BIT 1983 Volume 2 Issue 1

The term 'user-friendly' is now widely used in connection with the design of
computer systems. This paper argues that as at present defined, explicitly or
through common usage, the concept is not helpful to system designers. A
critical examination of a typical definition is used to show that whilst
elements of the concept represent reasonable aims, each requires significant
modification and/or extension. No redefinition of the term 'user-friendly' is
offered, nor any alternative term proposed; it is argued that a broader set of
criteria is needed to express the aspirations revealed by its widespread use.
Prominence is given to changes in approaches to software interface design that
might result from giving greater consideration to some factors in system use
which at present receive comparatively little attention.

Secretarial Attitudes Towards Word Processors as a Function of Familiarity
and Locus of Control

The purpose of the present study was to investigate dimensions of
secretarial anxiety, eagerness, and curiosity with respect to word processing
equipment. Such variables as familiarity, formal training, physical proximity
to the equipment, degree of influence in the decision to acquire a word
processor, and frequency of use were seen as potential predictors of such
attitudes. Additionally, two trait-like dimensions were measured, locus of
control and complexity. Questionnaires were sent to 408 secretaries employed
at a mid-western university. The response rate was 59 per cent (n=241).
People who had not used word processing equipment were more anxious than those
individual who had. Moreover, frequency of use for people with experience was
related to greater change in anxiety levels. While familiarity reduced
anxiety, it also tended to reduce curiosity. Frequency of word processor use
was related to several variables. For instance, frequency of use was related
to how positively the person evaluated the processor as affecting their work
capabilities. Heavy users felt that the manuals were less helpful. Internally
controlled individuals were more eager, curious and less anxious, while
cognitively complex individuals were more curious about word processors. The
applied implications of the findings are discussed.

We describe improvements to the recognition performance of a simple
commercial speech recognizer. Topics include the selection of acoustically
distinct words; a method of 'training' (storing utterances for later use as
templates) which mimics the real task, and therefore reduces the difference in
diction between training and task; the representation of variability in diction
by storing repeated examples of each utterance separately, instead of using a
simple statistical average; and the construction of an adaptive algorithm which
updates its templates at appropriate moments. The results of empirical
investigations with the adaptive algorithm show a very considerable improvement
in performance. We argue that the development of speech recognizers has given
the hardware undue attention, and that a rigorous attack on adaptive
recognition, treated as a problem in control theory, would lead to a
sophisticated interface to complement sophisticated hardware. The system we
describe has been successfully used in an experimental voice-operated
text-editing system (Morrison and Green 1982).

This study had two aims: (i) to document the problem of interface usability
in terms of the users' views and (ii) to characterize the context within which
usability operates by identifying the general set of variables underlying the
attitudes of both users and non-users to the introduction of an interactive
computer system into their place of work. The particular system studied
included an interactive planning package designed for professionals with no
programming skills. An in-depth discussion technique was used to collect the
views of 16 professional employees working for a large local authority. A
total of 440 'statements' were classified in a hierarchy (main headings:
pre-planning introduction; effects of the system; use of the system; assessment
of the system; general attitudes). Twenty-seven variables (e.g. decisionmaking
involvement; skill change; specialist language) and nine contexts over which
they operated (e.g. computer applications; departmental relations) were
generated from the statements. The study indicated a general problem of
usability at the level of the interface, individual relations and group
relations. Cognitive and linguistic difficulties in using the system appeared
to depend on the command language, the type of user and the class of
application. Selective issues are discussed including non-use of the
interactive system; the role of the link man; the spread of computer knowledge
and skills; and the extent of user insight. Further discussion centres on
differing levels of impact, uses of data and an evaluation of the study's
methodology.

Technical Note

BIT 1983 Volume 2 Issue 2

This article describes how we rewrote a manual for a text editor following
human-factors guidelines and revised it according to the results of
developmental testing. The new manual was then evaluated with secretaries who
were given either the original or the rewritten manual and asked to do the two
editing tasks. We measured the quality of the finished text; the number of
different commands used; the amount and type of assistance requested; and
attitudes towards the manuals, program and tasks. There were significant
differences between the two groups of users on the performance measures and on
attitudes towards the manuals in favour of the new manual. We propose a model
of user-documentation interaction and suggest a methodology for preparing
computer documentation.

The term 'manipulative' text editing is introduced to describe the low level
aspect of text input/editing user interfaces, where editing commands are almost
entirely manipulative rather than symbolic, primarily for editing at a word and
character level. Manipulative editing covers the use of function keys such as
'rubout', cursor motion and various methods for inserting text.
A variety of methods commonly used for manipulative editing are critically
reviewed in order to gather together a number of relevant guidelines. This
paper proposes the basis for an effective standard which encourages the ready
acquisition of skill.

A Comparison of Command, Menu-Selection and Natural-Language Computer
Programs

An experiment compared three man-machine language interfaces to the same
interactive computer program: command language, menu selection and natural
language. No significant differences were found between language modes for
time, error and attitudes measures. Significant task differences were found
for word and line counts as well as for several two-way interactions. The
results suggest that the interface to the program (natural language, menu
selection or commands) may not be as important as the structure and constraints
of the underlying program.

Communication Control and Leadership in Telecommunications by Small Groups

Sixteen teams of four persons each solved four realistic problems, one on
each of 4 days, by communicating over a closed-circuit television system with
an audio capacity. Teams were assigned to conditions which either did or did
not have centrally controlled switching so that only one person could talk at a
time, and which either did or did not have one subject appointed to help
perform some of the experimenter's tasks. Teams were paid bonuses depending on
how well they solved each problem. Dependent measures include time to
solution, the quality of solution, measures of verbal communication and
questionnaire responses.
Teams in the switch condition took longer to solved problems and used fewer
but longer messages than did subjects in the non-switched condition. There
were no striking differences between the quality of the solutions achieved in
the two conditions. Designating a helper for the experiment produced fewer
significant results than anticipated. It appears that mechanical variables
such as those manipulated here are less important than other variables, perhaps
personality, in the emergence of leadership.

A survey of 203 undergraduates indicated that there are three clusters of
computer applications about which respondents hold similar attitudes:
quantitative applications (e.g. processing bills), decisionmaking applications
(e.g. diagnosing medical problems) and record-keeping applications (e.g.
storing information about criminals). Respondents were favourable towards
quantitative and record-keeping applications but rejected decisionmaking
applications, especially those involving decisions traditionally made by
psychologists. Experience with computers and perceptions of the computer as
efficient, humanizing and enjoyable were correlated significantly with
attitudes towards specific applications. Locus of control and interpersonal
trust were not related to attitudes. Interpretations of potentially
dehumanizing effects of computers were discussed, along with implications of
attitudes towards specific applications for decisions about how computers ought
to be used.

Book Review

"Dichotomies of the Mind: A Systems Science View of the Mind and
Personality," by Walter Lowen, with the assistance of Lawrence Miike

This study examined the speed and accuracy of proof-reading a text presented
on a CRT, relative to performance with print on paper. Two groups of 16 people
each proof-read four published texts, roughly 1500 words per text. For all
readers, half the texts were presented as print on paper and half were
presented on a 12 in. CRT screen. The two groups differed in whether the
errors found in the screened text were recorded on the screen or on paper. The
results suggested that the method of recording errors on the screen was quickly
learned, but that both speed and accuracy were impaired when the text was
presented on the screen. The implications of this for refereeing electronic
journals is discussed.

The Effect of System Response Delay and Delay Variability on Inexperienced
Videotex Users

To test the effects of system response delay and delay variability on users
of videotex it was decided to experiment in a context close to that of the
service under consideration. Accordingly 165 subjects were drawn from the
general public to try videotex in a series of four experiments. An emphasis on
performance-related outcome measures was deemed inappropriate. Accordingly, a
strategy using stepwise multiple regression followed by factor analysis
selected 11 important variables from an original 38. Then these were clustered
into four linear combinations or scales labelled session length, passivity,
speed of response and difficulty. All four experiments failed to find any
significant effects due to mean response delay. Two of the three experiments
that tested ranges of randomized delay with rectangular distributions found
significant disruptive effects on users. These results replicate earlier
studies, and extend their generality to the context of naive users of videotex.
The results also support the concept of using response-style scales rather than
performance measures in non-work settings, and they contribute to the construct
validity of the scales.

Designing for the Day After Tomorrow: I. The Interaction Between
Communications Systems Design and Social Change

Social and behavioural changes usually follow the introduction of new
communications services or systems. These changes may in turn affect the way
the system is used and therefore have implications for system design. The
social and behavioural changes promoted by the introduction of the electric
telegraph, the telephone, tele-conferencing, electronic mail and communicating
office systems are reviewed and their impacts on system design discussed.
Users' interactions with the telegraph and telephone are relatively simple and
the social changes they brought about occurred over long timescales, so that
their impact on system design is difficult to isolate. Computer conferencing
and office automation systems require more complex interactions between the
user and the system, and, in the case of office systems, play an intimate role
in the users' work. Substantial changes in behaviour occur quite rapidly, and
need to be taken into account in system design.

The social issues of worker displacement and worker retraining due to
introduction of robotics are discussed and the impact of industrial robots on
organization design and job design are reviewed and safety issues mentioned.
The impact of human industrial work performance on designing robotics systems
is reviewed with special reference to the range of human performance abilities;
human information-processing, memory and decision making capabilities;
paced-work; supervisory control of robotics systems; and, social and management
impacts of robot diffusion.

BIT 1983 Volume 2 Issue 4

Introduction

This paper presents the history and context of the COST II bis work on human
factors in teleinformatics. It describes the technical developments to be
expected in networked systems which will change the capabilities that will be
available to users and discusses the range of human-factors issues which will
arise if users are to be able to master complex systems. The paper concludes
by reporting the early debates of the working group and the classification of
issues which identified the problems requiring human-factors attention.

On the Implications of User Variability in Open Systems: An Overview of the
Little We Know and of the Lot We Have to Find Out

As the use of computers increases, the cost of educating computer users
rises. Therefore the need for extensive education of users should be avoided
as much as possible. Instead computer systems should be adapted to the
requirements and characteristics of computer users. Hereby the need to
identify user characteristics arises. The less computer educated the users,
the more their requirements of the systems will differ. Where user
characteristics are difficult to change, it will be worthwhile to attend to
user differences in the design of systems. The implications of user
differences may vary depending upon the type of task to be performed. The
present paper presents an analysis of different user characteristics and their
possible interactions with different task requirements. Hereby some
recommendations regarding the need to educate users or adapt systems to the
user were derived.

The need for integrating human factors into the design of data-communication
systems is discussed. This should be extended to comprise also inter- and
intraorganizational aspects. Various patterns of communication and
communication strategies are discussed. Electronic funds transfer is presented
as an example of some interorganizational problems to be encountered when
designing data-communication systems.

This paper examines the ISO open systems interconnection model as
promulgated, from the standpoint of human factors research rather than from the
traditional telecommunications perspective. It argues that the model needs
refining in its top layer and that this layer should be considered as a general
'function' layer oriented towards users rather than just an applications layer.
The vertical relationship between layers and the horizontal relationships
within a layer are discussed with regard to the implications that a small
change in user behaviour has for the technical specifications of the system and
vice versa. Particular stress is placed on the need for a core 'native'
language which would operate at any level to support human factors
requirements. The surface features of the system that need to be optimized for
the user are defined in the context of existing human factors research. The
paper concludes by specifying the human factors requirements for OSI.

Human-Factors Standards: The Design of Conceptual Language Interfaces to
Open Computer Network Application and Management Systems

The justification for standardization of human-computer and control
interfaces is discussed. Various approaches are explored. Special emphasis is
placed on the functionality of user interfaces in network environments of
interconnected, heterogeneous, open computer systems. Finally, a linguistic
and functional model of the user interface is proposed as a basis for further
research.

Methodological Issues in the Study of Human Factors in Teleinformatic
Systems

The rapid technological developments in teleinformatics and their many
implications for their users means that a human-factors contribution to both
research and application is very pressing. This paper reviews the
methodological problems confronting human-factors specialists in making this
contribution. It examines methodological issues in research and design at the
levels of (i) the man-computer interface and (ii) the organizational
implications. The paper ends by presenting an idealized, integrated strategy
which emphasizes action research to give priority to multidisciplinary teams of
information technologists and human and social scientists working together to
construct and evaluate teleinformatic systems.