Szlachta was the noble class in
the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (which were united in 1569 and then became the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth) and the increasingly polonized territories under their control (such as Ducal Prussia or
the Ruthenian lands). The nobility arose in the late Middle Ages. Traditionally, its members were owners of landed
property, often in the form of folwarks. The nobility enjoyed substantial and almost unrivaled political privileges until
the late 18th century. Their sovereignty was ended in 1795 by the Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Then, until 1918 their legal status was dependent on policies of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia or
the Habsburg Monarchy. In the Second Polish Republic the privileges of the nobility were
lawfully abolished by the March Constitution in 1921 and have not been re-granted by any later Polish law.

History and
Etymology

The
Polish term "szlachta" designates the formalized, hereditary noble class. In official Latin documents the oldCommonwealth hereditary
szlachta is referred to as "nobilitas" and is equivalent to the English nobility. There used to be a widespread
misconception to translate "szlachta" as "gentry", because some nobles were poor. Some were even poorer
than the non-noble gentry that declined with the 'second serfdom' and re-emerged after thePartitions. Some would
even become tenants to the gentry but still kept their constitutional superiority. But it's not wealth or lifestyle (as with
the gentry) but a hereditary legal status of a nobleman that makes you one. A specific nobleman was called a "szlachcic",
and a noblewoman, a "szlachcianka."

"Szlachta" derives from the Old German word "slahta" (now
"(Adels) Geschlecht", "(noble) family"), much as many other Polish words pertaining to the nobility derive
from German words - e.g., the Polish "rycerz" ("knight", cognate of the German "Ritter") and
the Polish "herb" ("coat of arms", from the German "Erbe", "heritage"). Poles of the
17th century assumed that "szlachta" was from the German "schlachten" ("to slaughter" or "to
butcher"); also suggestive is the German "Schlacht" ("battle"). Early Polish historians thought the
term may have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings.

"Šlėkta" is
a derivative from a Polish term used in the Lithuanian language having more or less the same meaning usually
with a negative nuance. Kindred terms that might be applied to an early Polish nobleman were "rycerz" (from German
Ritter, "knight"), the Latin "nobilis" ("noble"; plural: "nobiles") and
"możny" ("magnate", "oligarch"; plural: "możni"). Some powerful Polish nobles
were referred to as "magnates" (Polish singular: "magnat", plural: "magnaci"). It has to be
remembered however, that not all knights were nobles.

Today the word szlachta in the Polish language denotes any noble class in the world. In
broadest meaning, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods granted today by some European monarchs. Even
some 19th century non-noble landed gentry would be called szlachta by courtesy or error as they owned manorial estates but
were not noble by birth. In the narrow sense it denotes the old-Commonwealth nobility.

The Origins of Polish Nobility

The Polish
nobility probably derived from a Slavic warrior class, forming a distinct element within the ancient Polonic
tribal groupings. This is uncertain, however, as there is little surviving documentation on the early history of Poland, or
of the movements of the Slavonic people into what became the territory so designated. The szlachta themselves claimed descent
from the Sarmatians (see paragraph 2.2 below) who came to Europe in the 5th century C.E. Around the 14th century,
there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland, apart from legal and economic. Members of the szlachta
had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), thereby becoming the kingdom's privileged social class.

Concerning the early Polish tribes,
geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around a unifying religious
cult, governed by the wiec, an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected
prince was chosen to govern.

The tribes were ruled by clans (ród) consisting of people related by blood and descending from a common ancestor,
giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens.) The starosta (or starszyna)
had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders.
Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and
where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 44).

Before going deeper into the history
of Polish nobility, it is important to note use of the English word "knight", which can be misleading as it leads
to inevitable comparisons with the British gentry. In comparison, the Polish nobility was a "power elite" caste,
not a social class. The paramount principle of Polish nobility was that it was hereditary.

Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 - 25 May 992) utilized
an elite knightly retinue from his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving
the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, too.

Another class of knights were granted
land by the prince, allowing them to serve the prince militarily. A Polish nobleman living at this time before the 15th century
was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight", the critical difference
being the status of "rycerz" was strictly hereditary; the class of all such individuals was known as the "rycerstwo".
Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other class of
rycerstwo, which became the szlachta/nobility ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish nobility beginning
about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/nobility
obtained more privileges granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal
law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/noble birth) could serve as officials
in state administration.

Select rycerstwo were distinguished above the other rycerstwo, because they descended from past tribal dynasties,
or because early Piasts' endowments made them select beneficiaries. These rycerstwo of great wealth were called
możni (Magnates). Socially they were not a distinct class from the rycerstwo they originated from and to which they would
return were their wealth lost. (Manteuffel 1982, pp. 148-149).

The Period of Division, A.D., 1138 - A.D., 1314, nearly 200 years of feudal fragmentation,
when Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons, began the social structure allegedly separating great landowning
feudal nobles (możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay) from the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior social
structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty, this
dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D.

Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors
of Piast realms, even though the Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These możni (Magnates) constantly
sought to undermine princely authority. In Gall Anonym's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech
"elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices.

The Lithuanian Nobility

In Lithuania
Propria, Samogitia and Prussia,prior to the creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas,
nobles were called 'bajorai' and the higher nobility 'kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai' (dukes). They were the established
local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later
to the King of Lithuania.

After the Union of Horodło the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with the Polish
szlachta, and over time began to become more and more polonized, although they did preserve their national consciousness,
and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In the 16th century some of the Lithuanian nobility erroneously
claimed that they were of Roman extraction, and the Lithuanian language was just a morphed Latin language.

The process of polonization took
place over a lengthy period of time. At first only the highest members of the nobility were involved, although gradually a
wider group of the population was affected. The major effects on the lesser Lithuanian nobility took place after various sanctions
were imposed by the Russian Empire such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas few years after the November
Uprising. After the January Uprising the sanctions went further, and Russian officials announced that "Lithuanians
are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism" and began to intensify russification, and to ban the printing
of books in the Lithuanian language.

The Ruthenian Nobility

In Ruthenia (Ukraine) the
nobility gradually gravitated its loyalty towards the multicultural and multilingualGrand Duchy of Lithuania after the
principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried
with Lithuanian ones. The Orthodox nobles' rights were nominally equal to those enjoyed by Polish and Lithuanian nobility,
but there was a cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism, that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest. See
for example careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki.

Szlachta's Rise to Power

Nobles were born into a noble
family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various
reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc. - yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles
were, in actuality, really usurpers, being commoners, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to
noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Hieronim Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis
plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles from owning nobility-estates
and promised the estate to the denouncer. Trepka was an impoverished nobleman who lived a townsman life and collected hundreds
of such stories hoping to take over any of such estates. It doesn't seem he ever succeeded in proving one at the court. Many
sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage
of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins
formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.

The Polish nobility enjoyed many rights that were not available to the noble classes of
other countries and, typically, each new monarch conceded them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis
of the Golden Liberty in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite having a king, Poland was called the nobility'sCommonwealth because the
king was elected by all interested members of hereditary nobility and Poland was considered to be the property of this
class, not of the king or the ruling dynasty. This state of affairs grew up in part because of the extinction of the
male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty (first the Piasts, then the Jagiellons), and the selection by the
nobility of the Polish king from among the dynasty's female-line descendants.

Branicki,holding hetman's buława.

Poland's successive kings granted
privileges to the nobility at the time of their election to the throne (the privileges being specified in the king-elect's Pacta
conventa) and at other times in exchange for ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax or a pospolite
ruszenie Poland's nobility thus accumulated a growing array of privileges and immunities, In 1355 in Buda King Casimir
III the Great (Kazimierz Wielki) issued the first country-wide privilege for the nobility, in exchange for their agreement
that in the lack of Kazimierz male heirs, the throne would pass to his nephew, Louis I of Hungary. He decreed
that the nobility would no longer be required to pay 'extraordinary'taxes, or pay with their own funds for military expeditions
outside Poland. He also promised that during travels of the royal court, the king and the court would pay for all expenses,
instead of using facilities of local nobility.

In 1374 King Louis of Hungary approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish:
"przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish
throne for his daughter Jadwiga. He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire
class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 groszefrom łan (an old measure of land size)). In
addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility.
Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local
nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights.
Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside
Polish borders.

In
1422 King Władysław II Jagiełło by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (Polish: "przywilej
czerwiński") established the inviolability of nobles' property (their estates could not be confiscated except upon
a court verdict) and ceded some jurisdiction over fiscal policy to the Royal Council (later, the Senat),
including the right to mint coinage.

In 1430 with the Privileges of Jedlnia, confirmed at Kraków in 1433
(Polish: "przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie"), based partially on his earlier Brześć Kujawski privilege
(April 25, 1425), King Władysław II Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest,
similar to the English Magna Carta's Habeas corpus, known from its own Latin name as "neminem captivabimus (nisi
jure victum)." Henceforth no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a warrant from a competent court of justice:
the king could neither punish nor imprison any noble at his whim. King Władysław's quid pro quo for this
boon was the nobles' guarantee that his throne would be inherited by one of his sons (who would be bound to honour the privileges
theretofore granted to the nobility). On May 2, 1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the
same rights as those possessed by the Polish szlachta.

In 1454 King Kazimierz IV Jagiellon granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish:
"statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments).
The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie)
only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed
the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans.
These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.

The first "free election"
(Polish: "wolna elekcja") of a king took place in 1492. (To be sure, some earlier Polish kings had been elected
with help from bodies such as that which put Casimir II on the throne, thereby setting a precedent for free elections.)
Only senators voted in the 1492 free election, which was won by Jan I Olbracht. For the duration of the Jagiellonian
Dynasty, only members of that royal family were considered for election; later, there would be no restrictions on the choice
of candidates.

In 1493 the national parliament,
the Sejm, began meeting every two years at Piotrków. It comprised two chambers:

a Senate of 81 bishops and other dignitaries; and

a Chamber of Envoys of 54 envoys (in Polish, "envoy" is "poseł")
representing their respective Lands.

The numbers of senators and envoys later increased.

On April 26, 1496 King Jan I Olbracht granted the Privilege of Piotrków (Polish:
"Przywilej piotrkowski", "konstytucja piotrkowska" or "statuty piotrkowskie"), increasing the
nobility's feudal power over serfs. It bound the peasant to the land, as only one son (not the eldest) was
permitted to leave the village; townsfolk (Polish: "mieszczaństwo") were prohibited from owning land; and positions
in the Church hierarchy could be given only to nobles.

On 23 October 1501, at Mielnik Polish-Lithuanian Union was reformed at the Union
of Mielnik (Polish: unia mielnicka, unia piotrkowsko-mielnicka). It was there that the tradition of the coronation
Sejm (Polish: "Sejm koronacyjny") was founded. Once again the middle nobility (middle in wealth, not in rank)
attempted to reduce the power of the magnates with a law that made them impeachable before the Senate for malfeasance.
However the Act of Mielno (Polish: Przywilej mielnicki) of 25 October did more to strengthen the magnate dominated Senate
of Poland then the lesser nobility. The nobles were conceded the right to refuse to obey the King or his representatives-in
the Latin, "non praestanda oboedientia"--and to form confederations, an armed rebellion against the king or
state officers if the nobles thought that the law or their legitimate privileges were being infringed.

On 3 May 1505 King Aleksander
I Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" (Latin: "I accept nothing new except
by common consent"). This forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility,
in Sejm and Senat assembled, and thus greatly strengthened the nobility's political position. Basically, this act transferred
legislative power from the king to the Sejm. This date commonly marks the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the
period of a szlachta-run "Commonwealth".

In 1520 the Act of Bydgoszcz granted the Sejm the right to convene every four
years, with or without the king's permission. About that time the "executionist movement" (Polish: "egzekucja
praw"--"execution of the laws") began to take form. Its members would seek to curb the power of the magnates
at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of king and country. In 1562 at the Sejm in Piotrków they would force the magnates
to return many leasedcrown lands to the king, and the king to create a standing army (wojsko kwarciane). One of the most
famous members of this movement was Jan Zamoyski. After his death in 1605, the movement lost its political force.

Until the death of Zygmunt II
August, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could only be elected from within the royal family.
However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish-Lithuanian monarch.
Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents - thePacta conventa ("agreed pacts") - a confirmation
of the king's pre-election promises, and Henrican articles(artykuły henrykowskie, named after the first freely elected
king, Henry of Valois). The latter document served as a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the
Commonwealth:

Free election of kings;

Religious tolerance;

The Diet to
be gathered every two years;

Foreign policy controlled
by the Diet;

A royal advisory council chosen by the
Diet;

Official posts restricted to Polish and Lithuanian
nobles;

Taxes and monopolies set up by the Diet only;

Nobles' right to disobey the king should he break any of these laws.

In 1578 king Stefan Batory created
the Crown Tribunal in order to reduce the enormous pressure on the Royal Court. This placed much of the monarch's
juridical power in the hands of the elected szlachta deputies, further strengthening the nobility class. In 1581 the Crown
Tribunal was joined by a counterpart in Lithuania, theLithuanian Tribunal.

Transformation into Aristocracy

For many centuries, wealthy and powerful
members of the szlachta sought to gain legal privileges over their peers. Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as
magnates (karmazyni - the "Crimsons", from the crimson colour of their boots). A proper magnate should be able to
trace noble ancestors back for many generations and own at least 20 villages or estates. He should also hold a major office
in the Commonwealth.

Some historians estimate the number of magnates as 1% of the number of szlachta. Out of approx. one million szlachta,
tens of thousands of families, only 200-300 persons could be classed as great magnates with country-wide possessions and influence,
and 30-40 of them could be viewed as those with significant impact on Poland's politics.

Magnates often received gifts from monarchs, which significantly
increased their wealth. Often, those gifts were only temporary leases, which the magnates never returned (in 16th century,
the anti-magnate opposition among szlachta was known as the ruch egzekucji praw - movement for execution of the laws - which
demanded that all such possessions are returned to their proper owner, the king).

One of the most important victories of the magnates was
the late 16th century right to create ordynacja's (similar tomajorats), which ensured that a family which gained wealth
and power could more easily preserve this. Ordynacje's of families of Radziwiłłs, Zamoyskis, Potockis or Lubomirskis often
rivalled the estates of the king and were important power bases for the magnates.

Loss of influence by szlachta

The sovereignty of szlachta was ended in 1795 by the Partitions of Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. Then, until1918 their legal status dependent on policies of: Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia or Habsburg
Monarchy. InSecond Polish Republic the privileges of the nobility were lawfully abolished by the March Constitution in 1921 and
as such not granted by any future Polish law.

Szlachta culture

The Polish nobility differed in many respects from the nobility of other countries. The
most important difference was that, while in most European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for absolute
monarchy, in Poland the reverse process occurred: the nobility actually gained power at the expense of the king, and the political
system evolved into anoligarchy.

Poland's nobility were also more numerous than those of all other European countries, constituting some 10%
- 12% of the total population of historic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth also some 10% - 12% among ethnic Poleson
ethnic Polish lands (part of Commonwealth), but up to 25% of all Poles worldwide
(szlachta could dispose more of resources to travels and/or conquering), while in some poorer regions (e.g. Mazowsze,
the area centred onWarsaw) nearly 30%. However, according to szlachta comprised around 8% of the total population in 1791
(up from 6.6% in the 16th century), and no more than 16% of the Roman Catholic (mostly ethnically Polish) population. It should
be noted, though, that Polish szlachta usually incorporated most local nobility from the areas that were absorbed by Poland-Lithuania
(Ruthenian boyars, Livonian nobles, etc.) By contrast, the nobilities of other European countries, except for Spain, amounted
to a mere 1-3%, however the era of sovereign rules of Polish nobility ended earlier then in other countries (excluding France)
yet in 1795 (see: Partitions of Poland), since then their legitimation and future fate depended on legislature
and procedures of Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia orHabsburg Monarchy. Gradually their privileges were under
further limitations to be completely dissolved byMarch Constitution of Poland in 1921.

There were a number of avenues to upward social mobility
and the achievement of nobility. Poland's nobility was not a rigidly exclusive, closed class. Many low-born individuals, including townsfolk, peasants and Jews,
could and did rise in Polish society up to official ennoblement. Thus Poland's noble class was more stable than those
of other countries, and so was spared the societal tensions and eventual disintegration that characterised the French
Revolution. Each szlachcic had enormous influence over the country's politics, in some ways even greater than what is enjoyed
by the citizens of modern democratic countries. Between 1652 and 1791, any nobleman could nullify all the proceedings of a
given sejmsejmik (Commonwealth local parliament) by exercising his individual right of liberum veto (Latin
for "I do not allow"), except in the case of a confederated sejm or confederated sejmik. (Commonwealth
parliament) or

All
children of the Polish nobility inherited their noble status from a noble mother and father. Any individual could attain ennoblement
(nobilitacja) for special services to the state. A foreign noble might be naturalised as a Polish noble (Polish: "indygenat")
by the Polish king (later, from 1641, only by a general sejm).

In theory at least, all Polish noblemen were social equals. Also in theory they were legal
peers. Those who held 'real power' dignities were more privileged but these dignities were not hereditary. Those who held
honorary dignities were higher in 'ritual' hierarchy but these dignities were also granted for a lifetime. Some tenancies
became hereditary and went with both privilege and titles. Nobles who were not direct barons of the Crown but held land from
other lords were only peers "de iure". The poorest enjoyed the same rights as the wealthiest magnate. The exceptions
were a few symbolically privileged families such as the Radziwiłł, Lubomirski and Czartoryski, who sported
honorary aristocratic titles recognized in Poland or received from foreign courts, such as "Prince" or "Count."
(see also The Princely Houses of Poland). All other szlachta simply addressed each other by their given name or as "Sir
Brother" (Panie bracie) or the feminine equivalent. The other forms of address would be "Illustrious and Magnificent
Lord", "Magnificent Lord", "Generous Lord" or "Noble Lord" (in decreasing order) or simply
"His/Her Grace Lord/Lady XYZ".

zagrodowa - from zagroda, a farm, often little different from a peasant's dwelling

zagonowa - from zagon, a small unit of land measure, hide nobility

cząstkowa - partial, owners of only part of a single village

panek - little pan (i.e. lordling), term used in Kaszuby, the Kashubian region, also
one of the legal terms for legally separated lower nobility in late medieval and early modern Poland

hreczkosiej - buckwheat sowers - those who had to work their fields themselves.

zaściankowa - from zaścianek, a name for plural nobility settlement, neighbourhood
nobility. Just like hreczkosiej, zaściankowa nobility would have no peasants.

brukowa - cobble nobility, for those living in towns like townsfolk

gołota - naked nobility, i.e. the landless. Gołota szlachta would be considered
the 'lowest of the high'.

Note that Polish landed gentry (ziemianie or ziemiaństwo) was composed of any nobility that
owned lands: thus of course the magnates, the middle nobility and that lesser nobility that had at least part of the village.
As manorial lordships were also opened to burgesses of certain privileged royal cities, not all landed gentry had a hereditary
title of nobility.

Polish
Heraldry

Coats
of arms were very important to the Polish nobility. It is notable, that the Polish heraldic system evolved separately
from its western counterparts and differed in many ways from the heraldry of other European countries.

The most notable difference is that,
contrary to other European heraldic systems, most families sharing origin would also share a coat-of-arms. They would also
share arms with families adopted into the clan (these would often have their arms officially altered upon ennoblement). Sometimes
unrelated families would be falsely attributed to the clan on the basis of similarity of arms. Also often noble families claimed
inaccurate clan membership. Logically, the number of coats of arms in this system was rather low and did not exceed 200 in
late Middle Ages (40.000 in late XVIII century).

Also, the tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted
to women did not develop in Poland. Usually men inherited the coat of arms from their fathers. Also, the brisure was
rarely used.

Sarmatism

The szlachta's prevalent mentality
and ideology were manifested in "Sarmatism", a name derived fromscientifically unproved myth about
szlachta origin from powerful ancient nation of Sarmatians. This belief system became an important part of szlachta culture
and affected all aspects of their lives. It popularised by poets enshrined traditional village life, peace and pacifism; also
oriental-style apparel (the żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia); and made the scimitar-like szabla,
too, a near-obligatory item of everyday szlachta apparel. Sarmatism served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility as it created
an almost nationalistic sense of unity and pride in the szlachta's "Golden Liberty" (złota wolność).
Knowledge of Latin was widespread, and most szlachta freely mixed Polish and Latin vocabulary (the latter, "macaronisms"
- from "macaroni") in everyday conversation.

In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism seemed like a salutary cultural movement: it fostered
religious faith, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. Late Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty
into political naiveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness, equality and freedom within the szlachta class
into dissension and anarchy.

The Religious Beliefs of The Polish Nobility

Prior to the Reformation, the Polish nobility were mostly either Roman
Catholic or Orthodox with a small group ofMuslims. Many families, however, soon adopted the Reformed faiths.
After the Counter-Reformation, when theRoman Catholic ChurchPoland, the nobility became almost exclusively Catholic,
despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not the majority religion in Commonwealth (the Catholic and Orthodox churches
each accounted for some 40% of regained power in all citizensJacob Frank joined the ranks
of Jewish-descended Polish gentry. population, with the remaining 20% being Jews or members of Protestant denominations).
In the 18th century, many followers of Jacob Frank joined the ranks of Jewish-descended Polish
gentry. Although Jewish ethnicity wasn't usually a pretext to block or deprive
of noble status, however some laws required religious convert from Judaism to Christianity
(see: Neophyte) to be ennobled.

The Ennoblement In Kingdom
of Poland

The
increase of number of Polish nobility by trustworthy ennoblements is proportionally minimal (since XIV
century). In the Kingdom of Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ennoblement (nobilitacja)
meant an individual's joining the szlachta (Polish nobility). At first it was granted by monarch, since late XVI century
by the sejm that gave the ennobled person a coat of arms. Often that person could join an
existing noble szlachta family with their own coat of arms. According to heraldic sources total number of trustworthy
ennoblements issued since XIV century until late XVIII century, is estimated as about 800 (which gives probably average of
about two ennoblements per year, trivia: some above 0.000 000 14 - 0.000 001 of historical population,
compare: historical demography of Poland). Late XVIII century is time of short loosening of ennoblements
policy, which can be explained in terms of sudden collapse of Commonwealth and sudden need of soldiers (see: Partitions
of Poland, King Stanisław August Poniatowski).

The Total Number of Ennoblements Estimation

according to heraldic sources 1 600 (half o which constitute, performed
in final years of the state collapse "sudden ennoblements" of late XVIII century) is a total
estimated number of all trustworthy ennoblements in history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since
XIV century.

Polish Types of Ennoblement

Skartabelat - introduced by pacta conventa of XVII century, ennoblement into
a sort of lower nobility. Skartabels could not hold public offices or be members of the Sejm. After three generations in noble
ranks these families would "mature" to peerage.

Adopcja
herbowa - old way of ennoblement, popular in XV century, connected with adoption into an existing noble clan by a powerful
lord, abolished in XVII century

Similar
Terms

Indygenat - recognition of foreign
noble status. A foreign noble, after indygenat, received all privileges of a Polish szlachcic. In Polish history, 413 foreign
noble families were recognized. From XVI century this was done by the King and SejmSejm only. (Polish parliament),
since XVII century it was done by

"secret ennoblement"
of questionable legal status, opposed/not recognized by szlachta; by monarch without
required by law approval of the sejm.

In The Grand Duchy of Lithuania

In the late 14th century, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas the Great reformed
the Grand Duchy's army: instead of calling all men to arms, he created forces comprising professional warriors-bajorai ("nobles";
see thecognate "boyar"). As there were not enough nobles, Vytautas trained suitable men, relieving them of
labor on the land and of other duties; for their military service to the Grand Duke, they were granted land that
was worked by hired men (veldams). The newly-formed noble families generally took up, as their family names, the Lithuanianpagan given
names of their ennobled ancestors; this was the case with the Goštautai, Radvilos, Astikai, Kęsgailosand
others. These families were granted their coats of armsUnion of Horodlo (1413). under the In 1506, KingSigismund
I the Old confirmed the position of the Lithuanian Council of Lords in state politics and limited entry into
the nobility.

The
List of Szlachta

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a semi-confederal and semi-federal monarchic republic
comprising the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from 1569 until 1795. The head of state was
an electedmonarch. The Commonwealth's dominant social class was the nobility. This article chiefly lists
the nobility'smagnate segment (the wealthier nobility), as they were the most prominent, famous and notable.
These families would receive non-hereditary 'central' and Land dignities and titles under the Commonwealth law that
forbade (with minor exceptions) any hereditary legal distinctions within the peerage. They would later be 'approximated' to
honorary hereditary titles in the Partition period with little real-power privileges but would still be venerated
among the Polish upper class and the rest of the society as 'senatorial', 'palatinal', 'castellanial' or "dignitarial'
families.

"Szlachta"
is the proper term for Polish nobility beginning about the 15th century. Most powerful members of szlachta were
known as magnates ("magnaci" or the "magnateria" class). A Polish nobleman
who lived earlier is referred to as a "rycerz" ("knight"); the class of all such individuals
is the "rycerstwo" (the "chivalry" class). Most powerful members of "rycerstwo"
were known as "możnowładzcy" (the "moznowładztwo" class).

By Family

Below is a list of most important Polish noble (szlachta)
families. The families listed are the famous magnatesfamilies - ones that had accumulated great wealth and political
power, generally preserved across several centuries. Please note that this list is not intended to be a comprehensive list
of all szlachta families. For the list of lesser known but still notable Polish noble families, see the corresponding
category.

All names are given first in
the singular, then (parenthetically) in the plural.

Listed below are important members of the szlachta of Poland and
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, by century and year of birth. In many cases, birth year is uncertain or unknown.
During the Commonwealth, most people-including szlachta-paid little attention to their birthdates.

Jan Kazimierz Sapieha the Younger, ca. 1637/1642-1720, since 1700 held the title of a Duke.
Since 1681 FieldHetman of Lithuania, the following year he also became the voivod of Vilna. In 1682 promoted
to Grand Hetman of Lithuania.

of the Polish Army,
major contributor to victory at the Battle of Warsaw

Jadwiga
Dzieduszycka, 1867-1941

Jan Nepomucen Potocki, 1867-1943

Adam Stefan Sapieha, 1867-1951

Rodryg Dunin, 1870-1928

Waclaw Iwaszkiewicz Polish
general in the Polish-Soviet war (1919-1920)

Maurycy
Klemens Zamoyski, 1871-1939

Adam Ludwik Czartoryski 1872-1937

Wacław Sobieski, 1872-1935

Władysław Zdzisław Zamoyski, 1873-1944

Paweł Trubecki, 1879-1941, prince

Maria
Ludwika Krasińska, 1883-1958

Alfred Niezychowski,
1888-1964

Samuel Tyszkiewicz, 1889-1954

Stanisław Bohdan Grabiński, 1891-1930

Edward Raczyński, 1891-1993, president

Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, 1895-1966, Polish general

Jan Franciszek Czartoryski, 1897-1944

Roman
Jacek Czartoryski, 1898-1958

Krzysztof Mikołaj
Radziwiłł, 1898-1986

The 20th Century Polish Nobility

Nobility privileges were abolished under the Second Polish Republic (1918-1939).
Nobility obligations are not addressed. This would leave the legal status of nobility as consisting of obligations only (as
they demonstrated in WW2) had the article been not later revoked anyway.

Stefan Adam Zamoyski, 1904-1976

Elżbieta
Czartoryska, 1905-1989

Adam Michał Czartoryski,
1906-1998

Augustyn Józef Czartoryski, 1907-1944

Antoni Dunin, 1907-1939

Piotr
Michał Czartoryski, 1909-1993

Kurnatowski of
Lodzia. Zygmunt Obtained the hereditary

papal
title of Count from Pope Leo XIII in 1902.

Jan Zamoyski
(1912-2002), 1912-2002

Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł,
1914-1976

Włodzimierz Wałoc Trubecki, 1915-1997,
prince

Professor Pawel Czartoryski, 1924-1999

Władysław Krzysztof Grabiński, 1925-1944

Jan Trubecki, 1938, prince

Adam Karol Czartoryski, 1940

Adam Zamoyski,
1949

Hubert Taczanowski, 1960

Princess Tamara Laura Czartoryska-Borbon, 1978

Aleksander Kochankrólewski, 1989

Seweryn Wysłouch, 1900-1968

The Index of Polish Princely Houses

Czartoryski h. Pogon Litewska. Dynastic Princely title confirmed in Poland andLithuania
in 1569, in Hungary in 1442 and 1808, in Austria in 1785 and 1863, inthe Kingdom of Poland in 1815,
1819 and 1824. Qualification of Serene Highnessaccorded in Austria, July 20 1905.

Czetwertynski h. Pogon Ruska. The Czetwertynski
family appears in the 1824 list

of persons authorised to bear the title of Prince in the Kingdom of Poland. The

title was recognised in Rusia
in 1843, 1858, 1860, 1875 and 1886.

Drucki-Lubecki h. Druck. The right to the title of Prince was recognised
in

Prussia
on December 21 1798, in Russia on January 24 1851 and May 12 1852.

Giedroyc
h. Poraj. Princely title received Russian

confirmation in 1865, 1866, 1875, 1876, 1878 and 1880.

Gulgowski
h. Doliwa Princely and Ducal House of Gulgowski-Doliwa
bear the titles of Prince, Duke and Count of the
Holy Roman

Empire
of the German Nation and of the Kingdom of Poland. Titles recognized by King Frederick The Great Patent, dated 13 September
1772 .

Jablonowski
h. Prus III. Hereditary title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire

granted by Emperor Charles VII to various members of the family
in 1743 and 1744.

Title was recognised in Poland in 1775, in Austria in 1777, 1820 and 1827 and in Russia in 1844. In 1824
the Jablonowskis appeared in the list of families authorised to bear the title of Prince in the Kingdom of Poland. On July 20
1905
the Jablonowskis received confirmation of their right to the qualification

of Serene Highness
(originally granted in 1704).

Lubomirski h. Szreniawa bez Krzyza. Title of Count of the Holy Roman Empire

awarded to Sebastian Lubomirski on July 14 1595. His son
Stanislaw was

awarded the hereditary title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Ferdinand III on March 8
1647. Title was confirmed in Austria on June 6 1786, in Russia on May 21 1863 and March 8 1888. In 1824 the Lubomirskis
appeared in the list of families authorised to bear the title of Prince in the Kingdom of Poland. On July 20 1905 the Lubomirskis were
awarded the qualification of Serene Highness.

Massalski h. Massalski. In 1775 the Massalskis were granted the hereditary
title

of
Prince by the Polish Sejm (parliament). This branch became extinct on May 9

1794. Various members of the non-titled branch
obtained confirmation of their right to the title of Prince in Russia on September 7 1862, April 7 1864, June 24 1868, January 22 1885 and
March 21 1889

Oginski h. Oginiec. The right of the family to bear the title of Prince was

recognised in Austria by Emperor Joseph
II on 17 March 1783, in the Kingdom

of Poland by the Senate on 25 March 1821 and in Russia by Czar Alexander II on 3 April 1868. In 1824
the Oginskis appeared in the list of families authorised to bear the title of Prince in the Kingdom of Poland.

hereditary
title of Prince from Pope Urban VIII on 23 December 1633, the

non-hereditary title of Prince of the Holy Roman
Empire from Emperor Ferdinand II on 20 January 1634. The hereditary title became extinct upon the death of Jerzy's only son.
Franciszek-Maximilian Ossolinski obtained the title of Duke from King Louis XV of France on 1 January 1736. The title
became extinct in 1790. Michal Ossolinski obtained the right to the hereditary title of Count of Austria from Emperor Joseph
II on 7 July and 9 August 1785. Jozef-Kajetan Ossolinski obtained the hereditary title of Count from Kaiser Frederick-Wilhelm, of Prussia on 15 November
1805 (L.P. 1 October 1806). Wiktor-Maximilian-Josef Ossolinski obtained the hereditary title of Count in Russia on 7 January 1848.
In 1824
the Ossolinskis appeared in the list of families authorised to bear the title of Count of the Kingdom of Poland.

Poniatowski
h. Ciolek. In 1764 the brothers of King Stanislaw-Augustus

Poniatowski (Kazimierz, Andrzej and Michal) were awarded the hereditary title of

Prince of Poland by the Polish
Sejm (parliament). On 10 December 1765 Emperor

Joseph II also awarded Andrzej the hereditary title
of Prince in Austria (succession by primogeniture). Karol
and Stanislaw-Michal-Ksawery Poniatowski obtained the
hereditary title of Prince from Austrian Emperor Franz-Josef on 19 November 1850.

Poninski h. Lodzia. Various grants: Princely title awarded to Adam
and Calixte

Poninski
by the Sejm on 19 April 1773. The descendants of Adam were granted

the hereditary title of Prince in Austria on
30 December 1837 and 22 May 1841. Alexsander-Franciszek Poninski was awarded the qualification of Serene Highness by Emperor Franz-Josef on
20 July 1905. Ignacy-Augustus Poninski obtained the Prussian hereditary title of Count on 4 August 1782. This title was later

confirmed in Austria on 8 March 1842 and 8 March 1862. Wladyslaw-Augustus obtained the hereditary title of Count in Italy on 24 February 1880. The title became extinct in the following generation. Stanislaw obtained the Prussian hereditary title of Count on 10 Septemer 1840 (sucession by primogeniture with added stipulation that the mother of each heir be noble in her own right). Antoni Poninski obtained the Bavarian title of Count on 18 August 1841. Adolphus Poninski obtained the Papal title of Count from Pope Pius X in 1908. On 25 March 1888 Bronislaw Poninski obtained the non-hereditary title of Count from King Umberto I of Italy.

Puzyna
h. Oginiec. The right to bear the title of Prince was recognised by the

Kingdom of Poland in a senate decision in 1823, in Russia
on 17 May and 6 June

1910, 3 July and
24 September 1915 and 21 January 1916. In 1824 the Puzynas were
listed among those families authorised to bear the title of Prince in the Kingdom of Poland.

Radziwill h. Traby. The Radziwills received confirmation of their right to the
title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1547; in Poland in 1564/1569; in Austria in 1784 and 1882; in the Kingdom of Poland
in 1824 and in Russia in 1845, 1867 and 1899. The qualification of Serene Highness was accorded in Prussia in 1859 and 1861
and in Austria in 1905.

Sanguszko h. Pogon Litweska. The Sanguszko dynasty received confirmation
of

the
title of Prince in Poland in 1569; in Austria in 1785, 1833 and 1835 and in

Russia in 1858 and 1906. In 1905 the Princes
Sanguszko received the qualification of Serene Highness from Austrian Emperor Franz-Josef.

Sapieha h. Lis. Michal-Franciszek
obtained the hereditary title of Prince of the

Holy Roman Empire from Emperor Leopold I on 14th September 1700. The title

became extinct upon his death
without issue on 19th November 1700. In 1768 all the members of the Sapieha family obtained recognition of the princely title
from the Polish sejm (parliament). In 1824 the Sapieha family appeared in the list of persons authorised to bear the title of Prince
of the Kingdom Poland. The title was also recognised by the Austrians in 1836 and 1840, and in Russia in 1874 and 1901. In 1905 they obtained
the qualification of Serene Highness in Austria.

Sulkowski h. Sulima. Title of Count of the Holy Roman Empire obtained
in

1733.
Title of Prince obtained in Bohemia in 1752 (succession by primogenitue).

Twelve years later the right of succession was
extended to all descendants. In 1774 the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire was recognised in Poland. The Sulkowskis received the Prussian
qualification of Serene Highness in 1819 and the Austrian qualification of Serene Highness in 1905.

Woroniecki h. Korybut. In 1824 the Woronieckis were listed amongst those

persons authorised to bear the title of Prince of the Kingdom of Poland. The

princely title was recognised
in Russia on 28th June 1844 and 5th July 1852.