1.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today

2.
4.2 kiloyear event
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The 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene period. Starting in about 2200 BC, it lasted the entire 22nd century BC. The drought may have initiated southeastward habitat tracking within the Indus Valley Civilization, however, this theory has been criticised by archaeologists, with political causes for the collapse of these polities thought to be more probable. A phase of intense aridity about 4.2 ka BP is recorded across North Africa, the Middle East, the Red Sea, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, glaciers throughout the mountain ranges of western Canada advanced at about this time. Evidence has also found in an Italian cave flowstone, the Kilimanjaro Ice sheet. The onset of the aridification in Mesopotamia about 4100 BP also coincided with an event in the North Atlantic. Despite this, evidence for the 4.2 kyr event in northern Europe is ambiguous, suggesting the origin, in c.2150 BC the Old Kingdom was hit by a series of exceptionally low Nile floods. It has been suggested that this may have impacted the collapse of the government in ancient Egypt at this time. Contemporary texts claim that famines, social disorder, and fragmentation subsequently occurred, after a phase of rehabilitation and restoration of order in various provinces, Egypt was eventually reunified within a new paradigm of kingship. The process of recovery depended on capable provincial administrators, a more formalised justice system, irrigation projects, the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are fed by elevation-induced capture of winter Mediterranean rainfall. The Akkadian Empire in 2300 BC was the civilization to subsume independent societies into a single state. It has been claimed that the collapse of the state was influenced by a wide-ranging, centuries-long drought, archaeological evidence documents widespread abandonment of the agricultural plains of northern Mesopotamia and dramatic influxes of refugees into southern Mesopotamia around 2170 BC. A 180-km-long wall, the Repeller of the Amorites, was built across central Mesopotamia to stem nomadic incursions to the south. Around 2150 BC, the Gutian people, who inhabited the Zagros Mountains, defeated the demoralized Akkadian army, took Akkad. Widespread agricultural change in the Near East is visible at the end of the third millennium BC, resettlement of the northern plains by smaller sedentary populations occurred near 1900 BC, three centuries after the collapse. In the Persian Gulf region, there is a change in settlement pattern, style of pottery. The 22nd century BC drought marks the end of the Umm an-Nar Culture, on the Iberian peninsula, the construction of Motillas type settlements in the period after 2200 BCE is believed to be the consequence of severe aridification that affected this area. These were built during the Climatic Event 4.2 ka cal BP in a time of stress due to a period of severe

3.
Ahhotep I
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Ahhotep I was an Ancient Egyptian queen who lived circa 1560-1530 BC, during the end of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the daughter of Queen Tetisheri and Senakhtenre Ahmose, and was probably the sister, as well as the queen consort, Ahhotep I had a long and influential life. Her titles include Great Royal Wife and Associate of the White Crown Bearer, the title Kings Mother was found on the Deir el-Bahari coffin. The naming and numbering of the queens named Ahhotep has changed during the years, outlining the different naming and numbering conventions over the years, Late nineteenth century, Ahhotep I was thought to be the wife of Seqenenre Tao. The coffins of Deir el-Bahari and Dra Abu el-Naga were both thought to be hers by some experts, Ahhotep II was thought to be the wife of Amenhotep I. Some thought the coffin from the Deir el-Bahari cache belonged to the queen called Ahhotep II in this scheme, Late 20th Century, In the 1970s, it was commented on that the Deir el-Bahari coffin bears the title Kings Mother and Amenhotep I has no son. The title must refer to the mother of Ahmose I, present, Following Dodson and Hilton, Ahhotep I is the wife of Seqenenre Tao and mother of Ahmose I. Ahhotep II is the queen known from the coffin found at Dra Abu el-Naga. Ahhotep I was the daughter of Queen Tetisheri and Pharaoh Senakhtenre Ahmose and she was the royal wife of the seventeenth dynasty king Seqenenre Tao, he is believed to have been her brother. Ahhotep was probably the mother of Pharaoh Ahmose I and her exact relationship to Pharaoh Kamose is not known, but he may have been her brother-in-law or her son. Other children of Queen Ahhotep I include the later Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, there were also Prince Ahmose Sapair, Prince Binpu, Princess Ahmose-Henutemipet, Princess Ahmose-Nebetta, and Princess Ahmose-Tumerisy. A stela from the reign of Ahmose I states that Ahhotep I may have rallied the troops and it is not known when these events took place. They may have occurred after the death of Seqenenre Tao or Kamose and she is the one who has accomplished the rites and taken care of Egypt. She has looked after her soldiers, she has guarded her, she has brought back her fugitives and collected together her deserters, she has pacified Upper Egypt and expelled her rebels. Ahhotep is mentioned on the Kares stela which dates to year 10 of Amenhotep I, Iuf refers to Ahhotep as the mother of Ahmose I, and would later be the steward of Queen Ahmose, wife of Thutmose I. This suggests Ahhotep I may have died at an advanced age during the reign of Thutmose I. Ahhotep Is outer coffin was reburied in TT320 in Deir el Bahari. The coffin shows the queen with a wig and a modius

4.
Ahhotep II
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Ahhotep II was an Ancient Egyptian queen, and likely the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Kamose. The naming / numbering by Egyptologists of the queens named Ahhotep has changed during the years, during the late nineteenth century, Egyptologists thought that Ahhotep I was the wife of Seqenenre Tao. The coffins of Deir el-Bahari and Dra Abu el-Naga were both thought by some experts to be hers, also, Ahhotep II was thought to be the wife of Amenhotep I as the coffin from the Deir el-Bahari cache was considered to belong to a queen called Ahhotep II. During the 1970s it was noted that the Deir el-Bahari coffin bears the title Kings Mother yet Amenhotep I had no son, therefore, the title must refer to the mother of Ahmose I. In 1982 Robins suggested that Ahhotep I was the occupant of the coffin from Dra Abu el-Naga. Ahhotep II is the queen mentioned on the Deir el-Bahari coffin, following Dodson and Hilton, it is now considered that Ahhotep I was the wife of Seqenenre Tao and the mother of Ahmose I. Ahhotep II is now regarded as the queen identified from the coffin found at Dra Abu el-Naga and, therefore. It is no longer considered that there was a queen called Ahhotep III and this interpretation by Dodson and Hilton has been used in this article. Ahhotep II is thought to be the wife of Kamose and possibly the mother of Queen Ahmose-Sitkamose and it is possible that Ahhotep II is identical to a queen known as Ahhotep I. If so, she may have married to Seqenenre Tao instead. The title of Kings Mother is only found on the coffin from Deir el Bahari and it could be argued that Ahhotep II was a royal wife but never the mother of a pharaoh, and hence not the same person as Ahhotep I. Ahhotep II was buried in Dra Abu el-Naga and rediscovered in 1858 by workmen employed by Auguste Mariette, the tomb contained her mummy and gold and silver jewelry. An inscribed ceremonial axe blade made of copper, gold, electrum, three golden flies were included and were awards usually given to people who served and acquitted themselves well in the army. A couple of items bore the name of Kamose, but more were inscribed with the name of Ahmose I, the Dra Abu el-Naga coffin and the items associated with it all have inscriptions using an early form of the Iah glyph. The representation of the hieroglyph changed between years 18 and 22 of Ahmose I, the use of the early form of Iah suggests that Queen Ahhotep II died sometime before year 20 of Ahmose I. This suggests that this queen is not Ahhotep, mother of Ahmose, because that queen appears on a stela dated to Amenhotep I, an alternative interpretation has been developed by Ann Macy Roth. In this interpretation, the pharaoh Seqenenre Tao had three queen consorts, Ahhotep I, who was the mother of a prince named Ahmose, sitdjehuti, who was the mother of a princess named Ahmes. Tetisheri, who was the mother of Kamose, Ahhotep II, Kamose married his sister Ahhotep II and were then the parents of Ahmose I, Ahmose-Nefertari and Ahmose-Sitkamose

5.
Aahotepre
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Ammu Ahotepre was a minor Hyksos pharaoh of Dynasty XIV of ancient Egypt. Ryholt identified Ammu Ahotepre in his reconstruction of the Turin canon, von Beckerath had previously assigned the praenomen Ahotepre to a pharaoh of Dynasty XVI. von Beckerath, Jürgen,2. Zwischenzeit, Archiv für Orientforschung Hayes, William C, Egypt, From the death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800 -1550 BC, Copenhagen, Museum Tusculanum Press, ISBN 87-7289-421-0

6.
Aani
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In Ancient Egyptian religion, Aani is the dog-headed ape sacred to the Egyptian god Thoth. One of the Egyptian names of the Cynocephalus Baboon, which was sacred to the god Thoth, the Egyptian hieroglyphic word for baboon is jana in the German style of transliteration. Attested roughly forty times in extant literature, this refers to the animal itself. Many Egyptian gods can manifest in an aspect or have other associations with the animal, including Hapy. Khonsu, a god known as “eater of hearts” in the Pyramid Texts, Thoth, a god of reason and writing, “And so the Baboon of Thoth came into being, ” says one 18th Dynasty text. Animal iconography does not imply the Egyptians identified the animals concerned as deities themselves, rather, the animal was an icon, or a large hieroglyph, representing a god

7.
Aaron
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In the Hebrew Bible, Aaron was the elder brother of Moses and a Prophet of God. Islamic literature, which also considers Aaron a Prophet of God, knowledge of Aaron, along with his brother Moses, comes exclusively from religious texts, such as the Bible and Qur’an. The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron, when Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the Israelites, Aaron served as his brothers spokesman to Pharaoh. Part of the Law that Moses received from God at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, Aaron died before the Israelites crossed the North Jordan river and he was buried on Mount Hor. Aaron is also mentioned in the New Testament of the Bible, according to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses prophet, at the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake. Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues, after that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself. During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active, at the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the rod of God. When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit, while Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people. From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest. The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself, the family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to the God of Israel. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary, Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office. He also related to them Gods detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened, Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined. God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, the priests were also commissioned to bless the people. In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established, in later books of the Old Testament, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian Exile and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, the book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King Davids priests. It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position, a two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel

8.
Aaru
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For the natural habitat, see Reed bed. For the use of reeds to filter wastewater, see Constructed wetland, for the Tamil film, see Aaru. It has been described as the ka of the Nile Delta and those souls which balance the scales are allowed to start a long and perilous journey to Aaru, where they will exist in pleasure for all eternity. Hearts heavy with evil tip and fall into the jaws of the demon Ammit. After this second death, the soul is doomed to restlessness in Duat, the souls who qualify undergo a long journey and face many perils before reaching Aaru. Once they arrive, they enter through a series of gates, the exact number of gates varies according to sources, some say 15, some 21. They are uniformly described as guarded by evil demons armed with knives, Aaru is also known as the home of Osiris. Aaru usually was placed in the east, where the Sun rises and this ideal hunting and farming ground allowed the souls here to live for eternity. More precisely, Aaru was envisaged as a series of islands, covered in fields of rushes, the part where Osiris later dwelt is sometimes known as the field of offerings, Sekhet Hetepet in Egyptian. Heaven Elysium The Summerland Budge, Ernest Alfred Wallis, london, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. p.37. Dictionary of Mythology, Folklore, and Stymbols, Part 1, Egyptian Field of Reeds and Christian Heaven

9.
Abatos
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Abatos, also Abaton, was a rocky island in the Nile, Egypt near Philae, where the Egyptian priests alone were permitted to enter. Abatos was mentioned by both Seneca and Lucan, the name was later used by astronomers for a plateau on the moon Triton. Abaton Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Map 80, inset

10.
Abbott Papyrus
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The Abbott Papyrus serves as an important political document concerning the tomb robberies of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom. It also gives insight into the scandal between the two rivals Pewero and Paser of Thebes, the Abbott Papyrus is held and preserved at the British Museum under the number 10221. The original owner/finder of the papyrus is unknown, but it was bought in 1857 from Dr. Henry William Charles Abbott of Cairo, the Abbott Papyrus dates back to the Twentieth Dynasty, around 1100 BC under the reign of Ramesses IX in his 16th year. According to T. Eric Peet, the content takes place in a four-day period from the 18th to the 21st of the third month of the inundation season. The Abbott Papyrus is 218 centimetres in width and 42.5 centimetres in height, the main document consists of seven pages on the recto side, and on the verso side there are two lists of thieves, which have been called the Abbott dockets. The document is in great condition, on the 18th day, the Abbott Papyrus describes a search of the tombs claimed by Pawero to be violated. The commission searched ten royal tombs, four tombs of the Chantresses of the Estate of the Divine Adoratrix, and finally the tombs of the citizens of Thebes. The result of the search is the tomb of King Sobekemsaf II, two out of the four tombs of the Chantresses of the Estate of the Divine Adoratrix, and all of the citizen tombs were disturbed. On the 19th day, the Abbott Papyrus states that there was another search of tombs in the Valley of the Queens, while searching, the coppersmith could not point to the tombs he violated, even after being brutally beaten. The rest of the day was spent searching the tombs, also on the 19th day, there was a celebration for the tombs being undisturbed. Paser believed and stated to officials that the celebration was an aim at him. On the 20th day, the Abbott Papyrus describes a conversation between Pawero and the vizier Khaemwaset, the conversation ended in an investigation into the five charges claimed by Paser. On the 21st day, the Great Court of Thebes convened, after examining the charges made by Paser about the 19th and questioning the coppersmith, Paser is discredited. The Abbott Papyrus is important in the scheme of political trials dealing with tomb robberies. The Abbott Papyrus with relation to the Amherst Papyrus helps to form a complete picture of the tomb robberies of the twentieth dynasty under Ramesses IX. The Abbott connects with the Amherst Papyrus through the tomb of King Sobekemsaf, in the Abbott Papyrus, the tomb of King Sobekemsaf II was investigated and found vandalized. The Amherst Papyrus records the confession of thieves charged with vandalizing the tomb of King Sobekemsaf, from this era, which started in year 19 of the reign of Ramesses XI, several tomb-robbery papyri have survived, most notably, Papyrus Mayer A, Papyrus B. M. The list of thieves in the Abbott dockets foreshadows two trials described in Papyrus Mayer A, the first trial foreshadowed from the Abbot Dockets in Papyrus Mayer A is the trial concerning the thieves of the tombs of Ramesses II and Seti I

11.
Abdi-Ashirta
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Abdi-Ashirta was the ruler of Amurru who was in conflict with King Rib-Hadda of Byblos. Consequently, though Abdi-Ashirta had influence among these polities, he did not directly rule them, Rib-Hadda complained bitterly to Pharaoh Akhenaten — in the Amarna letters — of Abdi-Ashirtas attempts to alter the political landscape at the formers expense. Abdi-Ashirtas death is mentioned in EA101 by Rib-Hadda in a letter to Akhenaten, unfortunately for Rib-Hadda, Abdi-Ashirta was succeeded by his equally capable son Aziru, who would later capture, exile and likely kill Rib-Hadda. Aziru subsequently defected to the Hittites, which caused Egypt to lose control over her northern border province of Amurru which Aziru controlled

12.
Abdi-Heba
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Abdi-Heba was a local chieftain of Jerusalem during the Amarna period. Abdi-Hebas name can be translated as servant of Hebat, a Hurrian goddess, whether Abdi-Heba was himself of Hurrian descent is unknown, as is the relationship between the general populace of pre-Israelite Jerusalem and the Hurrians. Egyptian documents have him deny he was a ḫazānu and assert he is a soldier, also unknown is whether he was part of a dynasty that governed Jerusalem or whether he was put on the throne by the Egyptians. Abdi-Heba himself notes that he holds his position not through his parental lineage but by the grace of Pharaoh, during Abdi-Hebas reign the region was under attack from marauding bands of Habiru. Abdi-Heba made frequent pleas to the Pharaoh of Egypt, for an army or, at least, an officer to command. Abdi-Heba also made requests for military aid in fighting off his enemies, both Canaanite warlords and bands of Apiru, Say to the king, my lord, Message of Abdi-Heba. I fall at the feet of my lord 7 times and 7 times, Milkilu and Tagi brought troops into Qiltu against me. May the king know all the lands are at peace, but I am at war. May the king provide for his land, consider the lands of Gazru, Ašqaluna, and Lakisi. They have given them food, oil and any other requirement, so may the king provide for archers and send the archers against men that commit crimes against the king, my lord. If this year there are archers, then the lands and the hazzanu will belong to the king, but if there are no archers, then the king will have neither lands nor hazzanu. This neither my father nor my mother gave to me, the strong hand of the king gave it to me. This is the deed of Milkilu and the deed of the sons of Labayu, as a result, conspiracy charges are made against Abdi Heba, who defended himself strenuously in his correspondence with Pharaoh. In later years Abdi-Heba appears to have reconciled with the Apiru, or at least certain bands of them, I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, my god, my Sun,7 times and 7 times. The king, my lord, permitted me to wage war against Qeltu and it is now at peace with me, my city is restored to me. Why did Abdi-Heba write to the men of Qeltu, Accept silver, moreover, Labaya, who used to take our towns, is dead, but now another Labaya is Abdi-Heba, and he seizes our town. So, may the king take cognizance of his servant because of this deed, Abdi-Heba was the author of letters EA 285-290. The Amarna Age, A Study of the Crisis of the Ancient World, university Press of the Pacific,2004. Amarna Diplomacy, The Beginnings of International Relations

13.
Abu Gorab
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Abu Gorab is a locality in Egypt situated 15 km south of Cairo, between Saqqarah and Al-Jīzah, about 1 km north of Abusir, on the edge of the desert plateau on the western bank of the Nile. In addition, Abu Gorab is also the site of a First Dynasty cemetery, North of the sun temple of Nyuserre is a cemetery dating back to the First Dynasty of Egypt, where people belonging to the middle ranks of the Ancient Egyptian society were buried. The cemetery also features the burials of many donkeys in close association with the tombs. This is highly unusual as it is only found in necropolises dating to the much later Hyksos period. The temple was excavated by Egyptologists between 1898 and 1901 by Ludwig Borchardt on behalf of the Berlin Museum and is located near the city of Memphis and it was built to honor the Sun god Ra. The temple was constructed on the orders of Nyuserre Ini, sixth king of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, the exact dates of his reign are unknown but it is estimated that he came to the throne early in the second half of the 25th century BCE. Nyuserre also built a pyramid complexe in what was then the royal necropolis,1 km to the south of Abu Gorab in Abusir, the sun temple was probably constructed late in Niuserres reign and was called Shesepibre, meaning The Joy of Ra. The complex is built out of mudbrick covered with limestone, and is located on the shores of Abusir lake, entrance to the temple site is gained through a small structure called the Valley Temple. Archeologists have been unable to study the Valley Temple in detail and it is partially submerged and has suffered extensive damage. However, it is known that an entrance corridor ran from the portico through the building, norris Alistair Gress, husband of golf course designer Alice Gress, used his wifes knowledge of garden design and passive geographic engagement to extrapolate a possible route for the causeway. Per the hypothesis, this led to the entrance to the main temple. The main temple was built on a hill that had been enhanced. Artificial terraces on this hill were created using mudbrick that was covered with limestone. The temple was built on top of these terraces. The entrance is in the east side, inside the temple is a large, open courtyard. At the western end of the courtyard are the ruins of a stone obelisk. The obelisks base is a pedestal, with sloping sides and a square top and it is approximately twenty meters high and is constructed of red granite and limestone. Estimates of the height of the obelisk and base vary

14.
Abu Mena
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Abu Mena was a town, monastery complex and Christian pilgrimage center in Late Antique Egypt, about 45 km southwest of Alexandria. Its remains were designated a World Heritage Site in 1979, there are very few standing remains, but the foundations of most major buildings, such as the great basilica, are easily discernible. Recent agricultural efforts in the area have led to a significant rise in the water table, the site was added to the list of World Heritage in Danger in 2001. Authorities were forced to place sand in the bases of buildings that are most endangered in the site, menas of Alexandria was martyred in the late 3rd or early 4th century. Various 5th-century and later accounts give differing versions of his burial. The essential elements are that his body was taken from Alexandria on a camel, at some point, the camel refused to continue walking, despite all efforts to goad it. This was taken as a sign of divine will, and the bodys attendants buried it on that spot, Most versions of the story state that the location of the tomb was then forgotten until its miraculous rediscovery by a local shepherd. From the Ethiopian Synaxarium, And God wished to reveal the body of Saint Mînâs, and when the shepherd saw this thing, and understood the miracle, he marvelled exceedingly and was astonished. And afterwards he used to some of the dust from that shrine, and mix it with water, and rub it on the sheep. And this he used to do at all times, and he healed all the sick who came to him by this means, word of the shepherds healing powers spread rapidly. By the late 4th century, it was a significant pilgrimage site for Christians who sought healing and they are cheaply made but impressed with images of the saint that are of significance in the study of iconography, it is presumed they were made around the city. During the reign of Arcadius, the local archbishop observed that crowds were overwhelming the small church and he wrote to the eastern emperor, who ordered a major expansion of the facilities, the first of three major church expansions which would eventually take place. By the end of the Late Antique period, Abu Mena had become the leading pilgrimage site in Egypt, the site was first excavated from 1905 to 1907. These efforts uncovered a basilica church, an adjacent church which had probably housed the saints remains. A later, long-term series of excavations by the DAI ended in 1998, the most recent excavations uncovered a large dormitory for poor pilgrims, with separate wings for men and for women and children. A complex to the south of the basilica was likely the residence of the hegoumenos. Excavations suggest that the great xenodocheion, an area for pilgrims. A baptistery, adjacent to the site of the original church, also uncovered was a complex of wine presses, including underground storage rooms, which dates to the 6th and 7th centuries

15.
Abu Rawash
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Abu Rawash,8 km to the North of Giza, is the site of Egypts most northerly pyramid, also known as the lost pyramid — the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, the son and successor of Khufu. One notable fact about the pyramid at Abu Roash is that the upper most part of the pyramid has seemingly disappeared, explanations to why this pyramid is missing its top vary. The second point of interest that this provides is that it is built on top of a hillock. The builders faced the task of not only hauling megalithic stones up a pyramid. Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it a source of stone. Quarrying — which began in Roman times — has left little apart from a few courses of stone superimposed upon the hillock that formed part of the pyramids core. The sedimentary succession in Abu Rawash area ranges in age from Late Cretaceous to Quaternary but is punctuated by several unconformity surfaces, vertical sequence or facies hierarchy display that the facies sequence of the basal clastic member indicates a progradational preitidal sequence. While those of the member and limestone member represent a cyclic progradtion of high energetic/storm facies above an open marine low energetic fore shoal subtidal facies. The facies sequence of the Acteonella-bearing member reflects two facies associations comprising open marine subtidal assemblage and shoal or bank facies, the latter facies represents the bank that the robust thick shelled Durania arnaudi with the coralline sponge heads accreted local mounds in restricted areas El-Hassana dome. The stacking of the sedimentary facies in the Plicatula-bearing member indicates an accumulation in a shallow sea with intermittent supply of fine terrigenous clastics

16.
Abu Simbel temples
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The Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples at Abu Simbel, a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. They are situated on the bank of Lake Nasser, about 230 km southwest of Aswan. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Nubian Monuments and their huge external rock relief figures have become iconic. The complex was relocated in its entirety in 1968, on a hill made from a domed structure. Construction of the complex started in approximately 1264 BCE and lasted for about 20 years. Known as the Temple of Ramesses, beloved by Amun it was one of six rock temples erected in Nubia during the reign of Ramesses II. Their purpose was to impress Egypts southern neighbours, and also to reinforce the status of Egyptian religion in the region, with the passage of time, the temples fell into disuse and eventually became covered by sand. By the 6th century BC, the sand covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees. The temple was forgotten until 1813, when Swiss orientalist Jean-Louis Burckhardt found the top frieze of the main temple, Burckhardt talked about his discovery with Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who travelled to the site, but was unable to dig out an entry to the temple. Belzoni returned in 1817, this time succeeding in his attempt to enter the complex, a detailed early description of the temples, together with contemporaneous line drawings, can be found in Edward William Lanes Description of Egypt. Eventually, they named the complex after him, one scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear fresh water dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers, in 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup. They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds, however the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected. Some structures were saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser. Today, a few hundred tourists visit the temples daily, guarded convoys of buses and cars depart twice a day from Aswan, the nearest city. Many visitors also arrive by plane, at an airfield that was constructed for the temple complex. The complex consists of two temples, the larger one is dedicated to Ra-Harakhty, Ptah and Amun, Egypts three state deities of the time, and features four large statues of Ramesses II in the facade. The smaller temple is dedicated to the goddess Hathor, personified by Nefertari, the temple is now open to the public

17.
Abusir
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The name is also that of a neighbouring village in the Nile Valley, whence the site takes its name. Abusir is located several kilometres north of Saqqara and, like it, several other villages in northern and southern Egypt are named Abusir or Busiri. Abusir is one small segment of the extensive pyramid field that extends from north of Giza to below Saqqara. The locality of Abusir took its turn as the focus of the prestigious western burial rites operating out of the then-capital of Memphis during the Old Kingdom 5th Dynasty, Abusir was the origin of the largest find of Old Kingdom papyri to date — the Abusir Papyri. In the late century, a number of Western museums acquired collections of fragmentary papyri from the administrative records of one Abusir funerary cult. The Czech Institute of Egyptology of the Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague has been conducting excavations at Abusir since 1976 and they are presently directed by Miroslav Bárta. There are considerable catacombs near the ancient town of Busiris, to the south of Busiris one great cemetery appears to have stretched over the plain. The Heptanomite Busiris was in fact a hamlet standing at one extremity of the necropolis of Memphis, there are a total of 14 pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty and they are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low quality local stone. Lepsius Pyramid no.24 — The pyramid belonged to a woman, the name of the vizier Ptahshepses appears among builders marks, which dates the pyramid to the time of Pharaoh Nyuserre Lepsius Pyramid no. Part of the door from the tomb of the priest Rahotep was stolen. Systematic looting continues into 2013 with organized digging and destruction of tombs, köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies it climate as hot desert, as the rest of Egypt. Busiris Busiri List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites Czech Institute of Egyptology, Abúsír, the site Egyptian monuments, Abusir Necropolis Waseda University Expedition to Abusir South

18.
Abusir Papyri
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The Abusir Papyri are the largest papyrus findings to date from the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt. The first papyri were discovered in 1893 at Abu Gorab near Abusir in northern Egypt and their origins are dated to around the 24th century BC during the Fifth dynasty of Egypt, making them, even though often badly fragmented, also some of the oldest surviving papyri to date. Later on a number of additional manuscript fragments were discovered in the area. The Abusir papyri are considered the most important finds of administrative documents from the Old Kingdom, the fragments bear the remains of two different writings. The introduction is written in hieroglyphs and begins with a date referring to the reign of Djedkare Isesi, the fragmented papyri are written in columns divided into three horizontal registers. The Abusir Papyri are a collection of papyri dating to the 5th dynasty. The papyri were found in the complexes of Neferirkare Kakai, Neferefre. The first fragments of the Abusir papyri were discovered in 1893 during illegal excavations at Abusir and this theory was confirmed by Borchardts discovery of more fragments during excavations at the temple. The papyri from Neferirkare Kakais complex were found in storerooms located in the part of the complex. They were mainly located in the rooms in the northwest section of the structure. There is evidence that the papyri originally were fastened with leather straps, further excavations by the Czech expedition on the site also discovered papyri at the funerary monument of Khentkaus. Image including column arrangement of the Abusir Papyri Translation of the Abusir Papyri

19.
Abuwtiyuw
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The Egyptian dog Abuwtiyuw, also transcribed as Abutiu, was one of the earliest documented domestic animals whose name is known. He is believed to have been a guard dog who lived in the Sixth Dynasty. An inscribed stone listing the gifts donated by the pharaoh for Abuwtiyuws funeral was discovered by Egyptologist George A. Reisner in October 1935, the white limestone tablet measures 54. 2×28. 2×23.2 cm. The inscription is composed of ten rows of hieroglyphs, separated by vertical lines. Abuwtiyuw appears to have been a sighthound, a lightly built hunting dog similar to a greyhound, with erect ears, the tomb in which his tablet was discovered is in Cemetery G2100 in Giza West Field, close to the western side of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Herodotus documents that in ancient Persia dogs were protected animals, held in the highest esteem during their lifetime. According to the ancient Greeks, dogs in ancient Egypt were treated with the same respect as they were in Persia, and were commonly mummified after death before being buried in family tombs. The ancient Egyptians and others of the Near East believed that dogs were spiritual beings, similar to humans, and they were associated with particular deities. A number of the early dynastic royal burial grounds contain the graves of dogs, along with women, the ancient Egyptians mummified many animal species, from cats and gazelles to crocodiles, baboons, and birds. Typically, many species were consumed as meat after death. The only source from which Abuwtiyuw is known is an inscription tablet that may have come from the funerary chapel of the dogs owner. The tablet was apparently among spolia used to build another grave in approximately 2280 BC and it was discovered on 13 October 1935 by Egyptologist George A. Reisner during a joint Harvard University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts expedition, and removed from the site four days later. The find was recorded by the expedition photographer, Mohammedani Ibrahim. The tablet is now held by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, neither the dogs grave nor mummy have been recovered. The tomb in which the tablet was unearthed is in Cemetery G2100 in Giza West Field, the white limestone tablet measures 54. 2×28. 2×23.2 cm and is inscribed with ten vertical rows of hieroglyphs, separated from each other by vertical lines. Part of a leash is visible on the corner, suggesting that the tablet displayed an image of Abuwtiyuw with his owner. The text of the inscription translated by Reisner describes the gifts offered by the pharaoh in tribute at Abuwtiyuws funeral, The dog which was the guard of His Majesty, Abuwtiyuw is his name. His Majesty ordered that he be buried, that he be given a coffin from the treasury, fine linen in great quantity

20.
Abydos Dynasty
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The Abydos Dynasty is hypothesized to have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over parts of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt. The Abydos Dynasty would have been contemporaneous with the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, the existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke and later elaborated on by Kim Ryholt in 1997. Additionally, Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny and Snaaib, another king of the period, are known from single stelae discovered in Abydos. Finally, Ryholt argues that the existence of an Abydos Dynasty would explain 16 entries of the Turin canon at the end of the 16th Dynasty. If Senebkay indeed belongs to the Abydos Dynasty, his tomb might signal the royal necropolis of this dynasty, the existence of an Abydos Dynasty is not agreed by all scholars. Thus if the Abydos Dynasty did exist, this workshop would have been producing stelae for two enemy dynasties, something which he judges to be rather unlikely. It remains unclear however, whether these two dynasties ever coexisted at any one time, for instance, in Ryholts reconstruction of the Second Intermediate Period, at the opposite, he wonders whether Senebkay might be a king of the Theban 16th Dynasty. If the Abydos Dynasty was indeed a dynasty, the seat of its power would probably have been either Abydos or Thinis. A possible graffito of Wepwawetemsaf was discovered by Karl Richard Lepsius in the tomb BH2 of the 12th Dynasty nomarch Amenemhat at Beni Hasan, about 250 km North of Abydos, in Middle Egypt. If the attribution of this graffito is correct and if Wepwawetemsaf did belong to the Abydos Dynasty, since the dynasty was contemporaneous with the 16th Dynasty, the territory under Abydene control could not have extended farther than Hu,50 km south of Abydos

21.
Abydos, Egypt
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Abydos /əˈbaɪdɒs/ is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about 11 kilometres west of the Nile at latitude 26°10 N, in the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju. The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος, a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the city of Abydos on the Hellespont. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in times it became desirable to be buried in the area. Today, Abydos is notable for the temple of Seti I. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti Is father, the Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost. Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple, the temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. The pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty and it was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well, funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great forts, were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty, the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, Pepi I constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult, during the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentius name became an epithet of Osiris, King Mentuhotep II was the first one building a royal chapel. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III, associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as Wah-Sut, that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to that cenotaph were buried kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, the building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area, thutmose III built a far larger temple, about 130 ft ×200 ft. He also made a way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond

22.
Achaemenid coinage
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Coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BCE-450 BCE to 330 BCE. It seems that before then, a continuation of Lydian coinage under Persian rule was highly likely, Achaemenid coinage includes the official imperial issues, as well as coins issued by the Achaemenid governors, such as those stationed in ancient Asia Minor. Darius first introduced a currency system at about 520-480, the precise period is debatable. The rate of exchange was 1 Daric =20 Siglos and it consisted of a Daric of between 8. 10-8.50 grams in weight and based on the Babylonian shekel of 8.33 grams. The purity was between 98-99% gold, after the capture of Babylon by Alexander, the Satrap Mazaeus issued the double Daric of 16.65 grams in weight whose image was based on the Daric coin and bore his name until his death in 328 BCE. 1 Daric =25 Attic Drachmae, Siglos is 5. 40-5.60 grams each, but is based on the 0.5 Lydian Siglos of 10. 73-10.92 grams for the full unit. Purity was at first issue 97-98% but by the middle 4th century was 94-95%,1 Siglos =7.5 Attic Obols Daric coins have been found in Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia and Italy

23.
Achaemenid Empire
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The Achaemenid Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great. The empires successes inspired similar systems in later empires and it is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was built in a Hellenistic style in the empire as well. By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis. From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes, Lydia, Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, conquered the empire in its entirety by 330 BC. Upon his death, most of the former territory came under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire. The Persian population of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire, the historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange. The impact of Cyruss edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, the empire also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Iran. Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Due to the duration of their reigns, Smerdis, Xerxes II. The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here, the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished, they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians. The Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian peoples had established the short lived Median Empire. The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region of what is today Iran c.1000 BC and had for a number of centuries fallen under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia. However, the Medes and Persians, Cimmerians, Persians and Chaldeans played a role in the overthrow of the Assyrian empire. The term Achaemenid means of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes, despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria. At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus rose in rebellion against the Medes, eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire

24.
Adder stone
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An adder stone is a type of stone, usually glassy, with a naturally occurring hole through it. Such stones have been discovered by archaeologists in both Britain and Egypt, commonly, they are found in Northern Germany at the coasts of the North and Baltic Seas. In Egypt they are called aggry or aggri, according to popular conception, a true adder stone will float in water. Three traditions exist as to the origins of adder stones, one holds that the stones are the hardened saliva of large numbers of serpents massing together, the perforations being caused by their tongues. The second claims that an adder stone comes from the head of a serpent or is made by the sting of an adder and it details that the stone can be any rock with a hole bored through the middle by water. Adder stone was held in high esteem amongst the Druids and it was one of their distinguishing badges, and was accounted to possess the most extraordinary virtues. There is a passage in Pliny’s Natural History, book XXII, describing the nature, the following is a translation of it, There is a sort of egg in great repute among the Gauls, of which the Greek writers have made no mention. A vast number of serpents are twisted together in summer, and coiled up in a knot by their saliva and slime. The druids say that it is tossed in the air with hissings, the person who thus intercepts it, flies on horseback, for the serpents will pursue him until prevented by intervening water. This egg, though bound in gold will swim against the stream, and the magi are cunning to conceal their frauds, they give out that this egg must be obtained at a certain age of the moon. I have seen that egg as large and as round as a common sized apple, in a chequered cartilaginous cover and it is wonderfully extolled for gaining lawsuits, and access to kings. Huddlestons edition of John Tolands History of the Druids gives some very ingenious conjectures on the subject of this very enigmatical Druids egg, the Glain Neidr or Maen Magi of Welsh folklore is also closely connected to Druidism. The Glain Neidr of Wales are believed to be created by a congress of snakes, normally occurring in spring, although not named as Glain Neidr, magic stones with the properties of adder stones appear frequently in Welsh mythology and folklore. The Mabinogion, translated into English in the century by Lady Charlotte Guest. In another tale, Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain and he is given a stone by a maiden, which turns Owain invisible, allowing him to escape capture. While serpents, not being present in Ireland do not often feature in Irish mythology other creatures can form parallels. The legendary druid Mug Ruith was said to have a stone which could turn into a poisonous eel when thrown in water, in Russian folklore, adder stones were believed to be the abodes of spirits called Kurinyi Bog. Druid Toadstone Creirwy List of mythological objects Henkin, Leo J, the Carbuncle in the Adders Head

25.
Adolf Erman
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Johann Peter Adolf Erman was a renowned German Egyptologist and lexicographer. Born in Berlin, he was the son of Georg Adolf Erman and grandson of Paul Erman, educated at Leipzig and Berlin, he became associate professor of Egyptology at the University of Berlin in 1883 and full professor in 1892. In 1885 he was appointed director of the Egyptian department at the royal museum, in 1934 he was excluded from the faculty of the university because he was, according to the Nazi ideology, one quarter Jewish. As his family had converted to Protestantism in 1802 he and his family were not persecuted by the Nazis, Erman and his school at Berlin had the difficult task of recovering the grammar of the Egyptian language and spent thirty years of special study on it. The Neuägyptische Grammatik dealt with texts written in the dialect of the New Kingdom. The latter is a monograph on the verb in Egyptian and Coptic by a brilliant. The subject has been reviewed by Erman, Die Flexion des Aegyptischen Verbums in the Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy,1900, the Berlin school, having settled the main lines of the grammar, next turned its attention to lexicography. It devised a scheme, founded on that for the Latin Thesaurus of the Berlin Academy, the complete edition of this gigantic dictionary comprises a total of twelve volumes. Life in Ancient Egypt, translated by H. M. Tirard Neuägyptische Grammatik,1889 Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. Berlin 1905, Translated by A. S. Griffith, A Handbook of Egyptian Religion with 130 illustrations, published in the original German edition as a handbook, by the General Verwaltung of the Berlin Imperial Museums. Published 1907 by A. Constable & co. ltd. in London, das Verhältnis der ägyptischen zu den semitischen Sprachen, Zimmern, Vergi. English translation by Aylward M. Blackman published as The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, London,1927, reprinted as The Ancient Egyptians, A Sourcebook of their Writings, introduction to the Torchbook edition by William Kelly Simpson, New York, Harper & Row,1966. List of Egyptologists Thomas L. Gertzen, Jean Pierre Adolphe Erman und die Begründung der Ägyptologie als Wissenschaft, Hentrich & Hentrich, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-95565-126-8

26.
Adze-on-block (hieroglyph)
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The ancient Egyptian Adze on a Wood Block, or Axe in a Block of Wood hieroglyph, Gardiner sign listed no. U20, is a portrayal of the adze and it is used mostly in the cartouches of pharaonic names especially, or other important names. The adze on block has the Egyptian language value of stp and is the verb choose and it is used as a determinative in stp, cut into pieces, and as an ideogram for stp, choose, choice. Agriculture, Crafts, and Professions Adze#Egypt Betrò,1995, hieroglyphics, The Writings of Ancient Egypt, Maria Carmela Betrò, c. 1995, 1996-, Abbeville Press Publishers, New York, London, Paris Collier, how to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs, A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, Mark Collier, and Bill Manley, c 1998, University of California Press,179 pp

27.
A-Group culture
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The A-Group culture was an ancient civilization that flourished between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile in Nubia. It lasted from c.3800 BCE to c.3100 BCE, in 1907, the Egyptologist George A. Reisner first discovered artifacts belonging to the A-Group culture. Early hubs of this civilization included Kubaniyya in the north and Buhen in the south, with Aswan, Sayala, Toshka, the A-Group makers maintained commercial ties with the Ancient Egyptians. Excavations at an A-Group cemetery in Qustul yielded an old incense burner, however, further research established the antecedence of the predynastic Egyptian regalia, The A-Group makers left behind a number of cemeteries, with each necropolis containing around fifty graves. Most of what is known about this culture has been gleaned from these tombs, the burials are of two kinds, a more common oval pit, and a similar pit featuring a lateral funerary niche. Skeletons found within these graves were observed to be akin to their peers in Upper Egypt. The specimens typically had straight hair of a black or dark brown hue, on average, the men were 169.9 cm in height and the women stood around 155.5 cm. Some individuals were wrapped in leather and positioned on reed mats, all of the tombs contained various burial items, including personal ornaments, utensils and ceramics. The A-Group culture came to an end around 3100 BCE, when it was quashed by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt, lovell, Nubian A- and C-Groups Maria Carmela Gatto, The Nubian A-group, a reassessment

28.
Ahmose (queen)
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Ahmose was an Ancient Egyptian queen in the Eighteenth Dynasty. She was the Great Royal Wife of the third pharaoh, Thutmose I. Her name means Born of the Moon and it is not known who Ahmoses father and mother were. It has been suggested that Ahmose was either a daughter of pharaoh Amenhotep I or a daughter of pharaoh Ahmose I, Ahmose was never called a Kings Daughter. This fact creates some doubt about these theories about Ahmoses royal family connections, however, Ahmose did hold the title Kings Sister. This may suggest that she was a sister of pharaoh Thutmose I and she is depicted in Deir-el-Bahari and she appears there with a daughter named Neferubity. Ahmose was also the mother of the queen-pharaoh Hatshepsut and it is not known with certainty whether Princes Amenmose and Wadjmose were her sons. They are generally thought to be the sons of Queen Mutnofret, an official named Yuf served as the second prophet of the dues of the altar, the door-keeper of the temple, and as a priest. He also served a number of royal women and he first served queen Ahhotep, the mother of pharaoh Ahmose I, he was responsible for repairing the disturbed tomb of Queen Sobekemsaf, and eventually served Queen Ahmose. Yuf recorded that Queen Ahmose appointed him as assistant treasurer and entrusted him with the service to a statue of her majesty, Sister of Thutmose the 199th Ahmose features prominently in the divine conception scenes. Hatshepsut had scenes created showing how the god Amun approached her mother, Ahmose, the inscriptions show how the god Thoth first mentions Queen Ahmose to Amun. Ahmose is her name, the beneficent, mistress of, She is the wife of the king Aakheperkare, the god Amun then proceeds to the palace and makes himself known to the Queen. They proceed to conceive a child and Amun declares that she should be named Khnemet-Amun-Hatshepsut, Amun proceeds to the god Khnum and instructs him to create Hatshepsut. The scenes continue to show the confinement of the queen and the birth of her divine daughter, many years later Pharaoh Amenhotep III copied these scenes almost exactly to show how Amun visited his mother queen Mutemwiya and conceived the royal prince

Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egy

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The Great Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.

4.2 kiloyear event
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The 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene period. Starting in about 2200 BC, it lasted the entire 22nd century BC. The drought may have initiated southeastward habitat tracking within the Indus Valley Civilization, however, this theory has been criticised by archaeologists, with political cau

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Central Greenland reconstructed temperature. Unlike the 8.2 kiloyear event, the 4.2 kiloyear event has no prominent signal in the Gisp2 ice core that has an onset at 4.2 ka BP.

Ahhotep I
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Ahhotep I was an Ancient Egyptian queen who lived circa 1560-1530 BC, during the end of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the daughter of Queen Tetisheri and Senakhtenre Ahmose, and was probably the sister, as well as the queen consort, Ahhotep I had a long and influential life. Her titles include Great Royal Wife and Associate of the White

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Ring of Ahhotep I, Louvre Museum.

Ahhotep II
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Ahhotep II was an Ancient Egyptian queen, and likely the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Kamose. The naming / numbering by Egyptologists of the queens named Ahhotep has changed during the years, during the late nineteenth century, Egyptologists thought that Ahhotep I was the wife of Seqenenre Tao. The coffins of Deir el-Bahari and Dra Abu el-Naga were

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Queen Ahhotep's coffin from Dra' Abu el-Naga'

Aahotepre
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Ammu Ahotepre was a minor Hyksos pharaoh of Dynasty XIV of ancient Egypt. Ryholt identified Ammu Ahotepre in his reconstruction of the Turin canon, von Beckerath had previously assigned the praenomen Ahotepre to a pharaoh of Dynasty XVI. von Beckerath, Jürgen,2. Zwischenzeit, Archiv für Orientforschung Hayes, William C, Egypt, From the death of Amm

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Scarab seal of Ahotepre, Petrie Museum.

Aani
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In Ancient Egyptian religion, Aani is the dog-headed ape sacred to the Egyptian god Thoth. One of the Egyptian names of the Cynocephalus Baboon, which was sacred to the god Thoth, the Egyptian hieroglyphic word for baboon is jana in the German style of transliteration. Attested roughly forty times in extant literature, this refers to the animal its

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Aaron
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In the Hebrew Bible, Aaron was the elder brother of Moses and a Prophet of God. Islamic literature, which also considers Aaron a Prophet of God, knowledge of Aaron, along with his brother Moses, comes exclusively from religious texts, such as the Bible and Qur’an. The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court,

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A 14th-century shrine built on top of the supposed grave of Aaron on Jabal Hārūn in Petra, Jordan.

Aaru
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For the natural habitat, see Reed bed. For the use of reeds to filter wastewater, see Constructed wetland, for the Tamil film, see Aaru. It has been described as the ka of the Nile Delta and those souls which balance the scales are allowed to start a long and perilous journey to Aaru, where they will exist in pleasure for all eternity. Hearts heavy

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Abatos
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Abatos, also Abaton, was a rocky island in the Nile, Egypt near Philae, where the Egyptian priests alone were permitted to enter. Abatos was mentioned by both Seneca and Lucan, the name was later used by astronomers for a plateau on the moon Triton. Abaton Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Map 80, inset

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Abbott Papyrus
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The Abbott Papyrus serves as an important political document concerning the tomb robberies of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom. It also gives insight into the scandal between the two rivals Pewero and Paser of Thebes, the Abbott Papyrus is held and preserved at the British Museum under the number 10221. The original owner/finde

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The Abbott Papyrus

Abdi-Ashirta
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Abdi-Ashirta was the ruler of Amurru who was in conflict with King Rib-Hadda of Byblos. Consequently, though Abdi-Ashirta had influence among these polities, he did not directly rule them, Rib-Hadda complained bitterly to Pharaoh Akhenaten — in the Amarna letters — of Abdi-Ashirtas attempts to alter the political landscape at the formers expense. A

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References [edit]

Abdi-Heba
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Abdi-Heba was a local chieftain of Jerusalem during the Amarna period. Abdi-Hebas name can be translated as servant of Hebat, a Hurrian goddess, whether Abdi-Heba was himself of Hurrian descent is unknown, as is the relationship between the general populace of pre-Israelite Jerusalem and the Hurrians. Egyptian documents have him deny he was a ḫazān

Abu Gorab
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Abu Gorab is a locality in Egypt situated 15 km south of Cairo, between Saqqarah and Al-Jīzah, about 1 km north of Abusir, on the edge of the desert plateau on the western bank of the Nile. In addition, Abu Gorab is also the site of a First Dynasty cemetery, North of the sun temple of Nyuserre is a cemetery dating back to the First Dynasty of Egypt

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Reconstructed image of Nyuserre's sun temple

Abu Mena
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Abu Mena was a town, monastery complex and Christian pilgrimage center in Late Antique Egypt, about 45 km southwest of Alexandria. Its remains were designated a World Heritage Site in 1979, there are very few standing remains, but the foundations of most major buildings, such as the great basilica, are easily discernible. Recent agricultural effort

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UNESCO World Heritage Site

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Christ and an Abbot Menas in a 6th-century Egyptian icon

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The Christian monastery of Abu Mena

Abu Rawash
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Abu Rawash,8 km to the North of Giza, is the site of Egypts most northerly pyramid, also known as the lost pyramid — the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, the son and successor of Khufu. One notable fact about the pyramid at Abu Roash is that the upper most part of the pyramid has seemingly disappeared, explanations to why this pyramid is missing

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The ruined Pyramid of Djedefre sits atop the plateau of Abu Rawash

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The guard at Abu Rawash rests in the shade of the burial pit of the Pyramid of Djedefre

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Abu Rawash Pyramid Boat Pit

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City

Abu Simbel temples
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The Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples at Abu Simbel, a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. They are situated on the bank of Lake Nasser, about 230 km southwest of Aswan. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Nubian Monuments and their huge external rock relief figures have become

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The Great Temple of Ramesses II is on the left and the Small Temple of Nefertari is on the right.

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The statue of Ramses the Great at the Great Temple of Abu Simbel is reassembled after having been moved in 1967 to save it from being flooded.

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A scale model showing the original and current location of the temple (with respect to the water level) at the Nubian Museum, in Aswan

Abusir
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The name is also that of a neighbouring village in the Nile Valley, whence the site takes its name. Abusir is located several kilometres north of Saqqara and, like it, several other villages in northern and southern Egypt are named Abusir or Busiri. Abusir is one small segment of the extensive pyramid field that extends from north of Giza to below

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Abusir necropolis

Abusir Papyri
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The Abusir Papyri are the largest papyrus findings to date from the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt. The first papyri were discovered in 1893 at Abu Gorab near Abusir in northern Egypt and their origins are dated to around the 24th century BC during the Fifth dynasty of Egypt, making them, even though often badly fragmented, also some of the oldest su

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Fragments of an Abusir papyrus

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The unfinished pyramid of Neferefre at Abusir

Abuwtiyuw
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The Egyptian dog Abuwtiyuw, also transcribed as Abutiu, was one of the earliest documented domestic animals whose name is known. He is believed to have been a guard dog who lived in the Sixth Dynasty. An inscribed stone listing the gifts donated by the pharaoh for Abuwtiyuws funeral was discovered by Egyptologist George A. Reisner in October 1935,

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Statue of Anubis

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Image of a Tesem dog from the grave of Intef II, c. 2065 BC

Abydos Dynasty
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The Abydos Dynasty is hypothesized to have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over parts of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt. The Abydos Dynasty would have been contemporaneous with the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, the existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke and later elaborate

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The start of the king list, showing Seti and his son - Ramesses II - on the way to making an offering to Ptah - Seker - Osiris, on behalf of their 72 ancestors - the contents of the king list. Ramesses is depicted holding censers.

Abydos, Egypt
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Abydos /əˈbaɪdɒs/ is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about 11 kilometres west of the Nile at latitude 26°10 N, in the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju. The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος, a name borrowed by Gre

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Façade of the Temple of Seti I in Abydos

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Part of the Abydos King List

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Tomb relief depicting the vizier Nespeqashuty and his wife, KetjKetj, making the journey of the dead to the holy city of Abydos – from Deir el-Bahri, Late Period, twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, reign of Psammetichus I

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Panel from the Osiris temple: Horus presents royal regalia to a worshipping pharaoh.

Achaemenid coinage
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Coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BCE-450 BCE to 330 BCE. It seems that before then, a continuation of Lydian coinage under Persian rule was highly likely, Achaemenid coinage includes the official imperial issues, as well as coins issued by the Achaemenid governors, such as those stationed in ancient Asia Minor. Darius first intro

Achaemenid Empire
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The Achaemenid Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great. The empires successes inspired similar systems in later empires and it is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon.

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Standard of Cyrus the Great

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Relief of Cyrus the Great.

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Mausoleum at Halicarnassus one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world was built by Persian satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model.)

Adder stone
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An adder stone is a type of stone, usually glassy, with a naturally occurring hole through it. Such stones have been discovered by archaeologists in both Britain and Egypt, commonly, they are found in Northern Germany at the coasts of the North and Baltic Seas. In Egypt they are called aggry or aggri, according to popular conception, a true adder s

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hagstone, location: Dänholm, Germany, Baltic Sea

Adolf Erman
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Johann Peter Adolf Erman was a renowned German Egyptologist and lexicographer. Born in Berlin, he was the son of Georg Adolf Erman and grandson of Paul Erman, educated at Leipzig and Berlin, he became associate professor of Egyptology at the University of Berlin in 1883 and full professor in 1892. In 1885 he was appointed director of the Egyptian d

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Adolf Erman

Adze-on-block (hieroglyph)
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The ancient Egyptian Adze on a Wood Block, or Axe in a Block of Wood hieroglyph, Gardiner sign listed no. U20, is a portrayal of the adze and it is used mostly in the cartouches of pharaonic names especially, or other important names. The adze on block has the Egyptian language value of stp and is the verb choose and it is used as a determinative i

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Cartouche on pillar.

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Statue of Pharaoh Osorkon I

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Pectoral (Ancient Egypt)

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Ramses II cartouches at Karnak

A-Group culture
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The A-Group culture was an ancient civilization that flourished between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile in Nubia. It lasted from c.3800 BCE to c.3100 BCE, in 1907, the Egyptologist George A. Reisner first discovered artifacts belonging to the A-Group culture. Early hubs of this civilization included Kubaniyya in the north and Buhen in th

Ahmose (queen)
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Ahmose was an Ancient Egyptian queen in the Eighteenth Dynasty. She was the Great Royal Wife of the third pharaoh, Thutmose I. Her name means Born of the Moon and it is not known who Ahmoses father and mother were. It has been suggested that Ahmose was either a daughter of pharaoh Amenhotep I or a daughter of pharaoh Ahmose I, Ahmose was never call

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A relief of a royal couple in the Amarna-period style; figures may be Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Smenkhkare and Meritaten, or Tutankhamen and Ankhesenamun; Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

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Queen Tiye, matriarch of the Amarna Dynasty. She was the mother of Akhenaten and wife of Amenhotep III. She mainly ran Egypt's affairs of state for her son.

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Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, began a religious revolution in which he declared Aten was a supreme god and turned his back on the old traditions. He moved the capital to Akhetaten.

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Queen Nefertiti, the daughter of Ay, married Akhenaten. Her role in daily life at the court soon extended from Great Royal Wife to that of a co-regent. It is also possible that she may have ruled Egypt in her own right as pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.

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This head probably came from a temple statue of Amasis II. He wears the traditional royal nemes head cloth, with a protective uraeus serpent at the brow. Circa 560 BCE. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

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Relief showing Amasis from the Karnak temple

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Papyrus, written in demotic script in the 35th year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre

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Large statue head of Amenhotep II on display at the Brooklyn Museum.

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Amenhotep II's cartouche showing later damage and a variation of his nomen (from Karnak).

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A stele, originally from Elephantine and now on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, recording Amenhotep II's successful campaign against Syria, and dedicating war booty and prisoners to the Temple of Khnum.

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Vase in the Louvre with the names Amenohotep III and Tiye written in the cartouches on the left, (and Tiye's on the right).

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Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been depicted to her right in this broken statue

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One of the many commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III. This scarab belongs to a class called the "marriage scarabs," which affirm the divine power of the king and the legitimacy of his wife, Tiye. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.