1. Historical versus Current Distribution. Red Hills salamanders
(Phaeognathushubrichti) are known from 13 discrete populations located
in the Red Hills physiographic region between the Alabama and Conecuh rivers in
south-central Alabama (Dodd, 1991). Electrophoretic evidence suggests weak
separation of populations east and west of the Sepulga River (McKnight et al.,
1991). Whereas salamanders have disappeared or declined at several sites within
these populations because of adverse land-use practices, there is no evidence that the
current range of Red Hills salamanders is any different from its historical range.

2. Historical versus Current Abundance. Because of the secretive nature of this
species, there are no range-wide estimates of abundance, either current or
historical. Areas occupied by Red Hills salamanders may be widely separated, and
even within a site, burrows are not spaced uniformly. Presumably, burrow density and
abundance are correlated with Red Hills salamander density and abundance, but the
relationship is unclear. Dodd (1991) used time constraint sampling to determine
the location of sites with relatively large numbers of burrows, then used line transect
techniques to obtain statistically rigorous estimates of burrow abundance (Dodd,
1990b). In optimum habitat (n = 10 sites), he estimated 2.6–9.4
burrows/100m2 (mean = 5.05 burrows/100m2). Carroll et al. (2000) used
mark-recapture data collected from a single 18-m transect to estimate a salamander
abundance of 0.5 animals/m2, again in optimal habitat. They estimated that 26
animals inhabited the 33 burrows observed, or 0.8 salamanders/burrow. Burrow
abundance varies considerably among sites, however, particularly in areas affected by
clearcutting and other forestry practices. In addition, there are no long-term data
on the number of burrows occupied by an individual salamander; salamanders have been
observed in > 1 burrow, and > 1 salamander has been observed in a single
burrow. Finally, burrows do not seem to persist. Gunzburger and Guyer (1998)
found that 50% of marked burrows remained open after 6 mo and inferred that Red Hills
salamanders must continually repair old burrows and open new burrows because of the
dynamic nature of the steep ravines they inhabit. These factors taken together
suggest that local abundance varies considerably and that it will be difficult to obtain
good estimates of relative abundance.

Although the factors
discussed above make it difficult to obtain accurate estimates of Red Hills salamander
abundance, it is apparent that clearcutting and other forestry practices reduce or
eliminate Red Hills salamanders in what was once optimal habitat. Red Hills
salamander burrows may persist at reduced densities after cutting as long as burrow
systems are not destroyed. It is unknown how long it might take for densities to
reach pre-cut levels. If burrow systems are destroyed mechanically, as by plowing,
tilling, or other forms of intensive site preparation, Red Hills salamanders disappear or
are confined to small refugia unimpacted by site disturbance. Thus, current Red
Hills salamander abundance is probably similar to historical abundance at some sites,
but drastically reduced at other sites depending on the historical and current land-use
practices.

3. Life History Features. The life history and biology of Red Hills salamanders
are summarized by Petranka (1998).

A. Breeding.
Reproduction is terrestrial.

i. Breeding migrations. It is unknown how Red Hills salamanders find each other,
but true breeding migrations probably do not occur.

ii. Breeding habitat. Courtship by Red Hills salamanders presumably takes place
within the burrow system or in deep interconnecting rock fissures underground.

B. Eggs.

i. Egg deposition sites. Egg clusters of this species have not been found in
nature, but egg deposition presumably takes place within the burrow system or in deep
interconnecting rock fissures underground.

C. Direct
Development. Red Hills salamanders have direct development within the egg, one of
only three desmognathines with this form of development. When hatched, the young
resemble the adults.

i. Brood Sites. Eggs are presumably deposited within the burrow system or in deep
interconnecting rock fissures underground. In captivity, a single 115-mm Red Hills
salamander attached her egg cluster to an overhanging support via a stalk (Brandon and
Maruska, 1982).

ii. Parental Care. Parental care is unknown, although many desmognathine
salamanders remain with their eggs during development. In the single case of egg
deposition in captivity, the female did not brood her eggs and none developed (Brandon
and Maruska, 1982).

D. Juvenile
Habitat. Very few juveniles have been observed, and all within the burrows of adult
salamanders. Nothing is known concerning specialized habitat characteristics.

E. Adult
Habitat. Males and females occupy similar habitats and are active year-round
(Bakkegard, 2001, 2002). Burrows are key to the survival of Red Hills salamanders,
and few individuals have been observed outside burrows (Gunzburger and Guyer,
1998). Red Hills salamander burrows are confined to steep (slope: mean = 50˚;
height: mean = 17 m) mesic ravines within the Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee geological
formations. The Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee geological formations consist of
extremely porous rocks with a large water-holding capacity. Such ravines are humid
and have friable soils ideal for burrow construction and large invertebrate
populations. North-facing slopes are preferred, but salamanders may be found on
slopes facing all directions. Most burrows are found on the lower 2/3 of a
slope. The forest canopy consists of broad-leaved deciduous trees that provide
shade and retain high humidity. These conditions combine to provide optimal habitat
(see Valentine, 1963b; Schwaner and Mount, 1970; Jordan, 1975; French and Mount, 1978;
and Dodd, 1991).

F. Home Range
Size. Unknown.

G.
Territories. Red Hills salamanders rarely leave their burrows, although movements
away from the burrow have been observed (Bakkegard, 2001, 2002). It is unknown if
Red Hills salamanders defend burrows, but sightings of different Red Hills salamanders
within a single burrow suggest this is not the case. Males could defend territories
(burrows?) during the breeding season, but it is not known if they do so.

H.
Aestivation/Avoiding Dessication. Red Hills salamanders probably retreat deep into
the burrow system during periods of extreme cold or drought. However, they likely
are active year-round when temperature and moisture conditions are favorable. The
periods of greatest activity are the spring and summer seasons.

K. Interspecific
Associations/Exclusions. The burrows of the Red Hills salamanders are used by other
salamanders, including southern two-lined salamanders (Euryceacirrigera), three-lined salamanders (E. guttolineata),
southeastern slimy salamanders (Plethodongrobmani), and eastern newts
(Notophthalmusviridescens; see also Brandon, 1966b).
Invertebrates also undoubtedly use the burrows.

L. Age/Size at
Reproductive Maturity. Brandon (1965b) suggested that Red Hills salamander males
attain sexual maturity at approximately 80 mm “body length” (presumably
snout-vent length) and females at 100 mm body length. For females, this occurs at
5–6 yr of age (Parham et al., 1996). The age of maturity for males is
uncertain, but males probably mature earlier than females. Egg deposition extends
from early spring to September (Brandon, 1965; Schwaner and Mount, 1970).

M. Longevity.
Based on skeletochronology, Parham et al. (1996) recorded a 121-mm SVL male at 11
yr. They suggested that it is unlikely that Red Hills salamanders live much
longer.

N. Feeding
Behavior. Red Hills salamanders sit at or just inside the burrow mouth and ambush
invertebrates passing the entrance or entering the burrow. At night, they partially
emerge from the burrow to attack prey. Prey include snails, millipedes, insects,
insect larvae, spiders, mites, and probably any small animal that can be caught and
swallowed (Brandon, 1965b; Gunzburger, 1999). They appear to avoid daddy longlegs
(Phalangiidae; Bakkegard, 2002).

O. Predators.
Direct predation has not been recorded, but small mammals (shrews; Soricidae) and
reptiles likely eat this species. Feral pigs (Sus sp.) and armadillos
(Dasypusnovemcinctus) are common in the Red Hills and do considerable
damage to the steep ravines inhabited by Red Hills salamanders. They undoubtedly
dig out and eat salamanders whenever possible (Dodd, 1991).

P. Anti-Predator
Mechanisms. The burrow would seem to be their primary defense. Red Hills
salamanders are not known to possess granular skin glands, and hence apparently do not
have skin secretions that repel predators. No defensive postures are known.
However, Red Hills salamanders are capable of biting and will spin when grabbed (C.K.D.
and C. Guyer, personal communication).

4. Conservation. Red Hills salamanders are protected as Threatened under
provisions of the Federal Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (U.S.F.W.S.,
1976). Six Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) for populations of Red Hills
salamanders, covering approximately 25,169 ha, have been approved by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service in cooperation with timber companies in south Alabama. The goals
of the Red Hills salamander HCPs are to allow for timber harvesting while promoting
species conservation. Red Hills salamanders are listed as a protected non-game
species by the State of Alabama.

Virtually all Red
Hills salamander habitat is on private land, with only a small amount owned by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers and the State of Alabama. Several (n = 25) excellent
tracts of habitat remained in private ownership in 1988, and these were recommended for
acquisition for conservation purposes (Dodd, 1988). To date, none have been
acquired. Long-term protection is best assured through private landowner
cooperation. With that in mind, Dodd (1988, 1991) recommended a series of
management actions that would help to maintain the integrity of salamander habitat,
especially in areas where forestry occurred. These included avoiding clearcutting
on slopes containing salamander burrows; eliminating mechanical site preparation;
maintaining woody leaf litter and an overstory hardwood tree canopy; leaving buffer zones
above and below slopes containing salamander burrows; avoiding herbicides and other
chemical applications; and allowing hardwoods to regenerate on previously cut and
selectively cut slopes containing salamander burrows. Protection from collecting
is also important for this species because of its restricted range and vulnerable
populations; because it is the sole member of a monotypic genus, the collector value is
high.

In areas unaffected
by forestry (which are few in south Alabama), populations of Red Hills salamanders are
likely stable. If habitat is degraded, Red Hills salamander populations will
decline and may disappear. For this reason, periodic assessments of Red Hills
salamander habitat must be carried out, especially to ensure that HCP provisions are
being honored and that salamander habitat is protected during forestry operations.