.. _traversal_chapter:
Traversal
=========
This chapter explains the technical details of how traversal works in
Pyramid.
For a quick example, see :doc:`hellotraversal`.
For more about *why* you might use traversal, see :doc:`muchadoabouttraversal`.
A :term:`traversal` uses the URL (Universal Resource Locator) to find a
:term:`resource` located in a :term:`resource tree`, which is a set of
nested dictionary-like objects. Traversal is done by using each segment
of the path portion of the URL to navigate through the :term:`resource
tree`. You might think of this as looking up files and directories in a
file system. Traversal walks down the path until it finds a published
resource, analogous to a file system "directory" or "file". The
resource found as the result of a traversal becomes the
:term:`context` of the :term:`request`. Then, the :term:`view lookup`
subsystem is used to find some view code willing to "publish" this
resource by generating a :term:`response`.
Using :term:`Traversal` to map a URL to code is optional. It is often
less easy to understand than :term:`URL dispatch`, so if you're a rank
beginner, it probably makes sense to use URL dispatch to map URLs to
code instead of traversal. In that case, you can skip this chapter.
.. index::
single: traversal details
Traversal Details
-----------------
:term:`Traversal` is dependent on information in a :term:`request`
object. Every :term:`request` object contains URL path information in
the ``PATH_INFO`` portion of the :term:`WSGI` environment. The
``PATH_INFO`` string is the portion of a request's URL following the
hostname and port number, but before any query string elements or
fragment element. For example the ``PATH_INFO`` portion of the URL
``http://example.com:8080/a/b/c?foo=1`` is ``/a/b/c``.
Traversal treats the ``PATH_INFO`` segment of a URL as a sequence of
path segments. For example, the ``PATH_INFO`` string ``/a/b/c`` is
converted to the sequence ``['a', 'b', 'c']``.
This path sequence is then used to descend through the :term:`resource
tree`, looking up a resource for each path segment. Each lookup uses the
``__getitem__`` method of a resource in the tree.
For example, if the path info sequence is ``['a', 'b', 'c']``:
- :term:`Traversal` starts by acquiring the :term:`root` resource of the
application by calling the :term:`root factory`. The :term:`root factory`
can be configured to return whatever object is appropriate as the
traversal root of your application.
- Next, the first element (``'a'``) is popped from the path segment
sequence and is used as a key to lookup the corresponding resource
in the root. This invokes the root resource's ``__getitem__`` method
using that value (``'a'``) as an argument.
- If the root resource "contains" a resource with key ``'a'``, its
``__getitem__`` method will return it. The :term:`context` temporarily
becomes the "A" resource.
- The next segment (``'b'``) is popped from the path sequence, and the "A"
resource's ``__getitem__`` is called with that value (``'b'``) as an
argument; we'll presume it succeeds.
- The "A" resource's ``__getitem__`` returns another resource, which
we'll call "B". The :term:`context` temporarily becomes the "B"
resource.
Traversal continues until the path segment sequence is exhausted or a
path element cannot be resolved to a resource. In either case, the
:term:`context` resource is the last object that the traversal
successfully resolved. If any resource found during traversal lacks a
``__getitem__`` method, or if its ``__getitem__`` method raises a
:exc:`KeyError`, traversal ends immediately, and that resource becomes
the :term:`context`.
The results of a :term:`traversal` also include a :term:`view name`. If
traversal ends before the path segment sequence is exhausted, the
:term:`view name` is the *next* remaining path segment element. If the
:term:`traversal` expends all of the path segments, then the :term:`view
name` is the empty string (``''``).
The combination of the context resource and the :term:`view name` found
via traversal is used later in the same request by the :term:`view
lookup` subsystem to find a :term:`view callable`. How :app:`Pyramid`
performs view lookup is explained within the :ref:`view_config_chapter`
chapter.
.. index::
single: object tree
single: traversal tree
single: resource tree
.. _the_resource_tree:
The Resource Tree
-----------------
The resource tree is a set of nested dictionary-like resource objects
that begins with a :term:`root` resource. In order to use
:term:`traversal` to resolve URLs to code, your application must supply
a :term:`resource tree` to :app:`Pyramid`.
In order to supply a root resource for an application the :app:`Pyramid`
:term:`Router` is configured with a callback known as a :term:`root
factory`. The root factory is supplied by the application, at startup
time, as the ``root_factory`` argument to the :term:`Configurator`.
The root factory is a Python callable that accepts a :term:`request`
object, and returns the root object of the :term:`resource tree`. A
function, or class is typically used as an application's root factory.
Here's an example of a simple root factory class:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
class Root(dict):
def __init__(self, request):
pass
Here's an example of using this root factory within startup configuration, by
passing it to an instance of a :term:`Configurator` named ``config``:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
config = Configurator(root_factory=Root)
The ``root_factory`` argument to the
:class:`~pyramid.config.Configurator` constructor registers this root
factory to be called to generate a root resource whenever a request
enters the application. The root factory registered this way is also
known as the global root factory. A root factory can alternately be
passed to the ``Configurator`` as a :term:`dotted Python name` which can
refer to a root factory defined in a different module.
If no :term:`root factory` is passed to the :app:`Pyramid`
:term:`Configurator` constructor, or if the ``root_factory`` value
specified is ``None``, a *default* root factory is used. The default
root factory always returns a resource that has no child resources; it
is effectively empty.
Usually a root factory for a traversal-based application will be more
complicated than the above ``Root`` class; in particular it may be
associated with a database connection or another persistence mechanism.
.. sidebar:: Emulating the Default Root Factory
For purposes of understanding the default root factory better, we'll note
that you can emulate the default root factory by using this code as an
explicit root factory in your application setup:
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
class Root(object):
def __init__(self, request):
pass
config = Configurator(root_factory=Root)
The default root factory is just a really stupid object that has no
behavior or state. Using :term:`traversal` against an application that
uses the resource tree supplied by the default root resource is not very
interesting, because the default root resource has no children. Its
availability is more useful when you're developing an application using
:term:`URL dispatch`.
.. note::
If the items contained within the resource tree are "persistent" (they
have state that lasts longer than the execution of a single process), they
become analogous to the concept of :term:`domain model` objects used by
many other frameworks.
The resource tree consists of *container* resources and *leaf* resources.
There is only one difference between a *container* resource and a *leaf*
resource: *container* resources possess a ``__getitem__`` method (making it
"dictionary-like") while *leaf* resources do not. The ``__getitem__`` method
was chosen as the signifying difference between the two types of resources
because the presence of this method is how Python itself typically determines
whether an object is "containerish" or not (dictionary objects are
"containerish").
Each container resource is presumed to be willing to return a child resource
or raise a ``KeyError`` based on a name passed to its ``__getitem__``.
Leaf-level instances must not have a ``__getitem__``. If instances that
you'd like to be leaves already happen to have a ``__getitem__`` through some
historical inequity, you should subclass these resource types and cause their
``__getitem__`` methods to simply raise a ``KeyError``. Or just disuse them
and think up another strategy.
Usually, the traversal root is a *container* resource, and as such it
contains other resources. However, it doesn't *need* to be a container.
Your resource tree can be as shallow or as deep as you require.
In general, the resource tree is traversed beginning at its root resource
using a sequence of path elements described by the ``PATH_INFO`` of the
current request; if there are path segments, the root resource's
``__getitem__`` is called with the next path segment, and it is expected to
return another resource. The resulting resource's ``__getitem__`` is called
with the very next path segment, and it is expected to return another
resource. This happens *ad infinitum* until all path segments are exhausted.
.. index::
single: traversal algorithm
single: view lookup
.. _traversal_algorithm:
The Traversal Algorithm
-----------------------
This section will attempt to explain the :app:`Pyramid` traversal algorithm.
We'll provide a description of the algorithm, a diagram of how the algorithm
works, and some example traversal scenarios that might help you understand
how the algorithm operates against a specific resource tree.
We'll also talk a bit about :term:`view lookup`. The
:ref:`view_config_chapter` chapter discusses :term:`view lookup` in
detail, and it is the canonical source for information about views.
Technically, :term:`view lookup` is a :app:`Pyramid` subsystem that is
separated from traversal entirely. However, we'll describe the
fundamental behavior of view lookup in the examples in the next few
sections to give you an idea of how traversal and view lookup cooperate,
because they are almost always used together.
.. index::
single: view name
single: context
single: subpath
single: root factory
single: default view
A Description of The Traversal Algorithm
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
When a user requests a page from your traversal-powered application, the
system uses this algorithm to find a :term:`context` resource and a
:term:`view name`.
#. The request for the page is presented to the :app:`Pyramid`
:term:`router` in terms of a standard :term:`WSGI` request, which is
represented by a WSGI environment and a WSGI ``start_response`` callable.
#. The router creates a :term:`request` object based on the WSGI
environment.
#. The :term:`root factory` is called with the :term:`request`. It returns
a :term:`root` resource.
#. The router uses the WSGI environment's ``PATH_INFO`` information to
determine the path segments to traverse. The leading slash is stripped
off ``PATH_INFO``, and the remaining path segments are split on the slash
character to form a traversal sequence.
The traversal algorithm by default attempts to first URL-unquote and then
Unicode-decode each path segment derived from ``PATH_INFO`` from its
natural byte string (``str`` type) representation. URL unquoting is
performed using the Python standard library ``urllib.unquote`` function.
Conversion from a URL-decoded string into Unicode is attempted using the
UTF-8 encoding. If any URL-unquoted path segment in ``PATH_INFO`` is not
decodeable using the UTF-8 decoding, a :exc:`TypeError` is raised. A
segment will be fully URL-unquoted and UTF8-decoded before it is passed
in to the ``__getitem__`` of any resource during traversal.
Thus, a request with a ``PATH_INFO`` variable of ``/a/b/c`` maps to the
traversal sequence ``[u'a', u'b', u'c']``.
#. :term:`Traversal` begins at the root resource returned by the root
factory. For the traversal sequence ``[u'a', u'b', u'c']``, the root
resource's ``__getitem__`` is called with the name ``'a'``. Traversal
continues through the sequence. In our example, if the root resource's
``__getitem__`` called with the name ``a`` returns a resource (aka
resource "A"), that resource's ``__getitem__`` is called with the name
``'b'``. If resource "A" returns a resource "B" when asked for ``'b'``,
resource B's ``__getitem__`` is then asked for the name ``'c'``, and may
return resource "C".
#. Traversal ends when a) the entire path is exhausted or b) when any
resouce raises a :exc:`KeyError` from its ``__getitem__`` or c) when any
non-final path element traversal does not have a ``__getitem__`` method
(resulting in a :exc:`AttributeError`) or d) when any path element is
prefixed with the set of characters ``@@`` (indicating that the characters
following the ``@@`` token should be treated as a :term:`view name`).
#. When traversal ends for any of the reasons in the previous step, the last
resource found during traversal is deemed to be the :term:`context`. If
the path has been exhausted when traversal ends, the :term:`view name` is
deemed to be the empty string (``''``). However, if the path was *not*
exhausted before traversal terminated, the first remaining path segment
is treated as the view name.
#. Any subsequent path elements after the :term:`view name` is found are
deemed the :term:`subpath`. The subpath is always a sequence of path
segments that come from ``PATH_INFO`` that are "left over" after
traversal has completed.
Once the :term:`context` resource, the :term:`view name`, and associated
attributes such as the :term:`subpath` are located, the job of
:term:`traversal` is finished. It passes back the information it obtained to
its caller, the :app:`Pyramid` :term:`Router`, which subsequently invokes
:term:`view lookup` with the context and view name information.
The traversal algorithm exposes two special cases:
- You will often end up with a :term:`view name` that is the empty string as
the result of a particular traversal. This indicates that the view lookup
machinery should look up the :term:`default view`. The default view is a
view that is registered with no name or a view which is registered with a
name that equals the empty string.
- If any path segment element begins with the special characters ``@@``
(think of them as goggles), the value of that segment minus the goggle
characters is considered the :term:`view name` immediately and traversal
stops there. This allows you to address views that may have the same names
as resource names in the tree unambiguously.
Finally, traversal is responsible for locating a :term:`virtual root`. A
virtual root is used during "virtual hosting"; see the
:ref:`vhosting_chapter` chapter for information. We won't speak more about
it in this chapter.
.. image:: resourcetreetraverser.png
.. index::
single: traversal examples
Traversal Algorithm Examples
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
No one can be expected to understand the traversal algorithm by analogy and
description alone, so let's examine some traversal scenarios that use
concrete URLs and resource tree compositions.
Let's pretend the user asks for
``http://example.com/foo/bar/baz/biz/buz.txt``. The request's ``PATH_INFO``
in that case is ``/foo/bar/baz/biz/buz.txt``. Let's further pretend that
when this request comes in that we're traversing the following resource tree:
.. code-block:: text
/--
|
|-- foo
|
----bar
Here's what happens:
- :mod:`traversal` traverses the root, and attempts to find "foo", which it
finds.
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "foo", and attempts to find "bar", which it
finds.
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "bar", and attempts to find "baz", which it does
not find (the "bar" resource raises a :exc:`KeyError` when asked for
"baz").
The fact that it does not find "baz" at this point does not signify an error
condition. It signifies that:
- the :term:`context` is the "bar" resource (the context is the last resource
found during traversal).
- the :term:`view name` is ``baz``
- the :term:`subpath` is ``('biz', 'buz.txt')``
At this point, traversal has ended, and :term:`view lookup` begins.
Because it's the "context" resource, the view lookup machinery examines "bar"
to find out what "type" it is. Let's say it finds that the context is a
``Bar`` type (because "bar" happens to be an instance of the class ``Bar``).
Using the :term:`view name` (``baz``) and the type, view lookup asks the
:term:`application registry` this question:
- Please find me a :term:`view callable` registered using a :term:`view
configuration` with the name "baz" that can be used for the class ``Bar``.
Let's say that view lookup finds no matching view type. In this
circumstance, the :app:`Pyramid` :term:`router` returns the result of the
:term:`not found view` and the request ends.
However, for this tree:
.. code-block:: text
/--
|
|-- foo
|
----bar
|
----baz
|
biz
The user asks for ``http://example.com/foo/bar/baz/biz/buz.txt``
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "foo", and attempts to find "bar", which it
finds.
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "bar", and attempts to find "baz", which it
finds.
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "baz", and attempts to find "biz", which it
finds.
- :mod:`traversal` traverses "biz", and attempts to find "buz.txt" which it
does not find.
The fact that it does not find a resource related to "buz.txt" at this point
does not signify an error condition. It signifies that:
- the :term:`context` is the "biz" resource (the context is the last resource
found during traversal).
- the :term:`view name` is "buz.txt"
- the :term:`subpath` is an empty sequence ( ``()`` ).
At this point, traversal has ended, and :term:`view lookup` begins.
Because it's the "context" resource, the view lookup machinery examines the
"biz" resource to find out what "type" it is. Let's say it finds that the
resource is a ``Biz`` type (because "biz" is an instance of the Python class
``Biz``). Using the :term:`view name` (``buz.txt``) and the type, view
lookup asks the :term:`application registry` this question:
- Please find me a :term:`view callable` registered with a :term:`view
configuration` with the name ``buz.txt`` that can be used for class
``Biz``.
Let's say that question is answered by the application registry; in such a
situation, the application registry returns a :term:`view callable`. The
view callable is then called with the current :term:`WebOb` :term:`request`
as the sole argument: ``request``; it is expected to return a response.
.. sidebar:: The Example View Callables Accept Only a Request; How Do I Access the Context Resource?
Most of the examples in this book assume that a view callable is typically
passed only a :term:`request` object. Sometimes your view callables need
access to the :term:`context` resource, especially when you use
:term:`traversal`. You might use a supported alternate view callable
argument list in your view callables such as the ``(context, request)``
calling convention described in
:ref:`request_and_context_view_definitions`. But you don't need to if you
don't want to. In view callables that accept only a request, the
:term:`context` resource found by traversal is available as the
``context`` attribute of the request object, e.g. ``request.context``.
The :term:`view name` is available as the ``view_name`` attribute of the
request object, e.g. ``request.view_name``. Other :app:`Pyramid`
-specific request attributes are also available as described in
:ref:`special_request_attributes`.
.. index::
single: resource interfaces
.. _using_resource_interfaces:
Using Resource Interfaces In View Configuration
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Instead of registering your views with a ``context`` that names a Python
resource *class*, you can optionally register a view callable with a
``context`` which is an :term:`interface`. An interface can be attached
arbitrarily to any resource object. View lookup treats context interfaces
specially, and therefore the identity of a resource can be divorced from that
of the class which implements it. As a result, associating a view with an
interface can provide more flexibility for sharing a single view between two
or more different implementations of a resource type. For example, if two
resource objects of different Python class types share the same interface,
you can use the same view configuration to specify both of them as a
``context``.
In order to make use of interfaces in your application during view dispatch,
you must create an interface and mark up your resource classes or instances
with interface declarations that refer to this interface.
To attach an interface to a resource *class*, you define the interface and
use the :func:`zope.interface.implementer` class decorator to associate the
interface with the class.
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from zope.interface import Interface
from zope.interface import implementer
class IHello(Interface):
""" A marker interface """
@implementer(IHello)
class Hello(object):
pass
To attach an interface to a resource *instance*, you define the interface and
use the :func:`zope.interface.alsoProvides` function to associate the
interface with the instance. This function mutates the instance in such a
way that the interface is attached to it.
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
from zope.interface import Interface
from zope.interface import alsoProvides
class IHello(Interface):
""" A marker interface """
class Hello(object):
pass
def make_hello():
hello = Hello()
alsoProvides(hello, IHello)
return hello
Regardless of how you associate an interface, with a resource instance, or a
resource class, the resulting code to associate that interface with a view
callable is the same. Assuming the above code that defines an ``IHello``
interface lives in the root of your application, and its module is named
"resources.py", the interface declaration below will associate the
``mypackage.views.hello_world`` view with resources that implement, or
provide, this interface.
.. code-block:: python
:linenos:
# config is an instance of pyramid.config.Configurator
config.add_view('mypackage.views.hello_world', name='hello.html',
context='mypackage.resources.IHello')
Any time a resource that is determined to be the :term:`context` provides
this interface, and a view named ``hello.html`` is looked up against it as
per the URL, the ``mypackage.views.hello_world`` view callable will be
invoked.
Note, in cases where a view is registered against a resource class, and a
view is also registered against an interface that the resource class
implements, an ambiguity arises. Views registered for the resource class take
precedence over any views registered for any interface the resource class
implements. Thus, if one view configuration names a ``context`` of both the
class type of a resource, and another view configuration names a ``context``
of interface implemented by the resource's class, and both view
configurations are otherwise identical, the view registered for the context's
class will "win".
For more information about defining resources with interfaces for use within
view configuration, see :ref:`resources_which_implement_interfaces`.
References
----------
A tutorial showing how :term:`traversal` can be used within a :app:`Pyramid`
application exists in :ref:`bfg_wiki_tutorial`.
See the :ref:`view_config_chapter` chapter for detailed information about
:term:`view lookup`.
The :mod:`pyramid.traversal` module contains API functions that deal with
traversal, such as traversal invocation from within application code.
The :meth:`pyramid.request.Request.resource_url` method generates a URL when
given a resource retrieved from a resource tree.