Race determination

Race is difficult to determine from the skeleton, not only because of the lack of definite racial traits expressed in an
individual, but also because of the lack of a precise definition of what race is and how it is recognised (El-Najjar and
McWilliams 1978; Reichs 1986). Often, racial
classification is uncertain, while in other cases allocation is clear, resulting in an unknown individual being placed in
one of the five major racial groups; Caucasian, Mongoloid, Negroid, Australoid or Polynesian.

In cases where an unknown individual is a genetic blend of two or more racial stocks, placement in one of these five
groups becomes exceedingly difficult (Gill 1976). Inter-racial mixing and the resulting
phenotypic expression of skeletal traits is an issue that is becoming increasingly evident in today's society.

The racial characteristics of the skeleton have been extensively studied (Giles and Elliot 1962; Krogman 1962; Stewart 1979; Gill 1986; Krogman and Iscan 1986; Iscan 1988). The morphological and anatomical features
of racial affinity are outlined below (for the cranium and mandible only, also see Wood and Hodgson 1996). The postcranial skeleton does not provide any accurate means for the determination of
race.

1. Visual examination of the Caucasian cranium

A cranial vault that ranges from long, narrow and low, to short, broad and high

A rounded contour of the cranial vault (anterior view)

Mild to moderate prominence of the superciliary (brow) ridges

An external occipital protuberance that is conical or hooked

Extensive cranial sutures

Large mastoid processes

A straight (orthognathous) face

A sharp lower lateral orbit margin (on the zygomatic bone)

A narrow and high bridge of the nose

Depressed nasofrontal sutures

A prominent nasal spine

Sharp lower margin of the nasal spine

Deep canine fossae

A pronounced chin

Carabelli's Cusps (on the mesiolingual surface of maxilliary molars)

2. Visual examination of the Mongoloid cranium

A flattened and broad facial skeleton

Large prominent and angular zygomatic bones

A relatively short, wide and high vault

A flat glabella.

Absent or slight brow ridges

Simple cranial sutures

Minimal nasofrontal suture depression

Broad and flat root of the nose (wide interorbital distance)

Dull lower nasal margin

Short nasal spine

Absent canine fossae

Shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth

Short and wide palate and dental arcades

3. Visual examination of the Negroid cranium

A long and narrow cranial vault

Bregmatic depression

Rounded forehead (anterior and lateral views)

Dense ivory texture to the cranial vault bone

Wide interorbital distance

Wide, rounded nasal aperture

Little or no depression of the nasofrontal suture

Marked prognathism (anterior protrusion of the jaws)

4. Visual examination of the Australoid cranium

Long, narrow (dolichocephaly) and low cranial vault

Keeled frontal contour of the cranial vault (gabling)

Zygomatic arches visible from above (phaenozygy)

Moderate to marked prominence of glabella and superciliary (brow) ridges

In addition to the standard morphological features useful for racial determination, anthropometric measurements have
also been described in an attempt to minimise subjective errors. Giles and Elliot (1962)
provide a series of discriminant functions for the assessment of racial ancestry using the skull. This technique, however,
has been criticised by Birkby (1966) for being no less subjective in the end result.
The cranium and mandible are by far the best indicators of race. There have been limited attempts to use the postcranial
skeleton (Stewart 1962). Their reports indicate that these methods tend to be less
accurate than methods based on the cranium and mandible.

Racial determination for the Pandora skeletons was not possible from any of the postcranial material available.
The skull is the only area of the skeleton from which an accurate determination of race can be made (Bass 1987). Amongst the Pandora remains there were mandibles from each individual, one
complete skull and fragments of another skull.

The reconstructed fragments of the cranium belonging to Tom provided insufficient detail for any racial
extrapolations. Although unreliable in the determination of race, the mandibles of Tom and Dick did provide some clues about race. The
mandibles of both Tom and Dick had similar features, and did not display the presence of a rocker jaw (convex inferior
curvature of the mandible, seen in Polynesian populations). Furthermore, the mandibles of Tom and Dick did not exhibit any
degree of alveolar prognathism evident in Negroids. The mandibles offered no obvious discrimination from typical Mongoloid
features, though it is highly unlikely that the Pandora dead originated from this population. Historical accounts
and the available dentition indicated that neither Tom or Dick were Aborigines.
Therefore, through a logical process of elimination, and considering that the Pandora was of British origin, the
assumption was made that these two mandibles were of Caucasian origin.

The complete skull belonging to Harry provided the only real means for an attempt at racial determination. This skull,
however, did not demonstrate many of the typical traits seen in others; this was thought to be the result of a pathological
state. Therefore, in reality a reliable racial determination from Harry's complete cranium was not possible.

Some Caucasian features the cranium demonstrated are as follows:

A rounded contour of the cranial vault

Mild prominence of the superciliary (brow) ridges

A hook shaped external occipital protuberance

Large mastoid processes

With the exception of the marked mental prognathism, a straight orthognathous face

Sharp lower lateral orbital margin on the zygomatic bone

A narrow and high nasion

Although fragmented, an apparently prominent nasal spine, with a sharp lower nasal margin

A pronounced chin (mental prognathism)

Harry's skull showed more Caucasian characteristics, even in the presence of developmental anomalies, than of the other
racial groups. It is the opinion of the authors that the skull was Caucasian.
In summary, there was little skeletal material available to allow for the reliable determination of race. However, in the
light of what examination could be made, the most likely racial affiliation of Tom, Dick, and Harry was Caucasian.