The term hide is used to designate the skin of larger animals (e.g., cowhide or horsehide), whereas skin refers to that of smaller animals (e.g., calfskin or kidskin). The preservation process employed is a chemical treatment called tanning, which converts the otherwise perishable skin to a stable and nondecaying material. Tanning agents include vegetable tannins (from sources such as tree bark), mineral salts (such as chromiumsulfate), and fish or animal oils. Although the skins of such diverse animals as ostriches, lizards, eels, fish, and kangaroos have been used, the more common leathers come from seven main groups: cattle, including calves and oxen; sheep and lambs; goats and kids; equine animals, including horses, mules, and zebras; buffalo; pigs and hogs; and such aquatic animals as seals, walrus, whales, and alligators.

The hides of mammals are composed of three layers: epidermis, a thin outer layer; corium, or dermis, the thick central layer; and a subcutaneous fatty layer. The corium is used to make leather after the two sandwiching layers have been removed. Fresh hides contain between 60 and 70 percent water by weight and 30 to 35 percent protein. About 85 percent of the protein is collagen, a fibrous protein held together by chemical bonds. Basically, leather making is the science of using acids, bases, salts, enzymes, and tannins to dissolve fats and nonfibrous proteins and strengthen the bonds between the collagen fibres.

Origins of leather making

Leather making is an ancient art that has been practiced for more than 7,000 years. Fresh skins were dried in the sun, softened by pounding in animal fats and brains, and preserved by salting and smoking. Beginning with simple drying and curing techniques, the process of vegetable tanning was developed by the Egyptians and Hebrews about 400 bce. During the Middle Ages the Arabs preserved the art of leather making and so improved it that morocco and cordovan (from Córdoba, Spain) became highly prized leathers. By the 15th century, leather tanning was once more widespread in Europe, and, by the mid-19th century, power-driven machines that performed such operations as splitting, fleshing, and dehairing were introduced. Toward the end of the 19th century, chemical tannage—which included the use of oak, sumac, and hemlock tanbark and chrome salts—was introduced.

drumHand-painted drums with drumheads made of leather.AbleStock/Jupiterimages

BibleA leather-covered Bible that has been stamped and tooled with engraved brass fittings. The book was bound in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1478.The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Fletcher Fund, 1924 (24.142.2), www. metmuseum.org

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Modern leather making

The modern commercial leather-making process involves three basic phases: preparation for tanning, tanning, and processing tanned leather. As a preliminary step, a hide must be carefully skinned and protected both in storage and transportation before reaching the tannery. A hide will begin to decompose within hours of an animal’s death; to prevent this from happening, the hide is cured by a dehydrating process that involves either air-drying, wet or dry salting, or pickling with acids and salts before being shipped to a tannery.

At the tannery the hide is soaked to remove all water-soluble materials and restore it to its original shape and softness. Hair is loosened usually by a process called liming, accomplished by immersing the hides in a mixture of lime and water; the hair and extraneous flesh and tissue are removed by machine. The hide is then washed, delimed, bated (the enzymatic removal of nonfibrous protein to enhance colour and suppleness), and pickled (to provide a final cleansing and softening).

The tanning process derives its name from tannin (tannic acid), the agent that displaces water from the interstices of the hide’s protein fibres and cements these fibres together. Vegetable tanning, which is the oldest of tanning methods, is still important. Extracts are taken from the parts of plants (such as the roots, bark, leaves, and seed husks) that are rich in tannin. The extracted material is processed into tanning liquors, and the hides are soaked in vats or drums of increasingly strong liquor until they are sufficiently tanned. The various vegetable tanning procedures can take weeks or months to complete. The end result is a firm water-resistant leather.

Mineral tanning, which uses mineralsalts, produces a soft, pliable leather and is the preferred method for producing most light leathers. Use of this method can shorten the tanning period to days or even hours. Chromiumsalt is the most widely used mineral agent, but salts from aluminum and zirconium are also used. In mineral tanning the hides are soaked in saline baths of increasing strength or in acidic baths in which chemical reactions deposit salts in the skin fibres.

Oil tanning is an old method in which fish oil or other oil and fatty substances are stocked, or pounded, into dried hide until they have replaced the natural moisture of the original skin. Oil tanning is used principally to make chamois leather, a soft porous leather that can be repeatedly wetted and dried without damage. A wide variety of synthetic tanning agents (or syntans), derived from phenols and hydrocarbons, are also used.

After the basic tanning process is completed, the pelts are ready for processing, the final phase in leather production. The tanned pelt is first thoroughly dried and then dyed to give it the appropriate colour; common methods include drum dyeing, spraying, brush dyeing, and staining. Blended oils and greases are then incorporated into the leather to lubricate it and to enhance its softness, strength, and ability to shed water.

The leather is then dried to about 14 percent moisture, either in the air or in a drying tunnel or by first stretching the leather and then air or tunnel drying it. Other less frequently used methods include paste and vacuum drying. The dried leather is finished by reconditioning with damp sawdust to a uniform moisture content of 20 percent. It is then stretched and softened, and the grain surface is coated to give it additional resistance to abrasion, cracking, peeling, water, heat, and cold.

The leather is then ready to be fashioned into any of a multitude of products. These include shoes and boots, outer apparel, belts, upholstery materials, suede products, saddles, gloves, luggage and purses, and recreational equipment as well as such industrial items as buffing wheels and machine belts.

Artificial leather

Some of the earliest leather substitutes were invented in the 19th century. Nitrocellulose (guncotton) was developed by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1845 and was later turned into collodion (pyroxylin) in 1846 by French scientist Louis-Nicolas Ménard. Collodion was used as a protective coating in wound dressings, and it was later applied to fabrics. Fabrikoid, created in 1910 and patented by the DuPont Fabrikoid company in 1915, was a pyroxylin-infused cotton fabric. It resisted water and was used broadly in items such as upholstery, book bindings, linings, and automobile covers. Naugahyde, a fabric coated with leather fibres and rubber, was first used in women’s handbags in the early 1920s, before expanding into other industries. Since the 1960s, fabrics coated or infused with polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride have been the preferred types of artificial leather, having both the look and the durability of real leather.

Artificial leather—known colloquially as faux leather, imitation leather, and pleather—has been viewed as having a number of advantages over real leather. It can approximate the appearance and durability of real leather at a lower cost, and its production is far less labour-intensive. In addition, animal-rights organizations have condemned the leather-making industry for its slaughter and abuse of animals. This combination of practical and ethical considerations has driven the demand for artificial leather substitutes for handbags, shoes, clothing, and other fashion items. By 2015 the size of the artificial leather market was estimated at more than $50 billion.

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