Belief and Software (from "Software and Mind")

This chapter (from "Software and Mind") is an introduction to the mechanistic myth and the mechanistic software myth, and an analysis of the similarity of mechanistic software beliefs to primitive beliefs.

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SOFTWARE AND MIND

This extract includes the books front matter

and the introductory chapter.Copyright 2013 Andrei SorinThe digital book and extracts are licensed under theCreative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivativesInternational License 4.0.

This chapter is an introduction to the mechanistic myth and

the mechanistic software myth, and an analysis of thesimilarity of mechanistic software beliefs to primitive beliefs.The entire book, each chapter separately, and also selectedsections, can be viewed and downloaded at the books website.

www.softwareandmind.com

SOFTWAREAND

MINDThe Mechanistic Mythand Its Consequences

Andrei Sorin

ANDSOR BOOKS

Copyright 2013 Andrei Sorin

Published by Andsor Books, Toronto, Canada (January 2013)www.andsorbooks.comAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, scanning, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.However, excerpts totaling up to 300 words may be used for quotations or similar functionswithout specific permission.For disclaimers see pp. vii, xvxvi.Designed and typeset by the author with text management software developed by the authorand with Adobe FrameMaker 6.0. Printed and bound in the United States of America.

AcknowledgementsExcerpts from the works of Karl Popper: reprinted by permission of the University ofKlagenfurt/Karl Popper Library.Excerpts from The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy by J. L. Talmon: published bySecker & Warburg, reprinted by permission of The Random House Group Ltd.Excerpts from Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell: Copyright 1949 George Orwell,reprinted by permission of Bill Hamilton as the Literary Executor of the Estate of the LateSonia Brownell Orwell and Secker & Warburg Ltd.; Copyright 1949 Harcourt, Inc. andrenewed 1977 by Sonia Brownell Orwell, reprinted by permission of Houghton MifflinHarcourt Publishing Company.Excerpts from The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell: Copyright 1968 Sonia Brownell Orwell, reprinted by permission of Bill Hamilton as the LiteraryExecutor of the Estate of the Late Sonia Brownell Orwell and Secker & Warburg Ltd.;Copyright 1968 Sonia Brownell Orwell and renewed 1996 by Mark Hamilton, reprintedby permission of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.Excerpts from Doublespeak by William Lutz: Copyright 1989 William Lutz, reprintedby permission of the author in care of the Jean V. Naggar Literary Agency.Excerpts from Four Essays on Liberty by Isaiah Berlin: Copyright 1969 Isaiah Berlin,reprinted by permission of Curtis Brown Group Ltd., London, on behalf of the Estate ofIsaiah Berlin.

Dont you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow

the range of thought?.. . Has it ever occurred to you .. . thatby the year 2050, at the very latest, not a single human beingwill be alive who could understand such a conversation as weare having now?George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four

remlacisD

DisclaimerThis book attacks the mechanistic myth, not persons. Myths, however, manifestthemselves through the acts of persons, so it is impossible to discuss themechanistic myth without also referring to the persons affected by it. Thus, allreferences to individuals, groups of individuals, corporations, institutions, orother organizations are intended solely as examples of mechanistic beliefs,ideas, claims, or practices. To repeat, they do not constitute an attack on thoseindividuals or organizations, but on the mechanistic myth.Except where supported with citations, the discussions in this book reflectthe authors personal views, and the author does not claim or suggest thatanyone else holds these views.The arguments advanced in this book are founded, ultimately, on theprinciples of demarcation between science and pseudoscience developed byphilosopher Karl Popper (as explained in Poppers Principles of Demarcationin chapter 3). In particular, the author maintains that theories which attemptto explain non-mechanistic phenomena mechanistically are pseudoscientific.Consequently, terms like ignorance, incompetence, dishonesty, fraud,corruption, charlatanism, and irresponsibility, in reference to individuals,groups of individuals, corporations, institutions, or other organizations, areused in a precise, technical sense; namely, to indicate beliefs, ideas, claims, orpractices that are mechanistic though applied to non-mechanistic phenomena,and hence pseudoscientific according to Poppers principles of demarcation. Inother words, these derogatory terms are used solely in order to contrast ourworld to a hypothetical, ideal world, where the mechanistic myth and thepseudoscientific notions it engenders would not exist. The meaning of theseterms, therefore, must not be confused with their informal meaning in generaldiscourse, nor with their formal meaning in various moral, professional, orlegal definitions. Moreover, the use of these terms expresses strictly thepersonal opinion of the author an opinion based, as already stated, on theprinciples of demarcation.This book aims to expose the corruptive effect of the mechanistic myth.This myth, especially as manifested through our software-related pursuits, isthe greatest danger we are facing today. Thus, no criticism can be too strong.However, since we are all affected by it, a criticism of the myth may cast anegative light on many individuals and organizations who are practising itunwittingly. To them, the author wishes to apologize in advance.

The books subtitle, The Mechanistic Myth and Its Consequences, captures itsessence. This phrase is deliberately ambiguous: if read in conjunction with thetitle, it can be interpreted in two ways. In one interpretation, the mechanisticmyth is the universal mechanistic belief of the last three centuries, and theconsequences are todays software fallacies. In the second interpretation,the mechanistic myth is specifically todays mechanistic software myth, and theconsequences are the fallacies it engenders. Thus, the first interpretationsays that the past delusions have caused the current software delusions; andthe second one says that the current software delusions are causing furtherdelusions. Taken together, the two interpretations say that the mechanisticmyth, with its current manifestation in the software myth, is fostering a processof continuous intellectual degradation despite the great advances it madepossible. This process started three centuries ago, is increasingly corrupting us,and may well destroy us in the future. The book discusses all stages of thisdegradation.The books epigraph, about Newspeak, will become clear when we discussthe similarity of language and software (see, for example, pp. 411413).Throughout the book, the software-related arguments are also supportedwith ideas from other disciplines from philosophy, in particular. These discussions are important, because they show that our software-related problemsxiii

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are similar, ultimately, to problems that have been studied for a long time inother domains. And the fact that the software theorists are ignoring thisaccumulated knowledge demonstrates their incompetence. Often, the connection between the traditional issues and the software issues is immediatelyapparent; but sometimes its full extent can be appreciated only in the followingsections or chapters. If tempted to skip these discussions, remember that oursoftware delusions can be recognized only when investigating the softwarepractices from this broader perspective.Chapter 7, on software engineering, is not just for programmers. Many parts(the first three sections, and some of the subsections in each theory) discuss thesoftware fallacies in general, and should be read by everyone. But even themore detailed discussions require no previous programming knowledge.The whole chapter, in fact, is not so much about programming as about thedelusions that pervade our programming practices. So this chapter can be seenas a special introduction to software and programming; namely, comparingtheir true nature with the pseudoscientific notions promoted by the softwareelite. This study can help both programmers and laymen to understandwhy the incompetence that characterizes this profession is an inevitableconsequence of the mechanistic software ideology.There is some repetitiveness in the book, deliberately introduced in orderto make the individual chapters, and even the individual sections, reasonablyindependent. Thus, while the book is intended to be read from the beginning,you can select almost any portion and still follow the discussion. An additionalbenefit of the repetitions is that they help to explain the more complex issues,by presenting the same ideas from different perspectives or in differentcontexts.The book is divided into chapters, the chapters into sections, and somesections into subsections. These parts have titles, so I will refer to them here astitled parts. Since not all sections have subsections, the lowest-level titled partin a given place may be either a section or a subsection. This part is, usually,further divided into numbered parts. The table of contents shows the titledparts. The running heads show the current titled parts: on the right page thelowest-level part, on the left page the higher-level one (or the same as the rightpage if there is no higher level). Since there are more than two hundrednumbered parts, it was impractical to include them in the table of contents.Also, contriving a short title for each one would have been more misleadingthan informative. Instead, the first sentence or two in a numbered part servealso as a hint of its subject, and hence as title.Figures are numbered within chapters, but footnotes are numbered withinthe lowest-level titled parts. The reference in a footnote is shown in full onlythe first time it is mentioned within such a part. If mentioned more than once,

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in the subsequent footnotes it is usually abbreviated. For these abbreviations,

then, the full reference can be found by searching the previous footnotes nofurther back than the beginning of the current titled part.The statement italics added in a footnote indicates that the emphasis isonly in the quotation. Nothing is stated in the footnote when the italics arepresent in the original text.In an Internet reference, only the sites main page is shown, even when thequoted text is from a secondary page. When undated, the quotations reflect thecontent of these pages in 2010 or later.When referring to certain individuals (software theorists, for instance), theterm expert is often used mockingly. This term, though, is also used in itsnormal sense, to denote the possession of true expertise. The context makes itclear which sense is meant.The term elite is used to describe a body of companies, organizations,and individuals (for example, the software elite); and the plural, elites,is used when referring to several entities, or groups of entities, within such abody. Thus, although both forms refer to the same entities, the singular isemployed when it is important to stress the existence of the whole body, andthe plural when it is the existence of the individual entities that must bestressed. The plural is also employed, occasionally, in its normal sense a groupof several different bodies. Again, the meaning is clear from the context.The issues discussed in this book concern all humanity. Thus, terms likewe and our society (used when discussing such topics as programmingincompetence, corruption of the elites, and drift toward totalitarianism) do notrefer to a particular nation, but to the whole world.Some discussions in this book may be interpreted as professional advice onprogramming and software use. While the ideas advanced in these discussionsderive from many years of practice and from extensive research, and representin the authors view the best way to program and use computers, readers mustremember that they assume all responsibility if deciding to follow these ideas.In particular, to apply these ideas they may need the kind of knowledge that,in our mechanistic culture, few programmers and software users possess.Therefore, the author and the publisher disclaim any liability for risks or losses,personal, financial, or other, incurred directly or indirectly in connection with,or as a consequence of, applying the ideas discussed in this book.The pronouns he, his, him, and himself, when referring to a genderneutral word, are used in this book in their universal, gender-neutral sense.(Example: If an individual restricts himself to mechanistic knowledge, hisperformance cannot advance past the level of a novice.) This usage, then, aimssolely to simplify the language. Since their antecedent is gender-neutral(everyone, person, programmer, scientist, manager, etc.), the neutral

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sense of the pronouns is established grammatically, and there is no need for

awkward phrases like he or she. Such phrases are used in this book only whenthe neutrality or the universality needs to be emphasized.It is impossible, in a book discussing many new and perhaps difficultconcepts, to anticipate all the problems that readers may face when studyingthese concepts. So the issues that require further discussion will be addressedonline, at www.softwareandmind.com. In addition, I plan to publish therematerial that could not be included in the book, as well as new ideas that mayemerge in the future. Finally, in order to complement the arguments abouttraditional programming found in the book, I plan to publish, in source form,some of the software applications I developed over the years. The website,then, must be seen as an extension to the book: any idea, claim, or explanationthat must be clarified or enhanced will be discussed there.

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introduction

Belief and Software

This book is largely a study of delusions mechanistic delusions. But, whereas

in the following chapters we discuss the logical aspects of these delusions, inthis introductory chapter we concentrate on their human aspects.Belief, as we all know, is stronger than reason. For a person who believes thatthe number 13 brings misfortune, a hundred logical arguments demonstratingthe fallacy of this idea amount to nothing; at the same time, one story of anaccident that occurred on the 13th day of a month suffices to validate the idea.Similarly, we will see, it is quite easy to expose the absurdity of the mechanisticbeliefs. Yet hundreds of millions of people people who think of themselves asmodern and rational spend a great part of their life engaged in activities thatare, essentially, an enactment of these beliefs. Clearly, it would be futile toattempt to understand the mechanistic myth without taking into account itsemotional roots.It is in order to emphasize their primacy, therefore, that I deal with thehuman aspects of the mechanistic myth before its logical aspects. But this bookis concerned, ultimately, with logical thinking. Thus, a second reason forincluding the study of human nature in the introduction is that it is only a briefdiscussion of this important topic.

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modern myths

introduction

Modern Myths

The historian of religions Mircea Eliade predicts that the understanding of

myth will one day be counted among the most useful discoveries of thetwentieth century. Myths used to be considered along with fairy tales,legends, and fables merely folklore: picturesque stories transmitted to us fromancient times, perhaps carrying some moral lessons, but generally of littlevalue in the modern world. It is only recently, starting with the work ofanthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski, that we have come to view mythsin a new light. These scholars studied the life of primitive societies extant invarious parts of the world by living among those people and learning theirlanguages and customs. As these cultures exemplify all early societies, thisinformation, combined with our historical knowledge, has helped us to form amore accurate picture of the capabilities, values, and beliefs of archaic man.Even more importantly, it has helped us to understand the development andnature of our own, present-day culture.One thing we have discovered from these studies is the critical function thatmyth fulfils in a human society. Myth, according to Malinowski, suppliesthe charter for ritual, belief, moral conduct and social organization. Farfrom being simply folklore, myths are the foundation upon which the entiresocial system rests: Studied alive, myth . .. is not symbolic, but a directexpression of its subject matter; it is . .. a narrative resurrection of a primevalreality, told in satisfaction of deep religious wants, moral cravings, socialsubmissions, assertions, even practical requirements. Myth fulfills in primitiveculture an indispensable function: it expresses, enhances, and codifies belief;it safeguards and enforces morality; it vouches for the efficiency of ritualand contains practical rules for the guidance of man. Myth is thus a vitalingredient of human civilization; it is not an idle tale, but a hard-worked activeforce.It is wrong to study a myth by inquiring whether it makes sense. Myths area sacred tradition, and the main object of sacred tradition is not to serve as achronicle of past events; it is to lay down the effective precedent of a glorified Mircea Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries: The Encounter between ContemporaryFaiths and Archaic Realities (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), p. 38. Bronislaw Malinowski, Myth as a Dramatic Development of Dogma, in Malinowskiand the Work of Myth, ed. Ivan Strenski (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1992), p. 122. Bronislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion, and Other Essays (Garden City, NY:Doubleday Anchor, 1954), p. 101.

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past for repetitive actions in the present. We must study, therefore, not somuch the text of a story or legend, as its effects on living society. Myths makeabsurd claims, but we must ignore their scientific inaccuracy. The extravagantelements in the myth ... can only be understood by reference to ritual, ethical,and social influences of the story on present day conduct.A myth, then, must be judged solely by its power to inspire large numbersof people. Blatant impossibilities or inconsistencies do not detract from itspower. On the contrary, since it is precisely the fantastic elements in a myththat impress us, they are its most important value. Thus, a story that makesonly reasonable and verifiable claims cannot possibly serve as myth.Eliade notes how quickly our perception of the function of myth haschanged, from the belief that it is only fables, to the appreciation that a manof the traditional societies sees it as the only valid revelation of reality. Thefunction of myth is the exact opposite of what we thought it to be: rather thanrelying on proven knowledge in their important activities and turning to mythsin their diversions, it is actually in their important activities that the primitivesrely on myths. Because they are inherited from previous generations, myths arebelieved to represent unquestionable facts: The myth is thought to expressabsolute truth, because it narrates a sacred history. ... Being real and sacred,the myth becomes exemplary, and consequently repeatable, for it serves as amodel, and by the same token as a justification, for all human actions.Conversely, something that is not reflected in myths is deemed to be untrueand profane.The greatest benefit that emerges from the study of myth is not a betterunderstanding of primitive cultures, but a better understanding of our own,modern culture. We must integrate the myth into the general history ofthought, by regarding it as the most important form of collective thinking.And, since collective thinking is never completely abolished in any society,whatever its degree of evolution, one did not fail to observe that the modernworld still preserves some mythical behaviour. Thus, upon the plane of socialliving, there was no break in the continuity between the archaic world and themodern world.But there seem to be few myths left in the modern world. Moreover, thosethat still exist do not seem to provide anywhere near the powerful inspirationthat myths provided in earlier civilizations. So this important question arises:If the myth is not just an infantile or aberrant creation of primitive humanity,but is the expression of a mode of being in the world, what has become of myths Malinowski, Dramatic Development, p. 123. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 24. Ibid., p. 24. Ibid.

Ibid. Ibid., p. 23.

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in the modern world? Or, more precisely, what has taken the essential placeoccupied by myth in traditional societies? It seems unlikely that any societycould completely dispense with myths, for, of what is essential in mythicalbehaviour the exemplary pattern, the repetition, the break with profaneduration and integration into primordial time the first two at least arecosubstantial with every human condition.The absence of myths in modern society, thus, is an illusion. In reality,because human nature has not changed, modern cultures too are founded onmyths. All that has happened is a shift in the type of myths that inspire us: ourpreoccupations are different from those of our ancestors, so our myths too aredifferent. It is a mistake to study the old myths, and to conclude that, since weno longer take them seriously, we no longer depend on myths.To understand the mass delusions that possess our present-day society, wemust uncover the myths that shape our collective thinking today. Let us brieflyreview some of these myths.

George Steiner refers to the intellectual, political, and social ideologies of thenineteenth and twentieth centuries as surrogate creeds, anti-theologies, metareligions, or mythologies. These ideologies emerged as a result of the declineof formal religion since the Renaissance. Thanks to the growth of knowledge,Western mans absolute belief in God, which had guided him for centuries,suddenly came to an end. This created a spiritual vacuum and the longing fora new, equally powerful subject of belief: Where there is a vacuum, newenergies and surrogates arise. Unless I read the evidence wrongly, the politicaland philosophic history of the West during the last 150 years can be understoodas a series of attempts more or less conscious, more or less systematic,more or less violent to fill the central emptiness left by the erosion oftheology.Steiner discusses three ideologies: Marxism, Freudian psychoanalysis, andLvi-Strausss structuralism. These systems of ideas have several characteristicsin common: totality, by which I simply mean the claim to explain everything;canonic texts delivered by the founding genius; orthodoxy against heresy;crucial metaphors, gestures, and symbols. And it is these characteristics thatbetray their mythological nature: The major mythologies constructed in the Ibid. Ibid., p. 31. George Steiner, Nostalgia for the Absolute (Toronto: CBC Enterprises, 1974), p. 2. Ibid. Ibid., p. 4. We will also encounter these three ideologies in chapter 3, where we will seethat, unsurprisingly, they are based on pseudoscientific theories.

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West since the early nineteenth century are not only attempts to fill theemptiness left by the decay of Christian theology and Christian dogma. Theyare themselves a kind of substitute theology. They are systems of belief andargument which may be savagely anti-religious, which may postulate a worldwithout God and may deny an afterlife, but whose structure, whose aspirations,whose claims on the believer, are profoundly religious in strategy and ineffect.Isaiah Berlin shows that, in their attempt to explain social evolutionscientifically, the modern social theories were compelled to ignore the roleplayed by individuals. Human history, according to these theories, is controlledby some mysterious forces and processes variously represented as classstruggles, cultural clashes, geo-political conditions, technological changes, etc.While described in scientific terms, these mighty forces and processes areperceived as supernatural, mythological entities. They manage to explain socialevolution only by remaining unexplained themselves, so in the end, thesetheories in reality, pseudosciences are no different from the religious beliefsof the past: There has grown up in our modern time a pseudo-sociologicalmythology which, in the guise of scientific concepts, has developed into a newanimism certainly a more primitive and naive religion than the traditionalEuropean faiths which it seeks to replace.Eliade compares the modern political myths with the classical myths:Eschatological and millennialist mythology recently reappeared in Europein two totalitarian political movements. Although radically secularized inappearance, Nazism and Communism are loaded with eschatological elements:they announce the end of this world and the beginning of an age of plentyand bliss.Both Communism and Nazism were seen by their followers as the modernequivalent of the struggle between good and evil a common mythologicaltheme. Communism is based on one of the great eschatological myths of theMiddle Eastern and Mediterranean world, namely: the redemptive part to beplayed by the Just (the elect, the anointed, the innocent, the missioners, inour own days by the proletariat), whose sufferings are invoked to change theontological structure of the world. In fact, Marxs classless society, and theconsequent disappearance of all historical tensions, find their most exactprecedent in the myth of the Golden Age which, according to a number oftraditions, lies at the beginning and the end of History. Ibid. Isaiah Berlin, Historical Inevitability, in Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1969). Ibid., p. 110. Mircea Eliade, Myth and Reality (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), p. 69. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, pp. 2526.

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As for the other great political myth of the twentieth century, in its effortto abolish Christian values and rediscover the spiritual sources of the race that is, of Nordic paganism Nazism was obliged to try to reanimate theGermanic mythology. Thus, the Aryan represented at once the primordialAncestor and the noble hero, ... the exemplary model that must be imitatedin order to recover racial purity, physical strength, nobility, the heroic ethicsof the glorious and creative beginnings. Some of our myths are embodied in literary works, movies, televisionshows, sports, and popular entertainment. Archaic societies had no need forsuch distractions, because in their normal life daily work, hunting, war,family and social activities they were constantly reenacting sacred myths.Having desacralized our world, and especially our work, we had to invent someuseless activities, collective and personal, as substitutes for the reenactment ofmyths.For example, a popular myth in current American culture is the myth of thelone saviour: A community in a harmonious paradise is threatened by evil:normal institutions fail to contend with this threat: a selfless superhero emergesto renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive task: aided by fate,his decisive victory restores the community to its paradisal condition: thesuperhero then recedes into obscurity. Variations of this myth form the maintheme in countless movies and television series, and its popularity can beexplained by comparing it with the old religious myths: The supersaviors inpop culture function as replacements for the Christ figure, whose credibilitywas eroded by scientific rationalism. But their superhuman abilities reflect ahope for the divine, redemptive powers that science has never eradicated fromthe popular mind. The presentation of such figures in popular culture has thepower to evoke fan loyalties that should be compared with more traditionalforms of religious zeal.Similarly, the characters of the comic strips present the modern version ofmythological or folklore Heroes. For instance, the myth of Supermansatisfies the secret longings of modern man who, though he knows that he is afallen, limited creature, dreams of one day proving himself an exceptionalperson, a Hero. Cultural fashions in literature, art, music, philosophy, even science act ineffect as modern mythologies: One of the fascinating aspects of the culturalfashion is that it does not matter whether the facts in question and their Ibid., p. 26. Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 183. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 37. Robert Jewett and John S. Lawrence, The American Monomyth (Garden City, NY:Anchor/Doubleday, 1977), p. xx. Ibid. Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 184185. Ibid., p. 185.

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interpretation are true or not. No amount of criticism can destroy a vogue.

There is something religious about this imperviousness to criticism. .. . Theirpopularity, especially among the intelligentsia, reveals something of Westernmans dissatisfactions, drives, and nostalgias.Paul Kurtz discusses the similarities between classical religions andmodern belief systems. He accepts the fact that human beings are susceptibleto irrational beliefs, that we are possessed by a transcendental temptation.But, he says, we must find a way to overcome this weakness, because a societydominated by myths faces great dangers: The transcendental temptation lurksdeep within the human breast. It is ever-present, tempting humans by the lureof transcendental realities, subverting the power of their critical intelligence,enabling them to accept unproven and unfounded myth systems. Can we livewithout myths? Can we overcome the defect, as it were, in our natures? Is it sorooted in our natures that it cannot be overcome, but will crop up in generationafter generation, the forms and functions of the transcendental temptation thesame, with only the content different?Although the growth of science seems to offer a hope for overcoming it, wemust remember that these are relatively recent developments and of shortduration in human history.... The transcendental temptation has held sway formillennia, and to hope to mitigate or obviate its continued power may be toengage in wishful thinking.... What guarantee do we have that science too willnot be overwhelmed and superseded by new faiths of unreason commandinghuman imagination?... One cannot predict the future course of human historywith any degree of confidence. Regrettably, often the unthinkable becomestrue. Will the unimaginable again overtake us, as we slip into a new dark ageof unreason? The only option for us to prevent this is to continue to use the artsof intelligence and skeptical criticism against the blind faiths, old and new.. ..Is there any hope that a scientific, secular, or humanist culture can develop andprevail, devoid of transcendental myths?. . . If salvation myths are no longertenable, what will take their place? The dilemma is always that new faiths andnew myths may emerge, equally irrational.Science, however, has been redefined in our universities to mean a blindpursuit of mechanistic theories whether sound or not, whether useful or not.Science, thus, has already been overwhelmed and superseded by new faiths ofunreason by the mechanistic dogma. The mechanistic belief is the new myththat has emerged to replace the old ones. Mircea Eliade, Occultism, Witchcraft, and Cultural Fashions: Essays in ComparativeReligions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), p. 3. Paul Kurtz, The Transcendental Temptation: A Critique of Religion and the Paranormal Ibid., pp. 477478.(Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991). Ibid., pp. 481482.

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the mechanistic myth

introduction

The Mechanistic Myth

1

In this book we are concerned with one particular myth the mechanisticmyth; and we are especially concerned with its latest manifestation thesoftware myth. Mechanism is the belief that everything can be represented as ahierarchical structure; that is, as a structure of things within things. This is true,we are told, because every entity is necessarily made up of simpler entities,which are in their turn made up of even simpler ones, and so on, down to somebasic building blocks.Thus, if we want to understand a complex phenomenon, all we have to do according to the mechanistic doctrine is discover what simpler phenomenamake it up. Then, for each one of those, we must discover what phenomenamake it up, and so on. Clearly, if we continue this process to lower andlower levels of complexity, we are bound to reach, eventually, phenomenasimple enough to understand intuitively. So, by understanding those simplephenomena and the process of simplification that revealed them, we willunderstand the original, complex phenomenon. Ultimately, working in thisfashion, everything that exists in the world can be understood.Similarly, if we want to build a complicated machine, all we have to do isdesign it as a combination of subassemblies. Because the subassemblies ontheir own are simpler than the whole machine, they are easier to design andmake. Then, we design the subassemblies themselves as combinations ofsimpler subassemblies, the latter as combinations of even simpler ones, and soon, down to some small parts that can be made directly.If we want to study a set of related entities the people in an organization,the parts stored in a warehouse, the various types of animals all we have todo is depict them with a hierarchical classification. We divide them first intoseveral categories in such a way that all the entities in a category share a certainattribute. Then, we divide each category into several smaller ones on the basisof a second attribute, and so on, until we reach some categories where theentities share all their important attributes and are therefore very similar. In thecase of an animal classification, for example, we may divide them into wild anddomestic, the domestic ones into types like horses, chickens, and dogs, andfinally each type into various breeds.If we wonder how linguistic communication works, we start by noting thatlanguage is made up of sentences, sentences are made up of clauses, and clausesare made up of words. Words correspond to the facts that exist in the world nouns for objects, verbs for actions, adjectives for properties, and so on. Thus,since everything in the world can be represented as a hierarchical structure, it

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seems that what we do when communicating is create hierarchical structures

of linguistic elements which correspond to the structures that exist in theworld.Finally, if we want to create large and complex software applications, wemust start by breaking them down into modules. We then break down eachmodule into smaller ones, and so on, until we reach some simple softwareconstructs, which we can program directly. This method, clearly, allows us toimplement the most complex applications with skills no greater than thoserequired to program the smallest constructs.

It appears, thus, that the mechanists are right: everything in the world canindeed be represented with a hierarchical structure. The explanation for thisversatility lies in the two principles that constitute the mechanistic philosophy:reductionism and atomism. Reductionism assures us that everything can berepresented as a combination of simpler things; at the same time, atomismassures us that there is an end to this reduction, that we will eventually reachsome elementary entities, which cannot be further divided into simpler ones.Together, therefore, these principles assure us that every problem can be solved.The term mechanism derives from the fact that in the seventeenth century,when this philosophy was established, the elementary entities were believed tobe the simplest mechanical entities; namely, bits of matter. All phenomena,in other words from those encountered in the study of mechanics to thoseencountered in the study of minds and societies were believed to be reducible,ultimately, to the phenomena associated with the motion of bits of matter.Formal reductionism still claims this, although the idea is so absurd thatmost scientists today avoid discussing it. In any case, rigorous mechanism that is, a reduction to truly elementary entities is too difficult to practise, soit is an easier variant that has been adopted in universities as the methodof science. This form of mechanism employs partial reductionism, andacademics like it because it can make trivial activities resemble scientificresearch. Thus, to explain a given phenomenon we no longer have to actuallyreduce it to some basic, indivisible entities; we are free to end the reduction atany convenient level, and simply call those entities elementary. Theoriesgrounded on this method explain nothing, of course; but they look scientific,so the method is very popular.Mechanism is also described as a method that leads to precise and completeexplanations mathematical explanations, in particular. It is easy to see whymathematical models are logically equivalent to the hierarchical structures ofmechanism: Mathematical systems are themselves based on hierarchical

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structures. In a given system, a complex theorem can be expressed as a

combination of simpler theorems, which can then be reduced to even simplerones, and so on, until we reach the premises, axioms, and basic elementsupon which the system is founded. Thus, since we can always invent a mathematical system whose entities correspond to entities from the real world, aphenomenon that can be represented with a hierarchical structure can also berepresented mathematically.And indeed, those aspects of the world that have been successfully explainedthrough reductionism and atomism also have exact, mathematical models.They include the subjects studied by sciences like physics, chemistry, andastronomy, and their applications engineering, manufacturing, construction.Mechanism and mathematics, however, have been far less successful in otherareas. Sciences like biology, physiology, and medicine benefit to some extentfrom mechanistic theories, but their main problems are non-mechanistic. Asfor those sciences that study human phenomena psychology, sociology,linguistics, economics, politics, history, anthropology their problems arealmost entirely non-mechanistic. Finally, our software-related activities, despitetheir dependence on computers and hence on engineering, entail largely nonmechanistic problems.So the mechanistic principles only appear to be universal. In reality, they areuseful for some phenomena and useless for others. In three hundred years ofmechanistic philosophy, not one mechanistic model was successful in thehuman sciences. Countless mechanistic theories have been advanced, andmore are being advanced today than ever before, but when a theory fails noone tries to understand the reason. The response, invariably, is to start workingon another mechanistic theory. Reductionism and atomism have been sosuccessful in those fields where they do work that science is now universallyidentified with mechanism. For most of us, science means simply the attemptto extend the success of mechanism to every other aspect of the world. So anindividual is perceived as scientist simply if pursuing a mechanistic theory. Noone cares whether the theory works or not, or whether mechanism is valid atall in that particular field. Thus, while known as the method of science,mechanism is now largely the method of charlatanism.2

2The obsession with finding a mechanistic representation for every aspect of theworld is especially silly in view of the fact that it is quite easy to see whymechanism cannot explain every phenomenon. All that the researchers have todo is study with an open mind any one of their failures. For, when mechanism

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fails, the reason is always the same: the phenomenon is too complex to berepresented with a neat structure of things within things. We will examinethese failures in the following chapters, but from what we have discussed so farwe can already recognize why mechanism is limited.In the hierarchical structure that is the mechanistic representation of aphenomenon, what determines the relations between levels is the totality ofattributes possessed by the structures elements. Thus, for the structure toprovide an exact and complete explanation, the elements must possess theseattributes in such a way that the relations we see in the structure are the onlyrelations between them. But this is rarely true.The entities that make up the world possess many attributes, and aretherefore interrelated in many different ways. For certain types of phenomena,though, a few of these attributes, and the resulting relations, are much moreimportant than the others; and, sometimes, these attributes also happento define a hierarchical relationship. Thus, if we agree to ignore the otherattributes, a hierarchical structure will provide a useful approximation ofreality. For these phenomena, then, we note that mechanistic theories work.Putting this in reverse, for certain types of phenomena the other attributescannot be ignored, so the phenomena cannot be usefully approximated with ahierarchical structure; for those phenomena, then, we note that mechanistictheories fail.Recall the earlier examples. Hierarchical classifications of things are possibleonly if we take into account some of their attributes (one attribute, or a smallset of attributes, per level) and ignore the others. It is impossible to include alltheir attributes in one classification. Thus, animals can be divided into wildand domestic, into types, and into breeds, as we saw. But this is just one way torepresent them. The biological classification dividing animals into classes,orders, families, genera, and species is based on different attributes, and theresulting hierarchy is different. Tigers and horses belong to different categories(wild and domestic) in one classification, but to the same category (class ofmammals) in the other. Clearly, there are many ways to classify animals, allvalid and useful; and each classification can take into account only someof their attributes. It is impossible to represent all their attributes in onehierarchical structure. The totality of animals and their attributes is, therefore,a non-mechanistic phenomenon. A mechanistic representation one structure is valid only if we agree to study animals from one narrow perspective; itbecomes useless as soon as we remember their other attributes.Similarly, we can represent an appliance as a hierarchy of parts and subassemblies only if we restrict ourselves to those attributes that determine theirposition and function in that appliance. For, the same parts and subassembliesform at the same time other hierarchical structures, based on other attributes

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their cost, or supplier, or life expectancy. We purposely design appliances in

such a way that the other attributes can be ignored in the manufacturingprocess. But the attributes are important when we study the appliances fromother perspectives. And the other hierarchies are usually different from the onethat represents the physical and functional attributes; for example, parts madeby the same supplier may belong in different subassemblies. It is impossibleto represent the parts and all their attributes in one hierarchical structure.Again, a mechanistic representation is valid only if we can restrict ourselvesto one view.Sentences appear to form a neat hierarchy of clauses and words only ifwe take into account the syntactic structure and ignore the meaning of thewords. For, the things represented by words possess many attributes, and aretherefore related through many structures. Consequently, the words themselvesare related through many structures, which are different from the syntacticone. It is impossible to depict, with a syntactic structure alone, everything thata sentence can convey.Finally, software applications appear to form perfect hierarchies of smallerand smaller entities (modules, blocks of statements, statements) only if westudy them from the perspective of one attribute. The attributes of a softwareentity are such things as files, variables, subroutines, and business practices.Software entities possess many attributes, and are therefore related throughmany structures one structure for each attribute. The programming theoriesattempt to simplify programming by forcing us to view each application as aneat hierarchical structure of software entities. Thus, since applications consistin fact of multiple, simultaneous structures, it is not surprising that the theorieskeep failing.

Mechanism, then, is not the solid scientific concept it is believed to be. Itsprestige is due largely to its early successes in the exact sciences, and especiallyto its successes relative to the scholastic doctrines of the Middle Ages, which itwas displacing. Just as the religious philosophy had been accepted for centuriesas the absolute truth, the mechanistic philosophy was seen now as an absolutemethod a method that can explain everything. Mechanism became, in effect,a new religion. It seems that societies cannot exist without some great ideas toinspire them ideas that people can accept blindly.Most of us perform both rational and irrational acts, but the two kindsappear to us equally important. In the easier pursuits, when our knowledgeguarantees success, we are completely rational and follow only sound andproven principles. But in difficult pursuits, when our knowledge is insufficient,

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we behave irrationally. Irrationality, thus, emerges when we have no proven

theories to rely on: if we wish to understand a given phenomenon but lack thenecessary knowledge (and if, in addition, we believe that all phenomena can beunderstood as we understand the simple ones), we are bound to invent afantastic concept and use it as explanation. This is how myths are born. Peopleare always in need of myths, because there is always much that is unknown orunpredictable, in any society. Consequently, people always display a blend ofrational and irrational thinking, rational and irrational activities.We like to justify our acts by basing them on accepted concepts, but we areless keen on justifying the concepts themselves. As a result, we perceivethe two kinds of activities, rational and irrational, as equally effective. Theformer become pursuits like science and business, while the latter make uppursuits like magic and superstitions. But the individual activities that make upthese pursuits are very similar: they are always logical and consistent, alwaysgrounded on an accepted concept. The difference is only that the concept is avalid theory in one case and a fantasy in the other.Thus, as we will see in the course of this book, it is possible for a person,and even an entire society, to engage in activities that are perfectly logicalindividually, while the body of activities as a whole constitutes a delusion. So,to judge whether a certain pursuit is rational or not, it is not enough to studythe logic of the individual activities which make up that pursuit.In chapter 3 we will learn that the best way to distinguish between rationaland irrational pursuits is by studying, not the successes, but the falsifications ofan idea. Just as important is how people react to these falsifications. Seriousresearchers react by doubting the idea. Most people, however, react by ignoringthe falsifications, or by contriving ways to cover them up. They never admitthat the idea has been refuted. This shows that, for them, the idea is not arational pursuit but a belief.Astrology, for instance, has been around for thousands of years, and wecould always show that it doesnt work. All we have to do is note the predictionsmade in the course of a year, and then count how many actually materialized.Believers, though, never do this. Similarly, today we can note the mechanisticclaims in a field like linguistics, economics, or software, and count how manyactually materialize. But, again, believers never do this. Mechanism continuesto be trusted, regardless of how successful or unsuccessful it is.We will see that it is possible to distinguish between the two types ofthinking, the scientific and the pseudoscientific. And we will see that what themechanists do is simply ignore the falsifications, just like the traditionalpseudoscientists. Thus, our mechanistic theories while embraced by famousscientists, taught in respected universities, and practised throughout society form in reality a new kind of pseudoscience.

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The conclusion must be that mechanism does not function as scientific

doctrine in our society, but as myth. It is precisely the lack of doubts thatbetrays its mythical status. When a method works, we are not afraid to debateit, modify it, or replace it with a better one. Only concepts that cannot beproved become unquestionable truths. Were mechanism perceived merely asan important research method, we would rely on it in those fields where it isuseful, and seek other methods in those fields where it fails. But this is not whatwe see. Mechanism is considered the only valid method of science, in all fields.Academics are trained to think mechanistically, and are expected to pursueonly mechanistic ideas, regardless of whether these ideas are useful or not.Moreover, non-mechanistic ideas are dismissed as unscientific, even if shownto be useful. We have redefined science, in effect, to mean simply the pursuitof mechanism. And as a result, our academic institutions have degeneratedinto a self-serving bureaucracy.Recall the earlier quotations: modern societies are founded on myths, justlike the primitive ones; myths are the most important form of collectivethinking; myths are thought to express absolute truth; myths serve as modelsand as justification for all human action; and so on. Thus, if science and itsapplications especially the pursuits we call technology serve as warrant forour actions and decisions, and if science is grounded on mechanism, then, forus, mechanism serves the purpose of myth. When we judge something asimportant or unimportant, as useful or useless, as moral or immoral, as validor invalid, simply by invoking a scientific or technological concept, we judge itin effect by invoking the mechanistic myth.3

3Myths can be good. When people possess only limited knowledge, as in aprimitive society, most phenomena they observe are unexplainable. They havenothing to lose then, and much to gain, by attributing these phenomena tosome mythical powers. The myths replace their anxiety and fears with a senseof confidence and security. The fact that this confidence is based on falseassumptions does not detract from the value of the myths, since the primitivescannot arrive at the correct explanation in any case. If they wish to understandwhat caused a certain disease, for example, and they know nothing aboutmicroorganisms, the assumption that it was caused by sins, or demons, or blackmagic, is quite effective. As they cannot cure the disease, these beliefs provideat least the comfort of knowing its origin. With this comfort they are in a betterposition to face other problems, so they can accomplish more in those fields inwhich they are knowledgeable.

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Thanks to the importance of myths, the individuals who provide mythrelated services magicians, shamans, astrologers enjoy great respect. Theirknowledge, limited as it is to myths, is necessarily specious. Nevertheless, justas the myths themselves fulfil a vital function in society while being in factunreal, the services provided by these experts are crucial even while beingspecious. The experts, as a result, become a powerful elite. But this position iswell-deserved: if a society benefits from its myths, and if the practice of mythsrequires a certain expertise, then the individuals who possess this expertiseare as essential to society as the myths themselves. Thus, when the mythsare good for a society, an elite whose existence depends on these myths is agood elite.Myths, however, can also be bad. A society may reach a point in its evolutionwhere enough knowledge has been accumulated to attain better explanationsthan what the myths can provide. Most likely, the new explanations includemythical elements of their own, rather than being completely rational. Even so,being closer to reality, they constitute an improvement. In retrospect, then, thepractical benefits of abandoning the old myths are obvious. But the actualtransition is difficult. The old myths are usually part of a belief system that hadguided society for generations, and it takes more than the promise of animprovement to abandon them. So the same myths that hitherto served societyare now turning against it, by preventing it from enjoying the benefits of thenew knowledge. The good myths become bad.The elite too those experts whose privileged position depends on themyths is now turning against society. Because they would be redundantwithout the old myths, the experts continue to praise their value even as societyno longer needs them. Whereas formerly they were practising those myths,now they are enforcing them. They describe this struggle as an effort topreserve some proven social values, but in reality it is their own privileges thatthey want to preserve. Thus, when the myths turn from good to bad, the elitetoo becomes bad.The best-known transition in Western history is the Renaissance and theScientific Revolution, which took place between the fifteenth and seventeenthcenturies. This is when modern science, expressed through the mechanisticphilosophy, replaced the religious myths that had dominated Europe for morethan a thousand years. One of the most remarkable aspects of this transition isthe ferocity with which the church guardian of the old myths fought toprevent it. Previously, the church was perhaps a good elite, insofar as myths likethe idea of salvation could provide some comfort in an age when science hadlittle to offer. But now that the real benefits of the growing knowledge exceededthe emotional benefits of myths, the only way the church could maintain itspower was by suppressing that knowledge. This was the task of the Inquisition.

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Thus, regardless of how one feels about the value of the religious myths inearlier times, we all agree that obstructing the truth, and torturing and burningalive innocent people, is not something that a good elite would do. The myths,and with them the elite, had become bad.

The foregoing analysis should help us to recognize that a similar transition is

taking place in our own time. What is being defended now is mechanism the very myth that was being repressed in the earlier transition. And theelite struggling to maintain its power is embodied now in our educationalinstitutions our universities, in particular. The academic bureaucrats are thegreatest beneficiaries of the mechanistic myth, as this myth affords them aprivileged position in society regardless of whether their activities are useful ornot. So it is not surprising to see them defend the mechanistic ideology asfiercely as the church was defending earlier the religious one.When astrology was important, astrologers retained their position regardless of whether their predictions were correct or not; when alchemy wasimportant, alchemists continued to be trusted regardless of whether theirtransmuting methods worked or not; and when religion was important, thechurch bureaucracy retained its power regardless of whether its promises ofsalvation materialized or not. Today, mechanism is important, so we continueto trust and respect the academic bureaucrats even as the mechanistic theoriesare failing. As we will see in the following chapters, it is quite easy to prove thatthese theories are fraudulent; and yet we treat their defenders as scientists, notas charlatans.As part of its power, the academic elite controls education. And it has usedthis monopolistic position to turn the process of education into a processof indoctrination: all we are taught is what can be explained mechanistically.Thus, while promoting knowledge, intelligence, and creativity, the academicelite has redefined these qualities to mean, not the utmost that human mindscan attain, but merely the skills needed to follow the mechanistic ideology:knowledge of the latest mechanistic theories, the intelligence to appreciatethe mechanistic principles, and the creativity to accomplish a task withmechanistic methods alone. Mechanism is not just practised it is enforced.Together with the corporations (the other beneficiaries of the mechanisticmyth), and protected by irresponsible governments, our universities havebrought about a social order that is, in effect, a new form of totalitarianism.Totalitarian ideologies differ in detail, but their goal is always the same: tocreate a perfect society. For us, this means a society founded upon solid,mechanistic principles. We have already proved the value of these principles in

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certain areas in the exact sciences, for instance, and in manufacturing so allwe have to do now is extend their use to every other aspect of human life.Here is how we can accomplish this: Since everything can be representedwith hierarchical structures, we can improve our performance by breakingdown all challenges into simpler and simpler ones. In the end, we will onlyneed to deal with the terminal elements of these structures; that is, with trivialissues. In practice, the structures will be embodied in theories and methods,and the terminal elements will be some simple rules. Thus, just by obeyingthese rules, anyone will be able to perform tasks that previously demandedmuch knowledge and experience.Better still, once we represent our problems with hierarchical structures, wecan build devices that embody these structures. Then, to solve a given problem,all we need to know is how to operate a device. The skills required to operatedevices are easier than those required to solve problems, so we will all be moreproductive: first, because devices eliminate the lengthy learning periods weneeded in the past, and second, because devices are faster, more accurate, andmore dependable than humans.Finally, with our latest invention, computers, we can implement even thosestructures that are too large or too complex for the traditional devices. Thanksto the power and versatility of software, practically every human endeavourcan be translated into a series of easy acts the acts required to operate asoftware device. From simple calculations to difficult decisions, from personalconcerns to business issues, we can have a software device for every task.Various types of knowledge are now being incorporated into these devices, andmade available to us through easy-to-use menus, lists, buttons, and the like; inother words, through a hierarchical structure of selections, and selectionswithin selections, corresponding to the hierarchical structure that is theknowledge itself. So, just by purchasing a software device, we will be able toperform almost any task without having to develop that knowledge in ourown minds.

Our idea of a perfect society, then, is one where all human affairs have beenreduced to the simple acts required to follow methods and to operate devices.The methods and devices are developed by various elites experts who knowhow to translate the complexity of the world into concepts simple enoughfor us to understand. The responsibility of the elites is to represent the worldwith exact, mechanistic theories; and our responsibility is to obey thesetheories. Anything that cannot be represented mechanistically is unscientific,and hence devoid of value. Thus, as our goal is endless progress, we cannot

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afford to spend any time with non-mechanistic notions, even if we might

otherwise enjoy it.If we doubt the efficacy of this scheme, we only need to recall the progresswe have made in our manufacturing activities. From the handful of simpleconsumer products available two hundred years ago, and which few peoplecould afford, we have arrived at todays astounding array of sophisticatedproducts, which almost anyone can afford. And we have accomplished this, notby increasing, but by reducing, the knowledge and skills of the workers whomake these products. The secret for the great progress in manufacturing isfound, as everyone knows, in concepts like the assembly line (which permitsus to employ unskilled workers and to control their output), division oflabour and narrow specialization (which permit us to reduce each individualseducation and training, and hence the cost of employment), and, in general,fragmentation of the labour process (which reduces all types of work tosimple, routine activities, eliminating the dependence on personal skills orinitiative) and scientific management (which creates a rigid environment,where everyone is forced to work in the manner dictated by a superior).These principles are, clearly, an application of the mechanistic ideology:from a rather haphazard series of activities, the manufacturing process hasbeen turned into an exact system a system that can be represented with ahierarchical structure. In this structure, the elements are the various components, stages, persons, and activities, and the efficiency of this arrangement isassured by the mechanistic concept itself. So there can be little doubt that, tobe as efficient in the other fields as we are in manufacturing, we must followthe same principles. We must modify the entire society to resemble, so tospeak, a giant factory: each person, each act, each thought, must be designedto function as an element in a giant structure of things within things. Weare currently in the process of implementing this idea in our educationaland business activities; and soon we will extend it to all social and personalaffairs.Thus, while this may seem paradoxical, it is a fact that if we want to becomemore efficient we must be less knowledgeable, less skilled, less experienced. Itis our natural tendency to gain knowledge that slows progress. So we must stoptrying to develop such old-fashioned qualities as expertise or individuality, andadmit that we can accomplish more by being an insignificant part in a greatwhole. We must allow the elites, who have proved the value of this idea in fieldslike manufacturing, to design that great hierarchical social structure for us.And we must restrict ourselves to those activities which they prescribe.This ideology totalitarianism is quite old, in fact, and was alwaysappreciated by enlightened leaders. The reason it seems new is that only in thetwentieth century it became practical on a large scale. The first attempts,

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Communism and Nazism, were rather crude and violent. They were politicalmovements, and failed. We learned from these mistakes, however, and we relynow on universities and corporations, instead of political institutions, toimplement it. Our totalitarianism is better, and it will succeed.4

4Despite its obvious benefits, totalitarianism is not without critics. The firstobjection concerns the process of dehumanization that inevitably accompaniesit. Thinkers of various outlooks philosophers, sociologists, science-fictionauthors have been warning us for a hundred years that we are being turnedinto automatons. The vision of a society where human beings are treatedas parts of a giant machine, and restricted to some simple and repetitiveacts, is not very appealing even if this is done in the name of efficiency orprogress.As answer to this objection, we point to the great improvements in standardof living and in life expectancy that all sections of society have enjoyed thanksto totalitarianism. Thus, as in any social project, our decision to pursue thisideology amounts to a compromise: we are trading more and more aspects ofour humanity for greater and greater prosperity. This has worked out well sofar, and there is no reason to doubt that we can continue this trade in thefuture. Besides, people dont seem to mind this dehumanization: followingrules and methods is easier than developing expertise, and most of us are quitehappy to be merely parts of a whole, as this absolves us from responsibility forour acts and choices.More recently, a second objection has arisen to the totalitarian ideology.This objection concerns the environmental problems associated with infiniteprogress. Specifically, we are reminded that, even if we agree to become fullfledged automatons in our unending quest for prosperity, we may neverget there. Growth is limited by such factors as increasing pollution anddiminishing natural resources, so the assumption that an ideology whichworked in the past will continue to work in the future is invalid. In otherwords, our ideology is wrong, not so much because it dehumanizes us, butbecause at the current rate of growth we will destroy ourselves by ruining theenvironment before we do it by becoming automatons.Unlike the first one, this objection is gaining in popularity, owing largelyto the ease with which we can delude ourselves that we care about theenvironment. All we need to do is read books and articles, watch televisiondocumentaries, and discuss the issue from time to time while keeping ourlifestyles and expectations unchanged. This stratagem permits us to feel

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concerned and involved, without having to give up anything. In reality, an

endless increase in prosperity is possible only through an exponential growthin production and consumption. To prevent the environmental problems,therefore, we would have to reduce our prosperity even more than we wouldhave to in order to prevent our dehumanization. And we already saw what isour attitude on the latter. People who agree to pay for prosperity by living theirlives as automatons are not likely to renounce the same prosperity for thebenefit of future generations. So, despite its apparent popularity, the secondobjection will not stop the spread of totalitarianism any more than the firstobjection did in the past.It is not these two objections that ought to preoccupy us, however, but athird one; namely, the risk that the totalitarianism we are being offered may notbe at all what it is said to be. We believe the problem is simply whether the pricewe pay for progress and prosperity is too high, while the real problem iswhether we are getting anything at all for this price. The elites justify thetotalitarian ideology by telling us that it is grounded on mechanistic, and hencescientific, principles. But if these principles are becoming less and less useful,the elites are deceiving us regardless of the price we are willing to pay.The justification entails a succession of ideologies: mechanism, scientism,utopianism, totalitarianism. The belief in mechanism leads to scientism theapplication of mechanistic concepts in the study of minds and societies, wherethey cannot work. Then, despite the failure of their theories, the mechanistsconclude that society can be greatly improved by actually implementing thesetheories; so, scientism leads to utopianism. Finally, everyone agrees that theonly practical way to carry out this project is through totalitarianism: byallowing an elite to control all aspects of society.Totalitarianism, thus, is justified by pointing to its origin, mechanism. Ourinfatuation with mechanism is so strong that even when noticing its failures,or its harmful consequences, we still do not question the ideology itself. So weaccept and respect the idea of totalitarianism, even when criticizing it, simplybecause we believe it to be scientific. We have no evidence that totalitarianismworks, but we cannot help trusting those who advocate it.5

5The declining usefulness of mechanism has engendered a new phenomenon:charlatanism practised in the name of science or in the name of business. Thischarlatanism consists in the promise to solve a non-mechanistic problem withmechanistic methods. Since mechanism is universally accepted as the methodof science, we trust implicitly anyone who invokes the mechanistic principles.

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Thus, once we decided to measure the value of an idea solely by its mechanisticqualities, it became impossible to distinguish between serious mechanisticideas and mechanistic delusions.Mechanistic delusions have always been part of our culture. Until recently,however, their harm was overshadowed by the mechanistic successes. Today,fewer and fewer problems have simple, mechanistic solutions, so the harmcaused by delusions exceeds the benefits derived from successes.Totalitarianism, in particular, is a mechanistic delusion. We like totalitarianism for the same reason we like all other mechanistic ideas: because it offerswhat appears to be simple solutions to difficult problems. However, while thepursuit of an ordinary mechanistic delusion means merely a waste of resources,the pursuit of totalitarianism can lead to the collapse of society. For, if theworld is too complex to be improved mechanistically, the claimed benefitsare a fantasy, while the price we pay for them is real. Our problems aregetting bigger, while our minds are getting smaller: if we restrict ourselves tomechanistic thinking, we leave our non-mechanistic capabilities undeveloped;so we cope perhaps with the simple, mechanistic problems, but the complex,non-mechanistic ones remain unsolved, and may eventually destroy us.In universities, the charlatanism is seen in the activity known as research.The rule is simple: any work that follows the mechanistic principles of reductionism and atomism is deemed scientific, and is therefore legitimate. Whetherthese principles are valid or not in a given field, or whether the resultingtheories work or not, is immaterial. Thus, when faced with a problem in thehuman sciences, all one has to do is perceive it as a hierarchical structure. Theproblem can then be broken down into smaller and smaller parts, untilreaching problems simple enough to describe with precision. But this method,borrowed from the exact sciences, fails when applied to human phenomena. Itfails because human phenomena consist, not of one structure, but of multiple,interacting structures.So the researchers are admired for the rigour with which they study thosesmall problems, even while the real problem remains unsolved. Clearly, theironly defence is that they are following the mechanistic principles. But whyshould principles that are useful in modeling the material world be acceptedwithout reservation in the study of minds and societies? As soon as wequestion the value of mechanism in these fields, any research project groundedon mechanism changes from scientific pursuit to mechanistic fantasy. Whatstands between perceiving these academics as scientists or as charlatans, then,is only our blind acceptance of the mechanistic ideology.In business, the charlatanism is seen in the activity known as marketing.The elites, we saw, tell us that our future must be based on an endless growthin production and consumption, and that this can only be achieved through

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mechanistic methods. But if, in fact, there is less and less that can be discoveredor improved mechanistically, the only way to attain the required growth isby replacing the making of useful things with the making of whatever canbe made mechanistically (that is, efficiently and profitably). To put thisdifferently, if the old experts scientists, inventors, entrepreneurs cannotkeep up with our demand for growth, we must replace them with a new kindof experts: charlatans, who know how to make useless things appear important,and thereby help us to delude ourselves that our system is working just as it didin the past.Thus, from its modest origin as a complement to trade, the process ofselling has become more important than the merchandise itself. The fact thatit is possible to cheat people, to persuade them to buy something that is notwhat it appears to be, is now the driving force of the economy. Deceptiveadvertising messages purporting to inform while in reality exploiting humanweaknesses and ignorance is no longer limited to domains like fashionor cosmetics, but covers practically all products and services. Dishonesttechniques (testimonials and success stories, background music, pictures ofhappy faces, and the like) are widely employed in order to influence, distract,and confuse. These techniques are logically equivalent to lying (they areneeded precisely because the usefulness of those products and services cannotbe proved), but we no longer notice this. Language itself has ceased to be ameans of communication, and is used as a kind of weapon: words are carefullychosen, not to convey information, but to deceive and to manipulate.Finally, and most disturbingly, the idea of selling has transcended thedomain of commerce and is now found in every activity where there is anopportunity to influence people. From what we say in a rsum to whatgovernments say in their policies, from business meetings to military decisions,from lectures and seminars to television news and documentaries, it is vitalthat we know how to persuade our audience; that is, how to mislead how touse special effects so as to make unimportant things appear important, andimportant things unimportant.The fact that we have to lie so much ought to worry us, ought to prompt usto doubt our system. We need more and more lies, obviously, because our realachievements do not fulfil our expectations. We have experienced continuousgrowth ever since the Scientific Revolution, and our world view has evolvedaccordingly: we have yet to accept the fact that there is a limit to discoveriesand improvements. We are still making progress, of course, but at a slower andslower rate. Since the exponential growth that we are accustomed to cannot besustained indefinitely, we are now supplementing the real growth with animaginary one, based on fantasies. But instead of interpreting the perpetualincrease in charlatanism as evidence that our system is failing, we perceive the

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charlatanism as a new sort of science, or a new sort of business, and hence itsincrease as progress.Much of the current growth, thus, is actually growth in delusions, and in thestupidity necessary in order to accept these delusions. It is as if, having realizedthat the human capacity for intelligence does not guarantee infinite growth, weare now trying to achieve the same growth by relying instead on the humancapacity for stupidity. Like oil and minerals, we treat stupidity as a kind ofresource, as something that we can exploit and benefit from. To make the mostof this resource, though, human beings must be carefully indoctrinated, inorder to neutralize their natural capacity for intelligence. The incessant lies anddelusions, then, serve to replace the reality that surrounds us with the fantasiesthat according to the elites are the world we must strive to create instead.

To summarize, the mechanistic myth has outlived its usefulness. What startedas a good myth, helping us to expand our knowledge of the world, has becomebad. The same qualities that make mechanism such a useful concept are nowturning against us. For, mechanism can only explain simple phenomena thosethat can be represented with isolated hierarchical structures; and in todaysworld we are facing more and more complex phenomena, which can only berepresented with systems of structures. One reason for the complexity, thus, isthat there are fewer and fewer mechanistic phenomena left to be explained. Ifwe want to expand our knowledge today, we must increasingly deal with thosephenomena that we chose to ignore in the past when there were so manysimple, mechanistic ones, waiting to be studied. Another reason for thecomplexity is that, as we keep expanding our knowledge, we are creatingourselves new, non-mechanistic phenomena (the software phenomena are anexample).So the mechanistic myth works against us because it restricts us to mechanistic thinking while our most important problems are non-mechanistic. Thepast successes of the mechanistic philosophy, together with its irresistibleappeal, prevent us from noticing how limited mechanism really is. We aretrying to explain everything mechanistically while less and less is mechanistic.As a result, we are wasting our resources on absurd ideas, neglecting the realproblems. Only minds can process complex structures. So, to contend with ourcurrent problems, we must develop the highest intelligence and expertise thathuman minds are capable of. Instead, the mechanistic culture restricts usto novice levels: we are taught to treat every challenge as simple, isolatedstructures, so we are using only our mechanistic capabilities.Along with the mechanistic myth, our elites too have turned from good to

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bad. The elites defend the mechanistic myth because it is through this beliefthat they hold their privileged position. Thus, as long as we accept mechanismunquestioningly, all they have to do to gain our respect is practise mechanism.If we judged them instead by assessing the validity or usefulness of their ideas,we would realize how little of what they do is important. We would stoprespecting them, and they would lose their elitist position.So we shouldnt be surprised that our elites praise the mechanistic ideologyand cover up the failure of the mechanistic ideas. In the past, when mostmechanistic ideas were useful, the elites did not have to resort to lies anddelusions; they gained our respect through real achievements. Today, themechanistic ideas are becoming increasingly worthless; so the only way for theelites to maintain their position is through charlatanism, by fooling us intoaccepting mechanistic ideas.Mechanism, moreover, has become totalitarian: We are asked now, not justto accept the mechanistic delusions promoted by the elites, but to becomedevoted mechanists ourselves. Like the elites, we must restrict ourselves tomechanistic thinking and adhere to this ideology regardless of whether ouractivities are successful or not.Our totalitarianism, thus, is the ultimate mechanistic fantasy. For, if ourproblems stem from the declining usefulness of mechanism, it is absurdto attempt to solve them through totalitarianism, which only adds to ourmechanistic practices. So, when listening to the elites, we are moving in thewrong direction: we are aggravating the problems. The elites tell us thattotalitarianism is necessary in order to become more efficient. But if it isbased on mechanism, and if mechanism itself is less and less useful, how cantotalitarianism help us?6

By way of conclusion, let us speculate on the alternatives to mechanism. We

saw earlier that all human societies are founded on myths. For us, since theseventeenth century, the most important myth has been the mechanisticphilosophy. Usually described as a shift from religion to science, the transitionto mechanism was in fact a shift from religion myths to science myths: all weaccomplished was to replace one kind of myths with another. Mechanism isnot an ultimate concept, but merely an improvement, a better way to representthe world.The usefulness of mechanism has been exhausted, however, and it can nolonger function as myth: rather than helping us to advance our knowledge, itholds us back now, and allows evil elites to exploit us. There is an urgent need

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25

to abandon it. But it is highly unlikely that, during the next few decades, we canachieve something that no human society ever could learn to live withoutmyths. The only practical alternative, therefore, is to replace mechanism witha different myth. We must effect, in our lifetime, the next transition: from thisnaive, seventeenth-century myth, to a modern one, adequate for our time. Ifwe must believe in myths, we should at least choose one that can help us tosolve todays problems.We will continue to use mechanism, of course, but only where appropriate.What we want to avoid is the mechanistic delusions. In those fields where itworks, mechanism remains the best method, the best way to represent theworld. So what we must do is demote it: from its position as myth, to amore modest position, as method. Then, we must turn to the new myth forinspiration in solving our complex, non-mechanistic problems.What is left is to decide what belief should replace mechanism as myth. Itis obvious that the new myth must be more than just a more sophisticatedvariant of the mechanistic method. The greatest challenges we face today donot entail merely a larger number of mechanistic problems, or more involvedmechanistic problems, but non-mechanistic problems. And there is only oneway to solve this type of problems: by using our minds. As we will see inchapter 2, our minds excel at solving precisely the type of problems thatmechanism leaves unsolved. In our infatuation with mechanism, we have beenneglecting these problems. Moreover, we have been neglecting our own, nonmechanistic capabilities: we have been using only a fraction of the capacity ofour minds, only what we need in order to think mechanistically.The next myth, thus, must be a belief in the unlimited potential of our minds.Like all myths, this is a fantasy, since the potential of our minds is notunlimited. But we can believe that it is; and the very belief will inspire us.In fact, we are using now so little of this potential that, for all practicalpurposes, it is unlimited. Once accepted as myth, the new belief will motivateus to appreciate and to use our non-mechanistic capabilities. And with thesecapabilities we will accomplish more than we do now.This process would be similar to the way mechanism itself functioned in theseventeenth century. As we will see in chapter 1, it was its role as myth, ratherthan its usefulness as method, that imparted to mechanism its strength. It wasthe belief that its potential is unlimited that inspired the seventeenth-centuryscientists. Had they perceived mechanism as just a new method of research,they would not have had the confidence to propose those radical theories, andthe Scientific Revolution would not have happened. Today there are moremechanistic delusions than discoveries, so it is obvious that the potential ofmechanism is not unlimited. But this fact did not detract from its value in theseventeenth century. All we have to do, then, is undergo a similar process with

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the new myth. And this will help us to bring about advances of a different kind:in non-mechanistic knowledge.If it seems improbable that we can start to believe now in a new myth, wemust remember that human societies can adopt any myth. Thus, if we managedto believe for three hundred years that every phenomenon can be representedwith a neat structure of things within things (an idea easily shown to be false,as we saw), it shouldnt be so difficult to believe now that the potential of ourminds is unlimited.But regardless of which myth we decide to adopt next, we must end ourdependence on the mechanistic myth, and on the elites that profit from it. Theblind belief in mechanism is destroying our minds, and is preventing us fromdealing with our problems. The mechanistic software beliefs, in particular, havepermitted a powerful software elite to arise. In just a few decades, organizationsthat have in fact little to offer us have attained so much power that theypractically control society. As we will see in the course of this book, their powerrests almost entirely on mechanistic software delusions, and on the stupidityengendered by these delusions.Software, thus, has emerged as the most effective means of enforcing themechanistic dogma. Software should have been our most modern pursuit;instead, degraded by the software elite, it is now merely the most modern wayof pursuing a seventeenth-century myth.

yMrawtfoSehT

The Software Myth

1

The software myth is the idea of software mechanism the enactment of

mechanistic beliefs through software. If traditional mechanism holds thatevery phenomenon can be represented with a hierarchical structure, softwaremechanism holds that every phenomenon can be represented with a hierarchical software structure. This is true because, once we reduce a phenomenonhierarchically to its simplest entities, these entities can be emulated by meansof simple software entities. To represent the original phenomenon, all wehave to do then is combine these entities hierarchically, and thereby generatea software structure that corresponds to the structure of entities that is thephenomenon itself.In particular, the phenomena associated with human knowledge can berepresented with software. Since any type of knowledge can be reducedhierarchically to simpler and simpler pieces down to some basic bits ofknowledge, by incorporating these bits in a software device we can emulate the

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original knowledge structure. Then, simply by operating the device, anyone

will be able to perform the same tasks as a person who took the time to acquirethe actual knowledge.Software devices, thus, are perceived as substitutes for knowledge, skills,and experience. Whereas in the past we needed much learning and practice inorder to attain expertise in a given field, all we need to know now, it seems, ishow to operate software devices.One type of knowledge that we have been trying especially hard to representwith software is programming knowledge. If software devices are only nowgaining acceptance in our businesses and in our homes, their counterparts inthe world of programming have existed since the 1960s. Thus, if the use ofsoftware devices as substitutes for expertise still sounds plausible for othertypes of knowledge, we have already had several decades to assess their valuein programming work. And, as we will see in chapter 7, the claim that there existsubstitutes for programming expertise has proved to be a fraud.The study of software mechanism in the domain of programming can helpus to understand, therefore, the delusion of software devices in general. For, itis the same myth that the elites invoke when promoting knowledge substitutes,whether they address programmers or other workers. Programming is the onlydomain in which we can, today, actually demonstrate the failure of softwaremechanism and the dishonesty of the software elites. Thus, we must makethe most of this experience. If we understand how the software myth hasdestroyed the programming profession, we will be in a better position torecognize its dangers, and to prevent it perhaps from destroying other fieldsof knowledge.2

The reason it is so tempting to think of software development as a mechanistic

process is that software applications are indeed hierarchical structures modules within modules. No matter how large or complex, it seems that anapplication can always be depicted as a neat structure of software entities, justas a manufactured object can be depicted as a neat structure of parts andsubassemblies.As we do in manufacturing, therefore, we should break down the process ofsoftware development into smaller and smaller parts, until we reach softwareentities that are easy to program. Then, as in manufacturing, we will be able tocreate applications of any size and complexity by employing inexperiencedworkers workers who, individually, can only program small and simple piecesof software.

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This idea, known as software engineering, is behind every programming

theory of the last forty years. But the idea is wrong. We already saw thatsoftware applications are in fact systems of hierarchical structures, so thestructure of modules that appears to represent an application is merely oneof the structures that make it up. The software entities that constitute theapplication possess many attributes: they call subroutines, use database fields,reflect business practices, etc. Since each attribute gives rise to a structure, eachstructure represents a different aspect of the application: one subroutine andits calls, the uses of one database field, the implementation of one businesspractice, etc. But because they share their elements (the software entities thatconstitute the application), these structures are not independent. So the onlyway to develop applications is by dealing with several structures at the sametime something that only minds can do, and only after much practice.Thus, while software engineering is said to turn programmers from oldfashioned artisans into modern professionals, its true purpose is the exactopposite: to eliminate the need for programming expertise. And this, the elitesbelieve, can be accomplished by discovering scientific (i.e., mechanistic)programming theories, and by restricting programmers to methodologiesand development systems based on these theories. The aim is to separateapplications into their constituent structures, and further separate thesestructures into their constituent elements, at which point programmers willonly need to deal with small, isolated software entities. For example, the theoryof structured programming claims that the only important structure is the onethat represents the applications flow of execution, and that this structure canbe reduced to some simple, standard constructs; and the theory of objectoriented programming claims that we can treat each aspect of our affairs as aseparate structure, which can then be assembled from some smaller, existingstructures.But each theory, while presented as a revolution in programming concepts,is in reality very similar to the others. This is true because they are all based onthe same fallacy; namely, on the assumption that software and programmingare mechanistic phenomena, and can be studied with the principles of reductionism and atomism. Ultimately, the naive idea of software engineering is areflection of the ignorance that the academics and the practitioners sufferfrom. They remain ignorant because they waste their time with worthlesstheories: they are forever trying to explain the phenomena of software andprogramming through the mechanistic myth. It is not an exaggeration to saythat, for the last forty years, their main preoccupation has been this absurdsearch for a way to reduce software to mechanics. The preoccupation is alsoreflected in their vocabulary: programmers call themselves engineers, andrefer to programming as building or constructing software.

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The programming theories, thus, are mechanistic delusions, because they

attempt to represent complex phenomena mechanistically. What is worse,instead of being abandoned when found to be useless, they are turned by theirdefenders into pseudosciences. Here is how: Since neither the academics northe practitioners are willing to admit that their latest theory has failed, theycontinue to praise it even as they struggle against its deficiencies. They denythe endless falsifications, and keep modifying the theory in the hope of makingit practical. While described as new features, the modifications serve in fact tomask the falsifications: they reinstate the traditional, non-mechanistic programming concepts precisely those concepts that the theory had attemptedto eliminate. In the end, the theorys exact, mechanistic principles are forgottenaltogether. Its defenders, though, continue to promote it by invoking thebenefits of mechanism. Then, after perpetrating this fraud for a numberof years, another mechanistic theory is invented and the same process isrepeated.So the software workers are not the serious professionals they appear tobe, but impostors. Whether they are academics who invent mechanistictheories, or software companies that create systems based on these theories, orprogrammers who rely on these systems, very little of what they do is genuine.They appear to be dealing with important issues, but most of these issues aresenseless preoccupations engendered by their mechanistic delusions: since ourproblems rarely have simple, mechanistic answers, there is no limit to thespecious activities that one can contrive when attempting to solve themmechanistically.The mechanistic software ideology, thus, is the perfect medium for incompetents and charlatans, as it permits them to engage in modern, glamorous,and profitable activities while doing almost nothing useful. The softwarepractitioners have become a powerful bureaucracy, exploiting society whileappearing to serve it. Less than 10 percent (and often less than 1 percent) oftheir work has any value. Their main objective is not to help us solve ourproblems through software, but on the contrary, to create new, software-relatedproblems; in other words, to make all human activities as complicated andinefficient as they have made their own, programming activities.At the top of this bureaucracy are the software elites the universities andthe software companies. It is these elites that control, ultimately, our softwarerelated affairs. And they do it by promoting mechanistic software concepts:since we believe in mechanism, and since their theories and systems arefounded on mechanistic principles, we readily accept their elitist position. Butif software mechanism is generally useless, their theories and systems arefraudulent, and their elitist position is unwarranted.

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Three ingredients are needed to implement totalitarianism: a myth, an elite,

and a bureaucracy. And the spread of totalitarianism is caused by an expansionof the bureaucracy: larger and larger portions of the population change fromtheir role as citizens, or workers, to the role of bureaucrats; that is, fromindividuals who perform useful tasks to individuals whose chief responsibilityis to practise the myth.A characteristic of totalitarianism, thus, is this continuous increase in thenumber of people whose beliefs and acts are a reflection of the myth. Ratherthan relying on common sense, or logic, or some personal or professionalvalues, people justify their activities by invoking the myth. Or, they justifythem by pointing to certain ideas or theories, or to other activities; but if thesein their turn can only be justified by invoking the myth, the original activitiesare specious.A totalitarian bureaucracy can be seen as a pyramid that expands downward, at its base. The elite, which forms its apex, uses the myth to establish thesystems ideology and to recruit the first bureaucrats the first layer of thepyramid. Further layers are then added, and the pyramid becomes increasinglybroad and deep, as more and more categories of people cease living a normallife and join the bureaucracy. Thus, as the pyramid expands, fewer and fewerpeople are left who perform useful activities; and the closer an individual is tothe top of the pyramid, the greater the number of senseless, myth-relatedpreoccupations that make up his life.Since the lower layers support the higher ones, the model of a pyramid alsoexplains how social power is distributed under totalitarianism: each layerexploits the layers that lie below it, and the elite, at the top of the pyramid,exploits the entire bureaucracy. Thus, the closer we get to the top, the morepower, influence, and privileges we find. In addition, the bureaucracy as awhole exploits the rest of society those individuals and institutions that havenot yet joined it.The totalitarian ideal is that all people in society join the bureaucracyand restrict themselves to myth-related activities. But this, clearly, cannothappen; for, who would support them all? In the initial stages of the expansion,when enough people are still engaged in useful activities, the elite and thebureaucrats can delude themselves that their ideology is working. As more andmore people join the bureaucracy, however, the useful activities decline and thesystem becomes increasingly inefficient. Eventually, the inefficiency reaches apoint where society can no longer function adequately, and collapses. It is

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impossible to attain the totalitarian ideal a bureaucracy that comprises the

entire society.It should be obvious, then, why the software myth can serve as the foundation of a totalitarian ideology. Since the essence of totalitarianism is endlessexpansion, the ideology must be based on an idea that appeals to everyindividual in society. And few ideas can match software in this respect.As we will see in chapter 4, software is comparable only to language inits versatility and potency. Thus, even when employed correctly, withoutfalling prey to mechanistic delusions, software can benefit almost anyone.But when perceived as a mechanistic concept, its utopian promise becomesirresistible. The promise, we saw, is that software devices can act as substitutesfor knowledge, skills, and experience. So, simply by operating a softwaredevice, we will be able to perform immediately tasks that would otherwiserequire special talents, or many years of study and practice. The promise of thesoftware myth, thus, exceeds even the most extravagant promises made by theold political or religious myths. Consequently, an elite can dominate andexploit society through the software myth even more effectively than thepolitical and religious elites did through the other myths, in the past.

The expansion of the software bureaucracy parallels the spread of computers;

and even a brief analysis of this expansion (later in this section) will reveal theprocess whereby various categories of people are turned into bureaucrats. Allit takes is a blind belief in the software myth something that the elite isfostering through propaganda and indoctrination. Then, judged from theperspective of the myth, activities that are in fact illogical, or inefficient, orwasteful, are perceived as important and beneficial; and the incompetents whoengage in these activities are perceived as professionals.Ignorance, therefore, is what makes the belief in a myth, and hence theexpansion of a bureaucracy, possible. An individual who took the time todevelop expertise in a certain field cannot also develop irrational beliefs in thesame field, as that would contradict his personal experience. Thus, in additionto its versatility and potency, it is its novelty that makes software such a goodsubject for myth. We allowed an elite to assume control of our software-relatedaffairs without first giving ourselves the time to discover what is the true natureof software. And the elite saw software, not as a complex phenomenon, but asa mechanistic one; in other words, not as a phenomenon that demands the fullcapacity of the mind, but as one that requires only mechanistic thinking.Because of this delusion, we have remained ignorant: we depend on softwarewhile lacking the skills to create and use software intelligently. Instead of

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developing software expertise, we wasted the last forty years struggling withthe worthless theories and methodologies promoted by the elite. Under theseconditions, the emergence of irrational beliefs was inevitable. The softwaremyth, thus, is a consequence of our mechanistic culture and our softwareignorance.4

The first workers to be turned into software bureaucrats were the programmersthemselves. From the start, the theorists assumed that programming can bereduced to some simple and repetitive acts, similar to those performed byassembly-line workers in a factory. So, they concluded, programmers do notrequire lengthy education, training, and practice. If we develop softwareapplications as we build appliances, all that programmers need to know is howto follow certain methods, and how to use certain aids methods and aidsbased, like those in manufacturing, on the principles of reductionism andatomism. And to improve their performance later, all we need to do is improvethe methods and aids.Thus, instead of trying to understand the true nature of software andprogramming, the theorists assumed them to be mechanistic phenomena;and the programming profession was founded upon this assumption. Usingthe mechanistic myth as warrant, programming expertise was redefined asexpertise in the use of theories, methodologies, and development aids; in otherwords, expertise in the use of substitutes for expertise. So what was required ofprogrammers from then on was not programming skills, but merely familiaritywith the latest substitutes.If expertise is the highest level attainable by human minds in a givendomain, and incompetence the lowest, programmers were neither expectednor permitted to attain a level much higher than incompetence. And, as societyneeded more and more software, everyone was convinced that what we neededwas more and more of this kind of programmers. The alternative promotingexpertise and professionalism, allowing individuals to develop the highestpossible skills was never considered.The effects of this ideology can be seen in the large number of softwarefailures: development projects abandoned after spending millions of dollars,critical business needs that remain unfulfilled, applications that are inadequateor unreliable, promises of increased savings or efficiency that do not materialize. Statistics unchanged since the 1970s show that less than 5 percent ofprogramming projects result in adequate applications. What these statistics donot reveal is that even those applications that are adequate when new cannot

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be kept up to date (because badly written and badly maintained), so they mustbe replaced after a few years. The statistics also do not reveal that, withinexperienced programmers, it costs far more than necessary to create eventhose applications that are successful. And if we remember also the cost of theadditional hardware needed to run badly written applications, it is safe to saythat, for over forty years, society has been paying in effect one hundred dollarsfor every dollars worth of useful software.The conclusion ought to be that the mechanistic assumption is wrong:programming expertise is not the kind of knowledge that can be replaced withmethods or devices, so personal skills and experience remain an importantfactor. The answer to the software failures is then simply to recognize that, asis the case in other difficult professions, to become a proficient programmerone needs many years of serious education, training, and practice.In our mechanistic software culture, however, this idea is inadmissible; andsomeone who suggests it is accused of clinging to old-fashioned values, ofresisting science and progress. The only accepted answer to the softwarefailures is that we need, not better programmers, but better theories, methodologies, and development aids. If the previous ones failed, we are told, it isbecause they did not adhere faithfully enough to the mechanistic ideology; sothe next ones must be even more mechanistic. In other words, the onlypermissible solutions to the problem of programming incompetence are thosederived from the mechanistic myth the same solutions that were tried in thepast, and which cause in fact the incompetence. No matter how many failureswe witness, the mechanistic ideology is never questioned.The mechanistic software concepts cause incompetence because they arespecifically intended as substitutes for programming expertise. Thus, it is notsurprising that programmers who rely on these substitutes do not advance pastthe level of novices: they are expected to remain at this level.So the incompetence of programmers, and the astronomic cost of software,are a direct consequence of the mechanistic myth. For the first time, a mechanistic delusion is powerful enough to affect the entire society. Previously, it wasonly in universities that individuals could pursue a mechanistic fantasy, inthe guise of research; and the failure of their projects had little effect onthe rest of society. Through software, however, the pursuit of mechanisticfantasies became possible everywhere. Unlike the mechanistic theories in It must be noted that software expenses, and computing expenses generally, are nowusually called investments. Useless concepts can only be promoted through deception: itis easier to make ignorant decision makers invest, than it is to make them spend, largeamounts of money on dubious products and services. Thus, investment has joined thedeceptive terms solution and technology in the promotion of software novelties inlectures, articles, advertising, and conversation.

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psychology, sociology, or linguistics, the mechanistic software theories are

not limited to academic research. Being applicable to business computing,they spread throughout society, and degraded the notions of expertise andresponsibility in business just as mechanistic research had degraded thesenotions in universities. Just as the academics perceive their responsibility to be,not the discovery of useful theories but the pursuit of mechanistic ideas,programmers perceive their responsibility to be, not the creation of usefulapplications but the use of mechanistic software methods.Millions of individuals are engaged, thus, not in programming but inthe pursuit of mechanistic fantasies. Probably no more than 1 percent ofthe programming activities in society represent useful work; that is, workbenefiting society in the way the work of doctors does. We find ourselves todayin this incredible situation because programming is a new profession, withoutestablished standards of expertise. We allowed the software elite to persuade usthat this profession must be based on mechanistic principles, so the standardof expertise became, simply, expertise in mechanistic software concepts. Hadwe tried first the alternative giving programmers the time and opportunity todevelop the highest knowledge and skills that human beings can attain in thisnew profession we would easily recognize the absurdity of the mechanisticconcepts, and the incompetence of those who restrict themselves to suchconcepts. It is only because we take software mechanism as unquestionabletruth that we accept the current programming practices as a normal level ofexpertise. And if we consider this level normal, it is natural to accept also theresulting cost and the failures.Also, with so many programmers around, new types of supervisors had tobe created: more and more employees were turned into software bureaucrats project managers, systems analysts, database administrators to overseethe hordes of programmers who, everyone agreed, could not be trusted todevelop applications on their own. Again, no one questioned this logic. If theprogrammers were deemed incompetent and irresponsible, the answer shouldhave been to improve their training. Instead, it was decided to adopt, forsoftware development, the assembly-line methods used in manufacturing;namely, to treat programmers as unskilled workers, and to develop applicationsby relying on management expertise rather than programming expertise.So for every few programmers there was now a manager, and for every fewmanagers a higher manager. But the manufacturing methods are inadequatefor programming, because software applications are not neat hierarchicalstructures of subassemblies. Consequently, turning software development intofactory-type work did not solve the problem of programming incompetence.It only increased the software bureaucracy, and hence the cost of software, andthe failures. (Sociological studies of the programming profession, conducted

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in the 1970s, show that the main goal of corporate management was not somuch to improve programming practices, as to repress the programmersattitudes and expectations. For example, the theory of structured programmingwas promoted as the means to turn programming into an exact activity,and programmers into skilled professionals, while its true purpose was theopposite: to deskill programmers; specifically, to eliminate the need andopportunity for programmers to make important decisions, and to givemanagement complete control over their work.)Finally, as the benefits expected from mechanistic software concepts are notmaterializing, new types of bureaucrats must be constantly invented as asolution to the incompetence of programmers. Thus, companies have nowemployees with absurd titles like architect, systems integrator, data analyst,business intelligence analyst, and report developer. While justified by invokingthe growing complexity of business computing, and the growing importanceof information technology, the task of these new bureaucrats is in reality to dowhat programmers should be doing; that is, create and maintain businessapplications. What masks this fact is that, instead of programming, they try toaccomplish the same thing through various end-user tools, or by puttingtogether ready-made pieces of software. But the idea that we can create usefulapplications in this fashion is based on the same delusions as the idea thatprogramming expertise can be replaced with methods and aids. So it only addsto the complexity of business computing, while the real software problemsremain unsolved. This is interpreted, though, as a need for even more of thenew bureaucrats, in a process that feeds on itself.

A major role in the spread of the software bureaucracy is played by the

organizations that create the knowledge substitutes the software companies.These companies form the elite, of course. But in addition to propagating themechanistic software ideology, they function as employers; and in this capacity,they are turning millions of additional workers into software bureaucrats. See Philip Kraft, Programmers and Managers: The Routinization of Computer Programming in the United States (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1977); see also Joan M. Greenbaum,In the Name of Efficiency: Management Theory and Shopfloor Practice in Data-ProcessingWork (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979). It must be noted, though, that, whileground-breaking and as important today as they were in the 1970s, these studies treat thedeskilling of programmers as part of the traditional conflict between management andlabour. Their authors were unaware of the fallacies of software mechanism, and that theorieslike structured programming do not, in fact, work. Thus, the delusion that programmersmust be a kind of factory workers because programming is a kind of manufacturing constitutes a sociological phenomenon that has yet to be studied.

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From just a handful in the 1960s, the software companies have grown innumber and in size to become an important part of the economy. And theyaccomplished this simply by invoking the myth of software mechanism. For,their software and services can be justified only if we accept unquestioninglythe mechanistic ideology. Thus, only if we agree that software development isa form of manufacturing will we accept the resulting incompetence, and hencethe aids and substitutes supplied by these companies as the answer. Or, puttingthis in reverse, if we had professional programmers instead of the currentpractitioners, less than 1 percent of the software supplied by these companieswould be needed at all.What this means is that countless organizations, while operating as legitimate businesses under the banner technology, are actually engaged in themaking and marketing of mechanistic software fantasies. So their employees,no matter how good they may be in these activities programming, research,management, administration, selling are not performing work that is trulyuseful. They belong, therefore, to the software bureaucracy.The programmers who work for these companies hold a special place in thebureaucracy. They are, in general, better prepared and more experienced thanthe application programmers. But if their job is to develop the useless systemssold by the software companies, their talents are wasted. These systems mayappear impressive to their users, but they cannot replace good applications, northe expertise needed to create good applications. So, if these systems cannotbe a substitute for expertise, the work of those who create them is just assenseless as the work of those who use them. We are witnessing, therefore, thisabsurd situation: our better programmers are employed to create, not thecustom applications that society needs, but some generic applications, or somesubstitutes for the knowledge required to create custom applications. Insteadof helping to eradicate the software bureaucracy, our universities prepareprogrammers for the software companies, thereby adding to the bureaucracy.For, by catering to the needs of software bureaucrats, the system programmersare reduced to bureaucrats themselves.

A different kind of software companies are the enterprises run by the individuals known as industry experts, or gurus. Unlike the regular softwarecompanies, the gurus earn their fame personally as theorists, lecturers, andwriters. Their role, however, is similar: to promote the ideology of softwaremechanism. So they are part of the elite. Also like the software companies, theirexistence is predicated on widespread programming incompetence and anever-growing bureaucracy.

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Although they seldom have any real programming experience (that is,personally creating and maintaining serious business applications), the gurusconfidently write papers and books on programming, publish newsletters,invent theories and methodologies, lecture, teach courses, and provide consulting services. Their popularity the fact that programmers, analysts, andmanagers seek their advice demonstrates, thus, the ignorance that pervadesthe world of programming. To appreciate the absurdity of this situation,imagine a similar situation in medicine: individuals known to have no medicaltraining, and who never performed any surgery, would write and lecture onoperating procedures; and real surgeons, from real hospitals, would read theirbooks, attend their courses, and follow their methods.While unthinkable in other professions, we accept this situation as a logicalpart of our programming culture. The reason it seems logical is that it can bejustified by pointing to the software myth: if what we perceive as programmingexpertise is familiarity with theories, methodologies, and software devices, it isonly natural to respect, and to seek the advice of, those who know the most inthis area. So the gurus are popular because they always promote the latestprogramming fads which, at any given time, are what ignorant practitionersbelieve to be the cure for their current difficulties.

Programming was only the first profession to be destroyed by the software

myth. Once we agreed to treat programmers as mere bureaucrats, instead ofinsisting that they become proficient and responsible workers, the spread ofthe software bureaucracy was inevitable. Every aspect of the degradation thatis currently occurring in other professions can be traced to the incompetenceof programmers. For, as we increasingly depend on computers and need moreand more software applications, if the programmers are unreliable we mustfind other means to develop these applications. We already saw how new typesof managers, and new types of software workers, were invented to deal with theproblem of programming incompetence. This did not help, however. So theproblem spread beyond the data-processing departments, and is now affectingthe activities of software users.Little by little, to help users perform the work that should have beenperformed by programmers, various software aids have been introduced.They vary from simple programming environments derived from databasesor spreadsheets (which promise users the power to implement their ownapplications) to ready-made applications (which promise users the power toeliminate programming altogether). These aids, however, are grounded on thesame mechanistic principles as the development aids offered to programmers,

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so they suffer from the same fallacies. If the substitutes for expertise cannothelp programmers, we can hardly expect them to help amateurs, to createuseful applications.Workers everywhere, thus, are spending more and more of their time doingwhat only programmers had been doing before: pursuing mechanistic softwarefantasies. Increasingly, those who depend on computers must modify the waythey work so as to fit within the mechanistic software ideology: they mustdepend on the inferior applications developed by inexperienced programmers,or on the childish applications they are developing themselves, or on thegeneric, inadequate applications supplied by software companies. The world ofbusiness is being degraded to match the world of programming: other workersare becoming as inefficient in their occupations as programmers are in theirs;like the programmers, they are wasting more and more of their time dealingwith specious, software-related problems.But we perceive this as a normal state of affairs, as an inevitable evolution ofoffice work and business management. Because we believe that the only way tobenefit from software is through the mechanistic ideology, we are now happyto adopt this ideology in our own work. As software users, we forget that thevery reason we are preoccupied with software problems instead of our realproblems is the incompetence and inefficiency caused by the mechanisticideology in programming. So, by adopting the same ideology, we end upreplicating the incompetence and inefficiency in other types of work. In otherwords, we become software bureaucrats ourselves.

Thus, because we do not have a true programming profession, workers with no

knowledge of programming, or computers, or engineering, or science areincreasingly involved in the design and creation of software applications. And,lacking the necessary skills, they are turning to the knowledge substitutesoffered by the software companies which substitutes address now all people,not just programmers. So, as millions of amateurs are joining the millions ofinexperienced practitioners, the field of application development is becomingvery similar to the field of consumer goods. A vast network of distribution andretail was set up to serve these software consumers, and a comprehensivesystem of public relations, marketing, and advertising has emerged to promotethe knowledge substitutes: books, periodicals, brochures, catalogues, newsletters, trade shows, conventions, courses, seminars, and online sources.The similarity to consumer goods is clearly seen in the editorial andadvertising styles: childish publication covers; abundance of inane terms likepowerful, easily, solution, and technology; the use of testimonials to

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demonstrate the benefits of a product; prices like $99.99; and so on. Thus, whilediscussing programming, business, efficiency, or productivity, the promotionof the software devices resembles the promotion of cosmetics, fitness gadgets,or money-making schemes. Also similar to consumer advertising are thedeceptive claims; in particular, promising ignorant people the ability toperform a difficult task simply by buying something. The software market,thus, is now about the same as the traditional consumer market: charlatansselling useless things to dupes.Again, to appreciate the absurdity of this situation, all we have to do iscompare the field of programming with a field like medicine. There is noequivalent, in medicine, of this transformation of a difficult profession into aconsumer market. We dont find any advertisers or retailers offering knowledgesubstitutes to lay people and inexperienced practitioners who are asked toreplace the professionals.This transformation, then, has forced countless additional workers to jointhe software bureaucracy. For, if what they help to sell is based on the idea thatsoftware devices can replace expertise, and if this idea stems from the belief insoftware mechanism, all those involved in marketing the knowledge substitutesare engaged in senseless activities.

Finally, let us recall that it is precisely those institutions which ought to

encourage rationality our universities that beget the software delusions.Because they teach and promote only mechanistic software concepts, theuniversities are, ultimately, responsible for the widespread programmingincompetence and the resulting corruption.In the same category are the many associations and institutes that representthe world of programming. The ACM and the IEEE Computer Society, inparticular the oldest and most important are not at all the scientific andeducational organizations they appear to be. For, while promoting professionalism in the use of computers, and excellence in programming, their ideaof professionalism and excellence is simply adherence to the mechanisticideology. Thus, because they advocate the same concepts as the universitiesand the software companies, these organizations serve the interests of the elite,not society.If this sounds improbable, consider their record: They praise every programming novelty, without seriously verifying it or confirming its usefulness.At any given time, they proselytize the latest programming revolution, urgingpractitioners to join it: being familiar with the current software concepts, theytell us, is essential for advancement. In particular, they endorsed the three

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pseudoscientific theories we examine in chapter 7, and conferred awards

on scientists who upheld them. As we will see, not only are these theoriesfallacious and worthless, but the scientists used dishonest means to defendthem; for example, they claimed that the theories benefit from the rigour andprecision of mathematics, while this is easily shown to be untrue. Thus, insteadof exposing the software frauds, the ACM and the IEEE Computer Society helpto propagate them.What these organizations are saying, then, is exactly what every softwareguru and every software company is saying. So, if they promote the same valuesas the commercial enterprises, they are not responsible organizations. Like theuniversities, their aim is not science and education, but propaganda andindoctrination. They may be sincere when using terms like professionalismand expertise, but if they equate these terms with software mechanism, whatthey do in reality is turn programmers into bureaucrats, and help the elite toexploit society.5

The foregoing analysis has shown that our mechanistic software culture isindeed a social phenomenon that is causing the spread of a bureaucracy, andhence the spread of totalitarianism. Every one of the activities we analyzed canbe justified only through the software myth or through another activity,which in its turn can be justified only through the myth or through anotheractivity, and so on. The programmers, the managers, the academics, thegurus, the publishers, the advertisers, the retailers, the employees of softwarecompanies, and increasingly every computer user their software-relatedactivities seem logical only if we blindly accept the myth. As soon as wequestion the myth, we recognize these activities as what they actually are: thepursuit of mechanistic fantasies.So the expansion of software-related activities that we are witnessing is notthe expansion of some useful preoccupations, but the expansion of delusions.It is not a process of collective progress in a new field of knowledge what oursoftware-related affairs should have been but a process of degradation:more and more people are shifting their attention from their former, seriousconcerns, to some senseless pursuits.In chapter 8 we will study the link between the mechanistic ideology and thenotion of individual responsibility; and we will see that a mechanistic cultureleads inevitably to a society where people are no longer considered responsiblefor their acts. The road from mechanism to irresponsibility is short. The beliefin mechanism tempts us to neglect the natural capabilities of our minds, and

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to rely instead on inferior substitutes: rather than acquiring knowledge, we

acquire devices that promise to replace the need for knowledge. We accomplishby means of devices less than we could with our own minds, and the devicesmay even be wrong or harmful, but no one blames us. Our responsibility,everyone agrees, is limited to knowing how to operate the devices.Today, the incompetence and irresponsibility are obvious in our softwarerelated activities, because these activities are dominated by mechanistic beliefs.But if we continue to embrace software mechanism, we should expect theincompetence and irresponsibility to spread to other fields of knowledge, andto other professions, as our dependence on computers is growing.A society where all activities are as inefficient as are our software-relatedactivities cannot actually exist. We can afford perhaps to have a few millionpeople engaged in mechanistic fantasies, in the same way that we can afford tohave an entertainment industry, and to spend a portion of our time with idleamusements. But we cannot, all of us, devote ourselves to the pursuit offantasies. Thus, if the spread of software mechanism is causing an evergrowing number of people to cease performing useful work and to pursuefantasies instead, it is safe to predict that, at some point in the future, oursociety will collapse.To avert this, we must learn all we can from the past: we must study theharm that has already been caused by software mechanism, in the domain ofprogramming. In programming we have been trying for forty years to findsubstitutes for expertise, so we have enough evidence to demonstrate theabsurdity of this idea, and the dishonesty of those who advocate it.Despite its failure in programming, it is the same idea replacing mindswith software that is now being promoted in other domains. And it is thesame myth, software mechanism, that is invoked as justification, and the sameelites that are perpetrating the fraud. So, in a few years, we should expect to seein other domains the same corruption we see today in programming, thesame incompetence and irresponsibility. One by one, all workers will bereduced, as programmers have been, to software bureaucrats. As it has been inprogramming, the notion of expertise will be redefined everywhere to meanexpertise in the use of substitutes for expertise. As programmers are today, wewill all be restricted to the methods and devices supplied by an elite, andprevented from developing our minds.Thus, if we understand how the mechanistic delusions have caused theincompetence and irresponsibility found today in the domain of programming,we will be able perhaps to prevent the spread of these delusions, and theresulting corruption, in other domains.

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Anthropology and Software

If the theories of software engineering are founded on a myth, it is not

surprising that they do not work. The software practitioners, though, continueto believe in software mechanism, and this prevents them from gainingknowledge and experience. Thus, because of their ignorance, the worldof programming resembles a primitive society. Also, as other professionsincreasingly depend on computers, and hence on the mechanistic softwaremyth, the users of software are now prevented from gaining knowledge andexperience. So the whole world resembles, increasingly, a primitive society. Wecan learn a great deal about our software delusions, therefore, by comparingthe attitudes of programmers and users with those of the primitives.Let us turn, then, to the field of social anthropology. In the first subsection,we will study the practice of magic as a complement to proven knowledge. Andin the second subsection, we will study the invocation of supernatural powersin general.

icgMerawtfoS

Software Magic1

When analyzing the names of software products, we cannot help noticing thelarge number of names that evoke magic practices. For example, a populardatabase management system is called Oracle, a word meaning prophetand prophecy in antiquity. An application development system is calledDelphi, after the location of a temple in ancient Greece where oracles wereissued. A network system is called Pathworks; pathworking is a form of groupvisualization practised by those who believe in the occult. One utility is calledGenie Backup Manager; others are called Clipboard Genie and Startup Genie.We also have Install Wizard, Disk Clean Wizard, Search Wizard, Web Wizard,PC Wizard, Registry Wizard, Barcode Wizard, etc. To back up drivers we coulduse Driver Magician, and to create help files Help Magician. A catalogue ofhardware and software products describes certain entries as magic solutions,and offers discounts on other entries to help us get more magic for less. As we will see later, the belief that software is a kind of product is one of the fallaciesof the software myth. So I use the term software product only when I want to stress theabsurdity of this concept (as in the present section). IBM RS/6000 catalogue (spring 2000), pp. 8, 2.

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But to leave no doubt as to the supernatural qualities of their products,

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all important affairs. Far from avoiding associations with supernatural forces,software vendors and gurus todays priests and prophets know that forignorant programmers and users it is precisely these associations that matter.

Magic a pseudoscience claims that certain objects, spells, or acts have

the power to influence persons and events, although this power cannot beexplained. Magic theories appear to provide important benefits, but personswho believe in magic must accept these theories without proof. For this reason,magic beliefs tend to manifest themselves as wishful thinking. Magic systemshave existed as long as human societies, so they have always reflected ourcurrent preoccupations, fears, and desires. Thus, we have had magic systemsto help us win battles, attract mates, predict the future, lose weight, and createsoftware applications without programming.The person who believes in magic refuses to face reality: he clings to hisbeliefs and disregards all evidence of their falsity. The validity of most magictheories can easily be determined by carefully monitoring the successes andfailures, for example. But the believer never bothers with such details, and isannoyed when someone suggests it. He already knows that the theory works.He enthusiastically accepts any success as verification of the theory, whiledismissing major failures as insignificant exceptions.The problem with magic thinking, then, is not so much one of ignorance asone of method. Even when we are ignorant, logical methods of inquiry enableus to test hypotheses, and hence to adopt only those theories that work. Wefavour theories that promise simple solutions to difficult problems, naturally;but it is precisely these theories that are most likely to be false. The mostimportant advantage we have over primitive societies is not our scientificand technological knowledge, but our logical methods of inquiry. Our capabilities, which had grown only slowly throughout the centuries, have beengrowing exponentially since we adopted these methods. Those content toinvoke specious explanations when reaching the limits of their understanding,instead of seeking to expand their knowledge, are condemned to intellectualstagnation. Their knowledge grows very slowly, or not at all.Given the success that science had in explaining nature and extending ourknowledge, it is not surprising that, until recently, magic practices wereconsidered to be a vestige of our primitive past. All human societies, it wasbelieved, start with magic, and when sufficiently advanced, replace it withscience. No society can possibly continue to practise magic once the benefitsof scientific thinking are revealed to it. Magic thinking, it was thought, issimply prescientific thinking.

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Like the theory of myth, however, the theory of magic has undergone adramatic shift in the last one hundred years. Far from being a vestige of thepast, far from being automatically displaced by science, we understand nowthat magic beliefs affect a modern society just as much as they do a primitiveone. All that has happened is a change in theories. We may no longer believethat weather rituals can bring rain, but we accept many other theories ineconomics, linguistics, psychology, sociology, programming which are, infact, as scientific as rain magic.Our reevaluation of the role of magic in society started following the workof anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski, who studied in greatdetail the life of primitive peoples, was struck by the continual blending ofmagic thinking and rational thinking. To a casual observer, the primitivesappear to merely add some spurious ceremonies to all their activities. Carefulstudy, however, reveals a surprisingly logical pattern. Magic is not practised atwill. For each activity, tradition dictates whether magic is required at all, whichmagic formula must be used, at what point it should be applied, and whichmagician is qualified to perform the ritual. The ritual, which may be quitelengthy and elaborate, must be performed with great precision, since anydeviation from the formula is believed to weaken its efficacy.The pattern Malinowski observed is this: when the activity can be performed with confidence, when the primitives expect a certain and easy success,no magic is employed; but when the activity entails a significant degree ofuncertainty or danger, magic is deemed necessary. Also, just as one wouldexpect, the greater the uncertainty or danger, the more elaborate the magicemployed. This is how Malinowski puts it: We find magic wherever theelements of chance and accident, and the emotional play between hope andfear have a wide and extensive range. We do not find magic wherever thepursuit is certain, reliable, and well under the control of rational methods andtechnological processes. Further, we find magic where the element of dangeris conspicuous. We do not find it wherever absolute safety eliminates anyelements of foreboding.Primitive people employ magic, then, as an extension to their knowledgeand capabilities. When they feel that skills and labour alone will allow them tocomplete a given task, their actions are totally rational. But when they knowfrom experience that despite their skills and labour they may still fail, theyresort to magic. This happens in activities like agriculture, hunting, andfishing, which depend on factors that are unpredictable and beyond their See, especially, his Coral Gardens and Their Magic (New York: Dover, 1978), andArgonauts of the Western Pacific (New York: Dutton, 1961). Bronislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion, and Other Essays (Garden City, NY:Doubleday Anchor, 1954), pp. 139140.

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control. They also use magic to complement their rational efforts in matterslike health or social relations, which also contain much uncertainty.2

2Programming and software use are saturated with magic practices, but we failto notice this fact. The reason we fail to notice it is the uncanny similaritybetween magic practices and rational behaviour: Magic is akin to science inthat it always has a definite aim intimately associated with human instincts,needs, and pursuits. The magic art is directed towards the attainment ofpractical aims. Like the other arts and crafts, it is also governed by a theory, bya system of principles which dictate the manner in which the act has to beperformed in order to be effective.If we watch the activity of a person while being unfamiliar with the scientificprinciples underlying that activity, we cannot distinguish between rational andmagic practices. Only if our knowledge exceeds his, can we recognize whichacts contribute to his success and which ones are spurious. Primitive people,when engaged in pursuits like agriculture, feel that technical knowledge andmagic rituals are equally important. We, watching them from our positionin an advanced society, can recognize that only their technical knowledgecontributes to their success, and that their rituals are spurious. At the sametime, we ourselves engage in spurious activities in our software pursuits,convinced that they are as important as our technical expertise. Thus, only aperson with superior programming knowledge can recognize the absurdity ofsuch concepts as structured programming and object-oriented programming.So it is the similarity of our rational and our irrational acts that we muststudy if we want to uncover the absurdities in todays software practices. Buthow can we study this similarity? We are convinced that everything we do isrational we never perform foolish acts deliberately so we will always fail todistinguish between the rational and the irrational in our own life. One way,we will see later in this book, is to approach any software concept, product, ortheory with due skepticism. As in other disciplines, we can apply logicalmethods of inquiry to confirm or refute any software claim. Besides, as thesemethods are universal, they can be used even by those with limited programming knowledge. And when doing this, we discover that most software claimsare associated with pseudoscientific theories, propaganda, and charlatanism.Another way is to study the blending of the rational with the irrational inthe lives of primitive people, which, in turn, will help us to recognize the same Ibid., p. 86.

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conduct in our own life. For this purpose, we can find no better examples thanthe garden and canoe magic systems used in the Trobriand islands of easternNew Guinea, which were so thoroughly documented by Malinowski.

The natives display great agricultural expertise in tending their plantations.

They understand, for instance, the properties of the different types of soil, andthey know which crops are best suited for each type; they are familiar with theprinciples of fertilization; and they can identify hundreds of varieties and typesof plants. In addition, they are conscientious workers, and they performskilfully such tasks as preparing the garden, planting the seeds, protecting thegrowing crops, and harvesting them.This expertise, however, is always supplemented with magic. The nativescan explain, for example, why no crops can thrive in certain areas of theirisland in perfectly reasonable, almost scientific language.. .. At the same timethey attribute the supreme fertility of some districts ... to the superiority of onemagical system over another. They devise clever ways to protect their cropsfrom pests, and these practical devices they handle rationally and accordingto sound empirical rules. At the same time, they build and deploy variousstructures and objects in their gardens, which, they clearly explain, have noother purpose but magic.The natives do not use magic because they confuse it with practical work.They realize that invoking magic powers is an entirely different type of act, butthey believe it to be just as important: The two ways, the way of magic and theway of garden work . .. are inseparable. They are never confused, nor is one ofthem ever allowed to supersede the other. The natives know which tasks theymust perform through their own skills and work, and they never attempt to usemagic as a substitute. Thus, they will never try to clean the soil by magic, toerect a fence or yam support by a rite... . They also know that no work can beskimped without danger to the crops, nor do they ever assume that by anoverdose of magic you can make good any deficiencies in work. ... Moreover,they are able to express this knowledge clearly and to formulate it in a numberof principles and causal relations.Malinowski includes two diagrams showing stages in the growth of one ofthe local crops, drawn from information provided by the natives themselves.It seems that the natives have greater knowledge about their crops than some Bronislaw Malinowski, Coral Gardens and Their Magic, vol. 1 (New York: Dover,1978), p. 75. Ibid., p. 77. Ibid., p. 76. Ibid. Ibid., pp. 140141.

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modern farmers have about theirs. They can describe in great detail the entiredevelopment process, from the time the seed is placed in the ground until theplant matures. There are more than twenty native terms in these diagrams forvarious parts of the seed, roots, branches, etc. showing their keen interest inthe botanic aspects of their work.At the same time, the natives have elaborate systems of magic, which theyapply scrupulously throughout the growth process. The magic varies fromspecialized spells and charms addressing individual parts of the plant, to ritualsfor their tools and for the whole garden. Most of this magic is performed byprofessional magicians, who receive fees for their services. There are severalmagic systems in use, and the natives discuss their relative merits with thesame seriousness as programmers discussing their application developmentsystems. Some magic systems are owned by individuals, families, or clans, andin this case others must pay for their use a practice not unlike our patents andcopyrights.We discover a similar combination of rational and irrational acts in canoebuilding and the associated fishing and trading activities. The natives buildsturdy and attractive craft, their size and design matching their intended use:a simple type for coastal transport, a more elaborate type for fishing, and arelatively large and complex type, carrying more than a dozen men, for longsea voyages. Limited to primitive tools, the building of a dugout canoe is amajor construction project for them, demanding coordinated team work andtimely contribution from specialists. But they are capable of accurate planningand efficient labour organization. Also, they are familiar with the principles ofbuoyancy and stability, sailing and navigation. They understand, for example,why the outrigger must have a certain, optimal span, measured as a fraction ofthe canoes length: a larger span offers greater stability, but at the same time itweakens the outrigger. And they can explain clearly why one canoe is fasterthan another, or why, in a storm, they must follow one procedure rather thananother. They have, Malinowski points out, a whole system of principles ofsailing, embodied in a complex and rich terminology, traditionally handed onand obeyed as rationally and consistently as is modern science by modernsailors.Despite these skills, however, every stage in the building of the canoe isaccompanied by a magic ritual, deemed necessary to ensure a fast and safecraft. To pick just one example which also demonstrates the importance ofdetails in magic a ritual performed before painting the canoe involvesburning under its bottom a mixture of such substances as the wings of a bat, Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (New York: Dutton, 1961),esp. chs. IVVI. Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion, p. 30.

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the nest of a small bird, cotton fluff, and grass. The smoke is supposed toexercise a speed-giving and cleansing influence.. . . All the substances areassociated with flying and lightness. The wood used for kindling the fire is thatof the light-timbered mimosa tree. The twigs have to be obtained by throwingat the tree a piece of wood (never a stone), and when the broken-off twig falls,it must be caught by hand, and not allowed to touch the ground. Malinowskidescribes dozens of additional rites, spells, and ritual performances.

What are we to make of this? How is it possible for people to be so rational, andyet so irrational, at the same time? To answer this, we must start by noting thatpeople appear irrational only when judged from outside their system of belief.Judged from within that system, their conduct is logical and consistent. All ittakes is one unproven concept, one false assumption. An entire system canthen be built around it, and even if every theory and method in the system islogically derived, that one assumption will render the system nonsensical.In the case of magic, the false assumption is that certain objects, spells, andritual performances have the power to influence peoples lives, or the forcesof nature, or the course of events. In the case of programming, the falseassumption is that software applications are akin to the appliances we build ina factory, so programming is akin to manufacturing; that, like appliances, wecan separate an application into independent modules, each module intosimpler ones, and so on, down to some small parts; that all we need to know ishow to program these small parts, because there exist methods and deviceswhich allow us to build applications from software parts just as we buildappliances from physical parts; and that, moreover, we can complete oursoftware manufacturing projects even faster if we start with prefabricatedsubassemblies large modules that already contain many parts.In programming as in magic, many principles and methods have beeninvented, and organized into logical systems. There isnt much that can becriticized when studying such a system from within itself; that is, when usingas criteria of validity only concepts that are part of the system. This is whatbelievers are doing, and why the system appears sound to them.Thus, an individual who believes in magic will always use magic systems;then, within a magic system, his conduct will always be logical. Similarly,theorists and practitioners who assume that programming is similar to manufacturing will always pursue mechanistic software ideas; then, within themechanistic ideology, their decisions and acts will always be logical. Malinowski, Argonauts, p. 140.

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But the validity of each part of the system depends ultimately on the validityof that one fundamental assumption, which may well be the only conceptlinking the system to the real world. If that concept is wrong, the entire system,no matter how logical, becomes worthless. Believers never question thatconcept. The larger the system they build around it, the smaller and lessimportant the concept appears to be. Eventually, they forget altogether that theconcept was never anything but an assumption.3

3We are now in a position to explain the blending of rational and irrationalbehaviour. Primitive societies are closed societies. Their members followelaborate traditions rigid patterns of thought and conduct in all theiractivities. The traditions derive from ancient myths, which are the charter andthe foundation of their culture.Among other things, tradition establishes for each activity what is withinthe power of the individual and what is beyond his power. For the partthat is within his power, the individual is expected to act rationally and todisplay expertise, initiative, and creativity. But what is he expected to do whensomething is believed to lie beyond his power? Recall Malinowskis criticalobservation that magic is employed only when the outcome of an activity hasa great degree of uncertainty, when the primitives know that their skills alonecannot ensure success. Because their social system does not permit them toacquire skills beyond the boundaries determined by tradition, it must providethem with other means to cope with the more difficult tasks. This is thepurpose of magic. Simply by accepting one unproven theory, they gain accessto a multitude of new possibilities.If we divide the world of primitive people into fields they understand andcontrol, and fields that lie beyond their knowledge and capabilities, what magicdoes is bring the latter into the same category as the former. Magic assuresthem that the methods they use successfully in those fields they understandcan be used equally in fields where their knowledge is inadequate.The primitives know perfectly well when it is skills that they rely on andwhen it is magic. When sailing, for example, if the wind suddenly changes theyuse a spell to persuade it to return to its original direction. We, with ourknowledge and computers, are content to try to predict the weather; throughmagic, however, the primitives believe they can control it. But their behaviouris quite logical: they make use of their sailing methods as long as they work,and turn to magic precisely because they realize that adjusting their sails wouldbe ineffective, that it is the wind they must now adjust rather than the sails.

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Instructing the wind to change direction appears silly only if we reject thetheory that the weather can be controlled. They accept this theory; so theyapply methods that involve the weather, in the same way they apply methodsthat involve the sails. Both types of methods appear to them equally rationaland effective. Magic practice is an attempt to use our current capabilities toaccomplish tasks that require, in fact, greater capabilities.It is important to remember that magic does not ask us to accept a differentmistaken theory every time. All magic practices are based on the same mistaken theory. Besides, this theory is plausible: all it asks us to believe is thatwe can influence events by means of spells or objects. Magic, thus, makesprocesses that are impossible appear like a logical extension of processes thatare familiar and effective. After all, we do influence the world around us withspoken words, with our bodies, with objects and tools. This is why it is so easyfor us to believe in magic, and so difficult to distinguish between our magicactivities and our rational ones. We may think that we are performing the samekind of acts, but these acts can have a real and verifiable effect one moment andan illusory effect the next.

And the same is true of software magic. In chapter 7 we will see that themechanistic software theories do not promise any benefits that could not begained simply through good programming. What the software elites areseeking, therefore, is a substitute for programming knowledge: by incorporating various principles into a methodology, or into a development environment,they hope to get inexperienced programmers to accomplish tasks that require,in fact, great expertise. Following rules and methods, or using built-in featuresand operations, is easier than acquiring knowledge and skills, and is within thecapabilities of inexperienced programmers. Programming systems, thus, areperceived as magic systems: they assure programmers that they can accomplisha difficult task with their current knowledge alone.Software development has become the most elaborate type of magic evercreated by man, but this escapes our notice if we watch only superficially theactivities of programmers. For, in their activities, as in those of primitivepeople, the rational and the irrational blend and overlap continually. Wealready saw that one can distinguish irrationality only by stepping outside thesystem of belief that fosters it, so we must also do this for software.Each software activity appears logical, urgently needed, and perfectlyjustified if studied in the context of other, similar activities. This is becausemost software activities are engendered by some previous software activities.We may even be impressed by the incessant changes and innovations, the

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endless theories, languages, methodologies, and development tools, the thousands of courses, exhibitions, conventions, newspapers, magazines, books,brochures, and newsletters, and the astronomic amounts of money spent bycorporations and governments. But if we study these activities, we noticethat they only make sense if we accept the unproven theory that softwaredevelopment is akin to manufacturing. This absurd theory has been acceptedfor so long that it is now routinely invoked as the ideological justification forevery software concept, when there is no evidence, much less a scientificfoundation, to support it. We saw that with magic, by accepting just oneunproven theory, the primitives gain the confidence to handle tasks that liebeyond their capabilities. Similarly, by accepting just one unproven softwaretheory, inexperienced programmers can confidently engage in activities thatlie beyond their capabilities.Like magic in primitive societies, software magic is quite plausible. After all,we build physical structures by assembling standard parts and prefabricatedmodules, and computer programs appear to have their own kind of partsand modules. We improve our manufacturing methods and tools continually,and programming also appears to involve methods and tools. Moreover,programming methods based on the principles of manufacturing seem to workin simple cases in the examples found in textbooks, for instance. Thus,extending these methods to the large and complex applications we need in thereal world appears to be a logical step, whose validity is guaranteed by the factthat large manufacturing projects appear to use the same methods as the smallones; they merely involve more parts and subassemblies.Also like primitive magic, software magic does not ask us to have faith in adifferent unproven theory for each new concept. All programming methodsand systems are based on the same theory the similarity of software development to manufacturing and this makes its fallaciousness harder to detect.These concepts have become a self-perpetuating belief system: a system thatuses its own growth as confirmation of validity. No one seems to rememberthat the entire system, despite its enormous size and complexity, is basedultimately on a theory that was never proved. (See pp. 511512.)

Unlike other disciplines, where mechanical analogies may lurk behind a theorybut are seldom avowed, the software practitioners are quite outspoken abouttheir attempt to reduce software to mechanics. We must make programminglike manufacturing, they say. They proudly add mechanical metaphors to theirsoftware jargon, and take this as a sign of expertise: we are finally turningsoftware into a professional activity, like engineering. But there is no evidence

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that programming can be based on manufacturing methods. So, even if

programmers actually had the training and experience of engineers (ratherthan merely calling themselves engineers, and using engineering metaphors),these skills alone would be of little benefit.Their claim to expertise through mechanical metaphors is especially amusing, as the belief in software mechanics makes their activities look less and lesslike expert programming and increasingly like primitive magic. Malinowskicalled this verbal pattern the creative metaphor of magic: It is the essenceof magic that, by the affirmation of a condition which is desired but not yetfulfilled, this condition is brought about. The verbal part of a magic formulais typically an elaborate and picturesque series of statements describing thedesired state of affairs, which, of course, is very different from reality. Theperson performing the ritual asks, as it were, the forces of nature, or certainobjects, to behave in a different manner, or to possess different qualities: Therepetitive statement of certain words is believed to produce the reality stated....The essence of verbal magic, then, consists in a statement which is untrue,which stands in direct opposition to the context of reality. But the beliefin magic inspires man with the conviction that his untrue statement mustbecome true.So when programmers call themselves engineers, when they talk aboutsoftware engineering and building programs from software components,they are practising in effect software magic: they are making statements theyknow to be untrue (or, at least, know to be unproven), hoping that, throughtheir repeated assertion, software phenomena may be persuaded to be like thephenomena we see in manufacturing.4

4Let us return to the blending of the rational and the irrational in softwareactivities. Programmers act quite rationally when working on small andisolated pieces of an application. They know, for example, the importance ofexpressing correctly the conditions for an iterative statement, and they dontexpect their development tools to do it for them. They never question the needto specify certain operations in the proper sequence, or to assign correct valuesto variables, or to access the right database records. And if the resultingprogram does not work as expected, it is their own logic that they suspect, notthe computer. Malinowski, Coral Gardens, vol. 2, pp. 70, 238. Ibid., pp. 238239.

Ibid., p. 70.

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But this is where their rationality ends. We all know that the difficultiesencountered in large and complex applications are not simply the accumulationof a large number of small problems. When a software project fails, or when anapplication does not provide the solution everyone expected, it is not anindividual statement or condition that must be corrected, or the subtotals in areport that are wrong, or a data entry field that is missing nor even a hundredsuch problems. Isolated deficiencies may well contribute to the failure of theapplication, but even when we manage to identify and resolve them, theapplication remains inadequate. The reason is that applications are systems ofinteracting structures. And the most serious software deficiencies are thosecaused by the interactions: we overlooked or misjudged some of the linksbetween structures.Applications, then, are more than the simple hierarchical structures we wishthem to be, more than the neat modules and relations we see in diagrams.All programming theories are based on the idea that we must reduce theapplication to one structure, and thereby eliminate the interactions. This iswhat we do in manufacturing, the theorists say, so this must also be the answerto our programming difficulties. But it is precisely the interactions that makesoftware such a versatile concept: it is the very fact that we can implementinteracting structures through software that lets software adapt so well to ourneeds. The reason we dont seem to be able to eliminate the interactions, nomatter what theory we follow, is that we need these interactions if software isto mirror our affairs accurately.Only minds can process interacting structures, so the answer to our programming difficulties is programming expertise: the skills attained by workingfor many years on large and complex applications, and on diverse types ofsoftware. In our culture, however, programmers are restricted to simple andisolated tasks. Like the members of a primitive society, they are expected todisplay knowledge and creativity in those activities deemed to be withintheir power: programming small parts of an application. Hard work may berequired, but the success of these activities is assured. Tradition does notpermit them to acquire the higher skills needed to design, program, andmaintain whole applications. This is a difficult task, full of uncertainties, forwhich tradition prescribes the use of magic: methodologies, development toolsand environments, database systems, and the like. These aids encourageprogrammers to think of the application as a system of independent structuresand parts, thus reassuring them that their current knowledge suffices. Likeprimitive magic, software magic creates for programmers the illusion that thedifficult and unpredictable tasks are of the same kind as the simple ones: themethodology, the development tools, or the database system will somehowturn those independent structures and parts into a useful application.

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It takes an experienced person to recognize how little of what programmers

do is rational, and how much effort they waste on spurious activities. Neitherthe programmers themselves nor a lay person watching them can see this,because irrational programming activities are almost identical to rational ones.Thus, a programmer may spend much time mastering the complexities of aparticular development system, and even more time later programming in thatsystem, convinced that this is the only way to enhance his capabilities. If askedto demonstrate the benefits of the system, the only thing he can do is point toits popularity, or describe a particular function that was easy to implement.But he cannot prove the need for that system. In reality, the most importantfactor is his skills. Whatever he managed to accomplish with that system hewould have accomplished with any other system, or with no system at all (thatis, with a traditional programming language, perhaps supplemented withlibraries of subroutines). Like the primitives, though, the programmer remainsconvinced that his technical knowledge and the magic system are equallyimportant.Since no one can prove the need for a particular development system, allrelated activities are specious. But there is nothing to betray their irrationality.Studying reference manuals, attending courses, discussing problems andsolutions all these activities are important, all can be justified. They can bejustified, however, only in the context of that development system, only if wedo not question the need for it.As a result, even when they get to know a development system well,programmers are no better off than before. Their programming skills did notimprove. They wasted their time acquiring worthless knowledge about yetanother methodology, yet another language, yet another theory, instead ofimproving their skills simply by programming. All they did was learn how touse a new magic system.It is easy to see that, no matter how many years of practice these programmers have behind them, their real programming experience stays at the level itwas after the first year or two. They may be familiar with many magic systems,but they have no skills beyond what the software tradition permits them toacquire. Just like the primitives, they do not confuse programming with magic.They know perfectly well what they can accomplish with their own skills, and The benefits of a system or method can be determined only by way of controlledexperiments; that is, experiments designed to isolate and measure a specific variable whileeliminating all others, including human factors. Such experiments are practically impossible,and this is one reason why the only meaningful way to determine the value of a system ormethod is by studying the failures, not the successes. (We will discuss this problem inPoppers Principles of Demarcation in chapter 3.) Thus, any attempt to defend or promotea concept by pointing to individual successes turns it into a pseudoscience, a fraud.

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they turn to magic for the more difficult tasks precisely because they are awareof their limited capabilities.I have described the rational and irrational activities of programmers, but,increasingly, a similar blend can be seen in the activities of software users. Theytoo believe that the only way to improve their performance, or to solve difficultproblems, is by relying on software devices. Like the programmers, though,whatever they manage to accomplish is due almost exclusively to their skills,not to those devices. To advance, therefore, they must avoid the devices, andpractise their profession instead, in order to further improve their skills.How, then, can we detect irrational activities in our software pursuits? Wemust beware of those activities that can only be justified if judged from withinthe software culture. We must not be impressed by how important or urgentthese activities seem to be, or how expertly the individual performs them.Instead, we must search for evidence. Any attempt to prove the validity of anirrational act will lead to that unproven theory the theory that forms thefoundation of our software culture. The theory is that there exist systems whichhelp us to break down software-related tasks into smaller and smaller parts, soall we need to know is how to use these systems and how to solve simpleproblems. This is what we do in manufacturing, and software is no different.

Software propaganda has succeeded in shifting our definition of programming

expertise from its traditional, commonsensical meaning the skills needed tosolve a difficult problem, or to complete an important task to its modernmeaning: familiarity with the latest theories and methodologies, avoidingprogramming and using instead ready-made pieces of software, etc. We areexpected to measure the expertise of software practitioners, not by assessingtheir real contribution, but by how many development tools they have tried,how many courses they have attended, how many computer magazines theyare reading, and how acquainted they are with the latest solutions andtechnologies the latest ideas, products, announcements, and rumours.Companies need programmers, but one wouldnt think so just by readingjob offer advertisements. For, the required qualifications we see in theseadvertisements are not what one would think is expected of programmers;namely, proven expertise in solving a companys business problems withsoftware. Depending on the current fad, the requirements are for experiencewith object-oriented systems, or 4GL systems, or client-server systems, orrelational database systems, or CASE tools, or a particular language or development aid or environment; that is, knowledge of one magic system or another.Companies are looking for magicians, not programmers.

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PerawtfoS

Software Power1

The term mana, which comes from Melanesian, was introduced in anthropology at the end of the nineteenth century by R. H. Codrington. This term,usually translated as power, denotes a supernatural force, a mythical essence,an atmosphere of potency that permeates everything. Since then, it has beenfound that archaic peoples throughout the world believe in its existence.Although we now refer to this concept as mana, it has equivalent terms inmany languages: for some peoples of India it is sakti or barkat, for the AfricanPygmies megbe, for the Iroquois orenda, for the Hurons oki, for the Dakotawakan, for the Sioux wakanda, for the Algonquins manito. It is believed thatthis force exists everywhere in the universe, and that any person can use it toaccomplish tasks he would otherwise find impossible. The force is said toderive from a number of sources, such as ghosts, spirits, and gods.Mana can reveal itself in almost anything: a tree, a stone, an animal, andeven in such things as a gesture, a sign, a colour, and a season of the year. Atypical use of mana may be as follows: An individual would go alone to someisolated spot, where, after fasting, prayer, and exposure to the elements, a spiritmight come and point to him a plant. That plant would then become a sourceof good luck, and the individual would employ this power to ensure success inhis endeavours. He might carry with him at all times something symbolizingthe plant, and perhaps also offer it to others.Mana is different from magic. Mana is a universal force available to anyoneat any time, and to be used in any way the individual desires; magic, on theother hand, requires formal practice: its power is in the spell and ritual, andmagic formulas have an exact significance. Mana exists in nature and canmanifest itself in objects, acts, or ideas; magic power resides in man, and magicformulas can only be transmitted from one person to another. Thus, whileprimitive man may use both magic and mana, most anthropologists agree that,despite their similarity the belief in supernatural powers that can enhance apersons limited capabilities they form two different concepts. Sometimes, Ernst Cassirer, Language and Myth (New York: Dover, 1953), p. 63. Mircea Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries: The Encounter between Contemporary

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mana is taken as the general concept, and magic as one particular applicationof it. As we will see in this subsection, software practitioners and users, too,consider mana a more general concept than their formal magic systems.

The words power, powerful, empower, etc., are so common in computerrelated discourse that it is almost impossible to describe a new product withoutthe use of them. We have come to expect them, and we doubt the efficacy ofthe product if these words are missing. After all, we already have thousands ofsoftware and hardware products, so the only justification for a new one is thatit is more powerful. An analysis of these words, however, reveals that thepower of a product is usually perceived, not as certain qualities, but in the senseof mana as supernatural power.From the many meanings the dictionary offers for the word power, it isobvious that the one current in computer matters is the capability to effectsomething. We can immediately divide this function into two kinds. First,power can simply stand for a list of qualities. For example, if one computer isfaster than another, or if one text editor has better editing features than another,we may say that they are more powerful. When used in this sense, power isan abbreviation: an abstract term we can employ without fear of confusion,since we all know what it stands for. If asked, we could readily describe thesuperior features we subsumed under power.Even a casual examination of books, articles, advertising, or conversationsmakes it clear, however, that power is hardly ever used in this precise sense.In its more common sense, power is still used as an abstract term, but withoutbeing defined. Abstract terms are so common in everyday discourse thatwe seldom stop to think whether we know what they stand for. So, whenencountering an undefined abstract term, we tend to assume that it standsfor the list of things we expected, or wished, to see at that point. Whenencountering power without an explanation, then, we assume that it meanswhat it would mean if used legitimately, although now it is just a slogan.Here are some typical uses of power and its derivatives in computerrelated discourse: Powerful software solutions for midsize companies.Discover the power of Primus Internet services. Empowering the Internetgeneration. Empowered with these capabilities, your company can chargeahead intelligently and efficiently ... . Power tools for power applications.Powering comprehensive unified communications solutions. Wireless http://whitepapers.techrepublic.com.com/. Cisco Systems, adv. Microsoft Visual Basic 2.0, adv. pamphlet.

Primus Canada, adv. pamphlet.

http://www.jda.com/. http://www.myt3.com/.

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inventory systems give you the power to have accurate information in realtime . .. . Open source empowers the user more than proprietary softwarecan. Empowering Software Development Environments by AutomaticSoftware Measurement. Business innovation powered by technology.When it does not describe precise and verifiable capabilities, power isintended to convey something mysterious, supernatural mana. For theprimitives, the belief in mana, like the belief in magic, is a substitute forpersonal knowledge: Mana is a substance or essence which gives one theability to perform tasks or achieve ends otherwise impossible. Similarly,modern individuals believe that a given product or concept has the power toenhance their capabilities, but they dont feel they have to understand how thispower acts.Now, products of all kinds promise us power weight-loss gadgets, moneymaking schemes, self-help instructions, and so forth. But in no other field isthe promise of power as widespread as in software-related matters. We can seethis not only in the frequent use of power, powerful, empower, etc., butalso in the long list of software products whose name includes power (thisuse of power, needless to say, is always in an undefined sense): PowerEncoder,Power Keeper, PowerCrypt, PowerPoint, PowerGraphs Toolkit, NXPowerLite,PowerShadow, PowerOLAP, Power Booleans, IT PowerPAC, Power Edit,PDF Power Brand, PowerShop ERP, PowerGREP, RoutePower 32, AnimationPower, PowerCinema, PowerPassword, PowerPulse, Bill Power, PowerBackup,HTML PowerSpell, PowerExchange, PowerPressed, Power Office, PowerKeyPro, PowerConvert, HedgePower, PowerBuilder, PowerDesk Pro, PowerDraw,Power Translators, PowerDirector, PowerProducer, Power Solids, Power Print,EMail Developers Power Suite, PowerUpdate, PowerERP, Power Accounting,OptionPower, Power LogOn, Powerpak, PowerPack, PowerGEM, PowerTerm,PowerChain, PowerBSORT, PowerTCP Emulation, PowerSuite, PowerRecon,ELX Power Desktop, PowerTicker, PowerAnalyzer, Power Broker, Jobpower,PowerBASIC, Powershell, PowerWebBuilder, PowerWEB, PowerPlan, ESPower PDF Creator, PowerToys, PowerMerge, PowerCOBOL, PowerCenter,DQpowersuite, PowerPath, PowerVideoMaker, SQL Power Architect, PowerSound Editor, PowerBoot, PowerISO, etc.We can account for the abundance of power names in software productsonly if we remember the ignorance that software practitioners and users sufferfrom, the limited skills that our software culture permits them to acquire.Faced with the difficult problem of developing, using, and maintaining serious http://findmysoftware.com/. http://www.netc.org/. Book title, 11th IEEE International Software Metrics Symposium. Front cover banner, Information Week (19992007). Swanson, Birth of the Gods, p. 6.

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applications, modern people, like the primitives, end up seeking aid from theonly source they believe to be available supernatural forces.Few people, of course, would admit that they are using a software productbecause its name includes power. But the software vendors know better. Theability of a products name to influence a buying decision, and the associations created in a persons mind between the product and the idea conveyedby its name, are well understood in advertising. The software vendors aresimply exploiting the belief in the supernatural, which has been retained, in arepressed form, even by modern man. This belief surfaces in moments ofinsecurity, or anxiety, or fear, when, like our ancestors, we feel impotent againstsome great perils. Since ignorance is a major source of insecurity, the largenumber of products with power names merely reflects the large number ofdifficult situations that ignorant programmers and users are facing.Similarly, the phrase power tools is often used by software vendors toname sets of software devices: LG Power Tools, Engineering Power Tools, SQLPower Tools, HTML PowerTools, Windows Powertools, PowerTools PRO forAOL, TBox Power Tools, jv16 Power Tools, Rizones Power Tools, CreativeElement Power Tools, Nemx Power Tools, Power Tools for ArcGIS, Rix2kExtreme Power Tools, CodeSite Power Tools, etc.The phrase is also popular in book titles: Java Power Tools, Unix PowerTools, Linux Power Tools, Mac OS X Power Tools, DOS Power Tools, ScriptingVMware Power Tools, Windows Developer Power Tools, LEGO SoftwarePower Tools, AutoCad Power Tools, Windows XP Power Tools, Netcat PowerTools, Wordperfect 6 Power Tools, Foxpro 2.0 Power Tools, Visual Basic .NETPower Tools, Novell Netware Power Tools, etc.The vendors, clearly, want us to associate a software utility, or the information found in a book, with the efficacy of electricity; that is, with the kind ofenergy used by real power tools like drills and saws. But, without an actualexplanation, the meaning of this power remains vague, just like the powerin a name. So, in the end, we perceive it the same way as mana.2

2Much has been learned about the way the primitives interpret mana, fromlinguistic and ethnological analyses of the archaic languages. The conclusionhas been that mana is not simply a word, like power. We must use amultitude of concepts to convey in a modern language its full meaning:sacred, strange, important, marvellous, extraordinary; also remarkable, Paul Radin, quoted in Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 129.

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very strong, very great, very old, strong in magic, wise in magic, supernatural,divine or in a substantive sense . .. power, magic, sorcery, fortune, success,godhead, delight.Cassirer notes that the idea of mana and the various conceptions related toit are not bound to a particular realm of objects (animate or inanimate, physicalor spiritual), but that they should rather be said to indicate a certain character,which may be attributed to the most diverse objects and events, if only theseevoke mythic wonder and stand forth from the ordinary background offamiliar, mundane existence. .. . It is not a matter of what, but of how;not the object of attention, but the sort of attention directed to it, is thecrucial factor here. Mana and its several equivalents do not denote a single,definite predicate; but in all of them we find a peculiar and consistent formof predication. This predication may indeed be designated as the primevalmythico-religious predication, since it expresses the spiritual crisis wherebythe holy is divided from the profane.The idea of the sacred, especially in its sense as the opposite of the profane,expresses even better, therefore, how the primitives perceive mana. This issignificant, if we want to understand the belief in software power. Like mana,software power is a potency that can manifest itself in diverse concepts andentities, so it does not describe their type but their character. By asserting thata thing has power, the believer says, in effect, that he perceives it as belongingin the domain of the sacred rather than the ordinary.So the belief in software power, like the primitive beliefs, is a belief in theexistence of miraculous capabilities capabilities which cannot and need notbe explained. In the following passage, Eliade describes the concept of mana,but this can just as easily describe the concept of software power: Among theprimitives as among the moderns, the sacred is manifested in a multitude offorms and variants, but . .. all these hierophanies are charged with power. Thesacred is strong, powerful, because it is real; it is efficacious and durable. Theopposition between sacred and profane is often expressed as an oppositionbetween the real and the unreal or pseudo-real. Power means reality and, at thesame time, lastingness and efficiency.

Software power, then, is the modern counterpart of mana. We can confirm thisby noting the many similarities between the two beliefs. First, and most Nathan Sderblom, quoted in Cassirer, Language and Myth, p. 66. Cassirer, Language and Myth, pp. 6566. Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 130. (The term hierophany was coined byEliade to denote any manifestation of the sacred.)

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significantly, everyone realizes that supernatural power acts like a tool, or likean appliance: we can benefit from it directly, without having to gain newknowledge. Thus, the primitives understand that mana is an object, not a bodyof skills and abilities which are obtained through learning. Access to it isacquired, in the sense that a house or a wife or a spear is acquired, that is as agift, as a purchase, or through the performance of appropriate acts. Similarly,the believers in software power do not expect to acquire any skills by usingsoftware devices. They understand that this power is a substitute for knowledgeand experience. Vendors, in fact, make this point the main attraction ofsoftware devices: simply by purchasing one, you gain access to a power that willallow you to accomplish your tasks immediately.Second, supernatural power is perceived by everyone as a truly generalpotency. For the primitives, mana is not so much the idea of . . . particularembodiments, as the notion of a power in general, able to appear now in thisform, now in that, to enter into one object and then into another. Similarly,the great variety of means by which we can acquire software power shows thatbelievers do not associate it with specific things a company, a product, afunction but with a universal potency that can materialize in any softwarerelated concept. It can appear in development environments as well as inapplications, in database systems as well as in utilities, in user interface as wellas in computations.And, although we are discussing software power, we must note that thisuniversal potency can materialize in anything else associated with computers.Thus, it can appear in whole computers (Power Mac, PowerBook, PowerEdge,AcerPower, Power Spec, Prime Power), and also in the parts of a computer, andin related devices: in a monitor (empower your business with advanced displaytechnology, . .. these stylish, powerful and efficient monitors improve theatmosphere of any desktop), a graphics card (Radeon 7500 is a powerfuland versatile graphic solution, GeForce GTX 480 powers interactiveraytracing), a hard drive (fast performance and huge capacity to powertodays storage-hungry applications), a motherboard (empowered byintegrated graphics and Intel Hyper-Threading Technology .. ., it deliversawesome power . ..), a scanner (empower your information managementwith digital technology), a network device (PowerConnect switch), a mouse Swanson, Birth of the Gods, p. 6. Cassirer, Language and Myth, p. 63. NEC Corp., adv. http://www.samsung.com/. http://ati.amd.com/. http://www.nvidia.com/. Seagate ST3160316AS Barracuda 7200.12, http://www.tigerdirect.ca/. Asus P4V8X-MX motherboard, http://ca.asus.com/. Gigabyte GA-X58A-UD3R motherboard, http://www.acousticpc.com/. Ricoh Aficio scanners, The Ricoh Report (Nov. 2000).

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(Power Wheelmouse, PowerScroll), a storage system (PowerVault), a CD

device (PowerCD, PowerDisc), a processor (PowerPC), a camera (PowerShot),or a microphone (PowerMic). And it can appear even in such concepts asa newsletter (IBM PowerTalk, APC PowerNews), a business relationship(Samsung Power Partner program), a panel discussion (Power Panels),a trade show (over 700 high-powered exhibits), or a course (a powerful3-day course).Lastly, the term power, like mana, is employed in a variety of grammatical roles. Analyzing the ways in which the Sioux use wakanda, McGee notesthat the term was applied to all sorts of entities and ideas, and was used(with or without inflectional variations) indiscriminately as substantive andadjective, and with slight modification as verb and adverb. Similarly, throughits derivatives, power is used indiscriminately as noun, adjective, verb, andadverb. Let us see some examples.As noun: Discover the power of MetaFrame and WinFrame software.Relational database power made easy. The power to build a better businessInternet. This empowerment is most visible in backend solutions likeservers and networks. Experience the power of software instrumentation. SaaS Business Empowerment programs are designed to help ProgressSaaS partners focus on the early-stage fundamentals .. .. Accrisoft Freedomweb empowerment software provides all the tools you need .... ... AutoPlayMedia Studio gives you the power to quickly create just about any softwareapplication you can dream up. IT empowerment with ITSM education fromHewlett-Packard. Enjoy visual power.As adjective: Powerful network storage software with built-in intelligenceand automation . .. . Discover hundreds of new uses for this empoweringtool. Visual Two-Way-Tools for power programming. Powerful software for solving LP, NLP, MLP and CGE models. Control your duplicatefiles with this powerful utility. This powerful feature allows affiliates to Comdex Canada Exhibition (1995), adv. pamphlet. Database and Client/Server World Exposition (1994), adv. Global Knowledge, adv. pamphlet. William McGee, quoted in Cassirer, Language and Myth, p. 68. Citrix Systems, Inc., adv. pamphlet. Borland Paradox for Windows, adv. pamphlet. Oracle Corp. iDevelop 2000 event, adv. pamphlet. http://www.netc.org/. http://www.ocsystems.com/. http://web.progress.com/. http://accrisoft.org/. http://www.indigorose.com/. Hewlett-Packard Company, adv. Microsoft Visual Basic 2.0, adv. pamphlet. http://www.compellent.com/. http://www.indigorose.com/. Borland Delphi, adv. pamphlet. http://web.uvic.ca/. http://www.kewlit.com/.

StorageWorks Command View EVA software provides you with a powerfullysimple storage management experience .. .. The intelligent technologyin our electrical calculation software powerfully calculates and performsyour electrical calculations and designs .. .. Powerfully advanced mailingsoftware.In addition, the phrase powered by is commonly used in promotionalslogans to mention a given product, in place of a phrase like made by, workswith, or employs. Some examples of this practice: powered by Google,powered by IBM, powered by Sun, powered by AOL Mail, powered byMicrosoft Access, powered by XMB, powered by Cognos, powered byFIS, powered by Mozilla, powered by HitsLink, powered by PayPal,powered by WebsiteBaker, powered by Trac, powered by ATI, poweredby Merril Lynch, powered by Geeklog, powered by vBulletin, powered byeBay Turbo Lister, powered by GetSimple, powered by TAXWIZ, poweredby nexImage, powered by MindTouch, powered by Joomla, powered byShopFactory, powered by Network Solutions, powered by Sothink.3

3As programmers and as users, we wish to benefit from the power of software,but without taking the time to develop software expertise. Consequently, wehave come to regard this power as the kind of power that we can acquire. And itis through the devices supplied by software companies that we hope to acquireit. So, when describing their devices as powerful, the software companies aresimply exploiting this belief.Like all beliefs we carry from our primitive past, the belief that certaindevices possess a mysterious power can only be dispelled through learning. Asin other domains, once we possess the necessary skills in software-relatedmatters, we can easily recognize which devices are helpful and which ones arefraudulent. In a rational society, this education would be the responsibility ofthe software elites the universities, in particular. In our society, however, theopposite is taking place: since the elites can profit far more by exploiting societythan by educating it, ignorance and primitive beliefs serve their interests. Thus,only if we remain ignorant will we believe that their devices, which are basedon mechanistic concepts, can solve our complex problems. So the elites aredoing all they can to prevent us from developing software knowledge. http://www.scientific-computing.com/. http://solutionselectricalsoftware.com/.

https://ads.jiwire.com/. http://www.satorisoftware.co.uk/.

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Software devices can replace expertise only in solving mechanistic problems;

that is, problems which can be broken down into simpler and simpler ones, andhence modeled with isolated hierarchical structures. Most problems we wantto solve with software, however, are non-mechanistic. They can only berepresented as systems of interacting structures, so they require a human mind,and expertise. The problems associated with programming, particularly, are ofthis kind. In the end, less than 1 percent of the software devices we are offeredare genuine, beneficial tools; the rest are fraudulent. What distinguishes thelatter is their claim to solve complex, non-mechanistic problems; in otherwords, to act as substitutes for minds. They address naive programmers andusers, promising them the power to accomplish tasks that require, in fact,much knowledge and experience.So the software elites are not responsible organizations, but charlatans. Theypresent their devices as the software counterpart of the traditional tools andinstruments, but at the same time they invoke the notions of magic andsupernatural power. They tell us that we need these devices in the same waythat engineers and doctors need theirs. But the tools and instruments we usein engineering and in medicine are promoted on the basis of real qualities,and provide real benefits. Their vendors do not exploit our ignorance andirrationality when persuading us to use them. Clearly, then, if software devicesmust be promoted in this fashion, it is because they are generally useless,because the possession of an imaginary power is their only quality. To put itdifferently, if software devices were promoted by demonstrating their realbenefits, we would use only the few that are truly useful.The harm caused by this charlatanism extends, however, beyond the wasteof time and resources. For, when restricted to the mechanistic knowledgerequired to operate devices, we forgo all opportunities to develop complex,non-mechanistic knowledge. Without this knowledge we cannot solve ourcomplex problems. But if we believe that it is only through devices that we cansolve them, we continue to depend on devices, and hence to restrict ourselvesto mechanistic knowledge, in a process that feeds on itself. The only way toescape from this vicious circle is by expanding our knowledge, so as to exceedthe mechanistic capabilities of devices. And we cannot do this as long as weagree to depend on them. Thus, by enticing us with software devices, the elitesensure our perpetual ignorance. They prevent us from gaining knowledge andalso from solving our problems.The propaganda depicts the software elites as enligthened leaders whoare creating a new world for us a world with higher and higher levels ofefficiency. But now we see that the reality is very different: they are fosteringignorance and irrational beliefs, so they are creating a less efficient world.When presenting their devices as magic systems or as sources of supernatural

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power, they are encouraging us to behave like the primitives. This degradationstarted with the software practitioners, in their programming activities. Now,as our dependence on computers is spreading, it is increasingly affectingeveryone, in every activity.Bear in mind, though, that it is not software or programming that causesthis degradation, but mechanistic software and programming, the kind promoted by the software elites. Mechanistic software-related activities restrict usto mechanistic thinking, thereby preventing us from using our natural, nonmechanistic capabilities. Left alone, without software elites and the mechanisticdogma, human beings would learn to develop and use software as effectivelyas their minds permit them. Complex software phenomena, and complexsoftware knowledge, would then join the many other complex structures thatmake up human existence. Our software-related activities would then enhanceour minds, as do other complex phenomena (the use of language, for instance).