BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 1

Given the increased globalization and popularization of computer
applications, translating a system's human interface into the local language
has become a major consideration for software vendors and distributors. In this
paper, we suggest a theoretical framework for the study of user interface
translation. The framework includes recognizing vendors' and users' costs of,
and benefits from, software translation. An experiment was conducted, based on
this framework, to test user performance and preferences regarding interface
translations. The experiment manipulated the translation of two interface
components: documentation language and manipulation language. The results
indicate that users are sensitive to different combinations of interface
translation in a way that is commensurate with the instruction-following
process (Terwilliger and Polson 1997). Users performed best when a fully
translated interface was used and worst when only the manipulation language was
translated. Users' preferences were in line with their performance, indicating
that a cost benefit approach can serve as a promising starting point to the
study of interface translation.

Understanding the Roles of Signs and Norms in Organizations -- A Semiotic
Approach to Information Systems Design

To apply semiotics to organizational analysis and information systems
design, it is essential to unite two basic concepts: the sign and the norm. A
sign is anything that stands for something else for some community. A norm is a
generalized disposition to the world shared by members of a community. When its
condition is met, a norm generates a propositional attitude which may, but not
necessarily will, affect the subject's behaviour. Norms reflect regularities in
the behaviour of members in an organization, allowing them to coordinate their
actions. Organized behaviour is norm-governed behaviour. Signs trigger the
norms leading to more signs being produced. Both signs and norms lend
themselves to empirical study. The focus in this paper is on the properties of
norms since those for signs are relatively well known. The paper discusses a
number of different taxonomies of norms: formal, informal, technical;
evaluative, perceptual, behavioural, cognitive; structure, action; substantive,
communication and control. A semiotic analysis of information systems is
adduced in this paper from the social, pragmatic, semantic, syntactic, empiric
and physical perspectives. The paper finally presents a semiotic approach to
information systems design, by discussing the method of information modelling
and systems architecture. This approach shows advantages over other traditional
ones in a higher degree of separation of knowledge, and hence in the
consistency, integrity and maintainability of systems.

Software-ergonomic system analysis often reveals numerous usability
problems. Given that system design suffers from limited resources, the
prioritization of usability problems seems inevitable. Surprisingly enough,
prioritization is not in the focus of scientific interest. Within this paper,
approaches to prioritization relying on severity estimates will be presented.
Two of the approaches, namely priorities based on data about the impact of a
problem (data-driven) and priorities based on judgements of interest group
members (judgement-driven) will be further explored. In the data-driven
approach total problem-handling time caused by a usability problem is presented
as a measure of severity. The major disadvantage of the data-driven approach is
its costs. A possible alternative are severity estimates based on judgements by
members of involved interest groups. The first of two studies shows how to
obtain judgement driven severity estimates and reveals a fundamental lack of
correspondence between data-driven and judgement-driven severity estimates. The
second study supports the notion that the lack of correspondence may stem from
a difference between assumptions of the data-driven approach and the naive
judgement model of interest group members in the judgement-driven approach. A
hypothetical model for severity estimates by interest group members is
presented.

An evaluation method is proposed based on walkthrough analysis coupled with
a taxonomic analysis of observed problems and causes of usability error. The
model mismatch method identifies usability design flaws and missing
requirements from user errors. The method is tested with a comparative
evaluation of two information retrieval products. Different profiles of
usability and requirements problems were found for the two products, even
though their overall performance was similar.

The Importance of Task Analysis in Usability Context Analysis -- Designing
for Fitness for Purpose

Usability Context Analysis (UCA) suggests the use of task analysis in order
to characterize the user's requirements of a product. This paper shows that a
task analysis is a necessary (but not sufficient) part of a usability context
analysis. Further, it is argued that it is necessary to carry out the task
analysis to sufficient depth to establish fitness for purpose of the product
under test. In addition, the analyst should have some knowledge of the
application domain so that from various task sequences, that giving the best
user-product task match can be used. The paper indicates by using an example of
an echosounder that discrepancies of use can be highlighted through this
task-based approach to usability context analysis.

An Exploratory Investigation of the Antecedents and Impact of Internet
Usage: An Individual Perspective

Internet usage in the US workplace is increasing at a phenomenal rate. This
exploratory study examines factors influencing employee internet usage and
individual perceptions of the consequences of such usage. Using the Theory of
Reasoned Behaviour, a questionnaire was designed and circulated to part time
MBA students in north-east United States. This preliminary study suggests that
the personal factors of web skills and playfulness are associated with
perceived internet usefulness, the degree of internet usage, and have both
positive (enhanced job characteristics, job satisfaction) and negative
(increased inefficiency) impacts. Neither the personal variables of age and
gender nor any of the organizational variables are important antecedent
variables. To those who perceive the internet as intimidating, there was,
understandably, less internet usage. Perceived usefulness was positively
related to increased time of use and internet impacts. In general, the findings
indicate that extending the research on microcomputers to internet usage is a
promising research focus. On the basis of this study, the leadership challenge
is to harness the tremendous potential of the internet, working to control and
improve inefficiencies while not discouraging internet usage.

BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 2

In order to assess if productivity based on extrapolated data is a good
predictor of longer texts, an experimental study was conducted. Two full-sized
text input devices for touch typing and two miniaturized for tapping were used,
all featuring QWERTY layout, in a repeated measurement design. Twenty subjects
were exposed to both a task within the limit of working memory (nine words) and
four running memory tasks (approx. 275 words). For miniaturized tapping
keyboards, extrapolated data significantly underestimated both entry speed
(uncorrected wpm, up to 17%) and character error rate (up to 61%) whereas it
significantly overestimated ratio of correct words (up to 62%) of running
memory tasks. Further, error-corrected entry speed was significantly
overestimated up to a factor of 2.7. Results based on extrapolated productivity
metrics must therefore be interpreted with caution. Running memory tasks with
text length of more than 32 words is needed to assess productivity of text
input devices if tapping is used.

This article investigates the way users interact with typical multimedia
infotainment applications. The focus is on the development over time of their
navigation behaviours in the information structure and their mental models of
it. The experiment involved a multimedia infotainment (CD-i) title with some
150 information items. Subjects were asked to perform a series of exploration,
search and drawing tasks; sessions were concluded with an interview and a
reconstruction task. Objective navigational data were compared with subjective
results concerning the users' mental models, using the terminology of the
navigational framework of Edwards and Hardman. It was found that, after 1 hour,
only 25% of the information items had been explored. Subjects use the first
20-30 minutes of explorative interaction time to discover the (local)
structures in the title. They then start to observe the presentations in a more
content-related way. The development of the user's mental model appears to
proceed relatively steadily. The perceived distance between information
elements mainly depends on the number of steps to be taken.

Influences of General Computer Experience and Age on Library Database Search
Performance

Two experiments examined the effects of general computer experience and age
on library system search performance among novice library system users. Twenty
younger adults (10 with high and 10 with low computer experience) and 20 older
adults (10 with low and 10 with no computer experience) performed 10 search
tasks of varying difficulty. Search success, syntax errors, database field
specifications, keyword specifications, and use of Boolean operators were
examined. Among younger novices, high computer experience was associated with
slightly better performance than low computer experience. Among older novices,
having some computer experience was associated with much better performance
than no computer experience. Older computer users showed lower overall success
rates, made more syntax and field specification errors, and demonstrated poorer
understanding of Boolean logic and keyword matching algorithms than younger
adults with similar computer experience. Implications for interface design and
training interventions for novice on-line library system users are discussed.

Positive and Negative Aspects of the Work of Information Technology
Personnel: An Exploratory Analysis

This paper re-analyses data gathered in a 1989 research among Dutch
information technology personnel. Working from Karasek's job stress model, we
use exploratory multiple correspondence analyses on the aggregated data matrix
of occupations and work items. We employed two models: one that emphasised the
negative evaluations of job aspects, and one that emphasised positive
evaluations. The structuring of positive evaluations of job aspects proved most
meaningful. Occupations could be distinguished into three groups. The first and
largest group is characterised by a fairly balanced degree of autonomy and
workload. A second group comprised of middle management occupations is
characterised by unfavourable judgement on workload, matched by insufficient
autonomy; as such, employees in these occupations appear at risk of
overburdening. A third group of computer specialists report a workload that is
too slight given their degree of autonomy; this group appears to be at risk of
underburdening.

This article begins by giving the background to different the approaches in
trying to predict what the labour market will look like in the future. Ongoing
changes in the labour market are then discussed, together with their
consequences in the slightly longer term. We then look at various ways in which
we can steer changes in the labour market into a direction desirable to both
society and the workforce. Finally, the needs for new research are reviewed,
followed by some concluding remarks.

BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 3

The extreme high speed of change in the area of information technology
creates a new demand for a process of continues learning and relearning in the
workplaces but also among the public as a whole. There is need for a deeper
crossdisciplinary and interdisciplinary understanding of the effects of this
extreme demand for learning and relearning, both on us as individuals, on
public and private organization and on the society as a whole. Information
technology provides to some extent possible solutions to the problems it
creates. Consequently, web based learning is also expanding with an
accelerating speed. But this new form of learning is not to the same extent
backed up by a fast growing research, in areas like on-the job-learning,
workplace pedagogics, 'competence ergonomics', etc. But there are a number of
very good exceptions like the Knowledge Media Institute of the Open University,
and also a number of newly established facilities like the network university
in the north of Sweden, the Mid Sweden University. In this special issue these
types of problems are discussed, including those where the emphasis lies in
creating rational and effective methods for web-based training and learning.
The following was put forward in the invitation to a particular target group
for this special issue.

This paper begins with defining data, information, knowledge, and wisdom and
proposes an architecture for managing knowledge (which is different from
managing information). This architecture helps us to develop different
perspectives, not just patterns and relationships. An example is presented of a
group that used this approach to build a sustainability framework. The
twenty-first century is going to be about creating pathways to a sustainable
future. Creating a shared understanding of what data, information, knowledge,
and wisdom mean to us and how they interrelate enables us to define and move
along those pathways. Applying our model of knowledge architecture from a
position of values, principles, and beliefs will allow us to evolve a deeper
understanding of what a sustainable future could mean to us and how we can
pursue it. The framework presented contains essential ingredients to be
explored in building our future: 'We struggle between the 1% of what we know,
1% of what we don't know but rarely come across the 98% of what we don't know
that we don't know'. (Buckminster Fuller, full details not available)

Information technology creates a very fast increase in the demand for new
skills, competencies and knowledge in all types of organisations and in society
as a whole. We know how important learning and knowledge development are, but
we do not understand how we should bring it about in a rational and effective
way. The objective of this analysis and review is to suggest methods and ideas
about how to make optimal use of the intellectual capital in companies,
regardless of whether it is carried by people or by information technology.
Three models for management of change are presented: (1) allocation of
functions, (2) business development, (3) web based learning. Finally the
concept of competence ergonomics is introduced to decrease 'learning stress'.
The ergonomic design of new technology and its related tasks fit the skill,
competence and learning potential of the available personnel.

Integrating working and learning is seen as a desirable alternative to
traditional training regimes. An integrated approach to working and learning is
more gradual, contextual, problem oriented and cost effective. Knowledge
technology aims to catalyze workplace learning, but requires the right
organisational culture and brings additional costs regarding the articulation,
representation and transmission of knowledge. Our approach reduces these costs
by making articulation a natural part of collaborative working, designing for
both informal and formal knowledge, and facilitating the transition of socially
situated knowledge through enriched documents. To be successful, our approach
has certain prequesites concerning organisational culture, and the nature of
shared documents, organisational knowledge and work activities.

Learning at Work -- A Combination of Experience Based Learning and
Theoretical Education

Training and learning at work is important as employees competence has to
meet organisational requirements for flexibility. This study examines
conditions and obstacles in integrating a web-based course at work in order to
enhance employees level of competence. Employees view of working condition,
competence and how they learn at work is also of importance. A selection of 35
people was made at a company which is part of a large business. The design was
quantitative with complementary qualitative data. The employees had a positive
attitude towards work despite increasing difficulties in work tasks and an
increasing workload, which was the greatest barrier of integrating the
web-based course at work. Competence development involved a certain degree of
stress, but was outweighed by the fact that it was stimulating and led to the
work feeling easier. To manage work, knowledge was obtained primarily by
colleagues and company courses.

Engineering design is a complex activity, relying heavily on know-how gained
from personal experience. Competitive pressures and new technology are making
further demands on the skills and experience of designers, as effective
knowledge reuse in design is seen as increasingly vital, and the work of design
teams is often a collaborative and distributed activity. University students
with a thorough knowledge of the engineering domain can be ill prepared for
professional practice, with its increasing reliance on skills and know-how as
well as knowledge of theory. Our approach aims to better prepare students for
professional practice, through hands-on experience of design reuse,
participation in distributed collaboration, and the development of presentation
and documentation skills. Our case-study in the domain of modelling engineering
systems, in which the course materials themselves are evolving and distributed,
has ramifications for the publication model of educational materials, and the
way students should be prepared for working life.

Information Technology Levels, Competence Development and Performance in
Swedish Small Business Enterprises

This paper analyses relations between leaders' and co-workers' competence,
IT-levels and organizational aspects within ten small business enterprises in
Sweden. Data from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used for
statistical data analyses organized in four steps. A result is that IT-levels
and change competence go together with higher levels of educational investment,
and that companies with high levels on these aspects also tend to have a
proneness for joining change programs. Another finding is that the higher the
rate of IT in a company, the lower the incidence of musculoskeletal problems
among employees. The study shows that an increase in leader change competence,
a flat organization, a higher leader than co-worker change competence, and an
ongoing program contribute significantly to profit per capita at the company
level. The analysis model seems to give a good integration of the results, but
underlying mechanisms must be dealt with in future research.

Influences of the 'Social Contract', Technology and Restructuring, and
Training on the Supply and Demand for Skilled Technology Workers

This article is designed to trace the forces influencing the supply and
demand for 'knowledge workers'. The effects of technology and restructuring are
the most important from industry's standpoint in influencing demand because
industry as a whole 'does not do enough' training to help in the supply, based
on the comments of experts. The incentives provided by industry through the
'social contract' with workers, as discussed, are as essential as training in
affecting the supply of these workers. But because industry does not want to
train unless there is a condition of payback in its investment in training,
such preparation is left to the high schools and colleges. Thus school-to-work
transitions are needed as an important part of what high schools and colleges
should offer.

The aim of this paper is to define and explain information technology
strategic dispositions and competence development within small enterprises.
Small enterprises are a heterogeneous group of firms and for that reason, a
universal explanation of strategic dispositions and learning strategies makes
it advisable to draw upon a diverse range of methods, practices and approaches.
'Competence ergonomics' that fosters learning, empowerment and participation
offers the flexibility within which to frame this strategy description.
Introduction of information technology into small enterprises is treated as
being of strategic importance to the future growth and survival of a firm.
Methods and theories now being used in The Swedish National Institute of
Working Life's (Arbetslivsinstitutet) Balanced Information Technology Project
are those described. The Project is located in the area of Ostersund, Sweden
where small industries have the need to adopt information technology as a means
of promoting continuing competitiveness.

With the rapid growth and technical development of the internet, the
interest in distributing education over the web has increased greatly during
recent years. Educational systems and industry see the possibilities for more
flexible and cost efficient solutions. At the same time, the internet industry
is sensing a new market. The challenge lies in producing competence for the
individual student through good teaching, while at the same time using
technical solutions to create added value via the net. This article gives a
short background to the new possibilities in distributed education over the
internet, and discusses various factors for success in competence development
efforts. The discussion focuses on the different aspects of educational design
of web-based educational material.

BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 4

Organizational and Social Issues in the Use of Computer Technology

A common computer-based collaborative learning approach is to simply
introduce contemporary computermediated communication technology into the
classroom to support prescribed learning activities. This approach assumes that
all students collaborate in similar ways and that presentday technology is
sufficient to accommodate all collaboration forms. This view is superficial and
limiting. Students collaborate in different ways at different levels on
different learning activities. A more detailed articulation of collaboration in
learning is crucial to understanding and extending the pedagogical capabilities
and usefulness of collaborative technologies. A model is presented for a more
finely articulated form of analysis that enumerates types of collaborative
learning activities and evaluates how these activities may be supported through
different design options. The analysis is based on actual classroom scenarios
and the collaboration requirements that emerge from them. The authors have
successfully applied this analysis model in the design of a computer-based
collaborative learning environment for science education.

This study examined the implementation of imaging technology into two public
sector organizations in the Midwest in the USA. The aims of the study were to
analyze the impact of imaging technology on job characteristics and quality of
working life, and the influence of the technological change process on
employees and organizations. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected
using questionnaire surveys and structured and semi-structured interviews.
Results showed that imaging users reported more problems with technology and
less job satisfaction than employees who were still using their 'old' computer
systems. In addition, imaging users in the organization that utilized end user
participation in the implementation of their imaging system rated their imaging
systems better and reported higher job satisfaction than imaging users in the
organization that did not incorporate end user participation in the
implementation of the system. The results are discussed in terms of the
importance of the technology implementation/ change process, and future
directions for research are provided.

The Artful Use of Groupware: An Ethnographic Study of How Lotus Notes is
Used in Practice

This paper uses the results from an ethnographic study of a groupware system
in use to argue against two accepted views on groupware systems. Firstly, this
paper argues that groupware is useful in how it supports existing everyday
organizational processes, rather than as an agent of radical organizational
change. Discussing the use of Lotus Notes in a British oil company shows how
groupware supports mundane processes such as tracking repairs to equipment or
encouraging good ideas. In this case groupware is a useful, yet unradical,
technology. This is contrasted with discussions of groupware as a technology of
radical change. Secondly, this paper argues that rigidity-the inability to
change how a system works-can be a positive feature of a groupware system, or
indeed, a very requirement of that system. A Notes system is shown being used
to support accountability, in that staff used the record kept within the system
to make their actions seem orderly and sensible to others. In this case the
rigidity of the system was needed to convince others that the record was not
being altered or fabricated. This is contrasted with those who have argued that
groupware systems should be highly customisable by their users. More generally,
this study uncovers the 'artful use' of groupware systems, how they are
inventively integrated into work processes by those who use them.

Although much research has been done in the area of strategic planning for
information systems (IS), relatively less research has focused on the output of
the IS planning process, namely, the IS plan. This paper examines the
usefulness of IS plans through a field survey of 136 IS executives. Results
indicate that IS plans are generally perceived to be useful for supporting
business objectives, improving systems integration, exploiting information
technology (IT) for competitive advantage, and prioritising IS development
projects. Conversely, IS plans are perceived to be less useful for clarifying
the role of IS, evaluating IS performance, anticipating surprises and crisis,
and adapting to unanticipated situations. Implications of these results are
discussed.

Individual Issues in the Use of Computers

Although there has been much publicity about the Internet, empirical
research focusing on it is still relatively sparse. Much of the existent
research on the internet has been predicated upon data collected in Europe and
America. To date, there is a dearth of published studies on the internet in the
Asian context. This study examines gender differences in internet usage in
Singapore, a small island of 650 square kilometres in south-east Asia. Data
were collected on internet users via a questionnaire survey placed on the World
Wide Web. 1370 usable responses were received, of which 89% were males and 11%
were females. Gender differences in terms of the demographic profile of
internet users, usage patterns, task preferences and factors affecting an
enjoyable Internet experience are examined.

Elementary steps of Human Computer Interaction (HCI), like users' mental
actions followed by a series of keystrokes and mouse-clicks, are the basic
components of using information technological systems. This is why examination
methods capable of assessing users' actual mental effort corresponding to these
elementary steps during HCI in a scientifically sound way have great
importance. It is known that under certain circumstances, Heart Period
Variability (HPV) could be a measure of actual mental effort. This paper gives
a short overview of applications of HPV in ergonomics in general and, based on
empirical evidence intends to prove that this methodology, after a careful
adaptation, could be powerful technique for monitoring mental effort in HCI.
The paper outlines the main components of the INTERFACE testing workstation and
the related methodology for investigatingamong others-users mental effort. A
detailed application example is also provided.

Do Systems Development Methodologies and CASE Tools Decrease Stress Among
Systems Analysts?

This paper investigates whether computer-aided systems engineering tool and
systems development methodology usage reduce or increase the amount of stress
(i.e. ambiguity and conflict) experienced by analysts. Increased methodology
usage was found to be associated with less role stress. Computer-aided systems
engineering tool usage, however, did not have a statistically significant
impact on role stress.

BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 5

Communication Issues

This article presents a study that examines multiple effects of using
different means of computer-mediated communication and knowledge elicitation
methods during a product design process. The experimental task involved a
typical scenario in product design, in which a knowledge engineer consults two
experts to generate knowledge about a design issue. Employing a 3 x 2
between-subjects design, three conference types (face-to-face, computer,
multimedia) and two knowledge elicitation methods (structured interview,
network technique) were compared. One hundred and eight participants took part
in the study. They were assigned to 36 groups of three. Quantitative and
qualitative performance data were collected and the group processes with the
IPA method analysed. The results showed that the computer conference group was
generally more productive than the two other groups during the conference.
However, participants were unable to maintain their higher performance levels
in a later task where the conference results had to be edited before being fed
into an expert system. As expected, the computer conference group showed the
lowest socio-emotional content during interaction. The network technique was
largely more productive than structured interviewing, though it was more
time-consuming. Furthermore, the findings suggested that both the network
technique and computer conferencing achieved their higher productivity in
knowledge generation only at the cost of information processing depths,
resulting in poorer performance for subsequent transfer activities. The results
are discussed with regard to organizational choice in managing conferences of
this kind.

An Experimental Investigation of the Impact of NSS and Proximity on
Negotiation Outcomes

Negotiations are often not as rational as desired due to the cognitive
difficulty of finding optimal agreements. With higher information-processing
capacity and capability, negotiation support systems (NSS) are viewed as a
viable solution to overcome this difficulty and help negotiators achieve
integrative agreements. In addition, advances in network communication
technology have enabled distributed meetings to be carried out easily. This in
turn leads to the notion of conducting distributed negotiations by combining
NSS and distributed communication technology. This study examined the impact of
NSS in face-to-face and distributed settings. The results suggested that NSS
led to higher and fairer outcomes for both face-to-face and distributed dyads.
Another interesting finding from this study is that there were gains with
respect to initial expectations of outcomes when NSS support was provided. As
corporations expand globally, NSS will play a significant role in coordinating
distributed negotiations, saving time and cost.

This paper reports on a laboratory experiment aimed at exploring the
importance of 'person' versus 'task' space in supporting work at a distance
through Multimedia Desktop Systems (MDSs). 'Person space' refers to the ability
to see and hear remote colleagues while 'task space' refers to the ability to
share work-related artifacts. A 2 x 2 x 4 mixed factorial experimental design
was used (n = 72) in which video quality (broad band vs narrow band) was varied
for the display of remote colleagues, group size (point-to-point vs point-to
multipoint), and task. Surprisingly, subjects not only rated the poor quality
video conditions more highly than good quality video conditions, but they also
completed their tasks faster. These findings are explained in terms of a
'distraction effect' imposed by the display of remote colleagues. This has
practical implications for the design of MDSs.

Scientific datasets are often difficult to analyse or visualize, due to
their large size and high dimensionality. A multistep approach to address this
problem is proposed. Data management techniques are used to identify areas of
interest within the dataset. This allows the reduction of a dataset's size and
dimensionality, and the estimation of missing values or correction of erroneous
entries. The results are displayed using visualization techniques based on
perceptual rules. The visualization tools are designed to exploit the power of
the low-level human visual system. The result is a set of displays that allow
users to perform rapid and accurate exploratory data analysis. In order to
demonstrate the techniques, an environmental dataset being used to model salmon
growth and migration patterns was visualized. Data mining was used to identify
significant attributes and to provide accurate estimates of plankton density.
Colour and texture were used to visualize the significant attributes and
estimated plankton densities for each month for the years 1956-1964.
Experiments run in the laboratory showed that the chosen colours and textures
support rapid and accurate element identification, boundary detection, region
tracking and estimation. The result is a visualization tool that allows users
to quickly locate specific plankton densities and the boundaries they form.
Users can compare plankton densities to other environmental conditions like sea
surface temperature and current strength. Finally, users can track changes in
any of the dataset's attributes on a monthly or yearly basis.

The first impressions of web pages presented to users was investigated by
using 13 different web pages, three types of scales and 18 participants.
Multidimensional analysis of similarity and preference judgements found four
important dimensions: beauty, mostly illustrations versus mostly text, overview
and structure. Category scales indicated the existence of two factors related
to formal aspects and to appeal of the objects, respectively. The best
predictor for the overall judgement of the category scales was beauty. Property
vector fitting of the multidimensional solutions with the category scales
further indicated the importance of beauty for the preference space. Aspects of
usability, product design and aesthetics are discussed.

In laboratory usability studies, error collecting and analysis are
frequently used methods of software evaluation and usually are capable of
revealing the most conspicuous design deficiencies, if there are any. In
certain cases, however, it is hard if not impossible to distinguish accidental
user errors from systematic errors attributable to design failures without a
careful statistical hypothesis testing. An appropriate, additional statistical
analysis of the distribution of observed errors along the steps of the standard
tasks could add further useful information to the obvious results of the study.
For this purpose a simple binomial model is proposed, which proved to be
applicable in a case study: by the help of this model it was possible to
discover some further design failures in addition to the already obvious ones.

This paper investigates -- in a sample of 202 Spanish employees -- the
hypothesis that the impact of the exposure to technology on burnout is mediated
by the appraisal of technology. In addition, the factorial validity of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MGI-GS) is studied. The hypothesized
three-factor-model of the MBI-GS (i.e. exhaustion, cynicism and professional
efficacy) was not replicated; instead a four-factor model (i.e. exhaustion,
cynicism, selfconfidence and goal-attainment) fitted better to the data.
Results from Structural Equation Modelling confirmed the hypothesis that the
impact on burnout of the exposure to technology (in terms of time and frequency
of use of computer aided technology) is mediated by the appraisal of
technology. The higher the exposure, the more positive the appraisal and the
lower the burnout levels (i.e. less cynicism, more selfconfidence and a greater
sense of goal attainment). No such effect was demonstrated for exhaustion.
Limitations of the study and future research directions are discussed.

BIT 2000 Volume 19 Issue 6

Facilitating Data Exploration with Query Previews: A Study of User
Performance and Preference

Networked and local data exploration systems that use command languages,
menus, or form fill-in interfaces rarely give users an indication of the
distribution of data. This often leads users to waste time, posing queries that
have zero-hit or mega-hit results. Query previews are a novel visual approach
for browsing databases. Query previews supply users with data distribution
information for selected attributes of the database, and give continuous
feedback about the size of the result set as the query is being formed.
Subsequent refinements might be necessary to narrow the search. As there is a
risk that query previews are an additional step, leading to a more complex and
slow search process, a within-subjects empirical study was ran with 12 subjects
who used interfaces with and without query previews and with minimized network
delays. Even with 12 subjects and minimized network delays statistically
significant differences were found, showing that query previews could speed up
performance 1.6 to 2.1 times and lead to higher user satisfaction.

This paper reports a post-implementation review of usage and user
experiences of an electronic information management system (EIM) in a
multinational company. The implementation of this system was the first step in
the company's programme to achieve effective knowledge management leading to
innovative and integrated business solutions. In the context of low levels of
usage, users were asked to identify barriers and facilitators to the use of
EIM. The resultant list relates to a considerable array of human and
organizational issues that the current implementation methodology has failed to
address. This failure impedes progress towards effective knowledge management
and realization of the associated business advantages. The findings suggest
that a 'technology push' approach to knowledge management has serious
limitations. The identification of the critical success factors for EIM
provides the basis for a change management process that includes development of
the knowledge sharing culture needed to enable effective knowledge management.

A walkthrough method for evaluating virtual reality (VR) user interfaces is
described and illustrated with a usability assessment of a virtual business
park application. The method is based on a theory of interaction that extends
Norman's model of action. A walkthrough analysis method uses three models
derived from the theory. The first model describes goal-oriented task action,
the second exploration and navigation in virtual worlds, while the third covers
interaction in response to system initiative. Each stage of the model is
associated with generic design properties that specify the necessary support
from the system for successful interaction. The evaluation method consists of a
checklist of questions using the properties and following the model cycle. Use
of the method uncovered several usability problems. Approaches to evaluation of
VR applications and future work are discussed.

The Effect of Network Delay and Media on User Perceptions of Web Resources

This research experimentally examines the effects of network delays,
document type, and various user characteristics on the perceived usability of
distributed documents on the internet. Six experimental conditions were
analysed: text only documents and documents including text and graphics at
three levels of delay. Users were undergraduate and graduate students who
reported spending zero to 50 hours per week on the internet. Usability was
assessed by analysing responses to questions about ease of locating
information, information organization, information quality, and navigation
problems. The results showed significant interactions of network delay and
document type on subjects' perceptions of quality, organization, navigation,
and several additional factors that are important to organizations providing
information on the internet. Both the number of hours subjects reported
spending using the internet and subjects' self-reported command of the English
language were significantly correlated with perceptions of various aspects of
the internet sites examined. While the results indicate that internet users may
prefer highly graphical web sites, it appears that they are unwilling to
tolerate substantial delays. As a result, users in the study preferred plain
text documents as delays increased.

Unobtrusive observation of automatic teller machine (ATM) use was carried
out to compare the efficiency and error profiles of two ATM interfaces in
current use. Transaction times for the same transaction differed by 39%.
Frequency of forgetting cards in the ATM differed by 96-100%. The differences
were attributed to the sequencing of sub tasks with respect to the goal state.
The cost of a lack of ergonomics in the less efficient interface was estimated
conservatively to be US$1.7 million due to task sequencing, and between US$2
million and US$4.5 million from forgetting cards in the ATM.

This paper describes research that seeks to facilitate the capture,
representation, and reasoning about, temporal information by usability
engineers. The product, a method we call KAT-LITTER, is an extension of Johnson
and Johnson's (1991) Knowledge Analysis of Tasks (KAT). An evaluation of
KAT-LITTER showed that it influenced the design process in two significant
ways: firstly, designers using KAT-LITTER spent more time reasoning about
temporal issues than designers using KAT alone, and secondly these same
designers considered a broader spectrum of temporal issues. Further
developments of KAT-LITTER are briefly discussed.