%0 Journal Article
%A Schlafer, Sebastian
%A Garcia, Javier E.
%A Greve, Matilde
%A Raarup, Merete K.
%A Nyvad, Bente
%A Dige, Irene
%E Liu, S.-J.
%T Ratiometric Imaging of Extracellular pH in Bacterial Biofilms with C-SNARF-4
%D 2015
%R 10.1128/AEM.02831-14
%J Applied and Environmental Microbiology
%P 1267-1273
%V 81
%N 4
%X pH in the extracellular matrix of bacterial biofilms is of central importance for microbial metabolism. Biofilms possess a complex three-dimensional architecture characterized by chemically different microenvironments in close proximity. For decades, pH measurements in biofilms have been limited to monitoring bulk pH with electrodes. Although pH microelectrodes with a better spatial resolution have been developed, they do not permit the monitoring of horizontal pH gradients in biofilms in real time. Quantitative fluorescence microscopy can overcome these problems, but none of the hitherto employed methods differentiated accurately between extracellular and intracellular microbial pH and visualized extracellular pH in all areas of the biofilms. Here, we developed a method to reliably monitor extracellular biofilm pH microscopically with the ratiometric pH-sensitive dye C-SNARF-4, choosing dental biofilms as an example. Fluorescent emissions of C-SNARF-4 can be used to calculate extracellular pH irrespective of the dye concentration. We showed that at pH values of <6, C-SNARF-4 stained 15 bacterial species frequently isolated from dental biofilm and visualized the entire bacterial biomass in in vivo-grown dental biofilms with unknown species composition. We then employed digital image analysis to remove the bacterial biomass from the microscopic images and adequately calculate extracellular pH values. As a proof of concept, we monitored the extracellular pH drop in in vivo-grown dental biofilms fermenting glucose. The combination of pH ratiometry with C-SNARF-4 and digital image analysis allows the accurate monitoring of extracellular pH in bacterial biofilms in three dimensions in real time and represents a significant improvement to previously employed methods of biofilm pH measurement.
%U https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/81/4/1267.full.pdf