The preserve is named after Almy D. Coggleshall, who was central in creating the trail at Plotter Kill while a member of the Schenectady County Environmental Advisory Council. In 1990 the preserve was renamed in his honor.[2] While the preserve is a forest containing a mixture of hardwood and conifers, its main feature is the Plotter Kill gorge. The gorge was cut by melt waters at the close of the ice ages approximately 10,000 years ago. The Plotter Kill is a tributary of the Mohawk River which runs for 3.5 miles (5.6 km) from Rynex Corner dropping 900 feet (270 m) to the river. There are three waterfalls in the preserve, the Upper, the Lower and the Rynex Creek Falls. The Upper has a 60-foot (18 m) drop while the Lower and Rynex Creek falls each have drops of 40 feet (12 m).[3]

Many of the flat rock layers, exposed by water flow and erosion over the last 20,000 years, were originally formed during the Mohawkian age of the Ordovician period, approximately 450 million years ago. These layers appear rectangular, featuring orthogonal joint sets.

The falls are mentioned in the journals of Samson Occam Mohegan (1723 - 1792). The entry for Wednesday 29 November 1786 reads "Some time after breakfast Mr Henry Fero and I went to see the falls and it is a grand sight, the power of God is to be seen here." [4]

The trailhead and general access is located on Mariaville Road (route 159). To reach it leave Interstate I890 at exit 2A (Campbell Road) and follow the signs for Rotterdam Square Mall. Opposite the mall entrance turn right on to Putnam Road and then turn right on reaching Route 159 after approximately 2 miles (3.2 km). The parking area for the preserve is located on the right approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) after turning onto Route 159.

1.
Rotterdam (town), New York
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Rotterdam is a town in Schenectady County, New York, United States. The population was 29,094 at the 2010 census, the town of Rotterdam is in the south-central part of the county. It was founded by Dutch settlers, who named it after the port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands, the town borders the city of Schenectady. Situated near the end of New York States Heritage Corridor at what is known as the Gateway to the West. At that time the present town of Rotterdam served as the outlying farmlands, with few exceptions, these settlers made their homes in the stockade in Schenectady but went to their farmlands during the daytime. The lands now known as Rotterdam became Schenectadys third ward when that city was incorporated in 1798, Rotterdam retained that status when the county of Schenectady was chartered in 1809. During this period, a council of aldermen and assistants from each of the four wards governed the city of Schenectady. In May 1819, the city council recommended that the third and fourth wards be separated out as towns, and on December 31, the legislation was passed on April 14,1820, the final day of the legislative session, creating the town of Rotterdam. The Dellemont-Wemple Farm was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973,23, Old Erie Canal in 2008. The Mabee House, at the Mabee Farm Historic Site, the oldest surviving house in the Mohawk Valley, was added to the National Register of Historic Places May 22,1978. It is currently being operated as a history museum, conducts school programs. In August 1977, the all star team from Carman little league would go on to qualify for the little league World Series in Williamsport and they would go on to finish 4th. 3 years later in 1980, the boys from that Carman team. They clawed their way out of the bracket to defeat Hawaii in 2 games in one day for the title. The tournament took place in Williston, North Dakota, the Mohawk River defines the northeast town line. The New York State Thruway passes through the town. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 36.4 square miles, of which 35.7 square miles is land and 0.77 square miles. The Rotterdam Town Board consists of five members, including the Supervisor who is a voting member, the population density was 787.0 people per square mile

2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

3.
New York State Route 159
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New York State Route 159 is a state highway in New York, running from the town of Duanesburg through Mariaville Lake to the hamlet of Rotterdam, just outside the city of Schenectady. A two-lane highway for all of its length, it is located in Schenectady County. Known as Mariaville Road, NY159 begins at NY30 just south of the Montgomery County line, three miles in, it meets NY160 at its southern terminus, turning right to meet Mariaville Lake. At a signal-controlled intersection with Batter Street, NY159 turns a hard left to run along the northern shore before turning a hard right to cross over the lake. After heading south for about a mile past the lake, NY159 turns eastward, three miles later, a long gentle curve toward a more southerly direction has it heading downhill until another turn takes it to its Thruway overpass. From there, NY159 is nearly straight and nearly eastward, crossing NY337 in Rotterdam and ending at the complex intersection, also at this intersection is Broadway for Schenectady, Princetown Road, Duanesburgh Road, and Curry Road. NY159 was assigned to its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of highways in New York and has not had any major changes since. The entire route is in Schenectady County, New York Roads portal New York State Route 159 at New York Routes • New York State Highway Termini

4.
Schenectady County
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Schenectady County is a county located in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 154,727, the name is from a Mohawk language word meaning on the other side of the pine lands, a term that originally applied to Albany. Schenectady County is part of the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area and it included territory on both the north and the south sides of the Mohawk River. This area of the valley was historically occupied by the Mohawk people. They cultivated maize fields in the flats along the Mohawk River and had villages in the hills, European settlement started in the present-day county by Dutch colonists in the 17th century, the village of Schenectady was founded in 1661. The fur traders in Albany kept a monopoly and prohibited settlers in Schenectady from the trade, other areas of the county were also developed for farming. The English enforced the Albany monopoly on the fur trade when they took over the New Netherland colony in 1664, the English organized counties in the Province of New York in 1683, the area of the present-day Schenectady County was included in Albany County. Albany County contained an area, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory. On March 12,1772, Albany County was divided to two other counties. The area of Schenectady County was still within the reduced Albany and it was further reduced in size in 1795 by the splitting off of a part that was combined with a portion of Otsego County to create Schoharie County. It was further reduced in size in 1800 by the splitting off of a part that was combined with a portion of Ulster County to create Greene County, in 1809, Schenectady County was split from Albany County and has kept its current borders. The city of Schenectady was designated as the county seat and is the city in the county. Major European immigration began in the century, with the arrival of Irish refugees from the Great Famine. More immigrants were attracted to the city for its industrial jobs, including those from Italy, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the city became an industrial powerhouse and center of innovation, the headquarters of General Electric and other national corporations. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 209 square miles. Schenectady County is located in east central New York State, northwest of Albany, there were 68,032 housing units at an average density of 122/km². The racial makeup of the county was 79. 77% White,9. 79% Black or African American,0. 23% Native American,3. 97% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,1. 21% from other races, and 2. 00% from two or more races. 6. 17% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 3% were of Italian,14. 7% Irish,8. 7% German,6. 4% Polish,4.0 Puerto Rican,3. 9% English ancestry according to Census 2010

5.
New York State
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

6.
Ulster County, New York
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Ulster County is a county located in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 182,493, the county is named after the Irish province of Ulster. Ulster County comprises the Kingston, New York Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is located in the states Mid-Hudson Region of the Hudson Valley The area of present-day Ulster County was called Esopus by Dutch settlers, it was then part of the New Netherland Colony. In 1652, Thomas Chambers, a freeholder from the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, purchased land at Esopus, in 1683, the Duke of York created twelve counties in his province. Ulster County was one of them and its boundaries at that time included the present Sullivan County, and portions of the present Delaware, Orange, and Greene Counties. In 1777, the capital of New York State was established at Kingston, in 1797, portions of Otsego and Ulster Counties were split off to create Delaware County. In 1798, the southernmost towns in Ulster County were moved into Orange County, in 1800, portions of Albany and Ulster Counties were split off to create Greene County. In 1809, Sullivan County was split off from Ulster County, during the American Civil War volunteers were recruited from the more affluent families of the County to form the 139th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment. The Lake Mohonk Mountain House on Shawangunk Ridge was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,161 square miles. Ulster County is in the southeast part of New York State, south of Albany, much of the county is within the Catskill Mountains and the Shawangunk Ridge. The highest point is Slide Mountain, at approximately 4,180 feet above sea level, the lowest point is sea level along the Hudson River. The population density was 158 people per square mile, there were 77,656 housing units at an average density of 69 per square mile. 7. 6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,19. 2% were of Italian,16. 8% Irish,15. 5% German,6. 8% English, and 4. 7% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 90. 3% spoke English,4. 5% Spanish,1. 2% Italian, of all households,27. 90% were made up of individuals and 10. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 3.03. In the county, the population was out with 23. 50% under the age of 18,8. 70% from 18 to 24,29. 70% from 25 to 44,24. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 99.10 males

7.
Ice ages
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An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed glacial periods, in the terminology of glaciology, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. In 1742 Pierre Martel, an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier in 1834, comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethes scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport, the Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice in order to explain the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton, two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon, only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark argued a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations and he attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earths orbit. During the following years, Esmarks ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish, at the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson seemed to be relatively open to Esmarks ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen. Jamesons remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark, in Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi, a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker, since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen, adopted Esmarks theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about former polar ice caps reaching as far as the zones of the globe. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical, finally, Venetz convinced his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetzs idea into a theory with a limited to the Alps. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentiers case rather plutonistic assumptions, about the Earths history, in 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft

8.
Mohawk River
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The Mohawk River is a 149-mile-long river in the U. S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River, the Mohawk flows into the Hudson in the Capital District, a few miles north of the city of Albany. The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy and it is a major waterway in north-central New York. The river and its canal, the Erie Canal, connect the Hudson River and port of New York with the Great Lakes at Buffalo. The lower part of the Mohawk River has five permanent dams, nine movable dams, Schoharie Creek and West Canada Creek are the principal tributaries of the Mohawk River. Both of these tributaries have several significant dams including the Hinckley Dam on the West Canada, the Gilboa Dam, which was completed in 1926 as part of the New York City water supply system, is the subject of an active and aggressive rehabilitation project. The Mohawk Valley allowed easier passage than going over the mountains to the north or south of the valley, as a result, it was strategically important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, and a number of important battles were fought here. The fertile Mohawk Valley also attracted early settlers, in the early nineteenth century water transport was a vital means of transporting both people and goods. A corporation was formed to build the Erie Canal off the Mohawk River to Lake Erie, the canal cut shipping costs to Lake Erie by 95%. It also simplified and reduced the difficulties of westward settler migration, the Mohawk Valley still plays an important role in transportation. Railroads followed the Water Level Route, as did major east-west roads such as Route 5, the Mohawk River Heritage Corridor Commission was created to preserve and promote the natural and historic assets of the Mohawk River. This commission was created by the NY State Legislature in 1997 to improve historic preservation along the river, the Mohawk watershed drains a large section of the Catskill Mountains, the Mohawk Valley proper, and a section of the southern Adirondack Mountains. All three regions have distinct geology, and the underlying rocks become progressively younger to the south. Overall, this part of New York is represented by lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that overlie the Grenville-aged metamorphic rocks of the Adirondacks. In the watershed, these rocks are only significant in the headwaters of the West Canada Creek, much of the main trunk of the Mohawk River sits in Cambro-Ordovician carbonates and Middle Ordovician sandstones and shales. The southern tributaries are underlain by a sequence of Devonian limestones that are overlain by a thick sequence of sandstones and shale of the Catskill Delta. During the Pleistocene, the watershed was extensively modified by continental glaciation, as a result of glacial scour and deposition, the surficial deposits in much of the watershed are poorly sorted boulder- and clay-rich glacial till. During deglaciation, several glacial lakes left varved clay deposits, in the final stages of deglaciation, approximately 13,350 years ago, the catastrophic draining of Glacial Lake Iroquois, a pro-glacial lake, was through what would become the modern Mohawk Valley

9.
Boy Scout
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A scout is a boy or a girl, usually 10–18 years of age, participating in the worldwide Scouting movement. Because of the age and development span, many Scouting associations have split this age group into a junior. Scouts are organized into troops averaging 20–30 Scouts under the guidance of one or more Scout Leaders, troops subdivide into patrols of about six Scouts and engage in outdoor and special interest activities. Troops may affiliate with local, national, and international organizations, some national Scouting associations have special interest programs such as Air Scouts, Sea Scouts, outdoor high adventure, Scouting bands, and rider Scouts. Some troops, especially in Europe, have been co-educational since the 1970s, allowing boys, robert Baden-Powell founded the Boy Scouts as an organization in 1908, a few months after the first scout encampment at Brownsea Island Scout camp in 1907. Baden-Powell got the idea from his experiences with the British Army in South Africa, many boys joined Scouting activities, resulting in the movement growing rapidly to become the worlds largest youth organization. The Scout program is designed to develop a degree of self-reliance, initiative, courage, helpfulness, integrity, sportsmanship. Scouts should be helpful, understand their society, heritage, and culture, have respect for the rights of others, originally, the Scout program was aimed at 11- to 16-year-old boys. However, the brothers of Scouts started to attend Troop meetings. While most Scouts may join a troop after finishing Cub Scouts, as Scouts get older, they often seek more challenging and diverse activities. He may later join another affiliated program for children, such as Exploring, Venturing. A Scout learns the cornerstones of the Scout method, Scout Promise and these are designed to instill character, citizenship, personal fitness, and leadership in boys through a structured program of outdoor activities. Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities are key elements, primary activities include camping, woodcraft, first aid, aquatics, hiking, backpacking, and sports. Scouts are known throughout the world for performing acts of public good, for example, a scout foiled a 2008 assassination attempt on Maldives President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom by grabbing an attackers knife as the man leapt from a crowd and lunged at the leader. The Scout, Ibrahim Jaisham, a member of the co-educational The Scout Association of Maldives. Camping most often occurs on a level, such as in the troop. Camporees are events where units from a local area together for a weekend. These often occur a couple times a year and usually have a theme, jamborees are large events on a national or international level held every four years where thousands of Scouts camp together for one to two weeks

10.
Hardwoods
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Hardwood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived, in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood should not be confused with the heartwood, which can be from hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are produced by trees that reproduce by flowers, and have broad leaves. Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak, normally shows annual growth rings, hardwoods have a more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower growing as a result. The dominant feature separating hardwoods from softwoods is the presence of pores, the vessels may show considerable variation in size, shape of perforation plates, and structure of cell wall, such as spiral thickenings. As the name suggests, the wood from trees is generally harder than that of softwoods. Solid hardwood joinery tends to be compared to softwood. In the past, tropical hardwoods were easily available, but the supply of some species, such as Burma teak, cheaper hardwood doors, for instance, now consist of a thin veneer bonded to a core of softwood, plywood or medium-density fibreboard. Hardwoods may be used in a variety of objects, but are most frequently seen in furniture or musical instruments because of their density which adds to durability, appearance, different species of hardwood lend themselves to different end uses or construction processes. This is due to the variety of characteristics apparent in different timbers, including density, grain, pore size, growth and fibre pattern, flexibility and ability to be steam bent. For example, the grain of elm wood makes it suitable for the making of chair seats where the driving in of legs. There is a correlation between density and calories/volume, list of woods Hardwood flooring Softwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale Schweingruber, F. H. Anatomie europäischer Hölzer—Anatomy of European woods. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landscaft, Birmensdorf, finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki. The Anatomy of Wood, Its Diversity and variability

11.
Conifers
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The Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular land plants containing a single class, Pinopsida. They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants, all extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs, examples include cedars, Douglas firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. As of 1998, the division Pinophyta was estimated to contain eight families,68 genera, although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are ecologically important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the taiga of the Northern Hemisphere, boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While tropical rainforests have more biodiversity and turnover, the conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink. Conifers are of economic value for softwood lumber and paper production. The earliest conifers in the record date to the late Carboniferous period, possibly arising from Cordaites. Pinophytes, Cycadophytes, and Ginkgophytes all developed at this time, an important adaptation of these gymnosperms was allowing plants to live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere, Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic. They were overtaken by the plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. They were the food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons would have given protection against herbivores. Reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era, Conifer is a Latin word, a compound of conus and ferre, meaning the one that bears cone. A descriptive name in use for the conifers is Coniferae. Alternatively, descriptive botanical names may also be used at any rank above family and this means that if conifers are considered a division, they may be called Pinophyta or Coniferae. As a class they may be called Pinopsida or Coniferae, as an order they may be called Pinales or Coniferae or Coniferales. Conifers are the largest and economically most important component group of the gymnosperms, the division Pinophyta consists of just one class, Pinopsida, which includes both living and fossil taxa

12.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles

13.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter

14.
Birch
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A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua

15.
Maple
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The Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment, later renamed MDS Medical Isotope Reactors, was a dedicated isotope-production facility built by AECL and MDS Nordion. An operational license for the MAPLE1 reactor was granted in 1999, however, problems with the reactor, most notably a positive power co-efficient of reactivity, led to the cancellation of the project in 2008. With the completion of the NRX reactor in 1947, AECLs Chalk River Laboratories possessed the worlds most powerful research reactor, the field of nuclear medicine developed when it was realized that some of these artificially created isotopes could be used to diagnose and treat many diseases, especially cancers. The high neutron efficiency of the NRXs heavy water-moderated design, coupled with the neutron flux of the reactor. For example, the cost of the unit used to perform the first cobalt-60 treatment was about $50,000. By way of contrast, it would cost $50,000,000 just to produce enough radium to perform the same procedure. With this promising start, AECL came to be a major supplier of medical isotopes. However, as these began to age, it became clear that a new facility would be needed to continue the production of medical isotopes. As a result, it was decided to build a new facility dedicated to the production of medical isotopes on-site at Chalk River Laboratories, the design that resulted involved a facility with two identical reactors, each capable of supplying 100% of the worlds medical isotope demand. The second reactor would function primarily as a back-up, to ensure that the supply of isotopes would not be interrupted by maintenance and this is made necessary by the nature of medical isotopes, many have short half-lives, and must be used within a few days of production. With treatments being constantly carried out around the globe, a supply was essential. A formal agreement was signed to begin the project in August,1996, following a year-long environmental assessment, construction began in December,1997. Construction of the two reactors was completed by May 2000, an operational license was granted in August 1999 for the MAPLE I reactor, and extended to include the MAPLE II reactor in June 2000. Commissioning testing was begun immediately, with the MAPLE I achieving its first sustained reaction in February 2000, however, during testing, it was noted that some of the emergency shut-off rods in the MAPLE I reactor could fail to deploy in certain demanding situations. This failure was ascribed to workmanship and design issues, and related to fine metal particles accumulating in the control housing and interfering with their free movement. Consequently, significant efforts were made to resolve the outstanding issues, during the subsequent eight-year-long delay in the start of commercial production, the project significantly overran its budgeted cost. Disputes over responsibility for the overruns between AECL and MDS Nordion added a layer of complexity to the process. After considerable negotiation, AECL assumed full responsibility for the reactor in a settlement, the MAPLE facility was granted an extension on its operating license on October 25,2007, which would permit operations until October 31,2011

16.
Trilliums
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Trillium is a genus of perennial flowering plants native to temperate regions of North America and Asia. It was formerly treated in the family Trilliaceae or trillium family, the APG III system includes Trilliaceae in the family Melanthiaceae, where can be treated as the tribe Parideae. Plants of this genus are perennial herbs growing from rhizomes and they produce scapes which are erect and straight in most species. There are three large bracts arranged in a whorl about the scape, there are no true aboveground leaves. There are sometimes scalelike leaves on the underground rhizome, the leaflike bracts are photosynthetic and are sometimes called leaves. The inflorescence is a single flower, Trillium the flowers are mostly borne on a short stalk whereas in T. subg. Phyllantherum the flowers are born directly on the bracts, the flower has three green or reddish sepals and usually three petals in shades of red, purple, pink, white, yellow, or green. There are six stamens at the center, there are three stigmas that are borne on a very short style, if any. The fruit is fleshy and capsule-like or berrylike, the seeds have large, oily elaiosomes. Rarely, individuals have four-fold symmetry, with four bracts and four petals in the blossom, accepted Species Trilliums are myrmecochorous, with ants as agents of seed dispersal. Ants are attracted to the elaiosomes on the seeds and collect them, the seeds of Trillium camschatcense and T. tschonoskii, for example, are collected by the ants Aphaenogaster smythiesi and Myrmica ruginodis. Sometimes beetles interfere with the process by eating the elaiosomes off the seeds. Picking parts off a plant can kill it even if the rhizome is left undisturbed. Some species of trillium are listed as threatened or endangered and collecting these species may be illegal, laws in some jurisdictions may restrict the commercial exploitation of trilliums and prohibit collection without the landowners permission. In the US states of Oregon, Michigan and Minnesota it is illegal to pick trilliums, in New York it is illegal to pick the red trillium. The rare Trillium flexipes is also protected by law in Ontario, high white tail deer population density decreases or eliminates trillium in an area. They have been used traditionally as uterine stimulants, the inspiration for the common name birthwort, in a 1918 publication, Joseph E. Meyer called it beth root, probably a corruption of birthroot. He claimed that an astringent tonic derived from the root was useful in controlling bleeding, a white trillium serves as the emblem and official flower of the Canadian province of Ontario

17.
Viola (plant)
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Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species, most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes. Some Viola species are plants, some are annual plants. A large number of species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers, in horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-coloured, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, Viola typically have heart-shaped, scalloped leaves, though a number have palmate leaves or other shapes. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately, plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like. The flowers of the vast majority of the species are zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry, the flowers are formed from five petals, four are upswept or fan-shaped petals with two per side, and there is one broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have 5 sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming, the flower styles are thickened near the top and the stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules, Viola are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well-developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open, in some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile. After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that open by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters, the nutlike seeds have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily. The seeds of species have elaiosomes and are dispersed by ants. Flower colours vary in the genus, ranging from violet, through shades of blue, yellow, white. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring, see List of Viola species for a more complete list. Note, Neither Saintpaulia nor Erythronium dens-canis are related to the true Viola, the genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common Viola in many areas, sweet violet, and many other species whose common name includes the word violet. Several species are known as pansies, including the yellow pansy of the Pacific coast, common blue violet Viola sororia is the state flower of Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Illinois, and New Jersey

18.
Lilies
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Lilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world, most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though their range extends into the northern subtropics. Many other plants have lily in their name but are not related to true lilies. Lilies are tall perennials ranging in height from 2–6 ft and they form naked or tunicless scaly underground bulbs which are their overwintering organs. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into rhizomes, most bulbs are deeply buried, but a few species form bulbs near the soil surface. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil and these roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb. The flowers are large, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours including whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds, markings include spots and brush strokes. The plants are late spring- or summer-flowering, flowers are borne in racemes or umbels at the tip of the stem, with six tepals spreading or reflexed, to give flowers varying from funnel shape to a Turks cap. The tepals are free from other, and bear a nectary at the base of each flower. The ovary is superior, borne above the point of attachment of the anthers, the fruit is a three-celled capsule. They exhibit varying and sometimes complex patterns, many adapted to cool temperate climates. Naturally most cool temperate species are deciduous and dormant in winter in their native environment, the basic chromosome number is twelve. 2007, the taxonomy of Chinese species follows the Flora of China and these genera include Cardiocrinum, Notholirion, Nomocharis and Fritillaria. The botanic name Lilium is the Latin form and is a Linnaean name, the Latin name is derived from the Greek λείριον, leírion, generally assumed to refer to true, white lilies as exemplified by the Madonna lily. The word was borrowed from Coptic hleri, from standard hreri, from Demotic hrry, meillet maintains that both the Egyptian and the Greek word are possible loans from an extinct, substratum language of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Greeks also used the word κρῖνον, krīnon, albeit for non-white lilies, all English translations of the Bible render the Hebrew shūshan, shōshan, shōshannā as lily, but the lily among the thorns of Song of Solomon, for instance, may be the honeysuckle. For a list of species described as lilies, see Lily. The range of lilies in the Old World extends across much of Europe, across most of Asia to Japan, south to India, and east to Indochina, in the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States

19.
Fern
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A fern is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant species of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i. e. having certain tissue that conducts water and they have branched stems and leaves like other vascular plants. These are megaphylls, which are more complex than the simple microphylls of clubmosses, most ferns are Leptosporangiate ferns, sometimes denominated the true ferns, they produce what are called fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds. Ferns as defined herein are the ferns sensu lato, being all of the Monilophytes, the Pteridophytes traditionally denominate all seedless vascular plants, of which the Monilophytes predominate, although some recent authors have used it to refer strictly to the Monilophytes alone. The fern Osmunda claytoniana is a paramount example of evolutionary stasis, paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at least 180 million years. Ferns are not of major importance, but some are gathered for food or medicine, grown for food, medicine, or as ornamentals. They have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species are significant weeds and they also play certain roles in mythology and art. Ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophytes by having true leaves and they differ from seed plants in their mode of reproduction—lacking flowers and seeds. Like all land plants, they have a life cycle referred to as alternation of generations, characterized by alternating diploid sporophytic, the diploid sporophyte has 2n paired chromosomes, where n varies from species to species. The haploid gametophyte has n unpaired chromosomes, i. e. half the number of the sporophyte, the gametophyte of ferns is a free-living organism, whereas the gametophyte of the gymnosperms and angiosperms is dependent on the sporophyte. The life cycle of a typical fern proceeds as follows, A diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. A spore grows into a haploid gametophyte by mitosis, the gametophyte typically consists of a photosynthetic prothallus. The gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis, a mobile, flagellate sperm fertilizes an egg that remains attached to the prothallus. The fertilized egg is now a diploid zygote and grows by mitosis into a diploid sporophyte, like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Stems, Fern stems are often referred to as rhizomes, even though they grow underground only in some of the species, epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons, and many groups have above-ground erect semi-woody trunks. These can reach up to 20 metres tall in a few species, leaf, The green, photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, it is often referred to as a frond. New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead fern and this uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation

20.
Club mosses
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Lycopodiopsida is a class of herbaceous vascular plants known as the clubmosses and firmosses. They have dichotomously branching stems bearing simple leaves without ligules and reproduce by means of spores borne in sporangia at the bases of the leaves and these groups, together with the horsetails are often referred to informally as fern allies. The class Lycopodiopsida as interpreted here contains a single living order, the Lycopodiales, and an extinct order. The classification of this group has been unsettled in recent years, older classifications took a very broad definition of the genus Lycopodium that included virtually all the species of Lycopodiales. Starting from the four genera accepted by Øllgaard, a based on chloroplast DNA produced the cladogram shown below, confirming the monophyly of the four genera. Also included are species of Lycopodiella, such as the bog clubmoss, most of the Lycopodium species favor acidic, sandy, upland sites, whereas most of the Lycopodiella favor acidic, boggy sites. The other major group, the family Huperziaceae, are known as the firmosses and this group includes the genus Huperzia, such as the shining firmoss, Huperzia lucidula, the rock firmoss, Huperzia porophila, and the northern firmoss, Huperzia selago. This group also includes the odd, tuberous Australasian plant Phylloglossum, however, as the cladogram above shows, it is closely related to the genus Huperzia. Lycopodium powder, the spores of the common clubmoss, was used in Victorian theater to produce flame-effects. A blown cloud of spores burned rapidly and brightly, but with little heat and it was considered safe by the standards of the time

21.
Garter snakes
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Garter snake/rat snakes, garden snake, gardener snake, and ribbon snake are some of the common names for the nearly harmless, small to medium-sized snakes belonging to the genus Thamnophis. Endemic to North America, species in the genus Thamnophis can be found from the Subarctic plains of Canada to Central America, the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, is the state reptile of Massachusetts. Garter snakes are closely related to the genus Nerodia, with species having been moved back. Garter snakes are present throughout most of North America, garter snakes populate a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, fields, grasslands, and lawns. They almost exclusively inhabit areas with some form of water, often an adjacent wetland, stream and this reflects the fact that amphibians are a large part of their diet. Garter snakes have complex systems of pheromonal communication and they can find other snakes by following their pheromone-scented trails. Male and female pheromones are so different as to be immediately distinguishable. However, male garter snakes sometimes produce male and female pheromones. During the mating season, this ability fools other males attempting to mate with them. This causes the transfer of heat to them in kleptothermy, which is an advantage immediately after hibernation, allowing them to become more active. Male snakes giving off both male and female pheromones have been shown to garner more copulations than normal males in the balls that form at the den when females enter the mating melee. If disturbed, a snake may coil and strike, but typically it will hide its head. These snakes will also discharge a malodorous, musky-scented secretion from a gland near the cloaca and they often use these techniques to escape when ensnared by a predator. They will also slither into the water to escape a predator on land, hawks, crows, raccoons, crayfish, and other snake species will eat garter snakes, with even shrews and frogs eating the juveniles. Being heterothermic, like all reptiles, garter snakes bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature, during hibernation, garter snakes typically occupy large, communal sites called hibernacula. These snakes will migrate large distances to brumate, garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering, slugs, earthworms, leeches, lizards, amphibians minnows, when living near water, they will eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake in particular favors frogs, readily eating them despite their chemical defenses

22.
Chipmunks
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Chipmunks are small, striped rodents of the family Sciuridae. Chipmunks are found in North America, with the exception of the Siberian chipmunk which is primarily in Asia. These classifications are arbitrary, and most taxonomies over the century have placed the chipmunks in a single genus. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA show that the divergence between each of the three groups is comparable to the genetic dissimilarity between Marmota and Spermophilus. The genus name Tamias is Greek for treasurer, steward, or housekeeper, the common name originally may have been spelled chitmunk, from the native Odawa word jidmoonh, meaning red squirrel. The earliest form cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is chipmonk, however, other early forms include chipmuck and chipminck, and in the 1830s they were also referred to as chip squirrels, probably in reference to the sound they make. In the mid-1800s, John James Audubon and his sons included a lithograph of the chipmunk in their Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America, Chipmunks have also been referred to as striped squirrels, chippers, munks, timber tigers, and ground squirrels. Chipmunks have a diet primarily consisting of seeds, nuts and other fruits. They also commonly eat grass, shoots, and many forms of plant matter, as well as fungi, insects and other arthropods, small frogs, worms. Around humans, chipmunks can eat cultivated grains and vegetables, and other plants from farms and gardens, Chipmunks mostly forage on the ground, but they climb trees to obtain nuts such as hazelnuts and acorns. At the beginning of autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile nonperishable foods for winter and they mostly cache their foods in a larder in their burrows and remain in their nests until spring, unlike some other species which make many small caches of food. Cheek pouches allow chipmunks to carry items to their burrows for either storage or consumption. Eastern chipmunks mate in spring and again in early summer. Western chipmunks breed only once a year, the young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks. These small mammals fulfill several important functions in forest ecosystems and their activities harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in seedling establishment. Chipmunks construct expansive burrows which can be more than 3.5 m in length with several well-concealed entrances, the sleeping quarters are kept clean as shells and feces are stored in refuse tunnels. The eastern chipmunk hibernates in the winter, while western chipmunks do not, Chipmunks typically live about three years although some have been observed living to nine years in captivity. Chipmunks in captivity are said to sleep for an average of about 15 hours a day and it is thought that mammals which can sleep in hiding, such as rodents and bats, tend to sleep longer than those that must remain on alert. and Paul V. Switzer

23.
Amphibians
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Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. They inhabit a variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, the young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs. They are superficially similar to lizards but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes, the earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura, Urodela, and Apoda, the number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian in the world is a frog from New Guinea with a length of just 7.7 mm. The largest living amphibian is the 1.8 m Chinese giant salamander, the study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος, the term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes, the numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within groups, like the Temnospondyli or the Lepospondyli. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, all modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura, Caudata, and Gymnophiona, although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest true frog is Prosalirus bitis, from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, Eocaecilia micropodia, the earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China

24.
Salamanders
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All present-day salamander families are grouped together under the scientific name Urodela. Salamander diversity is most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere and most species are found in the Holarctic ecozone, Salamanders never have more than four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs, but some species have fewer digits and others lack hind limbs. Their permeable skin usually makes them reliant on habitats in or near water or other cool, some salamander species are fully aquatic throughout their lives, some take to the water intermittently, and others are entirely terrestrial as adults. Unique among vertebrates, they are capable of regenerating lost limbs, members of the family Salamandridae are mostly known as newts and lack the costal grooves along the sides of their bodies typical of other groups. The skin of some species contains the poison tetrodotoxin and these salamanders tend to be slow-moving and have bright warning coloration to advertise their toxicity. Salamanders typically lay eggs in water and have aquatic larvae, in some species and some harsh environments, salamanders reproduce while still in the larval state. In literature and legend, the salamander is associated with fire, being supposedly unharmed by the flames, more plausibly, salamanders were said to be intensely poisonous. Despite this, salamander brandy, a prepared by dunking live salamanders in fermenting fruit juices, is reputed to have hallucinogenic. The skin lacks scales and is moist and smooth to the touch, except in newts of the Salamandridae, the skin may be drab or brightly colored, exhibiting various patterns of stripes, bars, spots, blotches, or dots. Male newts become dramatically colored during the breeding season, cave species dwelling in darkness lack pigmentation and have a translucent pink or pearlescent appearance. Salamanders range in size from the minute salamanders, with a length of 2.7 cm, including the tail, to the Chinese giant salamander which reaches 1.8 m. Most, however, are between 10 and 20 cm in length, an adult salamander generally resembles a small lizard, having a basal tetrapod body form with a cylindrical trunk, four limbs, and a long tail. Their function seems to be to keep the skin moist by channeling water over the surface of the body. The feet are broad with short digits, usually four on the front feet, Salamanders do not have claws, and the shape of the foot varies according to the animals habitat. Climbing species have elongated, square-tipped toes, while rock-dwellers have larger feet with short, when ascending, the tail props up the rear of the body, while one hind foot moves forward and then swings to the other side to provide support as the other hind foot advances. In larvae and aquatic salamanders, the tail is flattened, has dorsal and ventral fins. In the families Ambystomatidae and Salamandridae, the tail, which is larger than that of the female, is used during the amplexus embrace to propel the mating couple to a secluded location. In terrestrial species, the moves to counterbalance the animal as it runs, while in the arboreal salamander and other tree-climbing species

25.
Interstate 890
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Interstate 890 is a 9. 45-mile long auxiliary Interstate Highway in the vicinity of Schenectady, New York, in the United States. Most of I-890 is six lanes wide, including a section that runs above a section of Schenectady on an elevated highway. I-890 is a local, toll-free alternative to the Thruway, which bypasses the city, the section of I-890 west of downtown Schenectady was mostly built over what was once part of New York State Route 5S. I-890 was constructed in stages during the 1960s and 1970s, the highway is one of two Interstate Highways in New York to use distance-based exit numbering, the result of a New York State Department of Transportation experiment from the 1970s. In Schenectady County, I-890 is designated as the Schenectady County Veterans Memorial Highway, I-890 begins at the toll booth for exit 26 of the New York State Thruway in the Schenectady County town of Rotterdam. It initially heads to the east, connecting to NY890, not far from the GE plant is downtown Schenectady, which the now six-lane I-890 largely bypasses to the south and west on an elevated highway passing over a mostly industrial section of the city. The section closest to the city center runs past by the campus of Schenectady County Community College, I-890 heads south from downtown, crossing over the Delaware and Hudson Railway and CSXs Hudson Subdivision before finally connecting to downtown by way of Broadway at exit 5. Past Broadway, the highway comes to an end as I-890 heads southeastward into a dense residential area on a plateau overlooking the city. The homes are not visible from I-890, however, as the freeway is lined on both sides by a line of trees serving as noise barriers. The residential section of Schenectady is served by an exit for Michigan Avenue. From here, the freeway passes under NY146 before curving to the south, now back in the town of Rotterdam, I-890 runs parallel to NY146 to an interchange with NY7. The state route joins I-890, following the highway as it narrows to four lanes and crosses back over the Hudson Subdivision rail line, I-890 and NY7 connect to High Bridge Road at exit 8, the last junction in a residential area and the last in Schenectady County. I-890 ends a distance south of the exit at the toll booths for exit 25 of the New York State Thruway. The section of I-890 in Schenectady County is designated as the Schenectady County Veterans Memorial Highway, exit numbering on I-890 is distance-based, a holdover from a NYSDOT experiment during the early 1970s. However, because of how the exits are spaced along I-890, I-890 is one of two Interstate Highways in New York that first utilized milepost-based exit numbering in contrast to the sequential exit numbering used elsewhere in New York. The original riverside roadway along the bank of the Mohawk River in western Schenectady was designated as part of NY 5S in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY 5S entered the Schenectady area on River Road and followed River and Rice Roads and Erie Boulevard into downtown Schenectady, the western portion of the loop route would run through the NY 5S corridor. The first section of I-890 to be completed was the portion from New York State Thruway exit 25 southeast of Schenectady to Altamont Avenue, a short extension to Brandywine Avenue was completed by 1964

26.
Rotterdam Square
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Viaport Rotterdam, formerly Rotterdam Square, is a shopping mall located in Rotterdam, New York, United States. The mall has an area of 900,000 square feet on one level with over 80 stores, a 450-seat food court as well as restaurants, the mall was purchased by Kohan Retail Investment Group in January 2014, and was later sold to Via Properties in June 2015. In 2016 Via Properties renamed the mall to Via Port Rotterdam The mall is situated on a site owned by the Vedder Family. Harman Albertse Vedder of Schenectady bought the land in 1672 and built a home on it, in 1832 Harmens great-grandson Johannes sold it to Colonel Daniel David Schermerhorn Campbell, who constructed a 26-bedroom mansion on the site. Mike Kohan bought the mall from Macerich in January 2014 for $8.5 million, in January 2015, it was announced the Macys store was closing as part of a plan to close 14 stores nationwide. On February 12,2015, local power company National Grid disconnected electric service due to a rumored $300,000.00 unpaid utility bill, the service was turned back on the next day. In June 2015, the mall was sold for $9.25 million to Via Properties, from 1988 until January 2007, Rotterdam Square featured a full-size Italian carousel in the food court. The management sold the carousel in late 2006 and in January 2007 it was dismantled and removed, the mall features a graveyard within the complex. Located in a corner between the court entrance and the front side entrance, the graveyard is the family cemetery of the Vedder Family dating back to around 1715. A basic mall-based theater that was part of the Sony-Loews Cineplex circuit. The theater is a six-screen cinema now operated by an independently owned company named Zurich Cinemas. The theater added a 7th screen and has been refitted with stadium seating, kmart – The last KMart in the Albany, New York, area –86,479 sq ft Rotterdam Square Cinema –19,800 sq ft Shoe Dept. Encore Via Entertainment ) Via Aquarium Hesss Filenes opened 1995 in Hesss space, TJ Maxx opened September 16,2004, and closed in March 2014. In 2016 Via Properties remodeled the store to their Via Entertainment bowling alley, Macys –120,000 sq ft Scheduled to become a call center for the NYS Department of Taxation and Finance. Sears –101,985 sq ft. Official website Zurich Cinemas

27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

28.
Protected areas of the United States
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The protected areas of the United States are managed by an array of different federal, state, tribal and local level authorities and receive widely varying levels of protection. Some areas are managed as wilderness, while others are operated with acceptable commercial exploitation, as of 2015, the 25,800 protected areas covered 1,294,476 km2, or 14 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the land area of the world. The U. S. also had a total of 787 National Marine Protected Areas, covering an additional 1,271,408 km2, some areas are managed in concert between levels of government. The Father Marquette National Memorial is an example of a park operated by a state park system. As of 2007, according to the United Nations Environment Programme, federal level protected areas are managed by a variety of agencies, most of which are a part of the National Park Service, a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior. They are often considered the jewels of the protected areas. Other areas are managed by the United States Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the United States Army Corps of Engineers is claimed to provide 30 percent of the recreational opportunities on federal lands, mainly through lakes and waterways that they manage. The highest levels of protection, as described by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, are Level I, the United States maintains 12 percent of the Level I and II lands in the world. These lands had an area of 210,000 sq mi. A confusing system for naming protected areas results in some types being used by more than one agency, for instance, both the National Park Service and the U. S. Forest Service operate areas designated National Preserves and National Recreation Areas. The National Park Service, the U. S. Forest Service, National Wilderness Areas are designated within other protected areas, managed by various agencies and sometimes wilderness areas span areas managed by multiple agencies. States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect these, the state of Colorado, for example, is very clear that it does not set any limits on owners of NRHP properties. State parks vary widely from urban parks to large parks that are on a par with national parks. Some state parks, like Adirondack Park, are similar to the National parks of England and Wales, about half the area of the park, some 3,000,000 acres, is state-owned and preserved as forever wild by the Forest Preserve of New York. Wood-Tikchik State Park in Alaska claims to be the largest state park by the amount of protected land, it is larger than many U. S. National Parks. Many states also operate game and recreation areas. S, State and tribal wilderness areas Various counties, cities, metropolitan authorities, regional parks, townships, soil conservation districts and other units manage a variety of local level parks. Some of these are more than picnic areas or playgrounds, however

29.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

30.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

31.
Christman Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary
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Christman Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary is a national historic district located near Delanson, Schenectady County, New York. The district includes six contributing buildings and one contributing structure on a largely wooded and it lies in the valley of the Bozenkill and includes a 30-foot waterfall along the Helderberg Escarpment. Located on the property is a frame dwelling built in 1868, a stone dairy house, barns, large stone walls. The sanctuary had its beginnings in 1888 when property owner W. W, christman and his wife, the former Catherine Bradt, began a winter bird feeding program during the great blizzard of that year. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970

32.
Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site
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Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site preserves the Stone Cottage at Val-Kill, the home of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and its surrounding property of 181 acres. It is located two miles east of Springwood, the Roosevelt family estate, in Hyde Park, New York. The only residence Eleanor personally owned, it was the site of Val-Kill Industries and would be Eleanors home after the death of her husband, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in 1945. Converted into rental units and later sold to developers after Eleanors death in 1962, it was saved through a public campaign and it is now managed by the National Park Service, with partnerships with two private non-profit organizations who assist with fundraising, development and restoration projects. Franklin encouraged Eleanor Roosevelt to develop this property as a place that she could develop some of her ideas for work with winter jobs for rural workers and she named the spot Val-Kill, loosely translated as waterfall-stream from the Dutch language common to the original European settlers of the area. There are two buildings which are adjacent to Fallkill Creek and it was the only residence that she personally owned. Eleanor Roosevelt often hosted workshops for Encampment for Citizenship here, the larger house was converted into four rental units after Eleanors death in 1962, and in 1970 the land was purchased by a private company for development purposes. Public reaction to this sale developed into a campaign and the possibility of making the site a national memorial. In 1984 the Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill negotiated an agreement with the National Park Service, in 2008 the Eleanor Roosevelt Center moved from Stone Cottage to a new facility at Val-Kill. In 1998, Save Americas Treasures announced Val-Kill Cottage as a new official project, sATs involvement led to the Honoring Eleanor Roosevelt project, initially run by private volunteers and now a part of SAT. The site is managed by the National Park Service in conjunction with the Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, the NPS continues to partner with SAT and the Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill in the management of the Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site. NY-324, NPS Route No.401 Bridge, Spanning Fall Kill, Hyde Park, Dutchess County, NY,4 photos,1 photo caption page

33.
Martin Van Buren National Historic Site
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The National Historic Site preserves the estate and thirty-six room mansion of Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the United States. Van Buren purchased the estate, which he named Lindenwald, in 1839 during his one term as President and it became his home and farm during his retirement. Van Buren, a founder of the Democratic Party, purchased the home, however, Van Buren did not move into the home until 1841. Eventually, his four living sons, Abraham, John, Martin Jr. the home was previously owned by the Van Ness family and was where Washington Irving wrote most of his book A History of New York. Irving and Van Buren later became friends, Van Buren ran two United States Presidential campaigns from Lindenwald. In 1844, he based his ultimately unsuccessful run for the Democratic nomination at the estate and that year, Van Buren lost a hotly contested fight to nominee and eventual President James Knox Polk. Van Burens campaign drew enough votes away from the Democratic nominee, Lewis Cass, Van Buren named the estate Lindenwald, which is German for linden forest, after the American Linden trees lining the Albany-to-New York Post Road, which is still located in front of the home. The section of the road on the property remains unimproved to this day, some replanted Linden trees also remain by the side of the road. Van Buren would pass away at Lindenwald on July 24,1862, Lindenwald was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961. The Martin Van Buren National Historic Site was established on October 26,1974, the site can be found on Route 9H, about 2 miles south of Van Burens hometown of Kinderhook, New York. A visitor center operated by the National Park Service is located at the site, access to the Lindenwald mansion is by ranger-guided tour only. The tower cannot be visited due to safety codes. In addition, the grounds contain educational signs which tell of the history of the Lindenwald Estate, during Van Burens lifetime, the site also contained two gatehouses, a north one and a south one. The north gatehouse was demolished in the 1950s, but today the site is outlined with a stone foundation. Great Houses of the Hudson River, Michael Middleton Dwyer, editor, with preface by Mark Rockefeller, Boston, MA, Little, Brown and Company, published in association with Historic Hudson Valley,2001. Kinderhook information Life Portrait of Martin Van Buren, from C-SPANs American Presidents, Life Portraits, broadcast from the Martin Van Buren National Historic Site, May 3,1999

34.
Sagamore Hill
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Sagamore Hill was the home of the 26th President of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, from 1885 until his death in 1919. It is located in the Incorporated Village of Cove Neck, New York and it is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site, which includes the Theodore Roosevelt Museum in a later building on the grounds. Although a native of New York City, Theodore Roosevelt spent many summers of his youth on extended vacations with his family in the Oyster Bay area. In 1880, by then an adult of 22, Roosevelt purchased 155 acres of land for $30,000 on Cove Neck. In 1881, his uncle James A. Roosevelt had designed his home several hundred feet west of the Sagamore Hill property. In 1884 Theodore Roosevelt hired the New York architectural firm Lamb & Rich to design a shingle-style, the twenty-two room home was completed in 1886 for $16,975, and Roosevelt moved into the house in 1887. Roosevelt originally planned to name the house Leeholm after his wife Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, however, she died in 1884 and Roosevelt remarried in 1886, so he decided to change the name to Sagamore Hill. Sagamore is the Algonquin word for chieftain, the head of the tribe, in 1905 Roosevelt decided to expand the house, adding the largest room, called the North Room, for $19,000. The home now has twenty-three rooms, the house and its surrounding farmland became the primary residence of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt for the rest of their lives. Sagamore Hill took on its greatest importance when it became known as the Summer White House during the seven summers Roosevelt spent there as President, Roosevelt died at Sagamore Hill on January 6,1919, and was buried at nearby Youngs Memorial Cemetery. On July 25,1962, Congress established Sagamore Hill National Historic Site to preserve the house as a unit of the National Park Service. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the home is open to the public by guided tour. Almost all the furnishings are original, also on the site is the Theodore Roosevelt Museum, which chronicles the life and career of the President. The museum is housed in the 1938 house called Old Orchard, media related to Sagamore Hill at Wikimedia Commons Official website Historic American Buildings Survey No. NY-6051, Sagamore Hill, Oyster Bay, Nassau County, NY,35 photos,13 measured drawings,5 data pages,3 photo caption pages HABS No

35.
Saint Paul's Church National Historic Site
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The site was authorized in 1978 to protect Saint Pauls Church from increasing industrialization of the surrounding area. Saint Pauls Church is one of New Yorks oldest parishes and was used as a hospital after the American Revolutionary War Battle of Pells Point in 1776. The 5-acre cemetery surrounding the church is also within the historic site, the parish that founded Saint Pauls Church was established in 1665. The first church at the site was a small, square, the present day church was built in 1764, but its name was not changed to Saint Pauls Church until 1795. Two hundred and seventy five years after the contest, historians continue to cite the election to advance various arguments about colonial life. The first issue of Zenger’s New York Weekly Journal carried a report on the famous election. On October 18,1776, the Revolutionary War Battle of Pells Point was fought less than a mile from the church, the churchs tower contains a bell that was cast in 1758 at the same London foundry as the Liberty Bell. As the fighting began to move closer to the church, George Washington ordered the parishioners to bury the bell to prevent the British from melting it down, the bell still hangs in the tower today. During the early part of the 20th century, the parish began to decline, the church was designated as a National Historic Site on July 5,1943 although not formally authorized until November 10,1978. Today, visitors can visit the church and the 225-year-old church tower on ranger-guided tours, the carriage house next to the church now serves as a museum and visitor center. National Register of Historic Places listings in southern Westchester County, New York National Park Service, nY-4121, St. Pauls Church,897 South Columbus Avenue, Mount Vernon, Westchester County, NY,10 measured drawings,6 data pages, supplemental material

36.
Saratoga National Historical Park
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Saratoga National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located in the Town of Stillwater in eastern New York, forty miles north of Albany. The park preserves the site of the Battles of Saratoga, the park preserves the site of the Battles of Saratoga, the first significant American military victory of the American Revolutionary War. The Visitors Center offers a 20-minute orientation film, fiber-optic light map, timeline, a brochure is available for a self-guided tour of sites in the four-square-mile battlefield in Stillwater. General Philip Schuylers Schuyler House is located eight miles north in Schuylerville and it is a restored house museum open by tour. The Saratoga Monument is in the village of Victory. The park is located on the upper Hudson River southeast of Saratoga Springs and it contains the famous Boot Monument to Benedict Arnold, the only war memorial in the United States that does not bear the name of its honoree. The Marshall House, on the National Register of Historic Places, lies eight miles north of the entrance to the park on U. S. Route 4. It was made famous by Baroness Frederika Riedesel in her Letters and Journals relating to the War of the American Revolution, and this house was built in 1770-1773. During the closing days of the Battles of Saratoga, Baroness Riedesel sheltered there together with the wives of officers of the British army, the Marshall House was bombarded by the Americans who supposed it an enemy headquarters. Within are conserved cannonballs and other reminders of the ordeal suffered by those who took refuge there, the Marshall House is the sole surviving structure in the battles area. Lossing, Benson J. Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution, I, Letters and Journals relating to the War of the American Revolution, and the Capture of the German Troops at Saratoga, by Mrs. General Riedesel. National Park Service, Saratoga National Historical Park Saratoga, The Tide Turns on the Frontier, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan The Marshall House website

37.
Kate Mullany House
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The Kate Mullany House was the home of Kate Mullany, an early female labor leader who started the all-women Collar Laundry Union in Troy, New York in February 1864. It was one of the first womens unions that lasted longer than the resolution of a specific issue, the house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1998. It is now a National Historic Site and it is located at 350 8th Street in Troy, just off NY7 one empty lot east of the Collar City Bridge. Then First Lady Hillary Clinton toured the house in 2000, Senator Daniel P. Moynihan had introduced a bill to designate the home as a National Historic Site, but the bill had languished in the United States Senate. Senator Clinton took up the bill in January 2001 when Moynhian retired, there were hearings on the bill, and the Congressional Budget Office undertook an official budget analysis for the United States Congress. The bill was co-sponsored by Senator Clinton and Representative Mike McNulty, supported by organized labor, the Kate Mullany House is recognized by a number of government agencies and charities as an important historic site. Both the house, and Kate Mullanys grave, are preserved as historic sites by an affiliate of the Federal government, wiawaka, a womens camp in Lake George, New York, has memorialized the house. The New York State Senate honored the house and its most famous resident for Womens History Month in March 2007, the house is also on the New York Womens Heritage Trail. Places Where Women Made History, the Kate Mullany House, at National Park Service

38.
Thomas Cole House
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It is located at 218 Spring Street, Catskill, NY, United States. The site provided Thomas Cole with a residence and studio from 1833 through his death in 1848, the property was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. It was declared a National Historic Site in 1999, in 1684, Gysbert uyt den Bogaert purchased about 460 acres of land from Native Americans, an area at the mouth of Catskill Creek that was bounded on the east by the Hudson River. After the death of his last descendent the land was subsequently divided and sold by a speculator in the middle of the 18th century. The land was subdivided during the Revolutionary War, but the development of the area only began in the mid-1790s when growth is described in historical sources as “very rapid. ”One of the first landowners was Dr. Thomas Thomson, who arrived in 1787 to practice medicine, speculate in land. During this period, the built an Federal-style house as their primary residence. The first documented references to the property as ‘Cedar Grove’ date to this time, in 1821, Thomas T. Thomson died. His brother John A. Thomson, known familiarly as “Uncle Sandy, the Cedar Grove property was a working farm, with oxen, cows, beef cattle, hogs, and one horse. Barley, oats, corn, and hay were cultivated, though orchards produced the primary crop of the farm. A large extended family lived with Uncle Sandy, including four of his orphaned nieces. When Thomas Cole arrived in the early 1830s, Cedar Grove had become “a viable gentleman’s farm. ”Looking to secure a permanent residence in the Catskill area while maintaining a studio in New York City, Cole rented space from the Thomson family to live. In November 1836 he formally entered the family, marrying John A. Thomson’s niece Maria Bartow in the West Parlor of the Cedar Grove house and she was 23 years old to his 35. In 1834 he wrote, O Cedar Grove, Thomson, intending to construct a separate house for his wife and himself, but never did so. Instead, he lived in the master bedroom occupied by John A. Thomson. Late in 1839 Cole moved into a new studio, using part of a barn that John A. Thomson had constructed, the studio still stands today, replete with an extra window built to give the artist more northern light. Here Cole painted a number of important works, most notably The Voyage of Life, after John A. Thomson’s death in 1846, Cole erected another studio on the property, which was demolished in the 1970s. In February 1848 Cole caught pneumonia and died in the bedroom at Cedar Grove, leaving behind his wife. Cole’s student Frederic Edwin Church became a friend of the family

39.
Federal Hall
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It was also where the United States Bill of Rights was introduced in the First Congress. The building was demolished in 1812, Federal Hall National Memorial was built in 1842 as the United States Custom House, on the site of the old Federal Hall on Wall Street, and later served as a sub-Treasury building. It is now operated by the National Park Service as a memorial commemorating the historic events that occurred there. The original structure on the site was built as New Yorks second City Hall in 1699 -1703, on Wall Street, in 1735, John Peter Zenger, an American newspaper publisher, was arrested for committing libel against the British royal governor and was imprisoned and tried there. His acquittal on the grounds that the material he had printed was true established freedom of the press as it was defined in the Bill of Rights. In October 1765, delegates from nine of the 13 colonies met as the Stamp Act Congress in response to the levying of the Stamp Act by the Parliament of Great Britain. After the American Revolution, the City Hall served as the place for the Congress of the Confederation of the United States under the Articles of Confederation. In 1788, the building was remodeled and enlarged under the direction of Pierre Charles LEnfant and this was the first example of Federal Style architecture in the United States. It was renamed Federal Hall when it became the first Capitol of the United States under the Constitution in 1789 and he was inaugurated on the balcony of the building on April 30,1789. Many of the most important legislative actions in the United States occurred with the 1st Congress at Federal Hall, part of the original railing and balcony floor where Washington was inaugurated are on display in the memorial. The current structure, one of the best surviving examples of architecture in New York, was built as the first purpose-built U. S. Custom House for the Port of New York, designed by John Frazee, it was constructed of Tuckahoe marble and took more than a decade to complete. In 1862, Customs moved to 55 Wall Street and the served as one of six United States Sub-Treasury locations. Millions of dollars of gold and silver were kept in the basement vaults until the Federal Reserve Bank replaced the Sub-Treasury system in 1920. In 1882, John Quincy Adams Wards bronze George Washington statue was erected on its front steps, in 1920, a bomb was detonated across the street from Federal Hall at 23 Wall Street, in what became known as the Wall Street bombing. Thirty-eight people were killed and 400 injured, and 23 Wall Street was visibly damaged, a famous photograph of the event shows the destruction and effects of the bombing, but also shows the statue of Washington standing stoically in the face of chaos. The building was designated as Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site on May 26,1939, as with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966. Federal Hall was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on December 21,1965, held just four blocks from the World Trade Center site, the meeting was the first by Congress in New York since 1790

40.
General Grant National Memorial
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Grants Tomb, now formally known as General Grant National Memorial, is the final resting place of Ulysses S. Grant, the 18th President of the United States, and his wife, Julia Dent Grant. Completed in 1897, the tomb is located in Riverside Park in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City and it was placed under the management of the National Park Service in 1958. On July 23,1885, Ulysses S. Grant died of cancer at age 63 in Wilton. Grants family agreed to have his remains interred in New York City, William Russell Grace, the Mayor of New York City, wrote a letter to prominent New Yorkers the following day, to gather support for a national monument in Grants honor. This preliminary meeting was attended by 85 New Yorkers and established the Committee on Organization, the chairman of the Committee was former U. S. president Chester A. Arthur, the secretary was Richard Theodore Greener. This organization would come to be known as the Grant Monument Association, the Grant Monument Association did not originally announce the function or structure of the monument, however, the idea of any monument in Grants honor drew public support. Western Union donated $5,000 on July 29, the day the committee announced its proposal, the GMA continued to receive donations of large and small amounts. At a membership meeting, former New York State governor Alonzo Cornell proposed a goal of $1 million. Private industries such as insurance and iron-trading companies donated funds to the project, for every ton of coal the Consumers Coal Company sold, it gave a major donation of 37½ cents to the GMA. Although there was great enthusiasm for a monument to President Grant, the opposition was vocal in the view that the monument should be in Washington, D. C. Mayor Grace tried to calm the controversy by publicly releasing Mrs. Grants justification for the New York site as the place for her husband. Mrs. Grant wrote, Riverside was selected by myself and my family as the place of my husband. First, because I believed New York was his preference, second, it is near the residence that I hope to occupy as long as I live, and where I will be able to visit his resting place often. Third, I have believed, and am now convinced, that the tomb will be visited by as many of his countrymen there as it would be at any other place. Fourth, the offer of a park in New York was the first which observed and unreservedly assented to the condition imposed by General Grant himself, namely. Criticism was not limited to the debate about the monuments location, according to The New York Times, there was discontent with the internal management of the GMA. The criticism was, even though the GMA members amongst the wealthiest in New York, the New York Times characterized the members as sitting quietly in an office and signing receipts for money voluntarily tendered. In this early stage, the GMA did not have a model for what the monument was to be, it continued to ask for donations without explaining its purpose, which frustrated and discouraged donors

41.
Hamilton Grange National Memorial
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The mansion holds a restoration of the interior rooms and an interactive exhibit on the newly constructed ground floor for visitors. The Hamilton Heights subsection of Harlem derived its name from Hamiltons 32 acre estate there, alexander Hamilton was born and raised in the West Indies and came to New York in 1772 at age 17 to study at Kings College. Hamilton commissioned architect John McComb Jr. to design a home on Hamiltons 32 acres estate in upper Manhattan. The two-story frame Federal style house was completed in 1802, just two years before Hamiltons death resulting from his duel with Aaron Burr on July 11,1804, the house was named The Grange after Hamiltons grandfathers estate in Scotland. The Grange was the only ever owned by Hamilton and it remained in his family for 30 years after his death. The Grange might have also been Hamilton’s rivalrous answer to Jeffersons Monticello, by 1889, much of the congregation of St. Lukes Episcopal Church in Greenwich Village had moved uptown. The Grange was in foreclosure and had been condemned for destruction in order to allow for the implementation of the Manhattan street grid, then just reaching that area of Harlem. The church acquired the house and moved it a half-block east, the original porches and other features were removed for the move. The staircase was removed and retrofitted to accommodate a makeshift entrance on the side of the house faced the street. St.1910 flush on the side it was tightly enclosed. The American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society bought the Grange and turned it into a museum in 1924. Furniture and decorative objects associated with the Hamilton family were displayed, the Grange was designated a National Historic Landmark in December 1960. The private National Park Foundation purchased the house and property and transferred it to the National Park Service and it was at the time determined that the claustrophobic Convent Avenue setting was inappropriate and that the country house should be viewed as freestanding building. However, the house was not relocated earlier because of overwhelming opposition to options offered that required moving it out of the neighborhood. The Grange was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966, the park location was judged a more appropriate setting for display that would permit restoration of features lost in the 1889 move. The new location would also keep the house in the neighborhood, work in St. Nicholas Park for tree removal and foundation construction began in February 2008. The actual move of the Grange began with elevation of the building in one piece over the loggia of St. Lukes Church and onto Convent Avenue. The house completed its 500-foot journey on June 7,2008 by being rolled one block south on Convent Avenue, the six-hour event was a popular neighborhood attraction covered extensively in the press

Rotterdam (town), New York
–
Rotterdam is a town in Schenectady County, New York, United States. The population was 29,094 at the 2010 census, the town of Rotterdam is in the south-central part of the county. It was founded by Dutch settlers, who named it after the port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands, the town borders the city of Schenectady. Situated near the end of New York

1.
A sign depicting the entrance to town of Rotterdam on New York State Route 5

United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean,

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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764

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Flag

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The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620.

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The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776

New York State Route 159
–
New York State Route 159 is a state highway in New York, running from the town of Duanesburg through Mariaville Lake to the hamlet of Rotterdam, just outside the city of Schenectady. A two-lane highway for all of its length, it is located in Schenectady County. Known as Mariaville Road, NY159 begins at NY30 just south of the Montgomery County line,

1.
Map of Schenectady County in eastern New York with NY 159 highlighted in red

Schenectady County
–
Schenectady County is a county located in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 154,727, the name is from a Mohawk language word meaning on the other side of the pine lands, a term that originally applied to Albany. Schenectady County is part of the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area and it in

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The Nott Memorial

New York State
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is

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British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga in 1777.

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Flag

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1800 map of New York from Low's Encyclopaedia

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The Erie Canal at Lockport, New York in 1839

Ulster County, New York
–
Ulster County is a county located in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 182,493, the county is named after the Irish province of Ulster. Ulster County comprises the Kingston, New York Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is located in the states Mid-Hudson Region of the Hudson Valley The area of present-day Ulste

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The Lake Mohonk Mountain House on Shawangunk Ridge

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Ulster County in 1875

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Lake Minnewaska

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Ashokan Reservoir from Wittenberg

Ice ages
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An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed glacial periods, in the terminology of glaciology, ice age implies the presence of

4.
Scandinavia exhibits some of the typical effects of ice age glaciation such as fjords and lakes.

Mohawk River
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The Mohawk River is a 149-mile-long river in the U. S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River, the Mohawk flows into the Hudson in the Capital District, a few miles north of the city of Albany. The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy and it is a major waterway in north-central New York. The r

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Cohoes Falls, near the eastern end of the Mohawk River in Cohoes, New York

2.
Hudson River watershed map showing the Mohawk River

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As the Laurentian Glacier retreated, it blocked the outflow of Glacial Lake Iroquois. Instead of flowing down the St Lawrence Valley it flowed down the Mohawk River.

Boy Scout
–
A scout is a boy or a girl, usually 10–18 years of age, participating in the worldwide Scouting movement. Because of the age and development span, many Scouting associations have split this age group into a junior. Scouts are organized into troops averaging 20–30 Scouts under the guidance of one or more Scout Leaders, troops subdivide into patrols

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Scouts coming from various nations sing at the European Jamboree 2005.

2.
A group of Australian Scouts hike along a fire trail in a national park.

Hardwoods
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Hardwood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived, in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood should not be confused with the heartwood, which can be from hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are produced by trees

Conifers
–
The Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular land plants containing a single class, Pinopsida. They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants, all extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs, examples include c

2.
The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow.

Pine
–
A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus

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Pine tree

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A Khasi pine in Benguet, Philippines

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Huangshan pine (Pinus hwangshanensis), Anhui, China

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Ancient Pinus longaeva, Nevada, USA

Oak
–
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the larges

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Oak

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Oak at Schönderling

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A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muhlenbergii

4.
Heart of oak beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in Monein, France

Birch
–
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-l

1.
Birch

2.
The front and rear sides of a piece of birch bark

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Birch trees near stream in Hankasalmi, Finland

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A stand of birch trees

Maple
–
The Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment, later renamed MDS Medical Isotope Reactors, was a dedicated isotope-production facility built by AECL and MDS Nordion. An operational license for the MAPLE1 reactor was granted in 1999, however, problems with the reactor, most notably a positive power co-efficient of reactivity, led to the cancel

Trilliums
–
Trillium is a genus of perennial flowering plants native to temperate regions of North America and Asia. It was formerly treated in the family Trilliaceae or trillium family, the APG III system includes Trilliaceae in the family Melanthiaceae, where can be treated as the tribe Parideae. Plants of this genus are perennial herbs growing from rhizomes

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wakerobin

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Trillium grandiflorum (great white trillium)

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Trillium used as the official symbol for the Province of Ontario

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Nodding trillium (Trillium cernuum)

Viola (plant)
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Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species, most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes. Some Viola species are plants, some are an

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Viola

2.
Common Violet

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Opened seed capsule, showing the seeds

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Viola cultivar showing the large round flowers and the novel coloration that has been achieved through breeding.

Lilies
–
Lilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world, most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though their range extends into the northern subtropics. Many other plants hav

Fern
–
A fern is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant species of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i. e. having certain tissue that conducts water and they have branched stems and leaves like other vascular plants. These are megaphylls, which are more comple

Club mosses
–
Lycopodiopsida is a class of herbaceous vascular plants known as the clubmosses and firmosses. They have dichotomously branching stems bearing simple leaves without ligules and reproduce by means of spores borne in sporangia at the bases of the leaves and these groups, together with the horsetails are often referred to informally as fern allies. Th

1.
Clubmosses: Lycopodiopsida

Garter snakes
–
Garter snake/rat snakes, garden snake, gardener snake, and ribbon snake are some of the common names for the nearly harmless, small to medium-sized snakes belonging to the genus Thamnophis. Endemic to North America, species in the genus Thamnophis can be found from the Subarctic plains of Canada to Central America, the common garter snake, Thamnoph

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Garter snake

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Eastern garter snake, Florida

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Eating a frog

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Common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis)

Chipmunks
–
Chipmunks are small, striped rodents of the family Sciuridae. Chipmunks are found in North America, with the exception of the Siberian chipmunk which is primarily in Asia. These classifications are arbitrary, and most taxonomies over the century have placed the chipmunks in a single genus. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA show that the diverge

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Chipmunk Temporal range: Early Miocene to Recent

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A Siberian chipmunk, in South Korea

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A western chipmunk (probably a Uinta chipmunk) in Zion National Park, Utah

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An eastern chipmunk

Amphibians
–
Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. They inhabit a variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, the young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-

1.
Triadobatrachus massinoti, a proto-frog from the Early Triassic of Madagascar

Salamanders
–
All present-day salamander families are grouped together under the scientific name Urodela. Salamander diversity is most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere and most species are found in the Holarctic ecozone, Salamanders never have more than four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs, but some species have fewer digits and others la

2.
X-ray image of salamander

3.
Sirens have an eel-like appearance.

4.
Rough-skinned newt

Interstate 890
–
Interstate 890 is a 9. 45-mile long auxiliary Interstate Highway in the vicinity of Schenectady, New York, in the United States. Most of I-890 is six lanes wide, including a section that runs above a section of Schenectady on an elevated highway. I-890 is a local, toll-free alternative to the Thruway, which bypasses the city, the section of I-890 w

1.
Aerial view of downtown Schenectady, with I-890 running across the city from center left to center right

2.
Map of New York with I-890 highlighted in red

3.
1955 Yellow Book map of Schenectady, showing what would become I-90 and I-890

Rotterdam Square
–
Viaport Rotterdam, formerly Rotterdam Square, is a shopping mall located in Rotterdam, New York, United States. The mall has an area of 900,000 square feet on one level with over 80 stores, a 450-seat food court as well as restaurants, the mall was purchased by Kohan Retail Investment Group in January 2014, and was later sold to Via Properties in J

1.
View of the Food Court Entrance

2.
Great Flats entrance, the Mall entrance can just be seen in the right hand background

3.
The Carousel in the Food Court

International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Protected areas of the United States
–
The protected areas of the United States are managed by an array of different federal, state, tribal and local level authorities and receive widely varying levels of protection. Some areas are managed as wilderness, while others are operated with acceptable commercial exploitation, as of 2015, the 25,800 protected areas covered 1,294,476 km2, or 14

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Grand Canyon of Yellowstone

2.
John Muir (1838-1914), one of the main inspirations for the U.S. national park system. "Why should man value himself as more than a small part of the one great unit of creation?" - John Muir.

New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is

1.
British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga in 1777.

2.
Flag

3.
1800 map of New York from Low's Encyclopaedia

4.
The Erie Canal at Lockport, New York in 1839

Federal government of the United States
–
The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the

1.
The United States Capitol is the seat of government for Congress.

2.
Great Seal of the United States

3.
Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1862.

Christman Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary
–
Christman Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary is a national historic district located near Delanson, Schenectady County, New York. The district includes six contributing buildings and one contributing structure on a largely wooded and it lies in the valley of the Bozenkill and includes a 30-foot waterfall along the Helderberg Escarpment. Located on the pro

1.
Christman Bird and Wildlife Sanctuary

2.
Following the stream along the trail, around 1.3 miles in.

3.
The main waterfall, about 1 mile along the trail.

Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site
–
Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site preserves the Stone Cottage at Val-Kill, the home of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and its surrounding property of 181 acres. It is located two miles east of Springwood, the Roosevelt family estate, in Hyde Park, New York. The only residence Eleanor personally owned, it was the site of Val-Kill Industries an

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Stone Cottage

2.
Living Room in Val-Kill Cottage at Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site

3.
Val Kill Historic Site Hyde Park, NY

Martin Van Buren National Historic Site
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The National Historic Site preserves the estate and thirty-six room mansion of Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the United States. Van Buren purchased the estate, which he named Lindenwald, in 1839 during his one term as President and it became his home and farm during his retirement. Van Buren, a founder of the Democratic Party, purchased

1.
Lindenwald Martin Van Buren National Historic Site

Sagamore Hill
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Sagamore Hill was the home of the 26th President of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, from 1885 until his death in 1919. It is located in the Incorporated Village of Cove Neck, New York and it is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site, which includes the Theodore Roosevelt Museum in a later building on the grounds. Although a native of N

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Sagamore Hill National Historic Site

2.
Roosevelt Museum at Old Orchard, former home of Roosevelt's eldest son Theodore, a brief walk from the main house

Saint Paul's Church National Historic Site
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The site was authorized in 1978 to protect Saint Pauls Church from increasing industrialization of the surrounding area. Saint Pauls Church is one of New Yorks oldest parishes and was used as a hospital after the American Revolutionary War Battle of Pells Point in 1776. The 5-acre cemetery surrounding the church is also within the historic site, th

1.
St. Paul's Church National Historic Site

Saratoga National Historical Park
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Saratoga National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located in the Town of Stillwater in eastern New York, forty miles north of Albany. The park preserves the site of the Battles of Saratoga, the park preserves the site of the Battles of Saratoga, the first significant American military victory of the American Revolutionar

Kate Mullany House
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The Kate Mullany House was the home of Kate Mullany, an early female labor leader who started the all-women Collar Laundry Union in Troy, New York in February 1864. It was one of the first womens unions that lasted longer than the resolution of a specific issue, the house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1998. It is now a National Histo

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Kate Mullany House

2.
The doorway for the address occupied by labor organizer Kate Mullany

3.
Informational commemorative plaque located on the brick façade between addresses 350 and 352 on Eighth Street in downtown Troy, NY

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Side view capturing just the 350 section of the building from a little further down Eighth Street

Thomas Cole House
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It is located at 218 Spring Street, Catskill, NY, United States. The site provided Thomas Cole with a residence and studio from 1833 through his death in 1848, the property was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. It was declared a National Historic Site in 1999, in 1684, Gysbert uyt den Bogaert purchased about 460 acres of land from Nati

1.
Thomas Cole House

2.
The Old Studio served as Thomas Cole's primary studio between 1839 and 1846. Inside, visitors to Cedar Grove can see the easels that Cole painted his Voyage of Life on.

Federal Hall
–
It was also where the United States Bill of Rights was introduced in the First Congress. The building was demolished in 1812, Federal Hall National Memorial was built in 1842 as the United States Custom House, on the site of the old Federal Hall on Wall Street, and later served as a sub-Treasury building. It is now operated by the National Park Ser

3.
Archibald Robertson’s "View up Wall Street" with City Hall (Federal Hall) and Trinity Church, New York City, from around 1798

4.
George Washington in front of Federal Hall National Memorial

General Grant National Memorial
–
Grants Tomb, now formally known as General Grant National Memorial, is the final resting place of Ulysses S. Grant, the 18th President of the United States, and his wife, Julia Dent Grant. Completed in 1897, the tomb is located in Riverside Park in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City and it was placed under the

1.
General Grant National Memorial

2.
Grant's Tomb on inauguration day, April 27, 1897

3.
Red granite sarcophagi of Ulysses and Julia Grant

4.
Life and politics

Hamilton Grange National Memorial
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The mansion holds a restoration of the interior rooms and an interactive exhibit on the newly constructed ground floor for visitors. The Hamilton Heights subsection of Harlem derived its name from Hamiltons 32 acre estate there, alexander Hamilton was born and raised in the West Indies and came to New York in 1772 at age 17 to study at Kings Colleg

1.
Hamilton Grange National Memorial

2.
Drawing of the original Grange before 1889.

3.
The previous (second) location of the home located on Convent Avenue.

2.
Specimen of American hart's tongue fern in Michigan; Clark Reservation has largest population of these endangered ferns in the U.S..

3.
Looking northeast across Glacier Lake in May. The photograph is taken from the top of the southern cliffs 180 feet (55 m) above the lake. About 10,000 years ago, a large river of glacial meltwater flowed from the west (the left of the photograph) across these cliffs. The resulting waterfall created a plunge basin or gorge with its outlet to the east (the right of the photograph). Glacier Lake occupies the deepest part of this gorge.