This dissertation is dedicatedto my Grandmother, Charity Lawson whopassed away September 14, 2000. Following a short illness her life wastaken away unexpectedly. After our biological mother left when I was 2years old and my brother Tim was only 3 months old Grandma became themother

to Tim and I.

My Grandma had been a constant source of inspiration andencouragement in my life. Grandma was born August 25, 1918 nearChicago, Illinois to Romanian Immigrates (Gypsies). She spent most of herchildhood traveling with her parents as a

fortuneteller in a circus.

If you asked me to tell you what about my Grandmother stood out, Iwould have to say that she was an extremely proud woman. She held herhead high and kept great faith through the many trials and tribulationsthroughout herlife. I would also tell you that I remember her explaining the“Golden Rule” to me when I was 6 years old and I will never forget, she saidthat it meant to “Do onto others as you wish done onto you”. I am so veryproud of my Grandmother-

a woman endued with courage, strength, andthe will to fight. I am fortunate to have not only loved her, but to have beenloved by her. What a gift she gave me, for as I write this dedication a tearrolls down my cheek.

iii

I love and miss you Grandma…

Acknowledgements

Without question my family have felt the pain and joy of this project,and I thank them for their love, support and endurance of many uniquehardships.

This project could not have happened without the enthusiasm andguidance of so many others. Itwould be impossible to list the names of allof those that have encouraged me in the adaptation of biometrics as anassistive technology. I would therefore, like to pay homage to theinsightfulness and courage of the one individual whom opened my eyes tothe assistive possibilities of biometric. That person is Michael Burks,Public Relations Officer of the International Center for Disability Researchon the Internet. Thank you, Michael...

Finally, a thank you to AT&T (my financial sponsor) for their decision tosupport this project came from their individual leadership. They areleaders whom recognize the value and importance of this study tobusiness and society.

Within the international culture of today’s information age there exist(s)barriers to the adaptation of a secure access methodologies to electronicdevices and technology for people of variable abilities. This problem to beaddressed is that of a threefold design, each element is interconnectedand of an iterativenature.

The first element of the threefold problem is the lack of an internationalassistive technology interface standard(s) that are based on universaldesign philosophies, the second element is the cultural barriers that havebeen created by the mindset of the international society, and the final(third) resulting element is that the first two have created a shortage ofqualified personnel in the workplace.

xix

There also exists a theoretical assistive technology resolution thatcould feasibly be adapted to the environments of schools, businesses,and the international society at large. Biometric technologies could befused with other technologies both existing and emerging to play asignificant role in the eradication of the threefold problem.

THE METHOD

While the basal premise of this dissertation is that of originalinnovation. There is no denying that the supporting elements of thereferences have lent themselves to this paper are fundamentally based onthe eternal philosophies of applied research. It is the first-hand accountsand experiences of those whom have come before that has lead to thetransition of emerging theories and technologies to origin of what is nowknown as historical documentation. It is the historical documentation thatwill add credence to the premise and this dissertation.

The exploration of case studies and technology trails was invaluable inthe research process. The exploration has allowed for the formation ofnew case based approaches to address the validity and redundancy ofthe research. The descriptive online surveys, one-on-one interviews,

conferences, teleconferences, and committees broughtinto play thecultural psyche and philosophies of the international communities.

xx

The quantification and qualification of the research is based on theexistence of the encompassed commonalities between all of the acquireddata and research methods. The margin for error is subjective in natureand left to the item-by-item interpretation of each individual person.

THE FINDINGS

The absolute majority of the research material, findings, and availabletechnologies predominately tend to support the feasible adaptation ofbiometrics to people of variable ability levels. Currently, with respect to thethreefold problem

the findings demonstrate that element one and threecan be eradicated today. However, element two, the shift of the culturalbarrier (paradigm) cannot be accomplished until elements one and threehave been put into effect. Once element one and three havebeensuccessfully put into effect, it will take several years or maybe a decadefor element two of the threefold problem to be eradicated or at the veryleast significantly transformed.

1

Introduction

Chapter 1

The information age has already revolutionized the way in which welive our lives from day to day. Each and everyday, a multitude of labor-intensive tasks are automated via some type of electronic device orsoftware application. The aforementioned growth of electronics andtechnology has resulted in a greater demand for a rapid and definedtechnique on how to adapt and implement emerging technologies to theever-changing environment of today. However, businesses and theinternational society must not neglect to remember that with everyadvanceof automation of technology comes the need to invent astandardized interface in order to properly facilitate the need for individualaccess and control.

Proclamation of Problem

Within the international culture of today’s information age there existbarriers to the adaptation of a secure access methodology to electronicdevices and technology for people of variable abilities. This problem to beaddressed is that of a threefold design, each element is interconnectedand of an iterative nature.

2

The

first element of the threefold problem is the lack of an internationalassistive technology interface standard(s) that are based on universaldesign philosophies, the second element is the cultural barriers that havebeen created by the mindset of the international society, and the final(third) resulting element is that the first two has created a shortage ofqualified personnel in the workplace.

There also exist a theoretical assistive technology resolution that couldfeasibly be adapted to the environments of schools, businesses, and theinternational society at large. Biometric technologies could be fused withother technologies both existing and emerging to play a significant role inthe eradication of the threefold problem.

The critical shortage of qualified personnel in the workplace is partlyrelated to the change of societies from that of an industrial basedworkforce to a knowledge based workforce, partly because the babyboomers have only had about half as many children as their parents, andpartly due to medical advances (Schaie & Schooler, 1998). As a result thenumber of 20 to 24 year olds entering the workforce continues to fall(NCD, 2001).

This critical shortage has forced employers to rethink their recruitmentstrategies and

look towards targeting chronological mature

people, andpeople with disabilities (variable abilities) (NCD, 2001). It is important to3

recognize that people with disabilities are the largest minority group, theycross all ethnic, racial, gender, chronological groups, and number ataround 54 million Americans and growing (U.S. Department of Labor[USDOL], 2002). Out of the 29 million working age adults with variableabilities in the U.S., about two thirds are unemployed and nearly 80percent of that two thirds would like to work but have not had theopportunity to do so (USDOL, 2002).

While people with variable abilities may have the desire to work, theystill may have to overcome the formidable attributes of the cultural barrieror innate characteristics of a disenabling mental, physical, or emotionalbarrier. Cultural barriers embody numerous complex, dynamic, anddiverse challenges to be overcome. These challenges are related to butare not limited to organizational, management, and worker cultures. Inplain terms, it is discrimination (Hagner & DiLeo, 1993). To overcome thedisenabling effects of mental, physical, or emotional barriers, society atlarge has looked towards the properties rewards of assistive technologiesfor reinforcements.

Assistive technologies persists to grow at a break neck pace, societyhas not evolved rapidly enough to maintain pace with the necessities of auniversally conceived access and control solution. With respect to thethreefold problem, the adaptation or fusion of

biometric technologies and4

smart card technologies to facilitate access and control is one techniquethat can be employed to accomplish such a daunting chore.

Even in the technologically advanced environment of today, thederivational technologies of

biometrics are still considered to be in thecategory of emerging technologies. Typically, an emerging technologyinhabits what is referred to as the development stage and is therebyfundamentally proprietary in nature. Therefore, national or internationaladaptation and implementation standards are traditionally not establisheduntil it is financially worthwhile to do so or until a profound episodedemonstrates the necessity for a particular technological solution.

The necessity for a particular technology is typically directly related tothe desires of the human psyche (élan vital). Factors surrounding thosedesires may possibly be demonstrated in the form of protection (such asself-protection, self-preservation, self-defense, security, freedom, financialmarkets…) or public perception (such as conceit, complacency, personalprivacy, happiness, identity fraud, safety, loss of control, governmentalconspiracy…). Even though an emerging technology may demonstrate thecapacity to be financially rewarding

and/or fulfill a profound need asolution may still not be established, because the technology does notapply to a large enough demographic. For instance, the marketingstrategy may not have included disabled individuals (a routinely5

overlooked demographic). It is not until such a technology is applicable orneeded by the public at large that an implementation standard isestablished.

Since biometric technologies do not currently meet the perceived needsof the public at large, a standardized implementation plan has not beenconceived. I would however contend that public perception as related tothe cultural paradigm is the greatest challenge facing businesses,managers, and society.

Foundation of the Study

This study examines the theoretical feasibility of enhancing assistivetechnologies through the adaptation and implementation of biometrictechnologies. Biometric technologies could theoretical be applied to allareas of our earthly environment and may just become the standardidentification interface between man and machine.

The information gathered from this study can be absolutely applied toassistive technologies and in turn can be a powerful tool to aid in theexpansion of knowledge and the creation of opportunities for allindividuals worldwide.

Significance of the Study

The technological underpinnings of biometric technologies are somehave the most promising and life altering fundamentals in existence today.6

Barring cultural barriers, the adaptation and implementation of biometricstechnologies could feasibly bring about a rudimentary shift with respect tosecurity, access and control. Thereby, giving birth to the creation of manynew assistive technology solutions and launching the world into a newera, an era where all things are

possible and disabilities as we know themtoday have been eradicated from existence.

Biometric technologies can be adapted to areas requiring secureaccess and control. Biometrics can be used to access logical assets andto potentially facilitate absolute control of both logical devices and physicalcomponents, in both the realities of the virtual and tangible worlds. Intheory, biometric technologies could be adapted to interface withapplications, personal computers, networks, accounts, human resourcerecords, telephone system, automotive vehicles, planes, trains,wheelchairs, exoskeleton, and could be used in the invocation ofcustomized profiles to enhance the mobility of people with varied abilitylevels (Nanavati et al.).

An added benefit of to biometric technologies is that it could potentiallyprovide society with a feasible resolution to one of the greatest challengesfacing businesses of today. That problem is the task of business tomaintain a qualified workforce. This is primarily because of the changefrom an industrial workforce to a knowledge workforce and because the7

baby boomers have only had about half as many children as their parents.

Scope of the Study

This study will center on the underlining technologies of biometrics andthe existence of cultural barriers with respect to the adaptation ofbiometric technologies standards within the workplace and theinternational society.

All attributes of the underlining technologies and the cultural barrierswill include but notbe limited to the positives and negatives of biometricreaders, biometric characteristics, smart cards, neural interfaces,technology standards, implementation strategies, legal issues, privacyissues, barriers, workplace culture, government culture, civilian culture,the elderly, and people with disabilities (whom have the most to gain).

Rationale of the Study

To overcome the disenabling effects of mental, physical (mobility),structural (building), or emotional barriers as related to the access andcontrol of electronic devices and technology that span the environments ofboth the virtual and tangible worlds.

The societies of the world have hence, looked towards the advantagesof assistive technologies for assistance. The reality of the matter is

thatwhile assistive can help to overcome many mental, physical, andemotional barriers it cannot and will not ever possess the ability to8

overcome the reigning number one barriers confronting people withdisabilities. The reigning number one barrier hasbeen created by theinternational society and is referred to as the cultural barriers. Culturalbarriers embody numerous complex, dynamic, and diverse challenges tobe overcome. These challenges are related to but are not limited tocultures of the workplaces and societies of the international communities(Hagner & DiLeo, 1993).

Biometric technologies will play a significant role in the eradication ofthe threefold problem.

However, the best rationale of all is that to do so isthe mark of an enlighten

people and the right thing to do.

Glossary of Terms

The following are terms that will be used throughout the study.

Ability to Verify/ATV:

Is a combination of the FTE and FNMR.

Abstract Interactor:

An interactor that describes the selection, input, oroutput for a user interaction, without constraining the concrete form ofthe interaction.

Accessibility:

The opportunity for people of any ability level to interfacewith electronic devices or technology to overcome all logical andphysical barriers.

Acoustic Emission:

A proprietary technique used in signatureverification. As a user writes on a paper surface, the movement of the9

pen tip over the paper fibers generates acoustic emissions that aretransmitted in the form of stress waves within the material of

a writingblock beneath the document being signed. The structure-borne elasticwaves behave in materials in a similar way to sound waves in air andcan be detected by a sensor attached to the writing block.

Active Impostor Acceptance:When an impostor submits a modified,simulated or reproduced biometric sample, intentionally attempting torelate it to another person who is an enrollee, and the person isincorrectly identified or verified by a biometric system as being thatenrollee. Compare with 'PassiveImpostor Acceptance'.

AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System):

A highlyspecialized biometric system that compares a single finger image witha database of finger images, AFIS is predominantly within lawenforcement agencies.

A sequence of instructions that tell a biometric system how tosolve a particular problem. An algorithm will have a finite number ofsteps and is typically used by the biometric engine to compute10

whether a biometric sample and template is a match. See also'Artificial Neural Network'.

Alternate/Abstract Interface Markup Language (AAIML):

The Alternate& Abstract Interface Markup Language (AAIML) is a vehicle by whicha target conveys an abstract user interface description to a URC inthe control phase, i.e. after a session has been opened between theURC and the target. The abstract UI description is presentationindependent and

must include all features and functions the targetprovides via its default (built-in) user interface.

API (Application Program Interface):

A set of services or instructionsused to standardize an application. An API is computer code used byan application developer. Any biometric system that is compatible withthe API can be added or interchanged by the application developer.See also Part IIITerms Related to Specific Biometric Techniques

A transparent liquid contained in the anterior andposterior chambers of the eye, produced by the ciliary process itpasses to the venoussystem

via the canal of Schlemm.

11

Artificial Neural Network:

A method of computing a problem. An artificialneural network uses artificial intelligence to learn by past experienceand compute whether a biometric sample and template is a match.See also 'Algorithm'.

ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit):

An integrated circuit(silicon chip) that is specially produced for a biometric system toimprove performance.

Attempt:

The submission of a biometric sample to a biometric system foridentification or verification. A biometric system may allow more thanone attempt to identify or verify.

Authentication:

Is the process of validating that an individual is in fact theperson whom they claim to be.

Auto-correlation:

A proprietary finger scanning technique. Two identicalfinger images are overlaid in the auto-correlation process, so that lightand dark areas, known as Moiré fringes, are created.

Automatic ID/Auto ID:An umbrella term for any biometric system orother security technology that uses automatic means to checkidentity. This applies to both one-to-one verification and one-to-manyidentification.

Backbone:

The main wire of a network or the wire to which the nodes ofa network connect.

12

Behavioral Biometric:

A biometric that is characterized by a behavioraltrait that is learnt and acquired over time rather than a physiologicalcharacteristic. See Part IIITerms Related to Specific BiometricTechniques

A specialized technique used by some AFIS vendors. Binning isthe process of classifying finger images according to finger imagepatterns. This predominantly takes place in law enforcementapplications. Here finger images are categorized by characteristicssuch as arches, loops and whorls and held in smaller, separatedatabases (or bins) according to their category. Searches can bemade against particular bins, thus speeding up the response time andaccuracy of the AFIS search.

Biometric:

A measurable, physical characteristic or personal behavioraltrait used to recognize the identity, or verify the claimed identity, of aliving person.

Biometric Application:

The use to which a biometric system is put. Seealso 'Application Developer'.

13

Biometric Data:

The extracted information taken from the biometricsample and used either to build a reference template or tocompareagainst a previously created reference template.

Biometric Engine:

The software element of the biometric system, whichprocesses biometric data during the stages of enrolment and capture,extraction, comparison and matching.

Biometric Identification Device:

The preferred term is 'BiometricSystem'.

Biometric Sample:

Data representing a biometric characteristic of anend-user as captured by a biometric system.

Biometric System:

An automated system capable of, Capturing abiometric sample from anend user; Extracting biometric data fromthat sample; Comparing the biometric data with that contained in oneor more reference templates; Deciding how well they match; andIndicating whether or not an identification or verification of identity hasbeen achieved.

Biometric Taxonomy:

A method of classifying biometrics. For example,San Jose State University's (SJSU) biometric taxonomy usespartitions to classify the role of biometrics within a given biometricapplication. Thus an application may be classified as:



Cooperative vs. Non-Cooperative User

14



Overt vs. Covert Biometric System



Habituated vs. Non-Habituated User



Supervised vs. Unsupervised User



Standard Environment vs. Non Standard Environment

Biometric Technology:

A classification of a biometric system by the typeof biometric.

Booking:

The process of capturing inked finger images on paper, forsubsequent processing by an AFIS.

Capacitance:

Finger images capture technique that senses an electricalcharge, from the contact of ridges, when a fingeris placed on thesurface of a sensor.

Capture:

The method of taking a biometric sample from the end user.

Central processing unit (CPU):

The brains of the computer.

Certificate authority (CA):

The third party that issues digital certificatesand vouches

for the identity of parties involved in an onlinetransaction.

Certification:

The process of testing a biometric system to ensure that itmeets certain performance criteria. Systems that meet the testingcriteria are said to have passed and are certifiedby the testingorganization.

15

Comparison:

The process of comparing a biometric sample with apreviously stored reference template or templates. See also 'One-To-Many' and 'One-To-One'.

Claim of Identity:

When a biometric sample is submitted to a biometric

system to verify a claimed identity.

Claimant:

A person submitting a biometric sample for verification oridentification whilst claiming a legitimate or false identity.

Clock speed:

The speed at which the CPU or microprocessor executesinstructions.

Closed-Set Identification:

When an unidentified end-user is known to beenrolled in the biometric system. Opposite of 'Open-Set Identification'.

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor):

A type ofintegrated circuit used by some biometric systems because of its lowpower consumption.

Combinatorial:

The branch of mathematics concerned with analyzingcombinations of events and their associated probabilities.

Commensurability:

The universal format and length of Codes.

Concrete Interactor:

An interactor that describes the selection, input, oroutput for a user interaction, and includes information on the visual ornon-visual realization of that interaction, for example a list box or aparticular speech grammar.

16

Control Phase:

The control phase is the time period in the URC-targetcommunication exchange when the URC controls the target viaAAIML.

Crossover Rate:

Synonym for 'Equal Error Rate'.

D Prime:

A statistical measure of how well a biometric system candiscriminate between different individuals. The larger the D Primevalue, the better a biometric system is at discriminating betweenindividuals.

Deep Web:

Refers to a massive trove of information stored in databases,multimedia files and other formats that don't turn up on standardsearch engine services.

Degrees of Freedom:

The number of statistically independent features inbiometric data.

Denial of service attack:

Occurs when hackers send thousands orhundreds of thousands of requests to a server at the same time withthe intention of knocking it out

of service.

Discovery Phase:

The discovery phase initializes the URC to locate andidentify all available targets.

Discriminate Training:

A means of refining the extraction algorithm sothat biometric data from different individuals are as distinct aspossible.

17

DNA:DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID organic chemical of complexmolecular structure that is found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellsand in many viruses. DNA codes genetic information for thetransmission of inherited traits.

A method of representing a human face as a linear deviationfrom a mean or average face.

Eigenhead:

The three dimensional version of Eigenface that alsoanalyses the shape of the head.

Encryption:

The act of converting biometric data into a code so thatpeople will be unable to read it. A key or a password is used todecrypt (decode) the encrypted biometric data.

End

User:

A person who interacts with a biometric system to enroll orhave his/her identity checked.

End User Adaptation:

The process of adjustment whereby a participantin a test becomes familiar with what is required and alters theirresponses accordingly.

Enrollee:

A person who has a biometric reference template on file.

18

Enrollment:

The process of collecting biometric samples from a personand the subsequent preparation and storage of biometric referencetemplates representing that person's identity.

Enrollment Time:

The time period a person must spend to have his/herbiometric reference template successfully created.

Equal Error Rate:

When the decision threshold of a system is set so thatthe proportion of false rejections will be approximately equal to theproportion of false acceptances. A synonym is 'Crossover Rate'.

Ergodicity:

The representative ness of sub samples.

Ethernet:

Technology standard used to link computers in local areanetworks.

Extraction:

The process of converting a captured biometric sample intobiometric data so that it can be compared to a reference template.

Extranet:

A network linking different computer networks over the Internet.

Failure to Acquire:

Failure of a biometric system to capture and extractbiometric data.

Failure to Acquire Rate:

The frequency of a failure to acquire.

False Acceptance:

When a biometric system incorrectly identifies anindividual or incorrectly verifies an impostor against a claimed identity.Also known as a Type II error.

19

False Acceptance Rate/FAR:

The probability that a biometric system willincorrectly identify an individual or will fail to reject an impostor. Alsoknown as the Type II error rate.

False Match Rate/FMR:

Alternative to 'False Acceptance Rate'. Used toavoid confusion in applicationsthat reject the claimant if theirbiometric data matches that of an enrollee. In such applications, theconcepts of acceptance and rejection are reversed, thus reversing themeaning of 'False Acceptance' and 'False Rejection'. See also 'FalseNon-Match Rate'.

False Non-Match Rate/FNMR:

Alternative to 'False Rejection Rate'. Usedto avoid confusion in applications that reject the claimant if theirbiometric data matches that of an enrollee. In such applications, theconcepts of acceptance and rejection arereversed, thus reversing themeaning of 'False Acceptance' and 'False Rejection'. See also 'FalseMatch Rate'.

False Rejection:

When a biometric system fails to identify an enrollee orfails to verify the legitimate claimed identity of an enrollee. Also knownas a Type I error.

False Rejection Rate/FRR:

The probability that a biometric system willfail to identify an enrollee, or verify the legitimate claimed identity ofan enrollee. Also known as a Type I error rate.

20

Failure to Acquire/FTA:

Represents the probability that the userbiometric characteristic is either damage, flawed, and/or notpresented in the correct manner.

Failure to Enroll/FTE:

Represents the probability that a user failed toenroll into the biometric system.

FAS:

Fused Accessible Solution.

Field Test:

A trial of a biometric application in 'real world' as opposed tolaboratory conditions.

Filtering:

A specialized technique used by some AFIS vendors. Filteringis the process of classifying finger images according to data that isunrelated

to the finger image itself. This may involve filtering by sex,age, hair color or other distinguishing factors.

Fixed-Text System:

The preferred term is 'Text-Dependent System'.

Goats:

Biometric system end users whose pattern of activity wheninterfacing with the system varies beyond the specified range allowedby the system, and who consequently may be falsely rejected by thesystem.

Genetic Penetrance:

The degree to which characteristics are passedfrom generation to generation.

Hamming Distance:

The

number of disagreeing bits between two binaryvectors. Used as measure of dissimilarity.

21

Identification/Identify:The one-to-many process of comparing asubmitted biometric sample against all of the biometric referencetemplates on file to determine whether it matches any of thetemplates and, if so, the identity of the enrollee whose template wasmatched. The biometric system using the one-to-many approach isseeking to find an identity amongst a database rather than verify aclaimed identity. Contrast with 'Verification'.

Impostor:

A person who submits a biometric samples in either anintentional or inadvertent attempt to pass him/herself off as anotherperson who is an enrollee.

In-House Test:

A test carried out entirely within the environs of thebiometric developer, which may or may not involve external userparticipation.

Instant Messaging:

A system in which words typed on a computerappear almost simultaneously on the computer screens of otherpeople.

Interactor:

An abstract or concrete user interface element that describesa choice for the user to make, some input to obtain from the user, orsome output to convey to the user.

Invisible Web:

see DEEP WEB.

22

Iris Features:

A number of features can be found in the iris. These arenamed corona, crypts,filaments, freckles, pits, radial furrows andstriations.

Linux:

An operating system developed by volunteer programmers aroundthe world as an alternative to Microsoft Corp.'s Windows. In additionto not being a Microsoft product, the other big selling point of Linux isthat it is open-source software.

Live Capture:

The process of capturing a biometric sample by aninteraction between an end user and a biometric system.

Live Scan:

The term live scan is typically used in conjunction with fingerimage technology. Synonym for 'Live Capture'.

Local area network (LAN):

A computer network with a reach limited to anoffice, a building or a campus.

Managed service provider (MSP):

Any company that offers outsourcedhosting and management of Web-based services, applications andequipment.

Match/Matching:The process of comparing a biometric sample against apreviously stored template and scoring the level of similarity. A acceptor reject decision is then based upon whether this score exceeds thegiven threshold.

to your computer'sphysical (MAC) address on the LAN. The MAC address is used by theMedia Access Control sub layer of the Data-Link Layer (DLC) layer oftelecommunicationprotocol. There is a different MAC sub layer foreach physical device type. The other sub layer level in the DLC layeris the Logical Link Control sub layer.

Microprocessor:

See

Central Processing Unit.

Minutiae:

Small details found in finger images such as ridge endings orbifurcations.

Minutiae Points:

are local ridge characteristics that occur at either a ridgebifurcation or a ridge ending.

MOC (Match-On-Card):

technology offered in certain smart cards withwhich a biometric template comparison is carried out within theconfines of the card.

24

Morphogenesis:

The process of shape formation: the processes that areresponsible for producing the complex shapes of adults from thesimple ball of cells that derives from division of the fertilized egg.

Neural Net/Neural Network:

Synonym for 'Artificial Neural Network'.

OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer/Module):

A biometricorganization (Manufacturer), which assembles a complete biometricsystem from parts; or a biometric Module for integration into acomplete biometric system.

One-To-Many:

Synonym for 'Identification'.

One-To-One:

Synonym for 'Verification'.

Open-Set Identification:Identification, when it is possible that theindividual is not enrolled in the biometric system. Opposite of 'Closed-Set Identification'.

Open source:

Technology with an underlying programming code that isfree for all to use and alter. A band of programmers, technologistsand some companies around the world are advocating open-sourcetechnology. The goal is to develop technology that is compatible withother technologies.

In open-set identification, when the individual is not enrolledin the biometric system.

Passive Impostor Acceptance:

When an impostor submits his/her ownbiometric sample and claiming the identity of another person (eitherintentionally or inadvertently) he/she is incorrectly identified or verifiedby a biometric system. Compare with 'Active Impostor Acceptance'.

Patch:

Software program used to fix a hole or bug in a softwareapplication. Companies offer "patches" free to customers whenvulnerabilities or problems are discovered in the products they sell.

Pectinate Ligaments:

The network of fibres at the iridocorneal anglebetween the anterior chamber of the eye and the venous sinus of thesclera; it contains spaces between the fibres that are involved indrainage of the aqueous humor, and is composed of two portions: thecorneoscleral part, the part attached to the sclera, and the uveal part,the part attached to the iris.

Performance Criteria:

Pre-determined criteria established to evaluate theperformance of

the biometric system under test.

Photonics:

Technology used to transmit voice, data and video via lightwaves over thin strands of glass.

Physical/Physiological Biometric:A biometric, which is characterizedby a physical characteristic rather than a behavioral trait. See Part III26

A security method whereby a(usually) four-digit number is entered by an individual to gain accessto a particular system or area.

Platen:

The surface on which a finger is placed

during optical fingerimage capture.

Plug-in:

Software programs that make a Web browser run better,including allowing the downloading of information on the Internet.

Presentation-Independent Template:

A form of UIID. It describes amapping from a user interface socket to a structured set of abstractinteractors. This mapping provides access to all of the commands andreadable data points within the user interface socket.

Privacy:The degree to which an individual can determine which personalinformationis to be shared with whom and for what purpose. Always a

concern is when an authorized users pass confidential information toanother vendor or government agency.Public key infrastructure(PKI):

Refers to the framework, including digital certificates and27

certificate authorities, used to securely conduct and authenticateonline transactions.

Reasonable Accommodation:

Include those structural and technologicalmodifications that do not impose an undue hardship on the employer.

Receiver Operating Curves:

A graph showing how the false rejectionrate and false acceptance rate vary according to the threshold.

Recognition:

The preferred term is 'Identification'.

Response Time:The time period required by a biometric system to returna decision on identificationor verification of a biometric sample.

Ridge:

The raised markings found across the fingertip. See also 'Valley'.

Ridge Ending:The point at which a finger image ridge ends.

Risk Assessment Methodology (RAM):

A three-step method ofassessing the risk of whether to endorse or veto the relevance of aproposed solution.

Routers:

Devices that act as traffic cops for computer data on theInternet.

Security:

The protection of data against unauthorized access. Programsand data can be secured by employing a carefully designed andplanned authentication method.

Semantic Web:

A vision or concept articulated by some computingleaders--

including Tim Berners-Lee,

recognized as the creator of28

the World Wide Web--

of how computer programs and technologiescan be used to semantically structure, describe, search and interpretdocuments and data on the Web. This concept envisions the Webevolving from an HTML-based one to the semantic Web.

Interpretation and translation resources thatmay be used in building a user interface. These resources include text

for labeling interface elements, help text, translations into otherlanguages, and icons, graphics or other multi-media elements.

Target:

The target is a device (e.g. VCR) or service (e.g. online phonedirectory) that the user wishes to use.

Target-Class Template:

A UIID that can be mapped to the user interfacesocket of any target of a certain class such as microwave ovens ortelevisions.

29

Technology Access Barriers (TAB):

A structure or object that impedesfree bi-directional in parallel access (movement) to technology.

Template/Reference Template:Data, which represents the biometricmeasurement of an enrollee used by a biometric system forcomparison against subsequently, submitted biometric samples.

Thermal:

A finger image capture technique that uses a sensor to senseheats from the finger and thus captures a finger image pattern.

Third-generation networks):

Much-hyped technology

that promises toenable high-speed downloading of data, including videophoneservice, and worldwide compatibility.

Third Party Test:

An objective test, independent of a biometric vendor,usually carried out entirely within a test laboratory in controlled

environmental conditions.

Threshold/Decision Threshold:The acceptance or rejection of biometricdata is dependent on the match score falling above or below thethreshold. The threshold is adjustable so that the biometric systemcan be more or less strict, depending on the requirements of anygiven biometric application.

Throughput Rate:

The number of end users that a biometric system canprocess within a stated time interval.

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Trojan horse:

Malicious code that is often hidden in e-mail attachmentsthatonce activated can be used to steal or destroy programs anddata on a computer.

UBID:

Acronym for Universal Biometric Identification.

UI:

Acronym for User Interface.

UIID:

Acronym for User Interface Implementation Description.

Ultrasound:

A technique forfinger image capture that uses acousticwaves to measure the density of a finger image pattern.

Universal Remote Console (URC):

The URC is a device or softwarethrough which the user accesses a target. The URC complies with theAIAP-URC specification andis capable of rendering any AAIMLspecified user interface. It is “universal” in the sense that it can beused to control any AIAP-URC compliant target. It is assumed thatusers will choose a URC capable of meeting their personal interactionrequirements.

URC:

Acronym for Universal Remote Console.

User:

The client to any biometric vendor. The user must be differentiatedfrom the end user and is responsible for managing and implementingthe biometric application rather than actually interacting with thebiometric system.

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User Interface Instance:

A UIID that completely describes a userinterface and has been built and made available in advance of theuser’s session with the target.

User Interface Instantiation:

A UIID that completely describes a userinterface and has been dynamically derived from a presentation-independent template during the user interface construction phase ofa user’s session with a target.

User Interface Socket:

A low level description of a specific target. Itdescribes the functionality

and state of the target as a set of datapoints and commands.

Validation:The process of demonstrating that the system underconsideration meets in all respects the specification of that system.

Valley:

The corresponding marks found on either side of a finger imageridge.

Verification/Verify:The process of comparing a submitted biometricsample against the biometric reference template of a single enrolleewhose identity is being claimed, to determine whether it matches theenrollee’s template. Contrast with 'Identification'.

Web bugs:

Invisible files hidden on Web pages to help marketersdetermine who has seen their ads.

Webcast:

Audio, video or both broadcast on the Web.

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Web clipping:

Shortened versions of Web pages designed to fit and bedisplayed on

the small screens of handheld devices.

Web services:A catch-all term describing a trend in which services aredelivered over the Internet, or the Internet is used to automate tasks.

Wide area networks (WANs):

Computer networks, spanning greatdistances

that are connected to each other.

Wi-fi:

A wireless technology standard that was formerly called 802.11b.The technology allows people to connect to networks using simpleradio antennas in their laptops or desktop PCs.

Worm:

A computer program that replicates and spreads from computer tocomputer via e-mail.

WSQ (Wavelet Transform/Scalar Quantisation):

A compressionalgorithm used to reduce the size of reference templates.

X Internet:

Buzzword coined by Forrester Research Inc., with the Xstanding for "executable" or "extended" Internet in which non-PCdevices and consumer products, including cell phones, televisions,cars and refrigerators, are linked to the Internet.

Zero Effort Forgery:

An arbitrary attack on a specific enrollee identity inwhich theimpostor masquerades as the claimed enrollee using his orher own biometric sample.

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Overview of the Study

This research paper will attempt to show that within the internationalculture of today’s information age there exist a threefold (interconnected)problem to be addressed with respect to the existence of a secure accessmethodology to electronic devices and technology for people with variableabilities. Furthermore, this study will analyze the theoretical aspects,concepts, and barriers (logical, physical, cultural, and tangible) related tothe adaptation and implementation of biometric technologies to peoplewith of variable abilities. This study must and will embody thecharacteristics of universal designphilosophies.

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Review of Related Literature

Chapter 2

From a multi-dimensional perspective there are a multitude of relatedtheories, concepts, practices (strategies), and technologies from bothprinted and electronic mediums that apply to each individual facet ofassistive technologies, biometric technologies, smart card technologies,universal design, neural control, privacy issues, legal issues, security,accessibility, and the ever-present cultural barriers of society. More to thepoint, the related literature will link thetheories, concepts, and practices ofthe aforementioned facets to the adaptation of biometric technologies topeople with disabilities. Thereby, proving that biometric technologies canindeed be adapted to people with disabilities as the supreme assistivetechnology.

The paragraphs that follow will only be a synopsis of the dominantphilosophies as related to the many facets of implementation andadaptation of biometric technologies to people with disabilities. Hence, the35

following paragraphs will assist to establish a literary framework of culturaltheories, societal concepts, implementation practices, and technologystandards.

Mainstream Biometric Technologies

The function of a biometric technologies authentication system is tofacilitate controlled access to applications, networks, personal computers(PCs), and physical facilities. A biometric authentication system isessentially a method of establishing a person’s identity by comparing thebinary code of a uniquely specific biological or physical characteristic tothe binary code

of an electronically stored characteristic called abiometric. The defining factor for implementing a biometric authenticationsystem is that it cannot fall prey to hackers; it can’t be shared, lost, orguessed. Simply put, a biometric authentication system is an efficient wayto replace the traditional password based authentication system(Ashbourn, 2000).

Emerging Biometric Technologies

The neural waves emanate from a subject’s brain in the form ofbrainwaves or bioelectrical impulses. To further iterate this, please refer toan article called “Monkey Brain Operates Machine” published on the BBCNews website (http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1025000/1025471.stm). This is not the first article or paper of this36

type, to promote the attributes of neural control. On the contrary, therehave been countless papers and articles released from multipleuniversities and colleges in an attempt to document their research.

IBVA Technologies (www.ibva.com) is the first company tocommercialize the distribution of a neural control device. Essentially, aneural control device is a system that is designed to sense and analyzeapersons’ neural waves and then interfaces with a computer to allow theuser to navigate (control) with brainwaves; neural control would beanalogous to the use of a human hand. The problem is that thetechnology must be customized for each user and is therefore not easilyadaptive to each individual. The researcher has speculated thatbrainwaves are unique and could emerge from neural devices as thenewest biometric. The title of the paper is "Let Me In!!! (Biometric Access& Neural Control)” and was published (November 2001) athttp://www.icdri.org/biometrics/let_me_in.htm

by the International Centerfor Disability Resources on the Internet. Republished (March 2002) athttp://www.nextinterface.net/biometricsandsecurity

and (June 2002) athttp://www.findbiometrics.com/Pages/letmein.html.

Corporate and university website are of a tremendous source ofinformation on emerging technologies. The corporate website of PosID,Inc. (http://www.posidinc.com) is an excellent source of information on an37

emerging biometric technique known as "Infrared Imaging And PatternRecognition" and it should be as they hold the patented (#5,351,303).

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

As indicated by the white paper composed by Accenture (2001), aRFID employs radio frequency communications to exchange databetween a portable memory device and a host computer. An RFIDtypically consists of a tag, label,

or PCB for storing data, an antenna tocommunicate, and a controller. RFID’s can either be active (battery) orpassive (no battery) and can be produce with read/writer (two-way) orread only (one-way) capabilities. Additionally, an RFID is a suitablemethod of replacing bar code.

Editor Chris Corum (2002) of AVISAIN Inc., authored “Why RFID is theright choice for personal ID”. In this newsletter the author declares that anRFID card is the best and most secure method of identification. An RFIDcard is a bare bones version of a contactless smart card.

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Smart Card Technologies

The most common standardized encryption method used to secure acompany’s infrastructure is the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) approach.This method consists of two keys with a binary string ranging in size from1024-bits to 2048-bits, the first key is a public key (widely known) and thesecond key is a private key (only known by the owner). However, the PKImust also be stored, and inherently, it too can fall prey to the sameauthentication limitation of a password, PIN, or token. It too can beguessed, lost, stolen, shared, hacked, or circumvented; this is evenfurther justification for a biometric authentication system (Corcoran et al.).

Per Walder (1997), the best overall way to secure an enterpriseinfrastructure, whether it be small or large is use a smart card. A smartcard is a portable device with an embedded central processing unit (CPU).

The smart card can either be fashioned to resemble a credit card,identification card, radio frequency identification (RFID), or a PersonalComputer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) card(Biocentric Solutions Inc., n.d.). The smart card can be used to store dataof all types, but it is commonly used to store encrypted data, humanresources data, medical data, and biometric data (template). The smartcard can be access via a card reader, PCMCIA slot, or contactless39

proximity reader; it is therefore in compliance with section 508 of theAmericans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (Walder, 1997).

A smart card is the best storage medium to use when implementing abiometric authentication system; only by the using a smart card can anorganization satisfy all security and legal requirements (BiocentricSolutions Inc., n.d.). Corcoran et al. (1999) stated, “This processirrefutably authenticates the person presenting the card as the sameperson to whom the cryptographic keys belong and provides thenecessary tight binding between cryptographic key storage and theauthorized user of the cryptographic keys.” (p. 5).

Smart Card Alliance (http://www.smartcardalliance.org) is a not-for-profit organization that is known among the smart card industry as thepremiere source of smart card research data and reports. The mission ofthe Smart Card Alliance is to promote the acceptance of smart cardtechnologies. The mission of the Smart Card Alliance would be analogousto the mission of the Biometrics Consortium, which is to promoteacceptance of biometrics.

The premiere expert on the use of RFIDs and smart cards as assistivetechnology to aid people with disabilities is Dr. John Gill, OBE FIEE of theRoyal National Institute for the Blind. Dr. Gill has participated in numerousstudies and published multiple papers that are of great significance to this40

study. Other than the historical documentation that has been contributed byDr. Gill, the research has also been participating in a one-on-oneconversation with Dr. Gill via email exchange.

Assistive Technologies

Assistive technologies play a major role in school, work, and thesociety at large. With respect to authors of assistive technology books, thequantity of material is scarce; on the other hand the quality of theavailable material is supreme. “Assistive technology: A resource for school,work, and community”, was composed by Flippo, Inge, & Barcus (1995) andis one such artistic production.

The fundamental development and foundation of assistive technologiesare dictated by legislation

and federal policy. The legislation and policieshave also set the stage for standards associated to the application ofcommunication technologies, sensory impairment technologies, mobility,and strategies for schools, the workplace, and society (Flippo,Inge, &Barcus, 1995).

While published books are scarce, there are many more source ofliterature related to assistive technologies from government and nonprofitorganizations, both domestic to the United States and international.Theaccessible future

was authored by the National Council on Disability [NCD]41

(2001, June 21) and is a publication that attempts to establish that anassistive technology framework is a civil rights concept.

As implied by Heldrick (1999), the employment of assistive technologieswithin companies has also created a multitude of developmental staffingand creative financing issues.

Cultural Barrier (Disabled & Elderly)

The post World War I theory or concept of disability was perceived asa medical condition (mental,physical, or emotional) that lead to the