For nearly one
thousand years Muslim culture led the world in knowledge and prosperity.
Today the Muslim
Ummah, in most respects, lags far behind.What are the
factors for the rise and fall of the Muslims? Is the West to blame for the
relative poverty of Islamic societies or did the Muslims themselves contributed
to this situation?

In its early years,
Islam spread rapidly. Within a century, Islam had conquered Jordan, Syria,
Persia, Palestine, Egypt, and had swept across North Africa and into Spain. The
reasons for this expansion were the fervor and the spirit of the Mujaahideen,
and especially on the part of the Umayyad
caliphs, who ruled from Damascus.

The main factor for
Islam’s success was its ability to transcend nations and races, its provision of
a common language and its moral code which provided a great advance over tribal
culture, supporting commercial relations, trade and trust between traders.
Another important factor is its monetary and accounting systems and legal code,
as they were useful in arbitrating financial contracts and disputes. This
expansion in trade, as well as the open intellectual environment and freedom of
expression of early Islam, gave rise to the wealth of its civilization.

The Islamic ability to reconcile
monotheism and science heralded that for the first time in human thought that
theology, philosophy, and science were finally harmonized in a unified whole.
One of the reasons for such development of science is probably due to God's
commandment to explore the laws of nature. The idea is to admire all creations
for its complexity - to cherish the creator for the ingenuity. Possibly holding
to this belief, Islam's contributions to science had covered many roots of
thought including mathematics, astronomy, medicine and
philosophy. Early in the
Islamic history, the dynasty
of the Umayyads evinced an interest in science. It was the century that was, for
Europeans, the Dark Ages, were, for Muslim scholars, centuries of philosophical
and scientific discovery and development. The Arabs at the time not only
assimilated the ancient wisdom of Persia, India, and the classical heritage of
Greece, but adapted their own distinctive needs and ways of thinking.
Compared to other Muslims dynasties, the Abbasid
dynasty, which ruled from Baghdad
from 750 CE to 1258 CE, provided thepinnacle of
Islamic civilization. In the 9th century the collective sayings and
interpretations of the early caliphs were recorded in the hadith. The Abbasid’s
greatest achievements were in the area of philosophy, science, astronomy,
medicine and mathematics, in which they led the world. They studied, preserved
and translated the Persian, Indian and Greek classics. The Muslim world is
justifiably proud of its achievements in this regard. Muslim scholars provided
major contributions to mathematics, algebra, astronomy, trigonometry, chemistry,
physics and medicine. This was a civilization that outshined all others in its
affluence and accomplishments.

The Europeans owe
their intellectual heritage to the knowledge of the Greek philosophers. This
knowledge was known to the Romans, including for example the teachings of
Aristotle, who advocated reason and logic. While the Romans had a sophisticated
financial sector, they showed little interest in mathematics. In 529 Christian
Emperor Justinian closed down the Athenian schools of philosophy. This action of
obscurantism resulted in the Dark Age in Europe, in which there was no progress
for centuries and no practice of science or philosophy. The works of the ancient
Greeks were lost to Europe.
Meanwhile the teachings of the Greek philosophers were preserved in the East and
were continued, enhanced and developed by Muslim philosophers.

Introduction of
Arabic numerals provided a pivotal advance over the cumbersome Roman numerals.
This development of a more convenient number system assisted progress in
science, accounting and bookkeeping. Key to this was the use of the number zero,
a concept unknown to the Romans. These numerals were adopted by the Arabs,
starting around 750 CE. Around 820 CE the mathematician Al-Khwarizmi studied
them and used them in calculations. Al
Khwarizmi originated "algebra". He applied this knowledge to contracts,
surveying and tax collection. The use of this number system spread throughout
the Muslim world over the next two centuries, assisting the development of
science. The system was first mentioned in Europe
around 1200 CE, but Christian adherence to the Roman system hindered
its use and introduction. It was only fully accepted in Europe after it was
adopted by the Italian traders in the Renaissance of the 16th century, who
followed the practice of their Arab trading partners.

Another of the great
Muslim philosophers was Ibn Rushd
(known in the West as Averroes),
who lived in Muslim Spain in the twelfth century. He continued the philosophy of
Aristotle. He
wrote of the harmony of religion and philosophy. He believed the Qur'an
contained the highest truth while maintaining that its words should not be taken
literally. He proposed a dual method of expounding theology, one for the
intellectuals and another for the masses in general. He believed that to the
masses, one must speak of religion, but to the enlightened few one may disclose
scientific truth. He was saddened by the fate of women in society, stating that
no scope was allowed for the development of their talents, and that they seemed
to be destined exclusively to childbirth and servility to their husbands. His
writings did not please religious zealots and he was removed from his post as
judge and physician to the ruler in Cordoba.
It was Europe, not Islam, which benefited from the writings of Ibn Rushd -
Averroes - and his circle of Islamic philosophers under the Almohade caliphs of
El Andalus. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the foundation of the
European Renaissance was laid on the thinking of Muslims like these. A debt is
acknowledged. But Muslim rulers ignored new thinking to their detriment, and
they do so still.

Subsequently in the
Muslim world the teachings of Averroes
were considered to be too rationalistic, and the religious orthodoxy was not
further challenged by philosophers. This came to be known as the closing of the
"gate of ijtihad" (independent thought). However in Christian Europe,
Averroes’ teachings aroused much interest. The philosophy of the ancient Greeks
was rediscovered via the Muslim world. Many centuries were spent trying to
reconcile this philosophy with Christian belief. As the universities slowly
obtained greater independence from the church, the writings of Aristotle
and Averroes’ interpretations of them became a subject of debate. This created
turmoil in the minds of many medieval European intellectuals but helped sow the
seeds of the Renaissance and stimulate interest in scientific investigation.

DECLINE OF
MUSLIMS

Muslim scholars
argue that Qur'an advocates quest for knowledge of nature by observation, and
this inspired the development of scientific method by Muslims.However in the
12th century when Muslim philosophers began to suggest that truth
itself may be revealed by empirical observation as well as from the Qur'an,
there was a religious crackdown, the gate of ijtihad was closed and
scientific research largely ceased in the Muslim world.
It was
eventually pursued in Europe, but not without
resistance from religious authorities there. The start or the 13th
century saw the beginning of the relative decline of Islamic civilization. This
decline was not caused by outside forces. It was not caused by a lack of
dedication to Islam.
It was caused by
Muslim Rulers and the Ulema. It was caused by obscurantism in Islam. This is
because rejection of science and scientific method was rejection of what was to
later become the main driving force in industrial wealth and prosperity.

Scientific research
in the Muslim world declined and the intellectual environment became
inhospitable to the open and honest exchange of ideas.
The craft
guilds, which also existed in Europe,
may have been more successful under Islam in preserving their monopolies,
excluding competition and product improvement. Craftsmen were granted higher
status than merchants, and were able to restrict the idea of free competition.
There was a feeling in the Muslim world that improvement was unnecessary, except
perhaps in the technology of warfare. Gradually all the advancements known to
the Muslim world passed to Europe,
where the knowledge was eventually utilized to greater effect.

Another invention of the
Muslims, arising from their advantage in the numeral system, eventually also
proved of great benefit to Europe. This was the accounting innovation of
double entry book keeping. This was originally devised to reduce bookkeeping
errors.Double-entry
book-keeping is the
standard accounting practice for recording financial transactions. Westerners
wrongly say that it was invented by Luca Pacioli, a close friend of Leonardo da
Vinci.

Double entry book keeping is a
method of recording transactions, which allows a check on accuracy of the
recording. Bookkeeping entries are divided into DEBITS and CREDITS. The DEBIT
side is at the left of the ledger page, the CREDITS on the right. DEBITS record
transactions relating to purchases, expenses and an increase in the assets of
the company. CREDITS record transactions relating to revenues and an increase in
the liabilities of the company.

Recording a transaction always
requires a DEBIT and a CREDIT entry. Providing the entries have been correctly
recorded, when totaled both sides of the ledger should therefore agree.
It was soon seen to have other advantages. It enabled managers to determine the
net worth of their business at any time, and enabled the business as to be seen
as an entity in itself, distinct from the owner. This assisted in another aspect
of trade, that of the extending of credit to parties who are not well known to
the lender, by providing and accepted basis for business valuation.

The bookkeeping
system, and its numerical basis became known to Italian merchants through their
contact with Arab traders, and later spread through Europe. The innovation of
double entry bookkeeping led to other financial innovations. Traders used bills
of exchange, in the 13th century. These were promissory notes, which allowed
merchants to transfer amounts they owed each other without the need to exchange
coins or goods directly. Lesser merchants found that by depositing funds with
prominent trading families, they could obtain drafts, which were credible money
in distant places. Others found that they were able to purchase at a discount,
bills redeemable at a later date. This was an implicit interest rate that for
the Europeans did not violate the prohibition on usury.

Prohibition on usury
has always been recognized in Islam, where any borrowing or lending of money for
interest is considered usury. Certain measures have been developed to provide
alternatives, or to circumvent the ban, but this type of economic sanction has
traditionally been held as one reason the Islamic countries began to fall behind
Europe
after about the 13th century. Western scholars argue that the
prohibition of interest in Islam prevented the development of financial markets
and institutions that later became essential to the provision of private
investment beneficial to the community.

In Islam the receipt
and payment of interest is immoral and it is prohibited. However in later
Christian philosophy it was considered that if a person was to lend a sum of
money, and forgo any claim on it until a certain future date, then that person
was entitled to some monetary reward for that sacrifice. That reward, in
relation to the sum, was interest. It was thus considered that only an excessive
rate of interest, rather than all interest, could be considered usury. Such an
interpretation is prohibited in Islam.

In the 13th
century, European governments began to move away from arbitrary systems of
taxation and towards more predictable collection. In England and later in
Holland, the merchant class, on behalf of the government, performed this. In the
Muslim world tax collection remained in the hands of a centralized bureaucracy.
The tax environment in Europe allowed capital assets such as ships and trading
stations to be owned and operated without fear of arbitrary seizure by
governments. Large-scale private investments were then possible. This provided
great advantage to European merchants over their counterparts in the Islamic
world, as well as in India and China.

In 1258 CE Baghdad
fell to the invading Mongols and the Abbasid Empire collapsed. Soon however,
three separate Islamic empires rose to replace it. Isfahan became the centre of
an Iranian empire, Delhi
was the centre of the Mughal Empire and Constantinople, renamed
Istanbul, was the centre of the Ottoman Empire. Islam retained its military
prowess for many centuries but it never regained its technological or economic
supremacy. Eventually it fell victim to Western imperialism and colonialism.
This did not lead to any particular examination of Muslim society, or any real
consideration of the reasons for its comparative decline. Rather, it led to a
reaffirmation of Muslim values. While there was resentment of western influence,
intensified due to the generally non-Islamic colonial elites imposed on them,
there was little desire to emulate the European urge to explore and exploit.
Unlike the Crusaders, the European imperialists were interested in trade rather
than religious conquest. Local religions were tolerated. Muslims meanwhile,
contented themselves with their Islamic sense of moral superiority.

The colonial
administrators of Muslim countries often viewed Islamic culture as inimical to
development and progress. In the analysis of Western thinkers Islam’s attitude
to material values, to work, thrift, productive investment, honesty in
commercial relations, experimentation and risk bearing, and to equality of
opportunity were all unhelpful to growth and development.
The choice for
Muslim leaders was between "Deen" and "Duniya" or "mechanisation".
Mechanisation is the act of
implementing the control of equipment with advanced technology; usually
involving electronic hardware; "automation replaces human workers by machines.It
appears the Muslims concentrated on "Deen" at the expense of "Duniya". The
first printing press to serve Muslims was not established until nearly three
centuries after its use began in Europe. It was
suggested the education system, with emphasis on rote learning, inhibited the
development of inquiring minds devoted to problem solving. But for too long, the
real problem has been avoided and ignored. Muslim rulers and the Ulema are the
problem. It does not provide knowledge but rather suppresses the quest for
knowledge. In doing so, it does not encourage prosperity but discourages it. It
does not benefit society but harms it. Muslims desperately need to break out of
the strait-jacket.

Modern prosperity,
with all its improvement in welfare, has been delivered to humanity by science
and technology. In the last two centuries especially, science has delivered
better lives for people, longer lives, and for larger populations. The key to
unlocking the source of these benefits was scientific method, the relentless
search for truth through observation, theorizing and experimentation.

In the 13th
century the Muslim world, with its development of the culture of philosophy,
science, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and medicine, led the world.
The Muslim world once possessed in its hands the keys to the future prosperity
that technology could deliver. Not only that, but with the invention of double
entry bookkeeping, it possessed in its hands the blueprint of the plans for the
modern corporation.Eventually,
after several hundred years, Europe
was able to absorb this knowledge and overthrow the dark constraint of its own
religion to unlock the mysteries of science and discover the path to prosperity.
If the Muslim world had been able to continue on the Qur'anic commands on
scientific research, the cause of human progress would have been advanced by
about five hundred years.