European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction. Following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania.[17]

Over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa.[22] The country does not have a de jure official language,[citation needed] although the national language is Swahili.[23] Swahili is used in parliamentary debate, in the lower courts, and as a medium of instruction in primary school. English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education,[22] although the Tanzanian government is planning to discontinue English as a language of instruction altogether.[24] Approximately 10 percent of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90 percent speak it as a second language.[22]

The name "Tanganyika" is derived from the Swahili words tanga ("sail") and nyika ("uninhabited plain", "wilderness"), creating the phrase "sail in the wilderness". It is sometimes understood as a reference to Lake Tanganyika.[26]

The name of Zanzibar comes from "zenji", the name for a local people (said to mean "black"), and the Arabic word "barr", which means coast or shore.[27]

The first wave of migration was by Southern Cushitic speakers who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. They are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge.[15]:page 17 Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have been two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, originating from north of Lake Turkana.[15]:pages 17–18

Archaeological evidence supports the conclusion that Southern Nilotes, including the Datoog, moved south from the present-day South Sudan / Ethiopia border region into central northern Tanzania between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago.[15]:page 18

These movements took place at approximately the same time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the primary staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania between 2,300 and 1,700 years ago.[15][16]

Eastern Nilotic peoples, including the Maasai, represent a more recent migration from present day South Sudan within the past 500 to 1,500 years.[15][28]

The people of Tanzania have been associated with the production of iron and steel. The Pare people were the main producers of highly demanded iron for peoples who occupied the mountain regions of north-eastern Tanzania.[29] The Haya people on the western shores of Lake Victoria invented a type of high-heat blast furnace, which allowed them to forge carbon steel at temperatures exceeding 1,820 °C (3,310 °F) more than 1,500 years ago.[30]

Travelers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and India have visited the east African coast since early in the first millennium A.D.[31]Islam was practiced by some on the Swahili Coast as early as the eighth or ninth century A.D.[32]

Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Said bin Sultan moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade.[33] Between 65 and 90 percent of the Arab-Swahili population of Zanzibar was enslaved.[34] One of the most infamous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip, who was the grandson of an enslaved African. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo.[35] According to Timothy Insoll, "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast."[36] In the 1890s, slavery was abolished.[37]

In the late 19th century, Germany conquered the regions that are now Tanzania (minus Zanzibar) and incorporated them into German East Africa (GEA).[citation needed] The Supreme Council of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference awarded all of GEA to Britain on 7 May 1919, over the strenuous objections of Belgium.[38]:240 The British colonial secretary, Alfred Milner, and Belgium's minister plenipotentiary to the conference, Pierre Orts, then negotiated the Anglo-Belgian agreement of 30 May 1919[39]:618–9 where Britain ceded the north-western GEA provinces of Ruanda and Urundi to Belgium.[38]:246 The conference's Commission on Mandates ratified this agreement on 16 July 1919.[38]:246–7 The Supreme Council accepted the agreement on 7 August 1919.[39]:612–3 On 12 July 1919, the Commission on Mandates agreed that the small Kionga Triangle south of the Rovuma River would be given to Portuguese Mozambique,[38]:243 with it eventually becoming part of independent Mozambique. The commission reasoned that Germany had virtually forced Portugal to cede the triangle in 1894.[38]:243 The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 July 1919, although the treaty did not take effect until 10 January 1920. On that date, the GEA was transferred officially to Britain, Belgium, and Portugal. Also on that date, "Tanganyika" became the name of the British territory.

In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organisation into the politically oriented Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU's main objective was to achieve national sovereignty for Tanganyika. A campaign to register new members was launched, and within a year, TANU had become the leading political organisation in the country. Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960 and continued as prime minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961.[citation needed]

British rule came to an end on 9 December 1961, but for the first year of independence, Tanganyika had a governor general who represented the British monarch.[43]:page 6 On 9 December 1962, Tanganyika became a democratic republic under an executive president.[43]:page 6

After the Zanzibar Revolution overthrew the Arab dynasty in neighbouring Zanzibar,[44] which had become independent in 1963, the archipelago merged with mainland Tanganyika on 26 April 1964.[45] On 29 October of the same year, the country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania ("Tan" comes from Tanganyika and "Zan" from Zanzibar).[17] The union of the two hitherto separate regions was controversial among many Zanzibaris (even those sympathetic to the revolution) but was accepted by both the Nyerere government and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar owing to shared political values and goals.

Following Tanganyika's independence and unification with Zanzibar leading to the state of Tanzania, President Nyerere emphasized a need to construct a national identity for the citizens of the new country. To achieve this, Nyerere provided what is regarded as one of the most successful cases of ethnic repression and identity transformation in Africa.[46] With over 130 languages spoken within its territory, Tanzania is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Africa. Despite this obstacle, ethnic divisions remained rare in Tanzania when compared to the rest of the continent, notably its immediate neighbor, Kenya. Furthermore, since its independence, Tanzania has displayed more political stability than most African countries, particularly due to Nyerere's ethnic repression methods.[47]

In 1967, Nyerere's first presidency took a turn to the left after the Arusha Declaration, which codified a commitment to socialism as well-as Pan-Africanism. After the declaration, banks and many large industries were nationalised.

Tanzania was also aligned with China, which from 1970 to 1975 financed and helped build the 1,860-kilometre-long (1,160 mi) TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam to Zambia.[48] Nonetheless, from the late 1970s, Tanzania's economy took a turn for the worse, in the context of an international economic crisis affecting both developed and developing economies.

From the mid-1980s, the regime financed itself by borrowing from the International Monetary Fund and underwent some reforms. Since then, Tanzania's gross domestic product per capita has grown and poverty has been reduced, according to a report by the World Bank.[49]

Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located. Three of Africa's Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the continent's deepest lake, known for its unique species of fish. To the southwest lies Lake Nyasa. Central Tanzania is a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore.

Kalambo Falls in the southwestern region of Rukwa is the second highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa, and is located near the southeastern shore of Lake Tanganyika on the border with Zambia.[21] The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area.

Climate varies greatly within Tanzania. In the highlands, temperatures range between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F) during cold and hot seasons respectively. The rest of the country has temperatures rarely falling lower than 20 °C (68 °F). The hottest period extends between November and February (25–31 °C or 77.0–87.8 °F) while the coldest period occurs between May and August (15–20 °C or 59–68 °F). Annual temperature is 20 °C (68.0 °F). The climate is cool in high mountainous regions.

Tanzania has two major rainfall regimes: one is uni-modal (October–April) and the other is bi-modal (October–December and March–May).[55] The former is experienced in southern, central, and western parts of the country, and the latter is found in the north from Lake Victoria extending east to the coast.[55] The bi-modal regime is caused by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone.[55]

Tanzania is highly biodiverse and contains a wide variety of animal habitats.[60] On Tanzania's Serengeti plain, white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi) and other bovids participate in a large-scale annual migration. Tanzania is home to about 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of them strictly endemic and included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red Lists of countries.[61]

Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party in power. From its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. This changed on 1 July 1992, when the constitution was amended.[62]:§ 3

The president of Tanzania and the members of the National Assembly are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for five-year terms.[62]:§ 42(2) The vice-president is elected for a five-year term at the same time as the president and on the same ticket.[62]:§§ 47(2), 50(1) Neither the president nor the vice-president may be a member of the National Assembly.[62]:§ 66(2) The president appoints a prime minister, subject to confirmation by the assembly, to serve as the government's leader in the assembly.[62]:§§ 51(1)-(2), 52(2) The president selects his or her cabinet from assembly members.[62]:§ 55

All legislative power relating to mainland Tanzania and union matters is vested in the National Assembly,[62]:§ 64(1) which is unicameral and has a maximum of 357 members.[64] These include members elected to represent constituencies, the attorney general, five members elected by the Zanzibar house of representatives from among its own members, the special women's seats that constitute at least 30% of the seats that any party has in the assembly, the speaker of the assembly (if not otherwise a member of the assembly), and the persons (not more than ten) appointed by the president.[62]:§ 66(1) The Tanzania Electoral Commission demarcates the mainland into constituencies in the number determined by the commission with the consent of the president.[62]:§ 75

Tanzania has a four-level judiciary.[65] The lowest level courts on the Tanzanian mainland are the Primary Courts.[65] In Zanzibar, the lowest level courts are the Kadhi's Courts for Islamic family matters and the Primary Courts for all other cases.[65] On the mainland, appeal is to either the District Courts or the Resident Magistrates Courts.[65] In Zanzibar, appeal is to the Kadhi's Appeal Courts for Islamic family matters and the Magistrates Courts for all other cases.[65] From there, appeal is to the High Court of Mainland Tanzania or Zanzibar.[65] No appeal regarding Islamic family matters can be made from the High Court of Zanzibar.[65][66]:§ 99(1) Otherwise, the final appeal is to the Court of Appeal of Tanzania.[65]

The High Court of mainland Tanzania has three divisions – commercial, labour, and land[65] – and 15 geographic zones.[67] The High Court of Zanzibar has an industrial division, which hears only labour disputes.[68]

Mainland and union judges are appointed by the Chief Justice of Tanzania,[citation needed] except for those of the Court of Appeal and the High Court, who are appointed by the president of Tanzania.[62]: §§ 109(1), 118(2)–(3)

Throughout Tanzania, sex acts between men are illegal and carry a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.[70] According to a 2007 Pew Research Center survey, 95 percent of Tanzanians believed that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[71]

People with albinism living in Tanzania are often attacked, killed or mutilated because of superstitions related to the black-magical practice known as muti that say body parts of albinos have magical properties.[72]

Tanzania has the highest occurrence of this human rights violation among 27 African countries where muti is known to be practised.[73]

The legislative authority in Zanzibar over all non-union matters is vested in the House of Representatives (per the Tanzania constitution)[62]:§ 106(3) or the Legislative Council (per the Zanzibar constitution).

The Legislative Council has two parts: the president of Zanzibar and the House of Representatives.[62]:§ 107(1)-(2)[66]:§ 63(1) The president is Zanzibar's head of government and the chairman of the Revolutionary Council, in which the executive authority of Zanzibar is invested.[66]:§§ 5A(2), 26(1) Zanzibar has two vice-presidents, with the first being from the main opposition party in the house.[74][75] The second is from the party in power and is the leader of government business in the House.[75]

The president and the members of the House of Representatives have five-year terms.[66]:§ 28(2)

The president selects ministers from members of the House of Representatives,[66]:§ 42(2) with the ministers allocated according to the number of House seats won by political parties.[74] The Revolutionary Council consists of the president, both vice-presidents, all ministers, the attorney general of Zanzibar, and other house members deemed fit by the president.[74]

The House of Representatives is composed of elected members, ten members appointed by the president, all the regional commissioners of Zanzibar, the attorney general, and appointed female members whose number must be equal to 30 percent of the elected members.[66]:§§ 55(3), 64, 67(1) The House determines the number of its elected members[66]:§ 120(2) with the Zanzibar Electoral Commission determining the boundaries of each election constituency.[66]:§ 120(1) In 2013, the House had 81 members: fifty elected members, five regional commissioners, the attorney general, ten members appointed by the president, and fifteen appointed female members.[64]

In 1972, local government on the mainland was abolished and replaced with direct rule from the central government. Local government, however, was reintroduced in the beginning of the 1980s, when the rural councils and rural authorities were re-established. Local government elections took place in 1983, and functioning councils started in 1984. In 1999, a Local Government Reform Programme was enacted by the National Assembly, setting "a comprehensive and ambitious agenda ... [covering] four areas: political decentralization, financial decentralization, administrative decentralization and changed central-local relations, with the mainland government having over-riding powers within the framework of the Constitution."[76]

As of 2016, Tanzania is divided into thirty-one regions. regions (mkoa),[77][78] twenty-six on the mainland and five in Zanzibar (three on Unguja, two on Pemba).[79] In 2012, the thirty former regions were divided into 169 districts (wilaya), also known as local government authorities. Of those districts, 34 were urban units, which were further classified as three city councils (Arusha, Mbeya, and Mwanza), nineteen municipal councils, and twelve town councils.[8]

The urban units have an autonomous city, municipal, or town council and are subdivided into wards and mtaa. The non-urban units have an autonomous district council but are subdivided into village councils or township authorities (first level) and then into vitongoji.[76]

The city of Dar es Salaam is unique because it has a city council whose areal jurisdiction overlaps three municipal councils. The mayor of the city council is elected by that council. The twenty-member city council is composed of eleven persons elected by the municipal councils, seven members of the National Assembly, and "Nominated members of parliament under 'Special Seats' for women". Each municipal council also has a mayor. "The City Council performs a coordinating role and attends to issues cutting across the three municipalities", including security and emergency services.[80][81] The city of Mwanza has a city council whose areal jurisdiction overlaps two municipal councils.

Tanzania's relations with other donor countries, including Japan and members of the European Union, are generally good, though donors are concerned about Tanzania's commitment to reducing government corruption.[54]:page 1250[82]

Tanzania is a member of the East African Community (EAC), along with Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, and Burundi.[92] According to the East African Common Market Protocol of 2010, the free trade and free movement of people is guaranteed, including the right to reside in another member country for purposes of employment.[54]:page 1250[93][94] This protocol, however, has not been implemented because of work permit and other bureaucratic, legal, and financial obstacles.[95]

Tanzania weathered the Great Recession, which began in late 2008 or early 2009, relatively well. Strong gold prices, bolstering the country's mining industry, and Tanzania's poor integration into global markets helped to insulate the country from the downturn.[54]:page 1250 Since the recession ended, the Tanzanian economy has expanded rapidly thanks to strong tourism, telecommunications, and banking sectors.[54]:page 1250

According to the United Nations Development Program, however, recent growth in the national economy has benefited only the "very few", leaving out the majority of the population.[104] Tanzania's 2013 Global Hunger Index was worse than any other country in the EAC except Burundi.[105]:page 15 The proportion of persons who were undernourished in 2010–12 was also worse than any other EAC country except Burundi.[105]:page 51

[106] Tanzania has made little progress towards reducing extreme hunger and malnutrition.[106][107] The 2010 Global Hunger Index ranks the situation as “alarming”.[106] Children in rural areas suffer substantially higher rates of malnutrition and chronic hunger, although urban-rural disparities have narrowed as regards both stunting and underweight.[106] Low rural sector productivity arises mainly from inadequate infrastructure investment; limited access to farm inputs, extension services and credit; limited technology as well as trade and marketing support; and heavy dependence on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources.[106]

Approximately 68 percent of Tanzania's 44.9 million citizens live below the poverty line of $1.25 a day and 16 percent of children under 5 are malnourished.[107] The most prominent challenges Tanzania faces in poverty reduction are unsustainable harvesting of its natural resources, unchecked cultivation, climate change and water- source encroachment, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).[107]

There are very few resources for Tanzanians in terms of credit services, infrastructure or availability to improved agricultural technologies, which further exacerbates hunger and poverty in the country according to the UNDP.[107] Tanzania ranks 159 out of 187 countries in poverty according to the United Nation’s Human Development Index (2014).[107]

The Tanzanian economy is heavily based on agriculture, which in 2013 accounted for 24.5 percent of gross domestic product,[43]:page 37 provides 85% of exports,[17] and accounted for half of the employed workforce;[43]:page 56 The agricultural sector grew 4.3 percent in 2012, less than half of the Millennium Development Goal target of 10.8%.[108] 16.4 percent of the land is arable,[109] with 2.4 percent of the land planted with permanent crops.[110] Tanzania's economy relies on farming, but climate change has impacted their farming.

Maize was the largest food crop on the Tanzania mainland in 2013 (5.17 million tonnes), followed by cassava (1.94 million tonnes), sweet potatoes (1.88 million tonnes), beans (1.64 million tonnes), bananas (1.31 million tonnes), rice (1.31 million tonnes), and millet (1.04 million tonnes).[43]:page 58 Sugar was the largest cash crop on the mainland in 2013 (296,679 tonnes), followed by cotton (241,198 tonnes), cashew nuts (126,000 tonnes), tobacco (86,877 tonnes), coffee (48,000 tonnes), sisal (37,368 tonnes), and tea (32,422 tonnes).[43]:page 58 Beef was the largest meat product on the mainland in 2013 (299,581 tonnes), followed by lamb/mutton (115,652 tonnes), chicken (87,408 tonnes), and pork (50,814 tonnes).[43]:page 60

According to the 2002 National Irrigation Master Plan, 29.4 million hectares in Tanzania are suitable for irrigation farming; however, only 310,745 hectares were actually being irrigated in June 2011.[111]

Industry and construction is a major and growing component of the Tanzanian economy, contributing 22.2 percent of GDP in 2013.[43]:page 37 This component includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and natural gas, water supply, and construction.[43]:page 37 Mining contributed 3.3 percent of GDP in 2013.[43]:page 33 The vast majority of the country's mineral export revenue comes from gold, accounting for 89 percent of the value of those exports in 2013.[43]:page 71 It also exports sizeable quantities of gemstones, including diamonds and tanzanite.[54]:page 1251 All of Tanzania's coal production, which totalled 106,000 short tons in 2012, is used domestically.[112]

Only 15 percent of Tanzanians had access to electric power in 2011.[113] The government-owned Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) dominates the electric supply industry in Tanzania.[114] The country generated 6.013 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity in 2013, a 4.2 percent increase over the 5.771 billion kWh generated in 2012.[115]:page 4 Generation increased by 63 percent between 2005 and 2012;[116][117] Almost 18 percent of the electricity generated in 2012 was lost because of theft and transmission and distribution problems.[116] The electrical supply varies, particularly when droughts disrupt hydropower electric generation; rolling blackouts are implemented as necessary.[54]:page 1251[114] The unreliability of the electrical supply has hindered the development of Tanzanian industry.[54]:page 1251 In 2013, 49.7 percent of Tanzania's electricity generation came from natural gas, 28.9 percent from hydroelectric sources, 20.4 percent from thermal sources, and 1.0 percent from outside the country.[115]:page 5 The government has built a 532 kilometres (331 mi) gas pipeline from Mnazi Bay to Dar es Salaam.[118] This pipeline was expected to allow the country to double its electricity generation capacity to 3,000 megawatts by 2016.[119] The government's goal is to increase capacity to at least 10,000 megawatts by 2025.[120]

Nyerere Bridge in Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam, is Tanzania's and East Africa's only suspension bridge

According to PFC Energy, 25 to 30 trillion cubic feet of recoverable natural gas resources have been discovered in Tanzania since 2010,[112] bringing the total reserves to over 43 trillion cubic feet by the end of 2013.[121] The value of natural gas actually produced in 2013 was US$52.2 million, a 42.7 percent increase over 2012.[43]:page 73

Commercial production of gas from the Songo Songo Island field in the Indian Ocean commenced in 2004, thirty years after it was discovered there.[122][123] Over 35 billion cubic feet of gas was produced from this field in 2013,[43]:page 72 with proven, probable, and possible reserves totalling 1.1 trillion cubic feet.[123] The gas is transported by pipeline to Dar es Salaam.[122] As of 27 August 2014, TANESCO owed the operator of this field, Orca Exploration Group Inc.[124]

A newer natural gas field in Mnazi Bay in 2013 produced about one-seventh of the amount produced near Songo Songo Island[43]:page 73 but has proven, probable, and possible reserves of 2.2 trillion cubic feet.[123] Virtually all of that gas is being used for electricity generation in Mtwara.[122]

The Ruvuma and Nyuna regions of Tanzania have been explored mostly by the discovery company that holds a 75 percent interest, Aminex, and has shown to hold in excess of 3.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. A pipeline connecting offshore natural gas fields to Tanzania's commercial capital Dar es Salaam was completed at the end of April 2015.[125]

Travel and tourism contributed 17.5 percent of Tanzania's gross domestic product in 2016[126] and employed 11.0 percent of the country's labour force (1,189,300 jobs) in 2013.[127] Overall receipts rose from US $1.74 billion in 2004 to US $4.48 billion in 2013,[127] and receipts from international tourists rose from US $1.255 billion in 2010 to US $2 billion in 2016.[126][128] In 2016, 1,284,279 tourists arrived at Tanzania's borders compared to 590,000 in 2005.[103] The vast majority of tourists visit Zanzibar or a "northern circuit" of Serengeti National Park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, and Mount Kilimanjaro.[54]:page 1252 In 2013, the most visited national park was Serengeti (452,485 tourists), followed by Manyara (187,773) and Tarangire (165,949).[43]:page xx

The Bank of Tanzania is the central bank of Tanzania and is primarily responsible for maintaining price stability, with a subsidiary responsibility for issuing Tanzanian shilling notes and coins.[129] At the end of 2013, the total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry were 19.5 trillion Tanzanian shillings, a 15 percent increase over 2012.[130]

Most transport in Tanzania is by road, with road transport constituting over 75 percent of the country's freight traffic and 80 percent of its passenger traffic.[54]:page 1252 The 86,500 kilometres (53,700 mi) road system is in generally poor condition.[54]:page 1252 Tanzania has two railway companies: TAZARA, which provides service between Dar es Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi (in a copper-mining district in Zambia), and Tanzania Railways Limited, which connects Dar es Salaam with central and northern Tanzania.[54]:page 1252 Rail travel in Tanzania often entails slow journeys with frequent cancellations or delays, and the railways have a deficient safety record.[54]:page 1252

In Dar es Salaam, there is a huge project of rapid buses, Dar Rapid Transit (DART) which connects suburbs of Dar es Salaam city. The development of the DART system consists of six phases and is funded by the African Development Bank, the World Bank and the Government of Tanzania. The first phase began in April 2012, and it was completed in December 2015 and launched operations in May 2016.[131]

In 2013, the communications sector was the fastest growing in Tanzania, expanding 22.8 percent; however, the sector accounted for only 2.4 percent of gross domestic product that year.[115]:page 2

As of 2011, Tanzania had 56 mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants, a rate slightly above the sub-Saharan average.[54]:page 1253 Very few Tanzanians have fixed-line telephones.[54]:page 1253 Approximately 12 percent of Tanzanians used the internet as of 2011[update], though this number is growing rapidly.[54]:page 1253 The country has a fibre-optic cable network that replaced unreliable satellite service, but internet bandwidth remains very low.[54]:page 1253

Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania has been characterised by decreasing access to improved water sources in the 2000s (especially in urban areas), steady access to some form of sanitation (around 93 percent since the 1990s), intermittent water supplies, and generally low quality of service.[132] Many utilities are barely able to cover their operation and maintenance costs through revenues because of low tariffs and poor efficiency. There are significant regional differences, with the best performing utilities being Arusha, Moshi, and Tanga.[133]

The government of Tanzania has embarked on a major sector reform process since 2002. An ambitious National Water Sector Development Strategy that promotes integrated water resources management and the development of urban and rural water supply was adopted in 2006. Decentralisation has meant that responsibility for water and sanitation service provision has shifted to local government authorities and is carried out by 20 urban utilities and about 100 district utilities, as well as by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations in rural areas.[132]

These reforms have been backed by a significant increase of the budget starting in 2006, when the water sector was included among the priority sectors of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty . The Tanzanian water sector remains heavily dependent on external donors, with 88 percent of the available funds being provided by external donor organisations.[134] Results have been mixed. For example, a report by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit noted that "despite heavy investments brought in by the World Bank and the European Union, (the utility serving Dar es Salaam) has remained one of the worst performing water entities in Tanzania."[135]

Poor nutrition remains a persistent problem within Tanzania and varies hugely throughout the country's regions. USAID reports that 16% of children are underweight and 34% experience stunted growth as a result of malnutrition.[136] 10 regions house 58% of children suffering from stunted growth while 50% of acutely malnourished children can be found in 5 regions.[137] Over a 5 year period, the Mara district of Tanzania saw a 15% reduction in stunting in children under 5 years old, falling from 46% to 31% in 2005 and 2010 respectively. Dodoma, on the other hand saw a 7% increase in the prevalence of stunting in this age group, rising from 50% in 2005 to 57% in 2010.[138] Overall availability of food does not necessarily contribute to overall stunting figures. Iringa, Mbeya and Rukwa regions, where overall availability of food is considered acceptable still experience stunting incidences in excess of 50%. In some areas where food shortages are common such as in the Tabora and Singida regions, stunting incidences remain comparatively less than those seen in Iringa, Mbeya and Rukwa.[138] The Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre attributes these discrepancies to variance in maternal malnutrition, poor infant feeding practices, hygiene practices and poor healthcare services.[138] Periods of drought can have significant impacts on the production of crops in Tanzania. Drought in East Africa has resulted in massive increases in the prices of food staples such as maize and sorghum, crops crucial to the nutrition of the majority of Tanzania's population. From 2015 to 2017, the price of maize when bought wholesale has more than doubled from 400 Shillings per kilogram to 1253 Shillings per kilogram respectively.[139]

Farmers in Igunga District, Tanzania

Tanzania remains heavily agricultural, with 80% of the total population engaging in subsistence farming.[140] Rural areas are subjected to increased food shortages in comparison to urbanized areas, with a survey carried out within the country in 2017 finding 84% of people in rural areas suffering food shortages over a 3 month period compared to 64% of residents in cities.[140] This disparity between rural and city nutrition can be attributed to various factors; increased nutritional needs due to manual labor, more limited access to food as a result of poor infrastructure, high-susceptibility to the damaging effects of nature and the "Agricultural Productivity Gap".[141]The Agricultural Productivity Gap postulates that "value added per worker" is often much lower within the agricultural sector than that found within non-agricultural sectors. Furthermore, allocation of labor within the agricultural sector is largely allocated ineffectively.[142]

Currently various USAID programs focusing on nutrition operate within the Morogoro, Dodoma, Iringa, Mbeya, Manyara, Songwe and Zanzibar regions of Tanzania. These "Feed the Future" programs heavily invest in nutrition, infrastructure, policy, capacity of institutions and agriculture which is identified by the organization as a key area of economic growth in the country.[136] A Tanzanian government led initiative "Kilimo Kwanza" or "Agriculture First" aims to encourage investment into agriculture within the private sector and hopes to improve agricultural processes and development within the country by seeking the knowledge of young people and the innovation that they can potentially provide.[143] During the 1990's, around 25% of Tanzania's population were provided access to iodized oil aimed to target iodine deficiency within expecting mothers, as result of studies showing the negative effects of in-utero iodine deficiency on cognitive development in children. Research showed that children of mothers with access to the supplement achieved on average greater than a third of a year more education than those that did not.[143]

Example of World Food Programme parcel

Various programmes led by the World Food Programme currently operate within Tanzania. The Supplementary Feeding Program (SFP) aims to target acute malnutrition by supplying blended food fortified with vitamins to pregnant women and mothers to children under 5 on a monthly basis.[144] Pregnant women and mothers to children under 2 have access to the Mother and Child Health and Nutrition Programme's "Super Cereal" which is supplied with the intent of reducing stunting in children.[144] World Food Programme supplementation remains the main food source for Tanzania's refugees. Super Cereal, Vegetable Oil, Pulses and Salt are supplied as part of the Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation in order to meet the average persons minimum daily calorific requirement of 2,100 kcal.[144]UNICEF state that continued investment in nutrition within Tanzania is of the utmost importance: Estimates predict that Tanzania stands to lose $20 billion by 2025 if nutrition within the country remains at its current level, however improvements in nutrition could produce a gain of around $4.7 billion[137]

Save the Children, with help of UNICEF and Irish Aid funding created the Partnership for Nutrition in Tanzania (PANITA). in 2011. PANITA aims to utilize civil society organizations to specifically target nutrition within the country. Alongside this, various sectors associated with nutrition are targeted such as agriculture, water, sanitation, education, economic development and social progress. PANITA is responsible for ensuring significant attention is given to nutrition in development plans and budgets created on national and regional levels within Tanzania. Since its conception, PANITA has grown from 94 to 306 participating civil society organizations nationwide.[145] Agriculture within Tanzania is specifically targeted by the Irish Aid led initiative Harnessing Agriculture for Nutrition Outcomes (HANO), which aims to merge nutrition initiatives with agriculture in the Lindi District of the country. The project aims to reduce stunting by 10% in children aged 0 to 23 months.[145]

Tanzania's first "National Science and Technology Policy" was adopted in 1996. The objective of the government’s "Vision 2025" (1998) document was to "transform the economy into a strong, resilient and competitive one, buttressed by science and technology".

Under the umbrella of the One UN Initiative, UNESCO and Tanzanian government departments and agencies formulated a series of proposals in 2008 for revising the "National Science and Technology Policy". The total reform budget of US$10 million was financed from the One UN fund and other sources. UNESCO provided support for mainstreaming science, technology, and innovation into the new "National Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy" for the mainland and Zanzibar namely, Mkukuta II and Mkuza II, including in the field of tourism.

Tanzania's revised science policy was published in 2010. Entitled "National Research and Development Policy", it recognizes the need to improve the process of prioritization of research capacities, develop international co-operation in strategic areas of research and development, and improve planning for human resources. It also makes provisions for the establishment of a National Research Fund. This policy was, in turn, reviewed in 2012 and 2013.[146]

In 2010, Tanzania devoted 0.38 percent of GDP to research and development. The global average in 2013 was 1.7 percent of GDP. Tanzania had 69 researchers (in head counts) per million population in 2010. In 2014, Tanzania counted 15 publications per million inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 publications per million inhabitants and the global average 176 publications per million inhabitants.

According to the 2012 census, the total population was 44,928,923.[8] The under 15 age group represented 44.1 percent of the population.[147]

The population distribution in Tanzania is uneven. Most people live on the northern border or the eastern coast, with much of the remainder of the country being sparsely populated.[54]:page 1252 Density varies from 12 per square kilometre (31/sq mi) in the Katavi Region to 3,133 per square kilometre (8,110/sq mi) in the Dar es Salaam Region.[8]:page 6

Approximately 70 percent of the population is rural, although this percentage has been declining since at least 1967.[148] Dar es Salaam (population 4,364,541)[149] is the largest city and commercial capital. Dodoma (population 410,956)[149] is located in the centre of Tanzania, is the capital of the country, and hosts the National Assembly.

The population consists of about 125 ethnic groups.[150] The Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya peoples each have a population exceeding 1 million.[151]:page 4 Approximately 99 percent of Tanzanians are of African descent, with small numbers of Arab, European, and Asian descent.[150] The majority of Tanzanians, including the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are Bantu.[152]

The population also includes people of Arab, Persian, and Indian origin, and small European and Chinese communities.[153] Many also identify as Shirazis. Thousands of Arabs, Persians, and Indians were massacred during the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964.[44] As of 1994, the Asian community numbered 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans lived in Tanzania.[154]

Some albinos in Tanzania have been the victims of violence in recent years.[155][156][157][158] Attacks are often to hack off the limbs of albinos in the perverse superstitious belief that possessing the bones of albinos will bring wealth. The country has banned witch doctors to try to prevent the practice, but it has continued and albinos remain targets.[159]

According to 2010 Tanzanian government statistics, the total fertility rate in Tanzania was 5.4 children born per woman, with 3.7 in urban mainland areas, 6.1 in rural mainland areas, and 5.1 in Zanzibar.[160]:page 55 For all women aged 45–49, 37.3 percent had given birth to eight or more children, and for currently married women in that age group, 45.0 percent had given birth to that many children.[160]:page 61

Official statistics on religion are unavailable because religious surveys were eliminated from government census reports after 1967. Religious leaders and sociologists estimated in 2007 that Muslim and Christian communities were approximately equal in size, each accounting for 30 to 40 percent of the population, with the remainder consisting of practitioners of other faiths, indigenous religions, and people of "no religion".[161]

According to a 2014 estimate by the CIA World Factbook, 61.4 percent of the population was Christian, 35.2 percent was Muslim, 1.8 percent practiced traditional African religions, 1.4 percent were unaffiliated with any religion, and 0.2 followed other religions. Nearly the entire population of Zanzibar is Muslim.[17] Of Muslims, 16 percent are Ahmadiyya (although they are often not considered Muslims), 20 percent are non-denominational Muslims, 40 percent are Sunni, 20 percent are Shia, and 4% are Sufi.[162]

The Christian population is mostly composed of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Among Protestants, the large number of Lutherans and Moravians points to the German past of the country, while the number of Anglicans point to the British history of Tanganyika. Pentecostals and Adventists are also present because of missionary activity. All of them have had some influence in varying degrees from the Walokole movement (East African Revival), which has also been fertile ground for the spread of charismatic and Pentecostal groups.[163]

There are also active communities of other religious groups, primarily on the mainland, such as Buddhists, Hindus, and Bahá'ís.[164]

Swahili is used in parliamentary debate, in the lower courts, and as a medium of instruction in primary school. English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education,[22] The Tanzanian government, however, has plans to discontinue English as a language of instruction.[24] In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili to help unify the country's many ethnic groups.[165] Approximately 10 percent of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90 percent speak it as a second language.[22] Many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English.[166][167][168] The widespread use and promotion of Swahili is contributing to the decline of smaller languages in the country.[22][169] Young children increasingly speak Swahili as a first language, particularly in urban areas.[170] Ethnic community languages (ECL) other than Kiswahili are not allowed as a language of instruction. Nor are they taught as a subject, though they might be used unofficially in some cases in initial education. Television and radio programmes in an ECL are prohibited, and it is nearly impossible to get permission to publish a newspaper in an ECL. There is no department of local or regional African Languages and Literatures at the University of Dar es Salaam.[171]

In 2012, the literacy rate in Tanzania for persons aged 15 and over was estimated to be 67.8 percent.[174] Education is compulsory until children reach age 15.[175] In 2010, 74.1 percent of children age 5 to 14 years were attending school.[175] The primary school completion rate was 80.8 percent in 2012.[175]

Malaria in Tanzania causes death and disease and has a "huge economic impact".[178]:page 13 There were approximately 11.5 million cases of clinical malaria in 2008.[178]:page 12 In 2007–08, malaria prevalence among children aged 6 months to 5 years was highest in the Kagera Region (41.1 percent) on the western shore of Lake Victoria and lowest in the Arusha Region (0.1 percent).[178]:page 12

2012 data showed that 53 percent of the population used improved drinking water sources (defined as a source that "by nature of its construction and design, is likely to protect the source from outside contamination, in particular from faecal matter") and 12 percent used improved sanitation facilities (defined as facilities that "likely hygienically separates human excreta from human contact" but not including facilities shared with other households or open to public use).[179]

The World Health Organization estimated in 2012 that the prevalence of HIV was 3.1 percent,[176] although the Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicator Survey 2011–12 found that, on average, 5.1 percent of those tested in the 15 to 49 age group were HIV-positive.[180]Anti-retroviral treatment coverage for people living with HIV was 37 percent in 2013, compared to 19 percent in 2011.[181] According to a 2013 report published by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS that compares 2012 with 2001 data, AIDS deaths have decreased 33 percent, new HIV infections have decreased 36 percent, and new HIV infections among children have decreased 67 percent.[182]

Tanzania's literary culture is primarily oral.[151]:page 68 Major oral literary forms include folktales, poems, riddles, proverbs, and songs.[151]:page 69 The greatest part of Tanzania's recorded oral literature is in Swahili, even though each of the country's languages has its own oral tradition.[151]:pages 68–9 The country's oral literature has been declining because of the breakdown of the multigenerational social structure, making transmission of oral literature more difficult, and because increasing modernisation has been accompanied by the devaluation of oral literature.[151]:page 69

Tanzania's written literary tradition is relatively undeveloped. Tanzania does not have a lifelong reading culture, and books are often expensive and hard to come by.[151]:page 75[184]:page 16 Most Tanzanian literature is in Swahili or English.[151]:page 75 Major figures in Tanzanian written literature include Shaaban Robert (considered the father of Swahili literature), Muhammed Saley Farsy, Faraji Katalambulla, Adam Shafi Adam, Muhammed Said Abdalla, Said Ahmed Mohammed Khamis, Mohamed Suleiman Mohamed, Euphrase Kezilahabi, Gabriel Ruhumbika, Ebrahim Hussein, May Materru Balisidya, Fadhy Mtanga, Abdulrazak Gurnah, and Penina O. Mlama.[151]:pages 76–8

Two Tanzanian art styles have achieved international recognition.[184]:p. 17 The Tingatinga school of painting, founded by Edward Said Tingatinga, consists of brightly coloured enamel paintings on canvas, generally depicting people, animals, or daily life.[151]:p. 113[184]:p. 17 After Tingatinga's death in 1972, other artists adopted and developed his style, with the genre now being the most important tourist-oriented style in East Africa.[151]:p. 113[184]:p. 17

Historically, there were limited opportunities for formal European art training in Tanzania and many aspiring Tanzanian artists left the country to pursue their vocation.[184]:p. 17

1.
Dodoma
–
Dodoma, officially Dodoma Urban District, is the national capital of Tanzania and the capital of Dodoma Region, with a population of 410,956. It is also 259 kilometres north of Iringa through Mtera and it covers an area of 2,669 square kilometres of which 625 square kilometres is urbanized. Out of the population,199,487 people are male while 211,469 people are female. The average household size is 4.4 people, the Roman Catholic Church reports that 19. 2% of the population are Roman Catholics. Dodoma is populated by different ethnic groups because it is a government administrative centre, although the ethnic groups are the Gogo, Rangi. There are also small Indian minorities, Dodoma was founded in 1907 by German colonists during construction of the Tanzanian central railway. In 1973, the Tanzanian government announced that the capital would be moved from Dar es Salaam to a central location to better serve the needs of the people. Dodoma was selected for this purpose, as it was an established town at a major crossroads with an agreeable climate, impressive landscape. American architect James Rossant developed a plan for the new capital in 1986. Designed under the direction of Julius Nyerere, the location of Dodoma hoped to divorce itself from Dar es Salaam, a city with a legacy of segregation and slavery. The city, designed over 2,500 acres, was meant to be the village in a nation of villages. However, most of the design never came to fruition. As a result, many government offices remain in Dar es Salaam, a major highway connects Dodoma with Dar es Salaam via the Morogoro region in the east. To the west, there are roads to Mwanza and Kigoma going through Tabora, the Great North Road links the city with Arusha to the north, via Kondoa. The city is served by the Central Railway Line which connects it over a distance of 465 kilometres with Dar es Salaam in the east. The citys airport, Dodoma Airport is managed by the Tanzania Civil Aviation Authority, there are plans to build a new airport outside the city with increased runway length and weight-bearing capacity. Dodoma municipal authority is responsible for the upkeep of the nearby Hombolo Dam. Dodoma features a climate with relatively warm temperatures throughout the year

2.
Dar es Salaam
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Dar es Salaam is the largest city of Tanzania and the largest city in eastern Africa by population, as well as a regionally important economic centre. It is Tanzanias most prominent city in arts, fashion, media, music, film and it is Tanzanias leading financial centre with the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange being the countrys first and most important stock exchange market. Dar es Salaam is the largest and most populous Swahili-speaking city in the world, the city is the leading arrival and departure point for most tourists who visit tourism areas in Tanzania like the national parks for safaris and the islands of Zanzibar. The region had a population of 4,364,541 as of the official 2012 census, although Dar es Salaam lost its status as the nations capital to Dodoma in 1974, it remains the focus of the permanent central government bureaucracy. In the 19th century, Mzizima was a fishing village on the periphery of Indian Ocean trade routes. In 1865 or 1866, Sultan Majid bin Said of Zanzibar began building a new city very close to Mzizima, the name is commonly translated as abode/home of peace, based on the Arabic dar, and the Arabic es salaam. Dar es Salaam fell into decline after Majids death in 1870, German East Africa was captured by the British during World War I and became Tanganyika, with Dar es Salaam the administrative and commercial centre. Under British indirect rule, separate European and African areas developed at a distance from the city centre, the citys population also included a large number of south Asians. After World War II, Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth, political developments, including the formation and growth of the Tanganyika African National Union, led to Tanganyika attaining independence from colonial rule in December 1961. Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, even when in 1964 Tanganyika, in 1973, however, provisions were made to relocate the capital to Dodoma, a more centrally located city in the interior. The relocation process has not yet completed, and Dar es Salaam remains Tanzanias primary city. In 1967, the Tanzanian government declared the Ujamaa policy, that set Tanzania into a socialist path, the move slowed down the potential growth of the city as the government encouraged people not to move in cities but stay in Ujamaa socialist villages. But by 1980s the Ujamaa policy proved to be a failure into combating increasing poverty, hunger and this led to the 1980s liberalization policy that virtually ended socialism and its spirit within the Tanzanias government. The move led to increasing migration of rural dwellers from rural areas into cities with Dar es Salaam becoming the city in receiving migrants from rural areas. Until the late 1990s, Dar es Salaam was not put into the category as Africas leading cities like Nairobi, Johannesburg, Lagos. The CBD skyline hosts tall buildings, among them the 35-floor PSPF Tower, finished in 2015, Dar es Salaam is located at 6°48 South, 39°17 East, on a natural harbour on the eastern coast of Africa, with sandy beaches in some areas. Administratively, the Dar es Salaam region is divided into five districts, Ilala, Kinondoni, Ubungo, Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam is the largest city in Tanzania. With a population increase of 5.6 percent per year from 2002 to 2012, the city is the third fastest growing in Africa, after Bamako and Lagos

3.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics

4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

5.
Tanzanian shilling
–
For earlier currencies used in Tanzania, see East African florin, East African rupee, East African shilling, Zanzibari rupee, Zanzibari ryal and German East African rupie. The shilingi is the currency of Tanzania and it is subdivided into 100 senti. The Tanzanian shilling replaced the East African shilling on 14 June 1966 at par, amount in the Tanzanian shilingi is written in the form of x/y, where x is the amount above 1 shilingi, while y is the amount in senti. An equals sign or hyphen represent zero amount, for example,50 senti is written as =/50 or -/50, while 100 shilingi is written as 100/= or 100/-. In common, daily use, the symbol TSh is used. In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 5,20 and 50 senti and 1 shilingi, with the 5 senti struck in bronze, the 20 senti in nickel-brass, cupro-nickel 5 shilingi coins were introduced in 1972, followed by scalloped, nickel-brass 10 senti in 1977. This First Series coins set, in circulation from 1966 up to 1984, was designed by Christopher Ironside OBE. In 1987, nickel-clad steel replaced cupro-nickel in the 50 senti and 1 shilingi, in 1990, nickel-clad-steel 5,10 and 20 shilingi were introduced, followed by brass coins for 100 shilingi in 1994,50 shilingi in 1996 and 200 shilingi in 1998. Coins currently in circulation are the 50,100 and 200 shilingi, a 500 shilingi coin was issued on the 8 September 2014 On 14 June 1966, the Benki Kuu Ya Tanzania introduced notes for 5,10,20 and 100 shillingi. The 5 shillingi note was replaced by a coin in 1972,50 shillingi notes were introduced in 1985, followed by 200 shilingi in 1986,500 shillingi in 1989 and 1000 shillingi in 1990. The 10,20,50 and 100 shillingi notes were replaced by coins in 1987,1990,1996 and 1994,5000 and 10,000 shillingi notes were introduced in 1995, followed by 2000 shilingi in 2003. A new series of notes came out in 2011 and these new notes include many security features that prevent counterfeiting. Banknotes in circulation today are 500,1000,2000,5000 and 10,000 shilingi, economy of Tanzania Notes Sources Bank of Tanzania page on circulating banknotes

6.
Left- and right-hand traffic
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This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left

7.
Uganda
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Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, Uganda is the worlds second most populous landlocked country after Ethiopia. The southern part of the country includes a portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya. Uganda is in the African Great Lakes region, Uganda also lies within the Nile basin, and has a varied but generally a modified equatorial climate. Uganda takes its name from the Buganda kingdom, which encompasses a portion of the south of the country. The people of Uganda were hunter-gatherers until 1,700 to 2,300 years ago, beginning in 1894, the area was ruled as a protectorate by the British, who established administrative law across the territory. Uganda gained independence from Britain on 9 October 1962, luganda, a central language, is widely spoken across the country, and several other languages are also spoken including Runyoro, Runyankole, Rukiga, and Luo. The president of Uganda is Yoweri Museveni, who came to power in January 1986 after a protracted guerrilla war. The ancestors of the Ugandans were hunter-gatherers until 1, 700-2,300 years ago, Bantu-speaking populations, who were probably from central Africa, migrated to the southern parts of the country. According to oral tradition, the Empire of Kitara covered an important part of the lakes area, from the northern lakes Albert and Kyoga to the southern lakes Victoria. Bunyoro-Kitara is claimed as the antecedent of the Buganda, Toro, Ankole, some Luo invaded the area of Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the current Omukama of Bunyoro-Kitara. Arab traders moved inland from the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa in the 1830s and they were followed in the 1860s by British explorers searching for the source of the Nile. British Anglican missionaries arrived in the kingdom of Buganda in 1877 and were followed by French Catholic missionaries in 1879, the British government chartered the Imperial British East Africa Company to negotiate trade agreements in the region beginning in 1888. From 1886, there were a series of wars in Buganda. Because of civil unrest and financial burdens, IBEAC claimed that it was unable to maintain their occupation in the region, in the 1890s,32,000 labourers from British India were recruited to East Africa under indentured labour contracts to construct the Uganda Railway. Most of the surviving Indians returned home, but 6,724 decided to remain in East Africa after the lines completion, subsequently, some became traders and took control of cotton ginning and sartorial retail. British naval ships unknowingly carried rats that contained the bubonic plague and these rats spread the disease throughout Uganda. From 1900 to 1920, a sleeping sickness epidemic in the part of Uganda, along the north shores of Lake Victoria

8.
Kenya
–
Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community. Its capital and largest city is Nairobi and it is bordered by Tanzania to the south and southwest, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2, and had a population of approximately 48 million people in January 2017, Kenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya. Further inland are highlands in Central and Rift Valley regions where tea, in the West are Nyanza and Western regions, there is an equatorial, hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes, Kenya is known for its world class athletes in track and field and rugby. The African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period, by the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nations residents, European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony, Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, the capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East, agriculture is a major employer, the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also an economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc, the Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, if so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it, as misspelled it. In the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told Kĩ-Nyaa or Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa probably because the pattern of black rock, the Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version, others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /ˈkɛnjə/

9.
Constitution
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A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state

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Demographics of Tanzania
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The population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Most people live on the border or the eastern coast. Density varies from 12 per square kilometre in the Katavi Region to 3,133 per square kilometre in the Dar es Salaam Region, approximately 70 percent of the population is rural, although this percentage has been declining since at least 1967. Dar es Salaam is the de facto capital and largest city, Dodoma, located in the centre of Tanzania, is the de jure capital, although action to move government buildings to Dodoma has stalled. The population consists of about 125 ethnic groups, the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya peoples have more than 1 million members each. Over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa, among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, and Khoisan. Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages, swahili belongs to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo family. The language of the Iraqw people is Cushitic, other languages are Indian languages and Portuguese. Although much of Zanzibars native population came from the mainland, one known as Shirazis traces its origins to the islands early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1 percent of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shia and Sunni Muslims, Parsis, an estimated 70,000 Arabs and 20,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania. According to the 2012 census, the population was 44,928,923 compared to 12,313,469 in 1967. The under 15 age group represented 44.1 percent of the population, with 35.5 percent being in the 15–35 age group,52.2 percent being in the 15–64 age group, and 3.8 percent being older than 64. Structure of the population, The Tanzanian Demographic and Health Survey 2010 estimated that the infant mortality rate for 2005–10 was 51, registration of other vital events in Tanzania is not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates, births and deaths Source, Total Fertility Rate and Crude Birth Rate, Fertility rates are estimated by Surveys and Census in different times. TDHS surveys estimated these fertility rates,6.3,5.8,5.7,5.4 and 2002 Census said 6.3 The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. For many years estimates have been repeated that about a third of the population each follows Islam, Christianity and these estimates range from 60% Christian, 36% Muslim in the Pew Report Islam and Christianity to 55% Muslim majority on the website Muslimpopulation. com. Religion-related statistics for Tanzania have been regarded as notoriously biased and unreliable, the remainder of the population are Hindus, Buddhists, animists, and unaffiliated

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Christianity in Tanzania
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A 2008-09 Pew survey found that 51 percent of Tanzanian Christians described themselves as Roman Catholic, and 44 percent described themselves as Protestant. Among Protestants, Lutherans, Pentecostals, Anglicans, and adherents of African initiated churches dominate, the Orthodox Church claims an estimated 60,000 adherents in Tanzania. A2015 study estimates some 180,000 Muslims have left Islam in Tanzania, most of them have converted in Christianity and follow the Protestant church