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On Narcissism: Psychological
Theories And Therapeutic Interventions In The Narcissistic Disorders
Essay, Research Paper

Introduction

Understanding
the Narcissistic Phenomenon

The so called
?narcissistic personality disorder? is a complex and often
misunderstood disorder. The cardinal feature of the narcissistic
personality is the grandiose sense of self importance, but
paradoxically underneath this grandiosity the narcissist suffers from
a chronically fragile low self esteem. The grandiosity of the
narcissist, however, is often so pervasive that we tend to dehumanize
him or her. The narcissist conjures in us images of the mythological
character Narcissus who could only love himself, rebuffing anyone who
attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of
inferiority which is the real problem of the narcissist, the
grandiosity is just a facade used to cover the deep feelings of
inadequacy.

The Makeup of
the Narcissistic Personality

The narcissist?s
grandiose behavior is designed to reaffirm his or her sense of
adequacy. Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his or her
own sense of adequacy, the narcissist seeks to be admired by others.
However, the narcissist?s extremely fragile sense of self worth does
not allow him or her to risk any criticism. Therefore, meaningful
emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously
seeking the admiration of others and keeping them at a distance the
narcissist is usually able to maintain the illusion of grandiosity no
matter how people respond. Thus, when people praise the narcissist
his or her grandiosity will increase, but when criticized the
grandiosity will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist
will devalue the criticizing person.

Akhtar (1989)
[as cited in Carson & Butcher, 1992; P. 271] discusses six areas
of pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In
particular, four of these narcissistic character traits best
illustrate the pattern discussed above. ” (1) a narcissistic
individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a
preoccupation with fantasies of outstanding achievement; (2) a
narcissistic individual is unable to trust and rely on others and
thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract tributes
from others;(3) a narcissistic individual has a shifting
morality-always ready to shift values to gain favor; and (4) a
narcissistic person is unable to remain in love, showing an impaired
capacity for a committed relationship”.

The Therapeutic
Essence of Treating Narcissism

The narcissist
who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with
him or her. Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he or she
is unable to maintain the grandiosity which protects him or her from
the feelings of despair. The narcissist views his or her situation
arising not as a result of a personal maladjustment; rather it is
some factor in the environment which is beyond the narcissist?s
control which has caused his or her present situation. Therefore, the
narcissist expects the therapist not to ?cure? him or her from a
problem which he or she does not perceive to exist, rather the
narcissist expects the therapist to restore the protective feeling of
grandiosity. It is therefore essential for the therapist to be alert
to the narcissists attempts to steer therapy towards healing the
injured grandiose part, rather than exploring the underlying feelings
of inferiority and despair.

Differential
Psychological Views of Narcissism

The use of the
term narcissism in relation to psychological phenomena was first made
by Ellis in 1898. Ellis described a special state of auto-erotism as
Narcissus like, in which the sexual feelings become absorbed in self
admiration (Goldberg, 1980). The term was later incorporated into
Freud?s psychoanalytic theory in 1914 in his essay ?On Narcissism?.
Freud conceptualized narcissism as a as a sexual perversion involving
a pathological sexual love to one?s own body (Sandler & Person,
1991). Henceforth, several psychological theories have attempted to
explain and treat the narcissistic phenomenon. Specifically, the most
comprehensive psychological theories have been advanced by the
psychodynamic perspective and to a lesser extent the Jungian
(analytical) perspective. Essentially, both theories cite
developmental problems in childhood as leading to the development of
the narcissistic disorder. The existential school has also attempted
to deal with the narcissistic problem, although the available
literature is much smaller. Existentialists postulate that society as
a whole can be the crucial factor in the development of narcissism.
The final perspective to be discussed is the humanistic approach
which although lacking a specific theory on narcissism, can
nevertheless be applied to the narcissistic disorder. In many ways
the humanistic approach to narcissism echoes the sentiments of the
psychodynamic approach.

The
Psychodynamic Perspective of Narcissism

The
psychodynamic model of narcissism is dominated by two overlapping
schools of thought, the self psychology school and the object
relations school. The self psychology school, represented by Kohut,
posits that narcissism is a component of everyone?s psyche. We are
all born as narcissists and gradually our infantile narcissism
matures into a healthy adult narcissism. A narcissistic disorder
results when this process is somehow disrupted. By contrast the
object relations school, represented by Kernberg, argues that
narcissism does not result from the arrest of the normal maturation
of infantile narcissism, rather a narcissism represents a fixation in
one of the developmental periods of childhood. Specifically, the
narcissist is fixated at a developmental stage in which the
differentiation between the self and others is blurred.

Kohut?s Theory
of Narcissism

Kohut believes
that narcissism is a normal developmental milestone, and the healthy
person learns to transform his or her infantile narcissism into adult
narcissism. This transformation takes place through the process which
Kohut terms transmuting internalizations. As the infant is
transformed into an adult he or she will invariably encounter various
challenges resulting in some frustration. If this frustration exceeds
the coping abilities of the person only slightly the person
experiences optimal frustration. Optimal frustration leads the person
to develop a strong internal structure (i.e., a strong sense of the
self) which is used to compensate for the lack of external structure
(i.e., support from others). In the narcissist the process of
transmuting internalizations is arrested because the person
experiences a level of frustration which exceeds optimal frustration.
The narcissist thus remains stuck at the infantile level, displaying
many of the characteristics of the omnipotent and invulnerable child
(Kohut, 1977).

Kernberg?s
Theory of Narcissism

Kernberg?s views
on narcissism are based on Mahler?s theory of the
separation-individuation process in infancy and early childhood.
Mahler?s model discusses how the developing child gains a stable self
concept by successfully mastering the two forerunner phases (normal
autism and normal symbiosis) and the four subphases (differentiation,
practicing, rapprochement, and consolidation) of
separation-individuation. Kernberg argues that the narcissist is
unable to successfully master the rapprochement subphase and is thus
fixated at this level. It is essential, however, to understand the
dynamics of the practicing subphase before proceeding to tackle the
narcissist?s fixation at the rapprochement subphase.

The practicing
subphase (age 10 to 14 months) marks the developmental stage at which
the child learns to walk. The ability to walk gives the child a whole
new perspective of the world around him. This new ability endows the
child with a sense of grandiosity and omnipotence which closely
resemble the narcissist?s behavior. However, reality soon catches up
with the child as the child enters the rapprochement subphase (age 14
to 24 months). At this stage the child discovers that he or she is
not omnipotent, that there are limits to what he or she can do.
According to Kernberg if the child is severely frustrated at this
stage he or she can adapt by re-fusing or returning to the practicing
subphase, which affords him the security of grandiosity and
omnipotence (Kernberg, 1976).

The Preferred
Psychodynamic model

The
Psychodynamic literature in general tends to lean towards the object
relations school because of the emphasis it places on a comprehensive
developmental explanation (i.e. the use of Mahler?s
individuation-separation model). Nevertheless, the theory of Kohut
has left a deep impression on Psychodynamic thinking as is evident by
the utilization of many of his concepts in the literature (i.e.
Johnson, 1987; Manfield, 1992; and Masterson, 1981). Therefore in the
remainder of the Psychodynamic section a similar approach will be
taken, by emphasizing object relations concepts with the utilization
of the occasional Kohutian idea.

The Emergence of
the Narcissistic Personality

According to
Kernberg and the object relations school the crisis of the
rapprochement subphase is critical to the development of the
narcissistic personality. The individual who is unable to
successfully master the challenges of this stage will sustain a
narcissistic injury. In essence the narcissistic injury will occur
whenever the environment (in particular significant others) needs the
individual to be something which he or she is not. The
narcissistically injured individual is thus told “Don?t be who you
are, be who I need you to be. Who you are disappoints me, threatens
me angers me, overstimulates me. Be what I want and I will love you”
(Johnson, 1987; P. 39).

The narcissistic
injury devastates the individual?s emerging self. Unable to be what
he or she truly is the narcissistically injured person adapts by
splitting his personality into what Kohut terms the nuclear (real)
self and the false self. The real self becomes fragmented and
repressed, whereas the false self takes over the individual. The
narcissist thus learns to reject himself or herself by hiding what
has been rejected by others. Subsequently, the narcissist will
attempt to compensate for his or her ?deficiencies? by trying to
impress others through his or her grandiosity. The narcissist
essentially decides that “There is something wrong with me as I am.
Therefore, I must be special” (Johnson, 1987; P. 53).

The Narcissist?s
View of Others

Just as the
individual becomes narcissistic because that is what the environment
?needed? him or her to be, so does the narcissist view others not as
they are, but as what he or she needs them to be. Others are thus
perceived to exist only in relation to the narcissist?s needs. The
term object relations thus takes on a special meaning with the
narcissist. “We are objects to him, and to the extent that we are
narcissistic, others are objects to us. He doesn?t really see and
hear and feel who we are and, to the extent that we are narcissistic,
we do not really see and hear and feel the true presence of others.
They, we, are objects… I am not real. You are not real. You are an
object to me. I am an object to you” (Johnson, 1987; P. 48). It is
apparent than that the narcissist maintains the infantile illusion of
being merged to the object. At a psychological level he or she
experiences difficulties in differentiating the self from others. It
is the extent of this inability to distinguish personal boundaries
which determines the severity of the narcissistic disorder (Johnson,
1987).

Levels of
Narcissism

The most extreme
form of narcissism involves the perception that no separation exists
between the self and the object. The object is viewed as an extension
of the self, in the sense that the narcissist considers others to be
a merged part of him or her. Usually, the objects which the
narcissist chooses to merge with represent that aspect of the
narcissist?s personality about which feelings of inferiority are
perceived. For instance if a narcissist feels unattractive he or she
will seek to merge with someone who is perceived by the narcissist to
be attractive. At a slightly higher level exists the narcissist who
acknowledges the separateness of the object, however, the narcissist
views the object as similar to himself or herself in the sense that
they share a similar psychological makeup. In effect the narcissist
perceives the object as ?just like me?. The most evolved narcissistic
personality perceives the object to be both separate and
psychologically different, but is unable to appreciate the object as
a unique and separate person. The object is thus perceived as useful
only to the extent of its ability to aggrandize the false self
(Manfield, 1992).

Types of
narcissism

Pending the
perceived needs of the environment a narcissist can develop in one of
two directions. The individual whose environment supports his or her
grandiosity, and demands that he or she be more than possible will
develop to be an exhibitionistic narcissist. Such an individual is
told ?you are superior to others?, but at the same time his or her
personal feelings are ignored. Thus, to restore his or her feelings
of adequacy the growing individual will attempt to coerce the
environment into supporting his or her grandiose claims of
superiority and perfection. On the other hand, if the environment
feels threatened by the individual?s grandiosity it will attempt to
suppress the individual from expressing this grandiosity. Such an
individual learns to keep the grandiosity hidden from others, and
will develop to be a closet narcissist. The closet narcissist will
thus only reveal his or her feelings of grandiosity when he or she is
convinced that such revelations will be safe (Manfield, 1992)

Narcissistic
Defense Mechanisms

Narcissistic
defenses are present to some degree in all people, but are especially
pervasive in narcissists. These defenses are used to protect the
narcissist from experiencing the feelings of the narcissistic injury.
The most pervasive defense mechanism is the grandiose defense. Its
function is to restore the narcissist?s inflated perception of
himself or herself. Typically the defense is utilized when someone
punctures the narcissist?s grandiosity by saying something which
interferes with the narcissist?s inflated view of himself or herself.
The narcissist will then experience a narcissistic injury similar to
that experienced in childhood and will respond by expanding his or
her grandiosity, thus restoring his or her wounded self concept.
Devaluation is another common defense which is used in similar
situations. When injured or disappointed the narcissist can respond
by devaluing the ?offending? person. Devaluation thus restores the
wounded ego by providing the narcissist with a feeling of superiority
over the offender. There are two other defense mechanisms which the
narcissist uses. The self-sufficiency defense is used to keep the
narcissist emotionally isolated from others. By keeping himself or
herself emotionally isolated the narcissist?s grandiosity can
continue to exist unchallenged. Finally, the manic defense is
utilized when feelings of worthlessness begin to surface. To avoid
experiencing these feelings the narcissist will attempt to occupy
himself or herself with various activities, so that he or she has no
time left to feel the feelings (Manfield, 1992).

Psychodynamic
Treatment of the Narcissist

The central
theme in the Psychodynamic treatment of the narcissist revolves
around the transference relationship which emerges during treatment.
In order for the transference relationship to develop the therapist
must be emphatic in understanding the patient?s narcissistic needs.
By echoing the narcissist the therapist remains ?silent? and
?invisible? to the narcissist. In essence the therapist becomes a
mirror to the narcissist to the extent that the narcissist derives
narcissistic pleasure from confronting his or her ?alter ego?.
Grunberger?s views are particularly helpful in clarifying this idea.
According to him “The patient should enjoy complete narcissistic
freedom in the sense that he should always be the only active party.
The analyst has no real existence of his own in relation to the
analysand. He doesn?t have to be either good or bad-he doesn?t even
have to be… Analysis is thus not a dialogue at all; at best it is a
monologue for two voices, one speaking and the other echoing,
repeating, clarifying, interpreting correctly-a faithful and
untarnished mirror” (Grunberger, 1979; P. 49).

The Mirror
Transference

Once the
therapeutic relationship is established two transference like
phenomena, the mirror transference and the idealizing transference,
collectively known as selfobject transference emerge. The mirror
transference will occur when the therapist provides a strong sense of
validation to the narcissist. Recall that the narcissistically
injured child failed to receive validation for what he or she was.
The child thus concluded that there is something wrong with his or
her feelings, resulting in a severe damage to the child?s
self-esteem. By reflecting back to the narcissist his or her
accomplishments and grandeur the narcissist?s self esteem and
internal cohesion are maintained (Manfield, 1992).

There are three
types of the mirror transference phenomenon, each corresponding to a
different level of narcissism (as discussed previously). The merger
transference will occur in those narcissists who are unable to
distinguish between the object and the self. Such narcissists will
perceive the therapist to be a virtual extension of themselves. The
narcissist will expect the therapist to be perfectly resonant to him
or her, as if the therapist is an actual part of him or her. If the
therapist should even slightly vary from the narcissist?s needs or
opinions, the narcissist will experience a painful breach in the
cohesive selfobject function provided by the therapist. Such patients
will then likely feel betrayed by the therapist and will respond by
withdrawing themselves from the therapist (Manfield, 1992).

In the second
type of mirror transference, the twinship or alter-ego transference,
the narcissist perceives the therapist to be psychologically similar
to himself or herself. Conceptually the narcissist perceives the
therapist and himself or herself to be twins, separate but alike. In
the twinship transference for the selfobject cohesion to be
maintained, it is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist
as ?just like me? (Manfield, 1992).

The third type
of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In
this instance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to
the extent that the therapist can reflect his or her grandiosity. In
this transference relationship the function of the therapist is to
bolster the narcissist?s insecure self (Manfield, 1992).

The Idealizing
Transference

The second
selfobject transference, the idealizing transference, involves the
borrowing of strength from the object (the therapist) to maintain an
internal sense of cohesion. By idealizing the therapist to whom the
narcissist feels connected, the narcissist by association also
uplifts himself or herself. It is helpful to conceptualize the
?idealizing? narcissist as an infant who draws strength from the
omnipotence of the caregiver. Thus, in the idealizing transference
the therapist symbolizes omnipotence and this in turn makes the
narcissist feel secure. The idealization of the object can become so
important to the narcissist that in many cases he or she will choose
to fault himself or herself, rather than blame the therapist
(Manfield, 1992).

The idealizing
transference is a more mature form of transference than the mirror
transference because idealization requires a certain amount of
internal structure (i.e., separateness from the therapist).
Oftentimes, the narcissist will first develop a mirror transference,
and only when his or her internal structure is sufficiently strong
will the idealizing transference develop (Manfield, 1992).

Utilizing the
Transference Relationship in Therapy

The selfobject
transference relationships provide a stabilizing effect for the
narcissist. The supportive therapist thus allows the narcissist to
heal his or her current low self esteem and reinstate the damaged
grandiosity. However, healing the current narcissistic injury does
not address the underlying initial injury and in particular the issue
of the false self. To address these issues the therapist must
skillfully take advantage of the situations when the narcissist
becomes uncharacteristically emotional; that is when the narcissist
feels injured. It thus becomes crucial that within the context of the
transference relationship, the therapist shift the narcissist?s focus
towards his or her inner feelings (Manfield, 1992).

The prevailing
opinion amongst Psychodynamic theorists is that the best way to
address the narcissist?s present experience, is to utilize a
hands-off type of approach. This can be accomplished by letting the
narcissist ?take control? of the sessions, processing the
narcissist?s injuries as they inevitably occur during the course of
treatment. When a mirror transference develops injuries will occur
when the therapist improperly understands and/or reflects the
narcissist?s experiences. Similarly, when an idealizing transference
is formed injuries will take the form of some disappointment with the
therapist which then interferes with the narcissist?s idealization of
the therapist. In either case, the narcissist is trying to cover up
the injury so that the therapist will not notice it. It remains up to
the therapist to recognize the particular defense mechanisms that the
narcissist will use to defend against the pain of the injury, and
work backwards from there to discover the cause of the injury
(Manfield, 1992).

Once the cause
of the injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore the
issue with the narcissist, such that the patient does not feel
threatened. The following case provides a good example of the
patience and skill that the therapist must possess in dealing with a
narcissistic patient. “…a female patient in her mid-thirties came
into a session feeling elated about having gotten a new job. All she
could talk about is how perfect this job was; there was no hint of
introspection or of any dysphoric affect. The therapist could find no
opening and made no intervention the entire session except to
acknowledge the patient?s obvious excitement about her new job. Then,
as the patient was leaving, the therapist noticed that she had left
her eyeglasses on the table. He said, “you forgot your glasses,”
to which she responded with an expression of surprise and
embarrassment saying, “Oh, how clumsy of me.” This response
presented the therapist with a slight seem in the grandiose armor and
offered the opportunity for him to intervene. He commented, “You
are so excited about the things that are happening to you that this
is all you have been able to think about; in the process you seem to
have forgotten a part of yourself.” The patient smiled with a
mixture of amusement and recognition. In this example the patient is
defending throughout the session and in a moment of surprise she is
embarrassed and labels herself “clumsy”, giving the therapist the
opportunity to interpret the defense (her focus on the excitement of
the external world) and how it takes her away from herself”
(Manfield, 1992; PP. 168-169).

The cure of the
narcissist than does not come from the selfobject transference
relationships per se. Rather, the selfobject transference function of
the therapist is curative only to the extent that it provides an
external source of support which enables the narcissist to maintain
his or her internal cohesion. For the narcissist to be cured, it is
necessary for him or her to create their own structure (the true
self). The healing process is thus lengthy, and occurs in small
increments whenever the structure supplied by the therapist is
inadvertently interrupted. In this context it is useful to recall
Kohut?s concept of optimal frustration. “If the interruptions to
the therapist?s selfobject function are not so severe as to overwhelm
the patient?s deficient internal structure, they function as optimal
frustrations, and lead to the patient?s development of his own
internal structure to make up for the interrupted selfobject
function” (Manfield, 1992; P. 167).

The Jungian
(Analytical) Perspective of Narcissism

Analytical
psychology views narcissism as a disorder of Self-estrangement, which
arises out of inadequate maternal care. However, prior to tackling
narcissism it is useful to grasp the essence of analytical thought.

The Ego and the
Self in Analytical Psychology

It is important
to understand that the Self in analytical psychology takes on a
different meaning than in psychodynamic thought (Self is thus
capitalized in analytical writings to distinguish it from the
psychodynamic concept of the self). In psychodynamic theory the self
is always ego oriented, that is the self is taken to be a content of
the ego. By contrast, in analytical psychology the Self is the
totality of the psyche, it is the archetype of wholeness and the
regulating center of personality. Moreover, the Self is also the
image of God in the psyche, and as such it is experienced as a
transpersonal power which transcends the ego. The Self therefore
exists before the ego, and the ego subsequently emerges from the Self
(Monte, 1991).

Within the Self
we perceive our collective unconscious, which is made up of
primordial images, that have been common to all members of the human
race from the beginning of life. These primordial images are termed
archetypes, and play a significant role in the shaping of the ego.
Therefore, “When the ego looks into the mirror of the Self, what it
sees is always ?unrealistic? because it sees its archetypal image
which can never be fit into the ego” (Schwartz-Salant, 1982; P.
19).

Narcissism as an
Expression of Self-Estrangement

In the case of
the narcissist, it is the shattering of the archetypal image of the
mother which leads to the narcissistic manifestation. The primordial
image of the mother symbolizes paradise, to the extent that the
environment of the child is perfectly designed to meet his or her
needs. No mother, however, can realistically fulfill the child?s
archetypal expectations. Nevertheless, so long as the mother
reasonably fulfills the child?s needs he or she will develop
?normally?. It is only when the mother fails to be a ?good enough
mother?, that the narcissistic condition will occur (Asper, 1993).

When the
mother-child relationship is damaged the child?s ego does not develop
in an optimal way. Rather than form a secure ?ego-Self axis? bond,
the child?s ego experiences estrangement from the Self. This
Self-estrangement negatively affects the child?s ego, and thus the
narcissist is said to have a ?negativized ego?. The negativized ego
than proceeds to compensate for the Self-estrangement by suppressing
the personal needs which are inherent in the Self; thus “the
negativized ego of the narcissistically disturbed person is
characterized by strong defense mechanisms and ego rigidity. A person
with this disturbance has distanced himself from the painful emotions
of negative experiences and has become egoistic, egocentric, and
narcissistic” (Asper, 1993; P. 82).

Analytical
Treatment of Narcissism

Since the
narcissistic condition is a manifestation of Self-estrangement, the
analytical therapist attempts to heal the rupture in the ego-Self
axis bond, which was created by the lack of good enough mothering. To
heal this rupture the therapist must convey to the narcissist through
emphatic means that others do care about him or her; that is the
therapist must repair the archetype of the good mother through a
maternally caring approach (Asper, 1993).

A maternal
approach involves being attentive to the narcissist?s needs. Just as
a mother can intuitively sense her baby?s needs so must the therapist
feel and observe what is not verbally expressed by the narcissist.
Such a maternal approach allows the narcissist to experience more
sympathy towards his or her true feelings and thus gradually the need
to withdraw into the narcissistic defense disappears (Asper, 1993).

The Existential
Perspective of Narcissism

Existentialists
perceive narcissism to be a byproduct of an alienating society. It is
difficult for the individual to truly be himself or herself because
society offers many rewards for the individual who conforms to its
rules. Such an individual becomes alienated because he or she feels
that society?s rituals and demands grant him or her little
significance and options in the control of his or her own destiny. To
compensate such an individual takes pleasure in his or her own
uniqueness (grandiosity), he or she enjoys what others cannot see and
control. Thus, the alienated person “sees himself as a puppet cued
by social circumstances which exact ritualized performances from him.
His irritation about the inevitability of this is counterbalanced by
one major consolation. This consists of his narcissistic affection
for his own machinery-that is, his own processes and parts”
(Johnson, 1977; P. 141).

Existential
Treatment of Narcissism

The existential
treatment of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that
“all existing persons have the need and possibility of going out
from their centeredness to participate in other beings” (Monte,
1991; P. 492). The severely alienated narcissistic individual,
however, does not believe in the validity of experience outside of
the self. Unlike others, the narcissist does not believe that a
constructive relationship with others is possible. Existentialists
therefore believe that the therapist, through emphatic understanding,
must create a strong bond with the narcissist, so that he or she can
see that others have feelings too (Johnson, 1977).

The Humanistic
(Client-Centered) Perspective of Narcissism

Thus far, no
specific formulations have been advanced by humanistic theorists
about the etiology of the narcissistic condition. Nevertheless, by
utilizing general humanistic principles it is possible to explain
narcissism. Essentially, much like the psychodynamic explanation,
humanistic psychology would argue that narcissism results when
individuals are not ?allowed? to truly be who they are.

According to
humanistic theory, humans have an innate need for self actualization.
We want to be the best person that we could possibly be. This is
accomplished by internalizing the behaviors that fit with the
individual?s personal self concept (that which the individual finds
to be appealing). However the self is also subject to pressure from
significant others. Significant others place upon the individual,
conditions of worth, upon which their love and approval is dependent.
These conditions may or may not be congruent with the individual?s
personal self. If they contrast sharply with the personal self, and
the individual does not want to risk loosing the approval or love of
significant others, then that individual will behave in ways
maladaptive to his or her self actualization needs.

Although
humanistic theory does not elaborate on the specificity of these
maladaptive behaviors, it is possible to speculate that narcissism is
one possible outcome. Specifically, the narcissistic individual
chooses to mask his or her damaged personal self by the display of a
perfect grandiose front to the world.

Humanistic
Treatment of Narcissism

The humanistic
treatment of the narcissist, is in general no different from the
humanistic treatment of any other client. The humanistic therapist
wants the narcissist to rediscover his or her individuality, which
was suppressed by the conditions of worth imposed by significant
others. In order to accomplish this, the proper environment must be
set in therapy, free of any conditions of worth. The narcissist must
feel that whatever he or she does is all right with the therapist.
The therapist therefore gives the narcissist unconditional positive
regard. There is no judgment of the narcissist, instead the therapist
honestly and caringly tries to see things through the eyes of the
narcissist. When the narcissist comes to accept his or her true needs
he or she will be congruent with the personal self and the
narcissistic front will no longer be needed.

Comparative
Analysis

Each of the
psychological approaches discussed above contains both strengths and
weaknesses, in attempting to solve the narcissistic puzzle.
Nevertheless, the psychodynamic model possesses a big advantage over
the other approaches in its ability to offer both a comprehensive
theory of etiology and a detailed description of treatment. With
respect to etiology the other approaches suffer from: a lack of
concrete observational validity (the analytical approach), lack of
clarity in capturing the essence of narcissism (the existential
approach), and lack of continuity in predicting narcissism (the
humanistic approach).

The analytical
model of narcissism depends on too many hypothetical concepts, such
as the collective unconscious, which are not supported by any
concrete evidence. True the psychodynamic model introduces some
hypothetical concepts of its own but these concepts are backed by
Mahler?s comprehensive developmental theory. The existential model
seems to confuse narcissism with the schizoid condition. By
emphasizing the narcissist?s tendency to withdraw into the pleasures
of the self, existentialists overlook the immense suffering which so
characterizes the narcissist. The humanistic model shares much in
common with the psychodynamic model about the etiology of narcissism.
However, unlike the psychodynamic model it is rather vague about why
this etiology leads to the emergence of narcissism.

With respect to
treatment the major advantage of the psychodynamic approach is that
it goes beyond the exclusive use of emphatic means to treat the
narcissist. By limiting treatment to emphatic understanding the other
approaches fail to address the underlying issues inherent in
narcissism. Therefore, the other approaches might shore up the
narcissist?s damaged self esteem in the short run, but it is doubtful
if they will be able to transform the narcissist.

Possibly the
only weakness of the psychodynamic approach lies in the length that
it takes to treat narcissism. Recall that a successful psychodynamic
treatment requires the therapist to be very careful about maintaining
the narcissist?s delicate self perception. Only gradually can the
psychodynamic therapist direct the narcissist?s attention towards the
real underlying emotional feelings.

Conclusion

No matter which
approach is utilized in the explanation and treatment of narcissism
it is important to recognize that the narcissistic individual is a
complex and multifaceted human being. Deep inside narcissistic
individuals experience tremendous pain and suffering, for which they
attempt to compensate for by the projection of the grandiose front.
These people are not character disordered. They are people tortured
by narcissistic injury and crippled by developmental arrests in
functioning which rob them of the richness of life they deserve. They
are good people, who are hurting. They are living and suffering the
narcissistic style.

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