Loudspeaker drivers convert an electrical signal into pressure waves in air. These are quite common, so we refer the reader to [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/Audio/spk.html Hyperphysics] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker Wikipedia]. Since loudspeaker drivers are usually linear actuators, their maximum displacement is usually limited.

Loudspeaker drivers convert an electrical signal into pressure waves in air. These are quite common, so we refer the reader to [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/Audio/spk.html Hyperphysics] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker Wikipedia]. Since loudspeaker drivers are usually linear actuators, their maximum displacement is usually limited.

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For instance, loudspeaker drivers can be used to actuate percussive instruments. The figure below shows a small plastic container glued to a loudspeaker cone. Shakers can be placed inside the plastic container, or the loudspeaker can be inverted and placed on top of a drumhead, allowing the plastic container to strike the drum membrane when a current is applied to the loudspeaker.

=== Vibrations in Structures ===

=== Vibrations in Structures ===

Revision as of 12:17, 18 October 2009

We can affect the world directly by using actuators. Some extra parts are involved because actuators generally require that relatively large currents flow through them in order to provide relatively large forces. The signal flow diagram including a force signal generator, power amplifier, and actuator is shown below.

Vibrations in Air

Loudspeaker Driver

Loudspeaker drivers convert an electrical signal into pressure waves in air. These are quite common, so we refer the reader to Hyperphysics and Wikipedia. Since loudspeaker drivers are usually linear actuators, their maximum displacement is usually limited.

Vibrations in Structures

Lorentz Force Actuator

The Lorentz force is the force on an electrical current carrier in the presence of a magnetic field. Any element can be actuated according to the Lorentz force if an electrical current can be passed along it.

We present the example of actuating a vibrating string. An electrically conductive vibrating string is placed between two permanent magnets. Notice that the ﬁeld ﬂowing from the north pole of the upper magnet to the south pole of the lower magnet is much less focused.

For simplicity of analysis, we assume that the magnetic ﬁeld B is completely uniform in between the magnets. Since the field flowing back is so much less focused, we also assume that it never ﬂows back to complete the magnetic circuit:

Then the force on the string is F= LAI × B

A piece of wire of only about 1m in length has a relatively low resistance. In
order to connect it to the output of a typical audio power ampliﬁer, it must be
placed in series with power resistors to avoid overloading the audio ampliﬁer’s output. The next two figures show a realization in the laboratory.

The other electrodynamic actuators described here such as woofers, shakers, servomotors, solenoids, etc. operate according to this principle.

Electromagnet Actuator

Oppositely-poled magnets attract each other

Two magnets repelling one another

Replacing one of the permanent magnets with an electromagnet. The direction of the current through the coil determines whether the two magnets attract or repell one another:

What if you want to actuate something that isn't a magnet?
Most efficient solution: glue a small neodymium magnet to the object that is to be actuated.
Alternate solution: if the object is ferrous (magnetically "sticky" aka magnetizable such as iron or steel), then the object to be actuated can be magnetized by placing it in the neighborhood of a magnet. The E-Bow and the Sustainiac use this principle to actuate guitar strings.

Piezoelectric Actuators

Haptic System Actuators

If it is sufficient to induce slower vibrations at relatively lower frequencies, for instance for interfacing with the human motor system, then we can use more conventional actuators.

Vibrating Motor

The vibrating motor below has a weight asymmetrically attached to the shaft so that it vibrates when the shaft rotates. Similar motors are present in cell phones.

DC motors

Since linear motors support only limited displacements, it is often more convenient to use rotational motors. If the motor is a DC motor, then the torque (rotational force) it exerts is proportional to the electrical current flowing through it. The direction of current through the motor determines the rotational direction of the motor: clockwise or counter clockwise. Sometimes DC motors have rotary encoders built in so that they can sense the rotational angle of the shaft.

Servo motors

Solenoids

Controlling With AVR

The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) output of the AVR can serve as the force signal generator.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique that we use to control the speed of the motor. A DC motor's speed is determined by now much current is flowing through it. Intuitively, if we supply a low DC current, the motor will spin slowly. It will spin more quickly with a higher current. As it turns out, it is difficult to create a circuit that supplies a varying current like this. So, we use PWM. Pulse Width Modulation used two discrete values of current (none and full) in pulses that average to the desired current value you need to make the motor act as you want. The longer the pulse, more average current flows through the motor, and the faster it goes. We speak of the length of the pulse in terms of something called the Duty Cycle. For example, in the figure below, the duty cycle is 25%.

PWM can be used to control the apparent output intensity of LED's, too!