Sultan Salahuddin Ayubi

Sultan Salahuddin Ayubi, the hero of hundreds of battles, was the person who for twenty years braved the storm of the Crusaders and ultimately pushed back the combined forces of Europe which had come to swarm the Holy Land. The world has hardly witnessed a more chivalrous and humane conqueror. The Crusades represent the maddest and the longest war in the history of mankind, in which the storm of savage fanaticism of the Christian West burst in all its fury over western Asia. `The Crusades form', says a Western writer, `one of the maddest episodes in history. Christianity hurled itself against Muhammadanism in expedition after expedition for nearly three centuries, until failure brought lassitude, and superstition itself was undermined by its own labour. Europe was drained of men and money, and threatened with social bankruptcy, if not with annihilation. Millions perished in battle, hunger or disease and every atrocity imagination can conceive disgraced the warrior of the Cross'. The Christian West was excited to a mad religious frenzy by Peter the Hermit, and his followers to liberate the Holy Land from the hands of the Muslims. `Every means', says Hallam, `was used to excite an epidemical frenzy'. During the time that a Crusader bore the Cross, he was under the protection of the Church and exempted from all taxes as well as free to commit all sins. Peter the Hermit himself led the second host of the Crusaders comprising forty thousand people. `Arriving at Mallevile, they avenged their precursors by assaulting the town, slaying seven thousand of the inhabitants, and abandoning themselves to every species of grossness and liberalism'. The savage hordes called Crusaders converted Hungary and Bulgaria into desolate regions. When they reached Asia Minor, they, according to Michaud, `committed crimes which made nature shudder'. The third wave of the Crusaders commanded by a German monk, according to Gibbon, `were comprised of the most stupid and savage refuse of people. They mingled with their devotion a brutal licence of rape, prostitution and drunkenness'. `They forgot Constantinople and Jerusalem', says Michaud `in tumultuous scenes of debauchery, and pillage, violation and murder was everywhere left on the traces of their passage'. The fourth horde of the Crusaders which had risen from western Europe was, according to Mill, `another herd of wild and desperate savages... The internal multitude hurried on the south in their usual career of carnage and rape'. But, at last, they were annihilated by the infuriated Hungarian Army which had a foretaste of the madness of the earlier Crusaders. Later the Crusaders met with initial success and conquered a major part of Syria and

Palestine, including the Holy city of Jerusalem. But their victories were followed by such brutalities and massacres of innocent Muslims which eclipsed the massacres of Changiz and Hulaku. Mill, a Christian historian, testifies to this massacre of the Muslim population on the fall of the Muslim town of Autioch. He writes: `The dignity of age, the helplessness of youth and the beauty of the weaker sex were disregarded by the Latin savages. Houses were no sanctuaries, and the sign of a mosque added new virulence to cruelty'. According to Michaud: `if contemporary account can be credited, all the vices of the infamous Babylon prevailed among the liberators of Scion'. The Crusaders laid waste to flourishing towns of Syria, butchered their population in cold blood and burnt to ashes the invaluable treasures of art and learning including the world famous library of Tripolis (Syria) containing more than three million volumes. `The streets ran with blood until ferocity was tired out', says Mill. `Those who were vigorous or beautiful were reserved for the slave market at Antioch, but the aged and the infirm were immolated at the altar of cruelty'. But in the second half of the 12th century, when the Crusaders were in their greatest fury and the emperors of Germany and France and Richard, the lion-hearted king of England, had taken the field in person for the conquest of the Holy Land, the Crusaders were met by Sultan Salahuddin Ayubi, a great warrior who pushed back the surging wave of Christianity out to engulf the Holy Land. He was not able to clear the gathering storm but in him the Crusaders met a man of indomitable will and dauntless courage who could accept the challenge of the Christian West. Salahuddin was born in 1137. He got his early training under his illustrious father Najmuddin Ayub and his chivalrous uncle Asaduddin Sherkoh, who were the trusted lieutenants of Nooruddin Mahmud, the monarch of Syria. Asaduddin Sherkoh, a great warrior general was the commander of the Syrian force, which had defeated the Crusaders both in Syria and Egypt. Sherkoh entered Egypt in 1167 to meet the challenge of the Fatamid Minister Shawer who had allied himself with the French. The marches and counter-marches of the gallant Sherkoh and his ultimate victory at Babain over the allied force, according to Michaud, `show military capacity of the highest order'. Ibni Atheer writes about it: `Never has history recorded a more extraordinary event than the rout of the Egyptian force and the French at the littoral by only a thousand cavaliers'. On January 8, 1169 Sherkoh arrived in Cairo and was appointed as the Minister and Commander-in-Chief by the Fatimid Caliph. But Sherokh was not destined to enjoy the fruits of his high office long. He died two months later in 1169. On his death, his nephew Salahuddin Ayubi became the Prime Minister of Egypt. He soon won the hearts of the people by his liberality and justice and on the death of the Egyptian Caliph became the virtual ruler of Egypt. In Syria too, the celebrated Nooruddin Mahmud died in 1174 and was succeeded by his eleven year old son, Malik-us-Saleh who became a tool in the hands of his courtiers, specially Gumushtagin. Salahuddin sent a message to Malik-us-Saleh offering his services and devotion. He even continued to keep his name in the `Khutaba' (Friday Sermons) and coinage. But all these considerations were of no avail for the young ruler and his ambitious courtiers. This state of affairs once more heartened the Crusaders who were kept down by the advice of Gumushtagin retired

others crowded for shelter into the palaces. the Christian ruler Renaud or Reginald of Chatillon attacked a Muslim caravan passing by his castle. Some fled from death by precipitating themselves from the ramparts. The Sultan now turned his attention to Jerusalem which contained more than sixty thousand Crusaders. After occupying Damascus. But soon it was renewed with great ferocity. says :that under the portico of the mosque. By a skilful manoeuvre. The humanity of the Sultan towards the defeated Christians of Jerusalem procures an unpleasant contrast to the massacre of the Muslims in Jerusalem when conquered by the Christians about ninety years before. The Crusaders instantly laid siege to the Capital city and released it only after being paid heavy ransom. Arsuf. `All the captives'. the victors trod over heaps of corpses in pursuing those who vainly attempted to escape. masters of the Mosque of Umar. Raymond d'Agiles who was an eye-witness. Jerusalem had no refuge for the vanquished. In a remarkably short time. The Crusaders. massacred a large number of people and looted their property. were much dismayed by the activities of Malik-us-Saleh and invited him to rule over the area. Salahuddin entrapped the powerful enemy forces near the hill of Hittin in 1187 and routed them with heavy loses. The Christians. submitted after a short siege and was granted generous terms by the kind-hearted Sultan. says Michaud. Nooruddin Mahmud.to Aleppo. According to the French historian Michaud. The Muslims. Jaffa and Beirut. but stayed in his father's house. Contrary to the terms of the truce. and reached the horses' bridles. leaving Damascus exposed to a Frankish attack. `the Mussalmans respected their pledged faith. Amid the most horrid tumult. renewed their deplorable scenes which disgraced the conquest of Titus. he did not enter the palace of his patron. The Sultan was now free to act. the blood was knee-deep. on the other hand. he reoccupied a large number of cities which were in possession of the Christians including Nablus. the towers and above all. too. in the mosques where they could not conceal themselves from the Christians. The infantry and the cavalry rushed pell-mell among the fugitives. This enraged Salahuddin who hurried to Damascus with a small force and took possession of it. Ascalon. where the Muslims defended themselves for sometime. The Sultan did allow the Christians to recover and rapidly followed up his victory of Hittin. according to the French historian Michaud. There was a truce between the Sultan and the Franks in Palestine but. the authority of Salahuddin was acknowledged by all the sovereigns of western Asia. could not withstand the onslaught of the Sultan's forces and capitulated in 1187. on the conquest of Jerusalem by the Christians in 1099 `the Muslims were massacred in the streets and in the houses. Ramlah. whilst the Christians gave the signal of a new war'. were
.' There was a short lull in the act of slaughter when the Crusaders assembled to offer their thanksgiving prayer for the victory they had achieved. But Salahuddin continued to rule on behalf of the young Malik-us-Saleh. On the death of Malik-us-Saleh in 1181-82. Caesarea. `whom the lassitude of carnage had at first spared. all those who had been saved in the hope of rich ransom. Jericho. nothing was heard but the groans and cries of death.

butchered in cold blood. Those who left the city were allowed to carry all their bag and baggage. they were burnt alive. they were dragged from their subterranean retreats. according to Michaud. They marched into the Muslims country. and slain as victims. The squares. the streets and even the un-inhabited places of Jerusalem. Only the combatants were asked to leave the city on payment of a nominal ransom. when the Sultan captured Jerusalem in 1187. says Mill.
. On the other hand. cast her infant into the sea. Tripoli shut its gates on them and. No heart melted in compassion. A number of weeping Christian women carrying their children in their arms approached the Sultan and said `You see us on foot. Another Christian historian. These are the graphic accounts of the massacre of the Muslims in Jerusalem about ninety years before the reoccupation of the Holy city by Sultan Salahuddin in which more than seventy thousand Muslims perished. the Sultan provided the ransom money from his own pocket and even provided them transport. he gave free pardon to the Christians living in the city. From Jerusalem.not even the sight of the place where Jesus Christ forgave his executioners. they were hauled to the public places. The Christian refugees of Jerusalem were not given refuge by the cities ruled by the Christians. but even stripped them. and the mangled limbs of children. `went to Antioch but Bohemond not only denied them hospitality. urged by despair. Respecting their feelings. where the ungrateful Crusaders pardoned by Sultan in Jerusalem had organized to meet him. The humane and benevolent behaviour of the Sultan with the defeated Christians of Jerusalem provides a striking contrast to the butchery of the Muslims in this city at the hands of the Crusaders ninety years before. they aided us in our lives. Michaud gives a long account of the Christian inhumanity to the Christian refugees of Jerusalem. The Muslims were forced to throw themselves from the tops of towers and houses. Mill adds: `It was resolved that no pity should be shown to the Mussalmans. In most of the cases. we are quitting forever this country. the Sultan marched upon Tyre. cursing the Christians who refused them succour'. Jabala. if you give them to us. he did not enter the city of Jerusalem until the Crusaders had left. could mollify the victors' passion. The few who escaped were reduced to horrible servitude'. girls and boys. `Many of the Christians who left Jerusalem'. including Laodicea. or expanded into benevolence'. Neither the tears of women nor the cries of little children--. The commanders under the Sultan vied with each other in showing mercy to the defeated Crusaders. and were well received'. all were slaughtered. The carnage lasted for a week. therefore. The Sultan captured a number of towns held by the Crusaders on the sea coast. were strewn with the dead bodies of men and women. The subjugated people were. they can alleviate our miseries and we shall not be without support on earth'. But the Sultan was very considerate towards the defeated Christians. The Sultan was highly moved with their appeal and set free their men.. `one woman. and immolated on piles of the dead. mothers and daughters of the warriors who are your prisoners. in losing them we lose our last hope. dragged into the public places.. Women with children at their breast. the wives.

The Sultan had set free Guy de Luginan on the promise that he would instantly leave for Europe. laid siege to Ptolemais. At the last the Lion-hearted king of England sued for peace. In several open combats against the Sultan. The Emperors of Germany and France as well as Richard. the Sultan inflicted heavy losses on the Christian forces. the Lion-hearted. colleges and mosques all over his dominion. hurried with large armies to seize the Holy Land from the Muslims. The Sultan devoted the rest of his life to public welfare activities and built hospitals. He vowed to avenge the blood of the innocent Muslims. king of England. In it. schools. 1193 at Damascus. who held on so long against the flower of the European army and who had been crippled with famine at last capitulated on the solemn promise that none would be killed and that they would pay 2. their number continued increasing. This act of the king of England infuriated the Sultan.000 pieces of gold to the chiefs of the Crusaders. In September 1192. The palace. Incessant reinforcements continued pouring in for the Crusaders and despite their heavy slaughter in combats against the Sultan. Europe has more reasons to wail on the outcome of this Crusade as in it had participated the best armies of Europe. the empire. There was some delay in the payment of the ransom when the Lionhearted king of England butchered the helpless Muslims in cold blood within the sight of their brethren. bound for their homes in Europe. `was for Islam and the Mussalmans. He had found facing him a man of indomitable will and boundless energy and had realized the futility of continuing the struggle against such a person. But he was not destined to live long to enjoy the fruits of peace. The flower of Western chivalry which Europe was proud of had fought in these wars'. A few months later. Becas. Along the 150 miles of coastlines. `Thus ended the third Crusade'. More than six lakh Crusaders landed in front of Acre and hardly one lakh returned to their homes. in eleven Homeric battles. The besieged Muslims of Acre. and the world
.. peace was concluded and the Crusaders left the Holy Land with bag and baggage. The fall of Jerusalem into the hands of the Muslims threw Christendom into violent commotion and reinforcements began to pour in from all parts of Europe.000. `in which the combined forces of the west could not gain more than the capture of Acre and the destruction of Ascaion. They laid siege to Acre which lasted for several months. as soon as this ungrateful Christian Knight got freedom. The Sultan had now to face the combined might of Europe. the Crusaders were routed with terrible losses. a misfortune such as they never suffered since they were deprived of the first four Caliphs.Saihun. writes Michaud. which was accepted by the Sultan. he died on March 4. Bozair and Derbersak. he broke his pledged word and collecting a large army. `The day of his death' says a Muslim writer. But. Germany lost one of its greatest emperors and the flower of its army.

while the Franks succeeded in rooting themselves strongly there. 1174). Hitti. Beirut 1988. nature had very harmoniously blended the benevolent and merciful heart of a Muslim with a matchless military genius. patient. 569/A. during which time God has received nothing from us here in the way of adoration. but. At the same time. Our concern in this article will be mainly with the different aspects of Salah al-Din's recovery of Jerusalem: the military. the house of the sons of Ayyub. Introduction " If God blesses us by enabling us to drive His enemies out of Jerusalem. Zurayk. as it had been that of his predecessor Nur al-Din Zangi (d. Salahuddin’s Conquest of Jerusalem Hadia Dajani-Shakeel. "Some Medieval Accounts of Salah al-Din's Recovery of Jerusalem (Al-Quds)" in Hisham Nashabe (ed) Studia Palaestina: Studies in honour of Constantine K. and the ideological. in order to unite all hearts in appreciation of its members. His contemporaries and other historians are unanimous in acknowledging Salahuddin as a tender-hearted. We will thus focus on the following topics: • I. Interruptions in Salah alDin's progress towards achieving this goal may have led some historians to minimize his quest for the recovery of the city. the whole city was plunged in sorrow. his horse one dinar and 36 dirhams which was all the property he had left.was overwhelmed with grief. 1193). Thus died Sultan Salahuddin.H. That the liberation of Jerusalem had always been the ultimate goal of Salah al-Din (d. In him. Jerusalem Between July and September 1187
. is a historical fact for which evidence is abundant. A. Time passed. how fortunate and happy we would be! For the enemy has controlled Jerusalem for ninety-one years.H. A.D. they cohere and complement one another. Now God has reserved the merit of its recovery for one house. However. affable person--." Salah al-Din This statement not only sums up Salah al-Din's attitude towards Jerusalem but also embodies what the Arabs and the Muslims of the area keenly felt. one of the most humane and chivalrous monarchs in the annals of mankind. and so did many [in different] generations. this is a misreading of history.a friend of the learned and the virtuous whom he treated with utmost respect and beneficence. despite some discrepancies. says Phillip K. Institute for Palestine Studies. The accounts of the actual capture of Jerusalem are varied with respect to the perspective from which they were written and the details they give. `he touched the fancy of the English minstrels as well as the modern novelists and is still considered the paragon of chivalry'. kind. the demographic. the zeal of the Muslim rulers to deliver it languished. in our judgment. and followed his bier weeping and crying'. `In Europe'. The messenger who took the news of his death to Baghdad brought the Sultan's coat of mail.D. 589/A.

Thani. as well as about Salah alDin's contacts with the Arab-Christian community in Jerusalem. his counsellors. the Latin leader who negotiated the surrender of Jerusalem to Salah al.Din.D. and Balian of Ibelin (referred to in Arabic sources as Balian Ibn Barzan). Salah al-Din's Attack • III. 1187 opened the way for him to reconquer the rest of Palestine. modern sources that have utilized accounts in Latin. but they fail to identify the exact locations of some of his battles and other important information about the Latins in the city. he cleared the land route between Egypt and Palestine for the movement of his troops and established his fleet in the Mediterranean between Alexandria and Acre. There is some measure of coherence among the Arabic accounts as well as between the Arabic accounts and Ernoul's account. like Kawkab (Belvoir) and Safad. The Surrender of Jerusalem • IV. Reynold of Sidon. A.H. Ernoul (d. The Fate of the Native Christians • VI. In order to complete this picture we will utilize the chronicle of Ernoul (Chroniquc d'Er. His fleet went into action immediately (Jumada al-Thani. The Arabic accounts give us general information about Salah al. as well as some fortresses in the north. The consistency of these accounts itself supports their claim to authenticity. and a large number of the knights of these two military orders. The city faced many problems. 1187) and blocked the movement of European ships in the area under its control. A. the capital of the Latin kingdom. his brother Amaury. In addition to the medieval accounts. The Muslim Response to the Liberation of Jerusalem.H. 583/September. Jerusalem was placed under a temporary government. from July to September. Jerusalem Between July and September 1187 Salah al-Din's decisive victory at Hittin on Saturday. 1230) was the squire of Balian of Ibelin. The Latin Exodus • V. The only surviving leaders. Jerusalem. and al-Shawbak in Transjordan. Thus. Of the three. al-Karak. the controversial and unpopular patriarch. wife of Gui of Lusignan. A. with Queen Sybil. He was an eyewitness to the battle of Jerusalem and provides insight into what was happening within the walled city. within a period of two months. he recovered all the inland cities and fortresses except Jerusalem. These men had enjoyed friendly relations with Salah al-Din and were suspected by the Latins of complicity with him.Din's attack on Jerusalem.2 In so doing.• II. A. Gui of Lusignan. Among those captured or killed were the king. the grand masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers.noul). 24 Rabi' al. wherever possible. as the ruler along with Heraclius. 583/4 July. the most important for our discussion is Balian. who fled the battle to safety through Muslim lines. it suffered from a shortage of food because the battle of Hittin had
. we will also use. While Salah al-Din mopped up Crusader strongholds in Palestine after the battle of Hittin. had suffered a great loss of manpower as a result of Hittin. He also recovered all major ports between 'Asqalan and Jubayl except Tyre.. A. the constable of the kingdom.D.D. were Raymond of Tripoli. In addition to the loss of most of its male population.

the crops were lost. and it provides details that do not appear in the Arabic sources. which led them to infer that a large population was assembled there. Realizing this. Salah al-Din may at the same time also have contacted Balian of Ibelin. by Abu Shamah.H. 'Imad al-Din informs us that while at Tyre Salah al-Din summoned King Gui and the grand master of the Templars and promised both of them freedom if they helped him secure the surrender of other cities." Only the siege of Tyre prevented him from going to Jerusalem. indicates that Salah al-Din had said in a letter to a relative that the sovereign of Jerusalem (Malik al-Quds) had contacted him during his attack on Tyre (Jumada al-Thani. the Latin chronicler who was in Jerusalem during Salah al-Din's invasion of the Latin kingdom. and the houses that the walled city could hardly accommodate them. 583/August. 583/September.H. Refugees so crowded the streets. To this Salah al-Din responded. 1187) to ask for a peaceful solution for Jerusalem.D. according to estimates of Arab chroniclers. A. These two did in fact later help him to secure the surrender of 'Asqalan and Gaza. We have two different accounts of their efforts. they were to retain the land within a radius of five leagues around it. "I will come to you in Jerusalem. On the day of the meeting there was an eclipse of the sun. Some of these refugees must have gone to Jerusalem seeking shelter within its walls. who quotes al-Qadisi. According to Ibn al-Athir's somewhat exaggerated description. and they were to receive the supplies they needed from Salah al-Din." According to al-Qadisi. and that Salah al-Din had responded. they were to surrender it and remove themselves to Christian lands. The city. Jerusalem could not have resisted an attack by Salah al-Din for very long. the churches. just as native Palestinians had done ninety years earlier. accordingly. if not. "they saw on the wall a terrifying crowd of men and heard an uproar of voices coming from the people inside the wall. The second account is by Emoul. The shortage of food and supplies became more acute as refugees poured into Jerusalem from most of the areas surrounding it. became the residence of about 60. the delegation rejected this offer. the astrologers informed Salah al-Din that the stars indicated he would enter Jerusalem but that he would lose one eye.D. The first. The settlement was to remain valid until Pentecost. 1187) to ask for safe conduct (aman). which the Latin delegates considered to be a bad omen. A." Salah al-Din then vowed to take Jerusalem by force and started his march against the city. there were fifty women and children for every man.000 persons. It seems most probable that there was more than one contact between Salah al-Din and the authorities in Jerusalem. the first being in Tyre. A. its authorities tried to establish contact with Salah al-Din to discuss the future of the city.000. "I would not mind losing my sight if I took the city. who
. According to Ernoul. As Runciman indicates. they would remain rulers of the city. Ernoul indicates that a delegation of citizens from Jerusalem went to see Salah al-Din on the day he took 'Asqalan (Jumada al-Thani.occurred at harvest time and.'' Faced with all these problems. Salah al-Din offered them generous terms for the city: They were to be allowed to remain in the city temporarily. Never. A. If the citizens of Jerusalem could obtain external help. saying they would never give up the city in which "the Lord died for them. which could accommodate a population of about 30.theless. while others presumably went to defend the city. when Salah al-Din's forces approached the city.

one cannot discount it. he knighted every boy of noble origin who was over sixteen years of age. Salah al-Din was by then well aware that Jerusalem would not be able to hold out against him for long. His rank among the Latins was. Moreover. Salah al-Din's Attack
. Thus.2 No one knows the nature of the secret correspondence between the two leaders. Ernoul mentions that while Salah al-Din was in Tyre. But at the insistence ol the patriarch. In so doing. along with some church funds and money that King Henry II of England had sent to the Hospitallers. especially since he had isolated it almost completely. it seems quite likely that a Latin delegation went to 'Asqalan proposing the kind of terms that Ernoul attributed to Salah al-Din. Nor would he have allowed a situation to develop in Jerusalem such as that in Tyre. analogous to that of a king. even before the capture of 'Asqalan. he also knighted sixty burgesses. According to Latin sources. Since money was scarce.was already in Tyre. he knighted fifty sons of the nobility. Maria Comnena. Balian ultimately did negotiate the surrender of the city. Furthermore. Balian is most likely to have contacted Salah al-Din once again regarding Jerusalem at 'Asqa. according to Ibn al-Athir. regarding the fate of Jerusalem. for this is precisely the right time to liberate it. stripped the silver from the roof of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and used it. He then distributed arms to every able-bodied man in the city. Salah al-Din granted him permission to go to Jerusalem on the condition that he not bear weapons against him and that he spend only one night there. with the blessing of the Patriarch Heraclius. Balian was pressed by the patriarch to remain there and to mobilize the population for its defence." Ernoul's account need not be taken as a contradiction of other accounts. which Salah al-Din gave. Salah al-Din had written to the caliph and to other relatives announcing his intention to capture the city. As the undisputed ruler of Jerusalem. Balian wrote him at 'Asqalan to apologize for having broken his agreement and to ask his forgiveness. Hence. "The march to Jerusalem will not be delayed. but only after he had broken his agreement with Salah al-Din and played a dramatic role in its defence. but the terms that Ernoul alleges Salah al-Din to have proposed. to produce a currency. Salah al-Din must have hoped to use Balian as his chief negotiator for the surrender of Jerusalem. that Salah al-Din rejected them.lan. to make up for the shortage of male fighters. According to Runciman. although it raises many questions. Balian finally consented to accept the leadership of the city. who absolved him of his oath. which had become the centre of resistance against his forces. According to Latin sources. as well as other members of his family and their possessions. After arriving in Jerusalem. seem doubtful. Balian sought his permission to go to Jerusalem in order to rescue his wife. insisting that he would adhere 10 his commitment to Salah al-Din. he found only two knights in the city who had survived Hittin. In one letter he stated. Balian began immediately to consolidate the Latin forces and plan the defence of the city. and that the authorities in Jerusalem began their preparations for the defence of the city. Balian. and asked him to secure the surrender of Jerusalem. At first Balian resisted.

583/21 September. according to Ibn Shaddad. This incident grieved Muslims greatly. mamlukes. according to Ernoul. ninety years before Salah al-Din. and visited it personally. he arrived on Thursday evening. "which is also the shortest route to Heaven. 12 Rajab.D.After capturing 'Asqalan on 16 Jumada al-Thani.H. According to a twelfth-century Latin pilgrim. Upon reaching Jerusalem Salah al-Din enquired about the location of al-Aqsa mosque and the shortest route to it. Salah al-Din summoned all his forces. 1187. It was very heavily guarded in times of both peace and war. which were then dispersed along the coast between 'Asqalan and Jubayl. A. . "entrusting his affairs to God and anxious to profit by the opportunity of finding the door of righteousness opened. "after having fulfiled their desires in pillaging and raiding. Arabic chroniclers do not tell us the exact location of Salah al-Din's forces in the first few days of combat.H. and had been taken from its defenders only after they had surrendered. however. 583/18 September. he swore to bring back to the sacred shrines their old grandeur and vowed not to leave Jerusalem until he had recovered the Dome of the Rock. A. The first was David's Tower (al-Qal'a). Salah al-Din ranged his forces opposite the western wall of Jerusalem. A. a precipice rugged and profound.D. The next day. but Ernoul states that they were stationed opposite the western wall between David's Gate (Bab al-Khalil) and St. the vanguard of the army. unaware of the presence of Latin scouts." and he then marched on Jerusalem." This location was extremely difficult for Salah al-Din's army. for it enclosed two towers. 1187 and arranging for its administration and settlement. "from which the Prophet had set foot. More specifically." As they were approaching Jerusalem.D. was ambushed near al-Qubeiba and sustained heavy losses. or any other. with yellow flags that signalled disaster to the Banu al-Asfar. he saw a deep valley. A. . brothers. who mentions this incident without indicating its location. A. 15 Rajab. an amir. where he [Salah al-Din j had encamped. Al-Qadi al-Fadil describes it as follows: " From this side of the city." As 'Imad al-Din reports. 1187. notes that one of Salah al-Din's commanders. with a wall which encircled the city like a bracelet. Salah al-Din arrived from 'Asqalan at the western side of the city on Sunday. to attack." raised his flag on its highest point. According to Arabic sources. This same citadel had been attacked by Raymond of Toulouse. where he subsequently started his attack. Stephen's Gate. The western side of the city was well fortified because of its geographical location. A. and towers which represented the larger pearls of the necklace worn by that place of residence. During the confrontation with Salah al-Din most of the Latin fighters were stationed in David's Tower. although. and friends in "squadrons ranked according to their merit. Ibn al-Athir.H. they were facing the hospital for leper women behind David's Gate and that for leper men near St. in platoons drawn up in solemn cavalcades . David's Tower contained two hundred steps leading to the summit and formed the main defence of the city. commanders." Salah al-Din marched in a great procession accompanied by his knights.
. was killed along with some of his men. sons. which was impregnable. They joined him. and the second was Tancred's Tower. 583!5 September. Ernoul says. Stephen's Gate (Bab al-'Amud).

according to Ernoul. The new location. They made themselves a target for arrows and called on death to stand by them. They became inflamed and caused us harm.he decided to reposition his forces. Medieval Latin pilgrims placed them at the bottom of the demographic scale next to Muslims. They said: "Each one of us is worth 20. where.. Stephen's Gate and the Gate of Jehoshafat and which was known in medieval times as the Juiverie. except in those streets that were covered. incited. and called for help in a foreign tongue. Mary Magdalen (Bab al-Sahira) and the Gate of Jehoshafat (Bab al-Asbat). Furthermore. which extended between St.. was quite high. They slaughtered and drew blood. while Salah al-Din's forces attacked the Latins in the afternoon and continued the fight until nightfall. Writing of some of the battles between the two sides. Abandoning their old encampment between David's Gate and St. groaned. In addition.. They came down into the lists like enernies. but they had rejected his request because they were very well armed and fortified."
. They drove us back and defended themselves.. After one week. Often referred to in medieval chronicles as 'Syrians." Ernoul provides additional details of the battle at the western wall. trying to push them away from the walls. so that from it Salah al-Din was able to watch the movement of the Latin forces insidc the city walls. and every ten is worth 200! We shall bring about the end of the world in defence of the church of resurrection. According to Ernoul. according to Ernoul. in this location Salah al-Din's forces had their backs to the sun. tried to make sorties but were repulsed. as well as slaughter with spear and sword.. in turn.. Stephen's Gate his troops camped in a triangular area at the northeastern corner of the city. or five days. As the fighting raged. He says that Salah al-Din had at first warned the authorities in Jerusalem and asked them to surrender. They clustered together and obstinately stood their ground. or "Saracens. this area was more accessible and better suited to the movement of cavalry. They blazed with fury and defended the city . They tried to reach the gates several times but failed. Salah al-Din travelled around the city in an attempt to find a more suitable location for his attack. The northern triangular section of the city. Salah al-Din pitched his tent very close to the city walls so that it could be reached easily by the weapons of the enemy. while Salah al-Din's forces were facing it. 'Imad al-Din hints at the courage of the enemy: "They challenged [us I to combat and barred the pass. The Latins. they had the sun to their backs.This part of the western wall gave the Latins other advantages as well. enclosed the quarters of the native Christians. for the Latins attacked the forces of Salah al-Din in the morning." So the battle continued. According to al-Qadi alFadil." they formed the most underprivileged community in Jerusalem under Latin rule and were despised by their Latin neighbours. according to the Arab chroniclers -. they were facing the area between the Postern of St. a demographic factor made it more favourable to Salah al-Din. Salah al-Din then ordered his troops to attack the city. while the Latins were facing its glare. on the Mount of Olives (Jabal al-Zaytun). This fact determined to some extent the pattern of battle. The Latins had the upper hand at first. Ernoul tells us.

stating only that Salah al-Din pressed his attack on the city in hand-tohand combat and through the use of archers. Balian Ibn Barzan (Balian of Ibelin) left Jerusalem to discuss the future of the city and its population with Salah al-Din. forcing them away from their positions and pushing them back into the walls of the city. however. Sappers prepared to destroy it while archers gave them cover. 1099. For besides their hostile relations with the Latins and their linguistic and ethnic identification with the Arabs of the area. Al-Qadi al-Fadil gives us an account that differs slightly from that of Ibn al-Athir. On Friday. According to him.H. Batit. 583/25 September.D.H. 53/25 September. The Latin cavalry left the city daily to engage in combat with Salah al-Din's forces. had even secured a promise from the leaders of the community that they would open the gates of the city in the vicinity of Salah al-Din. Salah al-Din seems to have contacted the leaders of the native Christian community through an Orthodox Christian scholar from Jerusalem. the besieged Latins decided to ask for safe conduct and thus sent messengers to Salah al-Din to ask for a settlement. but he turned them away. A. A. 492/A. 20 Rajab. A. they sent a delegation of their leaders to speak with Salah al-Din. known as Joseph Batit. by death and captivity. each considering its struggle to bc in defence of its faith. perceiving their intentions. Ibn al-Athir's account of the battle is more detailed. 1187 Salah al-Din installed his mangonels. The Emperor Isaac II Angelus had confirmed an agreement with Salah al-Din in A.1185. and by morning his machinery was functional. Ibn Shaddad gives a brief account of the battle. On the following day. and Salah al-Din. they were also influenced by the Greek Orthodox Church in Byzantium. Realizing that they were on the verge of perishing.
. His death so grieved the Muslims that they charged the Latins vehemently. according to which Salah al-Din offered to convert existing Latin churches in the Holy Land to the Christian rite once they had been recovered.D.D. the authorities in Jerusalem first sent a message to Salah al-Din offering to pay tribute for a limited period. as Runciman says. Both sides fought bravely. The Muslims crossed the moat and reached the wall. The Latins also installed their mangonels on the wall and started to fire their catapults.H. Accordingly. Salah al-Din set up his mangonels and started his attack on the city. until a breach was made in the wall facing the Jehoshafat Valley (Wadi Jahannam) in a northern villagc. 1187. An agreement was soon reached. Once in Jerusalem. A.D. Realizing the inevitability of their defeat. In one of these battles a Muslim commander. but this did not take place because the R Latins decided to surrender the city. rejected the offer and positioned his mangonels closer to the wal1. Byzantium at this time was an ally of Salah alDin. 'Izz al-Din 'Isa Ibn Malik. the Latin leaders met in council and agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Salah al-Din and to ask him for safe conduct. When the wall had been breached. was martyred by the Latins. sappers filled it with wood. on the night of 20 Rajab. According to him. and both sustained casualties. This was only a delaying tactic until they could secure external help. and mangonels continued bombarding the Latins to drive them away from the wall so the sappers could complete their work.The native Christians were more inclined towards Salah al-Din than towards the Latins. saying that he would treat them the way their anccstors had treated the residents of Jerusalem in A.

" The patriarch rejected this proposal.According to al-Qadi al-Fadil. At the same time. and hence dispatched Balian to discuss the terms of the surrender with Salah al-Din. waited between St. and he promised that after surrendering it. the fate of the women and children in the city would be left in the hands of the Muslim forces. armed with lances and bows. the great cross that had been installed there to celebrate the capture of Jerusalem by the Latins in that year also fell. according to Ernoul. which was sapped in two days. who would certainly convert them to Islam. about 10. "which were used to repel the attacks. however. ] When Salah al-Din's forces breached the wall. the defenders fled the walls: "In the whole city there was not found a man bold enough to dare stand guard for a single night for a 100bezant reward." to shoot at the walls. They attempted a sortie. When the wall fell. the defenders tried to drive them "away with stones and molten lead. Before discussing the negotiations between Salah al-Din and Balian. the fire from the mangonels destroyed the tops of the towers. Balian Ibn Barzan. Stephen's Gate and the Gate of Jehoshafat to repulse any sortie by the Latin garrison. After that. Sappers in Salah al-Din's army succeeded in making a breach. giving the sappers a chance to accomplish their task. attended by the Patriarch Heraclius and Balian of Ibelin. which supplements the Arabic accounts. According to Ernoul. "the towers made such a noise that even the deafest among the enemy must have heard it. the leader of the besieged. but they were not to be found. When the wall fell. The authorities accordingly agreed. Ernoul says that the battle at the northeastern corner of the city lasted one week. as well as with arrows and spears. but this too failed.
. Although Ernoul and the author of Libellus agree with the Arabic accounts. we shall present the viewpoint of the Latin chroniclers. arguing that if all the men died. "well armed down to their heels.000 archers or more." The breach in the wall was in the same spot from which the first Crusaders had entered the city in 1099. The Surrender of Jerusalem Ernoul informs us that. the Latins would seek help from Europe. The author of Libellus notes that Salah al-Din divided his forces." The defenders thus had to abandon their positions.000 horsemen. realizing they could not hold the city for very long. at which they discussed their military options. He proposed instead that the city should be surrendered. thus "dying honourably in defence of the city." but they failed. while the rest of his army was deployed around the siege engines. they give us more details about the last stages of the war and the resulting negotiations. they would be given all the arms they wanted. the authorities in Jerusalem held an emergency meeting. about thirty metres in length. using 10." When they collapsed. in the wall. The citizens' representatives and the sergeants advanced a proposal for a massive attack on Salah al-Din's forces. left the city and told Salah al-Din that Jerusalem should be taken by surrender rather than by force." The author of Libellus states that he personally heard a proclamation by the patriarch and others indicating that "if 50 strong men and daring servants were found who could guard the corner that had been destroyed for that one night.

and other arteacts from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. each female paid five dinars. uproot the Rock." The Latin women in the city placed tubs in front of Mount Calvary and filled them with cold water. When Balian returned to the city without an agreement. and. 'Imad al-Din indicates that Balian offered to pay 30. but Salah al-Din rejected his request. and each child was ransomed for two dinars. Rejoicing.D. except for the very old men. and placed them in the water up to their necks. 1187. and kill all Muslim prisoners. according to Ibn Shaddad.Balian left the city to negotiate with Salah al-Din." Salah al-Din met with his commanders and told them that this was an excellent opportunity to capture the city without further bloodshed.000 dinars on behalf of the poor. They cut their hair and burned it in the hope of averting their shame. Salah al-Din turned to Balian and asked: "Why are you proposing to surrender the city? We have already captured it!" However. destroy the Dome of the Rock. the clergy walked in procession around the walls of the city chanting psalms and carrying the Syrian "true cross. provided that each male paid a ransom of ten dinars. 27 Rajab. and the city was at last surrendered on Friday. an offer that was accepted. an agreement was reached between Salah al-Din and the Latins according to which they were granted safe conduct to leave the city. The Patriarch Heraclius collected and carried away gold plating. After lengthy negotiations. All those who paid their ransom within forty days were allowed to leave the city. numbered close to 3. According to Ernoul. the Latins started to prepare for their departure. who were estimated to number in the thousands. According to 'Imad al-Din. [they] beat themselves with stones and scourges. he immediately released the Muslim prisoners. Balian then threatened that the Latins inside the city would fight to the death: They would burn their houses. A. begging for God's mercy. When Balian appeared again before Salah al-Din. Salah al-Din was so angered by this that he dismissed Balian and told him to return the following day. driving them away from the section they had captured. he asked for a general amnesty in return for the surrender of the city. Meanwhile. 583/2 October. When Salah al-Din entered Jerusalem triumphantly. the Muslim forces succeeded in raising their flag on the main wall.ooo. They began to sell their property and possessions at very low prices to the merchants in Salah al-Din's army. The newly released captives were later rewarded with the homes vacated by the Latins. gold and silver jewelry. as well as to native Christians. they stripped the ornaments from their churches. then took their young daughters. while those who could not ransom themselves were to be enslaved. stripped them naked. who locked themselves inside their homes." which had been kept in the city after the "true cross" of the Latins had fallen into the hands of Salah al-Din's forces at the battle of Hittin. they would destroy their property and kill their women and children.
. According to al-Qadi al-Fadil. A. the citizens "crowded in the churches to pray and confess their sins. Balian also "offered a tribute in an amount that even the most covetous could not have hoped for.H. the Latins counterattacked Salah al-Din's forces. Ernoul reports that the entire population took part in the procession. while the talks were in progress. who. Meanwhile. fear gripped the population. carrying with them vases of gold and silver and silkand gold-embroidered curtains as well as church treasures. The twenty-seventh of Rajab was the anniversary of al-Mi'raj. through which Jerusalem had become a part of Islamic history and piety .

Salah al-Din ordered that all the gates of Jerusalem be temporarily closed. 'Imad al-Din was amazed at the amount of treasure that had been carried away by the departing Latins. Furthermore. asked him to release 1. Salah al-Din even granted her safe conduct to visit her captive husband in Nablus." Salah al-Din also allowed many noble women of Jerusalem to leave without ransom. who left unhindered with all her entourage. Salah al-Din granted his request.000 individuals remained in the city. The grand masters of the Templars and Hospitallers were approached to donate money for the release of poor Latins. they will talk of the favours that we have bestowed upon them. indicated that the ransomed refugees were
. and their departure lasted from the rising of the sun until night fell. Persons were employed inside the city to take a census. Lazar. and Muzaffar al-Din Ibn 'Ali Kuchuk asked for the release of 1. the city was in a state of chaos and there was much mismanagement of the ransom money collected. by now a Latin refugee. The patriarch and Balian asked Salah al-Din to set some slaves free.000. Al-Malik al-'Adil. he freed 700 slaves on behalf of the patriarch and 500 on behalf of Balian. at the time the Latins were being counted and were making their departure. All were enslaved.In order to control the departing population. Some of Salah al-Din's commanders ransomed groups who they claimed belonged to their iqta' For example. At each gate a commander was appointed to control the movement of the Latins and to ensure that only those who had paid ransom could leave. claiming that they had come from Edessa.Din says that Egyptian and Syrian officers were appointed to collect the payments and to give the departing Latins receipts that were to be submitted at the gate before leaving the city. After the exodus of all those Latins who could leave. He reminded him that his agreement with the Latins was for safe conduct (arnan) for themselves and their own property. as well as a Byzantine princess who had led a monastic life in Jerusalem and who was allowed to leave with all her entourage without paying a ransom. a riot almost erupted and they were forced to contribute to the ransom. but when they resisted. although they are unaware of the real meaning of the treaty. According to Imad al-Din.000 were women and children. Among them was Queen Sibyl. Although this sounds like good administration. Accordingly.000 of them were men and 8.000 slaves on his behalf and was granted his request. but not for that of the churches. Instead. But Salah al-Din rejected his proposal: "If we interpret the treaty [now] against their interest. Emoul. 'Imad al.000 dinars." Certainly Salah al-Din's magnanimity towards the Latins contrasts sharply with the attitude of the victorious Crusaders in 1099. Salah al-Din's brother. There were examples of magnanimity on the part of the Muslim victors. 15. Salah al-Din sent his guard throughout the city to announce that all old people who could not pay would be allowed to leave the city: These came forth from the Postern of St. The widow of Renaud of Chatillon was also released. however. and he counselled that such treasures should not be left in Latin hands. He reports having told Salah al-Din that these treasures could be valued at 200. Let us deal with them according to the wording of the treaty so they may not accuse the believers of breaking the covenant. the ruler of al-Bira asked for the release of 500 Armenians. 7. they will accuse us of treachery.

they were treated hospitably in Egypt and remained in Alexandria until March 1188.assembled in three groups. The third group headed for 'Asqalan and then to Alexandria. provided that they also paid the tax. and perhaps of any. Some members of the Armenian community also asked to stay in the city and were allowed to do so. and some even advised that it should be demolished in order to sever completely the attachment of the Christians to
. Some of them even carried Chnstian children in their arms. while others went on to Armenia. ordered their squires to dismount and set aged Christans upon their steeds. which was already overcrowded. One chronicler gives Salah al-Din's officers credit for their humane treatment of thc refugees. and Venetian ships at first resisted boarding 1. when they were put on ships for Europe." says Lane-Pool. Assurances were also secured of good treatment of the refugees on the part of the Italians by means of the threat that if they did not keep their promises. when Godfrey and Tancred rode through the streets choked with the dead and dying. Salah al-Din assigned each group fifty of his officers to ensure their safe arrival in territories held by the Christians. in apparent shock. only the rich among them were allowed into the city. One group went to Tyre. Pisan. as has been mentioned above. The captains of Genoese. The second group. Ernoul states. and he handed over control of Christian affairs to the Byzantine patriarch. provided that they paid the poll tax (jizya). Its future was discussed. where some of them settled. went to Tripoli. The remaining refugees continued their journey to Antioch. Salah al-Din allowed them to pray freely in their churches." The refugees departed in three directions. When they reached Tripoli. their fellow citizens would suffer in retaliation once they had arrived in Egypt." If the taking of Jerusalem were the only fact known about Salah al-Din. Rich Christians bought much of the property of the departing Latins. the authorities there allowed only fighting men to enter the city. accompanied by those turned away from Tyre. According to Emoul. after paying their ransom. that Count Raymond of Tripoli sent his troops to rob the burghers of the possessions they had been allowed to take from Jerusalem. Many of the poor from both groups were exempted. while Balian and Patriarch Heraclius took charge of the third. Accordingly. age. "One recalls the savage conquest by the first Crusaders in 1099. Salah alDin granted their request. it would be sufficient to prove him the most chivalrous and great-hearted conqueror of his own. but they were later obliged by Alexandrian officials to accept these destitutes in order to obtain sailing permits. "Thus did the Saracens show mercy to the fallen city. a local baron known as Raymond of Niphin robbed them of many of their possessions.000 poor refugees. " who could not endure the suffenng of the refugees. 'Imad al-Din notes that at first Salah al-Din ordered the closure of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. the native Christians requested Salah al-Din's permission to remain in their quarters in safety. One was placed in the custody of the Templars and another in that of the Hospitallers. The Fate of the Native Christians 'Imad al-Din indicates that. noting that these officers. Near al-Batrun. though not before they had suffered at the hands of other Latins.

he confirmed the right of Christians to the church and gave no orders to demolish the building. which had begun at a slow pace early in the twelfth century.H. A. When Hubert. In his preaching al-Sulami provided his contemporaries with a new definition of jihad that. were in Damascus. However. According to 'Imad al-Din: " Those who come to visit it come to worship at the location of the cross and the sepulchre rather than at the building itself. was aimed at the confrontation with the Crusaders. and became a massive liberation movement focusing on Jerusalem as its rallying symbol during the regimes of Nur al-Din and Salah al-Din. however.Jerusalem. Al-Sulami wrote one of the earliest treatises on the jihad in response to the Crusade. a majority of the Muslims rejected the idea. while the enemy was still weak and far from his sources of supply. 5OIIAD 1106). In September 1192 the knights of the Third Crusade were allowed into the city as pilgrims to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Christians will never stop making pilgrimages to this location. even if it has been totally uprooted.H. 49l/A. Bishop of Salisbury. which they had neglected." Those who spoke in favour of preserving the Church of the Holy Sepulchre even suggested that when the Caliph 'Umar conquered Jerusalem. He warned his contemporaries that if they did not act immediately. they would not be able to uproot him. who allege that the Muslims underestimated the nature and motives of the Crusade in the twelfth century. which started with the conquest of Sicily and parts of al-Andalus. for it would not prevent Christians from visiting it. They argued that demolishing the church would not help. The Latins. met with Salah al-Din. were not allowed into Jerusalem for four years. or the Jihad against enemies in countries that are nearby or remote. and to warn of the potentially disastrous consequences of the Crusade. while their ultimate goal was the conquest of Jerusalem. 1097. The Muslim Response to the Liberation of Jerusalem Salah al-Din's recovery of Jerusalem concluded a lengthy campaign of military activity and ideological preparation. marched against the East. Among them was 'Ali Ibn Tahir al-Sulami (d. interpreted the Crusade as a divine warning to test the willingness of the Muslims to refrain from committing acts that God forbade and to unde take the duty of jihad. as
. Al-Sulami defined the Crusade as an invasion by Western nations. although derived to a great extent from the Islamic theory of war. if an enemy attacks the Muslims. who preached in Damascus until his death. When the Byzantine emperor received the news of Salah al-Din's victory in Jerusalem. the first scholars to raise their voices in condemnation of the passiveness of the Muslim rulers. These same nations. having encountered the weakness of the Muslims in the West and heard reports about their disunity in the East. According to him: " The early jurists emphasized the offensive Jihad. he was granted permission to have four Latin monks in the church. Al-Sulami. This definition of the Crusades by al-Sulami appears to have escaped many modern historians. However. When the first Crusaders entered Syria in A. a request that Salah al-Din granted.D. he asked him to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to the Greek Orthodox Christians.

so that when Salah alDin entered the city he was surrounded by scholars.this enemy [the Crusaders] has done. 1187). expressing their gratitude and devotion to Him for having granted them the long-awaited victory. he sowed the seeds of national and religious renaissance. Egyptian. people had flocked from Syria and Egypt to join him in his battle. who grew up and flourished in the same environment." Al-Sulami. The initial response to the recovery was euphoric: "People raised their voices in praise of God. Every famous person from Egypt and Syria witnessed the liberation. and poets as well as by crowds of civilians and members of the military. Salah al-Din had these structures cleared away and ordered the niche (mihrab) of al-Aqsa purified. and they had included a part of al-Aqsa in their buildings. described it as follows: "The sultan sat with his face gleaming with happiness. then pursuing him in areas that he has conquered from us [an allusion to those parts of Syria and Palestine then held by the Crusaders] is a just war aimed at protecting lives. refers to al-Aqsa mosque as the Palace of
. A. 'Imad al-Din. Around him readers of the Qur'an were reading the words of guidance and commenting. These scholars. However. This task was rather difficult because they had to demolish many structures that the Latins had introduced into both buildings as well as in the area between them. which passed from one generation of scholars to another. Ibn al-Athir and 'Imad al-Din state that the Templars had built some residences to the west of al-Aqsa mosque. reciting and seeking favours. A. 583/9 October. Theoderich." The initial euphoria of the victory was followed by a busy week during which Salah al-Din. His seat looked as if it were surrounded by the halo of the moon. Baghdadi. According to Ibn Shaddad.D. who included Syrian.'' hoping thereby to earn a spiritual reward.'' Salah al-Din celebrated this great historical moment by receiving the crowds who had gone to congratulate him. the poets were standing. jurists. "Knowing that Salah al-Din was marching on Jerusalem.H. and his entourage worked earnestly to restore al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock to their original Islamic character in preparation for the following Friday congregation (4 Sha'ban. especially after the battle of Hittin.passed the torch of the liberation of Jerusalem and other occupied terrltories in Syria and Palestine to Salah al-Din.among whom the most outspoken was 'Imad al-Din al-lsfahani . In fact. and families and at preserving those parts that are still under our control. He sat most humbly and graciously amongst the men of religion and scholars. it seems that the Latins had made more changes in this area of Jerusalem than Ibn al-Athir and 'Imad al-Din indicate. The result of the long ideological campaign was manifested in the popular response to Salah al-Din's successes in Palestine. who witnessed this gathering. 1172. children.D. Andalusian. One Latin pilgrim. who established the theoretical foundations of the Countercrusade. who visited the Holy Land around A. Eyes were filled with tears of joy while hearts were humbled in devotion to God and in joy for the victory. did not live long enough to see the results of his teachings. Palestinian. which they had equipped with grain storage and latrines. and even non-Arab Muslims . while the flags were being unfolded in order to be raised and the pens were being sharpened in order to convey the good tidings. his relatives. al-Haram alSharif.

according to 'Imad al-Din. and the place of the descent of revelations. 1160 and A. All the columns that had been installed by the Latins were removed. John of Wurzburg also refers to the foundations of a large new church. However. Muhyi al-Din Ibn al-Zaki addressed the first audience in al-Aqsa eloquently. A.D. he refers to the stables as having the capacity to hold 2. adjoining the palace a wondrous and intricate building resting on piers and containing an endless complication of arches and vaults. he echoed many of the ideas that had been preached throughout the twelfth century by the scholars and jurists during the period of the city's loss to the Crusaders: " Jerusalem is the residence of your father Abraham.Solomon (others refer to it as the Temple of Solomon). we declare. we have to look again at the detailed account of the Latin pilgrim Theoderich. " who dwell in it and in the other buildings connected with it.000 horses or 1. confirms Theoderich's account. They had also built residences there and erected a small dome on the "footprint. 1170. which stables. according to our reckoning.
. To get a clearer picture of the Dome at the time of the Crusaders. who. referred to earlier. havng many magazines of arms. and to see what changes Salah al-Din introduced.D. It is in the land where men will be resurrected and it is in the Holy Land. according to 'Imad al-Din. the burial ground of the messengers. clothing. and food in it. The Dome of the Rock was known to the Latins as the Temple of the Lord. The Dome of the Rock also suffered from desecration by the Crusaders. In so doing.000 horses with their grooms. The Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa mosque were purified with large quantities of water and rose water and perfumed with incense. Ibn al-Athir described it as a unique piece of art that was made over a period of several years by specialists in woodcraft in Aleppo. which was not yet finished." Another pilgrim. as it was known to the Latins and to Europeans in general. He says it was in the hands of the Templars. A. could take in 10. They have below them stables for horses built by King Solomon himself in the days of old. the first Friday prayer took place in al-Aqsa mosque on 4 Sha'ban. 1187. John of Wurzburg.D. and the floors were carpeted with precious carpets instead of woven and straw mats. Even Taqi al-Din 'Umar and other relatives of Salah al-Din participated in the purification in the hope of gaining spiritual reward. according to 'Imad al-Din. All the Latins' additions were removed and arrangements were made to replace some missing pieces from the Dome of the Rock that had been taken by the early Crusaders and sold as relics in European markets for very high prices. 583/9 October." which they ornamented with gold and marble. the place of ascension of your prophet. A pulpit that had been prepared by Nur al-Din for the occasion was installed. This pulpit was unfortunately burned soon after the Israeli occupation of the city. explaining the place of Jerusalem in Muslim history and piety. When this was done.500 camels. who visited the Holy Land some time between A.H. These stables were at the southeast corner of the Haram area. had built a church and an altar on top of the Rock and decorated both with images and statues. 'Imad al-Din and others do not give us a very clear picture of the changes that the Crusaders had made in the Dome of the Rock.

where the prophet prayed. Stephen's Gate (Bab al-'Amud) and David's Tower (al-Qal'a). 1191 Salah al-Din planned to fortify Jerusalem. into a ribat [guard place]. criticized some insignificant points. Even the proZangid historian Ibn al-Athir could not but credit Salah al-Din with this great achievement: "This noble deed of liberating Jerusalem was achieved by none after 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab except for Salah al-Din. instead. Thus. In his sermon he portrayed the victory of Salah al-Din in Jerusalem as a rejuvenation of Muslim power. He also ordered the transformation of the Church of St. He compared Salah al-Din's forces to those that had fought the battles of Badr. It was likened to lightning (barq) in its swiftness. long before the Caliph al-Nasir had come to power. the wars of al. It is the farthest place of worship. 1172.D. and the battle of Khaybar.to which God has referred in His clear book [the Qur'an] . quotes him as having said. the caliph wrote rebuking him for the use of the title al-Malik al-Nasir. Naturally. 567/A. with some bitterness: "Did I not recover al-Bayt al-Muqaddas [Jerusalem] and unite it with al-Bayt alHaram [al-Ka'ba. whom He honoured with that mission and ennobled with the gift of prophecy without removing him from the rank he held as one of His creatures. He also restored the towers between St. and this deed suffices for his glory and honour. Salah alDin refused to abandon a title that he had earned in A.D. Thus. Anne into a Shafi'ite school. which was that of the Caliph himself.Din's biography of Salah al-Din.''
. In A. according to 'Imad al-Din. and he transformed the residence of the patriarch of Jerusalem. Salah al-Din personally supervised. He compared Salah al-Din's recovery of Jerusalem to 'Umar's conquest of the city. He transformed the Oratory of David in David's Tower into a religious building and installed in it an imam and a mu'addhin as well as caretakers. Thus. a reference to Mecca in general] ? Indeed. and sometimes participated in. I have returned to the native land a part that had been missing from it. the fortification of the city.H. Ibn al-Zaki and other contemporaries of Salah al-Din accorded him a place in Islamic history similar to that of the greatest heroes who had shaped the history of Islam after the Prophet Muhammad. 'Imad al-Din.H. which entailed the expulsion of the Jews from the Arabian Peninsula. Salah al-Din also introduced some structural changes in the city of Jerusalem. reporting a dialogue he had had with Salah al-Din on this question. who unfortunately overlooked the magnitude of the victory and. in the vicinity of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. he decided to dig a new and deeper moat and to build a new wall. and hence it earned the title Al-Barq al-Shami in 'Imad al. and the place to which God sent His servant and messenger and the word which He caused to descend upon Mary and His spirit Jesus. for which task he brought approximately 2. Salah al-Din's liberation of Jerusalem was hailed in all parts of the Arab and Muslim world." Salah al-Din's liberation of Jerusalem was portrayed by his contemporaries as a miracle.Ridda. except at the court of the Caliph al-Nasir li-Din Allah. instead of congratulating Salah al-Din for an achievement that he permanently bore in his name (Al-Nasir). the battles of al-Qadisiyya and al-Yarmuk.000 Latin captives. 587/A.

as I have said. solar chambers. according to our reckoning. On the eastern side also there are fifteen double steps. a wondrous and intricate building resting on piers and containing an endless complication of arches and vaults. they are laying the foundations of a new church of wonderful size and workmanship in this place. and the Templars. Appendix 2 Theoderich's Description of the Holy Places (A. On the right. and rain-water cisterns. staircases. and breadth of its cellars. leading down into a great pool. also. has passed into the hands of the Knights Templars. either lengthways or crossways. which is oblong. the Templars have erected a new building. vestibules. On the western side one ascends to the upper court by two ranges of steps. and buildings suitable for all manner of uses. and supported by columns within like a church. Above it abounds with rooms. the other two have been taken for the use of the canons. at one shot with a Balearic bow. and are ever on the watch to guard and protect the country. too. who dwell in it and in the other buildings connected with it. refectories. antechambers. and roof. is the sepulchre of some rich man. on the western side. In front of these same steps in the lower court there are twenty-five steps or more. They have built a new cloister there in addition to the old one which they had in another part of the building. my hearers would hardly be able to believe me. and there. clothing. and on the left three. there stand in like manner four columns. This building. granaries. which stable. but even if I did so. is paved with broad and large stones. No man could send an arrow from one end of their building to the other. 1 172) "The Palace of Solomon" [Al-Aqsa mosque " Next comes. we declare. They have below them stables for horses built by King Solomon himself in the days of old.D. Two sides of the outer court exist to this day. by the side of the great court. Theoderich's Description ol the Holy Places. length. while down below it contains a wonderful number of baths. crossing about the middle of the city. on the south. like the outer one. and from the upper court one enters the Temple. and in like manner on the southern side. I could give the measurements of its height. Now. surrounded by an iron grille. storehouses. that is to say. before which we said that the pool is situated. Moreover. above the steps on the south side. adjoining the palace. rising with a high pitch.Appendix 1 Theoderich's Description of the Holy Places (A. so that. than the inner court. the outer court is twice as large. and at the end is round like a sanctuary and covered by a great round dome. could take in ten thousand horses with their grooms. by which one mounts up to the Temple through the Golden Gate. according to the number of which the Psalmist composed fifteen psalms. it resembles a church. and food in it. Those who walk upon the roof of it find an abundance of gardens. courtyards. from which it is said there is a subterranean connection with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. having many magazines of arms. Aubrey Stewart (London: Palcstine Pilgrims' Text Society. and magazines for the storage of wood and other needful provisions. where one mounts from the lower court to the upper one by twenty-two steps. I 172) "The Temple of Ihe Lord": "Dome of the Rock" Hence by a street which bends a little towards the south one comes through the Beautiful Gate of the Temple to the Temple of the Lord. the palace of Solomon. Over the steps.D . there stand four columns with arches above them. On another side of the palace. who have built houses and planted gardens on them. unlike the flat roofs of that country. 1896): 30-32. and above these also
. trans. which. and beautifully carved in alabaster. with all its appurtenances. through which the holy fire which is miraculously lighted in that church on Easter Even is said to be brought underground to the Temple of the Lord. or more.

Round about the Temple itself there are great pools of water under the pavement. Between the Golden Gate and the fifteen steps there stands an ancient and ruined cistern. "The Temple of the Lord is holy. and to his supplication. is the mouth of some pools of water which exist there." In an upper circular scroll similarly placed round the building is the text: "Have Thou respect unto the prayer of Thy servant. which has on its summit a great ball with a gilded cross above it." On the fourth side. contains the following inscription. O Lord. or west door. Four doors lead into and out of the building. and from the middle up to the topmost border. must be read according to the way of the sun as follows: On the front. "Blessed be the glory of the Lord out of His holy place. starting from the front. from Thy sanctuary and from the highest heaven. Its lower part is ornamented as far as the middle with most glorious marbles. "Of a truth the Lord is in His holy place. stand two small dwellings. Now. The Temple itself is evidently of an octagonal shape in its lower part. "This is the house of the Lord. Look down. firmly built. with its own lofty vaulted roof. seek. but. above which is the inscription." At the entrance to the choir there is an altar dedicated to St. from the taking of Ascalon 11 years. "From the taking of Antioch 63 years. whereof that towards the west is said to have been the school of the Blessed Virgin. "The Roman Column. and he who seeks finds. God careth for it.' saith the Lord. from the taking of Jerusalem 53. on the south side above the two angles of the inner court. Ask. from the taking of Berytus 51 years. "Peace be unto this house for ever. The circuit of the choir contains four main pillars. Epact 11. from the Father Eternal. Now." The upper wall forms a narrower circle. and its walls and ceilings are magnificently adorned with mosaics. which. each door looking to one of the four quarters of the world. and eight columns. which. which support the inner wall. The church rests upon eight square piers and sixteen columns. "The house of the Lord is well built upon a firm rock. In it whosoever asks. and supports a leaden roof. on the eastern side over against the Church of St." and on the left side. Above the arches of the choir a scroll extends all round the building. which has on its upper part a border containing this inscription: in front. "From the taking of Tripoli 52 years.there stands a great stone like an altar. the son of Barachias." On the sixth." Besides this.that is to say. James (now called Qubbat al-Silsilah) there is a column represented in the wall in mosaic work. in the fourth indiction." On the eighth. "In the house of the Lord all men shall tell of His glory. according to some traditions."
. resting on arches within the building." On the right side. "In the year 1101. and ye shall find. that Thine eyes may be open and Thine ears turned towards this house night and day. point out the place where Zacharias. according to the belief of others. God halloweth it. bearing this text: "'My house shall be called the house of prayer. and to him who knocks shall be opened. "Blessed are they which dwell in Thy house. Nicholas. enclosed in an iron enclosure. between the Temple and the two sides of the outer court ." On the second side.stand columns. receives." On the fifth. Besides this. O Lord. On the northern side are the cloister and conventual buildings of the clergy. which reaches round the entire circuit of the Temple. O Lord my God." On the seventh. or piers." On the third side. was slain. this border. Thy dwelling-place. is most beauteously adorned with mosaic work. and ye shall receive. wherein in old times victimes were washed before they were offered. the eastern and the southern sides . and I knew it not. on which the roof rests.