Johor Sultanate

This article is about the Old Sultanate of Johor. For the office of the sultan, see Sultan of Johor, for the successive Riau-Lingga Sultanate following the partition of 1824, see Riau-Lingga Sultanate. For the modern Johor Sultanate, see Johor.

In 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca, the sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless. The Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sultan sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there.[citation needed] With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position.

Based at Pekan Tua, Sungai Telur, Johor, the Johor Sultanate was founded by Raja Ali Ibni Sultan Mahmud Melaka, known as Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah (1528–1564), with his Queen Tun Fatimah in 1528.[citation needed] Although Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah and his successor had to contend with attacks by the Portuguese in Malacca[citation needed] and by the Acehnese in Sumatra, they managed to maintain their hold on the Johor Sultanate.

Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and it helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultan's forces. A number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground, the sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later. He left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II.[citation needed]

Muzaffar Shah continued on to establish Perak while Alauddin Riayat Shah became the first sultan of Johor.[citation needed]

The new sultan established a new capital by the Johor River and, from there, continued to harass the Portuguese in the north, he consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, which by this time was protected by the fort A Famosa.

On the northern part of Sumatra around the same period, Aceh Sultanate was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Straits of Malacca, with the fall of Malacca to Christian hands, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or also of Johor's capital Johor Lama (Kota Batu). Therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors.

With the Portuguese and Johor frequently locking horns, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the straits, the rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor and the Portuguese had each other in their sights again, during the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615.[3]

In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia, at that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu (Raja Seberang) of Johor in May and September 1606.[4] Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese, as per the agreement with Johor struck in May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor. Finally in January 1641, the Dutch (attacking by land and the sea) and Johor forces (attacking by land and under the leadership of Bendahara Skudai), defeated the Portuguese at Malacca. By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease (the plague),[5] as per article 1 of the agreement with Johor ratified in May 1606, the Dutch assumed control of the town of Malacca and also of some surrounding settlements. Malacca then became a territory under the control of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and formally remained a Dutch possession until the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 was signed.

With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-established itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677),[6] its influence extended to Pahang, Sungei Ujong, Malacca, Klang and the Riau Archipelago.[7] During the triangular war, Jambi also emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi with a promised marriage between the heir Raja Muda and daughter of the Pengeran of Jambi. However, the Raja Muda married instead the daughter of the Laksamana Abdul Jamil who, concerned about the dilution of power from such an alliance, offered his own daughter for marriage instead,[8] the alliance therefore broke down, and a 13-year war then ensued between Johor and the Sumatran state beginning in 1666. The war was disastrous for Johor as Johor's capital, Batu Sawar, was sacked by Jambi in 1673, the Sultan escaped to Pahang and died four years later. His successor, Sultan Ibrahim (1677–1685), then engaged the help of the Bugis in the fight to defeat Jambi.[7] Johor would eventually prevailed in 1679, but also ended in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to go home, and the Minangkabaus of Sumatra also started to assert their influence.[8]

After the sacking of Batu Sawar in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack from Jambi. All through its history, the rulers of Johor had in fact constantly shifted their centre of power many times in their efforts to keep the sultanate together. Johor Lama (Kota Batu) was initially founded by Alauddin Riayat Shah II but was sacked by the Acehnese in 1564. It was then moved to Seluyut, later back to Johor Lama during the reign of Ali Jalla (1571–1597) which was sacked by the Portuguese in 1587, then to Batu Sawar, and Lingga (again sacked by the Portuguese), this is followed by a period with no fixed capital (places included Tanah Puteh and Makam Tauhid) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III before he moved it to Batu Sawar in 1640. After Batu Sawar was sacked by Jambi, later capitals included Kota Tinggi, Riau, and Pancur.[9]

In the 17th century with Malacca ceasing to be an important port, Johor became the dominant regional power, the policy of the Dutch in Malacca drove traders to Riau, a port controlled by Johor. The trade there far surpassed that of Malacca, the VOC was unhappy with that but continued to maintain the alliance because the stability of Johor was important to trade in the region.

The Sultan provided all the facility required by the traders. Under the patronage of the Johor elites, traders are protected and prospered,[10] with wide range of goods available and favourable prices, Riau boomed. Ships from various places such as Cambodia, Siam, Vietnam and all over the Malay Archipelago came to trade, the Bugis ships made Riau the centre for spices. Items found in China or example, cloth and opium were traded with locally sourced ocean and forest products, tin, pepper and locally grown gambier. Duties were low, and cargoes could be discharged or stored easily. Traders found they do not need to extend credit, for the business was good.[11]

Like Malacca before it, Riau was also the centre of Islamic studies and teaching. Many orthodox scholars from the Muslim heartlands like the Indian Subcontinent and Arabia were housed in special religious hostels, while devotees of Sufism could seek initiation into one of the many Tariqah (Sufi Brotherhood) which flourished in Riau;[12] in many ways, Riau managed to recapture some of the old Malacca glory. Both became prosperous due to trade but there was a major difference; Malacca was also great due to its territorial conquest.

The last sultan from the Malaccan dynasty, Sultan Mahmud Shah II, was a person of unstable disposition. When Bendahara Habib was the Bendahara, he effectively shielded the people from the Sultan 's idiosyncrasies, after the demise of Bendehara Habib, he was replaced by Bendahara Abdul Jalil. As the Bendahara was only a cousin, he could not rein in the Sultan 's eccentric behaviour.[citation needed]

The Sultan ordered the pregnant wife of a noble, Orang Kaya Megat Sri Rama killed, as she had taken a slice of the royal jack fruit. Subsequently, the Sultan was killed by Megat Sri Rama in revenge. Sultan Mahmud Shah II of Johor had died in 1699 without an heir. The Orang Kayas, who were normally tasked with advising the Sultan, were in a fix, they went to Muar to meet Sa Akar DiRaja, Raja Temenggung of Muar, the Sultan's uncle and asked for his counsel.[citation needed] He pointed out that Bendahara Abdul Jalil should inherit the throne,[13] the problem was resolved when the viceroy Bendahara Abdul Jalil was declared the new sultan and proclaimed Sultan Abdul Jalil IV. Many, particularly the Orang Laut (islanders from Johor maritime territories), however felt that the declaration was improper.

The Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had a huge influence in Johor. Apart from the Malays, another influential faction in Johor at that time were the Minangkabau. Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan Mahmud II had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor, the Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince, Raja Kecil from Siak who claimed he was the posthumous son of Sultan Mahmud II. The prince met with the Bugis and promised the Bugis wealth and political power if they helped the prince to win the throne. However, Raja Kecil broke his promise and installed himself as the new Sultan of Johor (Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah) without the knowledge of the Bugis. Sultan Abdul Jalil IV fled to Pahang where he was later killed by an assassin hired by Raja Kecil.

Dissatisfied with Raja Kecil's accession, the son of Sultan Abdul Jalil IV, Raja Sulaiman, asked Daeng Parani of the Bugis to aid him in his quest to reclaim the throne; in 1722, Raja Kecil was dethroned by Raja Sulaiman's supporters with the assistance of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman became the new Sultan of Johore, but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis. Daeng Parani's brother, Daeng Merewah, who was made Yam Tuan Muda (crown prince) was the man who actually controlled Johor.[14]

The Johor Sultanate continued the system of administration previously practised in Malacca, the highest authority lay in the hands of the Yang di-Pertuan who was known as the Sultan. The Sultan was assisted by a body known as the Majlis Orang Kaya (Council of Rich Men) which was tasked with advising the Sultan, among them were the Bendahara, Temenggong, Laksamana, Shahbandar and Seri Bija Diraja. During the 18th century, the Bendahara lived in Pahang and the Temenggong Johor in Teluk Belanga, Singapore, each one managed the administration of their individual areas based on the level of authority bestowed upon them by the Sultan of Johor.

The Johor Empire was decentralised, it was made of four main fiefs and the Sultan's territory. The fiefs are Muar and its territories under the Raja Temenggung of Muar;[15] Pahang under the stewardship of the Bendehara;[16] Riau under the control of YAM Tuan Muda and mainland Johor and Singapore under the Temenggung, the rest of the Empire were directly controlled by the Sultan. The Sultan resided in Lingga. All the Orang Kayas except Raja Temenggung Muar reported directly to the Sultan ; Raja Temenggung Muar was a suzerain recognised by the Sultan.

As the Sultanate replaced the Malacca Sultanate, it followed that the extent of its territorial area covered the southern Malay peninsular, parts of south-eastern Sumatra and the Riau Islands and its dependencies, this territory included the vassal states of Pahang, Muar, Johor mainland and Riau Islands. The administrative centre of the empire was at various times at Sayong Pinang, Kota Kara, Seluyut, Johor Lama, Batu Sawar and Kota Tinggi; all on mainland Johor and later at Riau and Lingga. It then shifted with the birth of Modern Johore Sultanate to Tanjung Puteri, known today as Johor Bahru.

When Raffles' expedition arrived in Singapore on 29 January 1819 he discovered a small Malay settlement at the mouth of Singapore River headed by a Temenggung (governor) of Johor. Though the island was nominally ruled by the sultanate, the political situation there was extremely murky, the reigning sultan, Tengku Abdul Rahman, was under the influence of the Dutch and the Bugis. Hence, he would never agree to a British base in Singapore.

However, Tengku Abdul Rahman was ruler only because his older brother, Tengku Hussein or Tengku Long, had been away in Pahang getting married when their father died in 1812, he was appointed by the Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, Raja Jaafar because according to him, in a Malay tradition, a person has to be by the dying sultan's side to be considered as the new ruler. However the matter has to be decided by the Bendehara as the "keeper of adat (tradition)".[17] Predictably, the older brother was not happy with the development.

Raja Jaafar's sister, the queen of the late Sultan, protested vehemently at her brother's actions with these prophetic words, "... Which adat of succession is being followed? Unfair deeds like this will cause the Johor Sultanate be destroyed!". And she held on the royal regalia refusing to surrender it.[18]

Bendehara Ali was made aware of the affairs of the succession and decided to act,[17] he prepared his fleet of boats to Riau to "restore the adat". The British upon knowing this despatched a fleet and set up a blockade to stop the forces of Bendehara Ali from advancing.

With the Temenggung's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Hussein, then living in exile on one of the Riau Islands, back into Singapore. According to a correspondence between Tengku Hussain and his brother, he left for Singapore out of his concern of his son's safety. Unfortunately he was captured by Raffles and forced to make a deal,[19] their agreement stated that the British would acknowledge Tengku Hussein as the "legitimate ruler" of "Johor", and thus Tengku Hussein and the Temenggung would receive a yearly stipend from the British. In return, Tengku Hussein would allow Raffles to establish a trading post in Singapore, this treaty was ratified on 6 February 1819.

Bendehara Ali was requested by the British to recognise Tengku Hussein as a ruler. However, Bendehara Ali claimed that he had no connection with the events in Singapore, as it is the Temenggung's fief and stated that his loyalty lies only with the Sultan of Johor in Lingga.[20]

The Dutch were extremely displeased with Raffles' action. Tensions between the Dutch and British over Singapore persisted until 1824, when they signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. Under the terms of that treaty, the Dutch officially withdrew their opposition to the British presence in Singapore. Many historians contend that the treaty divided the spheres of influence between the Dutch and the English; Sultanate of Johor into modern Johor and the state of Riau-Lingga which exists de jure after the ouster of the last Sultan of Johor. However this treaty was signed secretly without the knowledge of the local nobility including the Sultan and thus its legitimacy was called into question.

Nevertheless, the British successfully sidelined Dutch political influence by proclaiming Sultan Hussein as the Sultan of Johor and Singapore to acquire legal recognition in their sphere of influence in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia, the legitimacy of Sultan Hussein's proclamation as the Sultan of Johor and Singapore was controversial to some of the other Malay rulers. As he was placed on the throne by the British, he was also very much seen as a puppet ruler. Temenggong Abdul Rahman's position, on the other hand, was strengthened as it was with his cooperation that the British successfully took de facto control of Johor and Singapore; with the backing of the British he gained influence as Raja Ja'afar.[21] Meanwhile, Sultan Abdul Rahman was installed as the Sultan of Lingga in November 1822, complete with the royal regalia.[22] Sultan Abdul Rahman, who had devoted himself to religion, became contented with his political sphere of influence in Lingga, where his family continued to maintain his household under the administrative direction of Raja Ja'afar who ruled under the auspices of the Dutch.

The actors on this stage were three parties; the Colonial powers of British and the Dutch; the nobles who made agreement with the Dutch namely Raja Jaafar, Yam Tuan Muda of Riau and Temenggung Abdul Rahman, of Johore and Singapore ; the palace namely the Sultan, and the Bendahara who claimed he was not aware of any treaty signed with their knowledge.[23] Because the treaties are not ratified by the Sultan or the Bendahara, the Malays tried not to pay heed to any action of the Colonial powers.

The Yam Tuan Muda has been accused of committing treachery by "selling" the sovereignty of Johore,[24] however the counter argument is that neither the Sultan nor the Bendahara were parties to the treaty, the treaty was signed in secret[25] and details were only known in 1855. The Temenggung, strengthened his position through his friendship with Great Britain, and gained influence, together with Britain, over the state at the expense of the Sultanate, this is especially true for the son of Temenggung Ibrahim, the ambitious Temenggung (and later Sultan) Abu Bakar succeeded in eventually usurping the throne.

Sultan Abdul Rahman died in 1832 and was replaced by his son, Sultan Muhammad Shah (reigning from 1832–1841). Raja Jaffar, Yam Tuan Muda of Riau died and the Sultan is in no hurry to appoint a successor, the Sultan saw the damage that was done to the Palace in his father's reign and decided to reemphasis and restore adat[26] as a rule governing personal behaviour and the politics. He summoned Bendahara Ali (Raja Bendahara Pahang) to Lingga, at Lingga, an adat-steeped function[27] was held. The Bendahara conducted ceremonies (as per adat) aimed at re-educating the nobility and the Sultan about their respective duties and responsibilities. Islam and politics were discussed, it was attended by all the nobles from across the Empire hence, proving that 'Sultan' of Singapore is not recognised by the Malays. The ceremonies also include istallation of Tengku Mahmud (later ruling as Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar) as a Crown Prince and Tun Mutahir as Bendehara-in-waiting.

In 1841, Bendahara Ali appointed Temenggung Ibrahim[28] to replace his father who died in 1825, the long interval was due to displeasure of the Bendahara over the affairs of Singapore. Conditions imposed during the appointment included paying a visit of fealty to the ruling Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga. Sultan Hussein of Singapore died in 1835 and his prince Tengku Ali wished for the legitimacy granted to Temenggung Ibrahim, by the British and some Malay nobles, the British forwarded the request in 1841 to the Bendahara. Bendahara Ali.

After waiting since 1835 for the 'appointment' as a Sultan, in 1852 Tengku Ali decided to return Johor'[29] to the former Johor-Riau Empire by paying homage to Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga, for three years Johor Empire was one again, except Singapore which was ceded to the British. Worried by the state of affairs, the British called Tengku Ali back to Singapore on the threat of cancelling his pension; in Singapore, he was frequently visited by Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar and their relations are cordial.

The worried British then forced the 1855 treaty between Temenggung Ibrahim and Tengku Ali; in exchange for recognition as a Sultan, Tengku Ali agrees to 'give up all of Johor'. The treaty was intended to solidify the position of Temenggung Ibrahim, their key ally.

Bendahara Ali was asked by the Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar about the 1855 treaty;[30][31] in his reply, the Bendahara reiterated that the Temenggung was supposed to swear fealty to his majesty and on the behaviour of Tengku Ali, the Bendehara claimed ignorance. He also reiterated that he was not a party to any discussion with the British or the Dutch.

The Dutch were also very worried, it seemed that the Sultan is acting on his own and would not listen to any of the Dutch-influenced Yam Tuan Muda of Riau and the Bugis nobility. It erupted into an open dispute between Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar and the Bugis nobility over the appointment of new Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, the Bugis preferred candidate was also the Dutch choice.[32] The Sultan resented having another foreign-backed Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, it resulted in a deadlock and the Sultan set sail to Singapore to cool off. It was during the Singapore trip that the last Sultan of the mighty Johore Empire was deposed by the Bugis nobility in 1857.[33]

After the ouster of the former Sultan of Johor-Riau, the Bugis nobles elected the new Sultan, Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Shah,[34] the Sultan of the "new" Riau-Lingga Kingdom built on the Riau remnants of the Johore Empire, the Sultan signed an agreement with the Dutch.[34] In the agreement he agreed to acknowledge the overlordship of the Dutch government among others, with a stroke of a pen, he broke up the Johor Empire into 2 big parts and has given up the sovereignty of his part of territory to the Dutch. This also marked the end of the original Johor-Riau Sultanate, that was descended from the Sultanate of Melaka, this division remains until today as the Malaysia-Indonesia border.

Temenggung Ibrahim of Johore signed a treaty with Bendahara Tun Mutahir of Pahang in 1861,[35] the treaty recognised the territories of Johor (mainland), the Temenggung and his descendent's right to rule it, mutual protection and mutual recognitions of Pahang and Johor. With the signing of this treaty, the remnants of the Empire became two independent states, Johor and Pahang.

In 1855, Temenggong Ibrahim selected Tanjung Puteri, a small fishing village in southern Johor which would later develop into Johor Bahru, as the administrative headquarters of the state. Temenggong Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Temenggong Abu Bakar, who later took the title Seri Maharaja Johor.

Muar was another vassal of Old Johor Empire and was ruled by its own Raja Temenggong, at gunpoint, the Raja Temenggong and the chieftains of Muar handed over the control of Muar to Temenggong Abu Bakar in 1877; this later contributed to the Jementah Civil War. Temenggong Abu Bakar, aided by the British won decisively. Abu Bakar went to Istanbul to seek recognition as the Sultan of Johor, to allay fears of his religious credibility.

In 1885, he went to London seeking the recognition from the British Queen, Queen Victoria on his sultanate and Johor's independence, he was warmly accepted by the Queen and a friendship treaty was signed. After that he was formally crowned the Sultan of Johor, the modern Sultanate of Johor ruled only over mainland Johor. The Old Johore Sultanate (Johore Empire) was thus broken up into its constituents- Pahang, Singapore, Lingga/Riau and mainland Johor.

Sultan Abu Bakar has often been credited as the "Father of Modern Johor" due to the modernisation of the state under his rule, he introduced a constitution known as Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Johor and developed an efficient administration system, officially moving administrative operation of the state to Johor Bahru. As the capital of the state, Johor Bahru witnessed significant growth and development, culminating to the construction of buildings on grand scales with architecture deriving from Western and Malay sources. Johor as a whole also enjoyed economic prosperity. An increased demand for black pepper and gambier in the nineteenth century lead to the opening up of farmlands to the influx of Chinese immigrants, creating Johor's initial economic base. The Kangchu system was put in place.

The Johor Sultanate continues to exist as a member of the Conference of Rulers following Malaya's independence in 1957 and the formation of the Malaysian federation in 1963, with successive sultans presiding over modern Johor as ceremonious figureheads, including Sultan Ismail (1959–1981), Sultan Iskandar (1981–2010), and Sultan Ibrahim (2010–present). Sultan Iskandar served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the federal head of state of Malaysia, from 1984 to 1989.

Borschberg, Peter (2010b). "Ethnicity, language and culture in Melaka during the transition from Portuguese to Dutch rule". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 83 (2): 93–117.

1.
Sultan of Johor
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Sultan of Johor is a hereditary seat and the nominal ruler of the Malaysian state of Johor. In the past, the sultan held absolute power over the state and was advised by a bendahara, nowadays, the role of bendahara has been taken over by chief minister. The first sultan of Johor was Alauddin Riayat Shah II and he was the son of the last sultan of Malacca, Sultan Mahmud Shah. The descendants of the Sultanate of Malacca in Johor ended with the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699, Abdul Jalil IV was a bendahara before the death of the sultan. Though Johor has been ruled over by at least 20 sultans and he was the first person from the temenggung family to become the sultan in Johors history. His father, Temenggung Ibrahim managed to consolidate power to disfranchise Sultan Ali who died in 1877. His father, Sultan Iskandar Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Sir Ismail Al-Khalidi, Ibrahim Ismail, the then Tunku Mahkota of Johor, was appointed as Acting Sultan of Johor on the same day. The proclamation of His Royal Highness death was announced nationwide by the Menteri Besar of Johor, the funeral was held on 23 January after the proclamation of Sultan Ibrahim Ismail

2.
Riau-Lingga Sultanate
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The sultanate came into existence as a result of the partition of the Johor-Riau Sultanate that separated Peninsular Johor, together with the island of Singapore, from the Riau archipelago. This partition followed the dispute following the death of Mahmud III of Johor. The maritime kingdom was recognised by both the British and the Dutch following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the Riau Archipelago became a part of the Malaccan Empire after the expansion by Tun Perak in the 15th century, following the decline of the Srivijaya Empire. After the fall of Malacca at the hands of Portuguese conquistadors, during the golden age of Johor, the kingdom stretched across half of the Malay Peninsular, eastern Sumatra, Singapore, Bangka, Jambi and the Riau Islands. The settlement in Sungai Carang was later known as Riau Lama, initially a fortress to protect the Johor Empire, Riau Lama then prospered and became an increasingly prominent entrepôt for regional trade in the Strait of Malacca. Riau Lama then became the capital of the empire for 65 years, the importance of Lingga began during the reign of Mahmud Shah III. In 1788, he relocated the capital from Riau Lama, Ulu Riau, Bintan to Daik, the Sultan did this as he believed that he was being reduced to a mere figurehead under the Dutch. He then requested aid from his distant relative, Raja Ismail, when the Dutch arrived in Riau, there were only a few Chinese planters left, who persuaded the Dutch not to chase the Orang-orang Melayu. The Sultan then developed Lingga and welcomed new settlers to the island, dato Kaya Megat was appointed as the new Bendahara of Lingga. New dwellings were constructed, roads were built and buildings were improved and he found unprecedented new wealth when tin mines were organised in Singkep. Both the British and Dutch then restored his claim on the Riau island and he discreetly began to revive maritime trade discreetly with the British as a major source of commodities, especially valuable tin, gambier and spices. In 1812, the Johor-Riau Sultanate experienced a succession crisis, the death of the Mahmud Shah III in Lingga left no heir apparent. Royal custom required that the succeeding sultan must be present at his predecessors deathbed, however at the time Mahmud Shah III died, the eldest prince, Tengku Hussein, was in Pahang to celebrate his marriage to the daughter of the Bendahara. The other candidate was Tengku Husseins half-brother, Tengku Abdul Rahman, to complicate matters, neither of the candidates was of full royal blood. The mother of Tengku Hussein, Cik Mariam, owed her origin to a Balinese slave lady, Tengku Abdul Rahman had a similarly lowborn mother, Cik Halimah. The only unquestionably royal wife and consort of Mahmud Shah was Engku Puteri Hamidah, in the following chaos, Engku Puteri was expected to install Tengku Hussein as the next sultan, because he had been preferred by the late Mahmud Shah. The regalia was fundamental to the installation of the sultan, it was a symbol of power, legitimacy, nonetheless, Yang Dipertuan Muda Jaafar supported the reluctant Tengku Abdul Rahman, adhering to the rules of royal protocol, as he had been present at the late Sultans deathbed. Unwilling and furious, the outspoken Queen is then reported to have said, was it my brother Raja Jaafar or by what law of succession has it happened

3.
Johor
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Johor or Johore is a Malaysian state, located in the southern portion of Peninsular Malaysia. It is one of the most developed states in Malaysia, the state capital city of Johor is Johor Bahru. The royal city of the state is Muar and the old state capital is Johor Lama, Johor is surrounded by Pahang to the north, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest, and the Straits of Johor to the south, which separates Johor and the Republic of Singapore. Johor is also known by its Arabic honorific, Darul Tazim, or Abode of Dignity, the name Johor originated from the Persian word Jauhar, gem/jewel. Malays tend to name a place after natural objects in great abundance or having visual dominance. Before the name Johor was adopted, the south of the Muar River to Singapore island was known as Ujong Tanah or lands end in Malay. Coincidentally, Johor is the most southern point of the Asian continental mainland. In the early 16th century, the Sultanate of Johor was founded by the Alauddin Riayat Shah II, the son of Mahmud Shah, Johor sultanate was one of the two successor states of the Melaka empire. On Malaccas defeat by the Portuguese in 1511, Alauddin Riayat Shah II established a monarchy in Johor, the Sultanate of Perak—established by Mahmud Shahs other son, Muzaffar Shah I—was the other successor state of Malacca. During Johors peak, the whole of Pahang, present day Indonesian territories of the Riau archipelago, a series of succession struggles were interspersed with strategic alliances struck with regional clans and foreign powers, which maintained Johors political and economic hold in the Straits. In 1641, Johor in co-operation with the Dutch succeeded in capturing Malacca, by 1660, Johor had become a flourishing entrepôt, although weakening and splintering of the empire in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century reduced its sovereignty. In the 18th century, the Bugis of Sulawesi and the Minangkabau of Sumatra controlled the powers in the Johor-Riau Empire. However, in the early 19th century, Malay and Bugis rivalry commanded the scene, in 1819, the Johor-Riau Empire was divided up into the mainland Johor, controlled by the Temenggong, and the Sultanate of Riau-Lingga, controlled by the Bugis. Temenggong Ibrahim opened up Bandar Tanjung Puteri in south Johor as a major town, Temenggong Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Dato Temenggong Abu Bakar, who later took the title Seri Maharaja Johor by Queen Victoria of England. In 1886, he was crowned the Sultan of Johor. Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor implemented a constitution, developed a British-style administration and constructed the Istana Besar. For his achievements, Sultan Abu Bakar is known by the title Father of Modern Johor, the increased demand for black pepper and gambier in the nineteenth century lead to the opening up of farmlands to the influx of Chinese immigrants, which created Johors initial economic base. The Kangchu system was put in place with the first settlement of Kangkar Tebrau established in 1844, under the British Resident system, Sultan Ibrahim, Sultan Abu Bakars successor, was forced to accept a British adviser in 1904

4.
Flag and coat of arms of Johor
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The flag and the coat of arms of Johor are state symbols of Johor, Malaysia. Like other states of Malaysia with Malay royalties, the symbols of Johor are influenced by Johors royalties, as well as Islam. Johors state flag bears a pattern, a predominantly navy blue design with a bright red field on the upper left canton, which contains a white crescent. Running slightly less than half the length of the flag, the field unconventionally occupies roughly three fifths of the flags hoist, the flag in general attempts to symbolise Johor as a whole. The navy blue, which occupies three quarters of the flag, represents the universe, or the state government. The red represents the warriors that defend the state, while the crescent and white star denote Islam and Johors sovereign ruler. The vast majority of flags in use or formerly used by officials and government branches in the state borrow elements of the state flag, with the introduction of a unified state flag, many of them became obsolete, with the exception of the Royal Standards. A series of Royal Standards are flown by the Sultan of Johor and his family, in addition, standards were also adopted for traditional high-ranking officials, including the bendahara, the Temenggung and the Sultans Marshall. In addition, each flag, with the exception of the Sultans Marshall, are coloured in only two colours, including white, blue, red and yellow. As of 1939, flags were flown by state officials in Johore. The vast majority of flag consist of only a plain coloured flag with a star and crescent similar to that from the state flag. Ships operated by Johore state flew their own flags for identification. Largely similar to the flag, the flags are typically recolours of the state flag that displays a combination of three colours out of four, Black, red, white and blue. In addition, pennants were known to be flown, illustrated as a flag containing the same five pointed star. The State Officials Pennant was coloured blue with a star and crescent, while another variant of unknown use was coloured yellow with a blue star. A ceremonial state flag was flown, consisting of red flag with a white five-pointed star and crescent, an inner yellow border. Johor has ten administrative districts, each assigned their own district-level flags and they were introduced on 3 March 2015. The design was adopted by Trumong, in present-day Indonesia

5.
Johor Bahru
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Johor Bahru, formerly known as Tanjung Puteri or Iskandar Puteri, is the capital of the state of Johor, Malaysia. Johor Bahru has a population of 497,097, and its area is the third largest in the country. It is also the southernmost city in Peninsular Malaysia, Johor Bahru was founded in 1855 as Iskandar Puteri when the Sultanate of Johor came under the influence of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim. The area was renamed Johor Bahru in 1862 and became the capital of the Sultanate when the Sultanate administration centre was moved there from Telok Blangah, Johor Bahru was occupied by the Japanese forces from 1942 to 1945. Johor Bahru became the cradle of Malay nationalism after the war, after the formation of Malaysia in 1963, Johor Bahru retained its status as state capital and was granted city status in 1994. A central business district was developed in the city centre during the 1990s, more development funds were channelled to the city after the introduction of Iskandar Malaysia in 2006. The present area of Johor Bahru was originally known as Tanjung Puteri, the British preferred to spell its name as Johore Bahru or Johore Bharu, but the current accepted western spelling is Johor Bahru, as Johore is only spelt Johor in Malay language. The city is spelt as Johor Baru or Johor Baharu. They arrived in the mid-1800s, during the reign of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim, the Temenggong intended to create a new administration centre for the Johor Sultanate to create a dynasty under the entity of Temenggong. According to the treaty, Ali would be crowned as the Sultan of Johor, in return, Ali was required to cede the sovereignty of the territory of Johor to Temenggong Ibrahim. When both sides agreed on Temenggong acquiring the territory, he renamed it Iskandar Puteri and began to administer it from Telok Blangah in Singapore. As the area was still a jungle, Temenggong encouraged the migration of Chinese and Javanese to clear the land. The Chinese planted the area with black pepper and gambier, while the Javanese dug parit to drain water from the land, build roads, in the first phase of Abu Bakars administration, the British only recognised him as a maharaja rather than a sultan. In 1855, the British Colonial Office start to recognise his status as a Sultan after he met Queen Victoria and he managed to regain Kesang territory for Johor after a civil war with the aid of British forces and he boosted the towns infrastructure and agricultural economy. Infrastructure such as the State Mosque and Royal Palace was built with the aid of Wong Ah Fook, as the Johor-British relationship improved, Abu Bakar also set up his administration under a British style and implemented a constitution known as Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Johor. Although the British had long been advisers for the Sultanate of Johor, Johor Bahru developed at a modest rate between the First and Second World Wars. The secretariat building—Sultan Ibrahim Building—was completed in 1940 as the British colonial government attempted to streamline the states administration, the continuous development of Johor Bahru was, however, halted when the Japanese under General Tomoyuki Yamashita invaded the town on 31 January 1942. As the Japanese had reached northwest Johor by 15 January, they easily captured major towns of Johor such of Batu Pahat, Yong Peng, Kluang and Ayer Hitam

6.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language

7.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service

8.
Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership

9.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca

10.
Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura
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The Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura, often called Sultanate of Siak, was a kingdom that was located in the Siak Regency, Riau from 1723 to 1946 CE. It was founded by Raja Kecik from the Johor Kingdom, after he failed to seize the throne of the Sultanate of Johor, after Indonesias Independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sultan of Siak declared his kingdom to have joined the Republic of Indonesia. The history of Riau before Indonesian independence time has been rooted in the history of Siak Sri Indrapura, the Siak-centred sultanate was founded by Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmad Shah in 1725. The first Sultan died in 1746 and later given the title of Marhum Buantan. The reign was continued to Sultan Abdul Jalil Muzaffar Shah who ruled for about 19 years and this second Sultan succeeded in making the Kingdom of Siak Sri Indrapura strong and triumphant. The third Sultan was Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin Shah had only ruled for a year and his real name was Tengku Ismail. His reign was under attacks of the Dutch East India Company which took advantage of Tengku Alam as a shield, Sultan Abdul Jalil later dubbed Marhum Mangkat di Balai. Tengku Alam ascended to the throne after the death of Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin, with the title of Sultan Abdul Jalil Alamuddin Syah, uthman was then appointed as a military commander and religious advisor in the Sultanate. Six of their descendants from this marriage became Sultans, which was started since the seventh Sultan of Siak Sri Indrapura and this has also been verified by the institution for that purpose, al-Rabithah al-Alawiyah. Nevertheless, many descendants of Sayyid Usman bin Abdurrahman in Malaysia still use the Shahab title, the fifth in throne was Sultan Muhammad Ali Abdul Jalil Muazzam Shah. During his reign the Sultanate of Siak relocated to Senapelan and he is also the founder of the city of Pekanbaru, so since his death in 1782 he was titled with title Marhum Pekan. Sultan Yahya Abdul Jalil Muzaffar Shah later took the position as the sultan during 1782–1784. Like the previous sultan, Sultan Yahya also only had 2 years to rule and he died in 1784 and was posthumously granted the title Marhum Mangkat di Dungun. The seventh Sultan, Ali Abdul Jalil Syaifuddin Baalawi, was the first sultan of Arab descent, during his reign the Kingdom of Siak reached its peak. He died in 1810 and was granted the title Marhum Kota Tinggi. Ibrahim Abdul Jalil Khaliluddin was the eight sultan in the kingdom in 1810–1815 and he died in 1815 and then was named the Marhum Mempura Kecil. He was then followed by Sultan Syarif Ismail Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin Ismail who took the reign during 1815–1854 which was given title Marhum Indrapura and he was then followed by the next sultan, Qasim Abdul Jalil Syaifuddin I. He died in 1889 and was granted the title Marhum Mahkota

11.
Straits Settlements
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The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the controlled by the British East India Company. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of the Second World War, the Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca, Dinding, Penang and Singapore. The Penang territory included Penang Island, formerly known as Prince of Wales Island, christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were also included. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958 and their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen for the Dutch colony of Malacca, the Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from Penang to Singapore in 1832 and their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer. During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, the years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant, earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. Penang and Malacca were administered, directly under the governor, by resident councillors, the Dindings, which included Pangkor Island as well as the towns of Lumut, and Sitiawan, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border, the boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It was administered by an officer, with some assistants. About a tenth of the area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, the governor of the Straits Settlements was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. Since the administration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government he was governor of Labuan. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941, on 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands

12.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra

13.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations

14.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde

15.
History of Malaysia
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Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign culture. Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, the adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Sultanate of Malacca. Islam had a influence on the Malay people, but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies. A fourth phase of influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula. Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia, the subsequent occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British, a tough military response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multi-racial Federation of Malaya on 31 August 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories in North Borneo and Singapore were granted independence, approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill without the consent of signatory of Malaysia Agreement 1963 to separate Singapore from the Federation. A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s, race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the National Front coalition headed by United Malays National Organisation has governed Malaysia, Economic growth dramatically increased living standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimise political discontent, stone hand-axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong. They date back 1.83 million years, the oldest evidence of habitation in Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence of human habitation in Malaysia is the 40, 000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in todays Sarawak. It was excavated from a trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson in 1958. This is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia, the skull probably belongs to a 16-to 17-year-old adolescent girl. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia, the landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, the foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants

16.
Prehistoric Malaysia
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The earliest anatomically modern humans skeleton in Peninsular Malaysia, Perak Man, dates back 11,000 years and Perak Woman dating back 8,000 years, were both discovered in Lenggong. The site has a stone tool production area, created using equipment such as anvils. The Tambun Cave paintings are situated in Perak. From East Malaysia, Sarawaks Niah Caves, there is evidence of the oldest human remains in Malaysia, Niah Caves in Sarawak is an important prehistoric site where human remains dating to ca.40,000 years ago have been found. Archeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, archaeological finds from the Lenggong valley in Perak show that people were making stone tools and using jewellery. The archaeological data from this come from cave and rock shelter sites. It is believed that Neolithic farmers made their entrance in this region between 3–4000 years ago, more people arrived, including new tribes and seafarers. The Malay Peninsula became the crossroads in maritime trades of the ancient age, seafarers who came to Malaysias shores included Indians, Egyptians, peoples of the Middle East, Javanese and Chinese. Ptolemy named the Malay Peninsula the Golden Chersonese, the population migrations were most likely to have been driven by climate change – the effects of the drowning of an ancient continent. A2009 genetic study published by the 2009 Human Genome Organization Pan-Asian SNP Consortium found that Asia was originally settled by humans via a southern route. The migration came from Africa via India, into Southeast Asia and what are now islands in the Pacific, genetic similarities were found between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes. Oppenheimer locates the origin of the Austronesians in Sundaland and its upper regions. The theory of the Proto Malay people originating from Yunnan is supported by R. H Geldern, J. H. C Kern, J. R Foster, J. R Logen, Slametmuljana and Asmah Haji Omar. The Proto Malay who first arrived had agricultural skills while the second wave Deutero Malay who arrived around 1500 BC to dwell along the coastlines had advanced fishery skills. During the migration, both groups intermarried with peoples of the islands, such as those from Java, and also with aboriginal peoples of Australoid, Negrito. Other evidences that support this include, Stone tools found in the Malay archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools. Similarities between Malay customs and Assamese customs, the Malay language and the Cambodian language are kindred languages because the ancestral home of Cambodians was near the source of the Mekong River. According to Kedah Annals, Kadaram was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron, Persia around 630 CE, the other Malay literature, Sejarah Melayu too alleged that they were the descendants of Alexander The Great

17.
Gangga Negara
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Researchers believe that the kingdom was centred at Beruas and it collapsed after an attack by King Rajendra Chola I of Coromandel, South India, between 1025 and 1026. Gangga Negara means a city on the Ganges in Sanskrit, the derived from Ganganagar in northwest India where the Kambuja peoples inhabited. The Kambujas are an Indo-Iranian clan of the Indo-European family, originally localised in Pamirs, historians found the Kambuja traders travelled from Gujarat to Sri Lanka and then to Ligor of the northern Malay peninsular, overland to Thailand and Cambodia. The first research into the Beruas kingdom was conducted by Colonel James Low in 1849, according to the Museum and Antiquities Department, both researchers agreed that the Gangga Negara kingdom existed between 100 ce -1000 but could not ascertain the exact site. For years, villagers had unearthed artefacts believed to be from the ancient kingdoms, artefacts on display include a 128 kg cannon, swords, kris, coins, tin ingots, pottery from the Ming Dynasty and various eras, and large jars. They can be dated back to the 5th and 6th century, through these artefacts, it has been postulated that Pengkalan, Kinta Valley, Tanjung Rambutan, Bidor and Sungai Siput were part of the kingdom. Artifacts also suggest that the centre might have shifted several times. Gangga Negara was renamed to Beruas after the establishment of Islam there, history of Pasai did mentioned a Malik ul Salih who was the first local Hindu Malay king to convert to Islam in 1267. Today the beruas trees have become extinct but can still be found in the villages of Pengkalan Baru

18.
Langkasuka
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Langkasuka was an ancient Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The name is Sanskrit in origin, it is thought to be a combination of langkha for resplendent land -sukkha for bliss, the kingdom, along with Old Kedah, is probably among the earliest kingdoms founded on the Malay Peninsula. The exact location of the kingdom is of some debate, but archaeological discoveries at Yarang near Pattani, the kingdom is believed to have been founded in the 2nd century. According to the legend given in the Kedah Annals, the kingdom was founded and named by Merong Mahawangsa, Chinese historical sources provided some information on the kingdom and recorded a king Bhagadatta who sent envoys to the Chinese court. The earliest and most detailed description of the kingdom comes from the Chinese Liang Dynasty record Liangshu, according to Liangshu, Lang-ya-xiu or Langkasuka was thirty days journey from east to west, and twenty from north to south,24,000 li in distance from Guangzhou. It mentions that Aloeswood and camphor were abundant in the kingdom, women of high status wrapped themselves in cloth and wore jeweled girdles. It gives further information on some of its kings and also relates a story on a succession and he is accompanied by banners, fly-whisks, flags and drums and he is shaded with a white parasol. The soldiers of his guard are well-appointed, the inhabitants of the country say that their state was founded more than four hundred years ago. Subsequently the descendants became weaker, but in the household there was a man of virtue to whom the populace turned. When the king heard of this he imprisoned this man, the king took him for a supernatural being and, not daring to injure him, exiled him from the country, whereupon he fled to India. The king of India gave him his eldest daughter in marriage, not long afterwards, when the king of Lang-ya died, the chief ministers welcomed back the exile and made him king. This king then ruled for more than 20 years and he was succeeded by his son, King Bhagadatta, who sent the first ambassadorial mission to China in 515. The transcription of the name in Chinese records changed over time. In the late century, the Buddhist monk Yi Jing mentioned encountering three Chinese monks who lived in a place named Lang-jia-shu. A Song Dynasty work Zhu fan zhi gives a description of the country of Ling-ya-si-jia and it also says that the country paid tribute to a country named Sanfoqi which is often interpreted to be Srivijaya. Langkasuka was known as Long-ya-xi-jiao in Daoyi Zhilüe from the Yuan Dynasty, Daoyi Zhilüe mentions that the native of Langkasuka make salt from seawater and ferment rice wine, and produced hornbill casques, lakawood, honey and gharuwood. The people wore cotton from the Phillipines and printed cloth from India, the country was named Langkasuka in the Malay text Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, and was referred to as Lengkasuka in the Javanese poem Nagarakretagama. Tamil sources name Ilangasoka as one of Rajendra Cholas conquests in his expedition against the Srivijaya empire and it was described as a kingdom that was undaunted in fierce battles

19.
Chi Tu
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Chi Tu is an ancient kingdom mentioned in the history of China. The Sui Dynasty annals describe an advanced kingdom called Chi Tu in 607, the location of Chi Tu was disputed to be around Kelantan or Pahang state in Malay Peninsula, or in Songkhla and Pattani Province of southern Thailand. The inscribed Buddhagupta Stone found in Kedah mentioned a Raktamrttika, meaning red earth land, the Chi Tu kingdom is believed to have existed from 100 BC to the 7th century. The royal familys name is Chu-dan and the king is Li-fo-duo-se, according to Chinese records, Chi Tu was built by kit mow peoples who sailed from the coast of Funan. Centuries later, the inhabitants, replaced Funan peoples. Chi Tu is a nation of Funan, located in within the southern sea, sailing hundred days to reach. East bordering Po-Lo-La, West bordering Po-Lo-So, South bordering Ho Lo Tan, the king has three wives and the kingdom embraced Buddhism. Chi Tu kingdom along with Langkasuka, Kedah and others were important trade centers. During this period, ships coming from China and Funan stop at the coast of Malay Peninsula and they get the local porters to transport the goods, using rafts, elephants and manpower along the Early transpeninsular routeway and part of the ancient Spice Route. Scholars do not agree on the location of Raktamaritika, while some consider it in the area of Phatthalung / Songkhla area, or Kelantan. The ruins around the Songkhla lake such as Bang Kaeo in Phatthalung or Sathing Phra in Songkhla then might be one of the cities of Raktamaritika, J. L. Meons believed that early Srivijaya was located in Kelantan and K. A. The founding of Sri Wijaya Mala was 667 BC with its capital called Valai and it was until 570 BC that the kingdom changed its name to Sri Wijaya. The inscription of the Buddhagupta Stone found in Kedah mentioned a Raktamaritika, the old name of Songkhla is Singgora, which coincides with the fact that according to the Chinese chronicles the capital of Chitu was Sing-Ha and also the nearby Singhanakhon district. This name may also be related to Tambralinga because there is Tam in this name as same as Raktamaritika, and this state has appeared in 642, the same area of the central Malay peninsula after Chitu has already faded away from the history

20.
History of Kedah
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Early west-coast trade centres are few in number as they were overshadowed by Kedah. Early sea traders from the west, upon reaching the coast, engaged porters to transport goods by raft, elephant, the Sungai Muda in particular favoured the development of Kedah. After the 7th century, Srivijaya subjugated Kedah, but due to her fame, Indian sources continue to depict Kedah. Early Kedah also supplied its own tin, and jungle products such as rattan, resin, honey, beeswax, elephants, ivory, areca nuts, sepang wood and black woods, the early history of Kedah can be traced from various sources. Austronesians began migrating to the Malay Archipelago approximately 3,500 years before present and it is now accepted that Taiwan is the cradle of Austronesian languages. Some 4,000 years ago, Austronesian began to migrate to the Philippines, later on, some of their descendants started to migrate southwards to what is now Indonesia and eastwards to the Pacific islands. Austronesians were great seafarers, colonising as far as New Zealand, Hawaii, in some regions they intermarried with the local inhabitants, becoming the Deutero-Malays. Possibly as early as the 4th century BCE, Austronesians started to sail westwards in search of new markets for their products and they reached the eastern coast of southern India, initiating trade. Gradually, rulers from western Indonesia began to adopt Tamil-Indian cultural and political models, however, the earliest evidence of such models found so far have been dated to only the early 5th century. Some Greco-Roman merchants in the 1st century CE described huge non-Indian ships coming from the east with rich cargoes and this would indicate that the Malay participated actively in Indian Ocean trade, and likely handled much of the traffic between Southeast Asia and India. Early in the Medieval era, Kedah became part of Srivijaya and this led to rivalries with the Indian states, especially the Chola Empire from the 9th to 13th centuries CE. The Cholas had a merchant and naval fleet in the Indian Ocean. In the early 11th century, Tamil Chola King Rajendra Chola I sent an expedition to attack Kedah on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his assistance to gain the throne, dr. Wales investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results show this site was in occupation for centuries, by people who under strong South Indian, Buddhist. It is inscribed on three faces in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century CE, possibly earlier, one of the early inscription stones discovered by James Low, at Bukit Meriam and in Muda River, mention of Raktamrrtika. The word Raktamrrtika means ‘Red Earth’, inscriptions, both in Tamil and Sanskrit, relate to the activities of the people and rulers of the Tamil country of South India. The Tamil inscriptions are at least four centuries posterior to the Sanskrit inscriptions, in Kedah, an inscription in Sanskrit dated 1086 CE has been found. This was left by Kulothunga Chola I and this too shows the commercial contacts the Chola Empire had with Malaya

21.
Melayu Kingdom
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The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians, one theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by groups in the Batanghari river area. The theory is disputed as the location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing. The origins of the word Melayu are disputed, one theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms melayu or mlayu, to describe the strong current of a river in Sumatra that today bore the name Sungai Melayu. The name was possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Another theory hold that it originates from the Tamil words Malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, an early literary appearance was in Vayu Purana where the word Malaya Dvipa was mentioned, referring to the mountainous terrain of Malay Peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by Yijing, among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the written source of monk Xuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu. In response to the Sukhothais move, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial order, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. This nation of Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly a similar nation that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo who lived during the same period, in Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named Malauir in the Malay peninsula. The Khmer recorded the nation of Melayu, however, its progeny Srivijaya, was also called Melayu, on the Amoghapasa inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura was proclaimed by Adityawarman, again referring to Dharmasraya. The word Melayu is also mentioned in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra. Here now is the story of a city called Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, in the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijings visit, which he initially called Bogha during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince, the whole country as well as the capital received the name Sribogha or Srivijaya. The following extract from Yijings work, A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, further describes his route via Bogha and Malayu, Wu Hing came to Bogha after a months sail. The king received him very favourably and respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang and he went on board the kings ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days, at the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west

22.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin

23.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived

24.
Kedah Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Kedah may be the earliest sultanate on the Malay Peninsula and is supposedly one of the oldest Sultanates in the world, allegedly founded in 1136. The information regarding the formation of this sultanate and the history before, the Kedah Annals were written in the eighteenth century, over a millennium after the formation of the Kedah Kingdom. It describes the first king of Kedah as arriving on the shores of Kedah as a result of an attack by a gigantic beast. It states that the nation was founded by the offspring of Alexander the Great, the Kedah Annals also provide us with very unreliable information regarding the sultans of Kedah. This claim also contradicts the fact that the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom was in direct control of Kedah at the time that Sultan Mudzafar Shah I allegedly converted the region to a sultanate. Kedah Kingdom was founded by Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron around 630 CE, around 170 CE a group of native refugees of Hindu faith arrived at Kedah, joining them soon were peoples from nearby islands and from the northern Mon-Khmer region. Ancient Kedah covered the areas of Kuala Bahang, Kuala Bara, Kuala Pila and Merpah, and the inhabitants of Kedah appointed Tun Derma Dewa and Tun Perkasa as their village chiefs. In 630 CE, Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron in Persia was defeated in battle and escaped to Sri Lanka, the inhabitants of Kedah found him to be a valiant and intelligent person, and they made him the king of Kedah. In 634 CE, a new kingdom was formed in Kedah consisting of Persian royalty and native Malay of Hindu faith and he ruled the northern region of Malay Peninsula from 1136 to 1179. According to the Kedah Annals, the first king of Kedah was Maharaja Derbar Raja I, according to tradition, the founding of the Kedah kingdom occurred around 630 CE, replacing the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka. It is said to have founded by Durbaraja I, a Hindu who originated from Gemeron in Persia. The Hindu dynasty ended when the ninth king Durbaraja II, styled Phra Ong Mahawangsa by the Siamese, the following is a list of kings of Kadaram, nine in total. Each used the Hindu title of maharaja, the exact dates of each kings reign are not known. The beginning of the use of the sultan in Kedah is attributed to a visit by a Muslim scholar from Yemen, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jaafar Quamiri. The audience resulted in the conversion to Islam. He adopted the name Mudzafar Shah and established the sultanate of Kedah, source for the list of sultans is the Kedah State Public Library. The Nobat musical instruments of Nagara and Nepiri were introduced to Kedah by Maharaja Derbar Raja, the instrument is also called semambu. The band is led by the king, and it consists of drums, a gong, a flute, today, Nobat is a Royal orchestra, played only during royal ceremonies such as inaugurations, weddings, and funerals

25.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei

26.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor

27.
Aceh Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state

28.
Pattani Kingdom
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Pattani or the Sultanate of Patani was a Malay sultanate in the historical Patani Region. It covered approximately the area of the modern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, the 6–7th century Hindu state of Pan Pan may or may not have been related. The kingdom drew trade from Chinese, Indian, and local traders as a place for ships bound for, or just arrived from. Langkasuka reached its greatest economic success in the 6th and 7th centuries, political circumstances suggest that by the 11th century Chola invasion, Langkasuka was no longer a major port visited by merchants. However, much of the decline may be due to the silting up of its harbour, Patani became part of the Hindu-Buddhist Empire of Srivijaya, a maritime confederation based in Palembang. Srivijaya dominated trade in the South China Sea and exacted tolls on all traffic through the Straits of Malacca, Malay culture had substantial influence on the Khmer Empire, and the ancient city of Nakhon Pathom. However, some think it was the country known to the Chinese as Pan Pan. An alternative theory is that the Patani kingdom was founded in the 14th century, local stories tell of a fisherman named Pak Tani, who was sent by a king from the interior to survey the coast, to find a place for an appropriate settlement. After he established a fishing outpost, other people moved to join him. The town soon grew into a trading center that continued to bear his name. The authors of the 17th–18th century Hikayat Patani chronicle claim this story is untrue, in the 14th century CE, King Ram Khamhaeng the Great of Sukhothai, occupied Nakhon Si Thammarat and its vassal states – including Patani. The Thai Ayutthaya kingdom conquered the isthmus during the 14th century CE, bringing it into a unified state, with Ayutthaya as a capital. This consisted of a system in which the vassal states and tributary provinces owed allegiance to the king of Ayutthaya. All of the officials also agreed to convert. However, there is evidence that some local people had begun to convert to Islam prior to this. The existence of a diasporic Pasai community near Patani shows the locals had regular contact with Muslims, during much of the 15th century Ayutthayas energies were directed toward the Malay Peninsula, especially the trading port of Malacca, which fell under the rule of the Malacca Sultanate. Ayutthayas sovereignty extended over Malacca and the Malay states south of Tambralinga, Ayutthaya helped develop and stabilise the region, opening the way for lucrative trade on the isthmus. This attracted Chinese merchants seeking speciality goods for the Chinese market, the 16th century witnessed the rise of Burma, which under an aggressive dynasty had overrun Chiang Mai and Laos and made war on Ayutthaya

29.
House of Jamalullail (Perlis)
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The House of Jamalullail is the current ruling house of the state of Perlis in Malaysia. The hereditary ruler of Perlis is also the head of its royal household, unlike most of the other Malaysian states with its own hereditary rulers which are accorded with the title of Sultan, the hereditary rulers of Perlis are accorded with the title of Raja. As with other rulers from other states in Malaysia, the Raja of Perlis participate in the election of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and is qualified to serve a term as the Agong if elected. The Jamalullail clan was of Hadhrami Arab origin and founded as an offshoot from the greater Alawi lineage in the 15th century and he settled in Chana village, which was on the border of Siam and Kedah at that time. He earned his living as a trader and was reportedly a well-respected figure in the state, Sayyid Ahmads son with Sharifah Aminah, Sayyid Harun followed his fathers footsteps as a trader, in addition to being a well-known religious scholar. He was later admitted into the Kedah royal court and became an aide of the Sultan of Kedah. He later married a princess from the Kedah royal family, Tengku Safiah, when the Thai army invaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultans efforts to lead resistance efforts against Thai rule. The Thais later agreed to restore the Sultan of Kedah to his throne in 1842, the following year, Sayyid Hussein Jamal Al-Layl from Chana was installed by the Thais as the first Raja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of Perlis. In 1933, the fourth Raja of Perlis, Syed Alwi Jamalullail looked to the State Council to elect an heir presumptive to the throne of Perlis. The State Council chose Syed Hassan among several possible contenders as the heir-presumptive, Syed Hassan was a nephew by his older half-brother Syed Mahmud. An illness struck Syed Hassan the following year, he died shortly after that, the State Council held another vote, and elected Syed Hassans son, Syed Putra as the new heir presumptive. Following the demise of Syed Alwi in 1943, Syed Hamzah was installed as the Raja of Perlis, when the British returned in 1945, Syed Hamzah abdicated under pressure from the British and moved in to install Syed Putra as the Raja of Perlis. In 1960, Syed Putra became the third Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, reference Division, Commonwealth survey, Published for the Central Office of Information by H. M. S. O

30.
Portuguese Malacca
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Portuguese Malacca was the territory of Malacca that, for 130 years, was a Portuguese colony. The Airlele river was said to originate from Buquet China, eredia cited that the city was founded by Permicuri the first King of Malacca in 1411. The first European to reach Malacca and Southeast Asia, Sequeira arrived in Malacca in 1509, although he was initially well received by Sultan Mahmud Shah, trouble however quickly ensued. The general feeling of rivalry between Islam and Christianity was invoked by a group of Goa Muslims in the court after the Portuguese had captured Goa. The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud that the Portuguese were a grave threat, Mahmud subsequently captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the four Portuguese ships, although they escaped. As the Portuguese had found in India, conquest would be the way they could establish themselves in Malacca. In April 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships, the Viceroy made a number of demands—one of which was for permission to build a fortress as a Portuguese trading post near the city. The Sultan refused all the demands, conflict was unavoidable, and after 40 days of fighting, Malacca fell to the Portuguese on 24 August. A bitter dispute between Sultan Mahmud and his son Sultan Ahmad also weighed down the Malaccan side. A fortress was designed and constructed encompassing a hill, lining the edge of the sea shore, on the south east of the river mouth, Albuquerque remained in Malacca until November 1511 preparing its defences against any Malay counterattack. Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca, as the first base of European Christian trading kingdom in Southeast Asia, it was surrounded by numerous emerging native Muslim states. Also, with hostile initial contact with the local Malay policy and they endured years of battles started by Malay sultans who wanted to get rid of the Portuguese and reclaim their land. The Sultan made several attempts to retake the capital and he rallied the support from his ally the Sultanate of Demak in Java who, in 1511, agreed to send naval forces to assist. Led by Pati Unus, the Sultan of Demak, the combined Malay–Java efforts failed and were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan Island and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organized several attacks, frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship. In 1521 the second Demak campaign to assist the Malay Sultan to retake Malacca was launched and he was later remembered as Pangeran Sabrang Lor or the Prince who crossed to North. The raids helped convince the Portuguese that the sultans forces must be silenced

31.
Dutch Malacca
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Dutch Malacca was the longest period that Malacca was under foreign control. The Dutch ruled for almost 183 years with intermittent British occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and this era saw relative peace with little serious interruption from the Malay kingdoms due to the understanding earlier on forged between the Dutch and the Sultanate of Johor in 1606. This time also marked the decline of the importance of Malacca, in the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began the campaign to destroy Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed Malacca into a fortress, controlling access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca. The Dutch started by launching small incursions and skirmishes against the Portuguese, the Dutch with their local allies assaulted and wrested Malacca from the Portuguese in January 1641. This combined Dutch-Johor effort effectively destroyed the last bastion of Portuguese power, as per the agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with the Malay kingdoms. Malacca was controlled as a colony of the VOC, all the chief administrators of Malacca were Dutch governors except for the brief period that the city was under British Residents during the Wars of Napoleon. The governors and residents list is as follows, The Dutch improved and expanded the Portuguese fortress and built walls to protect the harbour, during their rule the famous city hall or Stadthuys was also constructed, which still stands today. History of the Dutch in Malaysia

32.
Siamese invasion of Kedah
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The Siamese invasion of Kedah was a military operation mounted by the Kingdom of Siam against the Sultanate of Kedah in November 1821, in the area of what is now northern Malaysia. In return the Sultanate received payment, and some form of assurances of help against the expansionist ambitions of the Siamese kingdom. In 1772 a Company mission came to Kedah under Edward Monckton, the Burmese–Siamese War had required of the Sultanate measures taken purely for expediency, including acknowledgement of Burmese overlordship, as well as the traditional Siamese overlordship. The Burmese had been campaigning in particular in Petani to the north of Kedah, the Companys commitment to defensive arrangements appeared shallow to the Sultanate, and an attempt was made in 1791 to repossess the Island, which was successfully resisted by Light. From a position of strength Light, who was not authorised by the Company to guarantee the defence of Kedah, the Siamese forces of King Rama II achieved a rapid victory against those of Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II. The campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control, the Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control. By 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion, the Burney Treaty of 1826 allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail

33.
Kingdom of Sarawak
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The Kingdom of Sarawak was a state in Borneo established in 1841 by James Brooke receiving independent kingdom status from the Sultanate of Brunei as a reward for helping fight piracy and insurgency. Its statehood and identity as a country was first recognised by the United States in 1850. Sarawak gained self-government from the British on 22 July 1963 and formed the Federation of Malaysia together with Singapore, North Borneo, however, it never restore its full independence and sovereignty as enjoyed during the rule of the White Rajahs. Sarawak was part of the Sultanate of Brunei in Borneo, during the reign of Pangeran Indera Mahkota, Sarawak was in chaos from piracy and insurgency. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II the Sultan of Brunei, ordered Pengiran Muda Hashim in 1839 to restore order, Pangeran Muda Hashim initially requested assistance but James Brooke refused. Brooke was by then an independent adventurer with his own ship having left military employment in India after recovering from battle injuries. In 1841, James Brooke paid another visit to Sarawak and this time he agreed to assist Pangeran Muda Hashim, the success in defeating the pirates and insurgents led to the signing of a treaty in 1841 ceding as a reward Sarawak and Serian to James Brooke. Thereafter, on 24 September 1841, Pangeran Muda Hashim bestowed the title Rajah on James Brooke and he effectively became the Rajah of Sarawak and founded the White Rajah Dynasty of Sarawak, later extending his administration through an agreement with the Sultan of Brunei. James Brooke, who was to become the first White Rajah, as time went on Sarawaks size would increase tremendously as more territory was leased or annexed from the Sultanate of Brunei. When the Pacific War began in December 1941, Sarawak was brought into the war against Japan on the side of the Allies as part of the British Empire, Sarawak depended upon British protection as she had very limited armed forces, although the Sarawak Rangers were mobilised. Sarawaks small merchant marine was used by the British in the Far Eastern campaign, a government in exile was formed, although it proved ineffectual due to the lack of contact with Sarawak. Sarawak, along with the rest of Borneo, was liberated by the Australian Imperial Force in 1945, after World War II, Vyner Brooke ceded Sarawak to the Colonial Office for a sizeable pension for him and his three daughters. Duncan Stewart, the second British governor of Sarawak, was assassinated in the resulting unrest, as of now there is no serious movement for the restoration of the monarchy. Sarawak is notably different from peninsular Malaysia and even Sabah in that its ethnic groups are more varied due to the proportion of tribal peoples such as Dayaks. Chinese migration was encouraged at various times by the Brookes, when he assumed control of the original area around Kuching in the 1840s much of the system of government was based on the ineffective Bruneian model. James set about reforming the government and eventually creating a service known as the Sarawak Service which recruited European. He invited the Anglican Mission to set up church and schools, particularly, the mission through Father McDougall set up the St. Thomas Anglican School, in 1848, still the oldest established European school in Southeast Asia. Thus, the residents became exposed to and trained in many British and European methods, however, James retained many of the customs and symbols of neighbouring Malay monarchies and combined them with his own style of absolute rule

34.
Crown Colony of Labuan
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Labuan, made up of the main Labuan Island and six smaller islands. Since 15th century, Labuan was part of Brunei and the became the shelter for the ships from storms. Later on in 1846, Labuan was ceded to Great Britain in 1848 to become a Crown colony under the Treaty of Labuan, in 1890, it came to be administered by the British North Borneo Company. It was reverted to British government rule in 1904, then, on 1 January 1907, it joined the Straits Settlements and had been administered from Singapore, the capital of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Labuan was occupied by Japan from December 1941 to June 1945, Labuan was renamed Maida Island after Marquis Toshinari Maeda, the first commander of Japanese forces in northern Borneo. The liberation of Borneo began on 10 June 1945 when the Allied Forces under the command of General McArthur landed at Labuan with a convoy of 100 ships, the 9th Australian Division launched an attack supported by massive air and sea bombardments that resulted in the surrender of the Japanese. On 9 September 1945, General Masao Baba, commander of Japanese military, surrendered at the Layang-layang beach before Major General George F. Wooten, Labuan was later separated from Sabah, becoming a Federal Territory, administered by the federal government, on 16 April 1984. 1846 Treaty of Labuan, officially became Crown colony to Great Britain,1890 Incorporated into the territory of the British North Borneo Company which in 1881 had taken over land previously part of Brunei. 1906 The boundaries of the Straits Settlements were extended to include the Colony of Labuan,1907 Became part of the Straits Settlements. 1946 Labuan returned to the Crown Colony of North Borneo,1963 Became part of Sabah and Malaysia. 1984 Ceded to Federal Government by Sabah and made into Federal Territory

Riau-Lingga Sultanate (Malay/Indonesian: Kesultanan Riau-Lingga, Jawi: كسلطانن رياو-ليڠڬ), also known as the …

The region witnessed the triumph of Haji Fisabillah of Johor-Riau during the battle against the Dutch East India Company on 6 January 1784 in Tanjung Pinang, Riau. It was the largest military campaign in the Strait of Malacca during the 18th century.

Alexander Hamilton's "A Map of the Dominions of Johore and of the Island of Sumatra with the Adjacent Islands" (1727). Illustrating mainland Johore, eastern Sumatra, Singapore, Bangka and Riau Archipelago as a single political entity, the map was made a century prior to the partition of 1824.

The Riau-Lingga noblemen with Sultan Sulaiman II (seated, in the middle). (c.1867)

Cogan, the Royal Regalia of Johor-Riau. The coronation of the sultan would be only be official if the regalia were used. This caused both the British and the Dutch to try to claim the regalia from Engku Puteri Hamidah in order to install their preferred sultan.

Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on a strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign …

The discovery of a skull which estimates say is around 40,000 years old on Niah Caves in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo.

The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.

Portuguese Malacca tin coins of King Emmanuel (1495-1521) and John III (1521-1557) period were discovered during an excavation near the Malacca River mouth by W. Edgerton, Resident Councilor of Malacca in 1900.

North Borneo (also known as the State of North Borneo) was a British protectorate located in the northern part of the …

North Borneo border, 1903.

Alfred Dent, the founder of North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd (later replaced by the North Borneo Chartered Company) is the key player to the establishment of solid British presence in northern Borneo.

A 19th century map of Reman, showing the location in the interior of the upper Peninsula. A landlocked kingdom, it is surrounded by clockwise from north: the Malay states of Jala, Legeh, Perak and Kedah respectively. Kota Baru, the administrative capital of the kingdom can also be seen in the map. The territory adopted the Siamese flag prior to its partition in 1909.

The Elephants of Gerik, taken in c. 1900. The Reman Kings were known to own hundreds of elephants, using the beast of burden as the primary workhorse both in the field and in military.

Tuan Lebeh, the Long Raya (crown prince) of Reman Kingdom. He was convicted after the allegations of an uprising against the Siamese rule in 1902.

The flag of Siam was last lowered in Reman Hilir (southern Reman) on 16 July 1909, marking the end of the Siamese rule in the territory.

Langkasuka was an ancient Indianised (Hindu-buddhist) kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The name is Sanskrit in …

A suggestion of the reach of the kingdom of Langkasuka. Most scholars consider Langkasuka to be located on the East coast of the Malay peninsula, but some argued for a kingdom that extended from the East to the West coast. Ligor refers to Nakhon Si Thammarat and Kataha is Kedah.

The Jamek Mosque of Sambas Sultanate. The arrival of Sultan Tengah in Sambas revolutionised the ancient Hindu kingdom into a Malay Muslim Sultanate. The current ruling house of Sambas traced their lineage from the Sarawakian Sultan.

The polity of western Borneo, 17th century, with Sarawak in Red. The kingdoms that established close relationship with Sarawak are illustrated in colour, while other neighbouring kingdoms are represented in light brown.

Dutch vessels during the fall of Palembang in 1850s. The settlement in Kota Palembang was named after the Sumatran town, pursuant to the place of origin many of the early pioneers.

Istana Tengku Long, built in 1880 during the reign of Tengku Chick, the fourth King of Besut. The palace was continued to be served as a dwelling place for Tengku Long, the Royal Commissioner of Terengganu by the early 20th century. Presently located in the Terengganu Museum, It is one of the few legacies of the kingdom that can be witnessed today.

Part of the northeast of Malay Peninsula in 1890, with the location of the Besut in Red, Terengganu in Purple and other neighbouring coastal Malay kingdoms in light brown.

Gua Kerbau, the historic training camp for the Kedahan militia during the Siamese occupation of Kedah.

Sungai Tunku Anum in Kubang Pasu. The river was named in honour of the late king for his efforts on developing the territory, including improving the irrigation system of the river.

The four Kedahan Nations by 1860 in colour, after the loss of Terang (Trang) to Siam in 1810, the secession of Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley to the British between 1786 to 1860 and the Kedah Partition of 1843 that witnessed the birth of four separate dominions. The four kingdoms are in their respective colours, while other neighbouring polities are in light brown.

A photo taken from the National History Museum of Kuala Lumpur. An 8th-9th century bronze standing 8-armed Buddhist Avalokitesvara statue found at Anglo Oriental, Bidor, Perak tin mine in year 1936. 79cm height.

6th century Buddha statues (left) found at Ipoh. 9th century Hindu priest teacher statue found at Jalong, Perak.