M.N. Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism (1938)

Dastur Dhalla
was high priest of the Parsis as well as a trained scholar. In this popular book
he assembles quotations found throughout Zoroastrian literature.
Presented chronologically according to the source literature,
they present the story of a religion in evolution.
This approach has its disadvantages and its critics.
One disadvantage in my opinion is that it tends to present an exaggerated
view of the differences which appear in the literature. It is quite possible to
provide a much more homogeneous view of these elements. Another disadvantage of
Dhalla's approach is that it necessitates a fair amount of interpolation to
present a continuous view, which is subject to more speculation.
Even so, Dastur Dhalla was uniquely qualified for the task,
and I am pleased to make this valuable book available in this
electronic edition.

Note: I have added terms in square brackets [] to facilitate searches
consistent with other texts on this web site. I have also expanded some of the
citations, again in square brackets [].
Page numbers are also in square brackets, and appear in this font.
All of the page numbers have anchor tags, so can be referenced individually,
for example, http://www.avesta.org/dhalla/dhalla1.htm#p30.
Likewise, the chapters can be referenced, for example,
http://www.avesta.org/dhalla/dhalla1.htm#chap3.
Obvious typos have been silently corrected.

Please let me know if you find any
typos, or have suggestions for improving this e-text or web site.
Thanks.
-JHP, May 2003.

History of Zoroastrianism

BY

MANECKJI NUSSERVANJI DHALLA, PH. D., LITT.D.

High Priest of the Parsis, Karachi, India
AUTHOR OF
Nyaishes or Zoroastrian Litanies, Zoroastrian Theology, Zoroastrian Civilization,
Our Perfecting World -- Zarathushtra's Way of Life

"May that man attain to better than the good
Who helps teaching us the upright paths of blessedness
Of this material world and that of the spirit
-- The veritable universe wherein pervades Ahura --
That faithful, wise, and holy man is like unto thee, O Mazda."
- Zarathushtra

Ahura Mazda is the name Zarathushtra gives to God --
Ahura Mazda is the Being par excellence -- The nature of
Ahura Mazda -- The transcendental immanence of Ahura Mazda --
Ahura Mazda is the creator -- Ahura Mazda is the
lord of wisdom -- Ahura Mazda is the law-giver and judge.

Translated into English by James Darmesteter and L. H. Mills. In Sacred Books
of the East, vols, 4, 23, 31.

Avesta.

Translated into German by Fritz Wolff. Strassburg, 1910. (For the German translation of the Gathas see Christian Bartholomae's Die Gatha's des Awesta,
Strassburg; 1905. See also the English rendering of Bartholomae's German translation
in Early Zoroastrianism by J. H. Moulton, London, 1913).

Translated from the Pahlavi text by E. W. West. In Sacred Books of the East, vol. 5.

[xxix]

ABBREVIATIONS

Aerpt.

= Aerpatastan.

AF.

= Arische Forschungen.

Air. Wb.

= Altiranisches Wörterbuch (Bartholomae)

AnAtM.

= Andarz-i Atarpat-i Maraspand.

AnKhK.

= Andarz-i Khusru-i Kavatan.

Aog.

= Aogemadaecha.

Artax. Pers.

= inscriptions of Artaxerxes at Persepolis.

AthV.

= Atharva Veda.

Av.

= Avesta.

AV.

= Arda Viraf.

AZ.

= Afrin-i Zartusht.

Bd.

= Bundahishn.

BH.

= Behistan.

bk.

= book.

BYt.

= Pahlavi Bahman Yasht.

cf.

= (confer), compare.

Dar. Alv.

= inscriptions of Darius on Mt. Alvand (Elvend), near Hamadan.

Dar. Pers.

= inscriptions of Darius at Persepolis.

Db.

= Dabistan.

Dd.

= Dadestan-i Denik.

Dk.

= Denkard.

ed.

= edition of, edited by.

Eng.

= English.

EpM.

= Epistles of Manushchihr.

ERE.

= Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Hastings).

FHG.

= Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum (Müller).

G.

= Gah.

GIrPh.

= Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie.

Gs.

= Ganj-i Shayikan.

Guj.

= Gujarati.

Hj.

= Hajiabad.

Hn.

= Hadokht Nask.

i.e.

= (id est), that is.

ibid.

= (ibidem), in the same work.

Is.

= Isaiah.

Jsp.

= Jamaspi.

JAOS.

= Journal of the American Oriental Society.

JRAS.

= Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

KZ.

= Kuhn's Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung.
[xxx]

Mkh.

= Menog-i Khrad.

NR.

= inscriptions of Darius at Naksh-i Rustam.

Nr.

= Nirangistan.

Ny.

= Niyayesh.

Pers.

= Persian.

Pt.

= Patit.

Phl.

= Pahlavi.

Rv.

= Rivayat.

RV.

= Rig Veda.

SBE.

= Sacred Books of the East.

Sd.

= Sad Dar.

SdBd.

= Sad Dar Bundahishn.

Sg.

= Shikand Gumanig Vizar.

Skt.

= Sanskrit.

Sr.

= Sirozah.

SlS.

= Shayest-la-Shayest [Shayest-ne-Shayest]

TdFr.

= Tahmuras Fragment.

tr.

= translated by, translation of.

Vd.

= Vendidad.

vers.

= version.

vol.

= volume.

Vsp.

= Visperad.

WFr.

= Westergaard Fragment.

Xerx. Pers.

= inscriptions of Xerxes at Persepolis.

Ys.

= Yasna.

Yt.

= Yasht.

ZDMG.

= Zeitschrift der Deutchen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.

Zsp.

= Zadspram.

[xxxi]

Notes:

INTRODUCTION

Scope of the Work. This book is the revised and much enlarged edition
of my Zoroastrian Theology, which has been out of print
for the past fifteen years. The publication of my Zoroastrian
Civilization, and Our Perfecting World,
Zarathushtra's Way of Life, and professional duties
have delayed the completion of the work. I have inserted new
material in several chapters and added nineteen new chapters to
the book. I have given a concise account of the religious beliefs
and practices prevalent among the Zoroastrians and their early
Iranian ancestors from the pre-Gathic times to the present day
and named the book History of Zoroastrianism.

Arrangement and method. I have divided the entire period of the history of
Zoroastrianism on the linguistic basis. The earliest Zoroastrian
documents are the Gathas, written in the Gathic dialect. They
represent the earliest phase of the religion of Zoroaster. But
ancient Iran had a religion which preceded Zoroastrianism in
point of time. I have labelled this period pre-Gathic; for its
beginning is lost in remote antiquity, and the advent of
Zoroaster brings its end.

The time when Zoroaster flourished is a moot question. The
approximate date at which he lived is 1000 B.C. Zoroaster
revolutionizes the religious life of the Iranians, which hitherto
represented the evolutionary phase of religion. It was the
movement in which we find the religious thought creeping for ages
to rise from the lower to the higher level. To put this in
another way, the pre-Gathic religion of Iran is the evolution of
the religious thought of many men and many ages; Zoroaster's
is the creation of one man and one age. The prophet of Iran
establishes a new religion. In the pre-Gathic religion the trend
of religious thought struggles from the complex to the simple,
from concrete to abstract, and is yet the farthest removed from
the ideal stage. Zoroastrianism, on the other hand, as preached in the Gathas is the very
embodiment of the simple and the abstract. It is the
realization
[xxxii]
of the ideal. It is the form to which the coming generations have to
conform. Deviation from it means a fall, a degeneration of the
religous life. This second period I have termed
Gathic.

Decay soon begins in the language in which Zoroaster composed his
immortal hymns, and his successors now write in the Avestan
dialect, which replaces the Gathic. The Avestan language remains
the written language of the Zoroastrians from now onward to
probably the last days of the Parthians, when the Pahlavi
language becomes the court language of the Sasanians and
supersedes the Avestan. The most extensive literature on
Zoroastrianism is written in Avestan. This period, which I have
called Later Avestan period, extends to the early part of the
Pahlavi era and goes even beyond it. When the two periods thus
overlap each other, it often becomes difficult to determine
whether a certain phase of religious thought is on one side or
the other of the dividing line between them. The Avestan works,
in the form in which they were written in the Avestan period, no
longer exist. They were scattered by the storm that swept over
Persia when Alexander conquered the country, and shook her
religious edifice to its base. The form in which the Avestan
texts have reached us is that which was given them during the
Pahlavi period. The artists employed to restore the broken
edifice belong to the Pahlavi period, but the materials used come
down from the Avestan sources.

The Pahlavi period ranks fourth in the arrangement of the present
work, and it covers a period of about eight centuries. Although
it is most productive under the Sasanian rule, it does not close
with the collapse of this, the last of the Zoroastrian empires,
but survives it by at least three centuries in Moslem Persia.
Though Pahlavi had replaced Avestan, the early works written in
the ancient language had not yet ceased to influence the Pahlavi
writers. In fact, some of the most important of the Pahlavi works
are either versions of some Avestan works now lost to us, or draw
their thought from the Avestan sources. Thus, the Pahlavi
Bundahishn is the epitome of the Avestan Damdat [Damdad]
Nask, which is
subsequently lost. Similarly, not a few of the Pahlavi works
written two or three centuries after the conquest of Persia by
the Arabs tenaciously preserve the tradition handed down by
Sasanian Persia. These are characterized by two layers of
thought, one traditional, and the other representing
new
[xxxiii]
thought current during the writer's times. The
Menuk-i Khrat, for
example, betrays Moslem influence when it preaches fatalism, but
is otherwise faithfully voicing the sentiments of the orthodox
Sasanian Church. This interweaving of old ideas with the new
ones, and the interpolations and additions of the later writers
in the works of earlier generations, often make it hopeless to
disentangle the complications and distinguish between the
opinions and ideas of different periods.

Thirteen hundred years have elapsed since the dissolution of the last of
the Zoroastrian empires. Henceforth we have to record the
religious history of the Zoroastrian remnants in Persia and the
Zoroastrian settlers of India. Zoroastrianism sinks with the
Zoroastrian power, and a long period of obscurity follows. I have
named it a period of decadence.

Under the aegis of the British rule in India Zoroastrianism emerges
once again with the prosperity of the Parsi community. I have
hailed this as the period of the revival of Zoroastrianism.

These various periods, which represent chronologically different stages
of the historical development of the religious thought of Iran,
from remote antiquity down to the immediate present, will, I
hope, give the reader a general and comprehensive view of the
history of Zoroastrian religion. As the subjects are treated
piece-meal in different periods according to the natural growth
of ideas from period to period, the reader will have to read
crosswise when he needs a complete account of any particular
concept. For example, if he wants to know all that the
Zoroastrian literature has to say about Ormazd [Ohrmazd],
he will get it as a whole not from any one period, but from all.
The detailed list of contents and the index will help him in his inquiry.

Transliteration of the technical terms.
I have sought to preserve the changes that these have undergone
during successive periods, and have variously transliterated them
in the treatment of the different periods, according as they
represent the Avestan, Pahlavi, or Persian pronunciations. Thus,
for example, Ahura Mazda of the Gathic and Avestan periods become
Ormazd [Ohrmazd] in the Pahlavi period. Angra Mainyu assumes the form
Ahriman in the subsequent periods. The Avestan Vohu Manah changes
into Pahlavi Vohuman and into Bahman in Persian. In the frequent
use of the name of the prophet, I have, however, not scrupulously
followed this method. I have distinguished between the
Avestan,
[xxxiv]
Pahlavi, and Persian
forms by writing Zarathushtra for the first, and Zaratusht for
Pahlavi and Zartusht [Zartosht] for Persian as they actually occur in these
languages; but I have adopted the more familiar form Zoroaster
for general use. Similarly, I have called the religion of the
prophet Zoroastrianism. With a view to simplicity for the
general reader, I have avoided, as far as it has been
practicable, the free use of diacritical marks, and have employed
simple transcriptions of the names of the heavenly beings persons,
and books when they occur in the text.

* * * * * * * * *

I am grateful to Dr. Charles J. Ogden who has carefully revised
the greater part of the proofsheets and favoured me with
his scholarly criticism.

[1]

PRE-GATHIC PERIOD

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO ABOUT 1000 B.C.

[2 is blank]

[3]

HISTORY OF ZOROASTRIANISM

Notes:

CHAPTER I

THE SOURCES

The data of information. The materials that we gather for
the preparation of the history of the religion that Zarathushtra
preached in Ancient Iran come from varied sources. The earliest
native records are embodied in the sacred texts in which the
prophet and his immediate disciples propounded the new religion.
These are furnished by the Avestan literature, which is followed
by the Pahlavi and Pazend [Pazand] works and finally by the writings in
Modern Persian down to the end of the eighteenth century.

Peoples of diverse faiths and nationalities have likewise, written
about Zoroaster and his teachings from the earliest to the modern
times. Greeks and Romans and Christians in the Occident and
Indians, Hebrews, Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, and Chinese in the
Orient have contributed to the fund of information on the
subject. Zarathushtra has founded a new religion and we shall
begin with the consideration of the materials used in the
foundation, which are to be gleaned from the Avesta, the earliest
literature produced by Iran.

The Avestan Nasks. Tradition credits Zarathushtra with having written
profusely. Pliny states that the great philosopher Hermippus, who
flourished in the early part of third century before the
Christian era, had studied some 2,000,000 verses composed by
Zoroaster.1 The Arabic historians Tabari and Masudi state that
the Zoroastrian texts were copied on 12,000 cowhides.2 Parsi
tradition speaks of twenty-one Nasks or volumes written by
Zarathushtra. These, we are informed, dealt with religion,
philosophy, ethics, medicine, and various sciences. King Vishtaspa
ordered two archetype copies of these sacred texts
and
[4]
deposited them in the libraries of Dizh-i Nipisht and
Ganj-i Shapigan.3 One of these copies perished in the flames when
Alexander burned the royal palace at Persepolis.4 The other copy,
tradition maintains, was taken by the conquering hordes to their
own country, where it was rendered into Greek.5

The collection of the scattered texts was begun under the last of the
Arsacids and completed in the early Sasanian period. The
twenty-one original Avestan Nasks were artificially made to correspond
to the twenty-one words of the
Ahuna Vairya formula. The
holy Manthra is made up of three lines and the twenty-one Nasks
were, likewise, divided into three equal parts of seven each to
correspond with them. These three divisions are classified under
the headings: Gasanik, that is, pertaining to the Gathas or
devotional hymns, the Hadha Mansarik, which as
Dinkard [Denkard]6 says, is
intermediary between the Gathik and the last division, namely
the Datik, which is that pertaining to law.7
It is estimated that the twenty-one volumes contained about
345,700 words of written text.8

This canonical compilation has suffered heavily during the last
thirteen centuries since the downfall of the last Zoroastrian empire
in the seventh century. The entire collection of the Avestan
texts that has reached us consists of about 83,000 words,9 that
is, about one-fourth of the original twenty-one Nasks. The Vendidad
is the one Nask that has survived the ravages of time in its
Complete form. Some of the lost Nasks are preserved in part in
the Yasna, Yashts, and Nirangistan. We shall draw upon this A
vestan material in our discussion of the Gathic and A vestan
periods.

9. See Geldner, ib., p. 30.

The Pahlavi, Pazend, and Persian sources. During the chaos that
prevailed in Iran after the downfall of the Achaemenian empire,
the Avestan language began to decay. When it grew unintelligible
to the people, the learned priests undertook translations and
explanations of the Avestan texts into Pahlavi,
[5]
the new language which originated during the period. These
commentaries on the original Avestan texts are called
âzainti in Avesta, and zand in Pahlavi. The
explanatory texts now came to be known as Avastak-u Zand or the
Avesta and the commentaries. Pahlavi was the court language of
the Sasanians and it survived the downfall of their empire by at
least three centuries. Extensive Pahlavi literature that came
into existence under the Sasanians has mostly perished. The works
that have reached us were written after the downfall of the
Sasanian empire, mostly during the Abbasid period. The
compilation of the most important work of the period, the
Dinkard [Denkard], for example, was commenced by the learned high-priest
Atarfarnbarg Farokhzad in the beginning of the ninth century
and completed by one of his successors, Adarbad Hemed, towards
the end of the ninth century. The
Dinkard [Denkard],
Vijirkard-i Dinik, and the
Persian Rivayets
give us summaries of the lost Nasks. We
gather from the contents of the lost Nasks given in the Dinkard [Denkard]
that, with the exception of the eleventh Nask, altogether twenty
Avestan Nasks, nineteen along with their Pahlavi commentaries and
one without it, still existed in the ninth century. The greater
part of these works has perished during the unsettled times when
Persia fell under the barbarous rule of the Tartars. Pahlavi
works on religious subjects that are extant consist of about
446,000 words.10

10. See West. GIrPh.2. 90, 91.

With the invention of
the modern Persian alphabet, Pahlavi fell into the background. An
admixture of Aryan and Semitic make-up the Pahlavi language as
written. It was later simplified by the elimination of all
Semitic words and replacing them with their Iranian equivalents.
The original Avestan texts were explained and interpreted by the
Pahlavi commentary which, as we saw, was
called Zand. A further need was felt to make explanatory
versions of the Pahlavi texts themselves. This further
explanation and added commentary is called Pazand from
the Avestan word paiti zainti. Short benedictory
prayers are composed in Pazend [Pazand] as supplementary
prayers to the original Avestan prayers, The Pazend [Pazand]
texts were written in Avestan script. With the
introduction of the Arabic script in Persia, the Pahlavi script
fell into disuse.

Zoroastrian works came to be written in the modern Persian
[6]
alphabet. A considerable literature, both in prose and poetry, has
sprung up during the last seven centuries in Persian on Zoroastrian
subjects.11 The Pahlavi and Pazend [Pazand] works originated in
Persia, whereas both Persia and India contributed in the production
of the Persian works.

11. See West. GIrPh. 2. 122-129.

Parsi-Sanskrit and Gujarati sources. An Indian school of
Parsi Sanskritists of the thirteenth century, headed by Neryosang Dhaval,
has translated some parts of the Avestan texts into
Sanskrit from their Pahlavi version. Besides these, they have
left for us the Sanskrit translation of a few Pahlavi works.

A considerable literature, in prose and verse, has appeared in
Gujarati on Zoroastrian subjeccts in India. A Gujarati version
of the Yasna and Vendidad
and two renderings of the Khordah Avesta
were published in the beginning of the nineteenth century, that is,
before the influence of Western scholarship penetrated into India.
Works written in Gujarati continue to be published to the present day.

Oriental sources. The Indo-Iranians shared a common religious
heritage, and the Rig Veda furnishes us with the earliest
sacred texts that are helpful in the better understanding of the
religious beliefs of the pre-Gathic, Gathic, and the Younger Avestan
periods of the history of Zoroastrianism. There are, likewise,
scattered passages in the Vedas, Brahmanas, Smriti, and Puranas
that refer to the Iranians and their religion. Judaism under the
Exile was influenced by Zoroastrian teachings and furnishes us
with points of resemblance between the angelology, demonology,
and eschatology of the Iranians and the Hebrews. The Armenian
historians Moses of Khoren and Elisaeus, the theologians Eznik
and the Syrian Theodore bar Khoni, the Acts and Passions of
Persian Saints and Martyrs, works written by Zoroastrian
converts to Christianity, the Syriac, Armenian, Judaic, and
Christian polemic literature against Zoroastrianism, and the
writings of the Mandaeans are full of views held by those who
opposed the state religion of Persia during the Sasanian period.
A host of Arabic and Mohammedan Persian writers from the days of
Ibn Khurdadhbah (A.D 816) and al-Baladhuri (A.D. 851), al-Biruni
(A.D. 973-1048), al-Shahrastani (A.D. 1086-1153), to Yakut
(A.D. 1250), Kazwini (A.D. 1263), Mirkhond (A.D. 1432-1498)
and Mohsan Fani (A.D. 1600-1670) give valuable
[7]
information on our subject. There are stray passages
in Chinese literature with reference to the religious beliefs and
practices of the Zoroastrians.

Occidental sources. The contact of Persia with Greece began
in the fifth century B.C. under the Achaemenians. It continued
with Rome up to the middle of the seventh century A.D., to the
last days of the Sasanians. Ktesias was the court physician of
king Artaxerxes II. Xanthus and Herodotus began to acquaint
their readers with ihe manners and customs and religious beliefs
of the Persians. Hermippus (B.C. 250) is said to have studied
the writings of Zarathushtra. Theopompus and Hermippus are
the two writers upon whose writings on Persian religion the
later writers have drawn considerably. Plutarch was familiar
with the lost work of Theopompus and gives useful information
on his authority, Diogenes Laertius says that Aristotle was
familiar with the theory of Persian dualism. Plutarch, Strabo,
and a few others write from their personal observation. Cicero,
Pliny, Ammianus Marcellinus, and other Roman writers continued
to write about Persia up to the Middle Ages. The writings
of the earlier classical authors throw special light upon the
religious beliefs and practices of the Achaemenians.

Inscriptions, coins, and tablets as the last source of
information. The Old Persian Inscriptions
with their Babylonian
and New Elamitic renderings found at Behistan, Persepolis,
Naqsh-i Rustam, Elvand, Susa, Kerman, and Suez; the Babylonian,
Egyptian, and Greek inscriptions, together with the works
of the ancient classical writers, furnish us with information about
the religious beliefs and practices of the Achaemenians. The
Pahlavi inscriptions, likewise, add to our knowledge of the religious
life of the Sasanian period. The names of about ten
Zoroastrian Amesha Spentas and Yazatas that appear on the
coins of Indo-Scythic rulers of Northwestern India in Greek
characters and the epigraphic texts in Babylonian, Egyptian, and
Greek contribute to the information that we get about Zoroastrianism
from varied sources.

[8]

CHAPTER II

AIRYANA-VAEJAH

The Stem-land of the Aryans. The problem of the cradle
of the Aryan race will probably never be solved with certainty.
Airyana-vaejah, 'the stem-land of the Aryans,' is spoken of as
the first of the good lands created by Ahura Mazda.1 It had a
mild and genial climate, with long, pleasant summers and short
winters. Unlike Indian Yama, who chose the realm of the dead
and established his suzerainty in the heavenly world, Yima was
the illustrious king who ruled over men and beasts and converted
his kingdom into a veritable paradise upon earth. Animals and
mankind prospered and grew in such large numbers in his memorable
reign, which tradition has subsequently regarded as the
Golden Age of Iran, that the country could no longer hold them.
Ahura Mazda, thereupon, bade him to lead his overflowing population
to migrate southwards, on the way of the sun. Yima carried
out the divine behest and yet the difficulty was not solved,
for the numbers kept on increasing steadily. The king organized
a second migration again towards the south and still a third in
the same direction.2 Moreover, the happy home of the Aryans
was destined to be further disturbed, Ahura Mazda knew this through his
omniscience and he called a conference of the angels
and summoned Yima to attend it with the best of his men.3
He then warned the king that Angra Mainyu, the enemy of God
and men, contemplated invasion of Airyana-vaejah. He would
cause evil winter to fall that would bring fierce, deadly frost.
Such dense desolation would follow the icy deluge that every
vestige of human habitation would disappear and it would be
a wonder if even a footprint of a sheep could be seen.4
Angra Mainyu did invade the happy home of the Aryans and plagued
it with a deluge of snow and ice. Forewarned by Ahura Mazda,
the mighty king took timely measures, and before Angra Mainyu
[9]
cause destruction and death, through deadly deluge, or, in
the language of geology, before the glacial cataclysm rendered
the primeval Aryan home unfit for habitation, he led a further
successful migration towards the hospitable south.

The Indo-Europeans. This virile race, white in colour and
fair of complexion, called itself Aryan or noble. It was the
parent of the Indo-European peoples of history, These members
of the Aryan family lived long as a homogeneous people speaking
the same language with dialectic differences and shared many
beliefs and practices in common.

Pressure of growing population, thirst for adventure, sharp
divisions caused by the fermentation going on in the minds of
thinking persons over religious beliefs and practices continued to
disintegrate them. During the early part of the second millennium
B.C., nomad tribes left their home and turned westwards
and reached the Aegean lands or turned southwards in successive
waves from the steppes of the Caspian Sea. Scattered tribes
passed by the chain of Caucasus, entered Armenia and spread
southwards. Some of the more virile tribes succeeded in founding
small Aryan kingdoms. They have left traces of their Aryan
beliefs and practices. The Kassites, who rose to power in the
Zagros in 1700 B.C., designated godhead by the Indo-European
term bugash, Av. baga, Skt. bhaga, Slav. bogu, Phrygian,
bagaios, and worshipped Suryash, Skt. surya, the sun, as their
chief god. The Mitannis, who founded an Aryan empire between
the Euphrates and the Tigris, have left behind them the
record of their own names, such as Dushratta, Artatama, and
the names of the Aryan divinities Mitra, Indra, Varuna, and
Nasatya in an inscription dating 14th century B.C. at Boghaz-Keui.
The trend of migration continued until we see the Aryan
Medes at a later date facing the Semitic Assyrians as their immediate
neighbours.

The Indo-Iranians. The other migratory wave extended
earlier towards the Elburz [Alburz] range and to the southern belt of the
Caspian an Sea and took the tastward course. The
Vendidad opens
the enumeration of the sixteen good places created by Ahura Mazda,
ranging between Airyana-vaejah in the north and Hapta
Hindu or Sapta Sindhu, the land of seven (later five) rivers, the
Panjaub.5 The names of these lands may not be taken as marking
[10]
the successive
stages of the Aryan migration showing the people leaving their original
habitat, descending downwards through the Caucasus, crossing the Elburz
[Alburz] range, entering eastern Iran or modern Afghanistan, passing the
Hindukush and terminating their peregrinations in Sapta Sindhu. But the
test may be taken as recording historico-geographical reminiscence on the
part of the writers of the south-eastward migration of the Aryan race.

Of the various sections of the Aryan family, the ancestors of those
that later became known in history as the Indians and the Iranians lived
longest and closest together in eastern Iran. They sacrificed to the same
gods and entertained the same view of life upon earth. They separated at a
later period and a group turned towards the south, crossed the Hindukush
and entered the Panjaub by about 2000 B.C.

The great Aryan family thus dispersed during several generations and
the members sought out for themselves new settlements in Asia and Europe.
Of the various groups that separated from the main stock at different
times, the Iranian group preserved most faithfully the original name of
the primeval home of the Aryans. The place of residence had changed, the
surroundings had altered beyond recognition, and the communities that
lived and shared life with them had gone. But the deeply cherished name
Airyana-vaejah had been indelibly imprinted on their minds. The veneration
for the stem-land lived, the memory of its paradisaic condition still
lingered, the auspicious name Airyana-vaejah continued still to be
passionately loved, and the Iranians resolved that their latest settlement
should be known for ever by no other name than Airyana vaejah of happy
memory.

[11]

THE GATHIC PERIOD

ABOUT 1000 B.C.

[12 is blank]

[13]

Notes:

CHAPTER III

ZARATHUSHTRA

Zarathushtra doubts to know. Prophets are gods in the flesh, and
Zarathushtra, the prophet of Iran, was such a man-god. His date of birth,
as we shall see in subsequent chapters, is placed anywhere between 600
B.C. and 6000 B.C. It is an uncontested fact that there is a marked
closeness between the grammar, metre, and style of the Rig Veda and
the Gathas. The Gathic inflexions are more primitive than the Vedic. The
period of the position of the Gathas, therefore, cannot be separated from
the Vedas by any considerable distance of time. Zarathushtra's place of
birth is of equal uncertainty. His earliest appearance in the Gathas is at
the period of his life when he has left his pupilage behind. He has
evidently learnt all he could from what the teachers of his days could
give him. He has conversed with the wise men of his country. He has often
visited the central places where trade routes from distant lands converged
and has gathered information and experience from the worldly-wise
travellers, merchants, and pilgrims. But the more he has learnt, the more
eager his desire to learn further has grown. His teachers had instructed
him in knowledge based on tradition. But tradition is stagnant, and
knowledge is ever on the onward move. Besides, tradition is wedded to the
time that is dead, and knowledge looks to the time to be born without end.
Moreover, tradition demands its instruction to be taken on trust, and
knowledge is based on inquiry and discussion. Reason is shadowed by doubt
and doubt is the parent of knowledge. Zarathushtra, a paragon of reason,
doubts the wisdom of his teachers.

Zarathushtra resolves to be his own teacher, and to learn by
observation and thinking. He thinks and thinks deeply and comprehensively
on the conditions prevailing around him. He considers that life is not
woven of the tissues of joy and happiness alone, but of considerable
sorrow and misery also. Injustice and inequity, strife and oppression,
poverty and destitution, greed
[14]
and avarice,
wrath and rapine, falsehood and deceit, envy and malice, hatred and
jealousy, crime and vice, sorrow and suffering, filth and disease confront
him everywhere. He is keenly responsive to human sufferings and the groans
and sighs of the agonized hearts. The misery of the multitude touches his
heart. His flesh creeps, his heart is heavily oppressed, and his spirit is
depressed at the sight of this dark side of human life. He suffers at the
sight of suffering and, with eyes suffused with tears, he lives from day
unto day thinking and brooding over the woes of the world. Zarathushtra
doubts the goodness of gods.

He is religious at heart, but his daily experience of the religion
practised and lived around him tends to estrange him from the faith of his
forefathers. He sees with horror temples reeking with the blood of
sacrifical animals. He finds that barren formalism, sanctimonious
scrupulosity, meticulous ablutions, superstitious fear, and display of
external holiness pass for religion. Zarathushtra doubts the religion of
his birth.

Zarathushtra seeks silent, solitary seclusion. Solitude is
nature's sublime temple where spirit can commune with spirit in the
surrounding silence and unruffled calm. Mountains lift their heads
majestically on the Iranian plateau, and Zarathushtra retreated into the
mountain fastness. Here, far removed from the stress and strife of life,
and with no human sound to distract his thoughts, he made his home. He
breathed the refreshing air. The twittering and chirping and whistling and
singing of birds filled the air. Here the earth and waters, birds and
beasts, sun and moon, stars and planets worked as his teachers. He read
some lesson, some message written by the hand of the maker of all on every
pebble and every leaf, every dewdrop and every sunbeam, in every star and
every planet. Here he plunged into a reverie or gazed into vacancy. The
calm atmosphere is conducive to communion, and here, in the monastic void;
he communed with nature which inspired solemn thoughts in him. He communed
with his mind and he communed with his inner self. He thought and he
reasoned, he cogitated and he contemplated, he mused and he dreamed. He
meditated upon the essence of divinity, the anomalies of life, and the
human destiny after death. Here in this great and glorious temple of
nature, built by divine hands, his eyes of spirit saw what the eyes of
flesh could not see. Here in the sublime sanctuary spoke the solemn voice
of
[15]
the divine vicar and he
heard it. Zarathushtra's creative mind evolved the highest conception of
godhead, whom he named Ahura Mazda or the Wise Lord.

Zarathushtra yearns to see Ahura Mazda. Zarathushtra has
prepared himself through the wise discipline of mind and heart and through
the life of piety to receive his message from Mazda. He longs for the
moment when, being enlightened in mind, he shall visualize Vohu Manah or
Good Mind, Asha or Righteousness, Sraosha, the embodiment of Obedience to
divine commandments, and the sublime seat of beneficent Ahura.1
Mind alone can understand and realize the supreme mind and Zarathushtra
longs to approach Mazda through Vohu Manah.2 Mind is the
repository both of knowledge upon which rests the enlightenment of life,
and pure thoughts which form the basis of good conduct. He developed this
dual aspect of mind to a prominent degree and prayed that Vohu Manah might
bless him with his presence.3 He had not long to wait, for Vohu
Manah, he who impersonates the divine mind, one day came to him and
inquired who he was and to whom he belonged and what he wished
for.4 Seeing Vohu Manah, Zarathushtra got a glimpse of Ahura
Mazda, whom he now conceived as holy, and for the first time felt himself
acquainted with the words of wisdom.5 When his ardent desire to
meet Vohu Manah is fulfilled he now aspires through him to greet Ahura
Mazda himself.6 His one consuming passion now is to see Mazda
face to face and hold communion with him,7 so that he may have
the most comprehensive understanding of the divinity. He desires and
yearns and prays that Mazda may vouchsafe unto him his heart's longing.
Devotion for Mazda wells up in his heart, and he is filled with the divine
spirit. He feels himself lifted above the earth, and in his supreme
moments of transcendent ecstasy he has the beatific vision of
Mazda.6 He has now found Mazda and he pours out his devout
heart at his feet. He longs to be alone with him, belong wholly to him,
and live in his love and attachment.9 He praises him, worships
him, makes songs of devotion to him, he yearns to weave his personality
with Mazda like the warp and woof, and he longs
[16]
to lose himself in the divine bosom.10 His whole life is bound up
in one idea: Ahura Mazda.

Zarathushtra longs to commune with Ahura Mazda.
Zarathushtra has thought out many problems of life but he is still
unsatisfied with his discoveries. He has doubts on many
points,11 and who but Mazda can solve them satisfactorily? He
asks Mazda for whom has he created the weal-dispensing
cattle,12 who has marked out the path of the sun and the stars,
by whom does the moon wax and wane,13 who has yoked swiftness
to winds and clouds, who withholds the earth and the sky from falling
down, who made the waters and the trees,14 what artificer made
light and darkness and wakefulness and sleep, who made the dawn and the
day and the night that remind man of the intelligence of his
duty,15 who is the creator of Good Mind,16 who
formed the blessed devotion in the divine kingdom and who with wisdom made
the son dutiful to his father,17 how should devotion embrace
those to whom his religion is proclaimed,18 whether devotion
furthered righteousness through deeds,19 how was the prayer to
be addressed to him,20 who was righteous and who was wicked,
with whom did the enemy of all side and who was like unto him, was not the
person that repudiated Mazda's beneficence himself the enemy,21
how was the wickedness of those who ran counter to the rules of
righteousness and good thought to be put down,22 how was
wickedness to be brought into the hands of righteousness,23 who
would gain victory when the powers of righteousness and wickedness came to
grips,24 who would smite victoriously the enemy with the mighty
words of Mazda,25 how would recompense to the righteous and
retribution to the wicked be accorded at the reckoning,26 how
the best existence was to be won,27 would the divine kingdom be
made known to God's faithful through Good Mind,28 what were the
ordinances of Mazda,29 how should he, Zarathushtra, approach
Mazda with love,30 with what goodness would his soul win
felicity,31 and many such questions pertaining to the way of
life. He felt Mazda's inspiring
[17]
presence within him, he heard his whispers. Mazda
spoke through his mind and he was enlightened. He sought instruction
from Mazda and had now acquired it.32

Zarathushtra is filled with an intense fervour of enthusiasm
for prophetic work. The work of prophetic preparation was now
completed. Zarathushtra was girt with wisdom and righteousness.
He had heard, comprehended, and made his own the message
of Mazda and was now ready to convey it to mankind. One
phase of his life had now ended. He was now ready to leave the
life of seclusion and turn towards the clamour and clatter of town
traffic and live in the midst of the sight and sound of throbbing
human life. He had a new mission, a new hope, a new way of
life to regenerate the world. Mankind was steeped in the slough
of despair and despondency, helplessness and hopelessness. He
was to be the bearer of the message of hope to mankind and
salvage it. He was to wean the hearts of men and women from
wickedness, to lead them on the path of righteousness, to assuage
the sufferings of humanity, to establish a new social order, and
to found a new moral world. He was burning with zeal to
embark upon his great mission. He was the chosen of Mazda,
who now speaks with sublime satisfaction that Zarathushtra alone
among mankind had heard his divine commands and having heard
them was now going to make them heard among all mankind,
therefore he was bestowing on him elegance of speech.33 The
great work that he had now to undertake of propagating his new
religion and winning people for it would be beset with untold
obstacles and hardships and Zarathushtra realizes it.34 But the
messenger of Mazda is determined to face them and overcome
them and emerge triumphant in the end. He tells Mazda that he
will lead mankind on the path of righteousness and sing untiringly
his praise all around as long as his life is blessed with power
and strength.35 He speaks of his faith in terms of a universal
religion. He is convinced that the religion that Ahura Mazda has
commissioned him to preach is the best for all mankind.36 He
looks forward to winning all living men for the faith of Ahura
Mazda.37

But the ardent desire of the prophet was not to be fulfilled
[18]
at the moment, nor to be accomplished in full measure in after
ages. Though possessed of all the best elements that fitted it to
be a world creed, Zoroastrianism has never shown any signs of
becoming a universal religion. In the midst of the vicissitudes of
fortune, it has been a national religion at best. Little short of a
miracle has saved it from total extinction, and various causes
have combined to reduce it to the narrowest limits today as the
communal religion of a hundred and twenty-five thousand souls.
This fact will be brought out more prominently in the treatment
of the religious development during the subsequent periods.

People marvel at the new prophet. Zarathushtra turned his
steps to his place of birth and childhood. His kinsfolk and
friends recognized him and yet they were bewildered to witness
a marvellous change in him. He was of course grown in years
and stature. But there was something indescribable that those
who saw him could not realize. His face had grown sweet and
serene. It breathed ineffable kindness and bore shining reflection
of his pure inner life. It wore the expression of gentleness and
cheerfulness, hope and confidence. A resplendent halo of righteousness
encircled his magnetic face. He moved among people
with a friendly look and a kindly word to all. His moral grandeur
struck awe unto those who came near him. The sublimity of his
serene behaviour, the childlike simplicity of his speech, the unassuming
attitude of his movements, the imperturbable calm and
passive countenance aroused feelings of reverence in those who
met him. They greeted him with salutations and adoration. His
advent soon became the event of surrounding villages. All eagerly
pointed to him and talked abour him. In dumb veneration people
gazed at him, admired him, adored him, and marvelled at
him. He was Zarathushtra of the Spitamas, they said, yet he
was altogether a novel personality. He was of them and yet
above them, he was akin to them and yet unlike them. He
spoke unheard of words, he talked of unknown things. He was
what they were not. They were but men, he was greater than
man, he was an angel, he was a godling.

Zarathushtra definitely breaks with the religion of his forefathers.
Zarathushtra has seen by this time that there were some
people who were anxious to hear what he had to say. He now
began to give lengthy talks on subjects of great importance to
his eager listeners. He saw that he could sway and draw the
[19]
hearts of his hearers to himself. He gave forth publicly that
he came from his maker Ahura Mazda, whom he declared to be
incomparably greater than the gods they had so far known. This
great God had sent him as his chosen prophet to preach a nobler
religion than the one they followed. Their priests had laid great
emphasis on outward observances and carried rules for rituals to
meticulous casuistry. Their gods were fond of sacrificial offerings
of animals and birds. Religion, preached Zatathushtra, did
not consist in a scrupulous observance of outward forms, but
was based mainly upon the heart. A broken heart and a contrite
spirit were the choicest sacrifices that the faithful could offer
to their creator. Burning tears of a penitent heart were better
than a cupful of oblations. The aim and object and end of the
religion that Mazda had commissioned him to teach was righteous
conduct. His worship was founded on righteousness. Genuine
piety is of the heart and its outward expressions are good
thoughts, good words, and good deeds. The beliefs and practices
of his hearers were irreconcilably alien from what he taught. His
outspoken utterances created diverse effects upon those who
flocked to hear him daily. Some felt themselves moved and influenced
by them.

There were others among his hearers who had approached
him specially with the intention of finding out his views without
rousing his attention to their ill-will. They took alarming reports
to their associates. They saw danger ahead of them. They
waited and watched, suspected and spied. They were adroitly
prepared themselves to face the ominous situation; and they had
not to be long in waiting. Signs of disapprobation, whispers of
disapproval, murmurs of indignation now appeared in various
threatened to break out in open revolt.

The hostile Daevayasnian priests. The priests of the ancient
faith were now alarmed. They attempted to dissuade the prophet
from disturbing the peace of the people. They met often to
argue with him on the questions he was raising, but were foiled
in the controversies.38 They felt themselves humiliated before
the people and gave up meeting the prophet. They began to work
against him and tried in all possible manners to frustrate the
effect he was daily producing upon his hearers. They were accustomer
to fatten upon the profits of the elaborate ceremonials
[20]
and rich sacrifices that people offered under their guidance. They
were renowned as exorcists who cast out demons, who read
dreams, prognosticated the future, warded off the effect of the
evil eye and, with ingenious charlatanism, had prospered among
the credulous and superstitious. Zarathushtra reproved their
greed and avarice. He exhorted the people to give up these
superstitious practices and warned them that they were causing
great harm by following such false teachers.39 His denunciation
of their practices made them furious and now they sought
his ruin. They accused him of preaching doctrines that were
subversive of the religion of their forefathers and the established
form of worship, and of blaspheming their gods. They incited
the people to oppose him and made frantic appeals to the rulers
of the land to drive him out from their midst.

Zarathushtra's heart was burning with indignation against
these hypocrisies. With his holy spirit aglow with righteous
wrath, he called these Pharisees and Scribes of Iran, Kavis and
Karapans or seeingly blind and hearingly deaf. These terms
belong to the Indo-Iranian period and were evidently used in a
good sense, before the Aryan groups separated. They share the
fate of the cardinal word daeva and are assigned derogatory
meaning in the Gathas. The Vedic hymns use the word kavi
in the sense of a sage. It is freely applied to the seers and to
Soma priests. It is further used as an epithet of gods. Agni, in
particular, bears this honoured title.40 In the Gathas the word
is curiously used with a double meaning. It is given a bad
connotation whenever it is applied to the priests of the Daeva-worshippers.
But the second Iranian dynasty is known as the
Kavi or Kianian [Kayanian]. Its renowned kings who lived before the coming
of Zarathushtra were Kavi Kavata, Kavi Usa, and Kavi
Haosrava. Even Vishtaspa, who later became the royal patron
of the new religion, retains this title and Zarathushtra speaks of
him as Kavi Vishtaspa.41 It is significant, however, that Vishtaspa
is the last king who shares this epithet with his royal
predecessors. The kings who succeed him and with whom the
dynasty dies out do not share the title. To the class of the Kavi
belong the Karapan, corresponding to Skt. kalpa, 'ritual,' and
the Usij, Skt. ushijah.

[21]
These heretical priests give the cattle to violence,42 they mislead
mankind by their evil teachings and bring destruction to
them and their cattle, but the prophet knows that they will face
ruin,43 and in the end their own corrupt consciences will condemn
them to eternal damnation.44 Through the drunken orgies they
and the wicked lords of the land who follow them cause misery
to all around them, and Zarathushtra implores Ahura Mazda to
put down their evil.45 The bitterest foe of Zarathushtra who
opposes him and thwarts his work is Bendva, who does not himself
embrace righteousness and incites others to follow his lead.
Zarathushtra invokes Mazda to overthrow this chieftain from
power.46 Grehma is another powerful Kavi who always intrigues
for Zarathushtra's undoing.47 Mazda denounces him and his evil
associates, for their teachings lead to the destruction of the life
of cattle and they lead others to wickedness.48 This wicked
leader will bewail his evil fate and repent that he did not accept
Zarathushtra's message, when at the end of his wicked life his
soul will be consigned to the worst abode of woe.49 Usij is yet
another class of the false priests who work violence to cattle
and husbandry.50

These evil teachers, complains Zarathushtra, misinterpret the
doctrines that he preaches and deceive people.51 They are devoid
of goodness of mind and heart and are the beloved of the
Daevas.52 They defraud mankind of the happiness of both the
worlds.53 Like the Daevas whom they follow, they are known
throughout the seven regions of the earth as the offspring of
Evil Thought, Lie, and Arrogance.54 They persecute the righteous
and desolate their pastures.55 Those who strengthen the hands
of such false leaders given over to wickedness incur Ahura's displeasure.56
Zarathushtra exhorts all not to listen to the words
and commands of the liars who bring misery and destruction to
the house and clan, district and country, but to resist them with
all their might.57 These persons who do not embrace Righteousness
and Good Thought are Zarathushtra's enemies. They are
[22]
powerful and they strive to frighten Zarathushtra who is weak.58
He looks to Ahura Mazda for protection against them and prays
that instead of causing him harm, their hostile actions may recoil
upon themselves.59 The enmity and hatred towards the prophet,
however, increase day by day and he is now aware that the opponents
are bent upon doing him the utmost harm that they can,
that is, they conspire to kill him.60

The Kavis and Karapans carried on vehement counter propaganda
against Zarathushtra. They persuaded, denounced, cajoled,
flattered, and threatened in one breath those that showed
signs of being influenced by the new doctrines. They terrorized
them with excommunication from society, and with persecution
in this life and tortures awaiting them in the next life. People
dreaded their power and were not yet swayed so completely
by the new teachings as to face persecution. The history of
religions teaches us that a new religion does not spread through
well-balanced and reasoned arguments and convictions. It is
borne on the wings of the unbounded enthusiasm and overflowing
emotion that a prophet can create. If a prophet succeeds in
preaching the new ideas that fill his being, with passionate and
frantic zeal, if he succeeds in kindling the flame of emotional,
nervous enthusiasm among his hearers by his fervent preaching,
if he succeeds by means of his whirlwind campaign to light the
spark that can set the whole country on fire, his religion becomes
a living faith. Zarathushtra's teachings had not so effectively
stirred them. Consequently, those that followed him hanging
with enthusiasm on the unheard of words that he uttered, gave up
going after him when they saw the vehement opposition of the
custodians of the old faith. Those that had seriously heard him
but were yet undecided and hesitating in the choice between the
charms of the new and the dictares of the old religion, deserted
him. The ignorant and unthinking people, who had, with child-like
curiosity, turned wherever his footsteps trod, imitated the
elders of society and left him. Those who were proud to claim
him as their friend forsook him when the hour came for them
to stand by him. Those that were his kith and kin disowned him,
because he had disavowed their ancestral faith. Thus did the
wavering, timid, half-hearted followers fail him in his hour of
need and leave him. Ahura Mazda alone did not leave him and,
[23]
with him on his side, Zarathushtra felt that he was not alone
in his loneliness. His prestige, however, is shattered and all
restraint is broken. Respect for him is gone. He is now greeted
everywhere with hostile feelings and coarse jokes. The mob
that was hilarious in his commendation becomes furious in
his condemnation. It mocks and maligns, jeers and insults him.

God fashions religion as an ideal aiming at cohesiveness,
brotherhood, and unity among mankind. Man makes it disturbing,
disruptive, and divisive. The great ideal recedes from the
very inception of religion, until it grows dim and distant. It
does not die, because ideals are immortal. Hope, ingrained in
human heart, holds out the eternal assurance of its eventual realization.

Friendless and forlorn, Zarathushtra flees to Ahura Mazda.
He implores him, he cries unto him to help him as a friend would
help his friend. He has no following, no means of sustenance, and
no place of refuge. If he wants to live so that he can yet hope
to work as the prophet of Mazda and found his excellent religion,
he should leave his homeland. He asks Mazda to point him
the land to which he should flee.61 When all hopes seem to be
blighted, he bids farewell with heavy heart to the place of his
birth. He does not know to what land he should turn and he
turns to wherever Mazda may take him. He walks and walking
thinks, dreams, falls into a reverie, stops, wakes up, hastens his
steps. He comes across villages, but rumours have preceded him
that a man, a pretender, a blasphemer, a disturber of peace is
on the way. No headsman of the villages comes forward to offer
him an asylum in his village, even though the traditional usage of
hospitality demands that his doors be flung open to the weary
traveller. He must go onward, he sees, and travels to places
removed from his native town, so that the people may
not know him. There, among new surroundings and new people,
he must begin his work anew. In his own town they knew him
from childhood. They could not realize that they had among
them one who had risen through the incomparable virtues of his
head and heart to perfection, and upon whom Ahura Mazda's
grace had descended. They could not reconcile themselves to the
idea that they should bend their heads and bow their knees
to one who grew of age among them and whose father and father's
[24]
A father lived and shared their common lives. But in the distant
parts of the country where he would go as a stranger, he hoped
his mission would bear fruit. So he went along from one village
to another and, with feet swollen with fatigue, he covered several
miles every day. Since he left his home he had not slept in
a bed. If he reached a caravanserai at night, he slept in a
corner where horses and mules, donkeys and camels jostled together.
He rested his weary head upon the divine bosom and
found a perfect haven in the heart of Ahura Mazda. At noon
he slept on the bare floor or on a mattress or on straw under
the shade of trees. If he found a throng of people at a halting
stage passing their time in idle talk, he ventured to address them
on the subject near to his heart. His words fell upon deaf ears
and they curtly dismissed him from their lively company. Thus
passed days after days, and season after season. Summer and
autumn had passed and he was now in the midst of severe
winter. He had dined so far on extremely frugal meals and
spent money where he could not do without spending it, yet his
pocket was getting thinner day by day. He would have to
work to earn his honest living or beg, which he would not do.
He clothed himself in coarse cloth which exposed him to the
bleak blasts of snow and frost that cut his face and pierced his
body limb from limb. When the great nobles of his native town
and the rich members of the Kavi fraternity fared sumptuously
on savoury dishes and luscious wines, and slept on warm beds
with velvety cushions to rest their heads and with printed chintz
curtains, the one greater than they went hungry and cold and
had nowhere to lay his weary limbs.

Zarathushtra's teachings win the ear of the royal court.
Thus passed a long period of trials and hardships. Zarathushtra
traversed the length and breadth of Iran. He spoke, he discoursed,
he conversed, he preached wherever he happened to be.
His prophetic career was now bearing some good result. He
was winning converts for his new religion. He triumphed in
gaining over the sympathy even of some intelligent youths of his
own family.62 His cousin Maidyoimaongha sympathized with
his cause and soon became his ardent disciple.63 Two very brilliant
brothers of the powerful Hvogva clan came over to his
[25]
faith. They were Frashaoshtra and Jamaspa.64 Zarathushtra
beseeches Ahura Mazda to grant the gift of Good Thought to
Frashaoshtra and his other followers.65 He implores him further
bestow the most gladsome chieftainship in righteousness upon
Frashaoshtra,66 whose daughter he later takes to wife.67 Jamaspa,
called the wise, owing to his great talents. occupied the most influential
position at the royal court. Zarathushtra gave him his
daughter Pouruchisti in marriage.68 The prophet of Iran had
made his spiritual conquest even among the Turanians. the traditional
foes of Iran, and brought over the influential chieftain
Fryana and his family to his faith.69

Zarathushtra had begun his prophetic propaganda in the west
of Iran. He had now crossed the entire breadth of the country
and was now in the extreme east. Bactria was the seat of the
Kavi kings. For a long time he had been preaching in the great
city, which was the meeting place of travellers and merchants
from distant lands. He stirred up religious enthusiasm among
his hearers. He spoke with flaming enthusiasm and animation
and his discourses warmed their imaginations and enthused their
hearts. They thought that the new teacher taught as man had
never taught. They bowed their knees to him. strewed his path
with flowers and worshipped the very ground he walked on.
Success now attended upon him and day after day he found
himself surrounded by new converts. His victory was complete
when ultimately he triumphed in winning as a convert Kavi
Vishtaspa, the ruler of the land, together with his royal consort
Hutaosa. This was the crowning event in the establishment of
Zoroastrianism. Conversions to the new religion followed
rapidly as a natural sequel, when it became known that the ruling
house of Iran had embraced Zarathushtra's faith. Zarathushtra
now declares with supreme satisfaction to his divine teacher
Ahura Mazda that the king had befriended his religion and was
eager to cooperate with him in his great mission of proclaiming
his faith to all.70 He now beseeches Ahura Mazda to give him
and the royal patron of his religion the blessings and gifts of good
[26]
thought, righteousness, and devotion of Vohu Manah, Asha, and
Armaiti, so that they may make his profitable words heard everywhere.71
The king, says Zarathushtra, has attained the knowledge
of the sacred lore which Ahura Mazda had conceived with
Asha.72 Vishtaspa, Frashaoshtra, and others who have now
turned Zoroastrian, invoke and adore Ahura Mazda and tread the
straight paths of the Saviour ordained by him.73 The Turanian
chieftain Fryana came over to the new faith and Zarathushtra
immortalizes his clan in his holy hymns.74

Zarathushtra's Mission. Prophets are revolutionists and
Zarathushtra was the earliest one. He saw that the world was
imperfect and its infirmities and inequities were formidable. He
was the messenger of Ahura Mazda, the refuge of the weak, the
solace of the suffering, the hope of humanity, and the regenerator
of the world. He brought to the unhappy world the happy tidings
of the coming of the Kingdom of Righteousness. He introduced
into the world a new spiritual order. He brought a new hope, a
new life. Brimful of life and hope, he brought cheer and hope
to mankind.

[27]

Notes:

CHAPTER IV

TOWARDS MONOTHEISM

Gods in evolution. Religion has formed a deeply integral
part of mankind at all times. We glean from the records of early
peoples the earliest gropings of the human mind in its endeavour
to understand and interpret natural phenomena. At various
stages of its evolution, religion rises from animism to a belief
in cosmic and abstract gods. Each tribe had its local god or
gods who gained or lost in power as the seats of their location
rose or fell in political power. The fate of the gods fluctuated
with the vicissitudes of their followers. The god who rose to
power either absorbed other gods in his person or subordinated
them as lesser gods or ministering angels in his own service.
Some of these gods were embraced in the family of the great god
as his son or consort, in case of a goddess, and formed a divine
triad of father, mother, and son. When religious ideas approached
abstract thinking, they were represented as the manifestations
of the newly enthroned god or they were reduced to
abstractions as the great god's attributes. When Babylon rose to
power, its god Marduk absorbed all other gods, both of the north
and the south, even his father Ea, and became the chief god of
the whole of Babylonia. The legends of the earlier gods clung
to his name and hymns formerly composed in their honour were
now dedicated to him. Ashur, the local god of Assyria, eclipsed
gods of other localities and rose to preeminence as his native
city came to parmnount power. When Shamash outshone his
many confederate solar gods, he became the supreme god, and
the other gods who were formerly on a footing of equality with
him were accommodated as his satellites. Sometimes when the
fighting tribes were united by peace the rival gods of each tribe
formed their divine union. For example, the sun god Ra who
came to Egypt from Asia formed an alliance with the popular
god Amen and the dual divinities, thereafter, came to be known
as Amen Ra.

[28]
The priests associated the highest attributes with the gods
whom they exalted. The poet who sang the glory of his favourite
god was always so deeply moved by his devotion to him that he
spoke and sang of him as the most powerful and the most beautiful
god. Consequently, a monotheistic vein began to appear in the
utterances of sectarians, each of whom acclaimed his respective
god as the one and the only god, without his like. This indiscriminate
exaltation of several gods as the all-highest and all-wisest
evoked protest from some quarters. Human experience
had taught them that a country had only one sovereign autocrat
as its ruler and two or more kings of absolutely equal grade in
power were unthinkable. With such ideas we notice Amenhetep IV,
an adventurous king, attempting to introduce a great religious
reform among his people in the fourteenth century B.C.
He scoffed at the Egyptian pantheon and declared that there
was only one god whose outward form was the sun. This god
was Aten, the visible disk of the sun. In his zeal for reform, he
changed his own name to Akhenaten or 'pleasing to the Sun-disk.'
He suppressed the worship of other gods, destroyed their statues,
demolished the temples that housed them, sequestered their property
and obliterated their names wherever they appeared. He consecrated
temples to Aten and made the cult of the Sun-disk his
state religion and commanded his subjects to offer their devotions
to this one God only. Being himself a poetic genius, he
composed fine hymns to the new God and addressed him as the
inscrutable creator, one God, absolute in power. The revolutionary
reform, however, did not survive the death of the poet-king.
The old gods returned from exile and were soon reinstated.

The gods were in most cases subject to human infirmities.
Ra grew old with age and became weak. Gods had their wives,
who like women in human society were subordinated to their
lords. But as history records instances of some women of exceptional
talents and virtue who broke the social barriers raised
by men against their sex and rose to pre-eminence, so some goddesses
of abnormal energy rose to power. The great goddess
Ishtar, for instance, absorbed all other goddesses of the Babylonian-Assyrian
pantheon and became the supreme female
divinity. It was at her temple that sacred prostitution became
a feature. Osiris had Horus for his son by his wife Isis. His
brother Set overpowered and killed him by cunning and intrigue.
[29]
Some gods were ceremoniously bathed and clothed, adorned and
perfumed with incense by priests every morning. The divine
toilet over, they were treated with sumptuous food and drink of
slaughtered animals and wine. The gods of the Greeks lived
on the summit of Mount Olympus. They were, like the members
of their divine fraternity elsewhere, invested with magnified
human forms and traits. They loved and hated, intrigued and
deceived and shared human frailties. It was for the demoralizing
influence of such beliefs that Plato later forbade the tales of the
frail gods in his ideal Republic, and Xenophanes poured out
scorn over the anthropomorphic gods of Homer and Hesiod.

The gods were generally the personifications of nature. The
solar gods, from their high position in the heavens, naturally
became the overseers of men's actions upon earth and consequently
they came to be regarded as the celestial judges. The
solar gods Anu, Ninib, Nergal, and Shamash, at various periods
of their ascendency to power, became the judges who punished
wrong-doers. With the advancement of thought, the moral tone
improved. The heart is the voice of God and welfare in life
is gained by following its guidance, says Amenhetep. The emphasis
that he lays on the adherence to truth in his inscriptions
anticipates Darius the Great by several centuries. But the one
god who rose to the greatest moral grandeur before the incomparably
more sublime god that Zarathushtra discovered, was
Varuna. A god of the sky in his origin, he rose to great ethical
heights and became the upholder and guardian of the moral order
upon earth. He is called omniscient and infallible. He detected
man's truth and falsehood. If two men sat together and schemed
some wrong, Varuna was there as the third. The winkings of
man's eyes were numbered by him. The sinner laid bare his
heart before him, confessed his sins, and prayed for his forgiveness,
pathetically saying that he didnot commit sin willingly but
that he was led astray by wrath, dice, and liquor. The hymns
composed in his honour are most ethical.

[30]

CHAPTER V

AHURA MAZDA

Ahura Mazda is the name Zarathushtra gives to God. The
Iranians, as we shall see later, had brought to their new homeland
several gods of the Indo-Iranian pantheon. Zarathushtra
does not mention them by name in his hymns. This omission is
not accidental; it is deliberate. His is altogether a new religion.
No wonder he tells his hearers that he speaks to them words
that are unheard of before.1 All thinking and doing, whether
human or divine, is done through the mind. It is knowledge or
wisdom which creates, moulds, and guides anything and everything.
He, therefore, clothes the idea of godhead with wisdom
and names him 'Ahura Mazda.' This collocation means literally,
'The Lord Wisdom' or 'The Wise Lord.' The first element of
this compound, Ahura, 'Lord,' is one of the Indo-Iranian generic
forms of godhead and Zarathushtra confers upon it the Iranian
epithet Mazda, 'Wise.' The Aryan and Semitic gods that preceded
Ahura Mazda were nature gods. Some of them later rose
to a higher spiritual level and acquired spiritual epithets. Ahura
Mazda was never a nature-god. He was what he ever is, the
highly spiritual being. Apart from its use in the Gathas, the
term Mazda is found in its derivative form Mazdaka, used as a
Median proper name in 715 B.C. in the Assyrian inscriptions of
Sargon. Moreover, the compound Ahura Mazda itself is found
in its Assyrian equivalent Assara Mazas in an inscription of
Assurbanipal. Though the inscription bears the date of the reign
of king Assurbanipal, it records the use of this Assyrian form of
Ahura Maida in the latter part of the second millennium.

Zarathushtra uses the divine name variously as the metrical
composition of the hymns requires. He employs the combinations
Ahura Mazda and Mazda Ahura or the forms Ahura or Mazda
respectively, designating God in all cases. In many instances the
[31]
terms Ahura and Mazda are used separately in a single strophe,
the one at the opening and the other at the close with different
exhortations and prayers to each, yet in both cases as applied to
the Supreme Being. Ahura Mazda.

Ahura Mazda is the Being par excellence. Ahura Mazda
sits at the apex among the celestial beings of Garonmana [Garothman, i.e. Heaven]. He is
not begotten, nor is there one like unto him. Beyond him, apart
from him, and without him nothing exists. He is the supreme
being through whom everything exists. He is brighter than the
brightest of creation, higher than the highest heavens, older than
the oldest in the universe. He is the best one.2 He knows no
elder, he has no equal. There is none to dispute his supremacy
and contest his place. Nor is there one to struggle successfully
with him for the mastery of the heavens. He is the first and
foremost. He is the most perfect being. He is almighty.3 He
is the absolute sovereign.4 He is beneficent.5 He is changeless.6
He is the same now and for ever.7 He was, he is, and he will be
the same transcendent being, moving all, yet moved by none. In
the midst of the manifold changes wrought by him in the universe,
the Lord God remains changeless and unaffected, for he
is mighty.8 He will decide victory between the rival hosts of
good and evil.9 He is the most worthy of invocation,10 and the
first possessor of felicity and joy.11 There is none before him.12
He is the greatest of all.13 He is the only God proper, than
whom there is none higher. Everything comes from him and
through him. He is the lord of all. Many are his attributes.
They are not accidents of his being. as will be shown below,
but are his very essence.

The nature of Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda is spirit in his
being. The cardinal attribute Spirit or Beneficent Spirit or Most
Beneficent Spirit is his very essence. Zarathushtra acquaints
mankind for the first time in the history of religions with the
concept of the godhead that is most incomparable in sublimity
and unprecedented in the grandeur of nobility. He is higher than
the highest being worshipped by mankind before his day. He
[32]
is devoid of all anthropomorphic traits which characterized the
Aryan and Semitic gods. Man, however, can comprehend abstract
ideas and spiritual conceptions when they are put before
him in words and expressions clothed in the garb of earthly
imagery and compassed in human language. Zarathushtra,
therefore, speaks of Ahura Mazda in human analogy. He conceives
of Ahura Mazda in thought and apprehends him with his
eye.14 He asks him to teach by the word of his mouth15 and
to tell him with the very tongue of his mouth.16 He is also
spoken of as distributing good and evil to men by his own
hands,17 and as observing with his eyes all things hidden and
open.18 He lives in the empyrean enthroned in his majesty.19
He is ever present in the straight paths that lead mankind to
righteousness.20 In his resplendence he lives in the heavenly
realms and wears the firmament as his garment.21 Yahweh, likewise,
covers himself with light as with a garment. Expressions
like these are symbolical and they are not to be taken literally,
since Ahura Mazda, as the whole tone of the Gathas proves, is
to be seen or conceived only through the mind's eye. The finite
can describe the infinite through finite analogies and similes
alone.

The transcendental immanence of Ahura Mazda.
Ahura Mazda has his celestial mansions in the highest heavens, upon
the vast expanse of the earth and in the hearts of the righteous
persons. He is transcendent in as much as he is infinitely more
sublime and greater than his creatures. Yet he is not so remote
and ineffable as not to be approached and addressed and greeted
by his ardent worshippers. He is immanent in the sense that
man can enter into close and loving relations with him, and own
him as his father and brother and friend.22 He befriends those
who seek his friendship and loves those who long for his love.23
Zarathushtra addresses Ahura Mazda as his friend.24 He is
life's safest anchorage and Zarathushtra, in his misfortunes,
pours out his heart in his divine friend's bosom and cries unto
him for help and protection as a friend helps a friend.25 He
[33]
lovingly helps those who flee unto him in their distress and betake
themselves to his protection. There is none other than he
who shields men against harm and they invoke his protection
through Asha.26 We sleep secure because he guards us lovingly
and we live in safety because he stands by our side when we
awake out of sleep. His goodness towards us knows no bounds.
Immortality, holiness, power, and perfection are his gifts to those
who deserve them through their deeds and words and prayers.27
Man can become his friend and companion through his words
and deeds of righteousness.28 He is invoked to bestow upon the
pious the good things of life for his love of them.29 With his
good understanding, man can imitate him and be like unto him
by promoting the welfare of all around him through righteousness.30

The prophet prays for his vision and communion with him.31
He strives to approach him through Good Mind,32 and through
his devoted supplications.33 With outstretched hands he aspires
to reach him with songs of praise on his lips.34 Thus will he
continue his praise, he says, as long as he has strength and
vigour,35 and adds that the stars and the sun and the dawn all
unite in singing praise unto him.36 Consumed with the fervour
of religious emotion, he implores Ahura Mazda to rise up for
him,37 and to come to him and manifest himself to him in his
own person.38 Sraosha comes with Vohu Manah unto him whom
Ahura Mazda desires.39

Ahura Mazda is the creator. Creation is a free act of the
divine goodness of Ahura Mazda.40 In the beginning when he
lived in his supreme self-sufficiency, he conceived the thought
to clothe the heavenly realm with light.41 He created 1ight, and
darkness was there, for darkness shadows light.42 He is the
father and creator of Vohu Manah,43 of Asha,44 of Khshathra,45
of Armaiti,46 of Haurvatat and Ameretat,47 and of Geush
[34]
Tashan.48 The joy-giving cattle and this universe are his creations.49
He upholds the earth and firmament from falling.50 He
made the moon wax and wane, and determined the path of the
sun and stars.51 He yoked swiftness to wind and clouds.52 He
clothed the heavenly realms with light.53 He it was who made
morning and noon and night.54 He created kine, waters and
plants.55 He created human beings and their spirits, breathed
life in their bodies and endowed them with the freedom of wi11.56
He inspired love between the son and father.57 He made sleep
and wakefulness.58 He is the beneficent dispenser of blessings
to mankind.59 Weal and woe are ordained by him.60

Ahura Mazda is the lord of wisdom. The very name of the
godhead embodies in itself great wisdom. Ahura Mazda is the
wise lord.61 He has created the universe through his wisdom
and rules it through wisdom. He is the most knowing one.62
He is the far-seeing one,63 and so is he the all-seeing one.64 He
knows all that is done in the past and all that will be done in the
future, and judges through his omniscience.65 Zarathushtra seeks
knowledge from him of what will be and what will not be.66
Through his Best Mind he knows man's desert at the reckoning.67
Human beings have their masks drawn on their faces and none
can see what is hidden within. But Ahura Mazda has an eye over
them all and with penetrating eyes he sees their open and secret
faults.68 None can deceive his wisdom,69 for he is undeceivable.70
He is the consummate teacher of those who believingly hear him
and become of one mind with him and who, inspired by Asha
and Vohu Manah, exalt him by their words and deeds.71

Ahura Mazda is the law-giver and judge. With the creation
of man Ahura Mazda has ordained laws for the rightful conduct
of his life.72 The great mission of the prophet is to acquaint
[35]
mankind with these and to lead all to see for themselves with
their intelligence that their welfare depends on the faithful adherence
to them. He exhorts his hearers to give a careful hearing
to his words, understand with clear discernment what he tells
them, and, with the discreet exercise of the freedom of the will,
with which Ahura Mazda has endowed them, make their own
choice of conduct.73 The divine law-giver has established the
moral order in the beginning of the world.74 He has ordained
the commandments of reward and retribution to the righteous
and the wicked, and Zarathushtra asks his followers to keep
them in mind and live lawful lives so that they may thereby win
felicity for themselves.75 Every man and every woman that lives
this earthly life will have to stand at the reckoning one day to
receive his or her own desert, and Zarathushtra teaches them all
the laws of the requitals of human conduct in which Ahura Mazda
himself has instructed him.76 Ahura Mazda is the lord
who knows and watches and judges the deeds of mortals.77 He
holds the destinies of mankind in his hands and apportions reward
and retribution unto the righteous and the wicked.78 The
righteous souls will live in the abode of Ahura Mazda.79 He
punishes the wrong-doers just as he rewards the righteous, but he
shows compassion also and forgives when the penitent sinner
casts himself on his mercy.80

CHAPTER VI

SPENTA MAINYU

Spenta Mainyu is the self-revealing activity of Ahura Mazda.
The supreme godhead, we have seen, is immutable,
perfect, spiritual unity. Zarathushtra solves the problem of
reconciling the unchangeable nature of Ahura Mazda with the
world of change by postulating a principle that intervenes between
the unmoved mover and the moved. This working medium of
Ahura Mazda spans the chasm between the supersensuous and
the sensuous. He brings the transcendence and immanence of
Ahura Mazda into a synthesis. Ahura Mazda is neither completely
separated nor completely merged in the world. He is the
primordial, self-existing being. In his infinite goodness he wills
the creation of the universe. Both heavenly and earthly existence
lived with him and in him as idealized contents of his being.
The projection or manifestation of his creative will and thought
is his active working principle Spenta Mainyu, Holy Spirit.
Spenta Mainyu is as old as Ahura Mazda, for be ever was in
Ahura Mazda and with Ahura Mazda. Though he is thus part
of Ahura Mazda, in his manifestation as the working self of
Ahura Mazda he is different from Ahura Mazda. He is not an
entity or personality. Ahura Mazda is the greatest spiritual personality.
Spenta Mainyu is his image, his replica. He represents
the creative attribute of Ahura Mazda in his relation to the
created world.

Spenta Mainyu symbolizes the ideal or perfect existence as
conceived in thought by Ahura Mazda. The materialization of
the divine thought in creation spells imperfection and Spenta Mainyu
is shadowed by his inseparable opposite. These two primeval
spirits, who are spoken of as twins, emerged from the
divine bosom and by their innate choice appeared as the better
and the bad in thought, word, and deed.1 He, the Most
Holy Spirit, chose righteousness and he who is called the Evil Spirit
[37]
wooed the worst as his sphere of action.2 The better one of the
two spirits told the evil one that they were by nature opposed to
each other in their thoughts and teachings, understandings and
beliefs, words, and deeds, selves and souls -- in nothing could
they twain ever meet.3 When the two first came together in the
world, they created life and non-life and established the law of
reward and retribution for mankind, that the righteous will reap
at the end of existence the weal of Best Thought and the wicked
the woe of the Worst Existence.4

The Gathas variously speak of Spenta Mainyu either as the
attribute of Ahura Mazda or as his vicegerent, or as his co-worker,
or as identified with him or as distinct from him. It is
Spenta Mainyu that Ahura Mazda creates cattle and
water and plants and all that exist.5 Ahura Mazda is asked
to give ear to man's invocation through Spenta Mainyu,6 and to
strength through him.7 Through him does Ahura Mazda
give Perfection and Immortality unto the pious who live a
righteous and devoted life of best thoughts, words, and deeds.8
Ahura Mazda is implored to teach by his own mouth, on behalf
of his Spirit, how the world first came into being.9 It is through
his Spirit that Ahura Mazda furthers his blessed realms10 He
gives the best unto the righteous through Spenta Mainyu.11
Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda what award will he make unto
the believers and the non-believers through his Spirit.12 Mazda
will come at the final dispensation with Spenta Mainyu.13
Through him does one win the felicity of paradise.14 The devout
seek to be acquainted with the works of Spenta Mainyu.15 The
Spirit knows the attitude of the false speaker and the true
speaker, the wise and the unwise as they are led by the promptings
of their hearts and minds.16 Spenta Mainyu is the friend of
all and he protects them through Righteousness in both the
worlds from transgression.17 It is the wicked that are hurt by
him.18 Spenta Mainyu or the Holy Spirit is sometimes spoken
[38]
of as the Good Spirit,19 or the Best Spirit,20 or the Most
Holy Spirit.21 This superlative title, the Most Holy Spirit, is sometimes
applied to Ahura Mazda himself.22 It is also used for
Spenta Mainyu as apart from Ahura Mazda. For example, Zarathushtra
tells Ahura Mazda that he chooses his Most Holy Spirit
for himself.23 The Most Holy Spirit, the one who stands in
opposition to his evil twin brother, dons the massive heavens
for his garment.24

CHAPTER VII

MAZDA'S MINISTERING ANGELS

Amesha Spentas in the making. Zarathushtra holds before
mankind six cardinal virtues of Ahura Mazda for emulation.
Primarily, they are pure abstractions, etherealized moral concepts,
symbolic ideals, abstract figures. They have no individuality,
no characteristics, no mythology as the Indo-Iranian divinities
have. Zarathushtra aims at replacing the divine beings
that owe their origin to some natural phenomena and later rise
to moral stature, by spiritual ideals. The heavenly beings that
he finds honoured among his people are such ancient beings
that have evolved from the various aspects of nature. Such are
Mithra and his associates that hold spiritual sway over the hearts
of the Iranian peoples. The prophet substitutes for these august
concrete beings his worshipful attributes of Ahura Mazda.
In the heavenly hierarchy they represent altogether a novel feature.
They are entirely unlike the gods whom mankind had been
accustomed to worship under various names before his advent.
He names these divine qualifications Vohu Manah, 'Good Mind,'
Asha, 'Righteousness,' Khshathra, 'Divine Kingdom,' Armaiti,
'Devotion,' Haurvatat, 'Perfection,' and Ameretat, 'Immortality.'
They form Ahura Mazda's being. That is, Vohu Manah is
Ahura Mazda's Good Mind or Good Thought, Asha is his Righteousness
and so are others his different virtues. This idealistic
phase that Zarathushtra puts before man does not long retain its
character. The abstract virtues soon get detached from Ahura
Mazda and assume thin personification. In two instances we
meet with the appellative terms Mazdâo (schâ) Ahurâonghô
'Ahura Mazda and his associates,'1 like the Vedic plural expressions
Varunas and Rudras.2 Here we witness the Amesha
Spentas or the Holy Immortals of the post-Gathic period in the
making.

2. See Tiele, The Religion of the Persian Peoples, tr. Nariman, p. 116.

[40]
These six divine attributes which we have said tend towards
forming the heavenly host of Ahura Mazda, it is suggested, have
originated under the influence of the Vedic Adityas.3 Unlike
the seven Gathic divine appellations, the Adityas, however, are
variously spoken of as six or seven or eight or even twelve in
number. They include great Vedic divinities like Varuna, Mitra,
Aryaman, Indra, and others and even sun and moon and fire.
Zarathushtra has set his face against them. His spiritual impersonations
of the godhead are, it seems to us, a class by themselves
and are particular to him.

Vohu Manah, Asha, and Khshathra are neuter nouns taken
in the later Avestan as male members of the divine hierarchy and
Armaiti, Haurvatat, and Ameretat are feminine names. They
occur in the different Gathic stanzas individually or two or three
or four or more together indefinitely. The hexad, or taken
along with Ahura Mazda, the heptad, is not fixed in the Gathas
as we find it in the later Avesta, where it is expressly said that
the Holy Immortals are seven. Yet we have instances where
Ahura Mazda and his six epithets are mentioned together.4
Asha stands first in the number of times he is mentioned and
Vohu Manah, though first of the heavenly host, comes second.
They are followed by Khshathra and Armaiti respectively.
Haurvatat and Ameretat, who invariably occur together, make
up the rear. With the exception of Vohu Manah, whose name is
always a fixed compound with Vohu, 'Good,' qualifying Manah,
'Mind,' all the others have not the stereotyped epithets that the
four of them are given at the later period. At times Vohu Manah's
epithet designating his goodness is transferred to Khshathra.5
As the process towards the personification of Ahura Mazda's
attributes has already begun, it is often extremely difficult to
decide whether the qualitative divine expressions stand for personified
beings or as abstract nouns designating certain virtues
in application to Ahura Mazda himself or to man.

The prominent feature of these six abstract attributes when
they have fully grown into Ahura Mazda's ministering angels is
the twofold character of work they are assigned to perform.
[41]
In addition to a specific virtue that each represents on the spiritual
side, a material object is put under his or her direct guardianship
on the physical side. This physical aspect of their functions
is most marked in the later period. Its origin, however, can be
traced in the Gathas where we find a beginning already made
of associating some one material creation with every one of them.
We shall now deal with them individually.

VOHU MANAH

The first in Ahura Mazda's creation. When Ahura Mazda
was with none beside him, in his supreme isolation, he evolved
in his mind the thought of creating the universe. He named
his first creation after his mind and called him Vohu Manah,
Good Mind.6 Zarathushtra fondly speaks of him as
Ahura Mazda's son.7 He is often addressed in the Gathas in the superlative
as Vahishta Manah, Best Mind.8 Occasionally, Vohu Manah
is converted into Vohu Mainyu, Good Spirit9 or Vahishta
Mainyu, Best Spirit.10 It has to be noted that Vohu Mainyu or
Vahishta Mainyu has nothing in common with Spenta Mainyu
or the Holy Spirit, the first of the two Primeval Spirits of Ahura Mazda.

Vohu Manah is Ahura Mazda's Good Thought. The ethical
system of Zarathushtra has the triad of good thoughts, good words
and good deeds as its basis. Good words and good deeds
proceed from good thoughts and good thoughts are inspired in
man by Vohu Manah. In all his waking hours man thinks and
thinks incessantly. He thinks useful thoughts and wise thoughts
and great thoughts and wholesome thoughts and kindly thoughts
and virtuous thoughts and good thoughts. But he thinks also
idle thoughts and foolish thoughts and mean thoughts and malicious
thoughts and cruel thoughts and vicious thoughts and evil thoughts.
The mind soars high and wings its way in the realm
of righteousness or it sinks low and grovels in the mire of wickedness.
Man thinks thoughts, but thoughts make man. Thoughts
make him a human being, a saint, and an angel; and thoughts
[42]
make him an animal, a sinner, and a demon. Man is thought
materialized in word and deed. Vohu Manah is the ideal that
man as a thinking being has to realize.

Vohu Manah symbolizes Ahura Mazda's wisdom. Man
thinks but he reasons besides, and his reasoning raises him above
the level of the animal world. The Gathas employ khratu and
chisti to designate wisdom. They do not, however, classify wisdom
as the later Avesta distinguishes the innate wisdom from
the acquired wisdom. The loftiest ideal for man upon earth is
to be like unto Ahura Mazda and it is through the wisdom of
Vohu Manah that man can realize it.11 Zarathushtra invokes
Ahura Mazda to grant him the wisdom of Vohu Manah,12 and
longs to be acquainted with the decrees of Vohu Manah.13 He
desires to know to whom among his followers will the wisdom of
Vohu Manah descend.14 The wise man of good understanding
performs deeds that are pleasing to Vohu Manah.15 The enlightenment
that Vohu Manah gives enables the devout to practise
the doctrines of weal and woe.16 They pray for thoughts to turn
where wisdom abides.17 Mazda is implored to fulfil the desires
of the wise who are devoted to Vohu Manah18

Vohu Manah's grace. Zarathushtra adores Vohu Manah
with songs of praise,19 and teaches his followers to offer him
praise.20 He asks Ahura Mazda to teach him how best he
could inspire men to the deeds of Vohu Manah.21 He tells his
heavenly father that he will always work for the furtherance of
the domain of Vohu Manah,22 and adds that as long as he has
strength left in him he will, in union with Vohu Manah, lead
mankind on the path of righteousness.23 He implores Ahura Mazda
to come down to him through Vohu Manah.24 Through
Vohu Manah does the prophet long to reach Ahura Mazda,25
and through the performance of the deeds pleasing unto Vohu Manah
does he long to glorify and reach his maker.26 Pouruchisti
is advised to seek Vohu Manah's fellowship.27 The devout
seek to propitiate Vohu Manah to win his kinship.28 Ahura Mazda
is besought by them to be the revealer of Vohu Manah
[43]
unto them.29 When enlightenment descends upon Zarathushtra,
he longs to see Vohu Manah,30 and prays that he may come to
help him.31 His yearning to have a glimpse of the divine mind
is satisfied. Vohu Manah comes to him and illumines his mind.32
The prophet seeks to know from him the rules of life that lead
to happiness.33 Vohu Manah teaches him the working of
Ahura Mazda.34 He asks Mazda to teach him through Vohu Manah
his secret doctrines.35

Life led according to the promptings of Vohu Manah is life
lived well and Zarathushtra prays for the life, of Good Mind.36
The blessings of Vohu Manah form the precious reward for man
and are gained through the performance of good deeds inspired
by righteousness.37 Zarathushtra longs to know through Vohu Manah
the straight paths of life.38 There are the paths of Vohu Manah
and Mazda is invoked to reveal them,39 Ahura Mazda
grants the prayer and speaks about the paths of Vohu Manah to
Zarathushtra.40 Wicked persons mislead men who strive to live
an upright life and follow the paths of Vohu Manah.41 The
prophet warns his followers against the evil teachers who keep
them back from appreciating the worth of acquisition of Vohu Manah.42
The evil-minded Bendva defies the counsel of Vohu Manah.43
The faithful are eager to learn how they could keep
far from those that do not seek Vohu Manah's counsel.44
The evil doers are separated from Vohu Manah.45 Vohu Manah
leaves those who do not practise righteousness,46 and righteousness
flees from those who follow not Vohu Manah, in the same
manner as noxious creatures fly from men,47 The pious therefore
declare that they will not annoy Vohu Manah.48 Vohu Manah
is dispenser of the riches of the well disciplined mind
and Zarathushtra longs to win it through righteousness.49 The
pious invoke Mazda to reward their efforts to lead righteous lives
by bestowing upon them the riches of Vohu Manah.50 It is the
[44]
teachers of evil that prevent men from valuing these riches.51
The prophet prays for the gifts of Vohu Manah for himself
and his associates.52 Vohu Manah's reward is an incomparable
blessing.53 Ahura Mazda is asked to grant the wishes of those
who are worthy of Vohu Manah's reward owing to their
righteousness.54 Those that are good unto men who endeavour
to lead righteous lives will share the blessings of Vohu Manah.55
They are religious in truth who embrace the good thoughts of
Vohu Manah and base their actions of life upon them; such
persons win prosperity and happiness.56 The prophet prays for
chieftainship through Vohu Manah.57 Man obtains power
through goodness of his mind and he invokes Ahura Mazda to
grant him that power through Vohu Manah.58 Zarathushtra
asks Vohu Manah to bestow power upon his disciples.59 Girt
with such power, man can wage a successful war against wickedness,
therefore do the votaries beseech Vohu Manah to endow
them with it.60 Mazda gives power unto the righteous as reward
through Vohu Manah.61 He is invoked to give endurance and
durability through Vohu Manah.62 These he gives and in addition
he bequeaths upon the good, perfection and immortality.63 Those
who in obedience to the teachings of the prophet do the deeds
of Vohu Manah are given good abodes and joy in life,64 and
perfection and immortality.65 Whoso befriends Mazda through
thoughts and deeds will be given steadfastness of Vohu Manah.66
Vohu Manah protects the poor.67 Through him does Ahura Mazda
know the deserts of mankind.68 Zarathushtra asks
Mazda to let him know the award he will give him through
Vohu Manah.69 Those in whose life righteousness and devotion
are blended, further the dominion of Vohu Manah.70 The
righteous bring prosperity to the World through the deeds of
Vohu Manah71 Mazda awards his bounty to those who through
deeds of Vohu Manah work for the world.72 He promotes the
[45]
best wishes of the truthful workers through Vohu Manah.73
The prophet promises to give through Vohu Manah the best
that is in his power to those who rejoice him by their goodness.74
One acquires the best of the Holy Spirit through the words of
Vohu Manah and the devotion of Armaiti.75 Vohu Manah furthers
the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.76 He prospers the possessions
of those that rejoice Zarathushtra.77 He welcomes the
Turanian Fryans to the joy of Mazda.78 Vohu Manah will announce
the advent of the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.79 He will
establish it at the end of time for those who have helped
righteousness to rout wickedness.80 He will come to the help of
the Saoshyants at the Renovation.81

Vohu Manah's relation to paradise. This becomes most
marked in the later period. The beginning towards this phase is
already to be noted in the Gathas. Vahishta Manah or Best Thought
is spoken of as the paradise itself where the righteous
will go after death.82 Vohu Manah dwells in the heavenly home
along with Mazda and Asha.83 Paradise is said to be the heritage
of Vohu Manah.84 Zarathushtra knows the rewards of deeds
done for Ahura Mazda and desires to lead his soul to paradise
through Vohu Manah.85 Those who oppose the evil deeds of
the wicked who are wilfully blind and deaf to the teachings of the
prophet, will go to the heavenly abode of Vohu Manah.86 The
mighty power of Vohu Manah will be manifested when Mazda
will deal out justice to the righteous, and the wicked through his
fire87 Through the words of Vohu Manah the prophet honours
those who have worked for the divine purpose and whom Mazda
will therefore gather in his abode.88 The pious pray for long life
of felicity in the paradisiac domain of Vohu Manah.89

Vohu Manah in association with cattle. Vohu Manah's
connection with animal life is hinted in the Gathas. This trait
becomes much emphasized in the later period when he becomes the
genius of cattle and takes the animal world under his protection,
[46]
as a secondary part of his function as the premier angel of Ahura Mazda.
When Geush Urvan, as the genius of the sentient
beings, living upon earth, complains of the wrath and rapine to
which the animal kingdom is subjected, Vohu Manah consoles
her with the gladsome news that the creator of the world was
sending Zarathushtra, his messenger, to teach mankind to protect
the cattle and kine.90 In consultation with Vohu Manah,
it is said, Ahura Mazda created cattle and pastures to feed them.91
Vohu Manah is the protector of cattle.92 They are a precious
asset of Vohu Manah and give durability and endurance to mankind.93
It is through the good understanding of Vohu Manah,
that men are inspired to work for cattle.94

ASHA

The Indo-Iranians recognize a universal order prevailing
in the world. Life upon the earth reveals to man that a smooth
and graceful and ordered movement goes on all around him in
nature. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, with their
ceaseless seasonal succession of changes, take their unvarying
course. The tides rise and fan punctually. The dawn and morn
and noon and evening and night go their uninterrupted daily
round. The dying day gives birth to the night The night hangs
its myriad of silvery lamps to lighten the darkness. The dawn
breaks to resurrect the day and the day goes the perennial round
of its birth. The heavens and their glittering hosts, the sun
and the moon and the stars and the planets march at a regulated
space. Despite the casual freaks and caprices, the laws governing
the movements of nature seem to be immutable. This unfailing
regularity of nature led the Indo-Iranians to discern the fact
that a stable order prevailed in the universe which ensured its
existence. They callled it rta. They emulated this universal
order and introduced it in all their human activities. They offered
prayers to gods, they sacrificed to them seasonal offerings.
All this was to be done at fixed times, reciting specific formulas,
chanted in a prescribed manner and with regulated movements
of sacred implements. The ceremonials were thus to be per
[47]
formed in accordance with the established rules and under a
fixed order. This order was rta in rituals or rite, a word derived
from the same stem. Thus step by step they advanced higher
and saw that human life can best be lived when man's relations
with his neighbours, his duty towards his fellowmen and towards
the heavenly beings were regulated according to fixed laws.
Thus they came to recognition of a basic moral order regulating
human affairs and understood by rta employed in ethical matters
as right or righteousness, word, of the same significance. Varuna,
Mitra, and the Adityas, as also Agni and Soma, came to be
regarded as the upholders of the moral order.

Zarathushtra adopts Asha, the variant ofrta. A cardinal
figures most prominently in the Gathas is Asha. Its
familiar and widely known Iranian variant is arta, areta,
equivalent to the Vedic rta. Words derived from this stem must
been freely used in Western Asia and surrounding countries
about four thousand years ago. We gather from the clay
bearing cuneiform inscriptions discovered at Tell-el-Amarna
in Middle Egypt and the great find of tablets at Boghaz-Keui
in Asia Minor that Dushratta, a Mitanni king, was ruling
in Syria about 1600 B.C. In his letter to his brother-in-law
Amenhetep III of Egypt he mentions his brothers who bear the
names Artashumara and Artatama. His grandfather also was
named Artatama. Zarathushtra thus finds the stem arta or areta
in vogue, but we do not find him using it in the Gathas. He uses
its variant asha instead and makes it the basic foundation for the
structure of his moral philosophy. The Later Avestan works
follow him in their general use of the word. It is in the Old
Persian inscriptions, however, that we find the use of arta as
an element of proper names. The Pahlavi writers make a more
frequent use of the arta form than of asha.

Asha stands for Ahura Mazda's righteousness. Ahura
Mazda is the father of Asha, says Zarathushtra.95 He created
Asha through his wisdom.96 Asha is of one will with Ahura Mazda97
He is the counsellor of Ahura Mazda,98 and lives in
one abode with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.99 He is given
the attribute Vahishta, 'best'.100 It is not employed in the Gathas
[48]
as his fixed title, as it becomes in the later Avesta where Asha
Vahishta is used as a compound word.

The Vedic poet asks why does the sun fall not from the sky,
why do waters of the rivers flowing into the ocean not fill it,
where do the stars go during the day and similar questions pertaining
to the working of the cosmic order in nature. Zarathushtra,
in like manner, asks Ahura Mazda to tell him who is
the father of Asha, the embodiment of the order ruling the world,
who has determined the path of the sun and the stars, and by
whom does the moon wax and wane,101 who upholds the earth
and the firmament from falling, who has made waters and plants
and who has given swiftness to winds and clouds,102 who has
made light and darkness, and morning and noon and night.103
In one place we find him telling Ahura Mazda that the sun and
the dawn take their course for his glorification through Asha.104
Asha's one epithet is the shining one.105

A few passages lead us to trace some connection between
Asha and the ritualistic order. Zarathushtra speaks of himself
as a zaotar, Vedic hotar, sacrificing priest, and says that he
learns the straight or orderly way through Asha.106 Ceremonial
offerings are made unto Ahura Mazda and Asha.107 Ahura Mazda
knows those who are best in the celebration of the Yasna
sacrifice according to Asha.108 The devout make ceremonial offerings
to Asha along with Ahura Mazda.109

Zarathushtra best exemplifies Asha's righteousness in his
life. Zarathushtra is pure in body, mind, and spirit. He is the
embodiment of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. He
thinks, speaks, and acts righteousness. He lives in the atmosphere
of righteousness and radiates it all around him. He is the
very righteousness itself living in flesh for the good of mankind.
Righteousness sustains him in his hardships and trials. When his
great prophetic work is beset with untold difficulties; when the
prophet of Ahura faces opposition on all sides; when friends
desert his company and kinsmen abandon his cause; when the
rulers of the land look upon him with suspicion and the wicked
seek to compass his ruin; when, friendless and forsaken, hissed
and hooted, ridiculed and persecuted, he roams about the villages
[49]
and towns of Iran, he turns his eager eyes to Mazda and Asha in
search of inward peace, and obtains it.110 Reduced to the verge
of the direst poverty, Zarathushtra does not seek earthly riches,
but the imperishable wealth of the spirit, that is, righteousness.

Righteousness is the pivot around which the ethics of
Zarathushtra revolves. Asha is the highest word in the Zoroastrian
terminology, and its derivative ashavan forms the epithet
of the man who is most saintly and possesses the noblest character.
The term is applied to Ahura Mazda, Zarathushtra, and to
all who are religious. Righteousness is the will of Ahura Mazda;
it is the rule of man's duty, and to be righteous is synonymous
with being religious. The law of righteousness is the norm to
which the faithful has to conform his life in this world. Good thoughts,
good words, and good deeds form the ethical foundation
upon which righteousness rests and the basis upon which
the entire structure of the system of the Mazdayasnian philosophy
is reared. This noble truth, at once so pithy and simple,
is accessible to all. It does not appeal to the intellectual few
and leave aside the ignorant many; nor does it remain the prerogative
of a few thinkers and philosophers; but it can reach
all and become the cherished possession of the prince and peasant
alike. Every Zoroastrian child imbibes the triad of good thoughts,
good words, and good deeds at its mother's breast.

Zarathushtra longs to see Asha. Zarathushtra yearns to
make Asha his own along with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.111
He longs to see Asha and his heavenly associates.112
He is eager to behold him coming with the devotion of Armaiti.113
Through the deeds prompted by the good thoughts of Vohu Manah
he aspires to reach Asha.114 He implores Asha to come
unto him along with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.115 He
advises his daughter Pouruchisti to seek fellowship with Asha.116
He prays that Hvogva may make Asha her own.117 He longs
for the day when Asha will come among the Fryan nobility
through Armaiti.118 He counsels marrying couples that as husbands
and wives they should strive to excel one another in their
pursuit of Asha.119 Asha is approached through the practice of
noble deeds according to the primeval laws ordained by Ahura
[50]
Mazda.120 Zarathushtra looks for devotion to come with Asha
among his followers.121 Those who live in communion with Asha
reap the best reward.122 Zarathushtra prays for the blessings of
Asha.123 Asha is asked to grant that blessing which forms the
reward of Vohu Manah.124 Zarathushtra, says Ahura Mazda, is
the one man who has heard the divine commandments and undertaken
to live and work for the furtherance of Asha's righteousness.125
The prophet of Ahura Mazda declares that as long as
he shall have vigour and strength he will urge all to yearn for
Asha,126 and work for the spread of Asha's precepts.127 He adds
further that he shall protect Asha's righteousness all his life.128
The pious everywhere welcome Asha's manifestation,129 and the
wise uphold him through their words and deeds.130 Whoso
spreads Asha's righteousness in the house and district is like unto
Ahura Mazda.131 Those that are best unto the righteous ones
shall be in the pastures of Asha and Vohu Manah.132

Asha's work. Zarathushtra knows Ahura Mazda through
Asha.133 He prays for the good deeds of the Holy Spirit and
the wisdom of Vohu Manah.134 He asks Ahura Mazda to give
help through Asha,135 and beseeches him to grant the desires of
those who are devoted to Asha.136 Ahura Mazda gives riches
of Vohu Manah through Asha,137 and Zarathushtra seeks to
learn how the riches can be obtained.138 Those who put down
violence and strife gain Vohu Manah's reward through Asha.139
He is implored to come through Asha and Vohu Manah,140 and
asked to give mighty power through Asha.141 Those who practise
righteousness win power as reward from Ahura Mazda
through Vohu Manah.142 Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda what
reward will be given him through Asha and Vohu Manah.143
These rewards are the blessings of both worlds given by Ahura Mazda
through Asha.144 Zarathushtra asks Asha together with
Vohu Manah about the rules of life that lead to happiness.145
Ahura Mazda sees open and secret faults of men through
[51]
Asha146 Kinship with Vohu Manah is sought through Asha.147
Ahura Mazda wields power between the rival factions of righteousness
and wickedness through Asha.148 Through Asha and
Vohu Manah Ahura Mazda apportions vigour and durability,
weal and immortality unto those who practise righteousness and
good thinking.149 Through Asha's righteousness does the world
prosper by deeds prompted by Vohu Manah's good thoughts.150
Through Asha again is Ahura Mazda's help sought that Vohu Manah
may come.151 Ahura Mazda is implored to reveal knowledge
of the path of Vohu Manah through Asha.152 The creator
of the world confers with Asha to know about a lord who can
alleviate the sufferings of the kine.153 Zarathushtra seeks to
know through Vohu Manah what Asha said to the creator.154
Ahura Mazda is asked to give long life which is Asha's gift.155
The pious declare that they will never provoke the wrath of
Asha.156

Ahura Mazda asks Zarathushtra to seek information from
Asha.157 Asha gives counsel to those who listen to him.158
Wisdom exalts communities through Asha's righteousness.159 Ahura Mazda
knows what is best for man in this life through Asha.160
He teaches his best doctrines through Asha.161 Armaiti is asked
to enlighten the conscience of men through Asha.162 Men of
good understanding know Armaiti's devotion as the source of
Asha's righteousness.163 Asha and Armaiti are united in the
heavenly realms.164 Ahura Mazda has devised his creed with
Asha that Vishtaspa embraces.165 Asha gives power to his zealous
adherents.166 He furthers men's possessions.167 Men make
the pastures prosper through the practice of Asha's righteousness.168
The wicked strive to hinder the good work of those
who further Asha's righteousness by prospering the cattle by
their diligence.169 Ahura Mazda created plants for the cattle.170
Diligent persons gain cattle through Asha.171 The prophet is
awarded precious animals and weal and immortality by Ahura Mazda
through Asha.172

[52]The path of righteousness. The Rig Veda refers to the
path of rta.173 The Gathas similarly speak of the path of Asha,
righteousness, and the idea, as we shall see later, is developed in
the Later Avesta. The path of righteousness leads to paradise
and the wicked souls, we are told, tremble at the Bridge of Judgment
because they have deviated from the path of Asha through
their words and deeds.174 Ahura Mazda dwells in the straight
paths and Zarathushtra seeks their knowledge through Asha.175
Deviation from the path of righteousness spells man's destruction.
Zarathushtra exhorts his hearers that every man and
woman is free to choose for himself or herself the path of
righteousness or the path of wickedness. The decision between
the two ways of life rests with the individual. Man is the arbiter
of his destiny. He has the power and freedom to choose between
truth and falsehood, righteousness and wickedness, good and
evil. He is responsible for the moral choice he makes and is
consequently responsible for his actions. If he makes the right
choice and embraces righteousness, he will reap its reward, but
if, as a free agent, he chooses wickedness, the accountability will
be his and his own daena or self will lead him to retribution.

The discipline of the individual in righteousness. The
prophet inculcates righteousness in his teachings, and strictly
enjoins his followers to combat wickedness. By his birthright
man belongs to the world of righteousness and is sent into this
world for its furtherance and for the destruction of the world
of wickedness. He is a friend of the righteous and their righteousness,
but a foe of the wicked and their wickedness. It is
expressly said that he alone is righteous who is a friend to the
righteous; but he who, through maudlin sentimentality, is good
unto the wicked and palliates his wickedness is to be considered
wicked, for by failing to do his duty he puts a premium on
wickedness.176 To condone evil in a wicked person is a capitulation
to evil. Before the individual sets out to fight wickedness
in the outer world, he has first to establish order in his inner
world. Concord and not discord, order and not disorder, righteousness,
and not wickedness, should be his constant inward experience.
With strict discipline he has to work for the spiritual
development of his self. He is taught to subjugate his passions,
[53]
eradicate evil thoughts from his mind, and conquer the animal
in him by an incessant warfare with the forces of wickedness.
The path of righteousness leads to the abode of Ahura Mazda.177
But the path is not without its difficulties and trials. Firm
resolution, strong will, and sustained effort are required before
one can successfully tread it and reach the final goal. It needs
no effort to be wicked and be a passive victim of the flesh, but
it does take a hero to be righteous and live for the spirit. There
are tempting pitfalls and alluring snares that beguile the devotee
and lead him astray to the path of wickedness. The quest is
fraught with great difficulties. But then the prize it brings is also
matchless. The goal is not easy to reach. Many more are the
chances of misses than of hits, and the aspirant has to try again
and again before he can successfully strike the mark. Our attempt
may prove fruitless for the time being, but there is merit
in having aimed at realizing the ideal. If we win, it is good. If
we lose, it is also good.

Man has to keep himself pure and clean bodily, mentally, and
spiritually. Purity of body and mind is the best thing for man
in life.178 It strengthens righteousness and sanctity. The blending
of the virtues of Vohu Manah and Armaiti in the life of
man makes him righteous. The fusion of the noble qualities
both of the head and heart make the individual righteous. Vohu Manah
purifies the mind, Armaiti sanctifies the heart. Vohu Manah's
knowledge enlightens the world, Armaiti's devotion
ennobles it. Without knowledge man is poor indeed, but without
devotion he courts death in spirit. Knowledge teaches the spirit
the philosophy of life, devotion lends to the spirit the zest to act
it, and the true religion begins with this acting. The philosopher
may think of Ahura Mazda, the metaphysician may speculate
about his origin, but the devout actually imitates him in action.
Knowledge gives a right view of life, teaches man about his
relations to his Heavenly Father and the universe, and creates
ideals for him; but devotion strives to realize these. Knowledge
is good, wisdom is better; but wisdom tinged with devotion is
best. The wise knows Mazda, the devout owns Mazda; and the
blending of the virtues of both makes man the consummate one,
the saint, the ashavan or righteous one.

[54]Righteousness will win over wickedness. The creed of
Asha leads to felicity, whereas the opposite way of wickedness
brings destruction.179 Those who follow the ways of wickedness
destroy the world of Asha's righteousness.180 Zarathushtra
seeks from Asha and his heavenly associates power with which
he and his followers may smite wickedness.181 Asha's righteousness
leaves evil doers who embrace not devotion and good thinking,
just as wild beasts flee from men.182 Vohu Manah leaves
those who think not of Asha.183 Ahura Mazda is invoked to
teach how the faithful can drive away the Druj and those persons
who, in defiance of the divine precepts, follow not
Asha.184 The prophet asks Ahura Mazda how best he can
put wickedness in the hands of righteousness and bring punishment
unto those who embrace wickedness.185 Vohu Manah will
establish the divine kingdom of Ahura Mazda for those who
vanquish wickedness and deliver it into the hands of Asha.186
The world will ultimately embrace righteousness through the
efficacious teachings of the Saviours of the world and Ahura Mazda
is asked to declare when that happy day will dawn over
the world.187 Zarathushtra tells Ahura Mazda that his divine
purpose will be accomplished and his name will be glorified when
as ordained by him both men and demons will see at the end of
the world that Asha triumphs and his righteousness smites wickedness
and the world will be blessed with the happy tidings.188
He fervently hopes for the period when every individual in
his or her own capacity will embrace and act righteousness and
will thus make the entire world of humanity gravitate towards
Asha. In this consists the final victory of good over evil, and the
Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda will come when righteousness
wholly pervades the universe. All, therefore, have to contribute
to this mighty work. The righteous ones living in different ages
and at different places form the members of one righteous group,
inasmuch as they are all actuated by one and the same motive
and work for the common cause. Though differentiated by time
and place, as also by their respective tenements of clay, they are
one in spirit, and work for the inauguration of the Kingdom of
Righteousness.

[55]Fire is the visible symbol of righteousness. Zarathushtra
says that the best offerings that the pious can make to the fire of
Ahura Mazda are the righteous deeds inspired by Asha and
proclaims that as long as he has vitality left in him he will think
of Asha whenever he will carry his gift of adoration unto fire.l89
Through the fire and the thought of Ahura Mazda, he says, he
will find protection against the Evil Spirit and his evil machinations
and it is through them that Asha's righteousness will thrive.190

Physical impurity is removed by fire and Zarathushtra employs
this emblem of purification in the eschatological sense to
burn and destroy spiritual uncleanliness or sin. Thus will the
fire be the great purifier of souls steeped in wickedness. Through
Asha and fire will Ahura Mazda give his final award unto the
good and the evil.191 Asha and Armaiti will help Ahura Mazda
when he will separate the righteous from the wicked through his
fire.192 The fire of Ahura Mazda is mighty through Asha and
will bring manifest joy unto the righteous but a visible harm
unto the wicked.193 Ahura Mazda's might and holiness, says
Zarathushtra, will be manifest when he will deal out the destinies
unto the righteous and the wicked through the glow of fire
strengthened by Asha.194

KHSHATHRA

The sovereign power of Ahura Mazda. One of the first
attributes that man learns to discern in the heavenly beings is
their might or power. It is manifest in their activities as creatures,
sustainers, and rulers. The ancestors of the Indo-Iranians
called it kshatra, and applied it to Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and the
Adityas. Zarathushtra, we find, adopts it in its Iranian form
khshathra and uses it in its ordinary meaning, power, or applies
it specifically to divine power, symbolized in the Kingdom of
Ahura Mazda. He gives it the epithet vohu and calls it vohu
khshathra, 'the Good Kingdom,195 or speaks of it as khshathra
ishtoish, 'the Kingdom of Desire,'196 or names it Khshathra vairya,[56]
'the Wished for Kingdom.'197 Ahura Mazda has created
Khshathra.198 In the post-Gathic period the compound Khshathra Vairya
gains ground and is always used as the name of the
archangel representing Ahura Mazda's divine majesty.

Zarathushtra exhorts mankind to work for the establishment
of the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. The creator, ruler, and
sovereign lord of both the worlds is Ahura Mazda. The pious
invoke him to lead them to work in his kingdom upon earth for
the prosperity of men and their cattle.199 They pray that they
may get happy homes, rich in pastures, attended by Khshathra.200
All creatures prosper in Mazda's Kingdom through Vohu Manah,201
and through him again Ahura Mazda gives Khshathra's
power to the good.202 Nobler than the sphere of earthly riches
is Khshathra's domain of spiritual riches. Ahura Mazda rules
over his earthly kingdom and prepares mankind for his celestial
kingdom of perfection and goodness that is yet to be. Despite
its much good, this world harbours in its midst much that is
evil. Man's work in this life is to fight and rout the forces of
evil. Zarathushtra had laid the foundation of the Divine Kingdom
and has assigned to man the stupendous task of building
and establishing the ideal kingdom in which good alone will exist.
Evil lurks in man and through man bestrides the world. It is
his duty to cleanse his inner nature of all impurity and eradicate
evil from the world without. Zarathushtra is hopeful and confident
that one day evil will not be. It is left to man to bring
that day near or keep it at a distance. It is in his hands to accomplish
it now or keep it long in the coming. The prophet
of Ahura Mazda is in earnest and eager to hasten its advent. He
asserts, with repeated emphasis, that the Kingdom is near at hand,
if only mankind sets about zealously and strenuously to inaugrate
it. He passionately exhorts his hearers not to waver, not to
be staggered by the formidable nature of the task, but to aspire
and work and struggle and fight for it with body and mind,
heart and soul. With deep religious fervour he sings that he is
ready to lay down the life of his body to lead mankind to work
for the advancement of the Kingdom in obedience to the commandments
of Ahura Mazda.203 With Ahura Mazda on his side,
[57]
he makes the good thoughts of Vohu Manah and righteousness
of Asha his own and, with the burning devotion of Armaiti, he
works for the advent of the imperishable Kingdom.204 Triumph
of righteousness over wickedness will usher in the Kingdom
and he prays for strength for himself and his followers so that
they may wage a successful war against wickedness.205

The pious pray that they may participate in the inauguration
of the Kingdom of Mazda.206 Vohu Manah, the guardian of
good thoughts, furthers the Kingdom.207 As right thinking is
the source of good conduct and endeavour to work for the advent
of the Divine Kingdom, it is sometimes spoken of as belonging
to Vohu Manah. The Kingdom, it is said, is in the possession
of Vohu Manah and Ahura Mazda and Asha and Armaiti live
in it.208 The Kingdom of Vohu Manah is furthered by Asha's
righteousness.209 To be worthy of entering the Divine Kingdom
and living in it is man's highest aspiration. Asha assures the life
in the Kingdom to those who work zealously for the furtherance
of righteousness.210 Through righteousness is the divine help
gained in Mazda's Kingdom.211 Zarathushtra is eager to enter
the blessed Kingdom,212 and a long life of felicitous existence in
it,213 and to share its splendours.214 Wise Jamaspa courts the
life of righteousness and longs for the Kingdom as the gift of
Vohu Manah.215 Zarathushtra prays that Frashaoshtra may win
the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda for all time;216 He asks Ahura Mazda
to manifest unto him the incomparable things that mankind
will witness in the Divine Kingdom as the reward of Vohu Manah.217
Ahura Mazda is asked to give the Kingdom through
Vohu Manah as reward to those whom he knows to be doing what
is best in life.218

The Divine Kingdom in the world of perfection. Vohu Manah
will proclaim the advent of the Kingdom.219 Ahura Mazda
has ordained through Vohu Manah and Asha to give unto
the good perfection and immortality in his Kingdom.220 Through
[58]
Khshathra he apportions the destinies unto the good and the evil
according to their deserts.221 The pious yearn for the presence
of Ahura Mazda with Vohu Manah, Asha, and Khshathra when
they enter the paradisiacal Abode of Song.222 Ahura Mazda
will come at the final goal accompanied by his Holy Spirit,
Vohu Manah, Asha, Khshathra, and Armaiti.223 With evil eradicated
and imperfection at an end, the world that will emerge on
the occasion of the establishment of the Divine Kingdom will
be altogether a new world, a perfect world.224

Khshathra's sphere over metals. Ahura Mazda has created
the earth rich in soil and has filled its bowels with untold mineral
wealth and has desired that mankind should thrive and prosper
through the riches obtained by their diligence and labour.
Wealth is the natural concomitant of all earthly kingdoms. All
earthly and spiritual riches therefore are embodied in Khshathra.
The later Avestan texts assign the guardianship of metals, the
visible token of wealth, to Khshathra. The Gathas are silent
over the connection of Khshathra with metals. The ordeal of
molten metal does however play a prominent part in cleansing
the world of all moral impurities to make way for the coming of
Khshathra's Kingdom. Ahura Mazda knows best the retributions
that will take place through the molten metal.225 The
righteous will reap their final reward and the wicked will meet
with their retribution when Ahura Mazda will judge them through
the molten metal.226

ARMAITI

The feminine abstraction of Ahura Mazda's devotion.
Armaiti is cognate with Vedic Aramati, who is a shadowy personification
of piety or devotion, She retains the same meaning
in the Gathas and is emblematic of Ahura Mazda's love or devotion.
Ahura Mazda created her,227 and she is lovingly called
his daughter,228 or again, his own.229 Holy or spenta, which is
her standing epithet in the later period, is applied to her sometimes
in the Gathas.

Zarathushtra's soul is wedded to Ahura Mazda through
Armaiti's devotion. Through fervent meditation on his own
[59]
inner nature and patient study of Ahura' Mazda's marvellous
work in creation, Zarathushtra understands the ways of Ahura Mazda.
He knows the wise lord through the enlightenment of
his mind. His heart yearns to own Ahura Mazda. From the
depth of his heart, he prays unto him, invokes him in silence
and with the pronounced words of his mouth. He burns incense
of devotion unto his maker upon the fire burning on the altar in
the holy temple of his heart. The fire first flares and flickers, then
blazes and burns, and illumines the sublime path that leads to
Ahura Mazda. He dedicates his will and his desire and his heart
and his life and himself unto him. He loses himself in devoted
love for him. He sees with Ahura Mazda's eyes and hears with
Ahura Mazda's ears. He communes with him and he becomes
one with him. He is eager that his hearers should share the incomparable
gift of Armaiti with him. With earnest longing he
asks Ahura Mazda when Armaiti's devotion will ennoble the
lives of those to whom he proclaims his faith.230 The members of
different ranks of Iranian society that have embraced his religion
fervently pray that the good and holy Armaiti may be
theirs.231 Those who have devoutly accepted the commandments
of Ahura Mazda are eager to devote their hearts unto
him.232

Armaiti's work. Armaiti teaches the ordinances of Ahura Mazda.233
She furthers the imperishable Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.234
Those who make Armaiti's devotion their own, becomes
holy.235 Armaiti blesses them with plenty and prosperity.236
Ahura Mazda is asked to give vigour through her.237 Zarathushtra
asks the faithful to exalt Ahura Mazda with devotional
prayers.238 His religion inspires truthful deeds through the
words of Armaiti.239 In the Vedas we find Aramati linked with
rta, that is, devotion in connection with the moral order.240 So
we are told in the Gathas that Asha's righteousness is furthered
by Armaiti.241 As righteousness is the outcome of the life of
Armaiti's devotion, the wise one bases his conduct upon her inspiration.242
The prophet asks Frashaoshtra to lead the faithful
to the life of communion with Asha's righteousness and

[60]
Armaiti's devotion.243 For the union of both furthers the Kingdom
of Vohu Manah244 The coming of Asha and Armaiti to
inspire their lives is eagerly sought by the pious.245 Armaiti inquires
after the misdeeds and shortcomings of the true speaker
and the false speaker, the wise and the ignorant.246 The wicked
Bendva, the inveterate foe of the prophet, does not follow
Armaiti.247 Righteousness deserts those who know Armaiti as
the beloved of Ahura Mazda, and yet estrange themselves from
her devotion.248 Zarathushtra asks her to give him and Vishtaspa
their heart's desire.249 He implores her to teach men's consciences
through righteousness.250 She is besought to grant as a gift the
riches of the life of Vohu Manah's good thoughts.251 One serves
the Most Holy Spirit the best by the performance of the deeds
inspired by Armaiti's devotion.252 Armaiti is invoked to send
righteous sovereigns and not wicked ones to rule over the
world.253 Armaiti will co-operate with Ahura Mazda at the final
dispensation.254

Armaiti's relation to the earth. Sayana glosses Aramati by
bhûmi, 'earth'. Armaiti plays a prominent part as the genius of
earth in the later Avestan period. Though the Gathas do not
clearly emphasize this aspect of her work, we can trace in them
the belief in Armaiti's connection with the earth. Zarathushtra
preaches the usefulness of settled agricultural life as
opposed to the nomadic life prevailing in his days. He says that
Ahura Mazda has laid out the beneficent path of agriculture and
asks men to choose it. Armaiti is here conjointly mentioned
with Geush Tashan.255 The noble descendants of the Turanian
Fryana, prompted by righteousness, further the settlements of
Armaiti through their diligence.255a The Maker has, in consultation
with Vohu Manah, the genius of cattle, created Armaiti
or earth and replenished it with pastures.256

HAURVATAT AND AMERETAT

The inseparable pair of perfection and immortality.
Haurvatat and Ameretat form an indissoluble spiritual pair and
are always celebrated together in the Gathas. No single hymn
[61]
is addressed to Haurvatat or to Ameretat alone. Haurvata means
or perfection, and Ameretat is emblematic of immortality.
The dual earthly gift of endurance and vigour of body is paralleled
with the heavenly blessings of perfection and immortality.257
Ahura Mazda bestows through Vohu Manah and Asha endurance
and vigour of body in this world and Haurvatat's perfection
and Ameretat's immortality in the next, upon those who offer
him the sacrifice of devotion.258 The earthly boons are the gifts
of Haurvatat and Ameretat.259 Whoso piously pronounces the
sacred formulas dedicated to Haurvatat and Ameretat receives
the best reward.260 Through the recital of these holy words and
basing their lives upon righteousness, do the faithful win for
themselves the blessings of Haurvatat and Ameretat.261 Zarathushtra
fervently prays for the participation in these blessings.262
Those who offer willing obedience unto the teachings of the
prophet will attain unto Haurvatat and Ameretat.263 He who
befriends Ahura Mazda with his thoughts and words and deeds
wins them for himself.264 Man comes by them in Ahura Mazda's
Kingdom through his good thoughts, words, and deeds, and his
life of righteousness and devotion.265 It is the wicked who defraud
mankind of happy life and immortality by means of evil
thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds.266

Water and plants form the province of Haurvatat and
Ameretat. The Gathas hint at the connection of Haurvatat and
Ameretat with water and plants, over whom they preside in the
Later Avesta. Ahura Mazda who has created water and plants
is invoked to give Haurvatat's perfection and Ameretat's immortality.267
On the eschatological side Haurvatat figuratively
represents ambrosia and Ameretat stands for nectar that the pious
souls receive in heaven.268

SRAOSHA

Sraosha is obedience to the religious lore. In the later
period, Sraosha rises to great prominence as the divine teacher
[62]
of Mazda's religion. Zarathushtra longs to see Sraosha",269 and
prays that he may come unto every man whom Mazda Wills.270
The prophet teaches the new faith to the world of humanity. He
exhorts mankind to pay heed to the words that are best for the
mortals to hear and tells them that Ahura Mazda will give them
perfection and immortality if they will bring Sraosha's obedience
unto him.271 By teaching mankind to obey the ordinances of
Ahura Mazda, and inspiring them to work according to them,
through good thoughts, words, and deeds for the furtherance of
righteousness in the world, Zarathushtra helps in the inauguration
of the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.272 In the later
period Sraosha acts as a co-assessor with Mithra and Rashnu,
who all combine to make up a heavenly tribunal for the judgment
of the dead. Mithra and Rashnu, the two brother judges, seated
with Sraosha, do not appear in the Gathas, but a passage speaks
of Sraosha's coming as a judge with the reward unto the good
and evil contending parties.273 Zarathushtra invokes Sraosha
as the greatest of the heavenly beings to appear at the final consummation
of the world.274

The word sraosha occurs also in several Gathic passages in
its ordinary meaning of obedience, and not as the personified
spirit of this abstract virtue.

ATAR

The fire cult. Atar or fire corresponds to the Vedic Agni
Atar's functions are elaborately delineated in the Later Avesta.
We shall therefore leave the discussion of the resemblance between
them for subsequent pages. The early Aryan settlers of
Iran had brought the cult to their new home as their cherished
heritage bequeathed to them by their Indo-Iranian ancestors.
Tradition speaks of several great sacred Iranian fires consecrated
by the pre-Zoroastrian kings. The Pahlavi Bundahishn
says that Yima and Kavi Haosrava established the fires Froba
and Goshasp; and that Vishtaspa, the royal patron of Zarathushtra,
consecrated the fire Burzin Mihr.275 The Mohammedan
writers of the tenth century speak of some ten such places dedicated
[63]
to fire before Zoroaster's time.275a The prophet of Iran
thus found the cult of fire already established in Iran when he
entered upon his divine mission on earth. He purified its archaic
form and incorporated it into his new system. Of all the elements,
he raised fire, or light, to a place of the highest distinction
in his faith.

Ahura Mazda is eternal light, his very nature is light. He
lives in the everlasting lights of the highest heaven. Light in
its various manifestations, whether as the fire of the hearth on
earth, or the fiery substance in the bowels of the earth, or as the
genial glow of the sun in the azure vault of heaven, or the silvery
sheen of the crescent moon in the sky, or the flickering brilliancy
of the stars in the firmament, or even in the form of the life-giving
energy distributed in the entire creation, is emblematic of
Mazda. No wonder, then, if the prophet of Ancient Iran made
fire the consecrated symbol of his religion, a symbol which in
point of sublimity, grandeur, and purity, or in its being the nearest
earthly image of the heavenly lord, is unequalled by any of its
kind in the world.

When Vohu Manah approaches Zarathushtra, and enquires of
him what is his most ardent desire, the prophet replies that his
inmost yearning is to think of righteousness through the devotional
gifts of his homage to Atar's fire.276a When the chosen
of the Lord is thwarted at times in his great mission by the
Druj or Lie, he turns to Atar as one of the protectors that will
best help him in the furtherance of the mighty cause of righteousness.277
The fire of Mazda plays an important part in the work
of the last judgment at the final Renovation of the world. Mazda
has promised through Asha that he will give award unto the
contesting parties of good and evil through fire.278 The Heavenly
Father will deliver his final judgment upon the righteous and the
wicked through fire together with the Holy Spirit.279 It is through
fire that the creator will bestow profit upon the righteous and
bring harm unto the wicked.280 Mazda will apportion reward
and retribution to both the good and the evil through the glow of
fire, which is emblematic of righteousness.281 The believers therefore
pray that fire, which is mighty through righteousness, may
[64]
be a manifest help unto the faithful, but a veritable harm unto
the foe.282 The noble truth of the prophetic words of Zarathushtra
will, in this manner, be vindicated when, at the final
Dispensation, divine judgment shall be meted out to man through
the red fire of Mazda.283

ASHI

The feminine abstraction of sanctity. Ashi represents
sanctity and destiny, or reward. In one passage she is given the
epithet vanghuhi, 'good',284 which in the Later Avesta is inseparably
associated with her name. She represents the life of
piety and its concomitant result. Zarathushtra invokes Asha to
come with Ashi.285 She apportions Mazda's ordinances, about
which the prophet desires to learn.286 He invokes her in his
crusade against Druj, or the Lie.287 Whoso, through the power
that Ashi confers upon him, deprives the wicked of his possessions,
reaps the rewards that Mazda has promised.288

In an eschatological sense, she forms the reward assured in
heaven to those who have led a life of sanctity upon earth. It
is with the accompaniment of Ashi's recompense that Sraosha
approaches the seat of judgment to reward the righteous and
wicked souls289 Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to manifest
unto him the incomparable things of his Divine Kingdom which
are rewards of Vohu Manah,290 and seeks to know the reward
that will be his in the Good Kingdom.291

Ashi's sphere of activity grows in the later development of
her cult and, in addition to representing the reward of the pious
in heaven, she stands also for the earthly prize of those who are
diligent. She becomes the genius of fortune, and the eager eyes
of her numerous votaries are always turned to her for her favour.
This new phase of her activity will receive attention in the place
assigned to her in our treatment of the Later Avestan period.

GEUSH TASHAN AND GEUSH URVAN

The Fashioner of animal life. The Gathas speak of three
beings, Geush Tashan, 'the Creater of the Bull or Cow,' Geush Urvan,
'the Soul of the Bull or Cow,' and Gav Azi, 'the Bull
[65]
or Cow Azi.' Av. gav, and Skt. go, both mean bull or cow. The
Vedic divinities Dyaus, 'the Heaven,' and Prithivi, 'the
Earth,' have the epithets bull and cow applied to them from their
physical characteristics.292 After the analogy of the Skt. go, 'bull
or cow,' which also means earth, some are led to think that the
above expressions are used with reference to the earth.293 The
Pahlavi, Sanskrit, Persian, and early Gujarati versionists, it may
be noted, adhere to the original meaning and explain the words
with reference to the bull or cow.

292. RV. 1. 160.3.

293. Haug, [Martin] Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsis,
[London, 1907,] p. 148; Kanga, Gujarati tr. of the Gathas; Punegar, Eng. tr. of the Gathas in
the Journal of the K.R. Cama Oriental Institute, No. 12.

Some creation-myths of the world relate that the earthly
creatures have sprung from the bodies of the primeval man or
of the cosmic cow killed by the gods or, as in the case of the later
Zoroastrianism, by the Evil Spirit. In Babylonian mythology it
is Marduk who killed Tiamat and the creatures came into existence
from his body. According to the Vedic texts the gods
sacrificed Purusha and brought the earthly and aerial creatures
into being from his body. Ahriman, say the Pahlavi works,
killed Gaya Maretan [Av. 'Gayo-maretan,' Phl. 'Gayomard'], the Primeval Man and Gavyokdat, the
Primeval Bull, and men and animals and plants came into being
from the various parts of their slaughtered bodies.

Cattle were the source of all wealth and the ox who drew
the plough and enabled man to cultivate his field was held in
religious veneration among the pastoral and agricultural Aryans
and Semites from early times. Mithra was the most powerful
Indo-Iranian divinity when Zarathushtra preached his new
religion. The Iranians worshipped Mithra as 'the lord of wide
pastures,' which is his standing epithet in the Younger Avesta.
According to the ancient myth Mithra killed the Primeval Bull
and thereby became the creator and fashioner of the earthly
beings. The Mithraic sculptures represent him sitting on the
bull's back, seizing it by the nostrils with one hand and plunging
his hunting knife deep into its back. Zarathushtra did not include
him in the heavenly hierarchy, but adapted the legend of
the immolation of the Primeval Bull by Mithra to ethical ends.294

[66]
Geush Tashan stands in the Gathas for the creative activity of
Ahura Mazda. He is said to be Ahura Mazda's own,295 and
Mazda is spoken of as his lord.296 Geush Urvan is the spirit of
the animal kingdom, and the obscure Gav Azi, who is spoken of
in the Gathas as the giver of joy and prosperity, represents the
animal creation. Tradition explains Gav Azi as 'the three years
old cow.' It is evidently gav aevodâta, 'the sole created bull or
cow,' of the Later Avesta,297 and Gavyokdât, 'the Sole Created Bull'
of the Pahlavi and subsequent Sanskrit, Persian, and Gujarati versionists.

Zarathushtra declared the only mortal who could assuage
the sufferings of the kine. Geush Urvan complains in a bewailing
tone before Ahura Mazda that anger, rapine, plunder, and
wickedness are harassing its very existence and therefore its
soul sighs for a deliverer.298 Ahura Mazda holds a celestial conference
to redress the grievances of the Soul of the Kine. After
patient deliberations, in which Vohu Manah, the genius of cattle,
Asha, the guardian of peaceful, settled life, and Geush Tashan
take part, Vohu Manah, as the premier councillor, declares
that Zarathushtra is the only mortal who has heard the
divine commands, and he is the one person suited to be sent to
the world as the spiritual and temporal lord who could remove
the grievances of Geush Urvan.299 The Soul of the Kine is
disconsolate and cries in despair that its sufferings are so great
that it would be beyond the power of the prophet to assuage
them.300 Further pleadings soften its despair and Zarathushtra
is chosen for the mighty work.

We can see in this account an attempt to convince the
waverers, disbelievers, and heretics of the true mission of the
prophet. The later texts resort to miracles of various sorts to
fulfil the same purpose. Those who have not yet come, in
Gathic times, to any definite conclusion as to the choice of their
faith, and are still hesitating before embracing the new creed,
are shown how preparations were made in heaven for Zarathushtra's
mission, and how it is with the divine approval that
the new prophet comes to them for their good.

Zarathushtra preaches the advantages of a settled life, and
persuades his hearers to emerge from the pastoral life and embrace
[67]
agricultural habits. He exhorts them to work diligently
for the kine's welfare, grow fodder for their nurture, and lead
an active and an industrious life. This is a stage of transition,
and all could not easily give up the unsettled habits of life in
which they were brought up. Naturally, therefore, there is much
disorder in the land and Zarathushtra enters upon his mission
to establish ordered social life.

Agriculture and cattle-tending bring prosperity. Geush Tashan
is mentioned along with Armaiti's earth and Ahura Mazda
shows the advantageous path of the industrious agriculturist who
tills the earth by his diligence and prospers Vohu Manah's cattle,
whereas the indolent persons who do not practise husbandry
fail to reap the fruits of life.301 Ahura Mazda has
created cattle that give the good things of life to men.302
Moreover, he has created Armaiti's earth for the pasture of Geush Tashan.303
Whoso wishes pasture of cattle reaps the reward for
his labour.304 Ahura Mazda fulfils the desire of the bodily life
of those who, inspired by Vohu Manah, work for the welfare
of the cattle.305 Unto those who lead righteous lives and work
the will of Zarathushtra, will be given in the next world happiness
such as the possession of cattle gives.306