Contents

The main focus of Death of Sardanapalus is a large bed draped in rich red fabric. On it lies a man overseeing a scene of chaos with a disinterested eye. He is dressed in flowing white fabrics and sumptuous gold around his neck and head. A woman lies dead at his feet, prone across the lower half of the large bed. She is one of five or six in the scene, all in various shades of undress, and all in assorted throes of death by the hands of the half dozen men in the scene. There are several people being stabbed with knives and one man is dying from a self-inflicted wound from a sword, and a man in the left foreground is attempting to kill an intricately adorned horse. A young man by the king’s right elbow is standing behind a side table which has an elaborate golden decanter and a cup. There are golden elephant heads at the base of the bed, as well as various valuable trinkets scattered amongst the carnage. In the background, several architectural elements are visible but difficult to discern.

Delacroix used a painterly brushstroke in this painting, which allows for a strong sense of movement in the work. This scene is chaotic and violent, as showcased by the movement, weapons, and the colors used. The redness of the bed stands out against the somewhat obscured, dark background. The whiteness of Sardanapalus’s robe, the creamy lines of the dying women’s limbs, and the shimmers of gold objects throughout the scene pull the viewer’s eye quickly around the painting.

There is asymmetry in the work, but the composition remains balanced. One woman reclined by an elephant head on the end of the bed is the only figure to engage with the viewer. Everyone else in the painting is focused on the task at hand: death.

Delacroix’s Death of Sardanapalus was controversial and polarizing at its exhibition at the Paris Salon of 1828 for one significant reason: it was not a Neoclassical painting. Delacroix’s main figural subject was Sardanapalus, a king willing to destroy all of his possessions, including people and luxurious goods, in a funerary pyre of gore and excess.[3] This man was not a hero, like the Horatii in Jacques-Louis David’s painting. Delacroix’s Sardanapalus was the antithesis of neoclassical traditions, which favored subdued colors, rigid space, and an overall moral subject matter. He also used foreshortening to tilt the death scene directly into the space of the audience, a far cry from the subdued order of traditional academic paintings. Dorothy Bussy quotes one critic of the work as calling the painting "the fanaticism of ugliness" when it appeared in the Salon in 1828.[4]

1.
Oil painting
–
Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium, the oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages, Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. In recent years, water miscible oil paint has come to prominence and, to some extent, water-soluble paints contain an emulsifier that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows very fast drying times when compared with traditional oils. Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint, Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. A basic rule of oil paint application is fat over lean and this means that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the painting will crack. This rule does not ensure permanence, it is the quality and type of oil leads to a strong. There are many media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was transferred to the surface using paintbrushes. Oil paint remains wet longer than other types of artists materials, enabling the artist to change the color. At times, the painter might even remove a layer of paint. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year, art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old

2.
Louvre
–
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property

3.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin, the various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor and decorative arts. The attendance figure for the museum was 751,797 in 2015, the museum is also one of the largest art museums in the world based on gallery space. The museum also administers the historic houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove. The museum and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia, as of 2017, the standard adult admission price is $20 which allows entrance to the main building and all annexes for two consecutive days. The museum is closed on Mondays except on some holidays, several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. Special exhibitions may have a charge for entrance. Philadelphia celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence with the 1876 Centennial Exposition and its art building, Memorial Hall, was intended to outlast the Exhibition and house a permanent museum. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art opened on May 10,1877 and its permanent collection began with objects from the Exhibition and gifts from the public impressed with the Exhibitions ideals of good design and craftsmanship. European and Japanese fine and decorative art objects and books for the Museums library were among the first donations, the location outside of Center City, however, was fairly distant from many of the citys inhabitants. Admission was charged until 1881, then was dropped until 1962, starting in 1882, Clara Jessup Moore donated a remarkable collection of antique furniture, enamels, carved ivory, jewelry, metalwork, glass, ceramics, books, textiles and paintings. The Countess de Brazzas lace collection was acquired in 1894 forming the nucleus of the lace collection, in 1893 Anna H. Wilstach bequeathed a large painting collection, including many American paintings, and an endowment of half a million dollars for additional purchases. Works by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and George Inness were purchased within a few years, in the early 1900s, the Museum started an education program for the general public, as well as a membership program. Fiske Kimball was the director during the rapid growth of the 1920s. After World War II the collections grew with gifts, such as the John D. McIlhenny, early modern art dominated the growth of the collections in the 1950s, with acquisitions of the Louise and Walter Arensberg and the A. E. Gallatin collections. The gift of Philadelphian Grace Kellys wedding dress is perhaps the best known gift of the 1950s, extensive renovation of the building lasted from the 1960s through 1976. Major acquisitions included the Carroll S. Tyson, Jr. and Samuel S. White III and Vera White collections,71 objects from designer Elsa Schiaparelli, in 1976 there were celebrations and special exhibitions for the centennial of the Museum and the bicentennial of the nation

4.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

5.
Philadelphia
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland

6.
Canvas
–
Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso

7.
Sardanapalus
–
Sardanapalus was, according to the Greek writer Ctesias, the last king of Assyria, although in actuality Ashur-uballit II holds that distinction. Ctesias book Persica is lost, but we know of its contents by later compilations, in this account, Sardanapalus, supposed to have lived in the 7th century BC, is portrayed as a decadent figure who spends his life in self-indulgence and dies in an orgy of destruction. The legendary decadence of Sardanapalus later became a theme in literature and art, Diodorus says that Sardanapalus, son of Anakyndaraxes, exceeded all previous rulers in sloth and luxury. He spent his life in self-indulgence. He dressed in clothes and wore make-up. He had many concubines, female and male and he wrote his own epitaph, which stated that physical gratification is the only purpose of life. His lifestyle caused dissatisfaction within the Assyrian empire, allowing a conspiracy against him to develop led by Arbaces, an alliance of Medes, Persians and Babylonians challenged the Assyrians. Sardanapalus stirred himself to action and routed the rebels several times in battle, believing he had defeated the rebels, Sardanapalus returned to his decadent lifestyle, ordering sacrifices and celebrations. But the rebels were reinforced by new troops from Bactria, sardanapaluss troops were surprised during their partying, and were routed. Sardanapalus returned to Nineveh to defend his capital, while his army was placed under the command of his brother-in-law, having sent his family to safety, Sardanapalus prepared to hold Nineveh. He managed to withstand a siege, but eventually heavy rains caused the Tigris to overflow. To avoid falling into the hand of his enemies, Sardanapalus had a funeral pyre created for himself on which were piled all his gold, silver. He had his eunuchs and concubines boxed in inside the pyre, burning himself, the Greek writer Choerilus of Iasus composed an epitaph on Sardanapalus, which he claimed to have been translated from the Chaldean. There is no king named Sardanapalus attested in the Assyrian King List, there is no evidence from Mesopotamia that either Ashurbanipal or Shamash-shum-ukin led hedonistic lifestyles, were homosexual or transvestites. It was Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylon who was besieged and defeated, and his allies crushed, after the formers defeat in 648 BC, an inscription of Ashurbanipals records, they threw down Shamash-shum-ukkin, enemy brother who attacked me, into the raging conflagration. The actual Fall of Nineveh occurred in 612 BC after Assyria had been weakened by a bitter series of internal civil wars between rival claimants to the throne. Its former subjects took advantage of these events and freed themselves from the Assyrian yoke, Assyria was attacked in 616 BC by allied forces of Medes, Scythians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Cimmerians and Elamites. Nineveh was besieged and sacked in 612 BC, Ashurbanipals son Sin-shar-ishkun was then ruling as king of Assyria

8.
Assyria
–
Assyria was a major Mesopotamian East Semitic-speaking kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant. Centered on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia, the Assyrians came to rule powerful empires at several times. Assyria is named after its capital, the ancient city of Aššur. In the 25th and 24th centuries BC, Assyrian kings were pastoral leaders, Assyria can also refer to the geographic region or heartland where Assyria, its empires and the Assyrian people were centered. The indigenous modern Eastern Aramaic-speaking Assyrian Christian ethnic minority in northern Iraq, north east Syria, southeast Turkey, in prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo culture c.7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, during the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian, and vice versa, is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a scale, to syntactic, morphological. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium BC as a sprachbund and it is highly likely that the city was named in honour of its patron Assyrian god with the same name. The city of Aššur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, however it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centres. In the late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant Sumerian ruler in Mesopotamia, similarly, in c. the early 25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is known, in the Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. According to Georges Roux he would have lived in the mid 25th century BC, Tudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu, the first known reference to the Semitic name Adam and then a further thirteen rulers. The earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who are recorded as kings who lived in tents, were independent semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers and these kings at some point became fully urbanised and founded the city state of Ashur in the mid 21st century BC. During the Akkadian Empire, the Assyrians, like all the Mesopotamian Semites, became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad, the Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great claimed to encompass the surrounding four quarters. Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Ashur became an administrative center of the Empire. On those tablets, Assyrian traders in Burushanda implored the help of their ruler, Sargon the Great, the name Hatti itself even appears in later accounts of his grandson, Naram-Sin, campaigning in Anatolia. Assyrian and Akkadian traders spread the use of writing in the form of the Mesopotamian cuneiform script to Asia Minor, the Akkadian Empire was destroyed by economic decline and internal civil war, followed by attacks from barbarian Gutian people in 2154 BC. The rulers of Assyria during the period between c.2154 BC and 2112 BC once again fully independent, as the Gutians are only known to have administered southern Mesopotamia

9.
Diodorus Siculus
–
Diodorus Siculus or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives and it is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arabia to Greece, the second covers the Trojan War to the death of Alexander the Great. The third covers the period to about 60 BC, Bibliotheca, meaning library, acknowledges that he was drawing on the work of many other authors. According to his own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily, with one exception, antiquity affords no further information about his life and doings beyond in his work. Only Jerome, in his Chronicon under the year of Abraham 1968, writes, Diodorus of Sicily and it was divided into three sections. In the next section, he recounts the history of the world from the Trojan War down to the death of Alexander the Great, the last section concerns the historical events from the successors of Alexander down to either 60 BC or the beginning of Julius Caesars Gallic Wars. He selected the name Bibliotheca in acknowledgment that he was assembling a composite work from many sources. His account of gold mining in Nubia in eastern Egypt is one of the earliest extant texts on the topic, pappus of Alexandria wrote a Commentary on Diodoruss Analemma. The now lost Analemma applied geometrical constructions in a plane to solve some astronomy related problems of spherical geometry and it contained, for example, a discussion of sundial theory. They are also boasters and threateners and are fond of pompous language, pliny the Elder Strabo Acadine Ambaglio, Dino, Franca Landucci Gattinoni and Luigi Bravi. Diodoro Siculo, Biblioteca storica, commento storico, introduzione generale, aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC, A Source-based Approach. Library of History, Loeb Classical Library, Siculus, Diodorus, G. Booth, H. Valesius, I. The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian in Fifteen Books to which are added the Fragments of Diodorus, siculi, Diodori, Peter Wesseling, L. Rhodoman, G. Heyn, N. Eyring. Bibliothecae Historicae Libri Qui Supersunt, Nova Editio, Diodorus Siculus, the manuscripts of the Bibliotheca Historica

10.
Romanticism
–
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier

11.
Lord Byron
–
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon

12.
Sardanapalus (play)
–
Sardanapalus is a historical tragedy in blank verse by Lord Byron, set in ancient Nineveh and recounting the fall of the Assyrian monarchy and its supposed last king. It draws its story mainly from the Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus, Byron wrote the play during his stay in Ravenna, and dedicated it to Goethe. It has had an influence on European culture, inspiring a painting by Delacroix and musical works by Berlioz, Liszt and Ravel. In a soliloquy Salemenes deplores the life of slothful luxury led by his brother-in-law Sardanapalus, the king enters, and Salemenes reproaches him with his lack of ambition for military glory and his unfaithfulness to his queen, Salemenes sister. He warns him of rebellion by treacherous courtiers. Sardanapalus answers by extolling the virtues of mild and merciful rule and condemning bloodshed, the Chaldean astrologer Beleses predicts the downfall of Sardanapalus, then meets the satrap Arbaces and plots the kings murder with him. Salemenes enters and tries forcibly to arrest both men, but Sardanapalus arrives unexpectedly and, not wanting to believe that Beleses and Arbaces could be traitors, Salemenes and the king leave, and Arbaces, shamed by the kings clemency, momentarily abandons his regicidal intentions. A messenger arrives from the king, telling the two satraps to return to their respective provinces without their troops, Beleses believes this to be the prelude to a death sentence. Arbaces agrees, They leave, resolving to defend themselves by rebellion, Sardanapalus and Salemenes enter, and it becomes clear that Sardanapalus is now persuaded of the plotters guilt, but still does not repent of sparing them. Myrrha joins the king and urges him to execute Beleses and Arbaces, the king is banqueting when news reaches him that the two satraps have refused to leave the city and have led their troops in rebellion. Sardanapalus arms himself and, after admiring his newly martial appearance in a mirror, goes to join Salemenes and his soldiers, Myrrha, left behind, hears reports that a battle is in progress, and is going badly for the king. Sardanapalus and Salemenes return, closely followed by the rebels, but they beat the attack off, Sardanapalus admits to being slightly wounded. Sardanapalus awakes from a sleep and tells Myrrha that he has had a nightmare of banqueting with his dead ancestors. Salemenes now brings in his sister, Zarina, Sardanapalus long-estranged wife, Zarina proposes to take their children abroad for safety, and makes it clear that she still loves him. As they talk the king gradually becomes reconciled to his wife and she faints at the prospect of parting, and is carried out. Myrrha enters, and the king, initially embarrassed by her presence, Salemenes enters, and the king orders an immediate attack on the rebels. As Myrrha waits in the palace, conversing with one of the courtiers, a wounded Salemenes is brought in and he draws out the javelin and dies of the consequent blood-loss. Sardanapalus, who has returned, desponds about his prospects in the unfolding battle

13.
Cantata
–
A cantata is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving a choir. Cantatas for use in the liturgy of church services are called church cantata or sacred cantata, several cantatas were, and still are, written for special occasions, such as Christmas cantatas. Johann Sebastian Bach composed cycles of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year. The term originated in the early 17th century simultaneously with opera, prior to that, all cultured music was vocal. With the rise of music the term appeared, while the instrumental art became sufficiently developed to be embodied in sonatas. From the beginning of the 17th century until late in the 18th, a cantata consisted first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the music of Giacomo Carissimi. With the rise of the da capo aria, the became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. George Frideric Handels numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a large scale. His Latin motet Silete Venti, for solo, shows the use of this form in church music. This is equally evident whether we examine the church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant. Cantatas were in demand for the services of the Lutheran church. Many secular cantatas were composed for events in the nobility and they were so similar in form to the sacred ones that many of them were parodied to sacred cantatas, for example in Bachs Christmas Oratorio. The term cantata came to be applied almost exclusively to choral works, Anton Bruckner composed several Name-day cantatas, a Festive Cantata and two secular cantatas. Brucknerss Psalm 146 is also in cantata form, mendelssohns Symphony Cantata, the Lobgesang, is a hybrid work, partly in the oratorio style. Robert Schumann wrote the cantata Paradise and the Peri, the full lyric possibilities of a string of choral songs were realized by Johannes Brahms in his Rinaldo, that—like the Walpurgisnacht—was set to a text by Goethe. The competition for the French Prix de Rome prescribed that each candidate submit a cantata, hector Berlioz failed in three attempts before finally winning in 1830 with Sardanapale. While almost all of the Prix de Rome cantatas have long since been forgotten, cantatas, both of the chamber variety and on a grand scale, were composed after 1900 as well

14.
Hector Berlioz
–
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830

15.
Franz Liszt
–
Franz Liszt was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary. Liszt gained renown in Europe during the nineteenth century for his prodigious virtuosic skill as a pianist. As a composer, Liszt was one of the most prominent representatives of the New German School and he left behind an extensive and diverse body of work in which he influenced his forward-looking contemporaries and anticipated many 20th-century ideas and trends. Franz Liszt was born to Anna Liszt and Adam Liszt on October 22,1811, in the village of Doborján in Sopron County, in the Kingdom of Hungary, Liszts father played the piano, violin, cello and guitar. He had been in the service of Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy and knew Haydn, Hummel, at age six, Franz began listening attentively to his fathers piano playing and showed an interest in both sacred and Romani music. Adam began teaching him the piano at age seven, and Franz began composing in an elementary manner when he was eight and he appeared in concerts at Sopron and Pressburg in October and November 1820 at age 9. After the concerts, a group of wealthy sponsors offered to finance Franzs musical education in Vienna, There Liszt received piano lessons from Carl Czerny, who in his own youth had been a student of Beethoven and Hummel. He also received lessons in composition from Antonio Salieri, then director of the Viennese court. Liszts public debut in Vienna on December 1,1822, at a concert at the Landständischer Saal, was a great success and he was greeted in Austrian and Hungarian aristocratic circles and also met Beethoven and Schubert. In spring 1823, when his one-year leave of absence came to an end, Adam Liszt therefore took his leave of the Princes services. At the end of April 1823, the returned to Hungary for the last time. At the end of May 1823, the family went to Vienna again, towards the end of 1823 or early 1824, Liszts first composition to be published, his Variation on a Waltz by Diabelli, appeared as Variation 24 in Part II of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Liszts inclusion in the Diabelli project—he was described in it as an 11 year old boy, born in Hungary—was almost certainly at the instigation of Czerny, his teacher, Liszt was the only child composer in the anthology. After his fathers death in 1827, Liszt moved to Paris, to earn money, Liszt gave lessons in piano playing and composition, often from early morning until late at night. His students were scattered across the city and he often had to long distances. Because of this, he kept uncertain hours and also took up smoking, the following year he fell in love with one of his pupils, Caroline de Saint-Cricq, the daughter of Charles Xs minister of commerce, Pierre de Saint-Cricq. Her father, however, insisted that the affair be broken off, Liszt fell very ill, to the extent that an obituary notice was printed in a Paris newspaper, and he underwent a long period of religious doubts and pessimism. He again stated a wish to join the Church but was dissuaded this time by his mother and he had many discussions with the Abbé de Lamennais, who acted as his spiritual father, and also with Chrétien Urhan, a German-born violinist who introduced him to the Saint-Simonists

16.
Opera
–
Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below

17.
Sardanapale
–
Sardanapale, S.687, is an unfinished opera by Franz Liszt based loosely on the 1821 verse play Sardanapalus by Lord Byron. Liszt was motivated to write a large scale opera at least partly in an attempt to be recognised as more than a keyboard virtuoso. Originally he intended to write an opera based on Byrons The Corsair, eventually in 1845 he settled on the subject of Sardanapalus. At this time Liszt was working at the court in Weimar, but may have had his eyes on opportunities at the Hoftheater, Vienna, where the Kapellmeister, Gaetano Donizetti, was seriously ill. A large-scale opera could have placed Liszt in the running for Donizettis influential post, in correspondence with his close associate the Princess Belgiojoso, Liszt planned to have the opera performed in Milan in 1846-7. Sardanapalus was, according to the writer Ctesias, the last king of Assyria, ctesiass tale was preserved by Diodorus Siculus, and it is on this account that Byron based his play. These influences probably led Liszt to a similarly sensational concept, by 1849, when he at last began to write the music, he conceived the idea of further altering the libretto by adding an orgy scene as in Delacroix, but this was turned down by Belgiojoso. An initial libretto, by Félicien Mallefille, appears to have been late and unacceptable. An unknown friend of Belgiojoso delivered a libretto, in Italian, in 1847, however, by 1849 he had still not written a note of the music. Eventually Liszt wrote 111 pages of score, and wrote to Richard Wagner that it would be ready for production on Paris or London in 1852, soon after this he seems to have abandoned his work on the opera. The musicologist Kenneth Hamilton suggests that his diffidence may have resulted from reading Wagners essay Opera and Drama, the British musicologist David Trippett first discovered that the music and libretto is both legible and continuous, and is planning an edition of what survives from Liszts manuscript for the opera. Thomas S. Grey, Princeton, 27-64 Daniel Ollivier, Correspondence de Liszt et de la Comtesse dAgoult, Paris, 1933-4

18.
Painterliness
–
It is the opposite of linear, plastic or formal linear design. An oil painting is painterly when there are visible brushstrokes, the result of applying paint in a less than completely controlled manner, works characterized as either painterly or linear can be produced with any painting media, oils, acrylics, watercolors, gouache, etc. Some artists whose work could be characterized as painterly are Pierre Bonnard, Francis Bacon, Vincent van Gogh, Rembrandt, Renoir, in watercolor it might be represented by the early watercolors of Andrew Wyeth. Contour and pattern are more in the province of the linear artists, the Impressionists, Fauvists and the Abstract Expressionists tended strongly to be painterly movements. Or based on styles like van Gogh or Monet, and so on, the resulting photographs are also called painterly. Expressionism Abstract expressionism Flatness Tachisme Action painting Lyrical Abstraction Neo-expressionism Western painting History of painting Painting Medium specificity

19.
Asymmetry
–
Asymmetry is the absence of, or a violation of, symmetry. Symmetry is an important property of physical and abstract systems and it may be displayed in precise terms or in more aesthetic terms. The absence of or violation of symmetry that are expected or desired can have important consequences for a system. Due to how cells divide in organisms, asymmetry in organisms is fairly usual in at least one dimension, louis Pasteur proposed that biological molecules are asymmetric because the cosmic forces that preside over their formation are themselves asymmetric. While at his time, and even now, the symmetry of physical processes are highlighted, it is known there are fundamental physical asymmetries. Asymmetry is an important and widespread trait, having evolved numerous times in many organisms, in other examples, division of function between the right and left half may have been beneficial and has driven the asymmetry to become stronger. Such an explanation is given for mammal hand or paw preference. Training the neural pathways in a skill with one hand may take less effort than doing the same with both hands, nature also provides several examples of handedness in traits that are usually symmetric. The following are examples of animals with obvious left-right asymmetries, Fiddler crabs have one big claw, the narwhals tusk is a left incisor which can grow up to 10 feet in length and forms a left-handed helix. Flatfish have evolved to swim with one side upward, and as a result have both eyes on one side of their heads, several species of owls exhibit asymmetries in the size and positioning of their ears, which is thought to help locate prey. Many animals have asymmetric male genitalia, the evolutionary cause behind this is, in most cases, still a mystery. Certain disturbances during the development of the organism, resulting in birth defects, injuries after cell division that cannot be biologically repaired, such as a lost limb from an accident. Since birth defects and injuries are likely to indicate poor health of the organism, in particular, a degree of facial symmetry is associated with physical attractiveness, but complete symmetry is both impossible and probably unattractive. Pre-modern architectural styles tended to place an emphasis on symmetry, except where extreme conditions or historical developments lead away from this classical ideal. To the contrary, modernist and postmodern architects became more free to use asymmetry as a design element. Some asymmetrical structures There are no a and b such that a < b and b < a and this form of asymmetry is an asymmetrical relation. Certain molecules are chiral, that is, they cannot be superposed upon their mirror image, chemically identical molecules with different chirality are called enantiomers, this difference in orientation can lead to different properties in the way they react with biological systems. Asymmetry arises in physics in a number of different realms, the original non-statistical formulation of thermodynamics was asymmetrical in time, it claimed that the entropy in a closed system can only increase with time

20.
Paris Salon
–
The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been managed by the Société des Artistes Français, in 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré. The Salons original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in the Salon marked a sign of royal favor, in 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre, when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris. In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre and they were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis, once made regular and public, the Salons status was never seriously in doubt. In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced, from this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of other paintings. Printed catalogues of the Salons are primary documents for art historians, critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic. The French revolution opened the exhibition to foreign artists, the vernissage of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier. Charles Baudelaire, Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of the Salons, the 1848 revolution liberalized the Salon. The amount of refused works was greatly reduced, the increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists shift away from traditional painting styles, in 1863 the Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected, in order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés, containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde, the Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874,1876,1877,1879,1880,1881,1882 and 1886. In 1881, the government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, in December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, propagated the idea that Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet awarded, artists

21.
Neoclassicism
–
The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art

22.
Pyre
–
A pyre, also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution. As a form of cremation, a body is placed upon or under the pyre, the composition of a pyre may be determined through use of charcoal analysis. Charcoal analysis helps to predict composition of the fuel and local forestry of the charcoal being studied, in Templenoe, pyres typically consisted of oak and fruit wood compositions. Polish pyres consisted of primarily pine trees, as pines were dense in local woodlands. All parts of the tree were used including the trunk, branches, twigs, worked antler and bone objects, along with flint and flake tools, and copper-alloys are most commonly found in pyre cremation remains. The copper-alloys leave a stain and are typically fused to the ribs, arms. Bones without blood vessels, spongy bone, will circularly fissure and shrink while bones with blood vessels, compact bone, will still fissure and distort but shrink less. The more movement, which depending on the crematorium, the hot bone goes through the more likely it is that breakage will occur. Sometimes even movement of the bone after it has cooled down can cause breakage, Pyre cremations create the same kind of heat and thus yield the same bone conditions as the cremation process. A study was done on the fragments of cremations to show that not only will movement of the bone fragments cause breakage. It was concluded that if cremated bone is placed in an urn berfor burial the original bone fragment size will be preserved, traditionally, pyres are used for the cremation of the dead in the Hindu and Sikh religions, a practice which dates back several thousands of years. Funeral pyres were used in Viking and Roman culture. Pyres and bonfires are used in celebrations and remembrance in services, examples of these are Guy Fawkes Night in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, where the Guy, either seen as an effigy of Guy Fawkes or the Pope, is burned. Funeral pyres were used by the Nazis to cremate the bodies of 1,500, 000+ prisoners in Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka extermination camps, pyres have also been used to dispose of large quantities of livestock in agriculture, particularly those infected with disease. The heating of the atmosphere from carbonaceous aerosols resulting from human activities is a significant contributor to climate change in South Asia, in this region, fossil fuel use and residential biofuels have been documented to be the primary emitter of light-absorbing black carbon aerosols. The study determined the emitted organic carbon contributed 40% to smoke absorption of solar radiation. A second study examined the carbonaceous fractions associated with indoor PM2. 5/PM10 during Asian cultural and ritual burning practices and these high chemical levels were also found to correlate to higher aerosol fraction levels during winter months in both Muslim Holy Shrines and marriage places. Environmental Impacts in India A traditional Hindu funeral pyre takes six hours, every year fifty to sixty million trees are burned during cremations in India, which results in about eight million tonnes of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gas emissions

23.
Horatii
–
In the ancient Roman legend of the kingdom era, the Horatii were triplet warriors who lived during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. The accounts of their clash with the Curiatii and the murder of their sister by Publius. Livy recounts this tale in the first book of his History of Rome and they met on the battlefield between the lines as the two armies and their countrymen looked on. With so much at stake, both sides fought bravely, the Horatii had wounded all three Curartii, but two of the Romans were killed in the process. That left their brother Publius alone and surrounded by the three Albans, though he was uninjured, Pulbius realized he stood no chance against all three of his enemies together. So he began to run across the battlefield instead, the Albans pursued him, each as fast as their individual injuries permitted. This was exactly what he had hoped they would do, and after they had gone far enough and he turned and launched a furious attack on the first, least-injured Curiatius and slew him. The Roman spectators, who, moments before, had been sure of defeat, but before they could, the Horatius caught up to the second Curiatius and killed him as his brother, helpless, looked on. The final Curiatius was physically spent from his wounds and the chase and his hope had been crushed by watching both of his brothers die. He managed to stand his ground and faced the Horatius. Publius declared that he had killed the first two Curiatii for his fallen brothers and he would kill this last one for the Roman cause and their rule over the Albans. He thrust his sword down the Albans throat and took the armor of his enemies as the spoils of his victory. Afterwards, King Mettus honored the treaty and the Albans accepted Roman rule, the victorious Horatius returned to a heros welcome. Before the war had broken out, Publius sister had been engaged to one of the Alban triplets. When she saw the cloak that she herself had woven and given to the Curiatius on her brothers shoulder, now stained with his blood and she was overcome with grief and began wailing and crying out his name. Proclaiming that no Roman woman should mourn Romes fallen enemies, Publius killed his sister on the spot, for his crime, he was condemned to death. On the advice of a jurist named Tullus, Publius appealed to one of the popular assemblies, in defense of his son, the Horatius father, also Publius, spoke of the recent victory and entreated them to spare his last surviving son. The assembly was persuaded and Publius sentence was commuted and this may be the source of the Roman tradition of allowing the condemned to appeal their sentences to the populace

24.
Jacques-Louis David
–
Jacques-Louis David was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. David later became a supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre. Imprisoned after Robespierres fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, at this time he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. After Napoleons fall from Imperial power and the Bourbon revival, David exiled himself to Brussels, then in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, where he remained until his death. David had a number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century. Jacques-Louis David was born into a family in Paris on 30 August 1748. When he was nine his father was killed in a duel. He covered his notebooks with drawings, and he said, I was always hiding behind the instructors chair. Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and he overcame the opposition, and went to learn from François Boucher, the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative. Boucher was a Rococo painter, but tastes were changing, Boucher decided that instead of taking over Davids tutelage, he would send David to his friend, Joseph-Marie Vien, a painter who embraced the classical reaction to Rococo. There David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the Louvre, each year the Academy awarded an outstanding student the prestigious Prix de Rome, which funded a three- to five-year stay in the Eternal City. Each pensionnaire was lodged in the French Academys Roman outpost, which from the years 1737 to 1793 was the Palazzo Mancini in the Via del Corso. David competed for, and failed to win, the prize for three years, each failure contributing to his lifelong grudge against the institution. After his second loss in 1772, David went on a hunger strike, confident he now had the support and backing needed to win the prize, he resumed his studies with great zeal—only to fail to win the Prix de Rome again the following year. Finally, in 1774, David was awarded the Prix de Rome on the strength of his painting of Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus Disease, a subject set by the judges. In October 1775 he made the journey to Italy with his mentor, Joseph-Marie Vien, while in Italy, David especially studied the works of 17th-century masters such as Poussin, Caravaggio, and the Carracci. Mengs principled, historicizing approach to the representation of classical subjects profoundly influenced Davids pre-revolutionary painting, such as The Vestal Virgin, mengs also introduced David to the theoretical writings on ancient sculpture by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the German scholar held to be the founder of modern art history. In 1779, David toured the newly excavated ruins of Pompeii, while in Rome, David also assiduously studied the High Renaissance painters, Raphael making a profound and lasting impression on the young French artist

25.
Foreshortening
–
Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer, an object is often not scaled evenly, a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening, Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewers eye, represents objects infinitely far away and they have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to the Earths horizon, any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a vanishing point, usually directly opposite the viewers eye. All lines parallel with the line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard receding railroad tracks phenomenon, a two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing. Perspectives consisting of parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture. In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines, the only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles. Chinese artists made use of perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique, some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga. This was detailed within Aristotles Poetics as skenographia, using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage, Euclids Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclids perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition

26.
Academic painting
–
Academic art, or Academicism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art. In this context it is often called academism, academicism, Lart pompier, and eclecticism, in this medicean institution students learned the arti del disegno and heard lectures on anatomy and geometry. Another academy, the Accademia di San Luca, was founded about a later in Rome. The Accademia di San Luca served a function and was more concerned with art theory than the Florentine one. Accademia di San Luca later served as the model for the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture founded in France in 1648, and which later became the Académie des beaux-arts. The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture was founded in an effort to distinguish artists who were practicing a liberal art from craftsmen. This emphasis on the component of artmaking had a considerable impact on the subjects. This battle of styles was a conflict over whether Peter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin was a model to follow. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, academies using the French model formed throughout Europe, and imitated the teachings and styles of the French Académie. In England, this was the Royal Academy, one effect of the move to academies was to make training more difficult for women artists, who were excluded from most academies until the last half of the 19th century. This was partly because of concerns over the propriety of life classes with nude models, special arrangements were often made for female students until the 20th century. Since the onset of the debate, many artists worked between the two styles. In the 19th century, in the form of the debate, the attention. One artist after another was claimed by critics to have achieved the synthesis, among them Théodore Chassériau, Ary Scheffer, Francesco Hayez, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, and Thomas Couture. William-Adolphe Bouguereau, an academic artist, commented that the trick to being a good painter is seeing color. Another development during this period included adopting historical styles in order to show the era in history that the painting depicted, called historicism and this is best seen in the work of Baron Jan August Hendrik Leys, a later influence on James Tissot. Its also seen in the development of the Neo-Grec style, historicism is also meant to refer to the belief and practice associated with academic art that one should incorporate and conciliate the innovations of different traditions of art from the past. The art world also grew to give increasing focus on allegory in art, as artists attempted to synthesize these theories in practice, the attention on the artwork as an allegorical or figurative vehicle was emphasized

27.
Jeff Wall
–
Jeffrey Jeff Wall, OC, RSA is a Canadian artist best known for his large-scale back-lit cibachrome photographs and art history writing. Wall has been a key figure in Vancouvers art scene since the early-1970s, early in his career, he helped define the Vancouver School and he has published essays on the work of his colleagues and fellow Vancouverites Rodney Graham, Ken Lum and Ian Wallace. His photographic tableaux often take Vancouvers mixture of beauty, urban decay and postmodern. Wall received his MA from the University of British Columbia in 1970, with a thesis titled Berlin Dada and that same year, Wall stopped making art. J. He has published essays on Dan Graham, Rodney Graham, Roy Arden, Ken Lum, Stephan Balkenhol, On Kawara, Wall experimented with conceptual art while an undergraduate at UBC. He then made no art until 1977, when he produced his first backlit phototransparencies, many of these are staged and refer to the history of art and philosophical problems of representation. Their compositions often allude to artists like Diego Velázquez, Hokusai, and Édouard Manet, or to such as Franz Kafka, Yukio Mishima. Mimic typifies Walls cinematographic style and according to art historian Michael Fried characteristic of Walls engagement in his art of the 1980s with social issues, a 198 ×226 cm. colour transparency, it shows a white couple and an Asian man walking towards the camera. The sidewalk, flanked by parked cars and residential and light-industrial buildings, the woman is wearing red shorts and a white top displaying her midriff, her bearded, unkempt boyfriend wears a denim vest. The Asian man is casual but well-dressed in comparison, in a collared shirt, the picture resembles a candid shot that captures the moment and its implicit social tensions, but is actually a recreation of an exchange witnessed by the artist. First shown at documenta 11, After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, Wall’s version shows us the cellar room, “warm and full of light, ” in which Ellison’s narrator lives, complete with its 1,369 lightbulbs. Picture for Women is a 142.5 ×204.5 cm cibachrome transparency mounted on a lightbox, along with The Destroyed Room, Wall considers Picture for Women to be his first success in challenging photographic tradition. According to Tate Modern, this success allows Wall to reference popular culture. As three-dimensional objects, the take on a sculptural presence. Art historian David Campany calls Picture for Women an important early work for Wall as it establishes central themes, the whole scene appears to be reflected in the mirror behind the bar, creating a complex web of viewpoints. Wall borrows the internal structure of the painting, and motifs such as the bulbs that give it spatial depth. The figures are similarly reflected in a mirror, and the woman has the absorbed gaze and posture of Manet’s barmaid, Walls work advances an argument for the need for pictorial art. Some of Walls photographs are complicated productions involving cast, sets, crews and they have been characterized as one-frame cinematic productions

28.
The Barque of Dante
–
It was completed for the opening of the Salon of 1822 and currently hangs in the Musée du Louvre, Paris. The painting is based on fictional events taken from canto eight of Dante’s Inferno. A leaden, smoky mist and the blazing City of the Dead form the backdrop against which the poet Dante endures a fearful crossing of the River Styx and he is steadied by the learned poet of antiquity Virgil as they plough through waters heaving with tormented souls. The arrangement of figures is for the most part compliant with the tenets of the cool, there is a group of central upright figures, and a rational arrangement of subsidiary figures, all in horizontal planes, and observing studied poses. The smoke to the rear and the movement of the garment in which the oarsman Phlegyas is wrapped indicate a strong wind. The river is choppy and the boat is lifted to the right, the party is driven to a destination known to be yet more inhospitable, by an oarsman whose sure-footed poise in the storm suggests his familiarity with these wild conditions. The city behind is a gigantic furnace, there is neither comfort nor a place of refuge in the painting’s world of rage, insanity and despair. The painting explores the psychological states of the individuals it depicts, Virgil’s detachment from the tumult surrounding him, and his concern for Dante’s well-being, is an obvious counterpoint to the latter’s fear, anxiety, and physical state of imbalance. The damned are either rapt in a piercing concentration upon some mad and gainless task and their lining of the boat takes an up-and-down wave-like form, echoing the choppy water and making the foot of the painting a region of perilous instability. The souls to the far left and right are like grotesque bookends, enclosing the action, Delacroix wrote that his best painting of a head in this picture is that of the soul reaching with his forearm from the far side into the boat. Both Charles Le Brun’s, La Colère of 1668, and John Flaxman’s line engraving The Fiery Sepulchres, the theatrical display of bold colours in the figures at the centre of the composition is striking. The red of Dante’s cowl resonates alarmingly with the mass behind him. The author Charles Blanc noted the white linen on Virgil’s mantle, describing it as a wake up in the middle of the dark. The drops of water running down the bodies of the damned are painted in a manner seldom seen up to, four different, unmixed pigments, in discretely applied quantities comprise the image of one drop and its shadow. White is used for highlighting, strokes of yellow and green respectively denote the length of the drop, and the shadow is red. ”In a letter to his sister, Madame Henriette de Verninac, written in 1821, Delacroix speaks of his desire to paint for the Salon the following year, and to ‘gain a little recognition’. In April 1822 he wrote to his friend Charles Soulier that he had been working hard, the intense labour that was required to complete this painting in time left Delacroix weak and in need of recuperation. Critics expressed a range of opinions about The Barque of Dante, one of the judges at the Salon, Étienne-Jean Delécluze, was uncomplimentary, calling the work ‘a real daub’. Another judge, Antoine-Jean Gros, thought highly of it, describing it a ‘chastened Rubens’, an anonymous reviewer in Le Miroir expected Delacroix to become a ‘distinguished colourist’

29.
Mademoiselle Rose
–
Mademoiselle Rose is a painting by French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix, regarded as the leader of the French Romantic school. This nude was painted before 1824, and is currently held, another is at the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin. The model is seen from the side, seated on a kind of wooden pedestal half covered with a piece of red material and her left foot rests on a wooden block, her head is turned towards the artist and is therefore seen full face. This nude is painted in a somewhat awkward studio pose and this particular nude is represented with an almost naturalistic sincerity, without any decorative arrangement. This first made itself felt at the salon of 1824, where Delacroix saw works by John Constable, and increased in 1825, the upward trend of his work, clearly seen in this painting, brings its date to the period 1820-1822, but cannot be fixed precisely. However, the nude has not only a pictorial interest, Delacroix brings to the painting an emotion which is rooted in Romanticism. Moreover, the slight timidity of the attitude, the somewhat anxious expression of the face, give to this life-class painting a quality of humanity that is purely French Romantic

30.
Orphan Girl at the Cemetery
–
The Orphan Girl at the cemetery is a painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix. Believed to be a work in oil for the artists later Massacre at Chios. An air of sorrow and fearfulness emanates from the picture, the dimness of the sky and the abandoned laying-ground are consonant with her expression of melancholy. For Delacroix, colors were the most important ingredients for his paintings, because of this artistic taste and belief, he did not have the patience to create facsimiles of classical statues. He revered Peter Paul Rubens and the Venetians and he chose the use of colorful hues and exotic themes for his paintings, drawing inspiration from other inspirational places, resulting in works described as glossy and abundant with movement. The Young Orphan Girl in the Cemetery, a title for the painting, is currently curated at the Musée du Louvre in Paris. A larger version of the Orphan Girl at the Cemetery painting, at the Web Museum of Fine Art, WMOFA. com

31.
The Massacre at Chios
–
The Massacre at Chios is the second major oil painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix. The work is more than four meters tall, and shows some of the horror of the destruction visited on the Island of Chios in the Chios massacre. A frieze-like display of suffering characters, military might, ornate and colourful costumes, terror, disease, the painting was completed and displayed at the Salon of 1824 and presently hangs at the Musée du Louvre in Paris. A military attack on the inhabitants of Chios by Ottoman forces commenced on 11 April 1822 and was prosecuted for several months into the summer of the same year. The campaign resulted in the deaths of twenty thousand citizens, the pyramidal arrangement that governs Géricaults painting is similarly seen with the figures in the foreground of The Massacre at Chios. On this unlikely layout of characters, Delacroix commented, One must fill up, if it is natural, it will be more beautiful. Would that everything should hold together, the dense assembly of characters at the front is in marked contrast to the open and dispersed spaces behind them. The complete effect of background is to suggest a constant opening out, dissolution. Aesthetician Heinrich Wölfflin identified this technique, and classified it a tectonic form, the thirteen civilians—men, women and children–have been rounded up for slaughter or enslavement. They are harshly presented to the viewer in an almost flat plane, slumped, disordered, the area between the two pyramids contains two soldiers in shadow, and two more Greek victims–a young man embraced by a young woman. The two men in the pyramid to the left are injured, the man at the front is on or near to the point of death, and the man poised at the top of the group appears unable to prepare a defence for himself. His gaze is in the direction of the children in front of him. This seeming detachment, coupled with the vacant stare of the dying man lend to group an air of despondent resignation. In contrast, the pyramid to the right has a vigorous vertical thrust. But at the foot of the pyramid, an old woman raises her head to gaze into the sky, body parts including a hand and forearm, and an indistinct, congealed bloody mass hover grimly above the infant. Fraser notes that he cuts through the centre of the composition and drops inexplicably out. This dramatic arrangement breaks the picture apart into fragments, with clumps of tangled bodies, scattered glances, in the middle distance, another mêlée of humanitarian disaster unfolds, and the background is an uneven display of sacked, burning settlements and scorched earth. Most of the Mediterranean horizon is painted with bleak earth colours, and it is punctuated only by smoke, the mane of the rearing horse and the head of the soldier

32.
Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi
–
Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi is an 1826 oil painting by French painter Eugène Delacroix, and now preserved at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux. The attempt resulted in a disaster, with the part of the Greeks slain. Greece is depicted as a woman who occupies the major part of the painting. She is wearing a traditional Greek costume, her chest being widely bare, the hand of a dead victim can be seen protruding from the rubble, beneath her feet. In the background, a man wearing a yellow turban. The painting borrows elements from Christianity, indeed, Greece adopts the attitude of praying in the early centuries of Christianity. The blue coat and white robe, traditionally attributed to the Immaculate Conception, the strength of the image is the sharp contrast between the traditional allegory which induces an idealization of the model, and processing of the scene without any concession to the ideal

33.
Liberty Leading the People
–
Liberty Leading the People is a painting by Eugène Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled King Charles X of France. The figure of Liberty is also viewed as a symbol of France, by the time Delacroix painted Liberty Leading the People, he was already the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school in French painting. Delacroix painted his work in the autumn of 1830, in a letter to his brother dated 21 October, he wrote, My bad mood is vanishing thanks to hard work. I’ve embarked on a modern subject—a barricade, and if I haven’t fought for my country at least I’ll paint for her. The painting was first exhibited at the official Salon of 1831, Delacroix depicted Liberty as both an allegorical goddess-figure and a robust woman of the people. The mound of corpses acts as a kind of pedestal from which Liberty strides, barefoot and bare-breasted, out of the canvas, the Phrygian cap she wears had come to symbolize liberty during the first French Revolution, of 1789–94. The painting has been seen as a marker to the end of the Age of Enlightenment, what they have in common is the fierceness and determination in their eyes. Aside from the flag held by Liberty, a second, minute tricolore can be discerned in the flying from the towers of Notre Dame. The identity of the man in the top hat has been widely debated, the suggestion that it was a self-portrait by Delacroix has been discounted by modern art historians. This plan did not come to fruition and the canvas hung in the museum gallery for a few months. After the June Rebellion of 1832, it was returned to the artist, according to Albert Boime, Champfleury wrote in August 1848 that it had been “hidden in an attic for being too revolutionary. Delacroix was permitted to send the painting to his aunt Félicité for safekeeping and it was exhibited briefly in 1848, after the Republic was restored in the revolution of that year, and then in the Salon of 1855. In 1874, the painting entered the collection of Palais du Louvre in Paris, the exhibit, entitled French Painting 1774–1830, The Age of Revolution, marked a rare display of the Delacroix painting, and many of the other 148 works, outside France. The exhibit was first shown at the Grand Palais from 16 November 1974 to 3 February 1975 and it moved to Detroit from 5 March to 4 May 1975, then New York from 12 June to 7 September 1975. In 1999, it was flown on board an Airbus Beluga from Paris to Tokyo via Bahrain, the large canvas, measuring 2.99 metres high by 3.62 metres long, was too large to fit into a Boeing 747. It was transported in the position inside a special pressurised container provided with isothermal protection. In 2012, it was moved to the new Louvre-Lens museum in Lens, Pas-de-Calais, on 7 February 2013, the painting was vandalized by a visitor in Lens. An unidentified 28-year-old woman allegedly wrote an inscription on the painting, the young woman was immediately arrested by a security guard and a visitor

34.
Women of Algiers
–
Women of Algiers in their Apartment is the title of two oil on canvas paintings by the French Orientalist painter Eugène Delacroix. Delacroixs first version of Women of Algiers was painted in Paris in 1834 and is located in the Louvre, Paris, the second work, painted fifteen years later between 1847 and 1849, is located at the Musee Fabre, Montpellier, France. The two works both depict the scene of four women together in an enclosed room. Despite the similar setting, the two paintings evoke completely different moods through the depiction of the women, Delacroixs earlier 1834 work captures the separation between the women and the viewer. The second painting instead invites the viewer into the scene through the warm inviting gaze of the woman, Women of Algiers, along with Delacroixs other Orientalist paintings, has inspired many artists of later generations. In 1888 both Vincent van Gough and Paul Gauguin travelled to Montpellier to view Delacroixs 1849 version of Women of Algiers, the painting served as a source of inspiration to the later impressionists, and a series of 15 paintings and numerous drawings by Pablo Picasso in 1954. The 1834 painting was first displayed at the 1834 Salon in Paris, King Louis Philippe purchased the painting in 1834 and presented it to the Musée du Luxembourg. In 1874 the painting was moved to the Louvre, Paris where remains today as part of the permanent collection, the work depicts four women enclosed in a lavishly decorated room. Three of the women are adorned with loose, billowing garments. One woman has a flower in her hair. The fourth woman is a slave who exits the scene. Delacroix perfectly rendered the features of the clothing, adornments. This attention to details follows through from his 1832 Algerian sketches into the 1834 oil painting of the same scene. Although there is a desire for realism to evoke the mood, the work fails to extend the desire for realism to the women themselves. There is almost no narrative in the stagnant space, the women are cloistered together, not engaging with one another. The challenging stare of the women on the left reflects hostility towards the permeation of the private space, aside from this glance there is no depiction of the nineteenth century social customs of the harems of elite Algerian culture. Ultimately Delacroixs stolen glance into the Algerian harem provided him with little information to create a realistic image. With these gaps in visual information Delacroix fills the voids with his own European interpretation, with the exposed décolletage, loose unbounded clothing and languid poses, Delacroix’s Algerian females are still situated in the European oriental dream

35.
Battle of Taillebourg
–
The Battle of Taillebourg was a 1242 battle between the Capetian troops of Louis IX and his brother Alphonse of Poitiers, and the rebel followers of Hugh X of Lusignan and Henry III of England. It was fought over the bridge built over the Charente River, the battle resulted in a decisive victory for the French, and the end to the Poitevin revolt. The origin of this episode of the predecessor to the Hundred Years War, fought between France and England, was in the revolt of a Poitevin baron, Hugh X, lord of Lusignan. This prince had been just 6 years old at the death of his father in 1226, Alphonse was not allowed to take possession of his fiefdom until the age of 18 years, which he did in 1240. On that occasion, he received the homage of the lords of the province, given even by the most powerful of them, Hugh possessed several lands in Poitou, apart from his family stronghold, including the castle of Montreuil-Bonnin and, above all, the County of Marche. On 5 January 1242, Alphonse of Poitiers called together the Poitevin nobles at Chinon for Easter, the faithful lords, and others less loyal but nonetheless enemies of Lusignan, responded to the appeal, so also with Geoffrey IV of Rancon, Duke of Gençay. He arrived at Chinon on 28 April and at Poitiers on 4 May, with an army of 30,000 men, on 9 May, he marched against the castle of Montreuil-Bonnin, the fortress of Lusignan. After having seized the tower of Béruges, Moncontour, Vouvant and Fontenay-le-Comte and he was also accompanied by his brother Richard, Prince of Cornwall and Count of Poitiers in title, since 1225. The inevitable clash took place at Taillebourg, on 19 July, the two armies faced each other across the bridge, for which the battle took place. On 21 July the battle ended in a charge of the French knights, who sallied forth from the castle and harried their adversaries. After the Taillebourg engagement, which permitted them to control the strategic bridge. On 23-24 July, a decisive battle took place at Saintes. The Anglo-Poitevins were beaten once more, in definitive fashion, Henry of England was not there at the time, having returned to Gascony after the setback at Taillebourg. These two actions constituted the Saintonge War, the king of England signed a five-year truce, at Pons, on 1 August. A more lasting peace was concluded at Paris, on 4 December 1259, the settlement of the feudal revolt was less advantageous and more rapid for Hugh of Lusignan. His Poitevin castles were confiscated, rearmed and sold by Alphonse of Poitiers and his daughter Isabel of Lusignan was married to his enemy Geoffrey of Rancon, lord of Gençay, in 1250, who rebuilt his castle with the dowry. As for Raymond VII, the peace of Lorris simply renewed the conditions which had been imposed previously, in English history, the ‘Hundred Years’ War’ refers to the 116-year period between 1337 –1453. This period saw many such as the Anglo-French War or the Battle of Taillebourg

36.
Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople
–
The Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople or The Crusaders Entering Constantinople is a large painting by Eugène Delacroix. It was commissioned by Louis-Philippe in 1838, and completed in 1840, painted in oil on canvas, it is in the collection of the Musée du Louvre in Paris. The painting shows Baldwin I of Constantinople at the head of a procession through the streets of the city following the assault, the paintings luminosity and use of colour owes much to Delacroixs study of the Old Masters, such as Paolo Veronese

37.
Ovid among the Scythians
–
Ovid among the Scythians is the title of two oil paintings by French artist Eugène Delacroix. Delacroix painted this subject first in 1844 as part of the decorations for the ceiling of the Library of the Palais Bourbon in Paris. The Scythians were an ancient Iranian people whose way of life was described by Herodotus in his Histories as nomadic, and, dolefully stretched out on a gentle incline, swathed in drapery, lies the figure identified by the paintings title as Ovid. He appears like a meteorite on whom converge the friendly. Delacroix has given him the pose of a Madonna in a Nativity, the first version was exhibited in the Paris Salon of 1859, the last in which Delacroix participated. The composition reinterprets ideas that Delacroix had previously used in compositions such as The Massacre at Chios, Death of Sardanapalus. At the time of its exhibition, the landscape with its mountains was universally praised, théophile Gautier, for example, admired the painting, but ironically called the mare la femelle du cheval de Troie. In the catalog, by Delacroix himself, was written, Some examine him with interest, others go home and offer wild fruit and mares milk, the wildness and the misunderstood genius were key concepts in Romanticism and are very well portrayed in these two paintings by Delacroix. The second version, contrary to one might think, is not an oil sketch. It was painted a year before his death, in 1862 and it was given to Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in honour of Philippe de Montebello, in 2008. According to Gary Tinterow, the Metropolitan’s curator of 19th-century, Modern and contemporary art, the 1859 version in National Gallery, London official website. Eugène Delacroix, Ovid among the Scythians, the 1862 version in Metropolitan Museum of Art official website

38.
Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius
–
The Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius is an 1844 painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix, now in the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. A preliminary sketch of the painting that was given to Delacroixs student Louis de Planet is also kept in the museum and this large painting depicts the last hours of the life of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as Delacroix admired the Stoics and particularly Marcus Aurelius. The character is represented in the center of the painting as an old, sick man who grabs the arm of a man dressed in red. Commodus seems not to pay attention to what his father wants him to say and has a haughty look, around them, Marcus Aurelius philosopher friends who are present around the bed are portrayed as sad men dressed in black. Thus, the painting represents the end of the Roman Empire, Delacroix, who was fascinated by the red color after his travel to North Africa in 1832, draws the viewers attention to Commodus by garbing him in bright red. It appears that the painting has no moral aspect, as the message that Delacroix wanted to convey in this work remains unknown, the work received mostly negative reviews, but the writer Charles Baudelaire appreciated it and said, A beautiful, huge, sublime, misunderstood picture. The color, far from losing its originality in this new and more complete scene, is still bloody

39.
A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother
–
A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother is a painting of 1830-31 by French artist Eugène Delacroix depicting two enormous tigers playing with each other. Painted early in his career, it shows how the artist was attracted to subjects in this period. The painting was exhibited at the Salon of 1831, and archives of Delacroixs will executor, Achille Piron and it belonged to M. Maurice Cottier and now is on display at Room 77 of Louvre in Paris. Sweetly, the young background tiger slopes in his mother in the foreground, some authors have written that Delacroixs animals paintings were made using his pet cat as a model. The piece was in some way influenced by Rubens and is very opposite of Delacroixs violent Tiger Hunt, Delacroix could paint two different works that shows a discrepancy of the tigers behavior. In fact, tiger cubs play in their first years of life because it prepares them for hunting, stalking, climbing and fighting in the grown phase, tigers and great cats are frequent motifs in Eugènes works. These paintings, along with A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother, can be interpreted as a form of the artist displaying human emotions and passions personified as tame and fierce animals. For example, Delacroix wrote in his Journal of the time, Men are tigers, gave his features an untamed, a strange, exotic, almost alarming beauty. In French, the picture is called Jeune tigre jouant avec sa mère and its fierce but also divinely animals represents the delight in wildness that Romantic artists like Delacroix was fascinated with. A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother - Olgas Gallery

40.
Jean Henri Riesener
–
Jean-Henri Riesener was the French royal ébéniste, working in Paris, whose work exemplified the early neoclassical Louis XVI style. The following year he began supplying furniture for the Crown and in July 1774 formally became ébéniste ordinaire du roi and he and David Roentgen were Marie-Antoinettes favourite cabinet-makers. He used floral and figural marquetry techniques to an extent, contrasting with refined parquetry and trelliswork grounds. His carcases were more finely finished than those of many of his Parisian contemporaries, many of his pieces featured complicated mechanisms that raised or lowered table-tops or angled reading stands. Through his wife he was related to other master craftsmen in Paris, notably the ébénistes Roger Vandercruse Lacroix and he completed the Bureau du Roi, which had been started in 1760, under his predecessor Oeben, his name alone appears in the marquetry. The floral designs were derived from the Livre de Principes de Fleurs, in 1774 he delivered the commode for the bedroom of Louis XVI at Versailles, now in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle. An even richer commode replaced it the following year, the drop-front secretary initially designed by Oeben, or by Riesener in Oebens workshop, presents a vertical rectangle of superposed panels and a frieze, on short legs. The upper panel drops down to provide a surface, revealing a fitted interior. During the French revolutionary sales he ruined himself by buying back furniture that was being sold at derisory prices, when he attempted to resell his accumulated stock, tastes had changed and the old clientele dispersed or dead. He retired in 1801 and died in poverty in Paris. Writing-table Bureau,1780, Waddesdon Manor, UK Bureau,1783, Musée du Louvre, France Bureau, 1780-85, Musée du Louvre, France Bureau à cylindre Bureau à cylindre, c. 1760-69, delivered to the Cabinet intérieur for Louis XV at Versailles, Palace of Versailles, France Bureau à cylindre,1774, delivered to the comte dOrsay for the Hôtel dOrsay, The Wallace Collection, UK Bureau à cylindre, c. 1775, Royal Collection, UK Bureau à cylindre, c,1785, The Wallace Collection, UK Bureau à cylindre, c. 1775/1785, National Gallery of Art, United States Cabinet Jewel-cabinet, delivered to the Comtesse de Provence,1787, Royal Collection, UK Commode Commode, c. 1774, delivered to Louis XVIs Chambre du Roi at Versailles, Royal Collection, UK Commode,1780, delivered to Marie-Antoinettes cabinet intérieur de la reine at Versailles, The Wallace Collection, UK Commode, c. 1775-80, V&A, UK Commode, Dalmeny House, UK Encoignure Paire de encoignure, delivered to Louis XVIs Chambre du Roi at Versailles,1774, Royal Collection, UK Encoignure, delivered to Marie-Antoinettes cabinet intérieur at Versailles, c. 1785, Royal Collection, UK Petit table,1777, delivered to Marie-Antoinette for the use of Louis XVI at the Petit Triannon, Versailles, Waddesdon Manor, UK Petit table, c. 1780-4, The Wallace Collection, UK Secrétaire à abattant Secrétaire à abattant, delivered to Marie-Antoinettes cabinet intérieur at Versailles,1780, The Wallace Collection, UK Secrétaire à abattant, delivered to Marie-Antoinettes cabinet intérieur at Versailles, c

41.
Richard Parkes Bonington
–
Becoming, after his very early death, one of the most influential British artists of his time, the facility of his style was inspired by the old masters, yet was entirely modern in its application. His landscapes were mostly of scenes, with a low horizon and large sky, showing a brilliant handling of light. He also painted small cabinet paintings in a freely-handled version of the troubadour style. Richard Parkes Bonington was born in the town of Arnold, four miles from Nottingham and his father also known as Richard was successively a gaoler, a drawing master and lace-maker, and his mother a teacher. Bonington learned watercolour painting from his father and exhibited paintings at the Liverpool Academy at the age of eleven, in 1817, Boningtons family moved to Calais, France, where his father had set up a lace factory. In 1818, the Bonington family moved to Paris to open a lace shop, there he met and became friends with Eugène Delacroix. He worked for a time producing copies of Dutch and Flemish landscapes in the Louvre, in 1820, he started attending the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he studied under Antoine-Jean, Baron Gros. It was around this time that Bonington started going on sketching tours in the suburbs of Paris and his first paintings were exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1822. He also began to work in oils and lithography, illustrating Baron Taylors Voyages pittoresques dans lancienne France and his own architectural series Restes et Fragmens. In 1824, he won a medal at the Paris Salon along with John Constable and Anthony Vandyke Copley Fielding. He also developed a technique mixing watercolour with gouache and gum, in 1826 he visited northern Italy, staying in Venice for a month, and London again in 1827-8. In late 1828 his tuberculosis worsened and his parents sent him back to London for treatment, Bonington died of tuberculosis on 23 September 1828 at 29 Tottenham Street in London, aged 25. Delacroix paid tribute to Boningtons work in a letter to Théophile Thoré in 1861 and it reads, in part, When I met him for the first time, I too was very young and was making studies in the Louvre, this was around 1816 or 1817. Already in this genre, which was an English novelty at that time, to Laurence Binyon however, Boningtons extraordinary technical gift was also his enemy. There is none of the interest of struggle in his painting, Bonington had a number of close followers, such as Roqueplan and Isabey in France, and Thomas Shotter Boys, James Holland, William Callow and John Scarlett Davis in England. In addition, there were copies and forgeries of his work made in the period immediately after his death. A statue to him was erected outside the Nottingham School of Art by Watson Fothergill, in addition, the house in which he was born is now named ‘Bonington House’ and is Grade II listed. The Wallace Collection has a large group of 35 works

42.
Paul Huet
–
Paul Huet was a French painter and printmaker born in Paris. He studied under Gros and Guerin and he met the English painter Richard Parkes Bonington in the studio of Gros, where he studied irregularly from 1819 to 1822. Boningtons example influenced Huet to reject neoclassicism and instead paint landscapes based on observation of nature. Huets subsequent work combined emulation of the English style with inspiration derived from Dutch and Flemish old masters such as Rubens, Jacob van Ruisdael and he exhibited in the Salon for the first time in 1827, when one of the eight paintings he submitted was accepted by the jury. Afterwards he showed at the Salon regularly, and won the support of important critics. Among his champions was Eugène Delacroix, whom Huet had met In November 1822, less enthusiastic was Étienne-Jean Delécluze, who criticized Huet as the painter who has been the most faithful to the principles of Constable, Turner, Daniell and by extension Watteau. Huet participated in the July Revolution of 1830, and was involved in politics for a period afterwards. He was awarded a pair of Sèvres porcelain vases from King Louis-Philippe in 1844 and he was awarded a gold medal at the Salon of 1848. He exhibited in the Exposition Universelle of 1855, where he was awarded a medal, huets works, which include oil paintings, watercolors, etchings, and lithographs, are Romantic in feeling. He was unusual among French landscape painters in his use of watercolor for sketching as well as for finished works, the vividness with which he depicted natural forms influenced the painters of the Barbizon School and later the Impressionists. Paul Huet died in Paris on 8 January 1869, the flood of Saint-Cloud Normandy thatched cottage, Old Trouville

43.
Ary Scheffer
–
Ary Scheffer was a Dutch-French Romantic painter. He had two brothers, the journalist and writer Karel Arnold Scheffer and the painter Hendrik Scheffer and he was taught by his parents and attended the Amsterdam drawing academy from the age of 11. In 1808 his father became court painter of Louis Bonaparte in Amsterdam, encouraged by Willem Bilderdijk, he moved to Lille for further study after the death of his father. In 1811 he and his mother, who had a influence on his career, moved to Paris. Scheffer started exhibiting at the Salon de Paris from 1812 on and he started to become recognized in 1817 and in 1819 he was asked to make a portrait of the Marquis de Lafayette. Perhaps because of Lafayettes contacts, Scheffer and his brothers were active throughout their lives. In 1830 Scheffer had a daughter Cornelia and he registered the name of her mother as Maria Johanna de Nes, but nothing is known about her and she may have died soon after Cornelias birth. Considering that his own name was Johanna de Nes, it has been speculated that he kept Cornelias mothers name a secret not to compromise a noble familys reputation. Cornelia Scheffer became a sculptor and painter in her own right, scheffers mother did not know of her namesake granddaughter until 1837, after which she took care of her until she died only two years later. Scheffer became associate member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1846, Scheffer was made commander of the Legion of Honour in 1848. On March 16,1850 he married Sophie Marin, the widow of General Baudrand and he is buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre. When Scheffer left Guérins studio, Romanticism had come into vogue in France, with painters as Xavier Sigalon, Eugène Delacroix. Scheffer did not show much affinity with their work and developed his own style, Scheffer often painted subjects from literature, especially the works of Dante, Byron and Goethe. Two versions of Dante and Beatrice have been preserved at Wolverhampton Art Gallery, United Kingdom, particularly highly praised was his Francesca da Rimini, painted in 1836. Scheffers The Shades of Francesca di Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appearing to Dante, in the piece the entwined bodies of Francesca di Rimini and Paolo Malatesta swirl around in the never-ending tempest that is the second circle of Hell. The illusion of movement is created by the drapery that envelopes the couple and these two figures create a diagonal line that intersects the majority of the canvas creating not only a sense of movement, but also giving the painting an air of instability. Francesca clings to Paolo as he turns his face away in anguish, there are an additional two figures in the image, hidden in the background, the poets Dante and Virgil look on as they make their way through the nine circles of Hell. Scheffers popular Faust-themed paintings include Margaret at her wheel, Faust doubting, Margaret at the Sabbat, Margaret leaving church, The garden walk, in 1836, he painted two pictures of Goethes character Mignon, Mignon desires her fatherland, and Mignon yearns for heaven

44.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Oil painting
–
Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sh

1.
Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503–06

2.
Self-portrait, at work, Anders Zorn, 1897

3.
Self-portrait of Rembrandt, 1630. An example of oil painting on copper.

4.
Flax seed is the source of linseed oil.

Louvre
–
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the se

4.
The Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of Louis XVIII.

Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major ho

1.
East entrance

2.
"Plan for the Fairmount Parkway" (1917), by Jacques Gréber.

3.
The western pediment features polychrome sculpture by Jennewein

4.
Henry Ossawa Tanner 's Annunciation, acquired in 1899

Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the ar

1.
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."

3.
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)

4.
The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)

Philadelphia
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make P

1.
From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a statue of Benjamin Franklin, the Liberty Bell, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia City Hall, and Independence Hall

2.
An 18th century map of Philadelphia.

3.
Penn's Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West

4.
Benjamin Franklin, 1777

Canvas
–
Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may

1.
Canvas stretched on wooden frame

2.
Canvas on stretcher bar

3.
One of Poland 's largest canvas paintings, the Battle of Grunwald by Jan Matejko (426 cm × 987 cm (168 in × 389 in)), displayed in the National Museum in Warsaw.

Sardanapalus
–
Sardanapalus was, according to the Greek writer Ctesias, the last king of Assyria, although in actuality Ashur-uballit II holds that distinction. Ctesias book Persica is lost, but we know of its contents by later compilations, in this account, Sardanapalus, supposed to have lived in the 7th century BC, is portrayed as a decadent figure who spends h

Assyria
–
Assyria was a major Mesopotamian East Semitic-speaking kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant. Centered on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia, the Assyrians came to rule powerful empires at several times. Assyria is named after its capital, the ancient city of Aššur. In the 25th and 24th centuries BC, Assyrian kings were pastoral l

1.
Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of Lagash (maybe Urukagina), informing him of his son's death in combat, c. 2400 BC, found in Girsu.

2.
Overview map of the Ancient Near East in the 15th century BC (Middle Assyrian period), showing the core territory of Assyria with its two major cities Assur and Nineveh wedged between Babylonia downstream (to the south-east) and the states of Mitanni and Hatti upstream (to the north-west).

3.
Assyrian attack on a town with archers and a wheeled battering ram, 865–860 BC

4.
Jehu, king of Israel, bows before Shalmaneser III of Assyria, 825 BC

Diodorus Siculus
–
Diodorus Siculus or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives and it is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arab

1.
Diodoro siculo

Romanticism
–
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something

1.
Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818

2.
Eugène Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its Orientalist subject from a play by Lord Byron

3.
Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808

4.
William Blake, The Little Girl Found, from Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794

Lord Byron
–
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influentia

Sardanapalus (play)
–
Sardanapalus is a historical tragedy in blank verse by Lord Byron, set in ancient Nineveh and recounting the fall of the Assyrian monarchy and its supposed last king. It draws its story mainly from the Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus, Byron wrote the play during his stay in Ravenna, and dedicated it to Goethe. It has had an influence on Euro

1.
First edition title page

2.
La Mort de Sardanapale (Delacroix, 1827–28)

3.
Topics

Cantata
–
A cantata is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving a choir. Cantatas for use in the liturgy of church services are called church cantata or sacred cantata, several cantatas were, and still are, written for special occasions, such as Christmas cantatas. Johann Sebastian Bach composed

1.
Hymns

Hector Berlioz
–
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for

1.
Crop of a carte de visite photo of Hector Berlioz by Franck, Paris, c. 1855

2.
Drawing of Harriet Smithson as Ophelia in Shakespeare's Hamlet

3.
Lithograph of Berlioz by August Prinzhofer, Vienna, 1845. Berlioz considered this to be a good likeness.

4.
Painting of a young Berlioz by Émile Signol, 1832.

Franz Liszt
–
Franz Liszt was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary. Liszt gained renown in Europe during the nineteenth century for his prodigious virtuosic skill as a pianist. As a composer, Liszt was one of the most prominent rep

3.
Niccolò Paganini. His playing inspired Liszt to become a great virtuoso.

4.
Franz Liszt's fundraising concert for the flood victims of Pest, where he was the conductor of the orchestra. Vigadó Concert Hall, Pest, Hungary 1839.

Opera
–
Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is giv

1.
The performers from the Atlanta Opera sing the finale of Lucia di Lammermoor. The opera orchestra is visible in the lowered area in front of the stage.

2.
The Palais Garnier of the Paris Opéra, one of the world's most famous opera houses.

3.
Claudio Monteverdi

4.
George Frideric Handel, 1733

Sardanapale
–
Sardanapale, S.687, is an unfinished opera by Franz Liszt based loosely on the 1821 verse play Sardanapalus by Lord Byron. Liszt was motivated to write a large scale opera at least partly in an attempt to be recognised as more than a keyboard virtuoso. Originally he intended to write an opera based on Byrons The Corsair, eventually in 1845 he settl

1.
Eugène Delacroix 's Death of Sardanapalus, which contributed to Liszt's treatment of the story in his opera

2.
This well-known 1840 painting of Liszt at the piano, surrounded by musical contemporaries, by the artist Josef Danhauser, features on the rear wall a portrait of Lord Byron, author of Sardanapalus

Painterliness
–
It is the opposite of linear, plastic or formal linear design. An oil painting is painterly when there are visible brushstrokes, the result of applying paint in a less than completely controlled manner, works characterized as either painterly or linear can be produced with any painting media, oils, acrylics, watercolors, gouache, etc. Some artists

Asymmetry
–
Asymmetry is the absence of, or a violation of, symmetry. Symmetry is an important property of physical and abstract systems and it may be displayed in precise terms or in more aesthetic terms. The absence of or violation of symmetry that are expected or desired can have important consequences for a system. Due to how cells divide in organisms, asy

1.
Fiddler crab, Uca pugnax

2.
This article is about the absence of symmetry. For a specific use in mathematics, see asymmetric relation.

3.
Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge

4.
Puente de la Mujer

Paris Salon
–
The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been m

1.
Formally dressed patrons at the Salon in 1890

2.
This portrait by John Singer Sargent of Virginie Amélie Avegno Gautreau depicting her cleavage caused considerable controversy when it was displayed at the 1884 Salon.

3.
Salon of 1932, Grand Palais, Paris.

4.
Salon of 1753

Neoclassicism
–
The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Eac

1.
Antonio Canova 's Psyche Revived by Love's Kiss

2.
Henry Fuseli, The artist moved to despair at the grandeur of antique fragments, 1778–79

3.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, often called "the father of archaeology"

4.
Print of a drawing by John Flaxman of a scene in Homer 's Iliad, 1795

Pyre
–
A pyre, also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution. As a form of cremation, a body is placed upon or under the pyre, the composition of a pyre may be determined through use of charcoal analysis. Charcoal analysis helps to predict composition of the fuel and local for

Horatii
–
In the ancient Roman legend of the kingdom era, the Horatii were triplet warriors who lived during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. The accounts of their clash with the Curiatii and the murder of their sister by Publius. Livy recounts this tale in the first book of his History of Rome and they met on the battlefield between the lines as the two armie

1.
Oath of the Horatii (1784), by Jacques-Louis David and his pupil Girodet

Jacques-Louis David
–
Jacques-Louis David was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. David later became a supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre. Imprisoned after Robespierres fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, at this time he de

1.
Self portrait of Jacques-Louis David, 1794, Musée du Louvre

2.
Mademoiselle Guimard as Terpsichore, 1774–5, an early work

3.
Equestrian portrait of Stanisław Kostka Potocki (1781)

4.
Oath of the Horatii (from 1786)

Foreshortening
–
Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away

1.
Staircase in two-point perspective.

2.
15th century illustration from the Old French translation of William of Tyre 's Histoire d'Outremer.

3.
Geometrically incorrect attempt at perspective in a 1614 painting of Old St Paul's Cathedral. (Society of Antiquaries)

4.
Codex Amiatinus (7th century). Portrait, of Ezra, from folio 5r at the start of Old Testament

Academic painting
–
Academic art, or Academicism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art. In this context it is often called academism, academicism, Lart pompier, and eclecticism, in this medicean institution students learned the arti del disegno and heard lectures on anatomy and geometry. Another academy, the Ac

1.
Birth of Venus, Alexandre Cabanel, 1863.

2.
Life class at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1826 by Wilhelm Bendz.

3.
Students painting "from life" at the École. Photographed late 1800s.

4.
Demosthenes at the Seashore, a Royal Academy prize winning drawing, 1888.

Jeff Wall
–
Jeffrey Jeff Wall, OC, RSA is a Canadian artist best known for his large-scale back-lit cibachrome photographs and art history writing. Wall has been a key figure in Vancouvers art scene since the early-1970s, early in his career, he helped define the Vancouver School and he has published essays on the work of his colleagues and fellow Vancouverite

The Barque of Dante
–
It was completed for the opening of the Salon of 1822 and currently hangs in the Musée du Louvre, Paris. The painting is based on fictional events taken from canto eight of Dante’s Inferno. A leaden, smoky mist and the blazing City of the Dead form the backdrop against which the poet Dante endures a fearful crossing of the River Styx and he is stea

1.
The Barque of Dante

2.
Charles Le Brun ’s, La Colère of 1668.

Mademoiselle Rose
–
Mademoiselle Rose is a painting by French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix, regarded as the leader of the French Romantic school. This nude was painted before 1824, and is currently held, another is at the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin. The model is seen from the side, seated on a kind of wooden pedestal half covered with a piece of red material a

1.
Mademoiselle Rose

Orphan Girl at the Cemetery
–
The Orphan Girl at the cemetery is a painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix. Believed to be a work in oil for the artists later Massacre at Chios. An air of sorrow and fearfulness emanates from the picture, the dimness of the sky and the abandoned laying-ground are consonant with her expression of melancholy. For Delacroix, colors were the

1.
Orphan Girl at the Cemetery

The Massacre at Chios
–
The Massacre at Chios is the second major oil painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix. The work is more than four meters tall, and shows some of the horror of the destruction visited on the Island of Chios in the Chios massacre. A frieze-like display of suffering characters, military might, ornate and colourful costumes, terror, disease, the

1.
The Massacre at Chios

2.
Compositional structure of two human pyramids

3.
Figure of the old woman at the foot of the painting

4.
Detail from Delacroix's study Head of a Woman, 1823.

Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi
–
Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi is an 1826 oil painting by French painter Eugène Delacroix, and now preserved at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux. The attempt resulted in a disaster, with the part of the Greeks slain. Greece is depicted as a woman who occupies the major part of the painting. She is wearing a traditional Greek costume, her ch

1.
Greece on the ruins of Missolonghi

Liberty Leading the People
–
Liberty Leading the People is a painting by Eugène Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled King Charles X of France. The figure of Liberty is also viewed as a symbol of France, by the time Delacroix painted Liberty Leading the People, he was already the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school in French painting. Delacr

1.
Liberty Leading the People

2.
Freedom for France, freedom for the French (1940), a poster depicting Marianne

3.
An interpretation of Liberty Leading the People on the separation barrier which runs through Bethlehem

Women of Algiers
–
Women of Algiers in their Apartment is the title of two oil on canvas paintings by the French Orientalist painter Eugène Delacroix. Delacroixs first version of Women of Algiers was painted in Paris in 1834 and is located in the Louvre, Paris, the second work, painted fifteen years later between 1847 and 1849, is located at the Musee Fabre, Montpell

Battle of Taillebourg
–
The Battle of Taillebourg was a 1242 battle between the Capetian troops of Louis IX and his brother Alphonse of Poitiers, and the rebel followers of Hugh X of Lusignan and Henry III of England. It was fought over the bridge built over the Charente River, the battle resulted in a decisive victory for the French, and the end to the Poitevin revolt. T

1.
The Battle of Taillebourg won by Saint Louis, by Eugène Delacroix (Galerie des Batailles, Palace of Versailles)

Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople
–
The Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople or The Crusaders Entering Constantinople is a large painting by Eugène Delacroix. It was commissioned by Louis-Philippe in 1838, and completed in 1840, painted in oil on canvas, it is in the collection of the Musée du Louvre in Paris. The painting shows Baldwin I of Constantinople at the head of a proces

1.
Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople

Ovid among the Scythians
–
Ovid among the Scythians is the title of two oil paintings by French artist Eugène Delacroix. Delacroix painted this subject first in 1844 as part of the decorations for the ceiling of the Library of the Palais Bourbon in Paris. The Scythians were an ancient Iranian people whose way of life was described by Herodotus in his Histories as nomadic, an

1.
Ovid among the Scythians

Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius
–
The Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius is an 1844 painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix, now in the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. A preliminary sketch of the painting that was given to Delacroixs student Louis de Planet is also kept in the museum and this large painting depicts the last hours of the life of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurel

1.
Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius

A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother
–
A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother is a painting of 1830-31 by French artist Eugène Delacroix depicting two enormous tigers playing with each other. Painted early in his career, it shows how the artist was attracted to subjects in this period. The painting was exhibited at the Salon of 1831, and archives of Delacroixs will executor, Achille Piro

1.
A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother

2.
Tiger, 36 × 53 cm

3.
Tiger and Snake. Oil on canvas, 13 × 16 1 ⁄ 4 in, 1862

4.
Sketch for a lion hunt, 1854

Jean Henri Riesener
–
Jean-Henri Riesener was the French royal ébéniste, working in Paris, whose work exemplified the early neoclassical Louis XVI style. The following year he began supplying furniture for the Crown and in July 1774 formally became ébéniste ordinaire du roi and he and David Roentgen were Marie-Antoinettes favourite cabinet-makers. He used floral and fig

1.
Portrait of Jean-Henri Riesener seated at one of his writing tables, 1786, by Antoine Vestier (Musée de Versailles)

2.
Bureau du Roi, delivered to Louis XV

3.
Writing table of Marie-Antoinette by Riesener (1786) in the petit appartement de la reine, Palace of Versailles.

Richard Parkes Bonington
–
Becoming, after his very early death, one of the most influential British artists of his time, the facility of his style was inspired by the old masters, yet was entirely modern in its application. His landscapes were mostly of scenes, with a low horizon and large sky, showing a brilliant handling of light. He also painted small cabinet paintings i

1.
Portrait of Richard Parkes Bonington by Alexandre-Marie Colin

2.
François I and Marguerite de Navarre (45.7 by 34.5 cm), based on the discovery of a scratched inscription on a window at the Château de Chambord

Paul Huet
–
Paul Huet was a French painter and printmaker born in Paris. He studied under Gros and Guerin and he met the English painter Richard Parkes Bonington in the studio of Gros, where he studied irregularly from 1819 to 1822. Boningtons example influenced Huet to reject neoclassicism and instead paint landscapes based on observation of nature. Huets sub

Ary Scheffer
–
Ary Scheffer was a Dutch-French Romantic painter. He had two brothers, the journalist and writer Karel Arnold Scheffer and the painter Hendrik Scheffer and he was taught by his parents and attended the Amsterdam drawing academy from the age of 11. In 1808 his father became court painter of Louis Bonaparte in Amsterdam, encouraged by Willem Bilderdi

1.
Self-portrait by Ary Scheffer

2.
Statue of Ary Scheffer on the Scheffersplein in Dordrecht created by Joseph Mezzara after a design by Scheffer's daughter Cornelia.

3.
Scheffer's house in Paris, now Musée de la Vie romantique (Museum of Romantic Life).

4.
Temptation of Christ, 1854

Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transition