Speed, convenience, and standardization have replaced he flair of design and creation In cooking, the comfort of relationships In serving, and the variety available In choice. Unconditional has become so pervasive that one can travel to nearly any city or town in America and find familiar chain-style restaurants, shops, hotels, and other avenues for commercial exchange. This has fostered the homogeneities of American culture and life, streamlined along a set of rational, efficient, and impersonal principles. How has the Nationalization phenomenon affected your life? What types of commercial exchanges are affected by this process?

What are the benefits of this for society? What are some of the detriments that you see? Wide-ranging process of rationalization Is occurring across American society and is having an increasingly powerful impact in many other parts of the world. It encompasses such disparate phenomena as fast-food restaurants,TV dinners, packaged tours, industrial robots, plea bargaining, and openhearted surgery on an assembly-line basis. As widespread and as important as these developments are, It Is clear that we have barely begun a process that promises even more extraordinary changes (e. G. Emetic engineering) In the years to come. We can think f rotationally as a historical process and rationality as the end result of that development. As a historical process, rationalization has distinctive roots in the western world. Writing in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the great German sociologist Max Weber saw his society as the center From the Journal of American Culture, V. 6, No. 1, 1983, up. 100-107. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Of the ongoing process of rationalization and the bureaucracy as its paradigm case.

The model of rationalization, at least in contemporary America, is no longer the reassurance, but might be better thought of as the fast-food restaurant. As a result, our concern here is with what might be termed the “Nationalization of Society. ‘While the fast-food restaurant is not the ultimate expression of rationality, it is the current exemplar for future developments in rationalization. A society characterized by rationality is one which emphasizes efficiency, predictability, calculability, substitution of nonhuman for human technology, and control over uncertainty.

In discussing the various dimensions of rationalization, we will be little concerned with the gains already made, and yet to be realized, by greater centralization. These advantages are widely discussed in schools and in the mass media. In fact, we are in danger of being seduced by the innumerable advantages already offered, and promised in the future, by rationalization. The glitter of these accomplishments and promises has served to distract most people from the grave dangers posed by progressive rationalization.

In other words, we are ultimately concerned here with the irrational consequences that often flow from rational systems. Thus, the second major theme of this essay might be termed “the irrationality of rationality. ” EFFICIENCY The process of rationalization leads to a society in which a great deal of emphasis is placed on finding the best or optimum means to any given end. Whatever a group of people define as an end, and everything they so define, is to be pursued by attempting to find the best means to achieve the end.

Thus, in the Germany of Weeper’s day, the bureaucracy was seen as the most efficient means of handling a wide array of administrative tasks. Somewhat later, the Nazis came to develop the concentration camp, its ovens, and other devices as the optimum method of collecting and murdering millions of Jews and other people. The efficiency that Weber described in turn-of-the-century Germany, and which later came to characterize many Nazi activities, has become a basic principle of life in virtually every sector of a rational society.

The modern American family, often with two wage earners, has little time to prepare elaborate meals. For the relatively few who still cook such meals, there is likely to be great reliance on cookbooks that make cooking from scratch much more efficient. However, such cooking is relatively rare today. Most families take as their objective quickly and easily prepared meals. To this end, much use is made of prepackaged eels and frozen TV dinners. For many modern families, the TV dinner is no longer efficient enough.

To many people, eating out, particularly in a fast-food restaurant, is a far more efficient way of that diners are fed as efficiently as possible. They offer a limited, simple menu that can be cooked and served in an assembly-line fashion. The latest development in fast-food restaurants, the addition of drive-through windows, constitutes an effort to increase still further the efficiency of the dining ex- ARTICLE 43 THE NATIONALIZATION OF SOCIETY prurience. The family now can simply drive through, pick up its order, and eat it while riving to the next, undoubtedly efficiently organized, activity.

The success of the fast- food restaurant has come full circle with frozen food manufacturers now touting products for the home modeled after those served in fast-food restaurants. Increasingly, efficiently organized food production and distribution systems lie at the base of the ability of people to eat their food efficiently at home, in the fast-food restaurant, or in their cars. Farms, groves, ranches, slaughterhouses, warehouses, transportation systems, and retailers are all oriented toward increasing efficiency.

A notable example is chicken production where they are measured, force-fed (often with many chemicals), slaughtered on an assembly line, iced or fast frozen, and shipped to all parts of the country. Some may argue that such chickens do not taste as good as the fresh-killed, local variety, but their complaints are likely to be drowned in a flood of mass-produced chickens. Then there is bacon which is more efficiently shipped, stored, and sold when it is preserved by sodium nitrate, a chemical which is unfortunately thought by many to be carcinogenic.

Whatever one may say about the laity or the danger of the products, the fact remains that they are all shaped by the drive for efficiency… One of the most interesting and important aspects of efficiency is that it often comes to be not a means but an end in itself. This “displacement of goals” is a major problem in a rationalizing society. We have, for example, the bureaucrats who slavishly follow the rules even though their inflexibility negatively affects the organization’s ability to achieve its goals.

Then there are the bureaucrats who are so concerned with efficiency that they lose sight of the ultimate goals the means are signed to achieve. A good example was the Nazi concentration camp officers who, in devoting so much attention to maximizing the efficiency of the camps’ operation, lost sight of the fact that the ultimate purpose of the camps was the murder of millions of people. PREDICTABILITY A second component of rationalization involves the effort to ensure predictability from one place to another. In a rational society, people want to know what to expect when they enter a given setting or acquire some sort of commodity.

They neither want nor expect surprises. They want to know that if they Journey to another locale, the eating they enter or the commodity they buy will be essentially the same as the be sure that what they encounter is much like what they encountered at earlier times. In order to ensure predictability over time and place a rational society must emphasize such things as discipline, order, systemization, formalization, routine, consistency, and methodical operation. One of the attractions of TV dinners for modern families is that they are highly predictable.

The TV dinner composed of fried chicken, mashed potatoes, green peas, and peach cobbler is exactly the same from one time to another and 373 374 PART V one city to another. Home cooking from scratch is, conversely, a notoriously unpredictable enterprise with little assurance that dishes will taste the same time after time. However, the cookbook cannot eliminate all unpredictability. There are often simply too many ingredients and other variables involved. Thus the cookbook dish is far less predictable than the TV dinner or a wide array of other prepared dishes.

Fast-food restaurants rank very high on the dimension of predictability. In order to help ensure consistency, the fast-food restaurant offers only a limited menu. Predictable end products are made possible by the use of similar raw materials, cosmologies, and preparation and serving techniques. Not only the food is predictable; the physical structures, the logo, the “ambiance,” and even the personnel are as well. The food that is shipped to our homes and our fast-food restaurants is itself affected by the process of increasing predictability.

Thus our favorite white bread is indistinguishable from one place to another. In fact, food producers have made great efforts to ensure such predictability. On packaged tours travelers can be fairly sure that the people they travel with will be much like themselves. The planes, buses, hotel accommodations, restaurants, and at east the way in which the sites are visited are very similar from one location to another. Many people go on packaged tours because they are far more predictable than travel undertaken on an individual basis. Amusement parks used to be highly unpredictable affairs.

People could never be sure, from one park to another, precisely what sorts of rides, events, foods, visitors, and employees they would encounter. All of that has changed in the era of the theme parks inspired by Disneyland. Such parks seek to ensure predictability in various ways. For example, a specific type of young person is hired in these parks, and they re all trained in much the same way, so that they have a rebellion predictability. Other leisure-time activities have grown similarly predictable. Camping in the wild is loaded with uncertainties?bugs, bears, rain, cold, and the like.

To make camping many of the elements of unpredictability replaced by Revs, paved-over parking lots, sanitized campsites, fences and enclosed camp centers that provide laundry and food services, recreational activities, television, and video games. Sporting events, too, have in a variety of ways been made more predictable. The use of artificial turf in assessable makes for a more predictable bounce off ball.. . CALCULABILITYORQUANTITYRATHER THAN QUALITY It could easily be argued that the emphasis on quantifiable measures, on things that can be counted, is the most defining characteristic of a rational society.

Quality is notoriously difficult to evaluate. How do we assess the quality of a ham- burger, or a physician, or a student? Instead of even trying, in an increasing number of cases, a rational society seeks to develop a series of quantifiable measures that it takes as surrogates for quality. This urge to quantify has given great impetus to the placement of the computer and has, in turn, been spurred by the widespread use and increasing sophistication of the computer.

The fact is that many aspects of modern rational society, especially as far as calculable issues are concerned, are made possible and more widespread by the computer. We need not belabor the ability of the computer to handle large numbers of virtually anything, but somewhat less obvious is the use of the computer to give the illusion of personal attention in a world made increasingly impersonal in large part because of the computer’s capacity to turn virtually everything into quantifiable dimensions.

We have all now had many experiences where we open a letter personally addressed to us only to find a computer letter. We are aware that the names and addresses of millions of people have been stored on tape and that with the aid of a number of word processors a form letter has been sent to every name on the list. Although the computer is able to give a sense of personal attention, most people are nothing more than an item on a huge mailing list. Our main concern here, though, is not with the computer, but with the emphasis on quantity rather than quality that it has helped foster.

One of the cost obvious examples in the university is the emphasis given to grades and cumulative grade point averages. With less and less contact between professor and student, there is little real effort to assess the quality of what students know, let alone the quality of their overall abilities. Instead, the sole measure of the quality of most college students is their grade in a given course and their grade point averages. Another blatant example is the emphasis on a variety of uniform exams such as Stats and Egress in which the essence of an applicant is reduced to a few simple scores and percentiles.

Within the educational institution, the importance of grades is well known, but somewhat less known is the way quantifiable factors have example, teaching ability is very hard to evaluate. Administrators have difficulty assessing teaching quality and thus substitute quantitative scores. Of course each score involves qualitative Judgments, but this is conveniently ignored. Student opinion polls are taken and the scores are summed, averaged, and compared. Those who score well are deemed good teachers while those who don’t are seen as poor teachers.

There are many problems involved in relying on these scores such as the act that easy teachers in “gut” courses may well obtain high ratings while rigorous teachers of difficult courses are likely to score poorly. … In the workload we find many examples of the effort to substitute quantity for quality. Scientific management was heavily oriented to turning everything work-related into quantifiable dimensions. Instead of relying on the “rule of thumb” of the operator, scientific management sought to develop precise measures of how much work was to be done by each and every motion of the worker.

Everything that could be was reduced to numbers and all hose numbers were then analyzable using a variety of mathematical formulae. The assembly line is similarly oriented to a variety of quantifiable dimensions such as optimizing the 375 376 speed of the line, minimizing time for each task, lowering the price of the finished product, increasing sales and ultimately increasing profits. The divisional system pioneered by General Motors and thought to be one of the major reasons for its past success was oriented to the reduction of the performance of each division to a few, bottom-line numbers.

By monitoring and comparing these numbers, General Motors as able to exercise control over the results without getting involved in the day-to- day activities of each division…. Thus, the third dimension of rationalization, calculability or the emphasis on quantity rather than quality, has wide applicability to the social world. It is truly central, if not the central, component of a rationalizing society. To return to our favorite example, it is the case that McDonald’s expends far more effort telling us how many billions of hamburgers it has sold than it does in telling us about the quality of those burgers.

Related, it touts the size of its product the “Big Mac”) more than the quality of the product (it is not the “Good Mac”). The bottom line in many settings is the number of customers processed, the speed with which they are processed, and the profits produced. Quality is secondary, if indeed there is any concern at all for it. SUBSTITUTION OF NONHUMAN TECHNOLOGY what human beings think and do. Seemingly no matter what one does, people still retain at least the ultimate capacity to think and act in a variety of unanticipated ways.

Thus, in spite of great efforts to make human behavior more efficient, more predictable, more calculable, people continue to act in unforeseen ways. People intuition to make home-cooked meals from scratch, to camp in tents in the wild, to eat in old-fashioned diners, and to sabotage the assembly lines. Because of these realities, there is great interest among those who foster increasing rationality in using rational technologies to limit individual independence and ultimately to replace human beings with machines and other technologies that lack the ability to think and act in unpredictable ways.

McDonald’s does not yet have robots to serve us food, but it does have teenagers whose ability to act autonomously is almost completely eliminated by techniques, procedures, routines, and machines. There are numerous examples of this including rules which prescribe all the things a councilperson should do in dealing with a customer as well as a large variety of technologies which determine the actions of workers such as drink dispensers which shut themselves off when the cup is full; buzzers, lights, and bells which indicate when food (e. G. , French fries) is done; and cash registers which have the prices of each item programmed in.

One of the latest attempts to constrain individual action is Dyne’s use of pre-measured packages of dehydrated food that are “cooked” simply by putting them under the hot water tap. Because of such tools and machines, as well as the elaborate rules dictating worker behavior, people often feel like they are dealing with human robots when they relate to the personnel of a fast-food restaurant. When human robots are found, mechanical robots cannot be far behind. Once people are reduced to a few robot-like actions, it is a relatively easy step to replace them with mechanical robots.

Thus, Burgeoned is reportedly opening a prototypical restaurant in which mechanical robots serve the food. Much of the recent history of work, especially manual work, is a history of efforts to replace unman technology with nonhuman technology. Scientific management was oriented to the development of an elaborate and rigid set of rules about how Jobs were to be done. The workers were to blindly and obediently follow those rules and not to do the work the way they saw fit. The various skills needed to perform a task were carefully delineated and broken down into a series of routine steps that could be taught to all workers.

The skills, in other words, were built into the routines rather than belonging to skilled craftsperson. Similar points can be made about the assembly line which is classically a set of nonhuman technologies that have the needed steps and skills built into them. The human worker is reduced to performing a limited number of simple, repetitive operations. However, the control of this technology over the individual worker is so great and omnipresent that individual workers have reacted negatively manifesting such things as tardiness, absenteeism, turnover, and even sabotage.

We processes now totally replacing many workers with robots. With the coming of robots we have reached the ultimate stage in the replacement of humans with nonhuman technology. Even religion and religious crusades have not been unaffected by the spread of nonhuman technologies. The growth of large religious organizations, the use of Madison Avenue techniques, and even drive-in churches all reflect the incursion of modern technology. But it is in the electronic church, religion through the TV screens, that replacement of human by nonhuman technology in religion is most visible and has its most important manifestation..

CONTROL This leads us to the fifth major dimension of rationalization?control. Rational systems are oriented toward, and structured to expedite, control in a variety of knees. At the most general level, we can say that rational systems are set up to allow for greater control over the uncertainties of life?birth, death, food production and distribution, housing, religious salvation, and many, many others. More specifically, rational systems are oriented to gaining greater control over the major source of uncertainty in social life?other people.

Among other things, this means control over subordinates by superiors and control of clients and customers by workers. There are many examples of rationalization oriented toward gaining greater control over the uncertainties of life. The burgeoning of the genetic engineering movement can be seen as being aimed at gaining better control over the production of life itself. Similarly, amniocentesis can be seen as a technique which will 377 378 allow the parents to determine the kind of child they will have.

The efforts to rationalize food production and distribution can be seen as being aimed at gaining greater control over the problems of hunger and starvation. A steady and regular supply of food can make life itself more certain for large numbers of people who today live under the threat of death from starvation. At a more specific level, the rationalization of food preparation and serving at McDonald’s gives it great control over its employees. The automobile assembly line has a similar impact. In fact, the vast majority of the structures of a rational society exert extraordinary control over the people who labor in them.

But because of the limits that still exist on the degree of control that rational structures can exercise over individuals, many rationalizing employers are driven to seek to more fully automated, robot-like technology over which, barring some 2001 rebellion, there is almost total control. In addition to control over employees, rational systems are also interested in controlling the customer/clients they serve. For example, the fast-food restaurant with its counter, the absence of waiters and waitresses, the limited seating, and the drive-through windows all tend to lead customers to do certain things and not to do others.

Irrationality of Rationality Although not an inherent part of rationalization, the irrationality of rationality is a seemingly inevitable byproduct of the process. We can think of the irrationality of rationality in several ways. At the most general level it can simply be seen as an overarching label for all the negative effects of rationalization. More specifically, it can be seen as the opposite of rationality, at least in some of its senses. For example, there are the inefficiencies and unpredictability that are often produced by seemingly rational systems.

Thus, although bureaucracies are constructed to bring about greater efficiency in organizational work, the fact is that there are notorious inefficiencies such as the “red tape” associated with the operation of most bureaucracies. Or, take the example of the arms race in which a focus on quantifiable aspects of nuclear weapons may well have made the occurrence of nuclear war more, rather than less, unpredictable. Of greatest importance, however, is the variety of negative effects that rational systems have on the individuals who live, work, and are served by them.

We might say that rational systems are not reasonable systems. As we’ve already discussed, rationality brings with it great demutualization as people are reduced to acting like robots. Among the dehumidifying aspects of a rational society are large lecture classes, computer letters, pray TV, work on the automobile assembly line, and dining at a fast-food restaurant. Rationalization also tends to bring with it disenchantment leaving much of our lives without any mystery or excitement. Production by a hand craftsman is far more mysterious than an assembly-line technology where each worker does a single, very limited operation.

Camping in an REV tends to suffer in comparison to the Joys to be derived from camping in the wild. Overall a fully rational society would be a very bleak and uninteresting place. CONCLUSION Rationalization, with McDonald’s as the paradigm case, is occurring throughout America, and, increasingly, other societies. In virtually every sector of society more ND more emphasis is placed on efficiency, predictability, calculability, replacement of human by nonhuman technology, and control over uncertainty.

Although created a number of problems, the various irrationalities of rationality, which threaten to accelerate in the years to come. These problems, and their acceleration should not be taken as a case for the return to a less rational form of society. Such a return is not only impossible but also undesirable. What is needed is not a less rational society, but greater control over the process of rationalization involving, among other things, efforts to ameliorate its irrational consequences. 379

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