The fall of Nero (ad 68) and the extinction of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had been followed by a war of succession that revealed the military basis of the principate and the weakness of the tie connecting the emperor with Rome. The successive emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian represented in turn the legions of Spain, the Praetorian Guard (the household troops), the Army of the Rhine, and a coalition of the armies of the Danube and the Euphrates; and all except Otho were already de facto emperors when they entered Rome. The final survivor in the struggle, Vespasian, was a man of comparatively humble origin; and, because the principate ceased to possess the prestige of high descent, it became necessary to remove, as far as possible, the anomalies of the office and to give it a legitimate and permanent form. There were several results: an elaborate and formal system of titles was substituted for the personal names of the Julio-Claudian emperors; there was an increasing tendency to insist on the inherentprerogatives of the principate (such as the censorial power); and there was an attempt to invest Caesarism with a hereditary character, either by natural descent or by adoption. Moreover, the worship of the Divi, or deified Caesars, was made the symbol of imperial continuity and legitimacy.

Vespasian’s reign was noted for his reorganization of the army, making it more loyal and professional; for his expansion of the membership of the Senate, bringing in administrators with a sense of service; for his increase and systematization of taxation; and for his strengthening of the frontiers of the empire (though little new territory was added). Titus’ brief but popular reign was followed by the autocracy of Domitian, who fought the senatorial class and instituted taxes and confiscations for costly buildings, games, and shows. A final reign of terror (89–96) was ended by his assassination. The Flavian dynasty was succeeded by the era of the Five Good Emperors.

On Dec. 22, 69, the Senate conferred all the imperial powers upon Vespasian en bloc with the famous Lex de Imperio Vespasiani (“Law Regulating Vespasian’s authority”), and the Assembly ratified the Senate’s action. This apparently was the first time that such a law was passed; a fragmentary copy of it is preserved on the Capitol in Rome.

In the emperor Vespasian’s portraits, something of the old, dry style returned. This can be observed in his striking likeness on one of two historical reliefs (Vatican Museums) that were unearthed in Rome near the Palazzo della Cancelleria. A similarly sketchy and impressionistic handling of the hair is found on the emperor Titus’ portraits, whereas the third Flavian emperor, Domitian, affected...