a variable that describes the effectiveness of therapists with schizophrenic or neurotic patients. "A" therapists work best with schizophrenics, and "B" therapies work best with neurotics.

ability

possessing the necessary skills to perform a specific act at the present time, as opposed to aptitude (having the potential to perform with additional training).

ability tests

subdivided into tests of aptitude and achievement, ability tests are designated to measure individual differences in knowledge and skills to determine what a person can do.

ablation

removal of a body part for the purpose of studying it

abnormal behavior

behavior which creates a problem for the individual and/or for society. Abnormal behavior is often maladaptive to the individual's functioning in society.

abortion

a spontaneous or induced expulsion of the fetus usually prior to the twentieth week of pregnancy

abreaction

a term used by breuer and freud to describe a patient's, sometimes violent, expression of a repressed emotion during hypnosis. this release of strangulated affect is synonymous with catharsis

abscissa

the x-axis, or horizontal axis of a graph. the independent variable is plotted on the abscissa

absolute refractory period

a brief period toward the end of neural stimulation during which the nerve cannot be restimulated

absolute threshold

the lowest level of intensity of a stimulus at which its presence or absence can be correctly detected 50 percent of the time.

abstract intelligence

the ability to deal effectively with ideas expressed in symbols such as words, numbers, pictures, or diagrams

accommodation (perception)

in vision, the changed of lens shape or curvature that produce sharpened retinal images of objects at varying distance from the eye

accommodation (theory)

in Piaget's system, the adaptive modification of the child's cognitive structures in order to deal with new objects of experiences (see assimilation)

acculturaltion

the learning of behaviors and attitudes one is expected to adopt as a member of a particular culture

acetylcholine

an acid that acts as an excitatory substance to facilitate neural transmission at many synapses and neuromuscular junctions

achievement motivation

the need, or drive, to perform a task successfully as judged against standards of excellence. the concept predominates in the expectancy value theory of motivation

achievement test

the part of an ability test designed to assess what an individual has already learned through prior training

achromatic

without hue or saturation, varying only on the brightness dimension. for example, the black, gray, and white series.

achromatism

total color blindness due to congenital absence of cone cells.

acoustic stimulus

a sound wave arising from the vibrations around an object in the air. Sound waves are generally referred to as acoustic stimuli only when they are audible.

acquisition

the gradual strengthening of a response through learning as it is incorporated into the behavioral repertoire

acquisition curve

the graphic representation of the acquisition process in which response strength is displayed on the vertical axis and amount of practice on the horizontal.

acrophobia

a neurotic fear of heights.

act

a single unit in the continuous stream of behavior

ACTH

(adrenocorticotrophic hormone) a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland in response to stress, causing the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosterone

acting out

1. the performance in a new setting of behavior learned from and appropriate to another social situation

2. in psychoanalysis, the carrying out of repressed impulses; the manifest behavior that is often symbolic of earlier stages of he individual's life.

action decrement

the tendency of an organism not to repeat the action just completed

action potential

the nerve impulse; the changes in electrical potential along a nerve fiber that constitute the nerve impulse as it travels through the axon

action-specific energies

(lorenz) motivating energies that impel only very specific sequences of behavior; motivating energy for instinctual behaviors.

active analytic psychotherapy

the form of psychoanalysis developed by wilhelm stekel in which the therapist takes a directive role as educator

active avoidance learning

a learning task in which the subject must make a prescribed response in order to avoid an aversive stimulus

active learning

learning procedures that stress recitation and performance as opposed to simple reading of materials.

actualization

the desire to realize one's own potential; in Maslow's theory of motivation, the highest level in the human need hierarchy

acuity

sharpness of perception. usually visual acuity, the ability of the eye to see spatial detail

adaptation

1. a reduction in the sensitivity of a sense organ due to continued stimulation from the same source.

2. behavioral or anatomical changes which enhance the possibility of survival.

3. in Piaget's system, the process of cognitive growth which modifies psychological structures to suit the environment.

adaptation level

the level of stimulation to which an individual has already adapted and against which new stimulus conditions are judged.

addiction

a state of dependence upon a drug or chemical in which discontinued use of the substance results in extreme psychological and/or physiological reactions

adipsia

a condition resulting from the destruction of the lateral hypothalamus that causes the victim to stop drinking

adjective checklist

a technique, used in the assessment of adult emotions, in which the subject is presented with a list of emotion words and is then instructed to check off those that are most appropriate to his feelings.

alfred adler

a personality theorist who emphasized social factors in personality development. Founder of the school of Individual psychology, he broke away from freud in 1911

adolescence

the period from the onset of puberty to adulthood (11 to 19 years of age)

adrenal cortex

the outer layer of the adrenal gland that secretes several hormones, including corticosterone, in response to emotional arousal.

adrenal gland

a gland of the endocrine system that produces many hormones; especially important in regulating bodily responses to stress.

adrenal medulla

the inner core of the adrenal gland that secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream

adrenal steroids

hormones secreted into the circulatory system by the adrenal cortex during emotional arousal.

adrenaline

also called epinephrine; a substance produced by the adrenal gland which is related to increases in general arousal.

affect

a synonym for emotion; sometimes employed as a quantitative term to express a person's emotional capacity and degree of reaction to given situations

affective component

the emotional or feeling aspect of an attitude

affective feedback

the feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness following an organism's responses

affective psychosis

psychotic behavior characterized by extremes of mood. the most common include depressive reactions or manic-depressive reactions.

affective state

the emotion of an individual at a specified point in time; can include negative, positive, or neural feelings

afferent nerves

nerves carried by the dorsal root which relay sensory impulses (information about the environment) to the central nervous system; sometimes used synonymously with sensory nerves

afferent neuron

a neuron carrying information to the central nervous system

affiliation

the need to associate with others; also, the quantity and quality of group memberships and friendship bonds

affirmation rule

in concept learning, a rule specifying that all items with a particular attribute are instances of the concept

afterbirth

the placenta and other membranes that are expelled from a woman's body following the birth of a child.

aftersensation

most often in vision (after images), the continuation of a sensation even after the removal of the stimulus.

age equivalent

1. in testing, a score conversion in which a test score is assigned the age value for which that score is the average score

2. in development, the average age at which a child reaches a particular developmental stage.

age norms

norms based upon large samples of children at each age

aggression

hostile action or feelings, especially those caused by frustration, which may result in harm or injury to another person

aggressive drive

one of the inherited instincts proposed by Freud and thought to give rise to the destructive components of human behavior.

agoraphobia

a strong fear of open places; often referred to as a form of neurosis

albinism

the congenital absence of hair, eye, and skin pigmentation. as albino is colorblind.

alcoholism

a substance use disorder marked by compulsive drinking and inability to read or understand written or printed language.

alexia

a form of aphasia, usually caused by brain damage, in which one has an inability to read or understand written or printed language.

algorithm

a method for attacking a problem which is assured of success; often involves repetitive operations which survey the possibilities at each step

alienation

the state of feeling separated or withdrawn from each one's culture and/or social and personal relationships; the central theme of existential philosophy

allele

one of a pair of genes located at corresponding positions on a pair of chromosomes. each pair contains the genetic code for a particular trait, with one allele often dominant

all-or-none law

the principle that the axon of a neuron fires either with full strength or not at all to a stimulus, regardless of its intensity, provided the stimulus, regardless of its intensity, provided the stimulus is at least at the threshold value

gordon allport

american psychologist who studied the development of personality. he favored a dynamic trait model.

alpha rhythm

a wave pattern, found in the EEG during period of relaxed alertness, which has a frequency of 8 to 12 cycles per second

alpha wave

a particular brain wave pattern that occurs when the subject is in a state of "relaxed wakefulness." people can be taught to control the presence of alpha waves through biofeedback training.

altered state of consciousness

state that occurs when the overall functioning of the mind takes on a pattern that is qualitatively different from normal

alternation

experimental method used in the study of thinking in which the subject is required to alternate responses in a pattern (such as left-right-left-right-left-right)

altruistic behavior

behavior that benefits others and is not directly rewarding to the self

amacrine cells

retinal cells believed to be of importance in summation effects. they interconnect bipolar or second order neurons.

ambiguity

the possibility that a given stimulus can elicit more than one definition response

ambivalence

the bipolarity of feeling; the state of being drawn to or away from two mutually antagonistic goals at the same time.

american psychiatric association

the major and official professional organization for psychologists in the united states

american sign language

the gestural language used by the deaf in north america

amnesia

the inability to recall events in one's past, sometimes including one's identity, often as a result of physical or psychological trauma. In the absence of physical trauma, amnesia is often attributed to neurotic dissociation of threatening aspects of one's past sometimes restricted to one severely tramatic event

amniocentesis

the removal of fetal cells from the fluid of the amniotic sac to test for the presence of abnormal chromosomes

amniotic fluid

a dark, watery fluid that fills the amniotic sac during pregnancy. The sac lines the uterus and contains the developing child

amphetamine

a class of drugs that stimulates the central nervous system. Chemically all amphetamines contain C9H13N. Use can become addictive

amplitude

the intensity or loudness of sound, measured in decibels

amygdala

a part of the limbic system, the system where emotion is organized, located between the hypothalymus and pituitary gland which becomes active whenever we encounter anything new or unexpected.

anal character

in psychoanalytic personality, one characterized by stinginess, orderliness, and compulsize behavior because of an infantile fixation on the anal region

anal stage

the second of Freud's stages in which libidinal interest and conflicts center on excretory functions and toilet training. This stage usually occurs between the ages 8 to 18 months

analog computer

a computer that operates on continuous signals of varying voltages

analysis of variance

a statistical test appropriate for analyzing reliability from experiments with any number of levels on one or more independent variables

analytic psychology

the term applied to the form of psychoanalysis developed by Carl Jung

anaphrodisiac

having to do with a lack of sexual feeling

anchorage effect

resistance to attitude change because of particularly strong beliefs or group support

androgens

substances associated with male sex gormone activity in vertabrates, produced mainly by the testes and to a small extent by ovaries and the adrenal cortex

androgyny

having psychological characteristics expected of members of both sexes

anecdotal record

a written report describing an incident of an individual's behavior. Theoretical conclusions based solely on anecdotal reports are often suspect. They do, however, often serve as the basis for actual research

anechoic chamber

an enclosure, the walls of which are especially absorbing of sounds

james angell

one of the founders of Functionalism

anger

an acute emotional reaction characterized by strong impulses in the autonomic nervous system which may occur when the attainment of a goal is blocked. often by frustration

anima

according to jung, an archetype representing the feminine characteristics as opposed to the animus, or male archetype

animism

the belief held by young children to the effect that nonliving objects have some of the characteristics of living beings, such as will and intention

anisocoria

a pathologial condition in which the pupils of the two eyes are of unequal diameter

anomalous color defect

anomalous dichromatism and trichromatism. In dichromatism only two colors are seen (most often blue and yellow). in trichromatism weakness in the red-green region is observed.

anomy

a term employed by Bull to describe the earliest stage in the development of mortality. Refers to the absence of a moral orientation

a condition in which the brain does not receive enough oxygen to allow it to develop or function properly

antabuse

drug that causes intense nausea if a person drinks alcohol while the chemical is in his bloodstream. Used as a method of controlling the pathological drinking environmental conditions affect performance

antecedent-consequent research

research strategy that studies subjects of the same age to determine how different environmental conditions affect performance

anthropomorphism

the attribution of human characteristics to subhuman species. anthropomorphic explanations often attribute conscious thought, etc. to animals or to inanimate objects (most common in children)

anticipation

a technique for testing learning and memory that requires the subject to indicate the learned material in a determined order

anticipation learning

a form of rote-learning procedure in which the subject tries to give the next item in the list during each trial. Affords a running account of the subject's progress

antidepressant

a drug which elevates the mood and relieves depression. Most antidepressants are "set-point" drugs which, like aspirin, have no effect on an individual unless he or she is in an abnormal state (e.g. has a headache). people who are not depressed do not feel better after taking antidepressants (just as aspirin will not change the temperature of someone who already has a temperature of 98.6)

antipsychotics

these drugs are used with major psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. The drugs have a calming effect and seem o alleviate schizophrenic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. Some examples are chlorpromazine and reserpine (also known as "major tranquilizers)

antisocial behavior

behavior characterized by a failure to act according to societal standards and the absence of anxiety about such behavior; also called psychopathic or sociopathic behavior

anvil

a small bone in the middle of the ear located between the hammer and stirrup (synonym: incus)

anxiety

feeling of dread and apprehension without a specific and realistic fear of some threatening object

anxiety reaction

a form of neurosis characterized by vague feelings of anxiety. Often called free-floating anxiety because it is not attached to any specific stimulus. Physiological symptoms of anxiety reactions include heart palpitations, tremors, nausea, and shortness of breath

apathy

extreme indifference to situations that normally arouse a response. In extreme cases (depression), complete and total indifference to one's surroundings

aphagia

condition in which an animal refuses to eat, ignores food, and starves to death unless treated. ____ has been produced experimentally by surgical removal of the lateral hypothalamic nucleus

aphasia

loss or impairment of the ability to express of receive linguistic communications, resulting from cerebral damage to the parietotemporal cortex

aphonia

loss of speech resulting from emotional or laryngeal disorders

apoplexy

a cerebral hemorrhage or blocked blood vessel causing a loss of consciousness and motor control

apparent motion

an illusion in which objects either appear to move but in fact do not, or appear to move in directions contrary to their actual movement