Contents

Emile Boeswillwald born in Strasbourg on 2 February 1815, he learned the trade of stonemason, continuing his apprenticeship in Munich in 1836. He then studied architecture in the workshop of Henri Labrouste and at the École des Beaux-Arts in 1837.[1]

Boeswillwald exhibited at the Salons of 1839, 1841, 1842, 1844 and 1855; in 1860 he was appointed inspector general of historical monuments. He thus became a member of the Committee on historical monuments and the Council of Civil Buildings;[1] in 1864 land was purchased beside the Villa Eugénie in Biarritz on which to erect a chapel designed by Boeswillwald.[2] The chapel, dedicated to Our Lady of Guadeloupe, was consecrated in September 1865, it incorporated an eclectic mix of Roman and Byzantine art with Hispano-Moorish elements from Seville and Granada. It was painted by Alexandre-Dominique Denuelle and Louis Steinheil.[3]

Boeswillwald produced a series of watercolor drawings of the soldiers of the First Empire in the years 1890-1891, the painter Léon Bonnat represented his friend in 1890. Emile Boeswillwald died in Paris on 20 March 1896,[1] his son, Paul Boeswillwald, was also an architect. His grandson Émile Artus Boeswillwald was a painter.

1.
Strasbourg
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Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution

2.
Henri Labrouste
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Pierre-François-Henri Labrouste was a French architect from the famous École des Beaux-Arts school of architecture. After a six-year stay in Rome, Labrouste established a training workshop. He became noted for his use of construction and was one of the first to realize the importance of its use. Born in Paris, Labrouste entered the Collège Sainte-Barbe as a student during 1809 and he was then admitted into the second class and the Lebas-Vaudoyer workshop in the École Royale des Beaux Arts during 1819. During 1820, he was promoted to the first class, competing for the Grand Prix, Labrouste was awarded second place by Guillaume-Abel Blouet during 1821. During 1823, he won the prize and worked as a lieutenant-inspector for the director Étienne-Hippolyte Godde during the construction of the Saint-Pierre-du-Gros-Caillou parish in Paris. During 1824 Labrouste won the competition with a design of a Court of Appeals, during November, he left Paris for Italy, visiting Turin, Milan, Lodi, Piacenza, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Florence and Arezzo. Receiving a pension or stipend from the French government for five years, he and the other Académie française laureates stayed in the Medici Villa in Rome. His work was the subject of Henri Labrouste, Structure Brought to Light, the first solo exhibition in the U. S. of his work, at The Museum of Modern Art in New York City

3.
Salon (Paris)
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The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been managed by the Société des Artistes Français, in 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré. The Salons original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in the Salon marked a sign of royal favor, in 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre, when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris. In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre and they were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis, once made regular and public, the Salons status was never seriously in doubt. In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced, from this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of other paintings. Printed catalogues of the Salons are primary documents for art historians, critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic. The French revolution opened the exhibition to foreign artists, the vernissage of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier. Charles Baudelaire, Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of the Salons, the 1848 revolution liberalized the Salon. The amount of refused works was greatly reduced, the increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists shift away from traditional painting styles, in 1863 the Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected, in order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés, containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde, the Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874,1876,1877,1879,1880,1881,1882 and 1886. In 1881, the government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, in December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, propagated the idea that Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet awarded, artists

4.
Biarritz
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Biarritz is a city on the Bay of Biscay, on the Atlantic coast in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in the French Basque Country in southwestern France. It is located 35 kilometres from the border with Spain and it is a luxurious seaside tourist destination known for the Hôtel du Palais, its casinos and its surfing culture. Biarritz is located in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region and it is adjacent to Bayonne and Anglet and 35 kilometres from the border with Spain. It is in the province of Labourd in the French Basque Country. In Basque, its name is Biarritz or Miarritze and its current Occitan Gascon name is Biàrrits. The name for an inhabitant is Biarrot, Biarriztar ou Miarriztar in Basque, the suffix -itz is a Basque locative. The name appears as Bearriz in 1170, Bearids in 1186, Biarritz appears as Bearids and Bearriz in 1150, Beiarridz in 1165, Bearriz and Beariz in 1170, Bearidz, Bearriz and Beariz, lo port de Beiarriz and Bearridz in 1261. Other forms include Beiarid, Bearritz, Beiarriz and Beiarrids, Bearridz, Bearrits, Bearritz, Sanctus Martinus de Biarriz, mearritcen, analysis of stones from the Middle Paleolithic show that the Biarritz area was inhabited at that time. The oldest mention appears in a cartulary, Baiona’s Golden book, from 1186, the first urban town was to the south, at the top and at the interior, where the church of San Martin is located. This church is the oldest in Biarritz, in 1152, Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England, who became suzerain of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Prince Edward, oldest son of Henry III of England, was invested with the duchy, and betrothed to Eleanor of Castile, two population centers are attested in the Middle Ages. This château had a double crenulated wall two meters thick, a drawbridge and four towers, mentions of this château occur as late as 1603, in the letters patent of Henry IV. One tower remained as of 1739, when a daymark was established there, called de la Haille, most of the documents, records and official agreements gathered in the archives from Biarritz mention whaling. This was the local industry. Consequently, the coat of arms features the image of a whale below a rowing boat manned by five sailors wearing berets. This inscription is written on it, Aura, sidus, mare, Biarritz has long made its living from the sea, from the 12th century onwards, it was a whaling town. In the 18th century, doctors claimed that the ocean at Biarritz had therapeutic properties, after the 7th century, Biarritz had many confrontations with Baiona, with the Kingdom of England – Lapurdi was under its control – and with the Bishop of Baiona. Almost all of the disputes were about whale hunting, in 1284, the towns right to hunt whales was reinstated by the authorities of Lapurdi and the Duchy of Aquitaine

5.
Louis Steinheil
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Louis Charles Auguste Steinheil was an Alsatian painter. Louis Steinheil studied with Henri Decaisne and painted in nearly every medium, among his works are “Saint Philomela”, “Mother”, Nantes Museum. In 1876 he was commissioned to execute frescoes in the cathedral of Strassburg, lEmpereur et les arts, la liste civile de Napoléon III. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Rines, George Edwin, ed. Steinheil

6.
Laon Cathedral
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Laon Cathedral is a Catholic church located in Laon, Picardy, France. The cathedral is the seat of the Bishop of Laon and it has been listed among the Monuments Historiques since 1840. The current cathedral is built on the site of an earlier edifice commenced under the episcopacy of Gerfrid and that Carolingian cathedral was consecrated on 6 September 800 in the presence of the emperor himself. The Carolingian building was replaced under Bishop Élinand, the present new building was inaugurated with the second coronation of the future King Philip I. This cathedral was torched during the Easter Insurrection on 25 April 1112, during the revolt Laons unpopular Bishop Waldric was killed, despite taking the precaution of hiding in a barrel in the cellar of the episcopal palace. The cathedral was not destroyed, however, and after a repair programme lasting two years it was rededicated in 1114 under Bishop Barthélemy de Jur. The present Laon Cathedral dates from the 12th and early 13th centuries, built half a century after the first example of Gothic architecture, the Abbey Church of St. Denis, was erected. The former cathedral was burned out and damaged during the insurrection in 1112. The present reconstruction began with a choir in about 1160 and was finished as far as the east side of the transept by 1174, in a second campaign, which started about 1180, the nave was built, and completed after 1205. Then the choir was replaced by the greatly lengthened present choir in 1215, the building is cruciform, and the choir terminates in a straight wall instead of in an apse. There are two towers, one at each end of the transept, and a square central crossing tower that forms a lantern illuminating the crossing. If all seven towers were completed, at the time of construction, Laon would have more towers than any other cathedral built at the time. The ambition of the planners of Laon Cathedral gave some insight on what cathedral planners of the time were aiming for - a new take on space. The west front, then with three porches, the centre one surmounted by a rose window of 1210, ranks next to that of Notre Dame de Paris in the purity of its Gothic style. Because of the use of stone in the interior, however. The cathedral has stained glass of the 13th century and a screen of the 18th century. Although the cathedral suffered damage during the French Revolution and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. On June 25,1940, Laon Cathedral was visited by Adolf Hitler, the famous medieval artist Villard de Honnecourt made detailed drawings of one of the towers of Laon, ca

7.
Auguste Dreyfus
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Auguste Dreyfus was a French businessman who made his fortune by financing the Peruvian trade in guano. Dreyfus joined a small trading firm set up by three of his elder brothers and moved to Lima, Peru to act as their local representative. He became involved in the trade, and in 1869 signed a major contract with the Peruvian government that gave him a monopoly over exports of Peruvian guano to Europe. With this he controlled the largest source of Peruvian national income, the Peruvian government let Dreyfus act as their agent in managing their existing debt and floating new loans used for railway construction. The government ran into increasing financial difficulties and these were compounded by a war with Chile between 1879 and 1883 in which they lost their key guano-producing province. A lengthy series of lawsuits followed between the creditors whose loans were secured by guano deposits and the governments of Peru and Chile, the Dreyfus trading enterprise came to an end. He retired to France, where he owned a chateau in the country, Auguste Dreyfus was born into a Jewish family in Wissembourg, Bas-Rhin, on 28 June 1827. He was the tenth of twelve children of the merchant Edward Dreyfus and he was the youngest of their seven boys. On 29 August 1852 Augustes brothers Prospere, Jérome and Isidore started Dreyfus Frères & Cie and this was a small company in Paris trading in fabrics and other commodities. Auguste Dreyfus joined the company in 1856, by 1859 Auguste Dreyfus, now residing in Peru, had become a minority partner. Auguste began trading in guano, and quickly became wealthy through careful attention to the fluctuations in the demand for the commodity. Prospere and Jérôme retired from the business in 1864 and Isidore in 1866, leon Dreyfus, who had moved to Peru and made influential connections, became a partner on 19 January 1866 and remained associated with Auguste until 1869. Auguste became respected in business circles on both sides of the Atlantic for his skill and the profitability of his enterprises. The government of Peru had been exploiting their guano reserves on a consignment system, in which the state contractors to extract, transport. Contractors were motivated to overstate costs and sell at low prices in order to drive up volumes, by 1868 Peru had large and growing debts. In response to growing criticism, the government chose a new approach. On 5 July 1869 the government cancelled all consignment arrangements and granted Dreyfus Frères the exclusive right to sell up to two tons of guano in Europe. Dreyfus was to pay 50 soles per ton for the guano, Auguste Dreyfus was backed by the Société Générale of Paris

8.
Saint-Germer-de-Fly Abbey
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Saint-Germer-de-Fly Abbey is a former Benedictine abbey located in the village of Saint-Germer-de-Fly, in Picardy in the Oise département of France. Only the late Romanesque-early Gothic church remains, now the parish church. It is regarded as one of the earliest manifestations of the Gothic style in France, a Late Gothic chapel added in the 14th century is noted as a smaller-scale reinterpretation of the Sainte-Chapelle of Paris. The abbey was built in the 7th century by Saint Germer, its founder and first abbot. It was destroyed twice during the invasions of the Normans in the 9th and early 10th centuries, the relics of Saint Germer were moved from Beauvais Cathedral to the abbey in 1132. In the decade of 1130 the abbey built a church in an advanced Romasque style that permitted an unusual amount of light into the interior of the church. The visual lightness of the construction at Saint-Germer-de-Fly was unprecedented and presaged the later Gothic style, with its emphasis on light and lightness. About 1260, Pierre de Wessencourt, the 25th abbot, built the Marian Chapel at the chevet of the abbey church and it is connected to the main church by a narrow passage, and is composed of three vaults with stained glass window-walls. While less lofty than the Sainte-Chapelle, and without its original painted interior and it was used as a funerary chapel. The abbey suffered greatly during the Hundred Years War, losing its western front, in 1414 the troops of the Duke of Burgundy destroyed the towers and one bay of the nave. The present west front was rebuilt in the 16th century, in 1644 the abbey was transferred to the reformed Benedictine Congregation of St. Maur, who continued the rebuilding. Like all other monasteries of France, Saint-Germer-de-Fly was confiscated as State property during the French Revolution, after the Revolution, the surviving church became the towns parish church. The northern transept, weakened by the removal of structures, was rebuilt in 1808. The abbey forms a Latin cross, terminating at the head in a semicircle, the façade is quite plain, in contrast with the rest of the church. The Sainte-Chapelle is a work of Rayonnant Gothic architecture. ISBN 2-08-010970-7 Photos of Sainte Chapelle en Saint-Germer-de-Fly

9.
Sainte-Chapelle
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Begun some time after 1238 and consecrated on 26 April 1248, the Sainte-Chapelle is considered among the highest achievements of the Rayonnant period of Gothic architecture. It was commissioned by King Louis IX of France to house his collection of Passion relics, along with the Conciergerie, the Sainte-Chapelle is one of the earliest surviving buildings of the Capetian royal palace on the Île de la Cité. Although damaged during the French Revolution, and restored in the 19th century, the relics arrived in Paris in August 1239, carried from Venice by two Dominican friars. For the final stage of their journey they were carried by the King himself, barefoot and dressed as a penitent, the relics were stored in a large and elaborate silver chest, the Grand-Chasse, on which Louis spent a further 100,000 livres. The entire chapel, by contrast, cost 40,000 livres to build, until it was completed in 1248, the relics were housed at chapels at the Château de Vincennes and a specially built chapel at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. In 1246, fragments of the True Cross and the Holy Lance were added to Louis collection, the chapel was consecrated on 26 April 1248 and Louis relics were moved to their new home with great ceremony. As well as serving as a place of worship, the Sainte-Chapelle played an important role in the political and cultural ambitions of King Louis and his successors. Just as the Emperor could pass privately from his palace into the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the royal chapel is a prime example of the phase of Gothic architectural style called Rayonnant, marked by its sense of weightlessness and strong vertical emphasis. It stands squarely upon a lower chapel, which served as church for all the inhabitants of the palace. The king was recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. The internal division into upper and lower chapels is clearly marked on the outside by a string-course, despite its decoration, the exterior is relatively simple and austere, devoid of flying buttresses or major sculpture and giving little hint of the richness within. No designer-builder is named in the archives concerned with the construction, modern scholarship rejects this attribution in favour of Jean de Chelles or Thomas de Cormont, while Robert Branner saw in the design the hand of an unidentified master mason from Amiens. As has often been argued however the influence on its overall design seems to have come from contemporary metalwork. The Parisian palatine chapel, built to house a reliquary, was itself like a precious reliquary turned inside out, although the interior is dominated by the stained glass, every inch of the remaining wall surface and the vault was also richly coloured and decorated. Above the dado level, mounted on the shafts that separate the great windows, are 12 larger-than-life-sized sculpted stone figures representing the 12 Apostles. Each carries a disk marked with the crosses that were traditionally marked on the pillars of a church at its consecration. Niches on the north and south sides of the chapel are the private oratories of the king and of his mother, fifteen huge mid-13th-century windows fill the nave and apse, while a large rose window with Flamboyant tracery dominates the western wall. Despite some damage the windows display a clear iconographical programme, the three windows of the eastern apse illustrate the New Testament, featuring scenes of The Passion with the Infancy of Christ and the Life of John the Evangelist

10.
Timgad
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Timgad was a Roman-Berber town in the Aurès Mountains of Algeria. It was founded by the Emperor Trajan around AD100, the full name of the town was Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi. Trajan commemorated the city after his mother Marcia, eldest sister Ulpia Marciana, located in modern-day Algeria, about 35 km east of the town of Batna, the ruins are noteworthy for representing one of the best extant examples of the grid plan as used in Roman city planning. In the former name of Timgad, Marciana Traiana Thamugadi, the first part - Marciana Traiana - is Roman and refers to the name of its founder, Emperor Trajan, the second part of the name - Thamugadi - has nothing with latin. Thamugadi is the Berber name of the place where the city was built, to read Timgad plural form of Tamgut, meaning peak, the city was founded ex nihilo as a military colony by the emperor Trajan around AD100. It was intended to primarily as a bastion against the Berbers in the nearby Aures Mountains. It was originally populated largely by Roman veterans of the Parthian campaigns who were granted lands in return for years of service. The city enjoyed a peaceful existence for the first several hundred years and became a center of Christian activity starting in the 3rd century, in the 5th century, the city was sacked by the Vandals before falling into decline. In AD535, the Byzantine general Solomon found the city empty when he came to occupy it, in the following century, the city was briefly repopulated as a primarily Christian city before being sacked by Berbers in the 5th century. During the Christian period, Timgad was a bishopric which became renowned at the end of the 4th century when Bishop Optat became the spokesman for the Donatist movement. Because no new settlements were founded on the site after the 7th century, the encroachment of the Sahara on the ruins was the principal reason why the town is so well preserved. After the Arab sacking in the 8th century the city disappeared from history until its excavation in 1881, located at the intersection of six roads, the city was walled but not fortified. Originally designed for a population of around 15,000, the city outgrew its original specifications. At the time of its founding, the surrounding the city was a fertile agricultural area. The original Roman grid plan is visible in the orthogonal design, highlighted by the decumanus maximus. The cardo does not proceed completely through the town but instead terminates in a forum at the intersection with the decumanus, at the west end of the decumanus rises a 12 m high triumphal arch, called the Arch of Trajan, which was partially restored in 1900. The arch is principally of sandstone, and is of the Corinthian order with three arches, the one being 11 wide. The arch is known as the Timgad Arch

11.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

12.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

13.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format