3 Topics we suggest you think aboutFundamental attribution ErrorAttitudes and actions affecting each other:Peripheral and central route persuasionFoot-in-the-door phenomenonRole playing affecting attitudesCognitive dissonanceConformity: mimicry and normsObedience: factors and lessonsGroup situations and group behavior:Social facilitationSocial loafingPolarizationDeindividuationGroupthinkThe power of individualsNo animation.

4 Social PsychologySample social psychology question: Why might students speak up in class, or hesitate to speak?To answer this, we can study emotions, cognitions, motivations, reinforcers, and more:Personality Psychologists could study the traits that might make one person more likely than another to speak, andSocial Psychologists might examine aspects of the classroom situation that would influence any student’s decision about speaking.Click to reveal bullets.

5 Social Thinking Attribution: Identifying causesWith all that we have learned about people so far in this course, you should make pretty good guesses about the nature of other people’s behavior, right?We, especially those raised in Western, Individualist cultures, tend to make Fundamental Attribution ErrorAttribution: a conclusion about the cause of an observed behavior/event.Attribution Theory: We explain others’ behavior with two types of attributions:Situational Attribution (factors outside the person doing the action, such as peer pressure), orDispositional Attribution (the person’s stable, enduring traits, personality, ability, emotions)Click to reveal bullets and sidebar.

6 Fundamental Attribution ErrorSocial Thinking:See if you can find the error in the following comment:“I noticed the new guy tripping and stumbling as he walked in. How clumsy can you be? Does he never watch where he’s going?”The Fundamental Attribution Error: When we go too far in assuming that a person’s behavior is caused by their personality.What’s the error?Hint: Next day…“Hey, they need to fix this rug! I tripped on it on the way in!Not everyone tripped? Well, not everyone had a test that day and their cell phone was buzzing.”We think a behavior demonstrates a trait.Instructor: Before you click to make the hint appear, see if students can come up with other explanations for “the clumsy behavior.” See if they can come up with aspects of the situation, such as a rug having a folded up edge, or the “new” person (new student or employee) being unfamiliar with the environment, or the person being distracted or nervous because of [the situation of] entering a new social environment, having people watching.After you make the hint appear, students may point out “hypocrisy”, but that’s not the fundamental error, so click and make the hint go away), and help them figure out: When viewing the new person, the observer was attributing the clumsy behavior to a TRAIT of clumsiness or not being observant.Another click brings up the title and definition. Click to reveal two more boxes.In the last sentence, hopefully any randomly picked student will be able to fill in the blanks even if they didn’t do the reading: dispositional, and situational.This error may not seem so “fundamental” to students; it’s also know as actor-observer bias or correspondence bias. It would be nice if it were known as something that helped identify it, the “trait over situation” error.We tend to overemphasize __________ attribution and underemphasize __________ attribution.

7 Fundamental Attribution ErrorSocial Thinking:We make this error even when we are given the correct facts:Williams College study: A woman was paid and told to act friendly to some students, unfriendly to others. The students felt that her behavior was part of a her disposition, even when they were told that she was just obeying instructions.Optional slideNo animation.In this 1979 study, they used the term “correspondence bias.”If we are told a person is homeless due to medical bills, we may still see them and wonder: “why don’t they look for work?”

8 Social Thinking: Self vs. Other/Actors and ObserversWhen we explain our OWN behavior, we partly reverse the fundamental attribution error: we tend to blame the situation for our failures (although we take personal credit for successes).This happens not just out of selfishness: it happens whenever we take the perspective of the actor in a situation, which is easiest to do for ourselves and people we know well.Optional slideClick to reveal bullets.Instructor: The social thinking habits described in this slide are typically called self-serving bias or the actor-observer effect. The text author uses these terms, but doesn’t include this as a formal term students need to know. I have blended those concepts here.The text tells of an experiment that this effect, this flipping of the F.A.E. and by seeing the actor’s point of view, even happens when we can view an event in a video when the action is displayed on screen from the actor’s perspective.

9 Social Thinking: Cultural differencesPeople in collectivist cultures (those which emphasize group unity, allegiance, and purpose over the wishes of the individual), do not make the same kinds of attributions:The behavior of others is attributed more to the situation; also,Credit for successes is given more to others,Blame for failures is taken on oneself.Optional slideClick to reveal bullets.Instructor: See if students can explain why this might generally be true, why one’s experience in collectivist cultures might encourage different attributions: is there pressure to interpret things differently, to take blame for failures, or in the collectivist experience, is this more likely to be an accurate view, that successes and behavior are guided by the group and failures are caused by individuals?Does this cultural difference make this less fundamental? Fundamental doesn’t mean universal, it means most important; to judge someone as having a certain trait just because you see them do a behavior (is a soldier a murderer?) is considered here to be the most basic error you can make in viewing another person.

10 Emotional Effects of AttributionSocial ThinkingEmotional Effects of AttributionProblematic behavior: someone cuts in front of us.Optional slideClick to reveal sequence of graphics.This effect is somewhat tangential to the social psych concept, but connects to the topic of attitude coming up.How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it.

11 Social Thinking: Political Effects of AttributionWhen we see someone who is in dirty clothes is and asking for money, what do we assume is the cause of the person’s behavior?Too lazy or incompetent to get a job?Lost home due to medical bills and now unable to get in a condition to compete for scarce jobs?Optional slide, although in this case similar themes are raised in this edition of the text.Click to reveal bullets.Would your assumptions change if the person were drunk? Or spoke articulately?What solutions and policies make sense if you make the first attributions? The second?

12 Social Thinking: Attitudes and ActionsFeelings, ideas, and beliefs that affect how we approach and react to other people, objects, and events.Attitudes, by definition, affect our actions; We shall see later that our actions can also influence our attitudes.Automatic animation.To link this definition of “Attitude” to the more popular usage: A “bad attitude” toward a situation or a group of people isn’t just a bad mood, it is a mindset that makes us likely to react negatively to that situation or group.

13 Social Thinking: PersuasionTwo cognitive pathways to affect attitudesCentral Route PersuasionGoing directly through the rational mind, influencing attitudes with evidence and logic.Peripheral Route PersuasionChanging attitudes by going around the rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, associations.Click to reveal two circles.Instructor: Students may see “Persuasion” as a social influence topic; but here, the influence on behavior is mediated by cognition (attitudes).“My product has been proven more effective.”“People who buy my product are happy, attractive!”

14 Social Thinking Attitudes affect our actions when:External influences are minimalThe attitude is stableThe attitude is specific to the behaviorThe attitude is easily recalled.Example:“I feel like [attitude] eating at McD’s, and I will [action];”There are no nutritionists here telling me not to,I’ve enjoyed their food for quite a while,It’s so easy to get the food when I have a craving,It’s easy to remember how good it is when I drive by that big sign every day.”Click to start the animation of an example of how attitudes can affect actions: When we not only have a desire for McDonald’s food, but actually go ahead and act on our desire. Then click to reveal a quote illustrating each of four factors that makes attitudes more likely to affect our actions.

15 Actions affect attitudes:Social Thinking:Actions affect attitudes:If attitudes direct our actions, can it work the other way around? How can it happen that we can take an action which in turn shifts our attitude about that action?Through three social-cognitive mechanisms:Click to reveal three social-cognitive mechanisms.The Foot in the Door PhenomenonThe Effects of Playing a Role, andCognitive DissonanceThe Foot in the Door PhenomenonThe Effects of Playing a Role, andCognitive Dissonance

16 Social Thinking: Small Compliance Large ComplianceA political campaigner asks if you would open the door just enough to pass a clipboard through. [Or a foot]You agree to this.Then you agree to sign a petition.Then you agree to make a small contribution. By check.Automatic animation.Instructor: The answer to the question is on the next slide.What happened here?

17 Social Thinking: Small Compliance Large ComplianceThe Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one.Automatic animation.Instructor: For the second bullet point you can cite the example of prisoners helping and later identifying with captors; look up the case of Patty Hearst and the SLA, there is a classic photo going along with this story of the captured heiress holding a gun for this militia.The atrocities at Abu Ghraib, used as an example of role playing in the book, may also be an example of the foot in the door phenomenon, if: as prisoners were harmed, attitudes about the prisoners became more dehumanizing, allowing harm to escalate.You might want to postpone discussion of why this phenomenon happens until you talk about cognitive dissonance (or teach that concept first).I recommend starting class asking for help setting up your classroom, then help getting something from your car or going to make a request of someone elsewhere in the building…Affect on attitudes: People adjust their attitudes along with their actions, liking the people they agreed to help, disliking the people they agreed to harm.

18 -- Nathaniel Hawthorne --Alcoholics Anonymous sloganSocial Thinking: Role Playing Affects AttitudesIn arranged marriages, people often come to have a deep love for the person they marry.Actors say they “lose themselves” in roles.Participants in the Stanford Prison Study ended up adopting the attitudes of whatever roles they were randomly assigned to;“guards” had demeaning views of “prisoners,”“prisoners” had rebellious dislike of the “guards.”“No man, for any considerable period, can wear one face to himself, and another to the multitude, without finally getting bewildered as to which may be the true [face].”-- Nathaniel Hawthorne“Fake it till you make it.”--Alcoholics Anonymous sloganClick to reveal bullets and sidebar bullets.A tragic story which may relate to the second bullet is the possible suicide of Heath Ledger who complained before his death that he was becoming disturbed by the attitudes he adopted while immersing himself in the role of the Joker in a Batman movie.Instructor: if you play excerpts from the Stanford prison study video, I strongly recommend featuring the interviews at the end which show how the attitudes remained after the role playing was done.When we play a role, even if we know it is just pretending, we eventually tend to adopt the attitudes that go with the role, and become the role.

19 Cognitive DissonanceIf Fiona agrees to do some fundraising for her college, her attitudes about school finances might shift to resolve her cognitive dissonance.No animation.A question to ask along with this slide:How much would you expect her attitudes to change if she was paid well to do the fundraising?How about if she did it as a volunteer activity?(Answer: her attitudes would shift more if she did it as a volunteer: “If I offered for free to say that the school needs more money, I must sort of agree...” vs. “I was just saying that because I was paid a lot to say it.”)

20 Social Thinking: Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance: When our actions are not in harmony with our attitudes.Cognitive Dissonance Theory: the observation that we tend to resolve this dissonance by changing our attitudes to fit our actions.Festinger’s Study (1957): Students were paid either large or small amounts to express enjoyment of a boring activity. Then many of the students changed their attitudes about the activity. Which amount shifted attitudes?Origin of Cognitive Dissonance TheoryOptional slideClick to reveal all text.Dissonance: in music, this is when two notes played together do not sound pleasant; usually it is followed by one of the notes changing to produce harmony.How might cognitive dissonance explain the foot in the door phenomenon? Or the way role playing affects attitudes?Answer: we shift our attitudes to be in line with the actions we are doing.Maybe Heath Ledger was disturbed not by adopting the attitudes of the role he was playing, but by the strain of cognitive dissonance from trying to maintain his own humanistic attitudes while acting sadistic all day.Click to reveal origin of cognitive dissonance theory.The way I’ve phrased this, most students may guess wrong: being paid more shifts must shift attitudes more!Getting paid more: “I was paid to say that.”Getting paid less: “Why would I say it was fun? Just for a dollar? Weird. Maybe it wasn’t so bad, now that I think of it.”

21 Social Influence Topics we suggest you learn about Cultural InfluencesConformity: Mimicry and NormsObedience: Factors and lessonsGroup situations and group behavior:Social facilitationSocial loafingPolarizationDeindividuationGroupthinkThe power of individualsNo animation.

22 Social Influence Cultural InfluencesCulture, the behaviors and beliefs of a group, is shared and passed on to others including the next generation of that group.This sharing of traditions, values, and ideas is a form of social influence that helps maintain the culture.Norms are the rules, often unspoken but commonly understood, that guide behavior in a culture. Norms are part of the culture but also part of the way social influence works to maintain the culture.Cultures change over time; norms for marriage and divorce have changed in Western culture.Click to reveal bullets.

23 What form of social influence is the subject of this cartoon?ConformityWhat form of social influence is the subject of this cartoon?Click to reveal title after students have had a chance to answer the question on the slide.

24 Social Influence Conformity: Mimicry and moreConformity refers to adjusting our behavior or thinking to fit in with a group standard.Automatic Mimicry affecting behaviorThe power of Conformity has many components and forms, includingSocial Norms affecting our thinkingClick to reveal three components.The example of conformity that may come most easily to students is choice of clothing. If they mention this, ask which type of conformity might that be? First of all, it would be an adjustment in behavior. Beyond that, there can be more than one right answer.When stating the definition, you may want to insert “to fit in with or align ourselves with what we perceive to be a group standard.”Normative and Informational Social Influence

25 MimicryIt is not only true that birds of a feather flock together: it is also true that if we flock together, we might choose to wear the same feathers.No animation.“Same feathers” refers to the same habits, behaviors, or of course the same clothes.

26 Social Influence Automatic MimicrySome of our mimicry of other people is not by choice, but automatic:Chameleon Effect: unintentionally mirroring the body position and mood of others around us, leading to contagious yawning, contagious arm folding, hand wringing, face rubbing…Empathetic shifts in mood that fit the mood of the people around usCopying the actions of others, including forms of violence, hopefully forms of kindnessClick to reveal bullets. The fourth example may help explain not only copycat violence and suicide but also why people can plan on having a different parenting style than their parents but end up under stress doing just what was modeled for them.

27 The Chameleon Effect: Unconscious MimicryIn an experiment, a confederate/collaborator of the experimenter intentionally rubbed his/her face or shook a foot; this seemed to lead to a greater likelihood of the study participant doing the same behavior.An optional slide if you wanted to suggest this as an experiment.No animation.Narrating the chart: Let’s first compare the two bars on the right to the ones on the left: apparently people are more likely to shake a foot than rub their faces, at least in this experiment. The chameleon affect is that that the amount of face rubbing is much greater when the confederate, the person secretly working for the experimenter, is doing face rubbing also. The impact on foot shaking is about the same size (if you look at the numbers, not the chopped-off bars): in both cases, about a 50% increase in the behavior.(Hypothesis: Yawning would increase the yawning of others more than face rubbing increases the face rubbing of others)…

28 Social Influence: Conformity Responding to Social NormsWhen we are with other people and perceive a social norm (a “correct” or “normal” way to behave or think in this group), our behavior may follow the norm rather than following our own judgment.Asch Conformity studies: About one third of people will agree with obvious mistruths to go along with the group.Think this guy will conform?That square has 5 sides.WT???Click to reveal bullet and example.You may want to change “WT???” to “What??” or “WTF??” depending on your judgment of what seems appropriate in your setting.

29 Conforming to NormsWhich comparison line looks the same as the standard line?Take turns answering, see if a consensus develops.This is not the same result as the one in the book. Upon a click, the “standard line” will subtly change so that the standard line, after starting off closer to the size of the third line, ends up closer to the size of the second line. You could make these change halfway through polling the class one at a time, or make the change anytime five people a row say “line # 2” or answer without looking at the screen.

30 Social Influence: Conformity What makes you more likely to conform?When…You are not firmly committed to one set of beliefs or style of behavior.The group is medium sized and unanimous.You admire or are attracted to the group.The group tries to make you feel incompetent, insecure, and closely watched.Your culture encourages respect for norms.Click to reveal bullets.I say “medium sized” where the text reads “at least three people;” Beyond a certain size group, conformity decreases, perhaps because there is a possibility of subgroups that support non conformity (although they in turn will be an environment in which conformity occurs).

31 Two types of social influenceNormative Social Influence:Informational Social Influence:Going along with others in pursuit of social approval or belonging (and to avoid disapproval/rejection)Examples: The Asch conformity studies; clothing choices.Going along with others because their ideas and behavior make sense, the evidence in our social environment changes our minds.Example: Deciding which side of the road to drive on.Click to reveal second circle.This slide is here because this is where it’s located in the text, but it could be moved all the way to the beginning of the social influence section. In either case, it may seem like a follow up on the persuasion topic, but in this case, no one is trying to persuade us, we are influenced by what we see in our social surroundings.

32 Obedience: Response to CommandsMilgram wanted to study the influence of direct commands on behavior.The question: Under what social conditions are people more likely to obey commands?The experiment: An authority figure tells participants to administer shocks to a “learner” (actually a confederate of the researcher) when the learner gives wrong answers.Click to reveal bullets.Voltages increased; how high would people go?

34 Compliance in Milgram’s StudyIn surveys, most people predict that in such a situation they would stop administering shocks when the “learner” expressed pain.But in reality, even when the learner complained of a heart condition, most people complied with the experimenter’s directions:“Please continue.”“You must continue.”“The experiment requires that you continue”…Click to reveal bullets.

36 What Factors Increase Obedience?The bad news: In war, some people at the beginning choose not to fight and kill, but after that, obedience escalates, even in killing innocent people.The good news: Obedience can also strengthen heroism; soldiers and others risk or even sacrifice themselves, moreso when under ordersWhat Factors Increase Obedience?When orders were given by:Someone with legitimate authoritySomeone associated with a prestigious institutionSomeone standing close by.When the “learner”/victim is in another room.When other participants obey and/or no one disobeys (no role model for defiance)Click to reveal bullets and sidebar.There are more versions of this experiment, revealing more patterns:Compliance is higher when the participant only has to read the questions and announce when wrong answers happen, but someone else administers the shock;Compliance is much higher when the level of shock is predetermined and enforced by the authority figure (lower if the participant chooses if and when to raise the voltage).Other Evidence of the Power of Obedience

37 Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience StudiesWhen under pressure to conform or obey, ordinary, principled people will say and do things they never would have believed they would do.To look a person committing harmful acts and assume that the person is cruel/evil would be to make the fundamental attribution error.The real evil may be in the situation.Automatic animation.

38 Social Influence: Group BehaviorBesides conformity and obedience, there are other ways that our behavior changes in the presence of others, or within a group:Social FacilitationGroupthinkDeindividuationClick to show five bubbles: social facilitation, social loafing, polarization, deindividuation, and groupthink.Social LoafingGroup Polarization

39 Social FacilitationIndividual performance is intensified when you are observed by others.Experts excel, people doing simple activities show more speed and endurance in front of an audience… but novices, trying complex skills, do worse.Click to reveal bulletsNovices = people newly trying difficult, complex, skilled activities.“Facilitation” refers to the improvement, the excellent performance facilitated by the physiological arousal caused by being watched.

40 Social FacilitationWhy would the presence of an audience “facilitate” better performance for everyone but newcomers?Being watched, and simply being in crowded conditions, increases one’s autonomic arousal, along with increasing motivation for those who are confident, and anxiety for those who are not confident.Click to reveal answer.Why does the presence of an audience “facilitate” an improved performance for most people but a worse performance for novices/newcomers? “Facilitation” refers to the improvement, the excellent performance facilitated by the physiological arousal caused by being watched.

41 Social LoafingEver had a group project, with a group grade, and had someone in the group slack off?If so, you have experienced Social Loafing: the tendency of people in a group to show less effort when not held individually accountable.Why does social loafing happen?When your contribution isn’t rewarded or punished, you might not care what people think.People may not feel their contributions are needed, that the group will be fine.People may feel free to “cheat” when they get an equal share of the rewards anyway.Note: People in collectivist cultures don’t slack off as much in groups even when they could. Why?Who will know if I’m not pulling as hard as I can? No one can tell how hard each of us is pulling on the rope.Click to reveal bullets, question and answer.Click for pop-up box: Regarding the first bullet point: when you don’t care what people think, when your individual performance doesn’t seem to matter as much, then what process is not happening? Social facilitation.Possible answer to the question about collectivist cultures: Perhaps they are raised to feel enough responsibility to the group that they don’t need individual accountability and individual reward (such as individual vs. a group grade on a project). Maybe you are taught that your contribution does matter to the group, to the society, even if there is no reward.

42 Deindividuation Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.Examples: Riots, KKK rallies, concerts, identity-concealed online bullying.Happens when people are in group situations involving: 1) Anonymity and 2) Arousal.DeindividuationClick to start animation.

43 Group PolarizationWhen people of similar views form a group together, discussion within the group makes their views more extreme.Thus, different groups become MORE different, more polarized, in their views.People in these groups may have only encountered ideas reinforcing the views they already held.Liberal Blogs (blue) and conservative blogs (red) link mostly to other like-minded blogs, generating this portrait of the polarized Blogosphere.Click to reveal bullets and two examples.Instructor: Does discussion help increase open-mindedness to more views? Not necessarily. If people are grouping themselves with people having similar views, then Group Polarization happens: discussion makes their views stronger, more extreme; this makes two groups with different viewpoints become MORE different in their views.See if this calls to mind the style of political discussion, and the polarizing result of that discussion, when people only encounter discussions and news coming from people who already agree with them.Before you click on example of political blogs: Introducing this slide with a question: Does discussion help increase open-mindedness to more views? Not necessarily. If people are grouping themselves with people having similar views, then Group Polarization happens: discussion makes their views stronger, more extreme; this makes two groups with different viewpoints become MORE different in their views.

44 GroupthinkIn pursuit of social harmony (and avoidance of open disagreement), groups will make decisions without an open exchange of ideas.Irony: Group “think” prevents thinking, prevents a realistic assessment of options.Automatic animation.

45 Social Influence The Power of IndividualsDespite all of these forces of social influence, individuals still have power:Some people resist obeying and conforming.Individuals can start social movements and social forces, not just get caught up in them.Groupthink can be prevented if individuals speak up when a group decision seems wrong.Click to reveal bullets.Resisting obedience: Remember that although we’d like people to refuse to carry out genocidal orders, this can be a good or a bad thing; disobedience can seem to have bad results if you believe in the mission of any organization that relies on obedience, an army, or even a sports team.Starting social movements: This is where Ghandi comes in, as mentioned in the text, although his political strategy relied on another concept, civil disobedience, that he picked up from reading Thoreau.Classic example of individuals overriding Groupthink: the play and movie 12 Angry Men (performed sometimes as 12 Angry Jurors).