The ancestors of contemporary American Indians were members of nomadic hunting and gathering cultures. These peoples traveled in small family-based bands that moved from Asia to North America during the last ice age; from approximately 30,000–12,000 years ago, sea levels were so low that a “land bridge” connecting the two continents was exposed. Some bands followed the Pacific coast southward, and others followed a glacier-free corridor through the centre of what is now Canada. Although it is clear that both avenues were used, it is not certain which was more important in the peopling of the Americas. Most traces of this episode in human prehistory have been erased by millennia of geological processes: the Pacific has inundated or washed away most of the coastal migration route, and glacial meltwash has destroyed or deeply buried traces of the inland journey.

A discussion of the efforts to preserve Native American culture, from the documentary Native Voice: Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian.Great Museums Television

Discussions of indigenouscultures are often organized geographically. The Western Hemisphere typically comprises three regions: Northern America (present-day United States and Canada), Middle America (present-day Mexico and Central America), and South America.

The earliest ancestors of Native Americans are known as Paleo-Indians. They shared certain cultural traits with their Asian contemporaries, such as the use of fire and domesticated dogs; they do not seem to have used other Old World technologies such as grazing animals, domesticated plants, and the wheel.

Archaeological evidence indicates that Paleo-Indians traveling in the interior of Northern America hunted Pleistocene fauna such as woolly mammoths (Mammuthus species), giant ground sloths (Megatherium species), and a very large species of bison (Bison antiquus); those traveling down the coast subsisted on fish, shellfish, and other maritime products. Plant foods undoubtedly contributed to the Paleo-Indian diet, although the periglacial environment would have narrowed their quantities and varieties to some extent. Plant remains deteriorate quickly in the archaeological record, which can make direct evidence of their use somewhat scarce. However, food remains at Paleo-Indian sites including Gault (Texas) and Jake Bluff (Oklahoma) indicate that these people used a wide variety of plants and animals.

Mastodons and woolly mammoths were hunted by some Paleo-Indians. These animals were similar in size to modern African elephants but, unlike the modern variety, they were adapted to ice age temperatures.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Although the artifacts recovered from many Paleo-Indian sites are predominantly, or even solely, stone tools, it is likely that these groups also made a wide variety of goods from perishable materials that have since disintegrated; certainly, stone tools alone would have proved inadequate to the challenges these peoples encountered. One of the most distinctive Paleo-Indian artifact types is the Clovis point, the first of which was discovered on a kill site near what is now Clovis, New Mexico. Clovis points are lance-shaped, partially fluted, and used for killing mammoths and other very large game (seeClovis complex).

Clovis points exhibiting characteristic channels, or flutes, that extend from mid-blade to the base of the implement.Courtesy, Robert N. Converse, The Archaeological Society of Ohio

Beginning some 11,500 years ago, the climate in the Northern Hemisphere slowly became warmer and drier. Temperatures rose significantly over the next several thousand years, eventually averaging a few degrees higher than those experienced in the same areas during the early 21st century. Cold-adapted plant species such as birch and spruce retreated to the mountains and the far north, replaced in lower altitudes and latitudes by heat- and drought-resistant species including grasses, forbs, and hardwood trees. Very large animals such as mammoths and giant ground sloths were unable to cope with the change and became extinct; other species, such as bison, survived by becoming smaller.

As the environment changed, so did indigenous economic strategies. The most visible change was a further diversification in subsistence. As megafauna became scarce and cold-weather flora retreated north, groups began to prey upon smaller animals such as deer and elk, to catch fish and collect shellfish from inland rivers and lakes, and to use a wider array of plant foods, including seeds, berries, nuts, and tubers. People became somewhat more settled, tending to live in larger groups for at least part of the year; they often built seasonal residences along waterways. They also developed systems of trade between different geographical areas. These changes in diet and settlement and the development of trade are some of the defining characteristics of the Archaic cultures.

Archaic technology included grinding tools (mortars and pestles), woodworking tools (grooved stone axes and gouges), and items such as plummets whose use is not clear. Archaic hunting tools are distinguished by the introduction of the spear-thrower, which enables a hunter to throw a dart accurately and with great force at a distant target; so-called bird stones may have augmented the hunter’s throwing power. Large fluted points became less popular, replaced by smaller side-notched points more appropriate for dart-based hunting.

Stones used for grinding food.Nativestock Pictures

In adopting a broad array of social, economic, and technological innovations, Archaic peoples enjoyed a long period of relative stability. Although the duration of the Archaic Period varied greatly depending upon location, it persisted from as early as 8000 bce until at least 2000 bce in most of Northern America. In areas that were either unusually prosperous or, conversely, unsuitable for agriculture—the rich microclimates of California and the salmon-rich Plateau and Pacific Northwest in the former case and the cool interior of northern Canada in the latter—foraging societies persisted well into the 19th century ce. (See alsoagriculture, origins of.)

In much of Northern America, the transition from the hunting, gathering, and incipient plant use of the Archaic eventually developed into a fully agricultural way of life. In the lush valleys east of the Mississippi River, societies grew increasingly dependent upon plants such as amaranth, sumpweed, sunflower, and squash; their plentiful seeds and flesh provided a rich and ready source of food. Many of these plants were eventually domesticated: sumpweed by approximately 3500 bce and squash and sunflowers by about 3000 bce. By perhaps 500 bce the production of these local cultigens had become the economic foundation upon which the sophisticated Adena and later Hopewell cultures of the Illinois and Ohio river valleys were developed. These village-based peoples created fine sculptures, pottery, basketry, and copperwork; the surplus food they produced also supported a privileged elite and elaborate burial rituals.

By perhaps 100 bcecorn (maize) had become a part of the regional economy, and by approximately 1000 ce the peoples of the river valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries had adopted a thoroughly corn-based economy. Known as the Mississippian culture, they built a ceremonial centre at Cahokia, near present-day Saint Louis, Missouri, that housed an estimated 10,000–40,000 individuals during its peak period of use. Mississippian peoples had an intricate ritual life involving complex religious ornamentation, specialized ceremonial centres, and an organized priesthood. Many of these features persisted among their descendants, the Northeast Indians and Southeast Indians, and were recorded by Spanish, French, and English explorers in the 16th through 18th centuries.

Cahokia as it may have appeared c.ad 1150; painting by Michael Hampshire.Courtesy of Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site; painting by Michael Hampshire

Early Southwest Indians began to grow corn and squash by approximately 1200 bce, but they could not produce reliable harvests until they had resolved problems arising from the region’s relative aridity. Mogollon innovations in the use of small dams to pool rainfall and divert streams for watering crops made agriculture possible, and these innovations were adopted and further developed by the Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi) peoples; the neighbouring Hohokam also depended on irrigation. In addition to corn and squash, the peoples of this region cultivated several varieties of beans, peppers, and long-staple cotton.

Southwestern cultures came to be characterized by complex pueblo architecture: great cliff houses with 20 to 1,000 rooms and up to four stories. A period of increasing aridity beginning in approximately 1100 ce put great stress on these societies, and they abandoned many of their largest settlements by the end of the 14th century. (See alsoNative American: Prehistory.)

Cliff dwellings were used during the Pueblo III period (c. 1150–1300 ce) in the Four Corners area of the American Southwest. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Spain, France, England, and Russia colonized Northern America for reasons that differed from one another’s and that were reflected in their formal policies concerning indigenous peoples. The Spanish colonized the Southeast, the Southwest, and California. Their goal was to create a local peasant class; indigenous peoples were missionized, relocated, and forced to work for the Spanish crown and church, all under threat of force. The French occupied an area that reached from the present state of Louisiana to Canada and from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, and they claimed territory as far west as the Rocky Mountains. They were primarily interested in extracting saleable goods, and French traders and trappers frequently smoothed the exchange process (and increased their personal safety and comfort) by marrying indigenous women and becoming adoptive tribal members. The English, by contrast, sought territorial expansion; focusing their initial occupation on the mid- and north-Atlantic coasts and Hudson Bay, they prohibited marriage between British subjects and indigenous peoples. The Russians sought to supply Chinese markets with rich marine mammal furs from the Northwest Coast and the Arctic; unfamiliar with oceangoing prey, they forced indigenous men to hunt sea otters. These European powers fought territorial wars in Northern America from the 16th through the 18th century and frequently drew indigenous peoples into the conflicts. (SeeNative American: History.)

During the 19th century, and often only after heated resistance, the governments of the United States and Canadadisenfranchised most Northern American tribes of their land and sovereignty. Most indigenous individuals were legally prohibited from leaving their home reservation without specific permission; having thus confined native peoples, the two countries set about assimilating them into the dominant culture. Perhaps the most insidious instrument of assimilation was the boarding or residential school. The programming at these institutions was generally designed to eliminate any use of traditional language, behaviour, or religion. Upon arrival, for instance, the children’s clothes were generally confiscated and replaced with uniforms; the boys were usually subjected to haircuts at this time as well. Students often experienced cruel forms of corporal punishment, verbal abuse, and in some cases sexual abuse; the extent of the mistreatment may best be demonstrated by Canada’s 2006 offer of some $2 billion (Canadian) in reparations to former residential school pupils.

Children outside the Indian boarding school at Cantonment, Okla., c. 1909.Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Neg. no. LC-USZ62-126134)

American Indian names; Ho-ChunkLearn how some American Indian peoples came to be known by names given to them by outsiders and why they sometimes preferred to be called by a name of their own choosing, as in the case of the Ho-Chunk, who were commonly known for many years as the Winnebago, a derogatory name given to them by outsiders.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Assimilationist strategies were also implemented on reservations. It was not unusual for governmental authorities to prohibit indigenous religious practices such as the potlatch and Sun Dance in the hope that cultural continuity would be broken and Christianity adopted. Many of the hunting, fishing, and gathering rights guaranteed in treaties—which had remained essential to the indigenous economy—were abrogated by a combination of hunting regulations, mobility or “pass” laws, and the depletion of wild resources. In combination these factors demoralized and impoverished many native peoples and created a de facto system of apartheid in Northern America.

Many of these policies were not fully discontinued until the Civil Rights movements of the 1960s and ’70s, the culmination of over a century’s efforts by indigenous leaders. By the early 21st century many Native groups in Northern America were engaged in projects promoting cultural revitalization, political empowerment, and economic development. (See alsoNative American: Developments in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.)

Airboat tours at the reconstructed Seminole encampment at the Billie Swamp Safari, an eco-heritage park the tribe developed on the Big Cypress Seminole Indian Reservation in the Florida Everglades.Robert Kippenberger, Seminole Tribe of Florida, Billie Swamp Safari, Big Cypress Reservation, Everglades, Florida

Early cultural development

The earliest well-attested archaeological site in the Americas is Monte Verde, Chile (c. 10,500 bce); Paleo-Indians must have journeyed through (or along the coast of) Middle America sometime earlier in order to reach Monte Verde by that date. Estimates of the timing of this passage vary widely, ranging from perhaps 11,000 bce to more than 20,000 bce.

Paleo-Indians in Middle America soon diversified their foraging strategies and transitioned to the Archaic. They successfully domesticated squash (c. 8000–7000 bce), corn (c. 5000–4000 bce), cassava (manioc; c. 5000–4000 bce), and cotton (c. 2600 bce), and they were producing drinks made from cacao by about 1000 bce. Known to archaeologists as Formative or pre-Classic peoples, these groups established agricultural villages by 1800 bce. From this point until the beginning of the Common Era, Formative peoples such as the Olmec built large towns and developed increasingly complex architecture, art, and religion.

Prehistoric civilizations

The Western Hemisphere’s first cities arose in Middle America early in the 1st millennium ce. These Classic urban cultures were widespread across the region. Perhaps the best-known are those of the prehistoric Maya of Guatemala, the Yucatan Peninsula, and Mexican Chiapas, who were unified by ritual practices and ruled by a class of priests. Mayan religion was thought to influence agricultural fertility; among their most important divinities was the fertility god Tlaloc, whose symbol, the jaguar, is a recurrent motif on Mayan carvings and in other art forms.

Beginning about 1000 ce, the theocracies of Middle America were superseded by the empire of the Toltecs, which was in turn dominated by the Aztecs. Ruling from the site of what is now Mexico City, the Aztec empire brought nearly all of Middle America under its rule, only to be shattered by the epidemic diseases brought by Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century.

Not all prehistoric peoples in Middle America lived in cities; most lived in relatively small rural settlements. Spanish colonizers described villages in which the basic social units were nuclear and extended families, dominated by male members and elders; barter-based market economies and complex religious traditions were also characteristic of these groups. While it is difficult to know the extent to which the Spanish accounts reflect reality from the Indians’ perspective, cultural patterns like these have been common in the region since the 16th century. (See alsoMiddle American Indian: The prehistoric period; pre-Columbian civilizations: Mesoamerican civilization.)

Colonization and conquest

As the primary European power in Middle America, Spain focused on the extraction of wealth, the increase of territory, and the production of a Catholicized peasant class. During the first period of colonization, Spanish Jesuits set up missions and reservations in northwestern Middle America; these usually included housing for clergy, indigenous peoples, and (in some cases) soldiers, as well as a church, outbuildings, and agricultural land. Other sectors were settled via encomiendas, essentially feudal estates granted to conquistadors and others who had provided service to the Spanish crown. Through these estates, plantation farming, cattle ranching, and mining became the economic engines of colonial society. Although Spanish missionization was carried out with fervour, indigenous Middle American religious practices did not disappear; instead, they became notably syncretic, mixing remnants of earlier ritual practices—animism, shamanism, and divination—with the veneration of individual Christian saints, such as Our Lady of Guadalupe.

In response to mid-19th-century industrialization and commercialization, many Middle American Indiancommunities became increasingly isolationist; this helped to preserve their cultural integrity but often resulted in economic deprivation. During the 20th century a number of exclusionary social and economic policies were eliminated, and indigenous Middle Americans began to better integrate their political, cultural, artistic, and economic contributions into national economies and governments. The end of the 20th century saw a variety of civil and economic movements by indigenous peoples in various parts of Middle America. The results ranged from the severe persecution of Guatemalan Indians to the more complete integration of Indians into national cultures of Belize and Costa Rica. (See alsoMesoamerican Indian: Modern developments.)

Indian women shopping at the Almolonga market in the western highlands of Guatemala, near Quezaltenango.Oscar H. Horst

Early cultural development

Paleo-Indians reached South America by at least 12,500 years ago, and perhaps much earlier. They settled in what are now Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, southern Chile, the south-central plains of the Gran Chaco region, and portions of the central Andes. As with other very early indigenous Americans, this region’s earliest peoples organized themselves into small kin-based groups to facilitate their movement to areas of more plentiful game or more favourable climatic conditions.

Early farming societies developed on the coasts of Brazil and Arawak, in the Greater Antilles, and in some parts of the inland forests and highlands. Domesticates from South America include squash (c. 8400–8000 bce), peanuts (c. 6500 bce), lima beans (c. 5000 bce), potatoes (c. 2500 bce), and cavies (guinea pigs; c. 1000 bce); domesticated corn and cassava began to be used in South America between about 2000 and 1500 bce. South American groups engaged in shifting agriculture as early as 3000 bce; this technique, also called slash-and-burn agriculture or swiddening, involved the periodic relocation of the entire community to a place some miles away due to the exhaustion of local fields or garden plots.

Prehistoric civilizations

Parts of South America supported permanent settlements; especially in the highlands, many of these communities raised cotton, tomatoes, llamas, and alpacas. The peoples of the Caribbean and the northern Andes developed complex societies based on military and ritual leadership. Warfare was important among these nations as a vehicle for social advancement within the tribe and as a means of supplying slaves and victims for ritual sacrifices. Preliminary forms of centralized rule also distinguished these societies from the relatively egalitarian communities of the forests.

Civilizations began to develop in the central Andes by approximately 2300 bce and became increasingly elaborate, culturally and technologically, for several thousand years. Beginning about 1000 ce, these peoples were organized into a number of kingdoms—the Chimú, the Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco), and later the Inca—and flourished until the Spanish invasion of the early 16th century.

Death mask of gold and silver alloy with copper eyes and ears, Chimú culture (c.ad 1000–1465), Peru; in a private collection. Ferdinand Anton

Occupying a region that extends from present-day Peru through northern Chile, the Inca developed efficient irrigation works and a sophisticated, state-controlled system of food production, storage, and distribution that at the empire’s apex served a population of nearly 3.5 million individuals. Inca social hierarchy descended from a hereditary royal class, through strata of nobles and craftsmen, to agricultural commoners. Among the most conspicuous innovations of Inca civilization were a codified system of laws, extensive examples of monumental architecture, and the attainment of a high standard of artistic production, particularly in metalworking. (See alsoSouth American Indian: The prehistoric period; pre-Columbian civilizations: Andean civilization.)

Inca silver figurine of an alpaca, c.ad 1200–1400; in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City.Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York

Colonization and conquest

The Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch conquests of the 16th century affected indigenous South Americans in a variety of ways that ranged from near extinction (generally through a combination of disease and violence) to absorption into colonial society. The most severely affected native cultures were those dwelling along major navigational routes and those of the Inca empire. The former suffered from nearly continuous exposure to the violence of conquest, while the Inca empire was systematically taken over by the colonizers. While the Inca aristocratic and artisan classes were to some extent absorbed into the colonial hierarchy, the native farming population was relegated to menial servitude. In the less-exploited rural Andean regions, descendants of the Inca nation have preserved some of their cultural heritage.

In the 18th and 19th centuries some South American Indian groups such as the Araucanians successfully resisted Spanish domination. Although most were eventually assimilated or assigned to reservations, many retained their traditional languages and cultures well into the 20th century. By the early 21st century, many indigenous South American peoples were exercising increasing political and economic power, particularly in relation to commerce, tourism, and the tensions between development schemes and the preservation of regional ecosystems. The first Native American head of state, Juan Evo Morales Aymo, became president of Bolivia in 2006. (See alsoSouth American Indian: Evolution of contemporary cultures.)

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