Accurate identification is required for correct assessment of normal weight and haematological
parameters.

In the event of a large oil spill with limited resources, this
information may be used to determine individuals, for example those of
rare or endangered species, on which extra effort should be expended. (B188)

"The degree to which a species is vulnerable to oil exposure and to the toxic effects of oil depends on a complex of biological factors in addition to geographical considerations. These factors determine the relative risk posed by oil to different bird species and thus deserve special consideration."(B378.6.w6)

Species vary in their susceptibility to the direct and indirect
effects of oil spills depending on their "foraging behaviour,
migration patterns, nesting habits, flocking behaviour, and distribution." (D210.3.w3)

In general, seaducks and
alcids are highly vulnerable, while gulls, terns and waders
(shorebirds) appear to be less vulnerable. Gulls do get oiled relatively frequently,
but appear to be fatally affected less often, with oiled individuals
observed to survive for months. This may be because these species are more
likely to fly away from oil, unless surprised by a spill during the night,
and because flight and walking are more important to these species than
swimming and diving. (D10)

The risk of individual birds contacting oil depends on the behaviour
of the species: how much time individuals spend in contact with the
water while foraging, resting etc.. (B378.6.w6,
P14.5.w2)

Species which dive in response to an alarming stimulus may have
increased exposure following initial contact with oil than those
which fly away. (B378.6.w6)

As well as becoming coated with oil, birds may inhale volatile
components of oil. (D183.w3)
This is most likely to occur in species spending large amounts of time
at the air/water interface.

The risk to the population of contacting oil also depends on whether
the population is concentrated or scattered: a large percentage of the
population being oiled is more likely to occur with those species and
populations which concentrate for breeding, moulting etc., rather than
those which remain dispersed. (B378.6.w6,
P14.5.w2)

Overall susceptibility of species to oiling also depends on the ability
of the population to recover from additional mortality due to oiling:
those with low fecundity (high age of first breeding, low clutch size,
i.e. low reproductive capacity) are less able to recover from
additional mortality due to oiling than are those. (P14.5.w2)

Because of their low reproductive potential, the population
dynamics of seabird species is strongly affected by major losses
of breeding-age adults. (B378.6.w6)

Note: mortality due to oiling is superimposed on other
factors. (B378.6.w6)

In addition to direct mortality due to oiling, oil may act either
additively or synergistically with other factors: for example the
negative effect of oiling on reproduction may be increased in years of
poor food availability, and the effects of oil might also interact
with other pollutants. (B378.6.w6)

An "oil vulnerability index" (OVI) has been developed,
ranking the susceptibility of birds to becoming oiled based on their range
(breeding, migration, wintering, water orientation), habits (roosting,
foraging, escape, flocking, nesting density and specialisation) and
exposure (in spring, summer, autumn and winter) as follows: (D183.w4,
J313.36.w1)

Range: birds with a large breeding range, covering long
distances during migration, with large wintering areas, and avoiding
open water and the intertidal zone are ranked low (score 1), while
those with a small breeding range, short migration distance,
restricted wintering areas and orientation in the open marine water
rank high (score 5); other species are intermediate (score 3). (J313.36.w1)

Following an oil spill, the breeding success of birds may be decreased
either by direct effects on nesting and behaviour, or by indirect effects
such as reduced prey availability resulting in birds not reaching an
adequate body condition for breeding or, after breeding, not allowing
sufficient provisioning of chicks. (D210.3.w3)

N.B. these groupings are generalisations on a global level. Some of the
suggestions regarding relative susceptibility of different species groups
are based on the likelihood of the birds' habitats being affected by an
oil spill. If the habitat in which the birds are living is
affected, then daily behaviours (e.g. spending time on water, or not) are
most likely to affect whether or not birds are oiled.

Note: Species which are not usually considered to be associated
with water may become oiled by landing on oiled surfaces, (P24.327.w4)
or by landing in cooking fat, motor oil, oil sumps etc. (J311.9.w1)

Note: birds of species which are generally considered not to be
at very high risk of oiling, such as gulls and geese, can still become
very badly oiled in some spills. (J59.30.w1,
V.w73)

Mammals:

Mammals living in and near water (e.g. marine mammals and those
associated with rivers), are more likely to become oiled
than are other mammal species, although oiling of other species (e.g.
bats, hedgehogs) does occur. (B284.9.w9,
B259.w10, P14.2.w1,
P14.4.w4)

Among aquatic [and semi-aquatic] mammals, susceptibility to oil is
greater for those species which rely on their fur for insulation and
thermoregulation, rather than a layer of blubber. (D208.1.w1,
D210.3.w3,
P14.2.w1, P14.4.w4)

Species which spend large amounts of time grooming to maintain fur
condition and insulation are also more likely to ingest oil and have a
higher risk of developing toxic effects than are species which do not
spend much time grooming. (D208.1.w1,
D210.3.w3)

Only relatively small numbers of amphibians have been reported
affected by oil spills. (P14.4.w4)

Amphibians are not likely to be found in marine oil spill situations
since they do not live in saltwater habitats, but some species may be
found in brackish river estuaries (B382.1.w1)
and they are susceptible to
oil spills in their freshwater habitats. (D185.3.w3,
P14.2.w1)

Oiled birds need
to be identified to species level; additionally, if possible, the sex and
age should be determined. (D133.4.w4)
In an emergency situation, initial identification should be made at least
to family level, since birds of a given family tend to have similar
features and requirements. (P24.233.w9,
P24.335.w20)

Bird
identification normally involves a range of cues including known range,
habitat type, observed behaviour, size, the overall shape of the body, the
size and shape of the bill (including length relative to the head), the
length of the neck and legs, the relative size and shape of the wings and
the tail, and flight characteristics, as well as plumage details and
voice. (B17, B164)

Identification
of oiled birds is complicated by the fact that their natural colours may
be completely or at least partially obscured by oil, and they will not be
showing normal behaviour which might normally be useful. (D137)

It should be remembered that species which
are commonly found in the affected area, and species from groups which are
known to be at relatively high risk of being oiled are more likely to be
found oiled than those which are rare and/or known to be at low risk of
being caught in oil.

Volunteers from local ornithologists groups may be helpful in species
identification. (B363.3.w3)

The general shape of the commonest species - their silhouettes - should
be learned. (D137)

Note: A good field guide should be available to assist with species
identification. (B363.App2.w15,
P24.233.w9)

Key features which may assist in identification include:

Size: compare the bird to those which you are most familiar
with. (D137)

General shape: for example "duck-like"
"gull-like", "wader-like" or
"penguin-like", long or short neck, long or short legs. (D137,
B363.App2.w15, V.w5)

Bill type: long or short, pointed or flattened, with or without a
hook on the end. (D137,
B363.App2.w15)

Note that plumage colour may vary with age (juveniles are often
duller colours than adults of the same species), sex (females may
be drab compared to males) and season (males of many ducks lose
their bright colours after the breeding season). (B17,
B164)

Location and season. It is unlikely that the bird to be
identified will be one which does not occur at all in the area, or
only in the opposite season. (B164)

The habitat in which the bird has been found may also be a clue,
however some pelagic species can be found inland. (B164,
D137)

In many zoos, a polyvinyl hose-through matting is used on land
areas of enclosures, allowing faeces and urates to drop through,
and easily drying out after hosing down, thereby providing a dry
substrate. (J23.33.w2)

Alcids are considered highly vulnerable to oil spills. They can be
found in large flocks in areas along busy shipping routs where there
are frequent pollution incidents. Their behaviour also makes them
susceptible. They spend large periods of time on the water and they
try to escape oil (as other hazards) by diving, apparently in a random
direction, and if encountering a large patch or slick may therefore
surface within the oil and get coated with
the oil. (D10,
D162.4.w4,
J9.219.w2, J320.8.w1)

Not only may these birds be killed outright by oil, but exposure to
oil may reduce egg production and viability and negatively impact
breeding behaviour. (D162.4.w4)

Gannet bill has very sharp inside edges and is very strong.
(D140,
P24.335.w20)

Cormorants and shags have a bill with a hook at the end of
the upper bill. (D140)

Cormorants bite in a similar manner to parrots, twisting and
crushing the flesh. This is painful. (D133.3.w3)

Control over the head must come first when these birds are
caught and be maintained at all times. (D137,
D140,
D160.App4.w12,
P24.335.w20)

Throw a towel over the bird's head, then grasp the head
through the towel initially. Either grasp with the fingers
under the lower mandible and the thumb on top of the head, or
grasp the head from behind, the thumb and fingers coming
forward to hold just behind the eyes. (P24.335.w20)

N.B. These birds have no external nostrils (nares) and must be
allowed to open the mouth a little in order to breath. Do NOT tape
the bill closed. (B336.13.w13,
D133.3.w3,
D135.9.w9,
D137,
D140,
D160.App4.w12)

Goggles and stout gloves must be worn when handling these species. (D135.9.w9,
D137,
D140)

These birds may be easier to hold and struggle less if the feet
are supported. (D137,
D160.App4.w12)

The feet and claws are strong; they can be held up against
the bird's body. (P24.335.w20)

Avoid handling soon after feeding or these birds will tend to
regurgitate. (D135.9.w9)

Cormorants and shags, being highly aquatic, and preying under water,
tend to suffer at a local level during oil pollution incidents,
although they represent only a small proportion of casualties overall.
(D10)

Gannets may be most susceptible when congregating in large
"rafts" of birds off their breeding sites at dusk. They can
also become oiled while gathering nest material (as occurred during the
Torrey Canyon spill). They are less likely to get oiled than
some other seabirds, because they take to the water to feed only when
they see food, and this is not likely where the water is covered in
oil. (B378.6.w6,
D10)

Cormorants may be affected during freshwater spills. In the Amer
River spill in the Netherlands in 1970, in which more than 4,000 birds
were found dead and heavily contaminated, casualties including up to 25 Phalacrocorax carbo
- Cormorant. (J17.4.w1)

These birds may be found on fresh water and seawater. They are rarely
seen on land and are unable to walk properly on land (divers in
particular are practically unable to walk on land). (D9,
D137, D160.App4.w12)

Loons and grebes rarely come onto land unless they have to. (D160.App4.w12)
Any diver seen on land, except nesting, is showing abnormal
behaviour.

On land these relatively heavy-bodies birds rest their whole
weight on their keels, putting excessive pressure onto this area,
and the position leads to overflexion of the hocks with resultant
reduced circulation, swelling and infection of these joints. (P14.7.w16)

Avoid crowding; these birds will be aggressive to one another in
crowded conditions. (D135.9.w9,
D160.App4.w12)

Once cleaned, give access to deep pools of clean water (birds
MUST be rinsed very thoroughly after washing), with access to
padded platforms at water level or up a short shallow ramp, or
floating net-bottomed rafts. (D135.9.w9)

N.B. Easily stressed; these birds generally do not do well in
captivity. (B336.12.w12,
D137)

Vulnerability to oil:

Grebes and divers represent less than 1% of total kills due to oil
and are regularly found during oiling incidents; since their
population sizes are not large, low absolute numbers of birds affected
may represent a relatively serious proportion of the population. They
are highly vulnerable to oil in their vicinity because they are highly
aquatic and tend to concentrate and feed in offshore waters. (D10)

If surfacing in an oil slick, these bird may dive to escape the
oil, only to surface again still in the oiled area. (J320.8.w1)

Plumage white in all UK native swans, geese
are variably greys and browns. Tadorna
tadorna - Common shelduck is white with brown and black markings and a red bill.

Head with a stout bill is set on a long neck
(very long in swans), body is large. Legs are set
relatively far back in swans, further forward in geese. Feet
are webbed. Wings are strong and in some species have a bony knob at
the carpal joint (wrist). (D137,
D160.App4.w12)

Bill is flattened, with lamellae at the edges.(B363.App2.w15)
The bill of geese is stouter, rather triangular from base to tip in
side view. Shelducks have a knob at the top of the upper bill, larger in males. (B17)

Feet: Three toes point forwards and are webbed. The fourth
toe is much shorter, elevated and points backwards. (B17,
B363.App2.w15)

Swans are large with heavily-fingered wings; the neck
is very long. Geese are smaller than swans and have shorter,
although still long, necks. The shelduck also has a long neck. (B17)

Relevant Notes on Natural History:

Swans swim and feed at water surface and commonly
"up-end" to reach vegetation under the water. Geese graze on
land but rest on water.

These notes are for quick reference. For further information see
the pages indicated at the bottom of this box.

Handling:

These birds walk and run well, particularly geese. Although a
long run-up is generally required for these birds to take flight
in favourable winds they may become airborne in short distances. (D137)

Powerful wings may produce severe bruises, will also nip
strongly with bill. The wings should be controlled early and
maintained close to the bird's body. Wrapping the bird in a sheet
or towel may assist in control. (D9,
D137,
D160.App4.w12)

These birds may be carried tucked under one arm with the head
and neck pointing backwards where only less vulnerable parts of
the handler's body are available to be pecked. If carried in this
manner the handler must remain aware of where other people are and
ensure that the bird cannot reach them. (V.w5)
Alternatively the head should be held under control. (D135.9.w9)

Transport containers:

Geese and swans are quite heavy. If cardboard boxes are used
these must be stout so that they do not fail even if damp. (V.w5)

These species are most likely to be oiled by spills on inland waters
including rivers, lakes, brooks, village ponds etc. as well as
estuaries and dock areas. (D142)

In general, geese are not commonly found seriously oiled. However
they may be affected occasionally, as in the Amer River spill in
Holland in 1970. A large spill volume into an area being used by
feeding, moulting, roosting or breeding birds might have a greater
than usual impact. (D10)

Geese are highly vulnerable during migration, while using
offshore and coastal marine waters for staging. (D162.4.w4)

Seaducks are considered highly vulnerable to oil spills. They can be
found in large flocks in areas along busy shipping routes where there
are frequent pollution incidents; they form large wintering
congregations. Their behaviour also makes them susceptible. These
species moult at sea, and are unable to fly during this time. Oiled
seaducks which feed entirely in the water, if oiled, have the choice
between remaining on water to feed, with a greatly increased heat loss
(360% higher than normal in one study) or coming onto land to reduce
heat loss, and starving. (D10)

Plumage: Bright in males in the breeding
season and duller in females, juveniles and males in eclipse plumage.
For plumage colouration of individual species, see the relevant
individual species pages. (V.w5)

Head rounded, bill flattened, neck relatively
short, body compact with legs close to the centre of the body. Feet
are webbed and generally smaller than those of seaducks; the hind toe
is not flattened or lobed. The wings are larger and less
pointed than in the diving ducks. (D137)

These species are less stressed by handling and captivity than
are the other waterfowl. (D160.App4.w12)

Be ready when opening a box, as the duck can spring out into the
air. (D137,
D160.App4.w12)

Transport containers:

Cardboard boxes with e.g. newspaper and a towel as a substrate
may be used for short journeys. For longer journeys, boxes which
will not disintegrate when wet are required; plastic pet carriers
are suitable. (D24,
V.w5)

Coots, rails and moorhens have short tails and small bills. (B363.App2.w15)

All the shorebirds have long pointed wings and a short tail. (B363.App2.w15)

Plovers and dotterels have three toes pointing forwards, without
webbing, and no hind toe. They have a short bill, no longer than the
head and often shorter, either blunt or sharp. (B363.App2.w15,
P24.335.w20)

Sandpipers (including godwits, snipes, curlews) have three toes
pointing forwards and a small elevated toe pointing backwards (Calidris
alba- Sanderling has no back toe). Sandpipers have a bill
longer than the bird's head, some much longer. (B363.App2.w15,
P24.335.w20)

Stilts have three toes, partially webbed and no hind toe. The
bill is long and straight, the legs are very long and thin (and pink).
(B363.App2.w15)

Avocets have webbed toes. The legs are very long and thin
(and blue/grey), the bill is very long and thin and turns upwards at
the end. (B363.App2.w15)

Small species may be preferentially kept together, but do not
crowd. (D135.9.w9,
D137,
D160.App4.w12)

Species of shorebirds which are normally sociable may become
territorial during the breeding season. (J23.17.w2)

Smaller species (e.g. Calidris - (Genus)
spp.) may need to be separated from larger species to avoid
their being out-competed for food. (J23.17.w2)

Some species such as rails are very territorial and require
individual pens while indoors before washing, while great care is
required to ensure that birds in outdoor pens are not overcrowded.
(D185.w3,
P14.7.w16)

Standard veterinary cages are not suitable as these
birds can walk through the barred doors. (D185.w3)

Avoid stainless steel or fibreglass cages in which scalping
injuries may occur during capture. (B336.16.w16)

For nervous species, solid sided pens, preferably with a
height of at least six feet (nearly 2 m), with tops of shade
cloth (secured at multiple points along the top of the
container) are recommended to minimise visual and auditory
disturbance and reduce the risk of head injury when startled
birds jump upwards. (D185.w3)

Waders or shorebirds are generally considered to have relatively low
susceptibility to oil spills, flying away from oiled areas unless taken
by surprise in the dark. They are probably most susceptible when
roosting at night or when going to feed as the tide turns. (D10)

These birds will avoid oil if suitable unoiled areas are available for
feeding and resting. (D162.4.w4)

Waders may get oil on their legs and abdomen, while their wings remain
clean and they can still fly. The oil may affect these birds more slowly
until they weaken and die from hypothermia or are predated. (D185.w3)

Small birds (body mass no more than 100 g) which become oiled are
likely to suffer high mortality, due to hypothermia and toxic effects of
petroleum oils, unless special efforts are made to capture them quickly.
(P14.7.w16)

Apart from direct oiling, these species may be highly affected by
habitat damage due to oil, with loss of food resources. (D10,
D162.4.w4)

N.B. If oiled, early capture is important; these birds can be
rehabilitated very successfully if searched for carefully and captured
soon after oiling but are not likely to do well if rehabilitation is
only attempted when they are already debilitated.
(P14.7.w16)

Oiled waders which become hypothermic and exhausted are likely to be
predated. (P14.7.w16)

Plumage: White in the Eurasian spoonbill and little egret,
grey in the heron, grey/brown in the bittern. For detailed plumage
colouration of individual species, see the relevant individual species
page.

These notes are for quick reference. For further information see
the pages indicated at the bottom of this box.

Handling:

Bills are long and sharply pointed and may be aimed for the eyes. Goggles
or a face shield must be worn and the bird's head kept under control at all times.
(B336.14.w14,
B363.5.w5, D133.3.w3,
D135.9.w9,
D137,
D160.App4.w12)

The long legs and neck legs are easily damaged and must be
handled carefully. (B336.14.w14,
D133.3.w3,
D135.9.w9,
D160.App4.w12)

The head can be held with a hand around the back of the head, or
with the bill base held between forefinger and thumb. (P24.335.w20)

Keep one finger between the legs and hold these high up, on the
femur. (P24.335.w20)

The long legs should not be kept folded except for very
short periods. (V.w5)

These birds not considered very vulnerable to oil. They are most
likely to get oil on their legs and heads only. (D162.4.w4)

However, because they may get oiled on the belly and legs
while the wings remain sufficiently clean to allow flight, they
may not be catchable but nevertheless may gradually succumb to the
effects of oil and become hypothermic or be taken by predators. (D185.w3)

These birds may be affected during freshwater spills. In the Amer
River spill in the Netherlands in 1970, in which more than 4,000 birds
were found dead and heavily contaminated, including up to 25 Ardea cinerea - Grey heron.
(J17.4.w1)

These birds can be held with one hand holding behind the head,
or with the head between the fingers, the winds held folded
against the bird's body and the legs held in the other hand,
holding at the top of the femur, or with the legs held against the
body. (P24.335.w20)

Stout cardboard boxes or small pet carriers can be used. A
non-slip substrate (e.g. rubber covered with towels) should be
provided. (P24.335.w20,
V.w26)

Note: a cardboard box may not be sufficiently strong for larger birds, particularly when the
base gets wet or oily (P24.335.w20).

Accommodation:

Can be group housed but can be aggressive within own species and
gulls are commonly aggressive to smaller birds. Provide with
hiding places and do not crowd. (D135.9.w9)

Provide shallow pools for cleaned birds and spray terns with
water to encourage waterproofing. (D135.9.w9)

Feeding:

For gulls provide fish, mice, canned dog food etc. in shallow
dishes. For terns provide mealworms in dishes of sand and
vegetation, as well as small whole fish, worms and insects in
water. (D135.9.w9)

Fish slivers (white-bait size) and pet food may be given to
gulls. (D214.2.w2)

If the bird will not eat by itself force-feed with white
bait (or similar size slivers of fish) or larger slices of
fish for the larger gulls. (D141)

For further information see the relevant pages linked below.

Secondary diseases of particular importance:

--

Susceptibility to oil:

Gulls and terns are generally considered to have relatively low
susceptibility to oil spills, flying away from oiled areas unless
taken by surprise in the dark. They are probably most susceptible when
roosting at night. (D10)

In an observation of gulls encountering a large patch of oil, it
was noted that the birds flew away from the oil (in contrast to
auks, which dived). (J9.219.w2)

Raptors are not generally considered vulnerable to oil, except for
certain eagles (e.g. the American Bald Eagle, ospreys). However, both diurnal
raptors and owls do get oiled occasionally. (B381.7.w7,
D137,
J316.46.w1, P62.4.w1)

Passeriformes all have two toes facing forwards and two toes facing
backwards.

These are all small species, the largest being the corvids.

Relevant Notes on Natural History:

This group is very varied and different species may feed on, for
example, seed and/or insects.

Special Considerations for oiled
birds:

These notes are for quick reference. For further information see
the pages indicated at the bottom of this box.

Handling:

Most of these species are unlikely to be able to harm a human,
although some of the bolder species may well peck. Pecks from the
largest species may be painful. The nails may be able to scratch
skin, again particularly in the larger species.

Transport containers:

Small boxes may be used.

A perch should be provided if possible.

Access to food and water, and sufficient light to allow feeding,
is important if small birds are to be held in a transport
container for more than a short time, since they need to feed
frequently. (B203)

Accommodation:

Passerines can be maintained in standard avicultural
"breeder" cages, and later, before release, in aviaries.
(B365.74.w74)

Depending on the species, insectivorous food and/or seeds may be
required.

Note: Birds may not recognise artificial food mixtures as being edible. For small birds in
particular there is a relatively short time in which to initiate feeding, as the reserves of these birds is not large. (J23.26.w4)

Weak individuals, or those which refuse to take food, may be
maintained on balanced elemental foods which are easy to
digest and absorb. (B365.74.w74)

These species are not generally considered vulnerable to oil.
However, passerines do get oiled occasionally (B381.7.w7,
D137, D221) and since Corvus
corone - Carrion crowfeed along the Thames foreshore at
low tide (B371), it is possible that individuals could be found
oiled.

As semiaquatic mammals which rely on their fur for insulation, these
rodents are likely to be highly susceptible to oiling following oil
contamination of their habitat. (B335.15.w15,
B378.7.w7, J30.52.w1)

Lutra lutra
- European otter (Species) is not presently found on the
River Thames in greater London, but the population size and range of this
species is presently increasing in the UK (B221)
and
it may be found in some riverine habitats on the outskirts of
London.

Appearance:

Otters have an elongated body, short legs,
flat head, short neck similar width to skull, small eyes and ears, broad muzzle, prominent
whiskers, long flattened and smoothly tapering tail with a broad base. (B142, B144, B147, B148)

They are distinguished from other semiaquatic mammals
in the UK by their larger size, flattened head and the thick-based
tapering tail. On land, they may be distinguished from Mustela vison - American mink
by their larger size and lighter coloured coat (mid-brown rather than
dark brown/black) and from Martes martes - Pine marten
by their broader, flatter head and more rounded muzzle. (B142,
B148)

Relevant Notes on Natural History:

These semi-aquatic mammals are mainly solitary with home ranges of
variable size. (B142)

Those living on rivers in the UK are mainly
nocturnal, while those living on coasts may be more active in daylight
hours. (B142)

The main diet is fish, but in some places more frogs or
crayfish are taken, and in
coastal areas crabs may be up to 20% of diet. (B142, B144, B147, B148)

Special Considerations for oiled
individuals:

These notes are for quick reference. For further information see
the pages indicated at the bottom of this box.

Handling:

Otters are extremely supple and very strong. They can be difficult to catch unless
severely incapacitated by injury.

Phoca vitulina - Common sealhas more numerous and smaller spots of colours on its coat than Halichoerus grypus - Grey seal,
a smaller head which is rounded on top with a concave forehead and
short muzzle, and its nostrils are close together and form a
"V" shape. Halichoerus grypus - Grey seal
has fewer, larger spots on its coat, its head is larger,
with a longer muzzle, a flat or convex "Roman-nose"
rather than concave profile, and the top of head flattish rather than
domed, and its nostrils are almost parallel to one another, and well separated at
the base. (B142)

Relevant Notes on Natural History:

These seal species, unlike otters, do not rely on their fur for
insulation. However, thick oil can affect locomotion.

Special Considerations for oiled
individuals:

These notes are for quick reference. For further information see
the pages indicated at the bottom of this box.

Handling:

Seals are extremely strong, can move very quickly and inflict
serious bites.

While experienced personnel may be able to
catch seal pups by hand, herding boards and/or nets are required
for capture of adults.

Specially built aluminium cages may be required for larger individuals. These may be
top-opening or have vertically sliding doors, and should be designed with lift points
suitable for attachment of a winch (D60).

Accommodation:

Pens need to be of strong construction.

Initial pens can be quite small, with cleanable floors (e.g.
tiled) covered in rubber matting or layers of towels for
insulation.

For rehabilitation, a large pen, with pool area at least 16 square metres surface
area plus haul-out area or
areas is required, preferably containing salt water to avoid development
of skin and eye lesions.

Feeding:

Stomach tubing with a liquidised fish mixture may be required for individuals which will
not take whole fish or pieces of fish initially. (P24.335.w9,
V.w26)