Academy
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The United States Merchant Marine Academy is one of the five United States service academies, located in Kings Point, New York. It is charged with training officers for the United States Merchant Marine, branches of the military, between 1874 and 1936, diverse federal legislation supported maritime training through school ships, internships at sea, and other methods. Originally — and in cooperation with the State of New York — the U. S. government planned to establish a large-scale Merchant Marine Academy at Fort Schuyler, New York, nothing came of these plans. Congress passed the landmark Merchant Marine Act in 1936, and two later, the U. S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps was established, in that year, the USTS Nantucket was transferred from the Massachusetts Maritime Academy to Kings Point and renamed the USTS Emory Rice. The first training was given at temporary facilities until the Academys permanent site in Kings Point, the Kings Point campus was originally Walter Chryslers twelve-acre waterfront estate, named Forker House. Construction of the Academy began immediately, and 15 months later the task was virtually completed, the Academy was dedicated on 30 September 1943, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who noted the Academy serves the Merchant Marine as West Point serves the Army and Annapolis the Navy. World War II required the Academy to forgo its normal operation and its enrollment rose to 2,700 men, and the planned course of instruction was reduced in length from four years to 18 months. In spite of the war, shipboard training continued to be a part of the Academy curriculum. One hundred and forty-two midshipmen gave their lives in service to their country, from 1942–1945, the Academy graduated 6,895 officers. As the war drew to a close, plans were made to convert the Academys wartime curriculum to a four-year, in 1948, such a course was instituted. Authorization for awarding the degree of bachelor of science to graduates was granted by Congress in 1949, the Academy became fully accredited as a degree-granting institution in the same year. It was made a permanent institution by an Act of Congress in 1956, the Academy accelerated graduating classes during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. It was involved in programs as training U. S. officers for the nuclear-powered merchant ship. Midshipmen training at sea also participated in the humanitarian sealift to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope, in 1992, the Academy acquired its largest campus-based training vessel, the T/V Kings Pointer. After 20 years at the Academy, MARAD transferred the ship to the Texas Maritime Academy in Galveston to serve as its new training vessel. In June 2014, the vessel was rechristened the T/V Kings Pointer, the rechristening followed the earlier dedication of the Academy’s newly replaced Mallory Pier. In the 1990s, the Academy’s future came into question when it was included in the National Performance Review, chaired by Vice President Albert Gore, the report recommended halving the federal subsidy and requiring students to pay half of tuition to reduce costs

14.
The Battery (Manhattan)
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Battery Park is a 25-acre public park located at the Battery, the southern tip of Manhattan Island in New York City, facing New York Harbor. The area and park are named for the batteries that were positioned there in the citys early years to protect the settlement behind them. The southern shoreline of Manhattan Island had long known as The Battery since the 17th century when the area was part of the Dutch Settlement of New Amsterdam. At the time, a battery there served to protect the seaward approaches to the town. The relatively modern park was created by landfill starting from 1855. Skyscrapers now occupy most of the land, stopping abruptly where the park begins. While the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel and Battery Park Underpass were under construction from 1940–52, peter Minuit Plaza was built in 1955, the East Coast Memorial was dedicated in 1963. Battery Park was included within a group of historic waterfront sites designated Harbor Park, by the government of New York State, the Battery Park Conservancy, founded in 1994 by still-current President Warrie Price, has undertaken and funded the restoration and improvement of the once shop-worn park. In 2015, the New York City Department of Parks and the Battery Conservancy announced that the park would revert to its historic name, at the other end of the park is Battery Gardens restaurant, next to the United States Coast Guard Battery Building. Along the waterfront, Statue Cruises offers ferries to the Statue of Liberty, the park is also the site of the East Coast Memorial which commemorates U. S. servicemen who died in coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean during World War II, and several other memorials. Castle Clinton, named for mayor DeWitt Clinton, now lies within the park, originally called the West Battery, it was built as a fort just prior to the War of 1812. It became property of the city after the war and was renamed Castle Clinton, when Leased by the city, it became a popular promenade and beer garden. Later roofed over, it one of the premier theatrical venues in the United States. The people who gathered at Battery Park to see a clipper ship get underway came partly to hear the sailors sing their sea songs, which originated early in the nineteenth century, with the Negro stevedores at Mobile and New Orleans. The migration of the citys elite uptown increased concurrently with the mass European emigration of the middle 19th century, as immigrants settled the Battery area, the location was less favorable to theater patrons and Castle Garden was closed. The structure was made into the worlds first immigration depot, processing millions of immigrants beginning in 1855, almost 40 years before its successor, Ellis Island. This period coincided with immigration waves resulting from Irelands Great Famine, the structure then housed the New York Aquarium from 1896 to 1941, when it was threatened with destruction under transportation planner Robert Mosess plans. Made a National Monument in 1946 and restored in 1975, it is known by its original name

15.
Holland America Line
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Holland America Line is an American/British owned cruise line, a subsidiary of Carnival Corporation & plc. Originating in the Netherlands, the company is now based in Seattle, from 1873 to 1989, it was a Dutch shipping line, a passenger line, a cargo line and a cruise line operating primarily between the Netherlands and North America. As part of this legacy, it was instrumental in the transport of many hundreds of thousands of immigrants from the Netherlands to North America. Holland America Line was founded in 1893 as the Nederlandsche-Amerikaansche Stoomvaart Maatschappij and it was headquartered in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and provided service to the Americas. The company was formed as a result of the reorganization of a company, Plate. The companys first ship was the original Rotterdam, which sailed its 15-day maiden voyage from the Netherlands to New York City on October 15,1872, other services were started to other new world ports, including Hoboken, Baltimore and South America. Cargo service to New York started in 1809, during the first 25 years the company carried 400,000 people from Europe to the Americas. Other North American ports were added during the early 20th century, though transportation and shipping were the primary sources of revenue, in 1895 HAL offered its first vacation cruise. Its second vacation cruise, from New York to Palestine, was first offered in 1910. One notable ship was the elegant 36,000 gross ton SS Nieuw Amsterdam of 1937, it, at the start of the Second World War, HAL had 25 ships, nine remained at wars end. At the beginning of the war, the Westernland acquired from the Red Star Line in 1939, berthed at Falmouth, England, the Nieuw Amsterdam sailed half a million miles transporting 400,000 military personnel. After the war, the line was instrumental in transporting a massive wave of immigrants from the Netherlands to Canada. Another notable ship during the period was the SS Rotterdam of 1959, one of the first North Atlantic ships equipped for two-class transatlantic crossing. By the late 1960s, the era of transatlantic passenger ships had been ended by the introduction of air travel. HAL ended transatlantic service during the early 1970s, leaving the North Atlantic passenger trade for Cunards RMS Queen Elizabeth 2, in 1973 it sold its cargo shipping division. It ceased operating as a Dutch line in 1989, when it was purchased by Carnival for 1.2 billion guilders, the proceeds were put into an investment company, the majority of which is owned by the van der Vorm family. This is the category of Holland America Line Ships that left service or sank before 1989, the ones that had left service after 1989 are at the bottom of the page at the other category. MS Prinsendam, 1973–80 — Sank off of the coast of Alaska, inactive after Regent Star went bankrupt

16.
ARA Libertad (Q-2)
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ARA Libertad is a steel hulled, full rigged, class A sailing ship that serves as a school vessel in the Argentine Navy. One of the largest and fastest tall ships in the world, holder of several speed records, she was designed and built in the 1950s by the Río Santiago Shipyard, Ensenada, Argentina. She is an all square rigged vessel, with bowsprit and three steel masts –Fore, Main, and Mizzen with boom– with double topsails and five yardarms each, five jibs are fixed to the bowsprit. All masts have five square sails, with the foremast and mainmast having three staysails, and the mizzen, a spanker, summing up 27 dacron sails with a sail area of 2,652 square meters. Masts have a cross section, formed by welded steel sheets between 9. 5mm and 12mm thick. The vessel carries four fully functional 47 mm QF3 pounder Hotchkiss cannons,1891 model, although only used as a protocolar salute battery, these cannons make Libertad the second most heavily armed tall ship in the world. Continuously since 1873 the Argentine Navy had a number of commissioned ships in active service for training future officers in seamanship skills. In 1938, after retirement of ARA Presidente Sarmiento as seagoing academy vessel, the project for a definitive replacement ship fully conceived and built by Argentines started in 1946. On 11 December 1953, during Juan Domingo Peróns second term, between 1954 and 1955 the shipyard engineers included several modifications to the vessels original design and configuration. During the de facto government of the self called Liberating Revolution the name Libertad was imposed by decree number 7922, on 30 May 1956 she was launched to sea, but her completion and commissioning suffered the vicissitudes of that Argentine periods unease political situation. The sea trials began in March 1961 and were carried to term under the command of Captain Atilio Porretti, during this baptism voyage the ship successfully rode out a violent South Atlantic Ocean tempest. In March 1962 she joined the Navys Instruction Division, formally starting out as the school ship. In 1964 the frigate competed for the first time in an offshore race for tall ships between the ports of Lisbon and Hamilton, Bermuda. In 1965 she completed her first round-the-world trip, in 1966, during her fourth instruction voyage, ARA Libertad won the Great Medal Prize for establishing the tall ships world record for crossing the North Atlantic Ocean using only sail propulsion. She did so by running between Cape Race and the line going from Dublin to Liverpool –2,058.6 nautical miles – in 8 days and 12 hours. During the same trip, she set the 124-hour run record for a sail school ship at 1,335 nautical miles. The captain was Commander Ricardo Guillermo Franke, and the Boston Teapot was presented by Prince Philip, Libertad has won the Boston Teapot Trophy nine times in total, in 1966,1976,1981,1985,1987,1992,1998,2000, and 2007. In 1970 she was part of the Parade of Large Sailboats in Sydney celebrating the bicentenary of the first European settlement in Australia and she also participated in 1964,1986,1992 and 2012

17.
St. Lawrence II
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The STV St. Lawrence II is a 72-foot brigantine designed for youth sail training and is operated by a crew of 14- to 19-year-olds. It was designed in 1952 by Francis MacLachlan and Mike Eames, the hull was built in 1953 in the Kingston, Ontario shipyards, with the rest of the ship finished by local craftsmen, Kingston sea cadets and enthusiastic amateurs. The St. Lawrence IIs home port is Kingston, Ontario, the ship sails mostly in the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, but sometimes will venture as far as New York City. Aboard the ship there are three watches, red, white and blue, each watch is under the direction of a watch officer, the remainder of the watch consists of a petty officer or chief petty officer and up to 6 trainees. Those who sign on to the St. Lawrence II for a course during the summer become trainees who comprise the basic unit of the ship and who complete most of the tasks, directed by petty officers. On each watch the watch officer is the officer and is usually at the helm or plotting a course so its up to the petty officers to get the trainees to do their part. Other positions on the ship are the cook, the bosun, the executive officer, the captain and the executive officer are usually the only people on the ship who are over 18 years of age, and they are the most qualified. The watch officers, cook, bosun and petty officers are often under 18 but they will have participated in training cruises

18.
Esmeralda (BE-43)
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Esmeralda is a steel-hulled four-masted barquentine tall ship of the Chilean Navy. The ship is the sixth to carry the name Esmeralda, the first was the frigate Esmeralda captured from the Spanish at Callao, Peru, by Admiral Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane of the Chilean Navy, in a bold incursion on the night of 5 November 1820. The second was the corvette Esmeralda of the Chilean Navy which, set against superior forces and these events mark important milestones for the Chilean Navy and the ships name is said to evoke its values of courage and sacrifice. Construction began in Cádiz, Spain, in 1946 and she was intended to become Spains national training ship. During her construction in 1947 the yard in which she was being built suffered catastrophic explosions, work on the ship was temporarily halted. Chile accepted the offer and the ship was transferred to the ownership of Chile in 1951. Work then continued on the ship and she was finally launched on 12 May 1953 before an audience of 5,000 people. She was christened by Mrs. Raquel Vicuña de Orrego using a bottle wrapped in the colors of Spain. She was delivered as a topsail schooner to the Government of Chile on 15 June 1954. Her sister ship is the ship for the Spanish Navy. Sometime in the 1970s Esmeraldas rigging was changed to a four-masted barquentine by replacing the fore gaffsail by two main staysails, the third main staysail is still in place. She has now five staysails, three topsails, six jibbs, three course gaff sails, four sails,21 all in all. Her first voyage was to the Canary Islands and then on to New Orleans and she then proceeded through the Panama Canal and arrived at Valparaíso on 1 September 1954 to much fanfare. Since her commissioning, Esmeralda has been a ship for the Chilean Navy. She has visited more than 300 ports worldwide acting as an embassy for Chile. She participated in Operation Sail at New York City in 1964,1976 and 1986, and she also participated in International Regattas of Sail in 1964,1976,1982 and 1990 winning the coveted Cutty Sark Trophy in the last two participations. It is claimed that probably over a hundred persons were kept there at times and subjected to treatment, among them British priest Michael Woodward. The ships arrival in various ports is accompanied by protests and demonstrations by local political groups and Chilean exiles

19.
Danmark (ship)
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The Danmark is a full-rigged ship owned by the Danish Maritime Authority and based at the Maritime Training and Education Centre in Frederikshavn, Denmark. Danmark is 252 feet in length with a beam of 32 feet. She was designed for a complement of 120 but in a 1959 refit this was reduced to 80. The permanent crew has berths, but the trainees sleep in hammocks, the Danmark succeeded the København, a five-masted barque which was lost mysteriously at sea at the end of 1928, as Denmarks principal training ship. Launched in 1932 at the Nakskov Shipyard in Lolland and fitted out the following year and she was then based in Jacksonville, Florida and maintained with the help of the Danish American community there. After the attack on Pearl Harbor the captain, Knud L. Hansen and this offer was accepted, and the Danmark moved to New London, Connecticut to train cadets at the United States Coast Guard Academy there. Approximately five thousand cadets were trained before the ship was returned to Denmark in 1945 and her designation in the U. S. Coast Guard was USCGC Danmark. She resumed her duties the following year. In recognition of her service, a bronze plaque was placed on the mainmast. Experience with the Danmark led to the acquisition of the USCGC Eagle from Germany at the end of the war as a training vessel. Training voyages continue to be offered, not only to Danes, the ship was one out of seven ships that was used for filming in the British BBC TV-series Onedin Line. Training Ship Danmark from MARTEC site Skoleskib DANMARK by Troels Staarup

20.
Sea Cloud
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Sea Cloud is a sailing cruise ship of the Sea Cloud Cruises line. Initially built as a yacht, it subsequently served as a weather ship for the United States Coast Guard. The ship served as the first racially integrated warship in the United States Armed Forces since the American Civil War, following the war, Sea Cloud was returned to private ownership, serving as a yacht for numerous people, including as presidential yacht of the Dominican Republic. Sea Cloud was built in Kiel, Germany, as a barque for Marjorie Merriweather Post and she was launched in 1931 as Hussar V, at the time of her construction, she was the largest private yacht in the world. In 1935, the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union, Joseph E. Davies, Mr. and Mrs. Davies renamed the ship Sea Cloud. Although Mrs. Davies owned the ship, she allowed Mr. Davies to claim ownership of the vessel, as a man with political influence, Davies entertained many high-profile people on the ship, including Queen Elisabeth of Belgium. The ship even served as an embassy, as Soviet and United States officials stayed. Mrs. Davies had first offered the ship to the U. S. Department of the Navy in 1941, president Franklin Delano Roosevelt objected to the ship entering service, remarking that she was too beautiful to be sacrificed. However, on January 7,1942, the Navy reassessed their position, Sea Cloud was commissioned as a United States Coast Guard Cutter on April 4,1942, and assigned to the Eastern Sea Frontier, with a permanent home port in Boston. During 1942, Sea Cloud mostly served as a ship at Weather Patrol Station Number Two. On June 6,1942, the ship rescued eight survivors from the schooner Maria da Gloria, on August 3,1942 and August 4,1942, Sea Cloud served at Weather Patrol Station Number One while USS Manhasset was converted to a weather ship. In 1943, the Navy asked for control of Sea Cloud and Nourmahal, on April 9,1943, the United States Navy commissioned Sea Cloud as USS Sea Cloud, though she maintained a Coast Guard crew. She was assigned to Task Force 24, relieving USCGC Conifer in February 1944, Sea Cloud patrolled a 100-square-mile area near the New England coast, generating weather reports for the First Naval District. On February 27,1944, Sea Cloud traveled to be refurbished at Atlantic Yard in East Boston, on April 5,1944, Sea Cloud received radar indication of a small target at position 39°27′N 62°30′W, bearing 350° at 3,000 yards. General quarters were sounded and battle stations manned, but contact was lost ten minutes later, the target was identified as a submarine, but after Sea Cloud carried out standard anti-submarine drills with no evidence of damage being inflicted, she returned to port. After minor repairs, Sea Cloud was rebased to Argentia, Newfoundland, while patrolling the area on June 11,1944, the crew spotted a Navy Grumman TBF Avenger, exchanging recognition signals. Sea Cloud received orders to report to the escort carrier Croatan, the envoy searched for a raft reported in the area, but returned with no sightings. After this event, Sea Cloud was once again reassigned to Weather Station Number Four, after a search for a downed aircraft, she returned to port in Boston

21.
Gorch Fock (1958)
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The Gorch Fock is a tall ship of the German Navy. She is the ship of that name and a sister ship of the Gorch Fock built in 1933. Both ships are named in honour of the German writer Johann Kinau who wrote under the pseudonym Gorch Fock, the modern-day Gorch Fock was built in 1958 and has since then undertaken 146 cruises, including one tour around the world in 1988. She is sometimes referred to as the Gorch Fock II to distinguish her from her sister ship. The Gorch Fock is under the command of the Naval Academy in Flensburg-Mürwik, the new ship was a modernized repeat of the Albert Leo Schlageter, a slightly modified sister ship of the previous Gorch Fock. The 1933 Gorch Fock had already designed to be a very safe ship. The new ship was built by Blohm & Voss in Hamburg, launched on 23 August 1958, the Gorch Fock is a three-masted barque with a steel hull 81.2 m long and 12 m wide. She has a draught of some 5.2 m and a displacement at full load of 1760 tons, originally, she carried 1952 m² of canvas sails, later, she received slightly larger sails made of synthetic materials. The tops of her fore and main masts can be lowered so that she can navigate the Kiel Canal, over the years, various modernizations have been applied to the ship.7 knots under power. The interior has also been modified multiple times, technological advances made it possible to reduce the size of the galley, officially Gorch Fock is a Type 441 class naval ship with the NATO pennant number A60. Her international radio call sign is DRAX, the Gorch Fock was depicted on the 10 DM banknote of the third series issued by the Bundesbank and is therefore one of the most portrayed ships in the world. The Gorch Fock participates in sailing parades and Tall Ships Races, other ships of the same class include the USCGC Eagle, Sagres, Gorch Fock and Mircea. The Gorch Fock can host up to 350 passengers on board, the ships figurehead was designed by Heinrich Schroeteler, a former World War II U-boat commander. The figurehead has been replaced on several occasions, The first albatross from 1958 was lost after a few years, its replacement was made of wood, in 1969, the replacement was removed and replaced by a figurehead made of polyester to save weight. This albatross broke off when the Gorch Fock was being overhauled in 2000 and it was replaced by a new one made of wood. On 11 December 2002, the Gorch Fock figurehead was lost in a storm, the replacement was also made of wood. Again, the figurehead broke off in a storm on 5 December 2003, on 24 February 2004, the ship was fitted with a new albatross, this time made of carbon fibre reinforced polyester. The Gorch Fock has been in German Navy service as a ship since 1958

22.
KRI Dewaruci
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KRI Dewaruci is a Class A tall ship and the only barquentine owned and operated by the Indonesian Navy. She is used as a training vessel for naval cadets and is the largest tall ship in the Indonesian fleet. Dewaruci also serves as an ambassador for Indonesia to the rest of the world. Built in Germany by H. C, construction of Dewaruci began in 1932, but was suspended due to the outbreak of World War II, which caused heavy damage to the shipyard where she was being constructed. She was launched on 24 January 1953 and completed on 9 July that year, since then, she has been based at Surabaya on the Java Sea. Her name and figurehead represent and display the mythological Javanese wayang god of truth, the vessel was also used in the making of Anna and the King movie, starring Jodie Foster. Dewaruci also participates in tall ship races and events around the world, as a unique feature, the ship has her own marching band. In 2010 Dewarucis marching band delighted and entertained the crowds in Hartlepool at the Tall Ships Crew Parade and their energy, enthusiasm, and skill won them the prize for the best crew in the crew parade. Due to her age, Dewaruci is to be decommissioned and displayed at a naval museum, the Indonesian Parliament has agreed to buy a new tall ship and has appropriated $80 million for the purpose. The new ship will also be named Dewaruci, the new vessel is to be completed in 2014. The three masts are named after three of the sons of Pandu, from the Pandava, a Directory of Sail Training and Adventure at Sea, 15th Edition

23.
Christian Radich
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Christian Radich is a Norwegian full-rigged ship, named after a Norwegian shipowner. The vessel was built at Framnæs shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway, the owner was The Christian Radich Sail Training Foundation established by a grant from an officer of that name. The vessel is a full-rigged three-masted steel hull,62.5 m long, with a length of 73 m including the bowsprit. She has a draught of about 4.7 meters and a displacement at full load of 1050 tons, under engine power, Christian Radich reaches a top speed of 10 knots, while she can make up to 14 knots under sail. Christian Radich is well known through the release in 1958 of the Cinemiracle widescreen movie Windjammer. Christian Radich sailed to the United States in 1976 as part of the Bicentennial Celebration, the ship also appeared as herself in the 1970s BBC TV series The Onedin Line, as one of James Onedins ships. The vessel was built for training sailors for the Norwegian merchant navy and she won on corrected time in Class A and overall the tall ship in total in 2007, and became the only class A vessel that crossed the finish line. The class society of the vessel is Det Norske Veritas, DNV, Christian Radich official web site Windjammer at the Internet Movie Database About the movie Windjammer 360° QTVR fullscreen panoramas of Christian Radich

24.
Statsraad Lehmkuhl
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Statsraad Lehmkuhl is a three-masted barque rigged sail training vessel owned and operated by the Statsraad Lehmkuhl Foundation. It is based in Bergen, Norway and contracted out for various purposes and it was built in 1914 as a school training ship for the German merchant marine under the name Grossherzog Friedrich August. After the First World War the ship was taken as a prize by the United Kingdom and in 1921 the ship was bought by former cabinet minister Kristoffer Lehmkuhl. With the exception of the Second World War, when she was captured by German troops and called Westwärts, in 2000, she was chartered by the German Navy while their Gorch Fock was overhauled

25.
NRP Sagres (1937)
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The NRP Sagres is a tall ship and school ship of the Portuguese Navy since 1961. As the third ship with this name in the Portuguese Navy, the ship is a steel-built three masted barque, with square sails on the fore and main masts and gaff rigging on the mizzen mast. Her main mast rises 42 m above the deck and she carries 22 sails totaling about 2,000 m2 and can reach a top speed of 17 kn under sail. She has a length of 89 m, a width of 12 m, a draught of 5.2 m. The three-masted ship was launched under the name Albert Leo Schlageter on 30 October 1937 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine, the ship was named after Albert Leo Schlageter, who was executed in 1923 by French forces occupying the Ruhr area. Her first commander was Bernhard Rogge, Sagres is a sister ship of the Gorch Fock, the Horst Wessel, and the Romanian training vessel Mircea. Another sister, Herbert Norkus, was not completed, while Gorch Fock II was built in 1958 by the Germans to replace the ships lost after the war, on 14 November 1944 she hit a Soviet mine off Sassnitz and had to be towed to port in Swinemünde. Eventually transferred to Flensburg, she was taken there by the Allies when the war ended. In 1948, the U. S. sold her to Brazil for a price of $5,000 USD. She was towed to Rio de Janeiro where she sailed as a ship for the Brazilian Navy under the name Guanabara. The Portuguese Navy renamed Guanabara as Sagres, where she remains in service to this day, in 2010, the ship performed her longest voyage, a round the world trip performing an approximate total of 35000 miles, under the command of CMG Pedro Proença Mendes. She also took part in the Expo Shanghai, among other events during that year, the ship has sailed under the Portuguese flag since 1962. For that reason, in 2012 there were major commemorations of her 75th anniversary and 50 years in the service of the Portuguese navy

26.
Mircea (ship)
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The Mircea is a three masted barque, built in 1938 in Hamburg by the Blohm & Voss shipyard as a training vessel for the Romanian Navy. Her design is based on the plans of the Gorch Fock. The ship is named after the Wallachian Prince Mircea the Elder, after World War II she was temporarily taken over by the USSR, but later returned to Romania. In 1966, she was overhauled by Blohm & Voss, the Romanian Navy had an older ship with the same name which was operational from 1882 to 1944

27.
United States Bicentennial
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It was a central event in the memory of the American Revolution. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4,1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the plans for the Bicentennial began when Congress created the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission on July 4,1966. Initially, the Bicentennial celebration was planned as a single city exposition that would be staged in either Philadelphia or Boston, ARBA selected a logo via contest in 1974. Bruce N. Blackburn, co-designer of the modernized NASA insignia used from 1975 to 1992, the logo consisted of a white five-point star inside a stylized star of red, white and blue. It was encircled by the inscription American Revolution Bicentennial 1776–1976 in Helvetica Regular, the logo became a flag that flew at many government facilities throughout the United States and appeared on many other souvenirs and postage stamps issued by the Postal Service. The official Bicentennial events began April 1,1975, when the American Freedom Train launched in Wilmington, Delaware to start its 21-month,25, 388-mile tour of the 48 contiguous states. On April 18,1975, President Gerald Ford traveled to Boston to light a lantern at the historic Old North Church. Festivities included elaborate fireworks in the skies above major American cities, President Ford presided over the display in Washington, D. C. which was televised nationally. A large international fleet of tall-masted sailing ships gathered first in New York City on Independence Day and these nautical parades were named Operation Sail and witnessed by several million observers. The gathering was the second of six such Op Sail events to date, the vessels docked and allowed the general public to tour the ships in both cities, while their crews were entertained on shore at various ethnic celebrations and parties. In addition to the presence of the ships, navies of many nations sent warships to New York harbor for an International Naval Review held the morning of July 4. The review ended just above Liberty Island around 10,30 am, several people threw packages labeled Gulf Oil and Exxon into Boston Harbor in symbolic opposition to corporate power, in the style of the Boston Tea party. Britains Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip made a visit to the United States to tour the country and attend Bicentennial festivities with President. Their visit aboard the Royal Yacht Britannia included stops in Philadelphia, Washington, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. While in Philadelphia on July 6,1976, Queen Elizabeth presented the Bicentennial Bell on behalf of the British people, local observances included painting mailboxes and fire hydrants red, white, and blue. A wave of patriotism and nostalgia swept the nation and there was a feeling that the irate era of the Vietnam War. In Washington, D. C. the Smithsonian Institution opened an exhibition in its Arts and Industries Building that replicated the look. Many of the Smithsonians museum artifacts dated from the 1876 Worlds Fair in Philadelphia that commemorated the 100th anniversary of the independence of the United States, the Smithsonian also opened the new home of the National Air and Space Museum July 1,1976

28.
Anniversary
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An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. For example, the first event is the occurrence or, if planned. One year later would be the first anniversary of that event, the word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints. Most countries celebrate national anniversaries, typically called national days and these could be the date of independence of the nation or the adoption of a new constitution or form of government. The important dates in a monarchs reign may also be commemorated. Birthdays are the most common type of anniversary, when someones birth date is commemorated each year, the actual celebration is sometimes moved for practical reasons, as in the case of an official birthday. Wedding anniversaries are also celebrated, on the same day of the year as the wedding occurred. In ancient Rome, the Aquilae natalis was the birthday of the eagle, anniversaries of nations are usually marked by the number of years elapsed, expressed with Latin words or Roman numerals. However, when anniversaries relate to fractions of centuries, the situation is not as simple, Roman fractions were based on a duodecimal system. From 1⁄12 to 8⁄12 they were expressed as multiples of twelfths, a whole unit less 3⁄12, 2⁄12 or 1⁄12 respectively. There were also special terms for quarter, half, and three-quarters, dodrans is a Latin contraction of de-quadrans which means a whole unit less a quarter (de means from, quadrans means quarter. Thus for the example of 175 years, the term is a quarter less than the next whole century or 175 =. In Latin it seems that this rule did not apply precisely for 1½, while secundus is Latin for second, and bis for twice, these terms are not used such as in sesqui-secundus. Instead sesqui is used by itself, etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home by Emily Post, published in 1922, contained suggestions for wedding anniversary gifts for 1,5,10,15,20,25,50, and 75 years. Wedding anniversary gift suggestions for other years were added in later editions and publications, generally speaking, the longer the period, the more precious or durable the material associated with it. See wedding anniversary for a general list of the wedding anniversary symbols, however, furthermore, there exist numerous partially overlapping, partially contradictory lists of anniversary gifts, separate from the traditional names. The concepts of a persons birthday stone and zodiac stone, by contrast, are fixed for life according to the day of the week, month, list of historical anniversaries Quinquennial Neronia Wedding anniversary

29.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all

30.
Italian training ship Amerigo Vespucci
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The Amerigo Vespucci is a tall ship of the Marina Militare, named after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci. Its home port is La Spezia, Italy, and it is in use as a school ship, the first, the Cristoforo Colombo, was put into service in 1928 and was used by the Italian Navy until 1943. After World War II, this ship was handed over to the USSR as part of the war reparations and was shortly afterwards decommissioned, the second ship was the Amerigo Vespucci, built in 1930 at the Naval Shipyard of Castellammare di Stabia. She was launched on February 22,1931, and put into service in July of that year. The vessel is a full rigged three-masted steel hull 82.4 m long, with a length of 101 m including the bowsprit. She has a draught of about seven metres and a displacement at full load of 4146 tons, under auxiliary diesel-electric propulsion the Amerigo Vespucci can reach 10 knots and has a range of 5450 nm at 6.5 knots. The three steel masts are 50,54 and 43 metres high, and carry sails totalling 2824 m² The Amerigo Vespucci has 26 sails – square sails, staysails, when under sail in severe sea and wind conditions she can reach 12 knots. The rig, some 30 km of ropes, uses only traditional hemp ropes, only the lines are synthetic. The deck planks are of wood and must be replaced every three years. Bow and stern are decorated with ornaments, she has a life-size figurehead of Amerigo Vespucci. The stern gallery is accessible only through the Captains saloon, the standard crew of the Amerigo Vespucci is 16 officers,70 non-commissioned officers and 190 sailors. In summer, when she embarks the midshipmen of the Naval Academy, since 1964 the ship has been fitted with two 4-stroke, 8-cylinder FIAT B308 ESS diesel engines, which replaced the original 2-stroke 6-cylinder FIAT Q426 engines. The newer engines generate electric power for one electric motor that can produce up to about 1471 kW. During same work, the ship has been fitted with new radar GEM Elettronica AN/SPS-7535, when carrying cadets, the ship is usually steered from the manual stern rudder station, which is operated by four steering wheels with two men each. At other times, the assisted steering on the bridge is used. Except for the winch, the winches aboard are not power operated. The bridge is equipped with sophisticated modern electronic navigation instruments, other than during World War II, the Amerigo Vespucci has been continually active. Most of her training cruises are in European waters, but she has sailed to North and South America

31.
Dar Pomorza
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The Dar Pomorza is a Polish full-rigged sailing ship built in 1909 which is preserved in Gdynia as a museum ship. She has served as a training ship in Germany, France. Dar Pomorza won the Cutty Sark Trophy in 1980 and her yard no. was 202, her hull was launched on 12 October 1909. In 1920, following World War I, the ship was taken as war-reparations by Great Britain, then brought to France, the ship was in 1927 given to Baron de Forrest as compensation for the loss of a sailing yacht. Due to the costs of refurbishing the ship, she was sold in 1929. Still bearing the name Prinzess Eitel Friedrich, she was bought by the Polish community of Pomerania for £7,000 and she was given the name Dar Pomorza, which means the gift of Pomerania. In 1930 the ship was repaired and fitted with a diesel engine. The experience gained during rebuilding works enabled Danish shipbuilders of Nakskov to build a training vessel for their country. Worth noting is the fact that the ship made her first voyage under Polish colours named Pomorze, according to rumours, the name may have been changed in effort not to name a training ship after a lost one. The same German-written name bore the German pre-dreadnought battleship Pommern, lost during the Battle of Jutland in June 1916 and that first voyage of the ship under Polish flag became later famous through some accounts, including one written Mr. T. Meissner, the ships first mate. During the following years, rebuilt and converted into training unit fitted i/a with an auxiliary Diesel engine, she was used as a training ship, in 1934-1935 she traveled around the world. During that famous voyage she i/a called at ports as the first ship ever under Polish flag. In 1937 a special voyage took her around the famous Cape Horn, during World War II she was interned in Stockholm. After the war she was brought to Poland and used as a ship again. In 1967 she made a debut, calling at Montreal, Quebec, Canada, during the Expo-Fair. In 1976, during the famous Operation Sail 76 in USA, her retiring skipper Kazimierz Jurkiewicz was officially greeted by Mr. Kjell Thorsen, the Dar Pomorza has been one of several Blohm & Voss-built tall ships, most popular in the world. Her importance to the Worlds maritime heritage is her origin - she is the sister of the Grossherzogin Elisabeth. As well, she is the first ship ever to carry the Polish Colours around the world in one voyage, on the 15 September 1981 she undertook her last voyage to the Finnish harbour of Kotka, finishing it 13 days later

32.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church

33.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley

34.
ARC Gloria
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The ARC Gloria is a three-masted barque. She is a ship and official flagship of the Colombian Navy. The Colombian Government authorized its navy to acquire a ship in 1966. A contract was signed with the Spanish shipyard Celaya of Bilbao in October 1966, the ship was commissioned on 7 September 1968 with the vessel moored at the wharf of Deusto Channel. She is one of four similar barques built as training vessels for Latin American navies, her half-sisters are the Mexican Cuauhtémoc, the Venezuelan Simón Bolívar. Their design is similar to the 1930 designs of the German firm Blohm & Voss, like Gorch Fock, USCGC Eagle, the ships name is a reference to the national anthem, Oh gloria inmarcesible

35.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found

36.
Kruzenshtern (ship)
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The Kruzenshtern or Krusenstern is a four-masted barque that was built in 1926 at Geestemünde in Bremerhaven, Germany as the Padua. She was surrendered to the USSR in 1946 as war reparation and renamed after the early 19th century Baltic German explorer in Russian service and she is now a Russian sail training ship. Of the four remaining Flying P-Liners, the former Padua is the one still in use, mainly for training purposes, with her home ports in Kaliningrad. After the Sedov, another former German ship, she is the largest traditional sailing vessel still in operation, later she transported wheat from Australia. Her maiden voyage from Hamburg to Talcahuano, Chile took 87 days, in 1933–1934 she took a record-breaking 67 days from Hamburg to Port Lincoln in South Australia. Prior to World War II she made 15 long trips to Chile, like all P-liners, Padua was painted according to the colours of the German national flag of the German Empire era, black, white and red. On January 12,1946 she was surrendered to the USSR and she was moored in Kronstadt harbour until 1961 where she underwent major repairs and a refit for her missions for the Hydrographic Department of the Soviet Navy. In 1965 she was transferred to the USSR Ministry of Fisheries in Riga to be used as a schoolship for future fishery officers, Kruzenshtern led the international procession of tall ships into New York Harbor for Operation Sail on Sunday, July 4,1976. In January 1981 she was transferred to the Estonian Fisheries Industry at Tallinn, the Kruzenshtern takes part in many international regattas. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union funding became a problem, in 1995–96 she circumnavigated the World in the trail of her namesake. She again sailed around the World in 2005–06 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Krustensterns circumnavigation, the ship was used in three German films — Die Meuterei auf der Elsinore, Herz geht vor Anker and Große Freiheit Nr. 7, as well as a number of Russian and Soviet films, in 1997 she was the main subject of an Estonian/British documentary produced by Allfilm and First Freedom Productions called Tall Ship and transmitted on Discovery. The one-hour programme was directed by Rein Kotov and produced by Graham Addicott, on 23 June 2009 while she was en route to the Charleston, South Carolina Harborfest, her foremast was damaged in a storm off Bermuda when the sail backed and snapped the mast. On 3 May 2010 she stopped in Bremerhaven after a trip of five months with stops in Vancouver for the 2010 Winter Olympics and in Cuba, after which she returned to Kaliningrad. On 4 August 2014, Kruzenshtern sank the tug Diver Master at Esbjerg, on 11 June 2015, she rammed the two Icelandic Coastguard patrol ships Þór and Týr. List of large sailing vessels List of tall ships Burmester, Heinz, translation of Olof Granquists account of this journey published in De våra i främmande land, December 1944. Burmester, Heinz, Den stora kappseglingen Padua versus Passat, feddersen, Hans-Peter, Acht Tage auf der Krusenstern / Padua. Gerdau, Kurt, Viermastbark Padua … ein ruhmreiches Schiff, 8vo,99, pp,12 pl. Grönstrand, Lars, Seglande skepps farter

37.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

38.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic

39.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage

40.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north

41.
Sebbe Als
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Sebbe Als is a replica of a Viking ship, Skuldelev wreck no.5. She is the oldest sailing fiver in Denmark, a sailing trip with the Imme Gram and the then newly found Skuldelev wrecks became the inspiration for the creation of Sebbe Als. She was built by a group of volunteers, a large group of which were the local Scouts of Augustenborg. The drawings were the first crude drawings, coming from the Skuldelev archaeological dig, the archaeologists were very keen on having an accurate replica, as the finished ship would provide invaluable information about the Viking ships in general. She was built with copies of the tools, mainly adzes. There was not a local shipyard with sufficient room, so she was built in a loaned building, here she was also stored for the winter. When the lumber yard was closed, and a new harbour built in its place. Every winter Sebbe Als is pulled into the naust for storage and this is quite a task, as everything is done by hand. She can be hauled up by 20-25 people, but more are better, Sebbe is square-rigged, meaning that she has a big, roughly square sail hung under a yard. A square sail is the simplest way of creating a large area on a relatively low mast. During unfavourable winds, or manoeuvering in harbour or other confined spaces, Sebbe Als is owned by Vikingeskibslaget Sebbe Als, which is a self-owned association. The members are distributed all over Denmark as well as in neighboring countries, most of the maintenance and repair work is done in work weekends during the winter. The Guild also owns a smaller Viking ship - or, correctly, a Fareoe boat - the Ottar Als, a small GRP boat with an outboard engine, Fie Als, is used as safety- and tugboat on longer trips, or trips with an unskilled crew. Fie is generally not used as pleasure craft, the awareness of the environmental impact is rather high in the Guild. The Guild is currently accepting new members, no previous maritime training is needed, only willingness to learn. The wreck of Skuldelev no.5 was so well preserved, sebbes mast and rig was reconstructed from these marks, but it was still necessary to experiment to clarify many of the details. As a result, Sebbe now has a 45 m² square sail with only the top yard, 25° instead of the vertical position originally planned. Following the experiments, the shipbuilders of the Viking age have earned much respect and she can easily run 12 knots on a half wind

42.
Schooner Te Vega
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Te Vega is a two-masted, gaff-rigged auxiliary schooner. Originally launched as the Etak, she was designed by New York naval architects Cox & Stevens in 1929 for American businessman Walter Graeme Ladd and his wife, Etak was built at the Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel, Germany, and launched in 1930. During World War II she served the US Navy as Juniata and she is among the largest steel-hulled schooners afloat. The Etak has been renamed several times, her subsequent names being Vega, USS Juniata and she is one of the many tall ships to have appeared in a feature film, the cinerama travelogue South Seas Adventure. In January 2006 she was sold to Italian fashion magnate Diego Della Valle and she was built with a 200-hp American Winton marine diesel engine, which was replaced by a 400-hp English Mirrlees in the 1950s. From the mid-1990s she has had a 700-hp German MTU, launched with a black hull, she has had white and dark blue hulls as well. She has flown the flags of the United States, France, Liberia, Panama, The Netherlands, the yacht, then named Vega, was offered by Röhl to the United States Coast Guard and accepted on July 9,1942. Subsequently, Vega was acquired by the US Navy from H. W. Röhl in 1942, renamed Juniata, the vessel was placed in service on August 11. Juniata was assigned to the Western Sea Frontier and was based at San Francisco and she alternated with other ships on patrol for the great circle route to Hawaii, sailing to and from her station some 500 miles west of Eureka, California. Juniata was placed out of service at Treasure Island, San Francisco, California, on 1 January 1945, returned to the Maritime Commission, the National Science Foundation converted the ship in 1964 for use as a research vessel to be operated by Stanford University. The ship was sold in 1969, replaced by the Proteus, untitled Winton Engine Company advertisement with photo. Die Schonerjachten ‚Cressida und ‚Étak, erbaut auf der Fried, modern Sailing Dream Becomes Reality Today. Looking for Local Color in the South Seas, annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Schooner Te Vega Berths at Suva, birds Observed on Various Polynesian Islands aboard the Research Ship Te Vega. Aspects of the Physiology of Terrestrial Life in Amphibious Fishes, nitrogen Uptake by Phytoplankton in the Discontinuity Layer of the Eastern Subtropical Pacific Ocean. Studies on the associated with the deep scattering layer in the equatorial Indian Ocean. Te Vega, Teaching School on the Sea, rolf L. Bolin, Marine Biologist, Stanford Professor, Dies. »Quite normal pupils«. nur ganz billig ist für sie die schwimmende Schule nicht, jovens americanos gostaram de ver brasileiro sempre sorrindo

43.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain

44.
Gorch Fock (1933)
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Gorch Fock I is a German three-mast barque, the first of a series built as school ships for the German Reichsmarine in 1933. She was taken as war reparations by the Soviet Union after World War II and she is a museum ship, and extensive repairs were carried out in 2008. The Federal German government built a replacement training ship Gorch Fock which is still in service, the German school ship Niobe, a three-masted barque, capsized on 26 July 1932 in the Baltic Sea near Fehmarn due to a sudden squall, killing 69. The loss prompted the German Navy to order a new training vessel built, the contract went to the shipyard of Blohm & Voss in Hamburg, where construction began on 2 December 1932. She was completed in only 100 days, on 3 May 1933 the ship was launched and named Gorch Fock in honor of German writer Johann Kinau who wrote under the pseudonym Gorch Fock. Kinau had died in the 1916 Battle of Jutland aboard the cruiser SMS Wiesbaden, commissioned by the German Navy on 26 June 1933, Gorch Fock is a three-masted barque. She has square sails on the fore and main masts, and is rigged on the mizzen. The steel hull has a length of 82.1 m, a width of 12 m. She has a displacement at full load of 1510 tons and her main mast stands 41.30 m high above deck and she carries 23 sails totalling 1,753 m2. She is equipped with an engine of 410 kW. The training ship was designed to be robust and safe against capsizing, more than 300 tons of steel ballast in the keel give her a righting moment large enough to bring her back in the upright position even when she heels over to nearly a 90°. Gorch Fock served as a vessel for the German Reichsmarine prior to World War II. During the war, she was an office ship in Stralsund. On 1 May 1945, the crew scuttled her in shallow waters off Rügen in an attempt to avoid her capture by the Soviets, the Soviets ordered Stralsund-based company B. Staude Schiffsbergung to raise and salvage her, which after some difficulties was done in 1947 at a cost of 800,000 Reichsmark and she was under restoration between 1948 and 1950. She was then named Tovarishch in 1951 and put into service as a training vessel and her new home port was Odessa. She participated in many Tall Ships Races and cruised far and wide on the seven seas and she made a voyage around the world in 1957 and won the Operation Sail race twice, in 1974 and 1976. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Tovarishch sailed under the Ukrainian flag until 1993, in 1995, she sailed from Kherson to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where private sponsors wanted to have her repaired