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Headings Heading ◦ The direction in which the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is pointing, measured clockwise from north True Heading ◦ The direction in which the aircraft nose is pointed, measured clockwise from true north Magnetic Heading ◦ The direction in which the aircraft nose is pointed, measured clockwise from magnetic north

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Compass Heading ◦ The direction that the needle of the compass is pointing Variation ◦ The angle between a true meridian and a magnetic meridian at any point Deviation ◦ The angle between magnetic heading and compass heading ◦ Caused by magnetic fields generated by the airframe, engine, and avionics

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Definitions Direction ◦ Measured in degrees, numbers clockwise from North. North = 0° or 360°, East = 90°, South = 180°, West = 270° True and Magnetic Direction ◦ Direction measured in degrees true when read directly from a map or in magnetic degrees when variation is considered Magnetic Dip ◦ Angle between the horizontal plane and the plane of the magnet/compass under the influence of a non- horizontal magnetic line of force

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Definitions Great Circle ◦ A circle on the surface of the earth whose plane passes through the centre of the earth ◦ It is the shortest distance between any two points on the earth Rhumb Line ◦ A curved line on the surface of the earth that cuts all of the meridians at the same angle

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Definitions Isogonals ◦ Lines on a map connecting places of equal variation ◦ Labeled East or West according to position relative to True North Agonic Line ◦ A line connecting places of zero variation ◦ Two agonic lines; one in North America and one on the opposite side of the Earth

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More Definitions

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Bearing ◦ The position of an object relative to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft Nautical Mile: 6080 feet ◦ The average length of one minute of latitude Statute Mile: 5280 feet Kilometre: 3280 feet

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Speed Knots (kts) ◦ Speed in nautical miles per hour Miles per Hour (mph) ◦ Speed in statute miles per hour Kilometres per Hour (km/h) ◦ Speed in kilometres per hour

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Speeds Indicated Airspeed (IAS) ◦ The airspeed shown on the Airspeed Indicator True Airspeed (TAS) ◦ Speed of the aircraft relative to the air ◦ Calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility and density Groundspeed ◦ Speed of the aircraft relative to the ground

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Tracks Track ◦ The intended path of the aircraft over the ground Track Made Good ◦ The actual path of the aircraft over the ground Drift ◦ The angle between the heading of the aircraft and the track made good

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Cardinal Point of the Compass Rose

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Heading vs. Bearing   AB The bearing to aircraft B is 090° Aircraft A is on a heading of 000° 000° 090°

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Heading vs. Bearing   AB The bearing to aircraft A is 180° Aircraft B is on a heading of 090° 090° 180°

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Review 1. What is the difference between magnetic and compass heading? 2. What is a rhumb line? 3. What is the length of a nautical mile?

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Latitude, Longitude and the Earth’s Magnetism

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The Earth Earth is an oblate spheroid; a sphere flattened at the top and bottom Surface of the globe is divide into geometrical pattern of intersecting circles called graticule

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Earth’s Magnetism Earth is a giant magnet Invisible lines of force link the two poles, creating a magnetic field which encircles the planet Form magnetic meridians Lines of force are horizontal, parallel with the Earth’s surface at the equator and more vertical near the poles

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Meridians of Longitude Semi-great circles that join the geographic poles of the earth They are measured from 0 to 180 degrees East and West of the Prime Meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England The meridian opposite the Prime Meridian is called the International Date Line; time changes by a day (180°)

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Meridians of Longitude Longitude is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds There are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute

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Parallels of Latitude Circles on the earth’s surface which lie parallel to the equator They are measured from 0 to 90 degrees north and south of the Equator Latitude is also measured in degrees, minutes and seconds Each minute of latitude represents 1 NM in distance

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Geographical Coordinates The location of any object on the earth’s surface can be expressed by its relation to the lines of latitude and longitude On most maps, the lines representing the meridians and parallels are numbered, and each tick on these lines represents one minute The latitude of an object is always given first i.e. N46° 21’ 10” W72° 40’ 46”

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Time The interval of time between the sun passing the same point is called a Solar Day This solar day is divided into 24 hours The problem with using this system to measure time is that the sun passes different points on the earth at different times

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Coordinated Universal Time To solve the solar day problem, the earth is divided into 24 time zones These zones are referenced to the time zone with the prime meridian in it The time in the reference time zone is known as Universal Coordinated time (UTC) or Zulu time All time zones can be adjusted to match UTC Winter time is the same as DAYLIGHT SAVINGS TIME

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Canadian Time Zones Canada is divided into six time zones They are: Pacific = UTC +8(7) Mountain = UTC +7(6) Central = UTC +6(5) Eastern = UTC +5(4) Atlantic = UTC +4(3) Newfoundland = UTC +3:30(2:30) The numbers indicate how many hours must be added to the local time to get UTC during standard time. The numbers in brackets indicate the hours to be added during daylight savings time.

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Magnetic Variation True north is the geographical top of the earth Magnetic north is the direction the compass needle lies; is not a fixed point Magnetic variation: the angle between a true meridian and the corresponding magnetic meridian (also known as declination)

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Compass Deviation Compass deviation: angle between magnetic heading and the compass heading (magnetic heading corrected for deviation) By using a compass correction card, we can determine the amount of error and add it to the magnetic heading

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Variation and Deviation To remember which order to add or subtract headings, use the acronym TVMDCTVMDC rue ariation agnetic eviation ompass Two Violinists Make Dull Company

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Compass Errors The magnetic compass is subject to many errors. These include: Magnetic Dip ◦ The earth’s magnetic lines are parallel to the earth near the equator, but as one nears the magnetic poles, the lines become more vertical ◦ This causes the compass to dip towards the pole and can make it unreadable at high latitudes

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Compass Errors Northerly Turning Error ◦ When an aircraft banks, so does the compass, and this can cause errors in the turn ◦ On turns from NORTH, the compass LAGS ◦ On turns from SOUTH, the compass LEADS

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Compass Errors Acceleration Error ◦ When the aircraft accelerates, the compass dips slightly. This can cause it to indicate a turn on east and west headings ◦ Acceleration causes the compass to indicate a turn to the North ◦ Deceleration causes the compass to indicate a turn to the South

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Review 1. How many meridians of longitude are there? 2. What is a solar day? 3. What is acceleration error?

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The “One-in-Sixty’ Rule This is a rule that can be used to help determine either how far you are off course or how much of a correction needs to be made to regain your course. The rule states that An error in the track of one degree will cause an error in position of about one mile in a distance of 60 miles 1° 1 mile 60 miles

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The ‘One-in-Sixty Rule’ The equation can also be arranged to find Track Error Distance off track = 3, Distance Traveled = 45 miles

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Introduction to Maps

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The surface of a sphere cannot be accurately projected onto a flat surface, so all maps show the surface of the earth with some degree of distortion The two types of projections used for aviation maps are ◦ Lambert Conformal Conic Projection ◦ Mercator Projection

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Lambert Conformal Conic Projection This projection is created by placing an imaginary cone over the earth, and then projecting the map onto the places where the cone touches the earth Properties of the LCCP are ◦ Meridians of longitude converge towards the pole ◦ Parallels of latitude are concave towards the nearest pole ◦ Scale is virtually uniform ◦ A straight line is a GREAT CIRCLE VNC, WAV and HI/LO enroute maps are based on this principle

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Mercator Projection This projection is created by placing an imaginary cylinder over the earth so that the only place it’s touching is the equator Properties of the Mercator Projection are ◦ Meridians of longitude are straight and parallel ◦ Parallels of latitude are straight and parallel ◦ There is no constant scale ◦ A straight line drawn on this map is a rhumb line ◦ Areas in high latitudes are greatly exaggerated ◦ Distances near equator are fairly precise World map usually uses this principle

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Transverse Mercator Projection This projection is created by placing the imaginary cylinder over the earth to touch the earth at only a chosen meridian Used to cover a very small area Properties similar to Mercator: ◦ Scale is precise regardless of latitude ◦ Longitude and latitude will appear curved if area coverage is wide enough ◦ Distance is precise along central meridian and throughout the map because the coverage area is so small ◦ Some distortion towards East and West margins of the map VTA map is based on this principle

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Basic Elements of Maps All maps are made up of four basic elements AREAS SHAPES BEARINGS DISTANCES

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Scale On aeronautical charts, scale is shown with two methods Representative Fraction ◦ A fraction showing the size relationship between objects on the ground and objects on the map ◦ I.e. 1:500,000 Graduated Scale ◦ A scale printed on the side of the map that allows measurements on the map to be converted to actual distances (one in KM, one in SM and one in NM)

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Relief Relief is depicted in four ways on aeronautical charts: Layer Tinting ◦ Different colours are used to represent areas of different elevation; water is always blue Contour Lines ◦ Lines joining places of equal elevation on a chart ◦ The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope

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Relief Shading ◦ Shading is added to the sides of hills to give them the appearance of relief Spot Heights ◦ Points of high elevation are depicted with a dot and the appropriate elevation ◦ The coordinates of the highest point on a chart are printed in the legend Layer Tinting Spot Heights Shading Contour Lines MEF

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Review 1. What is the One-in-sixty rule? 2. What are the basic elements of maps? 3. What are the three types of projections?

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Types of Aviation Charts

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VFR Navigation Chart (VNC) Most commonly used chart for VFR navigation Used mainly for slower speed aircraft flying at low altitudes It has a scale of 1:500,000 and uses the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

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World Aeronautical Chart (WAC) Mainly used for visual navigation at high speeds and high altitudes over long distances Rarely used anymore It has a scale of 1:1,000,000 and uses the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

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VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA) Used for visual navigation in around airports which are surrounded by Class C airspace They are printed for 6 airports in Canada (Toronto, Ottawa, etc.) There scale is 1:250,000 and they use the Transverse Mercator Projection

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Low and High Enroute Charts Low and high enroute charts (LO and HI) are used for IFR navigation They depict very little ground detail, but depict a very detailed picture of the IFR airspace system Scale is not constant between charts

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TC-AIM Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC-AIM) Single source of information on rules of the air and other CARs Subscription available for all pilots or free online at ons/tp14371/menu.htm

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Lists and provides information about all land aerodromes in Canada Is updated every 56 days Also provides information about preferred IFR routing, intercept orders, obstructions and other miscellaneous aeronautical data Canada Flight Supplement