The President of the Republic is the head of the Portuguese military, with the title of "Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces" (Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas).[8] The management of the Armed Forces and the execution of the national defense policy is however done by the government via its Minister of National Defense,[9] the highest-ranking officer in the military is the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces, which has operational control of the Armed Forces during peacetime and assumes their full control when a state of war exists.

The national defense is the activity whose objectives are to guarantee the State sovereignty, the national independence and the territorial integrity of Portugal, as well as to assure the liberty and security of the populations and the protection of the fundamental values of the constitutional order against any external threat or aggression, the national defense also assures the fulfillment of the international military agreements of the State, accordingly with the national interest.

The Portuguese Armed Forces are responsible for the military defense, which is the military component of the national defense.

The Portuguese Armed Forces are an essential pillar of the national defense and are the structure of the State that has as its main mission the military defense of the Republic, they obey to the competent bodies of sovereignty, accordingly with the Constitution and the law, being integrated in the State direct administration through the Ministry of National Defense. The bodies of State directly responsible for the national defense and the Armed Forces are the following:

The Minister of National Defense is the political responsible for the elaboration and execution of the military component of the national defense policy, for the administration of the Armed Forces and for the results of their employment.

A Portuguese armed forces female member in position with her Hecker and Koch G3 Rifle, during a field exercise

The system of forces defines the set of capacities that should exist for the fulfillment of the missions of the Armed Forces, it encompasses the set of systems of forces of all branches of the Armed Forces. The system of forces includes two components:

Operational component - includes the set of assets and forces to be employed operationally. It is the dynamic part of the system of forces, including mainly deployable elements as frigates, infantry battalions and flying squadrons. The operational component includes also some non-deployable operational command bodies.

Fix component - is the set of commands, units, establishments, bodies and services that are essential to the organization and general support of the Armed Forces and their branches. It is the static part of the system of forces, including only non-deployable elements as naval bases, regiments and air bases.

The Armed Forces activity is mainly defined and oriented by the following strategic guidelines:

The National Defense Law (Lei da Defesa Nacional, LDN) defines the general guidelines of the national defense, including the concept of national defense, the national defense policy, the responsibilities of the several bodies of State regarding national defense, the assignments and general structure of the Ministry of National Defense and of the Armed Forces, the participation of the citizens in the Homeland defense and the situation of State of War. The LDN is regularly updated, with the present version being the Law 21-A/2006.

The Strategic Concept of National Defense (Conceito Estratégico de Defesa Nacional, CEDN) is the component of the national defense policy which defines the State's priorities in terms of defense, accordingly with the national interest. The present version of the CEDN was approved by the Council of Ministers through its Resolution 19/2013.

The Organic Basic Law of the Organization of the Armed Forces (Lei Orgânica de Bases da Organização das Forças Armadas, LOBOFA) defines the organization of the Armed Forces. The present version of the LOBOFA is the Organic Law 1-A/2009.

The Strategic Military Concept (Conceito Estratégico Militar, CEM) – due to the Strategic Concept of National Defense, it defines the conceptual guidelines of actuation of the Armed Forces and the general guidelines for its preparation, employment and sustainment. It is elaborated by the Council of Chiefs of Staff, approved by the Minister of National Defense and confirmed by the Superior Council of National Defense, the present CEM in force is the CEM 2014.

The Military Programming Law (Lei de Programação Militar, LPM) establishes the programming of the public investment of the Armed Forces in terms of armament and equipment, for the modernization and operationalization of the system of forces, through the building of their capacities. The present version of the LPM is the Organic Law 7/2015.

The national deployed forces (forças nacionais destacadas or FND) are units or teams deployed by the Portuguese Armed Forces in foreign missions, mostly in the scope of NATO, the United Nations or the European Union. Currently, the Portuguese Armed Forces maintain around 600 military personnel in forces or elements deployed in the following international missions:

The history of the Portuguese military itself begins in the 12th century with the creation of the Kingdom of Portugal, since the early beginning, the Kingdom had naval and ground forces. The Portuguese Navy exists as a permanent force since 1317, however non-permanent naval forces existed already before, with their first known naval engagement occurring in 1180, the Portuguese ground forces were established as a standing army in 1570, however they had existed since the 12th century, as the non-permanent hoste. The Navy and the Army would remain independent from each other for hundreds of years.

By the early 20th century, some joint military and national defense bodies had been created but these had mostly mere political coordination responsibilities, the administration of the several forces of the military remained in charge of separate government departments, respectively the Navy Ministry for the Navy (Marinha), the War Ministry for the Metropolitan Army (Exército Metropolitano) and the Colonies Ministry for the Colonial Military Forces (Forças Militares Coloniais). Operationally, the service branches were also completely independent from each other, with totally separated chains of command.

During the 1930s, plans were laid to merge all of the previously mentioned ministries under a single defense ministry. However, the service branches lobbies for the maintenance of their autonomy – represented by their separate government departments – politically opposed and were able to block this reorganization for the next couple of decades.

Nevertheless, the need to defend the Overseas Empire against possible foreign aggression during World War II, did lead to a significant step being taken during this period for an increased integration of the several military services, when the Colonial Military Forces were placed under the dependency of the War Ministry, which then became in charge of all Portuguese ground forces (metropolitan and colonial).

Lessons learned from World War II, the start of the Cold War and the creation of NATO (which Portugal integrated as a founding member[15]) partially ended the objections for the creation of a joint command for the military forces. In 1950, the roles of Minister of National Defense and of Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces (CEMGFA) are created.[16] To the CEMGFA were given almost all the responsibilities until then assigned to the majors-generals of the Navy and of the Army (service branches military commanders), whose roles were at the same time extinct,[17] this can be considered the beginning of the existence of the Portuguese Armed Forces as an unified organization.

Training of pilots of the Portuguese Armed Forces in the early 1960s, in T-6 aircraft.

However, opposition from both of the then existing military branches prevented the formation of a single ministry for the military, the political solution for this was to keep the existing Navy and Army ministries and to create the role of Minister of National Defense but without its own ministry, instead integrating the Government's Presidency Office. The Minister of National Defense directed an umbrella organization, named the National Defense Department which included the CEMGFA, the General Secretariat of National Defense (SGDN, Secretariado-Geral da Defesa Nacional) and the Under-Secretariat of State of the Aeronautics (Subsecretariado de Estado da Aeronáutica). As the Navy and Army ministers continued to exist and to administer their own branches, the Minister of Defense had merely coordinating roles regarding the Navy and the Army, the SGDN served as the Defense staff support organization, being headed by the CEMGFA. It was foreseen to be remodeled in order to be transformed in the general staff and joint management body of the Armed Forces, but this transformation would only occur in 1974, when the SGDN became the General Staff of the Armed Forces (EMGFA).

Despite all the challenges, the operational integration of the Armed Forces rapidly progressed in the 1950s, as part of this integration, the role of commander-in-chief was established in each of the Overseas territories, as a permanent unified commander of the local forces of the three branches. Mainly during the Overseas War, these commanders-in-chief would assume increasing responsibilities, until achieving full operational command of all forces assigned to their theater of operations, leaving the territorial service branch leadership with mere logistical responsibilities.

The Military Aeronautics (Army aviation branch) – which already had a high degree of autonomy since 1937 – becomes an entirely separate branch of service of the Armed Forces in 1952, at the same time starting to control the Portuguese Naval Aviation (Navy aviation service), this third branch of the Armed Forces would soon become officially designated "Portuguese Air Force" (Força Aérea Portuguesa), with the fully integration of the previous Naval Aviation becoming complete in 1958. Unlike the other services which had their own separate ministries, the Air Force was under the fully dependency of the Minister of National Defense via the Under-Secretariat of State of the Aeronautics; in 1961, the status of this department would be upgraded, it becoming the Secretariat of State of the Aeronautics.

Portuguese paratroopers jump from an Alouette III helicopter in an air-mobile assault in Angola, in the early stages of the Overseas Wars.

Between 1961 and 1974, the Portuguese Armed Forces would be engaged against emerging nationalist movements in several of the Portuguese African provinces, these set of conflicts are collectively referred as the Overseas War in Portugal. In the scope of the Cold War, it was a decisive ideological struggle and armed conflict in African (Portuguese Africa and surrounding nations) and Portuguese European mainland scenarios. Unlike other European nations, the Portuguese regime did not leave its African overseas provinces during the 1950s and 1960s.[19] Several armed independence movements, most prominently led by communist parties who cooperated under the CONCP umbrella and pro US groups became active in these areas (especially in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea).[20]

The Portuguese Armed Forces were able to maintain a large military campaign for 13 years, in these three different theaters of operations, thousands of kilometers apart from each other and from the European mainland, this was achieved with almost no external support, in contrast with the nationalist movements which were backed by communist countries and even by some western ones. The Army suffered the majority of the casualties with 8290 soldiers killed in action while the Air Force lost 346 airmen and the Navy lost 195 sailors.

During the conflict, in each theater of operations, the operational command of the forces of the navy, army and air force was successively transferred from each territorial service branch command to joint commands, led by the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in that specific theater, thus the three branches of the military were able to achieve a high level of operational integration, allowing for an effective cooperation between them, the optimization of their scarce assets and the ability to fight as a single cohesive force. The logistics side however was not able to reach such high levels of integration, mainly because each service branch continued to be administered by its own government department with its own supply chain and different standards.

Due to the nature of the conflict, commando-type forces achieved great importance, with the war's evolution, these assumed almost all of the mobile and offensive operations, with the more conventional forces remaining responsible mainly for the defensive assignments. By 1961, each service branch had created its own light infantry force oriented for asymmetric warfare, the Air Force created the Parachute Rifles (Caçadores Páraquedistas) in 1956,[21] the Army first raised the Special Rifles (Caçadores Especiais) in 1960[22] which were later replaced by the Commandos (Comandos)[23] in 1962 and the Navy deployed the Marines (Fuzileiros), a force reactivated in 1961.[24] The Portuguese military also counted with a number of paramilitary forces, including the Special Groups (Grupos Especiais) and the Arrows (Flechas).

The Portuguese Armed Forces were also involved in a brief conventional armed conflict with the Indian military, when the latter invaded the Portuguese India in December 1961. Facing overwhelmingly superior forces and after 36 hours of combat, the Portuguese India Commander-in-Chief, General Vassalo e Silva, surrendered to the Indian Forces. Portuguese forces suffered 30 dead and 57 wounded, with almost 5000 personnel being taken as prisoners of war, these being released six months later, the Indian Armed Forces officially recognized to have suffered 76 casualties during the invasion.[25]

On the morning of 25 April 1974, the Armed Forces Movement (MFA, Movimento das Forças Armadas) – consisting mostly of junior officers of the three service branches – launched a coup d'état, known as the Carnation Revolution, which would bring an end to the New State regime and shortly the Overseas War.[26] While the revolt included several military units located on the mainland, the forces that departed from the Cavalry School located in Santarém, led by captain Salgueiro Maia, were the ones that managed to obtain the surrender of prime-minister Marcelo Caetano after a stand-off at the National Republican Guard headquarters in Lisbon, where he and some other members of the Government had taken refuge.

However, after the revolution and for about a year and a half, the Portuguese military would become highly politicized and split into several factions. By the summer of 1975, the tension between these was so high, that the country was on the verge of civil war, the forces connected to the extreme left-wing launched a further coup d'état on 25 November but the Group of Nine, a moderate military faction, immediately initiated a counter-coup. The main episode of this confrontation was the successful assault on the barracks of the left-wing dominated Military Police Regiment by the moderate forces of the Commando Regiment, resulting in three soldiers killed in action, the Group of Nine emerged victorious, thus preventing the establishment of a communist state in Portugal and ending the period of political instability in the country.[27]

The Ministry of National Defense would be created during this period of instability, however this ministry had no power over the Armed Forces, his role was simply to act as a connection between the military and the Government. It was the Revolution Council – created in 1975, consisting only of military officers and chaired by the President of the Republic – that had the full control over the Armed Forces, which meant these were completely independent from the civilian administration, the Government military departments (Navy Ministry, Army Ministry and Secretariat of State of the Aeronautics) were disbanded, with each service branch chief of staff assuming the roles of the former ministers, under the coordination of the CEMGFA, to whom was given a status equivalent to that of the Prime Minister of Portugal. This organization would remain in place until 1982, when the Revolution Council was disbanded after the first revision to the 1976 Constitution,[28] the Armed Forces were again placed under the subordination of the civilian administration, more specifically being integrated in the Ministry of National Defense.

With the decolonization and the end of the Overseas War, the Portuguese military would change from an asymmetric war oriented force to a conventional war oriented force, focused in defense of Western Europe from a possible Soviet invasion.

Meanwhile, the 1980s would see the creation of special operations, namely the Army's Special Operations Forces[29] and the Navy's Special Actions Detachment.[30] In 1990, the Air Force would create Combat Rescue teams (Resgate em Combate or RESCOM) for CSAR operations but in 2006 these were extinct and replaced by the Force Protection Unit (Unidade de Protecção da Força or UPF) whose mission is to provide security for the Air Force elements deployed on international missions.[31]

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact triggered a deep transformation of the Armed Forces, they transited from being a conscription based and defensive oriented Armed Forces to gradually becoming a fully professional and expeditionary warfare oriented force, starting to participate in international missions, most of them under the mandate of the United Nations, the European Union and the NATO, besides organizing some unilateral missions abroad on their on.

The conscription was gradually reduced since the early 1990s, with almost no conscripts serving the Armed Forces by the end of that decade, the formal abolishment of the conscription in time of peace was however only implemented in 2004.[32]

In 1993, the Portuguese Army deployed a communications battalion to Mozambique, as part of the UNOMOZ, this being the first participation of the Portuguese Armed Forces in international missions, with military forces, after Mozambique, the Portuguese Military deployed forces to international missions in a number of countries, including Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Timor-Leste, Kosovo, Lebanon, Afghanistan and Lithuania, besides deploying military observers and other individual elements to other countries. Recent Defense policy confirmed the assumption that most considerable operations would be undertaken under international organizations mandates, with Portugal not entering alone in a major military engagement since the 1961–1974 overseas conflict.

Nonetheless, the Portuguese Military have also conducted a number of unilateral and independent peace-enforcing and humanitarian military missions, namely in Guinea-Bissau (1990, 1998, and 1999) and in Angola (1992), the Operation Crocodile conducted in Guinea-Bissau in 1998 was notable, by evidencing the capacity of the Portuguese Armed Forces – despite its small size and limitation of means – to rapidly mount a military operation abroad in a scale that is typically only achievable by major military powers. This operations was mainly aimed at the rescuing of thousands of Portuguese and other foreign nationals caught in the middle of the civil conflict that erupted in Guinea-Bissau and included the deployment of naval and air forces, the landing and occupation of the Port of Bissau by Portuguese Marines, amphibious and helicopter landings in several places of the Guinean coast for the rescuing of civilians, medical and humanitarian aid to the civil population and the support to the peace talks between the two antagonizing parties.

A Military Programation Law (Lei de Programação Militar) was launched in 2002 to start the complete modernization of the Armed Forces. Considerable re-equipment of the military started in 2003, led by Defense Minister Paulo Portas, who managed to launch a series of re-equipment programs, including those of new submarines (Tridente-class), frigates (Bartolomeu Dias-class) and off shore patrol ships (Project NPO 2000 / Viana do Castelo class) for the Navy, of armored vehicles (Pandur) for the Army and of heavy helicopters (EH-101) for the Air Force. Ironically one of the most basic challenges – the replacement of the 7.62×51mmbattle rifles by 5.56×45mmassault rifles – failed during his mandate due to the soldiers clinging onto their cheap and highly reliable locally made FBPG3.

Some important re-equipment programs were however latter canceled or suspended mainly due to cuts in the Defense budget, including the building of a multipurpose amphibious ship (Project NavPoL), the building of coastal patrol ships (Project NPC 2000) and the acquisition of helicopters (EC635 and NH90) for the Army Light Aviation Unit. Another important challenge faced, in terms of equipment, is the lack of funds for the replacement of the Alouette III helicopters and the Alpha Jet advanced trainer jets of the Air Force, which, if not addressed in due course, may compromise the future capacity of the Armed Forces to continue to do the complete training of their own aircraft pilots.

Despite the financial cuts in Defense, all international missions assigned to the Portuguese military have been fulfilled without limitations.

Recently purchased equipment include new main battle tanks (Leopard 2A6) in 2008 and new coastal patrol vessels (Tejo-class) in 2014. The process acquisition of the ex-French amphibious assault ship Siroco – as an alternative to the suspended NavPoL – failed in 2015, with the Portuguese Armed Forces continuing not having an asset which allows them to easily deploy forces to abroad on a larger scale, enhancing its expeditionary capacity.

In the 2010s, the Portuguese Armed Forces created the Immediate Reaction Force (FRI, Força de Reação Imediata), aimed at providing an autonomous national response capability to intervene abroad in complex situations to conduct operations as the possible of evacuation of Portuguese citizens from countries under crisis or tension, the FRI includes naval, ground, air and special operations components. Its initial core has an operational readiness of 48 hours and has permanently assigned assets of the three branches of the Armed Forces.

Mass drop of Portuguese paratroopers, which will continue to be an important component of the Portuguese Immediate Reaction Force (FRI).

In April 2013, the Portuguese Government approved a structural reform of the National Defense, named "Defense 2020" (Defesa 2020),[33] it was done with the objective of defining the level of ambition of the Armed Forces by establishing the guidance parameters for strategic planning, reinforcing the leading responsibility of the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces in the execution of the approved military strategy, reducing human resources while at the same time improving their management and enhancing the coordination between the General Staff of the Armed Forces, the branches of the Armed Forces and the Ministry of National Defense.

Defense 2020 establishes the existence of three sets of force:

Immediate Reaction Force (FRI, Força de Reação Imediata) – a rapid action force, focused in missions such as the evacuation of Portuguese citizens in crisis or conflict areas and response in national complex emergency situations.

Permanent Forces in Sovereignty Action (FPAS, Forças Permanentes em Ação de Soberania) – forces focused in the continuous missions of national sovereignty or jurisdiction areas of national responsibility, including the air defense, the maritime and aerial patrolling, surveillance and inspection, land surveillance when required, search and rescue and finally the nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological defense, public interest and disaster response.

Modular Set of Forces (CMF, Conjunto Modular de Forças) – forces assigned to Portuguese international commitments deployed for periods of six months, capable of engaging in three simultaneous minor operations or in a single major operation. These forces are known as National Deployed Forces (FND, Forças Nacionais Destacadas).

Future equipment programs are also in course; in May 2015, a new Military Programming Law was published, which will regulate the founding of the military investments programs until 2026. In June 2016, the Portuguese Government confirmed the intention of acquiring the Embraer KC-390military transport aircraft to replace the Lockheed C-130 Hercules fleet of the Portuguese Air Force,[34] the KC-390 incorporates an important percentage of Portuguese developed technology and will be partially built in Portugal. In July 2016, the Minister of National Defense authorized the beginning of the procurement process for new light armored tactical vehicles for the Army.

The General Staff of the Armed Forces (EMGFA, Estado-Maior-General das Forças Armadas) is the superior military body and supreme headquarters of the Portuguese Armed Forces. It is responsible for planning, directing and controlling the usage of the three service branches in their fulfillment of assigned missions and tasks,[35] the EMGFA is headed by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces and includes:

Headquarters building of the EMGFA and of the Ministry of National Defense, in Lisbon.

The Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces (CEMGFA, Chefe do Estado-Maior-General das Forças Armadas) is the principal military adviser of the Minister of National Defense and is the chief with the highest authority in the hierarchy of the Portuguese Armed Forces.

The CEMGFA is an admiral or a general (four star rank) of one of the branches of service, appointed by the President of the Republic by proposal of the Government, before being proposed to the President, the nominee has to be presented by the Minister of National Defense to the Council of Chiefs of Staff for a previous hearing. If the nominee is refused by the President, the Government has to present another option. Traditionally, there is a rotation of the branch of service that provides the CEMGFA, but this is not mandatory and not always happens.

The CEMGFA is responsible for the planning and implementation of the operational military strategy, having under his hierarchic dependency the chiefs of staff of the branches of service for the matters that evolve the preparedness, the employment and the sustainment of the forces and assets of the operational component of the system of forces and responding before the Government – through the Minister of National Defense – for the military response capacity of the Armed Forces. He/she is the operational commander of the Armed Forces, being responsible for the employment of all forces and assets of the operational component of the system of forces in operational missions, the sustainment of the forces and assets referred before is under the branches of service responsibility, with the respective chiefs of staff being under the CEMGFA dependency for that.

The branch of service chief of staff who is longer in the function replaces the CEMGFA, in case of his absence or impediment.

SAR operation performed by an EH101 helicopter of the Portuguese Air Force.

The Portuguese Armed Forces include three branches, these being the Navy, the Army and the Air Force. Created centuries ago, the Navy and the Army are much older than the integrated Armed Forces themselves, the Air Force is however younger, being created as a separate branch already after the establishment of the integrated Armed Forces. The branches of service have as their principal mission to participate, in an integrated form, in the defense of the Republic, in the terms defined by the Constitution and the law, being mainly aimed for the generation, preparation and sustainment of the forces of the operational component of the system of forces, the branches also guarantee their own specific missions established by particular laws and also guarantee the operational missions given to them by the CEMGFA.

The increasing integration and standardization of the different branches of service meant that their organizations gradually approached. Presently, all the three branches have an identical organizational model that includes:

a chief of staff

a branch staff

central bodies of administration and management

a component command

bodies of advisement

bodies of inspection

base bodies

elements of the operational component of the system of forces

The chiefs of staff serve as the branch commanders, the staffs are the bodies for planning and decision support of the respective chiefs of staff, being able also to assume roles of management, control, advisement or inspection. The central bodies of administration and management have a functional character and are intended to guarantee the management and execution in specific fundamental areas and activities as the human, material, financial, information and infrastructures resources management, the component commands (naval, land and air) are intended to support the chiefs of staff in their command roles. The component commands can be put under the direct dependency of the CEMGFA for the exercise of his command roles, the bodies of advisement are intended to support the decision of the chiefs of staff in special and important matters regarding the preparedness, discipline and administration of the branch. The bodies of inspection are intended to support the control and evaluation function of the chiefs of staff, the base bodies are those aimed at the training, the sustainment and the general support of the branch. The elements of the operational component of the system of forces are the forces and assets of the branch intended for the accomplishment of the operational missions.

Besides the above referred standard bodies, the Navy also includes the Hydrographic Institute and the Maritime Search and Rescue Service, while the Air Force also includes the Air Search and Rescue Service.

Until recently, the Navy also included the National Maritime Authority. Statutorily, the Maritime Authority is now an entirely separate legal entity, but it continues to be headed by the Chief of Staff of the Navy and continues to be mainly administered, supported and staffed by the Navy, the same happens with the National Aeronautic Authority in relation to the Air Force, the difference being that this Authority was already created as a separate legal entity.

The chiefs of staff of the Navy, of the Army and of the Air Force command their respective branches, being the military chiefs with the higher authority in each of the branches hierarchy and being the principal advisors of the Minister of National Defense and of the CEMGFA in all matters related with their branches. Inside each branch, the respective chief of staff is the only officer with a four-star rank (admiral in the Navy and general in the other two branches).

The chiefs of staff are part of the operational command structure of the Armed Forces, serving as deputy commanders of the CEMGFA. While they report to the CEMGFA in the operational, military intelligence and security, military higher learning, military health and other joint matters, they report directly to the Minister of National Defense in the matters related with the current management of their branches resources.

The chiefs of staff of the branches are appointed by the President of the Republic, by government proposal, in an analogous process of that of the CEMGFA appointment, the CEMGFA must be heard before a name is proposed to the President.

The military bodies of advisement of the armed forces are the Council of Chiefs of Staff and the higher councils of the several branches.

The Council of Chiefs of Staff is the principal military coordinating body, being also the body of advisement of the CEMGFA, it is presided over by the CEMGFA and also includes the chiefs of staff of the three branches of service. Other military entities may be invited to participate in their meetings, but without voting rights.

In each of the branches, there is a higher council presided by the respective chief of staff, these are the Council of the Admiralty, the Higher Council of the Army and the Higher Council of the Air Force. The branches may have other advisement bodies like the military careers councils (the councils of class in the Navy, the councils of arm or service in the Army and the councils of specialty in the Air Force).

The Navy (Marinha, with its armed branch also being referred as the Armada) is the naval component of the Portuguese Armed Forces, it includes around 9000 military personnel (including around 1500 marines), 40 commissioned ships and 50 auxiliary vessels. Unlike the other service branches that have an almost purely military role, the Navy historically has had a wide scope of non-military activities, namely serving as the Portuguese maritime administration, and being responsible for the tutelage over of the merchant marine, fisheries, maritime authority and maritime research affairs. The responsibility over the non-military maritime activities has however been gradually transferred to other organizations since the disbandment of the Navy Ministry in 1974, with only a few – as the maritime authority and the hydrographic survey – remaining now under the Navy tutelage.

The Portuguese Navy is one of the oldest in the world, with its first known naval engagement occurring in 1180. A permanent Navy exists since 1317, when the role of Admiral of Portugal was created.

The Navy is headed by the Chief of Staff of the Navy and includes the Navy Staff, the Personnel, the Material, the Finance and the Information Technologies superintendences, the Naval Command (naval component command, with five subordinate maritime zone commands), the Council of the Admiralty and the Inspection-General of the Navy, the base bodies of the branch include the Lisbon Naval Base, the Support Unit of the Central Facilities of the Navy, the Naval School, the technical schools (Marines, Hydrography and Oceanography, Divers and Naval Technologies), the Integrated Center of Naval Training and Evaluation and the squadrons (Surface Ships, Submarines and Helicopters). The elements of the operational component of the system of forces of the Navy include the Marine Corps Command, the naval and marine forces, the operational naval, marine and divers assets and units, the command centers and posts and the operations support centers, the Navy includes the Marine Corps (Corpo de Fuzileiros), which is a naval infantry force that serves in the roles of naval force protection, amphibious force projection and maritime special operations. The Marines themselves include the Special Actions Detachment, which is the special operations unit of the Navy, the Sappers Divers Group is the combat divers unit of the Navy. The Navy further includes the Hydrographic Institute, the Maritime Search and Rescue Service and the International Maritime Law Commission.[36]

The Army (Exército) is the land component of the Portuguese Armed Forces and its larger branch. Presently, it includes around 16 000 military personnel, the principal equipment of the Army includes around 100 main battle tanks (Leopard 2A6 and M60 Patton), 280 tracked APCs (M113), 180 wheeled APCs (Pandur II), 90 other armored vehicles and 60 field artillery weapons. The principal infantry weapon is still the 7.62mmHK G3battle rifle, although paratroopers and other special troops use instead several models of 5.56mmassault rifles.

The Portuguese Army can be considered one of the oldest armies of the world, with its origins going back to the Royal Hoste of the 12th century, in the early period of the Kingdom of Portugal. The foundations of a standing army were established in 1570, with the creation of the Ordenanças; in the middle of the 17th century, the Portuguese land forces started to be referred as the Exército.

The Army is headed by the Chief of Staff of the Army and includes the Army Staff, the Personnel and the Logistics commands, the Directorate of Finance, the Land Forces Command (land component command, with two subordinate military zone commands) and the Inspection-General of the Army, the base bodies of the branch are divided by the scopes of obtainment and administration of human resources (including psychology, recruiting and selection centers and offices), of readying of forces (including 21 regiments of several arms, the Special Operations Troops Centre and the Army Intelligence and Military Security Center), of logistical support (including the Army Geospatial Intelligence Center, two service support regiments, the Army Material General Support Unit and two health centers), of teaching and training (including the Military Academy, the School of the Arms, the School of the Services, the Army Sergeants School, the Military College and the Army Pupils Institute) and of divulgation and preservation of military culture (including military museums, archives, the Army Band and the Army Fanfare). The Army includes also bodies that support other branches of the Armed Forces, including the Military Prison Establishment, the Military Laboratorial Unit of Biological and Chemical Defense and the Military Unit of Veterinary Medicine, the elements of the operational component of the system of forces of the Army include the Land Forces Command, the formations and operational units commands, the military zones commands and the general support and emergency military support forces.[37] The formations include the Rapid Reaction Brigade, the Mechanized Brigade and the Intervention Brigade, the special troops of the Army include the Paratroopers, the Commandos and the Special Operations Troops, whose units are now all integrated in the Rapid Reaction Brigade.

Traditionally, the Army used to be divided in branches that were designated "arms" if they had a mainly combatant role and designated "services" if their role was logistical, the main branches were the arms of cavalry, infantry, artillery, engineering and communications and the services of health, military administration, materiel and transportation. Each branch constituted an organization that usually included a branch directorate, a branch school, units and a cadre of personnel, as organizations, these branches were abolished in 1993, but they still exist as occupational groups. Also, most of the Army units continue to be associated to a branch, which in most cases correspond to the main role of the respective unit.

The Air Force (Força Aérea) is the air component of the Portuguese Armed Forces and its younger branch, it includes around 6600 personnel and 100 aircraft.

The Portuguese Air Force was established as an independent branch of service in 1952, when the Military Aeronautics arm was completely separated from the Army, at the same time starting to control the Naval Aviation that was part of the Navy.

The Air Force is headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force and includes the Air Force Staff, the Air Force Personnel and the Air Force Logistics commands, the Air Force Directorate of Finance, the Air Command (air component command, with two subordinate air zone commands) and the Inspection-General of the Air Force, the base bodies of the branch include the Air Force Academy, the Military and Technical Training Center of the Air Force, five air bases, two maneuver aerodromes, a transit aerodrome and four radar stations. The elements of the operational component of the system of forces of the Air Force include the operational planning bodies, the Air Command and Control System, the flying units and the anti-aircraft intervention units, the flying units include two training squadrons (TB 30 Epsilon and Alpha-Jet), one fighter squadron (F-16 AM), one attack squadron (F-16 AM), three transport squadrons (C-130, C-295M and Falcon 50), two helicopter squadrons (Alouette III and EH-101), one maritime patrol squadron (Lockheed P-3C) and one Air Force Academy squadron (ASK-21, OGMA Chipmunk Mk 20 (modif) and L-23 Super Blaník). The Polícia Aérea (Air Police) is the ground combat force of the Air Force, which serves as its military police, force protection and ground anti-aircraft defense element, including a special forces unit, this being the Tactical Operations of Protection Core (NOTP).

The Nacional Republican Guard (GNR, Guarda Nacional Republicana) is a special corps of troops that has the special feature of being a military force that is not part of the Armed Forces.

It is a gendarmerie type security force, made up of around 26 000 military personnel, that is part of the internal security system, it is responsible for the preventive policing of most of the rural areas of the country, the patrolling of the major highways, the customs enforcement and the coastal control. It also performs some special missions like the providing of ceremonial military State honor guards, the security of the Presidencial, Parliament and Foreign Ministry palaces, the environment and nature protection and the rescue and forest firefighting. In time of peace, the GNR is subordinated to the minister of Internal Administration, except in the scope of uniforms, military doctrine, equipment and armament within which is subordinated to the minister of National Defense.

Although not being part of the Armed Forces, the GNR can be placed under the operational command of the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces in the cases foreseen in the statutes governing the National Defense, the Armed Forces, the state of siege and the state of emergency; in the scope of its military missions, the GNR is specially adapted for the fulfillment of military operations other than war. Forces of the GNR have been deployed in international missions in high conflict countries that did not fit with the use of a civilian police force, but where it was not considered politically appropriate to deploy units of the Armed Forces, these international deployments may be done in the scope of the multinational specialized units (MSU) of the European Gendarmerie Force, as it happened with the GNR deployment in Iraq.

The Portuguese Armed Forces include a number of different types of special forces, distributed by its three branches.

In the Army, these are generically referred as the "special troops" or the "light infantry" and represent more than 20% of the total strength of the branch, the Army special troops include the Paratroopers, the Commandos and the Special Operations Troops. The Paratroopers are a mainly parachute light infantry force, that however also include some non-infantry specialized units, the Paratroopers in turn include the Air-Land Pathfinders Company, which is a special parachute reconnaissance unit. The Commandos are a light assault infantry force, specialized in conducting high risk conventional operations, the Special Operations Troops is the Army unit specialized in unconventional warfare.

The Navy has the Marines Corps (Corpo de Fuzileiros) as its special forces, these are a light naval infantry force, specialized in amphibious landings, base and ship security, high seas boarding and naval military police. The Marines include the Special Actions Detachment which is the Navy's special operations unit dedicated to the unconventional warfare in naval and coastal environment, the Marines also include the PelBoard (Boarding Platoon) teams, that are specialized in high risk visit, board, search, and seizure (VBSS) actions. The Sappers Divers Group is the Navy's specialized combat divers unit, which however is not usually considered a special forces unit.

The present special forces unit of the Air Force is the Tactical Operations of Protection Core (NOTP), this unit is part of the Air Police and is mainly dedicated to the protection of the forces and assets of the Air Force deployed in high risk areas.

Currently, the Portuguese Armed Forces include 32,992 military personnel, of which 12% are women, the majority of the personnel is in the Army (54%), followed by the Navy (26%) and the Air Force (20%). Conscription in time of peace was fully abolished in 2004 and, since them, 100% of the military personnel is professional.

The defense of the Fatherland is a right and a duty of all the Portuguese, the Portuguese citizens have military obligations from the age of 18 years to the age of 35 years.

The military service include the following situations:

Effective service - is the situation of the citizens when they are at the service of the Armed Forces. It includes effective service in the QP (career personnel), RC (contract personnel) and RV (volunteer personnel) or due to call or mobilization.

Recruiting reserve - is made of the Portuguese citizens, from the age of 18 years to the age of 35 years, who never served in the Armed Forces, but can be object of an exceptional recruiting.

Availability reserve - is made of the Portuguese citizens who have served in the Armed Forces, from the end of their effective service until the end of their military obligations. To call effects, the availability reserve situation includes the six subsequent years after the effective service.

In time of war, the military obligations age limits can be changed by law.

In time of peace, the military personnel falls in two main groups: career personnel (permanent personnel) and volunteer (temporary personnel); in case of war, these two groups are added with conscript personnel.

Career personnel (QP, Quadro Permanente) includes the persons who choose the military profession as their permanent life career. Admission to this career requires the graduation in one of the higher education service academies for officers or in one of the military technical schools for non-officers. QP personnel only includes officers and sergeants in the Army and the Air Force, but it also includes other ranks in the Navy. Other ranks in the Army and the Air Force are entirely volunteer.

Volunteer personnel includes the persons who usually have a civilian profession, but volunteer to serve temporarily in the military, they might serve in roles related specifically with their civilian professions (e.g.: engineers, legals, psychologists or medics) or in general military roles. They include officers, sergeants and other ranks. Volunteer personnel are further subdivided in two groups: contract regime (RC, Regime de Contrato) and volunteer regime (RV, Regime de Voluntariado). While RC personnel serves for between two and six years, RV personnel serves only for 12 months. Special RC regimes with the duration of up to 20 years are foreseen to be created for roles whose training and technical demands make desirable long periods of service. Personnel in RV can apply to serve in RC after their termination of their period of service.

Accordingly, with their level of responsibility and authority, Portuguese military personnel are divided in three categories: officers (oficiais), sergeants (sargentos) and other ranks (praças). Officers are further divided in three subcategories: general officers (oficiais generais), senior officers (oficiais superiores) and junior officers (oficiais subalternos).

Accordingly, with their training and role, each member of the Portuguese Armed Forces is part of an occupational group, to each of which corresponds a career and a particular list of promotion, these occupational groups have different specific designations in each branch of service.

The Army occupational groups are designated "corps of general officers", "arms" and "services", the corps of general officers include all generals, who may originate from the arms or from some of the services officer careers, but with only those originating from the arms being able to achieve the ranks above that of major-general. The arms are mostly careers associated with combatant roles while the services are mostly careers associated with logistical roles, for the officers, the arms are infantry (INF), artillery (ART), cavalry (CAV), engineering (ENG) and communications (TM) and the services are military administration (ADMIL), materiel (MAT), medicine (MED), pharmacy (FARM), veterinary (VET), dentistry (DENT), nursery, diagnostic and therapeutic technicians (TEDT), chiefs of music band (CBMUS), communications exploration technicians (TEXPTM), communications maintenance technicians (TMANTM), materiel maintenance technicians (TMANMAT), personnel and secretariat technicians (TPESSECR), transportations technicians (TTRANS), Army general service (SGE) and parachutist general service (SGPQ). For the sergeants, the arms are infantry (INF), artillery (ART), cavalry (CAV), engineering (ENG), communications (TM) and parachutists (PARAQ) and the services are military administration (AM), materiel (MAT), medicine (MED), pharmacy (FARM), veterinary (VET), music (MUS), clarions (CLAR), personnel and secretariat (PESSECR), transportations (TRANS), Army general service (SGE) and amanuensis (AMAN).

There is not a standardization of the types of uniforms among the three branches of the Armed Forces, each branch has its own uniform regulation which is distinct from those of the other service branches. The traditional color of the Portuguese military uniforms, since the middle of the 18th century, was the azul ferrete (very dark blue), this is still the color of the full dress uniforms of the three service branches. The service dress uniform colors are the navy blue (Winter) or white (Summer) for the Navy, grey (No.1) or olive green (No.2) for the Army and air force blue for the Air Force. All the three branches have a camouflagedbattledress uniform in the DPM pattern (from 1998 to 2010, the Air Force used instead the U.S. Woodland patern). These camouflage patterns replaced the traditional Portuguese vertical lizard pattern that was in use in the three service branches from the early 1960s to the late 1990s, the members of some branches, units or specialties are identified by the wearing of berets whose colors are emerald green (Paratroopers), brown (Army generic), navy blue (Marines), black (Cavalry, except Cavalry paratroopers), air force blue (Air Police), red (Commandos), moss green (Special Operations) and blue (Navy generic).

On the contrary of the uniforms, there is a standard common model of rank insignia used in the uniforms of the three service branches, the existence of a common rank insignia system has been in force since 1761, when the Portuguese Army and Navy become one of the first militaries in the world to establish a rank insignia regulation, that was common for the two existing branches at the time. The present system of rank insignia was established in 1911 and is an evolution of the previous ones, its generic rank devices consists in stars for the general officers, in stripes for the rest of the officers, in Portuguese shields for the senior sergeants and in chevrons for the rest of the sergeants and the other ranks. There is a specific rank insignia for the admirals or generals invested in the office of Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces, consisting in four golden stars, which differ from the silver stars worn by the rest of the four-star rank officers (chiefs of staff of the service branches).

1.
Portuguese Air Force
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The Portuguese Air Force is the aerial warfare force of Portugal. Locally, it is referred to by the acronym FAP, and it is the youngest of the three branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces. The Portuguese Air Force was formed on July 1,1952, the CEMFA is the only officer in the Air Force with the rank of general. Presently, the FAP is a professional force made of career personnel. As 2015, the FAP employed a total of 5957 military personnel, the Air Force further included 842 civilian employees. Besides its warfare role, the FAP has also public service roles, namely assuring the Portuguese Air Search, until 2014, the FAP also integrated the National Aeronautical Authority. The AAN is now a body, but continues to be headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, with the Air Force assuring most of its activities. Its aerobatic display teams are the Asas de Portugal jet aircraft display team, the remote origins of the Portuguese Air Force lay in the origins of the Portuguese military aeronautics. Portugal was directly linked with the history of the aeronautics since its early beginnings, in 1709, the Portuguese priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão requested a patent for a device to move through the air, which consisted in a kind of hot air balloon. The patent was granted on the 19 April 1709 and small models of this device were tested with success in several occasions. Accordingly, with some opinions, a real device would have performed a crewed flight over Lisbon, taking off from the São Jorge Castle. This may have been the first manned flight in history, the AeCP becomes one of the major boosters of the development of the aviation in Portugal in the early 20th century, including of its military use. Despite the previous use of balloons by the Portuguese Army, its first air unit was created in 1911. This unit was the Aerostation Company, which was part of the Army Telegraphic Service and was intended to operate observation aerostats and this unit would later receive a handful of airplanes. In 1912, the Portuguese Government receives its first airplane, a Deperdussin B, the Government further receives a Maurice Farman MF4 offered by the O Comércio do Porto newspaper and an Avro 500 offered by the Portuguese Republican Party. These aircraft would be integrated in the Aerostation Company, but remained years without use because of the inexistence of pilots, still in 1912, midshipman Miguel Freitas Homem of the naval purser branch applied for admission to any course that would qualify him as an aviator. He was so the first so the first member of the Portuguese Military to formally request to be an aircraft pilot. In the same year, by request of the AeCP, the legislator António José de Almeida presents a bill to the Portuguese Parliament for the creation of a Military Aviation Institute

Portuguese Air Force
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Portuguese De Havilland DH-82 Tiger Moth at the Portuguese Air Force Museum
Portuguese Air Force
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Portuguese Air Force Coat of Arms
Portuguese Air Force
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PoAF North American T-6 at the Portuguese Air Force Museum
Portuguese Air Force
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Asas de Portugal display team.

2.
Commander-in-chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence

3.
Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa
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Marcelo Nuno Duarte Rebelo de Sousa, ComSE, GCIH is a Portuguese politician and incumbent President of Portugal since 9 March 2016. Previously he was a government minister and Member of Parliament, a law professor, journalist, political analyst, born in Lisbon, he is the eldest son of Baltasar Rebelo de Sousa and wife Maria das Neves Fernandes Duarte. He is named after his godfather dictator Marcelo Caetano, Rebelo de Sousa is a university graduate, Doctorate, Professor and Publicist specialized in Administrative Law from the Faculty of Law of the University of Lisbon, where he taught Law. Rebelo de Sousa started his career during the Estado Novo as a lawyer and he joined the Popular Democratic Party, becoming a Deputy to the Assembly of the Republic. During that time, he helped draft Portugal’s constitution in 1976, later he rose to Adjoint Minister of Prime Minister Francisco Pinto Balsemão. Together with him he was a Co-Founder, Director and Administrator of the Expresso newspaper and he was also the Founder of Sedes and the Founder and President of the Administration Council of another newspaper, Semanário. He started as a political analyst and pundit on TSF radio with his Exams, in 1989 he ran for Mayor of the Municipal Chamber of Lisbon but lost to Jorge Sampaio, though he did win a seat as City Councilor. In that campaign he took a plunge into the waters of the Tagus River to prove they were not polluted despite claims to the contrary, Rebelo de Sousa was leader of the Social Democratic Party from 31 March 1996 to 27 May 1999. He created a coalition, the Democratic Alliance, with the Peoples Party in 1998. He became, however, the Vice-President of the European Peoples Party–European Democrats, Rebelo de Sousa resigned after Portas, in a TV interview, described a private talk they had had concerning this matter. For these and other inconsistencies, he was called by Manuel Maria Carrilho political gelatin, a speech, in which he condemned the Portuguese habit of expecting a Messiah and a Dom Sebastião, was not well taken. The failure of the led to his public and televised demission. In other local elections, he became the President of the Municipal Assembly of Cascais. In his analysis, still in TVI, he often attacked Pedro Santana Lopes, accusing him of being truculent, a cudgeller and resentful and it was after that episode that he was hired by RTP. In 2010, he left RTP and returned to TVI to do the program that he had before. He is also a Member of the Portuguese Council of State and he was a leading figure on the pro-life side of the 2007 abortion referendum. He even founded a website titled Assim Não, which was divulged with an introductory video. It become so well-known that it was parodied in Saturday Night Live-fashion by famous humour group Gato Fedorento, on 24 January 2016, Rebelo de Sousa was elected as President of Portugal in the first round of voting

4.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province

5.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian

Finland
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Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
Finland
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Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
Finland
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Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by Eero Järnefelt

6.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

7.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously

8.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe

Sweden
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A Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
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Sweden
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A romantic nationalist interpretation of Valdemar IV taking control over Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
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Stockholm in mid-17th century

9.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’

Switzerland
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Founded in 44 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
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Flag
Switzerland
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The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
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The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.

10.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay

Portuguese language
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Multilingual sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in Oizumi, Japan. Return immigration of Japanese Brazilians has led to a large Portuguese-speaking community in the town.
Portuguese language
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Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country.
Portuguese language
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Library of the Mafra National Palace, Portugal
Portuguese language
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Baroque Library of the Coimbra University, Portugal

11.
President of Portugal
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The President of the Portuguese Republic is the executive head of state of Portugal. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the Prime Minister, the current President of Portugal is Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, who took office on 9 March 2016. The Portuguese Third Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike several other European presidents, the Portuguese President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the Presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the Prime Minister. Prior to the Carnation Revolution, the powers of the presidency varied widely, some presidents were virtual dictators, while others were little more than figureheads. The president can dissolve the Assembly of the Republic, which implies the need to call for new elections and after the implementation of these. The President appoints the Prime Minister, given the election results and he can, however, dismiss the Government when this is necessary to ensure the smooth functioning of democratic institutions. Even the government bodies of the regions may be dissolved by the President. The President declares a state of siege and emergency upon consultation with the Government, at the proposal of the Government and with the authorization of the Parliament, the President can declare war in the event of actual or imminent aggression and can also propose peace. The President promulgates or vetoes the promulgation of laws, decree-laws, regulatory decrees, in the area of his powers in international relations, the President of the Republic ratifies international treaties. The President decides on referendums put forth to him by Parliament, the president appoints ambassadors and special envoys, following proposal by the Government, and accredits the foreign diplomatic representatives. The President of the Republic, after consultation with the Government, pardons, the official residence of the Portuguese President is the Belém Palace. However, the round has only been needed once, during the 1986 presidential election. To date, all of the presidents since the Carnation Revolution have served for two consecutive terms, and presidents consistently rank as the most popular political figure in the country. The President of Portugal often makes official state visits to foreign countries. There are three living former Portuguese Presidents, List of Presidents of Portugal Politics of Portugal Official website

12.
Government of Portugal
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The Government of Portugal is one of the four sovereignty bodies of the Portuguese Republic, together with the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic and the courts. It is both the body of sovereignty that conducts the general politics of the country and the body of the Portuguese public administration. The Government of Portugal is also referred as the Government of the Portuguese Republic, the term constitutional government or simply government also refers to collective ministry in the sense of the team of ministers and its period of government under one Prime Minister. The Government comprises the Prime Minister, ministers and secretaries of State, certain governments also include one or more vice prime ministers and under-secretaries of State. Each minister usually heads a ministry and has assigned to him or her one or more secretaries of State, the Prime Minister chooses the persons that he or she finds fit. Then the President swears in the Prime Minister and the Gov, the Government has political, legislative and administrative functions. There are no guarantees that the government will stick to its government program, the Government may also be questioned by the other three sovereignty organs, the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic and the courts. The President may veto governmental decrees and a government bill may fail to pass in the Assembly of the Republic, the Council of Ministers is a collegial executive body within the Government of Portugal. It is usually presided over by the Prime Minister, but the President of the Republic can preside over it at the Prime Ministers request, besides the Prime Minister, the vice prime ministers and all ministers are members of the Council of Ministers. When the Prime Minister finds it fit, certain Secretaries of State can also attend its meetings, I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI Cabinet Ministry Politics of Portugal Official website

13.
Peacekeeping
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Peacekeeping refers to activities intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths and reduces the risk of renewed warfare, such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers can include soldiers, police officers, the United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in Kosovo and the Multinational Force, the Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists. There are a range of types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna’s book Does Peacekeeping Work, for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations, importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna’s four types are consent-based missions, i. e. Chapter VI missions, Chapter VI missions are consent based, therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw, Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw, observation Missions which consist of small contingents of military or civilian observers tasked with monitoring cease-fires, troop withdrawals, or other conditions outlined in a ceasefire agreement. They are typically unarmed and are tasked with observing and reporting on what is taking place. Thus, they do not possess the capability or mandate to intervene should either side renege on the agreement, examples of observation missions include UNAVEM II in Angola in 1991 and MINURSO in the Western Sahara. Thus, they serve as a zone between the two sides and can monitor and report on the compliance of either side with regard to parameters established in a given ceasefire agreement. Examples include UNAVEM III in Angola in 1994, and MINUGUA in Guatemala in 1996, multidimensional missions are carried out by military and police personnel in which they attempt to implement robust and comprehensive settlements. Examples include UNTAG in Namibia, ONUSAL in El Salvador, Peace enforcement Missions are Chapter VII missions and unlike the previous Chapter VI missions, they do not require the consent of the belligerent parties. These are multidimensional operations comprising both civilian and military personnel, the military force is substantial in size and fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards. They are mandated to use force for purposes beyond just self-defense, examples include ECOMOG and UNAMSIL in West Africa and Sierra Leone in 1999, as well as the NATO operations in Bosnia—IFOR and SFOR. During the Cold War, peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping, Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed—such as UNEF-I, established during the Suez Crisis and they were largely successful in this role

14.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved

NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
NATO
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NATO
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The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
NATO
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Reforms made under Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Warsaw Pact.

15.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum

European Union
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In 1989, the Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to expand further (Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
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European Union
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2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
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The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (Cyprus).

16.
Global Peace Index
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The Global Peace Index is an attempt to measure the relative position of nations and regions peacefulness. The list was launched in May 2007 and updates have been made on a basis since then. It is claimed to be the first study to rank countries around the world according to their peacefulness, in 2014 it ranked 162 countries, up from 121 in 2007. The index gauges global peace using three broad themes, the level of safety and security in society, the extent of domestic and international conflict, factors are both internal such as levels of violence and crime within the country and external such as military expenditure and wars. It has been criticised by Riane Eisler for not including indicators specifically relating to violence against women and children, the updated index is released each year at events in London, Washington, DC, and at the United Nations Secretariat in New York. The expert panel for the 2014 GPI consisted of, In assessing peacefulness and it also seeks to evaluate the level of harmony or discord within a nation, ten indicators broadly assess what might be described as a safety and security in society. Countries peacefulness is measured on a range of indicators,22 in all. A table of the indicators is below, the 0 to 1 scores that resulted were then converted to the 1 to 5 scale. Individual indicators were then weighted according to the panels judgment of their importance. The scores were then tabulated into two weighted sub-indices, internal peace, weighted at 60% of a final score, and external peace. ‘Negative Peace’ which is defined as the absence of violence, or fear of violence is used as the definition of peace to create the Global Peace Index. An additional aim of the GPI database is to facilitate deeper study of the concept of peace, or those attitudes, institutions. The GPI also examines relationships between peace and reliable international measures, including democracy and transparency, education and material well-being. As such, it seeks to understand the importance of a range of potential determinants, or drivers. Statistical analysis was applied to more specific drivers of peace. Specifically, the team looked for indicators that were included and excluded from the index that had high levels of correlation with the overall score. Notably absent from the 2007 study were Belarus, Iceland, many African nations, Mongolia, North Korea and they were not included because reliable data for the 24 indicators was not available. Most of these countries were included in subsequent editions of the Global Peace Index, steve Killelea, the Australian philanthropist who conceived the idea of the Index, argues that the Index is a wake-up call for leaders around the globe

Global Peace Index
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Global Peace Index Scores, 2014. Countries appearing with a deeper shade of green are ranked as more peaceful, countries appearing more red are ranked as less peaceful.

17.
Kosovo Force
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The Kosovo Force is a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation-led international peacekeeping force which was responsible for establishing a secure environment in Kosovo. KFOR entered Kosovo on 12 June 1999, two days after the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1244, at the time, Kosovo was facing a grave humanitarian crisis, with military forces from the FRY and the KLA in daily engagement. According to NATO, Serb forces had committed ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians, nearly one million people had fled Kosovo as refugees. KFOR has gradually transferred responsibilities to the Kosovo Police and other local authorities, as of 23 May 2016, KFOR consisted of 4,600 troops. The Contact Group countries have said publicly that KFOR will remain in Kosovo to provide the security necessary to support the provisions of a settlement of Kosovos status. KFOR contingents were originally grouped into 4 regionally based multinational brigades, the brigades were responsible for a specific area of operations, but under a single chain of command under the authority of Commander KFOR. At its height, KFOR troops numbered 50,000 and came from 39 different NATO and non-NATO nations, the official KFOR website indicated that in 2008 a total 14,000 soldiers from 34 countries were participating in KFOR. The following is a list of the number of troops which have participated in the KFOR mission. According to Amnesty International, most women trafficked into Kosovo from abroad are from Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, since the KFOR entered Kosovo in June 1999,168 NATO soldiers have been killed, mostly in accidents. On 19 October 2004, it was confirmed that 115 NATO soldiers had killed during the operation. After that 50 more NATO soldiers were confirmed to have died, eight UNMIK police officers have been killed in Kosovo since 1999, in addition to the KFOR fatalities. The fatalities by country are,3 American,1 Indian,1 Jordanian,1 Nigerian,1 Ghanaian and 1 Ukrainian police officer, in July 2011, following the Kosovo Polices attempts to seize two border outposts and consequent clashes that followed, KFOR troops intervened. In 2013, KFOR was involved in an operation of the last restaurant bears in Kosovo. The bears are now kept at the Bear Sanctuary Prishtina, KFOR Placemap KFOR official site K-For, The task ahead First deaths in K-For operation Memorial honors soldiers sacrifices June 2002,68 soldiers have died since KFOR entered Kosovo. Nato force feeds Kosovo sex trade Radio KFOR

18.
Azores
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Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which is becoming the major service activity in the region. In addition, the government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service, the main settlement of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. There are nine major Azorean islands and a cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west, Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre, and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and they extend for more than 600 km and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. All the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity since the islands were settled, mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at 2,351 m. The Azores are actually some of the tallest mountains on the planet, measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, which thrust high above the surface of the Atlantic. The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a location, being influenced by its distance to continents. Due to the influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between 16 °C and 25 °C depending on season, temperatures above 30 °C or below 3 °C are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy, the culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these once-uninhabited and remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries. However, these kinds of structures have always used in the Azores to store cereals. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking and it is unclear whether these structures are natural or man-made and whether they predate the 15th-century Portuguese colonization of the Azores. Solid confirmation of a human presence in the archipelago has not yet been published. The islands were known in the century and parts of them appear in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, a captain sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashes 1813 work, A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges and he stated that the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal. Other stories note the discovery of the first islands by sailors in the service of Henry the Navigator, although there are few documents to support the claims. Although it is said that the archipelago received its name from the goshawk

Azores
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Mount Pico and the green landscape, emblematic of the archipelago of the Azores
Azores
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1584 map of the Azores.
Azores
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Angra do Heroísmo, the oldest continuously-settled town in the archipelago of the Azores and UNESCO World Heritage Site
Azores
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This article is about the archipelago. For the area of high pressure, see Azores High.

19.
Color guard
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In military organizations, the Colour Guard refers to a detachment of soldiers assigned to the protection of regimental colours. This duty is so prestigious that the colour is carried by a young officer. These NCOs, accompanied sometimes by warrant officers, can be armed with either sabres or rifles to protect the colour. Colour guards are generally dismounted, but there are also mounted colour guard formations as well, as armies became trained and adopted set formations, each regiments ability to keep its formation was potentially critical to its, and therefore its armys, success. In the chaos of battle, not least due to the amount of dust and smoke on a battlefield, flags and banners have been used by many armies in battle to serve this purpose. Regimental flags were generally awarded to a regiment by a head-of-State during a ceremony and they were therefore treated with reverence as they represented the honour and traditions of the regiment. The loss of a flag was not only shameful. So regiments tended to adopt colour guards, a detachment of experienced or élite soldiers, as a result, the capture of an enemys standard was considered as a great feat of arms. Due to the advent of modern weapons, and subsequent changes in tactics, colours are no longer used in battle, all of the RNs Queens Colours are identical. Civilians should stand during such times and soldiers are expected to salute them when not in formation, in the military of the United States, the color guard carries the National Color and other flags appropriate to its position in the chain of command. Typically these include a flag and a departmental flag. In addition to the bearers, who are positioned in the center of the color guard. This is a symbol that the flag will always be protected, in the U. S. traditionally, the units sergeant major is responsible for the safeguarding, care, and display of the organizational colors. The sergeant major is responsible for the selection, training. Being assigned to the guard is considered an honor due to the fact that these individuals present and carry the symbols of their unit. Depending on the circumstance and subject to the orders of their commander and it is mandatory for all members of the color guard to wear headgear, for example, a garrison cap, beret, or service cap. On occasion, certain color guards can be horse-mounted, since the National Colors must always be in the position of honor on the right, the color guard must execute a special movement to reverse direction. It does not execute rear march, nor does it execute about face, rather, it performs a maneuver derived from the standard countercolumn command, generally known as counter march or colors reverse march, in order to keep the precedence of flags in order

20.
Squadron (aviation)
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In most armed forces, two or more squadrons will form a group or a wing. Some air forces use the term squadrons for non-flying ground units. In contrast to United States Air Force units where flying squadrons are separate from supporting administrative and aircraft maintenance squadrons, in United States Marine Corps Aviation the nomenclature squadron is also used to designate all battalion-equivalent, aviation support organizations. These squadrons include, wing headquarters, tactical air command, air control, air support, aviation logistics, wing support, exceptions are USN helicopter mine countrmeasures squadrons, USMC composite medium tilt-rotor squadrons, heavy helicopter and light/attack helicopter squadrons, and Marine attack squadrons. Although part of U. S. naval aviation, United States Coast Guard aviation units are centered on an air station versus a squadron or group/wing organizational structure, the one exception to this is the Coast Guards Helicopter Interdiction Squadron, which is engaged primarily in counter-narcotics interdiction operations. In U. S. Army Aviation, flying units may be organized in battalions or squadrons reporting to an aviation brigade, an escadron is the equivalent unit in Frances Armée de lAir. It is normally subdivided into escadrilles of eight aircraft, in the Air Training Corps of the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth nations, a Squadron is a group of cadets who parade regularly. In the U. S. Civil Air Patrol, a squadron is the administrative unit. In the Swedish Air Force a helicopter squadron is a detachment from the Helicopter Wing

21.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty

22.
Council of Ministers of Portugal
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The Council of Ministers is a collegial executive body within the Government of Portugal. It is presided over by the Prime Minister, but the President of Portugal can preside over it at the Prime Ministers request, all senior ministers are members of the council of ministers, and when the prime minister finds it fit, state secretaries can also attend its meetings. The Council of Ministers discusses and approves bills to be submitted to the Assembly of the Republic and decrees, as of November 26,2015, the Council of Ministers consists of the following, Cabinet Politics of Portugal Government of Portugal Official Website

23.
Operation Atalanta
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The operational headquarters is located at Northwood Headquarters in the UK. The mission launched in December 2008 with a focus on protecting Somalia-bound vessels and shipments belonging to the WFP and AMISOM, in addition, Operation Atalanta monitors fishing activity on the regional seaboard. On 16 July 2012, the EU also mandated the EUCAP Nestor mission to build up the capacity of regional navies. It is part of a global action by the EU to prevent. It cooperates with the multinational Combined Task Force 151 of the US-led Combined Maritime Forces, on 28 November 2016 the Council of the EU extended the Mandate of Operation ATALANTA until December 2018. Participation in EU NAVFOR goes beyond EU member states, norway was the first non-EU country to contribute to the Operation, with a warship in 2009. Thereafter, Montenegro, Serbia and Ukraine have provided staff officers to the Operational Headquarters, Ukraine contributed a warship early in 2014, and New Zealand contributed an MPRA asset later the same year. Around 1,200 personnel are involved in ATALANTA, with the size of the force typically varying between 4–6 surface combat vessels and 2–3 Maritime Patrol Aircraft, for 2016, the budget will be €6.3 million for the common costs of the mandate. Piracy has to be understood as organised criminal activity occurring at sea and it is organised on land, with kidnapping crews and ships for ransom as the business model. Prosecution of piracy suspects is a key component of the fight against piracy. The EU NAVFOR seeks, where possible, a legal finish, transfers of suspect pirates for trial to competent authorities remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean. The EU is the largest contributor to the UNODC counter-piracy programme, in the short term, transfers for trial from EU NAVFOR ships remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean. The measure, which was sponsored by France, the United States, on 2 January 2009, one of the Operations ships captured eight pirates who were about to board a ship. The French ship responded to the message by the 21,000 tonne Liberia flagged MV Safmarine Asia which came under small arms. The warship deployed its helicopter, which arrived on the scene, to deter the hijacking. On 26 May 2009, the EU Naval Task Force vessel HMS Malmö responded to a call from the European cargo vessel M/V Antonis. In May 2010, there were a number of incidents in the area, the Russian destroyer Marshal Shaposhnikov freed the 106, 474-ton MV Moscow University, which was about 350 miles east of Socotra, transporting crude oil from Sudan to China. Reports on these incidents, citing news reports, concluded that pirates were holding almost 20 vessels

Operation Atalanta
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ITS Maestrale frigate.
Operation Atalanta
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Piracy area of interest in the Indian Ocean (2005-2010)

24.
Conquest of Asilah
–
The Portuguese conquest of Asilah from the Wattasids took place on 24 August 1471. Departing from the Portuguese town of Lagos with an army of about 30,000 men and 400 ships, the Portuguese King summoned his Council and decided to attack Asilah on the morning of the following day. There was a storm and a number of Portuguese ships were lost. It poured rain the entire three days of the siege, the storm was so severe it prevented the ships from laying down a cannonball bombardment, and only two pieces of heavy artillery were brought to shore. The Count of Valença, Henrique de Menezes, was appointed as the first Portuguese governor of Asilah by King Afonso V, the victory at Asilah paved the way for the conquest of Tangier. In the late 15th century, a set of four large tapestries was commissioned to commemorate the battle and they were woven by Flemish weavers in Tournai, Belgium. The tapestries are notable highly for their portrayal of a contemporary event, the works are regarded as among the finest Gothic tapestries in existence. Portuguese Empire Wattasid dynasty House of Avis Battle of Ceuta Edward of Portugal Henry the Navigator Fernando, the Saint Prince

Conquest of Asilah
–
The Portuguese assault on Asilah depicted on a 15th century tapestry.

25.
Navy Ministry (Portugal)
–
The Ministry of Maritime Affairs, formerly Ministry of Navy is a Portuguese government ministry. It is responsible for both the Portuguese Navy and all maritime matters. Until 1911, it also was responsible for the management of the Portuguese overseas territories, the ministry was created in 1736, as the Secretariat of State of the Navy and of the Overseas Affairs. In the second half of the 19th century, it became referred to as the Ministry of Navy. In 1911, it simply the Navy Ministry, as the Overseas affairs came under a separate Government department. Its extinction began in 1974, following the Carnation Revolution, part of the non-military roles of the former Navy Ministry were assigned to other ministries

Navy Ministry (Portugal)
–
Navy Ministry

26.
Overseas Ministry (Portugal)
–
The Overseas Ministry was the department of the Government of Portugal responsible for the administration of the Portuguese Empire. The ministry also had responsibilities in the relations with neighboring areas of the Portuguese overseas territories. The Overseas Minister superintended all governors-general and governors of the Portuguese Overseas, the ministry had its origins in the Overseas and Navy Ministry, established in 1736, by King John V of Portugal. In 1911, the affairs were separated from the Navy Ministry. In 1951, the department was renamed Overseas Ministry, from 1975, until its ultimate extinction in 1976, the structure of the ministry continued to function, first as the Secretariat of State for the Decolonization and then as the Cooperation Ministry

Overseas Ministry (Portugal)
–
Former headquarters of the Portuguese Ministry of the Overseas, in Lisbon.

27.
Portuguese Empire
–
The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast

28.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

29.
General Staff of the Armed Forces of Portugal
–
The Armed Forces General Staff, or EMGFA, is the supreme military body of Portugal. It is responsible for the planning, command and control of the Portuguese Armed Forces, EMGFA is headed by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces or CEMGFA, the highest rank of general in the Portuguese Armed Forces. The present Armed Forces General Staff was created in 1950, as the Secretariat-General of National Defence or SGDN. The SGDN was the planning organization of the Defense, being headed by the Chief of the Armed Forces General Staff. Besides having the role of secretary-general of the SGDN, the CEMGFA also assumed most of the responsibilities until then assigned to the heads of the Navy. In 1969, it was decreed that SGDN should be remodeled in order to be transformed into the EMGFA, however, transformation of the SGDN into the EMGFA occurred in 1974. In times of war, he assumes the command of the Armed Forces. The CEMGFA is an officer of one of the three branches of the Armed Forces, appointed by the President of the Portuguese Republic, by proposal of the Government of Portugal. Organização Superior da Defesa Nacional, Prefácio,2004 Portuguese Army Portuguese Air Force Portuguese Navy Portuguese National Republican Guard

General Staff of the Armed Forces of Portugal
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Military Standard of Portugal

30.
Cabinet of Portugal
–
The Council of Ministers is a collegial executive body within the Government of Portugal. It is presided over by the Prime Minister, but the President of Portugal can preside over it at the Prime Ministers request, all senior ministers are members of the council of ministers, and when the prime minister finds it fit, state secretaries can also attend its meetings. The Council of Ministers discusses and approves bills to be submitted to the Assembly of the Republic and decrees, as of November 26,2015, the Council of Ministers consists of the following, Cabinet Politics of Portugal Government of Portugal Official Website

31.
Portuguese Naval Aviation
–
It is more commonly known as Naval Aviation as it received various official designations throughout its service and its origins date back to 1917, when it was created has the air branch of the Navy. These two Navy officers — 1TEN Artur de Sacadura Cabral and GMAR AN António Joaquim Caseiro — underwent basic training at Chartres and flying boat flight training at Saint-Raphaël. Meanwhile, Navy personnel started receiving training and aircraft maintenance instruction at the school and abroad. On September 28,1917, the Navys Aviation Service was created with its personnel, material, the service was then installed at the Bom Sucesso Naval Air Station in the Lisbon docks. Flying boats, received in March 1917 and stored at EAM, arrived at Bom Sucesso by December 1917, on January 5,1918, the naval aviation was renamed to Naval Aeronautical Service. In April 1918 the first flying boats of the French Navy arrived at São Jacinto, together with the Portuguese aircraft at Bom Sucesso naval air station, this allowed them to perform anti-submarine patrols and cover the coastal Portuguese waters and the main ports. This same year the United States Navy started operating Curtiss HS-2L hydroplanes from Horta, on December 28,1918, a Portuguese Navy officer took command of the São Jacinto Naval Air Station. The United States Navy left as well their base at Horta and these aircraft were transported and ship to Lisbon and started operating from Bom Sucesso in 1923. In April 1931, following a military takeover in Funchal, Madeira. These aircraft flew 100 hours and were hit by small arms fire, nevertheless, no aircraft were lost and all returned to Lisbon by the end of the hostilities. At this time, the Magalhães Corrêa naval modernization program included the purchase of a tender that was order from Italy in 1931. However, as consequence of the 1929 economic crisis, the value of the Lira collapsed, nevertheless, as part of the modernization program two 1st class avisos of the NRP Afonso de Albuquerque were built with the capacity to carry a floatplane, Hawker Osprey III. On September 30,1936, the designation of the Naval Aviation was changed to Navy Air Forces, between 1939 and 1940 Avro 626, equipped with floats, and Grumman G-21B Goose were bought. During its service, the Grumman Goose established regular transport between continental Portugal to the Azores and performed search and rescue missions. In February 1941, a Short Sunderland was interned after being forced to land in the Portuguese coast, during to a flight from the United Kingdom to Gibraltar, due to high winds. 12 Airspeed Oxford for flight and navigation training were transferred to the Naval Aviation as part of the use of the aviation facilities in Azores by the UK. The first six aircraft were delivered in 1943 but the aircraft were only delivered in 1947. In 1945, a batch of Bristol Beaufighter TF. X were received also as part of the deal for the use of the Azores by the British during World War II

32.
National Republican Guard (Portugal)
–
The National Republican Guard or GNR is the national gendarmerie force of Portugal. Members of the GNR are military personnel, subject to law and organisation. The GNR is responsible for the police and highway patrol in the countryside. At national level, GNR also has duties of customs enforcement, coastal control, nature protection, search and rescue operations, since the 2000s, the GNR has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq, East Timor and other theatres. The GNR deploys over 26,000 personnel over 90 percent of Portuguese territory, the GNR are deployed in Bosnia as part of IFOR/SFOR/EUFOR Althea. and 140 GNR were also deployed between 2006 and 2012 in Timor-Leste as part of UNMIT. The National Republican Guard is, for police and operating in peacetime, responsible to the Ministry of Internal Administration and, for military affairs, until 2007, the GNR maintained a traditional organization, whose bases still followed the organizational structure established in the early 20th century. This organization included, territorial units, special units and reserve units, the old organization also included a central structure that reflected the command of a military field division, including a military-type staff. Most of the recommendations regarding GNR were accepted and, in accordance with the Law No, 63/2007, its traditional structure was replaced by a new and considerably different one, that was implemented in early 2009. The GNR is commanded by an officer, with the title of Commandant-General. The old four-brigade structure was replaced by a system of territorial commands, each territorial command usually includes a traffic detachment and a detachment of intervention. The territorial commands of the Azores and Madeira play, essentially, just a monitoring and fiscal actions, respectively, under the functional dependence of the UCC. The current territorial commands correspond essentially to the previous territorial groups of the old territorial brigades, includes the Presidential Squadron, Horse Band, the Guard Marching Band, the State Honors and Security Group. This unit was organized with several subunits of the former Infantry Regiment, serviço de Protecção da Natureza e do Ambiente- SEPNA School of the Guard – commanded by a major-general, is responsible for technical and professional training of military personnel of the GNR. Includes training centers in Figueira da Foz and Portalegre, the National Republican Guard is the direct descendant of the Royal Police Guard created in the beginning of the 19th century. The Royal Guard of the Police of Lisbon was created in 1801 by Prince Regent John on the initiative of the Intendant-General of the Police of the Court and it took as a model the French Gendarmerie. Following the creation of the Lisbons Royal Guard of the Police, in 1868 both of the Guards were put under a unified Commandant-General, installed in the Carmo Barracks in Lisbon, which today still is the Headquarters of the GNR. The Municipal Guard was considered part of the Army, but was dependent on the Ministry of Internal Affairs for all matters regarding public security. At this time, plans were already being done for the transformation of this Guard into a National Republican Guard, in 1993 the National Republican Guard absorbed the independent Fiscal Guard that became the Fiscal Brigade of the GNR

National Republican Guard (Portugal)
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Portuguese National Republican Guard (GNR) headquarters at Largo do Carmo, Lisbon, Portugal, since 1868.
National Republican Guard (Portugal)
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Coat of Arms of the Guarda Nacional Republicana
National Republican Guard (Portugal)
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GNR cavalry at the changing of the guard of the Presidencial Palace of Belém.
National Republican Guard (Portugal)
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GNR territorial patrol.

33.
1961 Indian annexation of Goa
–
Depending on the view, this action is referred as the Liberation of Goa or the Invasion of Goa. The armed action was code named Operation Vijay by the Indian Armed Forces. The operation involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, the engagement lasted two days and twenty-two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in the fighting. The brief conflict drew a mixture of praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil, Goa, Daman and Diu covered an area of around 1,540 square miles and held a population of 637,591. The Goan diaspora was estimated at 175,000, religious distribution was 61% Hindu,36. 7% Christian,2. 2% Muslim. Economy was primarily based on agriculture, although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in iron ore. Cunha released a booklet called Four hundred years of Foreign Rule, the Goa Congress was also made affiliate to the Indian National Congress and Cunha was selected its first President. Cunha and other leaders were also with him, ram Manohar Lohia advocated the use of non-violent Gandhian techniques to oppose the government. There were intermittent mass demonstrations from June to November, in addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa. The Indian government supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving them full financial, logistic, the armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover of Indian police forces. Commenting on the resistance, Portuguese army officer, Capt. I know what Im talking about, because I also fought in Angola, in 1961 alone, until December, around 80 policemen died. The major part of the terrorists of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans, many had fought in the British Army, under General Montgomery, against the Germans. On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of Portuguese colonies in India. When the Portuguese Government refused to respond to subsequent aide-mémoires in this regard, by 1954, the Republic of India instituted visa restrictions on travel from Goa to India which paralysed transport between Goa and other exclaves like Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Meanwhile, the Indian Union of Dockers had, in 1954, between 22 July and 2 August 1954, armed activists attacked and forced the surrender of Portuguese forces stationed in Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The news of the massacre built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa, on 1 September 1955, India shut its consul office in Goa

1961 Indian annexation of Goa
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Indian troops are greeted by supporters as they march through the streets of Panaji, shortly after the Portuguese retreat
1961 Indian annexation of Goa
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Goa, Western India
1961 Indian annexation of Goa
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A Canberra PR.9 taking off. The Indian Air Force used the small and lightweight Canberra bombers.
1961 Indian annexation of Goa
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The NRP Afonso de Albuquerque

34.
Portuguese Colonial War
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The Portuguese regime was overthrown by a military coup in 1974, and the change in government brought the conflict to an end. The war was an ideological struggle in Lusophone Africa and surrounding nations. The prevalent Portuguese and international historical approach considers the Portuguese Colonial War as a conflict fought in three separate theaters of operations. However, some other approaches consider the existence of three conflicts, the Angolan War of Independence, the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence. Occasionally, the conflict that led to the 1961 Indian Annexation of Goa is also included. During the ensuing conflict, atrocities were committed by all forces involved, throughout the period Portugal faced increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community. The end of the war came with the Carnation Revolution military coup of April 1974 and this migration is regarded as one of the largest peaceful migrations in the worlds history. The former colonies faced severe problems after independence, devastating and violent civil wars followed in Angola and Mozambique, which lasted several decades, claimed millions of lives, and resulted in large numbers of displaced refugees. A level of order and economic development comparable to what had existed under Portuguese rule, including during the period of the Colonial War. Portugal had been the first modern European power to establish a colony in Africa when it captured Ceuta in 1415, when the Portuguese began trading on the west coast of Africa, in the 15th century, they concentrated their energies on Guinea and Angola. Hoping at first for gold, they found that slaves were the most valuable commodity available in the region for export. The Islamic Empire was already well-established in the African slave trade, but the Portuguese never established much more than a foothold in either place. In Guinea, rival Europeans grabbed much of the trade while local African rulers confined the Portuguese to the coast and these rulers then sent enslaved Africans to the Portuguese ports, or to forts in Africa from where they were exported. Thousands of kilometers down the coast, in Angola, the Portuguese found it harder to consolidate their early advantage against encroachments by Dutch, British. Nevertheless, the fortified Portuguese towns of Luanda and Benguela remained almost continuously in Portuguese hands, as in Guinea, the slave trade became the basis of the local economy in Angola. More than a million men, women and children were shipped from Angola across the Atlantic, in this region, unlike Guinea, the trade remained largely in Portuguese hands. Nearly all the slaves were destined for Brazil and these sertanejos lived alongside Swahili traders and even obtained employment among Shona kings as interpreters and political advisers. One such sertanejo managed to travel through almost all the Shona kingdoms, including the Mutapa Empires metropolitan district, the Portuguese finally entered into direct relations with the Mwenemutapa in the 1560s

Portuguese Colonial War
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Portuguese Colonial War Guerra Colonial Portuguesa
Portuguese Colonial War
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Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow) and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese-Guinea and other colonies in 1970, before the Portuguese military operations known as Gordian Knot Operation (Mozambique), Operation Green Sea (Guinea) and Frente Leste (Angola).
Portuguese Colonial War
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Portuguese Army soldiers in the beginning of the War in Angola. The camouflage uniforms and the FN FALassault rifles identify them as Caçadores Especiais. By this time, the remaining Army forces still wore yellow khaki field uniforms and were mostly armed with Mauser 98kbolt action rifles.
Portuguese Colonial War
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Portuguese military parade in Luanda, Angola.

35.
Alouette III
–
The Aérospatiale Alouette III is a single-engine, light utility helicopter developed by Sud Aviation. It was manufactured by Aérospatiale of France, and under license by Hindustan Aeronautics in India as Hal Chetak, by Industria Aeronautică Română in Romania as IAR316, the Alouette III is the successor to the Alouette II, being larger and having more seating. The first version of the Alouette III, the SE3160 prototype, the SA 316A entered production in 1961 and remained in production until 1968, when it was replaced by the SA 316B. The last and 1437th Alouette III left the Marignane assembly lines in 1979, the last Alouette III from Aérospatiale was delivered in 1985. Over 500 units were manufactured under licence in Romania, India, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited obtained a license to build Alouette IIIs as the HAL Chetak in India. Over 300 units were produced by HAL as it continued to update and indigence the helicopter over the years. Versions of the Alouette III were also either license-built or assembles by IAR in Romania, F+W Emmen in Switzerland, when used as an aerial ambulance, the Alouette III can accommodate a pilot, two medical attendants and two stretcher patients. SA 316A, the first production version, SA 316B, powered by a 425 kW Turboméca Artouste IIIB turboshaft engine, with strengthened main and tail rotor for greater performance. The SA 316B was built under licence in India as the HAL Chetak, HAL Chetak, Indian production version of the SA 316B. HAL Chetan, HAL/Turbomecca TM 333-2M2 Shakti engine, IAR316, Romanian production version of the SA 316B. F+W Alouette IIIS,60 SA-316B license-assembled in Switzerland by F+W Emmen between 1970 and 1974, the SA 319B was a direct development of the SA 316B, it was powered with a 649 kW Turbomeca Astazou XIV turbo shaft engine, but it was derated to 447 kW. The SA 316C was powered by a Turbomeca Artouste IIID turboshaft engine, the SA 316C was only built in small numbers. G-Car and K-Car, Helicopter gunship versions for the Rhodesian Air Force, the G-Car was armed with two side-mounted Browning.303 or a single 7. 62mm MAG machine guns. The K-Car was armed with a 20 mm MG151 cannon, fitted inside the cabin, SA.3164 Alouette-Canon, Modified in 1964 as a gunship version armed with a 20mm gun in the nose and external hardpoints for missiles mounted on each side of the fuselage. IAR317 Airfox, A Romanian helicopter gunship project based on the IAR316, only three prototypes were ever built. Atlas XH-1 Alpha, South African two-seat attack helicopter project and it was used in the development of the Denel Rooivalk. The Argentine Naval Aviation purchased 14 helicopters, on 2 December 2010, the last example was retired at a ceremony held at BAN Comandante Espora, Bahía Blanca. From April 1964 to 1967, three machines were delivered from France for local assembly in Australia and these were used by the Royal Australian Air Force at the Woomera Rocket Range for light passenger transport and the recovery of missile parts after test launches at the Range

36.
Portuguese Angola
–
Portuguese Angola or Portuguese West Africa are the common terms by which Angola is designated when referring to the historic period when it was a Portuguese overseas territory in southwestern Africa. The former Portuguese Angola became an independent country in 1975 and now forms the Republic of Angola and it is to note that the term Colony of Angola began to be used occasionally since 1914, but only in 1926 it completely replaced the designation Province of Angola. The history of Portuguese presence on the territory of contemporary Angola lasted from the arrival of the explorer Diogo Cão in 1484 until the decolonization of the territory in 1975, during these five centuries, several entirely different situations have to be distinguished. When Diogo Cão and other reached the Kongo Kingdom at the end of the 15th century. Its present territory comprised a number of peoples, some organized as kingdoms or tribal federations of varying sizes. The Portuguese were interested in trade, principally in slaves and they established small trading posts on the lower Congo, in the area of the present Democratic Republic. A more important trading settlement on the Atlantic coast was erected at Soyo in the territory of the Kongo Kingdom and it is now Angolas northernmost town, apart from the Cabinda exclave. In 1575, the settlement of Luanda was established on the coast south of the Kongo Kingdom, from 1580 to the 1820s, well over a million people from present-day Angola were exported as slaves to the so-called New World, mainly to Brazil, but also to North America. According to Oliver and Atmore, for 200 years, the colony of Angola developed essentially as a gigantic slave-trading enterprise, the Portuguese had Catholic beliefs and their military expeditions included from the very beginning the conversion of foreign peoples. In the 17th century, conflicting interests led to a military confrontation with the Kongo Kingdom. Portugal defeated the Kongo Kingdom in the Battle of Mbwila on October 29,1665, control of most of the central highlands was achieved in the 18th century. However, the treaty, meeting with opposition there and in Germany, was not ratified, since the 1920s, Portugals administration showed an increasing interest in developing Angolas economy and social infrastructure. In 1951, the Portuguese Colony of Angola became a province of Portugal. Organized guerrilla warfare began in 1961, the year that a law was passed to improve the working conditions of the largely unskilled native workforce. In 1961, the Portuguese government indeed abolished a number of legal provisions which discriminated against black people. After visiting the United Nations, Holden Roberto returned to Kinshasa, Holden Roberto launched an incursion into Angola on March 15,1961, leading 4,000 to 5,000 militants. His forces took farms, government outposts, and trading centers, at least 1,000 whites and an unknown number of blacks were killed. Commenting on the incursion, Roberto said, this time the slaves did not cower, the effective military in Angola were composed of approximately 6,500 men,5,000 black Africans and 1,500 white Europeans sent from Portugal

37.
Military logistics
–
Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. Acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities, the word logistics is derived from the Greek adjective logistikos meaning skilled in calculating. The first administrative use of the word was in Roman and Byzantine times when there was an administrative official with the title Logista. At that time, the word apparently implied a skill involved in numerical computations, a second method was for the army to bring along what was needed, whether by ships, pack animals, wagons or carried on the backs of the soldiers themselves. This allowed the army some measure of self-sufficiency, and up through to the 19th century most of the ammunition a soldier needed for a campaign could be carried on their person. However this method led to a baggage train which could slow down the armys advance. Starting with the Industrial Revolution new technological, technical and administrative advances led to a third method and this led to a logistical revolution which began in the 20th century and drastically improved the capabilities of modern armies while making them highly dependent on this new system. Starting in the sixteenth century armies in Europe greatly increased in size. However, very little support was provided to these massive armies. When operating in enemy territory an army was forced to plunder the countryside for supplies. Sieges in particular were affected by this, both for any army attempting to lay siege to a location or coming to its relief. Unless a military commander was able to implement some sort of regular resupply, although this theoretically granted armies freedom of movement, the need for plunder prevented any sort of sustained, purposeful advance. Many armies were further restricted to following waterways due to the fact that what supplies they were forced to carry could be easily transported by boat. With these arrangements there was a increase in the use of magazines which could provide a more regular flow of supply via convoys. While the concepts of magazines and convoys was not new at this time, despite these changes, French armies still relied on plunder for a majority of their needs while on the move. Magazines were created for campaigns and any surplus was immediately sold for both monetary gain and to lessen the tax burden. The vehicles used to form convoys were contracted out from commercial interests or requisitioned from local stockpiles, the primary benefits of these reforms was to supply an army during a siege. This was borne out in the campaign of 1658 when the French army at no point was forced to end a siege on account of supplies

38.
Commando
–
A commando is a soldier or operative of an elite light infantry or special operations force often specializing in amphibious landings, parachuting or abseiling. Originally a commando was a type of unit, as opposed to an individual in that unit. In other languages, commando and kommando denote a command, including the sense of a military or a special operations unit. In the militaries and governments of most countries, commandos are distinctive in that they specialize in assault on unconventional high-value targets, however, the term commando is sometimes used in relation to units carrying out the latter tasks. In English, occasionally to distinguish between an individual commando and the unit Commando, the unit is capitalized, the word stems from the Afrikaans word kommando, which translates roughly to mobile infantry regiment. This term originally referred to mounted infantry regiments, who fought against the British Army in the first, the Dutch word has had the meaning of a military order or command since at least 1652, it likely came into the language through the influence of the Portuguese word comando. It is also possible the word was adopted into Afrikaans from interactions with Portuguese colonies. Less likely, it is a High German loan word, which was borrowed from Italian in the 17th century, the officer commanding an Afrikaans kommando is called a kommandant, which is a regimental commander equivalent to a lieutenant-colonel or a colonel. The Oxford English Dictionary ties the English use of the word meaning member of a body of picked men, directly into its Afrikaans origins,1943 Combined Operations i. Lt. Lieutenant-Colonel D. W. Clarke. produced the outline of a scheme, the men for this type of irregular warfare should, he suggested, be formed into units to be known as Commandos. Nor was the historical parallel far-fetched, after the victories of Roberts and Kitchener had scattered the Boer army, the guerrilla tactics of its individual units. His ideas were accepted, so also, with hesitation, was the name Commando. During World War II, newspaper reports of the deeds of the led to readers thinking that the singular meant one man rather than one military unit. After the Dutch Cape Colony was established in 1652, the word was used to describe bands of militia, the law compelled Burghers to equip themselves with a horse and a firearm when required in defense. The implementation of laws was called the Commando System. A group of mounted militiamen were organized in a known as a commando and headed by a Commandant. Men called up to serve were said to be on commando, British experience with this system lead to the widespread adoption of the word commandeer into English in the 1880s. During the Great Trek, conflicts with Southern African peoples such as the Xhosa, also, the word became used to describe any armed raid

Commando
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The French Navy commando unit Jaubert storms a naval vessel in a mock assault
Commando
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The Commando Memorial unveiled in 1952 in Scotland is dedicated to the World War II British Commandos
Commando
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Two reconnaissance teams of U.S. Army Rangers, Quang Tri, Vietnam.
Commando
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A member of Pakistan Navy Special Service Group is silhouetted by the setting sun aboard Pakistan Navy Ship PNS Babur (D 182) while under way in the Arabian Sea, November 25, 2007. Babur is deployed to the Central Command area of responsibility as part of Combined Task Force 150.

39.
Light infantry
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Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability

40.
Special Operations Troops Centre
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The CTOE - Centro de Tropas de Operações Especiais, based in Lamego, is a unit of the Portuguese Army with the mission of instructing troops in unconventional warfare and Counter-Terrorism. Until 2006, it was known as CIOE - Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais, the unit can be infiltrated by parachute, helicopter, small boat, or by foot. These special, light-infantry units were called Caçadores Especiais and were the first units in the Portuguese Army to wear a beret, when the Portuguese Colonial War began in 1961, there were already four companies of Special Hunters in Angola. The 4th Company Caçadores Especiais in particular was an active one. The CTOE remained, now tasked with giving their courses to officers and NCOs, after the creation of the special operations unit in 1981, the CTOE ceased to be just an instruction facility but also served as the HQ for the new Portuguese special operations unit. The unit has operated in Bosnia and Herzegovina, East-Timor, Kosovo, Afghanistan, the CTOE has several courses, COE - Curso de Operações Especiais, direct action and indirect action -21 weeks. Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol Course, reconnaissance and direct action special operations, irregular Operations Course, organisation, instruction, and orientation of irregular forces with of the objective of defending the national territory when invaded and start the resistance. Terrorist Threats Prevention and Combat Course, for those already badged as special operations soldiers, there are also courses outside the CTOE, Combat Diving Course Forward Air Controller Course

Special Operations Troops Centre
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Portuguese Army Special Operations

41.
Portuguese Army Commandos
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The Commandos are a special forces unit in the Portuguese Army. Presently, they constitute the Commando Regiment and their motto is Audaces Fortuna Juvat and their war cry is Mama Sumae. The Portuguese Army Commando troops constitute the Commando Regiment, a unit that is under the direct dependency of the Headquarters of the Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade. Until July 2015, this unit was designated Commando Troops Center, the operational component of the Commando Regiment is the Commando Battalion, which by itself includes three maneuver companies and a headquarters and support company. Together with Paratrooper and Special Operations units, the Commando Battalion is one of the units of the Rapid Reaction Brigade. Besides its operational battalion, the Commando Regiment also includes a headquarters and staff, a headquarters and services support company. The history of the Portuguese commandos began on June 25,1962, when, in Zemba, the six groups prepared in this center achieved excellent operational results. For the first time, the term Comandos was applied to the troops instructed there, on February 13,1964, the first Mozambique Commandos Course was initiated in Namaacha and on 23 July of the same year, in Bra, the first Guinea Commandos Course. During the Colonial War, they were one of the best guerilla/counter-guerilla units in the world, Portuguese commando soldiers that participated in active operations, more than 9000 men served in 67 commando companies. Its also generally known that the commandos eliminated more guerrilla fighters and these characteristics made them the only ones to get a mystical aura that remained after the war. After the war, the continued to develop their skills until 1993 when they were disbanded. This decision was influenced by a number of deaths during instruction, the commando soldiers were merged with the Paratroopers and these were transferred from the Air Force to the Army. But in 2002, the commandos were reactivated as an independent unit and they are now based in the Centro de Tropas Comandos in Mafra. They were deployed to Afghanistan in 2005, where a sergeant was killed by a roadside bomb, all this having as foundation the physical and psychic selection with high standards, although these decreased as the war dragged on. The psychological preparation to war was perhaps the aspect that most distinguished the commandos and its objective was to transform the man into a self-disciplined soldier, competent and effective in combat, able to fight in any situations and conditions. The psychological component was, probably, the most striking component of the instruction, when you least expected, you don´t do one. Now this is called psychological training and at the same time physical training, in its first phase, the commandos organised into independent groups composed of volunteers from infantry battalions, forming their intervention units. The success of these meant that they rapidly started to be used under the commander-in-chiefs and military commanders orders

Portuguese Army Commandos
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A Portuguese Army Commandos team in Afghanistan.
Portuguese Army Commandos
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Speciality Badge

42.
Indian Armed Forces
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The Indian Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services, the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force, the President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The Indian Armed Forces are under the management of the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, with strength of over 1.4 million active personnel, it is worlds 3rd largest military force and has the worlds largest volunteer army. India honours its armed forces and military personnel annually on Armed Forces Flag Day,7 December, Armed with nuclear triad, the Indian armed forces are steadily undergoing modernisation, with investments in areas such as futuristic soldier systems and missile defence system. The Department of Defence Production of the Ministry of Defence is responsible for the production of equipment used by the Indian Armed Forces. It comprises the 41 Indian Ordnance Factories under control of the Ordnance Factories Board and 8 Defence PSUs namely, HAL, BEL, BEML, BDL, MDL, GSL, GRSE and Midhani. India was the largest importer of defence equipment in 2014 with Russia, Israel, France, the Government of India has launched Make in India initiative to indigenise manufacturing and reduce dependence on imports, including defence imports and procurement. India has one of the longest military histories, dating back several millennia, the first reference of armies is found in the Vedas as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. Classical Indian texts on archery in particular, and martial arts in general are known as Dhanurveda, Indian maritime history dates back 5,000 years. The first tidal dock is believed to have built at Lothal around 2300 BC during the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Rig Veda written around 1500 BC, credits Varuna with knowledge of the routes and describes naval expeditions. There is reference to the wings of a vessel called Plava. A compass, Matsya yantra was used for navigation in the fourth and fifth century AD, the earliest known reference to an organisation devoted to ships in ancient India is to the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BC. Powerful militaries included those of the Maurya, Satavahana, Chola, Vijayanagara, Mughal, emperor Chandragupta Mauryas mentor and advisor Chanakyas Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha. The term, nava dvipantaragamanam appears in book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, Baudhayana Dharmasastra as the interpretation of the term. Sea lanes between India and neighbouring lands were the form of trade for many centuries, and are responsible for the widespread influence of Indian Culture on other societies. The Cholas excelled in trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maratha and Kerala fleets were expanded, the fleet review of the Maratha navy took place at the Ratnagiri fort in which the ships Pal and Qalbat participated

Indian Armed Forces
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Humber armored cars of 10th Indian Division move forward in Italy, 22 July 1944.
Indian Armed Forces
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The President of India is the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces
Indian Armed Forces
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The headquarters of the Ministry of Defence.
Indian Armed Forces
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Soldiers of the Indian Army on a training exercise.

43.
Prisoners of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example

Prisoners of war
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Austro-Hungarian POWs in Russia, 1915
Prisoners of war
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An Iranian soldier watching Iraqi prisoners of war sitting in a pickup truck during Iran-Iraq war.
Prisoners of war
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American prisoners captured in Ardennes in December 1944
Prisoners of war
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Engraving of Nubian prisoners, Abu Simbel, Egypt, 13th century BC

44.
New State (Portugal)
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The Estado Novo, or the Second Republic, was the corporatist authoritarian regime installed in Portugal in 1933. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional formed after the coup détat of 28 May 1926 against the democratic, together, the Ditadura Nacional and Estado Novo are recognised as the Second Portuguese Republic. Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism, liberalism and anti-colonialism, the regime was corporatist, conservative, Portugal joined the United Nations in 1955, and was a founding member of NATO, OECD, and EFTA. In 1968 Marcelo Caetano was appointed the new head of government, on 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers – the Armed Forces Movement – overthrew the Estado Novo regime. Fiercely criticized by most of the community after World War II and decolonization. King Carlos I of Portugal confirmed colonial treaties of the 19th century that stabilized the situation in Portuguese Africa and these agreements were, however, unpopular in Portugal, where they were seen as being to the disadvantage of the country. Carlos responded by appointing João Franco as Prime Minister and subsequently accepting Parliaments dissolution, in 1908, Carlos I was killed in a regicide at Lisbon. The Portuguese monarchy lasted until 1910 when, through the 5 October revolution, it was overthrown, the overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 led to a 16-year struggle to sustain parliamentary democracy under republicanism – the Portuguese First Republic. The basis of his regime was a platform of stability, in direct contrast to the environment of the First Republic. After the First Republic, when not even public order was achieved and this transfiguration of Portugal was then known as A Lição de Salazar – Salazars Lesson. Salazars program was opposed to communism, socialism, and liberalism and it was pro-Catholic, conservative, and nationalistic. It incorporated, however, the principles for its military from Benito Mussolinis system in Italy, one of the pillars of the regime was the PIDE, the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the Tarrafal prison in the African archipelago of Cape Verde, on the island of Santiago. Strict state censorship was in place, executive authority was nominally vested in a president, elected by popular vote for a five-year term. On paper, the president was vested with sweeping executive and legislative powers, in practice, however, the real power was held by the prime minister, Salazar. The legislature was a unicameral National Assembly, elected four years. An advisory body, the Corporative Chamber, nominally represented economic, the Estado Novo enforced nationalist and conservative Roman Catholic values on the Portuguese population. The whole education system was focused toward the exaltation of the Portuguese nation, the motto of the regime was Deus, Pátria e Familia

45.
Marcelo Caetano
–
He was a son of José Maria de Almeida Alves Caetano and his first wife Josefa Maria das Neves. A conservative politician and a reactionary in his youth, Caetano started his political career in the 1930s under the authoritarian regime of António de Oliveira Salazar. He soon became an important figure in the Estado Novo government, Caetano progressed in his academic career at the university, publishing several works and lecturing law. Between 1944 and 1947 Caetano was Minister of the Colonies and since 1947 President of the Executive Board of the National Union and he served as President of the Corporative Chamber between 1949 and 1955. From 1955 to 1958 Caetano was the two of the regime, as Minister Attached to the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, second only to Salazar himself. His relationship with Salazar was tense at times, hindering him from becoming clearly a successor, on the other hand, students who were supportive of the regime, tried to boycott the anti-regime activism. The core of these radical students lay in an uncompromising defence of the Portuguese Empire in the days of the authoritarian regime. In August 1968, at 79, Salazar suddenly suffered a stroke after a fall in his home, after 36 years as prime minister of the Estado Novo, he was removed from power by President Américo Tomás. After weighing a number of choices, Tomás appointed Caetano to replace Salazar on 27 September 1968, however, no one informed Salazar that he had been removed as leader of the regime he had largely created. By some accounts, when Salazar died in July 1970, he believed he was prime minister. Many people hoped that the new 102nd prime minister would soften the edges of Salazars authoritarian regime, Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security. Some large scale investments were made at national level, such as the building of an oil processing centre in Sines. The economy reacted very well at first, but into the 1970s some serious problems began to show, due in part to two-digit inflation, on the political side, Caetanos power was largely held in check by Tomás. This was due more to a balance of power and personalities than any constitutional provision, on paper, the presidents power to remove Salazar had been the only check on his power. While Tomás, like his predecessors, had largely been a figurehead under Salazar, as a result, there wasnt much that Caetano actually could or was willing to do. He considered running for president himself, but dismissed the idea, although Caetano had been one of the architects of the Estado Novo, he took some steps to blunt the harsher edges of the regime in the so-called political spring. He referred to his regime as a Social State, the PIDE, the dreaded secret police, was renamed the DGS. He also eased press censorship and allowed the first independent labour unions since the 1920s, the opposition was allowed to run in the 1969 election

Marcelo Caetano
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Marcello Caetano

46.
2nd Lancers Regiment (Portugal)
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The 2nd Lancers Regiment is a unit of the Portuguese Army responsible for the instruction, organization and maintenance of the Polícia do Exército operational units. The origins of the 2nd Lancers Regiment date back to the creation of the Queens Lancers Regiment in 1833, the idea for the creation of the regiment came from the observation of the success that resulted from the lancers during the Napoleonic Wars. Since its creation the regiment became a unit, responsible for the escort of the royal family. At the beginning of the war the unit was equipped with armored cars, in 1953 with the creation of the Military Police, the regiment assumed the function of organizing, training and maintaining the forces of this specialized force. The unit was renamed the Army Police in 1976 and its motto is Death or Glory as its first commander was Lt. Col. Sir Anthony Bacon, an English officer that served in the 17th lancers, the Portuguese lancers were given the mission to defend the Queen Maria II. The prince had a room in the regiment, where now is a library, the Regiment is nowadays responsible for Crowd and Riot Control, Bodyguard, Traffic control of military vehicles and Control of individual movements, and K-9 unit for drug search and CRC

2nd Lancers Regiment (Portugal)
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RL2 honor guard for Donald Rumsfeld and Paulo Portas, the US and Portuguese ministers of defense in 2003

47.
Western Europe
–
Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union

Western Europe
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The Great Schism in Christianity, the predominant religion in Western Europe at the time.
Western Europe
Western Europe
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Geopolitical Occident of Europe

48.
Special operations
–
Special operations may be performed independently of or in conjunction with, conventional military operations. The primary goal is to achieve a political or military objective where a conventional force requirement does not exist or might adversely affect the strategic outcome. Special operations are conducted in a low-profile manner that aims to achieve the advantages of speed, surprise. Special operations are implemented through specific, tailored intelligence. The decade 2003–2012 saw U. S. national security strategy rely on special operations to an unprecedented degree, identifying, hunting, and killing terrorists became a central task in the Global War on Terrorism. Linda Robinson, Adjunct Senior Fellow for U. S, Special Operations appropriations are costly, Its budget went from $2.3 billion in 2001 to $10.5 billion in 2012. Some experts argued the investment was worthwhile, pointing to the raid in May 2011 that killed Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, others claimed that the emphasis on Special Operations precipitated a misconception that it was a substitute for prolonged conflict. Raids and drone strikes are tactics that are decisive and often incur significant political. Although raids and drone strikes are necessary to disrupt dire and imminent threats…special operations leaders readily admit that they should not be the pillar of U. S. military strategy. Instead, Special Operations commanders stated that grand strategy should include their indirect approach, Special operations forces is a term primarily used in the West. It is an all encompassing term that defines a nation’s specialized units, the term special forces is also used by countries around the world to describe their specialized unit, however. Examples of special operations include, special reconnaissance/military intelligence, unconventional warfare, psyops, Special operations are sometimes associated with unconventional warfare, counter-insurgency, operations against guerrillas or irregular forces, low-intensity operations, and foreign internal defense. They are sometimes referred to as forces, commandos. This is known in the special operations community as foreign internal defense, recently the 82nd Airborne Division has also been conducting special operations in Iraq. The 82nd Airborne has been assigned to advise and assist Iraqi Security Forces, in March 2015, a 173rd Airborne battalion of around 600 American paratroopers headed to Ukraine to train Ukrainian national guard troops. The training took place at the Yavoriv training center near the western Ukrainian city of Lviv, the 173rd Airborne paratroopers trained the Ukrainians on how to better defend themselves against Russian and rebel artillery and rockets. Training also included securing roads, bridges, and other infrastructure and this program was known as Fearless Guardian which was congressionally approved under the Global Contingency Security Fund. Under the program, the United States trained three battalions of Ukrainian troops over a six-month period, list of US Special Operations Forces

49.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

50.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too

51.
Expeditionary warfare
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Expeditionary warfare is the deployment of a states military to fight abroad, especially away from established bases. Expeditionary forces were in part the antecedent of the concept of Rapid Deployment Forces. Traditionally, expeditionary forces were essentially self-sustaining with an organic logistics capability and these operations were conducted as sea, coastal and riverine operations, and sometimes were strategic in nature, reaching as far as Constantinople. Expeditionary warfare in Asia begun very much in the way it had in the Mediterranean with short-term raids by Japanese pirates. Because the Wokou were weakly resisted by the Ming Dynasty, the raiding eventually developed into fully-fledged expeditionary warfare with the Japanese invasions of Korea. Some have argued that this was the first revolution in military affairs that changed national strategies, operational methods, one notable example of this evolution was the French Invasion of Egypt. Though a significantly expanded expeditionary operation, the Crimean War was the first example of an expeditionary campaign that was directed as part of a multinational coalition strategy. It was also the first used as a military instrument to force decision in the conflict. Perhaps unique in the development of warfare were the operations by Yermak during the Russian conquest of Siberia which was a largely land-based operation. This eventually led to the Russian settlement of the Far East and it was at this time that naval troops previously used almost exclusively for defence of vessels or minor beach operations were expanded to enable extended littoral operations. The colonial experience, though confined to the period before the First World War

Expeditionary warfare
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Alexander the Great fighting in India
Expeditionary warfare
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Empire of Alexander the Great
Expeditionary warfare
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A squadron of the Australian Naval Expeditionary Force in September 1914
Expeditionary warfare
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Coldstream Guards of the British Expeditionary Force arrive in Cherbourg, France 1939

52.
United Nations Operation in Mozambique
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Its mandate ended in December 1994. The bulk of ONUMOZ troops under the command of Secretary-Generals Special Representative Aldo Ajello was deployed in early 1993, initially, ONUMOZ faced significant resistance carrying out its mission. Thus the original schedule which had aimed for elections in October 1993 could not be met, despite of these obstacles the mission was a success with the holding of general, free elections on 13 October 1994. ONUMOZs mandate expired with the swearing in of president Joaquim Chissano and the elected parliament. In doing so it had suffered 26 casualties, the mission cost US $492.6 million and an additional $616 million was spent on humanitarian aid

United Nations Operation in Mozambique
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United Nations Operation in Mozambique

53.
Tridente-class submarine
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The Tridente class, also designated as U 209PN, is a diesel-electric submarine class based on the Type 214 submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft GmbH for the Portuguese Navy. This class of submarines was acquired by Portugal to replace the last submarines of the Albacora class, originally, HDW proposed the Type 209 submarine during the competition, but decided to later enter a new proposal based on the Type 214. It is for this reason that the Tridente class is designated as the U 209PN. The class and its ships are the first to not be named after animals, thus breaking a tradition retracing back to 1913. The Tridente class submarine is wrongly classed in the diesel-electric class and its propulsion is exclusively electric, with electric motors powered by batteries. These batteries may be charged while submerged by fuel-cells for which, also, and solely as a 2nd solution for recharging the batteries, this submarine carries 2 powerful diesel electric generators for use only when surfaced, or at snorkel depth. Submerged, from Lisbon, this submarine may reach the Cape of Good Hope and return, in 15 days

54.
Portuguese Pandur
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Portugal was the first country to buy Pandur II. The sale of Pandur II to Portugal includes an offset agreement for a value of 516 million euro. The methodology of the process was officially based on four main characteristics of the bidder´s offers, 1) cost, 2) technical requirements, 3) offset proposal. The first 41 Pandur II were manufactured in Austria, the further 219 are being manufactured by Fabrequipa in Portugal,2002 Ministry of Defense prepares a competitive bidding for the procurement of 8x8 Armored Wheeled Vehicles early 2003 Ministry of Defense authorizes pre-offset activities in Portugal. 14/8/2003 Public announcement of the tender, end 2003 Evaluation of the contenders for procurement program. 27/01/2004 Three companies are selected, Patria Oy, Steyr-Daimler-Puch Spezialfahrzeug, General Dynamics´s Steyr Pandur II and MOWAG Piranha are first and second choice. 12/2004 Steyr-Daimler-Puch is awarded a 344.3 million euro contract for Pandur II, 01/2005 Finnish Patria alleges misconduct to the Public Attorney’s Office of the Administrative Court in Lisbon. One of the claim of Patria on the award of the contract to General Dynamics is that their proposed offset package is unrealistic. Patria calls for the suspension of the award of the contract to General Dynamics. 02/2005 Lisbon Court rejects the appeal of Patria, 15/02/2005 The contract is signed, production is supposed to run from the year 2006 to 2009 at facilities in Portugal and at plants of General Dynamics European Land Combat Systems. 05/05/2006 Fabrequipa, the plant at Portugal, is certified to manufacture the Pandur II, 25/01/2007 Fabrequipa begins co-production of Pandur II. 12/2007 Operational tests of a Pandur equipped with the CT-CV turret, with a 105mm gun,2008 Operational tests of a Pandur equipped with the Hitfact turret, with a 105mm gun, from Italian Oto Melara. 24/06/2008 Jornal de Negócios accuses one of General Dynamics´s main offset fulfillers of industrial espionage, 4/04/2010 Czech Republic Prosecutor investigates corruption charges in connection with purchase of GD Pandur. Czech purchase is the success of Pandur II, in competition with Patria AMV. 12/04/2010 Portuguese MoD requires Steyr to adapt 10 Pandur with an armed with a 105mm gun. No further information is disclosed but this may imply that the option for further 33 Pandur will not be used, 8/05/2010 Portuguese Minister of Defense implements procedures to charge General Dynamics with breach of contract. 20/08/2010 Portuguese Public Prosecutor investigates corruption charges in the award of the contract Pandur II, the Pandur II for the marine will be amphibious and have a cargo ramp instead of the original doors. The Pandur II for the Portuguese Army is fitted with Steyr add-on armour that provides Level 4 protection according to STANAG4569, the vehicles for the marines are equipped with Level 3 armour

Portuguese Pandur
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Pandur II is produced by Steyr-Daimler-Puch Spezialfahrzeuge, part of General Dynamics European Land Combat Systems, which is also the parent company of MOWAG of Switzerland and Santa Bárbara Sistemas of Spain.
Portuguese Pandur
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Pandur II
Portuguese Pandur
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Patria AMV - Croatia
Portuguese Pandur
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Romanian Piranha (GD)

55.
Eurocopter EC635
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The Eurocopter EC635 is a multi-purpose light helicopter developed by Eurocopter as a military version of the Eurocopter EC135. It is an aircraft and can carry up to 8 people, including the pilot. The helicopter is marketed for troop transport, medical evacuation, cargo transport, reconnaissance and surveillance, Eurocopter claimed that disagreements over the integration of weapons systems on the helicopter were the reason for the cancellation. The Royal Jordanian Air Force agreed to purchase the 9 Portuguese helicopters in October 2002, jordan ordered a further 4 helicopters in January 2006 and deliveries of all machines were completed in 2007. In April 2006, the Swiss Defence Procurement Agency ordered 20 EC635s for the Swiss Air Force, to replace the aging Aérospatiale Alouette III in performing transport and advanced training missions. The EC635 is based on the Eurocopter EC135, improving upon the design for military operations, the helicopter is fitted with a choice of powerplants, depending on customer requirements, and can be powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206B2, or two Turbomeca Arrius 2B2. The powerplant is mounted over the baggage compartment and features a Full Authority Digital Engine Control system, the engines power a fibre-reinforced composite Bearingless Main Rotor with four blades, and the familiar Fenestron enclosed tail rotor, both of which reduce vibration and noise levels. Vibration levels are reduced by a built-in Anti Resonance Isolation System. There are four configurations designed by Eurocopter for the EC635, the Troop Transport version can be fitted with utility seats to carry up to 7 troops with a pilot, or passenger seats to carry up to 6 people and a pilot. The Medical Evacuation version can carry 1 or 2 litters with up to 5 seated medical workers, the Cargo Transport version has 4.9 m³ of space for cargo, while the Armed Mission version is equipped with specialist equipment and weapons for combat. In March 2008, the Swiss Air Force received 18 EC635 P2s, the helicopters are to replace their aging fleet of Alouette IIIs in the utility and training role, two of the aircraft are in VIP configuration. The Iraqi Army has used their EC635s in combat against militants of the Islamic State during the Iraq War, EC635 T1 Certified in 2001, same design as the EC135 T1 with structural reinforcement of cabin structure and powered by two Turbomeca Arrius 2B2 turbine engines. EC635 P2 Powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW206B2 turbine engines, EC635 T2 Powered by two Turbomeca Arrius 2B2 turbine engines. EC635 P2+ Certified in 2006, same design as the EC135 P2+ with structural reinforcement of cabin structure, EC635 T2+ Certified in 2006, same design as the EC135 T2+ with structural reinforcement of cabin structure and powered by two Arrius 2B2 turbine engines

56.
NHIndustries NH90
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The NHIndustries NH90 is a medium-sized, twin-engine, multi-role military helicopter. It was developed in response to NATO requirements for a helicopter which would also be capable of being operated in naval environments. The NH90 was developed and is manufactured by NHIndustries, a collaborative company, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight in December 1995, the type first entered operational service in 2007. As of January 2017, the NH90 has logged 127,000 flight hours in the forces of thirteen nations. The NH90 has the distinction of being the first production helicopter to feature entirely fly by wire flight controls, in early service, the NH90 has suffered several teething issues, which has in turn delayed active deployment of the type by some operators. In 1985, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom left the team in 1987. On 1 September 1992, NH Industries signed an NH90 design-and-development contract with NAHEMA and this agency represented the four participating nations, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. Portugal later joined the agency in June 2001, design work on the helicopter started in 1993. The first prototype, PT1, made the types first flight on 18 December 1995, the second prototype, PT2, first flew on 19 March 1997 and the third prototype, PT3, on 27 November 1998. On 12 December 2002, PT3 became the first helicopter to fly exclusively with fly-by-wire controls following the removal of mechanical back-up controls, the NH90 was developed into two main variants, the Tactical Transport Helicopter and the NATO Frigate Helicopter. These two main variants share about 75% commonality with each other, furthermore, many of the operators have requested specific configurations to their own helicopter fleets, thus each nations NH90 is effectively customized to the end-users requirements. During the development phrase of the programme in the 1990s, both technical and funding problems were experienced, in June 2000, the partner nations placed a large production order, worth US$8.6 billion, for a total of 366 helicopters. Additional orders have since followed from customers in Europe, Asia, by April 2013, a total of 529 NH90s of all variants were on order by various customers. The Nordic and Australian contracts stipulated production locally, Spain has a final assembly line at Albacete. The Marignane assembly line can reportedly complete up to 22 NH90s per year, in late 2006, the German Army, the first customer to receive production aircraft, accepted delivery of its first NH90 TTH. In April 2010, the Royal Netherlands Navy was the first customer to receive the navalised NH90 NFH variant. In June 2014, the announced that they had completed delivery of the 200th NH90, at that point. Between 2004 and 2016, the lead times for the NH90 had reduced from 18 months to 7.5 months

57.
Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet
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The Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet is a light attack jet and advanced trainer aircraft co-manufactured by Dassault Aviation of France and Dornier Flugzeugwerke of Germany. It was developed specifically to perform the trainer and light attack missions, both the French Air Force and German Air Force procured the Alpha Jet in large numbers, the former principally as a trainer aircraft and the latter choosing to use it as a light attack platform. As a result of post-Cold War military cutbacks, Germany elected to retire its own fleet of Alpha Jets in the 1990s and has many of these aircraft to both military and civilian operators. The Alpha Jet has been adopted by a number of air forces across the world and has seen active combat use by some of these operators. In the early 1960s, European air forces began to consider their requirements for the coming decades, britain and France established a collaborative program to pursue development of what was initially intended to become a supersonic jet aircraft. This aircraft was to be produced in two variants for different roles, trainer and light attack aircraft. As such, the Jaguar was not well suited for the training mission. France also valued military cooperation with West Germany, wanting to break a perceived German ideological preference for American aircraft, in 1968, a joint specification was produced out of these talks. One substantial change to the requirements was that the trainer was now specified to be subsonic, supersonic trainer aircraft having proven to be superfluous to practical requirements. At one point, both the German government and the German Air Force had been keen to relocate pilot training activities from the United States to France as part of the project, each of these proposals were to be powered by twin SNECMA Turbomeca Larzac turbofan engines. On 23 July 1970, the Breguet-Dassault-Dornier TA501 was declared the winner of the competition, in February 1972, the approval to proceed with full development was issued. In May 1972, the first project meeting was held in Bordeaux, by November 1972, the project had passed its first mock-up review. Two prototypes were to be built by Dassault in France and a further two were to be built by Dornier in Germany, the remaining two prototypes were in the air before the end of 1974. Manufacture of Alpha Jet sub-assemblies was divided between France, Germany and Belgium, each country performing final assembly and checkout of the type in separate facilities. A total of 4,500 people were employed in the manufacturing of the Alpha Jet in Germany, both Belgium and Egypt, who were early export customers for the Alpha Jet, domestically performed the final assembly of their French-configuration Alpha Jet E aircraft. On 4 November 1977, the first production made its first flight. In September 1978, deliveries of production Alpha Jets formally commenced, prototype 01 was specifically used early on to support the development of the Larzac engine. Initial flight was on 9 April 1982, cameroon obtained seven and Egypt obtained 15

58.
Leopard 2
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The Leopard 2 is a main battle tank developed by Krauss-Maffei in the 1970s for the West German Army. The tank first entered service in 1979 and succeeded the earlier Leopard 1 as the battle tank of the German Army. Various versions have served in the forces of Germany and 12 other European countries. All models feature digital fire control systems with laser rangefinders, a stabilized main gun and coaxial machine gun. The tank has the ability to engage moving targets while moving over rough terrain, even as the Leopard 1 was just entering service, the German military was interested in producing an improved tank in the next decade. This resulted in the start of the MBT-70 development in cooperation with the United States beginning in 1963, however already in 1967 it became questionable whether the MBT-70 would enter service at any time in the foreseeable future. Therefore, the German government issued the order to research future upgrade options of the Leopard 1 to the German company Porsche in 1967 and this study was named vergoldeter Leopard and focused on incorporating advanced technology into the Leopard design. The projected upgrades added an autoloader, a coaxial autocannon and an independent commanders periscope, the anti-air machine gun could be operated from inside the vehicle and a TV surveillance camera was mounted on an expendable mast. The shape of the turret and hull was optimized using cast steel armour, while the suspension, transmission and the engine exhaust vents were improved. Two prototypes with differing components were built with the aim to improve the conception of the Leopard 1 in such a way that it would match the requirements of the MBT-70. The resulting vehicles were nicknamed Keiler, two prototypes of the Keiler were built in 1969 and 1970, both of them being powered by the MB872 engine. The MBT-70 was a design, but after large cost overruns and technological problems. The Eber used a modified MBT-70 turret and hull, with the driver being seated in the hull, only a wooden mock-up was made. One year later, a choice was made to continue the development based on the earlier Keiler project of the late 1960s, in 1971, the name of the design was determined as Leopard 2 with the original Leopard retroactively becoming the Leopard 1. Originally two versions were projected, the gun-armed Leopard 2K and the Leopard 2FK, which would be armed with the XM150 gun/launcher weapon of the MBT-70 and that year 17 prototypes were ordered, but only 16 hulls were built as the production of hull PT12 was cancelled. Ten were ordered initially before another seven were ordered, the 17 turrets were designated T1 to T17, and the hulls were designated PT1 to PT11 and PT13 to PT17. To test a number of components and concepts, each prototype was fitted with components not found on the other prototypes. Ten of the turrets were equipped with 105 mm smoothbore guns, hulls PT11 and PT17 were fitted with a hydropneumatic suspension based on the MBT-70 design

59.
Flyvefisken-class patrol vessel
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The Flyvefisken-class patrol vessels are warships of the Royal Danish Navy. The class is known as the Standard Flex 300 or SF300 class. The four vessels sold to the Portuguese Navy are locally referred as Tejo class, the Flyvefisken ships were constructed using an innovative modular design known as StanFlex, they have a standard hull in which containerised weapons or systems can be placed. This allows them to change roles, typically in 48 hours. This enables the ships to be configured to perform the following roles, one container is situated on the foredeck, the other three go on the quarterdeck behind the superstructure and funnel. Furthermore the ships are built using the sandwich principle - a layer of either side of a core of PVC cell foam. This forms the structure from keel to top of mast and this building method reduces maintenance costs - so much so that 20 years later the new Diana and -Holm class have been built using the same materials. It was possible because of the systems and modern technology. The Flyvefisken class is not that fast, but their Harpoon missiles are sufficient for the task, the Sund-class minesweepers were built of wood, bronze and other non-magnetic materials. They swept mine fields by trawling through the area with paravanes on tow separating magnetic and acoustic generators for the bottom mines, the Flyvefisken class is a minehunter and locates the mines with side-scan sonar and neutralizes them one by one with a ROV. The Daphne class attacked submarines by dropping depth charges to a preselected depth, the Flyvefisken class fights submarines with anti-submarine homing torpedoes. A total of 14 ships were built in the class, in three series, The difference between the series is mainly in the configuration of the propulsion system. Series 2 is not equipped with propulsion, but instead has an additional auxiliary engine. Danish Naval History Naval technology on Flyvefisken class

60.
French ship Siroco (L9012)
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The French ship Siroco was a Foudre-class landing platform dock of the Marine Nationale. The vessel was purchased by Brazil in August 2015, being transferred to the Brazilian Navy as the amphibious ship Bahia. Siroco was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian-led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 10 October to 25 November 1999 and she served during Opération Baliste during the 2006 Lebanon War. The vessel operated as part of Opération Séisme Haiti 2010 after the 12 January 2010 Haiti earthquake relief effort, in December 2013 Siroco was serving as the flagship of European Union Naval Force Somalia. Siroco was to be decommissioned as stated in the 2013 French White Paper on Defence, the decision was confirmed in October 2014. In July 2015, the ship was decommissioned in French service, in December 2014 the Brazilian Navy showed interest in the ship and sent a team to evaluate her. According to the analysis, the ship was in general condition. The Portuguese Navy also showed interest in the ship, during joint naval exercises with the French Navy, however, when the acquisition process of Siroco was already at an advanced stage, the Minister of Defense of Portugal signed an renunciation order cancelling the process on 30 July 2015. Following the Portuguese withdrawal, on 7 August 2015, the Ministry of Defense of Brazil announced the acquisition of Siroco for the Brazilian Navy for €80 million, the deal includes landing craft, spare parts, missile launchers for the Mistral missile, and training. The ship was renamed Bahia and given the identification number G40, provisionally commissioned into the Brazilian Navy on 10 December 2015, the ship officially incorporated the vessel into service on 10 March 2016. To bring the ship into Brazilian service, a contract was signed with DCNS for €7.5 million

61.
Portuguese Government
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The Government of Portugal is one of the four sovereignty bodies of the Portuguese Republic, together with the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic and the courts. It is both the body of sovereignty that conducts the general politics of the country and the body of the Portuguese public administration. The Government of Portugal is also referred as the Government of the Portuguese Republic, the term constitutional government or simply government also refers to collective ministry in the sense of the team of ministers and its period of government under one Prime Minister. The Government comprises the Prime Minister, ministers and secretaries of State, certain governments also include one or more vice prime ministers and under-secretaries of State. Each minister usually heads a ministry and has assigned to him or her one or more secretaries of State, the Prime Minister chooses the persons that he or she finds fit. Then the President swears in the Prime Minister and the Gov, the Government has political, legislative and administrative functions. There are no guarantees that the government will stick to its government program, the Government may also be questioned by the other three sovereignty organs, the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic and the courts. The President may veto governmental decrees and a government bill may fail to pass in the Assembly of the Republic, the Council of Ministers is a collegial executive body within the Government of Portugal. It is usually presided over by the Prime Minister, but the President of the Republic can preside over it at the Prime Ministers request, besides the Prime Minister, the vice prime ministers and all ministers are members of the Council of Ministers. When the Prime Minister finds it fit, certain Secretaries of State can also attend its meetings, I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI Cabinet Ministry Politics of Portugal Official website

62.
Embraer KC-390
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It is the heaviest aircraft that the company has made to date, and will be able to transport up to 26 t of cargo, including wheeled armoured fighting vehicles. In 2006, Embraer began studies on a tactical transport design of a similar size to the Lockheed C-130 Hercules. In April 2007, Embraer reported it was studying a medium-size airlifter, the transport aircraft is to incorporate many of the technological solutions from the Embraer E-Jets series and feature a rear ramp for loading and unloading a wide range of cargo. The unit price was estimated to be around US$50 million in 2007, while similar models, Powerplant options have been studied in the 75.6 to 98 kN thrust range, including engines such as the Pratt & Whitney PW6000 and Rolls-Royce BR715. In May 2008, the Brazilian Congress released 800 million Reais to be invested in the project, Embraer intended to use components from the Embraer E-190 to allow for a quick development, but the Brazilian Air Force demanded performance at least equal to the C-130. Before 2009, Embraer decided to develop the KC-390 from scratch, in Embraers view, the jet engine is sufficiently resilient to dust ingestion, whereas propeller tips close to the ground are susceptible to damage. Embraer also chose the V2500 engines for efficiency in ordinary conditions rather than performance in unusual conditions, on 14 April 2009, Embraer was awarded with a $1.5 billion contract to develop and build 2 prototypes. In March 2010, Embraer drew up a development schedule, with the first prototype aircraft scheduled to be delivered in late 2014. In July 2010, during the Farnborough Airshow, the Brazilian Air Force announced it will order 28 KC-390s and Embraer announced an increase in the cargo capacity to 21 t. During the 2011 Paris Air Show, Embraer announced plans to launch a version of the KC-390 focused on the civil cargo market in 2018. Two plugs will be added fore and aft of the fuselage section increasing internal capacity. In August 2010, Argentine Defence Minister Nilda Garré announced that Argentina will participate in the construction of the C-390, on 24 August 2010 the defence ministers of Chile and Brazil signed an agreement for Chiles ENAER company to join the KC-390 industry team. Colombia also signed an agreement to join the KC-390 programme, on 10 September 2010 Portugal defense minister signed an intentions letter in order to join the programme. Major subcontracted assemblies include the rear section, avionics, fly-by-wire primary flight control system, landing gear. IAE is supplying the V2500-E5 turbofan, in the first military application of this engine family, fábrica Argentina de Aviones supplies the tail cone, cargo door and landing gear doors. The first prototype rolled out from the Embraer subsidiary plant, Embraer Defense and Security, at Gavião Peixoto, São Paulo on 21 October 2014, and flew for the first time on 3 February 2015. In July 2015 the company announced a delay in the flight test program, citing the devaluation of the Brazilian currency. However, a second test flight took place at Gavião Peixoto on 26 October 2015, by February 2016, the first prototype had logged more than 100 hours of flight

Embraer KC-390
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KC-390

63.
Four star rank
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A four-star rank is the rank of any four-star officer described by the NATO OF-9 code. Four-star officers are often the most senior commanders in the services, having ranks such as admiral, general. This designation is used by some armed forces that are not North Atlantic Treaty Organisation members. In times of conflict, the highest ranks are the five-star ranks, admiral of the fleet, field marshal. General de exército Almirante de esquadra Tenente brigadeiro The four-star rank is reserved in Brazil for the highest post in the military career, the officers in this position take part of the high command of their corporations. The commanders of army, navy and air force are also four-star generals, admiral/amiral General/général General/Admiral is the highest rank within the Canadian Armed Forces as defined within the National Defence Act. Usually, only one officer, the Chief of the Defence Staff, the Queen of Canada, Elizabeth II, is Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces. However, in line with the Letters Patent,1947, the duties, the Minister of National Defence, since not a member of the Canadian forces nor within the military chain-of-command, has no rank. Prince Philip holds the rank of admiral in the Royal Canadian Navy in an honorary capacity as of 2011. Before unification in 1968, the rank of air marshal was the four-star equivalent for the Royal Canadian Air Force. Upon their formation, the Russian armed forces discontinued the ranks of marshal, ranks and insignia of NATO General officer Five-star rank Three-star rank

64.
Visit, board, search, and seizure
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Training begins with SRF-B, and continues with SRF-A, which includes the application of OC spray on the trainee. After both SRF-B and SRF-A are successfully completed, a candidate qualifies for VBSS school, the initial training continuum includes three courses, lasting a total of eight weeks, with some team members receiving additional follow-on training. Skills taught in VBSS training revolve around Close Quarters Battle, some units, known as Helicopter Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure teams, have been trained to fast rope aboard vessels from helicopters. All sailors in the U. S. Navy are eligible to serve aboard a VBSS team, being approved does not guarantee inclusion on a VBSS team, as it is possible for candidates to wash out of VBSS school. The attrition rate for VBSS is 25-30%, on average, U. S. Navy VBSS teams are generally armed with Mk 18 or M4 carbines as well as Mossberg 500 shotguns and Beretta M9 pistols. The body armor is generally of the Kevlar law enforcement type with ballistic plate inserts, the majority of U. S. naval ships deploying with VBSS teams are smaller, such as destroyers, cruisers, etc. VBSS teams are used to combat illegal narcotics, arms trafficking, the United States Marine Corps has several units that conduct VBSS. The premier VBSS force is the ARG/MEUs Maritime Raid Force, previously known as the Maritime Special Purpose Force, additionally the various Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams are trained to varying levels of proficiency in VBSS. The MRF is a sub-unit of the ARG/MEU that is task-organized for each specific mission, the backbone platoons and enablers are then married with the needed support assets for a particular mission, such as USN and USMC aircraft and small boats. Integral to the ARG/MEU construct, and bringing to bear the full range of ARG/MEU capabilities, the U. S. Coast Guard is another service that commonly responds to VBSS scenarios. Law enforcement boarding teams from cutters and stations are generally armed with SIG P229 pistols, Remington M870P shotguns, additionally, the Coast Guard has a number of specialized units within its Deployable Operations Group that have advanced boarding capabilities. S. Canadian Navies Challenge Skills Military. com Royal Navy Boarding’s Clamp down on Illegal Activities at Sea VBSS action to clamp down on fuel smuggling

65.
L118 light gun
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The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed howitzer. It was originally produced for the British Army in the 1970s and has been exported since, including to the United States. The proper name for it is gun, 105mm, field, L118 and it fires the US M1 type ammunition. This widely used howitzer was designed in Italy for the Alpini. However, it lacked range, was not notably robust, had poor sights and was not entirely popular, in 1965, a general staff requirement was approved for a new 105 mm weapon system because the pack howitzer lacked range and lethality. The ammunition to be used was the 105 mm Fd Mk 2 ammunition used in the L13 ordnance of the gun equipment 105 mm L109. This ammunition uses electrical instead of percussion primers and is a different design from the US M1 type ammunition as used in the L5 pack howitzer. The two types are not interchangeable, an early requirement was for the new weapon to use 105mm Fd Mk 1 ammunition, which uses the M1 shell, in training. However, in 1968, this was changed to allow a different version of the weapon, the new gun, soon designated light gun, was designed by the government Royal Armament Research and Development Establishment, Fort Halstead, Kent. However, it emerged that some increase in weight was needed for a gun with the requisite robustness. Original production, which was authorised in late 1975, was by Royal Ordnance Factory, ROF Nottingham, the light gun entered service with the British Army in 1976. The new weapon was heavier than its predecessor, but new, more capable helicopters such as the Puma and Westland Sea King, a new vehicle, the Land Rover 101 Forward Control are also equipped with the light gun. Those University Officer Training Corps with gun troops train with the L118, on 30 November 2001, an L118 light gun replaced a 25-pounder as the One OClock Gun in Edinburgh Castle. By tradition, this fires every day at one oclock, except on Sundays, Good Friday, the light gun is also fired by 14 Regiment Royal Artillery on Remembrance Sunday and Armistice Day each year. The L118 uses the L19 ordnance on the L17 carriage, the L19 ordnance is slightly shorter than the L13 used by the Abbot and hence has a slightly shorter maximum range. Also, unlike the Abbot, the barrel is autofrettaged and hence lighter, the light gun appears to owe a number of its features to the QF25 pounder, unsurprisingly since RARDE was the successor to the design department, Woolwich Arsenal. Among these features are its vertically sliding breech, and a box trail instead of a split trail. Its comparatively light weight is attributed to the nature of the steel used in the carriage and ordnance

66.
Search and rescue
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Search and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations. The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS, there are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved. Canadian Forces, Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger. United States Coast Guard, The use of resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress. One of the worlds earliest well-documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the west coast of Australia, survivors sought help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success. All 5 crew members of an oil barge, which had run aground on Penfield Reef, were saved before the barge sank, in 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 with 269 occupants was shot down by a Soviet aircraft near Sakhalin. The Soviets sent SAR helicopters and boats to Soviet waters, while a search, South Korean, and Japanese ships and aircraft in international waters, but no survivors were found. In July 2009, Air France Flight 447 was lost in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, an international SAR effort was launched, to no avail. A third effort nearly two years later discovered the site and recovered the black boxes. In early 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 crashed under mysterious circumstances, many nations contributed to the initial SAR effort, which was fruitless. 3mn to date on fuel and food in its own effort. The search for Flight 370 has become the largest SAR so far with the largest budget, mountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain. Ground search and rescue is the search for persons who are lost or in distress on land or inland waterways, some ground search teams also employ search and rescue dogs. Urban search and rescue, also referred to as Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, is the location and rescue of persons from collapsed buildings or other urban and industrial entrapments. Due to the nature of the work, most teams are multi-disciplinary and include personnel from police, fire. While earthquakes have traditionally been the cause of US&R operations, terrorist attacks, combat search and rescue is search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones. Air-sea rescue refers to the use of aircraft and surface vessels, to search for. This treaty contains the definition of high seas, at Article 1, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations

67.
AgustaWestland EH101
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The AgustaWestland AW101 is a medium-lift helicopter used in both military and civil applications. It was developed by a joint venture between Westland Helicopters in the UK and Agusta in Italy in response to requirements for a modern naval utility helicopter. Several operators, including the forces of Britain, Denmark, Norway and Portugal. It is manufactured at factories in Yeovil, England and Vergiate, Italy, licensed assembly work has taken place in Japan. Prior to 2007, the aircraft had been marketed under the designation EH101, the original designation was EHI01 but a transcription error of a handwritten note changed this to EH101 and the designation stuck. In 2000, Westland Helicopters and Agusta merged to form AgustaWestland, the AW101 first flew in 1987, and entered into service in 1999. The Royal Canadian Air Force operates a variant of the AW101, designated CH-149 Cormorant, another variant, designated VH-71 Kestrel, was developed to serve in the US presidential transport fleet, however, the program was cancelled. Civil operators also use AW101s in roles such as passenger and VIP transportation, the type has been deployed to active combat theatres, such as in support of coalition forces during the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan. On 12 June 1981, the UK government confirmed its participation in the project, a major agreement, which secured funding for the majority of the EH101s development program, was signed by both the British and Italian governments in 1984. The first prototype flew on 9 October 1987, critics attacked the EH101 purchase as excessive and unnecessary after the Cold Wars end in the early 1990s. The EH101 controversy was seen as a factor in the 1993 Canadian federal election, the order was cancelled by the new Liberal government in 1993 resulting in a $470 million cancellation fee. Several pre-production aircraft were assembled during the late 1980s and early 1990s, flight tests were suspended for six months following the crash of the second pre-production aircraft on 21 January 1993. On 6 June 1993, the first EH101 flew with the Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322 turboshaft engine, nine prototypes were built to explore military and civil applications, including a heliliner configuration. In February 1995, Britain formally placed its first order for a total of 22 EH101s, the EH101 order was not without controversy, the RAF had declared its preference for an all-Chinook fleet, also, Boeing allegedly offered cheaper terms for the Chinook. RAF deliveries began in 1997, RN deliveries started the following year, in 2005, a team of AgustaWestland and Lockheed Martin was selected as the winners of the US VXX competition to replace the Presidents Marine One helicopters of the United States Marine Corps. A variant of the AW101, designated VH-71 Kestrel, was to be manufactured domestically and had proceeded into the testing stages. However the programme encountered significant cost overruns and political opposition, which led to the procurement being scrapped in June 2009, separately, the Marine Corps had also conducted studies into the adoption of the EH101 as a fallback option to the Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor during the 1990s. Following the merger of Westland and Agusta to form AgustaWestland in 2000, there was no need for the separate EHI entity, in 2008, the volume of AW101 orders was reported as having filled production capacity in excess of the following five years

68.
Four-star rank
–
A four-star rank is the rank of any four-star officer described by the NATO OF-9 code. Four-star officers are often the most senior commanders in the services, having ranks such as admiral, general. This designation is used by some armed forces that are not North Atlantic Treaty Organisation members. In times of conflict, the highest ranks are the five-star ranks, admiral of the fleet, field marshal. General de exército Almirante de esquadra Tenente brigadeiro The four-star rank is reserved in Brazil for the highest post in the military career, the officers in this position take part of the high command of their corporations. The commanders of army, navy and air force are also four-star generals, admiral/amiral General/général General/Admiral is the highest rank within the Canadian Armed Forces as defined within the National Defence Act. Usually, only one officer, the Chief of the Defence Staff, the Queen of Canada, Elizabeth II, is Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces. However, in line with the Letters Patent,1947, the duties, the Minister of National Defence, since not a member of the Canadian forces nor within the military chain-of-command, has no rank. Prince Philip holds the rank of admiral in the Royal Canadian Navy in an honorary capacity as of 2011. Before unification in 1968, the rank of air marshal was the four-star equivalent for the Royal Canadian Air Force. Upon their formation, the Russian armed forces discontinued the ranks of marshal, ranks and insignia of NATO General officer Five-star rank Three-star rank

69.
Vasco da Gama-class frigate
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The Vasco da Gama class is a class of frigates of the Portuguese Navy. Named in honor of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, the ships are based on the German MEKO200 design, portugal operates three ships of this class, which were built in Hamburg by Blohm + Voss and by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft in Kiel, using modular construction techniques. According to Conways, 60% of the funding for these came from NATO military aid. Similar ships have been built for the navies of Greece, Turkey, Australia and New Zealand

Vasco da Gama-class frigate
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NRP Corte Real

70.
Portuguese Marines
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The Portuguese Marine Corps is the special operations force of the Portuguese Navy. The Corps is specialised in amphibious warfare, coastal reconnaissance, unconventional warfare, guerrilla warfare, raids, maritime interdiction and it is an elite light infantry force, operating as a rapid-reaction force. The Portuguese Marines have their origin in the oldest permanent military unit of Portugal. However, since 1585, specialized troops existed to provide artillery, the Regiment of the Navy was soon considered an elite unit. As the King of Portugal did not have a royal guard, in 18th century, a second regiment of naval infantry was created. In 1791, a Regiment of Naval Artillery was added to the force, in 1807, the Brigade was reorganized, going to be made of three battalions, all of them of Artillerymen. In 1808, the Army of Napoleon invaded and occupied Portugal and this contingent of the Brigade continued to remain in Brazil, even after its independence in 1822, given origin to what is now the Brazilian Marine Corps. In 1809, a force of the Brigade in Brazil participated in the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana, with most of the original force of the Brigade remaining in Brazil, in 1822 it started to be reconstituted in Portugal. In 1823, it was organized in two battalions, during the Portuguese Civil War, the Royal Brigade of the Navy aligned on the side of the Miguelite forces. On the opposite side however, the Liberals created a Battalion of the Navy, in 1832, the Liberal Battalion of the Navy was augmented and transformed in a Regiment with four battalions. In 1836, already after the end of the Civil War and it was replaced by the new Naval Battalion created in 1837. In each of the crews of the Portuguese Navy, only the officers. The different status of the parts of the crews always created issues. In 1851, the decision was taken to militarize the sailors and this Corps started to be responsible for the providing of the ships crews. It was organized in 22 crew companies, each one subdivided in two half-companies, plus a depot company, each of these companies and half companies was intended to constitute the crew of a ship, in rotation. All seamen of the Corps received a training that included seamanship, artillery, infantry, bladed weapon combat, boarding. In each company, a number of seamen received a training in naval artillery. From this date, whenever there was a need to perform an amphibious operation, for the colonial campaigns of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and for the World War I, larger naval infantry forces and naval battalions were organized in the Corps of Seamen itself

Portuguese Marines
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Coat of arms of the Portuguese Marine Corps.
Portuguese Marines
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Portuguese Marines in white dress uniforme, parading in the 2007 Bastille Day Military Parade in Paris
Portuguese Marines
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Portuguese Marines boarding team, after being launched from a Portuguese Navy Lynx helicopter
Portuguese Marines
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Sailors, of one the naval infantry forces that participated in the Portuguese colonial expeditions of 19th and early 20th centuries, ready to embark for Angola in 1907

71.
Force projection
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This ability is a crucial element of a states power in international relations. Even states with sizable hard power assets may only be able to exert limited regional influence so long as they lack the means of projecting their power on a global scale. Generally, only a few states are able to overcome the logistical difficulties inherent in the deployment and direction of a modern. Assets for power projection can often serve dual uses, as the deployment of various countries militaries during the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake illustrates. Early examples of power projection includes Roman dominance of Europe, the ability to power is tied to the ability to innovate. Roman engineering innovations such as machines, concrete, aqueducts and modern roads provided the footing for an engine that powered a military that was unmatched in its day. Although Rome is far from the center of modern-power, its influence can be seen in the architecture of modern capitols around the world, the demonstration of an extraordinary innovative military capability will signal power and when properly applied terminate conflicts summarily. The first such industrial-technological power was the British Empire in the 19th century, as a maritime power, its strength and ability to project power to further its interests lay in the Royal Navy. The era of gunboat diplomacy that this inaugurated was an exercise in Western power projection and it was the first campaign to use modern technology, including steam-powered warships and telegraph communications. The expeditionary force sent was a logistical and technological challenge at the time. A road was built for the artillery to be moved along with the help of elephants. After three months of trekking, the British force repelled an Ethiopian attack and bombarded the fortress of Magdala into submission, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, the Japanese destruction of the Imperial Russian Navys Pacific Fleet demonstrated Imperial Russias inability to project force in the East. This immediately diminished Russias diplomatic sway in that region, at the same time, Russias western armies became less credible, as mobilization exposed organizational flaws and threw the western armies into chaos. Many other actions can be considered projections of force, the 19th century is full of incidents such as the 1864 Bombardment of Kagoshima and the Boxer Rebellion. More recently, the Falklands War provided an example of the United Kingdoms ability to project force far from home, other recent examples of power projection include the U. S. -led Invasion of Iraq and the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. The ability of the U. S. Navy, the British Royal Navy, as distance between a fighting force and its headquarters increases, command and control inevitably becomes more difficult. Modern-day power projection often employs high-tech communications and information technology to overcome these difficulties, the aircraft carrier strike group, strategic bomber, ballistic missile submarine, and strategic airlifter are all examples of power projection platforms. Military units designed to be light and mobile, such as airborne forces, scholars have disaggregated military power projection into nine different categories based on political goals and level of force

Force projection
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Aircraft carriers such as the USS Nimitz play an important role in power projection.
Force projection
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The cargo hold and intercontinental flight capabilities of the C-5 Galaxy make it a major asset for deploying military equipment around the globe.

72.
Leopard 2A6
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The Leopard 2 is a main battle tank developed by Krauss-Maffei in the 1970s for the West German Army. The tank first entered service in 1979 and succeeded the earlier Leopard 1 as the battle tank of the German Army. Various versions have served in the forces of Germany and 12 other European countries. All models feature digital fire control systems with laser rangefinders, a stabilized main gun and coaxial machine gun. The tank has the ability to engage moving targets while moving over rough terrain, even as the Leopard 1 was just entering service, the German military was interested in producing an improved tank in the next decade. This resulted in the start of the MBT-70 development in cooperation with the United States beginning in 1963, however already in 1967 it became questionable whether the MBT-70 would enter service at any time in the foreseeable future. Therefore, the German government issued the order to research future upgrade options of the Leopard 1 to the German company Porsche in 1967 and this study was named vergoldeter Leopard and focused on incorporating advanced technology into the Leopard design. The projected upgrades added an autoloader, a coaxial autocannon and an independent commanders periscope, the anti-air machine gun could be operated from inside the vehicle and a TV surveillance camera was mounted on an expendable mast. The shape of the turret and hull was optimized using cast steel armour, while the suspension, transmission and the engine exhaust vents were improved. Two prototypes with differing components were built with the aim to improve the conception of the Leopard 1 in such a way that it would match the requirements of the MBT-70. The resulting vehicles were nicknamed Keiler, two prototypes of the Keiler were built in 1969 and 1970, both of them being powered by the MB872 engine. The MBT-70 was a design, but after large cost overruns and technological problems. The Eber used a modified MBT-70 turret and hull, with the driver being seated in the hull, only a wooden mock-up was made. One year later, a choice was made to continue the development based on the earlier Keiler project of the late 1960s, in 1971, the name of the design was determined as Leopard 2 with the original Leopard retroactively becoming the Leopard 1. Originally two versions were projected, the gun-armed Leopard 2K and the Leopard 2FK, which would be armed with the XM150 gun/launcher weapon of the MBT-70 and that year 17 prototypes were ordered, but only 16 hulls were built as the production of hull PT12 was cancelled. Ten were ordered initially before another seven were ordered, the 17 turrets were designated T1 to T17, and the hulls were designated PT1 to PT11 and PT13 to PT17. To test a number of components and concepts, each prototype was fitted with components not found on the other prototypes. Ten of the turrets were equipped with 105 mm smoothbore guns, hulls PT11 and PT17 were fitted with a hydropneumatic suspension based on the MBT-70 design

73.
Armored personnel carrier
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An armoured personnel carrier is a type of armoured fighting vehicle designed to transport infantry to the battlefield. APCs are colloquially referred to as taxis or battle buses. Armoured personnel carriers are distinguished from infantry fighting vehicles by the weaponry they carry, by convention, they are not intended to take part in direct-fire battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to provide protection from shrapnel and small arms fire. Examples include the American M113, the French VAB, the Dutch-German GTK Boxer, the genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, without infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented with carrying machine-gun crews in the Mark V* tank, britain therefore designed the first purpose built armoured troop transport, the Mark IX, but the war ended before it could be put to use. During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3 and German SdKfz 251 played a similar to post-war APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the full-tracked Universal Carrier, over the course of the war, APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity, to purpose built vehicles. Obsolete armoured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as the various Kangaroos converted from M7 Priest self-propelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart, during the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing them with newer APCs, the Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60 and BTR-80 remain in production, czechoslovakia and Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT-64 SKOT. A cold war example of a Kangaroo is the heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 dismountable troops, although some can carry more than 20, in addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many with a gunner and/or commander as well. An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a combination of the two, as in a half-track, both systems have advantages and limitations. Tracked vehicles have more traction off-road and more maneuverability, including a turn radius. Wheeled APCs are faster on road, can cross long distances, and are expensive to develop, produce. However, wheeled vehicles have higher pressure than tracked vehicles with a comparable weight. The higher ground pressure increases the likelihood of becoming immobilized by soft terrains such as mud and their tracks can propel the APC in the water

Armored personnel carrier
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A M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, during the Vietnam War
Armored personnel carrier
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The British Mark IX tank was the first specialised armoured personnel carrier.
Armored personnel carrier
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Czechoslovak and Polish OT-64 SKOT
Armored personnel carrier
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Namer APC is the most heavily armored vehicle in the world according to the IDF.

74.
Portuguese Paratroopers
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The Portuguese Paratroopers are an elite infantry assault force, representing the bulk of the airborne forces of Portugal. They were created in 1956 as part of the Portuguese Air Force, presently, most of the Paratroopers are part of the Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade which comprises all 3 special forces troops. The Portuguese Paratroopers are usually nicknamed Paras or Green Berets, until 2006, the Portuguese Paratroopers formed an autonomous command within the Army, the Airborne Troops Command or CTA. All parachute units and most of the Paratroopers were under that command, the CTA was also responsible for the selection of the future Paratroopers and for their training. The main operational formation of the CTA was the Independent Airborne Brigade or BAI, the CTA was created in 1993, when the Paratroopers were transferred to the Army, succeeding the Parachute Troops Command, that had the same functions within the Air Force. The CTA was extinct in the Army reorganization of 2006, at the time the BAI being transformed in the Rapid Reaction Brigade or BrigRR. Since then, the Paratroopers do not form a collective corps, some of them were launched in the rearguard of the Japanese forces. After the successful use of forces in the Second World War by Germany. In 1955, the Portuguese Defense Minister approved a request for funds for airborne paratroop training, two Portuguese Army captains went to France to take the French parachute course at the École des Troupes Aéroportées. The Parachute Rifle Battalion or BCP was formed in 1956, the Paratroopers were issued unique green berets and camo uniforms, being the first Portuguese military unit to wear these items of uniform. The Paratroopers initially jumped using the venerable German tri-motored Junkers Ju 52 aircraft, the BCP was provisionally installed in the Carregueira Military Camp, near Lisbon, but soon it was moved to Tancos, which still serves today as the main base of the Portuguese Paratroopers. In 1961, conflict erupted in the African colonies, which evolved into a series of guerrilla campaigns against Portuguese rule. The Paratroopers were then required to fight in Africa, the BCP was enlarged to become a regiment, as the Regimento de Caçadores Paraquedistas or RCP. It included a battalion and a training battalion. By this time, the men were armed with the modern 7, 62mm ArmaLite AR-10 battle rifle, to fight the various separatist guerrilla movements, additional Paratroopers battalions were created in the Portuguese African territories of Angola, Guinea and Mozambique. Due to Portuguese Air Force control over airborne units, the Paratroopers rifles battalions numbers reflected their subordination to the several regional Air Force commands, in the War, the Portuguese Paratroopers suffered the following casualties, BCP12,56 dead. BCP21,47 dead BCP31,39 dead BCP32,18 dead A total of 160 Portuguese paratroopers were killed in action. On April 25,1974, a coup led by left-wing members of the Portuguese Army ended the authoritarian government regime in Portugal

Portuguese Paratroopers
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Paratroopers being launched from a Alouette III helicopter in an air-mobile assault in Angola in the early 1960s.
Portuguese Paratroopers
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The first female paratrooper nurses and an instructor in 1961.
Portuguese Paratroopers
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A Portuguese Paratrooper machine-gunner during Overseas War in Africa.

75.
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time

76.
Socata TB 30 Epsilon
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The Socata TB30 Epsilon is a light military trainer aircraft produced by Socata. It is a tandem two-seater with a metal airframe, the first prototype flew on 22 December 1979. In 1978, the French Air Force published a requirement for a new trainer aircraft to partially replace the Fouga Magister in the early parts of the syllabus for pilot training. The new aircraft was expected to have seating, be powered by a 224 kW piston engine and have a three-hour endurance. Similar designs were proposed by the SOCATA subsidiary of Aérospatiale and by GEPAL, the SOCATA proposal, the TB 30B, was chosen in February 1979.40 m to 7.59 m. The first prototype flew again with these changes on 31 October 1980, the Epsilon is a low winged cantilever monoplane of all metal construction. It is powered by a Lycoming O-540 flat-six piston engine driving a two-blade propeller, the first prototype was modified into a testbed for the Turbomeca TP319 Arrius turboprop engine, flying in this form on 9 November 1985. The testbed was then modified into a dedicated turboprop trainer, the TB31 Oméga, powered by a 360 kW Arrius 1A2 and fitted with ejection seats, returning to flight on 30 April 1989. The Armée de lAir placed an order for 30 Epsilons in 1981. First deliveries started in 1983, with the first training courses based on the Epsilon starting in September 1984

77.
De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk
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The de Havilland Chipmunk was the first postwar aviation project of de Havilland Canada. Today, over 500 DHC-1 Chipmunk airframes remain airworthy with more being rebuilt every year, the Chipmunk was designed to succeed the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane trainer that was widely used during the Second World War. Wsiewołod Jakimiuk, a Polish prewar engineer, created the first indigenous design of the aircraft at de Havilland Aircraft of Canada Ltd and it is an all-metal, low wing, tandem two-place, single-engined aircraft with a conventional tailwheel landing gear and fabric-covered control surfaces. The wing is also fabric-covered aft of the spar, a clear perspex canopy covers the pilot/student and instructor/passenger positions. CF-DIO-X, the Chipmunk prototype, flew for the first time at Downsview, Toronto on 22 May 1946 with Pat Fillingham, test pilot from the parent de Havilland company, at the controls. The production version of the Chipmunk was powered by a 145 hp inline de Havilland Gipsy Major 8 engine while the prototype was powered by a 145 hp de Havilland Gipsy Major 1C. Three Chipmunk aircraft serial numbers 1,10 and 11, were evaluated by the Aeroplane, as a result, the fully aerobatic Chipmunk was ordered as an ab initio trainer for the Royal Air Force. The Royal Canadian Air Force also adopted the Chipmunk as its primary trainer, british-built and early Canadian-built Chipmunks are notably different from the later Canadian-built RCAF/Lebanese versions. From the 1950s onward, the Chipmunk also became a civilian aircraft, being used for training, aerobatics. A cabin development of the Chipmunk with side-by-side seating was designed as the DHC-2, the RAF received 735 Chipmunks, designated de Havilland Chipmunk T.10, manufactured in the UK by the de Havilland parent company to Air Ministry specification 8/48 as a Tiger Moth replacement. Production began at the DH Hatfield factory but soon transferred to their plant at Hawarden Airport and they initially served with Reserve Flying Squadrons of the RAF Volunteer Reserve as well as the University Air Squadrons. Chipmunks were pressed into service in Cyprus on internal security flights during the conflict in 1958, eight disassembled aircraft were flown out in the holds of Blackburn Beverley transports. After reassembly, they operated as 114 Squadron for some months into 1959, from 1956 to 1990 the Chipmunks of the RAF Gatow Station Flight were used for covert reconnaissance by BRIXMIS over the Berlin area. Chipmunk T. 10s were also used by the Army Air Corps, Chipmunks remained in service with ATC Air Experience Flights until 1996 when they were replaced by the Scottish Aviation Bulldog. The cockpit sections of some former RAF Chipmunks have been used as training aids. These are colloquially known as Chippax trainers, the RCAF accepted its first DHC-1 Chipmunks in 1948, as the first of a long production run of the 217 Chipmunks made in Canada. Of the 113 in RCAF service,79 Chipmunks were assigned as ab initio trainers with 34 assigned to flying clubs for use in training for RCAF Reserve pilots. The last example remained in service as a CF trainer until 1972, the Chipmunks long service was due, in part, to its fully aerobatic capabilities and superb flying characteristics, which made it a delight to fly

78.
Highway patrol
–
They are also referred to in many countries as traffic police, although in other countries this term is more commonly used to refer to foot officers on point duty who control traffic at junctions. Duties of highway patrols or traffic police may include the following, commercial vehicle enforcement Enforcing highway laws related to commercial transport, including weight limits and hazardous materials rules. Education Providing public information, handouts, and displays to encourage safe driving, emergency response Securing the scene of a traffic accident by using cones and flares as well as providing first aid to the injured. Law enforcement Assisting local police in rural areas, and keeping an eye out for non-traffic violations, maintenance Observing and reporting damage to the roadways, and conducting hasty road surveys after disasters or the passage of inclement weather. Traffic enforcement Enforcing laws and regulations intended to improve traffic safety, in Argentina, traffic policing is the responsibility of the Argentine National Gendarmerie. In Australia, traffic policing is the responsibility of the police forces. Each force has its own sections, often a local section in each area. Wiki page about the WPR In Brazil, traffic policing is the responsibility of state, State administered highways are policed by a branch of the Military Police forces, called State Highway Military Police. At the same time Federal highways and roads are the responsibility of the Federal Highway Police, in Canada, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, except for the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Ontario Provincial Police Sûreté du Québec There is also a police force in Newfoundland known as the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. Although this police force no longer exists as the provincial police service. Currently, the provincial sheriffs service in Alberta maintains a patrol that shares traffic duties with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and historically, several provinces. New Brunswick, have had their own highway patrols, Quebec also operates the Contrôle routier Québec, who enforce traffic laws in relation heavy vehicles. In Colombia, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Highway Police, in Croatia, traffic police special department is the national motorway patrol, patrols the motorways in Croatia. Missions include the prevention and detection of driving offences, the car fleet is BMW 330d, Mercedes-Benz C320 CDI, Skoda Superb, VW Passat, VW Tuareg, Audi A4, Honda Accord, Ford Mondeo, Opel Vectra and Porsche Carrera 997. In the Czech Republic, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Policie CR, in the Finland, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Finnish National Police. In Germany, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Autobahnpolizei section of the Landespolizei, in India, traffic policing on highways are carried out by state police forces. The Garda Traffic Corps, a unit of the Garda Síochána is responsible for patrolling the countries motorways

79.
Roads in Portugal
–
Roads in Portugal are defined by National Road Plan, which describes the existing and planned network of Portuguese roads. The present plan in force is the 2000 National Road Plan and it has replaced the previous PRN1985, which itself had replaced the PRN1945. The Portuguese road infrastructure is considered the best in Europe and the second best in the World by the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report for 2014–2015. The scenic road between Peso da Régua and Pinhão, in Northern Portugal, was considered the World Best Driving Road and this road is a section of the N222 which route follows the Douro Valley. The precognized network was classified in 1850 as estradas and caminhos, with the estradas being classified as 1st, caminhos were routes of mere local interest. In 1862, the roads were classified as 1st class roads or estradas reais, 2nd class roads or estradas distritais, the estradas reais were those with direct or indirect origin in Lisbon) and the estradas municipais were those managed by the municipalities. With the abolition of the Monarchy in 1910, the estradas reais were renamed estradas nacionais, in 1913, the Law of 22 February establishes a commission to study the new classification of the roads and presents the guidelines to proceed to that classification. However, The new classification and road plan would only be established 13 years later, both the 1st and 2nd class roads would be designated estradas nacionais, with the term estrada distrital disappearing. They would be designated EN xx-x, in a way that the number before the - designated the number of the road and this plan established 23 roads of 1st class and 112 roads of 2nd class. The General Plan of National Roads would be reviewed and definitely approved by the Decree nº16075 of 30 September 1928. The preliminary report was clear to state that from the 16000 km of the road network,4000 km were to be completed. The roads were then reclassified as estradas nacionais, estradas municipais and caminhos públicos, in 1933, the whole network totalized 16900 km. By that date, the National and Municipal network, comprised 20500 km, branch roads, emerging from a determinated road, which was identified in the X factor, with a number of order according to point of origin, identified in the Y factor. The road with most branch roads was N1, originally with 16 roads, the National Roads Statutes were subsequently approved in 1949. The first urban highways have been also in the 1960s. The road classes where identified by colour codes, red for 1st class, blue for 2nd class, green for 3rd class, yellow for municipal roads and these colors were applied in the bases of the location markers and occasionally in the background of the road numbers. The numbering distribution for main roads was according to the importance of its route in the network, and for N101 and over were numbered in a North to South growing fashion. The extension of the roads had no relation with its class, with existing 3rd class roads more than 100 km long, the longest road of the 1945 Plan was N2, connecting Chaves to Faro, extending for 738 km

Roads in Portugal
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A8 motorway, near Malveira.
Roads in Portugal
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Section of the old road between Aveiro and Vilar Formoso. Completed in the 1930s as the National Road nº 8 of 1st class (EN 8-1ª), it became the National Road nº 16 (N 16) by the PRN 1945. For decades, this was the most direct road link between Portugal and the rest of Europe. In the 1980s, it was replaced by the IP5 expressway, which itself was replaced, in the 2000s, by the A25 motorway.
Roads in Portugal
–
N12 is an Oporto ring road, and, according PRN 1945, it was a National Road of 1st Class. N12 is today to be converted in a boulevard.
Roads in Portugal
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N122 (Beja - Vila Real de Santo António) was a National Road of 1st Class.

80.
Honor guard
–
An honor guard, or ceremonial guard, is a ceremonial unit, usually military in nature. A primary role for honor guards in the United States and some countries is to provide funeral honors for fallen comrades. An honor guard may also serve as the guardians of the colors by displaying and escorting the national flag on ceremonial occasions at official state functions, finally, honor guards usually provide detachments for review by visiting heads of state. Honor guards also serve in the world for fallen police officers. Persons serving in this capacity may or may not be designated, meaning they may not be assigned to serve each, in the USA, military honor guards may serve as ambassadors to the public, presenting a positive image of their service, and assisting with the recruiting effort. In member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a guard mounted for ceremonial events is known as a guard of honour. Still serving as part of the Argentine Army, they are the presidential guard, two unmounted grenadiers are stationed in front of the Pink House as a symbol of the ceremonial and honor guard. The Brazilian armed forces and police have several troops for ceremonial usages, the most important of them is the Brazilian presidents honor guard. It is composed of the 1st Guards Cavalry Regiment – Independence Dragoons, the Presidential Guard Battalion, National Guards Unit includes military units for army salute ceremonials, a band and a wind orchestra. They marched as the first division in the parade of the 35th, 50th. They are often on parades led by a guard detail carrying the PLA flag. It is stationed at the Casa de Nariño in Bogota and carries the traditions of Simon Bolivars infantry guards company raised in the midst of the Spanish American wars of independence in 1815, in Croatia, the Honor Guard Battalion serves as the guard of honor. The Honor Guard Battalion performs protocol tasks for the needs of state and military officials, as well as tasks related to the protection. It consist of up to 300 members, the unit is under direct command of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. The Republican Guard of the French Gendarmerie provides both foot and horse-mounted guards of honor, in addition, the Wachbataillon takes part in military events and ceremonies of major importance. In Greece, the Presidential Guard is a unit of the Greek Army having the privilege to guard the Monument of the Unknown Soldier. Its members, mostly known as Evzones must be taller than 1. 85m and are trained hard as their duty includes standing completely still for more than an hour 4 times a day. They are famous for their discipline, the ability to stand motionless without even blinking, their stylish walking

81.
State of emergency
–
A government or division of government may declare that their area is in a state of emergency. This means that the government can suspend and/or change some functions of the executive and it alerts citizens to change their normal behavior and orders government agencies to implement emergency plans. Justitium is its equivalent in Roman law, where Senate could put forward senatus consultum ultimum and it can also be used as a rationale for suspending rights and freedoms guaranteed under a countrys constitution or basic law. The procedure for and legality of doing so varies by country, under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, for example, a government can detain persons and hold them without trial. All rights that can be derogated from are listed in the International Covenant for Civil, non-derogable rights are listed in Article 4 of the ICCPR, they include the rights to freedom from arbitrary deprivation of liberty and to freedom from torture and/or ill-treatment. Constitutions are contracts between the government and the individuals of that country. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights is an international law document signed by states, therefore, the Covenant only applies to persons acting in an official capacity, not private individuals. However, signatories to the Covenant are expected to integrate it into national legislation, although this is common protocol stipulated by the ICCPR often this is not strictly followed, enforcement is better regulated by European Convention of human rights. In some situations, martial law is declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Ms. Nicole Questiaux and Mr. Article 4 to the International Covenant on Civil, the European Convention on Human Rights and American Convention on Human Rights have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to the International Labour Conventions, some political theorists, such as Carl Schmitt, have argued that the power to decide the initiation of the state of emergency defines sovereignty itself. The state of emergency can, and often has been, abused by being invoked, an example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency and this provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition. State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia, in Victoria, the premier can declare a state of emergency if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier, under the Public Safety Preservation Act, a declared state of emergency allows the premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to them within 7 days. Also, under the Essential Services Act, the premier may operate or prohibit operation of, as desired, a State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted

State of emergency
–
After natural disasters such as this earthquake in El Salvador, some governments declare a state of emergency.

82.
European Gendarmerie Force
–
The European Gendarmerie Force was launched by an agreement in 2006 between five member states of the European Union, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Romania joined in 2009, Poland in 2011 and its purpose is the creation of a European intervention force with militarised police functions and specialisation in crisis management. Its status is enshrined in the Treaty of Velsen of 18 October 2007, the headquarters is located in Vicenza, Italy. The French Defence Minister Michèle Alliot-Marie first proposed the force in September 2003, Alliot-Marie and the Italian Defense Minister Antonio Martino presented the idea at the Meeting of European Union Defense Ministers in October 2003. The implementation agreement was signed by defence ministers of the five participating countries on 17 September 2004 in Noordwijk. On 23 January 2006, the EGF was officially inaugurated during a ceremony in the Gen. Chinotto barracks in Vicenza. The first CPX was held at the National Gendarmerie Training Center in Saint Astier, after Romanias accession to the European Union, the Romanian Gendarmerie sought permanent observer status with the European Gendarmerie Force, as a first step towards full membership. On March 3,2009, the Romanian Gendarmerie became a member of the European Gendarmerie Force. The Polish Military Gendarmerie was originally a force and, on 10 October 2006. In December 2011, Poland applied for membership in EGF. Since December 2009, the EGF has taken part in the NATO International Security Assistance Force training operation of the Afghan National Police in the War in Afghanistan. They are training them in ANCOP training centers but are also accompanying, advising and helping them during their missions in P-OMLT, in early 2010, the EGF was deployed to Haiti to help with post-relief security efforts. The EGF is based in Vicenza, in northeastern Italy, and has a core of 800 to 900 members ready to deploy within 30 days. Lithuanian Viešojo saugumo tarnyba Turkish Gendarmerie Germany does not take part, in 2004, Peter Struck, Minister of Defense at the time, clarified that the legal foundation for militarised police forces is different from the expectations underlying the EGF. The paramilitary Bereitschaftspolizei units of the Länder states have no standing patrol order like the German Federal Police, Germany did not sign the Treaty of Velsen on the EGF or any subsequent accord. Instead, there is an integration of police forces based on the Prüm Treaty. In 2008 the Prüm Treaty was naturalised as EU law, allowing access to police forces regulated under EU law. The European Police Forces Training of 2009 was run in Vicenza and the EUPFT2010 on anti-riot tactics was run in Lehnin in Germany

European Gendarmerie Force
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Coat of arms

83.
Academic degree
–
An academic degree is a qualification awarded on successful completion of a course of study in higher education, normally at a college or university. These institutions commonly offer degrees at various levels, typically including bachelors, master’s and doctorates, often alongside other academic certificates, and professional degrees. The most common degree is the bachelors degree, although in some countries lower qualifications are titled degrees while in others a higher-level first degree is more usual. The degrees awarded by European universities—the bachelor’s degree, the licentiate, the degree. The doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach at a medieval university and its roots can be traced to the early church when the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, at the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Master of Arts, originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree. The earliest doctoral degrees reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into three fields. Over time, the D. D. has gradually become less common outside theology, Studies outside theology, law, and medicine were then called philosophy, due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy is of a later time. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities, Master of Arts were eligible to enter study under the higher faculties of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelors and then master or doctors degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a qualified master – hence the English word graduate. The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied, scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as master, but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as doctor. As study in the arts or in grammar was a prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law. The practice of using the doctor for PhDs developed within German universities. The French terminology is tied closely to the meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education

Academic degree
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Meeting of doctors at the University of Paris (16th-century miniature)
Academic degree
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Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02

84.
Legal professionals
–
Legal profession is a profession, and legal professionals study, develop and apply law. Usually, there is a requirement for someone choosing a career in law to first obtain a law degree or some form of legal education. Historically, this has been the first legal specialization, in civil law countries, this is often a lifelong career. In common law system, on the other hand, judges are recruited from practising lawyers. Practising law means advising and representing clients as a private practitioner or in a law firm, in most countries, law graduates need to undergo some sort of apprenticeship, membership in a professional organization and a licence. The name for this profession is lawyer or attorney in most of English-speaking world, in civil law countries, but also some common law jurisdictions there is one Law society for all lawyers who want to provide services to the public. But in the United Kingdom and some of its former colonies, solicitors advise clients, draft contracts for them and represent them in lower courts of law. Barristers, also called counsels, are specialists, who traditionally do not come into contact with their lay clients. There is only about a 10% of barristers in most common law jurisdictions, people, who study, organize, teach, and through that also create law, often working at universities, are called jurists. In civil law countries, their role is greater, because they draft codes, in common law countries, the creation and interpretation of law has traditionally been the domain of judges. ”Bullying in the legal profession History of the legal profession Jurist Paralegal

Legal professionals
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there are two major legal systems, and even within them, there are different arrangements in jurisdictions, and
Legal professionals

85.
Psychologist
–
A psychologist is a professional who evaluates and studies behavior and mental processes. In order to become a psychologist, a person must complete either a degree or a doctorate degree. This definition of a psychologist is non-exclusive, in most jurisdictions, members of other professions can also evaluate, diagnose, treat, there are many types of psychologists, as is reflected by the 56 divisions of the American Psychological Association. Psychologists are generally described as applied or research-orientated, the training models endorsed by the APA require that applied psychologists be trained as both researchers and practitioners, and that they possess advanced degrees. People often think of the discipline as involving clinical or counseling psychology, while counseling and psychotherapy are common activities for psychologists, these applied fields are just one branch in the larger domain of psychology. Under the national law, registration of psychologists is administered by the Psychology Board of Australia, before July 2010, professional registration of psychologists was governed by various State and Territory Psychology Registration Board. The Australian Psychology Accreditation Council oversees education standards for the profession of psychology, endorsement within a specific area of practice requires additional qualifications. These notations are not specialist titles, membership with Australian Psychological Society differs from registration as a psychologist. The standard route to membership of the APS technically requires a masters or doctorate in psychology from an accredited course. An alternate route is available for academics and practitioners who have gained appropriate experience, Association membership requires four years of APAC-accredited undergraduate study. Restrictions apply to all individuals using the title psychologist in all states and territories of Australia, however, the terms psychotherapist, social worker, and counselor are currently self-regulated with several organizations campaigning for government regulation. Since 1933, the title psychologist has been protected by law in Belgium and it can only be used by people who are on the National Government Commission list. The minimum requirement is the completion of five years of university training in psychology, the title of psychotherapist is not legally protected. In Finland, the title psychologist is protected by law, the restriction for psychologists is governed by National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health. It takes 330 ECTS-credits to accomplish the university studies, there are about 6200 licenced psychologists in Finland. Originally, a degree in psychology awarded in Germany included the subject of clinical psychology. With the Bologna-reform, this degree was replaced by a masters degree, the academic degree of Diplom-Psychologe or M. Sc. does not include a psychotherapeutic qualification, which requires three to five years of additional training. The psychotherapeutic training combines in-depth theoretical knowledge with supervised patient care, after having completed the training requirements, psychologists take a state-run exam, which, upon successful completion, confers the official title of psychological psychotherapist

Psychologist
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Psychologist David Lewis measures a subject’s responses to a TV commercial in the early 1980s using a specially modified EEG device.

86.
Medic
–
A medic is an umbrella term for a person involved in medicine. The following fall under this term, a physician, paramedic, medical student, in some locations, the EMT-B is trained to reduce joint dislocations - they are allowed one attempt - to reduce the risk of compartmentalization. Splinting a femur fracture may involve use of a traction splint, some medications can only be administered or assisted to a patient with a prior prescription. Training requirements and treatment protocols vary from area to area and it should be noted that in some EMS parlance the use of the term medic is used to refer explicitly to the EMT-paramedic level and not to the other EMT certifications. An example of this can occasionally be seen in the callsigns for paramedic-level staffed ambulances, first aider, a person who is specifically trained to give initial care or treatment to a casualty on scene before more advanced personnel arrives. Organizations such as St. John Ambulance, St. Andrews Ambulance Association, both first aiders and certified emergency responders are covered by Good Samaritan laws provided they give care corresponding to their level of training if the situation is safe. Medical encyclopedia National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians Triage

87.
Sergeant
–
Sergeant is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. Its origin is the Latin serviens, one who serves, through the French term sergent, the term sergeant refers to a non-commissioned officer placed above the rank of a corporal and a police officer immediately below a lieutenant. In most armies the rank of sergeant corresponds to command of a squad, in Commonwealth armies, it is a more senior rank, corresponding roughly to a platoon second-in-command. In the United States Army, sergeant is a junior rank corresponding to a four-soldier fireteam leader. More senior non-commissioned ranks are often variations on sergeant, for example staff sergeant, many countries use sergeant rank, whether in English or using a cognate with the same origin in another language. The equivalent rank in Arab armies is raqeeb, meaning overseer or watcher, in medieval European usage, a sergeant was simply any attendant or officer with a protective duty. Any medieval knight or military order of knighthood might have sergeants-at-arms, the etymology of the term is from Anglo-French sergant, serjant servant, valet, court official, soldier, from Middle Latin servientem servant, vassal, soldier. Later, a sergeant was a man of what would now be thought of as the middle class. Sergeants could fight either as heavy to light cavalry, or as well trained professional infantry, most notable medieval mercenaries fell into the sergeant class, such as Flemish crossbowmen and spearmen, who were seen as reliable quality troops. The sergeant class was deemed to be half of a knight in military value. A specific kind of military sergeant was the serjeant-at-arms, one of a body of armed men retained by English lords, the title is now given to an officer in modern legislative bodies who is charged with keeping order during meetings and, if necessary, forcibly removing disruptive members. The responsibilities of a sergeant differ from army to army, there are usually several ranks of sergeant, each corresponding to greater experience and responsibility for the daily lives of the soldiers of larger units. Sergeant is a rank in both the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force, the ranks are equivalent to each other and the Royal Australian Navy rank of petty officer. The Australian Army rank of sergeant is now redundant and is no longer awarded, due to being outside the rank equivalencies. Chief petty officers and flight sergeants are not required to call a warrant officer class two sir in accordance with Australian Defence Force Regulations 1952. The rank of sergeant exists in all Australian police forces and is more senior than a constable or senior constable, New South Wales Police Force, for example, has the additional rank of incremental sergeant. This is a progression, following appointment as a sergeant for seven years. An incremental sergeant rank is less senior than a senior sergeant but is more senior than a sergeant, upon appointment as a sergeant or senior sergeant, the sergeant is given a warrant of appointment under the commissioners hand and seal

88.
General officer
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles

89.
Military communications
–
Military communications or military signals involve all aspects of communications, or conveyance of information, by armed forces. Military communications span from pre-history to the present, the earliest military communications were delivered by humans on foot. Later, communications progressed to visual and audible signals, and then advanced into the electronic age, in past centuries communicating a message usually required someone to go to the destination, bringing the message. Thus, the term communication often implied the ability to transport people, a place under siege was one that lost communication in both senses. The association between transport and messaging declined in recent centuries, the first military communications involved the use of runners or the sending and receiving of simple signals. The first distinctive uses of military communications were called signals, modern units specializing in these tactics are usually designated as signal corps. The Roman system of communication is an early example of this. Later, the signals and signaler became words referring to a highly-distinct military occupation dealing with general communications methods rather than with weapons. Present-day military forces of an informational society conduct intense and complicated communicating activities on a basis, using modern telecommunications. Only a small portion of these activities are related to combat actions. Modern concepts of network-centric warfare rely on network-oriented methods of communications, drums, horns, flags, and riders on horseback were some of the early methods the military used to send messages over distances. They use different frequencies to send signals to other radios and to satellites, military comms include command, control and communications and intelligence and were known as the C3I model before computers were fully integrated. The U. S. Army expanded the model to C4I when it recognized the role played by automated computer equipment to send and receive large. The first military communications tool was the communication automobile designed by the Soviet Union in 1934 to send, the signals were encoded to help prevent the enemy from intercepting and interpreting top-secret communications. The advent of distinctive signals led to the formation of the signal corps, the signal corps evolved into a distinctive occupation where the signaler became a highly technical job dealing with all available communications methods including civil ones. In the modern world, most nations attempt to minimize the risk of war caused by miscommunication or inadequate communication, computers and their varied applications have revolutionized military comms. Although military communication is designed for warfare, it also supports intelligence-gathering, there are six categories of military comms, the alert measurement systems, cryptography, military radio systems, nuclear command control, the signal corps, and network-centric warfare. The alert measurement systems are various states of alertness or readiness for the forces used around the world during a state of war

Military communications
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Military message, 1904.
Military communications
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Soviet platoon radio set R-147
Military communications
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Middle 20th century field systems often required an operator

90.
Field artillery
–
Field artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, long range, short range and this was in contrast to horse artillery, whose emphasis on speed while supporting cavalry units necessitated lighter guns and crews riding on horseback. Modern artillery has also advanced to rapidly deployable wheeled and tracked vehicles, thus, their role was limited to such functions as breaking sieges. Following the beginning of the era, the first field artillery came into being as metallurgy allowed thinner cannon barrels to withstand the explosive forces without bursting. However, there was still a risk of the constant changes of the battlefield conspiring to leave behind slow-moving artillery units - either on the advance, or more dangerously. Artillery units were particularly vulnerable to assault by light cavalry, which were used in this role. Only with a number of inventions, did the concept of field artillery really take off. One of the earliest documented uses of field artillery is found in the 14th-century Ming Dynasty treatise Huolongjing, the text describes a Chinese cannon called a thousand ball thunder cannon, manufactured of bronze and fastened with wheels. The book also describes another mobile form of artillery called a barbarian attacking cannon consisting of an attached to a two-wheel carriage. Before World War I, field artillery batteries fired directly at visible targets measured in distances of meters. Today, modern field batteries measure targets in kilometers and miles, most field artillery situations require indirect fire due to weather, terrain, night-time conditions, distance or other obstacles. Modern field artillery has three sections, All batteries have a Fire Support Man, Fire Direction Control. The FOs are forward with the infantry where they can see the targets and they call the FDC on the radio and transmit a request for fire in the format of CFF. The FDC calculates the CFF and send a deflection and elevation to the gun line, the gun line cranks the specified elevation and deflection on the howitzers, punch the artillery shell followed by the bag. Depending on the CFF, the gunline will fire the round when they are ready or when the FO calls and tells them to fire, the FO spots the round and sends a correction back to the FDC and the process starts all over again until its done. The batteries are many kilometres behind the FLOT and they plan a location where they can be Fire Capability for some certain amount of time and do multiple fire missions before needing to displace. In normal operations the FOs locate targets and transmits the CFF to the FDCs and they can also calculate defensive fire tasks. Because the calculations have already been done, the fire can be called down very quickly when it is needed, the advance party consists of the battery commander, his driver, first sergeant, gunnery sergeant, FDC guide, gun guides, and communications representatives

Field artillery
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French Napoleonic artillery battery. Photo taken during the 200th anniversary reenactment of the battle of Austerlitz in 1805.
Field artillery
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U.S. Army troops in Europe, winter 1944-5, with artillery shells labeled as " Easter Eggs for Hitler ".
Field artillery
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An illustration of a bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon" from the 14th century Ming Dynasty book Huolongjing. The cannon is an early example of field artillery.
Field artillery
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Calling in and adjusting artillery fire on a target visible to a forward observer but not to the soldiers manning the guns, themselves

91.
Anti-aircraft artillery
–
Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent

92.
CBRN defense
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Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defense is protective measures taken in situations in which chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear warfare hazards may be present. CBRN defense consists of CBRN passive protection, contamination avoidance and CBRN mitigation, a CBRN incident differs from a hazardous material incident in both scope and intent. CBRN incidents are responded to under the assumption that they are intentional and malicious, evidence preservation, a 2011 forecast concluded that worldwide government spending on CBRN defence products and services would reach US$8. 38bn that year. In English the term CBRN is a replacement for the cold war term NBC, the addition of the R is a consequence of the new threat of a radiological weapon. In the new millennium, the term CBRNe was introduced as an extension of CBRN - the e in this term representing the enhanced explosives threat, in Spanish the term NRBQ has replaced NBQ. The Argentine Armed Forces has several CRBN response teams, the Batallón de Ingenieros QBN601 of the Argentine Army, was the first CRBN response team created, in the 1990s, as a part of the countrys Rapid Deployment Force. Civil defense, and firemen from Policía Federal Argentina teams also have CRBN training, Brazilian firefighters are trained for NBC situations. Due to the 2016 Summer Olympics, police forces, like the GATE from Minas Gerais, the Federal Police, in the military area, there is CBRN equipment and personnel by all the Armed Forces. The Brazilian Presidential Guard and Army Police also have CBRN units, the Air Force is making special teams for transporting victims from CBRN attacks/accidents. The term CBRN is in use in disaster and emergency services organizations across the country. Since July 2005, the Canadian Armed Forces also started using the term CBRN Defence, instead of NBC Defence, CBRNE is a new term that is being used in both civilian and military organisations. All members of the Canadian Armed Forces are trained in CBRN defense, at the provincial level, cities are provided opportunities for their emergency services with CBRN training. In Ontario, emergency services in Windsor, Peterborough, Toronto, in mid-July 2016, the European Parliament negotiated a new draft counterterrorism directive aimed at protecting Europes people from biological, chemical and other attacks. Hong Kong has had CBRN response capabilities since the early 1990s, the Standing CBRN Planning Group plans for all CBRN incidents in Hong Kong. The SRPG was set up with the support of the Secretary for Security by the Senior Bomb Disposal Officer in Hong Kong and it consists of representatives from 9 government departments who plan the response to CBRN threats. RIAG consists of five experts who assist with the response to the incident by providing real time advice. The Hong Kong capability is well rehearsed, with regular departmental exercises conducted, the Indian Army ordered 16 CBRN monitoring vehicles, of which the first 8 were inducted in December 2010. It was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation and manufactured by Ordnance Factories Board, indonesia army has a CBRN Defense unit, Kompi Zeni Nubika Ditzi TNI-AD

93.
Transport engineering
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It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering. The importance of engineering within the civil engineering profession can be judged by the number of divisions in ASCE that are directly related to transportation. There are six such divisions representing one-third of the total 18 technical divisions within the ASCE, the planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice. More sophisticated forecasting can include aspects of traveler decisions, including auto ownership, trip chaining. Passenger trips are the focus of transportation engineering because they represent the peak of demand on any transportation system. The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying list online the safety protocols, geometric design requirements, transportation engineering, as practiced by civil engineers, primarily involves planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, the design aspects of transportation engineering include the sizing of transportation facilities, determining the materials and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry of the roadway. Before any planning occurs the Engineer must take what is known as an inventory of the area or if it is appropriate and these inventories help the engineer create business models to complete accurate forecasts of the future conditions of the systemReview. Operations and management involve traffic engineering, so that vehicles move smoothly on the road or track, older techniques include signs, signals, markings, and tolling. Newer technologies involve intelligent transportation systems, including advanced traveler information systems, advanced control systems. Human factors are an aspect of engineering, particularly concerning driver-vehicle interface and user interface of road signs, signals. Engineers in this specialization, Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the project. Analyze locations of high volumes and high collisions for safety and capacity. Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system, utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the roadways themselves. Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads, typical tasks would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and design, and construction cost estimating. Railroad engineers can also move into the field of train dispatching which focuses on train movement control. Railway engineers also work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network by reinvesting and revitalizing the rail system to future demands

Transport engineering
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The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts to make traffic flow free-moving

94.
Electrical engineer
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886

95.
White
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White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, innocence, and light, and is the symbolic opposite of black, or darkness. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity, the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning. It was also used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity, simplicity. White is an important color for almost all world religions, the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims, in Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning, the white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red, green and blue light at equal intensities. The word white continues Old English hwīt, ultimately from a Common Germanic *χwītaz also reflected in OHG wîz, ON hvítr, the root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language *kwid-, surviving also in Sanskrit śveta to be white or bright and Slavonic světŭ light. The Icelandic word for white, hvítur, is derived from the Old Norse form of the word hvítr. Common Germanic also had the word *blankaz, borrowed into Late Latin as *blancus, the antonym of white is black. Some non-European languages have a variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white, Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic. White was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, they sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red, in ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, in Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mothers milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea, in the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose

White
White
White
White

96.
Grey
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Grey or gray is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is a color without color and this means that there are equal components of red, green, and blue. The variations in intensity of these colors uniformly produce different shades of grey and it is the color of a cloud-covered sky, of ash and of lead. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. Grey is the dominant spelling in European and Commonwealth English, although remained in common usage in the UK until the second half of the 20th century. Gray has been the preferred American spelling since approximately 1825, although grey is an accepted variant, in Europe and the United States, surveys show that grey is the color most commonly associated with neutrality, conformity, boredom, uncertainty, old age, indifference, and modesty. Only one percent of respondents chose it as their favorite color, Grey comes from the Middle English grai or grei, from the Anglo-Saxon graeg, and is related to the Dutch grauw and grijs and German grau. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, grey was the color of undyed wool, and thus was the color most commonly worn by peasants and the poor. It was also the color worn by monks of the Franciscan order, Cistercian Order, Franciscan monks in England and Scotland were commonly known as the Grey friars, and that name is now attached to many places in Great Britain. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, grey began to play an important role in fashion, Black became the most popular color of the nobility, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and grey and white were harmonious with it. Grey was also used for the drawing of oil paintings. The painting would first be composed in grey and white, and then the colors, made with thin transparent glazes, the grisaille beneath would provide the shading, visible through the layers of color. Sometimes the grisaille was simply left uncovered, giving the appearance of carved stone, Grey was a particularly good background color for gold and for skin tones. It became the most common background for the portraits of Rembrandt Van Rijn and for many of the paintings of El Greco, the palette of Rembrandt was composed almost entirely of somber colors. Over this he put a layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre. Using these ingredients and many others, he made greys which had, according to art historian Philip Ball, the warm, dark and rich greys and browns served to emphasize the golden light on the faces in the paintings. Grey became a fashionable color in the 18th century, both for womens dresses and for mens waistcoats and coats

97.
Olive green
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Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives. As a color word in the English language, it appears in late Middle English, shaded toward gray, it becomes olive drab. Olivine is the color of the mineral olivine. The first recorded use of Olivine as a name in English was in 1912. It was widely used as a color for uniforms and equipment in the armed forces. The first recorded use of olive drab as a name in English was in 1892. Drab is a color name, from the middle of the 16th century. It refers to a light brown color, the color of cloth made from undyed homespun wool. It took its name from the old French word for cloth, olive drab was the color of the standard fighting uniform for U. S. GIs and military vehicles during World War II. U. S. soldiers often referred to their uniforms as ODs due to the color, the color used at the beginning of the war by the U. S. S. Uniform pattern in the 1981, which retained olive drab as one of the swatches in the pattern. As a solid color, it is not as effective for camouflage as multiple-color camo schemes, though it is used by the U. S. military to color webbing. The armies of Israel, India, Cuba, Venezuela, in the American novel A Separate Peace, Finny says to Gene. and in these times of war, we all see olive drab, and we all know it is the patriotic color. All others arent about the war, they arent patriotic, there are many shades and variations of olive drab, one common version is defined by Federal Standard 595 in the United States. Olive green is greener than olive or olive drab but less green than dark olive green, an example is U. S. Army olive green 107, Displayed at right is the web color dark olive green. Black olive is a color in the RAL color matching system and it is designated as RAL6015. The color black olive is a representation of the color of black olives and this is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, a color system widely used in Europe. The RAL color list originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961

Olive green
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Green olives
Olive green
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Green sand is actually olivinecrystals, which has been eroded from lava rocks
Olive green
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An olive drab M-1943 field jacket, worn by U.S. soldiers in World War II.
Olive green
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Olive drab is the uniform color today of the Israel Defense Forces.

98.
Military camouflage
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Military camouflage is the use of camouflage by a military force to protect personnel and equipment from observation by enemy forces. The French slang word camouflage came into common English usage during World War I when the concept of visual deception developed into a part of modern military tactics. In that war, long-range artillery and observation from the air combined to expand the field of fire, as such, military camouflage is a form of military deception. Camouflage was first practiced in simple form in the mid 18th century by jäger- or rifle units and their tasks required them to be inconspicuous, and they were issued green and later other drab colour uniforms. Many modern camouflage textiles address visibility not only to light but also near infrared. Camouflage is not only visual, heat, sound, magnetism and even smell can be used to target weapons, some forms of camouflage have elements of scale invariance, designed to disrupt outlines at different distances, typically digital camouflage patterns made of pixels. Camouflage for equipment and positions was extensively developed for use by the French in 1915. In both world wars, artists were recruited as camouflage officers, ship camouflage developed via conspicuous dazzle camouflage schemes during WWI, but since the development of radar, ship camouflage has received less attention. Aircraft, especially in World War II, were painted with different schemes above and below, to camouflage them against the ground. Military camouflage patterns have been popular in fashion and art from as early as 1915, Camouflage patterns have appeared in the work of artists such as Andy Warhol and Ian Hamilton Finlay, sometimes with an anti-war message. In fashion, many designers have exploited camouflages style and symbolism. Military camouflage is part of the art of military deception, the main objective of military camouflage is to deceive the enemy as to the presence, position and intentions of military formations. Camouflage techniques include concealment, disguise, and dummies, applied to troops, vehicles, vision is the main sense of orientation in humans, and the primary function of camouflage is to deceive the human eye. Camouflage works through concealment, mimicry, or possibly by dazzle, in modern warfare, some forms of camouflage, for example face paints, also offer concealment from infrared sensors, while CADPAT textiles in addition help to provide concealment from radar. While camouflage tricks are in principle limitless, both cost and practical considerations limit the choice of methods and the time and effort devoted to camouflage, paint and uniforms must also protect vehicles and soldiers from the elements. Units need to move, fire their weapons and perform tasks to keep functional. No single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains, the effectiveness of a pattern depends on contrast as well as colour tones. Terrain-specific camouflage patterns, made to match the terrain, may be more effective in that terrain than more general patterns

Military camouflage
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Sniper wearing a ghillie suit
Military camouflage
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A-7D Corsairs in a disruptive pattern, countershaded with white, on a disruptively painted surface, Thailand, 1972.
Military camouflage
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A Ferret armoured car with "Berlin camouflage" meant to hide it against that city's concrete buildings. Such terrain specific patterns are rare.
Military camouflage
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The Canadian Forces were the first army to issue pixellated digital camouflage for all units with their disruptively patterned CADPAT.

99.
Lizard (camouflage)
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The lizard pattern is a family of many related designs of military camouflage pattern, first used by the French Army on uniforms from 1947 to the late 1980s. It was based on the British paratroopers Denison smock, there are two major types of lizard pattern, horizontal like the original French design, and vertical like the early variant developed by Portugal. In addition, the Vietnam War tigerstripe pattern is descended from Lizard, Lizard patterns have two overlapping prints, generally green and brown, printed with gaps so that a third dyed color, such as a lighter green or khaki, makes up a large part of the pattern. In this, it is printed like earlier British patterns used on that countrys Paratroopers Denison smocks, Lizard patterns have narrower printed areas than the British patterns, and the original form had a strong horizontal orientation, disrupting the vertical form of the soldiers body. Horizontal lizard patterns in different colour forms were made by the French, a copy of the French pattern, made in Asia, was adopted by some African countries such as Chad, Gabon, Rwanda, and Sudan. In around 1970 Cuba designed a variety, used by Cuba. Greece has used a range of horizontal lizard patterns from the 1970s, russian Spetsnaz and interior ministry troops wear horizontal lizard patterns. The Israel Defence Force used actual French lizard uniforms until 1968, French lizard was among the patterns used in Congo in 1978. Vertical lizard patterns in different colorways were apparently developed in Portugal from the original French patterns, the lizard pattern had been in use in Portugal since 1956 with the Air Forces Paratroopers, being extended to the Armys Special Rifles units in 1960. With the Portuguese Military engaged in the Overseas Wars mainly fought in the African jungles, in 1963, a vertical lizard pattern was developed, this replacing the French horizontal pattern. The Portuguese vertical lizard pattern was adopted by Brazil, which developed a range of colorways for each of its armed services, egypt, Greece, India, Lebanese Palestinians and Syria have all used variants of the vertical lizard pattern. SWAPO guerrillas in Namibia wore a variety of camouflage, including Portuguese lizard. The Vietnam War tigerstripe is descended from Lizard and it began as a French experimental pattern during the Indochina war. It was based on the TAP47 lizard pattern, and was adopted by the South Vietnamese Marines, tigerstripe differed from lizard in having its printed areas interlocked rather than overlapped, it also used smaller areas of dyed background color

100.
Military beret
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Berets have been a component of the uniforms of many armed forces throughout the world since the mid-20th century. Berets are in some countries particularly associated with units, who often wear berets in more unusual colours. The French Chasseurs alpins, created in the early 1880s, were the first regular unit to wear the beret as a standard headgear. These mountain troops were issued with a uniform which included several features which were innovative for the time, notably the large and this was so unfamiliar a fashion outside France that it had to be described in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 as a soft cap or tam oshanter. The beret is not so useful in conditions for the modern infantryman, who requires protective helmets. The beret was found useful as a uniform for armored-vehicle crews. German AFV crews in the late 1930s also adopted a beret with the addition of a crash helmet inside. The color black became popular as a headdress, since it did not show oil stains picked up inside the interior of a vehicle. Black berets continue to be worn by armored regiments in many armies, an unusual form of beret is the camo beret, mostly issued to special forces. Countries that have issued camouflage berets include Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, PRC, Denmark, Ecuador, Israel, Paraguay, Panama, Philippines, Portugal, South Africa, South Korea, and Thailand. As recorded below the beret is now worn by military personnel of the majority of nations around the globe. Most berets are used by senior enlisted personnel and officers, the beret colours are as follows, The Armed Forces continue to wear Soviet-style berets, which are draped to the right in most circumstances. When appearing in public on parade, the berets are draped to the side so that the insignia shows to observing dignitaries. Blue berets are worn in the Royal Australian Air Force, in all cases, the beret is bashed to the right, and a badge or insignia is worn above the left eye. Berets are common in most parts of the Army, and are worn for special occasions. Since World War II they have adopted by all units. Berets vary in colour according to the regiment, and carry a badge which is of gilt for officers, silver for non-commissioned officers, members of cavalry units all wear silver coloured badges. Berets vary in colour according to the branch, and carry a crest pin resembling the units insignia

101.
Red beret
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The red beret is a military beret worn by many military police, paramilitary, commando, and police forces. The term is used to refer to the British Parachute Regiment. The red beret was worn as a device by Carlist soldiers in the First Carlist War and later became an emblem of Carlists in general. Only legionnaires paratroopers of the 2eREP wear green berets. S, fallschirmjägerbataillon Willi Sänger of the former German Democratic Republics Nationale Volksarmee. Boy Scouts of America ORB, a group within Doctor Steels Army of Toy Soldiers fan club Soldier of Fortune magazine uses a red beret as their logo, the Economic Freedom Fighters, a South African political party, have adopted the red beret as one of their symbols. The American Indian Movement, Native American Indians whom were former U. S. military veterans, have adopted the use of the red beret as one of their Native warrior society symbols back in 1970. Marie Fightin 5 Percy Pinkerton Maroon Beret Black beret Green beret Maroon beret Military beret Tan beret

Red beret
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Red Beret-wearing British military police officer uses field glasses to look across the Berlin Wall from a viewing platform on the western side, 1984.
Red beret
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Malaysian Maritime STAR commandos with scarlet red coloured beret.

102.
Moss green
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Varieties of the color green may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a green or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. Green is common in nature, especially in plants, many plants are green mainly because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll which is involved in photosynthesis. Many shades of green have been named after plants or are related to plants, due to varying ratios of chlorophylls, the plant kingdom exhibits many shades of green in both hue and value. Artichoke is a color that is a representation of the color of a raw fresh uncooked artichoke, another name for this color is artichoke green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1905. This is the color called green in Pantone. The source is Pantone 18-0125 TPX Asparagus is a tone of green that is named after the vegetable, Crayola created this color in 1993 as one of the 16 to be named in the Name the Color Contest. It is also the color of a wild asparagus plant blowing in the wind of the 1949 classic film Sands of Iwo Jima, another name for this color is asparagus green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1805. Avocado is a color that is a representation of the color of the surface of an avocado. The color avocado is a dark yellow-green color, avocado was a common color for metal surfaces, as well as the color harvest gold, during the whole decade of the 1970s. They were both also popular colors for shag carpets, both colors went out of style by the early 1980s. Dark green is a shade of green. A different shade of green has been designated as green for certain computer uses. Fern green is a color that resembles ferns, a Crayola crayon named fern was created in 1998, which is a lighter shade of the top color shown on the right. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1902. Forest green refers to a green color said to resemble the color of the trees, the first recorded use of forest green as the name of a color in the English language was in 1810

103.
Coat of arms of Portugal
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The coat of arms of Portugal is the main heraldic insignia of Portugal. The present model was adopted on 30 June 1911, along with the present model of the Flag of Portugal. It is based on the coat of arms used by the Portuguese Kingdom since the Middle Ages, the coat of arms of Portugal is popularly referred as the Five Quinas or simply the Quinas. The national heraldry of Portugal evolved from the heraldry, with the royal coat of arms gradually coming to be considered a national coat of arms. The Portuguese coat of arms itself is the result of almost a millennium of modifications and alterations, the main and constant element of the coat of arms of Portugal is and has always been the Portuguese shield. This resulted from around 300 years of evolution, from the 12th to the 15th centuries, the initial shield evolved to a field argent with five escutcheons azur forming a cross, the dexter and sinister ones pointing to the center, with each escutcheon semée of plates. This is the first confirmed model of Portuguese shield in use, apparently, it was introduced still in the reign of Afonso Henriques and definitely was used in the reign of Portugals following King Sancho I. There are several legends that explain the origin of the five escutcheons and these five pieces of blue leather and the heads of the nails, being so allegedly the origin of the five escutcheons azur, each semée of plates. When Afonso III became King in 1247, he maintained this defaced shield, during the 1383–1385 Portuguese interregnum, one of the emerging candidates to the throne was John, master of the Order of Aviz, who was an illegitimate son of King Peter I of Portugal. John was elected Regent and Defender of Kingdom in 1383 and acclaimed King of Portugal in 1385, with John, the Portuguese shield was added by the insertion of the insignia of the Order of Aviz, with its points appearing in the bordure gules, between the castles or. Although more commonly represented inserted in the shield, occasionally the cross of the Order of Aviz was represented outside the shield with this laying over it, the semée of plates of each of the five escutcheons gradually evolved to fixed five plates disposed in saltire. Because of this, each of these started to be known as quina. By synecdoche, the Portuguese shield started to be referred as the five quinas or simply as the quinas, finally, in 1481, King John II ordered the correction of the Portuguese shield, eliminating its features identified as heraldic errors. So, the cross of the Order of Aviz was taken off, later the semée of castles or of the bordure evolved to seven fixed castles, this being the version of the shield still in use today. During some periods of effective or claimed Royal union of Portugal with other states, the Portuguese shield was used marshaled with the coats of arms of those states. King Afonso V of Portugal, who claimed the crown of Castile during the 1475-1479 period, used the Portuguese arms in the I and IV, marshaled with the arms of Castile and León in the II and III. During the period of the Iberian Union, the Portuguese shield was placed in the point of the complex coat of arms of the House of Habsburg. The new Royal achievement of arms consisted so of the Portuguese shield over the armillary sphere and this achievement of arms was used in Portugal from 1815 to 1825

Coat of arms of Portugal
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Coat of arms of the Kingdom of the Algarve
Coat of arms of Portugal
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Coat of arms of Portugal

104.
Chevron (insignia)
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A chevron is an inverted V-shaped pattern. The chevron occurs in early art including designs on pottery and rock carvings, examples can be found approximately 1800 BC in archaeological recovery of pottery designs from the palace of Knossos on Crete in the modern day country of Greece. Sparta used a capital lambda on their shields, a chevron is one of the ordinaries in heraldry, one of the simple geometrical figures which are the chief images in many coat of arms. It can be subject to a number of modifications, when the ends are cut off in a way that looks like the splintered ends of a broken piece of wood, with an irregular zig-zag pattern, it is called éclaté. When shown as a smaller size than standard, it is a called a chevronel. Chevrons appeared early in the history of heraldry, especially in Normandy, in Scandinavia the chevron is known as sparre, an early example appears in the arms of Armand desmondly. In areas observing Commonwealth of Nations or United States doctrine, chevrons are used as an insignia of enlisted or NCO rank by military forces, one chevron usually designates a lance corporal, two a corporal, and three a sergeant. One to four rockers may also be incorporated to indicate various grades of sergeant, in American usage, chevrons typically point towards the neck, in Commonwealth usage they usually point away from the neck. In the Commonwealth, the terminology for rank chevrons includes the number of stripes, called bars, therefore. Canadian and Australian Forces often refer to chevrons as hooks, in the Dutch armed forces they are nicknamed bananas. In some armies, small chevrons are worn on the left sleeve to indicate length of service. The Israel Defense Forces use chevrons in various orientations as organizational designators on their vehicles, specifically which company within a battalion they belong to

105.
History of Portugal
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The history of Portugal dates back to the Early Middle Ages. The country was weakened by the destruction of much of its capital city in an earthquake in 1755, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, in 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and the bankruptcy of the state. The new government instituted sweeping reforms and granted independence to all of Portugals African colonies in 1975. Portugal is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. It entered the European Economic Community in 1986, the word Portugal derives from the Roman-Celtic place name Portus Cale. Around 200 BC, the Romans took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, during the Dark Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale was already referred to as Portugal, the precise etymology of the name Cale is somewhat mysterious, although the most plausible origin points to Cale being a Celtic name, like many others found in the region. Indeed the word cale or cala meant port, an inlet or harbour, furthermore todays Gaelic word for harbour is indeed Cala. Some argue it is the stem of Gallaecia, again of Celtic derivation, another theory claims it derives from the word Caladunum. In any case, the particle Portu in the word Portucale was used as the basis of Porto, and port became the English name of the wine actually produced further inland, in the Upper Douro Valley region, but exported through Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia, a city on the bank of the river. The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals, and then by Homo sapiens, Neanderthals probably arrived 100,000 years BP. A Neanderthal tooth found at Nova da Columbiera cave in Estremadura is one of the oldest human fossils so far discovered, Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal in around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly throughout the country. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal leaving a remarkable cultural footprint, the Cynetes developed a written language, leaving many stelae, which are mainly found in the south of Portugal. Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence in Portugal is traceable, in outline, through archaeological

History of Portugal
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Archaeological artifact from the work developed in the area of Citânia de Briteiros
History of Portugal
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Cross or cruzado in Citânia de Briteiros

106.
Hispania
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Hispania was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula. Under the Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, during the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Tarraconensis. Subsequently, the part of Tarraconensis was split off, first as Hispania Nova. The name, Hispania, was used in the period of Visigothic rule. The modern placenames Spain and Hispaniola are both derived from Hispania, one theory holds it to be of Punic derivation, from the Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage. Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate of Hebrew אי-שפניא meaning Island of the Hyrax or island of the hare or island of the rabbit. Others derive the word from Phoenician span, in the sense of hidden, and make it indicate a hidden, that is, Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis. Occasionally Hispania was called Hesperia Ultima, the last western land in Greek, by Roman writers, another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for border or edge, thus meaning the farthest area or place. The use of Latin Hispania, Castilian España, Catalan Espanya and French Espaigne, a document dated 1292 mentions the names of foreigners from Medieval Spain as Gracien dEspaigne. You are, Oh Spain, holy and always happy mother of princes and peoples and you, by right, are now the queen of all provinces, from whom the lights are given not only the sunset, but also the East. Navarre followed soon after in 1512, and Portugal in 1580, during this time, the concept of Spain was still unchanged. The King of Portugal would protest energetically when during a public act King Fernando talked about the Crown of Spain and it was after the independence of Portugal in 1640 when the concept of Spain started to shift and be applied to all the Peninsula except Portugal. Even so, Portugal would still complain when the terms Crown of Spain or Monarchy of Spain were still used in the 18th century with the Treaty of Utrecht. The Iberian peninsula has long inhabited, first by early hominids such as Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis. In the Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals entered Iberia and eventually took refuge from the migrations of modern humans. In the 40th millennium BC, during the Upper Paleolithic and the last ice age and these were nomadic hunter-gatherers originating on the steppes of Central Asia. When the last Ice Age reached its maximum extent, during the 30th millennium BC, in the millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local modern human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that found in LArbreda Cave and in the Côa Valley. In the Mesolithic period, beginning in the 10th millennium BC and this was an interstadial deglaciation that lessened the harsh conditions of the Ice Age

107.
Lusitania
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Lusitania or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people and its capital was Emerita Augusta, and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid 2nd century BC, a war with Lusitanian tribes followed, from 155 to 139 BC. In 27 BC, the province was created, the etymology of the name of the Lusitani remains unclear. Luís de Camões epic Os Lusíadas, which portrays Lusus as the founder of Lusitania, extends these ideas, in his work, Geography, the classical geographer Strabo suggests a change had occurred in the use of the name Lusitanian. He mentions a group who had once been called Lusitanians living north of the Douro river but were called in his day Callacans. The Lusitani, who were Indo-European speakers, established themselves in the region in the 6th century BC, some modern authors consider them to be an indigenous people who were Celticized culturally and possibly also through intermarriage. The archeologist Scarlat Lambrino defended the position that the Lusitanians were a group of Celtic origin related to the Lusones. Some have claimed that both came from the Swiss mountains. Others argue that the points to the Lusitanians being a native Iberian tribe. In 179 BC, the praetor Lucius Postumius Albinus celebrated a triumph over the Lusitani, but in 155 BC, on the command of Punicus first and Cesarus after, here they were defeated by the praetor Lucius Mummius. From 152 BC onwards, the Roman Republic had difficulties in recruiting soldiers for the wars in Hispania, in 150 BC, Servius Sulpicius Galba organised a false armistice. Two years after, in 137 BC Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus led a campaign against the Lusitani. Its northern border was along the Douro river, while on its side its border passed through Salmantica. Felicitas Iulia Olisipo was a Roman law municipality) and 3 other towns had the old Latin status (Ebora, the other 37 were of stipendiarii class, among which Aeminium, Balsa, or Mirobriga. Other cities include Ossonoba, Cetobriga, Collippo or Arabriga, under Diocletian, Lusitania kept its borders and was ruled by a praeses, later by a consularis, finally, in 298 AD, it was united with the other provinces to form the Diocesis Hispaniarum. In the second book in the science fiction novels comprising the Enders Game series, titled Speaker for the Dead and it is explained in the book that it was named for the historical people and territory in Portugal, which the inhabitants are descended from

Lusitania
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Map of the Roman Hispania around 10 AD, Lusitania is colored in orange
Lusitania
Lusitania
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Roman Hispania under Diocletian (AD 293); Lusitania found in the extreme west
Lusitania
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Tower of Centum Cellas

108.
Treaty of Tordesillas
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This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia. The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, the treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World, however and those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, on his way back to Spain he first reached Lisbon, in Portugal. There he asked for another meeting with King John II to show him the newly discovered lands, also, the Portuguese King stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. After reading the letter the Catholic Monarchs knew they did not have any power in the Atlantic to match the Portuguese. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, by 1493 Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, the treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI but was subsequently sanctioned by Pope Julius II by means of the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis of 24 January 1506. Even though the treaty was negotiated without consulting the Pope, a few sources call the line the Papal Line of Demarcation. Very little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth, the easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, the line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, the Catholic Monarchs attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by Pope Leo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, for a period between 1580 and 1640, the treaty was rendered meaningless, as the Spanish King was also King of Portugal. It was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it occupied in South America, however, the latter treaty was immediately repudiated by the Catholic Monarch. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the problem, with Spain acquiring territories east of the Uruguay River, the Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands

Treaty of Tordesillas
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Front page of the Portuguese-owned treaty
Treaty of Tordesillas
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Early Tordesillas lines in South America (1495–1545)
Treaty of Tordesillas
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Dutch map of the Moluccas (north is at right)

109.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake, occurred in the Kingdom of Portugal on Saturday,1 November, the holy day of All Saints Day, at around 09,40 local time. In combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, the earthquake almost totally destroyed Lisbon, estimates place the death toll in Lisbon alone between 10,000 and 100,000 people, making it one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. The earthquake accentuated political tensions in the Kingdom of Portugal and profoundly disrupted the countrys colonial ambitions, the event was widely discussed and dwelt upon by European Enlightenment philosophers, and inspired major developments in theodicy. As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over an area, it led to the birth of modern seismology. In 1755, the earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November, contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three and a half and six minutes, causing fissures 5 metres wide to open in the city centre. Survivors rushed to the space of the docks for safety and watched as the water receded, revealing a sea floor littered with lost cargo. Approximately 40 minutes after the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbour and downtown area, rushing up the Tagus river, were forced to gallop as fast as possible to the upper grounds for fear of being carried away. It was followed by two more waves, in the areas unaffected by the tsunami, fire quickly broke out, and flames raged for five days. Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe, throughout the south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was rampant. The tsunami destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, in the lower levels, almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa. In Lagos, the reached the top of the city walls. Other towns of different Portuguese regions, such as Peniche, Cascais, and even Covilhã, the shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhãs castle walls and its large towers. On the island of Madeira, Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered significant damage, almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 m inland. Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and North Africa, and according to some even in Greenland. Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres swept the coast of North Africa, a three-metre tsunami hit Cornwall on the southern English coast. Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, was also hit, at Kinsale, several vessels were whirled round in the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace. In 2015, it was revealed that the waves may have reached the coast of Brazil. Such a hypothesis was raised by reviewing letters sent by Brazilian authorities at the time of the earthquake and these letters describe damage and destruction caused by gigantic waves

1755 Lisbon earthquake
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1755 copper engraving showing Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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1755 Lisbon earthquake
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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A depiction of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake as seen from across the Tagus River.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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Calculated travel times for the tsunami waves of 1 November 1755.

110.
Portuguese Civil War
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Embroiled parties included the Kingdom of Portugal, Portuguese rebels, the United Kingdom, France, the Church of Rome, and Spain. The death of King João VI in 1826 created a dispute over royal succession, while Dom Pedro, the Emperor of Brazil, was the kings oldest son, his younger brother Miguel contended that Pedro had forfeited his claim to the throne by declaring Brazilian independence. Pedro briefly entitled himself Dom Pedro IV of Portugal, neither the Portuguese nor the Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy, consequently, Pedro abdicated the throne in favor of his daughter, Maria, a child of 7. In April 1826, to settle the dispute, Pedro revised the 1st constitution of Portugal granted in 1822 and left the throne to Maria. In the Portuguese Constitutional Charter, Pedro attempted to reconcile absolutists, unlike the Constitution of 1822, this new document established four branches of government. The Legislature was divided into two chambers, the upper chamber, the Chamber of Peers, was composed of life and hereditary peers and clergy appointed by the king. Judicial power was exercised by the courts, executive power by the ministers of the government, and moderative power by the king, in February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal, ostensibly to take the oath of allegiance to the Charter and assume the regency. He was immediately proclaimed king by his supporters, who pressed him to return to absolutism, the Cortes of 1828 assented to Miguels wish, proclaiming him king as Miguel I of Portugal and nullifying the Constitutional Charter. This alleged usurpation did not go unchallenged by the Liberals, on May 18, the garrison in Porto, the center of Portuguese progressives, declared its loyalty to Pedro, to Maria da Glória, and the Constitutional Charter. The rebellion against the spread to other cities. Miguel suppressed these rebellions, and many thousands of Liberals were either arrested or fled to Spain and Britain, there followed five years of repression. Meanwhile, in Brazil, relations between Pedro and Brazils agricultural magnates had become strained, in April 1831, Pedro abdicated in Brazil in favor of his son, Pedro II, and sailed for Britain. He organized an expedition there and then went to Terceira island in the Azores. The government of Miguel blockaded the island, but the squadron was attacked by a French squadron during the run-up to the Battle of the Tagus. To protect British interests, a squadron under Commander William Glascock in HMS Orestes was stationed in the Douro. The Duke of Terceira landed at Faro and marched north through the Alentejo to capture Lisbon on July 24, meanwhile, Napiers squadron encountered the absolutists fleet near Cape Saint Vincent and decisively defeated it at the fourth Battle of Cape St. Vincent. The Liberals were able to occupy Lisbon, where Pedro moved from Porto, a stalemate of nine months ensued. Towards the end of 1833, Maria da Glória was proclaimed queen and his first act was to confiscate the property of all who had served under Dom Miguel

Portuguese Civil War
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Battle of Ferreira Bridge, 23 July 1832
Portuguese Civil War
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Great Britain, personified by John Bull, supports an upset Pedro, who crosses his arms, while his brother Miguel, supported by Austria, tries to hold his crown
Portuguese Civil War
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Battle of Praia Bay, 11 August 1829
Portuguese Civil War
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Landing of the liberal forces in Pampelido, north of Porto, 8 July 1832

111.
5 October 1910 revolution
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The proponents of the republic, particularly the Republican Party, found ways to take advantage of the situation. The Republican Party presented itself as the one that had a programme that was capable of returning to the country its lost status. After the revolution, a government led by Teófilo Braga directed the fate of the country until the approval of the Constitution in 1911 that marked the beginning of the First Republic. Among other things, with the establishment of the republic, national symbols were changed, the national anthem, the revolution produced some civil and religious liberties, although there was no advance in womens rights and in workers rights, unlike what happened in other European countries. The republicans knew how to take advantage of the dissatisfaction, initiating an increase of their support base that would climax in the demise of the regime. On 14 January, the government fell and the leader of the Regenerador Party. The progressivists then began to attack the king, voting for candidates in the March election of that year. The death of the explorer of the African continent generated a wave of national sentiment. On 11 April, Guerra Junqueiros poetic work Finis Patriae, a satire criticising the King, in the city of Porto, on 31 January 1891, a military uprising against the monarchy took place, constituted mainly by sergeants and enlisted ranks. The movement was, shortly afterwards, suppressed by a detachment of the municipal guard that remained loyal to the government. 250 received sentences of between 18 months and 15 years of exile in Africa, despite its failure, the rebellion of 31 January 1891 was the first large threat felt by the monarchic regime and a sign of what would come almost two decades later. Disagreements within the party became more connected with matters of political than ideological strategy, the works of Teófilo Braga contributed to this task by trying to concretise the decentralising and federalist ideas, abandoning the socialist quality in favour of democratic aspects. This change also aimed to attract the small and medium bourgeoisie, in the election of 13 October 1878 the PRP elected its first member of parliament, José Joaquim Rodrigues de Freitas, for Porto. There was also an intention to give the overthrow of the overtones of unification, nationalism. This panacea that would cure, once and for all, all the ills of the nation, elevating it to glory and this lack of ideological preoccupation doesnt mean that the party didnt bother to spread its principles. The most effective action of dissemination was the propaganda made through its rallies and popular demonstrations and bulletins such as A Voz Pública in Porto, O Mundo, the republican propaganda managed to take advantage of some historical facts with popular repercussions. The atmosphere of the celebration that characterised the commemorations complemented the patriotic exaltation. From this date to 1900 there was no republican parliamentary representation, in this phase, while separated from parliament, the party committed itself to its internal organisation

5 October 1910 revolution
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Contemporary commemorative illustration of the Proclamation of the Portuguese Republic on 5 October 1910.
5 October 1910 revolution
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Commemorative plaque on 31 de Janeiro Street, in Porto.
5 October 1910 revolution
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Azedo Gneco giving a speech at a republican gathering, Lisbon.
5 October 1910 revolution
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Anonymous reconstruction of the regicide published in the French press.

112.
Third Portuguese Republic
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It was initially characterized by constant instability and was threatened by the possibility of a civil war during the early post-revolutionary years. A new constitution was drafted, censorship was prohibited, free speech declared, political prisoners were released, eventually the country granted independence to its African colonies and begun a process of democratization that led to the accession of Portugal to the EEC in 1986. Salazar was succeeded by Marcelo Caetano, the government faced many internal and external problems, including the Portuguese Colonial War. On 25 April 1974 a mostly bloodless coup of young military personnel forced Marcelo Caetano to step down, most of the population of the country soon supported this uprising. It was called the Carnation Revolution because of the use of the carnation on soldiers rifles as a symbol of peace and this revolution was the beginning of the Portuguese Third Republic. After the fall of the Estado Novo, differences began to emerge on which direction the country should take. The revolution was mainly the result of the work of a group of young officers unified under the Movimento das Forças Armadas, both had been expelled from the Estado-Maior-General das Forças Armadas for criticizing the government. The differing political views came to be represented by three main informal groups, which included both military and civilians. However, even within these groups shared similar political views there were considerable disagreements. The conservatives, within the military, represented by Costa Gomes and Spínola, the socialists, that were in favour of creating a social-democratic state like those of Western Europe and were mainly represented by the Socialist Party and its leader Mário Soares. The communists, that were in favour of creating a communist state with a system similar to those of the Warsaw Pact countries. On 1 January 2002, Portugal adopted the euro as its currency in place of the escudo, euro 2004 was held across Portugal. The final match was won by Greece against Portugal, several new stadia were built or rebuilt for the event. This event granted Portugal an opportunity to show its hosting abilities to the rest of the world, voter turnout was 62.60 per cent of eligible voters. From 2007-8 onwards, Portugal was severely affected by the European sovereign-debt crisis, the legacy of considerable borrowing from earlier years became an almost unsustainable debt for the Portuguese economy, bringing the country to the verge of bankruptcy by 2011. This resulted in urgent measures to address problems in the economy, raise taxes. Increasing unemployment also led to increased emigration, Portuguese films of the 2000s Treaties of the Portuguese Third Republic

Third Portuguese Republic
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The carnation, the symbol of the Revolution that stated the Third Portuguese Republic.
Third Portuguese Republic
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Pedro Passos Coelho, Current Prime Minister

113.
Economic history of Portugal
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The economic history of Portugal covers the development of the economy throughout the course of Portuguese history. It has its roots prior to nationality, when Roman occupation developed an economy in Hispania, in the provinces of Lusitania and Gallaecia. This continued under the Visigoths and then Al-Andalus Moorish rule, until the Kingdom of Portugal was established in 1139, in 1822, Portugal lost its main colony, Brazil. Portuguese territorial claims in Africa were challenged during the Scramble for Africa, political chaos and economic problems endured from the last years of the monarchy to the first Republic of 1910–1926, which led to the installing of a national dictatorship in 1926. Starting in the early 1960s, Portugal entered in a period of robust economic growth and structural modernization, as an expression of that economic opening, in 1960 the country was one of the EFTA founding member states. Yearly growth rates sometimes with two digits, allowed the Portuguese GDP per capita to reach 56% of the EC-12 average by 1973. This growth period eventually ended in the mid-1970s, for contributing the 1973 oil crisis. From 1974 to the late 1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens arrived from the former African overseas colonies, after nearly a decade of economic troubles, during which Portugal received two IMF-monitored bailouts, in 1986 the country entered the European Economic Community. Similarly, for several years Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies ranked among the most productive in the world. However, the economy has stagnated since the early 2000s and was hardly hit by the effects of the Great Recession. The country adopted the euro in 1999, despite being both a developed country and a high income country, Portugals GDP per capita was of about 80% of the EU-27 average. The Global Competitiveness Report of 2008–2009 ranked Portugal 43rd out of 134 countries and territories, research by the Economist Intelligence Units Quality of Life survey in 2005 ranked Portugal 19th in the world. Pre-Celts and Celts were some of the first groups present in the territory, with the Celtic economy centered on raising, agriculture. After the Second Punic War, from 29 BC to 411 AD, Rome governed the Iberian peninsula, expanding and diversifying the economy, indigenous peoples paid tribute to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. All mines belonged to the Roman Senate, and were operated by slaves, subsistence agriculture was replaced by large farming units producing olive oil, cereals, and wine, and rearing livestock. This farming activity was located mainly in the region to the south of the Tagus River, the largest producer of the entire Roman Empire was in Tróia Peninsula, near modern Setúbal, south of Lisbon. At the same time, specialized industries also developed, although it suffered some decline, Roman law remained in the Visigothic Code, and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, and irrigation systems, was maintained to varying degrees. While trade dwindled in most of the former Roman lands in Europe, in 711, Moors occupied large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the Al-Andalus

Economic history of Portugal
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Roman fish preserving plant, Setúbal.
Economic history of Portugal
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A golden triente minted at Braga during the reign of Wittiza and bearing his rough effigy.
Economic history of Portugal
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King Afonso I of Portugal.

114.
Geography of Portugal
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Portugal is a coastal nation in southwestern Europe, located at the western end of the Iberian Peninsula, bordering Spain. The Portuguese territory also includes a series of archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean, the extreme south is not too far from the Strait of Gibraltar, leading to the Mediterranean Sea. In total, the country occupies an area of 92,090 square kilometres of which 91,470 square kilometres is land and 620 square kilometres water, despite these definitions, the Portugal-Spain border remains an unresolved territorial dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between Caia and Ribeira de Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza by Spain. This territory, though de facto Spanish occupation, remains a de jure part of Portugal. Portugal is located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and plateau and it is located on the Atlantic coast of this plateau, and crossed by several rivers which have their origin in Spain. Most of these rivers flow from east to west disgorging in the Atlantic, from north to south, the rivers are the Minho, Douro, Mondego, Tagus. The continental shelf has an area of 28,000 square kilometres and its strong relief is marked by deep submarine canyons and the continuation of the main rivers. The Estremadura Spur separates the Iberian Abyssal and Tagus Abyssal Plains, currently, the Portuguese government claims a 200-metre depth, or to a depth of exploitation. Vincent is well known for steep and foreboding cliffs, an interesting feature of the Portuguese coast is Ria Formosa with some sandy islands and a mild and pleasant climate characterized by warm but not very hot summers and generally mild winters. Alternatively, the Ria de Aveiro coast, is formed by a delta rich in fish, four main channels flow through several islands and islets at the mouth of the Vouga, Antuã, Boco, and Fontão Rivers. Since the 16th century, this formation of narrow headlands formed a lagoon and it was also recognized by the Romans, whose forces exported its salt to Rome. The Azores are also sprinkled with both alternating black sand and boulder-lined beaches, with only a rare exception is their a white sand beach (such as on the island of Santa Maria in Almagreira. The island of Porto Santo is one of the few extensive dune beaches in Portugal, tidal gauges along the Portuguese coast have identified a 1–1.5 millimetres rise in sea levels, causing large estuaries and inland deltas in some major rivers to overflow. As a result of its possessions and coastline, Portugal has the third largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union countries. The sea-zone, over which Portugal exercises special territorial rights over the economic exploration, the Iberian plate was formed during the Cadomian Orogeny of the late Neoproterozoic, from the margins of the Gondwana continent. Through collisions and accretion a group of island arcs began to disintegrate from Gondwana and these plates never separated substantially from each other since this period. By the Mesozoic, the three Portuguese plates were a part of the Northern France Armoric Plate until the Bay of Biscay began to separate, eventually, Iberia collided with southern France attaching the region into a peninsula of Europe

Geography of Portugal
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Hot, dry conditions sparked dozens of devastating wildfires in northern and central Portugal and central Spain in the summer of 2003. By the time this image was taken on January 19, 2004, the scars had begun to fade in areas, though the scars in Central Portugal and across the border in Spain are still dark red in the false-color image.
Geography of Portugal
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Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone
Geography of Portugal
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Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain range in continental Portugal and popular tourist winter destination
Geography of Portugal
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The volcanic lake of Lagoa das Furnas, on the island of São Miguel

115.
Politics of Portugal
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Politics in Portugal takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Portugal is the head of government. The President of Portugal is the head of state and has several significant political powers. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Council of Ministers, legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, since 1975, the party system has been dominated by the social democratic Socialist Party and the liberal-conservative Social Democratic Party. Other parties with seats in the parliament are the Portuguese Communist Party, the CDS – Peoples Party, the Left Bloc, the Communists and the Greens are in coalition as the Unitary Democratic Coalition. In 2011, Pedro Passos Coelho was the minister for the liberal-conservative Social Democratic Party in coalition with the right-wing conservative Peoples Party. The coalition was supported by a majority in the Parliament of 132 MPs, the major opposition party was the Socialist Party with 74 MPs. Also represented were the Portuguese Communist Party, The Greens and the Left Bloc, in the election of 2015, which the Social Democratic Party and Peoples Party contested as a coalition, Portugal Ahead, the government lost its absolute majority. After three weeks of uncertainty, the President designated Passos Coelho as Prime Minister, which was followed by the formation of a minority government, since then the left-wing parties, led by the Socialist Party, have formed the government. The first Portuguese Constitution was drafted in 1822, several revolutions led to the constitutions of 1822,1826,1838,1911,1933. The prospect of a communist takeover in Portugal generated considerable concern among the countrys NATO allies, the revolution also led to the country abruptly abandoning its colonies overseas and to the return of an estimated 600,000 Portuguese citizens from abroad. The 1976 constitution, which defined Portugal as a Republic, engaged in the formation of a classless society, was revised in 1982,1989,1992,1997,2001, and 2004. The 1982 revision of the constitution placed the military under civilian control, trimmed the powers of the president. The country joined the European Union in 1986, beginning a path toward greater economic, the 1992 revision made it compatible with the Maastricht treaty. The current Portuguese constitution provides for progressive administrative decentralization and calls for future reorganization on a regional basis, the Azores and Madeira archipelagos have constitutionally mandated autonomous status. Apart from the Azores and Madeira, the country is divided into 18 districts, macau, a former dependency, reverted to Chinese sovereignty in December 1999. The Socialist Party, under the leadership of António Guterres, came to following the October 1995 legislative elections. The Socialists later won a new mandate by winning exactly half the seats in the October 1999 election

116.
Administrative divisions of Portugal
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Administratively, Portugal is a unitary and decentralized State. Nonetheless, operationally, it is highly centralized system with administrative divisions organized into three tiers, the State is organized under the principles of subsidiarity, local government autonomy, and democratic decentralization of the public service. The government structure is based on the 1976 Constitution, adopted after the 1975 Carnation Revolution, in law 75/2013 of September 2013 the two types of administrative regions were defined, metropolitan areas and intermunicipal communities. Also, the powers and duties of the parishes, municipalities, metropolitan areas. In addition, the Portuguese territory was redefined during European integration and these NUTS definitions, used for collecting statistical information, follow many of the countries border definitions. Although utilized by the Portuguese government, they do not have a status in law. Since 1978, Portugal conceded political autonomy to its North Atlantic archipelagos due to their distance, isolation, geographical context, the Azores is an archipelago of nine islands and several islets that were discovered and settled by the Portuguese in the late 15th century. The Azores lies a third of the distance between Europe and North America, along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Madeira is an archipelago that includes two principal islands, Madeira and Porto Santo, plus two uninhabited natural group of islands, the Desertas and Savage Islands. The archipelago is located closer to Africa than Europe, is commercial and urbanized. A plan to divide mainland Portugal in eight regions was defeated in a referendum in 1998, the metropolitan areas of Lisbon and Porto were created in 1991. Finally in law 75/2013 of September 2013 the current two types of regions were defined, metropolitan areas and intermunicipal communities. The Metropolitan Areas are territorial units formed by grouping municipalities, in order to economize on municipal investments, the territories of the intermunicipal communities are based on the NUTS III statistical regions. Preceding the nations independence, the oldest of the municipalities still in existence Coimbra and Santarém were founded in 1085 e 1095. São João da Pesqueira is the oldest Portuguese municipality, founded in 1055, since the creation of a democratic local administration, in 1976, the Portuguese municipalities have been ruled by a system composed by an executive body and a deliberative body. The municipal chamber is the body, and is composed of a president of the municipality. There are 308 municipalities in Portugal and they are usually named for their biggest city, or at least, their historically most important city or town. However, the municipality is usually larger than the city or town after which it is named. The largest in area is Odemira with 1720.60 km², nearly all municipalities are subdivided into civil parishes

Administrative divisions of Portugal
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The border between the municipalities of Lisbon and Oeiras; shared also by the civil parishes of Santa Maria de Belém (Lisbon) and Algés (Oeiras)
Administrative divisions of Portugal
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Ponta Delgada, one of the three regional capitals of the Autonomous Region of the Azores
Administrative divisions of Portugal
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Funchal, the regional capital of the Autonomous Region of Madeira
Administrative divisions of Portugal
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The Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon extending across the Tagus River and Estuary

117.
Municipalities of Portugal
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The municipality is the second-level administrative subdivision of Portugal, as defined by the 1976 Constitution. As a general rule, each municipality is subdivided into parishes. Six municipalities are composed of one parish, and Barcelos is the municipality with most parishes. Corvo is, by law, the municipality with no parishes. Since the creation of a local administration, in 1976, the Portuguese municipalities have been ruled by a system composed by an executive body. The municipal chamber is the body and is composed of the president of the municipality. Both bodies are elected for four years, Portugal has an entirely separate system of cities and towns. Cities and towns are located in municipalities but often do not have the same boundaries, there are around twice as many cities and towns as there are municipalities. The municipality has been the most stable subdivision of Portugal since the foundation of the country in the 12th century and they have their origin in the foral, a legal document, issued by the King of Portugal, which assigned privileges to a town or a region. The present subdivisions have their origins in the 19th century after the administrative reforms conducted by the middle of 19th century by the governments of the constitutional monarchy, the concelhos probably formed after the expulsion of the Visigothic rulers by the Moors during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Towns were thus free to govern themselves, and the population started to organize in councils in order to govern the town. These were also a reminder of Roman municipalities, there are 308 municipalities in Portugal,278 in mainland Portugal and 30 in the autonomous regions of the Azores and Madeira. They are usually named for their biggest city, or at least, however, the municipality is not synonymous with the city, and can include various towns or cities. In Portugal, cities/towns are a distinction based on population size and associated services. Before the 2013 local government reforms, Portugal was divided into 18 continental districts, the municipalities with the lowest population densities are also found in these inland regions, with smaller populations distributed over a greater area. This chart gives the number of inhabitants in the municipality area, municipality List of municipalities of Portugal Subdivisions of Portugal

Municipalities of Portugal
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Municipality

118.
Elections in Portugal
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Elections in Portugal gives information on election and election results in Portugal. Only the elections since the Carnation Revolution of 1974 are listed here, during the period encompassing the Constitutional Monarchy and the First Republic there were also elections, but only for a limited universe of voters. During the Estado Novo regime, from 1926 to 1974, the few elections held were not up to the standards of their time. Portugal elects on a level the President and the national Parliament. Also on a level, Portugal elects 21 members of the European Parliament. The Autonomous Regions of Azores and Madeira elect their own government for a four-year term. The first regional elections were held in 1976, on a local level,308 Municipal Chambers and Municipal Assemblies and 3,092 Parish Assemblies are elected for a four-year term in separate elections that usually occur on the same day. Portugal has two regions, Azores and Madeira, that elect their own representatives for the regional parliaments every 4 years. The first elections were in 1976 and usually they were held in the same day until 2007 when Madeira held an early election and Azores held its election the next year. The last election in Azores was in October 2016, and Madeira held an election in March 2015. The official residence of the Portuguese President is the Belém Palace, the most recent election was held in 2016 and the next is expected to be in 2021. The Constitution of Portugal defines referendum in Article 115, the referendum is called by the President of Portugal, on a proposal submitted by the Assembly or the Government. The President can refuse a proposal for referendum submitted to him by the Assembly or the Government if it is found to be unconstitutional or illegal, referendums are binding if turnout is higher than 50% of registered voters. Citizens of Portugal have the right to submit to the Assembly an initiative for a referendum and it resulted in the establishing of the Estado Novo regime. The later three referendums, held in the context of a Western-style liberal democracy had turnout less than 50%, nonetheless, decissions of all three referendums were honoured

119.
Foreign relations of Portugal
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Foreign relations of Portugal are linked with its historical role as a major player in the Age of Discovery and the holder of the now defunct Portuguese Empire. Portugal is a European Union member country and a member of NATO. It is a proponent of European integration and transatlantic relations. Augusto Santos Silva is the current Minister of Foreign Affairs of Portugal, other goals have also been constant such as the political stability of the Iberian peninsula and the affirmation of Portuguese interests in Europe and the Atlantic. In 1996, it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the country is a member state of the United Nations since 1955. Recently, the primacy of the United States and inter-governmental organizations such as NATO, Portugal has been a significant beneficiary of the EU. It was among the top beneficiaries of the EU-15 between 1995 and 2004, Portugal is a proponent of European integration and held the presidency of the European Union for the second time during the first half of 2000, and again in the second half of 2007. Portugal used its term to launch a dialogue between the EU and Africa and to begin to take steps to make the European economy dynamic, in 2002, the euro began to circulate as Portugals currency. José Sócrates, as Prime Minister of Portugal, presided over the rotative Presidency of the Council of the European Union for the period July–December 2007. In this post, Sócrates and his team focused on the EU-Brazil and EU-African Union relations, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, it is an active member of the alliance by, for example, contributing proportionally large contingents in Balkan peacekeeping forces. Portugal proposed the creation of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries to improve its ties with other Portuguese-speaking countries, additionally, Portugal has participated, along with Spain, in a series of Ibero-American Summit. Portugal held the chairmanship of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe for the year 2002, the chairman-in-office was Portuguese Foreign Minister António Martins da Cruz. Portugal holds claim to the territory of Olivença on the Portugal-Spain border. Albania has an embassy in Lisbon, diplomatic relations were first established in 1925. They were severed in 1945 and were restored on June 24,1974, bulgaria has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Lisbon. Portugal has an embassy in Sofia, in 2007, the two countries signed a police co-operation agreement. Portugal has an embassy in Copenhagen, denmark has an embassy in Lisbon. Both countries are members of NATO and of the European Union Portuguese links to France have remained very strong

120.
Judiciary of Portugal
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The Judiciary of Portugal is a system of courts that together constitute one of the four organs of Sovereignty as defined by the Portuguese Constitution. The courts are independent from the other three Portuguese organs of Sovereignty, the Portuguese courts are divided by four independent orders, each of which corresponds to the separate Constitutional, Judicial, Administrative and Auditors jurisdictions. The public prosecution and the representation of the State before the courts is assured by the Public Ministry, the Ministry of Justice is the Government department responsible for the administration of the Judiciary system. The Portuguese judiciary system is not unitary, but it is divided in four independent categories or orders of courts, Constitutional, Judicial, Administrative. Each order contains their own structure of courts, the Constitutional and Auditors orders include a single court each one, while the other two orders include a plurality of hierarchical organized courts. Until 2003, a order of courts existed, this being the Military Jurisdiction. An higher court of appeal exists to appreciate and judge the conflicts of jurisdiction between the Judicial and Administrative orders of courts, this being the Conflicts Court. The Conflicts Court is headed by the president of the Supreme Administrative Court, the Constitutional Court is the sole court in the Constitutional jurisdiction. The judges of the Constitutional Court are independent the other branches of government, such as the executive or the legislature, the court is installed in the Ratton Palace in Lisbon. The Judicial order is the first category of courts, forming a proper hierarchical structure that has the Supreme Court of Justice in Lisbon as its superior body. This order also includes the five intermediate level courts called Relação, the judicial courts of first instance can be courts of generic competence or courts of specific competence. For the purpose of the Judicial order, until 2014, Portugal was divided in 231 uneven comarcas, the comarcas were grouped in 57 judicial circles and these in four judicial districts. Each judicial court is divided in sections that are classified either as central instance or as local instance, the central instances include civil, criminal, criminal procedure, labor, family and juvenile, commercial and execution sections. The local instances may include generic competence, proximity, civil, criminal, the comarca courts are typically installed in monumental courthouses, called palácios da Justiça, many of them built between the 1940s and the 1960s. Before the reduction of the number of comarcas due to the 2014 reform, each palace of Justice was usually a seat of a court, but now most of them are only seats of sections of larger courts. Besides the 23 generic competence judicial courts of each comarca, there are also specialized courts of first instance that have jurisdiction over several comarcas. These include four penal supervisory courts, the Maritime Court, the Intellectual Property Court, the Concurrency, Regulation and Supervision Court, as Justice of first instance, there are also the judges of peace and the arbitral tribunals. The judges of peace have competence to appreciate and to judge small actions regarding values that do not exceed the ceiling below which it is not possible to appeal from a court of first instance

Judiciary of Portugal
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The Palace of Justice of Oporto, seat of the Relação and of the Court of Justice of Oporto.
Judiciary of Portugal
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Portugal

121.
Law enforcement in Portugal
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The Polícia de Segurança Pública is the civil preventive police force of Portugal. Part of the Portuguese security forces, the mission of the PSP is to defend Republican democracy, safeguarding internal security, PSP is focused in the preventive policing, only investigating minor crimes. Investigation of serious crimes falls under the Judicial Police responsibility, which is a separate agency, due to their high visibility, the PSP are recognized by the public as the police in Portugal. Like most of Europe, until the Middle Ages the defense of public order was the responsible of local communities, under the authority of feudal lords, in Portugal, there are few references to the administration of justice until the second half of the 15th century. With the reign of King Afonso V came the first ordinances and penal codes and these ordinances were reissued during the reign of King John I in 1514, after various changes under Manuel I. Some of the early judicial measures came from the early nobles, similarly, Afonso III punished anyone who assaulted and robbed the home of another. King Pedro I, the Just, decreed that anyone who falsified coins, gold or silver objects would have their hands, however, criminals were provided shelters by which to flee justice, the churches, monasteries and privileged lands. These privileged lands became areas of thieves and criminals, which resulted in King John extinguishing these areas and this was also something that King Fernando did with barrios, and only churches and convents became sanctuaries. Since these men never received payment for their services, and since these activities were dangerous, for most, these services were intolerable, with little prestige, at various times resulting in bruises and wounds in the execution of their tasks. Owing to this, by 1418, these constables were not required to circle the town, later, Afonso V provided the Quadrilheiros, on 10 June 1460, with several social and economic privileges. However, these would disappear over time, even as Afonso V put into action other laws, regulations, advisories and ordinances, many were ineffective. King Sebastian promulgated laws on 31 January 1559,17 January 1570,12 July and 13 August 1571, to reinforce the laws of Fernando I, Edward, in order to compensate the diminishing benefits of their service, the Quadrilheiros were exempt from paying taxes or military service. Sebastian also ordered that Lisbon be divided into barrios, and that each should be administered by an official of justice, on 12 March 1603, King Philip II ordered new regulations for the Quadrilheiros in order to reinforce their authority. King John IV of Portugal provided a new charter, and a decree on 29 November 1644, forced them to serve the public, working in the day, by the first half of the 18th century, little had improved. There continued to be a lack of policing, resulting in leis in 1701,1702 and 1714, as new circuits were created to blanket the city, many of the criminals were aware that the laws transformed the situation into forgettable enclaves. The Quadrilheiros continued to be a class, due to their limitations. After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake new laws and resolutions were established to maintain public order, sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the Marquess of Pombal, found it necessary to create an organism to centralize all laws. By law, on 25 June 1760, he created the Intendência da Polícia da Corte e do Reino, the first Quartermaster-General was Inácio Ferreira Souto, at the same time that the term polícia was commonly used, and the Quadrilheiros were relegated to the evenings

Law enforcement in Portugal
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Logo of the Public Security Police
Law enforcement in Portugal
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A traditional lantern sign that developed from the early foundations of the Portuguese public security forces
Law enforcement in Portugal
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Two police officers in a mobile police station
Law enforcement in Portugal
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Two PSP constables on foot patrol in Funchal on the island of Madeira

122.
Economy of Portugal
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Portugal ranked 38th in the WEFs Global Competitiveness Report for 2015-2016. Portugals ranking continuously fell from 2005 to 2013, but recovered from the 51st position in 2013 to the 36th in 2014, Portugal has the highest emigration rate as a proportion of population in the European Union. More than two million Portuguese people now live outside the country, historically portugal would rank as the nation with the highest unemployment rate in both Europe and EU given their large emigration rates as labor outflows contribute to the weight of unemployment. Other regional groups that are significant trade partners of Portugal are the NAFTA, the PALOP, the Maghreb, the Portuguese currency is the euro and the country has been a part of the Eurozone since its inception. The Portuguese Economy has been steady, expanding continuously since the quarter of 2014. The economy growth has been accompanied by a fall in the unemployment rate. The Government budget deficit has also reduced from the 11. 2% of GDP in 2010 to 4. 8% in 2014. The Portuguese educational system has been in gradual modernization and relative expansion since the 1960s, achieving recognition for its world-standard practices, the country, with a transcontinental empire with plenty of natural resources and vast unexploited areas, was among the most powerful nations in the world. After a short period of economic divergence before 1914, the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950, Portuguese economic growth in the period 1960–1973 created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy raised new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams. The economy of Portugal and its overseas territories on the eve of the Carnation Revolution was growing well above the European average, the Estado Novo regime economic policy encouraged and created conditions for the formation of large business conglomerates. These Portuguese conglomerates had a model with similarities to South Korean chaebols. Among the seven magnificent were the conglomerates founded and held by the families Champalimaud, Mello, Amorim, the CUF group was the largest and most diversified of the Portuguese conglomerates. At one point, it became the largest industrial group in the Iberian Peninsula, besides that, the overseas territories were also displaying impressive economic growth and development rates from the 1920s onwards. Labour unions were not allowed and a minimum wage policy was not enforced, marcelo Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security. Heavy industry came to an abrupt halt, all sectors of the economy from manufacturing, mining, chemical, defence, finance, agriculture and fishing went into free fall. Portugal found itself overnight going from the country in Western Europe with the highest growth rate to the lowest – in fact it experienced several years of negative growth, after the Carnation Revolutions turmoil of 1974, the Portuguese economic basis changed deeply. The Portuguese economy had changed significantly by 1973 prior to the leftist military coup, in 1975, the year of maximum revolutionary turmoil, Portugals per capita GDP declined to 52.3 percent of the EC-12 average

123.
Energy in Portugal
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Energy in Portugal describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Portugal. Energy policy of Portugal will describe the politics of Portugal related to more in detail. Electricity sector in Portugal is the article of electricity in Portugal. Sines power plant started operation in 1985-1989 in Portugal, according to WWF its CO2 emissions were among the top dirty ones in Portugal in 2007. Maghreb–Europe Gas Pipeline is a gas pipeline, from Algeria through Morocco to Andalusia, Spain. Portugal has surported and increased the electricity and solar thermal energy during 2006-2010. Portugal was 9th in solar heating in the EU and 8th in solar power based on volume in 2010. There were no power plants in Portugal as of 2017. Electricity use was 51.2 TWh in 2008, Portugal imported 9 TWh electricity in 2008. In 2014 electricity was generated by 30% hydroelectricity, 27% natural gas, 22% wind, 20% coal, the sustainable strategy has been a shift from individual to collective transport within the Lisbon Metropolitan Area. The emissions per capita were, Portugal 5.58, India 1.38, China 5.83, Europe 7.14, Russia 11.23, North America 14.19, Singapore 34.59, nuclear energy in Portugal Renewable energy in Portugal

Energy in Portugal
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A Portuguese street lamp

124.
Transport in Portugal
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Transport in Portugal is well-developed and diversified. Portugal has a 68,732 km network of roads, of which almost 3,000 km are part of a 44 motorways system, Brisa is the largest highway management concessionaire. With 89,015 km2, Continental Portugal has 3 international airports located near Lisbon, Porto, the national railway system service is provided by Comboios de Portugal. The major seaports are located in Leixões, Aveiro, Figueira da Foz, Lisbon, Setúbal, Sines, in 1972, Brisa was to construct 390 km of roadways by the end of 1981. The first priority was a designated as A1, a 300 km stretch reaching from the capital of Lisbon north to Porto. This highway would become a link to the industrial activity in the north of the country. Construction also began on the A2, which was projected to reach from Lisbon to resort areas on the southern coast, two years after the establishment of Brisa, the right wing dictatorship was overthrown by a leftist revolution. The new regime included Brisa in a program of nationalization, first taking control of 40 percent of the company, road construction continued stretch by stretch under socialist control. As the first highway sections were completed on the A1 and A2, however, during the first years of democratic government, the combined length of the network never exceeded 300 km through the 1980s. Transportation was seen as a priority in the 1990s, pushed by the use of automobiles. After years of progress, the government began an extensive investment program to bring the transportation infrastructure up to date. While some funds were earmarked for railroad and subway companies, the largest share went to highways, Brisa received a direct capital injection of PTE17.7 billion in 1990. The investment was urgently needed, since traffic volume in Portugal was growing at a faster rate than any country in the European Union. Average daily traffic increased at a rate about 4.5 percent more than the gross domestic product each year between 1990 and 1996. The government kept up its program of annual investments, allowing Brisas network to grow from 300 km in 1990 to 600 km in 1995. The principal train operator in Portugal is Comboios de Portugal, rail infrastructure is maintained by REFER. In Portugal, Lisbon tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa, in Porto, a tram network, of three lines, began construction on 12 September 1895, the first in the Iberian Peninsula. All major cities and towns have their own urban transport network

125.
Demographics of Portugal
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In 2010 Portugal had 10,572,721 inhabitants. Portugal is a linguistically and religiously homogeneous country. Ethnically, the Portuguese people are mainly a combination of the proto-Celtic, Celtic and Iberian tribes, para-Celtic Lusitanians and others, with an amount of Roman. Today, many Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians, Russians and Bulgarians and these broader agglomerations are distinct from the political metropolitan areas of Lisbon and Porto - Grande Área Metropolitana de Lisboa and Grande Área Metropolitana do Porto. Together they hold 43% of the total population, ten largest urban areas Note, the following table does not include cities in the Portuguese islands of Madeira and Azores in mid-Atlantic. Portugal has 151 localities with city status, every city is included into a municipality. In some cases, the municipality and the city proper cover the same territory. Denotes the number of inhabitants in the municipality area, area is in km2, noun, Portuguese adjective, Portuguese The main language is Portuguese. Mirandês, is recognised, and has special protection in the area of Miranda do Douro. In 1992,1. 3% of the population was foreign, since 2003, most of the immigrants came from Brazil, China and the Indian subcontinent. Other immigrant nationalities in Portugal such as Croatians, Hungarians, Nigerians, Serbians and Venezuelans are on the rise, there is also a significant number of Western European residents in search of quality of life, namely British, German, French, and Dutch. In 2008, SEF, the foreigners and borders bureau, started using a new integrated information system, the foreign population grew 1% from 435,736 in 2007 to 440,277. One in four immigrants is Brazilian, anti-racism laws prohibit and penalize racial discrimination in housing, business, and health services. In 2007 approximately 332,137 legal immigrants live in the country, the country also has a resident Romani population of approximately 40,000 people. Discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, the law mandates access to public buildings and to newly built private buildings for such persons. The great majority of the Portuguese population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, religious observance remains somewhat strong in northern areas, with the population of Lisbon and southern areas generally less devout. Religious minorities include a little over 300,000 Protestants and Mormons, there are also about 50,000 Muslims and 10,000 Hindus. Most of them came from Goa, a former Portuguese colony on the west coast of India, there are also about 1,000 Jews

126.
Health in Portugal
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Health in Portugal is characterized by the existence of a high quality healthcare system, allowing the country to achieve good rankings in several health indexes. According to the latest Human Development Report, the life expectancy in 2014 was 80.0 years. Nonetheless it ranked number 27 as the most expensive per capita healthcare system, similar to the other Eur-A countries, most Portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases. Portuguese people die 12% less often from cancer than in the Eur-A, cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger than 44 years. Although lung cancer and breast cancer are scarcer, cancer of the cervix, Portugal has the highest mortality rate for diabetes in the Eur-A, with a sharp increase since the late 1980s. Portugal’s infant mortality rate has dropped sharply since the 1980s, when 24 of 1000 newborns died in the first year of life and it is now around 3 deaths per a 1000 newborns. This improvement was due to the decrease in neonatal mortality. People are usually well informed about their status, the positive and negative effects of their behaviour on their health. Yet their perceptions of their health can differ from what administrative, thus, survey results based on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and the use of services. Only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in Portugal and this is the lowest of the Eur-A countries reporting and reflects the relatively adverse situation of the country in terms of mortality and selected morbidity. In 2015 it was estimated that 13. 09% of the population has diabetes, in addition, about 25% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual funds. The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the SNS, the Health Regulatory Entity or ERS is the public independent entity responsible for the regulation of the activity of all the public, private and social healthcare providers. Portugal has been identified as a center of competence in health connected activities, with the potential to become a cluster of excellence with international vocation

Health in Portugal
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Hospital of Santa Maria, Lisbon.
Health in Portugal
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Champalimaud Foundation in Lisbon, a world class biomedical research institution and one of the founders of the HCP.
Health in Portugal
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SNS health center, Lourinhã
Health in Portugal
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SNS health extension in the village of Samuel, Soure municipality.

127.
Healthcare in Portugal
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In addition, about 25% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual funds. The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the SNS, the Health Regulatory Entity is the public independent entity responsible for the regulation of the activity of all the public, private and social healthcare providers. The National Health Service is the system by which the State assures the right to the health protection and it was created in 1979 and operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Health. The SNS is characterized as being national, universal, general and it is national as it should be provided nationwide, although presently it still only covers Continental Portugal. It is universal as all Portuguese citizens and foreign residents have access to it and it is free, as the system is public funded, with the health services being tendentiously free of charge for the users. However, some fees are charged, these not being used to finance the system but serve mainly to moderate, the system is managed by the Central Administration of the Health System and by the five regional health administrations. The regional health administrations are responsible for providing the services to the populations of their respective regions. Besides being public funded, the services provided by the SNS are mainly delivered by public health units. These include, Health centers groups - providing mainly primary health care to the local communities, each ACES congregates several health centers. There is at least one health center covering each municipality, each of which can have one or more external health extensions in its jurisdiction, the ACES include specialized units of family and personalized healthcare, community healthcare and public health, Hospital establishments - providing mainly secondary health care. Most hospitals are now part of a hospital center, which groups. The SNS has also conventions with private entities to provide healthcare services to its users. In the scope of their powers, the autonomous regions of the Azores and Madeira created their own separate regional health services. The Azorean government argued that the Azores SRS should be considered an extension of the SNS. The Azores SRS is managed by the secretary of Health and is organized in nine island health units. Each USI groups all the public healthcare establishments located in the island in a single administrative unit. There are two types of USI and those that groups both hospital and health centers are similar to the local health units of the SNS, providing both primary and secondary healthcare. USI that groups only health centers are similar to the health centers groups of the SNS, the Madeira SRS is managed by the regional secretary of Health

Healthcare in Portugal
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Hospital of Santa Maria, Lisbon.
Healthcare in Portugal
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Champalimaud Foundation in Lisbon, a world class biomedical research institution and one of the founders of the HCP.
Healthcare in Portugal
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SNS health center, Lourinhã
Healthcare in Portugal
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SNS health extension in the village of Samuel, Soure municipality.

128.
Housing in Portugal
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Housing in Portugal is generally similar to housing in the rest of Europe. Portugal has the highest rate of population in Western Europe. Another characteristic is that most of the population is actually suburban. The metropolitan areas of Lisbon and Porto each have over 2 million inhabitants, in these areas, families live in apartment blocs, each apartment usually having two bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and one or two bathrooms. Most properties have been built since the 1970s, and especially since the turn of the millennium and this caused historical areas of Lisbon, Porto and other cities to become depopulated, though the younger generations now have a growing interest on buying and repairing these old buildings. The trendy district of Bairro Alto, in Lisbon, is an example of this, another strange, but somewhat common sight in Portugal, are the Swiss-like chalets, built by Portuguese people who lived in Switzerland or Germany. However, in recent years, traditional architecture is more popular, over two thirds of all Portuguese property is owned by the resident. House renting is more common in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra and Aveiro, all of these cities having a number of students. Other areas where apartments are usually rent are sea resorts and the Algarve, as of 2006, it costs around 500€ to rent a T1 apartment in Lisbon, and 90. 000€ to buy the same house. These prices force young couples and families to live in suburbs like Amadora, Odivelas or Almada, however, luxury housing is an important market in Portugal, especially in the larger cities, as well as in Algarve, Cascais and the South Bank of the Tejo. All of the real estate market in Portugal is still recovering from a crisis, large projects of holiday housing featuring private beaches and golf resorts are very common in the South of the country. Real estate industry in Portugal usually divides housing units in two classes, apartments and separate houses, the apartments are classified in types T0, T1, T2, etc. that define the number of separate bedrooms. So a T0 means an apartment, while a T2 means an apartment with two separate bedrooms. Usually, T0 apartments have a kitchenette while T1 and above apartments usually have a kitchen as a separate room, when an apartment has additional small bedrooms, the quantity of these rooms appear in the typology after a +. Separate houses are classified, with a V prefix replacing the T. So. The typologies with higher and lower number of housing units are respectively the T3, by the order of percentages, the typologies are, T3, T2, T4, T5, T1 and T0

Housing in Portugal
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Styles

129.
Portuguese people
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Portuguese people are an ethnic group indigenous to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and their predominant religion is Christianity, Portuguese people were a key factor to the Age of Exploration, discovering several lands unknown to the Europeans in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, helping to pave the way for Globalization. There are around 10 million native Portuguese in Portugal, out of a population of 10.34 million. A small minority of about 15,000 speak the Mirandese language, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, all of the speakers are bilingual with Portuguese. An even smaller minority of no more than 2,000 people speak Barranquenho, some people from the former colonies have been migrating to Portugal since the 1900s. More recently, a number of Slavs, especially Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians and Russians. There is also a Chinese minority, in addition, there is a small minority Gypsies of about 40,000 people, Muslims about 34,000 people and an even smaller minority of Jews of about 5,000 people. Between 1886 and 1966, Portugal lost to more than any West European country except Ireland. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, about 40 million Brazilians have relatively recent Portuguese background, due to massive immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. About 1.2 million Brazilian citizens are native Portuguese, significant verified Portuguese minorities exist in several countries. Portuguese Sephardic Jews are also in Israel, the Netherlands, the United States, France, Venezuela, Brazil, in Brazil many of the colonists were also originally Sephardic Jews, who, converted, were known as New Christians. In the United States, there are Portuguese communities in New Jersey, the New England states, in the Pacific, Hawaii has a sizable Portuguese element that goes back 150 years, Australia and New Zealand also have Portuguese communities. Canada, particularly Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia, has developed a significant Portuguese community since 1940, argentina and Uruguay had Portuguese immigration in the early 20th century. So has Chile where an estimated 50,000 descendants live, an estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the countrys African possessions gained independence in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution, while others moved to Brazil and South Africa. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Equatorial Guinea, in 1989 some 4,000,000 Portuguese were living abroad, mainly in France, Germany, Brazil, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Canada, Venezuela, and the United States. Portuguese constitute 13% of the population of Luxembourg, in areas such as Thetford and the crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, the Portuguese form the largest ethnic minority groups at 30% of the population, 20% and 3% respectively. The British capital London is home to the largest number of Portuguese people in the UK, with the majority being found in the boroughs of Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth and Westminster. The Portuguese diaspora communities still are very attached to their language, their culture and their national dishes, in colonial times, over 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, and most of them went there during the gold rush of the 18th century

Portuguese people
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Portuguese men playing Fado
Portuguese people
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Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red). See also this map for distribution in Europe.
Portuguese people
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Sign and frame about Portuguese immigration inside one subway station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Portuguese people
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Passport of an immigrant from the Braga District to Brazil

130.
Time in Portugal
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Portugal has two time zones and observes daylight saving time. Continental Portugal and Madeira use UTC+00,00, while the Azores use UTC–01,00, in the early 19th century, Portugal adopted mean solar time. Navy and Coimbra Astronomical Observatories calculated solar time to be used as time in their longitude regions. Thus, in practice, Portuguese standard time was defined as the solar time at Lisbon Observatory longitude. In 1911, it was agreed that standard time in Portugal should be defined in accordance with the 1884 prime meridian system and these time zones were adopted on 1 January 1912. Daylight saving time was observed for the first time in 1916, during World War I, in that year, DST was observed from 17 June to 1 November but in following years until 1921, it was observed from 1 June to 14 October. DST continued to be observed every year in 1920s and 1930s, although some small interruptions had occurred, as well as DST’s start, situation returned to normality after 1945, with the end of World War II, and normal DST continued to be observed. In 1948, it was approved that DST should be observed from the first Sunday in April to the first Sunday in October, from 1966 on, DST started to be observed year-round, so that, in practice, Portugal changed its time zone from WET to CET. Furthermore, in the 1970s, the idea of reintroducing DST as an energy saving measure gained strength in Europe as well as in Portugal, so, in 1976, Portugal adopted WET as its standard time. DST started to be observed every year as WEST usually from early April to later September, from 1981 on, DST started to be observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in September. In 1986, time in Portugal began to be calculated in accordance with UTC, in 1992, during Cavaco Silva government, by Decree-Law 124/92, mainland Portugal officially changed its time zone from WET to CET. CEST began to be observed as DST, from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in September, obviously, children also began the school day in darkness, with repercussions on their standards of learning, school performance and sleep habits. It was even common that children fall asleep on the morning classes. Concerns also emerged concerns about the effect of the coincidence of rush hours with the hottest hours of the day on air pollution. Furthermore, an increase in the number of assaults on children in the morning was observed, due to all of these concerns and complaints, it became clear that situation could not continue much longer without a new analysis. In December 1995, the government commissioned a report to Lisbon Observatory on the issue of Portuguese standard time, in 1996, new legislation was approved. By Decree-Law 17/96, mainland Portugal returned to the WET time zone, DST would continue to be observed as WEST from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October, thus adopting EU rules regarding DST. In 1996 Portugal adopted ISO8601 via EN28601 as NP EN28601,1996, the Astronomical Observatory of Lisbon publishes the official time via the Network Time Protocol, e. g. via ntp02. oal. ul. pt and ntp04. oal. ul. pt

Time in Portugal
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Time zones in Europe, UTC+00:00 in blue. Darker shades indicate use of DST. Azores and Madeira islands are not shown.

131.
Portuguese cuisine
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Despite being relatively restricted to an Atlantic sustenance, Portuguese cuisine has many Mediterranean influences. Portuguese cuisine is famous for seafood, the influence of Portugals former colonial possessions is also notable, especially in the wide variety of spices used. These spices include piri piri and black pepper, as well as cinnamon, vanilla, olive oil is one of the bases of Portuguese cuisine, which is used both for cooking and flavouring meals. Garlic is widely used, as are herbs, such as bay leaf, a Portuguese breakfast often consists of fresh bread, with butter, ham, cheese or jam, accompanied with coffee, milk, tea or hot chocolate. A small espresso coffee is a popular beverage had during breakfast. Sweet pastries are very popular, as well as breakfast cereal, mixed with milk or yogurt. Lunch, often lasting over an hour, is served between noon and 2 oclock or between 1 and 3 oclock, and dinner is served late, around or after 8 oclock. There are three courses, with lunch and dinner usually including a soup. A common Portuguese soup is caldo verde, which is made with potato, shredded kale, among fish recipes, salted cod dishes are pervasive. The most typical desserts are arroz doce and caramel custard, there is also a wide variety of cheeses, usually made from the milk of sheep, goats or cows. These cheeses can also contain a mixture of different kinds of milk, the most famous are queijo da serra from the region of Serra da Estrela, Queijo São Jorge from the Portuguese island of São Jorge, and Requeijão. A popular pastry is the pastel de nata, a custard tart often sprinkled with cinnamon. Portugal is a nation with a well-developed fishing industry and this is reflected in the amount of fish. The country has Europes highest fish consumption per capita and is among the top four in the world for this indicator, fish is served grilled, boiled, fried or deep-fried, stewed, roasted, or even steamed. Foremost amongst these is bacalhau, which is the type of fish most consumed in Portugal and it is said that there are more than 365 ways to cook cod, one for every day of the year. The simpler fish dishes are often flavoured with olive oil. Portugal has been fishing and trading cod since the 15th century, caldeirada is a stew consisting of a variety of fish and shellfish with potatoes, tomatoes and onions. Sardines used to be preserved in brine for sale in rural areas, later, sardine canneries developed all along the Portuguese coast

132.
Symbols of Portugal
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The symbols of Portugal are official and unofficial flags, icons or cultural expressions that are emblematic, representative or otherwise characteristic of Portugal and of its culture. The present national flag of Portugal was introduced after the establishment of the regime in the 5 October 1910 Revolution. It is the latest in a series of flags since the 12th century. The present flag is referred as the Bandeira Verde-Rubra. The national flag was confirmed as a national symbol in the Portuguese Constitution of 1976. The National Cockade of Portugal is red and green, with this last color occupying the center, for a while, the cockade served also as the roundel of the Portuguese military aircraft, latter being replaced by the cross of the Order of Christ. However, today, the cockade is used and largely forgotten. A Portuguesa is the anthem of Portugal. It was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de Mendonça during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the 1890 British Ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies. The Hino da Carta had in turn replaced in 1834, the Hino Patriótico, the A Portuguesa was constitutionally confirmed as a national symbol in the Portuguese Constitution of 1976. Belém Tower is a tower located in the civil parish of Belém in Lisbon. The tower was built in the early 16th century and is a prominent example of the Portuguese Manueline style, by its characteristics, is one of the most distinctive monuments of the world and thus considered an icon of Portugal. Os Lusíadas is a poem written by Camões in the 16th century. It is regarded as Portugals national epic, fado is a mainly melancholic music genre which can be traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier origins. There are two varieties, the Lisbon fado and the Coimbra fado. It is considered the music genre of Portugal, with Amália Rodrigues its queen. The Calçada portuguesa is a traditional style pavement used for many areas in Portugal, while it can also be found throughout former Portuguese colonies such as Brazil. The quercus suber, commonly called the oak, is a medium-sized

133.
Portuguese Naval School
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The Portuguese Naval School is an higher education level naval academy in Alfeite, Portugal. The School offers university and polytechnical graduate programmes intended to train the officers of the Portuguese Navy. It also offers postgraduate programmes, these open to civilians, as well to naval. The Naval School is located in the Lisbon Naval Base premises, located on the bank of the Tagus river. The present Portuguese Naval School was created in the 18th century as the Royal Academy of the Midshipmen, in 1782, the Company of Midshipmen was created to frame and train the midshipmen of the Portuguese Navy. The Company of Midshipmen was installed in the building of the Naval Arsenal of Lisbon, the Royal Academy of the Midshipmen was created in 1792, as a university-level naval academy. This Academy integrated the already existing Company of Midshipmen as its student corps, in 1807, the Army of Napoleon invaded Portugal. The Royal Academy of the Midshipmen and its Company of Midshipmen also embark in the fleet that carries the Royal Court to Brazil and are installed in Rio de Janeiro. In 1823, one following the independence of Brazil, the faculty. Those that chose the Portuguese nationality returned to Portugal and the others remained in Brazil, then, two academies come into existence, the Imperial Academy of Midshipmen in the Empire of Brazil and the Royal Academy of Midshipmen in the Kingdom of Portugal. The Portuguese Royal Academy of Midshipment was reorganized in 1845, becoming the Naval School