Super Telescopes in Space and on the Moon

The International Lunar Observatory initiative is a private commercial space mission concept that envisions a multi-wavelength observatory to perform astronomy and astrophysics from the Moon.Credit: Lunar Enterprise Corporation/SpaceDev

NASA's sweeping Moon, Mars
and beyond agenda demands a sustained ability to build, deploy, rescue, repair,
support and upgrade large and complex systems. In mounting this exploration
assault, both human and robot can work together to anchor super-optical systems
far from Earth, as well as on that nearby celestial mountaintop - the Moon.

Already looming large in
the astronomical world is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). It is to be
launched in 2011. This powerful observatory features a 20-foot (6.5-meter) mirror
made up of 18 hexagonal-shaped segments. The large-sized mirror could fit seven
Hubble Space Telescope mirrors within its surface area.

JWST will be an infrared
observatory, deployed for duty with a large sunshade attached at the second
Lagrange point (L2) of the Sun-Earth system, a semi-stable point in the gravitational
potential around the Sun and Earth. It will be positioned some 1 million miles
(1.5 million kilometers) from the Earth and enable astronomers to observe the
formation of the first stars and galaxies in the universe billions of years
ago.

Even before JWST is up and
operating, interest is growing for larger next generation space telescopes.

These very large optical
systems could be assembled and maintained by robot and human attendants - part
of an evolving "in-space capability" now being marshaled by NASA in
response to President George Bush's visionary space agenda outlined over a year
ago.

Hunger for acreage

"Astronomers are greedy
for surface area. They want to make even bigger mirrors which will mean, in
turn, even more complicated structures to support them," said Harley Thronson,
Assistant Associate Administrator (Technology) within the Science Mission Directorate
at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C.

Thronson said it's not just
a hunger for acreage by astronomers. The laws of physics tell you certain apertures,
probably multiple apertures in formation flying mode, are needed for future
astronomical quests, he suggested.

"This is a problem
in astronomy. Most of the universe is far away," Thronson told SPACE.com.

Despite the distance, large
space optics offer great promise, Thronson added. "I wouldn't be surprised
if school children of 2050 were learning the names of continents on Earth-like
worlds around other stars."

"What was striking
to many of the participants was the breadth of interest in extending in-space
capabilities necessary to achieve national objectives in scientific and human
exploration," Thronson said. The meeting bridged major goals in bioastronautics,
space operations, robotic and telerobotic systems, astronomy, astronaut space
walking skills, and large space structures, he said.

Those tools can enable new
science, said Dan Lester, a research scientist in the astronomy department at
the University of Texas at Austin. He also served on the organizing committee
for the February meeting.

Although the humans versus
robots picture for science has been debated for years, Lester said, the new
picture has "agents" working closely together. Those agents are humans,
robots, as well as software, the latter being what we mostly use now as an active
agent, he pointed out.

One of the very large telescopes
proposed for the 2015-2020 time period is the Single Aperture Far-infrared (SAFIR)
telescope. Lester said that SAFIR is now being evaluated in light of projected
in-space human and robotic skills for servicing the facility, to make it more
scientifically productive over a longer lifetime.

"We can build the kind
of telescopes that we never thought we would be able to build. It's pretty simple.
In order to do great astronomy, we need to have big telescopes. And the best
place to have big telescopes is in space," Lester said.

Spinning liquid

There are niches for telescopes
not only here on Earth and in free space, but on the Moon too.

One concept under assessment
is a deep field infrared observatory situated near the Moon's south pole. The
idea is championed by Roger Angel of the University of Arizona in Tucson and
has been funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC).

Angel foresees the prospect
of lunar telescopes using liquid primary mirrors that are some 60-feet to nearly
330-feet (20-meter to 100-meter) in diameter. "There is a trick to making
very large, very accurate mirrors...which is to spin liquid," he said.

On Earth, liquid mirrors
are limited to roughly 20-feet (6-meter) in size, but subject to atmospheric
absorption and distortion, even the wind kicked up by spinning the liquid, usually
mercury. The Moon, though, provides the required gravity field with no such
limitations.

"Because of the unique
advantages on the Moon even a 100-meter liquid mirror ain't that scary,"
Angel said. "The Moon is the absolute ideal place to make an inexpensive,
very big spinning liquid mirror."

Tall tent poles

However, such a liquid mirror
system in position at one of the Moon's poles would basically stare at the same
view continuously. Nevertheless, the result would be a super ultra deep field
observational capability, Angel said.

Lunar-based liquid mirror
telescopes, equipped with imaging and multiplexed spectroscopic instruments
for a deep infrared survey, would be revolutionary in their power to study the
distant universe, including the formation of the first stars and their assembly
into galaxies.

The goal of the NIAC-funded
work is to better appreciate the scientific promise of the concept, as well
as explore the "tall tent poles" that must be overcome to make such
a telescope practical, Angel said.

Also to be investigated
by Angel and his colleagues is the value of human presence on the Moon for erecting
the telescope and for occasional instrument upgrades. Study findings are expected
to be of value in shaping scientific exploration goals for NASA's planned return
to the Moon.

Moon: stable, vast platform

Another lunar observatory
idea has been evaluated by SpaceDev, Inc. of Poway, California. Dubbed the International
Lunar Observatory (ILO), this robotic multi-wavelength observatory is envisioned
as conducting astronomy and astrophysics from the Moon.

SpaceDev engineering studies
of the idea suggest that a modest $35 million to $50 million is required to
spot land ILO on the Moon in just a few years time.

SpaceDev's work on the initiative
was done under contract with the Lunar Enterprise Corporation, an arm of Space
Age Publishing Company with offices in Kamuela, Hawaii and Palo Alto, California.

"We see the Moon as
the next frontier of astronomy, after those of Earth and space. Observatories
in space have been successfully operating for more than three decades,"
said Steve Durst, head of the Lunar Enterprise Corporation.

"It's not so much a
question of space-based or lunar-based...or Earth-based. Each has its own advantages,"
Durst said.

Toe-hold, then foot-hold

Durst said that on Earth,
proximity and access means dramatically lower costs compared to space.

On the Moon, the real estate
available there provides a stable, vast platform for astrophysics observations,
Durst noted. "It's not a question of observatories at which location,
but what observatories at each location. There will of course
be observatories on Earth, in space, on the Moon...and beyond."

What makes a lunar observatory so compelling and attractive, Durst continued,
is its compelling logical necessity. In survey after survey the past 20 years,
"observation" and "power" consistently top the list of imperative
first steps upon arrival on the Moon...a toe-hold, then foot-hold for lunar base
build out, he said.

"On any scouting mission
or expedition -- Boy Scouts, Army, Marines, astronauts -- the very first things
to do upon arrival at a site is 'to post a look-out' and 'build a fire'...and
for the Moon that means observation and power or energy," Durst said. With
a human expedition on the Moon, also primary is having a habitat or shelter,
which is like "pitching a tent", he said.

Radical and exciting departure

For S. Pete Worden, a research
professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona's Steward Observatory, there
is a bottom line to his thinking about where best to place future observatories.

"NASA must be open
to using the moon for astronomy and be willing to fund the analyses and
precursor work needed to determine if the Moon holds advantages over other locations."

The Moon is the first target
in President Bush's vision, and that is "a radical and exciting departure
considering that our next-door neighbor world has been largely off NASA's radar
screen for the past 15 years," Worden said.

However, Worden said, what
is lacking is even the basic knowledge about lunar topography and resources
to plan for a sustained human presence on the Moon. He contends that NASA should
undertake lunar robotic missions to characterize polar landing sites and to
quantify the presence of volatile elements critical to life such as hydrogen
and carbon. The Moon's poles have more consistent temperature, solar power and
variety of chemical resources than the equatorial zones visited by U.S. Apollo
crews and the Soviet Union's robotic Luna missions.

"The Moon may also
prove to be an ideal location for advanced scientific laboratories in biology
and astronomy...but we must fully understand the pluses and minuses of the Moon
for such laboratories and not be driven to costly compromises between science
and human exploration," Worden explained.

Free space locales

The case for lunar-based
astronomy is a case nowhere near as strong as it used to be. That's the appraisal
of Lester at the University of Texas at Austin. He is a strong backer of free-space
locales such as Earth orbit or Lagrange points over what could be achieved on
the Moon.

Lester suggested that an
interesting strategic metamorphosis has occurred. "It isn't that we were
wrong before, but just that we've gotten much more talented in our free space
capabilities."

"With respect to free
space, the Moon provides dirt and gravity, and neither are of great value to
astronomy, at least of the ultraviolet, optical, infrared variety", Lester
said.

There's the claim that telescopes
could take advantage of the "stable" surface of the Moon. "But
we've known for many, many years," Lester responded, "that free space
is a marvelously stable place, and you don't need pylons or concrete!"

Pointing and stabilization
systems for spacecraft are straightforward, off-the-shelf items. The low temperature
that would be found in lunar polar craters is attractive, Lester added, but
carrying out construction in such cold places is likely to be very hard. "We'll
have such low and controllable temperatures in free space in just few years
anyway with the James Webb Space Telescope, he said.

"There is an assumption
that you need to put telescopes where people can get to
them, in order to derive maximum value. This is probably true, but the assumption
that the lunar surface is where such agents will soon congregate is probably
naive. Free-space is a fine place for humans, and it has worked well for many
years now," Lester said.

"Unless...and this is
a big caveat...we find a lot of resources on the Moon that are useful
for space travel, long-term human presence on the Moon offers us little as we
look toward Mars, and that understanding is reflected in NASA's planning. For
most telescopes, free space is the right place. Let's go back to the Moon, but
let's go there for good reasons."