Organization of exchanges

All stock exchanges perform similar functions with respect to the listing, trading, and clearing of securities. They differ in their administrative machinery for handling these functions.

The London Stock Exchange, the largest in the world in terms of the number and variety of domestic and international securities traded, is an independent institution not subject to governmental regulation. It resembles a private club with its own constitution and operating rules, administered by a council that, except for the government broker who is an ex officio nonvoting member, is elected by the membership. Operating responsibility is vested in the secretary and his staff.

In the United States, as in Great Britain, the government does not participate directly in the operations of the exchanges. Since 1933, however, Congress has enacted half a dozen measures that in one way or another affect the securities market. The most important are the Securities Act of 1933, which is primarily concerned with the new-issue market, and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, which is directed toward the trading market. The latter requires that every stock exchange register with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) as a national securities exchange, unless it is exempted because of the limited volume of its transactions, and that it conform to certain rules in its trading practices. This relationship between the stock exchanges and the SEC is peculiar to the United States; it involves a sort of administrative partnership between the exchanges as private associations—but functioning as quasi-public institutions—and the government. The exchanges generally may adopt policies and issue regulations governing their own operations but are subject to SEC intercession in the event that the Commission believes modifications are required in the public interest.

Most European exchanges are also subject to some form of governmental regulation. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange is a private organization, relatively free to regulate the activities of the market, but the Minister of Finance exercises some supervision under existing legislation. The Zürich exchange is governed by a board of elected members that determines general policy and coordinates the work of the exchange’s committees. Of these, the Zürich Cantonal Committee, which directs dealings on the floor of the exchange, is chaired by the head of the Finance Department of the State of Zürich. Although the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is under the direct administration of a Board of Governors elected by its own members, the rules of the exchange must be approved by the authorities of the state of Hesse; and the official specialists, each responsible for the trading in certain securities, are appointed by the Minister of Finance in the state of Hesse. In Brussels the Ministry of Finance is involved in the appointment of members to major committees, while a governmental representative is attached to each exchange to supervise the observance of all rules and laws; in addition, the Banking Commission that is nominated by the government has substantial powers over the admission of securities to public trading. The policy-making Exchange Commission of the Paris bourse is headed by the Governor of the Banque de France, while the regular members are chosen by the Ministry of Finance; the agents de change who supervise the trading process are semigovernmental officials. New members of the Italian stock exchanges are appointed by the government from a list of candidates as a result of competitive examinations and therefore have some public status.

Since 1953, membership in the New York Stock Exchange has been limited to 1,366. Only individuals may be members, but they may be partners or stockholders of organizations that do business with the public. Their organizations in such cases are known as member firms. The exchange supervises and regulates member firms in what it considers to be the public interest: a majority of the owners must be engaged primarily in the business of brokers or dealers in securities; exchange approval is required of any shareholder with a 5 percent interest in a member corporation; and all principal officers and directors who are active in the firm must be members or allied members of the exchange. An allied member is subject to the rules of the exchange but does not have the right to engage in transactions on the floor.

Trading floor of the New York Stock Exchange, New York City.Justin Guariglia—xPACIFICA/Redux

To become a member, an individual must acquire, with the approval of the board of governors, a “seat” from a present member or from the estate of a deceased one. Before granting approval, the exchange will investigate such matters as the applicant’s past record and financial standing; he will also have to pass an examination demonstrating his knowledge of the securities field.

There are several kinds of brokers on the floor of the exchange. They include the commission broker who executes customer orders placed at or near the current market price; the specialist in one or more issues who, as a broker, executes limited orders for other members and, as a dealer, buys and sells securities for his own account; floor brokers, or “two-dollar” brokers, who execute orders for other brokers at a commission but have no contact with the public; brokers associated with odd-lot firms, who undertake to buy or sell in quantities other than the standard 100-share lot; and “registered traders” who buy and sell for their own account.

To become a member of the London Stock Exchange, an individual must acquire a “nomination” from a retiring member at a price that varies with demand and supply. Every applicant must be approved by at least three-quarters of the stock exchange council. A member may be a broker, dealing as an agent of the public, or a jobber, dealing for his own account with other brokers or jobbers.

Membership in the Paris stock exchange is limited to 85 agents de change who supervise activity while the actual work of trading and executing orders is done by their employees and those of the exchange. To become an agent de change, an applicant must meet prescribed standards of education and experience as well as pass a written examination. He must be nominated by a retiring member or the heirs of a deceased member and make a deposit guaranty. He is formally appointed by the Minister of Finance.

Other European exchanges set eligibility requirements of character, experience, and financial standing, and some have educational requirements as well. In Brussels, in addition to the completion of six consecutive years in a broker’s office, a candidate must have a degree in commercial science or economics and pass a professional examination. In Germany, Switzerland, and Sweden, the brokerage business is dominated by banks.

Members of Japanese exchanges must be corporations doing a business in securities. There are two kinds of members: regular members, who buy and sell for customers or for their own accounts, and saitori, who act principally as intermediaries for regular members.

Trading procedures

Most stock exchanges are auction markets, in which prices are determined by competitive bidding. In very large, active markets, the auction is continuous, occurring throughout the day’s trading session and for any security in which there is buying and selling interest. In smaller markets the names of the listed stocks may be submitted in some form of rotation, with the auction occurring at that time; this process is described as a “call market.”

Trading methods on all the exchanges in the United States are similar. In a typical transaction for a security listed on the New York Stock Exchange, a customer gives an order to an employee in a branch or correspondent office of a member firm, who transmits it either indirectly through the firm’s New York office or, as is becoming increasingly common, directly to a receiving clerk on the floor of the exchange. The receiving clerk summons the firm’s floor broker, who takes the order, goes to the post where the stock is traded, and participates in an auction procedure as either buyer or seller. If the order is not a market order calling for immediate action, the broker turns it over to an appropriate specialist who will execute it when an indicated price is reached.

As in any auction market, securities are sold to the broker bidding the highest price and bought from the broker offering the lowest price. Since the market is continuous, buyers and sellers are constantly competing with each other. In the New York Stock Exchange, the specialist plays an important role. As a principal, he has the responsibility of buying and selling for his own account, thereby providing a stabilizing influence; as an agent, he represents other brokers on both sides of the market when they have orders at prices that cannot be readily executed.

With the growing demand for stocks on the part of institutions such as insurance companies, mutual funds, pension funds, and so forth, the size of orders consummated on the New York Stock Exchange has grown. The common way of handling these big blocks on the floor of the exchange has been to break them into smaller orders executed over a period of time. Another method is to assemble matching orders in advance and then “cross” them, executing the purchase or sale at current prices in accordance with prescribed rules; since the broker initially may have obtained the matching orders off the floor, this procedure assumes some of the aspects of a negotiated rather than a pure auction transaction. It is only a step from this to so-called block positioning, in which the broker functions as a principal and actually buys the block from the seller and distributes the securities over a period of time on the floor of the exchange.

When none of these methods appears feasible, the exchange permits certain special procedures. A secondary distribution of stock resembles the underwriting of a new issue, the block being handled by a selling group or syndicate off the floor after trading hours, at a price regulated by the exchange. In an exchange distribution a member firm accumulates the necessary buy orders and then crosses them on the floor. This is distinguished from an ordinary “cross” because the selling broker may provide extra compensation to his own registered representatives and to other participating firms. A special offering is the offering of a block through the facilities of the exchange at a price not in excess of the last sale or the current offer, whichever is lower, but not below the current bid unless special permission is obtained. The terms of the offer are flashed on the tape. The offerer agrees to pay a special commission. A specialist block purchase permits the specialist to buy a block outside the regular market procedure, at a price that is somewhat below the current bid.

Brokers and jobbers

Trading on the London Stock Exchange is carried on through a unique system of brokers and jobbers. A broker acts as an agent for his customers; a jobber, or dealer, transacts business on the floor of the exchange but does not deal with the public. A customer gives an order to a brokerage house, which relays it to the floor for execution. The receiving broker goes to the area where the security is traded and seeks a jobber stationed in the vicinity who specializes in the particular issue. The jobber serves only in the capacity of a principal, buying and selling for his own account and dealing only with brokers or other jobbers. The broker asks the jobber’s current prices without revealing whether he is interested in buying or selling. The broker may seek to narrow the spread between the bid and ask quotations or he may approach another jobber handling the same issue and undertake the same bargaining process. Eventually, when satisfied that he has obtained the best possible price for his client, the broker will complete the bargain.

A broker is compensated by the commission received from the customer. The jobber seeks to maximize his profitable business by adjusting his buying and selling prices. As the ultimate dealer in the London market, the jobber’s activities provide a stabilizing factor, but unlike the specialist on the New York Stock Exchange, the jobber is under no obligation to help support prices. The growing importance of institutional customers has increased the size of transactions in the London market as it has in the U.S., and therefore the jobber has been compelled to risk larger sums. To offset this risk, arrangements for a particularly large order may be negotiated beforehand and the transaction put through the floor as a matter of procedure, with the jobber accepting a minimum “turn.” Although the jobbing system provides a continuous market, it does not employ the auction bidding of the New York exchange.

The trading procedures of other major exchanges throughout the world employ the principles that have been described above, although they vary in their application of them. In the exchanges of Paris, Brussels, Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Zürich, some form of auction system is employed: prices are established through bids and offers made on specific securities at particular periods of time. In Tokyo, trading is continuous and orders are consummated through the saitori members, who keep order sheets on all transactions. Unlike the specialist on the New York exchange or the jobber in London, however, the saitori does not trade for his own account but serves only as an intermediary between regular members. In Amsterdam, trading in active securities is done directly between members during designated trading periods; specialists function as intermediaries between buyers and sellers.

Types of orders

The simplest method of buying stock is through the market order. This is an order to buy or sell a stated amount of a security at the most advantageous price obtainable after the order reaches the trading floor. A limit (or limited) order is an order to buy or sell a stated amount of a security when it reaches a specified price or a better one if it is obtainable after the order comes to the trading floor. In the Amsterdam market, the device of the “middle price” is used: an investor who gives a limit order before the opening will have it executed at the day’s median level, or at a price that is better than the limit, whichever is found to be more advantageous to the client.

There are other more specialized types of orders. A stop order or stop-loss order is an order to purchase or sell a security after a designated price is reached or passed, when it then becomes a market order. It differs from the limit order in that it is designed to protect the customer from market reversals; the stop price is not necessarily the price at which the order will be executed, particularly if the market is changing rapidly. This type of order does not lend itself to the London jobbing system.

An important method of trading in stock is through the buying and selling of options. The most common option contracts are puts and calls. A put is a contract that permits the holder to deliver to the purchaser a specified number of shares of stock at a fixed price within a designated period of time, say six months; a call entitles him to buy shares from the seller within a given period. For example, a person who buys a stock hoping to sell it later at a higher price may also buy a put as a hedge against a fall in price. The put enables him to sell the stock at the price for which he bought it. If the stock rises he need not use the option and loses only the price of its purchase. Option trading is common in Brussels, Paris, London, and the United States.

In the early days of securities trading, stocks and bonds were often bought at private banking houses in the same way that commodities might be purchased over the counter of a general store. This was the origin of the term “over-the-counter.” It is used today to mean all securities transactions that are handled outside the exchanges. Increasingly, this market is being subjected to regulation. The extent and nature of the over-the-counter market varies throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, there is no over-the-counter market as such. In the Netherlands, transactions are illegal if they do not involve a member of the Amsterdam exchange or one of its provincial branches as an intermediary, except with the permission of the Ministry of Finance. On the Paris bourse, one post is provided for trading in unlisted issues. In Belgium, the stock exchange committee organizes, at least once a month, public sales of stocks that are not officially quoted. In Japan a second security section has been introduced into the major exchanges to provide more effective trading procedures for over-the-counter transactions.

In the United States, the over-the-counter market includes most federal, state, and municipal issues as well as a large variety of corporate stocks and bonds. The National Quotation Bureau, which compiles over-the-counter prices, has furnished quotations on approximately 26,000 over-the-counter stocks. In early 1971, a major development occurred with the introduction of current, computerized quotations on a number of active stocks.

Transactions in the over-the-counter market are executed through a large number of broker-dealers with a complex network of private wires and telephone lines. Their operations are subject to the rules of the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc., a self-regulating body created in 1939. In 1964 the Congress extended to the larger over-the-counter companies the same requirements as to periodic reporting, proxy solicitation, and insider trading that are applied to dealers in listed stocks.

The over-the-counter market is a negotiated market, as distinguished from the auction markets for listed securities. An investor desiring to trade an over-the-counter security gives his order to a broker functioning as a retailer, who ordinarily shops among various firms to obtain the best possible price.

Because of the difficulty that institutions often experience in disposing of large blocks of listed securities on the exchanges, nonmember firms have set up over-the-counter markets in these issues—principally in those listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Although such transactions are conducted within the framework of the over-the-counter market, their prices are tied to those on the Exchange. Accordingly, this form of trading has been labelled the “third market.” There is now also a “fourth market,” consisting of direct transactions between investors without an intermediary. This market also had its origins in the need of the institutions to find ways of executing large transactions. Impetus to such direct dealings has been given by the development of computerized systems to bring together large traders.