CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT
AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)

REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)

Chapter 17

PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING ENCLOSED
AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL
USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION

17.1. The marine environment - including the oceans and all seas and
adjacent coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential
component of the global life-support system and a positive asset that
presents opportunities for sustainable development. International law,
as reflected in the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this chapter of Agenda 21, sets
forth rights and obligations of States and provides the international
basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable development of
the marine and coastal environment and its resources. This requires new
approaches to marine and coastal area management and development, at the
national, subregional, regional and global levels, approaches that are
integrated in content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit,
as reflected in the following programme areas: 3/

(a) Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal
areas, including exclusive economic zones;

(b) Marine environmental protection;

(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of
the high seas;

(d) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources
under national jurisdiction;

(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the
marine environment and climate change;

17.2. The implementation by developing countries of the activities
set forth below shall be commensurate with their individual
technological and financial capacities and priorities in allocating
resources for development needs and ultimately depends on the technology
transfer and financial resources required and made available to them.

A. Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal
and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones

Basis for action

17.3. The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats
important for human settlements, development and local subsistence. More
than half the world's population lives within 60 km of the shoreline,
and this could rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the
world's poor are crowded in coastal areas. Coastal resources are vital
for many local communities and indigenous people. The exclusive economic
zone (EEZ) is also an important marine area where the States manage the
development and conservation of natural resources for the benefit of
their people. For small island States or countries, these are the areas
most available for development activities.

17.4. Despite national, subregional, regional and global efforts,
current approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources
have not always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and
coastal resources and the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded
and eroded in many parts of the world.

Objectives

17.5. Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment
under their national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to,
inter alia:

(a) Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process,
including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance
of uses;

(b) Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their
interactions;

(c) Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal
management;

(d) Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project
planning and implementation, including prior assessment and systematic
observation of the impacts of major projects;

(e) Promote the development and application of methods, such as
national resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes
in value resulting from uses of coastal and marine areas, including
pollution, marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;

(f) Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals,
groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for
consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at
appropriate levels.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.6. Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where
necessary strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a
high-level policy planning body) for integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal and marine areas and their resources,
at both the local and national levels. Such mechanisms should include
consultation, as appropriate, with the academic and private sectors,
non-governmental organizations, local communities, resource user groups,
and indigenous people. Such national coordinating mechanisms could
provide, inter alia, for:

(a) Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting
policies;

(b) Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;

(d) Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation
and follow-up of major projects, including the systematic
incorporation of results in decision-making;

(e) Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters,
including likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel
rise, as well as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of
anthropogenic origin, including spills of oil and other materials;

(f) Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in
housing, drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid
wastes and industrial effluents;

(g) Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and
phenomena to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment
are met;

(h) Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;

(i) Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development
for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries
affecting the coastal area;

(n) Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental
quality criteria.

17.7. Coastal States, with the support of international
organizations, upon request, should undertake measures to maintain
biological diversity and productivity of marine species and habitats
under national jurisdiction. Inter alia, these measures might include:
surveys of marine biodiversity, inventories of endangered species and
critical coastal and marine habitats; establishment and management of
protected areas; and support of scientific research and dissemination of
its results.

(b) Data and information

17.8. Coastal States, where necessary, should improve their capacity
to collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of
resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the
coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should
receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the
changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. To this end, it is
necessary to, inter alia:

(a) Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of
coastal areas and all seas and their resources;

(b) Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;

(c) Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the
environment of coastal and marine areas;

(d) Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources,
activities, uses, habitats and protected areas based on the criteria
of sustainable development;

(e) Exchange information and data.

17.9. Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable,
subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve
their capacities to achieve the above.

(c) International and regional cooperation and
coordination

17.10. The role of international cooperation and coordination on a
bilateral basis and, where applicable, within a subregional,
interregional, regional or global framework, is to support and
supplement national efforts of coastal States to promote integrated
management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas.

17.11. States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of
national guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and
development, drawing on existing experience. A global conference to
exchange experience in the field could be held before 1994.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $6 billion including about $50 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

17.13. States should cooperate in the development of necessary
coastal systematic observation, research and information management
systems. They should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe
technologies and methodologies for sustainable development of coastal
and marine areas to developing countries. They should also develop
technologies and endogenous scientific and technological capacities.

17.14. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in
these efforts, as indicated above, devoting special attention to
developing countries.

(c) Human resource development

17.15. Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization
of education and training in integrated coastal and marine management
and sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers
(including community-based managers) and users, leaders, indigenous
peoples, fisherfolk, women and youth, among others. Management and
development, as well as environmental protection concerns and local
planning issues, should be incorporated in educational curricula and
public awareness campaigns, with due regard to traditional ecological
knowledge and socio-cultural values.

17.16. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in
the areas indicated above, devoting special attention to developing
countries.

(d) Capacity-building

17.17. Full cooperation should be extended, upon request, to coastal
States in their capacity-building efforts and, where appropriate,
capacity-building should be included in bilateral and multilateral
development cooperation. Coastal States may consider, inter alia:

(a) Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;

(b) Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local
administrations, the business community, the academic sector, resource
user groups and the general public;

(c) Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;

(d) Identifying existing and potential capabilities, facilities and
needs for human resources development and scientific and technological
infrastructure;

(e) Developing scientific and technological means and research;

(f) Promoting and facilitating human resource development and
education;

17.18. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide
range of sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine
pollution, while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities
contribute 10 per cent each. The contaminants that pose the greatest
threat to the marine environment are, in variable order of importance
and depending on differing national or regional situations, sewage,
nutrients, synthetic organic compounds, sediments, litter and plastics,
metals, radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substances originating from
land-based sources are of particular concern to the marine environment
since they exhibit at the same time toxicity, persistence and
bioaccumulation in the food chain. There is currently no global scheme
to address marine pollution from land-based sources.

17.19. Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a
wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use,
construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban
development, tourism and industry can affect the marine environment.
Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern.

17.20. Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea-based
activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year
as a result of normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal
discharges. With respect to offshore oil and gas activities, currently
machinery space discharges are regulated internationally and six
regional conventions to control platform discharges have been under
consideration. The nature and extent of environmental impacts from
offshore oil exploration and production activities generally account for
a very small proportion of marine pollution.

17.21. A precautionary and anticipatory rather than a reactive
approach is necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine
environment. This requires, inter alia, the adoption of precautionary
measures, environmental impact assessments, clean production techniques,
recycling, waste audits and minimization, construction and/or
improvement of sewage treatment facilities, quality management criteria
for the proper handling of hazardous substances, and a comprehensive
approach to damaging impacts from air, land and water. Any management
framework must include the improvement of coastal human settlements and
the integrated management and development of coastal areas. Objectives

17.22. States, in accordance with the provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and preservation
of the marine environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their
policies, priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control
degradation of the marine environment so as to maintain and improve its
life-support and productive capacities. To this end, it is necessary to:

(a) Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so
as to avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to
reduce the risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;

(b) Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;

(c) Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant
general environmental, social and economic development policies;

(d) Develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of
environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to
avoid degradation of the marine environment;

(e) Improve the living standards of coastal populations,
particularly in developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing
the degradation of the coastal and marine environment.

17.23. States agree that provision of additional financial resources,
through appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to
cleaner technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to
support action by developing countries to implement this commitment.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from land-based activities

17.24. In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of
the marine environment from land-based activities, States should take
action at the national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and
subregional levels, in concert with action to implement programme area
A, and should take account of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection
of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Sources.

17.25. To this end, States, with the support of the relevant
international environmental, scientific, technical and financial
organizations, should cooperate, inter alia, to:

(b) Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and
action plans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of
strengthening action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control
marine degradation caused by land-based activities;

(c) Initiate and promote the development of new regional
agreements, where appropriate;

(d) Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal
with the major types of pollution of the marine environment from
land-based sources, according to the best scientific evidence;

(e) Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding mechanisms;

(f) Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.
17.26. The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as
practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine
environment from land-based activities.

17.27. As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by
States may include:

(b) Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in
accordance with national policies and capacities and international
cooperation available;

(c) Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level
of environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water
intakes and bathing areas to pathogens;

(d) Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments of domestic and
compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where
practicable, of controls on the entry of effluents that are not
compatible with the system;

(e) Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to
rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to
specific sites;

(f) Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and
regional, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to
control effluent discharge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines
and water quality criteria and giving due consideration to the
characteristics of receiving bodies and the volume and type of
pollutants.

17.28. As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be
considered by States may include:

(a) Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and
monitoring programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions,
including the development and application of control and recycling
technologies;

(b) Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help
ensure an acceptable level of environmental quality;

(c) Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level,
where appropriate, with respect to the input of point source
pollutants from new installations;

(d) Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the
marine environment;

(e) Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the
marine environment;

(f) Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and
phosphorus that enter coastal waters where such problems as
eutrophication threaten the marine environment or its resources;

(g) Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and
technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and
reduction of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or
liable to bio-accumulate and to establish environmentally sound
land-based waste disposal alternatives to sea dumping;

(h) Cooperating in the development and implementation of
environmentally sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce
run-off to water-courses and estuaries which would cause pollution or
degradation of the marine environment;

(i) Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides
and fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and
considering the prohibition of those found to be environmentally
unsound;

(j) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional
levels for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which
require broad changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural
practices, mining, construction and transportation.

17.29. As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas
causing degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should
include control and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to
anthropogenic factors related to, inter alia, land-use and construction
techniques and practices. Watershed management practices should be
promoted so as to prevent, control and reduce degradation of the marine
environment.

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from sea-based activities

17.30. States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or
multilaterally and within the framework of IMO and other relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as
appropriate, should assess the need for additional measures to address
degradation of the marine environment:

(iv) Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships in
particularly sensitive areas identified by IMO and taking action to
implement applicable measures, where necessary, within such areas to
ensure compliance with generally accepted international regulations;

(v) Taking action to ensure respect of areas designated by
coastal States, within their exclusive economic zones, consistent
with international law, in order to protect and preserve rare or
fragile ecosystems, such as coral reefs and mangroves;

(vi) Considering the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast
water discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;

(vii) Promoting navigational safety by adequate charting of
coasts and ship-routing, as appropriate;

(viii) Assessing the need for stricter international regulations
to further reduce the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo
ships (including bulk carriers);

(ix) Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together to complete
consideration of a code on the carriage of irradiated nuclear fuel
in flasks on board ships;

(x) Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety for Nuclear
Merchant Ships and considering how best to implement a revised code;

(xi) Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding
development of appropriate measures for reducing air pollution from
ships;

(xii) Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding the
development of an international regime governing the transportation
of hazardous and noxious substances carried by ships and further
considering whether the compensation funds similar to the ones
established under the Fund Convention would be appropriate in
respect of pollution damage caused by substances other than oil;

(b) From dumping, by:

(i) Supporting wider ratification, implementation and
participation in relevant Conventions on dumping at sea, including
early conclusion of a future strategy for the London Dumping
Convention;

(ii) Encouraging the London Dumping Convention parties to take
appropriate steps to stop ocean dumping and incineration of
hazardous substances;

(c) From offshore oil and gas platforms, by assessing existing
regulatory measures to address discharges, emissions and safety and
assessing the need for additional measures;

(d) From ports, by facilitating establishment of port reception
facilities for the collection of oily and chemical residues and
garbage from ships, especially in MARPOL special areas, and promoting
the establishment of smaller scale facilities in marinas and fishing
harbours.

17.31. IMO and as appropriate, other competent United Nations
organizations, when requested by the States concerned, should assess,
where appropriate, the state of marine pollution in areas of congested
shipping, such as heavily used international straits, with a view to
ensuring compliance with generally accepted international regulations,
particularly those related to illegal discharges from ships, in
accordance with the provisions of Part III of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea.

17.32. States should take measures to reduce water pollution caused
by organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.

17.33. States should consider ratifying the Convention on Oil
Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, which addresses, inter
alia, the development of contingency plans on the national and
international level, as appropriate, including provision of oil-spill
response material and training of personnel, including its possible
extension to chemical spill response.

17.34. States should intensify international cooperation to
strengthen or establish, where necessary, regional oil/chemical-spill
response centres and/or, as appropriate, mechanisms in cooperation with
relevant subregional, regional or global intergovernmental organizations
and, where appropriate, industry-based organizations.

(b) Data and information

17.35. States should, as appropriate, and in accordance with the
means at their disposal and with due regard for their technical and
scientific capacity and resources, make systematic observations on the
state of the marine environment. To this end, States should, as
appropriate, consider:

(a) Establishing systematic observation systems to measure marine
environmental quality, including causes and effects of marine
degradation, as a basis for management;

(b) Regularly exchanging information on marine degradation caused
by land-based and sea-based activities and on actions to prevent,
control and reduce such degradation;

(c) Supporting and expanding international programmes for
systematic observations such as the mussel watch programme, building
on existing facilities with special attention to developing countries;

(d) Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollution control
information, including processes and technologies to address marine
pollution control and to support their transfer to developing
countries and other countries with demonstrated needs; (e)
Establishing a global profile and database providing information on
the sources, types, amounts and effects of pollutants reaching the
marine environment from land-based activities in coastal areas and
sea-based sources;

(f) Allocating adequate funding for capacity-building and training
programmes to ensure the full participation of developing countries,
in particular, in any international scheme under the organs and
organizations of the United Nations system for the collection,
analysis and use of data and information.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $200 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(a) Assistance to industries in identifying and adopting clean
production or cost-effective pollution control technologies;

(b) Planning development and application of low-cost and
low-maintenance sewage installation and treatment technologies for
developing countries;

(c) Equipment of laboratories to observe systematically human and
other impacts on the marine environment;

(d) Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spill control
materials, including low-cost locally available materials and
techniques, suitable for pollution emergencies in developing
countries;

(e) Study of the use of persistent organohalogens that are liable
to accumulate in the marine environment to identify those that cannot
be adequately controlled and to provide a basis for a decision on a
time schedule for phasing them out as soon as practicable;

(f) Establishment of a clearing-house for information on marine
pollution control, including processes and technologies to address
marine pollution control, and support for their transfer to developing
and other countries with demonstrated needs.

(c) Human resource development

17.38. States individually or in cooperation with each other and with
the support of international organizations, whether subregional,
regional or global, as appropriate, should:

(a) Provide training for critical personnel required for the
adequate protection of the marine environment as identified by
training needs' surveys at the national, regional or subregional
levels;

(b) Promote the introduction of marine environmental protection
topics into the curriculum of marine studies programmes;

(c) Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response
personnel, in cooperation, where appropriate, with the oil and
chemical industries;

(e) Strengthen and provide secure financing for new and existing
specialized international centres of professional maritime education;

(f) States should, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation,
support and supplement the national efforts of developing countries as
regards human resource development in relation to prevention and
reduction of degradation of the marine environment.

(d) Capacity-building

17.39. National planning and coordinating bodies should be given the
capacity and authority to review all land-based activities and sources
of pollution for their impacts on the marine environment and to propose
appropriate control measures.

17.40. Research facilities should be strengthened or, where
appropriate, developed in developing countries for systematic
observation of marine pollution, environmental impact assessment and
development of control recommendations and should be managed and staffed
by local experts.

17.41. Special arrangements will be needed to provide adequate
financial and technical resources to assist developing countries in
preventing and solving problems associated with activities that threaten
the marine environment.

17.42. An international funding mechanism should be created for the
application of appropriate sewage treatment technologies and building
sewage treatment facilities, including grants or concessional loans from
international agencies and appropriate regional funds, replenished at
least in part on a revolving basis by user fees.

17.43. In carrying out these programme activities, particular
attention needs to be given to the problems of developing countries that
would bear an unequal burden because of their lack of facilities,
expertise or technical capacities.

C. Sustainable use and
conservation of marine living resources of the high seas

Basis for action

17.44. Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seas have
considerably expanded and currently represent approximately 5 per cent
of total world landings. The provisions of the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea on the marine living resources of the high seas
sets forth rights and obligations of States with respect to conservation
and utilization of those resources.

17.45. However, management of high seas fisheries, including the
adoption, monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures,
is inadequate in many areas and some resources are overutilized. There
are problems of unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, excessive fleet
size, vessel reflagging to escape controls, insufficiently selective
gear, unreliable databases and lack of sufficient cooperation between
States. Action by States whose nationals and vessels fish on the high
seas, as well as cooperation at the bilateral, subregional, regional and
global levels, is essential particularly for highly migratory species
and straddling stocks. Such action and cooperation should address
inadequacies in fishing practices, as well as in biological knowledge,
fisheries statistics and improvement of systems for handling data.
Emphasis should also be on multi-species management and other approaches
that take into account the relationships among species, especially in
addressing depleted species, but also in identifying the potential of
underutilized or unutilized populations.

Objectives

17.46. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable
use of marine living resources on the high seas. To this end, it is
necessary to:

(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources
to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and
development goals;

(b) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels
that can produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by
relevant environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration
relationships among species;

(c) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;

(g) Promote scientific research with respect to the marine living
resources in the high seas.

17.47. Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the right of a
State or the competence of an international organization, as
appropriate, to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine
mammals on the high seas more strictly than provided for in that
paragraph. States shall cooperate with a view to the conservation of
marine mammals and, in the case of cetaceans, shall in particular work
through the appropriate international organizations for their
conservation, management and study.

17.48. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above
objectives is dependent upon their capabilities, including the
financial, scientific and technological means at their disposal.
Adequate financial, scientific and technological cooperation should be
provided to support action by them to implement these objectives.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.49. States should take effective action, including bilateral and
multilateral cooperation, where appropriate at the subregional, regional
and global levels, to ensure that high seas fisheries are managed in
accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea. In particular, they should:

(a) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to fisheries
populations whose ranges lie both within and beyond exclusive economic
zones (straddling stocks);

(b) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to highly
migratory species;

(c) Negotiate, where appropriate, international agreements for the
effective management and conservation of fishery stocks;

(d) Define and identify appropriate management units;

(e) States should convene, as soon as possible, an
intergovernmental conference under United Nations auspices, taking
into account relevant activities at the subregional, regional and
global levels, with a view to promoting effective implementation of
the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
on straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. The
conference, drawing, inter alia, on scientific and technical studies
by FAO, should identify and assess existing problems related to the
conservation and management of such fish stocks, and consider means of
improving cooperation on fisheries among States, and formulate
appropriate recommendations. The work and the results of the
conference should be fully consistent with the provisions of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, in particular the
rights and obligations of coastal States and States fishing on the
high seas.

17.50. States should ensure that fishing activities by vessels flying
their flags on the high seas take place in a manner so as to minimize
incidental catch.

17.51. States should take effective action consistent with
international law to monitor and control fishing activities by vessels
flying their flags on the high seas to ensure compliance with applicable
conservation and management rules, including full, detailed, accurate
and timely reporting of catches and effort.

17.52. States should take effective action, consistent with
international law, to deter reflagging of vessels by their nationals as
a means of avoiding compliance with applicable conservation and
management rules for fishing activities on the high seas.

17.53. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other
comparable destructive fishing practices.

17.55. States should take measures to increase the availability of
marine living resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest
losses and discards, and improving techniques of processing,
distribution and transportation.

(b) Data and information

17.56. States, with the support of international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should
cooperate to:

(a) Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for the
conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources of the
high seas;

17.57. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and
within the framework of subregional and regional fisheries bodies, as
appropriate, and with the support of other international
intergovernmental agencies, should assess high seas resource potentials
and develop profiles of all stocks (target and non-target).

17.58. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and
between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries
bodies.

17.59. Effective cooperation within existing subregional, regional or
global fisheries bodies should be encouraged. Where such organizations
do not exist, States should, as appropriate, cooperate to establish such
organizations.

17.60. States with an interest in a high seas fishery regulated by an
existing subregional and/or regional high seas fisheries organization of
which they are not members should be encouraged to join that
organization, where appropriate.

17.61. States recognize:

(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for
the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling;

(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as
well as of other cetaceans;

(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American
Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the
Baltic and North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation,
management and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

17.62. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $12 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

17.64. States, with the support of relevant international
organizations, where necessary, should develop collaborative technical
and research programmes to improve understanding of the life cycles and
migrations of species found on the high seas, including identifying
critical areas and life stages.

17.65. States, with the support of relevant international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate,
should:

(a) Develop databases on the high seas marine living resources and
fisheries;

(b) Collect and correlate marine environmental data with high seas
marine living resources data, including the impacts of regional and
global changes brought about by natural causes and by human activities;

(c) Cooperate in coordinating research programmes to provide the
knowledge necessary to manage high seas resources.

(c) Human resource development

17.66. Human resource development at the national level should be
targeted at both development and management of high seas resources,
including training in high seas fishing techniques and in high seas
resource assessment, strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high
seas resource management and conservation and related environmental
issues, and training observers and inspectors to be placed on fishing
vessels.

(d) Capacity-building

17.67. States, with the support, where appropriate, of relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should cooperate to develop or upgrade systems and institutional
structures for monitoring, control and surveillance, as well as the
research capacity for assessment of marine living resource populations.

17.68. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be
needed to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of
data and information, scientific and technological means, and human
resource development in order to participate effectively in the
conservation and sustainable utilization of high seas marine living
resources.

D. Sustainable use and
conservation of marine living resources under national jurisdiction

Basis for action

17.69. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and
shellfish per year, 95 per cent of which is taken from waters under
national jurisdiction. Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the
past four decades. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea on marine living resources of the exclusive economic
zone and other areas under national jurisdiction set forth rights and
obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization of
those resources.

17.70. Marine living resources provide an important source of protein
in many countries and their use is often of major importance to local
communities and indigenous people. Such resources provide food and
livelihoods to millions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer
increased potential to meet nutritional and social needs, particularly
in developing countries. To realize this potential requires improved
knowledge and identification of marine living resource stocks,
particularly of underutilized and unutilized stocks and species, use of
new technologies, better handling and processing facilities to avoid
wastage, and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to
manage and conserve effectively the marine living resources of the
exclusive economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction.
Emphasis should also be on multi-species management and other approaches
that take into account the relationships among species.

17.71. Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face
mounting problems, including local overfishing, unauthorized incursions
by foreign fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and
excessive fleet sizes, underevaluation of catch, insufficiently
selective gear, unreliable databases, and increasing competition between
artisanal and large-scale fishing, and between fishing and other types
of activities.

17.72. Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reefs and other marine
and coastal habitats, such as mangroves and estuaries, are among the
most highly diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's
ecosystems. They often serve important ecological functions, provide
coastal protection, and are critical resources for food, energy, tourism
and economic development. In many parts of the world, such marine and
coastal systems are under stress or are threatened from a variety of
sources, both human and natural.

Objectives

17.73. Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States
whose economies are overwhelmingly dependent on the exploitation of the
marine living resources of their exclusive economic zones, should obtain
the full social and economic benefits from sustainable utilization of
marine living resources within their exclusive economic zones and other
areas under national jurisdiction.

17.74. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable
use of marine living resources under national jurisdiction. To this end,
it is necessary to:

(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources
to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and
development goals;

(b) Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local
communities, small-scale artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in
development and management programmes; (c) Maintain or restore
populations of marine species at levels that can produce the maximum
sustainable yield as qualified by relevant environmental and economic
factors, taking into consideration relationships among species;

(d) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;

(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;

(f) Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and
other ecologically sensitive areas.

17.75. Nothing in paragraph 17.74 above restricts the right of a
coastal State or the competence of an international organization, as
appropriate, to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine
mammals more strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall
cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and in the
case of cetaceans shall in particular work through the appropriate
international organizations for their conservation, management and
study.

17.76. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above
objectives is dependent upon their capabilities, including the
financial, scientific and technological means at their disposal.
Adequate financial, scientific and technological cooperation should be
provided to support action by them to implement these objectives.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.77. States should ensure that marine living resources of the
exclusive economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction are
conserved and managed in accordance with the provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

17.78. States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, should address the issues of
straddling stocks and highly migratory species, and, taking fully into
account the objective set out in paragraph 17.73, access to the surplus
of allowable catches.

17.79. Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or
multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate of
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should inter alia:

(a) Assess the potential of marine living resources, including
underutilized or unutilized stocks and species, by developing
inventories, where necessary, for their conservation and sustainable
use;

(b) Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living
resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of
small-scale artisanal fisheries, local communities and indigenous
people to meet human nutritional and other development needs;

(c) Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to
develop mariculture, aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic
fisheries within areas under national jurisdiction where assessments
show that marine living resources are potentially available;

(d) Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where
appropriate, including management, enforcement and surveillance
capabilities, to regulate activities related to the above strategies;

(e) Take measures to increase the availability of marine living
resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and
transportation;

(f) Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology
under criteria compatible with the sustainable use of marine living
resources, including assessment of the environmental impact of major
new fishery practices;

(g) Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living
resources for food and income.

17.80. Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding
recreational and tourist activities based on marine living resources,
including those for providing alternative sources of income. Such
activities should be compatible with conservation and sustainable
development policies and plans.

17.81. Coastal States should support the sustainability of
small-scale artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should, as
appropriate:

(b) Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special
situation of indigenous people and local communities, including their
rights to utilization and protection of their habitats on a
sustainable basis;

(c) Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of
traditional knowledge concerning marine living resources and
environment and promote the incorporation of such knowledge into
management systems.

17.82. Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and
implementation of international agreements on the development or
conservation of marine living resources, the interests of local
communities and indigenous people are taken into account, in particular
their right to subsistence.

17.83. Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of
international organizations should conduct analyses of the potential for
aquaculture in marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and
apply appropriate safeguards as to the introduction of new species.

17.84. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other
comparable destructive fishing practices.

17.85. States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high
levels of biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas
and should provide necessary limitations on use in these areas, through,
inter alia, designation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded,
as appropriate, to:

(a) Coral reef ecosystems;

(b) Estuaries;

(c) Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;

(d) Seagrass beds;

(e) Other spawning and nursery areas.

(b) Data and information

17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:

(a) Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for
the conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources
under national jurisdiction;

(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information
necessary for fisheries assessment; (c) Develop and share analytical
and predictive tools, such as stock assessment and bioeconomic models;

(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource
and critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other
areas under national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the
environment brought about by natural causes and human activities.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and
with the support of relevant United Nations and other international
organizations, should cooperate to:

(a) Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the
capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic
fisheries, as well as in coastal aquaculture and mariculture;

(b) Promote the contribution of marine living resources to
eliminate malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in
developing countries, inter alia, by minimizing post-harvest losses
and managing stocks for guaranteed sustainable yields;

(c) Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear
and practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and
minimize by-catch of non-target species;

(d) Promote seafood quality, including through national quality
assurance systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets,
improve consumer confidence and maximize economic returns.

17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and
between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries
bodies.

17.89. States recognize:

(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for
the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling;

(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as
well as of other cetaceans;

(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American
Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the
Baltic and North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation,
management and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $6 billion, including about $60 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means 17.92. States, with the
support of relevant intergovernmental organizations, as appropriate,
should:

(a) Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies
to develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to
developing countries;

(b) Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring
resource information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies
to fishing communities at the local level;

(c) Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate
traditional management systems;

(d) Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of
Practice for Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and
Freshwater Organisms;

(e) Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular
importance for marine living resources, such as areas of high
diversity, endemism and productivity and migratory stopover points.

(c) Human resource development

17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support of relevant international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate,
should encourage and provide support for developing countries, inter
alia, to:

(a) Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on
marine living resources, particularly in the social and economic
sciences;

(b) Create training opportunities at national and regional levels
to support artisanal (including subsistence) fisheries, to develop
small-scale use of marine living resources and to encourage equitable
participation of local communities, small-scale fish workers, women
and indigenous people;

(c) Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living
resources in educational curricula at all levels.

(d) Capacity-building

17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional,
regional and global agencies, where appropriate, should:

(a) Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living
resource populations and monitoring;

(b) Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular
those that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and
women, including, as appropriate, the technical and financial
assistance to organize, maintain, exchange and improve traditional
knowledge of marine living resources and fishing techniques, and
upgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems;

(c) Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies,
including environmental management in support of rural fish-farming
communities;

(d) Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions
capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the
conservation and management of marine living resources.

17.95. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be
needed to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of
data and information, scientific and technological means and human
resource development in order to enable them to participate effectively
in the conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction.

E. Addressing critical
uncertainties for the management of the
marine environment and climate change

Basis for action

17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate
and atmospheric changes. Rational use and development of coastal areas,
all seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine
environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of
these systems and to predict future conditions. The high degree of
uncertainty in present information inhibits effective management and
limits the ability to make predictions and assess environmental change.
Systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters will be
needed to apply integrated management approaches and to predict effects
of global climate change and of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone
depletion, on living marine resources and the marine environment. In
order to determine the role of the oceans and all seas in driving global
systems and to predict natural and human-induced changes in marine and
coastal environments, the mechanisms to collect, synthesize and
disseminate information from research and systematic observation
activities need to be restructured and reinforced considerably.

17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and
particularly about sealevel rise. Small increases in sealevel have the
potential of causing significant damage to small islands and low-lying
coasts. Response strategies should be based on sound data. A long-term
cooperative research commitment is needed to provide the data required
for global climate models and to reduce uncertainty. Meanwhile,
precautionary measures should be undertaken to diminish the risks and
effects, particularly on small islands and on low-lying and coastal
areas of the world.

17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion
has been reported in some areas of the world. An assessment of its
effects in the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and to
provide a basis for action.

Objectives

17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit
themselves to improve the understanding of the marine environment and
its role on global processes. To this end, it is necessary to:

(a) Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of
the marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and
high seas, including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such as
ozone depletion;

(b) Promote exchange of data and information resulting from
scientific research and systematic observation and from traditional
ecological knowledge and ensure its availability to policy makers and
the public at the national level;

(c) Cooperate with a view to the development of standard
inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and
management capabilities for scientific research on and systematic
observation of the marine environment.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.100. States should consider, inter alia:

(a) Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for
coastal and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for
research parameters essential for marine and coastal management in all
regions;

(b) Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the
safety of inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of
maritime operations;

(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope
with and adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise,
including the development of globally accepted methodologies for
coastal vulnerability assessment, modelling and response strategies
particularly for priority areas, such as small islands and low-lying
and critical coastal areas;

(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic
observation of the marine environment, with a view to integrating
activities and establishing priorities to address critical
uncertainties for oceans and all seas;

(e) Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine
biological effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the
possible effects.

17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play
in attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant
competent United Nations bodies, with the support of countries having
the resources and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and
systematic observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.

(b) Data and information

17.102. States should consider, inter alia:

(a) Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view
to strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities
for analysing, assessing and predicting global climate and
environmental change;

(b) Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP
and other international organizations in the collection, analysis and
distribution of data and information from the oceans and all seas,
including as appropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing System,
giving special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the
strategy for providing training and technical assistance for
developing countries through its Training, Education and Mutual
Assistance (TEMA) programme;

(c) Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the
results of research and systematic observation programmes;

(d) Linking these databases to existing data and information
services and mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;

(e) Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information
and its storage and archiving through the world and regional data
centres;

(f) Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing
countries, in particular, in any international scheme under the organs
and organizations of the United Nations system for the collection,
analysis and use of data and information.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in
cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional,
regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:

(a) Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of
coastal and island States for marine research and systematic
observation and for using its results;

(b) Strengthening existing national institutions and creating,
where necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in
order to prepare and exchange regional and global oceanographic
analyses and forecasts and to provide facilities for international
research and training at national, subregional and regional levels,
where applicable.

17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the
conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to
understanding the global environment, States carrying out such research
activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the
Antarctic Treaty, continue to:

(a) Ensure that data and information resulting from such research
are freely available to the international community;

(b) Enhance access of the international scientific community and
specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and
information, including the encouragement of periodic seminars and
symposia.

17.105. States should strengthen high-level inter-agency,
subregional, regional and global coordination, as appropriate, and
review mechanisms to develop and integrate systematic observation
networks. This would include:

(d) Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and
coastal area status and trends.

17.106. International cooperation, through relevant organizations
within the United Nations system, should support countries to develop
and integrate regional systematic long-term observation programmes, when
applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion
to implement, where appropriate, subregional, regional and global
observing systems based on the principle of exchange of data. One aim
should be the predicting of the effects of climate-related emergencies
on existing coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.

17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the
additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the
fields of human health, agriculture and marine environment, States and
international organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial
measures.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $750 million, including about $480 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the
further development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing
System.

(b) Scientific and technological means

17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal
and marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in
the development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and
soundness of data. They should also cooperate on a subregional and
regional basis, through existing programmes where applicable, share
infrastructure and expensive and sophisticated equipment, develop
quality assurance procedures and develop human resources jointly.
Special attention should be given to transfer of scientific and
technological knowledge and means to support States, particularly
developing countries, in the development of endogenous capabilities.
17.111. International organizations should support, when requested,
coastal countries in implementing research projects on the effects of
additional ultraviolet radiation.

(c) Human resource development

17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop
and implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing
countries, for a broad and coherent approach to meeting their core human
resource needs in the marine sciences.

(d) Capacity-building

17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national
scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent
bodies to develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and
work closely with international organizations.

17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional
mechanisms, where applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine
environment, exchange information, organize systematic observations and
assessments, and make the most effective use of scientists, facilities
and equipment. They should also cooperate in the promotion of endogenous
research capabilities in developing countries.

17.115. It is recognized that the role of international cooperation
is to support and supplement national efforts. Implementation of
strategies and activities under the programme areas relative to marine
and coastal areas and seas requires effective institutional arrangements
at national, subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate.
There are numerous national and international, including regional,
institutions, both within and outside the United Nations system, with
competence in marine issues, and there is a need to improve coordination
and strengthen links among them. It is also important to ensure that an
integrated and multisectoral approach to marine issues is pursued at all
levels.

Objectives

17.116. States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements
necessary to support the implementation of the programme areas in this
chapter. To this end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:

(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environment
and development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional,
regional and global levels, as appropriate;

(b) Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate,
institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national,
regional, subregional and interregional institutions dealing with
environment and development in marine and coastal areas;

(c) Promote within the United Nations system, regular
intergovernmental review and consideration of environment and
development issues with respect to marine and coastal areas;

(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for
the components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of
environment and development in marine and coastal areas, as well as
links with relevant international development bodies.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Global

17.117. The General Assembly should provide for regular
consideration, within the United Nations system, at the
intergovernmental level of general marine and coastal issues, including
environment and development matters, and should request the
Secretary-General and executive heads of United Nations agencies and
organizations to:

(a) Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among
the relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and
coastal responsibilities, including their subregional and regional
components;

(b) Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other
United Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies
dealing with development, trade and other related economic issues, as
appropriate;

(c) Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with
the marine environment in United Nations system-wide coordination
efforts;

(d) Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration between the
United Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and
marine programmes;

(e) Develop a centralized system to provide for information on
legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine
environmental and development issues.

17.118. States recognize that environmental policies should deal with
the root causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing
environmental measures from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to
trade. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a
disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal
with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing
country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing
international environmental problems should, as far as possible, be
based on an international consensus. Domestic measures targeted to
achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade measures to
render them effective. Should trade policy measures be found necessary
for the enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and
rules should apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of
non-discrimination; the principle that the trade measure chosen should
be the least trade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an
obligation to ensure transparency in the use of trade measures related
to the environment and to provide adequate notification of national
regulations; and the need to give consideration to the special
conditions and development requirements of developing countries as they
move towards internationally agreed environmental objectives.

(b) Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United
Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and
regional levels, including consideration of co-location of their
staff;

(c) Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;

(d) Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology
through relevant national bodies to subregional and regional centres
and networks, such as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.

(b) Data and information

17.120. States should, where appropriate:

(a) Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;

(b) Strengthen the capacity of international organizations to
handle information and support the development of national,
subregional and regional data and information systems, where
appropriate. This could also include networks linking countries with
comparable environmental problems;

(c) Further develop existing international mechanisms such as
Earthwatch and GESAMP.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.121. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $50 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means, human resource
development and capacity-building

17.122. The means of implementation outlined in the other programme
areas on marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and
technological means, human resource development and capacity-building
are entirely relevant for this programme area as well. Additionally,
States should, through international cooperation, develop a
comprehensive programme for meeting the core human resource needs in
marine sciences at all levels.

17.123. Small island developing States, and islands supporting small
communities are a special case both for environment and development.
They are ecologically fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited
resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them
at a disadvantage economically and prevent economies of scale. For small
island developing States the ocean and coastal environment is of
strategic importance and constitutes a valuable development resource.

17.124. Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation
of a comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna,
giving them a very high share of global biodiversity. They also have
rich and diverse cultures with special adaptations to island
environments and knowledge of the sound management of island resources.

17.125. Small island developing States have all the environmental
problems and challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited
land area. They are considered extremely vulnerable to global warming
and sealevel rise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the
increasing threat of the loss of their entire national territories. Most
tropical islands are also now experiencing the more immediate impacts of
increasing frequency of cyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with
climate change. These are causing major set-backs to their
socio-economic development.

17.126. Because small island development options are limited, there
are special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable
development. Small island developing States will be constrained in
meeting these challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the
international community. Objectives

17.127. States commit themselves to addressing the problems of
sustainable development of small island developing States. To this end,
it is necessary:

(a) To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal
resources, including meeting essential human needs, maintaining
biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island people;

(b) To adopt measures which will enable small island developing
States to cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with
environmental change and to mitigate impacts and reduce the threats
posed to marine and coastal resources.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.128. Small island developing States, with the assistance as
appropriate of the international community and on the basis of existing
work of national and international organizations, should:

(a) Study the special environmental and developmental
characteristics of small islands, producing an environmental profile
and inventory of their natural resources, critical marine habitats and
biodiversity;

(b) Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying
capacity of small islands under different development assumptions and
resource constraints;

(c) Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development
that emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental
considerations with economic and sectoral planning and policies,
define measures for maintaining cultural and biological diversity and
conserve endangered species and critical marine habitats;

(d) Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning,
siting and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical
Information Systems (GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of
small islands, taking into account the traditional and cultural values
of indigenous people of island countries;

(e) Review the existing institutional arrangements and identify and
undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effective
implementation of sustainable development plans, including
intersectoral coordination and community participation in the planning
process;

(f) Implement sustainable development plans, including the review
and modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;

(g) Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and
implement rational response strategies to address the environmental,
social and economic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, and
prepare appropriate contingency plans;

(h) Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable
development within small island developing States and identify
technologies that should be excluded because of their threats to
essential island ecosystems.

(b) Data and information

17.129. Additional information on the geographic, environmental,
cultural and socio-economic characteristics of islands should be
compiled and assessed to assist in the planning process. Existing island
databases should be expanded and geographic information systems
developed and adapted to suit the special characteristics of islands.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.130. Small island developing States, with the support, as
appropriate, of international organizations, whether subregional,
regional or global, should develop and strengthen inter-island, regional
and interregional cooperation and information exchange, including
periodic regional and global meetings on sustainable development of
small island developing States with the first global conference on the
sustainable development of small island developing States, to be held in
1993.

17.131. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, must recognize the special development requirements of small
island developing States and give adequate priority in the provision of
assistance, particularly with respect to the development and
implementation of sustainable development plans.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.132. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $130 million, including about $50 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technical means

17.133. Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific
information and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate
to small island developing States, especially with reference to the
management of the coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine
resources, should be established or strengthened, as appropriate, on a
regional basis.

(c) Human resource development

17.134. Since populations of small island developing States cannot
maintain all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal
management and development should aim to produce cadres of managers or
scientists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate the many
factors that need to be considered in integrated coastal management.
Resource users should be prepared to execute both management and
protection functions and to apply the polluter pays principle and
support the training of their personnel. Educational systems should be
modified to meet these needs and special training programmes developed
in integrated island management and development. Local planning should
be integrated in educational curricula of all levels and public
awareness campaigns developed with the assistance of non-governmental
organizations and indigenous coastal populations.

(d) Capacity-building

17.135. The total capacity of small island developing States will
always be limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to
meet efficiently the immediate needs for sustainable development and
integrated management. At the same time, adequate and appropriate
assistance from the international community must be directed at
strengthening the full range of human resources needed on a continuous
basis to implement sustainable development plans.

17.136. New technologies that can increase the output and range of
capability of the limited human resources should be employed to increase
the capacity of very small populations to meet their needs. The
development and application of traditional knowledge to improve the
capacity of countries to implement sustainable development should be
fostered.

Notes

1/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State
with respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the
Convention.

2/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States
which view the Convention as having a unified character.

3/ Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be
interpreted as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a
dispute of sovereignty or in the delimitation of the maritime areas
concerned.