Waste is a by-product of modern living. Put simply, waste is what people throw away because they no longer need it or want it. Almost everything we do creates waste and as a society we are currently producing more waste than ever before. Governments across Australia and around the world have recognised the difficulties of current consumption patterns, and among other policy responses, have either adopted ambitious targets for reducing waste to landfill or adopted “zero” waste policies.

This feature article focuses on the non-hazardous solid waste generated by our communities and emerging issues like household hazardous waste and electronic waste.

Waste generation and disposal: Solid waste can be managed in many different ways. How it is managed – whether it is landfilled, incinerated, recycled, composted or exported – will depend, in part, on the source and the type of waste involved.

Impacts of landfills: Increased population and population density makes the siting of waste management facilities, in particular landfills, in reasonable proximity to human settlements problematic. This issue as well as other environmental consequences of landfilling are discussed.

Recycling: Recycling in Australia has grown over the past 20 years. The reasons why recycling rates have increased over time, which materials are recycled more than others and the factors influencing increasing recycling are discussed.

Composting: Organic wastes including kitchen waste, garden waste, agricultural waste, biosolids and other types of wastes can all be composted using different methods. These methods and their impacts are discussed.

Household hazardous waste: Leftover household products that contain corrosive, toxic, ignitable or reactive ingredients are considered to be household hazardous waste. The improper disposal of these wastes and the benefits of their proper management are discussed.

E-waste: Obsolete electronic waste or e-waste is one of the fastest growing waste types. Very little of the increasing amount of e-waste generated in Australia is being recycled, with most of it ending up in landfill. This waste and in particular the disposal of mobile phones are discussed.

Plastic bags: Current plastic bag use and disposal, both by consumers and through waste management activities are discussed.

Used oils and waste tyres: Problem wastes such as used oil and waste tyres can create large costs to the community through the littering of our landscapes and waterways and the taking up of scarce landfill space. These costs and other issues are discussed.

Rubbish, waste, garbage ... Whatever you want to call it, most people do not think about the rubbish they produce or how much of it they produce.

Waste is generally defined as any product or substance that has no further use for the person or organisation that generated it, and which is, or will be, discarded. That is, when the material ceases to have any value and purpose in the hands of its current owner. It thus excludes products or substances that are reused by the organisation that generated them. Waste may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of those materials to intermediate and final products, and the consumption of final products (1)

Put simply, waste is what people throw away because they no longer need it or want it. It excludes products or substances that are reused or sold by whoever owns them. For practical reasons, the definition covers products discarded by one party but that may have value for another. Thus it can include products that are recyclable. However, what is recyclable in one context might not be recyclable in another, thus resulting in different approaches. For example, in many urban locations the costs and benefits of collecting newspapers favour recycling, but the opposite might be true for a remote location (2)

Almost everything we do creates waste. In Australia, waste generation per person increased from 1.23 tonnes in 1996–97 to 1.62 tonnes in 2002–03 (3). Australia's growth in income and wealth has created a large increase in the disposal of goods no longer needed or wanted, with an associated increase in waste diversity, toxicity and complexity. Governments across Australia and around the world have recognised the environmental effects of current consumption patterns and have, among other policy responses, adopted ambitious targets for reducing waste to landfill or adopted “zero” waste policies.

Wastes may be solid, liquid or gaseous. They can be hazardous or non-hazardous. They may be classified according to their source (municipal, commercial and industrial, construction and demolition) or by composition (organic, paper, glass, metal, and plastic). The physical and chemical properties of waste materials differ based on these and other classifications. Every material has a unique life cycle, from raw material to final disposal, which affects its impact on the environment.

Waste generation and disposal can have significant environmental impacts. These include emissions to air, land and water (including greenhouse emissions) at various stages in the product life cycle from extraction of raw materials to processing, marketing, transport and consumption, as well as direct impacts associated with disposal. Due to a range of market failures, and institutional and regulatory barriers, not all these environmental costs are reflected in market prices. The failure of some markets to get prices right can result in inefficient use of resources, lower economic growth than would otherwise be the case, and adverse environmental and social impacts. Collective action by governments and industry and the community to correct these failures can, if well designed, lead to improved social, environmental and economic outcomes (3).

This article focuses on the non-hazardous solid waste generated by our communities. It also discusses emerging issues like household hazardous waste and electronic waste.

Knowledge of the sources and types of solid wastes, along with data on the composition and rates of generation, is basic to the design and operation of solid waste disposal systems. Although any number of source classifications can be developed, the following categories are useful and are widely adopted throughout Australia:

municipal

commercial and industrial

construction and demolition.

Municipal waste includes domestic waste and other council waste (e.g. beach, parks and gardens, and street litter bins).

These categories will form the basis of discussion for this feature article.

Waste composition

An outline of the composition of wastes to be considered is as follows:

Municipal waste. Waste from the kerbside collection of household waste, away from home collection, and hard waste collection, predominantly consists of putrescible materials such as paper, garden and kitchen waste.

Commercial and industrial waste. Wastes from this source contain relatively higher proportions of metals, plastics and timber which can make waste a valuable source of recyclable product.

Construction and demolition waste. Waste which is mostly inert materials such as timber, bricks, plaster off cuts, concrete, rubble, steel, and excavated earth.

Differences in the composition of non-hazardous municipal solid waste between different source sectors have implications for the way they are collected, handled, reprocessed and disposed.

The materials in non-hazardous solid waste or municipal solid waste generated by households tend to be fairly consistent across the country.

Numerous surveys have been conducted in the major cities of Australia to understand the composition of this waste which is routinely managed by local councils around Australia. By weight, organic materials originating from food scraps and garden waste make up the largest component of household waste. Newspapers and other fibres make up the second highest proportion.

Growth in the amount of waste generated per capita in Australia has been driven by a number of economic, demographic and geographic factors. A consequence of Australia's fast growing, materially intensive economy is the production of large quantities of waste.3 Growth in waste generation appears to be positively related to growth in household incomes and corporate earnings. Studies show that amount of waste generated often increases along with gross domestic product (GDP).

Some of the growth in waste generation, especially in per person terms, has been driven by changes in population demographics. Australians are tending to live in smaller household groups, with the average household size shrinking by 14% over the 20 years to 2001 (4). As well, homes are becoming more luxurious with the ownership of more durable goods per person and an increase in the consumption of smaller-serve goods (which have higher packaging-to-product ratios than larger-serve goods) (3).

Similarly, the increasing dispersal of settlement (urban sprawl) and changes in lifestyle may also contribute to an increase in per person waste generation. Increased distances between home and work (and rising incomes) may decrease the amount of time spent on domestic tasks, such as cooking and cleaning and increase the purchase of prepackaged food and time-saving devices, such as washing machines and dishwashers (2).

Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

The Australian population is ageing which changes consumption patterns, influencing the quantity and quality of resources used and waste generated. For example, expenditure on personal travel and health is increasing in Australia, as is the purchase of second homes.

In general, the data show increasing waste generation per person, a decline in waste to landfill and a significant increase in recycling.

Both government and non-government organisations frequently describe Australia as a high producer of waste when compared with other countries (5). Despite Australia's lack of comprehensive reliable waste information, this would seem to be the case.

Australians generated approximately 32.4 million tonnes of solid waste or approximately 1,629 kilograms of waste per person in 2002–03. Of this amount, approximately 27% of Australia's solid waste came from municipal sources, 29% from the commercial and industrial sector, and 42% from the construction and demolition sector (2).

Of the total non-hazardous solid waste generated in Australia in 2002–03 (32.4 million tonnes), approximately 54% was disposed to landfill (17.4 million tonnes) and the remainder (46%) was recycled (about 15 million tonnes) (3). The level of total waste generation (disposal and recycling) and diversion rate is also supplied for the states and territories.

SOLID WASTE GENERATION, 2002–2003

State/Territory

Municipal solid waste

Commercial and industrial

Construction and demolition

Total

Per person

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

Kilograms

NSW

3 326

4 196

4 649

12 171

1 820

Vic.

2 291

2 743

3 575

8 609

1 751

Qld

1 742

959

1 166

3 973

1 046

WA (a)

833

744

1 945

3 522

1 804

SA

600

677

2 156

3 433

2 248

ACT

111

150

250

674

2 087

Aust. (b)

8 903

9 469

13 741

32 382

1 629

(a) Waste generation for metropolitan Perth only.(b) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Note: The estimates for ACT and Qld for total waste generation include 'organics', which were not included in the waste sector quantities as the split was unknown.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

WASTE GENERATION AND DIVERSION RATES, 2002–03, Disposed

State / Territory

Municipal

'000 tonnes

C&I

'000 tonnes

B&D

'000 tonnes

Total

'000 tonnes

New South Wales

2 170

2 831

1 340

6 341

Victoria

1 547

1 003

1 630

4 180

Queensland

1 297

747

678

2 722

Western Australia

741

420

1 535

2 696

South Australia

365

208

704

1 277

Tasmania

na

na

na

na

ACT

82

98

27

207

Northern Territory

na

na

na

na

Australia

6 202

5 307

5 914

17 423

(a) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

WASTE GENERATION AND DIVERSION RATES, 2002–03, Recycled

State / Territory

Municipal

'000 tonnes

C&I

'000 tonnes

B&D

'000 tonnes

Total

'000 tonnes

New South Wales

1 156

1 365

3 309

5 830

Victoria

744

1 740

1 945

4 429

Queensland

445

212

488

1 251

Western Australia

92

324

410

826

South Australia

235

469

1 452

2 156

Tasmania

na

na

na

na

ACT

29

52

223

467

Northern Territory

na

na

na

na

Australia

2 701

4 162

7 827

14 959

(a) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

WASTE GENERATION AND DIVERSION RATES, 2002–03, Generated

State / Territory

Municipal

'000 tonnes

C&I

'000 tonnes

B&D

'000 tonnes

Total

'000 tonnes

New South Wales

3 326

4 196

4 649

12 171

Victoria

2 291

2 743

3 575

8 609

Queensland

1 742

959

1 166

3 973

Western Australia

833

744

1 945

3 522

South Australia

600

677

2 156

3 433

Tasmania

na

na

na

na

ACT

111

150

250

674

Northern Territory

na

na

na

na

Australia

8 903

9 469

13 741

32 382

(a) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports Australia as a high producer of municipal waste of the OECD countries (6).

More recently, the 2004 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Waste Management Services survey found that approximately 18 million tonnes of waste was landfilled in 2002–03, though information for Tasmania and Northern Territory could not be included in this figure (7)

While there are no national data on recycling, it is generally assumed that the majority of waste generated is disposed to landfill (1,5).

In 2002–03, approximately 30% of Australia's municipal waste was recycled (2,701,000 tonnes), and the remainder was landfilled (6,202,000 tonnes). Australian municipal recycling is comparable to the average recycling rate in Europe (36.4%).

Australian governments have relied on persuasion to achieve this level of recycling, subsidising collection services and introducing waste disposal levies to encourage the recycling of materials, particularly from the household waste stream. Recycling in Europe is achieved mainly through legislature. As well, Australia’s geography/population distribution is very different compared to European countries (Australia is a big country with few people).

Time series data are patchy across Australia but suggest that overall waste generation is growing over time, the quantity of waste disposed to landfill remains steady, and there has been a large increase in recycling.

EUROPEAN MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT, 2003

Landfill

(%)

Recycled / composted (and other)

(%)

Greece

91.8

8.2

Portugal

74.8

3.5

United Kingdom

74.0

18.0

Ireland

69.0

31.0

Finland

63.3

27.6

Italy

61.8

28.9

Spain

59.3

34.2

France

38.1

28.2

Austria

30.0

59.3

Luxembourg

22.6

35.7

Germany

19.9

57.2

Sweden

13.6

41.4

Belgium

12.6

51.8

Denmark

5.0

41.2

Netherlands

2.7

64.4

EU 15 average

44.9

36.4

Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

CHANGES IN WASTE GENERATION

1993

2002–03

% change

Sydney

Waste to landfill

3 175 000

4 151 000

+31

Waste recycled

201 000

4 675 000

+2 223

Total

3 376 000

8 826 000

+161

Victoria

Waste to landfill

4 067 000

4 181 000

+3

Waste recycled

1 283 000

4 429 000

+245

Total

5 350 000

8 611 000

+61

ACT

Waste to landfill

416 000

207 000

–50

Waste recycled

118 000

467 000

+295

Total

534 000

674 000

+26

Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

Solid waste can be managed in many different ways. How it is managed – whether it is landfilled, incinerated, recycled, composted or exported – will depend on the source and the type of waste involved and the financial viability of the different management methods and policies. It will also depend who is providing the service (waste management firms or local government bodies or on-site by the waste generator), the type and capacity of waste facilities, government policies, legislation and other factors such as rural versus urban.

Elements of a solid waste management system

There are many phases, some interlinking, in any solid waste management system:

Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are thrown away. This is where the unwanted materials and products may enter the waste stream.

Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source involve the activities associated with the management of wastes until collection. For example, waste and recyclable materials are sorted, placed in bags or containers, stored until collection and then transported to the collection point.

Collection, transfer and transport of wastes and recyclable materials are collected from homes, businesses, institutions, industry and other places and then transported to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. The location may be a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF), transfer station, or a landfill disposal site.

Separation and processing allows commingled waste to be separated, recyclables are recovered and separated, and waste is processed further at MRFs, transfer stations, incinerators and landfills.

Disposal of wastes in landfills is the ultimate fate of all non-recycled solid wastes, whether they are domestic waste collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from MRFs and composting facilities, residue from combustion of solid waste, or other substances from various solid waste-processing facilities.

The waste hierarchy

Since the early 1990s, the management of waste has been guided by a hierarchical approach. This approach is one of a waste information tool rather than a government policy. In fact, the Productivity Commission considers that this approach is inconsistent with good policy principles as it suggests that one approach is better than another, irrespective of all of the costs and benefits to the community (2).

A number of jurisdictions around Australia have adopted the hierarchy approach to waste management. In many cases the approach has been established under waste avoidance and recovery acts and is central to the National Waste Minimisation and Recycling Strategy.

In order of preference, the hierarchical approach seeks to consider waste management options against the following priorities:

Avoidanceincluding action to reduce the amount of waste generated by households, industry and all levels of government.

Resource Recoveryincluding reuse, reprocessing, recycling and energy recovery, consistent with the most efficient use of the recovered resources.

Disposalincluding management of all disposal options in the most environmentally responsible manner.

Avoidance, the highest priority, encourages the community to reduce the amount of waste it generates and to be more efficient in its use of resources. This is a key factor in many waste management strategies. The aim is to make automatic disposal simpler by reducing the amount of waste generated in the first place and reducing the presence of dangerous substances in products. Waste avoidance is closely linked with improving manufacturing methods and influencing consumers to demand greener products and less packaging.

Resource recovery aims to maximise options for reuse, reprocessing, recycling and energy recovery to encourage the efficient use of recovered resources while supporting the principles of improved environmental outcomes and ecologically sustainable development. Resource recovery can also embrace new and emerging technologies.

Disposal aims to manage disposal in an environmentally responsible manner. It includes waste treatment to reduce hazard or nuisance waste preferably at the site of generation.

This article will focus on two waste management options – resource recovery and disposal.

Reduce – Every year the amount of rubbish we produce increases and this leads to increased costs for society – both financial and environmental. The majority of the resources that we use to make things – only to throw them away – cannot be replaced.

Reuse can be defined as recovering value from a discarded item without reprocessing or remanufacture. Typically this will involve an item being reused in its original function or similar. Importantly, the definition of reuse does not preclude relatively minor pre-treatments like washing, reconditioning or painting.

Recycling – the recovery of used products and their reformation for use as raw materials in the manufacture of new products, which may or may not be similar to the original.

Recovery of energy from waste is usually carried out through the collection and utilisation of heat generated through the controlled combustion (incineration, pyrolysis and gasification) of waste materials. Energy can also be generated from the methane released in the decomposition of waste in landfill. This form of energy recovery is discussed later.

Landfills

Australia has a strong dependence on landfill for waste management with more than 17 million tonnes deposited in 2002–03. Of this, 70% of municipal waste, 56% of commercial and industrial waste, and 43% of construction and demolition waste went to landfill. This equates to approximately 6.2 million tonnes, 5.3 million tonnes, and 5.9 million tonnes respectively. The overall landfill disposal rate is estimated to be 54% (2).

Impacts of landfill

Landfills have low operating costs compared to waste reprocessing systems, and traditionally have been located relatively close to the urban centres they serve. While some landfills have been in use for decades, such older facilities especially those in areas becoming more heavily populated, are gradually being replaced with modern ones. Vastly different from old-style dumps, landfills are designed to control leachate and gas emissions. Most importantly, they are sited carefully with regard to the natural conditions of the area. Landfill siting must take into account soil conditions, hydrology and topography, climate, local environmental issues, hauling distances, land use and other issues.

While most metropolitan population centres are not short of potential landfill sites, securing community and political acceptance for the use of these sites remains very difficult, notwithstanding tight regulatory regimes.

SOLID WASTE DISPOSED TO LANDFILL, 2002–03

Municipal

Commercial and Industrial

Construction and Demolition

Total

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

'000 tonnes

New South Wales

2 170

2 831

1 340

6 341

Victoria

1 547

1 003

1 630

4 180

Queensland

1 297

747

678

2 722

Western Australia

741

420

1 535

2 696

South Australia

365

208

704

1 277

ACT

82

98

27

207

Australia (a)

6 202

5 307

5 914

17 423

(a) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

The real or perceived social disadvantages of landfills (and other waste management facilities such as transfer stations and material recovery facilities) – traffic, noise, dust, odours and leachate – are the basis of strong community opposition. Balancing conflicting considerations may be difficult. While one area may provide an ideal landfill location from a geological point of view, public concerns over land use and other impacts may make the selected area unsuitable. These factors increase the need to maximise the use of landfill space in already approved, best practice facilities.

However, some landfills still have significant environmental impacts and may continue to affect the environment long after they have been retired. Problems arising from landfill may depend upon the nature of landfill controls, the site and the materials disposed. High density, inert materials are likely to be least costly to manage and cause fewer environmental impacts, followed by less dense and biodegradable materials, with hazardous household waste likely to cause the greatest impacts.

PRODUCT BEHAVIOURS IN LANDFILL

Product

Behaviours

Plastic bags and film

Contribute to litter around landfills (aesthetic, wildlife and farm impacts).

Timber and wood products

Contribute to the methane emissions (biodegradable); treated timber may contain copper chrome arsenate (CCA) which may be present in leachate.

Paper / cardboard

Contributes to methane emissions (biodegradable).

Plastics

Some plastics contain phthalates (PVC) and heavy metal pigments and stabilisers which may be present in leachate. These materials have the potential to impact on the health of humans and other organisms.

Electronics and appliances

Contain heavy metals and flame retardants which may be present in leachate.

Batteries

Contain heavy metals which may be present in leachate.

Garden and food organics

Contribute to methane emissions (biodegradable).

Household chemicals

Oil, paints and pesticides contain toxic substances which may be present in leachate.

Tyres

“Float” to the surface and cause problems in landfill management.

Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

The principal environmental concerns associated with modern landfills are emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly methane (landfill gas) and the possible long-term leakage into the environment through leachate of heavy metals, household chemicals, consumer electronic products and earlier generation rechargeable batteries, such as ni-cads. Some of these materials are persistent and can become concentrated at higher levels in food chains.

Other environmental consequences of landfill include energy use in transporting waste, noise and odours impacting local amenity, as well as air emissions and amenity impacts through the transportation of wastes to landfill.

Leachate, a mixture of water and dissolved solids, is produced as water passes through waste and collects at the bottom of the landfill. While the exact composition of the leachate depends on the type of waste and its stage of decomposition, leachate may contain a variety of toxic and polluting components, in large or trace amounts. If managed inappropriately, leachate can contaminate ground and surface water.

While most modern urban landfills are lined with impervious membrane layers, the quality of leachate collection and treatment systems varies and a small percentage may escape and pose an environmental risk. Unlined rural landfills may result in the migration of leachate either into surface or ground water. There is a particular concern in rural areas over the illegal disposal of pesticide containers to landfill. These can pose a significant threat to surface and ground water.

Landfill gas

Biodegrading waste in landfills produces landfill gas, a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane, small amounts of nitrogen and oxygen, and trace amounts of a wide range of other gases such as benzene, toluene, and vinyl chloride. Some components of landfill gas may be toxic or explosive. The components can include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and other organo-sulphur compounds, which produce the characteristic bad odour associated with landfills. Landfill gas generation depends on the waste composition – the more organic waste present, the more gas is produced by bacterial decomposition. Other factors such as temperature, moisture content, and the age of the waste also affect gas production. The waste degradation process occurs slowly and methane emissions continue long after waste is disposed to landfill. Estimates in any year include a large component of emissions resulting from waste disposal over the preceding 30 years.

Landfill gas is a greenhouse gas. The National Greenhouse Gas Inventory estimates that methane emissions from solid waste disposal on land were 15.0 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2-e) or 2.7% of net national emissions in 2004 (8).

Landfill gas recovery

While most landfills have a gas capture system, not all of the methane is captured. It is estimated that about 55% of the gas can be captured and of the 45% which is not captured 10% escapes through the landfill cap over its total life cycle. In some cases, landfill gas is flared to reduce odour and convert methane into carbon dioxide, a less potent greenhouse gas. In other cases, landfill gases are collected and can be used as a substitute fuel or to generate electricity. Between 1990 and 2003, the proportion of methane generated in Australia's landfills that were captured for fuel or electricity generation grew from almost zero to approximately 24%. Up to 75% of landfills servicing major urban areas and capital cities use gas capture technologies (2)

Growth in landfill gas capture has occurred for a variety of reasons. These include government incentives and regulatory requirements promoting the generation of electricity from renewable resources, and attempts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from landfills. Most of the methane captured from Australian landfills is used for electricity generation, although it does not contribute significantly to Australia's total energy generation. In 2005, there were 402 renewable energy generators in operation in Australia, with a total generating capacity of 9,082 megawatts. Of these, only 37 were landfill gas projects, with a total generating capacity of 105 megawatts. To put this figure in perspective, in 2003–04 less than 5% of Australia's total energy consumption came from renewable resources (2).

Landfill closure

Environmental monitoring of landfills is important, both while they are operating and after they have closed. Closed landfills are covered to prevent water entry, limit the migration of landfill gases, and to prevent the growth of disease-spreading organisms.

Landfills are an important component of a waste management system. Other methods of dealing with waste, such as incineration and recycling, produce their own wastes which end up in landfills.

Recycling involves the collection, separation and processing of materials for manufacture into raw materials or new products. Recyclable materials must be collected and sorted before being sold. Contaminating recyclable materials reduces the quality of the material.

Councils throughout Australia obtain waste for recycling by collections at recycling centres, separate kerbside collection of recyclable materials, or separating waste after collection. The disparity in recycling between rural and urban areas is largely due to the implementation of kerbside recycling schemes which are more expensive to introduce and maintain in rural areas. The reduction, reuse and recovery of household waste are key sustainable development objectives.

The amount of material recycled fluctuates from year to year. It is affected by changing economic factors such as growth in income and consumption, as well as the price of raw materials and recyclables. Changes in recycling programs, industry commitment and public awareness may also affect the amount of material recycled. Recyclable materials are collected from households via kerbside collections, public recycling bins, or are delivered directly by the household to recycling depots. Large producers of waste in the commercial and industrial and construction and demolition sectors normally arrange for the private collection and delivery of recyclable materials to be reprocessed.

Recycling is not just putting materials in a recycling bin at the kerbside: collection is only the start of the process. Markets must exist for recyclable materials and buyers must be found for products made with recyclable materials.

The materials collected are generally reprocessed by specialist recyclers. A range of materials including paper, glass, metals and plastics, are separated, cleaned and reprocessed for use as material inputs in the production of new items. Other items such as food, garden waste and other putrescible wastes are separated and converted, usually through some form of composting, into nutrients for parks, gardens and agriculture.

Recycling in Australia

Recycling in Australia has grown over the past 20 years to the point where it is a widely accepted part of waste management services. It is estimated that recycling in 2002–03 accounted for 30% of municipal waste generated (2.7 million tonnes), 44% of commercial and industrial waste generated (4.2 million tonnes) and 57% of construction and demolition waste generated (7.8 million tonnes). Waste recovered for recycling in 2002–03 was approximately 15 million tonnes, almost half of the total generated in that year (3).

Overall, the recycling rate is estimated to be 46% which represents the amount that has been reprocessed into a usable production input and not just the amount collected for recycling. Reporting the amount of material collected would inflate estimates of total recycling. The amount of waste recovered for recycling in Australia has increased both in absolute terms and as a proportion of total waste generated. For example, in the ACT in 1993–94, about 22% of the total waste generated was recovered for recycling. In 2002–03, this had risen to 69% (9).

Access to kerbside recycling has greatly improved in urban regions since the 1990s. Collection methods have become more sophisticated with the provision of wheelie bins almost the norm. The increased provision, and ease of use of wheelie bins, has increased yields of recyclable materials.

Commodity prices for many of the recovered materials, including metals, have increased in recent years creating incentives for more material to be recovered.

Landfill levies increased in many states and territories and have created incentives for many in the commercial and industrial, and construction and demolition sectors to find alternatives to landfill.

RECYCLING, 2002–03

Municipal

Commercial and industrial

Construction and demolition

Total recycled

Diversion rate

‘000 tonnes

‘000 tonnes

‘000 tonnes

‘000 tonnes

%

New South Wales

1 156

1 365

3 309

5 830

48

Victoria

744

1 740

1 945

4 429

51

Queensland

445

212

488

1 251

31

Western Australia

92

324

410

826

23

South Australia

235

469

1 452

2 156

63

ACT

29

52

223

467

69

Australia (a)

2 701

4 162

7 827

14 959

46

(a) Excludes Tasmania and the Northern Territory.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

Recycling composition

Some materials are recycled more than others. Data are generally collected on a material basis (e.g. plastic, glass, concrete), and there are limited national and state data available on the consumption and recycling of products. An estimate of the diversion rate of 50 significant products identifies (3):

No recycling for treated timber, fixed line phones, televisions, CDs and DVDs, toys, video cassettes, personal batteries, printers and computer peripherals. However, some of their components are exported overseas for recycling.

By weight, concrete is by far the most recycled material. In 2002–03, 2.4 million tonnes of concrete (and brick, rubble and earth) was recycled in New South Wales. This was more than twice the amount of ferrous metal recycled (1.0 million tonnes), and approximately three times the amount of paper and cardboard (0.8 million tonnes), and food and garden waste (0.9 million tonnes) (3).

The majority of recycled concrete came from the construction and demolition sector. In comparison, most recycled metal came from the commercial and industrial sector; most recycled paper came from the commercial and industrial, and municipal sectors; and most recycled food and garden waste was sourced from the municipal sector.

However, in percentage terms, metals had the highest recycling rate (82% of total metal waste generated), followed by concrete (74%), paper (55%) andglass (38%) (3).

An alternative destination for waste is thermal treatment (including incineration, pyrolysis and gasification) either with or without energy recovery.

Incineration includes a wide range of practices, from low-tech open burning – which emits pollutants directly into the air – to controlled combustion processes using mass burn systems, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) systems and other types of modern incinerators using pollution control devices.

There are currently no large-scale thermal treatment facilities for the disposal of non-hazardous municipal solid waste in Australia. Historically, Australians incinerated a great deal of their waste, often with the use of backyard incinerators and the open burning at landfills. However, these practices have declined since the 1970s due to concern for their impact on health and the environment, and the increasing stringency of air quality regulations.

For example, the Waverley-Woollahra municipal waste incinerator at Zetland in Sydney was shut down in 1997, ending its emissions of dioxins and furans. The News South Wales Environment Protection Authority (EPA) undertook comprehensive studies of the emissions from the incinerator over several years and negotiated a program to upgrade the facility with the operator. The timetable for upgrading was not met and the EPA revoked the licence for the facility to process waste. An objection by the operator to the revocation was dismissed in the Land and Environment Court, resulting in closure of the incinerator.

DISPOSAL, RECYCLING, GENERATION AND DIVERSION RATE, NSW, 2002–03

Disposed

‘000 tonnes

Recycled

‘000 tonnes

Generated

‘000 tonnes

Diversion rate

%

Paper and cardboard

723

764

1 487

51

Plastic

410

59

469

13

Glass

109

171

280

61

Ferrous

182

1 015

1 197

85

Garden organics

735

842

1 578

53

Food

751

46

796

6

Timber

315

131

446

29

Soil / rubble

521

956

1 477

65

Concrete

466

1 451

1 917

76

Other recyclables

67

395

462

85

Other waste

2 065

0

2 065

0

Total

6 341

5 829

12 173

48

Note: Totals may not add exactly, due to rounding.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

DISPOSAL, RECYCLING, GENERATION AND DIVERSION RATE, Victoria 2002–03

Disposed

‘000 tonnes

Recycled

‘000 tonnes

Generated

‘000 tonnes

Diversion rate

%

Paper and cardboard

293

818

1 111

74

Plastic

61

69

130

53

Other plastic

115

0

115

0

Glass

140

85

225

38

Metals

211

971

1 182

82

Food waste

723

22

745

3

Garden organics

397

217

614

35

Wood/Timber

457

169

626

27

Other organics

93

141

234

60

Clean excavated material

943

unknown

unknown

unknown

Concrete, bricks and asphalt

542

1 852

2 394

77

Textiles

46

84

130

65

Other

158

0

158

0

Total

4 181

4 429

8 607

51

Note: Totals may not add exactly, due to rounding. Totals for waste recycled and waste generated may not total down the columns due to unknown quantities of clean, excavated materials.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

- nil or rounded to zero.Note:South Australia uses a different method for measuring recycled materials than other states.Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006 Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

Although new technologies have been developed, modern incinerators, fitted with pollution abatement equipment, require high capital investment. Although less frequently used in Australia, incineration continues to be used in many jurisdictions for the disposal of hazardous substances such as clinical, biomedical and other toxic waste, that are often too dangerous to dispose of in other ways. However, incineration is a common waste management practice in some European and Asian countries, where space for landfill is at a premium.

Composting is a process whereby organic wastes are decomposed by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, as well as by worms and insects. Microorgansims eat the carbon and nitrogen in organic waste materials. As waste is digested, heat is produced helping to kill the pathogens. The final product is a stable humus or compost, which can be used for landscaping, gardening or other purposes.

Organic waste including kitchen waste, garden waste, agricultural waste, biosolids and other types of waste can all be composted using different methods.

Composting in Australia

Centralised composting facilities have become more common around the world since the early 1990s. Some businesses and other organisations in the industrial, commercial sectors use on-site composting facilities.

Australia sends over 21 million tonnes of solid waste to landfill annually. Over 40%, (8.4 million tonnes) is composed of putrescible organic material including green organic and food waste.

An assessment of the organics and recycling industry found that there is a range of impediments restraining the industry from developing to the point where it is able to deal effectively with organic waste at the national level (10). These impediments are:

The high cost of transporting recycled organic material to those areas where it can do the most good.

Lack of suitable and uniform product and process standards leading to consumer suspicion and lack of product definition.

Lack of industry cohesion leading to low rates of technology transfer.

Poor market development and consumer awareness for recycled organic products, leading to low prices for processors and minimal profit margins, discouraging market entry.

It reduces pressure on landfill space by diverting organic waste away from landfills.

It improves plant growth, increases the capacity of soil to hold nutrients and the ability of plants to resist disease.

It prevents surface crusting of silty soil, improves drainage in heavy clay soil, conserves water in light sandy soil, increases aeration in compacted soil, helps form soil aggregates in poorly structured soil and keeps the soil cooler in summer and warmer in winter.

However, composting must be managed properly so as not to cause excessive odours or attract pests. If compost piles are allowed to become too wet or are infrequently turned, anaerobic digestion may take over, generating odour as well as methane. Large scale composting facilities need to take into account leachate production and run-off to ensure that contaminants do not enter groundwater or surface water.

High quality finished compost is used in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, landscaping and home gardening. The quality of finished compost depends on several factors including the maturity, organic matter content, pH and the presence of contaminants.

The horticulture industry is an intensive user of energy and materials, producing significant levels of waste. It exerts pressure on the environment through water usage, fertilisers and pesticides. The use of recycled organic material in the horticulture industry has the potential to reduce industry reliance on environmentally harmful inputs.

Modern agricultural techniques in Australia have depleted organic carbon levels in soil from an estimated 3% to less than 1% (10). Organic carbon in the soil enables soil biota to flourish, assisting the processes of nutrient flow, cation exchange, and water and nutrient retention. Agronomists suggest that soils become markedly less stable when carbon is reduced to current levels, contributing to soil erosion, salinity and high levels of sodium. The problem of carbon depletion is worse in soils subject to intensive agriculture and horticulture.

Over four million tonnes of organic carbon could be made available for soil improvement in agriculture annually from recycled organic material. Returning this material to agricultural soils could significantly improve them by initiating a cycle of carbon regeneration in soils to maintain stability and enhance productivity such that there would be a net reduction in greenhouse emissions as a result.

Applied recycled organic material can result in water savings in excess of 25%, reduced chemical and fertiliser inputs, reduced run-off and consequent soil erosion and waterway pollution, and increased plant vitality.

Organic waste is of low density, can take up double the volume of landfill as other waste, and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Removing this material from the waste stream could reduce Australia's emissions by around 3% by diverting organic material from the waste stream (10).

Leftover household products that contain corrosive, toxic, ignitable, or reactive ingredients are considered to be "household hazardous waste" or "HHW". The following products all contain potentially hazardous ingredients requiring special care when you dispose of them:

Car parts, which can contain toxic, ecotoxic and poisonous components.

Batteries, mobile phones, televisions and computers that can contain toxic and ecotoxic heavy metals, such as lead, nickel, copper and cadmium, chromium and mercury (older appliances may also contain carcinogenic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls).

Pesticide, paint and household containers, which can contain toxic, ecotoxic and poisonous materials.

Tyres which can catch fire thus leading to toxic emissions.

Domestic smoke detectors, which contain small amounts of radioactive material.

CCA (copper chrome arsenate) treated timber.

Improper disposal of HHW can include pouring them down the drain, on the ground, into storm sewers, or in some cases putting them out with the rubbish. The dangers of such disposal methods might not be immediately obvious, but improper disposal of these wastes can pollute the environment and pose a threat to human health. Most councils throughout Australia offer a variety of options for conveniently and safely managing HHW.

This article does not consider other waste streams that predominantly contain particular types of hazardous solid waste including:

Australians are some of the highest users of new technology in the world. In Australia we have seen rapid uptake of new technology, from VCRs to personal organisers to DVD players. Australia is currently one of the top ten countries using information and communication technology, ranking tenth in the world for spending per capita and fifth in the world for spending as a percentage of gross domestic product (11).

However, with the constant drive to have the newest and latest products comes the inevitable wastage of the “old” products they supersede. Obsolete electronic goods, or “e-waste” is one of the fastest growing waste types and the problem of e-waste is global. E-waste is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their “useful life”. Computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, photocopiers and fax machines are common electronic products. Many of the materials in these products can be reused and recycled and some items can be refurbished for a second life.

Each year we buy over 2.4 million PCs and more than 1 million televisions (12). As we become more dependent on electronic products to make life more convenient, the stockpile of used, obsolete products grows. It is estimated that there are currently around nine million computers, five million printers and two million scanners in households and businesses across Australia, and all of these will be replaced, most within the next couple of years (13). E-waste in Australia is growing at over three times the rate of general municipal waste (14).

Very little of the increasing amount of electrical and electronic equipment being used in Australia is being recycled, with most of it ending up in landfill, representing a loss of non-renewable resources. Australian governments have been working with the electrical and electronic equipment industry to facilitate the establishment by industry of product stewardship schemes to collect and recycle used equipment.

While e-waste is generated from a variety of sources, such as commercial premises, government offices and educational facilities, e-waste from households is a particular concern due to a lack of knowledge on the amounts held or current household disposal behaviour.

The only survey that provides recent data on e-waste was conducted through the Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), Sustainability Victoria, Environmental Protection Agency (Qld), Zero Waste (SA), Department of Environment (WA), ACT No Waste, and Product Stewardship Australia Ltd. The survey sought to establish baseline information about e-waste by surveying metropolitan households in Australia.

The survey found across all equipment types and all locations surveyed, an estimated 92.5 million items are held in households – representing an average of 22 items per household. People have a large amount of electrical and electronic equipment in their homes.

Where do all the mobile phones go?

A few years ago the Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association (AMTA) started a mobile phone and battery recycling program – MobileMuster. Mobile phone owners upgrade every 18 months on average and so, with this in mind, AMTA has been collecting disused handsets to be broken down into their re-usable parts. Hundreds of thousands of mobile phones have been recycled, recovering gold, silver, nickel, copper, steel and plastics which can be extracted and turned into jewellery, power tool products, low-grade stainless steel items and fenceposts. It may take an estimated 50,000 mobile phones to produce one kilogram of gold.

Under MobileMuster, the phones are collected and separated into parts and the chargers and power supply units are recycled in Australia. Circuit boards are sent to North America or South Korea for metal extraction while batteries are sent to France for recycling (16).

The program runs at a net cost to the telecommunications industry and is now a role model for both mobile phone recycling programs overseas and for recycling for other types of electronic waste.

Computers and IT equipment

So just what do you do with a computer that you no longer need? Give it away? Trash it? Recycle it?

It has been estimated that in 2006 there will be around 1.6 million computers disposed of in landfill, 1.8 million put in storage (in addition to the 5.3 million already gathering dust in garages and other storage areas and 0.5 million recycled in Australia alone) (11).

There are commercial organisations that buy and sell business computer systems, either as complete systems, or for refurbishment, or as spares for maintenance purposes. Resource NSW and the Australian Information Industry Association ran “Recycle IT!” a pilot computer recycling program.

There are also a number of community computer reuse projects in Australia which facilitate the movement of redundant computers from businesses to the community. Computers are typically donated to schools, charities and households or for export to developing countries. If the computer is not of a standard accepted for reuse, refurbishers may take it to reuse the parts.

Upgrading of a particular appliance can also extend the life span of electronic equipment, if the design allows. It is quite standard practice to fit larger hard disks or additional memory to computers. Computer manufacturers now design products that can be easily upgraded, enabling many of the original parts to be retained virtually indefinitely, or at least until they are beyond repair.

Why recycle or e-cycle?

Some electronic products include hazardous substances that can pose a risk to the environment if they are sent to landfill. Computer monitors and older television picture tubes contain an average of two kilograms of lead and require special handling at the end of their lives. In addition to lead, electronics can contain chromium, cadmium, mercury, beryllium, nickel, zinc, and brominated flame retardants. When electronics are not disposed of, or recycled properly, these toxic materials can present problems.

Extending the life of electronic products or donating the most up-to-date and working electronics can save money and valuable resources. Safely recycling or e-cycling, i.e. the reusing or recycling of outdated consumer electronics can promote the safe management of hazardous components and supports the recovery and reuse of valuable materials.

“Not in my backyard” – exporting the e-waste problem

Electronic scrap comes from various sources, but two of the more important are from auction houses and Information Technology lease firms, where old equipment with no re-sale value in Australia is sold to exporters in consignments to clear it from their premises. Some computing recycling companies also export old computers or parts (e.g. circuit boards) for further recycling overseas.

Historically very large volumes of electronic scrap have been exported from developed countries (including Australia) to developing countries including China, the Philippines, Thailand and India. In these countries labour is cheap, and occupational health and safety (OHS) and environmental standards are often low.

Trafficking of hazardous waste led to the drafting and adoption of the Basel Convention under the United Nations Environment Programme. The Basel Convention, a legally binding international agreement, was developed to address the problem of the uncontrolled movement and dumping of hazardous wastes across international boundaries, particularly to developing nations.

Australia ratified the Basel Convention in 1992, and now hazardous wastes can only be exported from Australia with a permit, granted only where it can be shown that the wastes will be managed in an environmentally sound manner in the country of import. Under the Hazardous Waste Act, exporting hazardous waste without a permit is an offence (11).

The Basel convention has been ratified by 168 countries, ensuring a level of international cooperation that may limit the growth of Guiyu-style recycling centres. Guiyu, a town in China, is a booming e-waste processing centre which has serious environmental hazards.

The plastic carry bag is an established part of Australian shopping. In Australia, two main types of plastic bags are used in the retail sector: the “boutique” style bag made of low density polyethylene (LDPE); and the “singlet” type bag made of high density polyethylene (HDPE).

The LDPE boutique style bags are generally branded and are used by stores selling higher value goods, such as department stores, clothing and shoe outlets.

The HDPE singlet bag is usually a non-branded bag, used mainly in supermarkets, take-away food and fresh produce outlets, but also in smaller retail outlets such as service stations and newsagents. Carry bags made from HDPE are lightweight and strong, with a carrying capacity of over 1,000 times the weight of the bag. The weight of HDPE bags varies between 2 and 8 grams, with an average supermarket bag weighing 5–7 grams (17). It was estimated in 2002 that HDPE bags accounted for more than 85% of total plastic carry bags by number (17).

Approximately 53% of plastic bags are distributed from supermarket outlets, while the remainder come from other retail outlets such as fast food shops, liquor stores, and general merchandising (18).

In 2002, approximately 7 million new bags were used by consumers, or just under one bag per person per day. This equates to approximately 2% (or over 36,850 tonnes) of total plastics consumed in Australia each year. Around 6 billion of these are HDPE bags and 900 million are LDPE bags (17).

What's wrong with plastic bags?

Current plastic bag use and disposal, both by consumers and through waste management activities, create environmental problems for a variety of reasons.18 These include:

Social issues, including triple bottom line concerns, community education and awareness, and consumer perceptions.

Studies show that plastic bags are numerically around 2% of the litter stream at most surveyed sites. Plastic bags are more noticeable in the litter stream because of their size, and because they accumulate as they take hundreds of years to break down.

Plastic bag litter appears as a result of both inadvertent and intentional littering behaviour. Inadvertent litter is usually associated with windblown litter from disposal routes such as litter bins and landfill sites. Intentional litter results from inappropriate disposal actions by consumers.

Australian Environment Ministers, recognising the community’s concern and the national significance of plastic bag litter, established an expert working group to provide a range of options for the National Packaging Covenant Council and governments for reducing the environmental impact of plastic carry bags.

The National Packaging Covenant Council has been the leading instrument for managing the environmental impacts of consumer packing in Australia since 1999.

A broad range of initiatives were subsequently set by the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2003, including:

Setting the aspirational goal of reducing plastic bag litter by 75% by the end of 2004.

Supported the implementation of a National Retailers Code of Practice for the Management of Plastic Retail Carry Bags, which will set ambitious targets for recycling and reducing plastic bag use (a 25% reduction in the number of HDPE bags issued by end of 2004 against the base of December 2002 and a 50% reduction by the end of 2005).

Developing national standards for biodegradable plastics.

Developing national best practice guidelines for litter waste management at landfills and public places.

The implementation of a comprehensive consumer awareness campaign to be undertaken by Clean Up Australia.

As voluntary targets were not met in 2005, Ministers have also agreed to explore mandatory options for phasing out lightweight plastic bags by the end of 2008.

There is clear evidence from bag import data and Australian bag manufacturers that there has been a reduction in bag usage in Australia between 2002 and 2004, which has continued into 2005. At the end of 2005, overall plastic bag consumption had reduced by 34% to 3.9 billion (17).

The reduction in the supermarket sector is estimated to be higher than other retail sectors reflecting a higher level of activity by companies and community organisation in these stores. The 2002–2005 reduction in the supermarket sector is 45%.

The reduction across the rest of the retail industry is lower at 34%, although there will be exceptions. (For example where retailers have introduced a charge for bags and the observed reduction has been much greater, typically more than 80%). The reduction in LDPE shopping bags has been more significant in 2005, with imports dropping an estimated 68% from 2002 import levels.

Industry observations are that the reductions in bag use over the past two years are the result of increased consumer awareness, better staff training and the more widespread availability and use of heavier duty reusable carry bags (“green bags”).

ESTIMATED 2002 AND 2005 HDPE CARRY BAG CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR

Retail Sector

2002 bag consumption

(billions)

Estimated 2005 bag consumption

(billions)

Change

(%)

Supermarkets

3.64

2.14

–41

Other food and liquor

0.92

0.71

–23

General merchandise and apparel

0.58

0.45

–22

Fast food, convenience and service station

0.35

0.27

–23

Other retail

0.46

0.35

–24

Total

5.95

3.92

–34

Source: Hyder Consulting 2006. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Plastic Retail Carry Bag Use 2002–2005 Consumption, 2005 End of year report.

Plastic Bag facts (19)

Australians use 3.92 billion plastic shopping bags per year.

Nearly half a million plastic bags are collected on Clean Up Australia Day each year.

It takes only four grocery shopping trips for an average Australian family to accumulate 60 plastic shopping bags.

Plastic bags are produced from polymers derived from petroleum. The amount of petroleum used to make a plastic bag would drive a car about 11 metres.

In 2005, Australians used 192 HDPE bags per capita.

Only 14% of HDPE plastic carry bags are returned to major supermarkets for recycling.

Oil is a valuable resource. Cars, trucks, farm machines, and boats all need regular lubricating oil changes. Each year, more than 500 million litres of lubricating oil is sold in Australia.20 While some engines, such as two-stroke lawn mower engines burn oil completely, others like motor vehicle engines and machinery produce large volumes of used oil that can be reclaimed and reused.

About 280–300 million litres of used oil is generated by industry and the community and is available for recycling. Supported by the Australian Government's Product Stewardship for Oil Program, Australians recycled approximately 220 million litres of their used oil in 2004–05. Even though this rate is high between 60 and 100 million litres of used oil remains unaccounted for (20).

“Missing oil” could be:

Sitting in temporary stockpiles (e.g. in the garage or shed).

Retained in waste or scrap equipment (such as vehicles).

Lost to the environment at collection points (e.g. leaking, spills etc.).

The improper use of used oil can pollute land, waterways, underground reservoirs and the marine environment. One litre of used oil can contaminate up to one million litres of water.

Used oil, or “sump oil” as it is sometimes called, can be re-used. Although it gets dirty, used oil can still be cleaned and re-used. In fact, recycled used oil can be used as an industrial burner fuel, hydraulic oil, incorporated into other products or re-refined back into new lubricating oil. Used oil is hazardous –and harmful to the environment when irresponsibly discarded and can present a fire hazard if not properly stored.

Waste tyres

When automotive tyres inevitably wear out, they are no longer safe for use on the vehicle for which they were intended, and must be replaced. It is estimated that around 29 million waste tyres a year (measured in equivalent passenger vehicle units) or 230,000 tonnes of material are generated in Australia each year (21). Most of these tyres are left by the motorist with tyre dealers or retailers, who replace them with new or retreaded tyres. This process means that waste tyres are generated over a wide geographic area. Together with their inherent weight and bulk, this makes them difficult to sort, collect, transport, store and finally dispose of, or to recycle. It is also difficult to determine exactly where these tyres end up, or determine the extent to which proper disposal or recycling of waste tyres occurs. It would seem that disposal to landfill is still the most common end for waste tyres in Australia with about 60% disposed to landfill, 30% of tyres recycled and an estimated 10% dumped or abandoned illegally on private property or public land (21).

The costs to the community and local and state/territory governments through the littering of our landscapes and waterways and the taking up of scarce landfill space, are quite large. The cost of landfill disposal can be as low as $20 per tonne or $0.20 per waste tyre (equivalent passenger unit) in non-urban municipal landfill centres and as high as $180 per tonne in urban landfill centres (albeit the vast majority of tyres that are disposed to landfill incur a cost of less than $50 per tonne). The availability of low cost landfill disposal is a positive disincentive to recycling (21).

Currently there are about 4,000 tyre retailers in Australia, about 30 licensed and operating tyre disposal organisations and less than 10 recyclers. These are the organisations that face and deliver the primary economic alternatives of recycling versus landfill disposal. Tyre retailers simply make the decision to call for legal disposal from the 30 licensed collectors. The licensed collectors make the decision on how best to minimise their cost of disposal and/or delivery to a recycler (21).

Apart from costs to the community and local and state/territory governments through littering and taking up scarce landfill space, waste tyres are a source of health and environmental concerns. Fires in stockpiles can release toxic gases and pollute waterways and tyre stockpiles provide breeding habitats for mosquitoes.

Source: Department of the Environment and Heritage, February 2006, Submission to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency.

THE FUTURE

Projections of future disposal and recycling quantities have been calculated for 2012–13 and 2022–23. The increases are based on an average annual per capita GDP growth of 1.88% and an average annual population growth of 1.13%. The projections assume that no changes in the proportion of materials recovered will occur (3).

It is likely that the trend of the past 10 years where recycling activity has expanded will continue. Many kerbside recycling systems are now at a mature level and large gains are unlikely. Similarly the prospect for further major gains in metals, concrete and cardboard recycling is limited. On the other hand there is likely to be significant expansion of commercial and industrial recycling and large gains in construction and demolition recycling markets in some states.

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