6. Heat treatment. In the greenhouse, soil and other growing media are routinely sterilized before use. Depending on the temperature, sterilization may kill nematodes and water mold (at 50°C [122°F]). To kill bacteria, fungi, and worms, the temperature should be about 72°C (162°F). Weed seeds and some bacteria and viruses are killed at temperatures of about 82°C (180°F). When soil is oven sterilized, beneficial microbes (e.g., bacteria involved in the nitrogen cycle) may be killed, and toxic levels of salts (e.g., that of magnesium) may occur. Hot water is used in the greenhouse to clean certain dormant planting materials (e.g., seeds and bulbs) to remove pathogens. Heat treatment by hot air is used to dry cut surfaces of vegetative plant materials such as tubers to accelerate healing and thus prevent rot. For example, sweet potato may be air dried at 28 to 32°C (82 to 90°F) for about two weeks. Drying of grains and nuts is required before long-term storage. Fruits such as grapes and plums can be dried to produce raisins and prunes, respectively. The latter products can be stored for long periods without decay. 7. Cold treatment. Most postharvest protection of fresh produce is achieved through cold storage to maintain quality. Cold storage does not kill pathogens but slows their activity. 8. Radiation. Exposure of harvested products to the appropriate dose of radiation (e.g., gamma radiation) is known to prolong shelf life. Similarly, it is known that certain pathogenic fungi (e.g., Botrytis and Alternaria) produce spores only under conditions in which the light received contains ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Some greenhouses are glazed with UV-absorbing material so that radiation with a wavelength below 390 nanometers is not received within the greenhouse. Vegetables may be produced without infection by these pathogens. SUMMARY Every organism has natural enemies. Biological control exploits natural defense mechanisms, managing and controlling them to increase their efficiency. Some plants have structural features that confer upon them resistance to particular pests. Certain plants contain chemicals such as pyrethrums that repel pests. Parasitism and prey-predator relationships occur in nature. Plant breeders are able to breed resistance to pests and diseases into cultivars. Diseases and pests can be controlled by adopting crop rotation practices. Some microbial sprays are available for use against a number of pests. Governments enact legislation to restrict the movement of live biological material from one place to another to limit the spread of contagious diseases. Such quarantine laws differ from place to place. Sometimes pests have to be physically or mechanically removed by, for example, trapping or handpicking. MODULE 3 CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PLANT PESTS: INSECTICIDES 8.11 INSECTICIDES AND THEIR USE Insecticides are chemicals used to control insect pests. They are classified in several standard ways. 8.11 Insecticides and Their Use 261

8.11.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON KILLING ACTION Chemicals used to control insect pests vary in the way they kill, which thus provides a basis for classifying insecticides. This method of classification is outmoded. Since insects differ in morphology and feeding habits, for example, it is critical that the insecticide attack the pest where it is most vulnerable. The various action modes under which insecticides may be classified are as follows: 1. Contact action. Insecticides that kill by contact action are also called contact poisons. They are effective when sprayed directly onto the pests or when the pests come into contact with poisons as they move on plant parts that have been sprayed. Once in contact with the pest, contact poisons attack the respiratory and nervous systems, with lethal consequences. Most insects succumb to contact poisons (e.g., malathion). Insects that hide on the undersides of leaves are hard to hit directly by contact poisons. 2. Stomach action. Stomach poisons must be ingested by the pest to be effective. As such, chewing insects (e.g., grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars) are effectively controlled by this class of poisons. Once ingested, the poison (e.g., rotenone) is absorbed through the digestive tract. 3. Systemic action. Systemic insecticides permeate the entire plant so that any insects that suck or chew are exposed to the poisons. They may be applied as foliar sprays or directly to the soil to be absorbed by roots. Insects cannot hide from this chemical since once they feed (whether by sucking or chewing) they ingest the toxin. The caution to observe with systemic poisons is that when applied to food crops, the produce must not be eaten until the toxin (e.g., orthene) has broken down to a safe level. 4. Fumigation. Fumigants are volatile chemicals that enter the target pest through its respiratory system. They are effective when used in closed systems such as storage houses and greenhouses. The soil can also be fumigated to control soilborne diseases such as root-knot nematodes. Though gaseous, fumigants have contact action. The fine particles settle on the body of the insect before entering through the pores. 5. Repellent action. Most insecticides are designed to kill pests. However, some chemicals, called repellants (e.g., Bordeaux mixture), repel insects (e.g., leaf hopper and potato flea beetle) from plants without any killing action. 6. Attractant action. Females of many insect species secrete certain chemicals called pheromones that attract male partners. Scientists have successfully synthesized these chemicals for use in luring male insects to traps, where they are caught and destroyed. The Japanese beetle moth and gypsy moth are easily baited by the use of pheromones. By baiting males and destroying them, most females are left unfertilized, thus reducing the population of the insects. 7. Suffocation. Scale insects are widely controlled by spraying oils that plug the breathing holes in their bodies and suffocate them. Active Ingredient (A.I.) The amount of actual pesticide in a formulation that is toxic or inhibiting to the pest. 8.11.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMISTRY OF ACTIVE INGREDIENT Modern classification of insecticides is based on chemical composition, since many modern insecticides have both contact and stomach actions. The two broad classes of insecticides are based on the chemistry of the active ingredient (the compound responsible for the killing action). Inorganic Compounds (Inorganics) Insecticides made up of inorganic compounds or minerals are becoming increasingly less common. They are usually designed to kill by stomach action and include compounds such as arsenic (lead arsenate or calcium arsenate), sulfur, and fluorine. 262 Chapter 8 Principlesand Methods of Disease and Pest Control