Jordan (/ˈdʒɔːrdən/; Arabic: الأردن‎‎ Aw-Urdunn), officiawwy The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية‎‎ Aw-Mamwakah Aw-Urdunnīyah Aw-Ḥāshimīyah), is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on de East Bank of de Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to de east and souf; Iraq to de norf-east; Syria to de norf; Israew, Pawestine and de Dead Sea to de west; and de Red Sea in its extreme souf-west.[6] Jordan is strategicawwy wocated at de crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe.[7] The capitaw, Amman, is Jordan's most popuwous city as weww as de country's economic, powiticaw and cuwturaw centre.[8]

Jordan is a rewativewy-smaww, semi-arid, awmost-wandwocked country wif a popuwation numbering 9.5 miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. SunniIswam, practiced by around 92% of de popuwation, is de dominant rewigion in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. It co-exists wif an indigenous Christian minority. Jordan is considered to be among de safest of Arab countries in de Middwe East, and has avoided wong-term terrorism and instabiwity.[12] In de midst of surrounding turmoiw, it has been greatwy hospitabwe, accepting refugees from awmost aww surrounding confwicts as earwy as 1948, wif most notabwy de estimated 2.1 miwwion Pawestinians and de 1.4 miwwion Syrian refugees residing in de country.[13] The kingdom is awso a refuge to dousands of Iraqi Christians fweeing de Iswamic State.[14] Whiwe Jordan continues to accept refugees, de recent warge infwux from Syria pwaced substantiaw strain on nationaw resources and infrastructure.[15]

Jordan is cwassified as a country of "high human devewopment" wif an "upper middwe income" economy. The Jordanian economy, one of de smawwest economies in de region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skiwwed workforce.[16] The country is a major tourist destination, and awso attracts medicaw tourism due to its weww devewoped heawf sector.[17] Nonedewess, a wack of naturaw resources, warge fwow of refugees and regionaw turmoiw have hampered economic growf.[18]

Jordan is named after de Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptised.[19] The origin of de river's name is debated, but de most common expwanation is dat it derives from de word "yarad" (de descender, "Yarden" is de Hebrew name for de river), found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and oder Semitic wanguages.[19] Oders regard de name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining de words "yor" (year) and "don" (river), refwecting de river's perenniaw nature.[19] Anoder deory is dat it is from de Arabic root word "wrd" (to come to), as in peopwe coming to a major source of water.[19]

The prehistoric period of Jordan ended at around 2000 BC when de Semitic nomads known as de Amorites entered de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[31] During de Bronze Age and Iron Age, present-day Jordan was home to severaw ancient kingdoms, whose popuwations spoke Semitic wanguages of de Canaanite group.[31] Among dem were Ammon, Edom and Moab, which are described as tribaw kingdoms rader dan states.[31] They are mentioned in ancient texts such as de Owd Testament.[31] Archaeowogicaw finds have shown dat Ammon was in de area of de modern city of Amman, Moab in de highwands east of de Dead Sea and Edom in de area around Wadi Araba.[32]

These Transjordanian kingdoms were in continuous confwict wif de neighbouring Hebrew kingdoms of Israew and Judah, centered west of de Jordan River, dough de former was known to have at times controwwed smaww parts east of de River.[34] Freqwent confrontations ensued and tensions between dem increased.[35] One record of dis is de Mesha Stewe erected by de Moabite king Mesha in around 840 BC on which he wauds himsewf for de buiwding projects dat he initiated in Moab and commemorates his gwory and victory against de Israewites.[35] The stewe constitutes one of de most important direct accounts of Bibwicaw history.[33] Subseqwentwy, de Assyrian Empire reduced dese kingdoms to vassaws.[36] When de region was water under de infwuence of de Babywonians, de Owd Testament mentions dat dese kingdoms aided dem in de 597 BC sack of Jerusawem.[36]

Awexander de Great's conqwest of de Achaemenid Empire in 332 BC introduced Hewwenistic cuwture to de Middwe East.[37] After Awexander's deaf in 323 BC, his empire spwit among his generaws and in de end, much of de wand of modern-day Jordan was disputed between de Ptowemies based in Egypt and de Seweucids based in Syria.[38] In de souf and east, de Nabataeans had an independent kingdom.[38] The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who derived weawf from deir capitaw Petra, whose proximity to major trade routes wed to it becoming a regionaw trading hub.[37]Campaigns by different Greek generaws aspiring to annex de Nabataean Kingdom were unsuccessfuw.[37]

The Ptowemies were eventuawwy dispwaced from de region by de Seweucid Empire.[38] The confwict between dese two groups enabwed de Nabataeans to extend deir kingdom nordwards weww beyond Petra in Edom.[38] The Nabataeans are known for deir great abiwity in constructing efficient water cowwecting medods in de barren desert and deir tawent in carving structures into sowid rocks — notabwy de Khazneh (treasury).[37] These nomads spoke Arabic and wrote in Nabataean awphabets, which were devewoped from Aramaic script during de 2nd century BC, and are regarded by schowars to have evowved into de Arabic awphabet around de 4f century AD.[39]

Roman wegions under Pompey conqwered much of de Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman ruwe dat wasted for centuries.[9] In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed de nearby Nabataean Kingdom widout any opposition, and rebuiwt de King's Highway which became known as de Via Traiana Nova road.[41] During Roman ruwe de Nabataeans continued to fwourish and repwaced deir wocaw gods wif Christianity.[42] Roman remains in Amman incwude: de Tempwe of Hercuwes at de Amman Citadew and de Roman deater.[42]Jerash contains a weww-preserved Roman city dat had 15,000 inhabitants at its zenif.[43] Jerash was visited by Emperor Hadrian during his journey to Pawestine.[42] In 324 AD, de Roman Empire spwit, and de Eastern Roman Empire (water known as de Byzantine Empire) continued to controw or infwuence de region untiw 636 AD.[42] Christianity had become wegaw widin de empire in 313 AD and de officiaw state rewigion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity.[42]

The Crusaders constructed about nine Crusader castwes as part of de wordship of Ouwtrejordain, incwuding dose of Montreaw, Aw-Karak and Wu'ayra (in Petra).[50] In de 12f century, de Crusaders were defeated by Sawadin, de founder of de Ayyubids dynasty (1189–1260).[50] The Ayyubids buiwt a new castwe at Ajwoun and rebuiwt de former Roman fort of Qasr Azraq.[50] Severaw of dese castwes were used and expanded by de Mamwuks (1260–1516), who divided Jordan between de provinces of Karak and Damascus.[50] During de next century Transjordan experienced Mongow attacks, but de Mongows were uwtimatewy repewwed by de Mamwuks after de Battwe of Ain Jawut (1260).[50]

Russian persecution of Sunni Muswim Circassians and Chechens wed to deir immigration into de region in 1867, where today dey form a smaww part of de country's ednic fabric.[54] Overaww popuwation however decwined due to oppression and negwect.[55] Urban settwements wif smaww popuwations incwuded: Aw-Sawt, Irbid, Jerash and Aw-Karak.[56] The under-devewopment of urban wife in Jordan was exacerbated by de settwements being sometimes raided.[23] Ottoman oppression provoked de region's bof non-Bedouin and Bedouin tribes to revowt, Bedouin tribes wike: Adwan, Bani Hassan, Bani Sakhr and de Howeitat.[54] The most notabwe revowts were de Shoubak Revowt (1905) and de Karak Revowt (1910), which were brutawwy suppressed.[54] Jordan's wocation wies on a piwgrimage route taken by Muswims going to Mecca, which hewped de popuwation economicawwy when de Ottomans constructed de Hejaz Raiwway winking Mecca wif Istanbuw in 1908.[54] Before de construction of de raiwway, de Ottomans buiwt fortresses awong de Hajj route to secure piwgrims' caravans.[57]

The Great Arab Revowt started on 5 June 1916 from Medina and pushed nordwards untiw de fighting reached Transjordan in de Battwe of Aqaba on 6 Juwy 1917.[38] By 1918, de revowt — wif de Awwies' support — successfuwwy gained controw of most of de territories of de Hejaz and de Levant, incwuding Damascus.[38] However, it faiwed to gain internationaw recognition as an independent state, due mainwy to de secret 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement and de 1917 Bawfour Decwaration.[38] This was seen by de Hashemites and de Arabs as a betrayaw of deir previous agreements wif de British, incwuding de 1915 McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, in which de British stated deir wiwwingness to recognise de independence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aweppo to Aden under de ruwe of de Hashemites.[38] The region was divided into French and British spheres of infwuence.[38]Abduwwah I, de second son of Sharif Hussein arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in soudern Jordan on 11 November 1920, where he was greeted by Transjordanian weaders.[38] Abduwwah estabwished de Emirate of Transjordan on 11 Apriw 1921, which den became a British protectorate.[62]

In September 1922, de Counciw of de League of Nations recognised Transjordan as a state under de British Mandate for Pawestine and de Transjordan memorandum, and excwuded de territories east of de Jordan River from de provisions of de mandate deawing wif Jewish settwement.[63] Transjordan remained a British mandate untiw 1946, but it had been granted a greater wevew of autonomy dan de region west to de Jordan River.[64]

The first organised army in Jordan was estabwished on 22 October 1920, and was named de "Arab Legion".[38] The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946.[65] Muwtipwe difficuwties emerged upon de assumption of power in de region by de Hashemite weadership.[38] In Transjordan, smaww wocaw rebewwions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by Emir Abduwwah wif de hewp of British forces.[38] Wahhabis from Najd regained strengf and repeatedwy raided de soudern parts of his territory in (1922–1924), seriouswy dreatening de Emir's position, uh-hah-hah-hah.[38] The Emir was unabwe to repew dose raids widout de aid of de wocaw Bedouin tribes and de British, who maintained a miwitary base wif a smaww RAF detachment cwose to Amman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[38]

King Abduwwah I decwaring de end of de British Mandate and de independence of de Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 25 May 1946.

The Treaty of London, signed by de British Government and de Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, recognised de independence of Transjordan upon ratification by bof countries' parwiaments.[66] On 25 May 1946, de Emirate of Transjordan became The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan, as de ruwing Emir was re-designated as King by de parwiament of Transjordan on de day it ratified de Treaty of London, uh-hah-hah-hah.[67] The name was changed to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949.[10] Jordan became a member of de United Nations on 14 December 1955.[10]

On 15 May 1948, as part of de 1948 Arab–Israewi War, Jordan invaded Pawestine togeder wif oder Arab states.[68] Fowwowing de war, Jordan controwwed de West Bank and on 24 Apriw 1950 Jordan formawwy annexed dese territories.[69] In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan's expuwsion from de Arab League.[69] On 12 June 1950, de Arab League decwared dat de annexation was a temporary, practicaw measure and dat Jordan was howding de territory as a "trustee" pending a future settwement.[70] King Abduwwah was assassinated at de Aw-Aqsa Mosqwe in 1951 by a Pawestinian miwitant, amid rumours he intended to sign a peace treaty wif Israew.[71]

Jordan signed a miwitary pact wif Egypt just before Israew waunched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin de Six-Day War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined de war.[76] The Arab states were defeated and Jordan wost controw of de West Bank to Israew.[76] The War of Attrition wif Israew fowwowed, which incwuded de 1968 Battwe of Karameh where de combined forces of de Jordanian Armed Forces and de Pawestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repewwed an Israewi attack on de Karameh camp on de Jordanian border wif de West Bank.[76] Despite de fact dat de Pawestinians had wimited invowvement against de Israewi forces, de events at Karameh gained wide recognition and accwaim in de Arab worwd.[77] As a resuwt, de time period fowwowing de battwe witnessed an upsurge of support for Pawestinian paramiwitary ewements (de fedayeen) widin Jordan from oder Arab countries.[77] The fedayeen activities soon became a dreat to Jordan's ruwe of waw.[77] In September 1970, de Jordanian army targeted de fedayeen and de resuwtant fighting wed to de expuwsion of Pawestinian fighters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a civiw war dat became known as Bwack September.[77]

In 1973, Egypt and Syria waged de Yom Kippur War on Israew, and fighting occurred awong de 1967 Jordan River cease-fire wine.[77] Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israewi units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israewi forces from Jordanian territory.[77] At de Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, awong wif de rest of de Arab League, dat de PLO was de "sowe wegitimate representative of de Pawestinian peopwe".[77] Subseqwentwy, Jordan renounced its cwaims to de West Bank in 1988.[77]

On 7 February 1999, Abduwwah II ascended de drone upon de deaf of his fader Hussein, uh-hah-hah-hah.[78] Abduwwah embarked on aggressive economic wiberawisation when he assumed de drone, and his reforms wed to an economic boom which continued untiw 2008.[79] Abduwwah II has been credited wif increasing foreign investment, improving pubwic-private partnerships and providing de foundation for Aqaba's free-trade zone and Jordan's fwourishing information and communication technowogy (ICT) sector.[79] He awso set up five oder speciaw economic zones.[79] During de fowwowing years Jordan's economy experienced hardship as it deawt wif de effects of de Great Recession and spiwwover from de Arab Spring, incwuding a cut in its petroweum suppwy and de cowwapse of trade wif neighbouring countries.[80]

Aw-Qaeda under Abu Musab aw-Zarqawi's weadership waunched coordinated expwosions in dree hotew wobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resuwting in 60 deads and 115 injured.[81] The bombings, which targeted civiwians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.[81] The attack is considered to be a rare event in de country, and Jordan's internaw security was dramaticawwy improved afterwards.[81] No major terrorist attacks have occurred since den, uh-hah-hah-hah.[82] Abduwwah and Jordan are viewed wif contempt by Iswamic extremists for de country's peace treaty wif Israew and its rewationship wif de West.[83]

The Arab Spring began sweeping de Arab worwd in 2011, where warge-scawe protests erupted demanding economic and powiticaw reforms.[84] However, many of dese protests in some countries turned into civiw wars and more instabiwity.[84] In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abduwwah repwaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms incwuding: amending de Constitution and estabwishing a number of governmentaw commissions.[84] Proportionaw representation was re-introduced to de Jordanian parwiament in de 2016 generaw ewection, a move which he said wouwd eventuawwy wead to estabwishing parwiamentary governments.[85] Awdough some wocaw opposition groups cawwed his reforms inadeqwate, oder observers praised dem.[85] They took pwace amid unprecedented regionaw instabiwity: an infwux of 1.4 miwwion Syrian refugees into de naturaw resources-wacking country and de emergence of de Iswamic State of Iraq and de Levant (ISIL).[85]

Wadi Rum's resembwance to de surface of Mars has made it a popuwar fiwming and tourist attraction, incwuding scenes in The Martian (2015).

Jordan sits strategicawwy at de crossroads of de continents of Asia, Africa and Europe,[7] in de Levant area of de Fertiwe Crescent, a cradwe of civiwization.[86] It is 89,341 sqware kiwometres (34,495 sq mi) warge, and 400 kiwometres (250 mi) wong between its nordernmost and soudernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectivewy.[87] The kingdom wies between 29° and 34° N, and 34° and 40° E. The east is an arid pwateau irrigated by oases and seasonaw water streams.[87] Major cities are overwhewmingwy wocated on de norf-western part of de kingdom due to its fertiwe soiws and rewativewy abundant rainfaww.[88] These incwude Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in de nordwest, de capitaw Amman and Aw-Sawt in de centraw west, and Madaba, Aw-Karak and Aqaba in de soudwest.[88] Major towns in de eastern part of de country are de oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished.[86]

The Dead Sea wocated awong Jordan's western border wif Pawestine and Israew, is de sawtiest body of water and de wowest point on earf. Swimmers can fwoat effortwesswy whiwst receiving heawf benefits from de mineraw-rich water and mud.[86]

In de west, a highwand area of arabwe wand and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenwy into de Jordan Rift Vawwey.[86] The rift vawwey contains de Jordan River and de Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israew and de Pawestinian Territories.[86] Jordan has a 26 kiwometres (16 mi) shorewine on de Guwf of Aqaba in de Red Sea, but is oderwise wandwocked.[6] The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of de Jordan, forms part of de boundary between Jordan and Syria (incwuding de occupied Gowan Heights) to de norf.[6] The oder boundaries are formed by severaw internationaw and wocaw agreements and do not fowwow weww-defined naturaw features.[86] The highest point is Jabaw Umm aw Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea wevew, whiwe de wowest is de Dead Sea −420 m (−1,378 ft), de wowest wand point on earf.[86]

The cwimate in Jordan varies greatwy. Generawwy, de furder inwand from de Mediterranean, greater contrasts in temperature occur and de wess rainfaww dere is.[87] The country's average ewevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) (SL).[87] The highwands above de Jordan Vawwey, mountains of de Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far souf as Ras Aw-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean cwimate, whiwe de eastern and nordeastern areas of de country are arid desert.[91] Awdough de desert parts of de kingdom reach high temperatures, de heat is usuawwy moderated by wow humidity and a daytime breeze, whiwe de nights are coow.[92]

Summers, wasting from May to September, are hot and dry, wif temperatures averaging around 32 °C (90 °F) and sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) between Juwy and August.[92] The winter, wasting from November to March, is rewativewy coow, wif temperatures averaging around 13 °C (55 °F).[91] Winter awso sees freqwent showers and occasionaw snowfaww in some western ewevated areas.[91]

Over 2,000 pwant species have been recorded in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[93] Many of de fwowering pwants bwoom in de spring after de winter rains and de type of vegetation depends wargewy on de wevews of precipitation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The mountainous regions in de nordwest are cwoded in forests, whiwe furder souf and east de vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe-type vegetation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[94] Forests cover 1.5 miwwion dunums (1,500 km2), wess dan 2% of Jordan, making Jordan among de worwd's weast forested countries, de internationaw average being 15%.[95]

Jordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (informawwy grouped into dree regions: nordern, centraw, soudern). These are subdivided into a totaw of 52 nawahi, which are furder divided into neighbourhoods in urban areas or into towns in ruraw ones.[103] The Parwiament of Jordan consists of two chambers: de upper Senate (Arabic: مجلس الأعيان‎‎ Majwis Aw-'Aayan) and de wower House of Representatives (Arabic: مجلس النواب‎‎ Majwis Aw-Nuwab).[104] Aww 65 members of de Senate are directwy appointed by de king. They are usuawwy veteran powiticians or are known to have hewd previous positions in de House of Representatives or in de government.[104] The 130 members of de House of Representatives are ewected drough proportionaw representation in 23 constituencies on nationwide party wists for a 4-year ewection cycwe.[105] Minimum qwotas exist in de House of Representatives for women (15 seats, dough dey won 20 seats in de 2016 ewection), Christians (9 seats) and Circassians and Chechens (3 seats).[106] Three constituencies are awwocated for de Bedouins of de nordern, centraw and soudern Badias.[107]

Jordan has around 50 powiticaw parties representing nationawist, Iswamist, weftist and wiberaw ideowogies.[108] Powiticaw parties contested a fiff of de seats in de 2016 ewections, de remainder bewonging to independent powiticians.[109] The government can be dismissed by a two-dirds vote of "no confidence" by de House of Representatives. Powiticaw parties come under de jurisdiction of de Ministry of Interior, and may not be estabwished on de basis of rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[110]

The Constitution of Jordan was adopted in 1952 and has been amended a number of times, most recentwy in 2016.[111] Articwe 97 of Jordan's constitution guarantees de independence of de judiciaw branch, stating dat judges are "subject to no audority but dat of de waw."[112] Articwe 99 divides de courts into dree categories: civiw, rewigious, and speciaw.[112] The civiw courts deaw wif civiw and criminaw matters, and have jurisdiction over aww persons in aww matters civiw and criminaw, incwuding cases brought against de government.[112] The civiw courts incwude Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeaw,[112] High Administrative Courts which hear cases rewating to administrative matters,[113] and de Constitutionaw Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding de constitutionawity of waws.[114] The rewigious court system's jurisdiction extends to matters of personaw status such as divorce and inheritance, and is partiawwy based on Sharia Iswamic waw.[115] The speciaw court deaws wif cases forwarded by de civiw one.[116]

The current monarch, Abduwwah II, ascended to de drone in February 1999 after de deaf of his fader Hussein. Abduwwah re-affirmed Jordan's commitment to de peace treaty wif Israew and its rewations wif de United States. He refocused de government's agenda on economic reform, during his first year. King Abduwwah's ewdest son, Prince Hussein, is de current Crown Prince of Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[117] The current prime minister is Hani Aw-Muwki who received his position on 29 May 2016.[118]

According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as de 4f freest Arab country, and as "partwy free" in de Freedom in de Worwd 2017 report.[119] The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from de Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in de state of democratic reforms out of 15 Arab countries.[120] Jordan ranked first among de Arab states and 78f gwobawwy in de Human Freedom Index in 2015,[121] and ranked 55f out of 175 countries in de Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency Internationaw in 2014, where 175f is most corrupt.[122] In de 2016 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Widout Borders, Jordan ranked 135f out of 180 countries worwdwide, and 5f of 19 countries in de Middwe East and Norf Africa region, uh-hah-hah-hah. Jordan's score was 44 on a scawe from 0 (most free) to 105 (weast free). The report added "de Arab Spring and de Syrian confwict have wed de audorities to tighten deir grip on de media and, in particuwar, de Internet, despite an outcry from civiw society".[123] Jordanian media consists of pubwic and private institutions. Popuwar Jordanian newspapers incwude Ammon News, Ad-Dustour and Jordan Times. The two most-watched wocaw TV stations are Ro'ya TV and Jordan TV.[124] Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015.[125]

The kingdom has fowwowed a pro-Western foreign powicy and maintained cwose rewations wif de United States and de United Kingdom. During de first Guwf War (1990), dese rewations were damaged by Jordan's neutrawity and its maintenance of rewations wif Iraq. Later, Jordan restored its rewations wif Western countries drough its participation in de enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq and in de Soudwest Asia peace process. After King Hussein's deaf in 1999, rewations between Jordan and de Persian Guwf countries greatwy improved.[127]

Jordan is a key awwy of de USA and UK and, togeder wif Egypt, is one of onwy two Arab nations to have signed peace treaties wif Israew, Jordan's direct neighbour.[128] Jordan views an independent Pawestinian state wif de 1967 borders, as part of de two-state sowution and of supreme nationaw interest.[129] The ruwing Hashemite dynasty has had custodianship over howy sites in Jerusawem since 1924, a position re-inforced in de Israew–Jordan peace treaty. Turmoiw in Jerusawem's Aw-Aqsa mosqwe between Israewis and Pawestinians created tensions between Jordan and Israew concerning de former's rowe in protecting de Muswim and Christian sites in Jerusawem.[130]

The first organised army in Jordan was estabwished on 22 October 1920, and was named de "Arab Legion". Jordan's capture of de West Bank during de 1948 Arab-Israewi War proved dat de Arab Legion, known today as de Jordan Armed Forces, was de most effective among de Arab troops invowved in de war.[65] The Royaw Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnew, is considered to be among de most professionaw in de region, due to being particuwarwy weww-trained and organised.[65] The Jordanian miwitary enjoys strong support and aid from de United States, de United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan's criticaw position in de Middwe East.[65] The devewopment of Speciaw Operations Forces has been particuwarwy significant, enhancing de capabiwity of de miwitary to react rapidwy to dreats to homewand security, as weww as training speciaw forces from de region and beyond.[135] Jordan provides extensive training to de security forces of severaw Arab countries.[136]

There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working wif de United Nations in peacekeeping missions across de worwd. Jordan ranks dird internationawwy in participation in U.N. peacekeeping missions,[137] wif one of de highest wevews of peacekeeping troop contributions of aww U.N. member states.[138] Jordan has dispatched severaw fiewd hospitaws to confwict zones and areas affected by naturaw disasters across de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[139]

Jordan is cwassified by de Worwd Bank as an "upper-middwe income" country.[145] However, approximatewy 14.4% of de popuwation wives bewow de nationaw poverty wine on a wongterm basis (as of 2010[update]),[145] whiwe awmost a dird faww under de nationaw poverty wine during some time of de year—known as transient poverty.[146] The economy, which boasts a GDP of $38.210 biwwion (as of 2015[update]),[3] grew at an average rate of 4.3% per annum between 2005 and 2010, and around 2.5% 2010 onwards.[147] GDP per capita rose by 351% in de 1970s, decwined 30% in de 1980s, and rose 36% in de 1990s.[148] The Jordanian economy is one of de smawwest economies in de region, and de country's popuwace suffers from rewativewy high rates of unempwoyment and poverty.[87]

Jordan's economy is rewativewy weww diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearwy one-dird of GDP; transportation and communication, pubwic utiwities, and construction account for one-fiff, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearwy anoder fiff. Despite pwans to expand de private sector, de state remains de dominant force in Jordan's economy.[18] Net officiaw devewopment assistance to Jordan in 2009 totawwed USD 761 miwwion; according to de government, approximatewy two-dirds of dis was awwocated as grants, of which hawf was direct budget support.[147]

The officiaw currency is de Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to de IMF's speciaw drawing rights (SDRs), eqwivawent to an exchange rate of 1 US$ ≡ 0.709 dinar, or approximatewy 1 dinar ≡ 1.41044 dowwars.[149] In 2000, Jordan joined de Worwd Trade Organization and signed de Jordan–United States Free Trade Agreement, dus becoming de first Arab country to estabwish a free trade agreement wif de United States. Jordan awso has free trade agreements wif Turkey and Canada.[150] Jordan enjoys advanced status wif de EU, which has faciwitated greater access to export to European markets.[151] Due to swow domestic growf, high energy and food subsidies and a bwoated pubwic-sector workforce, Jordan usuawwy runs annuaw budget deficits. These are partiawwy offset by internationaw aid.[152]

The Great Recession and de turmoiw caused by de Arab Spring have depressed Jordan's GDP growf, damaging trade, industry, construction and tourism.[87] Tourist arrivaws have dropped sharpwy since 2011.[153] Jordan's finances have awso been severewy strained by 32 attacks on de naturaw gas pipewine in Sinai suppwying Jordan from Egypt by Iswamic State affiwiates, causing it to substitute more expensive heavy-fuew oiws to generate ewectricity.[154] In November 2012, de government cut subsidies on fuew, increasing its price.[155] The decision, which was water revoked, caused warge scawe protests to break out across de country.[152][153]

Jordan's totaw foreign debt in 2012 was $22 biwwion, representing 72% of its GDP.[155] In 2016, de debt reached $35.1 biwwion representing 90.6% of its GDP. This substantiaw increase is attributed to effects of regionaw instabiwity causing: decrease in tourist activity; decreased foreign investments; increased miwitary expenditure; attacks on Egyptian pipewine; de cowwapse of trade wif Iraq and Syria; expenses from hosting Syrian refugees and accumuwated interests from woans.[80] According to de Worwd Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more dan $2.5 biwwion a year, amounting to 6% of de GDP and 25% of de government's annuaw revenue.[156] Foreign aid covers onwy a smaww part of dese costs, 63% of de totaw costs are covered by Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[157] An economic programme was adopted by de government which aims to reduce Jordan's debt-to-GDP ratio to 77 percent by 2021.[158]

The proportion of skiwwed workers in Jordan is among de highest in de region in sectors such as ICT and industry, due to a rewativewy modern educationaw system. This has attracted warge foreign investments to Jordan and has enabwed de country to export its workforce to Persian Guwf countries.[16] Fwows of remittances to Jordan grew rapidwy, particuwarwy during de end of de 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of externaw funding.[159] Remittances from Jordanian expatriates were $3.8 biwwion in 2015, a notabwe rise in de amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 biwwion wisting Jordan as fourf wargest recipient in de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[160]

Jordan's weww devewoped industriaw sector, which incwudes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximatewy 26% of de GDP in 2004 (incwuding manufacturing, 16.2%; construction, 4.6%; and mining, 3.1%). More dan 21% of Jordan's wabor force was empwoyed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6% of de GDP.[161] The main industriaw products are potash, phosphates, cement, cwodes, and fertiwisers. The most promising segment of dis sector is construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Petra Engineering Industries Company, which is considered to be one of de main piwwars of Jordanian industry, has gained internationaw recognition wif its air-conditioning units reaching NASA.[162] Jordan is now considered to be a weading pharmaceuticaws manufacturer in de MENA region wed by Jordanian pharmaceuticaw company Hikma.[163]

Jordan's miwitary industry drived after de King Abduwwah Design and Devewopment Bureau (KADDB) defence company was estabwished by King Abduwwah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capabiwity for de suppwy of scientific and technicaw services to de Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a gwobaw hub in security research and devewopment. It manufactures aww types of miwitary products, many of which are presented at de bi-annuawwy hewd internationaw miwitary exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, KADDB exported $72 miwwion worf of industries to over 42 countries.[164]

The tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of de economy, being a warge source of empwoyment, hard currency and economic growf. In 2010, dere were 8 miwwion visitors to Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. The resuwt was $3.4 biwwion in tourism revenues, $4.4 biwwion wif de incwusion of medicaw tourists.[165] The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries.[17] The tourism sector in Jordan has been severewy affected by regionaw turbuwence.[60] The most recent bwow to de tourism sector was caused by de Arab Spring, which scared off tourists from de entire region, uh-hah-hah-hah. Jordan experienced a 70% decrease in de number of tourists from 2010 to 2016.[166]

Modern entertainment and recreation in urban areas, mostwy in Amman, awso attract tourists. Recentwy, de nightwife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and de number of bars, discos and nightcwubs is on de rise. However, most nightcwubs have a restriction on unescorted mawes.[170] Awcohow is widewy avaiwabwe in tourist restaurants, wiqwor stores and even some supermarkets.[171] Vawweys wike Wadi Mujib and hiking traiws in different parts of de country attract adventurers. Moreover, seaside recreation is present on de shores of Aqaba and de Dead Sea drough severaw internationaw resorts.[172]

Jordan has been a medicaw tourism destination in de Middwe East since de 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan's Private Hospitaws Association found dat 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 biwwion in revenue. Jordan is de region's top medicaw tourism destination, as rated by de Worwd Bank, and fiff in de worwd overaww.[173] The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to de ongoing civiw wars in dose countries. Jordanian doctors and medicaw staff have gained experience in deawing wif war patients drough years of receiving such cases from various confwict zones in de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[174] Jordan awso is a hub for naturaw treatment medods in bof Ma'in Hot Springs and de Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a 'naturaw spa'. It contains 10 times more sawt dan de average ocean, which makes it impossibwe to sink in, uh-hah-hah-hah. The high sawt concentration of de Dead Sea has been proved as being derapeutic for many skin diseases. The uniqweness of dis wake attracts severaw Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in de hotew sector in de area.[175]

Jordan is de worwd's second poorest country in terms of water resources per capita, and scarce water resources were aggravated by de infwux of Syrian refugees.[176] Water from Disi aqwifer and ten major dams pway a warge rowe in providing Jordan's need for fresh water.[177] The Dead Sea is receding at an awarming rate. Muwtipwe canaws and pipewines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many probwems. The Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, wiww provide water to neighbouring countries, whiwe de brine wiww be carried to de Dead Sea to hewp stabiwise its wevews. The first phase of de project is scheduwed to begin in 2018 and to be compweted in 2021.[178]Phosphate mines in de souf have made Jordan one of de wargest producers and exporters of dis mineraw in de worwd.[179]

Despite de fact dat reserves of crude oiw are non-commerciaw, Jordan has de 5f wargest oiw-shawe reserves in de worwd, which couwd be commerciawwy expwoited in de centraw and nordwestern regions of de country.[180] Officiaw figures estimate de kingdom's oiw shawe reserves at more dan 70 biwwion tonnes. Attarat Power Pwant, which wiww start construction in wate 2017, is a $2.2 biwwion oiw shawe-dependent power pwant dat wiww be compweted in 2020 wif a totaw capacity of 470 megawatts. The project is part of de kingdom's visionary pwan dat aims to diversify its energy resources by 2025.[181] The extraction of shawe oiw had been dewayed by a coupwe of years due to: de advanced wevew of technowogy dat is reqwired for extraction; and de rewativewy higher cost.[182]

Jordan aims to benefit from its warge uranium reserves wif two nucwear pwants, 1000 MW each, scheduwed for compwetion in 2025.[183] Naturaw gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of de reserve discovered was about 230 biwwion cubic feet, a modest qwantity compared wif its oder Arab neighbours. The Risha fiewd, in de eastern desert beside de Iraqi border, produces nearwy 35 miwwion cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power pwant to produce nearwy 10% of Jordan's ewectricity needs.[184] Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s in de mountainous areas.[185] King Abduwwah inaugurated severaw warge-scawe projects wike de 117 MW Tafiwa Wind Farm and de 53 MW Shams Ma'an Power Pwant in de 2010s. In May 2017, it was announced dat more dan 200 MW of sowar energy projects had been compweted.[186] The government has set a target to satisfy 20% of Jordan's ewectricaw consumption wif renewabwe resources by 2020, a totaw of around 1800 MW.[187]

Jordan is ranked as having de 35f best infrastructure in de worwd, one of de highest rankings in de devewoping worwd, according to de 2010 Worwd Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructuraw devewopment is necessitated by its rowe as a transit country for goods and services to Pawestine and Iraq. Pawestinians use Jordan as a transit country due to de Israewi restrictions and Iraqis use Jordan due to de instabiwity in Iraq.[188]

According to data from de Jordanian Ministry of Pubwic Works and Housing, as of 2011[update], de Jordanian road network consisted of 2,878 km (1,788 mi) of main roads; 2,592 km (1,611 mi) of ruraw roads and 1,733 km (1,077 mi) of side roads. The Hejaz Raiwway buiwt during de Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca wiww act as a base for future raiwway expansion pwans. Currentwy, de raiwway has wittwe civiwian activity; it is primariwy used for transporting goods. A nationaw raiwway project is currentwy undergoing studies and seeking funding sources.[189]

The Port of Aqaba is de onwy port in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 2006, de port was ranked as being de "Best Container Terminaw" in de Middwe East by Lwoyd's List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for oder neighbouring countries, its wocation between four countries and dree continents, being an excwusive gateway for de wocaw market and for de improvements it has recentwy witnessed.[192]

The 117 MW Tafiwa Wind Farm in soudern Jordan is de first and wargest onshore wind farm in de Middwe East.[193]

Science and technowogy is de country's fastest devewoping economic sector. This growf is occurring across muwtipwe industries, incwuding information and communications technowogy (ICT) and nucwear technowogy. Jordan contributes 75% of de Arabic content on de Internet.[194] In 2014, de ICT sector accounted for more dan 84,000 jobs and contributed to 12% of de GDP. More dan 400 companies are active in tewecom, information technowogy and video game devewopment. There are 600 companies operating in active technowogies and 300 start-up companies.[194]

Nucwear science and technowogy is awso expanding. The Jordan Research and Training Reactor, which was inaugurated in 2016, is a 5MW training reactor wocated at de Jordan University of Science and Technowogy in Ar Ramda.[195] The faciwity is de first nucwear reactor in de country and wiww provide Jordan wif radioactive isotopes for medicaw usage and provide training to students to produce a skiwwed workforce for de country's pwanned commerciaw nucwear reactors.[195] Jordan signed a contract wif Russian company Rosatom in 2014 for de construction of two $5 biwwion nucwear reactors which are currentwy at de pwanning stage and are expected to start dewivering ewectricity in 2025.[183]

The watest census, taken in 2015, showed de popuwation numbered some 9.5 miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2.9 miwwion (30%) were non-citizens, a figure incwuding refugees and iwwegaw immigrants.[13] There were 1,977,534 househowds in Jordan in 2015, wif an average of 4.8 persons per househowd (compared to 6.7 persons per househowd for de census of 1979).[13] The vast majority of Jordanians are Arabs, accounting for 98% of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The rest is attributed to Circassians, Chechens and Armenians.[87] As de popuwation has increased, it has become more settwed and urban, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 1922 awmost hawf de popuwation (around 103,000) were nomadic, whereas nomads made up onwy 6% of de popuwation in 2015. The popuwation in Amman, 65,754 in 1946, has grown to over 4 miwwion in 2015.[197]

Jordan was home to 2,117,361 Pawestinians in 2015, most of dem Jordanian citizens.[198] The first wave of Pawestinian refugees arrived during de 1948 Arab Israewi war and peaked in de 1967 Six Day War and de 1990 Guwf War. In de past, Jordan had given many Pawestinian refugees citizenship, however recentwy Jordanian citizenship is given onwy in rare cases. 370,000 of dese Pawestinians wive in UNRWA refugee camps.[198] Fowwowing de capture of de West Bank by Israew in 1967, Jordan revoked de citizenship of dousands of Pawestinians to dwart any attempt to permanentwy resettwe from de West Bank to Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. West Bank Pawestinians wif famiwy in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yewwow cards guaranteeing dem aww de rights of Jordanian citizenship if reqwested.[199]

Whiwe some 700,000–1,000,000 Iraqis came to Jordan fowwowing de Iraq War in 2003, most have returned.[200] Many Iraqi Christians (Assyrians/Chawdeans) however settwed temporariwy or permanentwy in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[201] Immigrants awso incwude 15,000 Lebanese who arrived fowwowing de 2006 Lebanon War.[202] Since 2010, over 1.4 miwwion Syrian refugees have fwed to Jordan to escape de viowence in Syria.[13] The kingdom has continued to demonstrate hospitawity, despite de substantiaw strain de fwux of Syrian refugees pwaces on de country. The effects are wargewy affecting Jordanian communities, as de vast majority of Syrian refugees do not wive in camps. The refugee crisis effects incwude competition for job opportunities, water resources and oder state provided services, awong wif de strain on de nationaw infrastructure.[15]

In 2007, dere were up to 150,000 AssyrianChristians; most are Eastern Aramaic speaking refugees from Iraq.[203]Kurds number some 30,000, and wike de Assyrians, many are refugees from Iraq, Iran and Turkey.[204] Descendants of Armenians dat sought refuge in de Levant during de 1915 Armenian Genocide number approximatewy 5,000 persons, mainwy residing in Amman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[205] A smaww number of ednic Mandeans awso reside in Jordan, again mainwy refugees from Iraq.[206] Around 12,000 Iraqi Christians have sought refuge in Jordan after de Iswamic State took de city of Mosuw in 2014.[207] Severaw dousand Libyans, Yemenis and Sudanese have awso sought asywum in Jordan to escape instabiwity and viowence in deir respective countries.[15] The 2015 Jordanian census recorded dat dere were 1,265,000 Syrians, 636,270 Egyptians, 634,182 Pawestinians, 130,911 Iraqis, 31,163 Yemenis, 22,700 Libyans and 197,385 from oder nationawities residing in de country.[13]

There are around 1.2 miwwion iwwegaw, and 500,000 wegaw, migrant workers in de kingdom.[208] Thousands of foreign women, mostwy from de Middwe East and Eastern Europe, work in nightcwubs, hotews and bars across de kingdom.[209][210][211] American and European expatriate communities are concentrated in de capitaw, as de city is home to many internationaw organizations and dipwomatic missions.[171]

Sunni Iswam is de dominant rewigion in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Muswims make up about 92% of de country's popuwation; in turn, 93% of dose sewf-identify as Sunnis.[212] There are awso a smaww number of Ahmadi Muswims,[213] and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees.[214] Muswims who convert to anoder rewigion as weww as missionaries from oder rewigions face societaw and wegaw discrimination, uh-hah-hah-hah.[215]

Jordan contains some of de owdest Christian communities in de worwd, dating as earwy as de 1st century AD after de crucifixion of Jesus Christ.[216] Christians today make up about 4% of de popuwation,[217] down from 20% in 1930.[14] This is due to high immigration rates of Muswims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians to de west and higher birf rates for Muswims.[218] Jordanian Christians number around 250,000, aww of whom are Arabic-speaking, according to a 2014 estimate by de Ordodox Church. The study excwuded minority Christian groups and de dousands of western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[217] Christians are exceptionawwy weww integrated in de Jordanian society and enjoy a high wevew of freedom, dough dey are not free to evangewize Muswims.[219] Christians traditionawwy occupy two cabinet posts, and are reserved 9 seats out of de 130 in de parwiament.[220] The highest powiticaw position reached by a Christian is deputy prime minister, hewd by Marwan aw-Muasher in 2005.[221] Christians are awso infwuentiaw in media.[222] Smawwer rewigious minorities incwude Druze and Bahá'ís. Most Jordanian Druze wive in de eastern oasis town of Azraq, some viwwages on de Syrian border, and de city of Zarqa, whiwe most Jordanian Bahá'ís wive in de viwwage of Adassiyeh bordering de Jordan Vawwey.[223]

The officiaw wanguage is Modern Standard Arabic, a witerary wanguage taught in de schoows.[224] Most Jordanians nativewy speak one of de non-standard Arabic diawects known as Jordanian Arabic. Jordanian Sign Language is de wanguage of de deaf community. Engwish, dough widout officiaw status, is widewy spoken droughout de country and is de de facto wanguage of commerce and banking, as weww as a co-officiaw status in de education sector; awmost aww university-wevew cwasses are hewd in Engwish and awmost aww pubwic schoows teach Engwish awong wif Standard Arabic.[224]Chechen, Circassian, Armenian, Tagawog, and Russian are popuwar among deir communities.[225]French is offered as an ewective in many schoows, mainwy in de private sector.[224]German is an increasingwy popuwar wanguage; it has been introduced at a warger scawe since de estabwishment of de German-Jordanian University in 2005.[226]

Many institutions in Jordan aim to increase cuwturaw awareness of Jordanian Art and to represent Jordan's artistic movements in fiewds such as paintings, scuwpture, graffiti and photography.[227] The art scene has been devewoping in de past few years[228] and Jordan has been a haven for artists from surrounding countries.[229] In January 2016, for de first time ever, a Jordanian fiwm cawwed Theeb was nominated for de Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Fiwm.[230]

Less common sports are gaining popuwarity. Rugby is increasing in popuwarity, a Rugby Union is recognised by de Jordan Owympic Committee which supervises dree nationaw teams.[240] Awdough cycwing is not widespread in Jordan, de sport is devewoping rapidwy as a wifestywe and a new way to travew especiawwy among de youf.[241] In 2014, a NGO Make Life Skate Life compweted construction of de 7Hiwws Skatepark, de first skatepark in de country wocated in Downtown Amman.[242] Jordan's nationaw basketbaww team is participating in various internationaw and Middwe Eastern tournaments. Locaw basketbaww teams incwude: Aw-Ordodoxi Cwub, Aw-Riyadi, Zain, Aw-Hussein and Aw-Jazeera.[243]

The most distinctive Jordanian dish is mansaf, de nationaw dish of Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. The dish is a symbow for Jordanian hospitawity and is infwuenced by de Bedouin cuwture. Mansaf is eaten on different occasions such as funeraws, weddings and on rewigious howidays. It consists of a pwate of rice wif meat dat was boiwed in dick yogurt, sprayed wif nuts and sometimes herbs. As an owd tradition, de dish is eaten using one's hands, but de tradition is not awways used.[245] Simpwe fresh fruit is often served towards de end of a Jordanian meaw, but dere is awso dessert, such as bakwava, hareeseh, knafeh, hawva and qatayef, a dish made speciawwy for Ramadan. In Jordanian cuisine, drinking coffee and tea fwavoured wif na'na or meramiyyeh is awmost a rituaw.[246]

Jordanian schoow girws pictured reading in a pubwic schoow. Jordan's femawe witeracy rate was estimated to be 92.9% in 2015.[87]

Life expectancy in Jordan is around 74.6 years.[87] The weading cause of deaf is cardiovascuwar diseases, fowwowed by cancer.[247] Chiwdhood immunization rates have increased steadiwy over de past 15 years; by 2002 immunisations and vaccines reached more dan 95% of chiwdren under five.[248]Water and sanitation, avaiwabwe to onwy 10% of de popuwation in 1950, now reach 98% of Jordanians.[249]

Jordan prides itsewf on its heawf services, some of de best in de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[250] Quawified medics, favourabwe investment cwimate and Jordan's stabiwity has contributed to de success of dis sector.[251] The country's heawf care system is divided between pubwic and private institutions. On 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospitaw (as de biggest private hospitaw) was de first generaw speciawty hospitaw to gain de internationaw accreditation JCAHO.[248] The King Hussein Cancer Center is a weading cancer treatment center.[252] 66% of Jordanians have medicaw insurance.[13]

The Jordanian educationaw system consists of a two-year cycwe of pre-schoow education, 10 years of compuwsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocationaw education, after which de students sit for de Tawjihi exams.[253] 79% of chiwdren go drough primary education, whiwe secondary schoow enrowwment has increased from 63% to 97% of high schoow aged students in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Between 79% and 85% of high schoow students in Jordan move on to higher education, uh-hah-hah-hah.[254] According to de CIA Worwd Factbook, de witeracy rate in 2015 was 95.4%.[87] UNESCO ranked Jordan's education system 18f out of 94 nations for providing gender eqwawity in education, uh-hah-hah-hah.[255] Education is not free in Jordan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[256]

^"Lime Pwaster statues". British Museum. Trustees of de British Museum. Archived from de originaw on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015. Dating to de end of de eighf miwwennium BC, dey are among de earwiest warge-scawe representations of de human form.

Ew-Anis, Imad. Jordan and de United States: The Powiticaw Economy of Trade and Economic Reform in de Middwe East (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Pawgrave Macmiwwan; 2011) 320 pages; case studies of trade in textiwes, pharmaceuticaws, and financiaw services.