The Swiss Paraplegic Centre (SPC, www.paraplegie.ch) in Nottwil, Switzerland, is a privately owned, leading acute care and specialist hospital employing more than 1,500 health professionals in 80 different occupations that focuses on world-class primary care and comprehensive rehabilitation of patients with spinal cord injuries. In addition to the SPC’s extensive range of medical and therapeutic care, treatment and services, the hospital offers advisory services, as well as research in the areas of paraplegia [paralysis of the legs and lower body, typically caused by spinal injury or disease], tetraplegia [also known as quadriplegia, paralysis caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso], prevention and related conditions. With 150 beds, the SPC provides modern facilities for rehabilitation and therapy, diagnostics, surgery, ongoing care, orthopedic technology, as well as social services and 24-hour emergency care.

In its 26-year history, the SPC has provided treatment and care to more than 20,000 in-patients. That number continues to grow exponentially due to the reputation of the SPC. In fact, the SPC’s staff performs their duties with effectiveness, expediency and cost-efficiency measures, requiring highly developed process-led medicine, centered around the needs of the patient.

The areas of medical specialty and centers of excellence include the Swiss Paraplegic Centre (SPC), the Swiss Spinal Column and Spinal Cord Centre (SWRZ), the Centre for Pain Medicine (ZSM) and the Swiss Olympic Medical Center (SOMC). These centers respectively offer patients cutting-edge medical treatment based on the most advanced research in areas covering treatment and rehabilitation cases of acute paraplegia, vertebral and spinal cord surgery, as well as services relating to pain management, sports medicine and preventive health checks.

Alongside the core focus on paraplegiology, the SPC is also equipped with the necessary medical facilities, allowing for the lifelong care of paraplegic patients. The SPC provides individually-tailored, comprehensive treatment in three phases (acute, reactivation and integration) using highly skilled staff and state-of-the-art equipment. The aim is always to re-establish a patient’s personal functionality, self-image and lifestyle to the fullest possible extent, with a holistic approach to treatment that includes mental, physical and psycho-social aspects, such as career, family and leisure activities.

The SPC is the largest of Switzerland’s four special hospitals for paraplegics and tetraplegics located in Nottwil/Lucerne, a town in central Switzerland on the shores of Lake Sempach. The other three facilities are in Basel, Sion and Zurich. Nowadays, the SPC consistently treats more than 60 percent of people with spinal cord injury in Switzerland and is fully occupied year-round.

As a privately owned clinic with a specialty in the rehabilitation of patients with spinal cord injuries, how do you keep the spirit of research and innovation alive?

Dr. Med. (medicinae) Gmünder: The goal of the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation, an umbrella organization that encompasses the Swiss Paraplegic Centre, is to create a unique network of services for people with spinal cord injury, from primary care through to the end of their lives. Its aim is to provide comprehensive rehabilitation and to reintegrate those affected into family life, society and the working environment.

We want to maintain our pioneering and leading role in the fields of acute medicine, rehabilitation and lifelong assistance to people with spinal cord injuries. By providing a comprehensive network of services featuring solidarity, medical care, integration and lifelong assistance, as well as research all in one place, we are unique in Switzerland and in other countries around the world.

People with spinal cord injury rely upon our network of services, which are at their disposal throughout their lives. The challenge facing us is to continually adapt these services to reflect current research and treatment to comply with our mission of delivering high-quality services. The trust which has been placed in us obliges us to continue our success story.

We have our own research department, closely linked to the Swiss Paraplegic Centre, and dedicated employees who draw upon their wide-ranging professional networks to stay on top of the latest international research.

We have a few examples that we’d like to share with you.

In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) published its first international health report on the topic of spinal cord injury, “International Perspectives on Spinal Cord Injury.” It was developed in collaboration with Swiss Paraplegic Research in Nottwil and a team of international experts.

In the summer of 2014, the Swiss Paraplegic Centre became the first rehabilitation center in Switzerland to implement exoskeletons [external covering for the body that provides both support and protection] in the rehabilitation and training of patients with spinal cord injury. Our experiences are included in an international study, and will contribute to the development of useful mobility aids for people with spinal cord injuries.

At the end of October 2016, an estimated 9,000 visitors came to Nottwil for two days of celebrations to mark five anniversaries — the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation turned 40, the Swiss Paraplegics Association was 35, the Swiss Paraplegic Centre celebrated 25 years, Swiss Paraplegic Research reached 15 years, and it was the 80th birthday of the founder and honorary president, Dr. Med. Guido A. Zäch, M.D.

What draws patients to the Swiss Paraplegic Centre?

Dr. Gmünder: We support people with spinal cord injuries throughout their lives. It is the unique, holistic approach to acute medicine, rehabilitation and lifelong medical, professional and social assistance that draws patients from Switzerland and many other countries to our clinic in Nottwil.

For example, in cases where we have individuals involved in serious accidents, the comprehensive rehabilitation of a patient with spinal cord injury begins at the scene of the accident. The aim of comprehensive assistance follows in three stages – acute, reactivation and integration phase – through the appropriate, individual deployment of specialist personnel and instruments. We rescue the individual at the scene of the accident and provide the right acute therapy. What follows is an initial rehabilitation through specialists in diagnosis, surgery, therapy and care, and then comes lifelong support and care with the aid of specialists.

Following the disproportionately high percentage of people with tetraplegia admitted to the Centre for initial rehabilitation in 2014, our specialist clinic reported a higher proportion of people with paraplegia in 2015. Spinal cord injuries resulted from an accident in around half of all initial rehabilitation cases: falls led to the spinal cord injury in the case of 43 percent of people affected, sports accidents with 35 percent and road traffic accidents in 18 percent. In fact, 52,482 nursing days were clocked for a total of 1,085 in-patients who were discharged from the clinic after initial rehabilitation or follow-up treatment in 2015.

In fact, some of our patient success stories mentioned on our web site involve these individuals:

“I was a cheesemaker for 33 years with my own dairy; gardening was my second love. That was before I had my accident helping out on my son’s farm. I need a new hobby now that I will enjoy, that will fill my time and give me something to do when I get back home. Making art out of lime wood could appeal to me. While it is difficult for me to make the small cuts in the wood as I lack strength in my hand, patience will reap rewards. My most important objective? To be able to stand on my own feet and take a few steps again. I should have achieved that by the time I am discharged from the clinic in five months.” — Josef Kobler (58), tetraplegic following an accident.

“Since being diagnosed with a spinal cord injury, I come back to Nottwil a lot. For instance, to go the Wheelchair Mechanics Department to have the settings of my new wheelchair optimized. It replaces my legs and must fit my body perfectly. However, in most cases I attend the Centre for Pain Medicine of the SPC as an outpatient in order to have the extremely severe pains and muscle cramps, which I suffer from every day, alleviated. They became so severe that I had a pain pump with medication implanted at the SPC. It is apparent now that unfortunately the effect isn’t permanent. We are now giving electrostimulation a try. This involves applying electrodes to the vertebral canal. If I could finally get my pain under control, I would be able to return to work and set up my own business. That is my biggest wish. I have had an idea about what I could do.” — Hervé Brohon (41), paraplegic following an accident.

“I have always been passionate about cooking and have enjoyed treating my family and guests to my dishes and to the aperitifs that I have created myself. I absolutely want to be able to do that again. As independently as possible, of course. That is my objective. I have availed of the opportunity on a few occasions to try out the obstacle-free practice apartment and kitchen at the SPC. If I am able to go home in four weeks, my kitchen will also be adapted to be wheelchair-friendly. Whether I am cooking for two, four or six people is a much bigger consideration as a wheelchair user. I now have to consciously allow for time and effort. However, one thing is certain: I can’t wait to welcome my first guests.” — Isa Bapst (73), paraplegic following an accident.

How is the Swiss Paraplegic Centre transforming health care?

Dr. Gmünder: The Swiss Paraplegic Centre offers an integrated healthcare structure, including a wide range of medical specialists covering every aspect of medical care for those with spinal cord injuries.

In selected core disciplines for the care of people with spinal cord injuries, we also treat a large number of patients without spinal cord injuries. This relates primarily to pain medicine, spine- and spinal cord surgery and respiratory medicine.

In fact, the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation, our umbrella organization, has been an unbelievable success story, operating a network of services to benefit people with spinal cord injury.

Our Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Dr. Sc. Techn. (scientiae technicarum) Daniel Joggi, knows what it’s like to become totally dependent as he has been in a wheelchair for the past four decades.

Dr. Joggi tells his story: “I have been a wheelchair user ever since I had a skiing accident 39 years ago. I know what it is like to become totally dependent from one second to the next. How doggedly you have to battle to recover as much of your mobility as possible and, more especially, to be able to live a self-determined life again after a long process of resilience. The inner resolve it takes to plot a new course in life, to have relationships with others from a different perspective and to acquire new job skills. Therefore, I am eternally grateful along with all the other people in Switzerland with paraplegia and tetraplegia for the help, support and great solidarity that allow the Foundation to deliver all the services which are so immensely valuable to us.”

At the Swiss Paraplegic Centre, a 24-hour emergency department is staffed to handle any emergency. Please provide your thoughts on this critical component of diagnosis and care for newly diagnosed patients.

Dr. Gmünder: Yes, our Centre is recognized by the Swiss Union of Surgical Societies as a specialist clinic for first-aid treatment of paraplegics.

Statistics and experience clearly show that in 80 out of 100 cases, the damage to the spine and the spinal cord is not definite immediately after an accident. In the first six hours, there are real chances to mitigate or even avoid an imminent cross-paralysis. After that it is usually too late.

In addition to transferring an individual directly to the SPC, appropriate acute care is another important criterion for the success of the individual affected by spinal cord issues. That means that individuals are in the right place for the subsequent, comprehensive rehabilitation.

The benefits for our patients are:

Emergency service around the clock by specialists trained to minimize damage to the spinal cord and spine;

Admission and treatment of all patients with paraplegia from all over Switzerland;

Specific knowledge and practical experience in comprehensive rehabilitation of paraplegics;

Comprehensive range of medical and therapeutic services under one roof;

Modern equipment for precise, careful diagnostics and operations;

Consultancy and network for external experts in areas not covered by the SPC;

Interdisciplinary work in well-established teams; and

Central location proximity and quick access from all parts of the country.

What is your connection to the Swiss Paraplegic Research and its mission of getting “strategy into research” and “research into practice?”

Dr. Gmünder: The Swiss Paraplegic Research (SPR), connected to the Swiss Paraplegic Centre, is part of the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation (SPF) and is an integral part of the Nottwil campus.

It is the mission of Swiss Paraplegic Research to sustainably improve the situation of people with paraplegia or tetraplegia through clinical and interdisciplinary research in the long-term. The areas that are aimed to be improved are functioning, social integration, equality of opportunity, health, self-determination and quality of life.

Our Swiss Paraplegic Research has been supported by the Federal Government of Switzerland and by the Canton of Lucerne for eight years as a non-university research institution. We are proud of this accomplishment.

Our main research domains are in the areas of aging, neuro-rehabilitation, musculo-skeletal health, preserving and improving function of upper limbs, pain, pressure sores, respiration, urology and orthopedics.

The goal of Swiss Paraplegic Research is to promote the study of health from a holistic point of view, by focusing on the ‘lived experience’ of persons with health conditions and their interaction with society. We are, therefore, establishing a research network for rehabilitation research from a comprehensive perspective on a national and international level. This network will make it possible to practically apply the latest research findings to provide the best possible care and reintegration for people with paraplegia or tetraplegia.

This year, we received the approval of 18 new research projects and we had a total of 36 studies in progress under review, undertaken by and with the involvement of the Clinical Trial Unit (CTU), the department for clinical research at the Centre. For example, the successful implementation of a multi-center study on the use of walking robots (exoskeleton) merits special mention. Research was carried out in that study into the wide range of effects of maintaining movement for people with spinal cord injury.

The CTU will continue to carry out research in Rehabilitation Engineering in a cooperation with Burgdorf University of Applied Science and the research group headed by Professor Kenneth Hunt. The “Life and Care” symposium on breathing and respiration organized by the CTU provided a platform for an international knowledge exchange with national and international experts. This is crucial for further scientific development in respiratory medicine. In 2015, the CTU also launched the CTU Central Switzerland, in association with Lucerne Cantonal Hospital and the University of Lucerne. It supports clinics which are actively engaged in research with specific services, thereby enhancing Switzerland’s standing as a center of research.

How does the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation support your vision?

Dr. Gmünder: The Swiss Paraplegic Group includes the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation, which was established in 1975, two partner organizations — the Benefactors’ Association and the Swiss Paraplegics Association, and six companies owned by the Foundation. Those six companies are the Swiss Paraplegic Centre, the Swiss Paraplegic Research, Orthotec AG, ParaHelp AG, Sirmed Swiss Institute of Emergency Medicine AG, Seminarhotel Sempachersee AG.

The Swiss Paraplegic Foundation, founded by Dr. Med. Guido A. Zäch in 1975, is a solidarity network for people with spinal cord injuries, unrivaled anywhere in the world. Its work is based on the vision of medical care and comprehensive rehabilitation for people with paraplegia and tetraplegia, with a view towards enabling them to lead their lives with self-determination and with as much independence as possible, supported by the latest advances in science and technology.

The unique network of services of the Foundation is a strategic mix of Solidarity, Research, Medicine and Integration and Lifelong Assistance. Let me elaborate on these services.

Solidarity

The Foundation provides a comprehensive range of services for every area of a person’s life who has a spinal cord injury. The Nottwil campus serves to be a center of excellence for integration, assistance and lifelong learning for our patients.

The Foundation ensures that its benefactors and donors are aware of our list of services and can support us longer term.

The Foundation establishes a national and international network that will guarantee better basic conditions for people with spinal cord injury.

The Foundation encourages training of specialized personnel in the field of spinal cord injury.

Research

The Foundation contributes to the sustainable improvement of health, social integration, equal opportunities and self-determination of people with spinal cord injury by carrying out rehabilitation research.

The Foundation works closely with the World Health Organization (WHO) and encourages exchanges with universities and institutions locally and globally for the latest scientific findings and conducts academic training at the University of Lucerne.

The Foundation develops high-quality care standards for its patients.

Medicine

The Foundation offers all medical services needed for professional acute care and rehabilitation of people with spinal cord injury and encourages patients to become involved in their therapy and to take responsibility for their lives.

The Foundation strengthens relationships with partners in specific disciplines and local institutions to benefit people with spinal cord injury.

The Foundation is a member of committees with political influence to ensure that its patients receive highly specialized medical care.

Integration and Lifelong Assistance

The Foundation establishes a network throughout Switzerland to help people with spinal cord injury.

The Foundation offers comprehensive services to meet people’s needs to improve their integration into society.

The Foundation encourages people with spinal cord injury to lead an independent life and educate family and friends so they can provide the necessary support.

Moreover, in cases of hardship, the Foundation makes contributions towards the cost of walking aids, equipment and amenities for people with paraplegia and tetraplegia. It also takes on uncovered hospital and care costs.

Current market research shows that the Swiss Paraplegic Foundation ranks among the three most highly rated aid organizations in Switzerland. Can you please elaborate on why?

Dr. Gmünder: That is true. The Foundation is highly rated in terms of goodwill, innovation, competence and effectiveness. In addition, it is regarded as undoubtedly the most competent organization representing people with disabilities in Switzerland, according to several market research surveys.

So that we can continue to meet the demand for our patients, families and other visitors, plans are under way to upgrade our clinic and hotel on our premises.

We generally have interest from visitors to visit our Centre. Our guided tours and events enabled the general public to see how the foundation concept is put into practice, day in, day out. In Nottwil, 160 guides provided more than 11,000 visitors with a glimpse into the operations at our specialist clinic.

Additionally, we organized more than 5,000 scientific meetings attended by more than 170,000 people in 2015. And our wheelchair athletes take part in two major competitions, the IPC Athletics Grand Prix and the UCI Para-cycling World Championships, at our Nottwil site. It is our hope to continue to motivate individuals with spinal cord injuries to be involved in healthy exercise.

Since you became Hospital Director, how have you changed the way that you deliver health care or interact with patients?

Dr. Gmünder: It is important to me that the patients and their needs are the focus of our efforts. As such, one of my main tasks is to align our processes with our patients.

Here are some examples:

We started construction with a newly expanded Intensive Care Medicine, Pain Medicine and Surgical Medicine department last year to provide patients with an expanded variety of cross-linked treatments.

Certified as a nationwide trauma center, our Swiss Spinal Column and Spinal Cord Centre has become increasingly recognized throughout the country with large numbers of non-paralyzed patients, who have severe spinal cord injury, being referred to our facility. It is under the medical leadership of the Head of Department Dr. Med. Martin Baur, M.D. This highly specialized acute care facility recently received certification as a specialist center for traumatology within the Central Swiss Trauma Network.

We believe in developing the next generation of professionals and our Department of Anesthesia was recognized as a center of further training; the first two junior doctors have been appointed and postgraduate courses in anesthesia nursing are already available.

Our Swiss Weaning Centre, where individuals learn to breathe without a machine, has brought specialists from Intensive Care Medicine, Speech Therapy, RespiCare and Spinal Cord Medicine even closer together in a new process structure for respiratory medicine. At the same time, the Swiss Weaning Centre reported increased referrals from university hospitals and private clinics, as well as numerous successes with patients who had proved to be difficult to wean from respiratory equipment.

Our Centre for Pain Medicine, one of the largest pain facilities in the country, reported a further increase in inpatient treatments. Epiduroscopy, which was introduced in 2014, has proved to be a success. It is a percutaneous, minimally invasive procedure which is used in the diagnosis and treatment of pain syndromes near the spinal cord.

We reached a milestone in tetra hand surgery. The team of our doctors has been consulting at two other spinal cord injury centers and have used these occasions to show doctors around the country what possibilities there are for improved hand and grip functions, leading to an enhanced quality of life.

In what ways do you rehabilitate the whole patient? Why is this important early on in treatment?

Dr. Gmünder: In accordance with our vision, we are not just focusing on physical rehabilitation but on the entire person in their social environment (leisure, work, housing, mobility). Due to our broad organizational structure, we have many resources at our disposal. The rate of reintegration for people who did their primary rehabilitation at the Swiss Paraplegic Centre is almost 65 percent – one of the highest in the world.

Because we work to address diagnosis, treatment and management of traumatic spinal cord injuries with our patients, we take great care in working with patients on their medical disabilities, physical disabilities, psychological disabilities, vocational disabilities, social aspects and any health complications. That means that we not only treat patient’s medically, but also we treat them through therapy and complementary medicine, such as art therapy, sports and water therapy and homeopathic medicine.

At the SPC, we nurture a culture which is characterized by common values and shared objectives, namely commitment, leadership, a humane approach, cooperation and openness and fairness in our dealing with one another and with our patients.

As you follow patients throughout their rehabilitation and treatment, what are you most proud of at the Centre?

Dr. Gmünder: Research has shown that early referral of a patient with a traumatic spinal injury lessens the complications, shortens the length of time in the hospital and is, therefore, more cost-effective.

We are confronted by individuals every day whose abilities have been limited by disease, trauma, congenital disorders or pain – and we are focused on enabling them to achieve their maximum functional abilities. Our patients have a better outcome and quality of life, patient-focused treatment, ongoing case management, and lifelong care.

It’s important to emphasize that our comprehensive rehabilitation of individuals with spinal cord injuries begins on the first day after the accident or trauma. On one hand, the medical treatments with paraplegia or tetraplegia are performed by a multidisciplinary medical team. And on the other hand, it is our goal to give those individuals their personality and life structure as quickly – and as best – as possible. An individual’s medical condition affects their psychological, physical and social aspects of life.

We focus on individualized treatment for the greatest possible independence for our patients. When patients are satisfied with our work and its results, they can resume a self-determined life. That is our greatest joy.

Hans Peter Gmünder, M.D., assumed the role of Hospital Director of the Swiss Paraplegic Centre in 2011. He is a German-Belgian double citizen.

Previously, Dr. Gmünder was Chief Physician and Medical Director of the Rehaklinik Bellikon, a rehabilitation and specialist clinic for traumatic acute rehabilitation, sports medicine, professional integration and medical expertise for 10 years in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland. He began his career at the Swiss Paraplegic Centre in the 1990s as Assistant and Senior Physician, and later as Chief Physician and Deputy Chief Physician.

He completed a B.S. degree in Business Administration at SRH FernHochschule Riedlingen in 2010 and an M.D. degree at Freie Universität Berlin in 1987.

He is married to Sabeth and is the father of two children.

Editor’s note:

We would like to thank Claudia Merkel, head of public relations, Swiss Paraplegic Centre, for the help and support she provided during this interview.

The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (https://www.sralab.org/new-ric), located in Chicago, Illinois, has been ranked as the number one rehabilitation hospital in the United States for the past 24 years by U.S. News and World Report. It is a 182-bed research facility that focuses solely on rehabilitation in many areas, including spinal cord, brain, nerve, muscle and bone, cancer and pediatric. For example, the rehabilitation course for patients with spinal cord injury requires precise medical and nursing expertise, respiratory and pulmonary care and sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic equipment. For several years, the hospital has dedicated investments in talent, space and equipment that attract a high volume of patients with challenging conditions. The high volume, diversity of condition and greater complexity enables them to expand their experience in helping patients recover from spinal cord injury. Primary goals for patients include the emergence of meaningful motor function, sensation, coordination and endurance, resolution of respiratory and vascular instability, and overall continued medical recovery from the injury or disease.

The Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital Boston (http://spauldingrehab.org/about/facts-statistics) is ranked number five in the country by U.S. News and World Report and number one in New England. As a unique center of treatment excellence and a leading physical medicine and rehabilitation research institution, Spaulding Boston is comprised of major departments in all areas of medicine requiring rehabilitation. They are a nationally recognized leader in innovation, research and education. The facility also has been the source of significant treatment innovations with dramatic implications for a range of conditions, including amputation and limb deficiencies, brain injury, cardiac rehabilitation, pulmonary rehabilitation and spinal cord injuries, to name a few. http://spauldingrehab.org/conditions-and-treatments/list.

Whether individuals are adjusting to a life-altering illness or recovering from a back injury, they will find the care they need within the Spaulding Rehabilitation Network. Rehabilitation specialists have the training, experience, resources and dedication to help individuals:

Regain function after a devastating illness or injury,

Develop skills to be active and independent when living with chronic illness and/or disability,

The ACGME accredited Harvard Medical School/ Spaulding/ VA Boston Fellowship Program in Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) Medicine is a 12-month training program that offers advanced clinical training in SCI, a strong didactic component, and opportunities for research with protected elective time. The curriculum is designed to provide exposure to the full spectrum of SCI care and includes rotations at VA Boston, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, and Brigham & Woman’s Hospital. Requirements include prior completion of an approved residency program in a specialty such as physical medicine and rehabilitation, neurology, internal medicine, family practice, surgery, or other specialties relevant to spinal cord injury. http://spauldingrehab.org/education-and-training/spinal-cord-fellowship.

Specifically, the Spaulding Rehabilitation Network is at the forefront of innovative treatment for major disabling conditions, including spinal cord injury (SCI), traumatic brain injury (TBI), other traumatic injuries, stroke, and neuromuscular disorders such as multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and Parkinson’s disease. At Spaulding, the treatment goals go far beyond immediate rehabilitation to address long-term health and function, as well as giving patients encouragement and hope as they return to their lives in the community.

The hub of their spinal cord injury program is the Spaulding-Harvard Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems (SCIMS) Rehabilitation Program, led by experts at Spaulding Boston, a Center of Excellence in spinal cord injury rehabilitation. With the guidance of their physicians and other rehabilitation specialists and access to some of the most advanced technologies available today, their patients have the resources to strive for their highest level of neurorecovery – and to develop successful, enriching strategies for independent living.

When potentially life-altering spinal cord injury occurs, the Spaulding Rehabilitation Network clinicians are dedicated to pioneering improved therapies that can make all the difference to a patient’s immediate and long-term recovery. Their goal is to support a patient’s return to an active, productive and fulfilling life.

Whether the spinal cord injury is due to traumatic injury or illness, their team of experts will develop a treatment plan in collaboration with the patient and family. Depending on the severity of the injury, their teams work on improving function in: walking, balance and mobility; speech, swallowing and breathing; thinking (cognition), behavior and safety; dressing, bathing and other activities of daily living; incontinence, bowel and bladder function.

Their commitment is to offer a full spectrum of rehabilitation services for adults and children with spinal cord injury:

Intensive, hospital-level rehabilitation with goal-directed therapy 3 – 5 hours a day, at least 5 days a week for inpatients.

Long-term care and rehabilitation for patients with complicating conditions.

Ventilator program to wean patients off mechanical breathing support in preparation for transition to more intensive rehabilitation.

Spaulding Rehabilitation Network is the official teaching partner of the Harvard Medical School Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PM&R). The Spaulding network’s facilities are members of Partners HealthCare, founded by Massachusetts General Hospital and Brigham and Women’s Hospital. The knowledge and expertise of this entire healthcare system is available to patients and caregivers. Their continuum of superb healthcare ensures that patients will find the care they need throughout their journey and the strength they need to live their life to the fullest.

Hello. This is Dr JoAnn Manson, professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital. I would like to talk with you about the vitamin D dilemma. The question of whether to screen routinely for vitamin D deficiency or to recommend high-dose vitamin D supplementation for our patients continues to be one of the most perplexing and vexing issues in clinical practice, and many clinicians are seeking guidance on these issues.

There appears to be a growing disconnect between the observational studies and the randomized clinical trials of vitamin D. For example, the observational studies are showing a fairly consistent relationship between low blood levels of vitamin D and an increased risk for heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and many other chronic diseases. Yet, the randomized clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation to date have been generally disappointing. This includes several randomized trials published over the past few months, including a meta-analysis[1] of randomized trials of vitamin D supplementation showing minimal, if any, benefit in terms of lowering blood pressure; a trial[2] of high-dose vitamin D supplementation showing no clear benefit for muscle strength, bone mineral density, or even the risk for falls; and, most recently, a randomized trial[3] of vitamin D supplementation with and without calcium showing no clear benefit in reducing the risk for colorectal adenomas. The latter trial was very recently published in the New England Journal of Medicine.

The Institute of Medicine (IOM)[4] and the US Preventive Services Task Force[5] do not endorse routine universal screening for vitamin D deficiency. They also recommend more moderate intakes [of vitamin D]. For example, the IOM recommends 600-800 IU a day for adults and also recommends avoiding daily intakes above 4000 IU, which has been set as the tolerable upper intake level.

However, it is important to keep in mind that these are public health population guidelines for a generally healthy population, and they by no means preclude individual decision-making by the clinician in the context of a patient who may have health conditions or risk factors that would indicate a benefit from targeted screening for vitamin D deficiency or higher-dose supplementation. For example, some patients may have higher vitamin D requirements. This may include patients with bone health problems (osteoporosis, osteomalacia) or poor diets, those who spend minimal time outdoors, those with malabsorption syndromes, or those who take medications that may interfere with vitamin D metabolism (glucocorticoids, anticonvulsant medications, and antituberculosis drugs). Therefore, overall, there is a role for individualized decision-making, in terms of screening for vitamin D deficiency in patients who have bone health problems or special risk factors, and even treating with higher doses of vitamin D, which may go above 4000 IU a day in patients who have higher requirements.

In the next several years, large-scale, randomized trials of vitamin D supplementation, including high-dose vitamin D supplementation, will be completed—and these results will be published. They will help to inform clinical decision-making, so stay tuned for those results.

Vitamin D plays a major role in bone mineral homeostasis by promoting the transport of calcium and phosphate to ensure that the blood levels of these ions are sufficient for the normal mineralization of type I collagen matrix in the skeleton. In contrast to classic vitamin D-deficiency rickets, a number of vitamin D-resistant rachitic syndromes are caused by acquired and hereditary defects in the metabolic activation of the vitamin to its hormonal form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3), or in the subsequent functions of the hormone in target cells. The actions of 1,25(OH)2D3 are mediated by the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR), a phosphoprotein which binds the hormone with-high affinity and regulates the expression of genes via zinc finger-mediated DNA binding and protein-protein interactions. In hereditary hypocalcemic vitamin D-resistant rickets (HVDRR), natural mutations in human VDR that confer patients with tissue insensitivity to 1,25(OH)2D3 are particularly instructive in revealing VDR structure function relationships. These mutations fall into three categories: (i) DNA binding/nuclear localization, (ii) hormone binding and (iii) heterodimerization with retinoid X receptors (RXRs). That all three classes of VDR mutations generate the HVDRR phenotype is consistent with a basic model of the active receptor as a DNA-bound, 1,25(OH)2D3-liganded heterodimer of VDR and RXR. Vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) consisting of direct hexanucleotide repeats with a spacer of three nucleotides have been identified in the promoter regions of positively controlled genes expressed in bone, such as osteocalcin, osteopontin, beta 3-integrin and vitamin D 24-OHase. The 1,25(OH)2D3 ligand promotes VDR-RXR heterodimerization and specific, high affinity VDRE binding, whereas the ligand for RXR, 9-cis retinoic acid (9-cis RA), is capable of suppressing 1,25(OH)2D3-stimulated transcription by diverting RXR to form homodimers. However, initial 1,25(OH)2D3 liganding of a VDR monomer renders it competent not only to recruit RXR into a heterodimer but also to conformationally silence the ability of its RXR partner to bind 9-cis RA and dissociate the heterodimer. Additional probing of protein-protein interactions has revealed that VDR also binds to basal transcription factor IIB (TFIIB) and, in the presence of 1,25(OH)2D3, an RXR-VDR-TFIIB ternary complex can be created in solution. Moreover, for transcriptional activation by 1,25(OH)2D3, both VDR and RXR require an intact short amphipathic alpha-helix, known as AF-2, positioned at their extreme C-termini. Because the AF-2 domains participate neither in VDR-RXR heterodimerization nor in TFIIB association, it is hypothesized that they contact, in a ligand-dependent fashion, transcriptional coactivators such as those of the steroid receptor coactivator family, constituting yet a third protein-protein interaction for VDR. Therefore, in VDR-mediated transcriptional activation, 1,25(OH)2D3 binding to VDR alters the conformation of the ligand binding domain such that it: (i) engages in strong heterodimerization with RXR to facilitate VDRE binding, (ii) influences the RXR ligand binding domain such that it is resistant to the binding of 9-cis RA but active in recruiting coactivator to its AF-2 and (iii) presents the AF-2 region in VDR for coactivator association. The above events, including bridging by coactivators to the TATA binding protein and associated factors, may position VDR such that it is able to attract TFIIB and the balance of the RNA polymerase II transcription machinery, culminating in repeated transcriptional initiation of VDRE-containing, vitamin D target genes. Such a model would explain the action of 1,25(OH)2D3 to elicit bone remodeling by stimulating osteoblast and osteoclast precursor gene expression, while concomitantly triggering the termination of its hormonal signal by inducing the 24-OHase catabolizing enzyme.

Classic nutritional rickets is caused by the simultaneous deprivation of sunlight exposure and dietary vitamin D. As depicted in Fig. 1, the pathways comprising the metabolic activation of the vitamin to its hormonal form and subsequent functions in target tissues present a number of additional steps where defects elicit vitamin D-resistant rachitic syndromes. Two of these disorders involve the inadequate bioactivation of 25-hydroxy¬ vitamin D3 (25(OH)D3) to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (l,25(OH)2D3) by the kidney as catalyzed by the 1-OHase enzyme (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 Bioactivation of vitamin D3 and actions of the 1,25(OH)2D3 hormonal metabolite on intestine, bone and kidney, along with related rachitic syndromes. The production of 1,25(OH)2D3 is depicted in the lowet portion and its functions on mineral ttansport in target cells ate pictured in the upper portion. Defects eliciting rachitic syndromes ate boxed, with the televant mutated gene and chromosomal location denoted where appropriate

Acquired chronic renal failure results in renal rickets and secondary hyperparathyroidism (renal osteodystrophy) when the compromising of renal mass reduces 1-OHase activity (Haussier oc McCain 1977). The etiology of pseudo-vitamin D-deficiency rickets (PDDR) apparently involves a hereditary defect in the gene coding for the 1-OHase enzyme (Labuda et al. 1992). Interestingly, the PDDR locus is resolvable from that of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) but maps very close to it on chromosome 12 in the 12ql3—14 region (Labuda et al. 1992). Recently, a cDNA was cloned for the rat 1-OHase (St-Arnaud et al. 1996) and it is expected that the human renal 1-OHase gene will soon be cloned and its chromosomal location determined. The likelihood that both the gene encoding the enzyme that generates the l,25(OH)2D3 hormone and the cognate hormone receptor gene lie in close proximity on chromosome 12 invites speculation about the evolution of the vitamin D ligand receptor system. The traditional actions of vitamin D, via its l,25(OH)2D3 hormonal metabolite, are to effect calcium and phosphate homeostasis to ensure the deposition of bone mineral on type I collagen matrix (summarized in Fig. 1).

Figure 1 Bioactivation of vitamin D3 and actions of the 1,25(OH)2D3 hormonal metabolite on intestine, bone and kidney, along with related rachitic syndromes. The production of 1,25(OH)2D3 is depicted in the lowet portion and its functions on mineral ttansport in target cells ate pictured in the upper portion. Defects eliciting rachitic syndromes ate boxed, with the televant mutated gene and chromosomal location denoted where appropriate

l,25(OH)2D3 stimulates intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption, bone calcium and phosphate résorption, and renal calcium and phosphate reabsorption, all resulting in a sufficient CaP04 ion product to precipitate hydroxyapatite. Failure to achieve normal bone mineral accretion by these mechanisms leads to rachitic syndromes. Recently, a breakthrough has occurred in our understand¬ ing of what was originally known as hypophosphatemic vitamin D-resistant rickets, a familial disorder of renal phosphate wasting more appropriately referred to as dominant X-linked hypophosphatemic (HYP) rickets (Fig. 1). The gene defect responsible for HYP rickets has been fine mapped in the Xp22T region, harboring a gene identified as PEX, or phosphate regulating gene with homologies to endopeptidases located on the X-chromosome (Francis et al. 1995). One hypothesis is that PEX codes for an endopeptidase that apparently correctly processes a peptide precursor to yield a novel, as yet unidentified, phosphate retaining hormone. The normal function of this hormone may be to oppose the action of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and stimulate phosphate reabsorption by the renal tubule by inducing the Na -phosphate cotransporter. However, the existence of tumor-induced osteomalacia, an acquired disorder that closely resembles the phosphate wasting of HYP rickets and is characterized by low circulating l,25(OH)2D3 (Parker et al. 1981), combined with renal cross-transplantation (Nesbitt et al. 1992) and parabiosis (Meyer et al. 1989) studies in normal and hyp mice, indicates strongly that the HYP phenotype is caused by excessive amounts of a phosphaturic hormone in the circulation. This humoral peptide is distinct from PTH and has been named phosphatonin (Cai et al. 199A, Econs & Drezner 1994). Thus, instead of PEX mutations result¬ ing in insufficient generation of a novel phosphate retaining peptide, they may instead elicit the appearance of abnormally high circulating levels of phosphatonin, with the normal role of the PEX gene product postulated to be the proteolytic inactivation of this phosphaturic principle. Most germane to the vitamin D endocrine system is the fact that serum l,25(OH)2D3 levels are inappropriately low for the prevailing phosphate concentrations in HYP rickets and patients can be cured with a therapeutic combination of phosphate and l,25(OH)2D3 (Harrel et al. 1985). Because it is well known that hypophosphatemia stimulates l,25(OH)2D3 production (Hughes et al. 1975), the PEX/phosphatonin system might constitute yet another regulatory loop in maintaining normal phosphate homeostasis. One could hypothesize that under hypo- phosphatemic conditions, when l,25(OH)2D3 levels are elevated, the sterol hormone not only increases intestinal phosphate absorption (Fig. 1) and suppresses PTH synthesis (DeMay et al. 1992) to conserve phosphate, but also induces the PEX gene product (Rowe et al. 1996) to cleave phosphatonin and further promote renal phosphate reclamation. l,25(OH)2D3 is primarily recognized as a calcémic hormone, perhaps due to the abundance of dietary phosphate, or because calcium homeostasis is more vitamin D-dependent than the regulation of extracellular phos¬ phate. Regardless of the mechanism, traditional vitamin D-deficiency and clinically significant defects in the vitamin D receptor lead invariably to hypocalcemia and secondary hyperparathyroidism, with phosphate being somewhat less affected. As illustrated in Fig. 1, target tissue insensitivity to l,25(OH)2D3 is known as hereditary hypocalcémie vitamin D-resistant rickets (HVDRR) and is caused by defects in the gene on chromosome 12 coding for the VDR. A review of the etiology of HVDRR and the natural mutations in the VDR that confer tissue insensitivity and clinical resistance to l,25(OH)2D3 is particularly instructive in illuminating the physiologic relevance of the l,25(OH)-,D3-VDR hormone-receptor complex as well as structure/function relationships in the receptor itself.

Natural mutations in the nuclear vitamin D receptor Clinically significant hereditary hypocalcémie vitamin D-resistant rickets is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting in a phenotype characterized by severe bowing of the lower extremities, short stature and, often, alopecia (Rut et al. 199A). The serum chemistry in HVDRR includes frank hypocalcemia, secondary hyperpara¬ thyroidism, elevated alkaline phosphatase, variable hypophosphatemia and markedly increased l,25(OH)2D3. The symptoms of HVDRR, with the exception of alopecia, mimic classic vitamin D-deficiency rickets, suggesting that VDR not only mediates the bone mineral homeostatic actions of vitamin D but may also participate in the differentiation of hair follicles in utero. Recently, VDR knockout mice have been created (Yoshizawa et al. 1996), revealing apparently normal hétérozygotes but severely affected homozygotes (VDR-/-), 90% ofwhich die within 8—10 weeks. Surviving mice lose their hair and possess low bone mass, hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia and 10-fold elevated l,25(OH)2D3 coincident with extremely low 24,25(OH)2D3. All of these parameters in the VDR knockout mouse mimic the phenotype of patients with HVDRR, confirming that VDR normally mediates all of the bone mineral regulating functions of vitamin D. Interestingly, although natural point mutations in other receptors related to VDR, such as thyroid hormone receptor ß (TRß) (Collingwood et al. 1994), are charac¬ terized by dominant negative receptors that generate the thyroid hormone resistant phenotype in the heterozygotic context, no natural, dominant negative mutations have yet been identified in HVDRR patients (Whitfield et al. 1996). Thus, all HVDRR cases studied to date are homozygous for the particular VDR mutation.

Figure 2 Natural mutations in the human vitamin D receptor leading to 1,25(OH)2D¡ hormone resistance. See text for details and citations. N37, K91 and E92 are not sites of VDR natural mutations, but are so designated because they ate heterodimerization contacts that lie within the DNA binding domain (Hsieh et al. 1995, Rastinejad et al. 1995). The eight cysteine residues (C) that tetrahedrally coordinate two zinc atoms in the finger sttucture are also denoted.

Figure 2 illustrates a number of point mutations in VDR that have been detected in HVDRR patients (reviewed in Rut et al. 199A, Haussler et al. 1995). Three of these genetic alterations result in nonsense mutations that introduce stop codons in VDR (K73stop, Q152sfo|> and Y295stop), creating truncated VDRs that lack both hormone- and DNA-binding (heterodimerization) capacities and are associated with unstable mRNAs. More revealing are the series of missense mutations (Fig. 2) that can be classified according to three of the basic molecular functions of VDR: (i) DNA binding/nuclear localization by the N-terminal zinc finger region, (ii) l,25(OH)2D3 hormone binding by the C-terminal domain and (iii) heterodimerization with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) through subregions of the C-terminal domain. As depicted schematically in Fig. 2 and discussed in detail later, VDR is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that controls gene expression by heterodimerizing with RXR and associating specifically with vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) in target genes. Since VDR is a member of the steroid, retinoid, thyroid hormone receptor superfamily, and belongs to the VDR/retinoic acid receptor (RAR)/TR subfamily of RXR heterodimerizing species (Haussler et al. 1991), it is reasonable to draw from data on RAR and TR for comparison with VDR.

The greatest number of VDR natural mutations char¬ acterized to date are localized to the DNA binding, zinc finger region (Fig. 2). The first two discovered, G33D and R73Q (Hughes et al. 1988), reside at the ‘tips’ of the fingers and affect charge—charge interactions between VDR and the phosphate backbone of DNA. When viewed in toto, the zinc finger region mutations in HVDRR (Fig. 2) have the following two general prop¬ erties: (i) they occur in residues conserved across the entire nuclear receptor superfamily and (ii) most lie within -helices on the C-terminal side of the first and second fingers which are intimately involved in DNA base recognition and phosphate backbone contacts respectively (Rastinejad et al. 1995). These observations suggest that many of the clinically significant mutations in VDR which are still compatible with life may not greatly perturb the fundamental structure of the DNA binding domain of the receptor, but instead compromise its ability to recog¬ nize DNA with specificity and high affinity. Whether HVDRR cases with mutations in zinc finger region residues unique to VDR will be uncovered depends upon the properties of such alterations, which could range from innocuous to lethal.

Mutations located within the hormone binding domain of VDR also elicit the HVDRR phenotype (Fig. 2), including R274L (Kristjansson et al. 1993) and H305Q (Malloy et al 1995). Transcriptional activation by R274L and H305G VDR is attenuated as a result of inefficient l,25(OH)2D3 binding, ranging from severe in the case of R274L to a modest increase in Kd for H305Q. In both instances, transcriptional activation is restored when the dose of l,25(OH)2D3 is raised to pharmacologie levels (10 m) in transfection experiments (Kristjansson et al. 1993, Malloy et al. 1995). Our laboratory has recently characterized two novel VDR hormone binding domain mutations in HVDRR patients, I314S and R391C, that significantly affect the heterodimerization of VDR with RXR (Whitfield et al. 1996). Both of these C-terminal replacements (Fig. 2), however, do display some degree of what may be a hormone binding deficit, a phenomenon not observable in typical in vitro ligand binding kinetic assays at 4 °C. Thus, only at 37 °C in intact cells do R391C and I314S exhibit apparent slight and significant impairment of l,25(OH)2D3 high affinity retention respectively (Whitfield et al. 1996). Further, the two mutations in question are situated in or adjacent to heptad repeats (Fig. 2), hypothetical coiled-coil-like structures that were originally proposed to participate in the heterodimerization of VDR, RAR, and TR with RXR (Forman & Samuels 1990, Nakajima et al. 1994). Consist¬ ent with this concept, both R391C and I314S VDRs do not bind RXR with normal affinity when assayed in vitro, with the greatest impairment of heterodimerization occur¬ ring with R391C (affinity reduced by one order of magnitude) (Whitfield et al. 1996). Additional evidence supporting blunted RXR heterodimerization by these two mutant VDRs is provided by transfection experiments in restored to that of normal fibroblasts when fibroblasts from patients harboring either the R391C or the I314S mutation are cotransfected with exogenous RXR. Yet this apparent RXR rescue of the mutated VDRs requires approximately 10-fold elevated l,25(OH)2D3 doses com¬ pared with the response to hormone in normal fibroblasts (Whitfield et al. 1996). This latter observation reveals that the hormone binding and heterodimerization functions of VDR are not entirely separable, an aspect which is also apparent from fundamental biochemical analysis of the hormone dependency of VDR-RXR heterodimer binding to VDREs as discussed in detail below.

Understanding the molecular properties of natural VDR mutations in HVDRR allows us to comprehend why the patients respond differentially to therapy with massive doses of l,25(OH)2D3, or suitable analogs. For example, cases with zinc finger region aberrations are unresponsive to the hormone because DNA binding is precluded by the absence of structural complemen¬ tarity between VDR and the VDRE, regardless of the l,25(OH)2D3 liganding or heterodimerization of the receptor in solution. Conversely, patients harboring mutations in the hormone binding/heterodimerization domain can be responsive to pharmacologie doses of l,25(OH)2D3 or analogs, even though the hormone already is increased in the circulation because of the hypocalcemia caused by tissue insensitivity. For example, patient I314S was essentially cured by excess vitamin D metabolite, indicating that compensating for the hormone binding deficit was able to override the milder heterodimerization defect and allow sufficient VDRE binding by the VDR-RXR heterodimer. Conversely, patient R391C responded only modestly to treatment with excess l,25(OH)2D3 analog, presumably because the fundamental heterodimerization defect could not be overcome and therefore normal VDRE binding could not be achieved (Whitfield et al. 1996).

The final insights gained from the natural VDR mutations summarized in Fig. 2 are structural in nature. We have discussed previously that the zinc finger mutations are confined to absolutely conserved residues. In the crystal structure of the DNA binding domain heterodimers of RXRa and TRß (Rastinejad et al. 1995), the lysine and arginine residues corresponding to K45 and R50 in human VDR (hVDR) make direct base contacts with DNA, while the arginines corresponding to R73 and R80 in hVDR make direct DNA phosphate backbone contacts. That mutations in these four residues are clinically important in the etiology of HVDRR argues for structural congruity between the VDR finger region and that of TR. Rastinejad et al. (1995) have extended this assumption to include a modeling of RXR-TR vs RXRVDR bound to DNA which accommodates the fact that TR binds as a heterodimer to a direct hexanucleotide repeat spaced by four nucleotides (DR+4), while VDR binds as a heterodimer to a similar set of half elements spaced by three nucleotides (DR+3). In addition to verifying the common protein-DNA interfaces, their modeling predicts that hVDR residues N37 in the first finger and K91/E92 C-terminal of the second finger (see Fig. 2) engage in heterodimeric contacts with residues in the second zinc finger ofRXR to form effectively a stable, DNA-supported heterodimer. Indeed, recent site-directed mutational studies (Hsieh et al. 1995) indicate that the alteration ofK91 and E92 in hVDR in fact grossly reduces transactivation while moderately attenuating hetero¬ dimerization and DNA binding, thus confirming the importance of K91 and E92. An additional surprising finding was that the K91/E92 double mutant manifested dominant negative characteristics (Hsieh et al. 1995), distinguishing it from the natural HVDRR replacements discussed above. Apparently, the K91/E92 mutant VDR is able to bind DNA sufficiently through its native zinc finger and strong heterodimerization function in the ligand binding domain such that it can block binding by wild type receptor, but is rendered inactive in stimulating transcription because of a presumed conformational per¬ turbation initiated by unstable or improper alignment of the heterodimer on the VDRE.

Based upon recently reported X-ray crystal structures of the ligand binding domains of ligand-occupied hRARy (Renaud et al. 1995), agonist-occupied rat TRa, (Wagner et al. 1995) and unoccupied, but dimeric hRXRa (Bourguet et al. 1995), it is also possible to incorporate the HVDRR mutations in the hormone binding domain (Fig. 2) into a hypothetical structural context. Figure 3 constitutes a schematic compilation of the existing crystallographic data and compares them with natural and artificially generated mutations in hVDR. At the top of Fig. 3, the residue numbers for VDR in the ligand binding domain appear in relation to the older heptad repeat nomenclature (heptads 1—9, dotted boxes). At least some of these heptads, particularly heptads 4 and 9, are thought to facilitate heterodimerization (Nakajima et al. 1994). The El region is a highly conserved area that supports heterodimerization (Whitfield et al. 1995è). The helices depicted schematically in Fig. 3 (open boxes) are those determined for hRARy; this general pattern of -helices and ß-strands (solid boxes) appears to be well conserved across the TR, RAR and RXR members of the subfamily crystallized thus far (Bourguet et al. 1995, Renaud et al. 1995, Wagner et al. 1995). Although the heterodimerization domains have yet to be elucidated by structural analysis, the homodimerization domain of RXR is comprised of helices 7, 9 and 10 (Fig. 3 and Bourguet et al. 1995). Flanking the dimerization region are clusters of ligand binding contacts, shown for RAR and TR in Fig. 3, which paint a picture of hormone binding involving helices 3, 5, 11 and 12 plus portions of helices 6 and 7 along with their intervening loop, as well as the loop between ß-strands 1 and 2.

Figure 3 Hormone binding (R274L and H305Q) and heterodimerization (I314S and R391C) natural mutations in VDR that confer the HVDRR phenotype are positioned in the context of retinoid and thyroid hormone receptor subfamily ligand binding domain structures. See text for details and citations.

As summarized in Fig. 3 and discussed by Whitfield et al. (1995a, 1996), a number of artificially generated mutants in hVDR support the con¬ cept that the dimerization and honnone binding regions in VDR are well aligned with those in RXR, RAR and TR. Of even greater interest and relevance to the present monograph, the four clinically important hVDR mutants under consideration correspond to pertinent locations in the known structures of the retinoid and thyroid hormone receptor ligand binding domains. We postulate that this general structural organization represents that of the VDR ligand binding domain. As shown in Fig. 3, the pure hormone binding mutant hVDRs, namely R274L and H305Q, are located precisely within ligand clusters in helix 5 and in the loop between helix 6 and 7 respectively. I314S, which endows hVDR with combined defects in hormone retention and heterodimerization, lies within helix 7 at a presumed interface of ligand binding and dimerization activities of the receptor (Fig. 3). Finally, R391C is positioned well within the helix 10 dimerization surface, but not far removed from C-terminal ligand binding contacts that are likely influenced by replacement of this amino acid in hVDR. Thus, at least within the context of the assumed structural organization of VDR derived from that of other subfamily members, the I314S and R391C mutations are situated precisely where they would be predicted to lie, given the biological properties of the mutant receptors and the phenotype of the patients. These results not only have profound implications con¬ cerning the putative structure of VDR in relation to its closest relatives, but prove unequivocally that the calcémic actions of l,25(OH)2D3 are mediated by the vitamin D receptor, existing as a l,25(OH)2D3-liganded heterodimer with RXR that is bound to DNA.

Physiology and cellular actions of l,25(OH)2D3

In order to delineate the physiologic roles for the vitamin D hormone, it is appropriate first to place the VDR mediator into the context of vitamin D metabolism and cellular actions. Figure 4 summarizes the integration of vitamin D metabolism and cellular actions introduced in Fig. 1, with physiologic regulatory events now super¬ imposed on the metabolic pathway and the inclusion of an expanded list of physiologic actions for the 1,25( )2 4 hormone. The conversion of vitamin D3 to 25(OH)D3 by the liver is a constitutive metabolic step, followed by the 1-hydroxylation of25(OH)D3 to l,25(OH)2D3, a reaction under exquisite control (Haussler & McCain 1977). When blood calcium is low, activation of this latter step occurs, either as a result of the hypocalcémie state per se, or in response to elevated PTH, each of which serves indepen¬ dently to enhance renal 1-OHase activity. Low phosphate is also capable of separately upregulating the 1-OHase enzyme. To limit activation, the hormonal product, l,25(OH)2D3, effects an ultra-short feedback loop to suppress its own biosynthesis in the kidney and also represses PTH synthesis to remove the peptide hormone stimulus of the 1-OHase via a longer feedback loop (Fig. 4). However, the dominant negative feedback controls of 1-OHase activity appear to result from the concerted actions of l,25(OH)2D3 to stimulate bone mineral résorption and to promote intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption, which together elicit an increase in blood calcium and phosphate levels, each of which down-regulates the 1-OHase.

The process by which l,25(OH)2D3 causes bone remodeling is complex, involving stimulation of osteoclast differentiation and osteoblastic production of osteopontin, both of which activate résorption in part through the recognition of bone matrix osteopontin by osteoclast surface avß3-integrin. The résorption effect is supported by l,25(OH)2D3-elicited suppression of bone formation via the induction of osteocalcin and the repression of type I collagen. This latter insight that the normal function of osteocalcin is to curtail bone matrix formation arises from the creation of osteocalcin knockout mice (Ducy et al. 1996). In addition to stimulating the transcription of bone-related genes such as osteopontin and osteocalcin, the l,25(OH)2D3 hormone also induces its own eatab¬ olism in kidney as well as other target tissues like bone by enhancing the expression of the vitamin D-24-OHase enzyme. 24-Hydroxylation of l,25(OH)2D3 is the first step in deactivating the hormone, which is eventually metabolized by side chain cleavage to calcitróle acid (Haussler 1986). Thus, the synthesis of l,25(OH),D3 is not only governed by feedback mechanisms that sense l,25(OH)2D3, calcium, PTH and phosphate concentrations, but the hormone induces the termination of its own signal in target tissues, qualifying l,25(OH)2D3 as a bonafide hormone by any definition.

As introduced in the section on HVDRR, mediation of the cellular functions of l,25(OH)2D3 requires that VDR bind the hormonal ligand specifically and with high affinity (Fig. 4). Upon such binding, VDR becomes hyperphosphorylated (Jurutka et al. 1993, Haussler et al. 1994) and recruits RXR into a hetero¬ dimeric complex that binds strongly to DNA (Fig. 4). The l,25(OH)2D3-hganded RXR-VDR heterocomplex selectively recognizes VDREs in the promoter regions of positively controlled genes such as osteocalcin (MacDonald et al. 1991), osteopontin (Noda et al. 1990), vitamin D-24-OHase (Ohyama et al. 199A) and ß3-integrin (Cao et al. 1993). Negative VDREs (Haussler et al. 1995) exist in the 5′-regions of the genes for type I collagen (Pavlin et al. 199A), bone sialoprotein (Li & Sodek 1993), PTH (DeMay et al. 1992) and PTH-related peptide (Falzon 1996, Kremer et al. 1996). The mechanisms whereby VDR accomplishes positive and negative control of DNA transcription after VDRE association are not well under¬ stood, although substantial progress has been made in comprehending the stimulation of transcription as detailed in later sections of this article. Moreover, as summarized in Fig. 5, a number of VDREs have been definitively characterized. The prototypical VDBJS is found in the osteocalcin gene, consisting of an imperfect direct repeat of hexanucleotide estrogen responsive element (ERE)-like, half-sites with a spacer of three nucleotides (DR+3). Classic EREs possess a central GT core at positions 3 and 4 of the hexanucleotide, but this feature is only partially conserved in the six natural positive VDREs listed in Fig. 5. There is, however, absolute conservation of the A in position 6 of the 5′ half-element and of the G at position 2 of the 3′ half-element. A preliminary working consensus for the positive VDRE can be derived from these natural VDREs (see boxed sequence in Fig. 5). This generaliz¬ ation is supported, in part, by PCR experiments that were designed to select, from random oligonucleotides, the highest affinity DNA ligand for the RXR-VDR heterodimer (Nishikawa et al. 1994, Colnot et al. 1995).

Figure 5 Natural vitamin D responsive elements (DR+3s) in genes positively tegulated by l,25(OH)2D3. The consensus VDREs are based on either sequence comparisons (boxed) or a selection of random sequences (at bottom).

The random selection process yields an identical VDRE 5′ half-element of GGGTCA (Fig. 5, bottom), which is also a preferred RXR target when RXR homodimers bind to DNA (Yang et al. 1995). This observation is in concert with the conclusion (Jin & Pike 1996) that, with respect to association ofRXR-VDR with VDREs, RXR lies on the 5′ half-element whereas VDR is situated on the 3′ half-element. Examination of both consensus sequences suggests that the G at position 3 of the spacer is important in VDR binding, a deduction consistent with the finding (MacDonald et al. 1991) that this base is partially protected by RXR-VDR in methylation interference assays. How¬ ever, interesting differences arise when one compares the most frequently encountered 3′ half-element bases in natural VDREs, namely the GGGGCA composite which actually occurs in human osteocalcin, with the GGTTCA random consensus selection for the 3′ half-element (Fig. 5). Clearly, GGTTCA represents a potent VDR binding site, a supposition that is bolstered by the fact that osteopontin, which possesses a perfect DR+3 of GGTTCA, is the highest affinity VDRE we have tested (data not shown). Intriguingly, Ts at positions 3 and 4 in the 3′ VDR half-site occur infrequently in the balance of natural VDREs (Fig. 5). The paucity of Ts in the 3′ half-element could be related to a need for varying potency of VDREs in regulated genes, or may even provide for a repertoire of different VDR conformations that could be induced by contact with distinct 3′ half-site core sequences. This postulated range of VDR conforma¬ tions might endow the receptor with the ability to recruit a variety of different coactivators and corepressors, or even to favor the binding of one vitamin D metabolite ligand over another. Irrespective of the above considerations, it is evident that the primary VDRE is a DR+3 recognition site in DNA that directs the VDR to the promoter region of l,25(OH)2D3 regulated genes, ultimately altering the functions of target cells as a result of transcriptional control of gene expression.

Significance of lipophilic ligands in the association of RXR-VDR with DNA

Dimeric complexes are a feature commonly employed in the regulation of eukaryotic transcriptional systems. This process of protein dimerization often will generate novel heterodimeric complexes which display highly cooperative binding to DNA as well as an altered target sequence specificity (Glass 1994). Among the classical steroid hormone receptors, dimerization results in the formation of symmetrical homodimeric protein complexes on palindromic DNA half sites. Dimerization has been shown to be mediated in part by residues within the DNA binding domain of the receptor (Luisi et al. 1991) and is enhanced by residues within the ligand binding domain (Falwell et al. 1990). The other subfamily of nuclear hormone receptors, including VDR, TR and RAR, apparently binds with highest affinity to direct repeat elements either as homodimers or, more commonly, as heterodimers with RXR (Kliewer et al. 1992). In both subgroups of nuclear receptors, protein-protein interactions serve to align the DNA binding domains so that they are optimally positioned to bind to their specific DNA target sequences (Kurokawa et al. 1993, Perlmann et al. 1993, Rastinejad et al. 1995). The ligand binding region of these receptors is multifunctional, in that this domain not only binds the cognate ligand, but also it possesses a dimerization surface as well as the ligand-dependent transactivation function, AF-2 (Gronemeyer 1991, Chambón 1994). The dimerization surface consists of packed helices which are stabilized by hydrophobic heptad repeats interspersed throughout the structure. Ligand apparently can influence different functional components, including the dimerization interface, and the activating AF-2 domain (Renaud et al. 1995, Wagner et al. 1995). Therefore, a likely role for ligand is to regulate the association and dissociation of dimeric protein complexes and hence regulate specific binding to DNA target sequences.

In this regard the following three questions remain regarding l,25(OH)2D3-mediated control of positively regulated genes: (i) does VDR bind as a homodimer (Freedman et al. 1994, Nishikawa et al. 1994) as well as a heterodimer to DR+3 VDREs? (ii) What is the effect of the l,25(OH)2D3 ligand on VDR or VDR-RXR binding to VDREs? (iii) What role does 9-cis retinoic acid, the RXR ligand, play m RXR-VDR binding to VDREs and enhanced transcription of l,25(OH)2D3-responsive genes? It is generally accepted that TR forms homodimers as well as heterodimers with RXR on thyroid hormone responsive elements (TREs), although recent data suggest that the TR homodimer, when unoccupied by thyroid hormone, operates as a repressor of transcription (Chin & Yen 1996, Schulman et al. 1996). Thyroid hormone is proposed to dissociate TR homodimers to facilitate TRRXR heterodimerization on the TRE and stimulate transcription. In contrast, RAR does not appear to be capable of forming homodimers on DR+5 retinoic acid responsive elements (RAREs) (Perlmann et al. 1996), instead cooperating exclusively with RXR in RARE association and vitamin A metabolite-responsive transcrip¬ tion. When present in excess in gel mobility shift DNA binding assays in vitro, both TR and RAR display RXR heterodimeric association with their respective hormone responsive elements (HREs) in the absence of added lipophilic ligand. These in vitro studies are consistent with immunocytochemical data indicating that, unlike classic steroid honnone receptors that reside in the cytoplasm complexed with Hsp-90 and other proteins in their unoccupied state, unliganded TR, RAR and VDR (Clemens et al. 1988) exist in the nucleus in general association with DNA. These findings have led to the dogma that ligand is not required for TR, RAR and VDR to associate with target HREs. Indeed, we have observed that addition of 260 ng baculovirus-expressed hVDR to a gel shift reaction generates weak homodimeric VDR as well as strong VDR-RXR-heterodimeric binding to a rat osteocalcin VDRE probe, both of which are independent of the presence of l,25(OH)2D3 (Nakajima et al. 1994). However, in vivo footprinting experiments (Blanco et al. 1996, Chen et al. 1996) have led to the conclusion that, at least in the case of RAR-RXR heterodimers, RAR ligands are required for RARE binding. We, therefore, sought to devise an in vitro gel shift assay that would more accurately reflect the in vivo situation, primarily consisting of the use of physiologic salt (0-15 m KCl) concentrations and limited amounts of partially purified, baculovirusexpressed VDR and RXRs (Thompson et al. 1997). Utilizing this assay, we have addressed the three questions regarding VDR/RXR listed above, namely heterodimer versus homodimer, the potential role of l,25(OH)2D3 and the effect of 9-cis retinoic acid (9-cis RA).

When 20 ng VDR (~ 10 nM) or 20 ng VDR plus 20 ng RXR are incubated with either the rat osteocalcin or mouse osteopontin VDREs (see Fig. 5), no DNA-bound homodimeric VDR species is apparent, but a VDRE complexed VDR-RXR heterodimer occurs that is strik¬ ingly dependent upon the presence of the l,25(OH)2D3 ligand (Thompson et al. 1997). Thus, at receptor levels approaching that in a typical target cell, a VDR liganddependent heterodimer with RXR is the preferred VDRE binding species. Only when VDR or VDR plus RXR levels are raised to 100 ng of each receptor with the mouse osteopontin VDRE (Thompson et al. 1997), or 260 ng with the weaker rat osteocalcin VDRE (Nakajima et al. 1994), can faint homodimers of VDR bound to the probe be visualized. In addition, at these greater amounts ofreceptors, neither the VDR homodimer nor the VDRRXR heterocomplexes are modulated significantly by inclusion of l,25(OH)2D3 in the incubation (Thompson et al. 1997). We, therefore, conclude that higher receptor levels in vitro generate artifactual VDR homodimers as well as attenuate the normal physiological ligand dependence of VDR-RXR binding to the VDRE. To explain seemingly ligand-independent VDR-RXR association with the VDRE, we postulate the existence of a subpopulation of VDR that is unstably activated in the absence of l,25(OH)2D3 (Schulman et al. 1996) and therefore capable of heterodimerization to generate a positive gel mobility shift under conditions of vast receptor excess. In contrast, our physiologically relevant gel shift assay at <10nM receptor levels and 0-15 m KCl reflects the presumed in vivo events of ligand triggered heterodimerization (Blanco et al. 1996, Chen et al. 1996), and extends earlier in vitro data showing that l,25(OH)2D3 enhances VDRRXR complex formation (Sone et al. 1991, MacDonald et al. 1993, Ohyama et al. 1994).

Next, we tested the effect of 9-cis RA in this gel shift assay. A spectrum of data exists on the role of 9-cis RA in l,25(OH)2D3-stimulated transcription, including demon¬ stration of synergistic action with l,25(OH)2D3 (Carlberg et al. 1993, Schrader et al. 1994, Kato et al. 1995, Sasaki et al. 1995), negligible action (Ferrara et al. 1994), or an inhibitory effect (MacDonald et al. 1993, Jin & Pike 1994, Lemon & Freedman 1996). These marked differences likely result from varying transfection and ligand addition protocols, as well as cell and species specificity. Employing the physiological gel shift procedure with biochemically defined components, we obtained clear evidence that 9-cis RA is a potent inhibitor of l,25(OH)2D3-enhanced, VDR-RXR binding to VDREs such as osteocalcin, with dramatic attenuation by the retinoid occurring at concentrations as low as 10 m (Thompson et al. 1997). Previous gel shift data had also hinted at 9-cis RA inhibition (MacDonald et al. 1993, Cheskis & Freedman 1994), even though higher concentrations of 9-cis RA were utilized in these earlier studies. One somewhat puzzling finding, however, was that the suppressive effect of 9-cis RA seemed more pronounced in vitro than in transfected cells, where retinoid inhibition of l,25(OH)2D3-stimulated transcription is significant, but 50% or less in magnitude (MacDonald et al. 1993). This suggested that multiple pathways may exist for the assembly of the RXR-VDR heterocomplex in vivo. To probe for distinct routes of assembly, we varied the order of addition ofVDR, RXR, l,25(OH)2D3 and 9-cis RA in the gel shift assay for VDRE binding (Thompson et al. 1997). The results showed that 9-cis RA is a potent inhibitor of VDR-RXR heterodimerization on the VDRE in all situations except when VDR alone is preincubated with l,25(OH)2D3 followed by addition of RXR (Thompson et al. 1997). To explain these data, we have developed the model depicted in Fig. 6, which hypothesizes two alternative allosteric pathways for the interaction ofVDR-RXR with the VDRE.

Figure 6 Model of two different allosteric pathways for VDR-RXR-1,25(OH)2D3 binding to DNA.

In pathway A (Fig. 6), l,25(OH)2D3 occupies monomeric VDR, altering the conformation of the ligand binding domain such that it recruits RXR for heterodimeric binding to DNA and subsequent VDRE recognition. Importantly, we pos¬ tulate that previously occupied VDR conformationally influences RXR in the resulting heterodimer such that it is incapable of being liganded by 9-cis RA (pathway A, Fig. 6). This action to abolish RXR ligand responsiveness both silences the ability of 9-cis RA spuriously to trigger vitamin D hormone signal transduction, and prevents 9-cis RA from dissociating the RXR-VDR complex in order to divert RXR for retinoid signal transduction. On the other hand, as illustrated in pathway (Fig. 6), we propose that RXR exists in a different, 9-cis RA-receptive, allosteric state in most other circumstances, such as when present as a monomer, in an apoheterodimer with VDR, or even when the apoheterodimer of RXR and VDR is subsequently liganded with l,25(OH)2D3. This latter species of RXR-VDR-l,25(OH)2D3 (pathway B) is hypothesized to be fully competent in VDRE recognition, but the 9-cis RA binding function of the RXR partner has not been conformationally repressed, rendering this form sensitive to dissociation by 9-cis RA, which would then favor the formation of retinoid-occupied RXR homo¬ dimers. Therefore, unless VDR monomers are first occu¬ pied by l,25(OH)2D3 (pathway A), 9-cis RA can operate to divert or dissociate RXR and direct it to form RXR homodimers (pathway B). It is tempting to speculate that the l,25(OH),D3-liganded heterodimer in pathway A is more potent in transcriptional stimulation than the analogous species in pathway B, perhaps because the AF-2 function of the RXR partner is allosterically activated only in the former instance. The l,25(OH)2D3-occupied VDR-RXR in pathway has the advantage of flexible regulation because it is effectively a two-ligand switch. It likely occurs in vivo because, as stated above, the fact that 9-cis RA blunting significant but incomplete suggests that at least two populations of RXR-VDR heterodimers exist. Finally, when our model (Fig. 6) is compared with those for RXR-RAR and RXR-TR (Forman et al. 1995), it is evident that VDR is closer in mechanism of action to the TR, where 9-cis RA inhibits TR signal transduction by diversion of BJÍR (Lehmann et al. 1993). Also analogous is the fact that thyroid hormone occupation of the TR partner abolishes 9-cis RA binding to the RXR counter¬ part (Forman et al. 1995). Finally, the action of RXRPJ\R heterodimers seems to be fundamentally different from that of RXR-VDR in that RAR liganding by a retinoid facilitates RXR occupation by its retinoid ligand, resulting in cooperative stimulation of gene transcription by the repertoire of vitamin A metabolites.

VDR protein-protein interactions that effect gene transcription

Although we now have at least a rudimentary understand¬ ing of ligand-induced VDR binding to a VDRE, the next logical question is how does VDR regulate the machinery for gene transcription? In the basal state ofDNA transcrip¬ tion, the TATA-box binding protein (TBP) and its associated factors (TAFs) are bound to the TATA box at approximately position — 20 in the 5′ region of controlled genes, but the frequency of transcriptional initiations is very low because the RNA polymerase II-basal transcription factor IIB (TFIIB) enzyme complex is not stably associated with TBP-TAFs. The recruitment of the TFIIB-RNA polymerase II complex appears to be the rate limiting step in preinitiation complex formation, and is stimulated dramatically when a transacting factor or factors bind to upstream enhancers. In a process involving DNA looping, transactivators are thought to attract TFIIB and also interact with TAFs, forming a stable preinitiation complex that executes repeated rounds of productive transcription. Recent data indicate that the activation function in the hormone binding domain of the estrogen receptor, AF-2, associates specifically with a TAF known as TAFn30 (Jacq et al. 1994) and that the estrogen receptor (ER) binds to TFIIB in vitro (lng et al. 1992). In collaboration with Ozato and associates and Tsai and O’Malley, we have observed that hVDR also specifically associates with hTFIIB (Blanco et al. 1995). In this work, Blanco et al. (1995) showed that VDR binds to a TFIIB-glutathione S transferase fusion protein linked to glutathione-laden beads. Additionally, it was observed that both TRa and RARa interact with hTFIIB (Blanco et al. 1995), but that RXR does so only very weakly (P W Jurutka, L S Remus and M R Haussler, unpublished results). This last result suggests that, while the ligand binding partners in the VDR/TR/RAR subfamily provide a hard-wired connection to the assembly and en¬ hancement of the transcription machinery, the RXR partner is not primarily engaged in TFIIB contact.

Independent data obtained by MacDonald et al. (1995) using the powerful yeast two-hybrid system to detect protein-protein interactions also revealed that hVDR binds efficiently to TFIIB. Moreover, MacDonald et al. (1995) further exploited the yeast two-hybrid system to prove that, while hVDR and RXR interact, no homodimeric association occurs for hVDR alone, providing further evidence against the existence of physiologically significant VDR homodimers. Utilizing fusion protein technology, they also showed that VDR interacts directly with RXR to form a heterodimer in solution in the absence of DNA and, further, that this process was enhanced 8-fold by the presence of l,25(OH)2D3 hor¬ mone (MacDonald et al. 1995). Because hVDR-TFIIB association is not dependent upon the l,25(OH)2D, ligand (Blanco et al. 1995, MacDonald et al. 1995), the role of l,25(OH)2D3 can now be further resolved to an early participation in conforming VDR such that it attracts RXR followed by the targeting of the resulting RXR-VDR heterodimer to VDREs (see Fig. 6).

Figure 6 Model of two different allosteric pathways for VDR-RXR-1,25(OH)2D3 binding to DNA.

Interestingly, the presence of BJCR further facilitates VDR-TFIIB association, especially in the presence of l,25(OH)2D3 (PW Jurutka, LS Remus and MR Haussler, unpublished results). In fact, because of its capacity to enhance VDR-RXR heterodimerization, the l,25(OH)2D3 ligand is capable ofgenerating high levels of an RXR-VDR-TFIIB ternary complex in solution, sig¬ nificantly in excess ofthat occurring with either RXR and TFIIB or even with VDR and TFIIB (P W Jurutka, L S Remus and M R Haussler, unpublished results). These data not only reaffirm the interaction ofVDR with TFIIB, but also they imply that the l,25(OH)2D3-liganded VDR-RXR complex is the most efficient binder of TFIIB. This latter effect may be the result of positive conformational influences of RXR on liganded VDR, since VDR is the primary attachment moiety for TFIIB.

Because VDR-TFIIB interactions have been detected either in vitro or in the yeast system where certain mammalian cell restrictions may be relaxed, it was import¬ ant to confirm the relevance ofVDR-TFIIB association in mammalian cells. Blanco et al. (1995) have reported functional studies which, for the first time, show the interaction ofTFIIB with a member ofthe steroid receptor superfamily in ligand-dependent activation oftranscription in intact cells. In pluripotent PI9 mouse embryonal carcinoma cells, transfection of hVDR or hTFIIB alone produced no better than a 2-fold induction of VDREluciferase reporter expression by l,25(OH)2D3. However, when transfected together, hVDR and hTFIIB mediated a synergistic transcriptional response of approximately 30-fold when l,25(OH)2D3 was added, an effect which was absolutely dependent on the presence of the VDRE in the luciferase construct. It should be noted that the VDR-TFIIB positive cooperation appears to be cellspecific because similar experiments in contact-inhibited NIH/3T3 Swiss mouse embryo cells resulted in squelching of transcription by TFIIB. Therefore, in more differentiated cells, perhaps including osteoblasts or fibro¬ blasts, accessory coactivators may be present to modulate TFIIB or bridge between VDR and TFIIB.

In summary, VDR and TFIIB are hypothesized to exist in a multi-subunit transcription complex which also con¬ tains TAFs and/or coactivators that may be promoter- or tissue-specific. Further characterization of this complex will require the discovery of cell type and promoterspecific components via transfection and biochemical interaction studies. Ultimately, an in vitro transcription system must be devised which utilizes defined components to replicate faithfully l,25(OH)2D3-stimulated gene expression.

One subdomain of VDR that likely interacts with coactivators and/or basal transcription factors is the extreme C-terminus. We have previously shown that 403 hVDR, a truncated receptor that lacks the C-terminal 25 amino acids, binds l,25(OH),D3 ligand with reasonable affinity and heterodimerizes normally with RXR, but is devoid of transcriptional activity (Nakajima et al. 1994). These data suggest that VDR contains a transcriptional activation domain near its C-terminus.

Indeed, as illustrated in Fig. 7, the region of VDR from residues 416 to 422 possesses a high degree of similarity to the analogous sequences in the entire nuclear receptor superfamily. One hallmark of this conserved sequence is the glutamic acid residue at position 420 of hVDR (Fig. 7) included in a consensus of (where cp=a hydrophobic amino acid) for this domain (Renaud et al. 1995, Wagner et al. 1995). Allowing for conservative replace¬ ments, it seems virtually certain that hVDR forms an amphipathic helix (corresponding to helix 12 in the other receptors) surrounding glutamic acid-420 that is analogous to the ligand-dependent activation function (AF-2) char¬ acterized for TR (Barettino et al. 199A), RAR (Renaud et al. 1995), RXR (Leng et al. 1995) and ER (Danielian et al. 1992). Although this AF-2 domain is capable of autonomously activating transcription (Leng et al. 1995), that such activity is modest may be because of the fact that the AF-2 region is proposed to operate in a liganddependent fashion, involving a structural rearrangement to reposition the AF-2 for both intramolecular and intermolecular protein—protein interactions. Specifically, based upon the crystal structure of unoccupied RXR (Bourguet et al. 1995) and liganded RAR (Renaud et al. 1995) and TR (Wagner et al. 1995), helix 12/AF-2 appears to protrude outward from the more globular ensemble of helices 1—11 in the absence ofligand, such that it is unable to interact efficiently with coactivator/transcription factor. Upon liganding, a conformational signal is then transmit¬ ted to helix 12 that causes it to fold back on helix 11 and attach to the face of the globular ligand binding domain. The pivoting of helix 12 seemingly accomplishes two feats that mediate ligand-activated transcription by the receptor: (i) closing of a ‘door’ on the channel through which the lipophilic ligand enters the internal binding pocket of the receptor, and (ii) locking helix 12 into a stable confor¬ mation that facilitates its interaction with coactivator/ transcription factor. Ligand binding contacts on or near helix 12 (see Fig. 3) probably are significant in maintaining this active positioning of helix 12, essentially trapping ligand in the binding pocket to effect more sustained transactivation events.

In order to evaluate the relevance of the above proposed mechanism for VDR action, we (Jurutka et al. 1997) have altered E-420 and L-417 (see Fig. 7) individually to alanine residues, which preserves the putative -helical character of this region. The altered VDRs bind ligand near-normally, with only a mild increase (about 3-fold) in the Kd for the E420A receptor. Both E420A and L417A hVDRs also heterodimerize efficiently with RXR and associate with VDREs similarly to wild-type hVDR, yet their capacity for l,25(OH)2D3-stimulated transcription is abolished, even at high doses ofligand (Jurutka et al. 1997). These point mutations, therefore, identify a C-terminal AF-2 in VDR which corresponds to similar activation domains in other nuclear receptor superfamily members. Because VDR interacts with TFIIB, one of the first questions we asked was whether the VDR AF-2 consti¬ tutes a contact site for this basal transcription factor. Although some very preliminary evidence existed for an association between TFIIB and the C-terminus of hVDR (MacDonald et al. 1995), we observed that neither the E420A nor the L417A mutant VDRs are impaired in their interaction with TFIIB as probed with glutathione-S transferase—TFIIB fusion protein binding technology (Jurutka et al. 1997). Thus, the domain(s) of VDR that interfaces with TFIIB apparently lies elsewhere in the receptor, possibly in the N-terminal portion of the ligand-binding region (Blanco et al. 1995), in the hinge (MacDonald et al. 1995), or in the vicinity of the DNA-binding zinc fingers.

The present experiments with VDR are in concert with recent insight into the function of AF-2 in other nuclear receptors, which is to recruit coactivators of the type of steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC-1) (Oñate et al. 1995). A number of candidate coactivators have been isolated in addition to SRC-1 (Halachmi et al. 199A, Baniahmad et al. 1995, CavaiUes et at. 1995, Lee et al. 1995, Hong et al. 1996) and, in several cases, interaction with nuclear receptors requires intact AF-2 core regions (Baniahmad et al. 1995, CavaiUes et al. 1995). Moreover, AF-2 mutations act as dominant negative receptors, for example in the case of hRARy (Renaud et al. 1995). Indeed, we have observed that VDR AF-2 mutants E420A and L417A exhibit dominant negative properties with respect to transcriptional activation (Jurutka et al. 1997). Such AF-2 altered receptors are inactive transcriptionally, but can bind l,25(OH)2D3 ligand and heterodimerize normally on VDREs, the consequence being competition with wild-type VDR-RXR heterodimers for VDRE binding. These data argue that the AF-2 of the primary VDR partner in an RXR-VDR heterodimer is absolutely required for the mediation of l,25(OH)2D3-activated transcription, not only for its intrinsic activation potential, but also because of its presumed role in stabilizing the retention of l,25(OH)2D3 ligand in the VDR binding pocket.

Figure 6 Model of two different allosteric pathways for VDR-RXR-1,25(OH)2D3 binding to DNA.

What part, if any, is played by the AF-2 domain (Fig. 7) of the RXR ‘silent’ partner in the RXR-VDRl,25(OH)2D3 signal transduction pathway? To investigate this phenomenon, AF-2 truncated mutants of RXRa or RXRß were created and tested for their ability to function as dominant negative modulators of l,25(OH)2D3- stimulated transcription (Blanco et al. 1996). Because previous data with RXR-RAR control of gene expression seemed to indicate that the RXR AF-2 was dispensable (Durand et al. 1994), we were surprised to find that AF-2 truncated RXRs were potent dominant negative effectors of l,25(OH)2D3 action in transfected cells (Blanco et al. 1996). We, therefore, conclude that although the RXR ‘silent’ partner in VDR signaling apparently is not occupied by retinoid ligand (see Fig. 6), its AF-2 does play an active role in transcriptional stimulation. A similar conclusion has also been reached recently by two other groups studying RXR-RAR action (Chen et al. 1996, Schulman et al. 1996), with the use of RAR-specific ligands precluding ligand binding by the RXR partner. However, Schulman et al. (1996) have introduced a caveat to the above theory as they point out that AF-2-truncated RXRs in heterodimers become strong, constitutive binders of corepressors like the silencing mediators of retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors (SMRTs). Thus, an alternative explanation to an active coactivator-binding role for RXR AF-2 in heterodimers is that it plays a more passive role in excluding corepressors. In this latter scenario, truncation or point mutation (Schulman et al. 1996) of RXR AF-2 generates spurious corepressor binding rather than compromising coactivator contact. Only additional research into coactivator and corepressor associations of VDR-RXR heterodimers will resolve this issue.

General mechanism for vitamin D hormone action on transcription

In order to provide a working hypothesis for l,25(OH)2D3 action at the molecular level, we have developed the model illustrated in Fig. 8. It is based primarily on data from our laboratory and others studying 1,25(OH)2D3 and VDR, and it relies on the assumed similarities between VDR action and that of TR and RAR. VDR is proposed to exist in target cell nuclei, perhaps very weakly associ¬ ated with DNA, in a monomeric, inactive conformation with the C-terminal AF-2 domain extended away from the hormone binding cavity. Upon liganding with l,25(OH)2D3, VDR assumes an active conformation, with the AF-2 pivoted into correct position for both ligand retention and coactivator contact. In addition, the hormone facilitates interaction of VDR and RXR through a stabilized heterodimerization interface. In turn, 1,25(OH)2D3-occupied VDR may itselffunction as a kind of allosteric regulator of RXR, perhaps by conveying a confonnational signal through the juxtapositioned dimer¬ ization domains to induce the AF-2 ofRXR into an active conformation for coactivator binding. As discussed above (see Fig. 6), the joining of preliganded VDR and unliganded RXR apparently renders the RXR partner unresponsive to binding and either activation or dissocia¬ tion by 9-cis RA. Alternatively, if 9-cis RA encounters RXR monomer first (Fig. 8), or binds to RXR that is complexed with VDR in an apoheterodimer (Fig. 6), the retinoid is able to divert the RXR to generate homo¬ dimers and effectively blunt l,25(OH)2D3-driven transcription In the primary activation pathway pictured in Fig. 8, the RXR-VDR-l,25(OH)2D3 complex recognizes and targets the genes to be controlled through high affinity association with the VDRE in a gene promoter region. Coactivators that are presumed to bind to VDR and RXR AF-2 s are then postulated to link with TAFs/TBP, thereby looping out DNA 5′ of the TATA box. This series of events positions VDR such that it can independently recruit TFIIB to the promoter complex, a process that initiates the assembly of the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme into the preinitiation complex. Precedents exist for transcription factors independently attracting TFIIB, such as hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 (Malik & Karathanasis 1996), as well as for a sequential, two-step pathway for activator-stimulated transcriptional initiation (Struhl 1996, Stargell & Struhl 1996). Using the latter model as an analogy, the VDR activator would contact both TBP/ TAFs (via – coactivator bridges) and TFIIB in order to initiate RNA polymerase II holoenzyme assembly. The order of attachment of these two ‘arms’ of activation has not been determined but, at least, in the case of acidic activators, recruitment to the TATA element precedes interaction with components of the initiation complex (Stargell & Struhl 1996). It is of interest that the mechan¬ ism of l,25(OH)2D3 action depicted in Fig. 8 is not only essential for induction of bone remodeling and other vitamin D functions, but is also self-limiting via 24-OHase induction. In addition, these actions of l,25(OH),D, would be blunted under conditions within a cell where 9-cis RA concentrations dominate over those of l,25(OH)2D3.

Figure 8 Model for transcriptional activation by 1,25(OH)2D3 on the promoter of a target gene

The above described molecular mechanism whereby the vitamin D hormone controls gene expression requires further experimental evaluation. To advance our under¬ standing of the structure/function relationships in VDR, a physical characterization of the structure of VDR via X-ray crystallography will be required. Furthermore, in order to comprehend the genomic action of vitamin D in calcium homeostatic and other target cells, it will be necessary to elucidate the detailed involvement of various RXR isoforms, specific TAFs and novel coactivators/ corepressors that might influence the regulation of differ¬ ent vitamin D-controlled promoters. This information in its entirety should assist in determining the potential role for VDR and l,25(OH)2D3 in the pathophysiology of osteoporosis and other endocrine-related bone diseases.

The functions of the group of proteins known as nuclear receptors will be understood fully only when their working three-dimensional structures are known. These ligand-activated transcription factors belong to the steroid-thyroid-retinoid receptor superfamily, which include the receptors for steroids, thyroid hormone, vitamins A- and D-derived hormones, and certain fatty acids. The majority of family members are homologous proteins for which no ligand has been identified (the orphan receptors). Molecular cloning and structure/function analyses have revealed that the members of the superfamily have a common functional domain structure. This includes a variable N-terminal domain, often important for transactivation of transcription; a well conserved DNA-binding domain, crucial for recognition of specific DNA sequences and protein:protein interactions; and at the C-terminal end, a ligand-binding domain, important for hormone binding, protein: protein interactions, and additional transactivation activity. Although the structure of some independently expressed single domains of a few of these receptors have been solved, no holoreceptor structure or structure of any two domains together is yet available. Thus, the three-dimensional structure of the DNA-binding domains of the glucocorticoid, estrogen, retinoic acid-beta, and retinoid X receptors, and of the ligand-binding domains of the thyroid, retinoic acid-gamma, retinoid X, estrogen, progesterone, and peroxisome proliferator activated-gamma receptors have been solved. The secondary structure of the glucocorticoid receptor N-terminal domain, in particular the taul transcription activation region, has also been studied. The structural studies available not only provide a beginning stereochemical knowledge of these receptors, but also a basis for understanding some of the topological details of the interaction of the receptor complexes with coactivators, corepressors, and other components of the transcriptional machinery. In this review, we summarize and discuss the current information on structures of the steroid-thyroid-retinoid receptors.

A number of specific carrier proteins for members of the vitamin A family have been discovered. Two of these proteins bind all-trans-retinol and are found within cells important in vitamin A metabolism or function. These two proteins have considerable sequence homology and have been named cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP) and cellular retinol-binding protein, type II (CRBP [II]). A third intracellular protein, cellular retinoic acid-binding protein (CRABP) also is structurally similar but binds only retinoic acid. Although retinol appears to be bound quite similarly by the two retinol-binding proteins, subtle differences are apparent that appear to be related to the different functions of the two proteins. That, coupled with the specific cellular locations of the two proteins, suggests their roles. Cellular retinol-binding protein appears to have several roles, including (1) delivering retinol to specific binding sites within the nucleus and (2) participating in the transepithelial movement of retinol across certain blood-organ barriers. In contrast, CRBP (II) appears to be involved in the intestinal absorption of vitamin A and, in particular, may direct retinol to a specific esterifying enzyme, resulting in the production of fatty acyl esters of retinol that are incorporated into chylomicrons for release to the lymph. Like CRBP, CRABP can deliver its ligand retinoic acid to specific binding sites within the nucleus, sites different from those for retinol. The nuclear binding of retinol and retinoic acid may be part of the mechanism by which vitamin A directs the state of differentiation of epithelial tissue.

Interaction of the Retinol/Cellular Retinol-binding Protein Complex with Isolated Nuclei and Nuclear Components
GENE LIAU, DAVID E. ONG, and FRANK CHYTIL
Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232http://jcb.rupress.org/content/91/1/63.full.pdf

Retinol (vitamin A alcohol) is involved in the proper differentiation of epithelia. The mechanism of this involvement is unknown. We have previously reported that purified cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP) will mediate specific binding of retinol to nuclei isolated from rat liver. We now report that pure CRBP delivers retinol to the specific nuclear binding sites without itself remaining bound. Triton X-100-treated nuclei retain the majority of these binding sites. CRBP is also capable of delivering retinol specifically to isolated chromatin with no apparent loss of binding sites, as compared to whole nuclei . CRBP again does not remain bound after transferring retinol to the chromatin binding sites. When isolated nuclei are incubated with [ 3H]retinol-CRBP, sectioned, and autoradiographed, specifically bound retinol is found distributed throughout the nuclei . Thus, CRBP delivers retinol to the interior of the nucleus, to specific binding sites which are primarily, if not solely, on the chromatin . The binding of retinol to these sites may affect gene expression.

Early histological studies have clearly shown that when animals become vitamin A deficient various epithelial tissues of these animals lose the ability to maintain proper differentiation (1) . However, providing retinol (vitamin A alcohol) to the animal permits tissue repair, with improperly differentiated cells rapidly replaced by normal cells (2) . This indicates that vitamin A has an essential role in cellular differentiation . The action of retinol appears to be mediated by a specific intracellular protein called cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP). CRBP binds retinol with great avidity and specificity and has been detected in a number oftissues (3, 4) . Recently, CRBP was purified and partially characterized (5, 6) . It is distinct from the well-known serum retinol transport protein called retinol-binding protein (5, 7) . That CRBP plays an important role in the action of vitamin A is suggested by the following observations: It is found complexed with retinol in vivo (4, 8). It binds cis-isomers of retinol with a specificity that parallels the in vivo activity of these isomers (9), Finally, if retinol is first complexed with CRBP, the retinol can bind to the nucleus in a specific and saturable manner (10) . In this study we compare the interaction of the CRBP-retinol complex with isolated nuclei to its interaction with isolated chromatin and follow the fate of both the protein and the ligand . The nuclear binding sites for retinol were localized using autoradiography .

……

The experiments described here were designed to gain insight concerning the still unknown molecular mechanisms by which retinol exerts its effects on the differentiation of epithelia. Alterations in genomic expression appear to be induced in animals fed a retinol-deficient diet, as shown by changes in nuclear RNA synthesis observed in vivo (27-30) as well as in vitro (13) . A working hypothesis has been used that retinol, being a small molecule, might exert its action in a way similar to the accepted model for the mode of action of steroid hormones in differentiation . This model involves binding of the steroid hormone inside the target cell to a specific binding protein called a receptor . The resulting cytoplasmic ligand receptor complex, after undergoing a not fully understood conformational change, translocates to the nucleus . The receptor protein can then be detected in nuclear extracts by its ability to bind specifically the steroid hormone. The receptor steroid complex has been shown to interact with chromatin. Such interaction is believed to lead to an altered expression of the genome, which is the basis for the steroid hormone-induced differentiation (31) .

The steroid hormone model has been used profitably to investigate the mode of retinol action . Indeed, a specific binding protein for retinol, CRBP, was discovered to be present in many tissues (3) . Moreover, after purifying this protein to homogeneity, it was demonstrated that CRBP is able to deliver retinol to the nucleus in a specific manner (10) .

However, we report here a unique feature which appears to be distinct from the steroid hormone model. Using retinol CRBP complex in which the radioactive label is on the protein, we find that CRBP delivers retinol in a specific manner to the nucleus; the retinol associates with chromatin, but the protein itself does not remain bound. This conclusion is based on the observation that the radioactively-labeled protein is still able to deliver retinol inside the nucleus, but it cannot be recovered with the nucleus, in contrast to steroid hormone receptors.

The interaction of the specifically delivered retinol appears to be primarily with chromatin. The outer nuclear envelope is apparently not significantly involved in the interaction as Triton X-100-treated nuclei retain 70% of the retinol binding sites found in intact nuclei. It is still possible that the isolated chromatin and the Triton-treated nuclei contain some of the nuclear matrix and that it is actually the matrix which contains the specific binding sites for retinol. However, preliminary evidence indicates that the specific binding sites remain with a soluble chromatin preparation prepared by mild nuclease digest of nuclei rather than with the nuclear matrix. That the CRBP is necessary for delivering retinol to the nucleus is clearly documented by autoradiography. Free retinol, not bound to CRBP, binds nonspecifically to the nuclei, and to chromatin, and autoradiography shows indiscriminate localization of retinol in the lipid-rich nuclear membrane areas.

The data presented here invite the proposal that the retinolCRBP complex enters the nucleus in some manner which is apparently not dependent on the nuclear membrane. The complex then recognizes a limited number (generally an order of magnitude greater than for steroid hormones) of specific sites on the chromatin where the transfer of retinol from CRBP to these sites takes place. The sites were not detectable and may not be accessible if the retinol is free from CRBP. After the transfer CRBP does not remain associated with the specific sites . The functional significance of the specific interaction between retinol and chromatin remains to be demonstrated .

Most New World primate (NWP) genera evolved to require high circulating levels of steroid hormones and vitamin D. We hypothesized that an intracellular vitamin D binding protein (IDBP), present in both nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions of NWP cells, or another protein(s) may cause or contribute to the steroid hormone-resistant state in NWP by disruption of the receptor dimerization process and/or by interference of receptor complex binding to the consensus response elements present in the enhancer regions of steroid-responsive genes. We employed electromobility shift assay (EMSA) to screen for the presence of proteins capable of binding to the vitamin D response element (VDRE). Nuclear and post-nuclear extracts were prepared from two B-lymphoblastoid cell lines known to be representative of the vitamin D-resistant and wild type phenotypes, respectively. The extracts were compared for their ability to retard the migration of radiolabeled double stranded oligomers representative of the VDREs of the human osteocalcin and the mouse osteopontin gene promoters. A specific, retarded band containing VDR-RXR was identified when wild type cell but not when vitamin D-resistant cell nuclear extract was used in the binding reaction with either probe. In addition, vitamin D-resistant cell nuclear extract contained a protein(s) which was bound specifically to the VDRE and was capable of completely inhibiting VDR-RXR-VDRE complex formation; these effects were not demonstrated with nuclear extract from the wild type cell line or with the post-nuclear extract of the vitamin D-resistant cell line. We conclude that a VDRE-binding protein(s), distinct from IDBP and present in nuclear extract of cells from a prototypical vitamin D-resistant NWP, is capable of inhibiting normal VDR-RXR heterodimer binding to the VDRE.

Recent attempts to increase vitamin D supplementation to prevent and treat chronic disease have arisen primarily out of observations of low vitamin D levels (25-D) being associated with a variety of diseases. However, new research indicates that these low vitamin D levels are often the result rather than the cause of the disease process, just as in the autoimmune disease, sarcoidosis. Trevor Marshall, PhD, recently summarized this alternative perspective on vitamin D, in a session he co-chaired at the 6th International Congress on Autoimmunity. He and his colleagues presented in silico* and clinical data from the last eight years, indicating that intraphagocytic bacteria are able to block the vitamin D receptor (VDR), and this leads to abnormally low measured vitamin D levels. A second consequence of the bacteria-induced VDR blockage is inhibition of innate immunity. By blocking the VDR, bacteria are able to cause persistent infection and inflammation and thus cause many chronic diseases. Short-term symptom reduction observed from vitamin D supplementation appears to be due to immune suppression by precursor forms of vitamin D that add to the bacterial blockage of the VDR. In silico data also indicates that high levels of vitamin D metabolites suppress antimicrobial peptide production by binding to other nuclear receptors (e.g., thyroid-alpha-1, glucocorticoid). Increasingly, epidemiological, geographical and clinical data are lending support to this model of disease. Studies using more advanced cell culture and molecular techniques are confirming the presence of previously undetected bacteria, including biofilm and cell wall deficient bacteria, as well as “persisters.” A greater understanding of how bacteria resist standard antibiotic approaches is also being gained. A protocol has been developed that is successfully restoring VDR and innate immune function with a VDR agonist and eliminating pathogens with low-dose, pulsed combinations of antibiotics. Immunopathological reactions (a.k.a., Jarisch-Herxheimer reactions) occur due to increased pro-inflammatory cytokines resulting from bacterial killing. The result is an exacerbation of symptoms with each dose of antibiotic, but improvement occurs over the long-term. Remission is being achieved in numerous chronic conditions, including many autoimmune diseases and fibromyalgia, as well as many diseases of aging. Although vitamin D ingestion is avoided as part of this protocol, the evidence indicates that the net result of the protocol is improved vitamin D receptor activation.

Introduction
Vitamin D is a topic of increasing interest and has been implicated in many physiological processes beyond its initially recognized role in calcium absorption and metabolism.1 Vitamin D is found in supplements and a few foods (e.g., fish, liver, egg yolk, fortified products). The majority of vitamin D is produced in the skin when exposed to UV radiation from sunlight. But some have begun advocating consumption of levels of vitamin D above the RDA, and some advocate very high levels, ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 IU or more daily.2 Vitamin D is a secosteroid, with a close resemblance in structure to immunosuppressive steroids. Levels of the various vitamin D metabolites are the result of complex feedback mechanisms involving multiple enzymes and receptors, indicating that it is regulated more like a steroid than a nutrient.1

Short-term symptom reduction has sometimes been observed through increases in sun exposure 3,4 or vitamin D supplementation.5 However, this appears to be due to the anti-inflammatory effect arising from immune suppression, analogous to the effect of a steroid, such as prednisone. If one were to assume that the inflammation is purely pathological, this might be considered beneficial, but evidence that has been accumulating over many decades indicates that inflammation in most chronic diseases is occurring in response to undetected chronic bacterial infection (see below). Since immune suppression can promote the increase of pathogens, the effect of vitamin D supplementation is not likely to be harmless in this situation, but appears to have long-term effects associated with increased levels of bacterial pathogens. The role of this microbiota in producing the inflammation and oxidative stress observed in so many diseases will be discussed near the end of this article.6-8

Vitamin D from food or sun is first converted to 25-D (25-hydroxyvitamin-D) and then converted in a second step to the active 1,25D form (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D) that is able to activate the vitamin D receptor (VDR). The type of vitamin D usually measured in the blood is the precursor form, 25-D, rather than 1,25-D, the form that activates the receptor. Activation of the vitamin D receptor is extremely important, as it has numerous effects, including effects on the immune system1 and cancer.9,10 However, recent research indicates that increasing vitamin D via supplementation or sun exposure is not the way to achieve more VDR activation in chronic disease, due to blockage of the VDR by bacterial products.6 This insight has been put to use in a new model of chronic disease and a new protocol.6,8,11-14

A New Perspective on Vitamin D and a New Treatment Approach

Trevor Marshall, PhD, (Murdoch University, Australia) has developed a model of chronic autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in which intraphagocytic bacteria cause disease by producing a substance that binds to and blocks the VDR.1 One such substance has been already identified providing proof of principle.1

The VDR is important for adequate innate immune function, including the production of numerous antimicrobial peptides.15

These include

cathelicidin and

beta-defensin,

two of the body’s own arsenal of internally produced antibiotics.

Thus, VDR blockage would seem to be an excellent bacterial strategy, as it would lead to poor innate immune system function and further growth of bacteria and other pathogens. A functioning VDR also appears to be important in controlling cell growth and metastasis, so as to help prevent and control cancerous growths.9,10

A protocol based on this model of disease has been achieving a high rate of improvement/remissions in a wide array of conditions.6,11-14,16-18 It involves the use of

a VDR agonist, olmesartan, which is able to activate the VDR effectively and safely.

In addition, low dosages of combinations of select pulsed antibiotics are used to eliminate the bacteria, which also helps restore VDR functioning. The protocol also involves avoidance of vitamin D supplementation. When faced with VDR dysfunction, the evidence indicates that

attempting to increase 25-D only adds to the dysregulation of the vitamin D metabolites without being able to adequately overcome the bacteria-induced VDR blockage.6,8

Too much vitamin D can be harmful in two ways, according to Marshall’s work.1,6

In silico data from highly sophisticated molecular modeling shows that high vitamin D levels can block the VDR and thus block innate immune function.18 In addition,

high levels of various vitamin D metabolites can affect thyroid-alpha-1, glucorticoid, and androgen receptors and disrupt hormonal control and further affect innate immune function.1

Thus, any short-term symptom reduction from high levels of vitamin D that may occur is probably occurring at the cost of long-term pathogen increase. This has been supported by observations of patient’s responses over time. In the short-term, even for ten years or more in some cases, the person may feel better with high vitamin D intake. But in the long-term, the chronic infection progresses, because the high 25-D is only adding to the bacterial blockage of the VDR and the suppression of bacterial killing.18

Symptoms increase when the immune system is better able to kill the pathogens, due to the high levels of inflammatory cytokine levels that occur. This is called the immunopathological reaction or Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction.6,11 The symptoms range from pain and fatigue to cognitive impairment and depression, but include numerous other symptoms characteristic of the underlying inflammatory condition.6,11 By suppressing the immune response, vitamin D supplementation may suppress these symptoms in the short-term and may even result in a sort of dependence on vitamin D supplementation or sun exposure to keep the symptoms at bay.

The long-term efficacy of the protocol (sometimes called the Marshall Protocol or MP) in activating the VDR is also supported by improved or stabilized bone density, which is typical in patients on the protocol, if the RDA of calcium is consumed. The protocol replaces vitamin D supplementation with use of the VDR agonist olmesartan (120 to 160 mg in divided doses) and reduces the level of bacteria blocking the VDR with antibiotics and, in this way, is apparently effective in activating the VDR.6,12

Marshall proposes that vitamin D receptor blockage results in the low levels of 25-D that have been observed in numerous diseases. The precursor, 25-D form is the form that is most frequently measured. The VDR blockage typically leads to dysregulation of metabolite levels, and one effect is down-regulation of the conversion of vitamin D to 25-D.1 Thus, according to this perspective, low 25-D levels are the result, not a cause, of the disease process. It follows that a low serum 25-D is not indicative of a true vitamin D deficiency in this situation. Both laboratory19 and clinical findings20 have supported the existence of an apparently similar type of down-regulation of conversion to 25-D.

At the same time that low 25-D is observed, high 1,25-D levels are also usually observed. In fact, elevated 1,25-D has been shown to be a good indicator of inflammatory and autoimmune disease.13,16 When interpreting the results, however, it should be remembered that samples must be frozen until analyzed for accurate 1,25-D results. And occasionally, in cases of quite advanced disease or elderly patients, 1,25-D will be low as well, yet still be consistent with VDR blockage and inflammatory disease.21

Marshall’s protocol was first used to treat sarcoidosis. It is well established that a dysregulation of vitamin D levels, often with very high 1,25-D and low 25-D, occurs in this condition.22 Marshall’s and other’s work has confirmed that this dysregulation also occurs in a wide range of other diseases.12,13,23,24 This pattern of high 1,25-D and low 25-D also exists in VDR knockout mice.25 These mice are genetically engineered to lack a VDR, a situation analogous to a bacteria-blocked VDR.

The very complex relationships among genes, metabolites, enzymes, and receptors that Marshall recently summarized1,6 show that vitamin D is not a mere nutrient. In fact, the active form is a secosteroid transcriptional factor. It is part of a highly regulated and complex system influencing many aspects of metabolism and immune function. There are several feedback and feedforward pathways that influence the levels of various vitamin D forms that Marshall reviewed in depth.1

Marshall was recently invited to co-chair a session on vitamin D at the 6th Annual International Autoimmunity Conference, and he gave one of the keynote presentations of the session.6 Several other presentations were given that support the protocol and model. For example, Perez presented data on treatment response in 20 autoimmune conditions that support Marshall’s model.11 The autoimmune diseases successfully treated in this open-label trial include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, diabetes type 1 and 2, psoriasis, Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Sjogren’s syndrome, scleroderma, uveitis, myasthenia gravis, and ankylosing spondylitis. Chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia were shown to respond to the protocol in another presentation.17 And another study indicated that dysregulation of nuclear receptors in the endometrium by vitamin D, along with chronic bacterial infection, can help explain the higher prevalence of some autoimmune diseases in women.26

Epidemiological and Short-Term Clinical and Experimental Data
The in silico and clinical data discussed above provide strong evidence for Marshall’s model, and some might argue it is more reliable than epidemiological and short-term evidence. It is widely recognized that there are many limitations inherent in epidemiological and short-term experimental data due to difficulties in obtaining relevant and accurate results. Confounding factors and the inability to assess the effects of long-term immune suppression from high levels of vitamin D make the results less reliable.13,21 Experiments using animal models have the problem of genetic differences and different disease causation methods.1,13Studies of supplementation are often not randomized and thus are subject to unknown confounding factors that may affect the choice to take vitamin D supplements.13 Furthermore, sun exposure is hard to quantify and is often left out of the analyses. Any of the above can lead to invalid conclusions.

Despite this, a number of recent studies that may be relevant will be discussed here to show that there is much independent support for Marshall’s model among these types of studies. In addition, some lesser-known aspects of some of the studies used to support a high vitamin D intake will be reviewed, which cast doubt on some of their conclusions.

Cancer and All-Cause Mortality
In the case of cancer prevention, a recent randomized controlled trial of calcium and vitamin D by Lappe et al.27 is used to support vitamin D supplementation. However, it has a number of serious limitations. One problem is the assumption that removing the data from the first year is justified. If one looks at Figure 1, in the article by Lappe et al,27 in which the data from the first year was included, there is very little difference between calcium and vitamin D vs. calcium alone throughout the study period. No group of patients was given vitamin D alone. Also, there is not yet long-term data on incidence, since the study lasted only four years. Any reduced incidence may reflect delay in diagnosis. In addition, long-term survival may not ultimately improve. In fact, patients taking vitamin D might even die sooner (see below). In addition to the above critique, a number of published comments have also taken issue with this trial, pointing to other problems and limitations.9,28

Another recent study29 reported finding barely significant lower cancer rates in premenopausal women (95% confidence interval, 0.42-1.0) who consumed more vitamin D. However, they found a marginally significant higher rate of moderately differentiated tumors in postmenopausal women who had higher vitamin D intake. And since postmenopausal women make up a much higher proportion of breast cancer cases, this is particularly concerning. This is just one example of the rather inconclusive, mixed data on vitamin D supplementation that becomes apparent when the vitamin D studies are looked at as a whole (see Discussion section in ref. 29). Even the benefit for premenopausal women is questionable. Bertone-Johnson et al.30 pointed out a quite plausible rationale for the existence of a bias toward low estrogen in those who choose to take vitamin D supplements.

A number of limitations found in the other studies are used as a basis for supporting vitamin D supplementation. For instance, the data is rarely long-term enough and rarely covers all the effects possible. Although there may be an appearance of benefit in the short-term or for subsets of the populations studied, a large, long-term prospective study showed no effect of 25-D on the overall cancer mortality rate in the long-term.31 Freedman et al.31 even showed a suggestion of a negative effect of higher vitamin D levels. There was a non-significant increase in overall mortality in the two groups with 25-D at higher levels (80 to <100 nmol/L: Risk Ratio = 1.21, 95% CI =0.83 to 1.78; =100 nmol/L: Risk Ratio = 1.35; 95% CI = 0.78 to 2.31, where 100 nmol/L corresponds to about 40 ng/ml).

This is in accord with a study in prostate cancer32 (also see discussion in ref. 21) and one in pancreatic cancer33 that found higher cancer rates when 25-D was high. Cancer rates increased among patients with a 25-D level above approximately 32 ng/ml. Evidence regarding solar radiation and geographical/latitudinal analyses are also used as evidence, yet solar radiation has many other effects besides raising 25-D.34,35 Many other relevant factors, such as pathogen distributions, climate effects on pathogen spread36,37 and host susceptibility,38 diet, and pollution levels also vary with geographical location.

It was recently pointed out in the Bulletin of the World Health Organization that high 25-D has been found to be associated with greater cancer risk in some studies.39 Studies mentioned, included one that found that there was a higher rate of many internal cancers in patients who have a type of skin cancer that is considered to be the best indicator of long-term sun exposure.40 Another study discussed failed to find a geographical pattern that would support a protective effect of increased 25-D.41 On the whole, in these epidemiological studies, the data is mixed and inconsistent, which is to be expected when there are so many unknown confounding factors affecting 25-D levels and disease incidence that may bias the results.13 In addition, a recent large prospective study presented evidence suggesting that circulating 25-D concentrations may be associated with increased risk of aggressive prostate cancer.42 For all types of prostate cancer, the data failed to support the hypothesis that higher vitamin D decreases prostate cancer risk.42

Studies looking at overall mortality benefits of vitamin D are sometimes misleading at first glance. In the large meta-analysis done recently on the effect of vitamin D and calcium on mortality rates,43 the abstract attributes reduced mortality to vitamin D, yet the only statistically significant results were for calcium together with vitamin D. Another serious problem is that most of the studies analyzed in the meta-analysis were only a few years in duration, so long-term effects on mortality and morbidity could not be accurately assessed.

Bone Density, Parathyroid Hormone
Another area that should be re-evaluated is the negative association between parathyroid hormone and 25-D levels. This association is often used to assert that high levels of 25-D (e.g., 40 –50 ng/ml or more) are optimal. Aloia et al.44 has pointed out that the studies that conclude these high levels of vitamin D are needed fail to require adequate calcium intake, and that is why such high levels are suggested. It should also be considered whether both low 25-D and high PTH are due to the disease process rather than the low 25-D causing the elevated PTH. In addition, only a small percentage of patients with low 25-D have elevated PTH. The low 25-D may be indicating a systemic chronic bacterial infection, and the abnormally high PTH levels in a small percentage of patients may merely be pointing to those cases in which bacteria have infected the parathyroid gland to a greater degree.

In a study comparing vitamin D supplementation with calcium supplementation,45“the effect of calcium on bone loss was blunted in subjects with the highest levels of serum 25OH vitamin D [25-D].” This last finding is supportive of Marshall’s in silico work indicating that high 25-D actually blocks the VDR.6,18 The largest meta-analysis so far clearly showed benefit from calcium supplementation; however, benefit for vitamin D was much less clear.46 No significant benefit for fracture risk was found when comparing vitamin D and calcium to calcium alone, though some differences were found between vitamin D levels.

Another factor that needs to be considered is whether immune suppression is the cause of bone density improvement when high vitamin D levels are used. Immunosuppressive drugs that lower TNF-alpha using antibodies can improve bone density by reducing inflammation.47 High levels of vitamin D supplementation can also lower TNF-alpha48 and suppress the immune response. Thus, it is possible that an increase in bone density from vitamin D supplementation could be the result of immune suppression via TNF reduction, rather than correction of a vitamin D deficiency. TNF-lowering drugs such as infliximab (Remicade) increase risk of cancer and tuberculosis. Thus, the desirability of improving bone density through immune suppression is questionable. This immunosuppressive effect of vitamin D may even explain what seems to be a beneficial effect on falls and muscle strength of elevating vitamin D through supplementation.21 This may be only a symptom reduction in the short-term and may be harmful in the long-term due to the immune suppression.

Autoimmune Disease
In the area of autoimmune disease, the data is equally mixed, and sometimes the larger, more recent studies fail to show any effect of vitamin D levels. For example, a recent large study failed to find an association between serum 25-D levels and the incidence of systemic lupus erythematosis and rheumatoid arthritis.49 Research has found that the average age at which patients acquired rheumatoid arthritis is 12 years earlier in Mexico than in Canada and pointed to the possible role of infectious agents in causing the disease.50 And clearly this study does not support the idea that sun exposure is beneficial for rheumatoid arthritis, since Mexico gets far more sun than Canada.

Although some studies in type 2 diabetes have indicated vitamin D supplementation may be preventive,51 these studies were not randomized and thus are subject to many known and unknown confounding factors affecting a parent’s decision to give a child supplemental vitamin D.13 And even if it were clearly established that vitamin D supplementation reduced the incidence of diabetes in infants and small children, that would not mean that it would help in established disease or older patients, nor would it necessarily mean it is the optimal way to achieve diabetes prevention and long-term health. The positive response of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients to the Marshall Protocol11 indicates research on the role of bacteria in diabetes should be a priority.

Influenza and Colds
It has been proposed that vitamin D levels’ decline in winter best accounts for the seasonality of colds and influenza52 and that this potentially supports the need for increased supplementation.52,53 However, new evidence indicates that changes in the viral coat properties can account for the seasonal outbreaks at higher latitudes.36,37 Effects on the airways in dry, cold climates also appear to increase susceptibility to viral and bacterial infections in winter and could contribute to higher winter prevalence of respiratory infections in cold climates.38

Another important point is that the patients being followed on the Marshall Protocol include a number of individuals who report that during the worst period of their chronic illness, they had few or no colds or flu-like illnesses, sometimes for many years at a time. And sometimes this low rate of colds was apparent even years before their illness. This has also been reported in Parkinson’s disease, with the decrease in viral respiratory infections also occurring several years before the disease was diagnosed.54 Thus, even if future research were to establish that vitamin D supplementation reduced colds and influenza, this is by no means an adequate argument for its use. The above observations in chronically ill patients indicate that observing a reduction in respiratory viral infections is not always a sign of good overall health.

Indications of Long-Term Negative Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation
Brannon et al.55 pointed out in a recent report from a roundtable discussion of vitamin D data needs that many studies so far have not yet adequately investigated potential negative consequences such as soft tissue calcification. Vitamin D has been implicated in arterial calcification in the past56 as well as other negative effects.13 The report by the roundtable of vitamin D experts expressed concern that many studies may be shortsighted with regard to adverse outcomes.55

A disturbing new study showed a highly significant correlation (p=0.007) between increased vitamin D intake from food and supplements and the volume of brain lesions shown by MRI in elderly adults.57 In the multivariable regression model, vitamin D intake retained its significant correlation with brain lesion volume even after the effects of calcium were statistically removed. However, calcium did not retain a significant independent correlation with the lesions when the study controlled for vitamin D. Thus, the analysis points to vitamin D supplementation as the key factor in higher lesion volume in this study. These types of brain lesions have been linked to adverse effects in many studies, e.g., stroke,58 psychiatric disorders,59,60 brain atrophy,61 and earlier death.62 Interestingly, the levels of vitamin D intake were not particularly high by some standards, with the highest intake estimated at 1015 mg daily (mean of 341 mg), about half coming from supplements and the rest from food.

The correlation between vitamin D intake and brain lesions seems to lend further support to Marshall’s work. In another study, the finding that over a three-year period, a small percentage of patients were found to have a slight regression of their brain lesions,63 leaves room for hope that the lesions are potentially reversible. Reversibility would be in accord with the improvement of depression and cognitive deficits and other neurological symptoms reported in patients on the Marshall Protocol.6,64

Elusive Bacterial Pathogens Are Detected with Improved Methods
Over many decades, researchers have reported evidence that hard-to-detect bacterial infections are the cause of many diseases,65,66 including autoimmune disease,65-68 cardiovascular disease,69-71 and even cancer.72-77 Some have noted the recent trend toward finding more infectious causes of disease and suggested this is likely to increase in the coming years.6,71,77-80

Recently, Barry Marshall received the Nobel Prize for discovering that the bacteria Helicobacter pylori causes ulcers. And it is now known that H. pylori is a causal factor in stomach cancer.77

New techniques using 16s ribosomal RNA shotgun sequencing,81,82 as well as more advanced culturing and observational techniques65,66,80,83-85 are suggesting that, up until now, most microbiologists have failed to detect a large percentage of potential disease-causing agents. “Persister” cells have been identified that escape antibiotic treatment.86 Cell wall deficient organisms have long been studied,65-66and just recently, advances have been made in understanding their structure and in culturing techniques.80 Research is also indicating that a bacterial biofilm-like microbiota of multiple species even exists within human cells.6,8

Bacteria that grow on a surface in a multi-species community, protected by both a biofilm and the combined effect of their individual resistance strategies, have been a growing area of research.79 Bacterial biofilms have been found to cause the non-healing ulcers in diabetics and may be successfully treated using novel approaches, thus reducing the need for limb amputation.88

Other examples of studies detecting unexpected bacterial pathogens include work linking pathogens in amniotic fluid to pre-term birth89 and research showing numerous previously undetected species in the biofilms that coat prosthetic hip joints.82 Many species of bacteria have been in wounds that were previously undetected using older techniques.81 Macfarlane et al.90 used a combination of more advanced techniques to study bacteria in biofilm communities in patients with Barrett’s esophagus, a pre-cancerous condition. Their methods revealed significant differences between patients and controls in the types and numbers of bacterial species, differences that were previously undetected using older techniques.

Increasingly, inflammation is observed in chronic diseases ranging from depression to cardiovascular disease and cancer.87 The above trends, when combined with observations of bacteria in numerous diseases6,13,65,66,71,91 and the success of the anti-bacterial protocol developed by Marshall6,8,11,13 suggest an extensive role for previously unidentified chronic bacterial infections.

Research is also supporting the ineffectiveness of most standard antibiotic protocols against these bacteria70 and suggesting why other approaches may work better. For instance, some antibiotics target cell walls, and this actually promotes the production of cell wall deficient forms of bacteria that resist many antibiotics.80 Furthermore, many antibiotics are known to inhibit phagocytosis and other aspects of the immune response when taken at high, constant dosages.92

The ability of bacteriostatic antibiotics such as clindamycin to be effective at low doses has been documented.93,94 The survival of “persister” cells mean that pulsed antibiotics are likely to be more effective.86 And fascinating investigations of biofilm communities have revealed many ways in which bacteria can resist antibiotics when used in traditional ways.95 The existence of communities of many bacterial species means that combinations of antibiotics are probably needed to be effective against all the species present. Thus, there is increasing support for the use of pulsed, low dosages of combinations of bacteriostatic antibiotics as used in the anti-bacterial protocol discussed here.

What is particularly encouraging is that the effectiveness of Marshall’s protocol in many systemic chronic disease indicates that these elusive pathogens do respond to select currently available bacteriostatic antibiotics when innate immune function is restored through restoring vitamin D receptor function.6,11 Not only do the bacterial infections appear to resolve, the evidence so far suggests that the improved immune response leads to reduced viral, fungal, and protozoal infections as well.

Conclusions
In silico and clinical data indicate that it is likely that associations between low vitamin D levels and chronic diseases are not evidence of deficiency, but result from a bacteria-induced blockage of the vitamin D receptor, leading to down-regulation of 25-D levels.1,6 According to this model of chronic disease, the short-term benefits sometimes perceived with high vitamin D levels are not due to correction of a vitamin D deficiency but due to suppression of bacterial killing and the immunopathological reaction that accompanies it. Data on reversal of a range of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases through an anti-bacterial protocol that includes vitamin D avoidance and a VDR agonist support this view.6,11

As discussed in detail above, it appears that increasing vitamin D supplementation is not the answer to these chronic diseases and is likely to be counter-productive. Other researchers have also raised concerns regarding vitamin D supplementation’s potential adverse effects. Potential dangers include increased aortic calcification55,56 and brain lesions shown by MRI57 (also see above). In addition, some studies have even found evidence of increased danger from cancer in association with higher levels of vitamin D.32,33,39,40,42

Many have been attracted to the area of vitamin D research, recognizing interesting patterns and responses to supplementation that at first seemed to indicate widespread deficiency and, at the very least, indicate that vitamin D plays a powerful role in physiological processes. Great strides have been made in the last 30 years by scientists with a range of perspectives, and this has led to great excitement and a laudable commitment to use that knowledge to help patients.

However, new genomic and molecular research and the positive response to a new anti-bacterial protocol that involves the avoidance of vitamin D indicate the need for a reappraisal of the data gathered so far. It appears that attempting to raise 25-D through vitamin D supplementation or sun exposure is not the right approach to many, if not most, common chronic diseases. Instead, as discussed above, the evidence supports the effectiveness of a new protocol in restoring vitamin D receptor function, which appears to be a crucial factor in recovery.

One of the most commendable attributes of a truly objective scientist is the willingness to be open to changing long-held positions in the light of new evidence. It will be interesting to see how many have this all-too-rare quality, as research and discussion of vitamin D and the VDR continues. It is to be hoped that the tremendous healing potential likely to be available from eliminating the pathogens that cause chronic disease will inspire an especially high level of open-minded discussion and cooperation.

Caution: The immunopathological reactions from killing the high levels of bacteria that have accumulated in chronically ill patients can be severe and even life-threatening, and thus the Marshall Protocol must be done very carefully and slowly, according to the guidelines.7,96 For the sake of safety, antibiotics must be started at quite low dosages, starting with only one antibiotic. Health care providers are responsible for the use of this information. Neither Autoimmunity Research, Inc., nor the author assume responsibility for the use or misuse of this protocol.

Note: Neither the author, Prof. Marshall, nor the non-profit Autoimmunity Research, Inc. have any financial connection with any product or lab mentioned with regard to the Marshall Protocol. The information needed to implement the Marshall Protocol is available free of charge fromwww.AutoimmunityResearch.org.

Vitamin D3 and Its Nuclear Receptor Increase the Expression and Activity of the Human Proton-Coupled Folate Transporter

Folates are essential for nucleic acid synthesis and are particularly required in rapidly proliferating tissues, such as intestinal epithelium and hemopoietic cells. Availability of dietary folates is determined by their absorption across the intestinal epithelium, mediated by the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT) at the apical enterocyte membranes. Whereas transport properties of PCFT are well characterized, regulation of PCFT gene expression remains less elucidated. We have studied the mechanisms that regulate PCFT promoter activity and expression in intestine-derived cells. PCFT mRNA levels are increased in Caco-2 cells treated with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (vitamin D3) in a dose-dependent fashion, and the duodenal rat Pcft mRNA expression is induced by vitamin D3 ex vivo. The PCFTpromoter region is transactivated by the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and its heterodimeric partner retinoid X receptor-α (RXRα) in the presence of vitamin D3. In silico analyses predicted a VDR response element (VDRE) in the PCFT promoter region −1694/−1680. DNA binding assays showed direct and specific binding of the VDR:RXRα heterodimer to the PCFT(−1694/−1680), and chromatin immunoprecipitations verified that this interaction occurs within living cells. Mutational promoter analyses confirmed that the PCFT(−1694/−1680) motif mediates a transcriptional response to vitamin D3. In functional support of this regulatory mechanism, treatment with vitamin D3 significantly increased the uptake of [3H]folic acid into Caco-2 cells at pH 5.5. In conclusion, vitamin D3 and VDR increase intestinal PCFT expression, resulting in enhanced cellular folate uptake. Pharmacological treatment of patients with vitamin D3 may have the added therapeutic benefit of enhancing the intestinal absorption of folates.

Folates are water-soluble B vitamins that act as one-carbon donors required for purine biosynthesis and for cellular methylation reactions. They are essential for de novo synthesis of nucleic acids, and thus for production and maintenance of new cells, particularly in rapidly dividing tissues such as bone marrow and intestinal epithelium (Kamen, 1997). Adequate dietary folate availability is especially important during periods of rapid cell division, such as during pregnancy and infancy. Folate deficiency has been associated with reduced erythropoiesis, which can lead to megaloblastic anemia in both children and adults (Ifergan and Assaraf, 2008). Deficiency of folate availability in pregnant women has been linked to neural tube defects, such as spina bifida, in children (Pitkin, 2007). This has prompted the application of folate supplementation schemes either as pills or via fortification of grain products with folates (Eichholzer et al., 2006). Folates have also been proposed to act as protective agents against colorectal neoplasia, although contradictory results have also been reported (Sanderson et al., 2007).

The availability of diet-derived folates is primarily determined by the rate of their uptake into the epithelial cells of the intestine, mediated by the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT, gene symbol SLC46A1), localized at the apical brush-border membranes of enterocytes (Subramanian et al., 2008a). PCFT is an electrogenic transporter that functions optimally at a low pH (Qiu et al., 2006;Umapathy et al., 2007). Despite being abundantly expressed in enterocytes, the second folate transporter, termed reduced folate carrier (RFC, gene symbolSLC19A1), has recently been shown not to play an important role in intestinal folate absorption (Zhao et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005).

In addition to its well known roles in regulating calcium homeostasis and bone mineralization, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (vitamin D3), the biologically active metabolite of vitamin D, executes many other important functions, particularly in the intestine. For example, vitamin D3 promotes the integrity of mucosal tight junctions (Kong et al., 2008). Many effects of vitamin D3 are mediated via its action as a ligand for the vitamin D receptor (VDR; gene symbol NR1I1), a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors (Dusso et al., 2005). VDR typically regulates gene expression by directly interacting with so-called direct repeat-3 (DR-3; a direct repeat of AGGTCA-like hexamers separated by three nucleotides) motifs within the target promoters, as a heterodimer with another nuclear receptor, retinoid X receptor-α (RXRα; gene symbol NR2B1) (Haussler et al., 1997). Genetic variants of VDR have been associated with inflammatory bowel disease (Simmons et al., 2000; Naderi et al., 2008). Similarly to folates, both VDR and its ligand vitamin D3 have been proposed to be protective against intestinal neoplasia (Ali and Vaidya, 2007). Dietary folate intake has been suggested to regulate gene expression of the components of the vitamin D system, possibly via epigenetic control through the function of folates as methyl donors (Cross et al., 2006). Several intestinally expressed transporter genes, such as those encoding the multidrug resistance protein 1 and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2, have recently been shown to be induced by vitamin D3 (Fan et al., 2009). We investigated whether vitamin D3 regulates the expression of the PCFT gene, encoding a transporter crucial for intestinal folate absorption. The human well polarized enterocyte-derived Caco-2 cells exhibit many of the characteristics associated with mature enterocytes and were used here to investigate the effects of vitamin D3 on PCFT gene expression and folate transport activity.

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Vitamin D3 regulates the expression of its target genes primarily by acting as an agonistic ligand for its DNA-binding nuclear receptor VDR, although nongenomic actions by vitamin D3 have also been described previously (Christakos et al., 2003;Dusso et al., 2005). VDR, an important regulator of differentiation and proliferation of enterocytes, typically activates gene expression by heterodimerizing with its nuclear receptor partner RXRα. VDR:RXRα heterodimers then directly bind to DR-3-like elements on the target genes. It should be noted that other modes of VDR-mediated regulation, either via direct interaction with other DNA-binding factors or through nongenomic actions, have also been reported (Dusso et al., 2005).

Here we demonstrate that VDR is a ligand-dependent transactivator of the humanPCFT gene, coding for a vital transporter for intestinal absorption of dietary folates. PCFT mRNA is also abundantly expressed in the liver (Qiu et al., 2006). However, VDR is expressed at very low levels in primary human hepatocytes or hepatocyte-derived cell lines (Gascon-Barre et al., 2003; data not shown), suggesting that VDR-mediated regulation of the PCFT gene may not occur in hepatocytes.

Endogenous PCFT mRNA levels were induced by vitamin D3 in a dose-dependent manner in Caco-2 cells (Fig. 1A). This increase was not further enhanced by cotreatment of cells with the RXRα ligand 9-cis retinoic acid (data not shown), consistent with a previous report that VDR:RXRα heterodimers, at least in some promoter contexts, may not respond to RXRα ligands (Forman et al., 1995). Alternatively, saturating levels of RXRα ligands may already be endogenously present in cells in these experimental conditions. In transient transfection assays, the PCFT promoter fragment −2231/+96 exhibited significant response to exogenous expression of VDR alone in the presence of its ligand (Fig. 2), most probably supported by endogenously expressed RXRα in Caco-2 cells.

Supporting the importance of the VDR:RXRα heterodimer formation for PCFTpromoter regulation, the luciferase values were further significantly elevated upon exogenous expression of RXRα. Exogenous expression of VDR in the absence of vitamin D3 did not notably influence the activity of the PCFT(−2231/+96) promoter, indicating ligand-dependence of VDR action. In deletional transfection analysis, the strongest induction in response to VDR and RXRα in the presence of their ligands was achieved with the PCFT(−2231/+96) promoter fragment (Fig. 3A). Induction of the shortest deletion variant tested [PCFT(−843/+96)luc] was approximately 50% of that achieved for the PCFT(−2231/+96), indicating that this more proximal region is likely to contain further DNA elements mediating a response to vitamin D3. However, in our current study, we focused on the distal region between the nucleotides −2231 and −1674 upstream of the transcriptional start site of the human PCFT gene, which confers maximal response to vitamin D3. In our computational analysis, we identified a putative VDRE within the PCFTpromoter region between nucleotides −1694 and −1680. We have not so far been successful in identifying further binding sites for the VDR:RXRα heterodimer in the more proximal region of the PCFT promoter. It may be that, in addition to direct DNA-binding to the PCFT(−1694/−1680) element identified here, VDR may also affect PCFT promoter activity indirectly, via interactions with other DNA-binding factors. For example, it has been proposed that the p27Kip1 gene is regulated by VDR via response elements for unrelated DNA-binding transcription factors Sp1 and NF-Y (Huang et al., 2004).

Both endogenously expressed and recombinant VDR and RXRα bound to thePCFT(−1694/−1680) element specifically and as obligate heterodimers (Fig. 4). The interaction between VDR and this region of the PCFT promoter within living cells treated with VDR and RXRα ligands was confirmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation tests (Fig. 5). Heterologous promoter assays proved that thePCFT(−1694/−1680) element can function as an independent VDR response element. The significant decrease in VDR:RXRα-mediated induction upon mutagenesis of the PCFT(−1694/−1680) element confirmed that it is an important functional mediator of the effect (Fig. 6, A and B).

Although we observed vitamin D3-mediated increase of rat Pcft mRNA expression ex vivo (Fig. 1C), the rat Pcft promoter (chromosome 10; GenBank accession number NW_047336) exhibits no significant overall homology with the humanPCFT promoter over the proximal 3000-bp regions. This suggests that despite the divergence of the promoter sequences between human and rodent PCFT/Pcftgenes, the functional response to vitamin D3 is conserved.

The activation of PCFT gene transcription by VDR also translates into an increase in PCFT protein function. Vitamin D3 treatment of Caco-2 cells led to significantly increased uptake of folate across the apical membrane, in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 7). In keeping with the fact that PCFT strongly prefers an acidic milieu for its transport function (Qiu et al., 2006; Nakai et al., 2007; Unal et al., 2009), we only observed vitamin D3-stimulated transport activity at pH5.5, but not at neutral pH. These data strongly suggest that vitamin D3-mediated transcriptional activation of PCFT gene expression leads to an increase of PCFT transport function. Consistent with our model, mRNA expression of the other known folate carrier expressed in Caco-2 cells, RFC, which functions efficiently at neutral pH (Ganapathy et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004), was not affected by vitamin D3treatment (Fig. 1B). It has been reported that vitamin D3-induced gene expression increases as Caco-2 cells differentiate (Cui et al., 2009). Thus, our current findings on VDR-mediated regulation of PCFT expression provide a possible molecular mechanism for a prior observation that folate uptake into Caco-2 cells is enhanced upon confluence-associated differentiation (Subramanian et al., 2008b).

Our results suggest that intestinal folate absorption may be enhanced by an increase in dietary vitamin D3 intake. Food products are often supplemented with folates, because of their proposed beneficial health effects. Based on our current study, supplementation of vitamin D3 may enhance the intestinal absorption of folates. PCFT also transports the antifolate drug methotrexate (MTX) (Inoue et al., 2008; Yuasa et al., 2009) widely used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and cancer. MTX interferes with folate metabolism by competitively inhibiting the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. Our results may further suggest a potential mechanism to increase intestinal absorption of MTX via simultaneous treatment with vitamin D3, thereby affecting the bioavailability of MTX. Patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease are frequently on long-term treatment with calcium and vitamin D3 as a prophylaxis against osteopenia and osteoporosis (Lichtenstein et al., 2006). This patient group is frequently treated with folates (in the case of folate deficiency) or MTX (as a second-line immunosuppressant) (Rizzello et al., 2002). MTX therapy per se requires prophylactic administration of folates, and these patients often receive additional calcium/vitamin D3. Our current results may warrant a closer investigation into potential drug-drug interactions between pharmacologically administered vitamin D3, MTX, and folates. Taking into account the previous report that folates regulate the expression of genes involved in vitamin D3 metabolism, it may be that folate and vitamin D3 homeostasis are closely interlinked through such mutual regulatory interactions.

The innate immune response is the body’s first line of defense against and non-specific way for responding to bacterial pathogens.1 Located in the nucleus of a variety of cells, the Vitamin D nuclear receptor (VDR) plays a crucial, often under-appreciated, role in the innate immune response.

When functioning properly, the VDR transcribes between hundreds2 and thousands of genes3including those for the proteins known as the antimicrobial peptides. Antimicrobial peptides are “the body’s natural antibiotics,” crucial for both prevention and clearance of infection.4The VDR also expresses the TLR2 receptor, which is expressed on the surface of certain cells and recognizes foreign substances.

The body controls activity of the VDR through regulation of the vitamin D metabolites. 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-D) antagonizes or inactivates the Receptor while 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-D) agonizes or activates the Receptor.

Greater than 36 types of tissue have been identified as having a Vitamin D Receptor.5

Another component of the innate immune response is the release of inflammatory cytokines. The result is what medicine calls inflammation, which generally leads to an increase in symptoms.

Before the Human Microbiome Project, scientists couldn’t link bacteria to inflammatory diseases. But with the advent of DNA sequencing technology, scientists have detected many of the bacteria capable of generating an inflammatory response. All diseases of unknown etiology are inflammatory diseases.

Nuclear receptors and ligands

Nuclear receptors are a class of proteins found within the interior of cells that are responsible for sensing the presence of hormones and certain other molecules. A unique property of nuclear receptors which differentiate them from other classes of receptors is their ability to directly interact with and control the expression of genomic DNA. Some of the molecules (or ligands) which bind the nuclear receptor activate (agonize) it and some inactivate (antagonize) it.

It is commonly accepted that most ligands, approximately 95% to 98%, inactivate the nuclear receptors. Since the nuclear receptors play a significant role in the immune response, this factor alone may explain why so many drugs and substances found in food and drink are immunosuppressive.

Because the expression of a large number of genes is regulated by nuclear receptors, ligands that activate these receptors can have profound effects on the organism. Many of these regulated genes are associated with various diseases which explains why the molecular targets of approximately 13% of FDA approved drugs are nuclear receptors.6

Different cell types have different nuclear receptors. One of the nuclear receptors seen in immune cells is the Vitamin D Receptor (VDR). The VDR has two endogenous or “native” ligands, which are also the two main forms of vitamin D in the human body: 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-D) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-D). Non-native or exogenous ligands can also inactivate or activate a nuclear receptor, depending on its molecular structure.

Ligands compete to dock at nuclear receptors. When is a given kind of ligand such as 25-D as opposed to 1,25-D more likely to bind to the VDR? It depends. 1,25-D tends to be much less common than 25-D – by a factor of 1,000 or more – so it binds to the receptor much more infrequently. A greater concentration of a given molecule can displace competing molecules off the nuclear receptor. Affinity occurs in logarithmic fashion, which is to say that it operates on the basis of a sliding scale. In short, an increase in 1,25-D and a decrease in 25-D can tilt the odds in favor of 1,25-D, and vise versa.

Affinity as well as the question of whether a ligand inactivates or activates a nuclear receptor can all be validated using in silicomodeling. Although less precise, it is also possible to measure these properties in vitro.

Activated by 1,25-D and inactivated by 25-D, the Vitamin D nuclear receptor (VDR) transcribes a number of genes crucial to the function of the innate immune response.

When activated by 1,25-D, the Vitamin D Receptor (also called the calcitriol receptor) transcribes thousands of genes.8 It is commonly known that the VDR functions in regulating calcium metabolism.9 It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that the clinically accepted role of the Vitamin D metabolites, that of regulating calcium homeostasis, is just a small subset of the functions actually performed by these hormones.

Transcription of antimicrobial peptides

One of the VDR’s key functions is the transcription of antimicrobial peptides.1011See below.

Other antimicrobial activity of the VDR

Additionally, when the VDR is activated, TLR2 is expressed.12 TLR2 is a receptor, which is expressed on the surface of certain cells and recognizes native or foreign substances, and passes on appropriate signals to the cell and/or the nervous system.

When activated TLR2 allows the immune system to recognize gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus1314Chlamydia pneumoniae15 and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.16 TLR2 also protects from intracellular infections such as Mycobacteria tuberculosis.17

Antimicrobial peptides

The antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), of which there are hundreds, are families of proteins, which have been called “the body’s natural antibiotics,” crucial for both prevention and clearance of infection. AMPs are broad-spectrum, responding to pathogens in a non-specific manner.18

For example, consider cathelicidin, a protein transcribed the VDR, which not unlike a Swiss Army knife, has many different functions. Because it can be differentially spliced, the cathelicidin protein itself can respond to a range of very different microbial challenges. In humans, the cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide gene encodes an inactive precursor protein (hCAP18) that is processed to release a 37amino-acid peptide (LL-37) from the C-terminus. LL-37 is susceptible to proteolitic processing by a variety of enzymes, generating many different cathelicidin-derived peptides, each of which has specific targets. For example, LL-37 is generated in response toStaphylococcus aureus, yet LL-37 represents 20% of the cathelicidin-derived peptides, with the smaller peptides being much more abundant and able to target even more diverse microbial forms.19

AMPs have been documented to kill bacteria and disrupt their function through the following modes of action:

In many cases, the exact mechanism by which antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria is unknown. In contrast to many conventional antibiotics including those used by the Marshall Protocol, AMPs appear to be bacteriocidal (a killer of bacteria) instead of bacteriostatic (an inhibitor of bacterial growth).

Two of the more significant families of AMPs are cathelicidin and the beta-defensins. Of these two families, cathelicidin is the most common.

The full extent by which microbes interfere with AMP expression is the subject of a rapidly growing body of research.202122

Antimicrobial peptides target fungi and viruses

The antimicrobial peptides play a role in mitigating the virulence of the virome and other non-bacterial infectious agents. In addition to its antibacterial activity, alpha-defensin human neutrophil peptide-1 inhibits HIV and influenza virus entry into target cells.23 It diminishes HIV replication and can inactivate cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, vesicular stomatitis virus and adenovirus.24 In addition to killing both gram positive and gram-negative bacteria, human beta-defensins HBD-1, HDB-2, and HBD-3 have also been shown to kill the opportunistic yeast species Candida albicans.25 Cathelicidin also possesses antiviral and antifungal activity.2627

In other words, there is a reason why this group of proteins are named antimicrobial peptides rather than antibacterial peptides.

Unexpected antimicrobial peptides

There are now several examples of substances believed to cause disease, which have since been proven to be part of host defense.

amyloid beta (amyloid-β) – In a seminal 2010 study, a team of Harvard researchers showed that amyloid beta – the hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease – can act as an antimicrobial peptide, having antimicrobial activity against eight common microorganisms, including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria.28 This led study author Rudolph E. Tanzi, PhD to conclude that amyloid beta is “the brain’s protector.” However, a 2010 study suggests that toxic levels of amyloid beta “dramatically suppresses VDR expression.” This suggests that overexpression of amyloid beta serves the interests of at least some microbes.29Read more.

certain human prion proteins

Evolutionarily conserved

The TLR2/1 and cathelicidin-vitamin D pathway has long played a “powerful force” in protecting the body against infection. This is evidenced by the fact that the Alu short interspersed element (SINE), which transcribes the vitamin D receptor binding element (VDRE), has been evolutionarily conserved for 55-60 million years, but not prior.30 The differences in this pathway between humans/primates and other mammals call into question animal models that try to emulate the vitamin D system and indeed the immune system.

Inflammation

Another component of the innate immune response is inflammation, the universal initial response of the organism to any injurious agent.31 Inflammation is a systemic physiological process fundamental for survival.32 The identification of bacteria and other pathogens triggers the release of inflammatory cytokines. These cytokines include interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB). Cytokines are regulatory proteins, such as the interleukins and lymphokines, that are released by cells of the immune system and act as intercellular mediators in the generation of an immune response. The result is what medicine calls inflammation, which generally leads to an increase in symptoms.

Th1/Th17 inflammation

One key type of inflammation is the Th1/Th17 (T-helper) inflammatory response. In the interests of concision, the Th1/Th17, on this site and others, the Th1/Th17 response is referred to as the Th1 response. This reaction occurs in response to intracellular pathogens, which according to the Marshall Pathogenesis, play a driving force in chronic disease.

All Th1 diseases are marked by an inflammatory response

Before the Human Microbiome Project, scientists couldn’t consistently link bacteria to inflammatory diseases. But with the advent of DNA sequencing technology, scientists have detected many of the bacteria capable of generating an inflammatory response. All diseases of unknown etiology are inflammatory diseases.

An inflammatory immune response—one of the body’s primary means to protect against infection—defines multiple established infectious causes of chronic diseases, including some cancers. Inflammation also drives many chronic conditions that are still classified as (noninfectious) autoimmune or immune-mediated (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease). Both [the innate and adaptive immune systems] play critical roles in the pathogenesis of these inflammatory syndromes. Therefore, inflammation is a clear potential link between infectious agents and chronic diseases.

While inflammation is associated with disease, inflammation often serves an invaluable role as the immune system fights off chronic pathogens. Numerous medications artificially suppress inflammation including anti-TNF drugs, interferon, corticosteroids, antifungals, and anti-pyreutics. While interfering with the inflammatory response typically reduces immunopathology and makes a patient feel less symptomatic in the near term, doing so allows the bacteria which cause chronic disease to proliferate.

The release of cytokines appears to be essential for recovery after an infection. One study found that the cytokine TNF-alpha – which is blocked by anti-TNF drugs – is necessary for the proper expression of acquired specific resistance following infection withMycobacterium tuberculosis.343536 Another effect of the use of TNF blockers is to break or reduce the formation of granuloma, one of the body’s mechanisms to control bacterial pathogens.37

Dihydroxyvitamin D3 is known to affect broad spectrum of various biochemical and molecular biological reactions in organisms. Research on the role and function of nuclear vitamin D receptors (VDR) playing a role as dihydroxyvitamin D3 inducible transcription factor belongs to dynamically developing branches of molecular endocrinology. In higher organisms, full functionality of VDR in the form of heterodimer with nuclear 9-cis retinoic acid receptor is essential for biological effects of dihydroxyvitamin D3. This article summarizes selected effects of biologically active vitamin D3 acting through their cognate nuclear receptors, and also its potential use in therapy and prevention of various types of cancer.

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Vitamin D family consists of 9,10-secosteroids which differ in their side-chain structures. They are classified into five forms: D2, ergocalciferol; D3, cholecalciferol; D4, 22,23-dihydroergocalciferol; D5, sitosterol (24-ethylcholecalciferol) and D6, stigmasterol (Napoli et al. 1979). The main forms are vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol: plant origin) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol: animal origin). Both 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2 have been evaluated for their biological functions. Vitamin D itself is a prohormone that is metabolically converted to the biologically active metabolite, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in kidney. This vitamin D3, currently considered a steroid hormone, activates its cognate nuclear receptor (vitamin D receptor or VDR) which alter transcription rates of the target genes responsible for its biological responses. In general, vitamin D is essential for mineral homeostasis, for absorption and utilization of both calcium and phosphate and it aids in the mobilization of bone calcium and maintenance of serum calcium concentrations. Through these function, it plays an important role in ensuring proper functioning of muscles, nerves, blood clotting, cell growth and energy utilization. It has been proposed that vitamin D is also important for insulin and prolactin secretion, immune and stress responses, melanin synthesis and for differentiation of skin and blood cells (Lips 2006). Vitamin D metabolites also play a role in the prevention of auto-immune diseases and cancer (Pinette et al. 2003; Dusso et al. 2005). The steroid hormone 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) exerts biological responses by interaction with both the well-characterized nuclear receptor (VDRnuc) responsible for activation gene transcription and not fully characterized membrane-associated protein/receptor (VDRmem) involved in generating a variety of rapid, non-genotropic responses (Evans 1988; Norman et al. 2002).

Vitamin D metabolism

Vitamin D, the “sunshine” vitamin, is synthesized under the influence of ultraviolet light in the skin. Many mammals have provitamin D (7-dehydrocholesterol) which is converted to provitamin D3 in their skin. When human skin is exposed to sunlight, the UV-B photons (wavelengths 290–315 nm) interact with 7-dehydrocholesterol causing photolysis and cleavage of the B-ring of the steroid structure, which upon thermoisomerization yields a secosteroid. Thus, provitamin D3 which is inherently unstable rapidly converts by a temperature-dependent process to vitamin D3 (MacLaughlin et al. 1982; Holick 1994). Vitamin D3 enters the blood circulation and binds to vitamin D binding protein (DBP) (Haddad et al. 1993) which carries vitamin D3 to liver and kidney for bioactivation (Wikvall 2001). In the first activation step, vitamin D3 is hydroxylated by the enzyme 25-hydroxylase to 25- hydroxyvitamin D3 mainly in the liver. This metabolite is present in the circulation at the concentration of more than 0.05 µmol/l (20 ng/ml). In the second step, the biologically active hormone 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is generated by hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 at 1α-position in kidney. The enzyme 1α-hydroxylase has been shown to be also present in keratinocytes and prostate epithelial cells, suggesting that those organs may also be able to generate 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 from 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Schwartz et al. 1998). The activity of 1α-hydroxylase in the kidney serves as the major control point in production of the active hormone. The active metabolite 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is present in human plasma at the concentration ranging from 0.05 to 0.15 nmol/l (20–60 pg/ml) (Hartwell et al. 1987; Gross et al. 1996). In general, 90 to 100% of the most human being vitamin D requirement comes from exposure to sunlight (Holick 2003) and the rest of the vitamin D3 content is obtained from diet (Malloy and Feldman 1999). The catabolism of vitamin D occurs by further hydroxylation of 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by 24-hydroxylase to yield 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. The 24-hydroxylase is ubiquitous enzyme and is expressed in all the cells expressing VDR. This enzyme is regulated by parathyroid hormone and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. The major significance of 24-hydroxylation is inactivation of vitamin D (Nishimura et al. 1994; Brenza and DeLuca 2000). The combinations of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 with inhibitors of 24-hydroxylase such as ketoconazole or liarozole may enhance its antitumour effects in prostate cancer therapy.

Vitamin D3 receptor

More than 2000 synthetic analogues of the biological active form of vitamin D, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, are presently known. Basically, all of them interfere with the molecular switch of nuclear 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 signalling, which is the complex of the VDR, the retinoid X receptor (RXR), and a 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 response element (VDRE) (Carlberg 2003).

The VDR was first isolated after trancfection of COS-1 cells with cloned sequences of complementary DNA that was isolated from human intestine (Baker et al. 1988). VDR has been found in more than 30 tissues including intestine, colon, breast, lung, ovary, bone, kidney, parathyroid gland, pancreatic β-cells, monocytes, keratinocytes, and many cancer cells, suggesting that the vitamin D endocrine system may also be involved in regulating the immune systems, cellular growth, differentiation and apoptosis (Jones et al. 1998). The active form of vitamin D binds to intracellular receptors that then function as transcription factors to modulate gene expression. Like the receptors for other steroid hormones and thyroid hormones, the VDR has specific hormone-binding and DNA-binding domains. It contains two zinc finger structures forming a characteristic DNA-binding domain (DBD) of 66 amino acids and a carboxy-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD) of approximately 300 amino acids, which is formed by 12 α-helices. Ligand binding causes a conformational change within the LBD, in which helix 12, the most carboxy-terminal α-helix, closes the ligand-binding pocket via a “mouse-trap like” intramolecular folding (Moras and Gronemeyer 1998). Moreover, the LBD is involved in a variety of interactions with nuclear proteins, such as other nuclear receptors, corepressor and coactivator proteins. These ligand-triggered protein-protein interactions are the central molecular event of nuclear 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 signalling.

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Role of vitamin D3 in cancer

Some of biologically active ligands for nuclear receptors exert tumour-suppressive activity, and they have therapeutical exploitation due to their antiproliferative and apoptosis-inducing effects (Brtko and Thalhamer 2003).

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During the last decade, evidence for vitamin D3 effects has been accumulating not only for prostate cancer (Feldman et al. 1995; Ma et al. 2004) but also for colon cancer (Cross et al. 1997; Bischof et al. 1998). 1α-hydroxylase was found to be Vitamin D and Cancer Treatment 347 expressed and active in colorectal cancer (Bareis et al. 2001; Cross et al. 2001; Tangpricha et al. 2001; Ogunkolade et al. 2002) and ovarian cancer (Miettinen et al. 2004). In both colon and also lung tumours, CYP24A1 mRNA was significantly up-regulated, while VDR mRNA was generally down-regulated when compared to respective normal tissues. When the level of VDR in 12 malignant colonic tumours was compared with that of adjacent normal tissue, in 9 cases out of 12, expression of VDR in tumours was decreased. However, in that study, the expression of CYP24A1 was not assessed. It has also been shown that, at least in human colon cancer cell lines, the level of VDR correlates with the degree of cell differentiation (Shabahang et al. 1993; Anderson et al. 2006).

Recently, it has been suggested that actually 20–30% of colorectal cancer incidence might be due to insufficient exposure to sunlight. This fact was strengthen by correlation between reduced colorectal cancer incidence and sunlight exposure, low skin pigmentation, nutritional vitamin D intake and high serum levels of 25- hydroxyvitamin D3 (Grant and Garland 2003). In the colon at least, CYP27B1 and VDR expression was described to be actually elevated during early tumour progression and that described dual positivity was found in many, but not all the tumour cells. In human colon tumours, CYP24 mRNA is quite highly expressed and the studies also demonstrated that with the exception of differentiated Caco-2 cells, CYP24 activity is constitutively present or can be induced by 1α,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3. During tumour progression in the colon, not only VDR but CYP27B1 and CYP24 expression were found to be increased in tumour tissues (Bareis et al. 2001; Bises et al. 2004).

Androgens, retinoids, glucocorticoids, estrogens and agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor directly or indirectly have reasonable impact on vitamin D signalling pathways, and vice versa. It was proposed that sex hormones might reduce colorectal cancer risk (McMichael and Potter 1980). The studies suggested that current and long-term use of estrogens is associated with a substantial decrease in risk of fatal colon cancer. The mechanism, however, by which estrogens could inhibit colonic tumour growth, remains an enigma. There are at least two distinct estrogen receptors in the human body: ERα and ERβ. In the normal human colon, ERβ is widely regarded to be the predominant subtype (CampbellThompson et al. 2001). In a recently terminated pilot study together with Strang Cancer Prevention Centre at Rockefeller University (NY, USA), tissues from postmenopausal women receiving 17β-estradiol for expression of CYP27B1 by real time RT-PCR were examined. CYP27B1 was found to be elevated significantly in all subjects after receiving 17β-estradiol for 4 weeks.

Transcription factor (TF) proteins are master regulators of transcriptional activity and gene expression. TF-based gene regulation is a promising approach for many biological applications; however, several limitations hinder the full potential of TFs. Herein, we developed an artificial, nanoparticle-based transcription factor, termed NanoScript, which is designed to mimic the structure and function of TFs. NanoScript was constructed by tethering functional peptides and small molecules called synthetic transcription factors, which mimic the individual TF domains, onto gold nanoparticles. We demonstrate that NanoScript localizes within the nucleus and initiates transcription of a reporter plasmid by over 15-fold. Moreover, NanoScript can effectively transcribe targeted genes on endogenous DNA in a nonviral manner. Because NanoScript is a functional replica of TF proteins and a tunable gene-regulating platform, it has great potential for various stem cell applications.

Transcription factor (TF) proteins are master regulators of transcriptional activity and gene expression. TF-based gene regulation is an essential approach for many biological applications such as stem cell differentiation and cellular programming, however, several limitations hinder the full potential of TFs.

To address this challenge, researchers in Prof. KiBum Lee’s group (Sahishnu Patel and Perry Yin) developed an artificial, nanoparticle-based transcription factor, termed NanoScript, which is designed to mimic the structure and function of TFs. NanoScript was constructed by tethering functional peptides and small molecules called synthetic transcription factors, which mimic the individual TF domains, onto gold nanoparticles. They demonstrated that NanoScript localizes within the nucleus and initiates transcription of a targeted gene with high efficiency. Moreover, NanoScript can effectively transcribe targeted genes on endogenous DNA in a non-viral manner.

NanoScript is a functional replica of TF proteins and a tunable gene-regulating platform. NanoScript has two attractive features that make this the perfect platform for stem cell-based application. First, because gene regulation by NanoScript is non-viral, it serves as an attractive alternative to current differentiation methods that use viral vectors. Second, by simply rearranging the sequence of one molecule on NanoScript, NanoScript can target any differentiation-specific genes and induce differentiation, and thus has excellent prospect for applications in stem cell biology and cellular reprogramming.

(Nanowerk News) Associate Professor Ki-Bum Lee has developed patent-pending technology that may overcome one of the critical barriers to harnessing the full therapeutic potential of stem cells.

One of the major challenges facing researchers interested in regenerating cells and growing new tissue to treat debilitating injuries and diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, and spinal cord trauma, is creating an easy, effective, and non-toxic methodology to control differentiation into specific cell lineages. Lee and colleagues at Rutgers and Kyoto University in Japan have invented a platform they call NanoScript, an important breakthrough for researchers in the area of gene expression. Gene expression is the way information encoded in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein molecule, which is integral to the process of tissue development through stem cell therapeutics.

Stem cells hold great promise for a wide range of medical therapeutics as they have the ability to grow tissue throughout the body. In many tissues, stem cells have an almost limitless ability to divide and replenish other cells, serving as an internal repair system.

Schematic representation of NanoScript’s design and function. (a) By assembling individual STF molecules, including the DBD (DNA-binding domain), AD (activation domain), and NLS (nuclear localization signal), onto a single 10 nm gold nanoparticle, we have developed the NanoScript platform to replicate the structure and function of TFs. This NanoScript penetrates the cell membrane and enters the nucleus through the nuclear receptor with the help of the NLS peptide. Once in the nucleus, NanoScript interacts with DNA to initiate transcriptional activity and induce gene expression. (b) When comparing the structure of NanoScript to representative TF proteins, the three essential domains are effectively replicated. The linker domain (LD) fuses the multidomain protein together and is replicated by the gold nanoparticle (AuNP). (c) The DBD binds to complementary DNA sequences, while the AD recruits transcriptional machinery components such as RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II), mediator complex, and general transcription factors (GTFs). The synergistic function of the DBD and AD moieties on NanoScript initiates transcriptional activity and expression of targeted genes. (d) The AuNPs are monodisperse and uniform. The NanoScript constructs are shown to effectively localize within the nucleus, which is important because transcriptional activity occurs only in the nucleus. (Reprinted with permission y American Chemical Society) (click on image to enlarge)

Transcription factor (TF) proteins are master regulators of gene expression. TF proteins play a pivotal role in regulating stem cell differentiation. Although some have tried to make synthetic molecules that perform the functions of natural transcription factors, NanoScript is the first nanomaterial TF protein that can interact with endogenous DNA.

“Our motivation was to develop a highly robust, efficient nanoparticle-based platform that can regulate gene expression and eventually stem cell differentiation,” said Lee, who leads a Rutgers research group primarily focused on developing and integrating nanotechnology with chemical biology to modulate signaling pathways in cancer and stem cells. “Because NanoScript is a functional replica of TF proteins and a tunable gene-regulating platform, it has great potential to do exactly that. The field of stem cell biology now has another platform to regulate differentiation while the field of nanotechnology has demonstrated for the first time that we can regulate gene expression at the transcriptional level.”

NanoScript was constructed by tethering functional peptides and small molecules called synthetic transcription factors, which mimic the individual TF domains, onto gold nanoparticles.

“NanoScript localizes within the nucleus and initiates transcription of a reporter plasmid by up to 30-fold,” said Sahishnu Patel, Rutgers Chemistry graduate student and co-author of the ACS Nano publication. “NanoScript can effectively transcribe targeted genes on endogenous DNA in a nonviral manner.”

Lee said the next step for his research is to study what happens to the gold nanoparticles after NanoScript is utilized, to ensure no toxic effects arise, and to ensure the effectiveness of NanoScript over long periods of time.

“Due to the unique tunable properties of NanoScript, we are highly confident this platform not only will serve as a desirable alternative to conventional gene-regulating methods,” Lee said, “but also has direct employment for applications involving gene manipulation such as stem cell differentiation, cancer therapy, and cellular reprogramming. Our research will continue to evaluate the long-term implications for the technology.”

Lee, originally from South Korea, joined the Rutgers faculty in 2008 and has earned many honors including the NIH Director’s New Innovator Award. Lee received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from Northwestern University where he studied with Professor Chad. A. Mirkin, a pioneer in the coupling of nanotechnology and biomolecules. Lee completed his postdoctoral training at The Scripps Research Institute with Professor Peter G. Schultz. Lee has served as a Visiting Scholar at both Princeton University and UCLA Medical School.

The primary interest of Lee’s group is to develop and integrate nanotechnologies and chemical functional genomics to modulate signaling pathways in mammalian cells towards specific cell lineages or behaviors. He has published more than 50 articles and filed for 17 corresponding patents.

Biologists have been enhancing expression of specific genes with plasmids and viruses for decades, which has been essential to uncovering the function of numerous genes and the relationships among the proteins they encode. However, tools that allow enhancement of expression of endogenous genes at the transcriptional level could be a powerful complement to these strategies. Many chemical biologists have made enormous progress developing molecular tools for this purpose; recent work by a group at Rutgers suggests how nanotechnology might allow application of this strategy in living organisms, and perhaps one day in patients.

In a paper published in ACS Nano, researchers led by KiBum Lee synthesized gold nanoparticles bearing synthetic or shortened versions of the three essential components of transcription factors (TFs), the proteins that “turn on” expression of specific genes in cells. Specifically, polyamides previously designed to bind to a specific promoter sequence, transactivation peptides, and nuclear localization peptides were conjugated to the nanoparticle surface. These nanoparticles enhanced expression of both a reporter plasmid (by ~15-fold) and several endogenous genes (by up to 65%). This enhancement is much greater than that possible using previous constructs lacking nuclear localization sequences; the team incorporated a high proportion of those peptides to ensure efficient delivery to the nucleus.

These nanoparticles offer an alternative to delivering protein TFs, which remains extremely challenging despite considerable effort towards the development of delivery systems that transport cargo into cells. Among other barriers to the use of native TFs, incorporating them into polymeric or lipid-based carriers often alters their shape, which would likely reduce their function.

While the group suggests future generations of these nanoparticles might one day be used to treat diseases caused by defects in TF genes, many questions remain. First, the duration of gene expression enhancement is not known; the study only assesses effects at 48 h post-administration. Further, whether gold is the best material for the core remains unclear, as its non-biodegradability means the particles would likely accumulate in the liver over time; synthetic TFs with biodegradable cores might also be considered.

Porous Ti6Al4V Scaffold Directly Fabricated by Sintering: Preparation and In Vivo Experiment
Xuesong Zhang, Guoquan Zheng, Jiaqi Wang, Yonggang Zhang, Guoqiang Zhang, Zhongli Li, and Yan Wang
Department of Orthopaedics, Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China AcademicEditor:XiaomingLi
The interface between the implant and host bone plays a key role in maintaining primary and long-term stability of the implants. Surface modification of implant can enhance bone in growth and increase bone formation to create firm osseo integration between the implant and host bone and reduce the risk of implant losing. This paper mainly focuses on the fabricating of 3-dimensiona interconnected porous titanium by sintering of Ti6Al4V powders, which could be processed to the surface of the implant shaft and was integrated with bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). The structure and mechanical property of porous Ti6Al4V was observed and tested. Implant shaft with surface of porous titanium was implanted into the femoral medullary cavity of dog after combining with BMPs. The results showed that the structure and elastic modulus of 3D interconnected porous titanium was similar to cancellous bone; porous titanium combined with BMP was found to have large amount of fibrous tissue with fibroblastic cells; bone formation was significantly greater in 6 weeks postoperatively than in 3 weeks after operation. Porous titanium fabricated by powders sintering and combined with BMPs could induce tissue formation and increase bone formation to create firm osseo integration between the implant and host bone.

Nanomaterials research has in part been focused on their use in biomedical applications for more than several decades. However, in recent years this field has been developing to a much more advanced stage by carefully controlling the size, shape, and surface-modification of nanoparticles. This review provides an overview of two classes of nanoparticles, namely iron oxide and NaLnF4, and synthesis methods, characterization techniques, study of biocompatibility, toxicity behavior, and applications of iron oxide nanoparticles and NaLnF4nanoparticles as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging. Their optical properties will only briefly be mentioned. Iron oxide nanoparticles show a saturation of magnetization at low field, therefore, the focus will be MLnF4 (Ln = Dy3+, Ho3+, and Gd3+) paramagnetic nanoparticles as alternative contrast agents which can sustain their magnetization at high field. The reason is that more potent contrast agents are needed at magnetic fields higher than 7 T, where most animal MRI is being done these days. Furthermore we observe that the extent of cytotoxicity is not fully understood at present, in part because it is dependent on the size, capping materials, dose of nanoparticles, and surface chemistry, and thus needs optimization of the multidimensional phenomenon. Therefore, it needs further careful investigation before being used in clinical applications.

Background – Cell membrane interactions rely on lipid bilayer constituents and molecules inserted within the membrane, including specific receptors. HAMLET (human α-lactalbumin made lethal to tumor cells) is a tumoricidal complex of partially unfolded α-lactalbumin (HLA) and oleic acid that is internalized by tumor cells, suggesting that interactions with the phospholipid bilayer and/or specific receptors may be essential for the tumoricidal effect. This study examined whether HAMLET interacts with artificial membranes and alters membrane structure.

Methodology/Principal Findings – We show by surface plasmon resonance that HAMLET binds with high affinity to surface adherent, unilamellar vesicles of lipids with varying acyl chain composition and net charge. Fluorescence imaging revealed that HAMLET accumulates in membranes of vesicles and perturbs their structure, resulting in increased membrane fluidity. Furthermore, HAMLET disrupted membrane integrity at neutral pH and physiological conditions, as shown by fluorophore leakage experiments. These effects did not occur with either native HLA or a constitutively unfolded Cys-Ala HLA mutant (rHLAall-Ala). HAMLET also bound to plasma membrane vesicles formed from intact tumor cells, with accumulation in certain membrane areas, but the complex was not internalized by these vesicles or by the synthetic membrane vesicles.

Conclusions/Significance – The results illustrate the difference in membrane affinity between the fatty acid bound and fatty acid free forms of partially unfolded HLA and suggest that HAMLET engages membranes by a mechanism requiring both the protein and the fatty acid. Furthermore, HAMLET binding alters the morphology of the membrane and compromises its integrity, suggesting that membrane perturbation could be an initial step in inducing cell death.

Melville, Ny—Tracey Corey Handy, M.D., Chief Medical Examiner of Kentucky, and Matthew Zarka, M.D., affiliated with the University of Vermont and the Fletcher Allen Health Center, were recognized as the 1999 winners of the “Unsung Heroes” Awards. The awards, sponsored by Olympus America Inc., a world leading manufacturer of microscopes, in cooperation with the College of American Pathologists (CAP), were presented at a ceremony during the Fall CAP Conference in New Orleans.

The awards are the first in the on-going “Unsung Heroes” program sponsored by Olympus for the purpose of increasing public awareness of the vital and often invisible role pathologists have in saving lives. In addition to their expertise with a microscope, pathologists are the doctors who ensure that clinical laboratory testing is reliable and that diseases are accurately diagnosed. They are on the front lines whenever the public is threatened with disease. Their role in forensic science is crucial in helping prevent people from falling prey to abuse or avoidable illness. As Dan Biondi, Olympus Senior Vice President, points out, “Olympus is committed to supporting the work of the world’s pathologists and to advocating an educated patient population.”

Dr. Tracey Corey Handy is recognized as an “Unsung Hero” for her role in upgrading the well-being of children as Kentucky’s Chief Medical Examiner. Along with several colleagues, Dr. Handy founded the state’s “Living Forensics” team in 1991. Since its inception, the team has consulted on more than 700 cases of suspected child abuse. This effort has led to an increased conviction rate of abuse perpetrators and helps to reduce further cases of child abuse. In addition, Dr. Handy has initiated a program of routine screening for metabolic defects apparent in victims of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), which has resulted in the correct diagnosis of conditions that would have otherwise been attributed to SIDS. Dr. Handy has also chaired the state’s first child mortality review group that has resulted in the initiation of prevention programs, particularly in the event of accidental child death. A frequent speaker and contributor of her expertise to organizations throughout the country, she also teaches forensic pathology and has been published in more than a dozen peer-reviewed journals and books.

Dr. Matthew Zarka is recognized as an “Unsung Hero” for his efforts in aiding the extremely poor Mexican-Indian population in the remote mountain regions of Oaxaca, Mexico. Over the last two years Dr. Zarka has volunteered his time and services to bring much needed medical care to these impoverished communities. He and his OB/GYN team have been setting up the very first clinics throughout the area, enjoining the coffee companies of Mexico to spread word of the clinics to the local population and to help transport patients to the clinics. After each female patient underwent a gynecological examination, Dr. Zarka stained and read her Pap test. When needed, more extensive evaluations, biopsies, treatment and counsel were provided. Overwhelmingly successful, Dr. Zarka’s outreaching medical mission has grown to include additional professional staff. By volunteering his time and expertise, Dr. Zarka provides the only real access most people of the region have to modern medical care. His contribution has undoubtedly saved lives that might otherwise have been lost.

Stanford University

Benjamin Pinsky, MD, PhD, Assistant Professor of Pathology and Medicine (Infectious Diseases) is the recipient of the 2014 Siemens Healhcare Diagnostics Young Investigator Award. This award “honors outstanding laboratory research in clinical microbiology or antimicrobial agents and is intended to further the career development of a young clinical scientist and promote awareness of clinical microbiology as a career.”

Stephen J. Galli, MD, Chair of Pathology, Professor of Pathology and Microbiology and Immunology, and the Mary Hewitt Loveless, MD Professor, is the recipient of the 2014 ASIP (American Society of Investigative Pathology) Rouse Whipple Award. This award is presented to a senior scientist with a distinguished career in research who has advanced the understanding of disease and has continued productivity at the time of this award.

Dr. Raffick Bowen, Clinical Associate Professor and Associate Medical Director of SHC’s Clinical Chemistry and Immunology Laboratory is the recipient of the American Association of Clinical Chemistry’s Outstanding Speaker Award for 2013. This award recognizes his achievement in earning a speaker evaluation rating of 4.5 or higher during a 2013 continuing education activity accredited by AACC. The title of Dr. Bowen’s presentation is “Implementation of Autoverification in a Clinical Chemistry Laboratory: Theory to Practice”

Richard Kempson, MD,

Emeritus Professor of Pathology, is the recipient of the 2014 United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology (USCAP) President’s Award. The USCAP President’s Award is given annually to recognize an individual for outstanding service to the field of pathology.

Dr. Kempson is richly deserving of this award. Dr. Kempson has not only contributed substantially to the surgical pathology literature, particularly in gynecologic and soft tissue pathology but also, with Dr. Ronald Dorfman, he trained a substantial percentage of this and the next generation’s academic and community leaders in surgical pathology.

Dr. Kempson’s affiliation with Stanford University began in 1968 when he and Dr. Ronald Dorfman were recruited to Stanford to develop a program in surgical pathology. In short order, they established an internationally recognized residency and clinical fellowship program which went on to train more than 275 pathologists in the art and science of diagnostic surgical pathology. Dr. Kempson developed a distinctive teaching style that emphasized precise diagnostic criteria, approaching diagnosis with a broad morphologic differential diagnosis, and most importantly, always highlighting the relevance to patient management of the morphologic distinctions being made.

Prior to his recruitment to Stanford, Dr. Kempson was an Assistant Professor of Pathology and Surgical Pathology at Washington University. Dr. Kempson served as an Associate Professor of Pathology at Stanford from 1968 to 1974 and a Professor of Pathology from 1974 to 2001. In addition to his academic duties, he served as Co-Director of Surgical Pathology from 1968 until 2001. He also has served as President of the Association of Directors of Surgical Pathology (1993-1995), the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology (1996) and the Arthur Purdy Stout Society (1996) and the California Society of Pathologists. The Richard Kempson, MD, Professorship in Surgical Pathology was established by the Department of Pathology in 2002 to honor him and his remarkable contributions to surgical pathology.

University of California, San Diego

A new era in diagnostics has emerged within the concept of Personalized Medicine. Imagine selecting cancer chemotherapy drugs based on knowledge of the precise mutations in a cancer. Can we predict who may have an adverse response to a medication based on that individual’s genetic blueprint? At UCSD, we are dedicated to making these resources available to our patients in the very near future. This is why we recently established the Pathology Center for Personalized Medicine. The goal of the Center is to conduct leading research necessary to form the foundation for advanced personalized medicine diagnostic testing and then to make this testing available in the CALM. For more information on the Center for Personalized Medicine, click here.

The research enterprise in Pathology at UCSD has grown dramatically in the past five years, and we are now amongst the top 15 programs in the country. Basic and translational research laboratories in the UCSD Pathology Department tackle important problems concerning cancer development and progression, angiogenesis, stem cell biology, neurodegenerative diseases, peripheral neuropathy, inflammation, infectious diseases, and wound healing. Our laboratories provide excellent environments for learning cell biology, molecular genetics, biochemistry, and animal physiology. Our faculty includes many active participants in the Biomedical Sciences (BMS) Graduate Program. For more information on this program, click here. We also have excellent opportunities for postdoctoral researchers. Please click here to visit our web page on summarizing the Pathology Department research enterprise. Then visit individual web pages for each of our faculty member to view specific research interests.

The Department of Pathology is home to both an outstanding Comparative Pathology and Medicine Program (for more information, click here) and the UCSD Research Ethics Program. We provide major educational support to the School of Medicine and the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. For further information on these training opportunities, click here.

The La Jolla/San Diego community is a fertile environment for research and the pharmaceutical industry. The Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, the Scripps Research Institute, the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, and the La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology house exciting scientific programs and provide for numerous scientific collaborations. We also boast a plethora of biotechnology companies, located nearby on the La Jolla mesa.

The overall theme and focus of the Department of Pathology is to elucidate the molecular basis and pathology of human disease. The faculty is comprised of basic, translational and physician scientists that utilize the latest techniques in genomics, proteomics, cell biology, molecular biology and physiology to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for a wide range of diseases, including cancer, neurological disease, microbial infection, and inflammatory disease.

Steven L. Gonias, M.D., Ph.D.

Our laboratory is interested in identifying and characterizing novel pathways by which proteases and their cell-surface receptors regulate cell physiology. We are particularly interested in the function of proteases in cancer but also have active projects related to peripheral nerve injury, Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular biology. One focus involves urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), a serine protease and plasminogen activator that binds with high affinity to a GPI-anchored receptor called uPAR. This event activates multiple cell-signaling pathways that affect cell migration, survival, and phenotype. We are actively working to elucidate mechanisms by which uPAR-initiated cell-signaling promotes cancer metastasis. We are particularly interested in breast cancer, but also work on prostate cancer and cancers of the central nervous system.

The complex of uPA with its inhibitor, PAI-1, is a ligand for a receptor called LRP-1. LRP-1 also is the receptor for other ligands, including extracellular matrix proteins, growth factors and foreign toxins. Our laboratory elucidated a pathway in which LRP-1 regulates cell-signaling indirectly, by regulating the cell-surface level of uPAR. However, recent studies suggest that LRP-1 also directly regulates cell-signaling by binding adaptor proteins, such as Shc and JIP. By this mechanism, LRP-1 regulates cell survival and gene transcription. Our current re­search is aimed at determining the role of LRP-1 in cancer and peripheral nerve injury, using in vitro and in vivomodel systems. Using proteomics approaches, we also are actively investigating the ability of LRP-1 to model the composition of the plasma membrane.

Our third area of focus concerns the plasma protease inhibitor, alpha2M. Our laboratory has demonstrated that this protein functions as a conformation-dependent carrier of growth factors. Alpha2M may also function in cell-signaling by binding to LRP-1. By site-directed mutagenesis, we have iso­lated and individually modified various functional sites in this multifunc­tional protein.

David Bailey, MD, PhD

David N. Bailey received his Bachelor of Science degree in Chemistry “with high distinction” from Indiana University and his Doctor of Medicine degree from Yale University. He completed a National Institutes of Health postdoctoral fellowship in Laboratory Medicine and a residency in Clinical Pathology, both at Yale, serving as Chief Resident in his final year. He is certified in Clinical Pathology and Chemical Pathology by the American Board of Pathology.

Dr. Bailey joined the University of California (UC) San Diego faculty in 1977 and served as Director of the Toxicology Laboratory of UC San Diego Medical Center (1977-2007), Head of the Division of Laboratory Medicine (1983-1989, 1994-1998), Acting Chair (1986-1988) and permanent Chair of the Department of Pathology (1988-2001), Director of the Pathology Residency Program (1986-1999), Director of Clinical Laboratories of UCSD Medical Center (1982-1999), Interim Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences and Dean of the UC San Diego School of Medicine (1999-2000 and 2006-2007), Deputy Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences (2001-2007), and Dean for Faculty & Student Matters in UC San Diego School of Medicine (2003-2007). From 2007 to 2009, he was Vice Chancellor for Health Affairs, Dean of the School of Medicine, and Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the University of California, Irvine.

Dr. Bailey was recognized by the Institute of Scientific Information as one of the world’s ten most cited authors in forensic sciences (1981-93). He received the Gerald T. Evans Award from the Academy of Clinical Laboratory Physicians and Scientists in 1993 for his leadership and service to the Academy. Dr. Bailey has served as President of the California Association of Toxicologists (1981-1982), President of the Academy of Clinical Laboratory Physicians and Scientists (1988-89), and Secretary-Treasurer of the Association of Pathology Chairs (1996-99). He has also served on the Chemical Pathology Test Development and Advisory Committee of the American Board of Pathology; the Editorial Boards of Clinical Chemistry, the Journal of Analytical Toxicology, and the American Journal of Clinical Pathology; the Doris A. Howell Foundation for Women’s Health Research Board of Directors; the Board of Directors of the George G. Glenner Alzheimer’s Family Centers, Inc.; the Board of Directors of the Children’s Hospital of Orange County; the Board of Directors of Children’s Healthcare of California; the Board of Directors of the Rady Children’s Hospital of San Diego; the Board of Directors of the Veterans Medical Research Foundation (San Diego); and the Executive Committee and Governing Board of the California Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology, among others.

David A. Herold, M.D., Ph.D.

My laboratory research interests are in the area of mass spectrometry application to clinical diagnostics. This includes prostaglandins, trace metal and steroids. Additionally, we has been involved in the development and validation of “classical” clinical chemistry diagnostic tests. The application of the mass spectrometry to determine the validity of endocrine tests, in particular testosterone, has been of particular interest. We have been using GC-MS, LC-MS, and MS-MS techniques for these investigations. At the present time, we are involved with the use of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry for the determination of calcium flux in serum and urine using 41Ca as a marker. The purpose of these studies is to better understand bone remodeling in normal and diseased patients. We have also investigated the use of microfluidics for the application to clinical diagnostics to measure selected proteins in a rapid and accurate manner.

The Cheresh laboratory focuses on the discovery of molecular pathways involved in the progression of cancer. Cheresh’s earlier work identified integrin αυβ3 as a biomarker of tumor angiogenesis and tumor progression, and was involved in the discovery of a drug called cilentigide which targets integrins αυβ3 and αυβ5.

The Cheresh laboratory has identified a series of critical microRNAs that regulate the growth of blood vessels. These microRNAs control the angiogenic switch that occurs during the earliest stages of tumor growth and neovascularization in the retina. As such one of these microRNAs may have therapeutic application as it is capable of maintaining blood vessels in the quiescent state.

Cheresh and colleagues have identified integrin αυβ3 as a biomarker of tumor stem cells during intrinsic or acquired resistance of a wide range of tumors including: cancer of the lung, pancreas, breast, and colon. Cheresh and his lab discovered that αυβ3 expression is both necessary and sufficient to account for tumor stemness and drug resistance based on its ability to drive a molecular pathway regulating these processes. This has led to the development of new therapeutic strategies to resensitize patients to drugs such as erlotinib and lapatinib that target EGFR.

The Cheresh laboratory has identified RAF kinase as an important target involved in tumor growth and angiogenesis. They have developed a new drug design strategy to target RAF and other relevant kinases by designing allosteric inhibitors of these targets. This is based on the use of defined chemical scaffolds to dock into an allosteric pocket on these kinases to render them inactive. The combined use of in silico and biological screening has yielded drugs with nM anti-tumor activity that produce strong anti-tumor growth in mouse models following once a day oral dosing. This approach appears to yield drugs that target tumors that are resistant to ATP mimetic inhibitors of RAF, Kit or PDGFR

John Lowe

Senior Director, Pathology

I joined Genentech in 2008 as Senior Director of Pathology, after having spent more than 18 years as an HHMI Investigator at the University of Michigan and then 3 years as Chair of Pathology at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine. The role of Senior Director of Pathology in Research at Genentech offered attractive opportunities to do research in an outstanding, disease-focused scientific environment, while also helping to lead the scientific and research support activities of the Pathology department. These latter efforts help Genentech continue to make a major positive difference to the health and well being of a large number of patients afflicted with cancer, autoimmune syndromes, neurodegenerative diseases and other illnesses for which therapies are unsatisfactory or nonexistent.

An exceptional team of pathologists, laboratory managers, scientific associates and administrative staff in the department collaborate with me in these efforts. Additional outstanding pathologists, scientists, and managers continue to be recruited to assist us in ensuring that the department performs at the highest level. Our task is made more straightforward by the environment at Genentech, which is characterized by exceptionally bright, motivated and collaborative colleagues at every level, spectacular facilities, and workplace philosophies that are conducive to the highest levels of achievement.

Postdoctoral Mentor

The opportunity to mentor postdoctoral fellows at Genentech has been a stimulating and gratifying experience for me. This derives in part from the freedom afforded by the program to pursue research directions that are deemed to be important and interesting, even if these have no immediate therapeutic relevance. The special mentoring experience also derives from extraordinary breadth and quality of the core laboratories at Genentech, and the spectacular intellectual environment. Together, these circumstances provide an unparalleled opportunity for postdoctoral fellows, and their mentors, to engage in biomedical discovery of the highest caliber.

Bisphosphonates and Bone Metastasis [6.3.1]

Curator: Stephen J. Williams, Ph.D.

General Structure of Bisphosphonates

One of the hallmarks of advanced cancer is the ability to metastasize (tumor cells migrating from primary tumor and colonize in a different anatomical site in the body) and many histologic types of primary tumors have the propensity to metastasize to the bone. One of the frequent complications occurring from bone metastasis is bone fractures and severe pain associated with these cancer-associated bone fractures. An additional problem is cancer-associated hypercalcemia, which may or may not be dependent on bone-metastasis. The main humoral factor associated with cancer-related hypercalcemia is parathyroid hormone–related protein, which is produced by many solid tumors (Paget’s disease). Parathyroid hormone–related protein increases calcium by activating parathyroid hormone receptors in tissue, which results in osteoclastic bone resorption; it also increases renal tubular resorption of calcium {see (1) Bower reference for more information). This curation involves three areas:

The Changing Views How Bone Remodeling Occurs

Early Development of Agents that Alter Bone Remodeling and Early Use in Cancer Patients

Recent Developments Regarding Use of Bisphosphonates in Cancer Patients

As there are numerous articles (1360; more than to manually curate) on “bone”, “metastasis” and “bisphosphonates” the following link is to a Pubmed search on the terms

Bone remodeling (or bone metabolism) is a lifelong process where mature bone tissue is removed from the skeleton (a process called bone resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process called ossification or new bone formation). These processes also control the reshaping or replacement of bone following injuries like fractures but also micro-damage, which occurs during normal activity. Remodeling responds also to functional demands of the mechanical loading.

In the first year of life, almost 100% of the skeleton is replaced. In adults, remodeling proceeds at about 10% per year.[1]

An imbalance in the regulation of bone remodeling’s two sub-processes, bone resorption and bone formation, results in many metabolic bone diseases, such as osteoporosis. Two main types of cells are responsible for bone metabolism: osteoblasts (which secrete new bone), and osteoclasts (which break bone down). The structure of bones as well as adequate supply of calcium requires close cooperation between these two cell types and other cell populations present at the bone remodeling sites (ex. immune cells).[4] Bone metabolism relies on complex signaling pathways and control mechanisms to achieve proper rates of growth and differentiation. These controls include the action of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, growth hormone, steroids, and calcitonin, as well as several bone marrow-derived membrane and soluble cytokines and growth factors (ex. M-CSF, RANKL, VEGF, IL-6 family…). It is in this way that the body is able to maintain proper levels of calcium required for physiological processes.

Subsequent to appropriate signaling, osteoclasts move to resorb the surface of the bone, followed by deposition of bone by osteoblasts. Together, the cells that are responsible for bone remodeling are known as the basic multicellular unit (BMU), and the temporal duration (i.e. lifespan) of the BMU is referred to as the bone remodeling period.

Early Development of Agents that Alter Bone Remodeling and Early Use in Cancer Patients

Bisphosphonates had been first synthesized in the late 1800’s yet their development and approval for the indication of osteoporosis occurred over 100 years later, in the 1990’s. For a good review on the history of bisphosphonates please see the following review:

Julia Draznin Maltzman, MD and Modified by Lara Bonner Millar, MD
The Abramson Cancer Center of the University of Pennsylvania
Last Modified: December 18, 2014

Introduction

Bone metastases are a common complication of advanced cancer. They are especially prevalent (up to 70%) in breast and prostate cancer. Bone metastases can cause severe pain, bone fractures, life-threatening electrolyte imbalances, and nerve compression syndromes. The pain and neurologic dysfunction may be difficult to treat and significantly compromises the patients’ quality of life. Bone metastases usually signify advanced, often incurable disease.

Osteolytic vs. osteoblastic

Bony metastases are characterized as being either osteolytic or osteoblastic. Osteolytic means that the tumor caused bone break down or dissolution. This usually results in loss of calcium from bone. On X-rays these are seen as holes called “lucencies” within the bone. Diffuse osteolytic lesions are most characteristic of a blood cancer called Multiple Myeloma, however they may be present in patients with many other types of cancer.

Osteoblastic bony lesions, by contrast, are characterized by increased bone production. The tumor somehow signals to the bone to overproduce bone cells and result in rigid, inflexible bone formation. The cancer that typically causes osteoblastic bony lesions is prostate cancer. Most cancers result in either osteolytic or osteoblastic bony changes, but some malignancies can lead to both. Breast cancer patients usually develop osteolytic lesions, although at least 15-20 percent can have osteoblastic pathology.

Why the bone?

The bone is a common site of metastasis for many solid tissue cancers including prostate, breast, lung, kidney, stomach, bladder, uterus, thyroid, colon and rectum. Researchers speculate that this may be due to the high blood flow to the bone and bone marrow. Once cancer cells gain access to the blood vessels, they can travel all over the body and usually go where there is the highest flow of blood. Furthermore, tumor cells themselves secrete adhesive molecules that can bind to the bone marrow and bone matrix. This molecular interaction can cause the tumor to signal for increased bone destruction and enhance tumor growth within the bone. A recent scientific discovery showed that the bone is actually a rich source of growth factors. These growth factors signal cells to divide, grow, and mature. As the cancer attacks the bone, these growth factors are released and serve to further stimulate the tumor cells to grow. This results in a self-generating growth loop.

What are the symptoms of bone metastasis?

It must be recognized that the symptoms of bone metastasis can mimic many other disease conditions. Most people with bony pain do not have bone metastasis. That being noted, the most common symptom of a metastasis to the bone is pain. Another common presentation is a bone fracture without any history of trauma. Fracture is more common in lytic metastases than blastic metastases.

Some people with more advanced disease may come to medical attention because of numbness and tingling sensation in their feet and legs. They may have bowel and bladder dysfunction – either losing continence to urine and/or stool, or severe constipation and urinary retention. Others may complain of leg weakness and difficulty moving their legs against gravity. This would imply that there is tumor impinging on the spinal cord and compromising the nerves. This is considered an emergency called spinal cord compression, and requires immediate medical attention. Another less common presentation of metastatic disease to the bone is high levels of calcium in the body. High calcium can make patients constipated, result in abdominal pain, and at very high levels, can lead to confusion and mental status changes.

Diagnosis of bone metastasis

Once a patient experiences any of the symptoms of bone metastasis, various tests can be done to find the true cause. In some cases bone metastasis can be detected before the symptoms arise. X-rays, bone scans, and MRIs are used to diagnose this complication of cancer. X-rays are especially helpful in finding osteolytic lesions. These often appear as “holes” or dark spots in the bone on the x-ray film. Unfortunately, bone metastases often do not show up on plain x-rays until they are quite advanced. By contrast, a bone scan can detect very early bone metastases. This test is done by injecting the patient with a small amount of radio-tracing material in the vein. Special x-rays are taken sometime after the injection. The radiotracer will preferentially go to the site of disease and will appear as a darker, denser, area on the film. Because this technique is so sensitive, sometimes infections, arthritis, and old fractures can appear as dark spots on the bone scan and may be difficult to differentiate from a true cancer. Bone scans are also used to follow patients with known bone metastasis. Sometimes CT scan images can show if a cancer has spread to the bone. An MRI is most useful when examining nerve roots suspected of being compressed by tumor or bone fragments due to tumor destruction. It is used most often in the setting of spinal cord compromise.

There are no real blood tests that are currently used to diagnose a bone metastasis. There are, however, a number of blood tests that a provider can obtain that may suggest the presence of bone lesions, but the diagnosis rests with the combination of radiographic evidence, clinical picture, and natural history of the malignancy. For example, elevated levels of calcium or an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase can be related to bone metastasis, but these lab tests alone are insufficient to prove their presence.

Treatment

The best treatment for bony metastasis is the treatment of the primary cancer. Therapies may include chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or treatment with monoclonal antibodies. Pain is often treated with narcotics and other pain medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Physical therapy may be helpful and surgery may have an important role if the cancer resulted in a fracture of the bone.

Bisphosphonates

Bisphosphonates are s category of medications that decrease pain from bone metastasis and may improve overall bone health. Bisphosphonates man-made versions of a naturally occurring compound called pyrophosphate that prevents bone breakdown. They are a class of medications widely used in the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis and certain other bone diseases (such as Paget’s Disease), as well as in the treatment of elevated blood calcium. These drugs suppress bone breakdown by cells called osteoclasts, and, can indirectly stimulate the bone forming cells called osteoblasts. It is for this reason, and for the fact that bisphosphonates are very effective in relieving bone pain associated with metastatic disease, that they have transitioned to the oncology arena. However, treatment of bone metastases is not curative. There is increasing evidence that bisphosphonates can prevent bony complications in some metastatic cancers and may even improve survival in some cancers. Most researchers agree that these drugs are more helpful in osteolytic lesions and less so in osteoblastic metastasis in terms of bone restoration and health, but the bisphosphonates are able to alleviate pain associated with both types of lesions. The appropriate time to start treatment is once a bone metastasis has been identified on imaging.

Bisphosphonates can be given either orally or intravenously. The latter is the preferred route of administration for many oncologists as it is given monthly as a short infusion and does not have the gastrointestinal side effects that the oral bisphosphonates have. There are currently two approved and commonly used IV bisphosphonates –Pamidronate disodium (Aredia, Novartis) and zolendronic acid (Zometa, Novartis). Their side effect profile is fairly mild and includes a flu-like reaction during the first 48 hours after the infusion, kidney impairment and osteonecrosis of the jaw with long term use. Patients with renal impairment may not be candidates for this therapy.

Bisphophonates may have some level of anti-tumor activity in breast cancer. A recent Phase III clinical trial revealed that the addition of Zometa to endocrine therapy, improves disease-free survival, but not overall survival, in pre-menopausal patients with estrogen-receptor postive early breast cancer. Another trial called AZURE found no effect from the bisphosphonate zolendronic acid (Zometa, Novartis) on the recurrence of breast cancer or on overall survival. However, several other studies on bisphosphonates and breast cancer are ongoing, and for now, their use is not recommended in patients without metastases.

In addition to bisphosphonates, osteoclast inhibition can also be achieved through other means. Another medication, Denosumab (XGEVA, Amgen), targets a receptor called receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), is able to block osteoclast formation. A few studies comparing Denosumab to bisphosphonates have found Denosumab results in a longer time to skeletal events, on the order of a few months, compared to bisphosphonates, however many experts believe that the evidence is not strong enough to support one class of drug over another. The most common side effects of Denosumab are fatigue or asthenia, hypophosphatemia, hypocalcemia and nausea. Patients receiving bisphosphonates or denosumab should also be taking calcium and vitamin D supplementation.

The future

Skeletal metastases remain one of the more debilitating problems for cancer patients. Research is ongoing to identify the molecular mechanisms that result in both osteolytic and osteoblastic bone lesions. Perhaps the use of proteomics and gene array data may permit us to identify some factors specific to the tumor or to the bony lesion itself that could be used as therapeutic targets to teat or even prevent this complication.

In summary

there is well established evidence in preclinical models that bisphosphonates:reduce the total tumor burden in bone

it is unclear as to the mechanisms of this preclinical finding as bisphosphonates have been shown to directly have antitumor activity

Accelerated bone loss is a common clinical feature of advanced breast cancer, and anti-resorptive bisphosphonates are the current standard therapy used to reduce the number and frequency of skeletal-related complications experienced by patients. Bisphosphonates are potent inhibitors of bone resorption, acting by inducing osteoclast apoptosis and thereby preventing the development of cancer-induced bone lesions. In clinical use bisphosphonates are mainly considered to be bone-specific agents, but anti-tumour effects have been reported in a number of in vitro and in vivo studies. By combining bisphosphonates with chemotherapy agents, growth and progression of breast cancer bone metastases can be virtually eliminated in model systems. Recent clinical trials have indicated that there may be additional benefits from bisphosphonate treatment, including positive effects on recurrence and survival when added to standard endocrine therapy. Whereas the ability of bisphosphonates to reduce cancer-induced bone disease is well established, their potential direct anti-tumour effect remain controversial. Ongoing clinical trials will establish whether bisphosphonates can inhibit the development of bone metastases in high-risk breast cancer patients. This review summarizes the main studies that have investigated the effects of bisphosphonates, alone and in combination with other anti-cancer agents, using in vivo model systems of breast cancer bone metastases. We also give an overview of the use of bisphosphonates in the treatment of breast cancer, including examples of key clinical trials. The potential side effects and future clinical applications of bisphosphonates will be outlined.

ALEXANDRIA, Va. – The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) today issued an update to its clinical practice guideline on the use of bone-modifying agents, in particular, osteoclast inhibitors, to prevent and treat skeletal complications from bone metastases in patients with metastatic breast cancer. The new guideline includes recommendations on the use of a new drug option, denosumab (Xgeva), and addresses osteonecrosis of the jaw, an uncommon condition that may occur in association with bone-modifying agents. The updated guideline also provides new recommendations on monitoring of patients who undergo treatment with bone-modifying agents and highlights priorities for future research on these drugs.

ASCO’s Bisphosphonates in Breast Cancer Panel conducted a systematic review of the medical literature to develop the new recommendations. The updated guideline, American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline Update on the Role of Bone-Modifying Agents in Metastatic Breast Cancer, was published online today in the Journal of Clinical Oncology.

The guideline recommends that patients with breast cancer who have evidence of bone metastases be given one of three agents – denosumab, pamidronate or zoledronic acid – approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. It does not support use of any one drug over the others. These drugs are all considered osteoclast inhibitors, but they belong to different drug families: pamidronate and zoledronic acid are part of a class of drugs called bisphosphonates, while denosumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa beta ligand (RANKL).

The guideline also recommends against initiating bone-modifying agents in the absence of bone metastases outside of a clinical trial. It notes that an abnormal bone scan result alone, without confirmation by a radiograph, CT or MRI scan, is not sufficient evidence to support treatment with these drugs.

“The updated recommendations take into account recent progress in controlling potential bone damage in metastatic breast cancer,” said Catherine Van Poznak, MD, co-chair of the Bisphosphonates in Breast Cancer Panel and assistant professor of medicine at the University of Michigan. “We’ve established that a growing number of osteoclast inhibitors can have a positive effect and decrease of the risk of skeletal-related events in women with bone metastases. Because many factors – including medical and economic – must be considered when selecting a therapy for an individual, it’s good to have several effective choices.”

Bone is one of the most common sites to which breast cancer spreads. Bone metastases occur in approximately 70 percent of patients with metastatic disease. These metastases can cause bone cells (osteoclasts) to become overactive, which can result in excessive bone loss, disrupting the bone architecture and causing skeletal-related events (SREs), such as fracture, the need for surgery or radiation therapy to bone, spinal cord compression and hypercalcemia of malignancy.

This document updates guideline recommendations that were first issued in 2000 and revised in 2003, and focused on the use of bisphosphonates. The current guideline uses the more inclusive term, bone-modifying agents, to reflect a wider category of therapeutic agents such as monoclonal antibodies that use different mechanisms of action to prevent and treat damage from bone metastases. The guideline notes that research remains to be conducted to address several areas where questions remain.

“The guideline considers new data in a variety of areas, including studies showing that denosumab has equivalent effectiveness compared with other currently available drug therapies,” explained bisphosphonates panel co-chair Jamie Von Roenn, MD, professor of medicine at Northwestern University. “The guideline also provides guidance on preventing a rare, but significant complication of therapy with bone-modifying agents, osteonecrosis of the jaw.”

Denosumab is a human monoclonal antibody that targets a receptor, RANKL, involved in the regulation of bone remodeling. The guideline cites evidence from a randomized Phase III trial showing that denosumab appears to be comparable to zoledronic acid in reducing the risk of SREs in women with bone metastases from breast cancer. Denosumab is given subcutaneously, and can have side effects such as hypocalcemia.

The guideline also addresses the recently discovered osteonecrosis of the jaw. The first reports of this degenerative condition were published in the medical and dental literature in 2003. The committee recommended that all patients with breast cancer get dental evaluations and receive preventive dentistry care before beginning treatment with bone-modifying osteoclast inhibitors.

The panel updated its recommendations regarding the effects of bisphosphonates on kidney function, particularly for those taking either pamidronate or zoledronic acid, which have been associated with deteriorating kidney function. It said that clinicians should monitor serum creatinine clearance prior to each dose of pamidronate or zoledronic acid according to FDA-approved labeling.

The panel did not recommend using biochemical markers to monitor bone-modifying agent effectiveness and use outside of a clinical trial.

While many of the 2003 recommendations remain the same, the guideline notes several research directions to be addressed, including:

Duration of therapy with bone modifying agents, and the timing or intervals between delivery.

The development of a risk index for SREs, and better ways to stratify patient risk of SRE or risk of toxicity from a bone-modifying agent. Individual risk may guide selection of timing for use of a bone-modifying agent therapy.

Trials specifically examining whether stage IV breast cancer patients who do not have evidence of bone metastases would benefit from bone-modifying agents.

The role of biomarkers in treatment selection and monitoring drug effectiveness.

Understanding the optimal dosing of calcium and vitamin D supplementation in patients treated with bone-modifying agents.

The meta-analysis from the Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group (EBCTCG) was published in Lancet and suggested that “Adjuvant bisphosphonates reduce the rate of breast cancer recurrence in the bone and improve breast cancer survival, but there is definite benefit only in women who were postmenopausal when treatment began”.

Results

Of 18, 206 women in trials of 2-5 years of bisphosphonate3453 first recurrences, and 2106 subsequent deaths.

This Study was reported at the 36th Annual San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium (SABCS): Abstract S4-07. Presented December 12, 2013 and Medscape Medical News journalist Kate Johnson covered the finding with author interviews in the following article:

“We have finally defined a new addition to standard treatment,” announced lead investigator Robert Coleman, MD, professor of oncology at the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom. He emphasized that, as hypothesized, the benefits of this therapy were confined to postmenopausal women.

“There is absolutely no effect on mortality in premenopausal women, with a hazard ratio [HR] of 1.0,” he reported. “But for postmenopausal women, we see a 17% reduction in the risk of death [HR, 0.83], which is highly statistically significant.”

In terms of the absolute benefit, bisphosphonates decreased the breast cancer mortality rate from 18.3% to 15.2% in postmenopausal women (P = .004).

The separation of benefit by menopausal status was also seen in the bone recurrence data.

In premenopausal women, there is no significant effect on bone recurrence (HR, 0.93), whereas in postmenopausal women, there was a 34% reduction. The difference was “highly significant,” said Dr. Coleman.

“I personally believe adjuvant bisphosphonates should be standard treatment in postmenopausal women with breast cancer,” said Michael Gnant, MD, professor of surgery at the Medical University of Vienna, who was one of the study investigators. He spoke during a plenary session before the results were formally announced. (Please click thisLINK to See VIDEO Interview with Dr. Gnant)

“This is an important analysis,” said Rowan Chlebowski, MD, PhD, medical oncologist from the Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles.

“There will be a substantial increase in the use of bisphosphonates,” he told Medscape Medical News after the presentation.

“The only question is whether people will accept this analysis as the final word.” Dr. Chlebowski explained that some people might criticize the study as being a post hoc analysis of previous findings.

“You might find some mixed feelings about whether this should be accepted, but I think this will get people thinking,” he said. Dr. Chlebowski previously reported a large observational study that demonstrated that postmenopausal women taking oral bisphosphonates for osteoporosis had a significantly lower risk for breast cancer.

Bisphosphonates were originally indicated for the treatment of osteoporosis, and include agents such as alendronate (Fosamax, Merck), ibandronate (Boniva, Genentech), risedronate (Actonel, sanofi-aventis), and zoledronic acid (Reclast, Novartis). But they are also indicated for bone-related use in breast cancer patients, Dr. Chlebowski pointed out.

Because bisphosphonates “also have an indication for preventing bone loss associated with aromatase inhibitor use, they are already approved in this setting, and would prevent recurrences. It will be interesting to see if guideline panels” like these findings, he noted.

Why Postmenopausal Women Benefit

In the plenary session, Dr. Gnant acknowledged that the data on bisphosphonates to date have been mixed.

There are “many trials showing controversial results” for bisphosphonates in the context of breast cancer, he said. “When we put them all together in an unselected population, some show beneficial effects and some do not.”

Dr. Gnant explained why bisphosphonates appear to be effective in older but not younger women. “When you confine your analysis to the low-estrogen environment, postmenopausal women, or women rendered menopausal by ovarian function suppression, we see that all these trials show a consistent benefit for these patients,” he said.

“Essentially, this low-estrogen hypothesis as a prerequisite for adjuvant bisphosphonate activity means that we believe these treatments can silence the bone marrow microenvironment. However, this only translates to relevant clinical benefits in low-estrogen environments,” he added.

The primary outcomes of the study were time to distant recurrence, local recurrence, and new second primary breast cancer (ipsilateral or contralateral), time to first distant recurrence (ignoring any previous locoregional or contralateral recurrences), and breast cancer mortality.

Planned subgroup analyses based on hypotheses generated from previous findings included site of recurrence, site of first distant metastasis, menopausal status, and type and schedule of bisphosphonate therapy, said Dr. Coleman.

With bisphosphonate therapy, there was a nonsignificant 1% reduction in breast cancer recurrence at 10 years in postmenopausal women, compared with premenopausal women (25.4% vs 26.5%), and “a small borderline advantage” for distant recurrence (20.9% vs 22.3%), he reported.

However, there was a significant benefit of bisphosphonates in bone recurrence in postmenopausal women (6.9% vs 8.4%; P = .0009), with no effect on nonbone recurrence.

There was no impact of bisphosphonates on local recurrence or cancer in the contralateral breast.

For distant recurrence, there was a 3.5% absolute benefit in postmenopausal women (18.4% vs 21.9%; P = .0003); for distant recurrence, there is was a significant improvement of 2.9% in bone recurrence (5.9% vs 8.8%; P < .00001).

There was no significant reduction in first distant recurrence outside bone, and risk reductions were similar, irrespective of estrogen-receptor status, node status, or use or not of chemotherapy.

“Adjuvant bisphosphonates reduce bone metastases and improve survival in postmenopausal women,” concluded Dr. Coleman. “We have statistical security in this result, with a 34% reduction in the risk of bone recurrence (P = .00001), and a 17% — or 1 in 6 — reduction in the risk of breast cancer death (P =.004).”

The analysis struck a clear line between pre- and postmenopausal women — something that was revealed in a subgroup analysis the AZURE trial, which Dr. Coleman was involved in (N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1396-1405).

Because of this, he was asked about the validity of basing the current analysis on the AZURE hypothesis-generating population.

“We repeated the analysis without the AZURE patients, because they are the hypothesis-generating population, and the P values and risk reductions did not change,” he explained.

Abstract

Bone is established as the preferred site of breast cancer metastasis. However, the precise mechanisms responsible for this preference remain unidentified. In order to improve outcome for patients with advanced breast cancer and skeletal involvement, we need to better understand how this process is initiated and regulated. As bone metastasis cannot be easily studied in patients, researchers have to date mainly relied on in vivo xenograft models. A major limitation of these is that they do not contain a human bone microenvironment, increasingly considered to be an important component of metastases. In order to address this shortcoming, we have developed a novel humanised bone model, where 1 × 10(5) luciferase-expressing MDA-MB-231 or T47D human breast tumour cells are seeded on viable human subchaodral bone discs in vitro. These discs contain functional osteoclasts 2-weeks after in vitro culture and positive staining for calcine 1-week after culture demonstrating active bone resorption/formation. In vitro inoculation of MDA-MB-231 or T47D cells colonised human bone cores and remained viable for <4 weeks, however, use of matrigel to enhance adhesion or a moving platform to increase diffusion of nutrients provided no additional advantage. Following colonisation by the tumour cells, bone discs pre-seeded with MDA-MB-231 cells were implanted subcutaneously into NOD SCID mice, and tumour growth monitored using in vivo imaging for up to 6 weeks. Tumour growth progressed in human bone discs in 80 % of the animalsmimicking the later stages of human bone metastasis. Immunohistochemical and PCR analysis revealed that growing MDA-MB-231 cells in human bone resulted in these cells acquiring a molecular phenotype previously associated with breast cancer bone metastases. MDA-MB-231 cells grown in human bone discs showed increased expression of IL-1B, HRAS and MMP9 and decreased expression of S100A4, whereas, DKK2 and FN1 were unaltered compared with the same cells grown in mammary fat pads of mice not implanted with human bone discs.

Actions of bisphosphonate on bone metastasis in animal models of breast carcinoma.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Bone, which abundantly stores a variety of growth factors, provides a fertile soil for cancer cells to develop metastases by supplying these growth factors as a consequence of osteoclastic bone resorption. Accordingly, suppression of osteoclast activity is a primary approach to inhibit bone metastasis, and bisphosphonate (BP), a specific inhibitor of osteoclasts, has been widely used for the treatment of bone metastases in cancer patients. To obtain further insights into the therapeutic usefulness of BP, the authors studied the effects of BP on bone and visceral metastases in animal models of metastasis.

METHODS:

The authors used two animal models of breast carcinoma metastasis that they had developed in their laboratory over the last several years. One model uses female young nude mice in which inoculation of the MDA-MB-231 or MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells into the left cardiac ventricle selectively develops osteolytic or osteosclerotic bone metastases, respectively. Another model uses syngeneic female mice (Balb/c) in which orthotopic inoculation of the 4T1 murine mammary carcinoma cells develops metastases in bone and visceral organs including lung, liver, and kidney.

RESULTS:

BP inhibited the development and progression of osteolytic bone metastases of MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma through increased apoptosis in osteoclasts and breast carcinoma cells colonized in bone. In a preventative administration, however, BP alone increased the metastases to visceral organs with profound inhibition of bone metastases. However, combination of BP with anticancer agents such as uracil and tegafur or doxorubicin suppressed the metastases not only in bone but also visceral organs and prolonged the survival in 4T1 mammary tumor-bearing animals. Of interest, inhibition of early osteolysis by BP inhibited the subsequent development of osteosclerotic bone metastases of MCF-7 breast carcinoma.

CONCLUSIONS:

These results suggest that BP has beneficial effects on bone metastasis of breast carcinoma and is more effective when combined with anticancer agents. They also suggest that the animal models of bone metastasis described here allow us to design optimized regimen of BP administration for the treatment of breast carcinoma patients with bone and visceral metastases.

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Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence, launched in April 2012 an Open Access Online Scientific Journal is a scientific, medical and business multi expert authoring environment in several domains of life sciences, pharmaceutical, healthcare & medicine industries. The venture operates as an online scientific intellectual exchange at their website http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com and for curation and reporting on frontiers in biomedical, biological sciences, healthcare economics, pharmacology, pharmaceuticals & medicine. In addition the venture publishes a Medical E-book Series available on Amazon’s Kindle platform.

Analyzing and sharing the vast and rapidly expanding volume of scientific knowledge has never been so crucial to innovation in the medical field. WE are addressing need of overcoming this scientific information overload by:

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This e-Book is a comprehensive review of recent Original Research on METABOLOMICS and related opportunities for Targeted Therapy written by Experts, Authors, Writers. This is the first volume of the Series D: e-Books on BioMedicine – Metabolomics, Immunology, Infectious Diseases. It is written for comprehension at the third year medical student level, or as a reference for licensing board exams, but it is also written for the education of a first time baccalaureate degree reader in the biological sciences. Hopefully, it can be read with great interest by the undergraduate student who is undecided in the choice of a career. The results of Original Research are gaining value added for the e-Reader by the Methodology of Curation.The e-Book’s articles have been published on the Open Access Online Scientific Journal, since April 2012. All new articles on this subject, will continue to be incorporated, as published with periodical updates.

We invite e-Readers to write an Article Reviews on Amazon for this e-Book on Amazon.

Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence, launched in April 2012 an Open Access Online Scientific Journal is a scientific, medical and business multi expert authoring environment in several domains of life sciences, pharmaceutical, healthcare & medicine industries. The venture operates as an online scientific intellectual exchange at their website http://pharmaceuticalintelligence.com and for curation and reporting on frontiers in biomedical, biological sciences, healthcare economics, pharmacology, pharmaceuticals & medicine. In addition the venture publishes a Medical E-book Series available on Amazon’s Kindle platform.

Analyzing and sharing the vast and rapidly expanding volume of scientific knowledge has never been so crucial to innovation in the medical field. WE are addressing need of overcoming this scientific information overload by:

delivering curation and summary interpretations of latest findings and innovations on an open-access, Web 2.0 platform with future goals of providing primarily concept-driven search in the near future

providing a social platform for scientists and clinicians to enter into discussion using social media