integration

integration,

in U.S. history, the goal of an organized movement to break down the barriers of discrimination and segregation separating African Americans from the rest of American society. Racial segregation was peculiar neither to the American South nor to the United States (see apartheidapartheid[Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation peculiar to the Republic of South Africa, the legal basis of which was largely repealed in 1991–92. History.....Click the link for more information.).

Reconstruction to 1954

Segregation assumed its special form in the United States after the Southern states were defeated in the Civil War and slavery was abolished. Black codesblack codes,in U.S. history, series of statutes passed by the ex-Confederate states, 1865–66, dealing with the status of the newly freed slaves. They varied greatly from state to state as to their harshness and restrictiveness......Click the link for more information. that restricted the rights of the newly freed slaves were enacted in the South in 1865–66. These were abolished during ReconstructionReconstruction,1865–77, in U.S. history, the period of readjustment following the Civil War. At the end of the Civil War, the defeated South was a ruined land. The physical destruction wrought by the invading Union forces was enormous, and the old social and economic.....Click the link for more information., but after Reconstruction white dominance was thoroughly reestablished in the South, partly by the terrorism of the Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan, designation mainly given to two distinct secret societies that played a part in American history, although other less important groups have also used the name......Click the link for more information. and other groups, but more by the persistence of social custom.

African Americans were prevented from voting by devices such as the poll tax and unfair literacy tests and by intimidation. They were denied any equal share in community life. Toward the end of the 19th cent. segregation laws—the Jim Crow lawsJim Crow laws,in U.S. history, statutes enacted by Southern states and municipalities, beginning in the 1880s, that legalized segregation between blacks and whites. The name is believed to be derived from a character in a popular minstrel song......Click the link for more information.—were enacted to codify white dominance. Blacks were forced to attend separate schools and colleges, to occupy special sections in railway cars and buses, and to use separate public facilities; they were forbidden to sit with whites in most places of public amusement. These laws were upheld as regards railroad facilities by the case of Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson,case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. The court upheld an 1890 Louisiana statute mandating racially segregated but equal railroad carriages, ruling that the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment to the U.S......Click the link for more information. (1896), in which the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the so-called separate but equal accommodation. The period 1900 to 1920 brought full extension of segregation to all public transportation and education facilities, even hospitals, churches, and jails.

The tide of opposition across the nation began to rise just before World War II and was given impetus by the activities of civil-rights organizations. African Americans, enjoying a somewhat improved economic status, were in the 1930s more assertive of their rights. General opinion may have been influenced by the paradox of a nation urging war for democracy overseas while at the same time tolerating discrimination at home.

In 1948, President Harry Truman issued a directive calling for an end to segregation in the armed forces. The Supreme Court had also begun to move away from the earlier opinions and toward a principle of racial equality. The court struck down state enforcement of restrictive covenants as well as racial barriers leading to unequal treatment in state professional schools and in interstate transportation. In these rulings, however, the court still ruled only on whether facilities provided for blacks and whites were equal, and not on whether the separation of the races itself was unconstitutional.

1954 to 1963

School Desegregation

In 1954, the Supreme Court took a momentous step: In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kans.Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kans.,case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954. Linda Brown was denied admission to her local elementary school in Topeka because she was black......Click the link for more information. the court set aside a Kansas statute permitting cities of more than 15,000 to maintain separate schools for blacks and whites and ruled instead that all segregation in public schools is "inherently unequal" and that all blacks barred from attending public schools with white pupils are denied equal protection of the law as guaranteed by the Fourteenth AmendmentFourteenth Amendment,addition to the U.S. Constitution, adopted 1868. The amendment comprises five sections. Section 1

Section 1 of the amendment declares that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are American citizens and citizens of their state.....Click the link for more information.. The doctrine was extended to state-supported colleges and universities in 1956. Meanwhile, in 1955 the court implemented its 1954 opinion by declaring that the federal district courts would have jurisdiction over lawsuits to enforce the desegregation decision and asked that desegregation proceed "with all deliberate speed."

At the time of the 1954 decision, laws in 17 southern and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, and Missouri) and the District of Columbia required that elementary schools be segregated. Four other states—Arizona, Kansas, New Mexico, and Wyoming—had laws permitting segregated schools, but Wyoming had never exercised the option, and the problem was not important in the other three. Although discrimination existed in the other states of the Union, it was not sanctioned by law.

The struggle over desegregation now centered upon the school question. By the end of 1957 nine of the 17 states and the District of Columbia had begun integration of their school systems. Another five states had some integrated schools by 1961. The states mostly fell back on stopgap measures or on pupil-placement laws, which assigned students to schools ostensibly on nonracial grounds. Forced integration led to much violence. The most notable instance was the defiance in 1957 of federal orders by Gov. Orval FaubusFaubus, Orval, 1910–94, governor of Arkansas (1955–67), b. Combs, Ark. A schoolteacher, he served in World War II and after the war became Arkansas's state highway commissioner......Click the link for more information. of Arkansas, who called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent integration in Little Rock. President Eisenhower responded by sending federal troops to enforce the court order for integration.

In 1958 Virginia closed nine schools in four counties rather than have them integrated, but Virginia and federal courts ruled these moves illegal. In 1960 desegregation began in Louisiana; whites boycotted the integrated New Orleans public schools at first triumphantly, later with diminishing effectiveness. In 1961 two black students registered at the Univ. of Georgia but were suspended because of student disorders; they were later returned under a federal judge's order.

In 1962–63 violence erupted in Mississippi, precipitating a serious crisis in federal-state relations. Against the opposition of Gov. Ross R. Barnett, James H. Meredith, a black who was supported by federal court orders, registered at the Univ. of Mississippi in 1962. A mob gathered and attacked the force of several hundred federal marshals assigned to protect Meredith; two persons were killed. The next day federal troops occupied Oxford and restored order. Meredith became the first African American to attend a Mississippi public school with white students in accord with the 1954 court decision.

In 1963, South Carolina's Clemson College became the first integrated public school in that state. Gov. George C. WallaceWallace, George Corley,1919–98, governor of Alabama (1963–67, 1971–79, 1983–87), b. Clio, Ala. Admitted to the bar in 1942, he was active in the Alabama Democratic party, serving in the state assembly (1947–53) and as a district court judge.....Click the link for more information. of Alabama stood in a doorway at the Univ. of Alabama in a symbolic attempt to block two black students from enrolling in 1963; the attempt failed. In the North attempts were also made to combat segregation. After a suit brought by black parents in 1960, the school system of New Rochelle, N.Y., was in 1961 ordered by a federal judge to be desegregated. Similar suits followed in other cities.

Public Transportation and Accommodations

The fight over education overshadowed efforts to achieve integration in other areas, but moves against segregation in public transportation did gain wide notice. In 1955–56, Dr. Martin Luther KingKing, Martin Luther, Jr.,1929–68, American clergyman and civil-rights leader, b. Atlanta, Ga., grad. Morehouse College (B.A., 1948), Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D., 1951), Boston Univ. (Ph.D., 1955)......Click the link for more information., Jr., led blacks in Montgomery, Ala., in a boycott against the municipal bus system after Rosa ParksParks, Rosa Louise,1913–2005, American civil-rights activist, b. Tuskegee, Ala., as Rosa Louise McCauley. A seamstress and long-time activist-member of the Montgomery, Ala......Click the link for more information., a black woman, refused to give up her seat to a white man and move to the segregated section of a bus. The boycott was brought to a successful conclusion when, on Nov. 13, 1956, the Supreme Court nullified the laws of Alabama and the ordinances of Montgomery that required segregation on buses.

Mixed groups of whites and blacks, called Freedom RidersFreedom Riders,American civil-rights demonstrators who engaged (1961) in nonviolent protests against segregation of public interstate buses and terminals in the South. From the 1940s several federal court decisions and an Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) order had ruled.....Click the link for more information., in May, 1961, undertook a campaign to force integration in bus terminals and challenge segregation in local interstate travel facilities. The buses were attacked by mobs in Anniston, Ala., where one bus was destroyed by a firebomb. There were riots in Birmingham and Montgomery when blacks attempted to use facilities previously reserved for whites; federal marshals and the National Guard were called out to restore order and escort the Freedom Riders to Mississippi. Many of them were arrested in Jackson, Miss., for infractions of the state's segregation laws, and a long series of court battles began. These protests led in 1961 to an Interstate Commerce Commission ban on segregation in all interstate transportation facilities.

Other Fields

Passive resistance was undertaken by groups to eradicate discrimination in other fields. In 1960 black college students staged a sit-in at segregated public lunch counters in an effort to force desegregation; similar demonstrations were made in other cities. Other campaigns were waged with some success for the desegregation of beaches, restaurants, theaters, and libraries. In 1957, New York City adopted the first law forbidding racial or religious discrimination in private rental housing. During the summer of 1963 thousands of blacks demonstrated in Birmingham, Ala., and were attacked by police using cattle prods and dogs. Nationwide revulsion to these attacks was expressed when over 200,000 people marched on Washington, D.C., and pressed for further civil-rights legislation.

The 1964 Civil Rights Act to the Present

An attempt to deal with the increasing demands of blacks for equal rights came in 1964 when President Lyndon Baines Johnson asked for and received the most comprehensive civil-rights act to date; the act specifically prohibited discrimination in voting, education, and the use of public facilities. For the first time since the Supreme Court ruled on segregation in public schools in 1954, the federal government had a means of enforcing desegregation; Title VI of the act barred the use of federal funds for segregated programs and schools. In 1964 only two southern states (Tennessee and Texas) had more than 2% of their black students enrolled in integrated schools. Because of Title VI, about 6% of the black students in the South were in integrated schools by the next year.

Early in 1965 the Voting Rights Act was passed, but it did not prevent the rising tide of militance among blacks; Watts, a black slum in Los Angeles, erupted in violence, leaving 34 dead. The next year was marked by riots in practically all major U.S. cities as blacks began shifting to an independent course expressed in the concept of black power; the term originated with Stokely CarmichaelCarmichael, Stokely,1941–98, African-American social activist, b. Trinidad. He lived in New York City from 1952 and graduated from Howard Univ. in 1964. Carmichael participated in the Congress of Racial Equality's "freedom rides" in 1961, and by 1964 was a field organizer.....Click the link for more information., leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, an organization that dropped whites from membership the following year.

Meanwhile, integration of southern school districts was progressing; by 1967, 22% of the black students in the 17 southern and border states were in integrated schools. However, the continuing separation of blacks and whites in most areas was emphasized in 1968 when the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission) issued a report that said, "our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal." The assassination of Martin Luther KingKing, Martin Luther, Jr.,1929–68, American clergyman and civil-rights leader, b. Atlanta, Ga., grad. Morehouse College (B.A., 1948), Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D., 1951), Boston Univ. (Ph.D., 1955)......Click the link for more information., Jr., that summer set off riots in 125 U.S. cities. The issue of segregated housing was faced in the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which contained a clause barring discrimination against blacks in the sale or rental of most housing.

Although integration proponents received a setback in 1970 when President Nixon announced that the desegregation of schools would be left to the courts and that his administration would de-emphasize strong desegregation procedures, real successes had already been achieved. Black college students were enrolling in previously white colleges at a greater rate; in 1964, 51% of black students had been in predominantly black colleges, but by 1971 only 34% were. At the secondary and primary levels the South had begun to move ahead of the North, despite a system of tax-exempt, segregated private schools that had been developing in the South since the 1960s. By the fall of 1972, 44% of the black students in the South were in predominantly white schools, while only 30% were in predominantly white schools in the North.

The early 1970s were characterized by the controversial issue of busing as a tool to promote integration. The Supreme Court continued, in the early 1970s, to back busing plans. By 1974, however, a more conservative court had moderated its position, allowing in Miliken v. Bradley (1974) the predominantly white Detroit suburbs to be excluded from a desegregation plan. By the mid-1970s, however, only about 12% of black students in the United States remained in completely segregated schools; the number of students still in such schools remains very low. Nonetheless, in the late 1990s about one third of all black students were in schools that were 90% nonwhite. Moreover, studies showed that from the mid-1980s through the 1990s American classrooms in grades K to 12 had become increasingly segregated, a trend linked to court decisions limiting and reversing desegregation as well as to a decline in federal support for desegregation and to enduring de facto segregation in housing. Nonetheless, in 2007 a significantly more conservative Supreme Court ruled that the degree to which school districts could use race in order to avoid resegregation was limited.

Affirmative actionaffirmative action,in the United States, programs to overcome the effects of past societal discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to members of specific groups, such as minorities and women......Click the link for more information., which seeks to overcome the effects of segregation and other forms of past discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to African Americans and other affected groups, began in the 1960s. The use of racial quotas as part of affirmative action, however, led to charges of reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. In the 1980s the federal government's role in affirmative action was considerably diluted, and in 1989 the Supreme Court gave greater standing to claims of reverse discrimination. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 reaffirmed a government commitment to affirmative action, but Supreme Court decisions have placed limits on the use of race in awarding government contracts and in achieving educational diversity. In the late 1990s, California and other states banned the use of race- and sex-based preferences.

The various civil-rights acts and the diminishment of prejudice produced changes in the political arena; African Americans became increasingly elected to public office. In 1966, Edward BrookeBrooke, Edward William, 3d,1919–2015, U.S. senator (1967–79), b. Washington, D.C. A decorated World War II veteran, he was admitted to the bar in 1948. A Republican, he served (1963–66) as attorney general of Massachusetts, where he gained a reputation as a.....Click the link for more information. became the first African American to be elected to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, and, in 1967, Carl StokesStokes, Carl Burton,1927–96, American political leader, b. Cleveland. A 1956 graduate of the Cleveland-Marshall School of Law, Stokes began his political career as a Democratic member of the Ohio general assembly (1962–67)......Click the link for more information. became the first African American to be elected mayor of a major American city (Cleveland). Many major cities, among them New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, have since elected black mayors. In 1984 and 1988, Jesse JacksonJackson, Jesse Louis,1941–, African-American political leader, clergyman, and civil-rights activist, b. Greenville, S.C. Raised in poverty, he attended the Chicago Theological Seminary (1963–65) and was ordained a Baptist minister in 1968......Click the link for more information. campaigned for the Democratic nomination for president, becoming the first black to contend seriously for that office. Douglas WilderWilder, L. Douglas(Lawrence Douglas Wilder), 1931–, American political leader, b. Richmond, Va. The grandson of slaves, Wilder studied law at Howard Univ. A Democrat, he was elected a state senator in 1969, becoming the first African American to serve in the Virginia.....Click the link for more information. became first African American to be elected governor of a state in 1989. Gen. Colin PowellPowell, Colin Luther,1937–, U.S. army general and government official, b. New York City, grad., City College (B.S., 1958); George Washington Univ. (M.A., 1969). The son of Jamaican immigrants, Powell was the first African American and the youngest person to chair.....Click the link for more information., the first African American to head the Joint Chiefs of Staff and serve as secretary of state, was the popular choice of many Republicans for the 1996 presidential nomination, although he declined to run. A little more than a decade later, Illinois senator Barack ObamaObama, Barack(Barack Hussein Obama 2d), , 1961–, 44th president of the United States (2009–17), b. Honolulu, grad. Columbia (B.A. 1983), Harvard Law School (J.D. 1991)......Click the link for more information. became (2008) the first black major party candidate for the nation's highest office. The son of a white American mother and a Kenyan father, he was nominated by the Democratic party and won the election.

Although a number of blacks have achieved real prominence in business, education, government, and other fields, and many more have achieved solid, though less stunning successes as a result of integration, race remains one of the most intractable problems in the United States, in large part because personal biases and racial stereotyping (by and of all races) cannot be altered by legislation or lawsuits. This lingering prejudice fosters interracial tension and other social problems that are often ignored by the larger society unless a public outcry or worse results, as in New Jersey in the late 1990s when public controversy erupted over the use of racial profiling by the state police. Even in the last decade of the 20th cent. and the first years of the 21st, race riots have occurred; the most violent was in Los Angeles following the acquittal (1992) of the police officers accused of brutality in the Rodney King case. Images of police violence against African Americans increasingly heightened racial tensions in the mid-2010s, as did white extremist support for 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump, who had often challenged President Obama's citizenship before becoming a candidate and made racially provocative statments during his campaign.

Integration

An essential concept in sustainable building. Viewing a building as a system allows the discovery of synergies and potential trade-offs or pitfalls with design choices. An integrated design approach helps maximize synergies and minimize unintended consequences.

integration

the extent to which an individual experiences a sense of belonging to a social group or collectivity by virtue of sharing its norms, values, beliefs, etc. Integration is a key concept of Emile DURKHEIM's sociology, and is one of the two main variables which he used in his seminal explanation of variations in rates of SUICIDE.

the extent to which the activity or function of different institutions or subsystems within society complement rather than contradict each other. For example, the family is integrated within the economic systems of advanced industrial societies to the extent that it sustains and reproduces labour power (but no other commodity), while acting as a unit of consumption (rather than production).

the presence of specific institutions which promote the complementary and coordinated activity of other subsystems of society. The development of institutions of integration of this kind (such as written language, formal legal systems) is one of the FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES OR FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES of all social systems, and a key to social development in neoevolutionary theory (see NEOEVOLUTIONISM).

The use of the concept of integration in all three senses is a characteristic of FUNCTIONALISM, and especially of the work of Talcott PARSONS. Malintegration simply implies a lack, or absence of, integration or integrative mechanisms. For example, egoistic suicide is, for Durkheim, a result of the malintegration of the individual within the group; economic growth may suffer if the educational system fails to integrate its activity and goals with those of the economy; the important evolutionary advance (see EVOLUTIONARY THEORY) of the separation of power from office represented by the democratic association cannot survive without the supremacy of the integrative mechanism represented by the rule of law. See also SOCIAL SOLIDARITY, MECHANICAL AND ORGANIC SOLIDARITY, SOCIAL INTEGRATIONANDSYSTEM INTEGRATION.

Integration

in biology, the process of ordering, coordinating, and uniting the structures and functions of an integral organism, a process that is characteristic of living systems at every level of organization.

The concept of integration was introduced in 1857 by the English scientist H. Spencer, who connected it with differentiation of tissues in the process of evolution and with specialization of functions of primitively homogeneous, diffusely reacting living matter. The following are examples of integration: on the molecular level—integration of amino acids in a complex protein molecule, and integration of nucleotides in a nucleic-acid molecule; and on the cellular level—the shaping of a cell nucleus and the autoreproduction of cells as a whole.

Integration attains its highest level in a multicellular organism, expressing itself in the processes of ontogenesis; here the interconnection between the parts and functions of the organism increases with progressive evolution; the system of correlation becomes more complex and regulatory mechanisms are created tht ensure the stability and integrity of the developing organism. On the level of communities—populations, species, and bio-cenoses—integration is manifested in the complex and mutually conditioned evolution of these biological systems. The degree of integration of a living system may serve as an index of its level of progressive development.

In physiology, integration is the functional unification of specific physiological mechanisms into the complexly coordinated adaptive activity of the integral organism. The elementary unit of integration—the functional system—is the dynamic unification of the central-peripheral formations that ensure autoregula-tion of a particular function. The principles of physiological integration were revealed in 1906 by the English physiologist C. Sherrington, using as an example the coordination of the reflex activity of the spinal column (convergence, reciprocity, common terminal pathway). These principles function on all levels of the nervous system, including the cortex of the large hemispheres of the brain. A higher manifestation of physiological integration is the conditioned reflex, in which mental, somatic, and autonomic components combine in effecting an integrated adaptive activity of the organism.

Integration

a concept in system theory referring to a condition in which certain differentiated parts are combined into a single whole; also the process leading to such a condition.

Social integration refers to the existence of orderly relations between individuals, groups, organizations, or states. The analysis of integrated systems takes into account the various levels of such systems, for example, the level of integration of a personality, of a group, and of a society. The term “integrated” has different meanings in these different cases. If the analysis is that of personality (in psychology), the term “integrated personality” is understood to mean an individual with an integral mental structure free of inner contradictions. The same term, when used in analyzing a social system, refers to a personality that is well integrated or merged into the social system, that is, a conforming personality.

In political science and economics, the concept of integration is used to characterize the internal condition of a society or state or to refer to a state that is integrated into a larger international community. The integration of a society or particular state may be accomplished through force, on the basis of mutual advantage, as a result of a similarity of social and economic structure, or as a result of a communality of interests, aims, or values on the part of various individuals, social groups, classes, or states. Under present conditons, there is a growing tendency toward integration among states in economic and political respects under both socialist conditions and capitalist conditions. However, the common objective preconditions for both socialist and capitalist integration (the scientific and technological revolution and the tendency toward internationalization) do not mean that the process is the same in both cases. On the contrary, the social and economic nature, the forms and methods, and the economic and political results of integration are profoundly different for the two systems.

The term “integration” is also used to charadterize the process of convergence and conjunction that goes on in the sciences simultaneously with the process of differentiation.

L. A. SEDOV

integration

[‚int·ə′grā·shən]

(genetics)

Recombination involving insertion of a genetic element.

(mathematics)

The act of taking a definite or indefinite integral.

(systems engineering)

The arrangement of components in a system so that they function together in an efficient and logical way.

integration

(programming)

Combining software or hardware components or
both into an overall system.

integration

The combining of hardware and software components so that they work together. Different types of hardware may be integrated with other hardware. Software may be integrated into hardware, but integrating software is the integration that takes place most of the time in the IT world. See software integration.

The school's principal in each case encouraged their classroom teachers to identify students in their classes who were exhibiting spatial-perceptual and/or bilateral integration difficulties.

ABSS is a client-driven intervention that assists with the remediation of perceptual and bilateral integration difficulties through enhancing children's understanding of the space beyond the initial visual plane as well as the symmetry of objects that are found within nature (e.

Other scholars have given all the credit for the launch of the integration process to the newly democratic administrations, and have identified the summit, at Foz de Iguacu in November 1985 between Presidents Alfonsin of Argentina and Sarney of Brazil, as the starting point of bilateral integration (Hirst 1999; Russell 1989).

Diplomatic documents and interviews show that the first talks on bilateral integration in a broad sense started in 1984.

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