THE 1970S -WINDS OF CHANGE

DECOLONIZATION

The decolonization of Africa was described in the 1960s by the former British
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan as the 'winds of change'. Decolonization of
the region began in 1957, with the independence of Ghana. It gathered momentum
through the 1960s and beyond, to 1994 and the eradication of apartheid in South
Africa.

The momentum which fanned African nationalism strengthened relations between
former colonies, leading to stronger voices in favour of pan-Africanism. In
1963, the founding fathers of African independence established the OAU, whose
main objectives were to:

promote the unity and solidarity of African states;

coordinate and intensify cooperation and efforts among African states, in
order to achieve a better life for the people; and

defend the sovereignty of African states, their territorial integrity and
their independence.

In many instances, independence did not mean political stability. Many countries
which gained independence in the late 1950s and the 1960s-such as Chad, Congo,
Ghana, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda, Somalia and Sudan-underwent phases
of political instability which, in some cases, have continued up to the present.
Major developments which took place in the 1970s, and which have influenced
policies in Africa, are listed in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Major developments which shaped policies in
Africa in the 1970s

Year

Developments

1971

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially
as Waterfowl Habitat is adopted in Ramsar, Iran

1972

The UN Conference on the Human Environment is held in Stockholm,
Sweden

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is established,
with its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage is adopted in Paris, France

The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and other Substances is adopted in London, United Kingdom,
and Mexico City, Mexico

1973

The 'oil weapon' is first used on the world oil market by the
Arab oil exporting countries. This has a devastating impact, especially
on the economies of developing countries, including those of Africa

The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is adopted in Washington, D.C.,
USA

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships is adopted in London, United Kingdom

1975

Mozambique becomes an independent state on 25 June, followed
by Seychelles on 29 June and by Angola on 11 November

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat enters into force

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage enters into force

The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Substances enters into force

1976

The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile
Use of Environmental Modification Techniques

1977

The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile
Use of Environmental Modification Techniques is opened for signature
in Geneva, Switzerland in May

1978

The Protocol relating to the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships modifying provisions, adopted
in 1973, is adopted in London, United Kingdom

The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile
Use of Environmental Modification Techniques enters into force

1979

Protracted negotiations are held at Lancaster House between
the British government and the Patriotic Front. The talks led
to the independence of Zimbabwe in the following year

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals is adopted in Bonn, Germany in June

Sources: SADC/IUCN/SARDC (1998) and UNEP/Sida (undated)

The Cold War is arguably one of the major events that had the greatest impact
on Africa, in terms of its socio-economic alliances and development. Environmental
management was generally not considered paramount during that period as it is
today, even though Africa has a long track record in terms of the sustainable
use of natural resources. The two dominant development paradigms during the
Cold War were capitalism and socialism. This sometimes led to tensions between
African countries, often resulting in armed conflict between them and civil
war in others. Armed conflict led to a refugee problem, which saw the number
of refugees grow from a low figure of 23 500 people at the end of the 1950s
to a high of about 50 million refugees at the end of the 1990s (UNHCR 2000).
Political unrest and the resultant refugee situation in many parts of Africa
during the past decades have led to many problems, including:

deforestation, resulting from massive land clearance for agriculture and
fuelwood;