Chu Hsi Zhu Xi was the son of a local official. He was educated in the Confucian tradition by his father and passed the highest civil service examination at the age of 18, when the average age for such an accomplishment was 35. Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s first official position (1151–58) was as a registrar in T’ung-anTong’an, FukienFujian. There he proceeded to reform the management of taxation and police, improve the library and the standards of the local school, and draw up a code of proper formal conduct and ritual, none being previously available. Before proceeding to T’ung-an, Chu Hsi Tong’an, Zhu Xi called on Li T’ungTong, a thinker in the tradition of Sung Song Confucianism who decisively influenced his future thinking. He visited Li again in 1158 and spent several months studying with him in 1160. Li was one of the ablest followers of the 11th-century Neo-Confucians who had created a new metaphysical system to compete with Buddhist and Taoist Daoist philosophy and regain the Confucian intellectual ascendancy lost for nearly a millennium. Under his influence, Chu’s Zhu’s allegiance turned definitely to Confucianism at this time.

After his assignment at T’ung-an Tong’an ended, Chu Hsi Zhu Xi did not accept another official appointment until 1179. He did, however, continue to express his political views in memorandums addressed to the emperor. Though Chu Hsi Zhu Xi also remained involved in public affairs, his persistent refusal to accept a substantive public office reflected his dissatisfaction with the men in power and their policies, his spurning of factional politics, and his preference for the life of a teacher and scholar, which was made possible by his receipt of a series of government sinecures.

These years were productive in thought and scholarship as indicated both by his formal writings and by his correspondence with friends and scholars of diverse views. In 1175, for instance, he held a famous philosophical debate with the philosopher Lu Chiu-yüan Jiuyuan (Lu Hsiang-shanXiangshan) at which neither man was able to prevail. In contrast to Lu’s insistence on the exclusive value of inwardness, Chu Hsi Zhu Xi emphasized the value of inquiry and study, including book learning. Consistent with this view was Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s own prolific literary output. In a number of works, including a compilation of the works of the Ch’eng Cheng brothers and studies of Chou-Tun-i Zhou Dunyi (1017–73) and Chang Tsai Zhang Zai (1020–77), he expressed his esteem for these four philosophers, whose ideas he incorporated and synthesized into his own thought. According to Chu HsiZhu Xi, these thinkers had restored the transmission of the Way (TaoDao), a process that had been lost after the death of Mencius. In 1175 Chu Hsi Zhu Xi and his friend Lü Tsu-ch’ien Ziqian (1137–81) compiled passages from the works of the four to form their famous anthology, Chin-ssu LuJinsilu(Reflections on Things at Hand). Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s philosophical ideas also found expression during this period in his enormously influential commentaries on the Lun YüLunyu(Analects) of Confucius and on Mencius, both completed in 1177.

Chu Hsi Zhu Xi also took a keen interest in history and directed a reworking and condensation of Ssu-ma Kuang’s Sima Guang’s history, the Tzu-chih t’ung-chienZizhi tongjian(“Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government”), so that it would illustrate moral principles in government. The resulting work, known as the T’ung-chien kang-muTongjian gangmu(“Outline and Digest of the General Mirror”), basically completed in 1172, was not only widely read throughout eastern Asia but also served as the basis for the first comprehensive history of China published in Europe, J.-A.-M. Moyriac de Mailla’s Histoire générale de la Chine (1777–85).

While serving as prefect (1179–81) in Nan-k’angNankang, KiangsiJiangsi, Chu Hsi Zhu Xi used the opportunity to rehabilitate the White Deer Grotto Academy, which had been founded in the 9th century and had flourished in the 10th century but had later fallen to ruin. The prestige restored to it by Chu Zhu was to last through eight centuries. Academies such as this provided an invaluable institutional basis for the Neo-Confucian movement.

In 1188 Chu Hsi Zhu Xi wrote a major memorandum in which he restated his conviction that the emperor’s character was the basis for the well-being of the realm. Ta hsüehDaxue(“Great Learning”), a text on moral government, asserted that by cultivating his mind the emperor set off a chain reaction leading to the moral transformation of the entire world. In 1189 Chu Hsi Zhu Xi wrote an important commentary on this text, and he continued to work on Ta hsüehDaxuefor the rest of his life. Similarly, in 1189 he wrote a commentary on Chung yungZhongyong(“Doctrine of the Mean”). It was largely because of the influence of Chu Hsi Zhu Xi that these two texts came to be accepted along with the Analects and Mencius as the Four Books basic to the Confucian educational curriculum.

On several occasions during his later career Chu Zhu was invited to the imperial court and seemed destined for more influential positions, but his invariably frank and forceful opinions and his uncompromising attacks on corruption and political expediency each time brought his dismissal or his transfer to a new post conveniently distant from the capital. On the last of these occasions, near the end of his life, his enemies retaliated with virulent accusations concerning his views and conduct, and he was barred from political activity. He was still in political disgrace when he died in 1200. Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s reputation was rehabilitated soon after his death, however, and posthumous honours for him followed in 1209 and 1230, culminating in the placement of his tablet in the Confucian Temple in 1241. In later centuries, rulers more authoritarian than those he had criticized, discreetly forgetting his political and intellectual nonconformity, made his philosophic system the sole orthodox creed, which it remained until the end of the 19th century.

Thought and influence

Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s philosophy emphasized logic, consistency, and the conscientious observance of classical authority, especially that of Confucius and his follower Mencius. Chu Hsi Zhu Xi held that the universe has two aspects: the formless and the formed. The formless, or li, is a principle or a network of principles that is supreme natural law and that determines the patterns of all created things. This law combines with the material force or energy called ch’iqito produce matter, or things having form. In human beings the li (manifested as human nature) is essentially perfect, and defects—including vices—are introduced into the body and mind through impurities of ch’iqi, or matter. Man may eliminate his mental imperfections through study of ethical principles and metaphysics.

In these respects Chu Zhu differed from the eminent contemporary Neo-Confucian Lu Chiu-yüanJiuyuan, who saw no duality between natural law and matter and believed in human perfectability through meditation. In contrast to Lu Chiu-yüan’s Jiuyuan’s intuitionism, which focused on the discovery and understanding of principles within oneself, Chu Hsi Zhu Xi and his followers stressed the “investigation of things,” by which they meant primarily the study of ethical conduct and of the revered Five Classics. The study of ethical and metaphysical principles in turn constituted an ingredient both in building a personal faith and in advising emperors through whose self-cultivation order might be restored in the world.

Though his ideas never went unchallenged, Chu Hsi’s Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism long dominated Chinese intellectual life and his commentaries on the Four Books (Ssu shuSishu) became required reading for all who hoped to pass the civil service examinations. His intellectual influence was also paramount in Korea, and his ideas won wide acceptance and official support in Tokugawa Japan as well.