Contents

The creation of the Cross Bronx Expressway uprooted thousands in the Bronx during the early 1970s, displacing communities, and fostering white flight.[8] 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, which received its first mortgage in 1967,[1] is located on the Expressway.

DJ Kool Herc said he used two copies of the same record, Campbell unveiled the technique which he called the "Merry-Go-Round" at his sister's party on August 11, 1973, after renting the recreation room for 25 dollars, Cindy charged 25 cents for females and 50 cents for males to attend. "I wrote out the invites on index cards, so all Herc had to do was show up. With the party set from 9 p.m. to 4 a.m., our mom served snacks and dad picked up the sodas and beer from a local beverage warehouse." With the exhibition of his new style, Campbell's friend Coke La Rock demonstrated another innovation called rapping. Attendees, or people who later claimed to be there, include Grandmaster Caz, leader of The Cold Crush Brothers, Grandmaster Flash, Busy Bee, Afrika Bambaataa, Sheri Sher, Mean Gene, Kool DJ Red Alert, and KRS-One.[9]

Starting in the early 2000s, building owners threatened to turn 1520 into high rent units. Senator Schumer led a rally in 2007 focused on maintaining the affordable costs of the housing in order to maintain its working class roots,[10] the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation recognized the building as the "birthplace of hip hop" on July 5, 2007.[7]

Starting in 2007 the building's owners sought to repeal the status afforded to the building by the Mitchell-Lama Housing Program, which allowed it to maintain rent control for low-income and working class residents, despite work by groups such as the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board and the Tenants and Neighbors Association to preserve the building’s Mitchell-Lama status,[6] the courts allowed the building's status to be repealed.[11] In 2008 the building was sold to a real estate group that included Mark Karasick, a prominent real estate investor, which intended to turn the building into market-rate housing. However, after the United States housing bubble burst a period of neglect and threats of forced evictions daunted residents,[12] and despite promises to the opposite, the building fell into decline;[13] in 2010 the city'sHousing Development Corporation provided a $5.6 million loan to allow Winn Development and a new group called Workforce Housing Advisors to buy the building’s mortgage from Sovereign Bank for $6.2 million. Rafael E. Cestero, the commissioner of the New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development, said they supported the sale in order to help provide sustainable housing for working-class families.[12]

On November 7, 2011, following a foreclosure auction with no active bidders, Workforce Housing Advisors were able to take title of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. Several residents, who were present at the auction along with tenant advocacy group Urban Homesteading Assistance Board, wept with joy when the auctioneer announced no bids had been registered. John Crotty of Workforce Housing Advisors told the New York Times that his group intends to renovate the distressed building and work with tenants to recognize its importance, the group’s investors are more interested in steady, secure returns than in making money quickly.[14] Some money for renovations will be provided by New York City’s department of Housing Preservation and Development, and the Housing Development Corporation, the new owner intends to pursue a listing for on the National Register of Historic Places, for which the building was deemed eligible in 2007 but Karasick declined to accept.

The new ownership of 1520 Sedgwick is seen by public officials and housing advocates as a huge victory in the struggle to preserve affordable housing in New York City, it is a big step forward in the fight to rescue low income housing from the disastrous impact overleveraging has had on this vulnerable resource. The rescue of 1520 Sedgwick was largely made possible through a sustained organizing campaign within the tenant body. Residents of this iconic building fought for over 5 years to maintain the affordability of their home and rescue it from speculative landlords.

1.
The Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County

2.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

3.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

5.
Apartment
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An apartment or a flat is a self-contained housing unit that occupies only part of a building, correctly, on a single level without a stair. In Scotland it is called a block of flats or, if its a traditional building, a tenement. Apartments may be owned by an owner/occupier, by leasehold tenure or rented by tenants, the term apartment is favoured in North America. In the UK, the apartment is more usual in professional real estate and architectural circles where otherwise the term flat is commonly. Technically multi-storey apartments are referred to as duplex indicating the number of floors within the property, usage generally follows the British in Ireland, Singapore, Hong Kong and most Commonwealth nations. In Malaysian English, flat often denotes a housing block of lesser quality meant for lower-income groups, while apartment is more generic, in Australian English, the term flat is traditionally used, but the term unit is frequently used. More recently, the apartment is being used. Tenement law refers to the basis of permanent property such as land or rents. It may be combined as in Messuage or Tenement to encompass all the land, buildings. Most apartments are in buildings designed for the purpose, but large older houses are divided into apartments. The word apartment denotes a unit or section in a building. In some locations, particularly the United States, the word connotes a rental unit owned by the building owner, in the England and Wales, some flat owners own shares in the company that owns the freehold of the building as well as holding the flat under a lease. This is commonly known as a share of freehold flat, the freehold company has the right to collect annual ground rents from each of the flat owners in the building. The freeholder can also develop or sell the building, subject to the usual planning and this does not happen in Scotland, where long leasehold of residential property was formerly unusual, and is now not possible. In some countries the word unit is a general term referring to both apartments and rental business suites. The word unit is used only in the context of a specific building. This building has three units or Im going to rent a unit in this building, but not Im going to rent a unit somewhere, in Australia, a unit refers to flats, apartments or even semi-detached houses. An industrial, warehouse, or commercial space converted to an apartment is called a loft

6.
Morris Heights, Bronx
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Morris Heights is a residential neighborhood located in the West Bronx. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 5, university Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through Morris Heights. The local subway is the IRT Jerome Avenue Line, operating along Jerome Avenue, ZIP codes include 10453 and 10452. The area is patrolled by the 46th Precinct located at 2120 Ryer Avenue in Fordham, New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. 7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx, Morris Heights has a population of around 36,779. Almost half the population lives below the poverty line and receives public assistance, the vast majority of residents in the area are of Puerto Rican, Dominican, or African American descent. The majority of households are renter occupied, Morris Heights is dominated by 5 and 6-story tenement buildings, older multi-unit homes, vacant lots, and newly constructed subsidized attached multi-unit townhouses and apartment buildings. A significant percentage of the early 20th century housing stock was damaged by arson. The neighborhood contains one of the highest concentrations of NYCHA projects in the Bronx, the total land area is less than half one square mile. The terrain is elevated and very hilly, stair streets connect areas located at different elevations. Ten NYCHA developments are located in Morris Heights, harrison Avenue Rehab, one, 5-story rehabilitated tenement building. Harrison Avenue Rehab, four rehabilitated buildings,5 and 6-stories tall, macombs Road, two rehabilitated buildings,5 and 6-stories tall. Morris Heights Rehab, three rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 and 6-stories tall Sedgewick Houses, seven buildings,14, university Avenue Rehab, four, 6-story rehabilitated tenement buildings. West Tremont Avenue-Sedgwick Avenue Area, one, 12-story building, West Tremont Rehab, two rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 and 6-stories tall. West Tremont Rehab, one, 5-story rehabilitated tenement building, West Tremont Rehab, two, 6-story rehabilitated tenement buildings. After a wave of arson ravaged the low-income communities of New York City throughout the 1970s, the city began to rehabilitate many formerly abandoned tenement-style apartment buildings and designate them low-income housing beginning in the late 1970s. Also many subsidized attached multi-unit townhouses and newly constructed apartment buildings have been or are being built on vacant lots across the neighborhood, Morris Heights is believed to be the site where Hip Hop culture originated in the 1970s

7.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories

8.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

9.
Rapping
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The components of rapping include content, flow, and delivery. Rap differs from spoken-word poetry in that rap is performed in time to a beat. Rapping is often associated with and an ingredient of hip-hop music. Rapping is also used in Kwaito music, a genre originated in Johannesburg, South Africa. Another form of rap that predates hip hop was boxer Muhammad Alis rhythmic poetry used to taunt his opponents in the 1960s and 1970s, rapping can be delivered over a beat, typically provided by a DJ, turntablist or Beatboxer, or without accompaniment. Stylistically, rap occupies an area between speech, prose, poetry, and singing. The word, as used to describe quick speech or repartee, the word had been used in British English since the 16th century. It was part of the African American dialect of English in the 1960s meaning to converse, today, the terms rap and rapping are so closely associated with hip-hop music that many writers use the terms interchangeably. The English verb rap has various meanings, such as to strike, especially with a quick, smart, or light blow, as well to utter sharply or vigorously, to rap out a command. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary gives a date of 1541 for the first recorded use of the word with the meaning to utter sharply, vigorously and it is these meanings from which the musical form of rapping derives, and this definition may be from a shortening of repartee. A rapper refers to a performer who raps, by the late 1960s, when Hubert G. Brown changed his name to H. Rap was used to describe talking on records as early as 1971, on Isaac Hayes album Black Moses with track names such as Ikes Rap, Ikes Rap II, Ikes Rap III, Hayes husky-voiced sexy spoken raps became key components in his signature sound. Del the Funky Homosapien similarly states that rap was used to refer to talking in a manner in the early 1970s. Back then what rapping meant, basically, was you trying to convey something—youre trying to convince somebody, thats what rapping is, its in the way you talk. Rapping can be traced back to its African roots, centuries before hip-hop music existed, the griots of West Africa were delivering stories rhythmically, over drums and sparse instrumentation. Such connections have been acknowledged by modern artists, modern day griots, spoken word artists, mainstream news sources. Grammy-winning blues musician/historian Elijah Wald and others have argued that the blues were being rapped as early as the 1920s, Wald went so far as to call hip hop the living blues. A notable recorded example of rapping in blues music was the 1950 song Gotta Let You Go by Joe Hill Louis, not just jazz music and lyrics but also jazz poetry

10.
Chuck Schumer
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Charles Ellis Chuck Schumer is an American politician, the senior United States senator from New York and a member of the Democratic Party. First elected in 1998, he defeated three-term Republican incumbent Al DAmato by a margin of 55%–44%, Schumer was re-elected in 2004 by a margin of 71%–24%, in 2010 by a margin of 66%–33% and in 2016 by a margin of 70%-27%. A native of Brooklyn and graduate of Harvard College and Harvard Law School, he was a member of the New York State Assembly. Schumer was chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee from 2005 to 2009 and he was the third-ranking Democrat in the Senate, behind Senate minority leader Harry Reid and Senate minority whip Dick Durbin, elected vice chairman of the Democratic Caucus in the Senate in 2006. In November 2010, he was chosen to hold the additional role of chairman of the Senate Democratic Policy Committee starting at the opening of the 112th Congress. On November 8,2016, Schumer was reelected to his term in the United States Senate. Subsequently, on November 16,2016, he was unanimously elected Senate minority leader to succeed the retiring Reid, Schumer was born in Brooklyn, the son of Selma and Abraham Schumer. His father ran a business, and his mother was a homemaker. His family is Jewish, and he is a cousin, once removed, of comedian. His ancestors originated from the town of Chortkiv, Galicia, in what is now western Ukraine and he attended public schools in Brooklyn, scoring a perfect 1600 on the SAT, and graduated as class valedictorian from James Madison High School, in 1967. Schumer competed for Madison High on the Its Academic television quiz show and he attended Harvard College, where he became interested in politics and campaigned for Eugene McCarthy, in 1968. After completing his degree, he continued to Harvard Law School, earning his Juris Doctor with honors. Schumer passed the New York state bar, in early 1975, however, he never practiced law, choosing instead a career in politics. In 1974, Schumer ran for and was elected to the New York State Assembly, Schumer served three terms, from 1975 to 1981, sitting in the 181st, 182nd and 183rd New York State Legislatures. He has never lost an election, in 1980, 16th District Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman won the Democratic nomination for the Senate seat of Republican Jacob Javits. Schumer ran for Holtzmans vacated House seat and won and he was re-elected eight times from the Brooklyn and Queens-based district, which changed numbers twice in his tenure. In 1982, as a result of redistricting, Schumer faced a potential matchup with veteran Brooklyn congressman Steve Solarz, in preparation, Schumer set about making friends on Wall Street, tapping the citys top law firms and securities houses for campaign donations. I told them I looked like I had a very difficult reapportionment fight, if I were to stand a chance of being re-elected, I needed some help, he would later tell the Associated Press

11.
Cross Bronx Expressway
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The Cross Bronx Expressway is a major freeway in the New York City borough of the Bronx, conceived by Robert Moses and built between 1948 and 1972. It carries traffic on Interstate 95 through the city, and serves as a portion of I-295 toward Long Island, the Cross Bronx begins at the Alexander Hamilton Bridge over the Harlem River, where the Trans-Manhattan Expressway continues west across Upper Manhattan to the George Washington Bridge. The highway has traffic problems, and its construction has been blamed for negatively affecting a number of low-income neighborhoods in the South Bronx. The Cross Bronx Expressway begins at the end of the Alexander Hamilton Bridge as a continuation of the Trans-Manhattan Expressway. Immediately after coming off the bridge, there is an interchange with the Major Deegan Expressway for Yankee Stadium, the highway soon intersects with Webster Avenue at a partial interchange allowing eastbound vehicles to exit and westbound ones to enter. Northbound US1 leaves the Cross Bronx Expressway at this exit, about one and half miles later, comes a pair of closely spaced interchanges for the Sheridan Expressway and the Bronx River Parkway. The exit for the Sheridan Expressway is an interchange and allows access from northbound. The Cross Bronx Expressway reaches the Bruckner Interchange two miles later, going eastbound, the interchange allows access to southbound I-678, northbound I-95 and southbound I-295. I-95 leaves the Cross Bronx Expressway here and continues north along the Bruckner Expressway, the Cross Bronx Expressway continues east of the interchange as I-295, which begins here. The Cross Bronx ends 1.5 miles later at the Throgs Neck Expressway, a Cross-Bronx Route along 161st and 163rd Streets was one of two proposed facilities, along with the Nassau Boulevard, picked by borough engineers as examples of important projects. Though it would not be built to standards, it would be 60 feet wide with grade separations where considered necessary. The George Washington Bridge, then under construction, was cited among reasons to build the highway which would help connect New Jersey to Long Island via the bridges, in late 1940, the New York City Planning Commission adopted a plan for a network of highways. Except for the Bronx and Pelham Parkway, which lay to the north, the cost was estimated at $17,000,000, higher than most improvements because of the topographical conditions, high land values, and heavily built-up areas. Robert Moses proposed an expressway to run through the middle of the Bronx in 1945. This project proved to be one of the most difficult expressway projects at the time, construction required blasting through ridges, crossing valleys, in doing so, minimal disruption to the apartment buildings that topped the ridges in the area of Grand Concourse was a priority. Construction of the began in 1948. A 112-foot embankment was carefully dug to accommodate six 12-foot-wide traffic lanes, in 1963, the last of the three sections of roadway between the Alexander Hamilton and Throgs Neck Bridges were finished, completing the Cross Bronx Expressway. The first portion, from the Bronx River Parkway east to the Bruckner Interchange, opened on November 5,1955, at the time as parts of the Queens Midtown

12.
White flight
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The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some historians have challenged the white flight as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations, according to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its components, the first data set potentially capable of proving white flight was the 1950 census. But original processing of data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau. It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof required for policy makers to consider taking action. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, in 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it, after World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs and this may have exacerbated urban decay. In Birmingham, Alabama, the government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of blockbusting was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, the remaining white inhabitants, fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. Losses happened when they sold en masse, and would sell the properties to the black families, profiting from price arbitrage

13.
Coke La Rock
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Coke La Rock is an old school New York City rapper who, along with Gil Scott-Heron, is often credited as being the first MC in the history of hip-hop. In November,2010, Coke La Rock was inducted into the High Times Counterculture Hall of Fame at the ceremonies at the Cannabis Cup in Amsterdam. Although it has written that La Rock comes from Jamaica. He was born on April 24,1955, La Rock was a friend and musical partner of DJ Kool Herc, who himself is generally considered to have laid down the foundation for hip-hop music starting in 1973. La Rock was thus a member of Hercs MC crew the Herculoids. According to Herc, La Rocks MC name had various iterations, beginning as A-1 Coke, La Rock joined Kool Herc for his first party, in 1973, to celebrate Hercs sister Cindys birthday. It wasnt until about the fifth or sixth party that he took the name Coke La Rock, the name came to him in a dream. Before that time, he had no name and did his rapping out of sight from the audience and his original raps were usually shout-outs to friends, but gradually the poetry emerged. He originated such phrases as You rock and you dont stop and Hotel, motel, you dont tell, according to La Rock, while rapping at first I would just call out names. Then I pretended dudes had double-parked cars, that was to impress the girls, truthfully, I wasn’t there to rap, I was just playing around. La Rock himself has argued, in a reference to two pioneering New York City narcotics dealers, that me and Herc were to hip-hop what Nicky Barnes and Frank Lucas were to drugs. As other nascent hip-hop groups patterned themselves after Herc and La Rock and improved on their formula, the popularity of Herc, after Kool Herc was stabbed at a party, La Rock went looking to kill the perpetrator, who was part of the Executive Playhouse crew. He found the mans friends in a Bronx pool hall, after this incident, La Rock decided to step away from hip hop and let the younger generation move in. Since hed had a run lasting several years of being on top of the Bronx hip hop scene. Also his son, Dante La Rock, had just been born, in contrast to other early Bronx hip-hop artists like Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash, Coke La Rock—like his partner Kool Herc—never achieved any recording success. However, late 2008 saw the release of what was deemed the first ever recording featuring La Rock, which was released by Sedgwick & Cedar as part of a special holiday compilation to pay homage to the birthplace of hip-hop. Nor did Coke La Rock and another influential old-school MC, T La Rock, know one another in the days of hip-hop. In 2010, at the 23rd High Times Cannabis Cup, Coke La Rock was inducted into the Counterculture Hall of Fame

14.
Grandmaster Caz
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Curtis Fisher, better known by his stage name Grandmaster Caz, is an American rapper, songwriter and DJ. Caz first encountered rap in 1974 at a Kool Herc block party, shortly after, he teamed with DJ Disco Wiz under the name Casanova Fly to form one of the first DJ Crews, Mighty Force. Caz was also the first rapper to perform both DJ and MC duties, in the late 1970s, he joined The Cold Crush Brothers. Caz admits that he himself stole new equipment during the New York City blackout of 1977 Currently hosts Hush Hip Hop Tours the official Sightseeing Tour of Harlem, Caz was interviewed for the documentary Just to Get a Rep released in 2004. In 2008, he was one of the participants at the Cornell University Library conference on Hip Hop, artists who cite Grandmaster Caz as an influence include Will Smith, Rakim, Big Daddy Kane and Cory Gunz. In 2015, Caz featured on a single by Macklemore and Ryan Lewis named Downtown, a 2009 book claims that the lyrics for The Sugar Hill Gangs seminal Rappers Delight were plagiarized from the then-unpublished Cazs lyrics. In 2000, he set his account of the controversy in the song MC Delight and he claims in the song that he wrote the lyrics of Big Bank Hank, who had been the manager of his band, but never received any royalties or thanks for it. Casanova Fly being Grandmaster Cazs alternate moniker, in 1998, Caz was listed #11 out of Blaze Magazines Top 50 MCs of all Time. He was also inducted into the Technics DJ Hall of Fame in 1999, in June 2008, Grandmaster Caz was inducted into the Bronx Walk of Fame. A street plaque bearing his name is now on permanent display on the Grand Concourse, the most famous thoroughfare in the Bronx

15.
The Cold Crush Brothers
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The Cold Crush Brothers is an American hip hop group that formed in 1978 in the Bronx, New York City, New York, alongside other early hip hop acts. They were especially known for their memorable routines which included harmonies, melodies, the Cold Crush Brothers set the standard for emceeing. They became known as the Rolling Stones of hip hop, the Cold Crush Brothers still perform across the United States. The Cold Crush brothers formed as a group in 1978, DJ Charlie Chase was first the DJ for the Furious Five for a very short time in 1979 after the Furious Five and Grandmaster Flash had disputes and Flash disbanded from the Furious Five. The original lineup consisted of the founder, The Original DJ Tony Tone, Supreme Easy A. D. DJ Charlie Chase, Whipper Whip, Mr. Tee, and Dot-A-Rock. Eventually, Whipper Whip and Dot-A-Rock would leave the Cold Crush Brothers and join the Fantastic Five and DJ Grand Wizard Theodore, which they considered to be a more established group at the time. The Fantastic Five was originally the L Brothers, which consisted of DJ Mean Gene, DJ Cordio, DJ Grand Wizard Theodore, MC Smiley, Master Rob, the Original Kevie Kev and sometimes Busy Bee Starski. Mr Tee also left Cold Crush and Tony Tone, Easy A. D. and Charlie Chase brought in Grandmaster Caz, Almighty Kay Gee, Money Ray would be added to the group in the late 80s. Robinson informed Hank that he was forming a group called the Sugar Hill Gang, Hank accepted, although he was not an MC. Hank went to Grandmaster Caz and asked him for some rhymes, Caz laid his rhyme books on the bed and said, Take whatever you want, with the understanding that Hank would compensate Caz at a later time. Cazs lyrics landed in a song by the Sugar Hill Gang called Rappers Delight, the song became a huge hit in 1979 and was the first hip hop single to land on the Top 40 charts. Caz never received any credit or compensation for the rhymes that he contributed, because of the attention they began to attract, many groups would try to battle them to gain street credibility and for Hip Hop supremacy. This would lead to a fierce and well known rivalry with The Fantastic Five, the grand prize was $1000 cash. The Fantastic Romantic Five won the battle but, as said by Grandmaster Caz, after tapes of their battle began to circulate in the street, the people clearly thought that the Cold Crush Brothers won the battle. This established the Cold Crush Brothers as one of the strongest underground Hip Hop crews of all time, the Cold Crush Brothers toured all five boroughs of New York City and as far as Boston before commercially releasing records. Their popularity was strengthened by the sales of their performances that were recorded on cassette by Tape Master. The Cold Crush Brothers were featured in the 1982 movie Wild Style, the other scene was the Battle at the Dixie Club where the brothers flex their emceeing / rap muscle, once again showing their prowess in the hip hop/rap genre. A year after the movie was released, the Cold Crush Brothers took hip hop abroad with tour dates in Japan, the Cold Crush Brothers began to release records commercially

16.
Grandmaster Flash
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Joseph Saddler, better known as Grandmaster Flash, is a Bajan-American hip hop recording artist and DJ. He is considered to be one of the pioneers of hip-hop DJing, cutting, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2007, becoming the first hip hop act to be honored. Joseph Saddlers family migrated to the United States from Barbados, in the Caribbean and he attended Samuel Gompers High School, a public vocational school, where he learned how to repair electronic equipment. Saddlers parents played an important role in his interest in music and his parents came from Barbados and his father was a big fan of Caribbean and black American records. As a child, Saddler was fascinated by his fathers record collection, in an interview, he reflected, My father was a very heavy record collector. He still thinks that he has the stronger collection, I used to open his closets and just watch all the records he had. I used to get into trouble for touching his records, but Id go right back, Saddlers early interest in DJing came from this fascination with his fathers record collection as well as his mothers desire for him to educate himself in electronics. After high school, he involved in the earliest New York DJ scene. He is also a nephew to the late Sandy Saddler, a featherweight boxing champion. Grandmaster Flash carefully studied the styles and techniques of earlier DJs, particularly Pete Jones, Kool Herc, as a teenager, he began experimenting with DJ gear in his bedroom, eventually developing and mastering three innovations that are still considered standard DJing techniques today. Backspin technique, Early New York party DJs came to understand that short drum breaks were popular with party audiences. When the break finished on one turntable, he used his mixer to switch quickly to the other turntable, using the backspin technique, the same short phrase of music could be looped indefinitely. Punch phrasing, This technique involved isolating very short segments of music, typically horn hits, scratching, along with punch phrasing, exhibited a unique performative aspect of party DJing, instead of passively spinning records, he manipulated them to create new music. Scratching, more known among radio broadcasters as back-cueing, was devised in the late 1940s as a way to find the very beginning of the audio in the modulated groove of a vinyl record. Grandmaster Flash played parties and collaborated with such as Kurtis Blow. In the mid 1970s, he formed his own group, the original lineup consisted of Cowboy, Melle Mel and Kid Creole, and the ensemble went by the name Grandmaster Flash & the 3 MCs. Cowboy created the hip hop. He created the term while teasing a friend who had just joined the U. S. Army, Cowboy later worked the hip hop cadence into a part of his stage performance

17.
Afrika Bambaataa
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Afrika Bambaataa is an American disc jockey from the South Bronx, New York. He is notable for releasing a series of genre-defining electro tracks in the 1980s that influenced the development of hip hop culture. Afrika Bambaataa is one of the originators of breakbeat DJing and is known as The Godfather and Amen Ra of Hip Hop Kulture. Through his co-opting of the gang the Black Spades into the music and culture-oriented Universal Zulu Nation. He was born to Jamaican and Barbadian immigrants, Bambaataa grew up in The Bronx River Projects, with an activist mother, as a child, he was exposed to the black liberation movement, and witnessed debates between his mother and uncle regarding the conflicting ideologies in the movement. He was exposed to his mothers extensive and eclectic record collection, gangs in the area became the law, clearing their turf of drug dealers, assisting with community health programs and both fighting and partying to keep members and turf. Bambaataa was a member of the Black Spades and he quickly rose to the position of warlord of one of the divisions. As warlord, it was his job to build ranks and expand the turf of the young Spades and he was not afraid to cross turfs to forge relationships with other gang members, and with other gangs. As a result, the Spades became the biggest gang in the city in terms of membership and turf. After Bambaataa won an essay contest that earned him a trip to Africa and he had seen the movie Zulu and was impressed with the solidarity exhibited by the Zulu in that film. During his trip to Africa, the communities he visited inspired him to one in his own neighborhood. He changed his name to Afrika Bambaataa Aasim, adopting the name of the Zulu chief Bhambatha and he told people that his name was Zulu for affectionate leader. Bambaataa formed The Bronx River Organization as an alternative to the Black Spades, inspired by DJ Kool Herc and Kool DJ Dee, Bambaataa began hosting hip-hop parties beginning in 1976. He vowed to use hip-hop to draw angry kids out of gangs, Cowboy of Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, is credited with naming hip-hop, the term became a common phrase used by MCs as part of a scat-inspired style of rhyming. In 1982, Bambaataa and his followers, a group of dancers, artists and he saw that the hip hop tours would be the key to help expand hip hop and his Universal Zulu Nation. In addition it would promote the values of hip hop that he believed are based on peace, unity, love. He brought peace to the gangs, many artists and gang members say that hip hop saved a lot of lives and his influence inspired many overseas artists like the French rapper MC Solaar. He was a popular DJ in The South Bronx rap scene and became not only as Afrika Bambaataa

18.
Kool DJ Red Alert
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Kool DJ Red Alert is an American disc jockey who rose to fame on 98.7 Kiss-FM in New York City, and is recognized as one of the founding fathers of hip hop music and culture. His weekly radio show airs on WBLS107.5 FM Saturday evenings from 6pm-7pm EST, Red Alert is one of the first deejays to perform with the architects of hip hop Universal Zulu Nation. He built his radio shows fanbase by shouting out to listeners within the Tri-State area, Red Alert has been noted for breaking in such acts and artists as A Tribe Called Quest, Queen Latifah, and Black Sheep. Red played a role in The Bridge Wars beginning in 1986. Red Alert holds the record for the most guest appearances amongst all hip hop artists. Kool DJ Red Alert grew up in Harlem, New York and he later attended and graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School in The Bronx. At age nineteen, he began attending Thursday and Friday night parties in downtown New York City and he was influenced by dance/disco deejays pioneers Grandmaster Flowers, Pete DJ Jones, and The Together Brothers. On Saturday nights, he acquired the sounds of hip hop from the neighboring uptown borough The Bronx via DJ Kool Herc, later on, Red would also attend parties, witnessing deejay sets from Grandmaster Flash, Kool DJ A. J. and Afrika Bambaataa. His allure was for the deejays acute ability to blended vinyl records on two sets of turntables with ideal songs that had tempos and rhythms to keep the crowd moving. He would soon after assemble his own collection and gathered deejaying equipment. Red Alert taught the basics of deejaying to his cousin Jazzy Jay, Jazzy Jay in return introduced Red to Afrika Bambaataa, the founding member and most exalted deejay of the Universal Zulu Nation. Red Alert would eventually become a fellow Zulu member, along with the other early Zulu deejays Afrika Islam, Grandmixer DST. Afrika Bambaataa added to the young Red Alerts wisdom regarding the value of keeping a non-judgemental approach to exploring various genres of music, including rock, reggae, disco, and new wave. The teenage Crute graduated high school as a top-ranking basketball prospect, in the early 1980s, Bambaataa would bring the sounds of hip hop to downtown New York City in legendary New York nightclubs Danceteria, Negril, and The Roxy. While deejaying at The Roxy in 1982, Red Alert met Barry Mayo, impressed by Reds deejay abilities, Mayo hired Red Alert to inaugurate the stations KISS Master Mix Party showcase. Kool DJ Red Alert appeared on the station, becoming their top deejay and his only full-time hired colleague for the stations other hip hop shows was fellow pioneering deejay Chuck Chillout. He would deejay two timeslots called The Twelve OClock Old School At Noon Mix and The Five OClock Free Ride for the seven years. After a brief return to KISS-FM from 2001 to 2002, Red started playing for Power 105. 1FM, after a five-year stint at Power 105-FM, Kool DJ Red Alert returned to his initial radio station KISS98.7 FM in 2006

19.
KRS-One
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Lawrence Parker, better known by his stage names KRS-One, and Teacha, is an American rapper and occasional producer from The Bronx, New York City, New York. KRS-One rose to prominence as part of the group Boogie Down Productions, following the release of the groups debut album, Criminal Minded, La Rock was shot dead, but KRS-One continued the group, effectively as a solo project. He began releasing records under his own name in 1993, KRS-One is politically active, having started the Stop the Violence Movement, after the death of Scott La Rock. Lawrence Parker was born in The Bronx, New York in 1965, by the time he met youth counselor Scott Sterling, he was also writing graffiti as KRS-One. DJ Scott La Rock, created Boogie Down Productions, releasing their album, Criminal Minded. KRS-One began his career as one third of the hip hop group Boogie Down Productions, or BDP. After being rejected by radio DJs Mr. Magic and Marley Marl, still, KRS-One dissed the song with the BDP record South Bronx. Next, a round of volleys would ensue with Shans Kill That Noise. KRS-One, demonstrating his nickname The Blastmaster, gave a performance against MC Shan. Many believe this live performance to be the first MC battle where rappers attack each other, Parker and Sterling decided to form a rap group together, initially calling themselves Scott La Rock and the Celebrity Three. That was short-lived, however, as the two peripheral members quit, leaving Parker and Sterling and they then decided to call themselves Boogie Down Productions. Success is the Word, a 12-inch single produced by David Kenneth Eng and Kenny Beck, was released on indie Fresh/Sleeping Bag Records, Boogie Down Productions released their debut album Criminal Minded in 1987. The album, whose cover pictured BDP draped in ammunition and brandishing guns, is credited with setting the template for the burgeoning genres of hardcore. Scott La Rock was killed in a shooting later that year, following the fatal shooting of Scott La Rock in 1987, KRS was determined to continue Boogie Down Productions through the tragedy, releasing the album By All Means Necessary in 1988. He was joined by beatboxer D-Nice, rapper Ramona Ms. Melodie Parker, KRS-One was the primary initiator behind the H. E. A. L. Compilation and the Stop the Violence Movement, for the latter he would attract many prominent emcees to appear on the 12-inch single Self Destruction, after five largely solo albums under the name Boogie Down Productions, KRS-One decided to set out on his own. On his first solo album, 1993s Return of the Boom Bap, Parker worked together with producers DJ Premier, Kid Capri and Showbiz and his second album, 1995s KRS-One, featured Channel Live on Free Mumia, a song in which they criticize Black Civil Rights Activist C. Other prominent guest stars on KRS-One included Mad Lion, Busta Rhymes, Das EFX, in 1991, KRS-One appeared on the alternative rock group R. E. M. s single Radio Song, which appeared on the bands album Out of Time, released the same year

20.
Rent regulation
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Rent regulation is a system of laws, administered by a court or a public authority, which aim to ensure the quality and affordability of housing and tenancies on the rental market for land. Comprehensive rent regulation is common in Commonwealth and European Union countries, including Canada, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus and Sweden, and also some states in the United States. However, many US states maintain rent controls, and a majority of OECD countries maintain rent regulation laws, which enjoy considerable popular support, in Canada there are rent regulation laws in each province. For example, in Ontario the Residential Tenancies Act 2006 requires that prices for rented properties do not rise more than 2.5 percent each year, or a lower figure fixed by a government minister. German rent regulation is found in the Civil Code in §§535 to 580a, rental price increases are required to follow a rental mirror, which is a database of local reference rents. This collects all rents for the past four years, and landlords may only increase prices on their property in line with rents in the same locality, usury rents are prohibited altogether, so that any price rises above 20 per cent over three years are unlawful. Tenants may be evicted against their will through a procedure for a good reason. Tenants receive unlimited duration of their rental agreement unless the duration is explicitly halted, in practice, landlords have little incentive to change tenants as rental price increases beyond inflation are constrained. During the period of the tenancy, a persons tenancy may only be terminated for very good reasons, a system of rights for the rental property to be maintained by the landlord is designed to ensure quality of housing. Many states, such as Berlin, have a right to adequate housing. Rent regulation covered the whole of the UK private sector rental market from 1915 to 1980, however, from the Housing Act 1980, it became the Conservative Partys policy to deregulate and dismantle rent regulation. Regulation for all new tenancies was abolished by the Housing Act 1988, Rent regulations survive among a small number of council houses, and often the rates set by local authorities mirror escalating prices in the non-regulated private market. Rent regulation in the United States is an issue for each state, after the New Deal, the Supreme Court ceased to interfere with social and economic legislation, and a growing number of states adopted rules. For example, in New York City only some properties continue to have the protection of rent regulation, fisher v. City of Berkeley,475 U. S.260 held there was no incompatibility with rent control and the Sherman Act. Price controls remain the most controversial element of a system of rent regulation, historically, economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo viewed landlords as producing very little that was valuable, and so regarded rents as an exploitative concept. Sometimes called rent leveling or rent stabilization, rent regulation is argued to promote social stability by slowing displacement in booming economic cycles and this analysis targeted nominal rent freezes, and the studies conducted were mainly focused on rental prices in Manhattan or elsewhere in the United States. A view at the time was that a well-designed rent control can be beneficial, the Swedish economist Assar Lindbeck, a housing expert, says that rent control appears to be the most efficient technique presently known to destroy a city – except for bombing. English land law R Arnott, ‘Time for Revisionism on Rent Control

21.
United States housing bubble
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The United States housing bubble was a real estate bubble affecting over half of the U. S. states. Housing prices peaked in early 2006, started to decline in 2006 and 2007, on December 30,2008, the Case-Shiller home price index reported its largest price drop in its history. In October 2007, the U. S. Secretary of the Treasury called the bursting housing bubble the most significant risk to our economy, Land prices contributed much more to the price increases than did structures. This can be seen in the building cost index in Fig.1, an estimate of land value for a house can be derived by subtracting the replacement value of the structure, adjusted for depreciation, from the home price. Using this methodology, Davis and Palumbo calculated land values for 46 U. S. metro areas, Housing bubbles may occur in local or global real estate markets. This may be followed by decreases in home prices that result in many owners finding themselves in a position of negative equity—a mortgage debt higher than the value of the property, the underlying causes of the housing bubble are complex. Factors include tax policy, historically low interest rates, tax lending standards, failure of regulators to intervene and this bubble may be related to the stock market or dot-com bubble of the 1990s. This bubble roughly coincides with the real estate bubbles of the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Spain, Poland, Hungary and South Korea. While bubbles may be identifiable in progress, bubbles can be measured only in hindsight after a market correction. In 2001, Alan Greenspan dropped interest rates to a low 1% in order to jump the economy after the. com bubble and it was then bankers and other Wall Street firms started borrowing money due to its inexpensiveness. The mortgage and credit crisis was caused by the inability of a number of home owners to pay their mortgages as their low introductory-rate mortgages reverted to regular interest rates. Greenspan warned of large double digit declines in home values larger than most people expect, the impact of booming home valuations on the U. S. Prior to that, Robert Prechter wrote about it extensively as did Professor Shiller in his publication of Irrational Exuberance in the year 2000. Hunn wrote, e can profit from the collapse of the credit bubble, however, real estate has not yet joined in a decline of prices fed by selling. Unless you have a specific reason to believe that real estate will outperform all other investments for several years. Many contested any suggestion that there could be a bubble, particularly at its peak from 2004 to 2006. Claims that there was no warning of the crisis were further repudiated in an August 2008 article in The New York Times, in his memo, Mr. Andrukonis wrote that these loans would likely pose an enormous financial and reputational risk to the company and the country. The article revealed that more than two-dozen high-ranking executives said that Mr. Syron had simply decided to ignore the warnings, other cautions came as early as 2001, when the late Federal Reserve governor Edward Gramlich warned of the risks posed by subprime mortgages

22.
Government of New York City
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The government of New York City, headquartered at New York City Hall in Lower Manhattan, is organized under the New York City Charter and provides for a strong mayor-council system. The mayor is elected to a term and is responsible for the administration of city government. The New York City Council is a body consisting of 51 members, each elected from a geographic district. All elected officials are limited to a two consecutive-term limit, the court system consists of two city courts and three state courts. New York City government employs 325,000 people, more than any city in the United States and more than any U. S. state. However, each county retains its own district attorney to prosecute crimes, three main public-library systems represent the citys five boroughs, namely Brooklyn Public Library, New York Public Library, and Queens Public Library. The executive branch of New York City consists of the Mayor, the Mayor also appoints several deputy mayors to head major offices within the executive branch of the city government. The City Record is the journal published each weekday containing legal notices produced by city agencies. The mayor is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. Along with the mayor, the Public Advocate and the Comptroller are the only three directly elected officials in New York City. The Public Advocate is a member of the Council, the Public Advocate stands first in line of succession to the mayoralty. The Comptroller stands second, after the Public Advocate, in the line to succeed a mayor who has become unable to serve, legislative power in the City of New York is vested in the New York City Council. The New York State Constitution empowers local governments to local laws in addition to ordinances, resolutions, rules. The Council is a body consisting of 51 Council members. The Speaker of the Council, selected by the 51 Council members, is considered the second most powerful post in New York Citys government after the Mayor. Bills passed by a majority are sent to the mayor. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a majority vote. The codified local laws of New York City are contained in the New York City Administrative Code, the Council has several committees with oversight of various functions of the city government

23.
Santander Bank
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Santander Bank, N. A. formerly Sovereign Bank is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Spanish Santander Group. It is based in Boston and its market is the northeast United States. It has more than $77 billion in assets, operates 723 retail banking offices and over 2,300 ATMs and employs approximately 9,000 people. Sovereign Bank was rebranded as Santander Bank on October 17,2013, the stadium, arena, Santander Bank, N. A. was founded in 1902 as Sovereign Bank, a savings and loan in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania. The companys earliest customers were largely textile workers, Sovereign expanded rapidly during the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s and 1990s, acquiring numerous other banks. In 2000, Sovereign became the third-largest retail bank in the Boston area when it bought 278 New England branches from the newly merged FleetBoston Financial and this transaction was driven by a requirement from bank regulators that Fleet Bank and BankBoston divest 306 branches as a condition for merger. Forty-five years before the founding of Sovereign Bank, its parent was founded as Banco Santander on 15 May 1857. The bank grew and in the 1920s started to build a network of branches, in 1942 it opened in Madrid. In 1934 Emilio Botín Sanz de Sautuola y López became director and he expanded the bank throughout Spain, so in 1957 it was Spains seventh-largest bank. In 1976 it acquired First National Bank of Puerto Rico, in 1986, Emilio seniors son, Emilio Botín Sanz de Sautuola y García de los Ríos, succeeded him. In the late 1980s he acquired CC-Bank in Germany and a stake was in Banco de Comercio e Industria in Portugal, in 1989, the “Supercuenta Santander” was launched. Sovereign bought the rights to Mercer Countys new arena in 1999 in support of newly acquired Trenton Savings Bank. In following years, the bank also named the Sovereign Center arena and Sovereign Performing Arts Center in Reading, Pennsylvania, in June 2006, Banco Santander purchased almost 20% of Sovereign Bank for US$2.4 billion. As Banco Santander owned 25% of Sovereign, it had the right to buy the bank for $40 per share for one year beginning in the middle of 2008. On June 1,2006, Sovereign Bank purchased Independence Community Bank Corp. of Brooklyn, New York, Sovereign completed the transition process of Independence and S. I. Bank & Trust customers on September 9,2006, Sovereign financed this merger through its partial sale to Spains Banco Santander Central Hispano. On October 13,2008, Banco Santander purchased the remainder of Sovereign for US$1.9 billion, Sovereign Bank was severely affected by losses related to auto loans and stock in Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Banco Santander had previously seen a loss of over $1 billion on its investment in Sovereign, on January 30,2009, Banco Santander completed its acquisition of Sovereign Bank, for about $2.51 per share

24.
DJ Kool Herc
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Clive Campbell, better known by his stage name DJ Kool Herc, is a Jamaican-American DJ who is credited with originating hip hop music in the early 1970s in The Bronx, New York City. His playing of hard funk records of the sort typified by James Brown was a both to the violent gang culture of the Bronx and to the nascent popularity of disco in the 1970s. Campbell began to isolate the portion of the record, which emphasized the drum beat—the break—and switch from one break to another. Using the same two turntable set-up of disco DJs, Campbell used two copies of the record to elongate the break. This breakbeat DJing, using hard funk and records with Latin percussion, campbells announcements and exhortations to dancers helped lead to the syncopated, rhymed spoken accompaniment now known as rapping. He called his dancers break-boys and break-girls, or simply b-boys, campbells DJ style was quickly taken up by figures such as Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash. Unlike them, he never made the move into commercially recorded hip hop in its earliest years, clive Campbell was the first of six children born to Keith and Nettie Campbell in Kingston, Jamaica. While growing up, he saw and heard the sound systems of neighbourhood parties called dancehalls, and he emigrated with his family at the age of 12 to the Bronx, New York in November 1967, where they lived at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. Many landlords resorted to arson to recoup money through insurance policies, a violent new street gang youth culture emerged around 1968, and spread with increasing lawlessness across large parts of the Bronx by 1973. He began running with a crew called the Ex-Vandals, taking the name Kool Herc. Herc recalls persuading his father to buy him a copy of Sex Machine by James Brown, a record not a lot of his friends had. He and his sister, Cindy, began hosting parties in the recreation room of their building,1520 Sedgwick Avenue. DJ Kool Herc developed the style that was the blueprint for hip hop music, Herc used the record to focus on a short, heavily percussive part in it, the break. Since this part of the record was the one the dancers liked best, Herc isolated the break and prolonged it by changing between two record players. As one record reached the end of the break, he cued a second back to the beginning of the break. This innovation had its roots in what Herc called The Merry-Go-Round, Herc told The New York Times that he first introduced the Merry-Go-Round into his sets in 1972. From the Bongo Rocks break, Herc used a record to switch to the break on The Mexican by the English rock band Babe Ruth. Kool Herc also contributed to developing the style of hip hop by punctuating the recorded music with slang phrases, announcing, Rock on

25.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

27.
New York (magazine)
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New York is a bi-weekly magazine concerned with life, culture, politics, and style generally, and with a particular emphasis on New York City. Founded by Milton Glaser and Clay Felker in 1968 as a competitor to The New Yorker, it was brasher and less polite, and established itself as a cradle of New Journalism. Since its redesign and relaunch in 2004, the magazine has won more National Magazine Awards than any other publication and it was one of the first dual-audience lifestyle magazines, and its format and style have been emulated by some other American regional city publications. In 2009, its paid and verified circulation was 408,622 and its websites—NYmag. com, Vulture. com, The Cut, and Grub Street—receive visits from more than 14 million users per month. New York began life in 1963 as the Sunday-magazine supplement of the New York Herald Tribune newspaper, edited first by Sheldon Zalaznick and then by Clay Felker, the magazine showcased the work of several talented Tribune contributors, including Tom Wolfe, Barbara Goldsmith, and Jimmy Breslin. Soon after the Tribune went out of business in 1966–67, Felker and his partner, Milton Glaser, gerald Goldsmith, and reincarnated the magazine as a stand-alone glossy. Joining them was managing editor Jack Nessel, Felkers number-two at the Herald Tribune, New Yorks first issue was dated April 8,1968. Among the by-lines were many names from the magazines earlier incarnation, including Breslin, Wolfe, and George Goodman. Within a year, Felker had assembled a team of contributors who would come to define the magazines voice, Breslin became a regular, as did Gloria Steinem, who wrote the city-politics column, and Gail Sheehy. Harold Clurman was hired as the theater critic, Alan Rich covered the classical-music scene. Gael Greene, writing under the rubric The Insatiable Critic, reviewed restaurants, Woody Allen contributed a few stories for the magazine in its early years. The magazines regional focus and innovative illustrations inspired numerous imitators across the country, the office for the magazine was on the top floor of the old Tammany Hall clubhouse at 207 East 32nd Street, which Glaser owned. Wolfe, a contributor to the magazine, wrote a story in 1970 that captured the spirit of the magazine, Radical Chic. The article described a benefit party for the Black Panthers, held in Leonard Bernsteins apartment, in a collision of high culture, in 1972, New York also launched Ms. magazine, which began as a special issue. New West, a magazine on New Yorks model that covered California life, was also published for a few years in the 1970s. As the 1970s progressed, Felker continued to broaden the magazines editorial vision beyond Manhattan, covering Richard Nixon, twenty years later, Cohn admitted that hed done no more than drive by Odysseys door, and that hed made the rest up. It was a problem of what Wolfe, in 1972, had labeled The New Journalism. In 1976, the Australian media baron Rupert Murdoch bought the magazine in a hostile takeover, a succession of editors followed, including Joe Armstrong and John Berendt

28.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

White flight is a term that originated in the United States, starting in the 1950s and 1960s, and applied to the …

Urban decay in the US: the South Bronx, New York City, was exemplar of the federal and local government's abandonment of the cities in the 1970s and 1980s; the Spanish sign reads "FALSAS PROMESAS", the English sign reads "BROKEN PROMISES".

Percentages of New Zealand school rolls occupied by certain ethnic groups in 2011, broken down by socioeconomic decile. White flight is evident with low-decile schools have a disproportionately low number of European students and high numbers of Maori and Pacifika students, while the inverse is true for high-decile schools.