The Radio Act of 1927 was the first major broadcasting law in the country. Among its provisions was the equal opportunity provision, providing a foundation for the equal time rule. This provision requires radio and television stations and cable systems which originate their own programming to treat legally qualified political candidates equally when it comes to selling or giving away air time. Concerns that, without mandated equal opportunity for candidates, some broadcasters might try to manipulate elections led to its creation by legislators(1). The Communications Act of 1934 amended the Radio Act and the equal time provision is located Section 315 of the Communications Act.

The Communications Act of 1934 was another hallmark moment in broadcasting law history, because it created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for the purpose of "regulating interstate and foreign commerce in communication by wire and radio so as to make available, so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, a rapid, efficient, Nationwide, and world wide wire and radio communications service . . . ." (In this context, the word "radio" covers both broadcast radio and television.) The FCC has the authority to "make such regulations not inconsistent with law as it may deem necessary to prevent interference between stations and to carry out the provisions of [the] Act(2)."

In 1949, the FCC enacted a policy, referred to as the "Fairness Doctrine," for the purpose of ensuring balanced and fair coverage of all controversial issues by a broadcast station. The FCC adopted the view that station licensees were "public trustees," and, therefore, had an obligation to broadcast discussion of contrasting viewpoints on controversial issues of public importance. It was later established that stations should also actively seek out issues of importance to their community and air programming about those issues. During the 1980s, the Reagan Administration pressured the FCC to eliminate the fairness doctrine(3).

Scheduled radio and television broadcasting services need a licence from Ofcom under the Broadcasting Act 1990 or 1996, and must comply with the Ofcom Broadcasting Code made under section 319 of the Communications Act 2003, together with a number of other codes relating to access, electronic programme guides, advertising, and so on. The BBC is subject to some but not all of the requirements of the Broadcasting Code.

On-demand television services are regulated by the Authority for Video on Demand, so long as they fall within the definition of regulated services in section 368A(1) of the Communications Act, and must comply with the programme standards set out in Part 4A of the Communications Act.

1.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books

2.
Broadcasting
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Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, the receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset, the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio. The U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines broadcasting as transmissions intended for reception by the general public, private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur and citizens band radio operators are not allowed to broadcast, as defined, transmitting and broadcasting are not the same. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like television, are also considered broadcasts. In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well, the earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph signals over the airwaves, using Morse code, a system developed in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse, physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail and they developed an electrical telegraph system which sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, Morse therefore developed the forerunner to modern International Morse code. Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century, by the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM. Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s and became widespread after World War II, satellite broadcasting was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS emerging in the 1980s. Originally all broadcasting was composed of signals using analog transmission techniques but in the 2000s. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information, Analog audio vs. HD Radio Analog television vs.9 zettabytes. This is the equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986. Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting electronic media audio and/or video to the public, Telephone broadcasting. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include telephone services for news and entertainment programming which were introduced in the 1890s. These telephone-based subscription services were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, audio signals sent through the air as radio waves from a transmitter, picked up by an antenna and sent to a receiver

3.
Radio station
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A radio station is a set of equipment necessary to carry on communication via radio waves. Generally, it is a receiver or transmitter, an antenna, Radio stations play a vital role in communication technology as they are heavily relied on to transfer data and information across the world. More broadly, the definition of a radio station includes the aforementioned equipment, such a station may include several radio stations defined above. This definition of a station is more often referred to as a transmitter site. Each station shall be classified by the service in which it operates permanently or temporarily», transmitter - Takes the electrical output of a microphone and then modulates a higher-frequency carrier signal and transmits it as radio waves. Receiver - The broadcast message is received by the receiver and decodes the radio sine waves, antenna - An antenna is required for transmission, it is also required to receive radio waves. The main use of an antenna is to radio signals. Aerial feeder - system of feeding HF-Energy in the antenna Transmission lines - Transmission lines are used to transfer the radio signals from one location to another. For example, a line was used in Luftwaffe, Germany during WW II to send information from camps back to their base. Connectors Interface panel remote control – This is used to various different types of the equipment used in a radio station. To input broadcast data into a transmitter an interface panel will need to be used, cable – A cable can be used to connect the various devices. Equipment Rack – To hold all equipment in a secure and logical manner, power protection equipment – For holding equipments in a stable, secure and logical manner. UPS – For uninterrupted power supply and these are the most used/important devices and items for most radio stations. A microphone is used to capture the input of sound created by people speaking into the device. The sounds are turned into electrical energy, this energy then flows along a metal antenna. As the electrons in the current move back and forth up the antenna. The waves travel at the speed of light, taking the program with them. A compound of both a transmitter and a receiver is called a transceiver, they are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing, when no circuitry is common between the transmit and receive functions, the device becomes a transmitter-receiver

4.
Cable television
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This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels

5.
Cable radio
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Cable radio or cable FM is a concept similar to that of cable television, bringing radio signals into homes and businesses via coaxial cable. It is generally used as cable TV was in its early days when it was community antenna television, however, cable-only radio outlets also exist. The use of radio varies from area to area - some cable TV systems dont include it at all. Additionally, some stations may just transmit audio in the background while a Public-access television cable TV channel is operating in between periods of video programming, a related secondary meaning of the term is any automated music stream - the usual format of cable-only stations. The first commercial radio station in the United States was CABL-FM108, on the Theta Cablevision system, serving West Los Angeles, California. It went live on January 1,1972, and was run by Brad Sobel, CABL-FM108 came into being after Brads original venture, K-POT, a bootleg FM station at 88.1 MHz was busted by the FCC in November 1971. The illicit station ran for three days until it was shut down, and the event made the front page of the Los Angeles Times, the first exclusively cablecasting community radio station was CPVR in Palos Verdes, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. CPVR95.9 Cable FM radio was on the Times-Mirror cable system and was started by a group of teenagers who initially practiced being disc jockeys in the homes of two of the founders. Since traditional broadcasting equipment was expensive at the time, a young engineer named Tom Hewitt built much of the electronic hardware from scratch. Even though they were non-profit, they were not subject to the restrictions of public radio stations. Isaac O. Zzyzx, Jim Sideris, Harv Laser, David Zislis, Richard Hower, Tony Fasola, Dave Chrenko aka Johnny Ace, Kerry Doolin, Liane Benson, Lorraine Dechter, Clyde Stanton, a. k. a. Certified Clyde and Kathy Bauer were some of the disc jockeys who helped create the stations legendary style. Unlike Cable 108, CPVR was not only on the FM dial, but was in stereo, many of the original staff went on to careers in media. For a time, cable radio stations popped up across California, CCIA, a cable radio station on the campus of California Institute of the Arts, Valencia, California, is one example. But as the founders of these stations grew older and moved on, eventually all these cable radio stations went dark. Today, where college or community groups might have once considered starting a radio station. On the East Coast the most popular cable radio station was WLHE, started in 1979 in Woburn. This station was the first commercial cable TV only radio station in the country, the man who started it was Larry Haber, owner and operator

6.
Satellite television
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A direct-broadcast satellite is a type of artificial satellite which usually broadcasts satellite television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television or direct-to-home television and these services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, in 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, at present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations. By contrast, the term DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a range of frequencies transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band. The term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services received by relatively small dishes, a DBS service usually refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, the second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc, was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, by 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and it launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is used in the UK or Ireland. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB, PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined by DirecTV, in 1994. At the time, DirecTVs introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history, although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTV purchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporations controlling interest in DirecTV, in 1996, EchoStars Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTVs primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under, astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc. s Sky Angel launched on a platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith. It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming. Dominion, under its corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the satellites, transmission facilities

7.
Satellite radio
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Satellite radio is – according to article 1.39 of the International Telecommunication Union´s ITU Radio Regulations – a Broadcasting-satellite service. The satellites signals are broadcast nationwide, across a wider geographical area than terrestrial radio stations. It is available by subscription, mostly free, and offers subscribers more stations. Satellite radio technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame in 2002, Satellite radio uses the 2.3 GHz S band in North America for nationwide digital audio broadcasting. In other parts of the world, satellite radio uses the 1.4 GHz L band allocated for DAB, Sirius Satellite Radio was founded by Martine Rothblatt, David Margolese and Robert Briskman. In June 1990, Rothblatts shell company, Satellite CD Radio, Inc. petitioned the Federal Communications Commission to assign new frequencies for satellites to broadcast digital sound to homes and cars. The company identified and argued in favor of the use of the S-band frequencies that the FCC subsequently decided to allocate to digital audio broadcasting, the National Association of Broadcasters contended that satellite radio would harm local radio stations. In April 1992, Rothblatt resigned as CEO of Satellite CD Radio and former NASA engineer Robert Briskman, six months later, Rogers Wireless co-founder David Margolese, who had provided financial backing for the venture, acquired control of the company and succeeded Briskman. XM was founded by Lon Levin and Gary Parsons, who served as chairman until November 2009, CD Radio purchased their license for $83.3 million, and American Mobile Radio Corporation bought theirs for $89.9 million. Digital Satellite Broadcasting Corporation and Primosphere were unsuccessful in their bids for licenses, sky Highway Radio Corporation had also expressed interest in creating a satellite radio network, before being bought out by CD Radio in 1993 for $2 million. In November 1999, Margolese changed the name of CD Radio to Sirius Satellite Radio, xM’s first satellite was launched on March 18,2001 and its second on May 8,2001. Its first broadcast occurred on September 25,2001, nearly four months before Sirius, Sirius launched the initial phase of its service in four cities on February 14,2002, expanding to the rest of the contiguous United States on July 1,2002. The two companies spent over $3 billion combined to develop satellite radio technology, build and launch the satellites, stating that it was the only way satellite radio could survive, Sirius and XM announced their merger on February 19,2007, becoming Sirius XM Radio. The FCC approved the merger on July 25,2008, concluding that it was not a monopoly, primarily due to Internet audio-streaming competition, XM satellite radio was launched in Canada on November 29,2005. Sirius followed two days later on December 1,2005, Sirius Canada and XM Radio Canada announced their merger into Sirius XM Canada on November 24,2010. It was approved by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission on April 12,2011, ondas Media was a Spanish company which had proposed to launch a subscription-based satellite radio system to serve Spain and much of Western Europe, but failed to acquire licenses throughout Europe. WorldSpace was founded by Ethiopia-born lawyer Noah Samara in Washington, D. C. in 1990, on June 22,1991, the FCC gave WorldSpace permission to launch a satellite to provide digital programming to Africa and the Middle East. WorldSpace first began broadcasting radio on October 1,1999

8.
Broadcast network
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A broadcast network is a group of radio stations, television stations, or other electronic media outlets, that form an agreement to air, or broadcast, content from a centralized source. For example, PBS and BBC are TV networks that provide programming for local TV station affiliates to air using signals that can be picked up by the television sets of local viewers. Reginald Fessenden, an engineer and communications researcher for the U. S. Weather Bureau was the first individual to transmit a regular radio broadcast. His broadcasts were to ships at sea, for which he used radio telegraphy equipment and his programs consisted of a recorded Handel piece, a violin performance, and a reading from the Bible. He claimed to be the first to transmit the human voice, general Electric was encouraged years later to create the Radio Corporation of America. Around this time, AT&T also became involved in radio, with all of these stations going on the air, AT&T devised the concept of sharing programming to save on effort required to create programming. In addition, programs sometimes appealed to the audiences of more than one station, when two or three stations link together from a telephone line it is called chain broadcasting. Since the phone lines were owned by AT&T, they were the first corporation to begin the sharing of two or three stations via telephone lines. In 1924, the Eveready Hour was broadcast over 12 stations, National companies were able to reach large portions of the nation with their brand names and slogans in a resourceful manner. By 1925 AT&T had linked together 26 stations in a network and they also ran an owned & operated station, WEAFNinew York. Radio Corporation of America followed suit, using AT&T’s network model, however, conflict resulted as RCA needed to lease phone lines from AT&T. The Federal Trade Commission took notice of this and charged AT&T with United States antitrust law violations, in 1926 AT&T sold off their broadcasting interests to RCA. RCA agreed to lease network connections from AT&T and for several decades AT&T made a business in radio. In 1926, RCA created the National Broadcasting Company under David Sarnoff, when NBC first launched, it comprised two groups of stations that worked together, with different programs and sponsors to support. The two networks were called NBC Red and NBC Blue, NBC Red covered stronger stations and NBC Blue covered weaker stations. In 1941, the Federal Communications Commission issued the Report on Chain Broadcasting, the FCC cited NBC Red and NBC Blue as a primary concern, which the commission thought was anti-competitive. Since the FCC does not have the power to regulate the networks, in 1943, the Supreme Court of the United States took away the FCC’s power to enforce chain broadcasting regulations. NBC Blue was sold to Edward Noble who later named it the American Broadcasting Company, NBC also had a chain of shortwave stations, called NBC White Network, in the 1930s

9.
Parameter
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A parameter, generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system. That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, parameter has more specific meanings within various disciplines, including mathematics, computing and computer programming, engineering, statistics, logic and linguistics. Mathematical functions have one or more arguments that are designated in the definition by variables, a function definition can also contain parameters, but unlike variables, parameters are not listed among the arguments that the function takes. When parameters are present, the definition actually defines a family of functions. A parameter could be incorporated into the name to indicate its dependence on the parameter. For instance, one may define the base b of a logarithm by log b ⁡ = log ⁡ log ⁡ where b is a parameter that indicates which logarithmic function is being used. It is not an argument of the function, and will, for instance, in some informal situations it is a matter of convention whether some or all of the symbols in a function definition are called parameters. However, changing the status of symbols between parameter and variable changes the function as a mathematical object, for instance, the notation for the falling factorial power n k _ = n ⋯, defines a polynomial function of n, but is not a polynomial function of k. Indeed, in the case, it is only defined for non-negative integer arguments. Sometimes it is useful to all functions with certain parameters as parametric family. Examples from probability theory are given further below, a variable is one of the many things a parameter is not. The dependent variable, the speed of the car, depends on the independent variable, change the lever arms of the linkage. Will still depend on the pedal position and you have changed a parameter A parametric equaliser is an audio filter that allows the frequency of maximum cut or boost to be set by one control, and the size of the cut or boost by another. These settings, the level of the peak or trough, are two of the parameters of a frequency response curve, and in a two-control equaliser they completely describe the curve. More elaborate parametric equalisers may allow other parameters to be varied and these parameters each describe some aspect of the response curve seen as a whole, over all frequencies. A graphic equaliser provides individual level controls for various frequency bands, if asked to imagine the graph of the relationship y = ax2, one typically visualizes a range of values of x, but only one value of a. Of course a different value of a can be used, generating a different relation between x and y, thus a is a parameter, it is less variable than the variable x or y, but it is not an explicit constant like the exponent 2. More precisely, changing the parameter a gives a different problem, in calculating income based on wage and hours worked, it is typically assumed that the number of hours worked is easily changed, but the wage is more static

10.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families

11.
Profanity
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Profanity is socially offensive language, which may also be called bad language, strong language, coarse language, foul language, bad words, vulgar language, lewd language, choice words or expletives. The use of language is swearing, cursing or cussing. Used in this sense, profanity is a subset of a languages lexicon that is considered to be strongly impolite. It can show a debasement of someone or something, or show intense emotion, linguistically, profanity takes the form of words or verbal expressions that fall into the category of formulaic language. The term profane originates from classical Latin profanus, literally before the temple and it carried the meaning of either desecrating what is holy or with a secular purpose as early as the 1450s CE. Moreover, many Bible verses speak against swearing, profanities, in the original meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults, which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities. An example from Gargantua and Pantagruel is Christ, look ye, in English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology. Shit has a Germanic root, as, probably, does fuck, the more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as defecate or excrete, and fornicate or copulate respectively. Strong language is by no means a recent phenomenon, the Bible records instances, such as mention of men who eat their own dung, and drink their own piss in the Authorized King James Version of the 1611 translation of Hebrew text of 2 Kings 18,27. Analyses of recorded conversations reveal that an average of roughly 80–90 words that a person each day –0. 5% to 0. 7% of all words – are swear words. In comparison, first-person plural pronouns make up 1% of spoken words, Swearing performs certain psychological functions, and uses particular linguistic and neurological mechanisms, all these are avenues of research. Functionally similar behavior can be observed in chimpanzees, and may contribute to our understanding, Keele University researchers Stephens, Atkins, and Kingston found that swearing relieves the effects of physical pain. Stephens said I would advise people, if they hurt themselves, however, the overuse of swear words tends to diminish this effect. The Keele team won the Ig Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 for their research, a team of neurologists and psychologists at the UCLA Easton Center for Alzheimers Disease Research suggested that swearing may help differentiate Alzheimers disease from frontotemporal dementia. Neurologist Antonio Damasio noted that loss of language due to damage to the language areas of the brain. A group of researchers from Wright State University studied why people swear in the world by collecting tweets posted on Twitter. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from the University of Warsaw investigated bilingual swearing and it listed the profanities in order of decreasing severity. A similar survey was carried out in 2009 by New Zealands Broadcasting Standards Authority, the results were published in March 2010, in a report called What Not to Swear

12.
Federal Communications Commission
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The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing itself. The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission, the FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCCs mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees and it has an estimated fiscal-2016 budget of US$388 million. Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act and these are, Broadband All Americans should have affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services. Competition Competition in the provision of services, both domestically and overseas, supports the Nations economy. The competitive framework for communications services should foster innovation and offer consumers reliable, Media The Nations media regulations must promote competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery. Public Safety and Homeland Security Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health, defense, the Nations critical communications infrastructure must be reliable, interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable. The FCC is directed by five appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. The U. S. President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman, only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCC-related business, importantly, commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements, but may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In practice, as of 2016 this means that commissioners may serve up to 1 1/2 years beyond the term expiration dates listed above if no replacement is appointed. The Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau develops and implements the FCCs consumer policies, CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outreach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness. The Enforcement Bureau is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, major areas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Bureau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security. S. The International Bureau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations, the Media Bureau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service. The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, the Wireline Competition Bureau develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in technology infrastructure, development, markets

13.
Frequency allocation
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Frequency allocation is the division of the electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands. This spectrum management is regulated by governments in most countries, Radio propagation does not stop at national boundaries. Giving technical and economic reasons, governments have sought to harmonise the allocation of RF bands, Frequency allocation is also a special term, used in national frequency administration. The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and shared, in NATO countries military mobile utilizations will be in accordance with the NATO Joint Civil/Military Frequency Agreement. Spectrum management Amateur radio frequency allocations Spectrum reallocation International Telecommunication Union ITU Radio Regulations - Volume 1 international table of frequencies by ITU Region

14.
Television channel frequencies
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The following tables show the frequencies assigned to broadcast television channels in various regions of the world, along with the ITU letter designator for the system used. The frequencies shown are for the video and audio carriers. The channel itself occupies several megahertz of bandwidth, for example, North American channel 2 occupies the spectrum from 54 to 60 MHz. See Broadcast television systems for a table of characteristics, including bandwidth. Channel 1 was finally withdrawn on June 14,1948, and allocated to fixed, in some countries using the standard, channels 5 and 6 are allocated to non-broadcast services. Not all territories observe this bandplan, during World War II the frequencies originally assigned as channels 13 to 18 were appropriated by the military, which still uses them. It was also decided to move the allocation for FM radio from the 42-50 MHz band to a larger 88-106 MHz band and this required a reassignment of the VHF channels to the plan currently in use. Notes, System M525 lines System N625 lines Note, FM channel 200,87.9 MHz and this is used only by KSFH and K200AA. Note, Basically the frequency spacing for each channel is 6 MHz as the countries above, Note, Channel A was never used terrestrially. The only System I Band I transmitter on Channel B was RTÉ One from the Maghera, Channel A was initially intended for use at Maghera but Channel B was used instead because of the risk of interference to reception of BBC405 line transmissions. It was moved to Channel E due to interference from distant transmitters during certain atmospheric conditions, Channel C was used by a relay transmitter in Glanmire, Co. There are currently no Band I Channels used in Ireland and no plans to resume using them, NOTE, Channels 15 and 16 are allocated for use in the African Broadcasting Area only. Channel 2A was only used in Austria for the Sendeturm Jauerling to avoid interferences with neighboring Eastern European TV stations. Channel 12 was reserved by the military in some countries so only relay transmitters operated on this frequency. Channel 4A audio carriers frequency is very close to US Channel 6 audio carrier and overlaps the FM band in Europe NOTE, Channels A through H are indicated in many European TVs as Channels 13-20. Channels B through H2 are identical to Channel E4 and up, in its very early days DFF made some test transmissions using the D/K standard before reverting to System B/G but still using some oddball frequencies #. # From 1960 onwards European standard channels were adopted, Note Channels 0,1,2,3,4,5 and 5A are no longer used since the transition to Digital television. With the introduction of Digital TV in 2001, the last two channels were moved up by 1 MHz to allow a full 7 MHz for a new channel 9A, NOTE, Channels 10 and 11 werent added until the late 1980s

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Amateur radio frequency allocations
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Amateur radio frequency allocation is done by national telecommunications authorities. Globally, the International Telecommunication Union oversees how much radio spectrum is set aside for radio transmissions. Individual amateur stations are free to use any frequency within authorized frequency ranges, Radio amateurs use a variety of transmission modes, including Morse code, radioteletype, data, and voice. Specific frequency allocations vary from country to country and between ITU regions as specified in the current ITU HF frequency allocations for amateur radio, the list of frequency ranges is called a band allocation, which may be set by international agreements, and national regulations. The modes and types of allocations within each band is called a bandplan, it may be determined by regulation. National authorities regulate amateur usage of radio bands, some bands may not be available or may have restrictions on usage in certain countries or regions. International agreements assign amateur radio bands which differ by region,2200 meters –135. 7–137.8 kHz – Very long antenna. This band lies far below the commercial AM broadcast band,600 meters – 472–479 kHz – This band lies just below the commercial AM broadcast band and marine band. 160 meters –1. 8-2 MHz – Often taken up as a technical challenge, long distance propagation tends to occur only at night, and the band can be notoriously noisy particularly in the summer months. 160 meters is known as the top band. Allocations in this band vary widely from country to country and this band lies just above the commercial AM broadcast band. 80 meters –3. 5–4.0 MHz – Best at night, works best in winter due to atmospheric noise in summer. Only countries in the Americas and few others have access to all of this band, in the US and Canada the upper end of the sub-band from 3600–4000 kHz, permits use of single-sideband voice as well as amplitude modulation, voice, often referred to as 75 meters. In most countries, the allocation is channelized and may require special application, voice operation is generally in upper sideband mode and in the USA it is mandatory. The 2015 ITU World Radiocommunications Conference approved a Worldwide Frequency Allocation of 5351. 5–5366.5 kHz to the Amateur Service on a secondary basis, the allocation limits amateur stations to 15 Watts effective isotropic radiated power, however some locations will be permitted up to 25 W EIRP. It will not come into effect until January 1,2017, Amateur stations will not be able to use this allocation until their national administration implements it. 40 meters –7. 0–7.3 MHz – Considered the most reliable all-season DX band, popular for DX at night,40 meters is also reliable for medium distance contacts during the day. Much of this band was shared with broadcasters, and in most countries the bottom 100 kHz or 200 kHz are available to amateurs,30 meters –10. 1–10.15 MHz – a very narrow band, which is shared with non-amateur services

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Public broadcasting
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Public broadcasting includes radio, television and other electronic media outlets whose primary mission is public service. In much of the world, funding comes from the government, the great majority are operated as private not-for-profit corporations. Public broadcasting may be nationally or locally operated, depending on the country, in some countries, public broadcasting is run by a single organization. Other countries have multiple public broadcasting organizations operating regionally or in different languages, historically, public broadcasting was once the dominant or only form of broadcasting in many countries. Commercial broadcasting now also exists in most of countries, the number of countries with only public broadcasting declined substantially during the latter part of the 20th century. The primary mission of public broadcasting that of service, speaking to. The British model has been accepted as a universal definition. In the context of a national identity, the role of public broadcasting may be unclear. Likewise, the nature of good programming may raise the question of individual or public taste. Within public broadcasting there are two different views regarding commercial activity, one is that public broadcasting is incompatible with commercial objectives. The other is that public broadcasting can and should compete in the marketplace with commercial broadcasters and this dichotomy is highlighted by the public service aspects of traditional commercial broadcasters. Public broadcasters in each jurisdiction may or may not be synonymous with government controlled broadcasters, in some countries like the UK public broadcasters are not sanctioned by government departments and have independent means of funding, and thus enjoy editorial independence. Public broadcasters may receive their funding from a television licence fee, individual contributions. One of the principles of broadcasting is to provide coverage of interests for which there are missing or small markets. Public broadcasting attempts to supply topics of social benefit that are not provided by commercial broadcasters. Typically, such underprovision is argued to exist when the benefits to viewers are relatively high in comparison to the benefits to advertisers from contacting viewers and this frequently is the case in undeveloped countries that normally have low benefits to advertising. Additionally, public broadcasting may facilitate the implementation of a cultural policy, examples include, The Canadian government is committed to official bilingualism. As a result, the broadcaster, the CBC employs translators

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Ofcom
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Ofcom has wide-ranging powers across the television, radio, telecoms and postal sectors. It has a duty to represent the interests of citizens and consumers by promoting competition. Some of the main areas Ofcom presides over are licensing, research, codes and policies, complaints, competition, the regulator was initially established by the Office of Communications Act 2002 and received its full authority from the Communications Act 2003. The creation of Ofcom was announced in the Queens Speech to the UK Parliament, the new body, which would replace several existing authorities, was conceived as a super-regulator to oversee media channels that were rapidly converging through digital transmission. It will no longer play a role in making policy, and the policy-making functions it has today will be transferred back fully to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. On 1 October 2011, Ofcom took over responsibility for regulating the postal services industry from the Postal Services Commission. In April 2015, Ofcom announced that as of 1 July, the streamlining of these charges must be printed in each customers contract and monthly bills. The change will affect over 175 million phone numbers making it the biggest overhaul of telephoning in over a decade, on 1 January 2016, the regulation of video on demand was transferred to Ofcom from ATVOD, the Authority for Television On Demand. On 13 July former Prime Minister Gordon Brown urged Ofcom to launch an investigation, on 22 July it was reported that Ofcom had begun an investigation into whether the phone-hacking scandal may have changed BSkyBs status as the fit and proper holder of a UK broadcasting licence. In the letter Richards confirmed that Ofcom considers that News Corporations current shareholding of 39, in April 2012, Ofcoms probe moved from a monitoring phase to a evidence gathering phase. Ofcom licenses all UK commercial television and radio services in the UK, broadcasters must comply by the terms of their licence, or risk having it revoked. Ofcom also publishes the Broadcasting Code, a series of rules which all broadcast content on television, the broadcasting of pornography with a BBFC R18 certificate is not permitted. In 2010 Ofcom revoked the licences of four television channels for promoting adult chat services during daytime hours. The companies involved were fined £157,250, Ofcoms jurisdiction does not cover television and radio channels which are broadcast in the UK but licensed abroad. In 2012 Ofcom lodged a complaint with the Dutch media regulator regarding the content of adult television channels which are broadcast in the UK. As the regulatory body for media broadcasts, part of Ofcoms duties are to examine specific complaints by viewers or listeners about programmes broadcast on channels that it has licensed and it does not oversee unlicensed channels broadcast to UK viewers. When Ofcom receives a complaint, it asks the broadcaster for a copy of the programme, Ofcom requests response from the broadcaster to the complaint. On the basis of response, Ofcom will mark the complaint as either upheld or not upheld

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BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own

Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) …

A coaxial cable used to carry cable television onto subscribers' premises

The bottom product is a set-top box, an electronic device which cable subscribers use to connect the cable signal to their television set.

A cable television distribution box (left) in the basement of a building in Germany, with a splitter (right) which supplies the signal to separate cables which go to different rooms

Diagram of a modern hybrid fiber-coaxial cable television system. At the regional headend, the TV channels are sent multiplexed on a light beam which travels through optical fiber trunklines, which fan out from distribution hubs to optical nodes in local communities. Here the light signal from the fiber is translated to a radio frequency electrical signal, which is distributed through coaxial cable to individual subscriber homes.