Sunday, February 21, 2016

Last week I identified some notable African onomastic (onomastics is the science
of personal names) influences among the Gullah people. This week I highlight a
few African lexical influences in the Gullah English dialect. But before I do
that, I’d like to draw the reader’s attention to the fact that Clarence Thomas,
the only black person in the US Supreme Court and the second black person to
ever be appointed to the US Supreme Court after Thurgood Marshall, spoke Gullah
as a child—and still speaks it whenever he so desires.

US Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas speaks Gullah

In 2000, according to the New York Times of December 14, 2000, he told a 16-year-old high school student that his
remarkable reticence in the Supreme Court and elsewhere has roots that go back to
his childhood. As a child, he said, he was taunted by his peers and teachers
for speaking his Gullah English dialect (which he said was more popularly known
as Geechee in Savanah, Georgia, where he grew up) or for allowing Gullah
influences to creep into his standard spoken English.

“When I was 16, I was sitting as the only black kid in my
class, and I had grown up speaking a kind of a dialect. It's called Geechee.
Some people call it Gullah now, and people praise it now,” he said. “But they
used to make fun of us back then. It's not standard English. When I transferred
to an all-white school at your age, I was self-conscious, like we all are…. And
the problem was that I would correct myself midsentence. I was trying to speak
standard English. I was thinking in standard English but speaking another
language. So I learned that — I just started developing the habit of listening….
I didn't ask questions in college or law school. And I found that I could learn
better just listening.”

Perhaps he meant to
say he thought in Gullah and tried to translate his thoughts into Standard
English and couldn’t help the episodic, involuntary intrusions of Gullah.

Michelle Obama is also said to be descended from Gullah
ancestors on her paternal side, although neither she nor her parents speak, or
ever spoke, Gullah because their forebears left the Sea Islands many
generations ago. It was her great-great-grandfather, Jim Robinson, according to some accounts, who spoke Gullah.

First Lady Michelle Obama has Gullah roots

I can’t possibly write about the hundreds of African words
that have survived in the Gullah language when Dr. Lorenzo Turner recorded them
in the 1930s and 1940s, so I list only a sample here.

1. “Agogo.” Many
Yoruba speakers recognize this word as the name for a bell or a bell-shaped
metal musical instrument in their language. In Gullah, it means a cowbell, that
is, a bell hung around the neck of a cow to make finding it easy. In modern
times agogo is also used in Yoruba
and other languages, such as Baatonu, to mean a clock, which is decidedly a
semantic extension that derives from the notion of a bell as a time marker.

2. “Amin.” Gullah
people intersperse their supplications with “amin” instead of the English
“amen.” Amin is, of course, the Arabic version of the Hebrew “amen,” which has
been exported to and domesticated in English. It means “so be it” in both
Hebrew and Arabic. The Gullah use the Arabic version of the word during their (Christian)
prayers because that was the version passed on to them by their West African
Muslim ancestors.

3. “Bakra.” This
Gullah word for “white man” is derived from “mbakara,” the Annang/Efik/Ibibio word for white man. (Annang, Efik,
and Ibibio are mutually intelligible dialects of the same language in Nigeria’s
deep south.) Turner said Igbo people also use “mbakara” to mean “white man.” That’s not entirely accurate. The
Igbo word for white man is “ocha,” but it is conceivable that because Igbo, Annang,
Efik, and Ibibio people are geographic and cultural cousins, Igbos
understood—and even used—mbakara to
mean white people in the 1930s when Turner conducted research for his book.
Interestingly, many black people in the Caribbean Islands also use some version
of “mbakara”—such as buckra, bacra,
and buckaroo—to refer to white people. In some Texas and California communities
in the United States, buckaroo and bucheroo are also used to mean a “cowboy.”

4.“Be the groun.” This is an agricultural
register in the Gullah dialect. It means to get the ground ready for farming,
where “be” means “to clean, to remove debris.” Turner discovered that in Wolof,
a Niger-Congo language spoken in Senegal, the Gambia, and parts of Mauritania,
“bei” means to “cultivate, to prepare
ground for planting.”

Because of the phonetic and orthographic similarities
between the Wolof “bei,” which is
rendered as “be” in Gullah, and the English “be,” the expression “be the groun”
used to be thought of as an incompetent attempt to speak Standard English.
Thanks to Turner, we now know that the expression has its own Wolof-inflected
syntactic and sematic logic independent of Standard English.

5. “Bidibidi.”
This means “small bird” or “small chicken” in Gullah. It is derived, according
to Turner, from Kongo, a Niger-Congo language spoken in Angola (from where about 39 percent of Gullah people came, as I pointed out two weeks
ago) and the Congo, where it also means small bird or small chicken. White
linguists who studied Gullah had dismissed this word as “baby talk” for “small bird”
because of the phonetic—and accidental semantic—affinities between “biddy” (the
informal English word for small bird or fowl) and bidibidi.

6. “Da” or “dada.”
In Gullah, “da” and “dada” are used interchangeably to mean “mother, nurse, an
elderly woman.” Turner found parallels for these words in Ewe (spoken in Togo,
Ghana, and Benin Republic) where “da” and “dada” mean mother or elder sister. Notice
that in Igbo “ada” means “eldest daughter.”

7. “Done for fat.”
Earlier researchers had thought that this Gullah expression meant “excessively
fat.” They thought the “done for” in the expression was an intensifier for
“fat,” which they said merely suggested that the Gullah people meant fat people
were “done for,” that is, doomed to die. But Lorenzo Turner’s painstaking
research shows us that “done for” is actually the phonetic Anglicization of
“danfa,” which is the Vai word for fat. Vai is a Niger-Congo language of the
Mande branch spoken by a little over 100,000 people in what is now Liberia and
Sierra Leone. So, basically, the Gullah people combined the Vai and the English
words for the same condition— for emphasis. It should actually have been
correctly written as “danfa fat.”

8. “Dede.” This
means “correct, exact, exactly” in Gullah. Turner compared it with the Yoruba “dede” and the Hausa daidai (which he wrote as “deidei”), which also mean “correct,
exact, exactly.” In Kongo, dedede
also means “similarity, correspondence.” In my language, Baatonu, like in
Yoruba, dede means “correct, exact,
exactly.”

9. Fulfulde counting
system. One of the discoveries that pleasantly shocked me is the
realization that the Gullah people still retain several Fulani numerals in
their English dialect. In Gullah (as in Fulfulde with only slight variations in
accent and spelling), one is go, two
is didi, five is je, six is jego, seven is
jedidi, eight is jetati, nine is jenai, ten
is sapo, eleven is sapo go, twelve is sapo didi, thirteen is sapo
tati, fourteen is sapo nai,
fifteen is sapo je, sixteen is sapo jego, seventeen is sapo jedidi, eighteen is sapo jetati, nineteen is sapo jenai, etc.

The Gullah people who shared this counting system with
Turner in the 1930s had no clue from which African language they inherited this
counting system. My sense is that it was passed down to them from some of their
Senegambian Fulani ancestors. Note that I wrote these words exactly as Turner
wrote them. When I searched online Fulfulde dictionaries, I found slight
variations in the modern spellings of these numerals, but it’s remarkable,
nonetheless, that the Fulfulde counting system has survived among the Gullah
after more than 300 years of separation from its original source.

10. A reverse
influence: In a chapter of my book, Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World,
I discussed the African heritage of common English words and expressions, which
entered the language through so-called African American Vernacular English
(AMVE). I pointed out that some expressions/words started out as
African-derived Gullah dialectal expressions, made their way to demotic
African-American speech, and then to global conversational English through what
I called "pop-cultured-induced linguistic osmosis." At other times,
certain conventional colloquial (American English) expressions (such as "my
bad," "to bad-mouth someone," "do your own thing,"
etc.) began life as calque formations from West African languages in
African-American English before mutating to mainstream English. This is also
true of many everyday words like "tote," "jitters,"
"phony," etc.

From reading Turner’s book, I’ve discovered African-derived
English words like “yam” (from the Mandingo yam
or yambi, the Ga (Ghana) yamu), tote (meaning to carry), etc.
entered English by way of Gullah.

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About Me

Dr. Farooq Kperogi is a professor, journalist, newspaper columnist, author, and blogger based in Greater Atlanta, USA. He received his Ph.D. in communication from Georgia State University's Department of Communication where he taught journalism for 5 years and won the top Ph.D. student prize called the "Outstanding Academic Achievement in Graduate Studies Award." He earned his Master of Science degree in communication (with a minor in English) from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette and won the Outstanding Master's Student in Communication Award.

He earned his B.A. in Mass Communication (with minors in English and Political Science) from Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria, where he won the Nigerian Television Authority Prize for the Best Graduating Student.

Dr. Kperogi worked as a reporter and news editor, as a researcher/speech writer at the (Nigerian) President's office, and as a journalism lecturer at Kaduna Polytechnic and Ahmadu Bello University before relocating to the United States.

He was the Managing Editor of the Atlanta Review of Journalism History, a refereed academic journal. He was also Associate Director of Research at Georgia State University's Center for International Media Education (CIME).

He is currently an Associate Professor of Journalism and Emerging Media at the School of Communication and Media, Kennesaw State University, Georgia's fastest-growing and third largest university. (Kennesaw is a suburb of Atlanta). For more than 13 years, he wrote two weekly newspaper columns: "Notes From Atlanta" in the Abuja-based DailyTrust on Saturday (formerly Weekly Trust) and "Politics of Grammar" in the DailyTrust on Sunday (formerly Sunday Trust). From November 2018, his political commentaries appear on the back page of the Nigerian Tribune on Saturday.In April 2014, Dr. Kperogi was honored as the Outstanding Alumnus of the University of Louisiana's Department of Communication. His research has also won international awards, such as the 2016 Top-Rated Research Paper Award at the 17th Symposium on Online Journalism at the University of Texas, Austin, USA.