2 Foreword This supplement is centred on the final version of the Report on the Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy from the group chaired by Murray Goldstein and Martin Bax. We have devoted a Supplement to it for several reasons, including the importance of the topic and the advantage of having a separate stand-alone section to use for reference. It also allows the Report to be seen in its context. This final version of the Report is based on the discussion paper published last year, which was accompanied by commentaries, 1 3 and followed by an extensive discussion on the Castang website (www.castangfoundation.net/workshops_washington_ public.asp) as well as correspondence in the Journal. 4 These comments have been taken into account in the revised version. It is followed by a section summarizing most of the presentations at the workshop in Bethesda in 2004 which provided the background to the present Report. At that meeting selected international experts discussed specific aspects. These are very informative and reflect a wide range of considerations and perspectives, both on the difficulties involved and on the value and use of classification in terms of diagnosis, prognosis, management, and clinical trials. The presentation by Krägeloh-Mann has since been expanded into a review of the role of neuroimaging in cerebral palsy (CP), which is published separately in the accompanying issue of the journal (DMCN 2007; 49: p ). The Report is preceded by a paper giving a brief history of the concept of CP, which is later also covered by Gilles from a pathological perspective. In a subsequent section are three papers describing the definitions and classifications currently in use by the European (SCPE) and the Australian research groups, and those of Mutch et al., as it is instructive to compare the different methods used in formulating these. The final section has brief articles looking forward to the implications of the report on clinical practice and the provision of health care. I hope that this Supplement will be useful. It illustrates the difficulties inherent in trying to agree what we mean by the terms we use and that a classification that suits one purpose, such as a diagnostic approach, may not always be ideal for others, such as therapy issues. Defining and classifying CP is far from easy, so the group who have produced the Report deserve applause. We do need a consensus that can be used in all aspects of day-to-day care and for future research on CP. Peter Baxter References 1. Bax M, Goldstein M, Rosenbaum P, Leviton A, Paneth N, Dan B, Jacobsson B, Damiano D; Executive Committee for the Definition of Cerebral Palsy. (2005) Proposed definition and classification of cerebral palsy, April Dev Med Child Neurol 47: Carr LJ, Reddy SK, Stevens S, Blair E, Love S. (2005) Definition and classification of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 47: Baxter P, Rosenbloom L. (2005) CP or not CP? Dev Med Child Neurol 47: Badawi N, Novak I, McIntyre S, Edwards K, Raye S, delacy M, Bevis E, Flett P, van Essen P, Scott H, et al. (2006) Proposed new definition of cerebral palsy does not solve any of the problems of existing definitions. Dev Med Child Neurol 48: (Letter). 2 Definition and Classification of CP

3 Definition and classification of cerebral palsy: a historical perspective Christopher Morris MSc DPhil, Department of Public Health, University of Oxford, UK. Correspondence to Christopher Morris, MRC Special Training Fellow in Health Services Research, Department of Public Health, Old Road Campus, University of Oxford, OX3 7LF. The definition of a diagnosis identifies explicitly which cases are to be recorded under that term and, by implication, which are to be specifically excluded. The definition is the basis for planning treatment and for counting cases in a population. Classification within a diagnosis categorizes those cases with similar characteristics together and distinguishes those cases with diverse features apart. The design of a classification system, for instance whether it is organized into nominal or ordinal categories, will vary depending on the concept being classified and intended purpose for which classification is being made. The most frequently cited definition of cerebral palsy was published by Bax (1964) as a disorder of posture and movement due to a defect or lesion in the immature brain. The label does however encompass a variety of syndromes and some, therefore, prefer the term cerebral palsies. Cerebral palsy (CP) is now familiar to most health and social service professionals, as well as to many members of the general public, as a physically disabling condition. In fact, although CP only affects between 2 and 3 per 1000 live births, it is thought to be the most common cause of serious physical disability in childhood (Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe 2000). Historically, CP was predominantly studied in relation to the pathology and aetiology of the impairment. Discussion regarding the definition and classification of CP was first recorded in medical literature during the nineteenth century, predominately in French, German, and English language publications. However, what exactly the term cerebral palsy describes has been debated for more than 150 years, and discussions about how the different manifestations of CP can be best classified continue to the present day. Before 1900 The quest to correlate brain lesions with their clinical manifestation began with early French publications by pathologists debating the association of hemiplegia of the body with hemiatrophy of the brain identified by post-mortem (Lallemand 1820, Cazauvieilh 1827 [as cited in Ingram 1984]). However, the seminal work describing cerebral paralysis, and particularly the related musculoskeletal issues, was elucidated by an English orthopaedic surgeon named William Little in one of a series of lectures in 1843 entitled Deformities of the Human Frame. Whilst his lectures focused on joint contractures and deformities resulting from long-standing spasticity and paralysis, Little clearly indicated that the cause of the spasticity and paralysis was often damage to the brain during infancy, and specifically preterm birth and perinatal asphyxia (Little 1843). Little also noted that behavioural disorders and epilepsy were only occasional complications and not central to the condition. At about the same time, a German orthopaedic surgeon, von Heine, was reporting similar clinical syndromes as a result of infections such as scarlet fever and vaccinations (von Heine 1860). He cited the work of his compatriot Henoch, who had written his dissertation several years earlier, describing hemiplegia in children (Henoch 1842). It has been suggested that it was actually von Heine, rather than Little, who first distinguished CP from the flaccid paralysis caused by poliomyelitis (Osler 1889, Bishop 1958). However, Little was known to have spent some years studying in Germany during the 1830s and it is possible that there was some cross-fertilization of ideas, although this is not formally recorded. Regardless, CP was known for many years after as Little s Disease. In his best known work, published in 1862, Little expands on the association between a large number of his patients clinical presentation and their birth history as recalled by the family (Little 1862). Little differentiated between the congenital deformities observed at the time of birth, such as falipes equinovarus, and the limb deformities that developed subsequent to preterm, difficult, or traumatic births, due to what he termed spastic rigidity. He demonstrated his familiarity with the work of French, German, and Irish pathologists in constructing his theory. Little grouped the clinical presentation of 47 cases as either: (1) hemiplegic rigidity affecting one side only, although lesser impairment of the apparently uninvolved limb was frequently observed; (2) paraplegia affecting both legs more than arms; and (3) generalized rigidity. Little showed careful consideration for his audience in the Historical Perspective Christopher Morris 3

4 published discussion by conceding to the President of the Obstetrical Society of London that for every one (case) that depended on abnormal or premature labour there were twenty or more from other causes incidental to later life. Sarah McNutt, an American physician, continued to raise the profile of the risks of long-term disability arising from birth trauma (McNutt 1885). Notably, the American Neurological Association admitted her as their first female member; but the content of her lectures apparently made her unpopular with some eminent obstetricians whilst she was on a tour in the UK (Ingram 1984). At the time he was resident in America, the eminent Canadian William Osler published articles in 1886 and 1888 before his more notable monograph was published in London in The Cerebral Palsies of Children comprehensively described his study of a case series of 151 patients (Osler 1889). Osler acknowledged the contributions from his German, French, English, and American colleagues and stated that he would for clearness and convenience adhere to custom and classify cases according to the distribution of the paralysis, whether hemiplegic, diplegic or paraplegic. In fact, he classified his cases into the three categories but used the terms: (1) infantile hemiplegia; (2) bilateral spastic hemiplegia; and (3) spastic paraplegia. Osler references the synonym spastic diplegia for bilateral spastic hemiplegia to Samuel Gee at St Bartholomew s Hospital in London. William Osler later moved from Pennsylvania to become Regius Professor of Medicine at the University of Oxford and was knighted in the UK for his contributions to medicine. In the year following Osler s seminal book, the neurologists Sachs and Peterson published their series of 140 cases (Sachs and Peterson 1890). They contrasted the comprehensive understanding that had then been achieved regarding the clinical symptoms and pathology of poliomyelitis with the dearth of understanding about CP. Sachs and Peterson followed the convention of the time by using the same classification system as Osler: hemiplegic, diplegic, or paraplegic. Where possible, they investigated aetiology using postmortem examinations but concluded that any of the three clinical presentations could result from a variety of causes. Despite this lack of correlation they advocated that classification should include special reference to the pathology of the disease. Sigmund Freud was of the opposite opinion (Freud 1893). Despite his background in neuropathology, he advocated classifying CP using only clinical findings. Freud recognized that, even with post-mortem examination, the pathological findings resulted from a combination of the initial lesion and repair process and, therefore, were only partially related to the clinical manifestation. His classification system combined previously separate categories under the single term diplegia for all bilateral disorders, as distinct from hemiplegia. The term diplegia was used to describe generalized rigidity of cerebral origin, paraplegic rigidity, double spastic hemiplegia, generalized congenital chorea, and generalized athetosis. Athetosis had already been described, initially by Hammond, as involuntary writhing movements in adults affected by hemiplegia (Hammond 1871), and it would later be more clearly differentiated from other movement disorders by Gowers (1876). Freud s observations regarding aetiology identified three groups of causal factors: (1) maternal and idiopathic congenital; (2) perinatal; and (3) post-natal causes. He noted that it was difficult to know whether later problems resulted from birth trauma, as described by Little, or whether in fact there were predisposing factors that may have caused these infants to have difficult births. He thought the task of separating congenital from acquired cases impossible in some cases and generally unhelpful. Freud was aware that children with ataxic symptoms might require a separate group, as became the case after the work of Batten (1903), but at the time of his writing he had not seen enough cases of non-progressive ataxia to be sure. Freud lost interest in CP and instead focused on his study of psychoanalysis (Accardo 2004). Nevertheless, his influence was such that his lasting statements regarding the futility of attempting to associate clinical syndromes with neuropathology may have predisposed to the dearth of research about CP during the first half of the twentieth century. Also, at that time, poliomyelitis and tuberculosis were more common causes of disability and, therefore, attracted greater attention from medical researchers. From 1900 to 2000 In the early 1920s, some 30 years after Freud s comments, an American orthopaedic surgeon made the next major contribution to our understanding of CP (noted by Mac Keith and Polani 1959). Winthrop Phelps pioneered modern approaches to the physical management of children with CP advocating physical therapy, orthoses, and nerve blocks. In a later article Phelps identified his four treatment goals: locomotion, self-help, speech, and general appearance (Phelps 1941). His approach to surgery was conservative. Phelps acknowledged the need for a neurological classification system for diagnostic purposes but preferred to use his own classification system as a basis for treatment. He proposed that classification should be made on a functional basis including both mental and physical ability, and that a social assessment should precede treatment. Phelps grouped all movement disorders under the term dyskinesia, and used spasticity, athetosis, overflow or synkinesia, incoordination or ataxia, and tremor as sub-categories. He noted that these five varieties rarely occurred in pure form. Phelps helped to found the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy in 1947 and was elected its first president. The Academy s mission remains to foster and stimulate professional education, research, and interest in the understanding of these conditions and in improving the care and rehabilitation of affected persons (American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine 2005). American neurologist Myer Perlstein recognized the prevailing confusion regarding classification of CP and contributed a lucid account of the various systems that existed in the 1940s and 1950s (Perlstein 1952). He recounted methods for classifying children according to the anatomical site of the brain lesion, clinical symptoms, degree of muscle tone, severity of involvement, and aetiology. Thus, he suggested that a modular description using components from each category can be assembled. Minear conducted a survey with the members of the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy in 1953 and published the resulting classification system based on their majority opinion (Minear 1956). He defined CP simply as any symptom complex arising from non-progressive brain lesions. Minear s system is similar to Perlstein s in that it is more of a comprehensive listing of all clinical symptoms 4 Definition and Classification of CP

5 with categories for motor impairment, topography, aetiology, supplemental, neuro-anatomical, functional capacity, and therapeutic requirement. A separate dimension for functional capacity with four levels is included in the classification but used undefined terms such as mild and moderate limitation of activity. Meanwhile in the UK, the classification systems used to describe case series by Evans (1948) and Asher and Schonell (1950) comprised different combinations of topography and motor impairment. Wyllie (1951) used a confusing combination of neurological and aetiological criteria to define categories which were: (1) congenital symmetrical diplegia; (2) congenital paraplegia; (3) quadriplegia or bilateral hemiplegia; and (4) hemiplegia. The selected category was supplemented with a statement of the type of motor disorder: spastic, flaccid, mixed, athetoid, or ataxic. Harking back to Freud s argument that it was not possible to classify using aetiology, Ingram preferred a system using neurological and topographical categories, supplemented with an indication of the severity using the terms mild, moderate, and severe (Balf and Ingram 1955). The Ingram classification separated hemiplegia, double hemiplegia, and diplegia from ataxic and dyskinetic categories. Ingram grouped involuntary movement disorders, such as dystonia, chorea, and athetosis, under the term dyskinesia. Ingram pointed out that transient changes in muscle tone seen consistently in children with diplegia would require their continual reclassification if the terms rigidity or spasticity were used as categories. Again in the UK, in 1957 Mac Keith and Polani convened an informal group called the Little Club that was dedicated to thinking through the terminology for describing CP. The Little Club published its definition of CP as a permanent but not unchanging disorder of movement and posture, appearing in the early years of life and due to a non-progressive disorder of the brain, the result of interference during its development (Mac Keith and Polani 1959). The Little Club classification uses the term spastic with sub-categories of hemiplegia, double hemiplegia, and diplegia; the other categories were dystonic, choreo-athetoid, mixed, ataxic, and atonic CP. Ingram continued his aforementioned criticism citing the changes observed in the series of 1821 patients by Bronson Crothers (Crothers 1951) that would require cases to be moved continually between classification categories (Ingram 1984). Some of the original Little Club members refined the definition of CP as a disorder of posture and movement due to a defect or lesion of the immature brain and for practical purposes disorders of short duration, due to progressive disease or due solely to mental deficiency were excluded (Bax 1964). The group noted the inconsistent interpretation of terms such as spastic between different professional and country cultures. These inconsistencies precluded further progress which led to their conclusion that, at that time, it was impossible to proceed definitively with classifying cerebral palsy (Bax 1964). In the 1980s, another expert group commissioned by the Spastics Society (now SCOPE) discussed how to classify CP from an epidemiological perspective (Evans and Alberman 1985; Evans et al. 1986, 1987). Evans group were particularly interested in monitoring rates of CP in populations as public health markers of perinatal and neonatal health care. Their approach built upon earlier work by Fiona Stanley and others in Western Australia for a limb-by-limb classification system. The subsequent Evans form recorded details of central motor deficits in terms of the neurological type: (1) hypotonia; (2) hypertonia (including stiffness, spasticity, and rigidity); (3) dyskinesia; and (4) ataxia (Evans et al. 1987). A decision was made to record details of each limb and the head and neck separately. The Evans form also enabled recording of functional mobility and manual dexterity in one of four ordinal levels, the presence of intellectual and sensory impairments, communication difficulties, seizures, congenital and acquired malformations, as well as genetic and other disorders. Some effort was made to validate this system, with repeated meetings showing videos to test inter- and intraobserver, and within and between patient variations. However, details of the reliability and validity of their classification were not widely disseminated. A summary of several meetings held in Europe and America between 1987 and 1990 was published by Mutch et al. (1992) resulting in a further revised definition to underline the heterogeneity of the condition: an umbrella term covering a group of non-progressive, but often changing, motor impairment syndromes secondary to lesions or anomalies of the brain arising in the early stages of development. Notably this annotation also included a revised Swedish classification system which, whilst still not perfect, offered simplicity as its major asset. The three neurological categories were spastic, ataxic, and dyskinetic; these were subcategorized in mixed ways as hemiplegia, tetraplegia, or diplegia for spastic cases; as either diplegic or congenital for ataxic cases, and as either mainly chorioathetotic or mainly dystonic for dyskinetic cases. Whilst noting that at the time it remained beyond their capability, the authors resuscitated the yearning for an aetiologically-based classification system (Mutch et al. 1992). The Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) was developed in response to the need to have a standardized system for classifying the severity of movement disability among children with CP (Palisano et al. 1997). Previous descriptive systems had included three levels, such as: (1) mild, moderate, or severe; or four levels such as (2) nonambulatory or physiological, household and community walkers (Hoffer 1973); and (3) the Evans system: not walking, restricting lifestyle, functional but not fluent, or walks fluently (Evans and Alberman 1985). A five level description of children s ambulatory ability was reported by Hutton et al. in their study of factors affecting life expectancy, though they collapsed the data into only two categories of walking and not walking for their analyses (Hutton et al. 1994). However, there was no evaluation of the validity and reliability of any of these systems until the development of the GMFCS. Palisano and his colleagues used the underlying construct of self-initiated functional abilities in sitting and walking and the need for assistive devices, such as walkers or wheelchairs, to develop the GMFCS and systematically tested its validity and reliability (Palisano et al. 1997, Wood and Rosenbaum 2000). The GMFCS describes movement ability of children with CP in one of five ordinal levels. The GMFCS currently includes descriptions of children s abilities for each level across four age bands: less than 2 years, 2 to 4 years, 4 to 6 years, and 6 to 12 years, with an adolescent age band currently under development. Children in Level I can perform all the activities of their age-matched peers, albeit with some difficulty with speed, balance, and coordination; children in Level V have difficulty controlling their head and trunk posture in most positions and Historical Perspective Christopher Morris 5

6 achieving any voluntary control of movement. The GMFCS has now become the principal way to describe the severity of motor disability for children with CP. The system has had good uptake internationally and across the spectrum of health care professions for use in research and clinical practice by providing a system for clearly communicating about children s gross motor function (Morris and Bartlett 2004). From 2000 Following a survey of practice across the continent, the group for the Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe (SCPE) published their standardized procedures for ascertaining and describing children with CP for registers and databases (SCPE 2000). The definition was largely a reiteration of that proposed by Mutch and colleagues (Mutch et al. 1992) and included five key points. CP is: (1) an umbrella term; (2) is permanent but not unchanging; (3) involves a disorder of movement and/or posture and of motor function; (4) is due to a non-progressive interference, lesion, or abnormality; and (5) the interference, lesion, or abnormality is in the immature brain. The system adopted by SCPE provides a decision flow chart to aid classification into neurological and topographical categories including spastic (unilateral or bilateral), ataxic, dyskinetic (dystonic or choreo-athetotic), or not classifiable. Clearly defined symptoms and requirements are provided for each neurological category. Despite careful planning of the system, there has been little work to demonstrate the validity and reliability of classification. The lack of any defined criteria for recording functional limitations in the SCPE definition was noted by Lenski et al. (2001). Subsequently, SCPE, along with other research groups, demonstrated that the inclusion of a description of functional ability markedly improved the reliability of diagnosing children with CP (Paneth et al. 2003). Consistent application of the diagnosis is of paramount importance when the prevalence of CP from different sources and places is being compared. There has also been further progress in classifying children s motor abilities. The Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) now provides a method analogous to the GMFCS for classifying the ability of children with CP to handle objects (Eliasson et al. 2006). The Functional Mobility Scale (FMS) has been devised as an evaluative system to measure changes in walking ability, such as might be seen following intervention (Graham 2004). The FMS enables a child s performance over three distances (5, 50, and 500 metres) to be classified by their need for assistive devices such as a wheelchair or walking aid. In contrast to the GMFCS, where a child s level would not be expected to change, significant changes in FMS levels have been observed following orthopaedic surgery. This joins the battery of outcome measures to evaluate treatment for children with CP such as the Gross Motor Function Measure (Russell et al. 2003). With rapidly improving imaging technology there is renewed interest in aetiological classification systems correlating clinical syndromes and neuroanatomy, challenging Freud s 100- year-old statement that this task was futile. Progress has been made using ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to detect structural impairments of the brain before they manifest as movement disorders (Accardo et al. 2004). MRI can also be used to approximate the timing at which the brain was damaged, based on normal neurodevelopmental stages (Barkovich 2002, Krägeloh-Mann 2004). Only partially explained to date, Krägeloh-Mann (2004) summarizes some of the correlations that are emerging between the timing and location of the lesion and functional, cognitive, and sensory impairments. The search for a single internationally accepted definition of CP continues. Another international multidisciplinary group met in 2004 and some of those participants then revised the oft-cited definition by Bax (1964) to recognize that the key motor deficit is often accompanied by other neurodevelopmental impairments. Their new definition is: Cerebral palsy describes a group of permanent disorders of the development of movement and posture, causing activity limitation, that are attributed to non-progressive disturbances that occurred in the developing fetal or infant brain. The motor disorders of CP are often accompanied by disturbances of sensation, perception, cognition, communication, behaviour, by epilepsy and by secondary musculoskeletal problems. (Modified after Bax et al. 2005) Whilst welcoming the debate and the desire for consensus, the new definition received mixed reviews in the accompanying editorials. Carr (2005) described how the proposed definition and classification would affect clinical practice and the challenge of shifting from traditional modes of thinking; Blair and Love (2005) considered the precision of the definition to be flawed in the same way as previous attempts, particularly from an epidemiological perspective. Chiefly, they point out that the term non-progressive was no more clearly defined than before, neither were the age limits and lower limit of severity for inclusion, or what syndromes should specifically be excluded. However, Blair and Love did not themselves provide any suggestions of how to address these issues. Whilst the precision with which the definition is applied by clinicians may have negligible consequences for treatment, the implications for measuring rates of CP over time are more profound. So, in summary, after more than 150 years of debate we do not yet have a universally accepted definition of CP; nor do we have an agreed method for classifying the impairment that has been shown to be robust in terms of validity and reliability. It would be ungracious, however, not to pay a respectful tribute to those illustrious and often remarkable people who have all in their own way strived to further the scientific study of CP. In contrast, there has been more progress in classifying children s movement and manual abilities as these are probably easier to observe and categorize. The GMFCS has been adopted widely to classify movement ability and perhaps demonstrates that testing the fundamental properties of the validity and reliability of classification systems vastly enhances their credibility. To move the scientific study of CP forward we now need to examine how well the recent definitions and classifications proposed by SCPE and Bax s group actually perform in practice. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Peter Rosenbaum, Jennifer Kurinczuk, and Ray Fitzpatrick, and also the anonymous peer reviewer, for their comments on previous versions of the manuscript. References Accardo J, Kammann H, Hoon AH Jr. (2004) Neuroimaging in cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatrics 145: S American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine (2005) Mission. Available at page/mission. Accessed 20th July Definition and Classification of CP

8 A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006 Report Executive Committee: Peter Rosenbaum (Definition Panel Chair) MD, CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Nigel Paneth (Classification Panel Chair) MD, Department of Epidemiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. Alan Leviton MD, Neuroepidemiology Unit, Children s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA. Murray Goldstein* (Co-Chair) DO, MPH, United Cerebral Palsy Research & Educational Foundation, Washington DC, USA. Martin Bax (Co-Chair) DM, FRCP, Division of Paediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Imperial College, London, UK. Panel Consultants: Diane Damiano PhD PT, Washington University Department of Neurology, St. Louis, MO, USA. Bernard Dan MD, PhD, Hôpital Universitaire des Enfants, Reine Fabiola,Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium. Bo Jacobsson MD, PhD, Perinatal Center, Sahlgrenska University Hospital East, Goteborg, Sweden. *Correspondence to Murray Goldstein, UCP Research and Educational Foundation; Suite 700, 1660 L Street NW, Washington, DC, USA For a variety of reasons, the definition and the classification of cerebral palsy (CP) need to be reconsidered. Modern brain imaging techniques have shed new light on the nature of the underlying brain injury and studies on the neurobiology of and pathology associated with brain development have further explored etiologic mechanisms. It is now recognized that assessing the extent of activity restriction is part of CP evaluation and that people without activity restriction should not be included in the CP rubric. Also, previous definitions have not given sufficient prominence to the non-motor neurodevelopmental disabilities of performance and behaviour that commonly accompany CP, nor to the progression of musculoskeletal difficulties that often occurs with advancing age. In order to explore this information, pertinent material was reviewed on July 11 13, 2004 at an international workshop in Bethesda, MD (USA) organized by an Executive Committee and participated in by selected leaders in the preclinical and clinical sciences. At the workshop, it was agreed that the concept cerebral palsy should be retained. Suggestions were made about the content of a revised definition and classification of CP that would meet the needs of clinicians, investigators, health officials, families and the public and would provide a common language for improved communication. Panels organized by the Executive Committee used this information and additional comments from the international community to generate a report on the Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy, April The Executive Committee presents this report with the intent of providing a common conceptualization of CP for use by a broad international audience. Cerebral palsy (CP) is a well-recognized neurodevelopmental condition beginning in early childhood and persisting through the lifespan. Originally reported by Little in 1861 (and originally called cerebral paresis ), CP has been the subject of books and papers by some of the most eminent medical minds of the past one hundred years. At the end of the 19th century, Sigmund Freud and Sir William Osler both began to contribute important perspectives on the condition. From the mid-1940s, the founding fathers of the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine (Carlson, Crothers, Deaver, Fay, Perlstein, and Phelps) in the United States, and Mac Keith, Polani, Bax and Ingram of the Little Club in the United Kingdom, were among the leaders who moved the concepts and descriptions of CP forward and caused this condition to become the focus of treatment services, advocacy, and research efforts. It has always been a challenge to define cerebral palsy, as documented by the number of attempts that have been made over the years. For example, Mac Keith and Polani (1959) defined CP as a persisting but not unchanging disorder of movement and posture, appearing in the early years of life and due to a non-progressive disorder of the brain, the result of interference during its development. In 1964, Bax reported and annotated a definition of CP suggested by an international working group that has become a classic and is still used. It stated that CP is a disorder of movement and posture due to a defect or lesion of the immature brain. Though this brief sentence is usually all that is cited by authors, additional comments were added by Bax: For practical purposes it is usual to exclude from cerebral palsy those disorders of posture and movement which are (1) of short duration, (2) due to progressive disease, or (3) due solely to mental deficiency. The group for which Bax was the reporter felt that this simple sentence could be readily translated into other languages and hoped that it might be universally accepted. At that time, it was felt that it was wiser not to define precisely what they meant by immature brain, as any such definition might limit services to those in need. Like its predecessors, this formulation of the CP concept placed an exclusive focus on motor aspects, and also stressed the specific consequences of early as opposed to late-acquired brain damage. Not formally included in the concept were sensory, cognitive, behavioral and other associated impairments very prevalent in people with disordered movement and posture due to a defect or lesion of the immature brain, and often significantly disabling. The heterogeneity of disorders covered by the term CP, as well as advances in understanding of development in infants with early brain damage, led Mutch and colleagues to modify the definition of CP in 1992 as follows: an umbrella term covering a group of non-progressive, but often changing, motor impairment syndromes secondary to lesions or anomalies of the brain arising in the early stages of development. This definition continued to emphasize the motor impairment and acknowledged its variability, previously underscored in the MacKeith and Polani definition; it also excluded progressive disease, a point introduced in Bax s annotation. 8 Definition and Classification of CP

9 In response to the emerging need to evaluate the status of information about cerebral palsy and revisit the language presently used to describe it, an International Workshop on Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy was held in Bethesda, Maryland (USA), on July , co-sponsored by United Cerebral Palsy Research and Educational Foundation in the USA and the Castang Foundation in the United Kingdom: support was provided by the National Institutes of Health/ National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke and the Dana Foundation. The task of the participants (listing follows) was to revisit and update the definition and classification of cerebral palsy in light of emerging understanding of developmental neurobiology and changing concepts about impairments, functional status and personal participation. Reassessment of the definition of CP was prompted by a host of factors: changes in delivery of care to children with disabilities; recognition that children with slowly progressive inborn errors of metabolism can present with motor difficulties at times indistinguishable from those of children with nonprogressive disease; increased availability of high-quality brain imaging to identify impairments in brain structure; acknowledgment that developmental motor impairment is almost invariably associated with a range of other disabilities; and increased understanding about associated antecedents and correlates of CP. The Workshop participants agreed that CP as conceptualized previously had proved to be a useful nosologic construct, but that previous definitions had become unsatisfactory. They underlined that CP is not an etiologic diagnosis, but a clinical descriptive term. Reservations were expressed about the exclusive focus on motor deficit, given that persons with neurodevelopmental disabilities often present impairments of a wide range of functions that may or may not include severe motor manifestations, thereby calling for the need of an individualized, multidimensional approach to each affected person s functional status and needs. However, it was suggested that the concept cerebral palsy be retained to serve diagnostic, management, epidemiologic, public heath, and research purposes. It was felt that an updated definition of CP, taking into account recent advances in the understanding of the physiology of and pathology associated with brain development, as well as changes in terminology, should be developed for international use. The updated definition needed to meet the requirements associated with these purposes, as well as to enhance communication among clinicians, scientists and the public. As in the prior concept, it was agreed that the motor disorder needed to be emphasized; however, recognition should be provided that other developmental disorders of performance and behaviour can and often do accompany it. This emphasis on the motor disorder is stipulated in that children with CP most often present for medical attention because of motor abnormalities, even if they have other developmental problems. To underline the idea that a comprehensive approach to CP needs to be multidimensional and that management of patients with CP almost always requires a multidisciplinary setting, classes of disorders commonly accompanying CP have been identified and included in the revised definition. This addition reflects the concept that CP is one group of neurodevelopmental disorders which involve numerous developing functions. As in other neurodevelopmental disorders, various manifestations of the disordered brain may appear more significant in different persons or at different life periods, e.g. some aspects of the motor impairment, sensory loss, intellectual disability, attentional difficulty, epilepsy, musculoskeletal dysfunction and many others may be more prominent or more problematic at different stages of the life of a person with CP. References 1. Freud S. (1897) Die infantile Cerebrallähmung. In: Nothnagel H, editor. Specielle Pathologie und Therapie, Bd IX, Teil III. Vienna: Holder. p Osler W. (1899) The Cerebral Palsies of Children. A Clinical Study for the Infirmary for Nervous Diseases. Philadelphia: Blakiston. 3. Little Club. (1959) Memorandum on terminology and classification of cerebral palsy. (Mac Keith R, et al., editors). Cereb Palsy Bull 1: Bax MCO. (1964) Terminology and classification of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 6: Mutch LW, Alberman E, Hagberg B, Kodama K, Velickovic MV. (1992) Cerebral palsy epidemiology: where are we now and where are we going? Dev Med Child Neurol 34: What follows is: The Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy, April 2006, an annotated explanation of the terms used, and the thinking behind the choice of those words. This material was authored by the members of the Executive Committee functioning in panels enriched with expertise from consultants and by comments and suggestions from many reviewers responding to drafts provided to the international community. The Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy, April 2006 document is offered for international consensus and adoption, with the intent of providing a broad spectrum of audiences with a common conceptualization about cerebral palsy. I. Definition of cerebral palsy Cerebral palsy (CP) describes a group of permanent disorders of the development of movement and posture, causing activity limitation, that are attributed to nonprogressive disturbances that occurred in the developing fetal or infant brain. The motor disorders of cerebral palsy are often accompanied by disturbances of sensation, perception, cognition, communication, and behaviour, by epilepsy, and by secondary musculoskeletal problems. ANNOTATION Cerebral palsy (CP) 1 describes a group 2 of permanent 3 disorders 4 of the development 5 of movement and posture 6 causing 7 activity limitation, 8 that are attributed to 9 non-progressive 10 disturbances 11 that occurred in the developing fetal or infant 12 brain. 13 The motor disorders of cerebral palsy are often accompanied by 14 disturbances of sensation, 15 perception 16, cognition, 17 communication, and behaviour, by epilepsy 20, and by secondary musculoskeletal problems. 21 COMMENTARY ON THE TERMS AND CONCEPTS It is hoped this annotation of the definition will clarify the CP concept and allow unified use of the term both within and across the concerned fields. As it relies essentially on clinical aspects and does not require sophisticated technology, it should be possible to apply this definition very widely. 1. Cerebral palsy (CP) It is generally agreed that the CP concept, essentially a clinical formulation based on phenomenology, remains useful in the current state of nosology, insofar Definition and Classification of CP April 2006 Peter Rosenbaum et al. 9

10 as the term describes a prevalent, clinically important and identifiable group of persons with neurodevelopmental disabilities. Although the word palsy has become largely obsolete in medical nosography and has no univocal connotation, the term cerebral palsy is established in the literature and is used universally by clinicians, therapists, epidemiologists, researchers, policy makers, health care funding organization and lay persons. The term CP has, however, been variably used, with poor comparability across different places and times, indicating the need for an internationally acceptable definition. The term cerebral palsy (CP) has been retained to relate future research in CP to existing published work. The following explanations are offered to clarify several aspects of the definition of CP: 2. a group There is general agreement that CP is a heterogeneous condition in terms of aetiology as well as in types and severity of impairments. Several groupings are possible and warranted to serve different purposes. These groupings may show overlap. Therefore, the singular form CP is used (as opposed to cerebral palsies ). 3. permanent This definition excludes transient disorders, but recognizes that children and adults have changing patterns of clinical manifestations. 4. disorders This refers to conditions in which there is disruption of the usual orderly processes of child development. 5. development The notion of alteration in children s early development is essential to the CP concept. It distinguishes CP from phenotypically similar disorders in children due to later-acquired lesions, at a time when basic motor development is relatively well established. The developmental aspect of CP is also important with regard to management strategies that may include interventions that address the developmental consequences of the functional limitations associated with CP, as well as interventions that are directed at the underlying neurobiological processes. The developmental nature of CP almost always implies impacts on the developmental trajectories of the people who have CP. The motor impairments of children eventually diagnosed with CP begin to manifest very early in child development, usually before 18 months of age, with delayed or aberrant motor progress; other neurodevelopmental and functional difficulties that often accompany the motor signs can appear throughout childhood or later. The clinical picture of CP evolves with time, development, learning, activities, therapies, ageing, and other factors. 6. movement and posture Abnormal gross and fine motor functioning and organization (reflecting abnormal motor control) are the core features of CP. These motor problems can lead to difficulties with walking, feeding and swallowing, coordinated eye movements, articulation of speech, and secondary problems with behaviour, musculoskeletal function, and participation in society. However, people with neurodevelopmental disabilities that do not primarily affect movement and posture are not considered to have CP. 7. causing Activity limitations are presumed to be a consequence of the motor disorder. Thus, disorders of movement and posture that are not associated with activity limitations are not considered part of the CP group. 8. activity limitation The World Health Organization s (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health speaks of activity as the execution of a task or action by an individual, and identifies activity limitation as difficulties an individual may have in executing activities. This term amplifies the previous WHO concept of disability to recognize changing international concepts and terminology. 9. attributed to Understanding of developmental neurobiology (including genetic, biochemical, and other influences on brain development) is increasing rapidly, such that it is becoming possible to identify structural and other evidence of brain maldevelopment in people with CP. As a consequence, structural-functional connections and correlations are becoming more clearly delineated than has previously been possible. It must, however, be acknowledged that at the present time a full understanding of causal pathways and mechanisms leading to cerebral palsy remains elusive. 10. non-progressive The term non-progressive is used to denote that the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to CP are presumed to arise from a single, inciting event or discrete series of events which are no longer active at the time of diagnosis. This inciting event(s) produce(s) a disruption of normal brain structure and function which may be associated with changing or additional manifestations over time when superimposed on developmental processes. Motor dysfunction which results from recognized progressive brain disorders is not considered CP. 11. disturbances This term refers to processes or events that in some way interrupt, damage or otherwise influence the expected patterns of brain formation, development and maturation, and result in permanent (but non-progressive) impairment of the brain. In a proportion of cases it is currently not possible to identify a specific disturbance or a specific timing of the events that appear to impact on maturation. 12. fetal or infant The specification fetal or infant reflects the idea that disturbances that occur very early in human biological development impact differently on the development of motor function than disturbances that occur later, even those that occur in early childhood. There is no explicit upper age limit specified, although the first two or three years of life are most important in the timing of disturbances resulting in CP. In practical terms, disturbance resulting in CP is presumed to occur before the affected function has developed (e.g. walking, manipulation, etc.). 13. brain The term brain includes the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem. It excludes motor disorders solely of spinal, peripheral nerve, muscular or mechanical origin. 14. accompanied by In addition to the disorder of movement and posture, people with CP often show other neurodevelopmental disorders or impairments. 15. sensation Vision, hearing and other sensory modalities may be affected, both as a function of the primary disturbance(s) to which CP is attributed, and as a secondary consequence of activity limitations that restrict learning and perceptual development experiences. 16. perception The capacity to incorporate and interpret sensory and/or cognitive information may be impaired both as a function of the primary disturbance(s) to which CP is attributed, and as a secondary consequence of activity limitations that restrict learning and perceptual development experiences. 17. cognition Both global and specific cognitive processes may be affected, including attention, both as a function of the primary disturbance(s) to which CP is attributed and as a secondary consequence of activity limitations that restrict learning and perceptual development experiences. A child who has severely impaired cognition and no motor signs 10 Definition and Classification of CP

11 (except perhaps for some degree of hypotonicity) is not included within the concept of CP. 18. communication Expressive and/or receptive communication and/or social interaction skills may be affected, both as a function of the primary disturbance(s) to which CP is attributed, and as a secondary consequence of activity limitations that restrict learning and perceptual development experiences. 19. behaviour This includes psychiatric or behavioural problems such as autistic spectrum disorders, ADHD, sleep disturbances, mood disorders and anxiety disorders. 20. epilepsy Virtually every seizure type and many epileptic syndromes may be seen in persons with CP. 21. secondary musculoskeletal problems People with CP may develop a variety of musculoskeletal problems, such as muscle/tendon contractures, bony torsion, hip displacement, spinal deformity. Many of these problems develop throughout life and are related to physical growth, muscle spasticity, ageing and other factors. References 1. World Health Organization. (2001) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2. Cans C. (2000) Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe: a collaboration of cerebral palsy surveys and registers. Dev Med Child Neurol 42: NINDS Workshop on Classification and Definition of Disorders Causing Hypertonia in Childhood. (2001) news_and_events/hypertonia_ Meeting_2001.htm 4. World Health Organization. (1980) International Classification of Impairment, Activity and Participation ICIDH-2. Geneva: World Health Organization. 5. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, et al. (1997) Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 39: Beckung E, Hagberg G. (2002) Neuroimpairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 44: Eliasson AC, Rösblad B, Krumlinde-Sundholm L, Beckung E, Arner M, Ohrwall A-M, Rosenbaum P. (2006) Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) for children with cerebral palsy: scale development and evidence of validity and reliability. Dev Med Child Neurol 48: Bartlett DJ, Purdie B. (2005) Testing of the Spinal Alignment and Range of Motion Measure: a discriminative measure of posture and flexibility for children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 47: Gorter JW, Rosenbaum PL, Hanna SE, Palisano RJ, Bartlett DJ, Russell DJ, Walter SD, Raina P, Galuppi BE, Wood E. (2004) Limb distribution, type of motor disorder and functional classification of cerebral palsy: how do they relate? Dev Med Child Neurol 46: Ashwal S, Russman BS, Blasco PA, et al. (2004) Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 62: II. Classification of cerebral palsy Cerebral palsy (CP) describes a group of permanent disorders of the development of movement and posture, causing activity limitation, that are attributed to non-progressive disturbances that occurred in the developing fetal or infant brain. The motor disorders of cerebral palsy are often accompanied by disturbances of sensation, perception, cognition, communication and behaviour, by epilepsy, and by secondary musculoskeletal problems. The above definition of cerebral palsy covers a wide range of clinical presentations and degrees of activity limitation. It is therefore useful to further categorize individuals with CP into classes or groups. The purposes of classification include: 1. Description: providing a level of detail about an individual with CP that will clearly delineate the nature of the problem and its severity. 2. Prediction: providing information that can inform healthcare professionals of the current and future service needs of individuals with CP. 3. Comparison: providing sufficient information to permit reasonable comparison of series of cases of CP assembled in different places. 4. Evaluation of change: providing information that will allow comparison of the same individual with CP at different points in time. Traditional classification schemes have focused principally on the distributional pattern of affected limbs (e.g., hemiplegia, diplegia) with an added modifier describing the predominant type of tone or movement abnormality (e.g., spastic, dyskinetic). However, it has become apparent that additional characteristics must be taken account of for a classification scheme to contribute substantively to the understanding and management of this disorder. INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR CLASSIFICATION The information available to provide an adequate classification of the features of CP in any individual will vary over the age span and across geographic regions and settings. The role of aging in changing the clinical phenomenology of CP has been little studied, and the possibility of classification changes over time cannot be completely dismissed. Defining the presence or degree of accompanying impairments, such as cognitive deficits, is age-dependent, and in young children the type of motor disorder may be hard to characterize. Some young children diagnosed as having CP may in fact have as yet undiagnosed neurological disorders that are very slowly progressive. While progressive disorders are not included in the CP rubric by definition, a period of observation that includes serial examinations of the child may at times be needed before their exclusion can be assured. Factors other than age will affect classification. Historical data, especially about the course of pregnancy, will vary in reliability and validity. Where neuroimaging facilities, diagnostic specialists and biochemical laboratories are not available, it may not be possible to completely exclude progressive disorders and underlying pathology, as described by neuroimaging and other laboratory findings, However, all classification documentation should include the age of the child, the nature of the information available from clinical history (e.g. whether from clinical notes, maternal recall or period of observation of the child), and the extent to which metabolic and neuroimaging investigation has been performed. USES AND LIMITATIONS OF A CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Classification often requires making difficult decisions about where to draw the boundaries within ordinal or quantitative measures. Some degree of arbitrariness is inevitable. Assignment of individuals with the diagnosis of CP to distinct clinical groups is not straightforward, and will differ depending on the characteristic(s) chosen as the basis for classification. No one Definition and Classification of CP April 2006 Peter Rosenbaum et al. 11

12 single approach has emerged as definitive. Depending on the purpose of the classification, certain characteristics or combinations of characteristics may be more useful than others. For example, in assessing the effectiveness of a new treatment for a specific type of tone abnormality, the nature of the motor disorder and the level of functional motor ability are likely to be paramount, while determining service delivery needs will require consideration of accompanying impairments. No classification system is useful unless it is reliable. Thus it is not enough to specify the characteristics to be used in classification; they must be operationally defined so that, in general, competent examiners will classify the same individual in the same way given identical information. Providing such definitions is, however, beyond the scope of this document. For example, the term spastic diplegia is problematic because its existing definitions are variable and imprecise, and because evidence is lacking that the term can be used reliably. Some use the term to describe children with spastic CP whose only motor deficit is in the legs, while others include children who have arm involvement of lesser severity than leg involvement. However, determining the relative severity of arm and leg involvement can be challenging since they perform very different functions. Discontinuation of the term spastic diplegia is recommended; however, if the term is used, the user should define exactly what is meant, and what characteristics the term describes. Table I: Components of CP classification 1. Motor abnormalities A. NATURE AND TYPOLOGY OF THE MOTOR DISORDER: The observed tonal abnormalities assessed on examination (e.g. hypertonia, hypotonia) as well as the diagnosed movement disorders present, such as spasticity, ataxia, dystonia, athetosis. B. FUNCTIONAL MOTOR ABILITIES: The extent to which the individual is limited in his or her motor function, including oromotor and speech function. 2. Accompanying impairments The presence or absence of later-developing musculoskeletal problems and/or accompanying non-motor neurodevelopmental or sensory problems, such as seizures, hearing or vision impairments, or attentional, behavioral, communicative and/or cognitive deficits, and the extent to which impairments interact in individuals with cerebral palsy. 3. Anatomical and neuro-imaging findings A. ANATOMIC DISTRIBUTION: The parts of the body (limbs, trunk, bulbar region, etc.) affected by motor impairments or limitations. B. NEURO-IMAGING FINDINGS: The neuroanatomic findings on CT or MRI imaging, such as ventricular enlargement, white matter loss or brain anomaly. 4. Causation and timing Whether there is a clearly identified cause, as is usually the case with post-natal CP (e.g. meningitis, head injury) or when brain malformations are present, and the presumed time frame during which the injury occurred, if known. DEVELOPMENT OF A STANDARDIZED CLASSIFICATION SCHEME The state of the science underlying the proposed classification has evolved in recent years and continues to progress at a rapid pace, particularly in the area of quantitative assessment of the neuro-imaging and clinical features of cerebral palsy. These advances will continue to improve our ability to classify children and adults with cerebral palsy more accurately. For classification of CP, use of the four major dimensions of classification listed in Table I is recommended. Each is elaborated upon in the text that follows. 1. Motor abnormalities 1.A. NATURE AND TYPOLOGY OF THE MOTOR DISORDER The type of abnormal muscle tone or involuntary movement disorder observed or elicited is usually assumed to be related to the underlying pathophysiology of the disorder, and may also reflect etiologic circumstances, as in kernicterus. Individuals with cerebral palsy have traditionally been grouped by the predominant type of motor disorder with a mixed category available in those cases when no one type dominates. This strategy has been adopted by the classification system described in the Reference and Training Manual of the Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe (SCPE), i which divides CP into three groupings based on the predominant neuromotor abnormality spastic, dyskinetic or ataxic, with dyskinesia further differentiated into dystonia and choreoathetosis. However, an argument can be made that many children have mixed presentations, and that identifying the presence of each of the tone and or movement abnormalities may be of greater clinical and etiologic utility, as recommended by the 2001 NINDS workshop on childhood hypertonia. ii It is recommended that cases continue to be classified by the dominant type of tone or movement abnormality, categorized as spasticity, dystonia, choreoathetosis, or ataxia, but that any additional tone or movement abnormalities present should be listed as secondary types. The term mixed should not be used without elaboration of the component motor disorders. For a recent review of the terminology of motor disorders, see Sanger et al. iii,iv 1.B. FUNCTIONAL MOTOR ABILITIES The WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), v along with several other recent publications, have sensitized health professionals to the importance of evaluating the functional consequences of different health states. The functional consequences of involvement of the upper and lower extremities should therefore be separately classified using objective functional scales. For the key function of ambulation, the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) has been widely employed internationally to group individuals with CP into one of five levels based on functional mobility or activity limitation. vi A parallel classification scale, the Bimanual Fine Motor Function Scale, or BFMF, has been developed for assessing upper extremity function in cerebral palsy, but has not been as extensively studied as the GMFCS. vii A newer instrument for assessing hand and arm function the Manual Ability Classification System or MACS has been shown to have good inter-rater reliability between parents and professionals, and will shortly be published. viii Concurring with SCPE, it is recommended that a functional classification system be applied to hand and arm function in children with CP. Bulbar and oromotor difficulties are common in cerebral palsy and can produce important activity limitation, but there is as yet no activity limitation scale for such functions. A high research priority is the development of a scale for speech and pharyngeal activity limitation in cerebral palsy. In the meantime, the presence and severity of bulbar and oromotor involvement should be recorded. While activity limitation is important, the extent to which motor disorders affect the ability to participate in desired 12 Definition and Classification of CP

13 societal roles is also an essential consideration. However, at present, evaluation of participation restriction (formerly termed handicap ) in CP is not well developed, and reliable categorization of children based on this aspect of daily life is therefore not yet possible. 2. Accompanying impairments In many individuals with cerebral palsy, other impairments interfere with the ability to function in daily life, and may at times produce even greater activity limitation than the motor impairments that are the hallmark of cerebral palsy. These impairments may have resulted from the same or similar pathophysiologic processes that led to the motor disorder, but they nonetheless require separate enumeration. Examples include seizure disorders, hearing and visual problems, cognitive and attentional deficits, emotional and behavioral issues, and later-developing musculoskeletal problems. These impairments should be classified as present or absent, and if present, the extent to which they interfere with the individual s ability to function or participate in desired activities and roles should be described. In concurrence with the SCPE recommendation, the presence or absence of epilepsy (defined as two or more afebrile, non-neonatal seizures) be recorded, and IQ, hearing and vision be assessed. While SCPE provides terminology for describing different degrees of cognitive, hearing and visual impairment, the IQ score, corrected vision in each eye, and decibel loss (if any) in each ear be recorded whenever this information is available. Standardized instruments are available to measure IQ, vision and hearing, and categories describing specific levels of dysfunction (e.g., visual impairment, profound hearing loss, mild mental retardation*) have come to be generally accepted. 3. Anatomical and neuro-imaging findings 3A. ANATOMIC DISTRIBUTION The pattern and extent of the motor disorder in CP with respect to different anatomical areas should be specified. Previous classification schemes included only the extremities and required a subjective comparison of severity in the arms and the legs. The inherent validity of making this comparison has been questioned since the arms and legs are so structurally and functionally diverse. Notably missing from current anatomical classification schemes is description of truncal and bulbar involvement. All body regions trunk, each limb, and oropharyx need to be described individually in terms of any impairments of movement or posture. A scale for describing truncal posture in cerebral palsy has recently been developed. ix Separate objective classification schemes have also been developed for the upper and lower extremities. It is acknowledged that the terms diplegia and quadriplegia have been extensively used for determining the anatomic distribution of the motor disorder and have become firmly entrenched in research and clinical practice, The severity of involvement in the arms (ranging from none to less that that of the legs ) has been used as the main characteristic for making this distinction which is problematic as stated above. Gorter et al. have documented the imprecision of these terms in clinical practice. x It is recommended that the terms diplegia and quadriplegia not be used until more precise terminology evolves and gains similar acceptance. *UK usage: learning disabilities. Those who continue to use these terms should define exactly what is meant by them and the characteristics the terms describe. A promising alternative approach that has been recommended, and which is being utilized currently by the SCPE, is the differentiation of unilateral versus bilateral motor involvement. Categorization based on this distinction has shown good reliability (SCPE manual 1 ). Even this distinction can still be blurred since many children with primarily unilateral CP may also have some degree of motor involvement on the opposite side and some children with primarily bilateral involvement may have appreciable asymmetry across sides. This distinction should be considered as part of a multiaxial classification scheme, thus it should be coupled with a description of the motor disorder and functional motor classification in both upper and lower extremities. 3.B. NEURO-IMAGING FINDINGS Until recently, correlations between neuroimaging findings and clinical presentation in cerebral palsy were weak. However, advances both in imaging technology and in quantitative motor assessments are changing this picture. The goal of categorizing all patients based on specific neuroimaging findings will require more development before implementation. The recommendation of the American Academy of Neurology to obtain neuroimaging findings on all children with cerebral palsy should be followed whenever feasible. xi At present, information is insufficient to recommend any specific classification scheme for neuroimaging findings. 4. Cause and timing It is increasingly apparent that cerebral palsy may result from the interaction of multiple risk factors, and in many cases, no identifiable cause may be found. Therefore, while every reasonable effort should be undertaken to investigate causes or causal pathways, clear-cut categorization by cause is unrealistic at the present time. It is possible that by looking further downstream from putative cause to common mechanisms of injury, and by grouping cases on that basis, a more salient method of classification may be developed. For the present, timing of insult should only be noted when reasonably firm evidence indicates that the causative agent, or a major component of the cause, was operative in a specific time-window, as for example, with post-natal meningitis in a previously well infant. While recording adverse events in the prenatal, perinatal and postnatal life of a child with CP is necessary, clinicians should avoid making the assumption that the presence of such events is sufficient to permit an etiologic classification that implies a causal role for these events in the genesis of CP in the affected individual. References i. Cans C. (2000) Surveillance of cerebral palsy in Europe: a collaboration of cerebral palsy surveys and registers. Dev Med Child Neurol 42: ii. NINDS Workshop on Classification and Definition of Disorders Causing Hypertonia in Childhood. news_and_events/hypertonia_meeting_2001.htm iii. Sanger TD, Delgado MR, Gaebler-Spira D, Hallett M, Mink JW. (2003) Task Force on Childhood Motor Disorders: Classification and definition of disorders causing hypertonia in childhood. Pediatrics 111(1): e Definition and Classification of CP April 2006 Peter Rosenbaum et al. 13

15 Workshop Presentations Classification of cerebral palsy: paediatric perspective ALLAN COLVER, PROFESSOR OF COMMUNITY CHILD HEALTH Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Epidemiologists and clinicians should use the same broad definition and classification of cerebral palsy (CP). As clinicians make the diagnosis, they should lead on classification but the epidemiologist must temper such ideas so they are applicable to the whole population, not just a subgroup which present to one type of paediatrician or neurologist. Where clinicians want detailed sub-classification, this also needs epidemiological advice if we are to be confident that different clinicians, when using the same word, mean the same thing. A classification must be agreed, precise, and reliable. From 1990 in Northern England, the functional difficulties and type of CP a child has have been recorded by us on a population-based register of children with CP. We realized that we were using the conventional CP classification terms differently. I shall illustrate this with respect to the term diplegia. For some clinicians, diplegia meant there should be no functional loss in upper limbs. For others, functional loss in upper limbs was allowed but severe 4-limb involvement with mental retardation could not be diplegia, even if lower limbs were more involved than upper limbs. For more still, truncal control was a defining feature. We undertook a literature review and realized that definitions have changed over the decades, some being descriptive, some syndromic; and that there were large variations between countries in their proportions of diplegia, suggesting the term was used differently (Table I). Also, there was no overall association between preterm birth and diplegia; in some countries there was an association but one wondered if being preterm in say Sweden meant that the label diplegia was more likely to be used because of their belief in a characteristic syndrome of preterm birth and diplegia the association therefore being self-fulfilling. The issue of severity is important in studying trends in rates of CP. We need to be confident that cases are being counted in the same way in different years and in different places. In any non-deteriorating condition there may be mild cases that are never ascertained or where there is diagnostic uncertainty. These could yield larger differences in apparent rates over time or between places than any change in underlying rate. For instance, in CP there may be diagnostic uncertainty between mild CP and clumsiness or children with very mild hemiplegia may never present or may present at a much older age and would not be counted by a register ascertaining up to 5 years of age. It would be more reliable to compare rates of CP over time or between places by functional severity of Gross Motor Functional Classification System (GMFCS) of level II or worse, for example, than just counting cases of CP. How should we represent and measure severity? Although felt tone or briskness of reflexes are essential for diagnosis, they cannot be used for severity grading as they are subjective and vary considerably at different times or in different settings. What does lower limb more involved than upper limb actually mean when upper and lower limbs are responsible for different functions? A simple classification of spastic CP determined by the limb s functionally involved is attractive because it will not make assumptions about cause or constellations of features that are so prone to subjectivity. To this should be added a functional severity grading and the GMFCS and Bi-Manual Fine Motor Function have been developed for lower and upper limb function respectively. Table I: Proportions of cerebral palsy subtypes Study Duration Number Number Spastic Unilateral Diplegia as Bilateral Diplegia as of cases of spastic cases as spastic as percentage of spastic as percentage of of CP cases of CP percentage percentage of spastic cases percentage of bilateral of all cases spastic cases spastic cases spastic cases North Italy Denmark North England Northeast England Avon, England Mersey, England Atlanta, USA Sweden England & Scotland Slovenia Western Australia Rome, Italy Northern Ireland Norway Oxford, England Averaged percentage Range Workshop Presentations 15

16 In respect of therapy, function has long been the goal but here there is also a need for a change in outlook. Physiotherapy, botulinum toxin, and surgery have not brought the substantial improvements that had been hoped. Indeed what do we mean by useful or significant improvement? Just as physicians use the term diplegia in different ways, physicians, surgeons, therapists, teachers, children, and parents also use terms such as useful in different ways, with different perspectives and no common language. Botulinum may make a limb less stiff but should reduced stiffness be a primary aim? How does one balance the effort to improve the function of a limb against the improvement in lifestyle achievable by providing a wheelchair or ensuring all parts of a school are on the ground floor or have lift access? The International Classification of Function, Disability and Health (ICF) provides the necessary conceptual framework to explore such issues. There are four components to the classification: Body structure and function, Activity, Participation, and Environmental factors. It defines Participation as involvement in life situations. This concept applies to all people, not just those with disabilities. It has positive, rather than negative, connotations and the difficulties are understood to reside in the interaction between the individual and their environment and not in the individual alone. The ICF recognizes that improvement may be achieved through manipulation of a child s environment and therapy requiring a change in the child s body. Therefore, the classification is in agreement with the social model of disability. We need to establish the level at which each child is participating and in which areas they would most like to see improvement. The ICF also recognizes the importance of Quality of Life (QoL), a person s subjective account of how they feel about their life, including their view of their own Participation. There are now instruments such as KIDSCREEN, KINDL, TACQOL, and PEDSQL which are capable of capturing this subjective QoL in childhood. So a classification of children with CP should have: The CP type Associated impairments The functional effect across trunk and limbs The child s participation The child s quality of life. Classification of cerebral palsy: clinical therapist s perspective DIANE L DAMIANO PHD PT Washington University, St Louis MO, USA Therapists are not responsible for diagnosing cerebral palsy (CP); rather they are most concerned with recommending or providing the best treatment for individual patients and their families from the standpoint of motor functioning and participation. Therefore, the challenge posed to the group on the behalf of therapists was this: to develop a more accurate and informative diagnosis (better definition) and classification of the motor disability in CP that would ultimately lead to improved treatment prescriptions and functional outcomes. Physical therapy has been at the forefront of the management of CP for several decades. The present day clinical reality is that most children with non-specific, non-progressive motor disabilities qualify for and receive at least some therapy services. However, a one-size fits all approach belies the tremendous heterogeneity in this population in terms of clinical presentations and levels of disability. Changes in definition and classification are likely to not only affect what types of services are delivered, but also who receives services, how many services they may receive, how frequently, and for how long. In this time of increasing accountability and limited resources, it is important to everyone that therapy services are more judiciously allocated, and that those delivered are more efficient and effective. From a therapist s perspective, the term cerebral palsy and its definition as a disorder of motor coordination resulting from an injury to the developing brain are too vague and inclusive. It is disconcerting as a non-diagnosing clinician to find that, in some cases, the diagnosis of CP may be uncertain (e.g. called CP because no other cause identified), unjustifiably delayed which may delay services, or even perhaps incorrect (e.g. no evidence of brain injury). Since the diagnosis is directly related to prognosis, a more timely and accurate diagnosis would lead to earlier development and implementation of more realistic treatment plans. Most existing definitions also fail to acknowledge the very clinically pertinent fact that CP is not a single disease with a clear etiology, such as Down syndrome and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, but is instead a collection of often diverse movement disorders, each of which may require different intervention strategies. This reality underscores the importance of developing a classification system that differentiates these disorders more accurately for both clinical and research purposes. Also with respect to classification, a therapist s perspective is that it would be most beneficial if patient groupings were more closely linked to treatment paradigms and ultimately to outcomes. Existing classification schemes are helpful but inadequate. For example, the anatomical classification potentially indicates where to focus treatment efforts. The physiological classification of the tone disorder can also be informative for treatment decisions, but begins to break down if the identified tone abnormality is not contributing to the motor disability or if mixed hypertonia exists. A more recently established classification scheme, the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) 1 was a major step forward for the field, perhaps especially for physical therapists since it focuses primarily on differentiating children with CP based on functional mobility irrespective of the type or distribution of the motor disorder. The GMFCS also predicts future mobility and thereby facilitates more realistic goal setting with therapists and families. It is important to note that since GMFCS levels are based on mobility and not physiology, knowing the level alone is insufficient for making specific treatment recommendations. Several biomechanical classifications have also been published in CP whereby patients are grouped by motor patterns in an explicit attempt to link these to treatment. 2,3 The assumption that similar motor patterns may have similar etiologies and responses to treatments is arguable but plausible and may have considerable relevance to physical therapy practice, but more research is needed to validate and refine these. In summary, this therapist s perspective is that definitions and classifications of CP should be refined to reflect the rapidly accumulating new knowledge in the areas of brain imaging, neurophysiology, biomechanics, outcomes research, and views on disability and health. More precise diagnoses 16 Definition and Classification of CP

17 and links from pathology to patient s priorities for treatment need to be established. While motor disability is the hallmark of CP, therapists are well aware that other concurrent conditions can confound or even eclipse the motor disorder and must be included in these schemes. Finally, a futuristic hope is that progressive refinement of definitions and classifications will pave the way for new thinking in the treatment of childhood brain injury. Greater understanding of the brain disorder and its capacity for development and recovery are critical for any chance of restorative therapies or potential cures. References 1. Palisano RJ, Hanna SE, Rosenbaum PL, Russell DJ, Walter SD, Wood EP, Raina PS, Galuppi BE.(2000) Validation of a model of gross motor function for children with cerebral palsy. Phys Ther 80: Rodda JM, Graham HK, Carson L, Galea MP, Wolfe R. (2004) Sagittal gait patterns in spastic diplegia. J Bone Joint Surg Br 86: Winters TF Jr, Gage JR, Hicks R. (1987) Gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia in children and young adults. J Bone Joint Surg Am 69: Cerebral palsy rejected, refined, recovered OLAF DAMMANN A,B,C, KARL C K KUBAN D a Division of Newborn Medicine, Dept. of Pediatrics, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, USA. b Perinatal Infectious Disease Epidemiology Unit, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. c Neuroepidemiology Unit, Depts. of Neurology, Children s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA. d Division of Pediatric Neurology, Dept. of Pediatrics, Boston University, Boston, USA. The 2004 Bethesda Conference on the Definition and Classification of Cerebral Palsy (CP) was clearly a milestone in CP research administration in that it not only gathered a large number of clinicians and researchers to discuss CP issues, but also sparked quite some discussion afterwards, both on the Castang Foundation website (www.castangfoundation.net/ workshops_washington_public.asp) and in these pages. As one of the participants who did not make a formal presentation at the meeting (OD) and one who was invited but could not attend (KK), we are grateful for the opportunity to offer our thoughts in this essay. In what follows, we discuss some of the most difficult issues in CP definition and classification, which make us believe that one remarkable result of the meeting is that we still have the term CP. CP rejected: Part of the discussion on the definition of CP at the Bethesda conference revolved around the question, Is there one such thing as CP? Yes, although some of us use the term CP rather loosely in everyday developmental neurospeak, we still need to define our terminology rather exactly. In light of the considerable difficulties to agree on a simple and straightforward definition of CP, at the 2004 Bethesda meeting one of us light-heartedly suggested to just drop the term CP altogether, while adding that this might be almost impossible given the longstanding tradition of the term. One might anticipate that what would happen to CP would be just like what happened to the American pop artist who in 1994 officially abandoned his name and was subsequently called The artist formerly known as Prince. Thus, we feel (seriously) reluctant to give up the term entirely, although we clearly subscribe to the view that CP is not one disease 1. Still, we would like to offer the following thoughts how the concept of CP could be refined. CP refined: The etymology of the term CP is much more straightforward than the current discussion about the concept CP would make one think. Cerebral stands for related to the cerebrum, i.e., the larger one of the two brains we have. Palsy is an abbreviation for paralysis, which in turn refers to impaired motor function. Thus, the actual meaning of the term CP is rather descriptive, general, and overarching maybe a bit too descriptive, general, and overarching for some. Indeed, the oft-quoted Martian arriving on earth being confronted with this meaning of CP might be prepared to use it for anyone with a brain-related movement disorder or even the exceptionally clumsy child or the child with extremely lax ligaments. Better descriptors are needed, such as those that indicate topography and character of the motor disability, and conditioners, such as non-progressive. Assuming that the term CP will continue being used, is there a way to make the definition (and, thereby, the diagnosis) more homogeneous and more meaningful? If CP is purely based on characteristics of the motor impairment, regardless of when the impairment occurred (prenatal, postnatal, and childhood), a broad diversity of underlying etiologies will render CP a grab bag of disorders. Alternatively, we propose that the appellation CP should be reserved for disorders that (1) affect the motor system and (2) are acquired prior to completion of the neonatal period. Post-neonatal acquired motor disability ought to be relegated to a non-cp category specific to a cause and an outcome (traumatic injury, cerebrovascular accident, meningitis, HIV, etc., leading to quadriplegia, hemiplegia, etc.). We are aware that it may be rather difficult to establish that a particular case of CP occurred prior to the end of the neonatal time period, particularly when the symptoms or signs that lead to the diagnosis may occur only weeks, months, or years later. However, the absence of a post-neonatal sentinel event, particularly with appropriate support from neuroimaging, should help make the proper diagnosis. Keeping CP (of fetal/neonatal onset) and (post-neonatal) non-cp motor disability separate might not only help clinicians, but it might also help promote research into preventive strategies. As an overarching term for both, one might start using acquired developmental encephalopathy. We have three reasons to suggest that the current classification recommendations are likely to diminish descriptive precision, which will, in turn, lead to oversimplification of different CP forms, make it more difficult to compare research study populations, and make discussions with parents about prognosis and potential comorbidities more difficult. Firstly, the classification system for CP offered in the April 2006 consensus paper recommends that the clinical description begins with detail about the character of the motor impairment (e.g. spastic), followed by a description of the severity, followed by a description of the comorbid and epiphenomological findings (e.g. musculoskeletal problems), and finally by a description of the parts of the body involved (topography). We think that the order of description should follow the order of clinical evaluation. Thus, we suggest that Workshop Presentations 17

18 the topography of the disability should be described first, not last. The qualitative aspect of the motor disorder should then be detailed, followed by a statement of severity and, finally, the presence of comorbidities and complications of the motor disorder (e.g. orthopedic-musculoskeletal problems). Secondly, the issue of topography was de-emphasized by the panel with a recommendation that the term spastic diplegia (and quadriplegia) be dropped from the CP lexicon. The panel recommended that CP topographic description should be limited to a statement of either 2 or 4 extremity involvement. The neurologist relies, at least in part, on the gradation, severity, and symmetry of the topography in order to localize the lesion and infer structure-function relations. Severity of CP, as assessed by the Gross Motor Functional Classification System, is significantly associated with topography. 2 Moreover, there are ample data that enable the clinician to prognosticate about the risk of developing comorbid conditions and the likelihood of resolution of CP symptoms depending on whether lower extremities are affected more than upper extremities (diplegia), are affected to the same degree as upper extremities (quadriplegia), or if one upper extremity is more substantially involved than its lower counterpart (hemiplegia). 3 Why do away with a system that enhances the ability to prognosticate? Lastly, the consensus panel recommends that the character of the motor impairment be described by only a single dominant type of tone or movement abnormality. This suggestion serves to perpetuate imprecision in CP description and diagnosis, and is likely to inhibit consideration of alternative diagnoses and treatment options. Co-occurrence of spasticity and dystonia is common, and when they co-occur, comorbidities are more severe, likelihood of normalization is reduced, 3 and there is diminished response to some treatments, such as dorsal rhizotomy. 4 Spasticity and dystonia are distinguishable, even when occurring in the same individual, and the presence of each informs about lesion localization, which, in turn, may help in understanding antecedents and pathophysiology. Postscript: CP recovered: Could we do without the term CP? Decades of clinical and scientific work in the field have yielded a vast literature and experiential discourse about CP. We run CP clinics, perform CP research, and consider ourselves CP epidemiologists. What would we do without the term CP and what might be a better one that could serve as its replacement, in light of the longstanding history of concept and terminology? In essence, we believe that replacement would leave us stuck with the disorder formerly known as CP. When the artist formerly known as Prince more recently returned to calling himself just Prince, some responded to the confusion by referring to him as the artist formerly known as the artist formerly known as Prince. Both the concept of CP and the term CP deserve a better fate. Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful for Michael O Shea s comments on an early version of this manuscript and for support from the Wilhelm-Hirte Stiftung (Hannover, Germany), the National Institutes of Health (NS040069), and the European Union (LSHM- CT ). References 1. Ferreiro DM. (1999) Cerebral palsy: diagnosing something that is not one thing. Curr Opin Pediatr 11: Gorter JW, Rosenbaum PL, Hanna SE, Palisano RJ, Bartlett DJ, Russell J, Walter SD, Raina P, Galuppi BE, Wood E. (2004) Limb distribution, motor impairment, and functional classification of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 46: Nelson KB, Ellenberg JH. (1982) Children who outgrew cerebral palsy. Pediatrics 69: Kim HS, Steinbok P, Wickenheiser D. (2006) Predictors of poor outcome after selective dorsal rhizotomy in treatment of spastic cerebral palsy. Childs Nerv Syst 22: The brain imaging perspective OLOF FLODMARK MD PHD FRCPC Department of Neuroradiology and MR Research Centre, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden The power of neuroimaging in revealing the cause of cerebral palsy (CP) is now well accepted. Imaging using various imaging modalities shows pathology in 77%, when computed tomography (CT) is used, and in 89% when magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is employed. 1 Neuroradiology is capable of defining different kinds of brain pathology including various congenital malformations and different destructive lesions in white and grey matter. The traditional way to define the timing of an insult and subsequent brain injury responsible for CP is to define an injury as being either pre-, peri-, or postnatal in origin. However, neuroradiology has demonstrated that the morphology of a certain lesion is dependent on the maturation of the brain at the time of the insult. Selective vulnerability in different parts of the brain during different stages of brain development is of greater importance in determining the brain pathology than the type of insult. Thus, it is more logical to relate a certain type of brain injury to the known time window during which this particular lesion is known to occur, than to relate the injury to the time of birth. Thus, it is possible that neuroradiological definition of a specific lesion and the time window during this lesion is known to occur, contradicts the clinical impression of cause and effect in CP. This may have important medical legal implications as well as being of importance in the treatment and rehabilitation of a child with CP. Although timing of an insult is the most important factor in determining the pattern of pathology, the duration and severity of the insult are other important factors. Thus profound asphyxia causes lesions different from those due to partial hypoxia in the mature brain but also in the immature brain before 34 gestational weeks. Timing and pathology: The finding of a congenital malformation by MR is usually indicative of an injury during the first half of the pregnancy. Detailed classification of the malformation may further limit the period during which the insult has operated. An abnormality of cleavage, e.g. holoprosencephaly is a very early lesion, 4th to 6th week, 2 while an abnormality of cortical organization, e.g. polymicrogyria is an example of a very late lesion which may occur as late as 20 gestational weeks or later, depending on specific type. 3 Neuroradiological demonstration of primary white matter damage, e.g. periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) or periventricular haemorrhagic infarction (PVH) represents residual from insults operating between 24 and 34 gestational weeks. While the lower limit, 24 weeks, may be difficult to define, it appears as if the later limit 34 gestational weeks is unusually 18 Definition and Classification of CP

19 well defined. It is not difficult to find statements in the literature, textbooks in particular, saying that PVL can occur even later than 34 gestational weeks. However, the scientific support for this opinion is weak and most reports refer to cases in which the findings were detected and the diagnosis of PVL made after a full-length pregnancy but without solid evidence when the damage indeed occurred. When found in a neonate born at term, PVL should be considered as having occurred in utero. It has been proposed that PVH is more common in the more immature fetus or the very prematurely born neonate while PVL, particularly if posterior in location, is more common closer to 34 gestational weeks. Hence, anterior white matter damage should be a sign of an earlier insult than posterior damage. This hypothesis has been tested against another independent way to determine the level of maturity at the time of injury and found to probably be valid. 5 When the brain reaches a maturity close to term, grey matter is more sensitive to injury than white matter. Two principally different patterns are recognized, damage to central grey matter structures and cortical damage. Bilateral symmetrical damage to thalami, posterior putamen, and Rolandic cortex has been described as being caused by profound asphyxia in the mature brain. 6 Diffuse damage to cortical structures is thought to be the result of partial hypoxia close to term. 7 Focal cortical damage, most often in the territory of the middle cerebral artery, is on the other hand thought to be related to hereditary or acquired thrombophilias and environmental factors. 8,9 Motor dysfunction and associated disability: The diagnosis of CP always involves a motor deficit. However, some of the lesions found to be responsible for the motor deficit in CP may also cause other problems, either associated or in isolation without concurrent motor deficit. Thus, knowledge about the underlying brain lesion may define individuals with a certain kind of destructive brain lesion with associated handicap but without CP. This observation highlights the importance of considering expanding the concept of CP to not only include children with motor deficit but also include children with cognitive disability and no motor disability. Systematic use of neuroimaging in populations at risk for developing CP have shown that children born preterm have neuroradiological findings of PVL in 32% while only 9% had CP. 10 Jacobson and her group have shown that children with PVL may have significant symptoms with visual cognitive defects from their brain injury even without motor deficits. 11,12 At the same time precise relationships between morphological lesions and motor disability has been shown using sophisticated analysis of conventional and functional MR. 13,14 It is important to recognize the strength of using neuroimaging not only in establishing the lesion responsible for the motor dysfunction of CP but also to establish the precise relationship between morphology and function, being motor or more cognitive functions. 15 Neuroimaging will be of great importance when the concept of CP has to be expanded to include other kinds of disability than those of pure motor dysfunction. While neonatal imaging is often difficult to interpret and may give false impressions about the final pathology, clinicians and epidemiologists must accept and integrate the objective information available from neuroimaging in late follow-up of CP. Such imaging represents in vivo pathology and will, in most cases of CP, give clear information about the lesion behind CP and may also in some lesions demonstrate a clear relationship between pathology and functional deficit. Knowledge about underlying pathology is also vital for the therapist when choosing the most appropriate rehabilitation efforts and when discussing with parents the prognosis of therapeutic interventions References 1. Ashwal S, Russman BS, Blasco PA, Miller G, Sandler A, Shevell M, Stevenson R. (2004) Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy. Neurology 62: Friede RL. (1989) Developmental Neuropathology. Springer Verlag, p Barkovich AJ, Kuzniecky RI, Jackson GD, Guerrini R, Dobyns WB. (2001) Classification system for malformation of cortical development: update Neurology 57: Krägeloh-Mann I, Petersen D, Hagberg G, Vollmer B, Hagberg B, Michaelis R. (1995) Bilateral spastic cerebral palsy MRI pathology and origin. Analysis from a representative series of 56 cases. Dev Med Child Neurol 38: Jacobson L, Hård A-L, Svensson E, Flodmark O, Hellström A. (2003) Optic disc morphology may reveal timing of insult in children with periventricular leukomalacia and/or periventricular haemorrhage. Br J Opthalmology 87: Krägeloh-Mann I, Helber A, Mader I, Staudt M, Wolff, M, Groenendall F, De Vries L. (2002) Bilateral lesions of thalamus and basal ganglia: origin and outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol 44: Barkovich AJ, Truwit CL. (1990) Brain damage from perinatal apshyxia: correlation of MR findings with gestational age. AJNR 11: Nelson KB, Lynch JK. (2004) Stroke in newborn infants. Lancet Neurol 3: Truwit CL, Barkovich AJ, Koch TK, Ferriero DM. (1992) Cerebral palsy: MR findings in 40 patients. AJNR 13: Olsén P, Vainionpää L, Pääkkö E, Korkman M, Pyhtinen J, Järvelin MR. (1998) Psychological findings in preterm children related to neurological status and magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatrics 102: Jacobson L, Lundin S, Flodmark O, Ellström KG. (1998) Periventricular leukomalacia causes visual impairment in preterm children. Acta Opthalmol Scand 76: Jacobson L, Dutton G. (2000) Periventricular leukomalacia: an important cause of visual and ocular motility dysfunction in children. Surv Ophthalmol 45: Staudt M, Niemann G, Grodd W, Krägeloh-Mann I. (2000) The pyramidal tract in congenital hemiparesis: relationship between morphology and function in periventricular lesions. Neuropediatrics 31: Staudt M, Pavlova M, Böhm S, Grodd W, Krägeloh-Mann I. (2003) Pyramidal tract damage correlates with motor dysfunction in bilateral periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). Neuropediatrics 34: Bax M, Tydeman C, Flodmark O. (2006) Clinical and MRI correlates of cerebral palsy: The European Cerebral Palsy Study. JAMA 296: Classification of cerebral palsy: neuropathologist s perspective FLOYD H GILLES Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neurology, Children s Hospital, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Wallenberg probably first used the term cerebral palsy (CP) in 1886 when he summarized clinical and anatomic aspects of Infantile Cerebral Palsy. Thereafter, Lovett, Osler, and Freud used the term. The necessary underlying anatomical knowledge had been accumulating for many centuries, but was brought together in the 18th century after Malpighi Workshop Presentations 19

20 introduced the microscope to medicine in the 17th century. Early in the 19th century, many pathologists recognized the specific lesions underlying CP, but it wasn t until late in the 19th century that the association between clinical deficit and specific variety of CP was made. Anatomical investigation of cerebral lesions resulting in diplegia, hemiplegia, and tetraplegia, with or without a movement disorder, didn t become serious until the first quarter of the 19th century when Cazauvielh and Cruveilhier separately recognized bulk lesions involving both gray and white matter. For instance, an overall small brain was associated with CP or cerebral hemiatrophy with contralateral hemiplegia. Cavitary lesions, such as single large cysts or numerous small cysts, were soon set apart. In the middle of the 19th century, lobar sclerosis was recognized. Türck, Turner, and Cotard described anterograde degeneration in the crus, pons, and pyramids and crossed cerebellar atrophy. They also distinguished lobar sclerosis and lesions in the distributions of specific arterial beds. Little (1862) ascribed abnormalities in the upper half of the brain to neonatal asphyxia. Parrot, Moebius, Vivius, Herschfeld, Hlava, and Schmorl completed many studies of focal white matter necroses between 1862 and the end of the century. Herschfeld identified infection as an antecedent of focal necroses. In the last half of the century, Heschl and Kundrat used the name porencephaly and distinguished between two varieties of pori: (1) those that cut across previously formed gyri; and (2) those in which gyri pointed in a radial fashion into the defect. The walls of some pori contained hemosiderin and a role for bleeding into the brain was identified. Sarah McNutt distinguished bilateral paracentral gyral atrophy. Orth described bilirubin staining of brain, but the anatomic details of kernicterus were not identified until Schmorl in Regions of multiple small cysts were labeled multicystic encephalomalacia. Freud separated neurological anomalies following preterm birth from those following birth at term. He said that preterm birth predisposes to paraplegic forms of cerebral diplegia three times more than general rigidity. In the first half of the 20th century, cortical dysplasias (migration abnormalities, e.g. ectopias, heterotopias [nodular or laminar]), pachygyria, lissencephaly, polymicrogyria, sclerotic microgyria, borderzone lesions, basal ganglia status marmoratus, and thalamic sclerosis were added, as well as additional information concerning the residue of infarcts in specific arterial supply beds. Polymicrogyria in the walls of the second variety of porencephaly was recognized. Upper spinal cord lesions mimicking diplegia clinically were found. In the second half of the 20th century, a new class of lesions was differentiated. These lesions were predominantly located in hemispheral white matter with absent or minimal neuronal damage and consisted of widespread proliferation of astrocytes. Less prevalent are focal white matter necroses described a century earlier. Both sets of lesions are followed by hypoplasia of white matter. However, hypoplasia of white matter sometimes occurs without either of these abnormalities. Rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, and toxoplasmosis left cavitary or other cerebral defects. Table I: Classification of lesions associated with cerebral palsy Upper spinal cord lesions Bulk abnormalities: Microcephaly Hemimegalencephaly Lobar sclerosis Acquired abnormalities of gray and white matter: Pori Multicystic encephalomalacia Embolic/thrombotic lesions in specific arterial distributions Borderzone lesions Girdle atrophy (paracentral cortex) Sclerotic microgyria (ulegyria) Acquired abnormalities of white matter alone: Focal necroses White matter astrocytosis Hypoplastic white matter Delayed myelination Malformations: Some cases of holoprosencephaly Nodular or laminar heterotopias Pachygyria Pori with gyri pointing to the defect Micropolygyria Lissencephaly Table II: Central nervous system abnormalities in individuals with cerebral palsy Year Investigator Cerebral Palsy 1886 Wallenberg Summarized clinical and anatomic aspects of infantile cerebral palsy and used the term 1888 Lovett Used term cerebral palsy 1888 Osler Used term cerebral palsy 1893 Freud Infantile cerebral diplegia 1897 Freud History of cerebral palsy; emphasized prematurity in association with diplegia; Spent much of his book discussing lesions acquired during development and failure of development and developmental retardation, but apparently did not recognize malformations of the brain as we understand them today. Explained CP spasticity by pyramidal tract secondary atrophy in brainstem and cord Anatomical Knowledge 1700s Malpighi Introduced microscope to medicine 1717 Leeuwenhoek Nerve fiber and axon 1761 Morgagni Lesions of one hemisphere result in contralateral paralysis 1781 Fontana Nerve fiber and axon 1799 Bichat Brought histology to pathology 1809 Rolando Cerebrum controls motor function Gall Pyramid. Functional localization in brain; 1820s Achromatic Compound Microscope introduced 1833 Ehrenberg Microscopic structure of nerve cell and fiber 1836 Valentin Nerve cell, its nucleus and nucleolus 1839 Schwann Cell theory and serious use of microscope in neurologic disease 1849 Koelliker Nerve fibers originate from nerve cells 1849 Waller 2nd degeneration 20 Definition and Classification of CP

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