Gan Ning (died 215–216 or 220[notes 1]), courtesy nameXingba, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Originally a notorious pirate, he gave up the life of a marauder in the late 190s and became a subordinate of Huang Zu, the Administrator of a commandery in present-day east-central Hubei. Disheartened by Huang Zu's indifferent attitude towards him, Gan Ning eventually left Huang and made his way into Wu territory (present-day eastern and southeastern China), where he found his calling and became a military officer under the warlord Sun Quan. Throughout his years of service under Sun Quan until his death, Gan Ning fought in numerous battles for his lord, including the battles of Jiangxia (208), Red Cliffs (208–209), Xiaoyao Ford (214–215) and Ruxu (217).

Contents

Early life1

Service under Liu Biao and Huang Zu2

Battle of Jiangxia3

Saving Su Fei3.1

Red Cliffs campaign4

Guan Yu's shallows5

Battle of Xiaoyao Ford6

Battle of Ruxu7

Death8

Family9

Evaluation10

Conflict with Ling Tong10.1

Dispute with Lü Meng10.2

In fiction11

Modern references12

See also13

Notes14

References15

Early life

Gan Ning was from Linjiang County (臨江縣), Ba Commandery (巴郡), which is in present-day Zhong County, Chongqing.[Sanguozhi 1] His ancestral home was actually in Nanyang, Henan, but his ancestors moved to Ba Commandery. In his youth, Gan Ning was recommended to take up the position of an Assistant (丞) in the office of Shu Commandery (蜀郡) but he resigned and went home after serving for a short period of time.[Sanguozhi zhu 1]

In his younger days, Gan Ning was known to be very energetic and eager to behave like a youxia or vigilante. He gathered a group of wayward young men, with him as their chief, and engaged in piracy. They were armed with either bows or crossbows, wore feathers in their hats and tied bells on their bodies. The ringing of the bells alerted people to the presence of Gan Ning and his gang.[Sanguozhi 2] Gan Ning's plundering and murderous ways earned him infamy throughout Ba Commandery. On land, he and his gang travelled by riding on horses or in chariots in a certain formation; on water, they sailed on light vessels linked together. They were dressed in elaborate and flamboyant garments to attract attention wherever they went. When they stopped at a certain location, they used silk to tie their boats to the jetties; when they were departing, they cut the silk and abandoned it as a display of their extravagance.[Sanguozhi zhu 2]

Among those who had dealings with Gan Ning were some local officials. They treated Gan Ning generously. In return, he befriended them and showed genuine feelings towards them. On the other hand, those who treated him badly suffered the fate of being robbed of their possessions by him and his gang, and even government officials were not spared. Gan Ning led the life of a marauder for over 20 years.[Sanguozhi 3]

Around 194, Liu Yan, the Inspector (刺史) of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), died. Gan Ning rebelled against Liu Yan's son and successor, Liu Zhang, with the support of Liu He (劉闔), an official from Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), and Liu Zhang's subordinates Shen Mi (沈彌) and Lou Fa (婁發). However, they failed and were forced to flee to Jing Province.[Sanguozhi zhu 3]

Service under Liu Biao and Huang Zu

Gan Ning eventually decided to stop plundering and pillaging. He read some books, including ideas from the Hundred Schools of Thought. Later, he brought along 800 men to join Liu Biao, the Governor (牧) of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), and was stationed in Nanyang Commandery in the province. Liu Biao had a scholar-gentry background and was not proficient in military affairs. Around the time, chaos had broken out all around China as contending warlords fought each other for territorial gains and hegemony over the empire. Gan Ning observed that Liu Biao was doomed to failure and was worried that he would be affected, so he and his followers planned to head east towards the Wu region, which was under the control of the warlord Sun Ce and later under Sun Ce's successor, Sun Quan. They reached Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; commandery capital in present-day Yunmeng County, Xiaogan, Hubei) in the eastern part of Jing Province but were unable to cross the border into Wu territory, so Gan Ning remained at Jiangxia and became a subordinate of the commandery's Administrator (太守), Huang Zu. Huang Zu did not recognise Gan Ning's abilities and treated him coldly for three years.[Sanguozhi zhu 4][Sanguozhi zhu 5]

In 203, Sun Quan led his forces to attack Huang Zu, whom he deemed responsible for the death of his father Sun Jian at the Battle of Xiangyang in 191. This led to the Battle of Xiakou. Huang Zu was defeated and pursued by the enemy. Gan Ning, a skilled archer, led a detachment of troops as backup and came to the rescue. He fired an arrow which killed Ling Cao, a Colonel (校尉) under Sun Quan, thus allowing Huang Zu to retreat safely. Huang Zu did not change his attitude towards Gan Ning after the incident. Su Fei, an Area Commander (都督) under Huang Zu, recommended Gan Ning as a talent to his superior, but was ignored. Huang Zu even attempted to entice Gan Ning's followers to abandon their leader and serve him, and some agreed.[Sanguozhi zhu 6]

Gan Ning was unhappy with Huang Zu and wanted to leave him, but was worried that Huang would not allow, so he felt very frustrated. Su Fei was aware of Gan Ning's intention, so he invited him for drinks and said, "I recommended you to Huang Zu many times, but he doesn't want to give you important responsibilities. Days pass by and people become older. You should make plans for the future and find someone who truly appreciates your talents." Gan Ning paused for a moment before replying, "That's what I've in mind, but I can't find an excuse to leave." Su Fei then said, "I'll suggest to Huang Zu to appoint you as the Chief (長) of Zhu (邾; northwest of present-day Huanggang, Hubei). The initial phase is difficult, but after you reached there, it'll be much easier for you to decide where to go from there." Gan Ning replied, "Great." Huang Zu approved Su Fei's suggestion. Gan Ning managed to gather a few hundred men who were willing to follow him, and they headed towards Zhu.[Sanguozhi zhu 7]

Battle of Jiangxia

When Gan Ning brought his followers to Wu, Zhou Yu and Lü Meng recommended him to serve their lord, Sun Quan. Sun Quan felt that Gan Ning was extraordinary and treated him like an old acquaintance. Gan Ning proposed, "The Han Empire is declining day by day. Cao Cao is becoming increasingly arrogant and he'll eventually usurp the throne. The southern territories in Jing Province are accessible in terms of travelling by land or water. The western domain of the Empire lies there. Based on my observation of Liu Biao, he'll not last long while his sons are of inferior quality and cannot inherit his jurisdiction. My lord, you should take control of these lands soon, lest Cao Cao seizes them later. The best plan now is to attack Huang Zu first. Huang Zu is old and muddleheaded. He lacks funding and supplies, cheats those around them, and is only concerned with making personal gains. His subordinates are already unhappy with him because of his overbearing demands. His warships and military equipment are damaged and have not been repaired; he neglects agriculture; his army is ill-disciplined. If you attack him now, you'll surely win him. After defeating him, you can move west further and take control of Chu Pass (楚關) and expand your domain and influence. After that, you can prepare to attack Bashu (巴蜀; covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing)."[Sanguozhi 4]

Sun Quan wanted to follow Gan Ning's plan. At the time, Zhang Zhao, another official under Sun Quan, objected, "The territories in Wu have not been completely pacified yet. If we proceed with this campaign, I'm afraid there will be chaos."[Sanguozhi 5] Gan Ning rebuked Zhang Zhao, "Our lord has entrusted responsibilities to you as if you were Xiao He.[notes 2] If you were to remain in charge and yet fear that there will be chaos, how can you expect to emulate the people in the past?"[Sanguozhi 6] Sun Quan then raised his cup of wine to Gan Ning and said, "Xingba, I've decided to put you in charge of the campaign this year just as I offer this cup of wine to you. You should strive your best to come up with strategies and ensure that we overcome Huang Zu. When you've earned merit, you won't need to take Zhang Zhao's words to heart."[Sanguozhi 7]

In the spring of 208, Sun Quan led his forces west to attack Huang Zu at Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; commandery capital in present-day Yunmeng County, Xiaogan, Hubei) and succeeded in defeating and capturing Huang alive, as well as taking control over his troops. Gan Ning was placed in command of some soldiers and ordered to garrison at Dangkou (當口).[Sanguozhi 8]

Saving Su Fei

Prior to the campaign, Sun Quan had two boxes made for containing the heads of Huang Zu and [Sanguozhi zhu 8]

Red Cliffs campaign

In the winter of 208–209, Gan Ning fought in the Battle of Red Cliffs under Zhou Yu's command against the forces of Cao Cao, and defeated the enemy at Wulin (烏林). He also participated in the Battle of Jiangling, a follow-up to Red Cliffs. Sun Quan's forces, led by Zhou Yu, attacked Cao Cao's general Cao Ren at Nan Commandery (南郡; commandery capital in present-day Jiangling County, Jingzhou, Hubei) but were unable to conquer the city. Gan Ning suggested to lead a separate force to capture Yiling (夷陵; around present-day Yichang, Hubei). He had only a few hundred soldiers with him when he reached Yiling and the strength of his army increased to around 1,000 after he recruited some men in the area. Cao Ren sent 5,000–6,000 troops to besiege Gan Ning at Yiling. The enemy built high towers, from which they rained arrows upon Yiling. Gan Ning's men were terrified but Gan remained calm. He sent a messenger to request aid from Zhou Yu, who heeded Lü Meng's plan and led reinforcements to help Gan Ning while leaving behind Ling Tong to defend their position.[Sanguozhi 9] Zhou Yu, Lü Meng and the others succeeded in lifting the siege at Yiling, while Ling Tong managed to hold his ground well for that period of time. Eventually, Cao Ren was ordered to abandon Nan Commandery because the prolonged war had drained much manpower and resources on Cao Cao's side, and this resulted in the capture of the commandery by Sun Quan's forces.

Guan Yu's shallows

Around 214 or 215, Sun Quan had disputes with his ally Liu Bei over the division of southern Jing Province between them. Sun Quan sent Lü Meng and Ling Tong to seize the three commanderies of Changsha (長沙), Lingling (零陵), and Guiyang (桂陽) from Liu Bei, and then ordered Lu Su to station at Yiyang (益陽; around present-day Yiyang, Hunan) as a precaution against any retaliation by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, who was in charge of his lord's territories in southern Jing Province. Gan Ning joined Lu Su at Yiyang.[Sanguozhi 10]

Guan Yu claimed he had 30,000 troops. He selected 5,000 elite soldiers, headed to the upstream shallows located some 10 li away from Yiyang, and planned to cross the shallows at night. Lu Su held a discussion with his subordinates on how to deal with Guan Yu. At the time, Gan Ning had only 300 men under him and he told Lu Su, "If you give me another 500 troops, I'll go to confront Guan Yu. I assure you that Guan Yu will not dare to cross the waters when he hears of my approach. But if he does, I'll capture him." Lu Su then chose 1,000 troops and put them under Gan Ning's command. Gan Ning headed towards Guan Yu's position at night. As Gan Ning expected, Guan Yu did not cross the shallows and instead set up camps there. That place was thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨).[Sanguozhi 11]

Sun Quan was so pleased with Gan Ning's achievement that he appointed him as the Administrator (太守) of Xiling Commandery (西陵郡) and let him oversee the counties of Yangxin (陽新) and Xiazhi (下雉).[Sanguozhi 12]

Battle of Xiaoyao Ford

In early 215, Gan Ning was involved in an attack on Cao Cao's garrison at Huan (皖; or Huancheng, in present-day Qianshan County, Anqing, Anhui) and was in charge of the unit assigned to scale the fortress's walls. Armed with a chain, he was the first to climb up the walls, and his men killed Huancheng's defending commander, Zhu Guang (朱光). Lü Meng earned the top credit while Gan Ning received the second highest credit for the victory. Gan Ning was promoted to "General Who Breaks and Charges" (折衝將軍).[Sanguozhi 13]

Later that year, Gan Ning participated in Sun Quan's campaign to seize control of Hefei, which was defended by Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao. Sun Quan was unable to capture Hefei after besieging the city for days and suffering defeats in the initial skirmishes, and he eventually withdrew his forces when a plague broke out in his army. Sun Quan's other units retreated first, while Sun remained behind at Xiaoyao Ford (逍遙津) with only about 1,000 men and a few officers (including Lü Meng, Jiang Qin, Ling Tong and Gan Ning). When Zhang Liao saw that, he seized the opportunity to launch a devastating counterattack and throw the enemy into confusion. Gan Ning led a group of archers to fire arrows at the enemy while Ling Tong and the others fought fiercely to protect their lord. Gan Ning shouted at the men to beat the war drums and blow the horns loudly to raise the army's morale. Sun Quan eventually succeeded in escaping but his forces sustained heavy losses. He praised Gan Ning for his acts of courage after the battle.[Sanguozhi 14]

Battle of Ruxu

Two years later in 217, Cao Cao personally led an army, claimed to be 400,000 strong, to attack Sun Quan's garrison at Ruxu (濡須). Sun Quan led about 70,000 troops to counter the enemy. Gan Ning commanded the 3,000-strong vanguard. Sun Quan gave a secret order for Gan Ning to attack the enemy under the cover of nightfall, so Gan selected 100 elite soldiers.[Sanguozhi zhu 9] Before the battle, Sun Quan sent wine and various dishes to Gan Ning, who gave them to his men. After the feast, Gan Ning poured wine into a silver bowl and drank two bowls before offering it to an officer. The officer knelt down and did not dare to take the bowl, so Gan Ning drew his sword, placed it on his lap and said, "You respect our lord but not me? I don't fear death. Why do you fear death?" The officer saw that Gan Ning was very stern so he obliged and drank from it and then ordered each soldier to drink one bowl of wine."[Sanguozhi 15]

When it was nearing midnight, Gan Ning and his 100 men raided Cao Cao's camp[Sanguozhi 16] and destroyed some defensive structures and killed dozens of enemy soldiers. Cao Cao's troops were shocked so they sounded the alarm and lit up the entire camp with torches. By then, Gan Ning and his men had already returned safely to their own camp, where they beat their drums, blew their horns, and shouted "wansui!"[Sanguozhi zhu 10]

Later that night, Gan Ning went to see Sun Quan, who was delighted and said to him, "Were your actions enough to frighten the old man (Cao Cao)? I had the opportunity of witnessing your valour." Sun Quan then rewarded Gan Ning with 1,000 rolls of silk and 100 swords. He also remarked, "Mengde (Cao Cao) has Zhang Liao while I've Xingba. I can match him." Cao Cao withdrew his armies from Ruxu after slightly more than a month.[Sanguozhi zhu 11] Gan Ning was held in even higher regard among Sun Quan's forces and the number of troops under his command was increased by 2,000.[Sanguozhi 17]

Death

When Gan Ning died, Sun Quan deeply lamented his death.[Sanguozhi 18] No further details about Gan Ning's death were provided in his official biography in the Sanguozhi. However, the Jiankang Shilu mentioned that Gan Ning died in the winter of 215–216,[1] while the Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny estimated Gan Ning's death year to be around 220.[2]

Gan Shu (甘述), another son of Gan Ning, served as an Imperial Secretary (尚書) in the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period. Gan Shu's son, Gan Chang (甘昌), served as a Crown Prince's Tutor (太子太傅) in Wu.[4] Gan Chang had a son – Gan Zhuo (甘卓), courtesy name "Jisi" (季思). Gan Zhuo served as "Senior General Who Guards the South" (鎮南大將軍) and "Governor of Jing Province" (荊州牧) during the Western Jin dynasty.[5]

Evaluation

Although Gan Ning was rough and murderous in his ways, he was also jovial, gregarious, and capable of using strategy. He respected virtuous persons and had little regard for monetary wealth. He treated his men well and they were also willing to fight for him with their lives.[Sanguozhi 20]

Conflict with Ling Tong

Battle of Xiakou in 203. Gan Ning was always on the defensive against Ling Tong and avoided meeting him. Sun Quan also ordered Ling Tong to not seek vengeance on Gan Ning. There was one incident during a banquet held in Lü Meng's house, where both Gan Ning and Ling Tong were present. When Ling Tong was performing a sword dance to entertain the guests, Gan Ning stood up and said, "I can also perform with my pair of jis." Lü Meng told Gan Ning, "You may be good in performing, but you're not as good as me." He then drew his sword and carried a shield and stood between Ling Tong and Gan Ning to separate the two of them. When Sun Quan heard about the incident, he relocated Gan Ning to a garrison at Banzhou (半州).[Sanguozhi zhu 12]

Dispute with Lü Meng

One of Gan Ning's servants committed an offence and was afraid of being punished so he sought shelter under Lü Meng. Lü Meng feared that Gan Ning would kill the servant so he did not send the servant away. Later, when Gan Ning visited Lü Meng's house and brought along gifts for the latter's mother, Lü brought the servant out to meet Gan, and Gan promised to spare the servant. However, Gan Ning reneged on his word later as he tied the servant to a tree and personally killed him by firing arrows at him. After that, he went back to his boat and ordered his men to lengthen the hawsers while he undressed and rested inside the cabin.[Sanguozhi 21]

Lü Meng was furious when he heard that Gan Ning had killed the servant so he gathered his own men and prepared to confront Gan. Gan Ning continued resting when he heard Lü Meng approaching. Lü Meng's mother came out of the house barefooted and chided her son, "The lord (Sun Quan) treats you like his family and entrusts you with important responsibilities. How can you kill Gan Ning just because you've a private feud with him? If Gan Ning dies, even if the lord does not inquire into the incident, you've already overstepped your role as a subject." Lü Meng was a filial son so his anger subsided after listening to his mother. He then went to Gan Ning's boat, laughed and said, "Xingba, my mother is treating you to a meal. Come up quickly!" Gan Ning wept and replied, "I've let you down." He followed Lü Meng to meet his mother and they feasted for the whole day.[Sanguozhi 22]

The description of Gan Ning's night raid on Cao Cao's camp at the Battle of Ruxu in the novel is more vivid as compared to that mentioned in his biography. Before the raid, Ling Tong led 3,000 troops to engage the enemy and duelled with Zhang Liao before he was ordered to retreat. When Gan Ning saw that, he told Sun Quan, "Tonight I'll bring only 100 men to raid Cao Cao's camp. If I lose a single soldier, this will not count as one of my contributions."[6] That night, he led 100 horsemen to attack Cao Cao's camp and all of them returned alive after inflicting damage and casualties on the enemy.[7]

Gan Ning killed Ling Tong's father, Ling Cao, at the Battle of Xiakou in 203.[8] Since then, even after Gan Ning had come to serve Sun Quan, Ling Tong still bore a grudge against Gan because of his father's death. Their conflict was mentioned in chapters 67–68 of the novel, and was eventually resolved after Gan Ning saved Ling Tong's life.[notes 3]

Gan Ning's death was described in chapter 83 of the novel, in which he was killed at the Battle of Xiaoting by the tribal king Shamoke, an ally of Liu Bei.[notes 4]

Modern references

See also

Notes

^See #Death for details

^Xiao He was the first Chancellor of the Han dynasty. Between 206 BCE and 202 BCE, when Liu Bang (the founding emperor of Han) engaged his rival Xiang Yu in the Chu–Han Contention (a power struggle for supremacy over China), Xiao He was placed in charge of Liu Bang's home territories while Liu was at the frontline. Xiao He governed those lands effectively and provided support to Liu Bang's military by ensuring the smooth delivery of supplies and reinforcements.

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