1.
1878 in science
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The year 1878 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. Proctor describes the Zone of Avoidance, the area of the sky that is obscured by our own galaxy. Death of last confirmed Cape Lion, the rare earth element holmium is identified in erbium by Marc Delafontaine and Jacques-Louis Soret in Geneva and by Per Teodor Cleve in Sweden. An Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom places Epping Forest in the care of the City of London Corporation to remain unenclosed. June 22 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld sets out on the year-long first navigation of the Northern Sea Route, belgian mathematician Victor DHondt describes the DHondt method of voting. English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth is the first to publish Bertrands ballot theorem, Ádám Politzer publishes Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde, a major otology textbook. Dentists Act in the United Kingdom limits the title of dentist, february 11 – The first weekly weather report is published in the United Kingdom. 31 Iguanodon skeletons are discovered in a mine at Bernissart. February 19 – The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison, the oldest known audio recording is recovered from this device in 2012. March – The basic process, enabling the use of iron ore in steelmaking, developed at Blaenavon Ironworks by Percy Gilchrist. May 22 – John Philip Hollands experimental powered submarine Holland I is launched in Paterson, august – Cleopatras Needle is raised onto its base in London. October 14 – The worlds first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield, december 18 – Joseph Swan of Newcastle upon Tyne in England announces his invention of an incandescent light bulb. December 31 – Karl Benz produces a gas engine. William Crookes invents the Crookes tube which produces cathode rays, gustav Kessel obtains a patent in Germany for an espresso machine. Czech painter Karel Klíč perfects the photogravure process, lester Allan Pelton produces the first operational Pelton wheel. Remington, in the United States, introduce their No.2 typewriter, october 1 – Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College in the United States. Copley Medal, Jean Baptiste Boussingault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Thomas Wright January 1 – A

2.
1882 in science
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The year 1882 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September – Great Comet of 1882 sighted, december 6 – Transit of Venus,1882. March 24 – Robert Koch announces his discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detects helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line when he analyzes the lava of Mount Vesuvius, clarence Duttons Tertiary History of the Grand Cañon District is published by the United States Geological Survey. German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann publishes proof that π is a transcendental number, december – Swedish mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler establishes the journal Acta Mathematica. March 28 – Paul Carl Beiersdorf patents an adhesive bandage in Germany, vladimir Bekhterev publishes Provodiashchie puti mozga, beginning to note the role of the hippocampus in memory. By March – Étienne-Jules Marey invents a chronophotographic gun capable of photographing 12 consecutive frames per second on the same plate, april 29 – Werner von Siemens demonstrates his Electromote, the first form of trolleybus, in Berlin. June 6 – Henry W. Seeley patents the electric clothes iron in the United States, september 4 – Thomas Edison starts the worlds first commercial electrical power plant, lighting one square mile of lower Manhattan. American electrical engineer Schuyler Wheeler produces an electric fan, alfred P. Southwick publishes his proposals for use of the electric chair as an execution method in the United States. First International Polar Year, a scientific program, begins. The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents, the modern-day Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys, is founded in the United Kingdom, copley Medal, Arthur Cayley Wollaston Medal for Geology, Franz Ritter von Hauer March 14 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician. March 23 – Emmy Noether, German mathematician, March 30 – Melanie Klein, Viennese-born psychoanalyst. June 17 – Harold Gillies, New Zealand-born plastic surgeon, july 21 – Herbert E. Ives, American optical engineer. September 30 – Johannes Hans Geiger, inventor of the Geiger counter, october 5 – Robert Goddard, American rocket scientist. October 26 – Marietta Pallis, Indian-born Graeco-British ecologist, december 11 – Max Born, physicist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1954. December 28 – Arthur Eddington, astrophysicist, january 11 – Theodor Schwann, physiologist. April 19 – Charles Darwin, geologist and naturalist, september 23 – Friedrich Woehler, chemist. October 27 – Christian Heinrich von Nagel, geometer, november 20 – Henry Draper, doctor, astronomer

3.
1887 in science
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The year 1887 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – Carte du Ciel project initiated by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, theodor von Oppolzers Canon der Finsternisse, a compilation of the 8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar eclipses from 1200 BC until 2161 AD, is published posthumously. Jean Pierre Mégnin publishes Faune des Tombeaux, the work of modern forensic entomology. Sergei Winogradsky discovers the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa, Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection developed by Émile Guyou. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, in the United States and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. September 28 – Start of the Yellow River floods in China,900,000 dead, june 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, Banff National Park. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, in Hawaii, the Mauna Loa volcano eruptions subside, having begun in 1843. During the 1887 eruption, about 2½ million tons of lava per hour pours out, march 3 – Anne Sullivan begins to teach language to the deaf and blind Helen Keller. July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof publishes Lingvo internacia under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto, Joseph Louis François Bertrand rediscovers Bertrands ballot theorem. Henri Poincaré provides a solution to the three-body problem, january 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the French Academy of Medicine by Dr. Joseph Grancher. August – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY, october 1 – Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded by Patrick Manson. Franz König publishes Über freie Körper in den Gelenken in the journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, the Hospitals Association establishes the first register of nurses in the United Kingdom. November – The Michelson-Morley experiment is performed, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion, heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves in radio, an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. November – G. Stanley Hall founds The American Journal of Psychology, richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey, in the course of investigations into popular belief in parapsychology, publish one of the first descriptions of eyewitness unreliability. March 8 – Everett Horton of Connecticut patents a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U. S. patent for his punched card calculator, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U. S. patent for his comptometer, august – Anna Connelly patents the fire escape. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U. S. patent for his Gramophone, adolf Gaston Eugen Fick invents the contact lens, made of a type of brown glass

4.
1884 in art
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February 2 – First annual exhibition of Les XX opens at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels. Artists invited to show in addition to members of the group include Auguste Rodin, James McNeill Whistler, march – Theo van Gogh starts buying and selling Impressionist works, beginning with a painting by Pissarro. April – Camille Pissarro moves to Éragny-sur-Epte, may 15–July 15 – Groupe des Artistes Indépendants stages the first officially sanctioned open exhibition of contemporary art in Paris. July 29 – Société des Artistes Indépendants established in Paris under the leadership of Albert Dubois-Pillet, august 30 – Austrian painter Marianne Preindlsberger marries English painter Adrian Scott Stokes

5.
1884 in architecture
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The year 1884 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Antoni Gaudí begins work on the Sagrada Família church in Barcelona, Washington Monument in Washington, D. C. designed by Robert Mills, is completed. Hungarian Royal Opera House in Budapest, designed by Miklós Ybl, is opened, garabit viaduct in France, engineered by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin, is completed. The Dakota apartment building on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City, cornerstone of Statue of Liberty laid in New York Harbor. Royal Gold Medal - William Butterfield, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Hector dEspouy

6.
George Eastman
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George Eastman was an American entrepreneur who founded the Eastman Kodak Company and popularized the use of roll film, helping to bring photography to the mainstream. In addition he made donations to Tuskegee and Hampton universities. With interests in improving health, he provided funds for clinics in London, in his final two years, Eastman was in intense pain caused by a disorder affecting his spine. On March 14,1932, Eastman shot himself in the heart, leaving a note read, To my friends. The George Eastman Museum, now operated as the International Museum of Photography, Eastman is the only person represented by two stars in the Hollywood Walk of Fame recognizing the same achievement, for his invention of roll film. Eastman was born in Waterville, New York to George Washington Eastman and Maria Eastman and he had two older sisters, Ellen Maria and Katie. He was largely self-educated, although he attended a school in Rochester after the age of eight. In the early 1840s his father had started a business school and it was one of the first boomtowns in the United States, based on rapid industrialization. As his fathers health started deteriorating, the gave up the farm. His father died of a disorder in May 1862. To survive and afford Georges schooling, his mother took in boarders, marias second daughter, Katie, had contracted polio when young and died in late 1870 when George was 15 years old. The young George left school early and started working to support the family. As Eastman began to have success with his business, he vowed to repay his mother for the hardships she had endured in raising him. In 1884, Eastman patented the first film in form to prove practicable. In 1888, he perfected the Kodak Black camera, the first camera designed, Eastman was progressive for his era. He promoted Florence McAnaney to be head of the personnel department and he was close to his mother, and to his sister and her family. He was also an avid traveler and had a passion for playing the piano, the loss of his mother, Maria, was particularly crushing to George. Almost pathologically concerned with decorum, he found himself unable for the first time to control his emotions in the presence of friends, when my mother died I cried all day, he explained later

7.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature

8.
Roll film
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The term originated in contrast to sheet film. Confusingly, roll film was often referred to as cartridge film because of its resemblance to a shotgun cartridge. The opaque backing paper allows roll film to be loaded in daylight and it is typically printed with frame number markings which can be viewed through a small red window at the rear of the camera. A spool of film is usually loaded on one side of the camera. In 1881 a farmer in Cambria, Wisconsin, Peter Houston and his younger brother David, filed the patents for various components of Peters camera. David Henderson Houston, originally from Cambria, Wisconsin, patented the first holders for flexible roll film, Houston moved to Hunter in Dakota Territory in 1880. He was issued an 1881 patent for a film holder which he licensed to George Eastman. Houston sold the patent outright to Eastman for $5000 in 1889, Houston continued developing the camera, creating 21 patents for cameras or camera parts between 1881 and 1902. In 1912 his estate transferred the remainder of his patents to Eastman, the most popular rollfilm is the type 120 film format, which is used in most medium-format cameras and roll film magazines for large-format cameras. Until the 1950s,120 roll film was used in what was then the most simple of snapshot cameras. The use of film in consumer cameras was largely superseded by 135 and 126 cartridges. Film stock Brownie Category, Film formats Film format List of color film systems List of film formats

9.
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
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Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, Jr. was a Dutch physical chemist. A highly influential theoretical chemist of his time, van t Hoff was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and his pioneering work helped found the modern theory of chemical affinity, chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, and chemical thermodynamics. In his 1874 pamphlet Van t Hoff formulated the theory of the carbon atom. In 1875 he predicted the correct structures of allenes and cumulenes as well as their axial chirality and he is also widely considered one of the founders of physical chemistry as the discipline is known today. The third of seven children, Van t Hoff was born in Rotterdam and his father was Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, Sr. a physician, and his mother was Alida Kolff van t Hoff. From a young age, he was interested in science and nature, in his early school years, he showed a strong interest in poetry and philosophy. He considered Lord Byron to be his idol, against the wishes of his father, Van t Hoff chose to study chemistry. First, he enrolled at Delft University of Technology in September 1869, and studied until 1871 and he passed all his courses in two years, although the time assigned to study was three years. Then he enrolled at University of Leiden to study chemistry and he then studied in Bonn, Germany, with Friedrich Kekulé and in Paris with C. A. Wurtz. He received his doctorate under Eduard Mulder at the University of Utrecht in 1874, in 1878, Van t Hoff married Johanna Francina Mees. They had two daughters, Johanna Francina and Aleida Jacoba, and two sons, Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff III and Govert Jacob, Van t Hoff died at the age of 58, on 1 March 1911, at Steglitz, near Berlin, from tuberculosis. Van t Hoff earned his earliest reputation in the field of organic chemistry, in 1874, he accounted for the phenomenon of optical activity by assuming that the chemical bonds between carbon atoms and their neighbors were directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. This three-dimensional structure accounted for the found in nature. He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Bel, a German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job van t Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in Utrecht. In these early years his theory was ignored by the scientific community. Kolbe wrote, A Dr. J. H. van ’t Hoff of the Veterinary School at Utrecht has no liking, apparently, however, by about 1880 support for van t Hoffs theory by such important chemists as Johannes Wislicenus and Viktor Meyer brought recognition. He also introduced the concept of chemical affinity. In 1886, he showed a similarity between the behaviour of solutions and gases

10.
Arrhenius equation
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The Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. This equation has a vast and important application in determining rate of chemical reactions, Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula. Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship and it can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy, Arrhenius equation gives the dependence of the rate constant of a chemical reaction on the absolute temperature, a pre-exponential factor and other constants of the reaction. The different units are accounted for in using either the gas constant, R, or the Boltzmann constant, kB, the units of the pre-exponential factor A are identical to those of the rate constant and will vary depending on the order of the reaction. If the reaction is first order it has the units, s−1 and it can be seen that either increasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will result in an increase in rate of reaction. Given the small temperature range kinetic studies occur in, it is reasonable to approximate the activation energy as being independent of the temperature. So, when a reaction has a constant that obeys Arrhenius equation. This procedure has become so common in chemical kinetics that practitioners have taken to using it to define the activation energy for a reaction. That is the energy is defined to be times the slope of a plot of ln vs. E a ≡ − R P The modified Arrhenius equation makes explicit the temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor, the modified equation is usually of the form k = A T n e − E a / The original Arrhenius expression above corresponds to n =0. Fitted rate constants typically lie in the range −1<n<1, theoretical analyses yield various predictions for n. However, if evidence is available, from theory and/or from experiment. Another common modification is the exponential form, k = A exp ⁡ where β is a dimensionless number of order 1. Arrhenius argued that for reactants to transform into products, they must first acquire an amount of energy. At an absolute temperature T, the fraction of molecules that have an energy greater than Ea can be calculated from statistical mechanics. The concept of energy explains the exponential nature of the relationship. One example comes from the theory of chemical reactions, developed by Max Trautz

11.
Hermann Emil Fischer
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Hermann Emil Louis Fischer FRS FRSE FCS was a German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He also discovered the Fischer esterification and he developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He never used his first given name, and was throughout his life simply as Emil Fischer. Fischer was born in Euskirchen, near Cologne, the son of Laurenz Fischer, a businessman, after graduating he wished to study natural sciences, but his father compelled him to work in the family business until determining that his son was unsuitable. Fischer then attended the University of Bonn in 1871, but switched to the University of Strasbourg in 1872 and he earned his doctorate in 1874 under Adolf von Baeyer with his study of phthalein and was appointed to a position at the university. In 1875 Baeyer was asked to succeed Liebig at the University of Munich, in 1878 Fischer qualified as a Privatdozent at Munich, where he was appointed Associate Professor of Analytical Chemistry in 1879. In the same year he was offered, but refused, the Chair of Chemistry at Aachen, in 1881 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the University of Erlangen and in 1883 he was asked by the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik to direct its scientific laboratory. Fischer, however, whose father had now made him financially independent, here he remained until his suicide in 1919 while suffering from cancer, possibly caused by chronic phenylhydrazine exposure. In 1875 Fischer discovered phenylhydrazine while working in Stassburg with von Baeyer, the work, however, on which Fischers fame chiefly rests, was his studies of the purines and the sugars. This parent substance, which at first he regarded as being hypothetical, he called purine in 1884, numerous artificial derivatives, more or less analogous to the naturally occurring substances, came from his laboratory between 1882 and 1896. In 1884 Fischer began his work on the sugars, which transformed the knowledge of these compounds. By passage to a common osazone, he established the relation between glucose, fructose and mannose, which he discovered in 1888 and his greatest success was his synthesis of glucose, fructose and mannose in 1890, starting from glycerol. This monumental work on the sugars, carried out between 1884 and 1894, was extended by other work, the most important being his studies of the glucosides, between 1899 and 1908 Fischer made his great contributions to knowledge of the proteins. He sought effective analytical methods of separating and identifying the amino acids, discovering a new type. He also studied the synthesis of proteins by obtaining the various amino acids in an active form in order to unite them. In 1901 he discovered, in collaboration with Ernest Fourneau, the synthesis of the dipeptide, glycylglycine, amino acids occurring in nature were prepared in the laboratory and new ones were discovered. His synthesis of the oligopeptides culminated in an octodecapeptide, which had characteristics of natural proteins. This and his subsequent work led to an understanding of the proteins

12.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD

13.
Le Chatelier's principle
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In chemistry, Le Chateliers principle, also called Chateliers principle or The Equilibrium Law, can be used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium. The principle is named after Henry Louis Le Chatelier and sometimes Karl Ferdinand Braun who discovered it independently, in other words, whenever a system in equilibrium is disturbed the system will adjust itself in such a way that the effect of the change will be nullified. This principle has a variety of names, depending upon the discipline using it and it is common to take Le Chateliers principle to be a more general observation, roughly stated, Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system. In chemistry, the principle is used to manipulate the outcomes of reversible reactions, in economics, the principle has been generalized to help explain the price equilibrium of efficient economic systems. In simultaneous equilibrium systems, phenomena that are in apparent contradiction to Le Chateliers principle can occur, the duration of adjustment depends on the strength of the negative feedback to the initial shock. Where a shock initially induces positive feedback, the new equilibrium can be far from the old one, in some dynamic systems, the end-state cannot be determined from the shock. The principle has analogs throughout the physical world. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress, changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that would reduce that change in concentration. The chemical system will attempt to oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. In turn, the rate of reaction, extent, and yield of products will be altered corresponding to the impact on the system and this can be illustrated by the equilibrium of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas, reacting to form methanol. CO +2 H2 ⇌ CH3OH Suppose we were to increase the concentration of CO in the system, using Le Chateliers principle, we can predict that the amount of methanol will increase, decreasing the total change in CO. If we are to add a species to the overall reaction, likewise, the subtraction of a species would cause the reaction to fill the gap and favor the side where the species was reduced. This observation is supported by the collision theory, as the concentration of CO is increased, the frequency of successful collisions of that reactant would increase also, allowing for an increase in forward reaction, and generation of the product. Even if the product is not thermodynamically favored, the end-product can be obtained if it is continuously removed from the solution. When the reaction is exothermic, heat is included as a product, and, hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes. In exothermic reactions, increase in temperature decreases the equilibrium constant, K, whereas, in endothermic reactions, Le Chateliers principle applied to changes in concentration or pressure can be understood by having K have a constant value. The effect of temperature on equilibria, however, involves a change in the equilibrium constant, the dependence of K on temperature is determined by the sign of ΔH. The theoretical basis of this dependence is given by the Van t Hoff equation, the equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants do not directly depend on the total pressure of the system but they do depend on the partial pressures of the products and reactants

14.
Chemical equilibrium
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In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Usually, this results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are not zero. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant, such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium. The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet found that chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal, conversely the equilibrium position is said to be far to the left if hardly any product is formed from the reactants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal, k + α β = k − σ τ, K c = k + k − = σ τ α β By convention the products form the numerator. Equality of forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a condition for chemical equilibrium. Adding a catalyst will affect both the reaction and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached, although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. This is an example of dynamic equilibrium, equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena, averages of microscopic behavior. Le Châteliers principle gives an idea of the behavior of a system when changes to its reaction conditions occur. If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to partially reverse the change. For example, adding more S from the outside will cause an excess of products, and this can also be deduced from the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction, K = If increases must increase and CH 3CO−2 must decrease. The H2O is left out, as it is the solvent and its concentration remains high, a quantitative version is given by the reaction quotient. J. W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value, what this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate vanishes, signalling a stationary point. This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy and corresponds to the difference between the chemical potentials of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture and this criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy is the force for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached

15.
Ludwig Knorr
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Ludwig Knorr was a German chemist. Together with Carl Paal, he discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, the synthesis in 1883 of the analgesic drug antipyrine, now called phenazone, was a commercial success. Antipyrine was the first synthetic drug and the most widely used drug until it was replaced by Aspirin in the early 20th century, Ludwig Knorr was born to the wealthy merchant family in 1859. He grew up in the Sabbadini-Knorr company headquarters, located in the Kaufingerstraße in the center of Munich, after the early death of his father, the education of him and his four brothers lay in the hands of their mother. In 1878 Knorr received his Abitur and started to study chemistry at the University of Munich, in the beginning, he studied under Jacob Volhard, then, after Volhard left for the University of Erlangen, Hermann Emil Fischer became his tutor. In the summer of 1880 Knorr worked with Robert Wilhelm Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg, when Emil Fischer became professor at the University of Erlangen, he asked Knorr to follow him. In 1882 Knorr received his PhD for a thesis titled Über das Piperyl-Hydrazin, in that time, during his search for quinine related compounds, Knorr discovered the unmethylated Phenazone. Knorr patented the compound in 1883, filehne later suggested the names Höchstin or Knorrin for the substance but Knorr telegraphed from his honeymoon that his variant of the name, antipyrine, is not to be changed. In 1885 Knorr married Elisabeth Piloty, the sister of his laboratory colleague Oskar Piloty at the University of Munich, in 1885 Fischer became professor at the University of Würzburg and Knorr followed him and was made associate professor. Knorr described the time in Würzburg as most untroubled and most productive period of his life, reactions of ethyl acetoacetate with numerous other compounds were the main focus of his work there. Knorr became full professor at the University of Jena in 1889, in the following two years, he planned and built a new laboratory suitable for his research. His focus gradually shifted from the structure of pyrazoles to the general concept of tautomerism. In collaboration with various other chemists, Knorr proved the concept that ethyl acetoacetate existed in a keto, in his later years, the structural conformation of morphine became his main point of interest. During the World War I, Knorr served in the medical corps, Knorr died after a short illness on 4 June 1921. German inventors and discoverers Knorr, Ludwig

16.
Georg Cantor
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Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor was a German mathematician. He invented set theory, which has become a theory in mathematics. In fact, Cantors method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an infinity of infinities and he defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic. Cantors work is of great philosophical interest, a fact of which he was well aware, E. J. Brouwer, while Ludwig Wittgenstein raised philosophical objections. Cantor, a devout Lutheran, believed the theory had been communicated to him by God, Kronecker objected to Cantors proofs that the algebraic numbers are countable, and that the transcendental numbers are uncountable, results now included in a standard mathematics curriculum. The harsh criticism has been matched by later accolades, in 1904, the Royal Society awarded Cantor its Sylvester Medal, the highest honor it can confer for work in mathematics. David Hilbert defended it from its critics by declaring, From his paradise that Cantor with us unfolded, we hold our breath in awe, knowing, we shall not be expelled. Georg Cantor was born in the merchant colony in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Georg, the oldest of six children, was regarded as an outstanding violinist and his grandfather Franz Böhm was a well-known musician and soloist in a Russian imperial orchestra. In 1860, Cantor graduated with distinction from the Realschule in Darmstadt, his skills in mathematics. In 1862, Cantor entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic and he spent the summer of 1866 at the University of Göttingen, then and later a center for mathematical research. Cantor submitted his dissertation on number theory at the University of Berlin in 1867, after teaching briefly in a Berlin girls school, Cantor took up a position at the University of Halle, where he spent his entire career. He was awarded the habilitation for his thesis, also on number theory. In 1874, Cantor married Vally Guttmann and they had six children, the last born in 1886. Cantor was able to support a family despite modest academic pay, during his honeymoon in the Harz mountains, Cantor spent much time in mathematical discussions with Richard Dedekind, whom he had met two years earlier while on Swiss holiday. Cantor was promoted to Extraordinary Professor in 1872 and made full Professor in 1879, however, his work encountered too much opposition for that to be possible. Worse yet, Kronecker, a figure within the mathematical community and Cantors former professor. Cantor came to believe that Kroneckers stance would make it impossible for him ever to leave Halle, in 1881, Cantors Halle colleague Eduard Heine died, creating a vacant chair

17.
Cantor function
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In mathematics, the Cantor function is an example of a function that is continuous, but not absolutely continuous. Georg Cantor introduced the Cantor function and mentioned that Scheeffer pointed out that it was a counterexample to an extension of the theorem of calculus claimed by Harnack. The Cantor function was discussed and popularized by Scheeffer, Lebesgue, to formally define the Cantor function c, →, let x be in and obtain c by the following steps, Express x in base 3. If x contains a 1, replace every digit after the first 1 by 0, interpret the result as a binary number. For example, 1/4 becomes 0.02020202. in base 3, there are no 1s so the next stage is still 0.02020202. When read in base 2, this corresponds to 1/3 in base 10, 1/5 becomes 0.01210121. in base 3. The digits after the first 1 are replaced by 0s to produce 0.01000000 and this is not rewritten since there are no 2s. When read in base 2, this corresponds to 1/4 in base 10, 200/243 becomes 0.21102 in base 3. The digits after the first 1 are replaced by 0s to produce 0.21, when read in base 2, this corresponds to 3/4 in base 10, so c = 3/4. The Cantor function is the most frequently cited example of a function that is uniformly continuous. It is constant on intervals of the form, and every point not in the Cantor set is in one of these intervals, on the other hand, it has no derivative at any point in an uncountable subset of the Cantor set containing the interval endpoints described above. The Cantor function can also be seen as the probability distribution function of the 1/2-1/2 Bernoulli measure μ supported on the Cantor set. This distribution, called the Cantor distribution, has no discrete part and that is, the corresponding measure is atomless. This is why there are no jump discontinuities in the function, in particular, as Vitali pointed out, the function is not the integral of its derivative even though the derivative exists almost everywhere. The Cantor function is the example of a singular function. The Cantor function is non-decreasing, and so in particular its graph defines a rectifiable curve, Scheeffer showed that the arc length of its graph is 2. Below we define a sequence of functions on the interval that converges to the Cantor function. The three definitions are compatible at the end-points 1/3 and 2/3, because ƒn =0 and ƒn =1 for every n, one may check that ƒn converges pointwise to the Cantor function defined above

18.
Gottlob Frege
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Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege was a German philosopher, logician, and mathematician. Considered a major figure in mathematics, he is responsible for the development of modern logic and he is also understood by many to be the father of analytic philosophy, where he concentrated on the philosophy of language and mathematics. Though largely ignored during his lifetime, Giuseppe Peano and Bertrand Russell introduced his work to generations of logicians. Frege was born in 1848 in Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and his father Carl Alexander Frege was the co-founder and headmaster of a girls high school until his death. In childhood, Frege encountered philosophies that would guide his future scientific career, Frege studied at a gymnasium in Wismar and graduated in 1869. His teacher Gustav Adolf Leo Sachse, who was a poet, played the most important role in determining Freges future scientific career, Frege matriculated at the University of Jena in the spring of 1869 as a citizen of the North German Confederation. In the four semesters of his studies he attended approximately twenty courses of lectures and his most important teacher was Ernst Karl Abbe. Abbe was more than a teacher to Frege, he was a trusted friend, after Freges graduation, they came into closer correspondence. His other notable university teachers were Christian Philipp Karl Snell, Hermann Karl Julius Traugott Schaeffer, Frege married Margarete Katharina Sophia Anna Lieseberg on 14 March 1887. Though his education and early work focused primarily on geometry. His Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens, Halle a/S, the Begriffsschrift broke new ground, including a rigorous treatment of the ideas of functions and variables. Previous logic had dealt with the constants and, or. Freges conceptual notation however can represent such inferences, one of Freges stated purposes was to isolate genuinely logical principles of inference, so that in the proper representation of mathematical proof, one would at no point appeal to intuition. If there was an element, it was to be isolated and represented separately as an axiom, from there on. Already in the 1879 Begriffsschrift important preliminary theorems, for example a generalized form of law of trichotomy, were derived within what Frege understood to be pure logic and this idea was formulated in non-symbolic terms in his The Foundations of Arithmetic. Later, in his Basic Laws of Arithmetic, Frege attempted to derive, by use of his symbolism, most of these axioms were carried over from his Begriffsschrift, though not without some significant changes. The one truly new principle was one he called the Basic Law V, the crucial case of the law may be formulated in modern notation as follows. Let denote the extension of the predicate Fx, i. e. the set of all Fs, then Basic Law V says that the predicates Fx and Gx have the same extension iff ∀x

19.
Edwin Abbott Abbott
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Flatland, A Romance of Many Dimensions is a satirical novella by the English schoolmaster Edwin Abbott Abbott, first published in 1884 by Seeley & Co. of London. Several films have made from the story, including the feature film Flatland. Other efforts have been short or experimental films, including one narrated by Dudley Moore, the story describes a two-dimensional world occupied by geometric figures, whereof women are simple line-segments, while men are polygons with various numbers of sides. The narrator is a square named A Square, a member of the caste of gentlemen and professionals, who guides the readers through some of the implications of life in two dimensions. The first half of the story goes through the practicalities of existing in a two-dimensional universe as well as a history leading up to the year 1999 on the eve of the 3rd Millennium. In the end, the monarch of Lineland tries to kill A Square rather than tolerate his nonsense any further, following this vision, he is himself visited by a three-dimensional sphere named A Sphere, which he cannot comprehend until he sees Spaceland for himself. This Sphere visits Flatland at the turn of each millennium to introduce a new apostle to the idea of a dimension in the hopes of eventually educating the population of Flatland. After this proclamation is made, many witnesses are massacred or imprisoned, including A Squares brother, let us leave this God of Pointland to the ignorant fruition of his omnipresence and omniscience, nothing that you or I can do can rescue him from his self-satisfaction. The Square recognizes the identity of the ignorance of the monarchs of Pointland and Lineland with his own ignorance of the existence of higher dimensions. Eventually the Square himself is imprisoned for just this reason, with only occasional contact with his brother who is imprisoned in the same facility and he does not manage to convince his brother, even after all they have both seen. Men are portrayed as polygons whose social status is determined by their regularity, on the other hand, females consist only of lines and are required by law to sound a peace-cry as they walk, lest they be mistaken face-to-face for a point. The Square evinces accounts of cases where women have accidentally or deliberately stabbed men to death, in the world of Flatland, classes are distinguished by the Art of Hearing, the Art of Feeling, and the Art of Sight Recognition. Classes can be distinguished by the sound of voice, but the lower classes have more developed vocal organs. Feeling, practised by the classes and women, determines the configuration of a person by feeling one of its angles. The Art of Sight Recognition, practised by the classes, is aided by Fog. With this, polygons with sharp angles relative to the observer will fade more rapidly than polygons with more gradual angles, colour of any kind is banned in Flatland after Isosceles workers painted themselves to impersonate noble Polygons. The Square describes these events, and the class war at length. Thus the son of a Square is a Pentagon, the son of a Pentagon, a Hexagon and this rule is not the case when dealing with Isosceles Triangles with only two congruent sides

20.
Flatland
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Flatland, A Romance of Many Dimensions is a satirical novella by the English schoolmaster Edwin Abbott Abbott, first published in 1884 by Seeley & Co. of London. Several films have made from the story, including the feature film Flatland. Other efforts have been short or experimental films, including one narrated by Dudley Moore, the story describes a two-dimensional world occupied by geometric figures, whereof women are simple line-segments, while men are polygons with various numbers of sides. The narrator is a square named A Square, a member of the caste of gentlemen and professionals, who guides the readers through some of the implications of life in two dimensions. The first half of the story goes through the practicalities of existing in a two-dimensional universe as well as a history leading up to the year 1999 on the eve of the 3rd Millennium. In the end, the monarch of Lineland tries to kill A Square rather than tolerate his nonsense any further, following this vision, he is himself visited by a three-dimensional sphere named A Sphere, which he cannot comprehend until he sees Spaceland for himself. This Sphere visits Flatland at the turn of each millennium to introduce a new apostle to the idea of a dimension in the hopes of eventually educating the population of Flatland. After this proclamation is made, many witnesses are massacred or imprisoned, including A Squares brother, let us leave this God of Pointland to the ignorant fruition of his omnipresence and omniscience, nothing that you or I can do can rescue him from his self-satisfaction. The Square recognizes the identity of the ignorance of the monarchs of Pointland and Lineland with his own ignorance of the existence of higher dimensions. Eventually the Square himself is imprisoned for just this reason, with only occasional contact with his brother who is imprisoned in the same facility and he does not manage to convince his brother, even after all they have both seen. Men are portrayed as polygons whose social status is determined by their regularity, on the other hand, females consist only of lines and are required by law to sound a peace-cry as they walk, lest they be mistaken face-to-face for a point. The Square evinces accounts of cases where women have accidentally or deliberately stabbed men to death, in the world of Flatland, classes are distinguished by the Art of Hearing, the Art of Feeling, and the Art of Sight Recognition. Classes can be distinguished by the sound of voice, but the lower classes have more developed vocal organs. Feeling, practised by the classes and women, determines the configuration of a person by feeling one of its angles. The Art of Sight Recognition, practised by the classes, is aided by Fog. With this, polygons with sharp angles relative to the observer will fade more rapidly than polygons with more gradual angles, colour of any kind is banned in Flatland after Isosceles workers painted themselves to impersonate noble Polygons. The Square describes these events, and the class war at length. Thus the son of a Square is a Pentagon, the son of a Pentagon, a Hexagon and this rule is not the case when dealing with Isosceles Triangles with only two congruent sides

21.
Takaki Kanehiro
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Baron Takaki Kanehiro was a Japanese naval physician. Born in Hyūga Province as the son of a retainer to the Satsuma domain, Takaki studied Chinese medicine as a youth. He later studied western medical science under British doctor William Willis, Takaki entered the Imperial Japanese Navy as a medical officer in 1872. He was sent to Great Britain for medical studies in 1875 and he returned to Japan in 1880. At the time, beriberi was a problem on warships and was affecting naval efficiency. Takaki knew that beriberi was not common among Western navies and he also noticed that Japanese naval officers, whose diet consisted of various types of vegetables and meat, rarely suffered from beriberi. On the other hand, the disease was common among ordinary crewmen, many crewmen from poor families, who had to send money back home, often tried to save money by eating nothing but rice. In 1883 Takaki learned of a high incidence of beriberi among cadets on a training mission from Japan to Hawaii, via New Zealand. On board,169 men out of 376 developed the disease and 25 died, Takaki made a petition to Emperor Meiji to fund an experiment with an improved diet for the seamen that included more meat, milk, bread and vegetables. He succeeded, and in 1884, another mission took the same route and this experiment convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy that poor diet was the prime factor in beriberi, and the disease was soon eliminated from the fleet. Although Takaki clearly established that the cause was due to nutritional issues, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905211,600 soldiers suffered from beriberi —27,000 fatally, compared to 47,000 deaths from combat. He was later affectionately nicknamed Barley Baron, Takaki founded the Sei-I-Kwai medical society in January 1881. In May,1881, he founded the Sei-I-Kwai Koshujo, now the Jikei University School of Medicine, takakis school was the first private medical college in Japan, and was the first in Japan to have students dissect human cadavers. Takaki was posthumously honored by having a peninsula in Antarctica at 65°33′S 64°34′W named Takaki Promontory in his honor and it is the only peninsula in Antarctica named after a Japanese person. Beriberi in Modern Japan, The Making of a National Disease, building a Modern Japan, Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Meiji Era and Beyond. Kakke o nakushita otoko Takaki Kanehiro den, beriberi, White Rice and Vitamin B. University of California Press Jikei University School of Medicine, Our Roots - To Serve the Suffering Poor

22.
Imperial Japanese Navy
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The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 until 1945, when it was dissolved following Japans defeat and surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force was formed after the dissolution of the IJN, the Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States Navy. It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and it was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War. This eventually led to the Meiji Restoration, accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization. Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period, when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga, in 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued a ban on Wakō piracy, the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea. Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, from 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion forbade contacts with the outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki, the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. Apart from Dutch trade ships no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports, an exception was during the Napoleonic wars. However frictions with foreign ships started from the beginning of the 19th century, the Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving the HMS Phaeton in 1808 and other subsequent incidents in the following decades led to the Shogunate to enact an edict to repel foreign vessels. Western ships which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling, the shogunate also began to strengthen the nations coastal defenses. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure in part to Japanese resistance, during 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and this was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the Shogunate acquired its first steam warship, Kankō Maru, samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki were sent by the Shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo, in 1857 the Shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship Kanrin Maru and used it as an escort for the 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States. In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japans first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka, in 1867–1868 a British Naval mission headed by Commander Richard Tracey went to Japan to assist the development of the Japanese Navy and to organize the naval school of Tsukiji. The Shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma, a naval center had been set up by the Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired

Fig. 11 A highly diagrammatic illustration of the process of gas exchange in the mammalian lungs, emphasizing the differences between the gas compositions of the ambient air, the alveolar air (light blue) with which the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates, and the blood gas tensions in the pulmonary arterial (blue blood entering the lung on the left) and venous blood (red blood leaving the lung on the right). All the gas tensions are in kPa. To convert to mm Hg, multiply by 7.5.

Fig. 10 A histological cross-section through an alveolar wall showing the layers through which the gases have to move between the blood plasma and the alveolar air. The dark blue objects are the nuclei of the capillary endothelial and alveolar type I epithelial cells (or type 1 pneumocytes). The two red objects labeled "RBC" are red blood cells in the pulmonary capillary blood.

Cross section of the olfactory bulb of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the neurotransmitterGABA.

Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons. When a pulse of electricity reaches a junction called a synapse, it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released, which binds to receptors on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity.

The plate of the Martin ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others". Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.

The Venetian Patent Statute, issued by the Senate of Venice in 1474, and one of the earliest statutory patent systems in the world.

The title on the memorial plaque (in Russian): "In this building was born and lived from 1845 till 1854 the great mathematician and creator of set theory Georg Cantor", Vasilievsky Island, Saint-Petersburg.

A scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the …

Take identical growing plants and give fertilizer to half of them. If there are differences between the fertilized treatment and the unfertilized treatment, these differences may be due to the fertilizer as long as there weren't other confounding factors which affected the result. For example, if the fertilizer was spread by a tractor but no tractor was used on the unfertilized treatment, then the effect of the tractor needs to be controlled.