Declaration of Rights for Women

The following document was read by Susan B. Anthony on July 4, 1876, in Philadelphia—in front of Independence Hall "under the shadow of Washington's statue, back of them the
old bell that proclaimed `liberty to all the land, and all the inhabitants thereof'." A footnote in the source states (in
part) that "during the reading of the declaration to an immense concourse of people, Mrs. [Jocelyn] Gage stood beside Miss
Anthony, and held an umbrella over her head, to shelter her friend from the intense heat of the noonday sun; and thus in the
same hour, on opposite sides of old Independence Hall, did the men and women express their opinions on the great principles
proclaimed on the natal day of the republic. . . ."

The source of the following speech is History of Woman Suffrage, Elizabeth C. Stanton et al., eds., vol. 3.

While the nation is buoyant with patriotism, and all hearts are attuned to praise, it is with sorrow we come to strike the
one discordant note, on this one-hundredth anniversary of our country's birth. When subjects of kings, emperors, and czars,
from the old world join in our national jubilee, shall the women of the republic refuse to lay their hands with benedictions
on the nation's head? Surveying America's exposition, surpassing in magnificence those of London, Paris, and Vienna, shall
we not rejoice at the success of the youngest rival among the nations of the earth? May not our hearts, in unison with all,
swell with pride at our great achievements as a people; our free speech, free press, free schools, free church, and the rapid
progress we have made in material wealth, trade, commerce and the inventive arts? And we do rejoice in the success, thus far,
of our experiment of self-government. Our faith is firm and unwavering in the broad principles of human rights proclaimed
in 1776, not only as abstract truths, but as the corner stones of a republic. Yet we cannot forget, even in this glad hour,
that while all men of every race, and clime, and condition, have been invested with the full rights of citizenship under our
hospitable flag, all women still suffer the degradation of disfranchisement.

The history of our country the past hundred years has been a series of assumptions and usurpations of power over woman, in
direct opposition to the principles of just government, acknowledged by the United States as its foundation, which are:

First—The natural rights of each individual.
Second—The equality of these rights.
Third—That rights not delegated are retained by the individual.
Fourth—That no person can exercise the rights of others without delegated authority.
Fifth—That the non-use of rights does not destroy them.

And for the violation of these fundamental principles of our government, we arraign our rulers on this Fourth day of July,
1876,—and these are our articles of impeachment:

Bills of attainder have been passed by the introduction of the word "male" into all the State constitutions, denying to women the right of suffrage,
and thereby making sex a crime—an exercise of power clearly forbidden in article I, sections 9, 10, of the United States constitution.

The writ of habeas corpus, the only protection against lettres de cachet and all forms of unjust imprisonment, which the constitution declares "shall not be suspended, except when in cases of rebellion
or invasion the public safety demands it," is held inoperative in every State of the Union, in case of a married woman against
her husband—the marital rights of the husband being in all cases primary, and the rights of the wife secondary.

The right of trial by a jury of one's peers was so jealously guarded that States refused to ratify the original constitution until it was guaranteed by the sixth amendment.
And yet the women of this nation have never been allowed a jury of their peers—being tried in all cases by men, native and
foreign, educated and ignorant, virtuous and vicious. Young girls have been arraigned in our courts for the crime of infanticide;
tried, convicted, hanged—victims, perchance, of judge, jurors, advocates—while no woman's voice could be heard in their defense.
And not only are women denied a jury of their peers, but in some cases, jury trial altogether. During the war, a woman was
tried and hanged by military law, in defiance of the fifth amendment, which specifically declares: "No person shall be held
to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases
. . . . of persons in actual service in time of war." During the last presidential campaign, a woman, arrested for voting,
was denied the protection of a jury, tried, convicted, and sentenced to a fine and costs of prosecution, by the absolute power
of a judge of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Taxation without representation, the immediate cause of the rebellion of the colonies against Great Britain, is one of the grievous wrongs the women of this
country have suffered during the century. Deploring war, with all the demoralization that follows in its train, we have been
taxed to support standing armies, with their waste of life and wealth. Believing in temperance, we have been taxed to support
the vice, crime and pauperism of the liquor traffic. While we suffer its wrongs and abuses infinitely more than man, we have
no power to protect our sons against this giant evil. During the temperance crusade, mothers were arrested, fined, imprisoned,
for even praying and singing in the streets, while men blockade the sidewalks with impunity, even on Sunday, with their military
parades and political processions. Believing in honesty, we are taxed to support a dangerous army of civilians, buying and
selling the offices of government and sacrificing the best interests of the people. And, moreover, we are taxed to support
the very legislators and judges who make laws, and render decisions adverse to woman. And for refusing to pay such unjust
taxation, the houses, lands, bonds, and stock of women have been seized and sold within the present year, thus proving Lord
Coke's assertion, that "The very act of taxing a man's property without his consent is, in effect, disfranchising him of every
civil right."

Unequal codes for men and women. Held by law a perpetual minor, deemed incapable of self-protection, even in the industries of the world, woman is denied
equality of rights. The fact of sex, not the quantity or quality of work, in most cases, decides the pay and position; and
because of this injustice thousands of fatherless girls are compelled to choose between a life of shame and starvation. Laws
catering to man's vices have created two codes of morals in which penalties are graded according to the political status of
the offender. Under such laws, women are fined and imprisoned if found alone in the streets, or in public places of resort,
at certain hours. Under the pretense of regulating public morals, police officers seizing the occupants of disreputable houses,
march the women in platoons to prison, while the men, partners in their guilt, go free. While making a show of virtue in forbidding
the importation of Chinese women on the Pacific coast for immoral purposes, our rulers, in many States, and even under the
shadow of the national capitol, are now proposing to legalize the sale of American womanhood for the same vile purposes.

Special legislation for woman has placed us in a most anomalous position. Women invested with the rights of citizens in one section—voters, jurors, office-holders—crossing
an imaginary line, are subjects in the next. In some States, a married woman may hold property and transact business in her
own name; in others, her earnings belong to her husband. In some States, a woman may testify against her husband, sue and
be sued in the courts; in others, she has no redress in case of damage to person, property, or character. In case of divorce
on account of adultery in the husband, the innocent wife is held to possess no right to children or property, unless by special
decree of the court. But in no State of the Union has the wife the right to her own person, or to any part of the joint earnings
of the co-partnership during the life of her husband. In some States women may enter the law schools and practice in the courts;
in others they are forbidden. In some universities girls enjoy equal educational advantages with boys, while many of the proudest
institutions in the land deny them admittance, though the sons of China, Japan and Africa are welcomed there. But the privileges
already granted in the several States are by no means secure. The right of suffrage once exercised by women in certain States
and territories has been denied by subsequent legislation. A bill is now pending in congress to disfranchise the women of
Utah, thus interfering to deprive United States citizens of the same rights which the Supreme Court has declared the national
government powerless to protect anywhere. Laws passed after years of untiring effort, guaranteeing married women certain rights
of property, and mothers the custody of their children, have been repealed in States where we supposed all was safe. Thus
have our most sacred rights been made the football of legislative caprice, proving that a power which grants as a privilege
what by nature is a right, may withhold the same as a penalty when deeming it necessary for its own perpetuation.

Representation of woman has had no place in the nation's thought. Since the incorporation of the thirteen original States, twenty-four have been
admitted to the Union, not one of which has recognized woman's right of self-government. On this birthday of our national
liberties, July Fourth, 1876, Colorado, like all her elder sisters, comes into the Union with the invidious word "male" in
her constitution.

Universal manhood suffrage, by establishing an aristocracy of sex, imposes upon the women of this nation a more absolute and cruel depotism than monarchy;
in that, woman finds a political master in her father, husband, brother, son. The aristocracies of the old world are based
upon birth, wealth, refinement, education, nobility, brave deeds of chivalry; in this nation, on sex alone; exalting brute
force above moral power, vice above virtue, ignorance above education, and the son above the mother who bore him.

The judiciary above the nation has proved itself but the echo of the party in power, by upholding and enforcing laws that are opposed to the spirit and
letter of the constitution. When the slave power was dominant, the Supreme Court decided that a black man was not a citizen,
because he had not the right to vote; and when the constitution was so amended as to make all persons citizens, the same high
tribunal decided that a woman, though a citizen, had not the right to vote. Such vacillating interpretations of constitutional
law unsettle our faith in judicial authority, and undermine the liberties of the whole people.

These articles of impeachment against our rulers we now submit to the impartial judgment of the people. To all these wrongs
and oppressions woman has not submitted in silence and resignation. From the beginning of the century, when Abigail Adams,
the wife of one president and mother of another, said, "We will not hold ourselves bound to obey laws in which we have no
voice or representation," until now, woman's discontent has been steadily increasing, culminating nearly thirty years ago
in a simultaneous movement among the women of the nation, demanding the right of suffrage. In making our just demands, a higher
motive than the pride of sex inspires us; we feel that national safety and stability depend on the complete recognition of
the broad principles of our government. Woman's degraded, helpless position is the weak point in our institutions to-day;
a disturbing force everywhere, severing family ties, filling our asylums with the deaf, the dumb, the blind; our prisons with
criminals, our cities with drunkenness and prostitution; our homes with disease and death. It was the boast of the founders
of the republic, that the rights for which they contended were the rights of human nature. If these rights are ignored in
the case of one-half the people, the nation is surely preparing for its downfall. Governments try themselves. The recognition
of a governing and a governed class is incompatible with the first principles of freedom. Woman has not been a heedless spectator
of the events of this century, nor a dull listener to the grand arguments for the equal rights of humanity. From the earliest
history of our country woman has shown equal devotion with man to the cause of freedom, and has stood firmly by his side in
its defense. Together, they have made this country what it is. Woman's wealth, thought and labor have cemented the stones
of every monument man has reared to liberty.

And now, at the close of a hundred years, as the hour-hand of the great clock that marks the centuries points to 1876, we
declare our faith in the principles of self-government; our full equality with man in natural rights; that woman was made
first for her own happiness, with the absolute right to herself—to all the opportunities and advantages life affords for her
complete development; and we deny that dogma of the centuries, incorporated in the codes of all nations—that woman was made
for man—her best interests, in all cases, to be sacrificed to his will. We ask of our rulers, at this hour, no special favors,
no special privileges, no special legislation. We ask justice, we ask equality, we ask that all the civil and political rights
that belong to citizens of the United States, be guaranteed to us and our daughters forever.

African American reformer and evangelist Sojourner Truth was involved in the abolitionist and women's rights movements. The
following is a brief account of her appearance at and speech before the rowdy Women's Rights Convention of 1853, which became
known as the “Mob Convention” due to the continual interruptions of protestors.

Sojourner Truth, a tall colored woman, well known in antislavery circles, and called the Lybian Sybil, made her appearance
on the platform. This was the signal for a fresh outburst from the mob; for at every session every man of them was promptly
in his place, at twenty-five cents a head. And this was the one redeeming feature of this mob—it paid all expenses, and left
a surplus in the treasury. Sojourner combined in herself, as an individual, the two most hated elements of humanity. She was
black, and she was a woman, and all the insults that could be cast upon color and sex were together hurled at her; but there
she stood, calm and dignified, a grand, wise woman, who could neither read nor write, and yet with deep insight could penetrate
the very soul of the universe about her. As soon as the terrible turmoil was in a measure quelled

SHE SAID: Is it not good for me to come and draw forth a spirit, to see what kind of spirit people are of? I see that some
of you have got the spirit of a goose, and some have got the spirit of a snake. I feel at home here. I come to you, citizens
of New York, as I suppose you ought to be. I am a citizen of the State of New York; I was born in it, and I was a slave in
the State of New York; and now I am a good citizen of this State. I was born here, and I can tell you I feel at home here.
I've been lookin' round and watchin' things, and I know a little mite ‘bout Woman's Rights, too. I come forth to speak ‘bout
Woman's Rights, and want to throw in my little mite, to keep the scales a-movin'. I know that it feels a kind o' hissin' and
ticklin' like to see a colored woman get up and tell you about things, and Woman's Rights. We have all been thrown down so
low that nobody thought we'd ever get up again; but we have been long enough trodden now; we will come up again, and now I
am here.

I was a-thinkin', when I see women contendin' for their rights, I was a-thinkin' what a difference there is now, and what
there was in old times. I have only a few minutes to speak; but in the old times the kings of the earth would hear a woman.
There was a king in the Scriptures; and then it was the kings of the earth would kill a woman if she come into their presence;
but Queen Esther come forth, for she was oppressed, and felt there was a great wrong, and she said I will die or I will bring
my complaint before the king. Should the king of the United States be greater, or more crueler, or more harder? But the king,
he raised up his sceptre and said: “Thy request shall be granted unto thee—to the half of my kingdom will I grant it to thee!”
Then he said he would hang Haman on the gallows he had made up high. But that is not what women come forward to contend. The
women want their rights as Esther. She only wanted to explain her rights. And he was so liberal that he said, “the half of
my kingdom shall be granted to thee,” and he did not wait for her to ask, he was so liberal with her.

Now, women do not ask half of a kingdom, but their rights, and they don't get ‘em. When she comes to demand ‘em, don't you
hear how sons hiss their mothers like snakes, because they ask for their rights; and can they ask for anything less? The king
ordered Haman to be hung on the gallows which he prepared to hang others; but I do not want any man to be killed, but I am
sorry to see them so short-minded. But we'll have our rights; see if we don't; and you can't stop us from them; see if you
can. You may hiss as much as you like, but it is comin'. Women don't get half as much rights as they ought to; we want more,
and we will have it. Jesus says: “What I say to one, I say to all—watch!” I'm a-watchin'. God says: “Honor your father and
your mother.” Sons and daughters ought to behave themselves before their mothers, but they do not. I can see them a-laughin',
and pointin' at their mothers up here on the stage. They hiss when an aged woman comes forth. If they'd been brought up proper
they'd have known better than hissing like snakes and geese. I'm ‘round watchin' these things, and I wanted to come up and
say these few things to you, and I'm glad of the hearin' you give me. I wanted to tell you a mite about Woman's Rights, and
so I came out and said so. I am sittin' among you to watch; and every once and awhile I will come out and tell you what time
of night it is.

On Educating African American Women (1827)

Freedom's Journal, the first African American newspaper, served not only as a forum for the abolitionist sentiments of educated African Americans but also as an official sounding board for the average African American whose views
heretofore had seldom been published. The August 10, 1827, issue of the paper carried the following letter, in which an anonymous
author, “Matilda,” made a humble plea for female education. It is noteworthy not only as one of the earliest entreaties for
women's rights made by an African American but also because it was written when Emma Hart Willard and Catharine Beecher were
just beginning their crusades for the educational rights of women.

Messrs. Editors,

Will you allow a female to offer a few remarks upon a subject that you must allow to be all-important? I don't know that in
any of your papers you have said sufficient upon the education of females. I hope you are not to be classed with those who
think that our mathematical knowledge should be limited to “fathoming the dish-kettle,” and that we have acquired enough of
history if we know that our grandfather's father lived and died. It is true the time has been when to darn a stocking and
cook a pudding well was considered the end and aim of a woman's being. But those were days when ignorance blinded men's eyes.
The diffusion of knowledge has destroyed those degrading opinions, and men of the present age allow that we have minds that
are capable and deserving of culture.

There are difficulties, and great difficulties, in the way of our advancement; but that should only stir us to greater efforts.
We possess not the advantages with those of our sex whose skins are not colored like our own, but we can improve what little
we have and make our one talent produce twofold. The influence that we have over the male sex demands that our minds should
be instructed and improved with the principles of education and religion, in order that this influence should be properly
directed. Ignorant ourselves, how can we be expected to form the minds of our youth and conduct them in the paths of knowledge?
How can we “teach the young idea how to shoot” if we have none ourselves? There is a great responsibility resting somewhere, and it is time for us to be up
and doing.

I would address myself to all mothers, and say to them that while it is necessary to possess a knowledge of cookery and the
various mysteries of pudding making, something more is requisite. It is their bounden duty to store their daughters' minds
with useful learning. They should be made to devote their leisure time to reading books, whence they would derive valuable
information which could never be taken from them.

I will not longer trespass on your time and patience. I merely throw out these hints in order that some more able pen will
take up the subject.

Matilda

Source: Freedom's Journal, August 10, 1827.

Anne Bradstreet: Two Poems

Usually considered the first American poet, Anne Bradstreet arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony with her husband, Simon, in 1630. For many years, she expressed her observations, thoughts,
and emotions in poetry that was deeply influenced by a work highly favoured by 17th-century readers—namely, Guillaume du Bartas's La Semaine (1578). Bradstreet's admiration for du Bartas is reflected in "The Prologue," the first poem printed below. It was published
along with others in 1650 in London at the instigation of her brother-in-law and without her knowledge. (Readers of this site
may want to pay special note to verse five.) The second poem expresses her lifelong devotion to her spouse. It was published
posthumously in 1678.

The source of the text below is The Works of Anne Bradstreet in Prose and Verse, John Harvard Ellis, ed., 1867.

THE PROLOGUE

To sing of wars, of captains, and of kings,
Of cities founded, commonwealths begun,
For my mean pen are too superior things:
Or how they all or each their dates have run,
Let poets and historians set these forth,
My obscure lines shall not so dim their worth.
But when my wondering eyes and envious heart
Great Bartas' sugared lines do but read o'er,
Fool I do grudge the Muses did not part
'Twixt him and me that overfluent store;
A Bartas can do what a Bartas will,
But simple I according to my skill.
From schoolboys' tongues no rhet'rick we expect,
Nor yet a sweet consort from broken strings,
Nor perfect beauty where's a main defect:
My foolish, broken, blemished Muse so sings
And this to mend, alas, no art is able,
'Cause nature made it so irreparable.
Nor can I, like that fluent sweet-tongued Greek
Who lisped at first, in future times speak plain;
By art he gladly found what he did seek —
A full requital of his striving pain.
Art can do much, but this maxim's most sure:
A weak or wounded brain admits no cure.
I am obnoxious to each carping tongue
Who says my hand a needle better fits,
A poet's pen all scorn I should thus wrong,
For such despite they cast on female wits:
If what I do prove well, it won't advance,
They'll say it's stolen, or else it was by chance.
But sure the antique Greeks were far more mild,
Else of our sex why feignéd they those nine,
And poesy made Calliope's own child?
So 'mongst the rest they placed the arts divine.
But this weak knot they will full soon untie —
The Greeks did nought but play the fools and lie.
Let Greeks be Greeks, and women what they are,
Men have precedency and still excel.
It is but vain unjustly to wage war,
Men can do best, and women know it well.
Preeminence in all and each is yours —
Yet grant some small acknowledgment of ours.
And oh ye high-flown quills that soar the skies,
And ever with your prey still catch your praise,
If e'er you deign these lowly lines your eyes,
Give thyme or parsley wreath, I ask no bays.
This mean and unrefinéd ore of mine
Will make your glistering gold but more to shine.

TO MY DEAR AND LOVING HUSBAND

If ever two were one, then surely we.
If ever man were loved by wife, then thee;
If ever wife was happy in a man,
Compare with me ye women if you can.
I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold,
Or all the riches that the East doth hold.
My love is such that rivers cannot quench,
Nor ought but love from thee, give recompense.
Thy love is such I can no way repay,
The heavens reward thee manifold I pray.
Then while we live, in love let's so persevere,
That when we live no more, we may live ever.

Abigail Adams: Two Letters

Although Abigail Adams had little formal education, she was intelligent and broad-minded and became a terse and vigorous letter writer. That she
was concerned with the growth of the new republic can be seen in her numerous letters to her husband, John Adams. In the first
letter, written November 27, 1775, she expresses her doubts about the ability of the Americans to form a viable government.

A much different spirit pervades the second letter, written some 29 years later. Following John Adams's defeat in the presidential
elections of 1800, the Adamses retired to "Quincy," their Massachusetts farm. Like her husband, Mrs. Adams was a thoroughgoing
Federalist, and she continued to be disturbed by the attacks on his administration, many of which she considered unfounded.
In 1804 she wrote to Thomas Jefferson on the death of his daughter, of whom she had been fond in former days; but her letter,
while full of what the president called "the tenderest expressions of concern at the event," carefully avoided any overtures
of friendship toward him. In reply, Jefferson expressed his appreciation for her concern and went on to mention the strained
relations between himself and her husband. In a further letter of July 1, 1804, which is reprinted here, Mrs. Adams took the
opportunity to defend ex-president Adams's last-minute or "midnight" appointments, which had come under fire by the Republicans.
Jefferson and Adams did not become epistolary friends again for another nine years.

The source of the following documents is Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams, Charles Francis Adams, ed., 4th edition, 1848.

DOUBTS ABOUT INDEPENDENCE

Colonel Warren returned last week to Plymouth, so that I shall not hear anything from you until he goes back again, which
will not be till the last of this month. He damped my spirits greatly by telling me that the court had prolonged your stay
another month. I was pleasing myself with the thought that you would soon be upon your return. It is in vain to repine. I
hope the public will reap what I sacrifice.

I wish I knew what mighty things were fabricating. If a form of government is to be established here, what one will be assumed?
Will it be left to our assemblies to choose one? And will not many men have many minds? And shall we not run into dissensions
among ourselves?

I am more and more convinced that man is a dangerous creature; and that power, whether vested in many or a few, is ever grasping,
and, like the grave, cries "Give, give." The great fish swallow up the small; and he who is most strenuous for the rights
of the people when vested with power, is as eager after the prerogatives of government. You tell me of degrees of perfection
to which human nature is capable of arriving, and I believe it, but, at the same time, lament that our admiration should arise
from the scarcity of the instances.

The building up a great empire, which was only hinted at by my correspondent, may now, I suppose, be realized even by the
unbelievers. Yet, will not ten thousand difficulties arise in the formation of it? The reins of government have been so long
slackened that I fear the people will not quietly submit to those restraints which are necessary for the peace and security
of the community. If we separate from Britain, what code of laws will be established? How shall we be governed so as to retain
our liberties? Can any government be free which is not administered by general stated laws? Who shall frame these laws? Who
will give them force and energy? It is true your resolutions, as a body, have hitherto had the force of laws; but will they
continue to have?

When I consider these things, and the prejudices of people in favor of ancient customs and regulations, I feel anxious for
the fate of our monarchy or democracy, or whatever is to take place. I soon get lost in a labyrinth of perplexities; but,
whatever occurs, may justice and righteousness be the stability of our times, and order arise out of confusion. Great difficulties
may be surmounted by patience and perseverance.

I believe I have tired you with politics. As to news, we have not any at all. I shudder at the approach of winter, when I
think I am to remain desolate.

I must bid you good night; 'tis late for me, who am much of an invalid. I was disappointed last week in receiving a packet
by the post, and, upon unsealing it, finding only four newspapers. I think you are more cautious than you need be. All letters,
I believe, have come safe to hand. I have sixteen from you, and wish I had as many more.

ON PRESIDENTIAL APPOINTMENTS

Your letter of June 13 came duly to hand. If it had contained no other sentiments and opinions than those which my letter
of condolence could have excited, and which are expressed in the first page of your reply, our correspondence would have terminated
here. But you have been pleased to enter upon some subjects which call for a reply; and as you observe that you have wished
for an opportunity to express your sentiments, I have given them every weight they claim.

"One act of Mr. Adams' life, and one only (you repeat) ever gave me a moment's personal displeasure. I did consider his last appointments to office as personally
unkind; they were from my most ardent political enemies."

As this act, I am certain, was not intended to give any personal pain or offense, I think it a duty to explain it, so far
as I then knew his views and designs. The Constitution empowers the President to fill up offices as they become vacant. It
was in the exercise of this power that appointments were made, and characters selected whom Mr. Adams considered as men faithful
to the Constitution, and, where he personally knew them, such as were capable of fulfilling their duty to their country. This
was done equally by General Washington in the last days of his administration, so that not an office remained vacant for his
successor to fill upon his coming into office. No offense was given by it and no personal unkindness thought of.

But the different political opinions which have so unhappily divided our country must have given rise to the idea that personal
unkindness was intended. You will please to recollect, sir, that at the time these appointments were made, there was not any
certainty that the presidency would devolve upon you, which is another circumstance to prove that no personal unkindness was
intended. No person, I am sure, was ever selected from such a motive, and so far was Mr. Adams from harboring such a sentiment
that he had not any idea of the intolerance of a party spirit at that time. I know it was his opinion that if the presidency
devolved upon you, except in the appointment of secretaries, no material change would be made.

I perfectly agree with you in opinion that those should be men in whom the President can repose confidence, possessing opinions
and sentiments corresponding with his own; or if differing with him, that they ought rather to resign their offices than to
cabal against measures which he may consider essential to the honor, safety, and peace of the country. Neither ought they
to unite with any bold and daringly ambitious character to overrule the cabinet or to betray the secrets of it to friends
or enemies. The two gentlemen who held the offices of secretaries, when you became President, were not of this character.
They were persons appointed by your predecessor nearly two years previous to his retirement. They had cordially cooperated
with him, and were gentlemen who enjoyed the public confidence. Possessing, however, different political sentiments from those
which you were known to have embraced, it was expected that they would, as they did, resign.

I have never felt any enmity toward you, sir, for being elected President of the United States. But the instruments made use
of and the means which were practised to effect a change have my utter abhorrence and detestation, for they were the blackest
calumny and the foulest falsehoods. I had witnessed enough of the anxiety and solicitude, the envy, jealousy, and reproach
attendant upon the office, as well as the high responsibility of the station, to be perfectly willing to see a transfer of
it; and I can truly say that at the time of election, I considered your pretensions much superior to his who shared an equal
vote with you. Your experience, I dare venture to affirm, has convinced you that it is not a station to be envied. If you
feel yourself a freeman, and can conduct, in all cases, according to your own sentiments, opinions, and judgment, you can
do more than either of your predecessors could, and are awfully responsible to God and your country for the measures of your
administration.

I must rely upon the friendship you still profess to entertain for me (and I am conscious I have done nothing to forfeit it)
to excuse the freedom of this discussion, to which you have led with an unreserve, which has taken off the shackles I should,
otherwise, have found myself embarrassed with. And, now, sir, I will freely disclose to you what has severed the bonds of
former friendship, and placed you in a light very different from what some viewed you in.

One of the first acts of your administration was to liberate a wretch who was suffering the just punishment of his crimes
for publishing the basest libel, the lowest and vilest slander which malice could invent or calumny exhibit, against the character
and reputation of your predecessor; of him for whom you professed a friendship and esteem, and whom you certainly knew incapable
of such complicated baseness. The remission of Callender's fine was a public approbation of his conduct. If abandoned characters
do not excite abhorrence, is not the last restraint of vice, a sense of shame, rendered abortive? If the chief magistrate
of a nation, whose elevated station places him in a conspicuous light and renders his every action a concern of general importance,
permits his public conduct to be influenced by private resentment, and so far forgets what is due to his character as to give
countenance to a base calumniator, is he not answerable for the influence which his example has upon the manners and morals
of the community?

Until I read Callender's seventh letter containing your compliment to him as a writer and your reward of $50, I could not
be made to believe that such measures could have been resorted to, to stab the fair fame and upright intentions of one who,
to use your own language, "was acting from an honest conviction in his own mind that he was right." This, sir, I considered
as a personal injury; this was the sword that cut asunder the Gordian knot, which could not be untied by all the efforts of
party spirit, by rivalry, by jealousy, or any other malignant fiend.

The serpent you cherished and warmed bit the hand that nourished him, and gave you sufficient specimens of his talents, his
gratitude, his justice, and his truth. When such vipers are let loose upon society, all distinction between virtue and vice
is leveled; all respect for character is lost in the deluge of calumny; that respect which is a necessary bond in the social
union, which gives efficacy to laws, and teaches the subject to obey the magistrate, and the child to submit to the parent.
. . .

This letter is written in confidence. Faithful are the wounds of a friend. Often have I wished to have seen a different course
pursued by you. I bear no malice. I cherish no enmity. I would not retaliate if it was in my power; nay, more, in the true
spirit of Christian charity, I would forgive as I hope to be forgiven.

Thomas Jefferson: The Education of Women

Although Jefferson spent much of his later life developing plans for an institution of higher education--they eventually culminated
in the University of Virginia--he did not consider systematic schooling for females in the same light as for males. Some of
his thoughts on the subject were expressed in a letter to a very close friend, Nathaniel Burwell, written March 14, 1818.

Your letter of February 17 found me suffering under an attack of rheumatism, which has but now left me at sufficient ease
to attend to the letters I have received. A plan of female education has never been a subject of systematic contemplation
with me. It has occupied my attention so far only as the education of my own daughters occasionally required. Considering
that they would be placed in a country situation, where little aid could be obtained from abroad, I thought it essential to
give them a solid education which might enable them, when [they] become mothers, to educate their own daughters, and even
to direct the course for sons, should their fathers be lost, or incapable, or inattentive. My surviving daughter accordingly,
the mother of many daughters as well as sons, has made their education the object of her life, and being a better judge of
the practical part than myself, it is with her aid and that of one of her élèves that I shall subjoin a catalogue of the books for such a course of reading as we have practised.

A great obstacle to good education is the inordinate passion prevalent for novels and the time lost in that reading which
should be instructively employed. When this poison infects the mind, it destroys its tone and revolts it against wholesome
reading. Reason and fact, plain and unadorned, are rejected. Nothing can engage attention unless dressed in all the figments
of fancy, and nothing so bedecked comes amiss. The result is a bloated imagination, sickly judgment, and disgust toward all
the real businesses of life. This mass of trash, however, is not without some distinction; some few, modeling their narratives,
although fictitious, on the incidents of real life, have been able to make them interesting and useful vehicles of a sound
morality. Such, I think, are Marmontel's new moral tales, but not his old ones, which are really immoral. Such are the writings
of Miss Edgeworth, and some of those of Madame Genlis. For a like reason, too, much poetry should not be indulged. Some is
useful for forming style and taste. Pope, Dryden, Thompson, Shakespeare, and of the French, Molière, Racine, the Corneilles,
may be read with pleasure and improvement.

The French language, become that of the general intercourse of nations, and from their extraordinary advances now the depository
of all science, is an indispensable part of education for both sexes. In the subjoined catalogue, therefore, I have placed
the books of both languages indifferently, according as the one or the other offers what is best.

The ornaments, too, and the amusements of life are entitled to their portion of attention. These, for a female, are dancing,
drawing, and music. The first is a healthy exercise, elegant and very attractive for young people. Every affectionate parent
would be pleased to see his daughter qualified to participate with her companions, and without awkwardness at least, in the
circles of festivity of which she occasionally becomes a part. It is a necessary accomplishment, therefore, although of short
use for the French rule is wise that no lady dances after marriage. This is founded in solid physical reasons, gestation and
nursing leaving little time to a married lady when this exercise can be either safe or innocent. Drawing is thought less of
in this country than in Europe. It is an innocent and engaging amusement, often useful, and a qualification not to be neglected
in one who is to become a mother and an instructor. Music is invaluable where a person has an ear. Where they have not, it
should not be attempted. It furnishes a delightful recreation for the hours of respite from the cares of the day, and lasts
us through life. The taste of this country, too, calls for this accomplishment more strongly than for either of the others.

I need say nothing of household economy, in which the mothers of our country are generally skilled, and generally careful
to instruct their daughters. We all know its value, and that diligence and dexterity in all its processes are inestimable
treasures. The order and economy of a house are as honorable to the mistress as those of the farm to the master, and if either
be neglected, ruin follows, and children destitute of the means of living.

This, sir, is offered as a summary sketch on a subject on which I have not thought much. It probably contains nothing but
what has already occurred to yourself, and claims your acceptance on no other ground than as a testimony of my respect for
your wishes, and of my great esteem and respect.

The Sentencing of Susan B. Anthony for the Crime of Voting

Susan B. Anthony's 1873 trial for voting is a bizarre incident in the history of woman suffrage. The trial judge had taken the decision out
of the hands of the jury, had pronounced her guilty, and had further denied the motion for a new trial. The entire trial is
recorded in History of Woman Suffrage.

The source of the following section of the trial is History of Woman Suffrage, Elizabeth C. Stanton et al., eds., vol. 2, 1882.

The Court: The prisoner will stand up. Has the prisoner anything to say why sentence shall not be pronounced?

Miss Anthony: Yes, your honor, I have many things to say; for in your ordered verdict of guilty, you have trampled underfoot
every vital principle of our government. My natural rights, my civil rights, my political rights, are all alike ignored. Robbed
of the fundamental privilege of citizenship, I am degraded from the status of a citizen to that of a subject; and not only
myself individually, but all of my sex, are, by your honor's verdict, doomed to political subjection under this so-called
Republican government.

Judge Hunt: The Court can not listen to a rehearsal of arguments the prisoner's counsel has already consumed three hours in
presenting.

Miss Anthony: May it please your honor, I am not arguing the question, I am simply stating the reasons why sentence can not,
in justice, be pronounced against me. Your denial of my citizen's right to vote is the denial of my right of consent as one
of the governed, the denial of my right of representation as one of the taxed, the denial of my right to a trial by a jury
of my peers as an offender against law, therefore, the denial of my sacred rights of life, liberty, property, and—

Judge Hunt: The Court can not allow the prisoner to go on.

Miss Anthony: But your honor will not deny me this one and only poor privilege of protest against this high-handed outrage
upon my citizen's rights. May it please the Court to remember that since the day of my arrest last November, this is the first
time that either myself or any person of my disfranchised class has been allowed a word of defense before judge or jury—

Judge Hunt: The prisoner must sit down; the Court can not allow it.

Miss Anthony: All my prosecutors, from the 8th Ward corner grocery politician, who entered the complaint, to the United States
Marshal, Commissioner, District Attorney, District Judge, your honor on the bench, not one is my peer, but each and all are
my political sovereigns; and had your honor submitted my case to the jury, as was clearly your duty, even then I should have
had just cause of protest, for not one of those men was my peer; but, native or foreign, white or black, rich or poor, educated
or ignorant, awake or asleep, sober or drunk, each and every man of them was my political superior; hence, in no sense, my
peer. Even, under such circumstances, a commoner of England, tried before a jury of lords, would have far less cause to complain
than should I, a woman, tried before a jury of men. Even my counsel, the Hon. Henry R. Selden, who has argued my cause so
ably, so earnestly, so unanswerably before your honor, is my political sovereign. Precisely as no disfranchised person is
entitled to sit upon a jury, and no woman is entitled to the franchise, so, none but a regularly admitted lawyer is allowed
to practice in the courts, and no woman can gain admission to the bar—hence, jury, judge, counsel, must all be of the superior
class.

Judge Hunt: The Court must insist—the prisoner has been tried according to the established forms of law.

Miss Anthony: Yes, your honor, but by forms of law all made by men, interpreted by men, administered by men, in favor of men,
and against women; and hence, your honor's ordered verdict of guilty, against a United States citizen for the exercise of
"that citizen's right to vote," simply because that citizen was a woman and not a man. But, yesterday, the same man-made forms
of law declared it a crime punishable with $1,000 fine and six months' imprisonment, for you, or me, or any of us, to give
a cup of cold water, a crust of bread, or a night's shelter to a panting fugitive as he was tracking his way to Canada. And
every man or woman in whose veins coursed a drop of human sympathy violated that wicked law, reckless of consequences, and
was justified in so doing. As then the slaves who got their freedom must take it over, or under, or through the unjust forms
of law, precisely so now must women, to get their right to a voice in this Government, take it; and I have taken mine, and
mean to take it at every possible opportunity.

Judge Hunt: The Court orders the prisoner to sit down. It will not allow another word.

Miss Anthony: When I was brought before your honor for trial, I hoped for a broad and liberal interpretation of the Constitution
and its recent amendments, that should declare all United States citizens under its protecting ægis—that should declare equality
of rights the national guarantee to all persons born or naturalized in the United States. But failing to get this justice—failing,
even, to get a trial by a jury not of my peers—I ask not leniency at your hands—but rather the full rigors of the law.

Judge Hunt: The Court must insist— (Here the prisoner sat down.)

Judge Hunt: The prisoner will stand up. (Here Miss Anthony arose again.) The sentence of the Court is that you pay a fine
of one hundred dollars and the costs of the prosecution.

Miss Anthony: May it please your honor, I shall never pay a dollar of your unjust penalty. All the stock in trade I possess
is a $10,000 debt, incurred by publishing my paper—The Revolution—four years ago, the sole object of which was to educate all women to do precisely as I have done, rebel against your man-made,
unjust, unconstitutional forms of law, that tax, fine, imprison, and hang women, while they deny them the right of representation
in the Government; and I shall work on with might and main to pay every dollar of that honest debt, but not a penny shall
go to this unjust claim. And I shall earnestly and persistently continue to urge all women to the practical recognition of
the old revolutionary maxim, that "Resistance to tyranny is obedience to God."

Judge Hunt: Madam, the Court will not order you committed until the fine is paid.

Maria Montessori: The Montessori Method

After becoming the first woman in Italy to earn a medical degree (1894), Maria Montessori worked at a psychiatric clinic, where she studied the developmental problems faced by mentally retarded children. She discovered
that learning for all children improved when sensory experiences were incorporated into their lessons. In 1907 she applied
her findings to Casa dei Bambini ("Children's House"), a school for poor children in Rome. The methods she instituted there
became the basis for Montessori schools that she helped establish in many parts of the world. Her schools continue to emphasize
tactile learning exercises, a self-directed pace, and activities that prepare young children for basic instruction in mathematics
and languages. In The Montessori Method, she explains why her teaching approach creates a more natural and effective means of learning.

The source of the following book chapter is The Montessori Method, Maria Montessori, trans. Anne E. George, 1912.

The Montessori Method: Chapter XIV

General Notes on the Education of the Senses

I DO not claim to have brought to perfection the method of sense training as applied to young children. I do believe, however,
that it opens a new field for psychological research, promising rich and valuable results.

Experimental psychology has so far devoted its attention to perfecting the instruments by which the sensations are measured. No one has attempted the methodical preparation of the individual for the sensations. It is my belief that the development of psychometry will owe more to the attention given to the preparation of the individual than to the perfecting of the instrument.

But putting aside this purely scientific side of the question, the education of the senses must be of the greatest pedagogical interest.

Our aim in education in general is two-fold, biological and social. From the biological side we wish to help the natural development
of the individual, from the social standpoint it is our aim to prepare the individual for the environment. Under this last
head technical education may be considered as having a place, since it teaches the individual to make use of his surroundings.
The education of the senses is most important from both these points of view. The development of the senses indeed precedes
that of superior intellectual activity and the child between three and seven years is in the period of formation.

We can, then, help the development of the senses while they are in this period. We may graduate and adapt the stimuli just
as, for example, it is necessary to help the formation of language before it shall be completely developed.

All education of little children must be governed by this principle—to help the natural psychic and physical development of the child.

The other aim of education (that of adapting the individual to the environment) should be given more attention later on when
the period of intense development is past.

These two phases of education are always interlaced, but one or the other has prevalence according to the age of the child.
Now, the period of life between the ages of three and seven years covers a period of rapid physical development. It is the
time for the formation of the sense activities as related to the intellect. The child in this age develops his senses. His
attention is further attracted to the environment under the form of passive curiosity.

The stimuli, and not yet the reasons for things, attract his attention. This is, therefore, the time when we should methodically
direct the sense stimuli, in such a way that the sensations which he receives shall develop in a rational way. This sense
training will prepare the ordered foundation upon which he may build up a clear and strong mentality.

It is, besides all this, possible with the education of the senses to discover and eventually to correct defects which to-day
pass unobserved in the school. Now the time comes when the defect manifests itself in an evident and irreparable inability
to make use of the forces of life about him. (Such defects as deafness and near-sightedness.) This education, therefore, is
physiological and prepares directly for intellectual education, perfecting the organs of sense, and the nerve-paths of projection
and association.

But the other part of education, the adaptation of the individual to his environment, is indirectly touched. We prepare with
our method the infancy of the humanity of our time. The men of the present civilisation are pre-eminently observers of their environment because they must utilise to the greatest
possible extent all the riches of this environment.

The art of to-day bases itself, as in the days of the Greeks, upon observation of the truth.

The progress of positive science is based upon its observations and all its discoveries and their applications, which in the
last century have so transformed our civic environment, were made by following the same line—that is, they have come through
observation. We must therefore prepare the new generation for this attitude, which has become necessary in our modern civilised
life. It is an indispensable means—man must be so armed if he is to continue efficaciously the work of our progress.

We have seen the discovery of the Roentgen Rays born of observation. To the same methods are due the discovery of Hertzian
waves, and vibrations of radium, and we await wonderful things from the Marconi telegraph. While there has been no period
in which thought has gained so much from positive study as the present century, and this same century promises new light in
the field of speculative philosophy and upon spiritual questions, the theories upon the matter have themselves led to most
interesting metaphysical concepts. We may say that in preparing the method of observation, we have also prepared the way leading
to spiritual discovery.

The education of the senses makes men observers, and not only accomplishes the general work of adaptation to the present epoch
of civilisation, but also prepares them directly for practical life. We have had up to the present time, I believe, a most
imperfect idea of what is necessary in the practical living of life. We have always started from ideas, and have proceeded thence to motor activities; thus, for example, the method of education has always been to teach intellectually, and then to have the child follow the
principles he has been taught. In general, when we are teaching, we talk about the object which interests us, and then we
try to lead the scholar, when he has understood, to perform some kind of work with the object itself; but often the scholar
who has understood the idea finds great difficulty in the execution of the work which we give him, because we have left out
of his education a factor of the utmost importance, namely, the perfecting of the senses. I may, perhaps, illustrate this
statement with a few examples. We ask the cook to buy only `fresh fish.' She understands the idea, and tries to follow it
in her marketing, but, if the cook has not been trained to recognise through sight and smell the signs which indicate freshness
in the fish, she will not know how to follow the order we have given her.

Such a lack will show itself much more plainly in culinary operations. A cook may be trained in book matters, and may know
exactly the recipes and the length of time advised in her cook book; she may be able to perform all the manipulations necessary
to give the desired appearance to the dishes, but when it is a question of deciding from the odor of the dish the exact moment
of its being properly cooked, or with the eye, or the taste, the time at which she must put in some given condiment, then
she will make a mistake if her senses have not been sufficiently prepared.

She can only gain such ability through long practice, and such practice on the part of the cook is nothing else than a belated education of the senses—an education which often can never be properly attained by the adult. This is one reason why it is so difficult
to find good cooks.

Something of the same kind is true of the physician, the student of medicine who studies theoretically the character of the
pulse, and sits down by the bed of the patient with the best will in the world to read the pulse, but, if his fingers do not
know how to read the sensations his studies will have been in vain. Before he can become a doctor, he must gain a capacity for discriminating between sense stimuli.

The same may be said for the pulsations of the heart, which the student studies in theory, but which the ear can learn to distinguish only through practice.

We may say the same for all the delicate vibrations and movements, in the reading of which the hand of the physician is too
often deficient. The thermometer is the more indispensable to the physician the more his sense of touch is unadapted and untrained
in the gathering of the thermic stimuli. It is well understood that the physician may be learned, and most intelligent, without
being a good practitioner, and that to make a good practitioner long practice is necessary. In reality, this long practice is nothing else than a tardy, and often inefficient, exercise of the senses. After he has assimilated the brilliant theories, the physician sees himself forced to the unpleasant labor
of the semiography, that is to making a record of the symptoms revealed by his observation of and experiments with the patients.
He must do this if he is to receive from these theories any practical results.

Here, then, we have the beginner proceeding in a stereotyped way to tests of palpation, percussion, and auscultation, for the purpose of identifying the throbs, the resonance, the tones, the breathings, and the
various sounds which alone can enable him to formulate a diagnosis. Hence the deep and unhappy discouragement of so many young physicians, and, above
all, the loss of time; for it is often a question of lost years. Then, there is the immorality of allowing a man to follow
a profession of so great responsibility, when, as is often the case, he is so unskilled and inaccurate in the taking of symptoms.
The whole art of medicine is based upon an education of the senses; the schools, instead, prepare physicians through a study of the classics. All very well and good, but the splendid intellectual development of the physician
falls, impotent, before the insufficiency of his senses.

One day, I heard a surgeon giving, to a number of poor mothers, a lesson on the recognition of the first deformities noticeable
in little children from the disease of rickets. It was his hope to lead these mothers to bring to him their children who were
suffering from this disease, while the disease was yet in the earliest stages, and when medical help might still be efficacious.
The mothers understood the idea, but they did not know how to recognise these first signs of deformity, because they were
lacking in the sensory education through which they might discriminate between signs deviating only slightly from the normal.

Therefore those lessons were useless. If we think of it for a minute, we will see that almost all the forms of adulteration
in food stuffs are rendered possible by the torpor of the senses, which exists in the greater number of people. Fraudulent
industry feeds upon the lack of sense education in the masses, as any kind of fraud is based upon the ignorance of the victim.
We often see the purchaser throwing himself upon the honesty of the merchant, or putting his faith in the company, or the
label upon the box. This is because purchasers are lacking in the capacity of judging directly for themselves. They do not
know how to distinguish with their senses the different qualities of various substances. In fact, we may say that in many
cases intelligence is rendered useless by lack of practice, and this practice is almost always sense education. Everyone knows
in practical life the fundamental necessity of judging with exactness between various stimuli.

But very often sense education is most difficult for the adult, just as it is difficult for him to educate his hand when he
wishes to become a pianist. It is necessary to begin the education of the senses in the formative period, if we wish to perfect
this sense development with the education which is to follow. The education of the senses should be begun methodically in
infancy, and should continue during the entire period of instruction which is to prepare the individual for life in society.

Æsthetic and moral education are closely related to this sensory education. Multiply the sensations, and develop the capacity
of appreciating fine differences in stimuli and we refine the sensibility and multiply man's pleasures.

Beauty lies in harmony, not in contrast; and harmony is refinement; therefore, there must be a fineness of the senses if we
are to appreciate harmony. The æsthetic harmony of nature is lost upon him who has coarse senses. The world to him is narrow
and barren. In life about us, there exist inexhaustible fonts of æsthetic enjoyment, before which men pass as insensible as
the brutes seeking their enjoyment in those sensations which are crude and showy, since they are the only ones accessible
to them.

Now, from the enjoyment of gross pleasures, vicious habits very often spring. Strong stimuli, indeed, do not render acute,
but blunt the senses, so that they require stimuli more and more accentuated and more and more gross.

Onanism, so often found among normal children of the lower classes, alcoholism, fondness for watching sensual acts of adults—these
things represent the enjoyment of those unfortunate ones whose intellectual pleasures are few, and whose senses are blunted
and dulled. Such pleasures kill the man within the individual, and call to life the beast.

Indeed from the physiological point of view, the importance of the education of the senses is evident from an observation
of the scheme of the diagrammatic arc which represents the functions of the nervous system. The external stimulus acts upon
the organ of sense, and the impression is transmitted along the centripetal way to the nerve centre—the corresponding motor
impulse is elaborated, and is transmitted along the centrifugal path to the organ of motion, provoking a movement. Although
the arc represents diagrammatically the mechanism of reflex spinal actions, it may still be considered as a fundamental key
explaining the phenomena of the more complex nervous mechanisms. Man, with the peripheral sensory system, gathers various
stimuli from his environment. He puts himself thus in direct communication with his surroundings. The psychic life develops,
therefore, in relation to the system of nerve centres; and human activity which is eminently social activity, manifests itself
through acts of the individual—manual work, writing, spoken language, etc.—by means of the psychomotor organs.

Education should guide and perfect the development of the three periods, the two peripheral and the central; or, better still,
since the process fundamentally reduces itself to the nerve centres, education should give to psychosensory exercises the
same importance which it gives to psychomotor exercises.

Otherwise, we isolate man from his environment. Indeed, when with intellectual culture we believe ourselves to have completed education, we have but made thinkers, whose tendency will be to live without the world.
We have not made practical men. If, on the other hand, wishing through education to prepare for practical life, we limit ourselves
to exercising the psychomotor phase, we lose sight of the chief end of education, which is to put man in direct communication
with the external world.

Since professional work almost always requires man to make use of his surroundings, the technical schools are not forced to return to the very beginnings of education, sense exercises, in order to supply
the great and universal lack.

Florence Nightingale: Notes on Nursing

During the Crimean War (1853–56), when Florence Nightingale and about three dozen trained nurses arrived in Scutari, near Constantinople (now Istanbul), British soldiers were seven
times more likely to die from contagious diseases (mainly cholera and typhoid) than from their wounds. Nightingale and her
nurses worked tirelessly to change those statistics. Upon her return to England, Nightingale took up the cause of sanitation
in military hospitals and aimed to change the nature of nursing. Writing in a clear and sensible voice, she summoned all her experience in her Notes on Nursing: What It Is, and What It Is Not, first published in 1859. This document was intended "simply to give hints for thought to women who have personal charge
of the health of others." She summarized the chief elements of nursing in chapters on ventilation and warming, health conditions
inside houses, petty management, food, beds and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, appropriate
conversation with patients, and observation of the sick. The text that follows is an excerpt from the book's conclusion.

The source of the following passage is an 1898 edition of Florence Nightingale's Notes on Nursing: What It Is, and What It Is Not.

Now for the caution:—

(3.) It seems a commonly received idea among men and even among women themselves that it requires nothing but a disappointment
in love, the want of an object, a general disgust, or incapacity for other things, to turn a woman into a good nurse.

This reminds one of the parish where a stupid old man was set to be schoolmaster because he was "past keeping the pigs."

Apply the above receipt for making a good nurse to making a good servant. And the receipt will be found to fail.

Yet popular novelists of recent days have invented ladies disappointed in love or fresh out of the drawing-room turning into
the war-hospitals to find their wounded lovers, and when found, forthwith abandoning their sick-ward for their lover, as might
be expected. Yet in the estimation of the authors, these ladies were none the worse for that, but on the contrary were heroines
of nursing.

What cruel mistakes are sometimes made by benevolent men and women in matters of business about which they can know nothing
and think they know a great deal.

The everyday management of a large ward, let alone of a hospital—the knowing what are the laws of life and death for men,
and what the laws of health for wards—(and wards are healthy or unhealthy, mainly according to the knowledge or ignorance
of the nurse)—are not these matters of sufficient importance and difficulty to require learning by experience and careful
inquiry, just as much as any other art? They do not come by inspiration to the lady disappointed in love, nor to the poor
workhouse drudge hard up for a livelihood.

And terrible is the injury which has followed to the sick from such wild notions!

In this respect (and why is it so?), in Roman Catholic countries, both writers and workers are, in theory at least, far before
ours. They would never think of such a beginning for a good working Superior or Sister of Charity. And many a Superior has
refused to admit a Postulant who appeared to have no better "vocation" or reasons for offering herself than these.

It is true we make "no vows." But is a "vow" necessary to convince us that the true spirit for learning any art, most especially an art
of charity, aright, is not a disgust to everything or something else? Do we really place the love of our kind (and of nursing,
as one branch of it) so low as this? What would the Mère Angélique of Port Royal, what would our own Mrs. Fry have said to
this?

NOTE.—I would earnestly ask my sisters to keep clear of both the jargons now current every where (for they are equally jargons); of the jargon, namely, about the "rights" of women, which urges women to do all that men do, including
the medical and other professions, merely because men do it, and without regard to whether this is the best that women, can do; and of the jargon which urges women to do nothing that men do, merely because they are women,
and should be "recalled to a sense of their duty as women," and because "this is women's work," and "that is men's," and "these
are things which women should not do," which is all assertion, and nothing more. Surely woman should bring the best she has,
whatever that is, to the work of God's world, without attending to either of these cries. For what are they, both of them, the one
just as much as the other, but listening to the "what people will say," to opinion, to the "voices from without?" And as a wise
man has said, no one has ever done anything great or useful by listening to the voices from without.

You do not want the effect of your good things to be, "How wonderful for a woman!" nor would you be deterred from good things by hearing it said, "Yes, but she ought not to have done this, because it is
not suitable for a woman." But you want to do the thing that is good, whether it is "suitable for a woman" or not.

It does not make a thing good, that it is remarkable that a woman should have been able to do it. Neither does it make a thing
bad, which would have been good had a man done it, that it has been done by a woman.

Oh, leave these jargons, and go your way straight to God's work, in simplicity and singleness of heart.

Emily Dickinson: Two Poems

Emily Dickinson is widely acclaimed as one of America's greatest poets. Though she wrote nearly 2,000 poems, only 7 were printed during her
lifetime, and those without her consent. Her poetic genius flowered during the Civil War; in 1862 alone, she produced some
360 poems. But she refused any publicity after a critic and friend, Thomas Higginson, advised her against publishing her works.
"Publication," she wrote, "is the auction of the mind." As one of her poems puts it: "How dreary to be somebody! / How public,
like a frog, / To tell your name the livelong day / To an admiring bog!" The following two poems were written in 1862.

I CANNOT LIVE WITH YOU

I cannot live with you,
It would be life,
And life is over there
Behind the shelf
The sexton keeps the key to,
Putting up
Our life, his porcelain,
Like a cup
Discarded of the housewife,
Quaint or broken;
A newer Sèvres pleases,
Old ones crack.
I could not die with you,
For one must wait
To shut the other's gaze down —
You could not.
And I, could I stand by
And see you freeze,
Without my right of frost,
Death's privilege?
Nor could I rise with you,
Because your face
Would put out Jesus',
That new grace
Glow plain and foreign
On my homesick eye,
Except that you, than he
Shone closer by.
They'd judge us — how?
For you served heaven, you know,
Or sought to;
I could not,
Because you saturated sight,
And I had no more eyes
For sordid excellence
As Paradise.
And were you lost, I would be,
Though my name
Rang loudest
On the heavenly fame.
And were you saved,
And I condemned to be
Where you were not,
That self were hell to me.
So we must keep apart,
You there, I here,
With just the door ajar
That oceans are,
And prayer,
And that pale sustenance,
Despair!

I LIKE TO SEE IT LAP THE MILES

I like to see it lap the miles,
And lick the valleys up,
And stop to feed itself at tanks;
And then, prodigious, step
Around a pile of mountains,
And, supercilious, peer
In shanties by the sides of roads;
And then a quarry pare
To fit its sides, and crawl between,
Complaining all the while
In horrid, hooting stanza;
Then chase itself down hill
And neigh like Boanerges;
Then, punctual as a star,
Stop — docile and omnipotent —
At its own stable door.

Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

Mary Wollstonecraft was 33 years old when she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, one of the first feminist tracts published. Unhappy with the position of women in society, she had long since determined
to make her own way in the world, unfettered by marriage vows. To some extent the Vindication was written in response to the many manuals of womanly behaviour then in circulation. In chapter 5 of this volume, titled
“Animadversions on Some of the Writers Who Have Rendered Women Objects of Pity, Bordering on Contempt,” Wollstonecraft takes
on the opinions of a number of 18th-century male writers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Fordyce, and John Gregory.
In the portion of that chapter that follows, Wollstonecraft criticizes Rousseau's failure to mention the education of women
in his classic 1762 treatise Emile; or, On Education.

The source of the following passage is A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects, Mary Wollstonecraft, 1792.

I now appeal from the reveries of fancy and refined licentiousness to the good sense of mankind, whether, if the object of
education be to prepare women to become chaste wives and sensible mothers, the method so plausibly recommended in the foregoing
sketch, be the one best calculated to produce those ends? Will it be allowed that the surest way to make a wife chaste, is
to teach her to practise the wanton arts of a mistress, termed virtuous coquetry by the sensualist who can no longer relish
the artless charms of sincerity, or taste the pleasure arising from a tender intimacy, when confidence is unchecked by suspicion,
and rendered interesting by sense?

The man who can be contented to live with a pretty useful companion without a mind, has lost in voluptuous gratifications
a taste for more refined enjoyments; he has never felt the calm satisfaction that refreshes the parched heart, like the silent
dew of heaven--of being beloved by one who could understand him. In the society of his wife he is still alone, unless when
the man is sunk in the brute. "The charm of life," says a grave philosophical reasoner, is "sympathy; nothing pleases us more
than to observe in other men a fellow-feeling with all the emotions of our own breast."

But, according to the tenor of reasoning by which women are kept from the tree of knowledge, the important years of youth,
the usefulness of age, and the rational hopes of futurity, are all to be sacrificed, to render woman an object of desire for
a short time. Besides, how could Rousseau expect them to be virtuous and constant when reason is neither allowed to be the
foundation of their virtue, nor truth the object of their inquiries?

But all Rousseau's errors in reasoning arose from sensibility, and sensibility to their charms women are very ready to forgive!
When he should have reasoned he became impassioned, and reflection inflamed his imagination, instead of enlightening his understanding.
Even his virtues also led him farther astray; for, born with a warm constitution and lively fancy, nature carried him toward
the other sex with such eager fondness, that he soon became lascivious. Had he given way to these desires, the fire would
have extinguished itself in a natural manner, but virtue, and a romantic kind of delicacy, made him practise self-denial;
yet, when fear, delicacy, or virtue restrained him, he debauched his imagination; and reflecting on the sensations to which
fancy gave force, he traced them in the most glowing colours, and sunk them deep into his soul.

He then sought for solitude, not to sleep with the man of nature; or calmly investigate the causes of things under the shade
where Sir Isaac Newton indulged contemplation, but merely to indulge his feelings. And so warmly has he painted what he forcibly
felt, that, interesting the heart and inflaming the imagination of his readers; in proportion to the strength of their fancy,
they imagine that their understanding is convinced, when they only sympathize with a poetic writer, who skilfully exhibits
the objects of sense, most voluptuously shadowed, or gracefully veiled; and thus making us feel, whilst dreaming that we reason,
erroneous conclusions are left in the mind.

Why was Rousseau's life divided between ecstasy and misery? Can any other answer be given than this, that the effervescence
of his imagination produced both; but, had his fancy been allowed to cool, it is possible that he might have acquired more
strength of mind. Still, if the purpose of life be to educate the intellectual part of man, all with respect to him was right;
yet, had not death led to a nobler scene of action, it is probable that he would have enjoyed more equal happiness on earth,
and have felt the calm sensations of the man of nature, instead of being prepared for another stage of existence by nourishing
the passions which agitate the civilized man.

But peace to his manes! I war not with his ashes, but his opinions. I war only with the sensibility that led him to degrade
woman by making her the slave of love.

. . . . "Curs'd vassalage,
First idoliz'd till love's hot fire be o'er,
Then slaves to those who courted us before."
Dryden.

The pernicious tendency of those books, in which the writers insidiously degrade the sex, whilst they are prostrate before
their personal charms, cannot be too often or too severely exposed.

Let us, my dear contemporaries, arise above such narrow prejudices! If wisdom is desirable on its own account, if virtue,
to deserve the name, must be founded on knowledge; let us endeavour to strengthen our minds by reflection, till our heads
become a balance for our hearts; let us not confine all our thoughts to the petty occurrences of the day, nor our knowledge
to an acquaintance with our lovers' or husbands' hearts; but let the practice of every duty be subordinate to the grand one
of improving our minds, and preparing our affections for a more exalted state!

Beware then, my friends, of suffering the heart to be moved by every trivial incident: the reed is shaken by a breeze, and
annually dies, but the oak stands firm, and for ages braves the storm.

Were we, indeed, only created to flutter our hour out and die--why let us then indulge sensibility, and laugh at the severity
of reason. Yet, alas! even then we should want strength of body and mind, and life would be lost in feverish pleasures or
wearisome languor.

But the system of education, which I earnestly wish to see exploded, seems to presuppose, what ought never to be taken for
granted, that virtue shields us from the casualties of life; and that fortune, slipping off her bandage, will smile on a well-educated
female, and bring in her hand an Emilius or a Telemachus. Whilst, on the contrary, the reward which virtue promises to her
votaries is confined, it is clear, to their own bosoms; and often must they contend with the most vexatious worldly cares,
and bear with the vices and humours of relations for whom they can never feel a friendship.

There have been many women in the world who, instead of being supported by the reason and virtue of their fathers and brothers,
have strengthened their own minds by struggling with their vices and follies; yet have never met with a hero, in the shape
of a husband; who, paying the debt that mankind owed them, might chance to bring back their reason to its natural dependent
state, and restore the usurped prerogative, of rising above opinion, to man.

Few attacks upon slavery were as effective as Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. First written as a serial for the abolitionist journal National Era beginning in 1851, it appeared in book form in 1852. It was an immediate and enduring success, selling 300,000 copies during
the first year and nearly 3,000,000 since. The portrayal of Uncle Tom, the first African American fictional hero created by
an American author, elicited much sympathy for the plight of the slave. Southerners, challenging the book's authenticity,
wrote seething denunciations; it was a “criminal prostitution,” according to a critic in the Southern Literary Messenger, “of the high functions of the imagination.” Mrs. Stowe attempted to silence this criticism with a sequel, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853), documenting the characters and events.

Long after dusk, the whole weary train, with their baskets on their heads, defiled up to the building appropriated to the
storing and weighing the cotton. Legree was there, busily conversing with the two drivers.

“Dat ar Tom's gwine to make a powerful deal o' trouble; kept a puttin' into Lucy's basket. One o' these yer dat will get all
der niggers to feelin' ‘bused if Mas'r don't watch him!” said Sambo.

“Hey-dey! The black cuss!” said Legree. “He'll have to get a breakin' in, won't he, boys?” Both Negroes grinned a horrid grin
at this intimation.

“Well, Mas'r knows she sot herself up agin Mas'r, and wouldn't have me, when he telled her to.”

“I'd a flogged her into ‘t,” said Legree, spitting, “only there's such a press o' work, it don't seem wuth a while to upset
her jist now. She's slender; but these yer slender gals will bear half killin' to get their own way!”

“Wal, Lucy was real aggravatin' and lazy, sulkin' round; wouldn't do nothin'—and Tom he tuck up for her.”

“He did, eh! Wal, then, Tom shall have the pleasure of flogging her. It'll be a good practice for him, and he won't put it
on to the gal like you devils, neither.”

“Ho, ho! haw! haw! haw!” laughed both the sooty wretches; and the diabolical sounds seemed, in truth, a not unapt expression
of the fiendish character which Legree gave them.

The person who had been called Misse Cassy now came forward and, with a haughty, negligent air, delivered her basket. As she
delivered it, Legree looked in her eyes with a sneering yet inquiring glance.

She fixed her black eyes steadily on him, her lips moved slightly, and she said something in French. What it was, no one knew,
but Legree's face became perfectly demoniacal in its expression as she spoke; he half raised his hand as if to strike—a gesture
which she regarded with fierce disdain as she turned and walked away.

“And now,” said Legree, “come here, you Tom. You see I telled ye I didn't buy ye jest for the common work; I mean to promote
ye and make a driver of ye; and tonight ye may jest as well begin to get yer hand in. Now, ye jest take this yer gal and flog
her; ye've seen enough on't to know how.”

“I beg Mas'r's pardon,” said Tom, “hopes Mas'r won't set me at that. It's what I an't used to—never did—and can't do, no way
possible.”

“Ye'll larn a pretty smart chance of things ye never did know before I've done with ye!” said Legree, taking up a cowhide
and striking Tom a heavy blow across the cheek, and following up the infliction by a shower of blows.

“There!” he said, as he stopped to rest, “now will ye tell me ye can't do it?”

“Yes, Mas'r,” said Tom, putting up his hand to wipe the blood that trickled down his face. “I'm willin' to work night and
day, and work while there's life and breath in me; but this yer thing I can't feel it right to do; and, Mas'r, I never shall do it—never!”

Tom had a remarkably smooth, soft voice, and a habitually respectful manner that had given Legree an idea that he would be
cowardly and easily subdued. When he spoke these last words, a thrill of amazement went through everyone; the poor woman clasped
her hands and said, “O Lord!” and everyone involuntarily looked at each other and drew in their breath, as if to prepare for
the storm that was about to burst.

Legree looked stupefied and confounded; but at last burst forth—

“What! ye blasted black beast! tell me ye don't think it right to do what I tell ye! What have any of you cussed cattle to do with thinking what's right? I'll put a stop to it! Why, what
do ye think ye are? May be ye think ye're a gentleman, master Tom, to be a telling your master what's right and what an't!
So you pretend it's wrong to flog the gal!”

“I think so, Mas'r,” said Tom, “the poor crittur's sick and feeble; ‘t would be downright cruel, and it's what I never will
do, not begin to. Mas'r, if you mean to kill me, kill me; but as to my raising my hand agin anyone here, I never shall—I'll
die first!”

Tom spoke in a mild voice but with a decision that could not be mistaken. Legree shook with anger; his greenish eyes glared
fiercely and his very whiskers seemed to curl with passion; but, like some ferocious beast that plays with its victim before
he devours it, he kept back his strong impulse to proceed to immediate violence and broke out into bitter raillery.

“Well, here's a pious dog, at last, let down among us sinners!—a saint, a gentleman, and no less, to talk to us sinners about
our sins! Powerful, holy crittur, he must be! Here, you rascal, you make believe to be so pious—didn't you never hear out
of yer Bible, ‘Servants, obey yer masters'? An't I yer master? Didn't I pay down $1,200 cash for all there is inside yer old
cussed black shell? An't yer mine, now, body and soul?” he said, giving Tom a violent kick with his heavy boot. “Tell me!”

In the very depth of physical suffering, bowed by brutal oppression, this question shot a gleam of joy and triumph through
Tom's soul. He suddenly stretched himself up, and, looking earnestly to heaven, while the tears and blood that flowed down
his face mingled, he exclaimed—

“No! no! no! my soul an't yours, Mas'r! You haven't bought it—ye can't buy it! It's been bought and paid for by one that is
able to keep it—no matter, no matter, you can't harm me!”

“I can't!” said Legree, with a sneer, “we'll see—we'll see! Here, Sambo, Quimbo, give this dog such a breakin' in as he won't
get over this month!”

The two gigantic Negroes that now laid hold of Tom, with fiendish exultation in their faces, might have formed no unapt personification
of the powers of darkness. The poor woman screamed with apprehension and all arose as by a general impulse while they dragged
him unresisting from the place.

Source: Uncle Tom's Cabin, Boston, 1883, pp. 419–423.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton: The Solitude of Self

On January 17, 1892, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Isabella Beecher Hooker appeared to plead their cause before the Judiciary Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives. According to the report
of the Washington Star, “The new members of the committee were apparently surprised at receiving such a talk from a woman and there was the most marked
attention on the part of every one present. Their surprise was still greater when they found that Mrs. Stanton was not a phenomenal
exception, but that every woman there could make an argument which would do credit to the best of public men.” Whether arrogance
or ignorance caused that amazement is beside the point. What follows is a section of Stanton's remarks to the committee.

The source of the following speech is History of Woman Suffrage, Elizabeth C. Stanton et al., eds., vol. 4, 1902.

The point I wish plainly to bring before you on this occasion is the individuality of each human soul--our Protestant idea,
the right of individual conscience and judgment--our republican idea, individual citizenship. In discussing the rights of
woman, we are to consider, first, what belongs to her as an individual, in a world of her own, the arbiter of her own destiny,
an imaginary Robinson Crusoe with her woman Friday on a solitary island. Her rights under such circumstances are to use all
her faculties for her own safety and happiness.

Secondly, if we consider her as a citizen, as a member of a great nation, she must have the same rights as all other members,
according to the fundamental principles of our Government.

Thirdly, viewed as a woman, an equal factor in civilization, her rights and duties are still the same--individual happiness
and development.

Fourthly, it is only the incidental relations of life, such as mother, wife, sister, daughter, which may involve some special
duties and training. In the usual discussion in regard to woman's sphere, such men as Herbert Spencer, Frederick Harrison
and Grant Allen uniformly subordinate her rights and duties as an individual, as a citizen, as a woman, to the necessities
of these incidental relations, some of which a large class of women never assume. In discussing the sphere of man we do not
decide his rights as an individual, as a citizen, as a man, by his duties as a father, a husband, a brother or a son, some
of which he may never undertake. Moreover he would be better fitted for these very relations, and whatever special work he
might choose to do to earn his bread, by the complete development of all his faculties as an individual. Just so with woman.
The education which will fit her to discharge the duties in the largest sphere of human usefulness, will best fit her for
whatever special work she may be compelled to do.

The isolation of every human soul and the necessity of self-dependence must give each individual the right to choose his own
surroundings. The strongest reason for giving woman all the opportunities for higher education, for the full development of
her faculties, her forces of mind and body; for giving her the most enlarged freedom of thought and action; a complete emancipation
from all forms of bondage, of custom, dependence, superstition; from all the crippling influences of fear--is the solitude
and personal responsibility of her own individual life. The strongest reason why we ask for woman a voice in the government
under which she lives; in the religion she is asked to believe; equality in social life, where she is the chief factor; a
place in the trades and professions, where she may earn her bread, is because of her birthright to self-sovereignty; because,
as an individual, she must rely on herself. . . .

To throw obstacles in the way of a complete education is like putting out the eyes; to deny the rights of property is like
cutting off the hands. To refuse political equality is to rob the ostracized of all self-respect, of credit in the market
place, of recompense in the world of work, of a voice in choosing those who make and administer the law, a choice in the jury
before whom they are tried, and in the judge who decides their punishment. Shakespeare's play of Titus and Andronicus contains
a terrible satire on woman's position in the nineteenth century--"Rude men seized the king's daughter, cut out her tongue,
cut off her hands, and then bade her go call for water and wash her hands." What a picture of woman's position! Robbed of
her natural rights, handicapped by law and custom at every turn, yet compelled to fight her own battles, and in the emergencies
of life to fall back on herself for protection. . . .

How the little courtesies of life on the surface of society, deemed so important from man towards woman, fade into utter insignificance
in view of the deeper tragedies in which she must play her part alone, where no human aid is possible!

Nothing strengthens the judgment and quickens the conscience like individual responsibility. Nothing adds such dignity to
character as the recognition of one's self-sovereignty; the right to an equal place, everywhere conceded--a place earned by
personal merit, not an artificial attainment by inheritance, wealth, family and position. Conceding then that the responsibilities
of life rest equally on man and woman, that their destiny is the same, they need the same preparation for time and eternity.
The talk of sheltering woman from the fierce storms of life is the sheerest mockery, for they beat on her from every point
of the compass, just as they do on man, and with more fatal results, for he has been trained to protect himself, to resist,
to conquer. . . .

In music women speak again the language of Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, and are worthy interpreters of their
great thoughts. The poetry and novels of the century are theirs, and they have touched the keynote of reform in religion,
politics and social life. They fill the editor's and professor's chair, plead at the bar of justice, walk the wards of the
hospital, speak from the pulpit and the platform. Such is the type of womanhood that an enlightened public sentiment welcomes
to-day, and such the triumph of the facts of life over the false theories of the past.

Is it, then, consistent to hold the developed woman of this day within the same narrow political limits as the dame with the
spinning wheel and knitting needle occupied in the past? No, no! Machinery has taken the labors of woman as well as man on
its tireless shoulders; the loom and the spinning wheel are but dreams of the past; the pen, the brush, the easel, the chisel,
have taken their places, while the hopes and ambitions of women are essentially changed.

We see reason sufficient in the outer conditions of human beings for individual liberty and development, but when we consider
the self-dependence of every human soul, we see the need of courage, judgment and the exercise of every faculty of mind and
body, strengthened and developed by use, in woman as well as man. . . .

In the twenty years after 1885 there were more lynchings in the United States than legal executions. The great majority of
victims were African Americans, who, after a brief period of political power in the South during Reconstruction, by the turn
of the twentieth century had been disfranchised and deprived of work and educational opportunities. Lynching and discrimination
were a national, rather than a particularly Southern, problem, however. Neither federal nor state governments took any effective
action to combat lynchings. But the issue was brought before the public by African American spokesmen, foremost of whom was
journalist Ida B. Wells-Barnett, head of the antilynch crusade, who lectured throughout the United States and Europe on the
subject for several years. In the following article published in 1901, she attacks the premise that lynching was merely an
extralegal means of securing justice.

It was eminently befitting that the Independent"s first number in the new century should contain a strong protest against lynching. The deepest dyed infamy of the 19th century
was that which, in its supreme contempt for law, defied all constitutional guarantees of citizenship, and during the last
fifteen years of the century put to death 2,000 men, women, and children by shooting, hanging, and burning alive. Well would
it have been if every preacher in every pulpit in the land had made so earnest a plea as that which came from Miss Addams"
forceful pen.

Appreciating the helpful influences of such a dispassionate and logical argument as that made by the writer referred to, I
earnestly desire to say nothing to lessen the force of the appeal. At the same time, an unfortunate presumption used as a
basis for her argument works so serious, though doubtless unintentional, an injury to the memory of thousands of victims of
mob law that it is only fair to call attention to this phase of the writer"s plea. It is unspeakably infamous to put thousands
of people to death without a trial by jury; it adds to that infamy to charge that these victims were moral monsters, when,
in fact, four-fifths of them were not so accused even by the fiends who murdered them.

Almost at the beginning of her discussion, the distinguished writer says: “Let us assume that the Southern citizens who take
part in and abet the lynching of Negroes honestly believe that that is the only successful method of dealing with a certain
class of crimes.”

It is this assumption, this absolutely unwarrantable assumption, that vitiates every suggestion which it inspires Miss Addams
to make. It is the same baseless assumption which influences ninety-nine out of every one hundred persons who discuss this
question. Among many thousand editorial clippings I have received in the past five years, 99 percent discuss the question
upon the presumption that lynchings are the desperate effort of the Southern people to protect their women from black monsters,
and, while the large majority condemn lynching, the condemnation is tempered with a plea for the lyncher—that human nature
gives way under such awful provocation and that the mob, insane for the moment, must be pitied as well as condemned. It is
strange that an intelligent, law-abiding, and fairminded people should so persistently shut their eyes to the facts in the
discussion of what the civilized world now concedes to be America"s national crime.

This almost universal tendency to accept as true the slander which the lynchers offer to civilization as an excuse for their
crime might be explained if the true facts were difficult to obtain; but not the slightest difficulty intervenes. The Associated
Press dispatches, the press clipping bureau, frequent book publications, and the annual summary of a number of influential
journals give the lynching record every year. This record, easily within the reach of everyone who wants it, makes inexcusable
the statement and cruelly unwarranted the assumption that Negroes are lynched only because of their assaults upon womanhood.

For an example in point: For fifteen years past, on the first day of each year, the Chicago Tribune has given to the public a carefully compiled record of all the lynchings of the previous year. Space will not permit a résumé
of these fifteen years, but as fairly representing the entire time, I desire to briefly tabulate here the record of the five
years last past. The statistics of the ten years preceding do not vary; they simply emphasize the record here presented.

The record gives the name and nationality of the man or woman lynched, the alleged crime, the time and place of the lynching.
With this is given a résumé of the offenses charged, with the number of persons lynched for the offenses named. That enables
the reader to see at a glance the causes assigned for the lynchings, and leaves nothing to be assumed. The lynchers, at the
time and place of the lynching, are the best authority for the causes which actuate them. Every presumption is in favor of
this record, especially as it remains absolutely unimpeached. This record gives the following statement of the colored persons
lynched and the causes of the lynchings for the years named.

With this record in view, there should be no difficulty in ascertaining the alleged offenses given as justification for lynchings
during the last five years. If the Southern citizens lynch Negroes because “that is the only successful method of dealing
with a certain class of crimes,” then that class of crimes should be shown unmistakably by this record. Now consider the record.

It would be supposed that the record would show that all, or nearly all, lynchings were caused by outrageous assaults upon
women; certainly that this particular offense would outnumber all other causes for putting human beings to death without a
trial by jury and the other safeguards of our Constitution and laws.

But the record makes no such disclosure. Instead, it shows that five women have been lynched, put to death with unspeakable
savagery, during the past five years. They certainly were not under the ban of the outlawing crime. It shows that men, not
a few but hundreds, have been lynched for misdemeanors, while others have suffered death for no offense known to the law,
the causes assigned being “mistaken identity,” “insult,” “bad reputation,” “unpopularity,” “violating contract,” “running
quarantine,” “giving evidence,” “frightening child by shooting at rabbits,” etc. Then, strangest of all, the record shows
that the sum total of lynchings for these offenses—not crimes—and for the alleged offenses which are only misdemeanors greatly
exceeds the lynchings for the very crime universally declared to be the cause of lynching.

A careful classification of the offenses which have caused lynchings during the past five years shows that contempt for law
and race prejudice constitute the real cause of all lynching. During the past five years, 147 white persons were lynched.
It may be argued that fear of the “law"s delays” was the cause of their being lynched. But this is not true. Not a single
white victim of the mob was wealthy or had friends or influence to cause a miscarriage of justice. There was no such possibility;
it was contempt for law which incited the mob to put so many white men to death without a complaint under oath, much less
a trial.

In the case of the Negroes lynched, the mobs" incentive was race prejudice. Few white men were lynched for any such trivial
offenses as are detailed in the causes for lynching colored men. Negroes are lynched for “violating contracts,” “unpopularity,”
“testifying in court,” and “shooting at rabbits.” As only Negroes are lynched for “no offense,” “unknown offenses,” offenses
not criminal, misdemeanors, and crimes not capital, it must be admitted that the real cause of lynching in all such cases
is race prejudice, and should be so classified.

Grouping these lynchings under that classification and excluding rape, which in some states is made a capital offense, the
record for the five years, so far as the Negro is concerned, reads as follows:

This table tells its own story and shows how false is the excuse which lynchers offer to justify their fiendishness. Instead
of being the sole cause of lynching, the crime upon which lynchers build their defense furnishes the least victims for the
mob. In 1896 less than 39 percent of the Negroes lynched were charged with this crime; in 1897, less than 18 percent; in 1898,
less than 16 percent; in 1899, less than 14 percent; and in 1900, less than 15 percent were so charged.

No good result can come from any investigation which refuses to consider the facts. A conclusion that is based upon a presumption
instead of the best evidence is unworthy of a moment"s consideration. The lynching record, as it is compiled from day to day
by unbiased, reliable, and responsible public journals, should be the basis of every investigation which seeks to discover
the cause and suggest the remedy for lynching. The excuses of lynchers and the specious pleas of their apologists should be
considered in the light of the record, which they invariably misrepresent or ignore.

The Christian and moral forces of the nation should insist that misrepresentation should have no place in the discussion of
this all important question, that the figures of the lynching record should be allowed to plead, trumpet-tongued, in defense
of the slandered dead, that the silence of concession be broken, and that truth, swift-winged and courageous, summon this
nation to do its duty to exalt justice and preserve inviolate the sacredness of human life.

Related resources for this article

Introduction

In celebration of the vast and varied contributions that women have made to society, Britannica highlights more than 500 women whose actions and ideas influenced history. The lists below provide links to biographies about women known for their accomplishments in seven fields.

Activists profiles women who made their mark working on behalf of a cause or issue, including in movements to grant the vote and other rights to women, to abolish slavery, to secure civil rights for African Americans, to promote peace, and to improve the lot of workers, immigrants, the poor, prisoners, and the mentally ill.

Artists includes a selection of woman painters, sculptors, and photographers.

Leaders

The links below to biographies of woman leaders are grouped into two sections. The section Presidents, Prime Ministers, Queens, and Empresses covers female heads of state and government, and the section Other Leaders includes supreme court justices, members of congress, cabinet members and leaders in business, religion, and other fields.

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