Abdelkader, also spelled Abd el-Kader or Abdul-Qadir, Arabic in full ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muḥyī al-Dīn ibn Musṭafā al-Ḥasanī al-Jazāʾirī (born Sept. 6, 1808, Guetna, near Mascara, Alg.—died May 26, 1883, Damascus, Syria) amīr of Mascara (from 1832), the military and religious leader who founded the Algerian state and led the Algerians in their 19th-century struggle against French domination (1840–46).

Early career

His physical handsomeness and the qualities of his mind had made Abdelkader popular even before his military exploits. Of medium height, lithe and elegant, with regular features and a black beard, his demeanour was exceptionally refined, and his life-style simple. He was known as a religious and educated man who could excite his co-religionists with his poetry and oratorical eloquence.

Algeria was an Ottoman regency when the French army landed there in 1830. The government was controlled by a dey (governor) and by the Turkish Janissaries who had chosen him. These rulers, supported by the Koulouglis (people of mixed Turkish and Algerian ancestry) and by certain privileged tribes, and aided by the fact that they were of the same religion as the people, long held Algeria firmly in their grip.

Nevertheless, the Algerians detested them, and there were continual rebellions in the early 19th century. As a result, the country was left too divided to oppose the French invaders.

The western tribes laid siege to French-occupied Oran and tried to organize themselves, unified by their common Muslim religious sentiment, which was cultivated by the schoolmasters and particularly by members of the religious brotherhoods. The leader of one of the brotherhoods, Mahieddin, director of the zāwiyah (religious school) near Mascara, was asked to lead the harassment of the French troops in Oran and Mostaganem.

In November 1832 the aging Mahieddin had his young son Abdelkader elected in his place. The youth, already renowned for his piety and military prowess, took over the war of harassment. The ensuing Desmichels Treaty of 1834 gave him the whole interior of the Oran, with the title commander of the believers. In a move to unify his new territories, Amīr Abdelkader, taking advantage of this treaty, imposed his rule on all the tribes of the Chelif, occupied Miliana and then Médéa, and succeeded in defeating General Camille Trézel at Macta. Although pressed by generals Bertrand Clauzel and T.R. Bugeaud, he managed to rally support from Algerians who had become indignant over the French use of violence. By able negotiation, he convinced General Bugeaud to sign the Treaty of Tafna (1837), which further increased his territory and made him master of the whole interior of Oran and the Titteri, with the French having to be content with a few ports.

In two years Abdelkader had organized a true state, the capital of which was sometimes Mascara and sometimes the fortress of Tiaret (now Tagdempt). He established juridical equality among population groups by suppressing the privileges of the warlike tribes (makhzen) and by imposing equal taxes on all his subjects. First he extended his influence to the Sahara by fighting al-Tijīnī, who dominated the southern oases, and rallying the desert peoples to him. Then he strengthened his authority in the valley of the Chelif and in the Titteri as far as the borders of the province of the east, where he was resisted by the bey of Constantine, Hajj Ahmed. He also exacted harsh punishment of the Koulouglis of Zouatna, who had joined the French. By the winter of 1838, his authority extended across the borders of Kabylie and, in the south, from the oasis of Biskra to the Moroccan border. To destroy the power of al-Tijīnī, he besieged his capital, Aïn Mahdi, for six months and demolished it, while all the Saharan tribes paid him homage.

Abdelkader was an absolute leader who only rarely called in the grandees to advise him. Algerian religious sentiment was his support, the one force that could bring his subjects together and unify them in the face of the invader. But that did not prevent him from employing competent persons of all nationalities, whether Jews or Christians, to help him build a modern state. The best known of these Europeans was the future diplomat Léon Roches, who later recounted his adventures in a fanciful book, Trente-deux ans à travers l’Islam (“Thirty-two Years Through Islam”). Abdelkader organized a regular army of approximately 2,000 men, to be supported by either volunteers or contingents furnished by the tribes. As towns near French territory would have been too vulnerable, he fortified interior sites, such as Sebdou, Saïda, Tiaret, Taza, and Boghar, where he opened arsenals, warehouses, and workshops, and where he stored surplus crops whose sales were to finance his arms purchases, mainly in England. He set up a new administration, with officials on fixed salaries. He taught his people austerity and set a personal example, living without ceremony in a tent. By expanding education, he slowly spread the concepts of independence and nationality to his people.

When the columns of the duc d’Orléans crossed the Iron Gates, the Amīr took it as a violation of the territories granted him by the Treaty of Tafna. Even though he was still far from having completed his own work of organization, he made a surprise attack and destroyed the French colonization of the Mitidja Plain. From then on the war languished until General Bugeaud was named governor general in 1840. Bugeaud convinced the French government to arm him for the conquest of all Algeria. The resulting war was bitter and lasted seven years. The Amīr avoided big battles, preferring to use his rifle-armed cavalry in incessant skirmishes, from which it would retreat almost as soon as it had fired. But he was fighting a French army composed of infantry organized by Bugeaud into extremely mobile columns, and he had to contend with the devastation of the countryside practiced by Bugeaud and his lieutenants so as to force the starving inhabitants to desert their leader.

In 1841 the French destroyed the Amīr’s fortified sites, and he was forced to become a nomad in the interior of Oran. The following year he lost Tlemcen, and communication with his Moroccan allies became difficult. Yet, despite further reverses and French penetration in the south, he succeeded in reaching Morocco. But after Bugeaud’s defeat of the Moroccans at Isly, the Sultan was forced to hold Abdelkader in the midst of his empire. The Amīr, however, proved to have unflagging energy. Taking advantage of a revolt in the Dahra, he reentered Algeria, took the Sidi Brahim outpost, and penetrated deep into the interior, all the while escaping the pursuing French columns.

Surrender to the French

In July 1846, with only a handful of men left, Abdelkader again took refuge in Morocco, the Sultan of which by then considered him to be a burden. Deprived of this last area of support, Abdelkader returned to Algeria and in 1847, with great dignity, turned himself over to Gen. Christophe de Lamoricière and to Bugeaud’s successor, King Louis-Philippe’s son, the duc d’Aumale, who promised him transport to the East.

Louis-Philippe, however, failed to respect his son’s promise. Abdelkader was held prisoner in France, first at the Château de Pau, where he learned the principles of Freemasonry, and later at Amboise. It was the prince-president Louis-Napoléon who, in 1852, authorized his return to Bursa and then to Damascus, where he led an exemplary life and wrote Rappel à l’intelligent, avis à l’indifférent (“Call to the Intelligent, Warning to the Indifferent”). The French government provided him with a large pension and with a Kabyle guard and even attempted to obtain a throne for him somewhere between Turkey and Egypt, which they wished to remove from Ottoman control. At the time of the 1871 Algerian insurrection, he disowned one of his sons who had tried to arouse the tribes of southern Constantine.

When he died, he was respected by all. French efforts to make him the symbol of Algerian support for colonial rule were erroneous. Abdelkader believed he was carrying out God’s will in admitting that his political role had ended. Present-day Algerians consider him to be the greatest hero of their people.