Crockford's Clerical Directory

Crockford's Clerical Directory (Crockford) is the authoritative directory of the Anglican Communion in the United Kingdom, containing details of English, Welsh and Irish benefices and churches, and biographies of around 26,000 clergy. It was first issued in 1858 by John Crockford,[1] a London printer and publisher whose father – also named John – had been a Somerset schoolmaster.

The actual title of the first edition was simply The Clerical Directory, but a footnote showed that it was published by John Crockford, 29 Essex Street, the Strand. The original publisher died suddenly in 1865, shortly before the appearance of the third edition of what had by then become Crockford’s Clerical Directory. For many subsequent issues the volumes were anonymously edited, but they were published under the imprint of Horace Cox – the nephew of John Crockford’s closest business associate, solicitor and publisher Edward William Cox (1809Ω–1879). (His family was probably quite unrelated to the Charles Cox who coincidentally was the publisher of Crockford's chief rival, the Clergy List.[a]) Horace Cox died in 1918[b] and the title was subsequently sold in 1921 to the Oxford University Press,[3] who continued as publishers right up until the early 1980s. For the 1985/86 issue publication was transferred to the Church Commissioners and their Central Board of Finance (who worked from their own administrative lists and databases). It is now collated by Church House Publishing.

The first four issues came out in 1858, 1860 (with a supplement in 1861),[c] 1865 [d] and 1868. Crockford then reappeared biennially until 1876, when it began a long run of annual appearances which lasted until 1917. The next issue was a delayed 1918/19 edition, which had for the first time incorporated its main rival publication, the Clergy List. Further issues appeared for 1920 and 1921/22; then between 1923 and 1927[e] and 1929–1940 the directory reappeared annually, followed by more late issues in 1941 and 1947/48. Since that time Crockford has generally appeared every two years, although gradually worsening delays meant that the 87th and 88th editions were dated 1977/79 and 1980/82, and the book failed to appear at all during 1983/84. Biennial publication was once again resumed in 1985/86, although the volume issued late in 1997 was designated the 1998/99 edition. The 100th edition – eventually published for 2008/09 – included within its hardback version a few facsimile pages from the first edition, together with an extended historical note describing some of the earlier volumes.

The 1858 edition was later described as seemingly “assembled in a very haphazard fashion, with names added ‘as fast as they could be obtained’, out of alphabetical order and with an unreliable index”. But nevertheless the 1860 directory “had become a very much more useful work of reference”.[f] However the original volume was actually a consolidation of what in 1857 had been conceived as a mere series of supplements to an entirely different publication, the Clerical Journal.[g] The editors explained in the preface that they wished it to be understood that it was “but the foundation of a great work which, with the Cordial aid of the clergy, we shall hope to make more and more perfect every year”.

Crockford, 1910: a biographical page in an older edition would typically include many abbreviations, including clergy academic backgrounds, and their dates ordained deacon [d] and priest [p] (the presiding bishop being indicated). Diocesan coats of arms were shown alongside episcopal entries; any publications were listed, and parish incomes and patrons were mentioned. Many overseas clergy would be covered.

The 1858 issue was based on postal returns from the clergy in England and Wales, involving an outlay – as the preface pointed out – of "more than Five Hundred Pounds for Postage Stamps alone". Simpler lists for the Scottish Episcopal Church and for a number of colonial clergy – obtained from alternative sources – had been added by the 1865 edition, whilst details of Irish clergy had also been extracted from Alexander Thom's Irish Almanack and Official Directory. From the 1870s onwards the scope was progressively extended to all parts of the Anglican communion with the notable exception of the Episcopal Church (United States). The 1870 edition contained 940 pages, but this had increased to over 2,100 pages by 1892.

The earliest editions had also gradually added some details of diocesan office holders and administrators, together with the theological colleges, and the royal chapels. They also acquired much fuller indexes – along with outline maps of dioceses, and increasingly complete lists of bishops, dating right back to the earliest years of their sees. They further offered to all clergy an opportunity to list their publications, although these lists eventually had to be cut back as their overall length started to increase dramatically.

By the early 1980s severe economies had become necessary and 1985/86 edition had to be restricted to the "home" churches of England, Scotland and Wales.[6] Retired clergy were temporarily restricted to just a few details of their final appointment, although it became possible to restore the Irish clergy in time for the 1987/88 edition. Later editions saw a further return of the retired clergy, together with details of those overseas clergy who had originally been licensed or trained in the UK, or who occupied senior positions within their respective church hierarchies. Details which had also become obtainable from the Church of England Yearbook or from similar sources were generally excluded. For a time too clergy who made their livings though secular jobs were excluded from the biographies section, with the abbreviation NQ (Non-Qualifying Position) being used to cover such periods when clerics returned to parish work and were again eligible for inclusion. In that many such clergy retained diocesan licences or episcopal "Permissions to Officiate" during their periods of secular employment, this approach may have caused a degree of difficulty for clerics who needed to prove their clerical status.

By 1985/86 the first women deacons were being included (although women priests ordained in Hong Kong were included even in the 1970s) while other more recent innovations – from the 1990s onwards – have included optional email addresses, together with lists of those clergy who have died since the previous edition. Notes on "How to Address the Clergy"[7] have been retained. A small number of clergy have been excluded at their own request, or have allowed their biographies to appear minus a contact address. The Church Commissioners soon replaced the traditional black hardback bindings in favour of red and also introduced a separate softback alternative version.

Since 2004 there has also been a frequently updated Internet edition of Crockford, which is available by subscription.[8] More recently the directory has also joined in with social networking, operating a Twitter account since 2012.

An alternative to the main work, Crockford's Shorter Directory, focused almost entirely on the Church of England and omitting all past biographical details, was issued as a single edition in 1953–54.

The well-known tradition of having an extensive but anonymous preface offering a general review of events within the Anglican communion – together with some occasionally sharp and controversial commentary – evolved gradually during the early part of the 20th century.[3] Previous prefaces had tended to be much briefer and they had often been limited merely to explaining the directory’s in-house policies. After the events following the publication of the 1987/88 edition, which had ended with the death of Dr Gareth Bennett, this tradition of the anonymous preface was discontinued.

An anthology Crockford Prefaces: The Editor Looks Back, anonymously edited by Richard Henry Malden[3] and covering the previous 25 years, was published by the Oxford University Press in 1947.[9]

Besides the 1865 reprint,[4] a small number of early editions have been reissued in CD format by various publishers, including Archive CD Books. Scanned copies of other early editions have also begun to appear on the World Wide Web.

Crockford is referenced in Dorothy Sayers's 1927 detective novel Unnatural Death (chapter XI) where Lord Peter Wimsey uses "this valuable work of reference" in trying to trace a clergyman who is important for solving the book's mystery.

Another fictional character holding Crockford on his bookshelves was Sherlock Holmes, who during one of his final short stories ("The Adventure of the Retired Colourman"), consulted his copy before dispatching his colleague Dr Watson, together with another companion, to a distant part of Essex. There they interviewed “a big solemn rather pompous clergyman” who received them angrily in his study.

^Horace Cox’s very brief obituary in The Times, 11 October 1918; p. 5, states that he had retired in 1912 and had ceased to take an active part in his business, which also produced The Field, The Queen and The Law Times

^The 1861 supplement, experimentally issued when a switch to biennial publication was being contemplated, may be downloaded free of charge from Google Play

^The 1865 edition was reprinted in a 1995 facsimile limited edition of 100 copies by Peter Bell (bookseller), Edinburgh.[4] It can also now be downloaded free of charge from Google play

^There was no issue in 1928, for what the editor called "technical reasons". Production difficulties in 1941/42, 1943 and 1944 meant that it was only possible to issue short supplements to the 1941 edition. Crockford Prefaces: The Editor Looks Back (Oxford, 1947), pp. i, 257, 272, 283.

^Quoted by Brenda Hough in her biographical note on John Crockford, published in the 1998/99 Crockford and reprinted (with minor modifications) in all subsequent editions; also on the official Crockford's website.[5]

^The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article on Edward William Cox states that he, together with John Crockford, had founded the Clerical Journal in 1853.

1.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey

2.
Diocese in Europe
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The See Cathedral is the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Gibraltar and there are two Pro-Cathedrals in Malta and Brussels. The diocese is headed by the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe, the present bishop, Rob Innes, was commissioned and consecrated on 20 July 2014. The current suffragan bishop is David Hamid, who was consecrated bishop on 17 October 2002, the pro-cathedrals are St Pauls Cathedral, Valletta, Malta, and Pro-Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Brussels, Belgium. The diocese is attached to the Province of Canterbury, the Diocese of Gibraltar was created on 29 September 1842 and at that time covered all Anglican chaplaincies from Portugal to the Caspian Sea. On 30 June 1980, the diocese was amalgamated with the Jurisdiction of North and Central Europe and it is divided into seven archdeaconries. The previous archdeacon was Patrick Curran, who was based in Vienna, Austria, the archdeacon is assisted by two area deans. Colin Williams became the full-time Archdeacon in October 2015, taking charge of both the Eastern archdeaconry and that of Germany and Northern Europe, and being based in Frankfurt, Germany. Archdeaconry of Germany and Northern Europe, consisting of, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, the archdeacon is assisted by two area deans. The current archdeacon is Meurig Williams and is assisted by two area deans, archdeaconry of Gibraltar, consisting of, Andorra, Gibraltar, Morocco, Portugal, and Spain. The current archdeacon is Geoff Johnston, the archdeacon is assisted by two area deans. The current archdeacon is Vickie Sims and she is based in Milan, Italy and assisted by one area dean. Archdeaconry of Northwest Europe, consisting of, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Acting Archdeacon is Paul Vrokijk. The archdeacon is assisted by two area deans, the acting archdeacon is Adèle Kelham who is based in Lausanne. The diocese is led by the diocesan Bishop in Europe, Robert Innes, the diocese also licences many honorary assistant bishops to fulfill some episcopal duties across the European diocese. Matthias Ring has been the Bishop of the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany since 2010, jorge de Pina Cabral has been the diocesan bishop of the Lusitanian Church since 2012, the diocese is based in Gaia, Portugal. The rest are retired Anglican bishops resident in England, the following are licensed as of March 2014 according to the official diocesan website, 1994–present, Michael Manktelow, retired Bishop suffragan of Basingstoke, lives in Chichester, West Sussex. 2002–present, Edward Holland, retired Bishop of Colchester, lives in Hammersmith, 2002–present, David Smith, retired Bishop of Bradford, lives in Dunnington, North Yorkshire and is also licensed in York diocese. 2003–present, John Flack, retired Director of the Anglican Centre in Rome & Archbishops Representative to the Holy See and former Bishop of Huntingdon, lives in Whittlesey, alan Chesters, retired diocesan Bishop of Blackburn, lives in Lingfield, Surrey

3.
Church of Ireland
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The Church of Ireland is a Christian church in Ireland and an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. It is organised on a basis and is the second-largest Christian church on the island after the Catholic Church in Ireland. Like other Anglican churches, it has retained elements of pre-Reformation practice, notably its episcopal polity, nevertheless, in theological and liturgical matters, it incorporates many principles of the Reformation, particularly those espoused during the English Reformation. The church self identifies as being both Catholic and Reformed, within the church, differences exist between those members who are more Catholic-leaning and those who are more Protestant-leaning. For historical and cultural reasons, the Church of Ireland is generally identified as a Protestant church, the Church of Ireland is the second-largest in the Republic of Ireland, with around 130,000 members, and the third-largest in Northern Ireland, with around 260,000 members. The Church of Ireland describes itself as part of the Irish Church which was influenced by the Reformation. However, the Church of Ireland is also Protestant, or Reformed, since it opposes doctrines and ways of worshiping that it considers contrary to scripture and which led to the Reformation. When the Church of England broke communion with the Holy See, all, the church then became the established church of Ireland, assuming possession of most church property. This church-state link was vigorously applied when the Normans came to Ireland in the 12th century, Bishops were required to do homage to the king for their lands, just like earls and barons, who were vassals of the crown. It was therefore accepted, both during and after the Reformation, that the crown should continue to exercise authority over the church. In this way, church property that existed at the time of the Reformation, in Ireland, the substantial majority of the population continued to adhere to Roman Catholicism, despite the political and economic advantages of membership in the state church. Legitimacy for the Norman invasion of Ireland was derived from a Papal Bull of 1155 – Laudabiliter, the bull gave King Henry II of England authority to invade Ireland ostensibly as a means of reforming the church in Ireland more directly under the control of the Holy See. The authorisation from the Holy See was based upon the Donation of Constantine which made every Christian island in the western Roman Empire the property of the Papacy. The Church of Ireland is the second largest church in Ireland, the Church of Ireland began as a reformed church independent of the Catholic Church in 1536 when the Irish Parliament declared King Henry VIII to be the Supreme Head of the Church on earth. He would not legally become king of Ireland until 1541, adrian granted Henry II the Lordship of Ireland, thus, Henrys assumption of the title of King had less to do with dispossessing the native Irish kings than with confronting the Pope. The reformation commenced mainly in Dublin under the auspices of George Browne during Henrys reign, when the Church of England was reformed under King Edward VI of England, so too was the Church of Ireland. All but two of the Irish bishops appointed by Queen Mary accepted the Elizabethan Settlement, although the vast majority of priests, the Church of Ireland claims Apostolic succession because of the unbroken continuity of the episcopal hierarchy, however, this is disputed by the Roman Catholic Church. In this way, they were able to conform to the established church whilst at the same time continuing to worship. in the traditional

4.
Strand, London
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Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile

5.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes

6.
Episcopal Church (United States)
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The Episcopal Church is the United States-based member church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The current presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church is Michael Bruce Curry, in 2014, the Episcopal Church had 1,956,042 baptized members. In 2011, it was the nations 14th largest denomination, in 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.2 percent of the adult population in the United States, or 3 million people, self-identify as mainline Episcopalians/Anglicans. The Episcopal Church describes itself as Protestant, yet Catholic, the Episcopal Church is an apostolic church, tracing its bishops back to the apostles via holy orders. The Book of Common Prayer, a collection of traditional rites, blessings, liturgies, the Episcopal Church was active in the Social Gospel movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the church has pursued a more liberal course. It has opposed the death penalty and supported the civil rights movement, some of its leaders and priests are known for marching with influential civil rights demonstrators such as Martin Luther King Jr. The Church calls for the legal equality of gay and lesbian people. Due to the process of editing or making additions to the Prayer Book, the BCP still describes marriage as being the union of a man. The Episcopal Church ordains women and LGBT people to the priesthood, the diaconate, in 2003, Gene Robinson was the first non-celibate openly gay person ordained as a bishop in documented Christian history. There are two names of the Episcopal Church specified in its constitution, The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The latter is the commonly used name. In other languages, an equivalent is used, until 1964, the only official name in use was The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. In the 19th century, High Church members advocated changing the name and they were opposed by the churchs evangelical wing, which felt that the Protestant Episcopal label accurately reflected the Reformed character of Anglicanism. After 1877, alternative names were proposed and rejected by the General Convention. A commonly proposed alternative was the American Catholic Church, by the 1960s, opposition to dropping the word Protestant had largely subsided. The 66th General Convention voted in 1979 to use the name The Episcopal Church in the Oath of Conformity of the Declaration for Ordination, the evolution of the name can be seen in the churchs Book of Common Prayer. The alternate name The Episcopal Church in the United States of America has never been a name of the church but is commonly seen in English

7.
Twitter
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy

8.
Cambridge University Library
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Cambridge University Library is the main research library of the University of Cambridge in England. It is also the biggest of 114 libraries within the University. The Library is a scholarly resource for both the members of the University of Cambridge and for external researchers. Cambridge University Library comprises the main University Library and its affiliated libraries, as at August 2015, twenty-one affiliated libraries were associated with the main University Library, which is often referred to within the University as the University Library or just the UL. Through legal deposit, purchase and donation it receives around 100,000 items every year, the main University Library holds approximately 8 million items. Its original location was the Universitys Old Schools near Senate House until it outgrew the space there, the current acting librarian is Professor Christopher Young. As early as the century, Cambridge University owned a collection of manuscripts. These would have kept in chests along with other valuables. A common library can be traced to the beginning of the 15th century, the earliest catalogue is dated ca. 1424, at which there were 122 volumes in the library. The second earliest surviving catalogue was drawn up in 1473, from the 16th century onwards it received generous donations or bequests of books and growth was considerably increased once the privilege of legal deposit had been granted. The current main University Library building was constructed between 1931 and 1934 under architect Giles Gilbert Scott, who designed the neighbouring Clare Memorial Court. The site had been used by the First Eastern General Hospital, built at the outbreak of the First World War on the 8 acres joint cricket field of Kings and Clare Colleges. The hospital had 1,700 beds at its height and treated some 70,000 casualties between 1914 and 1919, the library is a Grade II listed building. Inside are a number of 17th- and 18th century bookcases including the ones designed for the old University Library by James Essex in 1731-4, the building bears a marked resemblance to Scotts industrial architecture, including Bankside Power Station. The library tower stands 157 feet tall,6 feet shorter than the top of St Johns College Chapel and 10 feet taller than the peak of Kings College Chapel. Supposedly, in opening the building, Neville Chamberlain referred to it as this magnificent erection, contrary to popular belief, pornographic material is not stored in the tower. The library has been extended several times, the main building houses the Japanese and Chinese collections in the Aoi Pavilion, an extension donated by Tadao Aoi and opened in 1998. The library is building a new facility in Ely

9.
Lambeth Palace
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In addition, Lambeth Palace is home to the Community of Saint Anselm, an Anglican religious order that is under the patronage of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Lambeth Palace was acquired by the archbishopric around 1200 AD and has the largest collection of records of the Church in its library. It is bounded by Lambeth Palace Road to the west and Lambeth Road to the south, the garden park is listed and resembles Archbishops Park, a neighbouring public park, however, it was a larger area with a notable orchard until the early 19th century. The former church in front of its entrance has been converted to the Garden Museum, the name Lambeth embodies hithe, a landing on the river, archbishops came and went by water, as did John Wycliff, who was tried here for heresy. In the English peasants revolt of 1381 the Palace was attacked, the oldest remaining part of the palace is the Early English chapel. Lollard’s Tower, which evidence of its use as a prison in the 17th century. The front is an early Tudor brick gatehouse built by Cardinal John Morton, Cardinal Pole lay in state in the palace for 40 days after he died there in 1558. The fig tree in the courtyard is possibly grown from a slip taken from one of the White Marseille fig trees here for centuries. In 1786, there were three ancient figs, two nailed against the wall and still noted in 1826 as two uncommonly fine, traditionally reported to have been planted by Cardinal Pole, and fixed against that part of the palace believed to have been founded by him. They are of the white Marseilles sort, and still bear delicious fruit. On the south side of the building, in a private garden, is another tree of the same kind. By 1882, their place had taken by several massive offshoots. The notable orchard of the period has somewhat given way to a mirroring public park adjoining and built-up roads of housing. The great hall was completely ransacked, including the building material, after the Restoration, it was completely rebuilt by archbishop William Juxon in 1663 with a late Gothic hammerbeam roof. The choice of a roof was evocative, as it reflected the High-Church Anglican continuity with the Old Faith. As with some Gothic details on University buildings of the same date, the diarist Samuel Pepys recognised it as a new old-fashioned hall. Among the portraits of the archbishops in the Palace are works by Hans Holbein, Anthony van Dyck, William Hogarth and Sir Joshua Reynolds. New construction was added to the building in 1834 by Edward Blore, the buildings form the home of the Archbishop, who is ex officio a member of the House of Lords and is regarded as the first among equals in the Anglican Communion. It contains a vast collection of material relating to history, including archbishops and bishops archives and papers relating to various Anglican missionary

10.
Canterbury Cathedral
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Canterbury Cathedral in Canterbury, Kent, is one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England. It forms part of a World Heritage Site and its formal title is the Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Christ at Canterbury. Founded in 597, the cathedral was rebuilt from 1070 to 1077. The Norman nave and transepts survived until the fourteenth century. Christianity had started to become powerful in the Roman Empire around the third century, following the conversion of Augustine of Hippo in the 4th century, the influence of Christianity grew steadily. The cathedrals first bishop was Augustine of Canterbury, previously abbot of St. Andrews Benedictine Abbey in Rome and he was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 as a missionary to the Anglo-Saxons. Augustine founded the cathedral in 597 and dedicated it to Jesus Christ, Augustine also founded the Abbey of St. Peter and Paul outside the city walls. This was later rededicated to St. Augustine himself and was for centuries the burial place of the successive archbishops. The abbey is part of the World Heritage Site of Canterbury, along with the cathedral, bede recorded that Augustine reused a former Roman church. The oldest remains found during excavations beneath the present nave in 1993 were, however, parts of the foundations of an Anglo-Saxon building and they indicate that the original church consisted of a nave, possibly with a narthex, and side-chapels to the north and south. A smaller subsidiary building was found to the south-west of these foundations, during the ninth or tenth century this church was replaced by a larger structure with a squared west end. It appears to have had a central tower. During the reforms of Dunstan, archbishop from 960 until his death in 988, but the formal establishment as a monastery seems to date only to c.997 and the community only became fully monastic from Lanfrancs time onwards. Dunstan was buried on the side of the high altar. The cathedral was damaged during Danish raids on Canterbury in 1011. The Archbishop, Ælfheah, was taken hostage by the raiders and eventually killed at Greenwich on 19 April 1012, after this a western apse was added as an oratory of St. Mary, probably during the archbishopric of Lyfing or Aethelnoth. The 1993 excavations revealed that the new apse was polygonal. It housed the archbishops throne, with the altar of St Mary just to the east, at about the same time that the westwork was built, the arcade walls were strengthened and towers added to the eastern corners of the church

11.
York Minster
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The Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Saint Peter in York, commonly known as York Minster, is the cathedral of York, England, and is one of the largest of its kind in Northern Europe. The minster is the seat of the Archbishop of York, the second-highest office of the Church of England, and is the church for the Diocese of York. It is run by a dean and chapter, under the Dean of York, the title minster is attributed to churches established in the Anglo-Saxon period as missionary teaching churches, and serves now as an honorific title. Services in the minster are sometimes regarded as on the High Church or Anglo-Catholic end of the Anglican continuum, the minster has a very wide Decorated Gothic nave and chapter house, a Perpendicular Gothic Quire and east end and Early English North and South transepts. The nave contains the West Window, constructed in 1338, and over the Lady Chapel in the east end is the Great East Window, in the north transept is the Five Sisters Window, each lancet being over 52 feet high. The south transept contains a window, while the West Window contains a heart-shaped design colloquially known as The Heart of Yorkshire. York has had a verifiable Christian presence from the 4th century, however, there is circumstantial evidence pointing to much earlier Christian involvement. Tradition speaks of 28 British bishops, one for each of the greater British cities, over whom presided the Archbishops of London, York and Caerleon-on-Usk. The first recorded church on the site was a structure built hurriedly in 627 to provide a place to baptise Edwin. Moves toward a substantial building began in the decade of the 630s. A stone structure was completed in 637 by Oswald and was dedicated to Saint Peter, the church soon fell into disrepair and was dilapidated by 670 when Saint Wilfrid ascended to the See of York. He repaired and renewed the structure, the attached school and library were established and by the 8th century were some of the most substantial in Northern Europe. In 741 the church was destroyed in a fire and it was rebuilt as a more impressive structure containing thirty altars. The church and the area then passed through the hands of numerous invaders. There was a series of Benedictine archbishops, including Saint Oswald of Worcester, Wulfstan and Ealdred, Ealdred died in 1069 and was buried in the church. The church was damaged in 1069 during William the Conquerors harrying of the North, the Danes destroyed the church in 1075, but it was again rebuilt from 1080. Built in the Norman style, it was 111 m long and rendered in white, the new structure was damaged by fire in 1137 but was soon repaired. The choir and crypt were remodelled in 1154, and a new chapel was built, the Gothic style in cathedrals had arrived in the mid 12th century

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Dorothy L. Sayers
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Dorothy Leigh Sayers was a renowned English crime writer, poet, playwright, essayist, translator, and Christian humanist. She was also a student of classical and modern languages, however, Sayers herself considered her translation of Dantes Divine Comedy to be her best work. She is also known for her plays, literary criticism, Sayers was an only child, born on 13 June 1893 at the Headmasters House, Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford. Her father, the Rev. Henry Sayers, M. A. was a chaplain of Christ Church, when she was six, he started teaching her Latin. She grew up in the village of Bluntisham-cum-Earith in Huntingdonshire after her father was given the living there as rector. From 1909 she was educated at the Godolphin School, a school in Salisbury. Her father later moved to the living of Christchurch, in Cambridgeshire. In 1912, Sayers won a scholarship to Somerville College, Oxford where she studied modern languages and she finished with first-class honours in 1915. Women could not be awarded degrees at that time, but Sayers was among the first to receive a degree when the position changed a few years later and her experience of Oxford academic life eventually inspired her penultimate Peter Wimsey novel, Gaudy Night. Her father was from Littlehampton, West Sussex, and her mother was born at The Chestnuts, Millbrook, Hampshire, to Frederick Leigh, Sayerss Aunt Amy, her mothers sister, married Henry Richard Shrimpton. Sayerss first book of poetry was published in 1916 as OP, I by Blackwell Publishing in Oxford. Her second book of poems, Catholic Tales and Christian Songs, was published in 1918, later, Sayers worked for Blackwells and then as a teacher in several locations, including Normandy, France. Sayerss longest employment was from 1922 to 1931 as a copywriter at S. H, bensons advertising agency, located at International Buildings, Kingsway, London. Sayers was quite successful as an advertiser and her collaboration with artist John Gilroy resulted in The Mustard Club for Colmans Mustard and the Guinness Zoo advertisements, variations of which still appear today. One famous example was the Toucan, his bill arching under a glass of Guinness, with Sayerss jingle and she used the advertising industry as the setting of Murder Must Advertise, where she describes the role of truth in advertising. The firm of Pyms Publicity, Ltd, now, Mr. Pym is a man of rigid morality—except, of course, as regards his profession, whose essence is to tell plausible lies for money— How about truth in advertising. Of course, there is truth in advertising. Theres yeast in bread, but you cant make bread with yeast alone, is like leaven, which a woman hid in three measures of meal