Transcription

1 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY, VOL. LXIV, NO. 2, JUNE 2006 Was Mises Right? Peter T. Leeson 1 and Peter J. Boettke 2 1 Department of Economics, West Virginia University, USA and 2 Department of Economics, George Mason University, USA Abstract This paper argues that Mises s methodological position has been misunderstood by both friends and foes alike. On the one hand, Mises s critics wrongly characterize his position as rejecting empirical work. On the other hand, his defenders wrongly interpret his stance as rejecting empirical analyses on the grounds that they contradict apriorism and push economics towards historicism. We show that Mises s methodological position occupies a unique place that is at once both wholly aprioristic and radically empirical. Keywords: Ludwig von Mises, economic methodology, apriorism INTRODUCTION The Austrian school s unique methodological stance separates it from the rest of the economics profession. Methodological subjectivism, recognition of radical uncertainty, and the notion of markets as processes are often cited as defining characteristics of the Austrian approach (see, for example, O Driscoll and Rizzo 1985; Vaughn 1994; Boettke 1994; Boettke and Leeson 2003). Due to its controversial status, less frequently noted in the modern literature is methodological apriorism. Indeed, throughout the history of the Austrian school, many of its adherents have attempted to distance themselves from Menger s exact laws and Mises s apriorism, while at the same time building on the theoretical insights of these thinkers. Several of Mises s students from the Vienna years, for example Fritz Machlup, attempted to accomplish this two-step maneuver. 1 But to the Austrian 1 Alfred Schutz (1967) and Felix Kaufmann (1944) were students of Mises who attempted to critically reconstruct Mises s methodology through the philosophy of Husserl (Schutz) and positivism (Kaufmann) and develop a general methodological stance for the social sciences. Review of Social Economy ISSN print/issn online Ó 2006 The Association for Social Economics DOI: /

2 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY economists who trained with Mises during his New York University period ( ), like Murray Rothbard, adherence to methodological apriorism is the distinguishing characteristic of the Austrian school, and alternative methodological positions are interpreted as undermining Mises s strong claim about the nature of economic reasoning. 2 The Austrian position has long been associated with a bifurcation of knowledge deductive versus historical method, apriorism versus positivism, etc. We want to suggest that these blunt divisions fail to capture the subtle position that was developed by Menger, Boehm-Bawerk and Mises in the attempt to carve out a unique niche for the human sciences. For most economists, economics was a science located between the natural sciences and the cultural discipline of history. For these Austrians, however, economics was a human science that could derive laws that had the same ontological status as the laws derived in the natural sciences, yet accounted for the complexity of the human experience. Mises did not originate the Austrian position but inherited it from Menger and Boehm-Bawerk and sought to provide an updated philosophical defense of that position (see, for example, Mises 1933). While Menger and Mises resorted to epistemological argument, Bohm-Bawerk put his argument in more common-sense terms (see Boehm-Bawerk 1891). Here the deductive method is justified on the grounds that in the act of arranging the array of historical facts to construct a meaningful story, the historian must arrange according to some criteria of priority. The criteria, Boehm-Bawerk argued, are provided by theory. The purpose of theory is to aid in the act of historical investigation not to fight against it. In making this argument, which was (is) the Austrian argument, Boehm-Bawerk carved out a niche where the advancement of human knowledge in the discipline of political economy was neither a product of pure deduction nor empirical induction, but a blending of both. 2 See, for instance, Rothbard (1957, 1972). Rothbard (1957), however, defends apriorism on slightly different grounds than Mises. He maintains that while the starting point of economic theory the proposition that all humans behave purposively may be known via introspection (per Mises), it can also be defended as aprioristic if it is learned by appealing to broad empirical observation. In this way, Rothbard introduces what he calls an Aristotelian derivation of the action axiom s aprioristic status. Also on this issue, see Smith (1996) who defends the view of an ontological a priori a deep-lying a priori dimension on the side of the things themselves. Kirzner (2001) recounts a story in which Mises allegedly told him that the action axiom was derived from experience as well. In his first book and doctoral dissertation (1960) written under the direction of Mises, however, Kirzner maintains the traditional Misesian argument that we know humans act by way of introspection. 248

3 WAS MISES RIGHT? On this basis we propose a tripartite division of economic inquiry: pure theory, institutionally contingent theory, and economic history and statistical analysis. Each realm of economic inquiry serves different purposes and the knowledge claims being made in each constitute different epistemological moments. 3 Just as we must recognize the empirical component of economic inquiry, we must also recognize the importance of pure theory, which is constructed through logical deduction. In a science dominated by what many have called physics envy, Austrian school writers who have insisted on the aprioristic nature of pure economics have often endured a greater marginalization of their status in the eyes of the profession than those economists who have distanced themselves from the aprioristic approach. We contend that this is a serious error born out of the confusion over the different realms of knowledge that constitute economic inquiry. This paper will explore methodological apriorism as laid out by its most recognizable defender, Ludwig von Mises. We argue that his position is more philosophically sophisticated than either friend or foe has cared to admit. Mises s position is explained as grounded in the practical problems of economic inquiry and a common-sense rendering of these problems as we have just attributed to Boehm-Bawerk. We provide evidence to show how Mises was influenced in his attempt to justify pure theory by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and also demonstrate that Mises s application of this idea to the science of economics moves beyond Kant. Specifically, we contend that building upon these developments, Mises eschewed the traditional analytic/synthetic dichotomy, successfully both revealing the illegitimacy of the positivist approach and defending the empirical relevance of mere tautologies in economic science. Finally, we discuss the relevance of Mises s methodological position for modern economic science. 3 Boehm-Bawerk ( : II ) divides price theory into a first part, which is pure theory of exchange and price, and a second part of price theory which incorporates into that analysis different individual motivations, differing empirical circumstance and alternative concrete institutions. The amount of attention devoted by economists to each of these two parts of the theory of price has varied with the prevailing phase in methods of research. As long as the abstractly deductive phase characteristic of the English school was in the ascendancy, the first part of the price problem was almost the only one to be treated, and much too nearly to the complete exclusion of the other. Later on, the historical method, originating in Germany, took over the lead. It was characterized by a fondness for emphasizing not only the general, but the particular as well, for noting not only the influence of broader types, but also that of national, social and individual peculiarities. While Boehm-Bawerk saw his own main contributions to the area of pure theory, he argues that I acknowledge that what I am offering indubitably calls for complementary treatment of the second part of the theory of price... ( : 213). 249

4 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY KANT ON APRIORISM The idea of the synthetic a priori is most famously connected with Immanuel Kant s, Critique of Pure Reason (1958: B1 30). Building on a distinction between the appearance of things and things in themselves, Kant argued that the transcendental deduction of concepts is the most important intellectual exercise for our understanding. Human cognition can be divided into those concepts we come to understand completely independent of experience and those that we come to understand only through experience. Kant argued that the problem that arises in human understanding is how our subjective conditions of thinking could obtain objective validity. This problem, he maintained, is solved through transcendental deduction. The extreme rationalism of philosophers like Leibniz, Wolff, and Baumgarten, Kant maintained, was wrong. By itself reason cannot teach us anything about the actual world. Without the data of experience, pure logic is at a loss to impart information to us regarding the reality we live in. Similarly, the empiricism defended by scholars like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, was also incorrect. Facts of the world are never presented to the mind tabula rasa. They can only be understood with the aid of concepts that exist in our mind prior to any experience. In response to both (pure) rationalism and (pure) empiricism, Kant develops the notion of a class of knowledge held by individuals that while known to us a priori nonetheless imparts information about the real world. Kant contended that a priori axioms known to us apart from experience are embedded in us as categories of the human mind. These a priori concepts are necessary in order to use the human faculty of judgment to understand objects in the world. Indeed, understanding of the world is impossible except through these categories that enable us to make sense of our experiences. According to Kant then, our understanding of objective reality has objective validity via the employment of concepts known a priori. At the basis of all empirical cognition are a priori concepts, without which objective validity would be denied to us. As Kant argued, we do not derive concepts from nature, but interrogate nature with the aid of these concepts. He held that through introspection we are able to realize what our minds already know and can come to discover the a priori categories that shape our thinking and perceptions of the world (Kant 1958: A95 130). This brief and elementary statement of Kant s position is not meant be complete and clearly does not do justice to the many and complicated nuances of his philosophy. Instead it is meant merely to sketch a crude outline of Kant s epistemology as a means of analyzing the context in which 250

5 WAS MISES RIGHT? Mises develops his position concerning the nature of economic science a task we take up in the following section. Similarly, it is often argued that Kant s argument was motivated by a desire to provide the metaphysical foundation for Newtonian science. We have no particular interest in this question. Nor do we have any comments to offer on whether the effort was one to legitimate science while leaving room for morality and religious faith. Recognizing the Kantian background to Mises s defense of the nature of economic thought is our primary focus. Kant developed his argument concerning human action by reference to Locke s discussion of how belief gives rise to action. Locke argued that our understanding of human action arises only through our experience with nature. While Kant admits that empirical study may enable us to understand the occasional cause by which the pure categories and forms of intuition are brought into application, he argues for their strict a priori nature. It is this focus on the a priori categories of human action that would occupy Mises s philosophical attention. MISES AND THE NATURE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE For most of his career Mises found himself in a methodologically uncomfortable position. 4 As a German-language economist, the discipline he was educated in was dominated by historicism. As a Viennese intellectual, Mises began to mature as a thinker within the philosophical culture of Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle. When he published his first major statement concerning his methodological views (1933), logical positivism was starting to spread in economics. 5 As Mises conceived it, logical positivism denied the existence of a priori knowledge and rejected all non-empirical forms of analysis (see Greaves 1974). According to this view, if economics is to progress as a science, indeed, if it is constitute a science at all, it must follow the methods of falsification employed by the physical sciences. 6 4 And we should add that Mises was ideologically uncomfortable as well. Put the two together, and the claim to intellectual legitimacy by Mises was hard to maintain during the majority of his career. He was a man who was held to be both methodologically and ideologically suspect. But we would argue that Mises position (both methodologically and ideologically) is actually much more in line with the mainstream of political and economic thought historically contemplated than anyone cared to admit during his lifetime. 5 Apriorism was not alien to economics at this time as was evident in Robbins (1932) and Knight (1940). However, by the time Friedman published his essay (1953) it was standard for economists to argue that economic science required submitting falsifiable hypotheses to empirical test. 6 Hutchison (1938) was the most ardent supporter of this position. It is also important to remember that, as his work indicates, the vehemence with which positivism was presented in economics was in large part ideologically motivated to be used as a philosophical hammer with which to defeat ideological systems such as Marxism and Nazism from intruding into the realm of science as they had in the 1930s. 251

6 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY Truth about the world, positivists maintain, is only accessible through experience. The sterile objectivity that truth demands cannot permit non-facts to pollute it. The positivist program thus aimed at purging subjective influence from the pure facts of the world. The brute facts, they maintained, untainted by the scientist s preconceptions, could only be arrived at through the scientific method. According to this view, value freedom is entirely procedural in the sense that objective truth is a function of following the scientific procedure. 7 While it is possible to disagree with this formulation of logical positivism, this is clearly how Mises conceived of it, and it is with his conception that we are concerned (see, for example, Mises 1978: 38, , 133; 1933: 7 12, 1949: 4, 31, 56). 8 It was against this view of positivism, as well as the view of the older German historicists like Gustav Schmoller and later, his student, Werner Sombart, that Mises developed his argument for methodological apriorism. The historicist and positivist programs, Mises pointed out, were fatally flawed from the outset in their failure to appreciate the necessarily theoryladen nature of all facts. 9 This insight is not new to Mises but was emphasized by Goethe who stated: everything in the realm of fact is already theory (1995: 307). Mises employed a version of this argument when he pointed out that empiricists are able to believe that facts can be understood without any theory only because they failed to recognize a theory is already contained in the very linguistic terms involved in every act of thought. To apply language, with its words and concepts to anything is at the same time to approach it with theory (1933: 28). The choice is never between theory and no theory; it is between articulated and defended theory and unarticulated and non-defended theory. The unavoidability of theory-laden facts renders impossible the procedural value freedom put forth by the positivists. If pure facts are required for objectivity, then objectivity is impossible. Objectivity in the social sciences, Mises argued, was ensured by restricting analysis to the assessment of the effectiveness of chosen means for given ends. The radical subjectivism 7 Contrast this with the position developed by Max Weber and Ludwig von Mises for assuring value-free analysis. Weber and Mises were pre-positivistic positive economists and their position is important to articulate as an alternative to the positivistic notion of value-freedom. For discussions of Weber s development of his argument see Swedberg (1997) and Caldwell (2003). Also see Boettke (1995 and 1998b). 8 See also, Greaves (1974) who compiled a glossary of terms including logical positivism as a companion to Mises s Human Action, which Mises oversaw and approved. 9 Mises s point about the impossibility of unambiguous tests of theory can be understood as anticipating the more refined Duhem-Quine thesis which stated that the truth or falsity of a theoretical statement cannot be determined independently of a network of statements. See Boettke (1998a). 252

7 WAS MISES RIGHT? of Mises with regard to the ends individuals pursue enabled the objectivity of economic analysis. To Mises, the theory-laden nature of the facts of the social sciences implied that we should strive to articulate theory and defend it in a clear and logical fashion. But this did not mean that theory was immune from criticism. The economist can never be absolutely certain that his inquiries were not misled and that what he considers as certain truth is not error. All [he] can do is submit all his theories again and again to the most critical reexamination (Mises 1949: 68). 10 Nor did it deny the fundamental importance of empirical work for understanding the social world. In fact, in Mises s system the entire purpose of theory was to aid the act of historical interpretation. He divided the realms of knowledge into conception (theory) and understanding (history) due to the separate epistemological issues involved in both endeavors (see Mises 1957). Although frequently overlooked by his critics, it is clear in Mises s writings that historical understanding was the vital goal towards which the theoretical construct of economics was to be employed. Economic theory was the servant of empirical work; aprioristic theory and the interpretation of historical phenomena are intertwined (Mises 1949: 66). Mises leveled another criticism at the logical positivists who championed methodological monism in the sciences. He pointed out that what distinguishes economics from other sciences is that our science deals with conscious actors. Unlike the unmotivated subject matter of the physical sciences, the subjects of economic study are rational, conscious agents with certain desires and beliefs about how to achieve them. In the physical sciences the ultimate causes of matter s behavior can never be known. This fact is due to the relationship between the physical scientist and his subject of study, which differs radically for social scientists and their subject of study. The physical scientist must remain an outside observer of his subject. He can never get inside the object of his inquiry and so can never have direct, intimate knowledge of the source of his subject s primary properties. Indeed, by repeatedly observing his object of inquiry externally under varying conditions the physical scientist attempts to get closer to knowledge of the object under observation. While this process can bring him closer, his unalterable status as external observer prohibits him from ever having final knowledge of his subject s ultimate cause On the issue of fallibility in Mises s methodology see also our discussion of Smith (1990, 1994, 1996), evolution and Mises later in this section. 11 Austrian writers from Wieser (1927) to Mises (1949) to Hayek (1943) have emphasized knowledge from within as a distinct characteristic of the human sciences. 253

8 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY The social scientist, on the other hand, is in a relatively better position, for qua man, he is himself the very subject of his study. This fortunate position allows him to get inside the mind of his subject. Thus, in the social sciences, the scientist begins with knowledge of the ultimate causes driving his subject s behavior. And it is in this sense that the social scientist is in a better position for the study of his field than the physical scientist in terms of understanding causation. This fundamental difference between the relationship of the physical scientist to his subject of inquiry and social scientist to his subject of study suggests a fundamental difference in the epistemological status of their insights and implies a methodological dualism in the realm of science. Our understanding of the natural world improved tremendously when explanations of physical phenomena by way of purpose were replaced with explanations that discussed the physical laws of nature. Explanations that appealed to the whims of the gods to explain the changing seasons, for instance, were replaced by one which discussed the earth s rotation around the sun. The purging of anthropomorphism in the natural sciences thus led to the advancement of knowledge of the physical universe. But as Mises recognized, in attempting to mimic the natural sciences, if we purge human purposes and plans from the human sciences, we purge our very subject matter. 12 Praxeological reality is not the physical universe, Mises argued, but man s conscious reaction to the given state of this universe. Economics is not about things and tangible material objects; it is about men, their meanings and actions. Goods, commodities, and wealth and all the other notions of conduct are not elements of nature; they are elements of human meaning and conduct (1949: 92). Additionally, in contrast to the natural sciences, Mises argued that there were no constant relationships in human action. As such no universally valid quantitative laws were possible in the realm of human affairs. Standing between the claims of methodological monism on the one side and historicism on the other side, Mises sought to carve out a niche for the science of human action one that agreed with the cultural critics of methodological monism that the human sciences were unique, yet resisted the implication of these critics that there were no nomological laws possible in the human realm. Mises s position was that while the science of human action (praxeology) was different from the natural sciences for the reasons enumerated above, it generated nomological laws that had the same ontological claim on our attention as that of the natural sciences. 12 Besides Mises, see also Hayek s (1952) classic work The Counter-Revolution of Science on this point. 254

9 WAS MISES RIGHT? Economics epistemological status had to be different by the nature of the subject of study, but scientific discovery and advance were indeed possible. While quantitative laws could not be derived, qualitative counterparts could be derived and were, in fact, essential to the enterprise of understanding social reality and public policy. The experience with which the sciences of human action have to deal is always an experience of complex phenomena. No laboratory experiments can be performed with regard to human action. We are never in a position to observe the change in one element, only, all other conditions of the event being equal to a case in which the element concerned did not change (Mises 1949: 31). Thus we cannot, holding the rest of the world constant, change price to determine its relationship to quantity, as the scientific method touted by positivists requires. 13 But this does not mean that we cannot understand the relationship between price and quantity. We can derive pattern predictions or explanation of the principle even if we cannot derive point predictions subject to refutation. These fundamental differences between the physical and human sciences, Mises tells us, require that we be methodological dualists. Mises s methodological dualism established the framework for his apriorism. If historicists are wrong and economic laws are indeed evident and can be understood through scientific investigation, what must follow? And, if the positivists are wrong and the methods of the natural sciences are ill-suited to elaborate the laws of economics, what method must economics follow? In response to this question Mises, like Kant, uses the notion of (a) a priori axioms and logical categories of the human mind that are (b) known to individuals through a process of introspection, which (c) act as the means through which we understand the world, and then applies this idea to the science of economics. According to Mises our nature as actors beings who purposefully act is known through introspection. Refection on what it means to be human reveals that purposeful behavior is our primary and distinguishing feature. This knowledge is aprioristic. We do not become aware of our uniquely human characteristic through experience because we cannot, in fact, experience without purpose. Thus, man does not have the creative power to imagine categories at variance with the category of action (Mises 1949: 35). In taking action as the starting point for all of economic 13 Economic laws are deduced from the axiom of action aprioristically with the aid of the ceteris paribus assumption that enables a sort of controlled mental experiment. And theoretical progress in the human sciences, according to Mises, occurs by way of these mental experiments. Mises goes as far as to say that the method of praxeology is the method of imaginary constructions (Mises 1949: ). 255

10 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY theory, Mises roots the logic of choice in the broader logic of action he calls praxeology. In the course of laying out his argument, Mises moves beyond Kant. Critics of the notion of a synthetic a priori worried that such a view would give license to any set of theories. According to these critics, by arbitrarily postulating any given axiom as aprioristic, any number of erroneous conclusions can be arrived at. A related line of criticism points out that even if we could agree on what axioms are truly known aprioristically, how are we to choose among the axioms to employ when different axioms yield differing or even contradictory results? In response to criticisms about the alleged arbitrary selection of starting axioms Mises argued that the deductive procedure does not begin with an arbitrary choice of axioms, but rather with reflection on the essence of human action. As he stated it: The starting point of praxeology is not a choice of axioms and a decision about methods of procedure, but reflection about the essence of action (1949: 40). In our efforts to understand reality we do not choose the axiom we wish to begin with so much as it is chosen for us by the world in which we live. The axiom of action is in a sense imposed on us by the world. As the filter through which we make sense of our surroundings, we must necessarily begin our understanding processes with the concept of purposeful action. It is the only means available to us for this purpose, as we cannot help but see the world through the lenses conditioned by the unavoidable structure of our minds. If we desire to ground economics in the reality of the world, Mises maintained, we have no choice but start with the axiom of action. No other starting point can yield theory that illuminates the behavior of real individuals. It is true, economic theory could begin with another axiom, and the laws thus deduced would be valid if no errors were made in the process of deduction and the assumptions posited corresponded to the circumstances at hand. But because for Mises economics is both aprioristic and interested in illuminating the real world, its starting axiom must be both known without reference to experience and fundamentally connected to the world of man. The action axiom fits both of these descriptions. In contrast, the competitive equilibrium world of Arrow-Hahn-Debreu is derived aprioristically but eschewed by Mises because unlike theory deduced from the axiom of action, it remains largely unconnected to the real world This is why Cowen and Fink s (1985) suggestion that the evenly rotating economy (ERE) is an inconsistent construct and that Arrow-Hahn-Debreu s model of general competitive equilibrium serves as a better model can be challenged. It depends on the purpose for which the model construct is being used. Furthermore, Caldwell s (1984) criticism that among competing a priori theories one is left powerless to 256

11 WAS MISES RIGHT? Like Kant, Mises suggests that action implies certain prerequisites of action categories of the mind, which are also known a priori. He indicates six such categories without which purposeful behavior is impossible: temporality, causality, uncertainty, dissatisfaction, an imagined preferred state of affairs, and beliefs or expectations about the means available for the satisfaction of wants. In examining the a priori nature of these logical categories, Mises (1949, 1978) offers a speculative history as to how they evolved as part of the human mind. According to Mises the a priori categories evolved along with humans in a Darwinian fashion. We have the categories of the mind that we do today precisely because they were best able to impart accurate information about the real world to us necessary for our survival. The categories are subject to future evolution as improved variations enable us to better understand the world or the underlying reality of the world itself changes. This hypothesized evolutionary process helps explain the necessary connection of the starting point of action, and the categories that it implies, to the real world. If they were not connected in this way to the world, humans possessing them could not have evolved as they have. There is a mutually interactive process between our minds and the world, forming a feedback loop between the evolution of our a priori mental categories that determine the world we experience, and the reality of the world that conditions our way of thinking and understanding reality. Barry Smith s important work (1990, 1994, 1996) defends extreme, fallible, apriorism, on the grounds that there are a priori structures in the world itself. He distinguishes between impositionist apriorism, which is subjectivist in its approach and maintains that individual actors impose structures on the world that give rise to knowledge, and reflectionist apriorism, which maintains that we can have a priori knowledge of what exists, independently of all impositions or inscriptions of the mind, as a result of the fact that certain structures in the world enjoy some degree of intelligibility in their own right (1990). While Smith views Mises as being of the subjectivist or impositionist variety, our argument places Mises unclearly in either camp, or perhaps more accurately, as having one foot in both. On the one hand, as discussed above, choose between them must also be challenged. Criteria of choice are provided by relevance for the task the scientist hopes to put the thought experiment toward. Note the difference here between our response to Caldwell, which utilizes what Smith (1996) calls the Kant Mises subjectivist apriorism, and Smith s own response, which is closer to Rothbard s position and overcomes Caldwell s criticism by pointing to an objectivist apriorism an a priori in the real world (1996: 191). 257

12 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY like Kant, Mises clearly believed in logical categories of the mind that actors use to understand the world and was thoroughly subjectivist in this regard. As Mises put it: He who wants to deal with [economics] must not look at the external world; he must search for them in the meaning of acting men (1949: 92). On the other hand, his evolutionary explanation of the emergence of these categories, which conditions them on the reality of the world, suggests a reflectionist view since a priori knowledge evolves over time with the evolution of individuals mental categories. In this sense, there is a Smith-like falliblistic element to Mises s conception of a priori knowledge, which, though true for acting man at the present may ultimately be revealed to be mistaken (i.e., inconsistent with objective reality) with further developments in the evolution of man s mind. From these categories implied in the axiom of action, Mises contends we can deduce the pure logic of choice. The theories thus arrived at, because they represent the elucidation and teasing out of the implications of the fact that man acts are, like those of logic and mathematics, a priori (Mises 1949: 32). If no logical error has been made in the process of deduction from the axiom of action, the theories arrived at are aprioristically true and apodictically certain. Their aprioristic quality, however, does not render them irrelevant to the real world. The theorems attained by correct praxeological reasoning are not only perfectly certain and incontestable, like the correct mathematical theorems. They refer, moreover with the full rigidity of their apodictic certainty and incontestability to the reality of action as it appears in life and history. Praxeology conveys exact and precise knowledge of real things (Mises 1949: 39). Of course, Mises points out, while in principle all of economic theory can be logically spun out of the axiom of action in this fashion, for practical purposes we limit our activities to elucidating those theories that are relevant for the world in which we live. We could, for instance, imagine all possible states of the world and develop theories that logically follow from the assumptions posited. Such theories, assuming no errors were made in the process of deduction, would accurately describe processes and outcomes whenever the assumptions posited actually held. For example, we could imagine a world in which instead of labor bringing about disutility, it brought about joy. The labor theory deduced from this assumption would be correct but hold only in a world in which labor brings about joy. However, since our purpose is to understand the world in which we actually live, we observe the conditions of our world (in our example the disutility of labor) and use this empirical subsidiary postulate to circumscribe the bounds of our 258

13 WAS MISES RIGHT? theorizing. 15 As Mises put it, the end of [economic] science is to know reality. It is not mental gymnastics or a logical pastime. Therefore praxeology restricts its inquiries to the study of acting under those conditions... which are given in reality (1949: 65). Mises s apriorism implied an important insight regarding the possibility of value freedom. The deductive logic entailed in examining economic chains of events must always take ends as given. The role of the economist is to employ a priori theory in evaluating the efficacy of the means chosen in light of the stated ends. The economist then has nothing to say about the ends themselves but is instead in the position of commenting upon the coherence of various means towards the achievement of those ends. As Mises put it: The ultimate judgments of value and the ultimate ends of human action are given for any kind of scientific inquiry; they are not open to any further analysis. Praxeology deals with the way and means chosen for the attainment of such ultimate ends. Its object is means, not ends (1949: 21). Thus, in contrast to the procedural value freedom of positivist methodology, aprioristic methodology is analytically value free. 16 Means-ends analysis in light of aprioristically deduced economic law both avoids the fatal positivist failure to recognize that all facts are theory-laden and avoids the importation of value judgments into economic elucidation. Mises points out that the aprioristic character of the pure logic of choice implies that economic theory can never be empirically validated or invalidated. The laws of economics are not subject to verification or falsification on the ground of experience and facts (Mises 1949: 32). Attempts to empirically test economic theory are not only fruitless, but indicate the wrong-headedness of the scientists who attempt to do so. Such scientists are in the same position as those who believe that they can validate or invalidate the Pythagorean theorem by measuring right triangles in the real world. Both fail to grasp the aprioristic nature of the theory they try in vein to test. Like the laws of mathematics, the laws of economics are both logically and temporally antecedent to any comprehension of historical facts (Mises 1949: 32). This fact in conjunction with the impossibility of controlled experiments in the real world makes it impossible to empirically test economic theory as positivist philosophers of economics claim one should It should be noted that such use of empirical subsidiary postulates does not alter the aprioristic nature of the theories thus arrived at. 16 On the Austrian argument for value-freedom see Boettke (1998a and 1998b). 17 We think it is important to distinguish between philosophers of economics (such as Hutchinson, Blaug, Hausman, Rosenberg, etc.) and practicing economists. As has been pointed out by several scholars, most notably McCloskey, the practice of economists is quite divorced from the official rhetoric of economics. Some philosophers of economics, e.g. Rosenberg, believe this reflects the intellectual failing of the discipline 259

14 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY The critics of Mises are quick to point to this as evidence of his denial of the importance of empirical work and the real world. As we noted earlier however, though typically ignored, Mises is explicit in asserting that a priori economic deduction is to be the servant of empirical examinations of the world. Thus, in Mises s eyes, Carl Menger s institutionally contingent historical explanation of the emergence of money accurately represents the fundamental principles of praxeology and its methods of research (Mises 1949: 402). We are interested in economic theory because it illuminates the world outside the window. The institutional arrangements of the world that frame the rules within which the logic of choice in human decision-making operates are the fundamental elements towards which economic theory is aimed. Thus, every argument in Mises, from the impossibility of rational economic calculation under socialism, to the movement of the business cycle, is institutionally embedded and contingent. The function of aprioristic theory in these analyses is to put parameters on people s utopias. So while an examination of the emergence of money is necessarily an empirical inquiry into the institutional features that enable or disenable its emergence, the demand for money always slopes downward. In this fashion a priori theory bounds our behavioral possibilities while making it possible for us to examine real features of the empirical world. Theory and the comprehension of living and changing reality are not in opposition to one another but rather enjoy a symbiotic relationship (Mises 1949: 38). Viewed this way, rather than hyper-theoretical, Mises s apriorism is actually radically empirical. 18 The pure logic of choice is a necessary component of economic explanation, but not sufficient. Mises s critics were also fond of pointing out that if he is correct, the pure logic of choice is mere tautology. Traditionally, philosophy distinguished between analytic and synthetic propositions. While the former were purely tautological, the latter, it was held, conveyed to us information about the real world. Kant s notion of a synthetic a priori a class of knowledge known to us apart from experience that nonetheless imparts information about the real world shattered traditionally held beliefs about necessity of a priori claims of economics, while others, e.g. McCloskey, believe it demonstrates the intellectual bankruptcy of prescriptive methodology by the philosophers. If the positivist philosophers advice cannot be followed in practice in the discipline of economics because the subject matter cannot be so treated, then the use of positivistic criteria to demarcate science from non-science is a non-starter. In the case of someone like Mises, his methodological writings have been misunderstood by friend and foe precisely because of the mischaracterization of the philosophical misconceptions that he eschewed. 18 Theories are not refuted or failed to be refuted by empirical analysis; they are either applicable or inapplicable relevant or irrelevant to the task of empirical interpretation. 260

15 WAS MISES RIGHT? as analytic truths. Kant thus accepted the traditional analytic/synthetic distinction but argued that some a priori truths formerly thought to be analytic could in fact be synthetic. Although Mises can be understood as building upon Kant, he ultimately goes beyond Kant by rejecting the traditional analytic/synthetic distinction altogether. According to Mises it is true that like the laws of geometry, the pure logic of choice is entirely tautological. Nevertheless these mere tautologies have incredible empirical significance. Who would deny, for instance, that the aprioristic propositions of geometry are applicable to the real world? All architectural structures from bridges to buildings rely on these tautological propositions to be effectively constructed. Similarly, in economics we rely upon the law of demand for instance which is tautological at its foundation to analyze the coherence of various means for the attainment of various ends. Just because observation cannot falsify this law does not mean that the law is empirically irrelevant. Like all aprioristic propositions derived from the axiom of action, it is extremely empirically relevant. Indeed, without it we would be entirely unable to understand the functioning of the economy. The application of the aprioristic laws of economics to the real world yields empirical, institutionally-contingent propositions about economic reality. Thus, Mises points out, tautologies deduced from an axiom inextricably linked to the real world are no vice. On the contrary, they are the indispensable mental constructs that make it possible for us to understand the real world. THE RELEVANCE OF MISES S POSITION FOR MODERN ECONOMICS Mises s radical methodological and epistemological positions have been the source of considerable criticism. With the rise of positivism and empiricism the desire to imitate the methods of the physical sciences in the social sciences has largely proved too strong to resist for the profession of economics. Influential economists from Paul Samuelson to Milton Friedman argued that in order for economics to have the status of a real science it needed to take a formalist and quantitative turn. Others, like T.W. Hutchison, pushed for a purely positivistic approach. Over time the lures of mathematical elegance and the desire for precise predictive power won over the hearts of most economists. As a result Mises was largely viewed as out of step with the times. This is what led the well-known historian of economic thought and methodologist, Mark Blaug, to dismiss Mises s methodological position as cranky and idiosyncratic. 261

16 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY Nonetheless, it is worth noting that for many years a more or less methodological apriorism as described by Mises was common among economists. In fact a deductive common sense approach was the dominant way of doing economics for quite some time. As Mises put it, We do not maintain that the theoretical science of human action should be aprioristic, but that it is and always has been so (1949: 40). Nassau Senior, Destutt Tracey, J.B. Say, John Cairnes, Carl Menger, Lionel Robbins, Frank Knight, and many others were all apriorists of some sort or another. Economic theorems, these writers contended, were derived from selfevident axioms. Far from out of step, this is the way that economic theorizing was done by classical and neoclassical economists for more than one hundred years. Since this time, however, economics has made several turns in its preferred approach to economic inquiry. 19 In opposition to Mises s methodological stance, in the 1950s the economics profession adopted model and measure as its mantra. With the later development of game theory and the introduction of the Folk Theorem the possibility of an infinite number of equilibria led to the emergence of a sort of formalistic historicism that used formal tools to describe particularistic economic phenomena. What both of these approaches have in common is an implicit rejection of the economic methodology employed by the classical economists as laid out and defended by Mises that inadvertently purges the peculiarly human element from economic science. Because it began with the axiom of action, Mises s apriorism necessarily moved the human element to the forefront of economic analysis. The logical categories implied in the action axiom emphasized time, uncertainty, and change in process of man s attempts to pursue his ends. Absent this aprioristic approach the importance of the real world conditions that acting man confronts are all but lost. In its place is substituted man as machine, operating in a sterile environment characterized by ideal conditions that in no way reflect reality. Recent demands for new empirical methods of research illustrate the bankruptcy of the non-aprioristic approach. Ironically it is Mises s radical apriorism that provides the answer to this burgeoning empirical problem. As Mises s approach implies, economic understanding increases by framing questions in terms of the particular but analyzing in terms of the logic of choice. Interpreting the particular by way of the universal yields the analytical narrative, which brings the real-world human chooser 19 For a description of this movement see Boettke et al. (2003). 262

17 WAS MISES RIGHT? back to forefront of economic analysis. 20 The analytical narrative makes the aprioristically deduced pure logic of choice the handmaiden of institutionally focused ethnographic research. Borrowing from sociology and anthropology, economics may employ survey, interview, and participant observe techniques to glean new empirical knowledge from its subjects (the narrative) to be analyzed in light of aprioristic rational choice theory (the analytic), leading to analytically rigorous but institutionally rich examinations. It is this research methodology that emerges out of Mises s unique methodological approach to economic science, which offers the way out of the problems generated by the empiricist/positivist approach to economic questions. CONCLUSION Far from embarrassing, we have argued that Mises s methodologically position was ahead of its time. His focus on the giveness of ends and the analysis of means to achieve these ends provides us with an alternative, pre-positivistic notion of value-freedom. His clear statement on how the theory-ladeness of facts destroys any notion of unambiguous empirical tests anticipated developments in post-positivist philosophy and yet does not slip into the epistemological abyss of post-modernism. Finally, his focus on the universal applicability of the science of human action (praxeology) paved the way for a unified social science grounded in methodological individualism. Furthermore, Mises s work is not the armchair theorizing many have made it out to be. The entire purpose of the theoretical task is to enable better empirical investigation but these two tasks represent distinct epistemological moments (conception for theory, understanding for history). Mises was able to develop a system for analysis, which today is being discussed as the analytical narrative approach to political economy. It is this movement, we contend, that will save economics from its irrelevance by linking economic explanation back to the human actor the alpha and omega of all of economic life. Mises s Human Action was a monumental achievement in technical economics, social philosophy and public policy, but just as 20 The analytic narrative we propose here is rooted in the praxeological approach that places creative, uncertain human decision-making at the center of its analysis. Although the analytic narrative advocated by Bates et al. (1998) is similar in that is seeks to employ economic theory for the purpose of historical interpretation, theirs is rooted in a purely game-theoretic approach that substitutes a world of complete and perfect information in which agent choices are deterministic for one in which actors imperfectly seek changing goals under conditions of constant change. 263

18 REVIEW OF SOCIAL ECONOMY important is its contribution to the philosophy of the human sciences. Here Mises argued forcefully that the laws of economic science are deduced a priori and prove their relevance in the act of interpretation of historical phenomena. Without these a priori laws, we would be blind to the empirical world. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the Editor and two anonymous referees for helpful comments and suggestions. The financial assistance of the Olofsson Weaver Fellowship, the Earhart Foundation, and the Mercatus Center are gratefully acknowledged. Leeson was the F.A. Hayek Fellow at the London School of Economics at the time of this research s acceptance. He wishes to thank the STICERD Center and the Hayek Fellowship for their support in this work. REFERENCES Bates, R., Greif, A., Levi, M., Rosenthal, J.-L. and Weingast, B. (1998) Analytic Narratives, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Boehm-Bawerk, E. ( [1949]) Capital and Interest, 3 vols, South Holland, IL: Libertarian Press. Boehm-Bawerk, E. (1891) The Historical Versus the Deductive Method in Political Economy, Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, vol. 1, reprinted in I. M. Kirzner (ed.) Classics in Austrian Economics, London: Pickering and Chatto, 1994: Boettke, P. (ed.) (1994) The Elgar Companion to Austrian Economics, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Boettke, P. (1995) Why Are There No Austrian Socialists? Ideology, Science and the Austrian School, Journal of the History of Economic Thought 17 (Spring): Boettke, P. (1998a) Ludwig von Mises, in J. Davis, D. Wade Hands and U. Maki (eds) The Handbook of Economic Methodology, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Boettke, P. (1998b) Is Economics a Moral Science?, Journal of Markets & Morality 1(2): Boettke, P., Coyne, C. and Leeson, P. (2003) Man as Machine: The Plight of 20th Century Economics, Annals of the Society for the History of Economic Thought: Boettke, P. and Leeson, P. (2003) The Austrian School of Economics, , in W. Samuels and J. Biddle (eds) The Blackwell Companion to the History of Economic Thought, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publishers. Caldwell, B. (1984) Praxeology and Its Critics: An Appraisal, History of Political Economy: Caldwell, B. (2003) Hayek s Challenge, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 264

Kant on Time Diana Mertz Hsieh (diana@dianahsieh.com) Kant (Phil 5010, Hanna) 28 September 2004 In the Transcendental Aesthetic of his Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant offers a series of dense arguments

ON EXTERNAL OBJECTS By Immanuel Kant From Critique of Pure Reason (1781) General Observations on The Transcendental Aesthetic To avoid all misapprehension, it is necessary to explain, as clearly as possible,

Positive Philosophy by August Comte August Comte, Thoemmes About the author.... August Comte (1798-1857), a founder of sociology, believes aspects of our world can be known solely through observation and

The Philosophical Importance of Mathematical Logic Bertrand Russell IN SPEAKING OF "Mathematical logic", I use this word in a very broad sense. By it I understand the works of Cantor on transfinite numbers

Michael Lacewing Descartes arguments for distinguishing mind and body THE KNOWLEDGE ARGUMENT In Meditation II, having argued that he knows he thinks, Descartes then asks what kind of thing he is. Discussions

Perspectives in Philosophy Rene Descartes Descartes Philosophy is the search for certainty the search to know, for yourself, what is really true and really false to know which beliefs are reliable. However,

Honours programme in Philosophy Honours Programme in Philosophy The Honours Programme in Philosophy offers students a broad and in-depth introduction to the main areas of Western philosophy and the philosophy

Unifying Epistemologies by Combining World, Description and Observer Stuart Umpleby Research Program in Social and Organizational Learning The George Washington University Washington, DC Umpleby@gwu.edu

General Philosophy Dr Peter Millican, Hertford College Lecture 3: Induction Hume s s Fork 2 Enquiry IV starts with a vital distinction between types of proposition: Relations of ideas can be known a priori

Michael Lacewing Descartes rationalism Descartes Meditations provide an extended study in establishing knowledge through rational intuition and deduction. We focus in this handout on three central claims:

Descartes Fourth Meditation On human error Descartes begins the fourth Meditation with a review of what he has learned so far. He began his search for certainty by questioning the veracity of his own senses.

Michael Lacewing Substance dualism A substance is traditionally understood as an entity, a thing, that does not depend on another entity in order to exist. Substance dualism holds that there are two fundamentally

Fall 2002 Y520: 5982 Robert S Michael Strategies for Educational Inquiry What is Inquiry? Philosophy & Inquiry This is not a a course in philosophy, rather a course in research design and methods. Methods

UNIT 1: RATIONALISM HANDOUT 5: DESCARTES MEDITATIONS, MEDITATION FIVE 1: CONCEPTS AND ESSENCES In the Second Meditation Descartes found that what we know most clearly and distinctly about material objects

1/9 Locke 1: Critique of Innate Ideas This week we are going to begin looking at a new area by turning our attention to the work of John Locke, who is probably the most famous English philosopher of all

God and Reality Arman Hovhannisyan Metaphysics has done everything to involve God in the world of being. However, in case of considering Reality as being and nothingness, naturally, the metaphysical approach

Michael Lacewing The ontological argument St Anselm and Descartes both famously presented an ontological argument for the existence of God. (The word ontological comes from ontology, the study of (-ology)

CREDIT TRANSFER: GUIDELINES FOR STUDENT TRANSFER AND ARTICULATION AMONG MISSOURI COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES With Revisions as Proposed by the General Education Steering Committee [Extracts] A. RATIONALE

Harvard College Program in General Education Faculty of Arts and Sciences Harvard University A Guide to Writing in Ethical Reasoning 15 A Guide to Writing in Ethical Reasoning 15 Professor Jay M. Harris

Ph. D. Program in Education Specialization: Educational Leadership School of Education College of Human Sciences Iowa State University The purpose of the doctoral program in Educational Leadership is to

Research Methodology source: Best and Kahn (2006) and Litosseliti (2010) Human beings are the unique product of their own creation and evolution. In contrast to other forms of animal life, their highly

Critical Realism Critical realism offers an ontology that can conceptualize reality, support theorizing, and guide empirical work in the natural and human sciences. It views reality as complex and recognizes

University Press Scholarship Online You are looking at 1-10 of 40 items for: keywords : existence of God Arguing the Existence of God: From the World to Its Maker Francis X. Clooney in Hindu God, Christian

THE AUTONOMY OF PSYCHOLOGY Tim Crane, University College London Psychology has been considered to have an autonomy from the other sciences (especially physical science) in at least two ways: in its subject-matter

No God, No Laws Nancy Cartwright Philosophy LSE and UCSD Introduction. My thesis is summarized in my title, No God, No Laws : the concept of a law of Nature cannot be made sense of without God. It is not

Critical and creative thinking (higher order thinking) refer to a set of cognitive skills or strategies that increases the probability of a desired outcome. In an information- rich society, the quality

Quine on truth by convention March 8, 2005 1 Linguistic explanations of necessity and the a priori.............. 1 2 Relative and absolute truth by definition.................... 2 3 Is logic true by convention?...........................

LIBERTARIAN PAPERS VOL. 1, ART. NO. 43 (2009) THE DEFINITION OF INFLATION ACCORDING TO MISES: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DEBATE ON FREE BANKING NICOLÁS CACHANOSKY * Introduction THE DISCUSSION OF WHAT IS and

Glossary of Key Terms Ad hominem: An argument directed at an opponent in a disagreement, not at the topic under discussion. Agent: One who acts and is held responsible for those actions. Analytic judgment:

Burrell and Morgan s Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis * *Heinemann, London, 1979 Main 4 debates in Sociology Is reality given or is it a product of the mind? Must one experience something

J. T. M. Miller, Department of Philosophy, University of Durham 1 Methodological Issues for Interdisciplinary Research Much of the apparent difficulty of interdisciplinary research stems from the nature

1 It is widely accepted by those in the scientific community that women have been systematically disregarded and discriminated against in science. However, the extent to which this has undermined aspirations

Atheism Richland Creek Community Church The Existence of God: Does America believe in God? Google - What percentage of Americans believe in God? = well over 90%. In fact, over the past 50 years of research

Research Philosophies Importance and Relevance 0. INTRODUCTION When undertaking research of this nature, it is important to consider different research paradigms and matters of ontology and epistemology.

Descartes Meditations Module 3 AQA Meditation I Things which can be called into Doubt Descartes rejects all his beliefs about the external world because they are doubtful and he wants to find a foundation

Page 1 PHILOSOPHY General Major I. Depth and Breadth of Knowledge. A. Will be able to recall what a worldview is and recognize that we all possess one. B. Should recognize that philosophy is most broadly

The Slate Is Not Empty: Descartes and Locke on Innate Ideas René Descartes and John Locke, two of the principal philosophers who shaped modern philosophy, disagree on several topics; one of them concerns

Subject area: Ethics Title: Injustice causes revolt. Discuss. 1 Injustice causes revolt. Discuss. When we explain phenomena we rely on the assertion of facts. The sun rises because the earth turns on its

Existence Is Not a Predicate by Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant, Thoemmes About the author.... Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) studied in Königsberg, East Prussia. Before he fully developed an interest in philosophy,

PHILOSOPHY@BHASVIC 1 MOVING ON TO A-LEVEL PHILOSOPHY AT BHASVIC Doing philosophy is not merely giving your opinion or dismissing the opinions of others. We all hold a variety of opinions on a variety of

Outcomes Assessment of Written Papers in a Philosophy Course Meredith Gunning, Ph.D. Me You! Note, Atlas carried the celestial sphere, not the earth! Mistaken to seek only utilitarian value of philosophy,

Critical Terminology for Theory of Knowledge The following glossary offers preliminary definitions for some key terms that arise frequently in the literature of the theory of knowledge. Keep in mind that

Perspectives on Computer Intelligence Can computers think? In attempt to make sense of this question Alan Turing, John Searle and Daniel Dennett put fourth varying arguments in the discussion surrounding

NOÛS 43:2 (2009) 286 314 The Meta-Problem of Change THOMAS HOFWEBER University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1. Introduction One of the central problems in metaphysics over the last so many centuries

Proceedings from the 2005 Sho Sato Conference in Honor of Takao Tanase Comments on Professor Takao Tanase s Invoking Law as Narrative: Lawyer s Ethics and the Discourse of Law Norman Spaulding Stanford

Frege s theory of sense Jeff Speaks August 25, 2011 1. Three arguments that there must be more to meaning than reference... 1 1.1. Frege s puzzle about identity sentences 1.2. Understanding and knowledge

Betting interpretations of probability Glenn Shafer June 21, 2010 Third Workshop on Game-Theoretic Probability and Related Topics Royal Holloway, University of London 1 Outline 1. Probability began with

Nowhere Man Charles W. Johnson PHIL4780: Kant and Transcendental Idealism 18 March 2002 Language, Concepts, and Geach s Argument against Abstraction When in the course of human events we are called upon

Learning Enhancement Team Writing a Dissertation This Study Guide addresses the task of writing a dissertation. It aims to help you to feel confident in the construction of this extended piece of writing,

INDEX OF TEMPLATES INTRODUCING WHAT THEY SAY A number of sociologists have recently suggested that X s work has several fundamental problems. It has become common today to dismiss X s contribution to the

Positivism, Anti-Positivism and Neo-Gramscianism Watcharabon Buddharaksa The University of York RCAPS Working Paper No. 10-4 December 2010 Ritsumeikan Center for Asia Pacific Studies (RCAPS), Ritsumeikan

ECONOMICS WEBINAR Featuring Bob Luddy and Dr. William Peterson Saturday, August 29th at 9:30 AM EDT There are four major schools of economic thought, which are described below. Definitions are from Wikipedia,

Aquinas Third Way Last time we had arrived at the following provisional interpretation of Aquinas second way: 1. 2. 3. 4. At least one thing has an efficient cause. Every causal chain must either be circular,

HARVARD COLLEGE Writing Center WRITING CENTER BRIEF GUIDE SERIES A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper The Challenges of Philosophical Writing The aim of the assignments in your philosophy classes

Call for Papers Philosophy of Education Conference, 2017 Azim Premji University, Bangalore January 9 11, 2017 The terms theory and practice are often counterposed to indicate a dichotomy or dualism that

Aquinas on Essence, Existence, and Divine Simplicity Strange but Consistent In the third question of the Summa Theologiae, Aquinas is concerned with divine simplicity. This is important for him both theologically

Time and Causation in Gödel s Universe. John L. Bell In 1949 the great logician Kurt Gödel constructed the first mathematical models of the universe in which travel into the past is, in theory at least,

Doctoral Program Dear Prospective Student, Thank you for your interest in Lewis University s Doctoral Program (Ed.D.) in Educational Leadership for Teaching and Learning. In response to your inquiry, enclosed

Hume on identity over time and persons phil 20208 Jeff Speaks October 3, 2006 1 Why we have no idea of the self........................... 1 2 Change and identity................................. 2 3 Hume

WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM Writing about Film From movie reviews, to film history, to criticism, to technical analysis of cinematic technique, writing is one of the best ways to respond to film. Writing