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The history of slavery covers many different forms
of human exploitation across many
cultures throughout history. Slavery,
generally defined, refers to a situation where one human being is
considered to be the property of another, and is therefore
obligated to perform tasks for their owner without any choice
involved. It can be traced back to the earliest records, such as
the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760
BC), which refers to it as an established institution. Slavery is
rare among hunter-gatherer
populations as slavery depends on a system of social
stratification. Slavery also requires economic surpluses and a high
population density to be viable.

The ancient Mediterranean civilizations

Slavery in
ancient cultures was known to occur in civilizations as old as
Sumer, and it was found in every civilization,
including Ancient Egypt, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Ancient Greece, Rome and parts of its empire. Such institutions were a
mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for
crime, the enslavement of prisoners of
war, child abandonment, and
the birth of slave children to slaves. In the Roman Empire, probably over 25% of the empire's
population, and 30 to 40% of the population of Italy was
enslaved.Records of slavery in
Ancient Greece go as far back as Mycenaean Greece. It is often said that the
Greeks as well as philosophers such as Aristotle accepted the theory of natural slavery
i.e. that some men are slaves by nature. At the time of Plato and Socrates, slavery
was so accepted by the Greeks (including philosophers) that few
people indeed protested it as an institution, although there were
in fact a few voices of opposition Aristotle in Politics, Book 1,
Chapter 6 noted and then discounted three voices opposed to his
view of slavery, a jurist, philosopher and one other:

But that those who take the opposite view have in a certain way
right on their side, may be easily seen. For the words slavery and
slave are used in two senses. There is a slave or slavery by law as
well as by nature. The law of which I speak is a sort of
convention- the law by which whatever is taken in war is supposed
to belong to the victors. But this right many jurists impeach, as
they would an orator who brought forward an unconstitutional
measure: they detest the notion that, because one man has the power
of doing violence and is superior in brute strength, another shall
be his slave and subject. Even among philosophers there is a
difference of opinion. The origin of the dispute, and what makes
the views invade each other's territory, is as follows: in some
sense virtue, when furnished with means, has actually the greatest
power of exercising force; and as superior power is only found
where there is superior excellence of some kind, power seems to
imply virtue, and the dispute to be simply one about justice (for
it is due to one party identifying justice with goodwill while the
other identifies it with the mere rule of the stronger). If these
views are thus set out separately, the other views have no force or
plausibility against the view that the superior in virtue ought to
rule, or be master. Others, clinging, as they think, simply to a
principle of justice (for law and custom are a sort of justice),
assume that slavery in accordance with the custom of war is
justified by law, but at the same moment they deny this. For what
if the cause of the war be unjust? And again, no one would ever say
he is a slave who is unworthy to be a slave. Were this the case,
men of the highest rank would be slaves and the children of slaves
if they or their parents chance to have been taken captive and
sold. Wherefore Hellenes do not like to call Hellenes slaves, but
confine the term to barbarians. Yet, in using this language, they
really mean the natural slave of whom we spoke at first; for it
must be admitted that some are slaves everywhere, others
nowhere.

During the
8th and the 7th centuries BC, in the course of the two Messenian Wars the Spartans reduced an
entire population to a pseudo-slavery called helotry. According to Herodotus (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as
numerous as Spartans. In some Ancient
Greek city states about 30% of the population consisted of
slaves, but paid and slave labor seem to have been equally
important.

Greeks however were among the first Europeans to abolish slavery
with their constitution on 1823, which specifically noted that "in
Greek territory no human being can be sold or bought, no matter his
or her religion, and if a slave enters Greece, he is automatically
considered an absolutely free man or woman and nobody can make
claims on him or her".

Europe

The Vikings and Scandinavia

In the Viking era starting c. 793, the
Norse raiders often captured and enslaved
military weaker peoples they encountered. In the Nordic countries the slaves were called
thralls (Old
Norse: Þræll). The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and
Celts. Many Irish slaves participated in the
colonization of Iceland.
There is evidence of German, Baltic, Slavic and Latin slaves as
well. The slave trade was one of the pillars of Norse commerce
during the 6th through 11th centuries. The Persian traveller Ibn
Rustah described how Swedish Vikings, the Varangians or Rus,
terrorized and enslaved the Slavs. The
slave raids came to an end when Catholicism became widespread throughout
Scandinavia. As in the rest of Catholic Europe, the Scandinavian
representatives for the church held that a Christian could not
morally own another Christian. The thrall system was finally
abolished in the mid-14th century in Scandinavia.

Slavery during the Early Middle
Ages had several distinct sources. The Vikings raided across Europe, though their slave
raids were the most destructive in the British Isles and Eastern Europe. While the Vikings kept some
slaves for themselves as servants, known as thralls, most people captured by the Vikings would
be sold on the Byzantine or Islamic markets. In the West the targets of Viking
slavery were primarily English,
Irish, and Scottish, while in the East they were mainly
Slavs. The Viking slave trade slowly ended in
the 1000s, as the Vikings settled in the European territories they
once raided, Christianized, and merged
with the local populace.

The Islamic World was also a main
factor in Medieval European slavery. From
the early 700s until the early Modern time
period (rough the 18th or 19th centuries)
Muslims consistently took European slaves.
This slavery began during the Muslim
Conquest of Visigothic Spain and
Portugal in the 8th century. The Muslim powers of Iberia both
raided for slaves and purchased slaves from European merchants,
often the JewishRadhanites, one of the few groups that could
easily move between the Christian and
Islamic worlds. As the Muslims failed
to conquer Europe in the 8th century they took to pirate raids
against the shores of Spain, southern Portugal and France, and
Italy, that would last roughly from the 9th century until the 12th
century, when the Italian city-states of Genoa, Venice, and
Pisa, along with the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, as well as the SicilianNormans, began to
dominate the Mediterranean.The Middle Ages
from 1100 to 1500 saw a continuation of the European slave trade,
though with a shift from the Western Mediterranean Islamic nations
to the Eastern, as Venice and Genoa, in firm control of the Eastern
Mediterranean from the 12th century and the Black Sea from the 13th century sold both Slavic and Baltic
slaves, as well as Georgians, Turks, and other ethnic groups of the Black
Sea and Caucasus, to the Muslim nations of
the Middle East. The sale of European slaves by Europeans
slowly ended as the Slavic and Baltic ethnic groups Christianized by the Late Middle Ages. European slaves in the
Islamic World would, however, continue into the Modern time period as Muslim pirates, primarily
Algerians, with the support of the
Ottoman Empire, raided European
coasts and shipping from the 16th to the 19th centuries, ending
their attacks with the naval decline of the Ottoman Empire in the
late 16th and 17th centuries, as well as
the European conquest of North Africa
throughout the 19th century.

The Mongol invasions and conquests
in the 13th century made the situation worse. The Mongols enslaved
skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to
Karakorum or Sarai, whence they
were sold throughout Eurasia. Many of
these slaves were shipped to the slave market in Novgorod.

Slave
commerce during the Late Middle
Ages was mainly in the hands of Venetian and Genoese
merchants and cartels, who were involved in the slave trade with
the Golden Horde. In 1382 the
Golden Horde under Khan Tokhtamysh sacked
Moscow, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants
as slaves. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 eastern
European slaves were sold in Venice.Genoese merchants organized the slave trade
from the Crimea to Mamluk Egypt. For years
the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan routinely made raids on Russian
principalities forslaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles
record about 40 raids of Kazan
Khans on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th
century. In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan Mehmed Giray
and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of
slaves.

In 1441, Haci I Giray declared
independence from the Golden Horde and established the Crimean Khanate. For a long time, until the
early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade
with the Ottoman Empire and the
Middle East. In a process called the "harvesting of the steppe", they enslaved many Slavic peasants.
About 30
major Tatar raids were recorded into Muscovite territories between 1558-1596. In 1571, the
Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but
the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.
In
Crimea, about 75%
of the population consisted of slaves.

Slavery
in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were
replaced by the second enserfment.
Slavery remained a minor institution in Russia until the 1723, when
the Peter the Great converted the
household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were
formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. The runaway Polish and Russian serfs and kholops known as Cossacks
(‘outlaws’) formed autonomous communities in the southern steppes.

Portugal

The 15th century Portuguese
exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the
harbinger of European colonialism. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bullDum
Diversas, granting Afonso V of
Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any
other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery which legitimized slave
trade under Catholic beliefs of that time.
This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his
Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455.
These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the
subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism. Although for a short period as in
1462, Pius II declared slavery to be "a great crime". The followers
of the church of England and Protestants did not use the papal bull
as a justification. The position of the church was to condemn the
slavery of Christians, but slavery was regarded as an old
established and necessary institution which supplied Europe with
the necessary workforce. In the 16th century African slaves had
substituted almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved
groups in Europe. Within the Portuguese territory of Brazil, and
even beyond its original borders, the enslavement of native
Americans was carried out by the Bandeirantes.

Among
many other European slave markets, Genoa, Venice and Verdun-sur-Meuse were some well known markets, their importance and
demand growing after the great plague of the 14th century which
decimated much of the European work force.The maritime town of
Lagos,
Portugal, was the
first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of imported
African slaves - the Mercado de Escravos, opened in
1444.In 1441, the first slaves were brought to
Portugal from northern Mauritania. Prince Henry
the Navigator, major sponsor of the Portuguese African
expeditions, as of any other merchandise, taxed one fifth of the
selling price of the slaves imported to Portugal. By the year 1552
black African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of
Lisbon.In the
second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on
slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves
shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to
tropical colonies in the Americas - in the case of Portugal,
especially Brazil. In
the 15th century one third of the slaves were resold to the African
market in exchange of gold.

Spain

Spain had to fight against relatively powerful civilizations of the
New World. However, the Spanish conquest
of the indigenous peoples in the Americas was also facilitated by
the spread of diseases (e.g. smallpox) due
to lack of biological immunity. (like the Europeans that had lack
of biological immunity to African diseases) Natives were used as
forced labor (the Spanish employed
the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita), but the diseases caused a labor shortage
and so the Spanish colonists were gradually involved in the
Atlantic slave trade.

The first
Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who laborers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming decline in the native population had
spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population
(Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513).
The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.

Great Britain and Ireland

Before, during and after Roman times,
the practice of slavery was common in the
British Isles. The peoples of Britain and Ireland continued the
practice of the slavery system, often taking as slaves the peoples
of vanquished territories. Ireland and Denmark were known to be
ready markets for captured Anglo Saxon and Celtic slaves, although
they are reputed to have been traded throughout Europe. Pope
Gregory I reputably made the pun, Non Angli, sed Angeli
("Not Angles, but Angels"), after a response to his query regarding
the identity of a group of fair-haired Angles slave children whom he had observed in the
marketplace. Chattel slavery of
English Christians was discontinued when William of Normandy conquered England in
1066 , but according to the Domesday
Book census in 1086, 10% of the country's population were
serfs, able to own land and possessions, but forever tied to their
lord's lands.. In 1102, The Council of Westminster, a collection of
nobles, issued a decree: "Let no one hereafter presume to engage in
that nefarious trade in which hitherto in England men were usually
sold like brute animals." However, the Council had no legislative
powers, and no act of law was valid unless signed by the
monarch.

The last form of enforced servitude in Britain (villeinage) had disappeared by the beginning of the
17th century . Indentured servitude, now considered a form of
slavery, was later practiced in the 17th century as a form of
punishment. Following the Cromwellian conquest of
Ireland, as many as 550,000 Irish men, women and children were
forced into indentured service and transported to the colonies in
the British West Indies and
British America.. The British used North America as
a penal colony through a system of indentured servitude. Convicts
would be transported by private sector merchants and auctioned off
to plantation owners upon arrival in the colonies. It is estimated
that some 50,000 British convicts were sent to colonial America,
representing perhaps one-quarter of all British emigrants during
the eighteenth century.. It is estimated that over half of all
white immigrants to Colonial America
during the 17th and 18th centuries consisted of redemptioners, migrants would had sold
themselves into a period of indentured servitude in order to gain
passage to the new world.

From the 16th to 19th century, Barbary
Corsairs raided the coasts of Europe and attacked lone ships at
sea. From
1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.
160 English ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and
1680.. Many of the captured sailors were made into slaves. The
corsairs were no strangers to the South West of England where raids
were known in a number of coastal communities. Around 1645 Barbary Pirates under command of the Dutch
renegade Jan Janszoon operating from
the Moroccan port of Salé occupied the
island of Lundy.
During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent
to Algiers.

Ireland, despite it's northern position, was not immune
from attacks by the corsairs.In June 1631 Murat Reis, with pirates from
Algiers and armed troops of the Ottoman Empire, stormed ashore at the little
harbor village of Baltimore, County Cork. They captured
almost all the villagers and took them away to a life of
slavery in North Africa. The prisoners were destined for a variety
of fates — some lived out their days chained to the oars as galley
slaves, while others would spend long years in the scented
seclusion of the harem or within the walls of the sultan's palace.
Only two
of them ever saw Ireland again.

Britain played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade which began around
the mid-fifteenth century when Portuguese interests in Africa moved
away from the fabled deposits of gold to a much more readily
available commodity; slaves. Slavery was a legal institution in all of
the 13 American colonies, and the
profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of
the Industrial
Revolution.In 1807, following many years of lobbying by
the Abolitionist movement, the British
Parliament voted to make the slave trade illegal anywhere in
the empire. Thereafter Britain took a prominent role in
combating the trade, although it took another generation before
slavery itself was abolished
in the British empire. Between 1808 and 1860, the West Africa Squadron seized
approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were
aboard. Action was also taken against African
leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the
trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed
in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50
African rulers.

The so-called second serfdom took
place in Eastern Europe during this
period (particularly in Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Russia and Poland). During the seventeenth
and the eighteenth centuries, Ukraine was controlled by the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period, it is estimated
that hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were sold into slavery to
the Turks. Only in 1768 was a law passed in Poland that
discontinued the nobility's right of life or death over serfs.
Serfdom remained the practice in most of Russia until 19 February
1861. Some of the Roma
people were enslaved over five centuries in Romania until abolition in 1864 (see Slavery in Romania).

Slavery
in the French
Republic was
abolished on 4 February 1794 however it was re-established by
Napoleon Bonaparte in
1804.Slavery would be permanently abolished in
France after his first exile to Elba in
1814.The Haitian
Revolution established Haiti as a free
republic ruled by blacks, the first of its kind. At the time
of the revolution, Haiti was known as Saint-Domingue and was a colony of
France.

Nazi Germany and its Occupied Territories

Between 1933 and 1945, the Nazi regime
created many concentration
camps in Germany and its occupied territories. Prisoners in
Nazi concentration camps were typically enslaved and worked to
death on short rations and in bad conditions, or killed if they
became unable to work. Millions died as a direct result of forced
labor under the Nazis. See for instance Eugen Kogon's publication
The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps
and the System Behind Them

Soviet Union

Between
1930 and 1960, the Soviet regime
created many Lagerlabor camps
in Siberia and Central
Asia. There were at least 476 separate camp complexes,
each one comprising hundreds, even thousands of individual camps.
It is estimated that there may have been 5-7 million people in
these camps at any one time. In later years the camps also held
victims of Stalin’s purges as well as
World War IIprisoners. It is possible that approximately 10% of
prisoners died each year. Out of the 91,000Germans captured
alive after the Battle of Stalingrad, only 6,000 survived the Gulag and returned
home. Many of these prisoners, however, had died of illness
contracted during the siege of Stalingrad and in the forced march
into captivity.

Probably
the worst of the camp complexes were the three built north of the
Arctic circle at Kolyma, Norilsk and Vorkuta. Prisoners in Soviet labor camps were worked
to death with a mix of extreme production quotas, brutality, hunger and the
harsh elements. In all, more than 18 million people passed through
the Gulag, with further millions
being deported
and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The fatality
rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps.
Immediately after the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union
during World War II, the NKVD massacred about 100,000
prisoners who awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in Moscow
or to the Gulag. Michael McFaul, in
his New York Times article
of 11 June 2003, entitled 'Books of the Times; Camps of Terror,
Often Overlooked' [340349], has this to say about the state of
contemporary dialogue on Soviet slavery:

It should now be known to all serious scholars that the
camps began under Lenin and not Stalin. It should be recognized by
all that people were sent to the camps not because of what they
did, but because of who they were. Some may be surprised to learn
about the economic function that the camps were designed to
perform. Under Stalin, the camps were simply a crueler but equally
inefficient way to exploit labor in the cause of building socialism
than the one practiced outside the camps in the Soviet Union. Yet,
even this economic role of the camps has been exposed before.

What is remarkable is that the facts about this monstrous system so
well documented in Applebaum's book are still so poorly known and
even, by some, contested. For decades, academic historians have
gravitated away from event-focused history and toward social
history. Yet, the social history of the gulag somehow has escaped
notice. Compared with the volumes and volumes written about the
Holocaust, the literature on the gulag is thin.

Since the
fall of the Iron Curtain, the
impoverished former Eastern bloc countries such as Albania, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine have been identified as major trafficking source
countries for women and children. Young women and girls are
often lured to wealthier countries by the promises of money and
work and then reduced to sexual slavery. It is estimated that 2/3
of women trafficked for prostitution worldwide annually come from
Eastern Europe, three-quarters have
never worked as prostitutes before. The major destinations are
Western Europe (Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, UK, Greece),
the Middle East (Turkey, Israel, the United Arab Emirates), Asia,
Russia and the United States.

It is
estimated that half million Ukrainian women were trafficked abroad
since 1991 (80% of all unemployed in Ukraine are women). Russia is a major source of
women trafficked globally for the purpose of sexual exploitation,
Russian women are in prostitution in over 50 countries.
In
poverty-stricken Moldova, where the unemployment
rate for women ranges as high as 68% and one-third of the workforce
live and work abroad, experts estimate that since the collapse of
the Soviet Union between 200,000 and 400,000 women have been sold
into prostitution abroad — perhaps up to 10% of the female
population.

Slavery in the Muslim World

[[Image:BainbridgeTribute.jpg|thumb|Capt. William Bainbridge paying tribute to the
Dey of Algiers. Gradually in the 18th century slave raids became
less frequent, but theBarbary pirates
continued to enslave captured crews. Payments in ransom and tribute
to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government
annual revenues in 1800.]]

The medieval scholar and traveller Ibn
Battuta states several times that he was given or purchased
slaves. The Arab or Middle Eastern
slave trade is thought to have originated with trans-Saharan
slavery. Arab, Indian, and Oriental traders were
involved in the capture and transport of slaves northward across
the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region
into Arabia and the Middle East, Persia, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.The slave trade from
East Africa to Arabia was dominated by Arab and African traders in
the coastal cities of Zanzibar, Dar Es
Salaam and Mombasa.Tens of thousands of black Zanj slaves were imported to lower Iraq, where
they may have, according to Richard Hellie, constituted at least a
half of the total population there in the 9th and 10th
centuries. At the same time, many tens of thousands of
slaves in the region were also imported from Central Asia and the Caucasus.

Male slaves were employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers, while
female slaves were traded to Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms
by Arab, Indian, or Oriental traders, some as domestic servants and others in harems. Some historians estimate that between 11 and
17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara
Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.The Moors, starting in the 8th century, raided coastal
areas around the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean, and became known as the Barbary pirates. It is estimated that
they captured 1.25 million slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th
centuries.

Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. In Constantinople (today Istanbul), about 1/5 of the population consisted of
slaves. As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the
Ottoman Empire. In the middle of the
14th century, Murad I built his own personal
slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was based on
the sultan's right to a fifth of the war booty, which he
interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves
were converted to Islam and trained in the
sultan's personal service. In the devşirme (Turkish for 'gathering'), young
Christian boys from the Balkans were taken
away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted
into special soldier classes of the Ottoman army or the civil
service. These soldier classes were named Janissaries, the most famous branch of the
Kapıkulu. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive
factor in the Ottoman invasions
of Europe. Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman
forces, imperial administrators and de facto rulers of the
Ottoman Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and
Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were
recruited in this way. By 1609 the Sultan's Kapıkulu
forces increased to about 100,000. By this time however, the
expeditions for young Christian boys were rare. The increased
numbers of janissaries came from Muslim peasants who were now
allowed into service as a result of increased military demands of
17th century warfare.

The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the
Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves,
called his Black Guard, who coerced the
country into submission.

Nautical traders from the United States became targets, and
frequent victims, of the Barbary
pirates, as soon as that nation began trading with Europe and
refused to pay the required tribute to the North African
states.

Modern times

The Arab or Middle Eastern slave trade continued into the early
1900s, and by some accounts continue to this day. Slavery in Morocco was outlawed in the 1930s.As recently as the
1950s, Saudi
Arabia had an estimated 450,000 slaves, 20% of the
population. It is estimated that as many as 200,000 black
south Sudanese children and women (mostly from the Dinka tribe sold
by the Sudanese Arabs of the north) have been taken into slavery in Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War.
In
Mauritania it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and
children, or 20% of the population, are currently enslaved, many of
them used as bonded labor.Slavery in Mauritania was
criminalized in August 2007.

The Arab trade in slaves continued into the 20th
century. Written travelogues and other historical works are replete
with references to slaves owned by wealthy traders, nobility and
heads of state in the Arabian
Peninsula well into the 1920s. Slave owning and slave-like
working conditions have been documented up to and including the
present, in countries of the Middle East. Though the subject is
considered taboo in the affected regions, a leading Saudi
government cleric and author of the country's religious curriculum
has called for the outright re-legalization of slavery.

Children as young as two years old are used for slavery as child camel jockeys across the Arab
countries of the Middle East. Although strict laws have been introduced
recently in Qatar and
UAE, thanks to better awareness of the issue and
lobbying by human rights organisations
such as the Ansar Burney Trust, the use
of children still continues in outlying areas and during secret
night-time races.

Many of the Iraqi women fleeing the Iraq
War are turning to prostitution, others are trafficked abroad,
to countries like Syria, Jordan, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,
Turkey, and Iran. In Syria alone, an
estimated 50,000 Iraqi refugee
girls and women, many of them widows, are forced into prostitution. Cheap Iraqi prostitutes
have helped to make Syria a popular destination for sex tourists.
The
clients come from wealthier countries in the Middle East - many are
Saudi
men. High prices are offered for virgins.

Afghanistan

"The
country generally between Caubul (Kabul) and the
Oxus appears to be in a very lawless state; slavery is
as rife as ever, and extends through Hazara,
Badakshan, Wakhan,
Sirikul (Sarikol), Kunjūt (Hunza), &c. A slave, if a strong man likely
to stand work well, is, in Upper Badakshan, considered to be of the
same value as one of the large dogs of the country, or of a horse,
being about the equivalent of Rs 80. A slave girl is valued at from
four horses or more, according to her looks &c.; men are,
however, almost always exchanged for dogs. When I was in Little
Tibet (Ladakh),a
returned slave who had been in the Kashmir army took refuge in my camp; he said he was well
enough treated as to food &c., but he could never get over
having been exchanged for a dog, and constantly harped on the
subject, the man who sold him evidently thinking the dog the better
animal of the two. In Lower Badakshan, and more distant
places, the price of slaves is much enhanced, and payment is made
in coin."

In response to the Hazara uprising of
1892, the Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman
declared a "Jihad" against the Shiites. His
large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was being
massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi, "thousands of Hazara
men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the markets of
Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made
from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge
the rule of the Amir". Until the 20th century, some Hazaras were
still kept as slaves by the Pashtuns;
although Amanullah Khan banned
slavery in Afghanistan during his reign, the practice carried on
unofficially for many more years.

Africa

In most African societies, there was very little difference between
the free peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the
Songhay Muslim Empire were used primarily in
agriculture; they paid tribute to their masters in crop and service
but they were slightly restricted in custom and convenience. These
people were more an occupational caste, as their bondage was
relative.In the Kanem Bornu Empire, vassals were three classes
beneath the nobles. Marriage between captor and captive was far
from rare, blurring the anticipated roles.

French historian Fernand Braudel
noted that slavery was endemic in Africa and part of the structure
of everyday life. "Slavery came in different disguises in different
societies: there were court slaves, slaves incorporated into
princely armies, domestic and household slaves, slaves working on
the land, in industry, as couriers and intermediaries, even as
traders" (Braudel 1984 p. 435). During the 16th century,
Europe began to outpace the Arab world in
the export traffic, with its slave traffic from Africa to the
Americas. The Dutch imported
slaves from Asia into their colony in South Africa. In 1807
the United Kingdom, which held vast colonial territories on the
African continent (including southern
Africa), made the
international slave trade illegal throughout its empire. The end of the slave trade and
the decline of slavery was imposed upon Africa by its European
conquerors.

The nature of the slave societies differed greatly across the
continent. There were large plantations worked by
slaves in Egypt, the
Sudan and Zanzibar, but this was not a typical use of slaves in Africa
as a whole. In most African slave societies, slaves were
protected and incorporated into the slave-owning family.

In Senegambia, between 1300
and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In
early Islamic states of the western Sudan,
including Ghana (750-1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275-1591), about a third of the
population were slaves. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population
consisted of slaves.In the 19th century at least half the
population was enslaved among the Duala
of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other
peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola.
Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of
slaves. The population of the Kanem was
about a third-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1396–1893). Between 1750 and 1900 from
one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves.
The
population of the Sokoto caliphate
formed by Hausas in the northern
Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th
century.It is estimated that up to 90% of the
population of Arab-SwahiliZanzibar was enslaved.Roughly half the
population of Madagascar was enslaved.

The
Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in
the early 1930s Ethiopia, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16
million. Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the brief
Second Italo-Abyssinian
War in October 1935, when it was abolished by order of the
Italian occupying forces. In response to pressure by Western
Allies of World War II
Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and serfdom after regaining
its independence in 1942. On 26 August 1942 Haile Selassie issued a proclamation
outlawing slavery.

When
British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and the surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at the turn of the 20th
century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were
slaves. Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in
1936.

Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le
Monde diplomatique. Quote: "The African continent was bled of
its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean
ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery
for the benefit of the Muslim countries
(from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four
million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many
as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven
to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic
Ocean"

North Africa

Barbary pirates

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million
Europeans were captured by
Barbary pirates and sold as slaves
in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th
centuries. The coastal villages and towns of Italy,
Portugal, Spain and Mediterranean islands
were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian,
Portuguese and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by
their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered
the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland.

In 1544,
Khair ad Din captured Ischia, taking
4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost
the entire population.In 1551, Turgut
Reis (known as Dragut in the West) enslaved the entire
population of the Maltese island Gozo, between
5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya.When
pirates sacked Vieste in
southern Italy in 1554 they took 7,000 slaves.In 1555, Turgut Reis
sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia, taking
6,000 prisoners.In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured the town
of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered
the inhabitants and carried off 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves.In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores
of the province of Granada, Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the
area like Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners.Barbary pirates
frequently attacked the Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and
fortified churches being erected. The threat was so severe
that the island of Formentera became uninhabited.

In Portugal for instance, the coastal city of Nazaré was raided several times during until the
16th century when the local fortress was built (according to Pedro
Penteado and his book based in the historical ecclesiastic diaries
of Nazaré). The city of Lisbon built the Torre de
Belém to defend the capital against these
pirates.

Between 1609 and 1616 England alone had a staggering 466 merchant
ships lost to Barbary pirates. 160 British ships were captured by
Algerians between 1677 and 1680. Slave-taking persisted into the
19th century when Barbary pirates would capture ships and enslave
the crew. Even the United States was not immune. In 1783 the United
States made peace with, and gained recognition from, the British monarchy, and in 1784 the first
American ship was seized by pirates from Morocco. Payments in ransom and tribute to the
Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual
revenues in 1800. It was not until 1815 that naval victories in the
Barbary Wars ended tribute payments by
the U.S., although some European nations continued annual payments
until the 1830s.

Sub-Saharan Africa

We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the
body and lying on the path.

[Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that
morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for
her, because she was unable to walk any longer.

We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and
dead....

We came upon a man dead from
starvation....

The strangest disease I have seen in this country
seems really to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who
have been captured and made slaves."

Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans
died each year before ever reaching the slave markets of Zanzibar. Zanzibar was once East Africa's main
slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as
many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each
year.

Prior to the 16th century, the bulk of slaves exported from Africa
were shipped from East Africa to the
Arabian peninsula. Zanzibar became a leading port in this trade. Arab
slave traders differed from European ones in that they would often
conduct raiding expeditions themselves, sometimes penetrating deep
into the continent. They also differed in that their market greatly
preferred the purchase of female slaves over male ones.

The increased presence of European rivals along the East coast led
Arab traders to concentrate on the overland slave caravan routes
across the Sahara from the Sahel to North Africa.
The
German explorer Gustav Nachtigal
reported seeing slave caravans departing from Kukawa in Bornu bound for
Tripoli and Egypt in
1870. The slave trade represented the major source of
revenue for the state of Bornu as late as 1898. The eastern regions
of the Central
African Republic have never recovered demographically from the
impact of nineteenth-century raids from the Sudan and still
have a population density of less than 1 person/km. During
the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an
economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of
Mahdist forces. Mahdi’s victory created an Islamic state, one
that quickly reinstituted slavery.

The
Middle Passage, the crossing of the
Atlantic to the Americas,
endured by slaves laid out in rows in the holds of ships, was only
one element of the well-known triangular trade engaged in by Portuguese,
Dutch, French and British.Ships having landed slaves in Caribbean ports would take on sugar, indigo, raw cotton, and
later coffee, and make for Liverpool, Nantes, Lisbon or Amsterdam. Ships leaving European ports for West Africa would carry printed cotton textiles,
some originally from India, copper utensils and bangles, pewter
plates and pots, iron bars more valued than gold, hats, trinkets,
gunpowder and firearms and alcohol. Tropical shipworms were eliminated in the cold Atlantic
waters, and at each unloading, a profit was made.

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in
Kingdom of Kongo. Despite its
establishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave
trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the
Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he
wrote letters to the King João III of
Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise
would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As one of West
Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular
with neighbouring peoples. Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A
family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned,
leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking
more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact
with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly
the French. Benin grew increasingly
rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with
Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and
carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of
Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast".

It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the
mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy
reduced to slavery…"

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the
trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the
practice:

"We think this trade must go on.

That is the verdict of our oracle and the
priests.

They say that your country, however great, can
never stop a trade ordained by God himself."

Some historians conclude that the total loss in persons removed,
those who died on the arduous march to coastal slave marts and
those killed in slave raids, far exceeded the 65–75 million
inhabitants remaining in Sub-Saharan Africa at the trade's end.
Others
believe that slavers had a vested interest in capturing rather than
killing, and in keeping their captives alive; and that this coupled
with the disproportionate removal of males and the introduction of
new crops from the Americas (cassava,
maize) would have limited general population decline to particular regions
of western Africa around 1760–1810, and in Mozambique and neighbouring areas half a century later.
There has also been speculation that within Africa, females were
most often captured as brides, with
their male protectors being a "bycatch" who would have been killed
if there had not been an export market for them.

During the period from late 19th and early 20th centuries, demand
for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier
expansion and slavery. The personal monarchy of Belgian King
Leopold II in the Congo Free State saw mass killings and slavery to extract
rubber.

Modern times

Slavery in Mauritania was
legally abolished by laws passed in 1908, 1961, and 1981, but it
was only criminalised in 2007, and several human rights organizations report that the
practice continues there. In Niger, slavery is
also a current phenomenon; a study has found that more than 800,000
people are still slaves, almost 8% of the population.
Descent-based slavery, where generations of the same family are
born into bondage, is traditionally practised by at least four of
Niger’s eight ethnic groups.
It is
especially rife among the warlike Tuareg, in
the wild deserts of north and west Niger, who roam near the borders
with Mali and
Algeria.

The
trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin.In parts
of Ghana, a family
may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin
female to serve as a sex slave within
the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not
gain the title or status of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo, and
Benin, shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in
Ghana since 1998. In this system of ritual servitude, sometimes called
trokosi (in Ghana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin,
young virgin girls are given as slaves to traditional shrines and
are used sexually by the priests in addition to providing free
labor for the shrine. Slavery in
Sudan continues as part of an ongoing civil war. Evidence
emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao
plantations in West Africa; see the
chocolate and slavery
article.

The Americas

Among indigenous peoples

In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica the most
common forms of slavery were those of prisoners-of-war and debtors. People unable
to pay back a debt could be sentenced to work as a slave to the
person owed until the debt was worked off. Warfare was important to
the Maya society, because raids on
surrounding areas provided the victims required for human sacrifice, as well as slaves for the construction
of temples. Most victims of human sacrifice were
prisoners of war or slaves. According to Aztec
writings, as many as 84,000 people were sacrificed at a temple
inauguration in 1487. Slavery was not usually hereditary; children
of slaves were born free. In the Inca
Empire, workers were subject to a mita in lieu of taxes which they paid by
working for the government. Each ayllu, or extended family, would decide which
family member to send to do the work. It is unclear if this labor
draft or corvée counts as slavery. The
Spanish adopted this system,
particularly for their silver mines in Bolivia.

Brazil

Slavery was a mainstay of the Brazilian colonial economy,
especially in mining and sugar cane production.Brazil obtained 37% of all
African slaves traded, and more than 3 million slaves were sent to
this one country. Starting around 1550, the Portuguese began to
trade African slaves to work the sugar plantations, once the native
Tupi people deteriorated. Although Portuguese
Prime Minister Marquês de Pombal abolished slavery in mainland Portugal on the 12
February 1761, slavery continued in her overseas colonies.
Slavery was practiced among all classes. Slaves were owned by upper
and middle classes, by the poor, and even by other slaves.

From
São
Paulo, the Bandeirantes,
adventurers mostly of mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, penetrated
steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves. Along
the Amazon river and its major
tributaries, repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left their
mark. One French traveler in the 1740s described hundreds of
miles of river banks with no sign of human life and once-thriving
villages that were devastated and empty.In some areas of the
Amazon Basin, and particularly among
the Guarani of southern Brazil and Paraguay, the Jesuits had organized
their Jesuit Reductions along
military lines to fight the slavers. In the mid to late 19th
century, many Amerindians were enslaved
to work on rubber plantations.

Resistance and abolition

Escaped slaves formed Maroon
communities which played an important role in the histories of
Brazil and other countries such as
Suriname, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. In Brazil, the Maroon villages
were called palenques or quilombos. Maroons survived by growing vegetables
and hunting. They also raided plantations. At these attacks, the maroons would
burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and
invite other slaves to join their communities.

Jean-Baptiste Debret, a French
painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th
Century, started out with painting portraits of members of the
Brazilian Imperial family, but soon became concerned with the
slavery of both blacks and indigenous inhabitants. His paintings on
the subject (two appear on this page) helped bring attention to the
subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.

The Clapham Sect, a group of evangelical reformers, campaigned during much of
the 19th century for the United Kingdom to use its influence and
power to stop the traffic of slaves to Brazil. Besides moral
qualms, the low cost of slave-produced Brazilian sugar meant that
British colonies in the West Indies were unable to match the market
prices of Brazilian sugar, and each Briton was consuming 16 pounds
(7 kg) of sugar a year by the 19th century. This combination
led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to
end this practice, which it did by steps over several
decades.

First, foreign slave trade was banned in 1850. Then, in 1871, the
sons of the slaves were freed. In 1885, slaves aged over 60 years
were freed. The Paraguayan
War contributed to ending slavery, since many slaves enlisted
in exchange for freedom. In Colonial Brazil, slavery was more a
social than a racial condition. In fact, some of the greatest
figures of the time, like the writer Machado de Assis and the engineer André Rebouças had black
ancestry.

Brazil's 1877-78 Grande Seca (Great Drought) in the
cotton-growing northeast led to major turmoil, starvation, poverty
and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to
sell their slaves south, popular resistance and resentment grew,
inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in
banning slavery altogether in the province of Ceará by 1884.
Slavery was legally ended nationwide on 13 May by the Lei Aurea ("Golden Law") of 1888. In fact, it
was an institution in decadence at these times, as since the 1880s
the country had begun to use European immigrant labor instead.
Brazil
was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.

Modern times

However, in 2004, the government acknowledged to the United Nations that at least 25,000
Brazilians work under conditions "analogous to slavery." The top
anti-slavery official puts the number of modern slaves at 50,000.
More than 1,000 slave laborers were freed from a sugar cane
plantation in 2007 by the Brazilian government, making it the
largest anti-slavery raid in modern times in Brazil.

Other South American countries

During the period from late 19th and early 20th centuries, demand
for the labor-intensive harvesting of rubber drove frontier
expansion and slavery in Latin America
and elsewhere. Indigenous people were enslaved as part of
the rubber boom in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil. In Central America, rubber tappers
participated in the enslavement of the indigenous Guatuso-Maleku
people for domestic service.

British and French Caribbean

Slavery
was commonly used in the parts of the Caribbean controlled by France and the British Empire. The Lesser Antilles islands of Barbados, St. Kitts, Antigua, Martinique and Guadeloupe, which were the first
important slave societies of the Caribbean, began the widespread use
of African slaves by the end of the 17th century, as their
economies converted from sugar production.
Among white Caribbeans there exists an underclass known as Redlegs; the descendants of English, Scottish and
Irish indentured servants, and
prisoners imported to the island. The
Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series of 1701 records 25,000
slaves in Barbados, of which 21,700 were white.

By the
middle of the 18th century, British Jamaica and French Saint-Domingue had become the largest slave
societies of the region, rivaling Brazil as a destination for
enslaved Africans. Due to overwork and tropical diseases, the death rates for Caribbean
slaves were greater than birth rates. The conditions led to
increasing numbers of slave revolts,
escaped slaves forming Maroon
communities and fighting guerrilla wars
against the plantation owners. Campaigns
against slavery began during the period of the Enlightenment and grew to large
proportions in Europe and United States during the 19th century
(see Abolitionism).

To regularise slavery, in 1685 Louis
XIV had enacted the code
noir, which accorded certain human rights to slaves and
responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and
provide for the general well-being of his slaves. Free blacks owned
one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves
in Saint Domingue (later Haiti).Slavery
in the French
Republic was abolished on 4 February 1794. When it
became clear that Napoleon
intended to re-establish slavery, Dessalines and Pétion switched sides, in October
1802. On
1 January 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the new leader under the
dictatorial 1801 constitution, declared Haiti a free
republic. Thus Haiti became the second independent nation in
the Western Hemisphere, after the United States, and the only
successful slave rebellion in world history.

Whitehall in England announced in 1833 that slaves in its
territories would be totally freed by 1840. In the meantime,
the government told slaves they had to remain on their plantations
and would have the status of "apprentices" for the next six years. On 1st of
August 1834, an unarmed group of mainly elderly Negroes being
addressed by the Governor at Government House about the new laws,
began chanting: "Pas de six ans. Point de six ans" ("Not six years.
No six years"), drowning out the voice of the Governor. Peaceful
protests continued until a resolution to abolish apprenticeship was passed and de
facto freedom was achieved. Full emancipation for all was legally granted ahead
of schedule on 1 August, 1838, making Trinidad the first British
colony with slaves to completely abolish slavery.

After Great Britain abolished slavery, it began to pressure other
nations to do the same. France, too, abolished slavery.
By then
Saint-Domingue had already won its independence and formed the
independent Republic of Haiti.
French-controlled islands were then limited to a few smaller
islands in the Lesser
Antilles.

Early events

The
first slaves used by Europeans in what later became United States
territory were among Lucas Vásquez de Ayllón's
colonization attempt of North Carolina in 1526. The attempt was a failure, lasting
only one year; the slaves revolted and fled into the wilderness to
live among the Cofitachiqui
people.[340351]

In 1619 twenty Africans were brought by a Dutch soldier and sold to
the English colony of Jamestown,
Virginia as indentured
servants. It is possible that Africans were brought to Virginia
prior to this, both because neither John
Rolfe our source on the 1619 shipment nor any contemporary of
his ever says that this was the first contingent of Africans to
come to Virginia and because the 1625 Virginia census lists one
black as coming on a ship that appears to only have landed people
in Virginia prior to 1619. The transformation from indentured
servitude to racial slavery happened gradually. It was not until
1661 that a reference to slavery entered into Virginia law, directed at Caucasian servants who ran away
with a black servant. It was not until the Slave Codes of 1705 that the status of
African Americans as slaves would
be sealed. This status would last for another 160 years, until
after the end of the American Civil
War with the ratification of the 13th Amendment in December
1865.

By the 1680s, enslaved Africans were imported to English colonies
in great numbers, and the practice continued to be protected by the
English Crown. By that time, English
farmers in the northern colonies were purchasing slaves in great
numbers.

Development of slavery

The shift from indentured servants to African slaves was prompted
by a dwindling class of former servants who had worked through the
terms of their indentures and thus became competitors to their
former masters. These newly freed servants were rarely able to
support themselves comfortably, and the tobacco industry was
increasingly dominated by large planters. This caused domestic
unrest culminating in Bacon's
Rebellion. Eventually, chattel slavery became the norm in
regions dominated by plantations.

Many slaves in British North
America were owned by plantation owners who lived in Britain.
The British courts had made a series of contradictory rulings on
the legality of slavery which encouraged several thousand slaves to
flee the newly-independent United States as refugees along with the
retreating British in 1783. The British courts having ruled in 1772
that such slaves could not be forcibly returned to North America
(see James Somersett and Somersett's Case for a review of the
Somerset Decision), the British government resettled them as free
men in Sierra
Leone. See Black
Loyalists.

Early United States law

Through the Northwest Ordinance
of 1787 (also known as the Freedom Ordinance) under the
Continental Congress, slavery
was prohibited in the territories north of the Ohio River. In the East, though, slavery was not
abolished until later. The importation of slaves into the United
States was banned on 1 January 1808; but not the internal slave
trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade
externally.

Aggregation of northern free states gave
rise to one contiguous geographic area, north of the Ohio River and the old Mason-Dixon line. This separation of a free North and an
enslaved South launched a massive political, cultural and economic
struggle.

The Dred Scott decision of
1857 asserted that one could take one's property anywhere, even if
one's property was chattel and one crossed
into a free territory. It also asserted that African Americans
could not be citizens, as many Northern states granted blacks
citizenship, who (in some states) could even vote. This was an
example of Slave Power, the plantation
aristocracy's attempt to control the North. While traditionally,
this has been viewed as turning Northern public opinion against the
South, it should be noted that pro-slavery forces made gains in the
1858 elections and it was the anti-slavery Republicans who were on
the defensive on the issue. After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, armed conflict
broke out in Kansas Territory,
where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as
a slave state or a free state had been left to the inhabitants. The
radical abolitionist John
Brown was active in the mayhem and killing in "Bleeding Kansas." The true turning point in
public opinion is better fixed at the Lecompton Constitution fraud.
Pro-slavery elements in Kansas had arrived first from Missouri and
quickly organized a territorial government that excluded
abolitionists. Through the machinery of the territory and violence,
the pro-slavery faction attempted to force an unpopular pro-slavery
constitution through the state. This infuriated Northern Democrats,
who supported popular sovereignty, and was exacerbated by the
Buchanan administration reneging on a
promise to submit the constitution to a referendum - which it would
surely fail. Anti-slavery legislators took office under the banner
of the Republican Party.

Civil War

Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war.
According to the 1860 U.S. census, about 385,000 individuals (i.e.
1.4% of White Americans in the
country, or 4.8% of southern whites) owned one or more slaves. 95%
of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the
population there as opposed to 1% of the population of the North.
Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in
the South than in the North.

In the election of
1860, the Republicans swept Abraham
Lincoln into the Presidency (with only 39.8% of the popular
vote) and legislators into Congress. Lincoln however, did not
appear on the ballots in most southern states and his election
split the nation along sectional lines. After decades of
controlling the Federal Government, several of the southern states
declared they had seceded from the U.S.
(the Union) in an attempt to form the Confederate States of
America.

Northern leaders like Lincoln viewed the prospect of a new Southern
nation, with control over the Mississippi River and the West, as
unacceptable. This led to the outbreak of the Civil War, which spelled the end for
chattel slavery in America. However, in August 1862, Lincoln wrote
to editor Horace Greeley that despite
his own moral objection to slavery, the objective of the war was to
save the Union and not either to save or to destroy slavery. He
went on to say that if he could save the Union without freeing a
single slave, or by freeing all the slaves, or by freeing only some
of the slaves, he would do it. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863
was a powerful move that proclaimed freedom for slaves within the
Confederacy as soon as the Union Army arrived; Lincoln had no power
to free slaves in the border states or the rest
of the Union, so he promoted the Thirteenth
Amendment, which freed all the remaining slaves in December
1865. The proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official
war goal and it was implemented as the Union captured territory
from the Confederacy. Slaves in many parts of the south were freed
by Union armies or when they simply left their former owners. Over
150,000 joined the Union Army and Navy as
soldiers and sailors.

The remaining slaves within the United States remained enslaved
until the final ratification of the Thirteenth
Amendment to the Constitution on 6 December 1865 (with final
recognition of the amendment on 18 December), eight months after
the cessation of hostilities. Only in Kentucky did a significant
slave population remain by that time, although there were some in
West Virginia and Delaware.

After the failure of Reconstruction,
freed slaves in the United States were treated as second class
citizens. For decades after their emancipation, many former slaves
living in the South sharecropped and
had a low standard of living. In some states, it was only after the
civil rights movement of the 1950s and
60s that blacks obtained legal protection from racial
discrimination (see segregation).

Long Islander Mahender Sabhnani, 52, an international
perfume maker, was convicted by US Federal
District Court Judge Arthur Spatt (in Central Islip N.Y.) of slavery of 2 Indonesian housekeepers
in his $ 2 million Muttontown home, and sentenced on 27 June 2008
to 3 years and 4 months in prison with fine of $ 12,500. His
wife, Varsha, was sentenced to 11 years in prison. A 12-count
federal indictment included charges of forced labor, conspiracy,
involuntary servitude and harboring aliens, specifically "beating
slaves with brooms and umbrellas, slashed with knives, and forced
to climb stairs and to take freezing showers for misdeeds that
included sleeping late or stealing food from the trash because they
were poorly fed."

Indian subcontinent

Yet the Lacedaemonians have Helots
for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have
no slaves at all, much less is any Indian a slave."

Though any formalised slave trade has not existed in South Asia, unfree labor has existed for
centuries in the Medieval ages, in different forms. The most common
forms have been kinds of bonded labor.
During the epoch of the Mughals, debt
bondage reached its peak, and it was common for money lenders to
make slaves of peasants and others who failed to repay debts. Under
these practices, more than one generation could be forced into
unfree labor; for example, a son could be sold into bonded labor
for life to pay off the debt, along with interest.

The early Arab invaders of Sind in
the 700's, the armies of the Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim, are reported to have
enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, including both
soldiers and civilians. In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini,
the Arab historian Al-Utbi recorded that in 1001 the armies of
Mahmud of Ghazna conquered Peshawar
and Waihand, "in the midst of the land of Hindustan", and captured
some 100,000 youths. Later, following his twelfth expedition into
India in 1018-19, Mahmud is reported to have returned to with such
a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two
to ten dirhams each. This unusually low price made, according to
Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so
that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled
with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor,
mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refers to "five
hundred thousand slaves, beautiful men and women.". Later, during
the Delhi Sultanate period
(1206-1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced
Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast
human resources of India, compared to its neighbours to the north
and west (Mughal Indian population being approximately 12 to 20
times that of Turan and Iran at the end of 16th century) ..

Arab slave traders also brought
slaves as early as the first century AD from Africa. Most of the
African slaves were brought however in the 17th century and were
taken into Western India. The Siddi people are
of mainly East African descent.

Much of the northern and central parts of the subcontinent was
ruled by the so-called Slave Dynasty
of Turkic origin from 1206-1290:
Qutb-ud-din Aybak, a slave of
Muhammad Ghori rose to power
following his master's death. For almost a century, his descendants ruled
presiding over the introduction of Tankas and building of Qutub Minar.

According to Sir Henry Bartle
Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an
estimated 8,000,000 or 9,000,000 slaves in India in 1841. In
Malabar, about 15% of the population were
slaves. Slavery was abolished in both Hindu
and Muslim India by the Indian
Slavery Act V. of 1843. Provisions of the Indian Penal Code of 1861 effectively
abolished slavery in India by making the enslavement of human
beings a criminal offense.

Modern times

According to Human Rights Watch,
there are currently more than 4100 bonded
laborers in India, who work as slaves to pay off debts; a
majority of them are Dalits. There are also an
estimated 5 million bonded workers in Pakistan.As many as 200,000 Nepali girls, manyunder 14, have been sold into
the sex slavery in India. Nepalese women
and girls, especially virgins, are favored in India because of
their fair skin and young looks.

Nepal

Slavery
was abolished in Nepal in 1924. In 1997, a human rights agency
reported that 40,000 Nepalese workers are subject to slavery and
200,000 kept in bonded labour. Nepal's
Maoist-led
government has abolished the slavery-like Haliya system in 2008.

As many as 200,000 Nepali girls, many under the age of 14, have
been sold into sex slavery in India.
Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are favoured in India
because of their fair skin and young looks.

China

Slavery in China has repeatedly come in and out of favor. Due to
the enormous population and relatively high development of the
region throughout most of its history, China has had a large
workforce.

"In the houses of wealthy citizens, it is not unusual to find
twenty to thirty slaves attending upon a family. Even citizens in
the humbler walks of life deem it necessary to have each a slave or
two. The price of a slave varies, of course, according to age,
health, strength, and general appearance. The average price is from
fifty to one hundred dollars, but in time of war, or revolution,
poor parents, on the verge of starvation, offer their sons and
daughters for sale at remarkably low prices. I remember instances
of parents, rendered destitute by the marauding bands who invested
the two southern Kwangs in 1854-55, offering to sell their
daughters in Canton for five dollars apiece. . . .

The slavery to which these unfortunate persons are subject, is
perpetual and hereditary, and they have no parental authority over
their offspring. The great-grandsons of slaves, however, can, if
they have sufficient means, purchase their freedom. . . .

Masters seem to have the same uncontrolled power over their
slaves that parents have over their children. Thus a master is not
called to account for the death of a slave, although it is the
result of punishment inflicted by him."

"In former times slaves were slain and offered in sacrifice to
the spirit of the owner when dead, or by him to his ancestors:
sometimes given as a substitute to suffer the death penalty
incurred by his owner or in fulfillment of a vow. It used to be
customary in Kuei-chou (and Szü-chuan too, I believe) to inter
living slaves with their dead owners; the slaves were to keep a
lamp burning in the tomb....

Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking.... It
is a common thing for well-to-do people to present a couple of
slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery [sic].
Nearly all prostitutes are slaves. It is, however, customary with
respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable.
Some people sell their slaves girls to men wanting a wife for
themselves or for a son of theirs. However, all types of slavery
are illegal today in China.

I have bought three different girls: two in Szü-chuan for a few
taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One I released in Tientsin,
another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a
faithful servant of mine. Some are worth much money at
Shanghai."

Private slavery in China was technically abolished in 1910,
although the practice apparently still continues unofficially in
some regions.

Slavery in pre-modern China

Boo-i Aha (Manchu:booi niyalma) (Chinese translation:包衣阿哈) is a
Manchu word literally translated as "household person" and
sometimes rendered as "slaves". In his book China Marches
West, Peter C. Perdue stated:"In 1624(After Nurhachi's invasion of Liaodong) "Chinese households....while those with less
were made into slaves." The Manchu was establishing close
personal and paternalist relationship between masters and their
slaves, as Nurhachi said:" The Master should love the
slaves and eat the same food as him". Perdue further
pointed out that boo-i aha "did not correspond exactly to the
Chinese category of "bondservant-slave" (Chinese:奴僕), even though
many western scholars would directly translate "boo-i" as
"bondservant".

Various classes of Booi

Booi guanlin a Manchu word (Chinese:包衣管領), meaning the
manager of booi doing all the domestic duties of
Neiwufu.

Booi amban is also a Manchu word, meaning high
official, (Chinese:包衣大臣).

Estate bannerman (Chinese:庄头旗人) are those renegade
Chinese who joined the Jurchen, or original civilians-soldiers
working in the fields. These people were all turned into booi
aha, or field slaves.

Japan

Slavery in Japan was, for most of its history, indigenous, since
the export and import of slaves was restricted by Japan being a
group of islands. Korean slaves were shipped
to Japan during the Japanese
invasions of Korea in the 16th century. The export of a slave
from Japan is recorded in 3rd century Chinese document, although
the system involved is unclear. These slaves were called , lit.
"living mouth".

In the 8th century, a slave was called and series of laws on
slavery was issued. In an area of present-day Ibaraki
Prefecture, out of a population of 190,000, around 2,000
were slaves; the proportion is believed to have been even higher in
western Japan.

By the time of the Sengoku period
(1467-1615), the attitude that slavery was anachronistic had become
widespread. Oda Nobunaga is said to
have had an African slave or former-slave in his retinue.

In late
16th century Japan, slavery was officially banned; but forms of
contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal
codes' forced labor. Somewhat later, the Edo period penal
laws prescribed "non-free labor" for the immediate family of
executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō
(Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The
1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes
promulgated between 1597 and 1696.

According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju,
Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark
Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized
by the Kōa-in
(Japanese Asia Development Board) for forced labour. According to
the Japanese military's own record, nearly 25% of 140,000 Allied
POWs died while interned in Japanese prison
camps where they were forced to work (U.S. POWs died at a rate of
37%). More than 100,000 civilians and POWs died
in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway. The U.S. Library of Congress
estimates that in Java, between 4
and 10 million romusha (Japanese:
"manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese
military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent
to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were
repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.
(For further details, see Japanese
war crimes.)

Approximately 5,400,000 Koreans were
conscripted into forced labor from 1939 to 1945. About 670,000 of
them were taken to Japan, where about 60,000 died between 1939 and
1945 due mostly to exhaustion or poor working conditions.
Many of
those taken to Karafuto
Prefecture (modern-day Sakhalin) were trapped there at the end of the war, stripped
of their nationality and denied repatriation by Japan; they became
known as the Sakhalin
Koreans. The total deaths of Korean forced laborers in
Korea and Manchuria for those years is
estimated to be between 270,000 and 810,000.

As many as 200,000 women, mostly from Korea and China, and some
other countries such as the Philippines, Taiwan, Burma, the Dutch
East Indies, Netherlands, and Australia were forced into sexual slavery during the World War II. (See
Comfort women)

Korea

Indigenous slaves existed in Korea. Slavery was officially
abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894
but remained extant in reality until 1930. During the Joseon
Dynasty (1392–1910) about 30% to 50% of the Korean
population were slaves. Slavery was hereditary, as well as a
form of legal punishment. There was a slave class with both
government and privately owned slaves, and the government
occasionally gave slaves to citizens of higher rank. Privately
owned slaves could be inherited as personal property. During poor
harvests and famine, many peasants would
voluntarily become slaves in order to survive. In the case of
private slaves they could buy their freedom.

Southeast Asia

There
was a large slave class in Khmer Empire
who built the enduring monuments in Angkor Wat and did most of the heavy work. Slaves had
been taken captive from the mountain tribes. People unable to pay
back a debt to the upper ruling class
could be sentenced to work as a slave too. Between the 17th and
the early 20th centuries one-quarter to one-third of the population
of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves.

In
Siam (Thailand),
the war captives became the property of the
king. During the reign of Rama III
(1824-1851), there were an estimated 46,000 war slaves. Slaves from
independent hill populations were "hunted incessantly and
carried off as slaves by the Siamese, the Anamites, and the
Cambodians" (Colquhoun 1885:53). Slavery was not abolished in
Siam until 1905.

Yi people in Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery.
People were split into the Black Yi (nobles, 7% of the population),
White Yi (commoners), Ajia (33% of the Yi population) and the Xiaxi
(10%). Ajia and Xiaxi were slave castes. The White Yi were not
slaves but had no freedom of movement. The Black Yi were famous for
their slave-raids on Han Chinese
communities. After the 1959 some 700,000 slaves were freed.

Slaves
in Toraja society in Indonesia were family property. Sometimes Torajans
decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to
work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave
trading was common. Torajan slaves were sold and shipped out to
Java and
Siam.
Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited
slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold,
carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners,
or having sex with free women—a crime punishable by death. Slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch
East Indies government.

Modern times

There are currently an estimated 300,000 women and children
involved in the sex trade throughout Southeast Asia. It is common that
Thai women are
lured to Japan and sold to Yakuza-controlled
brothels where they are forced to work off their
price.

According to the International Labor
Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000people are subject
to forced labor in Myanmar.In November 2006, the International Labor
Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecute members of
the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the
continuous forced labor of its citizens by the military at the
International Court of
Justice.

Central Asia and the Caucasus

Russian
conquest of the Caucasus led to the
abolition of slavery by the 1860s and the conquest of the Central Asian Islamic khanates of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva by the 1870s. The Russian administration
liberated the slaves of the Kazakhs in 1859.
A
notorious slave market for captured Russian
and Persian slaves was centred in the
Khanate
of Khiva from the 17th to the 19th century. During
the first half of the 19th century alone, some one million
Persians, as well as an unknown number of Russians, were enslaved
and transported to Central Asian khanates. When the Russian troops
took Khiva in 1873 there were 29,300 Persian slaves, captured by
Turkoman raiders. According of Josef
Wolff (Report of 1843-1845) the population of the Khanate of
Bukhara was one million two hundred thousand, of whom 200,000 were
Persian slaves. At the beginning of the 21st century Chechens and Ingush kept Russian captives as slaves or in
slave-like conditions in the mountains of the northern Caucasus.

Oceania

In the first half of the nineteenth century, small-scale slave
raids took place across Polynesia to
supply labor and sex workers for the whaling
and sealing trades, with examples from
both the westerly and easterly extremes of the Polynesian triangle.By the 1860s this
had grown to a larger scale operation with Peruvian slave raids in the South Sea Islands to collect labor for the
guano industry.

Hawaii

Ancient Hawaii was a caste society. People were born into specific social
classes. Kauwa were the outcast or slave class.
They are believed to have been war captives, or the descendents of
war captives. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwa was
strictly forbidden. The kauwa worked for the chiefs and were often
used as human sacrifices at the
luakini heiau. (They were not the
only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political
opponents were also acceptable as victims.)

New Zealand

In traditional Māori society of Aotearoa, prisoners of
war became taurekareka, slaves, unless released,
ransomed or tortured. With some exceptions, the child of a slave
remained a slave. As far as it is possible to tell, slavery seems
to have increased in the early nineteenth century, as a result of
increased numbers of prisoners being taken by Māori military
leaders such as Hongi Hika and Te Rauparaha in the Musket Wars, the need for labor to supply
whalers and traders with food, flax and timber in return for
western goods, and the missionary condemnation of cannibalism. Slavery was outlawed when the
British annexed New Zealand in 1840, immediately prior to the
signing of the Treaty of
Waitangi, although it did not end completely until government
was effectively extended over the whole of the country with the
defeat of the Kingi
movement in the Wars of the mid
1860s.

Chatham Islands

One
group of Polynesians who migrated to the
Chatham
Islands became the Moriori who
developed a largely pacifist culture. It was originally
speculated that they settled the Chathams direct from Polynesia,
but it is now widely believed they were disaffected Māori who
emigrated from the South Island of New Zealand. Their pacifism left
the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were
invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s. Some 300 Moriori men, women
and children were massacred and the remaining 1,200 to 1,300
survivors were enslaved.

Rapa Nui / Easter Island

The
isolated island of Rapa
Nui/Easter
Island was inhabited by the Rapanui, who suffered a series of slave raids from
1805 or earlier, culminating in a near genocidal experience in the 1860s. The 1805
raid was by American sealers and was one of a series that changed
the attitude of the islanders to outside visitors, with reports in
the 1820s and 1830s that all visitors received a hostile reception.
In
December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders took between 1,400 and 2,000
islanders back to Peru to work in the guano
industry; this was about a third of the island's population and
included much of the island's leadership, the last
ariki-mau and possibly the last who could read Rongorongo.After intervention
by the French ambassador in Lima, the last
15 survivors were returned to the island, but brought with them
smallpox, which further devastated the
island.

Abolitionist movements

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout the whole
of human history. So, too, have movements to free large or distinct
groups of slaves. Moses led Israelite slaves
from ancient Egypt according to the
BiblicalBook of
Exodus - possibly the first account of a movement to free
slaves. {Exodus 5-20} However, abolitionism should be distinguished from
efforts to help a particular group of slaves, or to restrict one
practice, such as the slave trade.

Following the work of campaigners in the
United Kingdom, such as William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson,
the Act for the Abolition of the Slave
Trade was passed by Parliament on 25 March 1807, coming into effect the following
year. The act imposed a fine of £100 for every slave found
aboard a British ship. The intention was to outlaw entirely the
Atlantic slave trade within the
whole British Empire.

The significance of the abolition of the British slave trade lay in
the number of people hitherto sold and carried by British slave
vessels. Britain shipped 2,532,300 Africans across the Atlantic,
equalling 41% of the total transport of 6,132,900 individuals. This
made the British empire the biggest slave-trade contribiuter in the
world due to the magnitude of the empire. A fact that made the
abolition act all the more damaging to the global trade of
slaves.

The Slavery Abolition Act,
passed on 23 August 1833, outlawed slavery itself in the British
colonies. On 1 August 1834 all slaves in the British West Indies,
were emancipated, but still indentured to their former owners in an
apprenticeship system. The intention of, was to educate former
slaves to a trade but instead allowed slave owners to maintain
ownership illegally. The act was finally repealed in 1838.

Britain abolished slavery in both Hindu and
Muslim India by the Indian Slavery
Act V. of 1843.

Domestic
slavery practised by the educated African coastal elites (as well
as interior traditional rulers) in Sierra Leone was abolished in 1928. A study found
practices of domestic slavery still widespread in rural areas in
the 1970s.

France

There were slaves in mainland France (especially in trade ports
such as Nantes or Bordeaux)., but the institution was never
officially authorized there. However, slavery was of vital importance in
France's Caribbean possessions, especially Saint-Domingue. In 1793, influenced by
the french Declaration
of the Rights of Man of August 1789 and unable to repress the
massive slave revolt of August 1791 that had become the Haitian Revolution, the French
Revolutionary commissioners Sonthonax and
Polverel declared general emancipation. In
Paris, on 4 February 1794, Abbé
Grégoire and the Convention ratified this
action by officially abolishing slavery in all French territories
outside mainland France, freeing all the slaves both for moral and
security reasons.

Napoleon sent troops to the Caribbean in
1802 to try to re-establish slavery due to the economic stress
France was suffering while fighting all over Europe. They succeeded in
Guadeloupe, but the ex-slaves of Saint-Domingue defeated the
French corps that was sent and declared independence. This
colony became Haiti, the first black republic, on 1 January 1804,
with at its head the leader of the revolt,Toussaint Louverture.

United States

In 1688,
four German Quakers in Germantown, a small village outside Philadelphia, wrote and presented a protest
against the institution of slavery to their local Quaker
Meeting. The Meeting did not know what to do and passed the
petition up the chain of authority, where it continued to be
ignored and was archived and forgotten for 150 years. In 1844 it
was rediscovered and became a focus of the abolitionist movement. The 1688
Petition was the first American public document of its kind to
protest slavery, and in addition was one of the first public
documents to define universal human
rights.

The
British designated Sierra
Leone in Africa as a destination country for former
slaves of the British Empire, and some Americans hoped to send
freed American slaves to Liberia in a similar kind of "repatriation".

While abolitionists agreed on the evils of slavery, there were
differing opinions on what should happen after African Americans
were freed. Some abolitionists, worried about the difficulties of
integrating numerous uneducated people into a hostile environment,
hoped to send freed people to Africa. By the time of Emancipation,
most African-Americans were now native to the United States and did
not want to leave. They believed that their labor had made the land
theirs as well as that of the whites; trade
unions feared competition in supplying an affordable labor
force against former slaves. Most freed people stayed in the United
States by choice.

Congress of Vienna

The Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave
Trade, of 8th of February 1815 (Which also formed ACT, No. XV.
of the Final Act
of the Congress of Vienna of the
same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the
"principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification
for ending a trade that was "odious in its continuance".

References

Ben Kiernan "Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and
Extermination from Sparta to Darfur", Yale University Press, 2007,
ISBN 0300100981, 9780300100983, Pages 65-68

Léonie J. Archer (1988). "Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree
Labour: And Other Forms of Unfree Labour." History Workshop Centre
for Social History (Oxford, England), Published by Routledge, ISBN
0415002036, 9780415002035, Page 28

John Andrew, The Hanging of Arthur Hodge[1], Xlibris, 2000, ISBN 0-7388-1930-1. The assertion is
probably correct; there appear to be no other records of any
British slave owners being executed for holding slaves, and, given
the excitement which the Hodge trial excited, it seems improbable
that another execution could have occurred without attracting
attention. Slavery itself as an institution in the British West
Indies only continued for another 23 years after Hodge's
death.

Vernon Pickering, A Concise History of the British Virgin
Islands, ISBN 0934139059, page 48

Zhifen Ju, "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing
North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War",
Joint study of the Sino-Japanese war, 2002,
http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/minutes_2002.htm