The Productivity of Working Hours

Transcription

1 DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No The Productivity of Working Hours John Pencavel April 2014 Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor

2 The Productivity of Working Hours John Pencavel Stanford University and IZA Discussion Paper No April 2014 IZA P.O. Box Bonn Germany Phone: Fax: Any opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but the institute itself takes no institutional policy positions. The IZA research network is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn is a local and virtual international research center and a place of communication between science, politics and business. IZA is an independent nonprofit organization supported by Deutsche Post Foundation. The center is associated with the University of Bonn and offers a stimulating research environment through its international network, workshops and conferences, data service, project support, research visits and doctoral program. IZA engages in (i) original and internationally competitive research in all fields of labor economics, (ii) development of policy concepts, and (iii) dissemination of research results and concepts to the interested public. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author.

3 IZA Discussion Paper No April 2014 ABSTRACT The Productivity of Working Hours Observations on munition workers, most of them women, are organized to examine the relationship between their output and their working hours. The relationship is nonlinear: below an hours threshold, output is proportional to hours; above a threshold, output rises at a decreasing rate as hours increase. Implications of these results for the estimation of labor supply functions are taken up. The findings also link up with current research on the effects of long working hours on accidents and injuries. JEL Classification: J24, J22, N34 Keywords: working hours, output, productivity, women workers Corresponding author: John Pencavel Department of Economics Stanford University Stanford, CA USA

4 THE PRODUCTIVITY OF WORKING HOURS John Pencavel * I. Introduction In empirical research on measuring the input of labor in production, hours of work are treated in different ways. One approach is to neglect work hours entirely and to measure the input of labor by the number of employed workers. Another practice is to use worker-hours, the product of the number of workers and average hours per worker, an approach implying that a given proportionate change in the number of workers has the same effect on the labor input as the same proportionate change in working hours per worker. Either of these two ways of proceeding might be correct although it would seem worthwhile to ascertain whether it is. As it is, in each recession, calls are made to alleviate unemployment by reducing work hours among the employed. After all, if the labor input is simply the sum total of hours worked by all workers, so the reasoning goes, this sum can be arrived at if each works fewer hours and more people are employed. Indeed, some governments have applied this reasoning and made changes that encourage or mandate work-sharing. Another line of research recognizes that changes or differences in working hours do not entail the same changes or differences in effective labor input because individuals tend to work with greater efficacy at shorter hours. Economists engaged in growth accounting research took the position that workers employed for fewer hours were more productive during these hours so that gains in output per hour offset, in part, a shorter working week. Thus Denison (1962) suggested that, at the level of working hours in 1929 (when weekly working hours were 49 hours averaged over 52 weeks), a reduction in hours would be fully offset in gains that would leave output unchanged. At the hours prevailing in 1957 (when hours averaged 40 hours), Denison conjectured that a ten percent reduction in hours would result in a six percent reduction in output. 1 Dension s conjectures build on a long history of case studies in which a few employers have investigated the consequences of cuts in their employees working hours. These can be traced back at * Research assistance from Shirlee Lichtman is gratefully acknowledged. I profited from conversations with David Card, Avner Greif, and Priya Satia during the preparation of this paper. 1 Similar arguments are made by Matthews, Feinstein, and Odling-Smee (1982).

5 2 least to Robert Owen s cotton mills in New Lanark in the early nineteenth century. A well-known case was that at the Salford Iron Works in 1893 where William Mather cut weekly hours from 53 to 48. Even though most private employers found reasons to doubt his findings 2, Mather deemed it a success as did some government ministers who instituted a shorter working week in state-managed enterprises including the Woolwich Arsenal Works. In turn, this inspired Ernst Abbé at the Zeiss Optical Works at Jena in Germany to cut the length of the workday from nine to eight hours. During the first few decades of the 20 th century, in the United States, the National Industrial Conference Board commissioned a number of studies on the effects of shorter hours. The focus of these and subsequent reviews (such as those of Brown (1965) and Kossoris and Kohler (1947)) was on before and after comparisons: did output fall after a discrete cut in working hours? The results in this paper are based on more than two observations ( before and after ) on hours and suggest that the effect on output of a reduction in hours depends on the initial level of working hours. In more recent years, economists have estimated aggregate production functions 3 in which the effects of variations in the number of workers are distinguished from the effects of variations in hours worked per worker. In this paper, the observations on working hours are at the level of the place of work and production. In addition, the values of hours studied below extend over a wider range than typically available. For instance, in Feldstein s (1967) paper on hours and employment in a Cobb- Douglas production function, working hours in 1960 across 24 industries ranged from 41 to 50 hours per week and the coefficient of variation of hours is By contrast, the observations examined in Section IV.A below range from 24 hours to 72.5 hours per week and their coefficient of variation is A simple organizing framework is to suppose that, if H i is worker i s hours of work over a period of time and if E i is i s work effort per hour over that period, then i s effective labor input, L i, may be defined as L i = E i. H i, an expression without empirical content, as yet, because E i is unobserved. If E i is simply a constant, a, then L i = a.h i and worker i s effective labor input is 2 The consensus in private industry was against any reduction in working hours and the 48 hour working week did not become the norm in British industry until 25 years later... (McIvor(1987, p. 728)). Goldmark (1913) provides a good description of some of these early case studies. 3 The aggregation is usually at the level of industries as in Feldstein (1967), Hart and McGregor (1988), Leslie and Wise (1980), or Marti(2000). Hamermesh (1993) reviews this work.

6 3 proportional to his working hours and, if i is typical of workers, a firm s effective labor input is the sum of hours worked over all workers. This would rationalize the use of worker-hours. More plausibly, i s work effort depends on his hours of work: E i = f (H i ) where f (H i ) embodies the stress, fatigue, monotony, and stimulation that accompanies work. In this event, the output-hours relation depends on the form of f (H i ). If f (H i ) = a 0 + a 1.H i where a 0 > 0 and a 1 < 2 0, then L i = a 0.H i + a 1.H i and i s effective labor input rises with hours worked but at a decreasing rate. If i s effort is a positive quadratic function of hours, then his effective labor input is a cubic function of his hours, which could justify Denison s conjectures. The research reported below may be interpreted as an investigation into the shape of f (H i ). A shortcoming of the data studied here is the small number of observations: for scholars who have become accustomed to research based upon thousands of data points, the research reviewed here may appear almost anecdotal. Perhaps it is. However, it should be understood that many of the (often unobserved to the researcher) differences among workers in contemporary data sets are small when examining workers in the same workshop doing the same work. Also, whether anecdotal or not, these observations were influential in decisions to reduce working hours. The evidence in this paper on the effect of working hours on output is drawn from the research undertaken by investigators of the British Health of Munition Workers Committee (HMWC) during the First World War, the Great War. As described below, this Committee was charged with providing the Minister of Munitions with advice regarding the health and efficiency of workers in munition plants and, as part of its investigations, the Committee commissioned studies within munition factories into the link between work hours and work performance. In recent years, there have been several useful reviews of the research conducted within firms, 4 but this literature has overlooked the earlier work done by the investigators of the HMWC and by the subsequent Industrial Fatigue and Industrial Health Research Boards. This research almost a century ago on the stressful effects of long hours of work is likely to be relevant today for certain workers as reviewed below. First, consider the context of the research conducted by the HMWC investigators. 4 See Harrison and List (2004) and Bandiera, Barankay, and Rasul (2011).

7 4 II. The Health of Munition Workers Committee (HMWC) A. The Setting In 1914, the outbreak of war caused the British government to suspend regulations on work hours in plants producing war-related material. The working week was extended and the employment of men for 70 to 90 hours a week was common, for over 90 hours was not infrequent, and there were even cases of hours in excess of 100". 5 Sunday work was reintroduced. Even though hours had probably been reduced somewhat since the beginning of 1915, by the first half of 1916, a random survey of over 3,000 men at eight armaments factories still found more than a third aged 41 years and older were working 70 to 100 hours per week while 58 percent of boys aged 18 years and younger were working more than 60 hours per week. A majority of 1,326 women in munition factories were at work more than 60 hours per week. 6 For almost two years, the military relied on volunteers. 7 The military called for men, more men, and still more men (Herbert Kitchener) and for munitions, munitions, more munitions (John French). The voracious demand for young men to serve in the military and the insatiable demand for munitions resulted in a huge demand for workers in the munition plants. This demand for labor was met, principally, by young women working long hours. By the end of the War (December 1918), threequarters (precisely 77.6 percent) of all employees in the Ammunition and Explosives industry were women. The replacement of younger men by novice workers was not welcomed by some of the older skilled men already employed in the munition plants. Their concern was that this would result in work being divided into a number of smaller operations, each of which required little skill. The workers suspected their control over the entire process would be undermined and, ultimately, their skilled wages would be challenged. This process was known as dilution ; deskilling might be the word used more often today. 8 5 See the HMWC (1919, para. 122). 6 These were reported by Agnew (1917) and Campbell and Wilson (1917). 7 The conscription (draft) of unmarried men aged years started in March 1916 and extended to married men in May In 1918, the age limit on military service was raised to 51 years. 8 A similar concern was experienced just before and during the Second World War. See Hart (2007).

8 5 In response to the doubts expressed about the wisdom of long hours, the newly-formed Ministry of Munitions 9 established a Health of Munition Workers Committee (HMWC) in September 1915 to consider and advise on questions of industrial fatigue, hours of labour and other matters affecting the personal health and efficiency of workers in munition factories and workshops. The Committee took up many issues relating to work activity including the quality of the working environment inside factories such as the food and water available to workers, washing facilities, baths, protective clothing, temperature, ventilation and lighting as well as injuries, accidents, diseases, prolonged standing, and welfare supervision. The HMWC paid special attention to the exposure of these workers to noxious chemicals and gases contained in the shells, components that caused fatalities through poisoning and that resulted in some huge explosions. 10 Work in munition factories was dangerous and the HMWC recommended steps to protect the workers from harmful elements. B. Output and Hours An important part of their investigation was directed to the arrangement and duration of work including the association between the output of workers and their hours of work, the focus of this paper. The HMWC heard different views on the desirable length of work hours, but they attached significance to the fact that they knew of no employer who had once adopted the shorter scale of hours ever desires to return to the longer period. In view of the anecdotal information then dominant, the HMWC recognized the value of collecting systematic and meaningful information on the link between the output of workers and their hours of work. To this end, the HMWC commissioned quantitative investigations into the factors affecting the efficiency with which individuals work in the statecontrolled munition plants. The HMWC operated for a little over two years and produced 21 Memoranda on activities in munitions plants. Because its findings and recommendations were relevant to workplaces in other industries, shortly after its disestablishment at the end of 1917, a new agency (the Industrial Fatigue 9 The first Minister of Munitions was the energetic David Lloyd George followed by Edwin Samuel Montagu, Christopher Addison, and, finally, Winston Churchill. 10 The shells ingredients included tetryl, sulphur, mercury, lead, nitric acid and trinitrotoluene, components that turned the workers skins yellow causing the young women to be known as canaries. There were massive explosions at munition factories at (among others) Faversham (Kent) in 1916, Silvertown (Essex) in 1917, and Chilwell (Nottinghamshire) in 1918.

9 6 Research Board) was formed in July 1918 To consider and investigate the relations of the hours of labour and of other conditions of employment including methods of work, to the production of fatigue, having regard both to industrial efficiency and to the preservation of health among the workers. From 1921, this Board became an arm of the Medical Research Council and, in recognition of its broader agenda, in 1928 it was renamed the Industrial Health Research Board. 11 C. The Recommendations of the HMWC From the evidence brought to their attention, in January 1916, the HMWC recommended shorter working hours: for men, hours of no more than per week (13-14 hours daily) on average and for boys, for girls, and for women a maximum of 60 weekly hours. It is not always clear whether these recommendations referred to scheduled hours or actual hours worked. 12 The basis for these recommendations was not because shorter hours would yield higher average product or higher marginal product, but because total output would be unchanged. 13 This is a remarkable claim which is explored below. 14 In addition to endorsing the value of regular holidays and the benefits of rest pauses, the Committee was particularly critical of work on Sunday. They wrote, The evidence is conclusive that Sunday labour by depriving the worker of his weekly rest offers him no sufficient opportunity for 11 The Memoranda and Reports of the HMWC received a good deal of attention in the United States and much of the work of the HMWC was reproduced by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in their Bulletins. The National Industrial Conference Board (1917) published a useful report on the research on the output and hours of munition workers in Britain. 12 These recommendations were contained in HMWC (1916a). They were accepted by the Home Office which issued a General Order in September 1916 embodying these and other recommendations. 13 Thus, the HMWC s Final Report states, There can be little doubt...from the investigations of Dr. Vernon and Professor Loveday...that substantial reduction in hours can be effected without any reduction in output. (1919, p. 38, para. 156). In describing the weekly output and weekly working hours of 100 women engaged in moderately heavy labour, after observing the output of women working 60 hours a week, Vernon (in HMWC[1916b]) determined that an equally good total output could be maintained if the actual working hours were reduced to 56 or less per week. 14 A munition firm s awareness of output was reinforced by cost plus bonus contracts that were among those contracts used by the Ministry of Munitions. According to this type of contract, the contractor received a bonus per unit...as an encouragement to increased production Ministry of Munitions (1922, p.23).

10 7 recovering from fatigue, and is not productive of greater output except for quite short and isolated periods...seven days labour only produces six days output and...reductions in Sunday work have not in fact involved any appreciable loss of output. The findings of Thomas Loveday were quoted: The effects of Sunday labour are, as has now been recognised, still worse than those of overtime hours in the evening or on Saturday afternoon. In its Final Report issued in April 1918, the HMWC modified its earlier recommendations by urging even shorter work hours:...the length of hours of employment provisionally recommended two years ago are now too long and can be reduced without loss of output. 15 Again, the Committee believed the cut in hours would not result in a fall in output. D. Night Work Before the War, Britain subscribed to an international convention that prohibited the employment of women on night work. This ban was lifted with the exigencies of war and the HMWC deemed that, given the military s demands for shells and even though it is unnatural to turn night into day, night work would be inevitable for men and for women throughout the War. In assessing the relative merits of day work and night work, the HMWC distinguished between continuous and discontinuous shifts. A discontinuous schedule involved alternating between one week (or fortnight) of day work followed by one week (or fortnight) of night work for a given body of workers. The continuous schedule maintains workers on night work without an interval of day work or the schedule keeps workers on day work without a period of night work. Even though the continuous employment of women on night shifts was not frequent in munitions factories, some cases were identified and, according to the Committee, the output of the workers on night shifts was very unfavourable compared with the output of day workers. The Committee believed the continuous system of night work denied workers complete sleep and rest which are more difficult to secure during the day. The HMWC took a benign view of night work on the discontinuous system: There is no significant difference between the rate of output in night and day shifts managed on the discontinuous system. If there be any difference, it would seem that the output is slightly better by night for the 15 The quotes in this and the previous paragraph are from the HMWC s Final Report, page 44, para 194, Section VII of ( Sunday Labour and Night Work ) and page 122 of Section XX.

11 8 particular class of work involved. 16 III. A General Description of the Data Collected by the HMWC s Investigators The description of the data in this section applies to all the observations investigated below. A. Working Hours The investigators distinguished between scheduled hours of work and actual hours of work by subtracting from scheduled hours time lost to sickness, absence, meal times, interruptions, and time spent in setting up before production and cleaning up after spells of production. Lost time through sickness was sometimes attributed to the fatigue following long hours of work. In the analysis below, hours of work refers to actual work hours, not to scheduled hours. Variations in work hours were due not only to the military s demands for munitions but also to illness, absenteeism, and temporary shortages of raw material. Shorter hours were scheduled around holidays at Christmas, the New Year, Easter, and Whitsun. Most of the observations are drawn from the year 1916, a year in which major military campaigns were waged involving terrific loss of life and extraordinary expenditure of shells. 17 In the observations on hours below, some of the variation in working hours took the form of working or not working on Sunday. This may have a different effect upon output from variations in hours spread evenly over six days. B. Output and Earnings Most of the workers were paid on a piece-rate basis. Their output formed the basis of their wage payments and allowed the researchers to have a well-defined measure of performance. In some instances, the output measure is simply the number of shells produced, but in cases where the workers were engaged in a particular stage in shell production the investigators report an index number of their output. The shrill, demented, choirs of wailing shells and the women (the canaries ) who made 16 These quotations are from The Comparative Efficiencies of Day Work and Night Work in Munition Factories contained in the Interim Report of the HMWC (1917), pages Woollacott (1994, p. 67) notes that, In the buildup before the launching of the Battle of the Somme, the Woman Worker complained that, despite union protests and questions in the House of Commons, the Ministry of Munitions had allowed the Vickers Factory at Erith and a national factory at Huddersfield both to change from eight-hour shifts to twelve-hour ones, and Vickers at Barrow seemed about to do the same. Factory holidays were often postponed or canceled due to the exigencies of War as decided by the Ministry of Munitions.

12 9 them were defining elements of the Great War. 18 Precise earnings are not provided in the investigators commentaries, but they are described as affording the workers a relatively high standard of living. 19 Nominal earnings rose over the War years and their rates of pay varied more or less with the cost-of-living (Vernon (1940), p.16). C. Restriction of Output It is natural to question whether observations during a time of national emergency when individuals were exhorted to work for collective goals can permit valid inferences to be drawn about the behavior of workers in normal peace-time conditions. In at least one sense, the unusual conditions of war resulted in a more unconstrained work situation than those prevailing in peace time. Before the Great War, the existence of various restrictions on work in British industry was widely noted especially among piece-rate workers. Often these were inspired by the fear that workers who produce high levels of output & rate busters & will cause an employer to believe the piece-rate has been set at an unnecessarily high level and the employer s response would be to cut the rate. To prevent such behavior, workers were prevailed upon to produce below some threshold. Some of these restrictions on output were prompted by trade union activity but, in other cases, they were applied and enforced by unorganized workers. 20 Differences among workers in the nature and extent of these restrictions would frustrate the process of drawing inferences about the relationship between output and work hours. The Munitions of War Act of 1915 prohibited all restrictions on output and work rules in munition plants. 21 In addition to the proscription of output-constraining work rules, the Act banned strikes and lockouts in the munition industry (with disputes resolved through compulsory arbitration), 18 The British Army was said to have fired 170 million shells by the end of the War. The shells and the women appear in poems (such as Wilfred Owen s Anthem for Doomed Youth ) and in novels referring to the yellow-skinned women (Barker (1992)) She worked in a factory, she said, making detonators. Twelve-hour shifts, six days a week, but she liked the work, she said, and it was well paid. Fifty bob a week...i was earning ten bob before the war. Barker (1992, p. 89). 20 The HMWC characterized restrictions of output as an unconscious slackening of effort that represented a kind of physiological self-protection from excessive working hours imposed on workers. See HMWC, Final Report, p. 18, para. 68. Drake (1917, p. 47) expressed a similar judgment. 21 In the observations on hours analysed below, the investigators state that restrictions on output were absent.

13 10 a worker was not permitted to leave a munitions employer for another without the previous employer s permission in the form of a leaving certificate, 22 and changes in wage rates required the approval of the Ministry of Munitions. These far-reaching provisions were enforced by quasi-judicial tribunals that dealt with appeals relating to their operation. 23 These features were a radical departure from the night watchman role for government that Britain aspired to in peacetime so there is good reason to question whether patterns of behavior exhibited during this War offer lessons relevant to less state-regulated labor markets. The principal concern of this paper! the link between the hours worked by employees and their output! may be affected by the Act s regulations and by the extra effort summoned to defeat the country s enemy although the way in which the relation is affected! if at all! is difficult to determine without recourse to more observations. One may surmise that, during a national emergency, workers might suppress any measured fatigue that would emerge in peacetime. D. Health The HMWC not only commissioned research on the link between working hours and output, but also authorized the study of sickness. Physical examinations of many workers were conducted. By collecting data on sickness rates (as documented by medical certificates) from factories from all parts of the country, Thomas Loveday (1917) identified a number of empirical regularities associated with work. For example, he determined that work before breakfast ( an inheritance partly from the necessary habits of agriculture ) was both harmful to the worker s health and also relatively unproductive work time. He maintained that food should precede work. From the sickness rates at different munitions factories, he concluded that the effect of long hours, much overtime, and especially Sunday labour, upon health is undoubtedly most deleterious. This is relevant to the study of the link between working hours and output because it suggests 22 The motivation for such a drastic intrusion into a worker s liberties was to avoid competitive bidding by firms for scarce workers. By contrast, employers were not forbidden to fire a worker. The asymmetry rankled some. The leaving certificates were repealed in October Rubin s (1987) study concentrates on the workings of the Act in Glasgow where it was very controversial. A publication of the Fabian Research Department and the Fabian Women s Group (Drake(1917, p.26)) claimed...the effect of the Munitions of War Act, 1915, was to reduce the workers to a state bordering on slavery....

14 11 a possible selection problem: this output-hours association will be measured in the next section for those workers on the job; owing to a greater incidence of sickness, those workers on relatively long work shifts are more likely to be absent from work. In other words, the output-hours relationship will be measured from observations on those workers whose work hours have not caused them to miss work because of sickness and, in this respect, the relationship estimated will be fitted to those workers with greater tolerance of long work hours. In using observations on relatively healthy workers, the impact of long hours on worker fatigue may be understated. E. Other Factors The HMWC investigators were sensitive to the relevance for the performance of the workers of other factors affecting their work such as the organization of the workshop and changes in complementary machinery. In one instance below, observations on hours and output are available for workers operating with two different types of physical capital and this will be recognized in the analysis. In other cases, the absence of changes in production methods and machinery is mentioned. 24 In most of data analysed below, the number of workers is constant (or, approximately, so) except in one case where the number of individuals at work varies across the shifts and this information will be taken into account. The data collected by the investigators were drawn from the wage sheets and other personnel records kept by the factories to determine their workers wage payments and the employees were unaware that their work was to be examined by researchers. Hence there is no reason to believe the workers altered their behavior because they were the subject of analysis. IV. Hours and Output Now consider some of the data collected by the HMWC researchers on the output of the workers and various dimensions of their hours of work. There are three types of observations on the association between work hours and output. The first is a time-series of 122 weekly observations on the weekly output and average weekly work hours for workers on four jobs that range from heavy 24 For 4½ months previously and during the period from which these data are drawn, no changes were made...in the tools, the machinery, the nature of the operation or the quality of the alloy used., HMWC ([1916b]) Turnover caused the composition of the workers to change over this period although the majority of the workers at the beginning were present at the end. The report claimed in this particular operation, there was no appreciable difference between the output of the old experienced workers and of fresh and comparatively inexperienced workers.

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