Related resources for this article

Introduction

Organisms considered harmful to humans or their interests are called pests. They include plants or animals that carry disease, cause disease, or destroy crops or structures. The definition of a pest is subjective. An ecologist would not necessarily consider a leaf-eating caterpillar on a corn plant a pest, but a farmer might. The term pest may refer to insects, viruses, and bacteria that carry or cause disease. It may also refer to organisms that destroy crops or man-made structures. Plants, such as weeds or fungi, and vertebrates, such as rats, mice, and birds, are sometimes called pests when they destroy crops or stored foods. (See alsobacteria; fungus; rodents; weed.)

The elimination of pests or the inhibition of their reproduction, development, or migration is known as pest control. The control of pests has a great influence on the world economy. Even with current pest-control measures, agricultural pests are responsible for the annual destruction of millions of acres of crops worldwide. In Southeast Asia, rodents have been known to destroy as much as 50 percent of a rice crop before it is harvested. In the United States, over 500 million dollars are lost annually to insect and rodent infestation of stored foods and grains.

Some insects are considered pests because they are wood-eaters. They are a threat to wooden structures—houses and other buildings, trees, and fences. Several species of ants, bees, and beetles can also damage wooden structures.

In the field of agriculture, pest control is used to protect farm crops and forests that are harvested for their wood (seeagriculture). Pest control has also contributed to the management of many health-threatening diseases, including plague, encephalitis, yellow fever, malaria, and typhus.

Chemical Control

The most common method of pest control is the use of pesticides—chemicals that either kill pests or inhibit their development. Pesticides are often classified according to the pest they are intended to control. For example, insecticides are used to control insects; herbicides to control plants; fungicides, fungi; rodenticides, rodents; avicides, birds; and bactericides to control bacteria. Pesticides also include chemosterilants and growth regulators, which are used to interfere with the normal reproduction or development of the pest.

Chemical control of pests probably began with poisonous plant compounds. In the 18th and 19th centuries, farmers ground up certain plants that were toxic to insects or rodents—plants such as chrysanthemums or tobacco. The plant “soup” was then applied directly to either the crops or the pests. Chemists later discovered that they could extract the toxic compounds from these poisonous plants and apply the compounds as liquid sprays. Such chemicals as nicotine, petroleum, coal tar, creosote, turpentine, and pyrethrum (obtained from a type of chrysanthemum) were eventually extracted for use as sprays. Organic compounds such as these were eventually replaced by more effective inorganic chemicals, including arsenic, lime, sulfur, strychnine, and cyanide.

With the advent of synthetic organic compounds during World War II, a dramatic change occurred in pest control. The discovery of the insecticidal properties of the synthetic compounds DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)—which was widely used against disease-spreading insects—during the war and BHC (benzene hexachloride) made the notion of pest-free crops realistic. The development of another synthetic organic compound, the selective herbicide 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), led to the development of other selective herbicides.

With the discovery of DDT, 2,4-D, and BHC, researchers began to develop other synthetic organic pesticides, especially growth regulators, chemosterilants, pyrethroids (compounds with insecticidal properties similar to those of pyrethrum), and organophosphate chemicals. This research expanded in order to develop other, nonchemical, methods of pest control after the harmful persistence of pesticides in the environment was recognized. It was discovered in the 1950s that DDT and its related compounds are not easily broken down in the environment. DDT’s high stability leads to its accumulation in insects that constitute the diet of other animals. These high levels of DDT have toxic effects on animals, especially certain birds and fishes. Scientists also found that many species of insects rapidly develop populations that are resistant to the pesticide. (See alsoecology; pollution, environmental.)

By the 1960s, the value of DDT as an insecticide had decreased, and in the 1970s severe restrictions were imposed on its use. In the United States, the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972 and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act passed in 1972 required pesticide manufacturers to conduct scientific tests on the biological activity, defectiveness, persistence, and toxicity of any new pesticide before the chemical could be marketed. In the late 1980s, the average cost to develop and register a pesticide product was 10 million dollars. In the 1960s and 1970s, public objections were raised over the indiscriminate use of pesticides. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in 1970 to ascertain past damage and possible future damage that could occur to the environment as the result of widespread pesticide use, and to set up programs to combat environmental problems.

An alternative concept of integrated pest management was adopted for many agricultural pests. This approach involves non-chemical pest-control methods, including crop exclusion, crop rotation, sanitation, and biological control. These methods augment other pest control programs designed to minimize pesticide usage.

Biological Control

The biological control of pests involves exposing them to predators or parasites. The use of predators and parasites is usually accompanied by a program in which pest-damaged fields are scouted and pest population estimates are made. Predators and parasites are then released by the millions to assure control of the target pest.

Biological pest control was used by the ancient Chinese, who used predacious ants to control plant-eating insects. In 1776, predators were recommended for the control of bedbugs. The modern era of biological pest control began in 1888, when the vedalia beetle was imported from Australia to California to control the cottony-cushion scale insect. This biological control project saved the citrus-fruit industry. (See alsocitrus fruits; fruitgrowing; scale insect.)

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Insect predators also have been used to control the bean beetle, tomato hornworms, and aphids. Another biological method is the use of bacteria against grubs, or insect larvae. For example, the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is used to control the caterpillar larvae of the gypsy moth, as well as the larvae of mosquitos. In the 1980s, mosquito-eating fish and nematodes that prey on such soil insects as corn root worms were introduced as biological-control agents.

Since the 18th century, the breeding of host plants for pest resistance also has been used to control pests. Wheat has been the object of the most extensive plant-resistance research. Effective wheat-breeding programs have led to the development of new wheat varieties that are resistant to rusts—various parasitic fungi that infect the leaves and stems of the plant (seewheat). Corn breeding has resulted in varieties resistant to other fungal diseases, including smut and leaf blight (seecorn). The classic example of this plant-resistance approach to pest control was the control of phylloxera, insects that attacked the root stock of the European wine grape and almost completely ruined the European wine industry. The problem was solved by grafting the European plants onto the resistant American wine grape root stock.

The development of insect predators to control structural pests has met with little success. Nematodes have been used against termites in laboratories, but field tests have not been successful. Parasitic wasps used against various cockroach species have also been unsuccessful in the field.

Other Controls

Cultural control methods are used to alter the pest’s environment and thereby reduce access to breeding areas, food, and shelter. Cultural methods have been used to control the yellow-fever mosquito, which breeds in swamps and small pools of water. With the draining of swamps and the elimination of stagnant pools and other containers where water accumulates, the number of potential breeding places for the pest is reduced (seemosquito). Cultural control has also been used against structural pests, which depend on protected places such as cracks in sidewalks, roads, or buildings; garbage; and weeds for survival. Structural pests are often effectively deterred when openings to potential hiding places are sealed and debris and refuse are eliminated.

Crops are sometimes protected from harmful pests through diverse planting techniques. Crop rotation, for example, prevents the development of fungus and bacterium populations. Open-area planting relies on the wind to hinder flies and other insects that damage vegetable crops.

Physical or mechanical control methods are effective against some pests. Such controls include sticky barriers, heat killing (for storage pests), and flooding (for ground pests). Pressure-treated wood is protected against many wood-damaging fungi and insects. Traps are another mechanical method of pest control. Some traps are designed to either kill or capture rodents and other vertebrate pests. Netting and metal shields are used to keep birds from damaging fruit crops or from roosting on buildings. Electrical light traps attract insects and electrocute them. In some buildings, fans are installed above doors to prevent the entry of flying insects.

An area of pest-control research that has received much attention in recent years involves baiting traps with the pest’s own sex attractants, or pheromones. Pheromone traps have been used extensively against the fruit fly and gypsy moth. Pheromones are also being used to attract and trap pests that infest stored foods and grains.

Many countries use importation and quarantine regulations to control the importation of foreign plant or insect pests. Fruit is especially prone to insect infestation and disease. In the United States, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service monitors incoming products and materials and requires certain products to be treated prior to entry. Similar controls exist in other countries. Some regions have quarantine regulations to ensure that certain insect pests are not brought into the area. In the United States, individual states have their own inspection services. Some states even have border inspection stations to prevent unauthorized transport of plants across state lines.

George W. Rambo

It’s here: the NEW Britannica Kids website!

We’ve been busy, working hard to bring you new features and an updated design. We hope you and your family enjoy the NEW Britannica Kids. Take a minute to check out all the enhancements!

The same safe and trusted content for explorers of all ages.

Accessible across all of today's devices: phones, tablets, and desktops.

Improved homework resources designed to support a variety of curriculum subjects and standards.

A new, third level of content, designed specially to meet the advanced needs of the sophisticated scholar.

Want to see it in action?

Start a free trial

E-mail

To

From

Sender NamePlease enter your name.

Sender EmailPlease enter a valid email address.

Translate this page

Choose a language from the menu above to view a computer-translated version of this page. Please note: Text within images is not translated, some features may not work properly after translation, and the translation may not accurately convey the intended meaning. Britannica does not review the converted text.

After translating an article, all tools except font up/font down will be disabled. To re-enable the tools or to convert back to English, click "view original" on the Google Translate toolbar.