The NASA Hubble Space Telescope has spotted the “UFO Galaxy.” NGC 2683 is a spiral galaxy seen almost edge-on, giving it the shape of a classic science fiction spaceship. This is why the astronomers at the Astronaut Memorial Planetarium and Observatory, Cocoa, Fla., gave it this attention-grabbing nickname. – NASA

What if dark matter isn’t the solution to space’s greatest mysteries? These are the alternative theories.
There’s a New Form of Matter in Town: EXCITONIUM! - https://youtu.be/17Kvxe6v5Ms
Read More:
Does Dark Matter Exist? Bold New Study Offers Alternative Model
https://www.space.com/39001-dark-matter-doesnt-exist-study-suggests.html
“Dark matter is the elusive, invisible substance that appears to make up more than 80 percent of the total mass in the universe — far more than accounted for by the "regular" matter that makes up things like stars, planets and everything astronomers can directly observe. A new study makes the bold claim, however, that perhaps dark matter doesn't exist at all.”
Astronomers Capture the First ‘Image' of the Dark Matter That Holds the Universe Together
https://www.seeker.com/space/astronomy/astronomers-capture-the-first-image-of-the-dark-matter-that-holds-the-universe-together
“Theories, computer models, and indirect observations have indicated that there is a cosmic web of dark matter that connects galaxies and constitutes the large-scale structure of the cosmos. But while the filaments that make up this web are massive, dark matter is incredibly difficult to observe.”
Astronomers Found Two Massive Galaxies Amid an Ocean of Dark Matter
https://www.seeker.com/astronomy/astronomers-found-two-massive-galaxies-amid-an-ocean-of-dark-matter
“The discovery provides new details on the role that dark matter played in assembling large structures in the universe. Astronomers say the amount of dark matter that “clumped” in one area in order to create galaxies this large would have been quite rare. Now, researchers have produced what they say is the first composite image of a dark matter filament that connects galaxies together.”
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How old is the universe, and how did it begin? Throughout history, countless myths and scientific theories have tried to explain the universe's origins. The most widely accepted explanation is the big bang theory. Learn about the explosion that started it all and how the universe grew from the size of an atom to encompass everything in existence today.
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Signals from the cosmic dawn: A three minute guide

Cosmologists have detected a signal from the cosmic dawn - the period where the first stars came into existence. But how did they do it and what might this mean for our understanding of the Universe?
Nature physics reporter, Elizabeth Gibney, talks us through the finding.

Living in an Expanding Universe - Ask a Spaceman!

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What did Hubble really discover? Why does redshift imply an expanding universe? Why is the night sky dark? Why is there so much hydrogen, and how is that connected to the Big Bang? I discuss these questions and more in today’s Ask a Spaceman!
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Music by Jason Grady and Nick Bain. Thanks to WCBE Radio for hosting the recording session, Greg Mobius for producing, and Cathy Rinella for editing.
Hosted by Paul M. Sutter, astrophysicist at The Ohio State University, Chief Scientist at COSI Science Center, and the one and only Agent to the Stars (http://www.pmsutter.com).

The Compendium of Doom, Part 1

A discussion of various theories for the End of the Universe.
Watch part 2 here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XLTb0V1BGNw
How the Universe began and why is a question that's obsessed humanity for at least as long as civilization has existed, at the same time, how it will end has equally fascinated us. Today we are joined by Astrophysicist Paul Sutter for a two-part episode looking at the science and history of how the Universe came to be and may end.
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The Compendium of Doom, Part 2 (collab w/ Isaac Arthur)

WATCH PART 1: https://youtu.be/rpA-Bd0d6kw
This is Part 2 of a collab series with Isaac Arthur. How will the universe end, and how is it connected to the mysterious dark energy?
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Solving the mystery of what came first - SpaceTime with Stuart Gary S21E02

Stream on demand from www.bitesz.com (mobile friendly).
SpaceTime 20180105 Series 21 Episode 02
*Solving the mystery of what came first?
Astronomers may be a step closer to solving one of the greatest mysteries in astrophysics – which came first the galaxy – or the supermassive black hole at its centre. The problem is do galaxies form first from the accumulation of stars, globular clusters, and molecular gas and dust clouds -- with densities at the galactic centre eventually becoming so high it forms a black hole.
*Supermassive black hole stellar factory
Astronomers have discovered 11 newly formed infant protostars within three light years of the supermassive black hole at the centre of our galaxy. Black holes generate powerful gravitational tidal forces and intense ultraviolet and X-ray radiation – environments far more conducive to destroying stars rather than creating them.
*Mars may not be as dry as it seems
A new study suggests water on Mars is being absorbed by the red planet’s rocks like a sponge. The findings reported in the journal Nature suggest that Martian basalt rocks can hold up to 25 percent more water than similar basalts on Earth.
*SpaceX to launch Falcon Heavy shortly
After more than 12 years of planning and development Space X is finally getting ready to fly its new Falcon Heavy launch vehicle. The 70-metre-tall reusable rocket is based around three Falcon 9 common booster core stages -- mounted side by side in a similar fashion to the Delta 4 heavy -- from which it will take the title as the world’s most powerful operational launch vehicle.
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Q&A 40: When Will the Big Rip Happen and more...

In this QA episode, Fraser wonders when the Big Rip might happen, could there be binary galaxies, what it would be like to live in higher gravity.
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A Tour of the Perseus Cluster

Dark matter is the mysterious and pervasive substance that constitutes most — about 85% — of the matter in our Universe. Although scientists have made progress in better understanding dark matter, the true nature of this invisible material remains elusive.
NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory plays an important role in the search to learn about dark matter. One way that astronomers have used Chandra to investigate dark matter has been through the study of a mysterious signal seen in the X-ray data. In 2014, astronomers reported they found a spike of intensity at a very specific energy in Chandra and XMM-Newton observations of the hot gas in the Perseus and other galaxy clusters. This spike, or emission line, is at an energy of 3.5 kiloelectron volts, or keV (pronounced "kay-ee-vee"), and could not easily be explained as emission from known elements. Therefore, one possibility was that this line was produced by dark matter particles.
Naturally, determining the true nature of dark matter would be a huge discovery. And as Carl Sagan famously said, extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. Therefore, astronomers have been working hard both to replicate the initial results and also provide explanations for all of the observations connected to this original finding.
Now a new team of astronomers has provided an innovative interpretation of the observations surrounding this 3.5 keV line. They propose that there is another mechanism at work, namely the absorption of X-ray light by mystery particles. If this is true, then it's possible that the 3.5 keV line may, in fact, be produced by dark matter particles. While these ideas need to be confirmed with future observations, it may be that the prospect of determining the nature of the darkest of matter may never have been more so bright.

The Real Reality Show: Ancient Cosmology: Part 2

Ideas about cosmology languished for centuries following the Greeks and the Romans — but then came Nicolaus Copernicus, who revolutionized cosmological thinking.
Astronomy magazine is the world’s best-selling astronomy magazine, offering you the most exciting visually stunning thorough, and timely coverage of the heavens above. Each monthly issue includes expert science reporting, vivid color photography, complete sky-event coverage, spot-on observing tips, informative telescope reviews, and more.
astronomy.com features daily news and weekly observing tips, as well as our Picture of the Day. We also invite you to check out our blogs, podcasts, and more.
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What Is Eternal Inflation? Universes Within Universes Featuring Ethan Siegel

In order to get the large scale structure of the Universe we see today, cosmologists have proposed the idea of inflation, that the Universe expanded an enormous amount in the earliest moments. But if inflation really happened, then it has even stranger implications for the nature of the Universe and the search for multiverses.
Ethan Siegel
https://www.patreon.com/startswithabang/
Treknology
https://www.amazon.com/Treknology-Science-Star-Tricorders-Drive/dp/0760352631
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Chloe Cain - Instagram: @chloegwen2001
We’ve covered the topic of inflation a couple of times in the past, but I’ll give you the short version one more time.
The Big Bang exquisitely explains the expansion of the Universe we see today. When we look out as far as we can, to the edge of the observable Universe we see the afterglow of the Big Bang: the cosmic microwave background radiation.
This light was released the moment the Universe had cooled down a little, and has been traveling for almost 13.8 billion years to reach us. Thanks to the expansion of the Universe, it’s been redshifted to just a few degrees above absolute zero.
When astronomers measure the temperature of this background, it’s incredibly consistent, with only tiny fluctuations measurable with the most sensitive instruments. This means that the entire Universe that we can see had time to transfer temperature to each other before it expanded.
But the original Big Bang Theory suggests that the expansion of the Universe didn’t give the material time to even out its temperature.
In order to explain this, cosmologists developed the concept of inflation. There was a period in the earliest Universe when the energy in matter was bound up in the fabric of space itself. The Universe expanded so quickly, that a region the size of a subatomic particle would have been stretched to the size of the visible Universe in a fraction of a second.
Inflation also answered other challenges that the original Big Bang couldn’t explain, such as the flatness of the Universe, and total lack of monopoles. Like I said, we’ve done a whole video about inflation.
But inflation has introduced its own set of strange ideas, including the concept of “eternal inflation”; that inflation didn’t end for the entire Universe like it did in our local area. There are regions undergoing inflation all over the place, creating multiple universes within our Universe. You know, a multiverse.
I’ll be honest, though, the concept of eternal inflation is beyond my comprehension. And so, in times like this, I like to bring in a ringer.
Today, I’m glad to bring you Dr. Ethan Siegel, an astrophysicist and science writer. His most recent book is Treknology, all about the science of Star Trek. Ethan tackles some of the most complex topics out there in an understandable way, and I could really use his help.

What Is Eternal Inflation? Universes Within Universes Featuring Ethan Siegel

In order to get the large scale structure of the Universe we see today, cosmologists have proposed the idea of inflation, that the Universe expanded an enormous amount in the earliest moments. But if inflation really happened, then it has even stranger implications for the nature of the Universe and the search for multiverses.
Ethan Siegel
https://www.patreon.com/startswithabang/
Treknology
https://www.amazon.com/Treknology-Science-Star-Tricorders-Drive/dp/0760352631
Playlist Link:
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbJ42wpShvmnnhuiEaxjmvNkcujvNqNVs
Support us at: http://www.patreon.com/universetoday
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Karla Thompson - @karlaii / https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCEItkORQYd4Wf0TpgYI_1fw
Chad Weber - [email protected]
Chloe Cain - Instagram: @chloegwen2001
We’ve covered the topic of inflation a couple of times in the past, but I’ll give you the short version one more time.
The Big Bang exquisitely explains the expansion of the Universe we see today. When we look out as far as we can, to the edge of the observable Universe we see the afterglow of the Big Bang: the cosmic microwave background radiation.
This light was released the moment the Universe had cooled down a little, and has been traveling for almost 13.8 billion years to reach us. Thanks to the expansion of the Universe, it’s been redshifted to just a few degrees above absolute zero.
When astronomers measure the temperature of this background, it’s incredibly consistent, with only tiny fluctuations measurable with the most sensitive instruments. This means that the entire Universe that we can see had time to transfer temperature to each other before it expanded.
But the original Big Bang Theory suggests that the expansion of the Universe didn’t give the material time to even out its temperature.
In order to explain this, cosmologists developed the concept of inflation. There was a period in the earliest Universe when the energy in matter was bound up in the fabric of space itself. The Universe expanded so quickly, that a region the size of a subatomic particle would have been stretched to the size of the visible Universe in a fraction of a second.
Inflation also answered other challenges that the original Big Bang couldn’t explain, such as the flatness of the Universe, and total lack of monopoles. Like I said, we’ve done a whole video about inflation.
But inflation has introduced its own set of strange ideas, including the concept of “eternal inflation”; that inflation didn’t end for the entire Universe like it did in our local area. There are regions undergoing inflation all over the place, creating multiple universes within our Universe. You know, a multiverse.
I’ll be honest, though, the concept of eternal inflation is beyond my comprehension. And so, in times like this, I like to bring in a ringer.
Today, I’m glad to bring you Dr. Ethan Siegel, an astrophysicist and science writer. His most recent book is Treknology, all about the science of Star Trek. Ethan tackles some of the most complex topics out there in an understandable way, and I could really use his help.

The Missing Mass Mystery | Space Time

For years, astronomers have been unable to find up to half of the baryonic matter in the universe. We may just have solved this problem.
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The Nature of Nothing | Space Time
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Dark Matter!
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Dark Energy Playlist
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We’ve known for some time that around 95% of the energy content of the universe is in dark matter and dark energy. This dark sector doesn’t interact with light in any way and so is invisible to us. The remaining 5% - the light sector – represents all of the regular matter in the universe. Yet what if I told you that all of the stars and galaxies and galaxy clusters only comprise 10% of the light sector. The rest has proved as elusive as the dark sector. We think it must exist as extremely diffuse gas in between the galaxies, yet our intense searches miss up to half of it. At least until now.
Resources
Graaff et al. 2017, "Missing Baryons in the Cosmic Web Revealed by the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect"
https://arxiv.org/abs/1709.10378v1
Tanimura et al. 2017, "A Search for Warm/Hot Gas Filaments Between Pairs of SDSS Luminous Red Galaxies"
https://arxiv.org/abs/1709.05024
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SpacePod: We Found Some of the Missing Universe

Computer modeling we do of our Universe suggested that half of the visible matter in the Universe was "missing", we couldn't account for the discrepancy between what's observed in our Universe and what's modeled in computers using the laws of physics our Universe is governed by. Does that mean that our physics is incorrect, or were we just looking in all the wrong places? Turns out, we were looking in the wrong places.
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Are the Fundamental Constants Changing?

Recent findings suggest that the fundamental constants might not be as stable as we assumed. And be sure to signup for your free trial of The Great Courses Plus at http://ow.ly/rcsA30beNw1
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The Future of Space Telescopes
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Webb et al. 1998, A Search for Time Variation of the Fine Structure Constant
https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9803165
Webb et al. 2011, A Search for Time Variation of the Fine Structure Constant
https://arxiv.org/abs/1008.3907
Martins & Pinho 2016, Stability of Fundamental Couplings: a Global Analysis
https://arxiv.org/abs/1701.08724
The laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe. At least we astrophysicists hope so. After all, it’s hard to unravel the complexities of distant parts of the universe if we don’t know the basic rules. But what if this is wrong? There is a hint of evidence that the fundamental constants that govern our universe may evolve over time, and even from one location to another.
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Hubble’s Contentious Constant Is In Trouble

Thanks to astronomer Edwin Hubble and others, scientists have known since 1929 that our universe is expanding. Its current rate of expansion is called Hubble’s Constant (H0). There are two leading ways to measure H0, and for fifteen years, they more or less agreed with one another.
Not anymore, and that’s a big deal.
Here’s why.
In the “Standard Model of Cosmology,” H0 is a crucial ingredient, right up there with the speed of light. H0 factors into everything we know about the universe: how old it is, how big it is, what it’s made of... If H0 is ‘tweaked’, we get a different age of the universe, different relative amounts of matter, dark matter, dark energy, and so on.
Unlike the speed of light, however, scientists can’t measure H0 in the laboratory. Instead, H0 has to be inferred from observations of the universe.
One way scientists have measured H0 is to use observations of type 1a supernovae combined with their host galaxies redshifts. Each 1a supernova releases roughly the same amount of light when it explodes. Measuring the amount of light we receive from a 1a supernova tells us its distance. Measuring an object’s redshift, or its increase in wavelength, tells us how fast that object is moving away from Earth. Researchers use many 1a supernovae as distance markers, measuring objects in our local universe then moving out to get a measurement of the universe’s rate of expansion.
The other H0 measurement technique looks at the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) -- the “afterglow” from the Big Bang itself. The early universe was hot and dense, light couldn’t travel freely through space. As the universe cooled, the photons were released. This radiation left an imprint, providing insights into the composition of the universe at that time. The CMB can be used to make measurements from the early universe such as the density of dark matter and dark energy. Those measurements can be combined with the model of the evolution of the universe, allowing researchers to infer the rate of expansion of the universe, or Hubble’s Constant.
As these two camps have improved their abilities to measure H0, it has become clear that they disagree. A recent study using the first method yielded an 8% greater expansion rate than the second method’s result.
Now scientists are asking: Are we missing something?
Wendy Freedman, Sullivan professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Chicago says, “It could be that we don’t understand the uncertainties well enough to know why these two methods differ.”
Freedman led a 2001 study using the Hubble Space Telescope to measure H0 via the first method, and is leading a new project to measure it more accurately.
Another intriguing question: Is it incorrect to expect agreement in these measurements of H0? Maybe the Standard Model of Cosmology, which predicts agreement, is wrong. That would send researchers on an exciting search for a new model of the cosmos.
“Do we really know what makes up all of the radiation in the Big Bang?” wonders Freedman. “Is there a new kind of particle we aren’t accounting for? Or are dark energy’s or dark matter’s properties changing over time?
Over the next few years, researchers like Freedman will be trying to poke holes in how each method conducts its analysis -- before possibly invoking a revised model of cosmology.
Credit: NASA science.nasa.gov.

Are we crazy or is the Big Bang real? | Space with Sarah #10 | @spacewsarah

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Did the Big Bang really create our Universe? What is the evidence of Big Bang? In this episode of Space with Sarah astrophysicist, Sarah, explains how the cosmic microwave background, the expansion of space and the fraction of Helium in our Universe fits in very nicely with our theory stating that the entire Universe being created ~13.8 billion years ago. There is also a lot of other evidence not presented in this video. For example the ages of the oldest White Dwarfs.
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Partially supported by the National Science Foundation: NSF grant AST-1614743

How Old Is It - 02 - Big Bang Cosmology Fundamentals (4K)

Text at http://howfarawayisit.com/documents/
This is part one of a two part series on the Big Bang theory. Here we cover the foundational concepts used in the standard model we cover in part 2. We start out with the basic Cosmological Principle for an isotropic and homogeneous Universe. We then review Hubble’s Law that came from the discovery that the Universe was expanding. We go into some depth to illustrate what expanding space is and how it impacts the basic idea of ‘distance’. This includes a definition of Cosmic Distance and how it leads to the Visible Horizon. We then develop a concept of how the Universe’s expansion would work using Newton’s gravitational theory including his Shell Theorem. We use this to define a cosmic scale factor and use it to see what happens in a matter dominated Universe. We then expand that to include a radiation dominated Universe. With the Newtonian mechanics view in hand, we update to Friedmann’s equation based on Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity along with the Equation of State. We examine the impact of flat, spherical and hyperbolic space on the cosmic sale factor, and identify the Critical Energy Density needed in order to have flat space. We end with a look at cosmological redshift, and an observation on galaxy counts that lead to the conclusion that we exist in flat space-time.

How Old Is It - 03 - Big Bang ΛCDM Cosmology (4K)

Text at http://howfarawayisit.com/documents/
We begin with the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. We cover Recombination, Decoupling, and the Surface of Last Scattering that created the CMB. We examine the nature of the CMB temperature Anisotropy and how, through a process known as Caustics, it lead to galaxy filaments and great voids. This analysis includes Cold Dark Matter. We then cover Vacuum Energy, the Casimir Effect and Dark Energy. We then cover the observational evidence for an Accelerating expansion. We then go beyond the surface of last scattering to Neutrino Decoupling, Nucleosynthesis, Baryogenesis and Cosmic Inflation. We summarize with a review of the cosmic time line, and conclude with a look at current and future cosmology research.

How Old Is It - 04 - Credits and Research

Text at http://howfarawayisit.com/documents/

Fermilab Heroes of the LHC: Steve Nahn and Vivian O'Dell

The experiments based at the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland are undergoing a constant series of upgrades. Fermilab scientists Steve Nahn and Vivian O’Dell lead these upgrade efforts in the United States.

Our universe is racing toward its destruction as we speak. The end is not going to be especially pleasant, but when that end will happen is still a point of contention amongst cosmologists.
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How Big Is The Universe?

How big is the universe? Achieving the ability to explore our universe may be the biggest challenging humans will ever face. The extreme vastness of space makes it incredibly difficult to know what exists throughout our universe, but just how big is it? Watch the video to learn more.
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What’s the fate of our Universe? Will it expand forever, will it collapse on itself or will something completely different happen? And what will happen to all galaxies? In this episode of Space with Sarah, astrophysicist, Sarah, explains what current observations of our Universe tell us about the fate of our Universe.
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Dark Flow | Space Time

Why does the universe seem to be moving in one particular direction?
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Space is not static. Everything moves. Planets orbit stars, stars orbit within galaxies, galaxies whirl within the gravitational fields of giant clusters. And of course, the universe is expanding; distant galaxies are thrust apart from each other as the space between them grows. But there’s no preferred direction to any of this motion. Motion due to the expansion of the universe – what we call the Hubble flow – is equal in all directions. The random motion of galaxies – what we call their peculiar motion – should also have no preferred direction. On the largest scales of the universe, there should be no preference for up or down or left or right. At least that’s what we thought. Observations of the cosmic microwave background suggest that the galaxy clusters across the cosmos may be moving, ever so slightly, towards the same point beyond the cosmic horizon. We call this dark flow.
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What Is The Shape of Space? (ft. PhD Comics)

A collaboration with Jorge Cham and Daniel Whiteson, check out "We Have No Idea" at http://www.wehavenoidea.com
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Full Episode | Cosmic Queries: Spacetime with Neil deGrasse Tyson

Fasten your interstellar seatbelt and flip your brain into overdrive. Neil deGrasse Tyson and comic co-host Godfrey are here to answer fan-submitted Cosmic Queries on the fabric of spacetime. Explore the edge of the known universe and whether there might be more unknown universe waiting beyond the horizon. You’ll hear about the fascinating theory describing our universe as a 3-D holographic projection of another higher-dimensioned reality. You’ll hear why dark matter could be “gravitational bleeding” from another dimension and how it’s possible that the study of dark matter and dark energy will unlock the secrets to traveling backwards in time. Investigate the connections between dark matter, Newtonian physics, and Occam’s razor. Neil also explains why the curvature of space is hard for us to see given that we are embedded in space itself. Find out about the Fermi paradox and the idea that extraterrestrial life might have already visited Earth and deemed life unintelligent. Discover more about Sir Isaac Newton: the problems Neil would ask him to solve today, how he invented calculus on a dare, and why Godfrey thinks he might be annoying to talk to in the modern era. All this, plus, a fan asks Neil, “How many physicists does it take to change a light bulb?” and his response is something you will not want to miss.
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Physicists Discover Rare New Particle

Scientists announced July 6 at the European Physical Society Conference on High Energy Physics that a rare new kind of particle was unambiguously observed for the first time

Why do we think there is dark matter? | Space with Sarah #6 | @spacewsarah

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Based on observations, astronomers have determined that there is five times more dark matter than normal matter in the Universe. But have you ever wondered how astronomers actually measured this? In this video astrophysicist, Sarah, explains why we think dark matter exists and how we measure the amount of dark matter in space. Hopefully, we'll also figure out what dark matter actually is in the near future!
If you are curious about dark matter and want to learn more, check out the latest Space with Sarah collaboration with Fraser Cain from Universe today, where we discuss dark matter galaxies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=knw10ooUCK4&t=149s
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Partially supported by the National Science Foundation: NSF grant AST-1614743

How Do We Know the Universe is Flat? Discovering the Topology of the Universe

Cosmologists tell us that the Universe is flat. It sure feels like 3-dimensions. What does this even mean, and how do we know it’s true?
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Whenever we talk about the expanding Universe, everyone wants to know how this is going to end. Sure, they say, the fact that most of the galaxies we can see are speeding away from us in all directions is really interesting. Sure, they say, the Big Bang makes sense, in that everything was closer together billions of years ago.
But how does it end? Does this go on forever? Do galaxies eventually slow down, come to a stop, and then hurtle back together in a Big Crunch? Will we get a non-stop cycle of Big Bangs, forever and ever?
We’ve done a bunch of episodes on many different aspects of this question, and the current conclusion astronomers have reached is that because the Universe is flat, it’s never going to collapse in on itself and start another Big Bang.
But wait, what does it mean to say that the Universe is “flat”? Why is that important, and how do we even know?
Before we can get started talking about the flatness of the Universe, we need to talk about flatness in general. What does it mean to say that something is flat?
If you’re in a square room and walk around the corners, you’ll return to your starting point having made 4 90-degree turns. You can say that your room is flat. This is Euclidian geometry.
But if you make the same journey on the surface of the Earth. Start at the equator, make a 90-degree turn, walk up to the North Pole, make another 90-degree turn, return to the equator, another 90-degree turn and return to your starting point.
In one situation, you made 4 turns to return to your starting point, in another situation it only took 3. That’s because the topology of the surface you were walking on decided what happens when you take a 90-degree turn.
You can imagine an even more extreme example, where you’re walking around inside a crater, and it takes more than 4 turns to return to your starting point.
Another analogy, of course, is the idea of parallel lines. If you fire off two parallel lines at the North pole, they move away from each other, following the topology of the Earth and then come back together.
Got that? Great.
Now, what about the Universe itself? You can imagine that same analogy. Imaging flying out into space on a rocket for billions of light-years, performing 90-degree maneuvers and returning to your starting point.
You can’t do it in 3, or 5, you need 4, which means that the topology of the Universe is flat. Which is totally intuitive, right? I mean, that would be your assumption.
But astronomers were skeptical and needed to know for certain, and so, they set out to test this assumption.
In order to prove the flatness of the Universe, you would need to travel a long way. And astronomers use the largest possible observation they can make. The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, the afterglow of the Big Bang, visible in all directions as a red-shifted, fading moment when the Universe became transparent about 380,000 years after the Big Bang.
When this radiation was released, the entire Universe was approximately 2,700 C. This was the moment when it was cool enough for photons were finally free to roam across the Universe. The expansion of the Universe stretched these photons out over their 13.8 billion year journey, shifting them down into the microwave spectrum, just 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
With the most sensitive space-based telescopes they have available, astronomers are able to detect tiny variations in the temperature of this background radiation.
And here’s the part that blows my mind every time I think about it. These tiny temperature variations correspond to the largest scale structures of the observable Universe. A region that was a fraction of a degree warmer become a vast galaxy cluster, hundreds of millions of light-years across.
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation just gives and gives, and when it comes to figuring out the topology of the Universe, it has the answer we need. If the Universe was curved in any way, these temperature variations would appear distorted compared to the actual size that we see these structures today.
But they’re not. To best of its ability, ESA’s Planck space telescope, can’t detect any distortion at all. The Universe is flat.

What Was Cosmic Inflation? The Quest to Understand the Earliest Universe

The Big Bang was a tremendous theory, but it had a few problems. In 1980 Alan Guth developed the revolutionary theory of cosmic inflation, and astronomers have been looking for evidence to this day.
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The Big Bang. The discovery that the Universe has been expanding for billions of years is one of the biggest revelations in the history of science. In a single moment, the entire Universe popped into existence, and has been expanding ever since.
We know this because of multiple lines of evidence: the cosmic microwave background radiation, the ratio of elements in the Universe, etc. But the most compelling one is just the simple fact that everything is expanding away from everything else. Which means, that if you run the clock backwards, the Universe was once an extremely hot dense region
Let’s go backwards in time, billions of years. The closer you get to the Big Bang, the closer everything was, and the hotter it was. When you reach about 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the entire Universe was so hot that all matter was ionized, with atomic nuclei and electrons buzzing around each other.
Keep going backwards, and the entire Universe was the temperature and density of a star, which fused together the primordial helium and other elements that we see to this day.
Continue to the beginning of time, and there was a point where everything was so hot that atoms themselves couldn’t hold together, breaking into their constituent protons and neutrons. Further back still and even atoms break apart into quarks. And before that, it’s just a big question mark. An infinitely dense Universe cosmologists called the singularity.
When you look out into the Universe in all directions, you see the cosmic microwave background radiation. That’s that point when the Universe cooled down so that light could travel freely through space.
And the temperature of this radiation is almost exactly the same in all directions that you look. There are tiny tiny variations, detectable only by the most sensitive instruments.
When two things are the same temperature, like a spoon in your coffee, it means that those two things have had an opportunity to interact. The coffee transferred heat to the spoon, and now their temperatures have equalized.
When we see this in opposite sides of the Universe, that means that at some point, in the ancient past, those two regions were touching. That spot where the light left 13.8 billion years ago on your left, was once directly touching that spot on your right that also emitted its light 13.8 billion years ago.
This is a great theory, but there’s a problem.
The Universe never had time for those opposite regions to touch. For the Universe to have the uniform temperature we see today, it would have needed to spend enough time mixing together. But it didn’t have enough time, in fact, the Universe didn’t have any time to exchange temperature.
Imagine you dipped that spoon into the coffee and then pulled it out moments later before the heat could transfer, and yet the coffee and spoon are exactly the same temperature.
What’s going on?
To address this problem, the cosmologist Alan Guth proposed the idea of cosmic inflation in 1980. That moments after the Big Bang, the entire Universe expanded dramatically.
And by “moments”, I mean that the inflationary period started when the Universe was only 10^-36 seconds old, and ended when the Universe was 10^-32 seconds old.
And by “expanded dramatically”, I mean that it got 10^26 times larger. That’s a 1 followed by 26 zeroes.
Before inflation, the observable Universe was smaller than an atom. After inflation, it was about 0.88 millimeters. Today, those regions have been stretched 93 billion light-years apart.
This concept of inflation was further developed by cosmologists Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhardt, Andy Albrecht and others.
Inflation resolved some of the shortcomings of the Big Bang Theory.
The first is known as the flatness problem. The most sensitive satellites we have today measure the Universe as flat. Not like a piece-of-paper-flat, but flat in the sense that parallel lines will remain parallel forever as they travel through the Universe. Under the original Big Bang cosmology, you would expect the curvature of the Universe to grow with time.
The second is the horizon problem. And this is the problem I mentioned above, that two regions of the Universe shouldn’t have been able to see each other and interact long enough to be the same temperature.

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*The Black Hole Dark Matter hypothesis disproved
A new study has provided strong evidence disproving the idea that unknown populations of ancient black holes could explain the effects currently attributed to dark matter. The findings imply that the detection of gravitational waves generated by colliding intermediate mass black holes can’t be used to imply the existence of huge populations of primordial black holes early in the history of the universe.
*New evidence of a water rich history on Mars
New research on Martian meteorites indicates that the red planet may have been a far wetter place than previously thought. The findings provide the first clear evidence that a mineral commonly found in Martian meteorites which was considered proof of an ancient dry environment on Mars -- may have originally been a hydrogen-containing mineral -- that could indicate a far more water-rich history for the Red Planet.
*Stephen Hawking’s warning of alien invasion
Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking says while he believes intelligent alien life probably does exist elsewhere in the universe – making contact with them could be as disastrous for humans as Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the new world was for native Americans.
He made the comments during the launch of his new documentary Stephen Hawking's Favourite Places.
*New American Spy satellite launched
A new top secret spy satellite has been successfully launched into orbit for America’s National Reconnaissance Office. The NROL-79 mission is believed to involve a pair of classified Naval Ocean Surveillance System INTRUDER Satellites.
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Learn About Cosmology

Most of the Universe is dark. The protons, neutrons and electrons that make up the stars, planets and us represent only a small fraction of the mass and energy of the Universe. The rest is dark and mysterious.

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Early Universe Expansion:
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H0LiCOW Video:
http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/404715/h0licow
New Test for Life:
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2017-017
Gaia Looks for Asteroids:
http://sci.esa.int/gaia/58706-gaia-turns-its-eyes-to-asteroid-hunting/
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The Hubble constant and our expanding universe!!

v=Hd
Welcome to the Hubble Constant and Hubble's Law!!!
The first time I learned about this theory my mind exploded.
It's too good to not share!!
Hubble's Law is based on the discover made by Astronomer Edwin Hubble, that a lot of what we see in the night sky is not all from our Milky Way galaxy, but instead a whole other galaxy!!! This discover lead to the discovery of many other galaxies and the acceleration of them, leading to the realization that our universe is expanding--and expanding at a very fast rate at that!
INSANE... I know!
There's so much cool stuff to learn out there, so keep exploring and thanks for watching!
See ya next week!
xoxo

There’s one interpretation of the meaning of quantum mechanics that manages to skip a lot of the unphysical weirdness of the mainstream interpretations: it's de Broglie-Bohm pilot wave theory.
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There are some pretty out-there explanations for the processes at work behind the incredibly successful mathematics of quantum mechanics - things are both waves and particles at the same time, the act of observation defines reality, cats are alive and dead, or even: the universe is constantly splitting into infinite alternate realities. The weird results of quantum experiments seem to demand weird explanations of the nature of reality. In this episode, Matt discusses de Broglie-Bohm pilot wave theory, the one interpretation of quantum mechanics that remains comfortably, stodgily physical.
Links to Sources
The Quantum Experiment that Broke Reality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-MNSLsjjdo&t=53s
The Many Worlds of the Quantum Multiverse
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzKWfw68M5U&t=690s
Is This What Quantum Mechanics Looks Like?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WIyTZDHuarQ
A Suggested Interpretation of the Quantum Theory in Terms of "Hidden" Variables. I:
David Bohm, 1952, Phys. Rev. 85, 166
http://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.85.166
Bohms original paper is behind the journal paywall (sorry!), however many other readings on Bohmian mechanics are available here:
http://www.bohmian-mechanics.net/readings_books.html
Previous Space Time Episode
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4RNGRyzt10
Written and hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Produced by Rusty Ward
Made by Kornhaber Brown (www.kornhaberbrown.com)
Comments Answered by Matt
Burak Bağdatlı
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4RNGRyzt10&lc=z13hvpcjrlndslnyb04cctjqrvb4hpkphe4
Sebastián López
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4RNGRyzt10&lc=z124yxrjyw3ywvicm23wspagcxracphvg
The757packerfan
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4RNGRyzt10&lc=z13ujbnznvmfjnhag04cgtprtriafnj4t2k
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How Many Galaxies Are There in the Universe? Updated Galaxy Count

Did you hear that the Universe has 10x the number of galaxies? How did astronomers discover this, and what does it mean for the number of stars?
References:
http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/hubble-reveals-observable-universe-contains-10-times-more-galaxies-than-previously-thought
http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/
http://jwst.nasa.gov/comparison.html
https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=mass+of+the+universe
http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/GR/olbers.html
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/density.html
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Team: Fraser Cain - @fcain / [email protected]
Jason Harmer - @jasoncharmer
Chad Weber - [email protected]
Created by: Fraser Cain and Jason Harmer
Edited by: Chad Weber
The wonderful thing about science is that it’s constantly searching for new evidence, revising estimates, throwing out theories, and sometimes discovering aspects of the Universe that we never realized existed.
The best science is skeptical of itself, always examining its own theories to find out where they could be wrong, and seriously considering new ideas to see if they better explain the observations and data.
What this means is that whenever I state some conclusion that science has reached, you can’t come back a few years later and throw that answer in my face. Science changes, it’s not my fault.
I get it, VY Canis Majoris isn’t the biggest star any more, it’s whatever the biggest star is right now. UY Scuti? That what it is today, but I’m sure it’ll be a totally different star when you watch this in a few years.
What I’m saying is, the science changes, numbers update, and we don’t need to get concerned when it happens. Change is a good thing.
And so, it’s with no big surprise that I need to update the estimate for the number of galaxies in the observable Universe. Until a couple of weeks ago, the established count for galaxies was about 200 billion galaxies.
But a new paper published in the Astrophysics Journal revised the estimate for the number of galaxies, by a factor of 10, from 200 billion to 2 trillion. 200 billion, I could wrap my head around, I say billion all the time. But 2 trillion? That’s just an incomprehensible number.
Does that throw all the previous estimates for the number of stars up as well? Actually, it doesn’t.
The observable Universe measures 13.8 billion light-years in all directions. What this means is that at the very edge of what we can see, is the light left that region 13.8 billion years ago. Furthermore, the expansion of the Universe has carried to those regions 46 billion light-years away.
Does that make sense? The light you’re seeing is 13.8 billion light-years old, but now it’s 46 billion light-years away. What this means is that the expansion of space has stretched out the light from all the photons trying to reach us.
What might have been visible or ultraviolet radiation in the past, has shifted into infrared, and even microwaves at the very edge of the observable Universe.
Since astronomers know the volume of the observable Universe, and they can calculate the density of the Universe, they know the mass of the entire Universe. 3.4 x 10^54 kilograms including regular matter and dark matter.
They also know the ratio of regular matter to dark matter, so they can calculate the total amount of regular mass in the Universe.
In the past, astronomers divided that total mass by the number of galaxies they could see in the original Hubble data and determined there were about 200 billion galaxies.
Now, astronomers used a new technique to estimate the galaxies and it’s pretty cool.
Astronomers used the Hubble Space Telescope to peer into a seemingly empty part of the sky and identified all the galaxies in it. This is the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and it’s one of the most amazing pictures Hubble has ever captured.
Astronomers painstakingly converted this image of galaxies into a 3-dimensional map of galaxy size and locations. Then, they used their knowledge of galaxy structure closer to home to provide a more accurate estimate of what the galaxies must look like, out there, at the very edge of our observational ability.
For example, the Milky Way is surrounded by about 50 satellite dwarf galaxies, each of which has a fraction of the mass of the Milky Way.
By recognizing which were the larger main galaxies, they could calculate the distribution of smaller, dimmer dwarf galaxies that weren’t visible in the Hubble images.
In other words, if the distant Universe is similar to the nearby Universe, and this is one of the principles of modern astronomy, then the distant galaxies have the same structure as nearby galaxies.

The Many Worlds of the Quantum Multiverse | Space Time | PBS Digital Studios

Is our universe a definitive single reality or is it merely one within an infinitely branching multiverse? Be sure to check out Physics Girl’s Dianna Cowern for more awesome science https://www.youtube.com/c/physicsgirl
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The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics tells us that observation collapses a probability wave into a single definitive outcome, but this isn’t the only interpretation of quantum mechanics. The many worlds theory proposes that the wavefunction never actually collapses. The observer simply follows one of those many possible paths into their present reality while all the other paths continue on independent of the observer. Each of these paths branches off into an entirely different reality. In this episode Matt discusses the details of the many worlds theory and why it’s not so far-fetched to think that our reality is simply one of an infinite number of realities existing within space time.
Links to sources:
The Quantum Experiment that Broke Reality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-MNSLsjjdo
Hugh Everett's Ph.D. Dissertation
http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/manyworlds/pdf/dissertation.pdf
Crazy Pool Vortex
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnbJEg9r1o8
Previous Episode
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jowVq81AgGw
Written and hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Produced by Rusty Ward
Made by Kornhaber Brown (www.kornhaberbrown.com)

For those of you in New York City you can check out Matt live at PBS Nerd Night at the NYC YouTube Space on Thursday night September 22nd. Hope to see you there. to.pbs.org/nerdnight
Albert Einstein strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr when it came to Bohr’s interpretation of quantum mechanics. Quantum entanglement settled the argument once and for all.
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Previous Episode - Self-Replicating Robots and Galactic Domination
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4H55wybU3rI
Veritasium’s video Quantum Entanglement and Spooky Action at a Distance at 7:36
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuvK-od647c
How the Quantum Eraser Rewrites the Past at 8:41
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ORLN_KwAgs
Einstein argued that elementary particles maintained their intrinsic values whether they were being observed or not. Bohr believed that in observing such particles we collapsed a wave function of probabilities. He asserted that it is only when these wave functions collapse that one of many probabilities is chosen and the particles take on distinct values. Quantum entanglement, John Stewart Bell and Alain Aspect eventually proved that Bohr was correct.
Written and hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Produced by Rusty Ward
Made by Kornhaber Brown (www.kornhaberbrown.com)
Comments:
Borne Stellar
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4H55wybU3rI&lc=z13kddtono20c1h2g22kx1brstvvsthus
Strofi Kornego
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4H55wybU3rI&lc=z12vh34b2l2uxvagy04cg5swtqf0s3gb1o00k
Daniel Oberley
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4H55wybU3rI&lc=z12rsv2yszi5td21w22aytvhxvagg1giz04

Watch the talented Reggie Watts perform at the Exploratorium August 9th, 2012. Reggie was at the Exploratorium for an Osher Fellowship, and he graciously joined us at the end of a live webcast on Mars to share a little of his own feelings about the red planet!

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