Section 5: Etiological and Explanatory Theories 40 Minutes

TOPIC: ETIOLOGICAL
AND EXPLANATORY THEORIES

Introduction

In the last section, we considered how some researchers and other experts
in the field have attempted to identify subtypes or typologies of sex offenders
based on similar characteristics or features, which may ultimately help us
think about more tailored intervention strategies for certain types of offenders,
rather than trying to treat them all in the same way. And as I mentioned,
the research and professional literature on these characteristics can also
help us think about why individuals engage in sexually abusive behavior in
the first place.

It probably comes as no surprise to you that trying to answer the question
about the cause or causes of sex offending behavior has been a lingering
issue for researchers and other professionals involved in sex offender management
for decades. And that is the focus of this section. Over the next several
minutes, we’re going to cover theories of etiology or ideas about why
sex offenders do what they do. It is beyond the scope of this training to
address each of these theories in great detail as they are too numerous and
typically very complex. But because some of these underlying theories drive
some of our management efforts, it can be helpful to have an understanding
of some of them, at least in a broad sense.

Based on what you’ve heard so far today, and given your experience
with and knowledge about sex offenders, what do you think some of the causes
of sex offending behavior might be? How would you explain why people commit
sex offenses?

(ALLOW FOR AUDIENCE RESPONSES.)

These are all very good thoughts and ideas. And as I just mentioned, there
are actually several explanatory or etiological theories about sex offending
behavior that take into account a variety of factors. Some theories are based
on single factors, and others, particularly the more contemporary theories,
take into account the interaction of multiple factors. Let’s start
with the single factor theories.

Single Factor Theories

You’ll remember from our discussion of typologies that the way in
which some of them were described actually shed some light into why certain
offenders may engage in sexually abusive behaviors from the beginning. For
example, the fixated molester typology basically suggested that deviant sexual
preferences were the driving force behind the offenses they committed. And
for the anger rapist subtype, it was suggested that a primary reason for
their crimes was the misdirected expression of anger and hostility.

What these represent, to some extent, are ways in which researchers and
practitioners have attempted to explain the development of sex offending
behaviors, using single elements or a fairly narrow set of factors.

Biological. Some researchers have suggested that certain
kinds of biological factors, such as hormones, contribute to why individuals
engage in sex offending behaviors. Perhaps most common within this category
is the role of high testosterone levels, which have been found to be associated
with increased sex drive and aggression. And some biological theories suggest
that certain individuals may be predisposed toward problematic sexual behaviors
because of physiologically or biologically predetermined sexual appetites
or sexual preferences.

Behavioral. Other theorists believe that sex offending
behaviors develop in part because of conditioning or learning. In other
words, just as it is believed that individuals “learn” appropriate
or socially acceptable means of sexual behavior or sexual expression, behavioral
theorists indicate that deviant sexual interests or behaviors can also
be learned. For example, a father who commits domestic violence in the
home is modeling hostile and aggressive attitudes and behaviors toward
women, and youth who are exposed to that kind of environment may learn
to act in similar ways as part of their developmental experiences.

A different type of behavioral theory involves conditioning, whereby over
time, an individual’s sexual interests or arousal patterns become strengthened
through certain types of experiences or reinforcers. When someone masturbates
to fantasies that are deviant, for example, it tends to strengthen their
interest or arousal to those unhealthy or inappropriate fantasies, which
ultimately may lead to offending.

Sociocultural. Another way in which theorists have attempted
to explain the etiology of sex offending emphasizes the role of societal
and cultural structures, norms, and messages. For example, some theorists
suggest that desensitizing messages of violence in television or video
games may implicitly condone violence. Others argue that the ways in which
women and children are sexualized or portrayed as submissive and passive
through advertisements, television programs, and films may contribute to
sexual violence. Yet others believe that men are socialized to be aggressive
and to dominate, or “conquer” women and children, which some
theorize encourages male violence.

Attachment/Intimacy. One of the common characteristics
and risk factors that we discussed earlier involved intimacy deficits.
One theory of the etiology of sex offending centers around those very issues.
More specifically, it has been suggested that different types of problematic
attachments may lead individuals to have a variety of problems related
to intimacy in adult relationships, and that ultimately these intimacy
deficits may lead individuals to engage in sexually abusive behavior. For
example, theorists have suggested that insecurely attached persons may
want to be emotionally close to others but avoid it out of fear of being
rejected or hurt. In turn, some of these individuals may attempt to establish “romantic” or
close relationships with children (with whom they may feel more “safe”)
and they may ultimately have inappropriate sexual contact with them. Those
with dismissive attachment styles may have no desire whatsoever to become
close or intimate with others and may even harbor negative, angry, and
hostile feelings toward others, such as adult women. And subsequently they
may act out their anger or hostility in sexually aggressive ways.

These are just a few examples of some of the single–factor or more
narrowly focused theories that have been proposed over the years in an attempt
to explain why people commit sex offenses. And as you will see in just a
moment, many aspects of those theories continue to be influential today.
However, none of these theories can in isolation fully explain why all individuals
engage in sex offending behaviors. And it is questionable whether any one
of those theories can adequately explain why any one individual commits a
sex offense, for that matter.

As I mentioned earlier, many people would like to believe that there is
a single, easily identifiable characteristic that allows us to “spot” a
sex offender so we can take appropriate protective measures. Similarly it
would make our jobs easier if there existed a single identifiable or “treatable” etiological
or explanatory factor that ultimately determines whether or not someone will
sexually offend, because then we could intervene and maybe even prevent sex
offending from happening altogether.

But we know that this is not the case—the etiology of sex offending is more
complex and multifaceted than that. The reality is that researchers have
yet to identify any single factor that causes individuals to offend sexually,
and perhaps they never will. This previous single–factor research and
these more narrow theories have, however, provided us with much more information
than we previously had about why individuals may sexually offend, and have
paved the way for our continuing and expanded efforts in understanding this
problem.

Multifactor Theories

The prevailing evidence–based wisdom suggests that a number of factors
interact in a manner that leads to offending. And as such, contemporary scholars
in the field have proposed more integrated and comprehensive theories about
what leads to the initiation and, in some cases, the continuation of sexually
abusive behavior.2 Let’s
take a quick look at a few key examples, keeping in mind that these represent
only a fraction of the excellent work that has been done in this area.

Integrated Theory.3 According
to this influential theory, sexual offending behaviors are the result of
a combination of biological, developmental, environmental and cultural
influences, individual vulnerabilities, and situational factors. It suggests
that negative developmental influences that occur early in life, such as
maltreatment or exposure to violence in the home, have a significant impact
on one’s ability to form close, meaningful relationships. And problem
solving, emotional management, self–esteem, self–control, and
other important coping skills and qualities are negatively affected as
well.

Not surprisingly, because of these vulnerabilities, additional difficulties
with adjustment are likely going to be encountered during adolescence, such
as peer rejection, esteem difficulties, and social isolation. And in turn,
this exacerbates their existing problems and vulnerabilities, and makes it
increasingly difficult for them to effectively deal with the significant
physical and hormonal changes and emerging sexual feelings that occur during
puberty. This is a very crucial issue, because if already vulnerable individuals
do not learn healthy ways of meeting their sexual, social, intimacy and other
psychological needs—particularly when they experience significant stressors
and difficult situations in their lives—they are likely to resort to
unhealthy means of meeting their needs and managing their emotions and behaviors.
For example, to deal with unpleasant feelings like anger, rejection, or loneliness,
they may masturbate to deviant fantasies which, as I mentioned a moment ago,
reinforces the deviant fantasies even more. And, as the theory suggests,
being exposed to certain cultural messages, such as those that condone aggression
and objectification of women, only makes matters worse.

Obviously, this is an oversimplification of the theory, but I suspect that
you get the point that through a complex interaction of these and other factors,
both internal and external, individuals may ultimately act out in sexually
aggressive ways.

Confluence Model.4 Another
influential multifactor theory suggests that a combination of three primary
clusters of risk factors—motivators, disinhibitors, and opportunities—increases
the likelihood that an individual will become sexually aggressive toward
women. More specifically, the interaction of these risk factors results
in two pathways to sex offending: the sexually promiscuous pathway and
the hostile masculinity pathway.

Similar to the Integrated Theory, the Confluence Model is based in part
on the premise that adverse developmental experiences such as physical or
sexual abuse during childhood have a detrimental impact on the ways in which
individuals view themselves (and others) and their ability to form meaningful
and healthy relationships. The theorists further propose that an antisocial
or delinquent orientation often results from these experiences, and depending
upon other situational or environmental variables and influences, the individual
either develops into a person who uses sexual conquest and sometimes coercive
tactics as a means of elevating his peer status and self– esteem, or
someone who holds strong adversarial and mistrustful attitudes about women
and uses sexual aggression as a means of domination, control, and humiliation.

Relapse Prevention. 5 One
of the most common multifactor conceptualizations is based on the model
of Relapse Prevention. Many of you are probably familiar with this model,
because for the past two decades it has been a primary theoretical framework
upon which most sex offender treatment programs have been built. It describes
not only the characteristics and factors that may predispose individuals
to commit sex offenses, but also the process by which sex offending unfolds.

According to the Relapse Prevention model, sex offending is the end result
of a common chain of events that ultimately leads to offending, beginning
with the person experiencing some type of negative emotional state. This
is followed by deviant fantasies and the use of cognitive distortions to
justify or rationalize these fantasies. In turn, the fantasies lead to covert
planning about an offense. And finally, after disinhibiting himself in some
way, the individual commits a sex offense.

In addition, the theory underlying the Relapse Prevention model suggests
that a number of identifiable precursors, both early and more immediate,
are commonly associated with offending behaviors for most individuals. Included
among the earlier precursors are family dysfunction and chaos, childhood
maltreatment such as neglect or physical or sexual abuse, sexual anxiety,
and marital conflict. Anger problems, assertiveness and social skills deficits,
impaired empathy, emotional management difficulties, personality disorders,
and substance abuse are among the more immediate factors preceding an offense.

So, based on this theoretical framework, interventions are designed to teach
offenders to identify and address the risk factors that are believed to be
linked to their offending, and to help them learn how to interrupt that predictable
chain of events that leads to offending. Although this theoretical model
has remained very popular in the sex offender management field for quite
some time, it has been challenged by some experts in recent years, largely
because it assumes that the sequence of emotions, fantasies, thoughts, and
behaviors is equally applicable to all individuals.

Self–Regulation Model.6 You’ll
remember from the previous section that I mentioned the Self–Regulation
Model. This, too, has some elements of an explanatory theory, as it considers
individuals’ different motivations and self–management skills.
Again, the models’ developers use four categories to explain or
characterize the sex offending process for different individuals:

I mention it again now because it is one of the more promising theories
put forth in recent years as a means of addressing some of the shortcomings
of the Relapse Prevention model for explaining the offense process.

Pathways Model.7 Similarly,
one of the most current theories, specifically focusing on sex offending
against children, recognizes that not all individuals follow the same “path” to
offending. These multiple pathways are influenced by the complex interaction
of interpersonal emotional, biological, physiological, cultural, and environmental
variables. The Pathways Model suggests that the extent to which persons
experience difficulties in four clusters of psychological problems—cognitive
distortions, emotional management difficulties, intimacy and social skills
deficits, and deviant or unhealthy sexual scripts—largely explains the
primary reasons that they engage in sex offending behavior. So depending
upon what their main deficits are, they fall into one of the following
five pathways:

Multiple dysfunctional mechanisms pathway

Deviant sexual scripts pathway

Intimacy deficits pathway

Emotional dysregulation pathway

Antisocial cognitions pathway

As you can see, this conceptualization offers a range of relatively distinct
but also interacting “explanations” for why those who sexually
offend against children do what they do. Similar to and building upon other
multifactor theories, the Pathways Model takes into account a number of characteristics
or risk factors that appear to be common among sex offenders. What seems
to set it apart from some of the other etiological theories is that it more
fully considers the heterogeneity of offenders, rather than assuming that
all offenders follow the same or very similar path to offending, and does
so in a way that it makes more clear what some of the differing implications
for interventions might be. And that further emphasizes one of the critical
messages of this training—that one size does not fit all.

Summary

One of the most common questions that we are asked in this line of work
is, “What causes someone to commit a sex offense?” As you know,
there is no simple answer to that question. But as I’ve highlighted
in this part of the training, researchers and other experts in this field
have done quite a bit of work around trying to find that answer, or perhaps
more accurately stated, the possible range of answers.

At the present time, the most plausible explanations involve a synergistic
interplay among a number of variables across a number of domains, and they
indicate that there is no single pathway that can be used to explain this
behavior for all offenders. And again, this means that how we manage sex
offenders must take into account their variability.