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Introduction

In the years before children reach school age, it becomes more and more difficult to keep them happily occupied at home. They are able to run, to climb well out of reach, to pedal a tricycle a considerable distance. They are tremendously curious, not only about electrical and mechanical appliances in the home, but also about the steam shovel three blocks down the street. They want to know about the person who brings the mail, the bus driver, the old lady who walks with a cane, and about other children—the little girl with the doll carriage and the twins next door.

To provide a place where the great range of a child’s curiosity may be satisfied and organized learning begun, most countries have some form of preschool education. The term preschool is used because the ages of the children involved range from 1 to 5 years, the period of life before they enter elementary school in first grade. Preschools include infant care centers, nursery schools, and kindergartens, though in many countries the kindergartens are part of the public school system.

Preschool education differs from day-care and play centers in that the latter are primarily places where parents can place their children during working hours. The goal of preschool education is to prepare children for the schooling they will get in later years and to foster their social, physical, and emotional development.

The terminology used and the institutional arrangements made for preschool education vary around the world. The terms used for centers of infant care, care during the period of childhood from about 3 months to 3 years, are infant school, nursery school, day nursery, and crèche (a French word meaning “cradle”). The word crèche is used not only in French-speaking places, but in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Israel, Russia, and Poland and other Eastern European countries as well. The age range for children in nursery schools also varies from country to country. In Sweden, for instance, all children from the age of 3 months until they enter kindergarten at age 5 are admitted. In English-speaking countries, nursery schools include all children up to kindergarten age.

In countries where the crèches accept children only up to age 3, another institution—the maternal school—cares for the children until they reach kindergarten age. In Italy, children go from the maternal school into first grade instead of kindergarten. Some countries also provide schools for special education problems among very young children. Germany has the Schulkindergarten, or school kindergarten, for children who are considered less mature than others of their age. It serves as a preparatory school for first grade. In Russia there are sanatorium kindergartens for children who are physically handicapped or recuperating from illnesses. The United States has government-supported kindergartens for children who are physically or mentally handicapped.

Reasons for Preschool Education

Although the objectives and methods of preschool education vary from country to country, there is general agreement that nursery schools and kindergartens are very useful steps in the education of children. In socialist countries the emphasis in most preschool education is on making the child a participating member of society, while in nations where individualism predominates, such as the United States, individual potential is usually emphasized in a competitive atmosphere. Regardless of the motivation, however, it has been demonstrated that even very young children are capable of schooling beyond the general learning obtained from satisfying their endless curiosity.

The Nursery School Program

In the United States, this type of school is for children who are from 2 to 5 years old. It is a counterpart of the European maternal school and of the more inclusive crèche schools. The nursery school provides organized programs of play activities and simple instruction for children who are too young to enter public school kindergarten or first grade classes. Religious institutions, research centers, child welfare groups, and some school systems have organized and conducted these schools.

The school program usually involves at least a daily 2 1/2-hour session, though many of the newer schools operate a full day schedule for the benefit of working parents. The size of classes varies, but they are usually organized in groups of eight to ten children. Sometimes as many as 20 to 25 children are in a class, with more than one adult supervising them. The nursery school teachers generally have special training in early childhood education and childhood development.

Because the importance of nursery school education has become widely recognized, the federal government and local communities lend financial assistance to the schools when needed. In 1965 Project Head Start, a nationally sponsored program for 4- and 5-year-olds was inaugurated. The significance of early training for later success in school was one of Head Start’s major concerns.

How Kindergartens Work with Children

What is it like in a good kindergarten? First of all, children can be themselves. Their ideas are respected, while they learn gradually to respect the ideas of others. Their teacher knows that no two children start with the same abilities or grow in quite the same way. Six youngsters who have lived near each other and played together a good deal will carry on with some of the play ideas they have been using in their own backyards. Other children have had an older brother or sister who has fought at least some of their battles for them. Now they need some protection from children their own age. Some children will seize new experiences. They will try everything in the room and chatter about it all when they get home. Others will look, listen, and really enjoy themselves, but say little. Knowing all this, the teacher plans at the start activities for small groups, to let the children become acquainted with one another.

What kind of learning takes place in kindergarten? Social learning—getting along with other people—is important. The setting, however, must provide for other kinds of learning as well. The paint, clay, building blocks, and housekeeping toys found in kindergartens are not solely for enjoyment.

A child stands with brush in hand, chooses a favorite color, sweeps it over a big piece of white paper, and then dots the paper with blobs of black. The child may comment to the teacher, “That’s the way the sun is. All red. And the buildings are black.” The teacher does not check the child’s accuracy, knowing that, as the youngster paints what is seen and felt, the ability to observe is being developed. In growing older the child will become more self-critical and may want to make the sun and buildings look “right.”

Three boys are working on a large block construction. One says, “It does so have a second story. And there is an elevator.” The teacher asks a question, finds they have enough blocks to make a second story, discusses with them how they could raise things from the first to the second floor, sends one child for the suggested pulleys, helps the others select wood for the elevator. The teacher does not discuss the physical forces of gravity and friction, but obviously the children are learning to deal with them.

There are no arithmetic lessons, but the children learn a great deal about numbers. Sally collects a pile of pie plates in the sandbox. Jane protests, “She has them all. A whole bunch.” The teacher helps them count how many there are and plan how they can be shared. “There are six: two for Sally, two for Jane, and two for Rita.” Arnold tells his willing helper that four more blocks will be needed to complete their building. When cookies are served, halves and quarters are carefully measured.

Over in one corner, Mary and Jordan are washing doll clothes. “I like to do this,” says Mary, “but my mother doesn’t. The laundryman takes our clothes every Tuesday and brings them back on Friday.” Jordan considers this as he carefully dumps his pile of washed and rewashed clothes back into the soapy water for another rub. “We have a washing machine,” he murmurs. How people live, different ways of doing things—these are part of important learning in kindergarten.

In dramatic play children live over many of the things that have happened to them and act out events as they see them. One girl scolds her dolls; another drives a big truck. Both telephone the neighbors. These dramatic creations usually spring from children’s own life experiences. They mean more than the stories and poems that are read to them. Fairies, elves, and dragons may enter into dramatic play. Most 5-year-olds, however, are absorbed with the problems of understanding what goes on immediately around them. Too-fanciful material confuses them. Teachers accept whatever fantasy the children introduce, but they do not offer it unless the children are ready.

Music’s Important Role

Music is always associated with the kindergarten. Children have both listening and creating experiences. An alert teacher picks up the music the children make as they play. The teacher notes the rat-tat-tat of Jerry’s hammer as he fastens a railing of nails to his boat, and the chant that Michael sings as he sets the table for lunch. Sometimes the whole group joins in making up a song. This is in addition to all the favorites they have learned together.

Music is not just to be sung. It is something children have in their muscles, too. They love to run, to skip, and to turn somersaults. The teacher’s drum is accompaniment enough, but it is fun to have a piano sometimes. Recorded music brings added richness.

Preparing Children for Reading

Children in kindergarten learn to appreciate in many ways what it means to be able to read. They learn to identify their own names and sometimes those of their friends on their various belongings. They know that a sign saying “Do not disturb” left on a half-finished block building is something to be respected. Sometimes they ask questions that can be answered only by consulting books. Children watch their teacher and listen carefully to what is read. They observe that the teacher frequently writes notes so that important items will not be forgotten.

Children’s vocabularies expand in kindergarten. The children talk to each other, to the teacher, and to visitors. They delight in knowing the correct term for everything they see. In this environment, in which they can question freely, their vocabularies will probably increase rapidly.

While they are having all these experiences, some children become interested in reading. They ask questions about words they see in books and magazines or on signs and packages. They may indicate that they know some of the letters. Their teacher recognizes these signals of developing reading ability but does not sit the children down with a beginner’s reading book. Nor is the teacher concerned about children who show less interest. Those black symbols on the white page are extremely complicated for the young child. It takes a long, long period of seeing other people read and write, of noting how those strange black figures stand for things one knows, before any child is ready to concentrate on learning to read.

Measures to Promote Health

Kindergartens emphasize the health of children. Good programs provide for thorough physical examinations before entering school and continuous health supervision. An effort is made to balance vigorous physical activity, quiet activity, and rest, according to the needs of each child.

History of Preschool Education

The earliest institutions for educating very young children were charitable enterprises that were founded to care for the children of the rural and urban poor while their parents worked. In 1767, in what is now the Alsatian region of France, Johann Friedrich Oberlin organized an infant school called the salle d’asile (“hall of refuge”) for the care and schooling of small children while their parents worked in the fields.

The idea soon caught on, and within a few years similar schools had been founded in a number of French and German cities. In 1833 the French government made these infant schools part of the national educational system.

In 1816 the noted Scottish social reformer Robert Owen founded an “Institute for the Formation of Character” as part of his model community at New Lanark, Scotland. It took care of children of workers at the cotton mills, from about 18 months to 10 years of age; and there were separate infant classes for 2- to 5-year-olds. The New Lanark experiment led to the opening of England’s first infant school in London in 1818 by James Buchanan, the man who had directed Owen’s institute.

In Italy, a Roman Catholic priest named Ferrante Aporti started an infant school at Cremona in 1829. He had been dissatisfied with the progress made by children in elementary schools. Therefore, in order to prepare them for later schooling, he devised an educational plan that combined intellectual, physical, and moral training for preschool children.

The chief drawback of these early maternal schools was that they were largely copies of schools for older children. Young children were required to sit in rows in large classrooms, recite lessons, and spend hours doing reading, writing, and arithmetic.

The change in direction of schooling for the very young came with Friedrich Froebel, the German founder of the kindergarten. He believed that childhood was a special phase in life, during which the individual learned largely through play. He felt that young children should not be subjected to formal instruction, as were older children, but should learn through “self-activity” in play and imitation. They should also be allowed to rest during the day and not be forced into rigid classroom patterns of schooling. Froebel opened his first kindergarten at Bad Blankenburg in 1837. Within 25 years after his death in 1852, his educational theories had spread to the extent that kindergartens had been started in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Canada, Great Britain, Hungary, Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United States.

Probably the most famous name in the history of preschool education is Maria Montessori, a researcher in educational theory who had studied medicine in Rome. She began her studies of educational problems while working with culturally deprived and mentally deficient children at the Orthophrenic School in Rome, Italy, in 1899. To put her theories to work on normal children, she opened her Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House) in 1907. Within a few years her methods had become world famous, and Montessori schools were started in many countries.

The basis of the Montessori theory was that children go through a series of phases during which they are particularly ready to learn certain skills such as reading and arithmetic. If these early periods are missed in the schooling process, later difficulties in learning may result. Therefore, she believed, all children should be given a measure of freedom to work at their own pace, without the tension that results from being in competition with others. The amount of freedom allowed was not absolute, however, for she believed that all freedom must be combined with self-discipline and a respect for authority. The individual initiative and self-direction allowed to children in her school were combined with group exercises and learning social manners. The children learned to read, write, count, and express themselves artistically.

Group training of children below kindergarten age gained impetus in England shortly before World War I, under the guidance of Margaret and Rachel McMillan. They established nursery schools in the slum districts of London to help improve the physical and mental condition of children living in these poorer areas. The aim of the nursery schools was to make up for any neglect of the children at home and to provide early schooling and care.

The 20th century was also a time of experiments in “collective upbringing” in several societies. Early in the century, when Jewish settlers were arriving in Palestine, they established communes called kibbutzim. The early kibbutzim freed parents for work by caring for their children. All children from birth to 1 year lived in an infant house and were cared for by one or two kibbutz members. Later, they resided in a toddler house until they were 4 years old. In many modern kibbutzim children live with their parents until school age but spend their days with the other kibbutz children.

In the Soviet Union a program of collective preschool education was started in 1919. Today, in Russia parents may voluntarily place their children in day nurseries from 2 months until 3 years of age. Kindergartens in this country accept children from 3 to 7 years of age. The aims of the Soviet system were to instill in children at an early age respect for authority and the needs of society as a whole.

Kindergartens were introduced into the United States by German immigrants. The first kindergarten was opened in Watertown, Wis., in 1856 by Margarethe Schurz, wife of the German-born reformer and politician Carl Schurz. One of the first distinctly American kindergartens was started in Boston by Elizabeth Peabody in 1860. In 1873 St. Louis, Mo., became the first city to make kindergartens part of the public school system.

Nursery schools did not make their appearance in the United States until the early 1920s, when several universities, colleges, and research centers established them as experimental schools for training very young children. During the Great Depression of the 1930s nursery schools were subsidized by the federal government to provide work for teachers. Now frequently called day schools, they are operated in all major cities and most smaller communities by churches, park districts, and other institutions independently of local school systems.

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