1.
Pest control
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Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, and can be perceived to be detrimental to a persons health, the ecology or the economy. A practitioner of pest control is called an exterminator, Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. In order to maximize production, it is advantageous to protect crops from competing species of plants. Techniques such as rotation, companion planting, and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history. In the UK, following concern about animal welfare, humane pest control, for instance, with the urban red fox which territorial behaviour is used against the animal, usually in conjunction with non-injurious chemical repellents. In rural areas of Britain, the use of firearms for pest control is quite common, chemical pesticides date back 4,500 years, when the Sumerians used sulfur compounds as insecticides. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, in the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development. Many pests have only become a problem as a result of the actions by humans. Modifying these actions can often reduce the pest problem. In the United States, raccoons caused a nuisance by tearing open refuse sacks, many householders introduced bins with locking lids, which deterred the raccoons from visiting. House flies tend to accumulate wherever there is activity and live in close association with people all over the world especially where food or food waste is exposed. Similarly, seagulls have become pests at many seaside resorts, tourists would often feed the birds with scraps of fish and chips, and before long, the birds would rely on this food source and act aggressively towards humans. Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any form of control. Perhaps as far ago as 3000BC in Egypt, cats were being used to control pests of grain such as rodents. In 1939/40 a survey discovered that cats could keep a population of rats down to a low level. However, if the rats were cleared by trapping or poisoning, ferrets were domesticated at least by 500 AD in Europe, being used as mousers. Mongooses have been introduced into homes to control rodents and snakes, biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of natural predators and parasites. For example, mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, the treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink

2.
Rodenticide
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Rodenticides, colloquially rat poison, are typically non-specific pest control chemicals made and sold for the purpose of killing rodents. Some rodenticides are lethal after one exposure while others more than one. Rodents are disinclined to gorge on a food, preferring to sample, wait. This phenomenon of bait shyness or poison shyness is the rationale for poisons that kill only after multiple doses and these effects are gradual, developing over several days. In the final phase of the intoxication, the exhausted rodent collapses due to shock or severe anemia. The question of whether the use of these rodenticides can be considered humane has been raised, the main benefit of anticoagulants over other poisons is that the time taken for the poison to induce death means that the rats do not associate the damage with their feeding habits. Second generation agents are far more toxic than first generation and they are generally applied in lower concentrations in baits — usually on the order of 0. 001% to 0. Vitamin K1 has been suggested, and successfully used, as antidote for pets or humans accidentally or intentionally exposed to anticoagulant poisons, metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides. A bait consisting of food and a phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it, the acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. Zinc phosphide is typically added to rodent baits in a concentration of 0. 75% to 2. 0%, the baits have strong, pungent garlic-like odor due to the phosphine liberated by hydrolysis. The odor attracts rodents, but has an effect on other mammals. Birds, notably wild turkeys, are not sensitive to the smell, and will feed on the bait, the tablets or pellets may also contain other chemicals which evolve ammonia, which helps reduce the potential for spontaneous combustion or explosion of the phosphine gas. Metal phosphides do not accumulate in the tissues of poisoned animals, before the advent of anticoagulants, phosphides were the favored kind of rat poison. During World War II, they came into use in United States because of shortage of strychnine due to the Japanese occupation of the territories where the tree is grown. Phosphides are rather fast-acting rat poisons, resulting in the rats dying usually in open areas, phosphides used as rodenticides include, aluminium phosphide calcium phosphide magnesium phosphide zinc phosphide Calciferols, cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol are used as rodenticides. They are toxic to rodents for the reason they are important to humans, they affect calcium. Vitamins D are essential in minute quantities, and like most fat soluble vitamins, they are toxic in larger doses, if the poisoning is severe enough, it leads to death. It is considered to be single-dose, cumulative or sub-chronic, applied concentrations are 0. 075% cholecalciferol and 0. 1% ergocalciferol when used alone, which can kill a rodent or a rat

3.
Vitamin K antagonist
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Vitamin K antagonists are a group of substances that reduce blood clotting by reducing the action of vitamin K. They are used as anticoagulant medications in the prevention of thrombosis, the drugs are structurally similar to vitamin K and act as competitive inhibitors of the enzyme. The term vitamin K antagonist is a misnomer, as the drugs do not directly antagonise the action of vitamin K in the pharmacological sense, Vitamin K is required for the proper production of certain proteins involved in the blood clotting process. For example, it is needed to carboxylate specific glutamic acid residues on prothrombin, without these residues carboxylated, the protein will not form the appropriate conformation of thrombin, which is needed to produce the fibrin monomers that are polymerized to form clots. The vitamin K antagonists can cause birth defects, coumarins are the most commonly used VKAs. In medicine, the most commonly used VKA is warfarin, Warfarin was initially used as a rodenticide, but made the transition to pharmaceutical. Eventually some rodents developed resistance to it, the second generation VKAs for dedicated use as rodenticides are sometimes called super warfarins. These VKAs are enhanced to kill warfarin-resistant rodents, the enhancement to the molecule takes the form of a larger lipophilic group to enhance the fat solubility of the poison and greatly increase the time it acts within the animals body. However, as described above, the super-warfarins do not inhibit vitamin K, for a more complete list of coumarins used as pharmaceuticals and rodenticides, see the main article on 4-hydroxycoumarins. Not all VKAs are coumarins, many of the non-coumarin VKAs are 1, although these are loosely termed VKAs, these molecules share a separate mechanism of action, inhibiting the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase. Such therapeutic agents may themselves be antagonized by administration of vitamin K, examples include phenindione, Clorindione, diphenadione, and fluindione. Vitamin K deficiency Category, Vitamin K antagonists Published reviews, 2011-2016, reynolds, Matthew R. Discontinuation of Rivaroxaban, Filling in the Gaps. The investigators will need to scrutinize this large trial database further to understand these issues more fully, nessel, Scott D. Berkowitz, Robert M. Califf, Keith A. A. Outcomes of Discontinuing Rivaroxaban Compared With Warfarin in Patients With Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation, / In atrial fibrillation patients who temporarily or permanently discontinued anticoagulation, the risk of stroke or non-CNS embolism was similar with rivaroxaban or warfarin. CS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Agnelli, Giancarlo, foreword, Contemporary issues in the management and treatment of atrial fibrillation. CS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Note, because this issue foreword is over a decade old, its statements regarding limited available oral anticoagulants is no longer accurate

4.
Coumarin
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Coumarin is a fragrant organic chemical compound in the benzopyrone chemical class, which is a colorless crystalline substance in its standard state. It is a substance found in many plants. The name comes from a French term for the bean, coumarou. It has an odor, readily recognised as the scent of newly-mown hay. Sweet woodruff, meadowsweet, sweet grass and sweet-clover in particular are named for their sweet smell, Coumarin is used in certain perfumes and fabric conditioners. Coumarin was first synthesized in 1868, 4-hydroxycoumarins are a type of vitamin K antagonist. Pharmaceutical coumarins were all developed from the study of sweet clover disease, however, unmodified coumarin itself, as it occurs in plants, has no effect on the vitamin K coagulation system, or on the action of warfarin-type drugs. Coumarin has clinical medical value by itself, as an edema modifier, other biological activities that may lead to other medical uses have been suggested, with varying degrees of evidence. Coumarin is also used as a medium in some dye lasers. The word tonka for tonka beans is taken from the Galibi tongue spoken by natives of French Guiana, it appears in Old Tupi, another language of the same region. The old genus name, Coumarouna, was formed from another Tupi name for tree, the French word for the tonka bean, coumarou, is from this name. Coumarin, named for coumarou was first isolated from Tonka beans and sweet clover in 1820 by A. Vogel of Munich, also in 1820, Nicholas Jean Baptiste Gaston Guibourt of France independently isolated coumarin, but he realized that it was not benzoic acid. In a subsequent essay he presented to the section of the Académie Royale de Médecine. In 1835, the French pharmacist A. Guillemette proved that Vogel, Coumarin was first synthesized in 1868 by the English chemist William Henry Perkin. Coumarin can be prepared by a number of reactions with the Perkin reaction between salicylaldehyde and acetic anhydride being a popular example. The Pechmann condensation provides another route to coumarin and its derivatives, Coumarin is also found in extracts of Justicia pectoralis. Related compounds are found in some but not all specimens of licorice, the biosynthesis of coumarin in plants is via hydroxylation, glycolysis, and cyclization of cinnamic acid. The enzyme encoded by the gene UGT1A8 has glucuronidase activity with many substrates including coumarins, Coumarin has appetite-suppressing properties, which may discourage animals from eating plants which contain it

5.
4-Hydroxycoumarins
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The large 3-position substituent is required for anticoagulant activity. The primary mechanism of the 4-hydroxycoumarin drugs is the inhibition of vitamin K epoxide reductase and these compounds are not direct antagonists of vitamin K, but rather act to deplete reduced vitamin K in tissues. For this reason vitamin K antagonizes their effect, and this has led to the terminology of vitamin K antagonism. Dicoumarol appears in spoiled sweet clover silages and is considered a chemical substance of combined plant. The identification of Dicoumarol in 1940 is the precursor of the class known as 4-Hydroxycoumarin. The synthetic drugs in the 4-hydroxycoumarin class are all noted primarily for their use as anticoagulants, all affect the normal metabolism of vitamin K in the body by inhibiting the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase which recycles vitamin K to active form. As such, these form the most important and widely used subset of vitamin K antagonist drugs. The simplest synthetic molecule in the 4-hydroxycoumarin class is warfarin, in which the aromatic 3-position substituent is a phenyl group. So called super-warfarins or second-generation anticoagulants in this class, were developed as rodenticides for rodents that have developed warfarin resistance, the second generation agents have even larger lipid-soluble substituents at the 3-position, a chemical change that causes their half life in the body to be greatly increased. The antirodenticide chemicals are sometimes referred to as coumadins rather than 4-hydroxycoumarins. They act by causing the animal to hemorrhage, causing it to seek water

6.
Coumatetralyl
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Coumatetralyl is an anticoagulant of the 4-hydroxycoumarin vitamin K antagonist type used as a rodenticide. Coumatetralyl is commonly used with grains and other cereals as a rodent poison in conjunction with a powder to monitor feeding activity in a particular area. Tracking powder also clings to fur, which allows more poison to be ingested from grooming, concentrations of the chemical are usually 500 mg per 1 kg of bait. Symptoms of overexposure relate to failure of the blood clotting mechanism and include bleeding gums, after one exposure the toxicity of coumatetralyl is relatively low, however, if overexposure continues for several days the product becomes more toxic. The product must therefore be present in the bloodstream for more than one to two days in order to be highly toxic. A single exposure, even relatively large, may not produce toxic symptoms as the compound is quite rapidly metabolized. Chronic animal studies show no evidence of carcinogenic or teratogenic effects

7.
Brodifacoum
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Brodifacoum is a highly lethal 4-hydroxycoumarin vitamin K antagonist anticoagulant poison. In recent years, it has one of the worlds most widely used pesticides. It is typically used as a rodenticide but is used to control larger pests such as possum. Brodifacoum has an especially long half-life in the body, which ranges to several months and it has one of the highest risks of secondary poisoning to both mammals and birds. Brodifacoum is a derivative of the 4-hydroxy-coumarin group, compound 1 is the starting ester needed to synthesize brodifacoum. To obtain this starting compound a simple Wittig condensation of ethyl chloroacetate with 4’-bromobiphenylcarboxaldehyde was accomplished, compound 1 was transformed into 2 by consecutive hydrolysis, halogenation to form an acid chloride, and then reacted with the required lithium anion. This was done using KOH and EtOH for hydrolysis, and then adding SOCl2 for chlorination to form the acid chloride which reacted with the addition of lithium anion, compound 2 was then transformed using organocopper chemistry to yield compound 3 with good regioselectivity of about 98%. Typically a Friedel-Crafts type cyclization would be utilized to obtain the two ring system portion of compound 4, but there were issues of low yield, instead trifluoromethanesulfonic acid in dry benzene catalyzed the cyclization in good yield. The ketone was then reduced with sodium borohydride yielding a benzyl alcohol, condensation with 4-hydroxycoumarin under HCl yielded compound 5, brodifacoum. Brodifacoum is a 4-hydroxycoumarin anticoagulant, with a mode of action to its historical predecessors dicoumarol. However, due to high potency and long duration of action. Brodifacoum inhibits the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase and this enzyme is needed for the reconstitution of the vitamin K in its cycle from vitamin K-epoxide, and so brodifacoum steadily decreases the level of active vitamin K in the blood. Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of important substances including prothrombin and this disruption becomes increasingly severe until the blood effectively loses any ability to clot. In addition, brodifacoum increases permeability of capillaries, the blood plasma. A poisoned animal will suffer progressively worsening internal bleeding, leading to shock, loss of consciousness, Brodifacoum is highly lethal to mammals and birds, and extremely lethal to fish. It is a cumulative poison, due to its high lipophilicity. Following are acute LD50 values for a variety of animals, Given these extremely high toxicities in various mammals, brodifacoum is classified as toxic and very toxic. Because of its persistency, cumulative potential and high toxicities for various wildlife species, the estimated average fatal dose for an adult man is about 15 mg, without treatment

8.
Bromadiolone
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Bromadiolone is a potent anticoagulant rodenticide. It is a second-generation 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative and vitamin K antagonist, often called a super-warfarin for its potency and tendency to accumulate in the liver of the poisoned organism. When first introduced to the UK market in 1980, it was effective against the populations that had become resistant to the first generation anticoagulants, the product may be used both indoors and outdoors for rats and mice. It is classified as a hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U. S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store. Bromadiolone can be absorbed through the tract, through the lungs. The pesticide is generally given orally, the substance is a vitamin K antagonist. The lack of vitamin K in the system reduces blood clotting. Poisoning doesnt show up for 24 to 36 hours after poison is eaten and often it may take 2–5 days for the signs to show up, Vitamin C is found in fruits and vegetables. Bromadiolone is a type of Warfarin and interacts with Vitamin C. Increased Vitamin C in the blood may lead to exposure to the side-effects of the drug. Following are acute LD50 values for various animals, rats 1.125 mg/kg b. w. mice 1.75 mg/kg b. w. rabbits 1 mg/kg b. w. dogs >10 mg/kg b. w. cats >25 mg/kg b. w. The compound is used as a mixture of four stereoisomers and its two stereoisomeric centers are at the phenyl- and the hydroxyl-substituted carbons in the carbon chain of the substituent at the 3 position of the coumarin. Vitamin K1 is used as antidote

9.
Difenacoum
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Difenacoum is an anticoagulant of the 4-hydroxycoumarin vitamin K antagonist type. It has anticoagulant effects and is used commercially as a rodenticide and it was first introduced in 1976 and first registered in the USA in 2007. Difenacoum is sold as blue-green pellets, difenacoum was first introduced in 1976 as a rodenticide effective against rats and mice which were resistant to other anticoagulants. Using radiolabeled isotopes, difenacoum has been shown to be distributed across many organ tissues upon oral ingestion, with the highest concentrations occurring in the liver and pancreas. Difenacoum has been shown to be toxic to some species of freshwater fish

10.
Flocoumafen
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Flocoumafen is an anticoagulant of the 4-hydroxycoumarin vitamin K antagonist type. It is a second generation chemical in this class, used commercially as a rodenticide and it has a very high toxicity and is restricted to indoor use and sewers. This restriction is due to the increased risk to non-target species. Studies have shown that rodents resistant to first-generation anticoagulants can be controlled with flocoumafen. It was synthesized in 1984 by Shell International Chemical, to most rodents LD50 is 1 mg/kg, but it can vary a lot between species, from 0.12 mg/kg, Microtus arvalis to more than 10 mg/kg Acomys cahirinus. For dogs,0.075 -0.25 mg/kg, ICSC, Flocoumafen PubChem, Flocoumafen Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, Flocoumafen ChemBlink, Flocoumafen

11.
1,3-Indandione
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1, 3-Indandione is an organic compound with the molecular formula C9H6O2. In standard conditions it is referred to in different sources as either a colorless or yellowish, green, in the solid state,1, 3-indandione occurs as a diketone, in water, it is partially enolized. The enolate anion exhibits significant delocalization, and the highest electron density is on the second carbon and this explains many of chemical properties of the compound. 1, 3-Indandione can be prepared by decarboxylation of the salt of 2-ethoxycarbonyl-1, 3-indandione. 1, 3-Indandione is a very strong C-nucleophile and it undergoes self-condensation quite easily, resulting in bindone. Bromination occurs at the 2-position,1, 3-Indandione could be reduced to indanone, 3-hydroxy-1-indanone,1, 3-indanediol or even indane, the related compound 1, 2-indandione is used in the first stage of forensic identification of latent fingerprints. It is particularly useful for paper, and for items printed with thermal inks such as receipts. Amino acids left behind by the hand may be developed into fingerprints by the use of it. It is usually the first method employed in a sequential analysis aimed at the production of evidence of a suitable for use in the courtroom

12.
Diphenadione
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Diphenadione is a vitamin K antagonist that has anticoagulant effects and is used as a rodenticide against rats, mice, voles, ground squirrels and other rodents. The chemical compound is an anti-coagulant with active half-life longer than warfarin, as a second-generation anticoagulant, diphenadione is more toxic than the first generation compounds. Diphacinone - toxicity, ecological toxicity and regulatory information, an online pesticide database that gives more information about the safety issues associated with use of diphenadione. Reigart, J. Routt & Roberts, James R. Rodenticides, recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings. Corvallis, OR, US, National Pesticide Information Center (Oregon State University, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list A safety handbook that explains how incidents of poisoning by various rodenticides are treated

13.
Strychnine
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Strychnine is a highly toxic, colorless, bitter, crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. Strychnine, when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the eyes or mouth, causes poisoning which results in muscular convulsions, while it has no known medicinal effects, in the past the convulsant effect was believed to be beneficial in small doses. The most common source is from the seeds of the Strychnos nux-vomica tree, Strychnine was the first alkaloid to be identified in plants of the genus Strychnos, family Loganiaceae. Strychnos, named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is a genus of trees, the genus contains 196 various species and is distributed throughout the warm regions of Asia, America, and Africa. The seeds and bark of plants in this genus contain strychnine. The inhabitants of these countries had historical knowledge of the species Strychnos nux-vomica, Strychnos nux-vomica is a tree native to the tropical forests on the Malabar Coast in Southern India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, which attains a height of about 12 metres. The tree has a crooked, short, thick trunk and the wood is close grained, the fruit has an orange color and is about the size of a large apple with a hard rind and contains five seeds, which are covered with a soft wool-like substance. The ripe seeds look like flattened disks, which are very hard and these seeds are the chief commercial source of strychnine and were first imported to and marketed in Europe as a poison to kill rodents and small predators. Strychnos ignatii is a climbing shrub of the Philippines. The fruit of the plant, known as Saint Ignatius bean, the seeds contain more strychnine than other commercial alkaloids. The properties of S. nux-vomica and S. ignatii are substantially those of the alkaloid strychnine, Strychnine was first discovered by French chemists Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre-Joseph Pelletier in 1818 in the Saint-Ignatius bean. In some Strychnos plants a 9, 10-dimethoxy derivative of strychnine, brucine is not as poisonous as strychnine. Historic records indicate that preparations containing strychnine had been used to dogs, cats. The structure of strychnine was first determined in 1946 by Sir Robert Robinson and this is one of the most famous syntheses in the history of organic chemistry. Both chemists won the Nobel prize, Strychnine was popularly used as an athletic performance enhancer and recreational stimulant in the late 19th century and early 20th century, due to its convulsant effects. It was thought to be similar to coffee and its effects are well-described in H. G. Wells novella The Invisible Man, the title character states, Strychnine is a grand tonic. to take the flabbiness out of a man. The protagonist replies, Its the devil and its the palaeolithic in a bottle. In high doses, strychnine is very toxic to humans and many other animals, S. Strychnine poisoning in animals usually occurs from ingestion of baits designed for use against gophers, moles, and coyotes

14.
Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine
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Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine is an organic compound that is used as a rodenticide. It is an odorless, tasteless white powder that is soluble in water, DMSO and acetone. When crystallized from acetone, it forms cubic crystals with a point of 255–260 °C. TETS is a neurotoxin, causing lethal convulsions and its effect is similar to but stronger than picrotoxin, a GABA-A receptor antagonist widely used in research. As one of the most hazardous pesticides, it is 100 times more toxic than potassium cyanide, TETS is an suicide inhibitor that binds irreversibly to neuronal GABA gated chloride channels, often causing status epilepticus. The lethal dose for humans is 7–10 mg. Poisoning is diagnosed by GC-MS, TETS is sequestered in tissues of poisoned birds and can thus pose severe risk of secondary poisoning. The best known Chinese rodenticide, containing about 6–20% TETS, is Dushuqiang, in 2002, there was one documented case of accidental poisoning in the US

15.
Cholecalciferol
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Cholecalciferol, also known as vitamin D3 and colecalciferol, is a type of vitamin D found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent vitamin D deficiency including rickets and it is also used for familial hypophosphatemia, hypoparathyroidism that is causing low blood calcium, and Fanconi syndrome. Excessive doses can result in vomiting, constipation, weakness, normal doses are safe in pregnancy. It may not be effective in people with kidney disease. After being converted into 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D, it works by increasing the uptake of calcium by the intestines, food in which it is found include some fish, cheese, and eggs. Cholecalciferol was first described in 1936 and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Cholecalciferol is available as a medication and over the counter. The wholesale cost in the world is about 2.14 USD per 30 ml bottle. In the United States treatment costs less than 25 USD per month, certain foods such as milk have cholecalciferol added to them in some countries. One gram is 40,000,000 IU, equivalently 1 IU is 0.025 µg, recommendations vary depending on the country, In the US,15 µg/d for all individuals between the ages of 1 and 70 years old, inclusive. For all individuals older than 70 years,20 µg/d is recommended, in the EU,20 µg/d In France,25 µg/d Many question whether the current recommended intake is sufficient to meet physiological needs. Individuals without regular sun exposure, the obese, and darker skinned individuals all have lower blood levels, patients with severe vitamin D deficiency will require treatment with a loading dose, its magnitude can be calculated based on the actual serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D level and body weight. Also, there is a therapy for rickets utilizing a single dose, called stoss therapy in Europe, taking from 300,000 IU to 500,000 IU, in a single dose, or in two to four divided doses. There are conflicting reports concerning the absorption of cholecalciferol versus ergocalciferol, with studies suggesting less efficacy of D2. At present, D2 and D3 doses are considered interchangeable. A meta-analysis of 2007 concluded that intake of 1000 to 2000 IU per day of vitamin D3 could reduce the incidence of colorectal cancer with minimal risk. In humans, with 400 IU daily, there was no effect of cholecalciferol supplements on the risk of colorectal cancer, supplements are not recommended for prevention of cancer as any effects of cholecalciferol are very small. It is a secosteroid, that is, a molecule with one ring open

16.
Ergocalciferol
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Ergocalciferol, also known as vitamin D2 and calciferol, is a type of vitamin D found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to prevent and treat vitamin D deficiency and this includes vitamin D deficiency due to poor absorption by the intestines or liver disease. It may also be used for low blood calcium due to hypoparathyroidism and it is used by mouth or injection into a muscle. Excessive doses can result in increased production, high blood pressure, kidney stones, kidney failure, weakness. If high doses are taken for a period of time tissue calcification may occur. It is recommended that people on high doses have their blood calcium levels regularly checked, normal doses are safe in pregnancy. It works by increasing the amount of absorbed by the intestines. Food in which it is found include some mushrooms, ergocalciferol was first described in 1936. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, ergocalciferol is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In the United Kingdom a typical dose costs the NHS less than 10 pounds a month, certain foods such as breakfast cereal and margarine have ergocalciferol added to them in some countries. Both forms appear to have efficacy in ameliorating rickets and reducing the incidence of falls in elderly patients. Ergocalciferol is a formed by a photochemical bond breaking of a steroid, specifically. The ranges for provitamin D2 and vitamin D2 were 89-146 and 0. 22-0.55 μg/g dry matter, respectively, human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement. Vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable, by visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of whiteness, was observed. Viosterol, the given to early preparations of irradiated ergosterol, is essentially synonymous with ergocalciferol. Ergocalciferol is manufactured and marketed under various names, including Deltalin, NIST Chemistry WebBook page for ergocalciferol

17.
Aluminium phosphide
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Aluminium phosphide is a highly toxic inorganic compound with the chemical formula AlP used as a wide band gap semiconductor and a fumigant. This colorless solid is generally sold as a grey-green-yellow powder due to the presence of impurities arising from hydrolysis, AlP crystals are dark grey to dark yellow in color and have a zincblende crystal structure with a lattice constant of 5.4510 Å at 300 K. They are thermodynamically stable up to 1,000 °C, AlP is used as a rodenticide, insecticide, and fumigant for stored cereal grains. It is used to kill small mammals such as moles. AlP is used as both a fumigant and an oral pesticide, as a rodenticide, aluminium phosphide pellets are provided as a mixture with food for consumption by the rodents. The acid in the system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. Other pesticides similar to aluminium phosphide are zinc phosphide and calcium phosphide, in this application, aluminium phosphide can be encountered under various brand names, e. g. Celphos, Fostox, Fumitoxin, Phostek, Phostoxin, Quick Phos, Talunex, and Weevil-Cide. It generates phosphine gas according to the following hydrolysis equation, all of these structures can be effectively sealed or enclosed in a gastight membrane, thereby containing and concentrating the phosphine fumes. Fumigants are also applied directly to rodent burrows, industrially, AlP is a semiconductor material that is usually alloyed with other binary materials for applications in devices such as light-emitting diodes. Highly poisonous, aluminium phosphide has been used for suicide, fumigation has also caused unintentional deaths, such as examples in Saudi Arabia and the United States. Known as rice tablet in Iran, for its use to preserve rice, there is a campaign by the Iranian Forensic Medicine Organization to stop its use as a pesticide. Recycling of used aluminium phosphide containers caused the death of three members in Alcalá de Guadaira, Spain. They had been keeping them in sacks in their bathroom. The deaths occurred due to aluminum phosphide reacting with water or moisture. Aluminium phosphide poisoning is considered a problem in the Indian subcontinent

18.
Arsenic
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Arsenic is a chemical element with symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals. It has various allotropes, but only the form is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead. Arsenic is a common dopant in semiconductor electronic devices. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides, treated wood products, herbicides, a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of arsenic are a dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, chickens. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed, Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The three most common allotropes are metallic gray, yellow, and black arsenic, with gray being the most common. Gray arsenic adopts a structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, gray arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a density of 5.73 g/cm3. Gray arsenic is a semimetal, but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1. 2–1.4 eV if amorphized, gray arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus, both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, As 4. It is rapidly transformed into gray arsenic by light, the yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm3. Black arsenic is similar in structure to red phosphorus, black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220 °C

19.
Barium carbonate
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Barium carbonate, also known as witherite, is a chemical compound used in rat poison, bricks, ceramic glazes and cement. Witherite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and it transforms into an hexagonal phase at 1084 K that changes into a cubic phase at 1254 K. The mineral is named after William Withering, who in 1784 recognized it to be distinct from barytes. It occurs in veins of ore at Hexham in Northumberland, Alston in Cumbria, Anglezarke, near Chorley in Lancashire. Witherite is readily altered to barium sulfate by the action of water containing calcium sulfate in solution and it is the chief source of barium salts and is mined in considerable amounts in Northumberland. It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the manufacture of glass and porcelain and it is also used for controlling the chromate to sulfate ratio in chromium electroplating baths. Barium carbonate is made commercially from barium sulfide either by treatment with sodium carbonate at 60 to 70 °C or by passing carbon dioxide at 40 to 90 °C. In the soda ash process, solid or dissolved sodium carbonate is added to barium sulfide solution, barium carbonate is widely used in the ceramics industry as an ingredient in glazes. It acts as a flux, a matting and crystallizing agent and its use is somewhat controversial since some claim that it can leach from glazes into food and drink. To provide a means of use, BaO is often used in fritted form. In the brick, tile, earthenware and pottery industries barium carbonate is added to clays to precipitate soluble salts that cause efflorescence

20.
Cyanide
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A cyanide is any chemical compound that contains monovalent combining group CN. This group, known as the group, consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. The cyanide ion is isoelectronic with carbon monoxide and with molecular nitrogen, organic cyanides are usually called nitriles, in these, the CN group is linked by a covalent bond to a carbon-containing group, such as methyl in methyl cyanide. Because they do not release cyanide ions, nitriles are generally toxic, or in the case of insoluble polymers such as acrylic fiber. Hydrocyanic acid, also known as hydrogen cyanide, or HCN, is a volatile liquid used to prepare acrylonitrile, which is used in the production of acrylic fibers, synthetic rubber. Cyanides are employed in a number of processes, including fumigation, case hardening of iron and steel, electroplating. In nature, substances yielding cyanide are present in seeds, such as the pit of the cherry. In IUPAC nomenclature, organic compounds that have a functional group are called nitriles. An example of a nitrile is CH3CN, acetonitrile, also known as methyl cyanide, nitriles usually do not release cyanide ions. A functional group with a hydroxyl and cyanide bonded to the carbon is called cyanohydrin. Unlike nitriles, cyanohydridins do release hydrogen cyanide, in inorganic chemistry, salts containing the C≡N− ion are referred to as cyanides. The word is derived from the Greek kyanos, meaning dark blue, cyanides are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae and are found in a number of plants. Cyanides are found in substantial amounts in certain seeds and fruit stones, e. g. those of apricots, apples, in plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides and defend the plant against herbivores. Cassava roots, an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries, the Madagascar bamboo Cathariostachys madagascariensis produces cyanide as a deterrent to grazing. In response, the bamboo lemur, which eats the bamboo, has developed a high tolerance to cyanide. The cyanide radical CN· has been identified in interstellar space, the cyanide radical is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds. Hydrogen cyanide is produced by the combustion or pyrolysis of certain materials under oxygen-deficient conditions, for example, it can be detected in the exhaust of internal combustion engines and tobacco smoke. Certain plastics, especially derived from acrylonitrile, release hydrogen cyanide when heated or burnt

21.
Thallium(I) sulfate
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Thallium sulfate or thallous sulfate is the sulfate salt of thallium in the common +1 oxidation state, as indicated by the Roman numeral I. It is often referred to as simply thallium sulfate, Thallium sulfate is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and highly toxic. During the last two centuries, Tl2SO4 had been used for medical treatments but was abandoned. In the later 1900s it found use mainly for rodenticides and these applications were prohibited in 1975 in the US due to the nonselective nature of its toxicity. Thallium sulfate inhibits the growth of plants by preventing germination, Tl2SO4 is mostly used today as a source of Tl+ in the research laboratory. It is a precursor to thallium sulfide, which high electrical conductivity when exposed to infrared light. Thallium sulfate is produced by the reaction of metal with sulfuric acid followed by crystallization. Tl2SO4 adopts the structure as K2SO4. In aqueous solution, the cations and the sulfate anions are separated. Thallium sulfate crystals have a C2 symmetry, Thallium sulfate is soluble in water and its toxic effects are derived from the thallium cation. The mean lethal dose of thallium sulfate for an adult is about 1 gram, since thallium sulfate is a simple powder with indistinctive properties, it can easily be mistaken for more innocuous chemicals. It can enter the body by ingestion, inhalation, or through contact with the skin, the thallium cation is very similar to potassium and sodium cations, which are essential for life. After the thallium ion enters the cell, many of the processes that transport potassium and sodium are disrupted, due to its poisonous nature, many western countries have banned the use of thallium sulfate in products for home use and many companies have also stopped using this compound. A dosage in excess of 500 mg is reported as fatal, Thallium sulfate, after entering the body, concentrates itself in the kidneys, liver, brain, and other tissues in the body. Thallium sulfate was used in Israel to control the rodent population, it is suspected that in the 1950s, saha A. Thallium toxicity, A growing concern

22.
Zinc phosphide
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Zinc phosphide is an inorganic chemical compound. It is a solid, although commercial samples are often dark or even black. It is used as a rodenticide, Zn3P2 is a semiconductor with a direct band gap of 1.5 eV. and may have applications in photovoltaic cells. A second zinc phosphide is known, with the stoichiometry ZnP2, Zinc phosphide can be prepared by the reaction of zinc with phosphorus, however, for critical applications, additional processing to remove arsenic compounds may be needed. 3 Zn +2 P → Zn3P2 Another method of preparation include reacting tri-n-octylphosphine with dimethylzinc, in the room temperature form there are discrete P atoms, zinc atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated and phosphorus six coordinate, with zinc atoms at 6 of the vertices of a distorted cube. ZnP2 has two forms a lower temperature red tetragonal form and a monoclinic form. In both of these there are chains of P atoms, helical in the tetragonal, semi-spiral in the monoclinic, Zinc Phosphide is an ideal candidate for thin film photovoltaic applications, since it has strong optical absorption and an almost ideal band gap. In addition to this, both zinc and phosphorus are found abundantly in the earth’s crust, meaning that material extraction cost is low compared to thin film photovoltaics. Both zinc and phosphorus are also nontoxic, which is not the case for common commercial thin film photovoltaics. Researchers at the University of Alberta have successfully synthesized colloidal zinc phosphide, before, researchers were able to create efficient solar cells from bulk zinc phosphide, but their fabrication required temperatures greater than 850 C or complicated vacuum deposition methods. By contrast, colloidal zinc phosphide nanoparticles, contained in a zinc phosphide “ink”, allows for inexpensive, easy large-scale production, the testing and development of these zinc phosphide thin films is still in its early stages, but early results are positive. Prototype heterojunction devices fabricated from zinc phosphide nanoparticle ink exhibited a rectification ratio of 600 and these are both acceptable suitability benchmarks for solar cells. Metal phosphides have been used as rodenticides, a mixture of food and zinc phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of control has possible use in places where rodents are immune to other common poisons. Other pesticides similar to zinc phosphide are aluminium phosphide and calcium phosphide, Zinc phosphide is typically added to rodent baits in amount of around 0. 75-2%. Such baits have strong, pungent garlic-like odor characteristic for phosphine liberated by hydrolysis, the odor attracts rodents, but has a repulsive effect on other animals, However, birds, notably wild turkeys, are not sensitive to the smell. However, it is effective against rats, mice, guinea pigs and rabbits

23.
Organochlorine
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The chloroalkane class provides common examples. The wide structural variety and divergent chemical properties of lead to a broad range of names. Organochlorides are very useful compounds in many applications, but some are of profound environmental concern, chlorination modifies the physical properties of hydrocarbons in several ways. The compounds are typically denser than water due to the atomic weight of chlorine versus hydrogen. Aliphatic organochlorides are alkylating agents because chloride is a leaving group, many organochlorine compounds have been isolated from natural sources ranging from bacteria to humans. Chlorinated organic compounds are found in every class of biomolecules including alkaloids, terpenes, amino acids, flavonoids, steroids. In addition, a variety of simple chlorinated hydrocarbons including dichloromethane, chloroform, a majority of the chloromethane in the environment is produced naturally by biological decomposition, forest fires, and volcanoes. The natural organochloride epibatidine, an alkaloid isolated from tree frogs, has potent analgesic effects and has stimulated research into new pain medication, alkanes and aryl alkanes may be chlorinated under free radical conditions, with UV light. However, the extent of chlorination is difficult to control, aryl chlorides may be prepared by the Friedel-Crafts halogenation, using chlorine and a Lewis acid catalyst. The haloform reaction, using chlorine and sodium hydroxide, is able to generate alkyl halides from methyl ketones. Chlorine adds to the bonds on alkenes and alkynes as well. Alkenes react with chloride to give alkyl chlorides. Secondary and tertiary alcohols react with chloride to give the corresponding chlorides. Alternatively, the Appel reaction can be used, Alkyl chlorides are versatile building blocks in organic chemistry, while alkyl bromides and iodides are more reactive, alkyl chlorides tend to be less expensive and more readily available. Alkyl chlorides readily undergo attack by nucleophiles, heating alkyl halides with sodium hydroxide or water gives alcohols. Reaction with alkoxides or aroxides give ethers in the Williamson ether synthesis, Alkyl chlorides readily react with amines to give substituted amines. Alkyl chlorides are substituted by softer halides such as the iodide in the Finkelstein reaction, reaction with other pseudohalides such as azide, cyanide, and thiocyanate are possible as well. In the presence of a base, alkyl chlorides undergo dehydrohalogenation to give alkenes or alkynes

24.
Endrin
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Endrin is an organochloride with the chemical formula C12H8Cl6O that was first produced in 1950 by Shell and Velsicol Chemical Corporation. It was primarily used as an insecticide, as well as a rodenticide and piscicide and it is a colourless, odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-white. Endrin was manufactured as a solution known commercially as Endrex. The compound became infamous as a persistent organic pollutant and for this reason it is banned in many countries, in the environment endrin exists as either endrin aldehyde or endrin ketone and can be found mainly in bottom sediments of bodies of water. Exposure to endrin can occur by inhalation, ingestion of substances containing the compound, upon entering the body, it can be stored in body fats and can act as a neurotoxin on the central nervous system, which can cause convulsions, seizures, or even death. Although endrin is not currently classified as a mutagen, nor as a human carcinogen, due to these toxic effects, the manufacturers cancelled all use of endrin in the United States by 1991. Food import concerns have been raised because some countries may have still been using endrin as a pesticide, J. Hyman & Company first developed endrin in 1950. Shell International was licensed in the United States and in the Netherlands to produce it, Velsicol was the other producer in the Netherlands. Endrin was used globally until the early 1970s, due to its toxicity, it was banned or severely restricted in many countries. In 1982, Shell discontinued its manufacturing, in 1962, an estimated 2. 3-4.5 million kilograms of endrin were sold by Shell in the USA. In 1970, Japan imported 72,000 kilograms of endrin, from 1963 until 1972, Bali used 171 to 10,700 kilograms of endrin annually for the production of rice paddies until endrin use was discontinued in 1972. Taiwan reported to higher levels of organochlorine pesticides including endrin in soil samples of paddy fields, compared to other Asian countries such as Thailand. During the 1950s-1970s over two kilograms of organochlorine pesticides were estimated of having been be released into the environment per year. Endrin was banned in the United States on October 10,1984, Taiwan banned endrins use as a pesticide in 1971 and regulated it as a toxic chemical in 1989. The convention requires the parties to take measures to eliminate or restrict the production of POPs. The synthesis of endrin begins with the condensation of hexachlorocyclopentadiene with vinyl chloride, following reaction with cyclopentadiene, isodrin is formed. Epoxide formation by adding either peracetic acid or perbenzoic acid to the isodrin is the step in synthesizing endrin. The product could then be applied by aircraft or by handheld sprayers in its various formulations, Endrin has been used primarily as an agricultural insecticide on tobacco, apple trees, cotton, sugar cane, rice, cereal, and grains

25.
Organophosphorus compound
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Organophosphorus compounds are organic compounds containing phosphorus. They are used primarily in pest control as an alternative to chlorinated hydrocarbons that persist in the environment, organophosphorus chemistry is the corresponding science of the properties and reactivity of organophosphorus compounds. Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is in group 15 of the periodic table and these compounds are highly effective insecticides, though some are also lethal to humans at minuscule doses and include some of the most toxic substances ever created by man. The definition of organophosphorus compounds is variable, which can lead to confusion, in industrial and environmental chemistry, an organophosphorus compound need contain only an organic substituent, but need not have a direct phosphorus-carbon bond. Thus a large proportion of pesticides, are included in this class of compounds. In a descriptive but only intermittently used nomenclature, phosphorus compounds are identified by their coordination number δ, in this system, a phosphine is a δ3λ3 compound. Phosphate esters have the general structure P3 feature P, such species are of technological importance as flame retardant agents, and plasticizers. Lacking a P−C bond, these compounds are in the technical sense not organophosphorus compounds, many derivatives are found in nature, such as phosphatidylcholine. Phosphate ester are synthesized by alcoholysis of phosphorus oxychloride, a variety of mixed amido-alkoxo derivatives are known, one medically significant example being the anti-cancer drug cyclophosphamide. Also derivatives containing the group include the pesticide malathion. The organophosphates prepared on the largest scale are the zinc dithiophosphates, several million kilograms of this coordination complex are produced annually by the reaction of phosphorus pentasulfide with alcohols. In the environment, these compounds break down via hydrolysis to eventually afford phosphate, phosphonates are esters of phosphonic acid and have the general formula RP2. Phosphonates have many applications, a well-known member being glyphosate. With the formula 2PCH2NHCH2CO2H, this derivative of glycine is one of the most widely used herbicides, bisphosphonates are a class of drugs to treat osteoporosis. The nerve gas agent sarin, containing both C–P and F–P bonds, is a phosphonate, phosphinates feature two P–C bonds, with the general formula R2P. A commercially significant member is the herbicide Glufosinate, similar to glyphosate mentioned above, it has the structure CH3PCH2CH2CHCO2H. The Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction is the method for the synthesis of these compounds. For example, dimethylmethylphosphonate arises from the rearrangement of trimethylphosphite, which is catalyzed by methyl iodide, in the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction and the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation, phosphonates are used in reactions with carbonyl compounds

26.
Bromethalin
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Bromethalin is a rodenticide which poisons the central nervous system by uncoupling mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, which causes a decrease in adenosine triphosphate synthesis. Decreased ATP ultimately results in increased pressure, which damages neuronal axons. This damage to the nervous system can cause paralysis, convulsions. Signs can be delayed for several days, no antidote for bromethalin is known, care is symptomatic and supportive. Owners of animals that have eaten it accidentally should seek immediate veterinary attention, contacting an animal poison control center can help ensure that timely and appropriate therapy is started. The mechanism of bromethalin toxicity differs from that of popular rodent poisons and these drugs, such as diphacinone and bromadiolone, eaten by the mouse as an overdose, inhibit vitamin K and lead to a loss of clotting activity over several days. While bromethalin is labeled as a rodenticide, it is used for other small mammals such as moles. It is often hidden inside a worm-like bait to attract moles

27.
Sodium fluoroacetate
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Sodium fluoroacetate, known in pesticide form as 1080, is the organofluorine chemical compound with the formula FCH2CO2Na. This colourless salt has a similar to that of sodium chloride and is used as a metabolic poison. Potassium fluoroacetate occurs naturally as a metabolite in various plants. It is a derivative of fluoroacetic acid, a carboxylic acid, the more common fluorinated acetic acid and its derivatives are far less toxic. The effectiveness of sodium fluoroacetate as a rodenticide was reported in 1942, the name 1080 refers to the catalogue number of the poison, which became its brand name. The salt is synthesized by treating sodium chloroacetate with potassium fluoride, potassium fluoroacetate occurs naturally in at least 40 plant species in Australia, Brazil, and Africa. It was first identified in Dichapetalum cymosum, commonly known as gifblaar or poison leaf, as early as 1904, colonists in Sierra Leone used extracts of Chailletia toxicaria, which also contains fluoroacetic acid or its salts, to poison rats. Several native Australian plant genera contain the toxin, including, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Oxylobium, Nemcia, Gastrolobium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. There are over 100 species in genus, and all. Gastrolobium growing in south western Australia are unique in their ability to concentrate fluoroacetate from low fluorine soils, similarly, following bushfires in north-western Queensland cattlemen have to move livestock before the poisonous Gastrolobium grandiflorum emerges from the ashes. Sodium fluoroacetate is toxic to all aerobic organisms, and highly toxic to mammals. The oral dose of sodium fluoroacetate sufficient to be lethal in humans is 2–10 mg/kg, the New Zealand Food Safety Authority established lethal doses for a number of species. Dogs, cats, and pigs appear to be most susceptible to poisoning, the enzyme fluoroacetate dehalogenase has been discovered in a soil bacterium, which can detoxify fluoroacetate in the surrounding medium. Fluoroacetate is similar to acetate, which has a role in cellular metabolism. This inhibition results in an accumulation of citrate in the blood, citrate and fluorocitrate are allosteric inhibitors of phosphofructokinase-1, a key enzyme in the breakdown of sugars. When PFK-1 is inhibited, cells are no longer able to metabolize carbohydrates, in humans, the symptoms of poisoning normally appear between 30 minutes and three hours after exposure. Initial symptoms typically include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, sweating, confusion, in significant poisoning, cardiac abnormalities including tachycardia or bradycardia, hypotension, and ECG changes develop. Neurological effects include muscle twitching and seizures, consciousness becomes progressively impaired after a few hours leading to coma, death is normally due to ventricular arrhythmias, progressive hypotension unresponsive to treatment, and secondary lung infections

28.
Alpha-Naphthylthiourea
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α-Naphthylthiourea is an organosulfur compound with the formula C10H7NHCNH2. This a white, crystalline powder although commercial samples may be off-white and it is used as a rodenticide and as such is fairly toxic. Naphthylthiourea is available as 10% active baits in suitable protein- or carbohydrate-rich materials, like other thioureas, ANTU can be prepared by several routes. C10H7NCS + NH3 → C10H7NHCNH2 Alpha-Naphthylthiourea is toxic to inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact, according to the U. S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the recommended workplace airborne exposure limit is 0.3 mg/m3 averaged over a 10-hour workshift. Exposure to 100 mg/m3 is immediately dangerous to life and health, the lethal dose in humans is approximately 4 g/kg. A oral dose of 3 mg per kilogram of weight causes the death of 50% of the rats exposed. However other studies have shown a higher efficacy for dogs. The mortality of rats caused by 5 mg/kg of ANTU is reduced when allylthiourea, isopropylthiourea, ethylenethiourea, superoxide dismutase, catalase and dimethylsulfoxide all protect against the lung damage by ANTU. This indicates that OH radicals are responsible for this type of lung injury, given hydroxurea over 2 days doesn’t block the ANTU damage when neutrophils are decreased or when administered acutely. Cyclooxygenase pathway may generate the free radicals since ibuprofen blocked as well the ANTU damage, alpha-naphthyl thiourea is used as a rodenticide, it is a rat poison. Rat cannot detect the compound by taste or smell and they are not able to vomit after they have ingested it, so, it is more toxic and mainly causes death for rats. However, the toxicity of the compound is different for each rat species, ANTU causes local gastric irritation in animals and when it is absorbed, it increases permeability of the lung capillaries in all animals. The symptoms that the present after absorption of alpha-naphthyl thiourea are first weakness, ataxia, weak pulse. Afterwards, they have the symptoms, vomiting, hypersalivation, coughing. In the most cases a pale, mottled liver and damaged kidneys are found in animals which have ingested ANTU, animals with an empty stomach readily vomit after ingestion of this substance. However, when there is food in the stomach of the animals the stimulation to vomit decreases and it has been found that ANTU may cause death in some animals within 2–4 hours of ingestion, while animals that survive 12 hours may recover from the poison. In a long-term, ANTU may cause edema and pleural effusion in certain animals. Mice treated with alpha-naphthyl thiourea with a dose of 10 mg/kg developed pulmonary edema which was maximal after 3 hours and was resolved by 12 hours,35 mg/kg of ANTU was caused death to 60% of the animals

29.
Norbormide
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Norbormide is a toxic compound used as a rodenticide. It is classified as a hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U. S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store. In the early 1960s norbormide was developed to serve as a non-anticoagulant rat poison, during the 1970s, however, the utilization of this rodenticide decreased, since anticoagulant toxins seemed to be more effective against a wider range of rodents. NRB only kills rodents of the genus Rattus and happens to be moderately innocent to other rodents, although many view its selective feature as a disadvantage, scientists of Landcare Research in New Zealand search for ways to improve this rodenticide and develop several analogues. Norbormide is a compound with the following systematic name, 5--7--5-norbornene-2. The structure consists of a ring, that is merged with an imide ring opposite to the double bond. One of the atoms of this double bond is connected to another carbon atom, that is bound to a hydroxyl, a pyridyl. The bridging carbon of the ring is double bonded to a carbon atom to which a pyridyl. There are eight stereoisomers of norbormide. On the exocyclic double bond there is cis/trans-isomerism, the imide ring can have an endo or an exo orientation and for the hydroxyl group erythro and threo isomers are possible. The vasoconstrictor properties of norbormide turn out to be dependent on stereochemistry. Only the endo isomers are toxic in rats and the isomers are ten times as potent as the erythro isomers. The cis-endo-threo isomer has been found to be the isomer with the most potent vasoconstrictor properties, in this structure there is a hydrogen bond between the hydroxyl group and the adjacent pyridine ring. Studies reveal that norbormide toxicity is sensitive to changes, in almost all cases the toxicity decreases due to structural changes. Only substitution of the NH proton of the imide with certain groups could give toxic activity comparable to norbormide itself. Since NRB causes bait shyness in rats and rats therefore often only take sub lethal doses, studies have been performed in search of NRB derivatives that are more toxic than NRB itself, in this case, substitions have taken only place at the imide-group of NRB. The common structure for each of this derivatives is shown in figure 4.1, at position R, different hydrocarbon groups were placed

Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a group of substances that reduce blood clotting by reducing the action of vitamin K. …

Warning label on a tube of "brown rat" poison laid on a dike of the Scheldt river in Steendorp, Belgium. The tube contains bromadiolone, a second-generation ("super-warfarin") anticoagulant. The label in Dutch states, in part: Contains an anticoagulant with prolonged activity. Antidote Vitamin K1.

Various reduced organophosphorus compounds: a complex of an organophosphine pincer ligand, the chiral diphosphine used in homogeneous catalysis, the primary phosphine PhPH2, and the phosphorus(I) compound (PPh)5.