Call unto the way of your Lord with wisdom and good exhortation,
and reason with them in the best way. Lo! your Lord best knows those who
go astray from His path, and He knows best those who are rightly guided.

(Qur'an, 16:125)

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH MOST MERCIFUL AND COMPASSIONATE

INTRODUCTION

This book, which we have called Shi'ite Islam, seeks to clarify
the true identity of Shi'ism which is one of the two major branches of
Islam - the other being Sunnism. It deals in particular with the way Shi'ism
originated and later developed, with the type of religious thought present
in Shi'ism, and with Islamic sciences and culture as seen from the Shi'ite
point of view.

The Meaning of Religion (din), Islam, and Shi'ism

Religion. There is no doubt that each member of the human race
is naturally drawn to his fellow-men and that in his life in society he
acts in ways which are interrelated and interconnected. His eating, drinking,
sleeping, keeping awake, talking, listening, sitting, walking, his social
intercourse and meetings, at the same time that they are formally and externally
distinct, are invariably connected with each other. One cannot perform
just any act in any place or after any other act. There is an order which
must be observed.

There is, therefore, an order which governs the actions man performs
in the journey of this life, an order against which his actions cannot
rebel. In reality, these acts all originate from a distinct source. That
source is man's desire to possess a felicitous life , a life in which he
can react to the greatest extent possible the objects of his desire, and
be gratified. Or, one could say that man wishes to provide in a more complete
way for his needs in order to continue his existence.

This is why man continually conforms his actions to rules and laws either
devised by himself or accepted from others, and why he selects a particular
way of life for himself among all the other existing possibilities. He
works in order to provide for his means of livelihood and expects his activities
to be guided by laws and regulations that must be followed. In order to
satisfy his sense of taste and overcome hunger and thirst, he eats and
drinks, for he considers eating and drinking necessary for the continuation
of his own happy existence. This rule could be multiplied by many other
instances.

The rules and laws that govern human existence depend for their acceptance
on the basic beliefs that man has concerning the nature of universal existence,
of which he himself is a part, and also upon his judgment and evaluation
of that existence. That the principles governing man's actions depend on
his conception of being as a whole becomes clear if one meditates a moment
on the different conceptions that people hold as to the nature of the world
and of man.

Those who consider the Universe to be confined only to this material,
sensible world, and man himself to be completely material and therefore
subject to annihilation when the breath of life leaves him at the moment
of death, follow a way of life designed to provide for their material desires
and transient mundane pleasures. They strive solely on this path, seeking
to bring under their control the natural conditions and factors of life.

Similarly, there are those who, like the common people among idol-worshipers,
consider the world of nature to be created by a god above nature who has
created the world specially for man and his goodness. Such men organize
their lives so as to attract the pleasure of the god and not invite his
anger. They believe that if they please the god he will multiply his bounty
and make it lasting and if they anger him he will take his bounty away
from them.

On the other hand, such men as Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians, and Muslims
follow the "high path" in this life for they believe in God and
in man's eternal life, and consider man to be responsible for his good
and evil acts. As a result they accept as proven the existence of a day
of judgment (qiyamat) and follow a path that leads to felicity in
both this world and the next.

The totality of these fundamental beliefs concerning the nature of man
and the Universe, and regulations in conformity with them which are applied
to human life, is called religion (din). If there are divergences
in these fundamental beliefs and regulations, they are called schools such
as the Sunni and the Shi'ite schools in Islam and the Nestorian in Christianity.
We can therefore say that man, even if he does not believe in the Deity,
can never be without religion if we recognize religion as a program for
life based on firm belief. Religion can never be separated from life and
is not simply a matter of ceremonial acts.

The Holy Quran asserts that man has no choice but to follow religion,
which is a path that God has placed before man so that by treading it man
can reach Him. However, those who have accepted that religion of the truth
(Islam) march in all sincerity upon the path of God, while those who have
not accepted the religion of the truth have been diverted from the divine
path and have followed the wrong road.

Islam etymologically means surrender and obedience. The Holy
Quran calls the religion which invites men toward this end "Islam"
since its general purpose is the surrender of man to the laws governing
the Universe and man, with the result that through this surrender he worships
only the One God and obeys only His commands. As the Holy Quran informs
us, the first person who called this religion "Islam" and its
followers "Muslims" was the Prophet Abraham, upon whom be peace.

Shi'ah, which means literally partisan or follower, refers to
those who consider the succession to the Prophet - may God's peace and
benediction be upon him - to be the special right of the family of the
Prophet and who in the field of the Islamic sciences and culture follow
the school of the Household of the Prophet.

PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

OF SHI'ISM

CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN AND

GROWTH OF SHI'ISM

Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans
of Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the
Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the
first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three
years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the
appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the
Prophet.

The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according
to the text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives
to come to his religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first
to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali
was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's
submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader
of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce
to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not
introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor
does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy
and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout
his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy,
disregard the respect due to his position as successor, and refuse to make
any distinctions between him and others.

The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated
hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved
from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did
was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the
most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences
and injunctions.

During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made
remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet
and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided to emigrate to Medina.
He said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will
think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?"
Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted
in different histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from
Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known
as the hijrah.) Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr,
Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with
his aid were such that if Ali had not been present the enemy would most
likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual
histories, lives of the Prophet, and collections of hadith.

For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor
to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali
to the "general guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the
people and made Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).

It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition,
because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because
of the great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of
the Prophet who knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth,
came to love him. They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an
extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive
and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements,
we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of
Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet."

The Cause of the Separation of the

Shi'ite Minority from the Sunni Majority

The friends and followers of Ali believed that after death of the Prophet
the caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i 'ilmi) belonged
to Ali. This belief came from their consideration of Ali's position and
station in relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the
companions, as well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only
the events that occurred during the few days of the Prophet's final illness
that indicated that there was opposition to their view. Contrary to their
expectation, at the very moment when the Prophet died and his body lay
still unburied, while his household and a few companions were occupied
with providing for his burial and funeral service, the friends and followers
of Ali received news of the activity of another group who had gone to the
mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden loss of
their leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set forth
in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring
the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did
this without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or
many of his friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing
them with the least information. Thus Ali and his companions were presented
with a fait accompli.

Ali and his friends - such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad
and 'Ammar - after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet
became aware of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected.
They protested against the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or
election, and also against those who were responsible for carrying it out.
They even presented their own proofs and arguments, but the answer they
received was that the welfare of the Muslims was at stake and the solution
lay in what had been done.

It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority
the minority that were following Ali and made his followers known to society
as the "partisans" or "shi'ah" of Ali. The caliphate
of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to
the Shi'ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections
comprised of a majority and a minority. The supporters of the caliph considered
the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma')
and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance."
They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society.
Sometimes the Shi'ah were given other pejorative and degrading names.

Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political
situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through
mere political protest. Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam
and of the Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and
military power, did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing
political order, which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet those who
protested against the established caliphate refused to surrender to the
majority in certain questions of faith and continued to hold that the succession
to the Prophet and religious authority belonged by right to Ali. They believed
that all spiritual and religious matters should be referred to him and
invited people to become his followers.

The Two Problems of Succession and

Authority in Religious Sciences

In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism
believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the
elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the
religious sciences. Only after such clarifications were made could the
application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other
words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should
be able to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real
nature of things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as
human beings - in which lay their real welfare - even if the performance
of these religious duties were to be against their desires. After carrying
out this first step a religious government should preserve and execute
real Islamic order in society in such a way that man would worship none
other than God, would possess personal and social freedom to the extent
possible, and would benefit from true personal and social justice.

These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant
and protected by God from having faults. Otherwise people could become
rulers or religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility
of distortion of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed
upon their shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and freedom-giving
rule of Islam could gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely
autocratic government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become,
as can be seen in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change
and distortion in the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction
of their carnal desires. As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, Ali followed
perfectly and completely the Book of God and the tradition of the Prophet
in both words and deeds. As Shi'ism sees it, if, as the majority say, only
the Quraysh opposed the rightful caliphate of Ali, then that majority should
have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was right. They should have
quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same way that they fought
against the group who refused to pay the religious tax (zakat).
The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was right for
fear of the opposition of the Quraysh.

What prevented the Shi'ah from accepting the elective method of choosing
the caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences
that might result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government
and of the destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religious sciences.
As it happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or
prediction), with the result that the Shi'ites became ever firmer in their
belief. During the earliest years, however, because of the small number
of its followers, Shi'ism appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into
the majority, although privately it continued to insist on acquiring the
Islamic sciences from the Household of the Prophet and to invite people
to its cause. At the same time, in order to preserve the power of Islam
and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display any open opposition
to the rest of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite community even fought
hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars (jihad) and participated
in public affairs. Ali himself guided the Sunni majority in the interest
of the whole Islam whenever such action was necessary.

The Political Method of the Selection of the Caliph
by

Vote and Its Disagreement with the Shi'ite View

Shi'ism believes that the Divine Law of Islam (Shari'ah), whose substance
is found in the Book of God and in the tradition (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet,
will remain valid to the Day of Judgment and can never, nor will ever,
be altered. A government which is really Islamic cannot under any pretext
refuse completely to carry out the Shari'ah's injunctions. The only duty
of an Islamic government is to make decisions by consultation within the
limits set by the Shari'ah and in accordance with the demands of the moment.

The vow of allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifah, which was motivated at
least in part by political considerations, and the incident described in
the hadith of "ink and paper," which occurred during the last
days of the illness of the Holy Prophet, reveal the fact that those who
directed and backed the movement to choose the caliph through the process
of election believed that the Book of God should be preserved in the form
of a constitution. They emphasized the Holy Book and paid much less attention
to the words of the Holy Prophet as an immutable source of the teachings
of Islam. They seem to have accepted the modification of certain aspects
of Islamic teachings concerning government to suit the conditions of the
moment and for the sake of the general welfare.

This tendency to emphasize only certain principles of
the Divine Law is confirmed by many sayings that were later transmitted
concerning the companions of the Holy Prophet. For example, the companions
were considered to be independent authorities in matters of the Divine
Law (mujtahid), being able to exercise independent judgment (ijtihad)
in public affairs. It was also believed that if they succeeded in their
task they would be rewarded by God and if they failed they would be forgiven
by Him since they were among the companions. This view was widely held
during the early years following the death of the Holy Prophet. Shi'ism
takes a stricter stand and believes that the actions of the companions,
as of all other Muslims, should be judged strictly according to the teachings
of the Shari'ah. For example, there was the complicated incident involving
the famous general Khalid ibn Walid in the house of one of the prominent
Muslims of the day, Malik ibn Nuwajrah, which led to the death of the latter.
The fact that Khalid was not at all taken to task for this incident because
of his being an outstanding military leader shows in the eyes of Shi'ism
an undue lenience toward some of the actions of the companions which were
below the norm of perfect piety and righteousness set by the actions of
the spiritual elite among the companions.

Another practice of the early years which is criticized by Shi'ism is
the cutting off of the khums from the members of the Household of
the Prophet and from the Holy Prophet's relatives. Likewise, because of
the emphasis laid by Shi'ism on the sayings and the Sunnah of the Holy
Prophet it is difficult for it to understand why the writing down of the
text of hadith was completely banned and why, if a written hadith were
found, it would be burned. We know that this ban continued through the
caliphate of the khulafa' rashidun into the Umayyad period and did
not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz, who ruled from A.H.
99/A.D. 717 TO A.H. 101/A.D. 719.

During the period of the second caliph (13/634-25/644) there was a continuation
of the policy of emphasizing certain aspects of the Shari'ah and of putting
aside some of the practices which the Shi'ites believe the Holy Prophet
taught and practiced. Some practices were forbidden, some were omitted,
and some were added. For instance, the pilgrimage of tamattu ' (a
kind of pilgrimage in which the 'umrah ceremony is utilized in place
of the hajj ceremony) was banned by Umar during his caliphate, with
the decree that transgressors would be stoned; this in spite of the fact
that during his final pilgrimage the Holy Prophet - peace be upon him -
instituted, as in Quran, Surah II, 196, a special form for the pilgrimage
ceremonies that might be performed by pilgrims coming from far away. Also,
during the lifetime of the Prophet of God temporary marriage (mut'ah)
was practiced, but Umar forbade it. And even though during the life of
the Holy Prophet it was the practice to recite in the call to prayers,
"Hurry to the best act" (hayya 'ala khayr el-'amal), Umar
ordered that it be omitted because he said it would prevent people from
participating in holy war, jihad. (It is still recited in the Shi'ite call
to prayers, but not in the Sunni call.) There were also additions to the
Shari'ah: during the time of the Prophet a divorce was valid only if the
three declarations of divorce ("I divorce thee") were made on
three different occasions, but Umar allowed the triple divorce declaration
to be made at one time. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who broke
certain of these new regulations, such as stoning in the case of mut'ah
marriage.

It was also during the period of the rule of the second
caliph that new social and economic forces led to the uneven distribution
of the public treasury (bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which
was alter the cause of bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody
struggles among Muslims. At this time Mu'awiyah was ruling in Damascus
in the style of the Persian and Byzantine kings and was even given the
title of the "Khusraw of the Arabs" (a Persian title of the highest
imperial power), but no serious protest was made against him for his worldly
type of rule.

The second caliph was killed by a Persian slave in 25/644. In accordance
with the majority vote of a six-man council which assembled by order of
the second caliph before his death, the third caliph was chosen. The third
caliph did not prevent his Umayyad relatives from becoming dominant over
the people during his caliphate and appointed some of them as rulers in
the Hijaz, Iraq, Egypt, and other Muslim lands. These relatives began to
be lax in applying moral principles in government. Some of them openly,
committed injustice and tyranny, sin and iniquity, and broke certain of
the tenets of firmly established Islamic laws.

Before long, streams of protest began to flow toward the capital. But
the caliph, who was under the influence of his relatives - particularly
Marwan ibn Hakam - did not act promptly or decisively to remove the causes
against which the people were protesting. Sometimes it even happened that
those who protested were punished and driven away.

An incident that happened in Egypt illustrates the nature
of the rule of the third caliph. A group of Muslims in Egypt rebelled against
Uthman. Uthman sensed the dander and asked Ali for help, expressing his
feeling of contrition. Ali told the Egyptians, "You have revolted
in order to bring justice and truth to life. Uthman has repented saying,
'I shall change my ways and in three days will fulfill your wishes. I shall
expel the oppressive rulers from their posts.'" Ali then wrote an
agreement with them on behalf of Uthman and they started home. On the way
they saw the slave of Uthman riding on his camel in the direction of Egypt.
They became suspicious of him and searched him. On him they found a letter
for the governor of Egypt containing the following words: "In the
name of God. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Addis comes to you beat him with
a hundred lashes, shave his head and beard and condemn him to long imprisonment.
Do the same in the case of 'Amr ibn al'Hamq, Suda ibn Hamran, and 'Urwah
ibn Niba '." The Egyptians took the letter and returned with anger
to Uthman, saying, "You have betrayed us!" Uthman denied the
letter. They said, "Your slave was the carrier of the letter."
He answered, "He has committed this act without my permission and
knowledge." They said, "The letter is in the handwriting of your
secretary." He replied, "This has been done without my permission
and knowledge." They said, "In any case you are not competent
to be caliph and must resign, for if this has been done with your permission
you are a traitor and if such important matters take place without your
permission and knowledge then your incapability and incompetence is proven.
In any case, either resign or dismiss the oppressive agents from office
immediately." Uthman answered, "If I wish to act according to
your will, then it is you who are the rulers. Then, what is my function?"
They stood up and left the gathering in anger.

During his caliphate Uthman allowed the government of
Damascus, at the head of which stood Mu'awiyah, to be strengthened more
than ever before. In reality, the center of gravity of the caliphate as
far as political power was concerned was shifting to Damascus and the organization
in Medina, the capital of the Islamic world, was politically no more than
a form without the necessary power and substance to support it. Finally,
in the year 35/656, the people rebelled and after a few days of siege and
fighting the third caliph was killed.

The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the
companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and
the third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were
organized and determined by the second caliph. Altogether, the policy of
these three caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute
and apply Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad
and what appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves. As for
the Islamic sciences, the policy of these caliphs was to have the Holy
Quran read and understood without being concerned with commentaries upon
it or allowing it to become the subject of discussion. The hadith of the
Prophet was recited and was transmitted orally without being written down.
Writing was limited to the text of the Holy Quran and was forbidden in
the case of hadith.

After the battle of Yamamah which ended in 12/633, many of those who
had been reciters of the Holy Quran and who knew it by heart were killed.
As a result Umar ibn al-Khattab proposed to the first caliph to have the
verses of the Holy Quran collected in written form, saying that if another
war were to occur and the rest of those who knew the Quran by heart were
to be killed, the knowledge of the text of the Holy Book would disappear
among men. Therefore, it was necessary to assemble the Quranic verses in
written form.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears strange that
this decision was made concerning the Quran and yet despite the fact that
the prophetic hadith, which is the complement of the Quran, was faced with
the same danger and was not free from corruption in transmission, addition,
diminution, forgery and forgetfulness, the same attention was not paid
to it. On the contrary, as already mentioned, writing it down was forbidden
and all of the written versions of it that were found were burned, as if
to emphasize that only the text of the Holy Book should exist in written
form.

As for the other Islamic sciences, during this period little effort
was made to propagate them, the energies of the community being spent mostly
in establishing the new sociopolitical order. Despite all the praise and
consecration which are found in the Quran concerning knowledge ('ilm),
and the emphasis placed upon its cultivation, the avid cultivation of the
religious sciences was postponed to a later period of Islamic history.

Most men were occupied with the remarkable and continuous victories
of the Islamic armies, and were carried away by the flood of immeasurable
booty which came from all directions toward the Arabian peninsula. With
this new wealth and the worldliness which came along with it, few were
willing to devote themselves to the cultivation of the sciences of the
Household of the Prophet, at whose head stood Ali, whom the Holy Prophet
had introduced to the people as the one most versed in the Islamic sciences.
At the same time, the inner meaning and purpose of the teachings of the
Holy Quran were neglected by most of those who were affected by this change.
It is strange that, even in the matter of collecting the verses of the
Holy Quran, Ali was not consulted and his mane was not mentioned among
those who participated in this task, although it was known by everyone
that he had collected the text of the Holy Quran after the death of the
Prophet.

It has been recounted in many traditions that after receiving allegiance
from the community, Abu Bakr sent someone to Ali and asked for his allegiance.
Ali said, "I have promised not to leave my house except for the daily
prayers until I compile the Quran." And it has been mentioned that
Ali gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr after six months. This itself is proof
that Ali had finished compiling the Quran. Likewise, it has been recounted
that after compiling the Quran he placed the pages of the Holy Book on
a camel and showed it to the people. It is also recounted that the battle
of Yamamah after which the Quran was compiled, occurred during the second
year of the caliphate of Abu Bakr. These facts have been mentioned in most
works on history and hadith which deal with the account of the compilation
of the Holy Quran.

These and similar events made the followers of Ali more
firm in their belief and more conscious of the course that lay before them.
They increased their activity from day to day and Ali himself, who was
cut off from the possibility of educating and training the people in general,
concentrated on privately training an elite.

During this twenty-five year period Ali lost through death three of
his four dearest friends and associates, who were also among the companions
of the Prophet: Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Miqdad. They
had been constant in their friendship with him in all circumstances. It
was also during this same period that some of the other companions of the
Holy Prophet and a large number of their followers in the Hijaz, the Yemen,
Iraq, and other lands, joined the followers of Ali. As a result, after
the death of the third caliph the people turned to Ali from all sides,
swore allegiance to him and chose him as caliph.

The Termination of the Caliphate of 'Ali Amir al-mu'minin

and His Method of Rule

The caliphate of Ali began toward the end of the year 35/656 and lasted
about four years and nine months. During his period as caliph Ali followed
the ways of the Holy Prophet and brought conditions back to their original
state. He forced the resignation of all the incompetent political elements
who had a hand in directing affairs and began in reality a major transformation
of a "revolutionary" nature which caused him innumerable difficulties.

On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O
People, be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic
period of the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you.
Your ranks must be turned completely around so that the people of virtue
who have fallen behind should come forward and those who had come to the
fore without being worthy should fall behind. There is both truth (haqq)
and falsehood (batil). Each has its followers; but a person should
follow the truth. If falsehood be prevalent it is not something new, and
if the truth is rare and hard to come by, sometimes even that which is
rare wins the day so that there is hope of advance. Of course it does not
occur often that something which has turned away from man should return
to him."

Ali continued his radically different type of government based more
on righteousness than political efficacy but, as is necessary in the case
of every movement of this kind, elements of the opposition whose interests
were endangered began to display their displeasure and resisted his rule.
Basing their actions on the claim that they wanted to revenge the death
of Uthman, they instigated bloody wars which continued throughout almost
all the time that Ali was caliph. From the Shi'ite point of view those
who caused these civil wars had no end in mind other than their own personal
interest. The wish to revenge the blood of the third caliph was no more
than an excuse to fool the crowd. There was no question of a misunderstanding.

After the death of the Holy Prophet, a small minority, following Ali,
refused to pay allegiance. At the head of the minority there were Salman,
Abu Dharr, Miqdad, and Ammar. At the beginning of the caliphate of Ali
also a sizable minority in disagreement refused to pay allegiance. Among
the most persistent opponents were Sa'id ibn 'Ass, Walid ibn 'Uqbah, Marwan
ibn Hakam, 'Amr ibn 'Ass, Busr ibn Artat, Samurah ibn Jundab, and Mughirah
ibn Shu'bah.

The study of the biography of these two groups, and meditation
upon the acts they have performed and stories recounted of them in history
books, reveal fully their religious personality and aim. The first group
were among the elite of the companions of the Holy Prophet and among the
ascetics, devout worshipers and selfless devotees of Islam who struggled
on the path of Islamic freedom. They were especially loved by the Prophet.
The Prophet said, "God has informed me that He loves four men and
that I should love them also." They asked about their names. He mentioned
Ali and then the names of Abu Dharr, Salman and Miqdad. (Sunan of
Ibn Majah, Cairo, 1372, vol. I, p. 66.) 'A'ishah has recounted that the
Prophet of God said, "If two alternatives are placed before Ammar,
he will definitely choose that which is more true and right." (Ibn
Majah, vol. I, p. 66.) The Prophet said, "There is no one between
heaven and earth more truthful than Abu Dharr." (Ibn Majah, vol.
I, p. 68.) There is no record of a single forbidden act committed by these
men during their lifetime. They never spilled any blood unjustly, did not
commit aggression against anyone, did not steal anyone's property, never
sought to corrupt and misguide people.

History is, however, full of accounts of unworthy acts committed by
some of the second group. The various acts committed by some of these men
in opposition to explicit Islamic teachings are beyond reckoning. These
acts cannot be excused in any manner except the way that is followed by
certain groups among the Sunnis who say that God was satisfied with them
and therefore they were free to perform whatever act they wished, and that
they would not be punished for violating the injunctions and regulations
existing in the Holy Book and the Sunnah.

The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle
of the Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created
during the period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic
forces which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among
members of the community. When chosen to the caliphate, Ali divided the
treasury evenly as had been the method of the Holy Prophet, but this manner
of dividing the wealth upset Talhah and Zubayr greatly. They began to show
signs of disobedience and left Medina for Mecca with the alleged aim of
making the pilgrimage. They persuaded "the mother of the Faithful"
(umm al-mu'minin), A'ishah, who was not friendly with Ali, to join
them and in the name of wanting to revenge the death of the third caliph
they began the bloody Battle of the Camel. This was done despite the fact
that this same Talhah and Zubayr were in Medina when the third caliph was
besieged and killed but did nothing to defend him. Furthermore, after his
death they were the first to pay allegiance to Ali on behalf of the immigrants
(muhajirun) as well as on their own. Also, the "mother of the
Faithful," A'ishah, did not show any opposition to those who had killed
the third caliph at the moment when she received the news of his death.
It must be remembered that the main investigators of the disturbances that
led to the death of the third caliph were those companions who wrote letters
from Medina to people near and far inviting them to rebel against the caliph,
a fact which is repeated in many early Muslim histories.

As for the second war, called the Battle of Siffin, which
lasted for a year and a half, its cause was the covetousness of Mu'awiyah
for the caliphate which for him was a worldly political instrument rather
than a religious institution. But as an excuse he made the revenge of the
blood of the third caliph the main issue and began a war in which more
than a hundred thousand people perished without reason. Naturally, in these
wars Mu'awiyah was the aggressor rather than the defender, for the protest
to revenge someone's blood can never occur in the form of defense. The
pretext of this war was blood revenge. During the last days of his life,
the third caliph, in order to quell the uprising against him, asked Mu'awiyah
for help, but the army of Mu'awiyah which set out from Damascus to Medina
purposely waited on the road until the caliph was killed. Then he returned
to Damascus to begin an uprising to revenge the caliph's death. After the
death of Ali and his gaining the caliphate himself, Mu'awiyah forgot the
question of revenging the blood of the third caliph and did not pursue
the matter further.

After Siffin there occurred the battle of Nahrawan in which a number
people, among whom there could be found some of the companions, rebelled
against Ali, possibly at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. These people were
causing rebellion throughout the lands of Islam, killing the Muslims and
especially the followers of Ali. They even attacked pregnant women and
killed their babies. Ali put down this uprising as well, but a short while
later was himself killed in the mosque of Kufa by one of the members of
this group who came to be known as the Khawarij.

The opponents of Ali claim that he was a courageous man but did not
possess political acumen. They claim that at the beginning of his caliphate
he could have temporarily made peace with his opponents. He could have
approached them through peace and friendship, thus courting their satisfaction
and approval. In this way he could have strengthened his caliphate and
only then turned to their extirpation and destruction. What people who
hold this view forgot is that the movement of Ali was not based on political
opportunism. It was a radical and revolutionary religious movement (in
the true sense of revolution as a spiritual movement to reestablish the
real order of things and not in its current political and social sense);
therefore it could not have been accomplished through compromise or flattery
and forgery. A similar situation can be seen during the apostleship of
the Holy Prophet. The infidels and polytheists proposed peace to him many
times and swore that if he were to abstain from protesting against their
gods they would not interfere with his religious mission. But the Prophet
did not accept such a proposal, although he could in those days of difficulty
have made peace and used flattery to fortify his own position, and then
have risen against his enemies. In fact, the Islamic message never allows
a right and just cause, nor a falsehood to be rejected and disproven through
another falsehood. There are many Quranic verses concerning this matter.

The Benefit which the Shi'ah Derived from the

Caliphate of Ali

During the four years and nine months of his caliphate, Ali was not
able to eliminate the disturbed conditions which were prevailing throughout
the Islamic world, but he was successful in three fundamental ways:

1. As a result of his just and upright manner of living he revealed
once again the beauty and attractiveness of the way of life of the Holy
Prophet, especially to the younger generation. In contrast to the imperial
grandeur of Mu'awiyah, he lived in simplicity and poverty like the poorest
of people. He never favored his friends or relatives and family above others,
nor did he ever prefer wealth to poverty or brute force to weakness.

2. Despite the cumbersome and strenuous difficulties which absorbed
his time, he left behind among the Islamic community a valuable treasury
of the truly divine sciences and Islamic intellectual disciplines. Nearly
eleven thousand of his proverbs and short sayings on different intellectual,
religious and social subjects have been recorded. In his talks and speeches
he expounded the most sublime Islamic sciences in a most elegant and flowing
manner. He established Arabic grammar and laid the basis for Arabic literature.

He was the first in Islam to delve directly into the questions of metaphysics
(falsafah-i ilahi) in a manner combining intellectual rigor and
logical demonstration. He discussed problems which had never appeared before
in the same way among the metaphysicians of the world. Moreover, he was
so devoted to metaphysics and gnosis that even in the heat of battle he
would carry out intellectual discourse and discuss metaphysical questions.

3. He trained a large number of religious scholars and Islamic savants,
among whom are found a number of ascetics and gnostics who were the forefathers
of the Sufis, such men as Uways al-Qarani, Kumayl al-Nakha'i, Maytham al-Tammar
and Roshaid al-Hajari. These men have been recognized by the later Sufis
as the founders of gnosis in Islam. Others among his disciples became the
first teachers of jurisprudence, theology, Quranic commentary and recitation.

The Transfer of the Caliphate to Mu'awiyah and

Its Transformation into a Hereditary Monarchy

After the death of Ali, his son, Hasan ibn Ali, who is recognized by
the Shi'ah as their second Imam, became caliph. This designation occurred
in accordance with Ali's last will and testament and also by the allegiance
of the community to Hasan. But Mu'awiyah did not remain quiet before this
event. He marched with his army toward Iraq, which was then the capital
of the caliphate , and began to wage war against Hasan.

Through different intrigues and the payment of great sums of money,
Mu'awiyah was able gradually to corrupt the aides and generals of Hasan.
Finally he was able to force Hasan to hand the caliphate over to him so
as to avoid bloodshed and to make peace. Hasan handed the caliphate to
Mu'awiyah on the condition that the caliphate would be returned to him
after the death of Mu'awiyah and that no harm would come to his partisans.

In the year 40/661 Mu'awiyah finally gained control of the caliphate.
He then set out immediately for Iraq and in a speech to the people of that
land said: "I did not fight against you for the sake of the prayers
or of fasting. These acts you can perform yourself. What I wanted to accomplish
was to rule over you and this end I have achieved." He also said,
"The agreement I made with Hasan is null and void. It lies trampled
under my feet." With this declaration Mu'awiyah made known to the
people the real character of his government and revealed the nature of
the program he had in mind.

He indicated in his declaration that he would separate religion from
politics and would not give any guarantees concerning religious duties
and regulations. He would spend all his force to preserve and to keep alive
his own power, whatever might be the cost. Obviously a government of such
a nature is more of a sultanate and a monarchy than a caliphate and vicegerency
of the Prophet of God in its traditional Islamic sense. That is why some
who were admitted to his court addressed him as "king." He himself
in some private gatherings interpreted his government as a monarchy, while
in public he always introduced himself as the caliph.

Naturally any monarchy that is based on force carries with it inherently
the principle of inheritance. Mu'awiyah, too, finally realized this fact,
and chose his son, Yazid, who was a heedless young man without the least
religious personality, as the "crown prince" and his successor.
This act was to be the cause of many regrettable events in the future.
Mu'awiyah had previously indicated that he would refuse to permit Hasan
ibn Ali to succeed him as caliph and that he had other thoughts in mind.
Therefore he had caused Hasan to be killed by poisoning, thus preparing
the way for his son, Yazid.

In breaking his agreement with Hasan, Mu'awiyah made it clear that he
would never permit the Shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet to live in
a peaceful and secure environment and continue their activity as before,
and he carried into action this very intention. It has been said that he
went so far as to declare that whoever would transmit a hadith in praise
of the virtues of the Household of the Prophet would have no immunity or
protection concerning his life, merchandise and property. At the same time
he ordered that whoever could recite a hadith in praise of the other companions
or caliphs would be given sufficient reward. As a result a noticeable number
of hadiths were recorded at this time praising the companions, some of
which are of doubtful authenticity. He ordered pejorative comments to be
made about Ali from the pulpits of mosques throughout the lands of Islam,
while he himself sought to revile Ali. This command continued to be more
or less in effect until the caliphate of Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, when it
was discontinued. With the help of his agents and lieutenants, Mu'awiyah
caused elite and the most outstanding among the partisans of Ali to be
put to death and the heads of some of them to be carried on lances throughout
different cities. The majority of Shi'ites were forced to disown and even
curse Ali and to express their disdain for him. If they refused, they were
put to death.

The Bleakest Days of Shi'ism

The most difficult period for Shi'ism was the twenty-year rule of Mu'awiyah,
during which the Shi'ites had no protection and most of them were considered
as marked characters, under suspicion and hunted down by the state. Two
of the leaders of Shi'ism who lived at this time, Imams Hasan and Husayn,
did not possess any means whatsoever to change the negative and oppressive
circumstances in which they lived. Husayn, the third Imam of Shi'ism, had
no possibility of freeing the Shi'ites from persecution in the ten years
he was Imam during Mu'awiyah's caliphate, and when he rebelled during the
caliphate of Yazid he was massacred along with all his aides and children.

Certain people in the Sunni world explain as pardonable the arbitrary,
unjust and irresponsible actions carried out at this time by Mu'awiyah
and his aides and lieutenants, some of whom were like Mu'awiyah himself,
among the companions. This group reasons that according to certain hadiths
of the Holy Prophet all the companions could practice ijtihad, that they
were excused by God for the sins they committed, and that God was satisfied
with them and forgave them whatever wrong they might have performed. The
Shi'ites, however, do not accept this argument for two reasons:

1. It is not conceivable that a leader of human society like the Prophet
should rise in order to revivify truth, justice and freedom and to persuade
a group of people to accept his beliefs - a group all of whose members
had sacrificed their very existence in order to accomplish this sacred
end - and then as soon as this end is accomplished give his aides and companions
complete freedom to do with these sacred laws as they will. It is not possible
to believe that the Holy Prophet would have forgiven the companions for
whatever wrong action they might have performed. Such indifference to the
type of action performed by them would have only destroyed the structure
which the Holy Prophet had built with the same means that he had used to
construct it.

2. Those sayings which depict the companions as inviolable and pardoned
in advance for every act they might perform, even one unlawful or inadmissible,
are most likely apocryphal ; the authenticity of many of them has not been
fully established by traditional methods. Moreover, it is known historically
that the companions did not deal with one another as if they were inviolable
and pardoned for all their sins and wrongdoings. Therefore, even judging
by the way the companions acted and dealt with each other, it can be concluded
that such sayings cannot be literally true in the way some have understood
them. If they do contain an aspect of the truth it is in indicating the
legal inviolability of the companions and the sanctification which they
enjoyed generally as a group because of their proximity to the Holy Prophet.
The expression of God's satisfaction with the companions in the Holy Quran,
because of the services they had rendered in obeying His Command, refers
to their past actions, and to God's satisfaction with them in the past,
not to whatever action each one of them might perform in the future.

The Establishment of Umayyad Rule

In the year 60/680 Mu'awiyah died and his son Yazid became caliph, as
the result of the allegiance which his father had obtained for him from
the powerful political and military leaders of the community. From the
testimony of historical documents it can be seen clearly that Yazid had
no religious character at all and that even during the lifetime of his
father he was oblivious to the principles and regulations of Islam. At
that time his only interest was debauchery and frivolity. During his three
years of caliphate he was the cause of calamities that had no precedent
in the history of Islam, despite all the strife that had occurred before
him.

During the first year of Yazid's rule Imam Husayn, the grandson of the
Holy Prophet, was massacred in the most atrocious manner along with his
children, relatives, and friends. Yazid even had some of the women and
children of the Household of the Prophet killed and their heads displayed
in different cities. During the second year of his rule, he ordered a general
massacre of Medina and for three days gave his soldiers freedom to kill,
loot, and take the women of the city. During the third year he had the
sacred Ka'bah destroyed and burned.

Following Yazid, the family of Marwan gained possession of the caliphate,
according to details that are recorded in the history books. The rule of
this eleven-member group, which lasted for nearly seventy years, was successful
politically but from the point of view of purely religious values it fell
short of Islamic ideals and practices. Islamic society was dominated by
the Arab element alone and non-Arabs were subordinated to the Arabs. In
fact a strong Arab empire was created which gave itself the name of an
Islamic caliphate. During this period some of the caliphs were indifferent
to religious sentiments to the extent that one of them - who was the "vicegerent
of the Holy Prophet" and was regarded as the protector of religion
- decided without showing any respect for Islamic practices and the feelings
of Muslims to construct a room above the Ka'bah so that he could have a
place to enjoy and amuse himself during the annual pilgrimage. It is even
recounted of one of these caliphs that he made the Holy Quran a target
for his arrow and in a poem composed to the Quran said: "On the Day
of Judgment when you appear before God tell Him 'the caliph tore me.'"

Naturally the Shi'ites, whose basic differences with the Sunnis were
in the two questions of the Islamic caliphate and religious authority,
were passing through bitter and difficult days in this dark period. Yet
in spite of the unjust and irresponsible ways of the governments of the
time the asceticism and purity of the leaders of the Household of the Prophet
made the Shi'ites each day ever more determined to hold on to their beliefs.
Of particular importance was the tragic death of Husayn, the third Imam,
which played a major role in the spread of Shi'ism, especially in regions
away from the center of the caliphate, such as Iraq, the Yemen, and Persia.
This can be seen through the fact that during the period of the fifth Imam,
before the end of the first Islamic century, and less than forty years
after the death of Husayn, the Shi'ites took advantage of the internal
differences and weaknesses in the Umayyad government and began to organize
themselves, flocking to the side of the fifth Imam. People came from all
Islamic countries like a flood to his door to collect hadith and to learn
the Islamic sciences. The first century had not yet ended when a few of
the leaders who were influential in the government established the city
of Qum in Persia and made it a Shi'ite settlement. But even then the Shi'ah
continued to live for the most part in hiding and followed their religious
life secretly without external manifestations.

Several times the descendants of the Prophet (who are called in Persian
sadat-i 'alawi) rebelled against the injustice of the government,
but each time they were defeated and usually lost their lives. The severe
and unscrupulous government of the time did not overlook any means of crushing
them. The body of Zayd, the leader of Zayd Shi'ism, was dug out of the
grave and hanged; then after remaining on the gallows for three years it
was brought down and burned, its ashes being thrown to the wind. The Shi'ites
believe that the fourth and fifth Imams were poisoned by the Umayyads as
the second and third Imams had been killed by them before.

The calamities brought about by the Umayyads were so open and unveiled
that the majority of the Sunnis, although they believed generally that
it was their duty to obey the caliphs, felt the pangs of their religious
conscience and were forced to divide the caliphs into two groups. They
came to distinguish between the "rightly guided caliphs" (khulafa
rashidun) who are the first four caliphs after the death of the Holy
Prophet (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali), and the others who began with Mu'awiyah
and who did not possess by any means the religious virtues of the rightly
guided caliphs.

The Umayyads caused so much public hatred as a result of their injustice
and heedlessness during their rule that after the definitive defeat and
death of the last Umayyad caliph his two sons and a number of their family
encountered great difficulties in escaping from the capital. No matter
where they turned no one would give them shelter. Finally after much wandering
the deserts of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Bajawah (between Nubia and Abyssinia)
during which many of them died from hunger and thirst, they came to Bab
al-Mandab of the Yemen. There they acquired travel expenses from the people
through begging and set out for Mecca dressed as porters. In Mecca they
finally succeeded in disappearing among the mass of the people.

Shi'ism During the 2nd/8th Century

During the latter part of the first third of the 2nd/8th century, following
a series of revolutions and bloody wars throughout the Islamic world which
were due to the injustice, repressions, and wrongdoings of the Umayyads,
there began an anti-Umayyad movement in the name of the Household of the
Prophet in Khurasan in Persia. The leader of this movement was the Persian
general, Abu Muslim Marwazi, who rebelled against Umayyad rule and advance
his cause step by step until he was able to overthrow the Umayyad government.

Although this movement originated from a profound Shi'ite background
and came into being more or less with the claim of wanting to avenge the
blood of the Household of the Prophet, and although people were even asked
secretly to give allegiance to a qualified member of the family of the
Prophet, it did not rise directly as a result of the instructions of the
Imams. This is witnessed by the fact that when Abu Muslim offered the caliphate
to the sixth Imam in Medina he rejected it completely saying "You
are not one of my men and the time is not my time."

Finally the Abbasids gained the caliphate in the name of the family
of the Prophet and at the beginning showed some kindness to people in general
and to descendants of the Prophet in particular. In the name of avenging
the martyrdom of the family of the Prophet, they massacred the Umayyads,
going to the extent of opening their graves and burning whatever they found
in them. But soon they began to follow unjust ways of the Umayyads and
did not abstain in any way from injustice and irresponsible action. Abu
Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of law, was imprisoned
by al-Mansur and whipped. The sixth Imam died from poisoning after much
torture and pain. The descendants of the Holy Prophet were sometimes beheaded
in groups, buried alive, or even placed within walls of government buildings
under construction.

Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid caliph, during whose reign the Islamic
empire reached the apogee of its expansion and power, occasionally would
look at the sun and address it in these words: "Shine wherever thou
wilt, thou shalt never be able to leave my kingdom." On the other
hand his armies were advancing in the East and West, on the other hand
a few steps from the palace of the caliph, and without his knowledge, officials
had decided on their own to collect tolls from people who wanted to cross
the Baghdad bridge. Even one day when the caliph himself wanted to cross
the bridge he was stopped and asked to pay the toll.

A singer, by chanting two lascivious verses, incited the passions of
the Abbasid caliph, Amin, who awarded him three million dirhams.
The chanter in joy threw himself at the feet of the caliph saying, "Oh,
leader of the faithful! You give me all this money?" The caliph answered,
"It does not matter. We receive money from an unknown part of the
country."

The bewildering amount of wealth that was pouring every year from all
corners of the Islamic world into the public treasury in the capital helped
creating luxury and a mundane atmosphere. Much of it in fact was often
spent for the pleasures and iniquities of the caliph of the time. The number
of beautiful slave girls in the court of some of the caliphs exceeded thousands.
By the dissolution of Umayyad rule and the establishment of the Abbasids,
Shi'ism did not benefit in any way. Its repressive and unjust opponents
merely changed their name.

Shi'ism in the 3rd/9th Century

At the beginning of the 3rd/9th century Shi'ism was able to breathe
once again. This more favorable condition was first of all due to the fact
that many scientific and philosophical books were translated from Greek,
Syriac, and other languages into Arabic, and people eagerly studied the
intellectual and rational sciences. Moreover, al-Ma'mun, the Abbasid caliph
from 198/813 to 218/833, had Mu'tazilite leanings and since in his religious
views he favored intellectual demonstration, he was more inclined to give
complete freedom to the discussion and propagation of different religious
views. Shi'ite theologians and scholars took full advantage of this freedom
and did their utmost to further scholarly activities and propagate Shi'ite
teachings. Also, al-Ma'mun, following demands of the political forces at
the time, had made the eight Shi'ite Imam his successor, as is recounted
in most standard histories. As a result, the descendants of the Holy Prophet
and their friends were to a certain extent free from pressures from the
government and enjoyed some degrees of liberty. Yet before long the cutting
edge of the sword once again turned towards the Shi'ites and the forgotten
ways of the past came upon them again. This was particularly true in the
case of al-Mutawakkil (233/847-247/861) who held a special enmity towards
Ali and the Shi'ites. By his order the tomb of the third Imam in Karbala
was completely demolished.

Shi'ism in the 4th/10th Century

In the 4th/10th century certain conditions again prevailed which aided
greatly the spread and strengthening of Shi'ism. Among them were the weaknesses
that appeared in the central Abbasid government and administration and
the appearance of the Buyid rulers. The Buyids, who were Shi'ite had the
greatest influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the
capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself.
This new strength of considerable proportions enabled the Shi'ites to stand
up before their opponents who previously had tried to crush them by relying
upon the power of the caliphate. It also made it possible for the Shi'ites
to propagate their religious views openly.

As recorded by historians, during this century most of the Arabian peninsula
was Shi'ite with the exception of some of the big cities. Even some of
the major cities like Hajar, Uman, and Sa'dah were Shi'ite. In Basra, which
had always been a Sunni city and competed with Kufa which was considered
a Shi'ite center, there appeared a notable group of Shi'ites. Also in Tripoli,
Nablus, Tiberias, Aleppo, Nayshapur, and Herat there were many Shi'ites,
while Ahwaz and the coast of the Persian Gulf on the Persian side were
also Shi'ite.

At the beginning of this century Nasir Utrush, after many years of propagation
of his religious mission in northern Persia, gained power in Tabaristan
and established a kingdom which continued for several generations after
him. Before Utrush, Hasan ibn Zayd al-'Alawi had reigned from many years
in Tabaristan. Also in this period the Fatimids, who were Isma'ili, conquered
Egypt and organized a caliphate which lasted for over two centuries (296/908-567/1171).
Often disputation and fighting occurred in major cities like Baghdad, Cairo
and Nayshapur between Shi'ites and Sunnis, in some of which the Shi'ites
would gain the upper hand and come out victorious.

Shi'ism from the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th Centuries

From the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th centuries Shi'ism continued to expand
as it had done in the 4th/10th century. Many kings and rulers who were
Shi'ite appeared in different parts of the Islamic world and propagated
Shi'ism. Toward the end of the 5th/11th century the missionary activity
of Isma'ilism took root in the fort of Alamut and for nearly a century
and a half the Isma'ilis lived in complete independence in the central
regions of Persia. Also the Sadat-i Mar'ashi, who were descendants of the
Holy Prophet, ruled for many years in Mazandaran (Tabaristan). Shah Muhammad
Khudabandah, one of the well-known Mongol rulers, became Shi'ite and his
descendants ruled for many years in Persia and were instrumental in spreading
Shi'ism. Mention must also be made of the kings of the Aq Qoyunlu and Qara
Qoyunlu dynasties who ruled in Tabriz and whose domain extended to Fars
and Kerman, as well as of the Fatimid government which was ruling in Egypt.

Of course religious freedom and the possibility of exerting religious
power by the populace differed under different rulers. For example, with
the termination of Fatimid rule and coming to power of the Ayyubids the
scene changed completely and the Shi'ite population of Egypt and Syria
lost its religious independence. Many of the Shi'ites of Syria were killed
during this period merely on the accusation of following Shi'ism. One of
these was Shahid-i awwal (the First Martyr) Muhammad ibn Makki, one of
the great figures in Shi'ite jurisprudence, who was killed in Damascus
in 786/1384. Also Shaykh al-ishraq Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi was killed
in Aleppo on the accusation that he was cultivating Batini teachings and
philosophy. Altogether during this period Shi'ism was growing from the
point of view of numbers, even though its religious power and freedom depended
upon local conditions and the rulers of the time. During this period, however,
Shi'ism never became the official religion of any Muslim state.

Shi'ism in the 10th/16th and 11th/17th Centuries

In the 10th/16th century Isma'il, who was of the household of Shaykh
Safi al-Din Ardibili (d. 735/1334), a Sufi master and also a Shi'ite, began
a revolt in Ardibil, with three hundred Sufis who were disciples of his
forefathers, with the aim of establishing an independent and powerful Shi'ite
country. In this way he began the conquest of Persia and overcame the local
feudal princes. After a series of bloody wars with local rulers and also
the Ottomans who held the title of caliph, he succeeded in forming Persia
piece by piece into a country and in making Shi'ism the official religion
in his kingdom.

After the death of Shah Isma'il other Safavid kings reigned in Persia
until the 12th/18th century and each continued to recognize Shi'ism as
the official religion of the country and further to strengthen its hold
upon this land. At the height of their power, during the reign of Shah
'Abbas, the Safavids were able to increase the territorial expansion and
the population of Persia to twice its present size. As for other Muslim
lands, the Shi'ite population continued the same as before and increased
only through the natural growth of population.

Shi'ism from the 12th/18th to the 14th/20th Centuries

During the past three centuries Shi'ism has followed its natural rate
of growth as before. At the present moment, during the latter part of the
14th/20th century, Shi'ism is recognized as the official religion in Iran,
and in the Yemen and Iraq the majority population is Shi'ite. In nearly
all lands where there are Muslims one can find a certain number of Shi'ites.
It has been said that altogether in the world today there are about eighty
to ninety million Shi'ites.

CHAPTER II DIVISIONS

WITHIN SHI'ISM

Each religion possesses a certain number of primary principles which
form its essential basis and other principles of secondary importance.
When the followers of a religion differ as to the nature of the primary
principles and their secondary aspects but preserve a common basis, the
result is called division (inshi'ab) within that religion. Such
divisions exist in all traditions and religions, and more particularly
in the four "revealed" religions of Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism,
and Islam.

Shi'ism did not undergo any divisions during the imamate of the first
three Imams: Ali, Hasan, and Husayn. But after the martyrdom of Husayn,
the majority of the Shi'ites accepted the imamate of Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad,
while a minority known as the Kisaniyah believed that the third son of
Ali, Muhammad ibn Hanafiyah, was the fourth Imam as well as the promised
Mahdi, and that he had gone into occultation in the Radwa mountains and
one day would reappear. After the death of Imam al-Sajjad the majority
of the Shi'ites accepted as Imam his son, Muhammad al-Baqir, while a minority
followed Zayd al-Shahid, another son of Imam al-Sajjad, and became known
as Zaydis. Following Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, the Shi'ites accepted his
son Ja'far al-Sadiq as Imam and after the death of Imam Ja'far the majority
followed his son Imam Musa al-Kazim as the seventh Imam. However, one group
followed the older son of the sixth Imam, Isma'il, who had died while his
father was still alive, and when this latter group separated from the majority
of Shi'ites it became known as Isma'ilis. Others accepted as Imam either
'Abdollah al-Aftah or Muhammad, both sons of the sixth Imam. Finally, another
party stopped with the sixth Imam himself and considered him as the last
Imam. In the same way, after the martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim the majority
followed his son, Ali al-Rida, as the eight Imam. However, some stopped
with the seventh Imam and became known as the Waqifiyah.

From the eighth Imam to the twelfth, whom the majority of the Shi'ites
believe to be the promised Mahdi, no division of any importance took place
within Shi'ism. Even if certain events occurred in the form of division,
they lasted but a few days and dissolved by themselves. For example, Ja'far,
the son of the tenth Imam, claimed to be Imam after the death of his brother,
the eleventh Imam. A group of people followed him but scattered in a few
days and Ja'far himself did not follow his claim any further. Further more,
there are differences between Shi'ites in theological and juridical matters
which must not be considered as division in religious schools. Also the
Babi and Baha'i sects, which like the Batinis (the Qaramitah) differ in
both the principles (usul) and branches (furu') of Islam from the Muslims,
should in any sense be considered as branches of Shi'ism.

The sects which separated from the majority of Shi'ites all dissolved
within a short period, except two: the Zaydi and the Isma'ili which continue
to exist until now. To this day communities of these branches are active
in various parts of the world such as the Yemen, India, and Syria. Therefore,
we shall limit our discussion to these two branches along with the majority
of Shi'ites who are Twelvers.

Zaydism and Its Branches

The Zaydis are the followers of Zayd al-Shahid, the son of Imam al-Sajjad.
Zayd rebelled in 121/737 against the Umayyad caliph Hisham 'Abd al-Malik
and a group paid allegiance to him. A battle ensued in Kufa between Zayd
and the army of the caliph in which Zayd was killed.

The followers of Zayd regard him as the fifth Imam of the Household
of the Prophet. After him his son, Yahya ibn Zayd, who rebelled against
the caliph Walid ibn Yazid and was also killed, took his place. After Yahya,
Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah and Ibrahim ibn 'Abdallah, who revolted against
the Abbasid caliph Mansur al-Dawaniqi and were also killed, were chosen
as Imams.

Henceforth for some time there was disorder in Zaydi ranks until Nasir
al-Utrush, a descendant of the brother of Zayd, arose in Khurasan. Being
pursued by the governmental authorities in that region, he fled to Mazandaran,
becoming himself Imam. For some time his descendants continued to rule
as Imams in that area.

According to Zaydi belief any descendant of Fatimah (the daughter of
the Prophet) who begins an uprising in the name of defending the truth
may become Imam if he is learned in the religious sciences, ethically pure,
courageous and generous. Yet for some time after Utrush and his descendants
there was no Imam who could bring about an insurrection with the sword
until recently when, about sixty years ago, Imam Yahya revolted in the
Yemen, which had been part of the Ottoman Empire, made it independent,
and began to rule there as Imam. His descendants continued to rule in that
region as Imams until very recently.

At the beginning the Zaydis, like Zayd himself, considered the first
two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, as their Imams. But after a while some
of them began to delete the name of the first two caliphs from the list
of Imams and placed Ali as the first Imam.

From what is known of Zaydi beliefs it can be said that in the principles
of Islam (usul) they follow a path close to that of the Mu'tazilites, while
in the branches or derivative institutions of the law (furu') they apply
the jurisprudence of Abu Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni
schools of law. They also differ among themselves concerning certain problems.

Isma'ilism and Its Branches

Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq had a son named Isma'il who was the oldest of his
children. Isma'il died during the lifetime of his father who summoned witnesses
to his death, including the governor of Medina. Concerning this question
, some believed that Isma'il did not die but went into occultation, that
he would appear again and would be the promised Mahdi. They further believed
that the summoning of witnesses on the part of the Imam for Isma'il's death
was a way of hiding the truth in fear of al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph.
Another group believed that the true Imam was Isma'il whose death meant
the imamate was transferred to his son Muhammad. A third group also held
that although he died during the lifetime of his father he was the Imam
and that the imamate passed after him to Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants.
The first two groups soon became extinct, while the third branch continues
to exist to this day and has undergone a certain amount of division.

The Isma'ilis have a philosophy in many ways similar to that of the
Sabaeans (star worshippers) combined with elements of Hindu gnosis. In
the sciences and decrees of Islam they believe that each exterior reality
(zahir) has an inner aspect (batin) and each element of revelation (tanzil)
a hermeneutic and esoteric exegesis (ta'wil).

The Isma'ilis believe that the earth can never exist without Proof (hujjah)
of God. The Proof is two kinds: "speaker" (natiq) and
"silent one" (samit). The speaker is a prophet and the
silent one is an Imam or Guardian (wali) who is the inheritor, or executor
of the testament (wasi) of a prophet. In any case the Proof of God is the
perfect theophany of the Divinity.

The principle of the Proof of God revolves constantly around the number
seven. A prophet (nabi), who is sent by God, has the function of
prophecy (nubuwwat), of bringing a Divine Law or Shari'ah. A prophet,
who is the perfect manifestation of God, has the esoteric power of initiating
men into the divine Mysteries (walayat). After him there are seven executors
of his testament (wasayat) and the power of esoteric initiation into the
Divine Mysteries (walayat). The seventh in the succession possesses those
two powers and also the additional power of prophecy (nubuwwat). The cycle
of seven executors (wasis) is then repeated with the seventh a prophet.

The Isma'ilis say that Adam was sent as a prophet with the power of
prophecy and of esoteric guidance and he had seven executors of whom the
seventh was Noah, who had the three functions of nubuwwat, wasayat, and
walayat. Abraham was the seventh executor (wasi) of Noah, Moses the seventh
executor of Abraham, Jesus the seventh executor of Moses, Muhammad the
seventh executor of Jesus, and Muhammad ibn Isma'il the seventh executor
of Muhammad.

They consider the wasis of the Prophet to be: Ali, Husayn ibn Ali (they
do not consider Imam Hasan among the Imams), Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad,
Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, Isma'il ibn Ja'far, and Muhammad ibn
Isma'il. After this series there are seven descendants of Muhammad ibn
Isma'il whose names are hidden and secret. After them there are the first
seven rulers of the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt the first of whom, 'Ubaydallah
al-Mahdi, was the founder of the Fatimid dynasty. The Isma'ilis also believe
that in addition to the Proof of God there are always present on earth
twelve "chiefs" (naqib) who are the companions and elite
followers of the Proof. Some of the branches of the Batinis, however, like
the Druzes, believe six of the "chiefs" to be from the Imams
and six from others.

The Batinis

In the year 278/891, a few years before the appearance of Ubaydallah
al-Mahdi in North Africa, there appeared in Kufa an unknown person from
Khuzistan (in southern Persia) who never revealed his name and identity.
He would fast during the day and worship at night and made a living from
his own labor. In addition he invited people to join the Isma'ili cause
and was able to assemble a large number of people about him. From among
them he chose twelve "chiefs" (naqib) and then he set out for
Damascus. Having left Kufa he was never heard of again.

This unknown man was replaced by Ahmad, known as the Qaramite, who began
to propagate Batini teachings in Iraq. As the historians have recorded,
he instituted two daily prayers in place of the five of Islam, removed
the necessity of ablution after sexual intercourse, and made the drinking
of wine permissible. Contemporary with these events, other Batini leaders
rose to invite people to join their cause and assembled a group of followers.

The Batinis had no respect for the lives and possessions of those who
were outside their group. For this reason they began uprisings in the cities
of Iraq, Bahrain, the Yemen, and Syria, spilling the blood of people and
looting their wealth. Many times they stopped the caravans of those who
were making the pilgrimage to Mecca, killing tens of thousands of pilgrims
and plundering their provisions and camels.

Abu Tahir al-Qaramati, one of the Qaramite leaders who in 311/923 had
conquered Basra and did not neglect to kill and plunder, set out with a
large number of Batinis for Mecca in 317/929. After overcoming the brief
resistance of government troops he entered the city and massacred the population
as well as the newly arrived pilgrims. Even within the Masjid al-haram
(the mosque containing the Ka'bah) and within the Holy Ka'bah itself, there
flowed streams of blood. He divided the covering of the Ka'bah between
his disciples. He tore away the door of the Ka'bah and took the black stone
from its place back to the Yemen. For twenty-two years the black stone
was in Qaramite hands. As a result of these actions the majority of Muslims
turned completely away from the Batinis and considered them outside the
pale of Islam. Even 'Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, the Fatimid ruler, who had risen
in those days in North Africa and considered himself the promised Mahdi,
abhorred them.

According to the view of historians the distinguishing characteristic
of the Batini school is that it interprets the external aspects of Islam
in an esoteric manner and considers the externals of the Shari'ah to be
only for simple-minded people of little intelligence who are deprived of
spiritual perfection. Yet occasionally the Batini Imams did order certain
regulations and laws to be practiced and followed.

The Nizaris, Musta'lis, Druzes and Muqanna'ah

The Nizaris. Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, who rose in North Africa in
292/904 and as an Isma'ili declared his imamate and established Fatimid
rule, is the founder of the dynasty whose descendants made Cairo the center
of their caliphate. For seven generations this sultanate and Isma'ili imamate
continued without any divisions. At the death of the seventh Imam, al-Mustansir
bi'llah Mu'idd ibn Ali, his sons, Nizar and al-Musta'li, began to dispute
over the caliphate and imamate. After long disputes and bloody battle al-Musta'li
was victorious. He captured his brother Nizar and placed him in prison,
where he died.

Following this dispute those who accepted the Fatimids divided into
two groups: the Nizaris and the Musta'lis. The Nizaris are the followers
of Hasan al-Sabbah, who was one of the close associates of al-Mustansir.
After Nizar's death, because of his support of Nizar, Hasan al-Sabbah was
expelled from Egypt by al-Musta'li. He came to Persia and after a short
while appeared in the Fort of Alamut near Qazwin. He conquered Alamut and
several surrounding forts. There he established his rule and also began
to invite people to the Isma'ili cause.

After the death of Hasan in 518/1124 Buzurg Umid Rudbari and after him
his son, Kiya Muhammad, continued to rule following the methods and ways
of Hasan al-Sabbah. After Kiya Muhammad, his son Hasan 'AlaDhikrihi'l-Salam,
the fourth ruler of Alamut, changed the ways of Hasan al-Sabbah, who had
been Nizari, and became Batini. Henceforth the Isma'ili forts continued
as Batini. Four other rulers, Muhammad ibn Ala Dhikruhi'l-Salam, Jala al-Din
Hasan, 'Ala' al-Din, and Rukn al-Din Khurshah, became Sultan and Imam one
after another until Hulagu, the Mongol conqueror, invaded Persia. He captured
Isma'ili forts and put all the Isma'ilis to death, leveling their forts
to the ground.

Centuries later, in 1255/1839, the Aqa Khan of Mahalat in Persia, who
belonged to the Nizaris, rebelled against Muhammad Shah Qajar in Kerman,
but he was defeated and fled to Bombay. There he propagated his Batini-Nizari
cause which continues to this day. The Nizaris are today called the Aqa
Khanids.

The Musta'lis. The Musta'lis were the followers of al-Musta'li.
Their imamate continued during Fatimid rule in Egypt until it was brought
to an end in the year 567/1171. Shortly thereafter, the Bohra sect, following
the same school, appeared in India and survives to this day.

The Druzes. The Druzes, who live in the Druze mountains in Syria
(and also in Lebanon), were originally followers of the Fatimid caliphs.
But as a result of the missionary activity of Nashtakin, the Druzes joined
the Batini sect. The Druzes stop with the sixth Fatimid caliph al-Hakim
bi'llah, whom others believe to have been killed, and claim that he is
in occultation. He has ascended to heaven and will appear once again to
the world.

The Muqanna'ah. The Muqanna'ah were at first disciples of 'Ata'
al-Marwi known as Muqanna', who according to historical sources was a follower
of Abu Muslim of Khurasan. After the death of Abu Muslim, Muqanna' claimed
that Abu Muslim's soul had become incarnated in him. Soon he claimed to
be a prophet and later a divinity. Finally, in the year 162/777 he was
surrounded in the fort of Kabash in Transoxiana. When he became certain
that he would be captured and killed, he threw himself into a fire along
with some of his disciples and burned to death. His followers soon adopted
Isma'ilism and the ways of the Batinis.

Differences Between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and

Isma'ilism and Zaydism

The majority of the Shi'ites, from whom the previously mentioned groups
have branched out, are Twelve-Imam Shi'ites, also called the Imamites.
As has already been mentioned, the Shi'ites came into being because of
criticism and protest concerning two basic problems of Islam, without having
any objections to the religious ways which through the instructions of
the Prophet had become prevalent among their contemporary Muslims. These
two problems concerned Islamic government and authority in the religious
sciences, both of which the Shi'ites considered to be the particular right
of the Household of the Prophet.

The Shi'ites asserted that the Islamic caliphate, of which esoteric
guidance and spiritual leadership are inseparable elements, belongs to
Ali and his descendants. They also believed that according to the specification
of the Prophet the Imams of the Household of the Prophet are twelve in
number. Shi'ism held, moreover, that the external teachings of the Quran,
which are the injunctions and regulations of the Shari'ah and include the
principles of a complete spiritual life, are valid and applicable for everyone
at all times, and are not to be abrogated until the Day of Judgment. These
injunctions and regulations must be learned through the guidance of the
Household of the Prophet.

From a consideration of these points it becomes clear that the difference
between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Zaydism is that the Zaydis usually do not
consider the imamate to belong solely to the Household of the Prophet and
do not limit the number of Imams to twelve. Also they do not follow the
jurisprudence of the Household of the Prophet as do the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites.

The difference between the Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Isma'ilism lies in
that for the latter the imamate revolves around the number seven and prophecy
does not terminate with the Holy Prophet Muhammad. Also for them, change
and transformation in the injunctions of the Shari'ah are admissible, as
is even rejection of the duty of following Shari'ah, especially among the
Batinis. In contrast, the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites consider the Prophet to
be the "seal of prophecy" and believe him to have twelve successors
and executors of his will. They hold the external aspect of the Shari'ah
to be valid and impossible to abrogate. They affirm that the Quran has
both an exoteric and an esoteric aspect.

Summary of the History of Twelve-Imam Shi'ism

As has become clear form the previous pages, the majority of Shi'ites
are Twelvers. They were originally the same group of friends and supporters
of Ali who, after the death of the Prophet, in order to defend the right
of the Household of the Prophet in the question of the caliphate and religious
authority, began to criticize and protest against prevalent views and separated
from the majority of the people.

During the caliphate of the "rightly-guided caliphs" (11/632-35/656)
the Shi'ites were under a certain amount of pressure which became much
greater during the Umayyad Caliphate (40/661-132/750) when they were no
longer protected in any way against destruction of their lives and property.
Yet the greater the pressure placed upon them, the firmer they became in
their belief. They especially benefited from their being oppressed in spreading
their beliefs and teachings.

From the middle of the 2nd/8th century when the Abbasid caliphs established
their dynasty, Shi'ism was able to gain a mew life as a result of the languid
and weak state prevailing at that time. Soon, however, conditions became
difficult once again and until the end of the 3rd/9th century became ever
more stringent.

At the beginning of the 4th/10th century, with the rise of the influential
Buyids, who were Shi'ites, Shi'ism gained power and became more or less
free to carry out its activities. It began to carry out scientific and
scholarly debates and continued in this manner until the end of the 5th/11th
century. At the beginning of the 7th/13th century when the Mongol invasion
began, as a result of the general involvement in war and chaos and the
continuation of the Crusades, the different Islamic governments did not
put too great a pressure upon the Shi'ites. Moreover, the conversion to
Shi'ism of some Mongol rulers in Persia and the rule of the Sadat-i Mar'ashi
(who were Shi'ites) in Mazandaran were instrumental in the spread of the
power and territory of Shi'ism. They made the presence of large concentrations
of Shi'ite population in Persia and other Muslim lands felt more than ever
before. This situation continued through the 9th/15th century.

At the beginning of the 10th/16th century, as a result of the rise of
the Safavids, Shi'ism became the official religion of the vast territories
of Persia and continues in this position to the present day. In other regions
of the world also there are tens of millions of Shi'ites.

PART II: SHI'ITE RELIGIOUS THOUGHT

CHAPTER III THREE

METHODS OF RELIGIOUS

THOUGHT

By "religious thought" we mean that form of thought which
is concerned with any of the problems of a religious nature within a particular
religion, in the same sense that mathematical thought is the form of thought
which deals with mathematical questions and solves mathematical problems.

Needless to say religious thought, like other forms of thought, must
have reliable sources from which the raw material of its thought originates
and upon which it depends. Similarly, the process of reasoning necessary
for the solution of mathematical problems must have a series of established
mathematical facts and principles.

The single source upon which the divinely revealed religion of Islam
depends and upon which it is based, inasmuch as it is based on a revelation
of celestial origin, is none other than the Holy Quran. It is the Quran
which is the definitive testament of the universal and ever-living prophethood
of the Prophet and it is the content of the Quran that bears the substance
of the Islamic call. Of course the fact that the Quran is alone the source
of Islamic religious thought does not eliminate other sources and origins
of correct thinking, as will be explained later.

There are three methods of religious thought in Islam. The Holy Quran
in its teachings points to three paths for Muslims to follow in order to
comprehend the purposes of religion and the Islamic sciences: (1) the path
of the external and formal aspect of religion (the Shari'ah); (2) the path
of intellectual understanding; and (3) the path of spiritual comprehension
achieved through sincerity (ikhlas) in obeying God.

It can be seen that the Holy Quran in its formal aspect addresses all
people without providing any demonstration or proof. Rather, depending
on the unique sovereignty of God, it commands people to accept the principles
of faith such as divine unity, prophethood, eschatology; it gives them
practical injunctions such as the daily prayers, fasting, etc.; and at
the same time it prohibits them from committing certain other actions.
Yet if the Quran had not provided authority for these commands it would
never have expected man to accept and obey them. It must, therefore, be
said that such simple utterances of the Quran are a path toward the understanding
of ultimate religious ends and the comprehension of the Islamic sciences.
We call such verbal expressions as "Believe in God and His Prophet"
and "Perform the prayers," the external or formal aspect of religion.

In addition to guidance in the external aspect of religion, we see that
the Holy Quran in many verses guides man toward intellectual understanding.
It invites man to meditate, contemplate and deliberate upon the signs of
God in the macrocosm and the microcosm. It explains many verities through
unfettered intellectual reasoning. It must be said in truth that no sacred
book praises and recommends science and intellectual knowledge for man
as much as does the Quran. In many of its words and utterances the Quran
attests to the validity of intellectual proof and rational demonstration,
that is, it does not claim that man should first accept the validity of
the Islamic sciences and then through intellectual proofs justify these
sciences. Rather, with complete confidence in the truth of its own position
it proclaims that man should use his intellect to discover the truth of
the Islamic sciences, and only then accept this truth. He should seek the
affirmation of the words contained in the Islamic message in the world
of creation which is itself a truthful witness. And finally man should
find the affirmation of his faith in the results of rational demonstration
; he should not have to gain faith first and the, in obedience to it, seek
proofs. Thus philosophical thought is also a way whose validity and efficacy
is confirmed by the Holy Quran.

Also, in addition to guidance in the external and intellectual aspects
of religion, we see that the Holy Quran in subtle terms explains that all
true religious science originates and comes from Divine Unity (tawhid)
and the knowledge of god and His Attributes . The perfection of the knowledge
of God belongs to those whom He has drawn from all places and elevated
solely to Himself. It is these men who have forgotten themselves and all
things and as a result of sincerity in obedience to God have been able
to concentrate all their powers and energies upon the transcendent world.
Their eyes have become illuminated through the vision of the light of the
Pure Creator. With the eye of discernment they have seen the reality of
things in the kingdom of heaven and earth, for through sincerity of obedience
they have reached the station of certainty (yaqin). As a result
of this certainty the kingdoms of heaven and earth and the immortal life
of the eternal world have become revealed to them.

Deliberation upon the following holy verses illuminates fully this claim:
"And We sent no messenger before thee but We inspired him (saying):
There is no God save Me (Allah), so worship Me" (Quran, XXI, 25);
and, "Glorified be Allah from that which they attribute (unto Him),
Save single-minded slaves of Allah" (Quran, XXXVII, 159-160); and,
"Say, I am only a mortal like you. My Lord inspireth in me that your
God is only One God. And whoever hopeth for the meeting with his Lord,
let him do righteous work, and make none sharer of the worship due unto
his Lord" (Quran, XVIII, 111); and, "And serve the Lord till
the inevitable [al-yaqin] cometh unto thee" (Quran, XV, 99); and God
says, "Thus did We show Abraham the Kingdom of the heavens and the
earth that he might be of those possessing certainty" (Quran, VI,
76); and "Nay, but the record of the righteous is in 'Iliyin - Ah!
what will convey unto thee what 'Iliyin is! - A written record, attested
by those who are brought near (unto their Lord)" (Quran, LXXXIII,
18-21); and, "Nay, would that ye knew (now) with a sure knowledge
['ilm al-yaqin]! Ye will behold hellfire" (Quran, XII, 5-6).

Thus it may be said that one of the paths for the comprehension of religious
verities and sciences is the purification of the carnal soul and sincerity
in obedience to God.

From what has been said it becomes clear that the Holy Quran proposes
three methods for the comprehension of religious truths: the external,
or formal aspects of religion; intellectual reasoning; and sincerity in
obedience leading to the intellectual intuition which results in the unveiling
of the truth and its inward vision. Yet it must be understood that these
three methods differ from each other in several ways. For instance, since
the external forms of religion are verbal expressions in the simplest language,
they are in the hands of all people, and everyone benefits from them according
to his own capacity. On the other hand, the other two paths, which are
appropriate to a particular group (the elite - khawass), are not
common to all. The path of the external forms of religion leads to the
understanding of the principles and the obligations of Islam and results
in knowledge of the substance of the beliefs and practices of Islam, and
of the principles of the Islamic sciences, ethics, and jurisprudence. This
is in contrast to the other two paths. The intellectual path can discover
the problems connected with faith, ethics, and the general principles governing
practical questions, but the intellectual method cannot discover the specific
religious injunctions given in the Quran and the Sunnah. The path of purification
of the carnal soul, since it leads to the discovery of God-given spiritual
truths, can have no limits nor measure of its results or of the truths
revealed through this divine gift. Men who have reached this knowledge
have cut themselves off from everything and forgotten everything but God
and are under the direct guidance and dominion of God Himself - May His
Name be Glorified. Whatever He wants and not what they want is revealed
to them.

We will now take up in detail the three methods of religious thought
in Islam.

FIRST METHOD:

THE FORMAL ASPECT OF RELIGION

The Different Facets of the Formal Aspect of Religion

It has become clear from what has been said thus far that the Holy Quran,
which is the principal source of religious thought in Islam, has given
full authority to the external meanings of its words for those who give
ear to its message. The same external meaning of the Quranic verses has
made the sayings of the Prophet complementary to the words of the Quran
and has declared them to be authoritative like the Quran. For as the Quran
says: "And We have revealed unto thee the Remembrance that thou mayst
explain to mankind that which hath been revealed for them" (Quran,
XVI, 44). And, "He it is who hath sent among the unlettered ones a
messenger of their own, to recite unto them His revelations and to make
them grow, and to teach them the scripture and Wisdom" (Quran, LXII,
2). And, "And whatsoever the messenger giveth you, take it. And whatsoever
he forbiddeth, abstain (from it)" (Quran, LIX, 7). And, "Verily
in the messenger of Allah ye have a good example" (Quran, XXXIII,
21).

It is quite evident that such verses would not have any real meaning
if the words and deeds of the Prophet and even his silence and approval
were not authority for us just as the Quran itself is. Thus the words of
the Prophet are authoritative and must be accepted by those who have heard
them orally or received them through reliable transmission. Moreover, through
such a completely authentic chain of transmission it is known that the
Holy Prophet said, "I leave two things of value amidst you in trust
which if you hold on to you will never go astray: the Quran and the members
of my household. These will never be separated until the Day of Judgment."
According to this and other definitely established hadiths the words of
the Family of the Household of the Prophet form a corpus that is complementary
to the Prophetic religious sciences and are inerrant in the explanation
of the teachings and injunctions of Islam. Their sayings, received orally
or through reliable transmission, are reliable and authoritative.

Therefore, it is clear that the traditional source from which the formal
and external aspect of religion is derived, which is an authoritative document
and which is also the basic source for the religious thought of Islam,
consists of two parts: The Book (the Quran) and the Sunnah. By the Book
is meant the external aspect of the verses of the Holy Quran; and by the
Sunnah, hadith received from the Prophet and his revered Household.

Traditions of the Companions

In Shi'ism hadiths transmitted through the companions are dealt with
according to this principle: if they deal with the words and actions of
the Prophet and do not contradict the hadiths of the Household of the Prophet,
they are acceptable. If they contain only the views or opinions of the
companions themselves and not those of the Prophet, they are not authoritative
as sources for religious injunctions. In this respect the ruling of the
companions is like the ruling of any other Muslim. In the same way, the
companions themselves dealt with other companions in questions of Islamic
law as they would with any Muslim, not as someone special.

The Book and Tradition

The Book of God, the Holy Quran, is the principal source of every form
of Islamic thought. It is the Quran which gives religious validity and
authority to every other religious source in Islam. Therefore, it must
be comprehensible to all. Moreover, the Quran describes itself as the light
which illuminates all things. Also it challenges men and requests them
to ponder over its verses and observe that there are no disparities or
contradictions in them. It invites them to compose similar work, if they
can, to replace it. It is clear that if the Holy Quran were not comprehensible
to all there would be no place for such assertions.

To say that the Quran is in itself comprehensible to all is not in any
way contradictory to the previous assertion that the Prophet and his Household
are religious authorities in the Islamic sciences, which sciences in reality
are only elaborations of the content of the Quran. For instance, in the
part of the Islamic sciences which comprises the injunctions and laws of
the Shari'ah, the Quran contains only the general principles. The clarification
and elaboration of their details, such as the manner of accomplishing the
daily prayers, fasting, exchanging merchandise, and in fact all acts of
worship ('ibadat) and transactions (mu'amalat), can be achieved
only by referring to the traditions of the Holy Prophet and his Household.

As for the other part of the Islamic sciences dealing with doctrines
and ethical methods and practices, although their content and details can
be comprehended by all, the understanding of their full meaning depends
on accepting the method of the Household of the Prophet. Also each verse
of the Quran must be explained and interpreted by means of other Quranic
verses, not by views which have become acceptable and familiar to us only
through habit and custom.

Ali has said: "Some parts of the Quran speak with other parts of
it revealing to us their meaning and some parts attest to the meaning of
others." And the Prophet has said, "Parts of the Quran verify
other parts." And also: "Whosoever interprets the Quran according
to his own opinion has made a place for himself in the fire."

As a simple example of the Quran through the Quran may be cited the
story of the torture of the people of Lot about whom in one place God says,
"And we rained on them a rain," and in another place He has changed
this phrase to, "Lo! We sent a storm of stones upon them (all)."
By relating the second verse to the first it becomes clear that by "rain"
is meant "stones" from heaven. Whoever has studied with care
the hadiths of the Household of the Prophet, and the outstanding companions
who were the followers of the Prophet, will have no doubt that the commentary
of the Quran through the Quran is the sole method of Quranic commentary
taught by the Household of the Prophet.

The Outward and Inward Aspects of the Quran

It has been explained that the Holy Quran elucidates religious aims
through its own words and gives commands to mankind in matter of doctrine
and action. But the meaning of the Quran is not limited to this level.
Rather, behind these same expressions and within these same meanings there
are deeper and wider levels of meaning which only the spiritual elite who
possess pure hearts can comprehend.

The Prophet, who is the divinely appointed teacher of the Quran, says:
"The Quran has a beautiful exterior and a profound interior."
He has also said, "The Quran has an inner dimension, and that inner
dimension has an inner dimension up to seven numerous references to the
inner aspect of the Quran.

The main support of these assertions is a symbol which God has mentioned
in Chapter XIII, verse 17, of the Quran. In this verse divine gifts are
symbolized by rain that falls from heaven and upon which depends the life
of the earth and its inhabitants. With the coming of the rain, floods begin
to flow and each river bed accepts a certain amount of the flood, depending
on its capacity. As it flows, the flood is covered with foam, but beneath
the foam there is that same water which is life-giving and beneficial to
mankind.

As is indicated by this symbolic story, the capacity for comprehension
of divine sciences, which are the source of man's inner life, differs among
people. There are those for whom there is no reality beyond physical existence
and the material life of this world which lasts but a few days. Such people
are attached to material appetites and physical desires alone and fear
nothing but the loss of material benefits and sensory enjoyment. Such people,
taking into consideration the differences of degree among them, can at
best accept the divine sciences on the level of believing in a summary
fashion in the doctrines and performing the practical commands of Islam
in purely outward manner without any comprehension. They worship God with
the hope of recompense or fear of punishment in the next world.

There are also those who, because of the purity of their nature, do
not consider their well-being to lie in attachment to the transient pleasures
of the fleeting life of this world. The losses and gains and bitter and
sweet experiences of this world are for them no more than an attractive
illusion. Memory of those who passed before them in the caravan of existence,
who were pleasure-seekers yesterday and no more than subjects of stories
today, is a warning that is continuously present before their eyes. Such
men who possess pure hearts are naturally attracted to the world of eternity.
They view the different phenomena of this passing world as symbols and
portents of the higher world, not as persisting and independent realities.

It is at this point that through earthly and heavenly signs, signs upon
the horizons and within the souls of men, they "observe" in a
spiritual vision the Infinite Light of the Majesty and Glory of God. Their
hearts become completely enamored with the longing to reach an understanding
of the secret symbols of creation. Instead of being imprisoned in the dark
and narrow well of personal gain and selfishness they begin to fly in the
unlimited space of the world of eternity and advance ever onwards toward
the zenith of the spiritual world.

When they hear that God has forbidden the worship of idols, which outwardly
means bowing down before an idol, they understand this command to mean
that they should not obey other than God, for to obey means to bow down
before someone and to serve him. Beyond that meaning they understand that
they should not have hope of fear of other than God; beyond that, they
should not surrender to the demands of their selfish appetites; and beyond
that, they should not concentrate on anything except God, May His Name
be Glorified.

Likewise when they hear from the Quran that they should pray, the external
meaning of which is to perform the particular rites of prayers, through
its inner meaning they comprehend that they must worship and obey God with
all their hearts and souls. Beyond that they comprehend that before God
they must consider themselves as nothing, must forget themselves and remember
only God.

It can be seen that the inner meaning present in these two examples
is not due to the outward expression of the command and prohibition in
question. Yet the comprehension of this meaning is unavoidable for anyone
who has begun to meditate upon a more universal order and has preferred
to gain a vision of the universe of reality rather than his own ego, who
has preferred objectivity to an egocentric subjectivism.

From this discussion the meaning of the outward and inward aspects of
the Quran has become clear. It has also become evident that the inner meaning
of the Quran does no eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather,
it is like the soul which gives life to the body. Islam, which is a universal
and eternal religion and places the greatest emphasis upon the "reformation"
of mankind, can never dispense with its external laws which are for the
benefit of society, nor with its simple doctrines which are the guardians
and preservers of these laws.

How can a society, on the pretense that religion is only a matter of
the heart, that man's heart should be pure and that there is no value to
actions, live in disorder and yet attain happiness? How can impure deeds
and words cause the cultivation of a pure heart? Or how can impure words
emanate from a pure heart? God says in His Book, "Vile women are for
vile men, and vile men for vile women. Good women are for good men, and
good men for good women." (Quran, XXIV, 26) He also says, "As
for the good land, its vegetation cometh forth by permission of its Lord;
while as for that which is bad, only evil cometh forth (from it)."
(Quran, VII, 58) Thus it becomes evident that the Holy Quran has an outward
and an inward aspect and the inward aspect itself has different levels
of meaning. The hadith literature, which explains the content of the Quran,
also contains these various aspects.

The Principles of Interpretation of the Quran

At the beginning of Islam it was commonly believed by some Sunnis that
if there was sufficient reason one could ignore the outward meaning of
Quranic verses and ascribe to them a contrary meaning. Usually the meaning
which opposed the outward, literal meaning was called ta'wil, and what
is called "ta'wil of the Quran" in Sunni Islam is usually understood
in this sense.

In the religious works of Sunni scholars, as well as in the controversies
that have been recorded as taking place between different schools, one
often observes that if a particular point of doctrine (that has been established
through the consensus of the ulama of a school or through some other means)
is opposed to the outward meaning of a verse of the Quran, that verse is
interpreted by ta'wil to have a meaning contrary to its apparent meaning.
Sometimes two contending sides support two opposing views and present Quranic
verses in proof of their contentions. Each side interprets the verses presented
by the other side through ta'wil. This method has also penetrated more
or less into Shi'ism and can be seen in some Shi'ite theological works.

Yet, sufficient deliberation upon Quranic verses and the hadith of the
Household of the Prophet demonstrates clearly that the Holy Quran with
its attractive language and eloquent and lucid expression never uses enigmatic
or puzzling methods of exposition and always expounds any subject in a
language suitable for that subject. What has been rightly called ta'wil,
or hermeneutic interpretation, of the Holy Quran is not concerned simply
with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths
and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men
; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine
and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth.

The whole of the Quran possesses the sense of ta'wil, of esoteric meaning,
which cannot be comprehended directly through human thought alone. Only
the prophets and the pure among the saints of God who are free from the
dross of human imperfection can contemplate these meanings while living
on the present plane of existence. On the Day of Resurrection the ta'wil
of the Quran will be revealed to everyone.

This assertion can be explained by pointing to the fact that what forces
man to use speech, create words and make use of expressions is nothing
other than his social and material needs. In his social life man is forced
to try to make his fellow-men understand his thoughts and intentions and
the feelings which exist within his soul. To accomplish this end he makes
use of sounds and hearing. Occasionally also he uses to a degree his eyes
and gestures. That is why between the mute and the blind there can never
be any mutual comprehension, for whatever the blind man says the deaf cannot
hear, and whatever the mute makes understood through gestures the blind
man cannot see.

The creation of words and the naming of objects have been accomplished
with a material end in view. Expressions have been created for those objects,
states, and conditions which are material and available to the senses or
near to the sensible world. As can be seen in those cases where the person
addressed lacks one of the physical senses, if we wish to speak of matters
which can be comprehended through the missing sense we employ a kind of
allegory and similitude. For example, if we wish to describe light or color
to one who is born blind, or the pleasures of sex to a child that has not
reached the age of adolescence, we seek to achieve our purpose through
comparison and allegory and through providing examples.

Therefore, if we accept the hypothesis that in the scale of Universal
Existence there are immense levels of reality which are independent of
the world of matter (and this is in reality the case), and that in each
generation there are among mankind but a handful who have the capability
of comprehending and having a vision of these realities, then questions
pertaining to these higher worlds cannot be understood through common verbal
expressions and modes of thought. They cannot be referred to except by
allusion and through symbolism. Since religious realities are of this kind,
the expression of the Quran in such matters must of necessity be symbolic.

God says in his book, "Lo! We have appointed it a Lecture in Arabic
that haply ye may understand. And Lo! in the Source of Decrees, which We
possess, it is indeed sublime, decisive." (Common comprehension cannot
understand it or penetrate into it.) (Quran, XLIII, 3-4) He also says,
"That (this) is indeed a noble Quran, In a book kept hidden, Which
none toucheth save the purified" (Quran, LVI, 77-79). Concerning the
Prophet and his Household he says, "Allah's wish is but to remove
uncleanness far from you, O Folk of the Household, and cleanse you with
a thorough cleansing" (Quran, XXXIII, 33).

As proved by these verses, the Holy Quran emanates from sources beyond
the comprehension of common man. No one can have a full comprehension of
the Quran save those servants of God whom He has chosen to purify. And
the Household of the Prophet are among those pure beings.

In another place God says, "Nay, but they denied that (the Quran),
the knowledge whereof they could not compass, and whereof the interpretation
(in events) [ta'wil] hath not yet come into them" (Quran, X, 40) (meaning
the day of Resurrection when the truth of things will become known). And
again he says, "On the day (the Day of Resurrection) when the fulfillment
[ta'wil] thereof (of the whole Quran) cometh, those who were before forgetful
thereof will say: The messengers of our Lord did bring the Truth!"
(Quran, VII, 53)

Hadith

The principle that the hadith possesses validity, as attested by the
Quran, is not at all disputed among Shi'ites or in fact among all Muslims.
But because of the failure of some of the early rulers of Islam in preserving
and guarding the hadith, and the excesses of a group among the companions
and followers of the Prophet in propagating hadith literature, the corpus
of hadith came to face a certain number of difficulties.

On the one hand the caliphs of the time prevented the writing down and
recording of the hadith and ordered any pages containing texts of hadith
to be burned. Sometimes also any increase in activity in the transmission
and study of hadith was forbidden. In this way a certain number of hadiths
were forgotten or lost and a few were even transmitted with a different
or distorted meaning. On the other hand another tendency also prevailed
among another group of the companions of the Holy Prophet who had had the
honor of seeing his presence and actually hearing his words. This group,
which was respected by the caliphs and the Muslim community, began an intense
effort to propagate the hadith. This was carried to such an extent that
sometimes hadith overruled the Quran and the injunction of a Quranic verse
was even considered abrogated by some people through a hadith. Often the
transmitters of hadith would travel many miles and bear all the difficulties
of traveling in order to hear a single saying.

A group of outsiders who had worn the dress of Islam and also some of
the enemies within ranks of Islam began to change and distort some of the
hadith and thus diminished the reliability and validity of the hadith that
was then heard and known. For this very reason Islamic scholars began to
think of a solution. They created the sciences concerned with the biography
of learned men and chains of transmission of hadith in order to be able
to discriminate between true and false hadith.

The Method of Shi'ism in Authenticating the Hadith

Shi'ism, in addition to seeking to authenticate the chain transmission
of hadith, considers the correlation of the text of the hadith with the
Quran as a necessary condition for its validity. In Shi'ite sources there
are many hadiths of the Prophet and the Imams with authentic chains of
transmission which themselves assert that a hadith contrary to the Quran
has no value. Only that hadith can be considered valid which is in agreement
with the Quran.

Basing itself on these hadiths, Shi'ism does not act upon those hadiths
which are contrary to the text of the Quran. As for the hadiths whose agreement
or disagreement cannot be established, according to instructions received
from Imams they are passed by in silence without being accepted or rejected.
Needless to say there are also within Shi'ism those who, like a group among
the Sunnis, act on any hadith whatsoever which they happen to find in different
traditional sources.

The Method of Shi'ism in Following the Hadith

A hadith heard directly from the mouth of the Prophet or one of the
Imams is accepted as is the Quran. As for hadiths received through intermediaries,
the majority of Shi'ites act upon them if their chain of transmission is
established at every step or if there exists definite proof concerning
their truth, and, if they are concerned with principles of doctrine which
require knowledge and certainty, according to the text of the Quran. Other
than these two kinds of hadith, no other hadith has any validity concerning
principles of doctrine, the invalid hadith being called "tradition
with a single transmitter" (khabar wahid). However, in establishing
the injunctions of the Shari'ah, because of reasons that have been given,
Shi'ites act also on a tradition which is generally accepted as reliable.
Therefore it can be said that for Shi'ism a certain and definitely established
hadith is absolutely binding and must be followed, while a hadith which
is not absolutely established but which is generally considered as reliable
is utilized only in the elaboration of the injunctions of the Shari'ah.

Learning and Teaching in Islam

To acquire knowledge is a religious duty in Islam. The Prophet has said,
"To seek knowledge is incumbent upon every Muslim." According
to fully established hadiths which elucidate the meaning of this saying,
knowledge here means the three principles of Islam : unity or tawhid ;
prophecy or nubuwwat; and eschatology or ma'ad. In addition to these principles,
Muslims are expected to acquire knowledge of the subsidiary branches and
the details of the injunctions and laws of Islam according to their individual
circumstances and needs.

It is clear that acquiring knowledge of the principles of religion,
even if it be in summary fashion, is possible to a certain extent for everyone.
But acquiring detailed knowledge of the injunctions and laws of religion
through use of the basic documents of the Book and the Sunnah and technical
reasoning based upon them (or what is called demonstrative jurisprudence,
fiqh-i istidlali ) is not possible for every Muslim. Only a few
persons have the capacity for demonstrative jurisprudence, nor is such
acquiring of detailed knowledge required of everyone, for there are no
injunctions in Islam requiring one to do what lies beyond his abilities.

Therefore, the study of Islamic injunctions and laws through reasoning
has been limited through the principle of "sufficient necessity"
(wajib-i kifa'i) to those individuals who have the necessary capability
and are worthy of such study. The duty of the rest of the people, according
to the general principle of the necessity for the ignorant to depend on
the one who knows, is to seek guidance from capable and worthy men of learning,
who are called mujtahids and faqihs. This act of following mujtahids
is called imitation or taqlid. Of course this imitation differs
from imitation in the principles of religious knowledge which is forbidden
according to the very text of the Quran, "(O man), follow not that
whereof thou hast no knowledge." (Quran, XVII, 36).

It must be known that Shi'ism does not permit imitation of a dead mujtahid.
That is to say, a person who does not know the answer to a problem through
ijtihad and through religious duty must imitate a living mujtahid and cannot
depend on the view of a mujtahid who is not living, unless he had received
that guidance while the mujtahid was alive. This practice is one of the
factors which have kept Islamic Shi'ite jurisprudence alive and fresh throughout
the ages. There are individuals who continuously follow the path of independent
judgment, ijtihad, and delve into the problems of jurisprudence from one
generation to another.

In Sunnism, as a result of consensus of opinion (ijma') that occurred
in the 4th/10th century, it was decided that submission to one of the four
schools (of Abu Hanifah, Ibn Malik, al-Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal) was
necessary. Free ijtihad or imitation of a school other than these four
(or one or two smaller schools that died out later) was not considered
permissible. As a result, their jurisprudence has remained in the same
condition as it was about 1100 years ago. In recent times certain individuals
in the Sunni world have turned away from this consensus and have begun
to exercise free ijtihad.

Shi'ism and the Transmitted Sciences

The Islamic sciences, which owe their existence to the ulama of Islam
who organized and formulated them, are divided into the two categories
of intellectual ('alqi) and transmitted (naqli). The intellectual
sciences include such sciences as philosophy and mathematics. The transmitted
sciences are those which depend upon transmission from some source, such
as the sciences of language, hadith, or history. Without doubt the major
cause for the appearance of the transmitted sciences in Islam is the Holy
Quran. With the exception of a few disciplines such as history, genealogy,
and prosody, the other transmitted sciences have all come into being under
the influence of the Holy Book. Guided by religious discussions and research,
Muslims began to cultivate these sciences, of which the most important
are Arabic literature (grammar, rhetoric, and the science of metaphors)
and the sciences pertaining to the external form of religion (recitation
of the Quran, Quranic commentary (tafsir), hadith, biography of
learned men, the chain of transmission of hadith, and the principles of
jurisprudence).

Shi'ites played an essential role in the foundation and establishment
of these sciences. In fact, the founders and creators of many of these
sciences were Shi'ites. Arabic grammar was put into a systematic form by
Abu'l-Aswad al-Du'ali, one of the companions of the Holy Prophet, and by
Ali. Ali dictated an outline for the organization of the science of Arabic
grammar. One of the founders of the science of eloquence (rhetoric and
the science of metaphors) was Sahib ibn 'Abbad, a Shi'ite, who was a vizier
of the Buyids. The first Arabic dictionary is the Kitab al-'ayn composed
by the famous scholar, Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Basri, the Shi'ite who founded
the science of prosody. He was also the teacher of the great master of
grammar, Sibuwayh.

The Quranic recitation of 'Asim goes back to Ali through one intermediary,
and 'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas, who in hadith was the foremost among the companions,
was a student of Ali. The contributions of the Household of the Prophet
and their associates in hadith and jurisprudence are well known. The founders
of the four Sunni schools of law are known to have associated with the
fifth and sixth Shi'ite Imams. In the principles of jurisprudence the remarkable
advances accomplished by the Shi'ite scholar Wahid Binbahani and followed
by Shaykh Murtada Ansari have never been matched in Sunni jurisprudence
according to existing evidence.

SECOND METHOD:

THE WAY OF INTELLECTION AND

INTELLECTUAL REASONING

Philosophical and Theological Thought in Shi'ism

It has been mentioned before that Islam has legitimized and approved
rational thought, which it considers a part of religious thought. Rational
thought in its Islamic sense, after confirming the prophecy of the Prophet,
provides intellectual demonstrations of the validity of the external aspect
of the Quran, which is a divine revelation, as well as of the definitely
established sayings of the Prophet and his noble Household.

Intellectual proofs, which aid man in finding solutions for these problems
through his God-given nature, are of two kinds : demonstration (burhan)
and dialectic (jadal). Demonstration is a proof whose premises are
true (accord with reality) even if they be not observable or evident. In
other words, it is a proposition which man comprehends and confirms by
necessity through his God-given intelligence, as for example when he knows
that "the number three is less than four." This type of thought
is called rational thought; and in case it concerns universal problems
of existence, such as the origin and end of the world and of man, it becomes
known as philosophical thought.

Dialectic is a proof all or some of whose premises are based on observable
and certain data, as for example the case of believers in a religion for
whom the common practice is to prove their religious views within that
religion by appealing to its certain and evident principles.

The Holy Quran has employed both these methods and there are many verses
in the Holy Book attesting to each type of proof. First of all, the Quran
commands free investigation and meditation upon the universal principles
of the world of existence and the general principles of cosmic order, as
well as upon more particular orders such as that of the heavens, the stars,
day and night, the earth, the plants, animals, men, etc. It praises in
the most eloquent language intellectual investigation of these matters.

Secondly, the Quran has commanded man to apply dialectical thought,
which is usually called theological (kalami) discussion, provided it is
accomplished in the best manner possible, that is, with the aim of manifesting
the truth without contention and by men who possess the necessary moral
virtues. It is said in the Quran, "Call unto the way of thy Lord with
wisdom and fair exhortation, and reason ["jadil," from
jadal] with them in the better way" (Quran, XVI, 125).

Shi'ite Initiative in Islamic Philosophy and Kalam

As for theology, kalam, it is clear that from the beginning when the
Shi'ites separated from the Sunni majority they began to debate with their
opponents concerning their own particular point of view. It is true that
a debate has two sides and that both the opponents share in it. However,
the Shi'ites were continuously on the offensive, taking the initiative,
while the other side played the defensive role. In the gradual growth of
kalam, which reached its height in 2nd/8th and 3rd/9th centuries with the
spread of the Mu'tazilite school, Shi'ite scholars and learned men, who
were students of the school of the Household of the Prophet, became among
the foremost masters of kalam. Furthermore, the chain of theologians of
the Sunni world, whether it be the Ash'arites, Mu'tazilites or others,
goes back to the first Imam of the Shi'ites, Ali.

As for philosophy, those who are acquainted with sayings and works of
the companions of the Prophet (of which the names of 12,000 have been recorded
and 120,000 are known to exist) know that there is little in them containing
an appreciable discussion of philosophical questions. It is only Ali whose
compelling metaphysical utterances contain the deepest philosophical thought.

The companions and the scholars who followed them, and in fact the Arabs
of that day in general, were not acquainted with free intellectual discussion.
There is no example of philosophical thought in the works of the scholars
of the first two centuries. Only the profound sayings of the Shi'ite Imams,
particularly the first and eighth, contain an inexhaustible treasury of
philosophical meditations in their Islamic context. It is they who acquainted
some of their students with this form of thought.

The Arabs were not familiar with philosophical thought until they saw
examples of it during the 2nd/8th century in the translation of certain
philosophical works into Arabic. Later, during the 3rd/9th century, numerous
philosophical writings were translated into Arabic from Greek, Syriac,
and other languages and through them the method of philosophical thought
became known to the general public. Nevertheless, most jurists and theologians
did not look upon philosophy and other intellectual sciences, which were
newly arrived guests, with favor. At the beginning, because of the support
of the governmental authorities for these sciences, their opposition did
not have much effect. But conditions soon changed through strict orders
many philosophical works were destroyed. The Epistles of the Brethren
of Purity, which is the work of a group of unknown authors, is a reminder
of those days and attests to the unfavorable conditions of that epoch.

After this period of difficulty, philosophy was revived at the beginning
of the 4th/10th century by the famous philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi. In
the 5th/11th century, as a result of the works of the celebrated philosopher
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Peripatetic philosophy reached its full development.
In the 6th/12th century Shaykh al-Ishraq Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi systematized
the philosophy of illumination (ishraq) and because of this was
executed by the order of Salah al-Din Ayyubi. Thereafter, philosophy ceased
to exist among the Muslim majority in the Sunni world. There was no further
outstanding philosopher in that part of the Muslim world except in Andalusia
at the edge of the Islamic world where at the end of the 6th/12th century
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) sought to revive the study of philosophy.

Shi'ite Contributions to Philosophy and the

Intellectual Sciences

In the same way that from the beginning Shi'ism played an effective
role in the formation of Islamic philosophical thought, it was also a principal
factor in the further development and propagation of philosophy and the
Islamic sciences. Although after Ibn Rushd philosophy disappeared in the
Sunni world, it continued to live in Shi'ism. After Ibn Rushd there appeared
such celebrated philosophers as Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi, Mir Damad, and
Sadr al-Din Shirazi, who studied, developed and expounded philosophical
thought one after another. In the same manner, in the other intellectual
sciences, there appeared many outstanding figures such as Nasir al-Din
Tusi (who was both philosopher and mathematician) and Birjandi, who was
also an outstanding mathematician.

All the sciences, particularly metaphysics or theosophy (falsafah-i
ilahi or hikmat-i ilahi), made major advances thanks to the indefatigable
endeavor of Shi'ite scholars. This fact can be seen if one compares the
works of Nasir al-Din Tusi, Shams al-Din Turkah, Mir Damad, and Sadr al-Din
Shirazi with the writings of those who came before them.

It is known that the element that was instrumental in the appearance
of philosophical and metaphysical thought in Shi'ism and through Shi'ism
in other Islamic circles was the treasury of knowledge left behind by the
Imams. The persistence and continuity of this type of thought in Shi'ism
is due to the existence of this same treasury of knowledge, which Shi'ism
has continued to regard with a sense of reverence and respect.

In order to clarify this situation it is enough to compare the treasury
of knowledge left by the Household of the Prophet with the philosophical
works written over the course of the centuries. In this comparison one
can see clearly how each day Islamic philosophy approached this source
of knowledge ever more closely, until in the 11th/17th century Islamic
philosophy and this inspired treasury of wisdom converged more or less
completely. They were separated only by certain differences of interpretation
of some of the principles of philosophy.

Outstanding Intellectual Figures of Shi'ism

Thiqat al-islam Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Kulayni (d. 329/940) is the first
person in Shi'ism to have separated the Shi'ite hadiths from the books
called Principles (usul) and to have arranged and organized them
according the headings of jurisprudence and articles of faith. (Each one
of the Shi'ite scholars of hadith had assembled sayings he had collected
from the Imams in a book called Asl, or Principles.) The
book of Kulayni known as Kafi is divided into three parts: Principles,
Branches, and Miscellaneous Articles, and contains 16,199 hadiths. It is
the most trustworthy and celebrated work of hadith known in the Shi'ite
world.

Three other works which complement the Kafi are the book of the
jurist Shaykh-i Saduq Muhammad ibn Babuyah Qumi(d. 381/991), and Kitab
al-tahdhib and Kitab al-istibsar, both by Shaykh Muhammad Tusi
(d. 460/1068).

Abu'l-Qasim Ja'far ibn Hasan ibn Yahya Hilli (d. 676/1277), known as
Muhaqqiq, was an outstanding genius in the science of jurisprudence and
is considered to be the foremost Shi'ite jurist. Among his masterpieces
are Kitab-i mukhtasar-i nafi' and Kitab-i sharayi', which
have been passed from hand to hand for seven hundred years among Shi'ite
jurists and have always been regarded with a sense of awe and wonder.

Following Muhaqqiq, we must cite Shahid-i Awwal (the First Martyr) Shams
al-Din Muhammad ibn Makki, who was killed in Damascus in 786/1384 on the
accusation of being Shi'ite. Among his juridical masterpieces is his Lum'ah-i
dimashqiyah which he wrote in prison in a period of seven days. Also
we must cite Shaykh Ja'far Kashif al-Ghita' Najafi (d. 1327/1909) among
whose outstanding juridical works is Kitab kashf al-ghita'.

Khwajah Nasir al-Din Tusi (d. 672/1274) is the first to have made kalam
a thorough and complete science. Among his masterpieces in this domain
is his Tajrid al-iteqed which has preserved its authority among
masters of this discipline for more than seven centuries. Numerous commentaries
have been written on it by Shi'ites and Sunnis alike. Over and above his
genius in the science of kalam, he was one of the outstanding figures of
his day in philosophy and mathematics as witnessed by the valuable contributions
he made to the intellectual sciences. Moreover, the Maraghah observatory
owed its existence to him.

Sadr al-Din Shirazi (d. 1050/1640), known as Mulla Sadra and Sadr al-Muta'allihin,
was the philosopher who, after centuries of philosophical development in
Islam, brought complete order and harmony into the discussion of philosophical
problems for the first time. He organized and systematized them like mathematical
problems and at the same time wed philosophy and gnosis, thereby bringing
about several important developments. He gave to philosophy new ways to
discuss and solve hundreds of problems that could not be solved through
Peripatetic philosophy. He made possible the analysis and solution of a
series of mystical questions which to that day had been considered as belonging
to a domain above that of reason and beyond comprehension through rational
thought. He clarified and elucidated the meaning of many treasuries of
wisdom, contained in the exoteric sources of religion in the profound metaphysical
utterances of the Imams of the Household of the Prophet, that for centuries
had been considered as insoluble riddles and usually believed to be of
an allegorical or even unclear nature. In this way gnosis, philosophy and
the exoteric aspect of religion were completely harmonized and began to
follow a single course.

By following the methods he had developed, Mulla Sadra succeeded in
proving "transubstantial motion" (harakat-i jawhariyah),
and in discovering the intimate relation of time to the three spatial dimensions
in a manner that is similar to the meaning given in modern physics to the
"fourth dimension" and which resembles the general principles
of the theory of relativity (relativity of course in the corporeal world
outside the mind, not in the mind), and many other noteworthy principles.
He wrote nearly fifty books and treatises. Among his greatest masterpieces
is the four-volume Asfar.

It should be noted here that before Mulla Sadra certain sages like Suhrawardi,
the 6th/12th century philosopher and author of Hikmat al-ishraq,
and Shams al-Din Turkah, a philosopher of the 8th/14th century, had taken
steps toward harmonizing gnosis, philosophy and exoteric religion, but
credit for complete success in this undertaking belongs to Mulla Sadra.

Shaykh Murtada Ansari Shustari (d. 1281/1864) reorganized the science
of the principles of jurisprudence upon a new foundation and formulated
the practical principles of this science. For over a century his school
has been followed diligently by Shi'ite scholars.

THIRD METHOD:

INTELLECTUAL INTUITION OR

MYSTICAL UNVEILING

Man and Gnostic Comprehension

Even though most men are occupied with gaining a livelihood and providing
for their daily needs and show no concern for spiritual matters, there
lies within the nature of man an innate urge to seek the ultimately Real.
In certain individuals this force which is dormant and potential becomes
awakened and manifests itself openly, thus leading to a series of spiritual
perceptions.

Every man believes in a permanent Reality despite the claim of sophists
and skeptics, who call every truth and reality illusion and superstition.
Occasionally when man views with a clear mind and a pure soul the permanent
Reality pervading the universe and the created order, and at the same time
sees the impermanence and transient character of the diverse parts and
elements of the world, he is able to contemplate the world and its phenomena
as mirrors which reflect the beauty of a permanent reality. The joy of
comprehending this Reality obliterates every other joy in the eye of the
viewer and makes everything else appear as insignificant and unimportant.

This vision is that same gnostic "divine attraction" (jadhbah)
which draws the attention of the God-centered man toward the transcendent
world and awakens the love of God in his heart. Through this attraction
he forgets all else. All his manifold desires and wishes are obliterated
from his mind. This attraction guides man to the worship and praise of
the Invisible Deity who is in reality more evident and manifest than all
that is visible and audible. In truth it is this same inner attraction
that has brought into being the different religions within the world, religions
which are based on the worship of God. The gnostic ('arif) is the
one who worships God through knowledge and because of love for Him, not
in hope of reward or fear of punishment.

From this exposition it becomes clear that we must not consider gnosis
as a religion among others, but as the heart of all religions. Gnosis is
one of the paths of worship, a path based on knowledge combined with love,
rather than fear. It is the path for realizing the inner truth of religion
rather than remaining satisfied only with its external form and rational
thought. Every revealed religion and even those that appear in the form
of idol-worship have certain followers who march upon the path of gnosis.
The polytheistic religions and Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and
Islam all have believers who are gnostics.

Appearance of Gnosis (Sufism) in Islam

Among the companions of the Prophet, Ali is known particularly for his
eloquent exposition of gnostic truths and the stages of the spiritual life.
His words in this domain comprise an inexhaustible treasury of wisdom.
Among the works of the other companions which have survived there is not
a great deal of material that concerns this type of question. Among the
associates of Ali, such as Salman Farsi, Uways Qarani, Kumayl ibn Ziyad,
Roshaid Hajari, Maytham Tammar, Rabi'ibn Khaytham.

However, there are figures who have been considered by the majority
of the Sufis, Sunni and Shi'ite alike, as the heads of their spiritual
chain (silsilah) after Ali.

After this group there appeared others, such as Tawus Yamani, Shayban
Ra'i, Malik ibn Dinar, Ibrahim Adham, and Shaqiq Balkhi, who were considered
by the people to be saints and men of God. These men, without publicly
talking about gnosis and Sufism, appeared externally as ascetics and did
not hide the fact that they had been initiated by the earlier group and
had undergone spiritual training under them.

After them there appeared at the end of the 2nd/8th century and the
beginning of the 3rd/9th century men such as Bayazid Bastami, Ma'ruf Karkhi,
Junayd Baghdadi and others like them, who followed the Sufi path and openly
declared their connection with Sufism and gnosis. They divulged certain
esoteric sayings based on spiritual vision which, because of their repellent
external form, brought upon them the condemnation of some of the jurists
and theologians. Some of them were imprisoned, flogged, and even occasionally
killed. Even so, this group persisted and continued its activities despite
its opponents. In this manner gnosis and the "Way" (Tariqah,
or Sufism) continued to grow until in the 7th/13th and 8th/14th centuries
it reached the height of its expansion and power. Since then, sometimes
stronger and at other times less so, it has continued its existence to
this very day within the Islamic world.

Gnosis or Sufism as we observe it today first appeared in the Sunni
world and later among the Shi'ites. The first men who openly declared themselves
to be Sufis and gnostics, and were recognized as spiritual masters of Sufi
orders, apparently followed Sunnism in the branches (furu') of Islamic
law. Many of the masters who followed them and who expanded the Sufi orders
were also Sunnis in their following of the law.

Even so, these masters traced their spiritual chain, which in the spiritual
life is like the genealogical chain of a person, through their previous
masters to Ali. Also the results of their visions and intuitions as transmitted
to us convey mostly truths concerning divine unity and the stations of
the spiritual life which are found in the sayings of Ali and other Shi'ite
Imams. This can be seen provided we are not affected by some of the striking
and even sometimes shocking expressions used by these Sufi masters and
consider the total content of their teachings with deliberation and patience.
Sanctity resulting from initiation into the spiritual path, which Sufis
consider as the perfection of man, is a state which according to Shi'ite
belief is possessed in its fullness by the Imam and through the radiance
of his being can be attained by his true followers. And the Spiritual Pole
(qutb), whose existence at all times is considered necessary by
all the Sufis - as well as the attributes associated with him - correlates
with the Shi'ite conception of the Imam. According to the saying of the
Household of the Prophet, the Imam is, to use the Sufi expression, Universal
Man, the manifestation of the Divine Names and the spiritual guide of the
lives and actions of men. Therefore, one could say, considering the Shi'ite
concept of walayat, that Sufi masters are "Shi'ite" from the
point of view of the spiritual life and in connection with the source of
walayat although, from the point of view of the external form of religion
they follow the Sunni schools of law.

It is necessary to mention that even in classical Sunni treatises it
has sometimes been said that the spiritual method of the "Path,"
or the "techniques" whereby one comes to know and realize himself,
cannot be explained through the external forms and teachings of the Shari'ah.
Rather these sources claim that individual Muslims themselves have discovered
many of these methods and practices, which then have become accepted by
God, such as is the case with monasticism in Christianity. Therefore each
master has devised certain actions and practices which he has deemed necessary
in the spiritual method, such as the particular type of ceremony of being
accepted by the master the details of the way in which the invocation is
given to the new adept along with a robe, and the use of music, chanting
and other methods of inducing ecstasy during the invocation of the Divine
Name. In some cases the practices of the Tariqah have outwardly become
separated from those of the Shari'ah and it may seem difficult for an outsider
to see the intimate and inward relation between them. But by taking into
consideration the theoretical principles of Shi'ism and then studying in
depth the basic sources of Islam, namely the Quran and the Sunnah, he will
soon realize that it is impossible to say that this spiritual guidance
has not been provided by Islam itself or that Islam has remained negligent
in clarifying the nature of the spiritual program to be followed.

Guidance Provided by the Quran and

Sunnah for Gnostic Knowledge

God - exalted be His Name - has commanded man in several places in the
Quran to deliberate upon the Holy Book and be persistent in this effort
and not be satisfied with a merely superficial and elementary understanding
of it. In many verses the world of creation and all that is in it without
exception are called portents (ayat), signs and symbols of the Divine.
A degree of deliberation upon the meaning of portents and signs and penetration
into their real significance will reveal the fact that things are called
by these names because they manifest and make known not so much themselves
but a reality other than themselves. For example, a red light placed as
a sign of danger, once seen, reminds one completely of the idea of danger
so that one no longer pays attention to the red light itself. If one begins
to think about the form or quiddity of the light or its color, there will
be in his mind only the form of the lamp or its glass or color rather than
the conception of danger. In the same manner, if the world and its phenomena
are all and in every aspect signs and portents of God, the Creator of the
Universe, they have no ontological independence of their own. No matter
how we view them they display nothing but God.

He who through guidance of the Holy Quran is able to view the world
and the people of the world with such an eye will apprehend nothing but
God. Instead of seeing only this borrowed beauty which others see in the
attractive appearance of the world, he will see an Infinite Beauty, a Beloved
who manifests Himself through the narrow confines of this world. Of course,
as in the example of the red light, what is contemplated and seen in "signs"
and "portents" is God the Creator of the world and not the world
itself. The relation of God to the world is from a certain point of view
like (1 + 0) not (1 + 1) nor (1 x 1) (that is, the world is nothing before
God and adds nothing to him). It is at the moment of realization of this
truth that the harvest of man's separative existence is plundered and in
one stroke man entrusts his heart to the hands of Divine love. This realization
obviously does not take place through the instrument of the eye or the
ear or the other outward senses, nor through the power of imagination or
reason, for all these instruments are themselves signs and portents and
of little significance to the spiritual guidance sought here.

He who has attained the vision of God and who has no intention but to
remember God and forget all else, when he hears that in another place in
the Quran God says, "O ye who believe! Ye have charge of your own
souls. He who erreth cannot injure you if you are rightly guided"
(Quran, V, 105), then he understands that the sole royal path which will
guide him fully and completely is the path of "self realization."
His true guide who is God Himself obliges him to know himself, to leave
behind all other ways and to seek the path of self-knowledge, to see God
through the window of his soul, gaining in this way the real object of
his search. That is why the Prophet has said, "He who knows himself
verily knows the Lord." And also he has said, "Those among you
know God better who know themselves better."

As for the method of following the path, there are many verses of the
Quran which command man to remember God, as for example where He says,
"Therefore remember Me, I will remember you" (Quran, II, 152)
and similar sayings. Man is also commanded to perform right actions which
are described fully in the Quran and hadith. At the end of this discussion
of right actions God says, "Verily in the Messenger of Allah ye have
a good example" (Quran, XXXIII, 21).

How can anyone imagine that Islam could discover that a particular path
is the path which leads to God without recommending this path to all the
people? Or how could it make such a path known and yet neglect to explain
the method of following it? For God says in the Quran, "And We reveal
the Scripture unto thee as an exposition of all things" (Quran, XVI,
89).

PART III: ISLAMIC BELIEFS FROM THE

SHI'ITE POINT OF VIEW

CHAPTER IV ON THE

KNOWLEDGE OF GOD

The World Seen from the Point of View of

Being and Reality ; The Necessity of God

Consciousness and perception, which are intertwined with man's very
being, make evident by their very nature the existence of God as well as
the world. For, contrary to those who express doubt about their own existence
and everything else and consider the world as illusion and fantasy, we
know that a human being at the moment of his coming into existence, when
he is already conscious and possesses perception, discovers himself and
the world. That is to say, he has no doubt that "He exists and things
other than he exist." As long as man is man this comprehension and
knowledge exist in him and cannot be doubted, nor do they undergo any change.

The perception of this reality and existence which man affirms through
his intelligence, in opposition to the views of the sophist and skeptic,
is immutable and can never be proven false. That is to say, the claim of
the sophist and the skeptic which negates reality can never be true, because
of man's very existence. There is within the immense world of existence
a permanent and abiding reality which pervades it and which reveals itself
to the intelligence.

Yet each of the phenomena of this world which possesses the reality
that we discover as conscious and perceiving human beings loses its reality
sooner or later and becomes nonexistent. From this fact itself it is evident
that the visible world and its parts are not the essence of reality (which
can never be obliterated or destroyed). Rather, they rely upon a permanent
Reality through which they gain reality and by means of which they enter
into existence. As long as they are connected and attached to it they possess
existence and as soon as they are cut off from it they become nonexistent.
We call this Immutable Reality, which is imperishable (that is, the Necessary
Being), God.

Another Point of View Concerning the

Relation Between Man and the Universe

The path chosen in the previous section to prove the existence of God
is a very simple and evident one which man treads with his God-given nature
and intelligence without any complication. Yet, for the majority of people,
because of their continuous preoccupation with material things and their
being drowned in the pleasures of the senses, it has become very difficult
to return to their God-given, simple, primordial, and untainted nature.
That is why Islam, which describes itself as universal, and which believes
all people to be equal in religion, has made it possible for such people
to find another way to prove the existence of God. It seeks to speak to
them and to make God known to them by means of the very path through which
they have turned away from their simple, primordial nature.

The Holy Quran instructs the multitude of men in the knowledge of God
through different ways. Most of all, it draws their attention to the creation
of the world and the order which reigns over it. It invites men to contemplate
the "horizons" and "their own souls," for man in his
few days of earthly life, no matter what path he chooses or what state
he loses himself in, will never step outside the world of creation and
the order which reigns over it. His intelligence and power of comprehension
cannot overlook the marvelous scenes of heaven and earth which he observes.

This vast world of existence which stretches before our eyes is, as
we know, in its parts and as a whole continuously in the process of change
and transformation. At each moment it manifests itself in a new and unprecedented
form. It becomes actualized under the influences of laws which know no
exception. From the farthest galaxies to the smallest particles which form
the parts of this world, each part of creation possesses an inward order
and runs its course in a most amazing manner under laws which do not admit
any exceptions. The world extends its domain of activity from the lowest
to the most perfect state and reaches its own goal of perfection.

Above these particular orders stand more universal orders and finally
the total cosmic order which brings together the countless parts of the
universe and relates the more particular orders with each other, and which
in its continuous course accepts no exceptions and permits no breaches.

The order of creation is such that if, for example, it places a man
upon the earth, it constitutes him in such a way that he can live in harmony
with his environment. It arranges the environment in such a way that it
raises him like a loving nurse. The sun, the moon, the stars, water and
earth, the night and the day, the seasons of the year, the clouds, wind
and rain, the treasures beneath the earth and on its surface, in other
words all the forces of nature, use their energy and resources in providing
well-being and peace of mind for him. Such a relation and harmony can be
discovered among all phenomena and also between man and his neighbors near
and far, as well as within man's own habitat.

Such a continuity and harmony can also be observed within the internal
structure of every phenomenon in the world. If creation has given man bread,
it has also given him feet to seek it, hands to grasp it, a mouth to eat
it, and teeth to chew it. It has related man through a series of means,
which are connected with each other like the links of a chain, to the final
goal envisaged for this creature, which is subsistence and perfection.

Many men of science have no doubt that the countless relations among
things which they have discovered as a result of several thousand years
of effort are but humble samples and a foretaste of the secrets of creation
and their myriad ramifications. Each new discovery declares to man the
existence of an endless number of unknown elements. Could anyone say that
this vast world of existence, all of the parts of which either separately
or in unity and interconnection bear witness to an infinite knowledge and
power, need not have a creator and cold have come into being without reason
and cause? Or could it be said of these particular and universal domains
or order and equilibrium, and finally of this total cosmic order which
through innumerable interrelations has made the world a single unit running
its course according to laws which know no exceptions, that all this has
occurred without plan and only through accident and chance? Or could anyone
say that each of the phenomena and domains in the cosmos has chosen for
itself, before coming into being? Or could anyone claim that this world,
which is a single unit and which possesses complete unity, harmony and
the interconnection of parts, could be the result of multiple and different
commands issuing from different sources?

Obviously, an intelligent man, who relates every event and phenomenon
to a cause, and who sometimes spends long periods in investigation and
efforts to gain knowledge of a cause that is unknown to him, will never
accept the possibility of a world existing without a Being as its cause.
Such a person, who by observing a few bricks placed upon one another in
an orderly manner considers them to be the effect of an agent possessing
knowledge and power and who denies the possibility of chance and accident
in the putting of the bricks together and therefore concludes that a plan
and purpose must have existed beforehand, will not regard the cosmic order
as being the result of an accident or the play of chance.

A deeper awareness of the order reigning in the world is enough to show
that the world, along with the order reigning over it, is the creation
of an omnipotent Creator who has brought it into being through His limitless
knowledge and power and who directs it toward an end. All the partial causes
which bring about individual events in the world ultimately end in Him.
They are in every way under His dominance and are guided by His wisdom.
Everything that exists is in need of Him, while He has need of nothing
and does not depend on any causes or conditions.

God, the Exalted, says, "Lo! in the heavens and the earth are portents
for believers. And in your creation, and all the beasts that He scattereth
in the earth, are portents for a folk whose faith is sure. And the difference
of night and day and the provision that Allah sendeth down from the sky
and thereby quickeneth the earth after her death, and the ordering of the
winds, are portents for a people who have sense. These are portents of
Allah which we recite unto thee (Muhammad) with truth. Then in what fact,
after Allah and His portents, will they believe?" (Quran, XLV, 3-6).

Every reality in this world which we can possibly imagine is a limited
reality, that is, one whose actualization depends upon certain necessary
causes and conditions. If these do not exist that reality cannot exist
in the world. Every reality has a boundary beyond which it cannot extend
its existence. Only God is such that He has no limit or boundary, for His
reality is absolute and He exists in His Infinity no matter how we try
to conceive of Him. His Being does not depend upon and is not in need of
any causes or conditions. It is clear that in the case of something limitless
we cannot conceive of multiplicity, for any supposedly second reality will
be other than the first, as a result of which each would be limited and
bound and would set a boundary to the reality of the other. For example,
if we consider a limitless volume we cannot conceive another limitless
volume alongside it. And if we do suppose another, it will be the same
as the first. Therefore, God is one and has no partner.

We have already mentioned the Bedouin who approached Ali in the middle
of the fighting during the Battle of the Camel and asked if he asserted
that God was one. In answer Ali said, "To say that God is one has
four meanings: Two of those meanings are false and two correct. As for
the two incorrect meanings, one is that one should say 'God is one' and
be thinking of number and counting. This meaning is false because that
which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not
see that those who said that God is the third of a trinity [i.e., the Christians]
fell into infidelity? Another meaning is to say that so and so is one of
this people, namely a species of this genus or a member of this species.
This meaning is also not correct when applied to God, for it implies likening
something to God and God is above all likeness.

"As for the two meanings which are correct when applied to God,
one is that it should be said that God is one in the sense that there is
no likeness unto Him among things. God possesses such uniqueness. And one
is to say that God is one in the sense that there is no multiplicity or
division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly nor in the mind nor in the
imagination. God possesses such a unity." (Bihar al-anwar,
vol. II, p. 65)

Ali has also said, "To know God is to know His Oneness." (Bihar
al-anwar, vol. II, p. 186) This means that the Being of God is unlimited
and infinite suffices to prove His Oneness, for to conceive a second for
the Infinite is impossible. There is therefore no need of any other proofs,
although there exist many others.

The Divine Essence and Qualities

If we analyze the nature of a human being, we see that he has an essence
which is his individual humanity and also qualities through which his essence
is known, such as the quality of being born in such a land, or being the
son of such a person, or being learned and capable, or tall and handsome;
or he possesses the contrary of these qualities. Some of these qualities,
like the first and second, can never be separated from the essence, and
others, like being learned or capable, have the possibility or separation
and alternation. Yet all are different from the essence and at the same
time different from each other.

This point, namely the difference between the essence and qualities
and between the qualities themselves, is the best proof that an essence
that has qualities, and a quality that makes known an essence, are both
limited and finite. For if the essence were limitless and infinite it would
encompass the qualities as well, and also the qualities would include each
other, and as a result all would become one. For example, the essence of
man would be the same as capability and also capability the same as knowledge;
height and beauty would be the same; and all of these would possess the
same meaning.

From this example it is clear that the Divine Essence cannot be conceived
to have qualities in the sense that human beings have qualities. A quality
can come about only through setting limits and the Divine Essence transcends
all limitations (even the limitation of this transcendence which in reality
is a quality).

The Meaning of the Divine Qualities

In the world of creation we are aware of many perfections which appear
in the form of qualities. These are positive qualities which, wherever
they appear, make the object of which they are the quality more perfect
and increase its ontological value, as can be seen clearly in the comparison
between the live being such as man and a lifeless one such as a stone.
Doubtless God has created and bestowed these perfections upon creatures;
if He had not possessed them in their fullness Himself He could not have
bestowed them upon others and perfected others through them. Therefore,
if we follow the judgment of sound reasoning we must conclude that God,
the Creator, has knowledge, power, and every other real perfection. Furthermore,
as has already been mentioned, the marks of His knowledge and power and,
as a result, the marks of life are seen in the order of the cosmos.

But because the Divine Essence is limitless and infinite these perfections
which are shown to be His Qualities are in reality the same His Essence
and one with each other. The difference observed between the Essence and
the Qualities and at the same time between the Qualities themselves is
only on the plane of concepts. Essentially there is but one Reality involved
which is one and indivisible.

In order to avoid the inadmissible error of limiting the Essence through
attributing qualities to it or denying the principle of perfection in it,
Islam has commanded its followers to preserve a just balance between affirmation
and negation. It has ordered them to believe that God has knowledge but
not like the knowledge of others. He has power but not like the power of
others. He hears but not with ears. He sees but not with eyes like those
of men, and so on.

Further Explanation Concerning Qualities

Qualities in general are of two types : qualities of perfection, and
qualities of imperfection. Qualities of perfection, as mentioned above,
are of a positive nature and give higher ontological value and greater
ontological effect to the object that they qualify. This is clear from
the comparison between a live, knowing and capable being and a dead being
which lacks knowledge and capability. Qualities of imperfection are the
reverse of such qualities. When we analyze these imperfect qualities we
see that they are negative and show a lack of perfection, such as ignorance,
impatience, ugliness, illness, and the like. Therefore, it can be said
that the negation of the quality of imperfection is the quality of perfection.
For example, the negation of ignorance is knowledge and the negation of
impotence is power and capability.

For this reason the Holy Quran has related each positive quality directly
to God and negated every quality of imperfection from Him, attributing
the negation of such imperfections to Him, as He says: "He is the
knower, the Omnipotent," or He says, "He is the Alive" or
"Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him," or "Know that
ye cannot frustrate Allah."

The point that must never be forgotten is that God, the Most Exalted,
is Absolute Reality without any limit or boundary. Therefore, a positive
quality attributed to Him will not possess any limitation. He is not material
and corporeal or limited to space and time. While possessing all positive
qualities He is beyond every quality and state which belongs to creatures.
Every quality which in reality belongs to Him is purified from the notion
of limitedness, as He says, "Nought is as His likeness." (Quran,
XLII, 11)

Qualities of Action

In addition, qualities are also divided into qualities of essence and
qualities of action. A quality sometimes depends only on the qualified
itself, such as life, knowledge and power, which depend on the person of
a living, knowing and capable human being. We can conceive of man in himself
possessing these qualities without taking into consideration any other
factor.

At other times a quality does not depend only on the qualified in itself,
but, in order to qualify, it also requires the existence of something external
as in the case of writing, conservation, desire, and the like. A person
can be a writer if he possesses ink, pen, and paper, and he can converse
when there is someone with whom to speak. In the same way he can desire
when there is an object of desire. The sole existence of man is not sufficient
to bring these qualities into existence.

From this analysis it becomes clear that the Divine Qualities which
are the same as God's Essence, as already pointed out, are only of the
first kind. As for the second kind, whose actualization depends upon an
external factor, they cannot be considered as Qualities of the Essence
and the same as the Essence, for all that is other than God is created
by Him and so, being situated in the created order, comes after Him.

Qualities that pertain to God after the act of creation such as creator,
omnipotent, giver of life, giver of death, sustainer, etc., are not the
same as His Essence but are additional to it; they are Qualities of Action.
By Quality of Action is meant that after the actualization of an act the
meaning of a quality is understood from that act, not from the Essence
(that performs the act), such as "Creator", which is conceived
after the act of creation has taken place. From the creation is understood
the quality of God as Creator. That quality depends upon creation, not
upon the sacred Essence of God, the Most Exalted, Himself, so that the
Essence does not change from one state to another with the appearance of
that quality. Shi'ism considers the two qualities of will (iradah) and
speech (kalam) in their literal meaning as Qualities of Action (will meaning
wanting something and speech meaning conveying a meaning through an expression).
Most of the Sunni theologians consider them as implying knowledge and thereby
take them to be Qualities of Essence.

Destiny and Providence

The law of causality reigns throughout the world of existence without
any breach or exception. According to this law each phenomenon in this
world depends for its coming into being upon causes and conditions which
make its actualization possible. If all of these causes, which are called
the complete cause (the sufficient and necessary cause), are actualized,
the coming into being of that phenomenon, or the assumed effect, becomes
determined and necessary. And assuming the lack of all or some of these
causes, the actualization of the phenomenon is impossible. Investigation
and analysis of this thesis will clarify this point for us.

(1) If we compare a phenomenon (or effect) with the whole, complete
(or sufficient) cause, and also with the parts of the complete cause, its
relation to the complete cause is based on necessity and relation to each
of the parts of the complete cause (which are called incomplete or partial
causes) is one of possibility and lack of complete determinism. These causes
provide the effect only with the possibility of existence, not with its
necessity.

The world of existence, in its totality, therefore, is governed throughout
by necessity because each of its parts has a necessary connection with
its complete cause by the very fact of coming into being. Its structure
is composed of a series of necessary and certain events. Yet, the character
of possibility is preserved in its parts if we consider each part separately
and in itself in the phenomena which are related and connected to partial
causes which are other than their complete cause.

The Holy Quran in its teachings has called this reign of necessity Divine
Destiny (qada'), for this necessity issues from that Source that
gives existence to the world and is therefore a command (hukm) and
"Divine Decree" that is certain and is impossible to breach or
disobey. It is based on justice and accepts no exception or discrimination.
God Almighty says, "His verily is all creation and commandment"
(Quran, VII, 54), and "When He decreeth [qada] a thing, He saith unto
it only: Be! and it is" (Quran, II, 117), and also "(When) Allah
doometh there is none that can postpone His doom [hukm]" (Quran, XIII,
41).

(2) Each part of the cause provides the appropriate measure and "model"
for the effect, and the coming into being of the effect is in accordance
with the totality of the measures determined for it by the complete cause.
For example, the causes that make respiration possible for man do not cause
respiration in the absolute and unconditioned sense ; rather they send
a determined amount of the air around the mouth and nose through the respiratory
channel to the area of the lungs in a determined time and with a determined
shape. Likewise, the causes of man's vision (including man himself) do
not bring into being vision as such without limits or conditions, but rather
a vision which, through the means and organs provided, is limited and measured
for men in every respect. This truth is to be found without exception in
all the phenomena of the world and all the events that occur in it.

The Holy Quran has called this aspect the truth "Providence"
(qadar) and has related it to God Almighty who is the origin of
creation, as has been said, "And there is not a thing but with Us
are the stores thereof. And we send it not down save in appointed measure
[qadar]" (Quran, XV, 21).

In the same way that according to Divine Destiny the existence of each
phenomenon and even which occurs in the cosmic order is necessary and cannot
be avoided, so also according to Providence each phenomenon and event that
occurs will never trespass or disobey in the least degree the measure which
God has provided for it.

Man and Free Will

The action which man performs is one of the phenomena of the world of
creation and its appearance depends, completely, like other phenomena in
the world, upon its cause. And since man in a part of the world of creation
and has an ontological relation with other parts of the cosmos, we cannot
accept the premise that other parts should not have an effect upon his
actions.

For example, when a man takes a bite of bread he needs not only the
instruments of his hands, feet, mouth as well as knowledge, power and will,
but also the existence of the bread in the external world, its availability,
the lack of obstacles and other temporal and spatial conditions. If any
of these causes were not actualized, the action would not be possible.
Conversely, with the actualization of all of them (the complete cause)
the occurrence of the action becomes completely necessary. The necessity
of the action in relation to all of the parts of the complete cause is
not contradictory to the possibility of the relation of the action with
respect to man, who is one of the parts of the complete cause. Man has
the possibility or free will (ikhtiyar) to perform the act. The
necessity existing in the relation between the action and all of the parts
of the cause does not mean that the relation of the action to some of the
parts of the cause, of which man is one, should also be that of necessity
and determination.

Man's simple and untainted comprehension also confirms this point of
view, for we see that people through their God-given nature and intelligence
distinguish between such things as eating, drinking, coming and going on
the one hand, and on the other, such things as health and illness, age
and youth or the height of the body. The first group, which is directly
related to man's will, is considered to be performed according to the free
choice of the individual so that people command and prohibit them and blame
or condemn them. But concerning the second group man has no duty and is
not under any Divine command because he cannot exercise a free choice over
them.

At the beginning of Islam among the Sunnis there were two schools that
were concerned with the theological aspects of human action. One group,
holding the view that human action is the result of the unbreakable will
of God, considered man to be determined in his actions and held human free
will to be devoid of any value and sense. The other group believed man
to be independent in his actions, which did not depend upon the Divine
will and were outside of the command of Providence (qadar).

But according to the instruction of the Household of the Prophet, which
is also in conformity with the literal instructions of the Quran, man is
free (mukhtar) in his actions but not independent (mustaqill).
Rather, God the Almighty through free will has willed the act. According
to our previous analysis, God the Exalted has willed and made necessary
the act through all of the parts of the complete cause, of which one is
the will and free choice of man. As a result of this kind of Divine will,
the action is necessary but in it man has also free will, that is, the
action is necessary with respect to all the parts of its cause, and possible
and free in choice with respect to one of those parts which is man. The
sixth Imam - upon whom be peace - has said, "It is neither determination
nor free will but something between the two."

The fifth and sixth Imams said that "God loves His creation so
much that He will not force it to commit sin and then punish it. And God
is so powerful that whatever He commands comes to be." Also the sixth
Imam has said, "God is so generous that He does not make it a duty
for men to do what is not in their power. He is so powerful that nothing
comes into being in His kingdom which He does not will." (This is
an allusion to the two schools of predestination and free will.) (Bihar
al-anwar, vol. III, pp. 5, 6, 15)

CHAPTER V ON THE

KNOWLEDGE OF THE

PROPHET

Toward the Goal : General Guidance

A grain of wheat that is placed within the bosom of the earth under
appropriate conditions begins to grow and enters upon a path of development
in which at every moment it takes on a new form and state. Following a
particular order and sequence it treads this path until it becomes a grown
plant with spikes of wheat ; if once again one of the seeds were to fall
upon the ground it would begin the previous cycle all over again until
it reached the final goal. Likewise if the seed is that of a fruit placed
within the bosom of the soil it begins its transformation, breaking its
shell, from which a green stem shoots out. It follows an orderly and distinct
path of transformation until finally it becomes a fully grown tree, green
and full of fruit. Or if it is the sperm of an animal it begins to develop
within the egg or in the womb of the mother, following the line of development
peculiar to that animal until it becomes a perfected individual of that
animal species.

This distinct path and orderly development is to be development is to
be observed in each species of creatures in this world and is determined
by the inner nature of that species. The green wheat plant which has sprung
up from the grain will never bear oats or become a sheep, a goat, or an
elephant, and an animal that has become pregnant from its male will never
bear spikes of wheat or a plane tree. Even if an imperfection were to occur
in the organs or the natural functions of the newly born, or if a lamp
were to be born without an eye, or a wheat plant develop without spikes
of wheat, we would have no doubt that such an occurrence was due to some
pest or to unnatural causes. Continuous order and regularity in the development
and generation of things, and the belonging of each species of creatures
in its generation and development to a particular order and rule, is an
undeniable fact.

From this evident thesis two conclusions can be drawn. (1) Between the
various stages that each species of creatures traverses from the beginning
to the end of its existence there is continuity and interconnection, as
if that species in each stage of its development were pushed from behind
and attracted by what is to come. (2) Due to the above-mentioned continuity
and interconnection, the last stage in the development of each species
is from the beginning of its generation the goal and point of "existential
attention" of that species. For example, the "attention"
of the walnut that sends out a green shoot from below the earth is centered
from that very moment on a fully grown walnut tree. And a sperm in the
egg or the womb is from the moment of its generation moving toward the
state of the perfected animal.

The Holy Quran, which teaches that the creation and the preservation
of things belong absolutely to God, considers this movement and attraction,
which each species in creation possesses in trading its path of development,
to be derived from Divine guidance. As He says, "Our Lord is He Who
gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright" (Quran, XX,
50). And also, "Who createth, then disposeth ; who measureth then
guideth" (Quran, LXXXVII, 2-3). And He refers to the result of these
sayings in these words: "And each one hath a goal toward which he
turneth" (Quran, II, 148). And also: "And We created not the
heavens and the earth, and all that is between them in play. We created
them not save with truth, but most of them know not" (Quran, XLIV,
38-39).

Special Guidance

Obviously the human species is not an exception to this general rule.
The same guidance which rules over all species of creature governs man
as well. In the same way that each species through its particular nature
follows its path of perfection and is guided to it, so must man with the
help of this guidance be guided toward that which is his real perfection.

Although man shares many elements with other species of animals and
with plants, the one special characteristic which distinguishes him is
intellect. It is with the help of his intellect and reason that man is
able to think and to make use of every means possible for his own benefit,
to fly into the endless spaces of the sky or swim in the depth of the sea,
or to bring under his service and command all kinds of created things,
whether they be minerals, plants or animals on the surface of the earth,
and to benefit even from members of his own species to the greatest extent
possible.

Owing to his primordial nature, man sees his happiness and perfection
in gaining complete freedom. Yet, he must of necessity sacrifice some of
his freedom because he is created as a social being and has endless demands
which by himself he can never satisfy, and also because he is in cooperation
and social intercourse with other members of his species who themselves
have the same instinct of self-centeredness and love of freedom that he
has. For the sake of the benefit he gains from others he must in turn be
of benefit to them. Equivalent to what he reaps from the toil of others
he must give of his own work. Or, in summary, he must of necessity accept
a society based upon mutual cooperation.

This point is clear in the case of newborn babies and children. At the
beginning, when desiring anything, they make use of no other means but
force and crying and refuse to accept any constraint or discipline. But
gradually, as a result of mental development, they realize that one cannot
succeed in the problems of life only through rebellion and force ; therefore,
slowly they approach the condition of social beings. Finally they reach
the age when they become social individuals with developed mental powers
and are ready to obey the social regulations of their environment.

When man comes to accept the necessity for mutual cooperation among
members of society he also recognizes the necessity for laws which rule
over society, clarifying the duty of each individual and specifying the
punishment for each offender. He accepts laws through whose application
each individual can realize real happiness and find felicity in proportion
to the social value of his efforts. These laws are the same universal and
applicable laws which man, from the first day of his existence until today,
has been continuously seeking and to which he has always been attracted
as the foremost among all his desires. If the attainment of such a thing
were not possible and were not written upon the tablet of human destiny,
it would not have been the perennial yearning of man.

God, the Exalted, has referred to this reality of human society, saying,
"We have apportioned among their livelihood in the life of the world,
and raised some of them above others in rank that some of them may take
labor from others" (Quran, LXIII, 32). Concerning man's selfishness
and desire to monopolize things to himself He says, "Lo! man was created
anxious, fretful when evil befalleth him, and, when good befalleth him,
grudging" (Quran, LXX, 19-21).

Reason and Law

If we delve into the matter carefully we will discover that man seeks
continuously those laws which can bring happiness in the world ; that people
as individuals and in groups recognize, in accordance with their God-given
nature, the necessity for laws which provide felicity for them without
discrimination or exception, laws which establish a general norm of perfection
among mankind. Obviously, up to now, during the different periods of human
history, there have not come into being any such laws which are devised
by human reason. If the laws of existence had placed the burden of creating
such human laws upon the shoulders of human reason, then during the long
period of history such laws would have been established. In that case,
each individual who possesses the power of reasoning would comprehend this
human law in detail in the same way that everyone realizes the necessity
for such laws in society.

In other words, if it had been in the very nature of things that it
be the duty of human reason to create a perfect common law which must provide
happiness for human society, and that man should be guided to that perfect
law through the process of creation and the generation of the world itself,
then such laws would have been apprehended by each human being through
his reason in the same way that man knows what is of benefit or detriment
to him throughout the determined course of daily life. There is, however,
as yet no sign of the presence of such laws. Laws which have come about
by themselves, or have been devised by a single ruler, or individuals,
or nations, and have become prevalent in different societies are considered
by some as certain, and by others as doubtful. Some are aware of these
laws and others are ignorant of them. Never has it come to pass that all
people, who in their basic structure are the same in that they are endowed
by God with reason, should have a common awareness of the details of the
laws which can bring about happiness in the world of man.

That Mysterious Wisdom and Consciousness Called

Revelation

Thus, in the light of the discussion above, it becomes clear that the
laws which can guarantee the happiness of human society cannot be perceived
by reason. Since according to the thesis of general guidance running throughout
creation the existence of an awareness of these laws in the human species
is necessary, there must be another power of apprehension within the human
species which enables man to understand the real duties of life and which
places this knowledge within the reach of everyone. This consciousness
and power of perception, which is other than reason and sense, is called
the prophetic consciousness, or the consciousness of revelation.

Of course the presence of such a power in mankind does not mean that
it should necessarily appear in all individuals, in the same way that although
the power of procreation has been placed in all human beings, the awareness
of the enjoyment of marriage and being prepared for this enjoyment is possible
only for those who have reached the age of puberty. In the same way that
the consciousness of revelation is a mysterious and unknown form of consciousness
for those who do not possess it, the apprehension of the joy of sexual
union is a mysterious and unknown feeling for those who have not reached
the age of puberty.

God, the Exalted, makes reference in His Word to the revelation of His
Divine Law (Shari'ah) and the inability of human reason to comprehend this
matter in the verses: "Lo! We inspire thee as We inspired Noah and
the prophets after him, as We inspired Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and
Jacob and the tribes, and Jesus and Job and Jonah and Aaron and Solomon,
and We imparted unto David the Psalms; and messengers We have mentioned
unto thee before and messengers We have not mentioned unto thee ; and Allah
spoke directly unto Moses ; Messengers of good cheer and of warning, in
order that mankind might have no argument against Allah after the messengers"
(Quran, IV, 163-165).

The Prophets - Inerrancy of Prophecy

The appearance of prophets affirms that conception of revelation outlined
above. The prophets of God were men who propagated the call of revelation
and prophecy and brought definitive proofs for their call. They propagated
among people the elements of the religion of God (which is the same divine
law that guarantees happiness) and made it available to all men.

Since in all periods of history the number of people endowed with the
power of prophecy and revelation has been limited to a few individuals,
God - the Most Exalted - has completed and perfected the guidance of the
rest of mankind by placing the mission of the propagation of religion upon
the shoulders of His prophets. That is why a prophet of God must possess
the quality of inerrancy ('ismah). In receiving the revelation from
God, in guarding it and in making possible its reaching the people, he
must be free from error. He must not commit sin (ma'siyah). The
reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three
principles of ontological guidance ; and error in existence itself is meaningless.
Furthermore, sin and opposition to the claims of the religious call and
its propagation are impossible in a prophet for they would be a call against
the original religious mission ; they would destroy the confidence of the
people, their reliance upon the truth and the validity of the call. As
a result they would destroy the purpose of the religious call itself.

God, the Exalted, refers in His word to the inerrancy of the prophets,
saying, "And We chose them and guided them unto a straight path"
(Quran, VI, 88). And also, "(He is) the Knower of the Unseen, and
He revealeth unto none His secret, save unto every messenger whom He hath
chosen, and then He maketh a guard to go before him and a guard behind
him, that He may know that they have indeed conveyed the messages of their
Lord" (Quran, LXXII, 26-28).

The Prophets and Revealed Religion

What the prophets of God receive through revelation and as a message
from God and conveyed to mankind was religion (din), that is, a way of
life and human duties which guarantee the real happiness of man.

Revealed religion in general consists of two parts : doctrine and practice
or method. The doctrinal part of revealed religion consists of a series
of fundamental principles and views concerning the real nature of things
upon which man must establish the foundations of his life. It is comprised
of the three universal principles of unity (tawhid), prophecy (nubuwwat),
and eschatology (ma'ad). If there is any confusion or disorder in one of
these principles the religion will not be able to gain any following.

The practical part of revealed religion consists of a series of moral
and practical injunctions covering the duties man has before God and human
society. That is why the secondary duties which have been ordered for man
in different Divine laws are of two kinds : morals (akhlaq), and
actions (a'mal). The morals and actions related to the Divine are
of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of faith, sincerity, surrender
to God, contentment and humility ; and second, the daily prayers, fasting,
and sacrifice (called acts of worship and symbolizing the humility and
servitude of man before the Divine Throne). The morals and actions related
to human society are also of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of
love for other men, wishing well for others, justice and generosity ; and
second, the duty to carry out social intercourse, trade and exchange, etc.
(called transactions).

Another point that must be considered is that since the human species
is directed toward the gradual attainment of perfection, and human society
through the passage of time becomes more complete, the appearance of a
parallel development must also be seen in revealed laws. The Holy Quran
affirms this gradual development, which reason has also discovered. It
can be concluded from its verses that each Divine Law (Shari'ah) is in
reality more complete than the Shari'ah before ; for instance, in this
verse where He says, "And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture
with the truth, confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a watcher
over it." (Quran, V, 48)

Of course, as scientific knowledge also confirms and the Quran states,
the life of human society in this world is not eternal and the development
of man is not endless. As a result, the general principles governing the
duties of man from the point of view of doctrine and practice must of necessity
stop at a particular stage. Therefore, prophecy and the Shari'ah will also
one day come to an end when in the perfection of doctrine and expansion
of practical regulations they have reached the final stage of their development.
That is why the Holy Quran, in order to make clear that Islam (the religion
of Muhammad) is the last and most complete of the revealed religions, introduces
itself as a sacred book that cannot be abrogated (naskh), calls
the Prophet the "Seal of the Prophets" (khatam al-anbiya'),
and sees the Islamic religion as embracing all religious duties. As He
says, "And lo! it is an unassailable Scripture. Falsehood cannot come
at it from before it or behind it" (Quran, XLI, 41-42). And also,
"Muhammad is not the father of any man among you but he is the messenger
of Allah and the Seal of the prophets" (Quran, XXXIII, 40). And, "We
reveal the scripture unto thee as an exposition of all things" (Quran,
XVI, 89).

The Prophets and Proof of Revelation and Prophecy

Many modern scholars who have investigated the problem of revelation
and prophecy have tried to explain revelation, prophecy and questions connected
with them by using the principles of social psychology. They say that the
prophets of God were men of a pure nature and strong will who had great
love for humanity. In order to enable mankind to advance spiritually and
materially and in order to reform decadent societies, they devised laws
and regulations and invited mankind to accept them. Since people in those
days would not accept the logic of human reason, in order to make them
obey their teachings the prophets, according to such modern scholars, claimed
that they and their thoughts came from the transcendent world. Each prophet
called his own pure soul the Holy Spirit ; the teachings which he claimed
came from the transcendent world were called "revelation and prophecy"
; the duties which resulted from the teachings were called "revealed
Shari'ah" ; and the written record of these teachings and duties were
called a "revealed book."

Anyone who views with depth and impartiality the revealed books and
especially the Holy Quran, and also the lives of the prophets, will have
no doubt that this view is not correct. The prophets of God were not political
men. Rather they were "men of God," full of truthfulness and
purity. What they perceived they proclaimed without addition or diminution.
And what they uttered they acted upon. What they claimed to possess was
a mysterious consciousness which the invisible world had bestowed upon
them. In this way they came to know from God Himself what welfare of men
was in this world and the next, and propagated this knowledge among mankind.

It is quite clear that in order to confirm and ascertain the call of
prophecy there is need of proof and demonstration. The sole fact that the
Shari'ah brought by a prophet conforms to reason is not sufficient in determining
the truthfulness of the prophetic call. A man who claims to be a prophet,
in addition to the claim of the truth of his Shari'ah, claims a connection
through revelation and prophecy with the transcendent world, and therefore
claims he has been given by God the mission to propagate the faith. This
claim in itself is in need of proof. That is why (as the Holy Quran informs
us) the common people with their simple mentality always sought miracles
from the prophets of God in order that the truthfulness of their call might
be confirmed.

The meaning of this simple and correct logic is that the revelation
which the prophet claims is his cannot be found among others who are human
beings like him. It is of necessity an invisible power which God miraculously
bestows upon His prophets, through which they hear His word and are given
the mission to convey this word to mankind. If this be true, then the prophet
should ask God for another miracle so that people would believe the truth
of his prophetic call.

It is thus clear that the request for miracles from prophets is according
to correct logic and it is incumbent upon the prophet of God to provide
miracle at the beginning of his call, or according to the demand of the
people, in order to prove his prophecy. The Holy Quran has affirmed this
logic, relating miracles about many prophets at the beginning of their
mission or after their followers requested them.

Of course many modern investigators and scientists have denied miracles,
but their opinions are not based upon any satisfactory reasons. There is
no reason to believe that the causes which until now have been discovered
for events through investigation and experiment are permanent and unchanging,
or that no event ever occurs for reasons other than those which usually
bring it about. The miracles related about the prophets of God are not
impossible or against reason (as is, for example, the claim that the number
three is even). Rather they are a "break in what is habitual"
(kharq-i 'adat), an occurrence which, incidentally, has often been
observed in a lower degree among people following ascetic practices.

The Number of the Prophets of God

It is known through tradition that in the past many prophets appeared,
and the Holy Quran affirms their multitude. It has mentioned some of them
by name or by their characteristics, but has not given their exact number.
Through definitive traditions also it has not been possible to determine
their number except in the well known saying which Abu Dharr Ghifari has
recited from the Holy Prophet, according to which their number has been
set at 124,000.

The Prophets Who are Bringers of Divine Law

From what can be deduced from the Quran, it can be concluded that all
the prophets of God did not bring a Shari'ah. Rather, five of them - Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the Prophet Muhammad - are "possessors
of determination" (ulu'l-'azim), those who have brought a Shari'ah.
Other prophets follow the Shari'ah of those who "possess determination."
God has said in the Quran, "He hath ordained for you that religion
which He commended unto Noah, and that which We inspire in thee (Muhammad),
and that which We commended unto Abraham and Moses and Jesus" (Quran,
XLII, 13). He has also said, "And when We exacted a covenant from
the Prophets, and from thee (O Muhammad) and from Noah and Abraham and
Moses and Jesus son of Mary, We took from them a solemn covenant"
(Quran, XXXIII,7 ).

The Prophecy of Muhammad

The last prophet of God is Hadrat-i Muhammad - upon whom be blessings
and peace - who possesses a book and a Shari'ah and in whom Muslims have
placed their faith. The Prophet was born fifty three years before the beginning
if the hegira calendar in Mecca in the Hijaz amidst the family of Bany
Hashim of the Tribe of Quraysh, who were considered the most honored of
the Arab families.

His father was called 'Abdallah and his mother, Aminah. He lost both
parents at the beginning of childhood and was placed under the care of
his paternal grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib, who also soon passed away.
At this time the Prophet's uncle, Abu Talib, took charge of him and became
his guardian, taking him into his own house. The Prophet grew up in his
uncle's house and even before reaching the age of adolescence used to accompany
his uncle on journeys by caravan.

The Prophet had not received any schooling and therefore did not know
how to read and write. Yet, after reaching the age of maturity he became
famous for his wisdom, courtesy, and trustworthiness. As a result of his
sagacity and trustworthiness, one of the women of the tribe of Quraysh,
well-known for her wealth, appointed him as the custodian of her possessions
and left in his hands the task of conducting her commercial affairs.

The Prophet once journeyed to Damascus with her merchandise and as a
result of the ability he displayed was able to make an outstanding profit.
Before long she asked to become his wife and the Prophet accepted her proposal.
After the marriage, which occurred when he was twenty-five years old, the
Prophet began the life of a manager of his wife's fortunes, until the age
of forty, gaining meanwhile a widespread reputation for wisdom and trustworthiness.
He refused, however, to worship idols, as was the common religious practice
of the Arabs of the Hijaz. And occasionally he would make spiritual retreats
(khalwah) in which he prayed and discoursed secretly with God.

At the age of forty, in the cave of Hira', in the mountains of the Tihamah
region near Mecca, when he was in spiritual retreat, he was chosen by God
to become a prophet and was given the mission of propagating the new religion.
At that moment the first chapter of the Quran ("The Blood-Clot"
[Surah-i 'alaq] ) was revealed to him. That very day he returned
to his house and on the way met his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who after
hearing the account of what had occurred declared his acceptance of the
faith. After the Prophet entered the house and told his wife of the revelation,
she likewise accepted Islam.

The first time the Prophet invited people to accept his message he was
faced with a distressing and painful reaction. Of necessity he was forced
henceforth to propagate his message in secret for some time until he was
ordered again by God to invite his very close relatives to accept his message.
But this call was also fruitless and no one heeded it except Ali ibn Abi
Talib, who in any case had already accepted the faith. (But in accordance
with documents transmitted from the Household of the Prophet and extant
poems composed by Abu Talib, Shi'ites believe that Abu Talib had also embraced
Islam ; however, because he was the sole protector of the Prophet, he hid
his faith from the people in order to preserve the outward power he had
with the Quraysh.)

After this period, according to Divine instruction, the Prophet began
to propagate his mission openly. With the beginning of open propagation
the people of Mecca reacted most severely and inflicted the most painful
afflictions and tortures upon the Prophet and the people who had become
newly converted to Islam. The severe treatment dealt out by the Quraysh
reached such a degree that a group of Muslims left their homes and belongings
and migrated to Abyssinia. The Prophet and his uncle, Abu Talib, along
with their relatives from the Banu Hashim, took refuge for three years
in the "mountain pass of Abu Talib," a fort in one of the valleys
of Mecca. No one had any dealings or transactions with them and they did
not dare to leave their place of refuge.

The idol-worshippers of Mecca, although at the beginning they considered
inflicting all kinds of pressures and tortures such as striking and beating,
insult, ridicule and defamation on the Prophet, occasionally would also
show kindness and courtesy toward him in order to have him turn away from
his mission. They would promise him great sums of money or leadership and
the rule of the tribe. But for the Prophet their promises and their threats
only resulted in the intensification of his will and determination to carry
out his mission. Once, when they came to the Prophet promising him wealth
and power, the Prophet told them, using metaphorical language, that if
they were to put the sun in the palm of his right hand and the moon in
the palm of his left hand he would not turn away from obeying the unique
God or refrain from performing his mission.

About the tenth year of his prophecy, when the Prophet left the "mountain
pass of Abu Talib," his uncle Abu Talib, who was also his sole protector,
died as did also his devoted wife. Henceforth there was no protection for
his life nor any place of refuge. Finally the idol-worshippers of Mecca
devised a secret plan to kill him. At night they surrounded his house from
all sides with the aim of forcing themselves in at the end of the night
and cutting him to pieces while he was in bed. But God, the Exalted, informed
him of the plan and commanded him to leave for Yathrib. The Prophet placed
Ali in place of himself in his bed and at night left the house under the
Divine protection, passing amidst his enemies, and taking refuge in a cave
near Mecca. After three days when his enemies, having looked everywhere,
gave up hope of capturing him and returned to Mecca, he left the cave and
set out for Yathrib.

The people of Yathrib, whose leaders had already accepted the message
of the Prophet and sworn allegiance to him, accepted him with open arms
and placed their lives and property at his disposal. In Yathrib for the
first time the Prophet formed a small Islamic community and signed treaties
with the Jewish tribes in and around the city as well as with the powerful
Arab tribes of the region. He undertook the task of propagating the Islamic
message and Yathrib became famous as "Madinat al-rasul" (the
city of the Prophet).

Islam began to grow and expand from day to day. The Muslims, who in
Mecca were caught in the mesh of the injustice and inequity of the Quraysh,
gradually left their homes and property and migrated to Medina, revolving
around the Prophet like moths around a candle. This group became known
as the "immigrants" (muhajirun) in the same way that those who
aided the Prophet in Yathrib gained the name of "helpers" (ansar).

Islam was advancing rapidly but at the same time the idol-worshippers
of Quraysh, as well as the Jewish tribes of the Hejaz, were unrestrained
in their harassment of the Muslims. With the help of the "hypocrites"
(munafiqun) of Medina who were amidst the community of Muslims and
who were not known for their holding any particular positions, they created
new misfortunes for the Muslims every day until finally the matter led
to war. Many battles took place between the Muslims and the Arab polytheists
and Jews, in most of which the Muslims were victorious. There were altogether
over eighty major and minor battles. In all the major conflicts such as
the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar, Hunayn, etc., the Prophet
was personally present on the battle scene. Also in all the major battles
and many minor ones, victory was gained especially through the efforts
of Ali. He was the only person who never turned away from any of these
battles. In all the wars that occurred during the ten years after the migration
from Mecca to Medina less than two hundred Muslims and less than a thousand
infidels were killed.

As a result of the activity of the Prophet and the selfless effort of
the muhajirun and ansar during this ten-year period, Islam spread through
the Arabian peninsula. There were also letters written to kings of other
countries such as Persia, Byzantinum and Abyssinia inviting them to accept
Islam. During this time the Prophet lived in poverty and was proud of it.
He never spent a moment of his time in vain. Rather, his time was divided
into three parts: one spent for God, in worshipping and remembering Him
; a part of himself and his household and domestic needs ; and a part for
the people. During this part of his time he was engaged in spreading and
teaching Islam and its sciences, administrating to the needs of Islamic
society and removing whatever evils existed, providing for the needs of
the Muslims, strengthening domestic and foreign bonds, and similar matters.

After ten years of stay in Medina the Prophet fell ill and died after
a few days of illness. According to existing traditions the last words
on his lips were advice concerning slaves and women.

The Prophet and the Quran

It was demanded of the Prophet, as it had been of other prophets, that
he produce a miracle. The Prophet himself also confirmed the power of prophets
to produce miracles as has been asserted clearly by the Quran. Many miracles
by the Prophet have been recounted, the transmission of some of which is
certain and can be accepted with confidence. But the enduring miracle of
the Prophet, which is still alive, is the sacred book of Islam, the Holy
Quran. The Holy Quran is a sacred text consisting of six thousand and several
hundred verses (ayah) divided into one hundred and fourteen large
and small chapters (surah). The verses of the Holy Quran were revealed
gradually during the twenty-three year period of prophecy and mission of
the Prophet. From less than one verse to a whole and complete chapter were
revealed under different circumstances, both at day and night, on journeys
or at home, in war or peace, during days of hardship or moments of rest.

The Holy Quran in many of its verses introduces itself in unambiguous
language as a miracle. It invited the Arabs of that day to rivalry and
competition in composing writings of comparable truth and beauty. The Arabs,
according to the testimony of history, had reached the highest stages of
eloquence and elegance of language, and in the sweetness of language and
flow of speech they ranked foremost among all people. The Holy Quran claims
that if it be thought of as human speech, created by the Prophet himself
or learned through instruction from someone else, then the Arabs should
be able to produce its like or ten chapters like it, or a single one of
its verses, making use of whatever means were at their disposal to achieve
this end. The celebrated Aram men of eloquence claimed that in answer to
this request that the Quran was magic and it was thus impossible for them
to produce its like.

Not only does the Quran challenge and invite people to compete with
its eloquence and elegant language, but also it occasionally invites rivalry
from the point of view of its meaning and thus challenges all the mental
powers of men and jinn, for the Quran is a book containing the total
program for human life. If we investigate the matter carefully we will
discover that God has made this vast and extensive program which embraces
every aspect of the countless beliefs, ethical forms and actions of mankind
and takes into account all of their details and particularities to by the
"Truth" (haqq) and to be called the religion of the truth (din-i
haqq). Islam is a religion whose injunctions are based on the truth and
the real welfare of mankind, not the desires and inclinations of the majority
of men or the whims of a single, powerful ruler.

At the foundation of this vast program is placed the most cherished
word of God which is belief in His Unity. All the principles of the sciences
are deduced from the principle of Unity (tawhid). After that, the most
praiseworthy human ethical and moral virtues are deduced from the principles
of the religious sciences and included in the program. Then, the countless
principles and details of human action and individual and social conditions
of man are investigated, and the duties pertaining to them which originate
from the worship of the One are elaborated and organized. In Islam the
relation and continuity between the principles (usul) and their applications
(furu') are such that each particular application in whatever subject it
may be, if it is brought back to its source, returns to the principle of
Unity or tawhid, and Unity if applied and analyzed becomes the basis for
the particular injunction and rule in question.

Of course, the final elaboration of such an extensive religion with
such unity and interconnection, or even the preparation of an elementary
index for it, is beyond the normal powers of the best authorities on law
in the world. But here we speak of a man who in a short span of time was
placed amidst a thousand difficulties concerning life and property, caught
in bloody battles and faced with internal and external obstacles and furthermore
placed alone before the whole world. Moreover, the Prophet had never received
instruction nor learned how to read and write. He had spent two-thirds
of his life before becoming a prophet among a people who possessed no learning
and had had no taste of civilization. He passed his life in a land without
water or vegetation and with burning air, among a people who lived in the
lowest social conditions and were dominated by neighboring political powers.

Besides the above, the Holy Quran challenges men in another way. This
book was revealed gradually, during a period of twenty-three years, under
totally different conditions in periods of difficulty or comfort, war or
peace, power or weakness, and the like. If it had not come from God but
had been composed and expounded by man, many contradictions and contrasts
would be observed in it. Its ending would of necessity be more perfect
than its beginning, as is necessary in the gradual perfection of the human
individual. Instead, the first Meccan verses are of the same quality as
the Medinan verses and there is no difference between the beginning and
the end of the Quran. The Quran is a book whose parts resemble each other
and whose awe-inspiring power of expression is of the same style and quality
throughout.

CHAPTER VI ESCHATOLOGY

Man is Composed of Spirit and Body

Those who are acquainted to a certain extent with the Islamic sciences
know that within the teachings of the Holy Book and the traditions of the
Prophet there are many references to spirit and corpus, or soul and body.
Although it is relatively easy to conceive of the body and what is corporeal,
or that which can be known through the senses, to conceive of spirit and
soul is difficult and complicated.

People given to intellectual discussions, such as the theologians and
philosophers, Shi'ite and Sunni alike, have presented different views concerning
the reality of the spirit (ruh). Yet, what is to some extent certain
is that Islam considers spirit and body to be two realities opposed to
each other. The body through death loses the characteristics of life and
gradually disintegrates, but it is not so with the spirit. When the spirit
is joined to the body, the body also derives life from it, and when the
spirit separates from the body and cuts its bond to the body - the event
that is called death - the body ceases to function while the spirit continues
to live.

From what can be learned through deliberation upon the verses of the
Holy Quran and the sayings of the Imams of the Household of the Prophet,
the spirit of man is something immaterial which has some kind of relation
and connection with the material body. God the Almighty in His Book says,
"Verily We created man from a product of wet earth ; Then placed him
as a drop (of seed) in a safe lodging ; Then fashioned We the drop a clot,
then fashioned We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little
lump bones, Then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as
another creation" (Quran, XXIII, 12-14). From the order of these verses
it is clear that at the beginning the gradual creation of matter is described
and then, when reference is made to the appearance of the spirit, consciousness,
and will, another kind of creation is mentioned which is different from
the previous form of creation.

In another place it is said, in answer to skeptics who ask how it is
possible for the body of man, which after death becomes disintegrated and
whose elements become dispersed and lost, to have a new creation and become
the original man, "Say : The angel of death, who hath charge concerning
you, will gather you, and afterwards unto your Lord ye will be returned"
(Quran, XXXII, 11). This means that your bodies disintegrate after death
and are lost amidst the particles of the earth, but you yourselves, namely
your spirits, have been taken from your bodies by the angel of death and
remain protected with Us.

Besides such verses the Holy Quran in a comprehensive explanation expresses
the immateriality of the spirit in itself when it asserts, "They will
ask thee concerning the Spirit. Say : The Spirit is by command of my Lord"
(Quran, XVII, 85).

In another place in explaining His command (amr) He says, "But
His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only that He saith unto it :
Be! and it is. Therefore glory be to Him in Whose hand is the dominion
over all things!" (Quran, XXXVI, 81-82). The meaning of these verses
is that the command of God in the creation of things is not gradual nor
is it bound to the conditions of time and space. Therefore, the spirit
which has no reality other than the command of God is not material and
in its being does not have material characteristics ; that is, it does
not have the characteristics of divisibility, change, and situation in
time and space.

A Discussion of Spirit from Another Perspective

Intellectual investigation confirms the view of the Holy Quran about
the spirit. Each of us is aware of a reality within himself which he interprets
as "I" and this awareness exists continuously within man. Sometimes
man even forgets his head, hands, feet and other members or the whole body.
But as long as his self exists, the consciousness of "I" does
not leave his awareness. This perception cannot be divided or analyzed.
Although the body of man is continuously undergoing change and transformation
and chooses different locations in space for itself and passes through
different moments of time, the reality of "I" remains fixed.
It does not undergo any change or transformation. It is clear that if the
"I" were material it would accept the characteristics of matter
which are divisibility, change, and situation in time and space.

The body accepts all the characteristics of matter and, because of the
relation of the spirit and the body, these characteristics are also considered
to belong to the spirit. But if we pay the least attention, it becomes
evident to man that this moment in time and the next, this point in space
or another, this shape or another shape, this direction of motion or any
other, are all characteristics of the body. The spirit is free from them;
rather each of these determinations reaches the spirit through the body.
This same reasoning can be applied in reverse to the power of consciousness
and apprehension or knowledge which is one of the characteristics of the
spirit. Obviously if knowledge were a material quality, according to the
conditions of matter it would accept divisibility and analysis, and be
determined by time and space.

Needless to say, this intellectual discussion could go on at length
and there are many questions and answers related to it which cannot be
considered in the present context. The brief discussion presented here
is only an indication of the Islamic belief concerning body and spirit.
A complete discussion will be found in works of Islamic philosophy.

Death from the Islamic Point of View

Although a superficial view would regard death as the annihilation of
man and see human life as consisting of only the few days that stand between
birth and death, Islam interprets death as the transfer of man from one
stage of life to another. According to Islam man possesses eternal life
which knows no end. Death, which is the separation of the spirit from the
body, introduces man to another stage of life in which felicity or disappointment
depends upon good or evil deeds in the stage of life before death. The
Holy Prophet has said: "You have been created for subsistence, not
annihilation. What happens is that you will be transferred from one house
to another."

Purgatory

From what can be deduced from the Holy Book and prophetic traditions,
it can be concluded that between death and general resurrection man possesses
a limited and temporary life which is the intermediate stage (barzakh)
and link between the life of this world and eternal life. After death man
is interrogated concerning the beliefs he has held and the good and evil
deeds he has performed in this life. After a summary account and judgment
he is subjected to either a pleasant and felicitous life, or an unpleasant
and wretched one, depending on the results of the account and judgment.
With this newly acquired life he continues in expectation until the day
of general resurrection. The condition of man in the life of the intermediate
state (purgatory) is very similar to the condition of a person who has
been called before a judicial organization in order to have the acts he
has committed investigated. He is questioned and investigated until his
file is completed. Then he awaits trial.

The soul of man in the intermediate state possesses the same form as
in his life in this world. If he be a man of virtue, he lives in happiness
and bounty in the proximity of those who are pure and close to the Divine
Presence. If he be a man of evil, he lives in affliction and pain and in
the company of daemonic forces and "leaders of those who have gone
astray."

God, the Most Exalted, has said concerning the condition of a group
of those in the state of felicity, "Think not of those who are slain
in the way of Allah, as dead. Nay, they are living. With their Lord they
have provision. Jubilant (are they) because of that which Allah hath bestowed
upon them of His bounty, rejoicing for the sake of those who have not joined
them but are left behind: that there shall no fear come upon them neither
shall they grieve. They rejoice because of favor from Allah and kindness,
and that Allah wasteth not the wage of the believers" (Quran, III,
169-171). And in describing the condition of another group who in the life
of this world do not make legitimate use of their wealth and possessions,
He says, "Until, when death cometh unto one of the, he saith : My
Lord! Send me back, that I may do right in that which I have left behind!
But nay! It is but a word that he speaketh ; and behind them is a barrier
[barzakh] until the day when they are raised" (Quran, XXIII, 99-100).

The Day of Judgment - Resurrection

Among sacred texts the Quran is the only one to have spoken in detail
about the Day of Judgment. Although the Torah has not mentioned this Day
and the Gospels have only alluded to it, the Quran has mentioned the Day
of Judgment in hundreds of places, using different names. It has described
the fate awaiting mankind on this Day sometimes briefly and on other occasions
in detail. It has reminded mankind many times that faith in the Day of
Recompense (Day of Judgment) is on the same scale in its importance as
faith in God and is one of the three principles of Islam. It has mentioned
that he who lacks this faith, that is, who denies resurrection, is outside
the pale of Islam and has no destiny other than eternal perdition.

And this is the truth of the matter because if there were to be no reckoning
in God's actions and no reward or punishment, the religious message, which
consists of an assemblage of God's decrees and what He has commanded and
forbidden, would not have the least effect. Thus the existence or nonexistence
of prophecy and the religious mission would be the same. In fact, its nonexistence
would be preferable to its existence, for to accept a religion and follow
the regulations of a Divine Law is not possible without the acceptance
of restrictions and loss of what appears as "freedom." If to
submit to it were to have no effect, people would never accept it and would
not give up their natural freedom of action for it. From this argument
it becomes clear that the importance of mentioning and recalling the Day
of Judgment is equivalent to that of the principle of the religious call
itself.

From this conclusion it also becomes evident that faith in the Day of
Recompense is the most effective factor which induces man to accept the
necessity of virtue and abstention from unbecoming qualities and great
sins, in the same way that to forget or lack faith in the Day of Judgment
is the essential root of every evil act and sin. God the Almighty has said
in His Book, "Lo! those who wander from the way of Allah have an awful
doom, for as much as they forgot the Day of Reckoning" (Quran, XXXVIII,
27). As can be seen in this sacred verse, the forgetting of the Day of
Judgment is considered to be the root of every deviation. Meditation on
the purpose of the creation of man and the Universe, or on the purpose
and end of Divine Laws, makes it evident that there will be a Day of Judgment.

When we meditate on creation, we see that there is no action (which
of necessity is also a kind of motion) without an immutable end and purpose.
Never is the action, considered independently and in itself, the end. Rather,
action is always the prelude to an end and exists by virtue of that end.
Even in actions which superficially appear to be without purpose such as
instinctive actions or will discover purposes in conformity with the kind
of action in question. In instinctive actions, which are usually a form
of motion, the end toward which the motion takes place is the purpose and
aim of the action. And in the play of children there is an imaginary end,
the attainment of which is the purpose of playing. The creation of man
and the world is the action of God and God is above the possibility of
performing a senseless and purposeless act such as creating, nourishing,
taking away life and then again creating, nourishing, and taking away life,
that is, of making and destroying, without there being an immutable end
and a permanent purpose which He pursues in these acts. There must of necessity
be a permanent aim and purpose in the creation of the world and of man.
Of course, its benefit does not accrue to God, who is above every need,
but rather to the creatures themselves. Thus it must be said that the world
and man are directed toward a permanent reality and a more perfect state
of being which knows no annihilation and corruption.

Also, when we study with care the condition of men from the point of
view of religious education and training, we see that as a result of Divine
guidance and religious training people become divided into the two categories
of the virtuous and the evil. Yet in this life there is no distinction
made between them. Rather, on the contrary, success usually belongs to
those who are evil and unjust. To do good is combined with difficulty and
hardship and every kind of privation and endurance of oppression. Since
this is so, Divine Justice requires the existence of another world in which
each individual receives the just reward ho actions deserve, and lives
a life in conformity with his merits.

Thus it is seen that careful consideration of the purpose of creation
and of the Divine Laws leads to the conclusion that the Day of Judgment
will come for every person. God, the Exalted, makes this clear in His Book,
saying, "And We created not the heavens and the earth, and all that
is between them, in play. We created them not save with truth ; but most
of them in vain. That is the opinion of those who disbelieve. And woe unto
those who disbelieve, from the fire! Shall We treat those who believe and
do good works as those who spread corruption in the earth ; or shall We
treat the pious as the wicked?" (Quran, XXXVIII, 28-29). In another
place He says, "Or do those who commit ill-deeds suppose that We shall
make them as those who believe and do good works, the same in life and
death? Bad is their judgment! And Allah hath created the heavens and the
earth with truth, and that every soul may be repaid what it hath earned.
And they will not be wronged" (Quran, XLV, 21-22).

Another Explanation

In discussing the outward and inward meaning of the Quran we pointed
out that the Islamic sciences are explained in the Quran through different
means and that these are in general divided into the two dimensions of
the exoteric and the esoteric. The exoteric explanation is the one that
conforms to the level of the simple thought patterns and understanding
of the majority, in contrast to the esoteric, which belongs to the elite
alone which can be comprehended only with the aid of the vision which comes
through the practices of the spiritual life.

The explanation from the exoteric view presents God as the absolute
ruler of the world of creation, all of which is His dominion. God has created
many angels, whose number is legion, to carry out and execute the commands
He issues for every aspect of creation. Each part of creation and its order
is connected to a special group of angels who are the protectors of that
domain. The human species is His creation and human beings are His servants
who must obey His commands and prohibitions ; and the prophets are the
bearers of His messages, the conveyors of the laws and regulations which
He has sent to mankind and has demanded that mankind obey. God has promised
reward and recompense for faith and obedience, and punishment and painful
retribution for infidelity and sin, and will not break His promise. Also
since He is just, His justice demands that in another state of being the
two groups of virtuous and evil men, who in this world do not have a mode
of life in accordance with their good and evil nature, becomes separated,
the virtuous to possess a good and happy life and the evil a bad and wretched
existence.

Thus God, according to His Justice and the promises He has made, will
resurrect all men who live in this world after their death, without exception,
and will investigate in detail their beliefs and works. He will judge them
according to the truth and give everyone who has a right his due. He will
carry out justice on behalf of all who have been oppressed. He will render
to each person the reward for his own actions. One group will be assigned
to eternal heaven and the other group to eternal hell.

This is the exoteric explanation of the Holy Quran. Of course it is
true and correct. But its language is composed of terms and images born
of man's social life and thought in order that its benefit might be more
general and the radius of its action more widespread.

Those who have penetrated into the spiritual meaning of things and are
to a certain extent familiar with the esoteric language of the Holy Quran,
however, understand from these sayings meanings which lie above the level
of simple and popular comprehension. The Holy Quran, amidst its simple
and uncomplicated expositions, occasionally alludes to the esoteric aim
and purpose of its message. Through many allusions the Holy Quran affirms
that the world of creation with all its parts, of which man is one, is
moving in its "existential becoming" which is always in the direction
of perfection toward God. A day will come when this movement will come
to an end and will lose completely its separate and independent existence
before the Divine Majesty and Grandeur.

Man, who is a part of the world and whose special perfection is through
consciousness and knowledge, is also moving with haste toward God. When
he reaches the end of this becoming, he will observe plainly the Truth
and Oneness of the Unique God. He will see that power, dominion and every
other quality of perfection belong exclusively to the sacred Divine Essence
; the reality of each thing as it is will be revealed to him. This
is the first stage in the world of eternity. If, through his faith and
good works in this world, man is able to have communication, relation,
familiarity, and friendship with God and the beings of his proximity, then
with a felicity and joy that can never be described in human language he
will live near God and in the company of the pure beings of the world above.
But if, because of desire and attachment to the life of this world and
its transient and baseless pleasures, he is cut off from the world above
and has no familiarity with or love for God and the pure beings of His
Presence, then he becomes afflicted with painful torment and eternal adversity.
It is true that a man's good and evil acts in this world are transient
and disappear, but the forms of these good and evil acts become established
in the soul of man and accompany him everywhere. They are the capital of
his future life, be it sweet or bitter.

These affirmations can be drawn from the following verses: God says,
"Lo! unto thy Lord is the (absolute) return" (Quran, XCVI, 8).
And He says, "Beware all things reach Allah at last?" (Quran
XLII, 53); and "The (absolute) command on that day is Allah's"
(Quran, LXXXII, 19). Also in the account of the address made to certain
members of the human race on the Day of Judgment He says, "(And unto
the evildoer it is said): Thou wast in heedlessness of this. Now We have
removed from thee thy covering, and piercing is thy sight this day"
(Quran, L, 22).

Concerning the hermeneutic interpretation (ta'wil) of the Holy Quran
(the truth from which the Holy Quran originates) God says, "Await
they aught save the fulfillment [ta'wil] thereof? On the day when the fulfillment
thereof cometh, those who were before forgetful thereof will say: The messengers
of our Lord did bring the Truth! Have we any intercessors, that they may
intercede for wise than we used to act? They have lost their souls, and
that which they devised hath failed them" (Quran, VII, 53). He says,
"On that day Allah will pay them their due, and they will know that
Allah, He is the Manifest Truth" (Quran, XXIV, 25). And, "Thou
verily, O man, art working toward thy Lord a work which thou wilt meet
(in His presence)" (Quran, LXXXIV, 6). Also, "Whoso looketh forward
to the meeting with Allah (let him know that) Allah's reckoning is surely
nigh..." (Quran, XXIX, 5). And, "And whoever hopeth for the meeting
with his Lord, let him do righteous work, and make none sharer of the worship
due unto his Lord" (Quran, XVIII, 111). And, "But ah! thou soul
at peace! Return unto thy Lord, content in His good pleasure! Enter thou
among My bondmen! Enter thou My Garden!" (Quran, LXXXIX, 27-30). Also
He says, "But when the great disaster cometh, The Day when man will
call to mind his (whole) endeavor, And hell will stand forth visible to
him who seeth, Then, as for him who rebelled, And chose the life of the
world, Lo! hell will be his home. But as for him who feared to stand before
his Lord and restrained his soul from lust, Lo! the Garden will be his
home" (Quran, LXXIX, 34-41).

Concerning the identity of the reward of actions God says, "(Then
it will be said): O ye who disbelieve! Make no excuses for yourselves this
day. Ye are only being paid for what ye used to do" (Quran, LXVI,
7).

The Continuity and Succession of Creation

This world of creation which we observe does not possess an endless
and perpetual life. A day will come when the life of this world and its
inhabitants will come to an end as confirmed by the Holy Quran. God says,
"We created not the heavens and the earth and all that is between
them save with truth, and for a term appointed." (Quran, XLVI, 3)

One could ask if before the creation of this world and present race
of humanity there had been another world and another human race; or, if
after the life of this world and its inhabitants terminates, as the Holy
Quran declares that it will, another world and humanity will be created.
The direct response to these questions cannot be found in the Holy Quran.
There, one can only discover allusions to the continuity and succession
of creation. But in the traditions (rewayat) of the Imams of the
Household of the Prophet transmitted to us it is asserted that creation
is not limited to this visible world. Many worlds have existed in the past
and will exist in the future. The sixth Imam has said, "Perhaps you
think God has not created humanity other than you. No! I swear to God that
He has created thousands upon thousands of mankinds and you are the last
among the."

And the fifth Imam has said, "God, the Exalted, since creating
the world has created seven kinds none of whom were of the race of Adam.
He created them from the surface of the earth and set each being one after
another with its kind upon the earth. Then He created Adam, the father
of mankind, and brought his children into being from him." And also
the sixth Imam has said, "Do not think that after passing away of
the affair of this world and the Day of Judgment and the placing of the
virtuous in heaven and the evil in hell there will no longer be anyone
to worship God. No, never! Rather, again God will create servants without
the marriage of the male and the female to know His Oneness and to worship
Him."

CHAPTER VII ON THE

KNOWLEDGE OF THE IMAM

(IMAMOLOGY)

The Meaning of Imam

Imam or leader is the title given to a person who takes the lead in
a community in a particular social movement or political ideology or scientific
or religious form of thought. Naturally, because of his relation to the
people he leads, he must conform his actions to their capabilities in both
important and secondary matters.

As is clear from the preceding chapters, the sacred religion of Islam
takes into consideration and gives directives concerning all aspects of
the life of all men. It investigates human life from the spiritual point
of view and guides man accordingly, and it intervenes on the plane of formal
and material existence from the point of view of the life of the individual.
In the same way it intervenes on the plane of social life and its regulation
(i.e., on the plane of government).

Thus the imamate and religious leadership in Islam may be studied from
three different perspectives: from the perspective of Islamic government,
of Islamic sciences and injunctions, and of leadership and innovative guidance
in the spiritual life. Shi'ism believes that since Islamic society is in
dire need of guidance in each of these three aspects, the person who occupies
the function of giving that guidance and is the leader of the community
in these areas of religious concern must be appointed by God and the Prophet.
Naturally, the Prophet himself was also appointed by Divine Command.

The Imamate and Succession

Man through his God-given nature realizes without any doubt that no
organized society, such as a country or city or village or tribe or even
a household consisting of a few human beings, can continue to subsist without
a leader and ruler who puts the wheel of the society in motion and whose
will govern each individual's will and induces the members of that society
to perform their social duty. Without such a ruler the parts of this society
become dispersed in a short time and disorder and confusion reign. Therefore,
he who is the ruler and governor of a society, whether it be great or small,
if he is interested in his own position and the continued existence of
his society, will appoint a successor for himself if he is to be absent
from his function temporarily or permanently. He will never abandon the
domain of his rule and be oblivious to its existence or annihilation. The
head of a household who bids farewell to his house and household for a
journey of a few days or months will appoint one of the members of the
household or someone else as his successor and will leave the affairs of
the house in his hands. The head of an institution, or the principle of
a school, or the owner of a shop, if he is to be absent even for a few
hours will select someone to represent him.

In the same way Islam is a religion which according to the text of the
Holy Book and the Sunnah is established upon the basis of the primordial
nature of things. It is a religion concerned with social life, as has been
seen by every observer near and far. The special attention God and the
Prophet have given to the social nature of this religion can never be denied
or neglected. It is an incomparable feature of Islam. The Holy Prophet
was never oblivious to the problem of the formation of social groupings
wherever the influence of Islam penetrated. Whenever a city or village
fell into Muslim hands he would, in the shortest time possible, appoint
a governor or ruler in whose hands he would leave the affairs of the Muslims.
In very important military expeditions ordered for the Holy War (jihad),
he would appoint more than one leader and commander, in order of succession.
In the war of Mu'tah he even appointed four leaders, so that if the first
were to be killed the second would be recognized as the head and his command
accepted and if the second were to be killed, then the third, and so on.

The Prophet also displayed great interest in the problem of succession
and never failed to appoint a successor when necessary. Whenever he left
Medina he would appoint a governor in his own place. Even when he migrated
from Mecca to Medina and there was as yet no idea as to what would occur,
in order to have his personal affairs managed in Mecca for those few days
and to give back to people what had been entrusted to him, he appointed
Ali - may peace be upon him - as his successor. In the same way, after
his death Ali was his successor in matters concerning his debts and personal
affairs. The Shi'ites claim that for this very reason it is not conceivable
that the Prophet should have died without appointing someone as his successor,
without having selected a guide and leader to direct the affairs of Muslims
and to turn the wheels of Islamic society.

Man's primordial nature does not doubt the importance and value of the
fact that the creation of a society depends on a set of common regulations
and customs which are accepted in practice by the majority of the groups
in that society, and that the existence and continuation of that society
depend upon a just government which agrees to carry out these regulations
completely. Any one who possesses intelligence does not neglect of forget
this fact. At the same time one can doubt neither the breadth and detailed
nature of the Islamic Shari'ah, nor the importance and value the Prophet
considered it to possess, so that he made many sacrifices for its application
and preservation. Nor can one debate about the mental genius, perfection
of intelligence, perspicacity of vision or power of deliberation of the
Prophet (beside the fact that this is affirmed through revelation and prophecy).

According to established traditions in both Sunni and Shi'ite collections
of hadith (in the chapter on temptations and seditions and others) transmitted
from the Prophet, the Prophet foretold seditions and tribulations which
would entangle Islamic society after his death, and the forms of corruption
which would penetrate the body of Islam, and later worldly rulers who would
sacrifice this pure religion for their own impure, unscrupulous ends. How
is it possible that the Prophet should not neglect to speak of the details
of events and trials of years or even thousands of years after him, and
yet would neglect the condition that had to be brought into being most
urgently after his death? Or that he should be negligent and consider as
unimportant a duty that is on the one hand simple and evident and on the
other significant to such a degree? How could he concern himself with the
most natural and common acts such as eating, drinking and sleeping and
give hundreds of commands concerning them, yet remain completely silent
about this important problem and not appoint someone in his own place?

Even if we accepted the hypothesis (which Shi'ism does not accept) that
the appointment of the ruler of Islamic society is given by the Shari'ah
to the people themselves, still it would be necessary for the Prophet to
give an explanation concerning this matter. He would have had to give the
necessary instructions to the community so that they would be aware of
the problem upon which the existence and growth of Islamic society and
the life of religious symbols and observances depended and relied. Yet
there is no trace of such a prophetic explanation or religious instruction.
If there had been such a thing, those who succeeded the Prophet and held
the reins of power in their hands would not have opposed it. Actually,
the first caliph transferred the caliphate to the second caliph by bequest.
The second caliph chose the third caliph through a six-man council of which
he was himself determined and ordered. Mu'awiyah forced Imam Hasan to make
peace and in this way carried away the caliphate. After this even the caliphate
was converted into a hereditary monarchy. Gradually many religious observances
identified with the early years of Islamic rule (such as holy war, commanding
what is lawful and prohibiting what is forbidden, the establishment of
boundaries for human action) were weakened or even disappeared from the
political life of the community, nullifying in this domain the efforts
of the Prophet of Islam.

Shi'ism has studied and investigated the primordial nature of man and
the continuous tradition of wisdom that has survived among men. It has
penetrated into the principal purpose of Islam which is to revivify man's
primordial nature, and has investigated such things as the methods used
by the Prophet in guiding the community ; the troubles which entangled
Islam and the Muslims and which led to division and separation ; and the
short life of the Muslim governments of the early centuries, which were
characterized by negligence and lack of strict religious principles. As
a result of these studies Shi'ism has reached the conclusion that there
are sufficient traditional texts left by the Prophet to indicate the procedure
for determining the Imam and successor of the Prophet. This conclusion
is supported by Quranic verses and hadiths of Ghadir, Safinah, Thaqalayn,
Haqq, Manzilah, Da'wat-i 'ashirah-i aqrabin and others. But of course these
hadiths, most of which are also accepted by Sunnism, have not been understood
in the same way by Shi'ism and Sunnism. Otherwise the whole question of
succession would not have arisen. Whereas these hadiths appear to Shi'ites
as a clear indication of the Prophet's intention in the question of succession,
they have been interpreted by Sunnis in quite another way so as to leave
this question open and unanswered.

To prove the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Shi'ites have had recourse
to Quranic verses, including the following: "Your friend [wali] can
be only Allah; and His messenger and those who believe, who establish worship
and pay the poor-due, and bow down (in prayer) [or, and this reading is
accepted by 'Allamah Tabataba'i: "....pay the poor-due while bowing
down (in prayer)"]" (Quran, V, 55). Shi'ite and Sunni commentators
alike agree that this verse was revealed concerning Ali ibn Abi Talib,
and many Shi'ite and Sunni traditions exist supporting this view. Abu Dharr
Ghifari has said: "One day we prayed the noontime prayers with the
Prophet. A person in need asked people to help but no one gave him anything,
'Oh God! Be witness that in the mosque of the Prophet no one gave me anything.'
Ali ibn Abi Talib was in the position of genuflection in the prayers. He
pointed with his finger to the person, who took his ring and left. The
Prophet, who was observing the scene raised his head toward heaven and
said: 'Oh God! My brother Moses said to Thee, "Expand my breast and
make easy my tasks and make my tongue eloquent so that they will comprehend
my words, and make my brother, Harun, my help and vizier" [cf. Quran,
XXVIII, 35]. Oh God! I am also Thy prophet ; expand my breast and make
easy my tasks and make Ali my vizier and helper.'" Abu Dharr says,
"The words of the Prophet had not as yet finished when the verse [cited
above] was revealed."

Another verse which the Shi'ites consider as proof of the caliphate
of Ali is this: "This day are those who disbelieve in despair of (even
harming) your religion ; so fear them not, fear Me! This day have I perfected
your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and have chosen
for you as religion AL-ISLAM" (Quran, V, 3). The obvious meaning of
this verse is that before that particular day the infidels had hopes that
a day would come when Islam would die out, but God through the actualization
of a particular even made them lose forever the hope that Islam would be
destroyed. This very event was the cause of the strength and perfection
of Islam and of necessity could not be a minor occasion such as the promulgation
of one of the injunctions of religion. Rather, it was a matter of such
importance that the continuation of Islam depended upon it.

This verse seems to be related to another verse which comes toward the
end of the same chapter: "O Messenger! Make known that which hath
been revealed unto thee from thy Lord, for if thou do it not, thou will
not have conveyed His message. Allah will protect thee from mankind."
(Quran, V, 67). This verse indicates that God commanded a mission of great
concern and importance to the Prophet which if not accomplished would endanger
the basis of Islam and prophecy. But the matter was so important that the
Prophet feared opposition and interference and in awaiting suitable circumstances
delayed it, until there came a definite and urgent order from God to execute
this command without delay and not to fear anyone. This matter also was
not just a particular religious injunction in the ordinary sense, for to
preach one or several religious injunctions is not so vital that if a single
one of them were not preached it would cause the destruction of Islam.
Nor did the Prophet of Islam fear anyone in preaching the injunctions and
laws of religion.

These indications and witnesses add weight to the Shi'ite traditions
which assert that these verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm and concern
the spiritual investiture (walayat) of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Moreover, many
Shi'ite and Sunni commentators have confirmed this point.

Abu Sa'id Khudari says: "The Prophet in Ghadir Khumm invited people
toward Ali and took his arm and lifted it so high that the white spot in
the armpit of the Prophet of God could be seen. Then this verse was revealed:
'This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favor
unto you, and have chosen for you as religion AL-ISLAM.' Then the Prophet
said, 'God is great (Allahu akbar) that religion has become perfected
and that God's bounty has been completed, His satisfaction attained and
the walayat of Ali achieved.' Then he added, 'For whomever I am the authority
and guide Ali is also his guide and authority. Oh God! Be friendly with
the friends of Ali and the enemy of his enemies. Whoever helps him, help
him, and whoever leaves him, leave him.'"

In summary we can say that the enemies of Islam who did everything possible
to destroy it, when they lost all hope of achieving this end, were left
with only one hope. They thought that since the protector of Islam was
the Prophet, after his death Islam would be left without a guide and leader
and would thus definitely perish. But in Ghadir Khumm their wishes were
brought to nought and the Prophet presented Ali as the guide and leader
of Islam to the people. After Ali this heavy and necessary duty of guide
and leader was left upon the shoulders of his family.

Some of the hadiths pertaining to Ghadir Khumm, the investiture of Ali,
and the significance of the Household of the Prophet are cited here:

Hadith-i ghadir: The Prophet of Islam upon returning from the farewell
pilgrimage stopped in Ghadir Khumm, assembled the Muslims and after delivering
a sermon, chose Ali as the leader and guide of Muslims.

Bara' says: "I was in the company of the Prophet during the farewell
pilgrimage. When we reached Ghadir Khumm he ordered that place to be cleaned.
Then he took Ali's hand and placed him on his right side. Then he said,
'Am I the authority whom you obey?' They answered, 'We obey your directions.'
Then he said, 'For whomever I am his master (maula) and the authority
whom he obeys, Ali will be his master. Oh God! Be friendly with the friends
of Ali and enemy of the enemies of Ali.' Then Umar ibn al-Khattab said
to Ali, 'May this position be pleasing to you, for now you are my master
and the master of all the believers.'"

Hadith-i safinah: Ibn 'Abbas says, "The Prophet said, 'My household
is like the ship of Noah ; whoever embarks upon it will be saved and whoever
turns away from it will be drowned.'"

Hadith-i thaqalayn: Zayd ibn Arqam has recounted that the Prophet said,
"It seems that God has called me unto Himself and I must obey His
call. But I leave two great and precious things among you : the Book of
God and My Household. Be careful as to how you behave toward them. These
two will never be separated from each other until they encounter me at
Kawthar (in paradise)." Hadith-i thaqalayn is one of the most strongly
established hadiths, and has been transmitted through many chains of transmission
and in different versions. Shi'ites and Sunnis agree concerning its authenticity.
Several important points can be deduced from this hadith and its like:
(1) In the same way that the Holy Quran will remain until the Day of Judgment,
the progeny of the Holy Prophet will also remain. No period of time will
be without the existence of the figure which Shi'ism calls the Imam, the
real leader and guide of men. (2) Through these two great trusts (amanat),
the Prophet has provided for all the religious and intellectual needs of
the Muslims. He has introduced his Household to Muslims as authorities
in knowledge and has pronounced their words and deeds to be worthy and
authoritative. (3) One must not separate the Holy Quran from the Household
of the Prophet. No Muslim has a right to reject the "sciences"
of the members of the Household of the Prophet and remove himself from
under their direction and guidance. (4) If people obey the members of the
Household and follow their words they will never be led astray. God will
always be with them. (5) The answers to the intellectual and religious
needs of men are to be found in the hands of the members of the Household
of the Prophet. Whoever follows them will not fall into error and will
reach true felicity ; that is, the members of the Household are free from
error and sin and are inerrant. From this it can be concluded that by "Members
of the Household" and "progeny" is not meant all the descendants
and relatives of the Prophet. Rather, specific individuals are meant who
are perfect in the religious sciences and are protected against error and
sin so that they are qualified to guide and lead men. For Shi'ism these
individuals consist of Ali ibn Abi Talib and his eleven descendants who
were chosen to the imamate one after another. This interpretation is also
confirmed by the Shi'ite traditions. For example, Ibn 'Abbas has said,
"I said to the Prophet, 'Who are your descendants whose love is obligatory
[upon Muslims]?' He said, 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn.'" Jabir
has transmitted that the Prophet has said, "God placed the children
of all prophets in their 'backbone' but placed my children in the backbone
of Ali."

Hadith-i haqq : Umm Salmah has said, "I heard from the Prophet
of God who said, 'Ali is with the Truth (haqq) and the Quran, and the Truth
and the Quran are also with Ali, and they will be inseparable until they
come upon me at Kawthar.'"

Hadith-i manzilah : Sa'd ibn Waqqas has said, "The Prophet of God
said to Ali, 'Are you not satisfied to be to me what Harun was to Moses
except that after me there will not be another prophet?'"

Hadith-i da'wat-i 'ashirah : The Prophet invited his relatives for luncheon
and after the meal told them, "I know of no one who has brought to
his people better things than I have brought to you. God has commanded
me to invite you to draw toward Him. Who is there who will assist me in
this matter and be my brother and inheritor (wasi) and vicegerent (khalifah)
among you?" All remained silent, but Ali, who was the youngest of
all, exclaimed, "I shall be your deputy and aide." Then the Prophet
put his arms around him and said, "He is my brother, inheritor and
vicegerent. You must obey him." Then the group began to depart laughing
and telling Abu Talib, "Muhammad has ordered you to obey your son."

Hudhayfah has said, "The Prophet of God said, 'If you make Ali
my vicegerent and successor - which I do not think you will do - you will
find him a perspicacious guide who will direct you toward the straight
path !"

Ibn Marduyah has said that the Prophet said, "Whoever wishes that
his life and death be like mine and that he enter paradise should after
me love Ali and follow my household, for they are my descendants and have
been created from my clay. My knowledge and understanding have been bestowed
upon them. Therefore woe unto those who deny their virtues. My intercession
[on the Day of Judgment] will never include them."

Affirmation of the Previous Section

Much of the argument of Shi'ism concerning the succession to the Prophet
rests on the belief that during the last days of his illness the Prophet
in the presence of some of his companions asked for some paper and ink
so that something could be written which, if obeyed by the Muslims, would
prevent them from going astray. Some of those present considered the Prophet
to be too ill to be able to dictate anything and said, "The Book of
God is sufficient for us." There was so much clamor raised over this
matter that the Holy Prophet told those present to leave, for in the presence
of a prophet there should not be any noise or clamor.

Considering what has been said above about hadiths concerning succession
and the events that followed upon the death of the Prophet, especially
the fact that Ali was not consulted in the question of selecting the Prophet's
successor, Shi'ites conclude that the Holy Prophet had wanted to dictate
his definitive views about the person who was to succeed him but was not
able to do so.

The purpose of the utterances of some of those present seems to have
been to cause confusion and prevent this final decision from being clearly
announced. Their interruption of the Holy Prophet's discourse does not
seem to be what it appears outwardly, that is concern with the possibility
that the Prophet might utter incongruous words due to the intensity of
his illness. For, first of all, throughout his illness the Holy Prophet
was not heard to have uttered any meaningless or incongruous words and
no such things has been transmitted concerning him. Moreover, according
to the principles of Islam the Prophet is protected by God from uttering
delirious or senseless words and is inerrant.

Secondly, if the words mentioned by some of those present on that occasion
before the Prophet were meant to be of a serious nature there would have
been no place for the next phrase, "The Book of God is sufficient
for us." In order to prove that the Prophet might utter incongruous
words under unusual circumstances the reason of his serious illness would
have been used rather than the claim that with the Quran there was no need
of the Prophet's words. For it could not be hidden from any Muslim that
the very text of the Book of God considers the obedience to the Holy Prophet
to be obligatory and his words to be in a sense like the Word of God. According
to the text of the Holy Quran, Muslims must obey the injunctions of both
God and the Prophet.

Thirdly, an incident involving illness occurred during the last days
of the life of the first caliph, who in his last will and testament chose
the second caliph as his successor. When Uthman was writing the will according
to the order of the caliph, the caliph fainted. Yet the second caliph did
not repeat the words that had been uttered in the case of the Prophet according
to the hadith of "Pen and Paper." This fact has been confirmed
in a hadith related by Ibn Abbas. And it has been accounted of the second
caliph that he said, "Ali deserved the caliphate but the Quraysh would
not have been able to bear his caliphate, for had he become caliph he would
have forced the people to accept the pure truth and follow the right path.
Under his caliphate they would not have been able to transgress the boundaries
of justice and thus would have sought to engage in war with him."

Obviously according to religious principles one must force him who has
deviated from the truth to follow the truth; one must not abandon the truth
for the sake of one who has abandoned it. When the first caliph was informed
that some of the Muslim tribes had refused to pay religious tax, he ordered
war and said, "If they do not give me the tithes which they gave to
the Prophet, I shall fight against them." Eventually by this saying
he meant most of all that truth and justice must be revived at all costs.
Surely the problem of the legitimate caliphate was more important and significant
than tithes, and Shi'ism believes that the same principle applied by the
first caliph to this matter should have been applied by the whole early
community to the problem of succession to the Holy Prophet.

The Imamate and Its Role in the

Exposition of the Divine Sciences

In the discussion of prophecy it was mentioned that, according to the
immutable and necessary law of general guidance, each created species is
guided through the path of genesis and generation toward the perfection
and felicity of its own kind. The human species is not an exception to
this general law. Man must be guided through the very "instinct"
of seeking reality and through thought concerning his life in society in
such a way that this well-being in this world and the next is guaranteed.
In other words, to attain human happiness and perfection, man must accept
a series of doctrines and practical duties and base his life upon them.

It has, moreover, already been said that the way to understand that
total program for life called religion is not through reason but through
revelation and prophecy, which manifests itself in certain pure beings
among mankind who are called prophets. It is the prophets who receive from
God, through revelation, the knowledge of men's duties and obligations
as human beings and who make these known to men, so that by fulfilling
them men may attain felicity.

It is evident that in the same way that this reasoning proves the necessity
for knowledge to guide men to the attainment of happiness and perfection,
it also proves the necessity for the existence of individuals who preserve
intact the total body of that knowledge and who instruct the people when
necessary. Just as the Divine Compassion necessitates the existence of
persons who come to know the duties of mankind through revelation, so also
it makes it necessary that these human duties and actions of celestial
origin remain forever preserved in the world and as the need arises be
presented and explained to mankind. In other words, there must always be
individuals who preserve God's religion and expound it when necessary.

The person who bears the duty of guarding and preserving the Divine
message after it is revealed and is chosen by God for this function is
called the Imam, in the same way that the person who bears the prophetic
spirit and has the function of receiving Divine injunctions and laws from
God is called the Prophet. It is possible for the imamate and prophecy
(nubuwwat) either to be joined in one person or to be separate.

The proof given previously to demonstrate the inerrancy of prophets,
also demonstrates the inerrancy of the Imams, for God must preserve His
true religion intact and in such a state that it can be propagated among
mankind at all times. And this is not possible without inerrancy, without
Divine protection against error.

The Difference Between Prophet and Imam

The previous argument about the reception of Divine injunctions and
laws by the prophets only proves the basis of prophecy, namely the receiving
of Divine injunctions. The argument does not prove the persistence and
continuity of prophecy, even though the very fact that these prophetic
injunctions have been preserved naturally raises the idea of persistence
and continuity. That is why it is not necessary for a prophet (nabi) always
to be present among mankind, but the existence of the Imam, who is the
guardian of Divine religion, is on the contrary a continuous necessity
for human society. Human society can never be without the figure whom Shi'ism
calls the Imam whether or not he is recognized and known. God, the Most
Exalted, has said in His Book: "So if these disbelieve in it, We have
already entrusted it to a people [i.e., the Imams] who do not disbelieve
in it" (Quran, VI, 90).

As mentioned above, the functions of prophecy and imamate may be joined
in one person who is then appointed to the functions of both prophet and
Imam, or to both the reception of the Divine law and its preservation and
explanation. And sometimes they can be separated, such as in periods during
which there is no prophet living but when there is a true Imam living among
men. It is obvious that the number of God's prophets is limited and the
prophets have not been present in every period and age.

It is also of significance to not that in God's Book some of the prophets
have been introduced as Imams such as the Prophet Abraham, about whom is
said, "And (remember) when his Lord tried Abraham with (His) commands,
and he fulfilled them, He said: Lo! I have appointed thee a leader [imam]
for mankind. (Abraham) said: And of my offspring (will there be leaders)?
He said: My covenant includeth not wrongdoers" (Quran, II, 124). And
God has also said, "And We made them chiefs [imams] who guide by Our
command..." (Quran, XXI, 73).

The Imamate and Its Role in the

Esoteric Dimension of Religion

In the same way that the Imam is the guide and leader of men in their
external actions so does he possess the function of inward and esoteric
leadership and guidance. He is the guide of the caravan of humanity which
is moving inwardly and esoterically toward God. In order to elucidate this
truth it is necessary to turn to the following two introductory comments.
First of all, without any doubt, according to Islam as well as other Divine
religions the sole means of attaining real and eternal happiness or misery,
felicity or wretchedness, is by means of good or evil actions which man
comes to recognize through the instruction of Divine religion as well as
through his own primordial and God-given nature and intelligence. Second,
through the means of revelation and prophecy God has praised or condemned
man's actions according to the language of human beings and the society
in which they live. He has promised those who do good and obey and accept
the teachings of revelation a happy eternal life in which are fulfilled
all desires that accord with human perfection. And to the evildoers and
in iniquitous He has given warning of a bitter perpetual life in which
is experienced every form of misery and disappointment.

Without any doubt God, who stands in every way above all that we can
imagine, does not, as we do, possess "thought" moulded by a particular
social structure. The relations of master and servant, ruler and ruled,
command and prohibition, reward and punishment, do not exist outside our
social life. The Divine Order is the system of creation itself, in which
the existence and appearance of everything is related solely to its creation
by God according to real relations and to that alone. Furthermore,
as has been mentioned in the Holy Quran and prophetic hadith, religion
contains truths and verities above the common comprehension of man, which
God has revealed to us in a language we can comprehend on the level of
our understanding.

It can thus be concluded that there is a real relationship between good
and evil actions and the kind of life that is prepared for man in eternity,
a relation that determines the happiness or misery of the future life according
to the Divine Will. Or in simpler words it can be said that each good or
evil action brings into being a real effect within the soul of man which
determines the character of his future life. Whether he understands it
or not, man is like a child who is being trained. From the instructions
of the teacher, the child hears nothing but do's and don'ts but does not
understand the meaning of the actions he performs. Yet, when he grows up,
as a result of virtuous mental and spiritual habits attained inwardly during
the period of training, he is able to have a happy social life. If, however,
he refuses to submit to the instructions of the teacher he will undergo
nothing but misery and unhappiness. Or he is like a sick person who, when
in the care of a physician, takes medicine, food and special exercises
as directed by the physician and who has no other duty than to obey the
instructions of his doctor. The result of this submission to his orders
is the creation of harmony in his constitution which is the source of health
as well as every form of physical enjoyment and pleasure. To summarize,
we can say the within his outward life man possesses an inner life, a spiritual
life, which is related to his deeds and actions and develops in relation
to them, and that his happiness or misery in the hereafter is completely
dependent upon this inner life.

The Holy Quran also confirms this explanation. In many verses it affirms
the existence of another life and another spirit for the virtuous and the
faithful, a life higher than this life and a spirit more illuminated than
the spirit of man as we know it here and now. It asserts that man's acts
have inner effects upon his soul that remain always with him. In prophetic
sayings there are also many references to this point. For example, in the
Hadith-i mi'raj (hadith of the nocturnal ascension) God addresses the Prophet
in these words: "He who wishes to act according to My satisfaction
must possess three qualities : he must exhibit thankfulness that is not
mixed with ignorance, a remembrance upon which the dust of forgetfulness
will not settle, and a love in which he does not prefer the love of creatures
rather than My love. If he loves Me, I love him ; I will open the eye of
his heart with the sight of My majesty and will not hide from him the elites
of My creatures. I will confide in him in the darkness of the night and
the light of the day until conversation and intercourse with creatures
terminates. I will make him hear My word and the word of My angels. I will
reveal to him the secret which I have veiled from My creatures. I will
dress him with the robe of modesty until the creatures feel ashamed before
him. He will walk upon the earth having been forgiven. I will make his
heart possess consciousness and vision and I will not hide from him anything
in Paradise or in the Fire. I will make known to him whatever people experience
on the Day of Judgment in the way of terror and calamity."

Abu 'Abdallah - may peace be upon him - has recounted that the Prophet
of God - may peace and blessings be upon him - received Harithah ibn Malik
ibn al-Nu'man and asked him, "How art thou, Oh Harithah?" He
said, "Oh Prophet of God, I live as a true believer." The Prophet
of God said to him, "Each thing possesses its own truth. What is the
truth of thy word?" He said, "Oh Prophet of God! My soul has
turned away from the world. My nights are spent in a state of awakedness
and my days in a state of thirst. It seems as if I am gazing at the Throne
of my Lord and the account has been settled, and as if I am gazing at the
people of paradise who are visiting each other in heaven, and as if I hear
the cry of the people of hell in the fire." Then the Prophet of God
said, "This is a servant whose heart God has illuminated."

It must also be remembered that often one of us guides another in a
good or evil matter without himself carrying out his own words. In the
case of the prophets and Imams, however, whose guidance and leadership
is through Divine Command, such a situation never occurs. They themselves
practice the religion whose leadership they have undertaken. The spiritual
life toward which they guide mankind is their own spiritual life, for God
will not place the guidance of others in someone's hand unless He has guided
him Himself. Special Divine guidance can never be violated or infringed
upon.

The following conclusions can be reached from this discussion :

(1) In each religious community the prophets and Imams are the foremost
in the perfection and realization of the spiritual and religious life they
preach, for they must and do practice their own teachings and participate
in the spiritual life they profess.

(2) Since they are first among men and the leaders and guides of the
community, they are the most virtuous and perfect of men.

(3) The person upon whose shoulders lies the responsibility for the
guidance of a community through Divine Command, in the same way that he
is the guide of man's external life and acts, is also the guide for the
spiritual life, and the inner dimension of human life and religious practice
depends upon his guidance.

The Imams and Leaders of Islam

The previous discussions lead us to the conclusion that in Islam, after
the death of the Holy Prophet, there has continuously existed and will
continue to exist within the Islamic community (ummah), an Imam (a leader
chosen by God). Numerous prophetic hadiths have been transmitted in Shi'ism
concerning the description of the Imams, their number, the fact that they
are all of the Quraysh and of the Household of the Prophet, and the fact
that the promised Mahdi is among them and the last of them. Also, there
are definitive words of the Prophet concerning the imamate of Ali and his
being the first Imam and also definitive utterances of the Prophet and
Ali concerning the imamate of the Second Imam. In the same way the Imams
before have left definitive statements concerning the imamate of those
who were to come after them. According to these utterances contained in
Twelve-Imam Shi'ite sources the Imams are twelve in number and their holy
names are as follows: (1) 'Ali ibn Abi Talib; (2) Hasan ibn 'Ali; (3) Husayn
ibn 'Ali; (4) 'Ali ibn Husayn; (5) Muhammad ibn 'Ali; (6) Ja'far ibn Muhammad;
(7) Musa ibn Ja'far; (8) 'Ali ibn Musa; (9) Muhammad ibn 'Ali; (10) 'Ali
ibn Muhammad; (11) Hasan ibn 'Ali; and (12) the Mahdi.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE

LIVES OF THE TWELVE IMAMS

The First Imam

Amir al-mu'minin Ali - upon whom be peace - was the son of Abu Talib,
the Shaykh of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib was the uncle and guardian of
the Holy Prophet and the person who had brought the Prophet to his house
and raised him like his own son. After the Prophet was chosen for his prophetic
mission, Abu Talib continued to support him and repelled from him the evil
that came from the infidels among the Arabs and especially the Quraysh.

According to well-known traditional accounts Ali was born ten years
before the commencement of the prophetic mission of the Prophet. When six
years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, he was requested
by the Prophet to leave his father's house and come to the house of his
cousin, the Prophet. There he was placed directly under the guardianship
and custody of the Holy Prophet.

A few years later, when the Prophet was endowed with the Divine gift
of prophecy and for the first time received the Divine revelation in the
cave of Hira', as he left the cave to return to town and his own house
he met Ali on the way. He told him what had happened and Ali accepted the
new faith. Again in a gathering when the Holy Prophet had brought his relatives
together and invited them to accept his religion, he said the first person
to accept his call would be his vicegerent and inheritor and deputy. The
only person to rise from his place and accept the faith was Ali and the
Prophet accepted his declaration of faith. Therefore Ali was the first
man in Islam to accept the faith and is the first among the followers of
the Prophet to have never worshipped other than the One God.

Ali was always in the company of the Prophet until the Prophet migrated
from Mecca to Medina. On the night of the migration to Medina (hijrah)
when the infidels had surrounded the house of the Prophet and were determined
to invade the house at the end of the night and cut him to pieces while
he was in bed, Ali slept in place of the Prophet while the Prophet left
the house and set out for Medina. After the departure of the Prophet, according
to his wish Ali gave back to the people the trusts and charges that they
had left with the Prophet. Then he went to Medina with his mother, the
daughter of the Prophet, and two other women. In Medina also Ali was constantly
in the company of the Prophet in private and in public. The Prophet gave
Fatimah, his beloved daughter from Khadijah, to Ali as his wife and when
the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions he selected
Ali as his brother.

Ali was present in all the wars in which the Prophet participated, except
the battle of Tabuk when he was ordered to stay in Medina in place of the
Prophet. He did not retreat in any battle nor did he turn his face away
from any enemy. He never disobeyed the Prophet, so that the Prophet said,
"Ali is never separated from the Truth nor the Truth from Ali."

On the day of the death of the Prophet, Ali was thirty-three years old.
Although he was foremost in religious virtues and the most outstanding
among the companions of the Prophet, he was pushed aside from the caliphate
on the claim that he was too young and that he had many enemies among the
people because of the blood of the polytheists he had spilled in the wars
fought alongside the Prophet. Therefore Ali was almost completely cut off
from public affairs. He retreated to his house where he began to train
competent individuals in the Divine sciences and in this way he passed
the twenty-five years of the caliphate of the first three caliphs who succeeded
the Prophet. When the third caliph was killed, people gave their allegiance
to him and he was chosen as caliph.

During his caliphate of nearly four years and nine months, Ali followed
the way of the Prophet and gave his caliphate the form of a spiritual movement
and renewal and began many different types of reforms. Naturally, these
reforms were against the interests of certain parties that sought their
own benefit. As a result, a group of the companions (foremost among whom
were Talhah and Zubayr, who also gained the support of A'ishah, and especially
Mu'awiayh) made a pretext of the death of the third caliph to raise their
heads in opposition and began to revolt and rebel against Ali.

In order to quell the civil strife and sedition, Ali fought a war near
Basra, known as the "Battle of the Camel," against Talhah and
Zubayr in which A'ishah, "the Mother of the Faithful," was also
involved. He fought another war against Mu'awiyah on the border of Iraq
and Syria which lasted for a year and a half and is famous as the "Battle
of Siffin." He also fought against the Khawarij at Nahrawan, in a
battle known as the "Battle of Nahrawan." Therefore, most of
the days of Ali's caliphate were spent in overcoming internal opposition.
Finally, in the morning of the 19th of Ramadan in the year 40 A.H., while
praying in the mosque of Kufa, he was wounded by one of the Khawarij and
died as a martyr during the night of the 21st.

According to the testimony of friend and foe alike, Ali had no shortcomings
from the point of view of human perfection. And in the Islamic virtues
he was a perfect example of the upbringing and training given by the Prophet.
The discussions that have taken place concerning his personality and the
books written on this subject by Shi'ites, Sunnis and members of other
religions, as well as the simply curious outside any distinct religious
bodies, are hardly equaled in the case of any other personality in history.
In science and knowledge Ali was the most learned of the companions of
the Prophet, and of Muslims in general. In his learned discourses he was
the first in Islam to open the door for logical demonstration and proof
and to discuss the "divine sciences" or metaphysics (ma'arif-i
ilahiyah). He spoke concerning the esoteric aspect of the Quran and
devised Arabic grammar in order to preserve the Quran's form of expression.
He was the most eloquent Arab in speech (as has been mentioned in the first
part of this book).

The courage of Ali was proverbial. In all the wars in which he participated
during the lifetime of the Prophet, and also afterward, he never displayed
fear or anxiety. Although in many battles such as those of Uhud, Hunayn,
Khaybar and Khandaq the aides to the Prophet and the Muslim army trembled
in fear or dispersed and fled, he never turned his back to the enemy. Never
did a warrior or soldier engage Ali in battle and come out of it alive.
Yet, with full chivalry he would never slay a weak enemy nor pursue those
who fled. He would not engage in surprise attacks or in turning streams
of water upon the enemy. It has been definitively established historically
that in the Battle of Khaybar in the attack against the fort he reached
the ring of the door and with sudden motion tore off the door and cast
it away. Also on the day when Mecca was conquered the Prophet ordered the
idols to be broken. The idol "Hubal" was the largest idol in
Mecca, a giant stone statue placed on the top of the Ka'bah. Following
the command of the Prophet, Ali placed his feet on the Prophet's shoulders,
climbed to the top of the Ka'bah, pulled "Hubal" from its place
and cast it down.

Ali was also without equal in religious asceticism and the worship of
God. In answer to some who had complained of Ali's anger toward them, the
Prophet said, "Do not reproach Ali for he is in a state of Divine
ecstasy and bewilderment." Abu Darda', one of the companions, one
day saw the body of Ali in one of the palm plantations of Medina lying
on the ground as stiff as wood. He went to Ali's house to inform his noble
wife, the daughter of the Prophet, and to express his condolences. The
daughter of the Prophet said, "My cousin (Ali) has not died. Rather,
in fear of God he has fainted. This condition overcomes him often."

There are many stories told of Ali's kindness to the lowly, compassion
for the needy and the poor, and generosity and munificence toward those
in misery and poverty. Ali spent all that he earned to help the poor and
needy, and himself lived in the strictest and simplest manner. Ali loved
agriculture and spent much of his time digging wells, planting trees and
cultivating fields. But all the fields he cultivated or wells that he built
he gave in endowment (waqf) to the poor. His endowments, known as
the "alms of Ali," had the noteworthy income of twenty-four thousand
gold dinars toward the end of his life.

The Second Imam

Imam Hasan Mujtaba - upon whom be peace - was the second Imam. He and
his brother Imam Husayn were the two sons of Amir al-mu'minin Ali and Hadrat
Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet. Many times the Prophet had said,
"Hasan and Husayn are my children." Because of these same words
Ali would say to his other children, "You are my children and Hasan
and Husayn are the children of the Prophet."

Imam Hasan was born in the year 3 A.H. in Medina and shared in the life
of the Prophet for somewhat over seven years, growing up during that time
under his loving care. After the death of the Prophet which was no more
than three, or according to some, six months earlier than the death of
Hadrat Fatimah, Hasan was placed directly under the care of his noble father.
After the death of his father, through Divine Command and according to
the will of his father, Imam Hasan became Imam; he also occupied the outward
function of caliph for about six months, during which time he administered
the affairs of the Muslims. During that time Mu'awiayh, who was a bitter
enemy of Ali and his family and had fought for years with the ambition
of capturing the caliphate, first on the pretext of avenging the death
of the third caliph and finally with an open claim to the caliphate, marched
his army into Iraq, the seat of Imam Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during
which Mu'awiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Imam
Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the
army rebelled against Imam Hasan. Finally, the Imam was forced to make
peace and to yield the caliphate to Mu'awiyah, provided it would again
return to Imam Hasan after Mu'awiyah's death and the Imam's household and
partisans would be protected in every way.

In this way Mu'awiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and entered Iraq.
In a public speech he officially made null and void all the peace conditions
and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon the members
of the Household of the Prophet and the Shi'ah. During all the ten years
of his imamate, Imam Hasan lived in conditions of extreme hardship and
under persecution, with no security even in his own house. In the year
50 A.H. he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own household who, as
has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.

In human perfection Imam Hasan was reminiscent of his father and a perfect
example of his noble grandfather. In fact, as long as the Prophet was alive,
he and his brother were always in the company of the Prophet who even sometimes
would carry them on his shoulders. Both Sunni and Shi'ite sources have
transmitted this saying of the Holy Prophet concerning Hasan and Husayn:
"These two children of mine are Imams whether they stand up or sit
down" (allusion to whether they occupy the external function of caliphate
or not). Also there are many traditions of the Holy Prophet and Ali concerning
the fact that Imam Hasan would gain the function of imamate after his noble
father.

The Third Imam

Imam Husayn (Sayyid al-Shuhada', "the lord among martyrs"),
the second child of Ali and Fatimah, was born in the year 4 A.H. and after
the martyrdom of his brother, Imam Hasan Mujtaba, became Imam through Divine
Command and his brother's will. Imam Husayn was Imam for a period of ten
years, all but the last six months coinciding with the caliphate of Mu'awiyah.
Imam Husayn lived under the most difficult outward conditions of suppression
and persecution. This was due to the fact that, first of all, religious
laws and regulations had lost much of their weight and credit, and the
edicts of the Umayyad government had gained complete authority and power.
Secondly, Mu'awiyah and his aides made use of every possible means to put
aside and move out of the way the Household of the Prophet and the Shi'ah,
and thus obliterate the name of Ali and his family. And above all, Mu'awiyah
wanted to strengthen the basis of the caliphate of his son, Yazid, who
because of his lack of principles and scruples was opposed by a large group
of Muslims. Therefore, in order to quell all opposition, Mu'awiyah had
undertaken newer and more severe measures. By force and necessity Imam
Husayn had to endure these days and to tolerate every kind of mental and
spiritual agony and affliction from Mu'awiyah and his aides- until in the
middle of the year 60 A.H. Mu'awiyah died and his son Yazid took his place.

Paying allegiance (bay'ah) was an old Arab practice which was carried
out in important matters such as that kingship and governorship. Those
who were ruled, and especially the well-known among them, would give their
hand in allegiance, agreement and obedience to their king or prince and
in this way would show their support for his actions. Disagreement after
allegiance was considered as disgrace and dishonor for a people and, like
breaking an agreement after having signed it officially, it was considered
as a definite crime. Following the example of the Holy Prophet, people
believed that allegiance, when given by free will and not through force,
carried authority and weight.

Mu'awiyah had asked the well-known among the people to give their allegiance
to Yazid, but had not imposed this request upon Imam Husayn. He had especially
told Yazid in his last will that if Husayn refused to pay allegiance he
should pass over it in silence and overlook the matter, for he had understood
correctly the disastrous consequences which would follow if the issue were
to be pressed. But because of his egoism and recklessness, Yazid neglected
his father's advice and immediately after the death of his father ordered
the governor of Medina either to force a pledge of allegiance from Imam
Husayn or send his head to Damascus.

After the governor of Medina informed Imam Husayn of this demand, the
Imam, in order to think over the question, asked for a delay and overnight
started with his family toward Mecca. He sought refuge in the sanctuary
of God which in Islam is the official place of refuge and security. This
event occurred toward the end of the month of Rajab and the beginning of
Sha'ban of 60 A.H. For nearly four months Imam Husayn stayed in Mecca in
refuge. This news spread throughout the Islamic world. On the one hand
many people who were tired of the iniquities of Mu'awiyah's rule and were
even more dissatisfied when Yazid became caliph, corresponded with Imam
Husayn and expressed their sympathy for him. On the other hand a flood
of letters began to flow, especially from Iraq and particularly the city
of