Especially in the Magistrates' Court of Victoria there are many lesser crimes dealt with, known also as summary offences, which have legal source in Victoria statutes such as the Road Safety Act and the Summary Offences Act or in Commonwealth statutes. Likewise dealt with are summary offences having legal source in government regulations or local government area laws made under the authority of statute ("delegated legislation") with form resembling crimes but of minor nature with offenders not regarded as criminal, for example the Road Safety Road Rules, the Occupational Health and Safety Regulations or various local laws of for example the City of Melbourne or the City of Yarra. These sometimes are called regulatory offences.

The meaning of the Victoria statutory provisions is at points further provided by Interpretation of Legislation Act. In many instances the meaning has been explained by courts in reasons for deciding cases with those from the High Court of Australia and the Victoria Court of Appeal especially influential. There are various principles of statutory interpretation which sometimes assist. One is the presumption that in a statutory offence, guilty mind (mens rea) is an element, see further below. Another is that where the ordinary rules of statutory interpretation yield ambiguity or doubt, the resolution is to be by strict construction in favour of the subject: R v Roussety [2008] VSCA 259, (2008) 24 VR 253. Another is "legality", an evolving principle of statutory interpretation preserving the scope of application of fundamental rights and freedoms: Brown v Tasmania [2017] HCA 43; R v Lee [2017] VSC 678 (sentencing provisions); Bagaric, Mirko; Alexander, Theo "Addressing the Curious Blackspot..." [2015] MonashULawRw 19.

The Victoria Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 includes many provisions applicable to criminal law and process, also to penal institutions. Some of the matters it refers to are alternatively established by other statutes or common law. The raising of a Charter issue requires the notification, and the possible involvement, of additional entities including the Attorney-General. On effect of the Charter see Momcilovic v R [2011] HCA 34, (2011) 245 CLR 1. For illustration of Charter relevance to penal institution arrangements, see Certain Children v Minister (No 2) [2017] VSC 251 (found breaches of human right to humane treatment when deprived of liberty and child's human right to protection as in best interests); Minister v Certain Children [2016] VSCA 343 (found decision-maker's failure to consider whether certain human rights not breached). For illustration of Charter potential relevance to criminal pre-trial process see Baker (a Pseudonym) v DPP [2017] VSCA 58. See also Victim's Charter Act 2006.

For some crimes having source in legislation of the Parliament of Australia, jurisdiction instead has been legislated to the Federal Court of Australia, such as with crimes under the Competition and Consumer Act.

The capacity of the Parliament of Australia or of that of any State or Territory to make valid criminal or other laws is restricted by for instance the impermissibility of burdening the implied freedom of political communication provided by Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act: Brown v Tasmania [2017] HCA 43.

In some instances the alleged crimes dealt with in the higher courts have legal source, at least partly, in the common law, that is in learning developed and maintained in the reasons for decision of the higher courts in so far as not superseded by legislation.

AustLII (Australian Legal Information Institute) is an immense free internet library containing Commonwealth and State laws and regulations, cases (reasons for decision) especially of the higher courts, and other legal materials.

> Defining a crime

version 19 October 2018

All offences, whether crimes or quasi-crimes, are defined with fairly precise elements. Some elements concern a described act or omission and often a described consequence caused by that act or omission. Courts and writers on law call these "actus reus" elements. Many offences, especially more serious crimes, are defined in addition with guilty mind elements such as some intention, knowledge or recklessness. Courts and writers on law call these "mens rea" elements. There is as a matter of interpretation of uncertain statutory provisions, a presumption that mens rea is required: He Kaw Teh v R[1985] HCA 43, (1985) 157 CLR 523.

Though usually not made express, most offences require as an element that there be voluntariness, that is that the act or omission be conscious, voluntary and deliberate; it cannot be an unwilled act, that is to say not for example accident or under sane automatism, such as raised for consideration by the defence cases in Farquharson v R [2012] VSCA 296, (2012) 36 VR 53 and MG v R [2010] VSCA 97. (A claim of insane automatism raises a different issue, namely the limited defence of mental impairment, see below this page). The actus reus - mens rea dichotomy applies uneasily to voluntariness. It is regarded as part of the actus reus though the deliberateness, which is a necessary component of it, is regarded as going to mens rea, see below.

Intention where a required mens rea element ordinarily is "general" or "basic" intent i.e. the deliberateness which is a component of voluntariness (see above) and where the definition of the particular offence requires it, specific intent i.e. an intent to cause the result required by the definition. With offences defined to require harm to a person, the required mental element normally is to harm anyone: it is immaterial that the actual victim is a mistaken one (the "doctrine of transferred malice"; R v Pham [2005] VSCA 57; R v Bacash [1981] VicRp 86, [1981] VR 92) or that there is no particular victim in view.

Time and date ordinarily are not elements of an offence: R v RHMcl[1998] VSCA 61, [1999] 1 VR 746;R v Tieman [1908] VicLawRp 2, [1908] VLR 4. They can though be crucial to factual contest or for other reasons.

Attempted proof is by evidence comprised mainly of witness testimony or exhibits. Evidence is subject to many rules before it is admissible into a case, also to judicial discretions. Much of the Victoria evidence law is in Evidence Act and Evidence (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act.

Specificity and particularity

Proof of an alleged crime against an accused must be proof of one specific instance of it; occasionally in this context problems of duplicity can arise: see below this page.

Particulars of a specific crime must be provided by prosecution: Criminal Procedure Act s.6(3), 159(3) and Schedule 1 Rules. A defendant is entitled to be told of the particular act, matter or thing alleged as the foundation of a charge; the rationale lies in the necessity of informing the court of the identity of the offence with which it is required to deal and in providing the accused with the substance of the charge which he or she is called upon to meet; the requirement is that a charge must at the least identify the essential factual ingredients of the offence: Kirk v IRC [2010] HCA 1, (2010) 239 CLR 531. For trial, at least to considerable extent, particularisation is by means of a written prosecution opening which must be provided in advance and the prosecution if intending to depart substantially at trial from a matter set out in a document served and filed by that party must so inform the court and the other party in advance of the trial: Criminal Procedure Act ss.182, 184; R v Irvine [2009] VSCA 239. For trial or summary hearing a defendant on request is entitled to whatever further particulars are reasonably required to make defence: R v ACR Roofing [2004] VSCA 215, (2004) 11 VR 187; R v Australian Char[1995] VICSC 168, [1999] 3 VR 834. Whether prosecution is confined to further particulars is matter for judicial discretion: DPP Ref No 1[1992] VicRp 71, [1992] 2 VR 405. There is an obligation to give early notice of issues of this kind: .Downer EDI Works Pty Ltd v R [2017] VSCA 27, Criminal Procedure Act 10.

Burden of proof

Generally, the burden of proof of guilt is on prosecution, there being a presumption of innocence: Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act s.25(1); X7 v Australian Crime Commission [2013] HCA 29, (2013) 248 CLR 92; Milkins v R [2011] VSCA 93, sometimes, together with the standard of proof (below), called "the golden thread" following UK House of Lords case Woolmington v DPP [1935] UKHL 1, [1935] AC 462. This is to prove sufficient facts to make out against the accused each of the legal elements of the crime as defined. If the prosecution fails to satisfy the jury (or other tribunal of fact) of any legal element of an offence, then the prosecution fails and the result is verdict of not guilty (if jury) or dismissal. There is a famous representation from popular entertainment: youtube Rumpole - The Golden Thread (video).

In Woolmington, the reason given for the principle was its very long historical acceptance in England (a partial exception with some support was rejected as recent error). The deeper reason typically given is its safeguarding tendency against the wrongful finding of guilt and its consequences; it is the "jealous protection of liberty from which the golden thread is spun": Thompson v R[1989] HCA 30, (1989) 169 CLR 1 (per Brennan J).

Some statutory offences are defined with an extent of reversed legal burden of proof sometimes called reverse legal onus which requires the defence to prove some defensive part of the alleged offence if the defence is to succeed: Braysich v R [2011] HCA 14, (2011) 243 CLR 434.

Some statutory offences are defined with an extent of reversed evidential burden of proof sometimes called reverse evidential onus which requires the defence to point to some evidence which justifies raising the defence as an issue: R v Khazaal [2012] HCA 26, (2012) 246 CLR 601; R v DG[2010] VSCA 173.

Standard of proof

The standard of proof upon the prosecution is to prove the elements of the offence beyond reasonable doubt. Unless an enactment otherwise provides, the only matters that the trial judge may direct the jury must be proved beyond reasonable doubt are - (a) the elements of the offence charged or an alternative offence; and (b) the absence of any relevant defence: Jury Directions Act s.61. The trial judge may relate the evidence in the trial to directions under section 61 in many different ways: see Notes to s.61.

It is generally speaking unwise for a trial judge to attempt any explication of the concept of reasonable doubt beyond observing that the expression means what it says and that it is for the jury to decide whether they are left with a reasonable doubt (and in certain circumstances explaining that a reasonable doubt does not include fanciful possibilities) and contrasting the standard of proof beyond reasonable doubt with the lower civil standard of proof on the balance of probabilities: R v Dookheea [2017] HCA 36; Hanlon v R [2018] VSCA 81. Jury Directions Act s.63 provides that without limiting any other power of a trial judge to give the jury an explanation of the phrase 'proof beyond reasonable doubt', a trial judge may give the jury an explanation of the phrase if the jury asks the trial judge (a) a direct question about the meaning of the phrase; or (b) a question that indirectly raises the meaning of the phrase. For how explanation may be given in response to jury question: s.64. The rule is embodied to confined extent by Evidence Act s.141 and s.8.

Where there are competing versions of events between prosecution and defence witnesses, it follows proof of guilt is not merely a choice between versions, and often it will be necessary to direct a jury on this point: Liberato v R[1985] HCA 66; (1985) 159 CLR 507; Raimondi v R [2013] VSCA 194; AE v R [2011] VSCA 168.

With reversed legal burden of proof, usually the standard is balance of probabilities.

Wilful blindness occasionally is a relevant consideration as means of proving intention or knowledge: He Kaw Teh v R[1985] HCA 43, (1985) 157 CLR 523; R v Crabbe[1985] HCA 22,(1985) 156 CLR 464. This will be in very few cases: it must be very clear that it is an appropriate direction to give a jury in the circumstances of the trial: R v Garlick (No 2) [2007] VSCA 23, (2007) 15 VR 388.

Presumption of regularity

Impagnatiello v Campbell[2003] VSCA 154. Acting in a public office is evidence of due appointment to that office, not only in civil proceedings, but also in a criminal case: Cassell v R [2000] HCA 8, (2000) 201 CLR 189; Yamasa Seafood v Watkins[2000] VSC 156. It seems the presumption can fill gaps in proof but not of itself bestow a power though the "doctrine of the validity of the acts of de facto public officials" in some circumstances can do so: United Transport v Evans[1992] VicRp 14, [1992] VR 240.

> Duplicity

version 14 September 2018

On a contest, unless a there is a course of conduct charge (see further below), it is the defect of duplicity for a charge to allege more than one occurrence of an offence. The rule against duplicity rests on various considerations. Some are to do with the orderly administration of criminal justice: a court must know what charge it is entertaining in order to ensure that evidence is properly admitted, and in order to instruct the jury properly as to the law to be applied; in the event of conviction, a court must know the offence for which the defendant is to be punished; and the record must show of what offence a person has been acquitted or convicted in order for that person to avail himself or herself, if the need should arise, of a plea of autrefois acquit or autrefois convict. The rule also rests upon a basic consideration of fairness, namely, that an accused should know what case he or she has to meet. See S v R [1989] HCA 26, (1989) 168 CLR 266, especially per Gaudron and McHugh JJ. Another consideration is avoidance of the risk that individual jurors identify different occasions as constituting an offence so that there is no unanimity in verdict: S v R, per Dawson J.

The duplicity may be overt, that is to be seen from the words of the charge: Walsh v Tattersall [1996] HCA 26, (1996) 188 CLR 77; Rixon v Thompson [2009] VSCA 84, (2009) 22 VR 323; Chugg v Pacific Dunlop Ltd[1988] VicRp 49, [1988] VR 411. There is no overt duplicity where a charge relies on a definition establishing that a crime is able to be committed in alternative forms, for instance the provisions as interpreted in Hedberg v Woodhall[1913] HCA 2, (1913) 15 CLR 531 and R v Ginies[1972] VicRp 43, [1972] VR 394. Whether with such an offence a jury must be directed of the need for unanimity on one form may lack universal answer: Wells v R (No 2) [2010] VSCA 294 (yes for culpable driving); Zandipour v R [2017] VSCA 179, (2017) 53 VR 256 (footnotes some uncertainty whether for handling stolen goods). In determining whether a statutory provision creates a single offence in the alternative, or separate offences, it is a guide towards the latter if separate penalties are provided: R v His Honour Judge Hassett[1994] VicSC 765, (1994) 76 A Crim R 1. There is no overt duplicity where the facts for an essential ingredient of a crime are particularised on the charge in multiplicity, but a jury must be directed of the need for unanimity on one proof: Magnus v R[2013] VSCA 163; R v Walsh[2002] VSCA 98.

The duplicity may be latent, that is, seen only by reference to the alleged facts; sometimes the terminology is "concealed" instead of "latent". It occurs where alleged facts supporting the charge have more than one specific occurrence of the offence alleged in the count: S v R [1989] HCA 66, (1989) 168 CLR 266; Johnson v Miller[1937] HCA 77, (1937) 59 CLR 467; R v Rigoli [2006] VSCA 1; R v Suckling[1998] VSCA 60; R v Trotter[1982] VicSC 160, (1982) 7 A Crim R 8. Sometimes it is called the defect of uncertainty. It is not latent duplicity to allege as a single offence activity comprised of multiple acts being part of a single transaction e.g. the violent activity in Zandipour v R [2017] VSCA 179, (2017) 53 VR 256, R v Heaney [2009] VSCA 74, (2009) 22 VR 164, and R v Goldman[2007] VSCA 25, or the sexual activity in PDI v R[2011] VSCA 446 and R v Yankovski [2007] VSCA 259, (2007) 17 VR 315. It is not latent duplicity to allege a single offence where the offence definition extends to continuing offending being acts on separate occasions e.g. the drug trafficking provisions in R v McCulloch[2009] VSCA 34, (2009) 21 VR 340; R v Komljenovic [2006] VSCA 136 and R v Giretti[1986] VicSC 484, (1986) 24 A Crim R 112. There is no latent duplicity where the proof of an essential ingredient of the crime charged is put on alternative facts, but a jury must be directed of the need for unanimity on one proof: R v Klamo [2008] VSCA 75, (2008) 18 VR 644; .

Duplicity at trial is overcome if the prosecution makes an election: Johnson v Miller[1937] HCA 77, (1937) 59 CLR 467; Rixon v Thompson [2009] VSCA 84. This requires identifying the specific alleged occurrence of the offence which is relied upon. With latent duplicity, the election must identify the occasion, transaction or occurrence to which the charge refers and distinguish it from other like occasions, transactions or occurrences indifferently answering the description contained in the complaint: Johnson v Miller per Dixon J; DPP v Judge Lewis [1997] 1 VR 39 (tie the evidence to one of the instances and make it incapable of equal application to each of the other instances). The technique of nominating a "first occasion" will overcome the difficulties identified in S v R provided that it would not prevent fair trial and there is some way that the specific act that constitutes the offence alleged in the charge can be identified and distinguished from all other similar conduct; if the existence of the first occasion within the dates specified is notional rather than evidence based, then the prosecution will have failed to distinguish between the act it set out to prove and the uncharged acts of the same nature and latent duplicity will not have been avoided; this does not mean that some distinguishing feature is required additional to evidence that establishes that the act constituting the offence charged was the first occasion on which such conduct occurred: JRW v R [2013] VSCA 255; Veysey v R[2011] VSCA 309; TC v R[2011] VSCA 190; PPP v R [2010] VSCA 110; R v Osborne [2009] VSCA 88; R v DWB [2008] VSCA 223, (2008) 20 VR 112.

The remedy for refusal or failure to elect a specific offence depends on the circumstances. It may include stay of charge for abuse of process, quashing of count, exclusion of evidence, directed acquittal, discharge of jury or on appeal, quashing of conviction. Where there is latent ambiguity, entitlement to remedy requires showing also some real prejudice or unfairness to the accused: PPP v R [2010] VSCA 110; R v NVD [2007] VSCA 230, (2007) 177 A Crim R 108.

On a plea of guilty, a duplicitous charge is permitted; the practice is known as a rolled up or lumped count: Bellizia v R [2016] VSCA 21; DPP v Coates Hire Operations Pty Ltd [2012] VSCA 131. See also provisions for course of conduct charge:

"Duplicity" is sometimes used in another sense namely when a charge has another charge duplicating it. In R v Warburton [2006] VSC 446, an issue arose in advance of jury trial whether counts were "duplicitous" in this sense (and held on review not so). Issues of this kind at trial really are ones of forestalling or dealing with double jeopardy, or on appeal, of unsafeness.

> Identification

version 5 March 2018

Identification evidence by Evidence Act Dictionary means evidence that is - (a) an assertion by a person to the effect that an accused was, or resembles (visually, aurally or otherwise) a person who was, present at or near a place where - (i) the offence for which the accused is being prosecuted was committed; or (ii) an act connected to that offence was done - at or about the time at which the offence was committed or the act was done, being an assertion that is based wholly or partly on what the person making the assertion saw, heard or otherwise perceived at that place and time; or (b) a report (whether oral or in writing) of such an assertion.

Visual identification evidence adduced by the prosecutor is not admissible unless - (a) an identification parade that included the defendant was held before the identification was made; or (b) it would not have been reasonable to have held such a parade; or (c) the defendant refused to take part in such a parade - and the identification was made without the person who made it having been intentionally influenced to identify the defendant: Evidence Act s.114. In s.114, visual identification evidence means identification evidence relating to an identification based wholly or partly on what a person saw but does not include picture identification evidence. The section elucidates the matters that may be taken into account by the court in determining whether it was reasonable to hold an identification parade in determining whether it was reasonable to hold an identification parade. For s.114 to apply, it is necessary that the person testifying as to the description asserts some resemblance between the person described and the accused: DPP v Bass (a Pseudonym) [2016] VSCA 110.

There is no compulsion that an accused participate in an identification parade, but refusal is usually to go to jury, being explanation for lack of parade: R v Davies [2005] VSCA 90, (2005) 11 VR 314.

A person involved in commission of offence is taken to have committed the offence; a person is not taken to have committed an offence if the person withdraws from the offence: Crimes Act s.324. The term which the Criminal Charge Book (Victoria) has adopted for this is "statutory complicity".

A person is involved in the commission of an offence if the person (a) intentionally assists, encourages or directs the commission of the offence; or (b) intentionally assists, encourages or directs the commission of another offence where the person was aware that it was probable that the offence charged would be committed in the course of carrying out the other offence; or (c) enters into an agreement, arrangement or understanding with another person to commit the offence; or (d) enters into an agreement, arrangement or understanding with another person to commit another offence where the person was aware that it was probable that the offence charged would be committed in the course of carrying out the other offence: Crimes Act s.323.

There is a Supreme Court trial ruling that para (c) does not require presence as an extra element but does so require "participation": R v Semaan (Trial Ruling 7) [2016] VSC 170. On withdrawal from the offence, a Note to s.324 refers to common law, for example White v Ridley[1978] HCA 38; (1978) 140 CLR 342; R v Tietie, Tulele and Bolamatu (1988) 34 A Crim R 438; R v Jensen and Ward[1980] VicRp 24; [1980] VR 194. Other offenders need not be prosecuted or found guilty: Crimes Act s.324A. Offenders role need not be determined: Crimes Act s.324B.

Persons involved in commission of an offence by operation of s.324 are still sometimes said to be in joint criminal enterprise though this is to use terminology of abolished common law: Crimes Act s.324C. Various other terms from former law might also still be encountered in loose usage such as accomplice and action in concert.

Accessories

An accessory is a person who, where a principal offender has committed a serious indictable offence, knowing or believing the principal offender to be guilty of the principal offence or some other serious indictable offence, without lawful authority or reasonable excuse does any act with the purpose of impeding the apprehension, prosecution, conviction or punishment of the principal offender: Crimes Act s.325; R v Saad [2005] VSCA 249, (2005) 156 A Crim R 533. A principal offender and an accessory are viewed by s.325 as committing separate offences. There is an exception mainly concerning married person and spouse: Crimes Act s.328.

It has been said there may be an alternative basis of a corporation's criminal liability, namely, as an aider, abettor, counsellor or procurer of the offence committed by the human principal offender: EPA v Caltex Refining [1993] HCA 74, (1993) CLR 477 per Mason CJ and Toohey J citing earlier authority. In Victoria today, any comparable basis would be through resort to Crimes Act ss.323-325, above.

> Criminal defence

version 12 November 2018

It follows from the general principles of proof outlined above that defence of criminal allegation typically involves propounding that one or more of the legal elements of the alleged crime is not proved beyond reasonable doubt against the accused. The crucial preliminary step is to find and study the precise legal elements of the crime charged. Often defence of criminal allegation also involves propounding that one of the legal elements of the alleged crime is false in fact, but logically it is not necessary to go to this extent. With an element where the attempted proof is by circumstantial evidence, defence of criminal allegation typically involves propounding that there is at least one reasonable infererence (or "hypothesis") consistent with innocence. Often this also involves propounding an actual explanation of innocence, but logically it is not necessary to go to this extent.

It is a defence that the identification of the accused as the person who apparently committed a crime is not proved beyond reasonable doubt against the accused. Often defence of criminal allegation also involves propounding that the accused was not the person who apparently committed a crime, but logically it is not necessary to go to this extent.

In a case of alleged involvement or being accessory, it is defence that it is not proved beyond reasonable doubt.

There is a defence of reasonable self-defence, requiring disproof by the prosecution: Crimes Act s.322K. The circumstances in which a person may carry out conduct in reasonable self-defence include the defence of the person or another person; the prevention or termination of the unlawful deprivation of the liberty of the person or another person; and the protection of property: Notes to s.322K. The defence does not apply to a response to lawful conduct: s.322L. Part of the definition of self-defence is that the person carrying out the conduct believes it is necessary in self-defence. A further part of the definition is that the conduct is a reasonable response in the circumstances as the person perceives them. In the case of murder, by s.322K the belief must be that the threat is to inflict death or really serious injury.

There is a defence of duress, requiring disproof by the prosecution: Crimes Act s.322O. Part of the definition of the defence of duress is that the person reasonably believes that (i) a threat of harm has been made that will be carried out unless an offence is committed; and (ii) carrying out the conduct is the only reasonable way that the threatened harm can be avoided. By Parker (a Pseudonym) v R [2016] VSCA 101, (though primarily concerned with an earlier duress provision) the reasonableness of the belief refers to a reasonable person possessing the personal characteristics of the accused that might have affected the accused’s appreciation of the circumstances. A further part of the definition is that the conduct is a reasonable response to the threat. By Parker this reasonableness refers to the circumstances as a reasonable person, possessing the personal characteristics of the accused, would have perceived them to be. By s.322O, in the case of murder the belief must be that the threat is to inflict death or really serious injury.

With the defences of reasonable self-defence and duress there are provisions concerning family violence. As to evidence of family violence and its relevance to belief and reasonableness: Crimes Act s.322J, s.322M and s.322P. As to jury directions in such cases: Jury Directions Act ss.55-60.

There is a defence of sudden or extraordinary emergency, requiring disproof by the prosecution: Crimes Act s.322R; Loung v DPP (Cth) [2013] VSCA 296 on a similar defence to Commonwealth offences by Criminal Code 10.3, claim by accused that participation in attempted drug offence was immediate and in fear of being killed by others; Stevens v R [2005] HCA 65, (2005) 227 CLR 319 on a similar defence under Queensland law, claim by accused that act causing death was attempted prevention of suicide (raising also issue of lack of intent). By s.322R, in the case of murder (in addition to other belief elements) there must be belief that the threat is to inflict death or really serious injury.

See further as to considerations of belief and reasonableness and, in the context, significance of intoxication: Crimes Act s.322T.

There is a defence of reasonable crime prevention or arrest, requiring disproof by the prosecution. It applies to using such force not disproportionate to the objective as believed on reasonable grounds to be necessary to prevent the commission, continuance or completion of an indictable offence or to effect or assist in effecting the lawful arrest of a person committing or suspected of committing any offence: Crimes Act s.462A; obliquely mentioned in R v Smith [1995] VicRp 2, (1995) 1 VR 310. A recent development in Victoria legislation is to provide examples. In 2018 one provided to Crimes Act s.462A is that of a police officer or protective services officer who uses lethal force on a person to prevent that person from committing an indictable offence that involves causing really serious injury or death because the officer believes on reasonable grounds that it is necessary to use that force for that purpose. The police officer or protective services officer may do so before that offence is committed.

Except for treason or murder, there is for a woman a defence of marital coercion, requiring disproof by the prosecution: Crimes Act s.336; R v G.J. Williams Court of Appeal (Vic) 16 October 1997.

With crimes against the person, consent is a common law defence in some circumstances which the law has guarded carefully, including proper medical, sporting and exhibition, also sado-masochistic sexual activity short of infliction of significant physical injury, and requiring prosecution proof of lack of consent: Reeves v R [2013] HCA 57, (2013) 88 ALJR 215; Neal v R [2011] VSCA 172; R v Stein [2007] VSCA 300 (being manslaughter case, went to issue of unlawfulness); Pallante v Stadiums Pty Ltd (No 1) [1976] VicRp 29, [1976] VR 331 (civil case also referring to crime). The sexual crimes against the person which have lack of consent as an element have their own definitional provisions.

There is a defence of mental impairment, see section below.

Diplomatic immunity may be conceptually distinct but is for practical purposes like a defence. It is rare for any such claims to reach the higher criminal courts though e.g. unsuccessful claims in Von Arnim [1999] HCATrans 160 (mentions County Court presentment); Von Arnim [1999] FCA 1747 (re extradition). The immunities and privileges for diplomatic agents and family members stated by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations are made Australian law by Commonwealth law Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act. They are set out in the Schedule to the Act and include, subject to waiver, such as these. Article 29: The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. He shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. The receiving State shall treat him with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity…Article 31: 1. A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State...Article 41: 1. Without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State...For high officers and missions of certain international organizations seeInternational Organizations (Privileges and Immunities) Act. Some comparable privileges apply to overseas missions and persons associated with them, see Overseas Missions (Privileges and Immunities) Act.The practical operation of these immunities is subject of a Dept of Foreign Affairs and Trade pamphlet (pdf) Privileges and Immunities of Foreign Representatives.

At any time after an indictment has been filed, if it appears to the court before which the accused is to be tried that there is a real and substantial question as to the fitness of the accused to stand trial, the court must reserve the question of the fitness of the accused to stand trial: s.9 (1).

There is then an investigation before jury solely as to the issue of fitness to be tried ("to stand trial").

The question of fitness is a material consideration not only during the pre-trial proceedings, but throughout the course of a trial: s.9 (2); SM v R [2011] VSCA 332.

The question may be raised more than once in the same proceeding: s.9 (2).

The party raising the issue has the onus of proof which is to be on balance of probabilities: s.7.

Section 6 provides:(1) A person is unfit to stand trial for an offences if, because the person's mental processes are disordered or impaired, the person is or, at some time during the trial, will be -(a) unable to understand the nature of the charge; or(b) unable to enter a plea to the charge and to exercise the right to challenge jurors or the jury; or(c) unable to understand the nature of the trial (namely that it is an inquiry as to whether the person committed the offence); or(d) unable to follow the course of the trial; or(e) unable to understand the substantial effect of any evidence that may be given in support of the prosecution; or(f) unable to give instructions to his or her legal practitioner.(2) A person is not unfit to stand trial only because he or she is suffering from memory loss.

In the event of verdict of fit to be tried, the case proceeds as normally before fresh jury if there is still contest and includes determination of any mental impairment defence.

A verdict of unfit to be tried is no sense a finding of defence. It requires by s.12 that the judge adjourn the trial if determining that the accused is likely to become fit within the next 12 months, or proceed to special hearing.

A special hearing must be before a fresh jury and include determination of any mental impairment defence as for example Richards (a Pseudonym) v R (No 2) [2017] VSCA 17. Procedure at a special hearing includes explanation to jury by Judge of its nature: s16.

In the event of adjournment there is by s.12 power to remand in custody including to imprison.

A judge has power to vacate an order that there be an investigation of fitness to stand trial if circumstances change before a jury is empanelled: R v Demicoli [2006] VSCA 69.

The closely related common law principles for unfitness to be tried previously existing in Victoria were taken to be as articulated in a trial ruling R v Presser [1958] VicRp 9, [1958] VR 45.

Mental impairment

Another issue which can arise at ordinary trial or - due to unfitness to be tried - special hearing is whether a person at the time of committing what otherwise would be an offence was mentally impaired as defined by Crimes (Mental Impairment and Unfitness to be Tried) Act especially s.20. If so, the person can take the defence of not guilty because of mental impairment.

Mental impairment, if found, is quite different from an ordinary verdict of not guilty. A supervision order may be made often involving major confinement: ss.23-38F. The operation of these outcomes after special hearing of a person unfit to be tried is subject of adverse 2018 Ombudsman report, see here.

The definition of mental impairment is that at the time of engaging in conduct constituting the offence the person was suffering from a mental impairment that had the effect that (a) he or she did not know the nature and quality of the conduct; or (b) he or she did not know that the conduct was wrong (that is, he or she could not reason with a moderate degree of sense and composure about whether the conduct, as perceived by reasonable people, was wrong).

The terms of s 20 incorporate the common law test of criminal insanity as it has developed in Australia, including confinement of the defence to conditions being a disease, defect or disorder of the mind: Kosian v R [2013] VSCA 357 (form of psychotic illness); see also R v Fitchett [2009] VSCA 150 (form of psychotic illness). A simple drug-induced psychosis is not such a condition:R v Sebalj[2006] VSCA 106; R v Konidaris[2014] VSC 89.

Para (a) means the state of mind is that in which the accused is prevented by mental impairment from knowing the physical nature of the act the accused is doing: Kosian.

There is, without empanelment of jury, judicial power upon trial but not upon special hearing to direct a verdict of not guilty by reason of mental impairment where the prosecution and the defence agree that the proposed evidence establishes the defence: s.21(4); SM v R [2013] VSCA 342. Otherwise the issue is to be determined by a jury on the balance of probabilities with burden of proof on the accused: s.21(2). In the event of rejection of a defence of not guilty because of mental impairment, the options are ordinary verdict of guilty or ordinary verdict of not guilty: s.20.

Mental impairment extends to summary hearings at the Magistrates' Court.

There is at common law a rebuttable presumption referred to as doli incapax that a child aged at least 10 but less than 14 is incapable of committing a criminal act. The presumption is rebutted if the prosecution proves beyond reasonable doubt the child knew the act or acts were seriously wrong; the presumption cannot be rebutted merely as an inference from the doing of that act or those acts: RP v R [2016] HCA 53.

A child without responsibility may be innocent agent of a person with responsibility, criminal liability thereby attaching to the latter by the principle of innocent agency, see above this webpage.

For children, the Children's Court of Victoria with a few exceptions has jurisdiction to hear and determine charges against young people. For alleged breach of Victoria law, Children, Youth and Families Act defines young people as aged above 10 years and less than 18 years at the time of committing the alleged offence, and less than 19 years when a proceeding for the offence is commenced in the Court. See also Sentencing notes.