Keralasouthwestern coastal state of India. It has an area of 15,005 square miles (38,863 square kilometres), is a small state, constituting only about 1 percent of the total area of the country. The state Kerala stretches for about 360 miles (580 kilometreskm) along the Malabār Coast on the southwestern side of the Indian peninsula; its width varies from Malabar Coast, varying in width from roughly 20 to 75 miles (30 to 120 km). It is bordered by the states of Karnātaka Karnataka (formerly Mysore) to the north and Tamil Nādu Nadu to the east and by the Arabian Sea to the south and west; it also surrounds Mahe, a segment of the state of Puducherry, on the northwestern coast. The capital is Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum).

Isolated Although isolated from the Indian interior by the mountainous belt of the Western Ghāts, but possessing a long coastline that opens it to foreign influences, Kerala has evolved a unique culture. It is a highly politicized region, but it has a long tradition of religious amity. It is an educationally advanced state with its own language, Malayālam, and it has the highest rate of literacy among Indian states. Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status. Some of India’s most isolated tribes persist in Kerala’s wilderness areas.

Physical and human geographyThe landRelief

Ghats, Kerala has been exposed to many foreign influences via its long coastline; consequently, the state has developed a unique culture within the subcontinent, not only with a diverse religious tradition but also with its own language, Malayalam. Also notable is the high social status that continues to be accorded to women of Kerala, owing to the former strength of a matrilineal kinship system. Area 15,005 square miles (38,863 square km). Pop. (2008 est.) 34,232,000.

Land

Relief and drainage

Kerala is a region of great natural beauty. In the eastern part of the state, Anai Peak (8,842 feet [2,695 metres]), the highest peak of peninsular India, crowns the Western

Ghāts

Ghats.

Between the

Descending from the rocky highlands westward toward the coastal plain

and the rocky highlands

is a

sequence of plantation crops: rubber in the foothills and above that coffee and then tea (the latter crop being cultivated at some of the highest elevations in India). A

stretch of farmlands, with different crops cultivated at different elevations. Along the coast, a linked chain of lagoons and backwaters

along the coast, interspersed with vast coconut palm groves,

form the so-called Venice of India. Among the more important rivers that flow to the Arabian Sea

, the more important

are the Ponnani (Bharatapuzha),

Chālakudi

Periyar,

Periyār

Chalakudi, and Pamba.

Climate

The climate of Kerala is equable and varies little from season to season.

The temperature normally ranges from 80° to 90° F (27° to 32° C) on the plains but drops to about 70° F (21° C) in the highlands. Kerala

Throughout the year, daily temperatures usually rise from the low 70s F (low 20s C) into the 80s F (27 to 32 °C). The state is directly exposed to the southwest monsoon, which prevails from July through September, but it also receives rain from the reverse (northeast) monsoon

. Rainfall

, which blows in October and November. Precipitation averages about

118

115 inches (3,000

millimetres

mm) annually statewide, with some slopes receiving more than 200 inches (5,000 mm).

Plant and animal life

The

state’s riverine and montane rain forests, tropical deciduous forests, and upland temperate grasslands are inhabited by an extraordinary variety of wildlife, including the sambar deer, gaur (wild bison), Nilgiri tahr, elephant, leopard, tiger, bonnet monkey, the rare lion-tailed macaque, the Hanuman and Nilgiri langurs, spectacled and king cobras, peafowl, and hornbill. The Periyār Tiger Reserve is the largest wildlife sanctuary, and there are two national parks (Eravikulam and Silent Valley) and several other wildlife sanctuaries.The people

Kerala is the most densely populated state in India. While only about one-fifth of the population is urban, this low proportion is deceptive because of the close proximity of scattered rural houses, especially in the coastal plain. Thus, in parts of the state there are tropical-rural equivalents of megalopolises. The major urban and industrial complexes are Cannanore, Calicut (Kozhikode), Alwaye, Cochin-Ernakulam, Alleppey, and Quilon.

Most Malayālis, the Malayālam-speaking people of Kerala, are of Dravidian ancestry, with some Indo-European admixture representing the ancient so-called Aryan influx. The latter element remains strongest among the Nambūdiri caste of orthodox Hindus. A few tribal people in the mountains may exhibit affinities with the Negrito local race of Southeast Asia.

Kerala has a unique record in India of harmonious coexistence of diverse religions. The majority of the Malayālis are Hindus. There is no conflict between the Dravidian nāga (serpent-god) worship and that of Kālī (the mother goddess) on the one hand and the Hindu pantheon on the other, nor between the rival sects of Śaivism (worship of the god Śiva) and Vaiṣṇavism (worship of the god Vishnu). The small population of Jainas live mainly in the far north. The Jewish community remains a small, exclusive sect; there is an ancient synagogue at Cochin. The Christians, who form more than a third watery coastal zones of Kerala are interspersed with coconut palm groves, while much of the Western Ghats and riverine areas are covered with rainforests and monsoon forests (tropical deciduous forests). Rolling grasslands are typical of the upland region. This diverse natural environment is home to an extraordinary array of wildlife. Mammals include sambar deer, gaurs (wild cattle), Nilgiri tahrs (wild goatlike animals; Hemitragus hylocrius), elephants, leopards, tigers, bonnet monkeys, rare lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus), and Hanuman and Nilgiri langurs (Semnopithecus entellus and Trachypithecus johnii, respectively). King cobras (Ophiophagus hannah) are among the notable reptiles, while peacocks and hornbills are common birds. The state has several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, among which the Periyar National Park and Tiger Reserve is the largest.

People

Population composition

The Malayalis are a group of people of mixed ethnic heritage who speak Malayalam, a Dravidian language; they constitute the majority of the population of Kerala. Most Malayalis are descendants of the early inhabitants of India, the so-called Dravidians (speakers of Dravidian languages), who were driven southward between about 2000 and 1500 BCE when the Aryans (speakers of Indo-Aryan languages) descended into the Indian subcontinent. Over the millennia, there has been much exchange between the two groups. Elements of Indo-Aryan ancestry remain strongest among the Nambudiri, a prominent caste of orthodox Hindus. Also living in Kerala is a significant minority of Tamils, a neighbouring people of Dravidian ancestry.

More than half of Kerala’s residents, including most of the Malayalis, follow Hinduism. About one-fourth of the population practices Islam, with the Moplah (Mapilla) people of the Malabar Coast constituting the state’s largest Muslim community. Christians, who account for nearly one-fifth of the population, belong broadly to the Syrian Orthodox Syrian, and Roman Catholic churches as well as to various Protestant denominations. Kerala also has tiny Jain, and Protestant churches, though each has many sects. While Muslims reside throughout the state, the Mapillas of the Malabār Coast constitute Kerala’s largest Islāmic community.

The economy

Geographic and geologic factors seriously circumscribe the Keralan economy. The amount of arable land is deficient for the needs of the crowded population. The state lacks major deposits of fossil fuels and minerals, except for ilmenite (the principal ore of titanium), rutile (titanium dioxide), and monazite (a mineral consisting of cerium and thorium phosphates), which are found in beach sands. Kerala has great hydroelectric potential, and the Idukki complex is the largest power-generating facility.

The educational system, a developed banking system, and excellent transportion facilities provide optimum conditions for further economic development.

Sikh, Buddhist, and Jewish communities; there is an ancient synagogue in Kochi.

Settlement patterns and demographic trends

Kerala is one of the most densely populated states in India. While only about one-fourth of the population was reported as urban in the early 21st century, such statistics are deceptive because of the close proximity of rural houses, especially in the coastal plain. Indeed, in parts of the state there are densely populated rural equivalents of urban megalopolises. The major urban centres and industrial complexes include Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kollam (Quilon), Alappuzha (Alleppey), Thrissur (Trichur), and Thalassery (Tellicherry).

Economy

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agriculture is the state’s main economic activity. Commercial plantings on less than half of the total land under cultivation earn a sizable amount of foreign exchange but have also necessitated the importation of food for local consumption. Kerala’s principal cash yielders are perennial crops are rubber, coffee, and tea, which are cultivated in plantations on the slopes of the foothills, as well as areca nut, cardamom, cashew nut, coconut, coffee, ginger, pepper, rubber, and tea; the and pepper. The major food crops are annual rice, pulses (e.g., peas and beans), sorghum, and tapioca. Commercial poultry farming is well developed.

The forests yield valuable timbers such as ebony, rosewood, and teak, as well as . In addition, Kerala’s woodlands supply industrial raw materials such as bamboo (used in the paper and rayon industries), wood pulp, charcoal, gums, and resins. Foreigners regularly attend the tea and timber auctions held in Cochin. Kerala ranks first among Indian states in fish production.Most of the population is unaffected by industrialization. Unemployment is acute, and a high level of education among the jobless accentuates the problem. Traditional low-wage cottage industries, such as the processing of coconut fibre and cashews or weaving, employ most workers. More than one-fourth of Kerala’s workers provide services. Food processing is the largest industrial employer. Other products The state is also a national leader in fish production. Sardines, tunas, mackerels, and prawns are among the principal products of the industry.

Resources and power

Kerala lacks major reserves of fossil fuels. However, there are moderate deposits of ilmenite (the principal ore of titanium), rutile (titanium dioxide), and monazite (a mineral consisting of cerium and thorium phosphates), all of which are found in beach sands. Other minerals include limestone, iron ores, and bauxite (the principal ore of aluminum). The state is especially known for its high-quality kaolin (china clay), which is used to make porcelain.

Kerala has great hydroelectric potential, with some two dozen hydroelectric stations operating within the state. Several thermal plants supply additional energy, and in the late 20th century the state began to establish wind farms. Despite its wealth of renewable resources for power generation, Kerala has continued to import some of its electricity from elsewhere in India.

Manufacturing, services, and labour

Aside from agriculture, manufacturing and service activities are important contributors to Kerala’s economy. Traditional cottage industries, such as weaving, the production of coconut fibre, and cashew processing, employ many workers in the manufacturing sector. Of the medium- and large-scale industries, food processing is the principal employer. Other major manufactures include fertilizers, chemicals, electrical equipment, titanium, aluminum, plywood, ceramics, and synthetic fabrics. Banking, finance, and other components of the services sector also employ a significant segment of the state’s workforce. However, unemployment has remained acute, with the state’s high level of education among the jobless exacerbating the problem.

Transportation

Kerala has well-developed road and railway systems. It is connected with the states of Tamil Nādu Nadu and Karnātaka Karnataka by national highways. A railway coming from the east through the Palghāt Palghat Gap in the Western Ghats meets with a railway running from north to south through the state and on to KanniyākumariKanniyakumari, the southernmost town of India. There are three major ports—Calicut, Cochin-Ernakulam, and Alleppey—that handle both is a major port at Kochi and intermediate ports at Kozhikode, Alappuzha, and Neendakara (near Thiruvananthapuram); all handle coastal and foreign traffic. Cochin-Ernakulam Kochi also has major shipyard and oil refining facilities and serves as the a district headquarters for the Indian coast guard and as a regional headquarters for the navycommands. More than 1,100 miles 000 miles (1,600 km) of inland waterways form the main arteries for carrying bulk freight to and from the ports. Trivandrum has an international airport, and Calicut and Cochin have airports for domestic flights.

Administration and social conditionsGovernmentThe administration of Kerala is headed by a governor (appointed

Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikode have international airports; an airport in Kochi offers domestic service.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The structure of the government of Kerala, like that of most other states of India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. Appointed by the president of India

), a Council of Ministers presided over by a chief minister, and a

, the governor is the head of the state and functions on the advice of the chief minister, who is the head of the Council of Ministers. The state has an elected unicameral Legislative Assembly (

Vidhān Sabhā), 140 of whose 141 members are elected. The independent judiciary is hierarchical, with the High Court at the apex

Vidhan Sabha). The High Court in Ernakulam (near Kochi) is headed by a chief justice

. Appeals

; appeals from the High Court may go to the Supreme Court of India.

For provincial administration the

Below the High Court are district courts, subdivisional courts, munsifs’ (subordinate judicial officers’) courts, and munsif-magistrate courts. In addition, there are family courts and other courts that handle particular types of cases.

At the local level, the state is divided into

14

districts

; these

, which in turn are subdivided for revenue purposes into talukas (subdivisions) and villages. Since the mid-20th century, Kerala’s

modern

political experience has largely been one of

unstable government. The

instability, with a proliferation of political parties

has made

and coalition governments

inevitable.

Social issues

Despite being outlawed by the constitution of India, elements of the caste system still prevail. The matrilineal joint family has given way to nuclear families with paternal inheritance. Both polygamy and polyandry were once widespread but today are illegal, with the exception of Muslim polygamy.

Education and welfare

.

Health and welfare

The state maintains a relatively high standard of health service. A comprehensive health insurance plan is available for workers in a number of professions, and free medical treatment is offered in many hospitals, health centres, and dispensaries. Among the top priorities of government health schemes have been the establishment of health care facilities in rural areas, the promotion of family planning, prevention of blindness, and control of communicable diseases such as leprosy, tuberculosis, and malaria.

Education

Kerala has one of the most advanced educational systems and highest levels of literacy in India.

The level of literacy is substantially higher than the national average, roughly four-fifths of the population.

Elementary education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 11. There are primary, middle, and secondary schools, as well as polytechnical and industrial training institutes, arts and science colleges, and professional colleges

, and five universities. The state maintains a relatively high standard of health service. There is, for example, a comprehensive health insurance plan for factory workers as well as free medical treatment in many hospitals, health centres, and dispensaries.Cultural life

Kerala’s cultural heritage contains elements of ancient Hindu culture that have been enriched by centuries of contact with both East and West. The state’s impressive array of . Kerala also has several universities, including the University of Kerala (1937) in Thiruvananthapuram, the University of Calicut (1968) in Kozhikode, Cochin University of Science and Technology (1971) in Kochi, and Kerala Agricultural University (1971) in Thrissur.

Cultural life

The cultural heritage of Kerala reflects extensive interaction with diverse communities from antiquity to the present. With an array of ancient Hindu temples with copper-clad roofs, later

Baroque churches from the Portuguese colonial era, the state’s architecture offers a chronicle of the social, spiritual, and political history of the area. Other characteristically Keralan art forms include intricate paintings on wood, thematic murals, and

an amazing

a remarkable variety of indoor and outdoor lamps (from which the state has earned

Kerala

the sobriquet “Land of

Lamps.”

Lamps”).

Literature and learning, in both Tamil and Sanskrit, have flourished

from

since the 2nd century

AD. The Malayālam

CE; meanwhile, the Malayalam language, though an offshoot of Tamil, has absorbed

the best in

much from Sanskrit and also has a prolific literature. Notable names in

Malayālam

Malayalam poetry are

Tuñchattu Eḷuttaccan and Kuñcan Nampiyār

Tunchattu Eluttaccan and Kuncan Nampiyar among classical poets

,

and Kumaran Asan and Vallathol in the

present

20th century. In 1889 Chandu Menon wrote Indulekha, the first outstanding novel in

Malayālam

Malayalam, for which he received a certificate from Queen Victoria.

The premier modern Malayāli novelist is

Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, who produced hundreds of works before his death in 1999, has remained among the most widely read Malayali novelists.

Most traditional dances of Kerala pertain to the great Indian

epics or

epics—the Mahabharata and the Ramayana—or to the honouring of specific Hindu deities. In kathakali, the classical martial dance

form

-drama of Kerala, male performers portray both male and female characters. By contrast, the

bhārata-nāṭya style

bharata natyam dancing, dating to early Tamil times, is practiced exclusively by females.

History

Kerala is first mentioned (as Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century-BCBCErock inscription left by the Mauryan emperor AśokaAshoka. In the last centuries BCBCEthis region became famous among the Greeks and Romans for its spices (especially pepper). During the first five centuries AD, CEthe region was a part of Tamilākam and Tamilakam—the territory of the Tamils—and thus was sometimes partially controlled by the eastern Pāṇḍya Pandya and Coḷa ( Chola ) dynasties, as well as by the Cēras ( Cheras). In the 1st century ADJewish immigrants arrived, and, according to Syrian Orthodox Christiansbelieve that , St. Thomas the Apostle visited Kerala in the same century.

Much of Kerala’s history from the 6th to the 8th century ADis obscure, but it is known that Arab traders introduced Islām Islam later in the period. Under the Kulaśekhara Kulashekhara dynasty (c. 800–1102)Malayālam , Malayalam emerged as a distinct language, and Hinduism became prominent.

The Coḷas Cholas often controlled Kerala during the 11th and 12th centuries. By the beginning of the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulaśekhara Kulashekhara of the Venad kingdom established a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, Kerala became a conglomeration of warring chieftaincies, among whom which the most important were Calicut (now Kozhikode) in the north and Venad in the south.

The era of foreign intervention began in 1498, when Vasco da Gama landed near Calicut. In the 16th century the Portuguese superseded the Arab traders and dominated the commerce of Malabārthe Malabar Coast. Their attempt to establish sovereignty was thwarted by the zamorin (hereditary ruler) of Calicut. The Dutch ousted the Portuguese in the 17th century. Marṭhanda Marthanda Varma ascended the Venad throne in 1729 and crushed Dutch expansionist designs at the Battle of Kolachel 12 years later. Marṭhanda Marthanda Varma then adopted a European mode of martial discipline and expanded the new Venad domain to encompass what became the southern state of Travancore. His alliance in 1757 with the raja of the central state of Cochin (Kochi), against the zamorin, enabled Cochin to survive. By 1806, however, Cochin and Travancore, as well as Malabār the Malabar Coast in the north, had become subject states under the British Madras Presidency.

Two years after India’s independence was achieved in 1947, Cochin and Travancore were united as Travancore-Cochin state. The present state of Kerala was constituted on a linguistic basis in 1956 when Malabār the Malabar Coast and the Kāsargoḍ Kasargod taluka(administrative subdivision) of South Kanara were added to Travancore-Cochin. The southern portion of the former Travancore-Cochin state was attached to Tamil NāduNadu.