Overview

Successful reproduction depends not only on the union of eggs and sperm but also on survival of adequate numbers of the new generation to reach reproductive age and begin the cycle again. In some species, parental involvement in the reproductive process ends with fertilization of the ova; thousands or even millions of embryos may result from a single mating, with just a few surviving long enough to procreate. Higher mammals, particularly humans, have adopted the alternative strategy of producing only few or a single fertilized ovum at a time. Prolonged parental care during the embryonic and neonatal periods substitutes for huge numbers of unattended offspring as the means for increasing the likelihood of survival. Estrogen and progesterone prepare the maternal body for successful internal fertilization and hospitable acceptance of the embryo. The conceptus then takes charge. After lodging firmly within the uterine lining and gaining access to the maternal circulation, it secretes protein and steroid hormones that ensure continued maternal acceptance, and it directs maternal functions to provide for its development. Simultaneously, the conceptus withdraws whatever nutrients it needs from the maternal circulation. At the appropriate time, the fetus signals its readiness to depart the uterus and initiates the birth process. While in utero, placental hormones prepare the mammary glands to produce the milk needed for nurture after birth. Finally, suckling stimulates continued milk production.

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