These days it is unimaginable that a technical report
or article can be written without some form of graphic display to support
the text. With the advent of the digital age incorporating images in a
written report is as easy as clicking the mouse a few times. Indeed, one
look at a technical journal will reveal the vast array of graphics that
engineers adopt when discussing their work. Click on the link to see an
example of a technical
paper. In this one paper you will see a wide selection of graphics:
a mathematical equation, a line drawing, detailed images taken by sophisticated
equipment and to a line graph. The graphics actually take up half of the
article, but they are indispensable.

Before discussing in detail how to create, format, and
incorporate graphics into your report or presentation, let's consider
the types of graphics normally used in technical writing and their functions.
Keep in mind that graphics are used to illustrate what words
would say; and as we all know, "A picture is worth a thousand words".
Remember, though, that this is true only if the picture is relevant and
well developed.

Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in your technical
writing:

Real things (Objects)
- If you want to describe how any piece of equipment or machinery works,
you'll do a much better job if you provide a drawing or diagram. Any explanation
will benefit from an illustration of how that particular task is done.
Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics
that show objects.

Numbers - Tables,
bar charts, pie charts, and line graphs are some of the principal ways
to show numerical data. If you're discussing the rising cost of cars in
Singapore, you could use a table with the columns for the different time
periods; and the rows for different types of cars. You could show the
same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs. We will
discuss these in more detail later.

Instructions -
When giving complex instructions or explaining a process consider using
a flowchart. It simplifies the process and the understanding of the instructions.
See Example A.

Descriptions -
When giving descriptions, you would also want to use pictures or drawings.
Simple drawings (often called line drawings because they use just lines,
without other details such as shading) are the most common. They simplify
the situation and the objects so that the reader can focus on the key
details. This is done by using tools such as shading and depth perspectives.
See Example B and Example
C.

Choices - When
submitting a proposal, recommendation, or evaluation report, photographs
are a good visual aid to use. For example, if you are recommending a one
building site over another, or one machine over another, include photos
of the two (or more) alternatives. See Example
D.

When to use graphics
- You be the judge! Normally you would need a graphic if:

you are using to many words to explain something

you are presenting trends or a lot of numerical data

you are doing a comparison over many categories

Formatting

When you use any graphic in a report, there are several
formatting requirements to keep in mind:

Titles
-- Except in very special cases, any visual aid you use should have a title.
The titles of all the illustrations should be numbered. For example, Figure
1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2 and so on. If you only have one or two illustrations,
then you might want to keep the title but discard the word "Figure"
and the number following it.

Example 1

Labels
-- All illustrations that describe something should contain labels. That
is, words and phrases with pointers that name the parts of the things being
described. See Example E.

Figure 1. Percentage of Elder
Houses on the High Counsel in 2001 Quarterly by Region (Alternate
Title)

Keys
-- Some illustrations, like bar or pie charts, have certain shadings, colors,
or line styles, that have a special meaning, these should be indicated in
a key. That is, an area in an unused corner of the illustration that lists
and describes their meaning. See Example 1

.

Positioning
-- You should place all illustrations just after the point where they have
been discussed (cross-referenced). If this placement is not possible because
of the way the text falls on the pages and the size of the illustrations,
then you can put the graphic at the top of the very next page. The fact
that graphics and their explanations sometimes do not fall on the same page
is the reason why we need to number every illustration.

Size
-- Illustrations should normally be between a-half to one-quarter of the
vertical size of the page. You want them to fit on the page with the text
that discusses/describes them and their main findings. Ideally, illustrations
should be scattered among the text and not come all at once at the end.
Also,try not to take up a whole page with one figure. This is because the
reader would have to flip to and from the figure and the page where you
discuss it.

NOTE: Don't use up too much time creating
the perfect graphic. This course is a report writing course, not a computer
graphic or arts course. And a simpler graphic works better than a really
complicated one. Compare Example 1 above and Example 2 below. Which one
do you think is clearer?

Example 2

Let's look at some of the more common graphics used in
technical writing and presentations.

Tables

Tables are those rows and columns of numbers and, sometimes,
words. They allow rapid access to information and comparison of information.
Of course, tables are not necessarily the most vivid or dramatic means
of showing trends or relationships between data (see the section on charts
and graphs).

Uses for tables.
The biggest use of tables is for numerical data. Imagine that you are
comparing different models of coffee makers. All specifications, whether
they are price or physical characteristics such as height, depth, length,
weight, and so on are perfect for a table.

However, don't think that tables are only for numerical data. For the
example above on coffee makers, you'd be providing information for the
same category about each model (its cost, water capacity, supply costs,
warranty terms, and so on). This is perfect for a table, and it would
be made up mainly of words rather than numbers.

Table format. A table can be as simple
as one row and one column of data. It can also be very complex.

At the top of each column is a column heading.
This defines or identifies the contents of that column (and usually it
indicates the unit of measurement, for example, percentage or kilograms).
On the left edge of the table there are usually row
headings. These define or identify the contents of those rows.
When rows or columns have to be grouped or subdivided, you have to create
row or column subheadings. See Examples 3
and 4.

Example 3(Format
for tables with grouped or subdivided rows and columns.)

Table 4. Doubling-Dates for Carbon Dioxide Concentrations for
Different Fuel Use Combinations.

Note the absence of any row headings in the last table.
They are not necessary as the table is very simple.

Note also that in both tables the
source of the information is given very clearly.

Traditionally, the
title of a table is placed on top of the table or is
the first row of the table. Sometimes tables can be considered as figures
(that is, the same as illustrations and other graphics), and can be numbered
them within the same sequence. Usually, though, tables are numbered separately
from other graphics. Always start with: Table
+ number.

As for specific style and formatting guidelines for tables, keep these
in mind (most of these guidelines were illustrated in Examples 3 &
4):

Don't overwhelm readers with monster 11-column, 30-row
tables! Simplify the table data down to just that amount of data that
illustrates your point - without of course distorting that data.

Don't put the word or abbreviation for the unit of measurement
in every cell of a column. For example, if a column of measurements is
all in millimeters, don't put "mm" after every number. Put the
abbreviation in parentheses in the column or row heading.

Right-align numbers in the columns. If the numbers 763
and 4 were in the adjoining cells of a column, the 4 would be right below
the 3, not below the 6 or 7.

763

NOT

763

4

4

Column headings are centered over the columns of numerical
data;

When there is some special point you need to make about
one or more of the items in the table, make it below the table or use
a footnote(see the * in Example 3). Do not clog up the table with excess
information.

Producing tables. If you are writing
about someone else's work, you can copy the information or table from
an article or book. If it's a simple table without too many rows and columns,
you can retype it yourself into your own document.

However, remember to state clearly where you borrowed
it from. You can do this in the figure title, just below it or
as a footnote!!

Most of the advanced word-processing software packages,
such as MS Word or Excel have table-generating tools. You don't have to
draw the lines or the other formatting details by hand anymore.

In many first drafts of technical reports, some information is presented
in running-text form that could be better presented in table form. So
make sure you revise your rough drafts. As you may find some material
that could be transformed into a table or is best suited for tables.

Charts and graphs
Charts and graphs are another way of presenting the same data that is
presented in tables. However, they are a more dramatic and interesting
way. One thing to remember, though, is that graphs and charts are less
accurate than tables.

Imagine the difference between a table of car registration
figures for a ten-year period in Singapore and a line graph for that same
data. The line graph will give a better sense of the overall trend, but
not the precise number. See the examples below.

Bar ChartsLet's take another look at the table
in Example 4. The data in this table lends itself perfectly well to the
development of a bar chart:

We can see here how a chart is visually both more appealing
(mainly because of the colours) and clearer in highlighting the differences.
However, it does not have the same degree of accuracy as the table. There
is no way you could get the number "21,586" for Dutch from the
chart; no matter how carefully you measured the last bar.

Pie ChartsIf the data is shown in percentage and
adds up to 100%, then a pie chart may be useful. Again, it is worth noting
that it is not as accurate as a table. However, like a bar chart, it shows
comparisons and divisions very clearly.

For example, if your data was as outlined in Table 4.2
below, you could present it in a pie chart (Example 6). The relative sizes
are immediately visible.

However, we cannot get the actual percentage from the
chart. At the same time when the percentages get very small, so do the
slices of the pie and therefore they become difficult to see (look at
the slices for ACT, Tasmania and N. Territory).

Table 4.2 Italy-born by state
in Australia 1991 (1991 Census, ABS)

State

%

VIC
NSW
SA
WA
QLD
ACT
TAS
NT

41.7
27.7
11.4
10.5
6.9
1.1
0.5
0.2

Australia

100.0

Example 6

Figure 4.3 Italy-born by state in Australia 1991 (1991 Census,
ABS)

Line GraphsLine graphs are great for showing comparisons and trends.
This is particularly true if you have more than one line in the one graph.
See example 7. In this example (taken from the University of Reading's
Meteorology website) monthly trends, fluctuations and differences in the
minimum, average and maximum temperatures are very clear. But can you
tell me (accurately) what was the maximum temperature on Wednesday, 10
July?

You can only say that it was about 19.6 degrees Celsius.
If you are interested in accuracy then a table would be your best choice.

Producing charts and graphs. As with
tables and other illustrations, there are many ways of creating charts
and graphs: photocopying from other sources, generating your own with
special software, and manually drawing your own. Many of the word processors
have features for generating charts and graphs. You can also get special
software designed specifically to produce charts and graphs. In fact,
some of the examples in this section were produced using Microsoft PowerPoint.Formatting requirements. When you
create charts and diagrams, keep these requirements in mind:

Axis labels - In
bar charts and line graphs, don't forget to indicate what the x and y
axes represent. One axis might indicate numbers of cars; the other, the
time period of the investigation. For example, five-year segments from
1980 to the present.

Keys - As was discussed
in the beginning of this study guide, bar charts, line graphs, and pie
charts often use special color, shading, or line style (solid or dashed).
These have to be explained. Usually this is done in a key
(a box) in some unused place in the chart or graph.

Figure titles -
Include a title and a number the figure. The reason why we number figures
or tables is this: if you discuss (cross-reference) the figure or table
elsewhere in the text then the readers need a quick way of knowing which
figure or table they are reading about. Traditionally, the
title of a figure is placed below the figure.

Documenting graphics - indicating
sources
As mentioned earlier, you are allowed to "borrow" graphics produced
and published by other people. That is, you can trace, photocopy, scan,
or extract subsets of data from any publication and use them in your report.
However, you MUST cite your sources for graphics
just as you are for the words you "borrow" from authors. Normally,
this is done in the figure title of the graphics or just below the graphic
or in a footnote.

Documentation- If you borrow information or data to create
a graphic, don't forget to cite the source of any information you
borrowed. That is, say where you got the information from. You have
to mention the person who worked so hard to get it and who deserves
credit for that effort.