This was the time when a new people i.e Rajputs were coming up on
horizons, in North India, who were subsequently to dominate the
history of India, for some centuries to come. Rise of Rajputs is
too big a subject to be discussed here. It could form a subject
matter of a separate work. Suffice it to say here that these
people were made prominent by the Brahmins, for the specific
purpose of suppressing Buddhism by use of force, from among the
remnants of Hunas and other foreign hordes which had been broken
down by the activities of kings like Baladitya and others.

"It was a transition period marked by a new grouping of states
due to Hun invasions"

"The series of invasions by the Huns and other associated foreign
tribes in the fifth and sixth centuries shook the fabric of the
Hindu society and brought a rearrangement of the caste system and
of the ruling dynasties. The destructive effects of the Hun
inroads were, to a certain extent, arrested by Harsha but as soon
as his strong hand was removed, they manifested themselves in a
regrouping of states. Hence the latter half of seventh century,
during which this new grouping of states took place, may be
regarded as a period of transition from early to medieval India.

Rise of the Rajputs

"The most prominent feature of this transitional period is the
rise of the Rajput Clans. Henceforth the Rajputs began to play a
prominent part in the history of Northern and Western India.
Almost all the kingdoms were ruled by families of Rajputs. Hence
the period from the death of Harsha to Muslim conquest of
Hindustan may be called the Rajput period.

India split up into numerous states due to absence of a paramount
power

"Another feature of this period is that during this long
interval, India was not permanently occupied by any foreign
people. The country was split up into a large number of states
ruled by local Hindu rajahs, often at war with each other. There
was no paramount power to unite together under one rule the
various kingdoms each of which pursued its own course quite
independently. Hence the history of this period lacks unity and
can not be conveniently presented as a continuous narrative.

The Rajput were mostly of foreign origin

"The term 'Rajput' does not occur in early Sanskrit literature
nor do we hear of Rajput clans before the eighth century A.D.
This proves that they were a later addition to the population of
India. During the troubled times that followed the breakup of the
Gupta Empire, many foreign races such as the Huns, the Gurjaras,
etc. settled in the Punjab and Rajputana and became Hinduised in
course of time. The upper ranks of these foreigners, whose main
occupation was war, came to be known as Rajputs, while the
humbler folks ranked low in social status and developed into
inferior castes such as Gurjaras, Jats and others.

They were descended from Hinduised Gurjars and other foreign
tribes

The division of the same class of people into different social
grades was based not on birth but on occupation. Of the Hinduised
descendants of the original invaders, those who belonged to
ruling classes, with war and government as their chief business,
came to be treated as Kshatriyas. The common people, on the other
hand, took rank in castes of lower degree.

Some of the Rajput clans are descended from low caste native
tribes raised to importance

Thus many of the most distinguished Rajput clans such as the
Chauhans, the Pariharas, the Pawars (Paramaras), the Solankis
(Chalukyas) are descended mainly from foreigners, called
Scythians by Tod. While others are descended from indigenous
tribes of inferior castes elevated to the rank of Kshatriyas. The
Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Rathors of Rajputana, the
Chandels of Bundelkhand are examples of the Rajput clans formed
by the promotion of the indigenous tribes of inferior social
status. Thus, the huge group of the Rajput clans include people
of the most diverse descent.

The Rajputs not a race but a group of clans of distinct origin

"From what has been said it is clear that the word Rajput has no
reference to race, meaning by that term common descent or blood
relationship. The diverse origin of the Rajputs show that they
were descended from distinct racial stocks. "The term denotes a
tribe or clan of warlike habits, the members of which claimed
aristocratic rank." It is their war like occupation coupled with
their aristocratic rank that gave them a distinctive common
feature and made the brahmins recognize them as Kshatriyas."

Proof of foreign (scythian) origin of Rajputs

The Rajputs according to Tod, are of Scythian origin. He includes
under the designation of the Scythian, the nomad hordes of
foreign tribes who swooped down upon India during fifth and sixth
centuries A.D. Thus the term Scythian refers to the Huns and
other associated tribes. Smith puts forward the following
arguments to prove the foreign origin of Rajputs. :-

The Pratihara clan of Kanauj has been proved to be of Gurjara
origin

"It is now clearly established that the Huns made their permanent
settlements mainly in the Punjab and Rajputana. The Gurjaras, the
most important of the Hun group of tribes established a powerful
dynasty in Kanauj. It has now been definitely proved that Bhoja
and other kings of the dynasty belonged to the Pratihara clan of
the Gurjara tribe. Hence the famous Pratihara or Paramara clan of
Rajputs was certainly descended from the Gurjara stock. The fact
that one of the well known Rajput clans is undoubtedly of Gurjara
stock raises a strong presumption that the other clans also are
the descendants from the Gurjaras or the allied foreign
immigrants.

Evidence of legend of fire pit at Mt. Abu

This presumption receives support from the familiar legend about
the fire pit at Mount Abu in southern Rajputana. The legend
appears in the Chand Raisa and other works. It groups together
four Rajput clans into a brotherhood based on their common origin
from a sacrificial fire pit at Mt. Abu. The clans mentioned are
the Pawars (Paramaras), the Pariharas (Pratiharas), Chauhans and
the Solankis or Chalukyas. They are all mentioned as being
"Agnikula" or fire born. The legend shows that the four clans
mentioned are all related to one another and that they all arose
in southern Rajputana. Now as the Pariharas are undoubtedly of
foreign origin their allied tribes are also similarly descended
from foreign sources.

Prof. Mukherji makes a note, which is now more or less an
accepted view that:
"The fact seems to be that when a foreign clan or a tribe
became Hinduised that ruling families were recognized as
Kshatriyas while the rank and file lost their tribal
character and developed into an Indian caste of inferior
rank."

Dr. Ambedkar has observed:
"One view is that they are foreigners, remnants of the Huns
who invaded India and established themselves in Rajputana
and whom the Brahmins raised to the status of kshatriyas
with the object of using them as means to suppress Budhisms
in Central India by a special Ceremony before the sacred
fire and who were therefore known as Agnikula
kshatriyas...."

He has also given views of Vincent Smith, William Crooke and R.D
Bhandarkar. A relevant portion is reproduced here. Vincent Smith
observed:

"...These foreigners like their fore -runners the Sakaa and
the Ye-chi university yielded to the wonderful assimilative
power of Hinduism and rapidly became Hinduised. Clans or
Families which succeeded in winning chieftains were admitted
readily into the frame of Hindu polity as Kshatriyas or
Rajputs and there is no doubt that the pratiharas and many
other famous Rajputs clans of the north were developed out
of the barbarian hordes which poured into India during the
fifth and sixth centuries. The rank and file of the
strangers became Gujars and castes ranking lower than
Rajputs in theirs precedence. Further to the south, Various
indigenous or aboriginal tribes and clans underwent the same
process of Hinduised social promotion in virtue of which
Gonds, Bhars, Kharwars and so forth emerged as Chandels,
Rathors, Gaharwars and other well known Rajputs clans duly
equipped with pedigree reaching back to the sun and moon."

Agnikula Rajputs

William Crooke observed:
"... The group denoted by the name Kshatriaya or Rajput
depended on status, rather than on descent, and it was
therefore possible for foreigners to be introduced into
these tribes without any violation of the prejudices of the
caste, which was then only partially developed. But it was
necessary to disguise this admission of foreigners under a
convenient fiction. Hence, arose the legend, how, by a
solemn act of purification or initiation under the
superintendence of the ancient Vedic Rishis, the fire born
septs Known as Agnikula or fire born - viz., the Parmar,
Parihar, Chalukya and Chauhan."

Why was the word used to denote illegitimate children?

Though the word "Rajput" is supposed to be a corrupted form of
the Sanskrit word 'Raajaputra' which means a "scion of the royal
blood" and that the word occurs in the Puranas and also in the
Harshcharita of Bana, Mahajan is honest enogh to accept that the
word, in earlier times and in some areas even now, had an
disrespectful meaning, as he says:

"The word "Rajput" is used in certain parts of Rajasthan to
denote the illegitimate sons of a Kshatriya chief or
Jagirdar." [Mahajan Vidya Dhar, "Ancient India", Fifth
Edition, Reprint 1972, Chand and Co., New Delhi. p. 550 ff.]

Mahajan does not explain why this is so. But the conclusion is
obvious that they were not considered by the original residents
to be respectable, to start with. This is because "Raaja" means
royal but "Raj" means semen. The progeny of mixed marriages is
even now called by that name in some parts.

Tod's views about their Origin

There are many theories about the origin of the Rajputs.. Mahajan
summerizes Tod's views. [p.551] According to Tod, the Rajputs
were the descendants of the Sakas, Hunas, Kushanas, Gurajaras,
etc., who came to India and settled there. In course of time,
they were merged into Hindu society. They married Indian wives
and made India their home. They were admitted into the Hindu
castes. The upper ranks of these foreigners formed a separate
war-like class and began to call themselves Rajputs while the
lower classes began to be known as Jats, Ahirs, etc. In support
of his theory, Tod pointed out certain resemblances between the
various settlers and the Rajputs. Those were horse-worship,
Asvamedha sacrifice, bards, war chariots, position of women,
omens and auguries, love of strong fermented liquor, worship of
arms, initiation of arms, etc.

Views of Tod were accepted by Europian Scholars

The view of Tod was accepted by European scholars.
According to William Brooke,
"Recent investigations have thrown much new light on the
origin of the Rajputs. A wide gulf lies between the Vedic
Kshatriya and the Rajput of medieval times which it is now
impossible to bridge. Some clans, with the help of an
accommodating bard, may be able to trace their lineage to
the Kshatriyas of Buddhist times, who were recognized as one
of the leading elements in Hindu society, and in their own
estimation, stood even higher than the Brahmana. But it is
now certain that the origin of many clans dates from the
Saka or Kushana invasion, which began about the middle of
the second century B.C. or more certainly, from that of the
White Hunas who destroyed the Gupta Empire about 480 A.D.
The Gurjara tribe connected with the latter people adopted
Hinduism, and their leaders formed the main stock from which
the higher Rajput families sprang. When these new claimants
to princely honours accepted the faith and institutions of
Brahmanism, the mythical would naturally be made to
affiliate themselves to the heroes whose exploits are
recorded in the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Here arose the
body of legend recorded in The Annals by which a fabulous
origin from the Sun or Moon is ascribed to two great Rajput
branches, a genealogy claimed by other princely families
like the Incas of Peru or the Mikado of Japan." [Quoted by
Mahajan, p. 551]

Foreign origin not accepted by Brahmanic Scholars

The idea of foreign origin hurt the pride of Brahmanic scholars,
like C. V. Vaidya and Gauri Shankar Ojha, who do not accept the
theory of foreign origin. They believe that ethnology, tradition
and probabilities all point to the conclusion that the Rajputs
were pure Aryans and not the descendant of the foreigners.

Prof. Mahajan [p.551] summarizes their objections. According to
Ojha, there is nothing striking in the similarities of the
customs and manners of the sakas and Rajputs. The worship of the
Sun prevailed in India from the Vedic times and the practice of
sati existed before the coming of the Sakas as is proved by the
Mahabharata. The practice of the Asvamedha sacrifice was not
unknown. There is mention of such sacrifice in the epic. The
worship of arms and horses is not a new thing. The ruling classes
in India have always worshipped them.

It is also pointed out that the reading of the Puranas that
after King Mahananda of the Sisunaga dynasty, Sudra kings will
exercise sovereignty, is not correct. There is evidence to prove
the existence of Kshatriya rulers even after the Nanda and
Mauryan dynasties.

When Pushyamitra established his power after killing Brihadratha,
the last Mauryan king, he performed the Asvamedha sacrifice and
at one of those sacrifices Patanjali, the commentator Mahabhashya
was also present. If Pushyamitra had been a Sudra, Patanjali
would not have been present there.

In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, there is a mention of
the Kshatriyas of Kausambi. The Yadava Kshatriyas ruled over
Mathura and the adjoining country before the war of the
mahabharata.

Certain inscription of the 9th and 10th centuries show that the
then reigning Rajput families drew their descent from Ram of
Suryavamsi or Solar clan and Krishna of Chandravamsi or lunar
race. The former Rajput rulers of Bikaner, Mewar, and Jaipur
claimed their descent from 'Suryavamsi clan. Likewise, the
princes of Jaisalmer and Cutch took pride in calling themselves
the descendants of Chandrawamsi clan. All this must have some
history basis.

From the above objections, these scholars seem to have missed
the point. Pedigrees from Sun and Moon and Rama and Krishna are
definitely creations of Bards. Nobody says Pushyamitra was a
Shudra. He was a staunch Brahmin who murdered the Buddhist King
and started the counter revolution in ancient India, after which
culture of yadnyas, which had gone into disrepute due to
teachings of the Buddha, again started. That there were no
Kshatriyas after Nandas was the arrogance of Brahmins to condemn
and downgrade the Buddhist Kings like Asoka and deny them the
status of Ksatriyas. No body doubts that horses were worshipped
by Vedic Kings. We all know about the Rajmahishi, the principal
queen, sleeping with the dead horse at the close of Horse
sacrifice. How does all that disprove Tod's theory of foreign
origin?

Agnikula Origin

The theory of Agnikula origin of the Rajputs is given in
Prithviraj Raso of Chand Bardai. According to this Theory,
Parsuram, an incarnation of Vishnu, destroyed all the Kshatriyas.
However, the Brahmanas felt the need of warrior class to defend
them. They offered prayers to God at top of Mount Abu. A great
Havan was performed for about 40 days. The prayers of the
Brahmanas brought forth fruit. Form that Agnikund or fire pit,
there sprang up four heroes and each one of them created a
separate Rajput class. Thus came into existence the Chauhans, the
Solankis or Chalukyas, the Parmaars and the Praiharas. This
theory still finds credence among the Rajputs. Dr. D. R.
Bhandarkar and others have found in this myth a confirmation of
their theory of the foreign origin of the Rajputs. According to
Edwards, the Agnikul myth represents a rite of puragation by
fire, the scene of which was in Southern Rajputana whereby the
impurity of foreigners was removed and they became fit to enter
caste system. The fictitious character of the story is obvious.
It represents a Brahamanical effort to find a lofty origin for
the Kshatriya who stood very high in the social order and who
gave them a lot of money in charity.

Views of Dr. V. A. Smith,

He believes that the Rajputs were a mixed race. Some of the
Rajput clans were the descendants of foreigners like Hunas, Sakas
and Kushanas and others belonged to the old Kshatriya tribes.
In the beginning, these two groups were opposed to each other but
in course of time they got mixed up with each other. To quote
Smith, "Thus, the Kshatriya or Rajput group of castes at present
essentially an occupational group composed of all clans,
following the Hindu ritual, who actually undertook the work of
Government; consequently, people of most of the great Rajput
clans now in existence in spite of their hoary pedigrees are
descended either from foreign immigrants or from indigenous races
such as the Gonds and Bhars." [Mahajan, p. 552]

Rajput Culture and Civilization.

Mahajan sumerizes their culture. [p.552] The Rajputs had high
pride of their lofty pedigrees. Very soon, they developed into a
proud and haughty aristocracy and claimed prerogatives and
privileges over the general population and were very jealous to
maintain them.

However, they had many outstanding virtues and a spirit of
chivalry and lived up to it in spite of difficulties. Rajputs
were generous and merciful even to enemies if the latter
submitted and sought shelter. "A suppliant who had taken
sanctuary by his hearth was sacred." According to Tod, "High
courage patriotism, loyalty, honour, hospitality and simplicity
are qualities which must at once be conceded to them."

Even when they were victorious they did not resort to wholesale
massacre of their enemies. They did not cause needless misery to
the poor and innocent people. They offered the stiffest
resistance to the foreign invaders but if they once submitted and
took an oath of fidelity, they remained faithful to their word of
honour and gave up allegiance only when they were themselves
deserted by the foreign victors.

Veer V. D. Sawarkar, however, considers this as a demerit of
Hindus, that they were showing compassion to others at unwanted
times, in several places in his Marathi book, "Saha Soneri Pane"
(Six golden Leaves in the Indian History), which he wrote as an
rejoinder to Dr. Ambedkar's remark that the History of Hindus is
the History of Defeats.

Fighting was their duty

As they were created for the purpose of putting down the
Buddhists by use of force and uphold the supremacy of Brahmins,
it was natural that they be mentally prepared to keep themselves
ready to fight any time the Brahmanism needs their services.
Prof. Mahajan explains:

"The whole of the life of a Rajput was devoted to war. On
reaching puberty, a Rajput boy was initiated in knighthood
by the ceremony of Kharg Bandha or binding of the sword. He
was brought up on the stories of the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. His ideal was Rama. When not fighting, a Rajput
spent his time in hunting and hawking or in feats of arms.
During his leisure time, he was entertained by his bards and
dancing girls. He also spent his time in drinking opium
water (Kusumba) with his retainers. According to Bernier,
'If the Rajput is a brave man, he need never entertain an
apprehension of being deserted by his followers; they only
require to be well led, for their minds are made up to die
in his presence rather than abandon him to his enemies. It
is an interesting sight to see them on the eve of adieu one
another, as if certain of death.' " [Mahajan, p. 554]

"... The Rajputs loved war so passionately that they passed
the night before battle, listening to recitation from the
Mahabharata, longing for the morning as a lonely wife longs
for her husband. They asked: When will the night pass away;
when will the morning come: the time of battle?" [Mahajan,
p.554]

Why Rajputs failed

Their loyalty to the chief and the clan was very great. They
spent their time in quarreling with their neighbours and raiding
their territories even for the most trivial reasons. It is stated
that once a bloody battle was fought because a Raja, when out
hawking, picked up a particle which had fallen over the boundary
of his neighbour. But that was the intention of their creators.
Brahmins knew that if these people did not fight among
themselves, they would be burden to brahmins and a danger to
their position in times to come. That was the reason only the
selected few were made Rajputs, the rest remaining Jats, Ahirs
and other commoners. Loyalty to Clan and not for nation was the
cause of their fall, as Mahajan explains:

"Although the Rajputs were strong and brave, they failed to
accomplish much. That was partly due to their clannish
patriotism. They cared only for their chiefs and the clans.
They did not brother about the country as a whole. They were
not able to combine together and defeat the foreign
invaders. They kept on quarreling among themselves. They
fought separately against the foreign invaders and each one
of them was defeated separately. They wasted all their time
and energy in mutual bickerings and jealousies and no wonder
they accomplished nothing. Had the Rajput learned to pool
all their sources together. it would have been impossible
for the Muslim invaders to defeat them. The history of
India would have been different." [Mahajan, p.554]

Rajput Government.

As is well known, the government of the Rajputs was of a feudal
character. All Rajput kingdoms in Northern India were divided
into a large number of jagirs held by the jagirdars, who were
mostly of the same family as the Rajput chiefs. The strength and
security of the State depended upon those jagirdars rendering
financial assistance and military service to the king. They were
bound to the king by ties of personal devotion and were supposed
to prove their fidelity in times of difficulty or danger. Such a
government was bound to be inefficient as it fostered
individualism and stood in the way of to combination of all the
political forces in the state for a common purpose. Since
everything depended upon the personality of the king, everything
was paralysed if the king happened to be a weak person. No
wonder, feuds were a common feature. [Mahajan, p.554]

Life of a common man

It is to be noted that changes in the government at the centre
did not affect the life of the people in the villages. The people
continued to manage their affairs in their village councils
undisturbed by bigger events. Revenue of the state was collected
through the agency of Panchayats. The latter also administered
civil and criminal justice. The head man of the village and the
Patwari performed their usual functions of collecting land
revenue and submitting the same to the Treasury.

Social Life.

Prof. Mahajan explains how caste system was made rigid and how
Brahmins arranged for their dominance to be always maintained.:
"The caste system dominated the Rajput society. There were
not only the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras but
also many new sub-castes. In Rajput society, the Brabmanas
occupied the first place and commanded the greatest
respect. They claimed to have the monopoly of all knowledge,
whether it was spiritual or secular. They acted as
counselors and ministers of the Rajput Kings. ... The
Brahmanas were known as priests and philosophers. They
enjoyed those privileges and facilities which were not
enjoyed by others. for example, capital punishment was not
awarded to Brahmanas. The Rajput rulers and soldiers came
from the kshatriyas. The work of business and money-lending
was done by the Vaishyas. The Sudras followed the profession
of agriculture and artisans. They also served all the three
higher castes. The untouchables lived outside the village or
the town." [Mahajan, p. 555]

Rigidity of Caste System

The rigidity of Caste system is the legacy of the Rajput period.
All the severity and the degradation was brought about during
this period. All those masses practicing Buddhist faith and
following different vocations became castes. That is, they
stopped marrying among themselves. How such castes were produced
by imposition of endogamy on an exogamous group and how this was
due to the feeling of imitation of Brahmins, was explained by Dr.
Ambedkar long time back in 1919. About Rajput period, Prof.
Mahajan observes:

"Caste system was not rigid at the beginning of the Rajput
period ... However, in the later Rajput period, the caste
system become very rigid and in doing so the Brahmanas
played the most important part. During this period a large
number of new castes or sub-castes came into existence. ...
Many new occupational castes such as those of the carders,
weavers, smiths, fishermen, brewers, oil men, cow-herds,
carpenters, etc., came into existence. A new caste known as
that of the Kayasthas also appeared. The main function of
the Kayasthas was clerical. Probably the Kayasthas came from
many castes." [Mahajan, p. 555 ff.]

The role of a Bard

The importance of bards in Rajput period can not be under
estimated. The bard, the Bhat or Charan was an important feature
of the court life of the Rajputs. He recited the heroic deeds of
the ancestors of the Rajputs. He was an important and favoured
person, He was the reposiitory of the unwritten history of the
clan. He was the undisputed authority on all genealogical
matters. He was the registrar of the family's births, deaths and
marriages. His verdict was final in setting disputes about the
division of ancestral property or of caste and consaguinity in
the case of wedlock. The person of the bard was sacrosanct. He
acted as a herald in war, and as a pledge for the fulfilment of
contracts. If those contracts were broken the bard would commit
"Traga" or religios suicide, and thereby bring the most terrible
of curses upon the head of the offender.

The difficulty in deciding about origin of Rajputs has been
increased on account of the fact that the Brahamanas and these
bards have given very lofty pedigrees to the Rajputs. The
Rajputs claimed to be the lineal descendants of the Kshatriyas of
the Vedic times. They traced their pedigrees from the Sun and
the Moon and some of them believed in the theory of Agnikula.

Condition of women in Rajput times

Though we hear of "swayamwara" in Rajput times, which gives an
impression of adult marriages, in reality, the age of marriage
was growing earlier, as per tenets of Manu Smriti, and child
marriages were rampant. This curse goes on even today, and many
responsible leaders do not consider it as an evil practice. There
were plenty of child widows and the remarriage of a widow was not
allowed. The result was that young widows had to live a life of
misery. The practice of polygamy was very common. The birth of a
daughter was not liked by the Rajputs as it was felt that the
father of a girl would have to show himself inferior at the time
of her marriage. No wonder, many girls were killed at the time of
their birth by or with the connivance of their own prents. The
question of women education was unthinkable. The condition of an
average woman was deteriorating. She was becoming more and more
dependent on her husband or his male relatives.

The Brahmanic authors, poets and bards have not only glorified
"Sati", they have glorified the "Jauhar" also, which was a mass
suicide in order to escape defilement at the hands of the victor
of alien faith. Women were made to believe that this was worse
than death. This was most horrible method to preserve the caste,
ever seen in India. There are examples in Rajput history when
women entered fire to save their honour.

Conditions of upper classes

As of today, agriculture was the main profession of the people.
While the poor toiled as free labour for constructions of temples
and forts and palaces, for the construction of many irrigation
works, reservoirs, tanks, wells and canals in time of famine,
scarcity or drought, the condition of upper castes was very good.
Mahajan explains:

"... Trade and commerce flourished during the Rajput period.
Big cities were linked up with roads. The people were
wealthy and prosperous. The fame of their riches invited the
cupidity of the Muslim invaders." [Mahajan p. 557]

"The upper classes lived in palatial buildings and enjoyed
all kinds of comforts. They had even slaves. There were many
festivals and fairs throughout the year. Music, dancing,
drama, dice, hunting, chess, etc. were very favorite
hobbies. Both men and women put on ornaments, they were fond
of various kinds of dresses. ... The upper classes did a lot
of drinking. The use of opium and wine was common. The use
of betel leaves was popular, ..." [Mahajan, p.557]

Superstitions in Rajput period

About how caste system and brahmin supremacy was destroying the
old Buddhist vitality and assimilative power, Mahajan observes:
"It has been stated that "the people were kept in
ignorances, fed with unwholesome superstition and beguilded
with gorgeous and never ending festivals." The Hindus were
losing their old assimilative power. They were losing their
old vitality. The rigid caste system was making them
unprogressive. The dominance of the Brahmanas, both in
spiritual and secular matters was doing havoc." [Mahajan,
p.557]

Regional Languages flourished

The "Kalivarjya" had made its impact. The country was broken into
regions and even a few miles constituted "par desh", a foreign
land. The language which originally was Prakrit with slight
differences in dialect, spoken by masses throughout the country,
got divided into regional languages. These were made stronger and
stronger by regional feelings developed by brahmins by creating
literature in these languages thus making them even more
powerful, though at the same time taking care that their own
language, i.e. Sanskrit, over which they retained monopoly,
remains same throughout India. Mahajan observes:

"It is to be noted that it was during the Rajput period that
vernacular literature made progress. It is rightly contended
that the foundation of the modern vernacular languages of
India such as Hindi, Gujrati, Marathi and Bengali were laid
down in the Rajput period. Poetry was first developed in the
vernacular literature of this period. Hemchandra Suri, a
great Jain saint, made a great contribution towards our
national literature." [Mahajan, p. 559]

Obscene Art flourished

The Rajputs were great builders of temples, for the benefit of
Brahmins. Though many are destroyed by Muslims, some are still
surviving to show the skill, money and labour spent on creation
of them. Unfortunately the later Rajput creations of art are the
preservations of sexual obscenity.

"... The art critics divide the evolution of temple
architecture in the Rajput period into two parts, The first
part covered the period from 600 to 900 A.D. During the
first period, there was a regular progress in the abundance
of ornamentation in temple architecture. The originality of
the ancient times was lost and the artisans relied on volume
to give an expression of grandeur. Their tastes degenerated
and we come across obscene figures. That was probably due to
the influence of Tantrism on Hinduism. It has rightly been
said that there is no beauty of original art in the
architectural monuments of the age." [Mahajan, p. 559]

Ranas of Mewar too

Also some tribal chiefs were among those who became the Rajputs.
Giving example of House of Mewar which played important role in
political and military history of India for centuries to come,
and gave heroes like Bapa Raval, Rana Sanga, and Rana Pratap,
Stella Kramerish observes:
"Formerly they (Bhils) ruled over their own country. This
was prior to the arrival or Rajputs. The Rajputs, the 'sons
of king', invaded the country, subsequently Rajasthan in
about sixth century A. D. They became Ksatriyas, the
nobility par excellence of India. Some of these Rajput
princes, including the most exalted of them, the Rana of
Mewar, at the inception of their rule, had their foreheads
marked with the blood of a Bhil. It was drawn from his thumb
or big toe. This was an acknowledgement of the precedence of
Bhils as rulers of the country". [Stella Kramerish,
"Selected writings of Stella Kramerish", Philadelphia Museum
of Art, 1968, p. 90; fn:- Koppers, "Die Bhil", p.14]

Southern India

In Southern India, the rite performed for purification,
convertion, and initiation into awarding Ksatriyahood was called
"Hiranya-garbhs mahadana" and the king was designated as Hiranya-
garbha-prasuta, i.e. "one who performed the sacred rite of
hiranya-garbha which consists in the performer passing through an
egg of gold which was afterwards distributed among the
officiating priests". [D. C. Sircar, 'The Classical Age', HCIP
vol. III, p. 225]

The Hiranya garbha prasuta kings of South India belong to the
following dynasties,

Pallavas of Kanchi conquered heart of Andhra country around
end of third century. The area around Guntur was freed from
Pallavas by the dynasty of kings called "Ananda gotra". Only
three kings are known from inscriptions; they are 1. Kandra, 2.
Attivarman, and 3. Damodarvarman. Different dates, from 290 to
630 A.D., have been ascribed to these kings by different
scholars. King Kandara was founder of city of Kandarapura,
identified with modern Chezarla in Guntur District.

Damodarvarman, who is regarded predecessor of Attivarman,
was devotee of Samyak Sambuddha. The Kapoteswara temple at
Chezarla of fourth century was a originally a chaitya hall later
converted into a brahmanic temple. He is described as son of king
who performed Hiranyagarbha mahadana. Attivarman, worshiper of
Sambhu, performed this mahadana. [D. C. Sarkar, 'Classical age'
p.202 ff.]

Vihnukundins - Srisailam

Their original home was Venukonda, 60 miles east of Srisaila
hills, giving them the name. They were worshipers of god
"Shriparvata Swamin". Whether it is identified with Srisailam
Mallikarjuna Siva can not be certain.

As a matter of fact, Sriparvata has been identified with a
Buddhist site Nagarjun Konda. Whether it is identified with
Srisailam or Nagarjun Konda, in either way it denotes Buddhist
origin.

In his own charters, Madhava Varman I is credited with
having performed Hiranygarbha mahadana. He was great patron of
learning. He is referred to in the Arya Manjushri Mulkalpa as
Madhava. [D. C. Sarkar, 'Classical Age', p. 208 ff.]

Shri K. R. Srinivasan has confirmed that what is now known as
Anantasayangudi cave temple in Undavali was a temple of
Vishnukundin times and originally a Buddhist temple which was
converted to a Vishnu temple. [p. 33 and 81, 'Temples of South
India']

Chalukyas of Badami

Imperial Chalukyas of Badami (Bijapur district) reigned over
vast areas for about two centuries. They were indigenous people,
claiming status of Ksatriyas. Hiuen Tsang refers to Pulakesin II
as Ksatriya. The Badami inscription of Chalukya Vallebheswara,
i.e Pulakesin I, of 543 A.D., represents the monarch as "Hiranya
garbha prasuta". So also do the records of his son Mangalesha's
times. [D. C. Sarkar, 'Classical Age', p. 227]

It is interesting to note that later inscriptions try to
connect the dynasty to Manu or Moon and associates it with
Ayodhya, though all such claims are myths. [Clas. Age, p. 229
ff.]

Swami Dharmatirtha observes:

"In the Deccan the Buddhist Kings were superseded by a
Rajput dynasty, the Chalukyas, who were protagonists of
Brahmanism. The fourth king of this line Pulkesi I destroyed
the monastery at Amaravati and abolished Buddhism in those
parts. He performed Ashwamedha Yajna and other sacrifices;
grants of lands were made to the brahmanas; temples were
built; worship of Siva in the terrible form of Kapaleswara
was made popular." [p. 115, Menace of Hindu Imperialism]

The Pandyas

We know the Kalabharas, the Buddhist kings, had convulsed
the affairs in Tamil country. They were defeated by Kondugan
Pandya, (c. 590-620 A.D.) who is considered as the founder of
Pandya dynasty. Huen Tsang says there were many Buddhist
monasteries in ruins but only a few monks.

Arikesari Parankusha Marvarman (c.670-710) was the ruler
under whom began the imperial career of Pandyas. He is identified
with Kun Pandya who was converted from Jainism to Saivism by
saint Sambandar who cruelly persecuted the Jains. According to
the story, 8000 Jains were impaled on stakes. Chola queen had
invited Saint Sambadar to Madura.

Marvarman Rajsimha I, was a powerful ruler, (c. 740-765) who
defeated Chalukyas and married a Western Ganga princess. The
famous Velvikudi grant of his son Nedunjadaiyan mentions that
Rajsimha had made many mahadanas, gosahasras, hiranya-garbhas and
tulabharas. [D. C. Sarkar, 'Classical Age', p.268]

Rashtrakutas - Dantidurga

Formerly a feudatory of Chalukya, Dantidurga was the founder of
Rastrakuta dynasty, a strong, aggresive and militant supporter of
Brahmanism. Cave XV at Ellora called Dasavtara, which has a long
undated inscription of Dantidurga carved on its entrance, was
originally a Buddhist Vihara, which was converted to Brrahmanic
Temple, by chiseling out Buddhist images. [Yazdani G., 'Early
History of Deccan', Oxford Univ. Press, 1960, p.731]

Dantidurga is reported, in a later record, to have performed
Hiranyagarbha at Ujjayini in which "kings such as Gurjara lord
and others were made door-keepers" [Altekar A. S., 'The Age of
Imperiaal Kanauj', p.1, HCIP vol. IV, Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan 1955]

Persecution of Buddhists was maximum during Rajput period

The persecution of Buddhists was started by the brahmins long
time back. The authority of Brahmins over the masses was
tremendous. Masses following Buddhist tenets was a great danger
to Brahmin supremacy. They had tried to sabotage Buddhist sangha
and Asoka had to drive away sixty thousands of fake bhikus. Real
persecution of Buddhists had started at the time of Pushyamitra
Shunga, who burnt monasteries and killed many monks.

Persecution by Mihirgula was so horrible, that he was declared by
Brahmins to be an avatar of "Kalanki", the tenth avatar of
Vishnu, which now they say is yet to come. He built big temples
for the benefit of Brahmins and wiped out all Buddhist
monasteries.

All this had happened before the Brahmins brought in the Rajputs.
But there was some life left in Buddhism, the religion of masses.
This was wiped out during the Rajput period. this period was the
"Dark Age" of India. Mentioning about this period, Swami
Dharmateertha rightly observes:

"But so long as India had at least a glimmer of national
life and freedom, she made incessant efforts to assert her
self-respect and thwart Brahman tyranny and it was only when
the country ultimately fell a victim into the hands of
foreigners the Buddhism was crushed to death and Brahmanism
spread its fangs over the prostrate people.

He quotes R. C. Dutt who says:
"For it was in the Dark Age that religious persecution began
in India. Monasteries were demolished, monks were banished,
and books were burnt: and wherever the Rajputs became
rulers, Buddhist edifices went down and Hindu temples arose.
By the end of the 10th century, Buddhism was practically
stamped out from India, and the work of destruction was
completed by the Muslims who succeeded the Rajputs as
masters of India." [Epochs of Indian History, by R. C. Dutt]

Swami Dharma Teertha further avers:
"So complete was the destruction that modern antiquarians
and historians who have gathered Buddhist sacred books from
all parts of Asia have not succeeded in gleaning any
valuable text from India. [Swami Dharma Teertha, "The menace
of Hindu Imperialism", p.n.108 ]

Why did Brahmins need the Rajputs?

We find in the history of India, king after king came into power
by brahmin help, but got disgusted by the tyranny of Brahmins and
accepted Buddhism. Brahmins had to find another usurper or
invader to replace him. They already had acquired legal and
religious right to kill the unwanted king through Manu.
Explaining how Brahmins frequently used Indian usurpers and even
foreign invaders as an instrument of enforcement of Brahmanism
over masses, Swami Dharma Teertha observes:

"... These unpatriotic and some times treacherous methods
were also sought to be justified by the philosophy of
Puranas. ..." [Dharma Teertha, p. 111]

Chandragupta Maurya, came to power by help of a clever Brahmin,
Kautilya. They tried to invite Alexander to invade Magadha.
Chandragupta's empire grew but his grandson Asoka became devout
Buddhist and all plans of Brahmins were foiled. So they brought
in Pushyamitra and later Kanva kings. But another rising Indian
people, the Satvahanas, who were patrons of Buddhism, foiled
their designs. So Brahmins carved out a kingdom for Wema-
Kadphises II, who worshipped Brahmanic gods. The next king
Kanishka was initially under brahmanic influence but later on
when he became enthusiastic patron of Sangha, he was killed by
smothering to death in his bed by a pillow.

King of Kashmir Jayapira, who trusted Kayastha ministers, was
killed. King Nahapana in Saurashtra was helped to revolt against
Magadha. He helped Brahmins but later refused to become puppets
of Brahmins and also patronized Buddhism along with Brahmanism..

After Kingdom of Magadha under Satvahanas broken down, Brahmins
managed to bring Gupta reign, and thus started "a long period of
Brahmanical supremacy, huge horse sacrifices, and the revival of
Sanskrit" [Dharma Teertha, p.116]

During Gupta period Brahmins consolidated their gains, temple
worship was started in place of Vedic religion, Puranas were
edited and reedited, caste system, the "most deadly weapon of
imperialistic domination ever invented by human brain" was
started to "effectively divide them into groups and prevent their
rising against their oppressors", temple worship was started
which was "another instrument in the scheme of priests to exploit
the people". They had to make some changes in their religion but
as Swami Dharma Teertha observes:

"Brahmanism has never stood for any religious doctrine or
faith. Its life and soul, then, as it is now, was the Caste
System with the Brahmin as the highest sacredotal caste, and
its vital interest was priestly exploitation."
These objects were achieved to a great extent before Gupta age.
Then why did they need the Rajputs? Swami Dharma Teertha
observes:

"Though all these things were accomplished in the Gupta
period, there was yet no guarantee that Brahman predominance
would be upheld by succeeding rulers, and without the king's
support it could not be maintained. Repeated experience had
shown that though new kings, in order to obtain Brahman co-
operation to establish their power, often yielded to the
wishes of the latter, no self-respecting ruler would long
tolerate the yoke of Brahmanism. Indian kings almost
invariably, encouraged Buddhism side by side with
Brahmanism, even when they had been raised to power with
the help of Brahmans. Brahmanism could therefore be
permanently established only with the disappearance of
Buddhism and also of all Indian rulers, Its security lay
in the revival of a race of Kshatriya princes who would
submit to the Brahmanas the highest caste and whose primary
concern would be exploitation of the country the common
platform on which priestly imperialism could join hands with
foreign imperialism. It happened exactly like this. The
Brahmans did not rest until they succeeded in handing over
the nation to a new race of Kshatriyas, the Rajputs whom
they raised to Kshatriya hood for the purpose and who in a
few centuries enslaved the country first to debasing priest
craft, and then to Mohammedan fanaticism. [Swami Dharma
Teertha, p. 117]

Harshavardhana was a staunch supporter of Buddhism, along with
Brahmanism. At the time of visit of Huen Tsang, Brahmins tried to
kill Harsha. As a result, five hundred Brahmins, it is said, were
banished from the kingdom. This temporary setback did not deter
the Brahmins. After the death of Harsha, Brahmins got their
opportunity. As Havel expressed,:

"It was therefore to be expected that orthodox Brahmanism
would seize the opportunity of Harsha's death to reassert
its political supremacy in Aryavrata." [E.B.Havell, History
of Aryan Rule in India, p. 217, Quoted by Dharma Teertha, p.
118]

Chinese mission who visited in response to Harsha's complementary
mission, was insulted by the minister of Harsha who had usurped
the throne. This infuriated the Chinese leader and getting help
from Tibet, he overran Magadha and the Brahman king of Assam
helped Chinaman with large supplies of military equipment and
cattle, thus finishing the mighty Buddhist kingdom of Harsha.
This was the opportunity for the Brahmins to assert their
dominance. Swami Dharma Teertha observes:

"The empire having been broken up, the Brahmans took the
opportunity to invite foreign adventurers to support their
cause. The Rajputs appear on the scene as the valiant
protectors of Brahmanism. Historians do not know definitely
the origin of the Rajputs, but all are agreed in believing
that they were the descendants of some of the foreign
invaders. That they were raised to power by the Brahmans is
admitted in the legend of the Puranas. It says that they
were the descendants of four warriors conjured into
existence by the sage Vasishta from the sacrificial fire he
kindled on Mount Abu. In plain language they were a new
people raised to Kshatriyahood by the Brahmans in order that
they might reestablish Brahmanism in the land.

"Everywhere they favourd Puranic Hinduism, and the Brahmans
rewarded them for their toil, and reorganized the new race
as the Kshatriyas of modern time." [Dutt R. C., 'Later Hindu
Civilization', p.38]

"Whatever the origin of the Rajputs may be, there is no
doubt that they were newcomers within the pale Hindu
civilization and religion. Like all new converts they were
fired with an excessive zeal to revive the religion they
embraced. Brahmans worked on the zeal of this new race of
Kshatriyas and the Chohan and the Rathore vindicated their
claims to be regarded as Kshatriyas by established the
supremacy, of the Brahmans." [Dutt R. C., 'Later Hindu
Civilization', p. 40, quoted by Dharma Teertha, p. 119]

Rajput age was a Dark Age for masses of India

Swami Dharma Teertha narrates the further story in these words:
"With the help of the Rajputs who became powerful in all
parts of India, Brahmanism entered on a career of merciless
extirpation of Buddhism, and with it of nationalism. The
avenues of light and information were all closed, From the
8th to the 10th century an impenetrable darkness enveloped
Northern India. History refuses to disclose the nature of
the happenings of that terrible darkness. As in the Dark Age
which followed the Mahabharata War, so under the cover of
this frightful oblivion, Brahmanism did its work thoroughly
monasteries were demolished, monks were banished or killed,
books were burnt, Buddhism was stamped out; nationalism was
crushed. The country fell into the hands of Rajput
barons, soon to be followed by the Mohammedan invaders who
completed the work of annihilation. Rajputana became a
congeries of rival states, each with its own chief,
war loving and constantly quarreling with each other."
[Dharma Teertha, p.119]

"There could be hardly any doubt that Rajput rule was an
undiluted military imperialism, a coalition of Kashtriya
exploiters and insatiable Brahman priests, in which the
people were fleeced to amass wealth for palaces and temples.
In an incredibly short time huge temples requiring the
labour of many thousands of workmen, generally slaves or
prisoners, and involving fabulous expenditure, were built
all over the country; the secret cells of temples were
filled with gold and silver and other treasures beyond
description. Hundreds of dancing girls with all the
temptations of music and decoration served in the temples
to complete the vices of priest craft. The kings surrounded
themselves with all imaginable pomp, luxury and vice. Nobody
cared for the people; we hear nothing of the people when
the Mohammedan invaders made their incursion in to the big
cities and temples for plunder of the accumulated
treasures. The princes kept quarreling among themselves for
wealth and women. The Brahmans were sunk deep in the
temptations of the temple. We see Mohammedans marching
through the country hundreds of miles without anybody
opposing them, appearing before the gates of cities and
temples, before the authorities got any information, and
loaded with rich booty returning unmolested over vast
tracts of inhabited area. There seemed to be no government
in the land.

"The despotic nature of the regime could be noticed also in
the employment by Rajput rulers of large bodies of
Mohammedan mercenaries. It was so in Vijayanager too.
another Brahman dominated empire. Both in North India and
in Vijayanager, the presence of Mohammedan troops in the
heart of the Hindu kingdoms, in the employed and
confidence of their rules, facilitated the final success of
the Mohammedans. What was worse, the soldiers of Islam were
invited to invade India, and there were Rajput princes to
help them in their conquest of the country. The four chief
royal houses of North India were Delhi, Chittor, Kanouj and
Gujrat. The last two kings sided with Mohammedans until they
became undisputed masters of the situation. Raja Jaichand
of Kanouj is said to have invited Shahabuddin to attack
Prithvi Raj of Delhi. [Lala Sundar Dass, "Decline and fall
of Hindu Empire", p. 25] India fell betrayed by her own
princes and priests who were no more interested in the
unity, strength and prosperity of the Indian masses then
the Mohammedan or the European conquerors.[ p.n.121 ]

The Ruling Class

Swami Dharma Teertha explains how the fate of any country usually
depends on the character of its Ruling Class. Even in democratic
countries, the rise and fall, the progress and decadence of the
nation depends to a great extent on the ideals which animate the
policy and conduct of this class. In India, this class is the
Brahmins. Swami observes:
"From days immemorial, the Brahmans have been the undoubted
aristocrats of India, the leaders of the people, the
custodians of religious and secular learning, unrivaled
politicians and administrators, and owners of wealth and
power, besides being the trustees of the peoples conscience
as priests. Probably no other class of persons in any
society ever combined in themselves all these advantages so
exclusively as the Brahmans. It is equally doubtful if any
other aristocratic class has ever exercised their privileges
to the detriment of the common people so unscrupulously and
for so long a period as these Hindu priests.

"For an understanding of the causes which have brought India
to her present condition no study is more important than
that of the policy and doctrines of the Brahmans." [Dharma
Teertha, p. 122]

Brahmins were benefited by Muslim Conquest

There is a lot of propaganda, that Muslim period was a foreign
rule over Indian masses, who were crushed under the foreign yoke.
All this is a great and fake propaganda by the brahmanical
scholars. Actually, it was this class who got the maximum
benefits of Muslim raj. Here we have to remember that India has
triple governance. Governance at the village and town level,
second is regional level and top most is national level. The
local level governance is the actual governance. In India it
makes no difference, who ruled at the top, at the local levels it
was the Brahmins who always ruled. And their rule was as per the
Laws of caste. Swami Dharma Teertha observes:
"The disappearance of Buddhism and the passing of political
power into the hands of the Mohammedans, though they meant
the extermination of national life, was a triumph for
Brahmanism. ... in the period of national prostration and
political chaos roughly from the eight to the twelfth
century after Christ, there is a phenomenal revival,
expansion and consolidation of the theocratic domination of
the Brahmans. One prominent result of the invasion of India
by the Mohammedans was that, so far as Hindu society was
concerned, Brahmans became its undisputed leaders and law
givers.

"After the overthrow of the Hindu princes by the
Mohammedans, the Hindu princes and chiefs lost a good deal
of their prestige, but the leadership of the Hindus instead
of passing into the new political authority, namely
Mohammedan rulers, passed almost entirely to the brahmans."
[Kelkar S. V., "An Essay on Hinduism, p. 149]

"There were no powerful Indian rulers to question their
right to decide what should be or should not be the religion
of the people, and by what principles their social life
should be governed. When the Mohammedans had overcome all
opposition and settled down as rulers, unless some of them
were fanatically inclined to make forcible conversions, they
left the Hindus in the hands of their religious leaders and
whenever they wanted to pacify them by quiet methods, they
made use of Brahmans as their accredited representatives.

"Another great advantage was that, for the first time in
history, all the peoples of India, of all sects and
denominations, were brought under the supremacy of the
Brahmans. Till then they had claimed to be priest of the
three higher castes only and did not presume to speak for
the Sudras and other Indian peoples except to keep them at a
safe distance. The Mohammedans called all the non-Muslims
inhabitants, without any discrimination, by the common name
"Hindu", which practically meant non-Muslims and nothing
more. This simple fact contributed to the unification of
India more than any other single event, but also, at the
same time, condemned the dumb millions of the country to
perpetual subjection to their priestly exploiters. Indians
became "Hindus," their religion became Hinduism and Brahmans
their masters.

"The word Hindu itself is a foreign one. The Hindus never
used it in any Sanskrit writing, that is those which were
written before the Mohammedan invasion." [p. 22, An Essay on
Hinduism, by Kelkar]

"When the Mohammedans came they called all people who were
in India, but who did not belong to Mohammedan religion,
Hindus.... All castes and creeds which did not acknowledge
Mohammedan religion were Hindus." [p.29, An Essay on
Hinduism, by Kelkar.]

"Thus was the Indian people by an innocent accident of
history, permanently subjected to a disastrous social and
religious in the shaping of which they had no hand and could
thereafter obtain no voice, but were entirely at the mercy
of the Brahmans. Brahmanism became Hinduism, that is the
religion of all who were not followers of the prophet of
Mecca. Fortified thus in an unassailable position of sole
religious authority, Brahmans commenced to establish their
theocratic overlordship of all India." [Swami Dharma
Teertha, pp. 123 ff.]

What did they do first?

Swami Dharma Teertha explains the activities of Brahmins after
they captured the power. It was creation of shastras to suit
newer conditions. He observes:
"One of the first signs of Brahmanical revival, as in the
past, was the promulgation of new Shastras, Puranas and
other religious literature alleged to be the works of
ancient sages. The priests must have been conscious of the
untenability of their doctrines and their own unworthiness
to lay down rules for the good of society, for they wrote
new works in the name of ancient authors and altered ancient
works to suit their present contentions. There is hardly

Brahmins were benefited by Muslim Conquest

There is a lot of propaganda, that Muslim period was a foreign
rule over Indian masses, who were crushed under the foreign yoke.
All this is a great and fake propaganda by the brahmanical
scholars. Actually, it was this class who got the maximum
benefits of Muslim raj. Here we have to remember that India has
triple governance. Governance at the village and town level,
second is regional level and top most is national level. The
local level governance is the actual governance. In India it
makes no difference, who ruled at the top, at the local levels it
was the Brahmins who always ruled. And their rule was as per the
Laws of caste. Swami Dharma Teertha observes:

"The disappearance of Buddhism and the passing of political
power into the hands of the Mohammedans, though they meant
the extermination of national life, was a triumph for
Brahmanism. ... in the period of national prostration and
political chaos roughly from the eight to the twelfth
century after Christ, there is a phenomenal revival,
expansion and consolidation of the theocratic domination of
the Brahmans. One prominent result of the invasion of India
by the Mohammedans was that, so far as Hindu society was
concerned, Brahmans became its undisputed leaders and law
givers.

"After the overthrow of the Hindu princes by the
Mohammedans, the Hindu princes and chiefs lost a good deal
of their prestige, but the leadership of the Hindus instead
of passing into the new political authority, namely
Mohammedan rulers, passed almost entirely to the brahmans."
[Kelkar S. V., "An Essay on Hinduism, p. 149]

"There were no powerful Indian rulers to question their
right to decide what should be or should not be the religion
of the people, and by what principles their social life
should be governed. When the Mohammedans had overcome all
opposition and settled down as rulers, unless some of them
were fanatically inclined to make forcible conversions, they
left the Hindus in the hands of their religious leaders and
whenever they wanted to pacify them by quiet methods, they
made use of Brahmans as their accredited representatives.

"Another great advantage was that, for the first time in
history, all the peoples of India, of all sects and
denominations, were brought under the supremacy of the
Brahmans. Till then they had claimed to be priest of the
three higher castes only and did not presume to speak for
the Sudras and other Indian peoples except to keep them at a
safe distance. The Mohammedans called all the non-Muslims
inhabitants, without any discrimination, by the common name
"Hindu", which practically meant non-Muslims and nothing
more. This simple fact contributed to the unification of
India more than any other single event, but also, at the
same time, condemned the dumb millions of the country to
perpetual subjection to their priestly exploiters. Indians
became "Hindus," their religion became Hinduism and Brahmans
their masters.

"The word Hindu itself is a foreign one. The Hindus never
used it in any Sanskrit writing, that is those which were
written before the Mohammedan invasion." [p. 22, An Essay on
Hinduism, by Kelkar]

"When the Mohammedans came they called all people who were
in India, but who did not belong to Mohammedan religion,
Hindus.... All castes and creeds which did not acknowledge
Mohammedan religion were Hindus." [p.29, An Essay on
Hinduism, by Kelkar.]

"Thus was the Indian people by an innocent accident of
history, permanently subjected to a disastrous social and
religious in the shaping of which they had no hand and could
thereafter obtain no voice, but were entirely at the mercy
of the Brahmans. Brahmanism became Hinduism, that is the
religion of all who were not followers of the prophet of
Mecca. Fortified thus in an unassailable position of sole
religious authority, Brahmans commenced to establish their
theocratic overlordship of all India." [Swami Dharma
Teertha, pp. 123 ff.]

What did they do first?

Swami Dharma Teertha explains the activities of Brahmins after
they captured the power. It was creation of shastras to suit
newer conditions. He observes:

"One of the first signs of Brahmanical revival, as in the
past, was the promulgation of new Shastras, Puranas and
other religious literature alleged to be the works of
ancient sages. The priests must have been conscious of the
untenability of their doctrines and their own unworthiness
to lay down rules for the good of society, for they wrote
new works in the name of ancient authors and altered ancient
works to suit their present contentions. There is hardly

Brahmanic methods of Conversion

H. H. Risley has given a vivid description of methods of social
control and mimesis of Brahmins over the Indian masses, which
deserved to be quoted in toto.:

"Brahmanism knows noting of open proselytism or forcible
conversion, and attains its end in a different and more
subtle fashion, for which no precise analogue can be found
in the physical world. It leaves existing aggregates very
much as they were, and so far from welding them together,
after the manner of Islam, into large cohesive aggregates,
tends rather to create an indefinite number of fresh groups;
but every tribe that passes within the charmed circle of
Hinduism is inclined sooner or later to abandon its more
primitive usages or to clothe them in some Brahmanical
disguise. The strata, indeed, remain, or are multiplied;
their relative positions are on the whole unaltered; only
their fossils are metamorphosed into more advanced forms.

"One by one the ancient totems drop off, or are converted
by a variety of ingenious devices into respectable
personages of the standard mythology; the fetish gets a new
name, and is promoted to the Hindu Pantheon in the guise of
a special incarnation of one of the greater gods; the
tribal chief sets up a family priest, starts a more or less
romantic family legend, in course of time blossoms forth as
a new variety of Rajput. His people follow his lead, and
make haste to sacrifice their women at the shrine of social
distinction. Infant marriage with all its attendant horrors
is introduced; widows are forbidden to marry again and
divorce, which plays a great and, on the whole, a useful
part in tribal society, is summarily abolished. Throughout
all these changes, which strike deep into the domestic life
of people, the fiction is maintained that no real change has
taken place, and every one believes, or affects to believe,
that things are with them as they have been since the
beginning of time. It is curious to observe that the
operation of these tendencies has been quickened, and the
sphere of their action enlarged by the great expansion of
railways which has taken place in India during the last few
years."

"The leading men of an aboriginal tribe, having somehow got
on in the world and became independent landed proprietors
manage to enroll themselves in one of the leading castes,
They usually set up as Rajputs; their first step being to
start a Brahman priest, who invents for them a mythical
ancestor supplies them with a family miracle connected with
the locality where their tribe are settled, and discovers
that they belong to some hitherto unheard-of clan of the
great Rajput community. In the early stages of their
advancement they generally find great difficulty in getting
their daughters married, as they will not marry within their
own tribe, and Rajputs of their adopted caste will of
course not intermarry with them. But after a generation or
two their persistency obtains its reward, and they
intermarry, if not with pure Rajputs, at least with a
superior order of manufactured Rajputs, whose promotion into
the Brahmanical system dates far enough back for the steps
by which it was gained to have been forgotten. Thus a real
change of blood takes place; while in any case the tribal
name is completely lost, and with it all possibility of
accurately separating this class of people from the Hindus
of purer bloods, and of assigning them to any particular
non-Aryan tribe. They have absorbed in the fullest sense of
the word, and henceforth pose, and are locally accepted, as
high-caste Hindus. All stages of the process, family miracle
and all can be illustrated by actual instances from the
leading families in Chota Nagpur.

"A number of aborigines embrace the tenets of a Hindu
religious sect, losing thereby their tribal name and
becoming Vaishnabs, Ramayats, and the like. Whether there
is any mixture of blood or not will depend upon local
circumstances and the rules of the sect regarding inter-
marriage. Anyhow the identity of the converts as aborigines
is usually, though not invariably, lost, and this also may
therefore be regarded as a case of true absorption."

"A whole tribe of aborigines, or a large section of a tribe,
enroll themselves in the ranks of Hinduism under the style
of a new caste, which though claiming an origin of remote
antiquity, is readily distinguishable by its name from any
of the standard and recognized castes. Thus the great
majority of Koch inhabitants of Rungpore now invariably
describe themselves as Rajbanshis or Bhanga Kshatriyas - a
designation which enable them to represent themselves as an
outlying branch of the Kshatriyas who fled to North-Eastern
Bengal in order to escape from the wrath of Parasu-Rama.
They claim descent from Raja Dashrath, father of Rama. They
keep Brahmans, imitate the Brahmanical ritual in their
marriage ceremony, and have begun to adopt the Brahmanical
system of gotras. In respect of this last point they are now
in a curious state of transition, as they have all hit upon
the same gotra (Kasyapa), and thus habitually transgress the
primary rule of the Brahmanical system, which absolutely
prohibits marriage within the gotra. But for this defect in
their connubial arrangements - a defect which will probably
be corrected in a generation or two as they and their
purohits rise in intelligence - there would be nothing in
their customs to distinguish them from Aryan Hindus,
although there has been no mixture of blood, any they remain
thoroughly Koch under the name of Rajbanshi.

"A whole tribe of aborigines, or a section of a tribe,
became gradually converted to Hinduism without, like the
Rajbanshis abandoning their tribal designation. This is what
is happening among the Bhumij of Western Bengal. Here a pure
Dravidian race have lost their original language, and now
speak only Bengali; they worship Hindu gods in addition to
their own (tendency being to relegate the tribal gods to the
women), and the more advanced among them employ Brahmans as
family priests. They still retain a set of totemistic
exogamous subdivisions closely resembling those of the
Mundas and the Santals, but they are beginning to forget
the totems which the names of the subdivisions denote, and
the names themselves will probably soon be abandoned in
favour of more aristocratic designations. The tribe will
then have become a caste, and will go on stripping itself
of all customs likely to betray its true descent. The
physical characteratics of its members will alone survive.
After their transformation into a caste, the Bhumij will be
more strictly endogamous than they were as a tribe, and
even less likely to modify their physical type by
intermarriage with other races."

"There is every reason to suppose that the movement of
which certain phases are roughly sketched above, has been
going on for many centuries, and that, although at the
present day its working can probab
Foreigners were assimilated by Buddhist ideals and not the
Brahmanic

Some brahmanic scholrs try to glorify their religion by boasting
that Sakas Kusanas Hunas and other foreigners have disappeared
leaving no trace, wheras Brahmanism still persists. Dr. Ambedkar
had mentioned that mere survival is not the evidence of
greatness. The level of survival was very low. Whereas, Shri L.
M. Joshi avers that the assimilation of foreigners into Indian
society took place not because of Brahmanism but because of the
tenets of Buddhism which preached equality, liberty and
brotherhood in the following words:

"Another aspect of Buddhist contribution in ancient India
lay in the area of social harmony and racial integration on
a national scale, It was through Buddhist influence and
teaching of social harmony and tolerance that foreign
invaders such as the Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas, Kusanas and
Hunas who came to India and settled here in the course of
centuries immediately preceding and following the Christian
era, were assimilated by Indian society. This was a
permanent contribution to social integration and national
growth and it could not have been so easily accomplished in
a strictly Brahmanical scheme of social gradation without
the wholesome effects of the Buddhist disregard for varna-
organization and respect for the liberty of the individual."

Mindu Muslim Conflict would not have be there if Buddhism was
alive at the time of Muslim invasion

Not only that but he laments that the assimilation of Muslims
could not be done into Indian society, beause of the feeling of
supremacy of their caste that was practiced by the Brahmins of
those days. He further says:

"We are of the view that had Buddhism been a living force at
the time of the Turkish invasions, the problems of Hindu-
Muslim communal discord in medieval and modern India would
not have taken such a strong turn as they did. Because of
the revival of the traditional Brahmanical social scheme,
reinforced with fresh religious injunctions, and because of
the decline of Buddhism in India after the tenth century
A.D., the mass of early medieval early Islamic followers in
India could not be assimilated and digested by Indian
Society. Arnold J. Toynbee has rightly remarked that, "If
either Buddhism or Jainism ha succeeded in captivating the
Indic world, caste might have got rid of. As it turned out,
however, the role of universal church in the last chapter of
Indic decline and fall was played by Hinduism, a parvenu
archaistic syncretism of things new and old; and one of the
old things to which Hinduism gave new lease was caste." [A
study of History, (abridged by D. C. Somervll) vol. I, New
York, 1969, p. 350] [L. M. Joshi, "Aspects of Buddhism in
Indian History", 1973, Wheel publication No. 195/196,
Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy (Sri Lanka), pp. 52
ff.]