Comenius was the only son of respected members of a Protestant group known as the Bohemian Brethren. His parents died when he was age 10, and after four unhappy years spent living with his aunt in Strážnice, he was sent to a secondary school at Přerov. Though the teaching methods there were poor, he was befriended by a headmaster who recognized his gifts and encouraged him to train for the ministry. Following two years at the Herborn Gymnasium in the Nassau region (now part of Germany), he entered the University of Heidelberg (1613). While there he came under the influence of Protestant millennialists, who believed that men could achieve salvation on earth. He also read with enthusiasm the works of Francis Bacon and returned home convinced that the millennium could be attained with the aid of science.

As a young minister Comenius found life wholly satisfying, but the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618 and the emperor Ferdinand II’s determination to re-Catholicize Bohemia forced him and other Protestant leaders to flee. While in hiding, he wrote an allegory, The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart, in which he described both his early despair and his sources of consolation. With a band of Brethren he escaped to Poland and in 1628 settled in Leszno. Believing that the Protestants would eventually win and liberate Bohemia, he began to prepare for the day when it would be possible to rebuild society there through a reformed educational system. He wrote a “Brief Proposal” advocating full-time schooling for all the youth of the nation and maintaining that they should be taught both their native culture and the culture of Europe.

Educational reform

The reform of the educational system would require two things. First, a revolution in methods of teaching was necessary so that learning might become rapid, pleasant, and thorough. Teachers ought to “follow in the footsteps of nature,” meaning that they ought to pay attention to the mind of the child and to the way the student learned. Comenius made this the theme of The Great Didactic and also of The School of Infancy—a book for mothers on the early years of childhood. Second, to make European culture accessible to all children, it was necessary that they learn Latin. But Comenius was certain that there was a better way of teaching Latin than by the inefficient and pedantic methods then in use; he advocated “nature’s way,” that is, learning about things and not about grammar. To this end he wrote Janua Linguarum Reserata, a textbook that described useful facts about the world in both Latin and Czech, side by side; thus, the pupils could compare the two languages and identify words with things. Translated into German, the Janua soon became famous throughout Europe and was subsequently translated into a number of European and Asian languages. Comenius wrote that he was “encouraged beyond expectation” by the book’s reception.

With the liberation of Bohemia less certain than before, Comenius turned to an even more ambitious project—the reform of human society through education. Others in Europe shared his vision, among them a German merchant living in London, Samuel Hartlib, who invited Comenius to England to establish a college of pansophic learning. With approval from the Brethren, Comenius went to London in 1641, reporting back that he had been “fitted out with new clothes befitting an English divine.” He met a number of influential men, engaged in much discussion, and wrote essays of which the most notable was The Way ofLight, which set out his program. Parliament went so far as to consider setting up a college “for a number of men from all nations.” This prospect was shattered by the outbreak of the English Civil War, however, and Comenius was obliged to leave the country in 1642. He had been invited to France by Cardinal Richelieu; and the American John Winthrop, Jr., who was in Europe looking for an educator-theologian to become president of Harvard College, may have met Comenius. Instead, Comenius accepted an offer from the government of Sweden to help reform its schools by writing a series of textbooks modeled on his Janua.

He interpreted his agreement with the Swedish government as entitling him to base his textbooks on a system of philosophy he had evolved called “pansophy” (see below). After struggling hard to produce them, however, he found that they failed to satisfy anyone. Nevertheless, in the course of his stay at Elbing, he tried to lay a philosophical foundation for a science of pedagogy. In The Analytical Didactic, forming part of his Newest Method of Languages, he reinterpreted the principle of nature that he had described in The Great Didactic as a principle of logic. He put forward certain self-evident principles from which he derived a number of maxims, some of them full of common sense and others rather platitudinous. His chief attention was directed to his system of pansophy. Ever since his student days he had been seeking a basic principle by which all knowledge could be harmonized. He believed that men could be trained to see the underlying harmony of the universe and thus to overcome its apparent disharmony. He wrote that:

pansophy propoundeth to itself so to expand and lay open to the eyes of all the wholeness of things that everything might be pleasurable in itself and necessary for the expanding of the appetite.

The “expanding of the appetite” for pansophic understanding became his great aim, spelled out in “A General Consultation Concerning the Improvement of Human Affairs.”

Social reform

The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years’ War, was a blow to Comenius and other Czech exiles, who thereby lost their last hope of a restoration of ethnic and religious liberty in their homeland. Few of them returned, since they would have been required to recant their beliefs. Comenius left Elbing and returned to Poland, where the Brethren at Leszno had been cast into despair. In 1648 he was consecrated presiding bishop of the Moravians, the last of the Bohemian-Moravian clergy to hold this office.

His next invitation came from Hungary, where the young prince Zsigmond Rákóczi wanted to establish a model pansophic school at Sárospatak. Comenius, arriving there in 1650, received a warm reception. The school opened with about 100 pupils, but it proved unsuccessful. The students were ill-prepared to learn anything beyond the rudiments of reading and writing, and the teachers soon lost interest in a scheme they could not understand. The prince died in 1652, and at about the same time war broke out in Poland.

Comenius returned to Leszno, carrying with him the manuscript of a picture textbook he had written for his pupils but for which he had not yet been able to obtain the necessary woodcuts. He sent the manuscript to Nürnberg in Germany, where the cuts were made. The resulting book, Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures), was popular in Europe for two centuries and was the forerunner of the illustrated schoolbook of later times. It consisted of pictures illustrating Latin sentences, accompanied by vernacular translations. For example, the chapter “The Head and the Hand” began with a picture of a head and two hands followed by sentences such as:

Comenius had not been back in Leszno long before it was occupied and destroyed, with the loss of many of his manuscripts. He escaped to Amsterdam, where he remained for the rest of his life. In 1657 he gathered together most of his writings on education and published them as a collection, Didactica Opera Omnia. He devoted his remaining years to completing his great work, Consultation. He managed to get parts of it published, and when he was dying in 1670 he begged his close associates to publish the rest of it after his death. They failed to do so, and the manuscripts were lost until 1935, when they were found in an orphanage in Halle, Ger.

Assessment

During his lifetime the fame of Comenius rested chiefly on his two popular textbooks, the Janua and the Orbis Sensualium Pictus. He himself would have set more store by his influence as a social reformer, which reached its peak during his visit to England. Men all over Europe had looked to Comenius as a leader; his vision had impressed both those who were seeking a more dynamic form of religion and those who looked to science as an avenue of reform. His pansophism, on the other hand, was not influential either during his lifetime or afterward. His dream of universal harmony was too vague and too grandiose for the mental outlook of the 17th century, which was already shifting in a utilitarian and materialistic direction; it has had even less appeal in modern times.

As a religious leader Comenius helped keep alive the faith of his church in its darkest hour, and he provided the inspiration that led to its subsequent revival as the Moravian Church under Nikolaus, Graf von Zinzendorf, in the 18th century. He was no sectarian but a champion of the church universal. He was also, for all of his internationalism, a Czech patriot at a time when the Czechs had been nearly crushed. He wrote: “I love my country and its language, and my greatest wish is that it should be cultivated.”

In the 19th century Comenius’ reputation was revived by the increasing attention given to the study of pedagogy, especially in Germany. At the present day he remains of interest as a prototype of the international citizen. His patriotic feelings for Germany Bohemia did not prevent him from feeling himself a European and from believing profoundly in the unity of mankind.