The Sense of Beauty Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory

Summary

It is remarkably appropriate that this work on aesthetics should have been written by George Santayana, who is probably the most brilliant philosophic writer and the philosopher with the strongest sense of beauty since Plato. It is not a dry metaphysical treatise, as works on aesthetics so often are, but is itself a fascinating document: as much a revelation of the beauty of language as of the concept of beauty.
This unabridged reproduction of the 1896 edition of lectures delivered at Harvard College is a study of "why, when, and how beauty appears, what conditions an object must fulfill to be beautiful, what elements of our nature make us sensible of beauty, and what the relation is between the constitution of the object and the excitement of our susceptibility."
Santayana first analyzes the nature of beauty, finding it irrational, "pleasure regarded as the quality of a thing." He then proceeds to the materials of beauty, showing what all human functions can contribute: love, social instincts, senses, etc. Beauty of form is then analyzed, and finally the author discusses the expression of beauty. Literature, religion, values, evil, wit, humor, and the possibility of finite perfection are all examined. Presentation throughout the work is concrete and easy to follow, with examples drawn from art, history, anthropology, psychology, and similar areas.

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The Sense of Beauty Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory - George Santayana

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PREFACE

This little work contains the chief ideas gathered together fora course of lectures on the theory and history of aesthetics givenat Harvard College from 1892 to 1895. The only originality I canclaim is that which may result from the attempt to put together thescattered commonplaces of criticism into a system, under theinspiration of a naturalistic psychology. I have studied sincerityrather than novelty, and if any subject, as for instance theexcellence of tragedy, is presented in a new light, the changeconsists only in the stricter application to a complex subject ofthe principles acknowledged to obtain in our simple judgments. Myeffort throughout has been to recall those fundamental aestheticfeelings the orderly extension of which yields sanity of judgmentand distinction of taste.

The influences under which the book has been written are rathertoo general and pervasive to admit of specification; yet thestudent of philosophy will not fail to perceive how much I owe towriters, both living and dead, to whom no honour could be added bymy acknowledgments. I have usually omitted any reference to them infoot-notes or in the text, in order that the air of controversymight be avoided, and the reader might be enabled to compare whatissaid more directly with the reality of his own experience.

G. S. September, 1906.

INTRODUCTION

The sense of beauty has a more important place in life thanaesthetic theory has ever taken in philosophy. The plastic arts,with poetry and music, are the mostconspicuous monuments of thishuman interest, because they appeal only to contemplation, and yethave attracted to their service, in all civilized ages, an amountof effort, genius, and honour, little inferior to that given toindustry, war, or religion.The fine arts, however, where aestheticfeeling appears almost pure, are by no means the only sphere inwhich men show their susceptibility to beauty. In all products ofhuman industry we notice the keenness with which the eye isattracted to the mere appearance of things: great sacrifices oftime and labour are made to it in the most vulgar manufactures; nordoes man select his dwelling, his clothes, or his companionswithout reference to their effect on his aesthetic senses. Of latewe have even learned that the forms of many animals are due to thesurvival by sexual selection of the colours and forms mostattractive to the eye. There must therefore be in our nature a veryradical and wide-spread tendency to observe beauty, and to valueit. No account of the principles of the mind can be at all adequatethat passes over so conspicuous a faculty.

That aesthetic theory has received so little attention from theworld is not due to the unimportance of the subject of which ittreats, but rather to lack of an adequate motive for speculatingupon it, and to the small success of the occasional efforts to dealwith it. Absolute curiosity, and love of comprehension for its ownsake, are not passions we havemuch leisure to indulge: they requirenot only freedom from affairs but, what is more rare, freedom fromprepossessions and from the hatred of all ideas that do not makefor the habitual goal of our thought.

Now, what has chiefly maintained such speculation as the worldhas seen has been either theological passion or practical use. Allwe find, for example, written about beauty may be divided into twogroups: that group of writings in which philosophers haveinterpreted aesthetic facts in the light of their metaphysicalprinciples, and made of their theory of taste acorollary orfootnote to their systems; and that group in which artists andcritics have ventured into philosophic ground, by generalizingsomewhat the maxims of the craft or the comments of the sensitiveobserver. A treatment of the subject at once direct and theoretichas been very rare: the problems of nature and morals haveattracted the reasoners, and the description and creation of beautyhave absorbed the artists; between the two reflection uponaesthetic experience has remained abortive or incoherent.

A circumstance that has also contributed to the absence or tothe failure of aesthetic speculation is the subjectivity of thephenomenon with which it deals. Man has a prejudice againsthimself: anything which is a product of his mind seems to him to beunreal or comparatively insignificant. We are satisfied only whenwe fancy ourselves surrounded by objects and laws independent ofour nature. The ancients long speculated about the constitution ofthe universe before they became aware of that mind whichis theinstrument of all speculation. The moderns, also, even within thefield of psychology, have studied first the function of perceptionand the theory of knowledge, by which we seem to be informed aboutexternal things; they have in comparison neglected the exclusivelysubjective and human department of imagination and emotion. We havestill to recognize in practice the truth that from these despisedfeelings of ours the great world of perception derives all itsvalue, if not also its existence. Thingsare interesting because wecare about them, and important because we need them. Had ourperceptions no connexion with our pleasures, we should soon closeour eyes on this world; if our intelligence were of no service toour passions, we should come to doubt, in the lazy freedom ofreverie, whether two and two make four.

Yet so strong is the popular sense of the unworthiness andinsignificance of things purely emotional, that those who havetaken moral problems to heart and felt their dignity have oftenbeen led into attempts to discover some external right and beautyof which, our moral and aesthetic feelings should be perceptions ordiscoveries, just as our intellectual activity is, in men'sopinion, a perception or discovery of external fact. Thesephilosophers seem to feel that unless moral and aesthetic judgmentsare expressions of objective truth, and not merely expressions ofhuman nature, they stand condemned of hopeless triviality. Ajudgment is not trivial, however, because it rests on humanfeelings; on the contrary, triviality consists in abstraction fromhuman interests; only those judgments and opinions are trulyinsignificant which wander beyond the reach of verification, andhave no function in the ordering and enriching of life.

Both ethics and aesthetics have suffered much from the prejudiceagainst the subjective. They have not suffered more because bothhave a subject-matter which is partly objective. Ethics deals withconduct as much as with emotion, and therefore considers the causesof events and their consequences as well as our judgments of theirvalue. Esthetics also is apt to include the history and philosophyof art, and to add much descriptive and critical matter to thetheory of our susceptibility to beauty. A certain confusion isthereby introduced into these inquiries, but at the same time thediscussion is enlivened by excursions into neighbouring provinces,perhaps more interesting to the general reader.

We may, however, distinguish three distinct elements of ethicsand aesthetics, and three different ways of approaching thesubject. The first is the exercise of the moral or aestheticfaculty itself, the actual pronouncing of judgment and giving ofpraise, blame, and precept. This is not a matter of science but ofcharacter, enthusiasm, niceness of perception, and fineness ofemotion. It is aesthetic or moral activity, while ethics andaesthetics, as sciences, are intellectual activities, having thataesthetic or moral activity for their subject-matter.

The second method consists in the historical explanation ofconduct or of art as a part of anthropology, and seeks to discoverthe conditions of various types of character, forms of polity,conceptions of justice, and schools of criticism and of art. Ofthis nature is a great deal ofwhat has been written on aesthetics.The philosophy of art has often proved a more tempting subject thanthe psychology of taste, especially to minds which were not so muchfascinated by beauty itself as by the curious problem of theartistic instinct inman and of the diversity of its manifestationsin history.

The third method in ethics and aesthetics is psychological, asthe other two are respectively didactic and historical. It dealswith moral and aesthetic judgments as phenomena of mind andproductsof mental evolution. The problem here is to understand theorigin and conditions of these feelings and their relation to therest of our economy. Such an inquiry, if pursued successfully,would yield an understanding of the reason why we think anythingright or beautiful, wrong or ugly, it would thus reveal the rootsof conscience and taste in human nature and enable us todistinguish transitory preferences and ideals, which rest onpeculiar conditions, from those which, springing from thoseelements of mind which all men share, are comparatively permanentand universal.

To this inquiry, as far as it concerns aesthetics, the followingpages are devoted. No attempt will be made either to imposeparticular appreciations or to trace the history of art andcriticism. The discussion will be limited to the nature andelements of our aesthetic judgments. It is a theoretical inquiryand has no directly hortatory quality. Yet insight into the basisof our preferences, if it could be gained, would not fail to have agood and purifying influence upon them. It would show us thefutility of a dogmatism that would impose upon another manjudgments and emotions for which the needed soil is lacking in hisconstitution and experience; and at the same time it would relieveus of any undue diffidence or excessive tolerance towardsaberrations of taste, when we know what are the broader grounds ofpreference and the habits that make for greater and morediversified aesthetic enjoyment.

Therefore, although nothing has commonly beenless attractivethan treatises on beauty or less a guide to taste thandisquisitions upon it, we may yet hope for some not merelytheoretical gain from these studies. They have remained so oftenwithout practical influence because they have been pursued underunfavourable conditions. The writers have generally been audaciousmetaphysicians and somewhat incompetent critics; they haverepresented general and obscure principles, suggested by otherparts of their philosophy, as the conditions of artistic excellenceand the essence of beauty. But if the inquiry is kept close to thefacts of feeling, we may hope that the resulting theory may have aclarifying effect on the experience on which it is based. That is,after all, the use of theory. If when a theory isbad it narrows ourcapacity for observation and makes all appreciation vicarious andformal, when it is good it reacts favourably upon our powers,guides the attention to what is really capable of affordingentertainment, and increases, by force of new analogies, the rangeof our interests. Speculation is an evil if it imposes a foreignorganization on our mental life; it is a good if it only brings tolight, and makes more perfect by training, the organization alreadyinherent in it.

We shall therefore study human sensibility itself and our actualfeelings about beauty, and we shall look for no deeper, unconsciouscauses of our aesthetic consciousness. Such value as belongs tometaphysical derivations of the nature of the beautiful, comes tothem not because they explain our primary feelings, which theycannot do, but because they express, and in fact constitute, someof our later appreciations. There is no explanation, for instance,in calling beauty an adumbration of divine attributes. Such arelation, ifit were actual, would not help us at all to understandwhy the symbols of divinity pleased. But in certain moments ofcontemplation, when much emotional experience lies behind us, andwe have reached very general ideas both of nature and of life, ourdelight in any particular object may consist in nothing but thethought that this object is a manifestation of universalprinciples. The blue sky may come to please chiefly because itseems the image of a serene conscience, or of the eternal youth andpurity of nature after a thousand partial corruptions. But thisexpressiveness of the sky is due to certain qualities of thesensation, which bind it to all things happy and pure, and, in amind in which the essence of purity and happiness is embodied in anidea of God, bind it also to that idea.

So it may happen that the most arbitrary and unreal theories,which must be rejected as general explanations of aesthetic life,may be reinstated as particular moments of it. Those intuitionswhich we call Platonic are seldom scientific, they seldom explainthe phenomena or hit upon the actual law of things, but they areoften the highest expression of that activity which they fail tomake comprehensible. The adoring lover cannot understand thenatural history of love; forhe is all in all at the last andsupreme stage of its development. Hence the world has always beenpuzzled in its judgment of the Platonists; their theories are soextravagant, yet their wisdom seems so great. Platonism is a veryrefined and beautiful expression of our natural instincts, itembodies conscience and utters our inmost hopes. Platonicphilosophers have therefore a natural authority, as standing onheights to which the vulgar cannot attain, but to which theynaturally and half-consciously aspire.

When a man tells you that beauty is the manifestation of God tothe senses, you wish you might understand him, you grope for a deeptruth in his obscurity, you honour him for his elevation of mind,and your respect may even induce you to assent to what he says asto an intelligible proposition. Your thought may in consequence bedominated ever after by a verbal dogma, around which all yoursympathies and antipathies will quickly gather, and the less youhave penetrated the original sense of your creed, the moreabsolutely will you believe it. You will have followedMephistopheles' advice: --

Yet reflection might have shown you that the word of the masterheld no objective account of the nature and origin of beauty, butwas the vague expression of his highly complex emotions.

It is one of the attributes of God, one of the perfections whichwe contemplate in our idea of him, that there is no dualityoropposition between his will and his vision, between the impulsesof his nature and the events of his life. This is what we commonlydesignate as omnipotence and creation. Now, in the contemplation ofbeauty, our faculties of perception have the same perfection: it isindeed from the experience of beauty and happiness, from theoccasional harmony between our nature and our environment, that wedraw our conception of the divine life. There is, then, a realpropriety in calling beauty a manifestation of God tothe senses,since, in the region of sense, the perception of beauty exemplifiesthat adequacy and perfection which in general we objectify in anidea of God.

But the minds that dwell in the atmosphere of these analogiesare hardly those that will care toask what are the conditions andthe varieties of this perfection of function, in other words, howit comes about that we perceive beauty at all, or have any inklingof divinity. Only the other philosophers, those that wallow inEpicurus' sty, know anythingabout the latter question. But it iseasier to be impressed than to be instructed, and the public isvery ready to believe that where there is noble language notwithout obscurity there must be profound knowledge. We shoulddistinguish, however, the two distinct demands in the case. One isfor comprehension; we look for the theory of a human function whichmust cover all possible cases of its exercise, whether noble orbase. This the Platonists utterly fail to give us. The other demandis for inspiration;we wish to be nourished by the maxims andconfessions of an exalted mind, in whom the aesthetic function ispre-eminent. By responding to this demand the same thinkers may winour admiration.

To feel beauty is a better thing than to understand how wecometo feel it. To have imagination and taste, to love the best, tobe carried by the contemplation of nature to a vivid faith in theideal, all this is more, a great deal more, than any science canhope to be. The poets and philosophers who express this aestheticexperience and stimulate the same function in us by their example,do a greater service to mankind and deserve higher honour than thediscoverers of historical truth. Reflection is indeed a part oflife, but the last part. Its specific value consistsin thesatisfaction of curiosity, in the smoothing out andexplanation ofthings: but the greatest pleasure which we actually get fromreflection is borrowed from the experience on which we reflect. Wedo not often indulge in retrospect for the sake of a scientificknowledge of human life, but rather to revive the memories of whatonce was dear. And I should have little hope of interesting thereader in the present analyses, did I not rely on the attractionsof a subject associated with so many of his pleasures.

But the recognition of the superiority of aesthetics inexperience to aesthetics in theory ought not to make us accept asan explanation of aesthetic feeling what is in truth only anexpression of it. When Plato tells us of the eternal ideas inconformity to which all excellence consists, he is making himselfthe spokesman of the moral consciousness. Our conscience and tasteestablish these ideals; to make a judgment is virtually toestablish an ideal, and all ideals are absolute and eternal for thejudgment that involves them, because in finding and declaring athing good or beautiful, our sentence is categorical, and thestandard evoked by our judgment is for that case intrinsic andultimate. But at the next moment, when the mind is on anotherfooting, a new ideal is evoked, no less absolute for the presentjudgment than the old ideal was for the previous one. If we arethen expressing our feeling and confessing what happens to us whenwe judge, we shall be quite right in saying that we have alwaysanabsolute ideal before us, and that value lies in conformity withthat ideal. So, also, if we try to define that ideal, we shallhardly be able to say of it anything less noble and more definitethan that it is the embodiment of an infinite good. For it isthatincommunicable and illusive excellence that haunts every beautifulthing, andlike a star Beacons from the abode where the eternalare.

For the expression of this experience we should go to the poets,to the more inspired critics, and best of all tothe immortalparables of Plato. But if what we desire is to increase ourknowledge rather than to cultivate our sensibility, we should dowell to close all those delightful books; for we shall not find anyinstruction there upon the questions which most press upon us;namely, how an ideal is formed in the mind, how a given object iscompared with it, what is the common element in all beautifulthings, and what the substance of the absolute ideal in which allideals tend to be lost; and, finally, how we cometo be sensitive tobeauty at all, or to value it. These questions must be capable ofanswers, if any science of human nature is really possible. -- Sofar, then, are we from ignoring the insight of the Platonists, thatwe hope to explain it, and in a sense to justify it, by showingthat it is the natural and sometimes the supreme expression of thecommon principles of our nature.

PART I -THE NATURE OF BEAUTY

The philosophy of beauty is a theory of values.

§ 1. It would be easy to find a definition of beautythatshould give in a few words a telling paraphrase of the word. Weknow on excellent authority that beauty is truth, that it is theexpression of the ideal, the symbol of divine perfection, and thesensible manifestation of the good. A litany of these titles ofhonour might easily be compiled, and repeated in praise of ourdivinity. Such phrases stimulate thought and give us a momentarypleasure, but theyhardly bring any permanent enlightenment. Adefinition that should really define must be nothing less than theexposition of the origin, place, and elements of beauty as anobject of human experience. We must learn from it, as far aspossible, why, when, and how beauty appears, what conditions anobject must fulfil to be beautiful, what elements of our naturemake us sensible of beauty, and what the relation is between theconstitution of the object and the excitement of oursusceptibility. Nothing less will really define beauty or make usunderstand what aesthetic appreciation is. The definition of beautyin this sense will be the task of this whole book, a task that canbe only very imperfectly accomplished within its limits.

The historical titles of our subject may give us a hint towardsthe beginning of such a definition. Many writers of the lastcentury called the philosophy of beautyCriticism,and the word isstill retained as the title for the reasoned appreciation of worksof art. We could hardly speak, however, of delight in nature ascriticism. A sunset is not criticised; it is felt and enjoyed.Theword criticism, used on such an occasion,