Renewable and Non-renewable sources

Non-renewable (finite) resources are the fossil fuels- they are finite so once they are used the supply remains reduced and will run out

Semi-renewable is things like wood, biofuels and nuclear as they need to be managed to remain renewable

Renewable energy can be used repeatedly, they cause little environmental pollution and includes hydroelectric, wind, solar, geothermal, tidal and wave power

Non-renewable sources domiate the global energy mix

the big gap in energy consumption between rich and poor shows that wealth is the key factor in explaining the gap

the demand for energy has increased over time, increase of over 60% between 1981 and 2006

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Global pattern

availability of fuel types is one of the key factors affecting the wide variation:

Oil- relatively common but the Middle East has 50%, Reserves of 1,208,000 million barrels, the chief areas of reserves are the Middle East with 61.5%, the chief user= USA, fastest growing demand= Asia- China 7% a year

Coal- major source in Asia pacific at 50%, reserves of over 3 million tonnes, chief areas of reserve are the USA with 27%, the chief user= China, fastest growing demand is Asia- China

political factors on energy supply

International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol, can have considerable influence on the energy decisions of individual countries

Potential hydroelectric power (HEP) schemes on 'international rivers' may require the agreement of other countries that share that river

governments may insist on energy companies producing a certain proportion of their energy from renewable sources

legislation regarding emissions from power stations will favour the use for example, of low sulphur coal as opposed to coal with high sulphur conten

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variable energy patterns over time

the use of energy in all countries has changed over time because of a number of factors:

Technological development e.g nuclear power

Increasing national wealth- average incomes increase, living standards improve and this involves the increasing use of energy

Changes in demand

Changes in price- relative price of different types of energy can influence demand

environmental factors/ public opinion- people are better informed about the environmental imacts of energy sources today compared to the past

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Oil- essential energy source

After a fall in demand in the early 1980s to under 60 million barrels daily global demand rose steeply to almost 84 million barrels a day in 2006- largest increase has been in Asia which now accounts for 29.4% of consumption

In 2006, the Middle East accounted for 31.2% of production

The problem with demand increasing is that it is increasing at a faster than proved reserves

The US governments Energy Information Agency predicts that the demand foroil will rise by 54% in the first 1/4 of the 21st century- this amounts to an extra 44 milion barrels a day

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Oil- price increase

price of oil rose from $10 a barrel in 1998 to $65 a barrel in 2005

main reasons for rapid rise in price of oil:

increase in demand- high increase in demand from China, India and the USA

Insufficient investment in exploration and development

problems in the middle east centred on Iraq

Major buyers, particularly governments, stocking up on oil to guard against disruptions to supply

The impact of hurricanes, particularly on US oil production in Gulf of Mexico

Limited US refining capacity due to inadequate investment in recent decades

a lack of spare oil production capacity

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Oil- America and China

The USA consumes almost 1/4 of global oil output but only has 2.5% of its proven reserves

The USA's high dependancy on oil leaves it vulnerable to supply shocks and also pushes prices higher for the rest of the world

China alone has accounted for 1/3 of the growth in global demand for oil since 2000, It's average daily consumption of 6.63 million barels is about twice its domestic production

Global peak production- growing concern about when global oil production wil peak and how fast it will decline thereafter

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Coal- the polluter

Coal accounts for 50% of US electricity generation and 83% of power plant CO2 emissions

China is expected to need 3242 million tons of coal a year by 2025

coal is the most polluting source of energy

Environmental legislation in a number of countries has required coal-burning power plants to reduce pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide by installing building-size scrubbers and catalytic units

Coal gasification at the Wabash River plant in the USA is a process which converts solid coal into a gas that can be used for power generation and the contaminants can be removed

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Natural gas

least polluting of all fossil fuels

production is dominated by Russia and the USA

Middle east now holds the largest reserves

relatively low production in middle east is due to limited markets for the product- natural gas which has been brought to the surface was 'flared off' because there were no pipeline networks

'conventional' natural gas is generally found within a few thousand metres or so below the surface has accounted for most of global supply to date

however, 'unconventional' deposits contribute more to supply, categories are:

deep gas

tight gas

gas-containing shales

coalbed methane

geopressurised zones

artic and sub-sea hydrates

unconventional deposits are more costly to extract

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Nuclear power

Main concerns

power accidents which could release radiation

radioactive waste storage/ disposal

rogue state or terrorist use

high construction cost

the possible increase of certain types of cancer near nuclear plants

With 103 operating reactors the USA leads the world use of nuclear energy, amounts to 1/4 of worlds total and produces 20% of USA's electricity

serious incidents such as Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania 1979 and Chernobyl disaster 1986 has brought growth in industry to a halt

Nuclear power

China currently produces 6000 megawatts of power from 9 reactors but aim to increase this to 40,000 megawatts

France obtains 78% of its electricity from nuclear power

A few countries have developed fast breeder reactor technologies which are very efficient and greatly increase energy production

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Hydroelectric power

Of the 5 traditional major sources of energy, HEP is the only one which is renewable, however, the best HEP locations are already in use so the scope for more large-scale development is limited, however there is scope for small-scale HEP plants to supply local communities

Problems of HEP

huge negative impact on the environment

obstruct rivers causing problems for aquatic life

may cause deterioration of water quality

may cause large areas of land to be flooded

may cause the release of significant quantities of methane, a greenhouse gas if large forests are submerged without prior clearance

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Relationship between energy use and economic devel

strong correlation between energy use and economic development

if economy development increases (e.g china) there will be:

more 'spare' or disposable wealth to spend on energy consuming products

increased demand from industries; especially heavy industries

improved transport- increased demand for diesel, petrol etc

increased demand from agriculture- mechanisation, chemicals etc

expansion of power networks to isolated areas

health improvements and empowerment of the poor

If energy production or use increases (e.g. Russia) there will be:

increased foreign exchange earnings and foreign investment

more employment- direct and indirect

improved transport etc

higher energy tax earnings to be invested in development schemes etc

growth of industries supplying energy industry e.g. construction

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Case Study- UK- energy rich

Current sources- Gas 42%, Coal 18%, Nuclear 8%

Resources

Oil and Gas from the North Sea but this has fallen by about 30% to around 2 million barrels a day

more than 90% of Britain's gas comes from the North Sea, 10% is imported via the European gas network and only 2% comes from Russia- gas imports will rise in the future

new techniques are being developed to extract more oil than previously possible from the North Sea

Coal has declined and the UK now imports 60% of coal, declined because its the dirtiest most inflexible fossil fuel and most has already been mined

9 of the 12 nuclear power plants are scheduled to close by 2020

generates 0.8% of electricity from HEP- there are very few opportunities to increase large-scale HEP but an estimate that if small-scale HEp from all of the streams and rivers in the UK then it would meet 3% of total electricity

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Case Study- UK

Resources

biomass for both heat and electricity generation accounted for 87% of renewable energy in the UK

A small geothermal power plant is in operation in southampton it provides heating and cooling systems for a number of domestic and commercial consumers

Case Study- Mali- LEDC, Energy poor

average of 5-6 hours of sunshine a day there is a good solar resource- The Mali Folke Centre has installed solar panels on the roofs of 30 schools

the MFC have also helped develop plantations helping areas to close desertification

The African Rural Energy Enterprise Development (AREED) is a United Nations programme designed to develop new energy enterprises- one project has involved production of fuel briquettes made from agricultural by-products and these burn for longer and are 25% cheaper than wood-based products

improving energy efficiency e.g. stoves

encourage greater use of energy efficient stoves which use 4-5 times less wood than traditional stoves

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Reasons for rising energy demand

increased standards of living e.g. electrical appliances, cars

increased population

changing lifestyles e.g. use of computers

increased mobility e.g. aviation fuel

increased communication e.g phones

global warming e.g. air conditioning

changing technology e.g. automated manufacturing, farming

rapid industrialisation e.g. China

relative cost of energy

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Impacts of increased energy demand

Economic issues and impacts:

cost of building new power stations and transmission lines

shortage of skilled energy workers however over time the skills base should develop providing employment

Rising cost of energy

regional inequality based on energy resources

export versus import of energy

energy is needed to develop

as the energy infrastructure expands may encourage development of other industries (multiplier effect)

high levels of investment are required

Political issues:

energy 'wars'

energy colonialism

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Impacts of increased energy demand

social issues and impacts:

health problems living near power stations and pylons

energy poverty- old and poor at risk

can bring considerable social benefits particularly in health and education

allows people to communicate

Environmental issues

Fossil fuel combustion is a major source of acid rain, smog and global warming

pollution from oil spills and pipeline leaks

increased demand for firewood can cause deforestation and desertification

visual pollution

river problems (silting, flooding etc) from dams

flooding forested areas for HEP dams results in the release of methane

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Impacts of increased energy demand

Global warming

where longwave radiation from the earth is trapped and re-radiated back by greenhouse gases is occuring as energy demand increases

caused cumulative causation- process where significant increase in economic growth leads to even more growth as money circulates

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Case study- Norway- benefits

Social

oil revenue used to boost welfare system

high standard of living

high spending in rural areas has reduced rural depopulation

revenue from oil and gas has allowed a high per capita spending on sports, youth, transport and general community facilities not just in urban areas but also in smaller more isolated communities which helps to sustain population in the less accessible parts

Environmental

minimal impact due to strict control, inspections etc

potential to damage marine ecosystem and fishing industry

political

invested oil revenue abroad- $150 billion, ownership of seabed issues

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Case study- NIgeria- Problems

130 million people

6th largest oil exporter

reserves- in delta and offshore, 159 small oil fields, reserves are being exhausted

Environmental

largest mangrove forest destroyed by pollution, land clearance etc- oil spills and acid rain killed off fish, between 1986 and 2003 more than 50,000 acres of mangroves disappeared

flaring of gas causes acid rain

tanker movement has increased shore/reef erosion

water and air pollution

environmental impact assessments were not compulsory until 1992

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Case study- NIgeria- Problems

Economic

export 90% of earnings

many jobs go to foreigners who are skilled

production is dominated by 5 major transnational corporations (TNCs): shell, total, agip, ExxonMobil and chevron

no longer self-sufficient in food as focused on oil

imports the bulk of its fuel as refineries old/ inefficient

increased import of luxury goods

social

little trickling down of wealth

over 20 ethnic groups in area- fight over lack of oil wealth

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Case study- NIgeria- Problems

political

corruption siphons off up to 70% of oil revenue

nationalised oil industry in 1971

little preparation for future

rebel groups attack pipelines and kidnap workers

in 2006, an armed rebel group known as the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) intensified attacks on oil platforms and pumping stations

a rising tide of violence has affected the country's financial stability and its ability to supply crude oil to the outside world

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Energy Management and conservation

important because of:

concerns about the exhaustion of fossil fuels

the impact of emissions on the environment

the high cost of building large energy installations

Managing energy supply is often about balancing socio-economic and environmental needs

Carbon trading is an important part of the EU's environment and energy policies- heavy industrial plants have to buy permits to emit greenhouse gases

many countries are looking at increasingly at the concept of community energy- much energy is lost in transmission if the source of supply is a long way away- energy produced locally is much more efficient

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Management challenges

Management challenges include how to balance the economic needs against environmental needs and social needs

sustainability is the ability to carry the system on into the future without a reduction in the system or standard of living

management involves reducing or conserving inputs (e.g. fuel, water, raw materials) and reducing harmful outputs (e.g. pollution) but is also about ensuring the flows in the system are efficient (e.g. transport of energy)

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Management issues

what is the exact nature of the fuel and water resources and their status?

time- should areas conserve energy resources for the future or should they share them with others? this gives some countries great political influence e.g. Russia or trigger wars

sheer cost- short versus long term e.g. damage mining or energy production does to the environment. Who should pay? local versus national issue- rate payer versus tax payer versus energy user

who pays versus who gains? should tax payers subsidise developments that benefit a small group e.g. industrialists? the construction of nuclear power stations (e.g.sizewell in suffolk) exemplifies this and the NIMBYism this produces. How effective is the scheme and for whom? what are the benefits and to whom?

political will - do authorities, TNCs or central government control systems e.g. wind farms off the north Wales coast? much of this debate requires countries to co-operate (e.g. Kyoto agreement- will this overcome political self-interest?)

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Management issues

technology- has the area knowledge and expertise to develop the facilities or does it have to attract TNC investment? is enough known about that particular technology or environment?

How long will it take? quick fix versus long term, demand is rapidly rising so developments can't be too long term in realisation e.g. a single power station is much quicker than a multi-purpose river scheme

wider impacts. What implications are there for areas beyond the project area? e.g. british coal-fired power stations used to pollute scandinavia with acid rain

can energy production ever be sustainable without a vast drop in its output? if not, what do we need to change in our economies/cultures?

Alternative sources of energy

The main drawback of the new alternative energy sources is that they invariably produces higher cost electricity than traditional sources. however, the cost gap is narrowing as:

alternative energy technology improves

traditional electricity supply becomes more expensive

governments legislate in favour of alternative energy

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Solar power

can come from:

photovoltaic systems- convert sunlight directly into electricity, by the end of 2002, there were 1500MV installed globally, leading country was Japan (627MV)

Thermal power plants- global installed capacity at end of 2002 was 364MV most are found in the Mohave desert in Southern California.

advantages:

can be small scale and meet local needs

easy to install

long life

disadvantages

needs high percentage of sun days and currently produce low output

can corrode in acid rain etc

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Wind power

at the end of 2004 global wind-generated energy capacity totalled 47300MV, Germany generated the largest percentage of this figure

Advantages

can be small scale and meet local needs

ever increasing in efficiency

Disadvantages

relatively inefficient

eyesore- often on highland

noise

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Biomass

= organic matter from which energy can be produced, direct domestic use of biomass such as burning firewood is a large source in developing countries, the use of ethanol distilled from sugar cane is popular in Brazil. The use of biodiesel is popular in Germany

Advantages

can use agricultural waste

anyone can grow it

low-level technology so cheap to use

disadvantages

take over land used for food crops causing famine

can cost more energy to grow and harvest the crop

vulnerable to climate, pests etc

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Geothermal power

energy from the natural heat found in the earth's crust in the form of steam, hot water and hot rock, can be used to produce electricity or hot water can be used directly for industry, agriculture, bathing and cleansing. operate on steam resources. By 2005 global geothermal electricity had reached 8900MV, US is world leader.