Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World

Summary

How did the industrialized nations of North America and Europe come to be seen as the appropriate models for post-World War II societies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America? How did the postwar discourse on development actually create the so-called Third World? And what will happen when development ideology collapses? To answer these questions, Arturo Escobar shows how development policies became mechanisms of control that were just as pervasive and effective as their colonial counterparts. The development apparatus generated categories powerful enough to shape the thinking even of its occasional critics while poverty and hunger became widespread. "Development" was not even partially "deconstructed" until the 1980s, when new tools for analyzing the representation of social reality were applied to specific "Third World" cases. Here Escobar deploys these new techniques in a provocative analysis of development discourse and practice in general, concluding with a discussion of alternative visions for a postdevelopment era.

Escobar emphasizes the role of economists in development discourse--his case study of Colombia demonstrates that the economization of food resulted in ambitious plans, and more hunger. To depict the production of knowledge and power in other development fields, the author shows how peasants, women, and nature became objects of knowledge and targets of power under the "gaze of experts."

In a substantial new introduction, Escobar reviews debates on globalization and postdevelopment since the book's original publication in 1995 and argues that the concept of postdevelopment needs to be redefined to meet today's significantly new conditions. He then calls for the development of a field of "pluriversal studies," which he illustrates with examples from recent Latin American movements.

CONTENTS

The Problematization of Poverty: The Tale of Three Worlds and Development

CHAPTER 3

Economics and the Space of Development: Tales of Growth and Capital

CHAPTER 4

The Dispersion of Power: Tales of Food and Hunger

CHAPTER 5

Power and Visibility: Tales of Peasants, Women, and the Environment

CHAPTER 6

Conclusion: Imagining a Postdevelopment Era

Notes

References

Index

PREFACE TO THE 2012 EDITION

I dedicate these pages to the memory of

Orlando Fals Borda, Julie Graham, and

Smitu Kothari, dear friends and comrades

in the search for alternative worlds.

It has been over fifteen years since this book was first published. My hopes and intentions for writing it have not changed; on the contrary, they have grown stronger in the intervening years. The critical analysis of development is as timely and relevant today as it was then. In many parts of the world, development continues to be a main social and cultural force to contend with. Significant political battles are waged in its name, and the lives of many and the quality of people’s livelihoods are still at stake in such battles. And scores of professionals—although perhaps fewer in number in 2010 as compared with 1995, particularly in the United States—find a living in the development world and actively debate the issue in boardrooms and project staff meetings in both donor and recipient countries. Last but not least, and again with a somewhat decreased enthusiasm in the United States, academics—anthropologists among them—writing doctoral dissertations and presenting conference papers on this or that aspect of development are still plentiful. Above all, the political impetus that moved me to write about the invention of development and to imagine a postdevelopment era in the late 1980s and early 1990s is still very much there: the fact that, as I see it, development continues to play a role in strategies of cultural and social domination, even if academics might have a more nuanced view today of how these strategies operate, including of how people appropriate development for their own ends. Of course, my own views on the subject have changed in important respects, as I will discuss in some detail in the pages that follow.

Part I of this chapter analyzes the most significant transformations in social life at the global level that have direct bearing on development. These include changes at the level of political economy as well as the emergence of new actors and arenas of action. Part II raises the question of the relevance of the notion of postdevelopment. Is this notion, initially proposed in the early 1990s, still useful, or even valid, to convey both the decentering of development and a reorientation of imaginaries and practices toward new possibilities concerning Asia, Africa, and Latin America? If not, can it be reformulated? Should it? How? This part reviews succinctly the main trends in critical development studies of the past fifteen years, including novel ethnographic, political economy, and poststructuralist approaches. Part III introduces the idea of discourses of transition. Stemming from the combined crises of food, energy, climate, and poverty, these transition discourses—particularly prominent in the areas of ecology, culture, and spirituality—can be seen as markers for postdevelopment, or as challenges to modernity more generally. Part IV looks briefly at some concrete proposals currently in vogue in Latin America that can be seen as contributing to transition practices and discourses, such as unprecedented struggles around the rights of nature and the definition of development in terms of the Buen Vivir (integral and collective well-being). These trends are seen as linked to ontological issues and as potentially enacting the idea of moving toward a pluriverse, in the sense of creating the conditions for the coexistence of multiple interconnected worlds. This section introduces the idea of moving from the world as universe to the world as pluriverse. The conclusion argues for the development of a field of transition and pluriversal studies anchored on a view of the Earth as an always emergent living whole. Rather than one based on so-called globalization, this field would foster the discovery and imagining of forms of planetarization, in which humans and other living beings can exist on the planet in a mutually enhancing way.

I. IMPORTANT WORLD TRANSFORMATIONS

The world has changed immensely since the mid-1990s. From a development studies perspective, as I see it, the three most salient factors in this transformation have been, first, the tremendous role taken on by China—and, to a lesser extent, India—in the global economy; second, the realignments in global geopolitics that came in the wake of the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11, 2001, and the subsequent invasion of Iraq in March, 2003; and, third, the end of the so-called Washington Consensus, that is, the set of ideas and institutional practices that has seemingly ruled the world economy since the 1970s, most commonly known as neoliberalism. The dismantling of really-existing socialism and of centrally planned economies could be cited as a fourth factor given that, although it started in the 1980s, it became irreversible in the 1990s. These factors are deeply interrelated and are far from constituting an historical sequence. First, development studies emerged within China as a scholarly field, along with concerns inherent to the economic liberalization followed by the country since the late 1970s, such as rapidly growing inequality, environmental destruction, and rural exclusion, marginalization, and poverty (see, e.g., Long, Jingzhong, and Yihuan 2010).1 China’s influence in Asia, Africa, and Latin America has grown in parallel with its economic might, having a particularly pronounced effect on African development (Sahle 2010). While some see the Chinese economic reforms—though orchestrated by the State—as in tandem with neoliberal ideology of the Washington Consensus type, others believe the actual situation is characterized by a complex mix of economic forms, only some of which can be characterized as liberal or neoliberal (Nonini 2008; Yang 1999).

Second, the emergence of a new geopolitical formation after 9/11/01 is relatively undisputed. Of key importance to this issue from a development studies perspective is what international political economy scholars have called the securitization of development, that is, the conflation of notions of security from the war on terrorism and human security frameworks in development in ways that undermine and limit the latter’s potential, including in the Millennium Development Goals (Sahle 2010). Third, the end of the Washington Consensus has been most noticeably reflected in the turn to the Left in Latin America, that is, the wave of Left governments that swept away more than a majority of the regions’ countries since 1998, all democratically elected on the explicit rejection of the neoliberal dogma of previous decades. This trend, and its implication for critical development studies, will also be reviewed at some length in the pages that follow.2 Finally, the demise of really-existing socialism has had an ambiguous effect on development debates. Whereas on the one hand this demise has shown that the socialist model shared many of the premises of conventional capitalist development, hence giving support to the idea of postdevelopment, on the other it has contributed to cementing the sense that there is no alternative and hence to weakening the debate on alternatives to development.

There have been, of course, many other important changes in the world economy, geopolitics, and global consciousness since the early 1990s, some of which have become more visible in the intervening years. The explosion of connectivity enabled by digital information and communication technologies—firmly established as a scholarly theme by Castells’s trilogy on the information society, published in the second half of the 1990s (see especially Castells 1996)—has become a mandated reference point for much development work, despite the fact that the majority of the world’s peoples still lack access to such goods and services (see, e.g., Harcourt 1999). Of tremendous importance to the creation of a global consciousness has been the environmental crisis, finally brought to the limelight in national and world debates by the conferences on global climate change and scientific convergence around the findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). As I will discuss below, the ecological crisis alone, if not taken seriously, has the potential to destabilize any and all presently existing development frameworks. The economic crisis that started in 2007 and caused the collapse of financial institutions and the housing bubble and the downturn in stock markets, largely in the North, had important global consequences in terms of slowing down economic activity, credit availability, and international trade. Many countries in the Global South saw a significant increase in poverty and unemployment and a resulting decline in economic growth (those countries in Latin America with progressive governments being a partial exception). Whereas for some critics the crisis spelled out the end of the financialization of capital,3 institutions like the World Bank have engaged in debates to rethink globalization after the crisis, largely based on conventional strategies to boost export competitiveness, particularly for the case of Africa.4 It is clear that the main international lending institutions do not have any new ideas for dealing with development issues after this crisis. The increase in religious fundamentalisms in many world regions, including the United States, should also be cited as among the most salient transformations; in some countries it involves resistance to post-9/11 policies and the rejection of Western-style modernity.

Chapter 5 of Encountering Development, originally published in 1995, deals substantially with peasants, women, and the environment. Much has changed since then regarding these three topics, and today there are other actors who were not given sufficient attention in the book, notably indigenous peoples and other ethnic groups, such as Afro-descendent populations. Even if peasants have ceased to be as central to development as they were in previous decades, there has recently been a rebirth of peasant and agrarian studies that include novel conceptualizations of rurality (e.g., avoiding the dichotomies rural/urban, traditional/modern); peasant identities (allowing for the influence of, say, transnational migrations, gender, and ethnicity); previously unstudied or understudied issues such as transgenic crops, conservation, and food sovereignty; and peasant social movements, well beyond the 1960s image of peasants as radical revolutionary subjects.5 From being a special topic in development, as in the Women in Development (WID) and Gender and Development (GAD) discourses discussed in chapter 5, women have come to occupy a central place as subjects, objects, and conceptualizers of development. Even if most development work targeted toward women’s groups continues to focus on important yet mainstream agendas such as empowerment within the economy, the intersection of women, gender, and development has been a rich site for critical debate and new ideas in development over the past decade.6 The environmental arena has perhaps seen the most momentous changes in development, and some of these will be addressed below. Suffice it to say for now that development has become a central preoccupation in political ecology (e.g., Biersack and Greenberg 2006; Escobar 2008a) and vice versa—that is, that environmental questions have become ever more central to development, so that the study of nature in the Global South (Greenough and Tsing 2003) has come of age.

The visibility of indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities as development subjects, objects, and conceptualizers has also increased dramatically. These actors are at the cutting edge of critical development work in important ways, for instance, in terms of denouncing the irrationality of development and the incompatibility of many development projects with indigenous worldviews (e.g., Mander and Tauli-Corpuz 2006; Blaser, Feit, and McRae 2004), or of pointing at the limitations of Euro-modernity from indigenous perspectives (Blaser 2010). Questions of development, identity, territory, and autonomy have become important for the case of indigenous peoples (e.g., de la Cadena and Starn 2007; Blaser et al. 2010) and Afro-descendent groups, particularly in Latin America (Escobar 2008a, Oslender 2008, Asher 2009, French 2009). The experience of indigenous women in Latin America is providing the basis for a decolonial feminism, in which critiques of the ethnocentrism of modernist feminist discourses are joined with analyses of patriarchal forms of exclusion harbored within appeals to tradition or cultural difference (e.g., Hernández 2008; Suárez Navaz and Hernández 2008; Hernández 2009; Lugones 2010; Bidaseca 2010; Escobar 2010a; see also Radcliffe, Laurie, and Andolina 2009 for a related feminist perspective on indigenous movements and development in the Andes).

An aspect of the transformation in the conditions of development over the past fifteen years, often unacknowledged although of utmost importance, is that the very categories and uses of knowledge—what and whose knowledge counts in development and for what purposes—have been subjected to increasing pressures from many sides. This affects social theory in general in that the cohort of those interested in the production of new theories has expanded well beyond the usual suspects in the (largely Northern) academies. Today a growing number of researchers, activists, and intellectuals outside of the academy are heeding the urge to provide alternative understandings of the world, including of development. In this sense, the complex conversations that are beginning to happen among many kinds of knowledge producers worldwide are in and of themselves a hopeful condition of development theory at present. This urge involves the need to transform not only the places and contents of theory, but its very form (Mignolo 2000; Osterweil 2005; Escobar 2008a). This trend is particularly acute in the field of social movement studies (and, as we shall see, in transition studies), where activists’ own research and knowledge production are becoming central to understanding what movements are, why they mobilize, and what kinds of worlds they wish to bring forth. A number of emphases are emerging from anthropological and geographical approaches, including the blurring of the boundary between academic and activist worlds and knowledges, and a series of concepts and domains of inquiry such as network ethnography, mapping of knowledges, ethnography of identities and activist-figured worlds, activist, partisan, or militant research, and so forth.7 Scholars in development studies have been somewhat attuned to the knowledge produced by project beneficiaries, although largely in the guise of local knowledge; however, they have yet to incorporate these newer insights significantly into their theory making and the design of interventions.

There is one final aspect of importance in the book I would like to mention before moving on: the relevance of the economic discourse to the entire development enterprise. This issue, to which chapter 3 is devoted, was barely mentioned in the many reviews of the book published between 1996 and the early 2000s; in fact, it was almost completely ignored. I see this absence of commentary less as a sign of the irrelevance of the subject matter than as an indication of the naturalized hegemony of a certain economic conception of the world—what in chapter 5 I call tales of growth and capital, inherited by development economics from classical political economy, and elsewhere as the Western Economy—a coherent ensemble of systems of production, power, and signification that make up one of the most fundamental pillars of modernity (Escobar 2005). It might well be the case that development economics is nearly dead, and that neoliberal economics has been shaken to the core by the financial crisis, but the economic imaginary in terms of individuals transacting in markets, production, growth, capital, progress, scarcity, and consumption goes on unhindered. This most naturalized discourse undermines many, if not most, of the current proposals for sustainability and for moving to a post-carbon age. The denaturalization of the economy is an area of active critical work, for instance, in the imagination of diverse economies and social and solidarity economies beyond the capitalistic one or proposals for decroissance (de-growth). Moreover, it can be discerned that at the grassroots level, as Esteva provocatively put it, those marginalized by the economic society in the development era are increasingly dedicated to marginalizing the economy (2009, 20).8

II. ASSESSING POSTDEVELOPMENT

The idea of postdevelopment, with which the 1995 edition of this book ended (see also Escobar 1992; Rahnema and Bawtree 1997), proved to be controversial, and it is important to assess its validity at present. Generally speaking, postdevelopment arose from a poststructuralist and postcolonial critique, that is, an analysis of development as a set of discourses and practices that had profound impact on how Asia, Africa, and Latin America came to be seen as underdeveloped and treated as such. In this context, postdevelopment was meant to designate at least three interrelated things: first, the need to decenter development; that is, to displace it from its centrality in representations and discussions about conditions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A corollary of this first goal was to open up the discursive space to other ways of describing those conditions, less mediated by the premises and experiences of development. Second, in displacing development’s centrality from the discursive imaginary, postdevelopment suggested that it was indeed possible to think about the end of development. In other words, it identified alternatives to development, rather than development alternatives, as a concrete possibility. Third, postdevelopment emphasized the importance of transforming the political economy of truth, that is, development’s order of expert knowledge and power. To this end, it proposed that the more useful ideas about alternatives could be gleaned from the knowledge and practices of social movements.

Are these assertions still valid today? We have already seen how certain world transformations have made talk of postdevelopment ambiguous. On the one hand, the consolidation of neoliberalism in many of the world’s regions in the 1990s made the need for critiques more pressing, as did the growing awareness of the social and ecological costs of China’s market socialism and of India’s decision to open to world markets. On the other hand, however, the demise of socialism in Eastern Europe and, paradoxically, the coming to power of progressive regimes in South America conveyed the sense that the need for development was greater than ever. To question development in this context becomes uncomfortable, although as we will see some social movements are doing exactly that, summoning the notion of postdevelopment in their critiques. Suffice it to say for now that the current state of things, despite the ambiguities noted, still makes valid the critiques of development and the idea of imagining a postdevelopment era. It is important to ask, nevertheless, whether the idea is valid as it was enunciated in the early 1990s, or whether it needs reformulation. I will try to give an answer to this question at the end of this section and once again at the end of Part IV. Let me examine briefly for now some responses to postdevelopment.

Responses to Postdevelopment

In its most succinct formulation, postdevelopment was meant to convey the sense of an era in which development would no longer be a central organizing principle of social life. This did not mean that postdevelopment was seen as a new historical period to which its proponents believed we had arrived, even if many critics saw it in this light. Be that as it may, a rich debate ensued that, paradoxically, contributed to cementing a postdevelopment position by lumping together a handful of authors and books that the critics saw as sharing, broadly, the same perspective.9 The analysis and forms of advocacy associated with postdevelopment became the object of poignant critiques and rebuttal in the second half of the 1990s. There were three main objections to the postdevelopment proposal: First, with their focus on discourse, the postdevelopment proponents overlooked poverty and capitalism, which are the real problems of development. Second, they presented an essentialized view of development, while in reality there are vast differences among development strategies and institutions, and they failed to notice the contestation of development on the ground. Third, they romanticized local traditions and movements, ignoring that the local is also embedded in power relations. Predictably, proponents of postdevelopment responded to their critics, in turn, by suggesting that the critiques, although sensible and useful in many ways, were themselves problematic.

To the first set of critiques, poststructuralist postdevelopment proponents responded by saying that this argument amounts to a naïve defense of the real. In other words, critics of postdevelopment argued that because of their focus on discourse and culture, the poststructuralists failed to see the reality of poverty, capitalism, and the like. For the poststructuralists, this argument had limited validity, because it rested on the (Marxist or liberal) assumption that discourse is not material, failing to see that modernity and capitalism are simultaneously systems of discourse and practice. The second criticism was problematic to postdevelopment authors on epistemological grounds. The critics of postdevelopment said something like: You (postdevelopment advocates) represented development as homogenous while it is actually diverse. Development is heterogeneous, contested, impure, hybrid. In response, the postdevelopment theorists acknowledged the validity of this criticism; however, they pointed out that their project was a different one—that of analyzing the overall discursive fact, not how that fact might have been contested and hybridized on the ground. They saw themselves less as trying to get it right, under the mandate of an epistemological realism that poststructuralism complicates, than as political intellectuals constructing an object of critique for debate and action. Finally, the critics of postdevelopment chastised its proponents by saying that they romanticize the local and the grassroots. For the poststructuralists and cultural critics, this commentary was a reflection of the chronic realism of many scholars that invariably labels as romantic any radical critique of the West or any defense of the local. In addition, poststructuralist authors pointed out that the realist notion of social change fails to unpack its own views of the material, livelihood, needs, and the like (Escobar 2000, 2007; Zai 2007; McGregor 2009).

As the first decade of the new century unfolded, the panorama of development theory gave way to a wide array of positions and interparadigmatic dialogue and convergences (Simon 2007). This could be seen as a positive result of the sometimes acrimonious debates of the 1990s. There is a greater willingness on the part of many authors to constructively adopt elements from various trends and paradigms. This is particularly the case around a series of questions, including the contestation of development, a new rapprochement between political economy and cultural analysis on questions of development and the economy, the examination of the relation between development and modernity, and new ethnographic approaches to development policy and practice (below). These trends are producing a new understanding of how development works and how it is transformed.

The New Ethnography of Development

Recent ethnographic approaches to the study of development projects have received particular attention in development debates. These approaches suggest that ethnographic research could be used to shed new understanding on how policy works, and that this understanding could be utilized to link constructively social policy, academic politics, and the aspirations of the poor. As the leading advocate of this approach put it,

Here anthropology’s business is to focus on the social relations underpinning thought work; to show how development’s traveling rationalities are never free from social contexts, how they begin in social relations, in institutions and expert communities, travel with undisclosed baggage, get unraveled as they are unpacked into other social/institutional worlds—perhaps through the interest of local collaborators, official counterparts, or brokers—and are recolonized by politics in ways that generate complex and unintended effects. (Mosse 2008, 120, 121)

These investigations entail a sort of hyperethnography that allows the ethnographer to see the entire development network, investigating in depth the main sites with their respective actors, cultural backgrounds, and practical appropriation of the interventions by local groups. The result, it is argued, should give theorists and practitioners a more nuanced account of how development operates as a multiscale process that is constantly transformed and contested. The hope is that, given the reality of development, the critical ethnographer could illuminate the conditions for more successful projects, perhaps even a more effective popular appropriation of the projects.10

By examining more fully the actor-networks that make up development projects, this trend has contributed to de-essentializing development and hence, indirectly, to theorizing postdevelopment. In doing so, however, these approaches have solved some problems but created new puzzles. Question of agency have become both pointed and muddled (given that everything has agency, including objects such as texts, how does one differentiate among various kinds of agency?); similarly with the proliferation of connectivity (everything is connected to everything, yet how are things variously or differently connected? What kinds of connections are politically powerful, or compromised?); issues of difference, in addition, are often bracketed, in the sense that there is no clear account of what happens to what is genuinely emergent, or to those experiences that cannot be read with the categories of the present, including those of the modern social sciences.11 In the absence of dealing with these questions effectively, it seems to me, some of the positions taken by the recent ethnographies of development and the state run the risk of falling into what Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2007) has called a hermeneutics of cynicism, since nothing that any actor does can ever amount to a significant challenge to what exists or produce a significantly different thought. Moreover, it has been argued, these works bracket serious commitments to poor people’s desires and aspirations for development (de Vries 2008). It is indeed the case that the ethnographies of development have done much to bring into visibility the transnational expert communities whose training, interests, tastes, and economic and political goals coincide enough to keep the development actor-networks going, and often well oiled. Yet this awareness needs to be coupled with a renewed urge for a critique of the fact that at each stage, specialists in new fields are called in to create their own roles in the story of the global application of expertise (Lohmann 2006, 150). These transnationalized middle-class experts, from both the Global North and the Global South, disseminate a normalized rationality and common sense with significant cultural and political consequences.

There are other lines of response to the new ethnographies arising from political economy and poststructuralist perspectives. A shared feature of these works is a clearer emphasis on power and domination than that found in many of the network approaches. By blending critical management and postdevelopment studies, for instance, a group of authors argues that the applications of management ideas in development deploy new policy practices, as the ethnography trend just examined rightly underscores, but that this does not mean that these practices operate less as instruments of domination (Dar and Cooke 2008). A related view finds that the shift in aid discourse toward good governance,partnership, and ownership not only gives expression to the deep-seated will to civilize, it reaffirms sacred values of the aid domain: modernity, rationality and political neutrality (Gould 2005, 69). To paraphrase: scratch at a management scheme, and you’ll find a power and cultural struggle, even if couched in terms of rational action. As Rojas and Kindornay concluded in their analysis of the politics of governing development,

Under the development global design, an inability to improve has necessitated the constant repackaging of prescriptions and governing techniques in an attempt to salvage mainstream policies and practices. Despite critiques from below and over 50 years of minor successes and numerous failures, mainstream development continues to be formulated through new and renewed language and practice; new paradigms and fads emerge, however, development still ultimately embodies a global imaginary of modernization. (forthcoming, 13)

Drawing on postcolonial theory, Sinha (2008) locates development schemes within transnational regimes in ascension, for the case of India, since the early twentieth century, linking together bourgeois ethicopolitical projects, state power, and modern rationality into a complex geoculture of development in which subalternity itself is also redefined. This view resonates with Bebbington’s (2004) claim that development regimes, including NGOs, should be seen as contributing to the creation of uneven geographies of poverty and livelihoods. One of the most eloquent proofs of such uneven geography is the case of the wholesale dismantling of an ancient system of irrigation and rice cultivation in Bali in the name of modern development, starting with the 1960s Green Revolution. Conducted from the perspective of complex adaptive systems, this ethnographic investigation constitutes a compelling proof of the near-destruction of a system that had achieved a functional perfect order through centuries of self-organization. This destruction resulted in a profound social and environmental crisis for an entire population (Lansing 2006). Studies such as this one contribute to showing the limitations of the hyperethnographies of development discussed above.

Although network approaches diversify questions of agency, their drawback is often the impossibility to imagine radical practical implications. This risk is held at bay by works that carry out the research from the perspective of, and often in collaboration with, particular constituencies. These approaches might be seen as more conventional in the truth games of the academy, but this does not mean that the analyses are less nuanced; on the contrary, they gain in depth and political positioning. In examining the local redefinitions of development by indigenous groups in Southwest Colombia, for instance, Gow (2008) argues that such groups produce a sort of counter-development through which, say, planning and education and health projects are redeployed toward a distinct cultural and political project in an attempt to create an indigenous modernity where the concerns for cultural difference—and the autonomy to change culture—are coupled with those of social justice. Arce and Long (2000) have also usefully outlined a project of pluralizing modernity by focusing on the counter-work performed on development by local groups. Counter-work may de-essentialize Western products of their superior power, or contribute to empowering a group’s self-definition, even as it changes. Counter-work and counterdevelopment can thus be seen as leading to forms of alternative development, but also as fostering postdevelopment outlooks. This does not mean denying the desires and hopes for development and modernity that many people worldwide have adopted as a result of their encounter with development and modernity. As de Vries (2007) has pointed out, these desires are real, even if banalized and rendered ever more elusive by development projects. They are ignored by most critiques, poststructuralist included, and need to be tackled head-on in any critical development studies approach (de Vries 2007; see also Gow 2008).

One way out of this apparent impasse is to investigate the ways in which, say, indigenous peoples stand in the way of development—how they craft life projects that respond as much to modern/global processes as to long-standing place-based cultural logics. While life projects may strategically incorporate opportunities offered by development, they thwart development’s universalizing pretensions and may contribute to non-hegemonic struggles (Blaser 2004). This dynamic is found at play in the field of energy development in some Native nations in North America, where communities steer their way between conventional and emergent technologies in ways that involve important rethinking of the cultural politics of energy development (Powell 2010). Again, these works do not posit a straightforward position vis-à-vis development. Ascertaining what locals mean by development is always a complex question. This question is tackled by Medeiros (2005) within the Latin American framework of the coloniality of power and knowledge. Local expressions of the desire for development, as Medeiros shows in her ethnographic analysis of rural development projects in the Bolivian highlands funded by the German Development Agency (GTZ), need to be seen against the background of the complex history of several hundred years of discrimination, including the experience of promises made and never fulfilled since independence. In the absence of this analysis, and despite good intentions, development projects often end up reproducing old power/knowledge asymmetries. As Medeiros shows, indigenous peasants have their own situated understanding of development, which articulates their historical experience of modernity and coloniality. The local notion of development includes the acquisition of those tools of dominant knowledge systems that might empower them to implement a viable future. Local talk about development is not only about development per se, but about history and culture—about the State, citizenship, difference, knowledge, and exploitation. It is about the communities’ positions within the modern colonial world system.12 These dynamics are often revealed in works located at the intersection of transnational development networks and social movement struggles, particularly in the contemporary Andes where issues of history, culture, justice, and difference, and the never-too-simple interconnections among them all, are heightened (e.g., Andolina, Laurie, and Radcliffe 2009).

What, then, can we say about the notion of postdevelopment after this perhaps too hasty and partial review of academic trends? A satisfactory answer to this question will have to await this chapter’s final section. There are a few issues that can be highlighted for now, however, concerning the notion’s usefulness at present. I believe that the notion’s core is still valid—that is, the need to decenter development as a social descriptor, the questioning of development’s knowledge practices, and postdevelopment’s embedded critique of the ideas of growth, progress, and modernity. However, these contents have been qualified and enriched by academic debates over the past fifteen years. The ethnographies of development have produced a more detailed view of how the development apparatus operates. Works focusing on novel actors (e.g., indigenous peoples, the environment) have thrust into relief how these actors challenge developmentalist truth regimes. To the overall fact of domination that the discursive critique of the 1990s emphasized, political economy and poststructuralist analyses have added a more complex understanding of how domination works through particular practices of capitalism and the State.

That said, one of the main implications of postdevelopment remains seemingly intractable: the notion of alternatives to development. Not only does the development project go on, it seems to have become stronger since the mid-1990s. As Gustavo Esteva, one of the most lucid and persistent critics of development, put it in his most recent analysis, development failed as a socio-economic endeavor, but the development discourse still contaminates social reality. The word remains at the center of a powerful but fragile semantic constellation (2009, 1). Yet a series of crises, discourses, and concrete cultural-political challenges would seem to play in favor of keeping the imaginary of alternatives to development alive. To this possibility I dedicate the rest of this chapter.

III. DISCOURSES OF TRANSITION: EMERGING TRENDS

Arguments about the need for a profound, epochal transition are a sign of the times; they reflect the depth of the contemporary crises. To be sure, talk of crisis and transitions have a long genealogy in the West, whether in the guise of civilizational crisis, transitions to and from capitalism, apocalyptic visions of the end of the world, sudden religious or technological transformations, or science fiction narratives. This is not the place to analyze this genealogy;13 however, it seems to me that it is possible to argue that transition discourses (TDs) are emerging today with particular richness, diversity, and intensity to the point that a veritable field of transition studies can be posited as an emergent scholarly-political domain. Transition studies and transition activism have come of age. Notably, as even a cursory mapping of TDs would suggest, those writing on the subject are not limited to the academy; in fact, the most visionary TD thinkers are located outside of it, even if in most cases they engage with critical currents in the academy. TDs are emerging from a multiplicity of sites, principally social movements worldwide, from some civil society NGOs, from some emerging scientific paradigms, and from intellectuals with significant connections to environmental and cultural struggles. TDs are prominent in several fields, including those of culture, ecology, religion and spirituality, alternative science (e.g., living systems and complexity), political economy, and new digital and biological technologies. Only the first three will be touched upon in what follows. But first a general observation about the concept of transition is in order.

As Mezzadra has pointed out recently, the problem of transition re-emerges in each historical moment when the conditions of translation have to be established anew (2007, 4). What he means by translation is the process by which different, often contrasting, cultural-historical experiences are rendered mutually intelligible and commensurable; this has happened in recent history through the imposition of the cultural codes of capitalist modernity on an increasingly global scale. This process, as he goes on to suggest, is no longer acceptable; rather, a new type of heterolingual translation, in which new commonalties are built precisely out of incommensurable differences, is needed. As I will argue here, there are some radical differences in the current wave of TDs when compared with those of the most recent past. Two of these differences, underscored by Santos (2007), are that the transition/translation process cannot be led by a general theory; in fact, the only general theory possible, as he puts it to the dismay of much Left theorizing, is the impossibility of any general theory. The second, and related, aspect is that today more clearly than ever translation involves complex epistemological processes—intercultural and interepistemic—that require in turn a type of cognitive justice that has not been recognized. A third element insinuates itself, and this is that transition/translation entails multiple ontologies; in other words, when radically envisioned, transition involves moving from the modern understanding of the world as universe to the world as pluriverse (without pre-existing universals) or, as I shall put it below, from a paradigm of globalization to one of planetarization. If the former privileges economic and cultural integration and homogenization under a set of (Eurocentric) universal principles, the latter advocates for communicability among a multiplicity of cultural worlds on the grounds of shared ecological and political understandings (Santos 2007). Succinctly, transition towards the pluriverse calls for an expanded concept of translation that involves ontological and epistemic dimensions.

A hallmark of contemporary TDs is the fact that they posit a radical cultural and institutional transformation—indeed, a transition to an altogether different world. This is variously conceptualized in terms of a paradigm shift (e.g., the Great Transition Initiative (GTI); see Raskin et al. 2002), a change of civilizational model (e.g., Shiva, 2008; Latin American indigenous movements, see below), the emergence of a new order, a quantum shift (Laszlo 2008), the rise of a new, holistic culture, or even the coming of an entirely new era beyond the modern dualist (e.g., Macy 2007; Goodwin 2007), reductionist (e.g., Kauffman 2008), and economic (e.g., Schafer 2008) age. This change is often seen as impending or as already happening, although most TDs warn that the results are by no means guaranteed. Let us listen to a few statements on the transition:

The global transition has begun—a planetary society will take shape over the coming decades. But its outcome is in question. . . . Depending on how environmental and social conflicts are resolved, global development can branch into dramatically different pathways. On the dark side, it is all too easy to envision a dismal future of impoverished people, cultures and nature. Indeed, to many, this ominous possibility seems the most likely. But it is not inevitable. Humanity has the power to foresee, to choose and to act. While it may seem improbable, a transition to a future of enriched lives, human solidarity and a healthy planet is possible. (Raskin et al. 2002, ix)

Life on our planet is in trouble. It is hard to go anywhere without being confronted by the wounding of our world, the tearing of the very fabric of life. . . . Our planet is sending us signals of distress that are so continual now they seem almost normal. . . . These are warning signals that we live in a world that can end, at least as a home of conscious life. This is not to say that it will end, but it can end. That very possibility changes everything for us. . . . This is happening now in ways that converge to bring into question the very foundation and direction of our civilization. A global revolution is occurring. . . . Many are calling it the Great Turning. (Macy 2007, 17, 140)

If we accept the death of our own human bodily form, we can perhaps begin to accept the eventual death of our own civilization. . . . Global warming is an early symptom of the death of our current civilization. . . . We can slow this process by stopping [overconsumption] and being mindful, but the only way to do this is to accept the eventual death of this civilization. (Hanh 2008, 57)

Although what these authors mean by civilization is not necessarily the same, these statements broadly refer to the cultural model that has prevailed in the West over the past centuries: its industrial growth model (Macy), a way of life centered on consumption (Hanh), with its reigning ideologies of materialism, market capitalism, and progress (GTI). And whereas it is striking to find a revered Buddhist teacher (Thich Nhat Hanh) calling on us to meditate on the death of the current civilization, even many of the most secular visions emphasize a deep transformation of values. Indeed, the most imaginative TDs link together aspects of reality that have remained separate in previous imaginings of social transformation: ontological, cultural, politicoeconomic, ecological, and spiritual. These are brought together by a profound concern with human suffering and with the fate of life itself. By life I mean the unending ensemble of forms and entities that make up the pluriverse—from the biophysical to the human to the supernatural—and the processes by which they come into being. This clearly goes beyond a concern with nature, even if most TDs are traversed by ecological issues; it could not be otherwise, given that they are triggered by, and respond to, the interrelated crises of energy, food, climate, and poverty.

Common to many transitions discourses, and perhaps best exemplified by the GTI, is that humanity is at a branching point and entering a planetary phase of civilization as a result of the accelerating expansion of the modern era of the past few decades; a global system is taking shape with fundamental differences from previous historical phases. The character of the transition will depend on which worldview prevails. The key is to anticipate unfolding crises, envision alternative futures, and make appropriate choices. The GTI distinguishes among three worldviews or mindsets: evolutionary, catastrophic, and transformational, with their corresponding global scenarios: conventional worlds, barbarization, and the Great Transition (GT).14 Only the latter promises lasting solutions to the sustainability challenges, but it requires fundamental changes in values as well as novel socioeconomic and institutional arrangements. The GT paradigm redefines progress in terms of nonmaterial human fulfillment. It highlights interconnectedness and envisions a dematerialized production, the decoupling of well-being from consumption, and the cultivation of new values (e.g., solidarity, ethics, community, meaning). It seeks to bring about an era of renewable energy, and so forth. The GT involves, above all, a values-led shift toward an alternative global vision, one that replaces industrial capitalism with a civilizing globalization.

Thomas Berry’s notion of The Great Work—a transition from the period when humans were a disruptive force on the planet Earth to the period when humans become present to the planet in a manner that is mutually enhancing (1999, 11)—has been influential in TDs. Berry calls the new era Ecozoic.15 For Berry, the deepest cause of the present devastation is found in the mode of consciousness that has established a radical discontinuity between the humans and other modes of being and the bestowal of all rights on the humans (4). The radical discontinuity between the human and the nonhuman domains is at the basis of many of the critiques. Along with the idea of a separate self (the individual of liberal theory, separate from community), this discontinuity is seen as the most central feature of modern ontology. The bridging of these two divides is posited