alecFalse2008-12-19T14:18:08ZFalse4Environmental consequences2016-04-19T15:04:30Zarchetypes.schemaextender.interfaces.IExtensibleeea.progressbar.interfaces.IBaseObjecteea.geotags.storage.interfaces.IGeoTaggableeea.alchemy.interfaces.IAlchemyDiscoverableProducts.EEAContentTypes.interfaces.IEEAPossibleContentOFS.interfaces.ISimpleItemProducts.CMFDynamicViewFTI.interfaces.ISelectableBrowserDefaultProducts.Archetypes.interfaces.base.IBaseContentOFS.interfaces.ITraversableProducts.CMFCore.interfaces._content.IContentishOFS.interfaces.IItemOFS.interfaces.ICopySourceeea.promotion.interfaces.IPromotableProducts.LinguaPlone.interfaces.ITranslatableAccessControl.interfaces.IOwnedProducts.ATContentTypes.interfaces.interfaces.IHistoryAwareProducts.Archetypes.interfaces.base.IBaseObjectAccessControl.interfaces.IPermissionMappingSupportplone.locking.interfaces.ITTWLockableeea.cache.subtypes.interfaces.ICacheAwareProducts.ATContentTypes.interfaces.interfaces.IATContentTypeProducts.Archetypes.interfaces.metadata.IExtensibleMetadatawebdav.EtagSupport.EtagBaseInterfacewebdav.interfaces.IWriteLockApp.interfaces.IUndoSupportProducts.CMFCore.interfaces._content.ICatalogAwareAccessControl.interfaces.IRoleManagerProducts.Archetypes.interfaces.athistoryaware.IATHistoryAwareplone.uuid.interfaces.IUUIDAwareeea.workflow.interfaces.IHasMandatoryWorkflowFieldsProducts.GenericSetup.interfaces.IDAVAwareProducts.CMFCore.interfaces._content.IOpaqueItemManagerOFS.interfaces.IPropertyManagerplone.app.iterate.interfaces.IIterateAwareplone.app.imaging.interfaces.IBaseObjecteea.epub.subtypes.interfaces.IEPUBAwareProducts.Archetypes.interfaces.referenceable.IReferenceableApp.interfaces.IPersistentExtraeea.versions.interfaces.IVersionEnhancedProducts.ATContentTypes.interfaces.document.IATDocumentProducts.NavigationManager.sections.interfaces.INavigationSectionPositionableplone.portlets.interfaces.ILocalPortletAssignableeea.annotator.subtypes.interfaces.IAnnotatorAwareAcquisition.interfaces.IAcquirerpersistent.interfaces.IPersistenteea.pdf.subtypes.interfaces.IPDFAwareeea.relations.content.interfaces.IBaseObjectProducts.CMFCore.interfaces._content.IDynamicTypeeea.themecentre.interfaces.IThemeTaggableProducts.CMFCore.interfaces._content.IWorkflowAwarewebdav.interfaces.IDAVResourcepage005.html1002008-12-19T14:18:08Zpage005.html Environmental consequences
Group 1: Environmental consequences of
transport
TERM indicators
Objectives
DPSIR
Assessment
1. Energy
consumption
·reduce the consumption of fossil energy by transport
D
2. Emissions
of :
-CO 2
-NMVOCs
-NO x
·meet international emission- reduction targets
P
3. Air
quality
·meet EU air-quality standards
S
4. Noise
exposure and annoyance
·reduce exposure to high noise levels
S
?
5. Proximity
of transport
infrastructure to designated
nature areas
·preserve biodiversity and protect designated areas
P
6. Land
take
·minimise land take by transport infrastructure
P
7. Transport
fatalities
·reduce the number of injured and fatalities
I
Indicators and assessment
positive trend (moving towards target)
some positive development (but insufficient to meet
target)
unfavourable trend (large distance from
target)
? quantitative data not available or
insufficient
Group policy context
The fifth environmental action programme
(5EAP) constituted the first comprehensive set of EU environmental
objectives and targets.
Emissions of air pollutants and their impact
on climate change and air quality are dealt with by various
international Conventions and EU Directives and policies:
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the 1997 Kyoto protocol (signed by the Community and its
Member States);
UN Convention on Long Range Transboundary
Air Pollution (CLRTAP), its related protocols for SO 2 ,
NO x , and NMVOCs (signed by the Community and its Member
States) and a multi-pollutant protocol adopted on 1 December
1999;
Commission proposal for a National Emission
Ceilings Directive (CEC, 1999a);
Amended EC Monitoring Mechanism for
CO 2 and other greenhouse gas emissions (CEC,
1999b).
These instruments set national
emission-reduction targets, but they are not broken down by
sector.
In addition, the following policies and
environmental instruments specifically deal with emissions from the
road transport sector:
Auto-Oil I Programme and the resulting
Directives on emission standards for cars, phase-out of leaded fuels
and fuel quality, adopted in 1998 and 1999 (98/69/EC, 98/70/EC and
99/12/EC). The Auto-Oil I Programme resulted in the following
Directives:
a two-step tightening of vehicle emission
limit values for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles with the
first step in the year 2000 and the second step in 2005;
new environmental specifications for petrol
and diesel fuels to take effect from the year 2000 and very low-sulphur
fuels to be mandatory from 2005;
provision for earlier phase-in of very
low-sulphur fuels;
leaded fuels to be phased out by 2000 (with
the possibility of derogation up to 2005);
proposals to be brought forward by the
Commission for further complementary measures to take effect from
2005.
The follow-up programme (Auto-Oil II) is
expected to result in new proposals at the beginning of
2000.
Agreement with the car industry on the
reduction of CO 2 emissions from new cars.
The European Air Quality Management project
and Citizens. Networks aim to develop transport management measures to
improve urban air-quality policy (e.g. improvement of public transport,
diverting traffic from city centres, reduction of car use by means of
parking policies, and promotion of cycling).
Most Community legislation dealing with
gaseous and noise emission standards for aircraft are based on the
standards set by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
Under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships (MARPOL), a new protocol to reduce pollution emissions
(NO x , SO 2 ) from ships was proposed in 1997, but
this has not yet been adopted.
Community Directives set maximum sound
emission levels for vehicles, aircraft and machines. The Commission. s
Green Paper on a future Common Noise Policy (CEC, 1996b) underlines the
need for a more comprehensive EU strategy for noise.
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy set up a
general framework for the conservation of habitats and species.
Integration of biodiversity concerns into other policy areas is a key
element of the Community Biodiversity Strategy (1998). Various
international and national instruments for the designation of areas for
nature protection are in place (e.g. the Birds Directive (CEC, 1979)
and the Flora, Fauna and Habitats Directive(CEC, 1992)).
Community spatial planning policies (notably,
the European Spatial Development Perspective) aim at integrating
environmental considerations into land-use planning. Some Member States
have developed land-use policies and plans (restricting additional
developments in certain areas).
The Community Action Programme on Road Safety
(CEC, 1997b) aims to reduce the annual number of fatalities from road
accidents by at least 18 000 from current levels.
The recent Commission Communication on air
transport and the environment outlines a strategy to improve technical
standards and related rules (for noise and gaseous emissions), and
proposes the introduction of economic incentives (aviation charges,
emission trading) and other market incentives (the Community. s
Eco-Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS), voluntary agreements with
the industry). The aim is to achieve an improvement in the
environmental performance of air transport operations that outweighs
the impact of the growth in aviation (CEC, 1999d).
Figure 1.1: Transport emission trends
in the EU
Source: EEA-ETC/AE (NMVOCs and NOx), and Eurostat
(CO2, passenger-km, tonne-km)
Group findings
Growing transport volumes and limited
improvements in overall energy efficiency have resulted in a dramatic
growth in energy use during the past decade. This has led to increased
emissions of greenhouse gases (CO 2 ), due to the overwhelming
reliance on fossil fuels. This trend jeopardises the EU meeting its
Kyoto Protocol targets of 6-8 % reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions by 2008-2012.
Emissions of NMVOCs and NO x have
declined as a result of technological improvements, but this has been
partly offset by growing transport volumes. Although there have been
improvements for certain pollutants, urban air quality remains poor in
most European cities.
Road and rail infrastructure takes land
mainly from agricultural use, but also from built-up areas, forests,
semi-natural areas and wetlands. Linear infrastructure can constitute
an important barrier, dividing communities. Transport infrastructure
also imposes a significant threat to nature conservation by fragmenting
and disturbing habitats and putting areas designated for nature
protection under pressure. Already 65 % of Special Protected Bird
and Ramsar areas (wetlands) are near major transport
infrastructure.
Noise annoyance from transport is increasing
with traffic growth, especially near roads, railways and airports. It
has been reported to affect human health and wildlife.
Transport accident fatalities have decreased
markedly during the 1990s, in spite of rising traffic volumes, but road
accidents still claimed some 44 000 lives in the EU in
1996.
Environmental threats from transport
continue to be closely linked to transport volumes. This emphasises the
need for corrective policy measures, which aim both at improving
eco-efficiency by technical means and at reducing the growth in
transport demand through improved transport pricing, public education
and better integration of land-use and transport planning.
False<p><strong><span class="head2">Group 1: Environmental consequences of
transport</span></strong></p>
&nbsp;
<table class="listing">
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>
<p><strong>TERM indicators</strong></p>
</th>
<th>
<p><strong>Objectives</strong></p>
</th>
<th>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>DPSIR</strong></p>
</th>
<th>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Assessment</strong></p>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40691">1. Energy
consumption</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·reduce the consumption of fossil energy by transport</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">D</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nnosmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40692">2. Emissions
of</a>:</p>
<p>-CO<sub>2</sub></p>
<p>-NMVOCs</p>
<p>-NO<sub>x</sub></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·meet international emission- reduction targets</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">P</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nnosmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/ssmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nneutral.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40693">3. Air
quality</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·meet EU air-quality standards</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">S</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nneutral.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40694">4. Noise
exposure and annoyance</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·reduce exposure to high noise levels</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">S</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">?</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40695">5. Proximity
of transport<br />
infrastructure to designated<br />
nature areas</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·preserve biodiversity and protect designated areas</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">P</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nnosmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40696">6. Land
take</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·minimise land take by transport infrastructure</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">P</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nnosmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p><a href="/showpage.php/activities/transport?pg=40697">7. Transport
fatalities</a></p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p>·reduce the number of injured and fatalities</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center">I</p>
</td>
<td class="Mainfont">
<p style="text-align: center"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/ssmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><span class="Mainfont">Indicators and assessment</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/ssmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /> positive trend (moving towards target)</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nneutral.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /> some positive development (but insufficient to meet
target)</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont"><img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/nnosmile.gif" alt="" title="" width="23" height="22" /> unfavourable trend (large distance from
target)</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">? quantitative data not available or
insufficient</span></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h2><span class="head1">Group policy context</span></h2>
<p><span class="Mainfont">The fifth environmental action programme
(5EAP) constituted the first comprehensive set of EU environmental
objectives and targets.</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">Emissions of air pollutants and their impact
on climate change and air quality are dealt with by various
international Conventions and EU Directives and policies:</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span class="Mainfont">UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the 1997 Kyoto protocol (signed by the Community and its
Member States);</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">UN Convention on Long Range Transboundary
Air Pollution (CLRTAP), its related protocols for SO<sub>2</sub>,
NO<sub>x</sub>, and NMVOCs (signed by the Community and its Member
States) and a multi-pollutant protocol adopted on 1 December
1999;</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Commission proposal for a National Emission
Ceilings Directive (CEC, 1999a);</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Amended EC Monitoring Mechanism for
CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gas emissions (CEC,
1999b).</span></li>
</ul>
<p><span class="Mainfont">These instruments set national
emission-reduction targets, but they are not broken down by
sector.</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">In addition, the following policies and
environmental instruments specifically deal with emissions from the
road transport sector:</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Auto-Oil I Programme and the resulting
Directives on emission standards for cars, phase-out of leaded fuels
and fuel quality, adopted in 1998 and 1999 (98/69/EC, 98/70/EC and
99/12/EC). The Auto-Oil I Programme resulted in the following
Directives:</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">a two-step tightening of vehicle emission
limit values for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles with the
first step in the year 2000 and the second step in 2005;</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">new environmental specifications for petrol
and diesel fuels to take effect from the year 2000 and very low-sulphur
fuels to be mandatory from 2005;</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">provision for earlier phase-in of very
low-sulphur fuels;</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">leaded fuels to be phased out by 2000 (with
the possibility of derogation up to 2005);</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">proposals to be brought forward by the
Commission for further complementary measures to take effect from
2005.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">The follow-up programme (Auto-Oil II) is
expected to result in new proposals at the beginning of
2000.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Agreement with the car industry on the
reduction of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from new cars.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">The European Air Quality Management project
and Citizens. Networks aim to develop transport management measures to
improve urban air-quality policy (e.g. improvement of public transport,
diverting traffic from city centres, reduction of car use by means of
parking policies, and promotion of cycling).</span></li>
</ul>
<p><span class="Mainfont">Most Community legislation dealing with
gaseous and noise emission standards for aircraft are based on the
standards set by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
Under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships (MARPOL), a new protocol to reduce pollution emissions
(NO<sub>x</sub>, SO<sub>2</sub>) from ships was proposed in 1997, but
this has not yet been adopted.</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">Community Directives set maximum sound
emission levels for vehicles, aircraft and machines. The Commission. s
Green Paper on a future Common Noise Policy (CEC, 1996b) underlines the
need for a more comprehensive EU strategy for noise.</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">The UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy set up a
general framework for the conservation of habitats and species.
Integration of biodiversity concerns into other policy areas is a key
element of the Community Biodiversity Strategy (1998). Various
international and national instruments for the designation of areas for
nature protection are in place (e.g. the Birds Directive (CEC, 1979)
and the Flora, Fauna and Habitats Directive(CEC, 1992)).</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">Community spatial planning policies (notably,
the European Spatial Development Perspective) aim at integrating
environmental considerations into land-use planning. Some Member States
have developed land-use policies and plans (restricting additional
developments in certain areas).</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">The Community Action Programme on Road Safety
(CEC, 1997b) aims to reduce the annual number of fatalities from road
accidents by at least 18&nbsp;000 from current levels.</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont">The recent Commission Communication on air
transport and the environment outlines a strategy to improve technical
standards and related rules (for noise and gaseous emissions), and
proposes the introduction of economic incentives (aviation charges,
emission trading) and other market incentives (the Community. s
Eco-Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS), voluntary agreements with
the industry). The aim is to achieve an improvement in the
environmental performance of air transport operations that outweighs
the impact of the growth in aviation (CEC, 1999d).</span></p>
<p><span class="Mainfont"><strong>Figure 1.1: Transport emission trends
in the EU<br />
<img src="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12/ffig11.jpg" alt="" title="" width="400" height="263" /></strong></span> <span class="Mainfont"><br />
<strong>Source</strong>: EEA-ETC/AE (NMVOCs and NOx), and Eurostat
(CO2, passenger-km, tonne-km)</span></p>
<h2>Group findings</h2>
<ul>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Growing transport volumes and limited
improvements in overall energy efficiency have resulted in a dramatic
growth in energy use during the past decade. This has led to increased
emissions of greenhouse gases (CO<sub>2</sub>), due to the overwhelming
reliance on fossil fuels. This trend jeopardises the EU meeting its
Kyoto Protocol targets of 6-8&nbsp;% reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions by 2008-2012.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Emissions of NMVOCs and NO<sub>x</sub> have
declined as a result of technological improvements, but this has been
partly offset by growing transport volumes. Although there have been
improvements for certain pollutants, urban air quality remains poor in
most European cities.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Road and rail infrastructure takes land
mainly from agricultural use, but also from built-up areas, forests,
semi-natural areas and wetlands. Linear infrastructure can constitute
an important barrier, dividing communities. Transport infrastructure
also imposes a significant threat to nature conservation by fragmenting
and disturbing habitats and putting areas designated for nature
protection under pressure. Already 65&nbsp;% of Special Protected Bird
and Ramsar areas (wetlands) are near major transport
infrastructure.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Noise annoyance from transport is increasing
with traffic growth, especially near roads, railways and airports. It
has been reported to affect human health and wildlife.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Transport accident fatalities have decreased
markedly during the 1990s, in spite of rising traffic volumes, but road
accidents still claimed some 44&nbsp;000 lives in the EU in
1996.</span></li>
<li><span class="Mainfont">Environmental threats from transport
continue to be closely linked to transport volumes. This emphasises the
need for corrective policy measures, which aim both at improving
eco-efficiency by technical means and at reducing the growth in
transport demand through improved transport pricing, public education
and better integration of land-use and transport planning.</span></li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>False0K5YPW2OAIFalse