Citizenship 1906-2003

The 20th century saw the resolution of the struggles
over representation and trade unionism that had commanded attention
in 19th-century Britain. When women got the right to vote on
equal terms with men, universal suffrage
was finally achieved. The strength of organised labour continued
to grow (by the late 1970s trade union membership had reached
around 13 million), until new labour laws curtailed trade-union
powers. In the 20th century citizenship also had to address
issues such as pressure for improved economic and social conditions,
the end of empire, membership of the European Union, and the
impact of increased immigration.

Social and economic rights

Throughout the course of the century, the government became
increasingly involved in efforts to eradicate poverty and
improve the living conditions of ordinary citizens. The provision
of old-age pensions (1908) and national insurance (1911) by
Herbert Asquith's Liberal government signalled the start of
state planning aimed at improving welfare. A tremendous sacrifice
was demanded from the population during the two world wars,
and people needed to feel they were fighting for a better
future. In 1918 Lloyd George had declared his intention 'to
make Britain a fit country for heroes to live in', and between
the wars there was partial success in clearing slums and building
better housing.

However, it was not until after the Second World
War that real progress was made. In 1945 the British people
signalled their determination for change by voting the Labour
Party into power with a landslide victory. Clement Attlee's
government was able to implement the Beveridge
Report (1942), which provided a blueprint for a comprehensive
system of welfare benefits. These included a national health
service, universal pensions and unemployment insurance, and
family allowances.

Empire and Europe

From the late 1940s through to the 1970s, the British empire
was dismantled. The
Atlantic Charter
of 1941, signed by Britain, stated that colonised people had
a right to choose the form of government they wanted to live
under. Although at the time this was seen as a long-term ideal,
after the Second World War Britain lacked the resources to
hold on to colonial possessions in the face of determined
independence movements.

In 1973 Britain found a new international role
as a member of the European Economic Community (EEC) - later
the European Union (EU). British citizens became citizens of
Europe. The Single European Act (1987) meant that by 1992 people
of EU member states had the right to live, work and study in
any EU country.

Some in Britain feared loss of national sovereignty
as the EU expanded its role. The Maastricht Treaty of 1997 proposed
economic and monetary union, and a common foreign and security
policy. In the area of social policy a 'Social Chapter' committed
member states to promoting employment, improving living and
working conditions, providing proper social protection and dialogue
between management and labour, and developing human resources.
Initially the British government chose to opt out from both
the Social Chapter and monetary union, although later (in 1997)
they signed the Social Chapter. European laws came to have important
consequences for human rights and working conditions in the
UK.

British citizenship

During the 20th century British society became increasingly
multicultural. People from around the world came to settle
in Britain, among them Irish families escaping economic hardship,
Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany, Afro-Caribbeans and Asians
coming to work in Britain during the 1950s, Asians expelled
from Uganda in 1972, and residents leaving Hong Kong before
the colony was handed over to China in 1997.

At the beginning of the
century, if you could prove you were born within the British
empire you could claim full nationality rights in Britain. The
British Nationality Act of 1948 conferred the status of British
citizen on all Commonwealth subjects and recognised their right
to work and settle in the UK and to bring their families with
them. However, Commonwealth immigration generated hostility
out of all proportion to its size, especially during times of
economic downturn. Consequently, the right to reside in the
UK was restricted by the 1971 Immigration Act. From 1971, 'right
of abode' was limited to those with a prior link to the UK,
such as a parent or grandparent who was born here - which had
the effect of virtually ending 'primary' immigration.

The British Nationality Act of 1981 abolished
the 1948 definition of British citizenship and replaced it with
three categories: British citizenship, citizenship of British
dependent territories, and British overseas citizenship. Of
these, only British citizenship provides the right to live in
the UK. Today, British citizenship can be acquired by birth
(if at the time of birth either parent is a British citizen
settled in the UK), descent (for a person born abroad, if either
parent is a British citizen at the time of birth) or naturalisation.
The latter is at the discretion of the Home Secretary and is
dependent on criteria such as residence, language, employment
and good character.

Civil and human rights

In 1969 the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18. However,
in recent years apathy amongst voters has been noticeable.
The turnout at the 2001 general election was the lowest since
1918, and both among young voters and within ethnic communities
there is considerable scepticism about politics.

In recent decades the rights of the individual
have been the subject of closer scrutiny, and laws have been
passed banning discrimination on grounds of gender, race or
disability, with the aim of creating an equal and inclusive
society. In addition, there is now a greater emphasis on the
role of education in combating prejudice and promoting both
the concept of citizenship and the value of participation in
the democratic process.