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Gastrointestinal disease accounts for millions of office visits and hospital admissions annually. Physical examination of the abdomen is a crucial tool in diagnosing diseases of the gastrointestinal tract; in addition, it can help…

Abdominal pain is a frequent presenting concern in both the emergency department and the office setting. Acute abdominal pain is defined as pain lasting less than seven days, while an acute abdomen refers to …

Medical percussion is based on the difference in pitch between the sounds elicited by tapping on the body wall. The auditory response to tapping depends on the ease with which the body wall vibrates, and is influenced by underlying…

The prevalence of peripheral vascular disease (PVD) increases with age and is a significant cause of morbidity in older patients, and peripheral artery disease (PAD) is associated with cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications.…

The cardiac assessment is one of the core examinations performed by almost every physician whenever encountering a patient. Disorders of the cardiac system are among the most common reasons for hospital admission, with conditions ranging…

Kingdom Animalia is composed of a range of organisms united by a set of common characteristics. Barring a few exceptions, animals are multicellular eukaryotes that move, consume organic matter, and reproduce sexually. Although these attributes are shared, species within this kingdom are also extremely diverse. This diversity is due to adaptation of each species to a different niche. The niche…

The kidneys are two large bean-shaped organs located in the upper abdomen. They filter the blood several times a day to remove toxins and rebalance water and electrolytes of the circulatory system via the renal veins. The kidneys receive blood directly from the heart via the renal arteries. These arteries enter the kidney at the hilum, the concave surface of the bean, where they branch and divide into smaller vessels and capillaries. The renal cortex is the thick outer layer of the kidney. It houses renal corpuscles, where capillaries come into close contact with the end of a renal tubule. The end of the tubule, or Bowman’s capsule, surrounds a net of capillaries that looks like a ball, the glomerulus. This unusual arrangement of the capillaries increases the surface area where the end of the renal tubule and the capillaries interact. From the Bowman’s capsule, the convoluted tubules extend into the Loop of Henle that lay in the renal medulla, the tissue beneath the renal cortex. Cortical intrusions structure the medulla into multiple renal pyramids. The apex of each pyramid points towards the hilum area, thus draining the collecting ducts into calyces in the renal pelvis. As the pelvis fills, urine is emptied into the ureter. The ureter connects the kidneys to the bladder, where urine is stored before being eliminated. The renal corp…

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