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By using the computing power of the Amiga with Amiga Basic, we can add some harmonic sine waves (overtones) to another sine wave and construct a more aurally rewarding timbre. The Wavebuilder program (p. 22) contains an Amiga Basic program that allows us to do this. Once you have typed the program in, bold down the right Amiga key and press R to run the program, or select Start by highlighting it with the mouse pointer on the pull down menu. When yon use the most sophisticated and exciting computer on the market today, you deserve an equally sophisticated and exciting companion magazine. Introducing AmigaWorld, published by CW Communications Peterborough, the leader in quality computer publications. It's the only magazine for Amiga users. AmigaWorld!s clearly-written features help new users take full advantage of the newest Commodore. Plus, lively and fully-illustrated articles offer inspiration to everyone who wants to be creative while learning. Youll get outstanding color reproduction on high- quality; oversized pages. Instead of a reasonable facsimile. Youll see true-to-life examples of the Amiga's colorful graphics! Magazine Making the Amiga Work For You With unrivaled graphics and sound capabilities, the Amiga is already in a class by itself. AmigaWorld not only tells you why, it shows you how every incredible feature can work for you. In each issue, AmigaWorld authors will guide you through a new frontier of computing! Subscribe to AmigaWorld today and: • Explore the speed and versatility of the Amiga for home and business applications. • Learn about the latest and very best new hardware software on the market. • Receive in-depth, easy-to-understand analyses of Amiga’s astounding features. • Discover a regular buyer’s guide, timely reviews, and user hints and tips. Become A Charter Subscriber And Save 25% The cost of an AmigaWorld subscription couldn’t be better! By becoming a charter subscriber, you'll save 25% off the basic subscription rate, and nearly 37% off the cover price! As the world’s largest publisher of computer-related information, CW Communications unconditionally guarantees your AmigaWorld subscription.

Figure 4.
B. Square Wave
(two, four, six, etc.) will produce a triangle wave (Figure 5c), which sounds soft and mellow. These waves are interesting musically; they are produced in various forms in conjunction with other aural parameters by acoustic instruments. However, interesting waves can be constructed with overtones that don’t seem to follow any pattern. Experiment! The worst that can happen is that you might freeze up your Amiga. If you do, turn it off for a few seconds to reset it to its original state.
Pitch or Frequency
A wave’s overall shape determines the timbre of a sound, but has nothing to do with pitch, or how high or low it sounds. Pitch is controlled by the number of cycles (or repetition of wave patterns) that pass a point in a given time. This is referred to as a sound wave's frequency and is measured in cycles per second. When
261. 63 wave patterns pass a given point (such as an ear drum) each second, it produces the frequency musicians call middle C. (For some unexplained reason, engineers and musicians have an aversion to the term cycles per second, and insist on using Hertz, after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.) Sounds from 20 to
15,000 Hertz, which roughly parallels the average person’s range of hearing, can be programmed in Amiga Basic and are shown in Figure 6. This chart shows frequencies of notes or musical tones in that range and compares it to MIDI and the standard piano keyboard range. Reading vertically on the chart shows where middle C (C4) is physically located on a piano, its frequency in Hem, and where the note representing it is placed on the grand staff in standard music notation. This information is supplied for the entire Amiga range. You can use it to translate written music to the frequencies that the Amiga uses, and vice versa.
Durations
112
96
80
64
48
32
16
0
- 16
- 32
- 48
- 64
- 80
- 96
- 112
- 128
(SIN(I * K ) + SIN(2 * I * K ) + S N(3 *hK ))
The length of time, or the duration, the Amiga will play a note is entered as the second,number in the SOUND statement. This ranges from 0 to 77, which is a little over four seconds at the most. Collectively, the relationships between durations of the tones that make up a piece of music establishes its overall tempo the difference between waltzing and break dancing, for instance. The Amiga Basic manual suggests values in beats per minute for very slow, Larghissimo, to very fast, Prestissimo (Italian terms sometimes shown on sheet music). The numerical values shown in the manual seem altogether too fast to me, but again, let experimentation be your guide. Learn to trust your ear.
A series of Basic SOUND statements specifying the parameters for each note can be used to plav a multi- ple-part music composition on the Amiga, but writing a program in that form is tedious. For a convenient note- playing subroutine, sec Louis Wallace's article “Making Music with Amiga Basic” in this issue, p. 42. By experimenting with the program given here to find timbres you like, you can modify both timbres and notes in Wallace’s subroutine and play an altogether different song.
Digital Sampling
Another method of supplying timbre data to the Amiga is with digitally recorded samples. These are brief numeric recordings of real-world sounds that can be manipulated a number of ways under software control to make them even more aurally interesting. Several companies are making sampling devices with which you can make your own samples for use in Basic programs with the correct data format (see “Amiga Music Products,” this issue, p. 76). Since data structure for samples is fairly well standardized, you should also be able to download samples intended for other eight- bit devices (for example, the Macintosh) from commercial networks or electronic bulletin boards, and use them in the Amiga.
Conclusion
Many fascinating mathematical relationships exist in music, and the Amiga is perfectly suited for exploring them. We just touched the surface with sine, which you don’t have to understand to use, but none of this could have been done without the aid of a computer. No musician, however dedicated, would consider doing all those calculations and adding them by hand 1,280 times as this program does in a few seconds, each time it constructs a waveform. While other personal com-
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AMIGA BASIC 9-OCTAVE RANGE
Listing I. Wavebuilder program.
'BUILDING A WAVEFORM WITH SINE WAVES DEFINT A-Z
WINDOW 2 'Waveform DATA"„0
Build Waveform:
K =2*3.14159265 256 DIM TIMBRE (255)
FOR I = 0 TO 255
TIM BR E(D=31*(SINCI*K )+SIN(2*I*K )+SIN(3*I*K )+SIN(4*I*K )) WIDTH 80,6 PRINT TIMBRE (I),
NEXT I
Playlt:
WAVE. 0,TIM BR E
C =32.703 : R E M PLAYS Cl THROUGH C9 FOR X = 0 TO 8
SOUND C ,15,200 C -C *2 NEXT X PRINT
PRINT "Shall I play it again? (Enter y or n)";
GotA Key:
A$ =IN KEYS
IF A $ ="n" THEN PRINT A$ :ER ASE TIMBRE:PRINT "Program end":END IF A$ ="y" THEN PRINT A$ :GOTO Playlt IF A$ >"y" OR A$ >"n" THEN GetAKey IF response = 0 THEN GetAKey putcrs are capable of co.np»,alions jike ,hcsc even if a musician has them in hand, the problem remains of converting the results into sound, and somehow getting them into the electronic music instrument.
J
I he Amiga will permit musicians to explore complex mathematical ielationships like these, and devise others, and it will perform not only the calculations, but the music as well. Several hooks are listed below for further study on this subject. Although none arc Amiga specific, they describe additive synthesis and other proce dures in detail, all of which can he implemented in Amiga Basic programs.®
Baleman, Wayne A., Introduction to Computer Music, John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
Chamberlain, Hal, Musical Applications of Microprocessors, second edition, Hayden, 1980.
Mathews, Max V., The Technology of Computer Music, second edition, MIT Press, 1969.
Address alt author correspondence to Peggy Herrington, 1032 Forrester St. NW, Allnujuerque, ISM 87012.
Relevant Terms
? Acoustic: of or relating to sound, the sense of hearing, or the science of sound; acoustic instruments are those that do not use electronic modification. Additive synthesis: the method (used by the Amiga) whereby sounds are digitally constructed from combinations of their basic elements.
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?Amplitude: volume determined by the height (vertical axis) of a wave at any particular point in a waveform.
? Cycle: one complete performance of a vibration or electric oscillation.
? Digital recording: a recording made wherein the sound is represented or stored in electronic memory in numerical form (binary).
Ay Tychon Printz
? Digital-to-ancilog converter: an electronic device that transforms information from the binary numbers computers understand to analog information (information represented in a continuous fashion, such as sound waves or alternating current) that people understand.
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? Duration: the length of time a particular sound occurs.
? Frequency: measured in cycies-per second, frequency is determined by the number of times individual wave patterns pass a given point each second (e.g., an ear drum).
? Fundamental with harmonic overtones: a sound composed of a group of pure tones (sine waves); a fundamental is the principal musical tone upon which overtones a given scries of higher tones are based.
? Hertz: a term used in physics for cycles per second,
? Overtones: harmonic tones that, when present or absent from a fundamental, give sounds their uniqueness.
? Pitch: the highness or lowness of a sound determined by its frequency.
? Sound waves: vibratory disturbances in fluids or solids, comparable to ripples or waves in water, detectable by the eardrum in the approximate range of 20-20,000 Hertz.
Subtractive synthesis: the form of sound synthesis wherein unwanted properties are filtered out of a given electronically generated sound to arrive at a desired sound.
Tempo: a piece of music’s overall timing determined by the relationships between tone durations.
? Timbre: a term used to refer to the unique or characteristic quality of a particular sound or musical voice.
? Tone; a sound of definite pitch and vibration.
? Waveforms: a mathematical representation of a sound wave displaying its particular characteristics
(i. e., pitch, amplitude, etc.), usually pictured via a graph of deviation at a fixed point versus time.
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Designing Amiga’s Sound
By Peggy Herrington
An interview with Sam Dicker and Bob Hoover, designers of the software for the Amiga’s high-quality and highly-touted sounds.
Sam Dicker, Manager of Entertainment Software for CommodorcAmiga, and Bob Hoover, now Director of Product Development for Mimetics Corporation of Palo Alto, California, designed the software that drives the Amiga's sound hardware. AmigaWorld sat down with them recently to explore their insights and to discuss the sound capabilities of the Amiga.
The Amiga sound system includes two- channel stereo from four independent sound generators, each equipped with a variable rate digital-to-analog converter and a volume control for sound sampling, and a separate low-pass Filter for each channel. Standard system software allows for simultaneous access to the sound system and realtime text-to-speech conversion.
AmigaWorld: Sam, how did you get involved with Amiga in the first place?
Sam: Before I was at Amiga 1 was a developer in the coin-operated video game business. When that started to wane, I was hired by Bob Pariseau to be Amiga’s representative from the video game world. We changed our primary direction from a game machine to a personal creativity tool and hired people with experience in operating systems and graphics and other areas, but there was a gap in our software department in sound. I had a fairly good understanding of how to make sounds in general, but I knew very little about the needs of the electronic music community, and that’s where Bob came in.
Bob: I had been working as a consultant when, about two years ago, Bob Pariseau and Jay Miner were visiting the music companies, looking for people to work with on ilie Amiga. I was very interested and began working with Sam specifically on what the sound kerne! Was going to be like.
AW: So you and Sam began investigating various ways of controlling the Amiga sound hardware through software. How would you describe that hardware?
Bob: Probably the best way to describe it is like four looping “tape” players, which play a sound out of the computer’s memory.
That sound can come from anywhere, from
¦
say, a sampler the tape recorder which takes the sound itself and turns it into numbers that are put into memory, or from a synthesis program that computes the numbers directly. You can play up to four of those sounds or the same sound out of four different outputs assigned to stereo. Each of these so-called tape players has a volume control and a register that says where to start and stop, and how fast or slow to play it back. Software can interact very loosely or tightly with the synthesis, in that the hardware can go on its own, hut more interesting sounds require more software control. You can simply play a sound, or for instance, if you want to add dynamics and character, then the software becomes more involved.
Sam: That’s only if you want to add things to a sound things that weren’t in the actual recording in the first place before you put it in the computer's memory. A lot of applications are going to play recorded sounds, and those sounds can be anything from the simplest tone to a symphony orchestra.
Bob: You can record a dog barking or glass breaking or balloons popping any sound you want and then the software can manipulate it, or it can direct the hardware to manipulate it, like in playing pieces of it, for instance. It's a very flexible system. It’s sort of like giving somebody a piece of paper and some scissors and a pencil and then saying, “Now, what can you do with that?”
AW: How does the quality of sound produced by the Amiga compare to that of professional synthesizers? I've heard comments that it never will measure np because of, among other things, a lack of specialized sound-processing circuitry.
Bob: In general, I would say dial's true, but (his machine has a lot of tric ks because of the computer processing available.. .a lot of synthesizers use tricks too, so the question is whether the tricks that this machine can do can outrun the tricks that synthesizers can do.
Sam: Anytime you go to design synthesizers, you have a number of trade-offs. When you build a dedicated svnthesizcr you use a lot
J i
oi custom chips a lot of silicon devoted to making sound which can have certain advantages. It’s not trying to do graphics at the same time, for instance.
Bob: The architecture is very flexible. Something few people reading the systems specifications realize is what that flexibility can give you in terms of performance. It’s a little hard to describe without getting very technical, but your ear can be fooled very easily, so if you use a lot of tr icks on a sound, you can make the computer sound like it’s much more sophisticated than it really is. Now, if you take only a simple sampled sound, then yeah, people will probably notice the limits to the fidelity, but if someone that’s fluent with these tricks utilizes them well, they can fool people.
Sam: And even though few end users need capabilities like that, software developers can create libraries of these sounds. I have a sound library right here that includes some 10 sounds, any of which could he incorporated into any program, and some of them are quite complex.
AW: I heard the Amiga play a sampled version of the well-known Stravinsky Firebird chord, that big full-orchestra block of sound. 1 could have sworn it was the real thing. It almost rattled the windows.
Bob: The Amiga is very good at those sorts of sounds because they’re very rich and they’re very uniform. It does an excellent job.
Sam: One of the tricks that can make the ear think the Amiga has better sound hardware than the specs indicate has to do with the eight-bit waveform it uses when you’re converting analog sound into digital numbers. With eight bits, you only have a possible 256 values to use to represent a sound event at any given time. The best sound quality in the recording industry is 16-hit resolution, which gives you 65,000 different values to work with- -for the same sound. Bob: When you have 65,000 values, if you have a quiet sound, it still has many levels to it, hut if you have only 256 values and you have a quiet sound, maybe it will only have a dozen levels to it. So a quiet sound will sound very gruff on an eight-hit system, while on a 16-hit system, it will sound very clean.
AW: Rather like the difference between a little portable AM radio and a stereo
system?
Sam: Right. When you have a sound that’s fairly loud and ii uses the full range of values, the noise is masked by the sound you
j j
don’t hear it because the sound is much louder than the noise. One of the tricks that can be clone is possible because each audio channel in the Amiga has a volume control, ljct’s take the sound of striking a key on a piano, for example. Reproducing a sound like that on an eight-bit system is very difficult, because when the initial sound is made when you first strike the key it is very loud. It is important that the sound not overload the eight bits, that it
stavs within the 256 available values. When

you get to the quiet portion of that sound as it fades away, ii sounds very rough, very noisy. This is something that people who have worked with sampling keyboards arc quite familiar with. However, if you "are clever with the Amiga, you can take the sound when you record it and make the quiet portion louder so that the sound will
always use the full 256 values, and in that

printf(“Hello, world n”);
}
To write your first C program, type this into a file called helloworld.c and follow the instructions in the sidebar to compile, link and run it. Though this is a trivial program, we encourage you to use it to learn the program building procedures before moving 011 to more complex examples.
Printf is shown here in its simplest form; it just prints the string you give it onto your screen. The n is a special character meaning newline. This example also shows that all C statements must end with a semicolon.
Comments
In writing any kind of program, you should always include plenty of comments. In C, a comment is any text following the characters * until the characters * are encountered. Unlike some languages, the end of a line does not terminate a comment. So, he careful: Forgetting your * can cause some of your code to he considered part of your comment.
Variables
All variables in C must be declared before they can be used. Declarations are put at the beginning of a block, before any other kinds of statements. When declaring a variable, you first specify its type. The two most common types are int (integer) and char (character). You follow the type with the name of the variable. All declaration statements are, of course, terminated by a semicolon.
Variable names must start with a letter and consist only of letters, numbers and underscores (_). Though variable names may be of any length, in most C versions only die first eight characters are significant. One peculiarity of C is that case is significant. Thus, the variable i is different from the variable 1. Also, all C keywords must be in lowercase. We encourage you to avoid mixing cases and make all your variables either lowercase or uppercase, as distinctions based on case alone can easily become very confusing. Some valid sample variable names include: temp, X2 and myname.
You can declare an array by following a variable name with the size of the intended array in brackets
[ and ]. You can also declare multiple variables of the same type by separating the names with commas. Here are some example declarations:
int total _ errors;
int i, j, err;
char temp, name[ 8(1 ];
The first statement declares an integer variable, total _ errors. The second declares three more: i, j and err. The third statement declares a character variable, temp, and an array of 80 characters, called name.
Basic Assignment Statements
Variables are given values and manipulated via assignment statements. The simplest example of this is the statement:
' = j*
This puts into i a copy of the value in j. More complex assignment statements involve expressions. Fxpressions can be arithmetic, using the operators -f (add), - (subtract). * (multiply), I (divide) and % (modulus division). You can also have a unary minus. For example:
i= -j:
However, there is no unary plus. You also may include parentheses in your expressions as needed.
C supplies several shortcut constructs that you will encounter frequently, as many programmers find them useful. One class of shortcuts stems from the ability to have something called assignment operators. Such operators are used when the left-hand side of the assignment statement also occurs on the right. In this case, the operator is pulled to the left of the - and the duplicated term is dropped from the right-hand side. A few examples will help to clarify this construct:
i = i - 1; is equivalent to i - = 1;
j = j* i + k); is equivalent to j* = i + k;
I'he other shortcut we should mention here involves the increment and decrement operators. A very common thing to do in a program is to add or subtract one from a variable. To increment a variable '. Just do:
i ++; or ++i;
To decrement it, use instead of ++ . You need to
be aware that there is a difference between the two forms shown. This difference matters when these constructs are in the middle of more complex statements.
In the first form, is incremented after its value has
been used. In the second, it is incremented before its value is used.
Flow of Control
The way programs progress, by choosing what to do from among several choices, is often referred to as flow of control. In C, the basic components you will use to affect the flow of control are if statements, loops of various types and expressions.
The statement consists of the keyword if followed by an expression in parentheses, followed by the statement to execute if the expression evaluates to true. If you want to do something else when the expression is false, then this statement may be followed by the key-

I
i

word else and a statement to execute in that case. This example sets j to be - i if i is less than 0, or j to i if not (j will equal the absolute value of tj.
If (i 0)
j = " '*•
else
j = k
C provides a full set of relational and logical operators that you can use in building such expressions. The following are the relational operators:
= = (equal)
(less than)
(greater than)
= (less than or equal)
= (greater than or equal)
! = (not equal)
The logical operators are 8c8c (and), 11 (or) and ! (not).
You can create very complex expressions from these operators. When you do so, we suggest you use parentheses to specify precisely what you mean.
Relational and logical expressions evaluate to true or false. You can also put other types of expressions inside if statements and C will evaluate them. If the value of such an expression is 0, it is considered false; otherwise, it is considered true. Thus, you could put such expressions as i-4 or i = 4 in if statements. The first is true unless i equals four, while the second is always true because it evaluates to four. An extension of this is that multiple assignments can be done as a single statement, such as:
j = i = 4;
This leads us to a key point about C. Just about everything in G is an expression that can be evaluated to have some value. One type of expression often found in C that uses this feature is of the form i=foo(). In this example, i is set to the value returned from the function foo. The value of the expression is also this value.
If, for example, foo returned a zero if successful, and some other value on failure, you could do the following:
if ( err = foo() )
printf(“error %d encountered n”,err);
In this statement, the function foo is called first. The value it returns is then assigned to die variable err. The expression is evaluated to be this same value. If the value is not zero, then the printf function is invoked and we get an error message.
This printf is a bit more complicated than the previous one. In the string to be printed, we placed die characters %d. They tell printf that die next argument after the string should be printed as a decimal number. For example, if err equalled 21, then on your screen would appear:
error 21 encountered
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AMIGA DUPLICATION
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include stdio.h> * needed to define the constant EOF *
main ) * count the characters, words, and lines in a text file *
(
int c, num_chars, num_words, num_lines, in_a_word;
in_a_word = 0; * start out not in a word, set true when enter one *
num__chars = num_words = num_lines = 0;
while ( ( c = getchar() ) != EOF ) * read until the end of file *

nu m_chars++;
if ( c == An1 ) num_lines++; * hit a newline, got another line *
* We define a word as anything between spaces, tabs, newlines, or *
* any combination of these. When hit one of these set the flag *
* to show we’re not in a word. *
if ( c == ’ ’ I I c == ’V II c == r t' ) in_a_word = 0; else
* Otherwise, if we weren’t in a word, increment the word count * * and set the Gag to show we’re now in a word *
if ( in_a_word == 0 )

in_a_word = 1; num_words++;
)
)
printf( "The file contains %d characters, %d words, and %d lines* n", num chars, num words, num lines );
Conditionally executing only one statement is useful, but limited. The structured nature of C gives you greater power because you can use a block anywhere you can use a statement. A block consists of a group of statements enclosed in braces. T hus, you can do as much as you want as the result of either outcome of an if statement.
Loop Statements
The two other main conditional constructs are the while and for statements. While statements have basically the same syntax as if statements. The statement following the expression is executed until the expression evaluates to be false. If the expression is initially false, then the following statement is never executed, A common example of the while statement is the following:
while ( ( temp = getchar() ) != ’ n’ ) namc[ i+ + ] = temp;
Here the character returned from the function getchar is placed in temp. We then check to see if it was a newline character. If not, then the contents of temp are put into element i of the character array name. The value of i is used before i is incremented, because the + + operator is after the i. When a newline character is encountered, the loop stops.
The for statement looks a little different, but is based on the same primitives. This example sets the contents of the 80 character array name to be empty.
The for statement has three components inside its parentheses. The first is the initialization statement. This statement is executed when the for statement is first executed. It is terminated with a semicolon. Here ? Is initialized to 0. The second part is the condition statement, which is also terminated with a semicolon. It is the condition to be checked before each time through the loop to see if we should continue or stop the loop. Here we want to execute the loop statement, name[ i ] = 0*; so long as i is less than 80. The final part is executed at the “bottom” of the loop, after the loop statement and before we check the condition part again. Here we increment i to move on to the next array element.
Note that the first element in a C array is element 0. The array name has 80 elements that run from nanie[0] to name[79]. 0 is the C null character and is typically used to denote the end of a string.
Simple I O
Although C has no built-in I O facilities, nearly all C versions provide some way to open, close and manipulate data files. In fact, usually two different ways are available. In a later installment, we will cover how you can directly access files. However, we can get started by using another, simpler way, called stream I O.
A stream treats a file as a sequence of bytes that you can read or write only in order. Streams can be just about anything that accesses bytes sequentially, such as input from a keyboard or output to a printer.
You can explicitly open and close streams, but there are three built-in streams that are automatically opened for your program when it starts and dosed upon exit ing it. These streams are referred to as standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr). Assuming you start your program from the CLI, by default all of these refer to your current CLI window. To access all of these facilities from your program, you should have the following line at the start of the program:
include stdio.h>
We will discuss the include construct further in a later installment.
T he functions printf and getchar that wc have mentioned previously use streams. T hey print to stdout and get a character from stdin, respectively.
Streams are particularly nice because you can redirect them from outside your program. Any program can get its input from stdin and send its output to stdout and not worry about files. Our example program does this. However, this does not mean that the program must read and write only using the current window. When you execute a program, you can redirect either stdin to be an input file or stdout to be an output file, or both. You do this by using a command line of the form:
program _ name input file > output file
for ( 1 = 0; i 80; i + + ) namef i ] = ' 0‘;
By default, stdin consists of the characters you type, and stdout is the screen. When typing in the program’s input, you tell it that you are done by typing CTRL . The character says to get input from the file in put file, while the > character says to write the output to the file output file. Either or both may be used.
We now have enough pieces of C to put together simple programs. Our sample program is called wordcoujit.
It is based on the Unix tool wc. It is a common introductory C program. In fact, a very similar version appears in K 8c R. We present it here because it illustrates a number of C constructs and has some real utility hut is still fairly short. It counts the number of characters, words and lines in its input. It uses stdin and stdout for all its I O, so you can run it on what you type or redirect it. We encourage you to use the instructions in the sidebar to enter, compile, link and execute wordcount.
In our next installment, we will discuss how to use multiple routines; we’ll also cover slightly more complex areas of C. In the meantime, you might find it instructive and fun to try to write other simple programs. Remember to look into K 8c R for more information on the topics we’ve covered here. With just a little effort, you will find that C is a language that is both powerful and pleasant to use for your programming tasks.®
Address all author correspondence to Mark I.. Van Name and William II. (latchings, 10024 Sycamore Road, Durham, NC 27703.
Entering and Testing the Sample Programs
Lattice C makes the process of getting your programs ready to run reasonably simple and painless, although you do need to follow the instructions here fairly carefully to avoid any unpleasantness. We assume that you have two disk drives on your system. (If you do not, refer to the Lattice C manual for instructions on how to set u]) your development disk. Once it is ready, the rest of the instructions should he the same.)
The first thing to do is to prepare two disks. The first is called C-CLI. It is a bootable disk that will hold some of the compiler commands and the CLI (in which you will come up when you boot this disk). The other is the disk on which you will work; it is called C-DEVEL. To build these, follow the instructions in Appendix D of the rev. 1.1 Lattice (or Amiga) C manual. Follow it up to the section labeled “II".
Once you have done this, your two disks are nearly ready to go. Put the C-CLI disk in DFO: and the C-DEVEL one in DF1:, then reboot. Next, from the CLI in which you will find yourself, type:
copy DF1 :examples make ? DF():s You will sec the following messages:
DFT :examp!es make..copied
DF1 :examples makesimple, .copied
Now your disks are ready for you to begin entering our example. Move to the development disk (C-DEVEL) by typing:
cd DF1:
Make a directory in which to put this and the other samples we will give you and then move into that director)' by typing:
makedir C tutorial _ programs
cd C _ tutorial _ programs
Now you are ready to type in the program. If you want to use the El) screen editor, enter:
ed wordcount.c
to create the file wordcount.c and start work on it. Feel free to use any other text editor you want, but create an ASCII file (beware of the oddly formatted files created by many word processors) named wordcount.c and enter the text of the program.
Once you are done and have checked it for typing errors, you are ready to compile and link the program. Enter:
execute makesimple wordcount
Note that you omit the .c suffix from the file name, since the makesimple command assumes it. Having your source files end in .c is a very common C programming practice.
You will see a lot of messages very similar to the ones shown in section II.3 of Appendix D of the rev. LI Lattice C manual, except that the file name and size will be different. You will see the CLI prompt when this is all done. The process will take several minutes, so be prepared to wait a bit.
When you arc back in the CLI, you are ready to run the program. The linker named the program wordcount by default. As an example, if you want to run it on the source file wordcountx, just enter:
wordcount wordcount.c
This will print the output to the screen. You can also redirect the output or cause the program to count what you type. If you do the latter, enter CTRL when you are done with the input.®
The Apple Connection
By Andrew L. Hollander
Transfer your old Apple Iifiles to the Amiga through the RS-232 connection and this file-transfer utility program.
The Amiga is, in many respects, the computer I have dreamed of for years. But the hardware is only half the story. As most of you know, Amiga software is still largely unavailable. There are several ways around this problem. First, you can shell out $ 500 for the Transformer and the 5 1 4" disk drive to read IBM format disks. But then you'll be stuck with running IBM compatible software, and losing out on a number of the advantages of using the Amiga operating system. If that was all you wanted, you should have bought an IBM PC or a PC clone for less cash outlay than buying the Amiga and the needed extras. Also, your files might not be on an IBM or compatible machine; mine are on an old Apple II + .
T he second alternative is to "launder” your files over the phone lines. Many computerises will recognize what this means without reading further, hut for the newer crowd, I’ll explain. It is possible to transmit programs and information over the telephone by way of a modem. All a modem does is Modulate outgoing data into sound pulses that can he carried over phone lines, and DFModulate the incoming sounds, turning them into machine-interpretable codes.
This is a great idea, and if you have purchased a modem and a smart-terminal program for your Amiga, this
is one way that you can funnel the world of informa-

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In Transylvania, you’re in a battle against time to save the Princess Sabrina from a land of werewolves and vampires. In The Crimson Crown, a sequel to Transylvania, you must recover the Crimson Crown from the evil Vampyr before he can recover all of his powers. The games retail for $ 39.95 each. For more information, contact Polarware,
PO Box 311, Geneve, 1L 60134. 312 232-1984.
Not for Navels
Amiga-Lint is a utility that analyzes your C programs. Running under CLI, Amiga- Lint reports on bugs and inconsistencies within your C programs. It reports on type inconsistencies across modules, does parameter checking, lists uninitialized variables and reports on variables and code sections that are never accessed.
Amiga-Lint is available directly from Gim- pel Software, 3207 Hogarth Lane, College* ville, PA 19426, 215 584-4261. The retail price is $ 98.
Bright Idea
If you have trouble organizing your thoughts, you should try Flow, an idea processor for the Amiga computer. Flow lets you organize and arrange your ideas in outline form so you can see the relationship between different ideas. Flow is accessed via Workbench and takes full advantage of the Amiga's Intuition interface.
Flow retails for $ 99.95. For more information, contact New Horizons Software, PO Box 43167, Austin, TX 78745. 512 280*0319.
Fun Stuff
Electronic Arts has released two more games for the Amiga: Arcticfox and Skyfox. Arcticfox puts you at the controls of a futuristic tank doing battle in the frozen Artie wastes. Skyfox lets you take control of a jet fighter. You do combat with enemy jets and attack ground targets. Both games take full advantage of the Amiga’s advanced graphics and sound capabilities. For more information, contact Electronic Arts, 1820 Gateway Drive, San Mateo, CA 94404. 800 227-6703 (800 632-7979 in CA).
Amiga Learning Software
MicroEd, an educational software company located in Eden Prairie, MN, has announced two products for the Amiga. Punctuation Series retails for $ 29.95. Designed for students in grades 4 and up, it gives students practice in identifying punc
tuation errors within a standardized test format. Advanced Vocabulary Series
($ 49.95) helps students develop a stronger vocabulary; it is for uppcr-grade level or advanced students. An Amiga Demo package is also available from MicroEd. For more information about these and other MicroEd products for the Amiga, contact MicroEd Inc., PO Box 444005, Eden Prairie, MN 55344. 612 944-8750 or 800 MICRQ ED.
Twelve Water Horses
Hippopotamus Software Inc., a major developer for the Atari ST, has announced that they are developing a dozen new products for the Amiga. On the software side are: Concept, an outline processor; Word, a word processor (naturally); Pixel, a sprite editor; Spell, a spelling checker; Fonts, a font editor; and Computer Almanac, a compendium of 35,000 interesting facts you can access with an AI-based parser.
Hardware products planned for the Amiga include a Sound Digitizer, a black- and-white Video Digitizer. BSR Home Controller, Eprom burner, WAO Robot and Hippo Clean (a disk cleaning kit). Computer almanac is available now; other product release dates hadn't been determined at press time, but the majority of these products were expected to be completed this summer. We will include details of Hippopotamus products as they become available. For more information, contact Hippopotamus Software Inc., 985 University Avenue, Suite 12, Los Gatos, CA 95030. 408 395-3190.
Newsbriefs
Eartype is a word processor for the vision-impaired that takes advantage of the speech-synthesis capabilities of the Amiga. For $ 5.50 (the cost of materials), anyone can obtain the program and complete documentation including a quick instruction sheet. People with impaired vision can also obtain the documentation on cassette tape for another $ 1.50. For more information, contact Richard Ramella, 1493 Mt. View Ave., Chico, CA 95926.
For $ 795, you can buy a Commodity Futures Real-time Tic Chart package that, in conjunction with the Market Monitor satellite decoder from Bonneville Telecommunications, allows you to monitor tic by tic quote information from the commodity exchanges. For more information, contact Ensign Software, 7337 Northview, Boise, ID 83704. 208 378-8086.
SCRIBBLE! Despite its simplicity and whimsical name. Scribble! Is a
powerful full-featured word processor. Advanced formatting commands give you control over how your document will look: control over margins, line spacing, underline and bold text are standard. Additional advanced features include hanging indent, justification, headers and footers, print to printer or disk file, multiple copies, single or fanfold paper, and many more. Using any normal ASCII file, featuring multiple windows with block transfers between them, full word wrap, block delete, copy and move, global text strings search with replace - mouse-controlled menus can size and move windows via the Amiga Intuition interface. You can’t find a better value than Scribble! At $ 99-95
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ANALYZE! Is the most powerful spreadsheet program available for your Amiga. Loaded with features similar to Lotus® 1-2-3,® Analyze! Takes maximum advantage of your Amiga's capabilities (pull down menus, mouse, Workbench) and can produce professional-sized spreadsheets (236 columns x 8.156 rows).
You can use Analyze! For financial analysis and planning, bookkeeping, home budgets, check registers and much more. An outstanding value, Analyze! Is only $ 99*95.
FEATURES: • Uses function keys • Empty cells use no memory • Named ranges • Natural Order and iterative recalculations • Over 40 built-in functions: logic, math, date, anil financial
• Variable column width • Protected cells • Extensive formatting options • Report generating features include borders, headers, footers, margins and formulas
ONLINE! Is a sophisticated telecommunications program that transforms your Amiga into a powerful terminal capable of interacting with micros and mainframes, so you can easily exchange information, news, and data with other computers. Link up with commercial information services, send telex messages and electronic mail worldwide and much more because Online! Adds Crosstalk-tvpe features and capabilities to your Amiga!
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FEATURES: • Support for 300 through 19.200 baud • User-definable macrokeys can be used
to transmit often used commands • Auto-dial support for any command driven modem • Allows two phone numbers for each service, with user-definable retries (up to 99) • Separate translation tables permit you to change any one byte value into any other value for all system devices • Hardcopy support • Uses script files for automated operation • Supports XMODEM “Christensen*, XMODEM CRC, Hayes Verification Protocat (SmartCom ' compatible), and standard text capture to disk.
BBS-PC! Is a versatile electronic bulletin foard System that transforms your Amiga into an online information network. Other computer users can call your Amiga and read messages you have left them, or leave messages for you, or send you a file, or
even take a file you have left for them! BBS-PC! Easily interfaces to a hard disk or keeps
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up with a 2400bps modem. BBS-PC! Works in “background", so your Amiga can answer the phone and take messages for you while you’re working on other projects!
So whether you want to run a neighborhood bulletin board or become the next CompuServe, BBS-PC! Will fit your needs for only $ 99*95.
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Reviews
*
Rags to Riches
A good flexible accounting package, but not for the I accounting uninitiatecU
L. JV
By N. Roberts and Ann M, Lopes
Choosing an accounting package to automate your recordkeeping is not an easy task. Accounting packages come in all shapes and sizes. Some accounting packages arc glorified checking account registers that allow you to keep track of all deposits and checks drawn on your account. Other packages contain several different components to assist you in maintaining detailed accounts of certain aspects of vour business.
Rags to Riches is Chang Labs Inc.’s series of accounting software packages for the Amiga, designed to help solve the accounting problems of small businesses. It consists of three modules; Amiga Ledger, Amiga Receivables and Amiga Payables. Each module is menu driven and can be used independently or in conjunction with the other modules to form an integrated accounting package. We will first consider the important features and requirements of an accounting package, then we will look at Rags to Riches and see how well it fits the bill.
In General
If you sell goods on credit, as the number of customers who owe you money increases, you will want to keep track of who owes you and how much. An accounts receivable package will do this for you. If you buy a lot of merchandise from several different sources, an accounts payable package will help you keep track of who you owe and how much. A general ledger package contains all your accounting records. It keeps track of the revenues, expenses, assets, liabilities and net worth of vour business.
A good accounting package should help you keep track of your finances by showing where your money is coming from and where it is going. It should provide a balance sheet that shows assets, liabilities, net worth and an income or profit-and-loss statement.
When choosing your accounting package, there are several factors to consider. For instance, are you comfortable with the double-entry bookkeeping system or are you more comfortable with the “one-write” method? Do you keep your books on a cash basis or an accrual basis of accounting? Do you have more than one company? Have you used a computer before, or is this the first time?
To be able to modify software to fit vour
j J
needs. Your software should be able to expand with your business. II not. As your company grows, your software will become obsolete. One caution; Many accounting software packages come with several different modules, and it is important to ensure that you don’t have to continuously add new information for each module. Ideally, all the modules should use the same information, keeping data-entry time to a minimum.
In Particular
To use Rags to Riches with the Amiga, you should have a printer. An additional disk drive, though not required, would make using the product much easier; a 256K memory expansion would provide more information storage space for your records and is therefore also very desirable. Before running the program, you should be very familiar with disk-handling procedures for the Amiga. You will need two formatted disks; one to make a working copy of the program and the other to store your data.
Knowledge of financial record keeping or bookkeeping is crucial to the successful use of this package. The Rags to Riches user manuals do not include a comprehensive coverage of accounting theory, a fact that is clearly stated in the manual. Users should be familiar with such basic accounting concepts and terms as double-entry bookkeeping, chart of accounts, dosing cycles, posting to an account and cash versus accrual basis of accounting. If you are unfamiliar with these accounting concepts, you shoidd consult an accountant or a good primer on accounting principles prior to attempting to use these packages.
Since Rags to Riches is an integrated accounting package, once you enter data into one module, you can pass the data onto any of the other modules. For example, suppose vou buy the Accounts Payable module.
i J
After entering the list of vendors to whom you owe money, you would like to have this information passed on to the General Ledger. All you have to do is post the information to the ledger. The data automatically passes from the Accounts Payable module to the General Ledger module -you do not have to reenter the information.
The Amiga Ledger package is not an easy package to learn if you are not familiar with the subject. However. Chang Labs has incorporated several features that are aimed at making the learning process easier.
These features include online help, sets of books complete with their own chart of accounts and sample transactions.
Anyone who uses a spreadsheet program ancl is familiar with menu-driven programs knows that menus can be slow and frustrating. In Rags to Riches, online help is provided in the form of two help modes: a learn mode and an expert mode. The learn mode, complete with help screens, provides a detailed explanation of the screen commands. The expert mode omits the online descriptions and allows the experienced user to move quickly through the menus without the usual prompts. This feature is very flexible and affords the user the ability to switch back and forth between the two different modes with the touch of a function key. You can work in the learn mode until you become more familiar with the program, then easily switch to the expert mode.
The master disk includes a group of templates or sample books for a variety of different industries including the service and retail industries. One of these templates can be used as a starting point for setting up your company’s books. A list of transactions typical of many businesses is provided in the appendix. These include mortgage payments, payments made by check and payments received on an invoice, among others. These sample journal entries can answer questions that may arise when using the package, such as “How do I record the payment of my loan, since part of the payment goes towards paying back the principal and part goes toward paying interest?” or “I am on the accrual basis of accounting, how do I record the prepayment of my rent expense?” For each entry listed, this section explains the accounts affected and the order in which the accounts should be entered into the system. This section can be of great help as you continue to work with the package.
Other important features help to make the software easy to use. For instance, Rags to Riches provides an audit report that lists all transactions entered and posted to the system. By examining this report, vou can quickly spot and correct any data entry mistakes. A built-in error-checking system will draw your attention to some errors at the time of entry. For example, let’s suppose you are entering a transaction to record the receipt of $ 2,345.89 in cash sales. To do this, you would normally debit Cash (to show an increase in cash) and credit Sales. Suppose you typed in - S2345.89. The system would beep to indicate that you have tried to increase cash by entering a negative cash amount.
Rags to Riches allows the user to maintain an almost unlimited number of accounts. This is important if you plan to expand your business. All you need to do is set up a separate set of books for that department or business. When it comes time to do your monthly reports, you can combine the books and produce consolidated financial statements. A word of caution, though: When you do set up more than one set of books, be careful how you set up the chart of accounts. This package is driven by the name of the account or the key variable that vou can use as an identification of an
j
account. If you use the same key variable for different accounts, you may get something different from what you had intended. If you take care in assigning key variables to your accounts, and if you cross-reference these variables from one set of books to another, you should experience no trouble.
A toll-free number is included in the package. You can call if you have any problems with the package whether setting up your books, entering entries or with defective software.
In Question
Despite all of these good features, Rags to Riches is not for everyone. If you plan to automate your books and if you do not have an accounting background, you will probably find that you need the help of an accountant to set up your books. (This is not necessarily a reflection of the Rags to Riches series, but a relection of the complexity of a double-entry accounting system.) However, with a little practice, you will find that a double-entry system is really quite logical.
Though you may find the fact that you cannot design your own reports a limiting factor, you should note this before purchasing any accounting package. The reports available within the package are standard reports. It is not possible for you to enter the report and change headings or to add new columns. Keep this in mind when you are looking for a package.
Though the user’s manual is clear and easy to follow, it could be more comprehensive. A tutorial chapter walks you through a few of the commands. However, it does not show you how to set up or close your books, or how to consolidate the books of several companies. In fact, at the end of the tutorial chapter, you are invited to read the rest of the manual to become more familiar with the features of the program. An interactive tutorial, complete with a chart of accounts for a small company and a list of four or five transactions for the month would make the software easier to use. If the tutorial walked the user through the process of setting up the books, entering the monthly transactions, making corrections and printing a monthly report, it would help the user gain confidence in using the system. Then the user might be more receptive to exploring other features of the system on his or her own.
In Conclusion
For the experienced user one who knows accounting and is interested in automating his books Rags to Riches is a flexible accounting package at an affordable price. However, for those without an accounting background, unless you work closely with an accountant. Rags to Riches is probably not for you,I Rags to Riches Chang Labs Inc.
5300 Stevens Creek Blvd.
San Jose, CA 95129 408 246-8020
Three modules, $ 500; $ 200 separately Requires a printer (external drive and 256K memory expansion optional, but recommended)
Special Note:The version of Rags to Riches re- viewed here did not take full advantage of the Intuition operating system (mouse, windows, pulldown menus, etc.). Right at press time AmigaWorld was informed by Chang Labs that Rags to Riches, as ofJune or July, would fully support Workbench. Apparently, Rags to Riches will feature mouse use, more graphics displays of accounting information and will have a threefold increase in its reports. It will also be a multitasking prod- uct: You will be able to rim the different modules of the package in separate windows simultaneously. Contact Chang Labs for more details.
Also, to anyone who has experienced problems printing out from Rags to Riches, Chang Labs has released this statement: “The Amiga Rags to Riches product you have may contain system fdes that were distributed during the Amiga development phase. We have confirmed with Commodore- Amiga that a new printer driver is available. If you experience any printing problems, please contact the Chang Labs support group at 1-800 972• 8800 (California residents, 1-800 831-8080) for instructions on how to update your printer driver”
Time 8c Task Planner
Getting there may not be half as fun, if you ’re too late.
Time & Task Planner is a simple program for scheduling ancl keeping track of appointments, meetings or other responsibilities. It can be used by up to five different people for keeping schedules (each with their own password protection, if desired). The program is divided into four sections: an appointment scheduler, a “to do" list, a future-planning list and "5 days at a glance." Two other programs are included: a transfer program that allows you to copy entries from either the “to do" or future planning lists to the appointment scheduler and a calendar program that can generate calendars for any selected month or year between 1910 and 2399.
Arriving on Schedule
The appointment scheduler lets you enter up to 18 appointments per day for 60 days. All of the features are menu driven, requiring few keystrokes. No mouse or Workbench-like options are incorporated (like pull down menus or windows), but the program is easy to use, so they are not missed. The appointment scheduler has all the features that you would expect, such as insert, delete, print, view a new date (either by entering the entire date or an offset), block inserts, etc., plus a handy feature that lets you display a small calendar of the month
at any time. Time & Task Planner also lets you define your own daily templates (for example, if you need appointments scheduled every 15 minutes rather than the default of every 30 minutes). It also has a "find" feature that will search the entire scheduler for specific entries.
The “to do" list section of Time Sc Task Planner lets you enter up to 60 items with date and rank (handy for prioritizing items). All the items can be sorted by date, rank, or alphabetically. Once sorted, the list can be copied over to the appointment
scheduler or printed. The “to do” and future-planning sections let you schedule items up to 50 years in advance, and both lists Hag items that have already been copied to the appointment scheduler.
The future-planning list is nearly identical to the “to do” list except that it lacks ranked entry. Instead, it calculates the number of days away an entered item will occur. Another feature of both the future-planning and “to do” lists is the ability to enter an offset rather than a discrete date, so you can enter + 14 in the date field and it will calculate what the date will be in two weeks.
The “5 days at a glance” option is one of the most useful features. While the entries are truncated, they are still understandable most of the time (especially when you keep the 5 days at a glance in mind while entering appointments in the other sections). Once you have selected the starting date, 5 days are displayed on the screen, and you can then scroll up or down to view all 18 entries for each day. The printout of the 5 days at a glance screen also includes empty lines at the bottom for “to do,” future and expenses additions. This makes it ideal for business trips as well as once-a-week quick reference printouts.
Time 8c Task Planner has very few draw-

AMIGA
And they make Amiga the only computer with a multi-tasking operating system built into hardware.
Ali these capabilities are easy to tap because Amiga's open architecture pro- A vides you with access to the 68000 main j bus in addition to the serial, parallel and B floppy disk connectors. Complete tech- 1 nical manuals enable you to take full 0
advantage of the custom chips and the software support routines in the writable control store on the Kickstart'" disk that comes with every Amiga computer.
You can access these resources in a number of development languages, including Amiga Macro Assembler,'" Amiga C, Amiga Basic (Microsoft® Basic for the Amiga), Amiga Pascal and even Amiga LISP.
So Amiga not only gives you more creativity it gives you creative new ways to use it.
Amiga by Commodore.
GIVES YOU A CREATIVE EDGE.
" Amiga is a trademark of Commodore-Amiga. Inc "Kicksiarf is a trademark of Commodore Amiga, Inc ¦Amiga Macro Assembler is a trademark of Commodore Amiga, tnc 'Microsoft is o registered irademark ol Microsoft Inc
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