Wednesday, 13 February 2013

Dark tourism (also black tourism or thanatourism) is tourism involving travel to sites associated with death and tragedy."Dark tourism is the act of travel and visitation to sites, attractions and exhibitions which have real or recreated death, suffering or the seemingly macabre as a main theme" (Stone P.R, 2005). It is becoming widely recognised as a tourism niche for both tourism academia and practitioners.

The origin of dark tourist may be dated back to the dark ages of Europe, when priests would go to cemeteries and religious martyrdom sites, in order to mourn. The battle of Waterloo in 1815 site and the first United States Manassas became the first dark tourism attraction.

Dharavi Slum in Mumbai, Devil's Island in French Guiana and Ground Zero, New York City are three of the most well-known dark tourism sites. The London Dungeon is another good example of attraction. It remakes different gory and macabre historical events in a gallows humor style aimed at younger audiences.

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Caribbean, Alaska and Mexico, butnow encompasses all areas of the globe .

• Today the market for building cruise ships is dominated

by three European shipyards (in Italy, Germany and

Scandinavia)

• In 2008 the main region for cruising was North

America (nearly 70% of cruises), where the Caribbean

islands were the most popular destinations. Next wasContinental Europe (13%). Most European routes were in

the Mediterranean Sea

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Sports tourism

Since the late 1980s, sports tourismhas become increasingly popular. Events such as rugby, Olympics and football World Cups have enabled specialist travel companies to gain official ticket allocation and then sell them in packages that include flights, hotels and excursions. Sport tourism is defined as travel undertaken for the purpose of engaging in a particular sport, such as skiing or golf, or to watch a favourite team play.

The growth of big sport events is a reason for the growth of sport tourism due to large sporting events becoming more and more commercialised. This results in there being a larger demand to go and watch these events, these events sometimes do not take place in the persons own country leading to tourism. As these events becoming more globalised and commercialised this has led to the growth of sport tourism, as people from further afield travel to these events

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Definition:also commonly referred to as faith tourism, is a form of tourism, where people travel individually or in groups for pilgrimage, missionary, or leisure (fellowship) purposes.

This type of holiday involves people visiting religious sites in order to understand and appreciate their religion through a tangible experience, to feel secure about their religious beliefs, and to connect personally to the holy city.

The largest example of faith tourism is the annual Hajj pilgrimage which takes place at Mecca, Saudi Arabia. In N. America $10 billionof the industry is made up of faith tourism. This type of tourism tends to occur as people visit holy cities or holy sites, most notably Jerusalem, Mecca and Varanasi. According to world tourism statistics approximately 300-330 million pilgrimstravel to religious sites each year.

Americans travelling overseas for religious or pilgrimage reasons has increased from 491,000 travelers in 2001 to 633,000 travelers in 2005 (30% increase). The United Methodist Church experienced an increase of 455% in mission volunteers from 1992 with almost 20,000 volunteers compared to 110,000 volunteers in 2006. Also the development of attractions such as 'Sight and Sound theatre' attracts 800,000 visitors each year.

As well as this the growth will continue to expand as recent studies show that 25% of travelers have said they are interested in venturing on a spiritual adventure.

Tuesday, 12 February 2013

Ecotourismis a form oftourisminvolving visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively
undisturbed natural areas such as ‘Footsteps in the Gambia’, intended as a
low-impact and often small scale alternative to standard commercial (mass)
tourism.

Its purpose may be to educate the traveller,
to provide funds forecological conservation, to directly benefit
theeconomic
developmentand political empowerment of local communities, or to
foster respect for different cultures and forhuman
rights.

Since the 1980s ecotourism has been
considered a critical endeavour by environmentalists, so that future
generations may experience destinations relatively untouched by human
intervention. Several university programs use this description as the
working definition of ecotourism.

In modern hotels the theme of eco-tourism
has been taken on for example electing to keep the same bed sheets during your
stay and keeping the same town for a couple of days, small gestures they may be
but in the long run it helps the environment

Definition: travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes; all of which are related to sport.

Since the late 1980s,sports tourismhas become increasingly popular. Events such as rugby, Olympics, Commonwealth games, Asian Games and football World Cups have enabled specialist travel companies to gain official ticket allocation and then sell them in packages that include flights, hotels and excursions.

The focus on sport and spreading knowledge on the subject, especially more so recently, lead to the increase in the sport tourism. Most notably, the international event such as the Olympics caused a shift in focus in the audience who now realize the variety of sports that exist in the world. In the United States, one of the most popular sports that usually are focused on was Football. This popularity was increased through major events like the World Cups. In Asian countries, the numerous football events also increased the popularity of football. But, it was the Olympics that brought together the different sports that lead to the increase in sport tourism. The drastic interest increase in sports in general and not just one sport caught the attention of travel companies, who then began to sell flights in packages.

Example: in the recent London 2012 Olympic games an all-time monthly record was set in August of £2.38 billion in tourism revenue - average spending of over £1,000 per second. The typical visitor who attended at least one Olympic event spent twice as much as someone who avoided the Games.

J. Skirrow

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Definition- Cruising takeing a holiday on a ship or boat following a predetermined course, usually calling in at several places for the purpose of pleasure or reconaissance

Port Out Starboard Home later shortened to 'posh' was only affordable by the wealthiest of society. In the early days of cruising the choice of destination was limited to transatlantic ports. However, due to advancements in technology and the effects of globalisation, cruises now take in the all of the worlds popular destinations

Cruising is now dominated by companies such as Cunard, P&O , and Royal Caribbean.

P&O have more than 60 ships and 13 brands. Cruise companies now cater for a wide mix of demographic. Gone are the days of the cruise only being the domain of the old and rich. The cruise product mix has evolved to encompass short 2 day cruises aimed at younger age groups, celebrating a special occasion such as birthdays or even hen nights. Cruises are considerably cheaper and now, more than ever, in reach of the mass market, able to travel anywhere in the world from Alaska to Singapore.

Peter R.

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Monday, 11 February 2013

Medical tourism is defined as a patient movement from highly developed nations to less developed areas of the world for medical care by bypassing services offered in their own communities.

Spa Towns and Sanitariums may be considered an early form of medical tourism. In eighteenth century England, for example, patients visited spas because they were places with supposedly health-giving minereal waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis

Factors that have led to the increasing popularity of medical travel include the high cost of health care, long wait times for certain procedures, the ease and affordability of international travel, and improvements in both technology and standards of care in many countries

For example a liver transplant that costs $300,000 USD in America costs about $91,000 USD in Taiwan.

An estimated 750,000 Americans went abroad for health care in 2007, and the report estimated that a million and a half would seek health care outside the US in 2008. The growth in medical tourism has the potential to cost US health care providers billions of dollars in lost revenue

In 2010:

Around 60,000 UK patients travelled abroad in total. The breakdown was something like this:

25,000 cosmetic surgery patients (41%) o 19,000 dental patients (32%)

5,300 for obesity surgery (9%)

2,700 infertility treatment. (4.5%)

2010: 63,000 outbound: UK

2010: 52,000 inbound: UK

The worldwide recession has impacted on both inbound and outbound medical travel. Although there is economic pressure on UK patients to minimise their expenditure on discretionary healthcare (e.g. dentistry and cosmetic surgery), this has not driven a greater proportion to seek low cost treatment abroad. People have been delaying treatment whether it is in the UK or overseas. . Dental tourism providers in Europe who service UK patients report that patient numbers dropped by around 30% in 2009/10.

Factors that will encourage growth in medical tourism worldwide:

The pressure on healthcare resources in developed countries as a result of the global recession and bailing out of failing banks. For example, in the UK, public sector net debt, expressed as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), was at a high of 60.1 per cent at the end of April 2011. Following significant investment on the NHS in recent years, public sector spending will have to fall and the NHS will bear the brunt of this.

The pressure on healthcare resources in developed countries as a result of demographic changes. People live longer....they will need more healthcare. And the state will not be able to fund this.

The improved quality of care in other countries. Other countries are catching up with the developed countries in terms of quality of care and access to medical technology.

Doctor mobility. Doctors are much more flexible in where they work.

Insurance products that provide low cost insurance based on treatment abroad will appear in the developed countries.

Cosmetic surgery

Cosmetic surgery is becoming "acceptable". The number of UK operations grew last year by 30%. TV/media have popularised the "makeover".

Overseas prices make cosmetic surgery affordable for lower income groups.

Some people want to have cosmetic surgery and keep it secret. They go abroad, have surgery, then take a holiday before they come back.

Dentistry

Reduction in "free" NHS dentistry.

High prices for private dentistry.

Increasing popularity of cosmetic dentistry.

A. Garcha

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To take a holiday on a ship or boat following a predetermined course, usually calling in at several places.

Information on its development and examples

Currently, the cruise industry is the fastest growing leisure sector, with an average growth of 9% per year. The passenger Shipping Association (PSA) say that numbers have doubled in the last 10 years, with over 1.8 million UK passengers in 2009 and this trend showing signs of continued growth.Clearly from these figures, moreand more tourists from the UK are choosing to have a holiday on a cruise ship.

The Mediterranean area and the islands in the western Atlantic, such as the Canaries and the Azores are the most popular destinations for cruise holidays for UK tourists.

Many people take the opportunity to fly from the United Kingdom to meet their ship at a Mediterranean port. This is known as a fly-cruise. About 40% of cruise passengers start their journey at a British port, whereas 60% opt for a fly-cruise. Southampton is the most popular port for beginning a cruise holiday from the United Kingdom.

In recent years cruising has become fashionable, with more people being able to afford this type of holiday. In the past cruising was seen as expensive and 'up-market' with the need to dress formally for dinner. Some tourists still like the 'up-market' feel of a cruise ship and enjoy the high quality service.

However, more recently the cruise companies have provided a range of different options so that people can choose the type of programme that meets their needs. For example, many cruises now cater for families. It is expected that more and more younger people will start to take cruise holidays in the near future.

T.Garratt

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Thursday, 7 February 2013

Scientists are seeing signals that the Sahara desert and surrounding regions are greening due to increasing rainfall. If sustained, these rains could revitalize drought-ravaged regions, allowing farming communities to return. This trend is supported by climate models, which predict a return to conditions that turned the Sahara into a lush Savanna some 12,000 years ago.

The green shoots of recovery are showing up on satellite images of regions including the Sahel, a semi-desert zone bordering the Sahara to the south that stretches some 2,400 miles. Images taken between 1982 and 2002 large regreening throughout the Sahel.The study suggests huge increases in vegetation in areas including central Chad and western Sudan

Zac Carter

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Wednesday, 6 February 2013

This article talks about china's effort of fighting desertification in their land and the benefit from it. It shows that those implantation of anti-desertification programs have been doing well; despite the fact that 178,000 people have relocated. There are plenty of significant benefits, such as the frequency of sandstorms reduced. But according to Bai, the head of the sand control and prevention bureau of the State Forestry Administration of China, large amounts of investment and new policies on developing related industries will be challenges for those programmes; I totally agree with him, there will be lots of decisions for China of balancing the socio- economic needs and the environmental needs.

This article is useful for getting some basic idea of management in arid environment and slightly relevant to the China's Great Green Wall. (Section 3)

H.Mok This message has been sent through the Bedford School email Server, and is intended for the addressee(s) only. If you have received this message in error, please contact the sender, or administrator@bedfordschool.org.uk, and delete the email. The views expressed are the views of the sender, and not necessarily the views of the School. The information in this message may be confidential and should not be read, copied, or otherwise distributed unless permission is given. Bedford School is part of The Harpur Trust: a company limited by guarantee. Registered in England: Company No. 3475202. Registered Office: Pilgrim Centre, Brickhill Drive, Bedford, MK41 7PZ. Registered Charity No. 1066861

This article looks at many different aspects of arid environments from its sustainable management to its ecology systems, which is why it fits so nicely with the course, I have shown below two key extracts.

Sustainable land use

Despite the challenges of climate and terrain, there is a diversity of land uses. The balance among them is changing with global market forces and community values.

The pastoral industry is the major land user, producing mostly cattle in the north and sheep in the south, but profitability is difficult to maintain in some areas.

Other land uses currently include:

Indigenous cultural and subsistence activities

conservation

tourism

mining

harvesting of wild animals and plant products

small-area intensive industries such as horticulture.

Ecological challenges

When Europeans brought livestock and exotic plants and animals to the inland, they had little idea of what the effects of these might be. Some types of country like river frontages and grassy plains were heavily grazed, while spinifex grasslands were left largely alone. It took time to learn how much stock could be carried without damaging the country. Feral grazers such as rabbits spread into the interior, consuming vegetation and competing with other burrowing animals for home sites. Some land types lost their trees to drought or fire and never regained them as the seedlings were eaten by rabbits.

The article here links into section 3 of arid environments 'the ways in which arid environments provide economic opportunities, such as resource extraction and recreation and tourism', it shows an economic opportunity in the Sahara a project has been proposed to introduce a 'super-highway' through the desert, the project would provide numerous opportunities in 'the development of new communities, agriculture, industry, trade and tourism around a 2,000 km strip of the Western Desert.' The superhighway will not only allow transport to occur throughout this inhabited area, but it will also reduce urban encroachment within the Nile Delta, which is needed for it's rare agricultural opportunities. It also has social benefits within the development potential of new school, training centers, as well as industrial sectors and areas yet to be utilized for tourism. These ventures will bring money into the area and create massive economic benefits. The area is located upon relatively fertile soils due to their groundwater supplies and this means that these soils can be exploited, and due to the flat open lands the use of solar and wind energy can be used here in the future, making Egypt's energy production more sustainable. According to the source 'it is difficult to think of any drawbacks from the environmental or socioeconomic points of view.' And the benefits are listed below:

•Ending urban encroachment on agricultural land in the Nile Valley

•Opening new land for desert reclamation and the production of food

•Establishing new areas for urban and industrial growth near large cities

•Creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs for Egyptian labour

•Arresting environmental deterioration throughout the Nile Valley

•Relieving the existing road network from heavy and dangerous transport

•Initiating new ventures in tourism and eco-tourism in the Western Desert

•Connecting the Toshka region and its projects with the rest of the country

•Creating a physical environment for economic projects by the private sector

•Involving the population at large in the development of the country

•Giving people, particularly the young, some hope for a better future

•Focusing people's energy on productive and everlasting things to do

This article shows the opportunities in both socio-economic due to the transport access and development, as well as within environmental due to the reduction in damage to the Nile valley land.

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This article links into the AS course section on Sustainable Management within Arid Environments. The article tells us about the organisation of a conference in Dubai to discuss water shortages within Africa and the Middle East. The Dubai workshop will bring together water experts from a number of Arab countries to discuss their experiences in sustainable water use. In addition, various participants will present projects related to sustainable water use, in line with Agenda 21's call for programmes on "Water for sustainable food production and rural development" and prepare for innovative conservation technologies. The conference was organised to comply with Agenda 21's main objective in ensuring adequate water supplies are maintained and supplied to the entire population of the planet, whilst preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems. The conference was held in April 2002, and with the advantage of hindsight we can see objectives such as these proposed by Agenda 21 have not been achieved, such as water availabilty for the population of the world. This quite clearly has failed to materialise, and millions of people such as in sub saharan African countries like Kenya still live in poverty with no water supplies. It shows the good intent of countries to try to meet Agenda 21's objectives but little has progressed forward. The article also details the hope of countries to develop technology that better recycles water, from precipitation etc to be used in sustainable farming but this has been difficult to iniciate in areas of poverty, leaving regions of Africa and the Middle East still in the same situatuation 11 years later.

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This article interlinks with the AS course for arid environments section 3, which is conflicts, there is a conflict between the need for development and to urbanise areas of the Gobi desert the plan is slicing the tops off 700 low-level, barren mountains and filling in the valleys to create a 10-square-mile base for "Lanzhou New City," however in the rush for this development, there has been a sever miss conduct and bypassing of environmental needs.

Hemmed in by hills and the Yellow River, and under government orders not to use arable land, the fast-growing city of Lanzhou has chosen to literally flatten the natural obstacles in the way of progress.

Due to the rapid growth of China's population there is a severe shortage of housing available and the short term housing solution is the development in the Gobi desert, and this has implications socially environmentally and economically, as this article linked below highlights, with regards to the development of the city of Lanzhou.

SunEdison and Chilean mining and steel group CAP have agreed to the creation of this project, which will be the largest of its type in Latin America. The Photovoltaic plant will consist of more than 300,000 Silvantis monocrystalline silicon modules which will provide CAP with 15% of their total energy demand. All of this technology is being designed by SunEdison. CAP will supply the steel used for development, with the final project being managed by SunEdison Renewable Operations Centre on a full time basis due to the high levels of management needed. The natural conditions of the Atacama are ideal for optimum electricity production through photovoltaic panels due to its location being 30° south of the equator. This means it receives over 14 hours of daylight per day with less than 1 mm of rain per year.

Scientists have discovered that humans might be damaging desert ecosystems across the world according to a new study, for example in the Monte desert in Argentina. . The results were published in the journal of arid environments which showed that humans are particular effecting mammal communities due to overgrazing livestock. This has resulted in diversity decreasing and local extinctions occurring. The results were from 25 studies including a total of110 species. As well as over grazing, Poaching, logging, grazing, fires and introduction of new species

Species in arid environments need to be protected as surviving is very precarious as they are constantly exposed to extreme conditions which are very unpredictable. For example if their source of food is wiped out by fires or the soil being overgrazed turning it into shrub land then they can be easily wiped out. Fires can lead to new plants grouping round the scorched area posing a threat to the old wildlife.

Scientists hope that sustainable livestock production is a management strategy that might help protect the biodiversity of these areas from human activities in the future.

This article explains that human activities in the world may be having a negative effect on arid environments. Analysis of the human impact on dry land ecosystems suggests it is "drastically changing" mammal communities. Scientists believe the diversity cut is due to activities such as overgrazing livestock. They believe this contributes to increasing local distinctions and a reduction in diversity. The findings are published in the Journal of Arid environments. and assess how man-made disturbances affect the role of mammals in the ecosystem. 'We report for the first time that in dry lands, the effect of human-induced disturbances on mammal functional diversity is negative," said Ms Chillo, a biologist in the Biodiversity Research Group at the Argentinian Institute of Arid Lands Research. Evidence from 25 studies evaluated the effect of human caused disturbances on mammals in arid and semi-arid lands. Humans were found to have damaged mammal communities. Activities such as Poaching, logging, grazing and the introduction of evasive species. 110 species of animals were included in the study. The ecosystems in Arid environments is very fragile and animals may a key role. Some mammals dig to build nests or find food, which can bring organic material underground, enriching the soil. Many herbivores play an important role in maintaining plant life by eating leaves and dispersing seeds.

The Nigeria Society of Engineers (NSE) has begun attempting to slow sand encroachment form the Sahara in order to prevent, about 350,000 hectares of land being lost to desert encroachment. The NSE are looking at what will help slow the encroachment alongide the existing technology of plating trees like the Neem and Eucalyptus. It will be a private sector funded project with huge economic and environmental prospects.

This fits in with section 3 of the course as it is how development can provide opportunities.

Tuesday, 5 February 2013

This extract looks into sustainable management in an arid environment (suitable to section 4 of the course). It looks at an eco-village sized at 99 acres which is situated near Hura in Israel in the arid plains, northeast of the Negev desert.
The project aims to establish an ecological farm that can become "a model for sustainable, community-based agricultural enterprise" in an arid environment, introducing both fauna and flora to the area as well as renewable energy.Not only is the eco-village showing a sustainable way of farming in an arid environment it is also offering education and jobs for the 10,000 Bedouin lives from the surrounding towns in the area. The scheme intends on keeping cultural existence through the development; with the beauty of the project being its ability to bring prosperity, be it for sheep herders or for women developing indigenous cosmetics (sourced from the link below). All this information links into sustainable management giving a clear example of what is being done in an arid environment. Link: http://www.jpost.com/Sci-Tech/Article.aspx?id=301757
J.Skirrow

Deserts are on the increase as small changes in the temperature and precipitation could drastically impact plants and animals in the area that migrate or live in deserts. In some cases global warming is predicted to increase the major deserts on the Earth which already cover ¼ of the Earth.

Human activities are also increasing desertification by deforestation, over grazing animals in an area. This then leads to erosion and loss of topsoil. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces then blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan.

Population growth and greater demand for land are serious obstacles in the effort to combat this problem.

Problems

•Global warming is increasing the incidence of drought, which dries up water holes. This then makes it less likely that the ecosystem will survive.

•Higher temperatures may produce an increasing number of wildfires that alter desert landscapes by eliminating slow-growing trees and shrubs and replacing them with fast-growing grasses.

•Irrigation used for agriculture, may in the long term, lead to salt levels in the soil that become too high to support plants.

•Grazing animals can destroy many desert plants and animals.

•Potassium cyanide used in gold mining may poison wildlife.

•Off-road vehicles, when used irresponsibly, can cause irreparable damage to desert habitats.

•Oil and gas production may disrupt sensitive habitat.

•Nuclear waste may be dumped in deserts, which have also been used as nuclear testing grounds.

Solutions

•More efficiently use existing water resources and better control salinization to improve arid lands.

•Find new ways to rotate crops to protect the fragile soil.

•Plant sand-fixing bushes and trees.

•Plant leguminous plants, which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the ground, to restore soil fertility.

•Use off-road vehicles only on designated trails and roadways

•Dig artificial grooves in the ground to retain rainfall and trap windblown seeds.

Monday, 4 February 2013

Some of the world's semi-arid regions are turning into desert at an alarming rate. This process, known as "desertification," is not caused by drought, but usually arises from the demands of human populations that settle on the semi-arid lands to grow crops and graze animals. The pounding of the soil by the hooves of livestock may degrade the soil and encourage erosion by wind and water.

Desert plants may have to go without fresh water for years at a time. Some plants have adapted to the arid climate by growing long roots that tap water from deep underground. Other plants, such as cacti, have special means of storing and conserving water. Many desert plants can live to be hundreds of years old.

Desert animals have adapted ways to help them keep cool and use less water. Camels, for example, can go for days without food and water. Many desert animals are nocturnal, coming out only when the brutal sun has descended to hunt. Some animals, like the desert tortoise in the southwestern United States, spend much of their time underground.

Deserts cover more than one fifth of the Earth's land, and they are found on every continent. A place that receives less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain per year is considered a desert. Deserts are part of a wider classification of regions called "drylands." These areas exist under a moisture deficit, which means they can frequently lose more moisture through evaporation than they receive from annual precipitation.

And despite the common conceptions of deserts as dry and hot, there are cold deserts as well. The largest hot desert in the world, northern Africa's Sahara, reaches temperatures of up to 122 degrees Fahrenheit (50 degrees Celsius) during the day. But some deserts are always cold, like the Gobi desert in Asia and the desert on the continent of Antarctica. Others are mountainous. Only about 10 percent of deserts are covered by sand dunes. The driest deserts get less than half an inch (one centimeter) of precipitation each year, and that is from condensed fog not rain.

I think this article is very useful in understanding key features contained in an arid environment, for example how animals are adapted to these dry conditions and how there are areas being converted into desert areas right now. I think this article gives good facts and figures to emphasize how hot these environments are, recieving only 25cm of rain in a year! This article also tells us how desrts are not just hot places, but there can be deserts that are cold, which i never knew!

Drought is a common occurrence in arid and semi-arid (ASA) regions, with regions such as Australia's Murray-Darling River Basin. These regions experience serious droughts once every ten years on average. However Climate projections for many ASA regions suggest a future with increased aridity, longer periods without precipitation, and more frequent and intense drought recent drought events and climate analyses indicate such change already may be occurring. Over the past four decades, warm season duration, as measured by warm periods without sizable rainfall, has increased. With rising water demands due to population growth, the frequency and degree to which the supply of water falls short of its demand will increases as well.

The impacts of sustained drought in ASA regions can be broad, with low priority water rights holders, notably the environment and groundwater systems, often suffering severely. There are numerous examples of how drought affects the natural environment through impacts on biotic communities, habitat availability, and ecosystem function, resilience, and services. Similarly, the added reliance on aquifers during drought often results in overdraft, degradation of groundwater and groundwater dependent ecosystems, and land subsidence.

Not surprisingly, water intensive industries can be significantly impacted, namely agriculture and hydro-electric power. Can cause the loss of jobs and revenue in countries experiencing drought. While the impacts of drought can be far-reaching and impact energy, recreation, municipalities, industry, and residential households, analyses of drought show significant variability in the magnitude of the impacts. Not surprisingly, the impact of droughts vary due to vary over the time and location of the drought. Other factors influencing severity of impact include the vulnerability of the hydrologic system, the level of exposure, and the ability of agents and institutions to respond, mitigate, and adapt to the drought.