The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the west, Wake Island to the north,[note 2]Kiribati to the southeast, and Nauru to the south. About 27,797 of the islanders (at the 2011 Census) live on Majuro, which contains the capital.[2] Data from the United Nations indicates an estimated population in 2017 of 53,134; in 2016, 73.3% of the population were defined as being "urban". The UN also indicates a population density of 295 per Km2 (765 people per mi2) and its estimated 2020 population is 53,263.[5]

Micronesian colonists reached the Marshall Islands using canoes circa 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts, they eventually settled here.[6] Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, starting with Ferdinand Magellan of Portugal and Miguel de Saavedra of Spain. Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar reported sighting an atoll in August 1526.[6] Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed, the islands derive their name from British explorer John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God).[7]

Spain claimed the islands in 1592 and the European powers recognized its sovereignty over the islands in 1874, they had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528. Later, Spain sold the islands to the German Empire in 1885, and they became part of German New Guinea that year, run by the trading companies doing business in the islands, particularly the Jaluit Company;[6] in World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which in 1920, the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Pacific Mandate. During World War II, the United States conquered the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in 1944. Nuclear testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after residents were evacuated, over the years, 67 weapon tests were conducted, including the 15-megatonne Bravo hydrogen bomb test that created significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958, over the years, some cleanup was completed by the US government.[8]

Micronesians settled the Marshall Islands in the 2nd millennium BC, but there are no historical or oral records of that period, over time, the Marshall Island people learned to navigate over long ocean distances by canoe using traditional stick charts.[9]

On September 21, 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón commanded the Spanish ship Florida, on his second attempt to recross the Pacific from the Maluku Islands, he stood off a group of islands from which local inhabitants hurled stones at his ship. These islands, which he named "Los Pintados", may have been Ujelang, on October 1, he found another group of islands where he went ashore for eight days, exchanged gifts with the local inhabitants and took on water. These islands, which he named "Los Jardines", may have been Enewetak or Bikini Atoll.[11][12]

The Spanish ship San Pedro and two other vessels in an expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi discovered an island on January 9, 1530, possibly Mejit, at 10°N, which they named "Los Barbudos". The Spaniards went ashore and traded with the local inhabitants, on January 10, the Spaniards sighted another island that they named "Placeres", perhaps Ailuk; ten leagues away, they sighted another island that they called "Pajares" (perhaps Jemo). On January 12, they sighted another island at 10°N that they called "Corrales" (possibly Wotho), on January 15, the Spaniards sighted another low island, perhaps Ujelang, at 10°N, where they described the people on "Barbudos".[13][14] After that, ships including the San Jeronimo, Los Reyes and Todos los Santos also visited the islands in different years.

The islanders had no immunity to European diseases and many died as a result of contact with the Spanish.[15]

Captain John Charles Marshall and Thomas Gilbert visited the islands in 1788, the islands were named for Marshall on Western charts, although the natives have historically named their home "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God).[7] Around 1820, Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern and the French explorer Louis Isidore Duperrey named the islands after John Marshall, and drew maps of the islands. The designation was repeated later on British maps.[citation needed] In 1824 the crew of the American whalerGlobe mutinied and some of the crew put ashore on Mulgrave Island. One year later, the American schooner Dolphin arrived and picked up two boys, the last survivors of a massacre by the natives due to their brutal treatment of the women.[16]:2

A number of vessels visiting the islands were attacked and their crews killed; in 1834, Captain DonSette and his crew were killed. Similarly, in 1845 the schooner Naiad punished a native for stealing with such violence that the natives attacked the ship. Later that year a whaler's boat crew were killed; in 1852 the San Francisco-based ships Glencoe and Sea Nymph were attacked and everyone aboard except for one crew member were killed. The violence was usually attributed as a response to the ill treatment of the natives in response to petty theft, which was a common practice; in 1857, two missionaries successfully settled on Ebon, living among the natives through at least 1870.[16]:3

Although the Spanish Empire had a residual claim on the Marshalls in 1874, when she began asserting her sovereignty over the Carolines, she made no effort to prevent the German Empire from gaining a foothold there. Britain also raised no objection to a German protectorate over the Marshalls in exchange for German recognition of Britain's rights in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands,[17] on October 13, 1885, the gunboatSMS Nautilus under Captain Fritz Rötger brought German emissaries to Jaluit. They signed a treaty with Kabua, whom the Germans had earlier recognized as "King of the Ralik Islands," on October 15.

Subsequently, seven other chiefs on seven other islands signed a treaty in German and Marshallese and a final copy witnessed by Rötger on November 1 was sent to the German Foreign Office,[18] the Germans erected a sign declaring an "Imperial German Protectorate" at Jaluit. It has been speculated that the crisis over the Carolines with Spain, which almost provoked a war, was in fact "a feint to cover the acquisition of the Marshall Islands", which went almost unnoticed at the time, despite the islands being the largest source of copra in Micronesia.[19] Spain sold the islands to Germany in 1884 through papal mediation.[dubious– discuss]

A German trading company, the Jaluit Gesellschaft, administered the islands from 1887 until 1905, they conscripted the islanders as laborers.[15] After the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899, in which Germany acquired the Carolines, Palau, and the Marianas from Spain, Germany placed all of its Micronesian islands, including the Marshalls, under the governor of German New Guinea.

Catholic missionary Father A. Erdland, from the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart based in Hiltrup, Germany, lived on Jaluit from around 1904 to 1914. He was very interested in the islands and conducted considerable research on the Marshallese culture and language, he published a 376-page monograph on the islands in 1914. Father H. Linckens, another Missionary of the Sacred Heart visited the Marshall Islands in 1904 and 1911 for several weeks, he published a small work in 1912 about the Catholic mission activities and the people of the Marshall Islands.[20]

Under German control, and even before then, Japanese traders and fishermen from time to time visited the Marshall Islands, although contact with the islanders was irregular, after the Meiji Restoration (1868), the Japanese government adopted a policy of turning the Japanese Empire into a great economic and military power in East Asia.

The German Empire had primarily economic interests in Micronesia, the Japanese interests were in land. Despite the Marshalls' small area and few resources, the absorption of the territory by Japan would to some extent alleviate Japan's problem of an increasing population with a diminishing amount of available land to house it,[23] during its years of colonial rule, Japan moved more than 1,000 Japanese to the Marshall Islands although they never outnumbered the indigenous peoples as they did in the Mariana Islands and Palau.

The Japanese enlarged administration and appointed local leaders, which weakened the authority of local traditional leaders. Japan also tried to change the social organization in the islands from matrilineality to the Japanese patriarchal system, but with no success.[23] Moreover, during the 1930s, one third of all land up to the high water level was declared the property of the Japanese government, before Japan banned foreign traders on the archipelago, the activities of Catholic and Protestantmissionaries were allowed.[23]

Indigenous people were educated in Japanese schools, and studied the Japanese language and Japanese culture, this policy was the government strategy not only in the Marshall Islands, but on all the other mandated territories in Micronesia. On March 27, 1933, Japan gave notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations,[24][25] but continued to manage the islands, and in the late 1930s began building air bases on several atolls, the Marshall Islands were in an important geographic position, being the easternmost point in Japan's defensive ring at the beginning of World War II.[23][26]

In World War II, the United States, during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, invaded and occupied the islands in 1944, destroying or isolating the Japanese garrisons. In just one month in 1944, Americans captured Kwajalein Atoll, Majuro and Enewetak, and, in the next two months, the rest of the Marshall Islands, except for Wotje, Mili, Maloelap and Jaluit.

The battle in the Marshall Islands caused irreparable damage, especially on Japanese bases, during the American bombing, the islands' population suffered from lack of food and various injuries. Of the 5100-man Japanese garrison (2600 Imperial Japanese Navy and 2500 Imperial Japanese Army) on the Mili Atoll only half survived to the end of the war.[28]

Nuclear claims between the U.S. and the Marshall Islands are ongoing, and health effects from these nuclear tests linger.[30][33]Project 4.1 was a medical study conducted by the United States of those residents of the Bikini Atoll exposed to radioactive fallout. From 1956 to August 1998, at least $759 million was paid to the Marshallese Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear weapon testing.[34][8]

In 1979, the Government of the Marshall Islands was officially established and the country became self-governing.

In 1986, the Compact of Free Association with the United States entered into force, granting the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) its sovereignty, the Compact provided for aid and U.S. defense of the islands in exchange for continued U.S. military use of the missile testing range at Kwajalein Atoll. The independence procedure was formally completed under international law in 1990, when the UN officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. The Republic was admitted to the UN in 1991.

In 2003, the US created a new Compact of Free Association for the Republic Marshall Islands and Micronesia, with funding of $3.5 billion to be made over the next 20 years.[6]

In 2005, Aloha Airlines canceled its flight services to the Marshall Islands.

In 2008, extreme waves and high tides caused widespread flooding in the capital city of Majuro and other urban centres, 3 feet (0.91 m) above sea level. On Christmas morning in 2008, the government declared a state of emergency;[35] in 2013, heavy waves once again breached the city walls of Majuro.

In 2013, the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands experienced drought, the drought left 6,000 people surviving on less than 1 liter (0.26 U.S. gal) of water per day. This resulted in the failure of food crops and the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, pink eye, and influenza, these emergencies resulted in the United States President declaring an emergency in the islands. This declaration activated support from US government agencies under the Republic's "free association" status with the United States, which provides humanitarian and other vital support.[36][37]

Following the 2013 emergencies, the Minister of Foreign AffairsTony deBrum was encouraged by the Obama administration in the United States to turn the crises into an opportunity to promote action against climate change. DeBrum demanded new commitment and international leadership to stave off further climate disasters from battering his country and other similarly vulnerable countries; in September 2013, the Marshall Islands hosted the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit. DeBrum proposed a Majuro Declaration for Climate Leadership to galvanize concrete action on climate change.[38]

Rising sea levels are threatening the islands. Regardless of the cause, much of the area of the islands may become uninhabitable if the levels become excessive. Major flooding occurred in 2014 leading to a state of emergency for Majuro.[39] Thousands of islanders have already moved to the US over the past decades for medical treatment and for better education or employment, many settling in Arkansas; emigration is likely to increase as sea levels rise.[40] The right of residents to do so ends in 2023 unless the Compact with the US is renewed, the United States Geological Survey in 2014 warned that rising sea levels will salinize the fresh water on the islands, "thus likely forcing inhabitants to abandon their islands in decades, not centuries, as previously thought".[41][42][43][44]

A report in mid 2017 by Stanford University, some 70 years after 23 atomic bombs were detonated on Bikini Atoll, indicates abundant fish and plant life in the coral reefs, that area of the islands was still not inhabitable by humans, however, due to contamination by radioactivity. A 2012 report by the United Nations had indicated that the contamination was "near-irreversible".[45]

The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia,[7] north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the disputed U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it also lays claim.[46] The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset), the two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km2) of ocean but only about 70 square miles (180 km2) of land mass.[7] Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls,[16] the country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five isolated islands situated in about 180,000 square miles (470,000 km2) of the Pacific.[46] The largest atoll with a land area of 6 square miles (16 km2) is Kwajalein. It surrounds a 655-square-mile (1,700 km2) lagoon.[47]

Twenty-four of the atolls and islands are inhabited. Atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions, lack of rain, or nuclear contamination, the uninhabited atolls are:

In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometers (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 square kilometers (1,042,000 to 1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters, all shark fishing is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone.[48]

Due to its very low elevation, the Marshall Islands are threatened by the potential effects of sea level rise.[50][51] According to the president of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the most endangered nation in the world due to flooding from climate change.[52]

Population has outstripped the supply of freshwater, usually from rainfall, the northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains.[53]

Most birds found in the Marshall Islands, with the exception of those few introduced by man, are either sea birds or a migratory species.[55] There are about 70 species of birds, including 31 seabirds. 15 of these species actually nest locally. Sea birds include the black noddy and the white tern,[56] the only land bird is the house sparrow, introduced by man.[54]

Historical population figures are unknown; in 1862, the population was estimated at about 10,000.[16] In 1960, the entire population was about 15,000; in the 2011 Census, the number of island residents was 53,158. Over two-thirds of the population live in the capital, Majuro and Ebeye, the secondary urban center, located in Kwajalein Atoll, this excludes many who have relocated elsewhere, primarily to the United States. The Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there.[62] A large concentration of about 4,300 Marshall Islanders have relocated to Springdale, Arkansas, the largest population concentration of natives outside their island home.[63]

Most of the residents are Marshallese, who are of Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. About one-half of the nation's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye, a densely populated island.[64][65][66][67] The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional.

The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese. Both languages are widely spoken.[68]

A 2007–2008 study revealed that the rate of type 2 diabetes is among the highest in the world; 28% over the age of 15; 50% over 35. Approximately 75% of women, and 50% of men are overweight or obese, this is mostly due to the adoption of an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise. About 50% of all surgeries performed on the island are amputations due to complications from diabetes. There are no facilities for renal dialysis.[71]

According to a report by the BBC, life expectancy is 67 years for men and 71 years for women.[72]

The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its Constitution.[73] Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI's unicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.[74]

In January 2016, senator Hilda Heine was elected by Parliament as the first female president of the Marshall Islands; previous president Casten Nemra lost office after serving two weeks in a vote of no confidence.[6]

Legislative power lies with the Nitijela, the upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve tribal chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela, the twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP, the following senators are in the legislative body:

The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It gives islanders the right to emigrate to the United States and to work there.[75]

The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/3.[76] In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions.[77]

On 28 April 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island-flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by Germany's Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons, the ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon. Tensions escallated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi-led coalition attacks in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials have said that they would review U.S. defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as "inappropriate". It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty.[78][79]

The islands have few natural resources, and their imports far exceed exports. According to the CIA, the value of exports in 2013 was approximately $53.7 million while estimated imports were $133.7 million. Agricultural products include coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, fruits, pigs and chickens. Industry is made of the production of copra and craft items, tuna processing and tourism, the GDP in 2016 was an estimated $180 million, with a real growth rate of 1.7%. The GDP per capita was $3,300.[80]

The International Monetary Fund reported in mid 2016 that the economy of the Republic had expanded by about 0.5 percent in the Fiscal Year 2015 thanks to an improved fisheries sector. A surplus of 3% of GDP was recorded "owing to record-high fishing license fees. Growth is expected to rise to about 1.5 percent and inflation to about 0.5 percent in FY2016, as the effects of the drought in earlier 2016 are offset by the resumption of infrastructure projects."[81]

In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization, which means its labour laws will comply with international benchmarks. This may impact business conditions in the islands.[82]

United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US$57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.[84]

Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms.[citation needed] The most important commercial crops is Copra[85][86] followed by coconut, breadfruit, pandanus, banana, taro and arrowroot, the livestock consists primarily of pigs and chickens.[87][81]

Fishing has been critical to the economy of this island nation since its settlement.

In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women, but the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure, but government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business.[citation needed]

Fishing license fees (primarily for tuna) do provide noteworthy income for the government;[81] in 2015, for example, this source produced $197.8 million, in Australian dollars (AUD), although estimates for 2016 suggested that a significant decline was probable in 2016.[88][89]

On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropicalislands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts).[90] In 2009, a 57 kW solar power plant was installed, the largest in the Pacific at the time, including New Zealand.[91] It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self-sufficient.[92] Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity; in 2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity use.[93]

The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations. AM stations are 1098 5 kW V7AB Majuro (Radio Marshalls, national coverage) and 1224 AFN Kwajalein (both public radio) as well as 1557 Micronesia Heatwave. The FM stations are 97.9 V7AD Majuro,[98] V7AA 96.3 FM Uliga[99] and 104.1 V7AA Majuro (Baptist religious). BBC World is broadcast on 98.5 FM Majuro.[72] The most recent station is Power 103.5 which started broadcasting in 2016.[100]

There is one broadcast television station, MBC-TV operated by the state.[103] Cable TV is available, on cable TV, most programs are shown two weeks later than in North America but news in real time can be viewed on CNN, CNBC and BBC.[104] American Forces Radio and Television also provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll[105]

The Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) provides telephone, cable TV (MHTV), FAX, cellular and Internet services,[106][107] the Authority is a private corporation with significant ownership by the national government.[108]

^The History of MankindArchived September 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania page 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.

1.
Majuro
–
Majuro, /ˈmædʒəroʊ/, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. It is also a large atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It forms a district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll has an area of 9.7 square kilometres and encloses a lagoon of 295 square kilometres. As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of land masses. The main population center, named Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, DUD - three contiguous motus, had 20,301 people as of 2012, Majuro has a port, shopping district, hotels, and an international airport. At the western end of the atoll, about 50 kilometres from D–U–D by road, is the community of Laura. Laura has the highest elevation point on the atoll, estimated at less than 3 metres above sea level, being slightly north of the Equator, Majuro has a tropical climate with temperatures always above 21 °C. Humans have inhabited the atoll for at least 2,000 years, Majuro Atoll was claimed by the German Empire with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. As with the rest of the Marshalls, Majuro was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, on January 30,1944, United States troops invaded, but found that Japanese forces had evacuated their fortifications to Kwajalein and Enewetak about a year earlier. A single Japanese warrant officer had left as a caretaker. With his capture, the islands were secured and this gave the U. S. Navy use of one of the largest anchorages in the Central Pacific. The lagoon became a forward naval base of operations and was the largest and most active port in the world until the war moved westward when it was supplanted by Ulithi. Following World War II, Majuro came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. It supplanted Jaluit Atoll as the center of the Marshall Islands. The major population centers are the D–U–D communities, the islets of Delap–Uliga–Djarrit, as of 2011, Majuro had a population of 27,797. Most of the population is Christian, the majority follows the United Church of Christ. The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands is located in Majuro, there is a sizable number of Ahmadi Muslims

Majuro
–
Lagoon shoreline on Majuro, February 1973
Majuro
–
Lagoon side with native dwellings
Majuro
–
U.S. Fifth Fleet at Majuro Atoll 1944.
Majuro
–
Students at the Majuro Cooperative School raise the Republic of Marshall Islands flag at a ceremony during a Pacific Partnership 2009 community service project

2.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above

Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns

3.
Marshallese people
–
The people of the Marshall Islands are of Micronesian origin, which is traced to a combination of peoples who emigrated from Southeast Asia in the remote past. The matrilineal Marshallese culture revolves around a system of clans. Virtually all Marshallese are Christian, most of them Protestant, other Christian denominations include Roman Catholicism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Latter-day Saints, Salvation Army, and Jehovahs Witness. There is also a presence of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Both Marshallese and English are official languages, Marshallese is spoken by most of the urban population. Both the Nitijela and national radio use Marshallese, the public school system provides education through grade 12, although admission to secondary school is selective. The elementary program employs a bilingual/bicultural curriculum, English is introduced in the first grade. There is one institution in the Marshall Islands—the College of the Marshall Islands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated

Marshallese people
–
Demographics of the Marshall Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.

4.
Independence
–
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is a dependent territory, Independence does not necessarily mean freedom. Whether the attainment of independence is different from revolution has long been contested, nation-states have been granted independence without any revolutionary acts. The Russian October Revolution, for example, was not intended to seek national independence, however, the American Revolutionary War was intended to achieve independence from the beginning. Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many, the means can extend from peaceful demonstrations, like in the case of the Indian independence movement, to a violent civil war. Autonomy refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory. A protectorate refers to a region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region. Declaring independence and attaining it however, are quite different, a well-known successful example is the U. S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776, the dates of established independence, are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence day

5.
Demographics of Marshall Islands
–
The people of the Marshall Islands are of Micronesian origin, which is traced to a combination of peoples who emigrated from Southeast Asia in the remote past. The matrilineal Marshallese culture revolves around a system of clans. Virtually all Marshallese are Christian, most of them Protestant, other Christian denominations include Roman Catholicism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Latter-day Saints, Salvation Army, and Jehovahs Witness. There is also a presence of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Both Marshallese and English are official languages, Marshallese is spoken by most of the urban population. Both the Nitijela and national radio use Marshallese, the public school system provides education through grade 12, although admission to secondary school is selective. The elementary program employs a bilingual/bicultural curriculum, English is introduced in the first grade. There is one institution in the Marshall Islands—the College of the Marshall Islands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated

Demographics of Marshall Islands
–
Demographics of the Marshall Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.

6.
Gross domestic product
–
Gross Domestic Product is a monetary measure of the market value of all final goods and services produced in a period. Nominal GDP estimates are used to determine the economic performance of a whole country or region. The OECD defines GDP as a measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident and institutional units engaged in production. ”An IMF publication states that GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services - that is. Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of industry or sector of the economy. The ratio of GDP to the population of the region is the per capita GDP. William Petty came up with a concept of GDP to defend landlords against unfair taxation during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1652 and 1674. Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695, the modern concept of GDP was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a US Congress report in 1934. In this report, Kuznets warned against its use as a measure of welfare, after the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a countrys economy. The switch from GNP to GDP in the US was in 1991, the history of the concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in ways of estimating it. The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the sector, by financial industries. GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, in principle, give the same result and they are the production approach, the income approach, or the expenditure approach. The most direct of the three is the approach, which sums the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the factors must be equal to the value of their product. This approach mirrors the OECD definition given above, deduct intermediate consumption from gross value to obtain the gross value added. Gross value added = gross value of output – value of intermediate consumption, value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus value of changes in the inventories. The sum of the value added in the various economic activities is known as GDP at factor cost. GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes less subsidies on products = GDP at producer price, for measuring output of domestic product, economic activities are classified into various sectors. Subtracting each sectors intermediate consumption from gross output gives the GDP at factor cost, adding indirect tax minus subsidies in GDP at factor cost gives the GDP at producer prices

7.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common

8.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency

ISO 4217
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An airline ticket showing the price in the ISO 4217 code " EUR " (bottom left) and not the currency sign€
ISO 4217
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A list of exchange rates for various base currencies given by a money changer in Thailand, with the Thailand Baht as the counter (or quote) currency.

9.
Coordinated Universal Time
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Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead

Coordinated Universal Time
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Key concepts
Coordinated Universal Time
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World map of current time zones

10.
Island country
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An island country is a country whose primary territory consists of one or more islands or parts of islands. As of 2011,46 of the 193 UN member states are island countries, the percentage of island countries that are democratic is higher than that of continental countries. Historically they have been prone to political stability than their continental counterparts. Island countries have often been the basis of maritime conquest and historical rivalry between other countries, Island countries are more susceptible to attack by large, continental countries due to their size and dependence on sea and air lines of communication. Many island countries are vulnerable to predation by mercenaries and other foreign invaders. Many island countries rely heavily on fish for their supply of food. Some are turning to renewable energy—such as wind power, hydropower, geothermal power, some island countries are more affected than other countries by climate change, which produces problems such as reduced land use, water scarcity and sometimes even resettlement issues. Some low-lying island countries are slowly being submerged by the water levels of the Pacific Ocean. Climate change also impacts island countries by causing natural disasters such as cyclones, hurricanes, flash floods. In 2011, the Center for Climate Change Law held a conference attended by 272 registrants from 39 island nations titled Legal Issues for Threatened Island Nations, many island countries rely heavily on imports and are greatly affected by changes in the global economy. The dominant industry for many countries is tourism. Island countries are small with low populations, although some, like Indonesia. Some island countries are centred on one or two islands, such as the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, New Zealand, Cuba, Bahrain, Singapore, Malta. Others are spread out over hundreds or thousands of islands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Seychelles. Geographically, the country of Australia is considered a continental landmass rather than an island, in the past, however, it was considered an island country for tourism purposes and is still often referred to as such

Island country
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Island countries in the world

11.
Equator
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The Equator usually refers to an imaginary line on the Earths surface equidistant from the North Pole and South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. The Equator is about 40,075 kilometres long, some 78. 7% lies across water and 21. 3% over land, other planets and astronomical bodies have equators similarly defined. Generally, an equator is the intersection of the surface of a sphere with the plane that is perpendicular to the spheres axis of rotation. The latitude of the Earths equator is by definition 0° of arc, the equator is the only line of latitude which is also a great circle — that is, one whose plane passes through the center of the globe. The plane of Earths equator when projected outwards to the celestial sphere defines the celestial equator, in the cycle of Earths seasons, the plane of the equator passes through the Sun twice per year, at the March and September equinoxes. To an observer on the Earth, the Sun appears to travel North or South over the equator at these times, light rays from the center of the Sun are perpendicular to the surface of the Earth at the point of solar noon on the Equator. Locations on the Equator experience the quickest sunrises and sunsets because the sun moves nearly perpendicular to the horizon for most of the year. The Earth bulges slightly at the Equator, the diameter of the Earth is 12,750 kilometres. Because the Earth spins to the east, spacecraft must also launch to the east to take advantage of this Earth-boost of speed, seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earths axis relative to the plane of revolution. During the year the northern and southern hemispheres are inclined toward or away from the sun according to Earths position in its orbit, the hemisphere inclined toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter. At the equinoxes, the Earths axis is not tilted toward the sun, instead it is perpendicular to the sun meaning that the day is about 12 hours long, as is the night, across the whole of the Earth. Near the Equator there is distinction between summer, winter, autumn, or spring. The temperatures are usually high year-round—with the exception of high mountains in South America, the temperature at the Equator can plummet during rainstorms. In many tropical regions people identify two seasons, the wet season and the dry season, but many places close to the Equator are on the oceans or rainy throughout the year, the seasons can vary depending on elevation and proximity to an ocean. The Equator lies mostly on the three largest oceans, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. The highest point on the Equator is at the elevation of 4,690 metres, at 0°0′0″N 77°59′31″W and this is slightly above the snow line, and is the only place on the Equator where snow lies on the ground. At the Equator the snow line is around 1,000 metres lower than on Mount Everest, the Equator traverses the land of 11 countries, it also passes through two island nations, though without making a landfall in either. Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the Equator passes through, Despite its name, however, its island of Annobón is 155 km south of the Equator, and the rest of the country lies to the north

Equator
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Left: A monument marking the Equator near the town of Pontianak, Indonesia Right: Road sign marking the Equator near Nanyuki, Kenya
Equator
Equator
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The Equator marked as it crosses Ilhéu das Rolas, in São Tomé and Príncipe

12.
Federated States of Micronesia
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Together, the states comprise around 607 islands that cover a longitudinal distance of almost 2,700 km just north of the equator. While the FSMs total land area is small, it occupies more than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean. The capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, each of its four states is centered on one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the region of Micronesia. The term Micronesia may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole, the FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under U. S. Other neighboring island entities, and also members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The FSM has a seat in the United Nations, the ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a centralized economic. Nan Madol, consisting of a series of artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. European explorers—first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands and then the Spanish—reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century, the Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies and in the 19th century established a number of outposts and missions. In 1887, they founded the town of Santiago de la Ascension in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei, following defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899 under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. Germany incorporated it into German New Guinea, during World War I, it was captured by Japan. Following the war, the League of Nations awarded a mandate for Japan to administer the islands as part of the South Pacific Mandate, during World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed. On May 10,1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States, independence was formally concluded under international law in 1990, when the United Nations officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. The Compact was renewed in 2004, the Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote, four senators—one from each state—serve four-year terms, the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms

Federated States of Micronesia
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Map of the Federated States of Micronesia.
Federated States of Micronesia
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Flag
Federated States of Micronesia
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View of Kolonia Town from Sokehs Ridge in Pohnpei.
Federated States of Micronesia
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A large (approximately 2.4 m or about 8 ft in height) example of Yapese stone money (Rai stones) in the village of Gachpar.

13.
Capital city
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right

14.
Marshall Islands stick chart
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Stick charts were made and used by the Marshallese to navigate the Pacific Ocean by canoe off the coast of the Marshall Islands. The charts represented major ocean swell patterns and the ways the islands disrupted those patterns, most stick charts were made from the midribs of coconut fronds that were tied together to form an open framework. Island locations were represented by shells tied to the framework, or by the junction of two or more sticks. The threads represented prevailing ocean surface wave-crests and directions they took as they approached islands and met other similar wave-crests formed by the ebb and flow of breakers. Individual charts varied so much in form and interpretation that the navigator who made the chart was the only person who could fully interpret. The use of stick charts ended after World War II when new technologies made navigation more accessible. The stick charts are a significant contribution to the history of cartography because they represent a system of mapping ocean swells and they also use different materials from those common in other parts of the world. They are an indication that ancient maps may have looked very different, Marshallese navigators used their senses and memory to guide them on voyages by crouching down or lying prone in the canoe to feel how the canoe was being pitched and rolled by underlying swells. The Marshallese recognized four main ocean swells, the rilib, kaelib, bungdockerik, the four types of ocean swells were represented in many stick charts by curved sticks and threads. The rilib swell is the strongest of the four ocean swells and was referred to as the backbone swell and it is generated by the northeast trade winds and is present during the entire year, even when they do not penetrate as far south as the Marshall Islands. Marshallese considered the rilib swells to come from the east, even though the angle of the winds as well as the impact of the ocean currents varied the swell direction. The kaelib swell is weaker than the rilib and could only be detected by knowledgeable persons, the bungdockerik is present year round as well and arises in the southwest. This swell is often as strong as the rilib in the southern islands, the bundockeing swell is the weakest of the four swells, and is mainly felt in the northern islands. The stick charts typically fall into three categories, mattang, meddo, and rebbelib. The mattang stick chart was a chart used for instruction. The meddo chart showed actual islands and their relative or exact positions, the meddo chart portrayed only a section of one of the two main island chains. Rebbelib charts portrayed the same information as a chart. Rebbelib charts, unlike meddo charts, included all or most of one or both chains of islands, stick charts were not made and used by all Marshall Islanders

Marshall Islands stick chart
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Überseemuseum Bremen 2009 063

15.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship

16.
German New Guinea
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German New Guinea was the first part of the German colonial empire. It was a protectorate from 1884 until 1914 when it fell to Australian forces following the outbreak of the First World War and it consisted of the northeastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups. The mainland part of German New Guinea and the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago. The Micronesian islands of German New Guinea are now governed as the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, the mainland portion, Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, was formed from the northeastern part of New Guinea. The islands to the east of Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, on annexation, were renamed the Bismarck Archipelago, due to their accessibility by water, however, these outlying islands were, and have remained, the most economically viable part of the territory. With the exception of German Samoa, the German islands in the Western Pacific formed the Imperial German Pacific Protectorates. These were administered as part of German New Guinea and they included the German Solomon Islands, the Carolines, Palau, the Marianas, the Marshall Islands, the total land area of German New Guinea was 249,500 square kilometres. By the end of 1875, one German trader reported, German trade and German ships are encountered everywhere, the most important ones were the Kolonialverein of 1882 and the Society for German Colonization founded in 1884. But you know, my map of Africa is here and you see here is Russia, over there is France. And us, we are here – right in the middle between those two, despite his personal objections, it was Bismarck himself who eventually organised the acquisition of much of what would become the German colonial empire. The very first attempts at the new policy came in 1884 when Bismarck had to put German trading interests in southwestern Africa under imperial protection. Bismarck told the Reichstag on 23 June 1884 of the change in German colonial policy, annexations would now proceed, recent explorations had given the basis for reconsideration, it is considered useful by geology and biology people as holding in its forests the key to solve problems. A profitable field for cultivation but London had only sent missionaries to save souls, as we Germans have learnt a little about conducting colonial policy, and as our wishes and plans turn with a certain vivacity towards New Guinea. He also instructed the London Agent for Queensland to urge the Imperial Colonial Office to an act of annexation, when news of this reached London, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Derby promptly repudiated the act. Finsch encouraged them to pursue the founding of a colony on the north-east coast of New Guinea, on 3 November 1884, under the auspices of the Deutsche Neuguinea-Compagnie, the German flag was flown over Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago and the German Solomon Islands. Albert Hahl joined the German Colonial Office in 1895 and until 1914 played a part in New Guineas administration. After 1901 Hahl attempted to apply his system to the whole of New Guinea and he was forced to retire because of disagreements with Berlin officials, and became an active writer on New Guinea and was a leader in German colonial societies between the wars. By the mid-1880s German church authorities had devised a program for missionary work in New Guinea and assigned it to the Rhenish Mission, under the direction of Friedrich Fabri

German New Guinea
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1895 20 Mark gold coin issued by the German New Guinea Company.
German New Guinea
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Flag
German New Guinea
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Native recruits during drill in German New Guinea
German New Guinea
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20-pfennig "Yacht", postmarked Matupi, 11 March 1902

17.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

18.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces

19.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation

League of Nations
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The 1864 Geneva Convention, one of the earliest formulations of international law.
League of Nations
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1939–41 semi-official flag
League of Nations
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Lord Bryce, one of the earliest advocates for a League of Nations.
League of Nations
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The official opening of the League of Nations, 15 November 1920

20.
South Pacific Mandate
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The South Pacific Mandate was a League of Nations mandate given to the Empire of Japan by the League of nations following World War I. Japan governed the islands under the mandate as part of the Japanese colonial empire until World War II, the islands then became the United Nations-established Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands governed by the United States. The islands are now part of Palau, Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, in Japan, the territory is known as Japanese mandate for the South Seas Islands and was governed by the Nanyō Government. By the outbreak of WWI the empire included Taiwan, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands the southern half of Sakhalin island, the Kuril Islands, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 had been signed primarily to serve Britains and Japans common interest of opposing Russian expansion. Amongst other provisions the treaty called on each party to support the other in a war against more than one power, the ultimatum went unanswered and Japan formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914. Japan participated in a joint operation with British forces in autumn 1914 in the Siege of Tsingtao to capture the Kiautschou Bay concession in Chinas Shandong Province. The Japanese Navy was tasked with pursuing and destroying the German East Asiatic Squadron and protection of the lanes for Allied commerce in the Pacific. During the course of operation, the Japanese Navy seized the German possessions in the Marianas, Carolines, Marshall Islands. After the end of World War I, the protectorate of German New Guinea was divided amongst the victors by the Treaty of Versailles. Meanwhile, Japanese occupation of the part of the protectorate. The government of the South Pacific Mandate built and maintained hospitals and schools, compulsory schooling was used to promote Japanese state religion and Shinto rituals. A Shinto shrine known as the Nanyo Shrine was built on Koror, following the initial Japanese occupation of the islands, a policy of secrecy was adopted. Japan made it plain that it did not welcome the entry of ships into Micronesian waters. During the first five years that Japan occupied the islands, it consolidated its presence and the islands became a virtual Japanese colony. The Imperial Japanese Navy divided the territory into five districts in Palau, Saipan, Truk, Ponape. A proposal at the Versailles Conference to allow trade and migration between those islands to be administered by Japan and those to be administered by Australia and New Zealand was rejected. Japan was able to continue administering the islands as if they were colonial possessions, when the islands became legally a League of Nations Mandate, Japan administered them as Japanese territory and as part of the Japanese Empire. This situation continued even after Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1935, militarily and economically, Saipan, in the Marianas archipelago, was the most important island in the South Pacific Mandate and became the center of subsequent Japanese settlement

South Pacific Mandate
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Headquarters of the government of the South Pacific Mandate in Saipan.
South Pacific Mandate
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Flag
South Pacific Mandate
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Korean Cafe in Saipan, 1939

21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

22.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

23.
Bikini Atoll
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Bikini Atoll is an atoll in the Marshall Islands which consists of 23 islands totaling 3.4 square miles surrounding a deep 229. 4-square-mile central lagoon. It is at the end of the Ralik Chain, approximately 87 kilometres northwest of Ailinginae Atoll and 850 kilometres northwest of Majuro. Within Bikini Atoll, Bikini, Eneu, Nam, and Enidrik islands comprise just over 70% of the land area, Bikini and Eneu are the only islands of the atoll that hosted a permanent population. Bikini Island is the northeastern most and largest islet, before World War II, the atoll was known by its German name, Eschscholtz Atoll. The islands English name is derived from the German colonial name Bikini given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, Pikinni, Pik meaning surface and Ni meaning coconut, before the advent of Western influence, the Bikini islanders sustenance-based lifestyle was based on cultivating native plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled builders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around the Bikini. The islanders were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by close extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen and a following of chieftains, some of the leaders maintained Asian-style bungalows and maintained servants, including secretaries, maids, and valets. The islanders worked the plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, the Marshall islanders were formerly aggressive, but the influence of the mission churches eliminated most conflict. They took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives, the men wore a fringe skirt of native materials about 25 to 30 inches long. Women traditionally wore two mats about a square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together. The Christian missionaries who began arriving in the late 19th century influenced the islanders notions of modesty, in 1919, a visitor reported that Marshall Islands women are perfect models of prudery. Not one would think of exposing her ankles, women in the Marshall Islands today are still very modest. They believe that a womans thighs and shoulders should be covered, women generally wear cotton muʻumuʻus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is never discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, Marshall island women swim in muʻumuʻus which are made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are inappropriate for both islanders and guests, with the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation may wear shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals

24.
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
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The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia administered by the United States from 1947 to 1986. Spain initially claimed the islands that comprised the territory of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Subsequently, Germany established competing claims over the islands, Germany, in turn, continued to retain possession until the islands were captured by Japan during World War I. The League of Nations formally placed the islands in the former South Pacific Mandate, the islands then remained under Japanese control until captured by the United States in 1944 during World War II. The TTPI entered UN trusteeship pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21 on July 18,1947 and was designated an area in its 1947 trusteeship agreement. The Territory contained 100,000 people scattered over an area the size of continental United States. They represented a variety of cultures and spoke nine languages, the Ponapeans and Kusaieans, Marshallese and Palauans, Truckese, Yapese and Chamorros had little in common, except they were in the same general area of the Pacific Ocean. The large distances between people, lack of an economy, language and cultural barriers, all worked against the union, the six district centers became upscale slums, containing deteriorated Japanese-built roads, with electricity, modern music and distractions, alienated youth and bewildered elders. The remainder of the islands stayed as they were historically, not progressing, a Congress of Micronesia first levied an income tax in 1971. It affected mainly foreigners working at bases in the region. On October 21,1986, the U. S. ended its administration of the Marshall Islands District. The termination of U. S. administration of the Chuuk, Yap, Kosrae, Pohnpei, in 1969, the 100 occupied islands comprised 700 square miles over an area of 3,000,000 square miles of sea. The latter area was comparable in size to the continental United States, the water area is about 2% of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the islands was 200,000 in the part of the 19th century. The population decreased to 100,000 by 1969 due to emigration, war, at that time, the population inhabited less than 100 out of 2,141 of the Marshall, Mariana, and Caroline Islands. The area is now divided into four jurisdictions, The following sovereign states have become associated with the United States under the Compact of Free Association

25.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General

United Nations
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1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the United Nations' original three branches: The Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states.
United Nations
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Flag
United Nations
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The Chilean delegation signing the UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945
United Nations
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Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961.

26.
Presidential system
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A presidential system is a system of government where a head of government is also head of state and leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch. The United States, for instance, has a presidential system, the executive is elected and often titled president and is not responsible to the legislature, which cannot in normal circumstances dismiss it. Presidential systems are numerous, but the following are true, The executive can veto legislative acts and, in turn. The veto is generally derived from the British tradition of royal assent in which an act of parliament can only be enacted with the assent of the monarch, the president has a fixed term of office. Members of the cabinet serve at the pleasure of the president, cabinet ministers or executive departmental chiefs are not members of the legislature. However, presidential systems often need legislative approval of executive nominations to the cabinet, judiciary, a president generally can direct members of the cabinet, military, or any officer or employee of the executive branch, but cannot direct or dismiss judges. The president can often pardon or commute sentences of convicted criminals, countries that feature a presidential system of government are not the exclusive users of the title of president. For example, a dictator, who may or may not have been popularly or legitimately elected may be, likewise, leaders of one-party states are often called presidents. Most parliamentary republics have presidents, but this position is ceremonial, notable examples include Germany, India, Ireland, Israel. The title is used in parliamentary republics with an executive presidency. In a full-fledged presidential system, a president is chosen directly by the people or indirectly by the party to be the head of the executive branch. Presidential governments make no distinction between the positions of head of state and head of government, both of which are held by the president, a few countries have powerful presidents who are elected by the legislature. These executives are titled president, whereas in practice they are similar to prime ministers, other countries with the same system include Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Suriname. By contrast, national presidents are figurehead heads of state, like constitutional monarchs, such symbolic presidents can be directly elected by the people or indirectly by a legislative vote. Only a few nations, such as Ireland, have a popularly elected ceremonial president, subnational governments, usually states, may be structured as presidential systems. All of the governments in the United States use the presidential system. On a local level, many cities use Council-manager government, which is equivalent to a parliamentary system, some countries without a presidential system at the national level use a form of this system at a subnational or local level. Supporters generally claim four basic advantages for presidential systems, Direct elections — in a presidential system and this makes the presidents power more legitimate than that of a leader appointed indirectly

Presidential system
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Presidential republics with a full presidential system.

27.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics

28.
United States Postal Service
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The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi

United States Postal Service
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~ Benjamin Franklin ~ George Washington ~ The First U.S. Postage Stamps Issued 1847 The first stamp issues were authorized by an act of Congress and approved on March 3, 1847. The earliest known use of the Franklin 5¢ is July 7, 1847, while the earliest known use of the Washington 10¢ is July 2, 1847. Remaining in postal circulation for only a few years, these issues were declared invalid for postage on July 1, 1851.
United States Postal Service
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The full eagle logo, used in various versions from 1970 to 1993
United States Postal Service
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Historic Mineral Wells, Texas post office built between 1911 and 1913
United States Postal Service
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USPS service delivery truck

29.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time

30.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos

31.
Assemblies of God
–
As an international fellowship, the member denominations are entirely independent and autonomous, however, they are united by shared beliefs and history. The Assemblies originated from the Pentecostal revival of the early 20th century and this revival led to the founding of the Assemblies of God in the United States in 1914. Through foreign missionary work and establishing relationships with other Pentecostal churches and it was not until 1988, however, that the world fellowship was formed. As a Pentecostal fellowship, the Assemblies of God believes in the Pentecostal distinctive of baptism with the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues, the World Assemblies of God Fellowship is structured as a loose alliance of independent national and regional Pentecostal denominations. The AG is Trinitarian and holds the Bible as divinely inspired, baptism by immersion is practiced as an ordinance instituted by Christ for those who have been saved. Baptism is understood as an sign of an inward change. As an ordinance, Communion is also practiced, the Assemblies of God also places a strong emphasis on the fulfillment of the Great Commission and believes that this is the calling of the church. As classical Pentecostals, the Assemblies of God believes all Christians are entitled to, the AG teaches that this experience is distinct from and subsequent to the experience of salvation. The baptism in the Holy Spirit empowers the believer for Christian life, the initial evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit is speaking in tongues as the Spirit gives utterance. In addition, it believes in the present day use of other spiritual gifts. The Assemblies of God USA, for example, adheres to the Statement of Fundamental Truths, the Assemblies of God has its roots in the Pentecostal revival of the early 20th century. The Pentecostal aspects of the revival were not generally welcomed by established churches and these people sought out their own places of worship and founded hundreds of distinctly Pentecostal congregations. By 1914, many ministers and laymen began to realize just how far-reaching the spread of the revival. Concerned leaders felt the desire to protect and preserve the results of the revival by uniting through cooperative fellowship, a remaining fellowship emerged from the meeting and was incorporated under the name General Council of the Assemblies of God in the United States of America. In 1919, Pentecostals in Canada united to form the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada which formally affiliated with the Assemblies of God USA the next year. The Assemblies of God in Great Britain was formed in 1924 and would have an influence on the Assemblies of God in Australia. The Australian Assemblies of God was formed in 1937 by a merger of the Pentecostal Church of Australia, the Queensland AG had formed in 1929, though, it was never formally affiliated with the AG in America. The Assemblies of God of South Africa was founded in 1925, prior to 1967, the Assemblies of God, along with the majority of other Pentecostal denominations, officially opposed Christian participation in war and considered itself a peace church

Assemblies of God
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Assemblies of God
Assemblies of God
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An AG church in Fiji, conveniently located to serve passengers entering the country via Nadi Airport
Assemblies of God
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Samoan Assemblies of God church in the village of Lotopa, Samoa

32.
Stick chart
–
Stick charts were made and used by the Marshallese to navigate the Pacific Ocean by canoe off the coast of the Marshall Islands. The charts represented major ocean swell patterns and the ways the islands disrupted those patterns, most stick charts were made from the midribs of coconut fronds that were tied together to form an open framework. Island locations were represented by shells tied to the framework, or by the junction of two or more sticks. The threads represented prevailing ocean surface wave-crests and directions they took as they approached islands and met other similar wave-crests formed by the ebb and flow of breakers. Individual charts varied so much in form and interpretation that the navigator who made the chart was the only person who could fully interpret. The use of stick charts ended after World War II when new technologies made navigation more accessible. The stick charts are a significant contribution to the history of cartography because they represent a system of mapping ocean swells and they also use different materials from those common in other parts of the world. They are an indication that ancient maps may have looked very different, Marshallese navigators used their senses and memory to guide them on voyages by crouching down or lying prone in the canoe to feel how the canoe was being pitched and rolled by underlying swells. The Marshallese recognized four main ocean swells, the rilib, kaelib, bungdockerik, the four types of ocean swells were represented in many stick charts by curved sticks and threads. The rilib swell is the strongest of the four ocean swells and was referred to as the backbone swell and it is generated by the northeast trade winds and is present during the entire year, even when they do not penetrate as far south as the Marshall Islands. Marshallese considered the rilib swells to come from the east, even though the angle of the winds as well as the impact of the ocean currents varied the swell direction. The kaelib swell is weaker than the rilib and could only be detected by knowledgeable persons, the bungdockerik is present year round as well and arises in the southwest. This swell is often as strong as the rilib in the southern islands, the bundockeing swell is the weakest of the four swells, and is mainly felt in the northern islands. The stick charts typically fall into three categories, mattang, meddo, and rebbelib. The mattang stick chart was a chart used for instruction. The meddo chart showed actual islands and their relative or exact positions, the meddo chart portrayed only a section of one of the two main island chains. Rebbelib charts portrayed the same information as a chart. Rebbelib charts, unlike meddo charts, included all or most of one or both chains of islands, stick charts were not made and used by all Marshall Islanders

Stick chart
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Überseemuseum Bremen 2009 063

33.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth

34.
Bokak Atoll
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Bokak Atoll or Taongi Atoll is an uninhabited coral atoll in the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands, located in the North Pacific Ocean at 14°32′N 169°00′E. Due to its isolation from the main islands in the group, Bokak has an undisturbed flora. Wake Island is 348 mi north-northwest, the land area is 3.2 km2, and the lagoon measures 78 km2. The total area is 129 km2, the atoll is roughly crescent-shaped, measuring about 18 km by 9 km, and oriented in a north-south direction. The atoll reef is unbroken except for a 20 m wide channel in the west, ten islets lie on the eastern and southeastern reef. The more important named islets, from north to south, are North Island, Kamwome, Bwdije, Sibylla, Bokak, Sibylla is the largest, measuring approximately 7.2 km in length and up to 305 m in width. Kamwome Islet to the north-east of Sibylla is the second largest, while Bokak, after which the atoll is named, lies to the south of Sibylla. Based on the results of drilling operations on Enewetak Atoll, in the nearby Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands, shallow water fossils taken from just above Enewetaks basalt base are dated to about 55mya. High boulder and sand ridges indicate a history of severe storms and are a feature of the islets, inland on the wider islets are sand and rubble flats, while back from the lagoon sides are low sand and gravel ridges. Soils are mostly very immature, a mixture of coarser coral sand, the lagoon is shallow, probably not exceeding 30 metres depth, and has many coral heads and patch reefs, some reaching the surface. Water cascades over the rim and flats of the sloping leeward reef. A massive algal ridge lines the edge of the windward reef, while the south. This rim is maintained by the constant flow of water over the reef flat, Bokak is the driest of the Marshall Islands atolls, having a semi-arid character. Mean annual temperature is approximately 28 °C, mean annual rainfall is less than 1,000 mm, and falls primarily during the late summer. Prevailing winds are north to north-easterlies, Bokak supports just nine plant species. All are native to the Marshall Islands and entirely undisturbed by introduced species, the most common formation is a low, sparse scrub forest of tree heliotrope, 2–6 m tall, with occasional taller trees. The understory typically comprises beach maupaka, or sparse endemic bunchgrass, ʻihi, ʻilima, or alena, a small stand of Pisonia grandis is found on Kamwome Islet and in another very small stand on Sibylla. Pure stands of very dense beach naupaka shrubland, sometimes with tree heliotrope, are predominant and cover 50-75% of southern, heliotropium, Scaevola, and Sida dominated shrublands and the sandy bunchgrass savanna represent the finest examples of such vegetation in the Marshalls and probably the entire Pacific region

35.
Maluku Islands
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The Maluku Islands or the Moluccas are an archipelago within Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone, geographically they are located east of Sulawesi, west of New Guinea, and north and east of Timor. The islands were also the core of the Spice Islands known to the Chinese and Europeans. The name was due to the nutmeg, mace and cloves that were originally found there. The Maluku Islands formed a province from Indonesian independence until 1999. A new province, North Maluku, incorporates the area between Morotai and Sula, with the arc of islands from Buru and Seram to Wetar remaining within the existing Maluku Province, North Maluku is predominantly Muslim, and its capital is Sofifi on Halmahera island. Maluku province has a larger Christian population, and its capital is Ambon, though originally Melanesian, many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were exterminated in the 17th century during the spice wars. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the twentieth century under the Dutch. Between 1999 and 2002, conflict between Muslims and Christians killed thousands and displaced half a million people, the name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the term used by Arab traders for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk. The Maluku Islands were a single province from Indonesian independence until 1999 when they were split into North Maluku and Maluku, North Maluku province includes Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, Halmahera Morotai, the Obi Islands, and the Sula Islands. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. Arab merchants began to arrive in the 14th century, bringing Islam, peaceful conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs teeth, the Portuguese had conquered the city state of Malacca in the early 16th century and their influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia. On the return trip, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island in 1512, there he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade, both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah and his son Sultan Said. By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, the Pela Gandong community relationship system is between various Christian and Muslim villages throughout the regions

36.
Enewetak Atoll
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Enewetak Atoll is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 850 people forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area less than 5.85 square kilometres, its not higher than 5 metres. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 kilometres west from Bikini Atoll. Nuclear testing by the US totaling more than 30 megatons of TNT took place during the war, in 1977–1980. The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, the U. S. government referred to the atoll as Eniwetok until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to Enewetak. Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount, the seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous. This seamount is now about 4,600 feet below sea level and it is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion. Enewetak has an elevation above sea level of 10 feet. Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B. C, the first European visitor to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Alvaro de Saavedra, arrived on 10 October 1529. He called the island Los Jardines, in 1794 sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands Browns Range. It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885. With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, the Japanese administered the island under the South Pacific Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The 1st Amphibious arrived on January 4,1944, combat also occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, site of a Japanese seaplane base. Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetak became a forward base for the U. S. Navy. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488, woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted here. Following the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, the atoll was used for nuclear testing as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U. S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak, forty-three nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958

Enewetak Atoll
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Aerial view of Enewetak and Parry
Enewetak Atoll
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Landsat 8satellite image of Enewetak Atoll. The crater formed by the Ivy Mikenuclear test can be seen on the northeast cape of the atoll, with the smaller Castle Nectar crater adjoining it.
Enewetak Atoll
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Aerial view of the Cactus dome.
Enewetak Atoll
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Battle of Eniwetok

37.
Jemo Island
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Jemo Island Atoll is an uninhabited coral island in the Pacific Ocean, in the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands north-east of Likiep Atoll. The island is oval-shaped, and occupies the end of a narrow submarine ridge that extends to the northeast for several kilometers. Its total land area is only 0.16 square kilometres, first recorded sighting of Jemo Island by Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi on 10 January 1565. It was charted as Los Pajaros, Marshall Islands site Oceandots entry for Jemo Island at the Wayback Machine

38.
Wotho Atoll
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Wotho Atoll is a coral atoll of 13 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 4.33 square kilometres, the name Wotho means either entrance through the reef, or island far away according to different sources. The population of Wotho Atoll was 160 in 1998, first recorded sighting of Wotho Atoll by Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi on 12 January 1565. They were charted as Las Hermanas and it is likely that it had been visited earlier, in between December 1542 and January 1543, by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos. Wotho Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, after World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. The end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986, Marshall Islands site Entry at Oceandots. com at the Wayback Machine

39.
Adam Johann von Krusenstern
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Baron Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern, born as Adam Johann Ritter von Krusenstern, was a Russian admiral and explorer of Baltic German descent, who led the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe. In 1787, he joined the Russian Imperial Navy, and served in the war against Sweden, subsequently, he served in the Royal Navy in 1793–1799, visiting America, India and China. Under the patronage of Tsar/Czar Alexander I, Count Nikolay Petrovich Rumyantsev, the chief object of this undertaking was the development of the fur trade with Russian America. Krusenstern arrived back at Kronstadt in August 1806, both seafarers made maps and detailed recordings of their voyages. It was published in 1811–1812 in Berlin, this was followed by an English translation, published in London in 1813 and subsequently by French, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and his scientific work, which includes an atlas of the Pacific, was published in 1827 in Saint Petersburg. The geographical discoveries of Krusenstern made his very important for the progress of geographical science. His work won him a membership in the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 1816, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. As director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work and he was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. Krusenstern became an admiral in 1841 and he was awarded the Pour le Mérite in 1842 and he died in 1846 in Kiltsi manor, an Estonian manor he had purchased in 1816, and was buried in the Tallinn Cathedral. The Russian training tall ship Kruzenshtern is named after him, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Krusensterns circumnavigation, the ship retraced his route around the globe in 2005–2006. Another ship named after him is Russian icebreaker Ivan Kruzenshtern, also, an Aeroflot Airbus 320 VP-BKC is named after him. The crater Krusenstern on the Moon is named after him, there is Krusenstern Island in the Bering Strait, as well as a small group of islands in the Kara Sea, southwest of the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, called Krusenstern Islands. Cape Krusenstern in Northwest Alaska is the site of Cape Krusenstern National Monument, as a third-level linguistic derivation, there is a Russophone Israel klezmer-rock band, Kruzenshtern & Parohod. Another legacy is that the Cook Islands in the South Pacific bear that name thanks to von Krusenstern, previously known as the Hervey Islands, he changed their name in 1835 to honour Captain Cook. He recorded the new name in his Atlas de lOcéan Pacifique published at St. Petersberg between 1824 and 1835

40.
Louis Isidore Duperrey
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Louis Isidore Duperrey was a French naval officer and explorer. Louis Isidore Duperrey was born in 1786 and he joined the navy in 1802, and served as marine hydrologist to Louis Claude de Saulces de Freycinet aboard the Uranie. He commanded La Coquille on its circumnavigation of the earth with Jules Dumont dUrville as second, rené-Primevère Lesson also travelled on La Coquille as a naval doctor and naturalist. During the voyage the ship spend two weeks in the Bay of Islands in the north of New Zealand in 1824, on the return voyage to France the ship sailed through the Ellice Islands. He was the first to put together on a map the whole Gilbert Islands archipelago and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1861. The Australian eastern three-lined skink, Bassiana duperreyi, was named in his honour, european and American voyages of scientific exploration

Louis Isidore Duperrey
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Louis Isidore Duperrey

41.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre

Spanish Empire
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Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Spanish Empire
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Flag
Spanish Empire
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The death of French general Gaston de Foix at the Battle of Ravenna (1512).
Spanish Empire
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Upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.

42.
Caroline Islands
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The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, to the north of New Guinea. Politically they are divided between the Federated States of Micronesia in the part of the group, and Palau at the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also called Nuevas Filipinas or New Philippines as they were part of the Spanish East Indies, the Carolines span a distance of approximately 3540 kilometers, from Tobi, Palau at the westernmost point to Kosrae at the easternmost. The group consists of about 500 small coral islands, east of the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean, most of the islands comprise low, flat coral atolls, but some rise high above sea level. Other significant populations include Filipinos and Japanese, the natives live mainly on horticulture and fishing, also supplementing their diet with many different varieties of bananas and taro, either of the swamp or purple varieties. On some islands housing continues to be built with materials including coconut thatch. The language spoken in commerce is English, but there are several indigenous languages and they traditionally believe in a Supreme Being and in a bad spirit, yet they have hardly any religious rites. Due to extensive work, Christianity is the primary religion practiced in this region of Micronesia. Master Micronesian Navigator Mau Piailug was from the Carolinian island of Satawal and he learned the traditional navigation techniques of the Weriyeng school. These techniques had been preserved while similar techniques had been forgotten partly due to the remoteness of the Carolinian Islands. In 1985 a study was made on the origin of the sidereal compass used in the Caroline Islands, different islands and island groups in the Carolines passed down unique and variant oral legends recounting the origins and early histories of their peoples. On Pohnpei, for example, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras, Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas, Mwehin Sau Deleur, and Mwehin Nahnmwarki, Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. The Spanish explorers Toribio Alonso de Salazar and Diego de Saavedra arrived on August 22,1526, on 1 January 1528 the discoverer Álvaro de Saavedra took possession of the Uluti Islands on behalf of the King of Spain. Spanish explorers visited the archipelago in 1542,1543, and 1545, in 1565 Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Governor-General of the Philippines, passed through. The name was extended to include the Palau Islands and the archipelagos which were named the Gilbert Islands, the occupation of the Caroline Islands had, as in most of the Spanish colonies, a marked religious character. A royal decree of October 19,1707 granted authorization for the sending of missionaries in several expeditions to the islands, one such expedition was made by Father Juan Antonio Cantova, who was killed

43.
Gilbert and Ellice Islands
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A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration. As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976, the Gilbert Islands are a chain of sixteen atolls and coral islands in the western Pacific Ocean that are recognised as part of the Micronesia subregion of Oceania. The Gilbert Islands are the part of what is now Republic of Kiribati The atolls. In a geographical sense, the equator serves as the line between the northern Gilbert Islands and the southern Gilbert Islands. The Ellice Islands are south of the Gilbert Islands, the Ellice Islands comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line. The Ellice Islands are midway between Hawaii and Australia, the Ellice Islands are recognised as part of the Polynesia subregion of Oceania. In 1606 Pedro Fernandes de Queirós sighted Butaritari and Makin, which he named the Buen Viaje Islands, french captain Louis Duperrey was the first to map the whole Gilbert Islands archipelago. He commanded La Coquille on its circumnavigation of the earth, Funafuti atoll was named Ellices Island after Edward Ellice, a British politician and merchant, by Captain Arent de Peyster, who sighted the islands in 1819 sailing on the ship Rebecca. Ellice owned the cargo of the ship, the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands, of what is now Tuvalu, after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were formerly designated an ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code GE until 1977, a protectorate was generally established over this area by the Pacific Islanders Protection Act of 1857 and then in 1877 for the Western Pacific Territories. The sixteen islands of the Gilberts were declared a British Protectorate by Captain Davis R. N. of HMS Royalist between 27 May and 17 June 1892. The Ellice Islands were declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson R. N. of HMS Curacoa, the British Western Pacific Territories were administered by a High Commissioner resident in Fiji. A Resident Commissioner, Charles Swayne, was appointed for the Ellice Islands in 1892 and he was succeeded by W. Telfer Campbell in 1896, who established himself on Tarawa Atoll and remained in office until 1908. The role of the British colonial authorities emphasised the procurement of labour for the Ocean Island phosphate mining and keeping order among the workers, the islands became a Crown colony on 12 January 1916 by the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Order in Council,1915. The Union Islands were transferred to New Zealand in 1926, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony continued to be administered by a Resident Commissioner. In 1930 the Resident Commissioner, Arthur Grimble, issued revised laws, Regulations for the good Order and Cleanliness of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the Phoenix Islands were added to the colony in 1937. Banaba Island remained the headquarters of the colony until the British evacuation in 1942 during the Pacific War when Ocean Island, the United States forces landed in Funafuti on 2 October 1942 and on Nanumea and Nukufetau in August 1943 and constructed an airfield on each island and other bases. The atolls of Tuvalu acted as a staging post during the preparation for the Battle of Tarawa, colonel Fox-Strangways, was the Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony in 1941, who was located on Funafuti

44.
Palau
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Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island country located in the western Pacific Ocean. The country contains approximately 250 islands, forming the western chain of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, the most populous island is Koror. The capital Ngerulmud is located on the island of Babeldaob. Palau shares maritime boundaries with Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Federated States of Micronesia, the country was originally settled approximately 3,000 years ago by migrants from the Philippines and sustained a Negrito population until around 900 years ago. The islands were first explored by Europeans in the 16th century, the Imperial Japanese Navy conquered Palau during World War I, and the islands were later made a part of the Japanese-ruled South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations. During World War II, skirmishes, including the major Battle of Peleliu, were fought between American and Japanese troops as part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, Palau was made a part of the United States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Having voted against joining the Federated States of Micronesia in 1979, politically, Palau is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, which provides defense, funding, and access to social services. Legislative power is concentrated in the bicameral Palau National Congress, Palaus economy is based mainly on tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing, with a significant portion of gross national product derived from foreign aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency, the islands culture mixes Micronesian, Melanesian, Asian, and Western elements. Ethnic Palauans, the majority of the population, are of mixed Micronesian, Melanesian, a smaller proportion of the population is descended from Japanese and Filipino settlers. The countrys two official languages are Palauan and English, with Japanese, Sonsorolese, and Tobian recognised as regional languages. The name for the islands in the Palauan language, Belau, likely derives from either the Palauan word for village, beluu, or from aibebelau, the name Palau entered the English language from the Spanish Los Palaos, via the German Palau. An archaic name for the islands in English was the Pelew Islands and it should not be confused with Pulau, which is a Malay word meaning island. Palau was originally settled between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, most likely from the Austronesia or Indonesia, the islands sustained a population of short-statured Negrito or Pygmy people until the 12th century, when they were replaced. The modern population, judging by its language, may have come from the Sunda Islands, however, the Spanish presence only began to express with evangelization, began at the end of 17th century, and its dominance began to take shape in the 18th century. The conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in 1697 and they were interviewed by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696. Klein was able to draw the first map of Palau based on the Palauans representation of their home islands that made with an arrangement of 87 pebbles on the beach

Palau
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Map of 1888 showing the Spanish East Indies, being part of it Palau Islands (map without Philippines)
Palau
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Flag
Palau
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Koror chiefs in 1915
Palau
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TTPI High Commissioner and staff, 1960s

45.
Jaluit Atoll
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Jaluit Atoll is a large coral atoll of 91 islands in the Pacific Ocean and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is 11.34 square kilometres, most of the land area is on the largest islet of Jaluit. Jaluit is approximately 220 kilometres southwest of Majuro, Jaluit Atoll is a designated conservation area and Ramsar Wetland. In 2011 the population of the islands of Jaluit Atoll was 1,788 and it was the former administrative seat of the Marshall Islands. The British merchant vessel Rolla sighted Jaluit in 1803 and she had transported convicts from Britain to New South Wales and was on her way to China to find a cargo to take back to Britain. The German Empire claimed Jaluit Atoll along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, immigrants from Japan numbered several hundred by the 1930s. During World War II the islands Japanese garrison consisted of 1,584 men of the IJN and 727 men of the IJA, the island was bombed on five occasions in November and December 1943 by B-24 Liberator bombers of the USAAF 7th Air Force. Following World War II, Jaluit came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986, Jaluit Atolls lagoon is shaped roughly like a cross. The islet of Jabor has the largest population center on Jaluit Atoll, the island features a small hotel, small stores that sell staple foods, and a gasoline station. Jabor is a base for commercial and sports fishing, where motorboats can be rented, snorkeling spots are around the sunken dock by the airport and in the northern pass into the lagoon. Imiej is an islet a 45-minute boat ride from Jabor and it used to be the headquarters for the Imperial Japanese Navy garrison and was a major seaplane base. The ruins of the station, barracks, anti-aircraft guns. Jabor has two schools, St. Josephs, attached to the Catholic Church, and a public school. There are also schools in Jaluit motu and Iemej. Jaluit High School is a school that serves students from Jaluit Atoll. Jaluit Airport is served by Air Marshall Islands, forgotten Campaign, The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941-1942. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26, Marshall Islands site Entry at Oceandots. com at the Wayback Machine Surrender of Jaluit to the United States

46.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago

47.
Protestant
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists

Protestant
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(The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
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The Memorial Church in Speyer, Germany
Protestant
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Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
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The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.

48.
Missionaries
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes

Missionaries
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Village of Christianized Tapuyos Indians, Brazil c. 1820
Missionaries
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English missionary John Williams, active in the South Pacific
Missionaries
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Jesuits who were martyred by the Araucanian Indians in Elicura in 1612
Missionaries
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The first recorded baptism in Alta California.

49.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794

Japanese language
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A page from Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), the second oldest book of classical Japanese history.
Japanese language
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Map of Japanese dialects and Japonic languages
Japanese language
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Two pages from a 12th-century emaki scroll of The Tale of Genji from the 11th century.
Japanese language
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Calligraphy

50.
IJN 6th Fleet
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The 6th Fleet was a fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy that during World War II, had primary responsibility for the command of submarine operations. The 6th Fleet was formed on 15 November 1940, and was assigned control of all IJN submarine operations. Its initial mission was reconnaissance off the west coast of the United States, east coast of Australia, and the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean. With the development of the Type 95 submarine-launched variant of the Long Lance oxygen-propelled torpedo, Japan not only had the worlds most advanced torpedo, but one with the largest warhead. At the start of the Pacific War, Midget submarines were used in reconnaissance of the US Navy anchorage at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. With the outbreak of war, the mission of the 6th Fleet expanded to include shipping interdiction. A few specialized missions, such as the Attack on Sydney Harbour with the use of submarines were also undertaken. The 6th fleet cooperated briefly with the Kriegsmarine in the Indian Ocean in operations to interdict British commerce from its base in Penang, the IJN General Staff placed more emphasis on ambush operations of Allied capital ships. In 1942, Japanese submarines were credited with sinking two aircraft carriers, one cruiser and several destroyers, as well as damaging one aircraft carrier, after 1942, the IJN General Staff had little support to continue submarine use in commerce interdiction or ambush operations. Of these 174 IJN vessels,128 were lost during the conflict and most of the equipment were training vessels. None of the 30 submarines that supported the attack on Pearl Harbor survived the war, the latters fall to the US in July 1944 resulted in the deaths of the 6th fleet commander-in-chief Admiral Takeo Takagi and most of his staff. The increased vigilance of the US Fleet during the Battle of the Philippines, the final sortie of the 6th fleet was after the termination of the war, when the super submarine Japanese submarine I-401 returned to Yokosuka from Ulithi. The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II, death of a Navy, Japanese Naval Action in World War II. A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941-1945, submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy, archived from the original on 25 August 2007

IJN 6th Fleet
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6th Fleet in February 1942

51.
Mili Atoll
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Mili Atoll is a coral atoll of 92 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. It is located approximately 78 kilometres southeast of Arno Its total land area is 14.9 square kilometres making it the second largest of the Marshall Islands after Kwajalein and it encloses a much smaller lagoon than Kwajalein, with an area of 760 square kilometres. The atoll is separated by a channel called the Klee Passage from the Knox Atoll which is considerably smaller. The population of Mili Atoll was 1032 as of 1999, the main village is also called Mili. Other villages include Nallu, Enejet, Lukonor, Tokewa, and Wau, Nallu, Enejet and Lukonwor are only accessible from Mili by land during lowtide. Only Mili, Mili and Enejet, Mili have runways for small planes, Mili Airport and Enejit Airport are served by Air Marshall Islands when its aircraft are operational. The British merchant vessel Rolla sighted several islands in the Ratak, on 30 October 1803 she sighted islands at 5°41′N 169°27′E, which was possibly Mili Atoll. Captain Cummings sent in a cutter, but the heavy surf prevented it from landing, Rolla had transported convicts from Britain to New South Wales and was on her way to Canton to find a cargo to take back to Britain. In the early 19th century, Mili and Knox Atolls were designated the Mulgrave Islands by Adam Johann von Krusenstern, in 1823 her mutinous crew brought the whaler Globe, out of Nantucket, Massachusetts, to Mili Atoll by Samuel B. Comstock, “Bloody Sam”, had killed Globes captain and her three officers, a few days after she anchored at Mili Atoll, his co-mutineer Silas Payne murdered Comstock. Six of the crew fled in the ship, leaving nine men stranded on the island. By the time the U. S. schooner Dolphin, commanded by Lieutenant Commander John Percival, the infamous blackbirder Bully Hayes owned Tokowa Islet on Mili during the late 19th century and used it as a base for his operations. Mili Atoll was claimed by the German Empire along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, the Germans established a trading station and in 1870 a Christian church. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, Mili housed a radio direction finding beacon and a weather station and the atoll was fortified by the Japanese military. The garrison was composed of 2,045 men of the Imperial Japanese Navy and 2,237 men of the Imperial Japanese Army, in 1942 a seaplane base was developed. Between late 1942 and late 1943, the Japanese also constructed an airfield with three runways, and numerous support buildings, including a radar station. The perimeter of the island was fortified with coastal defense and anti-aircraft guns, between mid-1943 and August 1945, Mili was bombed by United States Navy carrier-based aircraft and shelled by warships. The attacks increased in frequency and severity after Majuro and Kwajalein had fallen to the United States, of the 5100-man Japanese garrison only half survived to the end of the war

52.
Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
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The test weapons produced a combined fission yield of 42.2 Mt of explosive power. The United States was engaged in a Cold War Nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build bigger and better bombs from 1946 until 1992, the first series of tests over Bikini Atoll in July 1946 was code named Operation Crossroads. The first test was dropped from an aircraft and detonated 520 feet above the target fleet, the second, Baker, was suspending under a barge. It produced a large Wilson cloud and contaminated all of target ships, chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called the second test the worlds first nuclear disaster. The second series of tests in 1954 was codenamed Operation Castle, the first detonation, Castle Bravo, was a new design utilizing a dry fuel thermonuclear hydrogen bomb. It was detonated at dawn on March 1,1954, the scientists and military authorities were shocked by the size of the explosion and many of the instruments they had put in place to evaluate the effectiveness of the device were destroyed. The military authorities and scientists had promised the Bikini Atolls native residents that they would be able to home after the nuclear tests. A majority of the family heads agreed to leave the island. Both locations proved unsuitable to sustaining life, resulting in starvation, despite the promises made by authorities, this and further nuclear tests rendered Bikini unfit for habitation, contaminating the soil and water, making subsistence farming and fishing too dangerous. The United States later paid the islanders and their descendants $2 billion in compensation for damage caused by the testing program. In 2016 an article in Science News reported that the radiation levels remained higher than the recommended safe levels for habitation, nine of the eleven family heads, or alaps, chose Rongerik as their new home. United States Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house, on March 7,1946, the residents gathered their personal belongings and saved building supplies. They were transported 125 miles eastward on U. S. Navy landing craft 1108 and LST861 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had a water and food supply. The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which proved to be inadequate. To conduct the tests, the United States assembled a fleet of more than 242 ships that provided quarters, experimental stations. The islands were used as recreation and instrumentation sites. The club was more than a small open-air building that served alcohol to servicemen and provided outdoor entertainment

Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
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Aerial view of the Able test, a 23 kilotons of TNT (96 terajoules) device detonated on July 1, 1946 at an altitude of 520 feet (160 m). This bomb consumed the infamous Demon core that caused the death of two scientists in two separate criticality accidents.
Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
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The size of the Castle Bravo test on 1 March 1954 far exceeded expectations, causing widespread radioactive contamination. The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India and Japan, and even the United States and parts of Europe. Though organized as a secret test, Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices.
Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
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The Cross Spikes Club, painted by Navy artist Arthur Beaumont.
Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
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Map of Bikini Atoll as of 2008. The islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized by the nuclear tests.

53.
Nuclear test
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Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them, the first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16,1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of engineer device, codenamed Mike, was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1,1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30,1961, with the largest yield ever seen, the treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980, underground tests in the United States continued until 1991, the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998, North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006,2009,2013, and 2016. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2016 in North Korea, Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere, Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. True underground tests are intended to be contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally vent to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of debris as a consequence. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two categories, tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel drifts, and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes. Exoatmospheric testing refers to tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets, underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge. Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of weapons against naval vessels. Another way to nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test.1 second. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test, Pakistans second, almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests, in the lists in Wikipedia, the lists are of explosions

Nuclear test
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Nuclear weapons
Nuclear test
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Sub-critical experiment at the Nevada Test Site.
Nuclear test
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The Phoenix of Hiroshima (foreground) in Hong Kong Harbor in 1967, was involved in several famous anti-nuclear protest voyages against nuclear testing in the Pacific.
Nuclear test
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The first atomic test, " Trinity ", took place on July 16, 1945.

54.
Castle Bravo
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Castle Bravo was the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Castle. Detonated on March 1,1954, the device was the most powerful nuclear device detonated by the United States, and its first lithium-deuteride-fueled thermonuclear weapon. Castle Bravos yield was 15 megatons of TNT,2.5 times more than predicted, fallout from the detonation fell on residents of Rongelap and Utirik atolls and spread around the world. The islanders were not evacuated until three days later and suffered radiation sickness, twenty-three crewmembers of the Japanese fishing vessel Daigo Fukuryū Maru were also contaminated by fallout, experiencing acute radiation syndrome. The blast incited international reaction over atmospheric thermonuclear testing, the Bravo Crater is located at 11°41′50″N 165°16′19″E. The remains of the Castle Bravo causeway are at 11°42′6″N 165°17′7″E, the Castle Bravo device was housed in a cylinder that weighed 23,500 pounds and measured 179.5 inches in length and 53.9 inches in diameter. The primary device was a COBRA tritium-boosted atomic bomb provided by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and it was located at the end of the device, which, as seen in the declassified film, shows a small cone projecting from the ballistic case. This cone is the part of the parabola that was used to focus the radiation emanating from the primary to the secondary, the device was called SHRIMP and had the same basic configuration as the Ivy Mike wet device, except with a different type of fusion fuel. SHRIMP used lithium deuteride, which is solid at room temperature, Ivy Mike used cryogenic liquid deuterium, Castle Bravo was the first test by the United States of a practical deliverable fusion bomb, even though the TX-21 as proof-tested in the Bravo event was not weaponized. The successful test rendered obsolete the cryogenic design used by Ivy Mike and its derivative, the JUGHEAD. It also used a 7075 aluminium 9.5 cm thick ballistic case, the SHRIMP was at least in theory and in many aspects identical in geometry to the RUNT and RUNT II devices later proof-fired in Castle Romeo and Castle Yankee respectively. On paper it was a version of these devices, and its origins can be traced back to the spring. The United States Air Force indicated the importance of lighter weapons for delivery by the B-47 Stratojet. Los Alamos National Laboratory responded to this indication with an enriched version of the RUNT scaled down to a 3/4 scale radiation-implosion system called the SHRIMP. The proposed weight reduction would provide the Air Force with a more versatile deliverable gravity bomb. The final version tested in Castle used partially enriched lithium as its fusion fuel, natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7 isotopes. The enriched lithium used in Bravo was nominally 40% lithium-6, the fuel slugs varied in enrichment from 37 to 40% in 6Li, and the slugs with lower enrichment were positioned at the end of the fusion-fuel chamber, away from the primary. The mixture cost about 4.54 USD/g at that time, the fusion burn efficiency was ~25. 1%, the highest attained efficiency of the first TN weapon generation

55.
Nuclear weapons
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout

56.
Elugelab
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Elugelab was an island, part of the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands. It was increased in size, and then destroyed by the worlds first true hydrogen bomb test on 1 November 1952, prior to being enlarged, and destroyed, the island was described as just another small naked island of the atoll. The fireball created by Ivy Mike had a radius of 2.9 to 3.28 km. This maximum is reached a number of seconds after the detonation, while still relatively close to the ground, the fireball had yet to reach its maximum dimensions and was thus approximately three and one quarter miles wide. The island became dust and ash, pulled upward to form a cloud that rose about twenty-seven miles into the sky. According to Eric Schlosser, all that remained of Elugelab was a crater filled with seawater, more than a mile in diameter. The blast yielded 10.4 megatons of energy,700 times the energy that leveled central Hiroshima. The detonation also collapsed some natural crevices in the reef, some away from the rim of the crater. Full radioecology recovery surveys were documented before and after each test series, krakatoa - a larger island that was destroyed by a much more powerful natural volcanic explosion. Explosion crater Mike Test from PBS

57.
Enewetak
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Enewetak Atoll is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 850 people forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area less than 5.85 square kilometres, its not higher than 5 metres. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 kilometres west from Bikini Atoll. Nuclear testing by the US totaling more than 30 megatons of TNT took place during the war, in 1977–1980. The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, the U. S. government referred to the atoll as Eniwetok until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to Enewetak. Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount, the seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous. This seamount is now about 4,600 feet below sea level and it is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion. Enewetak has an elevation above sea level of 10 feet. Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B. C, the first European visitor to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Alvaro de Saavedra, arrived on 10 October 1529. He called the island Los Jardines, in 1794 sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands Browns Range. It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885. With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, the Japanese administered the island under the South Pacific Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The 1st Amphibious arrived on January 4,1944, combat also occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, site of a Japanese seaplane base. Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetak became a forward base for the U. S. Navy. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488, woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted here. Following the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, the atoll was used for nuclear testing as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U. S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak, forty-three nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958

Enewetak
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Aerial view of Enewetak and Parry
Enewetak
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Landsat 8satellite image of Enewetak Atoll. The crater formed by the Ivy Mikenuclear test can be seen on the northeast cape of the atoll, with the smaller Castle Nectar crater adjoining it.
Enewetak
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Aerial view of the Cactus dome.
Enewetak
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Battle of Eniwetok

58.
Project 4.1
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Government and mainstream historical sources point to the study being organized on March 6 or March 7,1954, six days after the Bravo shot. In the wake of the Bravo accident, a new section was added to the Castle Bravo Weapons Effects research section. Eugene P. Cronkite of the National Naval Medical Center was designated as Project Officer, cronkites instructions stressed the importance of secrecy surrounding the project. the project is classified SECRET RESTRICTED DATA. The DOE report also concluded that The dual purpose of what is now a DOE medical program has led to a view by the Marshallese that they were being used as guinea pigs in a radiation experiment. Three U. S. Navy ships were used in the project, USS Nicholas, USS Renshaw, the primary study of the Marshallese was terminated around 75 days after the time of exposure. In July 1954 a meeting at the Division of Biology at the U. S, atomic Energy Commission decided to complete 6- and 12-month follow-up exposure studies, some of which were later written up as addendums to Project 4.1. Some Marshallese have alleged that the exposure of the Marshallese was premeditated, Medical treatment that Rongelapese and Utrikese have been receiving is also highly questionable. The AEC issued a staff comment denying these charges, in 1994, a 1953 Castle Bravo program prospectus was found which included reference to Project 4.1 apparently written before the Bravo shot had occurred. The U. S. government responded that someone had gone back into the project list after the Bravo test to insert Project 4.1, thus, according to the U. S. government, the acts were not premeditated. All other U. S. documents point to Project 4.1 having been established after the Bravo test—most sources point to its having been organized on March 7,1954. The final Project 4.1 report began in its preface with the statement that Operation CASTLE did not include a biomedical program. All official and mainstream accounts of the Bravo test indicate that its high level of fallout was a result of a miscalculation in relation to its design and was not deliberate. Hacker, the historian of U. S. Immediate action centered on seeing them evacuated and decontaminated, then cared for medically, but studies of their exposures and aftereffects also began. That effort became project 4.1 in the Castle experimental program and this unfortunate choice of terminology may help explain later charges that the AEC had deliberately exposed the Marshallese to observe the effects. Findings from project 4.1 soon began to appear in print and this study of the Marshallese was in some cases beneficial for their treatment, and in other cases not. Those on the Rongelap Atoll were the most seriously affected, receiving approximately 175 rads of radiation before they were evacuated and those on Ailinginae received 69 rads, those on Utirik received 14 rads, and the Americans on Rongerik received an average dose of 78 rads. The results of the original Project 4.1 were published by the authors in professional medical journals in 1955

Project 4.1
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The Castle Bravo fallout plume spread dangerous levels of radiation over an area over 100 miles long, including inhabited islands.
Project 4.1
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The cover to the Project 4.1 Final Report, "Study of Response of Human Beings Accidentally Exposed to Significant Fallout Radiation."

59.
Nuclear fallout
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It commonly refers to the radioactive dust and ash created when a nuclear weapon explodes, but such dust can also originate from a damaged nuclear plant. Fallout may get entrained with the products of a pyrocumulus cloud and this radioactive dust, usually consisting of fission products mixed with bystanding atoms that are neutron activated by exposure, is a highly dangerous kind of radioactive contamination. An air burst can eventually produce worldwide fallout, a ground burst can produce possibly much more severe, local fallout. These particles may be drawn up into the stratosphere, particularly if the explosive yield exceeds 10 kt. Initially little was known about the dispersion of nuclear fallout on a global scale, the AEC assumed that fallout would be dispersed evenly across the globe by atmospheric winds and gradually settle to the Earths surface after weeks, months, and even years as worldwide fallout. This hazard is less pertinent than local fallout, which is of much greater immediate operational concern, in a land or water surface burst, heat vaporizes large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the radioactive cloud. This material becomes radioactive when it condenses with fission products and other radiocontaminants that have become neutron-activated, the table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and drinking water causing formal mutations throughout animal and human life. The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, more than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout. Chemical properties of the elements in the control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, the ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onwards. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but takes the time to descend, so although it covers a larger path. Thus, the width of the pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern. But thunderstorms can bring down activity as rain more rapidly than dry fallout, particularly if the cloud is low enough to be below, or mixed with. There are two considerations for the location of an explosion, height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, in case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly sea salts with some water, these can have a cloud seeding effect causing local rainout and areas of high local fallout

Nuclear fallout
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Nuclear weapons
Nuclear fallout
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Comparison of fallout gamma dose and dose rate contours for a 1 Mt fission land surface burst, based on DELFIC calculations. Because of radioactive decay, the dose rate contours contract after fallout has arrived, but dose contours continue to grow
Nuclear fallout
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Fallout shelter sign on a building in New York City.
Nuclear fallout
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Following the detonation of the first atomic bomb, pre-war steel became a valuable commodity for scientists since it was the only steel not contaminated by radiation.

60.
Aloha Airlines
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Aloha Airlines was a Hawaiian airline headquartered in Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii, operating from a hub at Honolulu International Airport. Operations began on July 26,1946, and ceased on March 31,2008, the name reflected Tonggs vision of a trans-oceanic airline connecting California, Hawaii, and China. It soon earned the nickname The Aloha Airline and was flying four aircraft by the end of the year, in 1952, the airline reported its first annual profit, $36,410.12. The airlines market share rose to 30% that year, up from 10% in 1950, however, the introduction of the Convair 340 at Hawaiian Airlines halted further growth of TPAs market share for over five years. In 1958, real estate developer Hung Wo Ching, whose family held a stake in the airline. In November of that year, the changed its name again. On April 15,1959, Aloha took delivery of its first Fairchild F-27 turboprop aircraft and these aircraft were unique to Aloha, built with a stronger keel beam and thicker belly skin to satisfy concerns about ditching the high-wing aircraft. That summer, Alohas market share jumped to 42%, Aloha retired its last DC-3 on January 3,1961, becoming the second airline in the United States to operate an all-turbine fleet. In 1963, the airline took delivery of two Vickers Viscounts from Austrian Airlines and soon acquired a third from Northeast Airlines. Soon, the made the move to pure jets, with its first new British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven twin jet arriving in Honolulu on April 16,1966. The last F-27 was retired from service in June 1967, Aloha placed an order for two Boeing 737-200 jetliners in 1968. Named Funbirds, the Boeing jets entered service in March 1969, the massive capacity increase hurt both airlines, and in 1970, the first of three unsuccessful merger attempts between the two rivals was made. In October 1971, the airline sold its remaining Viscount 745 turboprop aircraft, in 1983, Aloha introduced its AlohaPass frequent flyer program. In 1984, the airline leased a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, and on May 28, the operation, however, was unable to compete with Continental Airlines, and was discontinued on January 12,1985. In October of that year, Aloha acquired Quick-Change 737 aircraft that could be converted from a passenger configuration to all-cargo freighter for nighttime cargo flights. In February 1986, Aloha began weekly flights between Honolulu and Kiritimati, becoming the first airline to operate ETOPS approved B737s, Aloha Aviation Investment Group, and Aloha Hawaii Investors LLC took stakes in the airline. In 1987, the airline acquired Princeville Airways, renaming Aloha IslandAir, in 2003, Island Air was sold to Gavarnie Holding and became an independent airline. On February 14,2000, the airline began service, flying newly delivered ETOPS certified Boeing 737-700 jetliners from Honolulu, Kahului

61.
Climate change
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Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself

Climate change
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Atmospheric sciences
Climate change
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Pacific Decadal Oscillation 1925 to 2010
Climate change
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A schematic of modern thermohaline circulation. Tens of millions of years ago, continental-plate movement formed a land-free gap around Antarctica, allowing the formation of the ACC, which keeps warm waters away from Antarctica.
Climate change
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In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by MSUNASA satellites, effects appear from aerosols released by major volcanic eruptions (El Chichón and Pinatubo). El Niño is a separate event, from ocean variability.

62.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database

63.
Geography of the Marshall Islands
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The Marshalls consist of 29 atolls and five isolated islands, which form two parallel groups—the Ratak chain and the Ralik chain. The Marshalls share maritime boundaries with Micronesia and Kiribati, two-thirds of the nations population lives in Majuro and Ebeye. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and this is a list of the extreme points of the Marshall Islands, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. If this is considered part of the Marshall Islands, then Toki Point on Peale Island, Wake Island is the northern-most point of the Marshall Islands

Geography of the Marshall Islands

64.
Laura, Marshall Islands
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Laura is an island town situated in Marshall Islands. It is located in the west of Majuro Atoll, at approximately 10 feet above sea level, Laura has the highest elevation of any islands in the Majuro Atoll. Marshall Islands International Airport is located on the island of Laura, a road connects the island of Laura to Djarrit. The town was named by World War II GIs in reference to American actress Lauren Bacall, Djarrit, also known as Rita, was named in the same period for actress Rita Hayworth

Laura, Marshall Islands
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Beach scenery

65.
Ailinginae Atoll
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Ailinginae Atoll is an uninhabited coral atoll of 25 islands in the Pacific Ocean, on the northern end of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 2.8 square kilometres and it is located approximately 13 kilometres west of Rongelap Atoll. The landscape is low-lying with only the top 3 metres above sea level, the two entrances into the lagoon are Mogiri Pass and Eniibukku Pass. These are 0.9 and 0.3 miles wide respectively, the average temperature of these islands is about 27 °C during daytime and slightly warmer during night-time due to cold weather associated with rain showers during daytime. The rainy season is from September through November, the island is covered with scrub, grasses and some stands of Casuarina trees. First sighting recorded by Europeans was by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on 1 January 1528, after World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. Ailinginae Atoll has been uninhabited since 1954 when the few islanders were evacuated due to nuclear fallout fears from the Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll to the northwest, also contaminated by Castle Bravo test, Rongelap Atoll, Utirik Atoll, Rongerik Atoll Ailinginae Atoll Fact Sheet Oceandots site. Archived from the original on 2010-12-23, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown Marshall Islands site Map of Ailinginae Atoll 1893 Geography of the Marshall Islands, including Ailinginae Atoll

66.
Bikar Atoll
–
Bikar Atoll is an uninhabited atoll in the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. It is one of the smallest atolls in the Marshalls and located at 12°14′N 170°08′E, due to its relative isolation from the main islands in the group, Bikar has a largely undisturbed flora and fauna that has been allowed to exist in a relatively pristine condition. It is located 579 kilometres north of Majuro Atoll, the capital of the Marshall Islands,320 kilometres South-southeast of Bokak, and 115 kilometres north of Utirik, the land area is 0.5 square kilometres, surrounding a 37. 4-square-kilometre lagoon. The approximately diamond-shaped atoll measures up to 13 km north to south and its six islets have a combined land area of less than 0.5 square kilometres and enclose a shallow lagoon of 37 square kilometres. The surrounding reef is continuous except for one narrow pass located on the western side, the major islets are Bikar, Jabwelo, Almani and Jaboero. Bikar, the largest, reaches a height of 6 meters above sea level. Based on the results of drilling operations on Enewetak Atoll, in the nearby Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands, shallow water fossils taken from just above Enewetaks basalt base are dated to about 55 mya. Low rainfall and high temperatures lead to conditions in which a fresh water Ghyben-Herzberg lens cannot form. The water at Bikar island is not as brackish as similarly arid Taongi Atoll, Bikar is one of the driest of the Marshall Islands atolls, having a semi-arid character. Mean annual temperature is approximately 82 °F, mean annual rainfall is less than 45 inches, and falls primarily during the July through October rainy season. Prevailing winds are north to north-easterlies, much of the Pisonia forest noted in earlier surveys was devastated by a cyclone, perhaps Typhoon Mary in 1977. This is likely a recurring event. A small number of coconut palms planted by visiting islanders survive, a 1952 survey found that they produced small nuts containing bitter milk. Bikars status as a major nesting site was affected by a cyclone. Twenty-three species of birds were found in a 1969 survey, of which 19 were observed during a count in 1988. Species breeding in larger numbers that included the great frigatebird. Their numbers appear reduced due to the destruction of the Pisonia forests, other breeding species include the red-tailed tropicbird, white-tailed tropicbird, the masked booby, brown booby, white tern, brown noddy, and sooty tern. Migrant birds include small numbers of the ruddy turnstone, wandering tattler, bristle-thighed curlew, lesser golden plover, Bikar is also a major nesting site for the endangered green turtle, over 250 nesting sites having been observed in 1988

67.
Rongerik Atoll
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Rongerik Atoll or Rongdrik Atoll is a coral atoll of 17 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and is located in the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands, approximately 200 kilometres east of Bikini Atoll. Its total land area is only 1.68 square kilometres, Rongerik Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, although the island was uninhabited. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. After months of food shortages and malnutrition, they were moved first to Kwajalein, on March 1,1954, Rongerik was exposed to radioactive fallout as a result of the detonation of Operation Castles Bravo. Traditionally, Marshall Islanders believe Rongerik to be haunted by the Demon Girls of Ujae, according to Spanish researcher Emilio Pastor in a paper submitted to his government in 1948, a number of small islands in Micronesia continue legally under Spanish sovereignty. Although the Spanish government studied the case in 1949 and accepted this interpretation, it has not asserted its claim to the islands

68.
Bycatch
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Bycatch, in the fishing industry, is a fish or other marine species that is caught unintentionally while catching certain target species and target sizes of fish, crabs etc. Bycatch is either of a different species, the wrong sex, the term bycatch is also sometimes used for untargeted catch in other forms of animal harvesting or collecting. In 1997, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development defined bycatch as total fishing mortality, Bycatch contributes to fishery decline and is a mechanism of overfishing for unintentional catch. Given the popularity of fishing throughout the world, a small local study in the US in 2013 suggested that discards may be an important unmonitored source of fish mortality. The highest rates of incidental catch of species are associated with tropical shrimp trawling. In 1997, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations documented the estimated bycatch and they found discard rates as high as 20,1 with a world average of 5.7,1. Shrimp trawl fisheries catch 2% of the total catch of all fish by weight. American shrimp trawlers produce bycatch ratios between 3,1 and 15,1, trawl nets in general, and shrimp trawls in particular, have been identified as sources of mortality for cetacean and finfish species. When bycatch is discarded, it is dead or dying. Tropical shrimp trawlers often make trips of several months without coming to port, a typical haul may last 4 hours after which the net is pulled in. Just before it is pulled on board the net is washed by zigzagging at full speed, the contents are then dumped on deck and are sorted. An average of 5.7,1 means that for every kilogram of shrimp there are 5.7 kg of bycatch, in tropical inshore waters the bycatch usually consists of small fish. The shrimps are frozen and stored on-board, the bycatch is discarded, recent sampling in the South Atlantic rock shrimp fishery found 166 species of finfish,37 crustacean species, and 29 other species of invertebrate among the bycatch in the trawls. Another sampling of the same fishery over a two-year period found that rock shrimp amounted to only 10% of total catch weight, iridescent swimming crab, dusky flounder, inshore lizardfish, spot, brown shrimp, longspine swimming crabs, and other bycatch made up the rest. Cetaceans, such as dolphins, porpoises, and whales, can be affected by entanglement in fishing nets and lines. Cetacean bycatch is increasing in intensity and frequency, in some fisheries, cetaceans are captured as bycatch but then retained because of their value as food or bait. In this fashion, cetaceans can become a target of fisheries, one example of bycatch is dolphins caught in tuna nets. As dolphins are mammals and do not have gills they may drown while stuck in nets underwater and this bycatch issue has been one of the reasons of the growing ecolabelling industry, where fish producers mark their packagings with disclaimers such as dolphin friendly to reassure buyers

69.
Mariana Islands
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They lie south-southeast of Japan, west-southwest of Hawaii, north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines, demarcating the Philippine Seas eastern limit. The islands were named after the Spanish queen Mariana of Austria, spaniards, who in the early 16th century were the first Europeans to arrive, eventually annexed and colonized the archipelago. The indigenous inhabitants are the Chamoru and they further reported findings which suggested that Tinian is likely to have been the first island in Oceania to have been settled by humans. The Mariana Islands are the part of a submerged mountain range that extends 1,565 miles from Guam to near Japan. Geographically, the Marianas are the northernmost islands of an island group called Micronesia. The Mariana Islands have a land area of 1,005 km2. They are composed of two units, Guam, a US territory the Northern Mariana Islands, which make up a Commonwealth of the United States. In the northern volcanic group a maximum elevation of about 2,700 feet is reached, there are craters showing signs of activity, coral reefs fringe the coasts of the southern isles, which are of slight elevation. The lowest point on the Earths crust, the Mariana Trench, is near the islands and is named after them. The islands are part of a structure known as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc system. This subduction region, just east of the chain, forms the noted Mariana Trench. Owing to the moistness of the soil cryptogams are numerous, as are also most kinds of grasses, on most of the islands there is a plentiful supply of water. The fauna of the Marianas, though inferior in number and variety, is similar in character to that of the Carolines and certain species are indigenous to both island groups. The climate though damp is healthy, while the heat, being tempered by the winds, is milder than that of the Philippines. The majority of islands in the Marianas which still retain their indigenous names end in the letters -an, e. g. Guahan, Agrigan, Agrihan, Aguihan/Aguigan, Pagan, Sarigan, etc. The islands are part of a structure known as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc system. This water is heated and boiled as the plate is carried farther downward, archeological studies of human activity on the islands has revealed potteries with red-slipped, circle- and punctate-stamped designs found in the Mariana Islands dating between 1500 and 1400 BC. These artifacts show similar aesthetic with the found in Northern and Central Philippines, the Nagsabaran pottery

Mariana Islands
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Geology of the southwest Pacific in the area of the Mariana Islands. The Mariana Islands are at map-right, east of the Philippine Sea and just west of the Mariana Trench in the ocean floor.
Mariana Islands
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The Mariana Islands are shown, with the territory of Guam to the extreme south, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (14 islands) to the north. Active volcanoes are shown with triangles
Mariana Islands
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Ruins of Guma Taga on Tinian. The pillars/columns are called latte (pronounced læ'di) stones, a common architectural element of prehistoric structures in the Mariana Islands, upon which elevated buildings were built. Earthquakes had toppled the other latte at this site by the time this photo was taken; an earthquake in 1902 toppled the one seen on the left, and today only the one on the right remains standing.
Mariana Islands
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A stamp from the Marianas' late Spanish colonial period, 1898–99

70.
Coconut crab
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The coconut crab is a species of terrestrial hermit crab, also known as the robber crab or palm thief. It is the largest land-living arthropod in the world, and is probably at the size limit for terrestrial animals with exoskeletons in recent times. It can grow to up to 1 m in length from leg to leg, the coconut crab is the only species of the genus Birgus, and is related to the terrestrial hermit crabs of the genus Coenobita. It shows a number of adaptations to life on land, like hermit crabs, juvenile coconut crabs use empty gastropod shells for protection, but the adults develop a tough exoskeleton on their abdomen and stop carrying a shell. Coconut crabs have organs known as branchiostegal lungs, which are used instead of the gills for breathing. They have a sense of smell, which has developed convergently with that of insects. Adult coconut crabs feed on fruits, nuts, seeds, and the pith of fallen trees, anything left unattended on the ground is a potential source of food which they will investigate and may carry away - thereby getting the alternative name of Robber crab. The species is associated with the coconut palm, yet coconuts are not a significant part of its diet. Although it lives in a burrow the crab has been filmed climbing coconut, there is no film showing a crab selectively picking coconut fruit, though they might dislodge ripe fruit that otherwise would fall naturally. Climbing is an escape route to avoid predation by large sea birds. Mating occurs on dry land, but the return to the edge of the sea to release their fertilised eggs. The larvae that hatch are planktonic for 3–4 weeks, before settling to the sea floor, entering a gastropod shell, sexual maturity is reached after about 5 years, and the total lifespan may be over 60 years. In the 3–4 weeks that the remain in the sea their chance of reaching another suitable location will be enhanced if they find a floating life support system. It is commonly agreed that floating logs or rafts of vegetation would be suitable, although rather chancy. In contrast, floating coconuts can be a significant part of the crabs dispersal options.1 kg. The carapace may reach a length of 78 mm, and a width of up to 200 mm, the body of the coconut crab is, like that of all decapods, divided into a front section, which has 10 legs, and an abdomen. The front-most pair of legs has large chelae, with the left being larger than the right, the next two pairs, as with other hermit crabs, are large, powerful walking legs with pointed tips, which allow coconut crabs to climb vertical or overhanging surfaces. The last pair of legs is small and is used by females to tend their eggs

71.
Black noddy
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The black noddy or white-capped noddy is a seabird from the tern family. It is a bird with black plumage and a white cap. It resembles the related brown or common noddy, but is smaller with darker plumage, a whiter cap. It was at one time, and sometimes still is, thought to be identical with this species, the black noddy is a medium-sized tern with a length of about 37 centimetres, a wingspan of about 70 centimetres and a weight of 98 to 144 grams. It has black plumage and a cap, a small white crescent under each eye. It has long tapering wings and a truncated tail, the sharply-pointed bill is black as are the feet, which are fully webbed. These birds may have known as noddies because of the behaviour of both sexes as they constantly dip their heads during their breeding display. They are very tolerant of even to the extent that they can be picked up off the nest. They feed on fish and squid which they gather by flying low over the surface of the sea and they may associate with other seabirds in areas where predatory fish are driving small fish to the surface. The nests of these birds consist of a platform, often created in the branches of trees by a series of dried leaves covered with bird droppings. One egg is laid each season, and nests are re-used in subsequent years, the trees used for this purpose are various but the Pisonia is most often used, and in large trees, there are often several nests. The guano produced by these birds adds large quantities of nutrients to the soil which is of importance to the plant communities on coral islands. At sea it is seen close to its breeding colonies within 80 km of shore. Birds return to their colonies, or to islands, in order to roost at night. There are seven listed subspecies, A. m. worcesteri, Cavilli Island & Tubbataha Reef A. m. minutus, New Hampshire Public TV Natureworks page on the black noddy

72.
White tern
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The white tern is a small seabird found across the tropical oceans of the world. It is sometimes known as the fairy tern although this name is confusing as it is the common name of the fairy tern Sternula nereis. Other names for the species include angel tern and white noddy, the white tern has 3–4 subspecies, the nominate race G. a. alba, G. a. leucopes, the Pacific white tern. Additionally, the white tern was long and often is still included herein as a subspecies G. a. microrhyncha. G. a. alba, tropical islands of the south Atlantic G. a. candida, Seychelles & Mascarene Islands to central Pacific including southern Maldives excluding ranges of next two ssp. G. a. microrhyncha, Phoenix, Line and Marquesas Islands G. a. leucopes, Pitcairn Islands Related to the noddies, the tern is small with white plumage. With a wingspan of about 25 inches, it widely across the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Nesting on coral islands, usually on trees with branches but also on rocky ledges and on man-made structures. This tern lives in Oceania, from Hawaii to New Zealand, along the coast of China and Vietnam, Indonesia, India, rarely it is also found in Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, and on some islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a pelagic and epipelagic bird, living along the coast and this small tern is notable for laying its egg on bare thin branches in a small fork or depression without a nest. This behaviour is unusual for terns, which generally nest on the ground and it is thought that the reason for the absence of nests is the reduction in nest parasites, which in some colonial seabirds can cause the abandonment of an entire colony. In spite of these there are costs associated with tree nesting, as the eggs. For this reason the white tern is also quick to relay should it lose the egg, the newly hatched chicks have well developed feet with which to hang on to their precarious nesting site. It is a bird, having been recorded living for 42 years. The white tern is not considered threatened as it is a species with several large colonies around the world. The white tern, manu-o-Kū, was named Honolulu, Hawaiʻis official bird on April 2,2007, white tern videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection

73.
House sparrow
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The house sparrow is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. A small bird, it has a length of 16 cm. Females and young birds are coloured brown and grey, and males have brighter black, white. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the sparrow is native to most of Europe, the Mediterranean region. Its intentional or accidental introductions to many regions, including parts of Australia, Africa, the house sparrow is strongly associated with human habitations, and can live in urban or rural settings. Though found in varied habitats and climates, it typically avoids extensive woodlands, grasslands. It feeds mostly on the seeds of grains and weeds, but it is an opportunistic eater and commonly eats insects and its predators include domestic cats, hawks, owls, and many other predatory birds and mammals. Because of its numbers, ubiquity, and association with human settlements, though it is widespread and abundant, its numbers have declined in some areas. The animals conservation status is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List, the house sparrow is typically about 16 cm long, ranging from 14 to 18 cm. It is a bird with a full chest and a large. Its bill is stout and conical with a length of 1. 1–1.5 cm. Its tail is short, at 5. 2–6.5 cm long, the wing chord is 6. 7–8.9 cm, and the tarsus is 1. 6–2.5 cm. In mass, the house sparrow ranges from 24 to 39.5 g, females usually are slightly smaller than males. The median mass on the European continent for both sexes is about 30 g, and in more southerly subspecies is around 26 g, younger birds are smaller, males are larger during the winter, and females are larger during the breeding season. Birds at higher latitudes, colder climates, and sometimes higher altitudes are larger, the plumage of the house sparrow is mostly different shades of grey and brown. The sexes exhibit strong dimorphism, the female is mostly buffish above and below, while the male has boldly coloured head markings, a reddish back, and grey underparts. The male has a grey crown from the top of its bill to its back. It has black around its bill, on its throat, and it has a small white stripe between the lores and crown and small white spots immediately behind the eyes, with black patches below and above them

House sparrow
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House sparrow
House sparrow
House sparrow
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Male house sparrows in breeding (left) and non-breeding (right) plumage
House sparrow

74.
Leatherback sea turtle
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The leatherback sea turtle, sometimes called the lute turtle or leathery turtle, is the largest of all living turtles and is the fourth-heaviest modern reptile behind three crocodilians. It is the living species in the genus Dermochelys and family Dermochelyidae. It can easily be differentiated from other sea turtles by its lack of a bony shell. Instead, its carapace is covered by skin and oily flesh, Dermochelys is the only extant genus of the family Dermochelyidae. D. coriacea is the species in genus Dermochelys. The genus, in turn, contains the only extant member of the family Dermochelyidae, domenico Agostino Vandelli named the species first in 1761 as Testudo coriacea after an animal captured at Ostia and donated to the University of Padua by Pope Clement XIII. In 1816, French zoologist Henri Blainville coined the term Dermochelys, the leatherback was then reclassified as Dermochelys coriacea. In 1843, the zoologist Leopold Fitzinger put the genus in its own family, in 1884, the American naturalist Samuel Garman described the species as Sphargis coriacea schlegelii. The two were united in D. coriacea, with each given subspecies status as D. c. coriacea. The subspecies were later labeled invalid synonyms of D. coriacea, the turtles common name comes from the leathery texture and appearance of its carapace. Older names include leathery turtle and trunk turtle, relatives of modern leatherback turtles have existed in some form since the first true sea turtles evolved over 110 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. The dermochelyids are relatives of the family Cheloniidae, which contains the six extant sea turtle species. However, their sister taxon is the extinct family Protostegidae that included species that did not have a hard carapace. Leatherback turtles have the most hydrodynamic body design of any sea turtle, with a large, a large pair of front flippers powers the turtles through the water. Like other sea turtles, the leatherback has flattened fore limbs adapted for swimming in the open ocean, claws are absent from both pairs of flippers. The leatherbacks flippers are the largest in proportion to its body among extant sea turtles, Leatherbacks front flippers can grow up to 2.7 m in large specimens, the largest flippers of any sea turtle. The leatherback has several characteristics that distinguish it from sea turtles. Its most notable feature is the lack of a bony carapace, instead of scutes, it has thick, leathery skin with embedded minuscule osteoderms

75.
Blue shark
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The blue shark is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, that inhabits deep waters in the worlds temperate and tropical oceans. Preferring cooler waters, blue sharks migrate long distances, such as from New England to South America, the species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN. Although generally lethargic, they can very quickly. Blue sharks are viviparous and are noted for large litters of 25 to over 100 pups and they feed primarily on small fish and squid, although they can take larger prey. Maximum lifespan is unknown, but it is believed that they can live up to 20 years. Blue sharks are light-bodied with long pectoral fins, like many other sharks, blue sharks are countershaded, the top of the body is deep blue, lighter on the sides, and the underside is white. The male blue shark commonly grows to 1.82 to 2.82 m at maturity, large specimens can grow to 3.8 m long. Occasionally, a blue shark is reported, with one widely printed claim of a length of 6.1 m. The blue shark is fairly elongated and slender in build and typically weighs from 27 to 55 kg in males, occasionally, a female in excess of 3 m will weigh over 204 kg. The heaviest reported weight for the species was 391 kg, the blue shark is also ectothermic and it has a unique sense of smell. They are viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, delivering four to 135 pups per litter, the gestation period is between nine and 12 months. Females mature at five to six years of age and males at four to five, courtship is believed to involve biting by the male, as mature specimens can be accurately sexed according to the presence or absence of bite scarring. Female blue sharks have adapted to the mating ritual by developing skin three times as thick as male skin. The blue shark is an oceanic and epipelagic shark found worldwide in deep temperate, in temperate seas it may approach shore, where it can be observed by divers, while in tropical waters, it inhabits greater depths. It lives as far north as Norway and as far south as Chile, blue sharks are found off the coasts of every continent, except Antarctica. Its greatest Pacific concentrations occur between 20° and 50° North, but with strong seasonal fluctuations, in the tropics, it spreads evenly between 20° N and 20° S. It prefers waters with a range of 7–16 °C but will tolerate temperatures of 21 °C or above. Records from the Atlantic show a regular clockwise migration within the prevailing currents, whale and porpoise blubber and meat have been retrieved from the stomachs of captured specimens and they are known to take cod from trawl nets

76.
Silky shark
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It is one of the most abundant sharks in the pelagic zone, and can be found around the world in tropical waters. Highly mobile and migratory, this shark is most often found over the edge of the continental shelf down to 50 m, the silky shark has a slender, streamlined body and typically grows to a length of 2.5 m. It is a deep, metallic bronze-gray above and white below, with prey often scarce in its oceanic environment, the silky shark is a swift, inquisitive, and persistent hunter. It feeds mainly on fishes and cephalopods, and has been known to drive them into compacted schools before launching open-mouthed. This species often trails schools of tuna, a favored prey and its sense of hearing is extremely acute, allowing it to localize the low-frequency noises generated by other feeding animals, and, by extension, sources of food. The silky shark is viviparous, meaning that the embryos are sustained by a placental connection to their mother. Significant geographical variation is seen in its life history details, reproduction occurs year-round except in the Gulf of Mexico, where it follows a seasonal cycle. Females give birth to litters of up to 16 pups annually or biennially, the newborn sharks spend their first months in relatively sheltered reef nurseries on the outer continental shelf, growing substantially before moving into the open ocean. The large size and cutting teeth of the silky shark make it potentially dangerous, however, attacks are rare, as few humans enter its oceanic habitat. Silky sharks are valued for their fins, and to a lesser extent their meat, hide, liver oil, because of their abundance, they form a major component of commercial and artisanal shark fisheries in many countries. Furthermore, their association with tuna results in many sharks being taken as bycatch in tuna fisheries, although slow-reproducing like most other sharks, the wide distribution and large population size of the silky shark was once thought to buffer the species against these fishing pressures. However, data now suggest that silky shark numbers are declining around the world, subsequent authors have assigned this species to the genus Carcharhinus. Jack Garrick, Richard Backus, and Robert Gibbs, Jr. synonymized C. floridanus with C. falciformis in 1964, the specific epithet falciformis is Latin for sickle-shaped, which refers to the outline of the dorsal and pectoral fins. The silky sharks common name comes from the texture of its skin compared to other sharks. Fossil teeth have also found in Pliocene strata at the Cava Serredi quarry in Tuscany. A set of poorly described, Eocene teeth resembling those of species are known from Egypt. Initial efforts to resolve the relationships of the silky shark were inconclusive, based on morphology. More recently, Gavin Naylors 1992 phylogenetic analysis, based on sequence data

Silky shark
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Silky shark
Silky shark
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Müller and Henle's illustration of a silky shark, accompanying their original species description.
Silky shark
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The silky shark is typically encountered in open water.
Silky shark
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Distinctive features of the silky shark include its small first dorsal fin and large pectoral fins.

77.
Bigeye thresher
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The bigeye thresher is a species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae, found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide. Like other thresher sharks, nearly half its length consists of the elongated upper lobe of the tail fin. Its common name comes from its enormous eyes, which are placed in keyhole-shaped sockets that allow them to be rotated upward and this species can also be distinguished by a pair of deep grooves on the top of its head, from which its scientific name is derived. The large eyes of the bigeye thresher are adapted for hunting in low light conditions and it is one of the few sharks that conduct a diel vertical migration, staying in deep water during the day and moving into surface waters at night to feed. To protect its sensitive brain and eyes from the changes accompanying these movements. This species feeds mainly on fish and squid, which are stunned via whip-like strikes of the long tail, bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous, usually bearing litters of two pups. The embryos are oophagous and feed on ova produced by the mother while inside the uterus and this shark is caught by commercial fisheries across its range, the meat is not highly regarded but the skin, fins, and liver oil are valued. It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and he based his description on a specimen caught off Madeira in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. The specific epithet superciliosus is from the Latin super meaning above, an allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the bigeye thresher is the pelagic thresher, with which it forms a clade. Fossil remains of the bigeye thresher dating to the Middle Miocene have been found in the Hokuriku region of Japan, the bigeye thresher has a virtually circumtropical distribution. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it has reported from New York to Florida. In the eastern Atlantic, it is known from Portugal, Madeira, Senegal, Guinea to Sierra Leone, Angola, in the western Indian Ocean, it occurs off South Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Sea. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown that Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations are genetically divergent from each other. Bigeye threshers are usually found over the shelf and in the open sea. They occur in surface temperatures of 16–25 °C, but have been tracked as far down as 723 m, little is known of their geographical movements, one individual has been documented moving from New York to the Gulf of Mexico, a straight-line distance of 2,767 km. The eyes of the bigeye thresher can measure up to 10 cm across in adults, each eye is taller than wide, with a bulbous upper portion. The orbits extend onto the surface of the head, allowing the eyes to orient upwards. There are also a pair of distinctive lateral grooves that extend from above the eyes to over the gill slits, the snout is moderately long and bulbous, and there are no labial furrows at the corners of the mouth

78.
Oceanic whitetip shark
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Its stocky body is most notable for its long, white-tipped, rounded fins. This aggressive but slow-moving fish dominates feeding frenzies, and is a danger to shipwreck or air crash survivors, the oceanic whitetip shark, or lesser white shark was described in 1831 by naturalist René-Primevère Lesson, who named the shark Carcharhinus maou. It was next described by Cuban Felipe Poey in 1861 as Squalus longimanus, the name Pterolamiops longimanus has also been used. The species epithet refers to the size of its pectoral fins. The oceanic whitetip shark has many names in English, Brown Milberts sand bar shark, brown shark, nigano shark, oceanic white-tipped whaler. However, Lessons name remained forgotten for so long that Carcharhinus longimanus remains widely accepted, the oceanic whitetip is found globally in deep, open water, with a temperature greater than 18 °C. It prefers waters between 20 and 28 °C and tends to withdraw from areas when temperatures fall outside of this and it was once extremely common and widely distributed, and still inhabits a wide band around the globe, however, recent studies suggest that its numbers have drastically declined. An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000 estimated a decline of 70% over that period and it is found worldwide between 45°N and 43°S latitude. In 2004, an oceanic whitetip was discovered dead on the west coast of Sweden—far beyond what was considered the northern boundary of its range. The shark spends most of its time in the layer of the ocean—to a depth of 150 m —and prefers off-shore. According to longline capture data, increasing distance from land correlates to a population of sharks. It is typically solitary, though gatherings have been observed where food is plentiful, unlike many animals, it does not have a diurnal cycle, and is active both day and night. Its swimming style is slow, with widely spread pectoral fins, despite its habitual isolation from members of its own species, pilot fish, dolphinfish, and remora may accompany it. In 1988, Jeremy Stafford-Deitsch reported seeing an individual accompanied by a pilot whale. C. longimanus most distinguishing characteristics are its long, wing-like pectoral and dorsal fins, the fins are significantly larger than most other shark species, and are conspicuously rounded. The sharks nose is rounded and its eyes are circular, with nictitating membranes, C. longimanus has a typical, although somewhat flattened requiem shark body, often with a mildly humpbacked aspect. It is bronze, brown, bluish, or grey dorsally, the oceanic whitetip shark is a medium-sized requiem shark. The largest specimen ever caught measured 4 m, a large size considering few specimens are known to exceed a length of 3 m

79.
Isometrus maculatus
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Isometrus maculatus is a species of scorpion in the Buthidae family, commonly called in English the lesser brown scorpion. It is a species of Asia which now has an extended pantropical range. Its spread is thought to have been facilitated by human activity, information on the effects it may have on native species where it has been introduced is scarce, but it is believed they hail from Australia. It has been introduced to the islands of Hawaii, where it is a potential predator, there is some confusion over whether Scorpio europaeus Linneaus,1758 is a synonym of Isometrus maculatus De Geer 1778, with the original type specimen for S. europaeus being lost. I. maculatus is 45-60 mm from the anterior carapace margin to the tip of the aculeus, marked adult sexual dimorphism is displayed in the species, with male pedipalpal and metasomal segments being much longer than those of females. It has enlarged pedipalps appearing clawlike, the jaws are small and partly hidden from the top by the carapace. I. maculatus fluoresce under ultraviolet light, except when emerging from an old exoskeleton, presumably this prevents detection by some predators when they are at their most vulnerable during a molt. Scorpions may require 5-7 instars to reach maturity, and fluorescence increases in intensity with each successive instar, I. maculatus is probably native to Sri Lanka and Philippines as is found inland there under natural conditions. Human activity has allowed it to spread and it is thought to be the most widely distributed scorpion in the world. It is distributed in tropical areas worldwide, the species is mostly absent from Europe, although it is present on the Spanish mainland and Alboran. It is also present in the regions, Afro-tropical, Australia, Nearctic. I. maculatus is reported on the Hawaiian Islands of Oahu, Maui and it has also been introduced to Kauai in Hawaii where it is inhabiting the same caves as endemic amphipods, upon which it most likely preys

Isometrus maculatus
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Lesser Brown Scorpion, Isometrus maculatus

80.
Pseudoscorpion
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A pseudoscorpion, also known as a false scorpion or book scorpion, is an arachnid belonging to the order Pseudoscorpiones, also known as Pseudoscorpionida or Chelonethida. Pseudoscorpions are generally beneficial to humans since they prey on clothes moth larvae, carpet beetle larvae, booklice, ants, mites and they are tiny and inoffensive, and are rarely seen due to their small size, despite being common in many environments. Pseudoscorpions belong to the arachnida class and they are small arachnids with a flat, pear-shaped body and pincers that resemble those of scorpions. They usually range from 2 to 8 millimetres in length, the largest known species is Garypus titanius of Ascension Island at up to 12 mm. Range is generally smaller at an average of 3 mm, the abdomen, known as the opisthosoma, is made up of twelve segments, each protected by plates made of chitin. The abdomen is short and rounded at the rear, rather than extending into a segmented tail, the color of the body can be yellowish-tan to dark-brown, with the paired claws often a contrasting color. They may have two, four or no eyes, a pseudoscorpion has eight legs with five to seven segments, the number of fused segments is used to distinguish families and genera. They have two very long pedipalps with palpal chelae which strongly resemble the pincers found on a scorpion, the pedipalps generally consist of an immobile hand and finger, with a separate movable finger controlled by an adductor muscle. A venom gland and duct are usually located in the mobile finger, during digestion, pseudoscorpions pour a mildly corrosive fluid over the prey, then ingest the liquefied remains. Pseudoscorpions spin silk from a gland in their jaws to make disk-shaped cocoons for mating, molting, however, they do not have book lungs as most of their closest relatives, the spiders, do. They breathe through spiracles, a trait they share with the insects, some species have an elaborate mating dance, where the male pulls a female over a spermatophore previously laid upon a surface. In other species, the male pushes the sperm into the female genitals using the forelegs. The female carries the eggs in a brood pouch attached to her abdomen. Between 20 and 40 young are hatched in a single brood, the young go through three molts over the course of several years before reaching adulthood. Many species molt in a small, silken igloo that protects them from enemies during this vulnerable period, after reaching adulthood, pseudoscorpions live two to three years. They are active in the months of the year, overwintering in silken cocoons when the weather grows cold. Smaller species live in debris and humus, some species are arboreal, while others are phagophiles, eating parasites in an example of cleaning symbiosis. Some species are phoretic, others may sometimes be found feeding on mites under the covers of certain beetles

Pseudoscorpion
Pseudoscorpion
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A pseudoscorpion from the United States
Pseudoscorpion
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Phoretic pseudoscorpion on a fly, Germany
Pseudoscorpion
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A book scorpion (Chelifer cancroides) on top of an open book

81.
Orthoptera
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The Orthoptera order of insects includes the grasshoppers, crickets, cave crickets, Jerusalem crickets, katydids, weta, lubber, Acrida, and locusts. More than 27,000 species are distributed worldwide, the tympanum or ear is located in the front tibia in crickets, mole crickets, and katydids, and on the first abdominal segment in the grasshoppers and locusts. These organisms use vibrations to other individuals. Grasshoppers are able to fold their wings, placing them in the group Neoptera, the name is derived from the Greek ortho meaning straight and ptera meaning winged. Orthopterans have a cylindrical body, with hindlegs elongated for jumping. They have mandibulate mouthparts for biting and chewing and large compound eyes, the antennae have multiple joints and filiform type, and are of variable length. The first and third segments on the thorax are larger, while the segment is much smaller. They have two pairs of wings, which are held overlapping the abdomen at rest, the forewings, or tegmina, are narrower than the hindwings and hardened at the base, while the hindwing is membranous, with straight veins and numerous cross-veins. At rest, the hindwings are held folded fan-like under the forewings, the final two to three segments of the abdomen are reduced, and have single-segmented cerci. and their wing type is tegmina. Orthopteroid species have a paurometabolous lifecycle or incomplete metamorphosis, the use of sound is generally crucial in courtship, and most species have distinct songs. Most grasshoppers lay their eggs in the ground or on vegetation, the eggs hatch and the young nymphs resemble adults, but lack wings and at this stage are often called hoppers. They may often also have a different coloration from the adults. Through successive moults, the nymphs develop wings until their final moult into an adult with fully developed wings. The number of moults varies between species, growth is very variable and may take a few weeks to some months depending on food availability. The branching order of animals is fairly well understood. The suborders Caelifera and Ensifera appear to be monophyletic and the Rhaphidophoridae are a group of the Tettigoniidae. The Pyrgomorphidae are the most basal group of Caelifera, the Myrmecophilidae appear to form a clade with the Gryllotalpidae instead of with the Gryllidae. Additional work may be needed to confirm this, among the four subfamilies of Tettigoniidae, the relationships are, among six acridid subfamilies the relationships are

82.
Short-horned grasshopper
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Grasshoppers are insects of the suborder Caelifera within the order Orthoptera, which includes crickets and katydids. They are sometimes referred to as short-horned grasshoppers to distinguish them from the katydids and they are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs enable them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. They are hemimetabolous insects which hatch from an egg into a nymph or hopper which undergoes five moults, at high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change colour and behaviour and form swarms. Under these circumstances they are known as locusts, other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on nymphs and adults. The eggs are the subject of attack by parasitoids and predators, the grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts have had effects that have changed the course of history. They are eaten in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia and they feature in art, symbolism and literature. Grasshoppers have the insect body plan of head, thorax. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, the head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws, the thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings, the forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping, the hind leg is particularly powerful, the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the bears a double row of spines. The interior of the houses the muscles that control the wings and legs. The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ, segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size, segment nine bears a pair of cerci, female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors

83.
Gryllidae
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Crickets, of the family Gryllidae, are insects related to bush crickets, and, more distantly, to grasshoppers. The Gryllidae have mainly cylindrical bodies, round heads, and long antennae, behind the head is a smooth, robust pronotum. The abdomen ends in a pair of cerci, females have a long. The hind legs have enlarged femora, providing power for jumping, the front wings are adapted as tough, leathery elytra, and some crickets chirp by rubbing parts of these together. The hind wings are membranous and folded when not in use for flight, many species, the largest members of the family are the bull crickets, Brachytrupes, which are up to 5 cm long. More than 900 species of crickets are described, the Gryllidae are distributed all around the world except at latitudes 55° or higher and they occur in varied habitats from grassland, bushes, and forests to marshes, beaches, and caves. Crickets are mainly nocturnal, and are best known for the loud, persistent, chirping song of trying to attract females. The singing species have good hearing, via the tympani on the tibiae of the front legs, Crickets often appear as characters in literature. The Talking Cricket features in Carlo Collodis 1883 childrens book, The Adventures of Pinocchio, the eponymous insect is central to Charles Dickenss 1845 The Cricket on the Hearth, as is the chirping insect in George Seldens 1960 The Cricket in Times Square. Crickets are celebrated in poems by William Wordsworth, John Keats and they are kept as pets in countries from China to Europe, sometimes for cricket fighting. Crickets are efficient at converting their food into body mass, making them a candidate for food production and they are used as food in Southeast Asia, where they are sold deep-fried in markets as snacks. They are also used to feed carnivorous pets and zoo animals, in Brazilian folklore, crickets feature as omens of various events. Crickets are small to medium-sized insects with mostly cylindrical, somewhat flattened bodies. The head is spherical with long slender antennae arising from cone-shaped scapes, on the forehead are three ocelli. The pronotum is trapezoidal in shape, robust, and well-sclerotinized and it is smooth and has neither dorsal or lateral keels. At the tip of the abdomen is a pair of cerci, and in females. The femora of the pair of legs are greatly enlarged for jumping. The tibiae of the legs are armed with a number of moveable spurs

Gryllidae
Gryllidae
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African field cricketGryllus bimaculatus
Gryllidae
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A male Gryllus cricket chirping. Its head faces its burrow; the leathery forewings (tegmina) are raised (clear of the more delicate hindwings) and are being scraped against each other (stridulation) to produce the song. The burrow acts as a resonator, amplifying the sound.
Gryllidae
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Two adult domestic crickets, Acheta domestica, feeding on carrot

84.
Demographics of the Marshall Islands
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The people of the Marshall Islands are of Micronesian origin, which is traced to a combination of peoples who emigrated from Southeast Asia in the remote past. The matrilineal Marshallese culture revolves around a system of clans. Virtually all Marshallese are Christian, most of them Protestant, other Christian denominations include Roman Catholicism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Latter-day Saints, Salvation Army, and Jehovahs Witness. There is also a presence of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Both Marshallese and English are official languages, Marshallese is spoken by most of the urban population. Both the Nitijela and national radio use Marshallese, the public school system provides education through grade 12, although admission to secondary school is selective. The elementary program employs a bilingual/bicultural curriculum, English is introduced in the first grade. There is one institution in the Marshall Islands—the College of the Marshall Islands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated

Demographics of the Marshall Islands
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Demographics of the Marshall Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.

85.
Springdale, Arkansas
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Springdale is the fourth-largest city in Arkansas, and is located in both Washington and Benton counties in Northwest Arkansas. Located on the Springfield Plateau deep in the Ozark Mountains, Springdale has long been an important industrial city for the region, in addition to several trucking companies, the city is home to the world headquarters of Tyson Foods, the worlds largest meat producing company. Originally named Shiloh, the city changed its name to Springdale when applying for a post office in 1872, the four-county Northwest Arkansas Metropolitan Statistical Area is ranked 109th in terms of population in the United States with 463,204 in 2010 according to the United States Census Bureau. The city had a population of 69,797 at the 2010 Census, Springdale has been experiencing a population boom in recent years, as indicated by a 133% growth in population between the 1990 and 2010 censuses. Tyson remains the top employer, and is visible throughout the city. Many public features bear the Tyson name, including the Randal Tyson Recreational Complex, Don Tyson Parkway, Helen Tyson Middle School, Don Tyson Elementary, governor Mike Beebe signed an act into law recognizing Springdale as the The Poultry Capital Of The World in 2013. Springdale was founded in 1838 and was known as Shiloh. In 1840, a Baptist church was founded in the town, the building was burned down during the Civil War but rebuilt in 1868. In 1878, the town was incorporated with the name of Springdale. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.9 square miles, of which,108.3 square miles of it is land and 0.7 square miles of it. The city limits north into southern Benton County. Springdale is bordered by the cities of Cave Springs, Lowell, and Bethel Heights to the north, by Elm Springs and Tontitown to the west, the city is located in both Benton and Washington counties along Interstate 49/US Highway 62/US Highway 71. This is the only fully controlled access route through the area, an interstate connection with Fort Smith to the south and Kansas City, Missouri to the north has greatly helped to grow Springdale. Within Washington County, Springdale is bordered along the south by Fayetteville, in some locations, this transition is seamless. The city extends west and east along Highway 412 toward Tontitown and Beaver Lake, Springdale is located on the Springfield Plateau, a subset of The Ozarks which run through northwest Arkansas, southern Missouri, and Northeastern Oklahoma. In the Springdale area, sandstones and shales were deposited on top of the Springfield Plateau during the Pennsylvanian Period and these were eroded after the Ouachita orogeny and uplift, exposing Mississippian limestone formations of the Springfield Plateau visible today. The Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area consists of three Arkansas counties, Benton, Madison, and Washington, and McDonald County, Missouri, the area had a population of 347,045 at the 2000 census which had increased to 463,204 by the 2010 Census. Springdale lies in the subtropical climate zone with influence from the humid continental climate type

86.
Asia
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Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them

87.
Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands
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Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands was spurred on by Japanese trade in the Pacific region. The first Japanese explorers arrived in the Marshall Islands in the late 19th century, as compared to other Micronesian islands in the South Pacific Mandate, there were fewer Japanese who settled in the islands. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Japanese populace were repatriated to Japan and they form a sizeable minority in the Marshall Islands populace, and are well represented in the corporate, public and political sectors in the country. The earliest Japanese contact with the Marshall Islands dates back to 1884, the pearl divers were believed to be murdered, after the Ada, a British trading ship sailed past the Marshall Islands and found the skeletal remains of the pearl divers. When news of the murder reached the Japanese government, two Japanese envoys–Goto Taketaro and Suzuki Tsunenori were sent to the Marshall Islands. The envoys reportedly explored some of the nearby atolls before paying a visit to Labon Kabua, before Goto and Suzuki returned for Japan, they induced Kabua to raise the Japanese flag over his house at Ailinglaplap. The Japanese government subsequently ordered the two envoys to return to the island to haul down the flag upon the envoys return. A report published by a German explorer, Hambruch in 1915 mentioned that three Japanese fishermen in a junk were massacred by the Marshallese at Lae Atoll in 1910, a military administration was established when Japan annexed the Marshall Islands from Germany in 1914. The Japanese government subsequently dispatched a few administrators to the Marshall Islands, between 1915 and 1918, a few Japanese businessmen from the South Seas Trading Company sailed to the Marshall Islands and established a few trading stations at Rongrong, Talab and Majuro village. A typhoon struck Majuro in 1918 and the businessmen relocated their trading posts to Jaluit, the civilian administration was established at Jabat Island and replaced the military administration in 1922. A small branch government office was established, and local Japanese settlers opened a small plantation on the island. In the early 1920s, a Japanese trader settled in Enewetak, the natives initially worked for the trader, but resisted after realising the traders false claims. There was no permanent official at Enewetak and Ujelang, but a ship from Pohnpei would make occasional visits to the islands, Japanese traders avoided Majuro until 1926, although Japanese ships made occasional stops on the atoll. The number of Japanese enterprises remained small throughout the Japanese colonial era, the first Okinawan fishermen arrived in Jaluit in the 1920s, and Jaluit experienced a steady influx of Japanese settlers from Kyushu and Okinawa from 1930s onwards. In the early 1930s, Marshallese reported a strong presence of Japanese and Korean labourers in Jaluit who were hired to build roads, the regional headquarters was relocated to Jaluit from Jabat. Jaluit developed into a town by 1939, and housed a population of several hundred Japanese settlers along with some two thousand Marshallese in the suburban areas. The Japanese navy developed military bases in the atolls in the years of World War II. During this time, the military brought in several thousand Japanese, when American troops attacked the Marshall Islands between January and April 1944, Japanese troops evacuated many Japanese settlers and Korean labourers from the atolls

Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands
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Kessai Note, former president of the Marshall Islands

88.
Roman Catholic (term)
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Roman Catholic is a term mainly used to differentiate members of the Catholic Church in full communion with the Pope from other Christians, especially those who also self-identify as Catholic. Comparable terms exist in other languages, following the pejorative term papist, attested in English since 1534, the terms Popish Catholic and Romish Catholic came into use during the Protestant Reformation. During the 17th century, Roman Catholic Church was often used as a synonym for the Catholic Church, especially where Protestants, although its usage has since changed over the centuries, the name has continued to be widely used in English-speaking countries, including the United States. Catholics numbered 12 million, with a predominantly Irish clergy, the use of Catholic Church is usually preferred by the Holy See and most of its adherents. The last official document to use Roman Catholic Church was issued by Pope Pius XII in 1950. Catholic Church was also used by Pope Paul VI when signing the documents of the Second Vatican Council and this preference also usually appears on the website of the Holy See. In the Catechism of the Catholic Church, only Catholic Church is used and this use is also broadly reflected in academia, as well as most English-language media. The terms Romish Catholic and Roman Catholic, along with Popish Catholic, were brought into use in the English language chiefly by adherents of the Church of England, the reign of Elizabeth I of England at the end of the 16th century was marked by conflicts in Ireland. Like the term Anglican, the term Roman Catholic only came into use in the English language in the 17th century. The terms Romish Catholic and Roman Catholic were both in use in the 17th century and Roman Catholic was used in official documents. There was, however, significant tension between Anglicans and Roman Catholics at the time, even today, the Act of Settlement 1701 still prohibits Roman Catholics from becoming English monarchs. The official and popular uses of the term Roman Catholic in the English language grew in the 18th century, up to the reign of George III, Catholics in Britain who recognized the Pope as head of the Church had generally been designated in official documents as Papists. In 1792, however, this phraseology was changed and, in the Speech from the Throne, by the early 19th century, the term Roman Catholic had become well established in the English-speaking world. While believing that in the past the term Roman Catholic may have been synonymous with rebel, the 1824 issue of The Christian Observer defined the term Roman Catholic as a member of the Roman Branch of the Church. By 1828, speeches in the English parliament routinely used the term Roman Catholic, in the United States, the use of Roman Catholic, as well as the number of Roman Catholics, began to grow only in the early 19th century. In 1790 there were only 100 Roman Catholics in New York and some 30,000 in the whole country, the terms Roman Catholic and Holy Roman Catholic thus gained widespread use in the United States in the 19th century, both in popular usage and within official documents. In 1866 President Andrew Johnson attended a meeting of the Council of the Roman Catholic Church and this argument is linked especially with the branch theory upheld by many Anglicans. From 1937 to 1972, the Constitution of Ireland recognised the position of the Holy Catholic Apostolic

89.
Seventh-day Adventists
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The denomination grew out of the Millerite movement in the United States during the mid-19th century and was formally established in 1863. Among its founders was Ellen G. White, whose writings are still held in high regard by the church. Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to common Protestant Christian teachings, such as the Trinity, distinctive teachings include the unconscious state of the dead and the doctrine of an investigative judgment. The church is known for its emphasis on diet and health, its understanding of the person, promotion of religious liberty. The world church is governed by a General Conference, with smaller regions administered by divisions, union conferences and it currently has a worldwide baptized membership of over 20 million people, and 25 million adherents. As of May 2007, it was the twelfth-largest religious body in the world, and it is ethnically and culturally diverse, and maintains a missionary presence in over 200 countries and territories. The church operates schools, hospitals, and publishing houses worldwide, as well as a humanitarian aid organization known as the Adventist Development. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several Adventist groups which arose from the Millerite movement of the 1840s in upstate New York, a phase of the Second Great Awakening. William Miller predicted on the basis of Daniel 8, 14–16, in the summer of 1844, Millerites came to believe that Jesus would return on October 22,1844, understood to be the biblical Day of Atonement for that year. When this did not happen, most of his followers disbanded and returned to their original churches. Hiram Edson and other Millerites came to believe that Millers calculations were correct and these Adventists came to the conviction that Daniel 8,14 foretold Christs entrance into the Most Holy Place of the heavenly sanctuary rather than his Second Coming. As the early Adventist movement consolidated its beliefs, the question of the day of rest. The foremost proponent of Sabbath-keeping among early Adventists was Joseph Bates, Bates was introduced to the Sabbath doctrine through a tract written by Millerite preacher Thomas M. Preble, who in turn had been influenced by Rachel Oakes Preston, a young Seventh Day Baptist. This message was accepted and formed the topic of the first edition of the church publication The Present Truth. They embraced the doctrines of the Sabbath, the heavenly sanctuary interpretation of Daniel 8,14, conditional immortality, among its most prominent figures were Joseph Bates, James White, and Ellen G. White. Ellen White came to occupy a central role, her many visions. The church was established in Battle Creek, Michigan, on May 21,1863. The denominational headquarters were moved from Battle Creek to Takoma Park, Maryland

90.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco

91.
Universal suffrage
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The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during

Universal suffrage
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Voting is an important part of the formal democratic process.
Universal suffrage
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The European Parliament is the only supranational organ elected with universal suffrage (since 1979).

92.
Paramount chief
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A paramount chief is the English language designation for the highest-level political leader in a regional or local polity or country administered politically with a chief-based system. More recently, Paramount Chief is a title created by British administrators during the 19th and 20th-century Colonial era and used in India, Africa. They used it as a substitute for the king to maintain that only the British monarch held that title. Since the title chief was already used in terms of district and town administrators, the addition of paramount was made so as to distinguish between the ruling monarch and the local aristocracy. Kenya, Title since 1904 of the former laibon of all the Maasai in Kenya Sudan, In South Sudan, the Paramount Chief works with the government-appointed Payam Director, both of whom report to a county Commissioner. The title changed to king at 4 October 1966 independence date from Britain, in Namibia over the Awa-Khoi or Red Nation of the Nama people, a Chiefdom established before 1700. The SiSwati name for the office is Ngwenyama, a term for lion. Title Inkosi Enkhulu of the amaMpondomise title Inkosi Enkhulu of the abaThembu, Khan is first seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283–289 and was used as a state title by the Rouran confederation. It was subsequently adopted by the Göktürks before Turkic peoples and the Mongols brought it to the rest of Asia, in the middle of the sixth century it was known as Kagan – King of the Turks to the Persians. It now has many equivalent meanings such as commander, leader, the most famous khan was the Great Khan of Mongols, Genghis Khan. Another famous Manchu khan was Nurhachi#Name and titles, aotearoa, Ariki Nui of Ngati Tuwharetoa, a Māori tribe in the central North Island – a hereditary chieftainship which still has great influence. In the 1850s the Māori King Movement resulted in the election of a Waikato chief as Māori King, NB, This title was not recognised by the Rotuma Island Council as the titles Gagaja and Sau have never been used together. The closest thing to a paramount chief is the position of Fakpure, Monarchy of Fiji – the Great Council of Chiefs until de-established in March 2012, recognised Elizabeth II as Tui Viti or Paramount Chief. Chef supérieur Great King Hegemon High King Monarchy Paramount Ruler or Paramount King Sachem WorldStatesmen see each present country

93.
Christopher Loeak
–
Christopher Jorebon Loeak /ˈlɔɪˌæk/ is a Marshallese politician who was the President of the Marshall Islands from 2012 to 2016. He was elected by parliament as President in January 2012, following the 2011 general election, Loeak was born on the Ailinglaplap Atoll on 11 November 1952. He attended Marshall Islands High School before traveling to the United States to study at the Hawaii Pacific College, Loeak is a native speaker of Marshallese and also speaks English. He is married to Anono Lieom Loeak and has three children and eight grandchildren, Loeak was first elected to the Nitijela in 1985 when he represented the Ailinglaplap Atoll. He served in the cabinet of President Amata Kabua as Minister of Justice from 1988 to 1992 and he became Minister of Social Services in 1992 and held that post until 1996 when Kunio Lemari became acting president on the death of Kabua and Loeak became Minister of Education. He held the portfolio for two years, continuing his cabinet work under President Imata Kabua who was sworn in during 1997. Kabua made him Minister for the Ralik Chain of islands in 1998, holding that position for a year and he was also a member of the Second and Third Constitutional Conventions, serving as vice-president of the latter, and chaired the Bill of Rights Committee. The Marshall Islands government agreed to accept payment of $32 million in return for extending the lease on the site, Loeak was re-elected to the Nitijela in 2007 and has held the seat of Ailinglaplap since then. He re-entered the cabinet in 2008 as Minister-in-Assistance to President Litokwa Tomeing, Loeak became president of the Marshall Islands in January 2012 when the Nitijela elected him to that post. Loeak was elected as candidate by default when former President Kessai Note refused to elect Aelon Kein Ad chosen nominee Tony Debrum who had won the primary. Loeak was thus chosen as second choice to keep the majority, Loeak defeated incumbent president Jurelang Zedkaia by 21 votes to 11. Zedkaia has agreed to co-operate with the new administration and Loeak was expected to name his cabinet, in every sense, the world must build for future risks, and too often, we are still setting course for current conditions. It is the seas that are rising - not the islands that are sinking, statement by Christopher Loeak, President of the Marshall Islands to the Sixty-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly,25 September 2012

94.
Kili Island
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Kili Island or Kili Atoll is an island of 0.93 square kilometres located in the Marshall Islands. It is the home of about 600 inhabitants who are descended from islanders who originally lived on Bikini Atoll. They were relocated when they agreed to let the U. S. government temporarily use their home for nuclear testing in 1945, Kili Island became their home after two prior relocations failed. The island does not have a lagoon and cannot produce enough food to enable the islanders to be self-sufficient. It is part of the district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. The island is approximately 48 kilometres southwest of Jaluit and it is one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Islands. Kili Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, after World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, the islanders had consented to what they believed was temporary use of their island for nuclear tests. They thought they would be able to return to their home within a few years. On Kwajalein Atoll, the islanders were living in tents on a strip of grass alongside the airport runway, in June 1948 the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. The small island was uninhabited and wasnt ruled by a paramount king, in June the Bikini community chose two dozen men to accompany eight Seabees to Kili to begin constructing a village. In 1957, the Bikini residents, without any legal representation, the Bikini families also gave up the right for any future claims against the United States. In exchange, they received $25,000 in cash and an additional $300,000 trust fund that yielded a semi-annual interest payment of approximately $5,000 and they were also given Kili Island and several islands in Jaluit Atoll. Kili cannot be reached by four months out of the year because of rough seas. The grass Kili Airport is served by Air Marshall Islands, although flights have been grounded when its aircraft are not operational, Kili does not provide enough food for the transplanted residents. In 1949 the Trust Territory administration donated a 40 feet ship for transporting copra between Kili and Jaluit Atoll, but the ship was washed by heavy surf onto the Kili reef in 1951 and was lost. The main agricultural product of the island is currently copra, Island produce consists of coconuts, limes, breadfruit, squash, bananas, papayas, and sugar cane. Fishing in the ocean around the island is difficult due to the lack of protection by a lagoon, the small island, about 1/6 the size of Bikini Atoll which is 4 kilometres long, also suffers from overpopulation

95.
Lae Atoll
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Lae Atoll is a coral atoll of 20 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 1.5 square kilometres and it is located approximately 47 kilometres east of Ujae Atoll. The population of Lae Atoll was 319 in 1998, Lae Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, following the end of World War II, Lae came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. It has been part of the independent Republic of the Marshall Islands since 1986, Marshall Islands site Entry at Oceandots. com at the Wayback Machine

96.
Maloelap Atoll
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The Maloelap Atoll is a coral atoll of 71 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its land area is only 9.8 square kilometres, and it is located 18 kilometres north of the atoll of Aur. In 1999 the population of the islands of the atoll was 856, the largest of the islands that make up the atoll are Taroa, in the northeast, and Kaben in the northwest. Only three of the islands in the atoll are inhabited, Airuk, Wolot and Jang. The island is served by Air Marshall Islands via Maloelap Airport, Maloelap Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, in 1939, the Japanese built a seaplane base and landplane Taroa Airfield with two runways and support buildings and facilities, including a radar station. During World War II the Japanese garrison of 2,940 navy men and 389 army men was commanded by Rear Admiral Shoichi Kamada, the perimeter of the island was heavily fortified with 12 heavy coastal artillery and 10 heavy anti-aircraft guns. The island was attacked by the United States Navy beginning in February 1942 starting with carrier-based aircraft, the attacks grew in frequency and severity after Majuro and Kwajalein had fallen to the Americans. Of the 3097-man Japanese garrison only 1041 survived the war, a large number of war relics, including plane wrecks, mainly Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and Mitsubishi G4M Betty bombers remain scattered about. Following the end of World War II, the island came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986, Maloelap Atoll was the first to ratify the Marshall Islands constitution. Marshall Islands site Oceandots entry for Maloelap at the Wayback Machine Pacific Wrecks L, forgotten Campaign, The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941-1942

97.
Mejit
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Mejit is an island in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Unlike most of the islands of the Marshall Islands, Mejit is a stony island rather than a coral atoll. It is located east of the line of the Ratak chain. With an estimated population of 300 people, the island is lush in pandanus, breadfruit, to the residents, this island is known as Paradise. It has a fresh water lake with indigenous ducks. Mejit is famous for its pandanus leaf mats, an airstrip, Mejit Airport, bisects the island. It is served by Air Marshall Islands, first recorded sighting by Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi on 9 January 1565. It was charted as Los Barbudos because of the beards of its inhabitants. Its sighting was recorded by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos on December 1542. The German navigator Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in Russian service, made landfall at Mejit Island on January 1,1817, in 1884 Mejit was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986, Marshall Islands site Oceandots entry for Mejit at the Wayback Machine

98.
Utirik Atoll
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Utirik Atoll or Utrik Atoll is a coral atoll of 10 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 2.4 square kilometres and it is located approximately 47 kilometres east of Ujae Atoll. The population of Utirik Atoll is 409, it is one of the northernmost Marshall Islands with permanent habitation. The larger islets are, Utirik Aon Bikrak Pike Āllok Nalap Its first recorded sighting was by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board of the ship Florida on 29 December 1527. Together with Rongelap, Ailinginae and Toke atolls, they were charted as Islas de los Reyes due to the proximity of Epiphany, Utirik Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, following the end of World War II, Utirik came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Utirik was one of four atolls affected by fallout from Castle Bravo. Research is still being done to ascertain the radiation levels, though many scientists agree that there is no effect from the radiation still present. The island has been part of the independent Republic of the Marshall Islands since 1986, also contaminated by Castle Bravo test, Rongelap Atoll, Ailinginae Atoll, Rongerik Atoll Marshall Islands site Entry at Oceandots. com at the Wayback Machine Video, Glimpse of Utrik Atoll

99.
Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands
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The Republic of the Marshall Islands has established bilateral diplomatic relations with over 75 other nations. Regional cooperation, through membership in regional and international organizations, is a key element in its foreign policy. The Marshall Islands became a member of the United Nations in September 1991, the Marshall Islands maintains embassies in the United States, Fiji, the Philippines, Japan, and the Republic of China. They also maintain a consulate in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, in May 2005, Chen Shui-bian, President of the Republic of China, became the first foreign head of state to make an official visit to the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands and Azerbaijan established diplomatic relations in 2010, the Marshall Islands and Brazil established diplomatic relations in 2010. As per the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India, India established diplomatic relations with Republic of the Marshall Islands in April 1995. Development assistance from India has included a grant of US $100,000 in June 2008 for a street lighting project in the capital city of Majuro. Marshall Islands has been supportive of issues of importance to India and it supported India’s candidature for the non-permanent membership of the UN Security Council for the 2011-12 term. Presently, there are about 10 Indian nationals in the Marshall Islands, the Marshall Islands officially recognised the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on the 17 April 2008. Kosovo and the Marshall Islands established diplomatic relations on 27 October 2013, the Marshall Islands and Palau share very good relations, as they are both bound by Compacts of Free Association with the United States. The Marshall Islands and the United Arab Emirates maintain bilateral diplomatic relations since 2013, the Marshall Islands and the United States maintain a strong and stable relationship under the Compact of Free Association. The US has full responsibility in the defense, financial aid. In return, the U. S. provides healthcare services, security, american Samoan, and Marshall Islander citizens. In international politics, Marshall Islands has often voted with the United States with respect to United Nations General Assembly resolutions. S

100.
United Nations Security Council
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The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms

101.
Iranian Revolutionary Guard
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Whereas the regular military defends Irans borders and maintains internal order, according to the Iranian constitution, the Revolutionary Guard is intended to protect the countrys Islamic system. The Revolutionary Guards state that their role in protecting the Islamic system is preventing foreign interference as well as coups by the military or deviant movements, the Revolutionary Guards have roughly 125,000 military personnel including ground, aerospace and naval forces. Its naval forces are now the primary forces tasked with operational control of the Persian Gulf and it also controls the paramilitary Basij militia which has about 90,000 active personnel. Its media arm is Sepah News, since its origin as an ideologically driven militia, the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution has taken an ever more assertive role in virtually every aspect of Iranian society. The Chief Commander of the Guardians is Mohammad Ali Jafari, who was preceded by Yahya Rahim Safavi. Sepāh has a connotation of soldiers, while in modern Persian it is also used to describe a corps sized unit. Pāsdārān is the form of Pāsdār, which means Guardian. Members of Sepah are known as Pāsdār, which is also their title, the Iranian Government, media, and those who identify with the organization generally use Sepāh e Pāsdārān, although it is not uncommon to hear Pāsdārān-e Enqelāb, or simply Pāsdārān as well. It should be noted though that among the Iranian population, and especially among diaspora Iranians, most foreign governments and the English-speaking mass media tend to use the term Iranian Revolutionary Guards or simply the Revolutionary Guards. In the US media, the force is frequently referred to interchangeably as the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps or the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, the US government standard is Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, while the United Nations uses Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps. The forces main role is in national security and it is responsible for internal and border security, law enforcement, and also Irans missile forces. IRGC operations are geared towards asymmetric warfare and less traditional duties and these include the control of smuggling, control of the Strait of Hormuz, and resistance operations. The IRGC is intended to complement the traditional role of the regular Iranian military. The IRGC is a combined force with its own ground forces, navy, air force, intelligence. It also controls the Basij militia, the Basij is a volunteer-based force, with 90,000 regular soldiers and 300,000 reservists. The IRGC is officially recognized as a component of the Iranian military under Article 150 of the Iranian Constitution and it is separate from, and parallel to, the other arm of Irans military, which is called Artesh. Especially in the waters of the Persian Gulf, the IRGC is expected to control of any Iranian response to attacks on its nuclear facilities. From the beginning of the new Islamic government, the Pasdaran functioned as a corps of the faithful, days after Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinis return to Tehran on 1 February 1979, the Bazargan interim administration established the Pasdaran under a decree issued by Khomeini on 5 May

Iranian Revolutionary Guard
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Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution troop marching with gun and headband during Iran-Iraq war era.
Iranian Revolutionary Guard
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Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution سپاه پاسداران انقلاب اسلامی
Iranian Revolutionary Guard
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IRGC Safir vehicle in 2012 military parade in Tehran

102.
USS Farragut (DDG-99)
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USS Farragut is an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer in the United States Navy. She is the fifth Navy ship named for Admiral David Farragut, farraguts keel was laid down on 9 January 2004 at the Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine. She was christened on 23 July 2005, with Senator Susan Collins of Maine as her sponsor, Farragut was commissioned on 10 June 2006. Farragut is equipped with the Smart Ship data distribution and control system, Farragut departed Naval Station Mayport for her maiden deployment on 7 April 2008 in support of the Partnership of the Americas 2008. She returned home six months on 5 October 2008. Farragut departed Naval Station Mayport again in January 2010 for her second deployment, Farragut then enjoyed a port visit to Port Victoria, Seychelles. Farragut departed Naval Station Mayport once more in June 2012 for her third and latest deployment, to be spent in the Northern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and CENTCOM AOR. Her first port visit was to Port Mahon, Menorca, Spain where the officers and crew visited the Admiral David Farragut Memorial and participated in a ceremony honoring the ships namesake. From there the ship traveled to Riga, Latvia, Tallinn, Estonia, Bodö, Norway, Severomorsk, Russia, Wilhelmshaven, Germany, while in 6th Fleet, Farragut participated in exercises with the French, Italian, Norwegian, and Russian navies. She also embarked 15 foreign midshipmen and naval officers from Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Lithuania, when Farragut crossed the Arctic Circle on the way to her port visit in Russia, crew members participated in a very chilly, but memorable, Blue Nose ceremony on board. In the fall of 2012, Farragut transitioned to the 5th Fleet AOR, Farragut again served as the Combined Task Force 151 flagship and embarked 17 Officers and Sailors for 3 months. As the CTF151 flagship, Farragut was responsible for providing security against piracy and securing freedom of navigation to vessels in the Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden. While serving in the 5th Fleet, Farragut made port visits to Manama, Bahrain, Jebel Ali, UAE and she also completed naval exercises with the Saudi Arabian, Russian, and Australian navies. After Farragut departed the 5th Fleet, she made her final visit to Bar. While in Bar, four “E’s” were painted on the wings to signify Farragut’s selection for the 2012 Battle Efficiency Award. These awards recognized the work and dedication displayed by Farragut’s crew during the past year. On 21 February 2010, a SH-60B Seahawk helicopter from Farragut disrupted two attempts by Somali pirates to attack the Tanzanian vessel MV Barakaale 1, the helicopter then stopped the pirate skiff as it attempted to speed away, by firing warning shots across its bow. A Visit, Board, Search and Seizure team from Farragut boarded the vessel, for the majority of her 2010 deployment the CENTCOM AOR, Farragut served as flagship of Combined Task Force 151, on an anti-piracy mission

USS Farragut (DDG-99)
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History

103.
Hand fan
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A handheld fan is an implement used to induce an airflow for the purpose of cooling or refreshing oneself. Any broad, flat surface waved back-and-forth will create a small airflow, generally, purpose-made handheld fans are shaped like a sector of a circle and made of a thin material mounted on slats which revolve around a pivot so that it can be closed when not in use. The movement of a handheld fan provides cooling by increasing the airflow over the skin and it also increases heat convection by displacing the warmer air produced by body heat that surrounds the skin. This evaporation has an effect due to the latent heat of evaporation of water. Fans are convenient to carry around, especially folding fans, next to the folding fans, the rigid hand screen fan, was also a highly decorative and desired object among the higher classes. Its purpose is different since they are cumbersome to carry around. They were mostly used to shield the face against the glare of the sun or the fire. Archaeological ruins and ancient texts show that the fan was used in ancient Greece at least since the 4th century BC and was known under the name rhipis. Christian Europes earliest fan was the flabellum, which dates to the 6th century and this was used during services to drive insects away from the consecrated bread and wine. Its use died out in western Europe, but continues in the Eastern Orthodox, Hand fans were absent in Europe during the High Middle Ages until they were reintroduced in the 13th and 14th centuries Fans from the Middle East were brought back by Crusaders. Portuguese traders brought back from China and Japan in the 16th century. The fan is popular in Spain, where flamenco dancers used the fan. European brands have introduced more modern designs and have enabled the hand fan to work with modern-day fashion, in the 17th century the folding fan, and its attendant semiotic culture, were introduced from Japan. Simpler formed fans were developed in China, Greek, and Egypt and these fans are particularly well displayed in the portraits of the high-born women of the era. Queen Elizabeth I of England can be seen to carry both folding fans decorated with pom poms on their guardsticks as well as the older style rigid fan, usually decorated with feathers and jewels. These rigid style fans often hung from the skirts of ladies, one of the characteristics of these fans is the rather crude bone or ivory sticks and the way the leather leaves are often slotted onto the sticks rather than glued as with later folding fans. Fans made entirely of decorated sticks without a fan leaf were known as brisé fans, however, despite the relative crude methods of construction folding fans were at this era high status, exotic items on par with elaborate gloves as gifts to royalty. In the 17th century the rigid fan which was seen in portraits of the century had fallen out of favour as folding fans gained dominance in Europe

104.
International Labour Organization
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The International Labour Organization is a United Nations agency dealing with labour problems, particularly international labour standards, social protection, and work opportunities for all. The ILO has 187 member states,186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO, the ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules, however, it does not impose sanctions on governments. Unlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization has a governing structure – representing governments, employers. The rationale behind the structure is the creation of free and open debate among governments. The ILO secretariat is referred to as the International Labour Office, juan Somavía was the ILOs director-general from 1999 until October 2012, when Guy Ryder was elected as his replacement. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives,14 workers representatives, ten of the government seats are held by member states that are nations of chief industrial importance, as first considered by an impartial committee. The nations are Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, the terms of office are three years. The ILO organizes the International Labour Conference in Geneva every year in June, also known as the parliament of labour, the conference also makes decisions about the ILOs general policy, work programme and budget. Each member state has four representatives at the conference, two government delegates, a delegate and a worker delegate. All of them have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, the employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the workers delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employers delegates, all delegate have the same rights, and are not required to vote in blocs. Through July 2011, the ILO has adopted 189 conventions, if these conventions are ratified by enough governments, they become in force. However, ILO conventions are considered international labour standards regardless of ratification, when a convention comes into force, it creates a legal obligation for ratifying nations to apply its provisions. Every year the International Labour Conferences Committee on the Application of Standards examines a number of alleged breaches of international labour standards, governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the conventions they have ratified. Conventions that have not been ratified by member states have the legal force as do recommendations. In 1998, the 86th International Labour Conference adopted the Declaration on Fundamental Principles, the ILO asserts that its members have an obligation to work towards fully respecting these principles, embodied in relevant ILO Conventions. The ILO Conventions which embody the principles have now been ratified by most member states. Recommendations do not have the force of conventions and are not subject to ratification

International Labour Organization
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ILO headquarters in Geneva
International Labour Organization
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International Labour Organization
International Labour Organization
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Interpreting booth ready for an ILO meeting
International Labour Organization
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ILO building in Geneva with Salève in the background

105.
Income tax
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An income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities that varies with the income or profits of the taxpayer. Many jurisdictions refer to income tax on business entities as companies tax or corporate tax, partnerships generally are not taxed, rather, the partners are taxed on their share of partnership items. Tax may be imposed by both a country and subdivisions, most jurisdictions exempt locally organized charitable organizations from tax. Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times taxable income, the tax rate may increase as taxable income increases. Taxation rates may vary by type or characteristics of the taxpayer, capital gains may be taxed at different rates than other income. Credits of various sorts may be allowed that reduce tax, some jurisdictions impose the higher of an income tax or a tax on an alternative base or measure of income. Taxable income of resident in the jurisdiction is generally total income less income producing expenses. Generally, only net gain from sale of property, including goods held for sale, is included in income, Income of a corporations shareholders usually includes distributions of profits from the corporation. Deductions typically include all income producing or business expenses including an allowance for recovery of costs of business assets, many jurisdictions allow notional deductions for individuals, and may allow deduction of some personal expenses. Most jurisdictions either do not tax income earned outside the jurisdiction or allow a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions on such income, nonresidents are taxed only on certain types of income from sources within the jurisdictions, with few exceptions. Most jurisdictions require self-assessment of the tax and require payers of some types of income to withhold tax from those payments, advance payments of tax by taxpayers may be required. Taxpayers not timely paying tax owed are generally subject to significant penalties, for most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production were all common, the first income tax is generally attributed to Egypt. In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth, the tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% and sometimes would climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other estate, slaves, animals, personal items. The more a person had in property, the tax they paid. In the year 10 AD, Emperor Wang Mang of the Xin Dynasty instituted an unprecedented income tax, at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. He was overthrown 13 years later in 23 AD and earlier policies were restored during the reestablished Han Dynasty which followed, one of the first recorded taxes on income was the Saladin tithe introduced by Henry II in 1188 to raise money for the Third Crusade

Income tax
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William Pitt the Younger introduced a progressive income tax in 1798.
Income tax
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Punch cartoon (1907); illustrates the unpopularity amongst Punch readers of a proposed 1907 income tax by the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.

106.
Corporate tax
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A corporate tax, also called corporation tax or company tax, is a direct tax imposed by a jurisdiction on the income or capital of corporations or analogous legal entities. Many countries impose taxes at the national level, and a similar tax may be imposed at state or local levels. The taxes may also be referred to as income tax or capital tax, Partnerships are generally not taxed at the entity level. Company income subject to tax is determined much like taxable income for individual taxpayers. Generally, the tax is imposed on net profits, in some jurisdictions, rules for taxing companies may differ significantly from rules for taxing individuals. Certain corporate acts, like reorganizations, may not be taxed, some types of entities may be exempt from tax. Countries may tax corporations on its net profit and may also tax shareholders when the corporation pays a dividend, where dividends are taxed, a corporation may be required to withhold tax before the dividend is distributed. A corporate tax is a tax imposed on the net profit of a corporation that are taxed at the entity level in a particular jurisdiction. Net profit for tax is generally the financial statement net profit with modifications. Such taxes may include income or other taxes, the tax systems of most countries impose an income tax at the entity level on certain type of entities. The rate of tax varies by jurisdiction, the tax may have an alternative base, such as assets, payroll, or income computed in an alternative manner. Most countries exempt certain types of events or transactions from income tax. For example, events related to formation or reorganization of the corporation, in addition, most systems provide specific rules for taxation of the entity and/or its members upon winding up or dissolution of the entity. In systems where financing costs are allowed as reductions of the tax base, in such systems, items characterized as interest may be deductible, perhaps subject to limitations, while items characterized as dividends are not. Some systems limit deductions based on formulas, such as a debt-to-equity ratio. Some systems provide a mechanism whereby groups of related corporations may obtain benefit from losses, credits, mechanisms include combined or consolidated returns as well as group relief. Many systems additionally tax shareholders of those entities on dividends or other distributions by the corporation, a few systems provide for partial integration of entity and member taxation. This may be accomplished by imputation systems or franking credits, in the past, mechanisms have existed for advance payment of member tax by corporations, with such payment offsetting entity level tax

107.
United States government
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

108.
Kwajalein
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Kwajalein Atoll is part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The southernmost and largest island in the atoll is named Kwajalein Island, the total land area of the atoll amounts to just over 6 square miles. The atoll lies in the Ralik Chain,2,100 nautical miles southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, Kwajalein is one of the worlds largest coral atolls as measured by area of enclosed water. Comprising 97 islands and islets, it has an area of 16.4 km² and surrounds one of the largest lagoons in the world. The average height above sea level for all the islands is about 1.8 metres, Islands often have alternate names, the first is the Marshallese name, the second was assigned somewhat arbitrarily by the US Navy prior to their attack on the atoll during World War II. The original name was considered too difficult for English speakers to properly differentiate among the islands, the latter has often been retained by English speakers. The exception to this is Kwajalein itself, which is close to the native name, the atoll is 2,100 miles from Honolulu,2,000 miles from Australia, and 2,100 miles from Japan. Kwajalein Island is about 500 miles north of the equator, Kwajalein Island is the southernmost and largest of the islands in the atoll. The area is about 1.2 square miles and it is 2.5 miles long and averages about 800 yards wide. To enlarge the island, the Americans placed fill at both the part of the island above the pier, the northern part extending towards Ebeye. The northern extension was used for housing, the remainder for industrial purposes, some 13,500 Marshallese citizens live on the atoll, most of them on Ebeye Island. The water temperature averages 81 °F degrees, underwater visibility is typically 100 feet on the ocean side of the atoll. SAR Pass is closest to Kwajalein on the West reef and this pass is manmade and was created in the mid-1950s. It is very narrow and shallow compared to the passes in the lagoon and is only used by small boats. South Pass is on the West reef, north of SAR Pass, Gea Pass is a deep water pass between Gea and Ninni islands. Bigej Pass is the first pass on the East reef north of Kwajalein, other islands in the atoll, Directly north of the eastern end of Kwajalein is Ebeye. It is not part of the Reagan Test Site, it is a Marshallese island-city with shops, restaurants and it has the largest population in the atoll, with approximately 13,000 residents living on 80 acres of land. Inhabitants are mostly Marshall Islanders but include a population of migrants and volunteers from other island groups

Kwajalein
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Anti-ballistic missile testing at Kwajalein. [citation needed]
Kwajalein
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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
Kwajalein
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U.S. Infantry inspect a hole after capturing the Kwajalein Atoll from Japan during World War II
Kwajalein
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Short-term accommodations at the "Kwaj Lodge" showing typical Kwajalein housing construction.

109.
Diesel fuel
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Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load, as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, to distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents, as of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle. In Australia diesel fuel is known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his engine he invented in 1892. Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum, other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction. Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel, synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel, the process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid, gas-to-liquid or coal-to-liquid, depending on the raw material used. Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides. Fatty-acid methyl ester, more known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil in Europe, methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. FAME can be used pure in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, FAME as a fuel is specified in DIN EN14214 and ASTM D6751. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel, the loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%. As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of oxides and sulfates. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel. Biodiesel also may reduce risks associated with petroleum diesel

110.
Vehicles
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns

Vehicles
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Buses are a common form of vehicles used for public transport.
Vehicles
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A Slavic dugout boat from the 10th century
Vehicles
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Automobiles are among the most commonly used engine-powered vehicles
Vehicles
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The most common model of vehicle in the world, the Flying Pigeon bicycle.

111.
Electricity generation
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Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers, the other processes as transmission, distribution, energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power, the fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. This method is used today, electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire. Central power stations became practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882, the use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity. There are seven fundamental methods of transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy. Static electricity, form the physical separation and transport of charge and it was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. In Electromagnetic induction, a generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faradays law and it can be experimented by rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate. Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, there are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines, the combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine currently generates about 80% of the power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Power sources include, Steam Water is boiled by coal burned in a power plant. Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam, less than 15% of electricity is generated this way. Natural gas, turbines are directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are driven by steam and natural gas

Electricity generation
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Turbo generator
Electricity generation
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Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has a 22.5 GW capability.
Electricity generation
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Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability.
Electricity generation
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A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations.

112.
Ships
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Historically, a ship was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit. Ships are generally distinguished from boats, based on size, shape, Ships have been important contributors to human migration and commerce. They have supported the spread of colonization and the trade, but have also served scientific, cultural. After the 16th century, new crops that had come from, Ship transport is responsible for the largest portion of world commerce. As of 2016, there were more than 49,000 merchant ships, of these 28% were oil tankers, 43% were bulk carriers, and 13% were container ships. Military forces operate vessels for naval warfare and to transport and support forces ashore, the top 50 navies had a median fleet of 88 surface vessels each, according to various sources. There is no definition of what distinguishes a ship from a boat. Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ability to operate independently for extended periods. A legal definition of ship from Indian case law is a vessel that carries goods by sea, a common notion is that a ship can carry a boat, but not vice versa. American and British 19th Century maritime law distinguished vessels from other craft, ships and boats fall in one legal category, a number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Other types of vessel which are traditionally called boats are Great Lakes freighters, riverboats. Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, in most maritime traditions ships have individual names, and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago, the first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat and this allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull and they used woven straps to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Sneferus ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name, the ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their skills was the Khufu ship. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece, a panel found at Mohenjodaro depicted a sailing craft

113.
Tropical
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The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator. The tropics are also referred to as the zone and the torrid zone. The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year. The tropics are distinguished from the climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes. Tropical is sometimes used in a sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round. Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season, the wet season, rainy season or green season, is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is distributed through the year. When the wet season occurs during the season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime, unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the tropics is classed not as tropical but as dry including the Sahara Desert. Tropical plants and animals are those native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of rainforests, dry forests, spiny forests, desert. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species present, particularly in rainforests. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics and Neotropics, together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic

114.
Islands
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An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, examples are Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. There are two types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it

115.
Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra

116.
Solar power
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Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics, or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam, Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect. Most solar installations would be in China and India, Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world, long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies, Photovoltaic systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms, concentrated solar power plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect, the first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery, following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5–6%, the array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current power which fluctuates with the sunlights intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current, multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the voltage, and for AC. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, in these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups, such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight. Concentrated solar power, also called concentrated solar thermal, uses lenses or mirrors, contrary to photovoltaics – which converts light directly into electricity – CSP uses the heat of the suns radiation to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists, among the best known are the trough, the compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish. Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light, in all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24-hour electricity generation, a parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflectors focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the mirror and is filled with a working fluid

117.
Asia Pacific Airlines (United States)
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Asia Pacific Airlines is a cargo airline headquartered in Danville, California, USA in the San Francisco Bay Area. It operates cargo services from Guam. Its main base is Guam International Airport, the airline was established on June 5,1998 and started operations, with Boeing 727-200 series aircraft, on June 3,1999. It was formed as Aero Micronesia, and is a company of the Tan Holdings Corporation. As of January 2015 the airline has begun the process of bringing Boeing 757-200 series aircraft into service as part of modernization and expansion. The Asia Pacific Airlines fleet consists of the aircraft, Official website

118.
American Forces Network
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The American Forces Network is the brand name used by the United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service for its entertainment and command internal information networks worldwide. AFN broadcasts popular American radio and television programs from the major U. S. networks and it is sometimes referred to as the Armed Forces Network. AFRTS, American Forces Network and AFN are registered trademarks of the U. S. Department of Defense and it is based at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. The American Forces Network is the arm of the American Forces Radio and Television Service. AFN falls under the control of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs. Editorial control is by the Department of Defense, whereas the British Forces Broadcasting Service, for example, is independent of the Ministry of Defence, AFN employs military broadcasters as well as Department of Defense civilians and contractors. Service personnel hold broadcasting occupational specialties for their military branch, since 1997, all of AFNs military personnel receive primary training at the Defense Information School at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. Before 1997, DINFOS was located at Fort Benjamin Harrison in Indianapolis, in 1997, Fort Benjamin Harrison was largely closed as a function of the 1991 Base Closure and Realignment Commission. Additional/Advanced training is available at Fort George G. Meade. In the 1960s, DINFOS was located at Fort Slocum, NY on an island just off the harbor at New Rochelle. At its peak in 1965, the Army Chaplain school was located here. In 1963 this campus operated in a university setting with a military environment. The Army ran the Information School although training was offered to members of all military branches, Radio types took a rather severe audition written by CBS for their network announcers. Those who survived the audition became Broadcast Specialists with a 703 MOS, some of AFNs broadcasters have previous commercial broadcasting experience before enlisting in the military, but it is not a prerequisite for enlistment in the military as a broadcaster. During their training, the broadcasters are taught to use state-of-the-art audio, AFN management is located at DMA headquarters at Fort Meade. Day-to-day AFN broadcast operations are conducted at the AFN Broadcast Center/Defense Media Center in Riverside, California, from all global radio. The American Forces Network can trace its origins to May 26,1942, a television service was first introduced in 1954 with a pilot station at Limestone Air Force Base, Maine. In 1954, the mission of AFRS was officially recognized

119.
Office of Insular Affairs
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The Office of Insular Affairs is a unit of the United States Department of the Interior that oversees federal administration of several United States possessions. The word insular comes from the Latin word insula, currently, the OIA has administrative responsibility for coordinating federal policy in the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the U. S. The office has evolved over the years along with changes in administration, prior to the 1930s, responsibility for administration of United States possessions was divided among several government departments. In 1934, the Division of Territories and Island Possessions of the Interior Department was established and was responsible for Alaska, Hawaii. The Division was subsequently given responsibility for the Philippines, and after World War II, for the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. The Division also was responsible for administration of several islands claimed by the United States under the Guano Act, including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands. Insular area Compact of Free Association National Archives and Records Administration, Preliminary Inventory of the Records of the Office of Territories, Preliminary Inventory No.154

Office of Insular Affairs
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Seal and Logo of the Office of Insular Affairs

120.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

Wayback Machine
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Wayback Machine

121.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

122.
Public Broadcasting Service
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The Public Broadcasting Service is an American non-profit public broadcaster and television program distributor headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid 2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. Founded by Hartford N. Gunn Jr, in 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations. Each station is charged with the responsibility of programming content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule

Public Broadcasting Service
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PBS

123.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial

International Standard Serial Number
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ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5

124.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

PubMed Identifier
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PubMed

125.
The World Factbook
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The World Factbook is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service, Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. The Factbook is available in the form of a website that is updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line, the World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U. S. Government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is used as a resource for academic research papers. As a work of the U. S. Government, it is in the domain in the United States. In researching the Factbook, the CIA uses the sources listed below, Other public and private sources are also consulted. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the Factbook is used, copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U. S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949. Before November 2001 The World Factbook website was updated yearly, from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks, since 2010 it has been updated weekly, generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the Factbook. The first, classified, edition of Factbook was published in August 1962, the World Factbook was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the Factbook themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office and this happened due to a CIA decision to focus Factbook resources on the online edition. The Factbook has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994, the web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month, it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office, in past years, the Factbook was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk. Many Internet sites use information and images from the CIA World Factbook, several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books, and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the Factbook in recent years. As of July 2011, The World Factbook consists of 267 entities and these entities can be divided into categories. They are, Independent countries This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people politically organized into a state with a definite territory. In this category, there are 195 entities, others The Other category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are two, Taiwan and the European Union, dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty This category is a list of places affiliated with another country

The World Factbook
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Cover of the latest government print edition of The World Factbook (2013–14 edition)
The World Factbook
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A map of Serbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of The World Factbook. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.

126.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival

127.
Northern Illinois University
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Northern Illinois University is a public research university in DeKalb, Illinois, United States, with satellite centers in Chicago, Hoffman Estates, Naperville, Rockford, and Oregon. It was founded as Northern Illinois State Normal School on May 22,1895, douglas Baker was named the universitys twelfth president in May 2013. The university is composed of seven degree-granting colleges and has a student body of 25,000 with over 225,000 alumni. NIU is one of two public universities in Illinois that compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the highest levels of all sports. The Universitys athletic teams are known as the NIU Huskies and compete in the Mid-American Conference, Northern Illinois University was founded as part of the expansion of the normal school program established in 1857 in Normal, Illinois. In 1895, the legislature created a Board of Trustees for the governance of the Northern Illinois State Normal School. In July 1917, the Illinois Senate consolidated the boards of trustees for the five state normal schools into one state Normal School Board, over the next fifty-eight years, the school and the governing board changed their names several times. In 1921, the legislature gave the institution the name Northern Illinois State Teachers College, in 1941, the Normal School Board changed its name to the Teachers College Board. In 1951 the Teachers College Board authorized the college to grant the degree Master of Science in Education, the Teachers College Board granted permission for the college to add curricula leading to the degrees Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science. On July 1,1957, the Seventieth General Assembly renamed Northern Illinois State College as Northern Illinois University in recognition of its status as a liberal arts university. In 1967 authority for Northern Illinois University, Illinois State University, the Board of Regents and the Chancellor governed the three Regency universities until the end of 1995. On January 1,1996, authority for each of the three regency universities was transferred to three independent Boards of Trustees, each concerned solely with one university,12 presidents have served at the university. New interdisciplinary academic programs in Environmental Studies and Community Leadership and Civic Engagement were established in FY2012, in the most recent 2014 edition, NIU was ranked number 177 out of 206 ranked National Universities. Washington Monthly ranks NIU as the 135th National University in the United States, NIU is a member of the Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities. Carnegie categorizes Northern as, RU/H, Research Universities, the Department of Geology and Environmental Geosciences is known for programs in hydrogeology and polar science. NIU has been awarded the Title VI Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowships since 1974, NIU is the next major research university outside of Chicagoland. The NIU School of Theatre and Dance has a relationship with the Moscow Art Theatre School, Graduate students spend a month training in Moscow, while the undergraduates participate in a semester-long program. The NIU Rehabilitation Counseling program is noted nationwide, in the 2010-2011 academic year, the program graduated seven students, whose average GPA was 3.90

Northern Illinois University
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Altgeld Hall and Still Hall along College Ave. Altgeld Hall was the first building to be constructed on campus.
Northern Illinois University
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Northern Illinois University
Northern Illinois University
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Swen Parson Hall - Northern Illinois University College of Law
Northern Illinois University
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Davis Hall - the old science building - at NIU

128.
UCB Libraries
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The University of Colorado Boulder is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States. It is the university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. In 2015, the university consisted of nine colleges and schools and offered over 150 academic programs, twelve Nobel Laureates, nine MacArthur Fellows, and 20 astronauts have been affiliated with CU Boulder as students, researchers, or faculty members in its history. The university received nearly $454 million in sponsored research in 2010 to fund programs like the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, the Colorado Buffaloes compete in 17 varsity sports and are members of the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference. The Buffaloes have won 28 national championships,20 in skiing, seven total in mens and womens cross country, approximately 1,500 students participate in 34 intercollegiate club sports annually as well. Two cities competed for the site of the University of Colorado, Boulder, the consolation prize for the losing city was to be home of the new Colorado State Prison. Cañon City was at a disadvantage as it was already the home of the Colorado Territorial Prison, the cornerstone of the building that became Old Main was laid on September 20,1875. The doors of the university opened on September 5,1877, at the time, there were few high schools in the state that could adequately prepare students for university work, so in addition to the University, a preparatory school was formed on campus. In the fall of 1877, the student body consisted of 15 students in the proper and 50 students in the preparatory school. There were 38 men and 27 women, and their ages ranged from 12–23 years, during World War II, Colorado was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. The main CU Boulder campus is located south of the Pearl Street Mall and it consists of academic and residential buildings as well as research facilities. The East Campus is about a mile from the main campus and is composed mainly of athletic fields. CU Boulders distinctive architecture style, known as Tuscan Vernacular Revival, was designed by architect Charles Klauder. A month or so after approval, however, Klauder updated his design by sketching in a new wrap of rough, textured sandstone walls with sloping, multi-leveled red-tiled roofs and Indiana limestone trim. This formed the basis of a style which was used in the design of fifteen other buildings between 1921 and 1939. The sandstone used in the construction of all the buildings on campus was selected from a variety of front range mountain quarries. In 2011, Travel+Leisure named the Boulder campus as one of the most beautiful campuses in the United States. Currently Freshmen and others attending the University of Colorado Boulder have an option of 24 on-, Residence halls have 17 varieties of room types from singles to four-person rooms and others with apartment style amenities

129.
DMOZ
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DMOZ was a multilingual open-content directory of World Wide Web links. The site and community who maintained it were known as the Open Directory Project. It was owned by AOL but constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, DMOZ used a hierarchical ontology scheme for organizing site listings. Listings on a similar topic were grouped into categories which included smaller categories. It was announced on February 28,2017 that DMOZ would close down on March 14,2017, DMOZ was founded in the United States as Gnuhoo by Rich Skrenta and Bob Truel in 1998 while they were both working as engineers for Sun Microsystems. Skrenta had developed TASS, an ancestor of tin, the popular threaded Usenet newsreader for Unix systems, the original category structure of the Gnuhoo directory was based loosely on the structure of Usenet newsgroups then in existence. The Gnuhoo directory went live on June 5,1998, then objected to the use of Hoo in the name, prompting a proposed name change, to ZURL. Prior to switching to ZURL, NewHoo was acquired by Netscape Communications Corporation in October 1998, Netscape released Open Directory data under the Open Directory License. Netscape was acquired by AOL shortly thereafter and DMOZ was one of the assets included in the acquisition, by the time Netscape assumed stewardship, the Open Directory Project had about 100,000 URLs indexed with contributions from about 4500 editors. On October 5,1999, the number of URLs indexed by DMOZ reached one million, according to an unofficial estimate, the URLs in DMOZ numbered 1.6 million in April 2000, surpassing those in the Yahoo. DMOZ achieved the milestones of indexing two million URLs on August 14,2000, three million listings on November 18,2001 and four million on December 3,2003. As of April,2013 there were 5,169,995 sites listed in over 1,017,500 categories, on October 31,2015, there were 3,996,412 sites listed in 1,026,706 categories. In January 2006, DMOZ began publishing reports to inform the public about the development of the project. The first report covered the year 2005, monthly reports were issued subsequently until September 2006. These reports gave greater insight into the functioning of the directory than the statistics provided on the front page of the directory. The number of listings and categories cited on the front page included Test and Bookmarks categories, there were about 7330 active editors during August 2006. 75,151 editors had contributed to the directory as of March 31,2007, as of April 2013, the number of contributing editors had increased to 97,584. On October 20,2006, DMOZs main server suffered a failure that prevented editors from working on the directory until December 18,2006