Most civilizations have devised ways to beautify their metal objects. Some
of the methods used for ornamenting metals are hammering, chiseling, engraving,
inlay, Niello, enamelling, etc. It has been argued that decorating metal objects
with other metals of contrasting colors is simple by creating alloys that
melt easily. For instance, dark color alloys can be produced without much
difficulty through melting specific metals [4]
. Therefore, the early history of an art such as Niello is difficult to establish.

The origin of Niello has been to Egypt during the 18th dynasty (c. 1540 BC
- c. 1292 BC), or in Crete or Mycenae around the same time [5]
. According to Avieropolous Choo, one of the earliest examples of Nielloware
is a silver cup with Niello decorations originating in Enkomi, Cyprus around
1400 BC (1984). However, other authors, such as Higgins and Frankfort suggest
that the first examples of Niello come from Syria. These authors, however,
propose different dates of origin, either 1800BC or between the 14th and 12th
c. BC.[6]

Most sources agree that Niello was rather popular in Roman times, with production
not only in Rome, but also in Roman colonies and in Byzantium. An early example
of Niello is a statuette of Roman Emperor Nero from the first century C.E.
Other Roman objects decorated with Niello abound through the first five centuries
of the Christian era [7]. Link,
author who specializes in the history of silver, indicates that the highest
achievement in Roman Niello happened during the 4th and 5th centuries C.E.
[8]

Niello objects found in Europe originating between the 5th and the 10th centuries
seem to have been produced in the British Isles, Byzantium, Constantinople,
as far as Sweden and perhaps Syria. Among those objects there are silver dishes,
brooches, buckles, bowls, rings, early crosses and reliquaries. Niello is
said to have been rare in Sasanian silver objects, although there are a few
pieces with small parts of this type of decoration during the 6th century
C.E.[9]

Although Niello doesn't seem to have been a popular decorating method in
China, there are a few examples of Chinese objects with Niello on red brass,
white silver and white copper. The earliest Niello object from China is an
alms bowl from the 8th century A.D - Tang Dynasty (618-907) [10].
According to McElney, Niello and red brass may have arrived to Canton, China
before the 9th century through Arab or Western Asian influences [11].
(1998, p.137) In addition, Gyllensvärd attributes a great development
in technique, form and ornamentation of Chinese metalwork in the same period
to commercial contact with other cultures as Sassanian, Byzantine, Scythian
and Indian.[12]

Niello, or a substance similar to it, appears in three European documents
before the 10th century C.E. Those include a reference by Pliny in addition
to two technical treatises, namely the Leyden Papyrus X from the 3rd century
C.E., and the Mappae Clavicula from around the 8th century C.E. While it is
unclear if the substance known as a 'black asem' in the Leyden Papyrus was
really Niello, the Mappae Clavicula contains several recipes for the preparation
of Niello. The recipes differ depending on the composition of the Niello,
on the material of the vessel that the Niello is applied to, and on the mode
of application.[13]

There are numerous examples of Nielloware from the 10th century C.E. found
in Central Europe, and the British Isles. At the time, jewelry, reliquaries,
and metal boxes were still quite popular recipients of this type of ornamentation.
Some of those pieces indicate the influence of Oriental craftsmanship [14].
In Persia, during the Seljuk period (1037 C.E.-1194 C.E.) Niello was used
to decorate metalwork. [15]
In addition, there is evidence of Niello production in other parts of the
Middle East provided by a treatise from Yemen, c. 942 C.E., which discusses
Niello manufacture. [16]

Although it has been proposed that Niello may have originated in Russia,
Rosenberg indicates that Niello probably arrived in Russia from Armenia or
the Caucasus before 1000 C.E.[17]
Tait maintains that Niello production became popular with Islamic craftsmen
around the 11th and 12th centuries. Concurrently, there was significant production
of elaborate Niello decoration work in Kiev and other cities in Russia .[18]

In Tabriz, around the year 1300 C.E. Abu'l-Qasim Kashani wrote a treatise
where he describes the production of mixed sulphide Niello. [19]
In the 13th and 14th, Niello was very popular in France with many different
types of objects receiving this type of decoration. Some authors suggest that
Niello production started to decline in Europe around the 13th Century as
enamel became more fashionable. [20]
Nevertheless, in the 15th century there are two sources that mention Niello,
one is the "Trattato dell' Oreficeria," by Benvenuto Cellini; the
other is a manuscript written by Johannes Alcherius, both contain recipes
for Niello. Besides the traditional role in ornamentation Niello became the
main element in the decoration of paxes. From that period there are several
large engraved Niello silver plaques. At that time Italy had various centers
of Niello production, with Florence and Bologna being the most famous. The
most renowned artists of that era are Tomaso or Masso Finiguerra, Antonio
del Pollaiuolo in Florence; and in Bologna, Francesco Francia and Peregrino
da Cesena. Vasari praised Francia as an unsurpassed master in the art of Niello.[21]

Around the beginning of the 17th Century the popularity of Niello started
to decline. Consequently, Niello production in Europe diminished considerably.
Nonetheless, Niello manufacture was still strong in Russia in the 19th century.
This technique was still used until the early 20th century in traditional
Islamic jewelry [22]and
also in Turkey, Burma, Italy, Russia and Thailand for the production of small
objects in general. [23]