Teaching and learning environment itself may reinforce gender roles and exacerbate gender stereotypes (UNESCO, 2003; UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2010a). Textbooks and other teaching materials often contain gender-based biases, although there have been some changes toward more balanced representations of men and women. Still, in some textbooks, girls and women continue to be portrayed stereotypically or in a demeaning manner, and the roles and contributions by women in society are misrepresented. In addition, teachers’ training rarely focuses on gender awareness and, in consequence, teachers’ attitudes, gender-biased teacher-pupil interactions and use by teachers of gender-stereotypical language and imagery contribute to reinforcing gender stereotyping.

In some countries women are underrepresented among the teaching staff. The importance of female role models is widely accepted as a means of promoting greater gender equality. Girls look up to and emulate women as boys do to men. In that regard, it is very important that there is a gender balance among the teaching staff at all levels of instruction and in various domains of teaching. Female participation in teaching at all levels has increased in most of the countries (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2011). However, in countries where overall enrolment levels are lowest and gender disparities are highest, women tend to be underrepresented, even at the primary level of education. At higher levels of education, female teachers are underrepresented in many countries, and they teach less often than men subjects traditionally considered male’s domain, such as mathematics or physics (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2011; United Nations, 2010).

Long distances to school, safety and privacy concerns may keep girls out of school. The need to travel long distances to school has a negative impact on school attendance for both sexes, but distance is a significant obstacle for girls, especially at the lower secondary level (UNESCO, 2012). In some cases where single sex schooling is the norm, only local schools for boys may be available. Other factors such as lack of separate toilets for girls and boys and potential threats and physical and sexual abuse by other students or teachers are also among the factors that keep girls out of school.

School administrative sources, usually compiled by Ministries of education, provide information on number of teachers by sex and level of instruction and sometimes on subject of teaching. They can also provide information on the availability of separate toilets for girls and boys.

Household surveys such as DHS and MICS can collect information on reasons for not attending school or leaving school early, along with other information on individual and household demographic and economic characteristics.

Qualitative studies on curricula content can show the extent of gender-biases incorporated in the school manuals. Such information is usually a result of research studies produced outside of national statistical offices.

Not all aspects of schooling environment with gender-specific impact can be easily measured. Statistics on sex-distribution of teachers are usually available and many countries have experience in collecting information on reasons for not attending school. However, aspects such as gender awareness of teachers, gender sensitive teaching or even gender responsive textbooks are more difficult to capture and require more in-depth qualitative analysis. Such qualitative studies are often conducted by research groups that are independent from the national statistical offices, sometimes at the request of or in relation with Ministries of education.