Cadence (music)

Perfect authentic cadence (V–I with roots in the bass parts and tonic in the highest voice of the final chord): ii–V–I progression in C major, four-part harmony (Benward & Saker 2003, p.90.). Play(help·info)

In Westernmusical theory, a cadence (Latin cadentia, "a falling") is "a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution [finality or pause]".[1] A harmonic cadence is a progression of (at least) two chords that concludes a phrase, section, or piece of music.[2] A rhythmic cadence is a characteristic rhythmic pattern that indicates the end of a phrase.[3] A cadence is labelled more or less "weak" or "strong" depending on its sense of finality. While cadences are usually classified by specific chord or melodic progressions, the use of such progressions does not necessarily constitute a cadence—there must be a sense of closure, as at the end of a phrase. Harmonic rhythm plays an important part in determining where a cadence occurs.

Classification of cadences in common practice tonality with examples[edit]

In music of the common practice period, cadences are divided into four types according to their harmonic progression: authentic, plagal, half, and deceptive. Typically, phrases end on authentic or half cadences, and the terms plagal and deceptive refer to motion that avoids or follows a phrase-ending cadence. Each cadence can be described using the Roman numeral system of naming chords:

Authentic (also closed, standard or perfect) cadence: V to I (or V–I). A seventh above the root is often added to create V7. The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians says, "This cadence is a microcosm of the tonal system, and is the most direct means of establishing a pitch as tonic. It is virtually obligatory as the final structural cadence of a tonal work".[1] The phrase perfect cadence is sometimes used as a synonym for authentic cadence, but can also have a more precise meaning depending on the chord voicing:

Perfect authentic cadence (PAC): The chords are in root position; that is, the roots of both chords are in the bass, and the tonic (the same pitch as root of the final chord) is in the soprano of the final chord. A perfect cadence is a progression from V to I in major keys, and V to i in minor keys. This is generally the strongest type of cadence and often found at structurally defining moments.[6] "This strong cadence achieves complete harmonic and melodic closure".[7] It has to be noted that Beethoven in particular gets so much mileage out of this cadence as for it to become one of his most characteristic and recognisable musical thumbprints. The Diabelli Variations and the C major climax of the slow movement of the Opus 132 String Quartet - even though it is described as being in Lydian mode on F - are two powerful examples.

Imperfect authentic cadence (IAC), best divided into three separate categories:

1. Root position IAC: similar to a PAC, but the highest voice is not the tonic ("do" or the root of the tonic chord).

2. Inverted IAC: similar to a PAC, but one or both chords is inverted.

3. Leading tone IAC: the V chord is replaced with the viio/subV chord (but the cadence still ends on I).

Evaded cadence: V42 to I6.[8] Because the seventh must fall step wise, it forces the cadence to resolve to the less stable first inversion chord. Usually to achieve this a root position V changes to a V42 right before resolution, thereby "evading" the cadence.

Half cadence (imperfect cadence or semicadence): any cadence ending on V, whether preceded by II (V of V), ii, vi, IV, or I—or any other chord. Because it sounds incomplete or suspended, the half cadence is considered a weak cadence that calls for continuation.[11]

Phrygian half-cadence: a half cadence iv6–V in minor, so named because the semitonal motion in the bass (sixth degree to fifth degree) resembles the semitone heard in the ii–I of the 15th-century cadence in the Phrygian mode. Due to its being a survival from modal Renaissance harmony this cadence gives an archaic sound, especially when preceded by v (v–iv6–V).[12] A characteristic gesture in Baroque music, the Phrygian cadence often concluded a slow movement immediately followed by a faster one.[13] With the addition of motion in the upper part to the sixth degree, it becomes the Landini cadence.[1]

Lydian cadence: The Lydian half-cadence is similar to the Phrygian-half, involving iv6-V in the minor, the difference is that in the Lydian-half, the whole iv6 is raised by a semitone. In other words, the Phrygian-half begins with the first chord built on scale degree P4 and the Lydian-half is built on the scale degree A4 (augmented 4th).[citation needed] The Phrygian cadence ends with the movement from iv6 → V of bass (3rd of the chord/scale degree m6) down by semi-tone → bass (the root of the chord/scale degree P5), fifth (scale-degree P1) up by whole-tone → fifth (scale-degree M2), and the root (scale degree P4) up by tone → octave (scale-degree P5); the Lydian half-cadence ends with the movement from a iv6 (raised by a semitone) → V of bass (3rd of the chord/scale-degree 6M) down by whole-tone → bass (the root of the chord/scale degree P5), fifth (scale degree A1) up by a semitone → fifth (scale degree M2), and the root (scale degree A4) up by a semitone → octave (scale degree P5).

Burgundian cadences: Became popular in Burgundian music. Note the parallel fourths between the upper voices.[9]

Plagal half-cadence: The rare plagal half-cadence involves a I–IV progression. Like an authentic cadence (V–I), the plagal half-cadence involves a descending fifth (or, by inversion, an ascending fourth).[14] The plagal half-cadence is a weak cadence, ordinarily at the ending of an antecedent phrase, after which a consequent phrase commences. One example of this use is in Auld Lang Syne. But in one very unusual occurrence – the end of the exposition of the first movement of Brahms' Clarinet Trio, Op. 114—it is used to complete not just a musical phrase but an entire section of a movement.[15]

Plagal cadence: IV to I, also known as the "Amen Cadence" because of its frequent setting to the text "Amen" in hymns. William Caplin disputes the existence of plagal cadences in music of the classical era: "An examination of the classical repertory reveals that such a cadence rarely exists. ... Inasmuch as the progression IV–I cannot confirm a tonality (it lacks any leading-tone resolution), it cannot articulate formal closure .... Rather, this progression is normally part of a tonic prolongation serving a variety of formal functions – not, however a cadential one. Most examples of plagal cadences given in textbooks actually represent a postcadential codetta function: that is, the IV–I progression follows an authentic cadence but does not itself create genuine cadential closure".[16] It may be noticed that the plagal cadence, "leaves open the possibility of interpretation as V–I–V" rather than I–IV–I.[11] The term "minor plagal cadence" is used to refer to the iv–I progression. Sometimes a combination of major and minor plagal cadence is used (IV–iv–I).

Interrupted cadence: V to vi. The most important irregular resolution,[17] most commonly V7–vi (or V7–♭VI) in major or V7–VI in minor.[17][18] This is considered a weak cadence because of the "hanging" (suspended) feel it invokes. At the beginning of the final movement of Gustav Mahler's 9th Symphony, the listener hears a string of many deceptive cadences progressing from V to IV6.

One of the most striking uses of this cadence is in the A minor section at the end of the exposition in the First Movement of Brahms' Third Symphony. The music progresses to an implied E minor dominant (B7) with a rapid chromatic scale upwards, but suddenly sidesteps to C major. The same device is used again in the recapitulation; this time the sidestep is—as one would expect—to F major, the tonic key of the whole Symphony.

An inverted cadence (also called a medial cadence) inverts the last chord. It may be restricted only to the perfect and imperfect cadence, or only to the perfect cadence, or it may apply to cadences of all types.[19] To distinguish them from this form, the other, more common forms of cadences listed above are known as "radical cadences".[20]

For example, in the image (right), the final three written notes in the upper voice are B–C–D, in which case a trill on C produces D. However, convention implied a C♯, and a cadential trill of a whole tone on the second to last note produces D♯/E♭, the upper leading-tone of D♮. Presumably the debate was over whether to use C♯–D♯ or C♯–D for the trill.

Cadences can also be classified by their rhythmic position. A "metrically accented cadence" occurs on a strong position, typically the downbeat of a measure. A "metrically unaccented cadence" occurs in a metrically weak position, for instance, after a long appoggiatura. Metrically accented cadences are considered stronger and are generally of greater structural significance. In the past the terms "masculine" and "feminine" were sometimes used to describe rhythmically "strong" or "weak" cadences, but this terminology is no longer acceptable to some.[22]Susan McClary has written extensively on the gendered terminology of music and music theory in her book Feminine Endings.[23]

Likewise, cadences can be classified as either transient (a pause, like a comma in a linguistic sentence, that implies the piece will continue after a brief lift in the voice) or terminal (more conclusive, like a period, that indicates the sentence is done).[citation needed] Most transient cadences are half cadences (which stop momentarily on a dominant chord), though IAC or deceptive cadences are also usually transient, as well as Phrygian cadences. Terminal cadences are normally perfect, and rarely plagal.

A Picardy cadence is a harmonic device that originated in Western music in the Renaissance era. It refers to the use of a major chord of the tonic at the end of a musical section that is either modal or in a minor key.

A clausula or clausula vera ("true close") is a dyadic or intervallic, rather than chordal or harmonic, cadence. In a clausula vera two voices approach an octave or unison through stepwise motion.[26] This is also in contrary motion. In three voices the third voice often adds a falling fifth creating a cadence similar to the authentic cadence in tonal music.[26]

According to Carl Dahlhaus, "as late as the 13th century the semitone was experienced as a problematic interval not easily understood, as the remainder between the perfect fourth and the ditone:[27]

In a melodic semitone, listeners of the time perceived no tendency of the lower tone toward the upper, or the upper toward the lower. The second tone was not the 'goal' of the first. Instead, musicians avoided the semitone in clausulas because, to their ears, it lacked clarity as an interval. Beginning in the 13th century cadences begin to require motion in one voice by semitone and the other a tone in contrary motion. In the 14th century, an ornamentation of this, with an escape tone, became known as the Landini cadence, after the composer, who used them prodigiously.

A plagal cadence was found occasionally as an interior cadence, with the lower voice in two-part writing moving up a perfect fifth or down a perfect fourth.[28] A pause in one voice may also be used as a weak interior cadence.[28]

In counterpoint an evaded cadence is one where one of the voices in a suspension does not resolve as expected, and the voices together resolved to a consonance other than an octave or unison[29] (a perfect fifth, a sixth, or a third).

In the Classical period, composers often drew out the authentic cadences at the ends of sections; the cadence's dominant chord might take up a measure or two, especially if it contained the resolution of a suspension remaining from the chord preceding the dominant. During these two measures, the solo instrument (in a concerto) often played a trill on the supertonic (the fifth of the dominant chord); although supertonic and subtonic trills had been common in the Baroque era, they usually lasted only a half measure (e.g., the supertonic trill in the final cadence from Bach's Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140). Play(help·info)

Extended cadential trills were by far most frequent in Mozart's music, and although they were also found in early Romantic music, their use was restricted chiefly to piano concerti (and to a lesser extent, violin concerti) because they were most easily played and most effective on the piano and violin; the cadential trill and resolution would be generally followed by an orchestral coda. Beethoven was a good example of this, limiting it almost entirely to his concerti, and most other Romantic composers including Chopin and Schumann followed suit; Schubert, who never wrote concerti, hardly used it at all (the Adagio and Rondo Concertante D. 487, a chamber work, being one prominent exception). At the other end of the spectrum, even Mozart rarely used the trill in symphonies. Because the music generally became louder and more dramatic leading up to it, a cadence was used for climactic effect, and was often embellished by Romantic composers. Later on in the Romantic era, however, other dramatic virtuosic movements were often used to close sections instead.

In jazz a cadence is often referred to as a turnaround, chord progressions that lead back and resolve to the tonic (for example, the ii-V-I turnaround). Turnarounds may be used at any point and not solely before the tonic.

Semitone cadences are common in jazz if not cliché.[31] For example, the ascending diminished seventh chord semitone cadence, which—using a secondary diminished seventh chord—creates momentum between two chords a major second apart (with the diminished seventh in between).[30] The descending diminished seventh chord semi-tone cadence is assisted by two common tones (Db Fb Abb Cbb=C# E G A#).[30]

Rhythmic cadences often feature a final note longer than the prevailing note values and this often follows a characteristic rhythmic pattern repeated at the end of the phrase,[3] both demonstrated in the Bach example pictured.

^Caplin, William E. (2000). Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, p.51. ISBN0-19-514399-X.

^Darcy and Hepokoski (2006). Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types, and Deformations in the Late-Eighteenth-Century Sonata, p.. ISBN0-19-514640-9. "the unexpected motion of a cadential dominant chord to a I6 (instead of the normatively cadential I)"

1.
Classical music
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Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th

2.
Musical theory
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Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. The term is used in three ways in music, though all three are interrelated. The first is what is otherwise called rudiments, currently taught as the elements of notation, of key signatures, of time signatures, of rhythmic notation, Theory in this sense is treated as the necessary preliminary to the study of harmony, counterpoint, and form. The second is the study of writings about music from ancient times onwards, Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. However, this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries, Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts composers and other musicians use in creating music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient China, have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises, in modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a person who researches, teaches, or writes articles about music theory is a music theorist. University study, typically to the M. A. or Ph. D level, is required to teach as a music theorist in a US or Canadian university. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and especially analysis enabled by Western music notation, comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. See for instance Paleolithic flutes, Gǔdí, and Anasazi flute, several surviving Sumerian and Akkadian clay tablets include musical information of a theoretical nature, mainly lists of intervals and tunings. The scholar Sam Mirelman reports that the earliest of these dates from before 1500 BCE. Further, All the Mesopotamian texts are united by the use of a terminology for music that, much of Chinese music history and theory remains unclear. The earliest texts about Chinese music theory are inscribed on the stone and they include more than 2800 words describing theories and practices of music pitches of the time. The bells produce two intertwined pentatonic scales three tones apart with additional pitches completing the chromatic scale, Chinese theory starts from numbers, the main musical numbers being twelve, five and eight. Twelve refers to the number of pitches on which the scales can be constructed, the Lüshi chunqiu from about 239 BCE recalls the legend of Ling Lun. On order of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun collected twelve bamboo lengths with thick, blowing on one of these like a pipe, he found its sound agreeable and named it huangzhong, the Yellow Bell

3.
Harmonic
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A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, the divergent infinite series. Every term of the series after the first is the mean of the neighboring terms. The phrase harmonic mean likewise derives from music, the term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics, electronic power transmission, radio technology, and other fields. It is typically applied to repeating signals, such as sinusoidal waves, a harmonic of such a wave is a wave with a frequency that is a positive integer multiple of the frequency of the original wave, known as the fundamental frequency. The original wave is called the 1st harmonic, the following harmonics are known as higher harmonics. As all harmonics are periodic at the frequency, the sum of harmonics is also periodic at that frequency. On strings, harmonics that are bowed have a glassy, pure tone, harmonics may also be called overtones, partials or upper partials. In some music contexts, the harmonic, overtone and partial are used fairly interchangeably. Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials, rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Oscillators that produce harmonic partials behave somewhat like one-dimensional resonators, and are long and thin. Wind instruments whose air column is open at one end, such as trumpets and clarinets. However they only produce partials matching the odd harmonics, at least in theory, the reality of acoustic instruments is such that none of them behaves as perfectly as the somewhat simplified theoretical models would predict. Partials whose frequencies are not integer multiples of the fundamental are referred to as inharmonic partials, antique singing bowls are known for producing multiple harmonic partials or multiphonics. An overtone is any partial higher than the lowest partial in a compound tone, the relative strengths and frequency relationships of the component partials determine the timbre of an instrument. This chart demonstrates how the three types of names are counted, In many musical instruments, it is possible to play the upper harmonics without the note being present. In a simple case this has the effect of making the note go up in pitch by an octave, in some cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part of the method of obtaining higher notes in wind instruments. The extended technique of playing multiphonics also produces harmonics, on string instruments it is possible to produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics or flageolets by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well as being high in pitch

4.
Resolution (music)
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Resolution in western tonal music theory is the move of a note or chord from dissonance to a consonance. Dissonance, resolution, and suspense can be used to create musical interest, where a melody or chordal pattern is expected to resolve to a certain note or chord, a different but similarly suitable note can be resolved to instead, creating an interesting and unexpected sound. A dissonance has its resolution when it moves to a consonance, when a resolution is delayed or is accomplished in surprising ways—when the composer play with our sense of expectation—a feeling of drama or suspense is created. Resolution has a basis in tonal music, since atonal music generally contains a more constant level of dissonance. The concept of resolution, and the degree to which resolution is expected, is contextual as to culture and this is an example of a suspended chord. In reference to chords and progressions for example, an ending with the following cadence IV-V. However, if this cadence were changed to V-I, an authentic cadence, circle of fifths Corelli clash Irregular resolution Doubling

5.
Chord progression
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A chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of musical chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition, in tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals, a chord may be built upon any note of a musical scale, therefore a seven-note scale allows seven basic chords, each degree of the scale becoming the root of its own chord. A chord built upon the note A is an A chord of some type The harmonic function of any particular chord depends on the context of the chord progression in which it is found. The diatonic harmonization of any major results in three major triads. They are based on the first, fourth, and fifth scale degrees and these three triads include, and therefore can harmonize, every note of that scale. The same scale also provides three relative minor chords, one related to each of the three major chords, separate from these six common chords there is one degree of the scale, the seventh, that results in a diminished chord. In addition, extra notes may be added to any chord, if these notes are also selected from the original scale the harmony remains diatonic. If new chromatic intervals are introduced then a change of scale or modulation occurs and this in turn may lead to a resolution back to the original key, so that the entire sequence of chords helps create an extended musical form. In western classical notation, chords built on the scale are numbered with Roman numerals, other forms of chord notation have been devised, from figured bass to the chord chart. These usually allow or even require an amount of improvisation. Diatonic scales such as the major and minor scales lend themselves well to the construction of common chords because they contain a large number of perfect fifths. Such scales predominate in those regions where harmony is an part of music, as, for example. Alternation between two chords may be thought of as the most basic chord progression, many well-known pieces are built harmonically upon the mere repetition of two chords of the same scale. The Isley Brothers Shout uses I - vi throughout, three-chord tunes, though, are more common, since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords, in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, often the chords may be selected to fit a pre-conceived melody, but just as often it is the progression itself that gives rise to the melody. (Common in Elizabethan music, this also underpins the American college song Goodnight Ladies, is the exclusive progression used in Kwela, similar progressions abound in African popular music. They may be varied by the addition of sevenths to any chord or by substitution of the minor of the IV chord to give, for example

6.
Chord (music)
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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord

7.
Conclusion (music)
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In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro. Pieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, for example, The slow movement of Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a chord progression interrupts the final cadence. The slow movement of Symphony No.5 by Beethoven, where, echoing afterthoughts, follow the initial statements of the first theme and only return expanded in the coda. Varèses Density 21.5, where partitioning of the scale into whole tone scales provides the missing tritone of b implied in the previously exclusive partitioning by diminished seventh chords. Coda is a used in music in a number of different senses. An outro is the opposite of an intro, outro is a blend as it replaces the element in of the intro with its opposite, to create a new word. The term is used only in the realm of pop music. It can refer to the track of an album or to an outro-solo. Jeremy as recorded by Pearl Jam, outro - The final track of the M83 album Hurry Up, Were Dreaming. Repeat and fade is a direction used in sheet music when more than one repeat of the last few measures or so of a piece is desired with a fade-out as the manner in which to end the music. It originated as an effect made possible by the volume controls on sound recording equipment. No equivalent Italian term was in the lexicon of musical terms, so it was written in English. Repeat and fade endings are found in live performances, but are often used in studio recordings. Examples include, Hey Jude as recorded by The Beatles Time and a Word as recorded by Yes Crazy. as recorded by PaRappa and The Moonlight Da capo Epilogue

8.
Phrase (music)
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In music theory, a phrase is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections. Terms such as sentence and verse have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax, john D. White defines a phrase as, the smallest musical unit that conveys a more or less complete musical thought. Phrases vary in length and are terminated at a point of full or partial repose, edward Cone analyses the typical musical phrase as consisting of an initial downbeat, a period of motion, and a point of arrival marked by a cadential downbeat. Charles Burkhart defines a phrase as Any group of measures that has degree of structural completeness. What counts is the sense of completeness we hear in the not the notation on the page. To be complete such a group must have an ending of some kind …, phrases are delineated by the tonal functions of pitch. They are not created by slur or by legato performance …, a phrase is not pitches only but also has a rhythmic dimension, and further, each phrase in a work contributes to that works large rhythmic organization. In common practice phrases are often four bars or measures long culminating in a more or less definite cadence. A phrase will end with a weaker or stronger cadence, depending on whether it is an antecedent phrase or a consequent phrase, however, the absolute span of the phrase is as contestable as its pendant in language, where there can be even one-word-phrases. Thus no strict line can be drawn between the terms of the phrase, the motiv or even the separate tone, discovering a works phrase rhythm is a gateway to its understanding and to effective performance. The term was popularized by William Rothsteins Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music, techniques include overlap, lead-in, extension, expansion, reinterpretation and elision. A phrase member is one of the parts in a phrase separated into two by a pause or long note value, the second of which may repeat, sequence, or contrast with the first

9.
Section (music)
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In music, a section is a complete, but not independent musical idea. Types of sections include the introduction or intro, exposition, recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, conclusion, coda or outro, fadeout, bridge or interlude. In sectional forms such as binary, the unit is built from various smaller clear-cut units in combination. Some well known songs consist of one or two sections, for example Jingle Bells commonly contains verses and choruses. It may contain auxiliary members such as an introduction and/or outro, a section is, a major structural unit perceived as the result of the coincidence of relatively large numbers of structural phenomena. An episode may also refer to a section, a passage is a musical idea that may or may not be complete or independent. For example, fill, riff, and all sections, musical material is any musical idea, complete or not, independent or not, including motifs. Song structure Period Phrase Repetition and repeat sign

10.
Composition (music)
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People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an outline of the song, called the lead sheet. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, in some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play, sing and/or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, a piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze, although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music, according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds. in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear and this is what the Ancients called melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant and this is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition. In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a live acoustic event. Since the invention of recording, a classical piece or popular song may also exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory, by reading written musical notation, compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar, electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to a lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era, for example, used only acoustic and mechanical such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord. A 2000s-era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier, different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the performance of a composed song or piece. In free jazz, the performers may play without any sheet music, improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously during the performance, as opposed to having a composer write down the music beforehand. Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era, instrumentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments, during the classical period, solo instrumentalists were expected to be able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era, composers began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, in contemporary classical music, some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer should improvise during certain sections

11.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers

12.
Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit

13.
Melodic
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London

14.
Harmonic rhythm
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In music theory, harmonic rhythm, also known as harmonic tempo is the rate at which the chords change in a musical composition, in relation to the rate of notes. Harmonic rhythm may be described as strong or weak, according to William Russo harmonic rhythm is, the duration of each different chord. in a succession of chords. According to Joseph Swain harmonic rhythm, is simply that perception of rhythm that depends on changes in aspects of harmony, according to Walter Piston, the rhythmic life contributed to music by means of the underlying changes of harmony. The pattern of the rhythm of a given piece of music, derived by noting the root changes as they occur, reveals important and distinctive features affecting the style. Examples of different harmonic rhythms from Bach given

15.
Tonic (music)
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The triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. More generally, the tonic is the pitch upon which all other pitches of a piece are hierarchically referenced, scales are named after their tonics, thus the tonic of the scale of C is the note C. Simple folk music and traditional songs may begin and end on the tonic note, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The tonic is often confused with the root, which is the note of a chord. The root of a chord is different from the tonic, because different types of chords have root notes. It is also represented with the Roman numeral I, two parallel keys have the same tonic. For example, in both C major and C minor, the tonic is C, however, relative keys have different tonics. For example, C major and A minor share a key signature that feature no sharps or flats, thus a pitch center may function referentially or contextually in an atonal context, often acting as axis or line of symmetry in an interval cycle. Pitch centricity was coined by Arthur Berger in his Problems of Pitch Organization in Stravinsky

16.
Tonality
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Tonality is a musical system that arranges pitches or chords to induce a hierarchy of perceived relations, stabilities, and attractions. In this hierarchy, the pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called the tonic. The root of the chord is considered to be the key of a piece or song. Thus a piece in which the chord is C major is said to be in the key of C. Simple folk music songs often start and end with the tonic note, the most common use of the term. is to designate the arrangement of musical phenomena around a referential tonic in European music from about 1600 to about 1910. Contemporary classical music from 1910 to the 2000s may practice or avoid any sort of harmony in almost all Western popular music remains tonal. Harmony in jazz music includes many, if not all, tonal characteristics, All harmonic idioms in popular music are tonal, and none is without function. Tonality is a system of tones in which one tone becomes the central point for the remaining tones. The other tones in a piece are all defined in terms of their relationship to the tonic. In tonality, the tonic is the tone of complete relaxation and stability, the cadence in which the dominant chord or dominant seventh chord resolves to the tonic chord plays an important role in establishing the tonality of a piece. Tonal music is music that is unified and dimensional, the term tonalité originated with Alexandre-Étienne Choron and was borrowed by François-Joseph Fétis in 1840. According to Carl Dahlhaus, however, the term tonalité was only coined by Castil-Blaze in 1821, major-minor tonality is also called harmonic tonality, diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, functional tonality, or just tonality. This sense also applies to the tonic/dominant/subdominant harmonic harmonic constellations in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as the 144 basic transformations of twelve-tone technique, any rational and self-contained theoretical arrangement of musical pitches, existing prior to any concrete embodiment in music. For example, Sainsbury, who had Choron translated into English in 1825, while tonality qua system constitutes a theoretical abstraction from actual music, it is often hypostatized in musicological discourse, converted from a theoretical structure into a musical reality. As a term to contrast with modal and atonal, implying that tonal music is discontinuous as a form of expression from modal music on the one hand. Musical phenomena arranged or understood in relation to a referential tonic, Musical phenomena perceived or preinterpreted in terms of the categories of tonal theories. In major and minor harmonies, the fifth is often implied. To function as a tonic, a chord must be either a major or a minor triad, dominant function requires a major-quality triad with a root a perfect fifth above the affiliated tonic and containing the leading tone of the key

17.
Roman numeral analysis
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In music, Roman numeral analysis uses Roman numerals to represent chords. The Roman numerals denote scale degrees, used to represent a chord, for instance, III denotes the third degree of a scale or the chord built on it. Generally, uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords while lowercase Roman numerals represent minor chords, elsewhere, in Western classical music in the 2000s, Roman numeral analysis is used by music students and music theorists to analyze the harmony of a song or piece. In the most common use in pop, rock, traditional music. For instance, the twelve bar blues progression is I, IV, V, sometimes written I7, IV7, V7. In the key of C, the first scale degree is C, the fourth is F, so the I7, IV7, and V7 chords are C7, F7, and G7. In the same progression in the key of A, the I7, IV7, and V7 chords would be A7, D7, Roman numerals thus abstract chord progressions, making them independent of the key, so can easily be transposed. Roman numeral analysis is the use of Roman numeral symbols in the analysis of chords. In music theory related to or derived from the common practice period, in some contexts an arabic number, or careted number, may refer also to a chord built upon that scale degree. For example, or 1 may both refer to the chord upon the first scale step, however, the practice originated in the works of Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler, whose theoretical works as early as 1776 employed Roman numeral analysis. The current system used today to study and analyze tonal music comes about initially from the work, however, another source says that Trydell used Arabic numerals for this purpose, and Roman numerals were only later substituted by Georg Joseph Vogler. Alternatives include the functional hybrid Nashville number system and macro analysis, in some fake books and lead sheets, all triads may be represented by upper case numerals, followed by a symbol to indicate if it is not a major chord. An upper case numeral that is not followed by a symbol is understood as a major chord, the use of Roman numerals enables the rhythm section performers to play the song in any key requested by the bandleader or lead singer. The accompaniment performers translate the Roman numerals to the chords that would be used in a given key. As such, in genres, in the key of E major, chords such as D major, G major. These chords are all borrowed from the key of E minor, as well, in minor keys, chords from the tonic major may also be borrowed. In traditional notation, the triads of the seven modes are the following

18.
Dominant (music)
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The dominant is sung as so in solfege. The dominant function has the role of creating instability that requires the tonic for resolution, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The scheme I-x-V-I symbolizes, though naturally in a very summarizing way, for example, in the C major scale, the dominant is the note G, and the dominant triad consists of the notes G, B, and D. In music theory, the dominant triad is a triad, symbolized by the Roman numeral V. It is, however, a triad, denoted v. For instance, in G-B♭-D, the B♭ is sharpened to B natural, a dominant seventh chord is a chord built upon the dominant of a major diatonic scale. It contains a major triad and a seventh of the root of the triad. An example is G7 in C major, G-B-D-F, with G being both the dominant of C major and the root of the major triad G-B-D, and F being the seventh of the root. In a general context, the dominant seventh is denoted V7, a cadential dominant chord followed by a tonic chord is denominated as authentic cadence. If the roots are in the bass and the tonic is in the highest voice, the dominant key in a given musical composition is the key whose tonic is a perfect fifth above the tonic of the main key of the piece. Put another way, the key whose tonic is the dominant scale degree in the main key, if, for example, a piece is written in the key of C major, then the key of C is the tonic key. The key of G major is the dominant key since it is based on the dominant note for the key of C major, with a key signature of one sharp, G major features one more sharp than C major. In sonata form in major keys, the subject group is usually in the dominant key. Even with the widest roaming modulations in the development, the dominant key exerts influence, the movement to the dominant was part of musical grammar, not an element of form. Almost all music in the century went to the dominant, before 1750 it was not something to be emphasized, afterward. This means that every eighteenth century listener expected the movement to the dominant in the sense that would have been puzzled if did not get it, it was a condition of intelligibility. Dominant also refers to a relationship of musical keys, for example, relative to the key of C major, the key of G major is the dominant key. Music which modulates often modulates into the dominant, modulation into the dominant key often creates a sense of increased tension, as opposed to modulation into subdominant, which creates a sense of musical relaxation

19.
Root (chord)
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C chord is referred to in Classical music or popular music without a reference to what type of chord it is, it is assumed a C major triad, which contains the notes C, E and G. The root needs not be the note, the lowest note of the chord, the concept of root is linked to that of the inversion of chords. In this concept, chords can be inverted while still retaining their root, in tertian harmonic theory, that is in a theory where chords can be considered stacks of third intervals, the root of a chord is the note on which the subsequent thirds are stacked. For instance, the root of a such as C Major is C. Regardless of whether a chord is in position or in an inversion. Four-note seventh chords have four possible positions, five-note ninth chords know five positions, etc. but the root position always is that of the stack of thirds, and the root is the lowest note of this stack. With chord types, such as chords with added sixths or chords over pedal points, more than one possible chordal analysis may be possible. For example, in a piece of music, the notes C, E, G, A, sounded as a chord. Deciding which note is the root of this chord could be determined by considering context, and its low note considered as the root, or as an inversion of the same, second, fourth, sixth, etc. in which cases the upper note is the root. Johannes Lippius, in his Disputatio musica tertia and Synopsis musicae novae, is the first to use the triad, he also uses the term root. Thomas Campion, A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Conterpoint, London, c1618, notes that chords are in first inversions, the bass is not. a true base. Campion’s true base is the root of the chord, full recognition of the relationship between the triad and its inversions is generally credited to Jean-Philippe Rameau’s Traité d’harmonie. The concept of root has some basis in the properties of harmonic sounds. When two notes or more notes from the series are played at the same time, people sometimes perceive the fundamental note of the series. This property has been used in building for the production of low notes by resultant tones. Andreas Werckmeister’s Harmonologia describes the major triad in root position and in first inversion in terms of the harmonic series, but this description cannot be extended to the minor triad

20.
Dominant seventh chord
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In music theory, a dominant seventh chord, or major minor seventh chord, is a chord composed of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. It can be viewed as a major triad with an additional minor seventh. When using popular-music symbols, it is denoted by adding a superscript 7 after the letter designating the chord root, the dominant seventh is found almost as often as the dominant triad. In Roman numerals it is represented as V7, the chord can be represented by the integer notation. Of all the chords, perhaps the most important is the dominant seventh. It was the first seventh chord to appear regularly in classical music, the name comes from the fact that it occurs naturally in the seventh chord built upon the dominant of a given major diatonic scale. Take for example the C major scale, The note G is the dominant degree of C major—its fifth note, the note F is a minor seventh from G, and it is also called the dominant seventh with respect to G. The function of the dominant seventh chord is to drive to or resolve to the note or chord. The demand of the V7 for resolution is, to our ears, the dominant seventh is, in fact, the central propulsive force in our music, it is unambiguous and unequivocal. This basic dominant seventh chord is useful to composers because it both a major triad and the interval of a tritone. The major triad confers a very strong sound, the tritone is created by the co-occurrence of the third degree and seventh degree. In a diatonic context, the third of the chord is the leading-tone of the scale, the seventh of the chord acts as an upper leading-tone to the third of the scale. Because of this usage, it also quickly became an easy way to trick the listeners ear with a deceptive cadence. The dominant seventh may work as part of a progression, preceded by the supertonic. S. A. and Loggins. Chuck Berrys Rock And Roll Music uses the dominant seventh on I, IV, the dominant seventh is enharmonically equivalent to the German sixth, causing the chords to be spelled enharmonically, for example the German sixth G♭–B♭–D♭–E and the dominant seventh F♯–A♯–C♯–E. The dominant seventh is used to approximate a Harmonic seventh chord. Others include 20,25,30,36 Play, found on I, renaissance composers decided in terms of intervals rather than chords, however, certain dissonant sonorities suggest that the dominant seventh chord occurred with some frequency. Monteverdi and other early baroque composers begin to treat the V7 as a chord as part of the introduction of functional harmony, the V7 was in constant use during the classical period, with similar treatment to that of the baroque

21.
Voicing (music)
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In music theory, voicing is the manner in which one distributes, or spaces, notes and chords among the various instruments or simultaneous vertical placement of notes in relation to each other. In triad chords, close root position voicing is the most compact voicing, with the notes in major third intervals, close and open harmony are harmony constructed from close- and open-position chords, respectively. Many composers, as developed and gained experience, became more enterprising. For example, the theme from the movement of Beethoven’s early Piano Sonata No. 10, presents chords mostly in closed position, Whereas in the theme of the Arietta movement that concludes his last Piano Sonata No,32, Op.111 as simplicity itself … its widely-spaced harmonization creates a mood of almost mystical intensity. Ravel’s Pavane de la Belle au Bois Dormant from his 1908 suite Ma Mère lOye exploits the delicate transparency of voicing afforded through the medium of the piano duet, four hands can cope better that two when it comes to playing widely spaced chords. The two chords that open and close Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms have distinctive sonorities arising out of the voicing of the notes, austin remarks, The ﬁrst and last chords of the Symphony of Psalms are famous. The doubling number of an octave is the number of individual voices assigned to each pitch within the chord, for example, in the three images in the introduction above only one pitch is doubled, the G in the rightmost image. One nomenclature for describing classes of voicings is the drop-n terminology, such as drop-2 voicings, drop-2-and-4 voicings. This systems views voicings as being built from the top down, the implicit, non-dropped, default voicing in this system is where all voices are in the same octave, with the individual voices being numbered from the top down. The highest voice is the first voice or voice 1, the second-highest voice is voice 2, etc. There is no provision in this nomenclature for having more than one voice on the same pitch, a dropped voicing is where one or more voices are lowered by an octave relative to the default state. Dropping the first voice is undefined, a drop-1 voicing would still have all voices in the same octave, there is no provision in this nomenclature for indicating the dropping of voices by two or more octaves or for having the same pitch represented in multiple octaves. A drop-2 voicing is where the voice is lowered by an octave. These are the drop-2-and-4 voicings for G7, G D F B, F B D G, D G B F, various drop combinations are possible, given enough voices, such as drop-3, drop-2-and-3, drop-5, drop-2-and-5, drop-3-and-5, etc. Blind octave Consecutive fifths Open chord Partial voicing

22.
Root position
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C chord is referred to in Classical music or popular music without a reference to what type of chord it is, it is assumed a C major triad, which contains the notes C, E and G. The root needs not be the note, the lowest note of the chord, the concept of root is linked to that of the inversion of chords. In this concept, chords can be inverted while still retaining their root, in tertian harmonic theory, that is in a theory where chords can be considered stacks of third intervals, the root of a chord is the note on which the subsequent thirds are stacked. For instance, the root of a such as C Major is C. Regardless of whether a chord is in position or in an inversion. Four-note seventh chords have four possible positions, five-note ninth chords know five positions, etc. but the root position always is that of the stack of thirds, and the root is the lowest note of this stack. With chord types, such as chords with added sixths or chords over pedal points, more than one possible chordal analysis may be possible. For example, in a piece of music, the notes C, E, G, A, sounded as a chord. Deciding which note is the root of this chord could be determined by considering context, and its low note considered as the root, or as an inversion of the same, second, fourth, sixth, etc. in which cases the upper note is the root. Johannes Lippius, in his Disputatio musica tertia and Synopsis musicae novae, is the first to use the triad, he also uses the term root. Thomas Campion, A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Conterpoint, London, c1618, notes that chords are in first inversions, the bass is not. a true base. Campion’s true base is the root of the chord, full recognition of the relationship between the triad and its inversions is generally credited to Jean-Philippe Rameau’s Traité d’harmonie. The concept of root has some basis in the properties of harmonic sounds. When two notes or more notes from the series are played at the same time, people sometimes perceive the fundamental note of the series. This property has been used in building for the production of low notes by resultant tones. Andreas Werckmeister’s Harmonologia describes the major triad in root position and in first inversion in terms of the harmonic series, but this description cannot be extended to the minor triad

23.
Inversion (music)
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In music theory, the word inversion has several meanings. There are inverted chords, inverted melodies, inverted intervals, the concept of inversion also plays a role in musical set theory. An interval is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes using displacement of the octave so that retain their names. Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and vice versa, augmented intervals become diminished, traditional interval names add together to make nine, seconds become sevenths and vice versa, thirds become sixes and vice versa, and fourths become fifths and vice versa. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval and its inversion. A chords inversion describes the relationship of its bass to the tones in the chord. For instance, a C major triad contains the tones C, E and G, its inversion is determined by which of these tones is the bottom note in the chord. The term inversion is used to categorically refer to the different possibilities. In texts that make this restriction, the position may be used instead to refer to all of the possibilities as a category. A root-position chord Play is sometimes known as the parent chord of its inversions. For example, C is the root of a C major triad and is in the bass when the triad is in position, the 3rd. The following chord is also a C major triad in root position, the rearrangement of the notes above the bass into different octaves and the doubling of notes, is known as voicing. In an inverted chord, the root is not in the bass, the inversions are numbered in the order their bass tones would appear in a closed root position chord. In the second inversion Play, the bass is G—the 5th of the triad—with the root and the 3rd above it, forming a 4th and a 6th above the bass of G, respectively. This inversion can be either consonant or dissonant, and analytical notation sometimes treats it differently depending on the harmonic, for more details, look at Second inversion Third inversions exist only for chords of four or more tones, such as 7th chords. In a third-inversion chord Play, the 7th of the chord is in the bass position, each numeral expresses the interval that results from the voices above it. For example, in root-position triad C-E-G, the intervals above bass note C are a 3rd and a 5th, giving the figures 5-3. If this triad were inverted, the figures 6-3 would apply, due to the intervals of third and sixth appearing above bass note E. Figured bass is similarly applied to 7th chords, certain arbitrary conventions of abbreviation exist in the use of figured bass

24.
Tritone substitution
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The tritone substitution is one of the most common substitutions found in jazz and was the precursor to more complex substitution patterns like Coltrane changes. Tritone substitutions are sometimes used in improvisation—often to create tension during a solo, for example, using C♯ major instead of G major in the key of C major is a tritone substitution. In tonal music, a perfect cadence consists of a dominant seventh chord followed by a tonic chord. For example, in the key of C major, the chord of G7 is followed by a chord of C. ”A tritone substitution is the substitution of one dominant seventh chord with another that is three steps from the original chord. In other words, tritone substitution involves replacing V7 with ♭II7, for example, D♭7 is the tritone substitution for G7. In standard jazz harmony, tritone substitution works because the two chords share two pitches, namely, the third and seventh, albeit reversed. In a G7 chord, the third is B and the seventh is F, whereas, in its substitution, D♭7, the third is an F. Notice that the interval between the third and seventh of a dominant seventh chord is itself a tritone, edward Sarath calls tritone substitutions a non-diatonic practice that is indirectly related to applied chord functions. Yield an alternative melodic pathway in the bass to the tonic triad, the substitute dominant may be used as a pivot chord in modulation. Since it is the dominant chord a tritone away, the dominant may resolve down a fifth. Resolution to the tonic is also common. Tritone substitutions are also related to the altered chord used commonly in jazz. Jerry Coker explains, Tritone substitutions and altered dominants are nearly identical, good improvisers will liberally sprinkle their solos with both devices. The distinction between the two is usually a moot point, the alt chord is a heavily altered dominant seventh chord, built on the alt scale, a scale that includes a flat ninth, flat third, flat fourth, flat fifth, flat sixth and flat seventh. For example, C7alt is built from the scale C, D♭, E♭, F♭, G♭, A♭, B♭. Enharmonically, this is almost the same as the scale for G♭7, the only difference is C, which is the sharp eleventh of the G♭7 chord. Thus, the alt chord is equivalent to the substitution with a sharp eleven alteration. The tritone substitution primarily implies a Lydian dominant scale, in the case of D♭7 to Cmaj7, the implied scale behind D♭7 would be Db Eb F G Ab Bb Cb

25.
Phrygian mode
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The Phrygian tonos or harmonia is named after the ancient kingdom of Phrygia in Anatolia. The octave species underlying the ancient-Greek Phrygian tonos corresponds to the medieval, an octave species was then built upon two of these tetrachords separated by a whole tone. This ethnic name was also applied by theorists such as Cleonides to one of thirteen chromatic transposition levels. The early Catholic church developed a system of eight musical modes that medieval music scholars gave names drawn from the used to describe the ancient Greek harmoniai. Alternatively written as a pattern of, Semitone, Tone, Tone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone. Flamenco music uses the Phrygian scale, together with a modified scale resembling the Arab maqām Ḥijāzī, in contemporary jazz, the Phrygian mode is used over chords and sonorities built on the mode, such as the sus4 chord, which is sometimes called a Phrygian suspended chord. For example, a soloist might play an E Phrygian over an Esus4 chord, the First Delphic Hymn, written in 128 BC by the Athenian composer Limenius, is in the Phrygian and Hyperphrygian tonoi, with much variation. The Seikilos epitaph is in the Phrygian species, in the Iastian transposition, gregorian chant, Tristes Erant Apostoli, version in the Vesperale Romanum, originally Ambrosian chant. The Roman chant variant of the Requiem introit Rogamus te is in the Phrygian mode, the following compositions of Josquin are written in the Phrygian mode, 4-part setting of Mille Regretz Missa Pange lingua 6-part motet Praeter Rerum Seriem Orlando di Lassos motet In me transierunt. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrinas motet Congratulamini mihi, heinrich Schützs St John Passion is in the Phrygian mode Dieterich Buxtehudes Prelude in A minor, BuxWV152, Anton Bruckner, Ave Regina caelorum, WAB8. 3, passages in the third and fourth movements,6, first, third, and fourth movements. Ralph Vaughan Williams Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis, based on Thomas Talliss 1567 setting of Psalm 2, Why fumth in sight

26.
Baroque music
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Baroque music is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750. This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key, during the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite, while the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers. During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate ornamentation, made changes in musical notation. Many musical terms and concepts from this era, such as toccata, fugue, dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously, was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. The word baroque comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning misshapen pearl, the term Baroque is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of approximately 150 years. The systematic application by historians of the baroque to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflins theory of the Baroque systematically to music, all of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer, nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding and following periods of musical history, the Baroque period is divided into three major phases, early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical musical drama that valued discourse, the early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peris Dafne and LEuridice, marked the beginning of opera, which were a catalyst for Baroque music. Concerning music theory, the widespread use of figured bass represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony. Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as players or pipe organists. The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the player what intervals she should play above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note and this led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality

27.
Landini cadence
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The technique was used extensively in the 14th and early 15th century. In a typical Medieval cadence, a major sixth interval is expanded to an octave by having each note move outwards one step. In Landinis version, a tone in the upper voice narrows the interval briefly to a perfect fifth before the octave. There could also be a voice, in the example the inner voice would move from F♯ to G. However Landini seems to have been the first to use it consistently, the term was coined in the late 19th century by German writer A. G. Ritter, in his Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, Leipzig. David Fallows, Landini Cadence, Grove Music Online, ed. D. Root, discussion on Landini cadence and its uses in later works

28.
Degree (music)
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In music theory, a scale degree refers to the position of a particular note on a scale relative to the tonic, the first and main note of the scale from which each octave is assumed to begin. The term is useful for indicating the size of intervals and chords, scale degrees can be applied to any musical scale, however, the concept is most commonly applied to scales in which a tonic is specified by definition, such as the 7-tone diatonic scales. It is possible to assign a scale degree to the 12-tone chromatic scale, the expression scale step is sometimes used synonymously with scale degree, but it may alternatively refer to the distance between between two successive scale degrees. The terms whole step and half step are used as interval names. The number of degrees and the distance between them together define the scale they are in. These names are derived from a scheme where the note is the center

29.
Burgundian School
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The Burgundian School was a group of composers active in the 15th century in what is now northern and eastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, centered on the court of the Dukes of Burgundy. The main names associated with this school are Guillaume Dufay, Gilles Binchois, Antoine Busnois, the Burgundian School was the first phase of activity of the Franco-Flemish School, the central musical practice of the Renaissance in Europe. When France was ravaged by the Hundred Years War, the cultural center migrated farther east, to towns in Burgundy, especially during the reigns of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, this entire area, loosely known as Burgundy, was a center of musical creativity. Most of the activity did not take place in what is modern-day Burgundy. The main centers of music-making were Brussels, Bruges, Lille, Musicians from the region came to Burgundy to study and further their own careers as the reputation of the area spread. The Burgundian rulers were not merely patrons of the arts, but took a part, Charles the Bold himself played the harp. Charles the Bold was killed in 1477 in the Battle of Nancy, both the French court and the Habsburgs were patrons of music, however a French style began to diverge from that of the Low Countries, especially in secular music, and in the period after 1500. The history of Burgundian music began with the organization of the chapel in 1384, twenty years later, other early composers there were Hugo and Arnold de Lantins, both of whom Dufay later met in Italy. Of all the associated with the Burgundian School, the most famous was Guillaume Dufay. He wrote music in many of the forms which were current, music which was melodic, singable and memorable. After the death of Dufay in 1474, the most prominent Burgundian musician was Antoine Busnois, who was also a composer of chansons. The most prominent secular forms used by the Burgundians were the four formes fixes, of the four, the rondeau was by far the most popular, at any rate more rondeaux have survived than any other form. Most of the rondeaux were in three voices, and in French, though there are a few in other languages, in most of the rondeaux, the uppermost voice was texted, and the other voices were most likely played by instruments. The bergerette was developed by the Burgundians themselves, it was like a virelai, most of the composers also wrote sacred music in Latin, this was to remain true for the next several generations. They wrote both masses and motets, as well as cycles of Magnificats, during the period, the mass transformed from a group of individual sections written by different composers, often using a head-motif technique, to unified cycles based on a cantus firmus. Dufay, Binchois, Busnois, Reginald Liebert and others all wrote cyclic masses, david Fallows writes of it in the New Grove, It is hard to think of any other melody in the history of music that has yielded so much music of the highest quality. During the period the motet transformed from the model of the 14th century to the smoothly polyphonic. Composition using fauxbourdon allowed sung text to be understood

30.
Auld Lang Syne
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Auld Lang Syne is a Scots poem written by Robert Burns in 1788 and set to the tune of a traditional folk song. It is well known in countries, especially in the English-speaking world. By extension, it is sung at funerals, graduations. The international Scouting movement, in countries, uses it to close jamborees. The songs Scots title may be translated into standard English as old long since, or more idiomatically, long long ago, consequently, For auld lang syne, as it appears in the first line of the chorus, might be loosely translated as for old times. The phrase Auld Lang Syne is also used in poems by Robert Ayton, Allan Ramsay. Matthew Fitt uses the phrase In the days of auld lang syne as the equivalent of Once upon a time, in his retelling of fairy tales in the Scots language. CHORUS, On old long syne my Jo, On old long syne, That thou canst never once reflect and it is a fair supposition to attribute the rest of the poem to Burns himself. There is some doubt as to whether the melody used today is the same one Burns originally intended, singing the song on Hogmanay or New Years Eve very quickly became a Scots custom that soon spread to other parts of the British Isles. As Scots emigrated around the world, they took the song with them, a manuscript of Auld Lang Syne is held in the permanent collection of The Lilly Library at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana. The song begins by posing a question, Is it right that old times be forgotten. The answer is generally interpreted as a call to remember long-standing friendships, thomsons Select Songs of Scotland was published in 1799 in which the second verse about greeting and toasting was moved to its present position at the end. Most common use of the song only the first verse. The last lines of both of these are sung with the extra words For the sake of or And days of. This allows one note for each word, rather than the slight melisma required to fit Burns original words to the melody. † dine = dinner time‡ ch = voiceless velar fricative, /x/, at the back of the mouth like /k/, similar to Bach in German* syne = since or then – pronounced like sign rather than zine. The tune to which Auld Lang Syne is commonly sung is a pentatonic Scots folk melody, English composer William Shield seems to quote the Auld Lang Syne melody briefly at the end of the overture to his opera Rosina, which may be its first recorded use. For instance, Burns poem Coming Through the Rye is sung to a tune that might also be based on the Millers Wedding

31.
Exposition (music)
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In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term implies that the material will be developed or varied. In sonata form, the exposition is the very first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or other secondary key and presenting the principal thematic material. In a fugue, the exposition is the statement of the subject in imitation by the voices, especially the first such statement. The term is most widely used as a convenience to denote a portion of a movement identified as an example of classical tonal sonata form. The exposition typically establishes the musics tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, if the exposition starts in a minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key, or less commonly, the minor dominant. There are many exceptions—for example the exposition of the first movement of Beethovens Waldstein Sonata modulates from C major to the mediant E major, the exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat. If the movement starts with a section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being part of the movements exposition. In many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era and this is something which is not always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards. A fugue usually has two sections, the exposition and the body. In the exposition, each voice plays its own adaptation of the theme, in either a subject or an answer, the exposition usually ends on either a I or V chord, and is then followed by the body

32.
Brahms
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Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his life in Vienna. Brahms composed for orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ. A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works and he worked with some of the leading performers of his time, including the pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim. Many of his works have become staples of the concert repertoire. An uncompromising perfectionist, Brahms destroyed some of his works and left others unpublished, Brahms has been considered, by his contemporaries and by later writers, as both a traditionalist and an innovator. His music is rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Classical masters. While many contemporaries found his music too academic, his contribution and craftsmanship have been admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg, the diligent, highly constructed nature of Brahmss works was a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers. Embedded within his meticulous structures, however, are deeply romantic motifs, Brahmss father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of Heide in Holstein. The family name was sometimes spelt Brahmst or Brams, and derives from Bram. Against the familys will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he work as a jobbing musician. In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress 17 years older than he was, in the same year he was appointed as a horn player in the Hamburg militia. Eventually he became a player in the Hamburg Stadttheater and the Hamburg Philharmonic Society. As Johann Jakob prospered, the family moved over the years to better accommodation in Hamburg. Johannes Brahms was born in 1833, his sister Elisabeth had been born in 1831, Fritz also became a pianist, overshadowed by his brother he emigrated to Caracas in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher. Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training, Johannes also learnt to play the violin, from 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms could be such a good player, at the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including Beethovens quintet for piano and winds Op.16 and a piano quartet by Mozart. He also played as a solo work an étude of Henri Herz, by 1845 he had written a piano sonata in G minor

33.
Amen
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The word amen is a declaration of affirmation found in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. It is found in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim worship as a word or response to prayers. Common English translations of the word amen include verily and truly and it can also be used colloquially to express strong agreement, as in, for instance, amen to that. In English, the word amen has two pronunciations, ah-men or ay-men, with minor additional variation in emphasis. The Oxford English Dictionary gives ɑːmɛn, eɪmεn, in Arabic the pronunciation ah-meen is used upon completing a supplication to God or when concluding recitation of the first surah Al Fatiha in prayer. The word was imported into the Greek of the early Church from Judaism, from Greek, amen entered the other Western languages. According to a standard dictionary etymology, amen passed from Greek into Late Latin, rabbinic scholars from medieval France believed the standard Hebrew word for faith emuna comes from the root amen. Although in English transliteration they look different, they are both from the root aleph-mem-nun and that is, the Hebrew word amen derives from the same ancient triliteral Hebrew root as does the verb ʾāmán. Grammarians frequently list ʾāmán under its three consonants, which are identical to those of ʾāmēn and this triliteral root means to be firm, confirmed, reliable, faithful, have faith, believe. In Arabic, the word is derived from its triliteral common root word ʾĀmana, some adherents of Eastern religions believe that amen shares roots with the Hindu Sanskrit word, Aum. Such external etymologies are not included in standard reference works. The Hebrew word, as noted above, starts with aleph, the Armenian word ամեն means every, however it is also used in the same form at the conclusion of prayers, much as in English. In French, the Hebrew word amen is sometimes translated as Ainsi soit-il, the word first occurs in the Hebrew Bible in Numbers 5,22 when the Priest addresses a suspected adulteress and she responds “Amen, Amen”. Overall, the word appears in the Hebrew Bible 30 times, three distinct Biblical usages of amen may be noted, Initial amen, referring back to words of another speaker and introducing an affirmative sentence, e. g.1 Kings 1,36. Detached amen, again referring to the words of another speaker but without an affirmative sentence. Final amen, with no change of speaker, as in the subscription to the first three divisions of Psalms, there are 52 amens in the Synoptic Gospels and 25 in John. The five final amens, which are wanting in certain manuscripts, all initial amens occur in the sayings of Jesus. These initial amens are unparalleled in Hebrew literature, according to Friedrich Delitzsch, because they do not refer to the words of a previous speaker, the uses of amen in the Gospels form a peculiar class, they are initial, but often lack any backward reference

34.
Hymns
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A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος, which means a song of praise, a writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist. The singing of hymns is called hymnody, collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment, although most familiar to speakers of English in the context of Christianity, hymns are also a fixture of other world religions, especially on the Indian subcontinent. Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures, some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts. Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus, patristic writers began applying the term ὕμνος, or hymnus in Latin, to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for psalm. Originally modeled on the Psalms and other passages in the Scriptures. Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly, since the earliest times, Christians have sung psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, both in private devotions and in corporate worship. One definition of a hymn is. a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung, others are used to encourage reverence for the Holy Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism. A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody, a collection of hymns is called a hymnal or hymnary. These may or may not include music, a student of hymnody is called a hymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune, in many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement. In ancient and medieval times, stringed instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms, since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong and this type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were originally in Latin, many have been translated. Later hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys and it shares many elements with classical music. Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and a cappella congregations, hymns are sung in unison

35.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces

36.
Irregular resolution
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In music, an irregular resolution is resolution by a dominant seventh chord or diminished seventh chord to a chord other than the tonic. Regarding the dominant seventh, there are many irregular resolutions including to a chord with which it has tones in common or if the move only a whole or half step. Consecutive fifths and octaves, augmented intervals, and false relations should still be avoided, voice leading may cause the seventh to ascend, to be prolonged into the next chord, or to be unresolved. The following resolutions to a chord with tones in common have been identified, Type I, C, E, G, B♭ would resolve to C♯, E, G, A, two tones are common, two voices move by half-step in contrary motion. Type II, in which the root motion rises by minor third, C, E, G, B♭ would resolve to D♭, E♭, G, B♭, again, two tones are common, two voices move by half-step in contrary motion. Type III, in which the moves a tritone away. C, E, G, B♭ would resolve to C♯, E, F♯, B♭ = A♯, again, two tones are common, two voices move by half-step in contrary motion. Type I is common from the 18th century, Type II may be found from the quarter of the 19th century. The composer Richard Edward Wilson is responsible for the categorization, the most important irregular resolution is the deceptive cadence, most commonly V7-vi in major or V7-VI in minor

37.
Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism to secure the regular opposition. Late in his life he was director of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Mahlers œuvre is relatively limited, for much of his composing was necessarily a part-time activity while he earned his living as a conductor. Some of Mahlers immediate musical successors included the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten are among later 20th-century composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler. The International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955 to honour the composers life, the Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances, the composers grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire, the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, from this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, always an intruder, never welcomed. Bernhard Mahler, the son and the composers father, elevated himself to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie by becoming a coachman. He bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt, halfway between Prague in Bohemia and Brno in Moravia, in the center of todays Czech Republic. Bernhards wife, Marie, gave birth to the first of the couples 14 children, a son Isidor, two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born. In December 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau,25 km to the south-east, the family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. All of these elements would later contribute to his musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents piano and he developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind and gave his first public performance at the town theatre when he was ten years old. Although Gustav loved making music, his reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portrayed him as absent-minded. In 1871, in the hope of improving the results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague. In 1874 he suffered a personal loss when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music, with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he work on an opera

38.
Trill (music)
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The trill is a musical ornament consisting of a rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, usually a semitone or tone apart, which can be identified with the context of the trill. It is sometimes referred to by the German Triller, the Italian trillo, a cadential trill is a trill associated with a cadence. A trill provides rhythmic interest, melodic interest, and—through dissonance—harmonic interest, sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn, or some other variation. Such variations are marked with a few appoggiaturas following the note that bears the trill indication. In most modern musical notation, a trill is indicated with the letters tr above the trilled note. This has sometimes been followed by a line, and sometimes, in the baroque and early classical periods. In those times the symbol was known as a chevron, the following two notations are equivalent, Both the tr and the wavy line are necessary for clarity when the trill is expected to be applied to more than one note. Also, when attached to a single notehead in one part that corresponds to smaller values in another part. The usual way of executing a trill, known as a trill, is to rapidly alternate between the note indicated and the note directly above it in the given scale. Listen to an example of a short passage ending on a trill, the first time, the passage ends in a trill, and the second, the passage does not. These examples are an approximation of how a trill might be executed, in many cases, the rate of the trill will not remain constant as indicated here, but will start slower and become more rapid. Whether a trill is played in this way or not is largely a matter of taste, the number of alternations between notes can vary according to the length of the note in question. Trills may also be played beginning on the note above the one indicated, additionally, a trill is often ended by playing the note below the one indicated followed by the note itself. In the baroque period, a number of signs indicating specific patterns with which a trill should be begun or ended were used, in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Johann Sebastian Bach lists a number of these signs together with the correct way to interpret them. Unless one of these signs is indicated, the details of how to play the trill are up to the performer. Beyond the baroque era, specific signs for ornamentation are very rare, continuing through the time of Mozart, the default expectations for the interpretation of trills continued to be similar to those of the baroque. In music after the time of Mozart, the trill usually begins on the principal note, the trill is frequently found in classical music for all instruments, although it is more easily executed on some than others. For example, while it is easy to produce a trill on the flute

39.
Whole tone
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In Western music theory, a major second is a second spanning two semitones. A second is an interval encompassing two adjacent staff positions. For example, the interval from C to D is a major second, diminished, minor and augmented seconds are notated on adjacent staff positions as well, but consist of a different number of semitones. The major second is the interval that occurs between the first and second degrees of a scale, the tonic and the supertonic. On a musical keyboard, a second is the interval between two keys separated by one key, counting white and black keys alike. On a guitar string, it is the interval separated by two frets, in moveable-do solfège, it is the interval between do and re. It is considered a step, as opposed to larger intervals called skips. Intervals composed of two semitones, such as the second and the diminished third, are also called tones, whole tones. One source says step is chiefly US. The preferred usage has been argued since the 19th century, Mr. M. in teaching the Diatonic scale calls a tone a step, and a semitone a half step, now, who ever heard of a step in music, or in sound. The largest ones are called major tones or greater tones, the smallest are called minor tones or lesser tones and their size differs by exactly one syntonic comma. Some equal temperaments, such as 15-ET and 22-ET, also distinguish between a greater and a lesser tone, the major second was historically considered one of the most dissonant intervals of the diatonic scale, although much 20th-century music saw it reimagined as a consonance. It is common in different musical systems, including Arabic music, Turkish music and music of the Balkans. It occurs in both diatonic and pentatonic scales, listen to a major second in equal temperament. Here, middle C is followed by D, which is a tone 200 cents sharper than C, the difference in size between a major tone and a minor tone is equal to one syntonic comma. The major tone is the 9,8 interval play, and it is an approximation thereof in other tuning systems, the major tone may be derived from the harmonic series as the interval between the eighth and ninth harmonics. The minor tone may be derived from the series as the interval between the ninth and tenth harmonics. The 10,9 minor tone arises in the C major scale between D and e and G and A, and is a sharper dissonance than 9,8

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Bar (music)
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Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch. Typically, a piece consists of bars of the same length. In simple time, the top figure indicates the number of beats per bar, the word bar is more common in British English, and the word measure is more common in American English, although musicians generally understand both usages. In international usage, it is correct to speak of bar numbers and measure numbers. Along the same lines, it is wise to reserve the abbreviated form ‘bb, 3–4’ etc. for beats only, bars should be referred to by name in full. The first metrically complete measure within a piece of music is called ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’, when the piece begins with an anacrusis, ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’ is the following measure. Originally, the bar came from the vertical lines drawn through the staff to mark off metrical units. In British English, these lines are called bar, too. Note that double bar refers not to a type of bar, another term for the bar line denoting the end of a piece of music is music end. A repeat sign looks like the end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the passage can be marked by a begin-repeat sign. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it, in music with a regular meter, bars function to indicate a periodic accent in the music, regardless of its duration. Igor Stravinsky said of bar lines, The bar line is much, much more than a mere accent, bars and bar lines also indicate grouping, rhythmically of beats within and between bars, within and between phrases, and on higher levels such as meter. The earliest barlines, used in keyboard and vihuela music in the 15th and 16th centuries, didnt reflect a regular meter at all but were only section divisions, or in some cases marked off every beat. Barlines began to be introduced into music in the late 16th century. Not until the mid-17th century were used in the modern style with every measure being the same length. Modern editions of music that was originally notated without barlines sometimes use a mensurstrich as a compromise

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Appoggiatura
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An appoggiatura is a musical ornament that consists of an added note in a melody that is resolved, delaying the appearance of the principal note. The added note is one degree higher or lower than the principal note. The term comes from the Italian verb appoggiare, to lean upon and it is also called a long appoggiatura to distinguish it from the short appoggiatura, the acciaccatura. An ascending appoggiatura was known as a forefall, while a descending appoggiatura was known as a backfall. In contrast to the acciaccatura, the appoggiatura is important melodically, the time subtracted is generally half the time value of the principal note, though in simple triple or compound meters, for example, it might receive two thirds of the time. Appoggiaturas are usually, but not exclusively, on the strong or strongest beat of the resolution and are approached by a leap, an appoggiatura may also be notated precisely as it should be performed, with full-size notes, to reduce ambiguity. So-called unaccented appoggiaturas are also common in many periods of music. While not being identical with the acciaccatura, these are almost always quite short and they are more likely to be seen as full-size notes in the score, rather than in small character – at least in modern editions. The double appoggiatura is an ornament composed of two short notes preceding a principal note, one placed above and the other below it and they are usually written as small sixteenth notes. The first of the two may be at any distance from the note, but the second is only one degree removed from it. In all cases the time required for both notes is subtracted from the value of the principal note, the double appoggiatura is sometimes, though rarely, met with in an inverted form, and C. P. E. One such example is present in Schuberts Wiegenlied D.867, This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Grove, George, ed. Appoggiatura. A Dictionary of Music and Musicians

Classical music
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Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter a

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Nineteenth-century composer and pianist Clara Schumann is one of only a few female composers mentioned in the Concise Oxford History of Music.

Musical theory
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Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. The term is used in three ways in music, though all three are interrelated. The first is what is otherwise called rudiments, currently taught as the elements of notation, of key signatures, of time signatures, of rhythmic notation, Theory in this sense is treated as the necessar

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Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the second-highest voice, called the "lead") and 3 harmony parts.

Harmonic
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A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, the divergent infinite series. Every term of the series after the first is the mean of the neighboring terms. The phrase harmonic mean likewise derives from music, the term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics, electronic power transmission, radio technology, and ot

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Table of harmonics of a stringed instrument with colored dots indicating which positions can be lightly fingered to generate just intervals up to the 7th harmonic

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The nodes of a vibrating string are harmonics.

Resolution (music)
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Resolution in western tonal music theory is the move of a note or chord from dissonance to a consonance. Dissonance, resolution, and suspense can be used to create musical interest, where a melody or chordal pattern is expected to resolve to a certain note or chord, a different but similarly suitable note can be resolved to instead, creating an int

Chord progression
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A chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of musical chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition, in tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals, a chord may be built upon any note

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Beethoven imagined in the process of composing his Pastoral Symphony

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IV-V-I progression in C Play (help · info)

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Blues progressions influenced a great deal of 20th century American popular music

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The Mills Brothers ' recording of " Till Then " looked forward both to the end of World War II and to the popular music of the 1950s. (Courtesy of the Fraser MacPherson estate c/o Guy MacPherson)

Chord (music)
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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purpo

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Instruments and voices playing and singing different notes create chords.

Conclusion (music)
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In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro. Pieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, for example, The slow movement of Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a chord progression interrupts the final cadence. The slow movement of Symphony No.5 by Beethoven,

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" Jingle Bells "'s outro Play (help · info)

Phrase (music)
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In music theory, a phrase is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections. Terms such as sentence and verse have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax, john D. White defines a phrase as, the smallest

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Phrase-group of three four bar phrases in Mozart 's Piano Sonata in F, K. 332, first movement. Play (help · info)

Section (music)
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In music, a section is a complete, but not independent musical idea. Types of sections include the introduction or intro, exposition, recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, conclusion, coda or outro, fadeout, bridge or interlude. In sectional forms such as binary, the unit is built from various smaller clear-cut units in combination. Some well k

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Rhythm changes bridge (B section of an AABA form) in the key of C. Play (help · info)

Composition (music)
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People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an ou

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People composing music

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Scherzo in A flat (Borodin) Play (help · info)

Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizon

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A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).

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Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier

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The composer Michel Richard Delalande, pen in hand.

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Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and groove, with entire songs based around a vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.

Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as

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Percussion instruments have clearly defined dynamics that aid the creation and perception of complex rhythms

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Rhythm, a sequence in time repeated, featured in dance: an early moving picture demonstrates the waltz.

Melodic
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodi

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" Pop Goes the Weasel " melody Play (help · info)

Harmonic rhythm
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In music theory, harmonic rhythm, also known as harmonic tempo is the rate at which the chords change in a musical composition, in relation to the rate of notes. Harmonic rhythm may be described as strong or weak, according to William Russo harmonic rhythm is, the duration of each different chord. in a succession of chords. According to Joseph Swai

Tonic (music)
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The triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. More generally, the tonic is the pitch upon which all other pitches of a piece are hierarchically referenced, scales are named after their tonics, thus the tonic of the scale of C is the note C. Simple folk music and traditional songs m

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Tonic (I) in ii-V-I turnaround on C, found at the end of the circle progression Play (help · info)

Tonality
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Tonality is a musical system that arranges pitches or chords to induce a hierarchy of perceived relations, stabilities, and attractions. In this hierarchy, the pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called the tonic. The root of the chord is considered to be the key of a piece or song. Thus a piece in which the chord is C major is sa

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Perfect authentic cadence (IV–V–I progression, in four-part harmony) in C major Play (help · info). "Tonal music is built around these tonic and dominant arrival points [cadences], and they form one of the fundamental building blocks of musical structure" (Benjamin, Horvitz, and Nelson 2008, 63).

Roman numeral analysis
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In music, Roman numeral analysis uses Roman numerals to represent chords. The Roman numerals denote scale degrees, used to represent a chord, for instance, III denotes the third degree of a scale or the chord built on it. Generally, uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords while lowercase Roman numerals represent minor chords, elsewhere, in

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Root position triads of the C major scale with Roman numerals. Play (help · info)

Dominant (music)
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The dominant is sung as so in solfege. The dominant function has the role of creating instability that requires the tonic for resolution, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The scheme I-x-V-I symb

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The second to last chord in this example is built on the dominant (V) and found here in the circle progression on C: I-IV-vii o -iii-vi-ii-V-I Play (help · info)

Root (chord)
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C

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Root, in red, of a C major chord (Play (help · info)). Note that the root is doubled at the octave.

Dominant seventh chord
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In music theory, a dominant seventh chord, or major minor seventh chord, is a chord composed of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. It can be viewed as a major triad with an additional minor seventh. When using popular-music symbols, it is denoted by adding a superscript 7 after the letter designating the chord root, the dominant

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Dominant seventh chord on C: C 7 Play (help · info).

Voicing (music)
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In music theory, voicing is the manner in which one distributes, or spaces, notes and chords among the various instruments or simultaneous vertical placement of notes in relation to each other. In triad chords, close root position voicing is the most compact voicing, with the notes in major third intervals, close and open harmony are harmony constr

Root position
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C

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Root, in red, of a C major chord (Play (help · info)). Note that the root is doubled at the octave.

Inversion (music)
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In music theory, the word inversion has several meanings. There are inverted chords, inverted melodies, inverted intervals, the concept of inversion also plays a role in musical set theory. An interval is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes using displacement of the octave so that retain their names. Under inversion, perfect interva

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Inversion example from Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier Play top (help · info) Play bottom (help · info). The melody on the first line starts on A, while the melody on the second line is identical except that it starts on E and when the first melody goes up the second goes down an equal number of diatonic steps, and when the first goes down the second goes up an equal number of steps.

Tritone substitution
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The tritone substitution is one of the most common substitutions found in jazz and was the precursor to more complex substitution patterns like Coltrane changes. Tritone substitutions are sometimes used in improvisation—often to create tension during a solo, for example, using C♯ major instead of G major in the key of C major is a tritone substitut

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F# 7 may substitute for C 7 because they both have E ♮ and B ♭ /A ♯ and pay due to voice leading considerations. Play (help · info)

Phrygian mode
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The Phrygian tonos or harmonia is named after the ancient kingdom of Phrygia in Anatolia. The octave species underlying the ancient-Greek Phrygian tonos corresponds to the medieval, an octave species was then built upon two of these tetrachords separated by a whole tone. This ethnic name was also applied by theorists such as Cleonides to one of thi

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Modern Phrygian mode on C Play (help · info).

Baroque music
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Baroque music is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750. This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an ap

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Baroque theatre in Český Krumlov

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Claudio Monteverdi in 1640

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Jean-Baptiste Lully

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Arcangelo Corelli

Landini cadence
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The technique was used extensively in the 14th and early 15th century. In a typical Medieval cadence, a major sixth interval is expanded to an octave by having each note move outwards one step. In Landinis version, a tone in the upper voice narrows the interval briefly to a perfect fifth before the octave. There could also be a voice, in the exampl

Degree (music)
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In music theory, a scale degree refers to the position of a particular note on a scale relative to the tonic, the first and main note of the scale from which each octave is assumed to begin. The term is useful for indicating the size of intervals and chords, scale degrees can be applied to any musical scale, however, the concept is most commonly ap

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Scale degree names (C major scale) Play (help · info)).

Burgundian School
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The Burgundian School was a group of composers active in the 15th century in what is now northern and eastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, centered on the court of the Dukes of Burgundy. The main names associated with this school are Guillaume Dufay, Gilles Binchois, Antoine Busnois, the Burgundian School was the first phase of activity of

Auld Lang Syne
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Auld Lang Syne is a Scots poem written by Robert Burns in 1788 and set to the tune of a traditional folk song. It is well known in countries, especially in the English-speaking world. By extension, it is sung at funerals, graduations. The international Scouting movement, in countries, uses it to close jamborees. The songs Scots title may be transla

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John Masey Wright and John Rogers' illustration of the poem, c. 1841.

Exposition (music)
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In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term implies that the material will be developed or varied. In sonata form, the exposition is the very first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or ot

Brahms
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Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his life in Vienna. Brahms composed for orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ. A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works and he worked with some of the leading performers of his time, including the

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Johannes Brahms

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Photograph from 1891 of the building in Hamburg where Brahms was born. Brahms's family occupied part of the first floor (second floor to Americans), behind the two double windows on the left hand side. The building was destroyed by bombing in 1943.

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Brahms's grave in the Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery), Vienna

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Brahms in mid-career

Amen
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The word amen is a declaration of affirmation found in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. It is found in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim worship as a word or response to prayers. Common English translations of the word amen include verily and truly and it can also be used colloquially to express strong agreement, as in, for instance, amen to tha

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"Amen" in contemporary (Madnhāyā) Syriac script.

Hymns
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A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος, which means a song of praise, a writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist. The singing of hymns is called hymnody,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mo

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Mozart c. 1780, detail from portrait by Johann Nepomuk della Croce

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Anonymous portrait of the child Mozart, possibly by Pietro Antonio Lorenzoni; painted in 1763 on commission from Leopold Mozart

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Mozart's birthplace at Getreidegasse 9, Salzburg

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The Mozart family on tour: Leopold, Wolfgang, and Nannerl. Watercolor by Carmontelle, ca. 1763

Irregular resolution
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In music, an irregular resolution is resolution by a dominant seventh chord or diminished seventh chord to a chord other than the tonic. Regarding the dominant seventh, there are many irregular resolutions including to a chord with which it has tones in common or if the move only a whole or half step. Consecutive fifths and octaves, augmented inter

Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early a

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Gustav Mahler, photographed in 1907 at the end of his period as director of the Vienna Hofoper

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Jihlava (German: Iglau) where Mahler grew up

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Mahler was influenced by Richard Wagner during his student days, and later became a leading interpreter of Wagner's operas.

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Gustav Mahler's home in Leipzig, where he composed his Symphony No. 1

Trill (music)
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The trill is a musical ornament consisting of a rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, usually a semitone or tone apart, which can be identified with the context of the trill. It is sometimes referred to by the German Triller, the Italian trillo, a cadential trill is a trill associated with a cadence. A trill provides rhythmic interest, melo

Whole tone
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In Western music theory, a major second is a second spanning two semitones. A second is an interval encompassing two adjacent staff positions. For example, the interval from C to D is a major second, diminished, minor and augmented seconds are notated on adjacent staff positions as well, but consist of a different number of semitones. The major sec

Bar (music)
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Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch. Typically, a piece consists of bars of the same length. In simple time, the top figure indicates the number of beats per bar, the w

Appoggiatura
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An appoggiatura is a musical ornament that consists of an added note in a melody that is resolved, delaying the appearance of the principal note. The added note is one degree higher or lower than the principal note. The term comes from the Italian verb appoggiare, to lean upon and it is also called a long appoggiatura to distinguish it from the sho

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Schleifer notation

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An extreme example of ornamentation as a fioritura from Chopin's Nocturne in D♭ major