The First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire (Old Bulgarian: ц︢рьство
бл︢гарское, ts'rstvo bl'garskoe) was a medieval Bulgarian
state that existed in southeastern
EuropeEurope between the 7th and 11th
centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by
Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans. There they secured
Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the
DanubeDanube by
defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic
tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the
height of its power,
BulgariaBulgaria spread from the
DanubeDanube Bend to the Black
Sea and from the
DnieperDnieper River to the Adriatic Sea.
As the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a
centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile,
with the Byzantine Empire.
BulgariaBulgaria emerged as Byzantium's chief
antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars. The two powers
also enjoyed periods of peace and alliance, most notably during the
Second Arab siege of Constantinople, where the Bulgarian army broke
the siege and destroyed the Arab army, thus preventing an Arab
invasion of Southeastern Europe.
ByzantiumByzantium had a strong cultural
influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of
ChristianityChristianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate,
the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain.
Later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the
PechenegsPechenegs and
Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them
to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia.
During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a
string of victories over the Byzantines. Thereafter, he was recognized
with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its
greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the
battle of Anchialus in 917, the Bulgarians laid siege to
ConstantinopleConstantinople in 923 and 924. The Byzantines, however, eventually
recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on
the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian
strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and the First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire had ceased to exist. It was succeeded by the Second
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire in 1185.
After the adoption of Christianity,
BulgariaBulgaria became the cultural
center of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was further
consolidated with the invention of the Glagolitic and Early Cyrillic
alphabets shortly after in the capital Preslav, and literature
produced in
Old BulgarianOld Bulgarian soon began spreading north. Old Bulgarian
became the lingua franca of much of Eastern
EuropeEurope and it came to be
known as Old Church Slavonic. In 927, the fully independent Bulgarian
Patriarchate was officially recognized.
The
BulgarsBulgars and other non-Slavic tribes in the empire gradually
adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th
century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and
became permanent designations for the local population, both in
literature and in common parlance. The development of Old Church
Slavonic literacy had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the
South SlavsSouth Slavs into neighbouring cultures, while stimulating the
formation of a distinct Bulgarian identity.

Contents

1 Nomenclature
2 Background

2.1 The
BalkansBalkans during the early Migration Period
2.2 Slavic migrations to the Balkans
2.3 The Bulgars

The First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria[8] since
its recognition by the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use
the terms
DanubeDanube Bulgaria,[9] First Bulgarian State,[10][11] or First
Bulgarian Tsardom (Empire). Between 681 and 864 the country was also
known as the Bulgarian Khanate,[12]
DanubeDanube Bulgarian Khanate, or
DanubeDanube Bulgar Khanate[13][14] in order to differentiate it from Volga
Bulgaria, which emerged from another Bulgar group. During its early
existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state[15] or Bulgar
qaghanate.[16] Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the
Principality of
BulgariaBulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria. In English language
sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire.[17]
Background[edit]
The
BalkansBalkans during the early Migration Period[edit]
See also:
ThraciansThracians and Migration Period
The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians
who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes.[18] The whole region
as far north as the
DanubeDanube River was gradually incorporated into the
Roman EmpireRoman Empire by the 1st century AD.[19] The decline of the Roman
EmpireEmpire after the 3rd century AD and the devastating invasions of Goths
and
HunsHuns left much of the region devastated, depopulated and in
economic decline by the 5th century.[20] The empire's successor, the
Eastern Roman Empire, called by later historians the Byzantine Empire,
could not exercise effective control in these territories other that
in the coastal areas and certain cities in the interior. Nonetheless,
it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube.
A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms
somewhat improved the situation but despite these reforms disorder
continued in much of the Balkans.[21] The reign of Emperor Justinian I
(r. 527–565) saw temporary recovery of control and
reconstruction of a number of fortresses but after his death the
empire was unable to face the threat of the
SlavsSlavs due to the
significant reduction of revenue and manpower.[22]
Slavic migrations to the Balkans[edit]
Main article: South Slavs
The Slavs, of Indo-European origin, were first mentioned in written
sources to inhabit the territories to the north of the
DanubeDanube in the
5th century AD but most historians agree that they had arrived
earlier.[23] The group of
SlavsSlavs that came to be known as the South
SlavsSlavs was divided into Antes and
SclaveniSclaveni who spoke the same
language.[23][24] The Slavic incursions in the
BalkansBalkans increased
during the second half of Justinian I's reign and while these were
initially pillaging raids, large-scale settlement began in the 570s
and 580s.[24][25][26] This migration is associated with the arrival of
the Avars who settled in the plains of
PannoniaPannonia between the rivers
DanubeDanube and
TiszaTisza in the 560s subjugating various Bulgar and Slavic
tribes in the process.[24][27]
Consumed in bitter wars with the Persian
Sasanian EmpireSasanian Empire in the east,
the Byzantines had little resources to confront the Slavs.[28][29] The
SlavsSlavs came in large numbers and the lack of political organisation
made it very difficult to stop them because there was no political
leader to defeat in battle and thereby force their retreat.[28] As the
wars with Persia persisted, the 610s and 620s saw a new and even
larger migration wave with the
SlavsSlavs penetrating further south into
the Balkans, reaching Thessaly,
ThraceThrace and
PeloponnesePeloponnese and raiding
some islands in the Aegean Sea.[30] The Byzantines held out Salonica
and a number of coastal towns but beyond these areas the imperial
authority in the
BalkansBalkans disappeared.[31]
The Bulgars[edit]

Early Bulgar Khanate's zones of tribal control in the late 7th.
century AD.

Main articles:
BulgarsBulgars and Old Great Bulgaria
The
BulgarsBulgars were semi-nomadic warrior tribes originating from Central
Asia whose exact ethnic origin is controversial. They spoke a form of
Turkic language and during their migration westwards they absorbed
other ethnic groups and cultural influences, including Hunnic, Iranian
and Indo-European people.[32][33] The
BulgarsBulgars included the tribes of
Onogurs, Utigurs and Kutrigurs, among others.[34][35]
The first clear mention of the
BulgarsBulgars in written sources dates from
480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (r.
474–491) against the Ostrogoths[36] although an obscure reference to
Ziezi ex quo Vulgares, with
Ziezi being an offspring of Biblical Shem,
son of Noah, is in the Chronography of 354.[37][38] In the 490s the
Kutrigurs had moved west of the
Black SeaBlack Sea while the Utigurs inhabited
the steppes to the east of them. In the first half of the 6th century
the
BulgarsBulgars occasionally raided the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire but in the second
half of the century the Kutrigurs were subjugated by the Avar
Khaganate and the Utigurs came under the rule of the Western Turkic
Khaganate.[39][40]
As the power of the Western Turks faded in the 600s the Avars
reasserted their domination over the Bulgars. Between 630 and 635 Khan
KubratKubrat of the
Dulo clanDulo clan managed to unite the main Bulgar tribes and to
declare independence from the Avars, creating a powerful confederation
called Old Great Bulgaria, also known as Patria Onoguria, between the
Black Sea, the
Sea of AzovSea of Azov and the Caucasus.[41][42] Kubrat, who was
baptised in
ConstantinopleConstantinople in 619, concluded an alliance with the
Byzantine Emperor
HeracliusHeraclius (r. 610–641) and the two countries
remained in good relations until Kubrat's death between 650 and
663.[41]
KubratKubrat fought with the
KhazarsKhazars in the east but after his
demise
Old Great BulgariaOld Great Bulgaria disintegrated under strong Khazar pressure
in 668[43] and his five sons parted with their followers. The eldest
Batbayan remained in his homeland as Kubrat's successor and eventually
became a Khazar vassal. The second brother
Kotrag migrated to the
middle
VolgaVolga region and founded
VolgaVolga Bulgaria.[44] The third brother
Asparukh led his people west to the lower Danube.[41] The fourth one,
Kuber, initially settled in
PannoniaPannonia under Avar suzerainty but
revolted and moved to the region of Macedonia, while the fifth brother
AlcekAlcek settled in central Italy.[45][46]
History[edit]
Establishment and consolidation[edit]

The
BulgarsBulgars of Asparukh moved westwards to what is now Bessarabia,
subdued the territories to the north of the
DanubeDanube in modern
Wallachia, and established themselves in the
DanubeDanube Delta.[47] In the
670s they crossed the
DanubeDanube into Scythia Minor, nominally a Byzantine
province, whose steppe grasslands and pastures were important for the
large herd stocks of the
BulgarsBulgars in addition to the grazing grounds to
the west of the
DniesterDniester River already under their
control.[46][48][49] In 680 the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV
(r. 668–685), having recently defeated the Arabs, led an
expedition at the head of a huge army and fleet to drive off the
BulgarsBulgars but suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Asparukh at
Onglos, a swampy region in or around the
DanubeDanube Delta where the
BulgarsBulgars had set a fortified camp.[47][50] The
BulgarsBulgars advanced south,
crossed the
Balkan MountainsBalkan Mountains and invaded Thrace.[51] In 681, the
Byzantines were compelled to sign a humiliating peace treaty, forcing
them to acknowledge
BulgariaBulgaria as an independent state, to cede the
territories to the north of the
Balkan MountainsBalkan Mountains and to pay an annual
tribute.[47][52] In his universal chronicle the Western European
author
Sigebert of GemblouxSigebert of Gembloux remarked that the Bulgarian state was
established in 680.[53] This was the first state that the empire
recognised in the
BalkansBalkans and the first time it legally surrendered
claims to part of its Balkan dominions.[47] The Byzantine chronicler
Theophanes the Confessor wrote of the treaty:

...the Emperor [Constantine IV] signed peace with them [the
Bulgars], and agreed to pay them tribute for shame of the Romans and
for our many sins. For it was wondrous for faraway and close peoples
to hear that he, who made everyone pay him tribute – to the east and
to the west, to the north and to the south, had been defeated by this
unclean and newly emerged people.[51][54]

The relations between the
BulgarsBulgars and the local
SlavsSlavs is a matter of
debate depending on the interpretation of the Byzantine sources.[55]
Vasil ZlatarskiVasil Zlatarski asserts that they concluded a treaty[56] but most
historians agree that they were subjugated.[55][57] The
BulgarsBulgars were
superior organisationally and militarily and came to dominate
politically the new state but there was cooperation between them and
the
SlavsSlavs for the protection of the country. The
SlavsSlavs were allowed to
retain their chiefs, to abide to their customs and in return they were
to pay tribute in kind and to provide foot soldiers for the army.[58]
The
Seven Slavic tribes were relocated to the west to protect the
frontier with the Avar Khaganate, while the Severi were resettled in
the eastern
Balkan MountainsBalkan Mountains to guard the mountain passes to the
Byzantine Empire.[55] The number of Asparukh's
BulgarsBulgars is difficult to
estimate.
Vasil ZlatarskiVasil Zlatarski and
John Van Antwerp Fine Jr. suggest that
they were not particularly numerous, numbering some 10,000,[59][60]
while
Steven RuncimanSteven Runciman considers that the tribe must had been of
considerable dimensions.[61] The
BulgarsBulgars settled mainly in the
north-east, establishing the capital at Pliska, which was initially a
colossal encampment of 23 km2 protected with earthen
ramparts.[59][49]
To the north-east the war with the
KhazarsKhazars persisted and in 700 Khan
Asparukh perished in battle with them.[62][63] Despite this setback
the consolidation of the country continued under Asparukh's successor,
Khan Tervel (r. 700–721). In 705 he assisted the deposed
Byzantine Emperor
Justinian IIJustinian II to regain his throne in return of the
area
Zagore in Northern Thrace, which was the first expansion of
BulgariaBulgaria to the south of the Balkan mountains.[63] In addition Tervel
obtained the almost imperial title Caesar[64] and sitting enthroned
besides the Emperor received the obeisance of the citizenry of
ConstantinopleConstantinople and numerous gifts.[63][64] However, three years later
Justinian tried to regain the ceded territory by force, but his army
was defeated at Anchialus.[65] Skirmishes continued until 716 when
Khan Tervel signed an important agreement with
ByzantiumByzantium that defined
the borders and the Byzantine tribute, regulated trade relations and
provided for prisoners and fugitives exchange.[64][66] When the Arabs
laid siege to
ConstantinopleConstantinople in 717–718 Tervel dispatched his army
to help the besieged city. In the decisive battle before the Walls of
ConstantinopleConstantinople the Bulgarians slaughtered between 22,000[67] and
30,000[68]
ArabsArabs forcing them to abandon the undertaking. Most
historians agree that Byzantine-Bulgarian victory was the most
important one for stopping the Arab offences against Europe.[66]
Internal instability and struggle for survival[edit]

A golden jug from the Sannicolau Mare,
RomaniaRomania depicting a warrior
with his captive. Experts cannot agree if this warrior is Bulgar,
Khazar or Avar

With the demise of Khan Sevar (r. 738–753) the ruling Dulo clan
died out and the Khanate fell into a long political crisis during
which the young country was on the verge of destruction. In just
fifteen years seven Khans reigned, and all of them were murdered. The
only surviving sources of this period are Byzantine and present only
the Byzantine point of view of the ensuing political turmoil in
Bulgaria.[66] They describe two factions struggling for
power – one that sought peaceful relations with the
Empire, which was dominant until 755, and one that favoured war.[66]
These sources present the relations with the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire as the
main issue in this internal struggle and do not mention the other
reasons, which could have been more important for the Bulgarian
elite.[66] It is likely that the relationship between the politically
dominant
BulgarsBulgars and the more numerous
SlavsSlavs was the main issue behind
the struggle but there is no evidence about the aims of the rival
factions.[69] Zlatarski speculates that the old Bulgar military
aristocracy was leaning towards war while other
BulgarsBulgars supported by
the majority of the
SlavsSlavs were inclined for peace with Byzantium.[70]
The internal instability was used by the "soldier Emperor" Constantine
V (r. 745–775), who launched nine major campaigns aiming to
eliminate Bulgaria.[71] Having contained the Arab threat during the
first part of his reign, Constantine V was able to concentrate
his forces on
BulgariaBulgaria after 755.[72] He defeated the Bulgarians at
Marcellae in 756, Anchialus in 763 and Berzitia in 774, but lost the
battle of the Rishki Pass in 759 in addition to hundreds of ships lost
to storms in the Black Sea. The Byzantine military successes further
deteriorated the crisis in
BulgariaBulgaria but on the other hand rallied
together many different fractions to resist the Byzantine advance in
that period of political volatility and military setbacks, as shown at
the council of 766 when the nobility and the "armed people" denounced
Khan Sabin with the words "Thanks to you, the Romans will enslave
Bulgaria!".[72][73] In 774 Khan Telerig (r. 768–777) tricked
Constantine V into revealing his spies at the Bulgarian court in
PliskaPliska and had them all executed.[72] The next year Constantine V
died during a retaliatory campaign against Bulgaria.[74][75] Despite
being able to defeat the Bulgarians several times the Byzantines were
able neither to conquer Bulgaria, nor to impose their suzerainty and a
lasting peace, which is a testimony to the resilience, fighting skills
and ideological coherence of the Bulgarian state.[76][77] The
devastation brought to the country by the nine campaigns of
Constantine V firmly rallied the
SlavsSlavs behind the
BulgarsBulgars and
greatly increased the dislike of the Byzantines, turning
BulgariaBulgaria into
a hostile neighbour.[76] The hostilities continued until 792 when Khan
Kardam (r. 777–803) achieved an important victory in the battle
of Marcelae, forcing the Byzantines once again to pay tribute to the
Khans.[78] As a result of the victory, the crisis was finally
overcome, and
BulgariaBulgaria entered the new century stable, stronger, and
consolidated.[79]
Territorial expansion[edit]
See also:
KrumKrum and battle of Pliska

Khan
KrumKrum feasts with the scull cup of Nicephorus after the victory at
the Varbitsa Pass, Manasses Chronicle

During the reign of Khan
KrumKrum (r. 803–814)
BulgariaBulgaria doubled in
size and expanded southward and to the northwest, occupying the lands
along the middle
DanubeDanube and Transylvania. Between 804 and 806 the
Bulgarian armies thoroughly eliminated the Avar Khaganate, which had
suffered a crippling blow by the Franks in 796, and a border with the
Frankish EmpireFrankish Empire was established along the middle
DanubeDanube or Tisza.[76]
Prompted by the Byzantine moves to consolidate their hold on the Slavs
in Macedonia and northern
GreeceGreece and in response to a Byzantine raid
against the country, the Bulgarians confronted the Byzantine
Empire.[80][81] In 808 they raided the valley of the Struma River,
defeating a Byzantine army, and in 809 captured the important city
Serdica (modern Sofia).[80][82][83] In 811 the Byzantine Emperor
Nicephorus INicephorus I launched a massive offensive against Bulgaria, seized,
plundered and burned down the capital
PliskaPliska but on the way back the
Byzantine army was decisively defeated in the battle of the Varbitsa
Pass. Nicephorus I himself was slain along with most of his
troops, and his skull was lined with silver and used as a drinking
cup.[84][85]
KrumKrum took the initiative and in 812 moved the war towards
Thrace, capturing the key
Black SeaBlack Sea port of Messembria and defeating
the Byzantines once more at Versinikia in 813 before proposing a
generous peace settlement.[82][86] However, during the negotiations
the Byzantines attempted to assassinate Krum. In response, the
Bulgarians pillaged Eastern
ThraceThrace and seized the important city of
Adrianople, resettling its 10,000 inhabitants in "
BulgariaBulgaria across the
Danube".[87][88]
KrumKrum made enhanced preparation to capture
Constantinople: 5,000 iron-plated wagons were built to carry the siege
equipment; the Byzantines even pleaded for help from the Frankish
Emperor Louis the Pious.[89] Due to the sudden death of
KrumKrum on 14
April 814, however, the campaign was never launched.[87] Khan Krum
implemented legal reform and issued the first known written law code
of
BulgariaBulgaria that established equal rules for all peoples living within
the country's boundaries, intending to reduce poverty and to
strengthen the social ties in his vastly enlarged state.[90][91]

Krum's successor Khan Omurtag (r. 814–831) concluded a 30-year
peace treaty with the Byzantines, thus allowing both countries to
restore their economies and finance after the bloody conflicts in the
first decade of the century, establishing the border along the Erkesia
trench between Debeltos on the
Black SeaBlack Sea and the valley of the Maritsa
River at Kalugerovo.[92][93] To the west the Bulgarians were in
control of
BelgradeBelgrade (whose modern name was first known as Alba
Bulgarica) by the 820s and the northwestern boundaries with the
Frankish EmpireFrankish Empire were firmly settled along the middle
DanubeDanube by
827.[94][95][16] To the north-east Omurtag fought the
KhazarsKhazars along
the
DnieperDnieper River, which was the easternmost limit of Bulgaria.[96]
Extensive building was undertaken in the capital Pliska, including the
construction of a magnificent palace, pagan temples, ruler's
residence, fortress, citadel, water-main, and bath, mainly from stone
and brick.[95][97] Omurtag started in 814 persecution of
Christians,[98] in particular against the Byzantine prisoners of war
settled north of the Danube. Menologion of Basil II, glorifies Emperor
Basil IIBasil II as a warrior defending Orthodox Christendom against the
attacks of the pagan Bulgars. The expansion to the south and
south-west continued under Omurtag's successors under the guidance of
the capable kavhan (First Minister) Isbul. During the short reign of
Khan Malamir (r. 831–836), the important city of Philippopolis
(Plovdiv) was incorporated into the country. Under Khan Presian
(r. 836–852), the Bulgarians took most of Macedonia, and the
borders of the country reached the
Adriatic SeaAdriatic Sea near Valona and Aegean
Sea.[16] Byzantine historians do not mention any resistance against
the Bulgarian expansion in Macedonia, leading to the conclusion that
the expansion was largely peaceful. With this,
BulgariaBulgaria had become the
dominant power in the Balkans.[16] The advances further west was
blocked by the development of a new Slavic state under Byzantine
patronage, the Principality of Serbia.[16] Between 839 and 842 the
Bulgarians waged war on the Serbs but did not make any progress.
Historian
Mark Whittow asserts that the claim for a Serb victory in
that war in
De Administrando ImperioDe Administrando Imperio was a wishful Byzantine
thinking[16] but notes that any Serb submission to the Bulgarians went
no further than the payment of tribute.[16]

BulgariaBulgaria after the territorial expansion under Krum, Omurtag and
Presian

The reign of Boris I (r. 852–889) began with numerous setbacks.
For ten years the country fought against the Byzantine Empire, Eastern
Francia, Great Moravia, the Croats and the Serbs forming several
unsuccessful alliances and changing sides.[99][100] In August 863
there was a period of 40 days of earthquakes and there was a lean
year, which caused famine throughout the country. To cap it all, there
was an incursion of locusts. Yet, despite all military setbacks and
natural disasters the skilful diplomacy of Boris I prevented any
territorial losses and kept the realm intact.[99] In this complex
international situation
ChristianityChristianity had become attractive as a
religion by the mid 9th-century because it provided better
opportunities for forging reliable alliances and diplomatic ties.[101]
Taking this into account, as well as a variety of internal factors,
Boris I converted to
ChristianityChristianity in 864, assuming the title
KnyazKnyaz (Prince).[101] Taking advantage of the struggle between the
PapacyPapacy in
RomeRome and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople,
Boris I brilliantly manoeuvred to assert the independence of the
newly established Bulgarian Church.[102] To check the possibility of
Byzantine interference in the internal matters of Bulgaria, he
sponsored the disciples of the brothers
Cyril and MethodiusCyril and Methodius to create
literature in
Old BulgarianOld Bulgarian language.[103] Boris I dealt
ruthlessly with the opposition to the Christianisation of Bulgaria,
crushing a revolt of the nobility in 866 and overthrowing his own son
Vladimir (r. 889–893)[a] after he attempted to restore the
traditional religion.[104] In 893 he convened the Council of Preslav
where it was decided that the capital of
BulgariaBulgaria was to be moved from
PliskaPliska to Preslav, the Byzantine clergy was to be banished from the
country and replaced with Bulgarian clerics, and Old Bulgarian
language was to replace the Greek in liturgy.[105]
BulgariaBulgaria was to
become the principle threat for the stability and security of the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire in the 10th century.[106]
Golden Age[edit]
Main article:
Golden AgeGolden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture
See also: Simeon I of Bulgaria, Byzantine–Bulgarian war of
894–896, and Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927
The decisions of the Council of
PreslavPreslav brought an end to the
Byzantine hopes to exert influence over the newly Christianized
country.[107][108] In 894 the Byzantines moved the Bulgarian market
from
ConstantinopleConstantinople to Thessaloniki, affecting the commercial
interests of
BulgariaBulgaria and the principle of Byzantine–Bulgarian
trade, regulated under the Treaty of 716 and later agreements on the
most favoured nation basis.[109][110][111] The new Prince, Simeon I
(r. 893–927), who came to be known as Simeon the Great,
declared war and defeated the Byzantine army in Thrace.[112][113] The
Byzantines turned for aid to the Magyars, who at the time inhabited
the steppes to the north-east of Bulgaria. The
MagyarsMagyars scored two
victories over the Bulgarians and pillaged Dobrudzha but Simeon I
allied with the
PechenegsPechenegs further east and in 895 the Bulgarian army
inflicted a crushing defeat on the
MagyarsMagyars in the steppes along the
Southern BugSouthern Bug River. At the same time, the
PechenegsPechenegs advanced westwards
and prevented the
MagyarsMagyars from returning to their homeland.[114] The
blow was so heavy that the
MagyarsMagyars were forced to migrate west,
eventually settling in the Pannonian Basin, where they eventually
established the Kingdom of Hungary.[115][114] In 896 the Byzantines
were routed in the decisive battle of Boulgarophygon and pleaded for
peace that confirmed the Bulgarian domination on the Balkans,[116]
restored the status of
BulgariaBulgaria as a most favoured nation, abolished
the commercial restrictions and obliged the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire to pay
annual tribute.[117][118] The peace treaty remained in force until 912
although Simeon I did violate it following the sack of
ThessalonikiThessaloniki in 904, extracting further territorial concessions in
Macedonia.[119]

In 913 the Byzantine emperor Alexander provoked a bitter war after
resolving to discontinue paying an annual tribute to Bulgaria.[120]
However, the military and ideological initiative was held by
Simeon I, who was seeking casus belli to fulfil his ambition to
be recognized as Emperor (in Bulgarian, Tsar) and to conquer
Constantinople, creating a joint Bulgarian–Roman state.[121] In 917,
the Bulgarian army dealt a crushing defeat to the Byzantines at the
battle of Achelous, resulting in Bulgaria's total military supremacy
in the Balkans.[122][123] In the words of
Theophanes Continuatus "a
bloodshed occurred, that had not happened in centuries",[124] and Leo
the Deacon witnessed piles of bones of perished soldiers on the
battlefield 50 years later.[125] The Bulgarians built on their success
with further victories at Katasyrtai in 917, Pegae in 921 and
ConstantinopleConstantinople in 922. The Bulgarians also captured the important city
of Adrianople in
ThraceThrace and seized the capital of the Theme of Hellas,
Thebes, deep in southern Greece.[126][127] Following the disaster at
Achelous, the
Byzantine diplomacyByzantine diplomacy incited the Principality of Serbia
to attack
BulgariaBulgaria from the west, but this assault was easily
contained. In 924, the Serbs ambushed and defeated a small Bulgarian
army,[128] provoking a major retaliatory campaign that ended with
Bulgaria's annexation of
SerbiaSerbia at the end of that year.[129][130]
Further expansion in the Western
BalkansBalkans was checked by King Tomislav
of Croatia, who was a Byzantine ally and defeated a Bulgarian invasion
in 926.[131][132] Simeon I was aware that he needed naval support
to conquer
ConstantinopleConstantinople and in 922 sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi BillahUbayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah in
MahdiaMahdia to negotiate the assistance of
the powerful Arab navy. The caliph sent representatives to
BulgariaBulgaria to
arrange an alliance but his emissaries were captured en route by the
Byzantines near the Calabrian coast. The Byzantine Emperor Romanos I
Lekapenos managed to avert a Bulgarian–Arab alliance by showering
the
ArabsArabs with generous gifts.[133][134] The war dragged on until
Simeon I's death in May 927. By then
BulgariaBulgaria controlled almost all
Byzantine possessions in the Balkans, but without a fleet did not
attempt to storm Constantinople.[135]
Both countries were exhausted by the huge military efforts that had
taken a heavy toll on the population and economy. Simeon's successor
Peter I (r. 927–969) negotiated a favourable peace treaty. The
Byzantines agreed to recognize him as Emperor of
BulgariaBulgaria and the
Bulgarian Orthodox ChurchBulgarian Orthodox Church as an independent Patriarchate, as well as
to pay an annual tribute.[136][137][138] The peace was reinforced with
a marriage between Peter and Romanos's granddaughter Irene
Lekapene.[137][139] This agreement ushered in a period of 40 years of
peaceful relations between the two powers. During the first years of
his reign, Peter I faced revolts by two of his three brothers, John in
928 and Michael in 930, but both were quelled.[140] During most of his
subsequent rule until 965, Peter I presided over a
Golden AgeGolden Age of
the Bulgarian state in a period of political consolidation, economic
expansion and cultural activity.[141][142]
Decline and fall[edit]
See also: Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria, Byzantine conquest of
Bulgaria, and Battle of Kleidion

Despite the treaty and the largely peaceful era that followed, the
strategic position of the
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire remained difficult. The
country was surrounded by aggressive neighbours – the
MagyarsMagyars to the north-west, the
PechenegsPechenegs and the growing power of
Kievan Rus'Kievan Rus' to the north-east, and the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire to the south,
which proved to be an unreliable neighbour.[143]
BulgariaBulgaria suffered
several devastating Magyar raids between 934 and 965. The growing
insecurity, as well as expanding influence of the landed nobility and
the higher clergy at the expense of the personal privileges of the
peasantry, led to the emergence of Bogomilism, a dualistic heretic
sect that in the subsequent decades and centuries spread to the
Byzantine Empire, northern
ItalyItaly and southern France (cf.
Cathars).[144] To the south, the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire reversed the course
of the Byzantine–Arab wars against the declining Abbasid Caliphate
and in 965 discontinued the payment of the tribute, leading to sharp
deterioration of the bilateral relations.[145] In 968 the Byzantines
incited
Kievan Rus'Kievan Rus' to invade Bulgaria. In two years the Kievan Prince
Svyatoslav I defeated the Bulgarian army, captured
PreslavPreslav and
established his capital at the important Bulgarian city of Preslavets
(meaning "Little Preslav").[146] In this desperate situation the
ageing Peter I abdicated, leaving the crown to his son Boris II
(r. 969–971), who had little choice but to cooperate with
Svyatoslav.[147] The unexpected success of the Rus' campaigns led to a
confrontation with the Byzantine Empire.[146] The Byzantine Emperor
John I TzimiskesJohn I Tzimiskes eventually defeated Svyatoslav's forces and compelled
him to leave the
BalkansBalkans in 971.[148][149] In the course of their
campaign the Byzantines seized
PreslavPreslav and detained Boris II.
Initially John I Tzimiskes presented himself as a liberator but
Boris II was promptly forced to ritually abdicate in
Constantinople.[150] Although at the time the Byzantines controlled
only the eastern regions of the country,
BulgariaBulgaria was proclaimed a
Byzantine province.[151]

Samuel's Fortress in Ohrid

The lands to the west of the Iskar River remained free and the
Bulgarians were able to regroup headed by the four Cometopuli
brothers.[152] By 976, the youngest of them, Samuel, concentrated all
power in his hands following the death of his eldest siblings. When in
976 the rightful heir to the throne, Boris II's brother Roman
(r. 971–997), escaped from captivity in Constantinople, he was
recognized as Emperor by Samuel,[153][b] who remained the chief
commander of the Bulgarian army. Peace was impossible because as a
result of the symbolic ending of the
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire following
Boris II's abdication, Roman and later Samuel, were seen as
rebels and the Byzantine Emperor was bound to enforce the imperial
sovereignty over them.[153] This led to more than 40 years of
increasingly bitter warfare.[153] A capable general and good
politician, at first Samuel managed to turn the fortunes to the
Bulgarians. The new Byzantine Emperor
Basil IIBasil II was decisively defeated
in the
Battle of the Gates of TrajanBattle of the Gates of Trajan in 986 and barely escaped with
his life.[154][155] The Byzantine poet
John Geometres wrote of the
defeat:

Even if the sun would have come down, I would have never thought that
the Moesian [Bulgarian] arrows were stronger than the Ausonian [Roman,
Byzantine] spears. ... And when you,
PhaethonPhaethon [Sun], descend to the
earth with your gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the
Caesar[c]: The Istros [Bulgaria] took the crown of Rome. Take up arms,
the arrows of the Moesians broke the spears of the Ausonians.[156]

Above: The Byzantines defeat Samuel at Kleidion, below: the death of
Samuel, Manasses Chrinicle

Immediately after the victory Samuel pushed east and recovered
north-eastern
BulgariaBulgaria with the old capitals
PliskaPliska and Preslav. In
the next ten years the Bulgarian armies expanded the country south
annexing the whole of
ThessalyThessaly and
EpirusEpirus and plundering the
PeloponnesePeloponnese Peninsula.[157] With the major Bulgarian military
successes and the defection of a number of Byzantine officials to the
Bulgarians, the prospect of the Byzantines losing all their Balkan
themes was quite real.[158] Threatened by an alliance between the
Byzantines and the Serbian state of Duklja, in 997 Samuel defeated and
captured its Prince
Jovan VladimirJovan Vladimir and took control of the Serb
lands.[159] In 997, following the death of Roman, the last heir of the
Krum's dynasty, Samuel was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria. He
established friendly relations with Stephen I of
HungaryHungary through a
marriage between his son and heir Gavril Radomir and Stephen's
daughter but eventually Gavril Radomir expelled his wife and in 1004
HungaryHungary participated with the Byzantine forces against Bulgaria.[160]
After 1000 the tides of the war turned in favor of the Byzantines
under the personal leadership of Basil II, who launched annual
campaigns of methodical conquest of the Bulgarian cities and
strongholds that were sometimes carried out in all twelve months of
the year instead of the usual short campaigning of the epoch with the
troops returning home to winter.[161] In 1001 they seized
PliskaPliska and
PreslavPreslav in the east, in 1003 a major offensive along the Danube
resulted in the fall of
VidinVidin after an eight-month siege, and in 1004
Basil II defeated Samuel in the battle of
SkopjeSkopje and took
possession of the city.[161] The war attrition dragged on for a decade
until 1014, when the Bulgarians were decisively defeated at Kleidion.
Some 14,000 Bulgarians were captured; it is said that 99 out of every
100 men were blinded, with the remaining hundredth man left with one
eye so as to lead his compatriots home, earning Basil II the
moniker "Bulgaroktonos", the Bulgar Killer.[162] When they arrived in
Samuel's residence in Prespa, the Bulgarian Emperor suffered a heart
attack at the grisly sight and died two days later, on 6 October.[162]
Resistance continued for four more years under Ravril Radomir
(r. 1014–1015) and Ivan Vladislav (r. 1015–1018) but
after the demise of the latter during the siege of Dyrrhachium the
nobility surrendered to Basil II and
BulgariaBulgaria was annexed by the
Byzantine Empire.[163] The Bulgarian aristocracy kept its privileges,
although many noblemen were transferred to Asia Minor, thus depriving
the Bulgarians of their natural leaders.[164] Although the Bulgarian
Patriarchate was demoted to an archbishopric it retained its sees and
enjoyed a privileged autonomy.[164][165] Despite several major
attempts at restoring its independence,
BulgariaBulgaria remained under
Byzantine rule until the brothers Asen and Peter liberated the country
in 1185, establishing the Second Bulgarian Empire.[166]
Government[edit]

Khan Omurtag was the first Bulgarian ruler known to had claimed divine
origin, Madrid Skylitzes

The First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire was a hereditary monarchy. The monarch was
responsible for the issues of peace and war. He was the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces, a judge and a high priest in
the pagan period.[167][168] He guided the external policy of the
country and could conclude treaties personally or through authorised
emissaries.[168] In the pagan period the title of the ruler was Khan.
After 864 Boris I adopted the Slavic
KnyazKnyaz (Prince), and since 913 the
Bulgarian monarchs were recognised as Tsars (Emperors).[169][170] The
authority of the Khan was limited by the leading noble families and
the People's Council. The People's Council included the nobility and
the "armed people" was gathered to discuss issues of crucial
importance for the state. A People's Council in 766 dethroned Khan
Sabin because he was seeking peace with the Byzantines.[72] According
to the old Bulgarian tradition the Khan was first among equals and
that was among the reasons for why Boris I decided to convert to
Christianity, as the Christian monarch ruled by the grace of God.[104]
However, it should be noted that the divinity of the Bulgarian ruler,
as well as his superiority over the Byzantine Emperor, were already
asserted by Khan Omurtag (r. 814–831),[171] as stated in the
Chatalar Inscription:

The
Kanasubigi Omurtag is a divine ruler in the land where he was
born. ... May God [ Tangra ] grant that the divine ruler may press
down the [Byzantine] emperor with his foot so long as the Ticha
flows...[172]

The second most important post in
BulgariaBulgaria after the monarch was the
kavhan, monopolised by the members of the tentatively known "Kavhan
family".[173] The kavhan had broad powers and commanded the left wing
of the army, and at times the whole army.[174] He could be a co-ruler
or a regent during the minority of the monarch;[175][176] the sources
mention that Khan Malamir "ruled together with kavhan Isbul" (fl.
820s–830s)[173] and kavhan Dometian is noted as an associate [in the
government] of Gavril Radomir (r. 1014–1015).[177] The third
highest-ranking official was the ichirgu-boila, who commanded the
right wing of the army at war and might have had the role of a foreign
minister.[175][178] Under his direct command were 1,300 soldiers.[175]
Historian
Veselin Beshevliev assumes that the post might have been
created under the reign of Khan
KrumKrum (r. 803–814), or earlier, in
order to limit the power of the kavhan.[179] Although initially the
Bulgarians did not have their own writing system, the presence of
numerous stone inscriptions, mainly in Greek language, indicate the
existence of a chancellery to the Khan that was probably organised in
Byzantine manner.[180][181] Part of the chancellery's staff might have
been Greeks and even monks, despite the fact that the country was
still pagan.[180]
Social classes[edit]

According to an inscription dated from the reign of Khan Malamir
(r. 831–836) there were three classes in pagan
Bulgaria – boilas, bagains and Bulgarians, i.e. the common
people.[182] The nobility were initially known as the boila but after
the 10th century the word was transformed to bolyar, which was
eventually adopted in many countries in Eastern Europe. Each boila
clan had its own totem and was believed to had been divinely
established, hence their staunch opposition to Christianity, which was
seen as a threat to their privileges.[183] Many of the clans had
ancient origin that could be traced back to the time when the Bulgars
inhabited the steppes to the north and east of the Black Sea.[167] The
Nominalia of the Bulgarian khansNominalia of the Bulgarian khans mentions monarchs of three clans that
ruled
BulgariaBulgaria until 766 – Dulo, Vokil and Ugain.[167] The
power of the principal noble families was greatly crippled in the
aftermath of the anti-Christian rebellion of 866, when Boris I
executed 52 leading boilas along with their families.[184]
The boila were divided into inner and outer boilas and it was among
their ranks that the holders of the highest military and
administrative posts were selected.[182][185] Most likely the outer
boilas resided outside the capital, while the inner ones were member
of the court under the direct influence of the monarch.[186] The
bagains were the second-ranking aristocratic class and were divided
into numerous ranks.[187] The presence of two separate nobility
classes is further confirmed in the Responsa Nicolai ad consulta
Bulgarorum (Responses of
Pope Nicholas IPope Nicholas I to the Questions of the
Bulgarians), where Boris I wrote about primates and mediocres seu
minores.[185] Another privileged group were the tarkhans, although
from the surviving inscriptions it is impossible to determine whether
they belonged to the boilas or to the bagains, or were a separate
class.[188] The original Bulgar titles and many of the institutions
from the pagan era were preserved after the Christianisation of
BulgariaBulgaria until the very fall of the First Empire.[189] The beginning
of the 9th century was marked with a process of incorporation of both
SlavsSlavs and Byzantine Greeks in the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility and
privileged classes, which increased the power of the monarch that had
been previously curtailed by the leading Bulgar aristocratic
families.[190][191] Since that time certain Slavic titles became more
prominent, such as župan, and some of them mingled forming titles
like župan tarkhan.[192]
The peasants lived in rural communities known as zadruga and had
collective responsibility.[193] The majority of the peasantry were
personally free under the direct rule of the central administration
and the legislation introduced following the adoption of Christianity
regulated their relations.[193] The number of personally dependent
peasants bound to nobility or ecclesiastical estates increased since
the 10th century.[194]
Administration[edit]
Due to the limited remaining sources it is very difficult to
reconstruct the administrative evolution and division of the country.
Initially the Slavic tribes retained their autonomy but since the
beginning of the 9th century commenced a process of
centralisation.[181][195] As Bulgaria's territory steadily expanded
the measures against the tribal autonomy were deemed necessary in
order to achieve more effective control and to prevent
separatism.[196] When in the 820s some Slavic tribes in western
Bulgaria, the Timochani, Branichevtsi and Abodriti sought overlordship
from the Franks, Khan Omurtag replaced their chieftains with his own
governors.[196] The country was divided into comitati, governed by a
comita, although this term was used by Western European chroniclers,
who wrote in Latin. It is likely that the Bulgarians used the term
земя (zemya, meaning "land"), as mentioned in the Court Law for
the People.[197] Their number is unknown, but the Archbishop of Reims
HincmarHincmar mentioned that the 866 rebellion against Boris I was headed by
the nobility of the 10 comitati.[197][198][199] They were further
divided into župi, that in turn consisted of zadrugi. The comita was
appointed by the monarch, and was assisted by a tarkhan. The former
had many civil and administrative functions, while the latter was
responsible for the military affairs.[200][201] One of the few
comitati known by name is
KutmichevitsaKutmichevitsa in south-western Bulgaria,
corresponding to modern western Macedonia, southern
AlbaniaAlbania and
north-western Greece.[200]
Legislation[edit]
The first know written Bulgarian law code was issued by Khan
KrumKrum at a
People's Council in the very beginning of the 9th century but the text
has not survived in its integrity and only certain items have been
preserved in the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia Suda.[91] It
prescribed death penalty for false oaths and false accusations and
severe penalties for thieves and those who gave them
shelter.[91][202][90] The
SudaSuda also mentioned that the laws foresaw
the uprooting of all vineyards as a measure against drunkenness but
this claim is refuted in the contemporary sources that indicate that
after capturing
PliskaPliska in 811 the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I
found large quantities of wine; and after the final Bulgarian victory
KrumKrum drank wine in the Emperor's skull.[202][203] Krum's legal code is
seen by many historians as an attempt to centralise the state and to
end the different element of the society by putting them under a
single set of law.[204] However, since the text is not preserved its
precise aims remain unknown.[91]
After the conversion to
ChristianityChristianity Boris I was concerned with
the legal matters and asked
Pope Nicholas IPope Nicholas I to provide legal
texts.[205] Eventually, under his reign was compiled the Законъ
соудный людьмъ (Zakon sudnyi ljud'm), or the Court Law
for the People, based heavily on the Byzantine Ecloga and Nomocanon,
but adapted to the Bulgarian conditions and valid for the whole
population of the country.[206][205] It combined element of civil,
criminal, canon and military law, as well as public and private law,
and included substantive norms and procedural guidelines. The Court
Law for the People dealt with combating paganism, testimony of
witnesses, sexual morality, marital relations, distribution of war
booty, etc.[205] To eradicate the residual paganism the law provided
that a village that allowed performance of pagan rituals should be
transferred along its whole land to the Church; and should a rich
landowner perform them, his lands were to be sold, and the revenue
shared among the poor.[193]
Military[edit]
Main article: Medieval Bulgarian army

A replica of a Bulgarian sabre found near the town of Varbitsa

After the formation of the Bulgarian state the ruling elite harboured
deep distrust towards the Byzantines against whose perfidy and sudden
attacks they had to maintain constant vigilance.[49] The Byzantine
EmpireEmpire never relinquished its claim over all lands to the south of the
DanubeDanube and made several attempts to enforce that claim. Throughout the
existence of the First
EmpireEmpireBulgariaBulgaria could expect Byzantine
onslaughts aimed at its destruction.[101] The steppes to the
north-east were home to numerous peoples whose unpredictable pillaging
raids were also of concern.[207] Therefore, military preparedness was
a top priority.[207] All borders of the country were under vigilance.
Guards always stood on the alert and if anyone was to flee during a
watch, the responsible guards are killed without hesitation.[207]
Before battle, a "most faithful and prudent man" was sent to inspect
all the arms, horses, and materiel and being ill-prepared or readied
in a useless fashion was punishable by death.[207] Capital punishment
was also prescribed for riding war horses in peace time.[208]
The Bulgarian army was armed with various types of weapons, the most
widely used being sabres, swords, battle axes, spears, pikes, daggers,
arkans, bows and arrows.[209] The soldiers were often trained to use
both spears and bows.[209] The Bulgarians wore helms, mails and
shields for defence. The helms were usually cone-shaped, the shields
were round and light. The mails were two types – wedge
riveted mails consisting of small metal rings linked together, and
scale armour consisting of small armour plates attached to each
other.[209] Belts were very important for the early Bulgarians and
were often decorated with golden, silver, bronze or copper buckles
that manifested the illustrious origin of the holder.[209]
The most important part of the army was the heavy cavalry. In the
early 9th century the Bulgarian Khan could muster 30,000 riders "all
covered in iron"[210] who were armoured with iron helms and
chain-mails.[211] The horses too were covered with armour.[212] As the
capital
PliskaPliska was situated in an open plain the cavalry was essential
for its protection.[213] The fortification system of the inner regions
of the country was reinforced with several fortified trenches covering
huge spaces and supporting the manoeuvrability of the cavalry.[213]

A battle scene of the Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896, Madrid
Skylitzes

The army was well versed in the use of stratagems. A strong cavalry
unit was often held in reserve and would attack the enemy at an
opportune moment. Free horses would be sometimes concentrated behind
the battle formation to avoid surprise attacks from the rear.[214] The
Bulgarian army used ambushes and feigned retreats, during which the
cavalrymen rode with their backs to the horse, firing clouds of arrows
on the enemy. If the enemy pursued disorganized, they would turn back
and fiercely attack them.[214] The Bulgarians were able to fight at
night – in 917 they defeated the Byzantine in the battle
of Katasyrtai after a nocturnal combat.[215][216] The army employed
ruse de guerre. In 918 the Bulgarians took the capital of the
Byzantine theme Hellas Thebes without bloodshed after sending into the
city five men with axes who eliminated the guards, broke the hinges of
the gates, and opened them to the main forces.[217][218]
The Bulgarian army was well equipped with siege engines. The
Bulgarians employed the services of Byzantine and Arab captives and
fugitives to produce siege equipment, such as the engineer Eumathius,
who sought refuge to Khan
KrumKrum after the capture of Serdica in
809.[212] The 9th century anonymous Byzantine chronicler known as
Scrptor incertus lists the contemporary machinery produced and used by
the Bulgarians.[219] These included catapults; scorpions; multi-storey
siege towers with a battering ram on the bottom floor;
testudos – battering rams with metal plating on the top;
τρίβόλοι – iron tridents placed hidden amidst the
battlefield to hinder the enemy cavalry; ladders, etc.[212]
Iron-plated wagons were used for transportation. It is known that Khan
KrumKrum prepared 5,000 such wagons for his intended siege of
ConstantinopleConstantinople in 814.[212] Wooden pontoon bridges were also
constructed for crossing rivers.[210][211]
Economy and urbanism[edit]
Agriculture was the most important sector of the economy whose
development was favoured by the fertile soils of Moesia, Thrace, and
partly, Macedonia.[220] The land was divided into "lord's lands" and
"village lands".[193] The most widespread cereals were wheat, rye and
millet that were the staple food for the populace.[220] Other crops of
significance were grapes, orchards, especially after the 9th century,
and linen. The latter was used for fabrics and cloths that were
exported to the Byzantine Empire.[220] Due to natural calamities, such
as droughts or locusts, harvests were not secure and there were
occasional hunger years. In response to this problem the state
maintained depositories of cereals as a reserve.[221] Animal husbandry
was well developed, the main stocks being cattle, oxen, buffalos,
sheep, pigs and horses.[221] Animal stocks were vital for farming,
transport, military, clothing and food. The importance of the meat for
the Bulgarian table was demonstrated in the Responses of Pope Nicholas
I to the Questions of the Bulgarians, where seven out of 115 questions
concerned meat consumption.[221]
Small-scale mining was developed in the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope
Mountains and some regions of Macedonia.[221] A number of diverse
handicrafts thrived in the urban centres and some villages. Preslav
had workshops that processed metals (especially gold and silver),
stone and wood, and produced ceramics, glass and jewellery.[222][223]
The Bulgarians produced tiles with higher qualities than the
Byzantines and exported them to the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire and Kievan
Rus'.[223] There was large-scale production of bricks in eastern
Bulgaria, many of them marked with the symbol "IYI", which is
associated with the Bulgarian state, indicating possible
state-organised production facilities.[222] Since the destruction of
the Avar Khaganete in the beginning of the 9th century Bulgaria
controlled the salt mines in
TransylvaniaTransylvania until they were overran by
the
MagyarsMagyars a century earlier.[224] The importance of the salt trade
was illustrated during the negotiations for alliance between Bulgaria
and
East FranciaEast Francia in 892 when the Frankish King Arnulf demanded that
BulgariaBulgaria discontinue the export of salt to Great Moravia.[225]

Trade had an important weight in the economy, as
BulgariaBulgaria lay between
the Byzantine Empire, Central Europe, the Rus' and the steppes.[226]
Trade relations with the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire was regulated on a most
favoured nation basis by treaties that included commercial
clauses.[109] The first such treaty was signed in 716 and determined
that goods could only be imported or exported when provided with a
state seal. Goods without documents were to be confiscated for the
state treasury. The Bulgarian merchants had a colony in Constantinople
and paid favourable taxes.[109] The relevance of international trade
for
BulgariaBulgaria was evident, as the country was willing to go to war with
the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire when in 894 the latter moved the market of the
Bulgarian traders from
ConstantinopleConstantinople to Thessaloniki, where they had
to pay larger taxes and did not have direct access to goods from the
east.[109] In 896 the war was won and the status of
BulgariaBulgaria as a most
favoured nation restored and commercial restrictions –
abolished.[114] Some Bulgarian towns acquired great prosperity, such
as Preslavets on the
DanubeDanube that was described in the 960s as being
more prosperous that the capital of the Rus', Kiev.[226] A
contemporary chronicle lists the main trade partners and chief imports
to Bulgaria. The country imported gold, silks, wine and fruits from
the Byzantine Empire, silver and horses from
HungaryHungary and Bohemia,
furs, honey, wax and slaves from the Rus'.[227] There were commercial
ties with
ItalyItaly and the
Middle EastMiddle East as well.[228]
The First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire did not mint coins and taxes were paid in
kind.[229][230] It is not known whether they were based on land or on
person, or both. In addition to the taxes the peasantry must have had
other obligations, such as building and maintaining infrastructure and
defences, as well as to provide food and inventory to the
army.[230][231] The Arab writer
Al-MasudiAl-Masudi noted that instead of money
the Bulgarians used cows and sheep to buy goods.[229]
The density of the network of towns was large. The economic historian
Paul Bairoch estimated that in 800
PliskaPliska had 30,000 inhabitants and
around 950
PreslavPreslav had some 60,000 making it the largest city in
non-Muslim Europe, save Constantinople.[232] In comparison, the
largest cities in contemporary France and
ItalyItaly did not reach 30,000
and 50,000 respectively.[232] Alongside the two capitals existed other
prominent urban centres that made
BulgariaBulgaria the most urbanised region
in Christian
EuropeEurope at the time along with Italy.[232] According to
contemporary chronicles there were 80 towns only in the region of the
lower Danube.[233] Surviving sources list more than 100 settlements in
the western areas of the
EmpireEmpire where the Bulgarian Orthodox Church
possessed properties.[234] The larger urban centres consisted of inner
and outer town. The inner town would be encircled with stone walls and
had administrative and defence functions, while the outer town,
usually unprotected, was the centre of economic activities with
markets, workshops, vineyards, gardens and dwelling for the
populace.[235] However, it should be noted that as elsewhere in the
Early Middle Ages, the country remained predominantly rural.
Religion[edit]
Pagan Bulgaria[edit]

The
PliskaPliska rosette dated from the pagan period has seven fingers
representing the Classical planets

In the first almost two centuries after its creation, the Bulgarian
state remained pagan. The
BulgarsBulgars and the
SlavsSlavs continued to practice
their indigenous religions. The Bulgar religion was monotheistic,
linked to the cult to Tangra, the God of the Sky.[236][237] The
worship of Tangra is proven by an inscription that reads "Kanasubigi
Omurtag, a divine ruler ... performed sacrifice to God Tangra".[238]
The ruling Khan had an important place in the religious life; he was
the high priest and performed rituals.[167] A large sanctuary
dedicated to the cult of Tangra existed near the modern village of
Madara.[236] The
BulgarsBulgars practised shamanism, believed in magic and
charms, and performed various rituals.[236] Some of the rituals were
described by the Byzantines after the "most Christian" ruler Leo V had
to pour out water on the ground from a cup, to personally turn round
horse saddles, to touch triple bridle, to lift grass high above the
ground and to cut up dogs as witnesses during the ceremony of the
signing of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 815.[239] The pouring
of water was a reminder that if the oath is broken, blood would pour
out. In the same sense can be explained the turning of the
saddle – a warning that the violator would not be able to
ride or would fall dead from his horse during battle. The triple
bridle symbolised the toughness of the agreement and the lifting of
grass reminded that no grass would remain in the enemy country if the
peace was broken. The sacrifice of dogs was a common custom among the
Turkic peoples which further strengthened the treaty.[239]
The
SlavsSlavs worshiped numerous deities. The supreme god was Perun, the
god of thunder and lightning.[240]
PerunPerun was the only god mentioned
(though not by name) by the first authoritative reference to the
Slavic mythologySlavic mythology in written history, the 6th century Byzantine
historian Procopius, who described the
SlavsSlavs that settled south of the
Danube.
ProcopiusProcopius noted that they also worshipped rivers and believed
in nymphs.[240] A number of mythological being from the Slavic
pantheon persisted in Bulgarian folklore to present, such as
samodivas, halas, vilas, rusalkas, slavic dragons, etc. During
sacrifices the
SlavsSlavs would perform divinations. After the adoption of
ChristianityChristianity the worship of
PerunPerun merged with the cult to Saint
Elijah.[240]

ChristianityChristianity was practised in
BulgariaBulgaria throughout the whole pagan
period. Its dissemination among the populace increased as a result of
the successful wars of Khan
KrumKrum in the beginning of the 9th
century.[241]
KrumKrum employed many Byzantine
Christians – Greeks, Armenians and Slavs – in
his military and administration; some of them served as deputies of
the kavhan and the ichirgu-boila.[242] Tens of thousands Byzantines
were resettled across Bulgaria, mainly beyond the
DanubeDanube River to
protect the north-eastern borders, so that they could face
non-Byzantines.[243] Many of them, however, maintained clandestine
links with the Byzantine court which fuelled the traditional distrust
of the Bulgarian elite and resulted in a large-scale persecution of
ChristianityChristianity under the Khans Omurtag and Malamir. Omurtag and the
nobility saw the Christians as Byzantine agents and felt that this
religion, with its hierarchy based in Byzantium, was a threat to
Bulgarian independence.[183] There were some executions, including two
of the five strategoi who served under Krum, Leo and John, the
metropolitan of Adrianople, the bishop of Debeltos, etc.[183][244] The
list of the martyred Christians included Bulgar (Asfer, Kuberg) and
Slav names.[244] The dismissive attitude of the Christians towards the
pagans was insulting to the Bulgarian elite. In a conversation with a
Byzantine Christian Omurtag told him: "Do not humiliate our gods, for
their power is great. As a proof, we who worship them, have conquered
the whole Roman state".[245] Yet, despite all measures, Christianity
continued to spread,[183] reaching the members of the Khan's own
family. Omurtag's eldest son Enravota, seen as pro-Christian, was
disinherited and eventually converted to Christianity. After refusing
to renounce his faith, he was executed by orders of his brother
Malamir c. 833 and became the first Bulgarian saint.[246] The attitude
of the Bulgarian rulers to
ChristianityChristianity is seen in the Philippi
Inscription of Khan Presian:

...If someone seeks the truth, God watches. And if one lies, God
watches. The Bulgarians did many good things to the Christians [the
Byzantines] and the Christians forgot, but God watches.[247]

Christianization[edit]
Main article:
ChristianizationChristianization of Bulgaria
By 863 Presian's successor Khan Boris I had decided to accept
Christianity.[248] The sources do not mention the reasons behind this
decision but there were several political rationales that he had
considered. As
ChristianityChristianity was spreading further into
EuropeEurope in the
9th century the pagan countries found themselves encircled by
Christian powers which could use religion as an acceptable excuse for
aggression.[101] Conversion on the other hand would establish the
country as an equal international partner.[101] There is evidence that
BulgariaBulgaria did have contacts with the Muslim world as
well – either directly or through
VolgaVolgaBulgariaBulgaria that had
adopted
IslamIslam at about the same time – but the country was
far away from any Muslim country that could be of any political
benefit, and large part of the population had already been
Christian.[249] Furthermore, the Christian doctrine would cement the
monarch's position high above the nobility as an autocrat, being ruler
"by the grace of God" and God's representative on Earth.[250][251]
Moreover,
ChristianityChristianity presented excellent opportunity to firmly
consolidate both
BulgarsBulgars and
SlavsSlavs in a single Bulgarian people under
common religion.[251]

Baptism of Boris I and his court, painting by Nikolai Pavlovich

In 863 Boris I sought a mission from
East FranciaEast Francia rather than
from the Byzantine Empire. He had an alliance with the Eastern Franks
since 860 and was aware that the larger distance between the two
countries was an obstacle for them to yield direct influence on the
future Bulgarian Church.[251] He was fully aware that as a neighbour
ByzantiumByzantium would try to interfere with Bulgarian matters.[251] Indeed,
the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire was determined to place the Bulgarian Church
under the jurisdiction of Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
because it hoped it could serve as a leverage to influence the
Bulgarian policies, and furthermore could not allow
BulgariaBulgaria to become
a military tool of the
PapacyPapacy that could potentially be employed by
the Pope to enforce his wishes on the Empire.[252] Upon learning about
Boris I's intentions the Byzantine Emperor
Michael IIIMichael III invaded
Bulgaria. At the time the Bulgarian army was engaged in warfare
against
Great MoraviaGreat Moravia to the north-east and Boris I agreed to
negotiate.[237][251] The Byzantines' only demand was Boris I to
adopt
ChristianityChristianity from
ConstantinopleConstantinople and to accept Byzantine clergy
to evangelise the population.[251] Boris I conceded and was baptised
in 864 taking the name of his godfather, Emperor Michael.[237][253]
The highest posts in the newly established Bulgarian Church were held
by Byzantines who preached in Greek language. Aware of the dangers
that the spiritual dependency on the
Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire could pose for
Bulgaria's independence, Boris I was determined to ensure the
autonomy of the Bulgarian Church under a Patriarch.[184] Since the
Byzantines were reluctant to grant any concessions Boris I took
advantage on the ongoing rivalry between the Patriarchate of
ConstantinopleConstantinople and the
PapacyPapacy in
RomeRome in order to prevent either of
them from exerting influence in his lands through religion.[184][102]
In 866 he sent a delegation to
RomeRome under the high-ranking official
Peter declaring his desire to accept
ChristianityChristianity in accordance with
the Western rites along with 115 questions to Pope Nicholas I. The
Pope's detailed answers to Boris I's questions were delivered by
two bishops heading a mission to facilitate the conversion of the
Bulgarian people.[254] However, neither Nicolas I nor his
successor Adrian II agreed to recognize an autonomous Bulgarian
Church, which cooled the relations between the two sides.[255]
Bulgaria's shift towards
RomeRome on the other hand, made the Byzantines
much more conciliatory. In 870, at the Fourth Council of
Constantinople, the Bulgarian Church was recognized as an
autocephalous
Eastern Orthodox ChurchEastern Orthodox Church under the supreme direction of
the Patriarch of Constantinople.[256][257]
The adoption of
ChristianityChristianity was met with opposition by large layers
of the nobility. In 866 Boris I faced a major rebellion of the
boila from all parts of the country. The insurgency was crushed and 52
leading boilas were executed along with their whole kin.[104][258]
After Boris I abdicated in 889 his successor and eldest son
Vladimir (r. 889–893) attempted to restore paganism but his
father took arms against him and had him deposed and blinded.[104]
Bulgarian Orthodox Church[edit]

A medieval icon of Saint Clement of Ohrid, a high-ranking official of
the Bulgarian Church, scholar, writer and enlightener of the
Bulgarians and the Slavs

Since 870 the Bulgarian Church was autonomous under an
archbishop.[257] The decree of autonomy under the nominal
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of
ConstantinopleConstantinople was far greater than
could possibly had been achieved under the Papacy.[256] Following the
Fourth Council of
ConstantinopleConstantinople the Byzantine clergy was once again
admitted to
BulgariaBulgaria and allowed to preach in Greek.[256] However, as
a result of the Council of
PreslavPreslav in 893
Old BulgarianOld Bulgarian was declared
the official language of the state and the Church and the
Greek-speaking Byzantine priests had to leave the country. Thus, the
church was entirely staffed by Bulgarians.[259]
Boris I's successor Simeon I was not content to have the
Bulgarian Church with the rank of archbishopric and was determined to
raise it to a patriarchate, in light of his own ambition to become an
emperor. He was well acquainted with the Byzantine imperial tradition
that the autocrat must have a patriarch and there could be no empire
without a patriarchate.[260] In the aftermath of his remarkable
triumph over the Byzantines in the battle of Achelous, in 918 he
convened a council and elevated the archbishop Leontius as a
patriarch.[260] The decisions of that council were not recognized by
the Byzantines[261] but as a result of the Bulgarian victory in the
war they eventually recognized Leontius' successor Demetrius as
Patriarch of
BulgariaBulgaria in 927.[262] It was the first Patriarchate
officially accepted, apart from the ancient Pentarchy. It is likely
that the seat of the Patriarchate was in the city of Drastar on the
DanubeDanube River rather than in the capital Preslav.[263] In the late 10th
century the
Bulgarian PatriarchateBulgarian Patriarchate included the following dioceses:
Ohrid, Kostur, Glavinitsa (in modern southern Albania), Maglen,
Pelagonia, Strumitsa, Morovizd (in modern northern Greece), Velbazhd,
Serdica, Braničevo, Niš, Belgrade, Srem, Skopje, Prizren, Lipljan,
Servia, Drastar, Voden, Ras, Chernik, Himara, Drinopol, Butrint,
Yanina, Petra and Stag.[234][264]
After the fall of the eastern parts of the empire under Byzantine
occupation in 971 the seat of the Patriarchate was relocated to Ohrid
in the west.[153][265] With the final conquest of
BulgariaBulgaria in 1018 the
Patriarchate was demoted to an archbishopric but retained many
privileges. It kept control of all existing episcopal sees, the seat
remained in
OhridOhrid and its titular, the Bulgarian John of Debar, kept
his office. Furthermore, the Bulgarian archbishopric was given a
special position – it was placed directly under the
emperor rather than under the Ecumenical Patriarch of
Constantinople.[164][165]
MonasticismMonasticism grew steadily and the monasteries quickly became major
landowners with large population of peasants living their
estates.[266] It developed further under the reign of Emperor Peter I,
accompanied with augmentation of their properties.[226] Many
high-ranking nobles and members of the ruling family tonsured and died
as monks, including Boris I, his brother Doks, Peter I, the
ichirgu-boila Mostich, etc.[267] The growing opulence of monastic life
led to an increase of asceticism among more pious monks. One of them,
John of Rila, became a hermit in the
RilaRila Mountains and his virtues
soon attracted a number of followers,[226] who founded the renowned
RilaRila Monastery after his death. He preached about living in harmony
and stressed the value of manual labour and the need the monks never
to aspire to riches and power.[226][268]
John of RilaJohn of Rila was revered as a
saint while he was still alive and eventually became patron of the
Bulgarian people.
In the 10th century Bulgarian clerics established connections with the
emerging Christian communities in the Rus'.[269]
BulgariaBulgaria seems to had
been an established centre from where the small number of Russian
Christians obtained clergy and liturgical texts.[151] As a result of
the Sviatoslav's invasion of
BulgariaBulgaria many of his soldiers were
influenced by
ChristianityChristianity and maintained that interest after their
return. The connections between Bulgarians and Russians must be
considered an important background to the official conversion to
ChristianityChristianity of
Kievan Rus'Kievan Rus' in 988.[151]
Bogomilism[edit]
Main article: Bogomilism

During the reign of Emperor Peter I (r. 927–969) in
BulgariaBulgaria arose a heretical movement known as Bogomilism. The heresy
was named after its founder the priest Bogomil whose name can be
translated as dear (mil) to God (Bog). The main sources about
BogomilismBogomilism in
BulgariaBulgaria come from a letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch
Theophylact of
ConstantinopleConstantinople to Peter I (c. 940), a treatise by
Cosmas the PriestCosmas the Priest (c. 970) and the anti-Bogomil council of
Emperor Boril of
BulgariaBulgaria (1211).[270]
BogomilismBogomilism was a neo-Gnostic
and dualist sect that believed that God had two sons,
Jesus ChristJesus Christ and
Satan, that represented the two principles good and evil.[271] God had
created light and the invisible world, while
SatanSatan rebelled and
created darkness, the material world and man.[271][272] Therefore,
they rejected marriage, reproduction, the Church, the Old Testament,
the Cross, etc.[273] The Bogomils were divided into several
categories, led by the perfecti (the perfect ones) that never married,
consumed no meat and wine and preached the gospel. Women too could
become perfecti.[274] The other two categories were the believers, who
had to adopt and follow most of the Bogomil moral ethics, and the
listeners, who were not required to change their lifestyle.[275] The
Bogomils were described by Cosmas as looking docile, modest and silent
from the outside, but being hypocrites and ravenous wolves in the
inside.[272][273] The
Bulgarian Orthodox ChurchBulgarian Orthodox Church condemned the
teachings of
BogomilismBogomilism and members of the sect were persecuted by the
state authorities as well since the Bogomils preached civil
disobedience because as anything earthly the state was considered to
be linked with Satan.[272] The sect could not be eradicated and from
BulgariaBulgaria it eventually spread to the rest of the Balkans, the
Byzantine Empire, southern France and northern Italy. In certain
regions of Western
EuropeEurope the heresy flourished under different
names – Cathars, Albigensians,
Patarins – until the 14th century.[271][272]
Formation of Bulgarian nationality[edit]
The Bulgarian state existed before the formation of the Bulgarian
people.[205] Prior to the establishment of the Bulgarian state the
SlavsSlavs had mingled with the native Thracian population.[276] The
population and the density of the settlements increased after 681 and
the differences between the individual Slavic tribes gradually
disappeared as communications became regular between the regions of
the country.[277] By the second half of the 9th century,
BulgarsBulgars and
SlavsSlavs had lived together for almost two centuries and the more
numerous
SlavsSlavs were on the way to assimilate the Bulgars.[278][279]
Many
BulgarsBulgars had already started to use the Slavic Old Bulgarian
language while the Turkic
Bulgar language gradually died out leaving
only certain words and terms.[280][281][59] The
ChristianizationChristianization of
BulgariaBulgaria and the establishment of
Old BulgarianOld Bulgarian as a language of the
state and the Church under Boris I further accelerated that
process and were the main means to bind together
BulgarsBulgars and
SlavsSlavs and
to make the
SlavsSlavs of Macedonia and the other reaches of the country
into Bulgarians.[103][282] The new religion dealt a crushing blow on
the privileges of the old Bulgar aristocracy and furthermore by that
time many
BulgarsBulgars were presumably speaking Slavic.[279] Boris I made
it a national policy to use the doctrine of Christianity, that had
neither Slavic or Bulgar origin, to bind them together in a single
culture.[283] As a result, by the end of the 9th century the
Bulgarians had become a single Slavic nationality with ethnic
awareness that was to survive in triumph and tragedy to present.[205]
Culture[edit]
The cultural heritage of the First
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire is usually defined
in Bulgarian historiography as the Pliska-
PreslavPreslav culture, named after
the first two capitals,
PliskaPliska and Preslav, where most of the
surviving monuments are concentrated. Many monuments of that period
have been found around Madara, Shumen, Novi Pazar, the village of Han
KrumKrum in north-eastern Bulgaria, as well in the territory of modern
Romania, where Romanian archaeologists called it the "Dridu
culture".[284] Remains left by the First
EmpireEmpire have also been
discovered in southern Bessarabia, now divided between
UkraineUkraine and
Moldova, as well as in modern Republic of Macedonia,
AlbaniaAlbania and
Greece.[143][285] A treatise of the 10th-century Bulgarian cleric and
writer
Cosmas the PriestCosmas the Priest describes a wealthy, book-owning and
monastery-building Bulgarian elite, and the preserved material
evidence suggests a prosperous and settled picture of
Bulgaria.[141][143]
Architecture[edit]
Civil architecture[edit]
The first capital
PliskaPliska initially resembled a huge encampment
spanning an area of 23 km2 with the eastern and western sides
measuring some 7 km in length, the
northern – 3.9 km, and the
southern – 2.7 km. The whole area was encircled by a
trench 3.5 m wide in the foundation and 12 m wide in the
upper part and earthen escarpment with similar
proportions – 12 m wide in the foundation and
3.5 m in the upper past.[286] The inner town measured 740 m
to the north and to the south, 788 m to the west, and 612 m
to the east. It was protected by stone walls 10 m high and
2.6 m thick, constructed by large carved blocks.[286] There were
four gates, each protected by two pairs of quadrangular towers. The
corners were protected by cylindrical towers and there were pentagonal
towers between each corner and gate tower.[286] The inner town
harboured the Khan's palace, temples, and nobility houses. The palace
complex included baths, a pool and a heating system.[287] There were
several inns, as well as numerous shops and workshops.[288]

The ruins of Pliska, the first capital of Bulgaria

The Bulgarians also constructed forts with residences, called by the
contemporary Byzantine authors auls, or fortified palaces.[288] An
example of this type of construction is the Aul of Omurtag, mentioned
in the Chatalar Inscription, which bears many similarities with
Pliska, such as the presence of baths and the usage of monumental
construction techniques with large carved limestone blocks.[289] The
archaeologists have discovered a damaged lion statue that was
originally 1 m in height and matches the description in the
inscription: "In the field of
PliskaPliska staying he [Omurtag] made a
court/camp (aulis) at [the river] Ticha ... and skillfully erected a
bridge at Ticha together with the camp [he put] four columns and above
the columns he erected two lions."[289] The same method of
construction was employed in the fortress on the Danubian island of
Păcuiul lui SoarePăcuiul lui Soare (in modern Romania), where the gate is similar in
plan with those at Pliska,
PreslavPreslav and the Aul of Omurtag.[289]
Further north on the southern slopes of the
Carpathian MountainsCarpathian Mountains was
located the fortress Slon, which was an important juncture that
connected the salt mines of
TransylvaniaTransylvania with the lands to the south
of the Danube, and was constructed in the same manner.[284]
The second capital
PreslavPreslav covered an area of 5 km2 in the shape
of irregular pentagon and like
PliskaPliska was divided into inner and outer
town.[290] The city experienced an extensive construction programme
under Simeon I who intended it to rival Constantinople. The inner town
contained two palaces, called by the archaeologists the Western Palace
and the Throne Hall that were linked.[290] Very few elements of the
decoration have survived – marble plates and two monolith
columns of green marble that probably enclosed the arch above the
throne.[291] The whole complex was larger than the
PliskaPliska Palace and
was walled with the bath adjoining the southern wall.[292] A
ceremonial road covered with stone plates linked the northern gate and
the palace complex and formed a spacious plaza in front of it.[293]
The outer town housed estates, churches, monasteries, workshops and
dwellings.[292] Adjoined to the outer side of southern gates of the
inner town there was a large trading edifice with 18 rooms for
commerce on the first floor and accommodation rooms on the
second.[228] The most common plan of the commercial, artesian and
residential monastic edifices was rectangular with the first floor
being used for production, and the second one – for
living. Some of the buildings had marble or ceramic tile floors, and
others had verandas on the second floor.[228] There were two types of
plumbing – made of masonry or of clay pipes that brought
water from the mountains to the city.[293]
Sacral architecture[edit]

Above: Church of St. Sophia,
OhridOhrid Below: Church of Our Lady, Kostur

After the adoption of
ChristianityChristianity in 864, intensive construction of
churches and monasteries began throughout the Empire. Many of them
were erected over the old pagan temples.[294] The new sacral
architecture altered the appearance of the cities and fortresses.[295]
This construction was sponsored by the state but also by donations by
rich people, known as ktitors.[295] Among the first places of worship
to be constructed after 864 was the Great Basilica of Pliska. It was
one of the biggest structures of the time, as well as contemporary
Europe's longest church, with rectangular shape reaching 99 m in
length.[296][297] The basilica was divided into two almost equal
parts – a spacious atrium and the main building.[296]
During the reign of Simeon I the domed cruciform type of church
building was introduced and same to dominate the country's sacral
architecture.[293]
PreslavPreslav was adorned with tens of churches and at
least eight monasteries. The churches were decorated with ceramics,
plastic elements and a variety of decorative forms.[298] The leading
example of the city's ecclesiastic architecture is the splendid Round
Church. It was a domed rotunda with a two-tiered colonnade in the
interior and a walled atrium with niches and columns.[299][300] The
style of the church had been influenced by Armenian, Byzantine and
Carolingian architecture.[300] There were also a number of cave
monasteries, such as the Murfatlar Cave Complex, where excavations
have revealed stone relief murals and inscriptions in three
alphabets – Glagolitic, Cyrillic and Greek, as well as
Bulgar runes.[301]
In the region of
KutmichevitsaKutmichevitsa to the south-west, Clement of Ohrid
oversaw the construction of the Monastery of Saint Panteleimon and two
churches with "round and spherical form" in the late 9th century.[302]
In 900 the
Monastery of Saint NaumMonastery of Saint Naum was established at the expense of
"the pious Bulgarian
TsarTsar Michael-Boris and his son
TsarTsar Simeon" on
the shores of Lake
OhridOhrid at some 30 km to the south of the town
as a major literary centre.[295] Other important buildings were the
Church of Saint Sophia in
OhridOhrid the Basilica of Saint Achillius on and
island in
Lake PrespaLake Prespa with dimensions of 30 х 50 m, both
modelled after the Great Basilica of Pliska.[303] These churches had
three naves and three apses.[296] Preserved edifices from that period
that provide evidence of the rich and settled Bulgarian culture at the
time include three small churches dated from the late 9th or early
10th centuries in Kostur and the church in the village of German (both
in modern Greece).[143]
Art[edit]

The Madara Rider

The most representative surviving art monument is the Madara Rider, a
large relief carving commissioned by Khan Tervel following his triumph
in 705. It is the only relief of its kind, having no parallel in
Europe.[304] The relief depicts a composition of a horseman, a lion
and a dog at 23 m above ground level in an almost vertical 100 m high
cliff of the Madara Plateau.[305] All figures are in motion. The
rider, facing right, is thrusting a spear into the lion lying at his
horse's feet, and on the left the dog is running after the
horseman.[305] The carving of the horseman halo, garments, as well the
bird in front of the horseman face, are barely recognizable due to the
erosion and bad condition of the monument.[305] The
Madara RiderMadara Rider was
included in the
UNESCOUNESCOWorld Heritage ListWorld Heritage List in 1979.[304]
The meaning and symbolism of the depiction is uncertain, as well its
actual masonry tradition and cultural source.[306] The origin of the
relief is connected with the Bulgar ethnogenesis – the
semi-nomadic equestrian warrior culture from the Eurasian
Steppe.[307][308] The
Madara RiderMadara Rider bears resemblance to the Persian
Sasanian rock relief tradition.[309][306][310] The hero-horseman is
also a common character of Turko-Altaic and Alanic mythology.[306] It
is sometimes considered that the horseman represents or is related to
the Bulgar deity Tangra, while Russian philologist Vladimir Toporov
related it to the Iranian deity Mithra.[306] Some considered it an
example of the Thracian horseman – a recurring motif of a
deity in the form of a horseman in the Paleo-Balkanic mythology.[311]
Sculpture and stone carving were well-developed to supply the demand
for public and sacral buildings. Many details of marble carving have
been excavated in Preslav. The decoration included animals such as
griffins, rabbits and birds, as well as vegetative elements (most
often palmettes and grape leaves) and geometric motifs.[312] There
were also three-dimensional animal figures discovered in church No. 1
in Preslav, including heads of lions and lionesses.[313]
Ceramics[edit]

Left: Ceramic icon of Saint Theodore,
PreslavPreslav ceramics, c. 900. Right:
A 10th century fresco in the Church of St. George, Sofia

The main sources for Bulgarian domestic use-oriented pottery are the
necropoleis at Novi Pazar, Devnya, and Varna.[305] The vessels were
made with a potter's wheel, unlike Slavic practice. Since the 9th
century two-story ovens were used for the annealing of the
pottery.[305] The shape and decoration of the early Bulgarian pottery
was similar to that found in northern Caucasus, the Crimea, and the
shores of the Sea of Azov. The growing exchange with the Byzantine
EmpireEmpire following the adoption of
ChristianityChristianity led to an increase in
the shapes and decorations of the Bulgarian pottery that was
unprecedented in the Slavic world.[305]
One of the most famous features of the Pliska-
PreslavPreslav culture was the
decoration of palaces and churches with lacquered ceramic plates,
which may indicate a Near Eastern (Arabic) influence.[300] They were
produced of white clay, known also as kaolin.[298] In the 10th century
the ceramic workshops in and around
PreslavPreslav produced high quality
ceramic tiles in the so-called "
PreslavPreslav style" that were widely used
in monumental construction projects and were also exported
abroad.[223] Many of them were marked with Cyrillic or Glagolitic
letters on the rear side.[305] Archaeologists have discovered tile of
that style in Kiev, showing Bulgarian influences in Russia.[151] The
ceramic plates were painted mostly to include geometric or vegetative
elements and sometimes birds. Some had depictions of the Virgin,
saints and apostles, both in full figures, portraits and
medallions.[314] Due to the destruction of
PliskaPliska and Preslav, only
fragments and details of the ceramic decoration have survived. Among
the most notable of those is the well-preserved, 20-tile Icon of St
Theodore, found in the ruins of the Patleina Monastery of Saint
Panteleimon in the outskirts of
PreslavPreslav which was the site of one of
the workshops.[300][305] The extensive use of ceramic decoration in
PreslavPreslav and the nearby churches and monasteries most probably
pre-dates its widespread use in Constantinople.[300]
Literature[edit]
Creation of the Slavic writing system[edit]

See also: Old Church Slavonic, Glagolitic alphabet, and Cyrillic
script
Although the Boris I had succeeded in securing an autonomous
Church, the higher clergy and theological books were still Greek,
which impeded the efforts to convert the populace to the new religion.
Between 860 and 863 the Byzantine monks Saints Cyril and Methodius
created the Glagolitic alphabet, the first Slavic alphabet by order of
the Byzantine Emperor, who aimed to convert
Great MoraviaGreat Moravia to Orthodox
Christianity.[257][315] The language they used was called by later
historians
Old Church SlavonicOld Church Slavonic and was based on the local Slavic
dialect spoken in the region of Thessaloniki,[315] hence it is also
known as Old Bulgarian. Ultimately, the brothers' mission to establish
Slavic liturgy in
Great MoraviaGreat Moravia failed.[316] In 886 their disciples
Clement, Naum and Angelarius, who had been banished from Great
Moravia, reached
BulgariaBulgaria and received a warm welcome by Boris I.[103]
They began to preach in
BulgariaBulgaria and thus the work of the Slavic
mission of
Cyril and MethodiusCyril and Methodius was saved.[103]
The Bulgarian monarch commissioned the creation of two theological
academies to be headed by the disciples where the future Bulgarian
clergy was to be instructed in Bulgarian vernacular. Clement was sent
to the southwestern province
KutmichevitsaKutmichevitsa in Macedonia, where he
founded the
OhridOhrid Literary School. There, he educated 3,500 pupils
between 886 and 907.[279][317] Naum established the literary school in
the capital Pliska, which moved later to the new capital Preslav.
Eventually, Naum too was sent to Ohrid.[279] The rationale to centre
the literary activities far away from the capital was that at the time
a Byzantine archbishop still resided in Pliska.[279] In the late 9th
or the early 10th century the
Cyrillic scriptCyrillic script was created at the
PreslavPreslav Literary School.[318] It was based on the Greek letters and
included a number of original ones for sounds that were non-existent
in Greek, adding 14 letters to the existing 24 Greek ones.[319] In the
next few decades the new script replaced the
Glagolitic alphabetGlagolitic alphabet in
BulgariaBulgaria and eventually spread in the whole Eastern Orthodox Slavic
world.[318] Today more than 250 million people in Eurasia use it as
the official alphabet for their national languages.
Literary activities[edit]

Main article: Medieval Bulgarian literature
The development of
Old Church SlavonicOld Church Slavonic literacy had the effect of
preventing the assimilation of the
South SlavsSouth Slavs into neighbouring
cultures, while stimulating the formation of the distinct Bulgarian
identity.[320] Initially translation from
Byzantine GreekByzantine Greek of texts on
theology, history and geography was a priority.[321] Literary
activities flourished during the reign of Simeon I who had
personal interest in literature.[322][316] He gathered many scholars
in the court who translated an enormous number of books from Greek and
wrote many new works. Among the most prominent figures were
Constantine of Preslav,
John the ExarchJohn the Exarch and Chernorizets Hrabar, who
is believed by some historians to had been Simeon I himself. They
wrote hagiographies, panegyrics, acolouthia, poetry, liturgical hymns,
treatises on church music, etc.[321]

A page with the Alphabet Prayer by Constantine of Preslav

One of the first original works was On the Letters (О
писмєньхъ) by Chernorizets Hrabar, where he defended the
Cyrillic alphabetCyrillic alphabet against its
Byzantine GreekByzantine Greek critics and proved not
only its right to existence but also its superiority to the Greek
alphabet arguing that the Greek letters were neither the oldest known
to man, nor divine.[323] In the form of rhetoric questions and answers
On the Letters demonstrated excellent historic and linguistic
knowledge of Chernorizets Hrabar, as he indicated that "God did not
first create the Hebrew or the Greek language, but Syrian which Adam
spoke..."[324] and underlined that "Before then the Greeks had no
alphabet of their own but wrote their speech with Phoenician
letters."[324] Constantine of
PreslavPreslav and
John the ExarchJohn the Exarch combined
translated and adapted Byzantine works with original texts.[321] The
latter compiled the Shestodnev (Шестоднев – Hexameron) that
included valuable first-hand evidence about the
Bulgarian EmpireBulgarian Empire under
Simeon I. Constantine of Preslav's Didactic Gospel was the first
systematic work treating sermons in Slavic literature that also
featured the poetic preface Azbuchna molitva (Азбучна
молитва – Alphabet Prayer), the first original poetry in
Bulgarian language. Later,
Cosmas the PriestCosmas the Priest wrote the anti-Bogomil
treatise Sermon Against the Heretics which apart from the theological
arguments contained criticism on the contemporary Bulgarian society,
with particular attention to religious and social issues.[325]
Apart from the official literature, apocryphical texts were also
written and received impetus after the second half of the 10th
century, as imperial patronage ceased during the Byzantine conquest
and subsequent Byzantine rule in Bulgaria.[321] One such work
expressing the Bulgarian aspirations and fears was Tale of the Cross
Tree by Jeremiah the Priest that was considered heretical and was
banned by the Orthodox Church.[321]
The flourishing literary activity and the experimentation with various
genres developed the style, flexibility and expressiveness of the
language.[321] The literature produced in the
Old BulgarianOld Bulgarian language
soon spread north and became the lingua franca of the
BalkansBalkans and
Eastern Europe.[326][327] Bulgarian scholars and works influenced most
of the Slavic world, including Kievan Rus', medieval Serbia, and
medieval Croatia, as well as the non-Slavic medieval
WallachiaWallachia and
Moldavia.[328][329] This thriving activity came to an abrupt end with
the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria. In the following 150 years the
Byzantines systematically destroyed all texts in Old Bulgarian
language.[330] None of the works of the First
EmpireEmpire have survived in
original within its territory and those that have survived are later
copies reproduced abroad, mainly in Russia.[330]
See also[edit]

List of Bulgarian monarchs
Medieval Bulgarian army
Bulgarian Orthodox Church
Old Church Slavonic
Cyrillic alphabet

Notes[edit]

^ Boris I abdicated in 889 and retired to a monastery. After deposing
Vladimir he returned to his monastery, where he died in 907.
^ Boris II died childless and Roman was castrated by the Byzantines to
ensure the end of the Krum's dynasty. Thus, there was no threat for
Samuel to establish his own dynasty.[331]
^ The author envisions the soldier-emperor
Nikephoros II PhokasNikephoros II Phokas (r.
963–969), whom he greatly admired.[156]

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