Archaeological investigations in the 20th century indicated that human settlers reached Madagascar about 700 CE. Although the huge island lies geographically close to Bantu-speaking Africa, its language, Malagasy, belongs to the distant Western Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. There are nonetheless a number of Bantu words in the language, as well as some phonetic and grammatical modifiers of Bantu origin. Bantu elements exist in every dialect of Malagasy and appear to have been established for some time.

As a people, the Malagasy represent a unique blend of Asian and African cultural features found nowhere else in the world. Although Asian features predominate on the whole, African ancestry is present and African influences in Malagasy material and nonmaterial culture are evident; the history and precise nature of this relationship, however, remains a matter of debate.

Madagascar from 1500 to c. 1650

Much of Madagascar was populated by internal migration before the beginning of the 16th century, giving the theretofore empty lands their tompontany (original inhabitants, or “masters of the soil”). Yet politically the island remained fragmented. Most of the nearly 20 ethnic groups that make up the modern Malagasy population did not attain any form of “national” consciousness until new political ideas arrived from abroad in the 1500s and began to spread throughout the island. A host of written European accounts from the 16th and early 17th centuries fail to reveal any large state or empire, and few of the Malagasy oral traditions collected since the mid-19th century go back that far in time.

Still, small local states were found at many points along the coast visited by European ships. The capitals were almost always located near river mouths, territorial domains were invariably small, and rulers were independent of one another. Alliances and wars were usually short-lived affairs involving limited economic objectives and little loss of life, and they seldom led to any border adjustments. Economies were pastoral or agricultural, often a mixture of both, and there were no radical differences in wealth. In some areas the rulers appeared to be absolute, while in others elders and priests had the preponderant influence. In one area in southeastern Madagascar, later to become known as Fort-Dauphin (site of the French East India Company fort of that name; present-day Tôlan̈aro), early Europeans believed they had found a Muslim state in existence among the Antanosy people of the region. It was ruled by a “Moorish king” and had an aristocracy with privileges deriving presumably from Islam. Their collective name was Zafindraminia, or “descendants of Raminia,” the ultimate great ancestor.

In the first quarter of the 16th century, Portuguese navigators reported a number of coastal towns in northern Madagascar that were architecturally similar to Kilwa, a once important entrepôt in what is today Tanzania. The towns belonged to an Afro-Arab commercial network in the western Indian Ocean that undoubtedly predated the 16th century. At the town of Vohemar, once the island’s northeastern centre of international trade, the blend of Malagasy and Afro-Arab customs produced an arts-and-crafts tradition that was quite original.

Portuguese explorers who visited the Matitana River valley in southeastern Madagascar witnessed the arrival of a group of Afro-Arabs (“Moors from Malindi”) between 1507 and 1513. Within one or two generations the descendants of this group had intermarried and merged with the local tompontany to form another group known as the Antemoro. By the 1630s the Antemoro had formed a theocratic state, which was the only state in Madagascar at the time to possess written texts. Using the Arabic alphabet, the texts were written in the Malagasy language and were both religious and secular in nature. Proximity to Islam became a major criterion among the Antemoro for the right to rule, and there is little doubt that the four Antemoro sacerdotal clans were far closer to the Muslim faith than were the Zafindraminia of the Fort-Dauphin area. In time, Antemoro holy men, traveling far and wide within Madagascar, came to influence other Malagasy in both religion and government.

Political evolution from 1650 to 1810

Unknown to the early coastal visitors from Europe, new and historically pivotal dynasties were beginning to form in southwestern and central Madagascar toward the mid-16th century. Two of them, the Maroserana in the southwest and the Andriana-Merina in central Madagascar, would go on to create vast empires, each with its own apex and decline, between about 1650 and 1896, the year the French annexed Madagascar. While the Maroserana were able to establish their rulers over several south-central peoples, the most outstanding achievement of the dynasty was the creation of two states in western Madagascar, Menabé and Boina. These states later combined into the Sakalava empire, which controlled most of western Madagascar and several adjacent areas deep inland.

The Sakalava were originally a group of warriors who came into contact with the Maroserana before 1660, the year the Maroserana ruler, King Andriandahifotsy, founded Menabé. Ultimately, “Sakalava citizenship” was extended to hundreds of west-coast clans as the original Sakalava warriors and their descendants intermarried and merged with them. A sense of unity also came from religion, as the Maroserana royals upon death became the sacred ancestors of all Sakalava. The Sakalava empire was ultimately weakened by internal power struggles for the throne, by attempts to substitute Islam for the ancestral cult, and, after 1810, by wars with the Merina, a people of the central plateau already on the way to an empire.

The Betsimisaraka confederation, a quasi-state concurrent with the late Sakalava empire, was a brief but successful attempt in the 18th century to unite the coastal peoples of Madagascar’s eastern littoral. Ruled by Ratsimilaho, son of an English pirate and a Malagasy princess, the viable confederation extended along more than 200 miles of coastline. After Ratsimilaho’s death in 1750, the confederation began an abrupt, though prolonged, disintegration.

The Merina kingdom (Imerina) was founded toward the end of the 16th century in the swampy Ikopa valley on the central plateau. Antananarivo (Tananarive) became its capital. In the 18th century Imerina was divided among four warring kings. One of them, Andrianampoinimerina, who reigned 1787–1810, reunited the kingdom about 1797. He gave it uniform laws and administration and sold slaves to the French on the coast, using the guns he got in return to conquer his neighbours, the Betsileo. Under Andrianampoinimerina, Merina society was divided into a ruling noble class (Andriana), a class of commoners (Hova), and a slave class (Andevo). At Andrianampoinimerina’s death, he left his son a single political ambition: “The sea will be the boundary of my rice field” (i.e., of his kingdom).

Early European contacts

Madagascar is mentioned in the writings of Marco Polo, but the first European known to have visited the island was Diogo Dias, a Portuguese navigator, in 1500. It was called the Isle of St. Lawrence by the Portuguese, who frequently raided Madagascar during the 16th century, attempting to destroy the incipient Muslim settlements there. Other European nations also invaded; in 1642 the French established Fort-Dauphin in the southeast and maintained it until 1674. One of their governors, Étienne de Flacourt, wrote the first substantial description of the island. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Madagascar was frequented by European pirates (among them Captain William Kidd) who preyed upon shipping in the Indian Ocean.

In the 18th century the Mascarene Islands to the east were colonized by the French with the help of Malagasy slaves. Two attempts at fortified settlements failed—one at Fort-Dauphin by the comte de Modave, the other at the Bay of Antongil by Baron Benyowski. However, French trading settlements prospered, notably at Tamatave.

The kingdom of Madagascar

Formation of the kingdom (1810–61)

Andrianampoinimerina’s son, Radama I (1810–28), allied himself with the British governor of the nearby island of Mauritius, Sir Robert Farquhar. In order to prevent reoccupation of the east coast by the French, Farquhar supported Radama’s annexation of the area by supplying him with weapons and advisers and giving him the title “King of Madagascar.” At the same time, Radama agreed to cooperate with Britain’s new campaign to end the slave trade. In 1817 he captured the east-coast town of Tamatave, from which he launched annual expeditions against the coastal populations. He eventually conquered almost the entire east coast, the northern part of the island, and most of the two large Sakalava kingdoms. Only the south and a part of the west remained independent. The French retained only the small island of Sainte-Marie. In addition, Radama invited European workers, and the London Missionary Society spread Christianity and influenced the adoption of a Latin alphabet for the Malagasy language. Radama died prematurely in 1828; he was succeeded by his widow, Ranavalona I, who reversed his policy of Europeanization. She expelled Christian missionaries and persecuted Malagasy converts. A few Europeans maintained external trade and local manufacture, but eventually they also were expelled. The British and French launched an expedition against Ranavalona but were repulsed at Tamatave in 1845. By the time of her death (1861), Madagascar was isolated from European influence.

Outside influences (1861–95)

Ranavalona was succeeded by her son, Radama II, who readmitted the foreigners. English Protestants and French Roman Catholics vied for supremacy, while business proprietors obtained excessive concessions. This policy led to Radama’s overthrow by the Merina oligarchy in 1863. The head of the army, Rainilaiarivony, a Hova, became prime minister and remained in power by marrying three queens in succession: Rasoherina, Ranavalona II, and Ranavalona III. He embarked on a program of modernization, and in 1869 he caused Protestantism to be adopted and suppressed the traditional Malagasy religion. European-style ministries were created and governors set up in the provinces. Villages were supervised by former soldiers. Education was declared obligatory and placed under the direction of the Christian missions. A code of laws was worked out that combined ancient customs with such Western practices as monogamy.

The French began to extend their influence over the Sakalava, and the first “Franco-Merina” war (1883–85) ended with an ambiguous treaty: France was given a settlement at Diégo-Suarez and a resident at Antananarivo, but the institution of a protectorate was temporarily avoided. The succeeding period was marked by disorder and internal strife. In 1890 the British recognized Madagascar as a French protectorate, but Rainilaiarivony refused to submit to French suzerainty. In January 1895, French troops landed at Majunga, and on Sept. 30, 1895, they occupied Antananarivo. The prime minister was exiled. The queen signed a treaty recognizing the protectorate and was maintained on the throne as a figurehead.

The French period

The colonial period (1896–1945)

French occupation soon extended to the entire part of the island conquered by the Merina. But, in Imerina itself, armed guerrilla bands (the Menalamba, or “Red Togas”) resisted modernization and French rule. The French parliament voted the annexation of the island on Aug. 6, 1896, and sent Gen. Joseph-Simon Gallieni first as military commander, then as governor-general. Slavery was abolished. Gallieni put down the insurrection, subdued the oligarchy, and sent the queen into exile on Feb. 27, 1897. In 1898 the old Merina kingdom was pacified. Gallieni then undertook the difficult task of subjugating the independent peoples. Two insurrections, in the northwest (1898) and in the southeast (1904), were quickly put down, and, when he left the island in 1905, unification had been achieved. The Merina governors had been replaced by French administrators, with leaders taken from local peoples. The teaching of French in the schools was made compulsory. Customs duties favoured French products, though Malagasy enterprise was also encouraged. The Tamatave-Antananarivo railroad was begun, roads were built, and a modern health service was inaugurated.

The economic development of the island continued under Gallieni’s successors. The railroad and its branchlines were completed in 1913. A second line, the Fianarantsoa-Manakara, was finished in 1935. Automobile roads increased after 1920, airlines after 1936. The cities and seaports were built up and equipped, and loans were contracted in France. Exports were confined to agricultural products and raw materials for industry. Rice, cassava (manioc), rubber, raffia, meat, and graphite predominated at first. Between World Wars I and II, coffee, vanilla, cloves, and tobacco, introduced by the Europeans and then taken up by native planters, became more important. Three-quarters of all trade was with France. Material aspects of life became Westernized, especially in the cities, and half the population became Christianized.

In 1915 a nationalist secret society, the Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS), was outlawed. In 1920 a teacher, Jean Ralaimongo, launched a campaign in the press to give the Malagasy “subjects” French citizenship and to make Madagascar a French département. When France failed to respond to the demand for assimilation, the movement turned toward nationalism. In 1940 Madagascar, though hesitant at first, rallied to the Vichy government. Then came a blockade, occupation by the British and South Africans (1942), and finally a return to Free France.

The French Union (1946–58)

In the elections of 1945, two Malagasy nationalists were elected to the French parliament. The constitution of 1946, creating the French Union, made Madagascar an overseas territory of the French Republic, with representatives to the Paris assemblies and a local assembly at Antananarivo. Six provincial assemblies were created later. The political struggle erupted into violence on March 30, 1947, with a full-scale insurrection in eastern Madagascar. The leaders of the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renewal (Mouvement Démocratique de la Rénovation Malgache), including the three representatives to the French national assembly, were outlawed. While an official count of lives lost in the revolt records about 11,000 dead, it is certain that thousands more of the Malagasy populace perished from famine, cold, and psychological misery while hiding from both the French army and the insurgents in the island’s inhospitable tropical forests.

A period of political inactivity followed until the 1950s. After the Overseas Territories Law of 1956 gave Madagascar an executive elected by the local assembly, Vice-Premier Philibert Tsiranana founded the Social Democratic Party (Parti Social Démocrate; PSD), which, though most of its members were non-Merina from the coastal areas, offered to cooperate with the Merina. In 1958 France agreed to let its overseas territories decide their own fate. In a referendum on September 28, Madagascar voted for autonomy within the French Community. On Oct. 14, 1958, the autonomous Malagasy Republic was proclaimed; Tsiranana headed the provisional government.

The First Republic (1958–72)

The opposition regrouped under the name Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (Antokon’ny Kongresin’ny Fahaleovantenan’i Madagasikara; AKFM), which included both Protestant Merina dissidents and communists. Antananarivo was the party’s stronghold; it also had some support in the provinces but, owing to the electoral system established by the PSD, held only three seats in the legislature.

The PSD also settled the provincial question: executive power in the local assemblies was vested in a minister delegated by the central government. Tsiranana was elected president of the republic, and he was instrumental in obtaining its independence on June 26, 1960. Tsiranana and the PSD remained in power until 1972. Under his regime, successive development plans were inspired, according to Tsiranana, by a “grassroots socialism” and were aimed at improving the lot of the peasantry. In foreign policy the bond with France remained strong, and close relations were established with the United States, West Germany, Taiwan, South Africa, and other anticommunist powers.

Although Tsiranana was reelected in January 1972, political and labour unrest culminated in an uprising known as the May 1972 revolution. This, coupled with his own poor health, led him to appoint Maj. Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa as prime minister with full powers of government, and the First Republic came to an end.

Transition

A plebiscite on Oct. 8, 1972, confirmed Ramanantsoa as head of government; there was no longer a president after Tsiranana resigned on October 11. The new head of government initiated radically different foreign and domestic policies. Under new agreements with France, French military and naval forces were removed from the island, and all French citizens were treated as aliens. Ties were established with the Soviet Union and other communist nations, and the country was withdrawn from the Franc Zone. In 1973 a rural reorganization program—in which elected committees would sell produce to state-owned companies—was initiated, and the government began to take control of joint French-Malagasy organizations.

In the wake of political and social unrest, on Feb. 5, 1975, Ramanantsoa handed power over to a former minister of the interior, Col. Richard Ratsimandrava. He assumed the titles of president and prime minister but was assassinated six days later. A military directorate was then established; it dissolved on June 15, after naming Lieut. Comdr. Didier Ratsiraka president and head of the Revolutionary Council. A referendum on Dec. 21, 1975, approved Ratsiraka as president under a new constitution that set up the Democratic Republic of Madagascar.

The Second Republic (1975–92)

Ratsiraka was sworn in as president on Jan. 4, 1976. He proceeded to solidify his political control and to continue the economic policies of the Ramanantsoa government, including the nationalization of banks, industries, and services such as the distribution of gasoline and movies, moves that largely affected French interests. He also continued to cultivate closer links with communist countries—a policy he had pursued as foreign minister under Ramanantsoa—and declared Madagascar a Marxist republic; such moves solidified the support of many of Madagascar’s left-wing parties, including the AKFM. In addition, Ratsiraka created a regime party, the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution (Avant-Garde de la Révolution Malagache; AREMA), as the core of the broader National Front for the Defense of the Revolution (Front National pour la Défense de la Révolution; FNDR). Only parties admitted to this umbrella organization were allowed to participate in political activities.

Ratsiraka’s years in power were marked by quarrels within the FNDR, by unrest outside, and by deep-seated economic difficulties. By 1980 the Malagasy government had approached the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for a loan to meet the gap in its balance of payments, and by 1981 it was negotiating for funds to cover payments on its growing international debt. These moves also led to a rapprochement with France, whose government and banks held much of the debt and served as Madagascar’s advocate with other creditors. In spite of the turmoil and economic difficulties, Ratsiraka was reelected president in November 1982.

In his second term in office, Ratsiraka continued to be faced with economic and political challenges. He came under increasing criticism from Madagascar’s powerful Council of Malagasy Churches, and opposition among the capital’s youth manifested in the form of participation in kung fu clubs. These self-defense organizations—inspired by the films of Bruce Lee and a resurgent sense of Asian identity among the Malagasy of the plateau—emerged during the period of economic hardship of the early 1980s and recruited members from a relatively wide base of support that included the unemployed and uneducated, as well as those from middle- and lower-income groups. The martial arts movement had some 10,000 members by 1984 and was rumoured also to have adherents within the army. In response to what was viewed as a growing threat, in late 1984 the government banned the practice of martial arts, which sparked violent protest. In mid-1985 Ratsiraka felt secure enough to take action against the kung fu clubs directly: on the night of July 31, 1985, the army attacked the movement’s headquarters, killing its leader and many others.

Under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank, the Malagasy government embarked on a program of privatization, devaluation of the currency, and cancellation of many government subsidies. The privatizations largely benefited members of the president’s circle, many of whom were able to acquire businesses on advantageous terms. However, the moves were resented by the bureaucracy, which faced a loss of employment, and by the general population, which bore most of the economic hardship.

In February 1989 the main opposition groups joined to form an alliance, and people and organizations that had formerly aligned with the regime began increasingly to withdraw their support. Although Ratsiraka was reelected in March 1989, the election results gave rise to a round of protests that would eventually lead to his ouster and the end of the Second Republic. A call by the Council of Malagasy Churches issued in August 1989 for the removal of socialist vocabulary from the constitution, as well as for an end to the FNDR’s monopoly on political life, received wide support.

The government responded with a series of conciliatory gestures. At first the membership of the FNDR was expanded, and then, in March 1990, the constitution was amended to allow the formation of political groups that were not members of the Front. Another opposition alliance, the Vital Forces (Forces Vives; FV), was created under the leadership of Albert Zafy, a professor at the University of Madagascar. Demonstrations favouring constitutional change were held, and discussions about a possible revision of the constitution continued without yielding any agreement. In June 1991 the FV announced the creation of a provisional countergovernment; this was followed by more demonstrations and a general strike. In August the presidential guard fired upon a demonstration in front of the presidential palace; several people were killed, and others, including Zafy, were wounded. Important aid donors, France among them, called for an end to the instability. A power-sharing agreement between Ratsiraka and the opposition was reached in October and opened the way for negotiations on a new constitution. Under the terms of the power-sharing agreement, Ratsiraka continued as president and Zafy took office as head of a newly created High State Authority.

With the formal ratification of the power-sharing agreement, institutions for the transitional period, including a national forum charged with drafting a constitution for a Third Republic, were put in place. During its deliberations, demonstrations by Ratsiraka supporters arguing for a federal constitution became so violent that the forum was forced to move to a military camp.

The Third Republic

Zafy’s presidency and impeachment

In February 1993 Zafy was elected the first president of the Third Republic. His term of office was marked by a continual instability that stemmed from several factors. First, his coalition of support was composed of several distinct party formations, each of which was headed by someone with more political experience than Zafy. Furthermore, Zafy’s own supporters constituted only a minority in the coalition. Moreover, the National Assembly was extremely fragmented: the largest body of deputies was composed of independents with no party affiliation, many of whom had been elected on the basis of their personal appeal. Even the parties that were represented in the assembly were themselves loose agglomerations. In addition, Zafy’s election had disturbed an informal balance between people of the plateau and the côtiers, the people of the coast, in which the people of the plateau had largely dominated the public administration and the professions while those from coastal groups had dominated politics. With the exception of the short-lived Ramanantsoa and Ratsimandrava regimes, the Malagasy president had always been drawn from a coastal group. Under Zafy’s regime, resentment of this shift of balance led to continued opposition from Ratsiraka supporters in the form of a demand for a federal state.

Madagascar’s pronounced economic difficulties also continued during Zafy’s administration. Economic survival—to say nothing of development—depended on aid from foreign donors, most notably the World Bank and the IMF. However, this placed Zafy at odds with one of his sources of political support, a section of the Malagasy elite that was opposed to dependency on foreign grants, especially when these were made conditional on certain actions on the part of the Malagasy government. They were particularly opposed to the conditions imposed by the World Bank and the IMF for continued privatizations and for further reductions in the size of government and in government subsidies for consumption, measures that would have harmed both the bureaucracy and the urban poor, two groups that had formed the basis of Zafy’s anti-Ratsiraka coalition. In lieu of accepting the IMF’s conditions for the resumption of aid, Zafy unsuccessfully sought private sources of investment.

Zafy attempted to strengthen his position through a referendum intended to allow the president, rather than the National Assembly, to name the prime minister. Although Zafy subsequently appointed a prime minister and a government more to his liking, opposition to his regime and consequent instability continued. By 1996 the opposition to Zafy had reached the point of street demonstrations and demands that he cease playing an active role as president; strikes reminiscent of those that had brought down the Ratsiraka regime continued. In July 1996 the National Assembly voted to impeach Zafy; in September the High Constitutional Court removed him from office and appointed an interim president charged with the task of organizing a presidential election.

Ratsiraka’s return to power

The results of the first round of the subsequent presidential election led to a runoff election between Zafy and Ratsiraka on Dec. 29, 1996. Although Ratsiraka won the election, abstention was high and the total number of valid votes represented only about half the electorate. Ratsiraka’s victory did not signify an end to Madagascar’s political turmoil: because of the narrowness of Ratsiraka’s margin, Zafy and his supporters first contested the election results and then proceeded to hold protests and demonstrations. On Feb. 4, 1998, the National Assembly voted to impeach Ratsiraka, but the vote fell short of the two-thirds majority required for a successful conviction. That same year, Ratsiraka oversaw significant constitutional revisions, including the provision for Madagascar to become a federal state, with a large measure of autonomy conferred on the six existing provinces. The constitutional revisions also strengthened the power of the president.

Both the country’s economic prospects and Ratsiraka’s political situation improved in mid-1999 with the signing of an agreement that guaranteed the release of further credits by the IMF, a measure that not only provided much-needed funds but also cleared the way for the release of other forms of aid and the reopening of foreign investment.

Political crisis and renewal

The 2001 presidential election brought one of the most serious political crises in the country’s history since independence. Although the official vote tally gave no candidate the necessary number of votes to declare victory outright, Ratsiraka’s main opponent, Marc Ravalomanana, claimed that he was the clear winner of the December election and that the results had been tampered with. Ravalomanana’s supporters staged numerous demonstrations as well as a national strike that lasted several weeks. In February 2002 Ravalomanana declared himself president and began establishing his administration, despite the fact that the international community did not recognize him as the legitimate leader of the country, and Ratsiraka still claimed the presidency. His supporters fought with those of Ratsiraka, each side eventually controlling various sections of the country. In late April the country’s High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana the winner of the disputed election, but fighting between the two sides did not cease until midsummer, when Ravalomanana’s forces were able to take control over areas previously held by Ratsiraka’s supporters. Ravalomanana secured recognition by the United States and France in late June and early July, respectively, and Ratsiraka fled the country shortly thereafter.

The political crisis weakened the country’s economy and overall stability. Ravalomanana promptly addressed the situation, implementing economic reforms and working tirelessly to entice foreign investors back to the country; his efforts won praise from foreign donors and international organizations, and in 2004 the IMF and the World Bank announced plans to write off nearly half of Madagascar’s outstanding debt.

Although Ravalomanana was gradually recognized by the international community as the legitimate leader of Madagascar, he was still faced with periodic unrest at home, including failed coup attempts in 2003 and 2006. In mid-2006 Ravalomanana announced that presidential elections would be held ahead of schedule in December of that year. Although some concerns over irregularities were noted, Ravalomanana won reelection to the presidency in December elections generally considered free and fair by international observers.

Power struggle

Despite his reelection, Ravalomanana was not without detractors, and in late 2008 Andry Rajoelina, Antananarivo’s mayor, emerged as a leading opposition figure. Rajoelina called for Ravalomanana to step down, accusing him of misappropriating public funds and ruling the country as a dictator. The ongoing power struggle between Ravalomanana and Rajoelina came to a head in January 2009, when dozens were killed during opposition protests. Rajoelina was fired from his mayoral post, and the struggle between the two leaders developed into a tense stalemate with sporadic bouts of violence. The crisis intensified in March, when the head of the army was removed by a faction of troops who no longer supported Ravalomanana’s administration. Meanwhile, Rajoelina had expressed his intent to create a parallel government—with himself as president—and continued his calls for Ravalomanana to resign. Ravalomanana refused to step down and on March 15 proposed holding a referendum in an effort to resolve the crisis; this offer was rejected by Rajoelina. The next day, a presidential palace and the central bank were seized by the military, and Rajoelina established a presence at the palace. Although Ravalomanana had the support of the international community, on March 17 he agreed to step down and hand power to the military. Military leaders in turn transferred power to Rajoelina, who had already declared himself president and promised to draft a new constitution and hold elections within two years. The military’s unconstitutional transfer of power to Rajoelina was widely condemned as a coup by the international community, and Madagascar was suspended from both the African Union (AU) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Most financial aid to Madagascar was suspended as well, and the country became increasingly isolated.

In exile on the African continent, Ravalomanana tried to gather international support for his reinstatement to the presidency. Meanwhile, Ravalomanana’s supporters in Madagascar regularly demonstrated against Rajoelina’s fledgling government. As the political dispute between Rajoelina and Ravalomanana continued, initial attempts at negotiating an agreement between them met with little success over the next several months. A breakthrough occurred in early August, however, when several international organizations—including the SADC, AU, United Nations, and International Organization of the Francophonie—sponsored mediation talks in Maputo, Mozam. The talks, which were led by former Mozambican president Joaquim Chissano, included not only Rajoelina and Ravalomanana but also former presidents Zafy and Ratsiraka, both of whom still enjoyed political support in Madagascar. On Aug. 9, 2009, it was announced that the four Malagasy politicians had agreed to the formation of a transitional unity government and to the scheduling of presidential and legislative elections within 15 months.

Rajoelina, Ravalomanana, Zafy, and Ratsiraka met again in Maputo for several days beginning in late August to decide how to allocate positions in the transitional unity government but were unable to come to an agreement about the top three positions by the September 4 deadline. Days after the deadline passed, Rajoelina unilaterally formed his own transitional unity government, with himself remaining as president; his actions were widely condemned for violating the August 9 power-sharing agreement. Additional talks were held, and on Oct. 6, 2009, the parties involved announced that they had come to an agreement on the top three positions in the transitional unity government. Rajoelina was allowed to remain president on the condition that he would not be a candidate in the next presidential election. Following some difficulties with refining the final details of the agreement, additional talks ensued, including those held in Addis Ababa, Eth., in early November. On Nov. 7, 2009, Rajoelina, Ravalomanana, Zafy, and Ratsiraka signed an agreement providing for a slightly revised transitional unity government structure, with Rajoelina remaining as president but ruling with two copresidents.

The agreement began unraveling in early December 2009, however, when Rajoelina refused to participate in the last round of power-sharing talks, held in Maputo, which aimed to resolve the final details of the new transitional unity government. Ravalomanana, Zafy, Ratsiraka, and international mediators proceeded without him and reached an agreement on December 8, but Rajoelina refused to accept it. Nonetheless, on December 18, Ravalomanana, Zafy, and Ratsiraka announced their intent to establish the transitional unity government. Within hours, Rajoelina dismissed the prime minister who had been appointed in October as a result of previous power-sharing agreement talks, and on December 20 Rajoelina announced that he was abandoning the power-sharing agreement entirely. After months of international pressure—and a few days after he was issued an ultimatum by the military to end the ongoing political crisis—on April 14, 2010, Rajoelina announced he was willing to form an interim government with the opposition under the terms of a new agreement proposed by France, South Africa, and the SADC. Talks between Rajoelina and the other three Malagasy leaders failed, however. The next month he unilaterally formed what he deemed to be a neutral government. He also scheduled a constitutional referendum and presidential and parliamentary elections for later in the year, all of which he postponed, however.

The constitutional referendum was eventually held on Nov. 17, 2010. The new constitution proposed a lower age requirement for the presidency—a change that would make the young Rajoelina eligible for the position—and did not set an end date for Rajoelina’s transitional regime. Although the new constitution was approved, the referendum was marred by a boycott by the primary opposition groups and was widely criticized by the international community. Also on November 17, a small faction of the army announced its intent to overthrow Rajoelina’s government. The attempted coup quickly foundered, though, leading to a standoff between the small faction supporting the coup and the rest of the army that still supported Rajoelina. The mutinous soldiers surrendered a few days later.