Plants in the Bible

When Moses spoke to the people about the Land of Promise, he described it as a "land of hills and plains" (Deuteronomy 11:11), "a good land, of brooks and of waters, and of fountains: in the plains of which and the hills deep rivers break out: a land of wheat, and barley, and vineyards, wherein fig-trees and pomegranates, and oliveyards grow: a land of oil and honey" (Deuteronomy 8:7-8). This glowing description, sketched exclusively from an utilitarian point of view, was far from doing justice to the wonderful variety of the country's productions, to which several causes contributed. First the differences of elevation; for between Lebanon, 10,000 feet above sea level, and the shores of the Dead Sea, 1285 feet below the Mediterranean, every gradation of altitude is to be found, within less than 200 miles. Sinuous valleys furrow the highland, causing an incredible variation in topography; hence, cultivated land lies almost side by side with patches of desert. The soil is now of clay, now of clay mixed with lime, farther on of sand; the surface rock is soft limestone, and basalt. In addition to these factors, variations of climate consequent on change of altitude and geographical position cause forms of vegetation which elsewhere grow far apart to thrive side by side within the narrow limits of Palestine. The vegetation along the west coast, like that of Spain, southern Italy, Sicily, and Algeria, is composed of characteristic species of Mediterranean flora. Near the perennial snows of the northern peaks grow the familiar plants of Alpine and sub-Alpine regions; the highlands of Palestine and the eastern slopes of the northern ranges produce the Oriental vegetation of the steppes; whereas the peculiar climate conditions prevailing along the Ghôr and about the Dead Sea favour a sub-tropical flora, characterized by species resembling those which thrive in Nubia and Abyssinia.

Over 3000 species of Palestinian flora are known to exist, but the Holy Land of our day can give only an imperfect idea of what it was in Biblical times. The hill-country of Juda and the Negeb are, as formerly, the grazing lands of the Judean herds, yet groves, woods, and forest flourished everywhere, few traces of which remain. The cedar-forests of Lebanon had a world-wide reputation; the slopes of Hermon and the mountains of Galaad were covered with luxuriant pine woods; oak forests were the distinctive feature of Basan, throughout Ephraim clumps of terebinths dotted the land, while extensive palm groves were both the ornament and wealth of the Jordan Valley. The arable land, much of which now lies fallow, was all cultivated and amply rewarded the tiller. The husbandman derived from his orchards and vineyards abundant crops of olives, figs, pomegranates, and grapes. Nearly every Jewish peasant had his "garden of herbs", furnishing in season vegetables and fruits for the table, flowers, and medicinal plants. Only some 130 plants are mentioned in Scripture, which is not surprising since ordinary people are interested only in a few, whether ornamental or useful. The first attempt to classify this flora is in Genesis 1:11-12, where it is divided into: (1) deshe, signifying all low plants, e.g., cryptogamia; (2) ‘esebh, including herbaceous plants; (3) ‘es peri, embracing all trees. In the course of time, the curiosity of men was attracted by the riches of Palestinian vegetation; Solomon, in particular, is said to have treated about the trees (i.e., plants) from the lofty cedar "unto the hyssop that cometh out of the wall" (1 Kings 4:33). Of the plants mentioned in the Bible, the most common varieties may be identified either with certainty or probability; but a large proportion of the biblical plant-names are generic rather than specific, e.g., briers, grass, nettles, etc.; and just what plants are meant in some cases is impossible to determine, e.g., algum, cockle, gall, etc. A complete alphabetical list of the plant-names found in the English Versions is here given, with an attempt at identification.

Algum (A. V., 2 Chronicles, 2:8; D. V., 9:10, 11, "thyme trees", "fir trees"; written "almug" in A.V., 1 Samuel 10:11-12). No doubt the same tree is signified, the double name being due to a mere accidental transposition of the letters; if linguistic analogy may be trusted in, almug is correct (cf. Tamil, valguka). The algum tree is spoken of as a valuable exotic product imported to Palestine by Hiram's and Solomon's fleets (1 Kings 10:11; 2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10), suitable for fine joinery and making musical instruments (1 Kings 10:12; 2 Chronicles 9:11). Josephus (Ant., VIII, vii, 1) says it was somewhat like the wood of the fig tree, but whiter and more glittering. According to most modern scholars and certain rabbis, the red sandal-wood, Pterocarpus santalina, is intended, though some of the uses made of it appear to require a stouter material. The identification proposed by Vulg. (see Thyine) is much more satisfactory.

Almond tree,Hebrewluz (Genesis 30:37; "hazel" in A. V. is a mistranslation; cf. Arab. laux), apparently an old word later supplanted by shaqed (Genesis 43:11; Numbers 17:8; Ecclesiastes 12:5); which alludes to the early blossoming of the tree. Almonds are (Genesis 43:11) considered one of the best fruits in the Orient, and the tree, Amygdalus communis, has always been cultivated there. Several varieties, A. orientalis, Ait., or A. argentea, A. lycioides, Spach, A. spartioides, Spach, grow wild in districts such as Lebanon, Carmel, Moab.

Aloes (Proverbs 7:17; Song of Songs 4:14; John 19:39; A. V., Psalm 45:8) is reckoned among "the chief perfumes". In A. V., Num. xxiv, 6 ("lign aloes"; D. V., "tabernacles" is an erroneous translation), a tree is clearly intended. The officinal aloes, Liliacea, is not alluded to; the aloes of the Bible is the product of a tree of the genus Aquilaria, perhaps A. agallocha, Roxb., a native of northern India; at a certain stage of decay, the wood develops a fragrance well known to the ancients (Dioscorides, i, 21), and from it a rare perfume was obtained.

Anise (Matthew 23:23), not the anise, Pimpinella anisum, but rather the dill, Anethum graveolens, shabath of the Talmud, shibith of the Arabs, is meant. Dill has always been much cultivated in Palestine; its seeds, leaves, and stems were subject to tithe, according to Rabbi Eliezer (Maasaroth, 1:I; cf. Matthew 23:23), which opinion, however, others thought excessive (Schwab, "Talmud de Jerus.", III, 182).

Apple tree, Heb., thappuakh (cf. Arab, tiffah; Egypt. dapih, "apple") and the description of the tree and its fruit indicate the common apple tree, Malus communis, which is beautiful, affording shade for a tent or a house (Cant., ii, 3; viii, 5), and bears a sweet fruit, the aroma (Cant., vii, 8) of which is used in the East to revive a fainting person (cf. Cant., ii, 5). Apple groves flourished at an early date (Ramses II) in Egypt (Loret, "Flore pharaonique", p. 83); place-names like Tappuah (Joshua 12:17) or Beth-tappuah (A. V., Joshua 15:53) indicate that they were a distinct feature of certain districts of Palestine.

Ash Tree.Isaiah 44:14 (A. V. for Heb., ’oren; D. V. "pine") depicts a planted tree, watered only by rain, whose wood is suitable to be carved into images and useful as fuel (Isaiah 44:15). Probably the tree intended is Pinus pinea, the maritime or stone pine, rather than the ash, as the various species of Fraxinus grow only in the mountains of Syria, outside Palestine.

Aspalathus (Ecclus., xxiv, 20; Greek, xxiv, 20; D. V. "aromatical balm") is quite frequently alluded to by ancient writers (Theognis Hippocrates, Theophrastes, Plutarch, Pliny etc.) as a thorny plant yielding a costly perfume. It is impossible to identify it with certainty, but most scholars believe it to be Convolvulus scoparius, also called Lignum rhodium (rose-scented wood).

Astragalus a genus of Papilionaceous plants of the tribe Lotea, several species of which yield the gum tragacanth (Hebrewnek’oth, Arab. neka’at) probably meant in Genesis 37:25; 43:11 (D.V. "spices"; "storax"). In 2 Kings 20:13, and Isaiah 39:2, Hebrewnekothoth has been mistaken for the plural of nek’oth and mistranslated accordingly "aromatical spices"; A.V. and R.V. give, in margin, "spicery"; A. V. "precious things" is correct. The gum spoken of in Gen. was probably gathered from the species found in Palestine, A. gummifer, A. rousseaunus, A. kurdicus, A. stromatodes.

Balm, Balsam, the regular translation of Hebrewçori (Genesis 37:25; 43:11; Jeremiah 8:22; 46:11; 51:8), except in Ezekiel 27:17 (Hebrewpannag) and Sirach 24:20a (Greek ’aspalathos, see Aspalathus); xxiv, 20b (Greek smúrna). The çori is described as coming from Galaad (Jeremiah 8:22; 46:11) and having medicinal properties (Jeremiah 51:8). It is obtained from Balsamodendron opobalsamum, Kunth., which is extant in tropical regions of east Africa and Arabia and yields the "balm of Mecca"; and Amyris gileadensis, a variety of the former, which gave the more extravagantly prized "balm of Judea", and is now extinct; it was extensively cultivated around the Lake of Tiberias, in the Jordan Valley, and on the shores of the Dead Sea (Talm. Babyl. Shabbath, 26a; Josephus, "Ant.", IX, i, 2; Jerome, "Quæst in Gen.", xiv, 7; Pliny, "Nat. hist.", xii, 25, etc.). The word çori is also applied to the gum from the mastic tree, or lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus, cf. Arab. daru), and that from Balanites ægyptica, Del., falsely styled "balm of Galaad". The meaning of pannag, mentioned in Ezekiel 27:17, is not known with certainty; modern commentators agree with R. V. (marginal gloss) that it is "a kind of confection".

Barley (Hebrewse’orah, "hairy", an allusion to the length of the awns) was cultivated through the East as provender for horses and asses (1 Kings 4:28), also as a staple food among the poor, working men, and the people at large in times of distress. The grain was either roasted (Leviticus 2:14; 2 Kings 4:43) or milled, kneaded and cooked in ovens as bread or cake. Barley, being the commonest grain, was considered a type of worthless things, hence the contemptuous force of Ezekiel 13:19; Judges, vii, 13; and Osee, iii, 2. Hordeum ithaburense, Boiss., grows wild in many districts of Palestine; cultivation has developed the two (H. distichum), four (H. tetrastichum), and six-rowed (H. hexastichum) barley. The harvest begins in April in the Ghôr, and continues later in higher altitudes; a sheaf of the new crop was offered in oblation on the "sabbath of the Passover".

Bay tree, so A.V. in Psalm 36:35; D.V. "Cedar of Libanus", which renderings are erroneous. The correct meaning of the Heb. text is: "as a green tree", any kind of evergreen tree, "in its native soil".

Borith, a Heb. word transliterated in Jeremiah 2:22, and translated in Mal., iii, 2 by "fuller's herb" (A. V. "scap"). St. Jerome in his Commentary on Jeremiah 2:22, identifies borith with the "fuller's weed", which was not used, like the Dipsacus fullonum, Mill., to dress cloth, but to wash it; St. Jerome adds that the plant grew on rich, damp soil, which description applies to a species of Saponaria; yet many modern scholars think he refers to some vegetable alkali procured by burning plants like Salsola kali and the Salicornias (S. fructicosa; S. herbacea) abundant on the coast.

Box tree (Isaiah 41:19; 60:13; in D. V., Ezekiel 27:6, instead of "ivory and cabins", we should read: "ivory inlain in boxwood"), probably the Hebrewthe’ashshur. The box tree does not grow in Palestine, and indeed the Bible nowhere intimates this, but it mentions the box tree of Lebanon, Buxus longifolia, Boiss., and that imported from the islands of the Mediterranean.

Bramble, translated from Hebrew’atad in Judges, ix, 14-15, also rendered "thorn", in Psalm 57:10. The Latin version has in both places rhamnus, "buckthorn"; of which several species grow in Palestine and Syria, but Arabic writers hold that the various kinds of Lycium or boxthorn are meant.

Briers. (1) Hebrewkharul rendered "burning" in D.V., Job 30:7, "thorns" in Proverbs 24:31 and Sophon., ii, 9, according to which texts it must be large enough for people to sit under, and must develop rapidly in uncultivated lands. Its translation as "thistles" or "nettles" is unsuitable, for these plants do not reach the proportions required by Job 30:7, hence it is generally believed to be either the acanth, Acanthus spinosus, or rest-harrow, two species of which, Onamis antiquarum, and particularly O. leiosperma, Boiss., are very common in the Holy Land. (2) Hebrewbarquanim (Judges 8:7, 16) probably corresponds to the numerous species of Rubus which abound in Palestine; according to Moore (Judges, ad loc.), Phaceopappus scoparius, Boiss., is intended. (3) Hebrewkhedeq (Micah 7:4). See Mad-apple. (4) Hebrewshamir (Isaiah 5:6; 9:18; 10:17; 32:13), the flexible Paliurus aculeatus, Lam., Arab. samur, the supposed material of Christ's crown of thorns. (5) Hebrewshqyth (Isaiah 7:23-5), a word not found outside of Isaias, and possibly designating prickly bushes in general.

Camphire (A. V., Song of Songs 1:14; D.V.4:13; "cypress"). From Hebrewkopher. The modern "camphor" was unknown to the ancients. Pliny identifies cyprus with the ligustrum of Italy, but the plant is no other than the henna tree (Lawsonia alba) the Orientals are so fond of. Its red sweet-scented spikes (Douay Version, Cant., i, 13; "clusters") yield the henna oil; from its powdered leaves is obtained the reddish-orange paste with which Eastern women stain their finger and toe nails and dye their hair. Ascalon and Engaddi were particularly renowned for their henna.

Caper, Hebrew abiyyonah (Douay Version, Ecclesiastes 12:5), the fruit of the caper tree, probably Capparis spinosa; C. herbacea, and C. ægyptiaca are also found in Palestine.

Cassia,Hebrewqiddah (Exodus 30:24; Ezekiel 27:19; D. V. "stacte"). Egypt. qad, the aromatic bark of Cinnamomum cassia, Bl., of India, an ingredient of the oil of unction (Exodus 30:24), and the EgyptianKyphi. In Psalm 44:9, qeçi’ah, the Aramaic equivalent of qiddah,is possibly an explanation of ’ahaloth. There is no Biblical reference to the cassia, from which the senna of medicine is obtained.

Cedar, indiscriminately applied to Cedrus libani, C. bermudensis, Juniperus virginiana, and Cupressus thymoides, as Heb., ’erez was used for three different trees: (1) The cedar wood employed in certain ceremonies of purification (Leviticus 14:4, 6; 49052; Numbers 19:6) was either Juniperus phænicea, or J. oxycedrus, which pagans burned during sacrifices and at funeral piles (Hom., "Odyss.", v, 60; Ovid, "Fast.", ii, 538), and Pliny calls "little cedar" (Nat. Hist., XIII, i, 30). (2) The tree growing "by the waterside" (Numbers 24:6) appears from Ez., xxxi, 7, to be the Cedrus libani, which usually thrives on dry mountain slopes. (3) In most of the other passages of Holy Writ, Cedrus libani, Barr, is intended, which "prince of trees", by its height (Isaiah 2:13; Ezekiel 31:3, 8; Amos 2:9), appropriately figured the mighty Eastern empires (Ezekiel 31:3-18, etc.). From its trunk ship-masts (Ezekiel 27:5), pillars, beams, and boards for temples and palaces (1 Kings 6:9; 7:2) were made; its hard, close-grained wood, capable of receiving a high polish, was a suitable material for carved ornamentations (1 Kings 6:18) and images (Isaiah 44:14-5). Cedar forests were a paradise of aromatic scent, owing to the fragrant resin exuding from every pore of the bark (Song of Songs 4:11; Hosea 14:7); they were "the glory of Libanus" (Isaiah 35:2; 60:13), as well as a source of riches for their possessors (1 Kings 5:6 sqq.; 1 Chronicles 22:4) and an object of envy to the powerful monarchs of Nineveh (Isaiah 37:24; inscr. of several Assyrian kings).

Cedrat, Citrus medica, or C. cedra is, according to the Syriac and Arabic Bibles, the "Targum" of Onkelos, Josephus (Ant. III, x, 4) and the Talmud (Sukka, iii, 5), the hadar (D. V. "the fairest tree") spoken of in Lev., xxiii, 40, in reference to the feast of Tabernacles.

Citron, Citrus limonum, supposed by some Rabbis to be intended in the text of Lev., xxiii, 40; "boughs of hadar", used regularly in the service of the synagogue and hardly distinguishable from cedrat.

Cockle, A. V., Job 31:40, for Hebrewbe’osha: D. V. "thorns". The marginal renderings of A. V. and R. V. "stinking weeds", "noisome weeds", are much more correct. D. V., Matthew 13:24-30, translates the Greek zizánia by cockle. The two names used in the original text point to plants of quite different characters: (1) According to etymology, be’osha must refer to some plant of offensive smell; besides the stink-weed (Datura stramonium) and the ill-smelling goose-weeds (Solanum nigrum) there are several fetid arums, henbanes, and mandrakes in Palestine, hence be’osha appears to be a general term applicable to all noisome and harmful plants. In the English Bibles, Isaiah 5:2-4, the plural form is translated by "wild grapes", a weak rendering in view of the terrible judgment pronounced against the vineyard in the context; be’ushim may mean stinking fruits, as be’osha means stinking weeds. (2) zizánia, from Aram. zonin, stands for Lolium temulentum, or bearded darnel, the only grass with a poisonous seed, "entirely like wheat till the ear appears". The rendering of both versions is therefore inaccurate.

Colocynth, Citrullus colocynthis, Schr., Cucumis c., probably the "wild gourd" of 2 Kings 4:38-40, common throughout the Holy Land. In 1 Kings 6:18; 7:24, we read about carvings around the inside of the Temple and the brazen sea, probably representing the ornamental leaves, stems, tendrils, and fruits of the colocynth.

Corn, a general word for cereals in English Bibles, like dagan in Heb. Wheat, barley, spelt (fitches), vetch, millet, pulse; rye and oats are neither mentioned in Scripture nor cultivated in the Holy Land.

Ear of corn translates three Heb. words: (1) shibboleth, the ripe ear ready for harvest; (2) melilah, the ears that one may pluck to rub in the hands, and eat the grains (Deuteronomy 23:25; Matthew 12:1; Mark 2:23; Luke 6:1); (3) abib, the green and tender ear of corn.

Ebony.Hebrewhobnim,Arab. ebmus (Ezekiel 27:15), the black heart wood of Diospyros ebenum, and allied species of the same genus, imported from coasts of Indian Ocean by merchantmen of Tyre.

Fir, applied to all coniferous trees except the cedar, but should be restricted to the genera Abies and Picea, meant by Hebrewsiakh (Genesis 21:15; D. V. "trees"; cf. Arab., shukh). Among these, Abies cilicia, Kotsch, and Picea orientalis are found in the Lebanon, Amanus and northward.

Flower of the field,Hebrewkhabbaççeth (Isaiah 25:1), kh. sharon (Cant., ii, 1), like Arab. bûseil, by which Narcissus tazetta is designated by the Palestinians. Possibly N. serotinus, or fall Narcissus, was also meant by Heb., which some suppose to mean the meadow-saffron (Colchicum variegatum, C. steveni), abundant in the Holy Land.

Forest translates five Heb. words: (1) Ya’ar, forest proper; (2) horesh, "wooded height"; (3) çebak, a clump of trees; (4) ‘abhim, thicket; (5) pardeç, orchard. Among the numerous forests mentioned in the Bible are: Forest of Ephraim, which, in the Canaanite period, extended from Bethel to Bethsan; that between Bethel and the Jordan (2 Kings 2:24); Forest of Hareth, on the western slopes of the Judean hills; Forest of Aialon, west of Bethoron; Forests of Kiriath Yearim; the forest where Joatham built castles and towers (2 Chronicles 27:4) in the mountains of Juda; that at the edge of the Judean desert near Ziph (1 Samuel 23:15); Forest of the South (Ezekiel 20:46, 47); and those of Basan (Isaiah 2:13) and Ephraim (2 Samuel 18:6). Lebanon, Carmel, Hermon were also covered with luxuriant forests.

Frankincense (Hebrewlebonah) should not be confounded with incense (Hebrewqetorah), which confusion has been made in several passages of the English Bibles, e.g., Isaiah 43:23; 60:6 (A.V.); Jeremiah 6:20. Incense was a mixture of frankincense and other spices (Exodus 30:34-5). Arabian frankincense, the frankincense par excellence, is the aromatical resin of Boswellia sacra, a tree which grows in southern Arabia (Arab. luban); B. papyrifera of Abyssinia yields African frankincense, which is also good.

Galbanum,Hebrewkhelbenah (Exodus 30:34; Sirach 24:21), a gum produced by Ferula galbaniflua, Boiss. and other umbelliferous plants of the same genus. Its odour is pungent, and it was probably used in the composition of incense to drive away insects from the sanctuary.

Grove, English rendering of two Hebrew words: (1) asherah, a sacred pole or raised stone in a temple enclosure, which "groves" do not concern us here; (2) ’eshel, probably the tamarisk tree (q.v.; cf. Arab. ’athl), but translated "groves" in Genesis 21:33, and rendered elsewhere by "wood", as in 1 Samuel 31:6 and 31:13.

Heath, Heb. ’ar’ ar’ aro’er (A.V., Jeremiah 17:6; 48:6; D. V. "tamaric", "heath"), a green bush bearing red or pink blossoms, and native of the Cape of Good Hope. The only species in Palestine is the Erica verticillata, Forskal. The E. multiflora is abundant in the Mediterranean region.

Hemlock,Hebrewrosh (A. V., Hosea 10:4; Amos 6:12; D. V. "bitterness"; 13, "wormwood"), an umbelliferous plant from which the poisonous alkaloid, conia, is derived. Conium maculatum and Æthusa cynapium are found in Syria. The water- hemlock is found only in colder zones. See Gall.

Herbs, Bitter,Hebrewmeorim (Exodus 12:8; Numbers 9:11; D. V. "wild lettuce"), comprise diverse plants of the family of Compositæ, which were eaten with the paschal lamb. Five species are known: wild lettuce, Hebrewhazeret; endive, ulsin; chicory, tamka; harhabina and maror, whose translation is variously rendered a kind of millet or beet, and the bitter coriander or horehound.

Ladanum,Hebrewlot (D. V. "stacte", A. V. "myrrh," in Genesis 37:25; 43:11), a gum from several plants of the genus Cistus (rock-rose); C. villosus and C. salvifolius are very abundant. In Sirach 24:21, "storax". Hebrewlibneh, is the equivalent of Greek stachté, used by Septuagint in the above passages of Gen.; whether ladanum was meant is not clear, as it is frequently the Greek rendering of Hebrewnataf.

Lily. (1) Hebrewshushan,Arab. susan, a generical term applicable to many widely different flowers, not only of the order Liliaceæ, but of Iridaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ, and others. Lilium candidum is cultivated everywhere; Gladiolus illyricus, Koch, G. septum, Gawl, G. atroviolaceus, Boiss., are indigenous in the Holy Land; Iris sari, Schott, I. palestina, Baker, I. lorteti, Barb., I. helenæ, are likewise abundant in pastures and swampy places. (2) The "lilies of the field" surpassing Solomon in glory were lilylike plants; needless to suppose that any others, e.g. the windflower of Palestine, were intended.

Lotus. (1) A water plant of the order Nymphæaceæ, the white species of which, Nymphæa lotus, was called in Egyptianseshni, sushin, like the Hebrewshushan, which may have been applied to water-lilies, but the lotus was probably intended in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26, 49. (2) A tree, Hebrewçe ’elim (A.V. Job 40:16-17: "shadow", "shades"), Zizyphus lotus, very common in Africa on the river banks.

Mallows, a mistranslation in A.V., Job 30:4, for the orache or sea-purslain, Atriplex halimus, from Hebrewmalluakh, derived from melakh, "salt", as halimus from ’áls. According to Galen, the extremities are edible; the Talmud tells us that the Jews working in the re-construction of the Temple (520-15 B.C.) ate it (Kiddushim, iii, fol. 66a).

Manna of commerce is a sugary secretion of various Oriental plants, Tamarix mannifera, Ehr., Alhaqi camelorum, Fish., Cotoneaster nummularia, Fraxinus ornus, and F. rotundifolia; it has none of the qualifications attributed to the manna of Exodus 16.

Mastic tree, an alliteration of the Greek schînos, schísei, Aram. pistheqa-pesag (Daniel 13:54), the lentisk, Pistacia lentiscus, common in the East, which exudes a fragrant resin extensively used to flavour sweetmeats, wine, etc. See Balm.

Melon,Hebrew’abhattikhim (Numbers 11:5), like Arab. bottikh, old Egypt. buttuga, seems to have a generic connotation, yet it designated primarily the watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris, Shrad.), and secondarily other melons. The passage of Numbers refers only to the melons of Egypt, and there is no mention in the Bible of melons of Palestine, yet they were in old times cultivated as extensively as now.

Mildew,Hebrewyeraqon, occurs three times in D. V. and with it is mentioned shiddaphon, variously rendered (2 Chronicles 6:28: "blasting"; Amos 4:9: "burning wind"; Haggai 2:18: "blasting wind"). In Deuteronomy 28:22, and 1 Kings 8:37, yeraqon is translated "blasting" (A. V. "mildew"), and shiddaphon, "corrupted air". Translators evidently had no definite idea of the nature and difference of these two plagues. Yeraqon, or mildew, is caused by parasitic fungi like Puccinia graminis and P. straminis which suck out of the grain, on which they develop on account of excessive moisture. Shiddaphon, or smut, manifests itself, in periods of excessive drought, and is caused by fungi of the genus Ustilago, which, when fully developed, with the aid of the khamsin wind, "blast" the grain.

Millet,Hebrewdokhan (Ezekiel 4:9), Arab. dokhn, is applied to Panicum miliaceum, and Setaria italica, Kth. The rendering "millet", in D. V., Isaiah 28:25, is not justified, as Hebrewnisman, found here, means "put in its place".

Mint (Matthew 23:23; Luke 11:42). Various species are found in Palestine: Mentha sylvestris, the horse-mint, with its variety M. viridis, the spear-mint, grow everywhere; M. sativa, the garden-mint, is cultivated in all gardens; M. piperita, the peppermint, M. aquatica, the water-mint, M. pulegium, the pennyroyal, are also found in abundance. Mint is not mentioned in the Law among tithable things, but the Pharisaic opinion subjecting to tithe all edibles acquired force of law.

Mulberry,Hebrewbeka’ im (A. V., 2 Samuel 5:23-4; 1 Chronicles 14:14-5; D. V. "pear tree"), a tree, two species of which are cultivated in Palestine: Morus alba, M. nigra. Neither this nor pear-tree is a likely translation; the context rather suggests a tree the leaves of which rustle like the aspen, Populus tremula. In D.V. Luke 17:6, "mulberry tree" is probably a good translation.

Mustard. Several kinds of mustard-plant grow in the Holy Land, either wild, as the charlock, Sinapis arvensis, and the white mustard, S. Alba, or cultivated, as S. nigra, which last seems the one intended in the Gospel. Our Lord compares the kingdom of God to a mustard seed (Matthew 13:31-2), a familiar term to mean the tiniest thing possible (cf. Talmud Jerus. Peah, 7; T. Babyl. Kethub., iiib), "which a man … sowed in his field" and which "when it is grown up, it is greater than all herbs"; the mustard tree attains in Palestine a height of ten feet and is a favourite resort of linnets and finches.

Myrtle, Hebrewhadas (Isaiah 41:19; 55:13; Zechariah 1:8, 10, 11), Myrtus communis,Arab. hadas, an evergreen shrub especially prized for its fragrant leaves, and found in great abundance in certain districts of Palestine. Its height is usually three to four feet, attaining to eight feet in moist soil, and a variety cultivated in Damascus reaches up ten to twelve feet; hence an erroneous translation in almost all the above Scriptural passages.

Oak,Hebrew’ayl, ’elah, ’elon, ’allah, ’alon are thus indiscriminately translated. From Osee iv, 13, and Isaiah 6:13, it appears that the ’elah is different from the ’allon; in fact, ’ayl, ’elah, ’elon, are understood by some to be the terebinth ’allah and ’allon representing the oak. The genus Quercus is largely represented in Palestine and Syria, as to the number of individuals and species, seven of which have been found: (1) Quercus robur is represented by two varieties: Q. cedrorum and Q. pinnatifida; (2) Q. infectoria; (3) Q. ilex; (4) Q. coccifera, or holm oak, of which there are three varieties: Q. calliprinos, Q. palestina, and Q. pseudo- coccifera, this latter, a prickly evergreen oak with leaves like very small holly, most common in the land, especially as brushwood; (5) Q. cerris; (6) Q. ægylops, the Valonia oak, also very common and of which two varieties are known: Q. ithaburensis and Q . look, Ky.; (7) Q. libani, Oliv.

Oil tree,Hebrew’es shemen (Isaiah 41:19; 1 Kings 6:23, 31-3; III Esdras 8:15), the olive-tree in D. V., the oleaster in R. V., and variously rendered in A. V.: "oil tree", "olive tree" and "pine". To meet the requirements of the different passages where the ’es shemen is mentioned, it must be a fat tree, producing oil or resin, an emblem of fertility, capable of furnishing a block of wood out of which an image ten feet high may be carved, it must grow in mountains near Jerusalem, and have a dense foliage. Wild olive, oleaster, Elæagnus angustifolius (Arab., haleph), Balanites ægyptiaca, Del. (Arab. zaqqum), are therefore excluded; some kind of pine is probably meant.

Olive tree, Olea europæa, one of the most characteristic trees of the Mediterranean region, and universally cultivated in the Holy Land. Scriptural allusions to it are very numerous, and the ruins of oil-presses manifest the extensive use of its enormous produce: olives, the husbandman's only relish; oil which serves as food, medicine, unguent, and fuel for lamps; finally candles and soap. The olive tree was considered the symbol of fruitfulness, blessing, and happiness, the emblem of peace and prosperity.

Olive, Wild (Romans 11:17, 24), not the oleaster, Elæagnus angustifolia, common throughout Palestine, but the seedling of the olive, on which the Olea europæa is grafted.

Onion,Hebrewbeçalim (Numbers 11:5), Allium cepa, universally cultivated and forming an important and favourite article of diet in the East. Successes in America were immediately owing to the vigorous exertions and prowess of the Irish immigrants who bore arms in that cause" (Historical Review of the State of Ireland, II, 178). The historians Marmion and Gordon write to the same effect.

Palm tree,Hebrewthamar (Exodus 15:27), tomer (Judges 4:5), Phænix dactylifera, the date palm. The palm tree flourishes now only in the maritime plain, but the Jordan Valley, Engaddi, Mount Olivet, and many other localities were renowned in antiquity for their palm groves. In fact, the abundance of palm trees in certain places suggested their names: Phœnicia (from Greek phoîniks), Engaddi, formerly named Hazazon Thamar, i.e. "Palm grove", Jericho, surnamed "the City of Palm trees", Bethany, "the house of dates", are among the best known. Dates are a staple article of food among the Bedouins; unlike figs, they are not dried into compressed cakes, but separately; date wine was known throughout the East and is still made in a few places; date honey (Hebrewdebash; cf. Arab. dibs) has always been one of the favourite sweetmeats of the Orientals. There are many allusions in Scripture to palm trees, which are also prominent in architectural ornamentation (Hebrew timmorah,1 Kings 6:29).

Paper reed,Hebrewaroth (A. V., Isaiah 19:7) preferably rendered "the channel of the river" (D. V.), as the allusion seems to be to the meadows on the banks of the Nile.

Pistachio,Hebrewbotnim (Genesis 43:11), probably refers to the nut-fruits of Pistacia vera, very common in Palestine; yet Arab. butm is applied to Pistacia terebinthus.

Plane tree,Hebrewarmon (Genesis 30:37; Ezekiel 31:8; A. V. "chestnut tree"; Sirach 24:19). Platanus orientalis, found throughout the East, fulfills well the condition implied in the Heb. name ("peeled"), as the outer layers of its bark peel off. A. V. translation is erroneous, for the chestnut tree does not flourish either in Mesopotamia or Palestine.

Pomegranate, the fruit of Punica granatum, a great favourite in the Orient, and very plentiful in Palestine, hence the many allusions to it in the Bible. Pomegranates were frequently taken as a model of ornamentation; several places of the Holy Land were named after the tree (Heb., rimmon): Rimmon, Geth-Remmon, En-Rimmon, etc.

Pulse renders two Heb. words: (1) qali occurs twice in 2 Samuel 17:28, and is translated by "parched corn" and "pulse"; the allusion is to cereals, the seeds of peas, beans, lentils, and the like, which, in the East, are roasted in the oven or toasted over the fire; (2) zero‘im, zero‘nim (Daniel 1:12-16) refer to no special plants, but possibly to all edible summer vegetables.

Rose. (1) Hebrewkhabbaççeleth (A. V., Song of Songs 2:1; Isaiah 35:1) is probably the narcissus (see Flower of the Field). (2) Wis., ii, 8, seems to indicate the ordinary rose, though roses were known in Egypt only at the epoch of the Ptolemies. (3) The rose plant mentioned in Sirach 24:18; 39:17, is rather the oleander, Nerium oleander, very abundant around Jericho, where it is doubtful whether roses ever flourished except in gardens, although seven different species of the genus Rosa grow in Palestine.

Rue (Luke 11:42), probably Ruta chalepensis, slightly different from R. graveolens, the officinal one. St. Luke implies that Pharisees regarded the rue as subject to tithe, although it was not mentioned in the Law among tithable things (Leviticus 27:30; Numbers 18:21; Deuteronomy 14:22). This opinion of some overstrict Rabbis did not prevail in the course of time, and the Talmud (Shebiith, ix, 1) distinctly excepts the rue from tithe.

Setim wood, the gum arabic tree, Acacia Seyal, Del., which abounds in the oasis of the Sinaitic Peninsula and in the sultry Wadys about the Dead Sea. The wood is light, though hard and close-grained, of a fine orange-brown hue darkening with age, and was reputed incorruptible.

Spices translates three Heb. words: (1) sammum, a generic word including galbanum onycha, the operculum of a strombus, and stacte; (2) basam, another generic term under which come myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cane, and cassia; (3) noko ’oth, possibly the same substance as Arab. noka’ath. See Astragalus.

Spikenard (A. V. Song of Songs 1:11-12; 4:14; Mark 14:3; John 12:3), a fragrant essential oil obtained from the root of Nardostachys jatamansi, D. C., a small herbaceous plant of the Himalayas, which is exported all over the East, and was known even to the Romans; the perfume obtained from it was very expensive.

Teil tree (A.V., Isaiah 6:13), a mistranslation of Hebrew ’elah, which is probably the terebinth.

Terebinth (Douay Version, Isaiah 6:13), Pistacia terebinthus, the turpentine tree, for Hebrew ’ayl, ’elah, ’elon (see Oak); it grows in dry localities of south and eastern Palestine where the oak cannot thrive. The turpentine, different from that of the pine trees, is a kind of pleasant-smelling oil, obtained by making incisions in the bark, and is widely used in the East to flavour wine, sweet-meats, etc.

Thistles, or numerous prickly plants, are one of the special features of the flora of the Holy Land; hence they are designated by various Hebrew words, inconsistently translated by the versions, where guess-work seems occasionally to have been employed although the general meaning is certain: (1) barqanim, see Briers; (2) dardar,Arab. shaukat ed-dardar, possibly Centaureas, star-thistles and knapweeds; (3) khedeq, see Mad-apple; (4) khoakh (see Bur), a plant, which grows amidst ruins (Isaiah 24:13), in fallow-lands (Hosea 9:6), with lilies (Cant., ii, 2), and in fallow fields where it is harmful to corn (Job 31:40), all which features suit well the various kinds of thistles (Carduus pycnocephalus, C. argentatus, Circium lanceolatum, C. arvense, Attractilis comosa, Carthamus oxyacantha, Scolymus maculatus), most abundant in Palestine; (5) sirim, the various star-thistles, or perhaps the thorny burnet, plentiful in ruins; (6) sirpal, from the Greek rendering, probably the elecampane, Inula viscosa, common on the hills of the Holy Land; (7) qimmeshonim, see Nettles; (8) shayith and (9) shamir, see Briers.

Thorns, used in the English Bibles to designate plants like thistles, also includes thorny plants, such as (1) ’atal, see Bramble; (2) mesukah, the general name given to a hedge of any kind of thorny shrubs; (3) na’açuç, see Shrub; (4) sillôn (cf. Arab. sula), some kind of strong thorns; (5) sarabhim, tangled thorns forming thickets impossible to clear; (6) çinnim, an unidentified thorny plant; (7) qoç, a generic word for thorny bushes; (8) sikkim (cf. Arab. shauk), also a generic name.

Vine, the ordinary grape-vine, Vitis vinifera, of which many varieties are cultivated and thrive in the Holy Land. In Old Testament times vine and wine were so important and popular that in it they are constantly mentioned and alluded to, and a relatively large vocabulary was devoted to expressing varieties of plants and produce. In Ezekiel 15:6, Hebrewçafçafah is rendered "vine", see Willow.

Vine of Sodom (Deuteronomy 32:32), possibly the well known shrub, "Apple of Sodom", Calotropis procera, Willd., which peculiar plant grows round the Dead Sea and produces a fruit of the size of an apple, and "fair to behold", which bursts when touched and contains only white silky tufts and small seeds, "dust and ashes" (Josephus).

Wheat, from Hebrewbar and dagan, also translated "corn" and applicable to all cereals, is properly in Hebrewkhittah (cf. Arab. khintah), of which two varieties are especially cultivated in Palestine: Triticum æstivum, summer wheat, and T. hybernum, winter wheat; the harvest takes place from May (Ghôr) to June (highlands). Corn is threshed by cattle or pressed out with a sledge, and winnowed with a shovel, by throwing the grain against the wind on threshing floors upon breezy hills.

Wormwood,Hebrewla’anah (Revelation 8:11), plants of the genus Artemisia, several species of which (A. monosperma, Del., A. herba-alba, Asso., A. judaica, A. annua, A. arborescens) are common in Palestine, notably on tablelands and in deserts. The characteristic bitterness of the Artemisias, coupled with their usual dreariness of habitat, aptly typified for Eastern minds calamity, injustice, and the evil results of sin.

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