Spoken English: -

Summary

In today's competitive world, Spoken English is considered as a passport for a guaranteed success in life. The craze for learning spoken English has led to the growth of various coaching institutes all over the country. Much as they may profess and advertise, it is not really possible to learn any language in 30 or 40 days. A person who genuinely wants to learn the language needs to spend at least two to three hours every day for at least five or six months before he or she feels confident to communicate in English.

The prime objective of this book is to encourage the students to learn English as a tool of communication and to enable them to understand the language thoroughly. The book basically looks at the language from the learners' point of view and guides them through co-operative learning methods in order to master the effective communication skills in English.

The book has been divided into four convenient units of Grammar, Pronunciation, Conversation and Vocabulary. Each chapter covers one main area of learning English – explained thoroughly with examples and special attention being given to the basic skills. Carefully selected and balanced practical exercises have also been designed and included with each topic or chapter to give the readers or learners, particularly the students, ample practice and a complete understanding of the subject.

In short, the book follows the modern functional approach to the study of English. So readers, the book is definitely a one-stop solution for learning English!

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Spoken English - EDITORIAL BOARD

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AN INTRODUCTION

With the globalisation of knowledge and culture the need for acquiring good communicative English by one and all has assumed great significance in this twenty first century. In fact, the demand for learning effective communicative English has never been as great as it stands today. It is interesting to note that during the last two decades the use of English for communicative purposes has not been confined only to the elite group of the society. People from the middle and lower middle classes are equally keen on learning and using it effectively.

It is because they consider 'Spoken English' as a passport for a guaranteed success in life. The craze for learning Spoken English has led to the growth of various coaching institutes all over the country. Much as they may profess and advertise it is not really possible to learn any language in thirty or forty days. At the same time learning Spoken English does not mean parrot like repetition of some crammed sentences with the help of a limited vocabulary. It means acquiring a skill to generate and use functional English in ever changing life situations while speaking. For this besides acquiring the required sentence patterns and expressions in a given situation a person needs an appropriate vocabulary as well. So this is surely not possible in two or three month's time. Although one needs to understand that a person who genuinely wants to learn the language needs to spend at least two to three hours every day for at least five or six months before he or she feels confident to communicate in English. A strong desire coupled with one track working is a pre condition for the successful completion of this project on communicative English.

In India, as everywhere, English offers its own problems. It becomes a language of 'iffs and butts' where double 'f's and double't's crop up at the most unlikely of places giving emphasis where there should be subtlety. Caught between the inability to articulate in a foreign language and the rather inexplicable need to be seen using English, the Indian actually gets the shivers. Over the years with mobile phones and computers spreading all over India, the country's fascination with English ahs only intensified. It cannot be said for sure if this has resulted in English usage getting more communicative. At the moment the process is a bit haphazard and finding a method in this madness is the idea of this book.

The objective of this book is to encourage students & layman to learn English as a tool of communication and to enable them 'to know, to do, to live and to live.' It looks at language from the learner's point of view and guides them through co-operative learning methods in order to master effective communication skills.

The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.

The book is divided into convenient units. Each chapter covers one main area of learning English with special attention given to basic skills. Carefully selected, balanced practical exercises are designed to give practice in form, meaning and use of English. The book follows modern functional approach to the study of English.

Although there are a few books available in the market on Spoken English they do not really help an individual acquire the communicative skills. They primarily deal with technical knowledge and the accompanying jargons. The section of grammar and usage I each chapter of this book provides necessary help to a learner for the understanding of certain grammatical points appearing in spoken English. Besides dealing with situations from day to day life the book also attempts to provide its users with the essentials of spoken English required to speak English with confidence.

Knowing the Two Mediums: Speech and Writing

Speech and writing are the two mediums of language. The sounds of speech and the letters of writing are in themselves meaningless, but they are combined according to the underlying system of language to convey specific meanings and perform specific functions. As mediums, speech and writing are concrete, whereas the underlying system of language is abstract.

In terms of physical features, speech consists of sounds that are perceived by the ear and is therefore ephemeral, whereas writing consists of marks on a surface that are perceived by the eye and is therefore permanent.

Though speech and writing function independently as medium of language, it is possible to transfer speech into writing and vice versa, because writing is a symbolic representation of speech.

As there are striking discrepancies between pronunciation and spelling, particularly in a language like English, it is important to study each medium independently and not transfer the features of one to another.

The characteristic features of speech and writing make them suitable for different communicative functions. As writing can be preserved for long periods of time and can also be transported across long distances, it is used more frequently than speech to convey factual information. Similarly, because speech is more suited to face-to-face communication, it is used more frequently than writing for interpersonal functions. Further, as writing is more resistant to changes with time and also more homogeneous; it is preferred in all the prestigious activities of society like administration, education, trade, law, etc.

Each of the two mediums has its advantages. Writing, as the more stable medium preserves much historical, lexical, morphological and grammatical information that is lost in speech. Also, when writing a person can read over what she has written and correct and revise if necessary which is not possible when speaking. A reader can choose what to read, whereas in speech a listener does not have this kind of choice.

peech is characterized by features like variations in pitch, stress and voice quality and is accompanied by facial expression and gestures, all of which convey meanings additional to those of the actual words used. Speech also has the advantage of immediate feedback from the listener/s, so that the speaker can make her speech both accessible and acceptable to the listeners.

Let us consider two examples, one of speech, and the other of writing that will make clear the differences between the two mediums in the way they use language. Both these examples describe a rainbow, but in different ways.

First the sample of spoken language:

You see+ well+ er+ a series of stripes+ formed like a bow+ an arch+ very very far away+ ah+ seven colours but+ I guess you hardly ever see seven it's just a + series of + colours which...

Which we find here are sequences of phrases and clauses and not complete and finished sentences. Spoken language is also characterized by repetition as in a series of stripes and series of colours, use of markers of hesitation like ah, er, etc and monitoring devices like you see.

Now, let's look at the sample of written language:

In one place it gleamed fiercely, and her heart anguished with hope, she sought the shadow of iris where the bow should be. Steadily the colour gathered mysteriously from nowhere, it took presence upon itself; there was a faint, vast rainbow. (G.Brown and G. Yule, discourse Analysis)

Here we have complete sentences that are clearly marked by capital letters and full stops. Also the structures used are quite complex.

Another important difference between speech and writing is that speech is prior to writing a medium of language. The priority of speech over writing can be explained in historical structural, functional and biological terms. Historically, writing is only a few thousand years old, whereas man has been known to speak language from much earlier ages. Also, human beings learn to speak before they learnt to read or write. Structurally, speech is more basic than writing because writing is a symbolic representation of speech. In terms of use too, speech has acquired priority over writing as it is used for a wider range of purposes than writing. With the advent of recording devices, speech has become as permanently preservable as only writing once was. Further, biologically, the left part of the brain that processes language, i.e. the left hemisphere, which is more dominant than the right one in most people, is better at processing speech sounds.

Organisation of the Book

Section one is English Grammar and this discusses the grammatical points arising out of a given model conversation. The learner is expected to go through them carefully to acquire correctness of speech, with fluency in his or her communication. As a thumb rule, it is good to remember that where there is a conflict between a grammatical rule and a usage; preference should be given to the usage. The preference for usage will help the learners use English as a living language.

Section two is Pronunciation and the following areas of:

a. English sounds,

b. Word stress

c. Sentence stress

d. Intonation

The important aspects of pronunciation has been touched upon which should enable the learner to assimilate and comprehend the need for clear pronunciation and cogent enunciation of words for better communication.

ection three is Conversation and this presents a model conversation in a given situation. The learner is expected to read it aloud alone, or with the help of his or her friend to know how he/she sounds while communicating in English. Ideally it should be read aloud by two or more persons depending on the number of characters involved in the conversation. But when it not feasible, for any reason, an individual may read aloud the dialogues of all the characters as well. Believe me the result will be equally profitable.

ection four is Vocabulary, as we all know that learning a language is incomplete without Vocabulary which is nothing but a set of words within a language that a person is familiar with.

However, with age and good education, usually the vocabulary of a person keeps on developing and becomes more and more extensive, polished and powerful. This, in turn strengthens, one's hold over a language increasing one's writing and speaking skills in that language.

In this section, there are Antonyms, Synonyms, Homonyms, Homophones, Prefixes, Suffixes, Idioms, Proverbs, Phrases, etc., all with lots of Examples and Exercises to make you easily understand and enrich your vocabulary enhancing your command over the English language.

GRAMMATICAL FEATURES

Grammatical Features are features that characterize specific categories or classes of grammatical units like noun, verbs, noun phrases, verb phrases etc. these classes of words and phrases also differ in terms of specific grammatical features which characterize them. Nouns and noun phrases are described in terms of features like number ( singular, girl, or plural, girls) and case ( Nominative, girl, or genitive, girl's), whereas verbs and verb phrases are described in terms of features like tense (present, go, or past, went), aspect ( perfective, has gone, or non-perfective, go). These grammatical features represent another type of grammatical choices that we make in combining words into longer units. In a clause like I have seen these new books in the library, for example, we saw that the second position that of the verb phrase have seen, can be filled by other verb phrases like saw will see, can borrow, like and have read. These examples show that there are two types of choice possible, one, the choice between verbs like see, borrow, like and read and the other, between verb phrases with the same verb see like saw and will see, which differ from have seen in tense and aspect or in modality. The first is a choice between different vocabulary items, whereas the second is a choice between different grammatical features. Thus, in any given position in a grammatical unit, two grammatical choices are made, choice of the constituent from the appropriate grammatical class and choice of appropriate grammatical feature/s characteristic of the class to which the chosen constituent belongs.

We know the choice of appropriate constituents, determines whether the combination of words is grammatical or not and also the meaning it conveys. The second type of choice, the choice of the appropriate grammatical feature/s with the constituents, is also equally important in deciding the grammatically and the meaning of the combination of words. For example, in the noun phrase these new books, it is not only necessary to choose a noun in the position filled by books. It is equally important that we choose the plural form of the noun. Thus, if we choose other nouns like pen, journal, toy, car, etc, for this position, we have to choose the plural forms of these nouns pens, journals, toys, cars etc. The choice of the singular form will result in an ungrammatical combination as in

These new pen

These new journal

These new toy

These new car

We see that this is because the determiner in position 1, these, is plural and the number of the noun chosen in position 3 must agree with the number of the determiner in position 1. If we make a different choice in position 1 and have the in place of these, it is possible to have either the singular or the plural form of the noun in position 3, because the can be used either with singular or plural nouns. In this case, the choice between the singular or plural noun will result in difference of meaning as in The new book the new books

The new pen the new pens

The new journal the new journals

The new toy the new toys

The new car the new cars

There are different means by which choices of grammatical features are indicated. In order to mark the plural form of nouns we add a suffix-s or -es (pronounced /s/, /z/ or /Iz) in most cases. In case of verbs we add the suffix-ed (pronounced /t/, /d/ or /Id/) to mark the past tense in most cases, as in

They type letters.

They typed letters.

But in order to indicate the perfective aspect, we make two changes, use the auxiliary verb have and also add the suffix-ex. Thus in They play tennis

If we have to change the aspect of the verb play from non-perfective to perfective, play becomes have played and we will have They have played tennis.

imilarly, if we wish to change the modality of the verb, we add a modal auxiliary before the verb as in They may go home.

They can go home.

They must go home.

They will go home.

Auxiliary verbs like have and modal auxiliaries like may, can, will and must are used on ly to perform these important grammatical functions of marking the perfective aspect and the modality of verbs and always occur with full verbs like type, play etc. they do not have independent meanings and cannot be used by themselves. They are, therefore called grammatical words in contrast to full verbs like type and play which have independent meanings and which are called lexical words.

Thus, we have mainly two devices, the addition of a suffix and the use of a grammatical word like an auxiliary verb, by which we mark grammatical features like number and case with nouns, and tense, aspect and modality and verbs.

Grammar and Meaning

Grammar helps us to combine words in different ways to communicate different meanings. When we consider the relationship between grammar and meaning, we notice the grammar is used to convey different types of meaning.

Generally, when we think of meaning, we think of ideas, facts, thoughts, beliefs etc. This is one type of meaning, which can be called conceptual or factual meaning. It is obvious that grammar plays a very important role in conveying conceptual or factual meaning. The following are a few examples of this role of grammar.

She ordered a book. The book was delivered to her the next day.

She ordered a book. A book was delivered to her the next day.

In the first sentence the use of the shows that the book that was delivered to her was the same book that she ordered. But in the second sentence, the use of the article a questions whether it was the same book or not. In fact, it may suggest that it was not the same book.

He found the old man's shoes.

He found the man's old shoes.

The difference in the sequence in which the two words old and man's occur results in the difference in meaning between the two sentences.

Young people love music and dancing.

Young people loved music and dancing Young people may love music and dancing.

Here the difference in tense between the first and the second sentences marks a difference in time reference. In the third sentence it is the use of the modal auxiliary may which makes it suggest a sense of possibility.

Children love animals.

Animals love children.

The two words children and animals occur in different positions and have different grammatical functions in the two sentences, and therefore, the two sentences have different meanings.

The policeman in the blue car shot the bandit.

The policeman shot the bandit in the blue car.

The difference in meaning between these two sentences is because in the first the phrase in the blue car modifies the policeman, whereas it modifies the bandit in the second.

Another important type of meaning that helps us to convey is in terms of the communicative or interactional function that we perform using language. The three most important communicative functions we perform using language and making statements, asking questions and making requests and grammar provides us with the most direct means of signalling these functions, as shown in the examples below.

Sheela has bought a new car.

Has Sheela bought a new car?

Who has bought a new car?

In the second sentence, a change in the order in which the subject Sheela and the auxiliary verb has occurs makes it a question, whereas in the third, the substitution of the question word who in the place of the subject Sheela makes it a question. Thus, we see that grammar also provides us with different means for asking different types of questions.

Please switch off the lights before you leave.

Turn right when you come to the intersection.

Take an asprin.

For functions like request, instructions and suggestions, we can use imperative sentences beginning with the imperative form of the verb as in the above usage.

We use language not only to convey factual information but also to convey our attitudes and feelings. Grammar often helps us to perform this attitudinal function.

Can I borrow your pen?

Could I borrow your pen?

The use of the past in the second sentence here makes it more polite than the first, which uses the present tense.

She always comes late.

She is always coming late.

The first sentence, which is in simple present tense (comes), is objective when compared with the second, which because of the use of the progressive aspect (is coming), appears more subjective implying criticism or disapproval.

When we communicate, we organize the information that we wish to convey in such a way that it is easy for the listener/the reader to understand our message. One of the principles we use is to begin with what is already known and then give the new information. It is this that helps us to choose between the two alternatives in the example below.

The famous author has written a sequel to his latest novel.

It has been highly praised by all the critics.

All the critics have praised it highly.

Of the two alternatives either can follow the first sentence. But the principle of beginning with what is already known (his latest novel in this sentence) will make us choose the first option instead of the second. This choice is between the passive and the active. Thus, we see that the grammatical feature of voice is related to how we organize information in our communication. Sometimes it is what we would like to emphasize in our message that decides our choice between the alternatives that grammar makes available.