ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN: Art History

Pre-Study Discourse: While reading the information in this lesson, keep in mind some of the following questions. Then, once you have finished, return to these questions and answer them as fully as possible.

1. What is the Stele of Naram-Sin?

2. What is the "Code of Hammurabi"?

3. Which civilization was defeated by Alexander the Great?

4. Whose Ceremonial Complex was a mix of artistic traditions?

5. What is an Apadana and who is known for theirs?

Terms to be aware of while reading:As you read this lesson, many terms will be presented that you may not know. Rather than concentrate on their meanings now, just be aware of them as you read. At the end of the lesson, their definitions will be properly defined.

Apadana Bas relief Capital

Cuneiform Hierarchy of Scale Lamassu

Negative Space Relief Sculpture Stele

Ziggurat

What is Mesopotamia and how is it associated with Ancient Near Eastern Art?Ancient Near Eastern Art was made and circulated in the geographical area known as Mesopotamia. This area spanned across the lands of Sumer, Babylon, Akkad, Uruk, Lagash, Kalhu, Assyria, and, of course, Persia - to name a few; this would roughly encompass the modern-day countries of Iraq, Iran, Assyria, and Turkey.

The following information will briefly discuss the art works of just a few of the Mesopotamian societies, namely: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian. The chart below is presented in order to help bring some important information to the forefront. This information, then, will lend a helping hand in being able to identify the civilization and its people's place in history.

SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA

SUMERIAN: Southern Mesopotamia

Although it may be hard to believe, the Sumerian culture was far more advanced than one might think. It is a common misconception that, just because it is dated to roughly 5000 BC, the civilization would be primitive or somehow lacking in substance, grandeur, or importance. This is, in fact, incorrect. The Sumerians were the forerunners of agriculture, writing, and mathematics, and were the driving force that would help influence their neighbors – which included the civilizations to the West.

The Sumerians were an intelligent people who hailed from Sumer, which was made up into many different, independent city-states that included Uruk, Lagash, and even Akkad. Being a very religious group of people, they created art for the sole purpose of honoring their deities (Gods and Goddesses). They also built grand architectural structures for the shrines of their Gods. The Sumerians were also a warring society; and thus, like other ancient civilizations, obtained slaves through conquest.

For their great contributions to the world, they must be remembered for two of the most important inventions and discoveries: the first-known writing system, called Cuneiform (c. 3300 BC); and, the Mathematics system (c. 2600 BC), which encompassed arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. These two inventions, alone, would bring wisdom the world over; thus helping literate societies to write, spell, count, and keep numeric records.

One more achievement can be claimed by the Sumerians: that of the world's first-known written novel, The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2400 BC). This long-running poem, which was written on a total of twelve clay tablets, tells the ancient story of the great King Gilgamesh of Uruk, his adventures and hardships, as well as his friendship with Enkidu and their ultimate sacrifices. This poem signifies a great change in the King and explains how he, as a man, changed to become not only a better person for himself but a better king for his people. Incidentally, this work was introduced to the modern-day world when, in 1853, it was discovered in the ruins of a library that was owned by the Assyrian King Assurbanipal.

It would not be prudent for modern-day people, the world over, to forget the many accomplishments and contributions of the Sumerians. Be it planting crops (cultivating barley and grains), building grand architecture (such as the multi-layered temples called ziggurats), or manipulating metals (like copper and silver into weapons and gold into jewelry), the Sumerians have earned their place in history as a civilization that pioneered its way to the forefront – enabling future generations to pick up their mantle and to continue the grand tradition of discovery.

Characteristics of Sumerian Art:Sumerian art is known for its realistic figures and their active appearances, which almost seem to be "acting out" within the work, as well as the use of empty space. Nudity would not readily be depicted as it was believed to be barbaric in nature, and as such was reserved for the rendering of prisoners, slaves, the vanquished, or barbarians from other lands. Thus, someone of rank or status would never be depicted in the nude. However, in some cases, bare skin was considered to show religious piety; such as the bare chest of a man or the bare right shoulder of a woman. Lastly, human and animal figures could be intermixed in works, like the lamassu, with serious expressions reserved for the human figures and emotional expressions (like pain and anger) saved for the animals.

The Warka Head

THE WARKA HEADUruk3300-3000 BC

Marble

8” High

• Inlaid brows and eyes• Shells, lapis lazuli, gold

Sumerian eyebrows were always connected. The use of shells for the whites of the eyes, lapis lazuli (a blue color) for the pupils, and gold for the hair and eyebrows (now missing) helped create a vivid creation that would be life-like. This sculpture is one of the earliest representations of the human head and was originally attached to a body. It is believed that the head is of a woman and that the woman was the Goddess of love and war, Inanna; especially since it was found in a precinct temple dedicated to the Goddess.

Uruk was especially known for creating art for the sole purpose of the Gods, and nothing else; hence, their creations would be placed inside temples. One unique aspect to their religious beliefs is that their statuary was able to invoke the Gods, meaning that a God would "inhabit" the statue. Furthermore, one could create a statue of themselves, place it in a temple, and then invoke their own spirit to inhabit the piece; this would allow them to speak to the Gods (from within the temple) at all times. For this reason, their creations would be placed on stands in order for the art to be held upright.

The Warka Head was stolen during the looting of the Iraqi National Museum in April 2003 and was recovered in September of that same year.

It is always good to compare sculpture of differing civilizations, past and present. With this in mind, what similarities can youfind between the previous head sculpture and the following? Remember, The Warka Head came before all of these examples.

Would you say that the following were influenced by the Sumerians? Why or why not; and if so, in which ways?

Egyptian, 1350 BC

Greek, 530 BC

Roman, 1st century AD

In the news:

In April of 2003, the Iraqi National Museum was looted and more than 170,000 pieces in their showrooms and storerooms were stolen. Fortunately, thousands of these pieces were recovered, yet, sadly, thousands may never be seen again; lost to the world for all time. Of these recovered pieces, three are studied in this lesson: The Warka Head, The Vase of Uruk, and the Akkadian Ruler (head). To read an article, published in the University of Chicago Chronicle (April 2004), visit:

Another article, this one published by the USA Today newspaper (March 2006), discusses the actions of museums (specifically the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York) that purchase looted goods - either knowingly or unknowingly - and whether or not the original homelands of the objects can and should get the items safely returned. To acquaint yourself with the dire problem of looting, and why you (the represented people of the populous) should be informed, visit:

Lastly, the USA Today newspaper wrote a follow-up article (also March 2006) regarding a few of the cases being pursued by origin countries against the museums of the United States of America. To further your knowledge on the controversial debate, visit:

This whole vase was created in low relief and is considered one of the earliest forms of narrative relief sculpture. It was found in a temple dedicated the the Goddess Inanna. The baskets that are being carried to Inanna, by the nude men, are filled with food stuffs and wine.

The Uruk Vase was stolen during the looting of the Iraqi National Museum in April 2003 and was recovered, damaged, in June of that same year.

Stelai (pl. of stele) were used to mark important, significant, and sometimes religious sites; for instance, that of civic (state) or burial. This particular stele was erected to glorify Man (Naram-Sin) rather than the Gods - although the God Shamash is represented at the top of the stele in the form of one of the suns, and celebrates the king's victory over the Lullubi mountain people. With the self-deification of Naram-Sin, the king is the intermediary between man and God (as the Gods were believed to "own" the city). Although Naram-Sin is self-deified, he has the approval of the Gods and thus rules separately and independently of them without their assistance; a great break from the Sumerians. Naram-Sin, though a God in his own right, still was known for his respect toward and honoring of the Gods, worshiping them as was tradition.

Incidentally, the earliest poet from Mesopotamia was a poet/priestess named Enhaduanna, who was the daughter of King Sargon I of Akkad. She wrote poetry in the Sumerian language and it is said that her poetry helped her father's attempt of uniting Akkad and Sumer. Her best known poems were hymns that celebrated the Gods and Goddesses of Akkad and Sumer, most notably the Goddess of Love, Inanna.

• Gudea • Strong, peaceful, pious ruler – worthy of divine favor • Statues either standing or sitting • Long garment, with inscription • Bare right shoulder AND barefoot • Wears a fleece cap • Face is youthful and serene • Eyes are over-sized and open wide – to return gaze of the deity• Inscription • Dedication of himself, the statue, and its temple to the goddess Geshtinanna: divine poet & interpreter of dreams

In the religious tradition of the Lagash people, the power centers of the human body are the eyes, head, chest, and arms. This would explain why Gudea is depicted with big eyes and a bare right shoulder; by being wide-eyed and bare shouldered, he is opening himself up to the Gods. Looking closer, one can also see that Gudea is holding life-giving water, which overflows in his hands and runs down to a stream (at his feet) that is rich with fish.

Diorite is a very hard stone that would have been extremely expensive in ancient times. Because of its high value, it proclaims the wealth of its owner and importance of its subject. Considering that several Gudea statues, made of diorite, have been found throughout the years, it is safe to assert that Gudea was an extremely revered man and someone whom the people felt was very important.

Compare the Gudea Head to The Warka Head. How are they similar or different? Do you see any influences?

This stele is the said to be the world's first written record of law and punishment. The code held six chapters of some 300 laws that governed: personal property; land; trade and commerce, which included the fixing of prices, rates of interest, promissory notes, and even credit; family; maltreatment; and labor, with the fixing of wages.

The man to the right is the God Shamash, the same God in The Stele of Naram-Sin. The rod and circles that Shamash holds in his hands are symbols of his Godly powers. His beard is much longer than Hammurabi's, which depicts him as a true God of the heavens.

There is something to be said about Babylon and Susa. First, this stele was originally erected in Babylon, where it remained for approximately 600 years before it was stolen by the Elamites in 1175 BC. At that time, it was transferred as a trophy of war to the Elamite capital in Susa - where it rested until its rediscover in 1901. This is why the location is documented as being Susa, although it is - in fact - Babylonian art. Second, the land of Babylon - in the period called Neo-Babylonian - was the home of the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which were one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The gardens were created by the Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, whose reign was from 605-562 BC.

In the news:

Recent news reports, from May 2010, have focused on the dishevelment of some of the most ancient and revered Babylonian sites. Unfortunately, it is the American occupation, since 2003, that has caused some very serous - and many irreparable - damages. To watch the 3-minute video that discusses the Babylonian tragedy, visit:http://youtu.be/idYZT1f0QUI

NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA

ASSYRIAN: Northern Mesopotamia

Ancient Assyria started its long history (in late-24th century BC) as a minor kingdom of Akkad and was subject under Akkadian rulers, like Sargon I. Through the years, the Assyrian people fought their way to form their own, independent empire. Thus, it is a known fact that the Assyrians were a war-like people who were advanced in the areas of war and combat engineering. The "art of war" was the Assyrian's specialty: through excavation, they would dig under enemy walls to gain entrance and then lay siege; through creation of the battering ram, they could knock down enemy walls and force their entrance. They even had corps of engineers who would use their prowess to bridge rivers, enabling the Assyrians to "walk over water" (as they say). Not being inhibited by normal limitations, the Assyrians were very capable and able at making war and conquering their neighbors.

However, before you begin thinking that the Assyrians were only capable of bloodshed, you should know that they made great advancements in astronomy, science, and mathematics.

The Assyrians had a lens (dubbed the Nimrud Lens) that is believed to do two things: be a magnifying glass that would enable a scribe to write incredibly small script (which is visible on some of their art) and/or be an ancient form of a telescope. Although scholars are divided on the use of the lens, it is interesting to note that the Assyrians were, in fact, astronomers and watched the sky: the stars, moon, cycles, abnormalities, and even planets (like Saturn and Venus). And, it is known (by evidence of books, written by priest-astronomers, that were found in Mesopotamia) that the Assyrians recorded 18 constellations - which was the proto-type for our modern-day zodiac - and wrote descriptions about the rings of Saturn.

How would the Assyrians be able to accomplish such feats if the Nimrud Lens wasn't used as a scientific amplification device?

For science, the Assyrians had a very advanced plan of medicine. Although their methods are different from modern-day conventions, the ancient doctors knew a great deal about the body and how to aid in making it feel better. From an ancient medical book that was written in Sumerian (now translated into a 900 page book), we have learned that the doctors would prescribe herbs, pills, and elixirs as well as perform surgery; also, there were doctors who would specialize in areas such as pediatrics, obstetrics, and vision - just to name a few. Interestingly enough, the "active ingredient" in ancient medicine is the very same "active ingredient" in today's medicine: Vitamin A (which is rich in liver) to cure night blindness and Salicylic Acid (which is in Tylenol) to aid in headaches, for example. And, there was a strict honor code that prohibited doctors from overcharging patients and providing false hope (just to render more money).

Another contribution to the world from the Assyrians is the division of the circle into 360 degrees. This may seem trivial but think about navigation for a moment. Imagine sailing the seas, or flying the skies, and not knowing where you are; or having to pinpoint where an unknown location is - as the Navy or Air Force do today. It is safe to say that navigation is heavily dependent on the coordinates of longitude and latitude. Because the Assyrians invented the division of a circle into its 360 degrees, the world now has the absolutely vital ability of specific navigation through these coordinates.

It would seem that, in the case of the Assyrians, the misguided modern-day notion that the Assyrians were nothing but "barbaric, violent, and vicious" is not true. Yes, they were war-like people, but, they also contributed to the world - as other ancients have done before and after them - in very significant ways. And, they were known to be religiously devout, honoring their Gods with much reverence. In fact, the doctors that were revered by the people to perform the medical procedures were priests who worshiped in the divine temples. Thus, just because a society seems cruel doesn't mean that its people are any less viable to the world of mankind.

Characteristics of Assyrian Art:The use of the lamassu - a creature with five legs, a bearded male head, wings of an eagle, and the body of a bull (with hooves) or a lion (with claws) - is a signature of Assyrian Art. This creature was used to protect the palace from evil spirits and thus was placed on either side of the palace doors; some were even placed at the gateways to the Assyrian cities. From the front, the lamassu is seen to have two legs and is considered at rest; but from the side, the creature has four legs and appears to be on the move. This illusion is due to the five-legged design; it has an extra leg when viewed from the side in order to give a realistic four-legged stride. (Images can be seen in the Assyrian photo gallery.)

Shallow relief is a specialty of Assyrian artists, who are noted for writing on their creations using Cuneiform. In representing male figures, the length of the beard is the symbolic marker of how religious, deified, or otherwise important the person is in society. Lastly, Assyrian art makes a shift from the previous tradition in that they start using art as a narrative - a way of telling a story. No more is it only a snapshot, like a photograph, rather, it is supposed to be viewed as an image with motion, like a film.

This piece was created in low relief and is supposed to be viewed as an on-going process (like a film), not merely just a "moment" in time (as if the hunt were caught in a photograph). Also, with careful inspection, one will see that the animals express great emotion (ie, anger and pain) but the king remains calm and stoic, emotionless. It is said that this scene is of a "ceremonial" hunt because the lions are believed to have been wounded (with the depicted arrows) prior to this event; thus, it does not depict a "real" lion hunt, but rather, a lion hunt for show only.

Assurnasirpal II moved the traditional capital of Assur to Kalhu. In 863 BC, he gave a huge banquet for over 69,500 people in order to celebrate the dedication of the new capital. He was known to be exceedingly brutal toward his enemies and favored merciless killings of anyone captured (women, children, or men). He was a lover of art and thus had a palace that was filled with relief sculpture - most with inscription about himself. For Kalhu and the Assyrian people, he fortified the city, irrigated fields, and provided water for the inhabitants.

PERSIAN: Northern Mesopotamia

Although Persia, in general, has offered many contributions to the world, none stands higher in importance than the one handed down to us by Cyrus (II) the Great. Cyrus was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire - a unification between the Medes and Persians, in c. 559 BC, that was named after the first Persian king, Achaemenes. He was a military genius who controlled a vast empire that included such areas as Babylon, Media, and the Aegean Islands. But, more than that, he was genuinely a man of great compassion for humanity.

When Cyrus' army defeated their enemies, he would not execute the order (as was custom at the time) for needless slaughter. Instead, he gave them equality, freedom, and toleration. His peaceful entrance into the city of Babylon in 539 BC, without bloodshed, has been documented on a cylinder that tells of his benevolence: that he freed the Jewish slaves and permitted them to go back to their homeland; that every destroyed temple would be restored; and that humans should be treated equally, no matter of their religion or racial background. In short, it was the first-ever decree of human rights. This cylinder - a document that started the notion of basic human decency - is the infamous Cyrus Cylinder.

The Cyrus the Great Cylinder, as it's also called, is a great gift to humanity the world over. It is from the basis of this document that the "natural human rights" of modern-man were established: every human has the right to equality; every human has the right to have food, water, and shelter; every human has the right to religious tolerance; and every human has the right to keep their own unique identity, intact. All of this comes to us because one Persian believed that his conquered enemies were human - and in that, he gave them choices, liberties, tolerance, restoration, respect, and peace.

Beyond the greatness of Cyrus II, Darius I was the first to mint a Persian coin that had a miniature low-relief image of himself. It would seem that this ingenious placement of propaganda was a far-reaching idea, one that was used throughout the history of the world.

Think of the money today: rulers and presidents all over the world have their image on the currency of their nations. When you spend money, you acknow- ledge the validity of the person on the coin or bill. But, would you say that the use of money as propaganda is an ancient convention, or is it a valid point even today?

The Persians are not only known for their beautifully woven, lavish carpets but for their talents in fabric textiles and delicate metalwork, as well. Some of the most beautiful and intricate metal pieces of art are of Persian creation. And, women in the Persian society were able to hold power and positions of status - some being business women who ran viable textile shops from their home. In fact, the queen of Caria herself, Artemisia I, was a commander and military leader under KingXerxes I.

In this, The Persians gave the world more than just material wealth; rather, they gave the world a human heart.

Characteristics of Persian Art:

The use of double bull or lion shaped capitals atop their columns is a staple in Persian art, as well as the creation of bell-shaped bases with inverted lotus blossoms. Strong use of line, extensive details, and unique color choices are other significant characteristics of the Persian style. Being that Persia was the largest empire the world had ever seen up to this time, it was a common practice to blend the cultural aspects of its many inhabitants into their style. Meaning, a signature of theirs is to fuse their subject nation's artistic styles with the Persian style; thus creating a Persian style that is as varied and diverse as the empire itself. With this, their art was characteristic of Persian, Mede, Babylonian, Assyrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and (eventually) Greek. And, as a way to symbolize the massiveness of the empire (as well as to glorify the rulers) within their art, the Persian style would also include huge civic and private architectural structures, such as monuments, audience halls, and ceremonial buildings.

• Persepolis is the Greek name for new capitol of Parsa - established by Darius in 518 BC (original was in Susa)• New style: • Combines different art traditions of Persian, Mede, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek• Assyrian Style: • Set on (40’ high) raised platform • Laid out on rectangular grid (1500’ x 900’)

This feat of Persian architecture was created on artificial terraces, made of mud brick and faced with stone, and had giant lamassu gates within the structure - additions that would develop into the new Persian style. The Complex, however, was destroyed by the Macedonian King, Alexander the Great, after he defeated Darius III, in 330 BC.

Columnar Orders

A comparative of Persian, Greek, and Neolithic.

Detail (1) of columnar order from Ceremonial Complex

The Columnar Order:The style of columns used in the architecture of different societies; each column has some kind of base, shaft, and capital. The column can be merely for decoration (engaged) or fully functional as a support mechanism.

Detail (2) of columnar order from Ceremonial Complex

The Persians used a column that had a double bull - or sometimes, double lion - capital (topper), a fluted (ridged) shaft, and a decorated base (bottom foot). Some variations would be employed, including:mushroom-like columns, the use of volutes (scrolls), a mix of flowery bloom on a fluted shaft, and the creation of bell-shaped bases with an inverted lotus blossom.

Example ofCorinthian column

The Greeks used three different columns: • Doric - a column with a slight entasis (bulging middle) in its fluted or smooth shaft that has a plain capital and no base. • Ionic - a column that has a fluted shaft that utilizes volutes (scrolls) in the capital and has a simple base • Corinthian - a column that has a highly decor- ated capital that uses an acanthus (plant) design, a slim fluted shaft, and a simple base.

Example of Ionic column

In the Ceremonial Complex, Persepolis, the architects used not only Persian columns but also Greek Ionic and Corinthian columns, as well.

The Post and Lintel system, which was used in the making of Stonehenge, is another type of architectural con-struction that was utilized in the Complex.

In this, two posts were erected side-by-side and then another post (called the lintel) was placed on top to form a vertical rectangular shape.

Could the use of intermixing styles within the Ceremonial Complex be a clear example of the influential transference taking placebetween the victorious and the conquered? And, if it is, then would this be an accurate depiction of the philosophicalnotion of conquerors being conquered? Why or why not?How would you explain this phenomenon?

And, keeping in mind that the Post-and-Lintel system was primarily used in Neolithic Europe, consider the following:• Should Persian architecture be classified as having been influenced by Europe? OR,• Should the Persians be classified as being artistically unique, thus being appreciatedfor contributing to the arts through "their own" ingenuity and creativeness of findingnew ways to present "old" ideas?

The Apadana, or audience hall, at the Ceremonial Complex was started by King Darius I, but, completed by his son, Xerxes I. Before his death, Darius witnessed the glory of his power, as projected within the completed forms of the Apadana, the treasury, and his own small palace. When Xerxes took over rule, and thus the workmanship on the complex, he expanded the original treasury, built an additional palace for himself, and erected a throne room that served as a reception hall for military commanders and representatives of subject nations. This throne room was dubbed the "Hall of 100 Columns".

The structure of the actual Apadana had 36 columns that were covered by a roof. Each column had a bell-shaped base with an inverted lotus blossom and bull or lion capitals. The stairs that lead up to the "audience hall" were adorned with relief of the New Year's festivals. The Apadana could hold thousands of people and was used for huge receptions by the king.

Within this huge structure, there are many forms of symbolism being used in order to heighten the king's reputation of being strong, formidable, and ready-for-battle. In this, we have reliefs that depict: the 10,000 Mortals, tiered ranks of Royal Guards; Lion Attacking Bull, which demonstrates the ferocity of the leaders and their men; Warriors in repeated patterns, whom are ready to defend the palace at any time; and Gift Bearers, people who are walking up to the palace, even traveling the stairs, in order to pay homage to the king.

During Darius' reign (as one of the Achaemenid Kings), he created a system for fair taxation, made a standard currency that had his likeness stamped on it, and improved communication within the empire by creating the world's first-ever postal system - which provided fresh horses, supplies, and the ability to send and receive messages in as little as two weeks. Also, under his supervision, the Persian Empire was divided into 20 provinces; each province having its own governor. This governing system allowed Darius to hold direct rule over his empire, while also providing internal security throughout. All of these key elements helped forge a strong Persian regime, which solidified Darius' rule.

• Darius I sits on the throne while his son and heir, Xerxes I, stands behind him• Originally painted: deep blue, scarlet, green, purple, and turquoise• Darius’ crown and necklace: originally covered in gold leaf

The scene depicted not only conveys the king being honored, with his heir and son standing close-by, but it also depicts the usage of hieratic scale. By looking closely, one will see that Xerxes is larger than everyone else - everyone but the king, of course. Because Darius is seated, it only appears that he is smaller in design. However, if Darius were to stand, he would, in fact, be the tallest person present; even taller than Xerxes. And, more precisely, the hieratic scale is not only used to determine height, but in width, as well.

Color Comparison

Viewing Babylonian art to understand Persian colors

The Ishtar Gate may be Babylonian, from the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar, and dated c. 575 BC, but, it holds some truth for Persian analysis in modern times. Since most of the pigment has faded from the architectural phenomenon of the Persian Empire, it is difficult to imagine the original vibrant colors that would have been present. In this, The Ishtar Gate can be of extreme value and use to Persian study.

The colors on The Ishtar Gate are similar to those that were used by the Persians. The deep blue, scarlet, green, purple, and turquoise can readily be seen in the less faded, well-preserved appearance of the Babylonian structure, which now stands, reconstructed, in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin.

How do these colors compare to modern-day colors of the same name?

VOCABULARY:At the beginning of this lesson, there were "terms that you should be aware of" while reading.Now that you have finished the material, see how well you can define them.Compare your answers with the following definitions.

ApadanaAn audience hall in a Persian palace

Bas ReliefA very shallow type of relief; bas relief, low relief, and shallow relief are all the same thing

CapitalThe upper-top element on a column

CuneiformA system of writing, created by the Sumerians, that is formed in wedge-like or arrowhead shapes and pressed into wet clay with a stylus

Hierarchy of Scale/Hieratic ScaleExpresses a person’s importance by the representation of their size in the work; the larger the figure, the more important they are

LamassuA colossal winged and bearded human-headed bull in Assyrian art that has 5 legs (with paws of a lion or hooves of a bull) and wears the horned headdress associated with the Gods; they are the protectors of the palace and the throne room - and thus, stand on either side of a door or gate in pairs

Negative SpaceEmpty space around an object that has been cut-out; most notably, within reliefs

Relief SculptureSculpture that projects from a flat background; thus, the background is carved away, providing negative spacewithin the work

SteleA stone slab that marks a grave or other site of importance; it was placed vertically and was always covered with sculpture relief and text

ZigguratA huge pyramid-like building that has several layers, each one indenting as the structure gets taller, that reach toward the Gods and the heavens; thus, it has terraces on each level and often supports a shrine at the very top

CONGRATULATIONS!

You have finished your first Classical Art History lesson. It might have seemed like a lot of information, so please be sure to review the works often to keep all of the information fresh in your mind. Also, before you move on to the next lesson, here are a few reminders:

1. Don't forget to go back to the top and answer the Pre-Study Discourse questions.2. It is suggested that you write down the definitions of the terms in a notebook; this will help you keep a log of vocabulary words that are important for the study of Art History.3. Review any area that might have been a bit difficult to understand or memorize.4. For best results, you should memorize the details regarding each image; information like Title, Civilization, Ruler, Media (what it is made out of), and Historical Placement (what makes the piece important in history).5. To help reassure your knowledge about the images, make sure to visit the photo album galleries; each civilization has its own album, for ease of navigation.6. Be sure to discuss your knowledge on our FaceBook companion page by commenting often.7. And as always, contact me anytime with questions.

Now that you're ready to move on, you have two options: to get the study guide for this section, in order to take a test over the material presented in this lesson; OR, to continue on with your studies by going to the next section, which is Ancient Egyptian Art. No matter your choice, just make your way back to the top and click away.

Good luck!

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