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1 EXPLORING WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE: IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT Mesut AKDERE 1 Ross E. AZEVEDO 2 Abstract: Writing in the workplace is among the understudied business topics in the field of HRD. Yet, the impacts of writing in today s workplace are significant, and organizations making it a priority benefit from it. Furthermore, writing is related to the issue of workplace literacy which is the umbrella term for basic communication skills. This literature review provides a general view on workplace writing and discusses implications to HRD within a model research proposal. Keywords: Workplace Literacy, Organizational Communication, Organizational Performance, Quality Management, Human Resource Development 1. INTRODUCTION Writing competency and skills are crucial instruments in today s global and technologydriven workplace. While the rules are basically the same for any type of writing, there are some special issues in the business context. Knowing the elements of good business writing can make or break a career. As higher education institutions are striving to thoroughly prepare their students for professional careers, the importance of writing skills has become greater than ever. Academe s real reasons for requiring writing from students are (a) to evaluate mastery of the standard written academic language of instruction, (b) to evaluate subject matter knowledge, and (c) to evaluate critical thinking skills (Beaufort, 2000). The way a person writes, in fact, is another way of self-representation. The future career success of individuals is not only limited to their subject matter knowledge but also includes their communication skills (Report of the National Commission on Writing, 2004). Such skills are important to people who are involved in management. General writing behaviors in workplace settings have been a focus of research for many scholars as the workplace has become much more complicated and required higher skill levels (Anson & Forsberg, 1990; Bartunek, 2007; Broadhead & Freed, 1986; Brown & Herndl, 1986; Doheny-Farina, 1986; Faigley, 1985; Flower, 1989; Gunnarsson, 1997; Johns, 1989; Woolever, 1989). In a knowledge-based society, high-end and low-end workplaces alike are often rich in text, information, and technology (Tannock, 2001). Today s workplace demands workers to be innovative, flexible, and highly skilled including not only technical and interpersonal skills, but also intellectual skills that give their companies the critical edge over their local and international competitors (Boyett & Conn, 1992; Castleton, 2002; Hammer, 1996; Hammer & Champy, 1993). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Employers today are complaining that far too many college graduates cannot write adequately, have weak thinking skills, and are unable to understand how to operate successfully within the political structure of the business environment (Thomas, 1995). One of the reasons for the writing and thinking inadequacies that employers deplore is the lack of sufficient writing requirements in the educational system high school and college in particular (Report of the National Commission on Writing, 2004). Because of the large class sizes students are generally given fewer essay exams or term papers, and grading multiplechoice exams is much easier. Furthermore, curricula and courses that address topics in an 1 Dr. Department of Administrative Leadership University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin USA 2 Dr. Industrial Relations Center University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota USA All righs reserved by The JKEM 1

2 Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi / 2010 Cilt: V Sayı: II interdisciplinary fashion are more likely to provide effective educational experiences than are discrete courses accumulated over a student s college career in order to produce enough credits for a degree (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005: 647). Thus, many college students, after completing freshman English courses, do little, if any, writing until their senior year. This leads to the interruption of the development and refinement of students thinking and writing skills. When these graduates enter the workforce, the challenge with writing becomes more real and pressing. Although employers believe that workplace literacy training can improve various aspects of job performance, including quality of output, ability to use new technology, error rates, customer satisfaction, time savings, and safety (Sticht, 1995), they are very reluctant to invest in training in general (yet alone to provide such basic) skills that are supposedly being acquired during formal mandatory secondary schooling. The need for many workers to undertake basic skills training is often presented as an argument for workplace literacy programs (Castleton, 2002). Furthermore, the existing literature indicates that relatively low workplace literacy levels have the potential to severely undermine the economic well-being and adaptive capabilities of individuals, organizations (Cappelli & Rogovsky, 1994; Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990a; Hays, 1999; National Center on Education and the Economy, 1990) and the nation as a whole. Workplace literacy is a recent and still emerging site of educational activity (Castleton, 2002). Spilka (2001) distinguishes between public and workplace literacy by defining workplace literacy as a means that typically serves central social purposes, to help professionals in organizations to solve problems, make decisions, revise or create policies, perform tasks, and expand or modify their thinking. Higher education curricula for teaching professional writing often do not reflect accurately the way writing is conducted in the workplace (Mabrito, 1999). Not surprisingly, studies and surveys of professionals in the workplace have found that many professionals feel their undergraduate training in writing left them unprepared for the writing tasks they faced every day (Aldrich, 1982; Redish, 1989; Spears, 1996). Redish (1989) further argues that readers of workplace writing frequently complain that recent college graduates not only lack strategies for writing, but they also apply inappropriate strategies to writing tasks. Historically, writing has long served as a tool of learning and of evaluation of students in higher education (Lavelle, 2003: 87). The transition from academic writing to writing in the workplace is often a difficult one for (former) students to make (Anson & Forsberg, 1990). Similarly, bringing workplace skills into the classroom requires a paradigm shift on the part of instructors and students (Hewlette, 2004); when (as is known) professionals spend a good deal of their day writing (Anderson, 1985; Faigley, Miller, Meyer, & Witte, 1981; Kirtz & Reep, 1990; Stine & Skarzenski, 1979), this does not necessarily mean they can translate their talents into necessary practice in class settings. To analyze such writing, researchers have taken a variety of approaches. Some, for example, survey recent graduates in the workforce (Bednar & Olney, 1987; Wiggs, 1993), occasionally with special emphasis on the transition from academic to workplace writing (Anson & Forsberg, 1990). Others have focused on particular groups of professionals; e.g., business executives (Gallion & Kavan, 1994), nurse managers (Spears, 1996), or other professional discourse communities (Odell, 1985; Spilka, 1993). Another approach is to look at the effect of context on writing processes (Driskill, 1989) and the social aspects of writing (Faigley, 1985). Vygotsky contends that teaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are necessary... [and that] writing should be incorporated into a task... necessary and relevant for life (1978: 118). Thus, when writing is taught in a career context, students come to value writing and tend to do better meeting course requirements in terms of performance and commitment. Tüm hakları BEYDER e aittir 2

3 Interdisciplinary research into the writing conventions and processes of various professional discourse communities, defining good writing in each, learning how students can produce effective writing in their majors and workplaces, and understanding how teachers can help students in this process (Robert & Comprone, 1993). Walvrood and McCarthy (1990) reported a productive writing role experienced by some college students; the role required integrating subject matter, using knowledge from outside the class, adopting the discourse forms and methods of reasoning of that professional group, and analysis of the data of concern for the group. The theory of situated cognition suggests that the real world is the most effective environment for learning (Lave, 1998: 1). People employed by organizations of all descriptions, while contending with ethical dilemmas, problem solving, and meeting organizational objectives. Many of them inherently follow specific writing conventions, file standard reports, as well as carry on interoffice and external correspondence yet may do so poorly. Abstract notions about awareness of audience, purpose, and the self-image a writer wishes to convey may take on meaning when placed in a real-life context such as the workplace if consistent and appropriate training are offered. Problem-solving heuristics and research strategies have the potential for transfer into numerous situations and offer solutions for such challenges. Since excellent writing skills are among the must-haves for college graduates in today s world of business, the amount of writing during schooling can have a profound effect on whether students develop these skills satisfactorily to meet the writing skills requirements of the business. A straightforward representation of workers as possessing inadequate literacy skills for current and future jobs, however, remains most pervasive among the commonly held beliefs on literacy and work (Castleton, 2002; Freebody & Welch, 1993; Gowen, 1994; Green, Hodgens, & Luke, 1997; Hull, 1993, 1997; Hull & Grubb, 1999). Bazerman and Paradis (1991) report that in the workplace, textual dynamics are a central agency in the social construction of objects, concepts, and instruction. Students need specific and rigorous preparation for the world of work. With the necessary curriculum changes to prepare students for what they really need to know and be able to do on the job, it is possible to better prepare students for their future careers. Within a model that casts workers skills as inherently individualistic, little attention is given to the reality of workplaces as communities of workers who possess a diverse range of skills that they use in complementary ways (Castleton, 2002). From a business management and organizational communication perspective, Forrester describes the problem as: In the increased competitive pressure on management to improve the quality and quantity of the labour input, the notion of employee subjectivity (affective elements such as initiative, emotional labour [customer care], values and attitudes, intra-individual management, self actualisation and adaptability) has emerged as a key area of new management and thinking and that workplace or work-related learning is often seen as an essential part of capturing employee subjectivity in achieving corporate objectives. (Forrester, 1999: 188). 3. A RESEARCH PROPOSAL OF ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE This section of the paper presents a model of a research study proposing a quantitative methodology to identify whether there is a correlation between the writing required in academic curricula and use of writing in the workplace. As it is clearly stated in the literature review, writing is very important in day-to-day business activities and communications. All righs reserved by The JKEM 3

4 Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi / 2010 Cilt: V Sayı: II Accurate and powerful writing, however, requires a significant amount of maturation through practice. Students develop and attain a fundamental level of writing skills during school, starting from first grade continuing through to higher education. But, it is in the undergraduate years that they receive their field-specific writing experience, which is the area of interest to workplace literacy. For the purposes of this proposed study, graduates of the business school are proposed as the target population to sample and study as this would be of relevance to workplace writing. The amount of writing in the required academic curricula of undergraduate business programs is hypothesized to indicate the level of experience of writing students may receive during their higher education experience. Exploring such a correlation would further enable business school administrators and faculty to take appropriate actions to ensure the adequacy and quality of writing in academia to sufficiently equip the students with skills and abilities of writing applicable in the workplace. Therefore, the paper attempts to achieve the following objectives: a) To identify the correlation between writing required in functional area courses and that required in functional area careers; b) To understand the usage of writing in the workplace; c) To examine the impacts of writing on individuals career success; d) To identify the impacts of technology on writing in the workplace; and e) To study the impacts of writing skills on individuals work opportunities. This proposed study to better understand the impact of writing in the workplace from the employee, team, and organizational view point includes the following variables as illustrated in Figure 1: Dependent Variables: the outcome or criterion variable as they represent the change or difference in the variables being investigated. 1) The time spent on various types of writing in the workplace is measured with a multiple-choice questionnaire item such as memos, s, business reports, and letters. 2) Time spent on various types of writing during the coursework is measured with a multiple-choice questionnaire item such as essay writing, dairies, term papers, and research papers. 3) Impacts of writing on individuals career success are measured with a Likert scale asking participants about their beliefs of the impacts of writing on their career success on a scale from 1 to 5. 4) Technology is measured with a multiple-choice questionnaire item asking the study participants the technology used for writing such as word processing, , spread sheet, Power Point presentations, and Access data base. 5) Impacts of writing skills on individuals work opportunities are measured with a Likert scale asking participants about their beliefs of the impacts of writing on work opportunities on a scale from 1 to 5. Tüm hakları BEYDER e aittir 4

5 Figure 1. Variables Independent Variables Dependent Variables School versus job Academic Departments Time on the job Time spent on various types of writing in the workplace Time spent on various types of writing during the coursework Impacts of writing on employees career success Technology Impacts of writing skills on employees work opportunities The independent variables are the cause or experimental variables. 1. School versus job is measured by the practices within the curricula and the workplace. The dependent variables are, thus, correlated in terms of school and job. 2. Academic departments are measured by each identifier (e.g., accounting, human resources ). Furthermore, these departments are individually correlated with the dependent variables. 3. The third independent variable of this proposed study is time on the job, which refers to the length of employment, and is measured with a Likert scale grouping number of years. This variable is then correlated with the dependent variables PROPOSED HYPOTHESES Based on the literature review, it is hypothesized that there is a relationship between writing required in the students major courses in their undergraduate education and their area of work. The proposed study also includes the following questions: 1. How has the amount of writing changed as the participants have progressed in their careers? 2. How important is writing in participants job performance? 3. How important is writing in determining how others in the participants organization perceive them? 4. What is the impact of technology on participants professional writing? 5. To what extent has writing in participants required writing in their functional area courses impacted their professional life? 3.2. METHODOLOGY This is a correlational research proposal in which the study attempts to determine the variables level of relatedness. This degree of relation may be expressed as a correlation coefficient. Because of the large number of variables in the study, a correlational method also All righs reserved by The JKEM 5

6 Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi / 2010 Cilt: V Sayı: II allows the opportunity to analyze how the variables, either singly or in combination, affect the pattern of behavior. This method further provides information concerning the degree of relationship between the variables being studied POPULATION AND SAMPLE To ensure population validity, the following demographic variables between the accessible population and the target population are compared. Additional analyses of such variables should also show no significant demographic differences between the samples and the accessible population. a) Gender composition; b) Mean salary; c) Mean age; d) Mean years of work experience INSTRUMENTATION: SURVEY For the purposes of data gathering, a questionnaire is designed to be used in this survey methodology. Survey design calls for administering the instrument to collect data from participants in the sample concerning their characteristics, experiences, and opinions in order to generalize and associate the findings with the population that the sample is intended to represent. The questionnaire is in closed form, multiple-item scale, and Likert scale is used to rank the items in the questions. Questions regarding demographic variables are also included at the end of the questionnaire. Before conducting the survey, pilot testing is to be done among a sample of individuals from the population from which the study intends to draw the survey participants DATA ANALYSIS Descriptive statistics of demographic variables of the samples are presented in order to analyze the independent variables. Statistical analyses are conducted to explore the relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variables. Multiple regression analysis is also conducted in order to identify how much variance of the dependent variables will be accounted for by the combination of the independent variables. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (R) is also utilized to measure the degree of relationships among the variables. 4. IMPLICATIONS FOR QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION The issue of workplace writing and workplace literacy are directly associated with one of the goals of higher education teaching and helping students learn to write. First, increasing workplace literacy requires learning. Faculty in higher education across all disciplines should embrace the importance and utility of writing in not only their students academic development but also their students professional development and advancement in their careers after graduation. In fact, we argue that faculty are responsible to help and support their students in acquiring writing skills and advancing them in their respective fields of study. Furthermore, in order to be academically successful in higher education, the students with low levels of basic writing skills should be directed to various academic support centers and sources available in higher education early in their studies. This paper argues that emphasis on writing is crucial in addressing students need to be proficient writers in their fields and become successful in their careers. The core of this proposal is to demonstrate the impact of quality academic preparation in higher education on individual career success in professional fields. Tüm hakları BEYDER e aittir 6

7 Second, the lack of adequate writing skills at the professional level is closely associated with workplace literacy. This paper further emphasizes the notion that increasing workplace literacy would lead to better organizational performance, organizational communication, and productivity as outcome measures. Spencer (2001) in his recent study reports that in those few cases where genuine moves toward a learning organization that include some benefits for workers have taken place, workers are reported as being better off, enjoying greater job satisfaction, experiencing more flexible work patterns, and having more control over how work is conducted. In a massified system premised on the economic benefits of university study, academics are aware that their work is under increasing scrutiny (Cheng, 2009: 194). Hence, higher education s effort towards excellence and innovation in teaching and learning has been substantiated as has been the case with other studies (Al-Alawi, Al-Kaabi, Rashdan, & Al-Khaleefa, 2009; Al Attiyah & Khalifa, 2009; Fernie & Pilcher, 2009; Umemiya, 2008). Third, faculty in higher education as well as business should undoubtedly attach a greater level of emphasis to these issues as advocates of quality of work (Lowe, 2000) and learning to benefit employees work groups and labor unions (Spencer, 2001). A recent study by Holmberg (2006) explores quality as related to a scientific perspective, a learning perspective, a societal perspective and a social perspective (207); and argues that in order to develop quality and competence in any organization it seems more appropriate to provide for an understanding and possible acceptance of the differences, rather than trying to reduce them (214). And last, but not least, there is an existing reality and challenge; whether faculty members and higher education administrators choose to acknowledge or emphasize them, issues on workplace writing and literacy have already been documented and led to calls for remedies in various governmental reports in different countries across the globe including, Workplace Basics: The Skills Employers Want (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990b) in the United States, Implementation of Education and Training 2010 Work Programme (Cheallaigh, 2003) in the European Union; Workforce Literacy: An Economic Challenge for Canada (Drouin, 1990) in Canada; and Literacy at Work (National Board of Employment and Training, 1996) in Australia. In another study, a survey of 120 major American corporations employing nearly 8 million people concludes that in today s workplace writing is a threshold skill for hiring and promotion among salaried (i.e., professional) employees (the National Commission on Writing for America's Families, Schools, and Colleges, 2004). Survey results indicate that writing is a ticket to professional opportunity, while poorly written job applications are a figurative kiss of death. Estimates based on the survey returns reveal that employers spend billions annually correcting writing deficiencies. The issue is how higher education utilizes a quality perspective to better prepare students in terms of writing and writing skills to help assist with this existing problem in the workplace. 5. CONCLUSION Success in today s workplace requires that individuals have a broad set of foundation skills among which context workplace literacy skills are critical (Bates & Holton, 2004). Hull and Grubb (1999) noted that the growing concern is that many workers and prospective workers are not up to the task, having been poorly or insufficiently educated and having grown accustomed to jobs that do not expect much (311). Organizations which believe in the importance of investing in human capital need to be presented with the fact that they also have a stake in the problem, which is particularly important in the complex blending of the workplace and the academy, where codified quality may disrupt learning rather than support a flourishing environment for all stakeholders (Gibbs, 2009: 168). To improve this situation, organizations must be convinced that (a) written communication affects the bottom line; (b) All righs reserved by The JKEM 7

8 Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi / 2010 Cilt: V Sayı: II writing is a general, portable skill that all managers should have; and (c) writing-skill development requires more than a quick, 1-day seminar (Beaufort, 2000). Successful workplace communication can be critical to an organization s ability to fulfill its goals, overcome its constraints, and in general, function smoothly and make progress toward its mission (Spilka, 2001). From a quality perspective, what should be concerning to us is how the issue of workplace literacy impacts our business practices and interventions. Therefore, what is needed is research aimed at examining how workplace literacy is related to teaching and learning in higher education. Clearly any quality system employed at an institution must consider the effectiveness of the evaluation system that is employed (Nair & Adams, 2009: 295). The imperceptible momentum gathered by the engines of technology while at work in education will change the entire learning scenario like nothing else during the next few years (Mayya, 2007: 8). Lavelle (2003) points out the need to track changes in that process over the university years, but also to examine variables that are related to those changes, such as instructional climates and methods of assessment (92). New empirical research needs to be conducted to examine this relationship and explore ways to improve the present situation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A previous version of this article was presented at the Academy of Human Resource Development 2005 Annual Research Conference, Estes Park, Colorado, U.S.A. REFERENCES Al-Alawi, Y., Al-Kaabi, D., Rashdan S., & Al-Khaleefa, L. (2009). Quality assurance and continuous improvement: A case study of the University of Bahrain, Quality in Higher Education, 15(1), Al Attiyah, A., & Khalifa, B. (2009). Small steps lead to quality assurance and enhancement in Qatar University, Quality in Higher Education, 15(1), Aldrich, P. (1982). Adult writers: Some factors that interfere with effective writing, The Technical Writing Teacher, 9(2), Anderson, P. (1985). What survey research tells us about writing at work?, In L. Odell & D. Goswami (Eds.), Writing in nonacademic settings (pp. 3-83). New York: Guilford. Anson, C. M., & Forsberg, L. L. (1990). Moving beyond the academic community: Transitional stages in professional writing, Written Communication, 7(2), Bartunek, J. M. (2007). Academic-practitioner collaboration need not require joint or relevant research: Toward a relational scholarship of integration, Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), Bates, R., & Holton, E. F. III. (2004). Linking workplace literacy skills and transfer system perceptions, Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15(2), Bazerman, C., & Paradis, J. (1991). Textual dynamics of the professions, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Beaufort, A. (2000). Learning the trade: A social apprenticeship model for gaining writing expertise, Written Communication, 17(2), Bednar, A. S., & Olney, R. J. (1987). Communication needs of recent graduates, Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, 24(1), Boyett, J., & Conn, H. (1992). Workplace 2000: The revolution reshaping American business, New York: Plume/Penguin. Broadhead, G. J., & Freed, R. C. (1986). The variables of composition: Process and product in abusiness setting, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Brown, R. L., & Herndl, C. G. (1986). An ethnographic study of corporate writing: Job status as reflected in written text, In B. Couture (Ed.), Functional approaches to writing: Research perspectives (pp ). London: Frances Pinter. Tüm hakları BEYDER e aittir 8

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