Clement VII

The bastard son of Giuliano de' Medici, he was reared by his uncle Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was made archbishop of Florence and cardinal in 1513 by his cousin Pope Leo X, whose political policies he influenced. As cardinal he commissioned Raphael to paint the huge altarpiece the "Transfiguration" for his cathedral at Narbonne, France. He planned an impressive group of monuments to members of his family for the New Sacristy (Sagrestia Nuova) in San Lorenzo, Florence, and in 1520 Michelangelo began the designs, which were to rank among the finest of his sculptures.

A weak, vacillating figure in the political struggles between King Francis I of France and the Holy Roman emperor Charles V for the domination of Europe, Clement shifted his support from one to the other while attempting to maintain control of Italy. He supported Charles in the fighting that ended in the Battle of Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525), during which Francis was taken prisoner. The following year, however, he joined Francis in founding the League of Cognac, a treaty opposing Charles. Clement's anti-imperial policy increased Charles's difficulties in Germany, especially his battle against the growing Reformation. Clement's alliance with France led to the emperor's sack of Rome in May 1527 and opened the way for reform of the papal Curia. The imperial army imprisoned Clement in the castle of Sant'Angelo, Rome, which compromised Charles's position, because this affront to the pope clashed with his ideal of a joint universal monarchy of pope and emperor.

Clement's incapacitation complicated the English king Henry VIII's request for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In 1528 France invaded Italy, and Clement delegated Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio as co-legate with Cardinal Wolsey to try Henry's case in England, but on May 31, 1529, Catherine denied their jurisdiction and appealed to Rome to sustain a validation of her marriage. A few weeks later, the French were defeated in Italy; Clement brought the revocation of Catherine's cause to Rome (July 1529) and in March 1530 forbade Henry to remarry until the papal verdict was pronounced.

The Reformation in Germany worsened when Charles released Clement without attempting to secure a guarantee that ecclesiastical reform would commence or that a general council would be convened to solve the problem raised by the Lutheran movement. Francis opposed such a council, and Clement was continually prevented from action on the urgent need for reform. His indecisiveness allowed the Protestant revolt to grow, which was nurtured further by Henry's eventual split from Rome.

Like the preceding popes Alexander VI, Julius II, and Leo X, Clement appeared to his contemporaries primarily as a Renaissance prince preoccupied with Italian politics, the patronage and enjoyment of Renaissance culture, and the advancement of his family. As were the pontiffs mentioned, Clement was financially unsystematic and extravagant. He gravely underestimated the depth and the dangers of his unpopularity in Germany, and the Reformation found the papacy psychologically unprepared for a radical and permanent rejection of its authority. Thus, by 1530, when Charles, after Clement crowned him at Bologna (the last imperial coronation by a pope), again gave his attention to Germany, it was too late. After considerable procrastination, which brought about Wolsey's fall and the triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England, Clement accelerated the breaking of the English Church from Rome by finally pronouncing in 1533 Henry's marriage to Catherine as valid. The Act of Supremacy followed (November 1534), making the king of England head of the English Church.