The Niagara River and its
environment has a long history of tributes to the uniquenessand the scientific and public value of its
botanical resources. The islands residing in the Niagara River between the
two cataracts, the American and Canadian, or British Falls, were set aside
(as The Niagara Reservation) in 1885, and, contemporaneously, the Queen
Victoria Niagara Falls Park in Canada, the crest of the River at and around
the cataracts above and below them. The value of these resources was attested
to by the distinguished American and British botanists Asa Gray, of HarvardUniversity, and Joseph Dalton Hooker,
Director of the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens. The political justification to the
New YorkState legislature for the creation of
the Reservation was articulated by Frederick Law Olmsted. The Niagara
Reservation was established by the State of New York
and was and is the first continuously operating State Park in the United States, arguably the origin for State
and ProvincialParks
systems throughout the United States
and adjacent Canada and
the foundation for subsequent parks and preserves throughout the State of New York.

The nationally and internationally recognized biological
resources of the Niagara River environment have been severely compromised
throughout the years since the establishment of the Niagara Reservation,
leaving challenges for the stewardship and custodianship of these areas on
both sides of the River. One of the most serious challenges is the control of
noxious species and the absence of functional policy commitment and resource
allocation for this control by the governments involved in the Niagara River area.

It was while hiking along the gorge of the Niagara River in 2011 that a station of what the author
knew to be an invasive species was observed. It was a Mother Site, that is, a
location in a relatively pristine natural area with a species population with
a main individual at its center and descendent individuals radiating outward
from it from oldest in the center, to youngest on the periphery. Numerous
Mother Sites for different invasive species can be identified all along the Niagara River gorge and adjacent environment on both
sides of the River.

The species was Phytolacca
americana
L. (Pokeweed). This species, like Aster
pilosus, is native to western New York
and, unlike A. pilosus, has a long
history of occurrence in the Niagara River gorge and vicinity, including Goat Island, being found there on August 1, 1862 by
George W. Clinton - a time when its rich purple fruits would be evident.
Since then it has been found around Lake Erie, in the Queenston area, Niagara
Glen, Lewiston,
LaSalle and so on. Zenkert (1934) reported it as “Rather common” on the
“edges of moist woods, in clearings, pastures, and along hillsides in various
soils; sparse to rather abundant.” It is associated with disturbed soils. The
large perennial, fleshy taproot is poisonous, according to Voss (1985), and
the rest of the plant is variously edible if used with a knowledge of how to
destroy the toxic elements, as the juice of the raw fruit is a powerful
purgitive.

In the Niagara gorge
flora, I have used the species as an indicator of disturbance, and also as an
indicator of conditions conducive to the introduction and spread of other
invasive species. Its presence is an indication that there is a threat to the
native plant community. It is listed as an invasive and noxious weed by the
USDA. According to the Ohio Perennial & Biennial Weed Guide (OPBWG) the
plant is poisonous in all of its parts to humans, pets and livestock, and the
roots are the most toxic.

General Methods

Site work took place on Saturday, November 26, beginning
at 12:00 PM ending at 4:00 PM, or approximately four hours..

Activity took place in light, brightly overcast,
unseasonably warm, but still cool conditions, suggesting an extended season
of growth for the year 2011.

Tools used included secateurs, a heavy metal shovel, a heavy
pitch-fork, a trowel to pull away loose soil from the roots, several large,
durable plastic bags, smaller durable bags to collect and retain any fruit or
seed material, a camera to record activity and results. Gloves were used at
all times to prevent toxic plant juices from skin contact. Care was taken
when drinking from water bottles to prevent inadvertent ingestion of toxic
emetic, purgative plant juices.

Care must be taken with any chopping tool (such as a
shovel) that the roots are not fragmented. Some web sites suggest that only
the top crowns of the root need be removed, but others have reported new
shoots arising from root fragments left behind in the soil. Every attempt was
made to remove the entire below-ground structure.

Due to the significance and cultural importance of the
biota of the site, invasive plant removal must be careful, as though one were
removing material from an archeological site.

Bags and tools were kept close to the stems being
extricated to avoid migration of plant parts.

For several days the area had been subjected to rather
heavy seasonal rains. The Thursday and Friday (24th and 25th November) were
clear. There was no precipitation on Saturday the 26th, nor the 27th. The
soil at the site was thus saturated and rather loose, hence relatively easy
to manipulate and to prevent root pieces from remaining and possibly
regrowing.

In November, much of the fruit of Phytolacca americana
had set and dropped into the surrounding soil. Although what fruit and their
seeds existed were carefully collected in bags for later disposal, it was
clear that, by November, much seed had already dropped down to the soil
surface.

The stems of the plants are succulent, with chambered
pith, and deciduous down to the ground. Many had been bleached of pigment
(from their ordinary bright purple color) and were at first inconspicuous,
and difficult to see as an apical portion of large underground roots. Several
plants had only the main stem remaining, the branching upper parts with their
fruit already rotted away. It is likely that after a few more weeks, the
stems would have rotted quite down to the green buds at the apex of the thick
underground root and the population would have been otherwise undetectable
during the winter months.

Although a wet November is recommended as a good time to
remove the large, carrot-like roots, the colorful deep purple fruit-clusters
should have been removed earlier in the season at a time to be determined: in
Chautauqua County in the southern tier of western New York, anthesis is
stated as July 7 with fruit on August 2 (Eaton and Schrot 1987). The August
date for collecting the seed for removal is reinforced by Farmer and Hall
(1970), see also Steinbauer and Grigsby (1956).

The area is along a weedy approach from the top of the
trail from the parking area below the Robert Moses Overpass just south of the
LowerArchRailroadBridge off Whirlpool Street
in the City of Niagara Falls, New York. The property is owned by the New York
State Power Authority interrupted by the privately owned property associated
with the Bridge. The area is close to the old Custom’s House facing the
bridge. All associated areas are under active development. The old bolts from
the Suspension Bridge, a structure that existed prior to the present RailroadBridge, were evident in the boulders
and rock faces.

The gorge and portions of the Robert Moses Parkway are maintained by
the New York State Department of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation.
The gorge trail system is being developed and maintained by the New York
State Department of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, the New York
Power Authority and the Department of the Interior of the federal government.

The top of new trail down to base of gorge: the trail is covered
by gravel over a manufactured kind of cloth that reduces erosion on the path,
which is relatively steep. The path appears to have been prepared by a small
bulldozer. The upper portion of the path leads down rather gradually along
the top of the talus slope, along the base and face of the dolomite caprock,
terminating before a man-made opening in the caprock that is faced with a
metal door and lock. From the emanation of sewage odors it is presumed that
this door is associated with a CSO (Combined Sewer Outlet) associated with
drainage in the urban areas adjacent to the bridge and parkway.A small area of seepage from the caprock
was evident on the first leg of the descent that crossed the path, but which
is probably not evident except after precipitation.

All path areas occur on natural talus rubble and soils
except in the first leg from the gorge rim. A heap of transported soil is
associated with the CSO which constitutes transported soil mixed with rubble (rubbish
constituted of old bricks, old broken glass) and large angular talus cobbles
mostly less than 12” on the longest side, coupled with black cinder covering
all and exposed at the surface. It is assumed that this rubble was deposited
some years ago to form a path down to the CSO, which displays signs of
trampling in the weeds in front of the door indicating the door is in
relatively frequent and recent use. The CSO door is located at the top of the
talus slope and is associated with the dolomite caprock. A heap or deposit of
transported soil at the CSO door together with the rubble indicates that the
soil was accumulated in a weedy waste area and deposited at the site to form
a path down to the CSO.

The approach on the first leg of the trail leading down to
the CSO is dense with a weedy flora of non native species. Species noticed in
November included: Alliaria officinalis
(Garlic Mustard), Arctium minor (Burdock), Chrysanthemum parthenium (Feverfew), Dactylis glomerata (Orchard Grass), Daucus carota (Queen-Anne’s Lace), Hesperis matronalis (Dame’s
Rocket), Nepeta cataria (Catnip), ), Poa interior (Interior Meadow-grass), Panicum capillare (Witch-grass), Rubus idaeus (European Red
Raspberry), Solanum dulcamara
(Bitter Nightshade), basal rosettes of Verbascum
thapsus. Aster pilosus (Old Field Aster) may be considered to be native
to the area. Since 1934, when it was not reported by Zenkert for the area in
a fifty mile radius around a point in the City of Buffalo,
it has increased its presence in the local Niagara
flora as if it were an invasive species.

A large shrub of Ligustrum
sp. (Privet) at least five years or more old grew at the cliff base, with no
descendents observed. Also Rhamnus
cathartica (Buckthorn). Rosa canina
(Dog Rose), grew about the path, a shrub species in the gorge usually
associated with plantation. The most common alien weed, becoming more
frequent toward the CSO door was Leonurus
cardiaca (Motherwort) in the Mint family (Lamiaceae-Labiatae).

The only species of plant considered rare in New YorkState at the site were populations of Pellaea glabella, which grew on a
different substrate and were in no detectable way affected or disturbed by
removal of the Pokeweed population.

From the CSO door the path makes a sharp right and plunges
steeply downward to the buolder-field along the path at the base of the
gorge. A steel cable is affixed to boulders to assist the hiker up and down
the talus slope.

The Pokeweed area is directly in front of the CSO door. No
plants of Pokeweed were found either on the approaches to or descent from the
gorge rim. Examination of the rim or crest of the gorge directly above the
Pokeweed-CSO site and beneath the overpass of the Robert Moses Expressway
revealed a wooded vegetation remarkably clean of alien weeds (and garbage),
comprised mostly of grasses and Solidago
altissima, Solidago flexicaulis, with an Arctium minus plant and a liliaceous weed that may have been
planted. Old patches of Vinca minor
(Periwinkle) were present. Some Phragmites occurred due to a slight seepage
amid the grasses.

The largest individual of the Pokeweed population was
surrounded by ‘haloes’ of younger, smaller plants extending out from the
central plant in front of the CSO door. Seven large Pokeweed plants were
removed at the end of the path leading from the crest to the CSO door.

All native soils on the lower talus slopes seem relatively
clean in comparison with the weedy path approach, and filled with native
plant species, in November, mostly Solidago
and Aster species, as on the
gorge crest above, particularly,Solidago flexicaulis and S. altissima, Rhus toxicodendron (Poison Ivy), and some Polymnia canadensis (Small-flowered Leafcup),all typical of the talus slopes in this area, except for
occasional stems of Verbena urticifolia
(White Vervain), which was rather unexpected.

The only other species with bright berries present at the
site were the red berries of Solanum
dulcamara (Bitter Nightshade).

Before Pokeweed removal, the large plants formed a screen
in front of the CSO door, concealing it, which may have been part of an
intention to establish it there.

Results

A total of 57 roots and four seedling roots were removed
during a period from 12:06 PM to 4:00 PM, or around four hours.

The area involved was approximately 20’X 5’ cleared, or
100 square feet.

If in three hours, a 100 sq.ft.’ area was cleared, then 33
sq. ft. per hour = 1/2 square foot per minute.

All above-ground parts and their associated below-ground parts
were removed from the population of Pokeweed located in front of the CSO
door.Care was taken to remove the
root tips in the below-grown root system. All fruits remaining on the stems
were removed. All plant materials were bagged and removed from the site and
disposed of in city trash containers. At the end of the day, there was no
evidence that this population had existed at the site and all signs of
disturbance had been removed.

No other species of plant was disturbed other than a few
plants of the abundant Leonurus
cardiaca (Motherwort) with which the Pokeweed was growing.

Examination of areas peripheral to the population, above
it on the gorge crest and below it at the base of the gorge were examined for
additional populations of Pokeweed, and none could be identified. The
eradicated population seemed relatively new and quite mature, probably
producing fruit for at least one season (and probably several) before the
2011 season. Several rather large stems that occurred with their fruiting
tops gone were removed.

Seven additional medium-sized plants were removed on both
sides of the path just up from the main population (total of ca. 14 stems).

Discussion

Due to the historical and cultural values associated with
the biota of the site, the attitude to adopt when manipulating the biota of
the site is curatorial (something akin to cleaning and clearing an
archaeological site) to preserve the valuable elements of the plant community
and the natural environment. It was also important to restore the site to a
clean condition as it was and is being used by the public.

The Niagara gorge alone is a 14 - mile combined biological
environment, with seven miles in Canada
and seven in the United
States. Within this patchwork and
discontinuous environment are many areas needing custodial attention. The
purpose of the removal of this one species, among so many needing removal,
was to document the resources required to achieve success in this one site
with one particular species. Any concept of plant community restoration at
the Niagara lands would require an effort
such as this one. Preservation can be achieved one site at a time, one
species at a time.

Every invasive or otherwise noxious or inappropriate
species, such as horticultural or patented species used in inappropriate
landscaping activities, has its own properties. Some are easy to remove, some
difficult, some relatively rapidly recolonize through seed set, underground
rhizome development, cloning, etc. The removal of some species results in an
extirpation of that species from the Niagara
flora, in other species, the future expansion or restoration of the
population is to be determined.

In the case of the Pokeweed plants, even though the single
population had probably existed for several seasons, there seemed to be no
observable evidence in November, 2011, that the species had expanded beyond
the immediate and expanding periphery of the Mother plant, that is, birds,
animals or simply gravity downslope had not contributed to dissemination of
this species from the site.

The major investment of energy with Phytolacca americanaappears to be in the development of its large root. The root is a simple
structure and does not produce extensive secondary swellings or constrictions
that remain behind in the soil, but the entire root mass may be excavated
with perhaps no further regrowth.

That the climatic conditions were so mild for November at
Niagara suggests a contribution to an extended season of growth of all green
plants and a modification of cold temperatures as a limit on dispersal,
competition and vigor between species and their populations, either weedy,
alien and native alike.

The Pokeweed site was determined to be a Mother Site by the
author, that is, the surrounding landscape was free of this particular
species, the undisturbed landscape free of not only this species, but many
others as well, as seen in the densely populated biologically ‘dirty’ soils
used to prepare the path from the gorge rim to the CSO door.

Many other such sites may be seen in the environments
along the Niagara River and its gorge in the public lands areas, such as one
tree of Cotinus coggygria,
Smoke-tree, a horticultural species, ringed by its descendents at Artpark, Rhamnus cathartica (Buckthorn) planted
with Lilacs, Ligustrums and other horticultural aliens, Salix matsudana (Cork-screw Willow)planted on the spoil area overlooking Artpark and on the crest
of the gorge by the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge, by the various lawn weeds
creeping into DeVeaux State Parks through the backyards of residents
neighboring the northern bountary of the park, especially Lapsana communis (Nipplewort) the
vector of which can be seen from Lewiston Road stretching west through DeVeaux
Park across Whirlpool State Park and down into the base of the gorge of the
River.

The absence of Phytolacca
americana
(Pokeweed) from the mix of alien species along the disturbed path and path
margins leading down to the CSO door seemed unusual.

The station before the CSO door may be examined for
regrowth in the spring of 2012 (the year subsequent to the year of removal),
but it is unlikely that additional plants will be found in the first spring,
due to the complex and large nature of the rootstalk. The smallest stems
observed occurred directly within the entrance-recess to the CSO door, and
these had relatively large roots. It is likely that the plant is a biennial,
with a shoot developing in the first year, and the stalk in the second, due
to the development of a large, fleshy root. The search for seedlings in the
spring may be undertaken, but it is likely that two years may be necessary to
readily identify the plant, or else it would need a full summer’s growth to
readily identify new seedlings - such as reexamination in November 2012. From
images posted on the internet, seedlings show red stems, although, like the
older plants, the leaves are green.

It is assumed that birds are the primary vector for longer
distance dispersal than within a few feet of the mother plant. It is perhaps
theoretically doubtful that this population would have contributed in any
significant way to dispersal in the immediate area, a suggestion that might
be easy to confirm or disprove in 2012 during the growing season.

For restraint on the expansion of populations of this
species, it is recommended that all flowers and fruit be removed from the
stems in August, taking especial care that the plant is not stimulated to
produce new flower and fruit structures - presumably to remove these
structures as late in the season as possible before fruit fall. Care must be
provided that fruits are removed before an interest by birds is developed.
Racemes on the plants removed did not seem foraged by birds, perhaps because
there were so many other food options, and the population was small.

Roots are best removed after the soil is well moistened by
heavy rain in fall (November) and spring (March or April). It is easier to
remove these plants where the root plays a significant factor in the
durability of the population when the soil is loose and saturated.

Conclusions

For removal of a species such as Phytolacca americana
with a significant root system by a single individual, total removal of the
root system was undertaken. There is probable good expectation that the
population has been eradicated at the chosen site as stems were still above
ground, juvenile as well as old plants were removed.

A total of 57 roots and four seedling roots were removed
in all during a period from 12:06 PM to 4:00 PM, or around four hours.

The area involved was approximately 20’X 5’ cleared.

If over four hours, a 100 sq.ft.’ area was cleared = then
25 square feet per hour = 1/2 [0.42] square foot per minute.

If $7.25 is the minimum wage per hour, then the minimum
cost to employ a laborer or contract worker to remove this population of
Pokeweed would be $25.00.

Acknowledgements.

The author would like to thank Meg Janis for arranging
permission to study the removal of Phytolacca
americana from a site in the Niagara gorge, and Kimberley Smith for helpful
discussions and arranging contacts within State Parks. Both individuals are
employed by the New York State Department of Parks, Recreation and Historic
Preservation.

Literature Cited

Eaton, Stephen W. and Edith Feuerstein Schrot. 1987. A
Flora of the Vascular Plants of Cattaraugus
County, New York.
Bulletin of the Buffalo
Society of Natural Sciences. Vol. 31. Buffalo,
NY.