Cross and Scepter:
The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation

Sverre Bagge

Cross and Scepter focuses on state formation in pre-Reformation
Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but its approach to that is broad enough
that it comes close to being a general history of medieval Scandinavia.

Bagge begins with the Viking age, describing the origins of the three
kingdoms in "a series of struggles between individual warlords from the
ninth to the mid-eleventh century". He emphasizes the role of raiding
expeditions and foreign policy more broadly and draws some comparisons
with the kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary, which had their origins
around the same time.

The further consolidation of the kingdoms was intimately tied up with the
introduction of Christianity. Bagge explores debates over the roles
in this of missionaries and kings and describes the development of
church institutions, ecclesiastical law, royal legislative powers and a
court system. New military technology — heavy cavalry and castles —
was also important, bringing a shift towards a more professional, elite
army and the evolution of the leding service obligation into a tax.

Turning to social and economic history, Bagge looks at social structure,
royal and ecclesiastical revenues, and the growth of towns and trade.
He describes the gradual development of bureaucracies and courts, and the
division of power between monarchy, aristocracy and the church — "the
secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy controlled most of the revenues of
the three countries, [but] the king could exploit the competition between
them to achieve greater power than the modest resources under his direct
control would indicate". He also touches on the early development of
what could be called nationalism.

A chapter on culture touches on political theory, courtly culture,
and links to European learning, which can be traced in the movements of
individuals as well as in texts. It is difficult to ascertain the depth
or intensity of popular religion; its more elite features are illustrated
by the life of Saint Birgitta of Vadstena. And Snorri Stuluson and the
Old Norse Heimskringla are contrasted with Saxo Grammaticus and the
Latin Gesta Danorum.

A final chapter on the later Middle Ages returns to politics, going into
quite some detail in its "brief summary" of the events leading up to the
1397 Kalmar Union, the struggles it brought, and its eventual dissolution.
The focus here is on the relationship of monarchy and aristocracy and
the role of councils of the realm in each of the three countries.

The body of the text touches on some debates (for example over Lönnroth's
argument for class and trade as drivers of the 1434 Swedish rebellion),
has some discussion of sources (Icelandic sagas, the King's Mirror,
and so forth), and makes a few forays into archaeology (the Trelleborg
fortified camp). A seven page historiographical afterword offers a
broad survey of modern Scandinavian history-writing and perspectives
on the medieval — nationalist, Marxist, and so forth — and of the
limitations of the medieval source materials. Full footnoting is not
provided, but there is a useful twelve page description of references,
broken down by chapter.

Using clear language and avoiding narrowly academic concerns, Cross
and Scepter is accessible to a broad audience. It will be useful
to specialists wanting a regional perspective, but it also offers an
excellent general overview for anyone curious about medieval Scandinavia
after the Viking age.