Allotropes Some elements exist in several different structural
forms, these are called allotropes.

For more information on Murray Robertson’s image see Uses and properties facts below.

Ytterbium

Discovery date

1878

Discovered by

Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac

Origin of the name

Ytterbium is named after Ytterby, Sweden.

Allotropes

70

173.054

Fact box terminology

GroupElements appear in columns or ‘groups’ in the periodic table. Members of a group
typically have similar properties and electron configurations in their outer
shell.

PeriodElements are laid out into rows or ‘periods’ so that similar chemical behaviour is
observed in columns.

BlockElements are organised into blocks by the orbital type in which the outer electrons are
found. These blocks are named for the characteristic spectra they produce:
sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.

Atomic NumberThe number of protons in the nucleus.

Atomic Radius/non -bonded (Å)based on Van der Waals forces (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented for
the most prevalent isotope). These values were calculated using a multitude of
methods including crystallographic data, gas kinetic collision cross sections,
critical densities, liquid state properties, for more details please refer to
the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

IsotopesElements are defined by the number of protons in its
centre (nucleus), whilst the number of neutrons present can vary. The
variations in the number of neutrons will create elements of different mass
which are known as isotopes.

Melting Point (oC)The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.

Melting Point (K)The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.

Melting Point (oF)The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.

Boiling Point (oC)The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
occurs.

Boiling Point (K)The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
occurs.

Boiling Point (oF)The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
occurs.

SublimationElements that do not possess a liquid phase at atmospheric pressure (1 atm) are described
as going through a sublimation process.

Density (g cm-3)Density is the mass of a substance that would fill
1 cm3 at room temperature.

Relative Atomic MassThe mass of an atom relative to that of Carbon-12.
This is approximately the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. Where more than one isotope exists the value given is the abundance
weighted average.

Key Isotopes (% abundance)An element must by definition have a fixed number of protons in its nucleus, and
as such has a fixed atomic number, however variants of an element can exist
with differing numbers of neutrons, and hence a different atomic masses (e.g.
12C has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and 13C has 6 protons and 7 neutrons).

CAS numberThe Chemical Abstracts Service registry number is a
unique identifier of a particular chemical, designed to prevent confusion
arising from different languages and naming systems (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope).

Uses and properties

Uses and properties

Ytterbium is beginning to find a variety of uses, such as in memory devices and tuneable lasers. It can also be used as an industrial catalyst and is increasingly being used to replace other catalysts considered to be too toxic and polluting.

Biological role

Ytterbium has no known biological role. It has low toxicity.

Natural abundance

In common with many lanthanide elements, ytterbium is found principally in the mineral monazite. It can be extracted by ion exchange and solvent extraction.

Atomic data terminology

Atomic radius/non -bonded (Å)Based on Van der Waals forces (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope). These values were calculated using a multitude of methods including crystallographic data, gas kinetic collision cross sections, critical densities, liquid state properties,for more details please refer to the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

Electron affinity (kJ mol-1)The
energy released when an additional electron is attached to the neutral atom and
a negative ion is formed (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented
for the most prevalent isotope). *

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)The
degree to which an atom attracts electrons towards itself, expressed on a
relative scale as a function bond dissociation
energies, Ed in eV.
χA - χB
=(eV)-1/2sqrt(Ed(AB)-[Ed(AA)+Ed(BB)]/2),
with χH set as 2.2 (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope).

1st Ionisation energy (kJ mol-1)The minimum energy required to remove an electron
from a neutral atom in its ground state (where several isotopes exist, a value
is presented for the most prevalent isotope).

Covalent radius (Å)The
size of the atom within a covalent bond, given for typical oxidation number and
coordination (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented for the most
prevalent isotope). ***

Atomic data

Atomic data

Atomic radius, non-bonded (Å)

2.26

Covalent radius (Å)

1.78

Electron affinity (kJ mol-1)

-1.93

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)

Unknown

Ionisation energies (kJ mol-1)

1st

603.435

2nd

1174.805

3rd

2416.96

4th

4202.9

5th

-

6th

-

7th

-

8th

-

Mining/Sourcing Information

Data for this section of the data page has
been provided by the British Geological Survey. To review
the full report please click here or please look at
their website here.

Key for
numbers generated

Governance indicators

1 (low) = 0 to 2

2 (medium-low) = 3 to
4

3 (medium) = 5 to 6

4 (medium-high) = 7
to 8

5 (high) = 9

Reserve distribution (%)

1 (low) = 0 to 30 %

2 (medium-low) = 30
to 45 %

3 (medium) = 45 to 60
%

4 (medium-high) = 60
to 75 %

5 (high) = 75 %

(Where data are unavailable an arbitrary
score of 2 was allocated. For example, Be, As, Na, S, In, Cl,
Ca and Ge are allocated a score of 2 since reserve
base information is unavailable. Reserve base data are also unavailable for
coal; however, reserve data for 2008 are available from the Energy Information
Administration (EIA).)

Production
Concentration

1 (low) = 0 to 30 %

2 (medium-low) = 30
to 45 %

3 (medium) = 45 to 60
%

4 (medium-high) = 60
to 75 %

5 (high) = 75 %

Crustal
Abundance

1 (low) = 100 to 1000 ppm

2 (medium-low) =10 to
100 ppm

3 (medium) = 1 to 10 ppm

4 (medium-high) = 0.1
to 1 ppm

5 (high) = 0.1 ppm

(Where data are unavailable an arbitrary
score of 2 was allocated. For example, He is allocated a score of 2 since
crustal abundance data is unavailable.)

Explanations
for terminology

Crustal Abundance (ppm)

The abundance of an
element in the Earth's crust in parts-per-million (ppm) i.e. The number of atoms of this element per 1 million
atoms of crust.

Sourced

The
country with the largest reserve base.

Reserve distribution (%)

This is a measure of the spread of future
supplies, recording the percentage of a known resource likely to be available
in the intermediate future (reserve base) located in the top three countries.

Production Concentrations

This reports the percentage of an element
produced in the top three countries. The higher the value, the larger risk
there is to supply.

Political stability of top producer

The World Bank produces a global percentile
rank of political stability. The scoring system is given below, and the values
for all three production countries were summed.

Relative Supply Risk Index

The Crustal Abundance, Reserve distribution (%), Production Concentration and Governance Factor scores are summed
and then divided by 2, to provide an overall Relative Supply Risk Index.

Supply risk

Supply risk

Relative supply risk

9.5

Crustal abundance (ppm)

0.3

Recycling rate (%)

<10

Substitutability

High

Production concentration (%)

97

Reserve distribution (%)

50

Top 3 producers

1) China

2) Russia

3) Malaysia

Top 3 reserve holders

1) China

2) CIS Countries (inc. Russia)

3) USA

Political stability of top producer

24.1

Political stability of top reserve holder

24.1

Oxidation states and isotopes

Key for Isotopes

Half Life

y

years

d

days

h

hours

m

minutes

s

seconds

Mode of decay

α

alpha particle emission

β

negative beta (electron) emission

β+

positron emission

EC

orbital electron capture

sf

spontaneous fission

ββ

double beta emission

ECEC

double orbital electron capture

Terminology

Common Oxidation states
The oxidation state of an atom is a measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom. It is defined as being the charge that an atom would have if all bonds were ionic. Free atoms have an oxidation state of 0, and the sum of oxidation numbers within a substance must equal the overall charge.

Important Oxidation states
The most common oxidation states of an element in its compounds.

Isotopes
Elements are defined by the number of protons in its centre (nucleus), whilst the number of neutrons present can vary. The variations in the number of neutrons will create elements of different mass which are known as isotopes.

Oxidation states and isotopes

Oxidation states and isotopes

Common oxidation states

3, 2

Isotopes

Isotope

Atomic mass

Natural abundance (%)

Half life

Mode of decay

168Yb

167.934

0.13

-

-

170Yb

169.935

3.04

-

-

171Yb

170.936

14.28

-

-

172Yb

171.936

21.83

-

-

173Yb

172.938

16.13

-

-

174Yb

173.939

31.83

-

-

176Yb

175.943

12.76

1026 y

β-β-

Pressure and temperature - advanced terminology

Specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)

Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a kilogram of a substance by 1 K.

Young's modulus (GPa)

Young's modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
substance, that is, it provides a measure of how difficult it is to extend a
material, with a value given by the ratio of tensile strength to tensile
strain.

Shear modulus (GPa)

The shear modulus of a material is a measure of how
difficult it is to deform a material, and is given by the ratio of the shear
stress to the shear strain.

Bulk modulus (GPa)

The bulk modulus is a measure of how difficult to compress a substance. Given by the ratio of the pressure on a body to the fractional decrease in volume.

Vapour Pressure (Pa)

Vapour pressure is the measure of the propensity of a substance to evaporate. It is defined as the equilibrium pressure exerted by the gas produced above a substance in a closed system.

Pressure and temperature data – advanced

Pressure and temperature data – advanced

Specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)

155

Young's modulus (GPa)

23.9

Shear modulus (GPa)

9.9

Bulk modulus (GPa)

30.5

Vapour pressure

Temperature (K)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Pressure (Pa)

1.03 x 10-9

0.00384

6.74

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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History

History

Ytterbium was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac at the University of Geneva. The story began with yttrium, discovered in 1794, which was contaminated with other rare-earth elements (aka lanthanoids). In 1843, erbium and terbium were extracted from it, and then in 1878, de Marignac separated ytterbium from erbium. He heated erbium nitrate until it decomposed and then extracted the residue with water and obtained two oxides: a red one which was erbium oxide, and a white one which he knew must be a new element, and this he named ytterbium. Even this was eventually shown to contain another rare earth, lutetium, in 1907.

A tiny amount of ytterbium metal was made in 1937 by heating ytterbium chloride and potassium together but was impure. Only in 1953 was a pure sample obtained.

Podcasts

Podcasts

Chemistry in its element - ytterbium

You're listening to Chemistry in its element brought to you by Chemistry World, the magazine of the Royal Society of Chemistry

(End promo)

Meera Senthilingam

This week an element that likes to be different. Explaining the exceptional chemistry of Ytterbium, here's Louise Natrajan.

Louise Natrajan

There is a famous quote about the lanthanides by Pimentel and Sprately from their book, Understanding Chemistry published in 1971: "Lanthanum has only one important oxidation state in aqueous solution, the +3 state. With few exceptions, this tells the whole boring story about the other 14 elements"

If you've listened to any of the other podcasts in the lanthanide series, I hope you'll agree that this is far from true. While, the most common oxidation state of the lanthanides is indeed the +3 valence state, ytterbium, the last and smallest of the lanthanides or rare earths in the series is one of the exceptions Pimentel and Sprately were talking about. Ytterbium can also exist in the +2 valence state; its compounds are powerful reducing agents and it is capable of reducing water to hydrogen gas.

Ytterbium is named after the town of Ytterby near Stockholm in Sweden, and makes up the fourth element to be named after this town, the others being of course yttrium, terbium and erbium. Ytterbium was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac who was a Swiss chemist working at the University of Geneva at the time. Its discovery can be traced back to the oxide yttria. When yttria was first identified, nobody realised that it was contaminated with traces of other rare earth metals. Earlier, in 1843, erbium and terbium were extracted from yttria and then ytterbium was separated from erbium. This was achieved by heating erbium nitrate until it decomposed and then extracting the residue with water to obtain two oxides; a red one, which was identified as erbium oxide and a white powder, which was named ytterbium oxide. In fact, Marignac's ytterbium oxide was not of a pure form either and a few years later in 1907, George Urbain extracted lutetium as its oxide from this ytterbium oxide.

Ytterbium is one of the more common lanthanide elements, and is not at all rare as its group name of the rare earths may suggest. In fact, it is the 43rd most abundant element on earth and has a greater natural abundance than tin, bromine, uranium or arsenic. In its metallic form, ytterbium is a bright and shiny metal that is both ductile and malleable and is more reactive than the other lanthanide metals, quickly tarnishing in air as it reacts with oxygen. Seven naturally occurring isotopes of ytterbium are known ranging from mass numbers 168 to 176. In addition, ten radioactive isotopes are also known; these isotopes are unstable and break down into other isotopes giving out radiation in the process. Ytterbium-169 in particular emits gamma rays. Gamma rays are similar to X-rays in that they pass through soft materials and tissues but are blocked by more dense materials such as bone. In this regard, small amounts of Yb-169 have been exploited in portable X-ray machines that require no electricity and are much easier to carry around than conventional X-ray machines-useful for radiography of small objects!

A second intriguing possibility is the use of elemental ytterbium is in super accurate atomic clocks. The isotope Yb-174 has the potential to keep time more accurately than the current gold standard, which is a caesium fountain clock that is accurate to within a second every 100 million years. Then no one will have any excuse for being late!

As with all the lanthanides, ytterbium exists in the majority of its compounds as the trivalent ion Yb3+. The only ytterbium compound of historical commercial use is ytterbium oxide (Yb2O3); this is used to make alloys and special types of glass and ceramics. However, more recently, some materials doped with ytterbium and erbium can be used to convert invisible infra red light into green and/or red light from the erbium ions; the ytterbium acts cooperatively with the erbium ions and effectively talks to or 'sentitises' the emission from the Er ion. These special materials or phosphors are being devised as alternatives to europium and terbium phosphors in anti forgery security inks and in bank notes. Instead of placing the bank note under UV light to see the security encoding, an infra red laser pen is used to reveal the luminescence colours of erbium, clever hey?

Terbium compounds are currently used as luminescent probes in biological and biomedical research, but they emit visible light. In the research community, luminescent ytterbium compounds that give out light in the near infra red (around 980 nm) are of current interest and are being developed for use as alternative luminescent probes. This means, that unlike Eu or Tb, which emit visible light, the light is in invisible to our eyes. Human tissue is a lot more transparent to near infra red radiation than to visible light, which means that imaging with near infra red would access greater tissue depths and so give us more detailed information regarding a specific biological event or process.

Ytterbium is also used in some laser systems and ytterbium fibre laser amplifiers are found in commercial and industrial applications where they are used in marking and engraving. Ytterbium compounds are capable of absorbing light in the near infra red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which has been exploited to convert radiant energy into electrical energy in devices coupled to solar cells. Additionally, ytterbium compounds are often more potent catalysts than their lanthanide counterparts. They are useful for many organic transformations and are finding increasing use in the chemical industry.

Well, that was ytterbium, definitely an interesting and fascinating element with many uses as diverse as atomic clocks and solar cells and definitely different from the other lanthanides.

Meera Senthilingam

Different indeed with that range of uses. That was Manchester University's Louise Natrajan with the unique chemistry of ytterbium. Now next week, we've got an explosive element and I'll give one you guess as to who it's named after.

Brian Clegg

When the bomb exploded on November the first, 1952, it produced an explosion with the power of over 10 million tonnes of TNT - five hundred times the destructive power of the Nagasaki explosion. This was very much a test device - weighing over 80 tons and requiring a structure around 50 feet high to support it, meaning that it could never have been deployed - but it proved, all too well, the capability of the thermonuclear weapon. And in the moments of that intense explosion it produced a brand new element. There among the ash and charred remains of coral were found a couple of hundred atoms of element 99, later to be called einsteinium.

Meera Senthilingam

Brian Clegg will be providing more insight into the reactions and naming of einsteinium in next week's Chemistry in its Element. Until then I'm Meera Senthilingam and thank you for listening.

(Promo)

Chemistry in its element is brought to you by the Royal Society of Chemistry and produced by thenakedscientists dot com. There's more information and other episodes of Chemistry in its element on our website at chemistryworld dot org forward slash elements.

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Video

Video

Resources

Resources

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Students are asked to summarise and critique 2 out of the 5 chemistry-based projects, based on their previous work, and present their preferred option to a "business" audience. This resource and its ...

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