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Acquisition of r liaison Newton and Wells 2002 Acquisition of liaison consonants by kids exposed to BrE: Homorganic j and w liaison mastered by 2;4 Both linking-r and intrusive-r appear suddenly at 3;0 “the suggestion that /r/ liaison can be described with /j/ and /w/ liaison as simply the audible results of patterned variations in timing (Gick 1999:52) is not born out by the developmental data here. If this were the case, one would expect to observe /r/ appearing at around the same time as the other types of liaison. In fact, it does not; it emerges much later.” (Newton and Wells 2002:292)

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Variation Choice of adaptation is not necessarily driven by phonological markedness in the borrowing language e.g. adaptation of [θ, ð] European French: [s, z] vs. Canadian French: [t, d] There is also individual variation

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What TOT effects show Storage of redundant prosodic information Vaux 2003 Independence of syntactic and phonological information in lexical access Miozzo and Caramazza 1997 The availability of gender in TOT states suggests the independence of syntactic from phonological information in lexical access.

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What speech errors reveal Evidence for phonological elements (features, phonemes, prosodic elements (Rime, syllable…), rules…) “sound errors occur at a level of representation that is phonological rather than phonetic. When sounds are misordered, they acquire the allophonic characteristics suitable for their new environments (Fromkin 1971, Wells 1951 ). For example, the /k/ in Katz is phonetically a front /k/, yet in the error Fats and Kodor for Katz and Fodor, the /k/ becomes a back /k/ accommodating to the back vowel /o/ in Kodor. This suggests that the unit that is misordered is phonological rather than phonetic and, more generally, that there exists a phonological representation in production and it is at this level that these kinds of sound errors occur.” (Dell 1986) Abstract underlying representations (e.g. Fromkin 1971:34, cut the string  cunt the strig) The “syllable position effect” Stemberger found that more than 90% of ordering speech errors invert onset-onset, coda-coda Implicit rule learning (Dell et al. 2000—see next slide) Bifurcated grammar (LF vs. PF) Word exchange errors, such as "I left the briefcase in my cigar" (when what was intended was "I left the cigar in my briefcase"; Garrett 1980) readily cross phrase and even clause boundaries. They differ in this respect from sound exchanges, such as "he caught tourses" (when what was intended was "he taught courses"; Fromkin, 1973). Sound exchanges are most common within phrases and are strictly clause bounded (phrasal speech planning) This leads to a distinction between one level of representation that codes the proximity of elements in the surface string (PF) and one that does not (LF).

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Dell et al. 2000 Observation “Phonotactic Regularity Effect”: Speech errors almost always follow the phonotactics of the language being spoken. For example, in English, if [n] is mispronounced as [ŋ], the [ŋ] will always appear in a Coda (Wells 1951, Boomer & Laver 1968, Fromkin, 1971, Motley and Baars 1975). Violations such as [ætk] ‘act’, [dlorm] ‘dorm’ constituted less than 1% of Stemberger’s 1983 phonological error corpus Curiosity Do speakers compute and apply these phonotactics online? Method Participants recite lists of CVC syllables in 4 sessions on different days. In the first 2 experiments, some Cs were always onsets, some were always codas, and some could be both. In a third experiment, the set of possible onsets and codas depended on vowel identity. Results In all 3 studies, the production errors that occurred respected the phonotactics of the experiment. Conclusions Implicit learning of the sequential constraints present in the stimuli. The language production system adapts to recent experience.

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What are language games? Also called ludlings, secret languages, language disguises, play languages… not technically separate languages rather, they consist of 1-2 simple phonological rules appended to the grammar of an existing language they normally manipulate phonological elements such as phonemes and syllables

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Identity avoidance Name Game “But if the first two letters are ever the same, I drop them both and say the name. Like Bob, Bob drop the B like ob Or Fred, Fred drop the F go red Mary, Mary drop the M so ary That's the only rule that is contrary.” Fee fie mo Ichael (not *Michael) w-, y-, and h-dialects of Pig Latin W: way vs. a Y: you vs. ooh/eww H: who vs. ooh/eww

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Conclusions External evidence is not only useful in elucidating the structure of phonological representations and processes, but in fact appears to be vital EE bears on important questions such as: whether phonological generalisations exist in the mind of the individual that are not revealed via internal evidence productivity of processes and constraints contents of representations nature of learning processes