Science - Fauna (946 results)

Within recent years the laboratory method has become the basis of instruction in every science. The student is expected to find out a certain number of fundamental facts directly from nature, but while this has in itself great value as a training in observation, the fullest benefit of the study is not obtained unless there be a comprehension of the bearings of the facts observed. Observation and uncorrellated facts do not make a science. Attention can be directed to the relations and significance of the facts ascertained in the laboratory by means of lectures, but a somewhat extended experience has shown that the average student needs something more than his lecture notes, at least when beginning any subject. The present volume is intended to supplement both lectures and laboratory work, and to place in concise form the more important facts and generalizations concerning the vertebrates. It is also hoped that it may have some value for students of medicine in explaining many peculiarities of the structure of man which seem meaningless unless viewed in the light of comparative morphology. When once their meaning is comprehended it is easy to remember them. The first part of the volume is devoted to an outline of the morphology of vertebrates based upon embryology. This treatment has been adopted, since the author believes that in this way the bearings of the facts can be most clearly shown and most easily remembered. The remainder of the volume presents an outline of the classification of vertebrates, a subject which, in recent years, has been too much ignored in college work. Here the fossils are included as well as the recent forms, since the existing fauna must be studied in the light of the past. Numerous generic names have been mentioned without characterization; they have been inserted in order that the student may be able to ascertain the relationships of the forms he may find mentioned in collateral reading.

I have for years been anxious that Natural History should be made a regular Branch of Education, because it exercises both the observant and the reflective powers; furnishes enjoyment pure and exhaustless; and tends to make devotional feelings habitual. The present little Work has been undertaken in the hope that it might conduce to such a result.<br><br>In its preparation, I have aimed at conveying correct ideas of the peculiarities of structure by which the principal divisions of the animal kingdom arc distinguished; and of the habits, economy, and uses of one or more of the most common native species belonging to each of these groups. Foreign species are occasionally mentioned in connexion with their respective classes, but the home produce forms the "staple commodity."<br><br>The exercise of memory involved in the repetition of scientific names, or in the recital of anecdotes respecting the animals of the arctic or tropical regions, is, comparatively, of little importance. The great object should be to bring natural-history knowledge home to the personal experience of the pupil. To teach him to observe, to classify his observations, and to reason upon them, and thus to invest with interest the Common Objects which he sees around him. Small collections of natural objects, made by the pupils themselves, would, under the guidance of a judicious teacher, be of great value in this species of mental culture, and would form the much-prized ornaments of the school-room.<br><br>The present volume has been prepared amid the scanty leisure incidental to the life of a man of business. It will, therefore, I hope, be regarded with indulgence, both by the Naturalist and by him who is practically engaged in the important duties of the school-room.

The authors have long felt the need of one book in the hands of the student which would give not only the salient facts of structural Zoology and the development of the various branches of animals, but also such facts of natural history or the life and habits of animals as to show the interrelations of structure, habit, and environment. For we believe that a knowledge of both structure and life-history is necessary before any suggestions or discoveries can be made concerning the principles which underlie and control all animal life, including that of man. For it is principles and their application for which we are searching.<br><br>This book is an attempt to supply this need. It is especially designed to accompany the Field and Laboratory Guide (Part I).<br><br>For the sake of the natural history many examples have been included. To reduce the size of the book it has been necessary to print this natural history in smaller type, but that in no way implies that it is of minor importance, and it is by far the most interesting portion of the subject. The scientific names need not, in all cases, be learned. They have been used because common names are so often misleading.

General report on insect conditions in 1918. Publications. Financial Statement and List of Nurserymen. By A. G. Ruggles; Life History of an Oak Twig Girdler. (Agrilus arcuatus Say and var. torquatus Lec.) By A. G. Ruggles; Potato Spraying in Minnesota. By S. A. Graham; The Carpenter Ant as a Destroyer of Sound Wood. By S. A. Graham; Drosophila in Bottled Certified Milk. By Wm. A. Riley; Contribution to Knowledge of the Tribes and Higher Groups of the Family Aphididae (Homoptera). By O. W. Oestlund; The Confused Flour Beetle (Tribolium confusum Duval). By R. N. Chapman; The Clover Seed Chalcid (Bruchophagus funebris Howard). By Warren Williamson; A Preliminary Report on the Trombidiidae of Minnesota. By C. W. Howard; The Hymenoptera of Minnesota. By F. L. Washburn; Minnesota Barberry Eradication Law

eBook

Animal ColorationAn Account of the Principal Facts and Theories Relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals

by Frank E. Beddard

The present volume has grown out of materials which I had collected for the Davis Lectures, delivered by me in the Zoological Hociety sGardens during the spring of liSUl). This book is addressed, as were the lectures, to persons having no special knowledge of zoology, but that general interest in the facts and problems of the science, which is now so widely spread. It contains hardly anything novel, but professes to give some account of the principal phenomena of coloration exhibited by animals. 8 ome of the facts and theories, however, have not, so for as I am aware, as yet found their way into works of a popular character; I refer particularly to the ingenious theories of Dr. Eisig and M.Stolzmanu. Inasmuch as Mr. Poulton swork upon the Oolours of Animals, recently published as one of the volumes of the luternatioual Scientific Series, and Mr. Wallaces sketch of coloration in his Darwinism, deal with colour almost entirely from the point of view of natural selection, I have attempted to lay some stress upon other aspects of the question. The literature relating to animal coloration is enormous; so much so that it is really beyoud the powers of any person who cannot give up his whole time to abstract it thoroughly. To write an exhausti-e work upon Animal Coloration reipiires a sort cif naturalist that now hardly can exist a specialist in every group.

This volume is intended for use as a text-book in college courses in vertebrate zoology such as are required of premedical students and others who have had a course in general zoology. The aim of the book is to present those aspects of the subject which are not adequately brought out by laboratory work in comparative anatomy. It is taken for granted that the student who uses this as a text in connection with the lecture and recitational part of a course, shall also pursue a laboratory course in comparative anatomy, using a laboratory manual. It is also believed advisable to use as laboratory references the various text-books on comparative anatomy.<br><br>The book is avowedly dynamic in tone, emphasizing the physiological, developmental, phylogenetic, and ecological aspects of vertebrates. Structural features must of course be dealt with extensively, but purely anatomical details are as a rule subordinated to physiologic and evolutionary considerations.<br><br>The vertebrates are, moreover, viewed not merely as a group of animals belonging to the present, but, historically, as a very ancient assemblage of related forms, that arose from simple beginnings many millions of years ago and have passed through many vicissitudes involved in the mighty world changes of ancient times. Hence more than the usual attention is given to earlier chapters in the ancestral history of the vertebrate classes, chapters that are often of more dramatic interest than those of the present and that give to the student a new conception of the significance of modem end-products of evolution which, in themselves, are often relatively unattractive and devoid of interest.<br><br>The writer has for some years been much impressed with the far-reaching applicability to problems of animal morphology, of the axial gradient conception of his colleague. Professor Child, and one of the features of the present book is the attempt to interpret vertebrate structures in terms of this conception.

eBook

A Voyage to SpitzbergenContaining an Account of That Country, of the Zoology of the North; Of the Shetland Islands; And of the Whale Fishery

by John Laing

In the year 1806, being at the University of Edinburgh, an advertisement was put on the College Gate, by Messrs. P.and C. Wood, merchants, Leith, intimating that a surgeon was wanted for the ship Resolution of Whitby, Yorkshire, engaged in the North Sea whale-fishery.<br><br>Impelled by curiosity, and by a still more powerful motive, to visit the snow-clad coast of Spitzbergen, I applied; and was, after due examination, admitted surgeon for the voyage.<br><br>Nothing particular occurred on my journey from this to Whitby, where I arrived on Sunday the 16th of March, and was, in every respect, comfortably accommodated at the house of the Captain.

This brief compendium of Zoology is designed for use in grammar and high schools. It is introductory to the authoi- slarger Zoology. Though partly rewritten, and with additions regarding the habits of birds and mammals, portions of the larger book have been retained, the more difficult parts being omitted so as to adapt it for younger pupils, or those whose time is limited. So class in the study of Zoology should depend on a book alone, but specimens should be in constant use, the text-book being rather for reference, as all school work in Zoology should be object-teaching. Before taking up the book, each member of the class should be required to exanpiine a fish a perch, cunner, smelt, or any common fish; the pupil should then draw it with all the fins expanded; then with the aid of the directions on pages 154 to 157, by means of a small scalpel, forceps, and scissors, the student should dissect the fish, drawing the heart, stopiach, etc., and a transverse section; a preparation of the brain can be easily made with the aid of a competent teacher.

This brief compendium of Zoology is designed for use in grammar and high schools. It is introductory to the author's larger Zoology. Though partly rewritten, and with additions regarding the habits of birds and mammals, portions of the larger book have been retained, the more difficult parts being omitted so as to adapt it for younger pupils, or those whose time is limited.<br><br>No class in the study of Zoology should depend on a book alone, but specimens should be in constant use, - the text-book being rather for reference, - as all school work in Zoology should be object-teaching. Before taking up the book, each member of the class should be required to examine a fish - a perch, cunner, smelt, or any common fish; the pupil should then draw it with all the fins expanded; then with the aid of the directions on pages 154 to 157, by means of a small scalpel, forceps, and scissors, the student should dissect the fish, drawing the heart, stomach, etc., and a transverse section; a preparation of the brain can be easily made with the aid of a competent teacher.

2. The first thing to be sought therefore is a thorough-going appreciation on the part of the student of the attractiveness, the scope, and importance of animals and their activities.<br><br>3. A first course should really be a foundation course, and as such should give the student a broad and catholic view of the whole subject. It should utilize all the main departments of Zoology, because each department contains matter which should be familiar to all persons of ordinary education. Furthermore, the departments of morphology, physiology, ecology, distribution, and classification furnish exercises which have distinct, and yet complementary, pedagogical value. Any single phase of the subject, however important or interesting, gives a false and therefore an unscientific view of the wonderful science of Zoology, unless it is supplemented by the others. Therefore a book, if it is to serve the pedagogical needs of beginners, should contain fairly representative matter from all the main departments of the science; and it should at the same time provide both for the descriptive work and for the practical work in the field and laboratory.<br><br>4. Laboratory work and field work are essential, both to proper interest and to proper results, and should not be merely illustrative of text or lecture work, but as far as possible should be the foundation and point of departure of the lectures and the text. No instrumentality open to the teacher is better than the laboratory as a means of securing real interest and mental growth for the pupils. However, in order to attain this end it is essential that this work shall really be vitally done. It is not enough that a pupil be induced to observe and to record his observations. The pupil's mind should always be encouraged to "follow through" to whatever response in the way of conclusion or explanation seems sound in the light of his knowledge at the time.

eBook

The MicroscopeBeing a Popular Description of the Most Instructive and Beautiful Subjects for Exhibition

by L. Lane Clarke

That these works are not read attentively or well understood by many young persons, who now purchase Microscopes and collect objects, seems probable from the remarks which are made and the questions that are asked when looking at preparations from the Vegetable and the Animal Kingdom. We not unfrequently hear the section of an Echinus spine pronounced very pretty, exactly like a crochet pattern the Echinus itself being an unknown thing. Spicules of Holothuria or Gorgonia are brilliant little clubs and crosses; but what a Holothuria is they cannot imagine. The foot of a Dytiscus, with its cluster of suckers, is like the eye of a peacocks feather; cells of spiral fibre nothing more than coils of variegated wire; and the head of Rhingia, with its wonderful eyes, is looked at as a beautiful piece of network. It is the design of this Catalogue to give simply that elementary knowledge of vegetable and animal physiology, which will enable the young student to understand the Slides in the Object-box, and excite the desire to learn more from 1 letter books. It is also hoped that many will be led to purchase the preparations of Whole-mounted I?isects, and by the careful study of them take the first steps into the wide and pleasant field of Natural History. As the ear is educated by the study of music, so the eye is educated by a habit of observation.

This is the second volume on Wasps in the Collected Edition of Fabre sSouvenirs entomologiques. The first of these was The Hunting Wasps; and the present volume is somewhat wilfully entitled, for all Wasps hunt in varying degrees, if not on their own behalf, at least on that of their young. My object, however, was to bring together all the essays treating of those Wasps wjho. actually build homes or nests, as distinct from burrows. The last book on Wasps will be called More Hunting Wasps and will be issued towards the end of the series. For reasons which will be easily apparent to the reader, I have reprinted the chapter called Instinct and Discernment, which was included in Bramble-bees and Others, and that on the Volucella, which, under the title of The Bumble-bee Fly, formed part of The Life of the Fly. Apart from the two chapters named and the essay on the Eumenes, which figures in The Wonders, of Instinct, published in America by the Century Co.

I have for years been anxious that Natural History should be made a regular Branch of Education, because it exercises both the observant and the reflective powers; furnishes enjoyment pure and exhaustless; and tends to make devotional feelings habitual. The present little Work has been undertaken in the hope that it might conduce to such a result.<br><br>In its preparation, I have aimed at conveying correct ideas of the peculiarities of structure by which the principal divisions of the animal kingdom are distinguished; and of the habits, economy, and uses of one or more of the most common native species belonging to each of these groups. Foreign species are occasionally mentioned in connexion with their respective classes, but the "home produce" forms the "staple commodity."<br><br>The exercise of memory involved in the repetition of scientific names, or in the recital of anecdotes respecting the animals of the arctic or tropical regions, is, comparatively, of little importance. The great object should be to bring natural-history knowledge home to the personal experience of the pupil. To teach him to observe, to classify his observations, and to reason upon them, and thus to invest with interest the Common Objects which he sees around him. Small collections of natural objects, made by the pupils themselves, would, under the guidance of a judicious teacher, be of great value in this species of mental culture, and would form the much-prized ornaments of the school-room.<br><br>The present volume has been prepared amid the scanty leisure incidental to the life of a man of business. It will, therefore, I hope, be regarded with indulgence, both by the Naturalist and by him who is practically engaged in the important duties of the school-room.

eBook

The Animal KingdomArranged After Its Organization, Forming a Natural History of Animals, and an Introduction to Comparative Anatomy

by Georges Cuvier

Perhaps no book was ever so soon, so generally, and with so little envy, admitted to take its place at the head of that department of knowledge to which it belongs, as the Regne Animal of the illustrious Baron Cuvier. This is a high, but a just tribute, both to the work and the author; for it at once showed that the former is what had long been required, and that the latter was as much beloved for the kindness and urbanity of his manners, as he was admired for the comprehensive range and unprecedented accuracy of his views.<br><br>It must, indeed, be admitted, that, until Cuvier's great work made its appearance, we had no modern systematic arrangement of animals which applied equally to all the Classes, Orders, and Families; - which brought the extinct species into their proper situations in the living catalogue, and enabled every discoverer of a new animal, or part of an animal, instantly to connect it with its proper tribe or family. Important, however, as are the labours of this great naturalist, they could not possibly extend beyond the limits of what was known; and as Cuvier was no speculative theorist, but a rigid adherent to nature and fact, he kept his system considerably within the limits of those who were more speculative, and consequently less accurate.<br><br>For students, no work is equal to that of Cuvier, for it is at once comprehensive and concise; and though the student may choose a particular department, and require books more in detail with reference to that department, he must still have the Regne Animal to point out to him the general analogies of the living creation. The present work is a complete Cuvier, as regards the essential part of the arrangement; and it is not a mere translation, but in some respects a new book, embodying the original one. Throughout the whole of it, there will be found original remarks; but these are always distinguished from that which belongs to Cuvier, by being inclosed within brackets.

The Subject indeed is small, but not inglon ous. The Ant, as the Prmce of Wisdom is pleased to inform us, is exceedini wise. In this Light it may, without Vanity, boast of its being related to you, and therefore by right of Kindred merits your Protection. William Gould, An Account qf English Ants, 1747.

This book is intended to serve as a text for beginning students in universities and colleges, or for students who have already taken a course in general biology and wish to gain a more comprehensive view of the animal kingdom. It differs from many of the college textbooks of zoology now on the market in several important respects: (1) the animals and their organs are not only described, but their functions are pointed out; (2) the animals described are in most cases native species; and (3) the relations of the animals to man are emphasized. Besides serving as a textbook, it is believed that this book will be of interest to the general reader, since it, gives a bird's-eye view of the entire animal kingdom as we know it at the present time.<br><br>Within the past decade there has been a tendency for teachers of zoology to pay less attention to morphology and more to physiology. As a prominent morphologist recently said, "Morphology ... is no longer in favor ... and among a section of the zoological world has almost fallen into disgrace" (Bourne). The study of the form and structure of animals is, however, of fundamental importance, and is absolutely necessary before physiological processes can be fully understood; but a course which is built up on the "old-fashioned morphological lines" is no longer adequate for the presentation of zoological principles.<br><br>In writing this book the author has attempted, not only to describe the most important structural features of the various types of animals, but also to point out the vital phenomena as expressed in the functions of the organs.

Secondary Sexual Characters of Insects; Diversified Structure possessed by the males for seizing the Females. - Difference between the Sexes, of which the Meaning is not understod. - Difference in Size between the Sexes. - Thysanura. - Diptera. - Hemipters. - Homoptera, Musical Powers possessed by the Males alone. - Orthoptera, Musical Instruments of the Males, much diversified in Structure; Pugnacity and Colors. - Coleopters, Colors; furnished with Great Horns, apparently as an Ornament; Battles; Stridulating Organs generally common to Both Sexes,; Insects, continued. - Order Lepidoitera; Courtship of Butterflies. - Battles. - Ticking Noise. - Colors common to Both Sexes, or more brilliant in the Males. - Examples. - Not due to the Direct Action of the Conditions of Life. - Colors adapted for Protection. - Colors of Moths. - Display. - Perceptive Powers of the Lepidoptera. - Variability. - Causes of the Difference in Color between the Males and Females. - Mimicry, Females Butterflies more brilliantly colored than the Males. - Bright Colors of Caterpillars. - Summary and Conducting Remarks on the Secondary Sexual Characters of Insects. - Birds and Insects compared

eBook

Economic ZoologyAn Introductory Text-Book in Zoology, With Special Reference to Its Applications in Agriculture, Commerce and Medicine

by Herbert Osborn

The immense progress in recent years in the application of scientific knowledge concerning animals to the affairs of everyday life, the great extent to which animals and animal products enter into commerce, and the very vital relation that is now known to exist between various forms of life and the diseases affecting man and the domestic animals, seem to warrant a general text in zoology in which these phases of the subject are given more emphasis than has been the practice. Such a viewpoint has, moreover, the advantage of awaking an interest in the subject which, from a purely educational standpoint, is not to be overlooked. Interest is one of the prime factors in concentrated, effective study, and to know that the subject studied bears in an important way on life and prospective duties is no small element in successful study. It is the writer's belief that such forms as the parasitic worms, trichina, earthworm, oyster, crayfish, grasshopper, mosquito, fish, or bird lose none of their scientific interest or value as disciplinary objects of study when their importance to human life is considered. On the contrary, his own experience leads him to believe that this viewpoint stimulates to more careful and effective study.<br><br>This book, however, is not intended merely as a text-book for the school or college student, but it is hoped that it may be of service to that ever-increasing body of citizens who wish to familiarize themselves with the general principles and the present status of knowledge regarding the animal kingdom.<br><br>In a subject that is undergoing rapid change and constant addition, it is impossible that a text-book should present the latest word on every topic.

In the Preface to the second volume, a change in the original plan of the 'Birds' was announced. It was still proposed to complete the work in three volumes, but as the second was shorter than usual it was announced that the deficiency would be made good in the third, which would contain descriptions of all Indian birds except Passeres. As the work progressed, however, further modification became necessary, as it was evident that the proposed third volume would be of inconvenient size, and it has now been decided to divide it into two. The birds will therefore occupy four volumes instead of three, and of these the third is herewith published. The fourth volume is in preparation and a considerable portion is written. The publishing price of the last three is reduced, so that the cost of the whole work is only increased by a very small amount.<br><br>Mr. Oates, after writing the two volumes containing the descriptions of the Passeres, was obliged to return to his appointment in India, as explained in the Preface to the second volume. The continuation of the 'Birds' has been left in my hands, and I have endeavoured to keep the work uniform in general plan, and to render the change of authorship as little conspicuous as possible; but I fear there are many, besides myself, who will see cause for regret that the able ornithologist who commenced the work was prevented by circumstances from finishing it.<br><br>The birds of which descriptions appear in the present volume are the Eurylæmi, the various groups known collectively as Picarian or non-Passerine perching birds, the Parrots, and the nocturnal and diurnal Birds of Prey. Thus the first three volumes of the present work correspond to the first two of Jerdon's, and contain the same families of Birds, though differently arranged.

The necessity of the pupils copying (however poorly) the figures, either upon the slate, or upon paper, cannot be too strongly urged.<br><br>From his own experience, the author has learned that a specimen or figure may oftentimes be carefully studied, and yet only an imperfect idea be formed of it; but, when it had been once copied, the new points gained repaid all the trouble spent in the task.<br><br>It makes but little difference whether the pupil is proficient in drawing or not; it should be strenuously insisted upon by the teacher that the pupils copy, as far as possible, the figures contained in each lesson.<br><br>To collect in the field, to make a cabinet, and then to examine and study the specimens collected, are the three stages that naturalists, with few exceptions, have passed through in their boyhood.<br><br>If one recalls the way in which boys first manifest their taste for such studies, he will remember that first a few examples were brought together; a collection was made. It may have been birds'-eggs, insects, or shells; then little boxes, a case of drawers, or shelves, were secured to hold their treasures.

Pendulum of Life! Only three-score years and ten not that, according to the statistics of the Registrar-General, if we take the average life of the humanity introduced upon our planet. One feels inclined to modify the wellknown lines of the Latin Poet, popularly set forth by Longfellow, about Art being long, and Life being fleeting. Instead of Art, read Science. Art was evolved to please people Science to instruct them. Art has played to the most foolish, most extravagant, most lascivious peoples of the world. Art is glorious: it is the Revelation of genius. But Science is Democratic it is the possession of all. Men like Robert Dick of Thurso, and Thomas Edwards, are the apostles of this new democratic possession of a scientific intellectual power which is neither aristocratic nor oligarchic, but which belongs to the Commonweal. This is the present Editors coming of age. For twenty-one years he has enjoyed the delightful responsibility of addressing and interesting thousands (perhaps scores of thousands) of readers of Science-Gossip every month. The responsibility is great greater than few are aware of. The correspondence entailed is enormous; so the Editor has to appeal to the Christian patience of his readers. He is always open to receive any suggestions from readers that will influence the commercial success of his journal a success the Editor would derive no advantage from, but which he would be delighted to see the Publishers thereof should, if only as an expression of their generous and trusting confidence in himself.

This little volume introduces the work of a great French naturalist to the reader of English. Reaumur, another Frenchman, is the greatest naturalist devoting himself to the observation of insects the world has yet seen. His six quarto volumes Mimoires pour servir a Vhistoire des insectes were published between 1734 and 1742. J.-H. Fabre, who happily is still with us, is second only to Reaumur in this part of the great field of Natural History. Though compatriots the two men are remarkably different in the nature of their genius. Reaumur, stately and slow, both discursive and diffuse. Fabre, styled by Charles Darwin the immortal Fabre, a most patient, indefatigable observer, ready to sacrifice everything to the carrying on of his work, but making deductions too rapidly from his observations, and taking a philosophical position from which he refuses to budge, even though he stand alone among the naturalists of this generation. Fabre sgreat merit is his graphic portraiture of the living insect as it really is.

In this book I have tried to give such an account of the Invertebrata as might be useful to students in the upper forms of Schools and at the Universities, who are already acquainted with the elementary facts of Animal Biology. The volume is in no sense a work for advanced students, and hence no references to original sources have been given, and the names of the various investigators who have promoted our knowledge have been mentioned as sparingly as possible.<br><br>In order to keep the book within reasonable limits, I have not described fully certain types which are dealt with in the admirable elementary text-books of Huxley and Martin, and Marshall and Hurst; but, with this reservation, I have endeavoured to describe some one example of each of the larger groups, and then to give a short account of the most interesting modifications presented by other members of the group.<br><br>The last few years have witnessed a great extension in our knowledge of the structure and relationship of the Invertebrata. The earth has been ransacked for new forms, and improvements in microscopes and in technique have facilitated a more minute and thorough examination of these forms in the laboratory. This increase in our knowledge has necessarily been accompanied by a rearrangement of material; many intermediate forms have been discovered, and unexpected relationships have been revealed, and these have entailed a revised classification.

Fuix Btatement of the reasons which have prompted me to vrite this book, and of the principles on which the work is foanded, has akead; been set forth in a separate publication, which may therefore be accepted as a detailed preface to the present work. Briefly summarized, my views are that, in accordance with the present condition of the scieQces of zoology and botany, as well aa of the teaching art, certain changes in the methods of inatraction have become necessary. Hitherto the task of the science teacher has been limited to a mere one-sided description and a dry clasaificaUon of natural objects, whereas it has now become of primary importance to regard each objects in all their various relations, and to reveal to the pupil the intimate connection between the structure of Uving organisms and their vital functions; or, expressed in other words, to replace the antiquated and purely descriptive form of instruction by a new method, based on physiologico-morphological, or, in short, biological, observations. It is my opinion that only in this manner is it possible to convert instruction in natural history into a real mental discipline, second to none in educonal value, and one, moreover, which, so far as the pupils mental powers and the present state of our knowledge permit, is likely to supply him with a true insight into Nature and natural phenomena, and, finally, one which is capable of a Fordiag a powerful and lasting stimulus to that sense for Nature which is innate in the young. The present work has been written from this standppint for the purpose of supplymg schools with the material necessary for instruction in zoology. A superficial knowledge being quite valueless as an instrument of education or mental culture, I have, in the consideration of each animal group, selected a single example embodying the average type, which on the one hand exhibits as clearly as possible the organization of the group, and on the other hand will also serve as an illustration of its opf.iqoi n,,.