war crimein international law, serious violation of the laws or customs of war as defined by international customary law and international treaties.

Definition and conceptual development

The term war crime has been difficult to define with precision, and its usage has evolved constantly, particularly since the end of World War I. The first systematic attempt to define a broad range of war crimes was the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field—also known as the “Lieber Code” after its main author, Francis Lieber—which was issued by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and distributed among Union military personnel in 1863. For example, the Lieber Code held that it was a “serious breach of the law of war to force the subjects of the enemy into service for the victorious government” and prohibited “wanton violence committed against persons in the invaded country,” including rape, maiming, and murder, all of which carried the penalty of death. More recently, definitions of war crimes have been codified in international statutes, such as those creating the International Criminal Court and the war crimes tribunals in Yugoslavia and Rwanda, for use in international war crimes tribunals. In contrast to earlier definitions, modern definitions are more expansive and criminalize certain behaviours committed by civilians as well as by military personnel.

Immediately following World War I, the victorious Allied powers convened a special Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties. The commission’s report recommended that war crimes trials be conducted before the victors’ national courts and, when appropriate, before an inter-Allied tribunal. The Allies prepared an initial list of about 900 suspected war criminals and submitted the list to Germany. Although heads of state traditionally had enjoyed immunity from prosecution, the commission’s main target was Germany’s Emperor (Kaiser) William II, whom most of the Allies (though not the United States) wished to hold responsible for numerous violations of the laws of war. William, however, took refuge in The the Netherlands, which refused to extradite him, and he was never tried. Most of the remaining suspected war criminals on the list similarly managed to avoid prosecution, because Germany was reluctant to turn them over to the Allies. Instead, a compromise was reached whereby the Allies permitted a small number of suspects to be tried in Germany before the Supreme Court in Leipzig. These prosecutions resulted in few convictions, with most sentences ranging from a few months to four years in prison.

The Nürnberg and Tokyo trials

The next major attempt to prosecute war criminals occurred in Europe and Asia after World War II. Throughout the war, the Allies had cited atrocities committed by the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler and announced their intention to punish those guilty of war crimes. The Moscow Declaration of 1943, issued by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, and the Potsdam Declaration of 1945, issued by the United States, Great Britain, and China (and later adhered to by the Soviet Union), addressed the issue of punishing war crimes committed by the German and Japanese governments, respectively.

At the war’s conclusion, representatives of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the provisional government of France signed the London Agreement, which provided for an international military tribunal to try major Axis war criminals whose offenses did not take place in specific geographic locations. This agreement was supported by 19 other governments and included the Nürnberg Charter, which established the Nürnberg tribunal and categorized the offenses within its jurisdiction. The charter listed three categories of crime: (1) crimes against peace, which involved the preparation and initiation of a war of aggression, (2) war crimes (or “conventional war crimes”), which included murder, ill treatment, and deportation, and (3) crimes against humanity, which included political, racial, and religious persecution of civilians. This last category included what is commonly called genocide.

The term genocide was coined by the Polish American legal scholar Raphael Lemkin and first appeared in print in his work Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress (1944). The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, defined genocide as including killing or inflicting serious physical or mental injury on members of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group with the intention of bringing about the group’s destruction, in whole or in part. The convention made genocide an international crime that could be prosecuted in the court of any country. Because the Nürnberg trials preceded the convention, however, Nazi war criminals were not prosecuted for genocide.

The International Military Tribunal in Nürnberg, Germany, tried 22 Nazi leaders, including one, Martin Bormann, who was tried in absentia. The trial was conducted in four languages and lasted nearly 11 months. All but three of the defendants were convicted; 12 were sentenced to death. The remaining defendants received lengthy prison terms, which they served at Spandau Prison in West Berlin. Subsequent trials were held under the auspices of Control Council Law No. 10, which was used to prosecute accused Nazi war criminals whose crimes took place in specific locales.

Japanese defendants accused of war crimes were tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which was established by a charter issued by U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur. The so-called Tokyo Charter closely followed the Nürnberg Charter. The trials were conducted in English and Japanese and lasted nearly two years. Of the 25 Japanese defendants (all of whom were convicted), 7 were sentenced to hang, 16 were given life imprisonment, and 2 were sentenced to lesser terms. Except for those who died early of natural causes in prison, none of the imprisoned Japanese war criminals served a life sentence. Instead, by 1958 the remaining prisoners had been either pardoned or paroled.

From their outset, the war crimes trials were dismissed by critics merely as “victor’s justice,” because only individuals from defeated countries were prosecuted and because the defendants were charged with acts that allegedly had not been criminal when committed. In support of the trials, the Nürnberg tribunal cited the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), which formally outlawed war and made the initiation of war a crime for which individuals could be prosecuted.

Post-World War II developments

Geneva conventions

After the Nürnberg and Tokyo trials, numerous international treaties and conventions attempted to devise a comprehensive and enforceable definition of war crimes. The four separate Geneva conventions, adopted in 1949, in theory made prosecutable certain acts committed in violation of the laws of war. The conventions provided for the protection of wounded, sick, and shipwrecked military personnel, prisoners of war, and civilians. Like the convention on genocide, however, the Geneva conventions specified that trials were to be arranged by individual governments. In 1977 two protocols were adopted to clarify and supplement the Geneva conventions. Recognizing that many conflicts were internal rather than international in scope, the second protocol afforded greater protection to guerilla combatants in civil wars or wars of “self-determination.”

Rwanda and Yugoslavia war crimes tribunals

Nearly 50 years passed between the Nürnberg and Tokyo trials and the next formal international prosecution of war crimes. In May 1993, in an attempt to prevent further acts of “ethnic cleansing” in the conflict between states of the former Yugoslavia and to restore peace and security to the Balkan region, the United Nations Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, commonly known as the ICTY. In November 1994 the UN responded to charges of genocide in Rwanda by creating the ICTR, formally known as the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Such Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighbouring States between 1 January and 31 December 1994.

Both the ICTY and ICTR were international in composition, and neither tribunal sat in the country where the covered conflict occurred; the ICTY was located in The Hague, and the ICTR was located in Arusha, Tanzania. The tribunals had nearly identical governing statutes and a common appellate chamber. Although the Nürnberg and Tokyo tribunals were empowered to impose capital punishment, the ICTR and ICTY could impose only terms of imprisonment. However, no centralized international prison system was established to house persons convicted of war crimes before the tribunals.

The governing statutes of the ICTY and ICTR defined war crimes broadly. The ICTY was given jurisdiction over four categories of crime: (1) grave breaches of the Geneva conventions, (2) violations of the laws or customs of war, (3) genocide, and (4) crimes against humanity. Recognizing that crimes against humanity do not necessarily involve a “nexus to armed conflict” and taking into account legislation specifically enacted by the Rwandan government, the statute of the ICTR limited the jurisdiction of the tribunal to Rwandan leaders, while lower-level defendants were to be tried in domestic courts. In both tribunals rape, murder, torture, deportation, and enslavement were subject to prosecution. The tribunals thus were among the first international bodies to recognize sexual violence formally as a war crime.

Like the statutes of the Nürnberg and Tokyo tribunals, the ICTY and ICTR statutes did not consider the official position of an individual, including his position as head of state, to be a sufficient basis for avoiding or evading criminal culpability. Accordingly, in 1999 the ICTY indicted Slobodan Milošević, the Serbian (1989–97) and Yugoslav (1997–2000) president, for war crimes, and in 2001 he was arrested and extradited to The Hague. Likewise, military and civilian leaders who knew or should have known that their subordinates were committing war crimes were subject to prosecution under the doctrine of command or superior responsibility. Finally, individuals who committed war crimes pursuant to government or military orders were not thereby relieved of criminal liability, though the existence of the order could be used as a mitigating factor. Thus, the rules adopted for the Nürnberg and Tokyo trials continued to influence later efforts to bring suspected war criminals to justice.

Recent trends

In 1993 the Belgian legislature passed a controversial law giving its courts the right to try any individual accused of a war crime anywhere in the world. The law, which resulted in lengthy prison sentences for two Rwandan nuns found guilty of genocide and in judicial complaints against many world leaders (including Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, Cuban President Fidel Castro, and Palestinian leader Yāsir ʿArafāt), was invalidated by the International Court of Justice in 2002. The following year the law was repealed by the Belgian government and replaced by a law requiring that either the victim of the war crime or the accused be a Belgian citizen or resident. In 1998 in Rome, some 150 countries attempted to establish a permanent international criminal court; the negotiations eventually resulted in the adoption by 120 countries of a governing statute for an International Criminal Court (ICC) to be located permanently at The Hague. The statute provided the ICC with jurisdiction for the crimes of aggression, genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The court came into existence on July 1, 2002, and by 2003 the statute had been ratified by some 90 countries; three of the permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, Russia, and the United States), however, had not yet approved it.

General overviews of war crimes include George Creel, War Criminals and Punishment (1944); Leon Friedman (ed.), The Law of War: A Documentary History, 2 vol. (1972); Donald A. Wells, War Crimes and Laws of War, 2nd ed. (1991); Lawrence Weschler, A Miracle, a Universe: Settling Accounts with Torturers (1990, reissued 1998); Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence (1998); Aryeh Neier, War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror, and the Struggle for Justice (1998); and Richard Goldstone, For Humanity: Reflections of a War Crimes Investigator (2000). War crimes against women are treated in Kelly Dawn Askin, War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals (1997).

The war crime tribunals in Nürnberg and Tokyo are discussed in Richard H. Minear, Victors’ Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (1971, reissued 2001); Robert E. Conot, Justice at Nuremberg (1983); John L. Ginn, Sugamo Prison, Tokyo: An Account of the Trial and Sentencing of Japanese War Criminals in 1948, by a U.S. Participant (1992); Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir (1992); Joseph E. Persico, Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial (1994, reissued 2000); Irwin Cotler (ed.), Nuremberg Forty Years Later: The Struggle Against Injustice in Our Time (1995); and Arieh J. Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment (1998).

Discussion of the Rwanda and Yugoslavia UN war crimes tribunals can be found in Virginia Morris and Michael P. Scharf, An Insider’s Guide to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: A Documentary History and Analysis, 2 vol. (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni and Peter Manikas, The Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1996); Karine Lescure and Florence Trintignac, International Justice for Former Yugoslavia: The Working of the International Criminal Tribunal of The Hague (1996; originally published in French, 1994); and Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (1998, reprinted 2000).