Cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to treat cancer. There are three main groups of immunotherapy used to treat cancer: cell-based therapies, antibody therapies and cytokine therapies. They all exploit the fact that cancer cells often have subtly different molecules on their surface that can be detected by the immune system. These molecules, known as cancer antigens, are most commonly proteins but also include other molecules such as carbohydrates. Immunotherapy is used to provoke the immune system into attacking the tumor cells by using these cancer antigens as targets.

Blood cells are removed from the body, incubated with tumour antigen(s) and activated. Mature dendritic cells are then returned to the original cancer-bearing donor to induce an immune response.

Dendritic cell therapy comprises a group of methods that provoke anti-tumor responses by causing dendritic cells to present tumor antigens. Dendritic cells present antigens to lymphocytes, which activates them, priming them to kill cells which also present the antigen. They are utilised in cancer treatment to specifically target cancer antigens.[3] This group of cell-based therapy boasts the only approved treatment for cancer, Sipuleucel-T.

One method of inducing dendritic cells to present tumor antigens is by vaccination with short peptides (small parts of protein that correspond to the protein antigens on cancer cells). These peptides on their own do not stimulate a strong immune response and may be given in combination with highly immunogenic substances known as adjuvants. This provokes a strong response to the adjuvant being used, while also producing a (sometimes) robust anti-tumor response by the immune system. Other adjuvants being used are proteins or other chemicals that attract and/or activate dendritic cells, such as granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Dendritic cells can also be activated within the body (in vivo) by making tumour cells to express (GM-CSF). This can be achieved by either genetically engineering tumor cells that produce GM-CSF or by infecting tumor cells with an oncolytic virus that expresses GM-CSF.

Another strategy used in dendritic cell therapy is to remove dendritic cells from the blood of a person with cancer and activate them outside the body (ex vivo). The dendritic cells are activated in the presence of tumor antigens, which may be a single tumor specific peptide/protein or a tumor cell lysate (a solution of broken down tumor cells). These activated dendritic cells are put back into the body where they provoke an immune response to the cancer cells. Adjuvants are sometimes used systemically to increase the anti-tumor response provided by ex vivo activated dendritic cells. More modern dendritic cell therapies include the use of antibodies that bind to receptors on the surface of dendritic cells. Antigens can be added to the antibody and can induce the dendritic cells to mature and provide immunity to the tumor. Dendritic cell receptors such as TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 or CD40 have been used as targets by antibodies to produce immune responses.[3]

Antibodies are a key component of the adaptive immune response, playing a central role in both in the recognition of foreign antigens and the stimulation of an immune response to them. It is not surprising therefore, that many immunotherapeutic approaches involve the use of antibodies. The advent of monoclonal antibody technology has made it possible to raise antibodies against specific antigens such as the unusual antigens that are presented on the surfaces of tumors.

Naked monoclonal antibodies are antibodies without modification. Most of the currently used antibodies therapies fall into this category.

Conjugated monoclonal antibodies are joined to another molecule, which is either toxic to cells or radioactive. The toxic chemicals are usually routinely used chemotherapy drugs but other toxins can be used. The antibody binds to specific antigens on the surface of cancer cells and directs the drug or radiation to the tumor. Radioactive compound-linked antibodies are referred to as radiolabelled. If the antibodies are labelled with chemotherapy or toxins, they are known as chemolabelled or immunotoxins, respectively.

Antibodies are also referred to as murine, chimeric, humanized and human. Murine antibodies were the first type of antibody to be produced, and they carry a great risk of immune reaction by the recipient because the antibodies are from a different species. Chimeric antibodies were the first attempt to reduce the immunogenicity of these antibodies. They are murine antibodies with a specific part of the antibody replaced with the corresponding human counterpart, known as the constant region. Humanized antibodies are almost completely human; only the complementarity determining regions of the variable regions are derived from murine antibodies. Human antibodies have a completely human amino acid sequence.[9]

Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) is a mechanism of attack by the immune system that requires the presence of antibodies bound to the surface of target cells. Antibodies are formed of a binding region (Fab) and the Fc region that can be detected by immune cells via Fc receptors on their surface. These Fc receptors are found on the surface of many cells of the immune system, including natural killer cells. When a natural killer cells encounter cells coated with antibodies, the Fc regions interact with their Fc receptors, leading to the release of perforin and granzyme B. These two chemicals lead to the tumor cell initiating programmed cell death (apoptosis). Antibodies known to induce this method of cell killing include Rituximab, Ofatumumab, Trastuzumab, Cetuximab and Alemtuzumab. Third generation antibodies that are currently being developed have altered Fc regions that have higher affinity for a specific type of Fc receptor, FcγRIIIA, which can increase the rate of ADCC dramatically.[10][11]

The complement system comprises a number of blood proteins that can cause cell death after an antibody binds to the cell surface (this is the classical complement pathway, other ways of complement activation do exist). Generally the system is employed to deal with foreign pathogens but can be activated by the use of therapeutic antibodies in cancer. The system can be triggered if the antibody is chimeric, humanized or human; containing the IgG1Fc region. Complement can lead to cell death by activation of the membrane attack complex, known as complement-dependent cytotoxicity; enhancement of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; and CR3-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Complement-dependent cytotoxicity occurs when antibodies bind to the cancer cell surface, the C1 complex binds to these antibodies and subsequently protein pores are formed in the cancer cell membrane.[12]

Antibodies that bind to molecules on the surface of the cancer cells, or bind to molecules in the blood can affect cell signalling in various ways. The antibodies can bind to a receptor and prevent binding from external proteins, peptides or small molecules that would normally bind to the receptor (called ligands). Receptors that have been extensively researched for antibody targeting are growth factor receptors (targeted by Cetuximab and Trastuzumab). Antibodies can also bind the ligands themselves such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF); involved in blood vessel formation. Bevacizumab is a clinically used antibody that binds VEGF. These receptor-ligand interactions may be essential for the cancer cell to survive, so blocking them can induce the death of these cancer cells. Antibodies like these are known as antagonists, but antibodies can also activate signalling by binding to receptors, then they are known as agonists. One signalling pathway that is activated by antibodies is the programmed cell death (apoptosis) pathway.[8]

Bevacizumab (Avastin) is a humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody which binds to vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), referred to commonly as VEGF without a suffix. Normally VEGF will bind to the VEGF-receptor on the cell's surface, activating signalling pathways within blood vessel endothelial cells. A marked increase in VEGF expression within the tumor environment stimulates the production of blood vessels, a process known as angiogenesis, which is essential for growth of a tumor. These blood vessels, however, are not formed well and lead to poor blood flow in the tumor, which also affects drug delivery to cancer cells.[36][37][38]

Bevacizumab binds to and physically blocks VEGF, preventing receptor activation, known as steric interference. Bevacizumab's action on VEGF has three possible effects on tumor vasculature: it may cause microvessels to regress; it can normalise tumor blood vessels, allowing better delivery of other drugs to the tumor; and it can prevent the formation of new vasculature. Normalisation of faulty vessels may be the reason why Bevacizumab is particularly effective in combination with conventional drugs.[37][38][39]

Cetuximab functions by competitively inhibiting ligand binding, thereby preventing EGFR activation and subsequent cellular signalling. It also induces ADCC and leads to increased levels of a protein known as Bax, which activates programmed cell death (apoptosis). KRAS, a down-stream protein of the EGFR, may be mutated in some cases of cancer and remains constitutively active, irrespective of EGFR blocking. Cetuximab is only effective in the treatment of colorectal cancers with wild-type (unmutated) KRAS genes, which includes approximately 40% of cases.[35][40]

The antibody binds to the CD33 antigen, which is found on the surface of immature precursor cells (myeloblasts) in AML in approximately 80% of cases. The antibody is liked to a chemical derivative of calicheamicin, (N-acetyl-γ calicheamicin 1,2-dimethyl hydrazine dichloride) which is highly toxic to cells due to its ability to bind to DNA. Because the antibody is an IgG4 isotype, it doesn't activate antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity or complement-mediated cytotoxicity, but instead is internalised into the cancer cells. Inside lysozomes within the cell, the pH is very acidic (approximately pH 4) causing the release of the calicheamicin from the antibody. Once released it is activated and free to bind to DNA, which leads to breakage of DNA and subsequent cell death.[44]

Ibritumomab tiuxetan. The chemical structure of tiuxetan is shown with its linking point to Ibritumomab. The radioisotope 90Y binds to the tiuxetan chelating agent.

Ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin) is a murine anti-CD20 antibody chemically linked to a chelating agent that binds the radioisotopeyttrium-90 (90Y). It is used to treat a specific type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, which is a tumor of B-cells. The antibody target, CD20, is primarily expressed on the surface of B-cells which allows the 90Y to emit a targeted dose of beta radiation to the tumor. 90Y has a half-life of 64 hours (2.67 days) and a tissue penetration of 1-5 millimetres (90% of its energy is absorbed within a 5.3mm sphere). Ibritumomab tiuxetan and the radioisotope are obtained separately and mixed shortly before administration. The tiuxetan chelating agent attached to the antibody binds the radioisotope forming the active drug.[47][48]

Active cytotoxic T-cells are required for the immune system to attack melanoma cells. By blocking CTLA4 with ipilumumab, active melanoma-specific cytotoxic T-cells that would normally be inhibited can produce an effective anti-tumor response. Also, ipilumumab can cause a shift in the ratio of regulatory T-cells to cytotoxic T-cells. Regulatory T-cells inhibit other T-cells, which may act to the benefit of the tumor so increasing the amount of cytotoxic T-cells and decreasing the regulatory T-cells is another mechanism in which ipilumumab increases the anti-tumor response.[49][50][51][52]

Nimotuzumab is a chimeric human-mouse anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody invented in Cuba that has been developed by several companies through an extensive out-licensing program.[53] It has been approved for squamous cell carcinoma in head and neck (SCCHN) in India, Cuba, Argentina, Colombia, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ukraine, Peru and Sri Lanka; for glioma (pediatric and adult) in Cuba, Argentina, Philippines and Ukraine; for nasopharyngeal cancer in China and has been granted orphan drug status for glioma in USA and for glioma and pancreatic cancer in Europe.[54] It was in several Phase I and II clinical trials in other indications as of 2014.[55]

Ofatumumab is a second generation human IgG1 antibody that binds to CD20. It is used in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) because the cancerous cells of CLL are usually CD20-expressing B-cells. Unlike Rituximab, which binds to a large loop of the CD20 protein, Ofatumumab binds to a separate small loop. This may be the reason for the two drug's different characteristics. Compared to Rituximab, Ofatumumab induces complement-dependent cytotoxicity at a lower dose and has less immunogenicity.[56][57]

Cytokines are a broad group of proteins produced by many types of cells present within a tumor. They have the ability to modulate immune responses and are often utilised by the tumor to allow it to grow and manipulate the immune response. These immune-modulating effects allow them to be used as drugs to provoke an immune response against the tumor. Two commonly used groups of cytokines are the interferons and interleukins.[71]

Cancer specific T-cells can be obtained by fragmentation and isolation of tumour infiltrating lymphocytes, or by genetically engineering cells from peripheral blood. The cells are activated and grown prior to transfusion into the recipient (tumour bearer).

Adoptive T-cell therapy is form of passive immunization by the transfusion of T-cells, which are cells of the immune system. They are found in blood and tissue and usually activate when they find foreign pathogens. Specifically they activate when the T-cell's surface receptors encounter other cells that display small parts of foreign proteins on their surface MHC molecules, known as antigens. These can be either infected cells, or specialised immune cells known as antigen presenting cells (APCs). They are found in normal tissue and in tumor tissue, where they are known as tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). They are activated by the presence of APCs, such as dendritic cells that present tumor antigens to the T-cells. Although these cells have the capability of attacking the tumor, the environment within the tumor is highly immunosuppressive, preventing immune-mediated tumour death.[76]

There are multiple ways of producing and obtaining tumour targeted T-cells. T-cells specific to a tumor antigen can either be removed from a tumor sample (TILs) or T-cells can be removed from the blood. Subsequent activation and expansion of these cells is performed outside the body (ex vivo) and then they are transfused into the recipient. Activation can take place through gene therapy, or by exposing the T cells to tumor antigens. Although research has made major advances in this form of therapy, there is no approved adoptive T-cell therapy as yet.[76][77]

As of 2014, several clinical trials for ACT were underway; initial clinical trials showing complete remission of leukemia in some patients in two small clinical trials, announced in December 2013, generated tremendous commercial and clinical interest.[78][79][80][81][82]

Another approach is adoptive transfer of haploidentical γδ T cells or NK cells from the healthy donor. Major advantage of this approach is that these cells do not cause GVHD. The disadvantage is a frequent impaired function of the transferred cells.[83]

Anti-CD47 antibodies, which block the protein CD47 from telling the cancer's host human immune system not to attack it, have been shown to eliminate or inhibit the growth of a wide range of cancers and tumors in laboratory tests on cells and mice. CD47 is present on many cancer cells and on many healthy cells. After the cancer cells have been engulfed by macrophages, the host immune system's CD8+ T Cells become mobilized against the cancer and attack it on their own in addition to the macrophages, producing an attack on the cancer cells.[84]

A ligand-receptor interaction that has been investigated as a target for cancer treatment is the interaction between the transmembrane programmed cell death 1 protein (PDCD1, PD-1; also known as CD279) and its ligand, PD-1 ligand 1 (PD-L1, CD274). In normal physiology PD-L1 on the surface of a cell binds to PD1 on the surface of an immune cell, which inhibits the activity of the immune cell. It appears that upregulation of PD-L1 on the cancer cell surface may allow them to evade the host immune system by inhibiting T cells that might otherwise attack the tumor cell. Antibodies that bind to either PD-1 or PD-L1 and therefore block the interaction may allow the T-cells to attack the tumor. Initial clinical trial results with an IgG4 PD1 antibody called Nivolumab were published in 2010.[86]

Starting with the FDA approval in 2010 of the therapeutic vaccine sipuleucel-T (Provenge) for prostate cancer and, in 2011, of ipilimumab (Yervoy) for melanoma,[91] public awareness of cancer immunotherapy has increased thanks to a growing number of mainstream news articles covering this field of cancer therapy.[92][93][94]