It is essential to weigh the
contemporary social and political background while considering the conditions
and thriving of Jainism in mediaeval India. During this period, Indian society
was traditionally divided into Hindu and Jain religion. Buddhism had well-nigh
disappeared from Indian scenario. The Indian socio-cultural infrastructure faced
sufficient change owing to the influence of Islam that infiltrated into India
through the medium of the Arab, the Turk, the Mughal and the Afghan attacks.
Though the new entrants too were by and large divided into Sunni, Shiya
and Sufi sects, they were all bound firmly to Islam. Ofcourse, Islam
brought in new life-values and life-styles in Indian life owing to which the
inevitability for reconsidering the shape of social structure and
traditional-philosophico facets was felt, perhaps very badly. And this very
condition caused rise of some new sects like Bhakti, Saint and Sikh invigorated
primarily by the Vedantist, Ramanuja, Madhav, Nimbark, Ramanand Chaitanya,
Vallabha etc. With this cultural background, centuries old Digambara and
Shavetambara amnay (tradition) was telling its own separate tale. Fore
more than one reason, these branches were further divided into sects, sub-sects,
ganas, gachchas, anvayas, sanghas & C. as time
rolled by. Same way, Bhattaraka, Chaityavasi, Taranpanth, Sthanakvasi practices
came into view introducing their own religious formalities, life-fashions, code
of conduct, and to some extent the philosophical views. Such being the
condition, Jainism of medioeval India witnessed its wide extension. At the same
time, it met with certain difficulty also. Jain population was reduced in
comparison to the total population. The salience of the Jain community and the
writing class people of this time has been that of incessant writing of
scriptures, treatises, memoirs, panegyrics, and mostly dated inscriptions on the
images and walls of the temples. As a result of this, the historians, the
sociologists, the researches of religion and philosophy got an opportunity to
study the original sources systematically and scientifically. The Jain society
believing in the doctrine of aparigraha (non-accumulation) remained firm
to their faith all through the long journey of the history of Jainism. and, its,
gurus, sadhus (Monks in general) acharyas (spiritual
leaders),Pandits, ganis,
(Monks of a few years standing) and their enthusiastic followers providing
religious leadership went on constructing temples, viharas, upashrayas
(monasteries) etc. in different architectural styles, installing images of the
Tirthankaras and their so-called presiding deities (Sashan,
Devi-Devata) like Lokapalas uardians of the cardinal points of the
universe) Yakashas-Yakshis (Vegetation spirits), Padmavati, Ambika,
Dikpalas (guardians of the directions), Chakreshvari, and Kshetrapalas
like Manabhadra and Manibhadra escorting pilgrimages with grandeur and
attraction, and celebrating festivals and festivities befitting the occasion.
Though there was an intolerant and non-liberal foreign rule in contemporary
India, the Jain-world did not allow any exception to creep in even under such a
situation. Even then, it will have to be accepted that the force and energy of
Jain religion was waning; it remained effective in only some parts of north,
west central and south India, as will be discussed later
on.

It will be in the fitness of things,
here, to discuss the contemporary political condition. This time, a decisive
turn came in Indian history in 1206. The Delhi Sultanate, established this year,
gradually emerged as a central power. This happened at the cost of the
disintegrating Rajput powers of north India. During the Khilji period, the
different dynasties ruling across the Narmada to the far South had to witness
decline. During, the Tughlaq period, the Delhi Sultanate marched towards
weakness, uncertainty and disintegration. After the decline of the Tughlaq
empire, there emerged independent Muslim rule in Jaunpur, Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat
and Malwa. But, inspite of the unfavourable circumstances, the contemporary
Rajput powers of west India facing barbarism and vandalism of the Muslim
attackers continued to keep up their cultural existence. This very time, there
were to main powers in India on the political scene- (1) Muslim empire of
Bahamani, and (2) Hindu empire of Vijayanagar. Though Bahamani empire had
disintegrated in the 16th century, its concerted power could, however, won
success in defeating and destroying Vijayanagar empire. Babar's attack in 1526
established Mughal empire in India, and Delhi and Agra became its headquarters.
After Babar and his son Humayun, main Mughals Akbar (Padshah in Jain
literature), Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb were respectively enthroned on
the Mughal throne. After Auragzeb, the Mughal empire gradually inclined towards
disintegration and decline. Thereat, opportunity occurred for witnessing later
Mughal sources. Taking advantage of the situation, many provincial
satrapas (rulers) proclaimed themselves independent the ultimate
consequence of which was the termination of the Mughal sovereignty and heralding
of the British sovereignty.

This general survey of the mediaeval
Indian history is more or less connected with the development and existence of
different Jain sects and creeds. To be more explicit, it will be proper here to
discuss in detail the different Jain sects and the relations of their leaders
with different dynasties.

Jainism
Vis-a-Vis or V/S Delhi Sultanate

Barring, the Lodi dynasty, all
rulers of Delhi were of Turk origin. They were all stauch followers of Islam,
and intolerant towards the Hindus and the Jains. According to them, these
Indians were Kafirs. For their trivial military, religious and political
interest, they did not hesitate even a mite to shed blood of the non-Muslims and
plunder their property. They were totally iconoclasts. It was a part of their
religious activities to destroy temples, idols and deprive property of the Jain
and the Hindu temples and the businessmen. Qua rulers, these foreigners did not
provide patronage to Jain and other religions and their sacred places. The rigid
religious injunctions given by their staunch ulemas were the last word to
them. Their sole interest was to convert Indians to Islam, and to impose extra
and heavy taxes on those who did not accept their religion, and to suppress them
a hundred other ways.

Even under such incongenial
conditions the Jains were not disappointed. By virtue of their word-softness and
skill, property, submissive and docile conduct, and intellectual ability, they
alleviated and pacified intolerance and selfishness of these rulers to some
extent.

There are proofs to prove the
unbroken and continuous existence of Jainism during Sultanate India. During the
reign of ShahabuddinMuhammed
Ghori, Jainacharya Basantkirti was wielding his influence and filling in an
importantly effective role. Delhi has been called Yoginipur in contemporary Jain
literature. Here then lived many wealthy Jain families most of whom were the
members of the Agrawal caste. It is because of this that the transcription of
'Panchastikaya' could be possible during the reign of even fanatic Balban.
Similarly, during the intolerant rule of Alauddin Khilji, Thakkur Pandit wrote
'Yashodharcharit' at the instance of Bisal Sahu. Exactly at the same time, a
Digambar acharya Madhavasena, being invited by purandas, the
city-seth, not only impressed the Sultan by his personality and learning,
but also established the seat (Patta) of the Mathur Gachcha of the
Kashtha sangha in the village Kashtha near Delhi. The Nandi sangha
of Digambar amnay (tradition) also did not lag behind. One acharya
Prabhachandra of that sangha also came to Delhi and succeeded in
establishing his seat ove there. It is no less surprising that Alauddin Khilji
paid respect to Digambar Muni Shrutviraswami, Shevatambar Suri
Jinachandra, and Yati Ramachandra.

During the reign of Alauddin's son
and successor Kutubuddin Mubarakshan (1316-20), one Jinachandra (the third)
acharya of the Khartar gachcha came to Delhi in 1318, and
succeeded in receiving firman (order or decree) to perform journey to
various Jain tirthas. One of his followers amongst Jain shravakas
(lay votaries) was Thakkur Pheru who was the royal president of the mint and was
an established and a learned author of books on mineral
ossaying.

Comparatively the impact of the
Jains on Delhi rulers during the Tughlaq period was more. After the demise of
Jinachandra, his able successor Jinakushal seated on the seat (patta).
Owing to the influence of Thakkur Pheru, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq honoured him and
issued him a firman for journey to Gujarat tirthas. Completing the
journey of these tirthas, Jinakushal reached Sindhu-desh (governed by a
Muslim ruler) where he breathed his last in 1332 at Devarajpur. His seat was
held by Jinapadma Sï¿½ri who equally proved
influential.

During the reign of Ghiyasuddin, two
Pragvat Jains-Sura and Vira came to Delhi and were appointed to the high
posts. Similary, the Sultan issued a firman allowing a Shrimal
shravaka Gajapati to carry-out his pilgrimages.

Son and successor of Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq was Muhammad Tughlaq who remained the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351.
The mentionable names of the Jain shreshthis and the members of their
family who got transcribed Jain scriptures during this period are -Sahu Badhu, Sahu Mahipala and Sahu
Sagia. Since Muhmmed Tughlaq had kept himself free from the clutches of the
ulemas, his religious policy was comparatively tolerant. Therefore,
acharya Bhattaraka Durlabhsena of the Kashtha sangha and
Bhattaraka of the Nandi sangha, Ratnakirti and his disciple
Prabhachandra, and Jinaprabha suri, the author of the 'Vividha Tirtha
kalpa' could get honour and regard in Delhi. Jinadeva suri, Yati Mahendra
suri etc. too received no less regard.

After the fall of the Tughlaqs, the
Sayyid dynasty began to rule over Delhi. Their reign extended from 1414 to 1450.
Once again, Agrawal shrshthis came into prominence in Delhi. Amongst
them, Hemraj and Dieuchandra (Diwuta) and Thilha of Bayana (Shripatha Nagar) and
some other sahus deserve mention. They had the discipleship of the
Bhattarakas Yashahkirti and Gunakirti of the Kashtha sangha. Under
favourable conditions, they could construct a chaitya and did
sanghayatras successfully. As per their wishes and those of their kith
and Kin, 'Pandava Purana', Harivansha Purana' were composed in Delhi. The great
poet Raidhu too received honour in Delhi this time.

After the Sayyids, the Lodi dynasty
came to power in Delhi. These Afghan rulers had very cordial relations with the
Jains. Gada sav, the father of Taran Swami was offered a high post by Bahiol
Lodi. At the time of Sikander Lodi, a Jain shravaka Chowdhari Devaraj was
the chief trader of Delhi. The Sultan had honoured his guru Vishalkirti.
Another Agrawal shravaka Sadharan was, really, extraordinary in intellect
and wisdom. By the permission of the Sultan, he had performed many
tirtha-yatras (journeys to holy places) in the capacity of a leader of
the sangha. Chowdhari Todarmal of Jaiswal caste was a reputed businessman
of Delhi. At the instance of Jain shreshthis a Jain poet named Pandit
Manikyaraj wrote 'Amar Muni Charitra', and Yayakumar Charitra' during the Lodi
period.

Gada sav was one of the officers of
the Lodis. Originally, he was from Bundelkhand. He was a revolutionary Jain
thinker, who opposed idol-worship and all other forms of worship in the fashion
of Lonka Shah. Forhim. this was all a piece of sheer ostentation, and a mere
false ostentaion of religion. His teaching in this regard had a wide impact on
people. As such a large number of people became his followers. A separate
community of such people came into existence in the name of Sammaiya community.
This came to be known as Taranpanth.

Leaving aside Muhammed Tughlaq as an
exception, almost all Delhi-Sultans were staunch sunnis, and intolerant
from religious point of view. They left no stone unturned in destroying the
Hindu and the Jain temples and images. Even then, Indian society kept up its
existence. Jain followers proved more zealous. And, even under adverse
circumstances also, they continued to receive honour for their acharyas
from the ruling class. They continued to install small images in
chaityalayas (home-temples), and get firmans from the rulers for
pilgrimages of the sanghapatis and the pilgrims.

Thus, they proved that as and when
the Indian society was suppressed and oppressed the cultural awakening became
more energetic and vigorous.

The
Sultanate Of Gujarat And Malwa

Situated on the western coast of
India, Gujarat has been an important centre of Jainism from the ancient times.
In the first decades of the 13th century Gujarat had an opportunity to have
within its told Jain shreshthis, builders, patrons and leaders of the
sangha likeVastupal and Tejpal. Many sects and gachchas continued
to prosper in this belt which was rich because of its toreign trade. Inspite of
the rivalry, Jain religion continued to march on to the path of progress, to
construct and reconstruct religious sites (dharma sthalas) temples, to
build images, to create literature (of different sects), and to get interest in
the transcription of a number of Jain scriptures.

Though Gujarat remained victimized
at the hands of the Muslims, from the time of Mahmud Ghazni's invasion on
Somnath, the Hindu dynasties contined to rule over here.

Alauddin Khilji annexed Gujarat in
Delhi Sultanate in 1297. Ever since, Gujarat continued to be ruled by the Muslim
subhedaras appointed from Delhi.

The last subhedara Jafar Khan
was appointed in 1391. Practically, he was behaving like an independent ruler,
but formally, he gave up his subordination (under Delhi-Sultanate) in 1401, and
enthroned his son Tatarkhan in the name of Nasiruddin Muhammed Shah as an
independent ruler of Gujarat. Contemporary facts seem to reveal that this new
ruler was poisoned in 1407 by his own father. But as the cycle of time would
have it, this old man, who had become Sultan Muhammed Shah, was in his own turn,
poisoned by his grandson Alap Khan. And then, Alap Khan himself rose to the
throne and assumed the name Ahmed Shah. Specially mentionable names amongst the
Sultans of Gujarat are: Ahmed Shah, Mahmud Bengra, Bahadurshah etc. These rulers
ruled Gujarat from 1411 to 1572. After that, Gujarat became a part of the Mughal
empire.

Instead of providing patronage to
Hindu and Jain religion, the Sultans of Gujarat discouraged the Hindus and the
Jains, and attempted to demolish their religious places (dharma sthalas).
Despite this Jainism prospered here to sufficiency and Sangha-yatras and
construction and reconstruction of temples contibued to be. The credit of this
goes to those rich and influential shreshthis who had maintained close
and cordial or friendly or welcoming rapport with the Sultans of Delhi and
Gujarat. The credit also goes to those acharyas and suris (heads
of groups of monks) who laboriously and enthusiastically remained involved in
spreading and propagatin Jina religion.

It seems necessary to name some
mentionable shreshthis in this regard. Jinaprabha Suri's 'Vividha Tirtha
Kalpa', Kakkasuri's Nabhinandanodhara Prabandha', 'Kharatara Gachcha Brihad
Guruavali', Vidyatilaksuri's 'Kanyanvaya Mahavira Kalpa Parishesha',
Pratishthasoma's 'Soma Soubhagya Kavya' etc. are the literary sources worth
mentioning. Information supplied by them and that by image inscriptions is very
important. One mentionable Upakeshi Jain shreshthi Desak Putra
Samar Shah (Samarsingh) had very cordial relations with Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, and
Alap Khan, the Khilji Subhedar of Gujarat. On the basis of his
calibre/caliber he was appointed an administrator of Telang region of South
India by Kutubuddin Mubarak Shah.

He had repaired the Adinatha temple
at Shatrunjaya and got firmans for the pilgrimages of the members of the
Jain society Another shreshthi Jasalshah constructed Ajitnatha temple in
the stambha-tirtha (Cambay or Khambhat) and a fasting hal or an alms house in
1310. The prominent names of the Jain Sahus of Gujarat of the 15th
century are - Narsimha of Patan, Devarai of Barnagar, Bandhu brothers Vishal and
Govind of Idar, Vatsraj of Karnawati, Upakeshi Oswal Sanghvi Mandalik,
Porwasl Sanghvi Sahasa, and the shravaka Karamashah of Tapagachcha
from Chitrakuta.

During this period, the Shvetambaras
held sway in Gujarat. There are ample evidences of the existence of their
Kharatara, Tapa, and Anchala gachchas. The Lad-Vagada and
Nandisanghas of the Digambara amnay too were sufficiently
effective in Gujarat this time. Many branches of these sanghas were set
up the centres of Surat, Sojitra, Braoch, Idar, etc. Engaged in the
transcription work at Ahmedabad, Lonka Shah had propounded that there is no
proof of idol worship in any ancienty Jain literature. His followers came to be
known as Lonkagachchiya. This gachcha was, later on, called
Sthanak-Marg of the Shvetambara amnay.

It is worth outlining the part
played by the Jain acharyas and literati of the Kharatara gachcha,
viz, Jinachandra (the third), Jinakushal, Jinasagar, Jinaharsha and Jinachandra
(the fourth) of the Kharatara gachcha; Suri Jaikalyan, Jaichandra,
Ratnashekhar of the Tapa gachcha, Kakka Suri of the Upakesha
gachcha, and Merutunga, Jaikirti and Jaikesari of the Anchala
gachcha.

Somasunder of the Tapa
gachcha, and his disciple Munisunder and Sumati Sadhu Propagated
Shvetambara tenet to their best in the middle of the 15th
century.

It was due to the unswerving efforts
and zeal of the Jain acharyas, suris, authors and
propagators/propagandists that the staunch Muslim rulers had to issue permits
for carrying out sangha-yatras and pilgrimages. While by orders of the
iconoclast Sultans, temples and idols were brought down to earth in Shatrunjay,
Girnar, Stambha-tirtha, (Cambay or Khabhat) Arbuda etc., the Jain public was
busy in the construction and reconstruction work right under their nose.
Destroyer or disructor was tiring, but not the builder. There came a sort of
flood of the small temples titivated with small beautiful images and
copper-yantras during this period. Thickly Jain populated places like
palitana, Girnar, Prahladpur, Tarangarh, Ahmedabad, Devakula patan etc. were
throbbing with the new creation of Jain literature and ancient Jain
granthas (scriptures).

The mediaeval period of Malwa began
after the fall of the Parmaras. Though the mediaeval period of Malwa began in
the beginning of the 14th century, it had to face Islamic attacks even earlier.
In 724 A.D., the Arab invader Junaid had attacked Malwa, but, probably, he was
defeated by the Gurjara-Pratihara pwer. In 1196, Kutubuddin Aibak carried his
expeditions to the northern boundary of Malwa and took an about-turn to Delhi.
Malwa had to face bad days in 1235 wheb Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, the slave
emperor of Delhi, looted Ujjain and other towns and cities of Malwa. In 1305
Ain-Ul Mulk Multani, the general of Alauddin Khilji, defeated mahalk, Des, the
last emperor of east malwa, and extirpated te Parmara power. Malwa remained a
Suba upto 1401 under the Sultans of Delhi. When the position of Malwa was
vacillating or swinging and dithering at the time of Timur's invasion, the Malwa
subhedar, Dilwarkhan Ghori declared his independence. In 1405, Dilawar
Khan's son Alpa Khan came in power in the name of Hoshangshah Ghori. He made
Mandav his capital.

Hoshangshah died in 1435. His son
Mohammed Khan Ghori was dethroned by his minister Mahmud Khilji who established
an independent Khilji rule in Malwa. His death took place in 1469. After him,
gradually came Ghiyasuddin, Nasiruddin, Mahmud II etc. These rules had to
continuously fight with the rulers of Mewar and Sultans of Gujarat. Bahadurshah,
the ruler of Gujarat defeated Mahmud II, the last Khilji ruler of malwa, and
took Malwa under him. In the mean time, the Mughal emperor Humayun invaded
Bahadur Shah and made him flee from Malwa. Unfortunately, Humayun returned
without uprooting Bahadurshah completely. Resultantly, Bahadur Shah again took
possession of Malwa and appointed Mallukhan his subhedar over there.
Invading Gujarat, Mallukhan established his independent rule in Malwa, but this
was just a temporary phase. In 1542, Shershah Suri established his suzeraintry
in Malwa and appointed Shujawat Khan her subhedar. Thus, Malwa again
became a part of Delhi empire. After the death of Shershah, Shujwat Khan
declared himself and independent ruler of Malwa. Though Shujawat Khan had
parcelled it into three parts in favour of his three sons, Malik Byajid snatched
the kingdom from his brothers and began to rule entire Malwa in the name of
Bajbahadur.

Afghan Sultan Bajbahadur could not
remain the ruler of Malwa long. In 1561, Akbar sent his two generals-Adham Khan
and Pir Mohammed to conquer Malwa. Very cruelly and inhumanly, these generals
took Mandav in their hands, and once again annexed Malwa to
Delhi.

Malwa remained under the Mughals in
the time of Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan Aurangzeb etc. Adam Khan, Abdul Khan,
Shiyanuddin, Fakhruddin, Mirza Shahukh, Shihab Khan, Nakib Khan etc. were the
subhedars of Ujjain during Akbar's reign. In Jahangir's time, the
administration of Ujjain was in the hands of Motmid Khan. For sometime. Jafar
Khan and Jaswantsingh remained governors of malwa in Aurangzeb's time. After the
death of Aurangzeb, the Maratha's invasions over Malwa began. And the Mughal
governors failed to suppress these invasions. Gradually, the Mughals adopted the
policy of reconciliation. Of course, Malwa came completely under the authority
of the marathas by 1741.

Jainism made a remarkable progress
in Malwa during the period of the Sultans. In almost every field (be it of
politics, administration or construction) Jain administrators and
shreshthis had their voice. Even in social field, their voice was felt,
and say was heard. In the cultural and the administrative field, the poet Mandan
and Sangramsingh respectively were the two personages of the time. In the
history of Malwa, they have been rightly reckoned as the very important
persons.

It will not be out of place to count
the names of some other mentionable persons like Sanghapati Holichandra
and Jhanjhan, the Bikka-son, Sanghapati Dhanadraj, Dharna Shah, Punjraj, Nardeo
Soni, Megh, Shivraj, Bakkal, Jawad Shah and joodhir.

Digambara
Sect

Digambara Jain sect prospered like
anything in later mediaeval Malwa through the medium of the Bhattarakas. The
Punnat sangha, the Mula sangha, remained very powerful in Malwa.
The Mula sangha, the Kundakundanvay, the Saraswati gachcha, the
Balatkar gana etc. became sufficiently popular and were considerably
propagated. The Mathur sangha the Sena gana, the nandi
sangha etc. also showed their existence or paraded their presence. We
have ample information about them in the pattavalis and the
image-inscriptions. Mediaeval Bhattaraka tradition came to be divided into many
brancehs. And the description of the branches related to Malwa will be
proper.

Padmanandi and his disciples
Nemachand and Sakalkirtideo and Vimalendra are some of the famous names of the
Bhattarakas of later branch. amongst the Bhattarakas of Idar branch, the names
of Sakalkirti, Bhuwankirti, Jnanbhushan, Vijayakirti, Sumatikirti, Gunakirti,
Vadibhushan, Ramkirti, padmanandi and Devendrakirti deserve mentio. Similarly,
the Bhattarakas of Bhanpur branch-Jnankirti, Jinachandra, Sakalchandra etc. are
known to us from the image-inscriptions of Malwa. The Bhattaraka tradition of
Rajputana started from padmanandi. The names of the Bhattarakas of this
tradition are also found in the image-inscriptions of Malwa. Chief among them
are-Shubhchandra, Jinachandra, Prabhachandra, Lalitkirti, Chandrakirti,
Devendrakirti and Narendrakirti. One branch of the Bhattarakas of the
Mula-sangha lived on even atter. Image-inscriptions of Malwa region
reveal these names of the Bhattarakas of this branch; Jinachandra, Simhakirti,
Vidyanandi, Jnanbhushan Jagatbhushan, Vishwabhushan and Devendrabhushan. Same
type of mention has been made of these Bhattarakas of the Surat Branch:
Devendrakirti, Vidyanandi and Lakshmichandra. Those of Jerhat branch are :
Tribhuvankirti, Dharmakirti, Padmakirti, Jagatkirti and Sakalkirti. The
Bhattarakas of the Kashtha sangha Nanditat gachcha, and the
Bhattarakas - Tribhuvankirti and Ratnabhushan of the Vidya gana
Ramsenanvay are also mentioned.

Shvetambara
Tradition

The Shvetambara tradition divided
into more than hundred gachchas. The main and the most famous
gachchas of Malwa which found mention are : the Tapa gachcha, the
Kharatara-gachcha and the like.

We find evidences of the existence
of a number of gachchas of the Shvetambara sect of later mediaeval Malwa.
The image-inscriptions of Ratnasingh Suri, Jnansagar and Udalsagar of the
Tapa and the Brihat Tapa gachcha are found in Malwa. Similarly,
image-inscriptions of the Lagu Tapagachchaacharyas like Vijay
Suri, Somasunder Suri, Sunder Suri, Ratnashekhar
Suri, Lakshmisagar Suri, Sumadeo Suri, Sumatisadhu
Suri, Udayan Suri, Jaikalyan Suri, Hema-Vimala Suri,
Charansunder Suri etc. have also been found.

The Kharatara gachcha of
Malwa was just next to the Tapa gachcha. This was equally well
propagated; its diffusion and extension was quite wide. The acharyas like
Jinabhadra Suri, Jinachandra Suri, Jinasagar Suri, Jinaraj Suri and Jinakushal
Suri, and Nayaysunder Upadhyaya, and Muni Merusunder of
this gachcha belonged to Malwa.

As a matter of fact, Jain scenario
this time was such that it could hardly be bound by regional territories. Jain
activities happening in Malwa were different from those happening in the nearby
Gujarat and Rajasthan. But to some extent, the ganas and the
gachchas prevalent there were in a sense, the prototype of those of Malwa
of the later mediaeval period.

In the present context, certain,
pertinent questions strike to our mind. The most surprising thing is how could
the intolerant Sunni Turk rulers with all their rigid religious
constraints provide so many facilities to the Jains? How could they be liberal
towards Jains whileas they could not be so to the newly converts of Islam,
Sufis and to some extent to Shiyas? How it came that during the
rule of barbarous, cruel, fanatic rulers, administrators, amirs and
generals who believed in looting and wrecking the temples. a number of Jain
temples, Upasaras, libraries and dharmasthalas could be saved? The
reasons there of seem to be as follows

1. The roots of the Sultans in India
had gone deep in India, but as the time elapsed, the incoming of the Turk
generals, the amirs of administrative capacity came to a halt. And this
happened because of the changing military and political conditions in Central
Asia and Afghanistan. Though the Afghans were entering Indi, they had formed a
separate class of their own. And that class began to mix up with the local
public for their existence, and for the fulfilment of their ambitions. The
military and administrative necessity compelled the Sultans so first depend on
the Hindus confessing Islam, and on the Rajputs and the Jains. A plently of
examples are there with respect to this. They had to make the Rajput feudals and
generals the medium to control and suppress revolts in the far off regions. And
when the loot-point began to touch its last marginal limit, the Sultans had no
other alternative than to depend on the wealthy Jain community to meet their
fiscal needs and casulties. This way the prevailing situation forced these
bigots to surrender with no condition whatsoever.

2. By and by, those foreigners of
Islam confession who entered India had to go through the process of
Indianization. They felt it necessary to win confidence of the local population
to maintain law and order. On account of the disintegrating political factors
during mediaeval period, mutual conflict and selfish gealousies became very
commonly the order of the day. The economy of loot was crossing the marginal or
rather its eleasticity limit. Their war and luxurious tendencies caused terrible
spendthrift and told heavily on the exchequer. And this made them dependent on
the wealthy who were mostly Jains. Hence, they thenceforth began to attract the
rich Jains of the nearby areas to their side by guaranteeing the security of
their life and belongings. Thus many Jain families emerged as a well established
class during the Muslim period. Now they got an apposite opportunity to display
the skill and craft, ability and wisdom which they had acquired from centuries
old traditions. And, because of this very reason, they were given high posts of
administration and honour. Only the Almighty knows what they cherished and
nourished within their bosom, but it is certainly true that had to allow or
overlook the new constructions and old reconstructions of the Jains, and issue
firmans for the Sangha-Yatras. Along with this , they had to give
due regards to some influential Jain sadhus, saints and
acharyas.

3. Certain Hindu damsels in the
harem of the Sultans also exerted their influence on them. And they were,
indeed, influenced by them. May be, their influence might not have been
permanent, they yet inspired the rulers to behave well with the local
people.

4. The contemporary Jain-world was
also realizing the matter of factness or virtuality. In order to safeguard their
trade and commerce, and the religious places (dharma sthalas) they came
to the front to fulfil the needs of the rulers and their families. Luckily their
vast pelf diffused as a means of exchange from their secret hoards or far off
villages and towns to big cities. This economic empire of theirs was out of
political perimeters. Therefore, the ruling class had to succumb to a few
conditions of theirs, bear with their socio-economic Yardsticks and provide
security and protection to them.

Due to the declining position of
Delhi Sultanate, many regional states came into existence. This put an end to
their military and fiscal demands. But, now, they could no more loot that public
on whose help and cooperation depended their very existence. Therefore, where on
the one hand the importance of the Rajput and the Vaishya caste increased, the
reputation and esteem of the Jain community on the other hadn also increased
more in comparison to what it was in the early times.

This state of affairs continued
during the Mughal period also. Just after their entry into India, the Muslim
rulers had realized the necessity of taking the Rajputs and the Jains into
confidence. probably having this in mind, Akbar adopted liberal and tolerant
policy in his later career. Else, he is also reported to have been a religious
bigot during the early period of his rule. The same policy of forbearance and
munificence was followed by his respective successors - Jahangir and Shahjahan.
Aurangzeb, however, abandoned this policy, and for which the Mughal empire had
to pay. On paper of course, the later Mughal rule continued for long, but
factually it could not bear with the foreign invasions and disintegrating
forces. Such being the case, it was destined to meet its fall very
fast.

Looking to the amicable relations of
the Muslim rulerswith the Jains, and the fact that many of the jain
constructions remained defended, certain, scholars have expressed that there was
some sort of pact between the Sufis and the Jains, and that the Jains in their
turn were as a matter of fact, taking anti-national steps by financially helping
the Muslim rulers to carry out their expeditions against the Indian
rulers.

But both of these doubts are
baseless. collection or raising money for the Muslim rulers by the Jain
shreshthis was a mere outwards pretence. That time it was the same type
of compulsion on the part of the Jains as it was on the part of the Muslims in
respect to their goodwill towards the Jains. Being a non-violent community the
Jains have ever gone on looking to the ruling class, for the smooth sail of and
non-interference in their trade and commerce and in safeguarding their religious
place or places of pilgrimage and making journeys to them ferlessly. Moreso, the
Jains had no other go than this, especially when the Hindu power was extirpated
from many regions. Here this has not to be forgotten that in Malwa and other
regions, it were these Jains obly who by spreading out their financila and
intellectual net could, to a greater extent, build up the atmosphere of
tolerance during the reign of intolerant Muslim rulers, and thus keep intact
Indian values and voices. This too needs be delineated that the Jain
shreshthis cooperated with the Hindu dynasties open heartedly and quite
liberally. Bhamashah who gave his all for the sake of freedom was after all a
Jain.

Jainism
During The Mughal Period

Delhi Sultanate was completely wiped
out along with the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat in
1526. And then came to power the Mughal dynasty. In the interregnum of 15 years
during the Mughal period there was a rule of Afghan Suri dynasty. Babar
(1526-30), Humayun (1530-40), Shershah Suri (1540-55), again Humayun for some
time, Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-27), Shahjahan (1627-58), Aurangzeb
(1658-1707) became kings respectively. Amongst the later Mughals, only the reign
of Muhammed Shah was of some importance from Jain
viewpoint.

In the early Mughal period, the Jain
dharmacharyas related to Jain amnays and shreshthis got
importance worthy of name. They got freedom of pilgrimage, state-restriction on
animals sacrifice (more or less), concession for constructionand reconstruction of temples etc. But
the all comprehensive and all pervading glow and shine of Jainism grew
sufficiently dim. And the contemporary condition was such that the Jain
Sadhus and Sahus did, no doubt, get royal respect but many Jain
authors had felt the compulsion of eulogizing the ruling monarchs in their
works, granthas. And, this was not the fruit of friendliness of harmony,
but a kind of agreement which Aurangzeb broke in no time.

Even then, some bright facts neet
mention-surprisingly enough the references in the jain literature are
corroborated by the abundant image-inscriptions found in Gujarat, Malwa,
Rajasthan and North India. Thisprovides credibility to the history of
Jainism.

In the time of the first Mughal
ruler, Bhattaraka Yashkirti Sahu Hemraj installed many Jain images in the
temples. 'Pandav Purana' and 'Harivansh Purana' were also completed this time by
the instance Bhattaraka. One Jain poet Mahachandra was honoured by Babar. In his
time, permission for building a temple was given to the Digambara Sadhu
Sadhprasad and seth Neminath. This type of act went on in the time of
Humahun also. Babar and Humayun both had esteem for a Jain Sadhu,
Anandmeru. Shrichandra Manikchandra, Devacharya, Shreyakirti etc. were the
famous Jains of the capital of the time of Shershah Suri.

Humayun's successor, Jalaluddin
Akbar proved a great, national and tolerant ruler. During his reign, liberal
policy was adopted for the Hindu as well as the Jain religion. This time, Delhi
was a centre of the Digambara Kashtha Sangha. Many Shvetambara
Yatis also exerted their influence. The first Jain dharmacharya to
be revered by Akbar was Muni Padmasunder the author of the famous 'Akbar
Shringar Darpankar'. On being invited by Akbar, most renowned Bhattarak
Harivijay Suri of Tapagachcha of Gujarat came to Agra. The two had
an extensive discussion with each other. Akbar adorned Harivijay Suri
with the epitherï¿½ "Jagadguru". But, there is no valid proof to the effect that
Akbar adopted Jainism being influenced by the preachings and precepts of
Harivijay Suri. Akbar had invited a Jain orater, Vijaysen Gani to Lahore.
Akbar had also invited there to Jinachandra Suri, the author of 'Akbar
pratiobodh Ras'. He bestowed on him the titleï¿½"Yug Pradhan". At the instance of
Akbar and shreshthi Karmachandra Bachchawat, Jinachandra handed over his
patta (seat) to his disciple Mansingh. Rajmalla (of the Kashtha
sangha) and Jinadas pande, and Vidya Harsh Suri, Pandit Banarsidas
etc. have extolled Akbar in their works. Akbar was deeply influenced by the Jain
Yati Bhanuchandra's persian knowledge also.

Karmachandra Bachchawat, an
ex-minister of Bikaner and an able disciple of Jinachandra Suri, was very
close to Akbar. On his request, 1050 Jina-images, which were taken from sirohi
to Delhi royal store, were sent to Bikaner. Raja Bharmalla of the Shrimal caste
and the son of the Mughal governor Ranakrai, was a most able of the time. Akbar
had appointed him the governor of Sambhar region, and invested him with ample
powers. His headquraters were at Nagaur. He used to send enough money to the
centre every year. Sadhu Todarmal was a mentionableJain gentleman of Agra. Taking Akbar
into confidence, he not only built new temples in Agra and Muttra (Mathura), but
renovated a number of old temples. Being impressed with the ability of his Jain
minister Khimji, Akbar give him the charge of Ranthambhor fort. One Agrawal
Sahu, Ranvira was a treasurer and a mint officer in the time of Akbar.
Saharanpur was founded by him.

Jahangir's attitude towards Jainism
was the same as Akbar's. Jinachandra's patta successor was Jinasimha
Suri who influenced Jahangir so much that he (Jahangir) gave him the
title of "Yug Pradhan". Jahangir used to honour Vijaysen Suri of the
Tapagachcha the way he sued to honour Hiravijay. Hre gave him the
epithet- "Mahatapa".

During Jahangir's reign, Pandit
Banarsidas and an Oswal Seth, Hiranand Mukim were held in high esteem.
Seth Hiranand was Jahangir's Johari/assayer (or tester). He also had an
opportunity to be Jahangir's guest, and receive his hospitality. Unfortunately,
a minor incident brought in difference between the two, and, as a consequence,
seth Mukim had to pay penalty. The name of Shrimal gotriya Pt. Banarsidar
remained one of high repute and regards from the time of Akbar to that of
Shajahan. In the court too, he was held in high esteem. His grandfather and
father had been the high officers in the service of the Mughals. His early life
was spent in Jaunpur, his youth and Youth plus time in Agra, and old age was
spent in Prayag (Allahabad). He was a great poet, an exceptional shcolar, an
experienced metaphysician and a spititualist. His residence "Shaili" was
a place where coterie of scholars used to be. Those who Participated in them
were, indeed, persons of high repute and rare shcolarship. Jahangir's successor,
Shahjahan used to play chess with him and while playing he used to discuss
certain important matters with him. Coteries used to be organized in his time
also. Tihuna Sahu built a temple in Agra in 1635, and in 1638 seth
Shantidas built a Jain temple of Shantinath (Chintamani temple) in Ahmedabad.
Sanghvi Rishabhdas, Sanghpati Ratnasi, Sabalsingh Mothia, Hemraj Patni
etc. were some other shining gems of the time of Jahangir. Similarly, the
prominent Jain Shreshthis of the time of Shahjahan were - Sanghvi
Sangramsingh, Johari Shantidar, Sanghpati
Bhagvandas.

Aurangzeb was a staunch
Sunni. He was able, no doubt, but was intolerant. Progress of Jainism was
considerably baulked in his time. Even then Jainism continued to prosper in the
Rajput states.

During Aurangzeb's reign, two
world-famed creditors (Sahukars) were there. One was Viraji Vohra of Surat. he
was already well established as a rich businessman in the time of Shahjahan. In
Aurangzeb's time, he had a firm grip over foreign and west Indian coastal trade.
He was follower of Lonkagachcha. Lavji Swai (Lavana Rishi), the founder
of SthanakmargiDhundhia tradition belonged to Vohra's familial
tradition.

Second one was the Oswal Seth
Hiranand Shah of Agra. In Aurangzeb's time, he had settled in Patna. This time
Bihar, once again, was blooming as a Jain centre. The two Oswal
brothers-Kunwarpal and Sonpal. originally from Agra, but then living in Patna,
were constructing a Jain temple that time. Later on seth Hiranand went to
live in Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal. His son Mabikchandra progressed
remarkably and received the title of "Raja". Later Mughal emperor Muhammed Shah
gave his son Fatehchand the title of "Jagat seth". Gradually his trust became
the richest commercial establishment. Afterwards, the Britishers, showing fear
of Sirajudaula to Jagat Seth Shuganchand, not only indulged in heinous
loot but also ended the glorious tradition of Jagat seth. The last
seth had the credit of building water-temple (Jala-Mandir) at Sammet
Shikhar.

Askaran, the Sanghpati of Dhamoni
(Damoh-Bundelkhan), Vardhman Navalakha, the inspirer of the coterie of Jain
scholars, Tarachand, the diwan of Fatehpur were some of the best Jain
shreshthis of the time of Aurangzeb. Seth Ghasiram of Delhi, Lala
Kesarisingh, Jagat seth Fatehchand were the prominent figures during the
reign of the later Mughals Farrukhsiyar and Muhammed Shah.

The
Rajput States Of North India

Many Rajput states were set up in
north and west India during the Sultanate and the Mughal period. The decline of
the Tomars and the Chahmanas from Delhi offered these states a chance to take
advantage of the contemporary disordered political situation and take possession
of many places in South and South-east. This is the reason why we find the
Chahmanas ruling in the nearby regions of Agra, namely chandrawad, Karhal and
Ganeshkuri, and Tomars in Aisah and Gwalior.

The Chahman's reign in Chandrawad
remained in existence in the 13th and the 14th century. Its founder,
Chandrapaldas took possession of the terriroty (lying between the Chambal and
the Yamuna) governed by the Bhar rulers after being defeated by the Sultans.
They made Raibaddiya their capital. This capital, later on was shifted to
Chandrawad. After chandrapal were enthroned Bharatpal, Abhaypal-I Jahad, Ballal,
Ahavamalla, Sambhari rai, Sarangdev, Abhaypal-II, Jaichand, Ramchandra and
Rudrapratap as rulers of Chandrawad, one after the other. Most of these rulers
were of Jain confession. The posts of minister, general and city-seth
(Nagar-Seth) were reserved for Jain families. Amongst the ministers of
Chandrawad, the names of Ramsingh of Harul family, Amritpal, Sodu, Krishnaditya,
and Jasdhar of Jaiswal family of Yadu descent (lineage), Gokarna, Somadeva
Vasadhan etc. deserve mention. The last one was most learned, religioso, and a
builder of Jain temples. A brave general Krishnaditya and a Shreshthi
Nemidas too were not far behind in the installation of Jina images and
construction of temples. Lokshman, Shivdev etc. were the famous Jain poets of
this time. Famous poet Dhanpal, and a great poet Raidhu came over Chandrawad as
travellers. Here also they wielded their pen. Anantkirti, Bhattaraka of the
Kashtha sangha spent enough time here.

The Chahmana state of Karhal was
also given to the following of Jainism. This state in the 15th century was
respectively governed by Bhojraj, Sansarchandra (Prithviraj) etc. The
administrative responsibility, here, was in the hands of a Jain Amarsingh of
Yadu lineage and those of the members of the family and his kith and kin. Lona
Sahu was a very Prominent figure. A patronized poet of this state was Jaymitra
Holla who composed 'Mallinatha Charita". Another Poet Aswal wrote "Parshvanath
Charita'.

The
Tomars Of Gwalior

After the fall of Kachchapghats,
there came in power the Tomars in power the Tomars in Gwalior (ancient Gopalchal
or Gopadri) region. In the second Battle of Tarain, one branch of the Tanwars
escaped from Delhi and settled in this region. The rule of the Tanwars proved to
be one of climax in regard to the rise and progress of Jain sects and Jain
constructions. Hence, it will be justified to discuss about the Tomar dynasty
here.

Being defeated by Shahabuddin Ghori,
the Tomars of Delhi escaped elsewhere. One branch came to the region called
Samprati Tanwardhar under the supervision of an able and a glorious leader Achal
Brahma. He succeeded in establishing here a small state the headquarters of
which was Aisah (probably, the original name was Aisahmani or Ishmani). Some of
its scions went elsewhere as ayudhjivis those earning velihood by
spending on arms). Lateron, under the leadersip of Medinirai and silhadi etc.,
they filled in an important role in Malwa region as Purbiya
Rajputs.

A daughter of Achal Brahma was
married to the Parihar ruler Malayvarman of Gopadri. The marriage contributed
immensely to the political rise of the Tomars. The 7th generation of this
descent sas the rise of Kamalsingh (Ghatamdeo or Kunwarpal). Ibnbatua mentions
him as 'Katam'. He was brave and ambitious. He wanted to make his dreams come
true by killing Badra, a religious and a terrorist, a savage of the nearby
region Alapur. Not only this, he had a design for his son and son-in-law also.
He invaded the Afghan governor of Rapari but to no avail. In an attempt to
capture Gopadri fort, he was killed some time near 1340. Consequently, the
Tomars weakned. His successor Dev Verma (Dev Brahma) had to recruit himself in
the army of Feroz Tughlaq just to keep up his existence. The death of Feroz
Tughlaq in 1388 hastened the fall of the Mughal empire. Dev Verma's son
Virasinghdeo tried to take advantage of the situation. On the basis of literary
and epigraphical sources, it may be assumed that he ruled between 1375 and 1400.
Tughlaq general, IslamKhan went a long way in blunting Virasinghdeo's ambition
for independence. Finally, qua Tughlaq governor, he captured Gopadri about 1394.
Timur's invasion caused disorderliness and unrest. Taking advantage of the
shaking situation, Virasinghdeo Tomar declared himself an independent ruler of
Gopadri.

Virasinghdeo was a lover of
literature, and a thoroughly cultured man. "Virasimhavalok' concerns him.
Jaisingh Suri, the founder of Shrikrishna gachcha, and his disciple and
author of the granthas like 'Hammira Mahakavya', Naichandra Suri
added feathers to Virasinghdeo's crown. Being terrorized by Timur's invasions,
many a Jain shreshthi and dharmacharya of north India settled in
Gopadri. Therefore, the Prospering Kashtha Sangha and Mathuranvay
connected with Mathura came to limelight in this area.

The reign of Virasinghdeo's
successor, Udharandeo proved short-lived. After him dawned the age of Viramdeo
Tomar (1402-23). It was one of bravery and cultural awakening of
consciousness.

Viramdeo was a patron of
literuature, art and religion. Jainism got enough chances for prospering, His
minister Kushrai was Jain. At his instance, Padmnath Kayastha wrote. Yashodhara
Charit', the epic. A big grand and artistic temple of Chandraprabhu was caused
to be built by him. This was, later on converted into Muhammed Gausa's
mausoleum. According to the patta-tradition of the Bhattarakas of
Kashtha sangha of Gwalior, as, given by Raidhu in his 'Sammai Charit',
the time of Bhattaraka Gunakirti was this only.

Naichandra suri the author of
'Hammir Mahakavya' and 'Rambha Mamanjari' added to the glory of Gwalior even
during the reign of Viramdeo. Certain Jain inscriptions of Gwalior fort mention
Virang (Viram) deo with honour.

After Viramdeo, Ganapatideo became
the ruler of Gopadri. He reigned from 1423 to 1425. His successor was Dungrendra
singh (Dungarsingh or Dungrendradeo). He was brave and skilled in warfare. His
successor Kirtisingh (1459-80) has been called "Hindu Surtran" in a Jain
inscription. He was indeed, a brave son of a brave father.

The reign of both-Dungrendrasingh
and Kirtisingh was phenomenal with regard to Jain religion, art, architecture
and literature. The wonderful Jain images of Gwalior fort belong to their reign.
These images of the rock cut temples are the none-such treasure of Indian
art-world. We have more than 1500 images which can be grouped into 5 per their
direction. They all present an example par excellence. They bespeak the then
state of the art technology. Most of the images are in standing or in
seated cross-legged posture (Khadgasan or Padmasan). The Jain
images of Gwalior fort have no second in vastness. many of the images bear
inscriptions praising the glory of Dungrendra and Kirtsingh. They also mention
the Bhattarakas of gopalchal patta (seat), Viz, Ganakirit, Yashakirti,
Malayakirti, Gunabhadra etc. The great poet Raidhu was the glory of Gopachal
this time. Raidhu, the author of about 30 books (in Prakrit) has been mentioned
in some of the inscriptions as the one concerned with installation ceremony
(Pratishthacharya). There is a long array of the Jain personages of this
time. Some of them are : Vivudh, Shridhar (and other poets), and Sahu
Kamalsingh, Mantrishwar Kushraj, Brahma Khelha, Brahmachari, Aspati, Ranmal,
Kheu, Harsi, Bhullan, Tosath, Hemraj, sanghapati Kalpa Shrichand,
Harichand, Sahu Lapu, Khemsingh, Nemdas, Holu, Padmasingh, Sahadeo,
Kumudchandra, and many other sanghapatis, shreshthis and governors
or administrators.

From among the later Tomar rulers
after Kirtisingh came Kolyanmalla (1488-1516), Vikramaditya (1516-23), Ramsingh,
Shaliwain successively to the throne of Gopadri.

Successors of Mansingh were
weaklings. Inspite of the best efforst of Vikramaditya, the succeessor of
Mansingh, Gopadri went into the hands of Ibrahim Lodi. Tomar Kingdom became part
and parcel of Delhi empire, and losing its total existence upto 16th century, it
became a subject of history.

Certain images of the time of
Mansingh have been found from Gopachal. This shows that Jainism till then was
somehow or the other, prospering, Shreshthi Khemshah of his time began to
inspire the literators.

The establishment of the Muslim and
the Mughal sovereignty/suzerainty over Gwalior gave a set-back to Jain religion
and the building activities pertaining to it. And when it emerged as the capital
of the Scindias in 1810, new people began new activities new way. though of
course, Jainism continued to be over there, but its ancient glory passed away
from Gopadri for good.

The Rajput states of
Rajasthan : Right
from the ancient times, Rajasthan has been a seat and centre of Jainism. and
there are evidences to prove this. In the early mediaeval Rajasthan and west
India, the zealot Jain sadhus, acharyas and Bhattarakas
popularized Jainism by their unflinching and unswerving efforts. Resultantly,
many Hindu families adopted Jainism. interest in Jainism of even royal houses
was up. The Pratiharas and the Chahmanas not only patronized Jainism but
contributed a great deal to its expansion. Thus, form the 7th to the 12th
century, the graph of Jainism tended to escalation. Voluminous Jain literature,
numerous inscriptions and images attest to this fact.

Islamic invasions gave a fatal blow
both to the Hindu and the Jain religion and their religious buildings in
Rajasthan. The Arab inveder Junaid carried a ghastly and gory expedition in
Rajasthan in the 8th century. The invasions of the Turk Mahmud Ghazni looted and
damaged all those villages, towns and cities which came his way. He did his all
to give a blow to the social and religious faith of the people of Kiradu, Nadol,
Osia etc. Jain businessmen of Rajasthan had to continuously face Muslim
invasions during the Sultanate period. The attaks made by Kutubuddin Aibak and
Iltutmish during the Slave Period on Ajaymeru (Ajmer), Arbud (Aju), Naghrida
(Nagda), Shrimal (Bhinmal) Ranastambhapur (Ranthambhor) Mandor, Jalor etc., and
those of Alauddin Khilji on Haroti, Marwar and Mewar regions in the early
decades of the 14th century severaly and seriously hurt the non-violent spirit
of Jainism One Jain structure was converted into Islam and given the
name-'Adhai-din-ka Jhonpra'. The Jain temples of Sanchor, Jalor, Jiravalli etc.
were completly smashed-up and form their remains were built mosques. This
Process continued even during the Tughlaq period. One Tughlaq governor of Bayana
did many unworthy deeds. Taking advantage of an-ex-parte and simplistic
references, some Muslim historians have tried to prove that this was an age of
cultural cordiality and social coordination between the Jains and the
Sufis, but in so doing they are, really overlooking the intolerant policy
of the staunch ulemas and their misdeeds and blackdeeds, and putting a sign of
interrogation before the impartiality of history. The liberal quality of the
Sufis will have to be connected with the rigidity and staunchness of the
Sunnis. only then, an impartial presentation of Jaino-Islamic relations
would be possible.

The beginning Years of the reign of
Akbar prove religious bigotry. It was Akbar who demolished Jain temples of
Sirohi in 1576 and took more than 1000 images to Delhi. Almost the same story
holds good in case of Akbar's military expeditions in Rajasthani regions. While
deciding and determining the back-ground of Akbar's greatness and his tolerance
stock of his immoral and unethical activities will have to be taken so that the
credit may be given to the Jain followers who patiently bore what went on and
who finally gave an impetus to Akbar for changing his policy. And the works done
just after are a subject of history. The destruction at Ranakpur Kesariyaji,
Dhulev etc. could be made good of owing to the creative tendency of the Jains.
Behind the background of the existence of Jain religion during the Muslim and
the Mughal period, we see the mixture of the material prosperity and the inner
energy of the dharmacharyas of the Jains and the facilities given to them
by the rulers because of their vested interests.

Brief
Political History of Rajasthan

At the time of the establishment of
Muslim rule in Delhi, Rajasthan was divided into many small and big
principalities where different Rajput dynasties ruled.

Mewar
: The dawn of the
13th century in Mewar introduces us to Kshemsingh. He was of Rana lineage and
his capital was Nagda (Naghrida). His son Jaitrasingh made Chittor (chitrakuta)
his capital where he ruled from 1213 to 1261. Jainism prospered like anything in
the time of Jaitrasingh, his son Tejsingh and grandson Samarsingh. Tejasingh's
queen-in-chief Jayatalladevi played an important part. Being charmed by the
beauty of the queen padmini, Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor following
imperialistic policy. Rana Ratansingh was killed by the stroke of deceit. Threat
padmini and many others performed Johar (Mass immolation on fir For some
time after this, the sun of Mewar remained almost set. in 1326, under the
leadership of Hammir, the Sisodia dynasty was established. He returned the past
glory to Chittor by his influence and bravery. This practice was continued by
his successors Khetsingh (1364-82), Rana Lakha (1382-1421) and Rana Mokal
(1421-33). Successfully facing the Sultans of Gujarat and Malwa, Mokal's son
Maharana Kumbha (1433-68) once again let the sun of Mewar shine in the whole of
north India. He had two weak and unpopular successors Uda and Raimal. After
Taimal,Maharana Sangramsingh (
Rana Sanga) took reigns of Mewar in his hands. he was brave like Rana Kumbha,
but unfortunately he was defeated at the hands of Babar in the Battle of Khanwa.
He left behind him the weak successors like Ratansingh, Vikramaditya and Banwir.
No wonder, therefore. It Chittor under these circumstances had to have bitter
and unpalatable potation in the form of attacks by Sultan Bahadurshah of
Gujarat, suri ruler Shershah and Mughal Padshah Akbar.

After the death of Rana Udaisingh in
1572, Rana Pratapsingh became the ruler of Mewar. Rana Pratap made himself
immortal in Indian history by losing his all at the hands of Akbar in a bid to
save the name, fame and glory of Mewar (even at the cost of his
life).

Udaipur was made the capital of
Mewar by his son Amarsingh (1597-1620). The cordial relations maintained by this
Rana with the Mughals continued in the time of his successors karansingh,
Jagatsingh & C. till Marathas Under Peshwas played theri decisive part in
this region.

Certain Princes related to Mewar
dynasty also tested their fate in the nearby areas/belts. Samantsingh Paved the
way for Mewar in Vagad by extirpating the Bhils and the Chahmana feudals from
there. During the reign of Maharana Jagatsingh, Rao Virasingh (1280-1303)
founded a separate state where his successor Dungarsingh established the town
Dungarpur and made it his capital. In the time of his successors Rawal Gopinath
(1424-48), Udalsingh (1497-1527) and others, this continued to progress. Later
on this state supportedthe policy
of Mewar in dealings with Mughals and Marathas.

Same was the story of Banswara.
Udaisingh, the Rawal of Dungarpur had divided his state between his two
sons, and owing to which came into existence what is called Banswara. Though it
had constant confrontation with Gujarat, Dungarpur, Mughals, Mewar and Marathas,
the rulers remained patrons of art and culture.

One ambitious Prince Surajmal laid
the foundation of Dewaliya Pratapgarh in the early decades of the 16th century.
His successors-Baghsingh, Sangramsingh, Salamsingh etc. very patiently and
cleverly succeeded in keeping intact its existence and
glory.

Jainism got ample opportunities to
grow and prosper in these Mewar states.

It was a wonderful coincidence that
while on the one hand, there was almost everywhere bloodshed on the land of
Mewar due to Muslim and Mughal attacks, the Jain community on the other hand was
touching the height in the field of trade and commerce, administration, art and
architecture, and literature. The Jains were holding high posts in the Muslim
court. Most of the Jain acharyas etc. were held in great price. Barring
certain exceptions, the rulers of Mewar were giving patrongage to Jain religion
quite enthusiastically. Such condition was at its peak during the time of Rana
Kumbha (Kumbhakarn). While Rana was carrying his victory flag in all directions,
the Jains were carrying out their beautiful building activities with their
Digambara and Shevatambara consciousness and traditions. A mention of some
bright points will not be otherwise here.

The Mewar of the time of the Rajputs
has kept intact the sweet and pious memory of many Jain acharyas,
Bhattarakas, sadhus and shreshthis through the medium of sacred
books, inscriptions, religious architecture and images. Be it Bhadreshwar,
Devbhadra, Siddhasen, Jineshwar, Vijaysing, Bhuwansingh, Ratnaprabha of the
Chaitra gachcha, Sarvonand Suri of the patta of
Ratnaprabha, Suri Somasunder, Muni Sunder, Somadev, Jaishekhar,
Jinaharsha Gani, Ratnashekhar, Manikyaratna Gani of the Tapa
gachcha, or acharya Jinaraj Jinavardhan, Jinchandra, Jinsagar and
Jinsundar of the Kharatara gachcha all of these Shevetambara
dharmacharyas had immaculate love nd tender feelings for Mewar. It was
Mewar that got the prashasti (eulogy) of the great Suri
Harivijayaji; It was Mewar that received great tradition of the Digambara
Bhattarakas Keshavchandra, Devchandra, Abhaykirti, Basantkirti, Vishalkirti and
Shubhakirti in the person of Dharmachandra in the 13th century; again it was
Mewar where the Bhattarakas Sakalkirti, Bhuwankirti, Brahmginraj etc. were
honoured on this side idolatry. Mewar also witnessed with its eyes the religious
activities of the acharyas like Dharmakirit of the Kashtha sangha
and those of Abhinav Prabhachandra of the Patta of the acharya
Jinachandra of the Nandi sangha Saraswati gachcha Balatkar gana. In this
century, the queen Jaytalladevi built a temple of black Parshvanatha in Chittor
being influenced by the preachings of Devendra Suri and Pradyuman
Suri. She had also inspired her husband to sanction grants for religious
deeds. How can Mewar forget Sanak's son Sah Jija of the Bangherwal caste and his
relatives like Dinak, Nathu, Jiju and Purnsingh who constructed the famous glory
pillar (Kirti stambha) at Chittor? This can also not forget Dhannalal and
his son Ratanshah of the Pragvat caste of the 15th century who, inspite of their
busy career of 65 years (1433-98), had built a very costly vast Jain temple at
Ranakpur which is famous for its marble pillars. It was out of their deep rooted
religiosity.

During Raimalla's reign in the 15th
century, one Samant Rao Shivsingh of Modasa became an unforgettable figure. It
was in his time that at the instance of the acharya Jinachandra suri of
the Kharatara gachcha, one great shreshthi Jivaraj Papriwal built
innumerable Jina-images and installed them in the Jain temples of almost entire
India by carrying journeys to a number of religious sites
(dharmasthalas). Many of these images are dated in Samvat 1548, i.e.
1480-91 A.D. Many scholars feel proud in adopting Jivaraj Papriwal's name in the
form of image-building tradition.

The names of the shreshthis
who did a lot for religious activities, art architecture and literature are
mainly those of the Pragvat Sah Nana Sanghapati Dhanpal, Oswal
Gunraj, Soma's son Harpal, Sah Hardan, Sah Jagasi, Bhandari
Vela, Seth Dharna Ramdev Nolakha, Hasa, Lakshmansingh, Shravaka
Ratansingh, Bhandari Tolashah, Diwan Bachcharaj, Mantri
Karmashah, Shah Asha, Durgpala (fort protector) Bharmal Kawadia,
Bhamashah, the great renunciative. Even today, the damaged or fully intact
religious structures, and written or transcribed scriptures at Nagada, Chittor,
Udaipur, Kwshriyaji etc. Speak eloquently about the religious activities that
went on during this period.

In Vagda region, the Tapa and
the Kharata gachchas were effectively popular. The Kashtha, the Nanditat
and the Lad Vagada sanghas of the Digambara amnay (tradition) have
has asserted their existence here Besides the headquarters of Dungarpur,
Banswara, and pratapgarh Upar, Galiyakot, Antaru Nowgana, Deoli, Jhasandi etc.
also remained the centres of Jain religion and constructions of this confession.
This region did not lag behind even in the transcription of Jain granthas
(religious books). The ministers (amtyas) like sabha, Salha, Humbar,
Doshi Pampa and their families also constributed immensely to Jainism. In the
journey of progress of Jainism, they indeed, did a lot.

The
Chahmana Rule

After the Pratiharas, the Chahmana
rulers gave enough patronage and fillip to Jain religion. The credit for this
goes, in the main, to Nadol, shakambhari and Ajmer branches of the early
Chahmanas.

After the defeat of Prithviraj
Chahmana-III in the Battle of Tarain in 1192, the power of the early Chahmanas
dwindled, rather almost ended. one son of his, Govindraj had founded
Ranthambhor. Its most powerful ruler Hamirdeo (1283-1310) had to bid farewell to
this world in his fight against Alauddin Khilji. Along with this was fared the
chahmana rule well.

In 1205, Udaisingh of Jalor branch
of the Chahmanas took Nadol, Bhinmal, Barmer, Ratanpur, Sanchora, Kiradu etc.
under his control while carrying his inperalistic and extensional expeditions.
After him Chachigdeo and Samantsingh became the rulers in succession, Kanhardeo
was a brave and a warrior ruler of this branch. But fighting with the army of
Alauddin, he lost his life. Thus, the rule of the Chahmanas of Jalor branch also
ended in 1310.

One more mentionable Chahmana branch
of later mediaeval Rajasthan was that of Sirohi. This branch was founded by
Dewada Sahasmal in 1425. One of its rulers Jagmal established cordial relations
with Mewar and defeated Bahlol Lodi. His son Akheraj (1523-33) had sided with
Ranasanga in the battle against Babar at Khanwa. Unfortunately the later rulers
of Sirohi proved feeble, and eventually they had to come on friendly terms with
Akbar.

Hada branch of the Chahmanas
established its rule in Bundi in 1241. Its first ruler was Deosingh. His
respective successors were-Rao Samarsingh, Napuji, Virasingh, Narayan, Surajmal,
Surjan etc. Surjan had to surrencer Ranthambhor to the Mughals in 1561 and acept
mansabdari. After that, Bundi rule weakened. One of the reasons was that
Shahjahan, by separating Kota from Bundi, had made Rao Ratan's son Madhosingh
the ruler of that, and given mansabdari also. These states of Haroti
remained in existence till India's independence.

Inspite of the adverse
circumstances, Jainism was given adequate patronage in these later Chahmana
States. During this period, many Jain temples were erected and images installed
therein at Sirohi, Abu, Juna, Barmer, Pindwara, Jirawali, Virawara, Pesua,
Makrora etc. At many places, sadhus and Suris advantaged the laity
by their teachings and preachings Amongst them the names of Udaiprabh
Suri and Vijaysen Suri of the Shvetambara sect, Hiravijay
Suri of the Tapa gachcha, and Hiranand Suri of the
Pippal gachcha are specially mentionable. Similarly, in Haroti region
also Jainism made its headway to the level of sufficiency. One Jain businessman
of Sagodi named Krishnadas had organised a grand installation ceremony at
Chandkheri (Khanpura) in 1689 facing all the ebullience of Aurangzeb wrath and
anger.

The Jain sadhus and authors
contributed to Jainism in these Chahmana states beyond hope by writing books
(granthas).

Rathod
States

Jodhpur and Bikaner were main
centres in the Rathod states of Rajasthan. In the 13th century, one Gahadval
pince siha of Kanauj of Pali region established Rathod rule in Mondor. His able
successors extended its bounds by their valour and bravery. All through the 13th
century, they had to keep stand with the Surrounding powers. So doing, some had
to sacrifice their lives even in the battlefield. The next prominent ruler of
the Rathods was Jodha (1438-39). He founded Jodhpur in 1459. His successors
proved rulers just in name, but in the time of Maldeo, Jodhpur regained its
vigour. Maldeo was the best amongst all Rathod rulers of Jodhpur. But his
worthless successors accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals. An important reason
for this was their mutual rivalry also they not only remained Mughal
mansabdaras, bu also established matrimonial relations with the Mughals.
Durring Aurangzeb's regime, the Mughal-Rathod relations spoiled; the Rathods
challenged the Mughal power under the able leadership and supervision of
Vira (brave) Durgadas in the 18th century. The Rathods had to constantly
encounter the Marathas.

Another chief centre of the Rathods
was Bikaner founded by Bika (1485-1504). Bika Rao was the fifth son of Jodha. He
had founded Bikaner in 1488 and made it his capital. Bika's successors from the
16th to the 18th century were successively Rao Nar, Rao Lunakaran, Jaitsingh,
kalyanmal, Maharaja Raisingh, Dalapatsingh, sursingh, Karansingh, Anupsingh etc.
Like the Rathod rulers of Jodshpur, those of Bikaner also maintained warm
relations with the Mughals.

Kishangarh in Rajasthan was another
small principality founded by Kishansingh in 1609. This branch was the outcome
of the main Jodhpur branch of Rathods. Like other Rathod states, ths too had
accepted Mughal mansabdari.

The Rathor states of Rajasthan stood
or placed no difficulty or impediment in the progress, publicity and propaganda
of Jainism. During the period under review, many religious tours used to be in
this region by the Bhattarakas Harivijay, Vijaysen, Vijaydeo, Vijaykushal
Sahajsagar of the Tapagachcha, and Jinachandra, Jinasagar etc. of the
Kharatara gachcha. This belt or zone witnessed the creativity of a Jain
poet, Dharmavardhan. As a result of the agoing cultural activities. many images
of the Tirthankaras were installed at Kokind, Nakoda, Kaparda, Jalor, Merta,
Nadol, Maroth, Krishnagarh etc. construction of some temples worth mentioning
could also be possible only this time.

Our discussion would be incomplete
without mentioning the two Jain families of Marwar region. These were of the
Bhandaris and the Mehtas (Muhnots). The Bhandari family originally belonged to
the Chahmana dynasty of Nadol. This Produced persons like Naroji Samroji,
Bhanaji, Raghnath, Khimsi, Vijay, Anupsingh, Pomsingh, Suratram, Ratansingh in
th Oswal Jain tratidion. Similarly, Maharajji, Raichandra, Vardhman, Krishadas,
Askaran, Devichandra, Achloji, Jaimal, Nainsi, Sunderdas, Kramsi, Bairsi,
Samarsi etc. were the prominent figures of the Muhnat decent. All of them were
wise, well disposed, good administrators, and skilled in financial matters. the
most eminent figure was Muhanta Nainsingh, His 'Khyat' and 'Sarvasanghraha'
furnished reliable sources for the reconstruction of contemporary history.
Unfortunately, the Mehta family met a pitiableend. But the services rendered by the
Mehata families to Jain religion and art are still
remembered.

The Bhati
Rule of Jaisalmer

Bhati Rajputs founded an independent
kingdom in Jaisalmer in the early decades of the 14th century. The rule of the
first three rulers of Jasalmer, namely Devidas (1462-97). Jaitrasingh-II
(1497-1528) and Lunakaran (1528-1550), has been very conspicuous from the pont
of view of Jainism. Shen Harraj Bhati was the ruler of Jaisalmer, treaties were
signed and matriomonial relations were established with Akbar. This proved
helpful in maintaining cordial relations. The rule of the later Bhati rulers was
one of unrest, revolt, war and anarchy. Even then, Jainism was very effective in
this state in the 17th and the 18th centuries. The Bhati rulers had regards for
acharya Jinasingh, Jinaudai, Jinayukta, Jinachandra other suris of
the Kharatara gachcha. Therefore, during their reign the Jain community
renovated many jain temples and installed images of the
Tirthankaras.

Alwar
State

The Rajputs of Yadu lineage exerted
immense influence in Alwar during the Mughal period. Similarly the cultural
influence of the Kashtha sangha was being had here. Consequently, many
Jain shreshthis form Delhi and Agra carried out building activities
here.

Kachchawaha
Rule In Amer (Jaipur)

In the Dhudhahana belt of Rajasthan,
the Kachchawaha rule was most important from the point of view of Jainism. One
ruler Puranmal of this descent had the title of the Raja of Ambar from the
Mughal emperor Humayun. He had accepted Mughal masabdari and married one
of his daughters to Akbar. His successors were Bhagvandas (1574-89), Raja
Mansingh (1589-1614), Bhausingh (1589-1614), Mahasingh (1620-22), Mirza Jaisingh
(1622-67) and Sawai Jaisingh were among the prominent rulers of this lineage.
Owing to the mutual rivalry and Maratha invasions, Jaipur state became
sufficiently weak after the death of Jaisingh-II.

The Kachchawaha rulers of Amer were
on harmonious terms with the Mughals right from the 16th to the 18th centuries.
The posts of prime ministers, treasures and other high posts were held by many
Jain gentlemen. In a sense, the Kachchawaha rulers were confident enough in
handing over administration to them. The names of those who were completely
surrendered to the cuase of Jain religion runthus Nanu Godha, Mohandas
Khandelwal, Ratanchandra Shah, Nandlal, Kanhaiyalal, Devidas Khandelwal, Kaniram
Ved, Tarachand Bilala, Kishordas Mahajan. Remaining on the high posts, Kasliwal
Kesarisingh and Daulatram, Pandya Rao Jagram Mantri Kriparam, Fatehram,
Bhagatram, and ballushah, Vimaldas, Diwan Ramchandra, Fatechandra,
Kishanchandra, Lalchandra, Nainsukh etc. of the Chchabra families provided glory
to Jain caste and religion. As the Bhattarakas of Chittor came to settle in
Amer-Jaipur, the activities of the Bhattaraka sect became extensive in this
area. As a result of this, the number of the followers of Lalikirti,
Devendrakirti, Mahendrakirti, Surendrakirti, Yashkirti etc. the Bhattarakas of
the Mulasangha increased.

Amer, Jaipur, Mojamabad, Jhunjhunu,
Sawai Madhopur, Jabmer, Chatsu etc. had been the chief centres of Jainism during
the rule of the kachchawahas. Taking advantage of the tolerance and patronage of
the Kachchawaha rulers. The Jain community built many Jain temples at these
places and organised idol installation ceremony. Sanghapati Mallidas,
Jeta seth and Sanghvi Kalyandas organized big
sangha-yatras.

South
India

South India, esp. Karnatak, has also
been the stronghold of Jainism. During the Maurya period, Chandragupta Maurya
had gone to Shravana Belgola along with his teacher (guru) Bhadrabahu.
There at Chandra Mountain, he had givenup his life. Some believe that on
Bhadrabahu's return to Magadha, the emperor Samprati spread Shraman
culture there. Great Digambara Jain acharya and philosopher
Kundkunda was from South India. The Gagas, the Kadambas, the later Chalukyas,
and the Hoysalas etc. ruling in South India in yore were those royal powers that
enthusiastically supported Jain religion. Under their auspieces, Jainism
propered in South India. Not only this, attempts were also made for the creation
of literature, construction of caves and rock cut temples, erection of pillars
and installation of images.

Now the question is how and via
which way Jainism reached South India. It is obvious that Ashoka and his
successors supported Buddhist and Ajivaka sects in Magadha, and the Shungas and
the Kanvas supported Bhagavat sect. So the Kalinga-king Kharvela supported
Jainism which gradually expanded over almost complete South India through Andhra
and the coastal ranges of Tamilnadu. It is also possible that during the Mauryan
rule, it reached Kuntal region from the route of Avanti Janapada via
Maharashtra and Andhra regions. Congenial climate over there and the royal
patronage led to the prosperity of Jain religion.

In the beginning of the early
mediaeval period, military expedition of the Khiljis, the Tughlaq rule and the
rise of Bahamani Kingdom, indeed, curbed the growth and development of Jainism
in South India, but it could not be faded altogether. It again got momentum in
the Hindu Vijayanagar Kingdom. This kingdom was quite tolerant and
patronizing.

Vijayanagar kingdom was founded by
the, 2 brave brothers of Sangam dynasty-Harihar and Bukka in 1336. Harihar-I
(1336-54), Bukka I (1354-77), Harihar II (1377-1405) and Devrai I (1404-22) were
the first to rule. After Devrai-I's death, Viravijay, Ramchandra, Devrai II,
Mallikarjuna (adult Devrai) and Virupaksha continued to rule Vijayanagar up to
1485. But excepting Devrai II, all were weak and utter failure. Therefore, under
the supervision of Narsa Nayak, the generals uprooted Sangam power and made
Narsimha of Saluv descent the ruler. Narsimha (1485-90), and Immadi Narsimha of
Saluv dynasty ruled one after the other. His son Vir Narsimha murdered Immodi
Narsimha in 1505, took power in his hand and founded Tuluv dynasty. Krishnadeo
Rai (1505-29) of the Tuluv dynasty was an able, a great expander of empire, a
good administrator and a brave ruler. After him, Achyutdeo Rai (1529-42) and
Sadashiv (1542-72) came to the throne. During their reign, the power, virtually,
remained in the hands of Ram Rai who was able and brave, but also no less
cunning. His activities paved the way for the invasion of the collective army of
the different states of Bahmani over Vijaynagar. The Battle of Rakshasi Tagadi
(Talikot) in 1565 gave place to the ravage of the capital. This battle has been
one of the most fierce and destructive battles of India. Though vijayanagar
empire copntinued to exist for over a century after this battle, but just to
reach the nadir of decline. Sadashiv Went to Penukonda along with his minister,
Tirumal. There he founded the Andavidu Dynasty.

There were many feudal states
connected with Vijaynagar Kingdom. After its fall, many of them became
independent. Chief ones were-Saluv of Sangitpur, Bhairaras of Karkal, Ajil of
Velur, Arsu of Viliker, Pandya of Warkuru, Changalv and odiyar of Mysore region.
Chandravanshi of Gagari, Mula of Bailgari, sawant of Mulki, and Raje of Vilugi.
Similarly, Pregoda, Tuluv, Chamrajnagar, Gerusappe and other regions wereaso
Parading their independent existence. In those dynasties, many eminent persons
ruled. They were very considerate to the Jains, their society, community and
religion. many of their ministers, generals, and official members were true to
Jainism; they followed it strictly.

The Digambara amnay had its
swing in South India. The Jain view given by north to south India was paid back
with interest by the South Indian Jain acharyas like Kundkunda,
Madhavsena, and Vishalkirti. The Bhattaraka tradition had its march from sourth
to north. During the later mediaeval period, many munis, pandits,
authors, poets, Suris and Bhattarakas of the South India, re-established
Jainism and unfurledor hoisted its standard therein even under adverse
conditions. Among such religious leaders Hemachandra Bhattaraka's disciple Telug
Adidev, Maladhari Madhavchndra Ramachandra and Keshava, Aluva Mahaprabhu,
muni Bhadradeo Shrutmuni, Charuchandra Pandit, Manikyadeo,
Shrutkirtideo's disciple muni Adideo, Panditdeo Nyayakirti,
Shubhachandra, Nemichandra, Suri Mallinath, Vijayakirtideo, Bhattaraka
Lalitkirti, Dharmabhushan Charuchandra etc. have prominence. One inscription at
Shravana Belagola bearing the date 1373 bears the names of the Bhattaraka
Vasantkirti, Devendrakirti, Vishalkirti, Shubhakirti, Kalikalsarvagya
Bhattaraka Dharmabhushan Amarkirti and muni
Vardhaman.

From this point of view, the role
filled in by the Jain poets and authors cannot be underestimated. Through the
medium of their creativity, Simhakirti, Udai bhasha-Chakravarti, Bhaskar,
Kalyankirti, Jinadeo, pandit Bahubali, Keshawavarni, court-poet Madhur, Abhinav
shrutmuni, Chandrakirti, Vijay etc. glorified Jain religion, philosophy,
personages and traditions.

This time, the tendency to die at
self-will had become most popular in South India. This process has been named
Samadhi maran. Ladies like Alamba, Kamigaudi, Ramigaudi, Kaligaudi, and
persons like Bechigauda, Vemmagauda, Mechak, Bhadradeo, Tammagauda, Chandappa,
Payanna, Chandagauda, Siriyanna, Harubgauda Gopan, Gopgauda, Madukgauda had
adopted this very process of Samadhi-maran.

Besides, Vijaynagar, Kuragahalli,
Rabandur, Mulgunda, Shravana Belgola, Hariyawali, Mullura, Sangitapura,
Mudabidri, Karkal, Velur, Bhatkal etc. too have been the important Jain centres
during this period. Many Jain basadis were built, and so also many Jain
temples at the places referred to.

The manastambhas erected
during this period at places like Shravana Belgola, Kambadhalli, Humacha,
Hiriyagarhi, Karkal, Mulki, Mudabidri are still adding beauty to these places.
It is surprising to note that Jainism, born in east (gradually) received its
garb in west and south during the later period. During the later Maurya and
shunga period, the Buddhist, the Ajivaka, and the Vaishnav religion got much
royal patronage in east India, and probably because of this, Jain
dharmacharyas and their adherents had to take asylum
elsewhere.

Before the division of Jainism into
the Digambara and the Shvetambara amnay (tradition) south India
had come in contact with Jainism in its pristine form. Thus, south was fortunate
enough to receive undivivided Jain amnay from Mahavira to the time of
Bhadrabahu. And that prospered there the same way. Jain religion in South India
had to play its part in presence of different religious traditions prevailing
over there. so, it stressed more on the philosophical aspect. Just as the south
Indian Brahmana philosophical Schools of Advaita, Vaishistavaita, Dvaita,
Dvaitadvait etc. became the foundation stone for different Brahmana schools,
sects and doctrines in north, the traditions of the Jain Mula sangha,
saraswati gachha, Balatkara ganaNandi sangha, kashtha
sangha, and the Bhattaraka tradition in north also hailed from south and
held sway for over centuries. For years together, the conduct and life of the
people continued to be affected by that. So, the shramana tradition,
which disappeared from east, continued to grow and develop in south. It had
unadulterated protection and patronage there.

Shape/Form
of Later Mediaeval Jainism

In the demographical structure of
India. the percentage of the followers, Jainism is almost nugatory or the number
of Jains is of nano value (using compulingo) or the Jains are incredibly small
in number. But their inborn yen and inquistiveness. kinesis, creativity business
and commerce-capacity, entrepreneurship, administrative guts, artistic and
philosophical aptitude etc. have proved very effective and telling. Owing to
these characteristics of theirs, Jainism could till now remain an undying force
along with its shraman culture, and atheist philosophy the culmination of
which is Anekantvada (non-absolutism in thought of many sidedness of
reality). In one way or the other, it has left an indelible pring on the sands
of history, Despite this, it could not withhold itself from its opinionative and
practical division. Its division into the Digambara and the
Shvetamabara amnays (traditions/sects) was quite apparent as early as 3rd
century before christ.

With the passing of time, these two
traditions got further divided into different sanghas, ganas,
gachchas etc., each having its own traditions and
anvays.

The question that stands to reason
is what were the factors working behind. To understand this, we will have to
dive deep into the reality.

There does not seem to be as much
doctrinal or philosophical difference in its branches and scions as it is in the
way of conduct and practice. Laxity in conduct (shithilachara) seems to
have been the most important factor behind the origin of different
sanghas and gachchas.

When some persons or acharyas
(spiritual leaders) tried to make amendments in the existing sangha or
tradition by introducing new code of conduct or anything like that, it was
called laxity of conduct (shithil-a-chara). It is clear that amendments
in Buddhist Hinayana gave birth to Mahayana. And to the former, the latter was
an example of sithilachara in Jain terminology. The conservatives,
therefore, rose in revolt against the radicals. Hence schism in the
church (sangha) became inevitable.

Sometime after there arose prestige
point with regard certain issues among sadhus (monks in general)
acharyas (spiritual leaders) and shravakas (lay votaries). This too gave
rise to different offshoots in Jainism in the form of sanghasgachchas, ganas. After Jagachhachandra Suri, his two disciples -
Vijayachandra Suri and Devendra Suri of the Tapa gachcha
stooe in one another's teeth.

Then, some controversy among the
followers of a demised acharya in regard to succeeding his patta
also gave rise to schism in the church (sangha). When more than one
claimant came forward to succeedd the vacant patta, the tradition of that
Patta was bound to meet division.

In early mediaeval period, many
Vaishyas and Kshatriyas were ordained to Jainism. They naturally became the
follower of that gachcha which their ordainer belonged
to.

Inspite of the teachings of
non-accumulation or non-possession (aparigraha) by Jainism, the followers of it
have been very rich and prosperous. Being comparatively less in number,
religious insistence has been most persistent among the Jains. Many of their
cultural and social acts were confined to their society only. Under these
circumstances, the presence of narrowness in regard to conduct and the show of
pelf in the form of donation has been psychological veracity. The
Shravakas' pride of pelf (wealth), and their ostentatious show to keep up
family-fame etc. have also provided for the division of Jain society into many
sects and sub-sects. To their luck, there have been many such religious
gurus who favoured either this or that group for their own name and fame.
This further speeded up the process of division in the
sangha.

Jainism occupies a special seat for
its principles of non-attachment, retirement, renunciation, self-denial. Its
sadhus, whether Digambara or Shvetambara have been the
paradigms of non-accumulation or non-possession (aparigraha),
restraint (sanyam) and church-dis cipline
(sangha-anushashan). This went on for a considerable time. but not for
all time to come. The hidden tendency for reputation and supremacy of the
sadhus came to the forefront as the time passed by. Condition became so
crucial that the schism took place even on minor matters of pinchchi
(sweeping duster of peacock fathers) and langot ( apiece of cloth to
cover secret organ). Worship-methods also helped the cause of division. Temple
and sthanak traditions, drawing their daggers of bitterness at one
another, rode roughside over division. Jainism could not ride itself out from
divisions and sub-divisions. Sects. Sprouted forth from different traditions
held by different sadhus. Many sadhus were enslaved by falsity of
purpose so much that they began to regard it as a part of their religious
activities. Chaityavasis (dwellers in temples) or Bhattarakas were such
type of persons.

Those who tried to effect
coordination between two axes (axles) formed a separate group of their own,
instead. Solapanthis furnish an example of those who had tried to bring
about harmony, mutual understanding and coordination between Terepanthis
and Bispanthis. They are known as Totapanthis
also.

The different divisions and
sub-divisions, ganas and gachchas etc. present in Jain religion are the results
less of doctrinal and traditional struggle, and more of laxity of conduct,
prestige and ego. Since the original form of Jainism has ben republican, it
could sustain its entity inspite of all adversities the fruits of which, oft,
prove sweet. Its different sects subjected themselves to mutual invectives,
criticism and rejoinder though, its originality could not be broken. That has
been constantly decisive. This doctinal unity of Jainismhas kept intact its
Anekantwada till today. Hence the study of the shape/form of later mediaeval
Jainism is justified.

In early mediaeval India, a sort of
strange transformation or change took place in Jainism. Though division of
Jainism into Shvetambara and Digambaraamnays (traditions)
had already occurred long ago. But, that was confined to the wearing of clothes
and purvas (canons), and their reading and redaction (?). Simplicity of
renunciation and non-attachment lingered on even after Mahavira and
ganadharas left this transent world. Religion was not complex. The
sadhus, the Shravakas and Shravikas had full faith in the
traditional provision for panchamahavratas (5 great vows). Laxity in
conduct (shithilachara) had, by and by, started creeping in, yet there
was lack of staunchness in Jain society in the matter of division based on
sects. There was constant pressure of thought on conduct; hence the original
philosophico doctrinal perspective still remained
effective.

As Jainism migrated from its place
of genesis to south and west, regional elements or factors or characteristics
bagan to predominate. This had to determine its course through many non-Jain
customs, rituals, and rites (domestic and those of passage). Bound by the mirage
of agams and tantras, Chityavasis (dwellers in temples) in comparison to
Vanavasis (dwellers in forests), and the Bhattaraka consciousness or awareness
in comparison to the original Digambara view began to find its decisive
place in early mediaeval Indian society. Fortunately, Jain community could save
itself from leshyas (different colours or tints, namely, black, blue,
gray fiery red, lotus pink or yellow and white varying according to the merits
or demerits of a particular being) to a greater extent, but aishna
element could no more remain excluded. Aishna did find its place.
Difference between the sadhus and the shravakas emerged on this
issue also. As such, conduct-side predominated over the thought-side. Mutual
scriptural debates began to take place; one community prided in defeating the
dharmacharyas of other community. Moreso, the defeating party felt more
peacocky when it received honours from the rulers and the administrators in
doing so. With a view to attract the people, the sadhus inspired the
process of conversion and false show of grandeur. They became Holy Willies
(dharmadambaris) believing in razz-mtazz (noisy showing activity intended to
attract attention and admiration). Consequently mutual differences became
inevitable.

This presented the scenario of
differences and debates in contemporary Jain religion. Some believers in
non-attributes (nirguna) proved radicals and the propagators of drastic
in puja paddhati (worship-method). Lonkashah and Taranswami were the
inducers and inductors of this new trend. With this background at our hand, it
will not be out of place to give a brief survey of the different sects and
sub-sects of Jainism in early mediaeval period.

The
Digambara Sect

The study of Indian Jainism has been
very wide and complex right from the 13th to the 18th century. Elaboration of
this subject is a time-consuming, and laborious task. And, it is difficult to
say that the work of those scholars, experts and intellectuals who have burnt
their midnight oil for this is ever unmistakable and complete in
totality.

Mediaeval Jainism got divided into
many scions on the basis different groups and sects. According to Devasen the
process of dividing from the Mula Sangha of the sadhus (original
or primary group of the saints) began in the 5th century along with the
establishment of the Dravida Sangha by Vajranandi. Many Digambara,
Ganas, gachchas, or sanghas originated. Chief among them
are-the Sen gana, the Balatkara gana, the Nandi gana the
Desi gana, the Dramis gana, the Kranur gana, the Saraswati
gachcha, the Mula sangha, the nandi sangha, the Mayur
sangha, the Kitthur sangha and the Kulattu
sangha.

The
Bhattarak sect

Alienating itself from the Mula
sangha, there started a special tradition from south, viz, the Bhattaraka
tradition. That made its entry mainly into the Digambara (to some extent, the
mediaeval Shvetambara also) ganas and the
sanghas.

The Pattavalis of the Nandi
sangha refer to the ancient Bhattaraka tradition. They mention that after
Bhadrabahu (the second) to the beginning of the 12th century, fiftyone
acharyas came one after the other. Actually, this Patta tradition
began from Bhattilpur in south. From the time of the 27th acharya,
Mahakirti, this tradition arrived in Ujjain. In the 11th century, the
acharyas from Lakshmichandra to Lokchandra went to Chanderi from Ujjain,
while as the last 3acharyas- shrutakirti, Bhavachandra and Mahachandra
began to adorn Vidisha patta.

The Mula
Sangha

Some talk on the Mula sangha
does deserve mention in the present context. This seems to have been extant in
4th century in south India. Later on, it developed sufficiently. The Deva
Gana, the Sen gana, the Desiya gana, the Nandi gana,
the Surasya gana the Kranur gana the Balatkara gana, the
Saraswati gana etc. cohered to it. Though, originally a south
Indian tradition, it prospered abundantly in north India also. The south
tradition divided into Latur and Karanja branches, whileas in north, this
flourished enough after the 14th century.

These Bhattarakas, keeping away from
detachment and nomadism, used to live in different monasteries and temples. wear
costly dresses, ornament crowns etc., and were the owners of big
dharmasthalas, pompous residents, and of many acres of land. Sitting of
their pattas (seats) with regal decor, they used to install many images
and yantras. They also claimed to have proficiency in mantra
sidhis (control over spells and occultpowers), and they used to participate in shows and variety-entertanment
also. Exerting their influence on the mind of the populace, they lived in eclat
and induced the mob.

The conservative Jain sadhus
and shravakas were not in consonance with the activities of the
Bhattarakas, because according to them, they were deviating from simplicity,
devotion, asceticism silavratas (3 gunavratas, and 4
shikshavratas) and mula gunas (primary qualities including
avoidance of meat, wine, honey, fruits, roots, and night-eating) thus falling
prey to laxity of conduct. But nothing could be done. They had gathered enough
public-support in their favour and sizable following by virtue of their name and
fame.

Joharapurkar in his book 'Bharraraka
Sampradaya' has thrown much light on the Bhattaraka tradition. The gist of the
description of the later mediaeval Bhattaraka tradition given by him runs
thus-

Sen gana
: The main centre
of the Sen gana related to the Panch Stupanvaya, the Rishbha Senanvaya,
the surasya gana, the pogari (pushkar) gachcha etc. has been
Karanja city of Vidarbh region. Maharashtra, karnataka, and Gujarat provinces
have been under the immense influence of this gana. Many of inscriptional
sources include this gana in the Mula sangha. Shridharsen Devasen.
Somasena, Gunabhadra, Maniksen and Somasena, Somasena, Jinasen, Samantabhadra,
Chhatrasen, Narendrasen, Shantisen, Siddhasen etc. happened to be some of the
main Bhattarakas of this gana respectively in the 14th 15th, 16th, 17th
and 18th century. Patta - tradition of the Sen gana is in
prevalence even today.

Balatkara
gana : The initial
sources of the existence of this gana are available to us from the 14th
century. In the 14th century, the Saraswati (Sharda) gachcha originated
from this gana.The early acharyas of this gana in the 13th
century were : Deshnandi and Shravanasen (Knaksen). and after them Vanvasi,
Vasantkirti, Devendra, Vishalkirti, Shubhkirti, Dharmabhushan Amarkirti,
Simhanandi, Dharmabhushan, Vardhman and Dharmabhushan etc. respectively seated
on this patta. The later acharyas had their sway in Vijayanagar
Kingdom.

Later on developed the karanja and
Latur branches of the Blatkara gana.

Karanja
Branch : The first
known acharya of this branch that came into existence in the 16th century
was Amarkirti. His disciples Vadindra Vishalkirti had good influence on the
rulers of Bahamani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms. After this the Bhattarakas of this
patta were respectively Devendrakirti, Dharmachandra, Dharmabhushan ,
Devendrakirti, Kukudchandra, Dharmachandra and Dharmabhushan. The last one
remained on the patta upto 1675. One of his disciple Vishalkirti became
the pattadhar of karanja, and from another one Ajitkirti sprang forth
Latur branch. Dharmachandra, Devendrakirti, Dharmachandra, Devendrakirti,
Padmanandi, Devendrakirti and Ratnakirti adorned the karanja patta one
after the other right from the 17th to the 19th century. After him came
Devendrakirti. He was the last of the Bhattarakas of this
branch.

One more branch of Latur branch
started from 1679 by Vishalkirti, the Bhattaraka of Karanja tradition. Then came
successively - Vidyabhushan, Hemakirti, Ajitkirti etc. This patta
tradition is extant even today.

Later
Balatkara gana branch : Mula sangha has been the
oldest sangha of the Diagambara sect. According to a later tradition,
Kundakunda acharya had established this sangha. pattavalis
give credit of its establishment to Maghnandi. Coming to the 5th century A.D.,
Mula-sangha had well established in south and many ganas and
gachchas related to this had earned enough popularity. Especially Nandi
sangha, Balatkara gana and Saraswat gachcha became
sufficiently effective and powerful in later medieaeval
India.

So far as the later mediaeval branch
of the Balatkara gana is concerned, the concerning pattavalis
regard it as older if not the oldest one and they provide a list of 77
acharyas from Guptigupta and Maghnandi to Abhayakirti. Though their
historicity is doubtful, the 78th Bhattaraka Vasantkirti was definitely a
historical figure. Their tradition and known dates have been as
follows.

Vasantkirti (1209), Shubhakirti,
Dharmachandra (1214-39), Ratnakirti (1239-53) and Padmanandi (1253-1397). After
Bhattaraka Padmanandi, the gadi or the patta (seat) was divided
among his 3 disciples. The Delhi branch started from his disciple,
Shubhachandra. His Pattadhara was Jinachandra (1450-1514). One of his
disciples, Ratnakirti established Nagaur Branch, and another one, Simhakirti
that of Ater.

Thus, we see that only one later
branch of the Balatkara gana of the Mula sangha branched into
various branches. And the gadi of the acharyas not only divided
but transferred also We find that the gadi of the Mula sangha was
transferred from Baran to Chittor and Baghera, and from there to Ajmer, and from
Three branches of the Bhattaraka Padmanandi's three disciples came into
existence (1) Delhi-Jaipur branch from Shubhachandra, (2) Idar branch
from Sakalkirti, (3) Surat branch from Devendrakirti. Jinachandra
(1450-1514) and Prabhachandra (1514) respectively succeeded Shubhachandra of
Delhi branch. In the time of Prabhachandra, this gadi came from Delhi to
Chittor. His guru bhai (teacher brother), Ratnakirti set up a separate
gadi at Nagaur. Emergence of differences led to further divison. Of
course, one branch shifted to Ajmer and another remained in Nagaur itself.
Similarly, in the time of Prabhachandra's successor Chandrakirti, Chittor
gadi shifted to Chatsu. After this, it shifted respectively to Sanganer,
Anwa, Amer and finally to Jaipur.

With a view to provide completeness
to the above discussion, it will be quite justified to supply a list of the
Bhattarakas of different disciplines.

The Ater
Branch : The Ater
branch originated from Simhakirti (1463-74), a disciple of Bhattaraka
Jinachandra. Then those seated after him on this patta (upto 18th
century) respectively were the Bhattarakss - Dharmakirti, Shilabhushan
Jnanabhushan, Jagatbhushan, Vishvabhushan, Devendrabhushan, Surendrabhushan and
Lakshmi bhushan.

The Surat
Branch : Bhattaraka
Padmanandi's disciple Devendrakirti started this branch. After him this branch
divided. The chief pattadharas of the main branch upto 18th century were
respectively - Vidyanandi, Mallibhushan and Lakshmichandra, Virachandra
Jnanabhushan, Prabhachandra, Vadichandra, Mahichandra, Meruchandra Jinachandra,
Vidyanandi, Devendrakirti, Vidyabhushan, and
Dharmachandra.

The
Jerhat Branch :
This branch was established in about 1495 by Tribhuwanakirti, a disciple of
Devendrakirti, the Pattadhisha of the Surat branch. Then, respective
Pattadhishas adorning this patta were - Sahastrakirti, padmanandi,
Yeshahakirti, and Lalitkirti. After Lalitakirti, his chief disciple Dharmakirti
(1588-1623) took possession of the original (Mula) gadi. His
respective successors were - Padmakirti, Sakalakirti, and Surendrakirti, Another
disciple Ratnakirti founded a sub-branch which declined after Chandrakirti
(1618-24). Even, otherwise, we do not find any trace of the existence of the
Jerhat branch after 17th century.

The
Kashtha Sangha : In
the Digambara Bhattaraka tradition, the Kashtha sangha seems to have had
sufficient mobility like the Mula sangha. The credit of founding this
sangha in Nandiyad (modern Nander) in south India in the last decade of
the 7th century goes to acharya Kumarasena. It is a strange coincidence
that the name of this sangha got associated with the name of a village,
Kashtha near Delhi. Originally, the Kashtha sangha was not the name of
this sangha. The mentionable among those sanghas and
gachchas which prospered in the Digambara amnay during early
mediaeval period are - Mathur, Vagada, Lada Vagada (Lata Vargata), Nanditata
etc. Along with the time, these sanghas and gachchas came together
and got merged into the original big Kashtha sangha of course, keeping
their independent names secure. The Punnata sangha of south affected
north to some extent because we find its mention in an image inscription of the
12th century in Badnawar (Vardhmanpur) of Malwa. It seems, this sangha
also gradually lost its separate entity in favour of the Kastha sangha.
Thus in the kashthasangha the names of Mathur the
Ladwangarh and the Nanditat gachcha, and the pushkar gana
also came to be reckoned. The list of the Bhattrakas of the later mediaeval
period of these gachchas runs thus.

The
Mathur Gachcha :
The Bhattarakas from the 12th to the beginning of the 14th century were
Madhavasena, Uddharasena, Dev'sena, Vimalsena, Dharmasena, Dhavasena and
Sahastrakirti. Then we have the names of the Bhattarakas Gunakirti,
Yashahakirti, Malayakirti, Gunachandra, Bhanukirti and Kumarsen who lived in
15th and 16th century.

The Bhattaraka tradition of this
gachcha that started from Vijayasena, a disciple of Madhavasena and a
teacher-brother of Uddharasena lingered on upto 15th century and the chief
Pattadharas were - Nayasen, Shreyansasen, Anantakirti, Kamalakirti,
Kshemakirti, Hemakirti, Kamalakirti (1449-53), Kumarasena and Hemachandra. In
the 16th century after Hemachandra came-Padmanandi, Yashahakirti, Kshemachandra
and Tribhuwanakirti. Those who occupied this patta in the 17th and 18th
century were respectively- Sahastrakirti, Mahichandra, Devendrakirti,
Jagatakirti etc. This patta exists even today.

In the later 16th century, the
tradition started by Gunachandra, the teacher-brother (guru-bhai) of the
Bhattaraka Kshemakirti was shorted-lived. After him only Sakalachandra and
Mahendrasen became the Bhattarakas. That was all.

The Ladwa
Gachcha : By the
later mediaeval period, the punnata and the Vagada gachchas merged in
this gachcha. This gachch was founded by Jayasen in th 8th
century. That continued to be upto the end of the 15th century. The later
mediaeval Bhattarakas of this gachcha were - Mahendrasen, Anantakirti,
Vijayasen, Chitrasen, Padmasen, Tribhuwanakirti, Dharmakirti, Malayakirti,
Narendrakirti, Pratapkirti, and Tribhuwanakirti.

The
Nanditata Gachcha :
The orderly Bhattaraka tradition of this gachcha is available to us from
the 15th century. The respective Bhattarakas who occupied the original
(Mula) Patta of Lakshmisen (the pattadhara of the
Bhattaraka Ratnakirti) upto the end of the 17th century were - Bhimasena,
Sonakirti - Bhimasena, Vijayasena, Yashahakirti, Udaisena, Tribhuwanakirti,
Ratnabhushan, Jaikirti, Keshavasena and Vishwakirti.

The Bhattaraka tradition of the
Bhattaraka Lakshmisena's disciple Dharmasena existed upto early 19th century.
His respective successors were - Vimalasena, Vishalakirti, Vishwasena and
Vidyabhushan, Shribhushan, Chandrakirti, Rajakirti, Lakshmisena, Indrabhushan,
Surendrakirti etc. After the last mentioned bhattaraka, the gadi was divided
into 3 of his disciples - Lakshmisena, Sakalakirti and
Devendrakirti.

This list of the various Bhattaraka
tradition is not the last one. Our knowledge of the Bhattarakas of the later
mediaeval period of Vidisha, Chanderi, Sojitra etc. is very little. But many
literary and epigraphical sources speak eloquently about some of the Digambara
Bhattarakas of these places. We also have references to the fact that many
disciples of the Bhattarakas grew ambitious of their pattas and, an such,
they set up their own gadis. But these gadis proved short-lived
for want of support, and prop.

Whatsoever the condition might be,
the Bhattaraka tradition/sect influenced Jain community of south, west and
central and north India a lot. Inspite of the political, geographical and
doctrinal differences, in Karnataka, Andhra, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Bharat, Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Delhi, etc. the existence of the Bhattaraka
tradition made itself felt. It was the result of this that many scriptures
(granthas) were written, many Bhattarakas and dharmacharyas were
honoured many temples were built, and images of the Tirthankaras and
Yaksha-Yakshis were built in thousands. Written literature, and image
inscriptions reveal different aspects of the then social, political and cultural
life.

The Bhattaraka sect has been carped
at by the Jain and the non-Jain community. This carping aims at showing that
this has tried to impose royalty over asceticism, possession or accumulation
over non-possession or non-accumulation, discipleship over non-discipleship,
attachment over detachment. May be, this criticism is justified, but the role of
the Bhattarakas cannot be denied or overlooked. The Bhattarakas of the later
mediaeval period were playing and important part amongst the Bahamanis in south,
and in many regions of Malwa, Gujarat, Delhi and Rajasthan. The Jain faith
dismantling or downing before Islam had to be kept intact somehow or the other.
The total patronage of diffetent Hindu royal powers was also inevitable for
them. Therefore, they thought it better to deviate (a little or completely) from
the traditional faith and live at a particular place and establish a
patta over there, to have the power of controlling spells and secret
lorest, to do still more new experiment in religious life, to give and impetus
to music and art, and to have resort to royal grandeur for popularizing the
dying faith. By the later mediaeval period, the challenges coming before the
Jain world began to him, and so also the influence of the Bhattarakas day by
day.

Besides, many more reasons were
there for the fall of the Bhattaraka tradition. Though the traditional
ascetic-class had, for sometime, become helpless and passive, it was tortured
and sad from within. The traditional sadhus (ascetics or monks) were
anxious to revive the glory that was Jainism. Amongst them were both the
idol-worshippers and the non-worshippers of idols. The Taranapanth or Sammaiya
panth founded by Taranswami against idol-worship proved very opposing and
revolting. This panth (sect) stressed on the shapless non-attributive)
shape of shuddhatma (the pure self or soul), and put a mark of
interrogation on the luxurious and splendid life of the Bhattarakas. To save the
Bhattaraka traditions from the arrows and slings of outrageous criticism of the
Taranpanthis, a new sect called Vishwa-Pantha or Bis-panth had to
be born. But the decline of the Bhattaraka sect became more apparent when the
Vidhimargis arose in open feud or enmity. This was a sect of
idol-worshippers that stood in the teeth of the practices adopted and followed
by the Bis-panthis. The Terapanth, born in the 17th century,
proved more aggressive in this regard. This panth was founded by
Amarchand in Sanganer (Rajasthan). The most influential personality of all the
followers of this panth was Banarsidas whose rare impact in the cultural
and political field has already been discussed in the foregoing pages. The
thirteen sutras (or formularies) propounded by him proved to be
foundation stone of this panth. This Tera-panth was absolutely
defferent from that of the Shvetambara Terapanth.

In the 18th century, one more new
panth (sect) was founded in Jaipur by Gumaniram. This is known as
Gumani-Panth or Shuddha-amnay (Pure-tradition). This sect does not
have as much faith in bhava puja (idol worship) or simply in idols. In
order to bring about coordination between the Bis-panthis and the
Tera-panthis in Rajasthan itself, one more panth or sect called
solaha or Tota pantha was brought into existence. But being
non-acceptable to both, it could not survive for long.

Surprisingly enoug, the entire
Shvetambara sect was opposed to the Bhattaraka tradition, but even then it could
not refrain itself from being attracted by it. Many Shvetambara acharyas
began to assume the title of Bhattaraka.

However, under the prevalent
circumstances, the Bhattaraka sect gradually declined and became moribund.
Though, at some places, the Bhattaraka-gadis still exist which are, now,
just a secondary and only a mini edition of a long great
tradition.

The
Shvetambara sect

The Shvetambara sect gave an
introduction to its rare capacity and efficiency during mediaeval period in
Jain-world. Its speed continued to be fast right from the 8th to the 18th
century. Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa remained main centres of the Shvetambara
sect during the period under review. Even then to our dismay, it could not
present and organised and a disciplined perspective. The dividing lines that mad
their preliminary appearance during early mediaeval period not only became
prominent this time, but they immensely contributed to the formation fo
different gachchas. The traditional 84 gachchas as given in the
Pattavalis still remained more or less in the same number. Of course,
some old names dropped, and new ones added. But sometimes, the number reached
even 100. And this number is exclusive of many disappeared and short-lived
gachchas.

Naming of various gachchas
was based on some event or ascribed title, suri of acharya, some
particular place or coincidence. We have inscriptional evidences of the
existence of some important gachchas (of 10th to 13th century) like Vata
(later on Brihad), Kharatara, Upakesha (Ukesha), Sander (Sanderaka) Purnimiya,
Agam, Malladhari, Brahamana, Nivritti, Tapa (Laghu and Brihad) Vayat, Dhara,
Chandra, Yashaha suri, Bhavadeva, Bhavaharsha, Dhaneshwara, Kamyaka, Oswal,
Brahmi, Devabhidita, Pippal, Amradeva, Bhartari, Jalvayadhara, Vatapiya,
Arasana, Kasahrida etc. Some other gachchas also
existed.

The names of the many Shevatambara
gachchas extant between 13th and 16th century are available to us from
epigraphical and literary sources. They are as follows ï¿½

It seems that the process of the
rise and fall of the gachchas has been most fast and speedy in Marwar,
esp. in Sirohi region. Jaipur, Haroti, Mewar and malwa regions also more or less
followed their suit. In later mediaeval period, there was a sort of effective
competition in the Tapa and the Kharataragachcha of
Gujarat. As a matter of fact, entire, Shvetambara world moved round the axis of
these2 gachchas. Many of the above mentioned gachchas, probably,
were related to them only, but nothing definite can be said about this for lack
of valid and credible proofs.

Now the question that strikes to us
is that why Gujarat and Rajasthan alone remained not only the sheer patrons of
Jain religion but its enthusiastic propagators also. It has already been seen
that with the passing away of time, Jainism migrated from its birth place to
south and west. The Rajaput dynasties of Rajasthan and Gujarat gave enough
patronage to Jainism afer 6th century A.D. It seems odd that the war and
violence loving Rajputs patronized Jainism. Why?. The reasons there of seems to
be many. By virtue of their simplicity and aptitude of detachment and
renunciation, and non-violent life style, the Jain dharmacharyas
influenced and impressed the contemporary rulers a lot. The followers of Jainism
were normally businessmen who had a wonderful skill of earning riches, and the
habit of amassment and accumulation. Hence, this class remained wealthy but
frugal with an inclination towards religion. The rulers, the feudals and ignored
ones and the poor all looked to them for their cooperation and credit and loan
facilities. Because of this, they continued to receive favours from the Hindu
kings/rulers. This further resulted in the conversion of Vaishnava creditors and
Shaiva Rajputs to Jainism. And the Shvetambara sect showed its zeal to
assimilate many of their elements and attributes. Therefore, this sect spread
more in west India in comparison to the Digambara sect.

Since a good number of people from
the Hindu fold adopted Jain religion, Jainism could get many expert financiers
and able administrators. By dint of their wisdom, intellect, manysided view,
miscellaneous knowledge, and eloquence, the Jains could easily get the posts of
ministers, generals, treasurers, store-keepers, advisers and assayers of metals
and ninerals during the regime and reign of different rulers. On account of
this, while they could succeed in amassing much wealth on the one hand, they
also stood triumphant in the execution of expensive religious activities and in
giving shape to unique and wonderful construction-works.

But the entry of new outer elements
into Jainism paved way for its deformation, disparagement and depravations.
Laxity of conduct became routine. Even traditional Jain religion could not
protect itself much by opposing the then prevailing incongenial climate. Seeing
the grandeur of the Bhattaraka sect of the Digambaras, the Shvetambaras also
grew restless. The recluses of the forest were dragged behind and the
Chityavasis enjoying all mundane pleasures took the reigning power into
confidence.

The Chaityavasi tradition originated
in the Shvetambara sect the same way as did the Bhattaraka sect. The
Shramanas inclined towards laxity in conduct (shithilachara) can
be held responsible for establishing this tradition. The Chaityavasi
sangha was established in V.S. 820 (Vira Nirvana Samvat). The
shramana-shramani class or order of the Chaityavasi Sangha came to
be known as Chityavasi. The Chaityavasi sadhus abandoned Viharas
as their residences, and began to live permanetly in chaityas. The
sadhus, receiving money from the devotees, built up their own temples.
Therein they had their own kitchens from where they took the traditionally
prohibited diet. Thus started deviation from the traditios and scriptural
agams (canons). Gradually, the Chaityavasi tradition became very popular,
and it spread far and wide, especially in west Indian
reign.

As such the suris and the
acharyas could not keep mum for long. During early mediaeval period, Deva
Suri, Nemichandra Suri, Udyotana suri, Vardhmana Suri,
Buddhisagara Suri and most influential Jinachandra Suri in
Gujarat, and Haribhadra Suri and Jinavallabha Suri etc. in
Rajasthan respectively set up the Vidhimarga once again by defeating
Chaityavasis in the light of their eloquence, wisdom, knowledge and intellectual
brilliance. And thus they brought back the original strength of
Jainism.

Nevertheless, some of the
gachchas still remained Under the influence of the Chaityavasis. Among
these, the Sandera gachcha was the one that spread extensively in
Kathiwar and Rajasthan, especially, in Mewar region between 14th and 16th
century. Acharya Yasodeva Suri had established this gachcha
in Sandera of Rajasthan. Similarly, the Raja gachcha tradition started
from a detached ruler Nanna Sur of Talawada. That immediately merged into that
of Vanavsis.

Thought it is not possible to give a
description of all the gachchas and their acharyas in this
monagraph, it seems to be necessary to give a brief description of the
activities of the Tapa gachcha and the Kharatara gachcha of the
later medieval period.

The Tapa
Gachcha :

The traditions of the Tapa
gachcha have hardly got anything to owe to later mediaeval branch or
sub-branch; they are, actually, the developed form of the original Jain
tradition. It is just a coincidence that being influenced by 12 yearly ascetic
practices of the acharya, Jagachchandra suri, Maharawal
Jaitrasingh of Mewar bestowed on him the epithet 'Mahatapa', and hence this came
to be known as the Tapa gachcha. Later on, a larger section of the
Vatagachcha started by a teacher-brother (guru bhai) of
Jagachchandra got affilianted to this gachcha.

Matter-of-factness is that there has
been an important and unbroken tradition of acharyas in the tradition of
the Tapa gachcha. The Primal guru, according to Pattavalis
was Mahavira and other gurus who went on ascending his patta came to be
known as pattadhari. Different pattavalis give their description
also mention about the different sects, sub-sects, ganas, gachchas and
Kulas of the Tapa gachcha.

After Jagachhandra Suri,
there came a decisive turn in the traditions of the Tapa gachcha. One of
his 2 disciples, Shri Devendra Suri continued to behave in a precendet
way, whileas his teacher-brother (guru-bhai) took certain liberaties. As
a result, the Tapa gachcha divided. The tradition of Devendra Suri was
called Laghu Paushadh Shalik whileas that of Vijayachandra Suri was
called Vrihad Paushadh Shalik branch.

There started a separted tradition
in the Laghu Paushadh Shalik at the hands of Somadeva Suri, a disciple of
Lakshmisagara Suri. This branch came to be known as Kamalakalasha branch
also after the name of Kamalakalasha, one of the acharyas of this branch.
Many inscriptional evidences of the acharyas of this branch are
available.

The most important and reputed name
of the acharya of this branch is Hiravijaya Suri. He was a
contemporary of the great Mughal emperor, Akbar. The available inscription let
us know that Tapa gachcha was propagated far and wide by his near
disciples, Suris and ganis. From the epigraphs, it is known that
the Mughal emperors adorned Hiravijaya Suri with the title of Jagadaguru,
and his Hiravijaya Suri's) pattadhara Bhattaraka Vijayadeva Suri
was given the epithet - 'Jahangiri Mahatapa'.

Many references to the different
branches of the Tapa-gachcha are available to us from the
pattavalis and the image inscriptions. These branches are : Nagapuriya
Parshvanatha gachcha, Satyaya gachcha, Dharmaghosha
gachcha, Agamika (Agam) gachcha, Purnimiya
gachcha1 etc. The Nagendra gachcha
and the Malladhari gachcha, started respectively by the acharyas Nagendra
and Malldhari also deserve mention in this respect.

Vrihad Tapa Gachcha could not
be saved from sub-divisions, as is evident form references to the Ratnakara
gachcha founded by an acharya Ratnakara Suri originally
belonging to the Original branch.

The Achala gachcha originated
from the Vrihad gachcha founded by the famous acharya Udyotana
Suri's disciple. The instance gachcha was very much popular in kachcha,
Gujarat and malwa. One peculiar feture brought to light is that some later
mediaeval acharyas began to assume the title of Bhattaraka like the
Digambara acharyas.

The
Kharatara Gachcha :

The Kharatara gachcha
occupies an important place in the Shvetambrara tradition. The literal meaning
of the word 'Kharatara' is very sharp, powerful, full of momentum, splendid or
glorious.

There is enough difference in the
lists of the names of the acharyas of this gachcha as given in
different pattavalis. But in all pattavalis, the name of the
acharya Jineshwara Suri is held in high esteem and great honour.
Since the acharyas defeated Chaityavasis in shastras in the
court of Chaulukya king Durlabharaja of Gujarat, they were endowed with the
epithet 'Kharatara', and their gachcha came to be known as the Kharatara
gachcha of the Shvetambara sect. Gradually, this gachcha made its
impact felt in Sindh, Rajasthan, Malwa and Delhi regions. The later mediaeval
Kharatara acharyas, who adorned the Kharatara patta from the 13th
to the 18th century were respectively - Jinapati Suri, Jineshwara
Suri-II, Jinaprobodha Suri Jinachandra Suri, Jinakushala
Suri, Jinapadma suri, Jinalabdhi Suri, Jinachandra
Suri, Jinodaya Suri, Jinaraja Suri, Jinabhadra Suri,
Jinasamudra Suir, Jinahansa Suri, Jinamanikya Suri, Jinachandra
Suri, Jinasimha Suri, Jinaraja Suri, Jinaratna Suri,
Jinachandra Suri, Jinasukha Suri, Jinabhaksti Suri,
Jinavallabha Suri, Jinachandra Suri, Jinaharsha Suri, Jinasobhagya
Suri, Jinahansa Suri. Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahangir had close
and intimate relations with Jinachandra Suri and Jinasimha
Suri.

With the passage of time, this
gachcha also divided into several branches. Jinavallabha Suri
founded Madhukara Kharatara branch in 1110, Jai Shekhar Suri founded
Rudrapalliya Kharatara branch in 1112, Jinasimha Suri founded Laghu
Kharatara branch in 1274, Jineshwara Suri founded Vaikata Kharatara
branch in 1365, Jinavardhana Suri founded Pippalaka Kharatara branch in
1404, Shantisagara Suri founded Acharyayiya Kharatara branch in 1507,
Bhavaharsha founded Bhavaharshiya Kharatara branch in 1555. Similarly, Laghu
Acharyayiya, Rangavijaya, Sariya branches of the Kharatara gachcha were
founded respectively by Jinasagara Suri in 1629, Rangavijaya gani
in 1643, and Upadhyaya sara. Acharya Mahendrakirti is also credited with the
establishment of a sub-branch at Mandovara in 1835. Besides, the inscriptions
speak of the establishment of Sadhu branch by Jinachandra Suri, Manikya
Suri branch, Kshemakirti branch, Jinaranga Suri branch and also of
these Kulas and ganas. Chandra Kula of the Kharatara
gachcha, Nandi gana of the Kharatara gachchas. These are also
spoken of Vardhamanaswami anvaya, Jinavardhana Suri branch and
Rangavijaya branch.

Several acharyas of this gachcha
installed many images and created vast literature. Many inscriptions are found
in different parts of Rajasthan attest to this fact. However, this reamined more
popular in Jaisalmer and west Rajasthan. At present, Bikaner and japiur
havegadis of this. The
epigraphical evidences of this gachcha are available to us from
1090.

The acharyas, authors, poets,
shravakas, and shravikas rendered wonderful services to the
Kharatara gachcha. Literature produced by them all is not only vast, but
deep too, this has its own dimensions. These contributors did not lag behind in
building activities. Over and above all this, the acharyas of this
gachcha with their wonderful capacity of propagation and digestion
converted and ordained hundreds and thousands of non-Jains, especially,
Kshatriyas, thus increasing Jain population beyond imagination. Others may well
emulate them.

The Lonka
Panhta :

It has already been seen that one
Sirohi resident, Lonkashah1 while transcribing Jain
agamas (canons) in the upashraya of Yali Jnanashri found no
mention of idol worship and hence he stood in opposition to that form of worship
as prevalent then in the Shvetambara sect.1 On canonical ground, he founded his
own separate sect in 1451 called Lonka Pantha. This Pantha
bitterly opposed installation and worship of images and emphasised on inner
realization. Under the given circumstances Lonkashah got success beyond
expectations2. In a sense martin Luther can be
compared with him. Lonkashah presented 31 point doctrinal side along with its
canonical interpretation. But, inspite of thick following, it could not save
itself from division. In the time of the eighth Pattadhara of this sect,
this was divided into Gujarati and Nagori sects. In the 16th century, the
former got itself further sub-divided into two and the later into 3
branches.

In the Lonka pantha also
laxity of conduct creeped as it did among the Chaityavasis. Hence, one
influential follower of the Lonka Pantha, Lawaji with his 2 disciples
started Dandiya Pantha which later on became famous as Sthanaka
marga. This too had no faith in idol-worship. This event is of
1657.

As the time rolled by, many more
divisions branched off from the Sthanakavasis and the Tolas. For example,
we know that Raghunath, Jaimal, Ratanchandra, Chauthmal sects sprouted from
Dhanaji tola. Similarly, other tolas also got divided into many
sects. In Rajasthan, Sthanakavasi sect became very popular in the 17th and the
18th century. Many sthanakas and upashrayas were
built.

One acharya of the Raghunath
sect, Bhikhana founded an independent sect of his own in 1760. This came to be
known as Tara Pantha. According to Bhikhana 13 included 5
mahavratas (great vows)1, 5 samitis (5 Kinds of vigilance
over behavious)2 and 3 guptis (i.e.
protection of mind, speech, and action). This pantha too was a non-believer in
idol-worship. This sect spread much in Mewar and Marwar regions in the 18th
century.

The Lonka Pantha too did not
go alright. Muni Bija (Vijaya) of this gachcha Propounded Bija
doctrine in 1513. This favoured image worship. Similarly, Kadua Shah, a nagar
shravaka of Nadlai formed his Kadua samgha (group) in 1466 laying
stress on image-worship and givind prominence to the shravaka class. This
was in existence in Gujarat upto the 16th century.

It seems, Lonka tradition was
influenced on the one hand by the Gujarati Vedantists who believed in
non-attributive or nirguna feature of the God. and by iconoclastic Islami
monotheism on the other. Whatever might have been the condition, this
pantha made the shaking position of image-worship stationary. This held
Jain belief intact despite all odds, esp. those raised by Islam invaders who
believed in iconoclasm.

Epilogue

Later mediaeval Jainism contributed
a lot to the cultural, social, literary, administrative field and also that of
art of India.

A cursory glance over Jainism makes
us aware of its extensive, huge and wide social background which was, more or
less, an outcome of religious conversion' it also makes us see its religious
background that was divided to extremity. It was divided into shvetambara and
Digambara, conservative and liberal sects, and into idol-worshippers and
non-idol-worshippers, into mandir margis and sthanaka margis, and
into the groups of those who believed in status quo and who did not. There were
non-liberals ans revolutionaries. Thus, Jain society was divided into many
branches and sub-branches. At the top, metaphysics and philosophical
abstruseness did maintain its position, but this age did not produce scholars
like Kundakundacharya, Umaswati (Umaswami, and Haribhadra Suri. No doubt,
we do have long and exhaustive lists of acharyas, Suris,
Bhattarkas, Yatis, ganis, Upadhyayas, but this time the
exponents of syadavada (doctrine of 'may be') and anekantavada
(doctrine of non-absolutism) were entangled in mutual differences, and the
defeat of one by the other in canonical debates was their prestige-issue. They
liked to walk on the golden crutches of those shreshthis who managed and
organized sangha-yatras on their instructions, and regarded repairs of
dharma sthalas, erection of stambha (pillars) and installation of
images as a part of their religious duty. The Bhattarakas and their followers
had made themselves an epitome of material and mundane comforts, and glaring
miracles. They led luxurious life in a feudal fashion, and cared a fig for
non-violence. Post and prestige was the only milestone of the lives of the
acharyas and the sadhus. Conferment of titles by the kings,
rulers, emperors and Sultans mattered most to them, and the spiritual and
philosophical tenets of Jainism the least. They were most concerned about theri
political and social acceptance.

Besides all this, their importance
and impact cannot be denied. They kept the flag of Jainism hoisted by their
religious rituals. Many of them authored a number of books, and inspired their
followers also in this pursuit. Resultantly, literature in the form of legends,
charitas, poetics. memoirs, travelogues etc. was created so abundantly
that even a voluminous and comprehensive book on its review or critique would be
just insufficient. Attempts to protect old manuscriptsand to their transcription
were just wonderful. The Jain scholars wielded their master-pan masterly in the
field of grammar, laxicographies, dialectics poetics, shilpa-shastras,
metallurgy, and medicine. These admirable attempts could, however, save Jain
society and its vital part from being damaged beyond repairs. Jain view could
remain woth grasping and following. Many published works and different
shastra-bhandaras (libraries of the canons) and the protected manuscripts
testify this fact. This will have to be accepted that the originality of
literary and cultural creation could, somehow or the other, be kept intact and
unpolluted. Tendency to look into the past became more and more prominent. But
its reaction to contemporary set-up left all the rivals
behind.

During this period, Jain society
paraded its richness, prosperity, and high-level intelligence. Consequent upon
this, the Rajput states of north and west India, Hindu powers of south and to
some extent, the followers of Islam were kept hypnotised by them; and they also
proved their inevitablity. As such they were made ministers, treasures,
stone-testers, generals, city shreshthis (nobles). Not only this, they
were appointed to many other important posts. Indeed, they also succeeded in
writing the golden history of their political knack, administrative skill,
cultural decency, social prestige, economic and fiscal efficiency. It seems, it
was because of this that the rulers kept them in forefront on many fronts. As
soon as they got rid of their helplessness or became free from their dependence
on them and got hold of other better alternatives, they did by cruelly with
sangramsingh Soni and Muhanta Nainasi; they immediately side tracked them
Without any hitch or hesitation.

During the period under review,
Jains held monopoly over business, trade and commerce and over credit-system,
but much alertness was practised in the expenditure of the income. Despite their
valuable garbs, towering and magnificent mansions Jains practised shila
(restrain) fasts, self-mortification and simplicity. All of their activities
were simple, sans pomp and show and grandeur.

Truly, rich Jain shreshthis,
traders, and officials spent very little on that common man, esp., non-Jain from
whom they earned a lot. Contrarily, they expended profusely on religious deeds,
and building activities. on the one side, there was contraction of vast human
consciousness (or mental function, chetana), and on the other, readiness
of competitive and self-motivated tremendous and unique construction works was
falsifying those destructive activities of the aggressors and invaders which
were, really, a part of their religious duty (which was bigotry), and a matter
or Pride to the them Muslim rulers and administrators. Under such adverse
ciroumstances, the Jain community belowed the bugle of creation over
destruction.

Though of course, change did take
place in the religious rituals, faiths, norms, life-values and social traditions
and heritage owing to the entry of the non-Jains in the fold, but at the same
time, the process of metabolism and netabolism in the original cultural
chetana, i.e. consciousness also cotinued. The process of disintegration
and integration in the entire later mediaeval period lost much as well as gained
much. Jainism however, continued to be inspite of all blows and buffets of
different kinds from differet corners; it handed over its different aspects,
phases, systems, methods and methodologies to the following generation or period
in a more logical and conscious form just to be a big and a memorable chapter in
the cultural history of India. And thus it proved a real blockbuster.

Sources
:

This article is based on various
sources which have been utilised on an exitensive but general basis. Therefore,
a consolidated list of these sources is given below :