A new alliance is beginning to take shape in South and Southeast Asia with the news that the Bodu Bala Sena (Buddhist Power Force) has invited Wirathu, leader of the 969 movement in Burma, to visit them in Sri Lanka.

There is clearly a new phenomenon emerging and a new term is needed to describe precisely what is happening on the ground with this collection of new Buddhist alliances. There has been much talk of “Buddhist terror”, “extremist Buddhism” and most famously, “the face of Buddhist terror”, however these headlines are sensationalist. A more subtle and nuanced description is needed, focusing upon key features of this new phenomenon in Buddhism taking shape in Burma and other parts of the world, notably Sri Lanka.

There have been those who have commented upon the supposed use of Buddhism by the National Religious Protection Group (NRPG), a group headed by Wirathu, a vanguard leader of ultra-nationalism in Burma. It has also been suggested that the ruling party in Burma, the Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) are manipulating notions of Burmese identity with those of Buddhist identity. However, there is no clear consideration of these elements from the historical perspective of Buddhist ideas.

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“Ethnocentric Buddhism” is a term I have begun to use to describe a particular phenomenon in the history of Buddhism, although I suspect it is not a recent one. The term points to the notion that Buddhist identity is intrinsically linked to national identity. It also denotes the idea that other factors will be apparent in creating Buddhist and national identity in different Buddhist cultures. For example, in Thailand there is the idea of “nation, religion and monarch” (chat-sasana-phramahakasat) and in Burma “nation, language and religion” (amyo-barthar-tharthanar). In both of these examples the idea of the Buddhist religion (sasana/tharthanar) is linked to other factors in the formation of national and cultural identity. Further, in both cases the defence of one’s religion is linked to these other themes of national identity — to defend one is to defend the other.

There are a number of possible factors and ideas that could shape the formation of an ethnocentric type of Buddhism in a given country. Not all of these ideas are available in each cultural context. Some are available across Buddhist Asia, some confined to a particular area, or would have been used during different historical periods. There is the idea of the “true dharma” existing in one particular place and of that location preserving this true version of the Buddha’s teachings. For example, in Sri Lanka after the transmission of Buddhism, some aspects of the Pali Canon would be considered to preserve the essential word of the Buddha. Later, national identity could be built around this idea together with other texts being used and composed together with Buddhist symbols, the tooth relic for example, creating the notion of a direct lineage to the Buddha.

This is clearly linked to the idea of a particular text containing the essential teaching of the Buddha. The so called “Lotus-sutra (Saddharma-Pundarika-sutra) is the best know example, but there are many others. The Abhidhamma could be said to serve a similar purpose in South and Southeast Asian Buddhism. The notion of the decline of the Dharma in its various manifestations (mappō, for example) is clear — the teachings last a set period of time and this lends itself to an urgency for a given people to preserve and defend the teachings of the Buddha. There is the idea that Buddhism is threatened and that there is a very real need to uphold Buddhism because of this threat. The teachings can be corrupted. The idea that the teachings can be corrupted is written into the Buddhist narrative DNA.

This in turn gives rise to a natural sense of “Buddhist nationalism”. What is essential to the tradition is emphasized and “Buddhist fundamentalism” comes to the fore when the “other” is polarised as a threat to the future of Buddhism. In turn Buddhism is linked to ethnicity — a particular ethnic group is under threat and have the need and the necessity to preserve the teachings of the Buddha. Other ethnic groups, unless they come under the control of the dominant Buddhist group are a threat. Movements like the so-called 969 movement in Burma and the Bodu Bala Sena (Buddhist Power Force) in Sri Lanka exemplify some of these ideas.

A possible IslamophobicBuddhism and the Buddhist Defence League are other examples. Unlike in “protestant Buddhism”, where the laity have enhanced importance, the monastics, with all of their symbolic importance are again at the top of the hierarchy of ethnocentric Buddhism. The traditional hierarchical nature of Buddhist culture is returned. The monastics cannot be questioned in their symbolic roles as the direct link between the layperson and the overcoming of dukkha. Once again the aspiration is to one day be reborn, when one can go from home to homelessness and renounce society. This will only be possible if the monastics of the present preserve the Dharma for that future rebirth.

Finally, linking many of these ideas is that of an emerging sense that blasphemy is being committed against Buddhism. Blasphemy is not usually an idea associated with Buddhism but it is coming to prominence in what I am terming ethnocentric Buddhism. It could increasingly be argued that it has indeed been a component, an often prominent one, in other historical periods and might be linked to textual ideas of the sanctity of the Buddha and his tradition.

All of these factors are giving rise to this new phenomenon in Buddhism. We should not term it “Buddhist terror” or “the face of Buddhist terror” but attempt to understand this phenomenon on its own terms in the history of Buddhist doctrine and Buddhist practice.

Dr Paul Fuller has taught Religious Studies at Universities in Southeast Asia, the University of Sydney in Australia and at Bath Spa University in the UK. His research interests include early Indian Buddhist philosophy and the Buddhist ideas of Aung San Suu Kyi. His book, The Notion of Ditthi in Theravada Buddhism: The Point of View(RoutledgeCurzon Critical Studies in Buddhism, 2004) explores the textual basis of discrimination and attachment in the Pali Canon.

The views expressed in this article are the author’s and do not reflect DVB policy.

13 Comments

The way things are developing in Myanmar-pyi is worrying;
especially with regards our culture and Buddhism. I don’t consider what is
going on in Myanmar-pyi with regards religion as true reflection or proper
reflection of what Buddha taught. The inherent very grave and serious danger of
“ethnocentric Buddhism” is losing the true and real essence of what
Buddhism is, or what Buddha taught; and instead being or becoming replaced by
“interpreted theology or Buddhism” in which the “authority or authorities on the philosophy” begin to interpret the
philosophy of Buddhism and the culture thereby opening the way to manipulate
according to their whims; because then, who is going to or be able to decide what
is right or wrong; what should be or should not be? This is not what Buddha taught.

Paul Fuller’s Burma’s Buddhism is a wrong-headed analysis. If he has
been following the trend carefully enough, he would see that Burma’s
“Buddhist terror” has been the product of the quasi- civilian military
government’s deliberate attempt to undermine Aung San Suui Kyi’s movement
for democracy in Burma and it is done through making the 5% Muslim
minority people as the whipping boy (scapegoat) of the Burmese
extremists.

And I thought “Pseudo Fascists” is a term particularly used by western academics for radical Islamists. Seemingly much depends on somebody’s (pseudo) ideological standpoint, intermingled with hate speech in miniature.

What you are mentioning in your first sentence was my thought when reading Mr. Fuller’s essay. And anti Muslim resentment, not only in Myanmar, have to be seen in an overall historical context which should be studied and analysed especially in the Islamic world.

Self has always been pre-eminent, whether you are rich or poor. More so for survival when one has to struggle to get by; especially in this globalized world. Then guilty conscious comes in and one tries to rationalise. one’s thoughts, ideas and actions with one’s religion or beliefs or philosophy. That’s when seemingly logical notions put forth becomes credible and if one is unsure of the philosophy, comes to rely on such interpretations – the interpreted theology. This is the dangerous territory; the abuse and usurping of the truth.

You put the characteristics
of existence (Dasein) into a philosophical nutshell. It indirectly reflects the
driving force of life: Our genetic system. We try to master, control and
overcome its (deeply felt) shortcomings. We have no other choice but using the “perfect-imperfect products” which
could be delivered by the capacity of that system: Spiritual, intellectual and
material ‘components’, e.g. religions, philosophies/ ideologies, technologies . But their effects are seemingly like pharmaceutical products, depending on quality, but all in all just killing the pains (of
existence/life) for a limited or
prolonged time. At present we are trying the
“miracle drug” named GLOBALIZATION”. Let’s
see. I am
pessimistic.

What you think doesn’t really matter since ‘Pseudo Fascists’ can be applied to all established religions.Go through the history of mankind and you will find atrocities committed by man upon man always had religious overtures.Judging from your command of the English language I’m sure you are from Germany and as such you would surely not judge the extermination of European Jewry by the Germans ( I purposely don’t use Nazis as the perpetrators) by saying the Buddhists attack on the Rohingyas had equal ‘legitimate’ reasons.You have not lived or were born and brought up in Burma as I have been and I know the Burmese ‘psyche’ more than you will ever experience.Your paranoia about Islam or Islamists are baseless and as for ‘globalisation’, hasn’t it been a German dream to rule the world which your grandparents tried so hard to achieve in the last century without any success.Those days the Germans sent their Panzers in to do the job, nowadays it’s economic sanctions.The Blitzkrieg tactics don’t work any more because history has taught ‘Blitzkrieg’ is like ‘Strohfeuer’ at its best and like ‘premature ejaculation’ at its worst.This is not hatemongering but a very sober evaluation of what you might call ‘die Wahrheit’.

And the rest of the world hates the Germans,look around you,nobody has really accepted the fact that Germany is now a modern democratic state.People like you will never achieve your gaols of dividing humanity and ruling them.

As a South Asian-focus researcher, it also has to be said that throughout the past 3-4 decades the Saudis have been secretly and often openly, monetarily, supporting the conversion of all Muslims everywhere in S. and SE Asia to their brand of Wahhabist Islam. This has happened in all south Asian countries including Sri Lanka. This version of Islam favors aggressive conversion moves with the goal of establishing shari’a law in every single land with a Muslim majority. It happened in Pakistan under Gen. Zia, it’s partially true of Bangladesh today, both Muslim majority nations.

They were also working on the Muslims in Sri Lanka. Another feature of this brand of Islam is that it outlaws the use of birth control/limits to family size. This is the one feature that activated nationalist hate there and those Nazi-type monastics in Sri Lanka. Most Buddhist majority countries generally limit their fertility to what families can support (the main exception being Cambodia). The Wahhabist domination of Muslim lives in Sri Lanka led eventually to racist fears of “blood dilution” and being “swamped out” in their country by Muslims.
I add this information not in support of fascistoid Buddhism but in the interest of realizing that there are many kinds of Islam both in belief and practice and the type to be alarmed about is Wahhabism and its spinoffs.
Here is a not to be ignored reminder : Saudi Arabia outlaws the open practice of any other religion besides their brand of Islam. This applies to Buddhism as well as other major religions and even to non-Sunni Islam. Saudi has been supporting any and all warfare against Shi’a Islam everywhere in the Middle East–currently going on in Iraq as well. Shi’as are murdered regularly and their mosques destroyed regularly in Pakistan. So this is a dose of additional historical context for those persons who blithely assume that Islam is a religion of peace. Not today, thanks to the efforts of oil-rich Saudi Arabia.