The Cowosseum couwd howd, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators,[5][6] having an average audience of some 65,000;[7][8] it was used for gwadiatoriaw contests and pubwic spectacwes such as mock sea battwes (for onwy a short time as de hypogeum was soon fiwwed in wif mechanisms to support de oder activities), animaw hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battwes, and dramas based on Cwassicaw mydowogy. The buiwding ceased to be used for entertainment in de earwy medievaw era. It was water reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, qwarters for a rewigious order, a fortress, a qwarry, and a Christian shrine.

Name

The Cowosseum

The Cowosseum's originaw Latin name was Amphideatrum Fwavium, often angwicized as Fwavian Amphideatre. The buiwding was constructed by emperors of de Fwavian dynasty, fowwowing de reign of Nero.[11] This name is stiww used in modern Engwish, but generawwy de structure is better known as de Cowosseum. In antiqwity, Romans may have referred to de Cowosseum by de unofficiaw name Amphideatrum Caesareum (wif Caesareum an adjective pertaining to de titwe Caesar), but dis name may have been strictwy poetic[12][13] as it was not excwusive to de Cowosseum; Vespasian and Titus, buiwders of de Cowosseum, awso constructed an amphideater of de same name in Puteowi (modern Pozzuowi).[14]

The name Cowosseum is bewieved to be derived from a cowossaw statue of Nero nearby.[4] This statue was water remodewed by Nero's successors into de wikeness of Hewios (Sow) or Apowwo, de sun god, by adding de appropriate sowar crown. Nero's head was awso repwaced severaw times wif de heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan winks, de statue remained standing weww into de medievaw era and was credited wif magicaw powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbow of de permanence of Rome.

In de 8f century, an epigram attributed to de Venerabwe Bede cewebrated de symbowic significance of de statue in a prophecy dat is variouswy qwoted: Quamdiu stat Cowisæus, stat et Roma; qwando cadet cowisæus, cadet et Roma; qwando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as wong as de Cowossus stands, so shaww Rome; when de Cowossus fawws, Rome shaww faww; when Rome fawws, so fawws de worwd").[15] This is often mistranswated to refer to de Cowosseum rader dan de Cowossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Chiwde Harowd's Piwgrimage). However, at de time dat de Pseudo-Bede wrote, de mascuwine nouncowiseus was appwied to de statue rader dan to what was stiww known as de Fwavian amphideatre.

The Cowossus did eventuawwy faww, possibwy being puwwed down to reuse its bronze. By de year 1000 de name "Cowosseum" had been coined to refer to de amphideatre. The statue itsewf was wargewy forgotten and onwy its base survives, situated between de Cowosseum and de nearby Tempwe of Venus and Roma.[16]

The name furder evowved to Cowiseum during de Middwe Ages. In Itawy, de amphideatre is stiww known as iw Cowosseo, and oder Romance wanguages have come to use simiwar forms such as Cowoseumuw (Romanian), we Cowisée (French), ew Cowiseo (Spanish) and o Cowiseu (Portuguese).

History

Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations

Cowosseum

Sestertius of Titus cewebrating de inauguration of de Cowosseum (minted 80 AD).

A map of centraw Rome during de Roman Empire, wif de Cowosseum at de upper right corner

The site chosen was a fwat area on de fwoor of a wow vawwey between de Caewian, Esqwiwine and Pawatine Hiwws, drough which a canawised stream ran, uh-hah-hah-hah. By de 2nd century BC de area was densewy inhabited. It was devastated by de Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, fowwowing which Nero seized much of de area to add to his personaw domain, uh-hah-hah-hah. He buiwt de grandiose Domus Aurea on de site, in front of which he created an artificiaw wake surrounded by paviwions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqwa Cwaudiaaqweduct was extended to suppwy water to de area and de gigantic bronze Cowossus of Nero was set up nearby at de entrance to de Domus Aurea.[16]

Awdough de Cowossus was preserved, much of de Domus Aurea was torn down, uh-hah-hah-hah. The wake was fiwwed in and de wand reused as de wocation for de new Fwavian Amphideatre. Gwadiatoriaw schoows and oder support buiwdings were constructed nearby widin de former grounds of de Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to buiwd de Cowosseum on de site of Nero's wake can be seen as a popuwist gesture of returning to de peopwe an area of de city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many oder amphideatres, which were wocated on de outskirts of a city, de Cowosseum was constructed in de city centre; in effect, pwacing it bof symbowicawwy and precisewy at de heart of Rome.

Construction was funded by de opuwent spoiws taken from de Jewish Tempwe after de Great Jewish Revowt in 70 AD wed to de Siege of Jerusawem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on de site, "de emperor Vespasian ordered dis new amphideatre to be erected from his generaw's share of de booty." Awong wif de spoiws, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after de war, and many contributed to de massive workforce needed for construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. The swaves undertook manuaw wabor such as working in de qwarries at Tivowi where de travertine was qwarried, awong wif wifting and transporting de qwarried stones 20 miwes from Tivowi to Rome.[17] Awong wif dis free source of unskiwwed wabor, teams of professionaw Roman buiwders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook de more speciawized tasks necessary for buiwding de Cowosseum. The Cowosseum was constructed wif severaw different materiaws: wood, wimestone, tuff, tiwes, cement, and mortar.

Construction of de Cowosseum began under de ruwe of Vespasian[4] in around 70–72 AD (73–75 AD according to some sources)[17] The Cowosseum had been compweted up to de dird story by de time of Vespasian's deaf in 79. The top wevew was finished by his son, Titus, in 80,[4] and de inauguraw games were hewd in AD 80 or 81.[17]Dio Cassius recounts dat over 9,000 wiwd animaws were kiwwed during de inauguraw games of de amphideatre. Commemorative coinage was issued cewebrating de inauguration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[18] The buiwding was remodewwed furder under Vespasian's younger son, de newwy designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed de hypogeum, a series of underground tunnews used to house animaws and swaves. He awso added a gawwery to de top of de Cowosseum to increase its seating capacity.[19]

In 217, de Cowosseum was badwy damaged by a major fire (caused by wightning, according to Dio Cassius[20]) which destroyed de wooden upper wevews of de amphideatre's interior. It was not fuwwy repaired untiw about 240 and underwent furder repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gwadiatoriaw fights are wast mentioned around 435. An inscription records de restoration of various parts of de Cowosseum under Theodosius II and Vawentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibwy to repair damage caused by a major eardqwake in 443; more work fowwowed in 484[21] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests weww into de 6f century. Animaw hunts continued untiw at weast 523, when Anicius Maximus cewebrated his consuwship wif some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric de Great for deir high cost.[16]

Medievaw

Map of medievaw Rome depicting de Cowosseum

The Cowosseum underwent severaw radicaw changes of use. By de wate 6f century a smaww chapew had been buiwt into de structure of de amphideater, dough dis apparentwy did not confer any particuwar rewigious significance on de buiwding as a whowe. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vauwted spaces in de arcades under de seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as stiww being rented out as wate as de 12f century. Around 1200 de Frangipani famiwy took over de Cowosseum and fortified it, apparentwy using it as a castwe.

Severe damage was infwicted on de Cowosseum by de great eardqwake in 1349, causing de outer souf side, wying on a wess stabwe awwuviaw terrain, to cowwapse. Much of de tumbwed stone was reused to buiwd pawaces, churches, hospitaws and oder buiwdings ewsewhere in Rome. A rewigious order moved into de nordern dird of de Cowosseum in de mid-14f century [22] and continued to inhabit it untiw as wate as de earwy 19f century. The interior of de amphideater was extensivewy stripped of stone, which was reused ewsewhere, or (in de case of de marbwe façade) was burned to make qwickwime.[16] The bronze cwamps which hewd de stonework togeder were pried or hacked out of de wawws, weaving numerous pockmarks which stiww scar de buiwding today.

Modern

During de 16f and 17f century, Church officiaws sought a productive rowe for de Cowosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) pwanned to turn de buiwding into a woow factory to provide empwoyment for Rome's prostitutes, dough dis proposaw feww drough wif his premature deaf.[23] In 1671 Cardinaw Awtieri audorized its use for buwwfights; a pubwic outcry caused de idea to be hastiwy abandoned.

Awwied troops consuwt a guidebook outside de Cowosseum after wiberation in 1944

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed de view dat de Cowosseum was a sacred site where earwy Christians had been martyred. He forbade de use of de Cowosseum as a qwarry and consecrated de buiwding to de Passion of Christ and instawwed Stations of de Cross, decwaring it sanctified by de bwood of de Christian martyrs who perished dere (see Significance in Christianity). However, dere is no historicaw evidence to support Benedict's cwaim, nor is dere even any evidence dat anyone before de 16f century suggested dis might be de case; de Cadowic Encycwopedia concwudes dat dere are no historicaw grounds for de supposition, oder dan de reasonabwy pwausibwe conjecture dat some of de many martyrs may weww have been, uh-hah-hah-hah.[24]

Later popes initiated various stabiwization and restoration projects, removing de extensive vegetation which had overgrown de structure and dreatened to damage it furder. The façade was reinforced wif trianguwar brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and de interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in de 1930s. The arena substructure was partwy excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fuwwy exposed under Benito Mussowini in de 1930s.[16]

The Cowosseum is today one of Rome's most popuwar tourist attractions, receiving miwwions of visitors annuawwy. The effects of powwution and generaw deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 biwwion Itawian wire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).

In recent years de Cowosseum has become a symbow of de internationaw campaign against capitaw punishment, which was abowished in Itawy in 1948. Severaw anti–deaf penawty demonstrations took pwace in front of de Cowosseum in 2000. Since dat time, as a gesture against de deaf penawty, de wocaw audorities of Rome change de cowor of de Cowosseum's night time iwwumination from white to gowd whenever a person condemned to de deaf penawty anywhere in de worwd gets deir sentence commuted or is reweased,[25] or if a jurisdiction abowishes de deaf penawty. Most recentwy, de Cowosseum was iwwuminated in gowd in November 2012 fowwowing de abowishment of capitaw punishment in de American state of Connecticut in Apriw 2012.[26]

Because of de ruined state of de interior, it is impracticaw to use de Cowosseum to host warge events; onwy a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much warger concerts have been hewd just outside, using de Cowosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have pwayed at de Cowosseum in recent years have incwuded Ray Charwes (May 2002),[27]Pauw McCartney (May 2003),[28]Ewton John (September 2005),[29] and Biwwy Joew (Juwy 2006).

The outer waww is estimated to have reqwired over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set widout mortar; dey were hewd togeder by 300 tons of iron cwamps.[16] However, it has suffered extensive damage over de centuries, wif warge segments having cowwapsed fowwowing eardqwakes. The norf side of de perimeter waww is stiww standing; de distinctive trianguwar brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in de earwy 19f century to shore up de waww. The remainder of de present-day exterior of de Cowosseum is in fact de originaw interior waww.

The exterior of de Cowosseum, showing de partiawwy intact outer waww (weft) and de mostwy intact inner waww (center and right)

The surviving part of de outer waww's monumentaw façade comprises dree stories of superimposedarcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a taww attic, bof of which are pierced by windows interspersed at reguwar intervaws. The arcades are framed by hawf-cowumns of de Doric, Ionic, and Corindian orders, whiwe de attic is decorated wif Corindian piwasters.[30] Each of de arches in de second- and dird-fwoor arcades framed statues, probabwy honoring divinities and oder figures from Cwassicaw mydowogy.

Two hundred and forty mast corbews were positioned around de top of de attic. They originawwy supported a retractabwe awning, known as de vewarium, dat kept de sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-wike structure made of ropes, wif a howe in de center.[4] It covered two-dirds of de arena, and swoped down towards de center to catch de wind and provide a breeze for de audience. Saiwors, speciawwy enwisted from de Roman navaw headqwarters at Misenum and housed in de nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work de vewarium.[31]

The Cowosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essentiaw dat de venue couwd be fiwwed or evacuated qwickwy. Its architects adopted sowutions very simiwar to dose used in modern stadiums to deaw wif de same probwem. The amphideatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground wevew, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[4] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The nordern main entrance was reserved for de Roman Emperor and his aides, whiwst de oder dree axiaw entrances were most wikewy used by de ewite. Aww four axiaw entrances were richwy decorated wif painted stucco rewiefs, of which fragments survive. Many of de originaw outer entrances have disappeared wif de cowwapse of de perimeter waww, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.[16]

Spectators were given tickets in de form of numbered pottery shards, which directed dem to de appropriate section and row. They accessed deir seats via vomitoria (singuwar vomitorium), passageways dat opened into a tier of seats from bewow or behind. These qwickwy dispersed peopwe into deir seats and, upon concwusion of de event or in an emergency evacuation, couwd permit deir exit widin onwy a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from de Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which Engwish derives de word vomit.

Interior seating

The raked areas dat once hewd seating

According to de Codex-Cawendar of 354, de Cowosseum couwd accommodate 87,000 peopwe, awdough modern estimates put de figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement dat refwected de rigidwy stratified nature of Roman society. Speciaw boxes were provided at de norf and souf ends respectivewy for de Emperor and de Vestaw Virgins, providing de best views of de arena. Fwanking dem at de same wevew was a broad pwatform or podium for de senatoriaw cwass, who were awwowed to bring deir own chairs. The names of some 5f century senators can stiww be seen carved into de stonework, presumabwy reserving areas for deir use.

Diagram of de wevews of seating

The tier above de senators, known as de maenianum primum, was occupied by de non-senatoriaw nobwe cwass or knights (eqwites). The next wevew up, de maenianum secundum, was originawwy reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (pwebeians) and was divided into two sections. The wower part (de immum) was for weawdy citizens, whiwe de upper part (de summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for oder sociaw groups: for instance, boys wif deir tutors, sowdiers on weave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, herawds, priests and so on, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stone (and water marbwe) seating was provided for de citizens and nobwes, who presumabwy wouwd have brought deir own cushions wif dem. Inscriptions identified de areas reserved for specific groups.

Anoder wevew, de maenianum secundum in wegneis, was added at de very top of de buiwding during de reign of Domitian. This comprised a gawwery for de common poor, swaves and women, uh-hah-hah-hah. It wouwd have been eider standing room onwy, or wouwd have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned awtogeder from de Cowosseum, notabwy gravediggers, actors and former gwadiators.[16]

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and wow wawws (praecinctiones or bawtei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by de steps and aiswes from de vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individuaw seat to be exactwy designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[32]

Arena and hypogeum

The Cowosseum arena, showing de hypogeum now fiwwed wif wawws. The wawws were added earwy in de Cowosseum's existence when it was decided it wouwd no wonger be fwooded and used for navaw battwes.

The arena itsewf was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[16] It comprised a wooden fwoor covered by sand (de Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an ewaborate underground structure cawwed de hypogeum (witerawwy meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of de originaw construction but was ordered to be buiwt by Emperor Domitian. Littwe now remains of de originaw arena fwoor, but de hypogeum is stiww cwearwy visibwe. It consisted of a two-wevew subterranean network of tunnews and cages beneaf de arena where gwadiators and animaws were hewd before contests began, uh-hah-hah-hah. Eighty verticaw shafts provided instant access to de arena for caged animaws and scenery pieces conceawed underneaf; warger hinged pwatforms, cawwed hegmata, provided access for ewephants and de wike. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at weast twewve different phases of construction can be seen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[16]

Detaiw of de hypogeum

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnews to a number of points outside de Cowosseum. Animaws and performers were brought drough de tunnew from nearby stabwes, wif de gwadiators' barracks at de Ludus Magnus to de east awso being connected by tunnews. Separate tunnews were provided for de Emperor and de Vestaw Virgins to permit dem to enter and exit de Cowosseum widout needing to pass drough de crowds.[16]

Substantiaw qwantities of machinery awso existed in de hypogeum. Ewevators and puwweys raised and wowered scenery and props, as weww as wifting caged animaws to de surface for rewease. There is evidence for de existence of major hydrauwic mechanisms[16] and according to ancient accounts, it was possibwe to fwood de arena rapidwy, presumabwy via a connection to a nearby aqweduct. However, de construction of de hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to de practise of fwooding, and dus awso to navaw battwes, earwy in de Cowosseum's existence.

Supporting buiwdings

The Cowosseum and its activities supported a substantiaw industry in de area. In addition to de amphideatre itsewf, many oder buiwdings nearby were winked to de games. Immediatewy to de east is de remains of de Ludus Magnus, a training schoow for gwadiators. This was connected to de Cowosseum by an underground passage, to awwow easy access for de gwadiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itsewf a popuwar attraction for Roman spectators. Oder training schoows were in de same area, incwuding de Ludus Matutinus (Morning Schoow), where fighters of animaws were trained, pwus de Dacian and Gawwic Schoows.

Awso nearby were de Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; de Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; de Sanitarium, which had faciwities to treat wounded gwadiators; and de Spowiarium, where bodies of dead gwadiators were stripped of deir armor and disposed of.

Around de perimeter of de Cowosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from de perimeter, was a series of taww stone posts, wif five remaining on de eastern side. Various expwanations have been advanced for deir presence; dey may have been a rewigious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for de vewarium or awning.[16]

Use

The Cowosseum was used to host gwadiatoriaw shows as weww as a variety of oder events. The shows, cawwed munera, were awways given by private individuaws rader dan de state. They had a strong rewigious ewement but were awso demonstrations of power and famiwy prestige, and were immensewy popuwar wif de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Anoder popuwar type of show was de animaw hunt, or venatio. This utiwized a great variety of wiwd beasts, mainwy imported from Africa and de Middwe East, and incwuded creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, ewephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary wions, panders, weopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiwes and ostriches. Battwes and hunts were often staged amid ewaborate sets wif movabwe trees and buiwdings. Such events were occasionawwy on a huge scawe; Trajan is said to have cewebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 wif contests invowving 11,000 animaws and 10,000 gwadiators over de course of 123 days. During wunch intervaws, executions ad bestias wouwd be staged. Those condemned to deaf wouwd be sent into de arena, naked and unarmed, to face de beasts of deaf which wouwd witerawwy tear dem to pieces. Oder performances wouwd awso take pwace by acrobats and magicians, typicawwy during de intervaws.

During de earwy days of de Cowosseum, ancient writers recorded dat de buiwding was used for naumachiae (more properwy known as navawia proewia) or simuwated sea battwes. Accounts of de inauguraw games hewd by Titus in AD 80 describe it being fiwwed wif water for a dispway of speciawwy trained swimming horses and buwws. There is awso an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battwe between de Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and de Corindians. This has been de subject of some debate among historians; awdough providing de water wouwd not have been a probwem, it is uncwear how de arena couwd have been waterproofed, nor wouwd dere have been enough space in de arena for de warships to move around. It has been suggested dat de reports eider have de wocation wrong, or dat de Cowosseum originawwy featured a wide fwoodabwe channew down its centraw axis (which wouwd water have been repwaced by de hypogeum).[16]

Sywvae or recreations of naturaw scenes were awso hewd in de arena. Painters, technicians and architects wouwd construct a simuwation of a forest wif reaw trees and bushes pwanted in de arena's fwoor, and animaws wouwd den be introduced. Such scenes might be used simpwy to dispway a naturaw environment for de urban popuwation, or couwd oderwise be used as de backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mydowogy. They were awso occasionawwy used for executions in which de hero of de story – pwayed by a condemned person – was kiwwed in one of various gruesome but mydowogicawwy audentic ways, such as being mauwed by beasts or burned to deaf.

Today

A panorama of de interior of de Cowosseum in 2016

The Cowosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome wif dousands of tourists each year entering to view de interior arena.[33] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros wocated in de upper fwoor of de outer waww of de buiwding. Part of de arena fwoor has been re-fwoored. Beneaf de Cowosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wiwd animaws and gwadiators to de arena opened to de pubwic in summer 2010.[34]

Restoration

In 2011 Diego Dewwa Vawwe, head of de shoe firm Tod's, entered into an agreement wif wocaw officiaws to sponsor a €25 miwwion restoration of de Cowosseum. Work was pwanned to begin at de end of 2011, taking up to two and a hawf years.[37] Due to de controversiaw nature of using a pubwic–private partnership to fund de restoration, work was dewayed and began in 2013. The restoration is de first fuww cweaning and repair in de Cowosseum's history.[38] The first stage is to cwean and restore de Cowosseum's arcaded façade and repwace de metaw encwosures dat bwock de ground-wevew arches. Taking dree years, de finaw product of dis work was unveiwed 1 Juwy 2016, when de Itawian minister of cuwture, Dario Franceschini, awso announced dat de funds have been committed to repwace de fwoors by de end of 2018. These wiww provide a stage dat Franceschini says wiww be used for "cuwturaw events of de highest wevew."[39] The project awso pwans to create a services center and to restore de gawweries and underground spaces inside de Cowosseum.[40] New to tours of de restored marvew beginning 1 November 2017, de top two wevews have been opened for guided visits. The fourf wevew hewd de marketpwace, and de top fiff tier is where de poorest citizens, de pwebians, gadered and watched de show, bringing picnics for de day-wong event.[41]

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2012

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2013

Cowosseum 2014

Cowosseum 2018

Significance in Christianity

The Cowosseum is generawwy regarded by Christians as a site of de martyrdom of warge numbers of bewievers during de persecution of Christians in de Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[42][43][44] On de oder hand, oder schowars bewieve dat de majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at oder venues widin de city of Rome, rader dan at de Cowosseum, citing a wack of stiww-intact physicaw evidence or historicaw records.[45][46][47] These schowars assert dat "some Christians were executed as common criminaws in de Cowosseum—deir crime being refusaw to reverence de Roman gods", but most Christian martyrs of de earwy Church were executed for deir faif at de Circus Maximus.[48][49] According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to de wions in Rome around 107 A.D and awdough Irenaeus says noding about dis happening at de Cowosseum, tradition ascribes it to dat pwace.[50][51][52][53]

In de Middwe Ages, de Cowosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources wabew a "qwarry,"[54] which is to say dat stones from de Cowosseum were taken for de buiwding of oder sacred sites.[55] This fact is used to support de idea dat, at a time when sites associated wif martyrs were highwy venerated de Cowosseum was not being treated as a sacred site.[56] It was not incwuded in de itineraries compiwed for de use of piwgrims nor in works such as de 12f century Mirabiwia Urbis Romae ("Marvews of de City of Rome"), which cwaims de Circus Fwaminius – but not de Cowosseum – as de site of martyrdoms.[57] Part of de structure was inhabited by a Christian rewigious order, but it is not known wheder dis was for any particuwar rewigious reason, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended dat piwgrims gader sand from de arena of de Cowosseum to serve as a rewic, on de grounds dat it was impregnated wif de bwood of martyrs, awdough some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[58] A century water Fioravante Martinewwi wisted de Cowosseum at de head of a wist of pwaces sacred to de martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ednica sacra. Martinewwi's book evidentwy had an effect on pubwic opinion; in response to Cardinaw Awtieri's proposaw some years water to turn de Cowosseum into a buwwring, Carwo Tomassi pubwished a pamphwet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration, uh-hah-hah-hah. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Cwement X to cwose de Cowosseum's externaw arcades and decware it a sanctuary.[59]

At de insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade de qwarrying of de Cowosseum and erected Stations of de Cross around de arena, which remained untiw February 1874.[60]Benedict Joseph Labre spent de water years of his wife widin de wawws of de Cowosseum, wiving on awms, before he died in 1783.[60] Severaw 19f century popes funded repair and restoration work on de Cowosseum, and it stiww retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in de Cowosseum, wif a pwaqwe, stating:

The amphideater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and de impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to de sufferings of de martyrs purified from impious superstitions.[50]

Oder Christian crosses stand in severaw points around de arena and every Good Friday de Pope weads a Via Crucis procession to de amphideater.

Fwora

Pwants on de inner wawws of de Cowosseum

The Cowosseum has a wide and weww-documented history of fwora ever since Domenico Panarowi made de first catawogue of its pwants in 1643. Since den, 684 species have been identified dere. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate de vegetation, because of concerns over de damage dat was being caused to de masonry, but much of it has returned.[16] 242 species have been counted today and of de species first identified by Panarowi, 200 remain, uh-hah-hah-hah.

The variation of pwants can be expwained by de change of cwimate in Rome drough de centuries. Additionawwy, bird migration, fwower bwooming, and de growf of Rome dat caused de Cowosseum to become embedded widin de modern city centre rader dan on de outskirts of de ancient city, as weww as dewiberate transport of species, are awso contributing causes. Anoder reason often given is deir seeds being unwittingwy transported eider on de fur or in de feces of animaws brought dere from aww corners of de empire.[61]

The Pawazzo dewwa Civiwta Itawiana was very cwosewy modewwed on de Cowosseum. It was buiwt for Mussowini for de Universaw Exhibition of 1942 but de exhibition never happened due to de outbreak of Worwd War II. The architects were Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Bruno La Paduwa, and Mario Romano.

Popuwar cuwture references

The Cowosseum was featured in de 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Broderhood. The Cowosseum is of great importance to de entire Assassin's Creed series as a whowe: first, it was an entrance site to a Lair of Romuwus, second, de Lair beneaf de Cowosseum wed directwy to de Tempwe of Juno Moneta which housed de Appwe of Eden, dird, it was used in a Passion Pway depicting Jesus Christ's crucifixion where an assassination attempt was unfoiwed by de protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, fourf, in de 21st century, Desmond Miwes freeran drough de maze in de Cowosseum in order to find de Tempwe of Juno Moneta bewow de Basiwica of Santa Maria in Ara Coewi and de Appwe kept in it by Ezio in 1506 and fiff, it has a gwyph at de top.[62] In addition, de Cowosseum is ewwipticaw (ovaw-shaped) in reawity, but it was made circuwar for Assassin's Creed: Broderhood, since devising shadows for different sides of de buiwdings wouwd have "driven game designers nuts".[63]

^Brockman, Norbert C. (2011). Encycwopedia of Sacred Pwaces [2 vowumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 108. ISBN978-1-59884-655-3. Pubwic executions were hewd dere during de empire, and it is for dese wast events dat de Cowosseum became a Christian shrine. It is disputed wheder many earwy Christian martyrs actuawwy died in de Cowosseum, since dere is no mention of dat in ancient Christian records.

^Brockman, Norbert C. (2011). Encycwopedia of Sacred Pwaces [2 vowumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 108. ISBN978-1-59884-655-3. There seems wittwe doubt dat some Christians were executed as common criminaws in de Cowosseum-deir crime being refusaw to reverence de Roman gods. Most martyrs, however, died for deir faif at de Circus Maximus. Some were even executed as members of what de Romans considered a Jewish sect, since bof Jews and Christians refused to reverence de gods.

^ abLitfin, Bryan M. (2007). Getting to Know de Church Faders: An Evangewicaw Introduction. Brazos Press. p. 44. ISBN978-1-4412-0074-7. But according to Irenaeus (who spent time in Rome not wong after dese events took pwace) Ignatius did in fact meet his end by being torn apart by wiwd animaws for de amusement of de Roman masses, probabwy in de infamous Cowosseum. The crowd dere dat day wouwd have viewed de spectacwe as a crushing defeat of dis meek man's Christian rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah. But Ignatius understood his deaf to be a shout of victory. Today a Christian cross stands in de Cowosseum of Rome wif a pwaqwe dat reads, "The amphideater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and de impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to de sufferings of de martyrs purified from impious superstitions."

^Fwinn, Frank K. (2006). Encycwopedia of Cadowicism. Infobase Pubwishing. p. 359. ISBN978-0-8160-7565-2. Retrieved 30 Apriw 2014. He was caught up in de generaw persecution of de church under de emperor Trajan (r. 98–117), brought to Rome, and fed to de wions in de Cowiseum around 107 C.E. His feast day is October 17. Before his execution, Ignatius wrote seven wetters to de churches awong his route, one each to Ephesus, Magnesia, Trawwes, and Phiwadewphia, two to de church at Smyrna, and one to Smyrna's bishop, Powycarp. The wetters are a rich source about earwy deowogy, witurgy, and church organization, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Hopkins, p. 103: "It is wikewy dat Christians were put to deaf dere and dat dose said to have been martyred 'in Rome' actuawwy died in de Cowosseum. But, despite what we are often towd, dat is onwy a guess. One of de possibwe candidates for martyrdom in de Cowosseum is St. Ignatius, a bishop of Antioch (in Syria) at de beginning of de second century AD, who was 'condemned to de beasts' at Rome."

^Brockman, Norbert C. (2011). Encycwopedia of Sacred Pwaces [2 vowumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 108. ISBN978-1-59884-655-3. The Christians who did die in de Cowosseum often did so under dramatic circumstances, dus cementing de wegend. The hero St. Ignatius of Antioch, a discipwe of St. John de Bewoved, was sent to de beasts by Trajan in 107. Shortwy after, 115 Christians were kiwwed by archers. When Christians refused to pray to de gods for de end of a pwague in de watter part of de second century, Marcus Aurewius had dousands kiwwed in de Cowosseum for bwasphemy.

^Hopkins, p. 160: "For most of de Middwe Ages and earwy Renaissance de Cowosseum was not so much a monument as a qwarry. To describe dis activity as 'robbery' is to give de wrong impression, uh-hah-hah-hah. For de most part, dere was noding iwwegaw or unofficiaw about de removaw of dis stone."

^"The Cowiseum". Cadowic Encycwopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 24 Apriw 2014. In de Middwe Ages, for exampwe, when de sanctuaries of de martyrs were wooked upon wif so great veneration, de Cowiseum was compwetewy negwected; its name never occurs in de itineraries, or guide-books, compiwer for de use of piwgrims to de Eternaw City.

^"The Cowiseum". Cadowic Encycwopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 24 Apriw 2014. The "Mirabiwia Romae", de first manuscripts of which date from de twewff century, cites among de pwaces mentioned in de "Passions" of de martyrs de Circus Fwaminius ad pontem Judaeorum, but in dis sense makes no awwusion to de Cowiseum.

^"The Cowiseum". Cadowic Encycwopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 24 Apriw 2014. Pope St. Pius (1566–72) is said to have recommended persons desirous of obtaining rewics to procure some sand from de arena of de Cowiseum, which, de pope decwared, was impregnated wif de bwood of martyrs. The opinion of de saintwy pontiff, however, does not seem to have been shared by his contemporaries.

^"The Cowiseum". Cadowic Encycwopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 24 Apriw 2014. The pamphwet was so compwetewy successfuw dat four years water, de jubiwee year of 1675, de exterior arcades were cwosed by order of Cwement X; from dis time de Cowiseum became a sanctuary.

^ ab"The Cowiseum". Cadowic Encycwopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 24 Apriw 2014. At de instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Benedict XIV (1740-58) erected Stations of de Cross in de Cowiseum, which remained untiw February, 1874, when dey were removed by order of Commendatore Rosa. St. Benedict Joseph Labre (d. 1783) passed a wife of austere devotion, wiving on awms, widin de wawws of de Cowiseum.