The vast majority of NCIS personnel are civilian, with half being special agents. NCIS agents are armed federal law enforcement investigators, who frequently coordinate with other U.S. government agencies and have a presence in over 40 countries and on U.S. Navy vessels. NCIS special agents are supported by analysts and other experts skilled in disciplines such as forensics, surveillance, surveillance countermeasures, computer investigations, physical security, and polygraph examinations.

Contents

NCIS traces its roots to Navy Department General Order 292 of 1882, signed by William H. Hunt, Secretary of the Navy, which established the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI). Initially, ONI was tasked with collecting information on the characteristics and weaponry of foreign vessels, charting foreign passages, rivers, or other bodies of water, and touring overseas fortifications, industrial plants, and shipyards.

The major buildup of civilian special agents began with the Korean War in 1950, and continued through the Cold War years. In 1966 the name Naval Investigative Service (NIS) was adopted to distinguish the organization from the rest of ONI, and in 1969 NIS special agents were reclassified from contract employees and became Excepted Civil Service.

In the early 1970s, an NIS special agent was stationed on USS Intrepid for six months. This marked the beginning of the "Deployment Afloat" program, now called the Special Agent Afloat program, which deploys special agents for year-long assignments aboard carrier battle groups and amphibious readiness groups. In 1972, background investigations were transferred from NIS to the newly formed Defense Investigative Service (DIS), allowing NIS to give more attention to criminal investigations and counter-intelligence. The 1970s also saw NIS' first female agent, who was stationed at Naval Air Station Miramar, California in 1975.

In 1991, NIS was responsible for investigating the Tailhook scandal, which involved allegations of sexual misconduct and harassment by Naval and Marine Corps officers in Las Vegas, Nevada. Subsequent to this investigation, and at the direction of the chairman of the US Senate Armed Services Committee, Senator Sam Nunn, the Naval Investigative Service was restructured into the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS). The restructuring occurred as a result of perceived lapses in proper investigative technique over the Tailhook scandal, as well as chain of command issues and a lack of civilian oversight in previous investigations. At the time, Senator Nunn stated, "The Navy's whole investigative technique should be under serious question." As a result of the investigation into the Tailhook scandal, the Pentagon's inspector general was sharply critical of NIS leadership, stating that there was a top-down culture showing a lack of cooperation with other authorities in the Navy.[4] By 1992, Acting Secretary of the Navy, Sean O'Keefe, recommended the word "Criminal" be included in NIS's name in order to make clear their investigative function. Ultimately, NIS commander, Rear Adm. Duvall Williams Jr., was forced to retire and NIS was reorganized as NCIS under civilian leadership.[5]

In 1992, the NCIS mission was again clarified and became a mostly civilian agency. Roy D. Nedrow, a former United States Secret Service (USSS) executive, was appointed as the first civilian director and the name changed from Naval Investigative Service to Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Nedrow oversaw the restructuring of NCIS into a Federal law enforcement agency with 14 field offices controlling field operations in 140 locations worldwide. In 1995, NCIS introduced the Cold Case Homicide Unit, the first dedicated federal-level cold case homicide unit. The unit has resolved 61 cases since 1995.[6]

In May 1997, David L. Brant was appointed Director of NCIS by Secretary of the NavyJohn Howard Dalton. Director Brant retired in December 2005. He was succeeded by Director Thomas A. Betro who was appointed Director of NCIS in January 2006, by Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter. Betro retired in September 2009. On September 13, 2009, Deputy Director of Operations Gregory A. Scovel was appointed Acting Director by Under Secretary of the Navy Robert Work. He served concurrently as Deputy Director for Operations until the new Director was selected.

In 2000, Congress granted NCIS civilian special agents authority to execute warrants and make arrests. Virtually all NCIS investigators, criminal, counterintelligence, and force protection personnel are now sworn civilian personnel with powers of arrest and warrant service. The exceptions are a small number of reserve military elements engaged in counter-intelligence support.

NCIS has conducted fraud investigations resulting in over half a billion dollars in recoveries and restitution to the U.S. government and the U.S. Navy since 1997. NCIS investigates any death occurring on a Navy vessel or Navy or Marine Corps aircraft or installation (except when the cause of death is medically attributable to disease or natural causes). NCIS oversees the Master-at-Arms programs for the Navy, overseeing 8800 Masters-at-Arms and the Military Working Dog program. NCIS's three strategic priorities are to prevent terrorism, protect secrets, and reduce crime.

Jonathan Jay Pollard was an NIS analyst who was convicted of spying for Israel after being caught by NIS and FBI. He received a life sentence in 1987.[9]

On February 14, 2010, Mark D. Clookie became the fourth civilian Director of NCIS, having been appointed to the position by Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus.[10]

In June 2010, NCIS undertook a major reorganization which created a single Deputy Director position, having previously had two (Deputy Director of Operations and Deputy Director of Management and Administration), combination of the Combating Terrorism Directorate and the Counterintelligence Directorate into a single directorate (the National Security Directorate), and the creation of the Global Operations Directorate. The Global Operations Directorate was created to direct field elements in multiple functional areas that had previously been directed from NCIS Headquarters.[11]

In December 2012, the FBI released redacted documents regarding operations against Occupy Wall Street. In one FBI report, the NCIS is quoted as looking into links between Occupy and "organized labor actions" in December 2011.[12]

On October 7, 2013, Andrew L. Traver became the fifth civilian Director of NCIS, having been appointed to the position by Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus.[3] Traver leads an agency that is composed of some 2,500 civilian and military personnel and has a presence in over 150 locations worldwide. He is responsible for executing an annual operating budget of approximately $460 million.

In 2014, in the aftermath of the Washington Navy Yard shooting, NCIS formed the Regional Enforcement Action Capabilities Training (REACT) team. REACT teams are designed to support investigations and "high-risk" enforcement operations within the United States, including high-risk operations that involve the service of arrest and search warrants, undercover agent and source protection/rescue, undercover operations, high-risk surveillance, and high-risk protective assignments.[13]

‡: The senior executive staff of NCIS is composed of sworn special agents as well as civilian personnel. Special agents and civilian employees who reach the rank of Executive Assistant Director are appointed to the Senior Executive Service (SES) or the Defense Intelligence Senior Level (DISL), respectively.

Special Agent, issued a golden badge inscribed with the words Special Agent. Credentials and badge are issued only to 1811 Criminal Investigators and Marine Corps personnel designated as Special Agents.

Agent, issued a silver badge inscribed with the word Agent. Credentials and badge are issued to qualified and approved naval reservists who perform investigative or counterintelligence duties.

Investigator, issued a silver badge inscribed with the word Investigator. Credentials and badge are issued only to 1810 Investigators who perform investigative and/or counterintelligence duties.

Operational Representative, issued a silver badge inscribed with the words Operational Representative. Credentials and badge are issued to personnel who participate as non-law enforcement officers in the operational aspects of criminal investigations and operations, counterintelligence investigations and operations, collection activity and analysis, and Department of the Navy law enforcement and security. Employees who qualify for these credentials include, but are not limited to the following series: intelligence specialist/intelligence operations specialist (0132), investigations specialist (1801), foreign national investigator (FN pay grades), investigative computer specialist (2210), Physical security specialist (0080), training specialist (1712), forensic scientist (1301), evidence custodian (0303), and Department of Defense military security personnel under the operational control of the Protective Operations Field Office.

Administrative Representative, no badge issued. Credentials are issued to professional administrative staff to conduct official business in furtherance of the responsibilities and mission of the NCIS.[11]

The Naval Criminal Investigative Service is headed by the Director of NCIS. The Director directs the activities of NCIS and exercises leadership through a strategic vision and exercises his/her direction through the Deputy Director. The Deputy Director, who is the NCIS Chief Operations Officer, is responsible for the day-to-day oversight and management of NCIS and its operational and administrative directorates. The Principal Executive Assistant Director (for Management and Administration) is the NCIS Chief Management Officer, responsible for the day-to-day oversight and management of all business operations of NCIS.

The NCIS is organized into functional directorates, field directorates, administrative directorates, and the Office of the Director. An Executive Assistant Director manages each directorate with the exception of some administrative directorates, which are managed by an Assistant Director. An Assistant Director is also assigned to the National Security Directorate and the Criminal Operations Directorate to act as the Chief Operations Officer, responsible for the day-to-day oversight and management of the directorate.

Functional and administrative directorates are divided into programmatic departments, each headed by a Deputy Assistant Director. The various programmatic departments are further divided into divisions, led by Division Chiefs. Division Chiefs are ranked analogous to Special Agents in Charge, although some Division Chiefs may also be civilian employees, especially in the administrative directorates.

Functional directorates are responsible for outlining the goals and objectives of NCIS relating to their functional area, called the Program Direction Document. The Executive Assistant Directors of functional directorates exercise direction and supervision of their Program Direction Document through the three field directorates. They also advise the Deputy Director on the three field directorate Executive Assistant Directors' performance in meeting the outlined goals and objectives.

The NCIS currently has two types of field directorates, geographical and functional. The geographic field directorates are the Atlantic Operations Directorate and the Pacific Operations Directorate. The functional field directorate is the Global Operations Directorate.

The geographic field directorates are divided into field offices, each headed by a Special Agent in Charge (SAC). The SAC is responsible for all operational, investigative, and administrative activities within their geographical area of responsibility. They exercise leadership of geographic implementation of NCIS' goals and objectives through the direction and supervision of Assistant Special Agents in Charge and Supervisory Special Agents. Depending on the field office, the SAC is assisted by one or multiple Assistant Special Agents in Charge (ASAC's). In field offices with only one ASAC, the ASAC is the Chief Operations Officer of the field office, responsible for the day-to-day oversight and management of its activities. In field offices with multiple ASAC's, the ASAC's serve as the heads of specific functions within the field office (e.g. ASAC of Criminal Investigations). The field office headquarters also has specialized teams, headed by Supervisory Special Agents, ready to support the field office's subordinate units by dispatching experienced Special Agents and/or civilian investigators to assist in investigations if a prolonged investigation is required or the investigative resources required exceeds the subordinate unit's capabilities. Usually the senior-most Special Agent of the field team is designated as the Senior Field Agent who may have some operational and/or administrative responsibilities.

The geographic field offices are divided into NCIS Resident Agencies (NCISRA's) and NCIS Resident Units (NCISRU's). NCISRA's are headed by Supervisory Special Agents (designated as Resident Agents in Charge) who supervise all sworn Special Agents and civilian personnel assigned to the NCISRA. Depending on the size or location of the NCISRA, the Resident Agent in Charge may also supervise other Supervisory Special Agents who serve as team leaders, responsible for a specific investigative/operational function within the NCISRA (e.g. SSA of Counter-Terrorism). Some NCISRA's are further divided into NCISRU's, which are small units consisting of only one or two Special Agents (designated as Resident Agents) who report directly to the Resident Agent in Charge of the "parent NCISRA." In NCISRU's which are staffed by multiple Special Agents, the senior-most Special Agent is designated as the Senior Resident Agent and may have some operational and/or administrative responsibilities.[11] NCIS Special Agent Afloat duty posts are also classified as NCISRU's (e.g. NCISRU USS George H.W. Bush). NCISRU's afloat are under the functional supervision of the field office responsible for the vessel's homeport but receive operational support from the field office responsible for the area where the ship is sailing in.

The functional field directorate, the Global Operations Directorate, is divided into field offices, operational offices, and divisions. The subordinate elements are headed by Special Agents in Charge or Division Chiefs. Division Chiefs are ranked analogous to Special Agents in Charge, although some Division Chiefs may also be civilian employees. They are responsible for all operational, investigative, and administrative activities within their functional area of responsibility. They exercise leadership of functional implementation of NCIS' goals and objectives through the direction and supervision of Assistant Special Agents in Charge (ASAC's) and supervisory personnel. There is usually always multiple ASAC's assigned to the functional field offices, as they serve as the heads of geographic areas within the field office (e.g. ASAC of Atlantic Operations).[11]

The functional and field directorates report to the Deputy Director while the administrative directorates report to the Principal Executive Assistant Director (who then reports to the Deputy Director).

The Office of the Director serves as the central administrative arm of the Director. The Office of the Director encompasses the Director, Deputy Director, Principal Executive Assistant Director, and the Director's Staff.

The Office of the Director is headed by the Chief of Staff who is accountable to the Director, via the daily supervision of the Deputy Director, for the effective operation and administration of the Office of the Director.[15]

The Behavioral Science Group (BSG) supports the NCIS headquarters and field offices on a worldwide basis by deploying licensed psychologists with specialized training and experience in law enforcement psychology and national security. They are responsible for providing consultations to operations, investigations, and related projects and matters.

The BSG consultations provide insight into relevant behavior; optimizing criminal, counterintelligence, and counter-terrorism investigations and operations; and complimenting other resources such as analytical and technical expertise.[16]

The Office of Military Support (OMS) is comprised of active duty and reserve US Navy officers and enlisted personnel. They perform in a variety of mission support areas in NCIS offices throughout the world, including protective service operations, supply and logistics, communications, administrative duties, intelligence, and security.[17]

Intelligence & Information Sharing Directorate — directs NCIS' activities to provide intelligence, analysis, and related products to better understand the terror, intelligence, cyber, and criminal threats to the Department of the Navy and to meet priority intelligence requirements. The directorate is also responsible for the collection, analysis, exploitation, and sharing of criminal, counterintelligence, and terrorism information in direct support of NCIS operations and investigations, along with directing NCIS' Multiple Threat Alert Center and the Department of Defense Global Watch.[18]

National Security Directorate — program management oversight of counter-terrorism/counterintelligence investigations and operations, including espionage, terrorism, compromise, technology transfer, cyber intrusion, insider threat, and threats to research development and acquisition programs. The directorate is also responsible for manning, training, and equipping of agency personnel to protect Navy and Marine Corps forces, operations, information, facilities, equipment, and networks from attacks and the intelligence activities of foreign governments and international terrorist organizations.[19]

Criminal Operations Directorate — program management oversight of a myriad of criminal investigations and operations which include death, sexual assault, narcotics, and procurement fraud investigations. The directorate is also responsible for the manning, training and equipping of agency personnel to accomplish the investigative mission, and for the operational execution of both reactive and proactive major criminal investigative activities for the Department of the Navy.[20]

The Global Operations Directorate is responsible for field elements which execute worldwide investigations and operations associated with espionage, counterintelligence, protective service operations, contingency response and high risk deployments, technical surveillance countermeasures, polygraph services, technical services, and forensic services.[21][22] Nearly all subordinate elements of the Global Operations Directorate are headquartered at Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling in Washington, D.C., although they maintain multiple operational detachments all over the world in support of geographical field offices. The only exception to this is the Contingency Response Field Office, which is headquartered at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers, Glynco, Georgia.

Contingency Response Field Office — responsible for all NCIS high risk and contingency deployments.

Cyber Operations Field Office — conducts worldwide cyber investigations, proactive cyber operations, and cyber forensics support for the Department of the Navy (DON).

Office of Forensic Support — provides forensic crime scene support to DON investigations.

Office of Strategic Support — provides counterintelligence support to the Department of Defense (DoD) and DON special access programs, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), as well as other DON/DoD research and development agencies.

The Atlantic Operations Directorate oversees all investigations and operations of NCIS field offices and numerous subordinate elements located throughout the Eastern United States, Europe, Africa, South America, the Middle East, and aboard carrier and expeditionary strike groups based on the East Coast.[23]

Northeast Field Office(Naval Station Newport, Newport, Rhode Island) — area of responsibility spans across 17 states in the Northeast U.S., as well as the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Isle.

Washington Field Office(Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling, Washington, D.C.) — area of responsibility encompasses Delaware, the District of Columbia, Maryland, West Virginia, and 26 counties in Virginia.

Norfolk Field Office(Naval Station Norfolk, Norfolk, Virginia) — area of responsibility spans encompasses the Commonwealth of Virginia, mainly to provide support to Navy and Marine Corps installations and Joint Forces Command in the Norfolk area.

Southeast Field Office(Naval Station Mayport, Jacksonville, Florida) — area of responsibility spans across the states of Georgia and Florida, the Gulf Coast, Texas, and the lower Midwest states down to the Caribbean and into Central and South America.

Europe & Africa Field Office(Naval Support Activity Naples, Naples, Italy) — area of responsibility covers 35 countries within Africa Command and 51 countries within European Command, including major research and development sites, critical Department of the Navy logistics hubs, and multiple ballistic missile defense platforms and sites.

Middle East Field Office(Naval Support Activity Bahrain, Bahrain) — area of responsibility encompasses more than 20 countries in the Middle East, southwest Asia, and eastern Africa.

The Pacific Operations Directorate oversees all investigations and operations of NCIS field offices and numerous subordinate elements located throughout the Western United States, Asia, Australia, and aboard aircraft carrier and expeditionary strike groups based on the west coast and throughout the Indo-Pacific region.[24]

Northwest Field Office(Naval Base Kitsap, Silverdale, Washington) — area of responsibility spans across 9 states in the Northwestern U.S., as well as the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut.

Far East Field Office(Fleet Activities Yokosuka, Yokosuka, Japan) — area of responsibility spans across northeast Asia, including China, Japan, the Koreas, Mongolia, and eastern regions of the Russian Federation.

Planning and Strategy Directorate — develops overarching agency strategies and provides the program planning, evaluation, and performance assessment necessary to accomplish the strategic mission of NCIS. The directorate also serves as a consultant to Department of Defense and Department of the Navy sponsors on financial management and critical resource issues and manages public engagement and congressional activities.[25]

Human Resources Directorate — responsible for all human resource aspects, including staffing, pay and entitlements, employee relations, classification, transfers, promotions, human capital and leadership development, performance management, policy development, and recruitment. The directorate is also responsible for all training matters and oversees the operation of the NCIS Academy at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers.[26]

Administration & Logistics Directorate — responsible for directing the activities conducted by NCIS to enable the execution of its strategic mission, both in the short- and long-term, with facilities management, procurement management, logistics and supply management, security management, records management, and administrative services support. The directorate is also responsible for NCIS business operations that ensure a highly efficient administrative and logistics support program.[11]

Information Technology Directorate — responsible for directing the activities conducted by NCIS to plan, implement, and maintain the NCIS IT infrastructure necessary to accomplish the strategic mission of NCIS in the short- and long-term. The directorate is also responsible for the effective use of NCIS information resources across the organization to successfully meet its goals and objectives and for NCIS business operations that enable the design, development, procurement, operation, and maintenance of NCIS information systems.[11]

An NCIS special agent, assigned to the USS Kearsarge, gives a girl a drink of water during a medical assessment of a local village during hurricane relief operations in Haiti in 2008.

The Special Agent Afloat Program of NCIS sends NCIS Special Agents aboard U.S. aircraft carriers and other ships (for example, hospital ships and amphibious assault ships).[27]
The purpose of the program is to provide professional investigative, counterintelligence, and force protection support to deployed Navy and Marine Corps commanders. These special agents are assigned to aircraft carriers and other deployed major combatants. Their environment can best be described as a "floating city." The assignment offers many of the same investigative challenges found by any criminal investigator working in a metropolitan city. A special agent assigned to a carrier must be skilled in general criminal investigations including: crime scene examination, expert interview techniques, and use of proactive law enforcement procedures to stop criminal activity before it occurs. The special agent afloat also provides guidance on foreign counterintelligence matters, including terrorism. It is also the mission of the special agent afloat to offer Navy and Marine Corps leadership advice and operational support on security issues which might threaten the safety of ships, personnel and resources.

The Special Agent Afloat (SAA) program was initiated in Europe during March 1967. In April 1971, a special agent was assigned to a deployed carrier for a period of six months with the designation of SAA. By 1978, SAA personnel were assigned to each operational aircraft carrier in the U. S. Navy for a one year assignment. In 1986, a trial began where two Special Agents Afloat were assigned to aircraft carriers in an effort to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of having two agents assigned full time while deployed, one focusing on law enforcement/criminal investigations and one on foreign counterintelligence. The trial was discontinued when no longer considered viable.[11]

The Naval Criminal Investigative Service is the only entity within the Department of the Navy authorized to conduct protection of Department of Defense/Department of the Navy (DOD/DON) High Risk Billets (HRB). The mission of the NCIS Protective Operations Field Office (POFO) is to prevent terrorist and/or criminal attacks on principals under NCIS executive protection coverage and execute the necessary and appropriate response to a threat and/or attack on a principal. POFO will also initiate investigations on individuals and groups who meet a specific threshold when a threat is detected or needs to be validated.

The Multiple Threat Alert Center (MTAC) utilizes NCIS' worldwide presence and combination of law enforcement, counterintelligence, intelligence and security capabilities to identify a wide range of threats to Navy and Marine Corps personnel and assets around the world. The MTAC is a unique platform in that it merges intelligence from other agencies with information from NCIS source networks and law enforcement activities worldwide to provide the most relevant operational support to Navy and Marine Corps commanders.[29]

In 2003, the series NCIS began as a spin-off of JAG and features a fictional representation of the Major Case Response Team, consisting of a team of NCIS agents based at Washington Navy Yard in Washington D.C.. David Brant and Thomas Betro, two former directors of NCIS, both had minor cameo appearances in the series during their respective tenures as Director.

In 2009, that series spun off NCIS: Los Angeles, featuring a fictional representation of the Office of Special Projects, based in Los Angeles that specializes in undercover assignments. Former NCIS Director Mark D. Clookie had a minor cameo appearance in the third season of the series, appearing as "NCIS Special Agent Clookie". NCIS Director Andrew Traver had a minor appearance in the seventh season of the series, appearing as "NCIS Special Agent Gates".

A second spin-off set in a small NCIS Resident Agency in New Orleans (part of the Southeast Field Office), NCIS: New Orleans, started in 2014.

The Pentagon Channel aired a documentary in June 2009 entitled Recon: Military CSI about crime scene investigation techniques used in the theater of war by NCIS special agents.

Investigation Discovery filmed a 13-episode series called The Real NCIS highlighting thirteen different crimes solved by NCIS special agents.

In 2017, CBS began airing 48 Hours: NCIS, an extension of the 48 Hours investigative program focused on real life NCIS cases, and narrated by Rocky Carroll of NCIS.

Film

The 2000 film Dangerous Evidence: The Lori Jackson Story is based on the 1995 best-selling book Dangerous Evidence. The book recounts the true story of NIS agents accused of framing an African-American Marine corporal for a crime he did not commit. CBS News journalist Ellis A. Cohen covered the story for 60 Minutes and then wrote the book and produced the Lifetime movie.[citation needed]

Special Agent, Vietnam: A Naval Intelligence Memoir was written by former Special Agent Douglass H. Hubbard about special agents during the Vietnam War. Hubbard served as an NIS special agent in Vietnam from 1969 to 1972.

Capturing Jonathan Pollard: How One of the Most Notorious Spies in American History Was Brought to Justice was published in 2006. Written by retired NCIS Special Agent Ron Olive, it recounts the NIS investigation of Pollard.

The Smack Track, by Ian McPhedran, about how the Royal Australian Navy battles pirates, gun runners and drug smugglers in the seas of the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa along the infamous route known as the 'smack track'. Since about 2010, NCIS special agents are routinely assigned as law enforcement advisors afloat to serve alongside the Australian sailors looking for contraband.

Dick Tracy is a U.S. comic strip featuring a tough and intelligent police detective created by Chester Gould. In a prose novel by Max Allan Collins based on the strip,[citation needed]Dick Tracy Goes to War, Tracy accepts a direct commission as a Lieutenant Commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve and to go on active duty as an Agent of the Office of Naval Intelligence, the precursor to NCIS. In the comic strip, as detailed in the 1944 sequence pitting Tracy against an Axis spy Alfred "The Brow" Brau, Tracy is commissioned into the same position with ONI, but holds the rank of Lieutenant.

^Power, Richard (October 30, 2000). "Joy Riders: Mischief That Leads to Mayhem". InformIT. Pearson Education. Retrieved November 1, 2009. "I called the U.S. Attorney’s office in Boston on a Thursday and asked if we could have the court order in place by Monday," Garza recounts. "They laughed. Six months was considered the 'speed of light' for wiretap approval. But we started to put the affidavit together anyway, and got it okayed in only six weeks, which at that time was unheard of." Indeed, the work of Garza and the others to obtain a wiretap in the 1995 Ardita case laid a lot of the groundwork that made it possible for investigators in the 1999 Solar Sunrise case (which I describe later in this chapter) to obtain wiretap approval in one day.