1.
1765
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As of the start of 1765, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 23 – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor marries Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria in Vienna, march 9 – After a public campaign by the writer Voltaire, judges in Paris posthumously exonerate Jean Calas of murdering his son. Calas had been tortured and executed in 1762 on the charge, march 22 – The Parliament of Great Britain passes the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax levied from Great Britain on the thirteen American colonies. This is to pay for British military operations in North America. March 24 – Great Britain passes the Quartering Act, requiring the thirteen American colonies to house British troops, may – James Watt makes a breakthrough in the development of the steam engine by constructing a model with a separate condenser. May 18 – Fire destroys one quarter of the town of Montreal, august 9 – Russian Empress Catherine II issues a decree authorizing the new way to produce vodka. August 16 – Treaty of Allahabad was signed, the Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of Company rule in India. August 14 – In protest at the Stamp Act, Bostonians attack the home of official Andrew Oliver, august 18 – Josef II becomes Holy Roman Emperor. August 26 – In protest at the Stamp Act, Bostonians destroy home of lieutenant governor Thomas Hutchinson, september 6 – Jean-Jacques Rousseaus house in Switzerland is stoned by a mob. September 21 – François Antoine announces he has killed the Beast of Gévaudan, october 17 – The Pennsylvania Gazette reports that a Mr. McCullough, the Distributor of Stamps for the Royal Colony of North Carolina, has resigned his post in protest at the Stamp Act. A Dr. Huston is appointed to the position, november 1 – The Stamp Act goes into effect in the thirteen American colonies. December 12 – The Pennsylvania Gazette reports that Dr. Huston, the first chocolate factory in the Thirteen Colonies is established by Dr. James Baker at Dorchester, Massachusetts. The first true restaurant opens in Paris, where a tavern-keeper named Boulanger sells cooked dishes at a place on the Rue Bailleul. In Lisbon, the parade is abolished. Desai Atash Behram is established in Navsari, India, Catherine the Great establish the first secondary education school for non-noble females in Russia, the Novodevichii Institute for the daughters of commoners. London, H. G. Bohn – via Hathi Trust

2.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage

3.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values

4.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign

5.
George Grenville
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George Grenville, PC was a British Whig statesman who rose to the position of Prime Minister of Great Britain. Grenville was born into a political family and first entered Parliament in 1741 as an MP for Buckingham. He emerged as one of Cobhams Cubs, a group of members of Parliament associated with Lord Cobham. In 1754 Grenville became Treasurer of the Navy, a position he held twice until 1761, in October 1761 he chose to stay in government and accepted the new role of Leader of the Commons causing a rift with his brother-in-law and political ally William Pitt who had resigned. Grenville was subsequently made Northern Secretary and First Lord of the Admiralty by the new Prime Minister Lord Bute, on 8 April 1763, Lord Bute resigned, and Grenville assumed his position as Prime Minister. His government tried to bring public spending under control and pursued a foreign policy. His best known policy is the Stamp Act, a tax in Great Britain onto the colonies in America. Grenville had increasingly strained relations with his colleagues and the King and in 1765 he was dismissed by George III, for the last five years of his life Grenville led a group of his supporters in opposition and staged a public reconciliation with Pitt. George Grenville was born at Wotton House on 14 October 1712 and he was the second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple. He was one of five brothers, all of whom became MPs and his sister Hester Grenville married the leading political figure William Pitt. His elder brother was Richard Grenville, later the 2nd Earl Temple and it was intended by his parents that George Grenville should become a lawyer. Grenville received his education at Eton College and at Christ Church, Oxford and he entered Parliament in 1741 as one of the two members for Buckingham, and continued to represent that borough for the next twenty-nine years until his death. He was disappointed to be giving up what appeared to be a legal career for the uncertainties of opposition politics. In Parliament he subscribed to the Boy Patriot party, which opposed Sir Robert Walpole, in December 1744 he became a Lord of the Admiralty in the administration of Henry Pelham. He allied himself with his brother Richard and with William Pitt in forcing Pelham to give them promotion by rebelling against his authority, in June 1747, Grenville became a Lord of the Treasury. In 1754 Grenville was made Treasurer of the Navy and Privy Councillor, opposition to European entanglements was a cornerstone of Patriot Whig thinking. He and Pitt joined the opposition, haranguing the Newcastle government, Grenville and Pitt both championed the formation of a British militia to provide additional security rather than the deployment of Hessian mercenaries favoured by the government. As the military situation deteriorated following the loss of Minorca, the government grew increasingly weak until it was forced to resign in Autumn 1756, Pitt then formed a government led by the Duke of Devonshire

6.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot

7.
Parliament of Great Britain
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The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801. Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, Acts of Union ratifying the Treaty were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new parliament, referred to as the Parliament of Great Britain and it was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation was thereafter to be enacted by the new parliament, after the Hanoverian King George I ascended the British throne in 1714 through the Act of Settlement of 1701, real power continued to shift away from the monarchy. George was a German ruler, spoke poor English, and remained interested in governing his dominions in continental Europe rather than in Britain. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the British government became repressive against dissent and progress towards reform was stalled. During the first half of George IIIs reign, the still had considerable influence over Parliament. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, reformers like William Beckford and Radicals beginning with John Wilkes called for reform of the system. In 1780 a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis and this included calls for the six points later adopted by the Chartists. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the rotten boroughs to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174

8.
Nevil Maskelyne
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The Reverend Dr Nevil Maskelyne FRS was the fifth British Astronomer Royal. He held the office from 1765 to 1811, Maskelyne was born in London, the third son of Edmund Maskelyne of Purton, Wiltshire. Maskelynes father died when he was 12, leaving the family in reduced circumstances, Maskelyne attended Westminster School and was still a pupil there when his mother died in 1748. His interest in astronomy had begun while at Westminster School, shortly after the eclipse of 14 July 1748, Maskelyne entered St Catharines College, Cambridge in 1749, graduating as seventh wrangler in 1754. Ordained as a minister in 1755, he became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge in 1756, about 1785 Maskelyne married Sophia Rose of Cotterstock, Northamptonshire. Their only child, Margaret, was the mother of Mervyn Herbert Nevil Story-Maskelyne professor of mineralogy at Oxford, Maskelynes sister, Margaret, married Robert Clive. Nevil Maskelyne is buried in the churchyard of St Mary the Virgin, in 1760 the Royal Society appointed Maskelyne as an astronomer on one of their expeditions to observe the 1761 transit of Venus. He and Robert Waddington were sent to the island of St. Helena and this would allow, it was argued, the production of more accurate astronomical tables, in particular those predicting the motion of the Moon. In 1763 the Board of Longitude sent Maskelyne to Barbados in order to out a official trial of three contenders for a Longitude reward. He was to carry out observations on board ship and to calculate the longitude of the capital, Bridgetown by observation of Jupiters satellites. The three methods on trial were John Harrisons sea watch, Tobias Mayers lunar tables and a chair made by Christopher Irwin. Both Harrisons watch and lunar-distance observations based on Mayers lunar tables produced results within the terms of the Longitude Act, Harrisons watch had produced Bridgetowns longitude with an error of less than ten miles, while the lunar-distance observations were accurate to within 30 nautical miles. Maskelyne reported the results of the trial to the Board of Longitude on 9 February 1765, on 26 February 1765 he had been appointed Astronomer Royal following the unexpected death of Nathaniel Bliss in 1764, making him ex officio a Commissioner of Longitude. The Commissioners understood that the timekeeping and astronomical methods of finding longitude were complementary, the lunar-distance method could more quickly be rolled out, with Maskelynes proposal that tables like those in his The British Mariners Guide be published for each year. This proposal led to the establishment of The Nautical Almanac, the production of which, as Astronomer Royal, taking even occasional astronomical observations was also the only way to check that a timekeeper was keeping good time over the course of a long voyage. The Commissioners also needed to know more than one sea watch could be made. The Board of Longitude therefore decided that rewards should be given Harrison, Mayer, Harrison was told that a further reward of £10,000 would be forthcoming if he could demonstrate the replicability of his watch. He was to play a significant role in having marine timekeepers, as well as the lunar-distance method and it was recommended for adoption as the international Prime Meridian in 1884

9.
Stamp Act 1765
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Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the tax had to be paid in valid British currency. The purpose of the tax was to pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years War and its North American theater of the French. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers there were no foreign enemies on the continent. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers, the Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant and their slogan was No taxation without representation. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, the Act was repealed on March 18,1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists, the British victory in the Seven Years War, known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt increased more than fourfold, the primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role, the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministrys 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent

10.
Thirteen Colonies
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island

11.
HMS Victory
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HMS Victory is a 104-gun first-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, ordered in 1758, laid down in 1759 and launched in 1765. She is best known as Lord Nelsons flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 and she was also Keppels flagship at Ushant, Howes flagship at Cape Spartel and Jerviss flagship at Cape St Vincent. After 1824, she served as a harbour ship, in 1922, she was moved to a dry dock at Portsmouth, England, and preserved as a museum ship. She has been the flagship of the First Sea Lord since October 2012 and is the worlds oldest naval ship still in commission. In December 1758, Pitt the Elder, in his role as head of the British government, placed an order for the building of 12 ships, during the 18th century, Victory was one of ten first-rate ships to be constructed. She was designed to carry at least 100 guns, the commissioner of Chatham Dockyard was instructed to prepare a dry dock for the construction. The keel was laid on 23 July 1759 in the Old Single Dock, in 1759, the Seven Years War was going well for Britain, land victories had been won at Quebec and Minden and naval battles had been won at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. There were some doubts whether this was a name since the previous first-rate Victory had been lost with all on board in 1744. Work restarted in autumn 1763 and she was launched on 7 May 1765, having cost £63,176 and 3 shillings, the equivalent of £7.79 million today. Around 6000 trees were used in her construction, of which 90% were oak, on the day of the launch, shipwright Hartly Larkin, designated foreman afloat for the event, suddenly realised that the ship might not fit though the dockyard gates. Measurements at first light confirmed his fears, the gates were at least 9½ inches too narrow and he told the dreadful news to his superior, master shipwright John Allin, who considered abandoning the launch. Larkin asked for the assistance of every available shipwright, and they hewed away enough wood from the gates with their adzes for the ship to pass safely through. Because there was no use for her, she was placed in ordinary. Victory was armed with smooth bore, cast iron cannon, in May 1778, the 42-pounders were replaced by 32-pounders, but the 42-pounders were reinstated in April 1779, eventually, in 1803, the 42-pounders were permanently replaced by 32-pounders. In 1782, all the 6-pounders were replaced by 12-pounders, later, she also carried two carronade guns, firing 68-lb round shot. In January 1808, Victory was reduced to a 98-gun second rate, but was reclassed as a 104-gun first rate in February 1817. Keppel put to sea from Spithead on 9 July 1778 with a force of around twenty-nine ships of the line and, on 23 July, sighted a French fleet of roughly equal force 100 miles west of Ushant. The French admiral, Louis Guillouet, comte dOrvilliers, who had orders to avoid battle, was cut off from Brest, but retained the weather gage

12.
Chatham Dockyard
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Chatham Dockyard was a Royal Navy Dockyard located on the River Medway in Kent. Established in Chatham in the century, the dockyard subsequently expanded into neighbouring Gillingham. It came into existence at the time when, following the Reformation, relations with the Catholic countries of Europe had worsened, for 414 years Chatham Royal Dockyard provided over 500 ships for the Royal Navy, and was at the forefront of shipbuilding, industrial and architectural technology. At its height, it employed over 10,000 skilled artisans, Chatham dockyard closed in 1984, and 84 acres of the Georgian dockyard is now managed as a visitor attraction by the Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust. The Treasurer of the Navys accounts of the Kings Exchequer for the year 1544 identifies Deptford as the Dockyard that carried out all the repairs to the Kings Ships that year. Chathams establishment as a naval dockyard was precipitated by the use of the Medway as an anchorage by the ships of what was to become Englands permanent Royal Navy. 1567 is generally seen as the date of Chathams establishment as a Royal Naval Dockyard, in the years that followed the ground was prepared, accommodation was secured and a mast pond was installed. The renowned Tudor shipwright Mathew Baker was appointed to Chatham in 1572, under his supervision the site was developed to include sawpits, workshops, a wharf with a crane and, most significantly, its first dry dock, which opened in 1581. The dockyard received its first royal visit, from Elizabeth I, the first ship to be built at the dockyard, HMS Sunne was launched in 1586. James I used Chatham dockyard for a meeting in 1606 with Christian IV of Denmark, in 1613, the dockyard moved from its original location to its present site. Peter Pett, of the family of shipwrights whose history is connected to the Chatham dockyard. One of the disadvantages of Chatham was their relative inaccessibility for ships at sea, thus deliveries of victuals, ordnance and other supplies were made by small boats, sailing regularly between Chatham and The Nore. Seeking to alleviate this situation, the Navy Board explored options for developing a shore facility with direct access from the open water of the Thames Estuary. Sheerness remained operational as a royal dockyard until 1959, but it was never considered a major shore establishment, by the late 17th century Chatham was the largest refitting dockyard, important during the Dutch wars. It was, however, superseded in the century, first by Portsmouth, then Plymouth, when the main naval enemy became France. In addition, the Medway had begun to silt up, making more difficult. Nevertheless, following a visit by the Admiralty Board in 1773, the decision was taken to invest further in Chatham, among many vessels built in this Dockyard, and which still exist, are HMS Victory, launched in 1765 – now preserved at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard. The officers and men employed in the yard increased, and by 1798 they numbered 1,664, including 49 officers

13.
James Watt
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While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder, Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water, Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful, in his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work. He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the towns chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watts grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Despite being raised by parents, he later on became a deist. Watt did not attend regularly, initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock Grammar School. He exhibited great manual dexterity, engineering skills and an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin, when he was eighteen, his mother died and his fathers health began to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland and he made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. Because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated and these instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, at first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and this partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, in 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood, James Jr. and Margaret. His wife died in childbirth in 1772, in 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children, Gregory, who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet

14.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine

15.
Isle of Man
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The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island

16.
HM Treasury
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The leading pronoun in the departments name varies depending upon the gender of the reigning monarch. The beginnings of the Treasury of England have been traced by some to a known as Henry the Treasurer. This claim is based on an entry in the Domesday Book showing the individual Henry the treasurer as a landowner in Winchester, where the royal treasure was stored. The Treasury of the United Kingdom thus traces its origins to the Treasury of the Kingdom of England, the Treasury emerged from the Royal Household. It was where the king kept his treasures, the head of the Treasury was called the Lord Treasurer. Starting in Tudor times, the Lord Treasurer became one of the officers of state. In 1667, Charles II of England was responsible for appointing George Downing, the builder of Downing Street, to reform the Treasury. The Treasury was first put in commission in May or June 1660, the first commissioners were the Duke of Albermarle, Lord Ashley, W. Coventry, J. Duncomb, and T. Clifford. After 1714, the Treasury was always in commission, the commissioners were referred to as the Lords of the Treasury and were given a number based on their seniority. Until 1827, the First Lord of the Treasury, when a commoner, also held the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer, while if the First Lord was a peer, since 1827, however, the Chancellor of the Exchequer has always been Second Lord of the Treasury. During the time when the Treasury was under commission, the junior Lords were each paid £1600 a year, some of the other whips are nominally Lord Commissioner of HM Treasury, though they are all members of the House of Commons. Whip is a party, rather than a government, position and this has led to the Government front bench in the Commons being known as the Treasury Bench. However, since the no longer have any effective ministerial roles in the Treasury. Lord Young of Cookham, who serves currently as a government whip in the House of Lords, has named as Treasury spokesman. Ramsden is now sole Head of the GES, the previous Head of the GES was Sir Nick Stern. Management support for GES members is provided by the Economists in Government team, banknotes in the UK are normally issued by the Bank of England and a number of commercial banks. Treasury notes had full legal status and were not convertible for gold through the Bank of England. They replaced the coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling

17.
Duke of Atholl
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Duke of Atholl, alternatively Duke of Athole, named after Atholl in Scotland, is a title in the Peerage of Scotland held by the head of Clan Murray. It was created by Queen Anne in 1703 for John Murray, 2nd Marquess of Atholl, with a remainder to the heir male of his father. These titles are also in the Peerage of Scotland, from 1786 to 1957 the Dukes of Atholl sat in the House of Lords as Earl Strange. The Dukes eldest son and heir apparent uses the courtesy title Marquess of Tullibardine, the heir apparent to Lord Tullibardine uses the courtesy title Earl of Strathtay and Strathardle. Lord Strathtays heir apparent uses the courtesy title Viscount Balquhidder, the Duke of Atholl is the hereditary chief of Clan Murray. The Dukes of Atholl belong to an ancient Scottish family, Sir William Murray of Castleton married Lady Margaret, daughter of John Stewart, 1st Earl of Atholl. Sir William was one of the many Scottish noblemen killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 and his son Sir William Murray lived at Tullibardine in Perthshire. The latters grandson, Sir John Murray, was created Lord Murray of Tullibardine in 1604 and Lord Murray, Gask and Balquhidder, all three titles were in the Peerage of Scotland. He was succeeded by his eldest son, William, the second Earl and he married as his second wife Lady Dorothea, daughter of John Stewart, 5th and last Earl of Atholl. Charles I agreed to revive the earldom of Atholl in favour of Lord Tullibardines children by Lady Dorothea, John Murray, son of the second Earl of Tullibardine by Lady Dorothea Stewart, was created Earl of Atholl in the Peerage of Scotland in 1629. He was succeeded by his son, the second Earl of Atholl, in 1670 he succeeded his cousin James Murray, 2nd Earl of Tullibardine, as third Earl of Tullibardine. In 1676 he was created Lord Murray, Balveny and Gask, Viscount of Balquhidder, Earl of Tullibardine and Marquess of Atholl, all titles were in the Peerage of Scotland. Lord Atholl married Lady Amelia Anne Sophia, daughter of James Stanley, on his death the titles passed to his eldest son, the second Marquess. He had already been created Lord Murray, Viscount Glenalmond and Earl of Tullibardine for life in the peerage of Scotland in 1696, all five titles were in the Peerage of Scotland. His eldest surviving son and heir apparent, William Murray, Marquess of Tullibardine and he was charged with high treason and attainted by Act of Parliament. An Act of Parliament was also passed to him from the succession to his fathers titles. William was, on 1 February 1717, created Duke of Rannoch, Marquis of Blair, Earl of Glen Tilt, Viscount of Glenshie, the first Duke was consequently succeeded by his third son, James, the second Duke. In 1736 he also succeeded his kinsman James Stanley, 10th Earl of Derby as 7th Baron Strange, on the death of his brother William in 1746, he succeeded to the Jacobite titles, such as they were

18.
Lord of Mann
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For the head of state pre-1504, see King of Mann. The title Lord of Mann is used on the Isle of Man to refer to the islands Lord Proprietor, the current holder of the title is Queen Elizabeth II. The title is not correctly used on its own and this right of Lord Proprietor was revested into the Crown by the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 and hence ceased to exist separately. King George III became the first British monarch to rule the Isle of Man as Lord of Mann in 1765, however, for reasons of culture and tradition, the title Lord of Mann continues to be used. For these reasons, the formal usage, as used on the Isle of Man for the Loyal Toast, is The Queen. The title is now Lord of Mann regardless of gender, however, during her reign, Queen Victoria was styled as Lady of Mann. The formal Latin style is Dominus Manniae, prior to 1504, the ruler of the Isle of Man was generally styled King of Mann. The lordship was conferred by letters-patent dated 7 July 1609 upon William Stanley, subsequent succession was under the terms of this grant. Following the resolution of the dispute, it was ruled that the daughters of Ferdinando Stanley were the rightful heirs. He took up the title of Lord of Mann following the passing of an Act of Parliament, by the passage of the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 the title of Lord of Mann was revested into the British Crown. It has therefore since been used on the Isle of Man to refer to the reigning Monarch of the United Kingdom, all remaining rights and property of the Dukes of Atholl on the island were sold to the British government in 1828 for the sum of £417,144

19.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown

20.
HM Prison Maidstone
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HM Prison Maidstone is a Category C mens prison, located in Maidstone, Kent, England. The prison is operated by Her Majestys Prison Service, Maidstone Prison is one of the oldest penal institutions in the United Kingdom, having been in operation for over 200 years. Originally serving as a county jail, Maidstone was converted to a prison during the 1740s, during his visits to the prison, reformer John Howard reported poor living conditions at the prison including overcrowding and poor ventilation. Also involved in the design of Maidstone Prison was Kent architect John Whichcord Snr, mr Whichcord is probably best known for designing the Kent County Lunatic Asylum in the 1830s, also in Maidstone, and similarities between the two buildings are apparent. Constructed using Kentish Ragstone from a quarry, the original design of the prison was intended to house 552 prisoners. The first 141 prisoners arrived in March 1819, over the next decade, additions to the prison were made including a courthouse in 1826 as well as individual cells, dayrooms, courtyards and offices attributed to suggestions made by Howard. Reggie Kray married Roberta Jones in Maidstone prison on July 14,1997 Jonathan King was an inmate from 2001-2005, in August,2007 Weald Wing was closed when Legionella bacteria was discovered in the water supply. Approximately 80 prisoners were dispersed to other prisons, at the end of January,2009 it was announced that the prison would become a sex offenders unit. Maidstone accommodates foreign national prisoners convicted of a range of offences, the prison is classed as a training prison and it includes a print shop and brick works. A good deal of work is carried out on the gardens, they frequently win awards, the exterior of Maidstone Prison was shown in the title sequence of the 1970s BBC comedy series Porridge and the 1990s BBC comedy series Birds of a Feather. Prisons and Prison Systems, A Global Encyclopedia, westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Publishing Group,2006. The State of Prisons –200 Years On, ministry of Justice pages on Maidstone

21.
Robert Clive
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He is credited with securing a large swath of South Asia and the wealth that followed, for the British crown. Together with Warren Hastings he was one of the key figures in the creation of British India, with all his attention focused on one prize. He also sat as a Tory Member of Parliament in London, Clive was one of the most controversial figures in all British military history. His achievements included establishing control over much of India, and laying the foundation of the entire British Raj, for that he was vilified by his contemporaries in England, and put on trial before Parliament. Of special concern was that he amassed a fortune in India. Modern historians have criticised him for atrocities, for high taxes, Robert Clive was born at Styche, the Clive family estate, near Market Drayton in Shropshire, on 29 September 1725 to Richard Clive and Rebecca Gaskell Clive. The family had held the estate since the time of Henry VII. The family had a history of public service, members of the family included an Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII. Roberts father, who supplemented the estates modest income as a lawyer, also served in Parliament for many years, Robert was their eldest son of thirteen children, he had seven sisters and five brothers, six of whom died in infancy. Clives father was known to have a temper, which the boy apparently inherited, for reasons that have not been documented, Clive was sent to live with his mothers sister in Manchester while still a toddler. Biographer Robert Harvey suggests that this move was made because Clives father was busy in London trying to provide for the family, daniel Bayley, the sisters husband, reported that the boy was out of measure addicted to fighting. He was a troublemaker in the schools he was sent to. When he was older he and a gang of teenagers established a protection racket that vandalised the shops of merchants in Market Drayton. Clive also exhibited fearlessness at an early age and he is reputed to have climbed the tower of St Marys Parish Church in Market Drayton and perched on a gargoyle, frightening those down below. He was said to have been a pupil at Stand Grammar School in Whitefield and he climbed the tower there and threw slates at passers by. When Clive was nine his aunt died, and, after a stint in his fathers cramped London quarters. There he attended the Market Drayton Grammar School, where his unruly behaviour prompted his father to him to Merchant Taylors School in London. His bad behaviour continued, and he was sent to a trade school in Hertfordshire to complete a basic education

22.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal

23.
Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south

24.
Shah Alam II
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Ali Gauhar, historically known as Shah Alam II, was the sixteenth Mughal Emperor. He was the son of Alamgir II, Shah Alam II was considered the only and rightful emperor but he wasnt able to return to Delhi until 1772, under the protection of the Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde. He also fought against the British East India Company at the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II also authored his own Diwan of poems and was known by the pen-name Aftab. His poems were guided, compiled and collected by Mirza Fakhir Makin, Ali Gauhar was born to Shahzada Aziz-ud-Din, son of the deposed Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, on 25 June 1728. Alongside his father, he grew up in semi-captivity in the Salatin quarters of the Red Fort, upon his fathers accession, he became the Wali Ahd of the empire, and became his fathers principal agent, though almost all power lay in the Wazir Imad-ul-Mulks hand. His quarrels with that amir, and fear for his own life, Prince Ali Gauhar, afterwards Emperor Shah Alam II had been the heir apparent of his father Alamgir II. After a daring escape from Delhi, Prince Ali Gauhar appeared in the provinces in 1759, hoping to strengthen his position by gaining control over Bengal, Bihar. Very soon however, Najib-ud-Daula, forced the usurper Feroze Jung III to flee from the capitol after he gathered a large Mughal Army outside Delhi, Najib-ud-Daula and Muslim nobles and then planned to defeat Marathas by maintaining correspondence with the powerful Ahmad Shah Durrani. After Ahmad Shah Durrani decisively defeated the Marathas, he nominated Ali Gauhar as the emperor under the name Shah Alam II, but the conflict soon involved the intervention of the assertive East India Company. Their forces were reinforced by the forces of Shuja-ud-Daula, Najib-ud-Daula, the Mughals were also joined by Jean Law and 200 Frenchmen and waged a campaign against the British during the Seven Years War. Prince Ali Gauhar successfully advanced as far as Patna, which he besieged with a combined army of over 40,000 in order to capture or kill Ramnarian a sworn enemy of the Mughals. Mir Jafar was in terror at the demise of his cohort and sent his own son Miran to relieve Ramnarian. After negotiations assuring peace Shah Alam II was escorted by the British to meet Mir Qasim the new Nawab of Bengal, who was nominated after the sudden death of Miran. Mir Qasim soon had the Mughal Emperors investiture as Subedar of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, Shah Alam II then retreated to Allahabad was protected by the Shuja-ud-Daula, Nawab of Awadh from 1761 until 1764. Meanwhile, Mir Qasims relations with the British East India company began to worsen, angered by these developments the East India Company sought his ouster. Court intrigues encouraged by the East India company forced Mir Qasim to leave Bengal, Bihar, Mir Qasim on his part encouraged Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to engage the British. The battle fought at Buxar, then within the territory of Bengal, soon after the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II, a sovereign who had just been defeated by the British, sought their protection by signing the Treaty of Allahabad in the year 1765. Shah Alam II was forced to grant the Diwani of Bengal to the British East India Company in return for a tribute of 2.6 million rupees to be paid by the company from the collected revenue

25.
Queen's Bench
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The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall

26.
Entick v Carrington
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Entick v Carrington EWHC KB J98 is a leading case in English law establishing the civil liberties of individuals and limiting the scope of executive power. The case has also been influential in other common law jurisdictions and was an important motivation for the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and it is famous for the dictum of Lord Camden, If it is law, it will be found in our books. If it not to be there, it is not law. Over the course of four hours, they broke open locks and doors and searched all of the rooms before taking away 100 charts and 100 pamphlets, causing £2,000 of damage. The Kings messengers were acting on the orders of Lord Halifax, newly appointed Secretary of State for the Northern Department, to make strict, the author, or one concerned in the writing of several weekly very seditious papers intitled, The Monitor, or British Freeholder. Entick sued the messengers for trespassing on his land, the trial took place in Westminster Hall presided over by Lord Camden, the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. Carrington and his colleagues claimed that they acted on Halifaxs warrant, however, Camden held that Halifax had no right under statute or under precedent to issue such a warrant and therefore found in Enticks favour. The judgment established the limits of power in English law. A Mans House Was Not His Castle, Origins of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture

27.
Civil liberties
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Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights. Many contemporary states have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate, the existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage, whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur. The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, the Constitution of Peoples Republic of China, especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from China, has its own Constitution, the Fundamental Rights—embodied in Part III of the constitution—guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments and they have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and they forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages, all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf and this is known as Public interest litigation. High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports, the Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply for persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech, the right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India. Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, for instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar

28.
William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield
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William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, PC, SL was a British barrister, politician and judge noted for his reform of English law. Born to Scottish nobility, he was educated in Perth, Scotland and he was accepted into Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1723, and graduated four years later. Returning to London from Oxford, he was called to the Bar by Lincolns Inn on 23 November 1730 and he became involved in politics in 1742, beginning with his election as a Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge, and appointment as Solicitor General. With the promotion of Sir Dudley Ryder to Lord Chief Justice in 1754, he became Attorney General, the most powerful British jurist of the century, his decisions reflected the Age of Enlightenment and moved England on the path to abolishing slavery and the slave trade. He advanced commercial law in ways that establish the nation as the world leader in industry, finance. He modernised both English law and the English courts system, he sped up the system for submitting motions and reformed the way judgments were given to reduce time and expense for the parties. For his work in Carter v Boehm and Pillans v Van Mierop, he has been called the founder of English commercial law. Murray was born on 2 March 1705, at Scone Palace in Perthshire, Scotland, the son of the 5th Viscount of Stormont and his wife, Margaret, née Scott. Both his parents were supporters of the Jacobite cause. The Jacobite sympathies of Murrays family were glossed over by contemporaries and this was incorrect, as Murray was educated at Perth Grammar School, where he was taught Latin, English grammar, and essay writing skills. He later said that this gave him an advantage at university, as those students educated in England had been taught Greek and Latin. The distance from Perth to London was around 400 miles, Murray flourished at Westminster and was made a Kings Scholar on 21 May 1719. After an examination in May 1723, Murray was accepted into Christ Church, Oxford and his older brother James was a barrister in Scotland, and his family decided that a career as a barrister was best for Murray. The Scottish Bar at the time was overcrowded, which made it difficult for a young barrister to build a reputation, yet qualifying for the English Bar was extremely expensive. Thanks to the patronage of Thomas Foley, 1st Baron Foley, who gave Murray £200 a year to live on, Murray could afford to study at the bar, and became a member of Lincolns Inn on 23 April 1724. After George I died on 11 June 1727, Murray entered and his actions were seen as a show of support for the House of Hanover and the political status quo, something odd considering the strong Jacobite sympathies of his family. He probably did this because, having no income, he wished to secure patronage to help him advance politically. Another entrant was William Pitt, who was a constant rival to Murray until Pitts death in 1778

29.
Pillans v Van Mierop
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Pillans & Rose v Van Mierop & Hopkins 3 Burr 1663 is a case concerning letters of credit, and the doctrine of consideration. It has been recommended as a case in English contract law. In it, Lord Mansfield tentatively expressed a view that the doctrine of consideration was redundant and it was doubted in a later case by the House of Lords, Rann v Hughes. Pillans & Rose were in together as mechant bankers in Rotterdam. They agreed to accept bills from White, an Irish merchant, White had to make sure Van Mierop & Hopkins, a big London firm, would guarantee the bills. Van Mierop confirmed that they would do so and would guarantee a pre-existing duty of White to pay Pillans, however, before the bills were drawn on Van Mierop, White went insolvent. Van Mierop refused to honour the bills, Van Mierop argued that Pillans had provided no consideration for their guarantee since there was the rule that past consideration is not a good consideration. Lord Mansfield held that the doctrine of consideration should not be applied to preclude enforcement of promises made in mercantile transactions

30.
English contract law
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English contract law is a body of law regulating contracts in England and Wales. It is also experiencing gradual change because of the UKs membership of the European Union, any agreement that is enforceable in court is a contract. Generally a contract forms when one makes an offer. If the terms are certain, and the parties can be presumed from their behaviour to have intended that the terms are binding, generally the agreement is enforceable. Contracts can be made personally or through an agent acting on behalf of a principal, in principle, English law grants people broad freedom to agree the content of a deal. Terms in an agreement are incorporated through express promises, by reference to terms or potentially through a course of dealing between two parties. Those terms are interpreted by the courts to seek out the intention of the parties, from the perspective of an objective observer. Contract law works best when an agreement is performed, and recourse to the courts is never needed because each party knows her rights and it may also be that one party simply breaches a contracts terms. If a contract is not substantially performed, then the innocent party is entitled to cease her own performance, unconscionable agreements can be escaped where a person was under duress or undue influence or their vulnerability was being exploited when they ostensibly agreed to a deal. Some transactions are considered illegal, and are not enforced by courts because of a statute or on grounds of public policy. In theory, English law attempts to adhere to a principle that people should only be bound when they have given their informed, the modern law of contract is primarily a creature of the industrial revolution and the social legislation of the 20th century. William the Conqueror created a common law across England, but throughout the ages the court system was minimal. Access to the courts, in what are now considered contractual disputes, was restricted to a privileged few through onerous requirements of pleading, formalities. They risked perjury if they lost the case, and so this was strong encouragement to resolve disputes elsewhere, the royal courts, fixed to meet in London by the Magna Carta 1215, accepted claims for trespass on the case. A jury would be called, and no wager of law was needed, gradually, the courts allowed claims where there had been no real trouble, no tort with force of arms, but it was still necessary to put this in the pleading. The Court of Chancery and the Kings Bench slowly started to allow claims without the fictitious allegation of force, an action for simple breach of a covenant had required production of formal proof of the agreement with a seal. However, in The Humber Ferrymans case a claim was allowed, without any documentary evidence, despite this liberalisation, in the 1200s a threshold of 40 shillings for a disputes value had been created. Though its importance tapered away with inflation over the years, it foreclosed court access to most people, moreover, freedom to contract was firmly suppressed among the peasantry

31.
Lloyds Bank
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Lloyds Bank plc is a British retail and commercial bank with branches across England and Wales. It has traditionally been considered one of the Big Four clearing banks, the bank was founded in Birmingham in 1765. It expanded during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and took over a number of smaller banking companies, in 1995 it merged with the Trustee Savings Bank and traded as Lloyds TSB Bank plc between 1999 and 2013. The bank is the subsidiary of Lloyds Banking Group, which was formed in January 2009 by the acquisition of HBOS by the then-Lloyds TSB Group. That year, following the UK bank rescue package, the British Government took a 43. 4% stake in Lloyds Banking Group, the new business began operations on 9 September 2013 under the TSB brand. Lloyds TSB was subsequently renamed Lloyds Bank on 23 September 2013, Lloyds Bank is the largest retail bank in Britain, and has an extensive network of branches and ATM in England and Wales and offers 24-hour telephone and online banking services. As of 2012 it has 16 million personal customers and small business accounts, Lloyds Bank came 10th out of 12 in the British Bank Awards 2016. It has its operational Headquarters in London and other offices in Wales and it also operates a number of office complex, brand headquarters and data centres in Yorkshire including Leeds, Sheffield and Halifax. The origins of Lloyds Bank date from 1765, when button maker John Taylor and Quaker iron producer and dealer Sampson Lloyd II set up a banking business in Dale End. The first branch opened in Oldbury, some six miles west of Birmingham. The symbol adopted by Taylors and Lloyds was the beehive, representing industry, the black horse regardant device dates from 1677, when Humphrey Stokes adopted it as sign for his shop. Stokes was a goldsmith and keeper of the running cashes and the became part of Barnett. When Lloyds took over that bank in 1884, it continued to trade at the sign of the black horse, the association with the Taylor family ended in 1852 and, in 1865, Lloyds & Co. converted into a joint-stock company known as Lloyds Banking Company Ltd. The first report of the company in 1865 stated, LLOYDS BANKING COMPANY LIMITED – Authorized Capital £2,000,000, FOUNDED ON The Private Banks of Messrs. Moilliet and Sons, with-which have subsequently been amalgamated the Banks of Messrs. P. H. Williams, Wednesbury and your Directors have the satisfaction to report that they have concluded an agreement with the well-known and old-established firm of Messrs. It will be submitted to you for final confirmation after the close of the Ordinary General Meeting. Eventually, this became absorbed into the original Lloyds Banking Company, and, finally, Lloyds Bank Limited in 1889. By 1923, Lloyds Bank had made some 50 takeovers, one of which was the last private firm to issue its own banknotes—Fox, Fowler and Company of Wellington, today, the Bank of England has a monopoly of banknote issue in England and Wales

32.
Birmingham
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Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment

33.
Kedleston Hall
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Today it is a National Trust property. The Curzon family have owned the estate at Kedleston since at least 1297 and have lived in a succession of houses near to or on the site of the present Kedleston Hall. The present house was commissioned by Sir Nathaniel Curzon in 1759, the house was designed by the Palladian architects James Paine and Matthew Brettingham and was loosely based on an original plan by Andrea Palladio for the never-built Villa Mocenigo. The design of the house is of three blocks linked by two segmentally curved corridors. The ground floor is rusticated, while the floors are of smooth-dressed stone. The central, largest block contains the rooms and was intended for use only when there were important guests in the house. Plans for two pavilions of identical size, and similar appearance were not executed. These further wings were intended to contain, in the south east a music room, externally these latter pavilions would have differed from their northern counterparts by large glazed Serlian windows on the piano nobile of their southern facades. Here the blocks were to appear as of two floors only, a mezzanine was to have been disguised in the north of the music room block, the linking galleries here were also to contain larger windows, than on the north, and niches containing classical statuary. If the great north front, approximately 107 metres in length, is Palladian in character, dominated by the massive, six-columned Corinthian portico, above the door, at second-floor height, are stone garlands and medallions in relief. The four Corinthian columns are topped by classical statues and this whole centre section of the facade is crowned by a low dome visible only from a distance. Flanking the central section are two wings on three floors, each three windows wide, the windows of the first-floor piano nobile being the tallest. Adams design for this facade contains huge movement and has a delicate almost fragile quality, the neoclassical interior of the house was designed by Adam to be no less impressive than the exterior. Entering the house through the north portico on the piano nobile. Twenty fluted alabaster columns with Corinthian capitals support the heavily decorated, high-coved cornice, niches in the walls contain classical statuary, above the niches are grisaille panels. The floor is of inlaid Italian marble, if the hall was the atrium of the villa, then the adjoining saloon was to be the vestibulum. Designed as a gallery, this circular room was completed in 1763. The decorative theme is based on the temples of the Roman Forum with more modern inventions, in the four massive, the four sets of double doors giving entry to the room have heavy pediments supported by scagliola columns, and at second-floor height, grisaille panels depict classical themes

34.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays

35.
William Tryon
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William Tryon was a British soldier and colonial administrator who served as the eighth Governor of North Carolina and the Governor of New York. Tryon was born 8 June 1729 at the seat at Norbury Park, Surrey, England the son of Charles Tryon. In 1751, he entered the military as a lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards and was promoted to Captain in later that year and he had a daughter by Mary Stanton, whom he never married. In 1757, he married Margaret Wake, a London heiress with a dowry of 30,000 pounds. Her father, William Wake, had been the Honourable East India Companys Governor in Bombay from 1742 to 1750, in 1758, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Margaret was later the namesake of Wake County, North Carolina, during the Seven Years War, he and his regiment were involved in the Cherbourg-St. They landed at Cherbourg and destroyed all war making facilities, in September, they reembarked for St. Malo where the operation went smoothly until the withdrawal when they came under intense fire from the French at the Battle of St Cast. Tryon was wounded in the thigh and in the head, on 26 April 1764, through family connections, he obtained the position of acting lieutenant governor of the Province of North Carolina. He arrived in North Carolina with his family, including a young daughter and he said that he would not be leaving until May. Tryon found himself with no income, in 1765, a house called Russelborough on the Cape Fear River near Brunswick Town was renovated to serve as Tryons residence while he acted as Lieutenant Governor. Tryon assumed his position as acting governor when Dobbs died on 28 March 1765, on 10 July, the King promoted him to governor. After assuming the office of governor, Tryon worked to expand the Church of England in North Carolina, there were only five Anglican clergy members in North Carolina at that time. Tryon pushed for the completion of abandoned construction projects of Anglican churches in Brunswick Town, Wilmington, Edenton, Tryon appointed members of the clergy for these churches and encouraged the construction of new churches, especially in rural areas. There was an opposition in North Carolina to the Stamp Act of 1765. When the Stamp Act Congress was held, the assembly was not in session. Tryon refused to allow meetings of the Assembly from 18 May 1765 to 3 November 1766 to prevent the Assembly from passing a resolution in opposition to the Stamp Act. Tryon said that he was opposed to the Stamp Act. Tryon requested troops to enforce the act, but instead he was informed on 25 June 1766 that the act was repealed, in December 1766, the North Carolina legislature authorized £5,000 for the building of Tryons mansion

36.
Governor of North Carolina
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The Governor of North Carolina is the head of the executive branch of North Carolinas state government and serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The current governor is Roy Cooper who took office on January 1,2017, among other responsibilities, the governor heads the Council of State. The Governor of North Carolina was the last state chief executive to receive veto power, the Governor of North Carolina has extensive powers of appointment of executive branch officials, some judges, and members of boards and commissions. Nevertheless, the office has an amount of institutional power compared to governors in other states. Originally, under the first North Carolina Constitution, the office was very weak, dudley became the first governor elected by the people in 1836. Governors served two-year terms from 1836 until a new constitution was adopted in 1868, since then, well into the twentieth century, the North Carolina state constitution made the states governor one of the weakest in the nation. Until an amendment was added to the constitution in 1971, North Carolina Governors could only serve a single four-year term. After the amendment was passed, in 1980 James B. Hunt became the first governor in history to be elected to a second term. Governors are still limited to two consecutive four-year terms, but they may run for further non-consecutive terms. Governor Hunt did just that, winning election to a third, the Lieutenant Governor is also limited to two consecutive four-year terms. North Carolina was also the last state in the Union to give its governors veto power over legislation, after the state gained its independence from Britain, the state constitution deliberately weakened the executive branch of state government and strengthened the legislative branch. Since the end of Reconstruction in the 1870s the overwhelming majority of the governors have been Democrats. The only Republican to be elected Governor between 1876 and 1972 was Daniel L. Russell, who served 1897–1901, even so, Republicans have still had difficulty in winning gubernatorial elections in North Carolina, and the office has usually remained in Democratic hands. The Governor lives in the North Carolina Executive Mansion, a Queen Anne style Victorian house in downtown Raleigh and his or her principal office is located in the North Carolina State Capitol. com North Carolina Encyclopedia

37.
William Blackstone
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Sir William Blackstone SL KC was an English jurist, judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century. He is most noted for writing the controversial Commentaries on the Laws of England, born into a middle-class family in London, Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke College, Oxford in 1738. After switching to and completing a Bachelor of Civil Law degree, he was made a Fellow of All Souls, Oxford on 2 November 1743, admitted to Middle Temple, and called to the Bar there in 1746. Blackstone is considered responsible for completing the Codrington Library and Warton Building, on 3 July 1753 he formally gave up his practice as a barrister and instead embarked on a series of lectures on English law, the first of their kind. In November 1765 he published the first of four volumes of Commentaries on the Laws of England, considered his magnum opus and he remained in this position until his death, on 14 February 1780. Blackstones controversial legacy and main work of note is his Commentaries, designed to provide a complete overview of English law, the four-volume treatise was repeatedly republished in 1770,1773,1774,1775,1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783. Legal education in England had stalled, Blackstones work gave the law at least a veneer of scholarly respectability, williams father, Charles Blackstone, was a silk mercer from Cheapside, the son of a wealthy apothecary. He became firm friends with Thomas Bigg, a surgeon and the son of Lovelace Bigg, after Biggs sister Mary came to London, Charles eventually persuaded her to marry him in 1718. This was not seen as a match for her, but the couple lived happily and had four sons. Charles and Henry, both fellows of New College, Oxford and took holy orders. Their last son, William, was born on 10 July 1723, although Charles and Mary Blackstone were members of the middle class rather than landed gentry, they were particularly prosperous. Tax records show Charles Blackstone to have been the second most prosperous man in the parish in 1722 and this, along with Thomas Biggs assistance to the family following Charles death, helps explain the educational upbringing of the children. William Blackstone was sent to Charterhouse School in 1730, nominated by Charles Wither, William did well there, and became head of the school by age 15. However, after Charles death the family declined, and after Mary died the familys resources largely went to meet unpaid bills. William was able to remain at Charterhouse as a poor scholar, Blackstone revelled in Charterhouses academic curriculum, particularly the Latin poetry of Ovid and Virgil. He began to note as a poet at school, writing a 30-line set of rhyming couplets to celebrate the wedding of James Hotchkis. He also won a medal for his Latin verses on John Milton, gave the annual Latin oration in 1738. On 1 October 1738, taking advantage of a new scholarship available to Charterhouse students, Blackstone matriculated at Pembroke College, Blackstone was particularly good at Greek, mathematics and poetry, with his notes on William Shakespeare being included in George Steevens 1781 edition of Shakespeares plays

38.
Commentaries on the Laws of England
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The work is divided into four volumes, on the rights of persons, the rights of things, of private wrongs and of public wrongs. The Commentaries were long regarded as the work on the development of English law. They were in fact the first methodical treatise on the common law suitable for a lay readership since at least the Middle Ages. The common law of England has relied on precedent more than statute and codifications and has far less amenable than the civil law, developed from the Roman law. The Commentaries were influential largely because they were in fact readable, the Commentaries are often quoted as the definitive pre-Revolutionary source of common law by United States courts. Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States quote from Blackstones work whenever they wish to engage in historical discussion that goes back that far, or farther. The Rights of Persons is by and large concerned with the relations of status in the English social structure, from the King of England, also dealt with here were common relationships such as that of husband and wife, master and servant, and guardian and ward. The Rights of Things, Blackstones longest volume, deals with property, the vast majority of the text is devoted to real property, this being the most valuable sort in the feudal law upon which the English law of land was founded. Of Private Wrongs dealt with torts as they existed in Blackstones time, the various methods of trial that existed at civil law were also dealt with in this volume, as were the jurisdictions of the several courts, from the lowest to the highest. Of Public Wrongs is Blackstones treatise on criminal law, here, Blackstone the apologist takes centre stage, he seeks to explain how the criminal laws of England were just and merciful, despite becoming later known as the Bloody Code for their severity. Blackstone frequently resorted to assuring his reader that the laws as written were not always enforced, Blackstone for the first time made the common law readable and understandable by non-lawyers. At first, his Commentaries were hotly contested, some seeing in them an evil or covert attempt to reduce or codify the law which was anathema to common law purists. For decades, a study of the Commentaries was required reading for all first year law students, lord Avonmore said of Blackstone, He it was who first gave to the law the air of a science. He found it a skeleton and clothed it with life, colour and he embraced the cold statue and by his touch, it grew into youth, health and beauty. Jeremy Bentham, who had been a critic of the Commentaries when they were first published, while there is much valuable historical information in the Commentaries, later historians have tended to be somewhat critical of the uses Blackstone made of history. But Blackstones chief contribution was to create a succinct, readable, while useful in England, Blackstones text answered an urgent need in the developing United States and Canada. The four volumes of Blackstone put the gist of that tradition in portable form and they were required reading for most lawyers in the Colonies, and for many, they were the only reading. Two decades after their publication, Blackstones Commentaries were the focus of a polemic by Jeremy Bentham

The Kingdom of Great Britain, also referred to as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, though officially Great Britain, …

Walpole's grand estate at Houghton Hall represents the patronage rewards he bestowed on himself. It housed his great art collection and often hosted the English elite. The king made him Duke of Orford when he retired in 1742.

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime …

Late in the 17th century Treasury Ministers began to attend the Commons regularly. They were given a reserved place, called the Treasury Bench, to the Speaker's right where the Prime Minister and senior Cabinet members sit today.

The House of Commons early 19th century. The Loyal Opposition occupy the benches to the Speaker's left. Seated in the front, the leaders of the opposition form a "Shadow Government", complete with a salaried "Shadow Prime Minister" ready to assume office if the government falls or loses the next election.

Kedleston Hall is an English country house in Kedleston, Derbyshire, approximately four miles north-west of Derby, and …

Kedleston Hall was Brettingham's opportunity to prove himself capable of designing a house to rival Holkham Hall. The opportunity was taken from him by Robert Adam who completed the North front (above) much as Brettingham designed it, but with a more dramatic portico.