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In June 1905 Gabriel Voisin flew a glider which was towed by a fast boat on the River Seine, making a flight of over 150 m (500 ft). The glider's wing and tail were made up of Hargrave cells, a box kite-like structure that provided a degree of inherent stability. This established the Hargrave cell as a configuration useful not only for kites but also for heavier-than-air aircraft.[3] Santos-Dumont was living in Paris at the time, and was one of the most active "aeronauts" in Europe, having developed a series of non-rigid airships that displayed unparalleled agility, speed, endurance, and ease of control. Santos-Dumont met Voisin at the end of 1905, and commissioned him to help him construct an aircraft with the intention of attempting to win one of the prizes for heavier-than-air flights offered by the Aéro-Club de France to promote the development of heavier-than-air aviation in France.[4] These included the Coupe Ernest Archdeacon prize of a silver trophy and 1500 francs for the first flight of 25 m (82 ft) and another prize of 1500 francs for the first flight of 100 m (330 ft).[5]

Santos-Dumont supervised construction of a Hargrave-cell (box kite-like) biplane powered by an Antoinette engine. The wings, each made up of three cells, were at the back and configured with pronounced dihedral to make the aircraft laterally stable. The 37 kW (50 hp) Antoinette liquid-cooled, fuel-injectedV8 engine was mounted at the extreme rear end of the fuselage, itself located almost vertically equidistant between the biplane wing panels' wing roots, with the rear-mount engine driving a pusher propeller, and the pilot stood in a balloon basket immediately in front of the engine. A movable boxkite-style cell at the nose, pivoted on a universal joint within it and controlled by cables was intended for yaw and pitch control. This layout would later come to be called a "canard configuration". It was constructed from bamboo and pine joined by aluminium sockets and was covered with Japanese silk.[6]

The 14-bis at the Château de Bagatelle grounds, suspended from the envelope of Santos-Dumont's No.14 airship.

The first trials of the aircraft were made on 22 July 1906 at Santos-Dumont's grounds at Neuilly, where it had been assembled. In order to simulate flight conditions, Santos-Dumont attached the aircraft under his latest non-rigid airship, the Number 14, which is why the aircraft came to be known as the "14-bis".[7] The aircraft was then transported to the grounds of the Château de Bagatelle in the Bois de Boulogne, where there was more space. The forces imposed by the aircraft pulled dangerously at the airship's envelope, nearly tearing it and only allowing limited control.[citation needed] The danger of these tests caused Santos-Dumont and his team to quickly abandon them, although some useful information was obtained that led to adjustments in the balance and weight distribution of the aircraft.

Further trials were made with the aircraft hung from a rope attached to pulleys running along a 60 m (200 ft) long steel cable slung between two posts, one 13.5 m (44 ft) high and the other 7 m (23 ft) high,[8] much like a zip-line or tyrolienne of today.

The first free-flight trials of the 14-bis took place at the Polo Ground in the Bois de Boulogne on 21 August, but were halted by damage to the newly fitted aluminium-bladed propeller, which replaced one with silk-covered wooden blades.[9] After repairs another trial took place the following day; although the nosewheel left the ground, the aircraft had insufficient power to take off, and Santos-Dumont decided to replace the engine with a 37 kW (50 hp) Antoinette.[9] Trials resumed on 4 September without great success, and on 7 September, after the propeller was damaged, a new slightly larger one was fitted.[10]

On 13 September 1906 Aéro-Club de France observers gathered to witness an attempt to make a prize-winning flight. The aircraft failed to take off during a first attempt, but during the second it lifted and flew between 4 and 7 metres (13 and 23 ft) at an altitude of about 70 cm (28 in). The aircraft then landed in a nose-up attitude, breaking the propeller and bringing an end to the day's experiments. This brief flight did not qualify for any prize, but earned Santos-Dumont an ovation from the crowd.[9]

On 23 October, after a series of engine tests and high-speed ground runs (one of which ended as one wheel came loose, but this was quickly fixed), Santos-Dumont made a flight of over 50 m (160 ft) at an altitude of 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft).[11] This earned Santos-Dumont the first of the aviation prizes, 3,000 francs for a flight of 25 m (82 ft) or more.

The 14-bis flying over the Château de Bagatelle grounds on 23 October.

Monument at Bagatelle to Santos-Dumont's flight of 12 November and its first world record.

This landing damaged the aircraft slightly, but Santos-Dumont announced that he should be ready to attempt the 100 meters prize on 12 November. The 14-bis was repaired, and octagonal ailerons were added to the middle of each outermost wing cell, with the surfaces pivoting between the outermost forward struts. These were operated by cables attached to the shoulders of the pilot's flightsuit, somewhat like the hip-movement wing-warping control of the Wright Flyer. On the morning of 12 November 1906 the aviation community of France assembled at the Chateau de Bagatelle's grounds to witness Santos Dumont's next attempt. As Santos-Dumont allowed the 14-bis to run down the field, a car drove alongside, from which Henry Farman dropped a plate each time he observed the wheels of the aircraft leave the ground or touch down again. The first attempt achieved a 5-second flight of about 40 m (130 ft) around 40 cm off the ground, and the second two brief flights of 40 and 50 m (160 ft). A hurried landing due to the proximity of some trees after this second attempt damaged the wheel axles, and these were fixed during a lunch break. In the afternoon, further flights of 50 meters and then 82 m (269 ft) (achieving about 40 km/h), this one interrupted by the proximity of a polo barrier. As the sun set, Santos-Dumont attempted one more flight. In order to ensure he would not hit the spectators, who by this time were all over the field, he pulled up while flying over them. After 22 seconds, he cut the engine and glided in to land. He had flown for 220 meters (over 700 ft), qualifying for the second aviation prize offered for heavier-than-air-aircraft, 1,000 francs for a flight of 100 meters or more. This was the last recorded flight of the aircraft.[12] The next notable Santos-Dumont flights were made in November 1907, flying his No. 19 Demoiselle.[13]

Some contend that the 14-bis rather than Wright Flyer was the first true airplane.[14] For takeoff the 1903 Wright Flyer used a launch rail and a wheeled dolly which was left on the ground; the airplane landed on skids due to the sandy landing surface at Kitty Hawk.[15] After 1903 the Wrights used a catapult to assist most takeoffs of their 1904 and 1905 airplanes. The Santos-Dumont 14-bis did not use a catapult and ran on wheels located at the back of the aircraft, with a skid under the front of the fuselage.

The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (F.A.I.) ("International Federation of Aeronautics"), founded in France in 1905 to "regulate the sport of flying" and to keep track of aviation records and other aeronautical activities, stated among its rules that an aircraft should be able to take off under its own power in order to qualify for a record. Many Brazilians therefore hold the 14-bis as the first airplane and Santos-Dumont is revered as Father of Aviation in the country. On October 5, 1905 Wilbur made a circling flight of 24 miles (38.9 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds,[16] over Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio, a year before Santos-Dumont's 50 metres (160 ft) flight earned him his first aviation award.

Written and photographic documentation by the Wrights authenticated by historians shows that the 1903 Wright Flyer accomplished takeoffs in a strong headwind without a catapult and made controlled and sustained flight nearly three years before Santos Dumont made his first takeoff.[17][18][19] Official records and motion picture footage show that the 14-bis achieved unaided takeoff on wheels.[citation needed]

1.
Alberto Santos-Dumont
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Alberto Santos-Dumont was a Brazilian aviation pioneer, one of the very few people to have contributed significantly to the development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a family of coffee producers, Santos-Dumont dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris. His conviction that aviation would usher in an era of peace and prosperity led him to freely publish his designs. Santos-Dumont is a hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical airplane. Countless roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports in Brazil are dedicated to him and he was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. Santos-Dumont was born on 20 July 1873 in Cabangu in the Brazilian town of Palmira in the state of Minas Gerais in southeast Brazil and he was youngest of the seven children born to Henrique Dumont, an engineer of French descent, and Francisca de Paula Santos. Santos-Dumonts father managed a plantation on land owned by his wifes family. His extensive use of labor-saving inventions earned him a fortune, Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a child he learned to drive the plantations steam tractors and locomotives. He also read a great deal of the works of Jules Verne and he wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil from the plantation. In 1891 Santos-Dumonts father was paralyzed by a fall from a horse. He sold the plantation and went to Europe with his wife, in Paris, Santos-Dumont contacted a balloonist with the intention of making an ascent. The price quoted was 1,200 francs for a flight, plus payment for any damage caused. This was a sum of money, and Santos-Dumont decided not to make the flight. If it is bad the money will be lost, If it is good I shall want to repeat it and I shall not have the means. After this he bought a Peugeot automobile, which he took him when he returned to Brazil with his parents at the end of the year. In 1892 the family returned to Europe, but Henriques felt too ill to continue on to Paris from Lisbon and his fathers health deteriorated and he decided to return to Brazil, where he died on 30 August 1892. For the next four years Alberto lived in Paris, studying physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor, during this period he sold his Peugeot, replacing it with a more powerful and faster De Dion motor-tricycle. In 1896 he returned to Brazil for a period, but began to miss Paris

2.
Bird of prey
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Bird of prey or predatory bird, also known as raptors, refers to several species of birds that hunt and feed on rodents and other small animals. The term raptor is derived from the Latin word rapere, meaning to seize or take by force and these birds are characterized by keen vision that allows them to detect their prey during flight and powerful talons and beaks. Taken literally, the bird of prey has a wide meaning that includes many birds that hunt and feed on animals. In ornithology, the definition for bird of prey has a meaning, birds that have very good eyesight for finding food, strong feet for holding food. Most birds of prey also have strong curved talons for catching or killing prey, Birds of prey generally prey on vertebrates, which are usually quite large relative to the size of the bird. Most also eat carrion, at least occasionally, and vultures, the order Accipitriformes is believed to have originated 44 million years ago when it split from the common ancestor of the secretarybird and the accipitrid species. The phylogeny of Accipitriformes is complex and difficult to unravel, widespread paraphylies were observed in many phylogenetic studies. More recent and detailed studies show similar results, however, according to the findings of a 2014 study, the sister relationship between larger clades of Accipitriformes was well supported. The diurnal birds of prey are formally classified into five families of two orders, the Cathartidae are sometimes placed separately in an enlarged stork family, Ciconiiformes, and may be raised to an order of their own, Cathartiiformes. The secretary bird and/or osprey are sometimes listed as subfamilies of Acciptridae, Sagittariinae and Pandioninae, australias letter-winged kite is a member of the family Accipitridae, although it is a nocturnal bird. He placed all birds of prey into an order, Accipitres, subdividing this into four genera, Vultur, Falco, Strix. This approach was followed by subsequent authors such as Gmelin, Latham, louis Pierre Veillot used additional ranks, order, tribe, family, genus, species. Birds of prey were divided into diurnal and nocturnal tribes, the owls remained monogeneric, thus Veillots families were similar to the Linnaean genera, with the difference that shrikes were no longer included amongst the birds of prey. In addition to the original Vultur and Falco, Veillot adopted four genera from Savigny, Phene, Haliæetus, Pandion and he also introduced five new genera of vultures and eleven new genera of accipitrines. The common names for birds of prey are based on structure. Eagles tend to be large birds with long, broad wings, booted eagles have legs and feet feathered to the toes and build very large stick nests. Ospreys, a species found worldwide that specializes in catching fish. Kites have long wings and relatively weak legs and they spend much of their time soaring

3.
Aviation in the pioneer era
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Once the principles of powered controlled flight had been established there was a period in which many different aircraft configurations were experimented with. By 1914 the tractor configuration biplane had become the most popular form of aircraft design, consequently, attempts to achieve powered flight continued, principally in France. To publicize the aeronautical concourse at the upcoming Worlds Fair in St. Louis, Octave Chanute gave a number of lectures at aero-clubs in Europe and he showed slides of his own glider flying experiments as well as some of the Wrights glider flying in 1901 and 1902. All these talks were reproduced in club journals and you, the Maecenases, and you too, the Government, put your hands in your pockets—or else we are beaten. P. W. Boulton of the United Kingdom in 1868 and this was not successful and Esnault-Pelterie was later to use its failure to support the position that the Wright Brothers claims were unfounded. However his design was not a copy of the Wrights glider. Voisin and Blériot then constructed a tandem wing biplane, which was subjected to a number of modifications without any success. Full details of the Wright Brothers flight control system was published in lAérophile in the January 1906 issue, nevertheless, the crucial importance of lateral control in making controlled turns was not appreciated, and the French experimenters instead aimed to construct inherently stable aircraft. On 16 November 1907 he successfully flew his Blériot VII, a monoplane with tail surfaces moved differentially for roll control, the AEA produced a number of fundamentally similar biplane designs, greatly influenced by the Wrights work, and these were flown with increasing success during 1908. On 4 July 1908 their next aircraft, the June Bug piloted by Glenn Curtiss, after the AEAs disbandment at the end of March 1909, one of its American members went on to start a growing US-based aviation firm. I am not sufficiently calm after the event to express my opinion. My view can be best conveyed in the words, It is marvellous, leon Delagrange simply said We are beaten. His first design, the Farman III was one of the most successful designs of the pioneer era. 1909 can be regarded as the year in which aviation came of age, at the end of 1908 the first exhibition devoted to aircraft was held in the Grand Palais in Paris, and this was followed by the first London Aero Exhibition at Olympia in May 1909. The Aéro-Club de France issued its first pilots licences in January, the first British magazine to be devoted to the subject, Flight published its first issue in January. This was met by widespread derision, the satirical magazine Punch responded by offering a prize for a flight to Mars. In June 1909 Louis Blériot won their £1000 prize for the first flight across the English channel. One contemporary newspaper led its account of the event with the headline Britain is no longer an island, Blériot became world-famous, and the publicity resulted in over a hundred orders for copies of his design within a few weeks

4.
Canard (aeronautics)
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A canard is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term canard may be used to describe the aircraft itself, despite the use of a canard surface on the first powered aeroplane, the Wright Flyer of 1903, canard designs were not built in quantity until the appearance of the Saab Viggen jet fighter in 1967. The aerodynamics of the configuration are complex and require careful analysis. Canard foreplanes, whether used in a canard or three-surface configuration, have important consequences on the aircraft’s longitudinal equilibrium, the term “canard” arose from the appearance of the Santos-Dumont 14-bis of 1906, which was said to be reminiscent of a duck with its neck stretched out in flight. The Wright Brothers began experimenting with the foreplane configuration around 1900 and their first kite included a front surface for pitch control and they adopted this configuration for their first Flyer. They were suspicious of the aft tail because Otto Lilienthal had been killed in a glider with one, the Wrights realised that a foreplane would tend to destabilise an aeroplane but expected it to be a better control surface, in addition to being visible to the pilot in flight. They believed it impossible to provide control and stability in a single design, and opted for control. Many pioneers initially followed the Wrights lead, the Fabre Hydravion of 1910 was the first floatplane to fly and had a foreplane. But canard behaviour was not properly understood and other European pioneers—among them, Louis Blériot—were establishing the tailplane as the safer, some, including the Wrights, experimented with both fore and aft planes on the same aircraft, now known as the three surface configuration. After 1911, few canard types would be produced for many decades, in 1914 W. E. Evans commented that the Canard type model has practically received its death-blow so far as scientific models are concerned. Experiments continued sporadically for several decades, in 1917 de Bruyère constructed his C1 biplane fighter, having a canard foreplane and rear-mounted pusher propellor. First flown in 1927, the experimental Focke-Wulf F19 Ente was more successful, two examples were built and one of them continued flying until 1931. Immediately before and during World War II several experimental canard fighters were flown, including the Ambrosini SS.4, Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender and Kyūshū J7W1 Shinden. These were attempts at using the configuration to give advantages in areas such as performance, armament disposition or pilot view. The Shinden was ordered into production off the board but hostilities ceased before any other than prototypes had flown. But the stability and control problems encountered prevented widespread adoption, in 1963 the Swedish company Saab patented a delta-winged design which overcame the earlier problems, in what has become known as the close-coupled canard. It was built as the Saab 37 Viggen and in 1967 became the first modern aircraft to enter production. The success of this aircraft spurred many designers, and canard surfaces sprouted on a number of derived from the popular Dassault Mirage delta-winged jet fighter

5.
Biplane
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A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, while a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural techniques, better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs, they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading, however, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above, the term is also occasionally used in biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals. In a biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other, either or both of the main wings can support ailerons, while flaps are more usually positioned on the lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of wires and/or slender interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage. The primary advantage of the biplane over the traditional single plane or monoplane is to combine great stiffness with light weight. A braced monoplane wing must support itself fully, while the two wings of a help to stiffen each other. The biplane is therefore inherently stiffer than the monoplane, also, the structural forces in the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore much lighter. A disadvantage of the biplane was the need for extra struts to space the wings apart, the low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation meant that aeroplanes could only fly slowly. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading, combining both large wing area with light weight. A biplane wing of a span and chord has twice the area of a monoplane the same size and so can fly more slowly. Alternatively, a wing of the same area as a monoplane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between the two planes and this means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, given the slow speed and low power of early aircraft, the drag penalty of the wires and struts and the mutual interference of airflows were relatively minor and acceptable factors. The smaller biplane wing also allows greater maneuverability, during World War One, this further enhanced the dominance of the biplane and, despite the need for speed, military aircraft were among the last to abandon the biplane form. Specialist sports Aerobatic biplanes are still occasionally made, biplanes were originally designed with the wings positioned directly one above the other

6.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama

7.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

8.
Seine
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The Seine is a 777-kilometre-long river and an important commercial waterway within the Paris Basin in the north of France. It rises at Source-Seine,30 kilometres northwest of Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plateau, flowing through Paris and it is navigable by ocean-going vessels as far as Rouen,120 kilometres from the sea. There are 37 bridges within Paris and dozens more spanning the river outside the city, examples in Paris include the Pont Alexandre III and Pont Neuf, the latter of which dates back to 1607. Outside the city, examples include the Pont de Normandie, one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world, the Seine rises in the commune of Source-Seine, about 30 kilometres northwest of Dijon. The source has been owned by the city of Paris since 1864, a number of closely associated small ditches or depressions provide the source waters, with an artificial grotto laid out to highlight and contain a deemed main source. The grotto includes a statue of a nymph, on the same site are the buried remains of a Gallo-Roman temple. Small statues of the dea Sequana Seine goddess and other ex voti found at the place are now exhibited in the Dijon archeological museum. The Seine is dredged and oceangoing vessels can dock at Rouen,120 kilometres from the sea, commercial riverboats can use the river from Bar-sur-Seine,560 kilometres to its mouth. At Paris, there are 37 bridges, the river is only 24 metres above sea level 446 kilometres from its mouth, making it slow flowing and thus easily navigable. The Seine Maritime,105.7 kilometres from the English Channel at Le Havre to Rouen, is the portion of the Seine used by ocean-going craft. The tidal section of the Seine Maritime is followed by a section with four large multiple locks until the mouth of the Oise at Conflans-Sainte-Honorine. Multiple locks at Bougival / Chatou and at Suresnes lift the vessels to the level of the river in Paris, upstream from Paris seven locks ensure navigation to Saint Mammès, where the Loing mouth is situated. Through an eighth lock the river Yonne is reached at Montereau-Fault-Yonne, from the mouth of the Yonne, larger ships can continue upstream to Nogent-sur-Seine. From there on, the river is only by small craft. All navigation ends abruptly at Marcilly-sur-Seine, where the ancient Canal de la Haute-Seine used to allow vessels to continue all the way to Troyes and this canal has been abandoned for many years. The average depth of the Seine today at Paris is about 9.5 metres. Until locks were installed to raise the level in the 1800s, the river was much shallower within the city most of the time, today the depth is tightly controlled and the entire width of the river between the built-up banks on either side is normally filled with water. The average flow of the river is low, only a few cubic metres per second

9.
Lawrence Hargrave
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Lawrence Hargrave, MRAeS, was an Australian engineer, explorer, astronomer, inventor and aeronautical pioneer. Hargrave was born in Greenwich, England, the son of John Fletcher Hargrave and was educated at Queen Elizabeths Grammar School, Kirkby Lonsdale. He immigrated to Australia with his family, arriving in Sydney on 5 November 1865 on the La Hogue and he accepted a place on the Ellesmere and circumnavigated Australia. He later found the experience of use in constructing his models. In 1872, as an engineer, he sailed on the Maria on a voyage to New Guinea, in 1875 he again sailed as an engineer on William John Macleays expedition to the Gulf of Papua. In 1877 he was inspecting the newly developing pearling industry for Parbury Lamb and he returned to Sydney, joined the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1877, and in 1878 became an assistant astronomical observer at Sydney Observatory. He held this position for five years, retired in 1883 with a moderate competency. Hargrave had been interested in experiments of all kinds from an early age, when his father died in 1885, and Hargrave came into his inheritance, he resigned from the observatory to concentrate on full-time research. And for a time gave particular attention to the flight of birds, in his career, Hargrave invented many devices, but never applied for a patent on any of them. He needed the money but he was a believer in scientific communication as a key to furthering progress. As he wrote in 1893, Workers must root out the idea by keeping the results of their labours to themselves a fortune will be assured to them, patent fees are much wasted money. The flying machine of the future will not be fully fledged. Like everything else it must be evolved gradually, the first difficulty is to get a thing that will fly at all. When this is made, a full description should be published as an aid to others, excellence of design and workmanship will always defy competition. Among many, three of Hargraves inventions were significant, Study of curved aerofoils, particularly designs with a thicker leading edge. The box kite, which improved the lift to drag ratio of early gliders. Work on the engine, which powered many early aircraft up until about 1920. He made endless experiments and numerous models, and communicated his conclusions in a series of papers to the Royal Society of New South Wales, two papers which will be found in the 1885 volume of its Journal and Proceedings show that he was early on the road to success

10.
Blimp
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A blimp, or non-rigid airship, is an airship without an internal structural framework or a keel. Unlike semi-rigid and rigid airships, blimps rely on the pressure of the gas inside the envelope. The term is also used to refer to the tethered craft properly known as moored balloons. While often very similar in shape, moored balloons have no propulsion and are tethered to the ground, since blimps keep their shape with internal overpressure, typically the only solid parts are the passenger car and the tail fins. A non-rigid airship that uses heated air instead of a gas as a lifting medium is called a hot-air airship. Volume changes of the gas due to temperature changes or to changes of altitude are compensated for by pumping air into internal ballonets to maintain the overpressure. Without sufficient overpressure, the blimp loses its ability to be steered and is slowed due to increased drag, the propeller air stream can be used to inflate the ballonets and so the hull. In some models, such as the Skyship 600, differential ballonet inflation can provide a measure of pitch trim control, the engines driving the propellers are usually directly attached to the gondola, and in some models are partly steerable. Blimps are the most commonly built airships because they are easy to build. However, because of their hull, their size is limited. A blimp with too long a hull may kink in the middle when the overpressure is insufficient or when maneuvered too fast and this led to the development of semi-rigids and rigid airships. Modern blimps are launched somewhat heavier than air, in contrast to historic blimps, the missing lift is provided by lifting the nose and using engine power, or by angling the engine thrust. Some types also use steerable propellers or ducted fans, operating in a state heavier than air avoids the need to dump ballast at lift-off and also avoids the need to lose costly helium lifting gas on landing. The origin of the word blimp has been the subject of some confusion, ege notes two possible derivations, Colloquially always were referred to as Blimps. Over the years several explanations have been advanced about the origin of this word, the most common is that in the military vernacular the Type B was referred to as limp bag, which was simply abbreviated to blimp. The onomatopoeic derivation, as the sound the airship makes when one taps the envelope with a finger, has recorded in the British Aeronautical Journal. A1943 etymology published in the New York Times supports the British origin during the First World War when the British were experimenting with lighter-than-air craft. Topping researched the origins of the word and concluded that the British had never had a Type B, limp designation, the B-class blimps were patrol airships operated by the United States Navy during and shortly after World War I

11.
Antoinette (manufacturer)
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Antoinette was a French manufacturer of light petrol engines. Antoinette also became a builder of aeroplanes before World War I, most notably the record-breaking monoplanes flown by Hubert Latham. Based in Puteaux, the Antoinette concern was in operation between 1903 and 1912, the company operated a flying school at Chalons for which it built one of the earliest flight simulators. Antoinette began as a venture led by the engineer Léon Levavasseur and financed by Jules Gastambide. Levavasseur then suggested to Gastambides daughter, Antoinette, that the engines should be named after her, Levavasseur patented the V8 engine configuration that year. By 1904, most of the prize-winning speedboats in Europe were powered with Antoinette engines, during this time, he designed engines of various configurations of up to thirty-two cylinders. La Société Antoinette was incorporated in 1906, with Gastambide as president, aviation pioneer Louis Blériot was the vice-president. Antoinette displayed an automobile with a 7.2 L,32 horsepower V8 engine in the 1906 Paris Salon de lAutomobile of that year, the companys primary business was the sale of engines to aircraft builders. The Farman-Voisin biplane was powered by a water-cooled Antoinette V8 engine which developed 50 horsepower at 1,400 rpm and it used an early form of direct gasoline injection and weighed only 190 pounds in working order, including the water-filled cooling system. The engine block was cast aluminium, holding removable steel cylinders, Levavasseurs Antoinette engines often included advanced features, including direct fuel injection and evaporative engine cooling. Levavasseur experimented with the construction of aircraft and in 1906 the Antoinette company was contracted to build an aircraft for Captain Ferdinand Ferber, in 1908 Blériot tried to dissuade the directors of Antoinette from becoming aircraft manufacturers, fearing that they would begin competing against him for customers. Blériot left the company when his advice was ignored, in early 1909, the Antoinette company worked with the French Army at Camp Châlons near Mourmelon-le-Grand to establish the first military aircraft trials, a flight school and a workshop. One of their earliest pupils was the adventurer Hubert Latham, within months of learning to fly Latham became the companys principal instructor. In the spring of 1909, Latham made several impressive flights and this convinced Levavasseur that Latham could cross the English Channel in an Antoinette aircraft and win the Daily Mail prize for doing so. Latham made two attempts to cross the English Channel in July 1909, both of which were due to engine failure while over the Channel. At the 1910 Gordon Bennett Trophy race at Belmont Park in the United States, Levavasseur left the Antoinette company in November 1909, shortly after Gastambide. Gastambide and Levavasseur returned to the company in March 1910, Gastambide as president of the board and managing director, after Levavasseurs return, he designed the Antoinette military monoplane, a streamlined monoplane with cantilever wings, which was ultimately rejected by the military. The Antoinette company went bankrupt shortly afterward, archived from the original on 2014-12-14

12.
Dihedral (aeronautics)
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Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Anhedral angle is the given to negative dihedral angle, that is. Dihedral angle has an influence on dihedral effect, which is named after it. Dihedral effect is the amount of roll moment produced per degree of sideslip, dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis. It is also pertinent to the nature of an aircrafts Dutch roll oscillation, longitudinal dihedral is a comparatively obscure term related to the pitch axis of an airplane. It is the angle between the zero axis of the wing and horizontal tail. Longitudinal dihedral can influence the nature of controllability about the pitch axis, when the term dihedral is used by itself it is usually intended to mean dihedral angle. However, context may otherwise indicate that dihedral effect is the intended meaning, dihedral Angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft, or of any paired nominally-horizontal surfaces on any aircraft. The term can apply to the wings of a bird. Dihedral Angle is also used in some types of such as box kites. Wings with more than one Angle change along the span are said to be polyhedral. Dihedral Angle has important stabilizing effects on flying bodies because it has an influence on the dihedral effect. Dihedral effect of an aircraft is a rolling moment resulting from the vehicle having an angle of sideslip. Increasing the dihedral angle of an aircraft increases the effect on it. However, many other parameters also have a strong influence on dihedral effect. Some of these important factors are, wing sweep, vertical center of gravity, dihedral angle on an aircraft almost always implies the angle between two paired surfaces, one on each side of the aircraft. Even then, it is almost always between the left and right wings, however, mathematically dihedral means the angle between any two planes. Longitudinal dihedral can also mean the angle between the zero axis of the wing and tail instead of between the root chords of the two surfaces

A 1912 Farman HF.20 biplane with single acting ailerons hinged from the rear spar. The ailerons hang down when at rest and are pushed up into position when flying by the force of the air, being pulled down by cable to provide control.

A Yak-52 using ailerons to roll counter-clockwise during an aerobatic maneuver