Memorial Hall, originally known as Memorial Library, is a historic building on the University of Delaware campus in Newark, Delaware. Formerly housing the university's library, it also serves as a memorial to the Delawareans who died in World War I, the building was designed by the Philadelphia firm of Day & Klauder as part of their overall master plan for the university's central campus, which featured a consistent Georgian Revival architectural style. The library was built in 1923–25 under the supervision of university president Walter Hullihen, though it had to be scaled back from the original design for cost-saving reasons, it was remodeled and expanded in 1940 after a flood damaged part of the library collection. Library operations moved to the new Morris Library in 1963, and Memorial Hall now houses the UD Department of English.

Situated at a prominent location at the center of the Green, the university's main common area, Memorial Hall is a ​11⁄2-story, H-shaped building with a hipped-roofed central hall and gable-roofed wings. The architecture is Georgian, with brick walls, white wooden trim, and double-hung sash windows, the building's main entrances are on the north and south sides, each of which features a portico with Ionic columns. The central hall houses the war memorial display.

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In the early 20th century, what is now the University of Delaware consisted of two separate institutions, Delaware College (whose campus now makes up the Old College Historic District) and the Women's College of Delaware, the two campuses were separated by about half a mile of sparsely developed "no man's land", which was purchased on behalf of Delaware College by Pierre S. du Pont in 1915. Soon thereafter, the college commissioned the Philadelphia firm of Frank Miles Day and Charles Klauder to design a master plan for the new land,[2] the architects drafted a plan for a central "Green" surrounded by academic and residential buildings, with a large library building located midway between the men's and women's colleges.[3]

In 1918, Delaware College president Samuel Chiles Mitchell proposed making the planned library a memorial to the Delawareans who died in World War I, stating "Used by both colleges, it would be the dynamo of the whole institution."[3] Due to the unsatisfactory nature of the existing library facilities the new building became a high priority for both Mitchell and his successor, Walter Hullihen, who oversaw the merger of the men's and women's colleges to form the University of Delaware in 1921. Funding difficulties forced Hullihen to scale back the grand design of Day and Klauder to a more modest building capable of housing 100,000 volumes; in 1922, the university embarked on a fundraising campaign to raise the $300,000 needed for the building, which ended successfully with more than 26,000 members of the public pledging funds.[4]

Despite the successful campaign, funding problems continued as some of the pledged money failed to materialize and inflation drove up the cost of the building, the library committee balked at beginning construction without funds set aside for an endowment, despite warnings from committee member W. O. Sypherd that "Failure to build this Library now will be a moral failure, the results of which would be disastrous to the future welfare of the University." The situation was eventually resolved by securing additional pledges from the existing donors and by modifying the library design to reduce the construction cost.[4]

At the groundbreaking ceremony on December 11, 1923, around 300 male students, alumni, and faculty dug out the building's basement with the women's college students on hand to serve refreshments, the library cornerstone was laid on June 9, 1924, on the occasion of the university's first joint commencement for both men and women. The building was complete by the end of the year, and most of the university's library collections were moved in over Christmas break, the library opened for business at the beginning of the spring semester in January 1925 and was later formally dedicated at an elaborate ceremony on Memorial Day, May 23.[4]

Memorial Hall served as the university's library from 1925 to 1963, it was the first facility shared by the women's and men's colleges (which continued to operate separately until 1945), and its prominent location halfway between the two at the center of the Green made the library the focal point of the campus.[2] The brick archways on either side of the building, added in 1940,[5] became known as the "kissing arches" due to their location on the dividing line between the male and female student populations.[6]

On July 5, 1937, heavy rainfall caused flooding throughout much of the university campus including the Memorial Library stacks, which were located in the basement. While the university librarian and a few other people were able to save much of the collection, the disaster underscored the need for improvements to the building, which was already seen as inadequate. To this end the building was expanded in 1940, with the east and west wings extended outward and a new wing added to the south side to allow the library stacks (with an expanded capacity of over 200,000 volumes) to be housed above ground, the basement was remodeled to house seminar rooms. The library was rededicated on February 5, 1940, with the total cost of the project coming in at $220,000.[5]

With the growing university placing an emphasis on expanding its library holdings, the collection had outgrown Memorial Hall by the early 1960s, as the building could not be expanded further without damaging the aesthetics and symmetry of the Green, a new and much larger library building was constructed nearby on South Green in 1962–63.[7] After removal of the library collections, Memorial Hall was converted to office and classroom space.

Memorial Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. After a $9.8 million renovation over a 15-month period in 1998–99, the building was rededicated for the second time on May 16, 1999. It currently houses the UD Department of English.[8]

Memorial Hall is a symmetrical H-shaped building with one and a half stories and a full basement, it was designed by the Philadelphia firm of Day & Klauder as part of their overall campus master plan, which was drafted in 1917 with later revisions. The building features a Georgian Revival architectural style "reminiscent of Jefferson's designs for the University of Virginia", with exterior walls of Flemish bond brickwork and white wooden trim.[1] The majority of the windows are double-hung 12 over 12 sash windows, some of which are set in arched frames. Both the north and south facades of the building feature flat-roofed porticoes with Ionic columns, as originally built in 1924, the building consisted of only the hipped-roofed central hall and cupola with low wings on the east and west sides. During the 1940 rebuilding the central hall was expanded to the south to provide a new above-ground space for the library stacks, and gable-roofed extensions were added to the east and west wings.[1]

The central hall of the building houses the war memorial display and exhibition space; in its original form, the building housed library stacks in the basement and study areas and office space in the ground-floor wings. After the 1940 expansion, the stacks were moved to the south extension of the main hall and the basement was converted to classroom space.[5]

Memorial Hall is dedicated to the men and women from Delaware who died in World War I, the building's foyer contains a war memorial display consisting of four wall-mounted bronze tablets and a memorial book housed in a display case on a raised pedestal.[1] Each page of the book contains the name of one of the 270 Delawareans who died in the war; the page is turned each weekday by cadets from the campus ROTC.[9]

1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate

2.
University of Delaware
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The University of Delaware is the largest university in Delaware. The main campus is in Newark, with campuses in Dover, Wilmington, Lewes. It is considered an institution with approximately 18,500 undergraduate and 4,500 graduate students. UD is a privately governed university which receives funding for being a land-grant, sea-grant, space-grant and urban-grant state-supported research institution. UD is classified as a university with very high research activity by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. It is one of four schools in North America with a major in art conservation. In 1923, UD was the first American university to offer a study abroad program, the school from which the university grew was founded in 1743, making it one of the oldest in the nation. However, UD was not chartered as an institution of learning until 1833. Its original class of ten students included George Read, Thomas McKean, the University of Delaware traces its founding to 1743, when Presbyterian minister Francis Alison opened up his Free School in his home in New London, Pennsylvania. The school changed its name and location several times, ending up as the Academy of Newark in 1769, since Delaware was part of the Pennsylvania colony until 1776, the academy was denied charter as a college in order to prevent its competing with the University of Pennsylvania. In 1833, the Delaware General Assembly passed An Act to Establish a College at Newark, and it changed its name in 1843 to Delaware College and it merged with the Academy of Newark. The school closed from 1859 until 1870 and it reopened in 1870 due to the support of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts. In 1921, Delaware College was renamed the University of Delaware, plans call for this facility to be repurposed into a world-class research facility. Initial plans include the new home of the College of Health Science, in 2010–2011, the university conducted a feasibility study in support of plans to add a law school focused on corporate and patent law. At its completion, the study suggested that the addition was not within the universitys funding capability given the nations economic climate at the time. Capital expenses were projected at $100 million, and the deficit in the first ten years would be $165 million. The study assumed an initial class of two hundred students entering in the fall of 2015, widener University has Delawares only law school as of 2011. S. News & World Report ranked UDs undergraduate program tied for 79th among national universities, the Bloomberg Businessweek review of the Best Undergraduate B-Schools ranked UDs Lerner College of Business and Economics 96th among the 187 U. S. programs reviewed

3.
Newark, Delaware
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Newark is a city in New Castle County, Delaware,12 miles west-southwest of Wilmington. According to the 2010 Census, the population of the city is 31,454, Newark is the home of the University of Delaware. Newark was founded by Scots-Irish and Welsh settlers in 1694, the town was officially established when it received a charter from George II of Great Britain in 1758. Schools have played a significant role in the history of Newark, a grammar school, founded by Francis Alison in 1743, moved from New London, Pennsylvania to Newark in 1765, becoming the Newark Academy. Among the first graduates of the school were three signers of the Declaration of Independence, George Read, Thomas McKean, and James Smith. Two of which, Read and McKean, went on to have named after them in the state of Delaware, George Read Middle School. During the American Revolutionary War, British and American forces clashed outside Newark at the Battle of Cooch’s Bridge, tradition holds that the Battle of Coochs Bridge was the first instance of the Stars and Stripes being flown in battle. The state granted a charter to a new school in 1833, Newark Academy and Newark College joined together in the following year, becoming Delaware College. The school was forced to close in 1859, but was resuscitated eleven years later under the Morrill Act when it became a joint venture between the State of Delaware and the schools Board of Trustees. In 1913, pursuant to legislative Act, Delaware College came into ownership of the State of Delaware. The school would be renamed the University of Delaware in 1921, Newark received a license from King George II to hold semi-annual fairs and weekly markets for agricultural exchange in 1758. A paper mill, the first sizable industrial venture in Newark, was created around 1798 and this mill, eventually known as the Curtis Paper Mill, was the oldest paper mill in the United States until its closing in 1997. Methodists built the first church in 1812 and the railroad arrived in 1837, one of Newarks major sources of employment and revenue was the Chrysler Newark Assembly plant which was built in 1951. Jamaican reggae star, Bob Marley worked as a worker at the plant during his short stint in Delaware in the 1960s. Originally constructed to build tanks for the US Army, the plant was 3.4 million square feet in size and it employed 1,100 employees in 2008 which was down from 2,115 in 2005. This turn was due largely to the decline of sales of the Durango, the plant stood for more than 50 years, providing jobs and revenue to the state of Delaware. The factory produced a variety of automobile models during its run. The plant was closed in late 2008 due to the recession, Newark is located at 39°41′01″N 75°44′59″W

4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

5.
Georgian architecture
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Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable

6.
Delaware
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Delaware is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic and/or Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland, to the northeast by New Jersey, the state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and Virginias first colonial governor. Delaware occupies the portion of the Delmarva Peninsula and is the second smallest, the sixth least populous. Delaware is divided into three counties, the lowest number of counties of any state, from north to south, the three counties are New Castle, Kent, and Sussex. While the southern two counties have historically been agricultural, New Castle County has been more industrialized. Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century, Delaware was inhabited by groups of Native Americans, including the Lenape in the north. It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near the present town of Lewes, Delaware was one of the 13 colonies participating in the American Revolution. On December 7,1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, the Delaware Indians, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source. The surname de La Warr comes from Sussex and is of Anglo-Norman origin and it came probably from a Norman lieu-dit La Guerre. This toponymic could derive from the Latin word ager, from the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin varectum, the toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire also appear in old texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word gara means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr, Delaware is 96 miles long and ranges from 9 miles to 35 miles across, totaling 1,954 square miles, making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania, to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean, small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending 12 miles from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle and this boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. This is the only nominally circular state boundary in the United States, to the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland. The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc, the Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delawares claim was confirmed. Delaware is on a plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, the northernmost part of the state is part of the Piedmont Plateau with hills and rolling surfaces

7.
Library
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A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC

8.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

9.
Frank Miles Day
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Frank Miles Day was a Philadelphia-based architect who specialized in residences and academic buildings. In 1883, he graduated from the Towne School of the University of Pennsylvania, in England, he apprenticed under two architects, and won the 1885 prize from the Architectural Association of London. He returned to Philadelphia, and worked in the offices of George T. Pearson and Addison Hutton, Days first major commission was the Art Club of Philadelphia, on South Broad Street in Center City, Philadelphia. His brother Henry joined the firm in 1893, and Charles Zeller Klauder, from 1912 to 1927, even after Days 1918 death, the firm was known as Day & Klauder. Day was a lecturer in architecture at the University of Pennsylvania and Harvard University, Day made major additions to the campuses of the University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University and Wellesley College. Day & Klauder designed 18 buildings for Princeton University, although half were Klauders work, Days 1917 master plan for the University of Delaware was inspired by Thomas Jeffersons plan for the University of Virginia. Following the firms 1917 master plan for the Boulder campus, Klauder went on to much of the University of Colorado. Day was national president of the American Institute of Architects, 1906–07, an editor of House & Garden Magazine. In 1910, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician, edward Wood houses, 245-47 S. 17th St. Art Club of Philadelphia,220 S, Broad St. Alterations to Tenth Presbyterian Church, 1700–08 Spruce St. Broad St. American Baptist Publication Society, 1420-22 Chestnut St. C. B, newbold residence,1313 Locust St. Cogslea,615 St. Georges Rd. Mount Airy. Moved from 9th & Chestnut Sts, University of Pennsylvania Museum,3260 South St. University of Pennsylvania, designed with Wilson Eyre and Cope & Stewardson Franklin Field, the current Franklin Field is the 3rd stadium on the site, designed in 1922 by Days partner, Charles Zeller Klauder, with the upper deck added in 1925. Weightman Hall, 233-35 S. 33rd St. Madison, Wisconsin, tuberculosis Hospital,4600 Arkansas Ave. NW, Washington, D. C. L

10.
Charles Klauder
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Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Klauder was the son of Louis and Anna Koehler Klauder, who had immigrated to Philadelphia from Germany. He studied architecture at the School of Industrial Art at the Pennsylvania Museum, at age 15, he entered the office of Theophilus Parsons Chandler, Jr. Beginning in 1893 he worked for prominent Philadelphia architectural firms, including Wilson Brothers & Company, Cope & Stewardson, and Horace Trumbauer. In 1900, Klauder became chief draughtsman at Day & Brother, which led to the 1911 partnership with Frank Miles Day, Klauder continued the firm after Days 1918 death, but did not rename it until 1927. At Penn he designed the third Franklin Field, Hutchinson Gymnasium, the Coxe and Sharpe Wings of the University Museum, alterations to Weightman Hall, several of his landmark Neo-Gothic buildings at Pitt are the Cathedral of Learning, Heinz Memorial Chapel and the Stephen Foster Memorial. The Cathedral of Learning, upon its completion, was the tallest educational building in the world and it is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Marks Scout Resource Center at 22nd and Winter Streets in Philadelphia was built in 1929, Klauder designed the building in the Beaux Arts style. For his lifelong architectural work, Klauder has received the Gold Medal, Architectural League,1921, Grand Prix Pan American Congress of Architects,1927, Architectural Medal, Olympic Games,1928. Klauder was a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, in 1938 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. Klauder died aged 66 on October 30,1938, Klauder, Charles Z. Wise, Herbert C. Pitt, The Story of the University of Pittsburgh 1787-1987, Charles Z. Klauder Collection at the Carnegie Mellon University Architecture Archives

11.
Sash window
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The oldest surviving examples of sash windows were installed in England in the 1670s, for example at Ham House. The invention of the window is sometimes credited, without conclusive evidence. Others see the window as a Dutch invention. To facilitate operation, the weight of the panel is usually balanced by a heavy steel, lead. The sash weight is connected to the window by a braided cotton sash cord, or a chain, breakage of this cord requires disassembly, or destruction, of the trim pieces to gain access for repair. The term sash windows is used interchangeably with the term box sash windows in the United Kingdom, historically box sash windows are heavier and more stately in nature than modern sash windows, but both terms are used within the industry when referring to the same type of window. The name hung sash window, which is usual in the United States than in the United Kingdom. These windows are found in older buildings in warmer climates. A significant advantage of double-hung windows is that they provide efficient cooling of interiors during warm weather, a double-hung window where the upper sash is smaller than the lower is termed a cottage window. A single-hung window has two sashes, but normally the top sash is fixed and only the bottom sash slides, triple- and quadruple-hung windows are used for tall openings, common in New England churches. Construction is usually of softwood, and these sashes were traditionally only single-glazed, early sash windows were made from high-quality wood that has lasted generations and should, if at all possible, be repaired with similar-quality slow-growth wood rather than being replaced. The glass in old windows can be as important as the sashes themselves, old glass is easily recognised by its imperfections which give a degree of distortion both when looking through it and when looking at it from the outside. Of these, the glass still currently being manufactured in the traditional way is cylinder. All other old glass is therefore irreplaceable and should be carefully conserved and/or protected before any work is carried out, modern double-glazed sash windows are now available, but depending on their aesthetic style, can be frowned upon. Traditional problems with solid wooden sash windows include rot, swelling or distortion of the woodwork or rattling in the wind and these problems can be solved by careful repair and the introduction of draught stripping. It is also a problem for inexperienced painters to paint the sash stuck. The sliding mechanism makes sash windows more vulnerable to these problems than traditional casement windows, sash windows are relatively high maintenance, but offer advantages in return. However, well-maintained sash windows should last generations without needing parts replaced and it is also possible to clean all the glass from within the building by sliding the two panes to different positions

12.
Ionic order
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The Ionic order forms one of the three classical orders of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two orders, the Tuscan, and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composite order. The Ionic columns are the thinnest and smallest columns out of the three canonic orders, the Ionic capital is characterized by the use of volutes. The Ionic columns normally stand on a base which separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform, since Vitruvius a female character has been ascribed to the Ionic, in contrast to the masculine Doric. The major features of the Ionic order are the volutes of its capital, the only tools required to design these features were a straight-edge, a right angle, string and a compass. Originally the volutes lay in a plane, then it was seen that they could be angled out on the corners. Ionic columns are most often fluted, after a little early experimentation, the number of hollow flutes in the shaft settled at 24. This standardization kept the fluting in a proportion to the diameter of the column at any scale. Roman fluting leaves a little of the surface between each hollow, Greek fluting runs out to a knife edge that was easily scarred. In some instances, the fluting has been omitted, mohr included 8 unfluted Ionic frontal columns on his 1928 design for the railroads St. Louis suburban stop Delmar Station. Pictorial often narrative bas-relief frieze carving provides a feature of the Ionic order. Roman and Renaissance practice condensed the height of the entablature by reducing the proportions of the architrave, the Ionic order originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia, the southwestern coastland and islands of Asia Minor settled by Ionian Greeks, where an Ionian dialect was spoken. The Ionic order column was being practiced in mainland Greece in the 5th century BC and it was most popular in the Archaic Period in Ionia. The first of the great Ionic temples was the Temple of Hera on Samos and it stood for only a decade before it was leveled by an earthquake. A longer-lasting 6th century Ionic temple was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Parthenon, although it conforms mainly to the Doric order, also has some Ionic elements. A more purely Ionic mode to be seen on the Athenian Acropolis is exemplified in the Erechtheum, following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can seen as far away as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital. Renaissance architectural theorists took his hints, to interpret the Ionic order as matronly in comparison to the Doric order, the Ionic is a natural order for post-Renaissance libraries and courts of justice, learned and civilized

13.
War memorial
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A war memorial is a building, monument, statue or other edifice to celebrate a war or victory, or to commemorate those who died or were injured in a war. The oldest war memorial in the United Kingdom is Oxford Universitys All Souls College itself and it was founded in 1438 with the provision that its fellows should pray for those killed in the long wars with France. War memorials for the Franco-Prussian War were the first in Europe to have rank-and-file soldiers commemorated by name, every soldier that was killed was granted a permanent resting-place as part of the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt. To commemorate the millions who died in World War I, war memorials became commonplace in communities large, in modern times the main intent of war memorials is not to glorify war, but to honor those who have died. Sometimes, as in the case of the Warsaw Genuflection of Willy Brandt, using modern technology an international project is currently archiving all post-1914 Commonwealth war graves and Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials to create a virtual memorial. During the First World War, many nations saw massive devastation, more people lost their lives in the east than in the west, but the outcome was different. Massive British monuments commemorating thousands of dead with no identified war grave, such as the Menin Gate at Ypres, the Liberty Memorial, located in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in the Great War. For various reasons connected with their character, the same may be said to apply to certain governmental memorials in the United Kingdom, after World War I, some towns in France set up pacifist war memorials. Instead of commemorating the dead, these memorials denounce war with figures of grieving widows. Such memorials provoked anger among veterans and the military in general, the most famous is at Gentioux-Pigerolles in the department of Creuse. Below the column which lists the name of the stands an orphan in bronze pointing to an inscription Maudite soit la guerre. Feelings ran so high that the memorial was not officially inaugurated until 1990, another such memorial is in the small town of Équeurdreville-Hainneville in the department of Manche. Here the statue is of a widow with two small children. There seems to be no exact equivalent form of a pacifist memorial within the United Kingdom, in many cases, World War I memorials were later extended to show the names of locals who died in the World War II in addition. Since that time memorials to the dead in other such as the Korean War and Vietnam War have also noted individual contributions. War memorials can differ significantly in type and composition, many war memorials often take the form of a traditional monument or statue, while others consist of entire buildings, often containing a museum, while yet others are simple plaques. War memorials can take a variety of forms, including, but not limited to, commemorative gardens, eternal flames, urban plazas, fountains and/or pools of water, military equipment. War memorials often serve as a place for commemorative services

14.
Old College Historic District
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Old College Historic District is a national historic district located at Newark in New Castle County, Delaware. It consists of six contributing buildings, Old College, Recitation Hall, Recitation Annex, Alumni Hall, Mechanical Hall and these buildings formed the nucleus, and until the 20th century, the entire campus of Delaware College. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, dE-212-A, Old College Historic District, Old College, West Main Street at South College, Newark, New Castle County, DE,11 photos,2 photo caption pages, supplemental material HABS No. DE-212-B, Old College Historic District, Alumni House, Main & College Streets, Newark, New Castle County, DE,1 photo

15.
Pierre S. du Pont
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Pierre Samuel du Pont was an American entrepreneur, businessman, philanthropist and member of the prominent du Pont family. He was president of the E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company from 1915 to 1919 and he also managed General Motors from 1915-1920, became GMs president in 1920, and served on GMs Board of Directors until 1928. Among other notable accomplishments, he was among the Founding Board of Directors of the Empire State Building which opened in 1931, Du Pont was named after his great-great-grandfather, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French economist and patriarch of the du Pont family. Pierre S. du Pont was born January 15,1870 the family estate near Wilmington and he was the eldest of three sons born to Lammot du Pont and Mary Belin. He graduated with a degree in chemistry from MIT in 1890 and he and his cousin Francis Gurney du Pont developed the first American smokeless powder in 1892 at the Carneys Point plant in New Jersey. Most of the 1890s he spent working with the management at a steel firm partly owned by DuPont, here he learned to deal with money from the companys president, Arthur Moxham. In 1899, unsatisfied with how conservative DuPonts management was, he quit and they set about buying smaller powder firms. Until 1914, during Coleman du Ponts illness, Pierre du Pont served as treasurer, executive vice-president, in 1915, a group headed by Pierre, which included outsiders, bought Colemans stock. Alfred was offended and sued Pierre for breach of trust, the case was settled in Pierres favor four years later, but his relationship with Alfred suffered greatly, and they did not speak after that. Pierre served as DuPonts president until 1919, Pierre gave the DuPont company a modern management structure and modern accounting policies and made the concept of return on investment primary. During World War I, the company very quickly due to advance payments on Allied munition contracts. He also established many other DuPont interests in other industries and he was featured on the cover of Time magazine January 31,1927 issue. That same year he was elected a member of the Delaware Society of the Cincinnati. Pierre du Pont resigned the chairmanship of GM in response to GM President Alfred Sloans dispute with Raskob over Raskobs involvement with the Democratic National Committee, when du Pont retired from its Board of Directors, GM was the largest company in the world. Du Pont was one of the first of many of his members to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Both his younger brothers, Irénée du Pont and Lammot du Pont II, Du Pont, his relations and the DuPont corporation were generous benefactors over the years, and helped set up multiple endowments, fellowships, scholarships and faculty chairs for the university. When MIT moved to its current location in Cambridge in 1917, Pierre, T. Coleman du Pont and Charles Hayden donated $215,000 to house the Department of Mining Engineering and Metallurgy. Du Pont served on boards and committees, and from 1916-1951 he was a member of the MIT Corporation

16.
Memorial Day
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Memorial Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the countrys armed forces. It marks the start of the summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end. Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service, many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in rural areas of the American South. People gather on the day and put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives. There often is a service and a picnic-like dinner on the grounds. It is believed that this practice began before the American Civil War, the practice of decorating soldiers graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers graves were decorated in the U. S. before, following President Abraham Lincolns assassination in April 1865, there were a variety of events of commemoration. The sheer number of soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance, under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead. The Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper claimed in 1906 that Warrenton, Virginia, was the location of the first Civil War soldiers grave ever to be decorated, there is also documentation that women in Savannah, Georgia, decorated Confederate soldiers graves in 1862. The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was, of course, in addition, local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania, claim that ladies there decorated soldiers graves on July 4,1864, and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day. But more recent researches have also pointed to the birthplace of Confederacy as the location of the first post-war Memorial Day type observance, but in 2012 Blight stated that he has no evidence that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country. Accordingly, Snopes labels Blights claims mostly false, despite this ongoing lively debate, there is an official birthplace. On May 26,1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, Snopes also regards the Waterloo legend as apocryphal. Logan issued a proclamation calling for Decoration Day to be observed annually and it was observed for the first time that year on Saturday May 30, the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to the White House, the May 30 date was chosen as the date for flowers to be in bloom. Memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states in 1868, the northern states quickly adopted the holiday

17.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21

18.
University of Virginia
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The University of Virginia, frequently referred to simply as Virginia, is a public research university and the flagship for the Commonwealth of Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Declaration of Independence author Thomas Jefferson, UVA is known for its foundations, student-run honor code. UNESCO designated UVA as Americas first and only collegiate World Heritage Site in 1987, the university was established in 1819, and its original governing Board of Visitors included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe. Monroe was the sitting President of the United States at the time of its foundation, former Presidents Jefferson and Madison were UVAs first two rectors and the Academical Village and Jefferson conceived and designed the original courses of study. The universitys research endeavors are highly recognized, in 2015, Science honored UVA faculty for discovering two of its top 10 annual scientific breakthroughs, from the fields of Medicine and Psychology. UVA is one of 62 institutions in the Association of American Universities and it is the only AAU member university in Virginia. UVA is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation, the university was the first non-founding member, and the first university of the American South, to attain AAU membership in 1904. UVAs academic strength is broad, with 121 majors across the eight undergraduate, students compete in 26 collegiate sports and UVA leads the Atlantic Coast Conference in mens NCAA team national championships with 17. UVA is second in womens NCAA titles with 7, UVA was awarded the Capital One Cup in 2015 after fielding the top overall mens athletics programs in the nation. Students come to attend the university in Charlottesville from all 50 states and 147 countries, the historic 1, 682-acre campus is internationally protected by UNESCO and considered one of the most beautiful collegiate grounds in the country. UVA additionally maintains 2,913 acres southeast of the city, the university also manages the College at Wise in Southwest Virginia, and until 1972 operated George Mason University and the University of Mary Washington in Northern Virginia. In 1817, three Presidents and Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court John Marshall joined 24 other dignitaries at a meeting held in the Mountain Top Tavern at Rockfish Gap, after some deliberation, they selected nearby Charlottesville as the site of the new University of Virginia. Farmland just outside Charlottesville was purchased from James Monroe by the Board of Visitors as Central College, the school laid its first buildings cornerstone late in that same year, and the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered the new university on January 25,1819. John Hartwell Cocke collaborated with James Madison, Monroe, and Joseph Carrington Cabell to fulfill Jeffersons dream to establish the university, Cocke and Jefferson were appointed to the building committee to supervise the construction. The universitys first classes met on March 7,1825, another innovation of the new university was that higher education would be separated from religious doctrine. Jefferson opined to philosopher Thomas Cooper that a professorship of theology should have no place in our institution, Jefferson was intimately involved in the university to the end, hosting Sunday dinners at his Monticello home for faculty and students until his death. Thus, he eschewed mention of his accomplishments, such as the Louisiana Purchase. This was a source of frustration for Jefferson, who assembled the students during the schools first year, on October 3,1825, to such behavior

19.
Brickwork
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Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks—called courses— are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall, Brick is a popular medium for constructing buildings, and examples of brickwork are found through history as far back as the Bronze Age. The fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of ancient Dur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, much older examples of brickwork made with dried bricks may be found in such ancient locations as Jericho in Judea, Çatal Hüyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan. These structures have survived from the Stone Age to the present day, parts of brickwork include bricks, beds and perpends. The bed is the mortar upon which a brick is laid, a perpend is a vertical joint between any two bricks and is usually—but not always—filled with mortar. An example of a co-ordinating metric commonly used for bricks in the UK is as follows, Bricks of dimensions 215 mm x 102.5 mm ×65 mm, Mortar beds and perpends of a uniform 10 mm. In this case the co-ordinating metric works because the length of a brick is equal to the total of the width of a brick plus a perpend plus the width of a second brick. There are many other brick sizes worldwide, and many of them use this same co-ordinating principle, a brick is given a classification based on how it is laid, and how the exposed face is oriented relative to the face of the finished wall. Stretcher or Stretching brick A brick laid flat with its narrow side exposed. Header or Heading brick A brick laid flat with its width exposed, soldier A brick laid vertically with its long narrow side exposed. Sailor A brick laid vertically with the face of the brick exposed. Rowlock A brick laid on the narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed. Shiner or Rowlock Stretcher A brick laid on the narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed. The practice of laying uncut full-sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength, in some cases these special shapes or sizes are manufactured. A second practice particularly observed in older examples of brickwork is that of building brickwork thicker than the width of any of its individual bricks, in such cases, some of the bricks may well be tied together into the depth of the wall. Historically, this was the dominant method for consolidating the transverse strength of walls, brickwork observing either or both of these two conventions is described as being laid in one or another bond. The advent during the mid twentieth century of the cavity wall saw the popularisation, a cavity wall comprises two totally discrete walls—each one of which is called a wythe or leaf. A cavity separates the two leaves so that there is no connection between them at all

20.
Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The Reserve Officers Training Corps are a group of college-based officer training programs for training commissioned officers of the United States Armed Forces. ROTC officers serve in all branches of the U. S. armed forces, under ROTC, a student may receive a competitive, merit-based scholarship, covering all or part of college tuition, in return for an obligation of active military service after graduation. The U. S. Coast Guard offers a program to ROTC under a different name. The students participate in regular drills during the year. Some of the training that is offered to cadets in the Army ROTC program are, Airborne, Air Assault, Mountain Warfare, WHINSEC. Army ROTC units are organized as brigades, battalions, and companies, Air Force ROTC units are detachments with the students organized into wings, groups, squadrons, and flights. Army and Air Force ROTC students are referred to as cadets, Navy ROTC units are organized as battalions, and also include NROTC students under Marine Option who will eventually be commissioned as officers in the Marine Corps. Marine NROTC students may be formed in a company when the program includes sufficient numbers. All Navy ROTC students are referred to as midshipmen, the term of obligatory service varies based on the type of commission the cadet or midshipman receives, as well as any scholarship contract signed. They can serve as duty or in a reserve status. Additionally, a cadet on active duty can receive either a regular appointment or a reserve appointment and this affects the required years, as well as how many must be completed on active duty, in an active reserve capacity, or in the Individual Ready Reserve. Under federal law, graduates of an ROTC scholarship program incur an active duty service obligation. Recipients incur an eight-year MSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component, finally, recipients incur at least a six-year MSO and up to an eight-year ADSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component with at least two years of active duty. Army ROTC students who receive an Army ROTC scholarship or enter the Army ROTC Advanced Course must agree to complete a period of service. This can include three active duty, with the balance in the IRR. The service obligation for a Navy ROTC student is five years in the Navy, the active-duty service obligation for an Air Force ROTC student is four years, or eight years for Combat Systems Officers, or six years Air Battle Management officers, or ten years for pilots. The concept of ROTC in the United States began with the Morrill Act of 1862 which established the land-grant colleges, part of the federal governments requirement for these schools was that they include military tactics as part of their curriculum, forming what became known as ROTC. The college from which ROTC originated is Norwich University in Northfield, Norwich was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy

21.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service

22.
Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity

23.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places

1908 Army-Navy game at Franklin Field, University of Pennsylvania. Day designed the 2nd Franklin Field (1903, demolished 1922), shown above, and Weightman Hall ("The Fieldhouse") (1903-04), visible in the upper left. The current stadium was designed in 1922 by Day's partner, Charles Zeller Klauder, who also added its upper deck in 1925.

The Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) are a group of college and university-based officer training programs for …

Newly graduated and commissioned officers of the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) Unit Hampton Roads stand at attention as they are applauded during the spring Commissioning Ceremony in May 2004.