Sample records for ancient cytochrome p450

There are 244 cytochromeP450 genes (and 28 pseudogenes) in the Arabidopsis genome. P450s thus form one of the largest gene families in plants. Contrary to what was initially thought, this family diversification results in very limited functional redundancy and seems to mirror the complexity of plant metabolism. P450s sometimes share less than 20% identity and catalyze extremely diverse reactions leading to the precursors of structural macromolecules such as lignin, cutin, suberin and sporopollenin, or are involved in biosynthesis or catabolism of all hormone and signaling molecules, of pigments, odorants, flavors, antioxidants, allelochemicals and defense compounds, and in the metabolism of xenobiotics. The mechanisms of gene duplication and diversification are getting better understood and together with co-expression data provide leads to functional characterization. PMID:22303269

The CytochromeP450 Homepage is a universal resource for nomenclature and sequence information on cytochromeP450 ( CYP ) genes. The site has been in continuous operation since February 1995. Currently, naming information for 11,512 CYPs are available on the web pages. The P450 sequences are manually curated by David Nelson, and the nomenclature system conforms to an evolutionary scheme such that members of CYP families and subfamilies share common ancestors. The organisation and content of the Homepage are described.

The CytochromeP450 Homepage is a universal resource for nomenclature and sequence information on cytochromeP450 (CYP) genes. The site has been in continuous operation since February 1995. Currently, naming information for 11,512 CYPs are available on the web pages. The P450 sequences are manually curated by David Nelson, and the nomenclature system conforms to an evolutionary scheme such that members of CYP families and subfamilies share common ancestors. The organisation and content of the Homepage are described. PMID:19951895

There are 37 cytochromeP450 families currently identified in animals. The concept of higher order groupings of P450 families called P450 CLANS is introduced. The mammalian CYP3 and CYP5 families belong to the same clan as insect CYP6 and CYP9. All mitochondrial P450s seem to belong to the same clan. Lack of mitochondrial P450s in C. elegans suggests that mitochondrial P450s probably arose from the mistargeting of a microsomal P450 after the coelomates diverged from acoelomates and pseudocoelomates. Different taxonomic groups appear to have recruited different ancestral P450s for expansion as they evolved, since each major taxon seems to have one large cluster of P450s. In insects, this cluster derives from the ancestor to the CYP4 family. Vertebrates and C. elegans may have used the same ancestor independently to generate the CYP1, 2, 17, and 21 families in vertebrates and a large distinctive clan with 45 genes in C. elegans.

Nanodiscs have proven to be a versatile tool for the study all types of membrane proteins, including receptors, transporters, enzymes and viral antigens. The self-assembled Nanodisc system provides a robust and common means for rendering these targets soluble in aqueous media while providing a native like bilayer environment that maintains functional activity. This system has thus provided a means for studying the extensive collection of membrane bound cytochromesP450 with the same biochemical and biophysical tools that have been previously limited to use with the soluble P450s. These include a plethora of spectroscopic, kinetic and surface based methods. Significant improvements in homogeneity and stability of these preparations open new possibilities for detailed analysis of equilibrium and steady-state kinetic characteristics of catalytic mechanisms of human cytochromesP450 involved in xenobiotic metabolism and in steroid biosynthesis. The experimental methods developed for physico-chemical and functional studies of membrane cytochromesP450 incorporated in Nanodiscs allow for more detailed understanding of the scientific questions along the lines pioneered by Professor Klaus Ruckpaul and his array of colleagues and collaborators. PMID:20685623

A prodrug is a compound that has negligible, or lower, activity against a specified pharmacological target than one of its major metabolites. Prodrugs can be used to improve drug delivery or pharmacokinetics, to decrease toxicity, or to target the drug to specific cells or tissues. Ester and phosphate hydrolysis are widely used in prodrug design because of their simplicity, but such approaches are relatively ineffective for targeting drugs to specific sites. The activation of prodrugs by the cytochromeP450 system provides a highly versatile approach to prodrug design that is particularly adaptable for targeting drug activation to the liver, to tumors or to hypoxic tissues. PMID:23360144

Recently, we reported the spectroscopic and kinetic characterizations of cytochromeP450 compound I in CYP119A1, effectively closing the catalytic cycle of cytochromeP450-mediated hydroxylations. In this minireview, we focus on the developments that made this breakthrough possible. We examine the importance of enzyme purification in the quest for reactive intermediates and report the preparation of compound I in a second P450 (P450ST). In an effort to bring clarity to the field, we also examine the validity of controversial reports claiming the production of P450 compound I through the use of peroxynitrite and laser flash photolysis. PMID:23632017

CytochromeP450 enzymes primarily catalyze mixed-function oxidation reactions, plus some reductions and rearrangements of oxygenated species, e.g. prostaglandins. Most of these reactions can be rationalized in a paradigm involving Compound I, a high-valent iron-oxygen complex (FeO3+), to explain seemingly unusual reactions, including ring couplings, ring expansion and contraction, and fusion of substrates. Most P450s interact with flavoenzymes or iron-sulfur proteins to receive electrons from NAD(P)H. In some cases, P450s are fused to protein partners. Other P450s catalyze non-redox isomerization reactions. A number of permutations on the P450 theme reveal the diversity of cytochromeP450 form and function. PMID:23632016

CytochromeP450 (P450) represent a superfamily of heme-containing monooxygenases that are found throughout the animal and plant kingdoms and in many microorganisms. A number of these enzymes are involved in biosynthetic pathways of steroid synthesis but in mammals the vast majority of P450s function to metabolize foreign chemicals or xenobiotics. In the classical phase I reactions on the latter, a membrane-bound P450 will hydroxylate a compound, usually hydrophobic in nature, and the hydroxyl group will serve as a substrate for the various transferases or phase II enzymes that attach hydrophilic substituents such as glutathione, sulfate or glucuronic acid. Some chemicals, however, are metabolically-activated by P450s to electrophiles capable of reacting with cellular macromolecules. The cellular concentrations of the chemical and P450, reactivity of the active metabolite with nucleic acid and the repairability of the resultant adducts, in addition to the nature of the cell type, likely determines whether a chemical will be toxic and kill the cell or will transform the cell. Immunocorrelative and cDNA-directed expression have been used to define the substrate specificities of numerous human P450s. Levels of expression of different human P450 forms have been measured by both in vivo and in vitro methodologies leading to the realization that a large degree of interindividual differences occur in P450 expression. Reliable procedures for measuring P450 expression in healthy and diseased subjects will lead to prospective and case- cohort studies to determine whether interindividual differences in levels of P450 are associated with susceptibility or resistance to environmentally-based disease.

The superfamily of enzymes known as the cytochromesP450 (P450s) comprises a wide-ranging class of proteins with diverse functions. They are known, amongst other things, to be involved in the hormonal regulation of metabolism and reproduction, as well as having a major clinical significance through their association with diseases such as cancer, diabetes and hepatitis. Knowledge of the three-dimensional (3D) structure of a protein gives insight into its function. The 3D structures of P450s are therefore of considerable scientific interest. A number of high-resolution structures of P450s have been determined by X-ray crystallography and studies of these structures have provided valuable insights into the mechanism of these enzymes. Only one of these structures is mammalian and as yet there is no structural information on human P450s in the public domain. Until such a structure is solved it is necessary to employ alternative methods to gain structural insight into how human P450s perform their biological function. Here we report on the use of comparative modelling to predict the structure of human P450s based on knowledge of their amino acid sequences plus the 3D structures of other (not human) P450s. As an illustrative example of these techniques we have modelled the structure of P450 2C5 using five bacterial P450 structures as templates. We examine the importance of selecting suitable templates, obtaining a good amino acid sequence alignment, and evaluating the models generated. To improve the quality of the models an iterative cycle of sequence alignment, model building, and model evaluation is employed. The result is a model with excellent stereochemistry, good amino acid side chain environment properties, and a Calpha trace similar to the crystal structure.

In male young adult Wistar rats the influences of nucleus raphe electrocoagulation, spinal cord dissection (cordotomy between C7 and Th1), vagotomy and denervation of liver hilus by phenol on liver cytochromeP450-system (cytochromeP450 concentration, ethylmorphine N-demethylation and ethoxycoumarin O-deethylation activities, hexobarbitone sleeping time) were investigated. In general the influences were small or negligible when compared with sham operated controls, only after vagotomy the depressing effect of sham operation was abolished. In all cases sham operation had a depressing effect until up to five weeks after operation.

We have used monoclonal antibodies that were prepared against and specifically recognize human hepatic cytochromesP450 as probes for solid phase radioimmunoassay and Western immunoblotting to directly demonstrate the presence in human lung microsomes of cytochromesP450 immunochemically related to human liver cytochromesP450IIE1 (CYP2E1) and P450IIIA (CYP3A). The detected levels of these cytochromes are much lower than levels in human liver microsomes, but similar to the levels seen in microsomes from untreated baboon lung. Proteins immunochemically related to two other constitutive hepatic cytochromesP450, cytochromeP450IIC8 (CYP2C8) and cytochromeP450IIC9 (CYP2C9), were not detectable in lung microsomes.

The cytochromeP450 enzymes are highly expressed in the liver and are involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics. Because of the initiatives associated with the Human Genome Project, a great progress has recently been seen in the identification and characterization of novel extrahepatic P450s, including CYP2S1, CYP2R1, CYP2U1 and CYP2W1. Like the hepatic enzymes, these P450s may play a role in the tissue-specific metabolism of foreign compounds, but they may also have important endogenous functions. CYP2S1 has been shown to metabolize all-trans retinoic acid and CYP2R1 is a major vitamin D 25-hydroxylase. Regarding their metabolism of xenobiotics, much remains to be established, but CYP2S1 metabolizes naphthalene and it is likely that these P450s are responsible for metabolic activation of several different kinds of xenobiotic chemicals and contribute to extrahepatic toxicity and carcinogenesis.

CytochromesP450 play important roles in biosynthesis of flavonoids and their coloured class of compounds, anthocyanins, both of which are major floral pigments. The number of hydroxyl groups on the B-ring of anthocyanidins (the chromophores and precursors of anthocyanins) impact the anthocyanin colour, the more the bluer. The hydroxylation pattern is determined by two cytochromesP450, flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) and flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) and thus they play a crucial role in the determination of flower colour. F3'H and F3'5'H mostly belong to CYP75B and CYP75A, respectively, except for the F3'5'Hs in Compositae that were derived from gene duplication of CYP75B and neofunctionalization. Roses and carnations lack blue/violet flower colours owing to the deficiency of F3'5'H and therefore lack the B-ring-trihydroxylated anthocyanins based upon delphinidin. Successful redirection of the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway to delphinidin was achieved by expressing F3'5'H coding regions resulting in carnations and roses with novel blue hues that have been commercialized. Suppression of F3'5'H and F3'H in delphinidin-producing plants reduced the number of hydroxyl groups on the anthocyanidin B-ring resulting in the production of monohydroxylated anthocyanins based on pelargonidin with a shift in flower colour to orange/red. Pelargonidin biosynthesis is enhanced by additional expression of a dihydroflavonol 4-reductase that can use the monohydroxylated dihydrokaempferol (the pelargonidin precursor). Flavone synthase II (FNSII)-catalysing flavone biosynthesis from flavanones is also a P450 (CYP93B) and contributes to flower colour, because flavones act as co-pigments to anthocyanins and can cause blueing and darkening of colour. However, transgenic plants expression of a FNSII gene yielded paler flowers owing to a reduction of anthocyanins because flavanones are precursors of anthocyanins and flavones.

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) are heme-thiolate proteins whose role as drug targets against pathogens, as well as in valuable chemical production and bioremediation, has been explored. In this study we performed comprehensive comparative analysis of P450s in 13 newly explored oomycete pathogens. Three hundred and fifty-six P450s were found in oomycetes. These P450s were grouped into 15 P450 families and 84 P450 subfamilies. Among these, nine P450 families and 31 P450 subfamilies were newly found in oomycetes. Research revealed that oomycetes belonging to different orders contain distinct P450 families and subfamilies in their genomes. Evolutionary analysis and sequence homology data revealed P450 family blooms in oomycetes. Tandem arrangement of a large number of P450s belonging to the same family indicated that P450 family blooming is possibly due to its members' duplications. A unique combination of amino acid patterns was observed at EXXR and CXG motifs for the P450 families CYP5014, CYP5015 and CYP5017. A novel P450 fusion protein (CYP5619 family) with an N-terminal P450 domain fused to a heme peroxidase/dioxygenase domain was discovered in Saprolegnia declina. Oomycete P450 patterns suggested host influence in shaping their P450 content. This manuscript serves as reference for future P450 annotations in newly explored oomycetes.

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) are heme-thiolate proteins whose role as drug targets against pathogens, as well as in valuable chemical production and bioremediation, has been explored. In this study we performed comprehensive comparative analysis of P450s in 13 newly explored oomycete pathogens. Three hundred and fifty-six P450s were found in oomycetes. These P450s were grouped into 15 P450 families and 84 P450 subfamilies. Among these, nine P450 families and 31 P450 subfamilies were newly found in oomycetes. Research revealed that oomycetes belonging to different orders contain distinct P450 families and subfamilies in their genomes. Evolutionary analysis and sequence homology data revealed P450 family blooms in oomycetes. Tandem arrangement of a large number of P450s belonging to the same family indicated that P450 family blooming is possibly due to its members’ duplications. A unique combination of amino acid patterns was observed at EXXR and CXG motifs for the P450 families CYP5014, CYP5015 and CYP5017. A novel P450 fusion protein (CYP5619 family) with an N-terminal P450 domain fused to a heme peroxidase/dioxygenase domain was discovered in Saprolegnia declina. Oomycete P450 patterns suggested host influence in shaping their P450 content. This manuscript serves as reference for future P450 annotations in newly explored oomycetes. PMID:26129850

The cytochromeP450 superfamily of enzymes play a central part in the metabolism of carcinogens and anti-cancer drugs. The expression, cellular localisation, and distribution of different forms of P450 and the functionally associated enzymes epoxide hydrolase and glutathione S-transferases have been investigated in oesophageal cancer and non-neoplastic oesophageal tissue using immunohistochemistry. Expression of the different enzymes was confined to epithelial cells in both non-neoplastic samples and tumour samples except the CYP3A was also identified in mast cells and glutathione S-transferase pi was present in chronic inflammatory cells. CYP1A was present in a small percentage of non-neoplastic samples but both CYP2C and CYP3A were absent. Epoxide hydrolase was present in half of the non-neoplastic samples and the different classes of glutathione S-transferase were present in a low number of samples. In carcinomas CYP1A, CYP3A, epoxide hydrolase, and glutathione S-transferase pi were expressed in at least 60% of samples. The expression of glutathione S-transferases alpha and mu were significantly less in adenocarcinoma compared with squamous carcinoma. Images Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 PMID:8200549

CytochromesP450 play important roles in biosynthesis of flavonoids and their coloured class of compounds, anthocyanins, both of which are major floral pigments. The number of hydroxyl groups on the B-ring of anthocyanidins (the chromophores and precursors of anthocyanins) impact the anthocyanin colour, the more the bluer. The hydroxylation pattern is determined by two cytochromesP450, flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H) and flavonoid 3′,5′-hydroxylase (F3′5′H) and thus they play a crucial role in the determination of flower colour. F3′H and F3′5′H mostly belong to CYP75B and CYP75A, respectively, except for the F3′5′Hs in Compositae that were derived from gene duplication of CYP75B and neofunctionalization. Roses and carnations lack blue/violet flower colours owing to the deficiency of F3′5′H and therefore lack the B-ring-trihydroxylated anthocyanins based upon delphinidin. Successful redirection of the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway to delphinidin was achieved by expressing F3′5′H coding regions resulting in carnations and roses with novel blue hues that have been commercialized. Suppression of F3′5′H and F3′H in delphinidin-producing plants reduced the number of hydroxyl groups on the anthocyanidin B-ring resulting in the production of monohydroxylated anthocyanins based on pelargonidin with a shift in flower colour to orange/red. Pelargonidin biosynthesis is enhanced by additional expression of a dihydroflavonol 4-reductase that can use the monohydroxylated dihydrokaempferol (the pelargonidin precursor). Flavone synthase II (FNSII)-catalysing flavone biosynthesis from flavanones is also a P450 (CYP93B) and contributes to flower colour, because flavones act as co-pigments to anthocyanins and can cause blueing and darkening of colour. However, transgenic plants expression of a FNSII gene yielded paler flowers owing to a reduction of anthocyanins because flavanones are precursors of anthocyanins and flavones. PMID:23297355

CytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes are ancient electron-transfer-chain system of remarkable biological importance. Microsomal P450 enzymes are the P450 attached to endoplasmic reticulum, which, in humans, are critical for body's defenses against xenobiotics by mediating their metabolism, and cell signaling by mediating arachidonic acid (AA) transformation to several potent bioactive molecules. Only recently, modulating P450-mediated AA metabolism has risen as a promising new drug target. This review presents the therapeutic potential of finding effective, selective and safe treatments targeting P450-mediated AA metabolism, and the several approaches that have been used to find these treatments; among which, our focus was on modulators of P450 activities. We detailed the efforts done to develop new molecular entities designed to modulate P450, and the more recent efforts tried to employ our previous knowledge on drug metabolism to repurpose old drugs with the capacity to alter P450-mediated drug metabolism to target AA metabolism. Because of the long recognition of P450 role in xenobiotic metabolism, several clinically approved agents were identified to alter P450 activity. Repurposing old drugs as P450 modulators can facilitate bringing treatments targeting P450-mediated AA metabolism to clinical trials. However, the capacity of the modulation of P450-derived AA metabolites of clinically approved drugs has to be systematically investigated and validated for their new use in humans.

Human cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes play a key role in the metabolism of drugs and environmental chemicals. Several CYP enzymes metabolically activate procarcinogens to genotoxic intermediates. Phenotyping analyses revealed an association between CYP enzyme activity and the risk to develop several forms of cancer. Research carried out in the last decade demonstrated that several CYP enzymes are polymorphic due to single nucleotide polymorphisms, gene duplications and deletions. As genotyping procedures became available for most human CYP, an impressive number of association studies on CYP polymorphisms and cancer risk were conducted. Here we review the findings obtained in these studies regarding CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7, CYP8A1 and CYP21 gene polymorphisms. Consistent evidences for association between CYP polymorphisms and lung, head and neck, and liver cancer were reported. Controversial findings suggest that colorectal and prostate cancers may be associated to CYP polymorphisms, whereas no evidences for a relevant association with breast or bladder cancers were reported. We summarize the available information related to the association of CYP polymorphisms with leukaemia, lymphomas and diverse types of cancer that were investigated only for some CYP genes, including brain, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, pituitary, cervical epithelium, melanoma, ovarian, kidney, anal and vulvar cancers. This review discusses on causes of heterogeneity in the proposed associations, controversial findings on cancer risk, and identifies topics that require further investigation. In addition, some recommendations on study design, in order to obtain more conclusive findings in further studies, are provided.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcriptional factor that dimerizes with aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT). This complex binds to xenobiotics response element (XREs), and then starts the expressions of downstream genes including cytochromeP450 (CYP) 1 family members: CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1. Role of CYP1 family is involved in the metabolism of endogenous hormones, xenobiotics and drug. The expression of CYP1 family is regulated by estradiol (E2) or xenobiotics in diverse cancers. In breast cancers expressing estrogen receptors (ERs), level of CYP1B1 is increased by E2 and reversed by an estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182,780 or 4-hydrotamoxifen, which indicates that the expression of CYP1 family in downstream region of AhR is regulated by an activation of ERα. In metabolic pathways, E2 is converted into 4-hydroxyestradiol by CYP1B1, which can be converted into mainly estradiol-3,4-quinone, a potential carcinogen, by peroxidase. Increased expression of CYP1 family indicates the possibility of carcinogenesis by exposure of xenobiotics in endometrial and ovarian cancers. Apart from roles of CYP1 family in relation with ER pathway, CYP1 family is over-expressed in ER independent cancers. CYP1A1 exhibits hydroxylase activity in oxidation of arachidonic acid, which has been transformed to 12(R)-hydrxyeicosatetraenoic (HETEs), a potent activator of AhR activity. On the basis of results, phytoestrogens and dexamethasone are provided as cancer therapy regulating the expression of CYP1 family. Thus, this review focuses on the role(s) of CYP1 family in ER-dependent or ER-independent cancers and the potential for cancer therapy to target CYP1 family in these cancers.

Gene and protein expression as well as catalytic activity of cytochromeP450 (CYP) 3A were studied in the nasal olfactory and respiratory mucosa and the tracheal mucosa of the horse. We also examined the activity of NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase (NADPH P450 reductase), the amount of cytochrome b(5) and the total CYP content in these tissues. Comparative values for the above were obtained using liver as a control. The CYP3A related catalytic activity in the tissues of the upper airways was considerably higher than in the liver. The CYP3A gene and protein expression, on the other hand, was higher in the liver than in the upper airway tissues. Thus, the pattern of CYP3A metabolic activity does not correlate with the CYP3A gene and protein expression. Our results showed that the activity of NADPH P450 reductase and the level of cytochrome b(5) in the relation to the gene and protein expression of CYP3A were higher in the tissues of the upper airways than in the liver. It is concluded that CYP3A related metabolism in horse is not solely dependent on the expression of the enzyme but also on adequate levels of NADPH P450 reductase and cytochrome b(5).

Importance of the field: CytochromeP450 enzymes comprise a superfamily of heme monooxygenases that are of considerable interest for the: 1) synthesis of novel drugs and drug metabolites, 2) targeted cancer gene therapy, 3) biosensor design, and 4) bioremediation. However, their applications are limited because cytochromeP450, especially mammalian P450 enzymes, show a low turnover rate and stability, and require a complex source of electrons through cytochromeP450 reductase and NADPH. Areas covered in this review: In this review, we discuss the recent progress towards the use of P450 enzymes in a variety of above-mentioned applications. We also present alternate and cost-effective ways to perform P450-mediated reaction, especially using peroxides. Furthermore, we expand upon the current progress in P450 engineering approaches describing several recent examples that are utilized to enhance heterologous expression, stability, catalytic efficiency, and utilization of alternate oxidants. What the reader will gain: The review will provide a comprehensive knowledge in the design of P450 biocatalysts for potentially practical purposes. Finally, we provide a prospective on the future aspects of P450 engineering and its applications in biotechnology, medicine, and bioremediation. Take home message: Because of its wide applications, academic and pharmaceutical researchers, environmental scientists, and health care providers are expected to gain current knowledge and future prospects of the practical use of P450 biocatalysts. PMID:20064075

The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of different thiolated polymers (thiomers) on the catalytic activity of CYP450s on one hand and to explore new inhibitors for CYP activity on the other hand. Several thiolated polymers including poly(acrylic acid)-cysteine (PAA-cysteine), chitosan-thioglycolic acid (chitosan-TGA), and thiolated PEG-g-PEI copolymer along with brij 35, myrj 52 and the well-established CYPP450 inhibitor verapamil were screened for their CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 inhibitory activity, and their IC(50) values were determined. Both enzyme inhibition assays were performed in 96-well microtiter plates. 7-Benzyloxy-4-(trifluoromethyl)-coumarin (BFC) and 7-hydroxycoumarin (7-HC) were used as fluorescent substrates in order to determine CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 catalytic activity, respectively. All investigated compounds inhibited CYP3A4 as well as CYP2A6 activity. All tested (thiolated) polymers were found to be more potent inhibitors of CYP3A4 than of CYP2A6 catalytic activity. Apart from verapamil that is a known CYP3A4 inhibitor, brij 35 and myrj 52 were explored as potent inhibitors of CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 catalytic activity. Among the tested polymers, the rank order for CYP3A4 inhibition was PAA-cysteine (100 kDa)>brij 35>thiolated PEG-g-PEI copolymer (16 kDa)>myrj 52>PAA (100 kDa)>PAA-cysteine (450 kDa)>verapamil>PAA (450 kDa)>chitosan-TGA (150 kDa)>chitosan (150 kDa). On the other hand, the rank order of CYP2A6 inhibition was brij 35>PAA-cysteine (100kDa)>chitosan-TGA (150 kDa)>PAA (100 kDa)>thiolated PEG-g-PEI copolymer (16 kDa)>PAA-cysteine (450 kDa)>chitosan (150 kDa)>verapamil>PAA (450 kDa)>myrj 52. Thus, this study suggests that (thiolated) polymers display a promising potential to inhibit cytochromeP450s activity and might turn out to be potentially valuable tools for improving the oral bioavailability of actively secreted compounds by avoiding intestinal metabolism.

The three-dimensional structure of human cytochromeP450 3A4 was modeled based on crystallographic coordinates of four bacterial P450s: P450 BM-3, P450cam, P450terp, and P450eryF. The P450 3A4 sequence was aligned to those of the known proteins using a structure-based alignment of P450 BM-3, P450cam, P450terp, and P450eryF. The coordinates of the model were then calculated using a consensus strategy, and the final structure was optimized in the presence of water. The P450 3A4 model resembles P450 BM-3 the most, but the B' helix is similar to that of P450eryF, which leads to an enlarged active site when compared with P450 BM-3, P450cam, and P450terp. The 3A4 residues equivalent to known substrate contact residues of the bacterial proteins and key residues of rat P450 2B1 are located in the active site or the substrate access channel. Docking of progesterone into the P450 3A4 model demonstrated that the substrate bound in a 6β-orientation can interact with a number of active site residues, such as 114, 119, 301, 304, 305, 309, 370, 373, and 479, through hydrophobic interactions. The active site of the enzyme can also accommodate erythromycin, which, in addition to the residues listed for progesterone, also contacts residues 101, 104, 105, 214, 215, 217, 218, 374, and 478. The majority of 3A4 residues which interact with progesterone and/or erythromycin possess their equivalents in key residues of P450 2B enzymes, except for residues 297, 480 and 482, which do not contact either substrate in P450 3A4. The results from docking of progesterone and erythromycin into the enzyme model make it possible to pinpoint residues which may be important for 3A4 function and to target them for site-directed mutagenesis.

... hormones, which are needed for normal development and reproduction. The hormonal changes associated with cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase ... which are essential for normal sexual development and reproduction; corticosteroids, which are involved in the body's response ...

The neighbourhoods of cytochromeP450 (CYP) genes in deuterostome genomes, as well as those of the cnidarians Nematostella vectensis and Acropora digitifera and the placozoan Trichoplax adhaerens were examined to find clues concerning the evolution of CYP genes in animals. CYP genes created by the 2R whole genome duplications in chordates have been identified. Both microsynteny and macrosynteny were used to identify genes that coexisted near CYP genes in the animal ancestor. We show that all 11 CYP clans began in a common gene environment. The evidence implies the existence of a single locus, which we term the ‘cytochromeP450 genesis locus’, where one progenitor CYP gene duplicated to create a tandem set of genes that were precursors of the 11 animal CYP clans: CYP Clans 2, 3, 4, 7, 19, 20, 26, 46, 51, 74 and mitochondrial. These early CYP genes existed side by side before the origin of cnidarians, possibly with a few additional genes interspersed. The Hox gene cluster, WNT genes, an NK gene cluster and at least one ARF gene were close neighbours to this original CYP locus. According to this evolutionary scenario, the CYP74 clan originated from animals and not from land plants nor from a common ancestor of plants and animals. The CYP7 and CYP19 families that are chordate-specific belong to CYP clans that seem to have originated in the CYP genesis locus as well, even though this requires many gene losses to explain their current distribution. The approach to uncovering the CYP genesis locus overcomes confounding effects because of gene conversion, sequence divergence, gene birth and death, and opens the way to understanding the biodiversity of CYP genes, families and subfamilies, which in animals has been obscured by more than 600 Myr of evolution. PMID:23297357

The vitamin D signal transduction system involves a series of cytochromeP450-containing sterol hydroxylases to generate and degrade the active hormone, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which serves as a ligand for the vitamin D receptor-mediated transcriptional gene expression described in companion articles in this review series. This review updates our current knowledge of the specific anabolic cytochromeP450s involved in 25- and 1α-hydroxylation, as well as the catabolic cytochromeP450 involved in 24- and 23-hydroxylation steps, which are believed to initiate inactivation of the vitamin D molecule. We focus on the biochemical properties of these enzymes; key residues in their active sites derived from crystal structures and mutagenesis studies; the physiological roles of these enzymes as determined by animal knockout studies and human genetic diseases; and the regulation of these different cytochromeP450s by extracellular ions and peptide modulators. We highlight the importance of these cytochromeP450s in the pathogenesis of kidney disease, metabolic bone disease, and hyperproliferative diseases, such as psoriasis and cancer; as well as explore potential future developments in the field. PMID:23564710

Mechanistic studies of mammalian cytochromeP450s are often obscured by the phase heterogeneity of solubilized preparations of membrane enzymes. The various protein-protein aggregation states of microsomes, detergent solubilized cytochrome or a family of aqueous multimeric complexes can effect measured substrate binding events as well as subsequent steps in the reaction cycle. In addition, these P450 monooxygenases are normally found in a membrane environment and the bilayer composition and dynamics can also effect these catalytic steps. Here, we describe the structural and functional characterization of a homogeneous monomeric population of cytochromeP450 3A4 (CYP 3A4) in a soluble nanoscale membrane bilayer, or Nanodisc [Nano Lett. 2 (2002) 853]. CytochromeP450 3A4:Nanodisc assemblies were formed and purified to yield a 1:1 ratio of CYP 3A4 to Nanodisc. Solution small angle X-ray scattering was used to structurally characterize this monomeric CYP 3A4 in the membrane bilayer. The purified CYP 3A4:Nanodiscs showed a heretofore undescribed high level of homotropic cooperativity in the binding of testosterone. Soluble CYP 3A4:Nanodisc retains its known function and shows prototypic hydroxylation of testosterone when driven by hydrogen peroxide. This represents the first functional characterization of a true monomeric preparation of cytochromeP450 monooxygenase in a phospholipid bilayer and elucidates new properties of the monomeric form.

The 17th International Conference on CytochromeP450 Biochemistry, Biophysics and Structure was held in Manchester, UK from 26-30 June 2011. This issue of FEBS J. contains review and primary research articles reflecting the breadth of science covered at this conference, and reflecting the impact of P450-related research in fields as diverse as steroid metabolism, plant biochemistry, structural biology and biotechnology.

The cytochromesP450 have a central role in the oxidative activation and detoxification of a wide range of xenobiotics, including many carcinogens and several anti-cancer drugs. Thus the cytochromeP450 enzyme system has important roles in both tumour development and influencing the response of tumours to chemotherapy. Stomach cancer is one of the commonest tumours of the alimentary tract and environmental factors, including dietary factors, have been implicated in the development of this tumour. This type of tumour has a poor prognosis and responds poorly to current therapies. In this study, the presence and cellular localization of several major forms of P450, CYP1A, CYP2E1 and CYP3A have been investigated in stomach cancer and compared with their expression in normal stomach. There was enhanced expression of CYP1A and CYP3A in stomach cancer with CYP1A present in 51% and CYP3A present in 28% of cases. In contrast, no P450 was identified in normal stomach. The presence of CYP1A and CYP3A in stomach cancer provides further evidence for the enhanced expression of specific forms of cytochromeP450 in tumours and may be important therapeutically for the development of anti-cancer drugs that are activated by these forms of P450. Images Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 PMID:9569036

1 CytochromeP450 2B4 is a microsomal protein with a multi-step reaction cycle similar to that observed in the majority of other cytochromesP450. The cytochromeP450 2B4-substrate complex is reduced from the ferric to the ferrous form by cytochromeP450 reductase. After binding oxygen, the oxyferrous protein accepts a second electron which is provided by either cytochromeP450 reductase or cytochrome b5. In both instances, product formation occurs. When the second electron is donated by cytochrome b5, catalysis (product formation) is ∼ 10 to 100-fold faster than in the presence of cytochromeP450 reductase. This allows less time for side product formation (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide) and improves by ∼ 15% the coupling of NADPH consumption to product formation. Cytochrome b5 has also been shown to compete with cytochromeP450 reductase for a binding site on the proximal surface of cytochromeP450 2B4. These two different effects of cytochrome b5 on cytochromeP450 2B4 reactivity can explain how cytochrome b5 is able to stimulate, inhibit, or have no effect on cytochromeP450 2B4 activity. At low molar ratios (<1) of cytochrome b5 to cytochromeP450 reductase, the more rapid catalysis results in enhanced substrate metabolism. In contrast, at high molar ratios (>1) of cytochome b5 to cytochromeP450 reductase, cytochrome b5 inhibits activity by binding to the proximal surface of cytochromeP450 and preventing the reductase from reducing ferric cytochromeP450 to the ferrous protein, thereby aborting the catalytic reaction cycle. When the stimulatory and inhibitory effects of cytochrome b5 are equal, it will appear to have no effect on the enzymatic activity. It is hypothesized that cytochrome b5 stimulates catalysis by causing a conformational change in the active site, which allows the active oxidizing oxyferryl species of cytochromeP450 to be formed more rapidly than in the presence of reductase. PMID:21055385

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) catalyze oxidation of various substrates using oxygen and NAD(P)H. Plant P450s are involved in the biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites performing diverse biological functions. The recent availability of soybean genome sequence allows us to ident...

The cytochromeP-450 content of human lung microsomes was measured by difference spectroscopy of the carbon monoxide-complexed hemoprotein. These measurements were only possible after the microsome preparation had been subjected to centrifugation over a discontinuous sucrose gradient, to remove an opaque black contaminant. The specific concentration of total cytochromeP-450 in human lung microsomes is essentially identical to that of microsomes prepared under identical conditions from untreated baboon lungs, but is only 0.7% of the specific content found in lung microsomes from untreated rabbits. These measurements correspond well to the observed metabolic capacities of the various microsome samples.

The alcohol dehydrogenase inhibitor, pyrazole, appears to induce a cytochromeP-450 isozyme with properties similar to the ethanol-inducible P-450. The pyrazole-inducible P-450 isozyme was purified from the liver microsomes of rats treated with pyrazole essentially by the procedure of Ryan et al and also by chromatofocussing. The final preparation appeared homogenous by SDS-PAGE with an apparent molecular weight of 52,000, had a specific content of 11 nmoles P-450 per mg protein, showed very high activity of low K/sub m/ dimethylnitrosamine demethylase and produced a type II binding spectrum with dimethylsulfoxide. The enzyme was also active with aniline and aminopyrine as substrates. Pyrazole itself served as an excellent substrate with 4-hydroxy pyrazole being the product. An antibody against the pyrazole-inducible P-450 raised in chickens recognized a protein with mol.wt of about 52,000 in control microsomes. This band was highly enriched in microsomes from rats treated with pyrazole, 4-methyl-pyrazole, ethanol or acetone, but not phenobarbital or 3-methylcholanthrene. In summary, the pyrazole-inducible P-450 has been purified and appears to be identical in its catalytic and immunological properties to the alcohol-inducible P-450.

The heme iron of cytochromesP450 must be reduced to bind and activate molecular oxygen for substrate oxidation. Reducing equivalents are derived from a redox partner, which requires the formation of a protein–protein complex. A subject of increasing discussion is the role that redox partner binding plays, if any, in favoring significant structural changes in the P450s that are required for activity. Many P450s now have been shown to experience large open and closed motions. Several structural and spectral studies indicate that the well-studied P450cam adopts the open conformation when its redox partner, putidaredoxin (Pdx), binds, whereas recent NMR studies indicate that this view is incorrect. Given the relevance of this discrepancy to P450 chemistry, it is important to determine whether Pdx favors the open or closed form of P450cam. Here, we have used both computational and experimental isothermal titration calorimetry studies that unequivocally show Pdx favors binding to the open form of P450cam. Analyses of molecular-dynamic trajectories also provide insights into intermediate conformational states that could be relevant to catalysis. PMID:27439869

The body of evidence of physiologically relevant P450-P450 interactions in microsomal membranes continues to grow. Here we probe oligomerization of human CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP2E1 in microsomal membranes. Using a technique based on luminescence resonance energy transfer, we demonstrate that all three proteins are subject to a concentration-dependent equilibrium between the monomeric and oligomeric states. We also observed the formation of mixed oligomers in CYP3A4/CYP3A5, CYP3A4/CYP2E1, and CYP3A5/CYP2E1 pairs and demonstrated that the association of either CYP3A4 or CYP3A5 with CYP2E1 causes activation of the latter enzyme. Earlier we hypothesized that the intersubunit interface in CYP3A4 oligomers is similar to that observed in the crystallographic dimers of some microsomal drug-metabolizing cytochromesP450 (Davydov, D. R., Davydova, N. Y., Sineva, E. V., Kufareva, I., and Halpert, J. R. (2013) Pivotal role of P450-P450 interactions in CYP3A4 allostery: the case of α-naphthoflavone. Biochem. J. 453, 219–230). Here we report the results of intermolecular cross-linking of CYP3A4 oligomers with thiol-reactive bifunctional reagents as well as the luminescence resonance energy transfer measurements of interprobe distances in the oligomers of labeled CYP3A4 single-cysteine mutants. The results provide compelling support for the physiological relevance of the dimer-specific peripheral ligand-binding site observed in certain CYP3A4 structures. According to our interpretation, these results reveal an important general mechanism that regulates the activity and substrate specificity of the cytochromeP450 ensemble through interactions between multiple P450 species. As a result of P450-P450 cross-talk, the catalytic properties of the cytochromeP450 ensemble cannot be predicted by simple summation of the properties of the individual P450 species. PMID:25533469

Since the initial identification of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (CYPs/P450s), great progress has been made in understanding their structure-function relationship, diversity and application in producing compounds beneficial to humans. However, the molecular evolution of P450s in terms of their dynamics both at protein and DNA levels and functional conservation across kingdoms still needs investigation. In this study, we analyzed 17 598 P450s belonging to 113 P450 families (bacteria −42; fungi −19; plant −28; animal −22; plant and animal −1 and common P450 family −1) and found highly conserved and rapidly evolving P450 families. Results suggested that bacterial P450s, particularly P450s belonging to mycobacteria, are highly conserved both at protein and DNA levels. Mycobacteria possess the highest P450 diversity percentage compared to other microbes and have a high coverage of P450s (≥1%) in their genomes, as found in fungi and plants. Phylogenetic and functional analyses revealed the functional conservation of P450s despite belonging to different biological kingdoms, suggesting the adherence of P450s to their innate function such as their involvement in either generation or oxidation of steroids and structurally related molecules, fatty acids and terpenoids. This study’s results offer new understanding of the dynamic structural nature of P450s. PMID:27616185

The presence of the cytochromP450 system and its involvement in the metabolism of AA was studied in the corneal epithelium. This tissue contains cytochromeP450 as assessed directly by measurement of the carbon monoxide reduced spectrum (specific activity of 161 pmol/10 mg protein) and indirectly by measuring the activity of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) - a cytochromeP450-dependent enzyme (11-39 pmol 3-OH benzopyrene/mg protein/10 min). When corneal epithelial microsomes were incubated with /sup 14/C-arachidonic acid, 30-50% of the total radioactivity was converted to two peaks, I and II. Further separation using high performance liquid chromatography has shown that each peak contains two metabolites, A,B and C,D. Metabolite formation was dependent on the addition of NADPH (1 mM) and inhibited by carbon monoxide and SKF-525A (100 ..mu..M) suggesting a cytochromeP450-dependent mechanism. Compound C (5-10 ..mu..M) inhibited the activity of corneal epithelial Na-K-ATPase by 30-60%, being 100-fold more potent than ouabain. Compound D (10-100 ng) induced a dose dependent relaxation of the rat caudal artery. Compound D also inhibited corneal Na-K-ATPase activity but less potently than compound C. These compounds may be important to transport processes of ocular epithelia and participate in the control of the ocular circulation and aqueous humor dynamics.

Estrogens are the major steroids produced by equine gonads. To identify the cells responsible for estrogen synthesis, an antiserum against purified equine testicular cytochromeP450 aromatase was produced in rabbits. The reactivity and specificity of the antiserum were assessed by ELISA, immunoblot analysis, and immunoneutralization studies. Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated that in the male gonad, cytochromeP450 aromatase (P450arom) was localized in the interstitial tissue, whereas, under the experimental conditions used, the Sertoli and germ cells did not show any specific staining. In the ovary, the granulosa cells of small follicles exhibited faint immunofluorescent staining for P450arom and the granulosa cells of large, viable more follicles showed a high degree of immunoreactivity. In the corpus luteum, all the luteinized cells showed immunoreactivity. No immunoreactivity was detected in other cells of small and large viable follicles. Immunolocalization of P450arom in the equine testicular Leydig cells and in ovarian granulosa and luteinized cells indicates that these cells have the ability to metabolize androgens to estrogens and possibly to catechol estrogens.

The initial view that the cytochromeP450 enzyme system functions simply in the deactivation of xenobiotics is anachronistic on the face of mounting evidence that this system can also transform many innocuous chemicals to toxic products. However, not all xenobiotic-metabolising cytochromeP450 subfamilies show the same propensity in the bioactivation of chemicals. For example, the CYP2C, 2B and 2D subfamilies play virtually no role in the bioactivation of toxic and carcinogenic chemicals, whereas the CYP1A, 1B and 2E subfamilies are responsible for the bioactivation of the majority of xenobiotics. Electronic and molecular structural features of organic chemicals appear to predispose them to either bioactivation by one cytochromeP450 enzyme or deactivation by another. Consequently, the fate of a chemical in the body is largely dependent on the cytochromeP450 profile at the time of exposure. Any factor that modulates the enzymes involved in the metabolism of a certain chemical will also influence its toxicity and carcinogenicity. For example, many chemical carcinogens bioactivated by CYP1, on repeated administration, selectively induce this family, thus exacerbating their carcinogenicity. CYP1 induction potency by chemicals appears to be determined by a combination of their molecular shape and electron activation. The function of cytochromesP450 in the bioactivation of chemicals is currently being exploited to design systems that can be used clinically to facilitate the metabolic conversion of prodrugs to their biologically-active metabolites in cells that poorly express them, such as tumour cells, in the so-called gene-directed prodrug therapy.

The gene for the alkane-inducible cytochromeP450, P450alk, has been isolated from the yeast Candida tropicalis by immunoscreening a λgt11 library. Isolation of the gene has been identified on the basis of its inducibility and partial DNA sequence. Transcripts of this gene were i...

Some cytochromeP450 enzymes epoxidize unsaturated substrates, but this activity has not been described for the steroid hydroxylases. Physiologic steroid substrates, however, lack carbon–carbon double bonds in the parts of the pregnane molecules where steroidogenic hydroxylations occur. Limited data on the reactivity of steroidogenic P450s toward olefinic substrates exist, and the study of occult activities toward alternative substrates is a fundamental aspect of the growing field of combinatorial biosynthesis. We reasoned that human P450c17 (steroid 17-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase, CYP17A1), which 17- and 16α-hydroxylates progesterone, might catalyze the formation of the 16α,17-epoxide from 16,17-dehydroprogesterone (pregna-4,16-diene-3,20-dione). CYP17A1 catalyzed the novel 16α,17-epoxidation and the ordinarily minor 21-hydroxylation of 16,17-dehydroprogesterone in a 1:1 ratio. CYP17A1 mutation A105L, which has reduced progesterone 16α-hydroxylase activity, gave a 1:5 ratio of epoxide:21-hydroxylated products. In contrast, human P450c21 (steroid 21-hydroxylase, CYP21A2) converted 16,17-dehydroprogesterone to the 21-hydroxylated product and only a trace of epoxide. CYP21A2 mutation V359A, which has significant 16α-hydroxylase activity, likewise afforded the 21-hydroxylated product and slightly more epoxide. CYP17A1 wild-type and mutation A105L do not 21- or 16α-hydroxylate pregnenolone, but the enzymes 21-hydroxylated and 16α,17-epoxidized 16,17-dehydropregnenolone (pregna-5,16-diene-3β-ol-20-one) in 4:1 or 12:1 ratios, respectively. Catalase and superoxide dismutase did not prevent epoxide formation. The progesterone epoxide was not a time-dependent, irreversible CYP17A1 inhibitor. Our substrate modification studies have revealed occult epoxidase and 21-hydroxylase activities of CYP17A1, and the fraction of epoxide formed correlated with the 16α-hydroxylase activity of the enzymes. PMID:25386927

Endogenously produced lipid autacoids are locally acting small molecule mediators that play a central role in the regulation of inflammation and tissue homeostasis. A well-studied group of autacoids are the products of arachidonic acid metabolism, among which the prostaglandins and leukotrienes are the best known. They are generated by two pathways controlled by the enzyme systems cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase, respectively. However, arachidonic acid is also substrate for a third enzymatic pathway, the cytochromeP450 (CYP) system. This third eicosanoid pathway consists of two main branches: ω-hydroxylases convert arachidonic acid to hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) and epoxygenases convert it to epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs). This third CYP pathway was originally studied in conjunction with inflammatory and cardiovascular disease. Arachidonic acid and its metabolites have recently stimulated great interest in cancer biology; but, unlike prostaglandins and leukotrienes the link between cytochome P450 metabolites and cancer has received little attention. In this review, the emerging role in cancer of cytochromeP450 metabolites, notably 20-HETE and EETs, are discussed. PMID:20941528

Drug-drug interactions have become an important issue in health care. It is now realized that many drug-drug interactions can be explained by alterations in the metabolic enzymes that are present in the liver and other extra-hepatic tissues. Many of the major pharmacokinetic interactions between drugs are due to hepatic cytochromeP450 (P450 or CYP) enzymes being affected by previous administration of other drugs. After coadministration, some drugs act as potent enzyme inducers, whereas others are inhibitors. However, reports of enzyme inhibition are very much more common. Understanding these mechanisms of enzyme inhibition or induction is extremely important in order to give appropriate multiple-drug therapies. In future, it may help to identify individuals at greatest risk of drug interactions and adverse events. PMID:18928560

Members of the nuclear-receptor superfamily mediate crucial physiological functions by regulating the synthesis of their target genes. Nuclear receptors are usually activated by ligand binding. CytochromeP450 (CYP) isoforms often catalyse both formation and degradation of these ligands. CYPs also metabolize many exogenous compounds, some of which may act as activators of nuclear receptors and disruptors of endocrine and cellular homoeostasis. This review summarizes recent findings that indicate that major classes of CYP genes are selectively regulated by certain ligand-activated nuclear receptors, thus creating tightly controlled networks. PMID:10749660

9-Methylfluorene was found to be oxygenated to 9-hydroperoxy-9-methylfluorene and 9-hydroxy-9-methylfluorene by cytochromeP-450 in the presence of cumene hydroperoxide. Molecular oxygen is required and carbon monoxide is inhibitory. The reaction is inhibited by SKF-525A and metyrapone. Metyrapone and cumene hydroperoxide also retard the conversion of 9-hydroperoxy-9-methylfluorene to 9-hydroxy-9-methylfluorene. The reaction is different from hydroperoxide-supported oxygenation, since the cumene hydroperoxide appears to act as an effector of the enzyme rather than oxygen donor. It is suggested that substrates with stable radicals can be dioxygenated in this manner.

Plants have evolved the capacity to produce a striking array of specialised metabolites. Terpenoids are the oldest and most diverse class of such compounds and have attracted interest for industrial and pharmaceutical applications. The development of biotechnological alternatives for their production is the focus of intense research. Photosynthetic systems provide new strategies for autotrophic metabolic engineering. Focusing on cytochromesP450, involved in the functionalisation of the core terpene molecules, this review highlights the latest approaches in this field and looks towards recent discoveries that have the potential to shape the future of terpenoid bioengineering.

There are 18 mammalian cytochromeP450 (CYP) families, which encode 57 genes in the human genome. CYP2, CYP3 and CYP4 families contain far more genes than the other 15 families; these three families are also the ones that are dramatically larger in rodent genomes. Most (if not all) genes in the CYP1, CYP2, CYP3 and CYP4 families encode enzymes involved in eicosanoid metabolism and are inducible by various environmental stimuli (i.e. diet, chemical inducers, drugs, pheromones, etc.), whereas the other 14 gene families often have only a single member, and are rarely if ever inducible or redundant. Although the CYP2 and CYP3 families can be regarded as largely redundant and promiscuous, mutations or other defects in one or more genes of the remaining 16 gene families are primarily the ones responsible for P450-specific diseases—confirming these genes are not superfluous or promiscuous but rather are more directly involved in critical life functions. P450-mediated diseases comprise those caused by: aberrant steroidogenesis; defects in fatty acid, cholesterol and bile acid pathways; vitamin D dysregulation and retinoid (as well as putative eicosanoid) dysregulation during fertilization, implantation, embryogenesis, foetogenesis and neonatal development. PMID:23297354

Genomic tools such as the availability of the Drosophila genome sequence, the relative ease of stable transformation, and DNA microarrays have made the fruit fly a powerful model in insecticide toxicology research. We have used transgenic promoter-GFP constructs to document the detailed pattern of induced Cyp6a2 gene expression in larval and adult Drosophila tissues. We also compared various insecticides and xenobiotics for their ability to induce this cytochromeP450 gene, and show that the pattern of Cyp6a2 inducibility is comparable to that of vertebrate CYP2B genes, and different from that of vertebrate CYP1A genes, suggesting a degree of evolutionary conservation for the “phenobarbital-type” induction mechanism. Our results are compared to the increasingly diverse reports on P450 induction that can be gleaned from whole genome or from “detox” microarray experiments in Drosophila. These suggest that only a third of the genomic repertoire of CYP genes is inducible by xenobiotics, and that there are distinct subsets of inducers / induced genes, suggesting multiple xenobiotic transduction mechanisms. A relationship between induction and resistance is not supported by expression data from the literature. The relative abundance of expression data now available is in contrast to the paucity of studies on functional expression of P450 enzymes, and this remains a challenge for our understanding of the toxicokinetic aspects of insecticide action. PMID:20582327

The cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes are membrane-bound hemoproteins that play a pivotal role in the detoxification of xenobiotics, cellular metabolism and homeostasis. Induction or inhibition of CYP enzymes is a major mechanism that underlies drug-drug interactions. CYP enzymes can be transcriptionally activated by various xenobiotics and endogenous substrates through receptor-dependent mechanisms. CYP enzyme inhibition is a principal mechanism for metabolism-based drug-drug interactions. Many chemotherapeutic drugs can cause drug interactions due to their ability to either inhibit or induce the CYP enzyme system. Predictions based on in silico analyses followed by validation have identified several microRNAs that regulate CYPs. Genetic polymorphisms and epigenetic changes in CYP genes may be responsible for inter-individual and inter-ethnic variations in disease susceptibility and the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. Knowledge about the substrates, inducers, inhibitors of CYP isoforms, and the polymorphisms of CYP enzymes may be used as an aid by clinicians to determine therapeutic strategy, and treatment doses for drugs that are metabolized by CYP gene products. The present review is a comprehensive compilation of cytochromeP450 structure, function, pharmacogenetics, and pharmacoepigenetics and clinical significance.

The CYP genes encode enzymes of the cytochromeP-450 superfamily. CytochromeP-450 (CYP) enzymes are expressed mainly in the liver and are active in mono-oxygenation and hydroxylation of various xenobiotics, including drugs and alcohols, as well as that of endogenous compounds such as steroids, bile acids, prostaglandins, leukotrienes and biogenic amines. In the liver the CYP enzymes are constitutively expressed and commonly also induced by chemicals in a characteristic zonated pattern with high expression prevailing in the downstream perivenous region. In the present review we summarize recent studies, mainly based on rat liver, on the factors regulating this position-dependent expression and induction. Pituitary-dependent signals mediated by growth hormone and thyroid hormone seem to selectively down-regulate the upstream periportal expression of certain CYP forms. It is at present unknown to what extent other hormones that also affect total hepatic CYP activities, i.e. insulin, glucagon, glucocorticoids and gonadal hormones, act zone-specifically. The expression and induction of CYP enzymes in the perivenous region probably have important toxicological implications, since many CYP-activated chemicals cause cell injury primarily in this region of the liver. PMID:9405271

Inhaled glucocorticoid (GC) therapy is a vital part of the management of chronic asthma. GCs are metabolized by members of the cytochromeP450 3A family in both liver and lung, but the enzymes are differentially expressed. Selective inhibition of one or more P450 3A enzymes could substantially modify target and systemic concentrations of GCs. In this study, we have evaluated the mechanism-based inactivation of P450 3A4, 3A5 and 3A7 enzymes by GCs. Among the five major inhaled GCs approved for clinical use in the United States, fluticasone propionate (FLT) was the most potent mechanism-based inactivator of P450 3A5, the predominant P450 enzyme in the lung. FLT inactivated P450 3A5 in a time- and concentration-dependent manner with KI, kinact and partition ratio of 16 μM, 0.027 min-1 and 3, respectively. In contrast, FLT minimally inactivated P450 3A4 and did not inactivate 3A7, even with a concentration of 100 μM. The inactivation of P450 3A5 by FLT was irreversible because dialysis did not restore enzyme activity. In addition, the exogenous nucleophilic scavenger GSH did not attenuate inactivation. The prosthetic heme of P450 3A5 was not modified by FLT. The loss of P450 3A5 activity in lung cells could substantially decrease the metabolism of FLT, which would increase the effective FLT concentration at its target site, the respiratory epithelium. Also, inactivation of lung P450 3A5 could increase the absorption of inhaled FLT, which could lead to high systemic concentrations and adverse effects, such as life-threatening adrenal crises or cataracts that have been documented in children receiving high doses of inhaled GCs. PMID:20707410

Hard conditions of long-term manned spaceflight can affect functions of many biological systems including a system of drug metabolism. The cytochromeP450 (CYP) superfamily plays a key role in the drug metabolism. In this study we examined the hepatic content of some P450 isoforms in mice exposed to 30 days of space flight and microgravity. The CYP content was established by the mass-spectrometric method of selected reaction monitoring (SRM). Significant changes in the CYP2C29, CYP2E1 and CYP1A2 contents were detected in mice of the flight group compared to the ground control group. Within seven days after landing and corresponding recovery period changes in the content of CYP2C29 and CYP1A2 returned to the control level, while the CYP2E1 level remained elevated. The induction of enzyme observed in the mice in the conditions of the spaceflight could lead to an accelerated biotransformation and change in efficiency of pharmacological agents, metabolizing by corresponding CYP isoforms. Such possibility of an individual pharmacological response to medication during long-term spaceflights and early period of postflight adaptation should be taken into account in space medicine. PMID:26561010

The iron(IV)-oxo porphyrin π-cation radical known as Compound I is the primary oxidant within the cytochromesP450, allowing these enzymes to affect the substrate hydroxylation. In the course of this reaction, a hydrogen atom is abstracted from the substrate to generate hydroxyiron(IV) porphyrin and a substrate-centered radical. The hydroxy radical then rebounds from the iron to the substrate, yielding the hydroxylated product. While Compound I has succumbed to theoretical and spectroscopic characterization, the associated hydroxyiron species is elusive as a consequence of its very short lifetime, for which there are no quantitative estimates. To ascertain the physical mechanism underlying substrate hydroxylation and probe this timescale, ab initio molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations are performed for a model of Compound I catalysis. Semiclassical estimates based on these calculations reveal the hydrogen atom abstraction step to be extremely fast, kinetically comparable to enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase. Using an ensemble of ab initio simulations, the resultant hydroxyiron species is found to have a similarly short lifetime, ranging between 300 fs and 3600 fs, putatively depending on the enzyme active site architecture. The addition of tunneling corrections to these rates suggests a strong contribution from nuclear quantum effects, which should accelerate every step of substrate hydroxylation by an order of magnitude. These observations have strong implications for the detection of individual hydroxylation intermediates during P450 catalysis. PMID:25681906

Mycobacteria share a common cholesterol degradation pathway initiated by oxidation of the alkyl side chain by enzymes of cytochromeP450 (CYP) families 125 and 142. Structural and sequence comparisons of the two enzyme families revealed two insertions into the N-terminal region of the CYP125 family (residues 58–67 and 100–109 in the CYP125A1 sequence) that could potentially sterically block the oxidation of the longer cholesterol ester molecules. Catalytic assays revealed that only CYP142 enzymes are able to oxidize cholesteryl propionate, and although CYP125 enzymes could oxidize cholesteryl sulfate, they were much less efficient at doing so than the CYP142 enzymes. The crystal structure of CYP142A2 in complex with cholesteryl sulfate revealed a substrate tightly fit into a smaller active site than was previously observed for the complex of CYP125A1 with 4-cholesten-3-one. We propose that the larger CYP125 active site allows for multiple binding modes of cholesteryl sulfate, the majority of which trigger the P450 catalytic cycle, but in an uncoupled mode rather than one that oxidizes the sterol. In contrast, the more unhindered and compact CYP142 structure enables enzymes of this family to readily oxidize cholesteryl esters, thus providing an additional source of carbon for mycobacterial growth. PMID:25210044

The iron(IV)-oxo porphyrin π-cation radical known as Compound I is the primary oxidant within the cytochromesP450, allowing these enzymes to affect the substrate hydroxylation. In the course of this reaction, a hydrogen atom is abstracted from the substrate to generate hydroxyiron(IV) porphyrin and a substrate-centered radical. The hydroxy radical then rebounds from the iron to the substrate, yielding the hydroxylated product. While Compound I has succumbed to theoretical and spectroscopic characterization, the associated hydroxyiron species is elusive as a consequence of its very short lifetime, for which there are no quantitative estimates. To ascertain the physical mechanism underlying substrate hydroxylation and probe this timescale, ab initio molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations are performed for a model of Compound I catalysis. Semiclassical estimates based on these calculations reveal the hydrogen atom abstraction step to be extremely fast, kinetically comparable to enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase. Using an ensemble of ab initio simulations, the resultant hydroxyiron species is found to have a similarly short lifetime, ranging between 300 fs and 3600 fs, putatively depending on the enzyme active site architecture. The addition of tunneling corrections to these rates suggests a strong contribution from nuclear quantum effects, which should accelerate every step of substrate hydroxylation by an order of magnitude. These observations have strong implications for the detection of individual hydroxylation intermediates during P450 catalysis.

CytochromeP-450lin catalyzes the 8-methyl hydroxylation of linalool as the first committed step of its utilization by Pseudomonas incognita as the sole carbon source. By using a polymerase chain reaction-based cloning strategy, a 2.1-kb DNA fragment containing the cytochromeP-450lin gene (linC) was isolated. An open reading frame of 406 amino acids has been identified as that of P-450lin on the basis of amino acid sequence data from peptides of the native protein. Heterologous expression of functional holoprotein is exhibited by Escherichia coli transformed with pUC18 containing the subcloned linC gene under constitutive transcriptional control of the lac promoter. The G+C content of linC was found to be 55% overall and 58% in the third codon position. An optimized amino acid sequence alignment of P-450lin with cytochromeP-450cam shows that the two enzymes have only 25% identity. P-450lin was found to exhibit the expected conservation in the axial cysteine heme ligand-containing peptide and the threonine region postulated to form an O2-binding pocket (T. L. Poulos, B. C. Finzel, and A. J. Howard, J. Mol. Biol. 195:687-700, 1987). The low amino acid sequence identity between P-450lin and all other P-450 sequences has shown that P-450lin is the first member of the CYP111 P-450 gene family. PMID:8376348

The cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes are a versatile superfamily of heme-containing monooxygenases, perhaps best known for their role in the oxidation of xenobiotic compounds. However, due to their unique oxidative chemistry, CYPs are also important in natural product drug discovery and in the generation of active metabolites with unique therapeutic properties. New tools for the analysis and production of CYP metabolites, including microscale analytical technologies and combinatorial biosynthesis, are providing medicinal chemists with the opportunity to use CYPs as a novel platform for lead discovery and development. In this review, we will highlight some of the recent examples of drug leads identified from CYP metabolites and the exciting possibilities of using CYPs as catalysts for future drug discovery. PMID:25797999

The cytochromeP450 enzymes (CYPs) are the most important enzymes in the oxidative metabolism of hydrophobic drugs and other foreign compounds (xenobiotics). The versatility of these enzymes results in some unusual kinetic properties, stemming from the simultaneous interaction of multiple substrates with the CYP active site. Often, the CYPs display kinetics that deviate from standard hyperbolic saturation or inhibition kinetics. Non-Michaelis-Menten or "atypical" saturation kinetics include sigmoidal, biphasic, and substrate inhibition kinetics (see Chapter 3 ). Interactions between substrates include competitive inhibition, noncompetitive inhibition, mixed inhibition, partial inhibition, activation, and activation followed by inhibition (see Chapter 4 ). Models and equations that can result in these kinetic profiles will be presented and discussed.

The individual variability of pharmacokinetics is underestimated and few systematic studies exist in this field. In most cases, this leads to unwanted side effects or toxicity. In polychemotherapy, prodrugs (like ifosfamide), which have to be activated by cytochromeP450 enzymes (CYPs), play an important role. If patients are poor metabolizers for these drugs, the therapy will be ineffective. Furthermore, CYPs and transporters can be (over)expressed in target tissues, which is also not examined and considered in clinical routine. Here, we present a body map showing relevant enzymes in some organs and tissues. Finally, a typical case of a Caucasian chemotherapy patient with breast cancer is presented and discussed regarding a personalized cancer therapy considering the single nucleotide polymorphisms found via genotyping.

An investigational anticancer agent that contains a thiophene moiety, 3-[(quinolin-4-ylmethyl)-amino]-N-[4-trifluoromethox)phenyl] thiophene-2-carboxamide (OSI-930), was tested to investigate its ability to modulate the activities of several cytochromeP450 enzymes. Results showed that OSI-930 inactivated purified, recombinant cytochromeP450 (P450) 3A4 in the reconstituted system in a mechanism-based manner. The inactivation was dependent on cytochrome b(5) and required NADPH. Catalase did not protect against the inactivation. No inactivation was observed in studies with human 2B6, 2D6, or 3A5 either in the presence or in the absence of b(5). The inactivation of 3A4 by OSI-930 was time- and concentration-dependent. The inactivation of the 7-benzyloxy-4-(trifluoromethyl)coumarin catalytic activity of 3A4 was characterized by a K(I) of 24 μM and a k(inact) of 0.04 min(-1). This K(I) is significantly greater than the clinical OSI-930 C(max) of 1.7 μM at the maximum tolerated dose, indicating that clinical drug interactions of OSI-930 via this pathway are not likely. Spectral analysis of the inactivated protein indicated that the decrease in the reduced CO spectrum at 450 nm was comparable to the amount of inactivation, thereby suggesting that the inactivation was primarily due to modification of the heme. High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis with detection at 400 nm showed a loss of heme comparable to the activity loss, but a modified heme was not detected. This result suggests either that the heme must have been modified enough so as not to be observed in a HPLC chromatograph or, possibly, that it was destroyed. The partition ratio for the inactivation of P450 3A4 was approximately 23, suggesting that this P450 3A4-mediated pathway occurs with approximately 4% frequency during the metabolism of OSI-930. Modeling studies on the binding of OSI-930 to the active site of the P450 3A4 indicated that OSI-930 would be oriented properly in the active site

CytochromeP450c17 (P450 17A1, CYP17A1) is a critical enzyme in the synthesis of androgens and is now a target enzyme for the treatment of prostate cancer. CytochromeP450c17 can exhibit either one or two physiological enzymatic activities differentially regulated by cytochrome b5. How this is achieved remains unknown. Here, comprehensive in silico, in vivo and in vitro analyses were undertaken. Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer analysis showed close interactions within living cells between cytochromeP450c17 and cytochrome b5. In silico modeling identified the sites of interaction and confirmed that E48 and E49 residues in cytochrome b5 are essential for activity. Quartz crystal microbalance studies identified specific protein-protein interactions in a lipid membrane. Voltammetric analysis revealed that the wild type cytochrome b5, but not a mutated, E48G/E49G cyt b5, altered the kinetics of electron transfer between the electrode and the P450c17. We conclude that cytochrome b5 can influence the electronic conductivity of cytochromeP450c17 via allosteric, protein-protein interactions. PMID:26587646

Fusarium oxysporum, an imperfect filamentous fungus performs nitrate respiration under limited oxygen. In the respiratory system, CytochromeP450nor (P450nor) is thought to catalyze the last step; reduction of nitric oxide to nitrous oxide. We examined its intracellular localization using enzymatic, spectroscopic, and immunological analyses to show that P450nor is found in both the mitochondria and the cytosol. Translational fusions between the putative mitochondrial targeting signal on the amino terminus of P450nor and Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase resulted in significant beta-galactosidase activity in the mitochondrial fraction of nitrate-respiring cells, suggesting that one of the isoforms of P450nor (P450norA) is in anaerobic mitochondrion of F. oxysporum and acts as nitric oxide reductase. Furthermore, these findings suggest the involvement of P450nor in nitrate respiration in mitochondria.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a natural toxin of fungi that cause Fusarium head blight disease of wheat and other small-grain cereals. DON accumulates in infected grains and promotes the spread of the infection on wheat, posing serious problems to grain production. The elucidation of DON-catabolic genes and enzymes in DON-degrading microbes will provide new approaches to decrease DON contamination. Here, we report a cytochromeP450 system capable of catabolizing DON in Sphingomonas sp. strain KSM1, a DON-utilizing bacterium newly isolated from lake water. The P450 gene ddnA was cloned through an activity-based screening of a KSM1 genomic library. The genes of its redox partner candidates (flavin adenine dinucleotide [FAD]-dependent ferredoxin reductase and mitochondrial-type [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin) were not found adjacent to ddnA; the redox partner candidates were further cloned separately based on conserved motifs. The DON-catabolic activity was reconstituted in vitro in an electron transfer chain comprising the three enzymes and NADH, with a catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of 6.4 mM−1 s−1. The reaction product was identified as 16-hydroxy-deoxynivalenol. A bioassay using wheat seedlings revealed that the hydroxylation dramatically reduced the toxicity of DON to wheat. The enzyme system showed similar catalytic efficiencies toward nivalenol and 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol, toxins that frequently cooccur with DON. These findings identify an enzyme system that catabolizes DON, leading to reduced phytotoxicity to wheat. PMID:23275503

CytochromeP450 enzymes (P450s) are a superfamily of monooxygenase enzymes with enormous potential for synthetic biology applications. Across Nature, their substrate range is vast and exceeds that of other enzymes. The range of different chemical transformations performed by P450s is also substantial, and continues to expand through interrogation of the properties of novel P450s and by protein engineering studies. The ability of P450s to introduce oxygen atoms at specific positions on complex molecules makes these enzymes particularly valuable for applications in synthetic biology. This review focuses on the enzymatic properties and reaction mechanisms of P450 enzymes, and on recent studies that highlight their broad applications in the production of oxychemicals. For selected soluble bacterial P450s (notably the high-activity P450-cytochromeP450 reductase enzyme P450 BM3), variants with a multitude of diverse substrate selectivities have been generated both rationally and by random mutagenesis/directed evolution approaches. This highlights the robustness and malleability of the P450 fold, and the capacity of these biocatalysts to oxidise a wide range of chemical scaffolds. This article reviews recent research on the application of wild-type and engineered P450s in the production of important chemicals, including pharmaceuticals and drug metabolites, steroids and antibiotics. In addition, the properties of unusual members of the P450 superfamily that do not follow the canonical P450 catalytic pathway are described.

Direct electrochemistry of cytochromeP450 containing systems has primarily focused on investigating enzymes from microbes and animals for bio-sensing applications. Plant P450s receive electrons from NADPH P450 oxidoreductase (POR) to orchestrate the bio-synthesis of a plethora of commercially valuable compounds. In this report, full length CYP79A1, CYP71E1 and POR of the dhurrin pathway in Sorghum bicolor were reconstituted individually in nanoscale lipid patches, “nanodiscs”, and directly immobilized on unmodified gold electrodes. Cyclic voltammograms of CYP79A1 and CYP71E1 revealed reversible redox peaks with average midpoint potentials of 80 ± 5 mV and 72 ± 5 mV vs. Ag/AgCl, respectively. POR yielded two pairs of redox peaks with midpoint potentials of 90 ± 5 mV and −300 ± 10 mV, respectively. The average heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant was calculated to be ~1.5 s−1. POR was electro-catalytically active while the P450s generated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). These nanodisc-based investigations lay the prospects and guidelines for construction of a simplified platform to perform mediator-free, direct electrochemistry of non-engineered cytochromesP450 under native-like conditions. It is also a prelude for driving plant P450 systems electronically for simplified and cost-effective screening of potential substrates/inhibitors and fabrication of nano-bioreactors for synthesis of high value natural products. PMID:27386958

The cytochromeP450 (P450) superfamily metabolizes many endogenous signaling molecules and drugs. P450 enzymes are regulated by post-translational mechanisms in vivo, which hinders their functional characterization by conventional genomic or proteomic methods. Here, we describe a chemical proteomic strategy to profile P450 activities directly in living systems. Derivatization of a mechanism-based inhibitor with a “clickable” handle provided an activity-based probe that labels multiple P450s both in proteomic extracts and in vivo. This probe was used to record alterations in liver P450 activities triggered by chemical agents, including inducers of P450 expression and direct P450 inhibitors. The chemical proteomic strategy described herein thus offers a versatile method to monitor P450 activities and small molecule interactions in any biological system and, through doing so, should facilitate the functional characterization of this large and diverse enzyme class. PMID:17884636

We describe here a high-throughput assay to support rapid evaluation of drug discovery compounds for possible drug-drug interaction (DDI). Each compound is evaluated for its DDI potential by incubating over a range of eight concentrations and against a panel of six cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes: 1A2, 2C8, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4. The method utilizes automated liquid handling for sample preparation, and online solid-phase extraction/tandem mass spectrometry (SPE/MS/MS) for sample analyses. The system is capable of generating two 96-well assay plates in 30 min, and completes the data acquisition and analysis of both plates in about 30 min. Many laboratories that perform the CYP inhibition screening automate only part of the processes leaving a throughput bottleneck within the workflow. The protocols described in this chapter are aimed to streamline the entire process from assay to data acquisition and processing by incorporating automation and utilizing high-precision instrument to maximize throughput and minimize bottleneck.

The cytochromeP450 superfamily of enzymes is of enormous interest in the biological sciences due to the wide range of endogenous and xenobiotic compounds which it metabolises, including many drugs. We describe the use of first principles quantum mechanical modeling techniques, based on density functional theory, to determine the outcome of interactions between an enzyme and a number of compounds. Specifically, we calculate the spin state of an Fe3+ ion present in a haem moiety at the active site of these enzymes. The spin state of this ion indicates if the catalytic reaction will proceed. The computational results obtained compare favorably with experimental data. Only the principle components of the active site of the enzyme are included in the computational models, demonstrating that only a small fragment of the protein needs to be included in the models in order to accurately reproduce this aspect of the enzymes' function. These results open the way for further investigation of this superfamily of enzymes using the methods detailed in this paper.

CytochromeP450-dependent ω-hydroxylation is a prototypic metabolic reaction of CYP4 family members that is important for the elimination and bioactivation of not only therapeutic drugs, but also endogenous compounds, principally fatty acids. Eicosanoids, derived from arachidonic acid, are key substrates in the latter category. Human CYP4 enzymes, mainly CYP4A11, CYP4F2, and CYP4F3B, hydroxylate arachidonic acid at the omega position to form 20-HETE, which has important effects in tumor progression and on angiogenesis and blood pressure regulation in the vasculature and kidney. CYP4F3A in myeloid tissue catalyzes the ω-hydroxylation of leukotriene B4 to 20-hydroxy leukotriene B4, an inactivation process that is critical for the regulation of the inflammatory response. Here, we review the enzymology, tissue distribution, and substrate selectivity of human CYP4 ω-hydroxylases and their roles as catalysts for the formation and termination of the biological effects of key eicosanoid metabolites in inflammation and cancer progression. PMID:26233909

Plant cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are versatile redox proteins that mediate biosynthesis of lignins, terpenes, alkaloids, and a variety of other secondary compounds as plant defense agents against a range of pathogens and insects. To determine if cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are involved in the...

A model of the active site of cytochromeP-450 nifedipine oxidase is built on the basis of sequence homology with cytochromeP-450CAM. Substrates are docked into the binding pocket, and molecular mechanical energy minimization is performed to analyze the forces between the substrates and the enzyme.

P450 hemeproteins comprise a large gene superfamily that catalyzes monooxygenase reactions in the presence of a redox partner. Because the mammalian members are, without exception, membrane-bound proteins, they have resisted structure-function analysis by means of X-ray crystallographic methods. Among P450-catalyzed reactions, the aromatase reaction that catalyzes the conversion of C19 steroids to estrogens is one of the most complex and least understood. Thus, to better understand the reaction mechanism, we have constructed a three-dimensional model of P450arom not only to examine the active site and those residues potentially involved in catalysis, but to study other important structural features such as substrate recognition and redox-partner binding, which require examination of the entire molecule (excepting the putative membrane-spanning region). This model of P450arom was built based on a "core structure" identified from the structures of the soluble, bacterial P450s (P450cam, P450terp, and P450BM-P) rather than by molecular replacement, after which the less conserved elements and loops were added in a rational fashion. Minimization and dynamic simulations were used to optimize the model and the reasonableness of the structure was evaluated. From this model we have postulated a membrane-associated hydrophobic region of aliphatic and aromatic residues involved in substrate recognition, a redox-partner binding region that may be unique compared to other P450s, as well as residues involved in active site orientation of substrates and an inhibitor of P450arom, namely vorozole. We also have proposed a scheme for the reaction mechanism in which a "threonine switch" determines whether oxygen insertion into the substrate molecule involves an oxygen radical or a peroxide intermediate. PMID:7549871

Caffeine (1, 3, 7-trimethylxanthine), an alkaloid produced by plants, has antioxidant and insecticide properties that can affect metabolism and cognition. In vertebrates, the metabolites derived from caffeine have been identified, and their functions have been characterized. However, the metabolites of caffeine in insects remain unknown. Thus, using radiolabelled caffeine, we have identified some of the primary caffeine metabolites produced in the body of Drosophila melanogaster males, including theobromine, paraxanthine and theophylline. In contrast to mammals, theobromine was the predominant metabolite (paraxanthine in humans; theophylline in monkeys; 1, 3, 7-trimethyluric acid in rodents). A transcriptomic screen of Drosophila flies exposed to caffeine revealed the coordinated variation of a large set of genes that encode xenobiotic-metabolizing proteins, including several cytochromesP450s (CYPs) that were highly overexpressed. Flies treated with metyrapone--an inhibitor of CYP enzymes--showed dramatically decreased caffeine metabolism, indicating that CYPs are involved in this process. Using interference RNA genetic silencing, we measured the metabolic and transcriptomic effect of three candidate CYPs. Silencing of CYP6d5 completely abolished theobromine synthesis, whereas CYP6a8 and CYP12d1 silencing induced different consequences on metabolism and gene expression. Therefore, we characterized several metabolic products and some enzymes potentially involved in the degradation of caffeine. In conclusion, this pioneer approach to caffeine metabolism in insects opens novel perspectives for the investigation of the physiological effects of caffeine metabolites. It also indicates that caffeine could be used as a biomarker to evaluate CYP phenotypes in Drosophila and other insects.

We have demonstrated that 4-(tert-butyl)-phenylacetylene (tBPA) is a potent mechanism-based inactivator for cytochromeP450 2B4 (P450 2B4) in the reconstituted system. It inactivates P450 2B4 in a NADPH- and time-dependent manner with a KI of 0.44 μM and kinact of 0.12 min−1. The partition ratio was approximately zero, indicating that inactivation occurs without the reactive intermediate leaving the active site. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses revealed that tBPA forms a protein adduct with a 1:1 stoichiometry. Peptide mapping of the tBPA-modified protein provides evidence that tBPA is covalently bound to Thr302. This is consistent with results of molecular modeling that show the terminal carbon of the acetylenic group is only 3.65 Å away from Thr302. To characterize the effect of covalent modification of Thr302, tBPA-modified P450 2B4 was purified to homogeneity from the reconstituted system. The Soret band of tBPA-modified protein is red-shifted by 5 to 422 nm compared with unmodified protein. Benzphetamine binding to the modified P450 2B4 causes no spin shift, indicating that substrate binding and/or the heme environment has been altered by covalently bound tBPA. CytochromeP450 reductase reduces the unmodified and tBPA-modified P450s at approximately the same rate. However, addition of benzphetamine stimulates the rate of reduction of unmodified P450 2B4 by ∼20-fold but only marginally stimulates reduction of the tBPA-modified protein. This large discrepancy in the stimulation of the first electron transfer by benzphetamine strongly suggests that the impairment of P450 catalysis is due to inhibition of benzphetamine binding to the tBPA-modified P450 2B4. PMID:19720728

A three-dimensional structural model of rabbit phenobarbital-inducible cytochromeP450 2B4 (LM2) was constructed by homology modeling techniques previously developed for building and evaluating a 3D model of the cytochromeP450choP isozyme. Four templates with known crystal structures including cytochromeP450cam, terp, BM-3 and eryF were used in multiple sequence alignments and construction of the cytochromeP450 2B4 coordinates. The model was evaluated for its overall quality using available protein analysis programs and found to be satisfactory. The model structure was stable at room temperature during a 140 ps unconstrained full protein molecular dynamics simulation. A putative substrate access channel and binding site were identified. Two different substrates, benzphetamine and androstenedione, that are metabolized by cytochromeP450 2B4 with pronounced product specificity were docked into the putative binding site. Two orientations were found for each substrate that could lead to the observed preferred products. Using a geometric fit method three regions on the surface of the model cytochromeP450 structure were identified as possible sites for interaction with cytochrome b5, a redox partner of P450 2B4. Residues that may interact with the substrates and with cytochrome b5 have been identified and mutagenesis studies are currently in progress.

In the microsomal fraction of Candida tropicalis cells, two distinct monooxygenases were detected, depending on the growth conditions. The distinction of the two monooxygenases was evident from: (i) the absorption maxima in the reduced CO difference spectra of the terminal oxidases (cytochromesP-450 and P-448); (ii) the contents of the monooxygenase components (cytochromesP-450/P-448, NADPH-cytochrome c (P-450) reductase, and cytochrome b5) and (iii) the catalytic activity of the complete system (aliphatic hydroxylation and N-demethylation activity). The occurrence of the respective monooxygenases could be related to the carbon source (n-alkanes or glucose). Oxygen limitation led to a significant increase of cytochromeP-450/P-448 content, independent of the carbon source utilized by the cells. An improved method for the isolation of microsomes enabled us to demonstrate the presence of cytochrome P-448 in glucose-grown cells. PMID:6690424

To date, a number of significant herbal drug interactions have their origins in the alteration of cytochromeP450 (CYP) activity by various phytochemicals. Among the most noteworthy are those involving St. John's wort and drugs metabolized by human CYP3A4 enzyme. This review article is the continued work from our previous article (Part 1) published in this journal (Wanwimolruk and Prachayasittikul, 2014[ref:133]). This article extends the scope of the review to six more herbs and updates information on herbal drug interactions. These include black cohosh, ginseng, grape seed extract, green tea, kava, saw palmetto and some important Chinese medicines are also presented. Even though there have been many studies to determine the effects of herbs and herbal medicines on the activity of CYP, most of them were in vitro and in animal studies. Therefore, the studies are limited in predicting the clinical relevance of herbal drug interactions. It appeared that the majority of the herbal medicines have no clear effects on most of the CYPs examined. For example, the existing clinical trial data imply that black cohosh, ginseng and saw palmetto are unlikely to affect the pharmacokinetics of conventional drugs metabolized by human CYPs. For grape seed extract and green tea, adverse herbal drug interactions are unlikely when they are concomitantly taken with prescription drugs that are CYP substrates. Although there were few clinical studies on potential CYP-mediated interactions produced by kava, present data suggest that kava supplements have the ability to inhibit CYP1A2 and CYP2E1 significantly. Therefore, caution should be taken when patients take kava with CYP1A2 or CYP2E1 substrate drugs as it may enhance their therapeutic and adverse effects. Despite the long use of traditional Chinese herbal medicines, little is known about the potential drug interactions with these herbs. Many popularly used Chinese medicines have been shown in vitro to significantly change the

It is well recognized that herbal supplements or herbal medicines are now commonly used. As many patients taking prescription medications are concomitantly using herbal supplements, there is considerable risk for adverse herbal drug interactions. Such interactions can enhance the risk for an individual patient, especially with regard to drugs with a narrow therapeutic index such as warfarin, cyclosporine A and digoxin. Herbal drug interactions can alter pharmacokinetic or/and pharmacodynamic properties of administered drugs. The most common pharmacokinetic interactions usually involve either the inhibition or induction of the metabolism of drugs catalyzed by the important enzymes, cytochromeP450 (CYP). The aim of the present article is to provide an updated review of clinically relevant metabolic CYP-mediated drug interactions between selected herbal supplements and prescription drugs. The commonly used herbal supplements selected include Echinacea, Ginkgo biloba, garlic, St. John's wort, goldenseal, and milk thistle. To date, several significant herbal drug interactions have their origins in the alteration of CYP enzyme activity by various phytochemicals. Numerous herbal drug interactions have been reported. Although the significance of many interactions is uncertain but several interactions, especially those with St. John’s wort, may have critical clinical consequences. St. John’s wort is a source of hyperforin, an active ingredient that has a strong affinity for the pregnane xenobiotic receptor (PXR). As a PXR ligand, hyperforin promotes expression of CYP3A4 enzymes in the small intestine and liver. This in turn causes induction of CYP3A4 and can reduce the oral bioavailability of many drugs making them less effective. The available evidence indicates that, at commonly recommended doses, other selected herbs including Echinacea, Ginkgo biloba, garlic, goldenseal and milk thistle do not act as potent or moderate inhibitors or inducers of CYP enzymes. A good

CytochromeP450s are oxidative metabolic enzymes that play critical roles in the biotransformation of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics. The expression and activity of P450 enzymes varies considerably throughout human development; the deficit in our understanding of these dynamics limits our ability to predict environmental and pharmaceutical exposure effects. In an effort to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the ontogeny of P450 enzymes, we employed a multi-omic characterization of P450 transcript expression, protein abundance, and functional activity. Modified mechanism-based inhibitors of P450s were used as chemical probes for isolating active P450 proteoforms in human hepatic microsomes with developmental stages ranging from early gestation to late adult. High-resolution liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to identify and quantify probe-labeled P450s, allowing for a functional profile of P450 ontogeny. Total protein abundance profiles and P450 rRNA was also measured, and our results reveal life-stage–dependent variability in P450 expression, abundance, and activity throughout human development and frequent discordant relationships between expression and activity. We have significantly expanded the knowledge of P450 ontogeny, particularly at the level of individual P450 activity. We anticipate that these results will be useful for enabling predictive therapeutic dosing, and for avoiding potentially adverse and harmful reactions during maturation from both therapeutic drugs and environmental xenobiotics. PMID:27084891

The expression of the cytochromeP450IIIA4 gene in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast using the shuttle vector pYeDP1-8/2 has been carried out. The microsomal fraction isolated from the transformed yeast cells was used for biotransformation of the anabolic steroid hormone-methandrostenolone (MA). The microsomal oxidation products were analyzed by HPLC and two-dimensional TLC. It was shown that microsomes of the yeasts expressing human cytochromeP450IIIA4 catalyze the MA conversion into its 6 beta-hydroxy derivative. An identical product is formed via a reaction catalyzed by human liver microsomes. The use of the heterological system of cytochromeP450IIIA4 expression has made it possible to establish its role in MA metabolism. The experimental system simulates the first phase of the drug biotransformation in liver cells.

In the present study they have purified US -naphthoflavone (BNF, which induces isotypes similar to 3-MC) and PB induced mitochondrial isoforms. They have been able to purify two isoforms with molecular weights of 54 Kd and 52 Kd from BNF induced mitochondria. Only the 54 KD form, but not the 52 KD species reacts with the polyclonal antibody to microsomal P-450c, though, both show arylhydrocarbon hydroxylase activity in an in vitro system reconstituted with adrenodoxin and adrenodoxin-reductase. Fingerprint analyses, N-terminal sequencing and use of monoclonal antibody probes show that the two mitochondrial isoforms are different from the microsomal P-450c. Further, the 54 Kd mitochondrial isoform is not detected in control mitochondria indicating that it is truly an induced form. Similarly, a PB induced mitochondrial form which exhibits physical, immunochemical and enzymatic properties different from the microsomal P-450b has also been purified.

The ripening of avocado fruit is associated with the expression of a number of mRNAs concomitant with overt changes in texture and flavor. Two overlapping cDNAs for a mRNA that accumulates during ripening were identified. Sequence analysis of these two cDNAs revealed a polypeptide of 471 amino acids with characteristics of a typical P-450: an N-terminal hydrophobic membrane anchor, a conserved heme-binding domain in the C-terminal region, and patches of similarity to various P-450 family members. Further evidence that this polypeptide represents a cytochromeP-450 oxidase comes from the recent isolation and characterization of a cytochromeP-450 from ripe avocado mesocarp [O'Keefe, D. P. & Leto, K. J. (1989) Plant Physiol. 89, 1141-1149]. The N terminus of the predicted polypeptide in the cDNAs is identical to the N terminus of the purified avocado P-450. Gel blot analysis of RNA from fruit at various stages of ripening showed the accumulation of an 1800-nucleotide P-450 mRNA that hybridized to the P-450 cDNA. The P-450 protein predicted by the avocado cDNA sequence shares less than 40% positional identity with any known P-450 gene family. We propose therefore that it be placed in a separate family, P450LXXI, and that the corresponding gene from avocado be named cyp71A1. Images PMID:1692626

The authors sought to determine if levels of cytochromeP450IA gene expression are environmentally induced in feral populations of Hudson River tomcod, a cancer prone fish, and whether laboratory exposure of tomcod to artificially spiked and naturally contaminated Hudson sediments can elicit a significant response. Using Northern blot analysis, they found levels of P450IA mRNA in tomcod collected from two Hudson River sites higher than those in tomcod from a river in Maine. Depuration of environmentally induced Hudson tomcod P450IA mRNA was rapid, with an initial detectable decline in P450 gene expression by 8 hr and basal levels reached by 5 days. Intraperitoneal injection of {beta}-napthoflavone in depurated Hudson tomcod resulted in a 15-fold induction of P450 gene expression within 26 hr. Exposure of depurated Hudson tomcod to natural sediment spiked with two PAHs resulted in a 7-fold induction of P450 gene expression. Exposure of depurated tomcod to sediment from a contaminated Hudson site also resulted in a 7- to 15-fold induction of P450IA mRNA expression. Northern blot analysis revealed a second polymorphic cytochromeP450IA mRNA band in some tomcod which was also detected by Southern blot analysis. Induction of cytochromeP450IA mRNA in Atlantic tomcod may provide a sensitive biomarker of environmentally relevant concentrations of some pollutants in the Hudson and other northeastern tidal rivers.

We have transformed a Saccharomyces cerevisiae host with an S. cerevisiae genomic library contained in the shuttle vector YEp24 and screened the resultant transformants for resistance to ketoconazole (Kc), an inhibitor of the cytochromeP-450 (P-450) enzyme lanosterol 14-demethyl...

I worked with Dr. Ronald Estabrook for nearly 10 years at The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, Texas. In Ron's lab, when I joined I was initially involved in the isolation, purification, and characterization of cytochromeP450s and NADPH-P450(c) reductase(s) from plants, which was his new exploratory project at the time. We developed methods for the isolation, solubilization, and purification of P450s and NADPH-P450(c) reductase from plant tissue microsomes. We carried out number of in vitro experiments to study the involvement P450s and NADPH-P450(c) reductase in the biosynthesis of number of phytoalexins. We successfully isolated, purified, and cloned NADPH-P450(c) reductase from etiolated mung bean (Vigna radiate) seedlings. In addition, a series of studies were undertaken to show that purified mung bean NADPH-P450(c) reductase was able to catalyze P450-supported reactions for mammalian and bacterial P450s. My stay in Ron's lab was very educational and productive. He provided the necessary support and led the way through the maze in different research projects in the lab, which allowed me to understand the roles of P450s in humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms. He liked to teach and discover new things everyday in the lab. He is a great scientist, as well as loving and caring mentor.

CytochromeP450s (P450s) catalyze the NAD(P)H/O2-dependent monooxygenation of less reactive organic molecules under mild conditions. The catalytic activity of bacterial P450s is very high compared with P450s isolated from animals and plants, and the substrate specificity of bacterial P450s is also very high. Accordingly, their catalytic activities toward nonnative substrates are generally low especially toward small hydrocarbons. However, mutagenesis approaches have been very successful for engineering bacterial P450s for the hydroxylation of small hydrocarbons. On the other hand, "decoy" molecules, whose structures are very similar to natural substrates, can be used to trick the substrate recognition of bacterial P450s, allowing the P450s to catalyze oxidation reactions of nonnative substrates without any substitution of amino acid residues in the presence of decoy molecules. Thus, the hydroxylation of small hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, butane and benzene can be catalyzed by P450BM3, a long-alkyl-chain hydroxylase, using substrate misrecognition of P450s induced by decoy molecules. Furthermore, a number of H2O2-dependent bacterial P450s can catalyze the peroxygenation of a variety of nonnative substrates through a simple substrate-misrecognition trick, in which catalytic activities and enantioselectivity are dependent on the structure of decoy molecules.

Expression of major cytochromeP450 forms (P450) was followed in preparation of purified hematopoietic CD34+ stem and progenitor cells. Levels of transcripts as well as mature proteins were traced by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and by Northern and Western blotting. P450 1B1 and P450 2E1 proteins and respective mRNAs were found in all cases. On the other hand, no expression of P450 3A4, P450 3A7, and P450 2C9 was found. The results showed that expression of various P450 enzymes starts at different stages of cell differentiation. Both P450 forms found are known to be connected with cancer cells and with activation of procarcinogens (P450 1B1, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; P450 2E1, nitrosamines, and solvents). Hence, cells at the early stage of differentiation already may be influenced by interaction with xenobiotics. This fact should also be taken into consideration when hematopoietic cell transplant therapy is applied.

Genomewide annotation of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) in three white-rot species of the fungal order Polyporales, namely Bjerkandera adusta, Ganoderma sp. and Phlebia brevispora, revealed a large contingent of P450 genes (P450ome) in their genomes. A total of 199 P450 genes in B. adusta and 209 P450 genes each in Ganoderma sp. and P. brevispora were identified. These P450omes were classified into families and subfamilies as follows: B. adusta (39 families, 86 subfamilies), Ganoderma sp. (41 families, 105 subfamilies) and P. brevispora (42 families, 111 subfamilies). Of note, the B. adusta genome lacked the CYP505 family (P450foxy), a group of P450-CPR fusion proteins. The three polypore species revealed differential enrichment of individual P450 families in their genomes. The largest CYP families in the three genomes were CYP5144 (67 P450s), CYP5359 (46 P450s) and CYP5344 (43 P450s) in B. adusta, Ganoderma sp. and P. brevispora, respectively. Our analyses showed that tandem gene duplications led to expansions in certain P450 families. An estimated 33% (72 P450s), 28% (55 P450s) and 23% (49 P450s) of P450ome genes were duplicated in P. brevispora, B. adusta and Ganoderma sp., respectively. Family-wise comparative analysis revealed that 22 CYP families are common across the three Polypore species. Comparative P450ome analysis with Ganoderma lucidum revealed the presence of 143 orthologs and 56 paralogs in Ganoderma sp. Multiple P450s were found near the characteristic biosynthetic genes for secondary metabolites, namely polyketide synthase (PKS), non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS), terpene cyclase and terpene synthase in the three genomes, suggesting a likely role of these P450s in secondary metabolism in these Polyporales. Overall, the three species had a richer P450 diversity both in terms of the P450 genes and P450 subfamilies as compared to the model white-rot and brown-rot polypore species Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Postia placenta.

Cytochromep450s comprise a superfamily of heme-thiolate proteins named for the spectral absorbance peak of their carbon-monoxide-bound species at 450 nm. Having been found in every class of organism, including Archaea, the p450 superfamily is believed to have originated from an ancestral gene that existed over 3 billion years ago. Repeated gene duplications have subsequently given rise to one of the largest of multigene families. These enzymes are notable both for the diversity of reactions that they catalyze and the range of chemically dissimilar substrates upon which they act. Cytochromep450s support the oxidative, peroxidative and reductive metabolism of such endogenous and xenobiotic substrates as environmental pollutants, agrochemicals, plant allelochemicals, steroids, prostaglandins and fatty acids. In humans, cytochromep450s are best know for their central role in phase I drug metabolism where they are of critical importance to two of the most significant problems in clinical pharmacology: drug interactions and interindividual variability in drug metabolism. Recent advances in our understanding of cytochromep450-mediated drug metabolism have been accelerated as a result of an increasing emphasis on functional genomic approaches to p450 research. While human cytochromep450 databases have swelled with a flood of new human sequence variants, however, the functional characterization of the corresponding gene products has not kept pace. In response researchers have begun to apply the tools of proteomics as well as homology-based and ab initio modeling to salient questions of cytochromep450 structure/function. This review examines the latest advances in our understanding of human cytochromep450s.

Niemann-Pick type C (NPC) disease is a neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations in either the NPC1 or NPC2 gene. NPC is characterised by storage of multiple lipids in the late endosomal/lysosomal compartment, resulting in cellular and organ system dysfunction. The underlying molecular mechanisms that lead to the range of clinical presentations in NPC are not fully understood. While evaluating potential small molecule therapies in Npc1-/- mice, we observed a consistent pattern of toxicity associated with drugs metabolised by the cytochromeP450 system, suggesting a potential drug metabolism defect in NPC1 disease. Investigation of the P450 system in the context of NPC1 dysfunction revealed significant changes in the gene expression of many P450 associated genes across the full lifespan of Npc1-/- mice, decreased activity of cytochromeP450 reductase, and a global decrease of multiple cytochromeP450 catalysed dealkylation reactions. In vivo drug metabolism studies using a prototypic P450 metabolised drug, midazolam, confirmed dysfunction in drug clearance in the Npc1-/- mouse. Expression of the Phase II enzyme uridinediphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) was also significantly reduced in Npc1-/- mice. Interestingly, reduced activity within the P450 system was also observed in heterozygous Npc1+/- mice. The reduced activity of P450 enzymes may be the result of bile acid deficiency/imbalance in Npc1-/- mice, as bile acid treatment significantly rescued P450 enzyme activity in Npc1-/- mice and has the potential to be an adjunctive therapy for NPC disease patients. The dysfunction in the cytochromeP450 system were recapitulated in the NPC1 feline model. Additionally, we present the first evidence that there are alterations in the P450 system in NPC1 patients. PMID:27019000

Summary CytochromeP450 (P450) 4X1 is one of the so-called “orphan” P450s without assigned biological function. Codon-optimized P450 4X1 and a number of N-terminal modified sequences were expressed in Escherichia coli. Native P450 4X1 showed a characteristic P450 spectrum but low expression in E. coli DH5α cells (<100 nmol P450/L). The highest level of expression (300-450 nmol P450/L culture) was achieved with a bicistronic P450 4X1 construct (N-terminal MAKKTSSKGKL, change of E2A, amino acids 3-44 truncated). Anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide) has emerged as an important signaling molecule in the neurovascular cascade. Recombinant P450 4X1 protein, co-expressed with human NADPH-P450 reductase in E. coli, was found to convert the natural endocannabinoid anandamide to a single monooxygenated product, 14,15-epoxyeicosatrienoic (EET) ethanolamide. A stable anandamide analog (CD-25) was also converted to a monooxygenated product. Arachidonic acid was oxidized more slowly to 14,15- and 8,9-EETs but only in the presence of cytochrome b5. Other fatty acids were investigated as putative substrates but showed only little or minor oxidation. Real-time PCR analysis demonstrated extrahepatic mRNA expression, including several human brain structures (cerebellum, amygdala, and basal ganglia), in addition to expression in human heart, liver, prostate, and breast. The highest mRNA expression levels were detected in amygdala and skin. The ability of P450 4X1 to generate anandamide derivatives and the mRNA distribution pattern suggest a potential role for P450 4X1 in anandamide signaling in the brain. PMID:18549450

CytP450s have a cysteine-bound heme cofactor that, in its as-isolated resting (oxidized) form, can be conclusively described as a ferric thiolate species. Unlike the native enzyme, most synthetic thiolate-bound ferric porphyrins are unstable in air unless the axial thiolate ligand is sterically protected. Spectroscopic investigations on a series of synthetic mimics of cytP450 indicate that a thiolate-bound ferric porphyrin coexists in organic solutions at room temperature (RT) with a thiyl-radical bound ferrous porphyrin, i.e., its valence tautomer. The ferric thiolate state is favored by greater enthalpy and is air stable. The ferrous thiyl state is favored by entropy, populates at RT, and degrades in air. These ground states can be reversibly interchanged at RT by the addition or removal of water to the apolar medium. It is concluded that hydrogen bonding and local electrostatics protect the resting oxidized cytP450 active site from degradation in air by stabilizing the ferric thiolate ground state in contrast to its synthetic analogs. PMID:27302948

CytochromeP450 3A4 is a protein in the human intestine and liver which oxidizes over half of drugs in use today. CytochromeP450 3A4 has proven resistant to structure determination by NMR or x-ray crystallography. Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) studies of P450 3A4 can be used to compute distances between fluorophores in the protein, providing information on the structure of the protein. For a ligand to be suitably used as a probe its fluorescence must not be completely quenched by the heme cofactor in P450 3A4. By using quantum yields, fluorescence, and the absorption spectra of six P450 ligands, the following Forster distances between each ligand and the P450 heme moiety were obtained: pyrene 4.6 nm, aflatoxin B2 5.7 nm, alpha-naphthoflavone 3.7 nm, indinavir 2.6 nm, quinidine 3.5 nm, and terfenadine 2.8 nm. Having these distances should yield a better low-resolution cytochromeP450 3A4 structure. Using the Forster distances, FRET experiments on inter-ligand placement in P450 3A4 will be undertaken soon.

The cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes involved in drug metabolism are among the most versatile biological catalysts known. A small number of discrete forms of human P450 are capable of catalyzing the monooxygenation of a practically unlimited variety of xenobiotic substrates, with each enzyme showing a more or less wide and overlapping substrate range. This versatility makes P450s ideally suited as starting materials for engineering designer catalysts for industrial applications. In the course of heterologous expression of P450s in bacteria, we observed the unexpected formation of blue pigments. Although this was initially assumed to be an artifact, subsequent work led to the discovery of a new function of P450s in intermediary metabolism and toxicology, new screens for protein engineering, and potential applications in the dye and horticulture industries.

A gene fragment belonging to the cytochromeP-450 superfamily has been cloned and identified from stationary cultures of the filamentous fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium by reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR. A set of degenerate primers homologous to highly conserved regions of known cytochromeP-450 sequences were used for initial RT-PCRs. Individual PCR products were cloned, sequenced, and identified as those belonging to the cytochromeP-450 superfamily based on amino acid sequence homologies and the presence of the highly conserved heme binding region. The nucleotide sequence of a single cDNA clone indicated the presence of an open reading frame encoding a partial cytochromeP-450 protein of 208 amino acids. Comparisons of the deduced amino acid sequence of the partial protein to other known cytochromeP-450 sequences indicate that it is the first member of a new family of cytochromeP-450s, designated CYP63-1A. Northern blot analysis suggests that CYP63-1A is expressed under both nitrogen-rich and nitrogen-deficient culture conditions and thus not under the same regulatory constraints as the well-studied lignin and manganese peroxidases. Western blot analyses using antibodies raised to the heme binding region of CYP63-1A indicate that the protein has a molecular mass of approximately 44,000 Da. PMID:9212420

CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins were measured in pipping black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) embryos collected from a reference site (next to the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, VA) and three polluted sites (Cat Island, Green Bay, Lake Michigan, WI; Bair Island, San Francisco Bay, CA; West Marin Island, San Francisco Bay, CA). In a laboratory study, artificially incubated night heron embryos from the reference site were treated with 3-methylcholanthrene or phenobarbital. Compared to controls, 3-methylcholanthrene induced a greater than fivefold increase in activities of several monooxygenases and a greater than 100-fold increase in the concentration of immunodetected cytochromeP450 1A (CYP1A). Phenobarbital treatment resulted in only a slight increase in BROD activity but induced proteins recognized by antibodies to cytochromeP450 2B (CYP2B) by 2,000-fold. In a field study, activities of AHH, BROD, EROD, and ethoxycoumarin-O-dealkylase (ECOD) were up to 85-fold higher in pipping black-crowned night herons collected from Cat Island compared to other sites. Hepatic CYP1A and CYP2B cross-reactive proteins were detected in significantly more individuals from Cat Island than from the reference site. Greatest burdens of total PCBs and p,p[prime]-DDE were detected in embryos from Cat Island. CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins (AHH, BROD, EROD, ECOD, CYP1A, CYP1B) were significantly associated with total PCB burdens.

The occurrence of cytochromeP450 and P450-mediated pentachlorophenol oxidation in a white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium was demonstrated in this study. The carbon monoxide difference spectra indicated induction of P450 (103±13 pmol P450 per mg protein in the microsomal fraction) by pentachlorophenol. The pentachlorophenol oxidation by the microsomal P450 was NADPH-dependent at a rate of 19.0±1.2 pmol min−1 (mg protein)−1, which led to formation of tetrachlorohydroquinone and was significantly inhibited by piperonyl butoxide (a P450 inhibitor). Tetrachlorohydroquinone was also found in the cultures, while the extracellular ligninases which were reported to be involved in tetrachlorohydroquinone formation were undetectable. The formation of tetrachlorohydroquinone was not detectable in the cultures added with either piperonyl butoxide or cycloheximide (an inhibitor of de novo protein synthesis). These results revealed the pentachlorophenol oxidation by induced P450 in the fungus, and it should be the first time that P450-mediated pentachlorophenol oxidation was demonstrated in a microorganism. Furthermore, the addition of the P450 inhibitor to the cultures led to obvious increase of pentachlorophenol, suggesting that the relationship between P450 and pentachlorophenol methylation is worthy of further research. PMID:23029295

CytochromeP450s are Phase I metabolic enzymes that play critical roles in the biotransformation of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics. The expression and activity of P450 enzymes can vary considerably throughout human development, especially when comparing fetal development to neonates, children, and adults. In an effort to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the ontogeny of P450 expression and activity we employed a multi-omic characterization of P450 transcript expression, protein abundance, and functional activity. To quantify the functional activity of individual P450s we employ activity-based protein profiling, which uses modified mechanism-based inhibitors of P450s as chemical probes, in tandem with proteomic analyses to quantify activity. Our results reveal life-stage-dependent variability in P450 expression, abundance, and activity throughout human development and frequent discordant relationships between expression and activity. The results were used to distribute P450s into three general classes based upon developmental stage of expression and activity. We have significantly expanded the knowledge of P450 ontogeny, particularly at the level of individual P450 activity. We anticipate that our ontogeny results will be useful for enabling predictive therapeutic dosing, and for avoiding potentially adverse and harmful reactions during maturation from both therapeutic drugs and environmental xenobiotics.

The Long-Evans rat with a cinnamon-like coat color (LEC rat) is a mutant strain displaying hereditary hepatitis with severe jaundice. The age related difference in microsomal dealkylation of pentoxyresorufin and ethoxyresorufin was examined. The enzyme activity levels of pentoxyresorufin O-depentylase in LEC rats were decreased to 25% of the levels in control [Long-Evans rats with an agouti coat color (LEA rats)]. In contrast, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase exhibited a much less marked difference between the strains. In parallel with these strain differences in enzyme activities, a decrease in phenobarbital (PB) inducible P450 isozymes, mainly P450b and P450e, was observed by Western blot analysis. The level of P450PB in LEC rats was more markedly depressed than in the LEA strain. On the other hand, microsomes from uninduced LEC rat liver had more 3-methylcholanthrene (MC) inducible P450MC, mainly P450c and P450d, than microsomes from LEA rat liver and these isozymes in the LEC were markedly induced by 3-methylcholanthrene treatment. The great difference in cytochromeP450PB content of the liver microsomes between LEC and LEA rats and the maintained constitutive levels of hepatic cytochromeP450MC in the LEC rats suggest a possible role of these cytochrome isozymes in the onset of spontaneous hepatitis and hepatoma.

The complete nucleotide sequence of the methylcholanthrene-inducible cytochromeP-450c gene was determined by sequence analysis of cloned genomic DNA and the sequence, consisting of 524 amino acids, of the protein was deduced therefrom. The gene for the cytochrome was approximately 6.0 kilobases long and was split into seven exons. Comparison of the gene with that of the phenobarbital-inducible cytochromeP-450e showed that the gene structures for the two types of cytochromeP-450 differ greatly; the location, number, and size of intervening sequences are very dissimilar. However, the sequence homology between the two types of cytochrome suggests that the two genes have evolved from a common ancestor. Images PMID:6089174

The interaction of highly purified cytochromeP-450 from bovine adrenal cortex mitochondria (cytochromeP-450scc) with N,N-dimethylaniline (DMA), aniline, N-dimethylcyclohexylamine and cumene hydroperoxide (CHP) has been investigated. The formation of complexes between cytochromeP-450scc and the above listed compounds could be demonstrated. The reaction of oxidative demethylation of DMA by cumene hydroperoxide involving cytochromeP-450scc has been carried out at 37 degrees C; the mechanism of this process is discussed. Incubation of cytochromeP-450scc with negatively charged phospholipids, phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and phosphatidylinosite (PI) exerts an inhibiting effect on the reaction of oxidative demethylation. The interaction of cytochromeP-450scc with CHP is accompanied by hemoprotein destruction in a complex biphasic way. The process of oxidative demethylation of DMA in the system of cytochromeP-450scc-CHP has been concluded to have a predominantly radical character.

A three-dimensional structure for human cytochromeP450IA1 was predicted based on the crystal coordinates of cytochromeP450cam from Pseudomonas putida. As there was only 15% residue identity between the two enzymes, additional information was used to establish an accurate sequence alignment that is a prerequisite for model building. Twelve representative eukaryotic sequences were aligned and a net prediction of secondary structure was matched against the known alpha-helices and beta-sheets of P450cam. The cam secondary structure provided a fixed main-chain framework onto which loops of appropriate length from the human P450IA1 structure were added. The model-built structure of the human cytochrome conformed to the requirements for the segregation of polar and nonpolar residues between the core and the surface. The first 44 residues of human cytochromeP450 could not be built into the model and sequence analysis suggested that residues 1-26 formed a single membrane-spanning segment. Examination of the sequences of cytochromeP450s from distinct gene families suggested specific residues that could account for the differences in substrate specificity. A major substrate for P450IA1, 3-methyl-cholanthrene, was fitted into the proposed active site and this planar aromatic molecule could be accommodated into the available cavity. Residues that are likely to interact with the haem were identified. The sequence similarity between 59 eukaryotic enzymes was represented as a dendrogram that in general clustered according to gene family. Until a crystallographic structure is available, this model-building study identifies potential residues in cytochromeP450s important in the function of these enzymes and these residues are candidates for site-directed mutagenesis.

The steroid hydroxylation and carbon-carbon bond cleavage activities of cytochromeP450 17A1 (CYP17A1) are responsible for the production of glucocorticoids and androgens, respectively. The inhibition of androgen synthesis is an important strategy to treat androgen-dependent prostate cancer. We discuss the different enzymatic activities towards the various substrates of CYP17A1, demonstrating its promiscuity. Additionally, a novel interhelical interaction is proposed between the F-G loop and the B′-helix to explain the 16α-hydroxylase activity of human CYP17A1 with progesterone as the substrate. The techniques used by biochemists to study this important enzyme are also summarized. PMID:25482340

CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins were measured in pipping black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) embryos collected from a reference site (next to the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, VA) and three polluted sites (Cat Island, Green Bay, Lake Michigan, WI; Bair Island, San Francisco Bay, CA; West Marin Island, San Francisco Bay, CA). In a laboratory study, artificially incubated night heron embryos from the reference site were treated with 3-methylcholanthrene (200 mu-g administered into the air cell 2 d before pipping) or phenobarbital (2 mg daily for 2 d before pipping). Compared to controls (untreated + vehicle-treated embryos), 3-methylcholanthrene induced a greater than five-fold increase in activities of several monooxygenases (arylhydrocarbon hydroxylase, AHH; benzyloxyresorufin-O-dealkylase, BROD; ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase, EROD; pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase, PROD) and a greater than 100-fold increase in the concentration of immunodetected cytochromeP450 1A (CYP1A). Phenobarbital treatment resulted in only a slight increase in BROD activity but induced proteins recognized by antibodies to cytochromeP450 2B (CYP2B) by 2,000-fold. In a field study, activities of AHH, BROD, EROD, and ethoxycoumarin-O-dealkylase (ECOD) were up to 85-fold higher in pipping black-crowned night herons collected from Cat Island compared to other sites. Hepatic CYP1A and CYP2B cross-reactive proteins were detected in significantly more individuals from Cat Island than from the reference site. Greatest burdens of total PCBs and p, p'-DDE were detected in embryos from Cat Island. CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins (AHH, BROD, EROD, ECOD, CYP1A, CYP2B) were significantly associated with total PCB burdens (r = 0.50-0.72). These data indicate that cytochromeP450 may be a useful biomarker of exposure to some PCB mixtures in black-crowned night heron embryos.

CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins were measured in pipping black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) embryos collected from a reference site (next to the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, VA) and three polluted sites (Cat Island, Green Bay, Lake Michigan, WI; Bair Island, San Francisco Bay, CA; West Marin Island, San Francisco Bay, CA). In a laboratory study, artificially incubated night heron embryos from the reference site were treated with 3-methylcholanthrene (200 mu g administered into the air cell 2 d before pipping) or phenobarbital (2 mg daily for 2 d before pipping). Compared to controls (untreated + vehicle-treated embryos), 3-methylcholanthrene induced a greater than fivefold increase in activities of several monooxygenases (arylhydrocarbon hydroxylase, AHH; benzyloxyresorufin-O-dealkylase, BROD; ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase, EROD; pentoxyresorufin-O- dealkylase, PROD) and a greater than 100-fold increase in the concentration of immunodetected cytochromeP450 1A (CYP1A). Phenobarbital treatment resulted in only a slight increase in BROD activity but induced proteins recognized by antibodies to cytochromeP450 2B (CYP2B) by 2,000-fold. In a field study, activities of AHH, BROD, EROD, and ethoxycoumarin-O-dealkylase (ECOD) were up to 85-fold higher in pipping black- crowned night herons collected from Cat Island compared to other sites. Hepatic CYP1A and CYP2B cross- reactive proteins were detected in significantly more individuals from Cat Island than from the reference site. Greatest burdens of total PCBs and p,p'-DDE were detected in embryos from Cat Island. CytochromeP450- associated monooxygenase activities and cytochromeP450 proteins (AHH, BROD, EROD, ECOD, CYP1A, CYP2B) were significantly associated with total PCB burdens (r = 0.50-0.72). These data indicate that cytochromeP450 may be a useful biomarker of exposure to some PCB mixtures in black-crowned night heron embryos.

CytochromeP450 enzymes are a family of heme-containing proteins located throughout the body with roles in metabolism of endogenous and exogenous compounds. Among exogenous compounds, clinically relevant pharmaceutical agents are nearly all metabolized by P450 enzymes. However, the activity of the different cytochromeP450 enzymes varies among…

Previous studies have shown that high levels of cytochromeP450 can occur in cardiac microsomes of vertebrates [Mol. Pharmacol. 21:517-526, (1982)]. Here we identify the dominant cardiac P450 in the marine fish scup as P450E, a teleost representative of P450IA1, and we describe its restricted cellular localization in the heart. Treatment of scup with beta-naphthoflavone produced an unusually strong (10-fold) induction of spectrally measured P450 in cardiac microsomes, with specific content reaching levels (0.5 nmol/mg) similar to those induced in scup liver. Microsomal ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activities, catalytic functions of scup P450E, were induced in parallel with P450 content. Similar induction was seen in both atrium and ventricle. Immunoblot analysis with monoclonal antibody 1-12-3, specific to scup P450E and other vertebrate P450IA1 proteins, showed that this hydrocarbon-inducible P450 is the dominant and possibly sole P450 form in heart microsomes of experimentally induced animals. Immunohistochemical analysis of scup heart sections (2-4-microns) with monoclonal antibody 1-12-3 revealed that P450E was detectable only in endothelial cells of the endocardium and of the coronary vasculature. A similar endothelial cell localization of the monoclonal antibody 1-12-3 epitope was observed in heart of rainbow trout, induced with beta-naphthoflavone, indicating a general nature for the endothelial localization of induced cardiac P450. Morphometric analysis showed that endothelium could constitute 8-9% of the volume of teleost heart, from which we calculate that P450IA1 could account for as much as 25% of the endothelial cell microsomal protein. Heart microsomes of untreated animals from contaminated environments also contained high levels of P450E, indicating that induction like that caused by beta-naphthoflavone could occur with chemicals in the environment. Strongly induced P450E (P450IA1) in endothelium could play a critical

CytochromeP450 (P450) 2D6 was first identified as the polymorphic human debrisoquine hydroxylase and subsequently shown to catalyze the oxidation of a variety of drugs containing a basic nitrogen. Differences in the regioselectivity of oxidation products formed in systems containing NADPH-P450 reductase/NADPH and the model oxidant cumene hydroperoxide have been proposed by others to be due to an allosteric influence of the reductase on P450 2D6 (Modi, S., Gilham, D. E., Sutcliffe, M. J., Lian, L.-Y., Primrose, W. U., Wolf, C. R., and Roberts, G. C. K. (1997) Biochemistry 36, 4461-4470). We examined the differences in the formation of oxidation products of N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine, metoprolol, and bufuralol between reductase-, cumene hydroperoxide-, and iodosylbenzene-supported systems. Catalytic regioselectivity was not influenced by the presence of the reductase in any of the systems supported by model oxidants, ruling out allosteric influences. The presence of the reductase had little effect on the affinity of P450 2D6 for any of these three substrates. The addition of the reaction remnants of the model oxidants (cumyl alcohol and iodobenzene) to the reductase-supported system did not affect reaction patterns, arguing against steric influences of these products on catalytic regioselectivity. Label from H(2)18O was quantitatively incorporated into 1'-hydroxybufuralol in the iodosylbenzene- but not in the reductase- or cumene hydroperoxide-supported reactions. We conclude that the P450 systems utilizing NADPH-P450 reductase, cumene hydroperoxide, and iodosylbenzene use similar but distinct chemical mechanisms. These differences are the basis for the variable product distributions, not an allosteric influence of the reductase.

The oxidation of 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) by cytochromeP450{sub BS{beta}} using three different electron acceptors is reported. Three PAH were found to be substrates for the oxidation by P450{sub BS{beta}}, namely anthracene, 9-methyl-anthracene and azulene. The respective oxidation products were identified by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry. In addition, 10 drug-like compounds were investigated for their effects on the catalytic activity of P450{sub BS{beta}} by carrying out inhibition studies. The stability of P450{sub BS{beta}} against hydrogen peroxide, cumene, and ter-butyl hydroperoxide was determined. Overall, the results of this study suggested that the P450{sub BS{beta}} enzyme represents a powerful catalyst in terms of the catalytic activity and operational stability.

Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer CytochromeP450BM-3 reduced aldehydes to alcohols efficiently (k{sub cat} {approx} 25 min{sup -1}). Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Reduction is a direct hydride transfer from R-NADP{sup 2}H to the carbonyl moiety. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer P450 domain variants enhance reduction through potential allosteric/redox interactions. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Novel reaction will have implications for metabolism of xenobiotics. -- Abstract: CytochromeP450BM-3 catalyzed the reduction of lipophilic aldehydes to alcohols efficiently. A k{sub cat} of {approx}25 min{sup -1} was obtained for the reduction of methoxy benzaldehyde with wild type P450BM-3 protein which was higher than in the isolated reductase domain (BMR) alone and increased in specific P450-domain variants. The reduction was caused by a direct hydride transfer from preferentially R-NADP{sup 2}H to the carbonyl moiety of the substrate. Weak substrate-P450-binding of the aldehyde, turnover with the reductase domain alone, a deuterium incorporation in the product from NADP{sup 2}H but not D{sub 2}O, and no inhibition by imidazole suggests the reductase domain of P450BM-3 as the potential catalytic site. However, increased aldehyde reduction by P450 domain variants (P450BM-3 F87A T268A) may involve allosteric or redox mechanistic interactions between heme and reductase domains. This is a novel reduction of aldehydes by P450BM-3 involving a direct hydride transfer and could have implications for the metabolism of endogenous substrates or xenobiotics.

CytochromeP-450 is involved in the oxidative metabolism of a broad range of substrates. We have made a chimeric construct, pSN002, containing the cDNA for rabbit liver cytochromeP-450 (IIC14) under the control of the TR2' promoter for mannopine synthase in the Agrobacterium Ti plasmid. Nicotiana tabacum was transformed with Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboring a cointegrated plasmid pSN002::pGV2260. The presence of mRNA and of the translated protein from the chimeric cytochromeP-450 gene in transgenic plants was confirmed by RNA blot hybridization and by Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses, respectively. The transformants in which the foreign cytochromeP-450 protein is expressed show marked phenotypic changes, notably a tendency rapidly to senesce. We detected 2-propenylpyrrolidine, a degradative metabolite of nicotine alkaloids, in transgenic tobacco showing this pronounced phenotypic change. Such metabolism is likely to be due to the effect of senescence and not directly to the presence of the cytochromeP-450. Images PMID:1714583

Electrophoresis of Drosophila microsomes resolves two major heme-containing protein bands with apparent molecular weights of 59,290 (band a) and 55,750 (band b). The hemoproteins in these two bands can account for most of the cytochromeP-450 in the organism. Band a is present in all strains examined: band b is not. Dimethylnitrosamine demethylase, a P-450 enzyme, is a component of band b. 22 references, 2 figures, 1 table.

Toxaphene is a persistent environmental contaminant that has been shown to alter male production in Daphnia magna and to induce P-450 activity in mammals. CytochromeP-450-mediated metabolism may lead to xenobiotic detoxification resulting in acclimation. To determine if D. magna acclimate to toxaphene via P-450 pathways, chronic and acute toxicity tests were conducted with D. magna exposed to toxaphene in the presence and absence of piperonyl butoxide (PBO), an inhibitor of cytochromeP-450 enzymes. Toxaphene exposure increased male production in acute but not chronic assays, indicating that D. magna may acclimate to chronic toxaphene exposure. Upon co-administration of toxaphene and PBO in chronic tests, D. magna exhibited a decline in growth rate, fecundity and survival. The observed toxaphene acclimation in chronic tests, along with its increased toxicity in the presence of a P-450 suppressor, suggests that P-450 enzymes may contribute to detoxification and subsequent acclimation of D. magna to chronic toxaphene exposure. Additional chronic toxicity tests indicated that toxaphene acclimation occurs between 7 and 12 days following initial exposure, at which time sex determination is no longer affected. Thus, sublethal toxaphene toxicity effects such as reproductive impairments may be detectable with acute but not chronic tests, potentially due to the upregulation of P-450 isozymes.

CytochromeP450 mono-oxygenases (P450s) are the principal enzymes involved in the oxidative metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics. In this protocol, we describe a fluorescence-based, high-throughput assay for measuring the activity of P450 3A4, one of the key enzymes involved in drug metabolism. The assay involves the oxidative debenzylation of a substituted coumarin, yielding an increase in fluorescence on reaction. The entire procedure can be accomplished in 1 h or less. PMID:19661996

With the widespread use of O-alkoxyresorufin dealkylation assays since the 1990’s, thousands of inhibitors of cytochromeP450 family 1 enzymes (P450s 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1) have been identified and studied. Generally, planar polycyclic molecules such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, stilbenoids, and flavonoids are considered to potentially be effective inhibitors of these enzymes. However, the details of structure-activity relationships and selectivity of these inhibitors are still ambiguous. In this review, we thoroughly discuss the selectivity of many representative P450 family 1 inhibitors reported in the past 20 years through a meta-analysis. PMID:24287985

Wood-rotting basidiomycetes possess superior metabolic functions to degrade woody biomass, and these activities are indispensable for the carbon cycle of the biosphere. As well as basic studies of the biochemistry of basidiomycetes, many researchers have been focusing on utilizing basidiomycetes and/or their enzymes in the biotechnology sector; therefore, the unique activities of their extracellular and intracellular enzymes have been widely demonstrated. A rich history of applied study has established that basidiomycetes are capable of metabolizing a series of endogeneous and exogeneous compounds using cytochromeP450s (P450s). Recently, whole genome sequence analyses have revealed large-scale divergences in basidiomycetous P450s. The tremendous variation in P450s implies that basidiomycetes have vigorously diversified monooxygenase functions to acquire metabolic adaptations such as lignin degradation, secondary metabolite production, and xenobiotics detoxification. However, fungal P450s discovered from genome projects are often categorized into novel families and subfamilies, making it difficult to predict catalytic functions by sequence comparison. Experimental screening therefore remains essential to elucidate the catalytic potential of individual P450s, even in this postgenomic era. This paper archives the known metabolic capabilities of basidiomycetes, focusing on their P450s, outlines the molecular diversity of basidiomycetous P450s, and introduces new functions revealed by functionomic studies using a recently developed, rapid, functional screening system.

Human cytochromeP450 enzymes (P450s, CYPs) are major oxidative catalysts that metabolize various xenobiotic and endogenous compounds. Many carcinogens induce cancer only after metabolic activation and P450 enzymes play an important role in this phenomenon. P450 1B1 mediates bioactivation of many procarcinogenic chemicals and carcinogenic estrogen. It catalyzes the oxidation reaction of polycyclic aromatic carbons, heterocyclic and aromatic amines, and the 4-hydroxylation reaction of 17β-estradiol. Enhanced expression of P450 1B1 promotes cancer cell proliferation and metastasis. There are at least 25 polymorphic variants of P450 1B1 and some of these have been reported to be associated with eye diseases. In addition, P450 1B1 polymorphisms can greatly affect the metabolic activation of many procarcinogenic compounds. It is necessary to understand the relationship between metabolic activation of such substances and P450 1B1 polymorphisms in order to develop rational strategies for the prevention of its toxic effect on human health. PMID:27123158

CytochromeP450s (P450s) are key enzymes in the synthesis of bioactive natural products in plants. Efforts to harness these enzymes for in vitro and whole-cell production of natural products have been hampered by difficulties in expressing them heterologously in their active form, and their requirement for NADPH as a source of reducing power. We recently demonstrated targeting and insertion of plant P450s into the photosynthetic membrane and photosynthesis-driven, NADPH-independent P450 catalytic activity mediated by the electron carrier protein ferredoxin. Here, we report the fusion of ferredoxin with P450 CYP79A1 from the model plant Sorghum bicolor, which catalyzes the initial step in the pathway leading to biosynthesis of the cyanogenic glucoside dhurrin. Fusion with ferredoxin allows CYP79A1 to obtain electrons for catalysis by interacting directly with photosystem I. Furthermore, electrons captured by the fused ferredoxin moiety are directed more effectively toward P450 catalytic activity, making the fusion better able to compete with endogenous electron sinks coupled to metabolic pathways. The P450-ferredoxin fusion enzyme obtains reducing power solely from its fused ferredoxin and outperforms unfused CYP79A1 in vivo. This demonstrates greatly enhanced electron transfer from photosystem I to CYP79A1 as a consequence of the fusion. The fusion strategy reported here therefore forms the basis for enhanced partitioning of photosynthetic reducing power toward P450-dependent biosynthesis of important natural products. PMID:27119279

Solar energy provides the energy input for the biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites in plants and other photosynthetic organisms. Some secondary metabolites are high value compounds, and typically their biosynthesis requires the involvement of cytochromesP450s. In this proof of concept work, we demonstrate that the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 is an eminent heterologous host for expression of metabolically engineered cytochromeP450-dependent pathways exemplified by the dhurrin pathway from Sorghum bicolor comprising two membrane bound cytochromesP450s (CYP79A1 and CYP71E1) and a soluble glycosyltransferase (UGT85B1). We show that it is possible to express multiple genes incorporated into a bacterial-like operon by using a self-replicating expression vector in cyanobacteria. We demonstrate that eukaryotic P450s that typically reside in the endoplasmic reticulum membranes can be inserted in the prokaryotic membranes without affecting thylakoid membrane integrity. Photosystem I and ferredoxin replaces the native P450 oxidoreductase enzyme as an efficient electron donor for the P450s both in vitro and in vivo. The engineered strains produced up to 66mg/L of p-hydroxyphenylacetaldoxime and 5mg/L of dhurrin in lab-scale cultures after 3 days of cultivation and 3mg/L of dhurrin in V-shaped photobioreactors under greenhouse conditions after 9 days cultivation. All the metabolites were found to be excreted to the growth media facilitating product isolation.

Solubilized NADPH-cytochrome c (P450) reductase was purified to homogeneity from an extract of spearmint (Mentha spicata) glandular trichomes by dye-ligand interaction chromatography on Matrex-Gel Red A and affinity chromatography on 2', 5'-adenosine diphosphate agarose. SDS-PAGE of the purified enzyme preparation revealed the presence of two similar proteins with masses of 82 kDa (major) and 77 kDa (minor) that crossreacted on immunoblot analysis with polyclonal antibodies directed against NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase from Jerusalem artichoke and from mung bean. Complete immunoinhibition of reductase activity was observed with both types of polyclonal antibodies, while only partial inhibition of activity resulted using a family of monoclonal antibodies directed against the Jerusalem artichoke cytochromeP450 reductase. Inhibition of the spearmint oil gland cytochrome c reductase was also observed with the diphenyliodonium ion. The K(m) values for the cosubstrates NADPH and cytochrome c were 6.2 and 3.7 microM, respectively, and the pH optimum for activity was at 8.5. The NADPH-cytochrome c reductase reconstituted NADPH-dependent (-)-4S-limonene-6-hydroxylase activity in the presence of cytochromeP450, purified from the microsomal fraction of spearmint oil gland cells and dilauroyl phosphatidyl choline. These characteristics establish the identity of the purified enzyme as a NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase.

CytochromeP450 enzymes are renowned for their ability to insert oxygen into an enormous variety of compounds with a high degree of chemo- and regio-selectivity under mild conditions. This property has been exploited in Nature for an enormous variety of physiological functions, and representatives of this ancient enzyme family have been identified in all kingdoms of life. The catalytic versatility of P450s makes them well suited for repurposing for the synthesis of fine chemicals such as drugs. Although these enzymes have not evolved in Nature to perform the reactions required for modern chemical industries, many P450s show relaxed substrate specificity and exhibit some degree of activity towards non-natural substrates of relevance to applications such as drug development. Directed evolution and other protein engineering methods can be used to improve upon this low level of activity and convert these promiscuous generalist enzymes into specialists capable of mediating reactions of interest with exquisite regio- and stereo-selectivity. Although there are some notable successes in exploiting P450s from natural sources in metabolic engineering, and P450s have been proven repeatedly to be excellent material for engineering, there are few examples to date of practical application of engineered P450s. The purpose of the present review is to illustrate the progress that has been made in altering properties of P450s such as substrate range, cofactor preference and stability, and outline some of the remaining challenges that must be overcome for industrial application of these powerful biocatalysts.

In a previous study (Vanden Bossche et al., Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 30 (1994) 43) the interaction between (+)-S-vorozole and the I-helix of cytochromeP450 19 (P450 aromatase) has been reported. In the present study we extended the "I-helix model" by incorporating the C-terminus of P450 aromatase. The crystal structures of P450 101 (P450 cam), 102 (P450 BM-3) and 108 (P450 terp) reveal that the C-terminus is structurally conserved and forms part of their respective substrate binding pocket. Furthermore, the present study is extended to the interaction between P450 aromatase and its natural substrate androstenedione and the non-steroidal inhibitors (-)-R-vorozole, (-)-S-fadrozole, R-liarozole and (-)-R-aminoglutethimide. It is found that (+)-S-vorozole, (-)-S-fadrozole and R-liarozole bind in a comparable way to P450 aromatase and interact with both the I-helix (Glu302 and Asp309) and C-terminus (Ser478 and His480). The weak activity of (-)-R-aminoglutethimide might be attributed to a lack of interaction with the C-terminus.

Over the past decade, site-directed mutagenesis has become an essential tool in the study of mammalian cytochromeP450 structure-function relationships. Residues affecting substrate specificity, cooperativity, membrane localization, and interactions with redox partners have been identified using a combination of amino-acid sequence alignments, homology modeling, chimeragenesis, and site-directed mutagenesis. As homology modeling and substrate docking technology continue to improve, the ability to predict more precise functions for specific residues will also advance, making it possible to utilize site-directed mutagenesis to test these predictions. Future studies will employ site-directed mutagenesis to learn more about cytochromeP450 substrate access channels, to define the role of residues that do not lie within substrate recognition sites, to engineer additional soluble forms of microsomal cytochromesP450 for x-ray crystallography, and to engineer more efficient enzymes for drug activation and/or bioremediation.

Parathion, a widely used organophosphate insecticide, is considered a high priority chemical threat. Parathion toxicity is dependent on its metabolism by the cytochromeP450 system to paraoxon (diethyl 4-nitrophenyl phosphate), a cytotoxic metabolite. As an effective inhibitor of cholinesterases, paraoxon causes the accumulation of acetylcholine in synapses and overstimulation of nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors, leading to characteristic signs of organophosphate poisoning. Inhibition of parathion metabolism to paraoxon represents a potential approach to counter parathion toxicity. Herein, we demonstrate that menadione (methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, vitamin K3) is a potent inhibitor of cytochromeP450-mediated metabolism of parathion. Menadione is active in redox cycling, a reaction mediated by NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase that preferentially uses electrons from NADPH at the expense of their supply to the P450s. Using human recombinant CYP 1A2, 2B6, 3A4 and human liver microsomes, menadione was found to inhibit the formation of paraoxon from parathion. Administration of menadione bisulfite (40mg/kg, ip) to rats also reduced parathion-induced inhibition of brain cholinesterase activity, as well as parathion-induced tremors and the progression of other signs and symptoms of parathion poisoning. These data suggest that redox cycling compounds, such as menadione, have the potential to effectively mitigate the toxicity of organophosphorus pesticides including parathion which require cytochromeP450-mediated activation.

Two mechanisms have been proposed to explain quinone cytotoxicity: oxidative stress via the redox cycle and the arylation of intracellular nucleophiles. As the redox cycle is catalyzed by NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase, cytochromeP450 systems are expected to be related to the cytotoxicity induced by redox-cycling quinones. Thus, we investigated the relationship between cytochromeP450 systems and quinone toxicity for rat primary hepatocytes using an arylator, 1,4-benzoquinone (BQ), and a redox cycler, 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (DMNQ). The hepatocyte toxicity of both BQ and DMNQ increased in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with cytochromeP450 inhibitors, such as SKF-525A (SKF), ketoconazole and 2-methy-1,2-di-3-pyridyl-1-propanone, enhanced the hepatocyte toxicity induced by DMNQ but did not affect BQ-induced hepatocyte toxicity. The production of superoxide anion and the levels of glutathione disulfide and thiobarbituric-acid-reactive substances were increased by treatment with DMNQ, and SKF pretreatment further enhanced their increases. In addition, NADPH oxidation in microsomes was increased by treatment with DMNQ and further augmented by pretreatment with SKF, and a NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase inhibitor, diphenyleneiodonium chloride completely suppressed NADPH oxidations increased by treatment with either DMNQ- or DMNQ + SKF. Pretreatment with antioxidants, such as {alpha}-tocopherol, reduced glutathione, N-acetyl cysteine or an iron ion chelator deferoxamine, totally suppressed DMNQ- and DMNQ + SKF-induced hepatocyte toxicity. These results indicate that the hepatocyte toxicity of redox-cycling quinones is enhanced under cytochromeP450 inhibition, and that this enhancement is caused by the potentiation of oxidative stress.

Cytochrome P (CYP) 450 is a superfamily of hemoproteins that play an important role in the metabolism of steroid hormones, fatty acids, and many medications. Many agents used for management of cardiovascular diseases are substrates, inhibitors, or inducers of CYP450 enzymes.When two agents that are substrates, inhibitors, or inducers of CYP450 are administered together, drug interactions with significant clinical consequences may occur. This review discusses CYP450-mediated cardiovascular drug interactions as well as noncardiovascular drug interactions that produced significant cardiovascular side effects. The principles in predicting drug interactions are also discussed.

We have studied the expression of aldrin eposidase (AE), 7-ethoxycoumarin-O-deethylase (ECDE), and aryl hydrocarbon (benzo[a]pyrene) hydroxylase (AHH) in nine differentiated or dedifferentiated cell lines derived from H4IIEC3 rat hepatoma cells. The nature of the cytochromesP-450 mediating AE, ECDE and AHH activities was analysed using monoclonal antibodies (MAb) made to the major 3-methylcholanthrene-induced cytochromeP-450 (MAb-MC) or phenobarbital-induced cytochromeP-450 (MAb-PB) from rat liver. The cells were treated with 5 microM dexamethasone for 30 h to increase the levels of the monoxygenase activities. (a) The six differentiated cell lines examined (Faza967, Fao, HF1-4, 2sFou, C2Rev7, and H4IIEC3/G-) contained MAb-PB-sensitive AE comprising 30-75% of the total AE activity. In most of these cell lines MAb-PB also markedly inhibited ECDE; however, the antibody had a considerably weaker effect on AHH. (b) MAb-PB-sensitive AHH, ECDE and AE activities were also observed in untreated and phenobarbital-treated cells. (c) MAb-MC inhibited AHH and ECDE in the two dedifferentiated lines HF1 and H5 by 50-80%. The antibody also inhibited AHH activities in the poorly differentiated line H4IIEC3/T and in the majority of the differentiated lines by 40-65%. MAb-MC-sensitive AHH was found in Fao cells after treatment with benz[a]anthracene but induced AHH in H4IIEC3/T, H4IIEC3/G-, and 2sFou cells 20-30-fold and in Faza967 and Fao cells 3-5-fold. Benz[a]anthracene remained without effect on AHH activity in C2Rev7 cells. The results show that the hepatoma cells examined express to various degrees phenobarbital-inducible cytochromeP-450 and/or 3-methylcholanthrene-inducible cytochromeP-450. These cell lines are versatile tools for studying the regulation of monooxygenase activities and analysing their role in the activation and inactivation of xenobiotics such as carcinogens, drugs and pesticides.

Metabolism of sesamin by cytochromeP450 (P450) was examined using yeast expression system and human liver microsomes. Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells expressing each of human P450 isoforms (CYP1A1, 1A2, 2A6, 2B6, 2C8, 2C9, 2C18, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, and 3A4) were cultivated with sesamin, and monocatechol metabolite was observed in most of P450s. Kinetic analysis using the microsomal fractions of the recombinant S. cerevisiae cells revealed that CYP2C19 had the largest k(cat)/K(m) value. Based on the kinetic data and average contents of the P450 isoforms in the human liver, the putative contribution of P450s for sesamin metabolism was large in the order of CYP2C9, 1A2, 2C19, and 2D6. A good correlation was observed between sesamin catecholization activity and CYP2C9-specific activity in in vitro studies using 10 individual human liver microsomes, strongly suggesting that CYP2C9 is the most important P450 isoform for sesamin catecholization in human liver. Inhibition studies using each anti-P450 isoform-specific antibody confirmed that CYP2C9 was the most important, and the secondary most important P450 was CYP1A2. We also examined the inhibitory effect of sesamin for P450 isoform-specific activities and found a mechanism-based inhibition of CYP2C9 by sesamin. In contrast, no mechanism-based inhibition by sesamin was observed in CYP1A2-specific activity. Our findings strongly suggest that further studies are needed to reveal the interaction between sesamin and therapeutic drugs mainly metabolized by CYP2C9.

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common malignancy of the kidney and has a poor prognosis due to its late presentation and resistance to current anticancer drugs. One mechanism of drug resistance, which is potentially amenable to therapeutic intervention, is based on studies in our laboratory. CYP1B1 is a cytochromeP450 enzyme overexpressed in a variety of malignant tumours. Our studies are now elucidating a functional role for CYP1B1 in drug resistance. CytochromeP450 reductase (P450R) is required for optimal metabolic activity of CYP1B1. Both CYP1B1 and P450R can catalyse the biotransformation of anticancer drugs at the site of the tumour. In this investigation, we determined the expression of CYP1B1 and P450R in samples of normal kidney and RCC (11 paired normal and tumour and a further 15 tumour samples). The O-deethylation of ethoxyresorufin to resorufin was used to measure CYP1B1 activity in RCC. CytochromeP450 reductase activity was determined by following the reduction of cytochrome c at 550 nm. The key finding of this study was the presence of active CYP1B1 in 70% of RCC. Coincubation with the CYP1B1 inhibitor alpha-naphthoflavone (10 nM) inhibited this activity. No corresponding CYP1B1 activity was detected in any of the normal tissue examined (n=11). Measurable levels of active P450R were determined in all normal (n=11) and tumour samples (n=26). The presence of detectable CYP1B1, which is capable of metabolising anticancer drugs in tumour cells, highlights a novel target for therapeutic intervention.

The hepatic cytochromeP-450-mediated metabolism and metabolic activation of (chloroethyl-3H)cyclophosphamide (( chloroethyl-3H)CP) and (4-14C)cyclophosphamide (( 4-14C)CP) were investigated in vitro in the reconstituted system containing cytochromeP-450 isolated from phenobarbital-treated rats. In addition, hepatic microsomal binding and the hepatic microsome-mediated metabolism of (14C)acrolein, a metabolite of (4-14C)CP, were also investigated. The metabolism of (chloroethyl-3H)CP and (4-14C)CP to polar metabolites was found to depend on the presence of NADPH and showed concentration dependence with respect to cytochromeP-450 and NADPH:cytochromeP-450 reductase. Km and Vmax values were essentially similar. The patterns of inhibition by microsomal mixed-function oxidase inhibitors, anti-cytochromeP-450 antibody, and heat denaturation of the cytochromeP-450 were essentially similar, with subtle differences between (4-14C)CP and (chloroethyl-3H)CP metabolism. The in vitro metabolic activation of CP in the reconstituted system demonstrated predominant binding of (chloroethyl-3H)CP to nucleic acids and almost exclusive binding of (4-14C)CP to proteins. Gel electrophoresis-fluorography of the proteins in the reconstituted system treated with (4-14C)CP demonstrated localization of the 14C label in the cytochromeP-450 region. To examine this association further, hepatic microsomes were modified with (14C)acrolein in the presence and the absence of NADPH. The results confirmed covalent association between (14C)acrolein and cytochromeP-450 in the microsomes and also demonstrated further metabolism of (14C)acrolein, apparently to an epoxide, which is capable of binding covalently to proteins. The results of these investigations not only confirm the significance of primary metabolism but also emphasize the potential role of the secondary metabolism of cyclophosphamide in some of its toxic manifestations.

The P450alk gene, which is inducible by the assimilation of alkane in Candida tropicalis, was sequenced and characterized. Structural features described in promoter and terminator regions of Saccharomyces yeast genes are present in the P450alk gene and some particular structures ...

The Symposium was held on October 8-12, 1995 at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole Massachusetts. Other international symposia promote cytochromeP450 research but have a primary focus on mammalian systems. This symposium is exclusively devoted to research in other organisms, and major topics reflect the distribution and dominance of non-mammalian species in the biosphere. The five sessions focused on basic mechanism, regulation, biodiversity, host-parasite interactions, and practical applications. 170 Scientists contributed 38 oral presentations and 91 posters, with a truly international composition of the symposium. Practical applications were a recurring feature, linking reports on mechanism and regulation to studies on the engineering of substrate specificity, microorganisms to degrade halogenated hydrocarbons and herbicides, and the production of in vitro P450 electrochemical bioreactors. At the time of the symposium there were 477 cytochromeP450 sequences in the database. Expansion of the known plant P450 genes was reported, with 20 new plant P450 families added in the last 3 years. Of these only 5 families have a physiological function associated with them. A growing number of identified invertebrate P450s was documented, where in insects, the forms identified are primarily involved in inducible xenobiotic metabolism and detoxification of toxic plant substances.

CytochromeP450s constitute the largest family of enzymatic proteins in plants acting on various endogenous and xenobiotic molecules. They are monooxygenases that insert one oxygen atom into inert hydrophobic molecules to make them more reactive and hydro-soluble. Besides for physiological functions, the extremely versatile cytochromeP450 biocatalysts are highly demanded in the fields of biotechnology, medicine, and phytoremediation. The nature of reactions catalyzed by P450s is irreversible, which makes these enzymes attractions in the evolution of plant metabolic pathways. P450s are prime targets in metabolic engineering approaches for improving plant defense against insects and pathogens and for production of secondary metabolites such as the anti-neoplastic drugs taxol or indole alkaloids. The emerging examples of P450 involvement in natural product synthesis in traditional medicinal plant species are becoming increasingly interesting, as they provide new alternatives to modern medicines. In view of the divergent roles of P450s, we review their classification and nomenclature, functions and evolution, role in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and use as tools in pharmacology.

Plants use a diverse array of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases in their biosynthetic and detoxification pathways. To determine the extent to which various maize P450s are induced in response to chemical inducers, such as naphthalic anhydride (NA), triasulfuron (T), phenobarbital, and bacterial pathogens (Erwinia stuartii, Acidovorax avenae), we have analyzed the response patterns of seven P450 transcripts after treatment of seedlings with these inducers. Each of these P450 transcripts has distinct developmental, tissue-specific, and chemical cues regulating their expression even when they encode P450s within the same biosynthetic pathway. Most notably, the CYP71C1 and CYP71C3 transcripts, encoding P450s in the DIMBOA biosynthetic pathway, are induced to the same level in response to wounding and NA treatment of younger seedlings and differentially in response to NA/T treatment of younger seedlings and NA and NA/T treatment of older seedlings. NA and T induce expression of both CYP92A1 and CYP72A5 transcripts in older seedling shoots, whereas phenobarbital induces CYP92A1 expression in older seedling shoots and highly induces CYP72A5 expression in young and older seedling roots. Expressed sequence tag (EST) 6c06b11 transcripts, encoding an undefined P450 activity, are highly induced in seedling shoots infected with bacterial pathogens.

Plants use a diverse array of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases in their biosynthetic and detoxification pathways. To determine the extent to which various maize P450s are induced in response to chemical inducers, such as naphthalic anhydride (NA), triasulfuron (T), phenobarbital, and bacterial pathogens (Erwinia stuartii, Acidovorax avenae), we have analyzed the response patterns of seven P450 transcripts after treatment of seedlings with these inducers. Each of these P450 transcripts has distinct developmental, tissue-specific, and chemical cues regulating their expression even when they encode P450s within the same biosynthetic pathway. Most notably, the CYP71C1 and CYP71C3 transcripts, encoding P450s in the DIMBOA biosynthetic pathway, are induced to the same level in response to wounding and NA treatment of younger seedlings and differentially in response to NA/T treatment of younger seedlings and NA and NA/T treatment of older seedlings. NA and T induce expression of both CYP92A1 and CYP72A5 transcripts in older seedling shoots, whereas phenobarbital induces CYP92A1 expression in older seedling shoots and highly induces CYP72A5 expression in young and older seedling roots. Expressed sequence tag (EST) 6c06b11 transcripts, encoding an undefined P450 activity, are highly induced in seedling shoots infected with bacterial pathogens. PMID:11161067

The filamentous bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor has a complex life cycle involving the formation of hair-like aerial mycelia on the colony surface, which differentiate into chains of spores. Genes required for the initiation of aerial mycelium formation have been termed ‘bld’ (bald), describing the smooth, undifferentiated colonies of mutant strains. We report the identification of a new bld gene designated as sco3099 and biochemical analysis of its encoded enzyme, cytochromeP450 (P450, or CYP) 107U1. Deletion of sco3099 resulted in a mutant defective in aerial hyphae sporulation and sensitive to heat shock, indicating that P450 107U1 plays a key role in growth and development of S. coelicolor. This is the first P450 reported to participate in a sporulation process in Streptomycetes. The substrate and catalytic properties of P450 107U1 were further investigated in mass spectrometry-based metabolomic studies. Glycocholic acid (from the medium) was identified as a substrate of P450 107U1 and was oxidized to glyco-7-oxo-deoxycholic acid. Although this reaction is apparently not relevant to the observed sporulation deficiency, it suggests that P450 107U1 might exert its physiological function by oxidizing other steroid-like molecules. PMID:23357279

We have studied membrane topology of cytochromeP-450c21 (P450c21) using the approaches of mutagenesis and protease digestion. P450c21 is located at the cytoplasm with an N-terminal hydrophobic domain integrated into microsomal membranes. When this hydrophobic domain was replaced by a secretory signal peptide, P450c21 was translocated into the lumen and lost enzymic activity. No other topogenic sequence was detected in the bulk of the P450c21 peptide. A mutant protein with Pro-30 replaced by Leu (L30) corresponding to the mutation found in the diseased state was created. L30 protein lost 90% of enzymic activity, while a double mutant (L30R32) with an additional Leu-32 to Arg mutation had slightly higher residual enzymic activity. Apart from lower activity, L30 was also present in the cell at a lower level than wild-type P450c21. This lower level is probably due to increased degradation, as L30 is synthesized at a normal rate. Both L30 and L30R32 proteins, however, were integrated into membranes normally. Therefore the Pro-30 --> Leu mutation did not affect membrane integration, but affected the abundance and enzymic activity of P450c21. PMID:8645225

Using cDNA array techniques, the transcriptional levels of Drosophila cytochromeP450 (P450) genes were compared between male and female flies. Of the 86 P450s, 15 isoforms were picked up and the levels of transcription were confirmed by the real time quantitative RT-PCR. Cyp315a1 and Cyp302a1, which had been reported as P450s involved in the ecdysteroid biosynthesis, were included in the 15 isoforms and expression of these P450s was 8.6- and 7.9-fold higher in females than in males, respectively. In addition, we confirmed that expression of Cyp312a1 was 82-fold higher in adult males than females. This gene expression was observed mostly in the abdomen and its transcription level gradually increased from pupal stage and peaked in the 5-day-old adult. Furthermore, the male specific expression of Cyp312a1 was universally observed in three Drosophila strains originated from the USA (Oregon R), China (Canton S), and Japan (HKJ), suggesting possible involvement of this P450 in significant endogenous catalytic reaction(s). This is the first report of a P450 enzyme being predominantly expressed in male Drosophila.

The cyclic enzymatic function of a cytochromeP450, as it catalyzes the oxygen-dependent metabolism of many organic chemicals, requires the delivery of two electrons to the hemeprotein. In general these electrons are transferred from NADPH to the P450 via an FMN- and FAD-containing flavoprotein (NADPH-P450 reductase). The present paper shows that NADPH can be replaced by an electrochemically generated reductant [cobalt(II) sepulchrate trichloride] for the electrocatalytically driven omega-hydroxylation of lauric acid. Results are presented illustrating the use of purified recombinant proteins containing P450 4A1, such as the fusion protein (rFP450 [mRat4A1/mRatOR]L1) or a system reconstituted with purified P450 4A1 plus purified NADPH-P450 reductase. Rates of formation of 12-hydroxydodecanoic acid by the electrochemical method are comparable to those obtained using NADPH as electron donor. These results suggest the practicality of developing electrocatalytically dependent bioreactors containing different P450s as catalysts for the large-scale synthesis of stereo- and regio-selective hydroxylation products of many chemicals. PMID:7644480

A cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzyme, 3’-daidzein hydroxylase, CYP105D7 (3’-DH), responsible for daidzein hydroxylation at the 3’-position, was recently reported. CYP105D7 (3’-DH) is a class I type of CYP that requires electrons provided through electron transfer proteins such as ferredoxin and ferredoxin reductase. Presently, we constructed an artificial CYP in order to develop a reaction host for the production of a hydroxylated product. Fusion-mediated construction with the reductase domain from self-sufficient CYP102D1 was done to increase electron transfer efficiency and coupling with the oxidative process. An artificial self-sufficient daidzein hydroxylase (3’-ASDH) displayed distinct spectral properties of both flavoprotein and CYP. The fusion enzyme catalyzed hydroxylation of daidzein more efficiently, with a kcat/Km value of 16.8 μM-1 min-1, which was about 24-fold higher than that of the 3’-DH-camA/B reconstituted enzyme. Finally, a recombinant Streptomyces avermitilis host for the expression of 3’-ASDH and production of the hydroxylated product was developed. The conversion that was attained (34.6%) was 5.2-fold higher than that of the wild-type. PMID:22697884

The importance of cytochromeP450 isoforms to species differences in the metabolism of foreign compounds and activation of procarcinogens has been identified. The possible range of P450 isozymes in significant variations in toxicity exhibited by experimental rodent species may have a relevance to chemical risk assessment, especially as human P450s are likely to show changes in the way they metabolize xenobiotics. Consequently, in the safety evaluation of chemicals, we should be cautious in extrapolating results from experimental animal models to humans. This paper focuses on examples in which species differences in P450s lead to significant alterations in carcinogenic response, and includes a discussion of the current procedures for toxicity screening, with an emphasis on short-term tests. Images Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 PMID:9755138

Bacterial cytochromeP450s (P450s), which catalyze regio- and stereoselective oxidations of hydrocarbons with high turnover rates, are attractive biocatalysts for fine chemical production. Enzyme immobilization is needed for cost-effective industrial manufacturing. However, immobilization of P450s is difficult because electron-transfer proteins are involved in catalysis and anchoring these can prevent them from functioning as shuttle molecules for carrying electrons. We studied a heterotrimeric protein-mediated co-immobilization of a bacterial P450, and its electron-transfer protein and reductase. Fusion with subunits of a heterotrimeric Sulfolobus solfataricus proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) enabled immobilization of the three proteins on a solid support. The co-immobilized enzymes catalyzed monooxygenation because the electron-transfer protein fused to PCNA via a single peptide linker retained its electron-transport function.

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a well-known and widely-used analgesic. It is rapidly deacetylated to salicylic acid, which forms two hippuric acids-salicyluric acid and gentisuric acid-and two glucuronides. The oxidation of aspirin and salicylic acid has been reported with human liver microsomes, but data on individual cytochromesP450 involved in oxidation is lacking. In this study we monitored oxidation of these compounds by human liver microsomes and cytochromeP450 (P450) using UPLC with fluorescence detection. Microsomal oxidation of salicylic acid was much faster than aspirin. The two oxidation products were 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (gentisic acid, documented by its UV and mass spectrum) and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. Formation of neither product was inhibited by desferrioxamine, suggesting a lack of contribution of oxygen radicals under these conditions. Although more liphophilic, aspirin was oxidized less efficiently, primarily to the 2,5-dihydroxy product. Recombinant human P450s 2C8, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, and 3A4 all catalyzed the 5-hydroxylation of salicylic acid. Inhibitor studies with human liver microsomes indicated that all six of the previously mentioned P450s could contribute to both the 5- and 3-hydroxylation of salicylic acid and that P450s 2A6 and 2B6 have contributions to 5-hydroxylation. Inhibitor studies indicated that the major human P450 involved in both 3- and 5-hydroxylation of salicylic acid is P450 2E1.

CytochromeP450 (P450) 4A11 is the only functionally active subfamily 4A P450 in humans. P450 4A11 catalyzes mainly ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids in liver and kidney; this process is not a major degradative pathway, but at least one product, 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, has important signaling properties. We studied catalysis by P450 4A11 and the issue of rate-limiting steps using lauric acid ω-hydroxylation, a prototypic substrate for this enzyme. Some individual reaction steps were studied using pre-steady-state kinetic approaches. Substrate and product binding and release were much faster than overall rates of catalysis. Reduction of ferric P450 4A11 (to ferrous) was rapid and not rate-limiting. Deuterium kinetic isotope effect (KIE) experiments yielded low but reproducible values (1.2–2) for 12-hydroxylation with 12-2H-substituted lauric acid. However, considerable “metabolic switching” to 11-hydroxylation was observed with [12-2H3]lauric acid. Analysis of switching results [Jones, J. P., et al. (1986) J. Am. Chem. Soc.108, 7074–7078] and the use of tritium KIE analysis with [12-3H]lauric acid [Northrop, D. B. (1987) Methods Enzymol.87, 607–625] both indicated a high intrinsic KIE (>10). Cytochrome b5 (b5) stimulated steady-state lauric acid ω-hydroxylation ∼2-fold; the apoprotein was ineffective, indicating that electron transfer is involved in the b5 enhancement. The rate of b5 reoxidation was increased in the presence of ferrous P450 mixed with O2. Collectively, the results indicate that both the transfer of an electron to the ferrous·O2 complex and C–H bond-breaking limit the rate of P450 4A11 ω-oxidation. PMID:25203493

CytochromeP450 (P450) 4A11 is the only functionally active subfamily 4A P450 in humans. P450 4A11 catalyzes mainly ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids in liver and kidney; this process is not a major degradative pathway, but at least one product, 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, has important signaling properties. We studied catalysis by P450 4A11 and the issue of rate-limiting steps using lauric acid ω-hydroxylation, a prototypic substrate for this enzyme. Some individual reaction steps were studied using pre-steady-state kinetic approaches. Substrate and product binding and release were much faster than overall rates of catalysis. Reduction of ferric P450 4A11 (to ferrous) was rapid and not rate-limiting. Deuterium kinetic isotope effect (KIE) experiments yielded low but reproducible values (1.2-2) for 12-hydroxylation with 12-(2)H-substituted lauric acid. However, considerable "metabolic switching" to 11-hydroxylation was observed with [12-(2)H3]lauric acid. Analysis of switching results [Jones, J. P., et al. (1986) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 108, 7074-7078] and the use of tritium KIE analysis with [12-(3)H]lauric acid [Northrop, D. B. (1987) Methods Enzymol. 87, 607-625] both indicated a high intrinsic KIE (>10). Cytochrome b5 (b5) stimulated steady-state lauric acid ω-hydroxylation ∼2-fold; the apoprotein was ineffective, indicating that electron transfer is involved in the b5 enhancement. The rate of b5 reoxidation was increased in the presence of ferrous P450 mixed with O2. Collectively, the results indicate that both the transfer of an electron to the ferrous·O2 complex and C-H bond-breaking limit the rate of P450 4A11 ω-oxidation.

In order to develop in vitro methods as an alternative to P450 animal testing in the drug discovery process, two main requisites are necessary: 1) gathering of data on animal homologues of the human P450 enzymes, currently very limited, and 2) bypassing the requirement for both the P450 reductase and the expensive cofactor NADPH. In this work, P450 2C20 from Macaca fascicularis, homologue of the human P450 2C8 has been taken as a model system to develop such an alternative in vitro method by two different approaches. In the first approach called "molecular Lego", a soluble self-sufficient chimera was generated by fusing the P450 2C20 domain with the reductase domain of cytochromeP450 BM3 from Bacillus megaterium (P450 2C20/BMR). In the second approach, the need for the redox partner and also NADPH were both obviated by the direct immobilization of the P450 2C20 on glassy carbon and gold electrodes. Both systems were then compared to those obtained from the reconstituted P450 2C20 monooxygenase in presence of the human P450 reductase and NADPH using paclitaxel and amodiaquine, two typical drug substrates of the human P450 2C8. The K(M) values calculated for the 2C20 and 2C20/BMR in solution and for 2C20 immobilized on electrodes modified with gold nanoparticles were 1.9 ± 0.2, 5.9 ± 2.3, 3.0 ± 0.5 μM for paclitaxel and 1.2 ± 0.2, 1.6±0.2 and 1.4 ± 0.2 μM for amodiaquine, respectively. The data obtained not only show that the engineering of M. fascicularis did not affect its catalytic properties but also are consistent with K(M) values measured for the microsomal human P450 2C8 and therefore show the feasibility of developing alternative in vitro animal tests.

Administration of ethanol to rabbits is known to induce a unique liver microsomal cytochromeP-450, termed isozyme 3a or P-450ALC, which is responsible for the increased oxidation of ethanol and other alcohols and the activation of toxic or carcinogenic compounds such as acetaminophen and N-nitrosodimethylamine. To further characterize this cytochromeP-450 we have identified cDNA clones to isozyme 3a by immunoscreening, DNA hybridization, and hybridization-selection. The cDNA sequence determined from two overlapping clones contains an open reading frame of 1416 nucleotides, and the first 25 amino acids of this reading frame correspond to residues 21-45 of cytochromeP-450 3a. The complete polypeptide, including residues 1 to 20, contains 492 amino acids and has a molecular weight of 56,820. CytochromeP-450 3a is approximately 55% identical in sequence to P-450 isozymes 1 and 3b and 48% identical to isozyme 2. Hybridization of clone p3a-2 to electrophoretically fractionated rabbit liver poly(A)+ RNA revealed multiple bands, but, with a probe derived from the 3' nontranslated portion of this cDNA, only a 1.9-kilobase band was observed. Treatment of rabbits with imidazole, which increases the content of isozyme 3a, resulted in a transient increase in form 3a mRNA, but this was judged to be insufficient to account for the known 4.5-fold increase in form 3a protein. Genomic DNA analysis indicated that the cytochromeP-450 3a gene does not belong to a large subfamily. Images PMID:3027695

A heretofore unrecognized form of cytochromeP-450 was purified from rabbit liver microsomes with an average yield and purity similar to that of other highly purified forms of cytochromeP-450. Several properties of this cytochrome are contrasted with those of form 2, the major phenobarbital-inducible cytochromeP-450, form 4, the major 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-inducible cytochrome, and form 6, a cytochrome that is selectively induced in liver microsomes by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin during the perinatal period. Thes four forms can be distinguished by virtue of their molecular weights as determined using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate, by their respective peptide fingerprints, and by the monospecificity of their antisera. Since the enumerated properties are thought to reflect the primary structure of the cytochromes and since the observed differences are extensive, we suggest that these four forms are not derived from a common protein precursor.

CytochromeP450 (P450) 20A1 is one of the so-called “orphan” P450s without assigned biological function. mRNA expression was detected in human liver and extrahepatic expression was noted in several human brain regions, including substantia nigra, hippocampus, and amygdala, using conventional polymerase chain reaction and RNA dot blot analysis. Adult human liver contained 3-fold higher overall mRNA levels than whole brain, although specific regions (i.e., hippocampus and substantia nigra) exhibited higher mRNA expression levels than liver. Orthologous full-length and truncated transcripts of P450 20A1 were transcribed and sequenced from rat liver, heart, and brain. In rat, the concentrations of full-length transcripts were 3–4 fold higher in brain and heart than liver. In situ hybridization of rat whole brain sections showed a similar mRNA expression pattern as observed for human P450 20A1, indicating expression in substantia nigra, hippocampus, and amygdala. A number of N-terminal modifications of the codon-optimized human P450 20A1 sequence were prepared and expressed in Escherichia coli, and two of the truncated derivatives showed characteristic P450 spectra (200–280 nmol P450/l). Although the recombinant enzyme system oxidized NADPH, no catalytic activity was observed with the heterologously expressed protein when a number of potential steroids and biogenic amines were surveyed as potential substrates. The function of P450 20A1 remains unknown; however, the sites of mRNA expression in human brain and the conservation among species may suggest possible neurophysiological function. PMID:18541694

CytochromeP450 enzymes are found in all life forms. P450s play an important role in drug metabolism, and have potential uses as biocatalysts. Human P450s are membrane-bound proteins. However, the interactions between P450s and their membrane environment are not well-understood. To date, all P450 crystal structures have been obtained from engineered proteins, from which the transmembrane helix was absent. A significant number of computational studies have been performed on P450s, but the majority of these have been performed on the solubilised forms of P450s. Here we present a multiscale approach for modelling P450s, spanning from coarse-grained and atomistic molecular dynamics simulations to reaction modelling using hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods. To our knowledge, this is the first application of such an integrated multiscale approach to modelling of a membrane-bound enzyme. We have applied this protocol to a key human P450 involved in drug metabolism: CYP3A4. A biologically realistic model of CYP3A4, complete with its transmembrane helix and a membrane, has been constructed and characterised. The dynamics of this complex have been studied, and the oxidation of the anticoagulant R-warfarin has been modelled in the active site. Calculations have also been performed on the soluble form of the enzyme in aqueous solution. Important differences are observed between the membrane and solution systems, most notably for the gating residues and channels that control access to the active site. The protocol that we describe here is applicable to other membrane-bound enzymes. PMID:25033460

We show that cytochromeP450scc (CYP11A1) in either a reconstituted system or in isolated adrenal mitochondria can metabolize vitamin D3. The major products of the reaction with reconstituted enzyme were 20-hydroxycholecalciferol and 20,22-dihydroxycholecalciferol, with yields of 16 and 4%, respectively, of the original vitamin D3 substrate. Trihydroxycholecalciferol was a minor product, likely arising from further metabolism of dihydroxycholecalciferol. Based on NMR analysis and known properties of P450scc we propose that hydroxylation of vitamin D3 by P450scc occurs sequentially and stereospecifically with initial formation of 20(S)-hydroxyvitamin D3. P450scc did not metabolize 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, indicating that modification of C25 protected it against P450scc action. Adrenal mitochondria also metabolized vitamin D3 yielding 10 hydroxyderivatives, with UV spectra typical of vitamin D triene chromophores. Aminogluthimide inhibition showed that the three major metabolites, but not the others, resulted from P450scc action. It therefore appears that non-P450scc enzymes present in the adrenal cortex to some extent contribute to metabolism of vitamin D3. We conclude that purified P450scc in a reconstituted system or P450scc in adrenal mitochondria can add one hydroxyl group to vitamin D3 with subsequent hydroxylation being observed for reconstituted enzyme but not for adrenal mitochondria. Additional vitamin D3 metabolites arise from the action of other enzymes in adrenal mitochondria. These findings appear to define novel metabolic pathways involving vitamin D3 that remain to be characterized.

We show that cytochromeP450scc (CYP11A1) in either a reconstituted system or in isolated adrenal mitochondria can metabolize vitamin D3. The major products of the reaction with reconstituted enzyme were 20-hydroxycholecalciferol and 20,22-dihydroxycholecalciferol, with yields of 16 and 4%, respectively, of the original vitamin D3 substrate. Trihydroxycholecalciferol was a minor product, likely arising from further metabolism of dihydroxycholecalciferol. Based on NMR analysis and known properties of P450scc we propose that hydroxylation of vitamin D3 by P450scc occurs sequentially and stereospecifically with initial formation of 20(S)-hydroxyvitamin D3. P450scc did not metabolize 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, indicating that modification of C25 protected it against P450scc action. Adrenal mitochondria also metabolized vitamin D3 yielding 10 hydroxyderivatives, with UV spectra typical of vitamin D triene chromophores. Aminogluthimide inhibition showed that the three major metabolites, but not the others, resulted from P450scc action. It therefore appears that non-P450scc enzymes present in the adrenal cortex to some extent contribute to metabolism of vitamin D3. We conclude that purified P450scc in a reconstituted system or P450scc in adrenal mitochondria can add one hydroxyl group to vitamin D3 with subsequent hydroxylation being observed for reconstituted enzyme but not for adrenal mitochondria. Additional vitamin D3 metabolites arise from the action of other enzymes in adrenal mitochondria. These findings appear to define novel metabolic pathways involving vitamin D3 that remain to be characterized. PMID:16098191

As a result of technical advances in recombinant DNA technology and nucleotide sequencing, entire genome sequences have become available in the past decade and offer potential in understanding diseases. However, a central problem in the biochemical sciences is that the functions of only a fraction of the genes/proteins are known, and this is also an issue in pharmacology. This review is focused on issues related to the functions of cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes. P450 functions can be categorized in several groups: 1) Some P450s have critical roles in the metabolism of endogenous substrates (e.g., sterols and fat-soluble vitamins). 2) Some P450s are not generally critical to normal physiology but function in relatively nonselective protection from the many xenobiotic chemicals to which mammals (including humans) are exposed in their diets [as well as more anthropomorphic chemicals (e.g., drugs, pesticides)]. 3) Some P450s have not been extensively studied and are termed “orphans” here. With regard to elucidation of any physiological functions of the orphan P450s, the major subject of this review, it is clear that simple trial-and-error approaches with individual substrate candidates will not be very productive in addressing questions about function. A series of liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/informatics approaches are discussed, along with some successes with both human and bacterial P450s. Current information on what are still considered “orphan” P450s is presented. The potential for application of some of these approaches to other enzyme systems is also discussed. PMID:21737533

Mouse hepatic parenchymal cells (HPCs) have become the most frequently used in vitro model to study mechanisms of acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity. It is universally accepted that APAP hepatocellular injury requires bioactivation by cytochromesP450 (P450s), but this remains unproven in primary mouse HPCs in vitro, especially over the wide range of concentrations that have been employed in published reports. The aim of this work was to test the hypothesis that APAP-induced hepatocellular death in vitro depends solely on P450s. We evaluated APAP cytotoxicity and APAP-protein adducts (a biomarker of metabolic bioactivation by P450) using primary mouse HPCs in the presence and absence of a broad-spectrum inhibitor of P450s, 1-aminobenzotriazole (1-ABT). 1-ABT abolished formation of APAP-protein adducts at all concentrations of APAP (0-14 mM), but eliminated cytotoxicity only at small concentrations (≦5 mM), indicating the presence of a P450-independent mechanism at larger APAP concentrations. P450-independent cell death was delayed in onset relative to toxicity observed at smaller concentrations. p-Aminophenol was detected in primary mouse HPCs exposed to large concentrations of APAP, and a deacetylase inhibitor [bis (4-nitrophenyl) phosphate (BNPP)] significantly reduced cytotoxicity. In conclusion, APAP hepatocellular injury in vitro occurs by at least two mechanisms, a P450-dependent mechanism that operates at concentrations of APAP ≦ 5 mM and a P450-independent mechanism that predominates at larger concentrations and is slower in onset. p-Aminophenol most likely contributes to the latter mechanism. These findings should be considered in interpreting results from APAP cytotoxicity studies in vitro and in selecting APAP concentrations for use in such studies.

At birth, the external genitalia of female spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are the most masculinized of any known mammal, but are still sexually differentiated. Placental aromatase cytochromeP450 (P450arom) is an important route of androgen metabolism protecting human female fetuses from virilization in utero. Therefore, placental P450arom expression was examined in spotted hyenas to determine levels during genital differentiation, and to compare molecular characteristics between the hyena and human placental enzymes. Hyena placental P450arom activity was determined at gestational days (GD) 31, 35, 45, 65 and 95 (term, 110), and the relative sensitivity of hyena and human placental enzyme to inhibition by the specific inhibitor, Letrozole, was also examined. Expression of hyena P450arom in placenta was localized by immuno-histochemistry, and a full-length cDNA was cloned for phylogenetic analysis. Aromatase activity increased from GD31 to a peak at 45 and 65, apparently decreasing later in gestation. This activity was more sensitive to inhibition by Letrozole than was human placental aromatase activity. Expression of P450arom was localized to syncytiotrophoblast and giant cells of mid-gestation placentas. The coding sequence of hyena P450arom was 94% and 86% identical to the canine and human enzymes respectively, as reflected by phylogenetic analyses. These data demonstrate for the first time that hyena placental aromatase activity is comparable to that of human placentas when genital differentiation is in progress. This suggests that even in female spotted hyenas clitoral differentiation is likely protected from virilization by placental androgen metabolism. Decreased placental aromatase activity in late gestation may be equally important in allowing androgen to program behaviors at birth. Although hyena P450arom is closely related to the canine enzyme, both placental anatomy and P450arom expression differ. Other hyaenids and carnivores must be investigated to

The interaction of adrenodoxin (Adx) and NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase (CPR) with human microsomal steroidogenic cytochromeP450s was studied. It is found that Adx, mitochondrial electron transfer protein, is able to support reactions catalyzed by human microsomal P450s: full length CYP17, truncated CYP17, and truncated CYP21. CPR, but not Adx, supports activity of truncated CYP19. Truncated and the full length CYP17s show distinct preference for electron donor proteins. Truncated CYP17 has higher activity with Adx compared to CPR. The alteration in preference to electron donor does not change product profile for truncated enzymes. The electrostatic contacts play a major role in the interaction of truncated CYP17 with either CPR or Adx. Similarly electrostatic contacts are predominant in the interaction of full length CYP17 with Adx. We speculate that Adx might serve as an alternative electron donor for CYP17 at the conditions of CPR deficiency in human.

In experiments on male Wistar rats it has been found that physical factors applied in medicine (laser radiation of low intensity with wave length 0.89 microns, microwaves of centimeter range of 2450 MHz, and ultrasound of low intensity 880 KHz) changed catalytic activity of liver microsomal and rostenedione 16 alpha- and 6 beta-hydroxylating cytochromesP-450h and P-450p and blood corticosteroids level. Activities of these two steroid-metabolizing cytochromes decreased under ultrasonic skin application on liver region and increased under microwave and laser action. Contents of physiologically inactive form of corticosterone were not changed by the physical factors action while level of active hormone was increased under ultrasonic and microwave action. These findings suggest association of the activity of liver steroid-metabolizing cytochromesP-450 and level of physiologically active form of corticosterone in blood under physical factors skin application on liver region.

CYP93A1 is a cytochromeP450 that is involved in the synthesis of the phytoalexin glyceollin in soybean (Glycine max L. Merr). The gene encoding CYP93A1 has been used as a defense marker in soybean cell cultures, however, little is known regarding how this gene is expressed in the intact plant. To f...

The cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes participate in a wide range of biochemical functions including metabolism of arachidonic acid and steroid hormones. Mouse CYP2J5 is abundant in the kidney where its products, the cis-epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), modulate sodium transport and vascular tone. To d...

When the cDNA encoding bovine microsomal 17 alpha-hydroxylase cytochromeP450 (P45017 alpha) containing modifications within the first seven codons which favor expression in Escherichia coli is placed in a highly regulated tac promoter expression plasmid, as much as 16 mg of spectrally detectable P45017 alpha per liter of culture can be synthesized and integrated into E. coli membranes. The known enzymatic activities of bovine P45017 alpha can be reconstituted by addition of purified rat liver NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase to isolated E. coli membrane fractions containing the recombinant P45017 alpha enzyme. Surprisingly, it is found that E. coli contain an electron-transport system that can substitute for the mammalian microsomal NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase in supporting both the 17 alpha-hydroxylase and 17,20-lyase activities of P45017 alpha. Thus, not only can E. coli express this eukaryotic membrane protein at relatively high levels, but as evidenced by metabolism of steroids added directly to the cells, the enzyme is catalytically active in vivo. These studies establish E. coli as an efficacious heterologous expression system for structure-function analysis of the cytochromeP450 system. Images PMID:1829523

Conazoles are N-substituted azole antifungal agents used as both pesticides and drugs. Some of these compounds are hepatocarcinogenic in mice and some can induce thyroid tumors in rats. Many of these compounds are able to induce and/or inhibit mammalian hepatic cytochromeP450s t...

This study was undertaken to examine the effects of the triazole antifungal agent fluconazole on the expression of hepatic cytochromeP450 (Cyp) genes and the activities of Cyp enzymes in male Sprague-Dawley rats and male CD-1 mice. Alkoxyresorufin O-dealkylation (AROD) methods w...

CytochromeP450s are the major phase I drug metabolizing enzymes found in most species, including those belonging to the phylum Arthropoda. Much of the work within the area of xenobiotic metabolism in this phylum has centered on mosquito species such as Anopheles gambiae due to their role as vectors...

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Etoile de Choisy) microsomes catalyzed the cytochromeP-450-dependent oxidation of the herbicide diclofop to three hydroxy-diclofop isomers. Hydroxylation was predominant at carbon 4, with migration of chlorine to carbon 5 (67%) and carbon 3 (25%). The 2,4-dichloro-5-hydroxy isomer was identified as a minor reaction product (8%). Substrate-specificity studies showed that the activity was not inhibited or was weakly inhibited by a range of xenobiotic or physiological cytochromeP-450 substrates, with the exception of lauric acid. Wheat microsomes also catalyze the metabolism of the herbicides chlorsulfuron, chlortoluron, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and of the model substrate ethoxycoumarin, as well as the hydroxylation of the endogenous substrates cinnamic and lauric acids. Treatments of wheat seedlings with phenobarbital or the safener naphthalic acid anhydride enhanced the cytochromeP-450 content of the microsomes and all related activities except that of cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase, which was reduced. The stimulation patterns of diclofop aryl hydroxylase and lauric acid hydroxylase were similar, in contrast with the other activities tested. Lauric acid inhibited competitively (Ki = 9 μm) the oxidation of diclofop and reciprocally. The similarity of diclofop aryl hydroxylase and lauric acid hydroxylase was further investigated by alternative substrate kinetics, autocatalytic inactivation, and computer-aided molecular modelisation studies, and the results suggest that both reactions are catalyzed by the same cytochromeP-450 isozyme. PMID:16653070

In the present study we provide direct evidence for the involvement of rat microsomal cytochromeP450s in melatonin O-demethylation and hydroxylation at two different positions: 2 and 6, as well as generation of N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxy-kynuramine (AFMK) and two unknown products. Moreover, we found that mitochondrial cytochromeP450s also converts melatonin into AFMK, N-acetylserotonin (NAS), 2-hydroxymelatonin, 6-hydroxymelatonin and the same two unknown products. Eadie-Hofstee plots for 6-hydroxylation and O-demethylation reactions were curvilinear for all tested fractions, suggestive of involvement of at least two components, one with a high affinity and low capacity, and another with a low affinity and high capacity. Mitochondrial cytochromeP450s exhibited higher affinity (suggesting lower Km value) and higher Vmax for melatonin 6-hydroxylation and O-demethylation for both high-affinity and low-affinity components as compared to microsomal enzymes. The intrinsic clearance for melatonin hydroxylation by high- and low-affinity components displayed the highest values in all tested fractions, indicating that both mitochondrial and microsomal cytochromeP-450s metabolize melatonin principally by 6-hydroxylation, with O-demethylation representing a minor metabolic pathway. PMID:18717775

In the present study we provide direct evidence for the involvement of rat microsomal cytochromeP450s in melatonin O-demethylation and hydroxylation at two different positions: 2 and 6, as well as generation of N(1)-acetyl-N(2)-formyl-5-methoxy-kynuramine (AFMK) and two unknown products. Moreover, we found that mitochondrial cytochromeP450s also converts melatonin into AFMK, N-acetylserotonin, 2-hydroxymelatonin, 6-hydroxymelatonin and the same two unknown products. Eadie-Hofstee plots for 6-hydroxylation and O-demethylation reactions were curvilinear for all tested fractions, suggestive of involvement of at least two components, one with a high affinity and low capacity, and another with a low affinity and high capacity. Mitochondrial cytochromeP450s exhibited higher affinity (suggesting lower K(m) value) and higher V(max) for melatonin 6-hydroxylation and O-demethylation for both high-affinity and low-affinity components as compared with microsomal enzymes. The intrinsic clearance for melatonin hydroxylation by high- and low-affinity components displayed the highest values in all tested fractions, indicating that both mitochondrial and microsomal cytochromeP450s metabolize melatonin principally by 6-hydroxylation, with O-demethylation representing a minor metabolic pathway.

We report the nucleotide sequence of the gene and flanking DNA for the cytochromeP450 lanosterol 14 alpha-demethylase (14DM) from the yeast Candida tropicalis ATCC750. An open reading frame (ORF) of 528 codons encoding a 60.9-kD protein is identified. This ORF includes a charact...

ABSTRACTWe report quantitative estimates of the parameters for metabolism of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) by recombinant preparations of hepatic cytochromeP450s (CYPs) from rat and human. BDCM is a drinking water disinfectant byproduct that has been implicated in liver, kidn...

Discusses the structure and function of the liver protein cytochromeP-450, an important catalyst for a variety of detoxification reactions. Diagnostic substracts for this heme-containing monooxygenase, synthetic modes of the active site, and oxidations with synthetic metalloporphyrins are the major topic areas considered. (JN)

The goals of this project are to investigate (1) the kinetics and stabilities of engineered cytochromeP450 (P450) small alkane hydroxylases and their evolutionary intermediates, (2) the structural basis for catalytic proficiency on small alkanes of these engineered P450s, and (3) the changes in redox control resulting from protein engineering. To reach these goals, we have established new methods for determining the kinetics and stabilities of multicomponent P450s such as CYP153A6. Using these, we were able to determine that CYP153A6 is proficient for hydroxylation of alkanes as small as ethane, an activity that has never been observed previously in any natural P450. To elucidate the structures of the engineered P450s, we obtained x-ray diffraction data for two variants in the P450PMO (propane monooxygenase) lineage and a preliminary structure for the most evolved variant. This structure shows changes in the substrate binding regions of the enzyme and a reduction in active site volume that are consistent with the observed changes in substrate specificity from fatty acids in the native enzyme to small alkanes in P450PMO. We also constructed semi-rational designed libraries mutating only residues in the enzyme active site that in one round of mutagenesis and screening produced variants that achieved nearly half of the activity of the most evolved enzymes of the P450PMO lineage. Finally, we found that changes in redox properties of the laboratory-evolved P450 alkane hydroxylases did not reflect the improvement in their electron transfer efficiency. The heme redox potential remained constant throughout evolution, while activity increased and coupling efficiency improved from 10% to 90%. The lack of correlation between heme redox potential and enzyme activity and coupling efficiency led us to search for other enzyme properties that could be better predictors for activity towards small alkanes, specifically methane. We investigated the oxidation potential of the radical

Interindividual variability in xenobiotic metabolism and drug response is extensive and genetic factors play an important role in this variation. A majority of clinically used drugs are substrates for the cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzyme system and interindividual variability in expression and function of these enzymes is a major factor for explaining individual susceptibility for adverse drug reactions and drug response. Because of the existence of many polymorphic CYP genes, for many of which the number of allelic variants is continually increasing, a universal and official nomenclature system is important. Since 1999, all functionally relevant polymorphic CYP alleles are named and published on the Human CytochromeP450 Allele (CYP-allele) Nomenclature Web site (http://www.cypalleles.ki.se). Currently, the database covers nomenclature of more than 660 alleles in a total of 30 genes that includes 29 CYPs as well as the cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase (POR) gene. On the CYP-allele Web site, each gene has its own Webpage, which lists the alleles with their nucleotide changes, their functional consequences, and links to publications identifying or characterizing the alleles. CYP2D6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4 are the most important CYPs in terms of drug metabolism, which is also reflected in their corresponding highest number of Webpage hits at the CYP-allele Web site.The main advantage of the CYP-allele database is that it offers a rapid online publication of CYP-alleles and their effects and provides an overview of peer-reviewed data to the scientific community. Here, we provide an update of the CYP-allele database and the associated nomenclature.

Electrophoresis of Drosophila microsomes resolves two major hemecontaining protein bands with apparent molecular weights of 59,290 (band a) and 55,750 (band b). The hemoproteins in these two bands can account for most of the cytochromeP-450 in the organism. Band a is present in all strains examined: band b is not. Dimethylnitrosamine demethylase, a P-450 enzyme, is a component of band b. Numerous studies have shown that P-450-attributed activities of Drosophila are genotype dependent. Drosophila, therefore, represents a unique system for studying the genetics of, and the molecular mechanisms that regulate, the expression of constitutive levels of P-450 isozymes. Here we explore the molecular basis for the large differences in P-450 expression between strains. Microsomal proteins from several wild-type strains were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Significant differences in the protein bands that contained P-450 were observed between strains with high or low mixed-function oxidase activity. 22 references, 2 figures, 1 table.

The liver is responsible for key metabolic functions, including control of normal homoeostasis in response to diet and xenobiotic metabolism/detoxification. We have shown previously that inactivation of the hepatic cytochromeP450 system through conditional deletion of POR (P450 oxidoreductase) induces hepatic steatosis, liver growth and P450 expression. We have exploited a new conditional model of POR deletion to investigate the mechanism underlying these changes. We demonstrate that P450 induction, liver growth and hepatic triacylglycerol (triglyceride) homoeostasis are intimately linked and provide evidence that the observed phenotypes result from hepatic accumulation of unsaturated fatty acids, which mediate these phenotypes by activation of the nuclear receptor CAR (constitutive androstane receptor) and, to a lesser degree, PXR (pregnane X receptor). To our knowledge this is the first direct evidence that P450s play a major role in controlling unsaturated fatty acid homoeostasis via CAR. The regulation of P450s involved in xenobiotic metabolism by this mechanism has potentially significant implications for individual responses to drugs and environmental chemicals. PMID:18778245

Abstract The cytochromeP450s are a superfamily of enzymes that are found in all kingdoms of living organisms, and typically catalyze the oxidative addition of atomic oxygen to an unactivated C-C or C-H bond. Over 8000 nonredundant sequences of putative and confirmed P450 enzymes have been identified, but three-dimensional structures have been determined for only a small fraction of these. While all P450 enzymes for which structures have been determined share a common global fold, the flexibility and modularity of structure around the active site account for the ability of P450 enzymes to accommodate a vast number of structurally dissimilar substrates and support a wide range of selective oxidations. In this review, known P450 structures are compared, and some structural criteria for prediction of substrate selectivity and reaction type are suggested. The importance of dynamic processes such as redox-dependent and effector-induced conformational changes in determining catalytic competence and regio- and stereoselectivity is discussed, and noncrystallographic methods for characterizing P450 structures and dynamics, in particular, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are reviewed. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 13, 1273–1296. PMID:20446763

In rat adrenal cortex 7,12 dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) causes massive necrosis that is dependent of ACTH. This is related to an ACTH inducible adrenal microsomal cytochromeP-450 that catalyzes hydrocarbon metabolism. Rat adrenal microsomes, catalyze the formation of DMBA 3,4 diol a precursor of the bay region reactive electrophile DMBA 3,4 diol 1,2 oxide. Both DMBA metabolism and a 57Kd protein have disappeared from microsomes 30 days after hypophysectomy, but are restored by 14 days treatment with ACTH. Dexamethasone which fully suppresses ACTH only partially suppresses this activity. The 57 Kd protein was partially purified to a single major band in one step from solubilized microsomes by h.p.l.c. chromatography using detergent elution from a novel column that mimics phospholipid membranes. This preparation exhibits a specific content of 2 nm P-450/mg protein and a turnover number of 1,500pm DMBA/nm P-450/minutes. A polyclonal antisera raised against this preparation provides a single western blot corresponding to the 57Kd ACTH sensitive protein. This antibody did not blot microsomal P-450 c21, nor did selected antibodies from known families react with this adrenal P-450 protein, suggesting substantial sequence differences from known P-450's.

Human cytochromeP450 2D6 contributes to the metabolism of >15% of drugs used in clinical practice. This study determined the structure of P450 2D6 complexed with a substrate and potent inhibitor, prinomastat, to 2.85 Å resolution by x-ray crystallography. Prinomastat binding is well defined by electron density maps with its pyridyl nitrogen bound to the heme iron. The structure of ligand-bound P450 2D6 differs significantly from the ligand-free structure reported for the P450 2D6 Met-374 variant (Protein Data Bank code 2F9Q). Superposition of the structures reveals significant differences for β sheet 1, helices A, F, F′, G″, G, and H as well as the helix B-C loop. The structure of the ligand complex exhibits a closed active site cavity that conforms closely to the shape of prinomastat. The closure of the open cavity seen for the 2F9Q structure reflects a change in the direction and pitch of helix F and introduction of a turn at Gly-218, which is followed by a well defined helix F′ that was not observed in the 2F9Q structure. These differences reflect considerable structural flexibility that is likely to contribute to the catalytic versatility of P450 2D6, and this new structure provides an alternative model for in silico studies of substrate interactions with P450 2D6. PMID:22308038

The cytochromesP450 are hemoproteins that catalyze a range of oxidative C-H functionalization reactions, including aliphatic and aromatic hydroxylation. These transformations are important in a range of biological contexts, including biosynthesis and xenobiotic biodegradation. Much work has been carried out on the mechanism of aliphatic hydroxylation, implicating hydrogen atom abstraction, but aromatic hydroxylation is postulated to proceed differently. One mechanism invokes as the key intermediate an arene oxide (and/or its oxepin tautomer). Conclusive isolation of this intermediate has remained elusive and, currently, direct formation of phenols from a Meisenheimer intermediate is believed to be favored. We report here the identification of a P450 [P450cam (CYP101A1) and P450cin (CYP176A1)]-generated arene oxide as a product of in vitro oxidation of tert-butylbenzene. Computations (CBS-QB3) predict that the arene oxide and oxepin have similar stabilities to other arene oxides/oxepins implicated (but not detected) in P450-mediated transformations, suggesting that arene oxides can be unstable terminal products of P450-catalyzed aromatic oxidation that can explain the origin of some observed metabolites.

CytochromeP450s play critical roles in the biosynthesis of physiologically important compounds in plants. These compounds often act as defense toxins to prevent herbivory. In the present study, a total of 174 P450 genes of mulberry (Morus notabilis C.K.Schn) were identified based on bioinformatics analyses. These mulberry P450 genes were divided into nine clans and 47 families and were found to be expressed in a tissue-preferential manner. These genes were compared to the P450 genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Families CYP80, CYP92, CYP728, CYP733, CYP736, and CYP749 were found to exist in mulberry, and they may play important roles in the biosynthesis of mulberry secondary metabolites. Analyses of the functional and metabolic pathways of these genes indicated that mulberry P450 genes may participate in the metabolism of lipids, other secondary metabolites, xenobiotics, amino acids, cofactors, vitamins, terpenoids, and polyketides. These results provide a foundation for understanding of the structures and biological functions of mulberry P450 genes.

Bark beetles oxidize the defensive allelochemicals of their host trees both to detoxify them and convert them into components of their pheromone systems which were catalyzed by cytochromeP450 enzymes (CYPs) and occur in different tissues of the insect. We study P450 genes in the Chinese white pine beetle (Dendroctonus armandi), and some bio-information analysis was done for the full-length deduced amino acid sequences. The tissue specificity of these P450 genes was determined in three tissues (antenna, gut and reproductive organs). Differential expression of the P450 genes was observed between sexes, and within these significant differences exposed to stimuli (α-pinene (1:1 racemic mix), (S)-(-)-α-pinene, (S)-(-)-β-pinene, (+)-3-carene, (±)-limonene and turpentine oil) at 24h. Increased expression of P450 genes suggested that they play a role in the detoxification of monoterpenes released by the host trees. The different transcript accumulation patterns of these bark beetle P450 genes provided insight into ecological interactions of D. armandi with its host pine.

The cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes are the predominant enzyme system involved in human drug metabolism. Alterations in the expression and/or activity of these enzymes result in changes in pharmacokinetics (and consequently the pharmacodynamics) of drugs that are metabolized by this set of enzymes. Apart from changes in activity as a result of drug–drug interactions (by P450 induction or inhibition), the P450 enzymes can exhibit substantial interindividual variation in basal expression and/or activity, leading to differences in the rates of drug elimination and response. This interindividual variation can result from a myriad of factors, including genetic variation in the promoter or coding regions, variation in transcriptional regulators, alterations in microRNA that affect P450 expression, and ontogenic changes due to exposure to xenobiotics during the developmental and early postnatal periods. Other than administering a probe drug or cocktail of drugs to obtain the phenotype or conducting a genetic analysis to determine genotype, methods to determine interindividual variation are limited. Phenotyping via a probe drug requires exposure to a xenobiotic, and genotyping is not always well correlated with phenotype, making both methodologies less than ideal. This article describes recent work evaluating the effect of some of these factors on interindividual variation in human P450-mediated metabolism and the potential utility of endogenous probe compounds to assess rates of drug metabolism among individuals. PMID:26681736

The four Drosophila species endemic to the Sonoran Desert (Drosophila mettleri, Drosophila mojavensis, Drosophila nigrospiracula, and Drosophila pachea) utilize necrotic cactus tissue or soil soaked by rot exudate as breeding substrates. Each Drosophila species uses a different cactus species as its primary host. D. pachea is limited to senita cactus by a biochemical dependency on unusual sterols available only in that cactus. For the other Drosophila species, no such chemical dependencies exist to explain the relationships with their primary host plants. Each cactus species has a different array of allelochemicals that have detrimental effects on non-resident fly species. We have hypothesized that the desert fly-cactus associations are due, in part, to differences between the fly species in their allelochemical detoxication enzymes, the cytochromeP450 system. To test whether P450s are involved in the detoxication of cactus allelochemicals, several experiments were done. (i) The effect of a specific P450 inhibitor, piperonyl butoxide, on larval survival through eclosion on each cactus substrate was investigated. (ii) In vitro metabolism of cactus alkaloids was determined for each Drosophila species. The effects of specific inducers and inhibitors were included in these experiments. (iii) The basal and induced content of cytochromeP450 in each species was determined. The results support the hypothesis that P450 enzymes are involved in host-plant utilization by these Sonoran Desert Drosophila species. Images PMID:1465429

Screening of cytochromeP450 monoxygenases responsible for the regiospecific hydroxylation of flavones, isoflavones and chalcones was attempted using a P450 library constructed from Streptomyces avermitilis MA4680, Bacillus and Nocardia farcinica IFM10152 strains. As electron transfer redox partners with the P450s in Escherichia coli system, putidaredoxin reductase (PdR) and putidaredoxin (Pdx) from Pseudomonas putida were used. Among the 50 soluble P450s in the library screened, three cytochromeP450s, i.e. CYP107Y1, CYP125A2 and CYP107P2 from S. avermitilis MA4680 showed good hydroxylation activities towards flavones and isoflavones. However, low product yields prevented us from identifying complete structure of the products. By using S. avermitilis MA4680 as their expression host, further analysis identified that CYP107Y1(SAV2377), CYP125A2(SAV5841) and CYP107P2(SAV4539) showed good regiospecific hydroxylation activities towards genistein (4',5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone), chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyisoflavone) and apigenin (4',5,7-dihydroxyisoflavone) to produce 3',4',5,7,-tetrahydroxyisoflavone, B-ring hydroxylated 5,7-dihydroxyflavone and 3',4',5,7,-tetrahydroxyflavone, respectively. Analyses of the reaction products were performed using HPLC, ESI-MS-MS and GC-MS and 1H NMR.

While photoaffinity ligands have been widely used to probe the structures of many receptors and nucleic acid binding proteins, their effective use in the study of cytochromep450 structure is less established. Nevertheless, significant advances in this field have been made since the technique was first applied to p450cam in 1979. In several cases, especially studies involving p450s of the 1A and 2B families, peptides covalently modified with photoaffinity ligands have been isolated and characterized. Some of these peptides were predicted by molecular modeling to line substrate binding regions of the enzymes. Other data obtained from such studies were more difficult to reconcile with theory. This review addresses the status of photoaffinity labeling as a tool for studying cytochromep450 structure. In addition, potential future directions in this field are discussed, including the development of heme-directed agents and validation of their effectiveness as photoaffinity ligands using sperm whale myoglobin as a test protein. The potential for hydroxyaromatic compounds to serve as photoactivated probes of active site nucleophiles is also discussed. This class of compounds and its derivatives has long been known in the fields of photochemistry and photophysics to be precursors of reactive radicals and quinone methides that are likely to serve as effective active site probes of the p450s.

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are an ubiquitous mammal atop the arctic marine food chain and bioaccumulate lipophilic environmental contaminants. Antibodies prepared against purified rat liver cytochromeP450-1 Al, -1 A2, -2Bl and -3Al enzymes have been found to cross-react with structurally-related orthologues present in the hepatic microsomes of wild polar bears, immunochemically determined levels of P450-1 A and -2B proteins in polar bear liver relative to liver of untreated rats suggested enzyme induction, probably as a result of exposure to xenobiotic contaminants. Optical density quantitation of the most immunochemically responsive isozymes P450-I Al, -IA2 and -2Bi to polygonal rabbit anti-rat P450-IA/IA2 sera and -2BI antibodies in hepatic microsomes of 13 adult male polar bars from the Resolute Bay area of the Canadian Arctic is presented. Correlations with EROD and PROD catalytic activities and levels of organochlorines, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethene (p,p-DDE) and their methyl sulfone (MeSO2-) metabolites are made to determine if compound-specific enzyme induction linkages exist. Inter-species immunochemical quantitation of isozymic P450cytochromes can serve as an indicator of exposure to biologically active contaminant.

The present article reviews the history of research on the hydroxylation of steroid hormones as catalyzed by enzymes present in mammalian tissues. The report describes how studies of steroid hormone synthesis have played a central role in the discovery of the monooxygenase functions of the cytochromeP450s. Studies of steroid hydroxylation reactions can be credited with showing that: (a) the adrenal mitochondrial enzyme catalyzing the 11{beta}-hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone was the first mammalian enzyme shown by O{sup 18} studies to be an oxygenase; (b) the adrenal microsomal enzyme catalyzing the 21-hydroxylation of steroids was the first mammalian enzyme to show experimentally the proposed 1:1:1 stoichiometry (substrate:oxygen:reduced pyridine nucleotide) of a monooxygenase reaction; (c) application of the photochemical action spectrum technique for reversal of carbon monoxide inhibition of the 21-hydroxylation of 17{alpha}-OH progesterone was the first demonstration that cytochromeP450 was an oxygenase; (d) spectrophotometric studies of the binding of 17{alpha}-OH progesterone to bovine adrenal microsomal P450 revealed the first step in the cyclic reaction scheme of P450, as it catalyzes the 'activation' of oxygen in a monooxygenase reaction; (e) purified adrenodoxin was shown to function as an electron transport component of the adrenal mitochondrial monooxygenase system required for the activity of the 11{beta}-hydroxylase reaction. Adrenodoxin was the first iron-sulfur protein isolated and purified from mammalian tissues and the first soluble protein identified as a reductase of a P450; (f) fractionation of adrenal mitochondrial P450 and incubation with adrenodoxin and a cytosolic (flavoprotein) fraction were the first demonstration of the reconstitution of a mammalian P450 monooxygenase reaction.

It has been established that there are glucocorticoid-inducible hepatic cytochromesP-450 in the rat (P-450p), the rabbit (LM3c) and man (HLp) which share extensive structural, functional and regulatory features. We prepared immunochemical probes to P-450p and identified a unique monoclonal antibody, 1G8, that recognizes purified P-450p, but neither purified LM3c nor HLp, on immunoblot analysis. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of purified samples of P-450p was identical with that previously reported for P-450PCN1 [Gonzalez, Nebert, Hardwick & Kasper (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 7435-7441]. Immunoblot analyses of liver microsomes from untreated male rats revealed two 1G8-reactive proteins, whereas liver microsomes from untreated females contained none. Another monoclonal antibody, 13-7-10, reacted specifically with LM3c and HLp, but not with P-450p. A single 13-7-10-reactive microsomal protein was detected in untreated male and female rats, the latter protein exhibiting a greater apparent Mr. 1G8-reactive proteins were induced to the greatest extent by triacetyloleandomycin, followed by dexamethasone, chlordane, pregnenolone-16 alpha-carbonitrile and 2,4,2',4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl. In contrast, 13-7-10-reactive proteins were most strongly induced by dexamethasone, only moderately by triacetyloleandomycin and pregnenolone-16 alpha-carbonitrile, weakly by chlordane and not at all by 2,4,2',4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl. We conclude that the P-450p family in rat liver consists of three or more proteins that are structurally related and yet appear to be under distinct regulatory control. Images Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. PMID:3311032

P450sca-2 is an industrially important enzyme that stereoselectively converts mevastatin into pravastatin. However, little information or engineering efforts have been reported for this enzyme or its redox partner. In this study, we successfully reconstituted the P450sca-2 activity in Escherichia coli by co-expression with putidaredoxin reductase (Pdr) and putidaredoxin (Pdx) from the Pseudomonas putida cytochromeP450cam system. With an HPLC-based screening assay, random mutagenesis was applied to yield a mutant (R8-5C) with a pravastatin yield of the whole-cell biotransformation 4.1-fold that of the wild type. P450sca-2 wild-type and R8-5C were characterized in terms of mevastatin binding and hydroxylation, electron transfer, and circular dichroism spectroscopy. R8-5C showed an active P450 expression level that was 3.8-fold that of the wild type, with relatively smaller changes in the apparent k(cat)/K(M) with respect to the substrate mevastatin (1.3-fold) or Pdx (1.5-fold) compared with the wild type. Thus, the increase in the pravastatin yield of the whole-cell biotransformation primarily came from the improved active P450 expression, which has resulted largely from better heme incorporation, although none of the six mutations of R8-5C are located near the heme active site. These results will facilitate further engineering of this P450sca-2 system and provide useful clues for improving other hybrid P450 systems.

The content and spectral characteristics of cytochromeP450 (Cyt P450) and cytochrome b(5) (Cyt b(5)) extracted from shoots of etiolated maize and rice seedlings were studied by using ultraviolet (UV) difference spectrophotometry. The results showed that fenclorim, rac-metolachlor and S-metolachlor may induce the same P450 isoenzyme with lambda(max) at 453 nm, while naphthalic anhydride (NA) induced another one with lambda(max) at 447 nm. The microsomal Cyt P450 and Cyt b(5) content of maize seedlings was higher than that of rice, and the Cyt b(5) content was higher than that of Cyt P450. Maize and rice microsomal Cyt P450 and Cyt b(5) were induced at different levels by the four chemicals, with the order as follows: NA > fenclorim > rac-metolachlor > S-metolachlor with p < 0.05. When induced by NA, fenclorim, rac-metolachlor and S-metolachlor, the maize Cyt P450 content was, respectively, 5.63-, 3.30-, 3.02- and 2.48-fold that of the control, the rice Cyt P450 content was 8.54-, 2.20-, 1.91- and 1.33-fold that of the control, the maize Cyt b(5) content was 9.89-, 5.49-, 4.69- and 3.40-fold that of the control, and the rice Cyt b(5) content was 7.76-, 4.56-, 2.60- and 1.82-fold that of the control. An enantio-difference existed when rac- and S-metolachlor combined with plant Cyt P450. The interaction of microsomal Cyt P450 with S-metolachlor is higher than that with rac-metolachlor, which may be one of the reasons why S-metolachlor is superior at killing weeds compared with rac-metolachlor. These results will help to develop an understanding of the tolerance for and selectivity of rac- and S-metolachlor.

The interaction of azole antifungal antibiotics with purified Candida albicans cytochromeP-450-dependent 14 alpha-sterol demethylase (P-450DM) was measured spectrophotometrically and by inhibition of enzyme activity. Ketoconazole and ICI 153066 (a triazole derivative) formed low-spin complexes with the ferric cytochrome and induced type II difference spectra. These spectra are indicative of an interaction between the azole moiety and the sixth co-ordination position of P-450DM haem. Both azoles inhibited the binding of CO to the sodium dithionite-reduced ferrous cytochrome, and inhibited reconstituted P-450DM activity by binding to the cytochrome with a one-to-one stoichiometry. Similarly, total inhibition of enzyme activity occurred when equimolar amounts of clotrimazole, miconazole or fluconazole were added to reconstituted P-450DM. These results correlated with the inhibition of P-450DM in broken cell preparations, confirming that all five azoles are potent inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis in C. albicans. PMID:2180400

In a recent publication (Narhi, L.O. and Fulco, A.J.[1986] J. Biol. Chem. 261, 7160-7169) we described the characterization of a catalytically self-sufficient 119,000 Dalton cytochromeP-450 fatty acid monooxygenase (P-450BM-3) induced by barbiturates in Bacillus megaterium ATCC 14581. We have now examined cell-free preparations from 12 distinct strains of B. megaterium and from one or two strains each of B. alvei, B. brevis, B. cereus, B. licheniformis, B. macerans, B. pumilis and B. subtilis for the presence of this inducible enzyme. Using Western blot analyses in combination with assays for fatty acid hydroxylase activity and cytochromeP-450, we were able to show that 11 of the 12 B. megaterium strains contained not only a strongly pentobarbital-inducible fatty acid monooxygenase identical to or polymorphic with P-450BM-3 but also significant levels of two smaller P-450cytochromes that were the same as or similar to cytochromesP-450BM-1 and P-450BM-2 originally found in ATCC 14581. Unlike the 119,000 Dalton P-450, however, the two smaller P-450s were generally easily detectable in cultures grown to stationary phase in the absence of barbiturates and, with some exceptions, were not strongly induced by pentobarbital. None of the non-megaterium species of Bacillus tested exhibited significant levels of either fatty acid monooxygenase activity or cytochromeP-450. The one strain of B. megaterium that lacked inducible P-450BM-3 was also negative for BM-1 and BM-2. However, this strain (ATCC 13368) did contain a small but significant level of another P-450cytochrome that others have identified as the oxygenase component of a steroid 15-beta-hydroxylase system. Our evidence suggests that the BM series of P-450cytochromes is encoded by chromosomal (rather than by plasmid) DNA.

The CytochromeP450 superfamily of enzymes are of great interest in pharmacology as they participate in an enormous range of physiological processes including drug deactivation and xenobiotic detoxification. We apply ab initio electronic structure calculations to model the interactions of the haem molecule at the P450 active site with substrate and inhibitor ligands. These calculations, based on density function theory, were performed with the CETEP code which uses a plane wave basis set and pseudopotentials to perform efficient LDA, GGA and spin dependent calculations. A change in the spin state of the haem iron atom is observed on binding of a substrate molecule, consistent with the accepted reaction mechanism.

The existence of CYP5, CYP8A, and the CYP74 enzymes specialized for reaction with fatty acid peroxide substrates presents opportunities for a “different look” at the catalytic cycle of the cytochromeP450s. This review considers how the properties of the peroxide-metabolizing enzymes are distinctive, and how they tie in with those of the conventional monooxygenase enzymes. Some unusual reactions of each class have parallels in the other. As new enzyme reactions and new P450 structures emerge there will be possibilities for finding their special properties and edging this knowledge into the big picture. PMID:19747698

Protection afforded by trialkyl phosphorothionates against the lung injury caused by trialkyl phosphorothiolates probably results from the inhibition by the P{double bond}S moiety of the thionates, of one or more pulmonary cytochromeP-450 isozymes. The aromatic hydrocarbons p-xylene and pseudocumene also protect against this injury and inhibit some P-450 isozymes, but by a different mechanism. OOS-Trimethylphosphorothionate and p-xylene were compared as protective agents against the effect of OOS-trimethylphosphorothiolate and two other lung toxins ipomeanol and 1-nitronaphthalene that are known to be activated by cytochromeP-450. The effects of these protective compounds, in vivo, on pulmonary cytochromeP-450 activity were also determined. Both compounds inhibited pentoxyresorufin O-deethylase activity, but not ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase. The phosphorothionate was most effective against lung injury caused by the phosphorothiolates and 1-nitronaphthalene, whereas p-xylene was much more effective against ipomeanol. {beta}-Naphthoflavone, which induces pulmonary ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activity, did not protect against phosphorothiolate or 1-nitronaphthalene injury, and it was only marginally effective in decreasing the toxicity or ipomeanol.

This laboratory previously demonstrated that incubation of ({sup 14}C)benzene with isolated mitochondria resulted in the formation of mtDNA adducts. Since benzene is incapable of spontaneously covalently binding to nuclei acids, it was hypothesized that enzyme(s) present in the organelle metabolized benzene to reactive derivatives. We have purified, to electrophoretic homogeneity, a 52 kDa cytochromeP-450 from liver mitoplasts which metabolizes benzene to phenol. The enzyme has a K{sub M} for benzene of 0.012 mM, and a V{sub MAX} of 22.6 nmol phenol/nmol P-450/10 min, and requires NADPH, adrenodoxin, and adrenodoxin reductase for activity. Activity also can be reconstituted with microsomal cytochromeP-450 reductase. Benzene hydroxylase activity could be inhibited by carbon monoxide and SKF-525A, and by specific inhibitors of microsomal benzene metabolism. The purified enzyme oxidized phenol, forming catechol; aminopyrine N-demethylase activity was also demonstrated. These data confirm that a cytochromeP-450 of mitochondrial origin is involved in benzene metabolism, and indicate a role for the mitochondrion in xenobiotic activation.

Through their unique oxidative chemistry, cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (CYPs) catalyze the elimination of most drugs and toxins from the human body. Protein–protein interactions play a critical role in this process. Historically, the study of CYP–protein interactions has focused on their electron transfer partners and allosteric mediators, cytochromeP450 reductase and cytochrome b5. However, CYPs can bind other proteins that also affect CYP function. Some examples include the progesterone receptor membrane component 1, damage resistance protein 1, human and bovine serum albumin, and intestinal fatty acid binding protein, in addition to other CYP isoforms. Furthermore, disruption of these interactions can lead to altered paths of metabolism and the production of toxic metabolites. In this review, we summarize the available evidence for CYP protein–protein interactions from the literature and offer a discussion of the potential impact of future studies aimed at characterizing noncanonical protein–protein interactions with CYP enzymes. PMID:25133307

Through their unique oxidative chemistry, cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (CYPs) catalyze the elimination of most drugs and toxins from the human body. Protein-protein interactions play a critical role in this process. Historically, the study of CYP-protein interactions has focused on their electron transfer partners and allosteric mediators, cytochromeP450 reductase and cytochrome b5. However, CYPs can bind other proteins that also affect CYP function. Some examples include the progesterone receptor membrane component 1, damage resistance protein 1, human and bovine serum albumin, and intestinal fatty acid binding protein, in addition to other CYP isoforms. Furthermore, disruption of these interactions can lead to altered paths of metabolism and the production of toxic metabolites. In this review, we summarize the available evidence for CYP protein-protein interactions from the literature and offer a discussion of the potential impact of future studies aimed at characterizing noncanonical protein-protein interactions with CYP enzymes.

Green tea has been used for generations in China and Asia as an antipyretic and diuretic. Prior studies have shown that extracts of green tea inhibit the mutagenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aflatoxin B1. In this study, we investigated the interaction of certain flavonoid components of green tea epicatechin derivatives including (-)-epicatechin (EC), (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG), and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) with rat hepatic microsomal cytochromeP-450 (P-450). The addition of EC, EGC, ECG, and EGCG to hepatic microsomes prepared from phenobarbital (PB)-treated rats resulted in spectral changes characterized by absorbance maxima at 420 nm and minima at 380 nm, typical of modified Type II (reverse Type I) binding. Of the epicatechin derivatives, EGCG and ECG showed greater spectral change with oxidized P-450 and time- and concentration-dependent inhibition of the binding of carbon monoxide to dithionite-reduced cytochromeP-450. The addition of EC, EGC, ECG, and EGCG to microsomes prepared from control, PB- or 3-methylcholanthrene-treated rats resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of cytochromeP-450-dependent aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase, 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase, and 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activities. EGCG was the most potent in this regard. Green tea polyphenols and epicatechin derivatives also significantly inhibited NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity. An examination of the structure activity relationship of epicatechin derivatives suggests that the inhibitory effect on the microsomal enzyme system may be due to the galloyl groups or hydroxyl groups on the molecule. Our data indicate that these extracts of green tea may have potential as anticarcinogens.

Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae deleted in the NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase gene by transplacement are 200-fold more sensitive to ketoconazole, an inhibitor of the cytochromeP450 lanosterol 14-demethylase. Resistance is restored through complementation by the plasmid-born...

Plant cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are a group of versatile redox proteins that mediate the biosynthesis of lignins, terpenes, alkaloids, and a variety of other secondary compounds which act as plant defense agents. To determine if cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are involved in defense response to...

Plant cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are versatile redox proteins that mediate biosynthesis of lignins, terpenes, alkaloids, and a variety of other secondary compounds as plant defense agents against a range of pathogens and insects. To determine if cytochromeP450 monooxygenases are involved in the...

CytochromeP450nor catalyzes an unusual reaction that transfers electrons from NADP/NADPH to bound heme directly. To improve the expression level of P450nor2 from Cylindrocarpon tonkinense (C.P450nor2), Escherichia coli system was utilized to substitute the yeast system we constructed for expression of the P450nor2 gene, and the protein was purified in soluble form using Ni(+)-NTA affinity chromatography. In contrast to P450nor from Fusarium oxysporum (F.P450nor) and P450nor1 from Cylindrocarpon tonkinense (C.P450nor1), C.P450nor2 shows a dual specificity for using NADH or NADPH as electron donors. The present study developed a computational approach in order to illustrate the coenzyme specificity of C.P450nor2 for NADH and NADPH. This study involved homology modeling of C.P450nor2 and docking analyses of NADH and NADPH into the crystal structure of F.P450nor and the predictive model of C.P450nor2, respectively. The results suggested that C.P450nor2 and F.P450nor have different coenzyme specificity for NADH and NADPH; whilst the space around the B'-helix of the C.P450nor2, especially the Ser79 and Gly81, play a crucial role for the specificity of C.P450nor2. In the absence of the experimental structure of C.P450nor2, we hope that our model will be useful to provide rational explanation on coenzyme specificity of C.P450nor2.

CytochromeP450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and CytochromeP450 1A2 (CYP1A2) oxidize most drugs in humans. Protein modeling toolkits from OpenEye Scientific Software were used to examine the interaction of drug substrates with CYP3A4 and CYP1A2. Conformers and partial atomic charges were generated for each drug molecule. User-defined volumes were defined around CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 active sites. Ligands were docked assuming protein and substrates as rigid bodies. To assess rigid docking accuracy, x-ray diffraction coordinates of CYP3A4-erythromycin and CYP3A4-metyrapone complexes were obtained. Rigid re-docking of erythromycin and metyrapone into CYP3A4 yielded poses similar to the crystal structures. Rigid docking revealed two other energetically-favorable CYP3A4-metyrapone poses. The best poses were obtained by using all the Open Eye scoring functions. Optimization of protein-ligand interactions within 5-10 Angstroms of the docked ligand was then performed using the Merck Molecular Force Field in which the protein was assumed to be flexible and the ligand to be rigid. Nearby protein residues pulled slightly closer to the substrate, reducing the volume of the active site.

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) involved in anthracene metabolism by the white-rot basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium were identified by comprehensive screening of both catalytic potentials and transcriptomic profiling. Functional screening of P. chrysosporium P450s (PcCYPs) revealed that 14 PcCYP species catalyze stepwise conversion of anthracene to anthraquinone via intermediate formation of anthrone. Moreover, transcriptomic profiling explored using a complementary DNA microarray system demonstrated that 12 PcCYPs are up-regulated in response to exogenous addition of anthracene. Among the up-regulated PcCYPs, five species showed catalytic activity against anthracene. Based upon both catalytic and transcriptional properties, these five species are most likely to play major roles in anthracene metabolic processes in vivo. Thus, the combination of functional screening and a microarray system may provide a novel strategy for obtaining a thorough understanding of the catalytic functions and biological impacts of PcCYPs.

Hatchery-reared juvenile turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) were exposed for 3 weeks, under laboratory conditions, to inter-tidal sediments collected from polluted sites in Cork Harbour (Whitegate and Agahda) and a reference site at Ballymacoda Co., Cork, Ireland. The potential of the sediment exposure to induce cytochromeP450 activities and CYP1A1 in the fish was assessed. Chemical analysis revealed that the sediments originating from the reference and harbour sites were contaminated principally with PAHs-the harbour sites having double the levels of those at the reference site. Following 3 weeks exposure to the sediments western blotting demonstrated a strong immunogenic response for CYP1A1 in the liver, but not for gill or intestine. P450 activities were generally significantly higher than those exposed to reference site sediment. Liver was the most responsive tissue with significantly greater P450 activities compared with gill and intestinal tissues.

We demonstrate the metabolism of ergosterol by cytochromeP450scc in either a reconstituted system or isolated adrenal mitochondria. The major reaction product was identified as 17alpha,24-dihydroxyergosterol. Purified P450scc also generated hydroxyergosterol as a minor product, which is probably an intermediate in the synthesis of 17alpha,24-dihydroxyergosterol. In contrast to cholesterol and 7-dehydrocholesterol, cleavage of the ergosterol side chain was not observed. NMR analysis clearly located one hydroxyl group to C24, with evidence that the second hydroxyl group is at C17. 17alpha,24-Dihydroxyergosterol inhibited cell proliferation of HaCaT keratinocytes and melanoma cells. Thus, in comparison with cholesterol and 7-dehydrocholesterol, the 24-methyl group and the C22-C23 double bond of ergosterol prevent side chain cleavage by P450scc and change the enzyme's hydroxylase activity from C22 and C20, to C24 and C17, generating bioactive product.

Livers from mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) were treated with either -naphthoflavone (50 mg/kg) or phenobarbital (70 mg/kg). Purification of induced hepatic cytochromeP450 was accomplished using both DEAE and hydroxyapatite columns, as well as sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis separation. Polyclonal antibodies to these proteins were then produced in young male New Zealand White rabbits. ?-naphthoflavone (?NF)- and phenobarbital(PB)-treated red-winged blackbird, screech owl, European starling and lesser scaup liver microsomes were analyzed in western blots for species cross-reactivity. Although all four of these avian species exhibited cross-reactivity with antibodies to ?NF-induced mallard P450, all but the lesser scaup revealed a protein of higher molecular weight than that of the ?NF-induced mallard. In addition, only the lesser scaup exhibited cross-reactivity with the anti-PB-induced mallard P450 antibodies.

A human liver cytochromeP-450 (P-450) IIIA4 cDNA clone was inserted behind an alcohol dehydrogenase promoter in the plasmid vector pAAH5 and expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (D12 and AH22 strains). A cytochromeP-450 with typical spectral properties was expressed at a level of approximately 8 x 10(5) molecules/cell in either strain of yeast. The expressed P-450 IIIA4 had the same apparent monomeric Mr as the corresponding protein in human liver microsomes (P-450NF) and could be isolated from yeast microsomes. Catalytic activity of the yeast microsomes toward putative P-450 IIIA4 substrates was seen in the reactions supported by cumene hydroperoxide but was often lower and variable when supported by the physiological donor NADPH. The catalytic activity of purified P-450 IIIA4 was also poor in some systems reconstituted with rabbit liver NADPH-P-450 reductase and best when both the detergent 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate and a lipid extract (from liver or yeast microsomes) or L-alpha-1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine were present. Under these conditions the expressed P-450 IIIA4 was an efficient catalyst for nifedipine oxidation, 6 beta-hydroxylation of testosterone and cortisol, 2-hydroxylation of 17 beta-estradiol and 17 alpha-ethynylestradiol, N-oxygenation and 3-hydroxylation of quinidine, 16 alpha-hydroxylation of dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate, erythromycin N-demethylation, the 10-hydroxylation of (R)-warfarin, the formation of 9,10-dehydrowarfarin from (S)-warfarin, and the activation of aflatoxins B1 and G1, sterigmatocystin, 7,8-dihydroxy-7,8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene (both + and - diastereomers), 3,4-dihydroxy-3,4-dihydrobenz[a]anthracene, 3,4-dihydroxy-3,4-dihydro-7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene, 9,10-dihydroxy-9,10-dihydrobenzo[b]fluoranthene, 6-aminochrysene, and tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate to products genotoxic in a Salmonella typhimurium TA1535/pSK1002 system where a chimeric umuC' 'lacZ plasmid is

Procedures are described for the isolation of two forms of rabbit liver microsomal liver microsomal cytochromeP-450 (P-450LM) in homogeneous state. They are designated by their relative electrophoretic mobilities on polyacrylamide gel in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate as P-450LM2 and P-450LM4. P-450LM2, which was isolated from phenobarbital-induced animals, has a subunit molecular weight of 48,700. The best preparations contain 20 nmol of the cytochrome per mg of protein and 1 molecule of heme per polypeptide chain. P-450LM4, which is induced by beta-naphthoflavone but is also present in phenobarbital-induced and untreated animals, was isolated from all three sources and found to have a subunit molecular weight of 55,300. The best preparations contain 17nmol of the cytochrome per mg of protein and 1 molecule of heme per polypeptide chain. Some of the purified preparations of the cytochromes, although electrophoretically homogeneous, contain apoenzyme due to heme loss during purification. The purified proteins contain no detectable NADPH-cytochromeP-450 reductase, cytochrome b5, or NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase, and only low levels of phospholipid (about 1 molecule per subunit). Amino acid analysis indicated that P-450LM2 and P-450LM4 are similar in composition, but the latter protein has about 60 additional residues. The COOH-terminal amino acid of P-450LM2 is arginine, as shown by carboxypeptidase treatment, whereas that of P-450LM4 is lysine. NH2-terminal amino acid residues could not be detected. Carbohydrate analysis indicated that both cytochromes contain 1 residue of glucosamine and 2 of mannose per polypeptide subunit. The optical spectra of the oxidized and reduced cytochromes and carbon monoxide complexes were determined. Oxidized P-450LM2 has maxima at 568, 535, and 418 nm characteristic of a low spin hemeprotein, and P450LM4 from beta-naphthoflavone-induced, phenobarbital-induced, or control microsomes has maxima at 645 and 394 nm

CytochromeP450 (P450) 21A2 is the major steroid 21-hydroxylase, and deficiency of this enzyme is involved in ∼95% of cases of human congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a disorder of adrenal steroidogenesis. A structure of the bovine enzyme that we published previously (Zhao, B., Lei, L., Kagawa, N., Sundaramoorthy, M., Banerjee, S., Nagy, L. D., Guengerich, F. P., and Waterman, M. R. (2012) Three-dimensional structure of steroid 21-hydroxylase (cytochromeP450 21A2) with two substrates reveals locations of disease-associated variants. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 10613–10622), containing two molecules of the substrate 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, has been used as a template for understanding genetic deficiencies. We have now obtained a crystal structure of human P450 21A2 in complex with progesterone, a substrate in adrenal 21-hydroxylation. Substrate binding and release were fast for human P450 21A2 with both substrates, and pre-steady-state kinetics showed a partial burst but only with progesterone as substrate and not 17α-hydroxyprogesterone. High intermolecular non-competitive kinetic deuterium isotope effects on both kcat and kcat/Km, from 5 to 11, were observed with both substrates, indicative of rate-limiting C–H bond cleavage and suggesting that the juxtaposition of the C21 carbon in the active site is critical for efficient oxidation. The estimated rate of binding of the substrate progesterone (kon 2.4 × 107 m−1 s−1) is only ∼2-fold greater than the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km = 1.3 × 107 m−1 s−1) with this substrate, suggesting that the rate of substrate binding may also be partially rate-limiting. The structure of the human P450 21A2-substrate complex provides direct insight into mechanistic effects of genetic variants. PMID:25855791

It is extremely difficult to identify the factors which regulate the expression of drug-metabolising enzymes in man. To address this problem, we have developed a model involving the use of human tumours grown as xenografts in immune deficient mice. Mice bearing human colon or breast tumours as xenografts were challenged with a range of compounds, known from animal studies to be inducers of cytochromeP450s from a variety of gene families. Almost all of the compounds tested could induce human tumour P450 expression, measured either by Western blot or immunohistochemical analysis. Indeed, the levels of P450s from several distinct gene families or subfamilies including CYP2A, CYP2B, CYP2C, CYP3A and CYP4A were induced. Of particular interest was the profound induction of human P450s by 1,4 bis 2-(3,5dichloro-pyridyloxybenzene)(TCPOBOP), a compound which exhibits a marked species specificity in its ability to induce P450 expression in experimental animals. Induction of a human CYP2B protein by this compound was confirmed by Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridisation for mRNA, indicating that induction occurred at the level of transcription. These studies have a variety of implications: they provide a method for approaching the previously intractable problem of how environmental, hormonal and metabolic factors regulate human P450 genes and other genes involved in drug metabolism; they demonstrate that human tumours express P450s constitutively and that the levels of these proteins can be modulated by exogenous agents. Images Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 PMID:8318421

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450) are heme-containing enzymes that oxidize a broad range of substrates in the presence of molecular oxygen and NAD(P)H. For their activity, most P450s rely on one or two redox proteins responsible for the transfer of electrons from the cofactor NAD(P)H to the heme. One of the challenges when using P450s in vitro, especially when non-physiological redox proteins are applied, is the inefficient transfer of electrons between the individual proteins resulting in non-productive consumption of NAD(P)H – referred to as uncoupling. Herein, we describe the improvement of the coupling efficiency between a P450 and its redox partner – diflavin reductase – by fusing both enzymes individually to the hydrophobin HFBI – a small self-assembling protein of the fungus Trichoderma reesei. The separated monooxygenase (BMO) and reductase (BMR) domains of P450 BM3 from Bacillus megaterium were chosen as a P450-reductase model system and individually fused to HFBI. The fusion proteins could be expressed in soluble form in Escherichia coli. When HFBI-fused BMO and BMR were mixed in vitro, substantially higher coupling efficiencies were measured as compared with the respective non-fused enzymes. Consequently, myristic acid conversion increased up to 20-fold (after 6 h) and 5-fold (after 24 h). Size exclusion chromatography demonstrated that in vitro the hydrophobin-fused enzymes build multimeric protein assemblies. Thus, the higher activity is hypothesized to be due to HFBI-mediated self-assembly arranging BMO and BMR in close spatial proximity in aqueous solution. PMID:27458582

CytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes metabolize arachidonic acid (AA) to several biologically active epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs). Repurposing clinically-approved drugs could provide safe and readily available means to control EETs and HETEs levels in humans. Our aim was to determine how to significantly and selectively modulate P450-AA metabolism in humans by clinically-approved drugs. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to determine the formation of 15 AA metabolites by human recombinant P450 enzymes, as well as human liver and kidney microsomes. CYP2C19 showed the highest EET-forming activity, while CYP1B1 and CYP2C8 showed the highest midchain HETE-forming activities. CYP1A1 and CYP4 showed the highest subterminal- and 20-HETE-forming activity, respectively. Resveratrol and fluconazole produced the most selective and significant modulation of hepatic P450-AA metabolism, comparable to investigational agents. Monte Carlo simulations showed that 90% of human population would experience a decrease by 6-22%, 16-39%, and 16-35% in 16-, 18-, and 20-HETE formation, respectively, after 2.5 g daily of resveratrol, and by 22-31% and 14-23% in 8,9- and 14,15-EET formation after 50 mg of fluconazole. In conclusion, clinically-approved drugs can provide selective and effective means to modulate P450-AA metabolism, comparable to investigational drugs. Resveratrol and fluconazole are good candidates to be repurposed as new P450-based treatments.

The aim of this study was to determine the role of small intestinal (SI) cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes in the metabolic activation of diclofenac (DCF), a widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, and DCF-induced intestinal toxicity. DCF induces intestinal ulcers in humans and mice, but the underlying mechanisms, including the necessity for drug bioactivation in the target tissues and the sources and identities of reactive intermediates, are not fully understood. We found that the number of DCF-induced (at 50 mg/kg p.o.) intestinal ulcers was significantly smaller in an intestinal epithelium (IE)-specific P450 reductase (CPR) knockout (IE-Cpr-null) mouse model, which has little P450 activity in the IE, than in wild-type (WT) mice, determined at 14 h after DCF administration. The involvement of intestinal P450 enzymes was confirmed by large reductions (>80-90%) in the rates of in vitro formation, in SI microsomal reactions, of hydroxylated DCF metabolites and reactive intermediates, trapped as DCF-glutathione (GSH) conjugates, in the IE-Cpr-null, compared with WT mice. The SI levels of DCF-GSH conjugates (at 4 h after dosing) and DCF-protein adducts (at 14 h after dosing) were significantly lower in IE-Cpr-null than in WT mice. In additional experiments, we found that pretreatment of mice with grapefruit juice, which is known to inhibit SI P450 activity, ameliorated DCF-induced intestinal toxicity in WT mice. Our results not only strongly support the notion that SI P450 enzymes play an important role in DCF-induced intestinal toxicity, but also illustrate the possibility of preventing DCF-induced intestinal toxicity through dietary intervention.

This study traces the evolution of the scientific literature on cytochromeP450 (P450) published during the last 30+ years (1977-2008). Using the Web of Science, P450 articles from the Science Citation Index Expanded published from 1977 to 2008 were retrieved and analyzed. The number of P450 papers has increased from 342 articles in 1977-1978 to 2,357 in 2007-2008, and the number of contributing countries has grown from 23 countries for 1977-1978 to 76 for 2007-2008. While the USA and Japan were the most productive countries, along with several industrialized countries (e.g. UK, Germany and Canada), two Asian countries have recently joined the group of leading countries (in 2007-2008 China ranked 4th and South Korea, 7th). During 1977-2008, the number of journals publishing papers in P450 research increased more than seven-fold (7.7): 94 journals in 1977-1978 and 724 in 2007-2008; however, citation by readers (as measured by the journal impact factor) of the top-ten leading journals increased only slightly from 3.25 for 1977-1978 to 3.81 for 2007-2008. While Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Pharmacology and Pharmacy are the two main targeted subject areas for P450 research during the period considered, there has been a gradual shift from the biophysical and biochemical fields of interest to aspects of genomics and clinical approaches. The rapid evolution of P450 research in the last 30+ years was accompanied by important changes in the landscape of the contributing countries, in the subject domains, and consequently in the scientific journals targeted by researchers.

Pulmonary oxygen toxicity is assumed to result from damage caused by superoxide (O/sub 2//sup -/) hydrogen peroxide (H/sub 2/O/sub 2/) and/or hydroxyl radical (OH) produced by the partial reduction of molecular oxygen (O/sub 2/). The microsomal cytochromeP-450 (P-450) monooxygenase system is known to produce O/sub 2//sup -/ and H/sub 2/O/sub 2/. They have studied the influence of monooxygenase induction using phenobarbital (PB) and ..beta..-naphthoflavone (..beta..-NF) on O/sub 2/ toxicity in the rat. PB- or ..beta..-NF induce hepatic P-450 but only ..beta..-NF induces pulmonary P-450. Pulmonary microsomes produced O/sub 2//sup -/ and H/sub 2/O/sub 2/ at rates (expressed per mg microsomal protein) which did not vary as a function of pretreatment. Rats were exposed to 100% O/sub 2/ for up to 3 days. After 3 days of O/sub 2/, lung weights were about 50% above controls regardless of pretreatment. The microsomal monooxygenase enzymes (P-450, b/sub 5/ and NADPH P-450 reductase) were quantified in liver and lung. Lung microsomal P-450 was reduced after 3 days of O/sub 2/ exposure regardless of pretreatment. The protective enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) peroxidase) and non-protein sulfhydryl groups (NPSH) were also quantified in lung and liver samples. Lung NPSH and GSH peroxidase were increased after 3 days of O/sub 2/ exposure regardless of pretreatment while SOD was increased in controls and PB- but not ..beta..-NF-treated rats. Three of 14 ..beta..-NF-treated rats died during O/sub 2/ exposure while no animals in the control or PB-treated groups died.

Stressful environmental changes can suppress nociceptive transmission, a phenomenon known as “stress-induced analgesia”. Depending on the stressor and the subject, opioid or non-opioid mechanisms are activated. Brain μ opioid receptors mediate analgesia evoked either by exogenous agents (e.g. morphine), or by the release of endogenous opioids following stressful procedures. Recent work with morphine and neuronal cytochromeP450 (P450)-deficient mice proposed a signal transduction role for P450 enzymes in μ analgesia. Since μ opioid receptors also mediate some forms of stress-induced analgesia, the present studies assessed the significance of brain P450 activity in opioid-mediated stress-induced analgesia. Two widely-used models of opioid stress-induced analgesia (restraint and warm water swim) were studied in both sexes of wild-type control and P450-deficient (Null) mice. In control mice, both stressors evoked moderate analgesic responses which were blocked by pretreatment with the opioid antagonist naltrexone, confirming the opioid nature of these responses. Consistent with literature, sex differences (control female > control male) were seen in swim-induced, but not restraint-induced, analgesia. Null mice showed differential responses to the two stress paradigms. As compared with control subjects, Null mice showed highly attenuated restraint-induced analgesia, showing a critical role for neuronal P450s in this response. However, warm water swim-induced analgesia was unchanged in Null vs. control mice. Additional control experiments confirmed the absence of morphine analgesia in Null mice. These results are the first to show that some forms of opioid-mediated stress-induced analgesia require brain neuronal P450 activity. PMID:25020125

Currently, there are no reports on the effects of enrofloxacin (EF), a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, on the cytochromep450 enzymes in fish, although its use as antimicrobial agent in aquaculture has been put forward. Therefore, the in vivo and in vitro effects of EF on hepatic p450 enzymes of sea bass, a widespread food-producing fish, have been evaluated. Sea bass pretreated with a single dose of EF (3 mg/kg i.p.) or with three daily doses of EF (1 mg/kg i.p.) markedly depressed the microsomal N-demethylation of aminopyrine, erythromycin, the O-deethylation of 7-ethoxycoumarin, ethoxyresorufin and the 6beta-testosterone hydroxylase. In vitro experiments showed that EF at 10 microM inhibited the above-mentioned activities and, in particular, the erythromycin N-demethylase (ERND) and 6beta-testosterone-hydroxylase, likely dependant on a p450 3A isoform. When the nature of ERND inhibition by EF was specifically studied with sea bass liver microsomes, it was found that EF is a potent mechanism-based inhibitor, with K(i) of 3.7 microM and a K(inact) of 0.045 min(-1). An immunoblot analysis with anti p450 3A27 of trout showed that the p450 3A isoform, constitutively expressed in sea bass, is particularly susceptible to inactivation by EF. In vitro experiments with sea bass microsomes have also demonstrated that EF is oxidative deethylated by the p450 system to ciprofloxacin (CF) and that this compound maintains the ability to inactivate the p450 enzymes. The mechanism by which EF or CF inactivate the p450 enzymes has not been studied but an attack of p450 on the cyclopropan ring, present, both in EF and CF structure, with the formation of electrophilic intermediates (i.e. radicals) has been postulated. In conclusion, the EF seems to be a powerful inhibitor of p450s in the sea bass. Therefore, the clinical use of this antibiotic in aquaculture has to be considered with caution.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been proposed to play a role in the side effects of the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporin A (CsA). The aim of this study was to investigate whether cytochromeP-450 (CYP) dependent metabolism of CsA could be responsible for ROS generation since it has been suggested that CsA may influence the CYP system to produce ROS. We show that CsA (1 – 10 μM) generated antioxidant-inhibitable ROS in rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMC) using the fluorescent probe 2,7-dichlorofluorescin diacetate. Using cytochrome c as substrate, we show that CsA (10 μM) did not inhibit NADPH cytochromeP-450 reductase in microsomes prepared from rat liver, kidney or RASMC. CsA (10 μM) did not uncouple the electron flow from NADPH via NADPH cytochromeP-450 reductase to the CYP enzymes because CsA did not inhibit the metabolism of substrates selective for several CYP enzymes that do not metabolize CsA in rat liver microsomes. CsA (10 μM) did not generate more radicals in CYP 3A4 expressing immortalized human liver epithelial cells (T5-3A4 cells) than in control cells that do not express CYP 3A4. Neither diphenylene iodonium nor the CYP 3A inhibitor ketoconazole were able to block ROS formation in rat aortic smooth muscle or T5-3A4 cells. These results demonstrate that CYP enzymes do not contribute to CsA-induced ROS formation and that CsA neither inhibits NADPH cytochromeP-450 reductase nor the electron transfer to the CYP enzymes. PMID:11861326

We have previously demonstrated that cytochromeP-450d mRNA accumulation is induced at a posttranscriptional level by 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA) in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes grown in serum-free hormonally defined medium. Using dactinomycin chase experiments in this culture system, we found that MCA had no effect on the P-450d mRNA half-life. In addition, induction of P-450d occurred both in the presence and in the absence of protein synthesis inhibitors. An analysis of nuclear precursors showed that the accumulation of the primary transcript of the P-450d gene was induced to the same extent as that of the mature mRNA after MCA treatment and that the pattern of accumulation of precursors differed between treated and control liver cells. Since P-450d induction is thought to be a receptor-mediated event, these data are consistent with a model in which a direct interaction occurs between the receptor-ligand complex and the primary transcript. Images PMID:2247082

Comparison of several recently determined X-ray crystal structures of mammalian cytochromeP450 family 2 enzymes suggests considerable movement of helix B' when ligands bind. To investigate the functional role of helix B' in P450 2B1, residues 100-109 were substituted with alanine and phenylalanine. Kinetic properties were examined with the typical 2B substrates 7-benzyloxyresorufin, 7-ethoxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin, benzphetamine, and testosterone. Several mutants showed 2- to 3-fold changes in k(cat) values and significant differences in catalytic efficiencies among the substrates examined, consistent with structural information suggesting that the helix B' region can adopt multiple conformations with different contact residues depending on the substrate. Homology modeling of P450 2B1 was performed based on an inhibitor-bound P450 2B4 structure, and the docking analyses were consistent with experimental results. The findings suggest that residues in the helix B' region affect regio- and stereoselective oxidation in P450 family 2 enzymes as well as substrate entry.

Many wildlife toxicity studies, e.g. with avian species, use cytochromeP450 activities as markers for biological activities of environmental contaminants. It has been established that induction of CYP1A1 correlates with Ah-receptor mediated toxicity of dioxin-like compounds in many species. In addition, CYP1A1 plays a significant role in bioactivation of polycyclic aromatics. So far very few studies focused on the natural function of P450 isoenzymes in wildlife species. Besides classical hepatic CYP1A(1) associated activities, like EROD and AHH, several new techniques are available to study the activities of various CYP isoenzymes. Caffeine N-demethylation, testosterone and 17ss-estradiol hydroxylation patterns can provide new insights in the physiological function of P450 isoenzymes and the induction of the basal activities by chemicals. So far little interest was given to processes which occur after the DNA-receptor binding, e.g. changes in steroid hormone metabolism and pathways in environmental toxicology. This in spite of the fact that very subtle changes in steroid hormone levels may have significant physiological implications. This presentation will focus on some P450 activities, besides CYP1A(1), which might be important for development and reproduction. Some experimental approaches, limitations and techniques will be discussed which could lead to elucidation of the possible endocrine function of P450s.

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) have enormous potential in the production of oxychemicals, due to their unparalleled regio- and stereoselectivity. The Bacillus megaterium P450 BM3 enzyme is a key model system, with several mutants (many distant from the active site) reported to alter substrate selectivity. It has the highest reported monooxygenase activity of the P450 enzymes, and this catalytic efficiency has inspired protein engineering to enable its exploitation for biotechnologically relevant oxidations with structurally diverse substrates. However, a structural rationale is lacking to explain how these mutations have such effects in the absence of direct change to the active site architecture. Here, we provide the first crystal structures of BM3 mutants in complex with a human drug substrate, the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole. Supported by solution data, these structures reveal how mutation alters the conformational landscape and decreases the free energy barrier for transition to the substrate-bound state. Our data point to the importance of such “gatekeeper” mutations in enabling major changes in substrate recognition. We further demonstrate that these mutants catalyze the same 5-hydroxylation reaction as performed by human CYP2C19, the major human omeprazole-metabolizing P450 enzyme. PMID:23828198

Aim: Ginger rhizome is used worldwide as a spicy flavor agent. This study was designed to explore the potential effects of pungent ginger components, 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol, on human cytochromeP450 (CYP450) enzymes that are responsible for the metabolism of many prescription drugs. Methods: The activities of human CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 were analyzed using Vivid P450 assay kits. The mRNA expression of CYP3A4 in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 was measured using quantitative real-time PCR assay. Results: All three gingerols potently inhibited CYP2C9 activity, exerted moderate inhibition on CYP2C19 and CYP3A4, and weak inhibion on CYP2D6. 8-Gingerol was the most potent in inhibition of P450 enzymes with IC50 values of 6.8, 12.5, 8.7, and 42.7 μmol/L for CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP3A4, and CYP2D6, respectively. By comparing the effects of gingerols on CYP3A4 with three different fluorescent substrate probes, it was demonstrated that the inhibition of gingerols on CYP3A4 had no substrate-dependence. In HepG2 cells, 8-gingerol and 10-gingerol inhibited, but 6-gingerol induced mRNA expression of CYP3A4. Conclusion: 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol suppress human cytochromeP450 activity, while 8- and 10-gingerol inhibit CYP3A4 expression. The results may have an implication for the use of ginger or ginger products when combined with therapeutic drugs that are metabolized by cytochromeP450 enzymes. PMID:23770984

CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) are involved in metabolic resistance to insecticides and require NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase (CPR) to transfer electrons when they catalyze oxidation reactions. The carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus is an important pest mite of crop and vegetable plants worldwide, and its resistance to acaricides has quickly developed. However, the role of CPR on the formation of acaricide-resistance in T. cinnabarinus is still unclear. In this study, a full-length cDNA encoding CPR was cloned and characterized from T. cinnabarinus (designated TcCPR). TcCPR expression was detectable in all developmental stages of T. cinnabarinus, but it’s much lower in eggs. TcCPR was up-regulated and more inducible with fenpropathrin treatment in the fenpropathrin-resistant (FeR) strain compared with the susceptible SS strain. Feeding of double-strand RNA was effective in silencing the transcription of TcCPR in T. cinnabarinus, which resulted in decreasing the activity of P450s and increasing the susceptibility to fenpropathrin in the FeR strain but not in the susceptible strain. The current results provide first evidence that the down-regulation of TcCPR contributed to an increase of the susceptibility to fenpropathrin in resistant mites. TcCPR could be considered as a novel target for the development of new pesticides. PMID:26493678

Wild cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) are ubiquitous throughout the Southeast quadrant of the United States, easy to capture, have a generation interval of less than one year and a limited range of movement (less than one hectare). This species may prove to be an excellent model for monitoring environmental contamination. Traditionally, cytochromeP-450 inducing agents are grouped into two classes. One, represented by phenobarbital, induces P-450b and P-450e; the other, represented by 3-methylcholanthrene, induces P-450c and P-450d isoenzymes. The types and amounts of cytochromeP-450 vary among species, organs, health status, sex, and stress of the animal. If the levels of cytochromeP-450 of wild cotton rats are to be used in monitoring environmental pollution, it is necessary to characterize the inducibility and concentration of cytochromeP-450 in this species. This study was designed to determine the concentration and inducibility of cytochromeP-450 in the livers of cotton rats after intraperitoneal (ip) administration of phenobarbital and 3-methylcholanthrene.

A homology model building study of cytochromeP450 2D6 has been carried out based on the crystal structure of cytochromeP450 101. The primary sequences of P450 101 and P450 2D6 were aligned by making use of an automated alignment procedure. This alignment was adjusted manually by matching alpha-helices (C, D, G, I, J, K and L) and beta-sheets (beta 3/beta 4) of P450 101 that are proposed to be conserved in membrane-bound P450s (Ouzounis and Melvin [Eur. J. Biochem., 198 (1991) 307]) to the corresponding regions in the primary amino acid sequence of P450 2D6. Furthermore, alpha-helices B, B' and F were found to be conserved in P450 2D6. No significant homology between the remaining regions of P450 101 and P450 2D6 could be found and these regions were therefore deleted. A 3D model of P450 2D6 was constructed by copying the coordinates of the residues from the crystal structure of P450 101 to the corresponding residues in P450 2D6. The regions without a significant homology with P450 101 were not incorporated into the model. After energy-minimization of the resulting 3D model of P450 2D6, possible active site residues were identified by fitting the substrates debrisoquine and dextrometorphan into the proposed active site. Both substrates could be positioned into a planar pocket near the heme region formed by residues Val370, Pro371, Leu372, Trp316, and part of the oxygen binding site of P450 2D6. Furthermore, the carboxylate group of either Asp100 or Asp301 was identified as a possible candidate for the proposed interaction with basic nitrogen atom(s) of the substrates.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

CytochromeP450 (P450) 17A enzymes play a critical role in the oxidation of the steroids progesterone (Prog) and pregnenolone (Preg) to glucocorticoids and androgens. In mammals, a single enzyme, P450 17A1, catalyzes both 17α-hydroxylation and a subsequent 17α,20-lyase reaction with both Prog and Preg. Teleost fish contain two 17A P450s; zebrafish P450 17A1 catalyzes both 17α-hydroxylation and lyase reactions with Prog and Preg, and P450 17A2 is more efficient in pregnenolone 17α-hydroxylation but does not catalyze the lyase reaction, even in the presence of cytochrome b5. P450 17A2 binds all substrates and products, although more loosely than P450 17A1. Pulse-chase and kinetic spectral experiments and modeling established that the two-step P450 17A1 Prog oxidation is more distributive than the Preg reaction, i.e. 17α-OH product dissociates more prior to the lyase step. The drug orteronel selectively blocked the lyase reaction of P450 17A1 but only in the case of Prog. X-ray crystal structures of zebrafish P450 17A1 and 17A2 were obtained with the ligand abiraterone and with Prog for P450 17A2. Comparison of the two fish P450 17A-abiraterone structures with human P450 17A1 (DeVore, N. M., and Scott, E. E. (2013) Nature 482, 116–119) showed only a few differences near the active site, despite only ∼50% identity among the three proteins. The P450 17A2 structure differed in four residues near the heme periphery. These residues may allow the proposed alternative ferric peroxide mechanism for the lyase reaction, or residues removed from the active site may allow conformations that lead to the lyase activity. PMID:25533464

Metabolic activation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to carcinogenic diol epoxides has been determined to be a critical step in tumor initiation by PAH. The key enzyme(s) involved in the metabolic activation are members of the cytochromeP450 superfamily. Two distinct isoforms of cytochromeP450 have been determined to be induced upon treatment of cells in culture with benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P) by use of Immobilized Artificial Membrane Column High Performance Liquid Chromatography, Western blotting, Northern blotting, and in vitro metabolism studies. Cytochrome P4501A is involved in the metabolism of PAH in the human hepatoma cell line, HepG2; the human mammary carcinoma cell line, MCF-7; and the mouse hepatoma cell line; Hepa-1; whereas cytochromeP450EF is involved in this metabolism in both secondary hamster and mouse embryo cell cultures. Induction of cytochromeP450s by B(a)P generally leads to an increased metabolism of tritiated B(a)P, DMBA, and DB(a,1)P to water-soluble metabolities and to the formation of PAH-DNA adducts, suggesting that induction by B(a)P alters the metabolism of PAH to metabolic activation. DMBA induction of cytochromeP450s leads to various changes in metabolism and PAH-DNA binding and these changes were both cell and PAH specific. These results suggest that DMBA can shift metabolism of certain PAH towards metabolic activation in some cells, while in other cells DMBA or one of its metabolities can compete with other PAH for metabolic activation. UDP-glucuronosyl-transferase and epoxide hydrase do not have significant roles in detoxifying proximate or ultimate carcinogenic PAH metabolites, however, sulfotransferase and glutathione-S-transferase do detoxify proximate and ultimate carcinogenic metabolities in the HepG2 cell line. Finally, attempts to inhibit B(a)P metabolism and DNA-binding in intact cells in culture through conjugation of inhibitory cytochrome P4501A1 antibodies to insulin or folic acid were examined.

Thiolate-ligated oxoiron(IV) centers are postulated to be the key oxidants in the catalytic cycles of oxygen-activating cytochromeP450 and related enzymes. Despite considerable synthetic efforts, chemists have not succeeded in preparing an appropriate model complex. Here we report the synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of [FeIV(O)(TMCS)]+ where TMCS is a pentadentate ligand that provides a square pyramidal N4(SR)apical, where SR is thiolate, ligand environment about the iron center, which is similar to that of cytochromeP450. The rigidity of the ligand framework stabilizes the thiolate in an oxidizing environment. Reactivity studies suggest that thiolate coordination favors hydrogen-atom abstraction chemistry over oxygen-atom transfer pathways in the presence of reducing substrates.

The lung metabolizes a wide variety of xenobiotics and, in the process, forms products that may be more or less toxic than the parent compound. The consequence of metabolism, activation or detoxication, is a function of the nature of the substrate and of the characteristics and concentrations of the enzymes involved. As a result, the biotransformation of xenobiotics can lead to their excretion or to the formation of reactive products that produce deleterious effects by binding covalently to tissue macromolecules. Among the enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics, those associated with the cytochromeP-450-dependent monooxygenase system are probably the most important. The route by which a given substrate is metabolized in a tissue or cell is, to a great extent, determined by the types and concentrations of cytochromeP-450 isozymes present. We are just beginning to understand the distribution of these enzymes in lung and to appreciate the species and cellular differences that exist. PMID:6376107

The mutagenicity of flavonols seems to depend on the number and position of hydroxyl groups in the B ring. Galangin is a flavonol that does not have any hydroxyl group in the B ring and has been suggested to be a substrate of cytochromesP450 which, through the hydroxylation of the B ring, could metabolise it to more genotoxic products. The present study was undertaken to test this hypothesis. Using high performance liquid chromatography we show that glangin is sequentially transformed to kaempferol and then to quercetin by a mechanism dependent on cytochromeP450 reactions. The metabolites of galangin are responsible for its mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium reversion assay and for the induction of chromosomal aberrations in V79 cells.

Highlights: ► Substantial reducing equivalents are lost in human P450 CYP3A4 via an oxidase channel. ► Substrate binding has a pronounced effect on uncoupling in cytochromeP450. ► Anionic phospholipids improve the overall coupling in CYP3A4 Nanodiscs. -- Abstract: The normal reaction mechanism of cytochromeP450 operates by utilizing two reducing equivalents to reduce atmospheric dioxygen, producing one molecule of water and an oxygenated product in an overall stoichiometry of 2 electrons:1 dioxygen:1 product. However, three alternate unproductive pathways exist where the intermediate iron–oxygen states in the catalytic cycle can yield reduced oxygen products without substrate metabolism. The first involves release of superoxide from the oxygenated intermediate while the second occurs after input of the second reducing equivalent. Superoxide rapidly dismutates and hence both processes produce hydrogen peroxide that can be cytotoxic to the organism. In both cases, the formation of hydrogen peroxide involves the same overall stoichiometry as oxygenases catalysis. The key step in the catalytic cycle of cytochromeP450 involves scission of the oxygen–oxygen bond of atmospheric dioxygen to produce a higher valent iron-oxo state termed “Compound I”. This intermediate initiates a radical reaction in the oxygenase pathway but also can uptake two additional reducing equivalents from reduced pyridine nucleotide (NADPH) and the flavoprotein reductase to produce a second molecule of water. This non-productive decay of Compound I thus yields an overall oxygen to NADPH ratio of 1:2 and does not produce hydrocarbon oxidation. This water uncoupling reaction provides one of a limited means to study the reactivity of the critical Compound I intermediate in P450 catalysis. We measured simultaneously the rates of NADPH and oxygen consumption as a function of substrate concentration during the steady-state hydroxylation of testosterone catalyzed by human P450 CYP3A4

Phytoalexins are abundant in edible crucifers and have important biological activities, yet no dedicated gene for their biosynthesis is known. Here, we report two new cytochromesP450 from Brassica rapa (Chinese cabbage) that catalyze unprecedented S-heterocyclizations in cyclobrassinin and spirobrassinin biosynthesis. Our results reveal the first genetic and biochemical insights into the biosynthesis of a prominent pair of dietary metabolites, and have implications for pathway discovery across >20 recently sequenced crucifers. PMID:26389737

CytochromeP450 CYP1B1 is a recently cloned dioxin-inducible form of the cytochromeP450 family of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes. An antibody raised against a peptide specific for CYP1B1 was found to recognize CYP1B1 expressed in human lymphoblastoid cells but not to recognize other forms of cytochromeP450, particularly CYP1A1 and CYP1A2. Using this antibody, the cellular distribution and localization of CYP1B1 were investigated by immunohistochemistry in a range of malignant tumors and corresponding normal tissues. CYP1B1 was found to be expressed at a high frequency in a wide range of human cancers of different histogenetic types, including cancers of the breast, colon, lung, esophagus, skin, lymph node, brain, and testis. There was no detectable immunostaining for CYP1B1 in normal tissues. These results provide the basis for the development of novel methods of cancer diagnosis based on the identification of CYP1B1 in tumor cells and the development of anticancer drugs that are selectively activated in tumors by CYP1B1.

A spectrophotometric assay of the reductive dechlorination of halocarbons was developed and used to determine the kinetic characteristics of dechlorination of a range of haloethanes catalysed by microsomes from rat and rabbit liver. Analysis of the typical reaction of hexachloroethane shows that the reaction is catalysed by cytochromeP-450 and results in the formation of olefinic products as well as less chlorinated alkanes: in other respects the reaction resembles that known to occur with carbon tetrachloride. The dechlorination of haloethanes catalysed by a vesicular reconstituted system of cytochromeP-450 enzymes from rabbit liver was also studied and found to be similar to that catalysed by microsomes: both reductase and a phenobarbital inducible form of cytochromeP-450 were essential. There is no substantial dependence of maximum dechlorination rate on compound structure, suggesting that the reduction of substrate is not the rate limiting step in the overall reaction. The main factor in determining the apparent binding constant to the enzyme is the partition coefficient into the lipid membrane, as assessed by calculated log P values. PMID:3986141

Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) is moderately tolerant to the p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase-inhibiting herbicide topramezone. However, the contribution of plant metabolism of topramezone to this tolerance is unknown. Experiments were conducted to determine if known cytochromeP450 monooxygenase inhibitors 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) and malathion alone or in combination with the herbicide safener cloquintocet-mexyl influence creeping bentgrass tolerance to topramezone. Creeping bentgrass in hydroponic culture was treated with ABT (70 μM), malathion (70 μm and 1000 g ha(-1)), or cloquintocet-mexyl (70 μM and 1000 g ha(-1)) prior to topramezone (8 g ha(-1)) application. Topramezone-induced injury to creeping bentgrass increased from 22% when applied alone to 79 and 41% when applied with malathion or ABT, respectively. Cloquintocet-mexyl (70 μM and 1000 g ha(-1)) reduced topramezone injury to 1% and increased creeping bentgrass biomass and PSII quantum yield. Cloquintocet-mexyl mitigated the synergistic effects of ABT more than those of malathion. The effects of malathion on topramezone injury were supported by creeping bentgrass biomass responses. Responses to ABT and malathion suggest that creeping bentgrass tolerance to topramezone is influenced by cytochromeP450-catalyzed metabolism. Future research should elucidate primary topramezone metabolites and determine the contribution of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases and glutathione S-transferases to metabolite formation in safened and non-safened creeping bentgrass.

Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) is moderately tolerant to the p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase-inhibiting herbicide topramezone. However, the contribution of plant metabolism of topramezone to this tolerance is unknown. Experiments were conducted to determine if known cytochromeP450 monooxygenase inhibitors 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) and malathion alone or in combination with the herbicide safener cloquintocet-mexyl influence creeping bentgrass tolerance to topramezone. Creeping bentgrass in hydroponic culture was treated with ABT (70 μM), malathion (70 μm and 1000 g ha-1), or cloquintocet-mexyl (70 μM and 1000 g ha-1) prior to topramezone (8 g ha-1) application. Topramezone-induced injury to creeping bentgrass increased from 22% when applied alone to 79 and 41% when applied with malathion or ABT, respectively. Cloquintocet-mexyl (70 μM and 1000 g ha-1) reduced topramezone injury to 1% and increased creeping bentgrass biomass and PSII quantum yield. Cloquintocet-mexyl mitigated the synergistic effects of ABT more than those of malathion. The effects of malathion on topramezone injury were supported by creeping bentgrass biomass responses. Responses to ABT and malathion suggest that creeping bentgrass tolerance to topramezone is influenced by cytochromeP450-catalyzed metabolism. Future research should elucidate primary topramezone metabolites and determine the contribution of cytochromeP450 monooxygenases and glutathione S-transferases to metabolite formation in safened and non-safened creeping bentgrass. PMID:26186714

CytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities were measured in control and prototype inducer-treated mallard duck, black duck, wood duck, lesser scaup, Canada goose and mute swan. Ages of the birds ranged from pipping embryos (that were treated approximately 3 days before pipping) to adults. Three or more of the following hepatic microsomal monooxygenases were assayed in each species: Benzyloxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (BROD), Ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (EROD), methoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (MROD), and pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (PROD). Baseline activities differed between species, but because of differences in ages, sources of the eggs or birds, and diets, these cannot be viewed as absolute differences. The cytochromeP450 inducers utilized were beta-naphthoflavone (BNF), 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) and phenobarbital (PB). In general, there was little response to PB; only lesser scaup were induced to greater than three times control level and most species were well under this. Responses to BNF and 3MC occurred in each species studied, but differed in which of the monooxygenases was most induced (absolute values and ratios to control values) and in relative induction between species. BROD frequently had an induction ratio EROD. Overall, lesser scaup were the most responsive, canada geese the least responsive, and the other species intermediate in responsiveness to the cytochromeP450 inducers studied.

CYP175A1 is a thermophilic cytochromeP450 and hydroxylates {beta}-carotene. We previously identified a native electron transport system for CYP175A1. In this report, we constructed two fusion proteins consisting of CYP175A1, ferredoxin (Fdx), and ferredoxin-NADP{sup +} reductase (FNR): H{sub 2}N-CYP175A1-Fdx-FNR-COOH (175FR) and H{sub 2}N-CYP175A1-FNR-Fdx-COOH (175RF). Both 175FR and 175RF were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. The V{sub max} value for {beta}-carotene hydroxylation was 25 times higher with 175RF than 175FR and 9 times higher with 175RF than CYP175A1 (non-fused protein), although the k{sub m} values of these enzymes were similar. 175RF retained 50% residual activity even at 80 {sup o}C. Furthermore, several mutants of the CYP175A1 domain of 175RF were prepared and one mutant (Q67G/Y68I) catalyzed the hydroxylation of an unnatural substrate, testosterone. Thus, this is the first report of a thermostable self-sufficient cytochromeP450 and the engineering of a thermophilic cytochromeP450 for the oxidation of an unnatural substrate.

Ovarian cancer is the most frequent cause of death from gynaecological malignancies world wide. Little improvement has been made in the long-term outcome of this disease, with the 5-year survival of patients only 30%. This poor prognosis is due to the late presentation of the disease and to the unpredictable response of ovarian cancer to chemotherapy. The cytochromeP450 enzymes are a superfamily of haemoproteins, known to be involved in the metabolic activation and/or detoxification of a number of anti-cancer drugs. CYP1B1 is a tumour-related form of cytochromeP450 which is over expressed in a wide variety of primary tumours of different histological type. The presence of CYP1B1 may be of importance in the modulation of these tumours to anti-cancer drugs. We have conducted a comprehensive immunohistochemical investigation, into the presence of cytochromeP450 CYP1B1 in primary and metastatic ovarian cancer. The key findings of this study are the increased expression of CYP1B1 in the majority of ovarian cancers investigated (92%), with a strong correlation demonstrated between CYP1B1 expression in both primary and metastatic ovarian cancer (P = 0.005 Spearman's rank correlation test). In contrast no detectable CYP1B1 was found in normal ovary.

A close ortholog to the cytochromeP450cam (CYP101A1) that catalyzes the same hydroxylation of camphor to 5-exo hydroxycamphor is CYP101D1. There are potentially important differences in and around the active site that could contribute to subtle functional differences. Adjacent to the heme iron ligand, Cys357, is Leu358 in P450cam while this residue is Ala in CYP101D1. Leu358 plays a role in binding of the P450cam redox partner, putidaredoxin (Pdx). On the opposite side of the heme about 15 – 20 Å away Asp251 in P450cam plays a critical role in a proton relay network required for O2 activation but forms strong ion pairs with Arg186 and Lys178. In CYP101D1 a Gly replaces Lys178. Thus, the local electrostatic environment and ion pairing is substantially different in CYP101D1. These sites have been systematically mutated in P450cam to the corresponding residues in CYP101D1 and the mutants analyzed by crystallography, kinetics, and UV/Vis spectroscopy. Individually the mutants have little effect on activity or structure but in combination there is a major drop in enzyme activity. This loss in activity is due the mutants being locked in the low-spin state which prevents electron transfer from the P450cam redox partner, Pdx. These studies illustrate the strong synergistic effects on well separated parts of the structure in controlling the equilibrium between the open (low-spin) and closed (high-spin) conformational states. PMID:23865948

The modulation of peroxidase activity by fatty acid additives and organic cosolvents was determined and compared for four bacterial cytochromeP450 enzymes, thermostable P450 CYP119A1, the P450 domain of CYP102A1 (BMP), CYP152A1 (P450(bsbeta)), and CYP101A1 (P450(cam)). Utilizing a high-throughput microplate assay, we were able to readily screen more than 100 combinations of enzymes, additives and cosolvents in a convenient and highly reproducible assay format. We found that, in general, CYP119A1 and BMP showed an increase in peroxidative activity in the presence of fatty acids, whereas CYP152A1 revealed a decrease in activity and CYP101A1 was only slightly affected. In particular, we observed that the conversion of the fluorogenic peroxidase substrate Amplex Red by CYP119A1 and BMP was increased by a factor of 38 or 11, respectively, when isopropanol and lauric acid were present in the reaction mixture. The activity of CYP119A1 could thus be modulated to reach more than 90% of the activity of CYP152A1 without effectors, which is the system with the highest peroxidative activity. For all P450s investigated we found distinctive reactivity patterns, which suggest similarities in the binding site of CYP119A1 and BMP in contrast with the other two proteins studied. Therefore, this study points towards a role of fatty acids as activators for CYP enzymes in addition to being mere substrates. In general, our detailed description of fatty acid- and organic solvent-effects is of practical interest because it illustrates that optimization of modulators and cosolvents can lead to significantly increased yields in biocatalysis.

ABSTRACT Prior studies have shown that argemone oil (AO), responsible for 'Epidemic dropsy', causes inhibition of catalytic activities of CytochromeP450 (P450). In this study interaction of sanguinarine (SAN) alkaloid, isolated from AO, with rat hepatic P450 was investigated. Hepatic microsomes prepared from 3-methylcholantherene (3MC) treated rats when incubated with SAN (1-3 muM) resulted in a spectral peak at 385 nm and a trough at 415 nm, indicative of Type I binding. Incubation of SAN (50-200 muM) with hepatic microsomes prepared from phenobarbitone (PB) treated rats also showed a Type I spectra with a peak at 395 nm and a trough at 420 nm. Relative binding efficiency (DeltaA(max)/K(s)(app) factor) of SAN with P450 was found to be 1540 and 1030 absorbance units/nmol CYP/M for 3MC and PB induced microsomes, respectively. In a P450 spectral inhibition study SAN showed higher affinity towards 3MC eliciting inhibition at much lesser concentrations (0.25-5 muM) as compared to PB (100-300 muM). The IC50s of SAN with different catalytic markers of P450 isoforms, i.e. ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) for CYP1A1, was 2.8 muM and for methoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (MROD) for CYP1A2 was 2.2 muM in 3MC induced microsomes, while benzoyloxyresorufin-O-deethylase (BROD) for CYP 2B1/1A1 showed an IC50 of 50 muM but pentoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (PROD) for CYP2B1 showed no inhibition even at higher concentrations of SAN (> 60 muM) in PB-induced microsomes. These results indicate that higher affinity of SAN binding towards the CYP1A family may have a role in SAN toxicity.

P450cam (CYP101A1) is a bacterial monooxygenase that is known to catalyze the oxidation of camphor, the first committed step in camphor degradation, with simultaneous reduction of oxygen (O2). We report that P450cam catalysis is controlled by oxygen levels: at high O2 concentration, P450cam catalyzes the known oxidation reaction, whereas at low O2 concentration the enzyme catalyzes the reduction of camphor to borneol. We confirmed, using 17O and 2H NMR, that the hydrogen atom added to camphor comes from water, which is oxidized to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This is the first time a cytochromeP450 has been observed to catalyze oxidation of water to H2O2, a difficult reaction to catalyze due to its high barrier. The reduction of camphor and simultaneous oxidation of water are likely catalyzed by the iron-oxo intermediate of P450cam, and we present a plausible mechanism that accounts for the 1∶1 borneol:H2O2 stoichiometry we observed. This reaction has an adaptive value to bacteria that express this camphor catabolism pathway, which requires O2, for two reasons: 1) the borneol and H2O2 mixture generated is toxic to other bacteria and 2) borneol down-regulates the expression of P450cam and its electron transfer partners. Since the reaction described here only occurs under low O2 conditions, the down-regulation only occurs when O2 is scarce. PMID:23634216

Among organophosphorothioate (OPT) pesticides, malathion is considered relatively safe for use in mammals. Its rapid degradation by carboxylesterases competes with the cytochromeP450 (P450)-catalyzed formation of malaoxon, the toxic metabolite. However, impurities in commercial formulations are potent inhibitors of carboxylesterase, allowing a dramatic increase in malaoxon formation. Malathion desulfuration has been characterized in human liver microsomes (HLMs) with a method based on acetylcholinesterase inhibition that is able to detect nanomolar levels of oxon. The active P450 isoforms have been identified by means of a multifaceted strategy, including the use of cDNA-expressed human P450s and correlation, immunoinhibition, and chemical inhibition studies in a panel of phenotyped HLMs. HLMs catalyzed malaoxon formation with a high level of variability (>200-fold). One or two components (K(mapp1) = 53-67 microM; K(mapp2) = 427-1721 microM) were evidenced, depending on the relative specific P450 content. Results from different approaches indicated that, at low malathion concentration, malaoxon formation is catalyzed by CYP1A2 and, to a lesser extent, 2B6, whereas the role of 3A4 is relevant only at high malathion levels. These results are in line with those found with chlorpyrifos, diazinon, azynphos-methyl, and parathion, characterized by the presence of an aromatic ring in the molecule. Since malathion has linear chains as substituents at the thioether sulfur, it can be hypothesized that, independently from the chemical structure, OPTs are bioactivated by the same P450s. These results also suggest that CYP1A2 and 2B6 can be considered as possible metabolic biomarkers of susceptibility to OPT-induced toxic effects at actual human exposure levels.

To know the mechanisms involved in the activation of promutagenic aromatic amines mediated by plants, we used Persea americana S117 system (S117) for the activation of 2-aminofluorene (2-AF) and m-phenylenediamine (m-PDA) in Ames assays. In these assays, the effect of the diphenylene iodonium (DPI), an inhibitor of flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs), of the 1-aminobenzotriazole (1-ABT), an inhibitor of cytochromesP450 (cyt-P450s) and of the methimazole, a high-affinity substrate for FMOs, was studied. The efficacy of both inhibitors and of the methimazole was verified to find that they did partially inhibit the mutagenesis of both aromatic amines, activated with rat liver S9. Similarly, both inhibitors and methimazole did produce a significant decrease in 2-AF and m-PDA mutagenesis, when the activation system was S117, indicating that, similar to what occurs in mammalian systems, plant FMOs and cyt-P450s can metabolize aromatic amines to mutagenic product(s). However, the affinity of both FMOs and cyt-P450s of plant for 2-AF and m-PDA was different. Data obtained indicate that the activities of plant FMOs must be the main enzymatic system of m-PDA activation while, in 2-AF activation, plant cyt-P450s have the most relevant activities. In addition, peroxidases of the S117 system must contribute to 2-AF activation and some isoforms of FMOs and/or cyt-P450s of the S117 system, uninhibited by the inhibitors used, must be the responsible for a partial activation of m-PDA.

The cytochromeP450-dependent monooxygenases play a central role in the metabolism of chemical carcinogens. The action of these enzymes can lead to either carcinogen detoxication or activation. Differences in P450 expression in animal models give rise to large differences in susceptibility to chemical carcinogens, so genetic polymorphisms in P450 expression may be expected to be an important factor in individual human susceptibility to cancer. Of particular interest is the genetic polymorphism at the cytochromeP450-debrisoquine/sparteine hydroxylase locus (CYP2D6). Although this is a minor liver P450, its polymorphic expression is associated with the abnormal metabolism of at least 30 therapeutic drugs, including beta-blockers and tricyclic antidepressants. Conflicting reports have been made on the association of this polymorphism with cancer susceptibility. This disagreement may be attributable to limitations of the phenotyping assay used to identify affected individuals (poor metabolizers, PMs). In order to clarify these anomalies, we have developed a simple DNA-based assay with which we can identify the majority of PMs. The assay is centered around the primary gene defect responsible for the polymorphism, a G to A transition at the junction of intron 3/exon 4 which results in a frame-shift in the resultant mRNA. The frequency of this mutation is 70-80% in PMs. We have studied the frequency of mutated alleles in a control population and in a wide range of cancer patients. No association between this polymorphism and lung cancer susceptibility was observed; however, in other populations of cancer patients some very interesting shifts were found in the proportion of PMs and heterozygotes from that in the normal population. PMID:1486838

Electrochemical methods continue to present an attractive means for achieving in vitro biocatalysis with cytochromesP450; however understanding fully the nature of electrode-bound P450 remains elusive. Herein we report thermodynamic parameters using electrochemical analysis of full-length mammalian microsomal cytochromeP450 2B4 (CYP 2B4) in didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) surfactant films. Electronic absorption spectra of CYP 2B4-DDAB films on silica slides reveal an absorption maximum at 418nm, characteristic of low-spin, six-coordinate, water-ligated Fe(III) heme in P450. The Fe(III/II) and Fe(II/I) redox couples (E1/2) of substrate-free CYP 2B4 measured by cyclic voltammetry are -0.23V and -1.02V (vs. SCE, or 14mV and -776mV vs. NHE) at 21°C. The standard heterogeneous rate constant for electron transfer from the electrode to the heme for the Fe(III/II) couple was estimated at 170s(-1). Experiments indicate that the system is capable of catalytic reduction of dioxygen, however substrate oxidation was not observed. From the variation of E1/2 with temperature (18-40°C), we have measured entropy and enthalpy changes that accompany heme reduction, -151Jmol(-1)K(-1) and -46kJmol(-1), respectfully. The corresponding entropy and enthalpy values are less for the six-coordinate low-spin, imidazole-ligated enzyme (-59Jmol(-1)K(-1) and -18kJmol(-1)), consistent with limited conformational changes upon reduction. These thermodynamic parameters are comparable to those measured for bacterial P450 from Bacillus megaterium (CYP BM3), confirming our prior reports that the surfactant environment exerts a strong influence on the redox properties of the heme.

Phenothiazine tranquilizers have been associated with pharmacokinetic drug interactions in man. In this study the in vivo and in vitro effects of the clinically important phenothiazines promazine (PZ) and chlorpromazine (CPZ) on drug oxidations catalysed by specific cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes were investigated in the rat. In vitro, the two drugs were relatively ineffective inhibitors of constitutive P450 activities, but were inhibitory toward the principal phenobarbital-inducible P450 2B1 and, to a lesser extent, P450 1A1. Administration of PZ and CPZ to male rats did not markedly influence the total microsomal P450 content of the liver. However, the quantitatively important male-specific P450 2C11 was down-regulated by CPZ and concomitant induction of P450 2B1 and associated 7-pentylresorufin O-depentylase activity were noted. A small increase in the activity of microsomal 7-ethylresorufin O-deethylase was also observed following administration of both drugs to rats, suggesting induction of P450 1A1/2. Considered together, it is apparent that the two phenothiazines are preferential inhibitors and inducers of P450 2B1 in rat liver. Drug interactions in humans involving phenothiazines may reflect a combined effect of induction and inhibition processes as well as down-regulation of other P450s, such as that produced by CPZ on P450 2C11.

A cDNA encoding a cytochromeP450 enzyme was isolated from a cDNA library of the corpora allata (CA) from reproductively active Diploptera punctata cockroaches. This P450 from the endocrine glands that produce the insect juvenile hormone (JH) is most closely related to P450 proteins of family 4 and was named CYP4C7. The CYP4C7 gene is expressed selectively in the CA; its message could not be detected in the fat body, corpora cardiaca, or brain, but trace levels of expression were found in the midgut and caeca. The levels of CYP4C7 mRNA in the CA, measured by ribonuclease protection assays, were linked to the activity cycle of the glands. In adult females, CYP4C7 expression increased immediately after the peak of JH synthesis, reaching a maximum on day 7, just before oviposition. mRNA levels then declined after oviposition and during pregnancy. The CYP4C7 protein was produced in Escherichia coli as a C-terminal His-tagged recombinant protein. In a reconstituted system with insect NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase, cytochrome b5, and NADPH, the purified CYP4C7 metabolized (2E,6E)-farnesol to a more polar product that was identified by GC-MS and by NMR as (10E)-12-hydroxyfarnesol. CYP4C7 converted JH III to 12-trans-hydroxy JH III and metabolized other JH-like sesquiterpenoids as well. This omega-hydroxylation of sesquiterpenoids appears to be a metabolic pathway in the corpora allata that may play a role in the suppression of JH biosynthesis at the end of the gonotrophic cycle.

Benidipine is a dihydropyridine calcium antagonist that has been used clinically as an antihypertensive and antianginal agent. It is used clinically as a racemate, containing the (-)-alpha and (+)-alpha isomers of benidipine. This study was performed to elucidate the metabolism of benidipine and its enantiomers in human liver microsomes (HLMs) and to characterize the cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes that are involved in the metabolism of benidipine. Human liver microsomal incubation of benidipine in the presence of NADPH resulted in the formation of two metabolites, N-desbenzylbenidipine and dehydrobenidipine. The intrinsic clearance (CL(int)) of the formation of N-desbenzylbenidipine and dehydrobenidipine metabolites from (-)-alpha isomer was similar to those from the (+)-alpha isomer (1.9 +/- 0.1 versus 2.3 +/- 2.3 microl/min/pmol P450 and 0.5 +/- 0.2 versus 0.6 +/- 0.6 microl/min/pmol P450, respectively). Correlation analysis between the known P450 enzyme activities and the rate of the formation of benidipine metabolites in the 15 HLMs showed that benidipine metabolism is correlated with CYP3A activity. The P450 isoform-selective inhibition study in liver microsomes and the incubation study of cDNA-expressed enzymes also showed that theN-debenzylation and dehydrogenation of benidipine are mainly mediated by CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. The total CL(int) values of CYP3A4-mediated metabolite formation from (-)-alpha isomer were similar to those from (+)-alpha isomer (17.7 versus 14.4 microl/min/pmol P450, respectively). The total CL(int) values of CYP3A5-mediated metabolite formation from (-)-alpha isomer were also similar to those from (+)-alpha isomer (8.3 versus 11.0 microl/min/pmol P450, respectively). These findings suggest that CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 isoforms are major enzymes contributing to the disposition of benidipine, but stereoselective disposition of benidipine in vivo may be influenced not by stereoselective metabolism but by other factors.

Acrylonitrile (AN) and acrylamide (AM) are commonly used in the synthesis of plastics and polymers. In rodents, AM and AN are metabolized to the epoxides glycidamide and cyanoethylene oxide, respectively. The aim of this study was to determine the role of cytochromeP450 in the metabolism of AM and AN in vivo. Wild-type (WT) mice, WT mice pretreated with aminobenzotriazole (ABT, 50 mg/kg ip, 2 h pre-exposure), and mice devoid of cytochromeP450 2E1 (P450 2E1-null) were treated with 50 mg/kg [(13)C]AM po. WT mice and P450 2E1-null mice were treated with 2.5 or 10 mg/kg [(13)C]AN po. Urine was collected for 24 h, and metabolites were characterized using (13)C NMR. WT mice excreted metabolites derived from the epoxides and from direct GSH conjugation with AM or AN. Only metabolites derived from direct GSH conjugation with AM or AN were observed in the urine from ABT-pretreated WT mice and P450 2E1-null mice. On the basis of evaluation of urinary metabolites at these doses, these data suggest that P450 2E1 is possibly the only cytochromeP450 enzyme involved in the metabolism of AM and AN in mice, that inhibiting total P450 activity does not result in new pathways of non-P450 metabolism of AM, and that mice devoid of P450 2E1 do not excrete metabolites of AM or AN that would be produced by oxidation by other cytochromeP450s. P450 2E1-null mice may be an appropriate model for the investigation of the role of oxidative metabolism in the toxicity or carcinogenicity of these compounds.

CytochromesP450 (EC 1.14.14.1) are mixed function oxidases (oxygenases) that can catalyse redox bioconversions of food components. Also, efficacious removal of undesirable components can be achieved using solid-support immobilised enzyme (IME) of a selection from 2700 isoforms of cytochromesP450 (CYP). CytochromesP450 co-immobilised with other enzymes, or protein receptors, may be used to confer a secondary order of regio- or stereo-specificity of chiral bioconversion: these can be predictable in silico by utilisation of QSARs (quantitative structure/activity relationships).

Fungi are an exceptional source of diverse and novel cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s), heme-thiolate proteins, with catalytic versatility. Agaricomycotina saprophytes have yielded most of the available information on basidiomycete P450s. This resulted in observing similar P450 family types in basidiomycetes with few differences in P450 families among Agaricomycotina saprophytes. The present study demonstrated the presence of unique P450 family patterns in basidiomycete biotrophic plant pathogens that could possibly have originated from the adaptation of these species to different ecological niches (host influence). Systematic analysis of P450s in basidiomycete biotrophic plant pathogens belonging to three different orders, Agaricomycotina (Armillaria mellea), Pucciniomycotina (Melampsora laricis-populina, M. lini, Mixia osmundae and Puccinia graminis) and Ustilaginomycotina (Ustilago maydis, Sporisorium reilianum and Tilletiaria anomala), revealed the presence of numerous putative P450s ranging from 267 (A. mellea) to 14 (M. osmundae). Analysis of P450 families revealed the presence of 41 new P450 families and 27 new P450 subfamilies in these biotrophic plant pathogens. Order-level comparison of P450 families between biotrophic plant pathogens revealed the presence of unique P450 family patterns in these organisms, possibly reflecting the characteristics of their order. Further comparison of P450 families with basidiomycete non-pathogens confirmed that biotrophic plant pathogens harbour the unique P450 families in their genomes. The CYP63, CYP5037, CYP5136, CYP5137 and CYP5341 P450 families were expanded in A. mellea when compared to other Agaricomycotina saprophytes and the CYP5221 and CYP5233 P450 families in P. graminis and M. laricis-populina. The present study revealed that expansion of these P450 families is due to paralogous evolution of member P450s. The presence of unique P450 families in these organisms serves as evidence of how a host

Genome sequencing of basidiomycetes, a group of fungi capable of degrading/mineralizing plant material, revealed the presence of numerous cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s) in their genomes, with some exceptions. Considering the large repertoire of P450s found in fungi, it is difficult to identify P450s that play an important role in fungal metabolism and the adaptation of fungi to diverse ecological niches. In this study, we followed Sir Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to identify such P450s in model basidiomycete fungi showing a preference for different types of plant components degradation. Any P450 family comprising a large number of member P450s compared to other P450 families indicates its natural selection over other P450 families by its important role in fungal physiology. Genome-wide comparative P450 analysis in the basidiomycete species, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Phanerochaete carnosa, Agaricus bisporus, Postia placenta, Ganoderma sp. and Serpula lacrymans, revealed enrichment of 11 P450 families (out of 68 P450 families), CYP63, CYP512, CYP5035, CYP5037, CYP5136, CYP5141, CYP5144, CYP5146, CYP5150, CYP5348 and CYP5359. Phylogenetic analysis of the P450 family showed species-specific alignment of P450s across the P450 families with the exception of P450s of Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Phanerochaete carnosa, suggesting paralogous evolution of P450s in model basidiomycetes. P450 gene-structure analysis revealed high conservation in the size of exons and the location of introns. P450s with the same gene structure were found tandemly arranged in the genomes of selected fungi. This clearly suggests that extensive gene duplications, particularly tandem gene duplications, led to the enrichment of selective P450 families in basidiomycetes. Functional analysis and gene expression profiling data suggest that members of the P450 families are catalytically versatile and possibly involved in fungal colonization of plant material. To our

Fungi are an exceptional source of diverse and novel cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (P450s), heme-thiolate proteins, with catalytic versatility. Agaricomycotina saprophytes have yielded most of the available information on basidiomycete P450s. This resulted in observing similar P450 family types in basidiomycetes with few differences in P450 families among Agaricomycotina saprophytes. The present study demonstrated the presence of unique P450 family patterns in basidiomycete biotrophic plant pathogens that could possibly have originated from the adaptation of these species to different ecological niches (host influence). Systematic analysis of P450s in basidiomycete biotrophic plant pathogens belonging to three different orders, Agaricomycotina (Armillaria mellea), Pucciniomycotina (Melampsora laricis-populina, M. lini, Mixia osmundae and Puccinia graminis) and Ustilaginomycotina (Ustilago maydis, Sporisorium reilianum and Tilletiaria anomala), revealed the presence of numerous putative P450s ranging from 267 (A. mellea) to 14 (M. osmundae). Analysis of P450 families revealed the presence of 41 new P450 families and 27 new P450 subfamilies in these biotrophic plant pathogens. Order-level comparison of P450 families between biotrophic plant pathogens revealed the presence of unique P450 family patterns in these organisms, possibly reflecting the characteristics of their order. Further comparison of P450 families with basidiomycete non-pathogens confirmed that biotrophic plant pathogens harbour the unique P450 families in their genomes. The CYP63, CYP5037, CYP5136, CYP5137 and CYP5341 P450 families were expanded in A. mellea when compared to other Agaricomycotina saprophytes and the CYP5221 and CYP5233 P450 families in P. graminis and M. laricis-populina. The present study revealed that expansion of these P450 families is due to paralogous evolution of member P450s. The presence of unique P450 families in these organisms serves as evidence of how a host

A cloned complementary DNA sequence has been isolated from a human placental cDNA library in the bacteriophage expression vector lambda gt11 after screening with polyclonal antibodies against human placental aromatase-system cytochromeP-450 (P-450Arom). A single recombinant clone, lambda hAROM1, was characterized by its ability to generate a beta-galactosidase fusion protein that reacted independently with polyclonal antibodies raised against beta-galactosidase and cytochromeP-450Arom and with monoclonal antibodies specific for cytochromeP-450Arom. The cDNA insert, which was found to be 1.8 kilobases in length, was radiolabeled and used to analyze poly(A)+ RNA isolated from human placenta and total RNA isolated from human adipose stromal cells cultured in the absence or presence of regulatory factors. The radiolabeled cDNA hybridized to several size species of mRNA in both placental and adipose stromal cell RNA fractions. Changes in the levels of adipose stromal cell RNA that hybridized to the cDNA insert were associated with comparable changes in the levels of translatable cytochromeP-450Arom mRNA and aromatase system activity. These findings are indicative that lambda hAROM1 contains DNA sequences complementary to human cytochromeP-450Arom mRNA and are suggestive that regulatory factors affect aromatase activity by altering the transcriptional activity of the cytochromeP-450Arom gene. Images PMID:3018730

Substrate binding to cytochromeP450cam is generally considered to be a two-step process. The first step corresponds to the entrance of the substrate, camphor, into the heme pocket. The second step corresponds to a spin transition (low spin-->high spin) of the iron in the protein-substrate complex. This spin transition is related to the mobility of the substrate inside the active site [Biochim Biophys Acta 1338 (1997) 77]. Potassium cations (K(+)) have a specific effect on the spin equilibrium. This is generally attributed to the K(+) ion-induced conformational change of tyrosine 96, the hydroxyl group of which is hydrogen bonded to the keto group of camphor and results in optimum substrate orientation and reduced mobility of this substrate in the active site. In the present paper, we show that K(+) not only affects the substrate-Tyr 96 couple, but acts more globally since K(+) effects are also observed in the Tyr96Phe mutant as well as in complexes with camphor-analogues. Large compounds, that fit well in the heme pocket and bind with higher affinity than camphor, display high spin contents that are less dependent on the presence of K(+). In contrast, K(+) has a significant effect on the high spin content of substrate-cytochromeP450cam complexes with looser interactions. We conclude that large compounds with higher affinities than camphor have more van der Waals contacts with the active site residues. Their mobilities are then reduced and less dependent on the presence of K(+). In this study, we also explored, for comparison, the K(+) effect on the spin transition state of another member of the P450 superfamily, cytochromeP450lin. This effect is not as strong as those observed for cytochromeP450cam. Even though the spin equilibrium does not change dramatically in the presence of K(+) or Na(+), the value of the dissociation constant (K(d)) for linalool binding is significantly affected by ionic strength. Analysis of the thermodynamic parameters for the linalool

CytochromeP-450 destruction kinetics by cumene hydroperoxide has been studied in LM2 and LM4 microsomal and purified forms. Three destruction phases of cytochromeP-450 were shown to be observed irrespective of the source and integration degree, cytochromeP-450 pseudomonomolecular consumption rate constants being dependent in a complex way upon the cumene hydroperoxide initial concentration. The radical character of cytochromeP-450 destruction was proved by experiments with 1-naphtol. The mechanism of radicals formation is discussed.

The polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pyrene, 1-hydroxypyrene, 1-nitropyrene, and 1-acetylpyrene, were found to induce Type I binding spectra with human cytochromeP450 (P450) 2A13 and were converted to various mono- and di-oxygenated products by this enzyme.Pyrene was first oxidized by P450 2A13 to 1-hydroxypyrene which was further oxidized to di-oxygenated products, i.e. 1,8- and 1,6-dihydroxypyrene. Of five other human P450s examined, P450 1B1 catalyzed pyrene oxidation to 1-hydroxypyrene at a similar rate to P450 2A13 but was less efficient in forming dihydroxypyrenes. P450 2A6, a related human P450 enzyme, which did not show any spectral changes with these four PAHs, showed lower activities in oxidation of these compounds than P450 2A13.1-Nitropyrene and 1-acetylpyrene were also found to be efficiently oxidized by P450 2A13 to several oxygenated products, based on mass spectrometry analysis.Molecular docking analysis supported preferred orientations of pyrene and its derivatives in the active site of P450 2A13, with lower interaction energies (U values) than observed for P450 2A6 and that several amino acid residues (including Ala-301, Asn-297, and Ala-117) play important roles in directing the orientation of these PAHs in the P450 2A13 active site. In addition, Phe-231 and Gly-329 were found to interact with pyrene to orient this compound in the active site of P450 1B1.These results suggest that P450 2A13 is one of the important enzymes that oxidizes these PAH compounds and may determine how these chemicals are detoxicated and bioactivated in humans. PMID:26247835

CytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes play a critical role in the activation and detoxication of many neurotoxic chemicals. Although research has largely focused on P450-mediated metabolism in the liver, emerging evidence suggests that brain P450s influence neurotoxicity by modulating local metabolite levels. As a first step toward better understanding the relative role of brain P450s in determining neurotoxic outcome, we characterized mRNA expression of specific P450 isoforms in the rodent brain. Adult mice (male and female) and rats (male) were treated with vehicle, phenobarbital, or dexamethasone. Transcripts for CYP2B, CYP3A, CYP1A2, and the orphan CYP4X1 and CYP2S1 were quantified in the liver, hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum by quantitative (real-time) polymerase chain reaction. These P450s were all detected in the liver with the exception of CYP4X1, which was detected in rat but not mouse liver. P450 expression profiles in the brain varied regionally. With the exception of the hippocampus, there were no sex differences in regional brain P450 expression profiles in mice; however, there were marked species differences. In the liver, phenobarbital induced CYP2B expression in both species. Dexamethasone induced hepatic CYP2B and CYP3A in mice but not rats. In contrast, brain P450s did not respond to these classic hepatic P450 inducers. Our findings demonstrate that P450 mRNA expression in the brain varies by region, regional brain P450 profiles vary between species, and their induction varies from that of hepatic P450s. These novel data will be useful for designing mechanistic studies to examine the relative role of P450-mediated brain metabolism in neurotoxicity.

Highlights: {yields} Humans with severe forms of cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) mutations show bone defects as observed in Antley-Bixler Syndrome. {yields} First report showing knockdown of CYPOR in osteoblasts decreased Connexin 43 (Cx43) protein levels. Cx43 is known to play an important role in bone modeling. {yields} Knockdown of CYPOR decreased Gap Junctional Intercellular Communication and hemichannel activity. {yields} Knockdown of CYPOR decreased Cx43 in mouse primary calvarial osteoblasts. {yields} Decreased Cx43 expression was observed at the transcriptional level. -- Abstract: CytochromeP450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) is a microsomal electron-transferring enzyme containing both FAD and FMN as co-factors, which provides the reducing equivalents to various redox partners, such as cytochromesP450 (CYPs), heme oxygenase (HO), cytochrome b{sub 5} and squalene monooxygenase. Human patients with severe forms of CYPOR mutation show bone defects such as cranio- and humeroradial synostoses and long bone fractures, known as Antley-Bixler-like Syndrome (ABS). To elucidate the role of CYPOR in bone, we knocked-down CYPOR in multiple osteoblast cell lines using RNAi technology. In this study, knock-down of CYPOR decreased the expression of Connexin 43 (Cx43), known to play a critical role in bone formation, modeling, and remodeling. Knock-down of CYPOR also decreased Gap Junction Intercellular Communication (GJIC) and hemichannel activity. Promoter luciferase assays revealed that the decrease in expression of Cx43 in CYPOR knock-down cells was due to transcriptional repression. Primary osteoblasts isolated from bone specific Por knock-down mice calvariae confirmed the findings in the cell lines. Taken together, our study provides novel insights into the regulation of gap junction function by CYPOR and suggests that Cx43 may play an important role(s) in CYPOR-mediated bone defects seen in patients.

An optical probe enables the study of enzyme activity by absorbance spectroscopy or by sensitive fluorescence methods. In particular, the probe provides the ability to monitor the activity of cytochromeP-450.sub.scc enzyme, the rate limiting enzyme for steroid biosynthesis. Located on the inner mitochondrial membrane, P-450.sub.scc catalyzes the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone and isocapraldehyde by sequential oxidations of the cholesterol side chain. The fluorogenic probe includes a cholesterol-like steroid linked to a chromophore through a linking group. The chromophore is selected to have little optical response when linked to the steroid substrate and an enhanced optical response when cleaved from the substrate and linking group. Thus, a fluorescent anion that can be optically detected is generated by the side-chain cleavage reaction during steroidogenesis.

An optical probe enables the study of enzyme activity by absorbance spectroscopy or by sensitive fluorescence methods. In particular, the probe provides the ability to monitor the activity of cytochromeP-450.sub.scc enzyme, the rate limiting enzyme for steroid biosynthesis. Located on the inner mitochondrial membrane, P-450.sub.scc catalyzes the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone and isocapraldehyde by sequential oxidations of the cholesterol side chain. The fluorogenic probe includes a cholesterol-like steroid linked to a chromophore through a linking group. The chromophore is selected to have little optical response when linked to the steroid substrate and an enhanced optical response when cleaved from the substrate and linking group. Thus, a fluorescent anion that can be optically detected is generated by the side-chain cleavage reaction during steroidogenesis.

Expansion of the cytochromeP450 gene family is often proposed to have a critical role in the evolution of metabolic complexity, in particular in microorganisms, insects and plants. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the evolution of this complexity are poorly understood. Here we describe the evolutionary history of a plant P450 retrogene, which emerged and underwent fixation in the common ancestor of Brassicales, before undergoing tandem duplication in the ancestor of Brassicaceae. Duplication leads first to gain of dual functions in one of the copies. Both sister genes are retained through subsequent speciation but eventually return to a single copy in two of three diverging lineages. In the lineage in which both copies are maintained, the ancestral functions are split between paralogs and a novel function arises in the copy under relaxed selection. Our work illustrates how retrotransposition and gene duplication can favour the emergence of novel metabolic functions. PMID:27713409

The multienzymatic complex known as cytochromeP-450 represents one of the most important hemoprotein families of the liver. It participates in the metabolism of steroids, fatty acids, prostaglandins and liposoluble vitamins, and also plays a role in the bioactivation of xenobiotic compounds (generates reactive metabolites which produce acute and chronic lesions in liver tissue). This is a report on the low concentrations of total microsomal P-450 (0.093 +/- SD = 0.069 nMoles/mg protein) found in liver biopsies of 19 mexican patients diagnosed as having biliary lithiasis, as compared to an anglosaxon population with the same liver pathology (0.415 +/- 0.105 nMoles/mg protein). These low values are in agreement with the observation of a high incidence in normal mexicans (91.7%) of poor nifedipine metabolizers. Our findings justify an analyses of hepatic RNAm and cDNA of mexican individuals according to ethnic background, diet and environmental contaminants.

The cytochromesP450 (CYPs) play a central role in many biologically important oxidation reactions, including the metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotic compounds. Because they are often assayed as both drug targets and anti-targets, any tools that provide: (a) confirmation of active site binding and (b) structural data, would be of great utility, especially if data could be obtained in reasonably high throughput. To this end, we have developed an analog of the promiscuous heme ligand, cyanide, with a 13CH3-reporter attached. This 13C-methyl isocyanide ligand binds to bacterial (P450cam) and membrane-bound mammalian (CYP2B4) CYPs. It can be used in a rapid 1D experiment to identify binders, and provides a qualitative measure of structural changes in the active site. PMID:19199046

Aristolochic acids (AAs) are plant-derived nephrotoxins and carcinogens responsible for chronic renal failure and associated urothelial cell cancers in several clinical syndromes known collectively as aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN). Mice provide a useful model for study of AAN because the renal histopathology of AA-treated mice is strikingly similar to that of humans. AA is also a potent carcinogen in mice with a tissue spectrum somewhat different from that in humans. The toxic dose of AA in mice is higher than that in humans; this difference in susceptibility has been postulated to reflect differing rates of detoxication between the species. Recent studies in mice have shown that the hepatic cytochromeP450 system detoxicates AA, and inducers of the arylhydrocarbon response protect mice from the nephrotoxic effects of AA. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of specific cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes in AA metabolism in vivo. Of 18 human P450 enzymes we surveyed only two, CYP1A1 and CYP1A2, which were effective in demethylating 8-methoxy-6-nitro-phenanthro-(3,4-d)-1,3-dioxolo-5-carboxylic acid (AAI) to the nontoxic derivative 8-hydroxy-6-nitro-phenanthro-(3,4-d)-1,3-dioxolo-5-carboxylic acid (AAIa). Kinetic analysis revealed similar efficiencies of formation of AAIa by human and rat CYP1A2. We also report here that CYP1A2-deficient mice display increased sensitivity to the nephrotoxic effects of AAI. Furthermore, Cyp1a2 knockout mice accumulate AAI-derived DNA adducts in the kidney at a higher rate than control mice. Differences in bioavailability or hepatic metabolism of AAI, expression of CYP1A2, or efficiency of a competing nitroreduction pathway in vivo may explain the apparent differences between human and rodent sensitivity to AAI. PMID:20164109

In the present paper we describe studies on molecular mechanisms of protein-protein interactions between cytochromeP450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and cytochrome b(5), the latter being incorporated into the artificial recombinant protein Hmwb(5)-EGFP containing full-length cytochrome b(5) (functional module) and a mutant form of the green fluorescent protein EGFP (signal module) fused into a single polypeptide chain. It is shown that cytochrome b(5) within the fusion protein Hmwb(5)-EGFP can be reduced by NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase in the presence of NADPH, the rate of reduction being dependent on solution ionic strength, indicating that the signal module does not prevent the interaction of the flavo- and hemeproteins. Interaction of cytochromeP450 3A4 and Hmwb(5)-EGFP was estimated based on spin equilibrium shift of cytochromeP450 3A4 to high-spin state in the presence of Hmwb(5)-EGFP, as well as based on steady-state fluorescence anisotropy of the EGFP component of the fusion protein in the presence of CYP3A4. The engineering of chimeric protein Hmwb(5)-EGFP gives an independent method to determine dissociation constant for the complex of cytochromeP450 and cytochrome b(5) that is less sensitive to environmental factors compared to spectrophotometric titration used before. Reconstitution of catalytic activity of cytochromeP450 3A4 in the reaction of testosterone 6beta-hydroxylation in the presence of Hmwb(5)-EGFP indicates that cytochrome b(5) in the fusion protein is able to stimulate the hydroxylation reaction. Using other fusion proteins containing either cytochrome b(5) or its hydrophilic domain to reconstitute catalytic activity of cytochromeP450 3A4 showed that the hydrophobic domain of cytochrome b(5) participates not only in hemeprotein interaction, but also in electron transfer from cytochrome b(5) to cytochromeP450.

Organic hydroperoxides are believed to be primarily detoxified in cells by the GSH peroxidase/GSSG reductase system and activated to cytotoxic radical species by non-heme iron. However, organic hydroperoxides seem to be bioactivated by cytochromeP450 (P450) in isolated hepatocytes as various P450 (particularly P450 2E1) inhibitors inhibited cumene hydroperoxide (CumOOH) metabolism and attenuated subsequent cytotoxic effects including antimycin A-resistant respiration, lipid peroxidation, iron mobilization, ATP depletion, and cell membrane disruption. CumOOH metabolism was also faster in P450 1A-induced hepatocytes and was inhibited by the P450 1A inhibitor alpha-naphthoflavone. The ferric chelator deferoxamine also prevented cytotoxicity even after CumOOH had been metabolized but had no effect on CumOOH metabolism. This emphasizes the toxicological significance of the iron released following hydroperoxide metabolic activation by cytochromeP450. The radical trap, 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl (TEMPO), had no effect on CumOOH metabolism but prevented CumOOH-induced antimycin A-resistant respiration, lipid peroxidation, iron mobilization, and loss of membrane integrity. These results suggest that CumOOH is metabolically activated by some P450 enzymes (e.g., P450 2E1) in hepatocytes to form reactive radical metabolites or oxidants that cause lipid peroxidation and cytotoxicity.

The crystal structure of the FMN-binding domain of human NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase (P450R-FMN), a key component in the cytochromeP450 monooxygenase system, has been determined to 1.93 A resolution and shown to be very similar both to the global fold in solution (Barsukov I et al., 1997, J Biomol NMR 10:63-75) and to the corresponding domain in the 2.6 A crystal structure of intact rat P450R (Wang M et al., 1997, Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 94:8411-8416). The crystal structure of P450R-FMN reported here confirms the overall similarity of its alpha-beta-alpha architecture to that of the bacterial flavodoxins, but reveals differences in the position, number, and length of the helices relative to the central beta-sheet. The marked similarity between P450R-FMN and flavodoxins in the interactions between the FMN and the protein, indicate a striking evolutionary conservation of the FMN binding site. The P450R-FMN molecule has an unusual surface charge distribution, leading to a very strong dipole, which may be involved in docking cytochromeP450 into place for electron transfer near the FMN. Several acidic residues near the FMN are identified by mutagenesis experiments to be important for electron transfer to P4502D6 and to cytochrome c, a clear indication of the part of the molecular surface that is likely to be involved in substrate binding. Somewhat different parts are found to be involved in binding cytochromeP450 and cytochrome c. PMID:10048323

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of the brain noradrenergic system on the expression of cytochromeP450 in the liver. The experiment was carried out on male Wistar rats. Intracerebroventricular injection of the noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 diminished noradrenaline level in the brain. Simultaneously, significant decreases in the serum concentration of the growth hormone, testosterone and the thyroid hormone thyroxine, as well as an increase in corticosterone level were observed. The concentrations of triiodothyronine and the cytokines interleukine 2 (IL-2) and 6 (IL-6) were not changed by DSP-4. The neurotoxin produced complex changes in the functioning of cytochromeP450. Significant decreases in the activity of liver CYP2C11 (measured as a rate of the 2α- and 16α-hydroxylation of testosterone) and CYP3A (measured as a rate of the 2β- and 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone) were found. In contrast, the activity of CYP1A (measured as a rate of caffeine metabolism) rose, while that of CYP2A (measured as a rate of the 7α-hydroxylation of testosterone), CYP2C6 (measured as a rate of the 7-hydroxylation of warfarin) and CYP2D (the 1'-hydroxylation of bufuralol) remained unchanged. The changes in the activity of CYP1A, CYP2C11 and CYP3A correlated positively with those in CYP protein levels and with the CYP mRNA levels of CYP1A1, CYP2C11 and CYP3A1/2 genes, respectively. The obtained results indicate an important role of the brain noradrenergic system in the neuroendocrine regulation of liver cytochromeP450 expression, which may be of significance in pathological states involving this system, or during pharmacotherapy with drugs affecting noradrenergic transmission.

CytochromeP450 17A1 (also known as CYP17A1 and cytochromeP450c17) catalyses the biosynthesis of androgens in humans. As prostate cancer cells proliferate in response to androgen steroids, CYP17A1 inhibition is a new strategy to prevent androgen synthesis and treat lethal metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, but drug development has been hampered by lack of information regarding the structure of CYP17A1. Here we report X-ray crystal structures of CYP17A1, which were obtained in the presence of either abiraterone, a first-in-class steroidal inhibitor recently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for late-stage prostate cancer, or TOK-001, an inhibitor that is currently undergoing clinical trials. Both of these inhibitors bind the haem iron, forming a 60° angle above the haem plane and packing against the central I helix with the 3β-OH interacting with aspargine 202 in the F helix. Notably, this binding mode differs substantially from those that are predicted by homology models and from steroids in other cytochromeP450 enzymes with known structures, and some features of this binding mode are more similar to steroid receptors. Whereas the overall structure of CYP17A1 provides a rationale for understanding many mutations that are found in patients with steroidogenic diseases, the active site reveals multiple steric and hydrogen bonding features that will facilitate a better understanding of the enzyme's dual hydroxylase and lyase catalytic capabilities and assist in rational drug design. Specifically, structure-based design is expected to aid development of inhibitors that bind only CYP17A1 and solely inhibit its androgen-generating lyase activity to improve treatment of prostate and other hormone-responsive cancers.

Nanoparticles are known to be able to interfere with cellular metabolism and to cause cytotoxicity and moreover may interfere with specific cellular functions. Serious effects on the latter include changes in liver cell function. The cytochromeP450 system is expressed in many cells but is especially important in hepatocytes and hormone-producing cells. The interaction of polystyrene nanoparticles with the most important drug-metabolizing cytochromeP450 isoenzymes, CYP3A4, CYP2D6, CYP2C9 and CYP2A1 expressed individually in insect cells (BACULOSOMES) was studied by the cleavage of substrates coupled to a fluorescent dye. The data obtained for individual isoenzymes were compared to metabolism in microsomes isolated from normal liver and from the hepatoma cell line H4-II-E-C3. Small (20-60 nm) carboxyl polystyrene particles but not larger (200 nm) ones reached high intracellular concentrations in the vicinity of the endoplasmic reticulum. These small particles inhibited the enzymatic activity of CYP450 isoenzymes in BACULOSOMES and substrate cleavage in normal liver microsomes. They moreover increased the effect of known inhibitors of the cytochromeP450 system (cimetidine, phenobarbital and paclitaxel). Substrate cleavage by the hepatoma cell line H4-II-E-C3 in contrast was undetectable, making this cell line unsuitable for this type of study. Our results thus demonstrate that nanoparticles can inhibit the metabolism of xenobiotics by the CYP450 system in model systems in vitro. Such inhibition could also potentially occur in vivo and possibly cause adverse effects in persons receiving medication.

During the millennia of evolution, animals have been subjected to a relentless biological warfare mounted by the plants that they ingested. By duplication of an ancestral gene, divergent evolution of these 2 genes, and so forth, surviving animals have been endowed with multiple cytochromesP450s which can metabolize (and thus eliminate) a multitude of environmental liposoluble xenobiotics. A disadvantage of this system (fortunately limited by the concomitant installation of several protective systems) is that cytochromeP450 transforms some of these xenobiotics into chemically reactive metabolites. These free radicals or electrophilic metabolites attack tissue constituents, and may lead to mutation, cancer or tissue necrosis. Tissue necrosis affect mainly the liver, whose content in cytochromeP450 is particularly high. Indeed, reactive metabolites are usually extremely unstable, and react mainly in situ, in the same organ that forms them. When the formation of reactive metabolites is extensive, protective mechanisms are overwhelmed, extensive alterations of diverse hepatic constituents occur, and toxic hepatitis ensues. When the formation of reactive metabolites is moderate, severe toxic lesions do not occur. However, the covalent binding of reactive metabolites to hepatic proteins modifies the self of the subject. In some subjects, the presence of this modified self triggers immunization, and leads to immunoallergic hepatitis. The immune response may be directed either against protein (or peptide) epitopes modified by the presence of a reactive metabolite (reaction against modified self) and/or against normal, unmodified, epitopes of proteins (autoimmune reaction against the self, triggered by the modified self). Both metabolic factors, and the HLA phenotype, appear to modulate the likelihood of immunization.

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of pine wilt disease, causes huge economic losses in pine forests. The high expression of cytochromeP450 genes in B. xylophilus during infection in P. thunbergii indicated that these genes had a certain relationship with the pathogenic process of B. xylophilus. Thus, we attempted to identify the molecular characterization and functions of cytochromeP450 genes in B. xylophilus. In this study, full-length cDNA of three cytochromeP450 genes, BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3 were first cloned from B. xylophilus using 3' and 5' RACE PCR amplification. Sequence analysis showed that all of them contained a highly-conserved cytochromeP450 domain. The characteristics of the three putative proteins were analyzed with bioinformatic methods. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to assess the functions of BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3. The results revealed that these cytochromeP450 genes were likely to be associated with the vitality, dispersal ability, reproduction, pathogenicity and pesticide metabolism of B. xylophilus. This discovery confirmed the molecular characterization and functions of three cytochromeP450 genes from B. xylophilus and provided fundamental information in elucidating the molecular interaction mechanism between B. xylophilus and its host plant.

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of pine wilt disease, causes huge economic losses in pine forests. The high expression of cytochromeP450 genes in B. xylophilus during infection in P. thunbergii indicated that these genes had a certain relationship with the pathogenic process of B. xylophilus. Thus, we attempted to identify the molecular characterization and functions of cytochromeP450 genes in B. xylophilus. In this study, full-length cDNA of three cytochromeP450 genes, BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3 were first cloned from B. xylophilus using 3' and 5' RACE PCR amplification. Sequence analysis showed that all of them contained a highly-conserved cytochromeP450 domain. The characteristics of the three putative proteins were analyzed with bioinformatic methods. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to assess the functions of BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3. The results revealed that these cytochromeP450 genes were likely to be associated with the vitality, dispersal ability, reproduction, pathogenicity and pesticide metabolism of B. xylophilus. This discovery confirmed the molecular characterization and functions of three cytochromeP450 genes from B. xylophilus and provided fundamental information in elucidating the molecular interaction mechanism between B. xylophilus and its host plant. PMID:25756378

Omeprazole, lansoprazole and pantoprazole are metabolized by several human cytochromesP450, most prominently by CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. Only pantoprazole is also metabolized by a sulfotransferase. Differences in the quantitative contribution of these enzymes and in the relative affinities of the substrates explain some of the observed interactions with carbamazepin, diazepam, phenytoin and theophylline and of the impact of the CYP2C19 (mephenytoin) genetic polymorphism. Of these drugs, pantoprazole has the lowest potential for interactions, both in vitro and in human volunteer studies. PMID:9165689

Three different types of atom accessibility descriptors are investigated in relation to site of metabolism predictions. To enable the integration of local accessibility we have constructed 2DSASA, a method for the calculation of the atomic solvent accessible surface area that is independent of 3D coordinates. The method was implemented in the SMARTCyp site of metabolism prediction models and improved the results by up to 4 percentage points for nine cytochromeP450 isoforms. The final models are made available at http://www.farma.ku.dk/smartcyp.

Intact sediment cores, including their surface layers, were used in simulated field exposure tests of juvenile guppies (Poecilia reticulata) to creosote-contaminated sediments. Mixed-function oxygenase activity was induced in the fish after 43 days of exposure to environmentally realistic, sublethal concentrations of creosote-related compounds. An average 50-fold induction in the cytochromeP-450-IA1 was found in the liver in the absence of any histopathological lesions. The possibility that a threshold level for proliferative liver changes was not reached is discussed in the light of the observed biochemical activation.

Combustion processes generate particulate matter that affects human health. When incineration fuels include components that are highly enriched in aromatic hydrocarbons (especially halogenated varieties) and redox-active metals, ultrafine particulate matter containing air-stable, environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) is generated. The exposure to fine EPFRs (less than 2.5 μm in diameter) has been shown to negatively influence pulmonary and cardiovascular functions in living organisms. The goal of this study was to determine if these EPFRs have a direct effect on cytochromeP450 function. This was accomplished by direct addition of the EPFRs to rat liver microsomal preparations and measurement of several P450 activities using form-selective substrates. The EPFRs used in this study were formed by heating vapors from an organic compound (either monochlorophenol (MCP230) or 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB230)) and 5% copper oxide supported on silica (approximately 0.2 μm in diameter) to 230 °C under vacuum. Both types of EPFRs (but not silica, physisorbed silica, or silica impregnated with copper oxide) dramatically inhibited the activities of CYP1A, CYP2B, CYP2E1, CYP2D2 and CYP3A when incubated at concentrations less than 0.1 mg/ml with microsomes and NADPH. Interestingly, at the same concentrations, the EPFRs did not inhibit HO-1 activity or the reduction of cytochrome c by NADPH-cytochromeP450 reductase. CYP2D2-selective metabolism by rat liver microsomes was examined in more detail. The inhibition of CYP2D2-selective metabolism by both DCB230- and MCP230-EPFRs appeared to be largely noncompetitive and was attenuated in the presence of catalase suggesting that reactive oxygen species may be involved in the mechanism of inhibition. - Highlights: • Combustion of organic pollutants generates long-lived particulate radicals (EPFRs). • EPFRs inhibit metabolism by all cytochromesP450 tested in rat liver microsomes. • EPFR-mediated inhibition is related to

A highly polymethylated flavone that effectively inhibited cytochromeP450s (CYPs) 1A2 and 3A4 (IC(50) = 2.41 and 1.71 µM) in vitro was isolated from thyme leaves (Thymus saturoides) purchased from a Japanese market. Its structure was spectroscopically identified as 4',5-dihydroxy-3',6,7,8-tetramethoxy flavone (8-methoxycirsilineol, 1). This is the first report describing a strong inhibitor of CYP1A2 and 3A4 isolated from Thymus saturoides.

With the rapid completion of genomic sequences of organisms today, we have far more gene products than functions we can ascribe. A number of experimental strategies have been developed and applied, both in vitro and in vivo, to put functions to these orphan proteins. The “deorphanization” of human and Streptomyces cytochromeP450 enzymes is considered quite important for pharmacology, with ramifications for the use of clinical therapeutics. The myriad of possibilities is too enormous to screen one reaction at a time, thus metabolomic or proteomic screens with complex biological samples are promising current strategies. PMID:20539034

Eleven years ago, a secreted heme-thiolate peroxidase with promiscuity for oxygen transfer reactions was discovered in the basidiomycetous fungus, Agrocybe aegerita. The enzyme turned out to be a functional mono-peroxygenase that transferred an oxygen atom from hydrogen peroxide to diverse organic substrates (aromatics, heterocycles, linear and cyclic alkanes/alkenes, fatty acids, etc.). Later similar enzymes were found in other mushroom genera such as Coprinellus and Marasmius. Approximately one thousand putative peroxygenase sequences that form two large clusters can be found in genetic databases and fungal genomes, indicating the widespread occurrence of such enzymes in the whole fungal kingdom including all phyla of true fungi (Eumycota) and certain fungus-like heterokonts (Oomycota). This new enzyme type was classified as unspecific peroxygenase (UPO, EC 1.11.2.1) and placed in a separate peroxidase subclass. Furthermore, UPOs and related heme-thiolate peroxidases such as well-studied chloroperoxidase (CPO) represent a separate superfamily of heme proteins on the phylogenetic level. The reactions catalyzed by UPOs include hydroxylation, epoxidation, O- and N-dealkylation, aromatization, sulfoxidation, N-oxygenation, dechlorination and halide oxidation. In many cases, the product patterns of UPOs resemble those of human cytochromeP450 (P450) monooxygenases and, in fact, combine the catalytic cycle of heme peroxidases with the "peroxide shunt" of P450s. Here, an overview on UPOs is provided with focus on their molecular and catalytic properties.

The product of cytochromeP450 monooxygenase (P450) ω-hydroxylation of arachidonic acid (AA), 20- hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE), is a potent vasoconstrictor. Utilizing microsomes as well as individual CYP4 isoforms we demonstrate here that flavonoids can block 20-HETE formation. Apigenin inhibits CYP4F2 with an IC50 value of 4.6 μM and 20-HETE formation in human liver and kidney microsomes at 2.4-9.8 μM. Interestingly, the structurally similar naringenin shows no relevant effect on the formation of 20-HETE. Based on these in vitro data, it is impossible to evaluate if a relevant blockade of 20-HETE formation can result in humans from intake of polyphenols with the diet. However, the potency of apigenin is comparable to those of P450 inhibitors such as ketoconazole. Moreover, an IC50 value in the micromolar range is also described for the inhibition of CYP-mediated drug metabolism leading to food-drug interactions. The modulation of the arachidonic acid cascade by food polyphenols therefore warrants further investigation.

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. It undergoes hydroxylation by mammalian cytochromeP450 enzymes at 4'- and/or 5'-positions. A bacterial P450 enzyme, CYP105D7 from Streptomyces avermitilis, has been shown to catalyze hydroxylation of 1-deoxypentalenic acid and an isoflavone daidzein. Here, we demonstrated that CYP105D7 also catalyzes hydroxylation of diclofenac at the C4'-position. A spectroscopic analysis showed that CYP105D7 binds diclofenac in a slightly cooperative manner with an affinity of 65 μM and a Hill coefficient of 1.16. The crystal structure of CYP105D7 in complex with diclofenac was determined at 2.2 Å resolution. The distal pocket of CYP105D7 contains two diclofenac molecules, illustrating drug recognition with a double-ligand-binding mode. The C3' and C4' atoms of the dichlorophenyl ring of one diclofenac molecule are positioned near the heme iron, suggesting that it is positioned appropriately for aromatic hydroxylation to yield the 4'-hydroxylated product. However, recognition of diclofenac by CYP105D7 was completely different from that of rabbit CYP2C5, which binds one diclofenac molecule with a cluster of water molecules. The distal pocket of CYP105D7 contains four arginine residues, forming a wall of the substrate-binding pocket, and the arginine residues are conserved in bacterial P450s in the CYP105 family.

Long-timescale molecular dynamics simulations (300 ns) are performed on both the apo- (i.e., camphor-free) and camphor-bound cytochromeP450cam (CYP101). Water diffusion into and out of the protein active site is observed without biased sampling methods. During the course of the molecular dynamics simulation, an average of 6.4 water molecules is observed in the camphor-binding site of the apo form, compared to zero water molecules in the binding site of the substrate-bound form, in agreement with the number of water molecules observed in crystal structures of the same species. However, as many as 12 water molecules can be present at a given time in the camphor-binding region of the active site in the case of apo-P450cam, revealing a highly dynamic process for hydration of the protein active site, with water molecules exchanging rapidly with the bulk solvent. Water molecules are also found to exchange locations frequently inside the active site, preferentially clustering in regions surrounding the water molecules observed in the crystal structure. Potential-of-mean-force calculations identify thermodynamically favored trans-protein pathways for the diffusion of water molecules between the protein active site and the bulk solvent. Binding of camphor in the active site modifies the free-energy landscape of P450cam channels toward favoring the diffusion of water molecules out of the protein active site.

Cynomolgus monkeys are widely used as primate models in preclinical studies. However, some differences are occasionally seen between monkeys and humans in the activities of cytochromeP450 enzymes. R- and S-warfarin are model substrates for stereoselective oxidation in humans. In this current research, the activities of monkey liver microsomes and 14 recombinantly expressed monkey cytochromeP450 enzymes were analyzed with respect to R- and S-warfarin 6- and 7-hydroxylation. Monkey liver microsomes efficiently mediated both R- and S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation, in contrast to human liver microsomes, which preferentially catalyzed S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation. R-Warfarin 7-hydroxylation activities in monkey liver microsomes were not inhibited by α-naphthoflavone or ketoconazole, and were roughly correlated with P450 2C19 levels and flurbiprofen 4-hydroxylation activities in microsomes from 20 monkey livers. In contrast, S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation activities were not correlated with the four marker drug oxidation activities used. Among the 14 recombinantly expressed monkey P450 enzymes tested, P450 2C19 had the highest activities for R- and S-warfarin 7-hydroxylations. Monkey P450 3A4 and 3A5 slowly mediated R- and S-warfarin 6-hydroxylations. Kinetic analysis revealed that monkey P450 2C19 had high V(max) and low K(m) values for R-warfarin 7-hydroxylation, comparable to those for monkey liver microsomes. Monkey P450 2C19 also mediated S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation with V(max) and V(max)/K(m) values comparable to those for recombinant human P450 2C9. R-warfarin could dock favorably into monkey P450 2C19 modeled. These results collectively suggest high activities for monkey liver P450 2C19 toward R- and S-warfarin 6- and 7-hydroxylation in contrast to the saturation kinetics of human P450 2C9-mediated S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation.

Determining a grazing animal’s susceptibility to ergot alkaloids has been a research topic for decades. Our objective was to determine if the Promega™ P450-Glo assay could be used to indirectly detect ergot alkaloids or their metabolites in urine of steers. The first experiment validated the effects of ergot alkaloids [0, 20, and 40 μM of ergotamine (ET), dihydroergotamine (DHET), and ergonovine (EN)] on human CYP3A4 using the P450-Glo assay (Promega™ V9800). With this assay, luminescence is directly proportional to CYP450 activity. Relative inhibition of in vitro cytochromeP450 activity was affected (P < 0.001) by an interaction between alkaloids and concentration. That interaction resulted in no concentration effect of EN, but within ET and DHET 20 and 40 µM concentrations inhibited CYP450 activity when compared with controls. In experiment 2, urine was collected from Angus-sired crossbred steers (n = 39; 216 ± 2.6 d of age; 203 ± 1.7 kg) after grazing tall fescue pastures for 105 d. Non-diluted urine was added to the Promega™ P450-Glo assay, and observed inhibition (3.7 % ± 2.7 of control). Urine content of total ergot alkaloids (331.1 ng/mg of creatinine ± 325.7) was determined using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Urine inhibition of CYP450 activity and total alkaloids were correlated (r = -0.31; P < 0.05). Steers were genotyped at CYP450 single nucleotide polymorphism, C994G. Steer genotype affected (P < 0.03) inhibition of CYP450 activity by urine; heterozygous steers had the least amount of CYP450 inhibition suggesting that genotyping cattle may be a method of identifying animals that are susceptible to ergot alkaloids. Although, additional research is needed, we demonstrate that the Promega™ P450-Glo assay is sensitive to ergot alkaloids and urine from steers grazing tall fescue. With some refinement the P450-Glo assay has potential as a tool for screening cattle for their exposure to fescue toxins.

CytochromesP450cam and P450BM3 oxidize alpha- and beta-thujone into multiple products, including 7-hydroxy-alpha-(or beta-)thujone, 7,8-dehydro-alpha-(or beta-)thujone, 4-hydroxy-alpha-(or beta-)thujone, 2-hydroxy-alpha-(or beta-)thujone, 5-hydroxy-5-isopropyl-2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one, 4,10-dehydrothujone, and carvacrol. Quantitative analysis of the 4-hydroxylated isomers and the ring-opened product indicates that the hydroxylation proceeds via a radical mechanism with a radical recombination rate ranging from 0.7 +/- 0.3 x 10(10) s(-1) to 12.5 +/- 3 x 10(10) s(-1) for the trapping of the carbon radical by the iron-bound hydroxyl radical equivalent. 7-[2H]-alpha-Thujone has been synthesized and used to amplify C-4 hydroxylation in situations where uninformative C-7 hydroxylation is the dominant reaction. The involvement of a carbon radical intermediate is confirmed by the observation of inversion of stereochemistry of the methyl-substituted C-4 carbon during the hydroxylation. With an L244A mutation that slightly increases the P450(cam) active-site volume, this inversion is observed in up to 40% of the C-4 hydroxylated products. The oxidation of alpha-thujone by human CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, and CYP3A4 occurs with up to 80% C-4 methyl inversion, in agreement with a dominant radical hydroxylation mechanism. Three minor desaturation products are produced, with at least one of them via a cationic pathway. The cation involved is proposed to form by electron abstraction from a radical intermediate. The absence of a solvent deuterium isotope effect on product distribution in the P450cam reaction precludes a significant role for the P450 ferric hydroperoxide intermediate in substrate hydroxylation. The results indicate that carbon hydroxylation is catalyzed exclusively by a P450 ferryl species via radical intermediates whose detailed properties are substrate- and enzyme-dependent.

The first eukaryote genome revealed three yeast cytochromesP450 (CYPs), hence the subsequent realization that some microbial fungal genomes encode these proteins in 1 per cent or more of all genes (greater than 100) has been surprising. They are unique biocatalysts undertaking a wide array of stereo- and regio-specific reactions and so hold promise in many applications. Based on ancestral activities that included 14α-demethylation during sterol biosynthesis, it is now seen that CYPs are part of the genes and metabolism of most eukaryotes. In contrast, Archaea and Eubacteria often do not contain CYPs, while those that do are frequently interesting as producers of natural products undertaking their oxidative tailoring. Apart from roles in primary and secondary metabolism, microbial CYPs are actual/potential targets of drugs/agrochemicals and CYP51 in sterol biosynthesis is exhibiting evolution to resistance in the clinic and the field. Other CYP applications include the first industrial biotransformation for corticosteroid production in the 1950s, the diversion into penicillin synthesis in early mutations in fungal strain improvement and bioremediation using bacteria and fungi. The vast untapped resource of orphan CYPs in numerous genomes is being probed and new methods for discovering function and for discovering desired activities are being investigated. PMID:23297358

The activities of hepatic cytochromeP450 (CYP) 1A2, N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT-2), xanthine oxidase (XO), and CYP2D6 were evaluated in 12 young children (aged 3-8 years) with mild cystic fibrosis (CF) and 12 age-matched healthy control subjects by use of standard caffeine and dextromethorphan phenotyping methods. Subjects were given 4 oz of Coca-Cola (approximately 35 mg caffeine) (The Coca-Cola Company, Atlanta, Ga) and a single 0.5-mg/kg dose of dextromethorphan. Urine was collected for 8 hours after biomarker administration, and enzyme activity was assessed by use of previously validated caffeine and dextromethorphan molar ratios. CYP2D6 genotyping was also performed in 10 of 12 subjects with CF and 11 of 12 control subjects. There were no significant differences in the urinary molar ratios for any of the enzyme systems evaluated. These data suggest that CF does not alter the activities of CYP1A2, NAT-2, XO, and CYP2D6. Altered biotransformation of drugs in this patient population is likely enzyme- and isoform-specific and thus is apparent for only selected compounds that are substrates for enzymes other than CYP1A2, NAT-2, XO, and CYP2D6.

The first eukaryote genome revealed three yeast cytochromesP450 (CYPs), hence the subsequent realization that some microbial fungal genomes encode these proteins in 1 per cent or more of all genes (greater than 100) has been surprising. They are unique biocatalysts undertaking a wide array of stereo- and regio-specific reactions and so hold promise in many applications. Based on ancestral activities that included 14α-demethylation during sterol biosynthesis, it is now seen that CYPs are part of the genes and metabolism of most eukaryotes. In contrast, Archaea and Eubacteria often do not contain CYPs, while those that do are frequently interesting as producers of natural products undertaking their oxidative tailoring. Apart from roles in primary and secondary metabolism, microbial CYPs are actual/potential targets of drugs/agrochemicals and CYP51 in sterol biosynthesis is exhibiting evolution to resistance in the clinic and the field. Other CYP applications include the first industrial biotransformation for corticosteroid production in the 1950s, the diversion into penicillin synthesis in early mutations in fungal strain improvement and bioremediation using bacteria and fungi. The vast untapped resource of orphan CYPs in numerous genomes is being probed and new methods for discovering function and for discovering desired activities are being investigated.

The cytochromesP450 superfamily of enzymes is a group of hemeproteins that catalyze the metabolism of an extensive series of compounds including drugs, chemical carcinogens, fatty acids, and steroids. They oxidize substrates ranging in size from ethylene to cyclosporin. Although significant efforts have been made to obtain structural information on the active sites of the microbial P450s, relatively little is currently known regarding the identities of the critical amino acid residues in the P450 active sites that are involved in substrate binding and catalysis. Since information on the crystal structures of the eukaryotic P450s has been relatively limited, investigators have used a variety of other techniques in attempts to elucide the structural features that play a role in the catalytic properties and substrate specificity at the enzyme active site. These include site-directed mutagenesis, natural mutations, homology modeling, mapping with aryl-iron complexes, affinity and photoaffinity labeling, and mechanism-based inactivators. A variety of different mechanism-based inactivators have proven to be useful in identifiying active site amino acid residues involved in substrate binding and catalysis. In this review we present a sampling of the types of studies that can be conducted using mechanism-based inactivators and highlight studies with several classes of compounds including acetylenes, isothiocyanates, xanthates, aminobenzotriazoles, phencyclidine, and furanocoumarins. Labeled peptides isolated from the inactivated proteins have been analyzed by N-terminal amino acid sequencing in conjunction with mass spectrometry to determine the sites of covalent modification. Mechanistic studies aimed at identifying the basis for the inactivation following adduct formation are also presented.

Understanding the disposition kinetics and the pattern of metabolism is critical to optimise the flukicidal activity of triclabendazole (TCBZ) in ruminants. TCBZ is metabolised by both flavin-monooxygenase (FMO) and cytochromeP450 (P450) in the liver. Interference with these metabolic pathways may be useful to increase the systemic availabilities of TCBZ metabolites, which may improve the efficacy against Fasciola hepatica. The plasma disposition of TCBZ metabolites was evaluated following TCBZ co-administration with FMO [methimazole (MTZ)] and P450 [piperonyl butoxyde (PB) and ketoconazole (KTZ)] inhibitors in sheep. Twenty (20) healthy Corriedale x Merino weaned female lambs were randomly allocated into four experimental groups. Animals of each group were treated as follow: Group A, TCBZ alone (5 mg/kg, IV route); Group B, TCBZ (5 mg/kg, IV) + MTZ (3 mg/kg, IV); Group C, TCBZ (5 mg/kg, IV) + PB (30 mg/kg, IV) and Group D, TCBZ (5 mg/kg, IV) + KTZ (10 mg/kg, orally). Blood samples were taken over 240 h post-treatment and analysed by HPLC. TCBZ sulphoxide and sulphone were the main metabolites recovered in plasma. MTZ did not affect TCBZ disposition kinetics. TCBZ sulphoxide Cmax values were significantly increased (P < 0.05) after the TCBZ + PB (62%) and TCBZ + KTZ (37%) treatments compared to those measured in the TCBZ alone treatment. TCBZ sulphoxide plasma AUCs were higher (P < 0.05) in the presence of both PB (99%) and KTZ (41%). Inhibition of TCBZ P450-mediated oxidation in the liver accounted for the increased systemic availability of its active metabolite TCBZ sulphoxide. This work contributes to the search of different strategies to improve the use of this flukicidal drug in ruminants.

CytochromeP450 2J2 plays a significant role in the epoxidation of arachidonic acid to signaling molecules important in cardiovascular events. CYP2J2 also contributes to drug metabolism and is responsible for the intestinal clearance of ebastine. However, the interaction between arachidonic acid metabolism and drug metabolism in cardiac tissue, the main expression site of CYP2J2, has not been examined. Here we investigate an adult-derived human primary cardiac cell line as a suitable model to study metabolic drug interactions (inhibition and induction) of CYP2J2 in cardiac tissue. The primary human cardiomyocyte cell line demonstrated similar mRNA-expression profiles of P450 enzymes to adult human ventricular tissue. CYP2J2 was the dominant isozyme with minor contributions from CYP2D6 and CYP2E1. Both terfenadine and astemizole oxidation were observed in this cell line, whereas midazolam was not metabolized suggesting lack of CYP3A activity. Compared with recombinant CYP2J2, terfenadine was hydroxylated in cardiomyocytes at a similar Km value of 1.5 μM. The Vmax of terfenadine hydroxylation in recombinant enzyme was found to be 29.4 pmol/pmol P450 per minute and in the cells 6.0 pmol/pmol P450 per minute. CYP2J2 activity in the cell line was inhibited by danazol, astemizole, and ketoconazole in submicromolar range, but also by xenobiotics known to cause cardiac adverse effects. Of the 14 compounds tested for CYP2J2 induction, only rosiglitazone increased mRNA expression, by 1.8-fold. This cell model can be a useful in vitro model to investigate the role of CYP2J2-mediated drug metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, and their association to drug induced cardiotoxicity. PMID:24021950

Alveolar hypoxia induces pulmonary vasoconstriction by an unknown mechanism. CytochromeP-450 (C-P450) is found in the lung and may modify pulmonary vascular tone via its sensitivity to changes in oxygen tension or by affecting metabolism of a chemical mediator. Metyrapone and carbon monoxide are both inhibitors of C-P450. We tested alveolar hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (AHPV) in 20 dogs before, during, and after separate administration of each inhibitor. Anesthetized dogs were ventilated through a double lumen endotracheal tube allowing ventilation of one lung with N2 or CO as a hypoxic challenge and ventilation of the other lung with O2 to maintain adequate systemic oxygenation. Distribution of lung perfusion was determined with intravenous 133Xenon and external chest detectors. Before infusion of metyrapone, mean perfusion to the test lung decreased 30% with alveolar hypoxic challenge, but decreased only 10% during metyrapone infusion and returned to a base-line mean decrease of 31% after completion of metyrapone infusion. Prostaglandin F2 α and angiotensin II infusions produced equivalent increases in pulmonary vascular resistance before and during metyrapone infusion. Before CO, mean test lung perfusion decreased 31% with alveolar hypoxia but was reduced only 10% from control when unilateral end-tidal CO% was >75%. Washout of alveolar CO with unilateral N2 ventilation restored AHPV, with perfusion decreasing 29% from control. Thus, both metyrapone and carbon monoxide can reversibly inhibit AHPV. C-P450 may, therefore, be involved in the transduction process of the vasoconstrictor response to alveolar hypoxia. PMID:457876

The cis isomer of N-nitroso-2,6-dimethylmorpholine (NNDM), a pancreatic carcinogen for the Syrian golden hamster, is metabolized by hamster liver microsomes to yield N-nitroso(2-hydroxypropyl)(2-oxopropyl)amine (HPOP) as the major product. Rabbit liver microsomes catalyze the metabolism of cis-NNDM to HPOP at a rate slower than that observed with hamster microsomes, but significantly faster than that obtained with rat microsomes. Pretreatment of rabbits with phenobarbital results in a 6-fold increase in the cis-NNDM hydroxylase activity of the rabbit microsomes to levels equal to that observed with the hamster; pretreatment of rabbits with other xenobiotics had no effect on the hydroxylation of cis-NNDM. The role of rabbit liver microsomal cytochromeP-450 in the metabolism of the cis isomer of NNDM was studied in the reconstituted system consisting of NADPH:cytochromeP-450 reductase, phospholipid, and cytochromeP-450. CytochromeP-450LM2, which is induced by pretreatment with phenobarbital, exhibited the highest activity for the metabolism of cis-NNDM. The Vmax for the formation of HPOP was 1.78 nmol/min/nmol cytochromeP-450LM2, and the apparent Km was 360 microM. CytochromeP-450LM3a also catalyzed the metabolism of NNDM to HPOP at a significant rate (0.25 nmol/min/nmol cytochromeP-450). Of the four other isozymes of cytochromeP-450 (forms 3b, 3c, 4, and 6) tested in the reconstituted system, only forms 3b and 3c exhibited measurable activities (approximately 0.04 nmol of HPOP formed/min/nmol cytochromeP-450). The addition of antibodies to isozyme 2 to microsomes from phenobarbital-treated rabbits resulted in approximately 95% inhibition of the metabolism of NNDM, while the addition of antibodies to LM3a inhibited NNDM metabolism by only 7%. In microsomes from untreated rabbits, inhibition by anti-LM2 and anti-LM3a antibodies was 50 and 64%, respectively. The addition of antibodies to isozyme 3a to microsomes isolated from ethanol-treated rabbits caused

A red-pigmented coryneform bacterium, identified as Rhodococcus rhodochrous strain 116, that grew on 2-ethoxyphenol and 4-methoxybenzoate as sole carbon and energy sources was isolated. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rDNA sequences indicates that the strain clusters more closely to other rhodococci than to other gram-positive organisms with a high G + C content. Each of the abovementioned growth substrates was shown to induce a distinct cytochromeP-450: cytochromeP-450RR1 was induced by 2-ethoxyphenol, and cytochromeP-450RR2 was induced by 4-methoxybenzoate. A type I difference spectrum typical of substrate binding was induced in cytochromeP-450RR1 by both 2-ethoxyphenol (KS = 4.2 +/- 0.3 microM) and 2-methoxyphenol (KS = 2.0 +/- 0.1 microM), but not 4-methoxybenzoate or 4-ethoxybenzoate. Similarly, a type I difference spectrum was induced in cytochromeP-450RR2 by both 4-methoxybenzoate (KS = 2.1 +/- 0.1 microM) and 4-ethoxybenzoate (KS = 1.6 +/- 0.1 microM), but not 2-methoxyphenol or 2-ethoxyphenol. A purified polyclonal antiserum prepared against cytochromeP-450RR1 did not cross-react with cytochromeP-450RR2, indicating that the proteins are immunologically distinct. The cytochromes appear to catalyze the O-dealkylation of their respective substrates. The respective products of the O-dealkylation are further metabolized via ortho cleavage enzymes, whose expression is also regulated by the respective aromatic ethers. Images PMID:8444808

CytochromeP450 17A1 (P450c17) catalyzes the biosynthesis of androgens in humans1. Since prostate cancer cells proliferate in response to androgen steroids2,3, CYP17A1 inhibition is a new strategy to prevent androgen synthesis and treat lethal metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer4, but drug development has been hampered by the lack of a CYP17A1 structure. Here we report the only known structures of CYP17A1, which contain either abiraterone, a first-in-class steroidal inhibitor recently approved by the FDA for late-stage prostate cancer5, or TOK-001, another inhibitor in clinical trials4,6. Both bind the heme iron forming a 60° angle above the heme plane, packing against the central I helix with the 3β-OH interacting with N202 in the F helix. Importantly, this binding mode differs substantially from those predicted by homology models or from steroids in other cytochromeP450 enzymes with known structures, with some features more similar to steroid receptors. While the overall CYP17A1 structure provides a rationale for understanding many mutations found in patients with steroidogenic diseases, the active site reveals multiple steric and hydrogen bonding features that will facilitate better understanding of the enzyme’s dual hydroxylase and lyase catalytic capabilities and assist in rational drug design. Specifically, structure-based design is expected to aid development of inhibitors that bind only CYP17A1 and solely inhibit its androgen-generating lyase activity to improve treatment of prostate and other hormone-responsive cancers. PMID:22266943

Anthocyanins are red and violet pigments that color flowers, fruits and epidermal tissues in virtually all flowering plants. A single order, Caryophyllales, contains families in which an unrelated family of pigments, the betalains, color tissues normally pigmented by anthocyanins. Here we show that CYP76AD1 encoding a novel cytochromeP450 is required to produce the red betacyanin pigments in beets. Gene silencing of CYP76AD1 results in loss of red pigment and production of only yellow betaxanthin pigment. Yellow betalain mutants are complemented by transgenic expression of CYP76AD1, and an insertion in CYP76AD1 maps to the R locus that is responsible for yellow versus red pigmentation. Finally, expression of CYP76AD1 in yeast verifies its position in the betalain biosynthetic pathway. Thus, this cytochromeP450 performs the biosynthetic step that provides the cyclo-DOPA moiety of all red betacyanins. This discovery will contribute to our ability to engineer this simple, nutritionally valuable pathway into heterologous species.

Hepatic microsomal cytochromeP-450 from phenobarbital-pretreated rats is inactivated during the metabolism of linear olefins (ethylene, propene, and octene) and acetylenes (acetylene, propyne, and octyne). As expected from previous work, the inactivation is due to N-alkylation of the prosthetic heme group by the substrate. The N-alkyl group in each adduct is formally obtained by addition of a porphyrin nitrogen to the terminal carbon and of an oxygen atom (as a hydroxyl function) to the internal carbon of the pi-bond. The oxygen is shown here by 18O studies to be catalytically introduced by the enzyme. The olefins exclusively alkylate the nitrogen of pyrrole ring D, but the acetylenes alkylate that of pyrrole ring A. Acetylene is an exception in that it reacts with more than one nitrogen. Circular dichroism studies of the ethylene adduct and of the ring D regioisomer of N-ethylprotoporphyrin IX obtained by alkylation of the prosthetic heme of hemoglobin have been used to determine which face of cytochromeP-450 heme is alkylated by the unsaturated substrates. These results implicate an active site that is sterically encumbered in the region over pyrrole ring B and has a lipophilic binding site that accommodates chains of at least six carbon atoms over pyrrole ring C.

Background CytochromeP450 monooxygenases (CYPs) form a vast and diverse family of highly variable sequences. They catalyze a wide variety of oxidative reactions and are therefore of great relevance in drug development and biotechnological applications. Despite their differences in sequence and substrate specificity, the structures of CYPs are highly similar. Although being in research focus for years, factors mediating selectivity and activity remain vague. Description This systematic comparison of CYPs based on the CytochromeP450 Engineering Database (CYPED) involved sequence and structure analysis of more than 8000 sequences. 31 structures have been applied to generate a reliable structure-based HMM profile in order to predict structurally conserved regions. Therefore, it was possible to automatically transfer these modules on CYP sequences without any secondary structure information, to analyze substrate interacting residues and to compare interaction sites with redox partners. Conclusions Functionally relevant structural sites of CYPs were predicted. Regions involved in substrate binding were analyzed in all sequences among the CYPED. For all CYPs that require a reductase, two reductase interaction sites were identified and classified according to their length. The newly gained insights promise an improvement of engineered enzyme properties for potential biotechnological application. The annotated sequences are accessible on the current version of the CYPED. The prediction tool can be applied to any CYP sequence via the web interface at http://www.cyped.uni-stuttgart.de/cgi-bin/strpred/dosecpred.pl. PMID:20950472

The exposure of insects to xenobiotics, such as insecticides, triggers a complex defence response necessary for survival. This response includes the induction of genes that encode key CytochromeP450 monooxygenase detoxification enzymes. Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian (renal) tubules are critical organs in the detoxification and elimination of these foreign compounds, so the tubule response induced by dietary exposure to the insecticide permethrin was examined. We found that expression of the gene encoding CytochromeP450-4e3 (Cyp4e3) is significantly up-regulated by Drosophila fed on permethrin and that manipulation of Cyp4e3 levels, specifically in the principal cells of the Malpighian tubules, impacts significantly on the survival of permethrin-fed flies. Both dietary exposure to permethrin and Cyp4e3 knockdown cause a significant elevation of oxidative stress-associated markers in the tubules, including H2O2 and lipid peroxidation byproduct, HNE (4-hydroxynonenal). Thus, Cyp4e3 may play an important role in regulating H2O2 levels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it resides, and its absence triggers a JAK/STAT and NF-κB-mediated stress response, similar to that observed in cells under ER stress. This work increases our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of insecticide detoxification and provides further evidence of the oxidative stress responses induced by permethrin metabolism. PMID:26073628

Mouse morulae, blastocysts, and embryonic and extraembryonic tissue layers were examined for benzo[a]-pyrene metabolism by cytochromeP-450, using the sister chromatid exchange assay. Benzo[a]pyrene exposure in vitro increased sister chromatid exchanges in blastocysts of all genetically responsive mice examined [BALB/cDub, C3H/AnfCum, and outbred Dub:(ICR) strains] but not blastocysts of the nonresponsive AKR/J strain. Benzo[a]pyrene treatment of responsive 7 1/2- and 8 1/2-day (postimplantation-stage) embryos, either intact or as separate tissue layers, increased sister chromatid exchanges in tissues of both embryonic and extraembryonic lineages--i.e., in the embryo proper, in isolated embryonic ectoderm, and in yolk sac, chorion, extraembryonic ectoderm, and extraembryonic endoderm layers. These results indicate that cytochromeP-450 is active in most or all tissues of the early mammalian embryo. It could metabolize xenobiotic molecules reaching the conceptus near the onset of morphogenesis and organogenesis, or it could have another as yet undefined role in normal development. PMID:3858824

The inactivation by 21-chlorinated steroids of rat liver cytochromesP-450 involved in the hydroxylation of progesterone and androstenedione has been investigated. Preincubation of intact liver microsomes from phenobarbital-treated rats with 21-chloropregnenolone, 21,21-dichloropregnenolone, or 21,21-dichloroprogesterone in the presence of NADPH caused a time-dependent decrease in progesterone 21-hydroxylase and in progesterone or androstenedione 6 beta-hydroxylase activity but had negligible or only minor effects on five other steroid hydroxylases. The compounds differed, however, with regard to the relative rate constants for inactivation of the 21- and 6 beta-hydroxylases. For example, 21,21-dichloroprogesterone and 21,21-dichloropregnenolone inactivated the progesterone 6 beta-hydroxylase at similar rates, but the dichloroprogesterone was a more effective inactivator of the 21-hydroxylase. The results indicate that the introduction of a dichloromethyl group into a substrate bearing a methyl group normally hydroxylated by only one or a few isozymes of cytochromeP-450 may be a rational means of designing isozyme-selective inhibitors but that target and nontarget enzymes may not totally retain the regioselectivity they exhibit towards the underivatized substrate.

NADPH-cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS), two members of the diflavin oxidoreductase family, are multi-domain enzymes containing distinct FAD and FMN domains connected by a flexible hinge. FAD accepts a hydride ion from NADPH, and reduced FAD donates electrons to FMN, which in turn transfers electrons to the heme center of cytochromeP450 or NOS oxygenase domain. Structural analysis of CYPOR, the prototype of this enzyme family, has revealed the exact nature of the domain arrangement and the role of residues involved in cofactor binding. Recent structural and biophysical studies of CYPOR have shown that the two flavin domains undergo large domain movements during catalysis. NOS isoforms contain additional regulatory elements within the reductase domain that control electron transfer through Ca2+-dependent calmodulin (CaM) binding. The recent crystal structure of an iNOS Ca2+/CaM-FMN construct, containing the FMN domain in complex with Ca2+/CaM, provided structural information on the linkage between the reductase and oxgenase domains of NOS, making it possible to model the holo iNOS structure. This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of the dynamics of domain movements during CYPOR catalysis and the role of the NOS diflavin reductase domain in the regulation of NOS isozyme activities. PMID:22982532

Human CytochromeP450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is an important member of the cytochromeP450 superfamily with responsibility for metabolizing ~50% of clinical drugs. Experimental evidence showed that CYP3A4 can adopt multiple substrates in its active site to form a cooperative binding model, accelerating substrate metabolism efficiency. In the current study, we constructed both normal and cooperative binding models of human CYP3A4 with antifungal drug ketoconazoles (KLN). Molecular dynamics simulation and free energy calculation were then carried out to study the cooperative binding mechanism. Our simulation showed that the second KLN in the cooperative binding model had a positive impact on the first one binding in the active site by two significant pi-pi stacking interactions. The first one was formed by Phe215, functioning to position the first KLN in a favorable orientation in the active site for further metabolism reactions. The second one was contributed by Phe304. This pi-pi stacking was enhanced in the cooperative binding model by the parallel conformation between the aromatic rings in Phe304 and the dioxolan moiety of the first KLN. These findings can provide an atomic insight into the cooperative binding in CYP3A4, revealing a novel pi-pi stacking mechanism for drug-drug interactions.

Cancer is still a growing public health problem, especially breast cancer that is one of the most important cancers in women. Chemotherapy, even though a successful treatment, is accompanied by severe side effects. Moreover, most of the drugs used for chemotherapy are administered as prodrugs and need to be transformed to the active form by cytochromesP450 (CYPs). In addition, increasing numbers of cancer tissues show lower CYP activity than the surrounding healthy tissues in which prodrugs are preferentially activated causing cytotoxicity. Here, the design of a functionalized cytochromeP450 bioconjugate is reported as nanovehicle for the enzyme direct delivery to the tumor tissue in order to improve the local drug activation. MCF-7 breast cancer cells are treated with CYP-polyethylene glycol bioconjugate functionalized folic acid, where it activates the prodrug tamoxifen and significantly reduces the dose of tamoxifen needed to kill the tumor cells. The CYP bioconjugate covered with polyethylene glycol shows no immunogenic activity. The advantages of increasing the site-specific CYP activity in tumor tissues are discussed.

The addition of limiting amounts of cumene hydroperoxide to rat liver microsomes resulted in the rapid uptake of molecular oxygen, the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive products, and the loss of hydroperoxide. The stoichiometry of lipid peroxidation and the yields of 2-phenyl-2-propanol (a major product of the reaction) and acetophenone (a minor product) observed with liver microsomes prepared from untreated rats is greater than that seen with liver microsomes from ciprofibrate-treated rats which, in turn, is greater than that observed with liver microsomes from phenobarbital-treated rats. The Km's and Vmax's of oxygen uptake varied with the type of rat liver microsomes used. CytochromeP-450 substrates and inhibitors decreased the extents and initial rates of oxygen uptake and thiobarbituric acid reactive product formation. A mechanism is proposed involving the cytochromeP-450-catalyzed homolytic cleavage of the cumene hydroperoxide O-O bond to give the cumyloxyl radical. It is proposed that this oxygen-centered radical abstracts a hydrogen atom from an unsaturated fatty acid associated with a lipid (initiating lipid peroxidation) to give 2-phenyl-2-propanol or that the radical undergoes beta-scission to produce acetophenone and a methyl radical.

As part of the pksX gene cluster of Bacillus subtilis strain 168, pksS has been preliminarily annotated as a cytochromeP450 homolog that hydroxylates the polyketide product of this cluster, which was recently shown to be involved in the biosynthesis of bacillaene and dihydrobacillaene. Here we report that there is a frame-shift error in the reported sequence for pksS, and that we have successfully cloned, overexpressed, and purified the protein encoded by the corrected sequence. By utilizing electronic absorption spectrophotometry, we have observed that the ferrous CO complex of PksS absorbs maximally near 450 nm, which confirms the annotation that this protein is a cytochromeP450. We have also established a cell-free system derived from crude cytosolic B. subtilis protein extracts which provides reductase activity essential to sustaining the putative catalytic cycle of PksS. Using LC-MS analysis we have collected data which suggests that the substrate for PksS is dihydrobacillaene.

Hepatic cytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activities were measured in 11-day-old nestling black-crowned night-herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) collected from a reference site (next to the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, Virginia) and three polluted sites (Cat Island, Green Bay, Lake Michigan, Wisconsin; Bair Island, San Francisco Bay, California; West Marin Island, San Francisco Bay, California). Activities of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) and benzyl-oxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (BROD) were modestly elevated ({<=} three-fold) in nestlings from polluted sites. Concentrations of p,p{prime}DDE, other organochlorine pesticides and total PCBs in nestlings were greatest at contaminated sites, although much lower than found in concurrently collected eggs and pipping embryos, At these low pollutant concentrations there was little correlation between monooxygenase activity and contaminant levels in nestlings. These observations markedly contrast the pronounced monooxygenase induction (up to 85-fold) and its significant correlation with total PCBS, aryl hydrocarbon receptor-active PCB congeners and toxic equivalents in concurrently collected night-heron embryos that were often siblings of the nestlings. The present findings suggest that cytochromeP450-associated monooxygenase activity of heron nestlings may have only limited value as a biomarker of exposure at this rapid-growth life stage.

Fitness-related life history traits often show substantial heritable genetic variation in natural populations, but knowledge of the genetic architecture of these traits is limited. In the Glanville fritillary butterfly, we measured the heritability of key life history traits in a large outdoor population cage during 2 years and generations and combined this experiment with an association study of a set of candidate genes. The genes were selected on the basis of previous genomic and transcriptomic studies and have been linked to the physiology and life history of this or other arthropod species. Heritability was high and significant for two traits, post-diapause larval development time (h(2) = 0.37) and lifetime egg (and larval) production (h(2) = 0.62); the latter is closely related to lifetime reproductive success and therefore fitness. We discovered a strong association between genetic polymorphism in the cytochromeP450 gene CYP337 and lifetime egg production, which accounted for 14% of the additive variance in egg production. This gene belongs to a group of cytochromeP450 genes that have a well-documented role in host plant adaptations in Lepidoptera and other insects and is likely to play an important role in the ecology and microevolution of the Glanville fritillary. This study provides a prime example of a gene associated with heritable fitness variation, measured under semi-natural ecological conditions.

Preventing drug-drug interactions and reducing drug-related mortalities dictate cleaner and costlier medicines. The cost to bring a new drug to market has increased dramatically over the last 10 years, with post-discovery activities (preclinical and clinical) costs representing the majority of the spend. With the ever-increasing scrutiny that new drug candidates undergo in the post-discovery assessment phases, there is increasing pressure on discovery to deliver higher-quality drug candidates. Given that compound attrition in the early clinical stages can often be attributed to metabolic liabilities, it has been of great interest lately to implement predictive measures of metabolic stability/ liability in the drug design stage of discovery. The solution to this issue is wrapped in understanding the basic of the cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes functions and structures. Recently, experimental information on the structure of a variety of cytochromeP450 enzymes, major contributors to phase I metabolism, has become readily available. This, coupled with the availability of experimental information on substrate specificities, has lead to the development of numerous computational models (macromolecular, pharmacophore, and structure-activity) for the rationalization and prediction of CYP liabilities. A comprehensive review of these models is presented in this chapter.

We characterized testicular equine aromatase and its expression. A 2707 bp cDNA was isolated, it encoded a polypeptide of 503 residues with a deduced molecular mass of 57.8 kDa. The sequence features were those of a cytochromeP450 aromatase, with a 78% polypeptide identity with the human counterpart. The gene has a minimal length of 74 kb comprising at least 9 exons and expresses a 2.8 kb mRNA in the testis. Transient cDNA transfections in E293 cells and in vitro translations in a reticulocyte lysate system allowed aromatase protein and activity detections. The activity increased with androstenedione as substrate in a dose-dependent manner. The isolation of testicular aromatase by a new immunoaffinity method demonstrated that the protein could exist either glycosylated or not with a 2 kDa difference. All these results taken together allow new structural studies to progress in the understanding of this cytochromeP450.

To determine whether protein degradation plays a role in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention of cytochromesP450, the effects of proteasomal inhibitors on the expression and distribution of green fluorescent protein chimeras of CYP2C2 and related proteins was examined. In transfected cells, expression levels of chimeras of full-length CYP2C2 and its cytosolic domain, but not its N-terminal transmembrane sequence, were increased by proteasomal inhibition. Redistribution of all three chimeras from the reticular ER into a perinuclear compartment and, in a subset of cells, also to the cell surface was observed after proteasomal inhibition. Redistribution was blocked by the microtubular inhibitor, nocodazole, suggesting that redistribution to the cell surface followed the conventional vesicular transport pathway. Similar redistributions were detected for BAP31, a CYP2C2 binding chaperone; CYP2E1 and CYP3A4, which are also degraded by the proteasomal pathway; and for cytochromeP450 reductase, which does not undergo proteasomal degradation; but not for the ER membrane proteins, sec61 and calnexin. Redistribution does not result from saturation of an ER retention "receptor" since in some cases protein levels were unaffected. Proteasomal inhibition may, therefore, alter ER retention by affecting a protein critical for ER retention, either directly, or indirectly by affecting the composition of the ER membranes.

The cytochromeP450 drug metabolizing enzymes are highly polymorphic and show inter-individual differences in variability in drug response, which varies widely also with ethnicity. This study aims to summarize the available data on genetic polymorphisms associated with cytochrome enzymes conducted on Roma populations. Our goal was to compare the frequency of the variant alleles, genotypes and predicted phenotypes with corresponding rates from other populations. We carried out a systematic review including the papers published on the pharmacogenetically relevant variants of cytochromeP450 genes related to Roma population. The study was performed using several articles, websites and databases, including PubMed, Ensembl, dbSNP, HapMap and 1000 Genomes Project. This review attempts to summarize and discuss our current knowledge about the frequency distribution of the ever investigated 20 allelic variants of 9 cytochrome genes (CYP1A2, CYP1B1, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2C8, CYP2D6, CYP3A5, CYP4F2) in Roma DNA samples and compare them with other populations. Differences between Roma and Hungarian samples are reported for 7 variant genotypes. CYP2C9 *2/*3 and CYP2C19 *2/*2 genotypes showed more than 3-fold differences. Additional differences are displayed for allele frequency of 7 variants (rs762551, rs3745274, rs1058930, rs1065852, rs3892097, rs1057910 and rs4244285) in Roma population samples. The interethnic variability in clinically relevant genetic polymorphisms of drug metabolizing enzymes, which may explain distinct drug response, highlights the need to allow for the ancestry of participants in pharmacogenetic studies.

The acute hepatotoxicity and response of hepatic cytochromeP450 to treatment with the three isomers of dichlorobenzene (DCB) have been investigated. The objectives were to estimate the onset of toxicity and to further elucidate the role of cytochromeP450 in the metabolism and toxicity of these compounds. In a study design employing one animal per dose level, Fischer-344 rats were gavaged with up to 25 different dosages, then evaluated 24 h later. Hepatic necrosis, serum alanine aminotransferase, and serum aspartate aminotransferase exhibited similar patterns demonstrating that ortho-DCB (o-DCB) was the most toxic in terms of both earliest onset and degree of response at higher dosages. For these three endpoints, meta-DCB (m-DCB) exhibited a lesser toxicity. Para-DCB (p-DCB) did not cause changes in these three endpoints, but hepatic degenerative changes were found. Total hepatic cytochromeP450 responses were also different after treatment with each isomer. The o-DCB produced a dose-dependent decrease in P450 beginning at dosages lower than the onset of necrosis and appeared to be a suicide substrate for P450. The m-DCB treatment increased P450 at dosages below the onset of necrosis and decreased P450 at higher dosages, with the decline preceding the onset of hepatocyte death.

Pipping black-crowned night-heron (Nvcticorax nvcticorax) embryos were collected from undisturbed (Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge VA; CNWR) and industrialized (Cat Island, Green Bay WI and San Francisco Bay, CA; SFB) locations. Hepatic monooxygenases (AHH, EROD, BROD, ECOD) were induced up to 100-fold, and were correlated (r=0.50 to 0.72) with total PCB burdens (N =61 embryos). A subset of 30 embryos have now been analyzed by GC/MS for 12 AHH-active PCB congeners and by Western blot for cytochromesP450lA and P450llB. At Cat Island, concentrations of 8 congeners were greater (P <0.05) than at CNWR. P450lA and P450llB were detected in 44% and 100% of the Cat Island embryos compared to 8% and 33% of the CNWR + SFB embryos. CytochromeP450 parameters were correlated with the total PCBs (r =0.44 to 0.67) and with at least 9 PCB congeners (r =0.39 to 0.77). Since P450 responses might be affected by other contaminants, sample extract potency in the H411E rat hepatoma bioassay is being determined to study relationships among dioxin equivalents and cytochromeP450 parameters.

Malaria is one of the most dangerous mosquito-borne diseases in many tropical countries, including Thailand. Studies in a deltamethrin resistant strain of Anopheles minimus mosquito, suggest cytochromeP450 enzymes contribute to the detoxification of pyrethroid insecticides. Purified A. minimus CYPOR enzyme (AnCYPOR), which is the redox partner of cytochromeP450s, loses flavin-adenosine di-nucleotide (FAD) and FLAVIN mono-nucleotide (FMN) cofactors that affect its enzyme activity. Replacement of leucine residues at positions 86 and 219 with phenylalanines in FMN binding domain increases FMN binding, enzyme stability, and cytochrome c reduction activity. Membrane-Bound L86F/L219F-AnCYPOR increases A. minimus P450-mediated pyrethroid metabolism in vitro. In this study, we constructed a comparative model structure of AnCYPOR using a rat CYPOR structure as a template. Overall model structure is similar to rat CYPOR, with some prominent differences. Based on primary sequence and structural analysis of rat and A. minimus CYPOR, C427R, W678A, and W678H mutations were generated together with L86F/L219F resulting in three soluble Δ55 triple mutants. The C427R triple AnCYPOR mutant retained a higher amount of FAD binding and increased cytochrome c reduction activity compared to wild-type and L86F/L219F-Δ55AnCYPOR double mutant. However W678A and W678H mutations did not increase FAD and NAD(P)H bindings. The L86F/L219F double and C427R triple membrane-bound AnCYPOR mutants supported benzyloxyresorufin O-deakylation (BROD) mediated by mosquito CYP6AA3 with a two-to three-fold increase in efficiency over wild-type AnCYPOR. The use of rat CYPOR in place of AnCYPOR most efficiently supported CYP6AA3-mediated BROD compared to all AnCYPORs. PMID:23325047

The electrochemical analysis of cytochrome Р450 3А4 catalytic activity has shown that vitamins C, A and Е influence on electron transfer and Fe3+/Fe2+ reduction process of cytochrome Р450 3А4. These data allow to assume possibility of cross effects and interference of vitamins-antioxidants with drugs metabolised by cytochrome Р450 3А4, at carrying out of complex therapy. This class of vitamins shows antioxidant properties that lead to increase of the cathodic current corresponding to heme reduction of this functionally significant haemoprotein. Ascorbic acid of 0.028-0.56 mM concentration stimulates cathodic peak (an electrochemical signal) of cytochrome Р450 3А4. At the presence of diclofenac (Voltaren) - a typical substrate of cytochrome Р450 3А4 - the increase growth of a catalytic current testifying to an electrocatalysis and stimulating action of ascorbic acid is observed. In the presence of vitamins A and Е also is registered dose-dependent (in a range of 10-100 M) increase in a catalytic current of cytochrome Р450 3А4: the maximum increase corresponds to 229 ± 20% for 100 M of vitamin A, and 162±10% for 100 M of vitamin E. Vitamin E in the presence of P450's inhibitor itraconazole doesn't give essential increase in a reductive current, unlike retinol (vitamin A). This effect can manifest substrate properties of tocopherol (vitamin E). The electrochemical approach for the analysis of catalytic activity of cytochrome Р450 3А4 and studies of influence of biologically active compounds on an electrocatalysis is the sensitive and effective sensor approach, allowing to use low concentration of protein on an electrode (till 10-15 mol/electrode), to carry out the analysis without participation of protein redox partners, and to reveal drug-drug or drug-vitamins interaction in pre-clinical experiments.

Microsomal cytochromeP450 2C2 is an integral endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein that is directly retained in the ER and excluded from transport vesicles. We have used bimolecular fluorescence complementation and co-immunoprecipitation to show that a ubiquitous ER membrane protein (BAP31) interacts with P450 2C2 in transfected COS-1 cells. A chimera containing only the N-terminal signal anchor of P450 2C1 (P450 2C1-(1-29)) also interacted with BAP31, which is consistent with interaction of the two proteins via their transmembrane domains. Down-regulation of BAP31 expression with small interfering RNA resulted in redistribution of green fluorescent protein-tagged P450 2C2 or P450 2C1-(1-29) from the ER into the nuclear membrane and compact perinuclear compartment structures as well as the cell surface in a small fraction of the cells. In Bap31-null embryonic stem cells, a significant fraction of P450 2C2 or P450 2C1-(1-29) was detected at the cell surface and nuclear envelope, but was redistributed to the ER by expression of BAP31. The expression level of P450 2C2 was significantly increased in COS-1 cells with repressed levels of BAP31. Formation of the pro-apoptotic p20 fragment of BAP31 was detected in transfected COS-1 cells expressing P450 2C2, and annexin V staining was consistent with the activation of an apoptotic pathway in these cells. Down-regulation of BAP31 with small interfering RNA partially reversed the apoptosis. These results suggest that interaction of P450 2C2 with BAP31 is important for its ER retention and expression level and that BAP31 may be involved in the regulation of apoptosis induced by the ER overload response to increased expression of P450.

Hypertrehalosemic hormone (a carbohydrate-mobilizing neuroendocrine decapeptide) and starvation markedly increased levels of a cockroach (Blaberus discoidalis) fat body cytochromeP450 message. The gene represented by the cloned P450 cDNA has been named CYP4C1 (cytochromeP450 family 4, subfamily C, gene 1), a newly identified member of the ubiquitous cytochromeP450 monooxygenase gene superfamily. Blaberus CYP4C1 (511 amino acids, Mr = 58,485) has a hydrophobic NH2 terminus and a sequence near the COOH terminus that is homologous to the cysteine-containing heme-binding region definitive of cytochromesP450. The cockroach sequence is 32-36% identical to mammalian family 4A and 4B enzymes. It contains a 13-residue sequence characteristic of family 4 but not other P450s. This study suggests that CYP4C1 is hormonally regulated in association with energy substrate mobilization and supports the idea that family 4 is an old and widespread gene family. Images PMID:2034694

Microsomal enzymes generate H2O2 in the presence of NADPH. In this reaction, referred to as “oxidase” activity, H2O2 is generated directly or indirectly via the formation of superoxide anion. In the presence of redox active transition metals, H2O2 can form highly toxic hydroxyl radicals and, depending on the “oxidase” activity of individual cytochromeP450 isoenzymes, this can compromise cellular functioning and contribute to tissue injury. In the present studies, we compared the initial rates of H2O2 generating activity of microsomal preparations containing various human recombinant cytochromesP450s. In the absence of cytochromeP450s the human recombinant NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase (CPR) generated low, but detectable amounts of H2O2 (∼0.04 nmol H2O2/min/100 units of reductase). Significantly greater activity was detected in preparations containing individual cytochromeP450s coexpressed with CPR (from 6.0 nmol H2O2/min/nmol P450 to 0.2 nmol/min/nmol P450); CYP1A1 was the most active, followed by CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP2E1, CYP4A11, CYP1A2, and CYP2C subfamily enzymes. H2O2 generating activity of the cytochromeP450s was independent of the ratio of CYP/CPR. Thus, similar H2O2 generating activity was noted with the same cytochromeP450s (CYP3A4, CYP2E1, and CYP2C9) expressed at or near the ratio of CYP/CPR in human liver microsomes (5–7), and when CPR was present in excess (CYP/CPR = 0.2–0.3). Because CYP3A4/5/7 represent up to 40% of total cytochromeP450 in the liver, these data indicate that these enzymes are the major source of H2O2 in human liver microsomes. PMID:25061110

Heme is vital to our aerobic universe. Heme cellular content is finely tuned through an exquisite control of synthesis and degradation. Heme deficiency is deleterious to cells, whereas excess heme is toxic. Most of the cellular heme serves as the prosthetic moiety of functionally diverse hemoproteins, including cytochromesP450 (P450s). In the liver, P450s are its major consumers with >50% of hepatic heme committed to their synthesis. Prosthetic heme is the sine qua non of P450 catalytic biotransformation of both endo- and xenobiotics. This well-recognized functional role notwithstanding, heme also regulates P450 protein synthesis, assembly, repair and disposal. These less well-appreciated aspects are reviewed herein. PMID:20860521

Inhalation of vesicants including sulfur mustard can cause significant damage to the upper airways. This is the result of vesicant-induced modifications of proteins important in maintaining the integrity of the lung. CytochromeP450s are the major enzymes in the lung mediating detoxification of sulfur mustard and its metabolites. NADPH cytochromeP450 reductase is a flavin-containing electron donor for cytochromeP450. The present studies demonstrate that the sulfur mustard analog, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), is a potent inhibitor of human recombinant cytochromeP450 reductase, as well as native cytochromeP450 reductase from liver microsomes of saline and {beta}-naphthoflavone-treated rats, and cytochromeP450 reductase from type II lung epithelial cells. Using rat liver microsomes from {beta}-naphthoflavone-treated rats, CEES was found to inhibit CYP 1A1 activity. This inhibition was overcome by microsomal cytochromeP450 reductase from saline-treated rats, which lack CYP 1A1 activity, demonstrating that the CEES inhibitory activity was selective for cytochromeP450 reductase. CytochromeP450 reductase also generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) via oxidation of NADPH. In contrast to its inhibitory effects on the reduction of cytochrome c and CYP1A1 activity, CEES was found to stimulate ROS formation. Taken together, these data demonstrate that sulfur mustard vesicants target cytochromeP450 reductase and that this effect may be an important mechanism mediating oxidative stress and lung injury.

Cotinine formation is the major pathway of nicotine metabolism in smokers, and the primary pathway of cotinine metabolism is trans-3'-hydroxylation. trans-3'-Hydroxycotinine and its glucuronide conjugate account for up to 50% of the nicotine metabolites excreted by smokers. Minor metabolites of cotinine excreted by smokers include norcotinine and cotinine N-oxide, each of which account for <5% of the nicotine dose. It has been reported that P450 2A6 is the catalyst of cotinine metabolism. However, we report here that the major product of P450 2A6-catalyzed cotinine metabolism is N-(hydroxymethyl)norcotinine, a previously unknown human metabolite of cotinine. N-(Hydroxymethyl)norcotinine was chemically synthesized, and its stability under the conditions of the enzyme reactions was confirmed. The products of P450 2A6-catalyzed [5-3H]cotinine metabolism were quantified by radioflow HPLC. The identification of N-(hydroxymethyl)norcotinine as the major metabolite was based on HPLC analysis on three unique systems and coelution with N-(hydroxymethyl)norcotinine standard. 5'-Hydroxycotinine and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine were minor products of P450 2A6-catalyzed cotinine metabolism, accounting for 14 and 8% of the total cotinine metabolites, respectively. N-(Hydroxymethyl)norcotinine was a product of cotinine metabolism by the extrahepatic P450, 2A13, but it was a minor one. The major product of P450 2A13-catalyzed cotinine metabolism was 5'-hydroxycotinine, which was formed at twice the rate of trans-3'-hydroxycotinine. The identification of all cotinine metabolites formed by both enzymes was confirmed by LC/MS/MS analysis. Kinetic parameters for cotinine metabolism were determined for P450 2A6 and P450 2A13. This work has confirmed that the major metabolite of cotinine in smokers, trans-3'-hydroxycotinine, is only a minor metabolite of P450 2A6-catalyzed cotinine metabolism.

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a small New World monkey, has the potential for use in human drug development due to its evolutionary closeness to humans. Four novel cDNAs, encoding cytochromeP450 (P450) 2C18, 2C19, 2C58, and 2C76, were cloned from marmoset livers to characterize P450 2C molecular properties, including previously reported P450 2C8. The deduced amino acid sequence showed high sequence identities (>86%) with those of human P450 2Cs, except for marmoset P450 2C76, which has a low sequence identity (∼70%) with any human P450 2Cs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that marmoset P450 2Cs were more closely clustered with those of humans and macaques than other species investigated. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that all of the marmoset P450 2C mRNAs were predominantly expressed in liver as opposed to the other tissues tested. Marmoset P450 2C proteins were detected in liver by immunoblotting using antibodies against human P450 2Cs. Among marmoset P450 2Cs heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli, marmoset P450 2C19 efficiently catalyzed human P450 2C substrates, S-warfarin, diclofenac, tolbutamide, flurbiprofen, and omeprazole. Marmoset P450 2C19 had high Vmax and low Km values for S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation that were comparable to those in human liver microsomes, indicating warfarin stereoselectivity similar to findings in humans. Faster in vivo S-warfarin clearance than R-warfarin after intravenous administration of racemic warfarin (0.2 mg/kg) to marmosets was consistent with the in vitro kinetic parameters. These results indicated that marmoset P450 2C enzymes had functional characteristics similar to those of humans, and that P450 2C-dependent metabolic properties are likewise similar between marmosets and humans.

Our previous study revealed that CYP2C9 played a central role in sesamin monocatecholization. In this study, we focused on the metabolism of sesamin monocatechol that was further converted into the dicatechol form by cytochromeP450 (P450) or the glucuronide by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT). Catecholization of sesamin monocatechol enhances its antioxidant activity, whereas glucuronidation strongly reduces its antioxidant activity. In human liver microsomes, the glucuronidation activity was much higher than the catecholization activity toward sesamin monocatechol. In contrast, in rat liver microsomes, catecholization is predominant over glucuronidation. In addition, rat liver produced two isomers of the glucuronide, whereas human liver produced only one glucuronide. These results suggest a significant species-based difference in the metabolism of sesamin between humans and rats. Kinetic studies using recombinant human UGT isoforms identified UGT2B7 as the most important UGT isoform for glucuronidation of sesamin monocatechol. In addition, a good correlation was observed between the glucuronidation activity and UGT2B7-specific activity in in vitro studies using 10 individual human liver microsomes. These results strongly suggest that UGT2B7 plays an important role in glucuronidation of sesamin monocatechol. Interindividual difference among the 10 human liver microsomes is approximately 2-fold. These results, together with our previous results on the metabolism of sesamin by human P450, suggest a small interindividual difference in sesamin metabolism. We observed the methylation activity toward sesamin monocatechol by catechol O-methyl transferase (COMT) in human liver cytosol. On the basis of these results, we concluded that CYP2C9, UGT2B7, and COMT played essential roles in the metabolism of sesamin in the human liver.

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) extracts are widely used as a complementary and alternative treatment of various hepatic conditions and a host of other diseases/disorders. The active constituents of milk thistle supplements are believed to be the flavonolignans contained within the extracts. In vitro studies have suggested that some milk thistle components may significantly inhibit specific cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes. However, determining the potential for clinically significant drug interactions with milk thistle products has been complicated by inconsistencies between in vitro and in vivo study results. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of a standardized milk thistle supplement on major P450 drug-metabolizing enzymes after a 14-day exposure period. CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4/5 activities were measured by simultaneously administering the four probe drugs, caffeine, tolbutamide, dextromethorphan, and midazolam, to nine healthy volunteers before and after exposure to a standardized milk thistle extract given thrice daily for 14 days. The three most abundant falvonolignans found in plasma, following exposure to milk thistle extracts, were silybin A, silybin B, and isosilybin B. The concentrations of these three major constituents were individually measured in study subjects as potential perpetrators. The peak concentrations and areas under the time-concentration curves of the four probe drugs were determined with the milk thistle administration. Exposure to milk thistle extract produced no significant influence on CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, or CYP3A4/5 activities. PMID:25028567

CytochromeP450BM3 is a heme-containing enzyme from Bacillus megaterium that exhibits high monooxygenase activity and has a self-sufficient electron transfer system in the full-length enzyme. Its potential synthetic applications drive protein engineering efforts to produce variants capable of oxidizing nonnative substrates such as pharmaceuticals and aromatic pollutants. However, promiscuous P450BM3 mutants often exhibit lower stability, thereby hindering their industrial application. This study demonstrated that the heme domain R47L/F87V/L188Q/E267V/F81I pentuple mutant (PM) is destabilized because of the disruption of hydrophobic contacts and salt bridge interactions. This was directly observed from crystal structures of PM in the presence and absence of ligands (palmitic acid and metyrapone). The instability of the tertiary structure and heme environment of substrate-free PM was confirmed by pulse proteolysis and circular dichroism, respectively. Binding of the inhibitor, metyrapone, significantly stabilized PM, but the presence of the native substrate, palmitic acid, had no effect. On the basis of high-temperature molecular dynamics simulations, the lid domain, β-sheet 1, and Cys ligand loop (a β-bulge segment connected to the heme) are the most labile regions and, thus, potential sites for stabilizing mutations. Possible approaches to stabilization include improvement of hydrophobic packing interactions in the lid domain and introduction of new salt bridges into β-sheet 1 and the heme region. An understanding of the molecular factors behind the loss of stability of P450BM3 variants therefore expedites site-directed mutagenesis studies aimed at developing thermostability.

Although the human lung cytochromeP450 2A13 (CYP2A13) and its liver counterpart cytochromeP450 2A6 (CYP2A6) are 94% identical in amino acid sequence, they metabolize a number of substrates with substantially different efficiencies. To determine differences in binding for a diverse set of cytochromeP450 2A ligands, we have measured the spectral binding affinities (K{sub D}) for nicotine, phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), coumarin, 2{prime}-methoxyacetophenone (MAP), and 8-methoxypsoralen. The differences in the K{sub D} values for CYP2A6 versus CYP2A13 ranged from 74-fold for 2{prime}-methoxyacetophenone to 1.1-fold for coumarin, with CYP2A13 demonstrating the higher affinity. To identify active site amino acids responsible for the differences in binding of MAP, PEITC, and coumarin, 10 CYP2A13 mutant proteins were generated in which individual amino acids from the CYP2A6 active site were substituted into CYP2A13 at the corresponding position. Titrations revealed that substitutions at positions 208, 300, and 301 individually had the largest effects on ligand binding. The collective relevance of these amino acids to differential ligand selectivity was verified by evaluating binding to CYP2A6 mutant enzymes that incorporate several of the CYP2A13 amino acids at these positions. Inclusion of four CYP2A13 amino acids resulted in a CYP2A6 mutant protein (I208S/I300F/G301A/S369G) with binding affinities for MAP and PEITC much more similar to those observed for CYP2A13 than to those for CYP2A6 without altering coumarin binding. The structure-based quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis using COMBINE successfully modeled the observed mutant-ligand trends and emphasized steric roles for active site residues including four substituted amino acids and an adjacent conserved Leu{sup 370}.

Background Yarrowia lipolytica efficiently metabolizes and assimilates hydrophobic compounds such as n-alkanes and fatty acids. Efficient substrate uptake is enabled by naturally secreted emulsifiers and a modified cell surface hydrophobicity and protrusions formed by this yeast. We were examining the potential of recombinant Y. lipolytica as a biocatalyst for the oxidation of hardly soluble hydrophobic steroids. Furthermore, two-liquid biphasic culture systems were evaluated to increase substrate availability. While cells, together with water soluble nutrients, are maintained in the aqueous phase, substrates and most of the products are contained in a second water-immiscible organic solvent phase. Results For the first time we have co-expressed the human cytochromesP450 2D6 and 3A4 genes in Y. lipolytica together with human cytochromeP450 reductase (hCPR) or Y. lipolytica cytochromeP450 reductase (YlCPR). These whole-cell biocatalysts were used for the conversion of poorly soluble steroids in biphasic systems. Employing a biphasic system with the organic solvent and Y. lipolytica carbon source ethyl oleate for the whole-cell bioconversion of progesterone, the initial specific hydroxylation rate in a 1.5 L stirred tank bioreactor was further increased 2-fold. Furthermore, the product formation was significantly prolonged as compared to the aqueous system. Co-expression of the human CPR gene led to a 4-10-fold higher specific activity, compared to the co-overexpression of the native Y. lipolytica CPR gene. Multicopy transformants showed a 50-70-fold increase of activity as compared to single copy strains. Conclusions Alkane-assimilating yeast Y. lipolytica, coupled with the described expression strategies, demonstrated its high potential for biotransformations of hydrophobic substrates in two-liquid biphasic systems. Especially organic solvents which can be efficiently taken up and/or metabolized by the cell might enable more efficient bioconversion as compared

In the course of studies on the oxygenation of steroids by purified P-450cytochromes, particularly rabbit liver microsomal cytochromeP-450 form 3b, a rapid and reliable radiometric assay has been devised for progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylation. In view of the lack of a commercially available, suitably tritiated substrate, (1,2,6,7,16,17-3H)progesterone was treated with alkali to remove the label from potential hydroxylation sites other than the 16 alpha position. The resulting (1,7,16-3H)progesterone was added to a reconstituted enzyme system containing cytochromeP-450 form 3b, NADPH-cytochromeP-450 reductase, and NADPH, and the rate of 16 alpha-hydroxylation was measured by the formation of /sup 3/H/sub 2/O. This reaction was shown to be linear with respect to time and to the cytochromeP-450 concentration. An apparent tritium isotope effect of 2.1 was observed by comparison of the rates of formation of tritium oxide and 16 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, and the magnitude of the isotope effect was confirmed by an isotope competition assay in which a mixture of (1,7,16-/sup 3/H)progesterone and (4-14C)progesterone was employed.

As we have briefly described elsewhere, cytochromeP-450 catalyzes the oxidative deformylation of cyclohexane carboxaldehyde to yield cyclohexene and formic acid in a reaction believed to involve a peroxyhemiacetal-like adduct formed between the substrate and molecular oxygen-derived hydrogen peroxide. This reaction is a useful model for the demethylation reactions catalyzed by the steroidogenic P-450s, aromatase, and lanosterol demethylase. In the present study, the cytochromeP-450-catalyzed formation of olefinic products from a series of xenobiotic aldehydes has been demonstrated. Isobutyraldehyde and trimethylacetaldehyde, but not propionaldehyde, are converted to the predicted olefinic products, suggesting a requirement for branching at the alpha carbon. In addition, the four C5 aldehydes of similar hydrophobicity were compared for their ability to undergo the reaction. The straight-chain valeraldehyde gave no olefinic products with five different rabbit liver microsomal P-450 isozymes. However, increasing activity was seen with the other isomers in the order of isovaleraldehyde, 2-methylbutyraldehyde, and trimethylacetaldehyde, with all of the P-450cytochromes. The catalytic rate with trimethylacetaldehyde is highest with antibiotic-inducible P-450 form 3A6, followed by phenobarbital-inducible form 2B4 and ethanol-inducible form 2E1. Citronellal, a beta-branched aldehyde that is found in many essential oils and is widely used as an odorant and a flavorant, was found to undergo the oxidative deformylation reaction to yield 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene, but only with P-450 2B4. The oxidative cleavage reaction with olefin formation appears to be widespread, as judged by the variety of aldehydes that serve as substrates and of P-450cytochromes that serve as catalysts. PMID:1924356

Although triphenyltin (TPT) degradation pathway has been determined, information about the enzyme and protein networks involved was severely limited. To this end, a cytochromeP450 hydroxylase (CYP450) gene from Bacillus thuringiensis was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3), namely E. coli pET32a-CYP450, whose dosage at 1gL(-1) could degrade 54.6% TPT at 1mgL(-1) within 6 d through attacking the carbon-tin bonds of TPT by CYP450. Sequence analysis verified that the CYP450 gene had a 1214bp open reading frame, encoding a protein with 404 amino acids. Proteomic analysis determined that 60 proteins were significantly differentially regulated expression in E. coli pET32a-CYP450 after TPT degradation. The up-regulated proteins enriched in a network related to transport, cell division, biosynthesis of amino acids and secondary metabolites, and microbial metabolism in diverse environments. The current findings demonstrated for the first time that P450 received electrons transferring from NADH could effectively cleave carbon-metal bonds.

Plasma growth hormone (GH) profiles are sexually differentiated in many species and regulate the sex-dependence of peripubescent growth rates and liver function, including steroid hydroxylase cytochromeP450 expression, by mechanisms that are poorly understood. By use of an external pump to deliver to hypophysectomized rats pulses of rat GH of varying frequency and amplitude, a critical element for liver discrimination between male and female GH patterns was identified. Liver expression of the male-specific steroid 2 alpha (or 16 alpha)-hydroxylase P450, designated CYP2C11, was stimulated by GH at both physiological and nonphysiological pulse amplitudes, durations, and frequencies, provided that an interpulse interval of no detectable GH was maintained for at least 2.5 hr. This finding suggests that hepatocytes undergo an obligatory recovery period after stimulation by a GH pulse. This period may be required to reset a GH-activated intracellular signaling pathway or may relate to the short-term absence of GH receptors at the hepatocyte surface after a cycle of GH binding and receptor internalization. These requirements were distinguished from those necessary for the stimulation by GH of normal male growth rates in hypophysectomized rats, indicating that different GH responses and, perhaps, different GH-responsive tissues recognize distinct signaling elements in the sexually dimorphic patterns of circulating GH.

OleT is a cytochromeP450 that catalyzes the hydrogen peroxide-dependent metabolism of Cn chain-length fatty acids to synthesize Cn-1 1-alkenes. The decarboxylation reaction provides a route for the production of drop-in hydrocarbon fuels from a renewable and abundant natural resource. This transformation is highly unusual for a P450, which typically uses an Fe4+−oxo intermediate known as compound I for the insertion of oxygen into organic substrates. OleT, previously shown to form compound I, catalyzes a different reaction. A large substrate kinetic isotope effect (≥8) for OleT compound I decay confirms that, like monooxygenation, alkene formation is initiated by substrate C−H bond abstraction. Rather than finalizing the reaction through rapid oxygen rebound, alkene synthesis proceeds through the formation of a reaction cycle intermediate with kinetics, optical properties, and reactivity indicative of an Fe4+−OH species, compound II. The direct observation of this intermediate, normally fleeting in hydroxylases, provides a rationale for the carbon−carbon scission reaction catalyzed by OleT. PMID:27555591

Due to unavoidable contaminations in feedstuff, pigs are easily exposed to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and suffer from poisoning, thus the poisoned products potentially affect human health. Heretofore, the metabolic process of AFB1 in pigs remains to be clarified, especially the principal cytochromeP450 oxidases responsible for its activation. In this study, we cloned CYP3A29 from pig liver and expressed it in Escherichia coli, and its activity has been confirmed with the typical P450 CO-reduced spectral characteristic and nifedipine-oxidizing activity. The reconstituted membrane incubation proved that the recombinant CYP3A29 was able to oxidize AFB1 to form AFB1-exo-8,9-epoxide in vitro. The structural basis for the regioselective epoxidation of AFB1 by CYP3A29 was further addressed. The T309A mutation significantly decreased the production of AFBO, whereas F304A exhibited an enhanced activation towards AFB1. In agreement with the mutagenesis study, the molecular docking simulation suggested that Thr309 played a significant role in stabilization of AFB1 binding in the active center through a hydrogen bond. In addition, the bulk phenyl group of Phe304 potentially imposed steric hindrance on the binding of AFB1. Our study demonstrates the bioactivation of pig CYP3A29 towards AFB1 in vitro, and provides the insight for understanding regioselectivity of CYP3A29 to AFB1. PMID:27626447

CytochromeP450 BM-3 from Bacillus megaterium catalyzed NADPH-supported indole hydroxylation under alkaline conditions with homotropic cooperativity toward indole. The activity was also found with the support of H2O2, tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBuOOH), or cumene hydroperoxide (CuOOH). Enhanced activity and heterotropic cooperativity were observed in CuOOH-supported hydroxylation, and both the Hill coefficient and substrate concentration required for half-maximal activity in the CuOOH-supported reaction were much lower than those in the H2O2-, tBuOOH-, or NADPH-supported reactions. CuOOH greatly enhanced NADPH consumption and indole hydroxylation in the NADPH-supported reaction. However, when CuOOH was replaced by tBuOOH or H2O2, heterotropic cooperativity was not observed. Spectral studies also confirmed that CuOOH stimulated indole binding to P450 BM-3. Interestingly, a mutant enzyme with enhanced indole-hydroxylation activity, F87V (Phe87 was replaced by Val), lost homotropic cooperativity towards indole and heterotropic cooperativity towards CuOOH, indicating that the active-site structure affects the cooperativities.

Archaebacteria Sulfolobus acidocaldarius contains the highly thermophilic cytochromeP450 enzyme (CYP119). CYP119 possesses stable enzymatic activity at up to 85 degrees C. However, this enzyme is still considered as an orphan P450 without known physiological function with endogenous or xenobiotic substrates. We characterized the regioselectivity of lauric acid by CYP119 using the auxiliary redox partner proteins putidaredoxin (Pd) and putidaredoxin reductase (PdR). Purified CYP119 protein showed a tight binding affinity to lauric acid (K(d)=1.1+/-0.1 microM) and dominantly hydroxylated (omega-1) position of lauric acid. We determined the steady-state kinetic parameters; k(cat) was 10.8 min(-1) and K(m) was 12 microM. The increased ratio to omega-hydroxylated production of lauric acid catalyzed by CYP119 was observed with increase in the reaction temperature. These studies suggested that the regioselectivity of CYP119 provide the critical clue for the physiological enzyme function in this thermophilic archaebacteria. In addition, regioselectivity control of CYP119 without altering its thermostability can lead to the development of novel CYP119-based catalysts through protein engineering.

The cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes are important in many areas, including pharmaceutical development. Subtle changes in the electronic structure of the active species, Compound I, have been postulated previously to account partly for the experimentally observed differences in reactivity between isoforms. Current predictive models of CYP metabolism typically assume an identical Compound I in all isoforms. Here we present a method to calculate the electronic structure and to estimate the Fe–O bond enthalpy of Compound I, and apply it to several human and bacterial CYP isoforms. Conformational flexibility is accounted for by sampling large numbers of structures from molecular dynamics simulations, which are subsequently optimized with density functional theory (B3LYP) based quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics. The observed differences in Compound I between human isoforms are small: They are generally smaller than the spread of values obtained for the same isoform starting from different initial structures. Hence, it is unlikely that the variation in activity between human isoforms is due to differences in the electronic structure of Compound I. A larger difference in electronic structure is observed between the human isoforms and P450cam and may be explained by the slightly different hydrogen-bonding environment surrounding the cysteinyl sulfur. The presence of substrate in the active site of all isoforms studied appears to cause a slight decrease in the Fe–O bond enthalpy, apparently due to displacement of water out of the active site, suggesting that Compound I is less stable in the presence of substrate. PMID:21863858

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a phenotyping substrate for human cytochromeP450 1A2. 3-N-Demethylation of caffeine is the main human metabolic pathway, whereas monkeys extensively mediate the 7-N-demethylation of caffeine to form pharmacological active theophylline. Roles of monkey P450 enzymes in theophylline formation from caffeine were investigated using individual monkey liver microsomes and 14 recombinantly expressed monkey P450 enzymes, and the results were compared with those for human P450 enzymes. Caffeine 7-N-demethylation activity in microsomes from 20 monkey livers was not strongly inhibited by α-naphthoflavone, quinidine or ketoconazole, and was roughly correlated with diclofenac 4'-hydroxylation activities. Monkey P450 2C9 had the highest activity for caffeine 7-N-demethylation. Kinetic analysis revealed that monkey P450 2C9 had a high Vmax/Km value for caffeine 7-N-demethylation, comparable to low Km value for monkey liver microsomes. Caffeine could dock favorably with monkey P450 2C9 modeled for 7-N-demethylation and with human P450 1A2 for 3-N-demethylation. The primary metabolite theophylline was oxidized to 8-hydroxytheophylline in similar ways by liver microsomes and by recombinant P450s in both humans and monkeys. These results collectively suggest a high activity for monkey liver P450 2C9 toward caffeine 7-N-demethylation, whereas, in humans, P450 1A2-mediated caffeine 3-N-demethylation is dominant.

It was previously proposed that regio-specific hydroxylation of an immunosuppressive cyclosporine (CsA) at the 4th N-methyl leucine is mediated by cytochromeP450 hydroxylase (CYP) in the rare actinomycete Sebekia benihana. This modification is thought to be the reason for the hair growth-promoting side effect without the immunosuppressive activity of CsA. Through S. benihana genome sequencing and in silico analysis, we identified the complete cytochromeP450 complement (CYPome) of S. benihana, including 21 CYPs and their electron transfer partners, consisting of 7 ferredoxins (FDs) and 4 ferredoxin reductases (FDRs). Using Escherichia coli conjugation-based S. benihana CYPome-targeted disruption, all of the identified CYP, FD, and FDR genes in S. benihana were individually inactivated. Among the 32 S. benihana exconjugant mutants tested, only a single S. benihana CYP mutant, ΔCYP-sb21, failed to exhibit CsA hydroxylation activity. The hydroxylation was restored by CYP-sb21 gene complementation. Since all S. benihana FD and FDR disruption mutants maintained CsA hydroxylation activity, it can be concluded that CYP-sb21, a new member of the bacterial CYP107 family, is the only essential component of the in vivo regio-specific CsA hydroxylation process in S. benihana. Moreover, expression of an extra copy of the CYP-sb21 gene increased CsA hydroxylation in wild-type S. benihana and an NADPH-enriched Streptomyces coelicolor mutant, by 2-fold and 1.5-fold, respectively. These results show for the first time that regio-specific hydroxylation of CsA is carried out by a specific P450 hydroxylase present in S. benihana, and they set the stage for the biotechnological application of regio-specific CsA hydroxylation through heterologous CYP-sb21 expression. PMID:23354713

CytochromeP450 (P450) and chloroperoxidase (CPO) are thiolate-ligated haem proteins that catalyse the activation of carbon hydrogen bonds. The principal intermediate in these reactions is a ferryl radical species called compound I. P450 compound I (P450-I) is significantly more reactive than CPO-I, which only cleaves activated C–H bonds. In this paper, to provide insight into the differing reactivities of these intermediates, we examined CPO-I and P450-I using variable-temperature Mössbauer and X-ray absorption spectroscopies. These measurements indicate that the Fe–S bond is significantly shorter in P450-I than in CPO-I. This difference in Fe–S bond lengths can be understood in terms ofmore » variations in the hydrogen-bonding patterns within the ‘cys-pocket’ (a portion of the proximal helix that encircles the thiolate ligand). Weaker hydrogen bonding in P450-I results in a shorter Fe–S bond, which enables greater electron donation from the axial thiolate ligand. Finally, this observation may in part explain P450's greater propensity for C–H bond activation.« less

CytochromeP450 (P450) and chloroperoxidase (CPO) are thiolate-ligated haem proteins that catalyse the activation of carbon hydrogen bonds. The principal intermediate in these reactions is a ferryl radical species called compound I. P450 compound I (P450-I) is significantly more reactive than CPO-I, which only cleaves activated C–H bonds. In this paper, to provide insight into the differing reactivities of these intermediates, we examined CPO-I and P450-I using variable-temperature Mössbauer and X-ray absorption spectroscopies. These measurements indicate that the Fe–S bond is significantly shorter in P450-I than in CPO-I. This difference in Fe–S bond lengths can be understood in terms of variations in the hydrogen-bonding patterns within the ‘cys-pocket’ (a portion of the proximal helix that encircles the thiolate ligand). Weaker hydrogen bonding in P450-I results in a shorter Fe–S bond, which enables greater electron donation from the axial thiolate ligand. Finally, this observation may in part explain P450's greater propensity for C–H bond activation.

To determine whether endoplasmic reticulum (ER) proliferation in hepatocytes after phenobarbital (PB) administration relates closely to cytochromeP-450 (P-450) increase, we have measured the amount of total P-450 per unit cytoplasmic volume (P-450 content) by microphotometry and estimated the area of ER per unit cytoplasmic volume (ER area) by morphometry in periportal, midzonal, and perivenular hepatocytes of mice injected daily with PB (100 mg/kg), or with PB (100 mg/kg) plus cobalt chloride (50 mg/kg) for three days. After injection of PB, the P-450 content and ER area increased in hepatocytes of the three sublobular zones. In mice treated with PB plus cobalt chloride, however, the ER area increased, but the P-450 content decreased or remained unchanged in hepatocytes of the three zones. We conclude that cobalt chloride inhibits the increase in total P-450 but has no effect on the proliferation of ER of hepatocytes in mice treated with PB, indicating a dissociation of ER proliferation and P-450 increase after administration of PB.

CytochromeP450 (P450) and chloroperoxidase (CPO) are thiolate ligated heme proteins that catalyze the activation of carbon hydrogen bonds. The principal intermediate in these reactions is a ferryl radical species called compound I. P450 compound I (P450-I) is significantly more reactive than CPO-I, which only cleaves activated C-H bonds. To provide insight into the differing reactivities of these intermediates, we examined CPO-I and P450-I with variable temperature Mössbauer and X-ray absorption spectroscopies. These measurements indicate that the Fe-S bond is significantly shorter in P450-I than in CPO-I. This difference in Fe-S bond lengths can be understood in terms of variations in hydrogen bonding patterns within the “cys-pocket” (a portion of the proximal helix that encircles the thiolate ligand). Weaker hydrogen bonding in P450-I results in a shorter Fe-S bond, which enables greater electron donation from the axial-thiolate ligand. This observation may in part explain P450's greater propensity for C-H bond activation. PMID:26291940

This work describes an original and simple technique for protein immobilization into nanowells, fabricated using nanopatterned array fabrication methods, while ensuring the protein retains normal biological activity. Nanosphere lithography was used to fabricate a nanowell array with nanowells 100 nm in diameter with a periodicity of 500 nm. The base of the nanowells was gold and the surrounding material was silicon dioxide. The different surface chemistries of these materials were used to attach two different self-assembled monolayers (SAM) with different affinities for the protein used here, cytochromeP450 (P450). The nanowell SAM, a methyl terminated thiol, had high affinity for the P450. The surrounding SAM, a polyethylene glycol silane, displayed very little affinity toward the P450 isozyme CYP2C9, as demonstrated by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and surface plasmon resonance. The regularity of the nanopatterned array was examined by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. P450-mediated metabolism experiments of known substrates demonstrated that the nanowell bound P450 enzyme exceeded its normal activity, as compared to P450 solutions, when bound to the methyl terminated self-assembled monolayer. The nanopatterned array chips bearing P450 display long term stability and give reproducible results making them potentially useful for high-throughput screening assays or as nanoelectrode arrays.

CytochromesP-450, which in many organisms participate in the metabolism of a variety of endobiotic and xenobiotic substances, are synthesized by symbiotic bacteroids of Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Polyclonal antibodies were raised against two cytochromesP-450 (CYP112 and CYP114) purified from bacteroids. A lambda gt11 expression clone of B. japonicum USDA 110 DNA that reacted with the anti-CYP112 antibody was obtained and was used to screen a library of USDA 110 genomic DNA in pLAFR1 for a clone of the P-450 locus. Forced expression of subclones of the P-450 locus in Escherichia coli produced polypeptides that reacted with either the anti-CYP112 antibody or the anti-CYP114 antibody; no cross-reactivity was evident. A Western blot (immunoblot) analysis showed that neither protein was present in free-living aerobically grown B. japonicum cells, but that both proteins were present in cells grown anaerobically, as well as in bacteroids. A mutant strain disrupted in the CYP112 locus produced neither CYP112 nor CYP114, indicating that the mutation was polar for CYP114. The mutant produced effective nodules on soybeans, even though the bacteroids contained no detectable P-450. This suggests that the cytochromesP-450 which we examined are not involved in an essential symbiotic function. Images PMID:16349113

CytochromeP450 reductase is the unique electron donor for microsomal cytochromeP450s; these enzymes play a major role in the metabolism of endogenous and xenobiotic compounds. In mice with a liver-specific deletion of cytochromeP450 reductase, hepatic cytochromeP450 activity is ablated, with consequent changes in bile acid and lipid homoeostasis. In order to gain insights into the metabolic changes resulting from this phenotype, we have analysed changes in hepatic mRNA expression using microarray analysis and real-time PCR. In parallel with the perturbations in bile acid levels, changes in the expression of key enzymes involved in cholesterol and lipid homoeostasis were observed in hepatic cytochromeP450 reductase null mice. This was characterized by a reduced expression of Cyp7b1, and elevation of Cyp7a1 and Cyp8b1 expression. The levels of mRNAs for other cytochromeP450 genes, including Cyp2b10, Cyp2c29, Cyp3a11 and Cyp3a16, were increased, demonstrating that endogenous factors play a role in regulating the expression of these proteins and that the increases are due, at least in part, to altered levels of transcripts. In addition, levels of mRNAs encoding genes involved in glycolysis and lipid transport were also increased; the latter may provide an explanation for the increased hepatic lipid content observed in the hepatic null mice. Serum testosterone and oestradiol levels were lowered, accompanied by significantly decreased expression of Hsd3b2 (3β-hydroxy-Δ5-steroid dehydrogenase-2), Hsd3b5 (3β-hydroxy-Δ5-steroid dehydrogenase-5) and Hsd11b1 (11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1), key enzymes in steroid hormone metabolism. These microarray data provide important insights into the control of metabolic pathways by the cytochrome system. PMID:15717863

Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) has been developed to determine the structure of metalloproteins. EXAFS data have been collected and analysed for four states in the catalytic cycle of bacterial cytochromeP-450/sub CAM/. This data demonstrates that sulfur is retained as an axial ligand in the reduced forms of the enzyme. EXAFS and edge data have been analysed for the high-valent states of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), and for high-valent iron-porphyrin model compounds. These data provide the first direct confirmation of the presence of a ferryl Fe=O coordination in HRP and in some of the model compounds. The polarized single-crystal EXAFS spectra of plastocyanin have been measured as a function of both orientation and temperature. These data demonstrate that at room temperature the relative motions of the Cu and the S(Met) are essentially uncorrelated.

The small intestine and liver express high levels of cytochromeP450 3A (CYP3A), an enzyme subfamily contributing significantly to drug metabolism. In patients with cirrhosis, reduced metabolism of drugs is typically attributed to decreased liver function, but it is unclear whether intestinal drug metabolism is also compromised. In this study, we compared CYP3A protein expression and in vitro midazolam hydroxylation in duodenal mucosal biopsies from subjects with normal liver function (controls; n=20) and subjects with varying severity of cirrhosis (n=23). Compared to samples from controls, duodenal CYP3A expression and total midazolam hydroxylation was reduced by 47% and 34%, respectively in samples from subjects with cirrhosis. Greater decreases in CYP3A expression were seen in subjects with increasing severity of cirrhosis. Thus, patients with advanced cirrhosis may have increased drug exposure following oral dosing as a result of both impaired liver function and decreased intestinal CYP3A expression and activity. PMID:19212316

First principles electronic structure calculations, based on Density Functional Theory, have previously been used to model the interaction between the active site of a CytochromeP450 enzyme and ligand molecules (Segall et al., Xenobiotica (in press);. Segall et al., Phy. Rev. E. (submitted)). These enzymes are of great importance due to their participation in the metabolism of a wide range of endogenous and xenobiotic compounds. We apply the same techniques to the calculation of the energy change due to the first reduction of the active site system, finding an excellent correlation with experimental observations of the redox potential. This allows the study of the oxygen-bound active site complex, the structure of which has not been observed experimentally due to the short-lived nature of this state. The calculations were performed using the CETEP code on 64 nodes of an Hitachi SR2201 parallel supercomputer.

The development of a rapid, inexpensive, and accurate in vivo phenotyping methodology for characterizing drug-metabolizing phenotypes with reference to the cytochromeP450 (CYP450) enzymes would be very beneficial. In terms of application, in the wake of the human genome project, considerable interest is focused on the development of new drugs whose uses will be tailored to specific genetic polymorphisms, and on the individualization of dosing regimens that are also tailored to meet individual patient needs depending upon genotype. In this investigation, chemical probes for CYP450 enzymes were characterized and identified with Raman spectroscopy. Furthermore, gold-based metal colloid clusters were utilized to generate surface enhanced Raman spectra for each of the chemical probes. Results will be presented demonstrating the ability of SERS to identify minute quantities of these probes on the order needed for in vivo application.

The human intestinal Caco-2 cell line has been extensively used as a model of small intestinal absorption but it lacks expression and function of cytochromeP450 enzymes, particularly CYP3A4 and CYP2C9, which are normally expressed in the intestinal epithelium. In order to increase the expression and activity of CYP isozymes in these cells, we created 2 novel Caco-2 sublines expressing chimeric constitutive androstane or pregnane X receptors and characterized these cells for their metabolic and absorption properties. In spite of elevated mRNA expression of transporters and differentiation markers, the permeation properties of the modified cell lines did not significantly differ from those of the wild-type cells. In contrast, the metabolic activity was increased beyond the currently used models. Specifically, CYP3A4 activity was increased up to 20-fold as compared to vitamin D treated wild-type Caco-2 cells.

The cytochromeP450 monooxygenases (CYPs) are the dominant enzyme system responsible for xenobiotic detoxification and drug metabolism. Several CYP isoforms exhibit non-Michaelis-Menten, or "atypical," steady state kinetic patterns. The allosteric kinetics confound prediction of drug metabolism and drug-drug interactions, and they challenge the theoretical paradigms of allosterism. Both homotropic and heterotropic ligand effects are now widely documented. It is becoming apparent that multiple ligands can simultaneously bind within the active sites of individual CYPs, and the kinetic parameters change with ligand occupancy. In fact, the functional effect of any specific ligand as an activator or inhibitor can be substrate dependent. Divergent approaches, including kinetic modeling and X-ray crystallography, are providing new information about how multiple ligand binding yields complex CYP kinetics.

The concurrent use of drugs and herbal products is becoming increasingly prevalent over the last decade. Several herbal products have been known to modulate cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) which are recognized as representative drug metabolizing enzymes and drug transporter, respectively. Thus, a summary of knowledge on the modulation of CYP and P-gp by commonly used herbs can provide robust fundamentals for optimizing CYP and/or P-gp substrate drug-based therapy. Herein, we review ten popular medicinal and/or dietary herbs as perpetrators of CYP- and P-gp-mediated pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions. The main focus is placed on previous works on the ability of herbal extracts and their phytochemicals to modulate the expression and function of CYP and P-gp in several in vitro and in vivo animal and human systems. PMID:25632290

The pyrrole based N6022 was recently identified as a potent, selective, reversible, and efficacious S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) inhibitor and is currently undergoing clinical development for the treatment of acute asthma. GSNOR is a member of the alcohol dehydrogenase family (ADH) and regulates the levels of S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) through catabolism of S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO). Reduced levels of GSNO, as well as other nitrosothiols (SNOs), have been implicated in the pathogenesis of many diseases including those of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal systems. Preservation of endogenous SNOs through GSNOR inhibition presents a novel therapeutic approach with broad applicability. We describe here the synthesis and structure-activity relationships (SAR) of novel pyrrole based analogues of N6022 focusing on removal of cytochromeP450 inhibition activities. We identified potent and novel GSNOR inhibitors having reduced CYP inhibition activities and demonstrated efficacy in a mouse ovalbumin (OVA) model of asthma.

Paradols are unsaturated ketones produced by biotransformation of shogaols in gingers. Among them, 6-paradol has been investigated as a new drug candidate due to its anti-inflammatory, apoptotic, and neuroprotective activities. In this study, the inhibitory effects of 6-paradol on the activities of cytochromeP450 (CYP) enzymes were investigated with human liver microsomes and recombinant CYP isozymes. 6-Paradol showed concentration-dependent inhibitory effects on CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19 isozymes, with IC50 values ranging from 3.8 to 21.4µM in recombinant CYP isozymes. However, the inhibition was not potentiated following pre-incubation, indicating that 6-paradol is not a mechanism-based inhibitor. These results suggest that pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions might occur with 6-paradol, which must be considered in the process of new drug development.

Understanding gene expression that occurs during gravitopism is important for studying the processes that link the perception of gravity to the growth response. Arabidopsis plants with a mutation in the GRAVITY PERSISTENT SIGNAL (GPS)1 locus show a "no response" phenotype during gravistimulation experiments. Basepital auxin transport in gps1 mutant was unaffected by the mutation, but auxin was not laterally redistributed after gravistimulation. GPS1 encodes CYP705A22, a cytochromeP450 protein (P450) of unknown function. The wild type CYP705A22 gene was transformed into the gps1 mutant background and successfully rescued the mutant phenotype. Data mining of microarray data collected from gravistimulated root tips of Arabidopsis indicated that although CYP705A22 was not expressed in roots, a family member CYP705A5 was up-regulated within 3 minutes after gravistimulation. Expression profiling of CYP705A5, using real-time quantitative PCR, showed that CYP705A5 was up-regulated nearly five fold within minutes of gravity stimulation. And reporter gene fusions that link the CYP705A5 gene to the green fluorescent protein showed that CYP705A5 was expressed in the root zones of elongation and maturation. Computer modeling of the catalytic domain of CYP705A22 and CYP705A5 and in silico substrate docking simulations generated a list of 130 compounds that are potential substrates of the P450s. Many of the compounds are phenylpropanoid derivatives. Heterologous expression of CYP705A5 in baculovirus and Type 1 binding studies indicate the substrate of the P450 may be quercitin or myricetin. A mutation affecting CYP705A5 expression resulted in a delayed gravity response in roots. The mutant phenotype could be chemically complemented, and DPBA staining in the CYP705A5 mutant indicated a 1.5 fold accumulation of quercetin in mutant roots as compared to WT. These data, taken together, may indicate that we have identified a flavonoid pathway that regulates auxin distribution and thus

Age has significant impact on hepatic cytochromeP450 (CYP450) systems in animals. Ross 708 broiler chicken is a breed of chicken with fast growth characteristics. CytochromeP450 in the livers of Ross 708 broiler chicken of different ages has been investigated. The birds were raised under standard husbandry conditions. A certain number of chickens was randomly sampled weekly for liver collection from d 1 to 56 posthatch. The chicken body and liver weights were recorded. The chicken livers were processed for liver microsomes though a multiple-step procedure at low temperature. Total CYP450 content in chicken liver homogenates and liver microsomes was measured using a UV/visible spectroscopic method. The enzymatic activities of CYP450 in the chicken liver microsomes were determined through incubation of CYP450 isoform substrates followed by measurement of formation of their metabolites. The chicken showed an opposite age pattern in hepatic CYP450 content and activities compared with most mammals. The hepatic CYP450 content and activities of chicken at d 1 posthatch were higher than at other ages. The total hepatic CYP450 content in chickens at d 1 posthatch was more than twice the average hepatic value of the chickens at d 7 to 28. This high CYP450 fell quickly in the first week posthatch and slightly rose from d 28 to 56. Hepatic CYP450 activities of CYP1A, 3A, 2C, 2D, and 2H were much higher in the chicken at d 1 posthatch. The differences of these enzymatic activities between d 1 and other ages of chicken were CYP450 isoform dependent. This result suggests that embryonic development of chicken livers has a significant impact on the age profile of hepatic CYP450 content and activities of posthatch chickens.

Bright-red colors in vertebrates are commonly involved in sexual, social, and interspecific signaling [1-8] and are largely produced by ketocarotenoid pigments. In land birds, ketocarotenoids such as astaxanthin are usually metabolically derived via ketolation of dietary yellow carotenoids [9, 10]. However, the molecular basis of this gene-environment mechanism has remained obscure. Here we use the yellowbeak mutation in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) to investigate the genetic basis of red coloration. Wild-type ketocarotenoids were absent in the beak and tarsus of yellowbeak birds. The yellowbeak mutation mapped to chromosome 8, close to a cluster of cytochromeP450 loci (CYP2J2-like) that are candidates for carotenoid ketolases. The wild-type zebra finch genome was found to have three intact genes in this cluster: CYP2J19A, CYP2J19B, and CYP2J40. In yellowbeak, there are multiple mutations: loss of a complete CYP2J19 gene, a modified remaining CYP2J19 gene (CYP2J19(yb)), and a non-synonymous SNP in CYP2J40. In wild-type birds, CYP2J19 loci are expressed in ketocarotenoid-containing tissues: CYP2J19A only in the retina and CYP2J19B in the beak and tarsus and to a variable extent in the retina. In contrast, expression of CYP2J19(yb) is barely detectable in the beak of yellowbeak birds. CYP2J40 has broad tissue expression and shows no differences between wild-type and yellowbeak. Our results indicate that CYP2J19 genes are strong candidates for the carotenoid ketolase and imply that ketolation occurs in the integument in zebra finches. Since cytochromeP450 enzymes include key detoxification enzymes, our results raise the intriguing possibility that red coloration may be an honest signal of detoxification ability.

Abstract Sandalwood oil is one of the world’s most highly prized essential oils, appearing in many high-end perfumes and fragrances. Extracted from the mature heartwood of several Santalum species, sandalwood oil is comprised mainly of sesquiterpene olefins and alcohols. Four sesquiterpenols, α-, β-, and epi-β-santalol and α-exo-bergamotol, make up approximately 90% of the oil of Santalum album. These compounds are the hydroxylated analogues of α-, β-, and epi-β-santalene and α-exo-bergamotene. By mining a transcriptome database of S. album for candidate cytochromeP450 genes, we cloned and characterized cDNAs encoding a small family of ten cytochromeP450-dependent monooxygenases annotated as SaCYP76F37v1, SaCYP76F37v2, SaCYP76F38v1, SaCYP76F38v2, SaCYP76F39v1, SaCYP76F39v2, SaCYP76F40, SaCYP76F41, SaCYP76F42, and SaCYP76F43. Nine of these genes were functionally characterized using in vitro assays and yeast in vivo assays to encode santalene/bergamotene oxidases and bergamotene oxidases. These results provide a foundation for production of sandalwood oil for the fragrance industry by means of metabolic engineering, as demonstrated with proof-of-concept formation of santalols and bergamotol in engineered yeast cells, simultaneously addressing conservation challenges by reducing pressure on supply of sandalwood from native forests. PMID:24324844

Human cytochromeP450c21 (steroid 21-hydroxylase, CYP21A2)1 catalyzes the 21-hydroxylation of progesterone (P4) and its preferred substrate 17α-hydroxyprogestrone (17OHP4). CYP21A2 activities, which are required for cortisol and aldosterone biosynthesis, involve the formation of energetically disfavored primary carbon radicals. Therefore, we hypothesized that the binding of P4 and 17OHP4 to CYP21A2 restricts access of the reactive heme-oxygen complex to the C-21 hydrogen atoms, suppressing oxygenation at kinetically more favorable sites such as C-17 and C-16, which are both hydroxylated by cytochromeP450c17 (CYP17A1). We reasoned that expansion of the CYP21A2 substrate-binding pocket would increase substrate mobility and might yield additional hydroxylation activities. We built a computer model of CYP21A2 based principally on the crystal structure of CYP2C5, which also 21-hydroxylates P4. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that binding of the steroid nucleus perpendicular to the plane of the CYP21A2 heme ring limits access of the heme oxygen to the C-21 hydrogen atoms. Residues L107, L109, V470, I471, and V359 were found to contribute to the CYP21A2 substate-binding pocket. Mutation of V470 and I471 to alanine or glycine preserved P4 21-hydroxylase activity, and mutations of L107 or L109 were inactive. Mutations V359A and V359G, in contrast, acquired 16α-hydroxylase activity, accounting for 40% and 90% of the P4 metabolites, respectively. We conclude that P4 binds to CYP21A2 in a fundamentally different orientation than to CYP17A1 and that expansion of the CYP21A2 substrate-binding pocket allows additional substrate trajectories and metabolic switching. PMID:21446712

The bi-enzymatic system of cytochromeP450 (CYP, a hemoprotein) and cytochromeP450 reductase (CPR, a diflavoenzyme) mediate the redox metabolism of diverse indigenous and xenobiotic molecules in various cellular and organ systems, using oxygen and NADPH. Curiously, when a 1∶1 ratio is seen to be optimal for metabolism, the ubiquitous CYP:CPR distribution ratio is 10 to 100∶1 or higher. Further, the NADPH equivalents consumed in these in vitro or in situ assemblies usually far exceeded the amount of substrate metabolized. We aimed to find the rationale to explain for these two oddities. We report here that CPR is capable of activating molecular oxygen on its own merit, generating diffusible reduced oxygen species (DROS). Also, in the first instance for a flavoprotein, CPR is shown to deplete peroxide via diffusible radical mediated process, thereby leading to the formation of water (but without significant evolution of oxygen). We also quantitatively demonstrate that the rate of oxygen activation and peroxide depletion by CPR accounts for the major reactivity in the CYP+CPR mixture. We show unambiguously that CPR is able to regulate the concentration of diffusible reduced oxygen species in the reaction milieu. These findings point out that CPR mediated processes are bound to be energetically ‘wasteful’ and potentially ‘hazardous’ owing to the unavoidable nature of the CPR to generate and deplete DROS. Hence, we can understand that CPR is distributed at low densities in cells. Some of the activities that were primarily attributed to the heme-center of CYP are now established to be a facet of the flavins of CPR. The current approach of modeling drugs to minimize “uncoupling” on the basis of erstwhile hypothesis stands questionable, considering the ideas brought forth in this work. PMID:20967245

As hops (Humulus lupulus L.) are used in the brewing of beer and by menopausal women as estrogenic dietary supplements, the potential for hop extracts and hop constituents to cause drug-botanical interactions by inhibiting human cytochromeP450 enzymes was investigated. Inhibition of major human cytochromeP450 enzymes by a standardized hop extract and isolated hop prenylated phenols was evaluated using a fast and efficient assay based on ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The hop extract at 5 μg/mL inhibited CYP2C8 (93%), CYP2C9 (88%), CYP2C19 (70%), and CYP1A2 (27%) with IC50 values of 0.8, 0.9, 3.3, and 9.4 μg/mL, respectively, but time-dependent inactivation was observed only for CYP1A2. Isoxanthohumol from hops was the most potent inhibitor of CYP2C8 with an IC50 of 0.2 μM, whereas 8-prenylnaringenin was the most potent inhibitor of CYP1A2, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 with IC50 values of 1.1 μM, 1.1 μM and 0.4 μM, respectively. Extracts of hops contain prenylated compounds such as the flavanones isoxanthohumol and 8-prenylnaringenin and the chalcone xanthohumol that can inhibit CYP450s, especially the CYP2C family, which may affect the efficacy and safety of some CYP2C substrate drugs when co-administered. PMID:24342125

NADPH-cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) is essential for electron donation to microsomal cytochromeP450-mediated monooxygenation in such diverse physiological processes as drug metabolism (approximately 85-90% of therapeutic drugs), steroid biosynthesis, and bioactive metabolite production (vitamin D and retinoic acid metabolites). Expressed by a single gene, CYPOR's role with these multiple redox partners renders it a model for understanding protein-protein interactions at the structural level. Polymorphisms in human CYPOR have been shown to lead to defects in bone development and steroidogenesis, resulting in sexual dimorphisms, the severity of which differs significantly depending on the degree of CYPOR impairment. The atomic structure of human CYPOR is presented, with structures of two naturally occurring missense mutations, V492E and R457H. The overall structures of these CYPOR variants are similar to wild type. However, in both variants, local disruption of H bonding and salt bridging, involving the FAD pyrophosphate moiety, leads to weaker FAD binding, unstable protein, and loss of catalytic activity, which can be rescued by cofactor addition. The modes of polypeptide unfolding in these two variants differ significantly, as revealed by limited trypsin digestion: V492E is less stable but unfolds locally and gradually, whereas R457H is more stable but unfolds globally. FAD addition to either variant prevents trypsin digestion, supporting the role of the cofactor in conferring stability to CYPOR structure. Thus, CYPOR dysfunction in patients harboring these particular mutations may possibly be prevented by riboflavin therapy in utero, if predicted prenatally, or rescued postnatally in less severe cases.

Background The enzymes of the cytochromeP450 family (CYPs) play an important role in the metabolism of a great variety of anticancer agents; therefore, polymorphisms in genes encoding for metabolizing enzymes and drugs transporters can affect drug efficacy and toxicity. Methods The genetic polymorphisms of cytochromeP450 were studied in 395 patients with breast cancer by RLFP analysis. Results Here, we studied the association of functionally significant variant alleles of CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 with the clinical response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer patients. A significant correlation was observed between the CYP2C9*2 polymorphism and chemotherapy resistance (OR = 4.64; CI 95% = 1.01 – 20.91), as well as between CYP2C9*2 heterozygotes and chemotherapy resistance in women with nodal forms of breast cancer and a cancer hereditary load (OR = 15.50; CI 95% = 1.08 – 826.12) when the potential combined effects were examined. No significant association between chemotherapy resistance and the other examined genotypes and the potential combined clinical and tumour-related parameters were discovered. Conclusion In conclusion, CYP2C9*2 was associated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy resistance (OR = 4.64; CI 95% = 1.01 – 20.91) in the population of interest. PMID:22702493

In experimental animals, injection of gram-negative endotoxin (LPS) decreases hepatic cytochromeP450-mediated drug metabolism. To evaluate this phenomenon in a human model of gram-negative sepsis, LPS was administered on two consecutive days to healthy male volunteers during which time a cocktail of antipyrine (AP-250 mg), hexobarbital (HB-500 mg), and theophylline (TH-150 mg) was ingested and the apparent oral clearance of each drug determined. Each subject had a control drug clearance study with saline injections. In the first experiment, six subjects received the drug cocktail 0.5 h after the first dose of LPS. In the second experiment, another six subjects received the drug cocktail 0.5 h after the second dose of LPS. In both experiments, LPS caused the expected physiologic responses of inflammation including fever with increases in serum concentrations of TNF alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, and acute phase reactants. In the first experiment, only minor decreases in clearances of the probe drugs were observed (7-12%). However in the second experiment, marked decreases in the clearances of AP (35, 95% CI 18-48%), HB (27, 95% CI 14-34%), and TH (22, 95% CI 12-32%) were seen. The decreases in AP clearance correlated with initial peak values of TNF alpha (r = 0.82) and IL-6 (r = 0.86). These data show that in humans the inflammatory response to even a very low dose of LPS significantly decreases hepatic cytochromeP450-mediated drug metabolism and this effect evolves over a 24-h period. It is likely that septic patients with much higher exposures to LPS have more profound inhibition of drug metabolism. PMID:7989576

As hops (Humulus lupulus L.) are used in the brewing of beer and by menopausal women as estrogenic dietary supplements, the potential for hop extracts and hop constituents to cause drug-botanical interactions by inhibiting human cytochromeP450 enzymes was investigated. Inhibition of major human cytochromeP450 enzymes by a standardized hop extract and isolated hop prenylated phenols was evaluated using a fast and efficient assay based on ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The hop extract at 5 μg/mL inhibited CYP2C8 (93%), CYP2C9 (88%), CYP2C19 (70%), and CYP1A2 (27%) with IC50 values of 0.8, 0.9, 3.3, and 9.4 μg/mL, respectively, but time-dependent inactivation was observed only for CYP1A2. Isoxanthohumol from hops was the most potent inhibitor of CYP2C8 with an IC50 of 0.2 μM, whereas 8-prenylnaringenin was the most potent inhibitor of CYP1A2, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 with IC50 values of 1.1 μM, 1.1 μM and 0.4 μM, respectively. Extracts of hops contain prenylated compounds such as the flavanones isoxanthohumol and 8-prenylnaringenin and the chalcone xanthohumol that can inhibit CYP450s, especially the CYP2C family, which may affect the efficacy and safety of some CYP2C substrate drugs when co-administered.

Purified cytochromeP-450g, a male-specific rat hepatic isozyme, was observed to metabolize progesterone to two primary metabolites (6..beta..-hydroxyprogesterone and 16..cap alpha..-hydroxyprogesterone), two secondary metabolites (6..beta..,16..cap alpha..-dihydroxyprogesterone and 6-ketoprogesterone), and one tertiary metabolite (6-keto-16..cap alpha..-hydroxyprogesterone). The K/sub m,app/ for the formation of these products from progesterone was determined to be approximately 0.5 ..mu..M, while the K/sub m,app/ for metabolism of 6..beta..- and 16..cap alpha..-hydroxyprogesterone was found to be 5-10 ..mu..M. The ratio of primary to secondary metabolites did not change significantly at progesterone concentrations from 6 to 150 ..mu..M, and a lag in formation of secondary metabolites was not observed in 1-min incubations. Concerted oxidation of progesterone to secondary products without the intermediate products leaving the active site was suggested by these results and confirmed by isotopic dilution experiments in which little or no dilution of metabolically formed 6..beta..,16..cap alpha..-dihydroxyprogesterone and 6-keto-16..cap alpha..-hydroxyprogesterone was observed in incubations containing a mixture of radiolabeled progesterone and unlabeled 6..beta..-hydroxyprogesterone or 16..cap alpha..-hydroxyprogesterone. Incubation of 6..beta..-hydroxyprogesterone with a reconstituted system in an atmosphere of /sup 18/I/sub 2/ resulted in > 90% incorporation of /sup 18/O in the 16..cap alpha..-position of 6..beta..,16..cap alpha..-dihydroxyprogesterone but no incorporation of /sup 18/O into 6-ketoprogesterone, even though the reaction was dependent upon enzyme and O/sub 2/, and not inhibited by mannitol, catalase, or superoxide dismutase. Factors which characterize the metabolism of progesterone by cytochromeP-450g in terms of active-site constraints and the catalytic competence of the enzyme in microsomes were also explored.

In low nanomolar concentrations, NO (nitric oxide) functions as a transmitter in brain and other tissues, whereas near-micromolar NO concentrations are associated with toxicity and cell death. Control of the NO concentration, therefore, is critical for proper brain function, but, although its synthesis pathway is well-characterized, the major route of breakdown of NO in brain is unclear. Previous observations indicate that brain cells actively consume NO at a high rate. The mechanism of this consumption was pursued in the present study. NO consumption by a preparation of central glial cells was abolished by cell lysis and recovered by addition of NADPH. NADPH-dependent consumption of NO localized to cell membranes and was inhibited by proteinase K, indicating the involvement of a membrane-bound protein. Purification of this activity yielded CYPOR (cytochromeP450 oxidoreductase). Antibodies against CYPOR inhibited NO consumption by brain membranes and the amount of CYPOR in several cell types correlated with their rate of NO consumption. NO was also consumed by purified CYPOR but this activity was found to depend on the presence of the vitamin E analogue Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid), included in the buffer as a precaution against inadvertent NO consumption by lipid peroxidation. In contrast, NO consumption by brain membranes was independent of Trolox. Hence, it appears that, during the purification process, CYPOR becomes separated from a partner needed for NO consumption. CytochromeP450 inhibitors inhibited NO consumption by brain membranes, making these proteins likely candidates.

Highly purified NADPH-cytochromeP-450 reductase and the major phenobarbital (PB) and beta-naphthoflavone (beta NF) forms of cytochromeP-450 were used in reconstituted systems to study the demethylation and subsequent activation of dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) to mutagenic intermediates. Both forms of cytochromeP-450 were active in the demethylation of DMN, cytochromeP-450 from PB-treated animals being more efficient, generating nearly twice as much formaldehyde per nmol of haemoprotein. Neither form of the cytochrome could activate DMN to mutagens in the Ames test. These findings indicate that DMN demethylation does not lead to its activation to mutagenic products.

The cytochromeP450 superfamily is responsible primarily for human drug metabolism, which is of critical importance for the drug discovery and development. Rapid advancement of bioinformatics, functional genomics and metabolomics has been made over the last decade. These disciplines are essential in target identification, lead discovery and optimization. In this review, we summarize the recent progress on cytochromeP450 and its role on drug metabolism in the context of bioinformatics, functional genomics and metabolomics. Data are integrated into various databases and web-based platforms on cytochromeP450. These research tools and resources are playing an increasingly important role in drug discovery, and are helping in achieving the ultimate goal of personalized medicine, that is, to prescribe personalized drugs according to each person's genetic makeup, metabolic level, and drug disposition.

A carbon monoxide-binding pigment which shows an absorption peak at about 450 nm in the reduced carbon monoxide difference spectrum was purified from the microsomal fraction of yeast grown anaerobically. The spectral characteristics of the pigment were practically identical with those of cytochromeP-450 of hepatic microsomes, especially from polycyclic hydrocarbon-induced animals. The pigment was denatured to P-420, and bound with ethyl isocyanide in the reduced state. Although Type I spectral change was not evident, the pigment showed Type II and modified Type II spectral changes upon binding with some organic compounds, as in the case of hepatic cytochromeP-450. These observations clearly indicate that the carbon monoxide-binding pigment of yeast microsomes may be designated as cytochromeP-450 of yeast.

The inhibitory action of divalent copper compounds on hydroperoxide-dependent oxidative demethylation of N,N-demethylaniline involving rabbit liver microsomes and highly purified cytochromeP-450 has been studied. CuCl2 is a non-competitive inhibitor, whereas copper tyrosine and lysine complexes are characterized by a mixed type inhibition. The inhibitory action of copper complexes is based on a decrease of cumene hydroperoxide concentration. The reaction results in formation of RO and RO2 radicals destroying cytochromeP-450 CuCl2 (0,001 M) also destroys cytochromeP-450 in the absence of cumene hydroperoxide; the destruction process is characterized by two phases with different rate constants. The nature of the inhibitory action of CuCl2 on N,N-demethylaniline oxidation by hydroperoxides is discussed.

The relationships among cytochromeP450 induction in marine wildlife species, levels of fluorescent aromatic compounds (FAC) in their bile, the chemical composition of the inducing compounds, the significance of the exposure pathway, and any resulting injury, as a consequence of exposure to crude oil following a spill, are reviewed. Fish collected after oil spills often show increases in cytochromeP450 system activity, cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) and bile fluorescent aromatic compounds (FAC), that are correlated with exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the oil. There is also some evidence for increases in bile FAC and induction of cytochromeP450 in marine birds and mammals after oil spills. However, when observed, increases in these exposure indicators are transitory and generally decrease to background levels within one year after the exposure. Laboratory studies have shown induction of cytochromeP450 systems occurs after exposure of fish to crude oil in water, sediment or food. Most of the PAH found in crude oil (dominantly 2- and 3-ring PAH) are not strong inducers of cytochromeP450. Exposure to the 4-ring chrysenes or the photooxidized products of the PAH may account for the cytochromeP450 responses in fish collected from oil-spill sites. The contribution of non-spill background PAH, particularly combustion-derived (pyrogenic) PAH, to bile FAC and cytochromeP450 system responses can be confounding and needs to be considered when evaluating oil spill effects. The ubiquity of pyrogenic PAH makes it important to fully characterize all sources of PAH, including PAH from natural resources, e.g. retene, in oil spill studies. In addition, such parameters as species, sex, age, ambient temperature and season need to be taken into account. While increases in fish bile FAC and cytochromeP450 system responses, can together, be sensitive general indicators of PAH exposure after an oil spill, there is little unequivocal evidence to suggest a linkage to

The relationships among cytochromeP450 induction in marine wildlife species, levels of fluorescent aromatic compounds (FAC) in their bile, the chemical composition of the inducing compounds, the significance of the exposure pathway, and any resulting injury, as a consequence of exposure to crude oil following a spill, are reviewed. Fish collected after oil spills often show increases in cytochromeP450 system activity, cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) and bile fluorescent aromatic compounds (FAC), that are correlated with exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the oil. There is also some evidence for increases in bile FAC and induction of cytochromeP450 in marine birds and mammals after oil spills. However, when observed, increases in these exposure indicators are transitory and generally decrease to background levels within one year after the exposure. Laboratory studies have shown induction of cytochromeP450 systems occurs after exposure of fish to crude oil in water, sediment or food. Most of the PAH found in crude oil (dominantly 2- and 3-ring PAH) are not strong inducers of cytochromeP450. Exposure to the 4-ring chrysenes or the photooxidized products of the PAH may account for the cytochromeP450 responses in fish collected from oil-spill sites. The contribution of non-spill background PAH, particularly combustion-derived (pyrogenic) PAH, to bile FAC and cytochromeP450 system responses can be confounding and needs to be considered when evaluating oil spill effects. The ubiquity of pyrogenic PAH makes it important to fully characterize all sources of PAH, including PAH from natural resources, e.g. retene, in oil spill studies. In addition, such parameters as species, sex, age, ambient temperature and season need to be taken into account. While increases in fish bile FAC and cytochromeP450 system responses, can together, be sensitive general indicators of PAH exposure after an oil spill, there is little unequivocal evidence to suggest a linkage to

Angeli's salt, Na2N2O3 or O-N=N+-(OH)(O-) in aqueous solution, is known to release NO- or NO., which relaxes vascular tissue and lowers blood pressure. In the liver, the most abundant heme enzyme is cytochromeP450. In the present study, we studied the effect of rat liver cytochromeP450 1A2 (P450 1A2) in regard to its catalysis of the N=N bond scission of Angeli's salt with optical absorption spectra. Also, we examined the contribution of putative distal amino acids of P450 1A2 to the reaction with the salt. We found that wild-type Fe3+ P450 1A2 markedly enhances the N=N scission of the salt up to 100 fold in terms of absorption spectroscopy. A Fe3+ P450 1A2-NO complex with an absorption peak at 435 nm was formed when the salt was added and the complex was then changed to a 6-coordinated Fe2+-NO complex having a 440-nm peak. Glu318Asp, Glu318Ala and Thr319Ala mutants at the putative distal site of P450 1A2 formed a 5-coordinated Fe2+-NO complex having a 400-nm absorption, that was not formed with the wild type. The Glu318Ala mutant, in particular, did not form the Fe3+-NO complex with the addition of Angeli's salt. The presence of L-Cys, reduced glutathione, catalase or superoxide dismutase markedly stabilized the Fe3+ wild type-NO complex. Thus, our data suggests that the N=N bond of Angeli's salt is cleaved with the P450 1A2 active site and NO- or NO. is released. We discuss mechanisms of redox and ligand changes of the P450 heme.

The metabolism of the anticonvulsant mephenytoin is subject to a genetic polymorphism. In 2-5% of Caucasians and 18-23% of Japanese subjects a specific cytochromeP-450 isozyme, P-450 meph, is functionally deficient or missing. The authors have accumulated evidence that autoimmune antibodies observed in sera of patients with tienilic acid induced hepatitis (anti-liver kidney microsome 2 or anti-LKM2 antibodies) specifically recognize the cytochromeP-450 involved in the mephrenytoin hydroxylation polymorphism. This is demonstrated by immunoinhibition and immunoprecipitation of microsomal (S)-mephenytoin 4-hydroxylation activity and by the recognition by anti-LKM2 antibodies of a single (/sup 125/I)-protein band on immunoblots of human liver microsomes after sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or isoelectric focusing. The cytochromeP-450 recognized by anti-LKM2 antibodies was immunopurified from microsomes derived from livers of extensive (EM) or poor metabolizers (PM) of (S)-mephenytoin. Comparison of the EM-type cytochromeP-450 to that isolated from PM livers revealed no difference in regard to immuno-cross-reactivity, molecular weight, isoelectric point, relative content in microsomes, two-dimensional tryptic peptide maps, one-dimensional peptide maps with three proteases, amino acid composition, and amino-terminal protein sequence. Finally, the same protein was precipitated from microsomes prepared from the liver biopsy of a subject phenotyped in vivo as a poor metabolizer of mephenytoin. These data strongly suggest that the mephenytoin hydroxylation deficiency is caused by a minor structural change leading to a functionally altered cytochromeP-450 isozyme.

Previously published studies have shown that cytochromeP450 (P450) enzyme systems can produce reactive oxygen species and suggest roles of P450s in oxidative stress. However, most of the studies have been done in vitro, and the potential link between P450 induction and in vivo oxidative damage has not been rigorously explored with validated biomarkers. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were pretreated with typical P450 inducers (beta-naphthoflavone, phenobarbital (PB), Aroclor 1254, isoniazid, pregnenolone 16alpha-carbonitrile, and clofibrate) or the general P450 inhibitor 1-aminobenztriazole; induction of P4501A, -2B, -2E, -3A, and -4A subfamily enzymes was confirmed by immunoblotting and the suppression of P450 by 1-aminobenztriazole using spectral analysis. PB and Aroclor 1254 significantly enhanced malondialdehyde and H2O2 generation and NADPH oxidation in vitro and significantly enhanced formation in vivo, in both liver and plasma. Some of the other treatments changed in vitro parameters but none did in vivo. The PB-mediated increases in liver and plasma F2-isoprostanes could be ablated by 1-aminobenztriazole, implicating the PB-induced P450(s) in the F2-isoprostane elevation. The markers of in vivo oxidative stress were influenced mainly by PB and Aroclor 1254, indicative of an oxidative damage response only to barbiturate-type induction and probably related to 2B subfamily enzymes. These studies define the contribution of P450s to oxidative stress in vivo, in that the phenomenon is relatively restricted and most P450s do not contribute substantially.

We isolated a cDNA clone encoding a bovine adrenal cytochromeP-450 specific for steroid 21-hydroxylation (P-450C21). Serum from rabbits immunized with purified P-450C21 precipitated a single protein from the products of an in vitro translation reaction using bovine adrenal mRNA. This protein migrated with P-450C21 on NaDodSO4/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After sucrose gradient sedimentation, mRNA encoding P-450C21 was found in the 19S fraction. This fraction was reverse transcribed into double-stranded cDNA and inserted into the Pst I site of pBR322 by the dC X dG tailing procedure. Escherichia coli cells transformed with recombinant plasmids were screened with an in situ immunoassay using anti-P-450C21 serum and 125I-labeled staphylococcal protein A. Two colonies consistently bound anti-P-450C21 serum. They were identified as carrying the same plasmid by restriction mapping. This plasmid, pC21a, contains an insert of 520 base pairs. It hybridizes with mRNA encoding P-450C21. The peptide encoded by the insert in pC21a is highly homologous to two peptides isolated from porcine P-450C21 and shows limited homology to the P-450 induced by phenobarbital in rat liver. This clone may be useful in studying the molecular genetics of human congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Images PMID:6609358

CytochromeP450s play a central role in the metabolism and disposition of an extremely wide range of drugs and chemical carcinogens. Individual differences in the expression of these enzymes may be an important determinant in susceptibility to adverse drug reactions, chemical toxins and mutagens. In this paper, we have measured the relative levels of expression of cytochromeP450 isoenzymes from eight gene families or subfamilies in a panel of twelve human liver samples in order to determine the individuality in their expression and whether any forms are co-regulated. Isoenzymes were identified in most cases on Western blots based on the mobility of authentic recombinant human cytochromeP450 standards. The levels of the following P450 proteins correlated with each other: CYP2A6, CYP2B6 and a protein from the CYP2C gene subfamily, CYP2E1 and a member of the CYP2A gene subfamily, CYP2C8, CYP3A3/A4 and total cytochromeP450 content. Also, the levels of two proteins in the CYP4A gene subfamily were highly correlated. These correlations are consistent with the relative regulation of members of these gene families in rats or mice. In addition, the level of expression of specific isoenzymes has also been compared with the rate of metabolism of a panel of drugs, carcinogens and model P450 substrates. These latter studies demonstrate and confirm that the correlations obtained in this manner represent a powerful approach towards the assignment of the metabolism of substrates by specific human P450 isoenzymes. Images Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. PMID:1736885

CytochromeP450s play a central role in the metabolism and disposition of an extremely wide range of drugs and chemical carcinogens. Individual differences in the expression of these enzymes may be an important determinant in susceptibility to adverse drug reactions, chemical toxins and mutagens. In this paper, we have measured the relative levels of expression of cytochromeP450 isoenzymes from eight gene families or subfamilies in a panel of twelve human liver samples in order to determine the individuality in their expression and whether any forms are co-regulated. Isoenzymes were identified in most cases on Western blots based on the mobility of authentic recombinant human cytochromeP450 standards. The levels of the following P450 proteins correlated with each other: CYP2A6, CYP2B6 and a protein from the CYP2C gene subfamily, CYP2E1 and a member of the CYP2A gene subfamily, CYP2C8, CYP3A3/A4 and total cytochromeP450 content. Also, the levels of two proteins in the CYP4A gene subfamily were highly correlated. These correlations are consistent with the relative regulation of members of these gene families in rats or mice. In addition, the level of expression of specific isoenzymes has also been compared with the rate of metabolism of a panel of drugs, carcinogens and model P450 substrates. These latter studies demonstrate and confirm that the correlations obtained in this manner represent a powerful approach towards the assignment of the metabolism of substrates by specific human P450 isoenzymes.

The present invention provides soluble cytochromep450 reductase (CPR) proteins from Candida sp. having an altered N-terminal region which results in reduced hydrophobicity of the N-terminal region. Also provided are host cells comprising the subject soluble CPR proteins. In addition, the present invention provides nucleotide and corresponding amino acid sequences for soluble CPR proteins and vectors comprising the nucleotide sequences. Methods for producing a soluble CPR, for increasing production of a dicarboxylic acid, and for detecting a cytochromeP450 are also provided.

The cytochromeP-450-dependent O-dealkylation of alkoxyresorufins was used to study the effect of cumene hydroperoxide on cytochromeP-450 IIB1 and IA1 in microsomal and reconstituted systems. In liver microsomal systems from respectively phenobarbital and 3-methylcholanthrene pretreated male Wistar rats, cytochromeP-450 IIB1-dependent pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylation appeared to be more sensitive to cumene hydroperoxide treatment than cytochromeP-450 IA1-dependent ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylation. This phenomenon was also observed when the cumene hydroperoxide sensitivity of P-450 IIB1 and IA1 was studied in an isosafrole pretreated rat liver microsomal system. The decrease in alkoxy-O-dealkylating activities appeared to proceed by destruction of the cytochromeP-450 component of the enzyme system. Purification and reconstitution of the enzyme system components in a system in which the isolated proteins were not incorporated into a membrane resulted in the disappearance of the difference in sensitivity between the two P-450 enzymes. However, in a reconstituted system with membrane incorporated proteins, again cytochromeP-450 IIB1 expressed a higher sensitivity towards cumene hydroperoxide than cytochromeP-450 IA1. From this it was concluded that the differential cumene hydroperoxide sensitivity of cytochromeP-450 IIB1 and IA1 is not caused by an intrinsic difference in their sensitivity but by a differential effect of membrane incorporation on their cumene hydroperoxide sensitivity.

Threonine 243 of cytochromeP450nor (fungal nitric oxide reductase) corresponds to the 'conserved' Thr in the long I helix of monooxygenase cytochromeP450s. In P450nor, the replacement of Thr243 with Asn, Ala or Val makes the enzymatic activity dramatically reduce. In order to understand the roles of Thr243 in the reduction reaction of NO by P450nor, the crystal structures of three Thr243 mutants (Thr243-->Asn, Thr243-->Val, Thr243-->Ala) of P450nor were determined at a 1.4-A resolution and at cryogenic temperature. However, the hydrogen-bonding pattern in the heme pocket of these mutants is essentially similar for that of the WT enzyme. This suggests that the determination of the structure of the NADH complex of P450nor is required, in order to evaluate the role of Thr243 in its enzymatic reaction. We attempted to crystallize the NADH complex under several conditions, but have not yet been successful.

CytochromesP450 (P450s) play a major role in the clearance of drugs, toxins, and environmental pollutants. Additionally, metabolism by P450s can result in toxic or carcinogenic products. The metabolism of pharmaceuticals by P450s is a major concern during the design of new drug candidates. Determining the interactions between P450s and compounds of very diverse structures is complicated by the variability in P450-ligand interactions. Understanding the protein structural elements and the chemical attributes of ligands that dictate their orientation in the P450 active site will aid in the development of effective and safe therapeutic agents. The goal of this review is to describe P450-ligand interactions from two perspectives. The first is the various structural elements that microsomal P450s have at their disposal to assume the different conformations observed in X-ray crystal structures. The second is P450-ligand dynamics analyzed by NMR relaxation studies.

Today much is known about cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes and their catalytic specificity, but the range of reactions catalyzed by each still continues to surprise. Historically P450s had been considered to be involved in either the metabolism of xenobiotics or endogenous chemicals, in the former case playing a generally protective role and in the latter case a defined physiological role. However, the line of demarcation is sometimes blurred. It is difficult to be completely specific in drug design, and some P450s involved in the metabolism of steroids and vitamins can be off-targets. In a number of cases, drugs have been developed that act on some of those P450s as primary targets, e.g., steroid aromatase inhibitors. Several of the P450s involved in the metabolism of endogenous substrates are less specific than once thought and oxidize several related structures. Some of the P450s that primarily oxidize endogenous chemicals have been shown to oxidize xenobiotic chemicals, even in a bioactivation mode. PMID:27472660

Today much is known about cytochromeP450 (P450) enzymes and their catalytic specificity, but the range of reactions catalyzed by each still continues to surprise. Historically, P450s had been considered to be involved in either the metabolism of xenobiotics or endogenous chemicals, in the former case playing a generally protective role and in the latter case a defined physiological role. However, the line of demarcation is sometimes blurred. It is difficult to be completely specific in drug design, and some P450s involved in the metabolism of steroids and vitamins can be off-targets. In a number of cases, drugs have been developed that act on some of those P450s as primary targets, e.g., steroid aromatase inhibitors. Several of the P450s involved in the metabolism of endogenous substrates are less specific than once thought and oxidize several related structures. Some of the P450s that primarily oxidize endogenous chemicals have been shown to oxidize xenobiotic chemicals, even in a bioactivation mode.

The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of chronic consumption of soft drinks (SDs) on hepatic oxidative stress and cytochromeP450 enzymes (CYPs) expression in the livers of Wistar rats. For 3 consecutive months, the rats had free access to three different soft drinks, Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola and 7-UP. The rats were subsequently compared with control group rats that had consumed water. Blood and hepatic tissue samples were assayed for the changes in antioxidants, liver function biomarkers and hepatic gene expression for different isoforms of hepatic CYP. The results indicated that SD consumption (SDC) decreased serum antioxidant levels and increased malondialdehyde secretion, and increased liver biomarkers (glutamate pyruvate transaminase and glutamate oxaloacetate). SD induced alterations in mRNA expression of hepatic antioxidants and cytochrome isoforms. The expression of peroxidase, catalase, CYP1A2, CYP3A2 and CYP2C11 in the liver were upregulated following SDC. By contrast, CYP2B1 was downregulated after 3 months of SDC in liver tissue samples. Thus, the present findings indicate that SDs induced oxidative stress in the liver of Wistar rats and for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, indicate that SDC disrupts hepatic CYP enzymes that may affect drug metabolism. Therefore, drug-dosing programs should be carefully designed to take these novel findings into consideration for the treatment of diseases.

The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of chronic consumption of soft drinks (SDs) on hepatic oxidative stress and cytochromeP450 enzymes (CYPs) expression in the livers of Wistar rats. For 3 consecutive months, the rats had free access to three different soft drinks, Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola and 7-UP. The rats were subsequently compared with control group rats that had consumed water. Blood and hepatic tissue samples were assayed for the changes in antioxidants, liver function biomarkers and hepatic gene expression for different isoforms of hepatic CYP. The results indicated that SD consumption (SDC) decreased serum antioxidant levels and increased malondialdehyde secretion, and increased liver biomarkers (glutamate pyruvate transaminase and glutamate oxaloacetate). SD induced alterations in mRNA expression of hepatic antioxidants and cytochrome isoforms. The expression of peroxidase, catalase, CYP1A2, CYP3A2 and CYP2C11 in the liver were upregulated following SDC. By contrast, CYP2B1 was downregulated after 3 months of SDC in liver tissue samples. Thus, the present findings indicate that SDs induced oxidative stress in the liver of Wistar rats and for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, indicate that SDC disrupts hepatic CYP enzymes that may affect drug metabolism. Therefore, drug-dosing programs should be carefully designed to take these novel findings into consideration for the treatment of diseases. PMID:27882225

(+)-Camphor, a major monoterpene of the essential oil of common sage (Salvia officinalis), is catabolized in senescent tissue, and the pathway for the breakdown of this bicyclic ketone has been previously elucidated in sage cell-suspension cultures. In the initial step of catabolism, camphor is oxidized to 6-exo-hydroxycamphor, and the corresponding NADPH- and O[sub 2]-dependent hydroxylase activity was demonstrated in microsomal preparations of sage cells. Several well-established inhibitors of cytochromeP-450-dependent reactions, including cytochrome c, clotrimazole, and CO, inhibited the hydroxylation of camphor, and CO-dependent inhibition was partially reversed by blue light. Upon treatment of sage suspension cultures with 30 mM MnCl[sub 2], camphor-6-hydroxylase activity was induced up to 7-fold. A polypeptide with estimated molecular mass of 58 kD from sage microsomal membranes exhibited antigenic cross-reactivity in western blot experiments with two heterologous polyclonal antibodies raised against cytochromeP-450 camphor-5-exo-hydroxylase from Pseudomonas putida and cytochromeP-450 limonene-6S-hydroxylase from spearmint (Mentha spicata). Dot blotting indicated that the concentration of this polypeptide increased with camphor hydroxylase activity in microsomes of Mn[sup 2+]-induced sage cells. These results suggest that camphor-6-exo-hydroxylase from sage is a microsomal cytochromeP-450 monooxygenase that may share common properties and epitopes with bacterial and other plant monoterpene hydroxylases. 44 refs., 6 figs., 2 tabs.

(+)-Camphor, a major monoterpene of the essential oil of common sage (Salvia officinalis), is catabolized in senescent tissue, and the pathway for the breakdown of this bicyclic ketone has been previously elucidated in sage cell-suspension cultures. In the initial step of catabolism, camphor is oxidized to 6-exo-hydroxycamphor, and the corresponding NADPH- and O2-dependent hydroxylase activity was demonstrated in microsomal preparations of sage cells. Several well-established inhibitors of cytochromeP-450-dependent reactions, including cytochrome c, clotrimazole, and CO, inhibited the hydroxylation of camphor, and CO-dependent inhibition was partially reversed by blue light. Upon treatment of sage suspension cultures with 30 mM MnCl2, camphor-6-hydroxylase activity was induced up to 7-fold. A polypeptide with estimated molecular mass of 58 kD from sage microsomal membranes exhibited antigenic cross-reactivity in western blot experiments with two heterologous polyclonal antibodies raised against cytochromeP-450 camphor-5-exo-hydroxylase from Pseudomonas putida and cytochromeP-450 limonene-6S-hydroxylase from spearmint (Mentha spicata). Dot blotting indicated that the concentration of this polypeptide increased with camphor hydroxylase activity in microsomes of Mn2+-induced sage cells. These results suggest that camphor-6-exo-hydroxylase from sage is a microsomal cytochromeP-450 monooxygenase that may share common properties and epitopes with bacterial and other plant monoterpene hydroxylases. PMID:12231778

Phenol, also known as carbolic acid or phenic acid, is a priority pollutant in aquatic ecosystems. The present study has investigated metabolic activities and transcription profiles of cytochromeP450 enzymes in Chironomus kiinensis under phenol stress. Exposure of C. kiinensis larvae to three sublethal doses of phenol (1, 10 and 100 µM) inhibited cytochromeP450 enzyme activity during the 96 h exposure period. The P450 activity measured after the 24 h exposure to phenol stress could be used to assess the level (low or high) of phenol contamination in the environment. To investigate the potential of cytochromeP450 genes as molecular biomarkers to monitor phenol contamination, the cDNA of ten CYP6 genes from the transcriptome of C. kiinensis were identified and sequenced. The open reading frames of the CYP6 genes ranged from 1266 to 1587 bp, encoding deduced polypeptides composed of between 421 and 528 amino acids, with predicted molecular masses from 49.01 to 61.94 kDa and isoelectric po