Eilert Ekwall wrote: "OEwīc, an early loan-word from Lat vicus, means ‘dwelling, dwelling-place; village, hamlet, town; street in a town; farm, esp. a dairy-farm’. . . . It is impossible to distinguish neatly between the various senses. Probably the most common meaning is ‘dairy-farm’. . . . In names of salt-working towns . . . wīc originally denoted the buildings connected with a salt-pit or even the town that grew up around it. But a special meaning ‘salt-works’, found already in DB, developed."[4]

Four former "-wīc towns" are known in England as the consequence of excavation. Two of these – Jorvik (Jorwic) in present-day York and Lundenwic near London – are waterfront sites, while the other two, Hamwic in Southampton and Gipeswic (Gippeswic) in Ipswich are further inland.[6]

Contents

As wīċ also means "bay" in Old English, wich and wych are also used in names to denote brine springs or wells. By the eleventh century, the use of -wich in placenames had been extended to include areas associated with salt production. At least nine English towns and cities carry the suffix, although only five of these tend to be associated with salt: Droitwich in Worcestershire and the four -wich towns of Middlewich, Nantwich, Northwich and Leftwich in Cheshire.

Our English salt supply is chiefly derived from the Cheshire and Worcestershire salt-regions, which are of triassic age. Many of the places at which the salt is mined have names ending in wich, such as Northwich, Middlewich, Nantwich, Droitwich, Netherwich, and Shirleywich. This termination wich is itself curiously significant, as Canon Isaac Taylor has shown, of the necessary connection between salt and the sea. The earliest known way of producing salt was of course in shallow pans on the sea-shore, at the bottom of a shoal bay, called in Norse and Early English a wick or wich; and the material so produced is still known in trade as bay-salt. By-and-by, when people came to discover the inland brine-pits and salt mines, they transferred to them the familiar name, a wich; and the places where the salt was manufactured came to be known as wych-houses. Droitwich, for example, was originally such a wich, where the droits or dues on salt were paid at the time when William the Conqueror's commissioners drew up their great survey for Domesday Book. But the good, easy-going mediæval people who gave these quaint names to the inland wiches had probably no idea that they were really and truly dried-up bays, and that the salt they mined from their pits was genuine ancient bay-salt, the deposit of an old inland sea, evaporated by slow degrees a countless number of ages since, exactly as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake are getting evaporated in our own time.

— Grant Allen, Falling in Love: With Other Essays on More Exact Branches of Science, 1889[7]

^R. Hodges, The Anglo-Saxon Achievement: archaeology and the beginnings of English society, [..?..] 1989:69-104; and, as emporia, C. Scull, "Urban centres in pre-Viking England?" in J. Hines, ed. The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century: an ethnological perspective, 1997:269-98.

1.
Anglo-Saxon England
–
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th century from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066. It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927 when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan and it became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century. The Anglo-Saxons were the members of Germanic-speaking groups who migrated to the half of the island from continental Europe. Anglo-Saxon identity survived beyond the Norman conquest, came to be known as Englishry under Norman rule, Bede completed his book Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum in around 731. Thus the term for English people was in use by then to distinguish Germanic groups in Britain from those on the continent, the historian James Campbell suggested that it was not until the late Anglo-Saxon period that England could be described as a nation state. It is certain that the concept of Englishness only developed very slowly, as the Roman occupation of Britain was coming to an end, Constantine III withdrew the remains of the army, in reaction to the barbarian invasion of Europe. The Romano-British leaders were faced with a security problem from seaborne raids. The expedient adopted by the Romano-British leaders was to enlist the help of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, in about 442 the Anglo-Saxons mutinied, apparently because they had not been paid. There then followed several years of fighting between the British and the Anglo-Saxons, the fighting continued until around 500, when, at the Battle of Mount Badon, the Britons inflicted a severe defeat on the Anglo-Saxons. There are records of Germanic infiltration into Britain that date before the collapse of the Roman Empire and it is believed that the earliest Germanic visitors were eight cohorts of Batavians attached to the 14th Legion in the original invasion force under Aulus Plautius in AD43. There is a hypothesis that some of the tribes, identified as Britons by the Romans. It was quite common for Rome to swell its legions with foederati recruited from the German homelands and this practice also extended to the army serving in Britain, and graves of these mercenaries, along with their families, can be identified in the Roman cemeteries of the period. The migration continued with the departure of the Roman army, when Anglo-Saxons were recruited to defend Britain, and also during the period of the Anglo-Saxon first rebellion of 442. The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain can be seen in the context of a movement of Germanic peoples around Europe between the years 300 and 700, known as the Migration period. In the same there were migrations of Britons to the Armorican peninsula, initially around 383 during Roman rule. The historian Peter Hunter-Blair expounded what is now regarded as the view of the Anglo-Saxon arrival in Britain. He suggested a mass immigration, fighting and driving the Sub-Roman Britons off their land and into the extremities of the islands. This view was influenced by sources such as Bede, where he talks about the Britons being slaughtered or going into perpetual servitude

2.
Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans

3.
Old English
–
Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English

4.
Excavation (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or dig is a site being studied, such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years. Numerous specialized techniques each with its features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose and these constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them. Excavation involves the recovery of types of data from a site. These data include artifacts, features, ecofacts and, most importantly, ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space. The presence or absence of remains can often be suggested by remote sensing. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work, the history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of curio. These curios were the subject of interest of antiquarians and it was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier peoples lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost and it was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected. Archaeological material tends to accumulate in events, a gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench, years later, someone built a pig sty onto it and drained the pig sty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on, each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a context. This layer cake of events is referred to as the archaeological sequence or record. It is by analysis of sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded, no tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material byproducts of the primary activity. All of the activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers

5.
Eilert Ekwall
–
He wrote works on the history of the language, but is best known as the author of numerous important books on English place-names and personal names. The Dictionary remained the national reference resource for over 40 years. He was competent not only in English philology, but also in Scandinavian and Celtic, from 1935, Ekwall was a Fellow of the Swedish Academy of Letters and the Swedish Academy of Sciences. He and his wife Dagny founded a bursary for students at Lund University from the Småland region, Ekwall, Eilert The Celtic element and The Scandinavian element, in A. Mawer and F. M. Stenton, eds, Introduction to the Survey. Von Feilitzen, Olof The Published Writings of Eilert Ekwall, a Bibliography

6.
Doomsday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth

7.
Papplewick
–
The parish of Papplewick is situated towards the west of central Nottinghamshire, to the north of the town of Hucknall. It has an area of 7.15 km², the village of Papplewick is located in the west of the parish. It is 7.5 miles north of Nottingham and 6 miles south of Mansfield, in 1991, there were 620 people living in the parish, occupying 255 dwellings, increasing to 756 at the 2011 census. In medieval times the village marked the southern gateway to Sherwood Forest, Papplewick has numerous community and social groups, a village hall, a pub, The Griffins Head and an ancient church. Tourist attractions in the include the village conservation area, where there are 18th-century cottages. Papplewick Pumping Station is a working museum comprising steam-powered pumping engines, cooling pond. It is situated in agricultural land to the east of the parish. Surrounding the parish are areas of woodland, which are accessible to the public by a network of footpaths, a local legend dictates that the body of Alan-a-Dale, one of Robin Hoods men, was buried in Papplewick. Papplewick is included in Nottinghamshires Hidden Valleys district, Papplewick Hall was built between 1781 and 1787 for the Hon. Frederick Montagu. The church of St James, in the grounds of the Hall, was built in 1795, from 1894 to 1974 the parish was part of Basford Rural District. It was then transferred to Gedling Borough, however, a small part of the parish had been transferred to Hucknall Urban District in 1935. Media related to Papplewick at Wikimedia Commons Papplewick Parish Council

8.
Nottinghamshire
–
Nottinghamshire is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, the districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now an authority, remaining part of Nottinghamshire for ceremonial purposes. In 2011 the county was estimated to have a population of 785,800, over half of the population of the county live in the Greater Nottingham conurbation. The conurbation has a population of about 650,000, though less than half live within the city boundaries. Nottinghamshire lies on the Roman Fosse Way, and there are Roman settlements in the county, for example at Mansfield, the county was settled by Angles around the 5th century, and became part of the Kingdom, and later Earldom, of Mercia. However, there is evidence of Saxon settlement at the Broxtowe Estate, Oxton, near Nottingham, the name first occurs in 1016, but until 1568 the county was administratively united with Derbyshire, under a single Sheriff. In Norman times the county developed malting and woollen industries, in the 18th and 19th centuries, mechanised deeper collieries opened and mining became an important economic sector, though these declined after the 1984–85 miners strike. Until 1610, Nottinghamshire was divided into eight Wapentakes, sometime between 1610 and 1719 they were reduced to six – Newark, Bassetlaw, Thurgarton, Rushcliffe, Broxtowe and Bingham, some of these names still being used for the modern districts. Oswaldbeck was absorbed in Bassetlaw, of which it forms the North Clay division, Nottinghamshire is famous for its involvement with the legend of Robin Hood. This is also the reason for the numbers of tourists who visit places like Sherwood Forest, City of Nottingham, to reinforce the Robin Hood connection, the University of Nottingham in 2010 has begun the Nottingham Caves Survey with the goal to increase the tourist potential of these sites. The project will use a 3D laser scanner to produce a three dimensional record of more than 450 sandstone caves around Nottingham. Nottinghamshire was mapped first by Christopher Saxton in 1576, the first fully surveyed map of the county was by John Chapman who produced Chapmans Map of Nottinghamshire in 1774. Nottinghamshire, like Derbyshire and South Yorkshire, sits on extensive coal measures, up to 900 metres thick, there is an oilfield near Eakring. These are overlaid by sandstones and limestones in the west and clay in the east, the north of the county is part of the Humberhead Levels lacustrine plain. The centre and south west of the county, around Sherwood Forest, principal rivers are the Trent, Idle, Erewash and Soar. The Trent, fed by the Soar and Erewash, and Idle, composed of many streams from Sherwood Forest, run through wide and flat valleys, the lowest is Peat Carr, east of Blaxton, at sea level, the Trent is tidal below Cromwell Lock. Nottinghamshire is sheltered by the Pennines to the west, so receives relatively low rainfall at 641–740 mm annually, the average temperature of the county is 8. 8–10.1 degrees Celsius

9.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years

10.
Scandinavian York
–
It was closely associated with the much longer-lived Kingdom of Dublin throughout this period. York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum, a Viking attempt against Mercia the same season failed, and in 869 their efforts against Wessex were fruitless in the face of opposition from Kings Ethelred and Alfred the Great. The Viking king Guthred was buried in York Minster, a signal that he, all the Viking coinage appears to have emanated from the mint at York, a mark of the citys unique status in Northumbria as an economic magnet. Yorks importance as the seat of Northumbria was confirmed when the Scandinavian warlord, Guthrum, headed for East Anglia, while Halfdan Ragnarsson seized power in AD875. While the Danish army was busy in Britain, the Isle of Man and Ireland, native Danish rulers who eventually made Jelling in Jutland the site of Gorm the Olds kingdom, were in the East Anglian kingdom. The Five Burghs/Jarldoms were based upon the Kingdom of Lindsey and were a sort of frontier between each kingdom, King Canute the Great would later reinstall a Norwegian dynasty of jarls in Northumbria, with a Danish dynasty of jarls in East Anglia. The Viking kingdom was absorbed into England in 954. After the Kingdom of Northumbria was remerged, the title King of Jórvík became redundant and was succeeded by the title Earl of York, created in 960. Loss of political independence did not cramp the regions economic success, by ca 1000, although some of the early Earls of York were Nordic like the Jórvík Kings, they were succeeded by Normans after the Norman conquest. William the Conqueror ended the regions last vestiges of independence and established garrisoned castles in the city, the Earldom of York was abolished by King Henry II. Between 1070 and 1085, there were attempts by the Danish Vikings to recapture their Kingdom of Jórvík, however. The title Duke of York, a title of nobility in British peerage, was created in 1341, subsequently, the title of Duke of York has usually been given to the second son of the King or Queen. From 1976 to 1981, the York Archaeological Trust conducted an excavation in. Both these items, as well as a human coprolite known as the Lloyds Bank coprolite, were famously recovered in York a millennium later. Amber from the Baltic is often expected at a Viking site and at Jórvík an impractical, a cowrie shell indicates contact with the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. Christian and pagan objects have survived side-by-side, usually taken as a sign that Christians were not in positions of authority. After the excavation, the York Archaeological Trust took the decision to recreate the excavated part of Jórvík on the Coppergate site, and this is now the Jorvik Viking Centre. Uí Ímair Ebrauc Raven banner History of York Coppergate Helmet Jorvik Viking Centre Harrying of the North Brenda Ralph Lewis & David Nash Ford, York, Viking Times Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England

11.
Lundenwic
–
The history of Anglo-Saxon London relates to the history of the city of London during the Anglo-Saxon period, during the 7th to 11th centuries. Romano-British Londinium had been abandoned in the late 5th century, although the London Wall remained intact, there was an Anglo-Saxon settlement by the early 7th century, called Lundenwic, about one mile away from Londinium. Lundenwic came under direct Mercian control in about 670, after the death of Offa of Mercia in 796, it was disputed between Mercia and Wessex. Viking invasions became frequent from the 830s, and a Viking army is believed to have camped in the old Roman walls during the winter of 871, Alfred the Great re-established English control of London in 886, and renewed its fortifications. The old Roman walls were repaired and the ditch was re-cut. Sweyn Forkbeard attacked London unsuccessfully in 996 and 1013, but his son Cnut the Great finally gained control of London, Edward the Confessor, the step-son of Cnut, became king in 1042. He built Westminster Abbey, the first Norman Romanesque church in England, Edwards death led to a succession crisis, and ultimately the Norman invasion of England. Following the virtual abandonment of the Roman city, the strategic location on the River Thames meant that the site was not deserted for long. From the late 5th century, Anglo-Saxons began to inhabit the area, there is almost no reliable evidence about what happened in the London area during the Sub-Roman or so-called Dark Ages period from around 450 to 600. Although early Anglo-Saxon settlement avoided the area immediately around Londinium, there was occupation on a scale of much of the hinterland on both sides of the river. There is no literary evidence, but the area must for some time have been an active frontier between the Anglo-Saxons and the Britons. Early Anglo-Saxon settlement in the London area was not on the site of the abandoned Roman city, in the early 8th century, Lundenwic was described by the Venerable Bede as a trading centre for many nations who visit it by land and sea. The Old English term wic or trading town derived from the Latin word vicus. Archaeologists were for many years puzzled as to where early Anglo-Saxon London was located, however, in the 1980s, London was rediscovered, after extensive independent excavations by archaeologists Alan Vince and Martin Biddle were reinterpreted as being of an urban character. In the Covent Garden area, excavations in 1985 and 2005 have uncovered an extensive Anglo-Saxon settlement that dates back to the 7th century. The excavations show that the settlement covered about 600,000 m2, by about 600, Anglo-Saxon England had become divided into a number of small kingdoms within what eventually became known as the Heptarchy. From the mid-6th century, London was incorporated into the Kingdom of Essex, in 604, Sæberht of Essex was converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus, its first post-Roman Bishop of London. The original building would have only a modest church at first

12.
Hamwic
–
Southampton is a city in Hampshire, England. The area has settled since the stone age. Having been an important regional centre for centuries, Southampton was awarded City status by The Queen in 1964, Southampton became an important port in medieval times, experiencing several hundred years of fluctuating fortunes until it was expanded by the Victorians. As a centre of commerce, a town and an important military embarkation point. Post-war re-development and the need to accommodate 20th century innovations such as the car has significantly altered the character of Southampton. Numerous gravel pits have been dug in the Southampton area, many of which have yielded Stone Age tools, evidence of a Stone Age settlement has been found at Priory Avenue, St Denys. Bronze Age objects have found on Southampton Common, particularly by grave-diggers working in the cemetery. Further Bronze Age finds have made near Cobden Bridge. Iron Age earthworks have been found at Lordswood and Aldermoor and evidence of Iron Age buildings has been found in the City Centre, Antonine Itinerary VII documents the Roman settlement of Clausentum in Roman Britain as being 20 miles West of Noviomagus Reginorum and 10 miles from Venta Belgarum. In about 1770, John Speed claimed that Clausentum was in the area that is now known as Bitterne Manor, in 1792, the Rev. Richard Warner investigated those claims and found a ditch, a bank and some Roman coins. Since then, this site has been investigated further and is accepted as the site of Clausentum. Reference to modern maps show Bitterne Manor to be 25 miles from Chichester, Wickham is at the junction of two Roman Roads and is a better fit to the distances documented in Antonine Itinerary VII. The case for Clausentum being situated at Bitterne Manor is based on archaeological evidence, traces of a Roman Road on a line running from Bitterne Manor to Wickham have also been found. The Romans abandoned the settlement circa 410, when Roman Britain ended, the Anglo-Saxons moved the centre of the town across the River Itchen to what is now the St Marys area. The settlement was known as Hamwic and or Hamtun, the two names co-existed and described the area but were used in different contexts. By the middle of the 11th century, the area is described as South Hamtun by Anglo Saxon Chroniclers, references to St. Marys Church also appear in 11th century documents. Hamwic is referred to as a market in the account of the life of St. Willibald, excavations have revealed a section of the street plan of Hamwic and uncovered one of the best collections of Saxon artefacts in Europe. These collectively show that Hamwic was a town, that it became an important port

13.
Ipswich
–
Ipswich is the county town of Suffolk, England, located on the estuary of the River Orwell, about 60 miles north east of London. The town has been occupied since the Saxon period. It has also known as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. Ipswich is one of Englands oldest towns, if not the oldest, the claim has also been made of the Essex town of Colchester, but that town was abandoned for some time, leaving Ipswich to claim to be the oldest continuously inhabited town in England. Under the Roman empire, the area around Ipswich formed an important route inland to towns and settlements via the rivers Orwell. A large Roman fort, part of the defences of Britain, stood at Walton near Felixstowe. The modern town took shape in Anglo-Saxon times around Ipswich dock, gipeswic ) arose as the equivalent to these, serving the Kingdom of East Anglia, its early imported wares dating to the time of King Rædwald, supreme ruler of the English. The famous ship-burial and treasure at Sutton Hoo nearby is probably his grave, the Ipswich Museum houses replicas of the Roman Mildenhall and Sutton Hoo treasures. A gallery devoted to the towns origins includes Anglo-Saxon weapons, jewellery, the 7th-century town was centred near the quay. Towards 700 AD, Frisian potters from the Netherlands area settled in Ipswich and their wares were traded far across England, and the industry was unique to Ipswich for 200 years. With growing prosperity, in about 720 AD a large new part of the town was out in the Buttermarket area. Ipswich was becoming a place of national and international importance, parts of the ancient road plan still survive in its modern streets. After the invasion of 869 Ipswich fell under Viking rule, the earth ramparts circling the town centre were probably raised by Vikings in Ipswich around 900 to prevent its recapture by the English. The town operated a mint under royal licence from King Edgar in the 970s, the abbreviation Gipes appears on the coins. King John granted the town its first charter in 1200, laying the foundations of its modern civil government. In the next four centuries it made the most of its wealth, Five large religious houses, including two Augustinian Priories, and those of the Greyfriars, Ipswich Whitefriars and Ipswich Blackfriars, stood in medieval Ipswich. The last Carmelite Prior of Ipswich was the celebrated John Bale, there were also several hospitals, including the leper hospital of St Mary Magdalene, founded before 1199. During the Middle Ages the Marian Shrine of Our Lady of Grace was a pilgrimage destination

14.
Brine
–
Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water

15.
Droitwich
–
Droitwich Spa is a town in northern Worcestershire, England, on the River Salwarpe. The Spa was added in the 19th century when John Corbett developed the spa facilities. The River Salwarpe running through Droitwich is likely derived from Sal meaning salt, Droitwich is within the Wychavon area – the only Midlands area to be in the Halifax Quality of Life Survey of 2011. On 4 November 2013 Droitwich Spa Town Council made Max Sinclair an honorary Freeman of the town in recognition of the role he played in the restoration of Droitwich Canals. The town is situated on massive deposits of salt, and salt has been extracted there since ancient times, the natural Droitwich brine contains 2½ lbs. of salt per gallon – ten times stronger than sea water and rivalled only by the Dead Sea. During the Roman era the settlement was known as Salinae and was located at the crossroads of several Roman roads, Railway construction in 1847 revealed Roman mosaic pavements, and later excavations unearthed a Roman villa or corridor house some 44 yards long. The flooding was pictured in UK-wide news, having flooded the majority of the heavily subsided high street, many shops in the high street remained closed almost a year later. The flooding crossed from the stream and canal in Vines Park, crossed Roman Way, rock salt and brine was extracted by the Romans and this continued through to the Middle Ages. A salt tax was levied by the king until it was abolished in 1825, a local family named Wintour owned up to 25 salt evaporating pans in the area by the 1600s. Brine rose naturally to the surface at three sites along the River Salwarpe within Vines Park in the centre of Droitwich, unusually the brine was fully saturated with sodium chloride, and was extremely valuable because it was economic to boil, and the yield of salt was high. Because of its value the brine was divided into shares, one share comprising 6,912 gallons which produced eight tons of salt annually in the set boiling period. When it rained, particularly in the winter when brine was not being boiled, originally brine for boiling was extracted with buckets lowered into the pits which were naturally replenished. Upwich, the deepest of the three pits at 30 feet, supplied most of the brine, while the pit at Netherwich was only 18 feet deep. The Middlewich pit, located between the two, was affected by brine extraction at the other two pits and fell into disuse. Steynor in the 17th century discovered the pit and set up business for himself, with this production increased and pumps were used to draw brine, however, as a result parts of the town succumbed to subsidence. In the mid-19th century, Droitwich became famous as a Spa town, the spa water at Droitwich is the warmest in the United Kingdom outside Bath, but it does not meet the most common definition of a hot spring as the water is below standard human body temperature. The original Brine Baths have long closed, but a new brine bath opened to the public for relaxation. But this too was closed in December 2008 due to a dispute between the operator and Wychavon District Council over health and safety inspections

16.
Worcestershire
–
Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour

17.
Middlewich
–
Middlewich is a town in the unitary authority of Cheshire East and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It is 19.2 miles east of the city of Chester,2.9 miles east of Winsford,5.3 miles southeast of Northwich and 4.7 miles northwest of Sandbach, the population of the town at the 2011 Census was 13,595. Middlewich lies on the confluence of three rivers, the Dane, Croco and Wheelock, in 2014, it was rated one of the most attractive postcode areas to live in England. In the Domesday Book Middlewich is spelt Mildestvich, the termination wic or wyc in Old English refers to a settlement and it is also supposed that wich or wych refers to a salt town, with Middlewich being the middle town between Northwich and Nantwich. Middlewich was founded by the Romans, who gave it the name Salinae because of its salt deposits. It has been suggested that salt production also occurred in the same area. Whittakers History of Manchester claims that the Iron Age Cornovii made Kinderton their capital, there was once thought to have been a medieval castle at Kinderton, but that is now thought to have been unlikely. Middlewich lies across the King Street fault, which follows the Roman road, King Street. An excavation in 2004, in Buckleys Field, also uncovered signs of Roman occupation, Salt manufacture has remained the principal industry for the past 2,000 years, and it has shaped the towns history and geography. Before the Norman invasion of England in 1066, there is thought to have been one brine pit in Middlewich, in the Domesday Book the area is described as being wasted, having been cleared by King William around 1070 as an act of rage against his rebellious barons. Gilbert de Venables became the first Baron of Kinderton shortly after the Norman Conquest, a manor house was built to the east of the town and became the baronial seat of the Venables family. A Jacobean screen in the church of St Michael and All Angels has the carved Venables coat of arms, the title Baron of Kinderton is now vested in the Lord Vernon. The second Battle of Middlewich took place on 26 December 1643, the population of Middlewich rose during the 19th and 20th centuries. Some of this rise is attributable to a number of parishes being combined, for parts of Newton were added to Middlewich in 1894. In the middle of the 19th century Middlewich was described as a town with works being the surrounding farming district, a silk factory. In 1887 the town was described as having an appearance, with its principal trade being salt, along with fruit and vegetables. The town had one bank and one newspaper, by 1911 the Encyclopædia Britannica mentions the existence of chemical works and the manufacture of condensed milk. In common with the rest of the United Kingdom, Middlewichs young male population was decimated during the First World War

18.
Nantwich
–
Nantwich is a market town and civil parish in Cheshire, England. In 2011, it had a population of 17,424, the origins of the settlement date to Roman times, when salt from Nantwich was used by the Roman garrisons at Chester and Stoke-on-Trent as both a preservative and a condiment. Salt has been used in the production of Cheshire cheese and in the tanning industry, nant comes from the Welsh for brook or stream. Wich and wych are names used to denote brine springs or wells, in 1194 there is a reference to the town as being called Nametwihc, which would indicate it was once the site of a pre-Roman Celtic nemeton or sacred grove. In the Domesday Book, Nantwich is recorded as having eight salt houses and it had a castle and was the capital of a barony of the earls of Chester, and of one of the seven hundreds of medieval Cheshire. Nantwich is one of the few places in Cheshire to be marked on the Gough Map and it was first recorded as an urban area at the time of the Norman conquest, when the Normans burned the town to the ground leaving only one building standing. The town is believed to have been a centre from the 10th century or earlier. The Norman castle was built at the crossing of the Weaver before 1180, although nothing remains of the castle above ground, it affected the towns layout. During the medieval period, Nantwich was the most important salt town, by the 14th century, the town held a weekly cattle market at the end of what is today is Beam Street, and it was also important for its tanning industry centred on Barker Street. A fire in December 1583 destroyed most of the town to the east of the Weaver, elizabeth I contributed financially to the towns rebuilding, which occurred rapidly and followed the plan of the destroyed town. Beam Street was so renamed to reflect the fact that timber to rebuild the town was transported along it, a plaque marking the 400th anniversary of the fire and of Nantwichs rebuilding was unveiled by the Duke of Gloucester on 20 September 1984. During the English Civil War Nantwich declared for Parliament, and consequently it was besieged several times by Royalist forces, the name comes from the sprigs of holly worn by the townsfolk in their caps or clothing in the years after the battle, in its commemoration. The salt industry peaked in the century, with around 400 salt houses in 1530, and had almost died out by the end of the 18th century. Nikolaus Pevsner considers the decline in the industry to have been the critical factor in preserving the towns historic buildings. The last tannery closed in 1974, the towns location on the London to Chester road meant that Nantwich began to serve the needs of travellers in medieval times. During the mid-17th century, the mill was acquired by local land-owners, the Cholmondeleys, who retained it until the 1840s. Originally a corn mill, it became a mill from 1789 to 1874. Around 1890 a turbine was installed to replace the water wheel and it was demolished in the 1970s after a fire

19.
Northwich
–
Northwich is a town and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire West and Chester and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It lies in the heart of the Cheshire Plain, at the confluence of the rivers Weaver, the town is about 18 miles east of Chester and 15 miles south of Warrington. 19 miles south of Manchester and 12 miles south of Manchester Airport, Northwich has been part of the Manchester City region since 2004. Northwich has been named as one of the best places to live in the United Kingdom according to The Sunday Times in 2014, the area around Northwich has been exploited for its salt pans since Roman times, when the settlement was known as Condate. The town has severely affected by salt mining, and subsidence has historically been a significant problem. Recent investment has been designated in mine stabilisation, during Roman times, Northwich was known as Condate, thought to be a Latinisation of a Brittonic name meaning Confluence. There are several sites of the same name, mostly in France, in Northwichs case, it lies at the junction of the rivers Dane. Northwich can be identified through two contemporary Roman documents, the first of these is the Antonine Itinerary, a 3rd-century road map split into 14 sections. Two of these sections, or Itinerary, mention Condate, Route II, the second document is the 7th-century Ravenna Cosmography. This document refers to Condate between the entries for Salinae and Ratae, at the time the capital of the Corieltauvi tribe, the Romans interest in the Northwich area is thought to be due to the strategic river crossing and the location of the salt brines. Salt was very important in Roman society, the Roman word salarium, linked employment, salt and soldiers and it is also theorised that this is the basis for the modern word salary. Another theory is that the word itself comes from the Latin sal dare. See History of salt for further details, there is archaeological evidence of a Roman auxiliary fort within the area of Northwich now known as Castle dated to AD70. This and other forts were built as the Romans moved north from their stronghold in Chester. The association with salt continues in the etymology of Northwich, the wich suffix applies to other towns in the area, Middlewich, Nantwich and Leftwich. This is considered to have derived from the Norse, wic, for bay. Therefore, a place for making salt became a wych-house, Northwich was the most northern of the towns in Cheshire. The existence of Northwich in the medieval period is shown by its record in the Domesday Book, In the same Mildestuic hundred there was a third wich called Norwich

20.
Cheshire
–
Cheshire is a county in North West England, bordering Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south and Wales to the west. Cheshires county town is Chester, the largest town is Warrington, other major towns include Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Macclesfield, Northwich, Runcorn, Widnes, Wilmslow, and Winsford. The county covers 905 square miles and has a population of around 1 million and it is mostly rural, with a number of small towns and villages supporting the agricultural and other industries which produce Cheshire cheese, salt, chemicals and silk. Cheshires name was derived from an early name for Chester. Although the name first appears in 980, it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920, in the Domesday Book, Chester was recorded as having the name Cestrescir, derived from the name for Chester at the time. A series of changes occurred as English itself changed, together with some simplifications and elision, resulted in the name Cheshire. Because of the close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west. The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds that later became the part of Flintshire. Additionally, another portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as Maelor Saesneg when it was transferred to North Wales. For this and other reasons, the Welsh name for Cheshire is sometimes used within Wales, after the Norman conquest of 1066 by William I, dissent and resistance continued for many years after the invasion. In 1069 local resistance in Cheshire was finally put down using draconian measures as part of the Harrying of the North, the ferocity of the campaign against the English populace was enough to end all future resistance. Examples were made of major landowners such as Earl Edwin of Mercia, William I made Cheshire a county palatine and gave Gerbod the Fleming the new title of Earl of Chester. When Gerbod returned to Normandy in about 1070, the king used his absence to declare the earldom forfeit, due to Cheshires strategic location on Welsh Marches, the Earl had complete autonomous powers to rule on behalf of the king in the county palatine. Cheshire in the Domesday Book is recorded as a larger county than it is today. It included two hundreds, Atiscross and Exestan, that became part of North Wales. At the time of the Domesday Book, it included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as English Maelor in Wales. The area between the Mersey and Ribble formed part of the returns for Cheshire, an example is the barony of Halton. One of Hugh dAvranches barons has been identified as Robert Nicholls, Baron of Halton, in 1182 the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire, thus resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land Inter Ripam et Mersam was

21.
Triassic
–
The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.9 million years from the end of the Permian Period 252.17 million years ago, to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.3 Mya. The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic Era, both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. Therapsids and archosaurs were the terrestrial vertebrates during this time. A specialized subgroup of archosaurs, called dinosaurs, first appeared in the Late Triassic, the vast supercontinent of Pangaea existed until the mid-Triassic, after which it began to gradually rift into two separate landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. The global climate during the Triassic was mostly hot and dry, however, the climate shifted and became more humid as Pangaea began to drift apart. The end of the period was marked by yet another mass extinction, the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event. The Triassic is usually separated into Early, Middle, and Late Triassic Epochs, from the east, along the equator, the Tethys sea penetrated Pangaea, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to be closed. Later in the mid-Triassic a similar sea penetrated along the equator from the west, the remaining shores were surrounded by the world-ocean known as Panthalassa. All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates, thus, the supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in that period—but had not yet separated. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west, thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms that lived in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as Estheria crustaceans. At the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, Africa was joined with Earths other continents in Pangaea, Africa shared the supercontinents relatively uniform fauna which was dominated by theropods, prosauropods and primitive ornithischians by the close of the Triassic period. Late Triassic fossils are found throughout Africa, but are common in the south than north. The time boundary separating the Permian and Triassic marks the advent of an event with global impact. At Paleorrota geopark, located in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, in these formations, one of the earliest dinosaurs, Staurikosaurus, as well as the mammal ancestors Brasilitherium and Brasilodon have been discovered. The Triassic continental interior climate was hot and dry, so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites. Pangaeas large size limited the effect of the global ocean, its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers. The strong contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and the global ocean triggered intense cross-equatorial monsoons, the best studied of such episodes of humid climate, and probably the most intense and widespread, was the Carnian Pluvial Event. On land, the vascular plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycadophytes, ginkgophyta, ferns, horsetails

22.
Old Norse language
–
Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders

23.
William I of England
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Roberts mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, during his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy and his marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and his consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine. In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 and he made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 Williams hold on England was mostly secure, Williams final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and his reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, Williams lands were divided after his death, Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and his second surviving son, William Rufus, received England. Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century, permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the duchy of Normandy. Normandy may have used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002

24.
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth

25.
Grant Allen
–
Charles Grant Blairfindie Allen was a Canadian science writer and novelist, and a proponent of the theory of evolution. Allen was born near Kingston, Canada West, the son of Catharine Ann Grant and the Rev. Joseph Antisell Allen. His mother was a daughter of the fifth Baron de Longueuil, Allen was educated at home until, at age 13, he and his parents moved to the United States, then to France, and finally to the United Kingdom. He was educated at King Edwards School in Birmingham and at Merton College in Oxford, after graduation, Allen studied in France, taught at Brighton College in 1870–71, and in his mid-twenties became a professor at Queens College, a black college in Jamaica. Despite being the son of a minister, Allen became an agnostic, after leaving his professorship, in 1876 he returned to England, where he turned his talents to writing, gaining a reputation for his essays on science and for literary works. A2007 book by Oliver Sacks cites with approval one of Allens early articles, Allens first books dealt with scientific subjects, and include Physiological Æsthetics and Flowers and Their Pedigrees. On a personal level, a friendship that started when Allen met Spencer on his return from Jamaica grew uneasy over the years. Allen wrote a critical and revealing biographical article on Spencer that was published after Spencers death, after assisting Sir W. W. Hunter with his Gazetteer of India in the early 1880s, Allen turned his attention to fiction, and between 1884 and 1899 produced about 30 novels. In 1895, his scandalous book titled The Woman Who Did, promulgating certain startling views on marriage and kindred questions, the book told the story of an independent woman who has a child out of wedlock. In his career, Allen wrote two novels under female pseudonyms, one of these, the short novel The Type-writer Girl, he wrote under the name Olive Pratt Rayner. Another work, The Evolution of the Idea of God, propounds a theory of religion on heterodox lines comparable to Herbert Spencers ghost theory. Allens theory became known and brief references to it appear in a review by Marcel Mauss, Durkheims nephew, in the articles of William James. The young G. K. Chesterton wrote on what he considered the premise of the idea, arguing that the idea of God preceded human mythologies. Chesterton said of Allens book on the evolution of the idea of God, Allen also became a pioneer in science fiction, with the novel The British Barbarians. This book, published about the time as H. G. Wellss The Time Machine, also described time travel. Allens short story The Thames Valley Catastrophe describes the destruction of London by a sudden, Allen married twice and had one son, Jerrard Grant Allen, a theatrical agent/manager who in 1913 married the actress and singer Violet Englefield. They had a son, Reginald Reggie Grant Allen, Grant Allen died of liver cancer at his home on Hindhead, Haslemere, Surrey, England, on October 25,1899. He died before finishing Hilda Wade, many histories of detective fiction mention Allen as an innovator

26.
History of salt
–
Salt, NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. It has been important to humans for thousands of years, because all life has evolved to depend on it, humans, like all life, need dietary salt to survive. Salts ability to preserve food was a contributor to civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on availability of food. However, salt was difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued trade item, many salt roads, such as the via Salaria in Italy, had been established by the Bronze age. All through history, availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, in Britain, the suffix -wich in a placename means it was once a source of salt, as in Sandwich and Norwich. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, today, salt is almost universally accessible, relatively cheap, and often iodized. Salt comes from two sources, sea water and the sodium chloride mineral halite. Rock salt occurs in vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals that result from the drying up of enclosed lakes, playas, Salt beds may be up to 350 m thick and underlie broad areas. In the United States and Canada extensive underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of western New York through parts of Ontario, other deposits are in Texas, Ohio, Kansas, New Mexico, Nova Scotia, and Saskatchewan. In the United Kingdom underground beds are found in Cheshire and around Droitwich, salzburg, Austria, was named the city of salt for its mines. High-quality rock salt was cut in medieval Transylvania, Maramureş and Southern Poland, tuzla in Bosnia and Herzegovina was named in Hungarian Só from the twelfth century on and later place of salt by Turks. Salt is extracted from underground beds either by mining or by solution mining using water to dissolve the salt, in solution mining the salt reaches the surface as brine, from which the water is evaporated leaving salt crystals. Solnitsata, the earliest known town in Europe was built around a production facility. Located in present-day Bulgaria, archaeologists believe the town accumulated wealth by supplying salt throughout the Balkans, Salt was of high value to the Hebrews, Greeks, the Chinese, Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. Aside from being a factor in the development of civilization, salt was also used in the military practice of salting the earth by various peoples. In the early years of the Roman Republic, with the growth of the city of Rome, an example was the Via Salaria, leading from Rome to the Adriatic Sea. The Adriatic, having a higher salinity due to its depth, had more productive solar ponds compared with those of the Tyrrhenian Sea

27.
Wick, Caithness
–
Wick is a town and royal burgh in Caithness, in the far north of Scotland. The town straddles the River Wick and extends along both sides of Wick Bay, Wick Locality had a population of 6,954 at the time of the 2011 census, a decrease of 3. 8% from 2001. Pulteneytown, which was developed on the side of the river by the British Fisheries Society during the 19th century, was officially merged into the burgh in 1902. The town is on the highway linking John o Groats with southern Britain. The Far North railway line links Wick railway station with southern Scotland and with Thurso, Wick Airport is on Wicks northern outskirts. The airport has two usable runways, the main offices of The John OGroat Journal and The Caithness Courier are located in Wick, as are Caithness General Hospital, the Wick Carnegie Library and local offices of the Highland Council. Wick Sheriff Court is one of 16 sheriff courts serving the sheriffdom of Grampian, Highland, iron Age activity in the parish of Wick is evident in the hill fort at Garrywhin. Evidence of activity around Wick from the Norse pagan period was discovered in 1837 when brooches, the name Wick appears to be from a Norse word, vík, meaning bay, cf. also the word viking. In the eighth century, St Fergus, an Irish missionary and he is the patron saint of Wick. One of the fairs in Wick, the Fergusmas, is named for this saint and it is believed that the Chapel of St. Tear in Wick Parish near Ackergill was founded in the eighth century by St Drostan, whose ministry was in Aberdeenshire. Wick belonged to Norway, as did all of Caithness, until the reign of William the Lion, the Castle of Old Wick, commonly known as “The Old Man of Wick” is thought to have been built in about 1160 by Harald Maddadson, Earl of Caithness and Orkney. Earl Harald, who was half Norse, is thought to have resided there and it was long used by fishermen as an aid to navigation in the North Sea. This occasioned a dispute between Hroald and Margad, and the latter soon went to Wik with nineteen men. Between the years 1153 and 1156, Harald Maddadson, then joint earl Katanes and Orkney with Earl Rognvald, passed into Katanes, in about 1330, the parish of Wick was included among the Caithness lands owned by the family of Cheyne. The last male heir, Sir Reginald de Cheyne, died c.1345 and was succeeded by his two daughters, who, by marriage, carried the lands into the clans Sinclair, Sutherland, and Keith. Between 1390 and 1406, King Robert III granted the town of Wick in heritage to Neill Sutherland with a burgh of barony, in 1438, the clans Gunn and Keith joined battle near Wick on the moor of Tannach with both sides suffering heavy losses. However, hostilities between the two clans were not ended at that time. In 1503, the Parliament of Scotland established a sheriff for Caithness and they were charged with treason but were granted remission by Queen Mary

Anglo-Saxon England
–
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th century from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066. It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927 when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan and it became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal unio

1.
Escomb Church, a restored 7th century Anglo-Saxon church. Church architecture and artefacts provide a useful source of historical information.

Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting

1.
Glassblowing artisans at work in a crystal glass workshop

2.
Craftsman of salt in Salinas Grandes, Salta province (Argentina)

3.
An artist blacksmith and a striker working as one

4.
Wood carver in Bali

Old English
–
Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken

1.
A detail of the first page of the Beowulf manuscript, showing the words "ofer hron rade", i.e. "over the whale's road (=sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the kenning.

2.
North Germanic

3.
"Her swutelað seo gecwydrædnes ðe" Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire

4.
The first page of the Beowulf manuscript with its opening Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

Excavation (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or dig is a site being studied, such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years. Numerous special

1.
Excavations at the site of Gran Dolina, in the Atapuerca Mountains, Spain, 2008

2.
Excavations at the cave of Santa Ana (Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain)

3.
Stratigraphy in the excavation area in the Kerameikos Cemetery (Athens).

4.
Excavation at the site of the Battle at the Harzhorn (Germany)

Eilert Ekwall
–
He wrote works on the history of the language, but is best known as the author of numerous important books on English place-names and personal names. The Dictionary remained the national reference resource for over 40 years. He was competent not only in English philology, but also in Scandinavian and Celtic, from 1935, Ekwall was a Fellow of the Sw

1.
Eilert Ekwall's gravestone at the Northern Cemetery in Lund.

Doomsday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about thi

1.
Domesday Book: an engraving published in 1900. Great Domesday (the larger volume) and Little Domesday (the smaller volume), in their 1869 bindings, lying on their older " Tudor " bindings.

2.
Great Domesday in its " Tudor " binding: a wood-engraving of the 1860s

3.
Domesday chest, the German-style iron-bound chest of c.1500 in which Domesday Book was kept in the 17th and 18th centuries

4.
Entries for Croydon and Cheam, Surrey, in the 1783 edition of Domesday Book

Papplewick
–
The parish of Papplewick is situated towards the west of central Nottinghamshire, to the north of the town of Hucknall. It has an area of 7.15 km², the village of Papplewick is located in the west of the parish. It is 7.5 miles north of Nottingham and 6 miles south of Mansfield, in 1991, there were 620 people living in the parish, occupying 255 dwe

1.
St James' church

Nottinghamshire
–
Nottinghamshire is a county in the East Midlands of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditional county town is Nottingham, though the county council is based in West Bridgford in the borough of Rushcliffe, the districts of Nottinghamshire ar

1.
National and County cricket player Harold Larwood

2.
Flag

3.
The council house and a tram in Nottingham market square

England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain

1.
Stonehenge, a Neolithic monument

2.
Flag

3.
Boudica led an uprising against the Roman Empire

4.
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial helmet from the Kingdom of East Anglia, found at Sutton Hoo

Scandinavian York
–
It was closely associated with the much longer-lived Kingdom of Dublin throughout this period. York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum, a Viking attempt against Mercia the same season failed, and in 869 their efforts against Wessex were fruitless in the face of opposition from Kings Ethelred and Alfred the Great. The Vikin

2.
A map of the routes taken by the Great Heathen Army from 865 to 878

Lundenwic
–
The history of Anglo-Saxon London relates to the history of the city of London during the Anglo-Saxon period, during the 7th to 11th centuries. Romano-British Londinium had been abandoned in the late 5th century, although the London Wall remained intact, there was an Anglo-Saxon settlement by the early 7th century, called Lundenwic, about one mile

1.
Alfred the Great

2.
London and the kingdom of Essex, which for a period of time included Middlesex, Surrey and Kent

3.
Plaque in the City noting the restoration of the city by Alfred.

4.
A coin probably minted in London during the reign of Ethelred the Unready

Hamwic
–
Southampton is a city in Hampshire, England. The area has settled since the stone age. Having been an important regional centre for centuries, Southampton was awarded City status by The Queen in 1964, Southampton became an important port in medieval times, experiencing several hundred years of fluctuating fortunes until it was expanded by the Victo

1.
Road map of Roman Britain

2.
The Parish Church of St Michael

3.
The medieval city wall

4.
John Speed 's 1612 map of Southampton

Ipswich
–
Ipswich is the county town of Suffolk, England, located on the estuary of the River Orwell, about 60 miles north east of London. The town has been occupied since the Saxon period. It has also known as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. Ipswich is one of Englands oldest towns, if not the oldest, the claim has also been made of the Essex town of Colchester, b

2.
Ancient House is decorated with a particularly fine example of pargeting.

3.
Timber-frame buildings in St Nicholas Street

4.
Neptune Marina Quay, Ipswich

Brine
–
Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26

1.
A NASA technician measures the concentration level of brine using a hydrometer at a salt evaporation pond in San Francisco.

Droitwich
–
Droitwich Spa is a town in northern Worcestershire, England, on the River Salwarpe. The Spa was added in the 19th century when John Corbett developed the spa facilities. The River Salwarpe running through Droitwich is likely derived from Sal meaning salt, Droitwich is within the Wychavon area – the only Midlands area to be in the Halifax Quality of

1.
Saltworkers by British sculptor John McKenna in the town centre.

2.
Droitwich transmitting station, Wychbold

3.
Droitwich Spa High Street on St. Richard's Day 2009

Worcestershire
–
Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The nor

1.
Flag

2.
Worcestershire County Council

3.
The Battle of Powick Bridge on the River Teme on 23 September 1642 began the English Civil War.

4.
Halesowen was an exclave of neighbouring Shropshire until 1844 when it was incorporated into Worcestershire. It is now in the metropolitan county of the West Midlands.

Middlewich
–
Middlewich is a town in the unitary authority of Cheshire East and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It is 19.2 miles east of the city of Chester,2.9 miles east of Winsford,5.3 miles southeast of Northwich and 4.7 miles northwest of Sandbach, the population of the town at the 2011 Census was 13,595. Middlewich lies on the confluence of th

1.
The parish church of St. Michael and All Angels seen over the Trent and Mersey Canal

2.
The Parish Church of St Michael and All Angels

3.
Unveiling of the cenotaph

4.
The Roman theatre in the Bull Ring

Nantwich
–
Nantwich is a market town and civil parish in Cheshire, England. In 2011, it had a population of 17,424, the origins of the settlement date to Roman times, when salt from Nantwich was used by the Roman garrisons at Chester and Stoke-on-Trent as both a preservative and a condiment. Salt has been used in the production of Cheshire cheese and in the t

1.
High Street

2.
Churche's Mansion, one of the few buildings in Nantwich to survive the fire of 1583

3.
Crown Hotel

4.
St Mary's Church.

Northwich
–
Northwich is a town and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire West and Chester and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It lies in the heart of the Cheshire Plain, at the confluence of the rivers Weaver, the town is about 18 miles east of Chester and 15 miles south of Warrington. 19 miles south of Manchester and 12 miles south of

1.
Northwich Public Library

2.
Weaver Hall Museum, previously the workhouse

3.
Marbury Country Park

Cheshire
–
Cheshire is a county in North West England, bordering Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south and Wales to the west. Cheshires county town is Chester, the largest town is Warrington, other major towns include Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Macclesfield, Northwich, Runcorn,

1.
Nantwich High Street

3.
Crewe Town Council

4.
The Wizard Pub, Alderley Edge

Triassic
–
The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.9 million years from the end of the Permian Period 252.17 million years ago, to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.3 Mya. The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic Era, both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. Therapsids and archosaurs were t

Old Norse language
–
Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and

1.
The Rök Runestone in Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.

2.
Old West Norse dialect

William I of England
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conq

1.
William as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry during the Battle of Hastings, lifting his helm to show that he is still alive

2.
Château de Falaise in Falaise, Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.

3.
Column at the site of the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes

4.
Image from the Bayeux Tapestry showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.

Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about thi

1.
Domesday Book: an engraving published in 1900. Great Domesday (the larger volume) and Little Domesday (the smaller volume), in their 1869 bindings, lying on their older " Tudor " bindings.

2.
Great Domesday in its " Tudor " binding: a wood-engraving of the 1860s

3.
Domesday chest, the German-style iron-bound chest of c.1500 in which Domesday Book was kept in the 17th and 18th centuries

4.
Entries for Croydon and Cheam, Surrey, in the 1783 edition of Domesday Book

Grant Allen
–
Charles Grant Blairfindie Allen was a Canadian science writer and novelist, and a proponent of the theory of evolution. Allen was born near Kingston, Canada West, the son of Catharine Ann Grant and the Rev. Joseph Antisell Allen. His mother was a daughter of the fifth Baron de Longueuil, Allen was educated at home until, at age 13, he and his paren

1.
Portrait of Grant Allen, by Elliott & Fry

2.
The British Barbarians, 1895

History of salt
–
Salt, NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. It has been important to humans for thousands of years, because all life has evolved to depend on it, humans, like all life, need dietary salt to survive. Salts ability to preserve food was a contributor to civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on availability of food. How

1.
Naturally formed salt crystals

2.
Ancient method of boiling brine into pure salt in China

3.
The Sečovlje Saltworks on the Northern Adriatic Sea were probably started in Antiquity and were first mentioned in 804 in the document on Placitum of Riziano.

Wick, Caithness
–
Wick is a town and royal burgh in Caithness, in the far north of Scotland. The town straddles the River Wick and extends along both sides of Wick Bay, Wick Locality had a population of 6,954 at the time of the 2011 census, a decrease of 3. 8% from 2001. Pulteneytown, which was developed on the side of the river by the British Fisheries Society duri

1.
Looking down-river towards the Bridge of Wick

2.
The River Harbour with the ex-RMAS Fleet Tender Ilchester and windmill blades to the left and the river in the centre. The Harbour Bridge is visible in the centre.