AP Psychology Early History

In this lesson, our instructor Charles Schallhorn goes over structuralism, functionalism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism. He also goes over some names, such as Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Dix, Darwin, and Stanley Hall.

Examples of images of charts showing different degrees of positive correlation

8:43

Google Search for Negative Correlation

8:53

Examples of Charts Showing Different Degrees of Negative Correlation

8:54

Google Search for Zero Correlation

9:08

Examples of Charts Showing Zero Correlation Between Two Variables

9:09

Examples (Use the Thumb Method)

9:22

Which Examples Demonstrate Positive, Negative, and Zero Correlation?

9:23

Review Questions

11:15

What Kinds of Correlations Are Likely With The Relationships Below?

11:17

The Experimental Process & Ethical Guidelines

36m 20s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:15

Describe how Research Design Drives the Reasonable Conclusions That Can Be Drawn (e.g. Experiments are Useful for Determining Cause And Effect; The Use of Experimental Controls Reduces Alternate Explanations

0:19

Identify Independent, Dependent, Confounding, and Control Variables In Experimental Designs

0:36

Distinguish Between Random Assignments of Participants to Conditions in Experiments and Random Selection of Participants, Primarily in Correlational Studies and Surveys

0:44

Objectives, Cont.

0:57

Predict the Validity of Behavioral Explanations Based on the Quality of Research Design (e.g., Confounding Variables Limit Confidence in Research Conclusions).

1:00

Discuss the Value of Reliance on Operational Definitions and Measurement in Behavioral Research

1:10

The Experiment: Searching for Causes

1:23

Experimental Variables

1:45

Experimental and Control Conditions

1:48

Experimenter Effects

1:50

Advantages and Limitations of Experiments

1:52

An Experiment

1:55

A Controlled Test of a Hypothesis in Which the Researcher Manipulates One Variable to Discover Its Effect on Another.

1:59

To Identify Cause-And-Effect Relationships, We Conduct Experiments

2:43

Disadvantages

3:10

Some Vocabulary

3:34

Hypothesis: A Statement That Attempts to Predict an Outcome Within the Confines of the Experiment -- How the Manipulation of the Independent Variable Changes the Dependent Variable. To Make It Easier, Put it In a Conditional Format, If, Then

3:38

Independent Variable: A Variable That an Experimenter Manipulates.

4:18

Dependent Variable: A Variable That an Experimenter Predicts Will Be Affected By Manipulations of the Independent Variable

4:24

Unwanted Variables -- Extraneous Variables: Conditions That a Researcher Wants To Prevent From Affecting The Outcomes of the Experiment (e.g., Number of Hours Slept Before the Experiment)

4:34

More Concepts

5:15

Random Selection -- Choosing Subjects for the Experiment Without Bias -- Often Using a Random Number Table or Other Randomizing Procedure

5:18

Random Assignment -- Choosing Which Group, The Experimental or Control Group Each Subject Goes To

6:37

Randomness is a Procedure That Creates the Attempt to Limit Bias and Create Representativeness

7:42

A Graphic Overview

8:31

Chart

8:34

If One Eats Peanuts, One Will Recall Better

12:06

Chart

12:08

Practice -- Caffeine and Memory

14:16

Chart

14:18

Practice -- Sleep and Reaction Time

17:29

Chart

17:31

Potential Biases

21:05

Experimenter Effects -- This is When The Experimenter Unconsciously Pushes Subject into a Particular Response

21:08

Changes in Behavior Caused by the Unintended Influence of the Experimenter

21:14

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A Prediction That Leads People to Act in Ways to Make the Prediction Come True

21:19

Single Blind Experiment: Only the Subjects Have No Idea Whether They Get Real Treatment or Placebo

21:56

Double Blind Experiment: The Subjects AND The Experimenters Have No Idea Whether the Subjects Get Real Treatment or Placebo

22:18

Evaluating Results in an Experiment

22:54

Statistically Significant: Results Gained Would Occur Very Rarely by Chance Alone, Usually Less Than Five Experiments Out of 100

22:59

Meta-Analysis: Study of Results of Other Studies

23:52

Placebo Effect

25:15

Changes in Behavior That Result From Belief That One Has Ingested a Drug

26:11

Ethics/Ethical Responsibility

28:28

No Coercion -- Participation Must Be Voluntary

28:39

Doctrine of Informed Consent -- Must Be Volunteer and Know Enough to Intelligently Decide About Participating

Debriefing -- Done After Experiment -- Explains True Purpose of Study and If Any Deceptions

30:35

Experimenting on Animals

30:43

Humans are Similar to Other Animals in Many Ways

30:47

Two Extreme Options -- Do No Testing or Test in Any Way We Want, Without Constraint

31:17

Researchers Must (APA 2002) Ensure the Comfort, Health, and Humane Treatment of Animals and of Minimizing Infection, Illness, and Pain of Animal Subjects.

31:28

Must Have a Clear Scientific Purpose

31:49

Must Answer a Specific, Important Scientific Question

31:51

Animals Chosen Must be Best Suited for the Question

31:55

Animals Must Be Acquired Legally (Accredited Companies or Trapped Humanely, if Wild)

32:00

Practice Questions

32:06

To Understand In-Depth a Particular Individual or Family By Using Many Different Tools

32:13

To Watch a Person or People and Describe What They Do -- Often Involves Keeping Counts of Particular Behaviors

32:29

To Examine the Strength of Relationship Between Two or More Variables

32:50

Using Controlled Methods, Create a Situation Where the Researcher Can Measure Cause and Effect by Applying the Independent Variable With the Experimental Group and Comparing Results With a Control Group.

33:01

Practice Questions

33:31

To Find Out a Lot of People's Views, Attitudes, Experiences or Feelings About Some Aspect of Their Lives

33:35

To Use a Manipulated Situation to See What People Will Do in That Situation

34:08

Professor Xavier is Interested in Understanding the Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Social Anxiety

34:26

Dr. Jones Wishes to Investigate the Effects of a New Training Program on Employees' Job Performances

34:43

Professor Smith Wishes to Study the Effects of Food Deprivation on Learning in Rats

35:25

Dr. Watusi is Interested in Studying Peer Influence Among High School Students. He Decides to go to Several Local High Schools and Observe Students Over the Course of Several Weeks.

35:41

Research Methods: Statistics

37m 16s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:22

Distinguish the Purposes of Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

Genome: The Entirety of an Organism's Hereditary Information (Includes Info Coded in DNA or RNA)

1:49

Genes

2:17

Genes: Specific Areas on a Strand of DNA That Carry Hereditary Information

2:23

Genetic Makeup

2:46

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the Means by Which Heredity Characteristics Pass From One Generation to the Next

2:49

Fraternal Twins are Dizygotic Twins That Develop From the Union of Two Separate Sperms and Eggs

3:06

Identical Twins are Monozygotic Twins That Develop From the Union of the Same Egg and Sperm That Have Split and Have Exactly the Same Genotype (May Have the Same Genes, But Not Necessarily the Same Number of Copies of Those Genes)

3:28

Genetic Building Blocks

4:13

The Human Body Contains 100 Trillion Cells

4:16

There is a Nucleus Inside Each Human Cell (Except Red Blood Cells)

4:27

Each Nucleus Contains 46 Chromosomes, Arranged in 23 Pairs

4:34

One Chromosome of Every Pair is From Each Parent

4:49

The Chromosomes are Filled With Tightly Coiled Strands of DNA.

4:53

Genes are Segments of DNA That Contain Instructions to Make Proteins -- The Building Blocks of Life

4:59

Chromosomes

5:08

Picture of What is Inside a Chromosome

5:10

DNA

5:47

Linked Molecules (Organic Bases) Make Up the Rungs on DNA's Twisted Molecular Ladder. The Order of These Molecules Serves as a Code for Genetic Information

5:49

The Code Provides a Genetic Blueprint That is Unique for Each Individual (Except Identical Twins). The Drawing Shows Only a Small Section of a DNA Strand. An Entire Strand of DNA is Composed of Billions of Smaller Molecules

6:04

The Nucleus of Each Cell in the Body Contains Chromosomes Made up of Tightly Wound Coils of DNA.

6:25

Don't be Misled By the Drawing: Chromosomes are Microscopic in Size, and the Chemical Molecules That Make Up DNA are Even Smaller

6:41

Gene Patterns: Eye Color

7:01

Dominant and Recessive Traits

7:09

Gene Patterns for Children of Brown-Eyed Parents, Where Each Parent has One Brown-Eye Gene and One Blue-Eye Gene

7:12

Because the Brown Eye Gene is Dominant, One out of Every Four Children Will Be Blue-Eyed

7:22

There is a Significant Chance That Two Brown-Eyed Parents Will Have a Blue-Eyed Child

7:29

Dominant Recessive

7:43

Graphic Depicting All the Eye Color Combinations a Brown-Eyed Mother and Brown-Eyed Father Could Have

7:44

Temperament and Environment

9:53

Temperament: The Physical Core of Personality; Includes Sensitivity, Irritability, Distractibility, and Typical Mood

9:56

Easy Children: 40% Relaxed and Agreeable

10:09

Difficult Children: 10% Moody, Intense, Easily Angered

10:26

Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15% Restrained, Unexpressive, Shy

10:38

Remaining Children: Do Not Fit Into Any Specific Category

10:55

Environment

11:09

Environment (Nurture): All External Conditions That Affect a Person, Especially the Effects of Learning; the World Around a Person.

11:14

Sensitive Periods: A Period of Increased Sensitivity to Environmental Influences; Also a Time When Certain Events Must Occur for Normal Development to Take Place

11:27

Prenatal Issues

13:10

Congenital Problem: A Problem or Defect That Occurs During Prenatal Development; Birth Defect

The Study of the Relationships Between the Physical Characteristics of Stimuli, Such as Their Intensity, and Our Psychological Experience of Them

3:24

Ernst Weber

4:24

A Founder of Modern Experimental Psych

4:30

Influenced Psychophysics

4:34

Studied Weight Perception and How There was a Proportional Relationship Between Increase of Magnitude of Weight and Ability to Make the Discrimination Between the Weights(Fechner Later Called it Weber's Law)

4:36

Weber-Fechner Law -- Ratio of Intensity to Have a Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

5:51

Studied Absolute Thresholds -- Our Awareness of Faint Stimuli

6:13

Gustav Fechner

6:29

Influenced Modern Experimental Psych

6:31

Founder of Psychophysics

6:34

Studied Absolute Thresholds -- Our Awareness of Faint Stimuli

6:36

Illustrated the Non-Linear Relationship Between Psychological Sensation and Physical Intensity of a Stimulus

6:43

Weber-Fechner Law -- Ratio of Intensity to Have a Just Noticeable Difference

7:19

Sensory Transduction

7:32

Conversion of One Form of Energy Into Another. In Sensation, The Transforming of Stimulus Energies, Such as Sights, Sounds, and Smells Into Neural Impulses Our Brains Can Interpret.

7:40

Absolute Threshold

8:22

The Minimum Stimulation Necessary to Detect a Particular Stimulus 50% of the Time

8:26

Exploited by Students Who May Use the Mosquito Ringtone to Evade Phone Use in Class

8:44

Vision -- Candle Flame Seen at 30 Miles on a Clear Dark Night

9:20

Hearing -- Tick of a Watch Under Quiet Conditions at 20 Feet (The Buzz of the Fluorescent Lights in a Quiet Room)

9:51

Taste -- One Teaspoon Sugar in 2 Gallons of Water

10:28

Smell -- One Drop Perfume Diffused Into a Three-Room Apartment

10:42

Touch -- A Bee's Wing Falling On Your Cheek from One Centimeter Above.

10:57

Difference Threshold

11:11

The Minimum Difference Between Two Stimuli Required for Detection. We Experience the Difference Threshold as a Just Noticeable Difference (JND).

11:14

The Detectable Difference Increases With the Magnitude -- is Done in a Constant Proportion

11:32

E.g. You Will Notice is One Ounce is Added to a 10 Ounce Weight, But Not if One Ounce is Added to a 100-Ounce Weight

11:38

Volume on the Television

12:11

Weber's Law

12:40

The Principle That, to be Perceived as Different, Stimuli Must Differ by a Constant Percentage (Rather Than a Constant Amount)

12:43

The Amount of Change Needed to Produce a Constant JND is a Constant Proportion of the Original Stimulus Intensity

12:56

Signal Detection

13:21

A Theory Predicting How and When We Detect the Presence of a Faint Stimulus (Signal) Amid Background Stimulation (Noise).

13:27

Assumes There is no Absolute Threshold and that Detection Depends Partly on a Person's Experience, Expectations, Motivation, and Alertness

13:38

Separating the Music From the Noise or the Signal From the Noise

13:53

Important Info Versus Background and Irrelevant

14:04

Sensory Adaptation

15:47

AKA Neural Adaptation

15:54

Neural or Sensory Receptors Change/Reduce Their Sensitivity to a Continuous, Unchanging Stimuli

16:04

This Occurs in the Brain at an Unconscious Level

16:11

E.g. The Smell of Your Own Car or Home

16:22

E.g. Adapting to Hot or Cold Water After a Brief Time in It.

17:12

E.g. The Eyes Adjusting to a Darker Room -- Rods and Cones Will Fire Differently to Adjust (Cones Take About 10 Minutes, the Rods 30 Minutes to Fully Adapt)

17:39

Why Certain Foods Do Not Taste the Same on the 20th Bite as They Did on the First

18:24

In Economics, This is Diminishing Marginal Utility

19:05

NOT The Same as Habituation (We Will Go Over That Later)

19:31

Top-Down Processing

19:42

Information Processing Guided by Higher-Level Mental Processes, as When We Construct Perceptions Drawing on Our Experience and Expectations

19:45

People Look at the Big Picture, the Whole, Try to Find Patterns to Make Meaning and Then Examine the Details (We Use Background Knowledge to Fill Gaps)

20:03

The Stroop Effect Was One Experiment That Dealt With This

20:18

Deductive Reasoning

21:54

Even Though the Second Letter in Each Word is Ambiguous, T-D Processing Allows for Context to Clarify For Us

22:03

Bottom-Up Processing (AKA Feature Analysis)

22:47

Analysis That Begins With the Sensory Receptors And Works Up to the Brain's Integration of Sensory Information

22:55

Works From the Details and Moves Out to the Whole Picture

23:06

Inductive Reasoning -- Going From the Examples First and Working One's Way Out to the General Propositions -- Uses Probabilities Based Upon Specific Observations

Two Pictures: Profile of Old Woman or Young Girl With Head Turned Away?

6:43

Form Perception

8:18

Grouping (Proximity)

8:32

Diagram: Six Rows or Three Sets of Two Columns?

8:37

Form Perception

9:25

Grouping (Similarity)

9:27

Form Perception

9:54

Grouping (Continuity)

10:00

Form Perception

10:37

Grouping (Connectedness)

10:42

Form Perception

11:09

Grouping (Closure)

11:12

Depth Perception

12:36

The Ability to See Objects in Three Dimensions Although The Images That Strike the Retina are Two Dimensional; Allows Us To Judge Distance

12:58

How and When Do We Perceive That?

13:10

Visual Cliff

13:13

A Demonstration That Shows Babies of a Certain Age Do Not Possess Depth Perception

13:26

Ability Develops With Age and Needs of Species

14:39

Developed by Gibson and Walk

14:56

Depth Perception

15:10

Binocular Cues

15:14

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

17:32

Relative Height

17:52

Relative Size

17:53

Interposition

17:54

Linear Perspective

15:55

Relative Motion

15:56

Light and Shadow

15:57

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

17:59

Relative Height

18:03

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

18:38

Relative Size -- In Two-Dimensional Drawings or Paintings You Assume Smaller Things Are Further Away Since They Are Likely Similar Size

18:41

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

19:47

Interposition -- If One Object Blocks Our View of Another Object, We Assume That It Is Closer

20:01

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

20:32

Linear Perspective -- When Parallel Lines Seem to Converge In the Distance, The More They Converge, the Greater the Distance

20:56

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

21:24

Linear Perspective -- Example Two (Train Tracks)

21:27

Depth Perception: Monocular Cues

21:55

Relative Motion: As We Move, Objects That Are Actually Stable May Appear To Move -- e.g. While Riding in a Car, You May Fix Your Eyes on a House -- The Objects Beyond that Point May Appear to Move With You -- Objects in Front of That Object Appear to Move Backward

21:59

Increase Distance From the Fixation Point Increases Perceived Speed

22:37

Review

22:52

Describe at Least Three Gestalt Principles That Impact Our Perceptions

22:55

Describe at Least Three Monocular Cues That Allow People to See Depth

23:01

Describe The Primary Binocular Cue

23:07

Perception, Part 2

28m 7s

Intro

0:00

Motion Perception

0:12

Stroboscopic Movement -- In the Case of Motion Pictures -- 24 fps -- a Series of Still Photos Creating The Illusion of Movement

0:18

Phi Phenomenon -- An Illusion of Movement Created When Two or More Adjacent Lights Blink On and Off in Quick Succession (Think a Movie Marquee or Lights on the Vegas Strip)

Psychoactive Drugs Affect Synapses and Neurotransmitters in Three Ways

6:59

Tolerance: The Brain Will Produce Less of a Specific Neurotransmitter if it is Being Artificially Supplied by a Psychoactive Drug

7:31

Categories of Drugs

8:06

Depressants

8:10

Hallucinogens

8:20

Stimulants

8:31

Depressants

9:20

Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates

9:22

Drugs That Reduce Neural Activity and Slow Body Functioning

9:26

Includes Alcohol and Sedatives

9:39

All Depressants Can Cause Dependence, Tolerance, Withdrawal, and Psychological Addiction

12:19

Sedatives

13:10

Drugs That Reduce Anxiety or Induce Sleep

13:11

Also Called Tranquilizers or Hypnotics

13:20

Include Barbiturates (Drugs That Depress the Activity of the Central Nervous System, Reducing Anxiety but Impairing Memory and Judgment e.g. Phenobarbital or Seconal) and Benzodiazepines (Anti-Anxiety Drugs)

Drugs That Distort Perceptions and Evoke Sensory Images in the Absence of Sensory Input

27:09

Include: LSD and Ecstasy (MDMA)

27:40

Sometimes Called Psychedelics

27:53

LSD Effects Vary From Person to Person

27:56

Many Have a Near Death Type of Experience -- Related to Oxygen Deprivation

28:00

Can Cause Physiological Dependence/Tolerance in Some People, But Not Everyone. Can Cause Psychological Dependence

28:07

Marijuana

29:41

Leaves, Stems, Resin, and Flowers From the Hemp Plant That, When Smoked, Lower Inhibitions and Produce Feelings of Relaxation and Mild Euphoria

29:42

THC (Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol) is the Active Ingredient

30:10

Disrupts Memory; Lung Damage From Smoke

30:17

Can Cause Physiological Dependence/Tolerance in Some People, But Not Everyone. Can Cause Psychological Dependence

30:31

Why Do People Use Drugs?

31:36

Biological Influences

31:37

Psychological Influences

32:22

Socio-Cultural Influences

33:31

Review

34:35

What Are the Major Categories of Psychoactive Drugs?

34:36

What Are the Effects of the General Categories of Drugs?

34:47

If One Looks for Energy, One Will Likely Take…

34:55

If One Looks to Calm Down…

35:06

If One Wants to Alter Their Perceptions…

35:12

Which Drug is a Mood Enhancer as Well as a CNS Depressant?

35:21

Which One is Similar to Endogenous Opioid Peptides?

35:31

Distinguish Between Addiction and Dependence

35:51

Section 6: Learning

Learning: Intro & Classical Conditioning

33m 26s

Intro

0:00

Learning (7-9%)

0:19

Classical Conditioning

0:38

Operant Conditioning

0:40

Cognitive Processes

0:42

Biological Factors

0:44

Social Learning

0:46

This Section of the Course Introduces Students to the Differences Between Learned and Unlearned Behavior. The Primary Focus is Exploration of Different Kinds of Learning, Including Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning. The Biological Bases of Behavior Illustrate Predispositions for Learning.

Another Way to Treat Alcoholics is to Have Them Take a Drug Called Antabuse (Disulfiram). If They Ingest Any Alcohol at All, They Will Have Serious Vomiting Issues. The Desire is to Pair the Vomiting With the Alcoholic Drink.

Predict How Practice, Schedules of Reinforcement, And Motivation Will Influence Quality of Learning.

0:28

Thorndike and the Law of Effect

1:07

Responses That Produce a Satisfying Effect in a Particular Situation Become More Likely to Occur Again in That Situation, and Responses That Produce a Discomforting Effect Become Less Likely to Occur Again In That Situation

1:20

In Other Words, When Better Things Happen After We Do Something, We Are More Likely to Do It Again

1:36

Connectionism -- Organisms Connect Behaviors to What Occurs After -- Early Form of Behaviorism

1:46

Thorndike is Father of Modern Educational Psychology

1:56

Thorndike's Puzzle Box

2:35

Picture of Puzzle Box and Graph Illustrating The More Trials a Subject Went Through, The Less Time it Took to Solve Puzzle.

2:40

Cats, Puzzle Box, and Law of Effect

3:27

First Trial in Puzzle Box -- More Likely to Scratch at Bars, Yeowl, Dig at Door, etc. Before Pushing Release Lever

3:29

After Many Trials in Box, Cat is More Likely to Push Release Lever First to Escape Box.

3:56

B.F. Skinner

4:17

Founder of Modern Behavioral Perspective

4:20

Operant Conditioning -- An Organism Operates in Its Environment, Exhibiting Behaviors That are Inborn or Learned

4:32

Environmental Determinism

5:17

Invented the Operant Conditioning Box -- Sometimes Called a Skinner Box -- He Hated That Term

5:28

Trained Rats, Birds, and People

5:40

So Much Research in This Area -- One of the Most Scientifically Validated Theories/Approaches

5:55

Operant Conditioning

6:09

A Type of Learning in Which Behavior is Strengthened if Followed by a Reinforcer or Diminished if Followed by a Punisher

6:11

What We Are Trying to do is Learn How We Can Modify an Organism's Behavior Using the Most Effective Means Possible. We Use Reinforcement and Punishment. Each Organism Interprets This Differently.

6:27

Key Distinction in Terms -- in OC, The Organism EMITS Behavior. In CC, The Behavior is ELICITED (Drawn Out of the Organism)

Escape Conditioning Occurs When the Animal Learns to Perform an Operant to Terminate an Ongoing, Aversive Stimulus. It is a Get Me Out of Here or Shut This Off Reaction, Aimed at Escape From Pain or Annoyance. The Behavior That Produces Escape is Negatively Reinforced (Reinforced by the Elimination of the Unpleasant Stimulus).

1:15

Avoidance Conditioning

2:52

When an Organism Learns to Avoid Unpleasant or Punishing Stimuli by Learning the Appropriate Anticipatory Response to Protect it From Further Stimuli (Learns a Cue Before the Stimuli -- Follows Escape Conditioning)

2:56

Occurs Quickly and is Very Durable.

3:18

e.g. If You Sounded a Tone Before You Electrified the Platform. After One or Two Trials, the Rat Would Respond to the Tone by Jumping Into the Water. It Would Not Wait for the Shock.

3:53

This is a Form of Stimulus Control, Because it Puts Behavior Under Control of a Stimulus, in This Case, the Warning Tone.

4:08

Avoidance Behaviors are Incredibly Persistent. This is True When There is No Longer Anything to Avoid.

4:15

Schedules of Reinforcement

5:17

Continuous Reinforcement: Every Instance of a Behavior Occurs is Reinforced

5:33

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement -- Reinforcing a Response Only Part of the Time; Results in Slower Acquisition of a Response But Much Greater Resistance to Extinction Than Does Continuous Reinforcement

5:44

Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement is Based on the Number of Behaviors Required

6:34

Interval Schedules: Reinforcement is Based on the Passage of Time

6:39

Variable -- Uncertain Number of Times/Behaviors

6:44

Fixed -- Certain Number of Times/Behaviors

6:49

Immediate v. Delayed Reinforcers -- Like Pavlov and Contiguity, the Longer the Delay, the Less, the Connection.

Doing My Job and Receiving my Paycheck Monthly (Last Day of the Month)

11:18

The Daily Mail -- I Receive My Mail at Roughly the Same Time Each Day

11:35

A Course Where There are Exams Every Three Weeks (Studying Right Before the Exam and Then Stopping Until the Next Round)

11:49

Variable Interval Examples

12:22

Unpredictable -- Reinforcement Occurs After a Random Amount of Time

12:26

Checking Your Phone For Text Messages -- You Do Not Know When You Will be Rewarded With a Message, But Continue to Check Until You Do.

12:34

A Parent Attending to the Cries of a Child. Parents Will Not Typically Attend to the Child Each Time It Cries, But Will Leave He or She to Fuss For a Period Before Attending

13:06

Fixed Ratio Examples

13:43

Giving a Child Candy EVERY Time She Picks Up Her Toys

13:46

Getting Paid After Each Car Gets Sold

13:59

Student May Be Given a Prize After Reading Ten Books

14:24

Factory Workers Getting Paid by the Piece (e.g. $10 for Each Widget Made)

14:35

Getting a Free Sandwich Upon Purchase of 10 Sandwiches

14:54

Variable Ratio Examples

15:11

The Classic of Winning the Jackpot on the Slot Machine After Changing a Number of Times Playing It.

15:23

Playing Poker -- I Do Not Win Every Time, But Must Play in Order to Have a Chance

17:11

Buying Lottery Tickets and Winning Occasionally

17:22

Going Fly Fishing

18:03

Playing The Lottery

18:41

Shaping

19:38

Shaping is a Technique Using Positive Reinforcements in Order to Create a More Complex Behavior

19:43

Television Examples

23:45

The Office

23:52

The Big Bang Theory

25:23

Now That You Know These Ideas, You Will Begin to See Them Everywhere -- This is Called Selective Perception -- It's Due to a Recent Change in Your Schema

26:01

Operant and Classical Conditioning on TV

26:52

Cesar Milan -- Dogs

26:56

Jackson Galaxy -- Cats

26:58

Both are Animal Behaviorists

26:59

Watch One or Two Episodes Each -- They Modify the Owner's Behavior as Much as the Animal

27:06

Review

27:51

Which Schedule of Reinforcement is Most Effective in Training Someone/Thing to Do a Behavior?

27:54

Which is Most Difficult to Extinguish?

28:17

Examine Your Own Life and Find an Example of Operant Conditioning in Which You Were Conditioned and Another Example in Which You Conditioned Someone Else -- Now Connect Reinforcement Schedules -- Where Are Some of These in Your Life?

28:23

Cognitive Aspect of Learning

34m 1s

Intro

0:00

Objectives

0:12

Describe the Essential Characteristics of Insight Learning, Latent Learning, and Social Learning.

Reciprocal Determinism -- The Individual And Environment Influence and Change Each Other

11:20

Pavlov's Ideas Extended

13:06

Robert Rescorla

13:10

Skinner's Ideas Extended

14:17

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

14:21

Latent Learning -- Learning That Becomes Apparent When There is an Incentive to Show It -- Can Seemingly Lay Dormant

14:25

Skinner's Ideas Extended

17:15

Biological

17:18

Applications of Skinner's Ideas

18:26

Operant Conditioning

18:30

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

21:59

Differences in Their Basic Ideas, Responses, and Acquisition

22:04

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

22:50

Differences in How Conditioning Becomes Extinct, and in Spontaneous Recovery

22:54

Comparing Classical/Operant Conditioning

23:52

Differences in Generalization and Discrimination

23:57

Additional Concepts in Learning

25:11

Habituation -- Gradual Process Where the Organism Decreases a Response to Stimulus That is Repeated Over Time

25:14

Learned Helplessness -- Martin Seligman, Puppies, and Humans -- Condition of a Human or Animal That Has Learned to Behave Helplessness, Failing to Respond Even Though There are Opportunities For It to Help Itself by Avoiding Unpleasant Circumstances or by Gaining Positive Rewards

26:00

Superstitious Behavior

29:47

Biofeedback

29:26

Review

32:43

What is a Model and What Is Imitation in Social Learning Theory?

32:45

What Is Reciprocal Determinism and How Can It Create Certain Outcomes for Individuals Who Isolate Themselves?

32:57

Describe the Bobo Doll Study and Why it was so Important for Understanding Social Learning Theory

33:08

Compare and Contrast CC and OC in Terms of Acquisition, Reinforcement, Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

33:15

Section 7: Cognition

Cognition Memory

51m 3s

Intro

0:00

Cognition (8-10%)

0:08

Memory

0:21

Language

0:22

Thinking

0:23

Problem Solving and Creativity

0:24

In This Unit, You Will Learn How Humans Convert Sensory Input Into Kinds of Information. We Examine How Human Learn, Remember, and Retrieve Information. This part of the Course Also Addresses Problem Solving, Language, and Creativity.

Rehearsal: The Conscious Repetition of Information, Either to Maintain it in Consciousness or to Encode It For Storage

9:16

Storage: Holding This Information in Memory

9:25

Retrieval: Taking Memories Out of Storage

9:29

Schema: The Mental Map or Filter That One Uses to Connect New Information to Old, Established Information -- Can Make Learning New Things Much Easier

9:33

Sensory Memory

9:47

Storing an Exact Copy of Incoming Information For a Few Seconds (Either What is Seen or Heard); The First Stage of Memory

9:52

Icon: A Fleeting Mental Image or Visual Representation

10:01

Echo: After a Sound is Heard, a Brief Continuation of the Activity in the Auditory System

10:25

Short-Term Memory (STM)

10:51

Storing Small Amounts of Information Briefly

10:56

Very Sensitive to Interruption or Interference

12:25

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

13:41

Storing Information Relatively Permanently

13:47

Stored on Basis of Meaning and Importance

13:51

Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model -- Modified

14:27

Diagram

14:31

Processing

16:24

Parallel: The Processing of Many Aspects of a Problem Simultaneously; The Brain's Natural Mode of Information Processing for Many Functions. Contrasts With the Step-by-Step (Serial) Processing of Most Computers and of Conscious Problem-Solving

16:30

Automatic -- Unconscious Encoding of Incidental Information, Such as Space, Time, and Frequency, and of Well-Learned Information, Such as Word Meanings

16:56

Effortful -- Encoding that Requires Attention and Conscious Effort

18:26

Short-Term Memory Concepts

19:47

Digit Span: Test of Attention and Short-Term Memory; String of Numbers is Recalled Forward or Backward

19:51

Magic Number 7 (Plus or Minus 2): STM is Limited to Holding Seven (Plus or Minus 2) Information Bits at Once

20:13

More STM Concepts

20:57

Recoding: Reorganizing or Modifying Information to Assist Storage in STM

21:01

Maintenance Rehearsal

22:25

Repeating Information Silently to Prolong Its Presence in STM

22:28

Elaborative Rehearsal

24:34

Links New Information With Existing Memories and Knowledge in LTM

24:37

Long-Term Memory Concepts

26:37

Constructive Processing: Updating Long-Term Memories on Basis of Logic, Reasoning, or New Information

26:41

Pseudo-Memories: False Memories That a Person Believes are True or Accurate

Form a Chain or a Story: Remember Lists in Order, Forming an Exaggerated Association Connecting Item One to Two and So On

18:38

Take a Mental Walk: Mentally Walk Along a Familiar Path, Placing Objects or Ideas Along The Path

18:52

Form Acronyms -- My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine (Pizzas) -- The Planets

19:44

SOHCAHTOA -- Trigonometry

20:28

Eyewitness Memory

21:17

Elizabeth Loftus -- Lots of Research Into the Consolidation of Memory and How Memories Are Easily Changed -- Includes Planting False Memories, Misinformation and Incorrect Attribution

21:21

Misinformation Effect: By Incorporating Misleading Information or Asking Leading Questions, An Investigator Can Change One's Memory of an Event

21:48

Source Amnesia: Attributing to the Wrong Source an Event We Have Experienced, Heard About, Read About, or Imagined. (Also Called Source Misattribution.) Source Amnesia, Along With the Misinformation Effect, is at the Heart of Many False Memories

22:32

Elizabeth Loftus, Continued

23:10

False Memories -- In Court, Gave Evidence of the Malleability of Memory and Showed How the Idea of Repressed Memories Are Likely Just Ideas Implanted During Therapy Sessions, Not Recollections of Actual Events

23:11

The Lost in the Mall Technique With Children -- Gave Children the Idea That They Had Had an Experience of Being Lost. 25% Indicated That They Later Thought That This Was a Real Occurrence in Their Lives, They Had a Memory For it

23:45

Later Variations Showed the 1/3 of Subjects Could Be Convinced That They Had Traumatizing Events That Had Occurred to Them

Algorithms: a Methodical, Logical Rule or Procedure That Guarantees Solving a Particular Problem

2:49

Heuristics: Rules of Thumb or a Simple Thinking Strategy That Often Allows Us to Make Judgments and Solve Problems Efficiently

3:11

Insight: A Sudden and Often Novel Realization of the Solution to a Problem; It Contrasts With Strategy-Based Solutions

3:32

Friendship Algorithm

3:50

Sheldon (of BBT) made up a Friendship Algorithm, Which is Displayed Here

3:53

Problems in Problem Solving

5:33

Confirmation Bias: A Tendency to Search for Information That Supports Our Preconceptions and to Ignore or Distort Contradictory Evidence -- We Are Uncomfortable With Cognitive Dissonance

5:37

Fixation: The Inability to See a Problem From a Fresh Point of View -- This Relates to How We See/Define a Problem -- Can Lead to Others

6:58

More Problems: Representative Heuristic

8:55

Representative Heuristic: Judging the Likelihood of Things in Terms of How Well They Seem to Represent, or Match, Particular Prototypes; May Lead Us to Ignore Other Relevant Information.

9:04

More Problems: Representative Heuristic

10:59

e.g. A Person Might Judge a Young Person More Likely to Commit Suicide Because of a Prototype of the Depressed Adolescent -- The Reality is That Suicide Rates are Not Higher in Younger Populations

11:01

More Problems: Availability Heuristic

12:02

Availability Heuristic: Estimating the Likelihood of Events Based on Their Availability in Memory; If Instances Come Readily to Mind (Perhaps Because of Their Vividness), We Presume Such Events are Common

12:06

We May Fear Flying Because of 9/11 or Some Other Notable Event -- This Influences Our Thinking

13:35

More Impediments to Problem Solving

14:06

Overconfidence: The Tendency to Be More Confident Than Correct -- To Over-Estimate the Accuracy of Our Beliefs and Judgments

14:10

Belief Perseverance: Clinging to One's Initial Conceptions After The Basis On Which They Are Formed Has Been Discredited

14:31

Framing: The Way an Issue Is Posed or Presented; How an Issue is Framed Can Significantly Affect Decisions and Judgments

15:32

In Short

17:19

Humans Are Not the Rational Creatures We Often Presume Them to Be

17:22

They Are Often Irrational, But Predictably So

17:28

Other Biases We Often Exhibit (Will Visit These in Later Units):

18:02

Creativity

20:29

The Ability to Produce Novel and Valuable Ideas

20:32

Characteristics/Components of Creativity

21:03

Creativity

24:30

Wolfgang Kohler Documented the Aha Experience While Studying Chimps When They Were Trying to Obtain a Banana That Was Out of Reach

24:32

Convergent Thinking -- Limits Creativity

25:09

Divergent Thinking -- Increases Likelihood of Creativity

25:56

Intuition

27:13

An Effortless Immediate, Automatic Feeling or Thought, As Contrasted With Explicit, Conscious Reasoning

27:15

Review

29:52

How Can Shortcuts That The Mind Uses Inhibit Our Thinking Skills?

29:55

How Do Smart Thinkers Use Intuition?

30:01

What is Framing?

30:04

What Factors Assist Creativity?

30:11

What is the Difference Between Convergent and Divergent Thinking?

30:15

How is Intuition Different From Conscious Cognition?

30:22

Language

31m 2s

Intro

0:00

Objective

0:10

Synthesize How Biological, Cognitive, and Cultural Factors Converge to Facilitate Acquisition, Development, and Use of Language

0:13

Linguistics

0:26

Graphic Depicting the Various Types of Linguistic Study

0:29

Language

1:15

Our Spoken, Written, or Signed Words and the Ways We Combine Them to Communicate Meaning

Dynamics of Behavior That Initiate, Sustain, Direct, and Terminate Actions

3:32

Model of How Motivated Activities Work

3:40

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology

4:18

Instinct (Fixed Action Pattern): A Complex Behavior/Set of Behaviors Done in the Same Way by Every Member of the Species

4:22

Motives and Incentives

8:41

Motivation is a Psychological Feature That Arouses an Organism to Act Toward a Goal and Elicits, Controls, and Sustains Certain Goal-Directed Behaviors

8:46

Incentives -- Something That Motivates an Individual to Perform an Action -- Within Economics, Incentives are External Rewards to Draw Out Particular Desired Behaviors

9:26

Motives are Internal, Incentives are External

10:34

Drives and Incentives

11:23

Drive-Reduction Theory

11:27

Homeostasis-Steady State of Body Equilibrium; Balance

11:30

Need -- Biological Imperative

11:43

Drive -- Biological Action Affect Need

11:46

Drive Reduction -- Behavior to Reduce Drive

11:52

Need --> Drive --> Drive Reduction

11:58

We May Need Water, We Get Thirsty, We Quench Thirst by Doing Drive-Reducing Behaviors, Like Drinking Water or Another Drink

12:03

We May Have the Same Drives, But Reduce Them in Different Ways

12:43

Incentive Value

12:48

Goal's Appeal Beyond Its Ability to Fill a Need

12:52

High and Low Incentive Value Goals

13:07

Incentive: A Positive or Negative Environment Stimulus That Motivates Behavior

13:13

ex: High Incentive Value Goal -- Ice Cream

13:22

ex: Low-Incentive Value Goal -- Carrot

13:25

Would This Interest You?

14:10

Picture of Larvae or Worms

14:14

Types of Motives

15:53

Primary Motive: Innate (Inborn) Motives Based on Biological Needs That Must Be Met to Survive

15:56

Stimulus Motive: Needs For Stimulation and Information; Appear to be Innate, But Not Necessary for Survival

16:05

Secondary Motive: Based on Learned Needs, Drives, And Goals

16:58

Arousal Theory

17:09

People Will Do Certain Actions to Maintain Certain Optimal Levels of Physiological Arousal. If the Level is Too High, They Will Seek to Relax. If Level is too Low, They Will Seek Out Action or Something That Stimulates Them

17:18

Based Upon Individual and Situation -- Highly Variable

18:04

Being an Introvert or Extrovert May Change One's View of What is a Pleasant Arousal Level

Developmental Psychology Deals With the Behavior of Organisms From Conception to Death and Examines the Processes That Contribute to Behavioral Change Throughout the Life Span. The Major Areas of Emphasis in the Course are Prenatal Development, Motor Development, Socialization, Cognitive Development, Adolescence, and Adulthood

0:52

Developmental Psychology

1:20

Branch of Psychology That Studies Physical, Cognitive, and Social Change Throughout the Life Span (The Study of Progressive Changes in Behavior and Abilities)

1:22

Issues Within Developmental Psych

1:33

Nature vs. Nurture

1:39

Continuity and Stages

1:58

Stability and Change

2:12

Heredity

2:42

Heredity (Nature): Transmission of Physical and Psychological Characteristics From Parents to Their Children Through Genes

Children's Thinking and Use of Logic are Limited to Concrete Reality, Not Abstract or Hypothetical Concepts.

16:08

Classify, Organize, Categorize

16:20

Formal Operations Stage

17:52

Children Reason Abstractly and Make Predictions About Hypothetical Situations

17:58

Problem Solving Involves Systemic and Reflective Strategies.

18:03

Not everyone Gets to This Stage.

18:08

Refinements of Piaget's Theory

20:12

Children are More Cognitively Advanced and Adults are Less Cognitively Complex Than Piaget's Theory Suggests.

20:18

Theory of Mind: People's Ideas About Their Own and Others' Mental States (About Their Feelings, Perceptions, and Thoughts) That Allow You to Understand and Predict Their Behavior.

20:43

Social and Environmental Factors Have a Greater Influence on Cognitive Development Than Piaget Thought

20:57

Lev Vygotsky

21:32

Children's Cognitive Development is Heavily Influenced by Social and Cultural Factors

21:42

Children's Thinking Develops Through Dialogues With More Capable People

21:52

Importance of Social Interaction -- Community and Culture Plays a Central Role in the Process of Making Meaning and Cognitive Development

22:56

Social Factors are Big (Piaget Minimized Them)

23:23

Emphasis on Role of Language in Cognitive Development (Piaget Minimized This)

23:31

More Vygotsky

23:43

Zone of Proximal Development -- Range of Tasks a Child Cannot Master Alone Even Though They Are Close to Having the Necessary Mental Skills; They Need Guidance From a Skilled Partner in Order to Complete the Task

23:48

Scaffolding: Framework or Temporary Support. Adults Help Children Learn How to Think by Scaffolding, or Supporting, Their Attempts to Solve a Problem or to Discover Principles

25:03

Review

27:49

How Does Thinking Change During Childhood Into Adulthood for Piaget?

27:51

How Did Vygotsky Add to Piaget's Work?

28:02

What Aspect of Vygotsky Do You See In School?

28:07

Development, Part IV

28m 20s

Intro

0:00

Erikson: Psycho-Social Development

0:10

Eight Stages of Psychosocial Dilemmas

0:18

Student of Freud

0:23

Added Social Aspect to Freud's Ideas

0:28

Examined Entire Lifespan

0:32

Stage 1: Trust Vs. Mistrust (Birth-1)

0:40

Children Are Completely Dependent on Others

1:03

Trust: Established When Babies are Given Adequate Warmth, Touching, Love, and Physical Care

1:06

Mistrust: Caused by Inadequate or Unpredictable Care

1:14

Important Events: Feeding

1:41

Stage 2: Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3)

1:58

Autonomy: Doing Things for Themselves

2:05

Overprotective and Ridiculing Children May Cause Children to Doubt Abilities and Feel Shameful

2:15

Important Events: Toilet Training

2:52

Stage 3: Initiative Vs. Guilt (3-5)

3:01

Initiative: Parents Reinforce Via Giving Children Freedom

3:09

Guilt: May Occur if Parents Criticize, Prevent Play or Discourage a Child's Questions

3:34

Important Events: Exploration

4:00

Stage 4: Industry Vs. Inferiority (6-12)

4:36

Industry: Occurs When Child is Praised for Productive Activities

4:42

Inferiority: Occurs if Child's Efforts are Regarded as Messy or Inadequate

4:55

Important Events: School

5:10

Stage 5: Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

5:31

Identity: For Adolescents, Who am I?

5:43

Role Confusion: Occurs When Adolescents are Unsure of Where They are Going and Who They Are

6:34

Important Events: Social Relationships

6:42

Stage 6: Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

7:53

Intimacy: Ability to Care About Others and Share Experiences With Them

8:16

Isolation: Feeling Alone and Uncared for

8:38

Important Events: Relationships (Emotionally Intimate)

8:59

Stage 7: Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

9:20

Generativity: Interest in Guiding the Next Generation

9:27

Stagnation: When One is Only Concerned With One's Own Needs and Comforts

10:17

Important Events: Work and Parenthood

10:48

Stage 8: Integrity Vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

10:53

Integrity: Self-Respect; Developed When People Have Lived Richly and Responsibly

11:04

Despair: Occurs When Previous Life Events are Viewed With Regret

11:44

Important Events: Reflection on Life

12:05

Kohlberg and Moral Development

13:11

Took Stage Theories and Applied to Moral Development

13:12

Gave Children Scenarios and Asked for Reasoning on What was Right and Wrong

13:39

Heinz Dilemma Example

13:58

Reasoning Created Patterns-Worked into Three Levels (Each With Two Stages)

14:54

Assumed Humans are Communicative, Possessed Reason and a Desire to Understand World

15:28

Three Levels of Moral Development

16:09

Preconventional: Moral Thinking Based on Consequences of Actions or Choices

16:10

Conventional: Reasoning Based on a Desire to Please Others or to Follow Accepted Rules and Values

17:48

Postconventional: Follows Self-Accepted Moral Principles

18:24

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)

19:17

1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation -- How Can I Avoid Punishment?

19:21

2. Self-Interest Orientation -- What's in it for Me?

19:35

Level 2 (Conventional)

20:04

3. Interpersonal Accord and Conformity (Good Boy/Good Girl Attitude)

20:09

4. Authority and Social-Order Maintaining Orientation

20:38

Level 3 (Post-Conventional)

21:36

5. Social Contract Orientation

21:37

6. Universal Ethics Principles (Morality of Individual Principles)

23:41

Criticisms of Kohlberg

24:50

Cross-Cultural, Most Are in the First 4 Stages

24:53

Post-Conventional Seem to Be European and North American Educated Middle Class Which Values Individualism

25:02

Collectivist Cultures' Morality Ignored/Viewed Negatively

25:28

Carol Gilligan Was a Colleague Who Focused on Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Relationships

25:45

Viewed Kohlberg's Work as Androcentric

25:56

Lacked Social Justice and Cultural Neutrality

26:36

Review

26:55

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and Later Researchers Describe Adolescent Cognitive and Moral Development?

26:56

How Does Thinking Change During Childhood Into Adulthood for Piaget?

27:09

Erikson Talks About Psychosocial Development -- Describe The Crises of Each Stage and How Positive Growth Develops From Each

27:20

Kohlberg Examines Moral Development -- Describe How He Determined a Person Was at a Particular Stage

27:37

Why Does Gillian Criticize Kohlberg's Work? Give Examples

27:53

Development, Part V

43m 17s

Intro

0:00

North American Adults-Challenges

0:14

Gould's Developmental Challenges for Adults

0:15

Escape From Dominance (Ages 16-18)

0:18

Leaving the Family (Ages 18-22)

0:38

Building a Workable Life (Ages 22-28)

0:44

Crisis of Questions (Ages 29-34)

1:00

Crisis of Urgency (Ages 35-43)

1:16

Attaining Stability (Ages 53-50)

1:33

Mellowing (Ages 50 and Up)

1:49

Emerging Adulthood

2:37

For Some People In Modern Cultures, A Period From Late Teens to Mid-Twenties

2:38

Bridging the Gap Between Adolescent Dependence and Full Independence and Responsible Adulthood

2:45

Levinson's Challenges

5:24

Early Adulthood Transition (17-22)

5:25

Age 30 Transition (28-33)

5:36

Midlife Transition (40-45)

6:01

Age 50 Transition (50-55)

6:07

Late Adult Transition (60-65)

7:04

Female Middle Age Issues

7:15

Menopause

7:18

Empty Nest Syndrome

8:35

Male Middle-Age Issues

10:08

Climacteric

10:09

Andropause

10:37

Gerontology and Study of Aging

12:06

Gerontologists Study Aging and its Effects

12:07

Intellectual Abilities

12:20

Fluid Abilities: Abilities Requiring Speed or Rapid Learning

12:26

Crystallized Abilities: Learned (Accumulated) Knowledge and Skills

12:48

Physical Development

15:13

Our Bodies Undergo Changes in Time

15:15

Metabolism

15:25

Possible Weight Changes

15:51

Lower Maximum Heart Rate (220 - Age)

15:55

Lower Muscle Strength

17:01

Reduced Lung Capacity

17:12

This Means Adaptation, Not Elimination of Physical Activity

17:16

Gerontology and Study of Aging

17:44

Disengagement Theory: Assumes That it is Normal and Desirable for People to Withdraw from Society as They Age

17:45

Activity Theory: People who Remain Active will Adjust Better to Aging (Productive Aging)

18:00

Ageism: Discrimination or Prejudice Based on a Person's Age

18:34

Physical and Cognitive Changes

19:16

Two Theories of Aging

19:17

Genetic Preprogramming Theory

19:21

Wear-and-Tear Theory

19:53

Aging and the Brain

20:06

Dementia

20:07

Wisdom: Expert Knowledge and Judgment About Important Issues in Life

20:51

Research Methods in Developmental Psych

21:15

Cross-Sectional Study - People of Different Ages are Compared With One Another

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