F-box proteins (FBPs) represent one of the largest and fastest evolving
gene/protein families in the plant kingdom. The FBP superfamily can be
divided in several subfamilies characterized by different C-terminal
protein-protein interaction domains that recruit targets for proteasomal
degradation. Hence, a clear picture of their phylogeny and molecular
evolution is of special interest for the general understanding of
evolutionary histories of multi-domain and/or large protein families in
plants. In an effort to further understand the molecular evolution of
F-box family proteins, we asked whether the largest subfamily in Arabidopsis thaliana,
which carries a C-terminal F-box associated domain (FBA proteins)
shares evolutionary patterns and signatures of selection with other
FBPs. To address this question, we applied phylogenetic and molecular
evolution analyses in combination with the evaluation of transcriptional
profiles. Based on the 2219 FBA proteins we de novo identified
in 34 completely sequenced plant genomes, we compared their
evolutionary patterns to a previously analyzed large subfamily carrying
C-terminal kelch repeats. We found that these two large FBP subfamilies
generally tend to evolve by massive waves of duplication, followed by
sequence conservation of the F-box domain and sequence diversification
of the target recruiting domain. We conclude that the earlier in
evolutionary time a major wave of expansion occurred, the more
pronounced these selection signatures are. As a consequence, when
performing cross species comparisons among FBP subfamilies, significant
differences will be observed in the selective signatures of
protein-protein interaction domains. Depending on the species, the
investigated subfamilies comprise up to 45% of the complete superfamily,
indicating that other subfamilies possibly follow similar modes of
evolution.

TIR1/AFBTIR1The COP9 signalosome (CSN) is an eight subunit protein complex conserved in all higher eukaryotes. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the CSN regulates auxin response by removing the ubiquitin-like protein NEDD8/RUB1 from the CUL1 subunit of the SCF ubiquitin-ligase (deneddylation). Previously described null mutations in any CSN subunit result in the pleiotropic cop/det/fus
phenotype and cause seedling lethality, hampering the study of CSN
functions in plant development. In a genetic screen to identify
enhancers of the auxin response defects conferred by the tir1-1 mutation, we identified a viable csn mutant of subunit 3 (CSN3), designated eta7/csn3-3. In addition to enhancing tir1-1 mutant phenotypes, the csn3-3
mutation alone confers several phenotypes indicative of impaired auxin
signaling including auxin resistant root growth and diminished auxin
responsive gene expression. Unexpectedly however, csn3-3 plants are not defective in either the CSN-mediated deneddylation of CUL1 or in SCF-mediated degradation of Aux/IAA proteins. These findings suggest that csn3-3 is an atypical csn
mutant that defines a novel CSN or CSN3-specific function. Consistent
with this possibility, we observe dramatic differences in double mutant
interactions between csn3-3 and other auxin signaling mutants compared to another weak csn mutant, csn1-10. Lastly, unlike other csn mutants, assembly of the CSN holocomplex is unaffected in csn3-3 plants. However, we detected a small CSN3-containing protein complex that is altered in csn3-3
plants. We hypothesize that in addition to its role in the CSN as a
cullin deneddylase, CSN3 functions in a distinct protein complex that is
required for proper auxin signaling.

Seed germination is a critical stage in the plant life cycle and the first step toward successful plant establishment. Therefore, understandinggermination is of important ecological and agronomical relevance. Previous research revealed that different seed compartments (testa,endosperm, and embryo) control germination, but little is known about the underlying spatial and temporal transcriptome changes thatlead to seed germination. We analyzed genome-wide expression in germinating Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedswith both temporaland spatial detail and provide Web-accessible visualizations of the data reported (vseed.nottingham.ac.uk). We show the potential of this highresolutiondata set for the construction ofmeaningful coexpression networks, which provide insight into the genetic control of germination.The data set reveals two transcriptional phases during germination that are separated by testa rupture. The first phase is marked by largetranscriptome changes as the seed switches from a dry, quiescent state to a hydrated and active state. At the end of this first transcriptionalphase, the number of differentially expressed genes between consecutive time points drops. This increases again at testa rupture, the start ofthe second transcriptional phase. Transcriptome data indicate a role for mechano-induced signaling at this stage and subsequently highlightthe fates of the endosperm and radicle: senescence and growth, respectively. Finally, using a phylotranscriptomic approach, we show thatexpression levels of evolutionarily young genes drop during the first transcriptional phase and increase during the second phase.Evolutionarily old genes show an opposite pattern, suggesting a more conserved transcriptome prior to the completion of germination.

Microarrays are commonly applied to study the transcriptome of specific species. However, many available microarrays arerestricted to model organisms, and the design of custom microarrays for other species is often not feasible. Hence,transcriptomics approaches of non-model organisms as well as comparative transcriptomics studies among two or morespecies often make use of cost-intensive RNAseq studies or, alternatively, by hybridizing transcripts of a query species to amicroarray of a closely related species. When analyzing these cross-species microarray expression data, differences in thetranscriptome of the query species can cause problems, such as the following: (i) lower hybridization accuracy of probes dueto mismatches or deletions, (ii) probes binding multiple transcripts of different genes, and (iii) probes binding transcripts ofnon-orthologous genes. So far, methods for (i) exist, but these neglect (ii) and (iii). Here, we propose an approach forcomparative transcriptomics addressing problems (i) to (iii), which retains only transcript-specific probes binding transcriptsof orthologous genes. We apply this approach to an Arabidopsis lyrata expression data set measured on a microarraydesigned for Arabidopsis thaliana, and compare it to two alternative approaches, a sequence-based approach and a genomicDNA hybridization-based approach. We investigate the number of retained probe sets, and we validate the resultingexpression responses by qRT-PCR. We find that the proposed approach combines the benefit of sequence-based stringencyand accuracy while allowing the expression analysis of much more genes than the alternative sequence-based approach. Asan added benefit, the proposed approach requires probes to detect transcripts of orthologous genes only, which provides asuperior base for biological interpretation of the measured expression responses.

The effects of copper on germination and growth of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum ) was investigated separately using different concentrations of CuSO4. The germination percentage and radical length had different responses to cupric ions: the root growth increased with increasing copper concentration up to 1 mM Cu+2Cu2+ and was inhibited thereafter. In contrast, the germination percentage was largely unaffected by concentrations of copper below 10 mM.The reduction in root growth may have been due to inhibition of hydrolytic enzymes such as amylase. Indeed, the average total amylolytic activity decreased from the first day of treatment with [Cu+2Cu2+] greater than 1 mM. Furthermore, copper affected various plant growth parameters. Copper accumulation was markedly higher in roots as compared to shoots. While both showed a gradual decrease in growth, this was more pronounced in roots than in leaves and in stems. Excess copper induced an increase in the rate of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production and lipid peroxidation in all plant parts, indicating oxidative stress. This redox stress affected leaf chlorophyll and carotenoid content which decreased in response to augmented Cu levels. Additionally, the activities of proteins involved in reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification were affected. Cu stress elevated the ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity more than two times at 10 mM CuSO4. In contrast, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) levels showed only minor variations, only at 1 mM Cu+2Cu2+. Likewise, total phenol and flavonoid contents were strongly induced by low concentrations of copper, consistent with the role of these potent antioxidants in scavenging ROS such as H2O2, but returned to control levels or below at high [Cu+2Cu2+]. Taken together, these results indicate a fundamental shift in the plant response to copper toxicity at low versus high concentrations.

Background: Jasmonates are important regulators in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses as well as indevelopment. Synthesized from lipid-constituents, the initially formed jasmonic acid is converted to differentmetabolites including the conjugate with isoleucine. Important new components of jasmonate signalling includingits receptor were identified, providing deeper insight into the role of jasmonate signalling pathways in stressresponses and development.Scope: The present review is an update of the review on jasmonates published in this journal in 2007. New dataof the last five years are described with emphasis on metabolites of jasmonates, on jasmonate perception andsignalling, on cross-talk to other plant hormones and on jasmonate signalling in response to herbivores and pathogens,in symbiotic interactions, in flower development, in root growth and in light perception.Conclusions: The last few years have seen breakthroughs in the identification of JASMONATE ZIM DOMAIN(JAZ) proteins and their interactors such as transcription factors and co-repressors, and the crystallization of thejasmonate receptor as well as of the enzyme conjugating jasmonate to amino acids. Now, the complex nature ofnetworks of jasmonate signalling in stress responses and development including hormone cross-talk can beaddressed.

Plant genomes
encode numerous small molecule glycosyltransferases which modulate the
solubility, activity, immunogenicity and/or reactivity of hormones,
xenobiotics and natural products. The products of these enzymes can
accumulate to very high concentrations, yet somehow avoid inhibiting
their own biosynthesis. Glucosyltransferase UGT74B1
(UDP-glycosyltransferase 74B1) catalyses the penultimate step in the
core biosynthetic pathway of glucosinolates, a group of natural products
with important functions in plant defence against pests and pathogens.
We found that mutation of the highly conserved Ser284 to leucine [wei9-1
(weak ethylene insensitive)] caused only very mild morphological and
metabolic phenotypes, in dramatic contrast with knockout mutants,
indicating that steady state glucosinolate levels are actively regulated
even in unchallenged plants. Analysis of the effects of the mutation
via a structural modelling approach indicated that the affected serine
interacts directly with UDP-glucose, but also predicted alterations in
acceptor substrate affinity and the kcat value, sparking an interest in
the kinetic behaviour of the wild-type enzyme. Initial velocity and
inhibition studies revealed that UGT74B1 is not inhibited by its
glycoside product. Together with the effects of the missense mutation,
these findings are most consistent with a partial rapid equilibrium
ordered mechanism. This model explains the lack of product inhibition
observed both in vitro and in vivo, illustrating a general mechanism
whereby enzymes can continue to function even at very high
product/precursor ratios.

Calcium (Ca2+) signaling modules are essential for adjusting plant growth and performance to environmental constraints. Differential interactions between sensors of Ca2+ dynamics and their molecular targets are at the center of the transduction process. Calmodulin (CaM) and CaM-like (CML) proteins are principal Ca2+-sensors in plants that govern the activities of numerous downstream proteins with regulatory properties. The families of IQ67-Domain (IQD) proteins are a large class of plant-specific CaM/CML-targets (e.g., 33 members in A. thaliana) which share a unique domain of multiple varied CaM retention motifs in tandem orientation. Genetic studies in Arabidopsis and tomato revealed first roles for IQD proteins related to basal defense response and plant development. Molecular, biochemical and histochemical analysis of Arabidopsis IQD1 demonstrated association with microtubules as well as targeting to the cell nucleus and nucleolus. In vivo binding to CaM and kinesin light chain-related protein-1 (KLCR1) suggests a Ca2+-regulated scaffolding function of IQD1 in kinesin motor-dependent transport of multiprotein complexes. Furthermore, because IQD1 interacts in vitro with single-stranded nucleic acids, the prospect arises that IQD1 and other IQD family members facilitate cellular RNA localization as one mechanism to control and fine-tune gene expression and protein sorting.