1.
Andorra
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Created under a charter in 988, the present principality was formed in 1278. It is known as a principality as it is a monarchy headed by two Co-Princes – the Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell in Spain, and the President of France. Andorra is the sixth-smallest nation in Europe, having an area of 468 km2 and its capital Andorra la Vella is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of 1,023 metres above sea level. The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, Andorras tourism services an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. It is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is the official currency and it has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. In 2013, the people of Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, the origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The word Andosini or Andosins may derive from the Basque handia whose meaning is big or giant, the Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ur, another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from Arabic al-durra, meaning The forest. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese andurrial, la Balma de la Margineda found by archaeologists at Sant Julia de Loria were the first temporal settled in 10000 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege. During the Neolithic Age the group of humans moved to the Valley of Madriu as a permanent camp in 6640 BC, the population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and developed a commercial trade with people from the Segre and Occitania. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet and Feixa del Moro both dated in 4900-4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra, the model of small settlements begin to evolved as an complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. We can found metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins and relicaries in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country, the inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini during the VII and II centuries BC. Influenced by Aquitanias, Basque and Iberian languages the locals developed some current toponyms, early writings and documents relating this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc dEnclar, lAnxiu in Les Escaldes and it is known the presence of Roman influence from the II century BC to the V century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in Camp Vermell in Sant Julia de Loria, people continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet and all across Segre through the Via Romana Strata Ceretana. After the fall of the Roman Empire Andorra was under the influence of the Visigoths, not directly from the Kingdom of Toledo by distance, the Visigoths remained during 200 years in the valleys, a period in which Christianization takes place within the country. The fall of the Visigoths came from the Muslim Empire and its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra remained away from these invasions by the Franks

2.
ADR (treaty)
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ADR is a 1957 United Nations treaty that governs transnational transport of hazardous materials. ADR is derived from the French name for the treaty, Accord européen relatif au transport international des marchandises Dangereuses par Route), concluded in Geneva on 30 September 1957 under the aegis of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, it entered into force on 29 January 1968. The agreement was modified in New York City on 21 August 1975, a new amended ADR2011 entered into force on 1 January 2011. Annexes A and B have been amended and updated since the entry into force of ADR. Consequently, to the amendments for entry into force on 1 January 2015, as of 2016,49 states are party to ADR. The agreement itself is brief and simple, and its most important article is article 2 and it is not usually possible to deduce the hazard class of a substance from its UN number, they have to be looked up in a table. An exception to this are Class 1 substances whose UN number will always begin with a 0

3.
Tachograph
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A tachograph is a device fitted to a vehicle that automatically records its speed and distance, together with the drivers activity selected from a choice of modes. The drive mode is activated automatically when the vehicle is in motion, the rest and availability modes can be manually selected by the driver whilst stationary. A tachograph system comprises a sender unit mounted to the gearbox, the tachograph head. Tachograph heads are of either analogue or digital types, all relevant vehicles manufactured in the EU since 1 May 2006 must be fitted with digital tachograph heads. Digital driver cards store data in a format that can also be read out as a. ddd file. These files - both those read from memory with a download device, and those read from the driver cards - can be imported into tachograph analysis/archival software. They are also used in the world, for example through the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine. The tachograph was originally introduced for the railroads so that companies could better document irregularities, the inventor was Max Maria von Weber, a civil servant, engineer and author. The Daniel Tachometer is known in railways since 1844, the Hasler Event recorder was introduced in the 1920s. For reasons of safety, many jurisdictions have limits on the working hours of drivers of certain vehicles, such as buses. A tachograph can be used to monitor this and ensure that appropriate breaks are taken, the Verkehrs-Sicherungs-Gesetz of 19 December 1952, made tachographs mandatory in Germany for all commercial vehicles weighing over 7.5 tonnes. Since 23 March and 23 December 1953, all new vehicles and buses must be equipped with the device per law Straßenverkehrs-Zulassungs-Ordnung § 57a. Tachographs are mandatory for vehicles allowed to carry a weight of over 3.5 tonnes and vehicles built to carry at least 9 passengers. They are used to review the driving and rest time of drivers during reviews by traffic standards organizations or accident investigation, a driver must carry the tachograph records with him for all days of the current week and the last day of the previous week that he drove. Companies must keep the records for 1 year, in Germany, §16 of the work time regulations lengthens this time to 2 years if the records will be used as proof of work time. EEC regulation 3821/85 from 20 December 1985 made tachographs mandatory throughout the EEC as of 29 September 1986, a European arrangement in regard to the work of driving personnel engaged in international traffic became effective on 31 July 1985. Regulation 561/2006/EC of the European Union adopted on 11 April 2007 specified the driving and these time periods can be checked by the employers, police and other authorities with the help of the tachograph. Most tachographs produced prior to 1 May 2006 were of the analogue type, later analogue tachograph head models are of a modular design, enabling the head to fit into a standard DIN slot in the vehicle dashboard

4.
Apostille Convention
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It specifies the modalities through which a document issued in one of the signatory countries can be certified for legal purposes in all the other signatory states. Such a certification is called an apostille and it is an international certification comparable to a notarisation in domestic law, and normally supplements a local notarisation of the document. Apostilles are affixed by Competent Authorities designated by the government of a state which is party to the convention, a list of these authorities is maintained by the Hague Conference on Private International Law. Examples of designated authorities are embassies, ministries, courts or governments, for example, in the United States, the Secretary of State of each state and his or her deputies are usually competent authorities. In the United Kingdom, all apostilles are issued by the Foreign, to be eligible for an apostille, a document must first be issued or certified by an officer recognised by the authority that will issue the apostille. For example, in the US state of Vermont, the Secretary of State maintains specimen signatures of all notaries public, likewise, courts in the Netherlands are eligible of placing an apostille on all municipal civil status documents directly. In some cases, intermediate certifications may be required in the country in which the document originates before it will be eligible for an apostille, for example, in New York City, the Office of Vital Records is not directly recognised by the New York Secretary of State. As a consequence, the signature of the City Clerk must be certified by the County Clerk of New York County to make the birth certificate eligible for an apostille. In Japan all the documents are issued in Japanese language. In India the apostille certification can be obtained from the Ministry of External Affairs The apostille itself is a stamp or printed form consisting of 10 numbered standard fields. On the top is the text APOSTILLE, under which the text Convention de La Haye du 5 octobre 1961 is placed and this title must be written in French for the Apostille to be valid. In the numbered fields the following information is added, Country and this public document has been signed by acting in the capacity of bears the seal/stamp of Certified at the. Signature The information can be placed on the document itself, or attached to the document as an allonge, a State that has not signed the Convention must specify how foreign legal documents can be certified for its use. Two countries may have a convention on the recognition of each others public documents. In practice this means the document must be certified twice before it can have effect in the receiving country. The convention has 112 parties and is in force for all members of the European Union, the most recent state to accede to the convention is Chile. In 2005 The Hague Conference surveyed its members and produced a report in December 2008 which expressed concerns about Diplomas. The possible abuse of the system was highlighted Particularly troubling is the use of diploma mill qualifications to circumvent migration controls

5.
Basel Convention
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It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The Convention was opened for signature on 22 March 1989, as of November 2016,184 states and the European Union are parties to the Convention. Haiti and the United States have signed the Convention but not ratified it, with the tightening of environmental laws in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, globalization of shipping made transboundary movement of more accessible. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to LDCs and it sailed for many months, changing its name several times. Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea and these practices have been deemed Toxic Colonialism by many developing countries. At its most recent meeting,27 November to 1 December 2006, the Conference of the parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste, according to Maureen Walsh, only around 4% of hazardous wastes that come from OECD countries are actually shipped across international borders. These wastes include, among others, chemical waste, radioactive waste, municipal waste, asbestos, incinerator ash. Of internationally shipped waste that comes from developed countries, more than half is shipped for recovery, increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers. This market is valued in billions of dollars, at issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a commodity and become a waste. As of November 2016, there are 185 parties to the treaty, which includes 182 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the European Union, and the State of Palestine. The 11 UN member states that are not party to the treaty are Angola, East Timor, Fiji, Grenada, Haiti, San Marino, Solomon Islands, South Sudan, Tuvalu, United States, and Vanuatu. A waste falls under the scope of the Convention if it is within the category of wastes listed in Annex I of the Convention, in other words, it must both be listed and possess a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive. The definition of the disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV. The examples of disposal are broad and include also recovery, recycling, radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships are not covered. Annex IX attempts to define commodities which are not considered wastes, in addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries. It is of note that the Convention places a prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between Parties and non-Parties. The exception to rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention

6.
Berne Convention
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The Berne Convention formally mandated several aspects of modern copyright law, it introduced the concept that a copyright exists the moment a work is fixed, rather than requiring registration. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize copyrights held by the citizens of all parties to the convention. The Berne Convention requires its parties to treat the copyright of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, Copyright under the Berne Convention must be automatic, it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the Convention 1 March 1989, it continued to make statutory damages and attorneys fees only available for registered works. Under Article 4, it applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country. The Convention relies on the concept of country of origin, often determining the country of origin is straightforward, when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5, when a work is published simultaneously in several party countries, for works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country, in the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining country of origin, however other U. S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e. g. Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC. The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well, countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works may be provided shorter terms. If the author is unknown, because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, however, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors applies. e. An author is not entitled a longer copyright abroad than at home. This is commonly known as the rule of the shorter term, not all countries have accepted this rule. As to works, protection must include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, the Berne Convention authorizes countries to allow fair uses of copyrighted works in other publications or broadcasts. Implementations of this part of the treaty fall into the categories of fair use. This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the communications of their users. Critics claim that the convention does not mention any other rights of consumers of works except for fair use, there is a legal debate about whether the U. S

7.
Convention on Biological Diversity
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The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. In other words, its objective is to develop strategies for the conservation. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development, the Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. At the 2010 10th Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in October in Nagoya, Japan, the notion of an international convention on biological diversity was conceived at a United Nations Environment Programme Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in November 1988. In 1991, a negotiating committee was established, tasked with finalizing the conventions text. A Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1992, the Conventions text was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. By its closing date,4 June 1993, the convention had received 168 signatures and it entered into force on 29 December 1993. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources and it links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources and it also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding, countries that join it are obliged to implement its provisions, the convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, however, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity and it argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return. The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 banned some forms of geoengineering, some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include, Measures the incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Regulated access to resources and traditional knowledge, including Prior Informed Consent of the party providing resources. Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology, to the governments and/or local communities that provided traditional knowledge and/or biodiversity resources, coordination of a global directory of taxonomic expertise. National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Convention, also known as the Biosafety Protocol, was adopted in January 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary principle, the required number of 50 instruments of ratification/accession/approval/acceptance by countries was reached in May 2003

8.
Biological Weapons Convention
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The Convention was the result of prolonged efforts by the international community to establish a new instrument that would supplement the 1925 Geneva Protocol. The Geneva Protocol prohibits use but not possession or development of chemical and biological weapons and it commits the 178 states which are party to it as of December 2016 to prohibit the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons. However, the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance has limited the effectiveness of the Convention, an additional six states have signed the BWC but have yet to ratify the treaty. The scope of the BWCs prohibition is defined in Article 1 and this includes all microbial and other biological agents or toxins and their means of delivery. Subsequent Review Conferences have reaffirmed that the general purpose criterion encompasses all future scientific and it is not the objects themselves, but rather certain purposes for which they may be employed which are prohibited, similar to Art. II,1 in the Chemical Weapons Convention. Permitted purposes under the BWC are defined as prophylactic, protective, the objects may not be retained in quantities that have no justification or which are inconsistent with the permitted purposes. The United States Congress passed the Bioweapons Anti-Terrorism Act in 1989 to implement the Convention, the law applies the Conventions convent to countries and private citizens, and criminalizes violations of the Convention. Article I, Never under any circumstances to acquire or retain biological weapons, Article II, To destroy or divert to peaceful purposes biological weapons and associated resources prior to joining. Article III, Not to transfer, or in any way assist, Article IV, To take any national measures necessary to implement the provisions of the BWC domestically. Article V, To consult bilaterally and multilaterally to solve any problems with the implementation of the BWC, Article VI, To request the UN Security Council to investigate alleged breaches of the BWC and to comply with its subsequent decisions. Article VII, To assist States which have exposed to a danger as a result of a violation of the BWC. Article X, To do all of the above in a way that encourages the peaceful uses of biological science, the BWC has 178 States Parties as of November 2016, with Guinea the most recent to become a party. The Republic of China had deposited an instrument of ratification before the changeover of the United Nations seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Of the UN member states which are not a party to the treaty, six have signed, a long process of negotiation to add a verification mechanism began in the 1990s. Previously, at the second Review Conference of State Parties in 1986, the following Review Conference in 1991 established a group of government experts. Negotiations towards an internationally binding verification protocol to the BWC took place between 1995 and 2001 in a known as the Ad Hoc Group. On 25 July 2001, the Bush administration, after conducting a review of policy on biological weapons, States Parties have formally reviewed the operation of the BWC at quinquennial review conferences held in 1980,1986,1991,1996, 2001/02,2006,2011, and 2016. These additional understandings are contained in the Final Declarations of the Review Conferences, there has been an increase in the percentage of delegates from States Parties who have been women since the first review conference, with just 7 percent in 1980 to 26 percent in 2011

9.
Chemical Weapons Convention
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The Chemical Weapons Convention is an arms control treaty which outlaws the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. The treaty entered force in 1997. The parties main obligation under the convention is to prohibit the use and production of chemical weapons, the destruction activities are verified by the OPCW. As of April 2016,192 states have given their consent to be bound by the CWC, israel has signed but not ratified the agreement, while three other UN member states have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty. Most recently, Angola deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC on 16 September 2015, as of October 2016, about 93% of the worlds declared stockpile of chemical weapons had been destroyed. On 3 September 1992 the Conference on Disarmament submitted to the U. N. General Assembly its annual report, the General Assembly approved the Convention on 30 November 1992, and the U. N. Secretary-General then opened the Convention for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993. The CWC remained open for signature until its entry into force on 29 April 1997,180 days after the deposit of the 65th instrument of ratification, the convention augments the Geneva Protocol of 1925 for chemical weapons and includes extensive verification measures such as on-site inspections. It does not, however, cover biological weapons, the convention is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, which acts as the legal platform for specification of the CWC provisions. The Conference of the States Parties is mandated to change the CWC, the Technical Secretariat of the organization conducts inspections to ensure compliance of member states. These inspections target destruction facilities, chemical production facilities which have been dismantled or converted for civil use. The Secretariat may furthermore conduct investigations of alleged use of chemical weapons, the classification is based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes. Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons and this includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere. Schedule 1 chemicals have few, or no uses outside chemical weapons and these may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW. A country is limited to possessing a maximum of 1 tonne of these materials, examples are sulfur mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small scale non-military applications, schedule 2 chemicals have legitimate small-scale applications. Manufacture must be declared and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories, an example is thiodiglycol which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents, but is also used as a solvent in inks. Schedule 3 chemicals have large-scale uses apart from chemical weapons, plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected, and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. The treaty also deals with carbon compounds called in the treaty discrete organic chemicals and these are any carbon compounds apart from long chain polymers, oxides, sulfides and metal carbonates, such as organophosphates

10.
Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation
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The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, and details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also exempts air fuels in transit from taxation, the document was signed on December 7,1944 in Chicago by 52 signatory states. It received the requisite 26th ratification on March 5,1947 and went into effect on April 4,1947, in October of the same year, ICAO became a specialized agency of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The Convention has since been revised eight times, as of 2013, the Chicago Convention has 191 state parties, which includes all member states of the United Nations except Dominica, Liechtenstein, and Tuvalu as well as the Cook Islands. The convention has been extended to cover Liechtenstein by the ratification of Switzerland, some important articles are, Article 1, Every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over airspace above its territory. Article 3 bis, Every other State must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight. Article 5, The aircraft of states, other than scheduled air services, have the right to make flights across states territories. However, the state may require the aircraft to make a landing, Article 6, No scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a contracting State, except with the special permission or other authorization of that State. Article 10, The state can require that landing to be at a customs airport. Article 16, The authorities of each state shall have the right to search the aircraft of states on landing or departure. Article 24, Aircraft flying to, from or across, the territory of a state shall be admitted free of duty. Fuel, Oil, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft stores retained on board are also exempt custom duty, inspection fees or similar charges. Article 29, Before an international flight, the pilot in command must ensure that the aircraft is airworthy, duly registered, the radios may only be used by members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which the aircraft is registered. Article 33, Certificates of Airworthiness, certificates of competency and licences issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognised as valid by other states. The requirements for issue of those Certificates or Airworthiness, certificates of competency or licences must be equal to or above the standards established by the Convention. Article 40, No aircraft or personnel with endorsed licenses or certificate will engage in international navigation except with the permission of the state or states whose territory is entered, the Convention is supported by nineteen annexes containing standards and recommended practices. The annexes are amended regularly by ICAO and are as follows, Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing Licensing of flight crews, including Chapter 6 containing medical standards. Taxation of Aviation Fuel Paul Michael Krämer, Chicago Convention, 50th Anniversary Conference, Chicago, zeitschrift für Luft- und Weltraumrecht 1995, S.57

11.
Convention on the Rights of the Child
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and their reports and the committees written views and concerns are available on the committees website. The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 and it came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently,196 countries are party to it, including member of the United Nations except the United States. Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000, the First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states, a third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014, the Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights. It requires that the nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law, ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities, the Convention forbids capital punishment for children. The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights, global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna when a number of governments raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages, Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty and this includes every member of the United Nations, plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it, somalias domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015. All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia made declarations of succession to the treaty, the convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau. Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990, Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically references Canadas different commitments under the Convention, the convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada. India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor

12.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
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The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty is a multilateral treaty that bans all nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but has not entered into force as eight specific states have not ratified the treaty. The movement for control of nuclear weapons began in 1945, with a call from Canada. The plan, which would serve as the basis for United States nuclear policy into the 1950s, was rejected by the Soviet Union as a US ploy to cement its nuclear dominance. Between the Trinity nuclear test of 16 July 1945 and the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty on 5 August 1963,499 nuclear tests were conducted. Between 1945 and 1963, the US conducted 215 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 219, the UK conducted 21, and France conducted three. In 1954, following the Castle Bravo test, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India issued the first appeal for an agreement on testing. Negotiations on a comprehensive test ban, primarily involved the US, UK, of primary concern throughout the negotiations, which would stretch with some interruptions to July 1963, was the system of verifying compliance with the test ban and detecting illicit tests. On the Western side, there were concerns that the Soviet Union would be able to circumvent any test ban and these fears were amplified following the US Rainier shot of 19 September 1957, which was the first contained underground test of a nuclear weapon. On the Soviet side, conversely, the on-site compliance inspections demanded by the US, disagreement over verification would lead to the Anglo-American and Soviet negotiators abandoning a comprehensive test ban in favor of a partial ban, which would be finalized on 25 July 1963. The PTBT, joined by 123 states following the three parties, banned detonations for military and civilian purposes underwater, in the atmosphere. On the one hand, enactment of the treaty was followed by a drop in the atmospheric concentration of radioactive particles. On the other hand, nuclear proliferation was not halted entirely, compared to the 499 tests from 1945 to the signing of the PTBT,436 tests were conducted over the ten years following the PTBT. Furthermore, US and Soviet underground testing continued venting radioactive gas into the atmosphere, additionally, though underground testing was generally safer than above-ground testing, underground tests continued to risk the leaking of radionuclides, including plutonium, into the ground. From 1964 through 1996, the year of the CTBTs adoption, the final non-underground test was conducted by China in 1980. The PTBT has been seen as a step towards the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968, under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of nuclear disarmament. In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty, ratified by the US and Soviet Union, which banned underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons

13.
Convention on Cluster Munitions
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The Convention on Cluster Munitions is an international treaty that prohibits the use, transfer and stockpile of cluster bombs, a type of explosive weapon which scatters submunitions over an area. The convention was adopted on 30 May 2008 in Dublin, and was opened for signature on 3 December 2008 in Oslo and it entered into force on 1 August 2010, six months after it was ratified by 30 states. As of April 2016,108 states have signed the treaty and 100 have ratified it or acceded to it, weapons containing submunitions which all individually weigh at least 20 kg are also excluded. A limited number of prohibited weapons and submunitions can be acquired and kept for training in, a varying proportion of submunitions dispersed by cluster bombs fail to explode on impact and can lie unexploded for years until disturbed. The sometimes brightly colored munitions are not camouflaged, but have compared to toys or Easter eggs. The 2006 Lebanon War provided momentum for the campaign to ban cluster bombs, the United Nations estimated that up to 40% of Israeli cluster bomblets failed to explode on impact. Norway organized the independent Oslo process after discussions at the traditional disarmament forum in Geneva fell through in November 2006, the cluster munitions ban process, also known as the Oslo Process, began in February 2007 in Oslo. The Oslo Process held meetings in Lima in May 2007 and Vienna in December 2007, in February 2008,79 countries adopted the Wellington Declaration, setting forth the principles to be included in the convention. Delegates from 107 nations agreed to the draft of the treaty at the end of a ten-day meeting held in May 2008 in Dublin. Its text was adopted on 30 May 2008 by 107 nations. The treaty was opposed by a number of countries that produce or stockpile significant quantities of munitions, including China, Russia. In 2006, Barack Obama voted to support a measure to limit use of the bombs, while his general election opponent John McCain. According to the Pentagons 2008 policy, cluster munitions are actually humane weapons, blanket elimination of cluster munitions is therefore unacceptable due not only to negative military consequences but also due to potential negative consequences for civilians. The treaty allows certain types of weapons with submunitions that do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the same unexploded ordnance risks as the prohibited weapons and these must contain no more than nine submunitions, and no submunition may weigh less than 4 kilograms. Each submunition must have the capability to detect and engage a target object and contain electronic self-destruct. Weapons containing submunitions which each weigh at least 20 kg are also excluded, australia, which supports the treaty, stated that the convention does not prohibit the SMArt 155 artillery shell that it has bought, which releases two self-guided self-destructing submunitions. David Miliband, who was Britains foreign secretary under Labour, approved the use of a loophole to manoeuvre around the ban and allow the US to keep the munitions on British territory. Prior to the Dublin meeting, the United Kingdom was thought to be one of a group of nations in a pivotal role whereby their cooperation could make or break the treaty

14.
World Customs Organization
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The World Customs Organization is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. The WCO maintains the international Harmonized System goods nomenclature, and administers the technical aspects of the World Trade Organization Agreements on Customs Valuation, in 1947, thirteen European countries established a Study Group to examine customs issues identified by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. This work led to the adoption in 1948 of the Convention establishing the Customs Co-operation Council, on January 26,1953, the CCC’s inaugural session took place with the participation of 17 founding members. WCO membership subsequently expanded to all regions of the globe. In 1994, the organization adopted its current name, the World Customs Organization, today, WCO members are responsible for customs controls in 180 countries representing more than 98 per cent of all international trade. The HS multipurpose goods nomenclature is used as the basis for customs tariffs and it comprises about 5,000 commodity groups, each identified by a six digit code arranged in a legal and logical structure with well-defined rules to achieve uniform classification. The WCO revised Kyoto Convention is sometimes confused with the Kyoto Protocol, 3) ATA Convention and the Convention on Temporary Admission. Both the ATA Convention and the Istanbul Convention are WCO instruments governing temporary admission of goods, the ATA system, which is integral to both Conventions, allows the free movement of goods across frontiers and their temporary admission into a customs territory with relief from duties and taxes. The goods are covered by a document known as the ATA carnet that is secured by an international guarantee system. 4) The Arusha Declaration on Customs Integrity was adopted in 1993, the Arusha Declaration is a non-binding instrument which provides a number of basic principles to promote integrity and combat corruption within customs administrations. 5) The SAFE Framework of Standards to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade was adopted in 2005, 6) The Columbus Program is a customs capacity building program works to promote customs modernization and implementation of their standards to secure and facilitate world trade. Because of its complexity, the WCO launched a capacity building program called the Columbus Programme which focuses on needs assessments for WCO Members using the WCO Diagnostic Framework tool. The WCO Secretariat is headed by a Secretary General, who is elected by the WCO membership to a five-year term, the current WCO Secretary General is Kunio Mikuriya from Japan, who took office on 1 January 2009. The WCO is governed by the Council, which brings together all Members of the Organization once a year, additional strategic and management guidance is provided by the Policy Commission and the Finance Committee

15.
European Charter of Local Self-Government
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All Council of Europe member states are parties to the Charter. New member states of the Council of Europe are expected to ratify the Charter at the earliest opportunity, the Charter commits the ratifying member states to guaranteeing the political, administrative and financial independence of local authorities. It provides that the principle of local self-government shall be recognised in domestic legislation and, local authorities are to be elected by universal suffrage, and it is the earliest legal instrument to set out the principle of subsidiarity. It limits the administrative supervision of local activities to the verification of lawfulness only. The principles of local self-government contained in the Charter apply to all categories of local authorities, in 2009, a protocol to the Charter was adopted. It will enter into force on June 1,2012, the Charter has eighteen Articles, which are summarized below. Article 1 expresses the general undertaking of the parties to observe the principles of local self-government laid down in Part I of the Charter and this article provides that the principle of local self-government should be enshrined in written law. Account must also be taken of the fact that, in federal countries, for the federal States, this Charter in no way affects the division of powers and responsibilities between the federal State and the federated States. This article lays down the essential characteristics of local self-government as they are to be understood for the purposes of the Charter, the notion of ability expresses the idea that the legal right to regulate and manage certain public affairs must be accompanied by the means of doing so effectively. The inclusion of the phrase within the limits of the law recognises the fact that this right, under their own responsibility stresses that local authorities should not be limited to merely acting as agents of higher authorities. It is not possible to precisely what affairs local authorities should be entitled to regulate. Expressions such as local affairs and own affairs were rejected as too vague, the traditions of member states as to the affairs which are regarded as belonging to the preserve of local authorities differ greatly. In reality most affairs have both local and national implications and responsibility for them may vary between countries and over time, and may even be shared between different levels of government. To limit local authorities to matters which do not have wider implications would risk relegating them to a marginal role, on the other hand, it is accepted that countries will wish to reserve certain functions, such as national defence, for central government. The intention of the Charter is that authorities should have a broad range of responsibilities which are capable of being carried out at local level. The definition of these responsibilities is the subject of Article 4, the rights of self-government must be exercised by democratically constituted authorities. This principle is in accordance with the importance attached by the Council of Europe to democratic forms of government, however, this article lays down the general principles on which the responsibilities of local authorities and the nature of their powers should be based. Normally, responsibilities should be conferred by the Constitution or an Act of Parliament, in addition to the responsibilities assigned by legislation to specific levels of authority, other needs or possibilities for action by public bodies may present themselves

16.
European Convention on Human Rights
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The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Drafted in 1950 by the newly formed Council of Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention, the Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights have been violated under the Convention by a party can take a case to the Court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the States concerned and they are obliged to execute them, the compensations imposed under ECHR can be rather large, in 2014 Russia agreed to pay in excess of $2 billion in damages to former shareholders of Yukos. The Convention has several protocols, which amend the convention framework, the European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness of Human Rights in Europe. The development of a system of human rights protection operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. Second, the Convention was a response to the growth of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and designed to protect the member states of the Council of Europe from communist subversion. The Convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after the Second World War in response to an issued by Europeans from all walks of life who had gathered at the Hague Congress. British MP and lawyer Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, the Chair of the Assemblys Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members, as a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand how international justice could be effectively applied. After extensive debates, the Assembly sent its proposal to the Councils Committee of Ministers. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system, the Convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the Convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights. Statements of principle are, from a point of view, not determinative. As amended by Protocol 11, the Convention consists of three parts, the main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II sets up the Court and its rules of operation, Section III contains various concluding provisions. Article 1 simply binds the parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention within their jurisdiction

17.
European Landscape Convention
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The European Landscape Convention, also known as the Florence Convention, is the first international treaty to be exclusively devoted to all aspects of European landscape. It applies to the territory of the Parties and covers natural, rural. It concerns landscapes that might be considered outstanding as well as everyday or degraded landscapes, the Convention is aimed at, the protection, management and planning of all landscapes and raising awareness of the value of a living landscape. The work on the Convention was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the Council of Europe in 1994, within the CLRAE, the draft convention was prepared by a Working Group chaired by different CLRAE members and co-ordinated by Riccardo Priore, Council of Europes official. The group included the experts, Régis Ambroise, Michael Dower, Bengt Johansson, Yves Luginbuhl, Michel Prieur. It aims to promote European landscape protection, management and planning, the Convention came into force on 1 March 2004. A further two states have signed but not ratified it, Iceland and Malta, by developing a new territorial culture, the Council of Europe seeks to promote populations’ quality of life and well-being. Through its ground-breaking approach and its scope, it complements the Council of Europe’s and UNESCO’s heritage conventions. After the 6th Conference of Parties held in Strasbourg in 3–4 May 2011, the convention consists of the preamble and eighteen articles divided into four chapters. Chapter I - General provisions - Art,1 -3, Chapter II - National measures - Art. 4 -6, Chapter III - European co-operation - Art,7 -11, Chapter IV - Final clauses - Art. Moreover, it states that the convention is a response to the wish to enjoy high quality landscapes. Article 1 provides a definition of landscape, for the purposes of the convention it is an area whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors. Finally landscape planning is defined as a strong forward-looking action to enhance, article 2 denotes the territorial and functional scope of the treaty. It covers, natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas, land, inland water and it also states, with the exception of Art. 15 that convention applies to the territory of the Parties. Article 3 provides that the aims of the treaty are to promote landscape protection, management and planning, articles 7 –9 concern the international co-operation, assistance, exchange of the specialists and information, and encourage Parties to prepare and implement joint landscape programmes. Article 11 denotes the Landscape Award of the Council of Europe, article 15 allows Parties to specify the territory to which they want the Convention to apply

18.
European Union Customs Union
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The European Union Customs Union is a customs union which consists of all the member states of the European Union, Monaco, and some territories of the United Kingdom which are not part of the EU. Some territories within the EU do not participate in the customs union, besides the EUCU, the EU, through separate agreements, is in customs unions with Andorra, San Marino, and Turkey, with the exceptions of certain goods. The customs union is a condition of the European Economic Community, established in 1958. No customs duties are levied on goods travelling within the customs union and—unlike a free trade area—members of the customs union impose a common external tariff on all goods entering the union. Monaco and the British territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Andorra, San Marino and Turkey, a candidate for EU membership, are each in a customs union with the EU. While all EU member states are part of the customs union, territories of member states which have remained outside of the EU generally do not participate in the customs union. Implementation will take place over a period of time and full implementation is anticipated by 31 December 2020 at the latest, the European Commission has stated that the aims of the UCC are simplicity, service and speed

19.
First Geneva Convention
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The First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, held in 1864, is the first of four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It defines the basis on which rest the rules of law for the protection of the victims of armed conflicts. After the first treaty was adopted in 1864, it was revised and replaced in 1906,1929. It is inextricably linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Geneva Convention was instituted at a critical period in European political and military history. Elsewhere, the American Civil War had been raging since 1861, between the fall of the first Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the rise of his nephew in the Italian campaign of 1859, the powers had maintained peace in western Europe. The subsequent suffering of 40,000 wounded soldiers left on the due to lack of facilities, personnel. To ensure that its mission was accepted, it required a body of rules to govern its own activities. It derived its force from the implied consent of the states which accepted and applied them in the conduct of their military operations. Despite its basic mandates, listed below, it was successful in effecting significant, the 1906 version was updated and replaced by the 1929 version when minor modifications were made to it. It was again updated and replaced by the 1949 version, better known as the First Geneva Convention, the original ten articles of the 1864 treaty have been expanded to the current 64 articles. This lengthy treaty protects soldiers that are hors de combat, as well as medical and religious personnel, article 15 mandates that wounded and sick soldiers should be collected, cared for, and protected, though they may also become prisoners of war. Article 16 mandates that parties to the conflict should record the identity of the dead and wounded, for a detailed discussion of each article of the treaty, see the original text and the commentary. There are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this first treaty but also including the other three

20.
Second Geneva Convention
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The Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea was first adopted in 1949 and it adapts the main protective regime of the First Geneva Convention to combat at sea. The treaty is a document consisting of 63 articles. The most essential provisions of the treaty are, Articles 12 and 18 requires all parties to protect and care for the wounded, sick, article 21 allows appeals to be made to neutral vessels to help collect and care for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked. The neutral vessels cannot be captured, Articles 36 and 37 protect religious and medical personnel serving on a combat ship. Article 22 states that ships cannot be used for any military purpose. Article 14 clarifies that although a warship cannot capture a hospital medical staff, it can hold the wounded, sick. For a detailed discussion of each article of the treaty, see the original text, there are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this second treaty but also including the other three. List of parties to the Geneva Conventions Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, The Hague,18 October 1907

21.
Third Geneva Convention
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The Third Geneva Convention, relative to the treatment of prisoners of war, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was first adopted in 1929 and it defines humanitarian protections for prisoners of war. They shall furthermore be bound by the Convention in relation to the said Power, if the latter accepts, Article 3 has been called a Convention in miniature. It is the article of the Geneva Conventions that applies in non-international conflicts. The passing of sentences must also be pronounced by a regularly constituted court, Article 3s protections exist even if one is not classified as a prisoner of war. Article 3 also states that parties to the conflict should endeavour to bring into force, by means of special agreements. Article 4 defines prisoners of war to include,4.1.1 Members of the forces of a Party to the conflict. 4.1.3 Members of regular armed forces who profess allegiance to a government or an authority not recognised by the Detaining Power. 4.1.4 Civilians who have non-combat support roles with the military,4.1.5 Merchant marine and the crews of civil aircraft of the Parties to the conflict, who do not benefit by more favourable treatment under any other provisions of international law. 4.3 makes explicit that Article 33 takes precedence for the treatment of personnel of the enemy. Article 5 specifies that prisoners of war are protected from the time of their capture until their final repatriation and this part of the convention covers the status of prisoners of war. Article 12 states that prisoners of war are the responsibility of the state, not the persons who capture them, Articles 13 to 16 state that prisoners of war must be treated humanely without any adverse discrimination and that their medical needs must be met. This part is divided into sections, Section 1 covers the beginning of captivity. It dictates what information a prisoner must give and interrogation methods that the power may use, No physical or mental torture. It dictates what private property a prisoner of war may keep and it goes into details about such things as the accommodation, medical facilities, and that even if the prisoner of war works for a private person the military authority remains responsible for them. Rates of pay for work done are covered by Article 62 in the next section, Section 4 covers the financial resources of prisoners of war. Section 5 covers the relations of prisoners of war with the exterior and this covers the frequency of which a prisoner of war can send and receive post, including parcels. The Detaining power has the right to all mail

22.
Fourth Geneva Convention
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It was adopted in August 1949, and defines humanitarian protections for civilians in a war zone. There are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this, a number of articles specify how Protecting Powers, ICRC and other humanitarian organizations may aid Protected persons. Protected person is the most important definition in this section because many of the articles in the rest of GCIV only apply to Protected persons, a protected person/s shall not have anything done to them of such a character as to cause physical suffering or extermination. The physical suffering or extermination of protected persons in their hands and this prohibition applies not only to murder, torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments not necessitated by the medical treatment. The prohibition on scientific experiments was added, in part, in response to experiments by German and Japanese doctors during World War II, no protected person may be punished for an offense he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited. Pillage is prohibited. Reprisals against protected persons, under the 1949 Geneva Conventions, collective punishment is a war crime. By collective punishment, the drafters of the Geneva Conventions had in mind the reprisal killings of World War I, in the First World War, the Germans executed Belgian villagers in mass retribution for resistance activity during the Rape of Belgium. In World War II, both the Germans and the Japanese carried out a form of punishment to suppress resistance. Entire villages or towns or districts were responsible for any resistance activity that occurred at those places. The conventions, to counter this, reiterated the principle of individual responsibility and they are opposed to all principles based on humanity and justice. Additional Protocol II of 1977 explicitly forbids collective punishment, but as fewer states have ratified this protocol than GCIV, GCIV Article 33 is the one more commonly quoted. Articles 47-78 impose substantial obligations on occupying powers, nevertheless, the Occupying Power may undertake total or partial evacuation of a given area if the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. Such evacuations may not involve the displacement of protected persons outside the bounds of the territory except when for material reasons it is impossible to avoid such displacement. Persons thus evacuated shall be transferred back to their homes as soon as hostilities in the area in question have ceased, the Protecting Power shall be informed of any transfers and evacuations as soon as they have taken place. The Occupying Power shall not detain protected persons in a particularly exposed to the dangers of war unless the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, the Occupying Power shall, with the cooperation of the national and local authorities, facilitate the proper working of all institutions devoted to the care and education of children. The Occupying Power shall take all steps to facilitate the identification of children. It may not, in any case, change their personal status, a special section of the Bureau set up in accordance with Article 136 shall be responsible for taking all necessary steps to identify children whose identity is in doubt