A
brief, historical review of the alleged association between
creativity and madness is followed by highlights from recent
research in psychiatry and clinical psychology that
address this relationship.

The
precise nature of this link is explored from the
perspectives of several disciplines, and implications for the
creative process in gifted education are discussed.

Creativity
is
defined as the production of something both new and
valued. Madness is defined as self destructive deviant
behavior.

Men
have
called me mad; but the question is not yet settled,
whether madness is or is not the loftiest
intelligence-whether much that is glorious-whether all
that is profound-does not spring from disease of
thought-from moods of mind exalted at the expense of the
general intellect.

They who dream by day are cognizant of many things which
escape those who dream only by night. In their
grey vision they obtain glimpses of eternity.... They
penetrate, however rudderless or compassless, into the
vast ocean of the "light affable."

(Edgar Allan Poe, cited in Galloway, 1986, p. 243 ).

The
belief that madness is linked with creative thinking has
been held since ancient times. It is a widely popular notion.
"Deviant behavior, whether in the form of eccentricity or
worse, is not only associated with persons of genius or
high-level creativity, but it is frequently expected of them."
(Rothenberg, 1990, p. 149).

Since
the time of the Greek philosophers, those who wrote about the
creative process emphasized that creativity involves a
regression to more primitive mental processes, that to be
creative requires a willingness to cross and recross the
lines between rational and irrational thought.

What is the evidence that there is a link between creativity
and madness? What account can be given for this link,
biologically and psychologically? And what does this
association suggest for related research and our understanding
of creative people?

The aim
of this article is to describe what creativity and madness
have in common and to discuss implications for creative
thinking in gifted education. The article begins with a
brief, historical overview of the topic, followed by some
highlights of studies on creativity and mental illness.
Explanations for the possible link between creativity and
madness are then addressed.

Creativity
is
defined as the production of something that is both new and
valued and madness is defined as a self destructive deviation
in behavior. The article concludes with a discussion of
implications for the creative process in gifted education and
questions for further research.

Historical Overview

The notion that inspiration requires regression
and dipping into irrationality in order to access unconscious
symbols and thought has been popular across disciplines for
hundreds of years. Plato said that creativity is a "divine
madness...a gift from the gods".

Seneca
recorded Aristotle as having said, "No great genius was
without a mixture of insanity" (Langsdorf, 1900, pp. 90-91).

One of
Shakespeare's characters says, "The lunatic, the lover and the
poet are of imagination all compact," and Marcel Proust
said, "Everything great in the world is created by neurotics.
They have composed our masterpieces, but we don't consider
what they have cost their creators in sleepless nights, and
worst of all, fear of
death."

More recently, at the end of the last century, physicians were
very interested in the physical causes of mental illness as
well as in the genetic causes of genius.

The
physician, Lombroso (1889), wrote about the connections he
believed to exist between genius and madness. Acceptance
of his ideas persisted well into the 20th century until
Lewis Terman's (1925) data suggested that people of high
ability exhibited less incidence of mental illness and
adjustment problems than average.

But at
the same time that Terman was beginning to publish the first
round of his results, Freud was formulating his
psychoanalytic concepts in Vienna. Freud analyzed literary
works and the lives of eminent creative people because, "He
believed that great works of art and literature contained
universal psychological truths and that the study of artists'
and writers' lives would reveal basic psychological truths in
persons of heightened sensibility and talent." (Rothenberg,
1990, p. 80).

Since
the time of Freud's analyses, other psychoanalysts and
psychologists have continued to conduct scores of
pathographies, diagnostic analyses of the works or lives of
eminent creative people in an effort to improve our
understanding of the relationship between creativity and
madness (Jamison, 1993; Panter, et. al, 1995).

A
long-held view in psychiatry is that artistic endeavors heal
the artist, whose work is then healing to others. It is
important to note that the studies tend to focus on a
subpopulation of artists in particular: writers, poets, and
visual artists.

There are numerous examples of artists who used their work to
save their minds. For example, Anne Sexton, who was
institutionalized for her psychosis wrote, "Poetry led me by
the hand out of madness" (cited in Jamison, 1993, p. 122)
and Jackson Polluck's large canvas drippings have been
viewed by several investigators as an attempt to
organize his chaotic inner life (Feldman, 1989; Virshup, 1995;
Wyshup, 1970).

A basic
premise of the expressive therapies (e.g. art, music, and
dance therapy, etc.) is that writing, composing, or drawing,
etc., is a means to self-understanding, emotional stability
and resolution of conflict. Creativity provides a way to
structure or reframe pain. This, perhaps, is what much
good comedy is about.

Findings From Studies on
Creativity and Mental Illness

In the last two decades there have been numerous systematic
investigations into the alleged relationship between
creativity and madness. Albert Rothenberg, Kay Jamison,
and Nancy Andreasen are a sample of investigators who have
explored this topic.

What do
creativity and madness have in common? Observations from
psychiatric studies suggest that there are three
characteristics common to both high creative production and
madness. These are disturbance of mood, certain types of
thinking processes, and tolerance for irrationality.

Disturbance of mood appears to be present in a high percentage
of talented visual artists (Andreasen, 1988; Jamison,1989;
1993; Richards, 1981). Mental disorders in which the primary
feature is a mood disturbance include major depression,
dysthymia and bipolar disorder (also popularly known as
manic-depressive illness).

There
seems to be a greatly increased rate of depression,
manic-depressive illness, and suicide in eminent creative
people, writers and artists especially.

The
incidence of mental illness among creative artists is higher
than in the population at large. Some studies link creativity
with bipolar disorders specifically (Andreasen, 1988; Jamison,
1989; Richards; 1989), and within the field of academic
psychiatry, there has recently been serious acceptance of the
association between creativity and the mood disturbance,
hypomania (Jamison, 1993).

Table1
lists a sample of eminent persons who are believed to have had
a mood disorder. Many of them committed suicide.

It is well recognized that moods do have an impact on
personality. Bipolar disorder is a recurrent mood disturbance
characterized by cyclical, extreme mood swings that include
manic states. Mania is a distinct period (at least a week)
during which the individual demonstrates a euphoric high or
irritable mood.

"The
expansive quality of the mood is characterized by unceasing
and indiscriminate enthusiasm for interpersonal, sexual, or
occupational interactions" (APA, 1994, p. 328). Grandiosity or
uncritical self confidence is often observed. During a manic
state, thoughts race, sometimes faster than can be
articulated.

There
is
a great increase in goal-directed activity. Manic individuals
may write volumes, paint numerous canvases, or engage in
multiple activities simultaneously. The level of activity is
so high that it results in impairment of functioning, or
hospitalization may be necessary to protect the individual.

Jamison's (1993) work suggests that periods of creative
productivity are preceded by an elevated mood. It is as if
certain types of moods open up thought, allowing for greater
creativity. She (1993) states that depressions may have an
important cognitive influence on the creative process.

Depression
may
slow the pace, put thoughts and feelings into perspective; and
eliminate excess or irrelevant ideas, increasing focus and
allowing structuring of new ideas. In other words, it may be
that the cognitive processes associated with certain moods are
the link between creativity and madness.

Perhaps the most interesting finding from clinical studies is
that there are similarities in the thought processes of
manic, psychotic, and highly creative people (Prentky,
1980; Rothenberg, 1990; Rothenberg & Burkhardt, 1984).

Psychotic
thinking
rarely turns into creative production without some abatement
of the psychosis, but there is evidence that creative
processes sometimes turn into psychotic ones. Albert
Rothenberg is clinical professor of psychiatry at Harvard and
has served for the past twenty-five years as principal
investigator of the Studies in the Creative Process.

One
focus of his research has been the relationship of creativity
to psychosis. "I was at one time extraordinarily puzzled and
piqued about the fact that so many outstanding persons also
suffered from some form of psychosis (1990, p. 6).

The major findings to come out of my research are that there
are particular and specific thought processes used by creative
people during the process of creation; this applies to the
entire spectrum of disciplines, areas and media.

These
special thought processes are the features that distinguish
creative people from the rest of us. Although very complicated
in structure and in psychological function, there is little
doubt that these particular processes are crucial to
outstanding creative attainment (1990, p. 11).

Specifically, Rothenberg's research concludes that
translogical types of thinking characterize both psychotics
and highly creatives. Translogical thinking, he explains, is a
type of conceptualizing in which the thinking processes
transcend the common modes of ordinary logical thinking.

It
involves what Rothenberg calls janusian and homospatial
processes. Janusian thinking is a conscious process of
combining paradoxical or antagonistic objects into a
single entity. Homospatial process is the essence of good
metaphor. It means to superimpose or bring together multiple,
discrete objects.

Rothenberg
states
that janusian thinking tends to occur in the beginning stages
of creative work when ideas are generated, and homospatial
thinking characterizes the development of the creative ideas.
He acknowledges that there are similarities between the
primary process thinking of psychotics and translogical
thinking, and that there are some subtle
distinctions.

"There
is thus a thin but definite borderline between the most
advanced and healthy type of thinking - creative thinking -
and the most impoverished and pathological types of thinking -
psychotic processes" (p. 12).

Other researchers have noted cognitive similarities. Drs.
Andreasen, Stevens, and Powers (1975) investigated
conceptual overinclusiveness (i.e. the tendency to combine
things into categories that blur conceptual boundaries) in a
sample of writers, manic depressives and schizophrenics.

They
found that the conceptual styles of only the first two groups
were similar, with a difference being that the writers had
more control over their thought processes than did the
manic-depressives.

Kay Jamison's research (1989; 1993) also supports the idea
that there is a cognitive link between creativity and madness.
She notes that many of the cognitive changes that characterize
mania and hypomania are also typical of creativity:
restlesness, grandiosity, irritability, intensified sensory
systems, quickening of thought processes, and intense feeling.

"Two
aspects of thinking in particular are pronounced in both
creative and hypomanic thought: fluency, rapidity, and
flexibility of thought on the one hand, and the ability to
combine ideas or categories of thought in order to form new
and original connections on the other" (1993, p. 105).

It
appears that the potential for creativity is enhanced by the
cognitive changes that occur within some mental states. We
don't as yet understand the chemical and anatomical pathways
responsible for the cognitive changes that take place during
creative and manic states.

Finally, insights concerning the relationship between
creativity and madness come also from artists themselves.
Their reflections and observations about themselves and their
work suggest that they have a very high tolerance for
irrationality or deviance. In life, creation and destruction
are closely related.

Many artists report that their motivation for engaging in
their creative endeavors is to work through, release, or
better understand their own destructive urges.

The
life and suicides of Sylvia Plath and Jackson Polluck
exemplify how thin the line can be between destruction and
creation. Rothenberg (1990) hypothesizes that this line
is crossed, from creativity to madness, when the creative
expression is used primarily to control hostility rather than
to create.

"Just
as a need to control interferes with turning destructiveness
into creation in art, so it interferes with turning
self-destructive feelings into a process of self-creation in
life" (p. 73).

Additionally, many artists personally attest to one of the
most widely accepted associations between creativity and
madness - the connection between what is learned from personal
suffering to round out meaning and depth in the creative work.
The poet, John Berryman for example, described the role of
pain in his work:

I
do strongly feel that among the greatest pieces of luck for
high achievement is ordeal. Certain great artists can make
out without it..., but mostly you need ordeal...My idea is
this: The artist is extremely lucky who is presented with
the worst possible ordeal which will not actually kill him.
At that point, he's in business. Beethoven's deafness,
Goya's deafness, Milton's blindness, that kind of thing.

And I think that what happens in my poetic work in the
future will probably largely depend not on my sitting calmly
on my ass as I think, 'Hmm, hmm, a long poem again? Hmm',
but on kinds of other things short of senile dementia.
At that point, I'm out, but short of that, I don't
know, I hope to be nearly crucified. (cited in
Plimpton, 1976, p. 322)

Discussion

In summary, there is evidence of a link between creativity and
madness, especially within the subpopulation of writers,
poets, and visual artists. There is a higher incidence of
creatively gifted people among certain mental disorders than
in the general population (Andreasen 1988; Jamison, 1989;
1993; Richards, 1989).

There
seems to be an increased rate of suicide in eminent creative
people. Many of the cognitive processes that characterize
creative writing also characterize certain mood disorders. The
conceptual style of writers and manic-depressives has been
found to be similar.

And the
personal accounts of many creative writers and visual artists
testify to their struggle with psychological problems. These
findings suggest that the line between creativity and madness
is a fine one, and probably permeable.

The common ground between creativity and mental illness
appears to be intrapsychic conflict. Noting a few
exceptions (e.g., Peter Paul Rubens), most creative
people produce less during calm times in their lives (Berman,
1995). Artists themselves argue that they strive to keep
contact with their primitive selves because it is from
their core self that they draw the energy and
inspiration needed to do their best work.

But
many mental health professionals would propose that to wrestle
often with the primitive self is like walking the edge between
sanity and insanity. What implications does the
research have for educational practices?

There do appear to be psychological risks associated with
creative giftedness and with the pursuit of exceptional
creative achievement. Teachers and counselors should be aware
of the vulnerability that can be associated with creative
talent.

They
can help students and parents guard against a too ready
acceptance of the popular notion that deviant or destructive
behaviors are the sine qua non of outstanding creative
achievement. Suffering, or mental breakdown, should not be
accepted as a likely consequence for creative production.
Neither research or history supports that view.

At the
same time, it is probably important that those working with
the creatively gifted be willing to tolerate a higher degree
of irrationality or deviance since such behaviors are more
common among these individuals.

Although
we
should not ignore the strong association of certain types of
psychological problems with creative production, neither
should we ignore the observation that for every disturbed
creative individual noted there are many more healthy creative
individuals.

Educators need to understand and accept that the creative
process does often arouse considerable anxiety, which
may interfere with production. The teacher who can anticipate
this possibility and who can make accomodations that support
the student in reducing anxiety will promote the student's
achievement.

It
would also be helpful if school personnel were at least aware
that the thought processes of high creatives and those of
manics or psychotics are similar on the surface, but very
different foundationally.

Teachers
and
parents might advocate for acceptance of translogical modes of
thinking, but not encourage the widely popular pairing
of creative achievement with destructive deviant
behaviors.

The research also suggests that differentiated emotional
support should be available to students who are in pursuit of
superior creative achievement. Educators should increase
awareness among students and their parents of the
psychological risks common to the pursuit of superior creative
achievement and assist them in developing strategies to
minimize or prevent harm (Jamison, 1993; 1995; Markova, 1994;
Rothenberg, 1990).

Both by
their nature and by their identification with eminent artists,
creatively gifted individuals may put themselves at risk for
serious emotional disturbance. Specific assistance in managing
mood vacillations may be helpful.

Self-care
strategies
designed for the artistic temperament may be beneficial in
minimizing the damage that can occur when the line between
rationality and irrationality is crossed and recrossed.

There are several resources that describe strategies for
self-care. For example, David Wexler's Program for Innovative
Self-Management (PRISM) is described in his text, The
Adolescent Self: Strategies for Self-management,
Self-soothing, and Self-esteem in Adolescents (Wexler,1991).

In
addition, he has written two workbooks of exercises designed
to help adolescents who are having problems with
self-destructive behaviors, anxiety, mood swings, aggression,
substance abuse, and eating disorders (Wexler,1991;1993).

Several resources exist that describe exercises that could be
used by experienced teachers or school guidance personnel to
promote emotional health and prevent more serious problems
among creatively gifted youth (Davis, McKay, & Eshelman,
1982; Ilardo, 1992; McMahon, 1992).

There
are also resources describing exercises that might be
especially relevant to students who are aspiring writers,
actors, dancers and musicians (Heckler, 1985; Markova, 1994;
Progoff, 1975).

Those
training and teaching creatively gifted students should have
in their referral network mental health professionals who can
distinguish superior creative thinking from crazy, psychotic
thinking and who can identify serious mood disturbances.

The creative process is a mystery. We can know about pieces of
it, but we are unlikely to unravel all of it. Many questions
remain unanswered.

If
there is a significant correlation between creative genius and
mental disorders, how do we explain it? Do mood disorders lead
to creativity?

Is
there something about wrestling with the primitive core or
with our moods, that facilitates the creative process? Or is
there a vulnerability that accompanies creative thought?

How do
we explain the exceptions - those who achieve greatness and
lead healthy lives? Are people with certain types of
difficulties (e.g., mood disorders, substance abuse) more
attracted to the creative fields than are people without such
difficulties?

Is
there something about the creative process itself that over
time, contributes to disintegration? Or are the struggles for
health the result of the cumulative effects of repeated
interactions with others who lack understanding or tolerance?

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and physical traits of a thousand gifted children. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Stanford University, at Stanford,
Calif.; coeducational; chartered 1885, opened 1891 as Leland
Stanford Junior Univ. (still the legal name). The original
campus was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. David Starr
Jordan was its first president. Press.