It is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel structure, after the September 11 attacks which destroyed the World Trade Center in 2001, it was again the second-tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised onto the 1,200-foot (365.8 m) Bank of America Tower, making the Chrysler building the third tallest building in New York. In addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height.[11] Both buildings were then demoted to fourth tallest building in the city when the under-construction One World Trade Center surpassed their height, and then to fifth position by 432 Park Avenue, which was completed in 2015.[citation needed]

The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen for a project of Walter P. Chrysler.[13] When the ground breaking occurred on September 19, 1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world's tallest skyscraper,[14][15] despite a frantic pace (the building was built at an average rate of four floors per week), no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper.[16]

Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown, it also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, creating an impression that the tower was floating in mid-air.[13] The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be 246 meters (807 ft). However, the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds, who disapproved of Van Alen's original plan,[9] the design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories; it was eventually revised to be 282 m (925 ft) tall.[16] As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Corporation and intended to make the building into Chrysler's headquarters, various architectural details and especially the building's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth; they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s (see below).[9][17]

Construction commenced on September 19, 1928;[16] in total, 391,881 rivets were used and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid,[16] to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper.[18] Contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction.

Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street, designed by H. Craig Severance. Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building.[19] (This distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable, such as the Eiffel Tower.)[20] In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 38-meter (125 ft) long spire[21] and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building. The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections,[22] on October 23, 1929, the bottom section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes.[23]

Upon completion on May 27, 1930,[1][2] the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 m). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.[13] Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1930, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building.[9]

The east wall of the base, out of which the tower rises, runs at a slant to the Manhattan street grid, following a property line that predated the Commissioners' Plan of 1811,[24] the land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art[25] in 1902. The land was originally leased to William H. Reynolds, but, when he was unable to raise money for the project, the building and the development rights to the land were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler in 1928.[25][26] Contrary to popular belief, the Chrysler Corporation was never involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building, although it was built and designed for the corporation and served as its headquarters until the mid-1950s, it was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children.[13]

The ownership of the building has changed several times, the Chrysler family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf,[27] and in 1957, it was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, and owned by Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978–1979,[28] the building was bought by Jack Kent Cooke in 1979. The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995; in 1998, Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group bought the Chrysler Building and the adjoining Kent Building in 1997 for about $220 million (equal to $330 million in 2016) from a consortium of banks and the estate of Jack Kent Cooke. Tishman Speyer Properties had negotiated a 150-year lease from the Cooper Union, and the college continues to own the land under the Chrysler Building. Cooper Union's name is on the deed.

In 2001, a 75% stake in the building was sold, for US$300 million (equal to $410 million in 2016), to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta-based investment fund,[29] on June 11, 2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, and a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.[30] On July 9, 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the 90% owner of the building, with Tishman Speyer retaining 10%.[31][32]

The Chrysler Building is considered a leading example of Art Deco architecture, the corners of the 61st floor are graced with eagles; on the 31st floor, the corner ornamentation are replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps.[33] The building is constructed of masonry, with a steel frame, and metal cladding, the building currently contains a total of 3,862 windows on its facades. Inside, there are four banks of 8 elevators designed by the Otis Elevator Corporation,[34][35] the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976,[8][36] and a New York City Landmark in 1978.[1]

The Chrysler Building is also renowned and recognized for its terraced crown. Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks, mounted up one behind another,[37] the stainless-steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow setbacks of the facade of the terraced crown. The entire crown is clad with silvery "Enduro KA-2" metal, an austeniticstainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name "Nirosta" (a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl, meaning "non-rusting steel").[13][38]

When the building first opened, it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor, which was closed to the public in 1945, this floor is now the highest occupied floor of the Chrysler Building, it was occupied by an office space management firm in 1986.[39] The private Cloud Club occupied a three-floor high space from the 66th–68th floors, but closed in the late 1970s.[9] Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire, these top stories are very narrow with low, sloped ceilings, and are useful only for holding radio-broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment. Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s, before moving to the Empire State Building,[40] for many years, WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site, but they also moved to the Empire State Building by the 1970s. There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building.

There are two sets of lighting in the top spires and decoration, the first are the V-shaped lighting inserts in the steel of the building itself. Added later were groups of floodlights that are on mast arms directed back at the building, this allows the top of the building to be lit in many colors for special occasions.[9]

In the summer of 2005, the Skyscraper Museum in Lower Manhattan asked 100 architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 of the city's towers, the Chrysler Building came in first place, as 90% of respondents placed the building among their top 10 favorite buildings.[41]

Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center
–
The Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center is the North American headquarters and main research and development facility for the automobile manufacturer FCA US LLC in the United States. It is located in the Metro Detroit suburb of Auburn Hills, completed in 1996, the complex has 5,300,000 square feet on 504 acres located near Interstate 75. CR

1.
Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center

3.
Topics

Chrysler House
–
Chrysler House is a 23-story,99 m skyscraper located at 719 Griswold Street in Downtown Detroit, Michigan. The class-A office building is adjacent to the Penobscot Building in the heart of the U. S. designated Detroit Financial District and it is used as an office building, with retail space on the street level. The building was constructed between

1.
Chrysler House

2.
Construction of the Dime Building in Detroit, MI. Published 31 August 1912,

40 Wall Street
–
40 Wall Street, also known as the Trump Building, is a 71-story skyscraper between Nassau Street and William Street in Manhattan, New York City. The structure was completed in 1930 after 11 months of construction, the building was designed by H. Craig Severance, along with Yasuo Matsui, and Shreve & Lamb. Caldwell & Co. designed the lighting, Der S

1.
The Trump Building in December 2005

2.
Early picture of the Manhattan Company Building

3.
Lower portion of 40 Wall Street

Empire State Building
–
The Empire State Building is a 102-story skyscraper located on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets in Midtown, Manhattan, New York City. It has a height of 1,250 feet, and with its antenna included. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State and it stood as the worlds tallest building for nearly 40 years, from

2.
A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.

3.
View of the building from the north

Art Deco
–
Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsm

Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

Abu Dhabi Investment Council
–
The Abu Dhabi Investment Council is an investment arm of the Government of Abu Dhabi. From Autumn 2013 the Council will be based at Al Bahr Towers, the investment strategy of the Council seeks to achieve superior risk-adjusted returns across the entire capital structure while preserving capital. Although the Council invests globally, there is a foc

1.
Abu Dhabi Investment Council مجلس أبوظبي للاستثمار

Tishman Speyer
–
Tishman Speyer Properties is an American worldwide real estate building and operating company set up in 1978 by two founding partners, Robert Tishman and Jerry Speyer. The firm was founded in 1978 by Robert V. Tishman, Speyer, entering the European market ten years later, and moving into Latin America in 1995. The company expanded into China in 200

1.
Tishman Speyer Properties

William Van Alen
–
William Van Alen was an American architect, best known as the architect in charge of designing New York Citys Chrysler Building. William Van Alen was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1883 and he attended Pratt Institute while working for the architect Clarence True. He also studied for three years at the Atelier Masqueray, the first independent archit

1.
Chrysler Building

2.
Former Childs Restaurant in Washington, DC

National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,00

National Historic Landmark
–
A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that

New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
–
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. Cit

2.
The Astor Library was the subject of the Commission's first public hearing in 1965

Early skyscrapers
–
The early skyscrapers were a range of tall, commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939, predominantly in the American cities of New York City and Chicago. Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron-framed structures with deep foundations, equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting. The

East Side (Manhattan)
–
The East Side of Manhattan refers to the side of Manhattan Island which abuts the East River and faces Brooklyn and Queens. Fifth Avenue, Central Park from 59th to 110th Streets, the major neighborhoods on the East Side include East Harlem, Yorkville, Upper East Side, Turtle Bay, Murray Hill, Kips Bay, Gramercy, East Village, and the Lower East Sid

Midtown Manhattan
–
Midtown Manhattan, or Midtown, represents the central lengthwise portion of the borough and island of Manhattan in New York City. Along Manhattans north-south long axis, Midtown Manhattan separates Lower Manhattan from Upper Manhattan, the majority of New York Citys skyscrapers, including its tallest hotels and apartment towers, lie within Midtown.

42nd Street (Manhattan)
–
42nd Street is a major crosstown street in the New York City borough of Manhattan, known for its theaters, especially near the intersection with Broadway at Times Square. It is also the name of the region of the district near that intersection. Washingtons attempt put him in danger of being captured, and his officers had to him to leave. The rout e

4.
The Chrysler Building, with its unique stainless-steel top, is one of the most distinctive buildings on 42nd Street

Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)
–
Along its 5. 5-mile, 110-block route, Lexington Avenue runs through Harlem, Carnegie Hill, the Upper East Side, Midtown, and Murray Hill to a point of origin that is centered on Gramercy Park. South of Gramercy Park, the axis continues as Irving Place from 20th Street to East 14th Street, the portion of Lexington Avenue between 14th and 20th Street

Turtle Bay, Manhattan
–
Turtle Bay is a neighborhood in New York City, on the east side of Midtown Manhattan. It extends from either 41st or 43rd Streets to 53rd Street, the neighborhood is the site of the headquarters of the United Nations and the Chrysler Building. The Tudor City apartment complex is considered to be within Turtle Bay. Turtle Bay, a cove of the East Riv

September 11 attacks
–
The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North

World Trade Center (1973-2001)
–
The World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured landmark twin towers, which opened on April 4,1973, and were destroyed as a result of the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet, the other build

1.
The original World Trade Center in March 2001. The tower on the left, with antenna spire, was 1 WTC. The tower on the right was 2 WTC. All seven buildings of the WTC complex are partially visible; refer to map below. The red granite-clad building left of the Twin Towers was the original 7 World Trade Center. In the background is the East River.

Bank of America Tower (New York City)
–
The Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park is a 1,200 ft skyscraper in the Midtown area of Manhattan in New York City. It is located on Avenue of the Americas, between 42nd and 43rd Streets, opposite Bryant Park, the US$1 billion project was designed by COOKFOX Architects, and advertised to be one of the most efficient and ecologically friendly b

The New York Times Building
–
The New York Times Building is a skyscraper on the west side of Midtown Manhattan, New York City that was completed in 2007. Its chief tenant is The New York Times Company, publisher of The New York Times as well as the International New York Times, construction was by a joint venture of The New York Times Company, Forest City Ratner, and ING Real

1.
The New York Times Building

2.
Height comparison of New York City buildings, with the New York Times Building on the right

3.
The building under construction in September 2006

4.
Ground floor atrium

One World Trade Center
–
One World Trade Center is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City. It is the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the sixth-tallest in the world, the supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which was completely destroyed in the terr

1.
One World Trade Center, the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere, in July 2013.

432 Park Avenue
–
432 Park Avenue is a residential skyscraper in Manhattan, New York City that overlooks Central Park. Originally proposed to be 1,300 feet in 2011, the structure topped out at 1,396 ft and it was developed by CIM Group and features 104 condominium apartments. Construction began in 2012 and was completed on December 23,2015, the building required the

2.
Tallest buildings in the city by pinnacle height, including all masts, antennas, poles, etc. 432 Park Avenue is third from the left.

3.
Under construction in March 2015

American Institute of Architects
–
The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving

Chrysler
–
FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chry

Walter P. Chrysler
–
Walter Percy Chrysler was an American automotive industry executive and founder of Chrysler Corporation, now a part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Chrysler was born in Wamego, Kansas, the son of Anna Maria and he grew up in Ellis, Kansas, where today his boyhood home is a museum. His father was born in Chatham, Ontario in 1850 and immigrated to the

Chrysler Building
–
At 1,046 feet, the structure was the worlds tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. It is the tallest brick building in the world, with a steel structure, in addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height. The Chrysler Building i

Eiffel Tower
–
The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is s

Walter Chrysler
–
Walter Percy Chrysler was an American automotive industry executive and founder of Chrysler Corporation, now a part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Chrysler was born in Wamego, Kansas, the son of Anna Maria and he grew up in Ellis, Kansas, where today his boyhood home is a museum. His father was born in Chatham, Ontario in 1850 and immigrated to the

Cooper Union
–
Inspired in 1830 when Peter Cooper learned about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France, Cooper Union was established in 1859. The Cooper Union originally granted each admitted student a full-tuition scholarship, following its own financial crisis, the school decided to abandon this policy starting in the Fall of 2014, but each inco

4.
Renovated Great Hall entrance, with main hall partially visible through open doors

William Zeckendorf
–
William Zeckendorf, Sr. was a prominent American real estate developer. Through his development company Webb and Knapp—for which he began working in 1938, architects I. M. Pei and Le Corbusier have worked for Zeckendorf on many of his projects. Zeckendorf was born to a Jewish family in Paris, Illinois and his family moved to New York City when he w

1.
Zeckendorf in New York, 1952

Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company
–
Founded in 1851, Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company is an American mutual life insurance company with 1,800 offices and 13 million clients worldwide. MassMutual is one of the largest life insurance companies globally and was ranked 76th in the Fortune 500 list, the company has revenues of $25 billion and assets under management of $448 bil

1.
Caleb Rice (1792–1873)

Jack Kent Cooke
–
Jack Kent Cooke was a Canadian entrepreneur and former owner of the Washington Redskins, the Los Angeles Lakers, the Los Angeles Kings, and the Los Angeles Wolves. He also developed The Forum in Inglewood, California and FedExField near Landover, Cooke had an exceptional gift for evaluating leadership and an ability to teach, giving Jerry West, Joe

Tishman Speyer Properties
–
Tishman Speyer Properties is an American worldwide real estate building and operating company set up in 1978 by two founding partners, Robert Tishman and Jerry Speyer. The firm was founded in 1978 by Robert V. Tishman, Speyer, entering the European market ten years later, and moving into Latin America in 1995. The company expanded into China in 200

1.
Tishman Speyer Properties

The Travelers Companies
–
The Travelers Companies is an American insurance company. It is the second largest writer of U. S. commercial property casualty insurance, Travelers is incorporated in Minnesota, with headquarters in New York City and its largest office in Hartford, Connecticut. Travelers also maintains an office in St. Paul, Minnesota. It has been a component of t

Atlanta
–
Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In

4.
In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles.

Abu Dhabi
–
Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second most populous city of the United Arab Emirates, and also capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the largest of the UAEs seven emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the western coast. The city proper had a population of 1.5 million in 2014, Abu Dhabi houses federal gove

Hood ornament
–
A hood/bonnet ornament, radiator cap, motor mascot or car mascot is a specially crafted model which symbolizes a car company like a badge, located on the front center portion of the hood. It has been used as an adornment nearly since the inception of automobiles, according to the author of A History of Cars written for youth, the first hood ornamen

Otis Elevator Company
–
The Otis Elevator Company is an American company that develops, manufactures and markets elevators, escalators, moving walkways and related equipment. A pioneer in its field, Otis is the worlds largest manufacturer of vertical transportation systems, principally focusing on elevators, moving walkways and escalators. The company pioneered the develo

1.
Otis Elevator Company

2.
Otis elevator in Glasgow, Scotland, imported from the U.S. in 1856 for Gardner's Warehouse, the oldest cast-iron fronted building in the British Isles.

New York City Landmark
–
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. Cit

2.
The Astor Library was the subject of the Commission's first public hearing in 1965

Groin vault
–
A groin vault or groined vault is produced by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults. The word groin refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults, sometimes the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round. In comparison with a vault, a groin vault provides good economies of material. The thrust is concentrated along the

Sunburst
–
A sunburst is a design or figure commonly used in architectural ornaments and design patterns. It consists of rays or beams radiating out from a disk in the manner of sunbeams. Sometimes part of a sunburst, a semicircular or semi-elliptical shape, is used, in architecture, the sunburst is often used in window designs, including fanlights and rose w

Austenitic
–
Austenite, also known as gamma-phase iron, is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element. In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the eutectoid temperature of 1000 K. The austenite allotrope exists at room temperature in stainless steel and it is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Au

Stainless steel
–
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is

4.
The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with Nirosta stainless steel, a form of Type 302

Krupp
–
The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their production of steel, artillery, ammunition, and other armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG, was the largest company in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century and it was important to weapons development and production in bot

1.
The three rings were the symbol for Krupp, based on the Radreifen – the seamless railway wheels patented by Alfred Krupp. The rings are currently part of the ThyssenKrupp logotype.

WCBS-TV
–
WCBS-TV, channel 2, is the flagship station of the CBS Television Network, located in New York City. WCBS-TV is owned by the CBS Television Stations division of CBS Corporation, WCBS-TVs studios are located within the CBS Broadcast Center and its transmitter is based at the Empire State Building, both in midtown Manhattan. In the few areas of the e

WKTU
–
WKTU – branded 103.5 KTU – is a Rhythmic Hot AC-formatted radio station licensed to Lake Success, New York, United States, a suburb of New York City. WKTU is owned by iHeartMedia and broadcasts from studios in the AT&T Building in the Tribeca district of Manhattan, the 103.5 frequency first went on the air in 1948 as WNNJ, which then changed its na

1.
Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center
–
The Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center is the North American headquarters and main research and development facility for the automobile manufacturer FCA US LLC in the United States. It is located in the Metro Detroit suburb of Auburn Hills, completed in 1996, the complex has 5,300,000 square feet on 504 acres located near Interstate 75. CRSS Architects designed the Chrysler Technology Center in a formation where its elongated atrium topped concourses converge with an octagonal radiant skylight at its center. The rounded-off exterior corners are meant to evoke a polished car body and it was reported on an NPR game-show that according to a Businessweek article, the Chrysler headquarters was designed so that it could be converted to a shopping mall. It was later reported, based on industry analysis and speculation from local real estate investors. Chrysler also has offices at the landmark Chrysler House in downtown Detroit. A57,000 square foot training center was included from the start, with a teleconferencing center, construction began in 1986, and the facility was largely complete upon its dedication on October 15,1991. It reached full occupancy in 1993, planning for the facility began in 1984. Chrysler replaced its outdated Highland Park, Michigan campus, which was located at 12000 Chrysler Drive and it was off the Chrysler Freeway and Davison Freeway, with Brush Street one block away, and predated the formation of Chrysler Corporation itself. The facility was used to improve product development efficiency, increase the ease of inter-departmental collaboration and it was approximately 1 mile southeast from the Highland Park Ford Plant. In 2012, Chris Theodore said they were instrumental in “putting one platform team over the other, aligning body engineering over body engineering, the Headquarters tower was constructed between 1993 and 1996. Chrysler Museum, now closed was also on the campus, Chrysler House Lee Iacocca List of largest buildings in the world Sergio Marchionne Walter P. Chrysler History of Chrysler FCA US LLC CTC history and facilities

2.
Chrysler House
–
Chrysler House is a 23-story,99 m skyscraper located at 719 Griswold Street in Downtown Detroit, Michigan. The class-A office building is adjacent to the Penobscot Building in the heart of the U. S. designated Detroit Financial District and it is used as an office building, with retail space on the street level. The building was constructed between 1910 and 1912 and known for years as the Dime Building. When completed, the tower was named the Dime Savings Bank Building for its primary tenant and it was later renamed the Commonwealth Building, briefly known as Griswold Place. It became the Dime Building again in 2002, before being renamed in 2012, the original Lincoln Highway Association national headquarters occupied office 2115 on the 21st floor from 1913 to 1928. For several years through 1983, the building housed the headquarters of Bank of the Commonwealth until the merged with Comerica. In 2002, a renovation was completed. In August 2011, Quicken Loans founder Dan Gilbert purchased the building along with the nearby Qube, First National Building, as part of the lease, the building was renamed for the company. The tower was designed in the Neoclassical architectural style by Daniel Burnham, the steel-framed structure is faced with white glazed brick and terra cotta trim. The most distinctive feature is the light court which begins on the third floor. This feature can be seen in a version on Burnhams Miners National Bank Building, now Citizens Bank financial Center, completed one year earlier in downtown Wilkes-Barre. Miners National Bank is a similar, but smaller-scale design with the banking hall in the space below the light court. A later expansion of the building altered the U-shape of the upper floors, in a subsequent renovation, the lower two floors were refaced with gray granite and a pediment above the central entrance and cornice were removed. List of tallest buildings in Detroit Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center Sergio Marchionne Media related to Dime Building at Wikimedia Commons Moore, Daniel H. Burnham, Architect, Planner of Cities, Volume 2. Dime Building renamed Chrysler House as automaker moves workers into space in downtown Detroit, Chrysler opens Detroit office in former Dime Building. Quicken Loans helps welcome Chrysler to historic new digs today, Marchionne,70 employees moving to Detroits Dime Building

Chrysler House
–
Chrysler House
Chrysler House
–
Construction of the Dime Building in Detroit, MI. Published 31 August 1912,
Chrysler House
–
Penobscot Building left, with the Chrysler House
Chrysler House
–
Exterior c. 1912

3.
40 Wall Street
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40 Wall Street, also known as the Trump Building, is a 71-story skyscraper between Nassau Street and William Street in Manhattan, New York City. The structure was completed in 1930 after 11 months of construction, the building was designed by H. Craig Severance, along with Yasuo Matsui, and Shreve & Lamb. Caldwell & Co. designed the lighting, Der Scutt of Der Scutt Architect designed the lobby and entrance renovation. Its pinnacle reaches 927 feet and was briefly the tallest building in the world. Construction of the Bank of Manhattan Building at 40 Wall Street began in 1928, with a height of 840 feet, making it 135 feet taller than the nearby Woolworth Building. More importantly, the plans were designed to be two feet taller than the Chrysler Building, which was in a competition to be the worlds tallest building. However, this turned out to be short-lived. Uptown at 405 Lexington Avenue, the Chrysler Building developers were in the works to top 40 Wall Street, once completed on May 28,1930, the Chrysler Building surpassed 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world, fulfilling Chryslers dream. On the evening of May 20,1946, a United States Army Air Forces Beechcraft C-45F Expediter airplane crashed into the side of the building. The twin-engined plane was heading for Newark Airport on a flight originating at Lake Charles Army Air Field in Louisiana. It struck the 58th floor of the building at about 8,10 PM, creating a 20-by-10-foot hole in the masonry, the fuselage and the wing of the splintered plane fell and caught onto the 12th story ledge. Fog and low visibility were identified as the causes of the crash. At the time of the accident, LaGuardia Field reported a heavy fog that reduced the ceiling to 500 feet, the cause of that crash was also fog and poor visibility. In 1982, Joseph J. and Ralph E. Bernstein purchased 40 Wall Street and were found to be acting on behalf of Ferdinand E. Marcos. When Marcos was removed from power and his assets in the United States were frozen, in 1995, after years of neglect,40 Wall Street was purchased by future President of the United States, Donald Trump and later renamed The Trump Building. He planned to convert the upper half of it to residential space, however, the cost of converting it to residential space proved to be too high, and it remains 100% commercial space. He tried to sell the building in 2003, expecting offers in excess of $300 million, in the ninth episode of the fourth season of The Apprentice, Trump claimed he only paid $1 million for the building, but that it was actually worth $400 million. This episode aired November 17,2005, trumps legal advisor, George H. Ross, restated this claim in a 2005 book

40 Wall Street
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The Trump Building in December 2005
40 Wall Street
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Early picture of the Manhattan Company Building
40 Wall Street
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Lower portion of 40 Wall Street

4.
Empire State Building
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The Empire State Building is a 102-story skyscraper located on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets in Midtown, Manhattan, New York City. It has a height of 1,250 feet, and with its antenna included. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State and it stood as the worlds tallest building for nearly 40 years, from its completion in early 1931 until the topping out of the original World Trade Centers North Tower in late 1970. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was again the tallest building in New York, the Empire State Building is currently the fifth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and the 34th-tallest in the world. It is also the fifth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas, when measured by pinnacle height, it is the fourth-tallest building in the United States. The Empire State Building is an American cultural icon and it is designed in the distinctive Art Deco style and has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission and it was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIAs List of Americas Favorite Architecture, the site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thompson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, beginning in the late 19th century, the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York. The limestone for the Empire State Building came from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana which is a town adjacent to Bloomington. The Empire Mill Land office is near State Road 37 and Old State Road 37 just south of Bloomington, the Bloomington, Bedford, and Oolitic area is known locally as the limestone capital of the world. The Empire State Building was designed by William F, the building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob, the construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farleys General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendent, excavation of the site began on January 22,1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17—St. Patricks Day—per Al Smiths influence as Empire State, Inc. president, the project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five died during the construction. Governor Smiths grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1,1931, lewis Wickes Hines photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era. The construction was part of a competition in New York for the title of worlds tallest building

Empire State Building
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Seen from a Park Avenue skyscraper (August 2007)
Empire State Building
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A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.
Empire State Building
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View of the building from the north

5.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912

6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

7.
Abu Dhabi Investment Council
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The Abu Dhabi Investment Council is an investment arm of the Government of Abu Dhabi. From Autumn 2013 the Council will be based at Al Bahr Towers, the investment strategy of the Council seeks to achieve superior risk-adjusted returns across the entire capital structure while preserving capital. Although the Council invests globally, there is a focus of investing in Abu Dhabis economy. The Managing Director is the highest-ranking officer within the Council and he reports to the Board of Directors and is responsible for the operations of the Council. The Active Investment Strategies Department aims to generate superior risk adjusted returns by investing in funds and similar active trading mandates across different strategies. The department co-invests in individual transactions by partnering with Hedge Funds and it is focused on creating a concentrated portfolio of highly uncorrelated securities reflecting the broad nature of investment opportunities the Council is exposed to. In this respect, investments are considered for their intrinsic characteristics rather than within a portfolio context and these investments are placed both directly and through managed funds. Its investments target large-scale public systems that are vital to countries’ economies including transportation, communication, utilities & power, exposure to these investments is gained mainly through externally managed funds, but also includes the possibility of co-investments in suitable infrastructure projects. The Private Equity Department places funds in private equity markets and invests directly primarily alongside its managers. Various functions support the investment and non-investment activities of the Council

8.
Tishman Speyer
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Tishman Speyer Properties is an American worldwide real estate building and operating company set up in 1978 by two founding partners, Robert Tishman and Jerry Speyer. The firm was founded in 1978 by Robert V. Tishman, Speyer, entering the European market ten years later, and moving into Latin America in 1995. The company expanded into China in 2006, Tishman Speyer’s properties include such well-known icons as New York City’s Chrysler Building, Rockefeller Center, and CitySpire Center. Internationally, Tishman owns São Paulo’s North Tower and they previously owned London’s Millbank Tower and are currently the property manager of the building. In 2012, Nike leased over 54,000 square feet from Tishman Speyers $2.5 billion mixed-use project in Shanghai, the company is a member of REBNY

Tishman Speyer
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Tishman Speyer Properties

9.
William Van Alen
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William Van Alen was an American architect, best known as the architect in charge of designing New York Citys Chrysler Building. William Van Alen was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1883 and he attended Pratt Institute while working for the architect Clarence True. He also studied for three years at the Atelier Masqueray, the first independent architectural atelier in the United States, founded by Franco-American architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray. After finishing his studies, Van Alen worked for firms in New York, notably working on the Hotel Astor in 1902 for Clinton & Russell, the scholarship led to his studying in Paris, in the atelier of Victor Laloux at the École des Beaux-Arts. By the time Van Alen returned to New York in 1910, he had interested in new architectural styles. In 1911 he formed a partnership with H. Craig Severance, another architect with similar professional interests, Severance was gregarious and charming while Van Alen was more introverted. The partnership prospered and became known for its distinctive multistory commercial structures, in the 1920s Severance and Van Alen began to get bigger commissions, but their relationship grew more strained due to their personal differences, and the partnership dissolved in 1924. Severance and Van Alen continued to practice on their own in New York, in the mid-1920s he received two of these from Childs Restaurants, an early restaurant chain that was known for the quality of its architecture. This building, which housed a Childs restaurant on its lower floors, brianna Spikes, Michael Parker His design for another Childs location at 2 Massachusetts Ave. NW in Washington, DC, completed in 1926, was very different. A single-story stone structure on a triangular plot near Union Station. Though Childs vacated both structures in the 1950s, they were extant and in use in 2014, the Manhattan building as a restaurant, at 1046 feet, Van Alens building won. However, both buildings were surpassed in height by the Empire State Building in 1931, the completion of the Chrysler Building was received by critics with mixed reactions. Van Alen was hailed as a Doctor of Altitude and as the Ziegfeld of his profession, nevertheless, the Chrysler Building remains a beloved New York City landmark structure. Van Alen had failed to enter into a contract with Walter Chrysler when he received the Chrysler Building commission, after the building was completed, Van Alen requested payment of 6 percent of the buildings construction budget, a figure that was the standard fee of the time. After Chrysler refused payment, Van Alen sued him and won, the lawsuit significantly depreciated his reputation as an employable architect. His career effectively ruined by this and further depressed by the Great Depression, the Institutes projects initiate interdisciplinary and international collaborations between practitioners, policymakers, students, educators, and community leaders. The Van Alen Building, a neo-Art Deco/Streamline Moderne luxury apartment block on the seafront in Brighton, the 38-apartment development was built between 1999 and 2001. Higher, A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City, william Van Alen at the archINFORM database

William Van Alen
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Chrysler Building
William Van Alen
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Former Childs Restaurant in Washington, DC

10.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate

11.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S

12.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district

New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The demolition of Pennsylvania Station was a key moment in the preservationist movement, which led to the creation of the Commission
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The Astor Library was the subject of the Commission's first public hearing in 1965

13.
Early skyscrapers
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The early skyscrapers were a range of tall, commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939, predominantly in the American cities of New York City and Chicago. Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron-framed structures with deep foundations, equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting. These made it technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings, the first of which, Chicagos 138-foot tall Home Insurance Building. Their numbers grew rapidly and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers, Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design, with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s. In contrast, New Yorks skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which, in 1892, Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet, leaving the development of taller buildings to New York. The first decade of the 20th century saw a new wave of skyscraper construction, the demand for new office space to hold Americas expanding workforce of white-collar staff continued to grow. Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings, Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style, while New York experimented further with tower design. Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612-foot tall Singer Tower, the 700-foot Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, though these skyscrapers were commercial successes, criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow. Combined with a downturn, this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916. In the interwar years, skyscrapers spread to all major US cities. The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new projects in New York. New York Citys 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or set-back style of skyscrapers, leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes, often richly decorated. Skyscraper heights continued to grow, with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records, with the onset of the Great Depression, the real estate market collapsed and new builds stuttered to a halt. Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of growth, the financial organization of American businesses. New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction, as a consequence of its colonial history, New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land, with few large sites. Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo-style of architecture popular amongst their rivals in England, New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings but in practice low-rise buildings were the norm, at least until 1865, with the tallest buildings being the citys churches. New Yorks population tripled between 1840 and 1870, and property values soared, increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875, further west, the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers. Chicago became the hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories

14.
East Side (Manhattan)
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The East Side of Manhattan refers to the side of Manhattan Island which abuts the East River and faces Brooklyn and Queens. Fifth Avenue, Central Park from 59th to 110th Streets, the major neighborhoods on the East Side include East Harlem, Yorkville, Upper East Side, Turtle Bay, Murray Hill, Kips Bay, Gramercy, East Village, and the Lower East Side. The East Side is served by the IRT East Side Line subway and it is the first neighbourhood in the country to have several districts celebrating Siblings Day

East Side (Manhattan)
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East side of Midtown, as seen from Greenpoint, Brooklyn
East Side (Manhattan)
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East Side War Memorial

15.
Midtown Manhattan
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Midtown Manhattan, or Midtown, represents the central lengthwise portion of the borough and island of Manhattan in New York City. Along Manhattans north-south long axis, Midtown Manhattan separates Lower Manhattan from Upper Manhattan, the majority of New York Citys skyscrapers, including its tallest hotels and apartment towers, lie within Midtown. Midtown spans the island of Manhattan along an east-west axis, being bounded by the East River on its east. The Encyclopedia of New York City defines Midtown as being from 34th Street to 59th Street and it is sometimes broken into Midtown East and Midtown West, or north and south as in the New York City Police Departments Midtown North and Midtown South precincts. Midtown South can refer to the part of Midtown between 23rd Street and around 42nd Street, Midtown West can refer to the area between 34th and 59th Streets, and between 5th and 12th Avenues. Midtown East can refer to the area between 42nd and 59th Streets, and between 5th Avenue and the East River, in other sources these districts are referred to as separate central business districts. Midtown Manhattan, along with Lower Manhattan, is one of the leading financial centers. Midtown Manhattan is the countrys largest central business district and it has the headquarters of major companies, including 4Kids Entertainment, Barnes & Noble, Bloomberg L. P. The New York Institute of Finance is located in Midtown Manhattan, Haier operates its United States offices in the Haier Building at 1356 Broadway, the building used to be a building of the Greenwich Savings Bank. Haier held the ceremony on March 4,2002. Sumitomo Corporation operates its New York Office, the headquarters of the corporations United States operations, el Als North American headquarters are in Midtown. The Air France USA regional headquarters are in 125 West 55th Street in Midtown Manhattan, hachette Book Group USA has its headquarters in 237 Park Avenue. In 1994 Alitalia considered moving its USA headquarters from Midtown to Lower Manhattan, global Infrastructure Partners has an office in Midtown Manhattan. Biotechnology is emerging in Midtown Manhattan, bolstered by the strength in academic scientific research and public. Aer Lingus had its United States offices in Midtown, in 1997, Aer Lingus announced that it was moving its North American headquarters to Melville, New York, in Suffolk County. New York City Department of Education public schools in Midtown Manhattan include Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis High School, private schools include The Beekman School, Rebecca School, and a number of private language and music centers. The La Scuola dItalia Guglielmo Marconi Italian international school will move to West Midtown in 2016, in addition to its well-known Main Branch research library—now known as the Stephen A. Pennsylvania Station and Grand Central Terminal are major railroad stations located in Midtown Manhattan, the Port Authority Bus Terminal is also in Midtown

16.
42nd Street (Manhattan)
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42nd Street is a major crosstown street in the New York City borough of Manhattan, known for its theaters, especially near the intersection with Broadway at Times Square. It is also the name of the region of the district near that intersection. Washingtons attempt put him in danger of being captured, and his officers had to him to leave. The rout eventually subsided into an orderly retreat, john Jacob Astor purchased a 70 acres farm in 1803 that ran from 42nd Street to 46th Street west of Broadway to the Hudson River. The street was designated by the Commissioners Plan of 1811 that established the Manhattan street grid as one of 15 east-west streets that would be 100 feet in width, the Depot, which opened in 1871, was replaced by Grand Central Terminal in 1913. In 1980, it was turned into a successful Broadway musical which ran until 1989, from the late 1950s until the late 1980s, 42nd Street, nicknamed The Deuce, was the cultural center of American grindhouse theaters, which spawned an entire subculture. While the street outside the theatres was populated with, phony drug salesman, unkies alone in their heroin/cocaine dreamworld. Predatory chickenhawks spying on underage trade looking for pickups, ranssexuals, hustlers, and closety gays with a fetishistic homo- or heterosexual itch to scratch. It was common to see porn stars whose films were playing at the adult houses promenade down the block, not when you stepped onto the Deuce. Being a freak there would get you money, attention, entertainment, or maybe a robbery and a beating. For much of the mid and late 20th century, the area of 42nd Street near Times Square was home to activities often considered unsavory, in the early 1990s, city government encouraged a clean-up of the Times Square area. In 1993, the Walt Disney Corporation bought the New Amsterdam Theatre and it is now the flagship for Disneys theatrical productions in New York. This area is now co-signed as New 42nd Street to signify this change, the IRT 42nd Street Shuttle runs under 42nd Street between Broadway/Seventh Avenue and Park Avenue. Each line stops at Times Square and Grand Central, the Flushing Line also stops at Fifth Avenue and its predecessor, the 42nd Street Crosstown Line streetcar, had used 42nd Street. The George M. Cohan song Give My Regards to Broadway includes the lyrics Tell all the gang at Forty-Second Street / That I will soon be there. The Jim Croce song You Dont Mess Around with Jim includes the lyrics 42nd street got Big Jim Walker, the Billy Joel song Miami 2017 includes the lyrics Wed seen it all the time on 42nd Street. Ghosts of 42nd Street, A History of Americas Most Infamous Block, New York, HarperCollins Books, ISBN 0-688-17089-7. A detailed history that focuses primarily on the Times Square Theater District from the beginning of the 20th century through its successful restoration, down 42nd Street, Sex, money, culture and politics at the crossroads of the world

42nd Street (Manhattan)
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Looking west along 42nd Street from Seventh Avenue (2004)
42nd Street (Manhattan)
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Grindhouse movie theaters on 42nd Street in 1985 before its renovation; the 200 block of W. 42nd Street; former Lyric Theatre facade and nearby buildings
42nd Street (Manhattan)
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Grand Central Terminal at night, as seen from the west on 42nd Street
42nd Street (Manhattan)
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The Chrysler Building, with its unique stainless-steel top, is one of the most distinctive buildings on 42nd Street

17.
Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)
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Along its 5. 5-mile, 110-block route, Lexington Avenue runs through Harlem, Carnegie Hill, the Upper East Side, Midtown, and Murray Hill to a point of origin that is centered on Gramercy Park. South of Gramercy Park, the axis continues as Irving Place from 20th Street to East 14th Street, the portion of Lexington Avenue between 14th and 20th Streets is known as Irving Place. Ruggles had purchased land in the area, and was developing it as a community of townhouses around a private park. He was also developing property around the planned Union Square, the legislation approved, and, as the owner of most of the land along the route of the new street, Ruggles was assessed for the majority of its cost. Ruggles named the section, below 20th Street, which opened in 1833. The northern section, which opened three years later, in 1836, was named after the Battle of Lexington in the Revolutionary War. Lexington saw the first arrest in New York for speeding, in 1899, when a bicycle patrolman overtook cabdriver Jacob German, the portion of Lexington Avenue above East 42nd Street was reconstructed at the same time as the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. The widened street and the line both opened on July 17,1918. Parallel to Lexington Avenue lies Park Avenue to its west and Third Avenue to its east, the avenue is largely commercial at ground level, with offices above. There are clusters of hotels in the 30s and 40s, roughly from the intersection with 30th Street through to its intersection with 49th Street. Portions of the avenue were widened in 1955, which required eminent domain takings of the facades of some structures along Lexington, Lexington Avenue has carried one-way traffic since July 17,1960. The July 18,2007 New York City steam explosion sent a geyser of hot steam up from beneath the avenue at 41st Street resulting in one death and more than 40 injuries. In contrast to Lexington Avenue, the stretch of Irving Place. Irving Plaza, on East 15th Street and Irving, hosts concerts for both well-known and indie bands and draws a crowd almost every night. Another component of the avenue are the apartment buildings which line the street from Gramercy Park to 17th Street. Also at 17th, a small bed-and-breakfast, the Inn at Irving Place, offices located on Irving Place include those of The Nation magazine, the New York branch of the Rosicrucian Order and the Seafarers and International House mission. There are also a number of clinics and official city buildings along the street, including Washington Irving High School, the bottom of the street is anchored by the rear of the Zeckendorf Towers condominium apartment complex on the west side, and the Consolidated Edison Building on the east. M101 and M103 run to 125th Street, M102 runs to 116th Street, Lexington Avenue became part of a classic American cinematic moment, in the 1955 movie The Seven Year Itch, the scene in which Marilyn Monroe shot what would become her most famous scene

Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)
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View northward from the top floors of the Chrysler Building
Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)
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View of Lexington Avenue south from 50th street, with the Chrysler Building in the background
Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)
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Pete's Tavern

18.
Turtle Bay, Manhattan
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Turtle Bay is a neighborhood in New York City, on the east side of Midtown Manhattan. It extends from either 41st or 43rd Streets to 53rd Street, the neighborhood is the site of the headquarters of the United Nations and the Chrysler Building. The Tudor City apartment complex is considered to be within Turtle Bay. Turtle Bay, a cove of the East River, received its name in the 17th century by its resemblance in shape to that of a knife, deutal being Dutch for knife. The cove, which was filled in after the Civil War, was a shelter from the often harsh weather on the river. The Turtle Bay neighborhood was originally a 40-acre land grant given to two Englishmen by the Dutch colonial governor of New Amsterdam in 1639, and named Turtle Bay Farm. The farm extended roughly from what is now 43rd Street to 48th Street, Turtle Creek, or DeVoors Mill Creek as it was known, emptied into the cove at what is now 47th Street. To the south lay Kips Bay farm, to the north, on a bluff, stood James Beekmans Mount Pleasant, the first of a series of houses and villas with water views stretching away up the shoreline. After the street system was initiated in Manhattan, the hilly landscape of the Turtle Bay Farm was graded to create cross-streets. An army enrollment office was established at Third Avenue and 46th Street, on July 13,1863, an angry mob burned the office to the ground and proceeded to riot through the surrounding neighborhood, destroying entire blocks. The New York Draft Riots continued for three days before troops managed to contain the mob, which had burned and looted much of the city. After the war ended, the formerly pastoral neighborhood was developed with brownstones, by 1868 the bay had been entirely filled in by commercial overdevelopment, packed with breweries, gasworks, slaughterhouses, cattle pens, coal yards, and railroad piers. The numerous plants shower this district with the heaviest sootfall in the city—150 tons to the square mile annually, there were also 18 acres of slaughterhouses along First Avenue. Many tenements were restored in the 1920s, and a communal garden was established. Having married Walton Martin, she sold the houses to friends at cost. Among the first purchasers was Maria Bowen Chapin, founder of the Chapin School, white, who wrote Charlottes Web when living on 48th Street. It was designated the Turtle Bay Gardens Historic District in 1966, an area between First and Second Avenues, and 41st and 43rd Streets was known as Goat Hill – goats and squatters ruled the area – and later renamed Prospect Hill. From 1927 to 1932, the 2, 800-unit Tudor City was built on this site, concurrent with the UN headquarters construction, the Ralph Bunche Park staircase was constructed, connecting Tudor City to the rest of Turtle Bay

19.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon

September 11 attacks
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Top row: The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning
September 11 attacks
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1997 picture of Osama bin Laden
September 11 attacks
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Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003
September 11 attacks
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Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11

20.
World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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The World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured landmark twin towers, which opened on April 4,1973, and were destroyed as a result of the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet, the other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center,4 WTC,5 WTC,6 WTC, and 7 WTC. All these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985, with a construction cost of $400 million, the complex was located in New York Citys Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet of office space. The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13,1975, a bombing on February 26,1993, and a robbery on January 14,1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a company to manage. On the morning of September 11,2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of other, two hours later, both had collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, the cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which time what remained of the other World Trade Center buildings was demolished. The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over a span of more than a decade, the site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers, while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the United States, is the building for the new complex. The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River and they built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, the remains of a second ship from the eighteenth century were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, later, the area became Radio Row. New York Citys Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966, was a district on the Lower West Side in the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area several blocks of electronics stores. The used radios, war surplus electronics, junk, and parts often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, according to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business. The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943, the New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan, to help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan

World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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The original World Trade Center in March 2001. The tower on the left, with antenna spire, was 1 WTC. The tower on the right was 2 WTC. All seven buildings of the WTC complex are partially visible; refer to map below. The red granite-clad building left of the Twin Towers was the original 7 World Trade Center. In the background is the East River.
World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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The Radio Row in 1936, with the Cortlandt Street station in the background, as seen in a photograph by Berenice Abbott
World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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The World Financial Center and Battery Park City, next to the World Trade Center, were built on reclaimed land.
World Trade Center (1973-2001)
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Construction underway in late 1969

21.
Bank of America Tower (New York City)
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The Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park is a 1,200 ft skyscraper in the Midtown area of Manhattan in New York City. It is located on Avenue of the Americas, between 42nd and 43rd Streets, opposite Bryant Park, the US$1 billion project was designed by COOKFOX Architects, and advertised to be one of the most efficient and ecologically friendly buildings in the world. It is the fourth tallest building in New York City, after One World Trade Center,432 Park Avenue, and the Empire State Building, the buildings Urban Garden Room at 43rd Street and 6th Avenue is open to the public. The towers architectural spire is 255.5 ft tall and was placed on December 15,2007, several buildings were demolished to make way for the tower. Among them was the Hotel Diplomat, a 13-story structure which occupied the site at 108 West 43rd Street since 1911, and Henry Millers Theatre, the Bank of America Tower is considered a worldwide model for green architecture in skyscrapers. The tower also features a system, which captures rainwater for reuse. Bank of America states that the building is largely of recycled. Air entering the building is filtered, as is common, Bank of America Tower is the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification. The Bank of America Tower is constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, the mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. Each ton of cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in a friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency, carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver 50 °F air into a raised access floor plenum and this underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed easily with lower cost. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb. Water conservation features in the tower include waterless urinals, which are estimated to save 8,000,000 US gal of water per year, the tower has a 4. 6-megawatt cogeneration plant, which provides part of the base-load energy requirements. In summer 2013, the Durst Organization employed Brooklyn Grange Rooftop Farm to install, when comparing building height, only the structural height is used according to rules and regulations of the World Council on Tall Buildings. Currently, the New York Times Building and the Chrysler Building are tied for the position of the third tallest buildings in New York City

Bank of America Tower (New York City)
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The Bank of America Tower, with its spire, as viewed from the New York Public Library Main Branch at Fifth Avenue.
Bank of America Tower (New York City)
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The tower from street level
Bank of America Tower (New York City)
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Construction in October 2007
Bank of America Tower (New York City)
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Construction progress, 2005

22.
The New York Times Building
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The New York Times Building is a skyscraper on the west side of Midtown Manhattan, New York City that was completed in 2007. Its chief tenant is The New York Times Company, publisher of The New York Times as well as the International New York Times, construction was by a joint venture of The New York Times Company, Forest City Ratner, and ING Real Estate. The original newspaper headquarters in 1851 were at 113 Nassau Street, in a building that stood until fairly recently. The slender tower was so constricted in space that the paper outgrew it within a decade and, in 1913, moved into the Times Annex,229 West 43rd Street, where it remained for almost a century. The project was announced on December 13,2001, a 52-story tower on the east side of Eighth Avenue between 40th and 41st Street across from the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey Bus Terminal. In addition, the new building—called by many New Yorkers The New Times Tower—keeps the paper in the Times Square area, the site for the building was obtained by the Empire State Development Corporation through eminent domain. With a mandate to acquire and redevelop blighted properties in Times Square, ten buildings were condemned by the ESDC, some owners sued, asserting that the area was no longer blighted, but lost in court. Once the 80, 000-square-foot site was assembled, it was leased to The New York Times Company, additionally, The New York Times Company received $26.1 million in tax breaks. The Times itself occupies 628,000 square feet on the 2nd to 21st floors, on December 16,2016, the New York Times announced that it was vacating at least 8 of the floors in order to generate rental income. The tower was designed by Renzo Piano Building Workshop and FXFOWLE Architects, the lighting design for the buildings nighttime identity was designed by the Office for Visual Interaction Inc. The tower rises 748 feet from the street to its roof, with the curtain wall extending 92 feet higher to 840 feet. As of 2010, the building was tied with the Chrysler Building as the fourth-tallest building in New York City, the tower is also the tenth-tallest building in the United States. The steel-framed building, cruciform in plan, has a screen of 1 5⁄8 ceramic rods mounted on the exterior of the curtain wall on the east, west. The rod spacing increases from the base to the top, adding transparency as the building rises, the steel framing and bracing is exposed at the four corner notches of the building. The new building is promoted as a green structure, the design incorporates numerous environmentally sustainable features for increased energy efficiency. The double skin curtain wall, automated louver shading system, dimmable lighting system, underfloor air distribution system, the use of floor-to-ceiling glass maximizes light and views for people inside and outside the building. The horizontal white ceramic rods on the facade, which are spaced to allow occupants to have unobstructed views while both seated and standing, act as an aesthetic veil and a sun shade. They are made of silicate, an extremely dense and high-quality ceramic chosen for its durability

The New York Times Building
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The New York Times Building
The New York Times Building
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Height comparison of New York City buildings, with the New York Times Building on the right
The New York Times Building
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The building under construction in September 2006
The New York Times Building
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Ground floor atrium

23.
One World Trade Center
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One World Trade Center is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City. It is the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the sixth-tallest in the world, the supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which was completely destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11,2001. The new skyscraper stands on the northwest corner of the 16-acre World Trade Center site, the building is bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street to the north, Fulton Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east. The buildings architect was David Childs, whose firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill also designed the Burj Khalifa, the construction of below-ground utility relocations, footings, and foundations for the new building began on April 27,2006. One World Trade Center became the tallest structure in New York City on April 30,2012, the towers steel structure was topped out on August 30,2012. On May 10,2013, the component of the skyscrapers spire was installed, making the building, including its spire. Its height in feet is a reference to the year when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. The building opened on November 3,2014, the One World Observatory opened on May 29,2015, the building is 104 standard floors high, but the tower has only 94 actual stories. The construction of the new building is part of an effort to memorialize, the construction of the World Trade Center, of which the Twin Towers were the centerpieces, was conceived as an urban renewal project and spearheaded by David Rockefeller. The project was intended to help revitalize Lower Manhattan, the project was planned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki. Yamasaki came up with the idea of building twin towers, to satisfy the New Jersey government, the Port Authority agreed to buy the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, which transported commuters from New Jersey to Lower Manhattan. The towers were designed as framed tube structures, giving tenants open floor plans and this design was accomplished by using many closely spaced perimeter columns, providing much of the structures strength, with the gravity load shared with the core columns. The elevator system, which use of sky lobbies and a system of express and local elevators. The design and construction of the towers involved many other techniques, such as wind tunnel experiments. Construction of the North Tower began in August 1966, extensive use of prefabricated components sped up the construction process, the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970. In the 1970s, four other buildings were built as part of the World Trade Center complex. A seventh building was built in the mid-1980s, each tower was over 1,350 feet high, and occupied about 1 acre of the total 16 acres of the sites land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, Why two 110-story buildings and his response was, I didnt want to lose the human scale

One World Trade Center
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One World Trade Center, the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere, in July 2013.
One World Trade Center
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One World Trade Center under construction in 1971
One World Trade Center
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Underground damage from 1993 bombing
One World Trade Center
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The remains (from bottom to top) of One, Six, and Seven World Trade Center on September 17, 2001

24.
432 Park Avenue
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432 Park Avenue is a residential skyscraper in Manhattan, New York City that overlooks Central Park. Originally proposed to be 1,300 feet in 2011, the structure topped out at 1,396 ft and it was developed by CIM Group and features 104 condominium apartments. Construction began in 2012 and was completed on December 23,2015, the building required the demolition of the 495-room Drake Hotel. Built in 1926, it was purchased for $440 million in 2006 by developer Harry Macklowe and its footprint became one of New Yorks most valuable development sites due to its location, between East 56th and 57th Streets on the west side of Park Avenue. As completed,432 Park Avenue is the third tallest building in the United States, and it is the second-tallest building in New York City, behind One World Trade Center, and ahead of the Empire State Building. 432 Park Avenue is the second-tallest building in New York City, by mid-2018,217 West 57th Street and 111 West 57th Street will be at a similar height. The tower has a footprint of approximately 30,000 square feet and has 12.5 foot ceilings, the building was officially topped out on October 10,2014, making it the highest rooftop in the city. The building has one of the highest height-to-width ratios of any skyscraper in the world, the design of the structure was conceived by architect Rafael Viñoly who was inspired by a trash can designed in 1905 by an Austrian designer. The tower has eighty-four 8, 255-square-foot stories, each with six 100-square-foot windows per face, interiors are designed by Deborah Berke and the firm Bentel & Bentel, which also designed Eleven Madison Park and the Gramercy Tavern. To support its thin orthogonal frame, the structure features larger columns at its base than on the upper floors, the buildings amenities include 12-foot golf training facilities and private dining and screening rooms. The first sale of apartment #35B was reported in January 2016 for $18.116 million, ten additional apartments were available at the time ranging from $17.4 to $44.25 million. #35B covers 4,000 square feet, one half of the 35th floor of the tower, each face has six 10 by 10 ft windows, which for #35B, face south and west with views of Central Park. The structure of the tower is composed of a 30 ft square reinforced concrete core with 30 in thick walls and this core houses the elevator shafts and all the building mechanical services. The outer structural skin is composed of a grid of 3 ft 8 in wide columns, the columns begin with a depth of 5 ft 4 in at the bottom of the tower, to as little as 20 in at the top. This layout permits all of the space on each floor to remain fully open for the complete 27 feet span between the core and shell. These floors also contain modularized mechanical services for the six floors above, in addition two tuned mass dampers are located at the top of the tower and in the outriggers of some of the mechanical floors to help damp the motion. Despite its success, the skyscraper has received mixed reviews from professionals and laymen alike since not everyone agreed with the artistic value of the building. The building has been maligned by some city residents since they believe it represents New Yorks increasing cost of living and ostentatious wealth

432 Park Avenue
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as seen from the Rockefeller Center (July 2015)
432 Park Avenue
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Tallest buildings in the city by pinnacle height, including all masts, antennas, poles, etc. 432 Park Avenue is third from the left.
432 Park Avenue
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Under construction in March 2015

25.
American Institute of Architects
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The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They met on February 23,1857 and decided to invite 16 other prominent architects to join them, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Prior to their establishment of the AIA, anyone could claim to be an architect and they drafted a constitution and bylaws by March 10,1857, under the name New York Society of Architects. Walter, of Philadelphia, later suggested the name be changed to American Institute of Architects, the members signed the new constitution on April 15,1857, having filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. As of 2008, AIA has more than 300 chapters, the AIA is headquartered at 1735 New York Avenue, NW in Washington, D. C. A design competition was held in the mid-1960s to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters in Washington, mitchell/Giurgola won the design competition but failed to get approval of the design concept from the United States Commission of Fine Arts. The firm resigned the commission and helped select The Architects Collaborative to redesign the building, the design, led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973. More than 90,000 licensed architects and associated professionals are members, AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct intended to assure clients, the public, and colleagues of an architects dedication to the highest standards in professional practice. There are five levels of membership in the AIA, Architect members are licensed to practice architecture in the United States, international associate members hold an architecture license or the equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States. Emeritus members have been AIA members for 15 successive years and are at least 65 years of age or are incapacitated, allied membership is a partnership with the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation. The AIA’s most prestigious honor is the designation of a member as a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and this membership is awarded to members who have made contributions of national significance to the profession. Slightly more than 2,600, or 2% of all members, have elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Foreign architects of prominence may be elected to the College as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, the AIA is governed by a Board of Directors and has a staff of over 200 full-time employees. Although the AIA functions as an organization, at its heart are some 300 local. The components are spread throughout the United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan, by speaking with a united voice, AIA architects influence government practices that affect the practice of the profession and the quality of American life. The AIA monitors legislative and regulatory actions and uses the power of its membership to participate in decisionmaking by federal, state

26.
Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication

27.
Walter P. Chrysler
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Walter Percy Chrysler was an American automotive industry executive and founder of Chrysler Corporation, now a part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Chrysler was born in Wamego, Kansas, the son of Anna Maria and he grew up in Ellis, Kansas, where today his boyhood home is a museum. His father was born in Chatham, Ontario in 1850 and immigrated to the United States after 1858, a Freemason, Chrysler began his career as a machinist and railroad mechanic in Ellis. He took correspondence courses from International Correspondence Schools in Scranton, Pennsylvania, Walter Chryslers father, Henry Chrysler, was a Canadian-American of German and Dutch ancestry. He was an American Civil War veteran who was an engineer for the Kansas Pacific Railway and its successor. Walters mother was born in Rocheport, Missouri, and was also of German ancestry and his forebears had founded Chatham, the family stock was German, eight generations back of me there had come to America one who spelled his name Greisler, a German Palatine. He was one of a group of Protestants who had left their German homeland in the Rhine Valley, gone to the Netherlands, thence to England and embarked, finally, other researchers have since traced his ancestors in more detail. Karin Holls monograph on the traces the family tree to a Johann Philipp Kreißler, born in 1672. Chryslers ancestors came from the Rhineland-Palatinate town of Guntersblum, Chrysler apprenticed in the railroad shops at Ellis as a machinist and railroad mechanic. He then spent a period of roaming the west, working for various railroads as a roundhouse mechanic with a reputation of being good at valve-setting jobs. Some of his moves were due to restlessness and a too-quick temper and he worked his way up through positions such as foreman, superintendent, division master mechanic, and general master mechanic. From 1905-1906, Chrysler worked for the Fort Worth and Denver Railway in Childress in West Texas and he later lived and worked in Oelwein, Iowa, at the main shops of the Chicago Great Western where there is a small park dedicated to him. The pinnacle of his career came at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. While working in Pittsburgh, Chrysler lived in the town of Bellevue, Chryslers automotive career began in 1911 when he received a summons to meet with James J. Storrow, a banker who was a director of ALCO and also an executive at General Motors. Storrow asked him if he had any thought to automobile manufacture. Chrysler had been an auto enthusiast for over five years by then, Storrow arranged a meeting with Charles W. Nash, then president of the Buick Motor Company, who was looking for a smart production chief. Chrysler, who had resigned from many railroading jobs over the years, made his resignation from railroading to become works manager at Buick in Flint. He found many ways to reduce the costs of production, such as putting an end to finishing automobile undercarriages with the same quality of finish that the body warranted

28.
Chrysler Building
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At 1,046 feet, the structure was the worlds tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. It is the tallest brick building in the world, with a steel structure, in addition, The New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height. The Chrysler Building is an example of Art Deco architecture. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects and it was the headquarters of the Chrysler Corporation from 1930 until the mid-1950s. Although the building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer, Chrysler decided to pay for it himself, so that his children could inherit it. The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen for a project of Walter P. Chrysler, when the ground breaking occurred on September 19,1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the worlds tallest skyscraper. Despite a frantic pace, no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper, Van Alens original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners. The height of the skyscraper was originally designed to be 246 meters. However, the proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds. The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler, construction commenced on September 19,1928. In total,391,881 rivets were used and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction. Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a project at 40 Wall Street. Severance increased the height of his project and then claimed the title of the worlds tallest building. In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 38-meter long spire and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building, the spire was delivered to the site in four different sections. On October 23,1929, the section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the buildings dome. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in order in just 90 minutes. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet, Van Alens satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chryslers later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee

Chrysler Building
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Chrysler Building
Chrysler Building
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The Chrysler Building in 1932
Chrysler Building
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The Chrysler Building, as seen from Empire State Building in June 2005

29.
Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible

30.
Walter Chrysler
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Walter Percy Chrysler was an American automotive industry executive and founder of Chrysler Corporation, now a part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. Chrysler was born in Wamego, Kansas, the son of Anna Maria and he grew up in Ellis, Kansas, where today his boyhood home is a museum. His father was born in Chatham, Ontario in 1850 and immigrated to the United States after 1858, a Freemason, Chrysler began his career as a machinist and railroad mechanic in Ellis. He took correspondence courses from International Correspondence Schools in Scranton, Pennsylvania, Walter Chryslers father, Henry Chrysler, was a Canadian-American of German and Dutch ancestry. He was an American Civil War veteran who was an engineer for the Kansas Pacific Railway and its successor. Walters mother was born in Rocheport, Missouri, and was also of German ancestry and his forebears had founded Chatham, the family stock was German, eight generations back of me there had come to America one who spelled his name Greisler, a German Palatine. He was one of a group of Protestants who had left their German homeland in the Rhine Valley, gone to the Netherlands, thence to England and embarked, finally, other researchers have since traced his ancestors in more detail. Karin Holls monograph on the traces the family tree to a Johann Philipp Kreißler, born in 1672. Chryslers ancestors came from the Rhineland-Palatinate town of Guntersblum, Chrysler apprenticed in the railroad shops at Ellis as a machinist and railroad mechanic. He then spent a period of roaming the west, working for various railroads as a roundhouse mechanic with a reputation of being good at valve-setting jobs. Some of his moves were due to restlessness and a too-quick temper and he worked his way up through positions such as foreman, superintendent, division master mechanic, and general master mechanic. From 1905-1906, Chrysler worked for the Fort Worth and Denver Railway in Childress in West Texas and he later lived and worked in Oelwein, Iowa, at the main shops of the Chicago Great Western where there is a small park dedicated to him. The pinnacle of his career came at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. While working in Pittsburgh, Chrysler lived in the town of Bellevue, Chryslers automotive career began in 1911 when he received a summons to meet with James J. Storrow, a banker who was a director of ALCO and also an executive at General Motors. Storrow asked him if he had any thought to automobile manufacture. Chrysler had been an auto enthusiast for over five years by then, Storrow arranged a meeting with Charles W. Nash, then president of the Buick Motor Company, who was looking for a smart production chief. Chrysler, who had resigned from many railroading jobs over the years, made his resignation from railroading to become works manager at Buick in Flint. He found many ways to reduce the costs of production, such as putting an end to finishing automobile undercarriages with the same quality of finish that the body warranted

31.
Cooper Union
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Inspired in 1830 when Peter Cooper learned about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France, Cooper Union was established in 1859. The Cooper Union originally granted each admitted student a full-tuition scholarship, following its own financial crisis, the school decided to abandon this policy starting in the Fall of 2014, but each incoming student receives at least a half-tuition merit scholarship. The college is divided into three schools, the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, the School of Art, and it offers undergraduate and masters degree programs exclusively in the fields of architecture, fine arts, and engineering. It is a member of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, until 2014 Cooper Union was one of the very few American institutions of higher learning to offer a full-tuition scholarship – valued at approximately $150,000 as of 2012 – to every admitted student. Cooper Union has historically been one of the most selective colleges in the United States, both the art and architecture schools have acceptance rates below 5%. Cooper Union received 2,536 applications for the 2014–2015 academic year, as a result of its record low acceptance ratio for the fall 2010 incoming class, Cooper Union was named by Newsweek as the #1 Most Desirable Small School and #7 Most Desirable School overall. The Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by American industrialist Peter Cooper, who was an inventor, successful entrepreneur. Cooper was a son who had less than a year of formal schooling, yet went on to become an industrialist. Cooper designed and built Americas first steam engine, and made a fortune with a glue factory. After achieving wealth, he turned his skills to successful ventures in real estate, insurance. Coopers dream was to give talented young people the one privilege he lacked and he also wished to make possible the development of talent that otherwise would have gone undiscovered. According to The New York Times in 1863, Those only are supposed to pay anything who are abundantly able, discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or sex was expressly prohibited. Since the opening of this institute all who desire, and particularly those who work for their own support, can avail themselves, free of charge, of all the advantages the institution affords. The early institution also had a reading room open day and night, and a new four-year nighttime engineering college for men. A daytime engineering college was added in 1902 thanks to funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie Initial board members included Daniel F. Tiemann, Peter Coopers dream of providing an education equal to the best has since become reality. Since 1859, the Cooper Union has educated thousands of artists, architects, after 1864 there were a few attempts to merge Cooper Union and Columbia University, but these were never realized. The Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum, was founded in 1897 as part of Cooper Union by Sarah, Eleanor, Cooper Unions Foundation Building is an Italianate brownstone building designed by architect Fred A. Petersen, one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects. It was the first structure in New York City to feature rolled-iron I-beams for structural support, Petersen patented a fire-resistant hollow brick tile he used in the buildings construction

32.
William Zeckendorf
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William Zeckendorf, Sr. was a prominent American real estate developer. Through his development company Webb and Knapp—for which he began working in 1938, architects I. M. Pei and Le Corbusier have worked for Zeckendorf on many of his projects. Zeckendorf was born to a Jewish family in Paris, Illinois and his family moved to New York City when he was three years old. He attended New York University but dropped out to work at the estate company of his uncle. He soon left his uncles firm to work for Webb & Knapp, zeckendorfs most notable property acquisition, and potential development of a dream city to rival Rockefeller Center, was a 17-acre site along the East River between 42nd Street and 48th Street. Zeckendorf also owned New Yorks famous Chrysler Building and the venerable Hotel Astor in Times Square and he purchased Chicagos famous Robie House in 1958 before transferring ownership to the University of Chicago. He developed two of I. M. Peis early skyscrapers—the Mile High Center in downtown Denver, Zeckendorf also partnered with Chicago real estate titan Arthur Rubloff to develop a stretch of Michigan Avenue into what Rubloff dubbed the Magnificent Mile. The Rubloff Company was eventually acquired by Prudential and subsequently has become a division of Berkshire Hathaway, the studio had suffered a string of expensive flops, culminating in the box-office disaster Cleopatra and was in dire need of money. The project, conceived under the direction of Edmund Herrscher, the director of property development, had been announced the first week of 1958. The following March it was announced that construction would begin that month on the new headquarters for architect Welton Becket, Zeckendorf hired New York public relations executive Tex McCrary to lend new life and visibility to the project. McCrary, in turn contracted with Los Angeles publicist Charles A. Pomerantz, well known in the entertainment industry, to come up with a campaign and execute it. Pomerantz turned to a young publicist he had hired, Worley Thorne, Thorne said hed call friends in the press to assess their attitudes. Thorne learned that there was skepticism that the project would ever be built. 20th did not have the money, which is why they brought in Zeckendorf, the California papers had already given a lot of publicity to Century City and, for them, any more coverage would just be re-hash in which they were not interested. Thorne reported to Pomerantz his opinion that the way to restore credibility to the project was to actually begin construction. Thorne called Herrscher and asked if there was some small building they could demolish with a bulldozer, Herrscher said there was a tin shack that was expendable and hed make it available, as well as the bulldozer. McCrary and William Zeckendorf, Jr. vice-president of Webb & Knapp and he and Pomerantz would find a star to launch the project by breaking a bottle of champagne on the shack prior to its being demolished. Later, they secured Mary Pickford for that task and it was all purely symbolic, since construction did not actually begin, but no one stated that openly, it was dramatic, and very successful

William Zeckendorf
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Zeckendorf in New York, 1952

33.
Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company
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Founded in 1851, Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company is an American mutual life insurance company with 1,800 offices and 13 million clients worldwide. MassMutual is one of the largest life insurance companies globally and was ranked 76th in the Fortune 500 list, the company has revenues of $25 billion and assets under management of $448 billion. Although dividends are not guaranteed, MassMutual has paid dividends to eligible participating policyholders every year since the 1860s, MassMutual Financial Group is a marketing name for Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company and its affiliated companies and sales representatives. Member FINRA and SIPC, OppenheimerFunds, Inc. and The MassMutual Trust Company and it recently acquired a stake in Sony Music. Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company began operation on May 15,1851 in Springfield, Massachusetts, by George W. Rice, who subscribed for a guarantee capital of $100,000. As an insurance agent who sold policies for Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Company in Hartford, Connecticut, similar to Connecticut Mutual, this new enterprise grew into a mutual company. The popularity of mutual companies in the industry had grown significantly between 1843 and MassMutual’s creation. However, MassMutual’s path followed a different course when an 1851 Massachusetts state law required all companies to take an initial stock subscription of $100,000. Rice met that requirement by recruiting 31 investors to purchase stock in his company to meet the mandatory subscription, MassMutual’s first president was Caleb Rice, appointed in 1851. A cousin of founder George W. Rice, Caleb Rice served as president of MassMutual for 22 years, MassMutual began to sell policies to homeowners and workers throughout New England. For the next decades, MassMutuals expansion continued to mirror that of the United States. MassMutual reached the West Coast in 1868 and established an office in San Francisco before the Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, across the industry, sales of life insurance policies began to substantially increase by the late 1850s. Sales reached $200 million by 1862, then tripled to just under $600 million by the end of the Civil War, westward expansion and increased marketing efforts of the insurance industry were largely responsible for this growth. Another effort that contributed to the selling of life insurance policies was the passing of a non-forfeiture law by the Massachusetts legislature in 1861. As the industry continued to grow, so did MassMutual, and by 1873 – just over 20 years since their first $1,000 policy was issued on August 2, 1851– the company held $4,501,909 in assets. Caleb Rice’s presidency of MassMutual came to an end in 1873 when he was succeeded by E. W. Bond, Bond was replaced in 1886 by Colonel Martin Van Buren Edgerly, who started his career with MassMutual in 1859. He was the first major example of MassMutual’s tendency to look from within to promote, Edgerly oversaw MassMutual’s growth for nearly a decade. John Hall replaced Mr. Edgerly in March 1895 and helped MassMutual’s assets exceed $50,000,000

Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company
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Caleb Rice (1792–1873)

34.
Jack Kent Cooke
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Jack Kent Cooke was a Canadian entrepreneur and former owner of the Washington Redskins, the Los Angeles Lakers, the Los Angeles Kings, and the Los Angeles Wolves. He also developed The Forum in Inglewood, California and FedExField near Landover, Cooke had an exceptional gift for evaluating leadership and an ability to teach, giving Jerry West, Joe Gibbs, and Sparky Anderson their first head coaching/managerial positions. All three became Hall of Fame executives, with West winning seven championships as an executive, Gibbs led Cookes Washington Redskins to three Super Bowls and later won four NASCAR Sprint Cup Series titles, while Anderson won three World Series championships. Born in Hamilton, Ontario, Cooke moved with his family to The Beaches area of Toronto in 1921, at age 14, Cooke got a job selling encyclopedias door to door. At the end of his first day, he took home over $20 to his mother and he later became a runner on the floor of the Toronto Stock Exchange. He was selling soap in Northern Ontario for Colgate-Palmolive in 1936 when he met Roy Thomson, the two became partners in 1941, buying radio stations and newspapers in Ontario and Quebec. With the financial backing of J. P. Bickell, Cooke purchased CKCL in 1945 and he also continued to work with Thomson, and the two acquired the Canadian edition of Liberty magazine in 1948, naming it New Liberty. The following year, Thomson sold his half of the magazine to Cooke, in 1951, Cooke ventured into sports, acquiring the minor league Toronto Maple Leafs baseball club. He transformed the games from straight athletic contests into complete entertainment packages, with a long list of special promotions, with his focus on entertainment, Cooke was compared to St. Louis Browns owner Bill Veeck. Five months after becoming owner, Cooke presented a 48-page booklet to all the teams in the league and he was named minor league executive of the year by The Sporting News in 1952. That same year, Cooke purchased Consolidated Press, publisher of Saturday Night magazine and he made an unsuccessful bid for The Globe and Mail newspaper in 1955. While owning the Maple Leafs baseball team, Cooke set his sights on bringing Major League Baseball to Toronto and he tried to purchase the St. The league disbanded a year later without ever staging a game, Cooke still hoped to get an American League expansion team in Toronto, but the citys lack of a major league venue became an impasse. Cooke would sell the Maple Leafs in 1964 and was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985, in 1960, Cooke lost a bid to obtain a license for the first privately owned TV station in Toronto. There had been nine bids in a competitive process, and the license was awarded to a consortium of Aldred-Rogers Broadcasting and the Telegram Corporation. Within weeks of being turned down for the Toronto TV license, with the support of Francis E. Walter, Cooke quickly became a citizen when both houses of Congress and President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved a waiver of the usual five-year waiting period. He sold CKEY at the end of 1960 and Consolidated Press in 1961, at the time, Canada and the U. S. both had laws prohibiting foreign control of radio and TV stations. Cooke had entered the U. S. broadcasting industry in August 1959 by acquiring Pasadena, California radio station KRLA1110 through his brother, Donald Cooke, Cooke formed American Cablevision in the 1960s and acquired several cable television companies

35.
Tishman Speyer Properties
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Tishman Speyer Properties is an American worldwide real estate building and operating company set up in 1978 by two founding partners, Robert Tishman and Jerry Speyer. The firm was founded in 1978 by Robert V. Tishman, Speyer, entering the European market ten years later, and moving into Latin America in 1995. The company expanded into China in 2006, Tishman Speyer’s properties include such well-known icons as New York City’s Chrysler Building, Rockefeller Center, and CitySpire Center. Internationally, Tishman owns São Paulo’s North Tower and they previously owned London’s Millbank Tower and are currently the property manager of the building. In 2012, Nike leased over 54,000 square feet from Tishman Speyers $2.5 billion mixed-use project in Shanghai, the company is a member of REBNY

Tishman Speyer Properties
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Tishman Speyer Properties

36.
The Travelers Companies
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The Travelers Companies is an American insurance company. It is the second largest writer of U. S. commercial property casualty insurance, Travelers is incorporated in Minnesota, with headquarters in New York City and its largest office in Hartford, Connecticut. Travelers also maintains an office in St. Paul, Minnesota. It has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since June 8,2009, the company has field offices in every U. S. state, plus operations in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Singapore, China, Canada, and Brazil. In 2014, the company reported revenues of US $27 billion, the main predecessor companies of The Travelers Companies, Inc. are The St. Paul Companies, Inc. and Travelers Property Casualty Corporation. It barely survived the Panic of 1857 by dramatically paring down its operations and it soon spread its operations across the country. In 1998 it acquired USF&G, known formerly as United States Fidelity and Guaranty Company, by buying USF&G, they went from the 13th to the eighth largest property and casualty insurance company in the United States. Travelers was founded in 1864 in Hartford and it was founded to provide travel insurance to railroad travelers at a time when travel was far more risky and dangerous than today, hence the name. Along the way it had many firsts, including the first automobile policy, the first commercial airline policy. What was left of Travelers travel insurance business was acquired by three employees and is now known as Travel Insured International. In the 1990s, it went through a series of mergers and it was bought by Primerica in 1993, but the resulting company retained the Travelers name. In 1995 it became The Travelers Group and it bought Aetnas property and casualty business in 1996. In 1998, the Travelers Group merged with Citicorp to form Citigroup, three years later, Citigroup sold Travelers Life & Annuity to MetLife. In 2003, Travelers bought renewal rights for Royal & SunAlliance Personal Insurance, in 2004, the St. Paul and Travelers Companies merged and renamed itself St. Paul Travelers, with the headquarters set in St. Paul, Minnesota. In August of that year, it was charged of misleading statements associated with the merger, despite many assurances from CEO Jay Fishman that the newly formed company would retain the St. Many of Travelers ancestor companies, such as St. Paul and USF&G, are still around today. This is a risk management strategy used by U. S. insurance groups. If any one company in the group gets hit with too many claims, the transaction closed in June 2011 with Travelers acquiring a 43.4 percent interest

37.
Atlanta
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs

38.
Abu Dhabi
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Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second most populous city of the United Arab Emirates, and also capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the largest of the UAEs seven emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the western coast. The city proper had a population of 1.5 million in 2014, Abu Dhabi houses federal government offices, is the seat of the United Arab Emirates Government, home to the Abu Dhabi Emiri Family and the President of the UAE, who is from this family. Abu Dhabis rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the high average income of its population, has transformed the city into a large. Today the city is the center of political and industrial activities. Abu Dhabi accounts for about two-thirds of the roughly $400-billion United Arab Emirates economy, Abu Dhabi is the fourth most expensive city for expatriate employees in the region, and in 2014 was the 68th most expensive big city in the world. Abu Dhabi is full of evidence that points to civilizations, such as the Umm an-Nar Culture. Settlements were also found farther outside the city of Abu Dhabi. There is evidence of civilizations around the mountain of Hafeet and this location is very strategic because it is the UAE’s second tallest mountain, so it would have great visibility. It also contains a lot of moisture in its springs and lakes, origin of the name Abu Dhabi The origin of the name Abu Dhabi is uncertain. Meaning Father of the Gazelle, when translated from Arabic. According to Bilal al-Budoor, assistant under-secretary for Cultural Affairs at the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Community Development, The area had a lot of dhibaa, an old story tells about a man who used to chase deer and was named the father of the animal. Abu Dhabis original name was Milh salt, possibly referring to the salty water of the Persian Gulf, some Bedouins called the city Umm Dhabi, while British records refer to the place as Abu Dhabi. According to some accounts, the name Abu Dhabi was first used more than 300 years ago. The first word of Abu Dhabi is pronounced Bu by inhabitants on the western coast. In the eastern part of the city, the pronunciation is Abu, origins of the Al Nahyan family The Bani Yas bedouin were originally centered on the Liwa Oasis. This tribe was the most significant in the area, having over 20 subsections, in 1793, the Al Bu Falah subsection migrated to the island of Abu Dhabi on the coast of the Persian Gulf due to the discovery of fresh water there. One family within this section was the Al Nahyan family and this family makes up the rulers of Abu Dhabi today

39.
Hood ornament
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A hood/bonnet ornament, radiator cap, motor mascot or car mascot is a specially crafted model which symbolizes a car company like a badge, located on the front center portion of the hood. It has been used as an adornment nearly since the inception of automobiles, according to the author of A History of Cars written for youth, the first hood ornament was a sun-crested falcon mounted on Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamuns chariot. In the early years, automobiles had their radiator caps outside of the hood and this became a useful gauge for the driver because many early engines did not have water pumps, but a circulation system based on the thermo-syphon principle as in the Ford Model T. The exposed radiator cap became a point for automobile personalization. Hood ornaments were popular in the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, moreover, a healthy business was created in the supply of accessory mascots available to anyone who wanted to add a hood ornament or car mascot to their automobile. Most companies like Desmo and Smiths are now out of business with only Louis Lejeune Ltd. in England surviving, sculptors such as Bazin, Paillet, Sykes, Renevey, and Lejeune all created finely detailed sculptures in miniature. Restrictions to the fitting of ornaments on the front of vehicles have been introduced in some jurisdictions, projecting decorative designs on the hood may increase the risk of injury to pedestrians in the case of an accident. Regulations introduced in the United States for the 1968 model year vehicles meant the disappearance of fixed stand-up hood ornaments, later versions featured flexibly mounted stand-up hood ornaments designed to fold without breaking on impact. In the European Union, since 1974 all new cars have had to conform to a European directive on vehicle exterior projections, rolls Royces mascot is now mounted on a spring-loaded mechanism designed to retract instantly into the radiator shell if struck with more than 10 kilograms of force. The Mercedes-Benz and many other ornaments were designed with a mount to fold on impact. For aftermarket ornaments, breakaway nylon fixings are available that comply with EC Directive 74/483, the hundreds of motor vehicle manufacturers before 1929 meant many customers for their customized emblems. Along with the grille, the ornament is often a distinctive styling element. The radiator cap was transformed into an art form and became a way of individualizing the car, representing a companys vision of the automobile, Hood ornaments are usually cast in brass, zinc, or bronze and finished in a chrome plated finish. During the years when chrome plate was unavailable, they were plated in silver or nickel. Some also incorporated other materials, such as plastic, bakelite, or colored glass, the best-known glass mascots were made by René Lalique in France. Other sellers or producers of glass mascots include Sabino in France, Red Ashay in England, the latter two had their products made in Czechoslovakia. The Lalique company, like Louis Lejeune, is one of the few survivors from this era of motoring, there is a collectors market for hood ornaments and car mascots. Flying Ladies, The Art of the Automobile Hood Ornaments and Car Mascots, jill Reger Photography—Photographic art of car mascots and hood ornaments Weiner, Geoffrey George

40.
Otis Elevator Company
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The Otis Elevator Company is an American company that develops, manufactures and markets elevators, escalators, moving walkways and related equipment. A pioneer in its field, Otis is the worlds largest manufacturer of vertical transportation systems, principally focusing on elevators, moving walkways and escalators. The company pioneered the development of the safety elevator, invented by Otis in 1852, in 1852 Elisha Otis invented the safety elevator, which automatically comes to a halt if the hoisting rope breaks. After a demonstration at the 1854 New York Worlds Fair the elevator industry was on its way, Otis was founded in Yonkers, New York in 1853 by Elisha Otis. It was acquired by United Technologies in 1976 and is an owned subsidiary. Otis has more than 64,000 employees, with 2014 revenue of US$13.0 billion, the company headquarters are located in Farmington, Connecticut. Otis has also dabbled in horizontal automated people-mover shuttle systems, such as the Otis Hovair, in 1996, Otis formed a joint venture called Poma-Otis Transportation Systems with the French company Pomagalski to promote these products, however the partnership has since ended. Otis Elevator Company purchased Evans Lifts in the UK when Evans Lifts Ltd went bankrupt in 1997 during its merge with Express Lift Company with the name ExpressEvans and it was the oldest and largest manufacturer of lift equipment in the UK and was based in Leicester, England. Otis Customer Care Centre is still based in the old Evans Lifts building in Leicester, the building has since been extended by Otis. There are still some installations of Evans Lifts being used today, very few lifts which are made by Otis themselves are branded as Evans. Notably, an original Evans Lift is still in the Silver Arcade in Leicester and it formerly transported people to the upper floors, but the upper floors are no longer occupied so the lift is no longer used. Elisha Graves Otis and Susan A. Houghton, circa 1853 William Delavan Baldwin, to 1964 Fayette S. Dunn,1964 to. Competitors ThyssenKrupp, Schindler Group, Kone and Mitsubishi Elevator Europe were also fined similar amounts in the same cartel, in October 2013, Otis won its biggest ever contract, it will supply 670 elevators and escalators to the Hyderabad Metro. Its second biggest contract was in 2012, to supply 349 elevators for the Hangzhou metro, Otis opened a factory in Bloomington, Indiana in 1965. During the 1990s they moved some manufacturing operations from Bloomington to Nogales, in 2012 and 2013, Bloomington and Nogales manufacturing operations were consolidated in Florence, SC. They still use some office space at the Bloomington site, Otis had a factory in Yonkers, New York. It was closed in 1983 and is now a Kawasaki rail car assembly plant, Otis had a large factory in Harrison, New Jersey. In 1999, Otis acquired CemcoLift, Inc, located in Hatfield, the operation was later closed in October 2012, with the remaining business being sold to Minnesota Elevator Inc

Otis Elevator Company
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Otis Elevator Company
Otis Elevator Company
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Otis elevator in Glasgow, Scotland, imported from the U.S. in 1856 for Gardner's Warehouse, the oldest cast-iron fronted building in the British Isles.
Otis Elevator Company
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Elisha Graves Otis
Otis Elevator Company
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Headquarters in Farmington, Connecticut

41.
New York City Landmark
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district

42.
Groin vault
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A groin vault or groined vault is produced by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults. The word groin refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults, sometimes the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round. In comparison with a vault, a groin vault provides good economies of material. The thrust is concentrated along the groins or arrises, so the vault need only be abutted at its four corners and it was superseded by the more flexible rib vaults of Gothic architecture in the later Middle Ages. Difficult to construct neatly because of the geometry of the cross groins, the construction method was particularly common on the basement level, such as at Myres Castle in Scotland, or at the ground floor level for the storerooms as at Muchalls Castle in Scotland. The first groin vault in Europe was, however, constructed in Delphi by King Attalos I of Pergamon some time between 241 and 197 BC, quite possibly in 223 BC. Their application of groin vaults to vast halls like the frigidaria in the Baths of Caracalla, a seminal modern design is the largest European train station, Hauptbahnhof in Berlin, which features an entrance building with a glass-spanned groin vault design. The construction of a groin vault can be understood most simply by visualising two barrel vault sections at right angles merging to form a squarish unit, the resulting four ribs convey the stress loading to the four corners, or piers. A common association of vaulting in cathedrals of the Middle Ages involves a nave of barrel vault design with transepts of groined vaulting, rib vaults resemble groin vaults but introduce structural ribs running along the angles which carry much of the weight, making possible much greater variations of proportion. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, early 3rd century AD32, basilica Minore de San Sebastián in Quiapo, Manila, Philippines. Tower house Architectural vault types Steinmetz solid Groined Vaulting

43.
Sunburst
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A sunburst is a design or figure commonly used in architectural ornaments and design patterns. It consists of rays or beams radiating out from a disk in the manner of sunbeams. Sometimes part of a sunburst, a semicircular or semi-elliptical shape, is used, in architecture, the sunburst is often used in window designs, including fanlights and rose windows, as well as in decorative motifs. The sunburst motif is characteristic of Baroque church metalwork, especially monstrances and votive crowns, a sunburst is frequently used in emblems and military decorations. In information visualization, a sunburst diagram or sunburst chart is a pie chart used to represent the proportion of different values found at each level in a hierarchy

44.
Austenitic
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Austenite, also known as gamma-phase iron, is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element. In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the eutectoid temperature of 1000 K. The austenite allotrope exists at room temperature in stainless steel and it is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen. From 912 to 1,394 °C alpha iron undergoes a transition from body-centred cubic to the face-centred cubic configuration of gamma iron. This is similarly soft and ductile but can dissolve considerably more carbon and this gamma form of iron is exhibited by the most commonly used type of stainless steel for making hospital and food-service equipment. Austenitization means to heat the iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite, the more open structure of the austenite is then able to absorb carbon from the iron-carbides in carbon steel. An incomplete initial austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix, for some irons, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase austenitization, austempering is a hardening process that is used on iron-based metals to promote better mechanical properties. The metal is heated into the region of the iron-cementite phase diagram. The metal is annealed in this temperature range until the austenite turns to bainite or ausferrite, by changing the temperature for austenitization, the austempering process can yield different and desired microstructures. A higher austenitization temperature can produce a carbon content in austenite. The carbon content in austenite as a function of austempering time has been established, as austenite cools, the carbon diffuses out of the austenite and forms carbon rich iron-carbide and leaves behind carbon poor ferrite. Depending on alloy composition, a layering of ferrite and cementite, called pearlite and this is a very important case, as the carbon does not have time to diffuse due to the high cooling rate, which results in carbon being trapped and as a result forms hard martensite. Too high a rate of thick sections may cause the outer layers of the heat treated part to transform from austenite while the inner portion is still in its less dense austenite form. The difference in rates of the inner and outer portion of the part may cause cracks to develop in the outer portion. By alloying the steel with tungsten, the diffusion is slowed. Such a material is said to have its hardenability increased, tempering following quenching will transform some of the brittle martensite into tempered martensite. Heating white cast iron above 727 °C causes the formation of austenite in crystals of primary cementite and this austenisation of white iron occurs in primary cementite at the interphase boundary with ferrite

45.
Stainless steel
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In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure, Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present, unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form, since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation and this layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough, Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are made of stainless steel. This also influences its use in kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% chromium. The chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous, the layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, when forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel. However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile, nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling, low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication

Stainless steel
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Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Stainless steel
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An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the development of stainless steel
Stainless steel
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The 630-foot-high (190 m), stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch defines St. Louis's skyline
Stainless steel
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The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with Nirosta stainless steel, a form of Type 302

46.
Krupp
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The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their production of steel, artillery, ammunition, and other armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG, was the largest company in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century and it was important to weapons development and production in both world wars. One of the most powerful dynasties in European history, for 400 years Krupp flourished as the premier weapons manufacturer for Germany. From the Thirty Years War until the end of the Second World War, they produced everything from battleships, U-boats, tanks, howitzers, guns, utilities, the dynasty began in 1587 when a trader named Arndt Krupp moved to Essen and joined the merchants guild. He then began buying vacated real estate from families who fled the city due to the Black Death, over the next three centuries his descendants began producing small guns during the Thirty Years War and over time gradually acquired fulling mills, coal mines, and an iron forge. During the Napoleonic Wars, Friedrich Krupp founded the Gusstahlfabrik and began producing smelted steel in 1816, the foundations were laid for the steel Empire that would come to dominate the world for nearly a century under his son Alfred. Krupp became the manufacturer for the Kingdom of Prussia in 1859. Krupp was also a company that paved the way for workers rights. Widows and orphans were guaranteed pay if their husbands and/or fathers were killed, the company also produced the steel that built the railroads of America, capped the Chrysler Building in 1929, and was the first to travel to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. During the Third Reich, Krupp supported Adolf Hitler and the use of forced labour, after the war Krupp was rebuilt from scratch and again became one of the wealthiest companies in Europe. However a recession in 1967 caused the company severe profit loss, in 1999 the Krupp firm merged with Thyssen AG to form ThyssenKrupp AG, a large industrial conglomerate. Friedrich Krupp launched the familys metal-based activities, building a steel foundry in Essen in 1810. His son Alfred, known as the Cannon King or as Alfred the Great, invested heavily in new technology to become a significant manufacturer of steel rollers and he also invested in fluidized hotbed technologies and acquired many mines in Germany and France. Unusual for the era, he provided social services for his workers, including subsidized housing and health, the company began to make steel cannons in the 1840s—especially for the Russian, Turkish, and Prussian armies. When Alfred started with the firm, it had five employees, at his death twenty thousand people worked for Krupp—making it the worlds largest industrial company and the largest private company in the German empire. Krupps had a Great Krupp Building with an exhibition of guns at the Columbian Exposition in 1893, in the 20th century the company was headed by Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, who assumed the surname of Krupp when he married the Krupp heiress, Bertha Krupp. After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Krupp works became the center for German rearmament. In 1943, by an order from Hitler, the company reverted to a sole-proprietorship, with Gustav

Krupp
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The three rings were the symbol for Krupp, based on the Radreifen – the seamless railway wheels patented by Alfred Krupp. The rings are currently part of the ThyssenKrupp logotype.
Krupp
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ThyssenKrupp HQ in Essen
Krupp
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Stereoscopic image from Krupp's great exhibit of guns at the Columbian Exposition in 1893
Krupp
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An assortment of naval guns and field artillery pieces from the Krupp works in Essen, Germany. (Circa 1905)

47.
WCBS-TV
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WCBS-TV, channel 2, is the flagship station of the CBS Television Network, located in New York City. WCBS-TV is owned by the CBS Television Stations division of CBS Corporation, WCBS-TVs studios are located within the CBS Broadcast Center and its transmitter is based at the Empire State Building, both in midtown Manhattan. In the few areas of the eastern United States where a CBS station is not receivable over-the-air, WCBS is available on satellite via DirecTV and Dish Network. WCBS-TVs history dates back to CBS opening of experimental station W2XAB on July 21,1931 and its first broadcast featured New York Mayor Jimmy Walker, Kate Smith, and George Gershwin. The station had the first regular seven-day broadcasting schedule in American television, among its early programming included The Television Ghost, Helen Haynes and Piano Lessons. Announcer-director Bill Schudt was the only paid employee, all other staff were volunteers. W2XAB pioneered program development including small-scale dramatic acts, monologues, pantomime, on November 8,1932, W2XAB broadcast the first television coverage of presidential election returns. The station suspended operations on February 20,1933, as monochrome television transmission standards were in flux, W2XAB returned with an all-electronic system in 1939 from a new studio complex in Grand Central Station and a transmitter atop the Chrysler Building broadcasting on channel 2. W2XAB transmitted the first color broadcast in the United States on August 28,1940, on June 24,1941, W2XAB received a commercial construction permit and program authorization as WCBW. The station went on the air at 2,30 p. m. on July 1, one hour after rival WNBT, making it the second authorized fully commercial television station in the United States. The Federal Communications Commission issued permits to CBS and NBC at the time and intended WNBT and WCBW to sign on simultaneously on July 1. WCBWs initial broadcast was the first local newscast aired on a station in the country. Its assigned frequency was 60–66 MHz, now known as channel 3, program schedules were irregular through the summer and early fall of 1941. Regular daily operations began on October 29 and WCBW received a license to cover its construction permit. After the war, the FCC re-allocated the television and FM bands, WCBW closed down its operation on the old channel 2 at the end of February 1946 in order to move to a new channel 2 at 54–60 MHz. It quickly began operation on the new frequency, where it remained from the spring of 1946 until the end of analog full power television service in the spring of 2009. On February 26,1951, WCBS-TV became the first station to broadcast a regularly scheduled feature film series, on August 11,1951, WCBS-TV broadcast the first baseball game on color television, between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Boston Braves from Ebbets Field. As were all programs at the time, it was transmitted via a field-sequential color system developed by CBS

WCBS-TV
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"CBS 2 News" nighttime open, as of September 22, 2013.
WCBS-TV
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WCBS-TV
WCBS-TV
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Reporter Kathryn Brown reporting on the Summer 2012 North American heat wave from the Times Square subway station on July 18, 2012.

48.
WKTU
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WKTU – branded 103.5 KTU – is a Rhythmic Hot AC-formatted radio station licensed to Lake Success, New York, United States, a suburb of New York City. WKTU is owned by iHeartMedia and broadcasts from studios in the AT&T Building in the Tribeca district of Manhattan, the 103.5 frequency first went on the air in 1948 as WNNJ, which then changed its name to WPAT-FM. FM listenership was very light in early days of FM broadcasting. WPAT-FM was reborn in 1956 on 93.1, a frequency became available when Major Armstrong signed off his experimental station. The 103.5 frequency was assigned to Babylon as WGLI-FM, in 1958, the station moved from Babylon to Lake Success and transmitted with 20Kw from a 200-foot stick outside the studio building visible from the Long Island Expressway. A short time later, the transmitter was relocated to the Chrysler Building, as an easy listening station, WTFM was up against two similar stations, WRFM and WPAT, who had higher ratings. So in the fall of 1978, WTFM switched to a contemporary format. In early 1982, Doubleday bought the station, and that June, the station was renamed The Apple 103.5, with the call letters WAPP. The station went commercial-free for the duration of summer, and as a result. Then, when the station added commercials, listeners switched back to WPLJ and WNEW-FM, in 1983, when WPLJ switched to a CHR format, the stations ratings got a slight boost. In 1983, a then-unknown Jon Bon Jovi visited the station and wrote and he spoke with DJ Chip Hobart, who suggested Bon Jovi let WAPP include the song Runaway on the stations compilation album of local homegrown talent. Bon Jovi was reluctant, but eventually gave them the song, WAPP worked with WOR-TV in nearby Secaucus, NJ on a music video show, Rock 9 Videos, for a short time in 1984. As part of an effort, WAPP-FM launched a contest called New York Rocks 1983. Local music acts were encouraged to submit demo tapes to this competition, among the tapes submitted to this contest was Runaway, but didnt win the competition. Another act called the Frankie Carr Band won the honors and this competition was repeated in 1984. As 1984 progressed, WAPPs ratings were on the upswing, however, the stations owners decided to change the stations format to CHR that fall. They felt that if co-owned stations in Washington, D. C. and Minnesota could do well with the format and this would not be the case, as the station could not compete with WPLJ or Z-100, and their ratings fell. Not even a back to a rock format in the summer of 1985 would be able to turn the stations ratings around