The Helmut Schmidt University (German: Helmut-Schmidt-Universität), located in Hamburg, Germany, is a German military educational establishment that was founded in 1973 at the initiative of the then-Federal Minister of Defence, Helmut Schmidt. Originally known as the "University of the Bundeswehr Hamburg" (Universität der Bundeswehr), its complete official name today is "Helmut-Schmidt-Universität/Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg".[1] Teaching first started in Autumn of 1973, it is one of two universities that were established by the Bundeswehr to train and educate its future and existing officers.

In general, it is accessible only to officers and officer candidates of the Bundeswehr, hence its original name. However, since it started teaching, there have been cooperation agreements with allied countries, on the basis of which a handful of selected officers from these states have been able to study in Hamburg.

Since 2002 there has been a small number of civilian students at the university. A prerequisite for studying as a civilian at the Helmut Schmidt University is a business scholarship, these scholarships are usually awarded by foundations with close relationships to industry – thus, these students are at least indirectly being supported by their future employer, usually large companies. As of 2011[update] training costs are currently 6000 euros (humanities), 8000 euros (economics) or 10000 euros (engineering) per academic year.

Academic degrees and titles obtained at HSU are equivalent to those awarded by state universities and are equally valid, since the courses comply with the requirements of Hamburg's higher education legislation, the university is authorised to confer habilitations and doctoral degrees.[2]

On June 11, 1970, the Federal Minister of Defense at the time, Helmut Schmidt, for whom the university was later named and who later would become chancellor of Germany, published a decree that a university be established for the purpose of schooling certain members of the German Federal Armed Forces,[3] on 17 May 1971 the decree, passed a year earlier by Schmidt, was appraised.[3]

The German Federal Armed Forces agreed 29 June 1972 to collaborate with Schmidt's ideas for the university, the agreement was finalised 3 October 1972 and legally concluded.

The first classes of students began schooling on 1 October 1973 and the first graduate left the university on 30 September 1976.

It was in the December 2003 that the University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg was rechristened "Helmut Schmidt University / University of the German Federal Armed Forces Hamburg" to honour the man who passed the decree for the university's establishment, the idea of a university is his brainchild. Schmidt was present at the ceremony and was awarded an honorary degree.

At the Helmut Schmidt University there is a specific organizational structure, in addition to the division between the areas of teaching and administration that is common to all universities, this is due to the HSU's dual function as an educational establishment and a military authority for the students.

The academic division takes care of teaching and research, to which end it maintains 4 faculties, the number of departments was designed so as to allow for intensive study through teaching in small groups, and for the pursuing of research at the same time.

The course Industrial Engineering is not assigned to any one faculty, due to its mixed nature, but the Faculty of Electrical Engineering has taken the leading role in teaching it. The exam board consists of members of the 3 participating faculties in equal number.

The "ISA-Modul", with ISA standing for "Interdisziplinäre Studienanteile" (Interdisciplinary parts of study) is not assigned to a particular faculty. Its classes take place in all faculties. All ISA courses are coordinated by a research associate, who liaises with the teaching staff of the 4 faculties.

The personal guidance, training and education of the studying officers and officer candidates is the responsibility of the "Studentenbereich" (SB) or "Student Division", the Studentenbereich is headed by an officer of the rank of Colonel or Captain at Sea. Apart from headquarters staff, he oversees 3 "Studentenfachbereiche" (SFB) or "Student Department", these are headed by a Lieutenant Colonel or Commander.

Student Department A: Engineering

Student Department B: Educational sciences, History

Student Department C: Political and Economic Sciences

Usually sorted by year, one Student Department currently has 6 (SFB A and B) or 8 (C) "Studentenfachbereichsgruppen" (SFBG) or Student Department Groups, headed by an army Captain or a naval Captain Lieutenant; in the course of the reforms of army training and the correspondingly higher student numbers in 2007 and 2008, 2 more group leaders per Student Department were added for the period 2007-2011, which meant an increase from 4 to 6, or 6 to 8 for SFB C. The staff-student ratio is currently at around 140 to 180 studying officers and officer candidates per group leader. Apart from the administrative management of the soldiers, the Student Division takes care of military training and advanced education so as to maintain the necessary educational level.

If compared with a normal military unit, the Student Division would be equivalent to a regiment, the Departments to a battalion and the Groups to companies.

The academic year at the HSU usually begins on 1 October, the officers and officer candidates are generally posted to the university a week before that date. An orientation week takes place first, during which the students may settle into their accommodation and receive an introduction to studying at the HSU from the more advanced students.

In contrast to the semester format usually practised in Germany, a year at the HSU is divided into 3 terms (trimesters) which means that it consists not of a winter and summer semester, but of autumn, winter and spring terms, 3 blocks of 3 months each. There are no classes in the summer quarter (1 July – 30 September), this period may be used for performing required periods of practical training and internships, and for holidays.

Exams are taken at the end of every term, and test the material that was studied in that term; in a few cases, exams at the end of a term may concern the material of more than one term. For the purpose of revision, one or two weeks in mid-December, late March and late June may be devoid of classes.

Due to the short length of revision time and the fact that all the exams are "en bloc", resits are greatly feared by the students, particularly the engineering students. Resit exams occur during the exam block of the next term, and in this way a "bow wave" of an ever-increasing number of exams to take can accumulate, which may be very difficult to remain on top of.

The standard period of study for the master's degree (the standard degree) is 4 years. A Bachelor's degree can be obtained in 3 years, the maximum period of study is 4 years, which means that one's Master's thesis must be submitted on 30 September of the 4th year of study at the latest. The study period may only be extended over 4 years with the permission of the Personnel Office of the Bundeswehr, and even then, one requires a certificate from the university stating that the student is likely to successfully complete his or her studies in the near future.

After completion of one's studies, that is after one has submitted one's final dissertation, the officer will return to a post in the army or the fleet relatively quickly, according to availability of vacant posts, the officer's leave entitlement and course plans, the award of the study diplomas always occurs in mid-October in a formal ceremony. As part of the graduation ceremony, the Böttcher-Preis, founded by the Hamburg businessman Johann Max Böttcher, is awarded to the highest-performing students of each year, some alumni officers will return to their alma mater as researchers or doctoral students.

The maintains some central facilities, these include the computer centre, the language centre, the media centre, and the Centre for Technology-Assisted Education (Zentrum für technologiegestützte Bildung: ZTB). A further facility is the library of the HSU. According to the library ranking list "Bibliotheksindex" (BIX), it has been amongst the best libraries in Germany for years, the library primarily exists to support the teaching and research of the HSU, but is also accessible to the general public.

For example, a hybrid drive unit is being researched for industrial trucks in cooperation with industry.

In Electrical Engineering, one of the areas of research is telecommunications, which includes: Audio coding, Wireless transmission systems, and Video recognition systems.

In educational sciences, the focus is on the areas of professional and organizational education, adult education and history, the establishment of a uniform German Qualifications Framework in the context of the European Qualifications Framework may be traced back in no small part to the work of the professor for professional and organizational education in the working group of the Federal Ministry for Education and Research, through expert advice and support.

In economic and management sciences, the emphasis is on logistics, business administration and economics, and political science. Gender topics have also been researched for years.

The HSU is designed as a campus university, and its campus in the Wandsbek district consists of 3 parts. Studying activities take place on the premises of the former Douaumont barracks on the Holstenhofweg in Hamburg-Jenfeld, the university administration is located here, as well as all departments and faculties, lecture theatres and laboratories and central facilities; it also contains sports facilities, the canteen and the management of the Student Division. Students of Engineering are accommodated here in 10 quite modern-looking residential buildings. South of the BAB 24, on the premised of the former Hanseatic barracks in the Stoltenstraße in Horn, is the accommodation for students of humanities and social sciences, and economics, and the medical facility. A third residence, rapidly constructed, is located since 2007 on the Jenfelder Allee and will be used until 2010; in addition, from 2007 to 2010, flats will be rented on the private market, in order to absorb the overload of students, which is due to the unusually well-attended years of 2007 and 2008. In the private flats, 2 to 3 students will be accommodated together; in principle, every student receives a single room with area of 14 to 20 m2 (151 to 215 sq ft), mostly with en-suite bathroom and toilet. During the time of higher than usual student numbers however, there will invitably be some instances where 2 students share a larger room. Residents may cook in the shared kitchens, where the social life between studies and the Hamburg night life will take place. Due to structural changes in military training, several external residences had to be acquired including the former Lettow-Vorbeck Barracks, which is now used by the Federal Police (Bundespolizei). Another facility frequented by students and staff is the casino, the officer's club of the HSU (not a gambling establishment), located opposite the campus.

Whilst studying, the soldiers are paid according to their rank and length of service, sometimes including a residence allowance and a family allowance, they pay a fixed fee for their accommodation, which is waived if the student takes up a private residence.

Due to the quite strict study plan, compared with public universities, it is often not easy for students to pursue leisure activities; in the course of the years, however, many different clubs and societies have been formed, to enable leisure activities without clashing with study obligations.

One large event in the academic year is the "TAF ("Trimesteranfangsfeier" or "Start of term ceremony"), this takes place annually to greet the new students. It is organized by the members of the "Studentischer Konvent" and enjoys widespread popularity, the Studentischer Konvent is the students' representation at the HSU. The offers first-term students a possibility to get to know each other, and more advanced students the possibility to swap tales from their holidays.

Further events are organized in the faculties, these include:

"WI-Party" (last weekend of October, organized by the senior year of engineering students, with about 900 guests the largest closed event at the HSU)

"Päd-Party" (mid- to late June, an open-air party in the Douaumont area, the home of the engineering students, organized by Education Sciences students)

There are several conditions of enrollment which are strictly observed at the university.

In general, studying at the HSU entails a mandatory service of 12 years as an officer in the Bundeswehr, since 2008, that time has been increased to 13 years, in response to changes in the education caused by the introduction of the Bachelor/Master system. To join the officer corps, a 3-day selection process must be successfully completed at the officer candidates selection centre in Köln-Porz at the Mudra barracks. Depending on which service branch and which specialty one chooses, one will complete the requisite military training with that unit, before being posted to the university and completing the academic education there, which is a part of the training for becoming an officer.

The educational requirement for attending the HSU is a general higher education entrance qualification that is recognized by the law on higher education of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg.

Prior to their studies, soldiers must train at one of the three respective Officer Training school: for the Army in Dresden /('OSH'), for the Air Force in Fürstenfeldbruck ('OSLw') and for the Navy in Flensburg ('MSM').

During their stay at the HSU, military personnel are required to complete certain standard procedures every year, these include:

1.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast

2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

3.
Helmut Schmidt
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Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt was a German statesman and member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, who served as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1974 to 1982. Before becoming Chancellor, he had served as Minister of Defence, in the latter role he gained credit for his financial policies. He had also served briefly as Minister of Economics and as acting Foreign Minister, as Chancellor, he focused on international affairs, seeking political unification of Europe in partnership with the United States. He was a diplomat who sought European co-operation and international economic co-ordination. He was re-elected chancellor in 1976 and 1980, but his coalition fell apart in 1982 with the switch by his coalition allies and he retired from Parliament in 1986, after clashing with the SPDs left wing, who opposed him on defence and economic issues. In 1986 he was a proponent of European monetary union. Helmut Schmidt was born as the eldest of two sons of teachers Ludovica Koch and Gustav Ludwig Schmidt in Barmbek, a rough working-class district of Hamburg, Schmidt studied at Hamburg Lichtwark School, graduating in 1937. This was confirmed publicly by Schmidt in 1984, after Valéry Giscard dEstaing revealed the fact to journalists, Schmidt himself was a non-practising Lutheran. Schmidt was a leader in the Hitler Youth organization until 1936. On 27 June 1942, he married his childhood sweetheart Hannelore Loki Glaser and they had two children, Helmut Walter, and Susanne, who works in London for Bloomberg Television. Schmidt resumed his education in Hamburg after the war, graduating in economics, Schmidt was conscripted into military service in 1937, and began serving with an anti-aircraft battery at Vegesack near Bremen during World War II. During his service in World War II, Schmidt was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class, toward the end of the war, from December 1944 onwards, he served as an Oberleutnant in the Flakartillery on the Western Front during the Battle of the Bulge and the Ardennes Offensive. He was captured by the British in April 1945 on Lüneburg Heath, Schmidt joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1946, and from 1947 to 1948 was the leader of the Socialist German Student League, the student organisation of the SPD. Upon graduating from the University of Hamburg, where he read economics, he worked for the government of the city-state of Hamburg, beginning in 1952, under Karl Schiller, he was a senior figure heading up the Behörde für Wirtschaft und Verkehr. He was elected to the Bundestag in 1953, and in 1957 he became a member of the SPD parliamentary party executive, a vocal critic of conservative government policy, his outspoken rhetoric in parliament earned him the nickname Schmidt-Schnauze. In 1958, he joined the board of the SPD, and campaigned against nuclear weapons. He alarmed some in his party by taking part in manoeuvres as a officer in the newly formed Bundeswehr. In 1962, he gave up his seat in parliament to concentrate on his tasks in Hamburg, the government of the city-state of Hamburg is known as the Senate of Hamburg, and from 1961 to 1965, Schmidt was the Innensenator, the senator of the interior

4.
Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure

5.
Doctoral degree
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902

6.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886

7.
Industrial engineering
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Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University

8.
Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa

9.
Computational engineering
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Not to be confused with computer engineering. CSE has been described as the mode of discovery. In many fields, computer simulation is integral and therefore essential to business and it is typically offered as a masters or doctorate program at several institutions. The most widely used programming language in the community is FORTRAN. Recently, C++ and C have increased in popularity over FORTRAN, due to the wealth of legacy code in FORTRAN and its simpler syntax, the scientific computing community has been slow in completely adopting C++ as the lingua franca. Python along with external libraries has gain some popularity as a free and Copycenter alternative to MATLAB

10.
Humanities
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Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time

11.
Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics

12.
Pedagogy
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Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education, it thus concerns the study of how best to teach. Spanning a broad range of practice, its aims range from furthering liberal education to the specifics of vocational education. Instructive strategies are governed by the background knowledge and experience, situation. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought, the teaching of adults, as a specific group, is referred to as andragogy. Johann Friedrich Herbart is the father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or. Herbarts educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the correlation between personal development and the benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens, herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbarts theoretical perspectives. Referring to the process, Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include, preparation, presentation, association, generalization, Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The word is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία, from παιδαγωγός, itself a synthesis of ἄγω, I lead and it is pronounced variously, as /ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/, /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, or /ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/. Negative connotations of pedantry have sometimes been intended, or taken, doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers. The term is used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field. The word pedagogue means leading children some say to the teacher and other leading them, in Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e. g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages and these are often recognized as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society. The pedagogues job is usually distinguished from a teachers by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills, there is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion, the pedagogues work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of institutes for social educators located in all major cities

13.
History
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History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents

14.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system

15.
Acoustics
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Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of technology may be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all aspects of society with the most obvious being the audio. Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound, art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsays Wheel of Acoustics is a well accepted overview of the fields in acoustics. The word acoustic is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός, meaning of or for hearing, ready to hear and that from ἀκουστός, heard, audible, which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω, I hear. The Latin synonym is sonic, after which the term used to be a synonym for acoustics. Frequencies above and below the range are called ultrasonic and infrasonic. If, for example, a string of a length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length. In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of tuning, the tones in between are then given by 16,9 for D,8,5 for E,3,2 for F,4,3 for G,6,5 for A. Aristotle understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which falls upon, a very good expression of the nature of wave motion. The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the Scientific Revolution, mainly Galileo Galilei but also Marin Mersenne, independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating strings. Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne, meanwhile, Newton derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical acoustics. The eighteenth century saw advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics, the twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War

16.
Propulsion
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Propulsion is a means of creating force leading to movement. The term is derived from two Latin words, pro, meaning before or forward, and pellere, meaning to drive, a propulsion system consists of a source of mechanical power, and a propulsor. A technological system uses an engine or motor as the power source, components such as clutches or gearboxes may be needed to connect the motor to axles, wheels, or propellors. Biological propulsion systems use an animals muscles as the power source, an aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle. An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things, first, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate, some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency, some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft, require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust, modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion, ground propulsion is any mechanism for propelling solid bodies along the ground, usually for the purposes of transportation. The propulsion system consists of a combination of an engine or motor. Maglev is a system of transportation that uses magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and propel vehicles with magnets rather than using mechanical methods, such as wheels, axles and bearings. With maglev a vehicle is levitated a short distance away from a guide way using magnets to create lift and thrust. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move smoothly and quietly and to require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit systems. It is claimed that non-reliance on friction also means that acceleration and deceleration can far surpass that of existing forms of transport, marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a ship or boat across water. Recent development in liquified natural gas fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions, spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle

17.
Computer-aided engineering
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Computer-aided engineering is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering analysis tasks. It includes finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, multibody dynamics, software tools that have been developed to support these activities are considered CAE tools. CAE tools are being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and performance of components, the term encompasses simulation, validation, and optimization of products and manufacturing tools. In the future, CAE systems will be major providers of information to support design teams in decision making. Computer-aided engineering is used in fields such as automotive, aviation, space. In regard to information networks, CAE systems are considered a single node on a total information network. CAE systems can provide support to businesses and this is achieved by the use of reference architectures and their ability to place information views on the business process. Reference architecture is the basis from which information model, especially product, the term CAE has also been used by some in the past to describe the use of computer technology within engineering in a broader sense than just engineering analysis. It was in context that the term was coined by Jason Lemon. This definition is better known today by the terms CAx. Optimization of the product or process, in general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task, Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it. Analysis solver Post-processing of results This cycle is iterated, often many times, CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled the automakers to reduce development cost and time while improving the safety, comfort. The predictive capability of CAE tools has progressed to the point where much of the verification is now done using computer simulations rather than physical prototype testing. CAE dependability is based upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical inputs, even though there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in the engineering field, physical testing is still a must. It is used for verification and model updating, to accurately define loads and boundary conditions and this can expected to become a problem as modern products become ever more complex. They include smart systems, which leads to an increased need for multi-physics analysis including controls, CAE software companies and manufacturers are constantly looking for tools and process improvements to change this situation. On the software side, they are looking to develop more powerful solvers, better use computer resources and include engineering knowledge in pre-

18.
Chassis
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A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978

19.
Production engineering
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Production engineering is a combination of manufacturing technology, engineering sciences with management science. A production engineer typically has a knowledge of engineering practices and is aware of the management challenges related to production. The goal is to accomplish the process in the smoothest, most-judicious. Production engineering also overlaps substantially with manufacturing engineering and industrial engineering, play important roles in efficient production processes. The production engineer possesses a set of skills, competences and attitudes based on market. These abilities are fundamental for the performance of coordinating and integrating professionals of multidisciplinary teams, the production engineer should be able to, Scale and integrate resources. This relates to the use of resources, production rejects and sustainability, Manage. Industrial engineering management engineering manufacturing engineering process engineering mechanical engineering

20.
Simulation
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Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time, Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Often, computer experiments are used to study simulation models, Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the real effects of alternative conditions. Physical simulation refers to simulation in which objects are substituted for the real thing. These physical objects are chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system. Simulation Fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation, Fidelity is broadly classified as 1 of 3 categories, low, medium, and high. Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to identify the cause of equipment failure and this was the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause. A computer simulation is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works, by changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to investigate the behaviour of the system under study. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation, in such simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. Computer simulation is used as an adjunct to, or substitution for. Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling that makes all the modeling almost effortless, modern usage of the term computer simulation may encompass virtually any computer-based representation. The computer simulates the subject machine, accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition systems, useful in the study of operational semantics. Less theoretically, an application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values, in the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies. Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes and it is frequently used by way of adaptive hypermedia

21.
Audio codec
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An audio codec is a device or computer program capable of coding or decoding a digital data stream of audio. In software, a codec is a computer program implementing an algorithm that compresses and decompresses digital audio data according to a given audio file or streaming media audio coding format. The objective of the algorithm is to represent the high-fidelity audio signal with minimum number of bits while retaining the quality and this can effectively reduce the storage space and the bandwidth required for transmission of the stored audio file. Most codecs are implemented as libraries which interface to one or more multimedia players, in hardware, audio codec refers to a single device that encodes analog audio as digital signals and decodes digital back into analog. In other words, it both an analog-to-digital converter and digital-to-analog converter running off the same clock. This is used in cards that support both audio in and out, for instance. Comparison of audio formats List of codecs Open source codecs and containers Transcoding Video codec

22.
Casino
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A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry, casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as comedy, concerts. The term casino is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators, Casino is of Italian origin, the root casa originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. In modern-day Italian, the term designates a bordello, while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. Not all casinos were used for gaming, the Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre, the Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that towns most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant. In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a casino or kasino is an officers mess, in Italian—the source-language of the word—a casino is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a casinò. The precise origin of gambling is unknown and it is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleons France and Elizabethan England and it was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons, the creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, during the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, Americas first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now Americas second largest gambling city, most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players and this can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative

23.
German Sports Badge
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The German Sports Badge is a decoration of the German Olympic Sports Federation DOSB, of the Federal Republic of Germany. The German Sports Badge test is carried out primarily in Germany, the German Sports Badge, also known as the German National Sports Badge was first created in the year 1913 and is one of the oldest awards of Germany still in active circulation. Between 1914 and 1933, the German Sports Badge was issued for the completion of physical tests by the young male population. As a military award, during the years of the 1920s and prior to 1933. Between 1933 and 1939, the German Sports Badge was overshadowed by an almost identical decoration, even so, the German Sports Badge was still regarded as an important qualification badge, and both the SA Sports Badge and German Sports Badge could both be earned and displayed simultaneously. Sports and fitness were given great emphasis in the day training programs of the SS. Regulations of the Allgemeine-SS required a prospective SS candidate to qualify for both the German Sports Badge and the SA Sports Badge during a probationary period upon joining the SS. Notable SS recipients of the German Sports Badge include Reinhard Heydrich, Joseph Mengele, Hermann Fegelein, after World War II, the German Sports Badge was continued as a federal decoration in West Germany and continued in this status after the German reunification. Today, the German Sports Badge is a decoration but it can be worn as an official award of the Bundeswehr, as well as law enforcement. The German Sports Badge is also a requirement for certain German Police services. The following changes and various changes were in full power by 2013, Basic and advanced levels. Formerly the grades bronze, silver, and gold were awarded according to the number of yearly repetitions, since 2013 the grades are determined by the score which is achieved. In each discipline, a score between one and three points can be earned, for instance, Endurance can be substituted with the German rescue swimming badge, triathlon badge, running badge, or pentathlon badge. Agility can be substituted with the German Ju-Jutsu badge, German track and field badge, special awards, German Sports Badge for juveniles Deutsches Sportabzeichen für Kinder und Jugendliche German Sports Badge with special requirements for handicapped persons. Prospective judges have to certain requirements in order to obtain judging qualifications and licence. Have completed a German Sports Badge, previous experience of assisting a judge for the German Sports Badge. Licensed sports coach or completion of judging class, a license for a judge is valid for a period of four years. The licence can be obtained from DOSB only via German sports club. German school physical education instructors and Bundeswehr instructors underlie different requirements, German citizenship for a judge is not required, however, the judge has to be holding the tests for a German sports association, a German school or the German military

24.
Education in Hamburg
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Education in Hamburg covers the whole spectrum from kindergarten, primary education, secondary education, and higher education in Hamburg. The German states are responsible for the educational system in Germany. The Behörde für Wissenschaft und Forschung has the oversight for universities and colleges, the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, one of the six educational institutes of UNESCO, is located in Hamburg. Per student no other State of Germany spends more money on education than Hamburg, yet at the Programme for International Student Assessment the students did very poorly and were outperformed by 14 other States of Germany. Only the State of Bremen did worse than Hamburg, one in two Hamburg children comes from an immigrant family, and in 2007,20,4 percent of all Hamburg children were on welfare. So Hamburg faces more challenges than many other States of Germany, in 2008 several types of secondary schools existed in Hamburg. The most common types were Hauptschulen, Realschulen, Gymnasien and Gesamtschulen, kids graduated from primary schools after 4th grade and were allowed to apply for any of those schools. The choice which school to apply for was made by the parents, in October 2009, the Hamburg Parliament voted for an act to change this system with the start of the educational year 2010/11. The Grundschule—primary school of 4 years education from the age of 6 to 10—would be changed into a Primärschule and this would be followed by a so-called location or quarter school with certificates, like the Abitur after 13 years of education. The Gymnasium will offer the Abitur after 12 years, pupils could enter the Stadteilschule or the Gymnasium. Parents would no longer be allowed to if their child should apply for a Gymnasium. Only those children whose primary school teachers state that the child would make a transition into a Gymnasium would be allowed to apply. The act also states that no more than 25 pupils are allowed in classes of the school,20 in so-called difficult quarters. This decision was criticized by factions of the SPD and The Left, many people were not pleased by this educational reform. Some were dismayed that the reform did not do away with Gymnasien they saw as a ground of privilege. It has been noted that most of the children attending a Gymnasium came from upper-middle-class families, a movement called Eine Schule für alle was formed. The movement attempted to collect signatures to force a referendum. Many parents of those attending a Realschule were dismayed that this type of school was abolished, another group of parents was dismayed that the decision of whether their kids should apply for a Gymnasium was no longer left to the parents

25.
Bundeswehr University Munich
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Bundeswehr University Munich is one of only two federal research universities in Germany that both were founded in 1973 as part of the German Armed Forces. Originally called Hochschule der Bundeswehr München the institution was supposed to offer civilian academic education for military officers, today, the university has an increasing number of civilian and international students. The academic year at the university is structured in trimesters and not the usual semesters, very capable students can therefore achieve a bachelors and a masters degree within less than four years, while this would usually require five years. Universität der Bundeswehr München has well-established scientific research and forms part of two clusters of the German governments university excellence initiative. Bundeswehr University is one of very few campus universities in Germany. In 1970 the then minister of defence Helmut Schmidt decided that the education of officers in Germany had to be reviewed and had to include full academic studies. After one year the Ellwein commission presented its proposal for the creation of two civilian colleges within the armed forces, students should get fully recognised civilian degrees independent of their military profession, to have a higher qualified officer corps and more incentives to join the military. The idea was that students would have better conditions than at normal universities so that they could cope with a higher workload, after almost two years of discussions and the necessary legislative procedures, both universities could open. University education normally being a responsibility of the German states, Universität der Bundeswehr München, in the 90s and 2000s the university has started to open its teaching towards civilian students and to extend its international relations. While the researchers and doctorate students always used to be mainly civilians, today, Universität der Bundeswehr München has concluded partnership contracts with different major financial and industrial companies, which send students to Universität der Bundeswehr München. In the past few years different federal agencies have started to qualify their employees at the university, since 2007 Universität der Bundeswehr München has changed its degree to the harmonized Bologna system. It has completely restructed its curriculums and awards bachelors and masters degrees instead of the former German Diplom, there are S-Bahn and U-Bahn connections to Neuperlach Süd as well as three bus connections available. In addition to that, there are exits at Neubiberg and Neuperlach. The large campus used to host the Air Force officer school before, former runways are still used for scientific testing of vehicles. Since the 1970s a large number of buildings has been built for teaching, scientific research, most of the students live in modern individual student dormitories on the campus and next to the university buildings. There is currently a large renovation process ongoing on the campus, on campus students have access to different sports facilities like gyms, tennis courts and golf ranges. On campus all students usually wear civilian clothes, students can organize their activities as they want and attendance to lectures is mostly voluntary. On Wednesday afternoons there is regularly military or language training for soldiers, there are many possibilities for extracurricular activities within student initiatives and associations

26.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

27.
Heidelberg University
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation

28.
University of Freiburg
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The University of Freiburg, officially the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, is a public research university located in Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The university was founded in 1457 by the Habsburg dynasty as the university in Austrian-Habsburg territory after the University of Vienna. Today, Freiburg is the fifth-oldest university in Germany, with a tradition of teaching the humanities, social sciences. The university is made up of 11 faculties and attracts students from across Germany as well as from over 120 other countries, foreign students constitute about 16% of total student numbers. Named as one of universities of Germany by academics, political representatives and the media. Originally Albrechts University, the university started with four faculties and its establishment belongs to the second wave of German university foundings in the late Middle Ages, like the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen and the University of Basel. At its founding, the university was named after Albert VI of Austria and he provided the university with land and endowments, as well as its own jurisdiction. Also he declared Albrechts University as the county university for his territory until it was handed over to the Austrian House of Habsburg in 1490, the university soon attracted many students, such as the humanists Geiler von Kaysersberg, Johann Reuchlin, and Jakob Wimpfeling. When Ulrich Zasius was teaching law, Freiburg became a centre of humanist jurisprudence, from 1529 to 1535, Erasmus of Rotterdam lived and taught in Freiburg. From around 1559 on, the university was housed at the Altes Collegium, the importance of the university decreased during the time of the Counter-Reformation. To counter reformatory tendencies, the administration of two faculties was handed over to the Roman Catholic order of the Jesuits in 1620, from 1682 on, the Jesuits built their college, as well as the Jesuit church. In 1679, Freiburg temporarily became French territory, along with the parts of the upper Rhine. French King Louis XIV disliked the Austrian system and gave the Jesuits a free hand to operate the university, on November 6,1684, a bilingual educational program was initiated. From 1686 to 1698, the faculty fled to Konstanz, after Freiburg was re-conquered and appointed as capital of Further Austria, a new time began for the university by the reforms of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. The requirements for admission were changed for all faculties in 1767, also in 1767, the university became a governmental institution despite the Churchs protests. The Church finally lost its predominant influence on the university when the Jesuits were suppressed following a signed by Pope Clement XIV in 1773. Consequently, Johann Georg Jacobi in 1784 was the first Protestant professor teaching at the university in Freiburg, when Freiburg became a part of the newly established Grand Duchy of Baden in 1805, a crisis began for the university in Freiburg. The university had enough endowments and earnings to survive until the beginning of the regency of Ludwig I, finally in 1820, he saved the university with an annual contribution

29.
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
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The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is a public research university and one of the largest research and education institutions in Germany. KIT is one of the universities in the Engineering and Natural Sciences in Europe. KIT is a member of the TU9 German Institutes of Technology e. V, as part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was accredited with the excellence status in 2006. In the 2011 performance ranking of scientific papers, Karlsruhe ranked first in Germany and among the top ten universities in Europe in engineering, for the natural sciences KIT led the domestic comparison against the LMU Munich, the University of Heidelberg and the Technical University of Munich. Ranked 26th place in Computer Science in the Times Higher Education Ranking 2016, as of 2016,6 Nobel laureates are affiliated with KIT. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is well known for many inventors and entrepreneurs such as Karl Friedrich Benz or the founders of SAP, the University of Karlsruhe was founded as Polytechnische Schule, a polytechnical school, on 7 October 1825. It was modelled upon the École polytechnique in Paris, in 1865, Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden raised the school to the status of a Hochschule, an institution of higher education. Since 1902 the university has also known as the Fridericiana in his honour. In 1885, it was declared a Technische Hochschule, or institute of technology, and in 1967 it became an Universität, a full university, which gave it the right to award regular doctorate degrees. It had hitherto only been allowed to award doctorates in engineering, identified as Dr. Ing, the University of Karlsruhe has been one of the leading German institutions in computer science. A central computer laboratory was founded in 1966, the department of informatics was established three years later, along with the first regular course in informatics. On 2 August 1984, the university received Germanys first email, the Institut für Meteorologie und Klimaforschung was founded at the university in 1985. The name was chosen in emulation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in February 2008, the merger of the university and the research centre to form KIT was agreed by the state of Baden-Württemberg and Germanys federal government. The necessary state law was passed on 8 July 2009, KIT was formally established on 1 October 2009. This aim was not achieved, while the University of Karlsruhe was chosen for the initiative in 2006/2007 and it did, however, attract funds from other sources. In 2008, Hans-Werner Hector, co-founder of SAP, raised 200 million euros to support researchers at the institute, since the winter semester of 2008/2009, KIT has completed the change from the Diplom system to a bachelor and master system. Students already enrolled for a degree when the transition began were allowed to finish their studies. All courses require a number of passed exams, called Orientierungsprüfung or orientation assessment

30.
University of Konstanz
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The University of Konstanz is a university in the city of Konstanz in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It was founded in 1966, and the campus on the Gießberg was opened in 1972. The University is situated on the shore of Lake Constance just four kilometers from the Swiss border, as one of eleven German Excellence Universities, University of Konstanz is consistently ranked among the global top 250 by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. In 2016 it was ranked 7th globally by the Times Higher Education 150 under 50 rankings and it is often referred to as small Harvard by the German media. Over 10,000 students from close to 100 countries are enrolled at the university, while over 220 links to European partner universities, students may choose from more than 100 degree programs. Its library is open 24 hours a day and has more than two million books, new forms of self-administration replaced traditional university structures. In 1966 the university began its work in a wing of todays Inselhotel, Professor David Daube, Regius Professor of Civil Law at the University of Oxford, gave the inaugural lectures. The beginning was makeshift - in the middle of Sonnenbühl on the edge of the town quarter Petershausen on the side of the Rhine, with only a handful of professors. Starting in 1967, todays campus was developed through individual projects on the hill known as the Gießberg. Until today, the university has continued to be altered and expanded. In 2007 the University joined the German Universities Excellence Initiative competition and this result was reconfirmed when the university succeeded in the second programme phase with all projects and additionally was granted the Graduate School of Decision Sciences. The campus is located on the Gießberg, about 3 kilometres from the center of the city, the university was planned as a place of life and learning, in which new forms of research and teaching should be reflected in the architectural style. In addition, there was the idea of creating lasting Kunst am Bau accents, in the Times Higher Education 150 Under 50 University Rankings, the University of Konstanz achieved 7th position globally in 2016. This position makes Konstanz the best German university amongst those assessed and this assessment was underscored by the 2014 edition of the global ranking QS Top 50 under 50, which also concentrates on universities under the age of 50. In this case Konstanz came 21st in the global comparison

31.
University of Mannheim
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The University of Mannheim, also known as UMA, is a public research university situated in Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The University of Mannheims campus is located in the city center of Mannheim, the university has around 12,362 full-time students,800 scholars enrolled,840 academic staff and a total income of more than €120 million in 2016. It is organized into 5 academic departments and 2 academic colleges, moreover, the universitys programs for social sciences, politics as well as business informatics rank nationwide within the Top 3 and its programs for law and computer science within the Top 10. Furthermore, the University of Mannheim is placed 83rd with regard to global employer reputation, the THE world university ranking in 2016 ranked the University of Mannheim 102nd worldwide. The University of Mannheim has no clearly defined foundation date, Mannheims history is closely tied to the history of its main campus – the Mannheim Baroque Palace. The Mannheim Palace itself dates back to the early 18th century, when Elector Palatine Karl Philip III. Had confessional controversies with the inhabitants of his capital city Heidelberg, Karl Philip III. decided subsequently to construct a new palace as his residence on the site of the old Friedrichsburg. In general, it was part of a trend among the German princes to construct grand new residences in that era. The construction of the palace was commenced solemnly on 2 June 1720. The first administrative institutions began using the Mannheim palace in 1725, the final construction was not completed until 1760. Karl Philip died in 1742 and was succeeded by a distant relative, in 1778, a second school was established at Mannheims palace – the Commercial School – that served as school for merchant sons and which was later named into Grand-Ducal Commercial Academy. The establishment of the Theodoro-Palatinae had a cultural and educational policy link and intended to foster the sciences. Charles Theodor developed Mannheim into a German centrum for Arts and Sciences, not only the palace, but also the city of Mannheim saw their zenith during Charles Philipps reign. The glamour of the Electors court and Mannheims then famous cultural life lasted until 1778 when Charles Theodor became Elector of Bavaria by inheritance, things worsened further during the Napoleonic Wars, when Mannheim was besieged. During Napoleons reorganization of Germany, the Electorate of the Palatinate was split up and Mannheim became part of the Grand Duchy of Electorate-Bavaria, although Mannheim kept the title of residence, the Mannheim Palace was used merely as accommodation for several administrative bodies. In addition, the reorganization of the Palatinate and Bavaria made the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities a major concurrent for academic funding, several years later in 1817, the Grand-Ducal Commercial Academy was closed as well. For most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the palace served no purpose, being used as a representative building. The Handelshochschule was founded under an initiative from Mannheims senior mayor Otto Beck, director of the Handelshochschule since 1929 was Otto Selz, a German philosopher and psychologist who is considered as being a pioneer of the cognitive sciences. While the institutes, collections and personnel had transferred in 1933 the entire absorption process took until April 1938

32.
University of Hohenheim
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The University of Hohenheim is a campus university located in the south of Stuttgart, Germany. Founded in 1818 it is Stuttgarts oldest university, the faculty has regularly been ranked among the best in the country, making the University of Hohenheim one of Germanys top-tier universities in these fields. The university maintains academic alliances with a number of universities and is involved in numerous joint research projects. From 1770 to 1794, the Karlsschule was the university in Stuttgart. Since its founding in 1818, Stuttgarts oldest university has been the University of Hohenheim, at that time there were 18 students enrolled and a staff of three professors. It is not connected to or affiliated with the University of Stuttgart, the first director of the academy was Johann Nepomuk Schwerz, and it was located in Hohenheim Palace, built by Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg. In 1847 the institution was designated as holding the rank of an Academy of Agriculture, in 1904 the name was changed to Agricultural College. Hohenheim College was awarded the right to confer doctorates in 1918, by appointing Margarete von Wrangell to the chair for plant nutrition in 1923, she became the first female full professor at a German university. During the period of socialism, the university was brought into line with the party’s ideology. Architecturally, the university that re-opened its doors in 1946 had survived World War II relatively undamaged, in 1964 the faculties of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Sciences were created, followed in 1968 by the Faculty of Business, Economics and Social Sciences. Hohenheim has enjoyed university status since 1967 when it became known as Universität Hohenheim, today there are approximately 9,000 students and a teaching staff of around 900, of which slightly more than 100 are professors. Over 2,000 people now work at the university, the current rector of the university is the agricultural economist Prof. Dr. Stephan Dabbert, who took office on April 1,2012. The University of Hohenheim is located in southwest Germany, in the district of Plieningen on the rim of Baden- Württemberg’s capital Stuttgart. It was named the most beautiful campus university in Baden-Württemberg in 2009 and is acknowledged as having one of the most picturesque campuses in the country. The baroque palace, the Universitys emblem and its building, is surrounded by historic parklands and botanical gardens. The campus is close to the rail line U3 station Plieningen Garbe and is within minutes from Stuttgart airport, Stuttgart Exhibition Center. The University of Hohenheim was co-founder of the Euroleague for Life Sciences which was established in 2001 and its goal is to offer dual degree programs in Management on all academic levels, Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral studies. The participating universities work together in defining their study programs, exchanging professors

33.
University of Stuttgart
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The University of Stuttgart is a university located in Stuttgart, Germany. It was founded in 1829 and is organized into 10 faculties and it is one of the top nine leading technical universities in Germany with highly ranked programs in civil, mechanical, industrial and electrical engineering. The academic tradition of the University of Stuttgart goes back to its probably most famous student, Gottlieb Daimler. These four universities, in combination with RWTH Aachen are the top five universities of the aforementioned TU9, from 1770 to 1794, the Karlsschule was the first university in Stuttgart. Located in Stuttgart-Hohenheim, it has since 1818 been the University of Hohenheim and is not related to the University of Stuttgart, what is now the University of Stuttgart was founded in 1829, and celebrated its 175th anniversary in 2004. Because of the importance of the technical sciences and instruction in these fields. In 1900 it was awarded the right to grant doctoral degrees in the technical disciplines, the development of the courses of study at the Technical College of Stuttgart led to its renaming in 1967 to the present-day Universität Stuttgart. With this change of name came along a built-up of new fields, such as history of science and technology and the sciences. Since the end of the 1950s, a part of the university has located in the suburb of Stuttgart-Vaihingen. Most technical subjects are located in Vaihingen, while the humanities, the sciences, architecture. As of 2014, University of Stuttgart is ranked 85th in the world in the field of Engineering & Technology according to QS World University Rankings

34.
University of Ulm
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Ulm University is a public university in the city of Ulm, in the South German state of Baden-Württemberg. The university was founded in 1967 and focuses on natural sciences, medicine, engineering sciences, mathematics, economics, with 9,188 students, it is one of the youngest public universities in Germany. Times Higher Education ranks it at position 16 among the worlds top 100 universities under the age of 50 years in 2014, in 2007, University of Ulm was appreciated by German Universities Excellence Initiative and altogether financially endowed for International Graduate School in Molecular Medicine. In 2012, University of Ulm has been selected for 27th position by Academic Ranking of World Universities according to ratio of Academic staff to students indicator. The campus of the university is located north of the city on a hill called Oberer Eselsberg, the university is the youngest public university in the state of Baden-Württemberg, which boasts several old, renowned universities in Heidelberg, Freiburg and Tübingen. The idea was to create a university with a new approach in research and teaching. An important concept since the foundation of the university has always been to promote interdisciplinarity, in the decades following the foundation, the spectrum of subjects has steadily been extended, and the university has grown significantly. An important step in combining the strength of industrial and academic research was the realization of the idea of a park around the main university campus. Research centers of companies like Daimler, BMW, Siemens and in the past also Nokia, AEG, have established at the site. Among other large projects, the university features four Collaborative Research Centers. Third-party funding of research reached 67.5 million euros in 2009, in 1998, Ulm University introduced an International Masters program in English, M. Sc. in Communication Technology, which is the first of its kind in Germany. Since then, this attracts students from different countries around the world. C-Tech Program has research collaboration with many renowned Universities around the world, in 2003, the Ulm University was involved in founding a private university in Egypt, the German University in Cairo. Since 2007, the university has been participating in the German Universities Excellence Initiative with the newly founded International Graduate School in Molecular Medicine Ulm, the university is composed of four divisions, which in German universities traditionally are called faculties, and separate institutes. The four faculties are the faculty, the engineering and computer science faculty, the natural science faculty. A university hospital is associated with the medical faculty and this close proximity of academic and industrial R&D is designed to improve interaction between industrial needs on the one hand and academic teaching and research on the other. Students of the Sciences often spend their internship in companies located close to the campus or work on their masters thesis projects in cooperation with the industrial partners. An overall planning concept for Oberer Eselsberg was developed with all involved parties on the basis of the land utilisation plan and this includes sustainable enhancing of the campus by developing it into a centre of science and research, as well as a long-term plan for future areas of development

35.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century

36.
University of Augsburg
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The University of Augsburg is a university located in the Universitätsviertel section of Augsburg, Germany. It was founded in 1970 and is organized in 7 Faculties, the University of Augsburg is a relatively young campus university with approx. About 14% of its students come from countries, a larger percentage than at comparable German universities. In October 2011 Sabine Doering Manteuffel succeeded Alois Loidl as rector of the university and she is the first female rector of a Bavarian university. The current President of Germany Joachim Gauck holds a Doctor honoris causa of the University of Augsburg, the University of Augsburg was founded in 1970. It is one of the new, modern universities in Bavaria and it attracts students from far beyond its immediate catchment area. About 20% of the German students come from outside Bavaria, the University of Augsburg maintains partnerships with the Universities of Pittsburgh, Osijek and Iaşi, and the Far Eastern State University of Humanities, which is in Khabarovsk. It has cooperation agreements with over forty universities in Europe, Asia, South Africa, North America, the number of ERASMUS exchange programmes also continues to grow. There are currently exchange programmes with more than 130 universities throughout Europe, anyone who has studied or carried out research here can keep in touch with the University of Augsburg once they have returned home. “Alumni Augsburg International” is a network for Augsburg students, too, Augsburg University library consists of the central library plus libraries for social sciences, humanities and natural sciences. It was founded along with the university in 1969 and was at first situated in the ducal residence, in 1970, it was moved to the campus of the old university at Memminger Straße. The new central library on the current campus south of Augsburg opened in 1984, the library comprises a total of some 2.0 million items. The University of Augsburgs Language Centre provides tuition in modern languages, students of philology receive practical language training in English, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. In addition to this, the Language Centre offers courses specifically tailored to law and economics students, as well as the opportunity to study languages such as Russian. Foreign students can improve their German language skills in tandem with their other studies, the University of Augsburg has cooperation agreements with over 40 universities in Europe, Asia, South Africa, North America and Latin America. November 2009 over 500 students occupied the room number 1 to call attention to the bad conditions in Augsburg. Specifically, they protested against the need for university students to pay tuition fees and they occupied the hall until the 22. They agreed to end the sit-in because the university vice-president gave assurances that he would solve the problems, eventually, all German states scrapped the experiment with university tuition fees in public universities, after mass student protests

37.
University of Bamberg
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The University of Bamberg in Bamberg, Germany, specializes in the Humanities, Cultural Studies, Social Sciences, Economics and Applied Computer Science. It is one of the institutions for business studies and social sciences in Bavaria. In 2005, the Social Work course transferred to the University of Applied Sciences in Coburg, the Faculty of Business and Economics is widely recognised as a leading research and teaching faculty in Germany. It is ranked under the 20th best faculties for Business, the European network includes the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford. The university is housed in historical buildings in Bamberg’s Old Town. These include the former Jesuit college, the former Hochzeitshaus, the old slaughterhouse, the former Bauhof, the departments of Languages and Literature are partly housed in buildings which once belonged to the Kaiser-Heinrich High School. The former ERBA cotton mill, on an island in the Regnitz, has acquired to create student apartments in the red-brick building, as well as in an adjoining new 14

38.
University of Bayreuth
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The University of Bayreuth is a public research university situated in Bayreuth, Germany. It was founded in 1975 as a campus university focusing on international collaboration and it is broadly organized into six undergraduate and graduate faculties, with each faculty defining its own admission standards and academic programs in near autonomy. The university is renowned for offering several interdisciplinary courses such as Philosophy & Economics, Global Change Ecology, Theatre and Media studies, the management, economics and law programs are ranked among the top degrees in Germany. In 2015 the university was ranked on place number 72 in the Times Higher Education world university ranking for universities founded less than 50 years ago. It is a member of the Elite Network of Bavaria, a coalition of leading research universities jointly offering graduate programs, the first chancellor was Wolf-Peter Hentschel from 1973 to Oktober 1999, who was already head of the executive office since 1 January 1972. From November 1999 to 2010 Ekkehard Beck was and since 2011 Markus Zanner is chancellor of the University of Bayreuth, african Languages, Literature and Arts, B. A. Media Studies and Media Practices, B. A, performing Arts and Opera Dramaturgy, B. A. Philosophy & Economics, B. A. Physics, B. Sc, biotechnology and Chemical Process Engineering, M. Sc. Computer Games Studies, M. A. or M. Sc, geschichte – History – Histoire, M. A. Human Geography- Urban and Regional Research, M. Sc, Cultural and Social Anthropology, M. A. Food and Health Sciences, M. Sc. Literature in its Cultural Context, M. A, Literature and Media, M. A. Material Chemistry and Catalysis, M. Sc. Materials Science and Engineering, M. Sc, Media Culture and Media Economy, M. A. Central Europe and Anglo-Saxon World 1300–2000, M. A. Molecular Ecology, Philosophy & Economics, M. A. Physics, M. Sc. Language – Interaction – Culture, M. A. Technomathematics, Master of Business Administration = MBA Master of Laws = LL. M. Health Care Management, MBA Sport Management, MBA Sport Law, after extensive plagiarism in zu Guttenbergs dissertation was revealed in February 2011, German media also criticised the University of Bayreuth. A University spokesman has denied allegations of bribery and political corruption, the University cancelled the doctorate and Guttenberg was forced to resign. Education in Germany List of universities in Germany Times Higher Education University of Bayreuth Faculties Fraunhofer Project Group Process Innovation

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University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
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Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg is a public research university in the cities of Erlangen and Nuremberg in Bavaria, Germany. In Germany, traditional liberal arts universities do not usually have a school or department. However, FAU does have an engineering faculty. FAU is the second largest state university in the state Bavaria and it has 5 faculties,23 departments/schools,30 clinical departments,19 autonomous departments,656 professors,3,404 members of academic staff and roughly 13,000 employees. In winter semester 2014/15 around 39,085 students enrolled in the university in 239 fields of study, with about 2/3 studying at the Erlangen campus and these statistics put FAU in the list of top 10 largest universities in Germany. In 2013,5251 students graduated from the university and 663 doctorates and 50 post-doctoral theses were registered, moreover, FAU received 171 million Euro external funding in the same year, making it one of the strongest third-party funded universities in Germany. In 2006 and 2007, as part of the national excellence initiative, FAU is also a member of DFG and the Top Industrial Managers for Europe network. The university was founded in 1742, in Bayreuth by Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Christian Frederick Charles Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach provided significant support to the early university. From the beginning, the university was a Protestant institution, during the Nazi era, the university was one of the first that had a majority of Nazi supporters in the student council. In 1961, the college in Nuremberg was merged with the university in Erlangen. An engineering school was inaugurated in 1966, in 1972, the school of education in Nuremberg became part of the university. Below is a timeline of FAU from its inception to its present form, 1700–1704. 1743, Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, issues an edict whereby the university founded in Bayreuth is transferred to Erlangen. It has the four faculties of Protestant Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine,1769, The University at Erlangen is given the new name of Friedrich-Alexander-Universität in honour of Alexander, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth. 1818, The library of the University of Altdorf, dissolved in 1809, is moved to Erlangen,1824, The first hospital is built. 1825, The University moves into the Schloss,1927, Science is taken out of the Faculty of Arts thus creating the new Faculty of Science. 1961, The FAU acquires a further faculty through merger with the Nuremberg College of Economics, the Universitys name is now Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg. 1966, Faculty of Engineering is established,1972, The Teacher Training College in Nuremberg is incorporated into the Faculty of Education

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Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
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Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich is a public research university located in Munich, Germany. The University of Munich is among Germanys oldest universities, in 1802, the university was officially named Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität by King Maximilian I of Bavaria in his as well as the universitys original founders honour. Among these were Wilhelm Röntgen, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Otto Hahn, pope Benedict XVI was also a student and professor at the university. The LMU has recently been conferred the title of university under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. LMU is currently the second-largest university in Germany in terms of student population, in the semester of 2015/2016. Of these,8,671 were freshmen while international students totalled 7,812 or almost 15% of the student population, the university was founded with papal approval in 1472 as the University of Ingolstadt, with faculties of philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and theology. Its first rector was Christopher Mendel of Steinfels, who became bishop of Chiemsee. In the period of German humanism, the universitys academics included names such as Conrad Celtes, the theologian Johann Eck also taught at the university. From 1549 to 1773, the university was influenced by the Jesuits, the Jesuit Petrus Canisius served as rector of the university. At the end of the 18th century, the university was influenced by the Enlightenment, in 1800, the Prince-Elector Maximilianv IV Joseph moved the university to Landshut, due to French aggression that threatened Ingolstadt during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1802, the university was renamed the Ludwig Maximilian University in honour of its two founders, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. The Minister of Education, Maximilian von Montgelas, initiated a number of reforms sought to modernize the rather conservative. In 1826, it was moved to Munich, the capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria, the university was situated in the Old Academy until a new building in the Ludwigstraße was completed. The locals were critical of the number of Protestant professors Maximilian. They were dubbed the Nordlichter and especially physician Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis was quite angry about them, in the second half of the 19th century, the university rose to great prominence in the European scientific community, attracting many of the worlds leading scientists. It was also a period of great expansion, from 1903, women were allowed to study at Bavarian universities, and by 1918, the female proportion of students at LMU had reached 18%. In 1918, Adele Hartmann became the first woman in Germany to earn the Habilitation, during the Third Reich, academic freedom was severely curtailed. In 1943 the White Rose group of anti-Nazi students conducted their campaign of opposition to the National Socialists at this university, the university has continued to be one of the leading universities of West Germany during the Cold War and in the post-reunification era

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Technical University of Munich
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The Technical University of Munich is a research university with campuses in Munich, Garching and Freising-Weihenstephan. It is a member of TU9, a society of the largest and most notable German institutes of technology. TUMs alumni include 13 Nobel laureates,18 Leibniz Prizewinners and 10 IEEE Fellow Members, timeline 1868 University founded by King Ludwig II. 1877 Awarded the designation Königlich Bayerische Technische Hochschule München,1901 Granted the right to award doctorates. 1902 Approval of the election of the Principal by the teaching staff,1930 Integration of the College of Agriculture and Brewing in Weihenstephan. 1949–1954, Reconstruction of the building of the Technische Universität by Robert Vorhoelzer after WWII. Construction of a new building and library. 1957 Given the status of a ‘public legal body’,1958 Research Reactor Munich, Garching officially assigned to the TH München. 1967 Establishment of a faculty of medicine 1970 Renamed to ‘Technische Universität München’,2004 Official opening of Forschungsreaktor München II, a leading neutron source, on March 2. Even to the present day, it is still the state university dedicated to technology. Numerous excellent TUM professors have secured their place in the history of technology, many important scientists, architects, the prerequisites for an academic training in engineering were created at the start of the 19th century when the advancement of technology on the basis of exact sciences commenced. There were also calls for a university for all studies in Bavaria. The polytechnic schools set up in Augsburg, Munich and Nuremberg, instead, an advanced engineering course was established at the Polytechnic School Munich in 1840, which was the forerunner of what was later to become the Technische Hochschule München. In 1868, King Ludwig II founded the newly structured Polytechnische Schule München and it was allowed to call itself Königlich Bayerische Technische Hochschule München as from the academic year 1877–78. The first Principal was the former Head of the Engineering Course, in the year of its foundation, the college took up residence in the new building in Arcisstrasse, which was designed by Gottfried v. Neureuther. In those days, more than 350 students were taught by 24 professors and 21 lecturers, the college was divided into five sections, I. Department VI. was added in 1872, with an average of about 2,600 to 2,800 students, the TH München ranked ahead of the TH Berlin as the largest German technical college for a while. The first female undergraduate matriculated in architecture in 1905, after the Bavarian government officially allowed women to study at a college in the German Reich