Essays on Cost, Buchanan and Thirlby, ed.

in the Sumerian city-state of Lagash.

Just as the reason why our may have and why may have , that founder group may well as an act of desperation, driven to the margins by their neighbors. If they left about 60-50 kya, as seems the most likely timeframe in light of today’s evidence, by 10 kya the entire planet had been conquered. Behaviorally modern humans were atop all terrestrial food chains outside of Africa, and in Africa megafauna avoided them, so there was nothing on Earth that threatened human existence except for other humans. Like the way in which the australopithecine Tesla who made the first stone tool the that emerged from his/her act a half-million years later, by 10 kya (about a tenth as long as the previous epochal innovative interval). Several million descendants of that founder group were spread across the planet, from tundra to desert to rainforest, and they filled all inhabitable continents. The people existing 10 kya would have been anatomically recognizable and all had , as they do today. However, with , versus what the founders left Africa with (several million people versus ), the immensely diverse climates and the tools used to survive in them, as well as their mutually unintelligible languages, the founder group’s members would not have comprehended a tour of their descendants’ world. The founder’s descendants even began to look different as evolution marched onward, and many racial differences would have been noticeable, although the bizarre had yet to appear in . Some people of 10 kya even had companions called (first domesticated as long as 33 kya, wolves were domesticated more than once, and the modern dog was domesticated about 15 kya), which would have seemed a miracle, terror, or strange beyond imagining. The world’s large animals paid the ultimate price for fueling that expansion, and the thus began.

Europe was a crucible for violence probably ever since the human conquest of Neanderthals, and evidence for warfare and mass violence increases as the timeline progressed from then. But going back to those , violence is not instinctual as much as calculated, and is a response to economic scarcity above all else. However, those early religious rituals were not only a method to form group cohesion; they were also a way to condition men to throw their lives away while trying to take the lives of others. The rituals and rites of passage for men were often extremely painful ordeals that conditioned them for the short life of a warrior, and forming highly contrasting in-group/out-group beliefs that facilitated killing other people. The portion of the human brain where emotions appear to be seated, in the , is no larger than in our great ape cousins. It is well-known that fear shuts down the neocortex, as animals prepare for fight-or-flight responses, and it is no different with humans. However, the response is much more dramatic with humans, with their huge neocortexes and frontal lobes. So the human response to fear is losing much of what makes humans seemingly sentient. Those religious rituals seem designed to bypass the neocortex and form a bridge to the limbic system where emotions rule. Religion seems to have arisen as a to warfare, but that will be explored in the next chapter, which covers the civilizing of humanity, which is the .

As will be seen in this chapter, the spread of behaviorally modern humans closely coincided not only with the extinction of humans and primates that existed for hundreds of thousands and even millions of years, but virtually all of the world’s large animals went extinct almost when behaviorally modern humans arrived, all except those that had evolved alongside the human line for millions of years in Africa and Eurasia. Some vanished animals were among the most successful in Earth’s history.

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Before humans began to alter “natural” evolution with selective breeding, genetic engineering, and the like, has been largely thought to be the result of populations becoming genetically isolated, primarily through geographic isolation, and isolated populations continue to evolve and adapt to their environments. Eventually, the separated populations become separate species. Even , but the general concept is that if two sexually reproducing organisms can breed and produce fertile offspring, they are of the same species. In light of evolutionary theory, human races are simply genetically isolated populations that have evolved as they adapted to their environments, but all races can interbreed, so humanity is a single species. Recent DNA studies suggest that to northern climates, and white skin may be only six thousand years old, and are similarly new and developed in the same vicinity. As and subsequent Industrial Revolution have ended a great deal of genetic isolation, the adaptive differences seen in the races have been gradually disappearing as multiracial offspring have increased. If humanity attains the FE epoch, “” will disappear along with geographic isolation.

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To briefly revisit , men have always committed vastly more violence than women, were the primary hunters, and almost . In general, the higher women’s status, the healthier the society was. The people of Africa stayed isolated hunter-gatherers to the present day. Their , with its click sounds shared with other African groups, such as the last full-time hunter-gatherers left in Africa, the , probably sounded like the language that the founder group left with and has since been lost beyond Africa. Genetic testing has demonstrated that the and related groups remained in Africa when that founder group left, and their geographic isolation and warlike ways . Genetic testing also traced the migration path to Australia, and found peoples that stopped along the way, as part of a coastal migration that and maybe . One reason why the coastal route was probably the first was that it was warm and relatively easy. Around 60 kya, the global climate warmed a little. It was about before it began oscillating toward .

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The are positioned off the Malaysian coast. Sailors , as the natives killed anybody who landed and burned their bodies. The Andamans looked like African pygmies. The British established a penal colony on the Andaman Islands in the late 1700s, when about five thousand aboriginal Andamans lived on the main islands. The Andaman from the usual diseases, mayhem, and alcohol that Europeans brought with them, and they were nearly extinct within a century of British contact. . The genetic and other evidence has been used to make a convincing case that the aboriginal Andamans were island-dwarfed descendants of the original inhabitants. The Andaman Islands were never connected to the mainland, so the aborigines probably descended from people who stopped and stayed during that founder migration from Africa.

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However the hot times were created and sustained, Earth’s life reveled in the conditions. Similar to reptiles' beating the heat and migrating into the oceans, some mammals did the same thing about 200 million years later, and . Scientists were surprised when molecular studies found that with , and the is the closest living relative to whales. Whales evolved in and near India, beginning about 50 mya, when the earliest “whale” and lived near water. By 49 mya, . A few million years later , and by 41 mya they , for a transition from land to sea that “only” took eight million years. Whales quickly became dominant marine predators. However, sharks did not go quietly and began an arms race with whales, which culminated 28 mya in , the most fearsome marine predator ever: a shark reaching nearly 20 meters in length and weighing 50 metric tons. , as seen below ( in gray, great white shark in green, and next to that is a man taking a break in mouth). (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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Neanderthals invented more sophisticated stone tools about 300 kya, for the first significant advance in more than a million years, and their toolset is called , or . Neanderthals had the largest human-line brains ever measured, and they may have also invented the practice of , but they could from their ancestors. As with their ancestors, they and carved flesh from their corpses, in . Neanderthals seemed to be a regional human variation, adapted to colder environments, and the fact that they interbred with has caused some scientists to classify them as . If they did not become a truly separate species, they were slowly speciating as they adapted to their ice age environment. Neanderthals built shelters, may have drawn cave paintings, and engaged in activities comparable to of the time. There seems to be little reason to call them “primitive” when comparing them to , particularly the early ones. The last Neanderthals died out about 30 kya, about the same time that humans arrived in the region, and it was .

Cat restrained in preparation for some diabolic"testing"

The racist ideology that Hitler’s regime promoted was only a of what other imperial aspirants already had, and and he modeled his genocidal plans for Eastern Europe after what the . Hitler’s ideological crime was using racist ideology to make chosen people inferior. All such ideologies appealed to people’s egos as they elevated their and, with their superiority then self-evident, they could commit their awesome crimes with clear consciences, free of .

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“ My bit of metal—the ferrule—is brass. Think of all the persons who mine zinc and copper and those who have the skills to make shiny sheet brass from these products of nature. Those black rings on my ferrule are black nickel. What is black nickel and how is it applied? The complete story of why the center of my ferrule has no black nickel on it would take pages to explain. ”

Indian spiritual leader and philosopher (1869 - 1948)

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Antony on BBC4's Loose Ends last year

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The Andamans are members of a racial group called , which appear to be remnant populations of the original migration from Africa. They all survived in marginal environments where they subsisted as hunter-gatherers, while later agricultural immigrants dominated arable lands. About 50 kya, a few thousand years before the migration to Australia happened, the sea level was lower and the islands of , , and formed a contiguous peninsula today called . , Australia, and were also connected and formed a continent today called . Deep water lay between those two “lost continents,” and biologists drew lines between them that noted the distribution of animals and plants that did not cross open water. is farthest north, followed by , and is farthest south. Those lines mark the limits of migrations from Sundaland toward Sahul, which followed sea level changes. About 48-46 kya, behaviorally modern humans crossed the water in boats to Sahul, and the peoples of New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania largely lived in isolation until Europeans arrived. Those peoples have remnants in their DNA, which probably means that they interbred with them while driving them to extinction on Sundaland and Southeast Asia, before some migrated to Sahul. Aboriginal Australian isolation was almost certainly maintained in the way that Andaman Islanders did it: by killing strange peoples who came ashore. However, in 2012, a paper was published regarding evidence of contact about four kya with people probably from India, when the , , and some Indian DNA admixture were introduced into Australia, which seems related to a colonization of northern Australia by an immigrant population. More of those kinds of migrations of human DNA, technology, and domesticated species have yet to be discovered, and some may even be significant.