India Community Initiative
.NET Tutorial for Beginners
Special thanks to the following who have put in sincere efforts to write and
bring this tutorial together.
Akila Manian (MVP) | Ajay Varghese (MVP) | Amit Kukreja | Anand M (MVP)
| Aravind Corera (MVP) | Arvind Rangan | Balachandran | Bipin Joshi (MVP)
| C S Rajagopalan | G Gokulraj | G Arun Prakash | Gurneet Singh (MVP) |
Kunal Cheda (MVP) | Manish Mehta (MVP) | Narayana Rao Surapaneni
(MVP) | Pradeep | Saurabh Nandu (MVP) | Shankar N.S. | Swati Panhale |
Reshmi Nair
Content
1. Getting Ready .......................................................................................... 4
1.1 Tracing the .NET History..............................................................................4
1.2 Flavors of .NET...........................................................................................5
1.3 Features of .NET....................................................................................... 10
1.4 Installing the .NET Framework SDK............................................................. 12
2. Introduction to the .NET Initiative and the .NET Platform ...................... 15
2.1 Understanding the Existing Development Scenario........................................ 15
2.2 Challenges faced by developers .................................................................. 18
2.3 NET Philosophy / Where does .NET fit in? .................................................... 21
2.4 Understanding the .NET Platform and its layers ............................................ 25
2.5 Understanding the various components of the .NET Platform and the functions
performed by them ........................................................................................ 30
2.6 Structure of a .NET Application................................................................... 37
3. Code Management.................................................................................. 43
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 43
3.2 First VB.NET / C# program ........................................................................ 45
3.3 JIT (Just–in-Time Compiler) & Debugging .................................................... 51
3.4 Managed Vs. Unmanaged Methods/Transitions ............................................. 56
3.5 Summary ................................................................................................ 61
4. Language Features of C# ....................................................................... 62
4.1 History of C# ........................................................................................... 62
4.2 Language Fundamentals in C# ................................................................... 63
4.3 Control Statements................................................................................... 74
4.4 Arrays ..................................................................................................... 83
5. Language Features of VB.NET ................................................................ 88
5.1 History of VB.NET ..................................................................................... 88
5.2 Language Fundamentals in VB.NET ............................................................. 89
5.3 Features of VB.NET ................................................................................... 99
5.4 Control Statements................................................................................. 107
5.5 Arrays ................................................................................................... 115
6. Object Oriented Programming Concepts .............................................. 122
6.1 Concept of Procedural Programming.......................................................... 123
6.2 Object Oriented Programming .................................................................. 126
6.3 Classes.................................................................................................. 127
6.4 Encapsulation......................................................................................... 127
6.5 Inheritance ............................................................................................ 128
6.6 Polymorphism ........................................................................................ 129
6.7 Understanding CSharp and VB.NET as Object Oriented Programming languages
................................................................................................................. 132
6.8 Polymorphism ........................................................................................ 149
6.9 Abstract Classes (Virtual Class) ................................................................ 157
6.10 Interfaces ............................................................................................ 161
6.11 Delegates and Events ............................................................................ 163
6.12 Structures............................................................................................ 168
6.13 Sample Application: OOPS ..................................................................... 170
7. Error and Exception Handling............................................................... 172
7.1 Need for Error Handling........................................................................... 172
7.2 Old-school unstructured exception handling in VB 6.0 and its disadvantages .. 173
7.3 Structured Exception Handling in C#/VB.NET ............................................. 174
7.4 System.Exception: The mother of all exceptions ......................................... 177
7.5 Handling exceptions that are not System.Exception compliant...................... 190
Catch.......................................................................................................... 191
7.6 Understanding Application exceptions (user-defined or custom exceptions).... 191
7.7 Nesting try/catch/finally blocks and re-throwing exceptions ......................... 198
7.8 Parting thoughts…................................................................................... 211
8. Assemblies and Application Domains ................................................... 212
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 212
8.2 Assembly Types...................................................................................... 212
8.3 Private Assemblies.................................................................................. 217
8.4 Shared Assemblies.................................................................................. 217
8.5 Application Domains................................................................................ 218
8.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 223
1. Getting Ready
Section Owner: Ajay Varghese (MVP)
Content Contributors: Bipin Joshi (MVP)
Welcome friends to the exciting journey of Microsoft .NET. If you are looking for
information about what .NET is all about, what it can do for you or how it can help you
and your customers, you have come to the right place. This section is intended to tell you
about these and many more things. After covering this section you will be ready to delve
into details of .NET.
The section is divided into following sub-sections:
1) Tracing the .NET History
2) Flavors of .NET
3) Features of .NET
4) Installing .NET Framework SDK
The first sub-section will introduce you with how .NET evolved and the path of .NET
since its Beta releases.
The second sub-section will introduce you with various flavors of...NET and their
respective SDKs. It also gives overview of Visual Studio.NET – an excellent IDE for
developing .NET applications.
It is necessary to understand the features of .NET that make it robust, programmer
friendly, powerful and flexible. The third sub-section is intended just for that. It gives
overview of technical features that make .NET shine over traditional programming
environments.
The final sub-section tells you how to install .NET framework SDK, what are the system
requirements and related topics.
1.1 Tracing the .NET History
Sometime in the July 2000, Microsoft announced a whole new software development
framework for Windows called .NET in the Professional Developer Conference (PDC).
Microsoft also released PDC version of the software for the developers to test. After
initial testing and feedback Beta 1 of .NET was announced. Beta 1 of the .NET itself got
lot of attention from the developer community. When Microsoft announced Beta 2, it
incorporated many changes suggested by the community and internals into the software.
The overall ‘Beta’ phase lasted for more than 1 ½ years. Finally, in March 2002
Microsoft released final version of the .NET framework.
One thing to be noted here is the change in approach of Microsoft while releasing this
new platform. Unlike other software where generally only a handful people are involved
in beta testing, .NET was thrown open to community for testing in it’s every pre-release
version. This is one of the reasons why it created so many waves of excitement within the
community and industry as well.
Microsoft has put in great efforts in this new platform. In fact Microsoft says that its
future depends on success of .NET. The development of .NET is such an important event
that Microsoft considers it equivalent to transition from DOS to Windows. All the future
development – including new and version upgrades of existing products – will revolve
around .NET. So, if you want to be at the forefront of Microsoft Technologies, you
should be knowing .NET!
Now, that we know about brief history of .NET let us see what .NET has to offer.
1.2 Flavors of .NET
Contrary to general belief .NET is not a single technology. Rather it is a set of
technologies that work together seamlessly to solve your business problems. The
following sections will give you insight into various flavors and tools of .NET and what
kind of applications you can develop.
 What type of applications can I develop?
When you hear the name .NET, it gives a feeling that it is something to do only
with internet or networked applications. Even though it is true that .NET provides
solid foundation for developing such applications it is possible to create many
other types of applications. Following list will give you an idea about various
types of application that we can develop on .NET.
1. ASP.NET Web applications: These include dynamic and data driven browser
based applications.
2. Windows Form based applications: These refer to traditional rich client
applications.
3. Console applications: These refer to traditional DOS kind of applications like
batch scripts.
4. Component Libraries: This refers to components that typically encapsulate
some business logic.
5. Windows Custom Controls: As with traditional ActiveX controls, you can
develop your own windows controls.
6. Web Custom Controls: The concept of custom controls can be extended to
web applications allowing code reuse and modularization.
7. Web services: They are “web callable” functionality available via industry
standards like HTTP, XML and SOAP.
8. Windows Services: They refer to applications that run as services in the
background. They can be configured to start automatically when the system
boots up.
As you can clearly see, .NET is not just for creating web application but for
almost all kinds of applications that you find under Windows.
 .NET Framework SDK
You can develop such varied types of applications. That’s fine. But how? As with
most of the programming languages, .NET has a complete Software Development
Kit (SDK) - more commonly referred to as .NET Framework SDK - that
provides classes, interfaces and language compilers necessary to program for
.NET. Additionally it contains excellent documentation and Quick Start tutorials
that help you learn .NET technologies with ease. Good news is that - .NET
Framework SDK is available FREE of cost. You can download it from the MSDN
web site. This means that if you have machine with .NET Framework installed
and a text editor such as Notepad then you can start developing for .NET right
now!
You can download entire .NET Framework SDK (approx 131 Mb) from MSDN
web site at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/downloads/default.asp?url=/downloads/sample.asp?url
=/msdn-files/027/000/976/msdncompositedoc.xml
 Development Tools
If you are developing applications that require speedy delivery to your customers
and features like integration with some version control software then simple
Notepad may not serve your purpose. In such cases you require some Integrated
Development Environment (IDE) that allows for Rapid Action Development
(RAD). The new Visual Studio.NET is such an IDE. VS.NET is a powerful and
flexible IDE that makes developing .NET applications a breeze. Some of the
features of VS.NET that make you more productive are:
- Drag and Drop design
- IntelliSense features
- Syntax highlighting and auto-syntax checking
- Excellent debugging tools
- Integration with version control software such as Visual Source Safe (VSS)
- Easy project management
Note that when you install Visual Studio.NET, .NET Framework is automatically
installed on the machine.
 Visual Studio.NET Editions
Visual Studio.NET comes in different editions. You can select edition appropriate
for the kind of development you are doing. Following editions of VS.NET are
available:
- Professional
- Enterprise Developer
- Enterprise Architect
Visual Studio .NET Professional edition offers a development tool for
creating various types of applications mentioned previously. Developers can
use Professional edition to build Internet and Develop applications quickly
and create solutions that span any device and integrate with any platform.
Visual Studio .NET Enterprise Developer (VSED) edition contains all the
features of Professional edition plus has additional capabilities for enterprise
development. The features include things such as a collaborative team
development, Third party tool integration for building XML Web services and
built-in project templates with architectural guidelines and spanning
comprehensive project life-cycle.
Visual Studio .NET Enterprise Architect (VSEA) edition contains all the
features of Visual Studio .NET Enterprise Developer edition and additionally
includes capabilities for designing, specifying, and communicating application
architecture and functionality. The additional features include Visual designer
for XML Web services, Unified Modeling Language (UML) support and
enterprise templates for development guidelines and policies.
A complete comparison of these editions can be found at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/howtobuy/choosing.asp
In addition to these editions, special language specific editions are available. They
are:
- Visual Basic.NET Standard Edition
- Visual C# Standard Edition
- Visual C++ .NET Standard (soon to be released)
These editions are primarily for hobbyist, student, or beginner who wants to
try their hands on basic language features.
A complete comparison of these standard editions with professional edition of
VS.NET can be found at:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/vcsharp/howtobuy/choosing.asp
http://msdn.microsoft.com/vbasic/howtobuy/choosing.asp
 .NET Redistributable
In order to run application developed using .NET Framework the machine must
have certain ‘runtime’ files installed. They are collectively called as .NET
redistributable. This is analogous to traditional Visual Basic applications that
required Visual Basic runtime installed on target computers. .NET redistributable
provides one redistributable installer that contains the common language runtime
(more on that later) and Microsoft .NET Framework components that are
necessary to run .NET Framework applications. The redistributable is available as
a stand-alone executable and can be installed manually or as a part of your
application setup.
You can download .NET redistributable at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/downloads/default.asp?url=/downloads/sample.asp?url
=/msdn-files/027/001/829/msdncompositedoc.xml
More technical information about .NET redistributable can be found at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-
us/dnnetdep/html/dotnetfxref.asp
Note that if you have installed .NET Framework SDK, there is no need of
installing redistributable separately. Also, note that there is difference between
.NET Framework SDK and .NET redistributable in terms of purpose and tools
and documentation supplied. .NET Framework SDK is intended to ‘develop’
applications where as .NET redistributable is intended to ‘run’ .NET applications.
 .NET and mobile development
Now days the use of mobile and wireless devices is ever increasing. PDAs,
mobile phones, Smartphones, handheld PCs and HTML pagers are becoming
common. As compared to full blown desktop computers, Mobile devices are
generally resource-constrained. There are limitations on what they can display
and in which form. For example you can easily display graphical menus in
desktop applications but the same may not be possible for cell phones.
Today there are many vendors making CPUs and development tools for mobile
devices. However, their standards are much varying. For example devices running
Windows CE will have different tools and standards of development than Palm
OS. Also, programming model for such devices is an issue of debate. For
example, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was considered a ‘standard’ for
mobile devices but it introduced disadvantages of its own such as requirement of
continuous connectivity, lack in rich user interface and failure to utilize client –
side resources effectively.
Mobile devices can be broadly divided into two categories:
1) Mobile Devices that have certain client-side resources like PDAs,
Smartphones and Handheld PCs. They can run stand-alone application with
rich user interface.
2) Mobile Devices that lack even these client-side resources such as mobile
phones. They can not run stand alone applications having rich and more
interactive user interface.
In order to encompass all possible devices from above categories Microsoft has
developed two distinct technologies namely:
- Microsoft .NET Compact Framework (.NET CF)
- Microsoft Mobile Internet Toolkit (MMIT)
o Microsoft .NET Compact Framework
.NET compact framework is a sub set of entire .NET framework and is
targeted at mobile devices having some client side resources. It provides
support for managed code and XML Web services. Currently, .NET
Compact Framework is in Beta 1 and is available on devices running the
Windows CE or Windows CE .NET operating systems. However,
Microsoft has promised support for other platforms in the future. As of
now the framework supports Visual Basic.NET and C# as development
languages out of the box. Support for other languages is planned in near
future.
Microsoft is creating a set of extensions for Visual Studio .NET called
Smart Device Extensions that will allow Visual Studio .NET developers to
program for .NET Compact Framework. This means that developers
familiar with Visual Studio.NET can start developing for mobile devices
almost instantly.
More information about .NET Compact Framework can be obtained at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/device/compact.asp
o Microsoft Mobile Internet Toolkit
Microsoft Mobile Internet Toolkit (MMIT) is designed to develop server
side applications for mobile devices such as cell phones, PDAs, and
pagers. It is different than .NET compact Framework in that it is a server
side technology. It is ideal for devices that can not run stand alone
applications.
MMIT mainly uses ASP.NET as a technology for delivering markup to a
wide variety of mobile devices. As we know that each mobile device has
its own set of underlying standards and markup. MMIT shields these
details from the developer and allows ‘uniform code’ for any target
device. Based on the capabilities of target device the output is rendered.
More information about MMIT can be obtained from
http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/device/mitdefault.asp
1.3 Features of .NET
Now that we know some basics of .NET, let us see what makes .NET a wonderful
platform for developing modern applications.
 Rich Functionality out of the box
.NET framework provides a rich set of functionality out of the box. It contains
hundreds of classes that provide variety of functionality ready to use in your
applications. This means that as a developer you need not go into low level details
of many operations such as file IO, network communication and so on.
 Easy development of web applications
ASP.NET is a technology available on .NET platform for developing dynamic
and data driven web applications. ASP.NET provides an event driven
programming model (similar to Visual Basic 6 that simplify development of web
pages (now called as web forms) with complex user interface. ASP.NET server
controls provide advanced user interface elements (like calendar and grids) that
save lot of coding from programmer’s side.
 OOPs Support
The advantages of Object Oriented programming are well known. .NET provides
a fully object oriented environment. The philosophy of .NET is – “Object is
mother of all.” Languages like Visual Basic.NET now support many of the OO
features that were lacking traditionally. Even primitive types like integer and
characters can be treated as objects – something not available even in OO
languages like C++.
 Multi-Language Support
Generally enterprises have varying skill sets. For example, a company might have
people with skills in Visual Basic, C++, and Java etc. It is an experience that
whenever a new language or environment is invented existing skills are outdated.
This naturally increases cost of training and learning curve. .NET provides
something attractive in this area. It supports multiple languages. This means that
if you have skills in C++, you need not throw them but just mould them to suit
.NET environment. Currently four languages are available right out of the box
namely – Visual Basic.NET, C# (pronounced as C-sharp), Jscript.NET and
Managed C++ (a dialect of Visual C++). There are many vendors that are
working on developing language compilers for other languages (20+ language
compilers are already available). The beauty of multi language support lies in the
fact that even though the syntax of each language is different, the basic
capabilities of each language remain at par with one another.
 Multi-Device Support
Modern lift style is increasingly embracing mobile and wireless devices such as
PDAs, mobiles and handheld PCs. . . .NET provides promising platform for
programming such devices. .NET Compact Framework and Mobile Internet
Toolkit are step ahead in this direction.
 Automatic memory management
While developing applications developers had to develop an eye on system
resources like memory. Memory leaks were major reason in failure of
applications. .NET takes this worry away from developer by handling memory on
its own. The garbage collector takes care of freeing unused objects at appropriate
intervals.
 Compatibility with COM and COM+
Before the introduction of .NET, COM was the de-facto standard for
componentized software development. Companies have invested lot of money and
efforts in developing COM components and controls. The good news is – you can
still use COM components and ActiveX controls under .NET. This allows you to
use your existing investment in .NET applications. .NET still relies on COM+ for
features like transaction management and object pooling. In fact it provides
enhanced declarative support for configuring COM+ application right from your
source code. Your COM+ knowledge still remains as a valuable asset.
 No more DLL Hell
If you have worked with COM components, you probably are aware of “DLL
hell”. DLL conflicts are a common fact in COM world. The main reason behind
this was the philosophy of COM – “one version of component across machine”.
Also, COM components require registration in the system registry. .NET ends this
DLL hell by allowing applications to use their own copy of dependent DLLs.
Also, .NET components do not require any kind of registration in system registry.
 Strong XML support
Now days it is hard to find a programmer who is unaware of XML. XML has
gained such a strong industry support that almost all the vendors have released
some kind of upgrades or patches to their existing software to make it “XML
compatible”. Currently, .NET is the only platform that has built with XML right
into the core framework. .NET tries to harness power of XML in every possible
way. In addition to providing support for manipulating and transforming XML
documents, .NET provides XML web services that are based on standards like
HTTP, XML and SOAP.
 Ease of deployment and configuration
Deploying windows applications especially that used COM components were
always been a tedious task. Since .NET does not require any registration as such,
much of the deployment is simplified. This makes XCOPY deployment viable.
Configuration is another area where .NET – especially ASP.NET – shines over
traditional languages. The configuration is done via special files having special
XML vocabulary. Since, most of the configuration is done via configuration files,
there is no need to sit in front of actual machine and configure the application
manually. This is more important for web applications; simply FTPing new
configuration file makes necessary changes.
 Security
Windows platform was always criticized for poor security mechanisms. Microsoft
has taken great efforts to make .NET platform safe and secure for enterprise
applications. Features such as type safety, code access security and role based
authentication make overall application more robust and secure.
1.4 Installing the .NET Framework SDK
Now that you have fare idea of what .NET I and what it can do for you, it is time to
install .NET framework SDK on your machine. Following sections will tell you
everything you need to know for installing .NET framework.
 Hardware Requirements
In order to install .NET framework SDK following hardware is required:
- Computer/Processor : Intel Pentium class, 133 megahertz (MHz) or higher
- Minimum RAM Requirements : 128 megabytes (MB) (256 MB or higher
recommended)
- Hard Disk :
o Hard disk space required to install: 600 MB
o Hard disk space required: 370 MB
- Display : Video: 800x600, 256 colors
- Input Device : Microsoft mouse or compatible pointing device
 Software Requirements
- Microsoft Internet Explorer 5.01 or later is required
- Microsoft Data Access Components 2.6 is also required (Microsoft Data
Access Components 2.7 is recommended)
- Operating System :
o Microsoft Windows® 2000, with the latest Windows service pack and
critical updates available from the Microsoft Security Web page
o Microsoft Windows XP – (Microsoft Windows XP Professional if you
want to run ASP.NET)
o Microsoft Windows NT® 4.0
Note: If you want to simply run .NET applications then you can also run them on
Microsoft Windows XP Home edition, Windows Millennium Edition (Windows
ME) and Windows 98.
Here are some URLs that you will find handy in making your system up-to-date
for above software requirements.
Internet Explorer 6 can be downloaded from
http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/downloads/ie6/default.asp
Microsoft Data Access Components 2.7 can be downloaded from
http://www.microsoft.com/data/download_270RTM.htm
Various Windows service packs and patches can be obtained from
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/search.asp
 Where to get .NET Framework SDK
As mentioned earlier .NET framework SDK is freely downloadable from MSDN
site. Visit
http://msdn.microsoft.com/downloads/default.asp?url=/downloads/sample.asp?url
=/msdn-files/027/000/976/msdncompositedoc.xml and download it now.
The total download size is 137,363,456 bytes (approximately 131 Mb). For your
convenience Microsoft has provided multi-part version of the entire download. If
you are unable to download the SDK from MSDN web site, check out popular PC
magazines around. Many of them contain .NET Framework SDK on their
companion CD.
 Starting the installation
Note: If you already have a previous version of .NET installed on the machine
then it must first be uninstalled. Refer ReadMe files that ship with .NET
framework SDK. These files contain valuable information related to installation,
system requirements and trouble shooting.
In order to start the installation, you need to run the setup program that is
available with the download mentioned above. A wizard will guide you with
necessary process. It will also allow you to select various components of the
framework.
After the installation is complete it is a good idea to apply .NET framework
Service pack 1. The service pack fixes some of the bugs. It can be downloaded
from:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/netframework/downloads/sp1/default.asp
 Installing Samples and Quick Start Tutorials
.NET framework comes with an excellent set of tutorials that help you learn
various technologies such as ASP.NET and windows forms. In order to configure
the tutorials follow Start menu -> Program -> Microsoft .NET Framework SDK
-> Samples and Quick Start Tutorials. This will open up a HTML document that
will guide you through the process of configuring the samples and tutorials.
 Installing MSDE
.NET framework samples and quick start tutorials require a Microsoft SQL Server
Desktop Engine (MSDE). MSDE is scaled down version of SQL Server. The
samples use databases from the MSDE. In order to work with the samples make
sure you have started an instance of MSDE. You can use this MSDE for creating
your own databases for testing applications.
Coming Next…
By the time you must have got idea about what .NET is and what it can do for you. You
probably will have installed .NET on your machine waiting eagerly to try hands on it.
However, before you go into the code level details, it is essential that you firmly
understand certain fundamentals. In the next section we will demystify some intrinsic
concepts and features of .NET framework.
2. Introduction to the .NET Initiative and the .NET
Platform
Section Owner: Saurabh Nandu (MVP)
Content Contributors: Balachandran, Pradeep
The Microsoft .NET initiative is a very wide initiative and it spans multiple Microsoft
Products ranging from the Windows OS to the Developer Tools to the Enterprise Servers.
The definition of .NET differs from context to context, and it becomes very difficult for
you to interpret the .NET strategy. This section aims at demystifying the various
terminologies behind .NET from a developer’s perspective. It will also highlight the need
for using this new .NET Platform in your applications and how .NET improves over its
previous technologies.
2.1 Understanding the Existing Development Scenario
Windows DNA is a concept for building distributed applications using the Microsoft
Windows operating system and related software products.
First we will understand about the 2- tier, 3- tier and then move on to N- tier Windows
DNA.
Why to divide an application into logical layers?
Factoring an application into logical parts is useful. Breaking a large piece of software
into smaller pieces can make it easier to build, easier to reuse and easier to modify. It can
also be helpful in accommodating different technologies or different business
organizations.
2-Tier: Client Server
Presentation Layer
Win 32 Clients
(VB Forms)
Data Source Layer
Sql Mail File
Server Server System
Fig Showing 2 – Tier Client Server Model
Through the appearance of Local-Area-Networks, PCs came out of their isolation, and
were soon not only being connected mutually but also to servers. Client/Server-
computing was born. A two-tiered application is an application whose functionality can
only be segmented into two logical tiers, presentation services and data services. The
presentation services of a two-tiered application are responsible for gathering information
from the user, interacting with the data services to perform the application's business
operations, and presenting the results of those operations to the user. The Presentation
services are also called the presentation layer because it presents information to the user.
Things you might find in a presentation layer include a Web browser, a terminal, a
custom-designed GUI, or even a character-based user interface. Client-Server
architecture was a major buzzword in the early 90's, taking initially dumb terminal
applications and giving them a fancy windows-like front end, using PCs with terminal
emulators which presented pretty GUIs (Graphical user interface) or later Visual Basic
etc front-ends. A web browser talking to a web server is an example of a client talking to
a server. Here there is presentation logic (presentation tier) happening at the client, and
data/file access (data access tier) and logic happening at the server. One reason why the
2-tier model is so widespread is because of the quality of the tools and middleware that
have been most commonly used since the 90’s: Remote-SQL, ODBC, relatively
inexpensive and well-integrated PC-tools (like Visual Basic, Power-Builder, MS Access,
4-GL-Tools by the DBMS manufactures). In comparison the server side uses relatively
expensive tools. In addition the PC-based tools show good Rapid-Application-
Development (RAD) qualities i.e. simpler applications can be produced in a
comparatively short time. The 2-tier model is the logical consequence of the RAD-tools’
popularity.
3 – Tier: Client Server
Presentation Layer
Win32 Client Browser based Interface
Applications html /xml
(Vi lB i f ) J l
HTTP
IIS / Apache
Business Layer
COM / COM /
COM + ASP
Business Rules and Process
Data Service Layer
Sql Oracle Mail File
Server RDBMS Server System
Fig Showing 3 – Tier or N- Tier Client Server Model
In a three-tiered application, the presentation services are responsible for gathering
information from the user, sending the user information to the business services for
processing, receiving the results of the business services processing, and presenting those
results to the user. The most popular architecture on the web currently, mostly taking the
form of web browser processing client side presentation in the form of HTML/DHTML,
etc, the web server using some scripting language (ASP) and the database server (SQL
Server for example) serving up the data.
The basic functionalities of 3 – Tier or N-Tier follows are
The presentation services tier is responsible for:
 Gathering information from the user
 Sending the user information to the business services for processing
 Receiving the results of the business services processing
 Presenting those results to the user
The business services tier is responsible for:
 Receiving input from the presentation tier.
 Interacting with the data services to perform the business operations.
 Sending the processed results to the presentation tier.
The data services tier is responsible for the:
 Storage of data.
 Retrieval of data.
 Maintenance of data.
 Integrity of data.
In Windows DNA applications commonly implement their business logic using one or
more of three implementation options.
 Asp Pages
 COM components
 Stored procedures running in the DBMS
Writing much business logic in ASP pages is a bad idea. Since simple languages are
used, such as Microsoft Visual Basic Script, and the code is interpreted each time it is
executed, which hurts the performance. Code in ASP pages is also hard to maintain,
largely because business logic is commonly intermixed with presentation code that
creates the user interface.
One recommended approach for writing middle-tier business logic is to implement that
logic as COM objects. This approach is a bit more complex than writing a pure ASP
application. Wrapping business logic in COM objects also cleanly separates this code
from the presentation code contained in ASP pages, making the application easier to
maintain.
The Third option for writing business logic is to create some of that code as stored
procedures running in the database management system (DBMS). Although a primary
reason for using stored procedures is to isolate the details of database schema from
business logic to simplify code management and security, having code in such a close
proximity to data can also help optimize performance.
2.2 Challenges faced by developers
In Windows DNA, there are two major choices of user interfaces - Win32 clients and
browser based clients. During the Internet revolution of the late 90s we saw the
emergence of the browser and the Web Server. With the introduction of Internet,
information started being available but with limited functionality. With the development
of the Windows Distributed Internet Architecture, we started to see Web sites that
allowed simple transactions to occur. Clients on browsers could access Web sites that had
COM components available to them that allowed them to retrieve information from the
database. So now we gained the capability to simulate the environment of the Win32
platform. The client software – the browser – can access information on a server. But as
with the Win32 environment, we are limited in the way in which the information is
presented to us. Customization is neither widespread nor broadly developed.
Let us look into limitations of these technologies.
Limitations in Win32 Clients
In a client-server environment visual tool such as Visual Basic, are often used to create a
rich user interface. The drawbacks is that such client software is difficult to deploy and
maintain, requiring and install on every client and a change to every client when an
upgrade is needed.
DLL conflicts on the client are frequent because of variations in the version of the
operating system and other software installed on the client.
Visual Basic is the most common language used to write middle-tier components. This
requires high level of expertise in COM. Since these middle-tire components are
implemented using Microsoft Transaction Server on Windows NT or COM+ services on
Windows 2000. These components use stateless designs, which can look very different
from the stateful designs often used in client-based components.
COM components, in the middle tier must work together, Versioning all the components
properly so that they understand each other's interfaces can be a challenge. This requires
a highly sophisticated skill level and a well - controlled deployment process.
COM works well on Microsoft platforms. But it suffers from lack of interoperability with
other platforms. One of the most important ways functionality can be reused is for a
software component to inherit another component, But COM does not support
inheritance.
Visual Basic is the most popular language for developing applications with the DNA
model, this is used in two major roles - forms based VB Clients and COM components.
This VB6 language has its own limitations it doesn’t have the capability of
multithreading, lack of OOPS concepts, Poor error handling ability and poor integration
with other languages. Hence it makes it unsuitable for development of object-based
frameworks.
Today’s applications need to use the Win32 API for a variety of purposes like monitor
widows messages, manipulate controls, reading and writing to INI files and socket
programming etc. But these widows API are hard to program for variety of reasons, like
it is not object oriented and complex calls to the functions with long lists of arguments,
since Win32 API is written in C++ language, getting calling conventions right on data
types is messy.
Limitations in DNA-Based Internet Development or Browser based clients
With DNA - based software development, creating software that is accessed by a
user locally is done very differently from development for the Internet. The Visual Basic
forms for client-server user interfaces versus the use of Active Server Pages for Internet
user interfaces. Even though both situations involve designing and implementing GUI
based user interfaces the tools and programming techniques used are quite different.
ASP lacks in state management between post backs. Every time a page is
rendered, the programmer must make sure that all the visual controls like text boxes,
dropdowns have their information loaded. It is the programmer's responsibility to manage
the state in the user interface and to transfer state information between pages. This causes
developers to have to write a lot of code for the internet user interfaces that is not relevant
to business problem being solved.
If the Internet application is going to run on a group of Web Servers, then
considerable additional work is necessary to design a state management system that is
independent of particular server.
Browser based clients are somewhat more difficult to create, and offer a more
limited user interface with fewer controls and less control over layout of the screen and
handling of screen events. It is possible to create rich user interfaces using DHTML, but
it requires lot of coding and also browser compatibility issues rises, for which a separate
coding or two version of the same page have to be maintained, keeping in mind, the
browser we are targeting.
The Internet has caused server-based applications to become much more popular
than ever before and has made the connectionless request/response programming model
common. But communicating between servers—especially among those running on
different platforms—is difficult, and because most substantial Internet applications are
Database-Centric, the ability to access a wide variety of data sources easily is more
important than ever.
As we move on to handheld devices or wireless devices, kiosks or other type of
systems, many of which run a different processors and do not use standard operating
system. So sharing the data between these devices and communication varies which is not
uniform, becomes difficult.
2.3 NET Philosophy / Where does .NET fit in?
The driving force behind Microsoft® .NET is a shift in focus from individual Web sites
or devices to new constellations of computers, devices, and services that work together to
deliver broader, richer solutions.
The platform, technology that people use is changing. Since 1992, the client/server
environment has been in place, with people running the applications they need on the
Win32 platform, for example. Information is supplied by the databases on the servers,
and programs that are installed on the client machine determine how that information is
presented and processed.
One of the things people are looking for is a one-sentence definition of ".NET". What is
it? Why should I care? .NET is Microsoft's strategy for software that empowers people
any time, any place, and on any device.
Many of the goals Microsoft had in mind when designing .NET reflect the limitations we
previously discussed for development with previous tools and technologies.
Microsoft.NET solutions
 Single Programming Model A related goal is to have development for the internet
environment look very much like development for other types of software. Likewise,
developing user interfaces in Windows Forms is very similar to developing them in
Web Forms. There are commonly used controls, such as Labels and Text Boxes, in
both, with similar sets of properties and method. The amount of commonality makes
it easy to transition between the two types of development, and easier for traditional
VB developers to start using Web Forms.
 Distributed Systems The Vision of Microsoft.NET is globally distributed systems,
using XML as the universal glue to allow functions running on different computers
across an organization or across the world to come together in a single application. In
this vision, systems from servers to Wireless Palmtops, with everything in between,
will share the same general platform, with versions of .NET available for all of them,
and with each of them able to integrate transparently with the others.
 Richer User Interface Web Forms are a giant step towards much richer web-based
user interfaces. Their built-in intelligence allows rich, browser-independent screens to
be developed quickly, and to be easily integrated with compiled code. Microsoft has
announced an initiative for the future called the Universal Canvas which builds upon
the XML standards to transform the internet from a Read only environment into a
read/write platform, enabling users to interactively create, browse, edit and analyze
information. The universal canvas can bring together multiple sources of information
anywhere in the world to enable seamless data access and use.(The universal canvas
will log on to the Ms System of servers whenever the new device is turned on)
Centrally controlled OS, Office and Visual Studio.
 Easy Deployment Executable modules in .NET are self-describing. Once the
Common Language Runtime (CLR is explained in next sections) knows where a
module resides, it can find out everything else it needs to know to run the module,
such as the module’s object interface and security requirements, from the module
itself. That means a module can just be copied to a new environment and immediately
executed.
 Support for Multiple Languages The CLR executes binary code called MSIL
(Microsoft intermediate language), and that code looks the same regardless of the
original source language. All .NET –enabled languages use the same data types and
the same interfacing conventions. This makes possible for all .NET language to
interoperate transparently. One language can call another easily, and languages can
even inherit classes written in another language and extend them current platform has
anywhere near this level of language interoperability.
 Extendibility The completely object based approach of .NET is designed to allow base
functionality to be extended through inheritance ( unlike COM) and the platform’s
functionality is appropriately partitioned to allow various parts( such as the just-in-
time compilers discussed in the next section) to be replaced as new versions
are needed. It is likely that, in the future, new ways of interfacing to the outside world
will be added to the current trio of windows Form, Web Forms, and Web Services
such as universal Canvas.
 Portability of compiled Applications .NET allows the future possibility of moving
software to other hardware and operating system platforms. The ultimate goal is that
compiled code produced on one implementation of .NET (such as Windows) could be
moved to another implementation of .NET on a different operating system merely by
copying the compiled code over and running it.
 Integrity with COM .NET integrates very will with COM-based software. Any COM
component can be treated as a .NET component by other .NET components. The
.NET Framework wraps COM components and exposes an interface that .NET
components can work with. This is absolutely essential to the quick acceptance of
.NET, because it makes .NET interoperable with a tremendous amount of older
COM-based software.
Other benefits of using .NET architecture
 The Microsoft .NET platform's reliance on XML for data exchange—an open
standard managed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)—and modular XML
Web services removes barriers to data sharing and software integration.
 The .NET platform, through the .NET Framework's common language runtime,
enables XML Web services to interoperate whatever their source language.
Developers can build reusable XML Web services instead of monolithic applications.
By making it easy to offer your XML Web services to others.
 The ability to easily find available XML Web services means you can buy pieces of
your applications rather than build everything from scratch, focusing your time and
money where it makes the most sense.
 Easier to build sophisticated development tools – debuggers and profilers can target
the Common Language Runtime, and thus become accessible to all .NET-enabled
languages.
 Potentially better performance in system level code for memory management,
garbage collection, and the like have yielded an architecture that should meet or
exceed performance of typical COM-based applications today.
 Fewer bugs, as whole classes of bugs should be unknown in .NET. With the CLR
handling memory management, garbage collection.
 Faster development using development tool like visual studio.net
N-tier architecture with .NET
Applications developed in the .NET Framework will still, in, many cases, use a DNA
model to design the appropriate tiers. However, the tiers will be a lot easier to produce in
.NET. The presentation tier will benefit from the new interface technologies and
especially Web Forms for Internet development. The middle tier will require far less
COM-related headaches to develop and implement. And richer, more distributed middle
tier designs will be possible by using Web Services.
Let us look into how .Net fit into n – tier architecture. When you talk about a true
distributed n-tier type of application, you are talking about separating the components of
the different tiers on different machines as well as in separate components. Figure 1
shows a typical example of an n-tier application with multiple components on each
machine.
Figure 1. A distributed n-tier application has three physical tiers with one or more
logical tiers on each machine
There are many different ways you could configure an n-tier application. For example,
the business rules may go on a separate machine and you might use .NET Remoting to
talk from the client application to the business rule tier as shown in Figure 2.
We may also have a data input validation rule component on the client to check simple
rules such as required fields and formatting. These are rules that you do not want to make
a trip across the network just to check. You may then also add a business rule layer on the
same tier as the data layer component to check complicated business rules that compare
the data from one table to another.
These are just a few different configurations that you may utilize. Of course, you could
come up with something unique that fits your specific situation. Regardless of how you
structure the physical implementation of the components, make sure that the logical
structure of the program is broken up into components as shown in the above figures.
2.4 Understanding the .NET Platform and its layers
Here in this section we will be covering what the .NET Platform is made up of
and we will define its layers. To start, .NET is a framework that covers all the layers
of software development above the Operating System. It provides the richest level of
integration among presentation technologies, component technologies, and data
technologies ever seen on Microsoft, or perhaps any, platform. Secondly, the entire
architecture has been created to make it easy to develop Internet applications, as it
is to develop for the desktop.
Constituents of .NET Platform
The .NET consists of the following three main parts
 .NET Framework – a completely re-engineered development environment.
 .NET Products – applications from MS based on the .NET platform, including
Office and Visual Studio.
 .NET Services – facilitates 3rd party developers to create services on the .NET
Platform.
Remote user
over
Remote systems
over .NET
Intranet/Internet
Operating System
Windows 2000/NT/98/Me – Others in
f
.NET Platform Architecture
The above diagram gives you an overview of the .NET architecture. At the bottom of
the diagram is your Operating System above that sits the .NET framework that acts
as an interface to it. The .NET wraps the operating system, insulating software
developed with .NET from most operating system specifics such as file handling and
memory allocation.
The Common Language Runtime (CLR)
At the base is the CLR. It is considered as the heart of the .NET framework. .NET
applications are compiled to a common language known as Microsoft Intermediate
Language or “IL”. The CLR, then, handles the compiling the IL to machine language,
at which point the program is executed.
The CLR environment is also referred to as a managed environment, in which
common services, such as garbage collection and security, are automatically
provided.
More information on CLR is available at
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconthecommonlanguageruntime.asp
The .NET Class Framework
The next layer up in the framework is called the .NET Class Framework also referred
as .NET base class library. The .NET Class Framework consists of several thousand
type definitions, where each type exposes some functionality. All in all, the CLR and
the .NET Class Framework allow developers to build the following kinds of
applications:
 Web Services. Components that can be accessed over the Internet very easily.
 Web Forms. HTML based applications (Web Sites).
 Windows Forms. Rich Windows GUI applications. Windows form applications can
take advantage of controls, mouse and keyboard events and can talk directly to
the underlying OS.
 Windows Console Applications. Compilers, utilities and tools are typically
implemented as console applications.
 Windows Services. It is possible to build service applications controllable via the
Windows Service Control Manager (SCM) using the .NET Framework.
 Component Library. .NET Framework allows you to build stand-alone components
(types) that may be easily incorporated into any of the above mentioned
application types.
ADO.NET: Data and XML
ADO.NET is the next generation of Microsoft ActiveX Data Object (ADO) technology.
ADO.NET is heavily dependent on XML for representation of data. It also provides an
improved support for the disconnected programming model.
ADO.NET’s DataSet object, is the core component of the disconnected architecture of
ADO.NET. The DataSet can also be populated with data from an XML source, whether
it is a file or an XML stream.
For more details on ADO.NET, check out
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconaccessingdatawithadonet.asp
User Interface
The next layer consists of the user and programming interface that allows .NET to
interact with the outside world. The following are the types of interaction interfaces
that are supported by the .NET framework:
 Web Forms
 Windows Forms
 Web Services
Now let me tell you about Windows Forms and ASP.NET. WinForms (Windows Forms)
is simply the name used to describe the creation of a standard Win32 kind of GUI
applications.
The Active Server Pages web development framework has undergone extensive
changes in ASP.NET. The programming language of choice is now full-blown VB.NET
or C# (or any supported .NET language for that matter). Other changes include:
 New support for HTML Server Controls (session state supported on the server).
 It is now possible for the server to process client-side events.
 New control families including enhanced Intrinsics, Rich controls, List controls,
DataGrid control, Repeater control, Data list control, and validation controls.
 New support for developing Web Services—application logic programmatically
accessible via the Internet that can be integrated into .NET applications using the
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP).
Languages
The CLR allows objects created in one language be treated as equal citizens by code
written in a completely different language. To make this possible, Microsoft has
defined a Common Language Specification (CLS) that details for compiler vendors
the minimum set of features that their compilers must support if they are to target
the runtime.
Any language that conforms to the CLS can run on the CLR. In the .NET framework,
Microsoft provides Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual C#, and JScript support.
.NET Products
Microsoft Visual Studio .NET
Microsoft Visual Studio .NET represents the best development environment for the
.NET platform.
Integrations is the key in the new VS.NET IDE, thus a single IDE can be used to
program in a variety of managed languages from VB.NET to Visual C++ with
Managed extensions. Advance features in VS.NET truly propel development in to the
highest gear.
.NET Services:
XML Web Services
XML is turning the way we build and use software inside out. The Web revolutionized
how users talk to applications. XML is revolutionizing how applications talk to other
applications—or more broadly, how computers talk to other computers—by providing
a universal data format that lets data be easily adapted or transformed:
 XML Web services allow applications to share data.
 XML Web services are discrete units of code; each handles a limited set of tasks.
 They are based on XML, the universal language of Internet data exchange, and
can be called across platforms and operating systems, regardless of
programming language.
 .NET is a set of Microsoft software technologies for connecting your world of
information, people, systems, and devices through the use of XML Web services.
For more details refer:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/nhp/default.asp?contentid=28000442
.NET Runtime:
Let’s now discuss about the .NET Runtime.
Source File C++ C# Visual Basic JScript
Compilers Compiler Compiler Compiler Compiler
Binaries Common Language Specification (CLI)
Just-in-Time Compilation
Runtime Common Language Runtime (CLR)
The .NET Framework provides a run-time environment called the Common Language
Runtime, which manages the execution of code and provides services that make the
development process easier. Compilers and tools expose the runtime's functionality
and enable you to write code that benefits from this managed execution
environment. Code developed with a language compiler that targets the runtime is
called managed code.
To enable the runtime to provide services to managed code, language compilers
must emit metadata, which the runtime uses to locate and load classes, lay out
instances in memory, resolve method invocations, generate native code, enforce
security, and set run-time context boundaries.
The runtime automatically handles objects, releasing them when they are no longer
being used. Objects whose lifetimes are managed in this way are called managed
data. Automatic memory management eliminates memory leaks as well as many
other common programming errors.
The CLR makes it easy to design components and applications whose objects interact
across languages. For example, you can define a class and then use a different
language to derive a class from your original class, or call a method on the original
class. You can also pass an instance of a class to a method on a class written in a
different language. This cross-language integration is possible because of the
common type system defined by the runtime, and they follow the runtime's rules for
defining new types, as well as for creating, using, persisting, and binding to types.
Language compilers and tools expose the runtime's functionality in ways that are
intended to be useful and intuitive to their developers. This means that some
features of the runtime might be more noticeable in one environment than in
another. How you experience the runtime depends on which language compilers or
tools you use. The following benefits of the runtime might be particularly interesting
to you:
 Performance improvements.
 The ability to easily use components developed in other languages.
 Extensible types provided by a class library.
 A broad set of language features.
2.5 Understanding the various components of the .NET Platform
and the functions performed by them
Now we will go in detail about the various components that build the .NET framework
and its functionalities.
Common Language Runtime
At the core of the .NET platform is the Common Language Runtime (CLR). The CLR
simplifies application development, provides a robust and secure execution
environment, supports multiple languages and simplifies application deployment and
management.
The diagram below provides more details on the CLR's features:
In this section we will cover some of the more significant features provided to .NET
applications by the CLR. These include:
 Memory Management
 Common Type System
Before moving further let us discuss briefly about Common Language
Infrastructure(CLI) according to Standardizing Information and Communication
Systems(ECMA) specifications. The Microsoft Shared Source CLI Implementation is a
file archive containing working source code for the ECMA-334 (C#) and ECMA-335
(Common Language Infrastructure, or CLI) standards. In addition to the CLI
implementation and the C# compiler, the Shared Source CLI Implementation from
Microsoft called ROTOR contains tools, utilities, additional Framework classes, and
samples.
For the benefit of existing codebases, the CLI standard also takes pains to describe
in detail how unmanaged software can co-exist safely with managed components,
enabling seamless sharing of computing resources and responsibilities.
Like the C runtime, the CLI has been designed to exploit the power of diverse
platforms, as well as to complement existing tools, languages, and runtimes. Let's
look at a few of the likely ways that the Shared Source CLI Implementation might
interest you:
 There are significant differences in implementation between this code and the
code for Microsoft's commercial CLR implementation, both to facilitate portability
and to make the code base more approachable. If you are a developer who is
interested in knowing how JIT compilers and garbage collectors work, or of how
Microsoft Visual Studio works on your behalf under the covers, this distribution
will definitely hold your attention!
 The distribution will help you in creating courseware around interesting topics
that can be illustrated by this codebase.
 The distribution will help you in implementing your own version of the CLI and it
also helps you in understanding the way the compilers and tools target the CLI.
Automatic Memory Management
Now let us discuss about an important feature of the CLR called Automatic Memory
Management. A major feature of .NET framework CLR is that the runtime
automatically handles the allocation and release of an object’s memory resources.
Automatic memory management enhances code quality and developer productivity
without negatively impacting expressiveness or performance.
The Garbage Collector (GC) is responsible for collecting the objects no longer
referenced by the application. The GC may automatically be invoked by the CLR or
the application may explicitly invoke the GC by calling GC.Collect. Objects are not
released from memory until the GC is invoked and setting an object reference to
Nothing does not invoke the GC, a period of time often elapses between when the
object is no longer referenced by the application and when the GC collects it.
Common Type System
The Common Type System defines how data types are declared, used, and managed
in the runtime, and is also an important part of the runtime’s support for the Cross-
Language Integration. The common type system performs the following functions:
 Establishes a framework that enables cross-language integration, type safety,
and high performance code execution.
 Provides an object-oriented model that supports the complete implementation of
many programming languages.
 Defines rules that languages must follow, which helps ensure that objects written
in different languages can interact with each other.
The Common Type System can be divided into two general categories of types,
Reference type and Value type each of which is further divided into subcategories.
Common Type System Architecture
The .NET type system has two different kinds of types namely Value types and
Reference types.
Value types directly contain the data, and instances of value types are either
allocated on the stack or allocated inline in a structure. Value types can be built-in
(implemented by the runtime), user-defined, or enumerations.
The core value types supported by the .NET platform reside within the root of the
System namespace. There types are often referred to as the .NET “Primitive Types”.
They include:
 Boolean
 Byte
 Char
 DateTime
 Decimal
 Double
 Guid
 Int16
 Int32
 Int64
 SByte
 Single
 Timespan
Reference types store a reference to the value's memory address, and are
allocated on the heap. Reference types can be self-describing types, pointer types, or
interface types. The type of a reference type can be determined from values of self-
describing types. Self-describing types are further split into arrays and class types.
Value Type vs. Reference Type
The primary difference between reference and value types is how instances of the
two types are treated by the CLR. One difference is that the GC collects instances of
reference types that are no longer referenced by the application. Instances of value
types are automatically cleaned up when the variable goes out of scope. Let’s take a
look at an example in VB.NET:
Sub Test()
Dim myInteger as Integer
Dim myObject as Object
End Sub
‘myInteger a Value type is automatically cleaned up when the Sub ends.
‘But myObject a Reference type is not cleaned up until the GC is run.
Another difference is when one variable is set equal to another or passed as a
parameter to a method call. When a variable of a reference type (A) is set equal to
another variable of the same type (B), variable A is assigned a reference to B. Both
variables reference the same object. When a variable of value type (A) is set equal
to another variable of the same type (B), variable A receives a copy of the contents
of B. Each variable will have its own individual copy of the data.
Yet another difference between the behaviors of value types versus reference types
is how equality is determined. Two variables of a given reference type are
determined to be equal if both the variables refer to the same object. Two variables
of a given value type are determined to be equal if the state of the two variables are
equal.
The final difference between the two is the way the instances of a type are initialized.
In a reference type, the variable is initialized with a default value of Null. The
variable will not reference an object until explicitly done by the object. Whereas a
variable declared as a value type will always reference a valid object.
Custom Types
A Custom Type is a set of data and related behavior that is defined by the developer.
A developer can define both custom reference type and custom value types.
In vb.net we can define custom types by using the Structure keyword. Let’s look at
an example wherein we define a custom value type.
Module Module1
Public Structure Test
Public myString as String
Public myInteger as Integer
End Structure
Public Sub Main()
‘Notice that both declarations are equivalent
‘Both x and y are instance of type test
Dim x as New Test()
Dim y as Test
x.myInteger = 4
y.myString = “Test”
‘Reference to x is assigned to y
y= x
y.myInteger = 1
y.myString = “Changed”
Console.W riteKine(String.Format(“x : myInt = {0} and String = {1} ”, _
x.myInteger, x.myString))
Console.W riteKine(String.Format(“y : myInt signals String = compiler to have Test
We declare a structure by name Test, it = {0} and vb.net{1} ”, _
derive from System.ValueType and therefore a value type. In the Main() we initialize
y.myInteger, y.myString))
End Sub
x and then set y equal to x. Since x and y are both instances of value types, y is set
equal to the value of x. After changing the fields in y write the value of the fields in
both x and y to the Console. The output of the program is:
x: myInt = 4 and myString = Test
y: myInt = 1 and myString = Changed
Notice that even after changing the value of fields in y it did not affect x. This is
exactly the behavior required for primitive types.
Boxing and Unboxing Value Types
Sometimes it is required to treat an instance of a value type as if it were an instance
of a reference type. An example of this is when a value type is passed ByRef as a
parameter of a method. This is where the concept of Boxing becomes important.
Boxing occurs when an instance of a value type is converted to a reference type. An
instance of a value type can be converted either to a System.Object or to any other
interface type implemented by the value type.
Module Module1
Public Function Add(ByVal x As Object, ByVal y As Object) As Object
Add = x + y
End Function
Public Sub Main
Dim x As Integer = 2
Dim y As Integer = 3
Dim sum As Integer
Sum = Add(x , y)
Console.W riteLine(“ {0) + {1} = {2} ”, x, y, sum)
End Sub
End Module
In the above example both x and y are boxed before they are passed to Add.
Then x,y and Sum are boxed before they are passed to WriteLine.
Unboxing involves the conversion of an instance of a reference type back to its
original value type. In Vb.net it is done using the helper functions in the
Microsoft.VisualBasic.Helpers namespace. For example in the above example,
IntegerType.FromObject is called to unbox the return parameter of type object back
to Integer.
More information about Common Type System can be obtained from
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconcommontypesystemoverview.asp
The .NET Class Framework
We will now discuss about the .NET Class Framework. In conjunction with the CLR,
the Microsoft has developed a comprehensive set of framework classes, several of
which are shown below:
Since the .NET Class Framework contains literally thousands of types, a set of related
types is presented to the developer within a single namespace. For example, the
System namespace (which you should be most familiar with) contains the Object
base type, from which all other types ultimately derive. In addition the System
namespace contains types of integers, characters, strings, exception handling, and
console I/O’s as well as a bunch of utility types that convert safely between data
types, format data types, generate random numbers, and perform various math
functions. All applications use types from System namespace.
To access any platform feature, you need to know which namespace contains the
type that exposes the functionality you want. If you want to customize the behavior
of any type, you can simply derive your own type from the desired .NET framework
type. The .NET Framework relies on the object-oriented nature of the platform to
present a consistent programming paradigm to software developers. It also enables
you to create your own namespaces containing their own types, which merge
seamlessly into the programming paradigm. This greatly simplifies the Software
Development.
The table below lists some of the general namespaces, with a brief description of
what the classes in that namespace is used for:
Namespace Purpose of Class
System All the basic types used by every application.
System.Collections Managing collections of objects. Includes the
popular collection types such as Stacks, Queues,
HashTables etc.
System.Diagnostics Instrumenting and Debugging your application.
System.Drawing Manipulating 2D graphics. Typically used for
Windows Forms applications and for creating
Images that are to appear in a web form.
System.EnterpriseServices Managing Transactions, queued components,
object pooling, just-in-time activation, security
and other features to make use of managed code
more efficient on the server.
System.Globalization National Language Support(NLS), such as string
compares, formatting and calendars.
System.IO Doing Stream I/O, walking directories and files.
System.Management Managing other computers in the enterprise via
WMI.
System.Net Network Communications.
System.Reflection Inspecting metadata and late binding of types and
their members.
System.Resources Manipulating external data resources.
System.Runtime.InteropServices Enabling managed code to access unmanaged OS
platform facilities, such as COM components and
functions in Win32 DLLs.
System.Runtime.Remoting Accessing types remotely.
System.Runtime.Serilization Enabling instances of objects to be persisted and
regenerated from a stream.
System.Security Protecting data and resources.
System.Text Working with Text in different encodings, like
ASCII or Unicode.
System.Threading Performing asynchronous operations and
synchronizing access to resources.
System.Xml Processing XML Schemas and data.
In addition to the general namespace the .Net Class Framework offers namespaces
whose types are used for building specific application types. The table below lists
some of the application specific namespaces:
Namespace Purpose of Types
System.Web.Services Building web services
System.Web.UI Building web forms.
System.Windows.Forms Building Windows GUI applications.
System.ServiceProcess Building a windows service controllable by Service
Control Manager.
Refer the following link for .NET framework class library.
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconthenetframeworkclasslibrary.asp
Just-In-Time Compilation (JIT)
The MSIL is the language that all of the .NET languages compile down to. After they
are in this intermediate language, a process called Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation
occurs when resources are used from your application at runtime. JIT allows “parts”
of your application to execute when they are needed, which means that if something
is never needed, it will never compile down to the native code. By using the JIT, the
CLR can cache code that is used more than once and reuse it for subsequent calls,
without going through the compilation process again.
The figure below shows the JIT Process:
.NET Assembly Class Loader
Intial Reference
to type
Assembly Resolver IL to PE Conversion
Managed code Initial Method
Call
CPU
JIT Compilation Process
The JIT process enables a secure environment by making certain assumptions:
 Type references are compatible with the type being referenced.
 Operations are invoked on an object only if they are within the execution
parameters for that object.
 Identities within the application are accurate.
By following these rules, the managed execution can guarantee that code being
executed is type safe; the execution will only take place in memory that it is allowed
to access. This is possible by the verification process that occurs when the MSIL is
converted into CPU-specific code. During this verification, the code is examined to
ensure that it is not corrupt, it is type safe, and the code does not interfere with
existing security policies that are in place on the system.
2.6 Structure of a .NET Application
DLL Hell
DLLs gave developers the ability to create function libraries and programs that could
be shared with more than one application. Windows itself was based on DLLs. While
the advantages of shared code modules expanded developer opportunities, it also
introduced the problem of updates, revisions, and usage. If one program relied on a
specific version of a DLL, and another program upgraded that same DLL, the first
program quite often stopped working.
Microsoft added to the problem with upgrades of some system DLLs, like comctl.dll,
the library used to get file, font, color and printing dialog boxes. If things weren't
bad enough with version clashes, if you wanted to uninstall an application, you could
easily delete a DLL that was still being used by another program.
Recognizing the problem, Microsoft incorporated the ability to track usage of DLLs
with the Registry starting formally with Windows 95, and allowed only one version of
a DLL to run in memory at a time. Adding yet another complication, when a new
application was installed that used an existing DLL, it would increment a usage
counter. On uninstall, the counter would be decremented and if no application was
using the DLL, it could be deleted.
That was, in theory. Over the history of Windows, the method of tracking of DLL
usage was changed by Microsoft several times, as well as the problem of rogue
installations that didn't play by the rules--the result was called "DLL HELL", and the
user was the victim.
Solving DLL hell is one thing that the .NET Framework and the CLR targeted. Under
the .NET Framework, you can now have multiple versions of a DLL running
concurrently. This allows developers to ship a version that works with their program
and not worry about stepping on another program. The way .NET does this is to
discontinue using the registry to tie DLLs to applications and by introducing the
concept of an assembly.
On the .NET Platform, if you want to install an application in the clients place all you
have to do is use XCopy which copies all the necessary program files to a directory
on the client’s computer. And while uninstalling all you have to do is just delete the
directory containing the application and your application is uninstalled.
Metadata
An Assembly is a logical DLL and consists of one or more scripts, DLLs, or
executables, and a manifest (a collection of metadata in XML format describing how
assembly elements relate). Metadata stored within the Assembly, is Microsoft's
solution to the registry problem. On the .NET Platform programs are compiled into
.NET PE (Portable Executable) files. The header section of every .NET PE file contains
a special new section for Metadata (This means Metadata for every PE files is
contained within the PE file itself thus abolishing the need for any separate registry
entries). Metadata is nothing but a description of every namespace, class, method,
property etc. contained within the PE file. Through Metadata you can discover all the
classes and their members contained within the PE file.
Metadata describes every type and member defined in your code in a Multilanguage
form. Metadata stores the following information:
 Description of the assembly
o Identity (name, version, culture, public key).
o The types that are exported.
o Other assemblies that this assembly depends on.
o Security permissions needed to run
 Description of types
o Name, visibility, base class, and interfaces implemented.
o Members (methods, fields, properties, events, nested types)
 Attributes
o Additional descriptive elements that modify types and members
Advantages of Metadata:
Now let us see the advantages of Metadata:
Self describing files:
CLR modules and assemblies are self-describing. Module's metadata contains
everything needed to interact with another module. Metadata automatically provides
the functionality of Interface Definition Language (IDL) in COM, allowing you to use
one file for both definition and implementation. Runtime modules and assemblies do
not even require registration with the operating system. As a result, the descriptions
used by the runtime always reflect the actual code in your compiled file, which
increases application reliability.
Language Interoperability and easier component-based design:
Metadata provides all the information required about compiled code for you to inherit
a class from a PE file written in a different language. You can create an instance of
any class written in any managed language (any language that targets the Common
Language Runtime) without worrying about explicit marshaling or using custom
interoperability code.
Attributes:
The .NET Framework allows you to declare specific kinds of metadata, called
attributes, in your compiled file. Attributes can be found throughout the .NET
Framework and are used to control in more detail how your program behaves at run
time. Additionally, you can emit your own custom metadata into .NET Framework
files through user-defined custom attributes.
Assembly
Assemblies are the building blocks of .NET Framework applications; they form the
fundamental unit of deployment, version control, reuse, activation scoping, and
security permissions. An assembly is a collection of types and resources that are
built to work together and form a logical unit of functionality. An assembly provides
the common language runtime with the information it needs to be aware of type
implementations. To the runtime, a type does not exist outside the context of an
assembly.
An assembly does the following functions:
 It contains the code that the runtime executes.
 It forms a security boundary. An assembly is the unit at which permissions are
requested and granted.
 It forms a type boundary. Every type’s identity includes the name of the
assembly at which it resides.
 It forms a reference scope boundary. The assembly's manifest contains assembly
metadata that is used for resolving types and satisfying resource requests. It
specifies the types and resources that are exposed outside the assembly.
 It forms a version boundary. The assembly is the smallest version able unit in the
common language runtime; all types and resources in the same assembly are
versioned as a unit.
 It forms a deployment unit. When an application starts, only the assemblies the
application initially calls must be present. Other assemblies, such as localization
resources or assemblies containing utility classes, can be retrieved on demand.
This allows applications to be kept simple and thin when first downloaded.
 It is a unit where side-by-side execution is supported.
Contents of an Assembly
 Assembly Manifest
 Assembly Name
 Version Information
 Types
 Locale
 Cryptographic Hash
 Security Permissions
Assembly Manifest
Every assembly, whether static or dynamic, contains a collection of data that
describes how the elements in the assembly relate to each other. The assembly
manifest contains this assembly metadata. An assembly manifest contains the
following details:
 Identity. An assembly's identity consists of three parts: a name, a version
number, and an optional culture.
 File list. A manifest includes a list of all files that make up the assembly.
 Referenced assemblies. Dependencies between assemblies are stored in the
calling assembly's manifest. The dependency information includes a version
number, which is used at run time to ensure that the correct version of the
dependency is loaded.
 Exported types and resources. The visibility options available to types and
resources include "visible only within my assembly" and "visible to callers outside
my assembly."
 Permission requests. The permission requests for an assembly are grouped into
three sets: 1) those required for the assembly to run, 2) those that are desired
but the assembly will still have some functionality even if they aren't granted,
and 3) those that the author never wants the assembly to be granted.
In general, if you have an application comprising of an assembly named Assem.exe
and a module named Mod.dll. Then the assembly manifest stored within the PE
Assem.exe will not only contain metadata about the classes, methods etc. contained
within the Assem.exe file but it will also contain references to the classes, methods
etc, exported in the Mod.dll file. While the module Mod.dll will only contain metadata
describing itself.
The following diagram shows the different ways the manifest can be stored:
For an assembly with one associated file, the manifest is incorporated into the PE file
to form a single-file assembly. You can create a multifile assembly with a standalone
manifest file or with the manifest incorporated into one of the PE files in the
assembly.
The Assembly Manifest performs the following functions:
 Enumerates the files that make up the assembly.
 Governs how references to the assembly's types and resources map to the files
that contain their declarations and implementations.
 Enumerates other assemblies on which the assembly depends.
 Provides a level of indirection between consumers of the assembly and the
assembly's implementation details.
 Renders the assembly self-describing.
For more information on Assemblies refer:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconassemblies.asp
Modules
Modules are also PE files (always with the extension .netmodule) which contain
Metadata but they do not contain the assembly manifest. And hence in order to use a
module, you have to create a PE file with the necessary assembly manifest.
In C#, you can create a module using the /t:module compiler switch.
There are a few ways to incorporate a module into an Assembly. You can either use
/addmodule switch to add module/s to your assembly, or you can directly use the
/t:exe, /t:winexe and /t:library switches to convert the module into an assembly.
Difference between Module and Assembly
A module is an .exe or .dll file. An assembly is a set of one or more modules that
together make up an application. If the application is fully contained in an .exe file,
fine—that's a one-module assembly. If the .exe is always deployed with two .dll files
and one thinks of all three files as comprising an inseparable unit, then the three
modules together form an assembly, but none of them does so by itself. If the
product is a class library that exists in a .dll file, then that single .dll file is an
assembly. To put it in Microsoft's terms, the assembly is the unit of deployment in
.NET.
An assembly is more than just an abstract way to think about sets of modules. When
an assembly is deployed, one (and only one) of the modules in the assembly must
contain the assembly manifest, which contains information about the assembly as a
whole, including the list of modules contained in the assembly, the version of the
assembly, its culture, etc.
Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL)
When compiling to managed code, the compiler translates your source code into
Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL), which is a CPU-independent set of
instructions that can be efficiently converted to native code. MSIL includes
instructions for loading, storing, initializing, and calling methods on objects, as well
as instructions for arithmetic and logical operations, control flow, direct memory
access, exception handling, and other operations. Before code can be executed, MSIL
must be converted to CPU-specific code by a just in time (JIT) compiler. Because the
runtime supplies one or more JIT compilers, for each computer architecture it
supports, the same set of MSIL can be JIT-compiled and executed on any supported
architecture.
When a compiler produces MSIL, it also produces metadata. The MSIL and metadata
are contained in a portable executable (PE file) that is based on and extends the
published Microsoft PE and Common Object File Format (COFF) used historically for
executable content. This file format, which accommodates MSIL or native code as
well as metadata, enables the operating system to recognize common language
runtime images. The presence of metadata in the file along with the MSIL enables
your code to describe itself, which means that there is no need for type libraries or
Interface Definition Language (IDL). The runtime locates and extracts the metadata
from the file as needed during execution.
3. Code Management
Section Owner: Gurneet Singh (MVP)
Content Contributors: Anand M (MVP), C S Rajagopalan, G Gokulraj, G Arun Prakash
3.1 Introduction
We all know that there have been disparities between different languages such as VB,
VC++ and developers, who code program through these languages. The disparity lies in
terms of language features, performance, and flexibility in developing any piece of
program. Well it’s a known fact that, at the end, what matters is how efficiently your
programs run on the client machine, no matter what language you use. Earlier this was
driven by compilers, which were used to compile the code written using these languages
to make it native code (processor specific).
With the release .NET framework Microsoft has driven out the disparities in such a way
that no matter whatever .NET language you use to develop .NET applications, still the
end result will be determined by .NET framework runtime and not by the language
compilers as it was happening earlier. In this tutorial we will identify some of the key
elements of the .NET framework through a simple program and concentrate on how
.NET framework Runtime addresses platform or processor specific code issues to
produce optimized code, which is native to the processor and to know how the
framework helps in managing code effectively.
Common Language Runtime (CLR)
The primary function of a runtime is to support and manage the execution of code
targeted for a language or a platform. For example, the Microsoft VC++ requires the
msvcrt60.dll that contains its core support functionality. Even languages like Java have a
run time, in the form of Java Virtual Machine.
The .Net platform also comes with a runtime that is officially called as the Common
Language Runtime or simply the CLR. The CLR is designed to support a variety of
different types of applications, from Web server applications to applications with
traditional rich Windows user interface. Though the role of the CLR is similar to its
counterparts in other languages or platforms, there are some key differences that make it
one of the major features of the .NET platform. Here are the key differences between the
.NET CLR and runtime of other languages:
 It is a common runtime for all languages targeting the .NET platform.
 It acts as an agent that manages code at execution time and also provides core
services such as memory management, thread management and remoting.
 It enforces strict type safety and other forms of code accuracy that ensure security and
robustness.
 It is responsible for enabling and facilitating the Common Type System. The
Common Type System allows classes that are written in any .NET language to
interoperate with—even inherit from, with overrides—classes written in any
language. So your COBOL.NET program can interoperate with your C#, VB.NET,
Eiffel.NET and with any other .NET language programs.
 It offers a mechanism for cross-language exception handling.
 It provides a more elegant way for resolving the versioning issues (also referred to as
the Dll Hell in our classic COM).
 It provides a simplified model for component interaction.
Code that targets the runtime is known as managed code, while code that does not target
the runtime is known as unmanaged code. Managed code requires a runtime host to start
it. The responsibility of the runtime host is to load the runtime into a process, create the
application domains (we’ll look at this in detail later) within the process, and loads the
user code into the application domains. While we can write our own runtime hosts using
the set of APIs provided by Microsoft, the .NET platform by default ships with runtime
hosts that include the following.
ASP.NET – Loads the runtime into the process that is to handle the Web request.
ASP.NET also creates an application domain for each Web application that will run on a
Web server.
Microsoft Internet Explorer – Creates application domains in which to run managed
controls. The .NET Framework supports the download and execution of browser-based
controls. The runtime interfaces with the extensibility mechanism of Microsoft Internet
Explorer through a mime filter to create application domains in which to run the managed
controls. By default, one application domain is created for each Web site.
Shell executables – Invokes runtime hosting code to transfer control to the runtime each
time an executable is launched from the shell.
Now that you have understood conceptually the key features of the CLR in .NET
framework, you can begin to look into the physical implementation and execution of code
in the CLR.
The following figure illustrates the flow of activities from the source code to its
execution.
3.2 First VB.NET / C# program
To start of with any language it’s always worth writing a simple program, which actually
does nothing but displays a “HelloWorld” string in the screen. Taking this simple
program we will try to figure out how .NET framework delivers a successful
HelloWorld.exe. Well to write such a complex program we will go for our favorite editor,
the choice is unanimous, it’s “Notepad”.
First VB.NET Program
Figure showing HelloWorld program written using VB.NET
'This is the famous HelloWorld Program written using VB.NET
Namespace HelloWorldSample
'Definition of the Class
Public Class HelloWorld
'entry point method for the Class
Public Shared Sub Main()
System.Console.WriteLine("HelloWorld")
End Sub
'end of Class Declaration
End Class
'end of the Class Module
'end of namespace
End Namespace
This is how it goes in your favorite editor ‘Notepad’
Now let us spend sometime in examining the HelloWorld program to find out what’s new
in writing code through any .NET language.
The lines in the program that starts with a ‘(single quote) are comment entries like in
other programming languages which are excluded in the compilation process. Like VB
the way in which comment entries are represented remains the same in VB.NET.
Namespace HelloWorldSample - The keyword “Namespace” is new to some
programmers who are not familiar with C++.
‘Namespace’ – a keyword in .NET is used to avoid name collisions i.e. For example, you
develop a library which has a class named “File” and you use some other library which
also has a class named “File”, in those cases there are chances of name collision. To
avoid this you can give a namespace name for your class, which should be meaningful. It
is always better to follow the syntax (MS Recommended) given below while giving
names for your namespaces
CompanyName.TechnologyName
However the hierarchy can be extended based on the implementation of the classes in the
library.
Public Class HelloWorld - This is the class declaration in VB.NET; the interesting thing
for VB developers is that VB.NET is a fully object-oriented language (so everything is a
Class here) . The class always ends with an “End Class”.
‘Public’ - is the modifier to determine the scope of the class (for other modifiers refer
.NET framework SDK documentation or later parts of this tutorial). HelloWorld is the
class name given for the class. Consumers of the class will be accessing through this
name only
Public Shared Sub Main () - This is called as the entry point function because the
runtime after loading your applications searches for an entry point from which the actual
execution starts. C/C++ programmers will find this method very familiar (VB
Programmers remember Sub Main). All Applications (exe) must have a definition for the
Main Method. Try removing the Main method from your application and the compiler
will complain that "No Start Point Defined". This means that the Main Method is the
starting point of any application, in other words When you execute your Application
"Main" method is called first automatically.
'Public' - This is the Access modifier for the Method. Since the Main method should be
accessible to everyone in order for the .NET Runtime to be able to call it automatically it
is always defined as public.
'Shared' - indicates that the method is a Class Method. Hence it can be called without
making an instance of the class first.
Now its time to compile and execute this complex program. To compile the above piece
of code you can use VB.NET compiler. To run the VB.NET compiler make sure you set
your path variable to point to the place where your VB.NET compiler is available. (To
set a new value in the path variable, go to control panel and double click System icon,
then choose advanced tab and click Environment Variables button to add or edit the
environmental variables)
Figure shows compilation of the HelloWorld program for VB.NET
The compiler used here is “vbc”, which is a visual basic .net compiler accepts the source
file “HelloWorld.vb” compiles the same to produce a program that’s not true executable,
instead it generates something called assembly. Here the VB.NET compiler produces a
Managed Code/Intermediate Language (MSIL) format that uses instructions which are
CPU-independent.
First C#.NET Program
/* This is the famous helloworld program written using C#.NET */
/* Indicates that the code is referring System Namespace to access the
functionality’s of System.dll */
using System;
// Namespace name given for the class
namespace HelloWorldSample
{
//Definition of the class
public class HelloWorld
{
// Entry point method for the class
public static void Main()
{
//Displaying helloworld in the screen
System.Console.WriteLine("HelloWorld");
}
//end of the class declaration
}
//end of the namespace
}
Figure showing HelloWorld program written using C#.NET in Notepad
The lines in the program that starts with a // and /*….*/ (comment blocks) are comment
entries like in other programming languages which are excluded in the compilation
process. For C or C++ programmers the C# style of coding sounds great because it
almost follows the same style.
namespace HelloWorldSample - The keyword “namespace” is new to some
programmers who are not familiar with C++.
‘namespace’ – a keyword in .NET is used to avoid name collisions i.e. For example, you
develop a library which has a class named “File” and you use some other library which
also has a class named “File”, in those cases there are chances of name collision. To
avoid this you can give a namespace name for your class, which should be meaningful. It
is always better to follow the syntax (MS Recommended) given below while giving
names for your namespaces
CompanyName.TechnologyName
However the hierarchy can be extended based on the implementation of the classes in the
library.
public class HelloWorld - This is the class declaration in C#.NET; the interesting thing
for C++ or Java developers is that they can apply the OOPS concepts that are supported
by C#.NET . The class always ends with an “End Class”.
‘public’ - is the modifier to determine the scope of the class (for other modifiers refer
.NET framework SDK documentation or later parts of this tutorial). HelloWorld is the
class name given for the class. Consumers of the class will be accessing through this
name only.
public static void Main () - This is called as the entry point function because the runtime
after loading your applications searches for an entry point from which the actual
execution starts. C/C++ programmers will find this method very familiar (VB
Programmers remember Sub Main). All Applications (exe) must have a definition for the
Main Method. Try removing the Main method from your application and the compiler
will complain that "No Start Point Defined". This means that the Main Method is the
starting point of any application, in other words When you execute your Application
"Main" method is called first automatically.
'public' - This is the Access modifier for the Method. Since the Main method should be
accessible to everyone in order for the .NET Runtime to be able to call it automatically it
is always defined as public.
'static' - indicates that the method is a Class Method. Hence it can be called without
making an instance of the class first.
‘void’ – indicates the return type of the Main function, here in this case the Main function
returns nothing so it is mentioned as void, for functions that returns value should have
appropriate type such as long, string etc.,
Now its time to compile and execute this complex program. To compile the above piece
of code you can use C# compiler. To run the C# compiler make sure you set your path
variable to point to the place where your C# compiler is available. (To set a new value in
the path variable, go to control panel and double click System icon, then choose
advanced tab and click Environment Variables button to add or edit the environmental
variables)
Figure shows compilation of the HelloWorld program using C# compiler
The compiler used here is “csc”, which is a visual basic .net compiler accepts the source
file “HelloWorld.cs” compiles the same to produce a program that’s not true executable,
instead it generates something called assembly.
Assembly
An assembly is a grouping of files deployed as a single file. An assembly almost always
consists of at least two files: the executable and the manifest. The manifest is a list of all
the files that exist inside the assembly. The executable content inside the assembly is
referred to individually as a module. Conceptually, modules correspond to DLLs or
EXEs; each module contains metadata, in addition to the metadata of its parent assembly.
The assembly format is an enhanced version of the current Portable Executable (PE)
format (your normal Windows .EXE file format).
Manifest
Manifest is considered as the integral part of every assembly that renders the assembly
self-describing. The assembly manifest contains the assembly's metadata and it also
establishes the assembly identity, specifies the files that make up the assembly
implementation, specifies the types and resources that make up the assembly, itemizes the
compile-time dependencies on other assemblies, and specifies the set of permissions
required for the assembly to run properly.
Metadata
The standard PE header comes at the beginning of the file. Inside the file is the CLR
header, followed by the data required to load the code into its process space—referred to
as metadata. It describes to the execution engine how the module should be loaded, what
additional files it needs, how to load those additional files, and how to interact with COM
and the .NET runtime.
Metadata also describes the methods, interfaces, and classes contained in the module or
assembly. The information the metadata provides allows the JIT compiler to compile and
run the module. The metadata section exposes much of your application's internals and
eases the transition from disassembled IL to useful code.
3.3 JIT (Just–in-Time Compiler) & Debugging
The .NET Runtime ships with a Just-In-Time (JIT or JITter) compiler, which will convert
the MSIL code in to the native code (CPU Specific executable code). So whatever code
we write will be complied in to MSIL format and the JIT takes over when you run it.
The .NET runtime/Common Language Runtime (CLR) ships three different classes of
JITters. The Main JIT compiler converts the MSIL code it to native code with out any
optimizations. The JIT compiler takes the MSIL code and optimizes it. So this compiler
requires lot of resources like, time to compile, larger memory footprint, etc. The PreJIT
is based on the Main JIT and it works like the traditional compilers (compiles MSIL to
native code during compilation time rather than runtime). This compiler is usually used at
the time of installation.
No matter whatever language we used to develop the HelloWorld program, it’s a known
fact that compiler’s are going to generate a MSIL format, once our code has been
converted in to MSIL format, from MSIL format all the code that we write will be
converted to native code in the same way whether if it is a VB.NET source or C# source.
Intermediate Language (IL)
To support our discussion let us examine the IL code of HelloWorld program written
using VB.NET and C#. To visualize the IL code Microsoft provides a disassembler tool
through which you can easily see the IL code
To use the tool, choose command prompt and type ILDASM->ILDASM dialog is shown-
> choose file open dialog and select the assembly
(make sure you set your path variable to point to the place where your ILDASM is
available)
Figure showing disassembled HelloWorld program
The above window showing a tree displays the path of the assembly as the root node,
manifest information and namespace information as the child node (if you do not specify
the namespace for the class then class name will be shown instead of namespace).
Figure showing manifest information of helloworld program
The manifest information shows the dependent assemblies like mscorlib,
Microsoft.VisualBasic and their versions and it self describes the HelloWorld assembly.
Since we have a simple program, which does not contain any embedded resource, the
manifest does not include any information on those.
Figure showing list of information present in the namespace
The above figure shows the list of information present within the namespace. In general
the namespace contains the list of classes, structures, delegates, enums etc., In this case it
shows the HelloWorld class which in turn contains the methods present in the class. It
also shows the following information.
¾ .class public auto ansi
The above figure shows that HelloWorld is derived from System.Object, System.Object
is the base class in the .NET framework
¾ .ctor : void()
The above figure shows the IL code of the constructor of HelloWorld Class, you can see
that it in turn calls System.Object::.ctor(), which is the base class’s constructor
¾ Main : void()
The above figure shows the IL code of the Main function, which is the entry point for that
assembly. It also shows the method “System.Console::WriteLine” is called with the
string “HelloWorld “ within the Main function
Compiler Options
If you can recollect the statement we have used to compile the HelloWorld program is
vbc HelloWorld.vb for Vb.NET and csc HelloWorld.cs for C# , in this we have used the
default settings of the compiler. Let us spend sometime in compiling the same code with
some important options of the vbc /csc compiler.
In our program we have referred System.Dll assembly, in real life we would be
application-referring lot of assemblies, in those cases the compiler should be intimated
about the references. We can achieve this by the option mentioned below
/reference:<file-list> - needs to be used to indicate the list of references used by the
application, in short it can also be represented as “/r”. In our case it will be represented
like this statement given below
vbc /reference:”System.dll” HelloWorld.vb for Vb.NET
csc /reference:”System.dll” HelloWorld.cs for C#.NET
The compiler by default will produce a HelloWorld.exe, in case you want to create a
module or a library, then you have to specify the target in the compiler. It can be done
like this
vbc /target:library /reference:”System.dll” HelloWorld.vb => to generate a library
csc /target:library /reference:”System.dll” HelloWorld.cs => to generate a library
Executing the above line of statement in the command prompt will generate a
HelloWorld.dll, in the same manner a module can be generated by applying this
switch /target:module
In case if we would like to give a different name to the assembly file then the statement
given below can be applied
vbc /target:exe /out:”SampleHelloWorld.exe” /reference:”System.dll”
HelloWorld.vb
csc /target:exe /out:”SampleHelloWorld.exe” /reference:”System.dll”
HelloWorld.cs
In the above statement the switch /out:<filename> is used to give a different name to the
output assembly file.
The above compiler statements what we have seen is for simple applications, let us
assume we have an application which is a Win32 executable and it has got resources,
which could be embedded or linked (More on resource file later). An embedded resource
could be an image for the splash screen, in those cases the following compiler options
will be used
/target:winexe - used to create a Win32 executable file
/linkresource:<resource file(s)> - used to link a resource file to the assembly
/resource:<resource file(s)> - used to embed a resource file to the assembly
/imports:<import list> - used to include the list of namespaces used by the assembly
For other compiler options refer .Net framework SDK documentation.
.NET Debugging
Debugging is the most important feature of any programming language and Visual Studio
.NET IDE provides this feature in an effective manner (but you can still do pretty good
job with the .NET SDK alone). Application source code goes through two distinct steps
before a user can run it. First, the source code is compiled to Microsoft Intermediate
Language (MSIL) code using a .NET compiler. Then, at runtime, the MSIL code is
compiled to native code. When we debug a .NET application, this process works in
reverse. The debugger first maps the native code to the MSIL code. The MSIL code is
then mapped back to the source code using the programmer's database (PDB) file. In
order to debug an application, these two mappings must be available to the .NET runtime
environment.
To accomplish the mapping between the source code and the MSIL, use
the/debug:pdbonly compiler switch to create the PDB file (Note: When building
ASP.NET applications, specify the compilation setting debug="true" in the application’s
Web.config file). The second mapping between the MSIL code and native code is
accomplished by setting the JITTracking attribute in our assembly. By specifying the
/debug compiler switch, the PDB file is created and the JITTracking attribute is enabled.
When using this compiler switch, a debugger can be attached to an application loaded
outside of the debugger.
Once the required mappings exist, there are several means by which to debug our
applications. We can use the integrated debugger within Visual Studio .NET, or, if we
prefer, we can use DbgClr, a GUI-based debugger. There is also a command line
debugger, CorDBG that is included in the .NET Framework SDK.
3.4 Managed Vs. Unmanaged Methods/Transitions
In .Net Framework CLR provides execution of instruction targeted for CLR and the
instructions that are not targeted for CLR. The instructions targeted for CLR are called as
managed code and other type of code is called unmanaged code. After going through this
topic you will know the following things mentioned below
Difference between Managed Method and Unmanaged Method.
Difference between Managed Type and Unmanaged Type.
How to call unmanaged methods in managed methods.
How to use unmanaged types.
When an application is launched for execution, first request is given to the Operating
System, the OS will load the executable file in memory and starts executing the
instruction from the entry point function in the executable file. Where in .NET executable
file contains four main components the CLR header, the Metadata, the MSIL Code, and
Native code.
CLR header will be used by the managed code in the module which will have the version
number of the CLR on which the module is built and entry point method of the module in
the executable.
Metadata describes the types used in the managed code, combination of CLR header and
MSIL Code is the compiled format of a .Net language on a .Net Compiler, which will not
have the instruction in targeted machine instruction format, which will again get
compiled by the JIT Compiler
Native Code contains the machine instruction, which will be directly executed by the OS.
Not all the .NET PE will have the Native code. PE of type EXE’s will be having a native
method like main() called as “unmanaged stub” which will be an entry point for the OS to
execute code, that function will jump to _CorExeMain function located in MSCoree.dll
which will be executed by the OS to initialize CLR and attach the running .NET module
to CLR. Once CLR is initialized and loaded CLR will start executing the assembly by
executing the managed entry point function specified in the CLR header of the file.
Managed Code
Machine instructions in MSIL format and located in Assemblies will be executed by the
CLR, will have the following intrinsic advantages,
Memory management to prevent memory leaks in the program code,
 Thread execution,
 Code safety verification,
 Compilation,
Executed on many platforms like Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000,and other
system services.
Managed methods will be marked as “cil” in MSIL code. Methods marked with “cil” will
be compiled by mscorjit.dll before execution. C# and VB.NET will generate only
managed code. (Managed C++ can generate managed code by specifying “#pragma
managed”)
Unmanaged Code
Unmanaged codes are the instructions, which are targeted for specific platforms.
Unmanaged code will exist in any of the format,
A code instructions in managed C++ with “#pragma unmanaged”
COM/COM+ Components
Win32 Dlls/System Dlls
As these codes are in native format of OS, these instructions will be executed faster
compared with JIT compilation and execution of Managed code.
Managed and Unmanaged transitions
As we get more benefits from managed code, still we may need to use unmanaged code.
.Net provides many ways to access unmanaged code in managed code. Managed-
Unmanaged transitions are achieved in .Net by set of services called Platform Invocation
Services (P/Invoke) and IJW(It Just Works).
P/Invoke services are targeted for unmanaged code, which exists as COM/COM+
components and Win32 DLLs. COM/COM+ components will accessed by the concept
called COM Interop - is a mechanism in which existing COM components will be
accessed through a wrapper class called COM Callable Wrapper (CCW) in managed code
without modifying the existing COM components. Using P/Invoke mechanism we can
call Windows DLL functions in managed code.
IJW(It Just Works) targets code instructions built on C++ managed extensions, This
mechanism is only for the code in Managed C++. In this way we can call the unmanaged
methods directly by the managed code.
For example following code calls the MessageBox function in User32.dll(VB.NET)
Imports System.Runtime.InteropServices
Public Class Win32
Declare Auto Function MessageBox Lib "user32.dll" (ByVal
hWnd As Integer, _
ByVal txt As String, ByVal caption As String, ByVal Typ As
Integer) As Integer
End Class
Module Module1
Sub Main()
Win32.MessageBox(0, "Hello world" , "Temp path
is", 0)
End Sub
End Module
Declare is the statement to state the Win32 API functions located in the Win32 DLLs.
And the respective arguments declared with CLR data type.
In C#, we need to use the extern keyword with the attribute DLL Import to specify the
Win32 DLL and the function should be declared as static function.
using System;
class PInvokeDemo
{
[dllimport("user32.dll")]
public static extern int MessageBox(int hwnd, string msg,
string caption, int type);
public static int Main()
{
MessageBox(0, "Hello World!", "Tutorial", 1);
return 0;
}
}
In the above example MessageBox function is accessed from user32.dll by using the
attribute DLL Import, and declared as static function
Managed Types and Unmanaged Types
We have seen how to call an unmanaged code in a managed code, now the question is
how unmanaged code understands the managed data type and vice the versa. We will see
how string will be sent from managed code and returned back to managed code. When
passing a string value as an input argument to an unmanaged code CLR will take care of
converting that to a native string type.
When we try to call a function, which returns string then the managed code, has to
allocate memory and send to the function in unmanaged code. For example if we want to
retrieve the OS Temp path then we can call GetTempPath API function of “kernel32.dll”,
Following code snippet shows how to call the function with string as an out argument
with VB.NET.
Imports System.Runtime.InteropServices
Public Class Win32
Declare Auto Function MessageBox Lib
"user32.dll" (ByVal hWnd As Integer, _
ByVal txt As String, ByVal caption As
String, ByVal Typ As Integer) As Integer
Declare Auto Function GetTempPath Lib "kernel32.dll"
(ByVal lenOfChar As Integer, ByVal strData As
System.Text.StringBuilder) As Integer
End Class
Module Module1
Sub Main()
Dim l As Integer
Dim data As String
Dim tempPath As System.Text.StringBuilder = New
System.Text.StringBuilder(255)
l = 255
Win32.GetTempPath(l, tempPath)
Win32.MessageBox(0, tempPath.ToString(), "Temp path
is", 0)
End Sub
End Module
Following code snippet shows how to call the function with string as an out
argument with C#.
using System;
using System.Text;
class PInvokeDemo
{
[ dllimport("kernel32") ]
public static extern int GetTempPath ( int size,
StringBuilder buf );
public static int Main()
{
const int size = 255;
StringBuilder tempPath = new StringBuilder ( size
);
GetTempPath ( size, tempPath );
System.Console.WriteLine ( tempPath );
return 0;
}
}
The above code uses StringBuilder class of System.Text namespace to allocate string
with 255 characters (Just think for this as a fixed string we used to have in VB).
Some of the functions in managed code will be accepting arguments as structures,
structures in unmanaged code will be having set of member fields located in memory as
the order in which it has been declared, that is the layout of member variable location is
fixed. But in .Net, structures will have fields of managed data type and these member
fields will automatically change the memory location of the structure. CLR will
automatically move the data members to improve memory usage and performance.
When an unmanaged method, which expects an argument as a structure, then managed
code has to declare the structure so that it can be accessed by the unmanaged code. But
.NET structures will have auto memory layout of data members, so to pass structures
from managed code to unmanaged code has to be declared with an attribute StructLayout
in System.Runtime.InteropServices namespace.
StructLayout is used with an enumerated value LayoutKind with following options given
below:
 Auto – default option which changes the member field memory layout.
 Sequential - specifies member variable should be placed in a sequential order as
specified while declaring the type.
 Explicit- specifies the exact location of the member variable in the structure.
3.5 Summary
Over the course of topics covered in this session you have seen how to create a simple
HelloWorld program, to know the internals of the .NET Framework Runtime. For further
understanding or clarification you can always use the .NET framework SDK help
documentation and MSDN online.
4. Language Features of C#
Section Owner: Gurneet Singh (MVP)
Content Contributors: Amit Kukreja, Arvind Rangan, Reshmi Nair
4.1 History of C#
.NET framework offers a myriad of languages which puts us programmers into a deep
thought process about which programming language best suits our needs.
Which language is the "best" language choice? If you are a VB wizard, should you take
the time to learn C# or continue to use VB.NET? Are C# ASP.NET pages "faster" than
VB .NET ASP.NET pages? These are questions that you may find yourself asking,
especially when you're just starting to delve into .NET. Fortunately the answer is simple:
there is no "best" language. All .NET languages use, at their root, functionality from the
set of classes provided by the .NET Framework. Therefore, everything you can do in
VB.NET you can do in C#, and vice-a-versa.
The differences occur in three main areas: syntax, object-oriented principles, and the
Visual Studio .NET IDE. Syntax concerns the statements and language elements. Object
Oriented differences are less obvious, and concern differences in implementation and
feature sets between the two languages. IDE differences include things like compiler
settings or attributes. There is also a fourth area of difference: language features that are
present in one language but have no equivalent in the other.
If you are more familiar with Java, JScript, or C/C++, you may find C#'s syntax more
familiar than VB.NET's.
A good question that has to be answered in order to keep you interested in learning C# is
Why should you learn another programming language when you already doing enterprise
development in C++ or Java. The very answer at the first go will be C# is intended to be
the premier language for writing NGWS (Next Generation of Windows Services)
applications in the enterprise computing world.
The programming language C# derives from C and C++; however apart from being
entirely object oriented it is type safe and simple too. If you are a C/C++ programmer
your learning curve should be flat. Many C# statements including expressions and
operators have been taken directly taken from your favourite language
An important point about C# is that it simplifies and modernizes C++ in the areas of
classes, namespaces and exception handling. Much of complex features have not been
included or in fact hidden in C# to make it easer to use and more importantly less error
prone for e.g. no more macros, templates and no multiple inheritances (Few of you might
not like it.)
C# provides you with convenient features like garbage collection, versioning and lot
more.
The only expense that I can think of is that your code operates in safe mode, where no
pointers are allowed. However if you want to use pointers you are not restricted from
using it via unsafe code- and no marshalling is involved when calling the unsafe code.
So you will learn a great deal of this new language in the coming Sections and see for
yourself that how C# resembles or not resembles your favorite language
4.2 Language Fundamentals in C#
Constants & Variables
A variable is a named memory location. They are programming elements that can change
during program execution. Data that needs to be stored in memory & accessed at a later
time are stored in variables. Instead of referring to the memory location by the actual
memory address you refer to it with a variable name.
Variables are declared as follows
int a;
They can also be initialized at the time of declaration as follows:
int a = 10;
Constants are very similar to variables. The main difference is that the value contained in
memory cannot be changed once the constant is declared. When you declare a constant
its value is also specified and this value cannot be changed during program execution.
Constants are used in situations where we need to keep the value in some memory
location constant. If you use hard-coded values, and the value is changed then it has to be
changed in all the locations in the code where it has been used. Instead if we are using
constants, all we will need to do is to change the value of the constant. This would
propagate the changes to our entire application.
Constants are declared as follows
const int a;
Simple Types (Primitive Data types)
Simple or value type variables are those, which are assigned space in the stack instead of
the heap. All the primitive types such as int, double etc are value type variables. The
simple types basically consist of Boolean and Numeric types, where Numeric is further
divided into Integral and Floating Point.
The first rule of value types is that they cannot be null. Anytime you declare a variable of
value type, you have allocated the number of bytes associated with that type on the stack
and are working directly with that allocated array of bits. In addition, when you pass a
variable of value type, you are passing that variable’s value and not a reference to the
underlying object.
Object Type
Object type or reference type variables are those, which are allocated storage space in the
heap. Reference type objects can be null. When a reference type is allocated under the
covers a value is allocated on the heap and a reference to that value is returned. There are
basically four reference types: classes, interfaces, delegates and arrays.
Class Type
Custom data types are available in .NET framework in the form of classes or class type. It
is nothing but a set of data and related behavior that is defined by the developer.
Object type and class type are both reference type variables. The only difference comes
from the fact that object type consists of objects predefined and available with the .NET
framework such as string whereas class type consists of custom user defined data types
such as the class employee given below.
class employee
{
int empid;
string empname
public employee()
{
empid = 10;
empname = “Reshmi”;
}
}
Overloading and Overriding of the Class
Overloading provides the ability to create multiple methods or properties with the same
name, but with different parameters lists. This is a feature of polymorphism. A simple
example would be an addition function, which will add the numbers if two integer
parameters are passed to it and concatenate the strings if two strings are passed to it.
using System;
public class test
{
public int Add(int x , int y)
{
return(x + y);
}
public string Add(String x, String y )
{
return (x + y);
}
public static void Main()
{
test a = new test ();
int b;
String c;
b = a.Add(1, 2);
c = a.Add("Reshmi", " Nair");
Console.WriteLine(b);
Console.WriteLine(c);
}
}
O/P:
3
Reshmi Nair
Overriding
Class inheritance causes the methods and properties present in the base class also to be
derived into the derived class. A situation may arise wherein you would like to change
the functionality of an inherited method or property. In such cases we can override the
method or property of the base class. This is another feature of polymorphism.
public abstract class shapes
{
public abstract void display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Shapes");
}
}
public class square: shapes
{
public override void display()
{
Console.WriteLine("This is a square");
}
}
public class rectangle:shapes
{
public override void display()
{
Console.WriteLine("This is a rectangle");
}
}
The above example is just an indication to how overriding can be implemented in C#.
Properties
Properties are named members of classes, structs, and interfaces. They provide a flexible
mechanism to read, write, or compute the values of private fields through accessors.
Properties are an extension of fields and are accessed using the same syntax. Unlike
fields, properties do not designate storage locations. Instead, properties have accessors
that read, write, or compute their values.
Get accessor
The execution of the get accessor is equivalent to reading the value of the field.
The following is a get accessor that returns the value of a private field name:
private string name; // the name field
public string Name // the Name property
{
get
{
return name;
}
}
Set accessor
The set accessor is similar to a method that returns void. It uses an implicit parameter
called value, whose type is the type of the property. In the following example, a set
accessor is added to the Name property:
public string Name
{
get
{
return name;
}
set
{
name = value;
}
}
When you assign a value to the property, the set accessor is invoked with an argument
that provides the new value. For example:
e1.Name = "Reshmi"; // The set accessor is invoked here
It is an error to use the implicit parameter name (value) for a local variable declaration in
a set accessor.
How to make a Property Read Only/Write Only
There are times when we may want a property to be read-only – such that it can’t be
changed.
This is where read-only properties come into the picture. A Read Only property is one
which includes only the get accessor, no set accessor.
public read Only int empid
{
get
{
return empid;
}
}
Similar to read-only properties there are also situations where we would need
something known as write-only properties. In this case the value can be changed
but not retrieved. To create a write-only property, use the WriteOnly keyword and
only implement the set block in the code as shown in the example below.
public writeOnly int e
{
set
{
e = value
}
}
Structures
A structure allows you to create your own custom data types and it contains one or more
members that can be of different data types. It can contain fields, methods, etc.
Structures are very similar to classes but there are some restrictions present in the case of
structures that are absent in the case of classes. For example you cannot initialize
structure members. Also you cannot inherit a structure whereas classes can be inherited.
Another important feature of structures differentiating it from classes is that a structure
can't have a default parameter-less constructor or a destructor. A structure is created on
the stack and dies when you reach the closing brace in C# or the End structure in
VB.NET.
But one of the most important differences between structures and classes is that structures
are referenced by value and classes by reference. As a value type, allocated on the stack,
structs provide a significant opportunity to increase program efficiency. Objects on the
stack are faster to allocate and de-allocate. A struct is a good choice for data-bound
objects, which don’t require too much memory. The memory requirements should be
considered based on the fact that the size of memory available on the stack is limited than
the memory available on the heap.
Thus we must use classes in situations where large objects with lots of logic are required.
Struct – Code: Sample code showing the Class vs. Structures
using System;
class Test {
int classvar ;
int anothervar =20;
public Test ( )
{
classvar = 28;
}
public static void Main()
{
Test t = new Test();
ExampleStruct strct = new ExampleStruct(20);
System.Console.WriteLine(strct.i);
strct.i = 10;
System.Console.WriteLine(t.classvar);
System.Console.WriteLine(strct.i);
strct.trialMethod();
}
}
struct ExampleStruct {
public int i;
public ExampleStruct(int j)
{
i = j;
}
public void trialMethod()
{
System.Console.WriteLine("Inside Trial Method");
}
}
O/P:-
28
20
10
Inside Trial Method
In the above example, I have declared and used a constructor with a single parameter for
a structure. Instead if I had tried to use a default parameter-less parameter I would have
got an error. But the same is possible in the case of classes as shown by the default
parameter-less constructor, which initializes the classvar variable to 28.
Another point to note is that a variable called anothervar has been declared and initialized
within the class whereas the same cannot be done for members of a structure.
Why Namespaces
Namespaces are used in .Net to organize class libraries into a hierarchical structure and
reduce conflicts between various identifiers in a program. By helping organize classes,
namespaces help programmers manage their projects efficiently and in a meaningful way
that is understood by consumers of the class library. Namespaces enables reusable
components from different companies to be used in the same program without the worry
of ambiguity caused by multiple instances of the same identifier.
Namespaces provide a logical organization for programs to exist. Starting with a top-
level namespace, sub-namespaces are created to further categorize code, based upon its
purpose.
In .Net, the base class library begins at the System namespace. There are several classes
at the System level such as Console, Exception etc. The namespace name gives a good
idea of the types of classes that are contained within the namespace. The fully qualified
name of a class is the class name prefixed with the namespace name. There are also
several nested namespaces within the System namespace such as System.Security,
System.IO, System.Data, System.Collections etc.
Reducing conflict is the greatest strength of namespaces. Class and method names often
collide when using multiple libraries. This risk increases as programs get larger and
include more third-party tools.
Boxing Conversions
Boxing is the implicit conversion of a value type to a reference type or to any interface
type implemented by this value type. This is possible due to the principle of type system
unification where everything is an object.
When boxing occurs, the contents of value type are copied from the stack into the
memory allocated on the managed heap. The new reference type created contains a copy
of the value type and can be used by other types that expect an object reference. The
value contained in the value type and the created reference types are not associated in any
way. If you change the original value type, the reference type is not affected. Boxing,
thus, enables everything to appear to be an object, thereby avoiding the overhead required
if everything actually were an object.
Example:
int n = 10;
Object obj;
obj = n;
Explanation:
In the above code segment, a value-type variable n is declared and is assigned the value
10. The next statement declares an object-type variable obj. The last statement implicitly
performs boxing operation on the variable n.
UnBoxing Conversions
UnBoxing is the explicit conversion from a reference type to a value type or from an
interface type to a value type that implements the interface.
When unboxing occurs, memory is copied from the managed heap to the stack. For an
unboxing conversion to a given value type to succeed at run time, the value of the source
argument must be a reference to an object that was previously created by boxing a value
of that value type otherwise an exception is thrown.
Example:
int n = 10;
int j;
Object obj;
obj = n;
j = (int)obj;
Explanation:
In the above code segment, another integer variable j is declared. The last statement
performs explicit conversion of object-type to value-type i.e. integer.
Boxing and UnBoxing have performance implications. Every time a value type is boxed,
a new reference type is created and the value type is copied onto the managed heap.
Depending on the size of the value type and the number of times value types are boxed
and unboxed, the CLR can spend a lot of CPU cycles just doing these conversions.
It is recommended to perform boxing and unboxing in a scenario where you have to pass
a value parameter multiple times to a method that accepts a reference parameter. In such
a case, it is advantageous to box the value parameter once before passing it multiple times
to methods that accept reference methods.
Enumerations
Enumerations are types that inherit from System.Enum. The elements of an enumeration
are expressed in words rather than numbers, which makes it convenient for understanding
the meaning of the value being used. Enumerations symbolically represent a set of values
of one of the primitive integral types.
The type of the elements of an enumeration can be byte, short, int or long. If no type is
specified explicitly, the default type is int.
Example:
enum month : byte
{Jan = 2, Feb = 5, Mar = 10};
Explanation:
In the above code segment, an enumeration type month is declared. The underlying type
of the elements has been specified as byte. It has three elements viz: Jan, Feb and Mar.
These three elements have been assigned specific values. In case of an enumeration, if no
values are specified, the value of the first element corresponds to 0 and so on.
Delegates
The runtime supports constructs called delegates, which enable late-bound operations
such as method invocation and callback procedures. With delegates, a program can
dynamically call different methods at runtime. They are type safe, secure, managed
objects that always point to a valid object and cannot corrupt the memory of another
object. The closest equivalent of a delegate in other languages is a function pointer, but
whereas a function pointer can only reference static functions, a delegate can reference
both static and instance methods. Delegates are Marshal by Value Objects.
The members of a delegate are the members inherited from class System.Delegate.
A delegate defines the signature and return type of a method. The resulting delegate can
reference any method with a matching signature. Each instance of a delegate can forward
a call to one or more methods that take those parameters and return the same type. Once a
method has been assigned to a delegate, it is called when the delegate is invoked.
Example:
public delegate int calculation(int a,int b);
class mainclass
{
calculation calc_delegate;
public int add(int num1,int num2)
{
return num1 + num2;
}
static void Main()
{
int result;
mainclass obj = new mainclass();
obj.calc_delegate = new calculation(obj.add);
result = obj.calc_delegate(50,70);
}
}
Explanation:
Four steps are required to implement delegates viz.
 Defining Delegates
The foremost step is to define the delegate. The definition of the delegate specifies
the method signature, return type of the method, access modifier and the delegate
name. The method signature specifies the order and type of each argument.
The definition of a delegate is indicated by the usage of the delegate keyword. As
shown in the above code segment, the delegate name is calculation, it's access
modifier is public, it receives two integer arguments and returns an integer value.
 Creating Delegate Method Handler(s)
The next step is to define the method(s) that will be associated with the delegate.
In the above code segment, a method named add is defined. This method must have
same method signature as that of the delegate, as shown in the above code segment.
 Hooking up Delegates and Method Handlers
For a delegate method handler to be invoked, it must be assigned to a delegate object.
In the above code, the delegate object is calc_delegate and is hooked up to the
method handler add.
 Invoking the method through the Delegate
The last step is to invoke the methods that are associated with the delegate. A
delegate method handler is invoked by making a method call on the delegate itself.
This causes the method handler to invoke with the assigned input parameters as if
they were invoked directly by the program, as shown in the above code.
4.3 Control Statements
C# has statements such as if ….. else ….. and switch…case which help you to
conditionally execute program.
C# provides you with various looping statements, such as do… while, while, for and
foreach….in.
1. The if ….else….. Statement
Consider a student marks and grade evaluation. For Marks above 75 the grade is ‘A’ and
for below 75 is ‘B’. In this situation when you need to execute some code based on some
condition, you can make use of, if …. else …...
The Cultural syntax normally used is as follows:
if (condition)
{
Executable statements when the condition is True
}
else
{
Executable statements when the Condition is False
}
OR using else if for Advanced Decision making
if (condition)
{
Executable statements
}
else if (condition)
{
Executable statements
}
Single if can have multiple else if with conditions, as mentioned above in else if format.
Nesting if …else Constructs
if (condition)
{
if (condition)
{
Executable statements when the condition2 is TRUE
}
else
{
Executable Statements
}
else
{
Executable statements
}
One important thing to keep in mind when nesting if…else constructs is that you must have remember to close the
brace ({ }) for every brace that you open.
2. The switch…case Statement.
The switch statement is a control statement that handles multiple selections by passing
control to one of the case statements within its body.
The switch…case Statement is similar to if…else. The only difference between two is
that if and else if can evaluate different expressions in each statement, but the switch
statement can evaluate only one expression.
The drawback of if...else construct is that it isn’t capable of handling a decision situation
without a lot of extra work. One such situation is when you have to perform different
actions based on numerous possible values of an expression, not just True or False. For
instance performing actions based on Students Grade.
if ( Grade.Equals (“A”))
{
…….
}
else if (Grade.Equals (“B”))
{
……
}
else if (Grade.Equals (“C”))
{
……
}
else if (Grade.Equals (“D”))
{
……
}
else
{
.….
}
As you see the structure can be a bit hard to read and if the conditions increase you may
end up writing a confusing and an unreadable piece of Code
The switch uses the result of an expression to execute different set of statements.
The syntax for the select…case Statement is as follows:
switch (expression)
{
case constant-expression:
statement
jump-statement
default:
statement
jump-statement]
}
Notice that the jump-statement is required after each block, including the last block
whether it is a case statement or a default statement.
Note: default is used to define the code that executes only when the expression
doesn’t evaluate to any of the values in case Statements .Use of default case is
optional
Let’s see the same example as above but this time with switch case.
switch(grade)
{
case “A”:
Executable statements
jump-statement
case “B”:
Executable statements
jump-statement
case “C”:
Executable statements
jump-statement
case “D”:
Executable statements
jump-statement
default :
Executable statements
jump-statement
}
Branching is performed using jump statements, which cause an immediate transfer of the
program control.(break, continue, default ,goto ,return)
Evaluating More than one possible Value in a case Statement is not possible in C#,
but VB.Net does allow evaluating more than one Value.
3. for Statements.
The for loop executes a statement or a block of statements repeatedly until a specified
expression evaluates to false.
for ([initializers]; [expression]; [iterators]) statement
where:
Initializers: A comma separated list of expressions or assignment statements to initialize
the loop counters.
Expression : expression is used to test the loop-termination criteria.
Iterators : Expression statement(s) to increment or decrement the loop counters.
Example print numbers from 1 To 100
for (int intctr =1; intctr <= 100; intctr++)
Debug.WriteLine(intctr);
This routine starts a loop with a for statement after a variable intctr is declared. This loop
initializes intctr to 1 and then prints 1 through 100 to the output window.
Note: you can declare variable in the Initialization part of the for loop separated by
comma.
Example : print even number from 1 to 100
for(int i=2; i <= 100; i = i + 2)
Debug.WriteLine(i.ToString());
Example : To Sum the total of all number from 1 to 10
for( i =1 ; i < 11 ; i++)
sum = sum + i ;
Example : The statement below can be used as an infinite loop.
for ( ; ; );
Example of use of for loop.
Let us see how to a write table of 2 using for loop.
for(int j = 1,i = 2; j <= 10; j++)
Debug.WriteLine("2 X " + j.ToString() + " = " + i*j );
Output:
2 X 1 = 2
..
..
..
..
..
…
2 X 10 = 20
An Example of Nested For loop.
Let us write a small code to display a structure of stars ‘*’ in triangle format.
*
**
***
****
*****
******
Let us have a label with name stars. Increase the height of the label to get a clear view of
the image.
string star="";
for(int i = 0; i < 5 ;i++) // First loop to count the rows
{
for (int j = 0; j <= i; j++) // Second loop to count
the columns
{
star = star + " * ";
}
Debug.WriteLine(star);
star = "";
}
Note: For better readability you must always indent your
Codes.
4. foreach…in Statement
The foreach…in Statement is used to repeat a set of statements for each element in an
array or collection.
The foreach…in statement is executed if there is at least one item in an array of
collection. The Loop repeats of each element in an array or collection.
The syntax for the foreach…in statement as follows:
foreach (type Component in Set )
{
Executable statements
}
Component is the variable used to refer to the elements of an array or a collection.
Set refers to an array or any collection object.
e.g.
string[] weeks = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday",
"Thursday",
"Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"};
foreach(string eachday in weeks)
{
MessageBox.Show(eachday);
}
An example for using foreach element in a collection of string into a single string
element.
Each element of array which is of type string is read from the collection and stored into
the single string type object.
5. while…Statement
The while… Statement is used to repeat set of executable statements as long as the
condition is true.
The syntax for the while… statement is as follows:
while (Condition)
{
Executable Statements
}
In this if the condition is satisfied then the statements are executed. Else it will not enter
the while condition at all.
example of infinite loop is
while (true);
Example print numbers from 1 to 100
int i = 1;
while ( i <= 100)
{
Debug.WriteLine(i.ToString());
i++;
}
Example print even numbers from 1 to 100
Int i = 2;
While( i <=100)
{
Debug.WriteLine(i.ToString());
i = i + 2;
}
6. do...while Statement
The do...while Statement is similar to while… Statement.
do
{
Statements to Execute
}
while (condition)
example print numbers from 1 to 100
int i = 1;
do
{
Debug.WriteLine(i.ToString());
i++;
}while( i <= 100);
example print even numbers from 1 to 100
int i = 2;
do
{
Debug.WriteLine(i.ToString());
i = i + 2;
}while( i <= 100);
A Complete Example with set of control statements.
We will create a C# application, which will accept students name and its grade.
Depending upon the type of grade it will add remarks.
int value=0, ctr=0;
//Accept a number from the user
Console.Write("Enter the number of students : ");
value = Int32.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
string [] arrName= new string[value];
string sGrade ="";
string [] arrRemarks= new string[value];
while (ctr < value)
{
//Accept the name of the students
Console.Write("Enter the name of the Student" + (ctr +
1) + " : ");
arrName[ctr] = Console.ReadLine();
//Accept the grade of the Student
Console.Write("Enter the grade of the student
A/B/C/D/F : " );
sGrade = Console.ReadLine();
// Assign remarks to students
switch (sGrade.ToUpper())
{
case "A":
arrRemarks[ctr] = "Excellent";
break;
case "B":
arrRemarks[ctr] = "Good";
break;
case "C":
arrRemarks[ctr] = "Fair";
case "D":
arrRemarks[ctr] = "Poor";
break;
break;
case "F":
arrRemarks[ctr] = "Fail";
break;
default:
Console.WriteLine("Incorrect value entered
");
return; // To come out of the program
}
ctr = ctr + 1;
}
// Display the summary on the Console
for (ctr = 0 ;ctr< value; ctr=ctr+1)
{
if (arrRemarks[ctr].Equals("fail"))
{
Console.WriteLine(arrName[ctr] + " has failed in_
exams ");
}
else
{
Console.WriteLine(arrName[ctr] + "'s
performance is " + arrRemarks[ctr]);
}
}
Note use of ToUpper() and ToLower() used to Convert all alphabetic characters have
been converted to Upper Case / Lower Case .
4.4 Arrays
Till now we have been using variable to store values. We might come across a situation
when we might need to store multiple values of similar type. Such as names of 100
students in a school. One way to do it is to declare 100 variables and store all the names.
A much more simple and efficient way of storing these variable is using Arrays. An
Array is a memory location that is used to store multiple values.
All the values in an array are of the same type, such as int or string and are referenced by
their index or subscript number, which is the order in which these values are stored in the
array. These values are called the elements of the array.
The number of elements that an array contains is called the length of the array.
In C# all arrays are inherited from the System.Array Class.
Arrays can be single or multidimensional. You can determine the dimensions of an array
by the number of subscripts that are used to identify the position of any array element.
A single dimensional array is identified by only a single subscript and an element in a
two-dimensional array is identified by two subscripts.
Arrays in C# also support the concept of Jagged Arrays.
The dimension has to be declared before using them in a program. The array declaration
comprises the name of the array and the number of elements the array can contain.
The Syntax of single dimension array is as follows.
Datatype [] ArrayName = new DataType[number of elements];
e.g.
string [] studentname = new string [5];
You can assign the values at runtime or even at the design time.
Design time declaration:
Studentname [0]=”Rohan”
Studentname [1]=”Mohan”
…..
Studentname[10]=”Nitin”
All arrays starts with the index of 0 i.e. All arrays are Zero Based. This implies that above
array can store 10 elements. Here 0, is the starting index or the lower bound of the array
and 9 is the upper bound while the length of the array is 10.
Example 1.
We will create a C# Console Application that will accept the names of students in an
single dimension array and display it back.
int value = 0, cnt = 0;
//Accept how many students names to enter
Console.Write("Enter the number of students name to enter:
");
value = System.Int32.Parse(Console.ReadLine()) ;
string[] arrnames = new string [value];
for(cnt = 0; cnt<value;cnt++)
{
Console.Write("Enter the name of student " + (cnt + 1)
+ ":", "Student Name");
arrnames[cnt] = Console.ReadLine();
}
Console.WriteLine("Pulling Values from the Array");
//Display the entered value to the text box
for(cnt = 0; cnt < value; cnt++)
{
Console.WriteLine(arrnames[cnt]);
}
Above example will accept number of names to be entered and will add the names in a
loop and then redisplay it on the Console. Note that we have not written any error
handling code that is left to the reader as an exercise.
The Syntax for multi-dimension arrays is as follows:
Previously we saw how we can store multiple names of students. But, if we want to store
related data of students like first name, middle name, last name. In such situations you
can use multi dimension arrays, such as two-or-three dimension arrays.
Datatype [] ArrayName = new Datatype[number of 1st element,
number of 2nd element,….];
e.g.
string[,] studentdetails = new string [10,2];
Index positions of array elements.
0,0 0,1
1,0 1,1
2,0 2,1
3,0 3,1
…
10,0 10,1
studentdetails(0,0) = “Manoj”
studentdetails(0,1) = “Malik”
To display “Malik” we need to use the index position of the array and say ,
Studentdetails [0,1].
Example 2.
We will create a C# Console Application, which will accept Student Name, Address and
city name and display it on the Console.
string [,] arrsummary = new string[3, 3];
int i=0, j=0;
//As we wanted just 3 columns we have set it to 2, else if
u want to be two only then while declaring the array make
it (2,2) as the lower index is 0.
for(i = 0;i<=2;i++)
{
for(j = 0;j<=2;j++)
{
Console.WriteLine("Enter the value for " + i + "
row and " + j + " column, Summary");
arrsummary[i, j] = Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Console.WriteLine();
//Display the values in the summary array.
for(i = 0;i<=2;i++)
{
string s = "";
for(j = 0;j<=2;j++)
{
if (s.Equals(""))
{
s = arrsummary[i, j];
}
else
{
s = s + " - " + arrsummary[i, j];
}
}
Console.WriteLine(s);
}
Jagged Arrays
A jagged array is an array whose elements are arrays. The elements of a jagged array can
be of different dimensions and sizes. A jagged array is sometimes called an "array-of-
arrays."
//Decalaring a Jagged Array
int[][] myJaggedArray = new int[3][];
//Initialize the elements of the Jagged Array
myJaggedArray[0] = new int[5];
myJaggedArray[1] = new int[4];
myJaggedArray[2] = new int[2];
//Fill array elements with values.
myJaggedArray[0] = new int[] {1,3,5,7,9};
myJaggedArray[1] = new int[] {0,2,4,6};
myJaggedArray[2] = new int[] {11,22};
You can access individual array elements like these examples:
// Assign 33 to the second element of the first array:
myJaggedArray[0][1] = 33;
// get the value of second element of the third array:
int i = myJaggedArray[2][1];
Few Important methods in arrays.
GetUpperBound(), GetLowerBound() are the functions used to get the bound of a
array. These methods of the array class. You can use it with single dimension as well as
for multi-dimensional arrays.
GetLowerBound() is to get the upper limit of an array.
GetUpperBound is to get the lower limit of an array.
e.g.
string[] weeks = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday",
"Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"};
MessageBox.Show(weeks.GetUpperBound(0).ToString());
//the above statement returns 6 as the upper bound for the array weeks.
Syntax : arrayname.GetUpperBound/GetLowerBound(dimension)
Dimension refers to the which upper/lower bound should be found, 0 for first, 1 for
second and so on.
e.g.
string [,,] student_details = new string[10,20,15];
int upperlimit = 0;
// This will return 10 for the 1st row element
upperlimit = student_details.GetUpperBound(0);
MessageBox.Show(upperlimit.ToString());
// This will return 20 for the 2nd row of element
upperlimit = student_details.GetUpperBound(1);
MessageBox.Show(upperlimit.ToString());
For all GetLowerBound(dimension) it will return 0 as the base lower bound is zero in
.NET
5. Language Features of VB.NET
Section Owner: Gurneet Singh (MVP)
Content Contributors: Amit Kukreja, Arvind Rangan, Reshmi Nair
5.1 History of VB.NET
.NET framework offers a myriad of languages which puts us programmers into a deep
thought process about which programming language best suits our needs.
Which language is the "best" language choice? If you are a VB wizard, should you take
the time to learn C# or continue to use VB.NET? Are C# ASP.NET pages "faster" than
VB.NET ASP.NET pages? These are questions that you may find yourself asking,
especially when you're just starting to delve into .NET. Fortunately the answer is simple:
there is no "best" language. All .NET languages use, at their root, functionality from the
set of classes provided by the .NET Framework. Therefore, everything you can do in
VB.NET you can do in C#, and vice-a-versa.
The differences occur in three main areas: syntax, object-oriented principles, and the
Visual Studio .NET IDE. Syntax concerns the statements and language elements. Object
Oriented differences are less obvious, and concern differences in implementation and
feature sets between the two languages. IDE differences include things like compiler
settings or attributes. There is also a fourth area of difference: language features that are
present in one language but have no equivalent in the other.
If you are more familiar with Java, JScript, or C/C++, you may find C#'s syntax more
familiar than VB.NET's.
If you've been doing VB for the past five years, there's no reason to think you have to
now switch to a new language (although you should always look to be learning new
things).
The fact is that VB.NET has all the facilities of VB such as not being case-sensitive,
having the option of using IntelliSense etc in addition to which you have an ocean of new
ideas & concepts thrown in for the benefit of programmers.
VB has matured as a language and if you do not know it already, its almost 11 years since
VB was born. It now provides all facilities for distributed computing and Internet
programming for which it was not useful earlier. With VB.NET, due to the .NET
framework all the classes and all the namespaces available with the other languages are
made available to VB also. This is in addition to the drag and drop facility of building
forms and web pages which was always the attraction in the use of VB. Thus it has the
dual advantage of ease of use and the availability of advanced features.
As already stated earlier both VB.NET and C# are equally powerful. So the primary
reason for which VB could not reach the zenith of popularity has been eradicated and
programmers who have been waiting for OOPs concepts to be incorporated into VB are
rewarded with this offering of Microsoft.
5.2 Language Fundamentals in VB.NET
Constants &Variables
A variable is a named memory location. They are programming elements that can change
during program execution. Data that needs to be stored in memory & accessed at a later
time are stored in variables. Instead of referring to the memory location by the actual
memory address you refer to it with a variable name.
Variables are declared as follows
Dim a as Integer
They can also be initialized at the time of declaration as follows:
Dim a as Integer = 10
Constants are very similar to variables. The main difference is that the value contained in
memory cannot be changed once the constant is declared. When you declare a constant
its value is also specified and this value cannot be changed during program execution.
Constants are used in situations where we need to keep the value in some memory
location constant. If you use hard-coded values, and the value is changed then it has to be
changed in all the locations in the code where it has been used. Instead if we are using
constants, all we will need to do is to change the value of the constant. This would
propagate the changes to our entire application.
Constants are declared as follows
Const x as Integer
VB.NET supports block-level scoping of variables. That is you can declare and use
variables as and when you need them. Thus, if a variable is required within a ‘for’ block
it can be declared within the block and its scope will be the end of the block.
Simple Types (Primitive Data types)
Simple or value type variables are those, which are assigned space in the stack instead of
the heap. All the primitive types such as int, double etc are value type variables. The
simple types basically consist of Boolean and Numeric types, where Numeric is further
divided into Integral and Floating Point.
The first rule of value types is that they cannot be null. Anytime you declare a variable of
value type, you have allocated the number of bytes associated with that type on the stack
and are working directly with that allocated array of bits. In addition, when you pass a
variable of value type, you are passing that variable’s value and not a reference to the
underlying object.
Object Type
Object type or reference type variables are those, which are allocated storage space in the
heap. Reference type objects can be null. When a reference type is allocated under the
covers a value is allocated on the heap and a reference to that value is returned. There are
basically four reference types: classes, interfaces, delegates and arrays.
Class Type
Custom data types are available in .NET framework in the form of classes or class type. It
is nothing but a set of data and related behavior that is defined by the developer.
Object type and class type are both reference type variables. The only difference comes
from the fact that object type consists of objects predefined and available with the .NET
framework such as string whereas class type consists of custom user defined data types
such as the Class Employee given below.
Class Employee
Dim empid As Integer
Dim empname As String
Public Sub New()
empid = 10
empname = "Reshmi"
End Sub
End Class
Overloading and Overriding of the Class
Overloading provides the ability to create multiple methods or properties with the same
name, but with different parameters lists. This is a feature of polymorphism. It is
accomplished by using the Overloads keyword in VB.NET. A simple example would be
an addition function, which will add the numbers if two integer parameters are passed to
it and concatenate the strings if two strings are passed to it.
Class test
Public Overloads Function Add(ByVal x As Integer, ByVal y As
Integer)
Return x + y
End Function
Public Overloads Function Add(ByVal x As String, ByVal y As
String)
Return x & y
End Function
Shared Sub main()
Dim a As new test
Dim b As Integer
Dim c As String
b = a.Add(1, 2)
c = a.Add("Reshmi", " Nair")
System.Console.Writeline(b)
System.Console.Writeline(c)
End Sub
End Class
O/P:
3
Reshmi Nair
Overriding
Class inheritance causes the methods and properties present in the base class also to be
derived into the derived class. There might arise a situation wherein you would like to
change the functionality of an inherited method or property. In such cases we can
override the method or property of the base class. This is another feature of
polymorphism. You can accomplish this in VB.NET by using the Overridable keyword
with the base class method and the Overrides keyword with the derived class method.
Public Class shapes
Public Overridable Sub display()
Console.WriteLine("Shapes")
End Sub
End Class
Public Class square
Inherits shapes
Public Overrides Sub display()
Console.WriteLine("This is a square")
End Sub
End Class
Public Class rectangle
Inherits shapes
Public Overrides Sub display()
Console.WriteLine("This is a rectangle")
End Sub
End Class
The above example is just an indication to how overriding can be implemented in either
VB.NET.
Properties
Properties are named members of classes, structs, and interfaces. They provide a flexible
mechanism to read, write, or compute the values of private fields through accessors.
Properties are an extension of fields and are accessed using the same syntax. Unlike
fields, properties do not designate storage locations. Instead, properties have accessors
that read, write, or compute their values.
Get accessor
The execution of the get accessor is equivalent to reading the value of the field.
The following is a get accessor that returns the value of a private field name:
Dim name as String ’ the name field
Property Name() As String ’ the name property
Get
Return name
End Get
End Property
Set accessor
The set accessor is similar to a method that returns void. It uses an implicit parameter
called value, whose type is the type of the property. In the following example, a set
accessor is added to the Name property:
Dim name as String ’ the name field
Property Name() As String ’ the name property
Get
Return name
End Get
Set(ByVal Value As String)
Name = value
End Set
End Property
When you assign a value to the property, the set accessor is invoked with an argument
that provides the new value. For example:
e1.Name = "Reshmi" // The set accessor is invoked here
It is an error to use the implicit parameter name (value) for a local variable declaration in
a set accessor.
How to make a Property Read Only/Write Only
There are times when we may want a property to be read-only – such that it can’t be
changed. This is where read-only properties come into the picture. A Read Only property
is one which includes only the get accessor, no set accessor.
For instance,
Public ReadOnly Property EmpID() as Integer
Get
Return empid
End Get
End Property
Similar to read-only properties there are also situations where we would need something
known as write-only properties. In this case the value can be changed but not retrieved.
To create a write-only property, use the WriteOnly keyword and only implement the set
block in the code as shown in the example below.
Public WriteOnly Property e as string
Set
e = Value
End Set
End Property
Structures :
A structure allows you to create your own custom data types and it contains one or more
members that can be of different data types. It can contain fields, methods, Etc.,
Structures are very similar to classes but there are some restrictions present in the case of
structures that are absent in the case of classes. For example you cannot initialize
structure members. Also you cannot inherit a structure whereas classes can be inherited.
Another important feature of structures differentiating it from classes is that a structure
can't have a default parameter-less constructor or a destructor. A structure is created on
the stack and dies when you reach the closing brace in C# or the End structure in
VB.NET.
But one of the most important differences between structures and classes is that structures
are referenced by value and classes by reference. As a value type, allocated on the stack,
structs provide a significant opportunity to increase program efficiency. Objects on the
stack are faster to allocate and de-allocate. A struct is a good choice for data-bound
objects, which don’t require too much memory. The memory requirements should be
considered based on the fact that the size of memory available on the stack is limited than
the memory available on the heap.
Thus we must use classes in situations where large objects with lots of logic are required.
Struct – Code: Sample code showing the Class vs. Structures
Imports System
Class Test
Dim classvar As Integer
Dim anothervar As Integer = 20
Sub New()
classvar = 28
End Sub
Structure ExampleStruct
Dim i As Integer
Sub New(ByVal j As Integer)
i = j
End Sub
Sub trialMethod()
Console.WriteLine("Inside Trial Method")
End Sub
End Structure
Shared Sub main()
Dim t As New Test()
Dim strct As New ExampleStruct(20)
Console.WriteLine(strct.i)
strct.i = 10
Console.WriteLine(t.classvar)
Console.WriteLine(strct.i)
strct.trialMethod()
End Sub
End Class
O/P: -
28
20
10
Inside Trial Method
In the above example, I have declared and used a constructor with a single parameter for
a structure. Instead if I had tried to use a default parameter-less parameter I would have
got an error. But the same is possible in the case of classes as shown by the default
parameter-less constructor, which initializes the classvar variable to 28.
Another point to note is that a variable called anothervar has been declared and initialized
within the class whereas the same cannot be done for members of a structure.
Why Namespaces
Namespaces are used in .Net to organize class libraries into a hierarchical structure and
reduce conflicts between various identifiers in a program. By helping organize classes,
namespaces help programmers manage their projects efficiently and in a meaningful way
that is understood by consumers of the class library. Namespaces enables reusable
components from different companies to be used in the same program without the worry
of ambiguity caused by multiple instances of the same identifier.
Namespaces provide a logical organization for programs to exist. Starting with a top-
level namespace, sub-namespaces are created to further categorize code, based upon its
purpose.
In .Net, the base class library begins at the System namespace. There are several classes
at the System level such as Console, Exception etc. The namespace name gives a good
idea of the types of classes that are contained within the namespace. The fully qualified
name of a class is the class name prefixed with the namespace name. There are also
several nested namespaces within the System namespace such as System.Security,
System.IO, System.Data, System.Collections etc.
Reducing conflict is the greatest strength of namespaces. Class and method names often
collide when using multiple libraries. This risk increases as programs get larger and
include more third-party tools.
Boxing Conversions
Boxing is the implicit conversion of a value type to a reference type or to any interface
type implemented by this value type. This is possible due to the principle of type system
unification where everything is an object.
When boxing occurs, the contents of value type are copied from the stack into the
memory allocated on the managed heap. The new reference type created contains a copy
of the value type and can be used by other types that expect an object reference. The
value contained in the value type and the created reference types are not associated in any
way. If you change the original value type, the reference type is not affected. Boxing,
thus, enables everything to appear to be an object, thereby avoiding the overhead required
if everything actually were an object.
Example:
VB.NET
Dim n as Integer = 10
Dim obj as Object
obj = n
Explanation:
In the above code segment, a value-type variable n is declared and is assigned the value
10. The next statement declares an object-type variable obj. The last statement implicitly
performs boxing operation on the variable n.
UnBoxing Conversions
UnBoxing is the explicit conversion from a reference type to a value type or from an
interface type to a value type that implements the interface.
When unboxing occurs, memory is copied from the managed heap to the stack. For an
unboxing conversion to a given value type to succeed at run time, the value of the source
argument must be a reference to an object that was previously created by boxing a value
of that value type otherwise an exception is thrown.
VB.Net does not support the ability to explicitly unbox values. It relies on the helper
functions in the Microsoft.VisualBasic.Helpers namespace to carry out unboxing. Since
these helper functions are considerably less efficient than C# support for explicit
unboxing. Thus it is recommended to avoid excessive use of variables of type Object.
Boxing and UnBoxing have performance implications. Every time a value type is boxed,
a new reference type is created and the value type is copied onto the managed heap.
Depending on the size of the value type and the number of times value types are boxed
and unboxed, the CLR can spend a lot of CPU cycles just doing these conversions.
It is recommended to perform boxing and unboxing in a scenario where you have to pass
a value parameter multiple times to a method that accepts a reference parameter. In such
a case, it is advantageous to box the value parameter once before passing it multiple times
to methods that accept reference methods.
Enumerations
Enumerations are types that inherit from System.Enum. The elements of an enumeration
are expressed in words rather than numbers, which makes it convenient for understanding
the meaning of the value being used. Enumerations symbolically represent a set of values
of one of the primitive integral types.
The type of the elements of an enumeration can be Byte, Short, Integer or Long. If no
type is specified explicitly, the default type is Integer.
Example:
Enum month As Byte
Jan = 2
Feb = 5
Mar = 10
End Enum
Explanation:
In the above code segment, an enumeration type month is declared. The underlying type
of the elements has been specified as Byte. It has three elements viz: Jan, Feb and Mar.
These three elements have been assigned specific values. In case of an enumeration, if no
values are specified, the value of the first element corresponds to 0 and so on.
Delegates
The runtime supports constructs called delegates, which enable late-bound operations
such as method invocation and callback procedures. With delegates, a program can
dynamically call different methods at runtime. They are type safe, secure, managed
objects that always point to a valid object and cannot corrupt the memory of another
object. The closest equivalent of a delegate in other languages is a function pointer, but
whereas a function pointer can only reference Shared functions, a delegate can reference
both Shared and instance methods. Delegates are Marshal by Value Objects.
The members of a delegate are the members inherited from class System.Delegate.
A delegate defines the signature and return type of a method. The resulting delegate can
reference any method with a matching signature. Each instance of a delegate can forward
a call to one or more methods that take those parameters and return the same type. Once a
method has been assigned to a delegate, it is called when the delegate is invoked.
Example:
Module delegate_example
Delegate Function calculation(ByVal a As Integer, ByVal b As Integer) As
Integer
Public Function add(ByVal num1 As Integer, ByVal num2 As Integer) As Integer
add = num1 + num2
End Function
Sub Main()
Dim calc_delegate As New calculation(AddressOf add)
Dim result As Integer
result = calc_delegate(50, 70)
End Sub
End Module
Explanation:
Four steps are required to implement delegates viz.
 Defining Delegates
The foremost step is to define the delegate. The definition of the delegate specifies
the method signature, return type of the method, access modifier and the delegate
name. The method signature specifies the order and type of each argument.
The definition of a delegate is indicated by the usage of the Delegate keyword. As
shown in the above code segment, the delegate name is calculation, it's access
modifier is public, it receives two integer arguments and returns an integer value.
 Creating Delegate Method Handler(s)
The next step is to define the method(s) that will be associated with the delegate.
In the above code segment, a method named add is defined. This method must have
same method signature as that of the delegate, as shown in the above code segment.
 Hooking up Delegates and Method Handlers
For a delegate method handler to be invoked, it must be assigned to a delegate object.
In the above code, the delegate object is calc_delegate and is hooked up to the
method handler add.
 Invoking the method through the Delegate
The last step is to invoke the methods that are associated with the delegate. A
delegate method handler is invoked by making a method call on the delegate itself.
This causes the method handler to invoke with the assigned input parameters as if
they were invoked directly by the program, as shown in the above code.
5.3 Features of VB.NET
Option Explicit and Option Strict
Option Explicit and Option Strict are compiler options that can be globally assigned to a
project and are interpreted at compile time. Setting these options enables programmers to
resolve some of the errors (e.g. typological errors) at compile time and thus prevent
runtime errors.
Option Explicit
Option Explicit was a feature of VB 6.0 and it has been made a part of .NET environment
too. This option can be used only at the module level. When this option is turned on, it
forces explicit declaration of variables in that module. This option can be turned "On" or
"Off". When it is not specified, by default, it is set to "Off".
Syntax: Option Explicit [On / Off]
When it is set to "On", it checks for any undeclared variables in the module at compile
time. If any undeclared variable is found, it generates a compile time error since the
compiler would not recognize the type of the undeclared variable. When it is set to "On",
variables can be declared using Dim, Public, Private or ReDim statements. Setting this
option to "On" helps programmers do away with any typological errors in the code.
When it is set to "Off", all undeclared variables are considered to be of type Object.
It is preferable to set this option to "On".
Option Strict
Visual Basic language in general does not require explicit syntax to be used when
performing operations that might not be optimally efficient (e.g. late binding) or that
might fail at run time (e.g. narrowing conversions). This permissive semantics often
prevents detection of coding errors and also affects the performance of the application.
VB.NET enables a programmer to enforce strict semantics by setting this option to "On".
When used, this option should appear before any other code. This option can be set to
"On" or "Off". If this statement is not specified, by default, it is set to "Off".
Syntax: Option Strict [On / Off]
When it is set to "On", it disallows any narrowing conversions to occur without an
explicit cast operator, late binding and does not let the programmer omit "As" clause in
the declaration statement. Since setting it to "On" requires explicit conversion, it also
requires that the compiler be able to determine the type of each variable. Thus it is
implied that Option Strict also means Option Explicit.
Visual Basic .NET allows implicit conversions of any data type to any other data type.
However, data loss can occur if the value of one data type is converted to a data type with
less precision or a smaller capacity. Setting this option to "On" ensures compile-time
notification of these types of conversions so they may be avoided.
Explicit conversions happen faster than the implicit conversions performed by the
system. In case of implicit conversions, the system has to identify the types involved in
the conversion and then obtain the correct handler to perform the conversion. In case of
explicit conversions, processing time gets reduced since the type of conversion is
explicitly mentioned.
From programmer point of view, explicit conversion may seem to be a burden since it
slows the development of a program by forcing the programmer to explicitly define each
conversion that needs to occur.
It is always recommended that you set Option Strict to "On" and use explicit conversions.
ByVal is Default
When implementing functions/procedures we often need to pass information. This
information can be passed to the called function/procedure through parameters.
Parameters can be passed by value or by reference.
When ByVal keyword is used, it causes the parameter to be passed by value. In this case,
a copy of the original parameter is passed to the called module. Thus any changes made
to the copy of the parameter do not affect the original value of the parameter.
When ByRef keyword is used, it sends a reference (pointer) to the original value to the
called module rather than its copy. Thus any changes made to the parameter in the
function/procedure will cause the original value to be modified.
With ByRef you are exposing a variable to modification which can lead to an unexpected
behavior. If that procedure calls another procedure and passes the same parameter ByRef,
the chances of unintentionally changing the original variable are increased.
In VB.NET, every parameter, by default, is passed by value if nothing is explicitly
specified. Thus it protects arguments against modification.
Example:
Public Class SampleClass
Sub Proc(ByVal a As Integer, b As Integer, ByRef c As Integer)
a = a + 2
b = b + 3
c = c + 4
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim num1, num2, num3 As Integer
Dim Obj As New SampleClass()
num1 = 2
num2 = 3
num3 = 4
Obj.Proc(num1, num2, num3)
System.Console.WriteLine(num1)
System.Console.WriteLine(num2)
System.Console.WriteLine(num3)
End Sub
Explanation:
In the class SampleClass, there is one procedure Proc that takes three integers as
arguments. In Main(), a variable of type SampleClass is defined and three other integer
variables num1,num2,num3 are declared and given some initial values. The procedure is
then called passing these three variables as arguments. First variable num1 is passed by
value, second variable num2 is also passed by value since nothing is specified explicitly
and the last variable num3 is passed by reference since it is explicitly mentioned.
After calling the procedure, when the values of the three variables are checked, you will
notice that num1 and num2 retain their original values since they are passed by value
whereas the value of num3 changes to 8 since it was passed by reference.
Sub and Functions with Parenthesis
In VB.NET, both functions and procedures require parentheses around the parameter list,
even if it is empty.
Example:
Consider the following code that contains two functions and one procedure. The first
function named "HelloWorld" accepts no argument and returns "Hello World". The
second function named "HelloName" accepts an argument and appends that argument to
the string "Hello World" and finally returns the appended string. The procedure named
"Hello" displays the string "Hello World" on the console.
Public Class SampleClass
Function HelloWorld( ) As String
Helloworld = "Hello World"
End Function
Function HelloName(ByVal name As String) As String
HelloName = "Hello " & name
End Function
Sub Hello()
System.Console.WriteLine("Hello World")
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim Obj As New SampleClass()
Dim str1 As String
Dim str2 As String
str1 = Obj.HelloWorld()
str2 = Obj.HelloName(" Everybody")
Obj.Hello()
End Sub
Explanation:
As mentioned, while calling the procedure Hello, parentheses have to be used even
though it does not require any argument. Similar treatment has to done for functions.
Structures Replace User Defined Types
In VB.NET, structures can be defined using Structure keyword. Unlike user defined
types, structures share many features with classes. Explicit mention of access modifier for
each member is necessary in VB.NET. Access modifiers can be Public, Protected,
Friend, Protected Friend, or Private. You can also use the Dim statement, which
defaults to public access.
Let us take an example of a Person that will have some characteristics as Name, Address,
Tel, Age etc. Now if we were to use this number of times, it will be better to have a type
called Person. The example below shows how to handle this.
Structure Person
Structure Person
Dim Name as String
Private Address as String
Dim Tel as String
Public Age as Integer
End Structure
As shown in the above code, explicit mention of the access specifier for each member is a
must.
Structures, like classes, can contain data members as well as data methods. Structures are
value types and are hence allocated on the stack where as classes are reference types and
require heap allocation.
Block Level Scope
The scope of block level variables is restricted to the block in which they are defined.
This block can be a function, procedure, a loop structure etc. A block level variable is not
accessible anywhere, outside its block.
Example:
Consider the sample code segment.
Sub BlockScope()
Dim a As Integer = 1
Dim i As Integer = 1
While (i <= 2)
Dim j As Integer = 1
j = j + 1
i = i + 1
End While
a = a + j
End Sub
Explanation:
The above code segment will give a compile-time error, since the scope of the variable ‘j’
is restricted to the while block and hence it is not accessible outside the while block.
Though block level variables cannot be accessed outside their block, their lifetime is still
that of the procedure containing them.
Early Vs Late Binding
In case of early binding, the compiler knows the object's data type at compile time and
hence can directly compile code to invoke the methods on the object. This enables the
compiler to discover the appropriate method and ensure that the referenced method does
exist and the parameters provided are in sync with that of the referenced method.
Since object types are known ahead of time, the IDE aids the programmer by providing
support for IntelliSense. This helps the programmer do away with any typological and
syntactical errors. If the method being referenced is not found, the programmer is notified
at compile time thus letting him rectify it rather than making him wait till the application
is run.
In case of late binding, the compiler cannot determine the object's data type and thus the
code interacts with the object dynamically at runtime. To make an object late-bound, it is
defined as a variable of type Object. This variable can reference any type of object and
allows programmers to attempt arbitrary method calls against the object even though the
Object datatype does not implement those methods. Since type of the object is not
known until runtime, neither compile-time syntax checking nor IntelliSense is possible.
The typological errors also go undetected until the application is run. However, there is
an unprecedented flexibility, since code that makes use of late binding can talk to any
object from any class as long as those objects implement the methods we require.
The discovery of the referenced method is done dynamically done at runtime and is then
invoked. This discovery takes time and the mechanism used to invoke a method through
late binding is not as efficient as that used to call a method that is known at compile time.
Thus, though late binding is flexible, it is error-prone and slower as compared to early
binding.
When Option Strict is "On", it does not support late binding since the datatype of the
object should be known at compile time.
Example:
Consider the below given code segment
Public Class SampleClass
Public Sub Proc()
MessageBox("This method is discovered dynamically at runtime")
End Sub
End Class
Public Class MainClass
Shared Sub Main()
Dim Obj As Object
Obj = New SampleClass()
Obj.Proc()
End Sub
End Class
Explanation:
The above code segment implements late-binding. There are two classes viz.
SampleClass and MainClass. The class SampleClass contains a procedure named Proc
that takes no arguments. This procedure displays an appropriate message in a message
box. The class MainClass declares a variable Obj of type Object. Thus at compile-time,
the actual data type of the variable is not known. At runtime, the system finds that it is
referencing a variable of type Sampleclass. This reference to the class is achieved using
new operator. The referenced method Proc is discovered at runtime and is finally
invoked.
Ctype Function
Ctype is a general cast keyword that coerces an expression into any type. It returns the
result of explicitly converting an expression to a specified data type, object, structure,
class, or interface. If no conversion exists from the type of the expression to the specified
type, a compile-time error occurs. When Ctype is used to perform explicit conversion,
execution is faster since it is compiled inline and hence no call to a procedure is involved
to perform the conversion.
Syntax: Ctype (expression, type name)
Example:
Consider the below given code segment
Public Class TrialClass
Sub Proc (obj as Object)
Dim Obj1 As OtherClass( )
Obj1 = Ctype (obj, OtherClass)
Obj1.OtherProc( )
End Sub
End Class
Explanation:
The variable Obj1 is of type OtherClass. This class has a procedure named OtherProc.
In the above code segment, the procedure Proc takes one parameter of type Object. The
Ctype statement gains an early bound reference to the object of type OtherClass. Thus
performance benefits of early binding can be achieved.
Changes to Boolean Operators
In Visual Basic.NET, And, Or, Xor, and Not are the boolean operators and BitAnd,
BitOr, BitXor, and BitNot are used for bitwise operations.
VB.NET has introduced the concept of short-circuiting. According to this concept, if the
first operand of an And operator evaluates to False, the remainder of the logical
expression is not evaluated. Similarly, if the first operand of an Or operator evaluates to
True, the remainder of the logical expression is not evaluated.
To perform the above mentioned functionality, VB.NET has introduced two new
operators viz. AndAlso and OrElse. AndAlso performs short-circuiting logical
conjunction on two expressions whereas OrElse performs short-circuiting logical
disjunction on two expressions
Syntax : expression1 AndAlso expression2
expression1 OrElse expression2
Structured Error Handling
The whole idea behind error handling is to accurately trap the error. VB.NET has
introduced a structured approach for handling errors, in order to keep in sync with the
features offered by all Object Oriented languages viz. C#, Java etc. This structured
approach is implemented using a Try…Catch…Finally block structure and is known as
Exception Handling.
Try statement comes before the block of code that needs to tested for errors, Catch
statement handles specific errors and hence surrounds the block of code that handles
those errors and Finally block of code is always executed and contains cleanup routines
for exception situations. Since Catch block is specific to the type of error that needs to be
caught, a single Try statement can have multiple Catch blocks associated with it.
Example:
Consider the below given code segment
Dim num1 As Integer
Dim num2 As Integer
Dim num3 As Integer
Dim str As String
num1 = CType(System.Console.ReadLine( ), Integer)
num2 = CType(System.Console.ReadLine( ), Integer)
str = System.Console.ReadLine( )
Try
num3 = num1 / num2
num1 = CType(str, Integer)
Catch e1 As System.InvalidCastException
System.Console.WriteLine("There is a casting error")
Catch e2 As System.OverflowException
System.Console.WriteLine("There is an overflow error")
Finally
System.Console.Writeline("Please enter valid input")
End Try
Explanation:
The above code segment has been written with an intention of creating an error to explain
the structured way of trapping errors. As shown, it accepts two integers and one string
from the user and tries to divide first number by the second number and also tries to
convert the entered string to an integer. Since the statements that divide the numbers and
perform casting are critical, they are put in the Try…Catch…Finally block structure.
The code segment has two Catch statements viz. first statement handles the casting
(wrong format) error while the second one handles the overflow (division) error.
If the user will enter zero as the second number, then the code will throw an overflow
exception which will be handled by displaying the error message on the Console.
Similarly, if the user will enter a string say "Hello" as the third argument, the code will
throw an invalidcast exception which will be handled by displaying the error message on
the Console. In both the cases, the Finally block of code is always executed. Finally
block is even executed, when there is no error in the program. Thus it is the right place to
perform cleanup routines.
This structured approach provided by VB.NET lets the programmer track the precise
location of the error in the code.
Data Type Changes
Integer
Integer Type VB.NET CLR Type
8-bit Integer Byte System.Byte
16-bit Integer Short System.Int16
32-bit Integer Integer System.Int32
64-bit Integer Long System.Int64
Boolean
A Boolean variable can be assigned one of the two states viz. True or False.
In VB.NET, when numeric types are converted to Boolean values, 0 becomes False and
all other values become True.
When Boolean values are converted to Integer values, True maps to -1 and False maps
to 0.
String
To be inline with other .NET languages, VB.NET has updated string length declaration.
In VB.NET, you cannot declare a string to have a fixed length. You must declare the
string without a length. When a value gets assigned to the string, the length of the value
determines the length of the string.
5.4 Control Statements
VB.Net has statements such as If .. Then ..else and Select …. Case, which help you to
conditionally execute program.
VB.Net provides you with various looping statements, such as Do… Loop, While…. End
While, and For… Next.
1. The If….Then….Else…End if Statement
Consider a student marks and grade evaluation. For Marks above 75 the grade is ‘A’ and
for below 75 is ‘B’. In this situation when you need to execute some code based on some
condition, you can make use of, If…then…else…end if.
The Cultural syntax normally used is as follows:
If condition Then
Executable statements when the condition is True
Else
Executable statements when the Condition is False
End If
OR using Elseif for Advanced Decision making
If condition Then
Executable statements
ElseIf condition Then
Executable statements
End If
Single if can have multiple else with conditions, as mentioned above in elseif format and
finally a single End If for the main If condition.
Nesting IF…Then Constructs
If condition Then
If condition2 Then
Executable statements when the condition2 is TRUE
Else
Executable Statements
End if
Else
Executable statements
End If
One important thing to keep in mind when nesting IF…Then constructs is that you must have corresponding End If statement for
every IF ..Then statement, unless the If then statement executes only one statement and that statement appears on the same line
as If…Then
2. The Select…Case Statement(Evaluating an Expression for Multiple Values)
The Select…Case Statement is similar to If…Else…End if. The only difference between
two is that If and elseif can evaluate different expressions in each statement, but the
Select statement can evaluate only one expression.
The drawback of IF...Then construct is that it isn’t capable of handling a decision
situation without a lot of extra work. One such situation is when you have to perform
different actions based on numerous possible values of an expression, not just True or
False. For instance performing actions based on Students Marks.
If intmarks >35 Then
…….
Elseif intmarks >50 then
……
Elseif intmarks>65 then
…..
Elseif intmarks>75 then
…
Else
….
End If
As you see the structure can be a bit hard to read and if the conditions increase you may
end up writing a confusing and an unreadable piece of Code
The Select uses the result of an expression to execute different set of statements.
The syntax for the Select…Case Statement is as follows:
Select Case [expression]
Case [expression list]
Executable statements.
Case Else
Executable statements.
Exit Select - to exit from the select
End Select
Note: Case Else is used to define the code that executes only when the expression doesn’t
evaluate to any of the values in Case Statements .Use of Case Else is optional
Lets see the same example as above but this time with Select Case
Select Case intmarks
Case Is >35
Executable statements
Case Is >50
Executable statements
Case Is>65
Executable statements
Case Is >75
Executable statements
Case Else
Executable statements
End Select
Evaluating More than one possible Value in a Case Statement
Select Case helps you to use some more advanced expression comparisons. Like,you can
specify multiple comparisons in a Single Case statement by just using comma. Lets see
how it does
Select Case strColor
Case Is=”Red”,”Blue”,”Magenta”
‘Color is a Dark Shade
Case Is =”Cream”,”white”
‘Color is a Cool Shade
End Select
Another comparison expression used is keyword To, Visual Basic.NET evaluates the
expression and finds out whether it is in the range mentioned and if yes the Statement is
executed. Please note that when using To, you can’t include Is = as you can with the
simple expression
Select Case intmarks
Case 1 to 35
‘Executable statements
Case 36 to 50
‘Executable Statements
End Select
3. For…Next Statement
The For…Next Statements are used repeat a set of statements for specific number of
times.
The syntax for the For…Next Statements is as follows:
For counter = <start value> to <end value> [Step Value]
Executable Statements
Exit For
Next [counter]
Counter is any numeric value.
Start value is the initial value of the counter.
End value is the final value of the counter.
Step Value is the value by which the counter is incremented. It can be positive or
negative. The default value is 1.
Exit For is used to exit the For…Next loop at any time. When Exit for is encountered
,the execution jumps to the statement following Next
Next is the statement the marks the end of the For statement. As soon as the program
encounters the Next statement, the step value is added to the counter and the next
iteration of the loop takes place.
Dim intctr as Integer
For intctr=1 to 100
Debug.WriteLine(intctr)
Next intctr
This routine starts a loop with a For statement after a variable intctr is declared. This loop
initializes intctr to 1 and then prints 1 through 100 to the output window. It prints in steps
of 1 as Step has been omitted here, so the default is 1
Example of use of STEP in For....Loop.
Let us write a table of 2 using step in for loop.
Add a label with name it as lbtables and make it bit bigger on the screen.
Dim j = 1
For i = 2 To 20 Step 2
Me.lbtables.Text = Me.lbtables.Text & "2 X " & j.ToString & " = " &
i.ToString & vbCrLf
j = j + 1
Next
Output:
2X1=2
..
..
..
..
..
…
2 X 10 = 20
An Example of Nested For loop.
Let us write a small code to display a structure of stars ‘*’ in triangle format.
*
**
***
****
*****
******
Let us have a label with name stars. Increase the height of the label to get a clear view of
the image.
Dim star As String
Dim i, j As Integer
For i = 0 To 5 ' First loop to count the rows
For j = 0 To i ' Second loop to count the columns
star = star & " * "
Next
Me.stars.Text = Me.stars.Text & star & vbCrLf ' To print *
star = ""
Next
4. For Each…Next Statement
The For Each…Next Statement is used to repeat a set of statements for each element in
an array or collection.
The For Each…Next statement is executed if there is at least one item in an array of
collection.
The Loop repeats of each element in an array or collection.
The syntax for the For Each…Next statement as follows:
For Each Component In Set
Executable statements
Next
Component is the variable used to refer to the elements of an array or a collection.
Set refers to an array or any collection object. e.g.
Dim weeks() As String = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday",_
"Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"}
Dim eachday As String
For Each eachday In weeks
MsgBox(eachday)
Next
An example for using for each element in a collection of string into a single string
element.
Each element of array which is of type string is read from the collection and stored into
the single string type object.
5. While…End Statement
The While…End Statement is used to repeat set of executable statements as long as the
condition is true.
The syntax for the While…End statement is as follows:
While Condition
Executable Statements
End While
In this if the condition is satisfied then the statements are executed. Else it will not
enter the While condition at all.
6. Do...Loop Statement
The Do…Loop Statement is similar to While…End. Here we have two types of
formatting the loop.
a) Do While / Until Condition Executable Statements Loop
b) Do Executable Statements Loop While/Until Condition
The Difference is in a) The loop will be executed if the condition is satisfied, but in b)
The Loop will be executed at least once even if the condition does not satisfy.
Do While Expression
[Statements]
Loop
Do Until Expression
[Statements]
Loop
Note: For VB programmers While Wend is not supported it is While… End now
A Complete Example with set of control statements.
We will create a VB.Net application, which will accept students name and its grade.
Depending up the type of grade it will add remarks.
txtsummary.Text = ""
Dim value, ctr As Integer
'Accept a number from the user
value = CInt(InputBox("Enter the number of students"))
'Check if the validity of the number
If value <= 0 Then
MsgBox("Enter details of at least one student", "Error")
End If
Dim arrName(value) As String
Dim sGrade As String
Dim arrRemarks(value) As String
While ctr < value
'Accept the name of the students
arrName(ctr) = InputBox("Enter the name of the Student"_
& ctr + 1, "Enter Details")
'Accept the grade of the Student
sGrade = InputBox("Enter the grade of the student" &
"(_A/B/C/D/F)", "Grade Details")
' Assign remarks to students
Select Case UCase(sGrade)
Case "A"
arrRemarks(ctr) = "Excellent"
Case "B"
arrRemarks(ctr) = "Good"
Case "C"
arrRemarks(ctr) = "Fair"
Case "D"
arrRemarks(ctr) = "Poor"
Case "F"
arrRemarks(ctr) = "Fail"
Case Else
MsgBox("Incorrect value entered ", _
MsgBoxStyle.Critical)
Exit Sub ' To come out of the program
End Select
ctr = ctr + 1
End While
' Display the summary in the text box
For ctr = 0 To value - 1
If txtsummary.Text = "" Then
If LCase(arrRemarks(ctr)) = "fail" Then
txtsummary.Text = arrName(ctr) & " has failed _
in exams" & vbCrLf
Else
txtsummary.Text = arrName(ctr) & "'s performance is_
" & arrRemarks(ctr) & vbCrLf
End If
Else
If LCase(arrRemarks(ctr)) = "fail" Then
txtsummary.Text = txtsummary.Text & arrName(ctr) &_
" has failed in exams" & vbCrLf
Else
txtsummary.Text = txtsummary.Text & arrName(ctr) &_
"'s performance is " & arrRemarks(ctr) &_ vbCrLf
End If
End If
Next
5.5 Arrays
Till now we have been using variable to store values. We might come across a situation
when we might need to store multiple values of similar type. Such as names of 100
students in a school. One way to do it is to declare 100 variables and store all the names.
A much more simple and efficient way of storing these variable is using Arrays. An
Array is a memory location that is used to store multiple values.
All the values in an array are of the same type, such as Integer or String and are
referenced by their index or subscript number, which is the order in which these values
are stored in the array. These values are called the elements of the array.
The number of elements that an array contains is called the length of the array.
In VB.Net all arrays are inherited from the System.Array Class.
Arrays can be single or multidimensional. You can determine the dimensions of an array
by the number of subscripts that are used to identify the position of any array element.
A single dimensional array is identified by only a single subscript and an element in a
two-dimensional array is identified by two subscripts.
The dimension has to be declared before using them in a program. The array declaration
comprises the name of the array and the number of elements the array can contain.
The Syntax of single dimension array is as follows.
Dim ArrayName (number of elements) as Element Data type.
e.g.
Dim studentname(10) as string
Or
Dim studentname() as string = new string(10)
You can assign the values at runtime or even at the design time.
Design time declaration:
Studentname(0)=”Rohan”
Studentname(1)=”Mohan”
…..
Studentname(10)=”Nitin”
All arrays starts with the index of 0 i.e. All arrays are Zero Based and there is no
provision of an option Base Statement where in you can specify the Lower Bound . This
implies that above array can store 11 elements. Here 0, is the starting index or the lower
bound of the array. The lower bound is fixed for all the arrays.
Example 1.
We will create a VB.Net application that will accept the names of students in an single
dimension array and display it back.
Add a textbox and set the name property to txtnames. Set the multilane property of the
text box to true.
Put a button and write the following in the onclick event.
txtnames.Text = ""
Dim value, count As Integer
'Accept how many students names to enter
value = CInt(InputBox("Enter the number of students name to enter:"))
Dim arrnames(value) As String
Dim cnt As Integer
For cnt = 0 To value
arrnames(cnt) = InputBox("Enter the name of student " & cnt + 1 & ":",
"Student Name")
Next
'Display the entered value to the text box
For cnt = 0 To value
If txtnames.Text = "" Then
txtnames.Text = arrnames(cnt) & vbCrLf ' for carriage returns
Else
txtnames.Text = txtnames.Text & arrnames(cnt) & vbCrLf
End If
Next
Above example will accept number of names to be entered and will add the names in a
loop and then redisplay it in a text box.
The Syntax for multi-dimension arrays is as follows:
Previously we saw how we can store multiple names of students. But, if we want to store
related data of students like first name, middle name, last name. In such situations you
can use multi dimension arrays, such as two-or-three dimension arrays.
Dim ArrayName (number of 1st element, number of 2nd element,….) as element data
type.
Or
Simpler form would be
Dim ArrayName( number of rows, number of columns) as element data type of two
dimension.
e.g.
Dim studentdetails(10,2) as string
Index positions of array elements.
0,0 0,1
1,0 1,1
2,0 2,1
3,0 3,1
…
10,0 10,1
studentdetails(0,0) = “Manoj”
studentdetails(0,1) = “Malik”
To display “Malik” we need to use the index position of the array and say ,
Studentdetails(0,1).
Example 2.
We will create a VB.Net application, which will accept Student Name, Address and city
name and display it in the text box in a formatted way.
Mohan #2/b,4th lane Kanpur
Mike 8th block csd NY
Lim Chou Lane Hong Kong
As in the earlier example we will create a text box , change its name and its multi line
property to true.
Change the text box to txtsummary.
Add a button and write the below code in that.
Dim arrsummary(3, 3) As String
Dim i, j As Integer
'As we wanted just 3 columns we have set it to 2, else if u want to be
two only then while declaring the array make it (2,2) as the lower
index is 0.
For i = 0 To 2
For j = 0 To 2
arrsummary(i, j) = InputBox("Enter the value for " & i & " row _
and " & j & " column ", "Summary")
Next
Next
'Display the values in the summary array.
For i = 0 To 2
For j = 0 To 2
If txtsummary.Text = "" Then
txtsummary.Text = arrsummary(i, j)
Else
txtsummary.Text = txtsummary.Text & "-" & arrsummary(i, j)
End If
Next
txtsummary.Text = txtsummary.Text & vbCrLf
Next
Dynamic Arrays.
Till now what we read were about fixed arrays. Let us see how we can manipulate the
size of an array at run time.
Many times we feel that the size of array in not enough or too much then required. As we
know that array will allocate memory location when its declared, so to release or add
more we need to change the dimension of the array which has been pre-declared.
We can create a dynamic array by not specifying the size of the array at the time of array
declaration.
Syntax:
Dim student_names() as string
In the above syntax you will see that number of elements are not mentioned. Now to re-
declare the elements we make use of ReDim for an array to change its dimension.
e.g.
Dim student_names() as string
ReDim student_names(10)
ReDim can also change the size of multi-dimensional arrays.
You can change the number of dimensions in an array, but you cannot make a multi-
dimensional array to a single dimension or lesser than the original dimension.
e.g.
Dim student_details(10,15) as string 'Declaring the array
ReDim student_details(10,25) 'Resizing the array
This statement does not change the data type of the array element or initialize the new
values for the array elements.
This statement can be used at the procedure level only not at the class level or module
level.
ReDim statements reinitializes the value of arrays with the respective data type declared
by the array.
If u have initialized the array to a some values it will be lost during the time of resizing
and the default values will be restored in those elements.
E.g.
'Declaring the array and initializing the value for the array
dim students_names() as string = {“Rahul”}
'This will display the value Rahul
msgbox(students_names(0))
Now resizing the array.
ReDim students_names(10)
'This will give a fixed size to 10 elements
msgbox(students_names(0))
This will display a blank value, as during the resizing the values of the array are
reinitialized to default value of string which is blank.
Now to avoid such problems we will make use of a keyword called Preserve while
resizing the array to new value.
Using the above example , we will make changes in the declaration.
ReDim students_names(10) 'The old declaration
ReDim Preserve students_names(10)
Students_names(1) = “Alex”
Students_names(2) = “Michael”
Msgbox(students_names(0))
This will display the value as ‘Rahul’ which we had initialized before resizing it. So
Preserve will restore all the initialized value of elements declared in an array.
If the array is an two or more dimensional array , you can only change the size of the last
dimension by using preserve keyword.
Dim student_details(10,20) as string
ReDim preserve student_details(15,25)
This will raise error because we are trying to change the first dimension also. So u can
only change the last dimension in case of multi-dimensional array.
Few Important methods in arrays.
Ubound() and Lbound().
Ubound is to get the upper limit of an array.
Lbound is to get the lower limit of an array by default lower limit is 0.
e.g.
Dim weeks() As String = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday",
"Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"}
Dim upper As Integer
Dim lower As Integer
upper = UBound(weeks)
lower = LBound(weeks)
MsgBox(upper.ToString & " - " & lower.ToString)
You will get 6 – 0 as the answer.
If you count the number of elements initialized elements its seven, but all arrays starts
with lower bound as 0. So from 0 – 6 is equal to 7 elements.
This works for single dimension , but for multi-dimensions,
We make use of the following:
Getupperbound(), getlowerbound() these functions are methods of the array class.
You can use it with single dimension also but best for multi-dimensional arrays.
Syntax : arrayname.getupperbound/getlowerbound(dimension)
Dimension refers to the which upper/lower bound should be found, 0 for first, 1 for
second and so on.
example.
Dim student_details(10,20,15)
Dim upperlimit as integer
upperlimit = student_details.getupperbound(0)
' This will return 10 for the 1st row element
upperlimit = student_details.getupperbound(1)
' This will return 20 for the 2nd row of element
For all getlowerbound(dimension) it will return 0 as the base lower bound is zero in .NET
6. Object Oriented Programming Concepts
Section Owner: Akila Manian (MVP)
Content Contributors: Shankar N.S., Swati Panhale
There are various approaches to solve a problem. Moreover, these approaches
are to a great extent dependant upon how each one of us tries to analyze and
solve the problem.
We have a very simple assignment:
Lets say we want to calculate a distance formula for traveling from one place to
another. The distance formula has to include all the attributes of the journey. So
let us see what data do we have-
Variables:
Location: Have to go from one city to another (both the cities can be anywhere
in the world).
Modes of travel: Car/Bus/Train
Date constraints: Departure/Arrival Date.
Time Preference: Morning/Afternoon /Evening
Distance: Break Journey
Travel Cost. Etc
Now, we have termed these data items as “variables” because their value would
be changing based upon the various choices made.
Even for such a trivial problem, there are being so many options/constraints,
there are so many approaches to arrive at a decision. On similar lines, given a
problem and basic resources (which also act as constraints), various
algorithms can do the task programmatically. An algorithm is nothing but the
thought process/approach involved.
A good approach should
 Be generic so that it works well with all possible combinations of inputs.
 Flexible / adaptable to absorb new inputs. (New destination, routes, rates,
timings or even new mode of travel - say space travel)
 Give solutions in the desired timeframe.
 Make best use of resources available. (Optimize the solution)
 Cost effective.
 Simple enough.
Primitively, there was a very straightforward manner to write applications.
Straightforward in the sense that the various tasks in the application would be
identified and would be automated. This approach did work for many scenarios
but when it came to the robustness or maintenance of the application, this
approach proved to be insufficient.
In this section we will first discuss what was the procedural approach and how
the design of an application be made using this approach. By trying to figure out
the negative points in the approach we will then appreciate the advantages of
object oriented programming by discussing it as a solution to overcome the
shortcomings of procedural programming.
6.1 Concept of Procedural Programming
The whole core of procedural programming lies in deriving a straightforward
sequential step-by-step guide to do a particular task. Let us understand this by
analyzing a case study.
Lets take up a classic Payroll application that deals with various types of
specifications for different employees. Lets say that this application is developed
in one of the best procedural languages – C.
So, the “Employee” in the application will be represented by a structure, which
will contain all the Employee attributes as data members of the structure.
Assume that the application deals with three types of employees – Clerk,
Manager and Marketing executive. All the employees do have some common
attributes and certain specific allowances (lets not talk of deductions!). The clerk
gets medical allowance, the executive gets the traveling allowance and the
manager gets house rent allowance and dearness allowance. Our Employee
structure might look something like this:
struct Employee
{
int Id;
char Name[25];
char *Address;
char Designation[20];
double Basic;
float Med_Allow;
float Tra_Allow;
float HRA;
float DA;
}
The application would have functions, which would act upon the data, and do the
necessary functionalities. So there would be at least following functions apart
from others:
void AddDetails() ; // To add details of the
// employee to the structure
void PrintDetails() ; // To print the details of a
// particular Employee
double CalcSalary(); // To calculate the salary of a
// employee
This also could have been done having three different structures one for each
Employee type but this would increase the overhead in programming in the
functions and there would be a requirement of declaring three different arrays;
one to store all clerk variables, one for manager variables and one for executive.
So let us have a common structure, which would suite all the employee types.
If we try to figure out the central algorithm of every function it would be quite
monotonous wherein every function would have a strict type inspection routine to
check the type of Employee every time. Because the functionalities differ for
every type of Employee.
void CalcSalary ()
{
switch(EMP_TYPE)
{
case CLERK:
// All the CLERK specific calculations
case MANAGER:
// All the MANAGER specific calculations
case EXECUTIVE:
// All the EXECUTIVE specific calculations
}
}
This kind of type inspection will be featuring in every function, which would be
dependant upon the type of the Employee.
Now, if we have to add a new Employee type to this application, which has its
own specification about, the allowances received try to figure out the changes
that we will have to do in the current case study. Not only will the Employee
structure have to be modified but also even the functions have to be changed in
order to accommodate the new Employee type. So just as we are currently
having a case statement to correspond to one employee type, we will have to
introduce one more case statement corresponding to the new employee type. In
addition, while calculating the salary we might introduce some local variables in
the function to do the necessary calculations. There is a probability that the new
additions may lead to certain bugs being introduced in the current “working”
code. So let us list down the various problems we would face in this application:
Maintenance: -- If the application has to support some change in the existing
business logic for a particular employee type there might be more problems
introduced since it is the same function that would be called for the different
employee types.
Enhancement: -- When the application has to be enhanced further to add a new
type of employee there would be changes made in all the functions, which
depend upon the type of employee. Hence enhancing an application further
would be quite hectic. Why only new type of employee? Even if have to add a
little more functionality to an existing function it would prove quite cryptic.
Extensibility: -- The current design of the application does not allow us to have
extensibility easily. Therefore, if we have to add more functions, which would do
certain tasks for all the employee types or maybe for some of the type of
employees; the new function also will have a strict type inspection routine to
check for the type of employee.
Storage: -- A small but significant problem. Whenever we have the data saved in
a persistent storage i.e. having the data into files on the hard disk we will have to
take care of saving the data along with the appropriate type of the employee.
Also, while reading the data from the file its necessary to read the type first and
then accordingly initialize the members in the structure.
If we try to look for the core problem in the application design which can be
qualified as a cause for all the problems discussed above it definitely would be
an attempt to design a common algorithm to suit all the types of employees. It
would definitely prove helpful if rather than concentrating on the procedures we
concentrate more upon the entities in the application.
6.2 Object Oriented Programming
Now with the major shortcomings of procedural programming let us look at how a
different approach would help us. As mentioned earlier it is necessary to
concentrate more upon the entities in the application and not only upon the tasks
done by the application.
Based upon this bottom line we have a certain set of rules defined as object-
oriented paradigm. If a programming language satisfies these rules i.e. provides
certain features or keywords to implement these rules it would be qualified as an
object oriented programming language.
Lets discuss the major conventions for object-oriented programming.
6.3 Classes
One of the major problems in the earlier approach was also the data and the
functions working upon the data being separate. This leads to the necessity of
checking the type of data before operating upon the data. The first rule of the
object-oriented paradigm says that if the data and the functions acting upon the
data can go together let them be together. We can define this unit, which
contains the data and its functions together as a class. A class can also be
defined as a programmatic representation of an entity and the behavior of that
entity can be represented by the functions in the class. In our earlier case study
the employee, can be represented as a class. A class will contain its data into
various variables, which would be termed as data members and the behavior of
the class, which will be encapsulated, as functions will be termed as member
functions.
6.4 Encapsulation
Many a times when we use certain tools, we hardly pay attention to the details
about the functionality of the tool. We hardly pay attention to the various other
units, which make up the tool. This behavior to ignore unwanted details of an
entity is termed as abstraction.
Now if the details are unwanted why show them to the user? Therefore, the
creator might attempt to hide these unwanted details. This behavior is termed as
encapsulation. So we can say that encapsulation is an implementation of
abstraction. Encapsulation directly leads to two main advantages:
Data Hiding: -- The user of the class does not come to know about the internals
of the class. Hence, the user never comes to know about the exact data
members in the class. The user interacts with the data members only through the
various member functions provided by the class.
Data Security: - Since the data, members are not directly available to the user
directly but are available only through the member functions a validity check can
always be imposed to ensure that only valid data is been inserted into the class.
So a Date class, which contains individual data members for storing date, month
and year, will have it ensured the month is never 13 or the date is never
exceeding 31.
6.5 Inheritance
What is common between a father and a son? At least one thing would be
common – their assets!
In real life, inheritance allows us to reuse things that belong to a particular entity.
Also, in object oriented world a class can inherit the properties and functionalities
defined in some another class so that they can be reused. Then we have to be a
bit careful in designing these classes because reusability cannot be done unless
the classes are of the same type. So the class which would be reusing the
functionalities of the other class in object oriented terms we would say that the
class is “deriving” from the former class and is termed as the derived class. The
class that is being “derived from” is termed as the base class. Inheritance
directly results in the following benefits: --
Reusability: -- Inheritance results in functionalities defined in one class being
reused in the derived classes. So the efforts of rewriting the same functionality
for every derived class is being saved. This definitely saves a lot of development
time.
Enhancement and Specification: -- Due to the characteristic of inheritance, we
can club the common functionalities in the base class and have the specific
functionalities in the derived class. This feature can be used to have a
functionality defined in the base class to be further modified for betterment or
specification by the derived class. This mechanism of redefining the functionality
of the base class in the derived class is termed as “overriding”
Avoiding type inspection:-- In the case study that we discussed to understand
procedural approach we had a strict type inspection routine at the library end
wherein in every function in the library we had to check for the type of the
employee for whom the work has to be done. With inheritance, we would have a
common base class called as “Employee” which would have all the common
functionalities defined where as the specific routines do be done for various types
of employees would go in the respective derived classes. So there would be
class defined for every type of employee and the class would all the
specifications for that type of employee and would be derived from the base
class Employee to inherit the common functionalities. Therefore, in the functions
now we wont have to check for the type of employee every time because every
employee type has its own specific routines defined within it.
6.6 Polymorphism
The word “polymorphism” means “different forms”. Applied in object-oriented
paradigm it means the ability of an entity to exhibit different forms at runtime.
However, why would such a kind of feature be required? One major reason to
have this is to eliminate the type inspection. As we can see in the earlier case
study that we discussed there would also be a type inspection checking at the
client application level where in the employee entities would be used. So just as
in every functionality, we had checked for the type of employee we will also have
to check in the main function about the type of employee we are handling. With
polymorphism, we can have this level of type inspection also being eradicated
totally.
Mapping the procedural approach to an object oriented scenario
Class Employee
{
// Common functionality for all types Base Members // Common
of // Functionalities
// Employees
}
Base Class
switch ( EMPLOYEE TYPE)
{
case CLERK: Derived Classes
// specific functionalities
// for a clerk Class Clerk { Class
Manager {
case MANAGER:
// specific functionalities for
// a manager }
}
case EXECUTIVE:
// specific functionalities for
// a executive
Overrided Members Class
Executive {
}
}
How does .NET support object oriented programming?
As we have discussed in the earlier sections .NET happens a to be a “complete
framework”. The basic approach adopted by the framework is object-oriented
and the framework would support only object-oriented code. So no more C and
COBOL applications! Although C++ and OO-COBOL would work perfectly fine.
Since the framework is inherently object-oriented everything i.e. every data type
in the framework will be a class. Unlike C++, even the primitive data types will be
given by the framework as a set of classes.
The framework also provides us with a rich set of classes which can be used by
instantiating them or writing new classes by deriving from the framework classes.
The framework does have a systematic organization of classes wherein the
Object class from the System namespace (we will discuss namespaces in details
later) tops the chart. All the other classes are derived from the Object class.
Component Oriented Programming
However, is it really enough just to have an object oriented approach? Well, now
with the increasing influence of the web and code reusability getting extended
across the language barriers its very much essential to even extend “Object
Oriented approach “ itself.
We need to extend the definition of the “class” which happens to be the basic
element of object oriented programming. We know that the class serves as an
abstraction or simulation of a real life entity. However, in order to have a total
encapsulation the internals of the class has to be totally hidden. Secondly, the
class should be instantiable across various programming languages to have a
more range of reusability. The class should ideally support properties (will be
discussed a little later) to offer more user friendliness and overcoming the
incompatibilities.
Therefore, a class must have the following extra abilities in addition to what it
serves in object-oriented scenario:
 Encapsulated data and implementations
 Properties
 Language Interoperable
We can term instance of such a class as a “component”. VB.NET and CSharp
happen to be component- oriented languages in a way that every class created
in any of these languages when instantiated results in a component.
6.7 Understanding CSharp and VB.NET as Object Oriented
Programming languages
After knowing the object-oriented concepts let us examine how these concepts
can be implemented in CSharp (C#) or VB.NET. These two languages are been
introduced along with the .NET framework and are totally .NET compliant. So
VB.NET will be a natural upgrade for VB programmers and CSharp for C++
programmers. We will be looking at the various syntaxes of both these languages
to implement object oriented programming.
Classes
As we have discussed earlier classes are going to be an integrated unit
consisting of the data and the functions that would act upon the data.
The Employee class would be something like this:
VB.Net
Public Class Employee
Dim Empid As Integer Dim
EmpName As String Dim
EmpAddress As String Dim
Basic As Double
Public Sub AddDetails ()
---------
---------
End Sub
Public Sub PrintDetails ()
---------
---------
End Sub
Public Sub CalcSalary ()
---------
---------
End Sub
End Class
C#
public class Employee
{
int Empid;
string EmpName;
string EmpAddress;
double Basic;
public void AddDetails ()
{
---------
---------
}
public void PrintDetails ()
{
---------
---------
}
public void CalcSalary ()
{
---------
---------
}
}
The attributes in our employee entity are defined as data members and the
functionalities would be the member functions. So our classes happen to be
independent entities in our application. Dependant upon the application the
number of classes in the application might vary. We need to be a bit careful
about the design of our classes specifically when we decide the data members
and the member functions. We will have to ensure complete atomicity and that
no class would be allowed to access the data of any other class unless it’s a
strict constraint in the design of the classes.
Then just by declaring he class we have laid down a specification. The class
would be actually in form or will be allocated memory only when we create an
instance of that class i.e. creating an “object” of the class. Therefore, a class is
just a blue print of an entity, which just tells what does the entity have, and how
does the entity behave.
Based upon the program requirement we can have this object created either at
compilation time (stack segment of the process memory) or at runtime (on the
heap). But if the object is created at runtime it will also be necessary to de-
allocate the object to avoid a memory leak. .NET framework provides us with an
automatic memory management system. In addition, for this system to monitor
our memory its mandatory to have all our objects created at runtime. Hence, in
.NET scenario we are going to have only heap-based objects, which would get
created at runtime.
At times we might in our application require multiple instances of the same class.
The multiple objects of the class are going to have only their set of data members
and they would share the copy of member functions. Then how would the data of
the appropriate object get modified. As like any other programming language, the
.NET languages also support the “this” reference, which would be an implicit
argument of every function (non static function). This reference contains the
address of the object through which the function was called.
Just as an application would require multiple instances of a same class an
application also might require objects of different classes. These classes might
be from different libraries. There are high chances that two different libraries
might have a class of the same name. These naming clashes are solved in .NET
by grouping classes logically in namespaces. So we can group different classes
of a library into one or more namespaces. Whenever we use a library, we can
specify to the compiler about the namespace we are referring.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is all about hiding the data and ensuring its security. The data
should not be accessible to any external entity unless the data is not that crucial.
C# and VB.NET support various access specifiers to encapsulate the data and
the functions. The specifiers allow us to define the levels of access for the data
members. Every member that we declare in a class has to have to its access
specifiers as a part of the declaration statement itself. Unlike C++ , both C# and
VB.NET do not support access grouping.
C# Access Specifiers
Access Non static members
Do not require an object instance Require an object instance
Are termed as object level
Are termed as class level members
members
Non static functions do receive
Static functions do not receive the
the “this” pointer as an implicit
“this” pointer as an implicit argument
member
Can access only other static and not Can access both static as well as
the non static members non static members
Constructors
Constructors are special member functions, which are used for initializing the
class data members. In the earlier object oriented programming languages
constructors were quite important since initialization of the data members was
not allowed at the time of declaration. C# however allows us to have the member
variables to be initialized along with declarations. Then why are constructors
required? Well, the variables may not always be initialized to some constants but
can also be initialized with the values specified by the user. There can also be
certain kind of processing to be done while a class is instantiated. So a
constructor happens to be quite important member function in the class as far as
initialization is concerned.
C# supports following types of constructors
 Default Constructors
 Parameterized constructors
 Private constructors
 Static constructors
Destructors
C# also supports automatic memory cleanup by having a garbage collector
element. So no more botheration for de-allocating memory from the heap and no
more nightmares about dangling pointers. Then if there is a memory
management mechanism why would we require destructors?
Static Members
Let us consider a scenario wherein we have two different MS WORD windows
opened with some documents opened. We select some text from one of the
windows, copy it and try to paste it another window. Now we know that both
these windows happen to be two separate entities. So lets imagine two objects of
the same kind to have similar kind of interaction. Definitely we would a common
memory are which both the objects would be able to access. This memory area
also has to restricted to the objects of that class only. The key point over here is
the common area available to the objects.
In a second scenario, let us consider a requirement of generating ids
automatically. Again, there has to be some variable, which would be common to
all objects of that class and would keep on incrementing.
Static
variable
Object #1 Object #2 Object #3
D e r A n e o ic t non -stat ic m of t
Not iffe:--ence ll ithstat bjec and ar e in stancese mbershe same class and the
static variable also belongs to the same class
Static members Non static members
Do not require an object instance Require an object instance
Are termed as class level Are termed as object level
members members
Static functions do not receive Non static functions do receive
the “this” pointer as an implicit the “this” pointer as an implicit
argument member
Can access only other static and Can access both static as well as
not the non static members non static members
Properties
Classes were proposed in object oriented programming paradigm for one of the
reasons of having data security. As we know, the members of a structure in C
happen to be public and can be accessed freely outside the structure. As a
result, there is not any check as to what data is been inserted into the structure
members. Hence, in classes we have the “private” specifier by which we can
avoid the direct access of the data members of the class. Then we lose the user
friendliness of accessing a variable rather than calling a function.
Properties happen to be a fantastic blend of both the things. A property
constitutes of a private level member to store the data and accessor and mutator
methods to interact with the variable. Now what is new in that? The beauty is that
the property would be accessed by the user as a local variable but internally the
compiler will convert the access statements into appropriate function calls. So the
user application always is under the impression that a variable is been accessed
where as the validity of the data is been checked with the methods associated.
The data stored in the variable is termed as value of the property.
Inheritence
It is one of the commonly used features in OOPS to avoid the code duplication. It
implements code reutilization in class declaration. Let us take an example and
discuss how the code reutilization is achieved with inheritence. Normally we
create a singe class to represent an entity and its operations. Look at the
following example
Employee Class
Class Employee
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deducions As Double
Public FirstName As String
Public LastName As String
Public Address As String
Public Pincode As String
Public Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = FirstName & " " & LastName & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "PIN – " & Pincode
Msgbox(msg)
End Sub
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance - Deductions
End Sub
End Class
class Employee
{
public int EmpId; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic; public
double Allowance; public
double Deducions; public
string FirstName; public
string LastName; public
string Address; public
string Pincode; public
void DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = FirstName + " " + LastName + vbCrLf;
msg = msg + Address + vbCrLf;
msg = msg + "PIN – " + Pincode;
MesssgeBox.Show(msg);
}
public double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
}
In the above example, employee class contains methods and properties defined
in its structure. Employee object is an instance.
Customer
Customer
Class
Object
Class Customer
Public CustId As Integer
Public DebitBalance As Double
Public FirstName As String
Public LastName As String
Public Address As String
Public Pincode As String
Public Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = FirstName & " " & LastName & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "PIN – " & Pincode
End Sub
Public ReadOnly Property Debit() As Double
Get
Return DebitBalance
End Get
End Property
End Class
class Customer
{
public int CustId;
public double DebitBalance;
public string FirstName;
public string LastName;
public string Address;
public string Pincode;
public void DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = FirstName + " " + LastName ;
msg = msg + Address ;
msg = msg + "PIN – " ;
}
public double Debit()
{
get
{
return DebitBalance;
}
}
}
Customer class contains methods and properties defined in its structure.
Customer object is an instance.
In these two classes, you might have observed the person identification is same
in both Employee and Customer class. it means firstname, lastname, address
and pincode variable members and displayInfo method is same in both the
classes.
So this common information can be isolated and written in separate class and
inherited into the respective employee and customer class. it is shown in the
following example.
Base Class:-
Class Person
Public FirstName As String
Public LastName As String
Public Address As String
Public Pincode As String
Public Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = FirstName & " " & LastName & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "PIN – " & Pincode
Msgbox(msg)
End Sub
End Class
class Person
{
public string FirstName;
public string LastName;
public string Address;
public string Pincode;
public void DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = FirstName + " " + LastName;
msg = msg + Address ;
msg = msg + "PIN – " + Pincode;
MessageBox.Show(msg);
}
}
Person Customer Customer
+ Class Object
Class
Derived Class:-
Class Customer
Inherits Person
Public CustId As Integer
Public DebitBalance As Double
Public ReadOnly Property Debit() As Double
Get
Return DebitBalance
End Get
End Property
End Class
class Customer:Person
{
public int CustId ;
public double DebitBalance;
public double Debit()
{
get
{
return DebitBalance;
}
}
}
Person Employee Class Employee Object
Class
+
Derived Class:-
Class Employee
Inherits Person
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deductions As Double
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance - Deductions
End Sub
End Class
class Employee: Person
{
public int EmpId ; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic ; public
double Allowance; public
double Deductions; public
double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
}
In the above mentioned example Person class holds the common data
(Firstname, Lastname… etc) and method displayInfo(). It has been inherited in
both employee and customer class. So these two achieves the same functionality
of what we have seen before inheritance. By this point we conclude inheritance
implements reuse of the same code with multiple classes.
One more advantage with inheritance is extensibility of the of the derived class
code. It means the employee and customer class be extended by including its
own methods and properties with the person (Inherited) class. Here the extended
members in Employee class are EmpId, Allowance, ProcessSalary method and
Salary property. The same thing follows in customer class with CustId,
DebitBalance and Debit property.
You might have observed the keywords Base class and Derived class in the
above session. Let us see what it means.
Base class:- A class which contains common properties and methods that can
shared with other classes by inheritance is called Base class. Ex:- Person class
Derived class:- A class which inherits the base class is knows as Derived class.
ex:- Employee class and Customer class.
Implementation:- A derived class can inherit only one base class. its shown in
the above examples, ie., employee class inherits person class and customer
class inherits person class.
You can inherit the base class into derived class using Inherits keyword.
ex:-
Class Employee
Inherits Person
:
:
End Class
class Employee:Person
{
:
:
}
Protected Keyword:- We have already seen the usage of Public and Private
keyword.
As we know, all the Public keyword declarations in the class will be accessed by
the object users and the derived class (the class which inherits the base class).
Private keyword declarations can be accessed only within the class (it means
the class in which the declaration is done).
You may think why this Protected keyword declaration is required.
Its functionality is a hybrid of public and protected keyword. So, its very important
in class inheritance, because in the situation where the data is to be
communicated only between the base and derived classes irrespective of the
external object user (means the end user) the protected keyword is used
Let us take an example and see how it will be used
Base Class:-
Class Person
Public FirstName As String
Public LastName As String
Public Address As String
Public Pincode As String
Protected DateOFBirth As DateTime
Public Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = FirstName & " " & LastName & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "PIN – " & Pincode
msg = msg & "Date of Birth : " & DateOFBirth.ToString
End Sub
End Class
class Person
{
public string FirstName ;
public string LastName ;
public string Address;
public string Pincode;
protected DateTime DateOFBirth ;
public void DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = FirstName + " " + LastName;
msg = msg + Address ;
msg = msg + "PIN – " + Pincode;
msg = msg + "Date of Birth : " + DateOFBirth.toString;
}
}
The Protected variable dateofbirth is accessed in the displayinfo method of the
base class itself.
Derived Class:-
Class Employee
Inherits Person
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deducions As Double
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions
End Sub
Public ReadOnly Property Age() As Integer
Get
Dim personAge As Integer
personAge = Date.Now.Subtract(DateofBirth).Days
Return personAge
End Get
End Property
End Class
class Employee: Person
{
public int EmpId ; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic; public
double Allowance; public
double Deducions; public
double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
public int Age
{
get
{
int personage;
personAge = Date.Now.Subtract(DateofBirth).Days;
return personage;
}
}
}
As in the same way of base class the protected variable dateofbirth of the base
class is accessed in the derived class. So the protected variable in the base
class looks like a private variable for the derived class and cannot be accessed
by its object users (means outside the class environment).
Instantiation of the Derived Class :- After declaration of the derived class we
can create the object instance of the derived class and use it for the specific task.
This is called Object Instantiation. With the instance of the derived class you can
access all the public properties and methods of both the base and derived
classes.
Let us take an employee class example.
Dim objEmployee1 As New Employee() 'Create an Instance of the
'Employee class
objEmployee1.EmpId = 100 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.firstname = "Rama" 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.lastname = "S" 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.Address = "#8, Kalidasa road, Mysore"
'Base Class member
objEmployee1.pin = "570002" 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.Basic = 5000 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.allowances = 4000 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.Deductions = 1000 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.ProcessSalary() 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.DisplayInfo() 'Base Class member
Employee objEmployee1 = new Employee(); 'Create an Instance of the 'Employee
class
objEmployee1.EmpId = 100; 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.firstname = "Rama"; 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.lastname = "S"; 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.Address = "#8, Kalidasa road, Mysore";
'Base Class member
objEmployee1.pin = "570002"; 'Base Class member
objEmployee1.Basic = 5000; 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.allowances = 4000; 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.Deductions = 1000 ; 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.ProcessSalary(); 'Derived Class member
objEmployee1.DisplayInfo(); 'Base Class member
In the above code, object instance objEmployee of Employee class is created.
And then all the public members of both base and derived class are accessed
and manipulated.
System.Object:- This is the root class for all the objects in the .NET framework,
from which all the other classes are derived. It contains some basic methods and
properties, which can be accessed from all the object instances of the .NET
framework.
Look into the code which calls system.object methods.
Dim Obj As New System.Object()
Obj.ToString()
Obj.GetHashCode()
Obj.GetType()
Dim objEmployee As New Employee()
objEmployee.ToString()
objEmployee.GetHashCode()
objEmployee.GetType()
System.Object Obj = new System.Object();
Obj.ToString();
Obj.GetHashCode();
Obj.GetType();
Employee objEmployee = New Employee();
objEmployee.ToString();
objEmployee.GetHashCode();
objEmployee.GetType();
The above code shows some of the methods that can be accessed
directly with the instance of the system.object ie., Obj and also the same
methods can be accessed from objEmployee too. So, objEmployee is inherited
from System.Object class.
6.8 Polymorphism
It is the capability to have methods and properties in multiple classes that have
the same name can be used interchangeably, even though each class
implements the same properties or methods in different ways.
Let us understand what is polymorphism with the following example.
Now we will consider the maintenance of company information which includes
employee and customer details. A person (base class) is defined to hold the
common information of the individual. The base class maintains contact
information of the person and manipulates the data. It contains save method to
update the contact information of the person.
Two derived classes, Employee and Customer are used to process the employee
and customer details. These two derived classes inherits person class to
manipulate identity of the person instead of rewriting the same code again in the
derived classes. Since each derived class needs to use the displayinfo method to
display the additional information with the contact details, the displayinfo method
of the base class will be overwritten in the respective derived class using
overrides keyword. The overriding member signature in the derived class must
be as the base class signature.
Signature includes the member type, member name, parameters datatype and
return datatype.
Look into the following example and see the implementation of base class
(Person) and the derived class (Employee), observe the changes in the
displayInfo method in both the classes.
Ex:-
Class Person
Private Name As String
Private Address As String
Public ReadOnly Property PName() As String
Get
Return Name
End Get
End Property
Public ReadOnly Property PAddress() As String
Get
Return Address
End Get
End Property
Public Overridable Function DisplayInfo() As String
Dim msg As String
msg = "Name : " & Name & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Address : " & Address & vbCrLf
Return msg
End Function
Public Sub Save(ByVal parName As String, ByVal parAddress As String)
Name = parName
Address = parAddress
End Sub
End Class
class Person
{
private string Name;
pPrivate string Address;
public string PName()
{
get
{
return Name;
}
}
public string Paddress
{
get
{
return Address;
}
}
public virtual string DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = "Name : " + Name;
msg = msg + "Address : " + Address;
return msg;
}
public void Save(string parName, string parAddress)
{
Name = parName;
Address = parAddress;
}
}
Derived Class:-
Class Employee
Inherits Person
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deductions As Double
Public Overrides Function DisplayInfo() As String
Dim msg As String
msg = MyBase.DispalyInfo()
msg = msg & "ID : " & EmpId.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Basic : " & Basic.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Allowances : " & Allowance.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Deductions : " & Deductions.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Net Salary : " & Sal.ToString & vbCrLf
return(msg)
End Function
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance - Deductions
End Sub
End Class
class Employee: Person
{
public int EmpId; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic; public
double Allowance;
public double Deductions;
public override string DisplayInfo()
{
string msg ;
msg = base.DispalyInfo();
msg = msg + "ID : " + EmpId.ToString;
msg = msg + "Basic : " + Basic.ToString;
msg = msg + "Allowances : " + Allowance.ToString;
msg = msg + "Deductions : " + Deductions.ToString;
msg = msg + "Net Salary : " + Sal.ToString ;
return(msg)
}
public double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
}
The following keywords are used in achieving polymorphism.
 Overridable:- A method or property defined in the base class can be
overwritten in the derived class.
 Overrides:- Indicates the method or property is being overwritten in the
derived class.
 Mustoverrides:- A method or property defined in the base class must be
overwritten in the derived class
 Notoverridable:- A method or property defined in the base class must not
be overwritten in the derived class.
Virtual Members :-Virtual members are those that can be overridden and
replaced by the derived classes. They are declared with Overridable keyword.
The methods or properties which doesn’t contain overridable keyword are called
Non-Virtual members.
For ex:- DisplayInfo method is an virtual method of Person base class, because it
has been overwritten in the Employee derived class with new DisplayInfo method
with same signature.
Restricting Polymorphism :-
We have already seen polymorphism is implemented with Overridable and
Overrides keyword. Some situation arises where we need to break the
polymorphism effect of the base class method. It means changing the signature
of the base class member while overriding it in the derived class violates the
polymorhism rule “signatures must be same”. Restriction is required to
completely change the implementation of the member in the derived class. So it
restricts the polymorphism of the base class member with new implementation in
the derived class. The Shadow keyword used to implement this concept.
Take an example shown below which contains two classes 1) Person Class 2)
Employee class.
Person class is a base class contains method to be overwritten from the derived
class. The signature of the overridable method is
Public Overridable Function DisplayInfo() as String
Employee class is a derived class which inherits person class and restricts the
implementation of the polymorphism method displayinfo of the base class with
shadows keyword.
Public Shadows Sub DisplayInfo()
From the above explanation, we can observe that the signature of the DisplayInfo
member is changed from function in the base class to the subroutine in the
derived class with complete change in the implementation.
Ex:-
Base Class:-
Class Person
Public Name As String
Public Address As String
Public Overridable Function DisplayInfo() As String
Dim msg As String
msg = Name & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
Return msg
End Function
Public Sub Save(ByVal parName As String, ByVal parAddress As String)
name = parName
address = parAddress
End Sub
End Class
class Person
{
public string Name;
public string Address ;
public virtual string DisplayInfo()
{
string msg;
msg = Name ;
msg = msg + Address;
return msg;
}
public void Save(string parName, string parAddress)
{
name = parName;
address = parAddress;
}
}
Derived Class:-
Class Employee
Inherits Person
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deductions As Double
Public Shadows Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = MyBase.DisplayInfo("")
msg = msg & "ID : " & EmpId.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Basic : " & Basic.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Allowances : " & Allowance.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Deductions : " & Deductions.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Net Salary : " & Basic.ToString & vbCrLf
MsgBox(msg)
End Sub
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance - Deductions
End Sub
End Class
class Employee: Person
{
public int EmpId ; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic; public
double Allowance;
public double Deductions;
public new void DisplayInfo
{
string msg;
msg = Base.DisplayInfo("");
msg = msg + "ID : " + EmpId.ToString;
msg = msg + "Basic : " + Basic.ToString;
msg = msg + "Allowances : " + Allowance.ToString;
msg = msg + "Deductions : " + Deductions.ToString;
msg = msg + "Net Salary : " + Basic.ToString;
MessageBox.Show(msg);
}
public double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
}
6.9 Abstract Classes (Virtual Class)
So far, we have seen how to inherit the class, how to overload and override
methods. In the examples shown in inheritance topic, parent class has been
useful in both inheritance and create an instance also.
Actually in some situation the classes are required only for inheritance, such type
of classes are called Abstract classes. This concept is very useful when
creating a framework for the applications where there will not be any
implementation for the methods and properties in the abstract class. It just
defines the structure.
Abstract classes are declared using MustInherit and MustOverride keyword.
Syntax:-
Public MustInherit Class AbstractBaseClass
Public MustOverride Sub DoSomething()
Public MustOverride Sub DoOtherStuff()
End Class
public abstract class AbstractBaseClass
{
public abstract void DoSomething();
public abstract void DoOtherStuff();
}
MustInherit keyword is used with the class name, where as MustOverride
keyword is used with the members of the class.
Implementaion:-
Public Class DerivedClass
Inherits AbstractBaseClass
Public Overrides Sub DoSomething()
MsgBox("This method is overrides the Base class DoSomething to implement the
method functionality”)
End Sub
Public Overrides Sub DoOtherStuff()
MsgBox(“This method is overrides the Base class DoOtherStuff to implement the
method functionality”)
End Sub
End Class
public class DerivedClass : AbstractBaseClass
{
public Override void DoSomething()
{
MessagegBox.Show("This method is overrides the Base class DoSomething to
implement the method functionality”);
}
public Override void DoOtherStuff()
{
MessaggeBox.Show(“This method is overrides the Base class DoOtherStuff to
implement the method functionality”);
}
}
MustInherit forces the classes to be inherited from the derived class and write
an implementation code for the methods and properties in the derived class
before using it.
As in the above example, any class that inherits AbstractBaseClass must
implement the Dosomething and DoOtherStuff methods.
We cannot create an instance of the AbstractBaseClass as shown below.
Dim obj as New AbstractBaseClass()
‘Error in Decleration
AbstractBaseClass obj = new AbstractBaseClass()
‘Error in Decleration
Restricting Inheritence
If we want to prevent a class being used as a Base class we can use
NotInheritable keyword with the class declaration.
Public NotInheritable Class NormalClass
'Decleration of Class members
End Class
public sealed class NormalClass
{
'Decleration of Class members
}
For example when we want an employee class need not to be used as a Base
class, we can declare the employee class structure with NotInheritable keyword.
So that it can be used only for instantiation.
VB.NET
Class NotInheritable Employee
Inherits Person
Public EmpId As Integer
Private Sal As Double = 0
Public Basic As Double
Public Allowance As Double
Public Deductions As Double
Public Shadows Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = MyBase.DisplayInfo("")
msg = msg & "ID : " & EmpId.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Basic : " & Basic.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Allowances : " & Allowance.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Deductions : " & Deductions.ToString & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "Net Salary : " & Basic.ToString & vbCrLf
MsgBox(msg)
End Sub
Public ReadOnly Property Salary() As Double
Get
Return Sal
End Get
End Property
Public Sub ProcessSalary()
Sal = Basic + Allowance - Deductions
End Sub
End Class
Following decleration is not posssible, .NET generates error!!!!
Public Class Staff
Inherits Employee
End Class
C#
class sealed Employee: Person
{
public int EmpId ; private
double Sal = 0; public
double Basic; public
double Allowance;
public double Deductions;
public new void DisplayInfo
{
string msg;
msg = Base.DisplayInfo("");
msg = msg + "ID : " + EmpId.ToString;
msg = msg + "Basic : " + Basic.ToString;
msg = msg + "Allowances : " + Allowance.ToString;
msg = msg + "Deductions : " + Deductions.ToString;
msg = msg + "Net Salary : " + Basic.ToString;
MessageBox.Show(msg);
}
public double Salary
{
get
{
return Sal;
}
}
public void ProcessSalary()
{
Sal = Basic + Allowance – Deductions;
}
}
Following decleration is not posssible, .NET generates error!!!!
Public Class Staff: Employee
{
----
}
6.10 Interfaces
An interface is like an abstract class which allows the derived class to inherit
more than one interfaces into it.
We have already seen an abstract class can have methods with or without
implementation. But an interface can only have members without
implementation. So it provides only structure of the objects like abstract class.
To implement an interface in VB.NET, we use the keyword Implements and we
must provide implementations for all the methods of the interface we implements.
Defining an Interface:- Interfaces are declared with the following structure
Public Interface <Name of the interface>
:
<decleration of memebrs of the interface, means methods and properties
structure>
:
End Interface
Let us take up a example and see how the declaration been done
Interface IShape
Sub Draw(ByVal coord() As ArrayList)
End Interface
interface IShape
{
void Draw(ArrayList coord);
}
Implementation of Interface:- Interfaces are implemented using Implements keyword. All the
members of the interface are implemented with Implements keyword.
“To implement a interface, we must implement all the methods and properties defined by the
interface”
If more than one interface is to be implemented, then interfaces names should separated by
commas with the implements keyword while defining a class.
Lets us take an example of implementation:-
Public Class Drawing
Implements Ishape
Public Sub Draw(ByVal parCoord() As ArrayList) Console.W rite("Draw a Circle")
End Sub
End Class
Public Class Drawing: Ishape
{
Public void Draw (ArrayList parCoord)
{
Console.Write("Draw a Circle");
}
}
In the example, we are implementing Isahpe interface, which contains Draw method into the
Drawing Class.
Difference between Abstract class and Interfaces
Abstract Class Interface
Only one Abstract class can be Interfaces enable multiple inheritance
inherited into the derived class. to the object
Members of the abstract class can or Interfaces contains only the definitions
cannot have implemention for the menbers without implementation
When to use the interfaces in programming?
Solution:- The situation at which we need to implement the functionalities of two
or more objects into one derived object. So it makes the derived object to refer to
the interface methods and properties for syntax verification.
6.11 Delegates and Events
Delegates:-
The Delegate class is one of the most important classes to know how to use
when programming .NET. Delegates are often described as the 'backbone of the
event model' in VB.NET. In this we are going to introduce you to delegates
(Sytem.Delegate class) and show you how powerful of an event mechanism
through delegates.
Delegates are implemented using the delegate class found in the System
namespace. A delegate is nothing more than a class that derives from
System.MulticastDelegate. A delegate is defined as a data structure that refers to
a static method or to a class instance and an instance method of that class. In
other words, a delegate can be used like a type safe pointer. You can use a
delegate to point to a method, much like a callback or the 'AddressOf' operator in
VB.NET. Delegates are often used for asynchronous programming and are the
ideal method for generically defining events.
Before you get into the actual delegate class let us see some code which
simulates the delegate functionality through simple class code for the sake of
understanding. We have a simple class called 'VBDelegate' with two static
methods named 'CallDelegate' and 'DisplayMessage' as shown below. When the
CallDelegate method is called,(when the program is run) to display the message.
Now normally, if we had a class called 'VBDelegate' with a method named
'DisplayMessage'
VB.NET
Public Class VBDelegate
'Static method to call displaymessage function
Public Shared Sub CallDelegate()
DisplayMessage("Some Text")
End Sub
'Static Function to display the message
Private Shared Function DisplayMessage(ByVal strTextOutput As String)
MsgBox(strTextOutput)
End Function
End Class
C#
Public Class CSDelegate
{
'Static method to call displaymessage function
Public static void CallDelegate()
{
DisplayMessage("Some Text")
}
'Static Function to display the message
Private static void DisplayMessage(String strTextOutput)
{
MessageBox.Show(strTextOutput)
}
}
There is nothing wrong with this approach at all. In fact, it is probably more
commonly used than delegates. However, it does not provide much in terms of
flexibility or a dynamic event model. With delegates, you can pass a method
along to something else, and let it execute the method instead. Perhaps you do
not know which method you want to call until runtime, in which case, delegates
also come in handy.
Now we will implement the same functionality as before, using a actual delegate
class of .NET.
Delegates in VB.NET are declared like:
Delegate [Function/Sub] methodname(arg1,arg2..argN)
The declared delegate methodname will have the same method signature as the
methods they want to be a delegate for. This example is calling a shared
method..
VB.NET
Class VBDelegate
'Declaration of delegate variable with arguments
Delegate Function MyDelegate(ByVal strOutput As String)
'Function to call the delegates
Public Shared Sub CallDelegates()
'Declare variables of type Mydelegate points to the
'function MessageDisplay with AddressOf operator
Dim d1 As New MyDelegate(AddressOf MesssageDisplay)
Dim d2 As New MyDelegate(AddressOf MesssageDisplay)
'Pass the arguments to the function through delegates
d1("First Delegation ")
d2("Second Delegation ")
End Sub
'Function to display the message
Private Shared Function MesssageDisplay(ByVal strTextOutput As String)
MsgBox(strTextOutput)
End Function
End Class
C#
Class CSDelegate
{
'Declaration of delegate variable with arguments
delegate void MyDelegate(String strOutput);
'Function to call the delegates
Public static void CallDelegates()
{
'Declare variables of type Mydelegate points to the
'function MessageDisplay
MyDelegate d1 = New MyDelegate(MesssageDisplay);
MyDelegate d2 = New MyDelegate(MesssageDisplay);
'Pass the arguments to the function through delegates
d1("First Delegation ");
d2("Second Delegation ");
}
'Function to display the message
Private static void MesssageDisplay(String strTextOutput)
{
MessgeBox.Show(strTextOutput);
}
}
The Output to the display window is:
First Delegation in one message window
And
Second Delegation in the second message window
What has happened in the above code? Let's take a look
First, we defined a delegate. Remember, when defining a delegate it is very
similar to stating the signature of a method. We have said we want a delegate
that can accept a string as an argument so basically, this delegate can work with
any method that takes the same argument(s).
In our CallDelagates method, we create two instances of our 'MyDelegate'. Then,
we pass into MyDelegate's constructor the address of our 'DisplayMessage'
method. This means that the method we pass into the delegate's constructor (in
this case it's 'DisplayMessage' method) must have a method signature that
accepts a string object as an input argument, just like our delegate does. Now,
you might be thinking, "why are we passing in the address of a method when we
defined our delegate to accept a string object as it's input argument?" In the code
above, we are telling the delegate which method to call, not which string we're
passing in. Carefully understand this concept.
Then finally we have our 'DisplayMessage' method, which takes the string
passed in by the delegate and tells it what string is to be displayed.
The same approach is used while handling the events in the .NET. This topic is
just to understand how delegates works in .NET.
Events:-
Events are nothing but situations at which the message is sent to an object to
signal the occurrence of the action. These actions can be caused by the user
interaction or within the object itself.
For example the class designer can create an event and raise the same through
its methods and properties. These events will be captured by the object user and
perform his/her required operation.
Let us take a simple example of VB.NET Button class. Button is a class defined
in System.Controls.FormsControls nameplace. The users create an instance of
the Button class and select the onclick event related to the button object and
write an action to be performed on click of the button.
Actually this event is already defined in button class and will be raised when the
user clicks the button. The following example shows how the event can be
defined, raised in the class and used by the object user.
Declaration:- The event member will be declared with Event keyword. Basically
the event member should always be public. Because these are the members will
be used by the external users.
'Declare a class which operates on the Employee collection database
'This class is used to find some summarised operation on the Employee
'collction database, which means finding the relavent employee ‘information, 'getting the
total no. of employees in the collection and ‘others - Its just 'an example to explain how
event works
Public Class EmployeeCollection
'Declare an event which will be raised after finding the data
'Keyword ‘Event’ is used the declare the events
Public Event FindResult(ByVal blnFound As Boolean)
'This method is to find the data from employee colletion database and 'raise the findresult
event to return the result
Public Sub FindData(ByVal Name As String)
'find the Employee with name and return the result as boolean, if
'the data is found then raise FindResult with True else with
'False
Dim found As Boolean
found = FineEmployee(Name)
If found Then
'Raise the event with parameter
RaiseEvent FindResult(True)
Else
'Raise the event with parameter
RaiseEvent FindResult(False)
End If
End Sub
End Class
Usage:- In order to access the events of the objects, the object should be
declared with withevents clause. This is shown in the following example with form
load event.
'Declare the object with WithEvents clause to create an instance
Dim WithEvents objEmpColl As EmployeeCollection = New EmployeeCollection()
Public Sub load()
'Find the Employee with name Rama in the Employee collection
objEmpColl.FindData("Rama")
End Sub
'The following event will be raised after the search operation
Private Sub objObject_FindResult(ByValue blnFound as Boolean) Handles
objObject.FindResult
If blnFound Then
MsgBox("The given Employee is Found in the collection")
Else
MsgBox("The given Employee is not Found")
End If
End Sub
6.12 Structures
Structures are used to create a variable set of different datatypes in VB.NET (In
earlier versions of VB we use TYPE and END TYPE to define it). Here it is
defined with STRUCTURE and END STRUCTURE keyword.
It supports allmost all the features of OOPS, like
 Implementing interfaces
 Constructors, methods, properties, fields, constants and events
 Shared constructors
Ex: -
Defining the structure:-
VB.NET
Structure Person
Public FirstName As String
Public LastName As String
Public Address As String
Public Pincode As String
Public DateOFBirth As DateTime
Public Sub DisplayInfo()
Dim msg As String
msg = FirstName & " " & LastName & vbCrLf
msg = msg & Address & vbCrLf
msg = msg & "PIN – " & Pincode
msg = msg & "Date of Birth : " & DateOFBirth.ToString
End Sub
End Structure
C#
struct Person
{
Public String FirstName;
Public String LastName ;
Public String Address ;
Public String Pincode ;
Public DateTime DateOFBirth;
Public void DisplayInfo()
{
String msg=new String();
msg = FirstName + " " + LastName ;
msg = msg + Address ;
msg = msg + "PIN – " + Pincode;
msg = msg + "Date of Birth : " + DateOFBirth.ToString;
}
}
In the example a Person structure is declared to hold the a person’s details like
name, address, pincode etc., we have already seen this person details in terms
of a class object. Basically the structures are used to hold the set of values like
array. Theoritically arrays holds a set of single datatype values, but structures
holds a set of different datatype values. Due to the OOPS feature of .NET we can
implement the methods and properties in the structures too. This is shown in the
person structure. Here the Firstname,Lastname,Address,Pincode,Dateofbirth are
all the variables of person structure with different datatype declarations, where
DisplayInfo is a method to disputably the information.
Variables holds the data and methods operates on the data stored in it as in the
normal class object.
Usage of the structure:-
VB.Net
'Creating an instance of the structure like a normal class variable
Dim varPerson As Person = New Person()
'Setting the structure variables with the values
varPerson.firstname = “Rama”
varPerson.lastname = “Lakan”
varPerson.address = “Mysore”
varPerson.pincode = “570002”
varPerson.dateofbirth = “25/06/1977”
'Calling the strcuture method to manipulate and display the person address
varPerson.displayinfo()
C#
Person varPerson =New Person();
'Setting the structure variables with the values
varPerson.firstname = “Rama”;
varPerson.lastname = “Lakan”;
varPerson.address = “Mysore”;
varPerson.pincode = “570002”;
varPerson.dateofbirth = “25/06/1977”;
'Calling the strcuture method to manipulate and display the person address
varPerson.displayinfo();
6.13 Sample Application: OOPS
Heres a small application created to demonstrate Object Oriented / Component Oriented
features in .NET using C#.
Accounts are created & managed by the application for a Bank. There are 2 types of
account that can be created
1. Savings
2. Current
 The opening balance for Saving account is 1000, & for Current is 5000
 The minimum balance for Saving Account is 1000 & that for Current should not be
less than the ODA.
 Account ID should be auto generated, Name can be modified & Balance can be
updated only through transactions.
Based on the above requirement, Account component library has been built & a sample
test application
Note: This is a simple application to demonstrate OOPS/Component oriented features.
1. Bank project is a Class Library. Click here.
2. BankClient is a Windows Application. Click here.
7. Error and Exception Handling
S ect i on Owner : Saurabh Nandu ( MV P)
C ontent C ont r ibut o r s : Arav ind C o re r a ( M VP)
7.1 Need for Error Handling
Picture this: You’re doing a demo of your application for a client and then all of a sudden
as if proving Murphy’s Law, the inevitable happens. Boom! … Your client gets to see a
dialog with cryptic messages indicating that your application has crashed. You certainly
wish that such a thing should never ever happen, but that wish would hold true only in an
ideal world. The truth however is that unforeseen errors are bound to happen, one way or
another in spite of careful coding accompanied with fairly rigorous testing. Keeping this
in mind, we as developers need to adopt defensive coding strategies with effective error
handling techniques to trap and handle errors and exceptions, and to provide the user with
adequate information on the nature and cause of the error before exiting from the
application when an unexpected error occurs.
An Exception is an abnormal/exceptional/unexpected condition that disrupts the normal
execution of an application. A distinction needs to be made between expected conditions
and unexpected conditions. Say for example you are writing a very large file to the
hard-disk, it’s imperative that you should first check the disk space first, since there could
be an expected condition that the hard-disk might be low on space, such conditions are
not ideal candidates that warrant exceptions to be thrown. But on the contrary, what if an
unexpected hard-disk hardware failure occurred while writing to the file - This is an ideal
candidate that warrants exceptions to be thrown. Always remember that though exception
handling is very important, judicious use of this feature should be made since there is a
performance cost when you use it.
Error and exception handling are a part and parcel of every good language, framework
class library, or application and should form a part of your applications too right from the
planning stages. The .NET Framework Class Library (FCL) and Common Language
Runtime (CLR) provide a rich infrastructure to catch and handle exceptions. The CLR
infrastructure is also designed for cross-language exception handling - What this means is
that if a VB.NET component throws back an exception to a C# application that’s
consuming the component, the C# application will be able to catch the error and obtain
rich error information on the error that has occurred. Through the rest of the tutorial,
we’ll see how to catch and handle exceptions in the .NET framework using C# and
VB.NET.
7.2 Old-school unstructured exception handling in VB 6.0 and its
disadvantages
You are well aware that the exception-handling model in VB 6.0 required you to jump
through hoops in order to handle errors and gracefully exit from a procedure or function.
The exception-handling model that VB 6.0 supported was unstructured and required you
to make jumps to a label or a line number that contained the error-handling code to
handle the error. Further more, you had to take precautions to exit the procedure in a
normal execution flow (when no error occurs) by not allowing it to fall through to the
error-handling block. If you had clean up code that was supposed to execute both when
an error occurred as well as during a normal execution flow, then you had to make yet
another jump to a label or line number that contains the block of cleanup code. The whole
approach was unstructured and often got very messy. To see what we mean, and why this
method of exception handling can be best termed as unstructured, recollect fond nostalgic
memories at how you typically handled exceptions in VB 6.0 using the code snippet
shown below, and be prepared to bid goodbye to this pattern of exception handling:
Private Sub BookTicketsForMovie()
On Error GoTo BookTickets_ErrHandler
' Perform business logic to book tickets.
' Possibility that exceptions could be raised here, say when all
' tickets are sold out.
BookTickets_Exit:
' Ignore any errors here since this is just a resource clean up block
On Error Resume Next
' Resource clean up occurs here
' Maybe close up the DB Connection to the movie ticket database and so on
'Exit the procedure
Exit Sub
BookTickets_ErrHandler:
' Handle the error based on the error type.
' Need to pick up the value of Err.Number and then decide accordingly
' how to handle the error.
MsgBox "Error encountered is: " & Err.Number
MsgBox "Error message is: " & Err.Description
' Go through the usual cleanup procedure before exiting the procedure
Resume BookTickets_Exit
End Sub
As seen above, you typically use an On Error GoTo … statement to redirect any errors to
error-handling code marked by a label or line number, such as the BookTickets_ErrHandler
handler in our example. The VB 6.0 runtime populates the Err object that contains all the
details about the error that occurred, whose properties can be examined for the error type
that occurred and then a decision can be taken as to how to handle that error. This is a
really cumbersome task if your program is capable of generating a lot of error types,
since we need through the rigmarole of determining the exact type of error that occurred
using decision statements such as Select…Case or If…Then…Else before actually handling
it. If you had cleanup code that needs to be executed before exit from the procedure, such
as the one under the BookTickets_Exit label in our example, then you had to make an
additional jump to the cleanup code or call a common cleanup procedure. As a result, the
code becomes very unstructured and difficult to maintain, thus allowing occasional bugs
to creep in silently. VB.NET supports this form of unstructured exception handling too.
But it’s generally not recommended that you use unstructured exception handling in
VB.NET because of performance constraints and code maintenance nightmares.
It is recommended that use VB.NET’s structured approach to handling errors, which is
the topic of our next section. So be prepared to say a tearful goodbye to unstructured
exception handling and say a big hello to the über powerful world of structured exception
handling.
7.3 Structured Exception Handling in C#/VB.NET
Structured Exception Handling (SEH) allows you enclose code that can possibly
encounter errors or raise exceptions within a protected block. You can define exception
handler filters that can catch specific exception types thrown by the code within the
protected block. Lastly, you can create a block of cleanup code that guarantees to execute
always – both when an exception is thrown as well as on a normal execution path.
C# and VB.NET supports the following SEH keywords to raise and handle exceptions:
‰ try
‰ throw
‰ catch
‰ finally
To facilitate structured exception handling in C#/VB.NET, you typically enclose a block
of code that has the potential of throwing exceptions within a try block. A catch handler
associated with the exception that is thrown catches the exception. There can be one or
more catch handlers and each catch handler can be associated with a specific exception
type that it can handle. The catch blocks are generally used to gracefully inform the user
of the error and to possibly log the error to a log file or to the system event log. You can
optionally have a finally block that contains code that will execute both when an
execution is thrown as well as on a normal execution flow. In other words, code within
the finally block is guaranteed to always execute and usually contains cleanup code. So
how can you raise an exception? . To do that your code needs to throw an exception using
the throw keyword. The exception that is thrown is an object that is derived from the
System.Exception class. We’ll examine this class in detail in the next section.
Now let’s consider a normal execution flow in a program where no error occurs within
the try block.
Explanation in C#
Explanation in VB.NET
In this case, the code within the try block does not throw an exception and therefore, the
code within the catch block never executes. Once the code within the try block completes,
the execution path resumes by executing the code in the finally block. As mentioned
earlier, the code within the finally block executes whether or not an error had occurred.
Let’s turn our attention to a scenario where the code within the try block raises an
exception.
Explanation in C#
Explanation in VB.NET
When the exception is thrown, execution flow is transferred to the catch block that is
capable of handling the exception thus skipping the rest of the code below the line that
threw the exception in the try block. The code in the catch block handles the exception
appropriately and then execution flow moves to the code in the finally block.
7.4 System.Exception: The mother of all exceptions
Let’s take some time to look at the parent exception class in the .NET framework – the
System.Exception class. All exception classes are directly or indirectly derived from this
class.
To see how to put this class to use, let’s quickly dive into a simple example where we can
see all the exception handling constructs (try, catch, throw, and finally) in action. To start
with fire up your favorite text editor (my personal favorite is Notepad) and type in the
following code:
Code listing in C#
using System;
class HelloWorld
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
Console.WriteLine("Here we go...");
// Throw an exception
throw new Exception("Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!");
// This line should never execute
Console.WriteLine("How on earth did I get called ?");
}
catch(System.Exception ex)
{
// Display the error message
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception : {0}", ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In finally");
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Module HelloWorld
' The Main entry point of the application
Sub Main()
Try
Console.WriteLine("Here we go...")
' Throw an exception
Throw New Exception("Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!")
' This line should never execute
Console.WriteLine("How on earth did I get called ?")
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception : {0}", ex.Message)
Finally
' This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In finally")
End Try
End Sub
End Module
So what we have here is a try block that throws an exception by creating an instance of
the System.Exception class with a descriptive error message. There’s a catch block to
handle exceptions of type System.Exception. The code in the catch block just displays the
error message. Finally, the finally block (no pun intended) logs a message that confirms
that it did execute even though an error was thrown.
So let’s save this program to a file named HelloWorld (with the appropriate extension
depending on the language you are using - .cs or .vb), the Hello World of Exception
handling if you will.
To compile the C# program, type in the following command from the DOS command
line:
csc /target:exe HelloWorld.cs
To compile the VB.NET program, type in the following command from the DOS
command line:
vbc /target:exe HelloWorld.vb
This will generate an executable named HelloWorld.exe. Run the program and here’s the
output that you get:
Here we go...
Caught exception : Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!
In finally
You’ll notice that the exception that was thrown is caught by the catch block and that any
statements that occur in the try block below the line that threw the exception are not
executed. Notice that when you compiled the program in C#, the compiler generated the
following warning:
Warning in C#
HelloWorld.cs(16,4): warning CS0162: Unreachable code detected
This goes to show that the C# compiler detected that the statement that follows the throw
statement in the try block would never get executed because of the exception that was
thrown, and thus warned us of unreachable code.
We saw how the Message property of the System.Exception class can be used to get a
descriptive error message for the exception. Similarly, let’s examine the some of the
other important properties of the System.Exception class. Let’s start by modifying the catch
block in example that we just saw with the following code:
Code listing in C#
// Replace the catch block in our previous example with the following code
catch(System.Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception : {0}", ex.Message);
Console.WriteLine("Source of the exception is : {0}", ex.Source);
Console.WriteLine("Method that threw the exception is : {0}",
ex.TargetSite.Name);
Console.WriteLine("Info on this exception is available at : {0}",
ex.HelpLink);
Console.WriteLine("Stack trace of this exception: {0}", ex.StackTrace);
}
Code listing in VB.NET
' Replace the catch block in our previous example with the following code
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception : {0}", ex.Message)
Console.WriteLine("Source of the exception is : {0}", ex.Source)
Console.WriteLine("Method that threw the exception is : {0}", _
ex.TargetSite.Name)
Console.WriteLine("Info on this exception is available at: {0}",ex.HelpLink)
Console.WriteLine("Stack trace of this exception: {0}",ex.StackTrace)
Finally
' Rest of the code goes here . . .
Compile and run the application and observe the output that you get:
Output in C#
Here we go...
Caught exception : Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!
Source of the exception is : HelloW orld
Method that threw the exception is : Main
Info on this exception is available at:
Stack trace of this exception: at HelloW orld.Main(String[] args)
In finally
Output in VB.NET
Here we go...
Caught exception : Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!
Source of the exception is : HelloW orld
Method that threw the exception is : Main
Info on this exception is available at:
Stack trace of this exception: at HelloW orld.Main()
In finally
You’ll notice that you can get rich information on the exception that occurred including
details on the application and the method that threw the exception (through the Source and
TargetSite properties respectively) and a complete stack trace of the exception in a string
representation (using the StackTrace property). Note that if you compile your code in
debug mode i.e. using the /debug+ compiler option, the Source and StackTrace properties
will show you the actual line numbers in the source code which raised the exception.
You’ll notice that the HelpLink property, which is supposed to provide a link to help file
or a URL that contains information on the exception that occurred, does not seem to
return anything. This is because we did not set this property when throwing the
exception. To do that you simply need to set the HelpLink property before raising the
exception. Here’s a snippet of code that shows how you can do that:
Code listing in C#
// Create an Exception
Exception exception = new Exception("Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!");
// Set the help file details
exception.HelpLink = "http://www.someurl.com/help/ComputerOnFireHelp.html";
// Throw the exception
throw exception;
Code listing in VB.NET
' Create an Exception
Dim excep as Exception = New Exception("Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!")
' Set the help file details
excep.HelpLink = "http://www.someurl.com/help/ComputerOnFireHelp.html"
' Throw the exception
Throw excep
Replacing the statement that throws the exception with the above 3 statements in our
example application, compiling it, and running it will now yield the following results:
Output in C#
Here we go...
Caught exception : Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!
Source of the exception is : HelloW orld
Method that threw the exception is : Main
Info on this exception is available at: http://www.someurl.com/help/ComputerOnFireHelp.html
Stack trace of this exception: at HelloW orld.Main(String[] args)
In finally
Output in VB.NET
Here we go...
Caught exception : Oops !. Your computer is on fire !!
Source of the exception is : HelloW orld
Method that threw the exception is : Main
Info on this exception is available at: http://www.someurl.com/help/ComputerOnFireHelp.html
Stack trace of this exception: at HelloW orld.Main()
In finally
There’s one other thing that you need to be aware of - The notion of an inner exception,
that you can access using the InnerException property of the main exception. So what
exactly is an inner exception? . Assume that you have a nice cool stock portal that allows
customers to manage their stocks and investments. The stock portal uses a database to
store data on customers and their portfolio. Now, let’s say that you encounter a database
specific error in your application. The last thing that you want to do is to display some
cryptic ADO or OLEDB messages in your web pages that your customers don’t care a
hang about. In such cases, you might have a catch handler to catch database specific
exceptions. What this catch handler would essentially do is to create a more generic
exception that is application specific (maybe an exception that tells the user that the site
encountered an internal error) and would assign the database specific exception to the
application-specific exception’s InnerException property. The catch handler then re-throws
this application-specific exception expecting that one of the outer catch blocks will handle
the generic exception. We’ll see how to re-throw exceptions in the section, Nesting
try/catch/finally blocks and re-throwing exceptions. Inner exceptions are very useful when
you are dealing with exceptions that occur in multiple tiers of typical enterprise
applications. This allows you to envelope specific exceptions that actually caused the
error into more application-specific exception types, and at the same time allows clients
to determine the specific exception type (InnerException) that caused the
application-specific exception to be thrown.
Now since we know more about the System.Exception class, let’s take a look at the types
of exceptions and how they can be classified. Broadly, there are two types of exceptions:
‰ System exceptions (Exception classes derived from System.SystemException)
‰ Application exceptions (Exception classes derived from
System.ApplicationException)
Understanding system exceptions:
System exceptions are pre-defined exceptions that ship with the .NET framework class
library. For example, the System.IO.IOException class, which is predefined exception in the
framework class library for handling input/output related errors on files, streams etc., is
derived from the System.SystemException class.
There are tons of other similar predefined system exception classes that are defined and
used in the FCL and which can be used in our applications as well. Let’s take a look at a
quick example on how to handle system exceptions in your application. We’ll use the
System.DivideByZeroException as our guinea pig here and simulate a situation where the
FCL throws this exception. We’ll handle this error and report the error to the user. Fire up
Notepad, and type in the following code:
Code listing in C#
using System;
class MyDecimalDivider
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
// Trigger a divide by zero exception
Decimal dResult = Decimal.Divide(5,0);
// We should never get here
Console.WriteLine("Result is : {0}", dResult);
}
catch(DivideByZeroException exDivByZero)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}",
exDivByZero.Message);
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}",ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// Should always execute
Console.WriteLine("In finally");
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Module MyDecimalDivider
Sub Main()
Try
' Trigger a divide by zero exception
Dim dResult as Decimal = Decimal.Divide(5,0)
' We should never get here
Console.WriteLine("Result is : {0}", dResult)
Catch exDivByZero As DivideByZeroException
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}", _
exDivByZero.Message)
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}", ex.Message)
Finally
' Should always execute
Console.WriteLine("In finally")
End Try
End Sub
End Module
So essentially, what we’re doing here is simulating a DivideByZeroException by calling the
Divide() static method of the System.Decimal class and passing in a value of 0 for the
divisor. A quick look at the documentation for the Divide() method will tell you that the
method throws a DivideByZeroException when attempting to divide by 0. So we’re setting
up a catch block to handle exceptions of type System.DivideByZeroException.
Save the file to MyDecimalDivider (with the appropriate extension .cs or .vb depending on the
language that you are using). Let’s get down to compiling the application. Type the
following command from the DOS command prompt:
Compiling in C#
csc /target:exe MyDecimalDivider.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /target:exe MyDecimalDivider.vb
That takes care of generating an executable file named MyDecimalDivider.exe. Run the
program and observe the output:
Caught Divide By Zero exception: Attempted to divide by zero.
In finally
There we go. As seen above, the catch handler for the DivideByZeroException took care of
catching the exception that was raised when we attempted to divide 5 by 0. The
System.DivideByZeroException is just one of the many predefined system exception classes
in the FCL. For a complete list of the other system exception classes, swing by to:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-
us/cpref/html/frlrfsystemsystemexceptionclasshierarchy.asp
Ordering catch handlers to filter exceptions:
Notice that we also have another catch block that handles the generic System.Exception. If
none of the other catch handlers can handle an exception raised, the System.Exception catch
handler will always lend a helping hand in catching and handling the exception, since the
rest of the exception types are derived from this class. So that brings us to another thing
that you need to remember - If you do not have a catch handler to handle a specific
exception type, say SomeException, but do have a catch hander that can handle a type that
is a super class of SomeException, then the catch handler associated with that super class
will be asked to handle the exception. In our example, even if we did not have the catch
handler for the System.DivideByZeroException, the catch handler for the System.Exception
would have been able to handle the exception, since System.DivideByZeroException inherits
from System.ArithmeticException, which in turn derives from System.SystemException and
hence System.Exception.
Keeping this in mind, it is important to understand that the order in which you place your
catch handlers plays a key role in determining the catch handler that will eventually
handle your exceptions. As a general rule, always place exception types of more derived
classes in an exception class hierarchy higher up in the chain and place base class (super
class) exception types lower down in the chain. To illustrate this, let’s slightly modify the
earlier divide by zero example and note down a few observations:
Modify the MyDecimalDivider.cs code sample as shown below to introduce a catch handler
for the System.ArithmeticException, which is the immediate base class of the
System.DivideByZeroException and place that catch handler above the catch handler that
handles the DivideByZeroException:
Code listing in C#
using System;
class MyDecimalDivider
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
// Trigger a divide by zero exception
Decimal dResult = Decimal.Divide(5,0);
// We should never get here
Console.WriteLine("Result is : {0}", dResult);
}
catch(ArithmeticException exArithmetic)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught Arithmetic exception: {0}",
exArithmetic.Message);
}
catch(DivideByZeroException exDivByZero)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}",
exDivByZero.Message);
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}", ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// Should always execute
Console.WriteLine("In finally");
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Module MyDecimalDivider
Sub Main()
Try
' Trigger a divide by zero exception
Dim dResult as Decimal = Decimal.Divide(5,0)
' We should never get here
Console.WriteLine("Result is : {0}", dResult)
Catch exArithmetic As ArithmeticException
Console.WriteLine("Caught Arithmetic exception: {0}", _
exArithmetic.Message)
Catch exDivByZero As DivideByZeroException
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}", _
exDivByZero.Message)
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}", ex.Message)
Finally
' Should always execute
Console.WriteLine("In finally")
End Try
End Sub
End Module
Now save the file and compile the modified MyDecimalDivider.cs/ MyDecimalDivider.vb in
the DOS command line using:
Compiling in C#
csc /target:exe MyDecimalDivider.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /target:exe MyDecimalDivider.vb
Run the application MyDecimalDivider.exe and observe the output:
Output in C#
MyDecimalDivider.cs(21,9): error CS0160: A previous catch clause already catches all exceptions of this or a super type
('System.ArithmeticException')
The error says it all. The ArithmeticException catch handler has been placed above the
catch handler that handles exception types of its subclass DivideByZeroException, which
effectively hides the catch handler for the DivideByZeroException.
Output in VB.NET
Caught Arithmetic exception: Attempted to divide by zero.
In finally
Since ArithmeticException‘s Catch handler has been placed above the Catch handler for its
subclass exception type DivideByZeroException, the Catch handler for the ArithmeticException
is asked to handle the error even though the actual exception type that was raised was
DivideByZeroException.
You’ll observe the same behavior if you place the System.Exception Catch handler above
any of the other catch handlers. In order to give DivideByZeroException’s Catch handler the
opportunity to handle the error, place it above the Catch handler that handles
ArithmeticException exceptions (DivideByZeroException’s super class). To summarize, place
Catch handler filters for specific exception types (sub classes) higher than the handlers for
the more generic exception types (base classes).
Code listing in C#
// Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
catch(DivideByZeroException exDivByZero)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}",
exDivByZero.Message);
}
catch(ArithmeticException exArithmetic)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught Arithmetic exception: {0}", exArithmetic.Message);
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}", ex.Message);
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Try
// Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
Catch exDivByZero As DivideByZeroException
Console.WriteLine("Caught Divide By Zero exception: {0}", _
exDivByZero.Message)
Catch exArithmetic As ArithmeticException
Console.WriteLine("Caught Arithmetic exception: {0}", exArithmetic.Message)
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught exception: {0}", ex.Message)
Finally
' Should always execute
Console.WriteLine("In finally")
End Try
Now let’s try one more thing. We’ll remove the catch handler for the
DivideByZeroException, just leaving behind the catch handlers for the
System.ArithmeticException and the System.Exception classes.
Go ahead and modify the MyDecimalDivider code by commenting out the catch handler for
the DivideByZeroException. Compile and run the application. What output do you see this
time?
Caught Arithmetic exception: Attempted to divide by zero.
In finally
As shown above, though there was no catch handler for the DivideByZeroException that
was raised, the catch handler for ArithemeticException was able to catch the exception since
the ArithemeticException class happens to be a base class of the DivideByZeroException
class. Similarly, even if we didn’t have the catch handler for the ArithmeticException class,
the System.Exception catch handler would have still caught the exception (since it’s the
parent class for all exception types). So what happens if a DivideByZeroException is raised
and you don’t have any of the catch handlers (not even the System.Exception catch
handler)? . You guessed right – the exception would turn into an unhandled exception
crashing your application. Try this by removing the try block and all the catch-finally
handlers and call Decimal.Divide() by passing a value of 0 for the divisor and notice what
happens:
Output in C#
Unhandled Exception: System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero.
at System.Decimal.Divide(Decimal d1, Decimal d2)
at MyDecimalDivider.Main(String[] args)
Output in VB.NET
Unhandled Exception: System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero.
at System.Decimal.Divide(Decimal d1, Decimal d2)
at MyDecimalDivider.Main()
7.5 Handling exceptions that are not System.Exception
compliant
What happens when your managed .NET code interacts with legacy libraries that are
.NET agnostic. In general cases, when you interact with unmanaged code using the
Platform Invoke (P/Invoke) or COM Interoperability mechanisms provided by the .NET
framework, an exception raised from unmanaged code would be mapped back by the
CLR into an appropriate .NET exception type. However, there are cases where legacy
unmanaged libraries could possibly raise exceptions that are not System.Exception
compliant, which cannot be mapped to a corresponding .NET exception type. In such
cases, you can use a generic exception handler that can catch errors that are not .NET
aware and not compliant with System.Exception. The generic catch handler contains only
the catch keyword and does not specify an exception type filter. Here’s an example code
snippet with a generic catch handler:
Code listing in C#
try
{
// This is the try block
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
// This is the catch block to handle System.Exception errors
}
catch
{
// This is a generic catch block to handle calls to libraries that raise
// exceptions which are not compliant with System.Exception. Can catch
// any error that the other catch handlers cannot handle.
}
finally
{
// This is the finally block
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Try
' This is the Try block
Catch ex As Exception
' This is the catch block to handle System.Exception errors
Catch
' This is a generic catch block to handle calls to libraries that raise
' exceptions which are not compliant with System.Exception. Can catch
' any error that the other catch handlers cannot handle.
Finally
' This is the finally block
End Try
7.6 Understanding Application exceptions (user-defined or
custom exceptions)
Though the FCL supports a great deal of predefined system exception classes (as seen in
the earlier section) that can be used to represent a large gamut of errors, there is always a
need to model custom errors that represent failed run-of-the-mill business logic as well as
other application specific error scenarios. In these situations, you need to turn to defining
your own custom exceptions that are application specific. When defining application
specific custom exceptions, you need to typically create a class that is derived from the
System.ApplicationException class.
It is good practice and generally recommended that the application exception class be
suffixed with Exception. For example, if you need to define an exception that indicates
that a specific ticket to a movie is not available, you’d probably want to name it
something like TicketNotAvailableException.
So let’s put this in practice and see how to define and use a custom application exception.
The example we’ll take up is a class that simulates a television channel changer, which
allows the user to surf television channels. We’ll assume that one of our business logic
constraints is that we support only 80 channels and that the class is expected to flip
channels only if the user enters a channel number between 1 and 80. If the user enters an
invalid channel number, the class is expected throw an application exception, which
indicates that the channel number entered is invalid. So let’s put together this
application-specific exception class.
We’ll call the exception class ChannelNotAvailableException and derive this class from the
System.ApplicationException class to indicate that this is an application specific exception.
Next, we’ll have to create some constructors for this class. The best practice guidelines
for exception handling recommend that we have two constructors in addition to the
default no-argument constructor - One constructor that accepts the error message as a
parameter and the other one that accepts both an error message and an inner exception as
a parameter. Let’s take a look at the ChannelNotAvailableException class.
Code listing in C#
class ChannelNotAvailableException : System.ApplicationException
{
public ChannelNotAvailableException()
{
}
public ChannelNotAvailableException(String errorMessage) :
base(errorMessage)
{
}
public ChannelNotAvailableException(String errorMessage,
Exception innerException) : base(errorMessage, innerException)
{
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Public Class ChannelNotAvailableException
Inherits ApplicationException
' Default Constructor
Public Sub New()
' Call the base class constructor
MyBase.New()
End Sub
' Constructor that takes message string
Public Sub New(ByVal errorMessage As String)
' Call the base class constructor
MyBase.New(errorMessage)
End Sub
' Constructor that takes message string and inner exception
Public Sub New(ByVal errorMessage As String, _
ByVal innerException As Exception)
' Call the base class constructor
MyBase.New(errorMessage, innerException)
End Sub
End Class
The ChannelNotAvailableException class shown above is fairly trivial and you’ll notice that
the non-default constructors do nothing more than initializing their corresponding base
class counter parts through the base class argument-list initializer. That’s it – we’re done
setting up our custom exception class. We’ll see how to put this to use in our TV channel
surfer application. Let’s put together some code for the channel surfer class.
Code listing in C#
class ChannelSurfer
{
private const int MAX_CHANNELS = 80;
private int m_nCurrentChannel;
ChannelSurfer()
{
// Set channel 1 as the default
m_nCurrentChannel = 1;
}
public int CurrentChannel
{
get
{
// Return the current channel
return m_nCurrentChannel;
}
}
// Rest of the class implementation goes here . . .
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Public Class ChannelSurfer
Private Const MAX_CHANNELS As Integer = 80
Private m_nCurrentChannel As Integer
Public Sub New()
MyBase.New()
' Set channel 1 as the default
Me.m_nCurrentChannel = 1
End Sub
ReadOnly Property CurrentChannel() As Integer
Get
' Return the current channel
Return Me.m_nCurrentChannel
End Get
End Property
' Rest of the class implementation goes here . . .
End Class
The channel surfer class supports a read-only property named CurrentChannel that keeps
track of the current channel being viewed. The viewer can move between channels by
calling the FlipToChannel() method shown below:
Code listing in C#
class ChannelSurfer
{
// Rest of the class implementation goes here . . .
void FlipToChannel(int nChannelNumber)
{
if( (nChannelNumber < 1) || (nChannelNumber > MAX_CHANNELS))
{
throw new ChannelNotAvailableException("We support only 80 channels."
+ "Please enter a number between 1 and 80");
}
else
{
// Set the value of the current channel
m_nCurrentChannel = nChannelNumber;
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Public Class ChannelSurfer
' Rest of the class implementation goes here . . .
Sub FlipToChannel(ByVal nChannel As Integer)
If ((nChannel < 1) Or (nChannel > MAX_CHANNELS)) Then
' Raise an exception
Throw New ChannelNotAvailableException("We support only 80 channels." _
+ "Please enter a number between 1 and 80")
Else
' Set the current channel
Me.m_nCurrentChannel = nChannel
End If
End Sub
End Class
As seen above the FlipToChannel() method checks to see if the channel number that the
user is requesting is between 1 and 80 and if so, sets the value of the CurrentChannel
property to the requested channel. If the values are not within the specified range, the
class throws the user-defined ChannelNotAvailableException exception. Let’s use the
application’s Main() entry point as a test harness for the ChannelSurfer class. Take a look
at the code below:
Code listing in C#
class ChannelSurfer
{
// Rest of the class implementation goes here . . .
static void Main(string[] args)
{
ChannelSurfer channelZapper = new ChannelSurfer();
// Display a message
Console.WriteLine("Press 'Q' or 'q' to quit zapping channels");
// Set up an infinite loop
for(;;)
{
try
{
// It's channel surfing time folks!
Console.Write("Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter'");
// Get the channel number from the user
String strChannel = Console.ReadLine();
// Check if the user wants to quit
if(strChannel.Equals("Q") || strChannel.Equals("q")) break;
// Convert the channel number to an integer
int nChannel = Int32.Parse(strChannel);
// Flip away to the requested channel
channelZapper.FlipToChannel(nChannel);
}
catch(ChannelNotAvailableException exChannel)
{
Console.WriteLine("Channel not supported: {0}", exChannel.Message);
}
catch(FormatException exFormat)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught a format exception: {0}",
exFormat.Message);
}
catch(Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught a exception: {0}", ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// What channel are we watching?
Console.WriteLine("You are watching Channel : {0}",
channelZapper.CurrentChannel);
}
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Module SurfChannelTestHarness
Sub Main()
Dim channelZapper As ChannelSurfer = New ChannelSurfer()
' Display a message
Console.WriteLine("Press 'Q' or 'q' to Quit zapping Channels")
' Setup an infinite loop to ask the user for channel input
Do
Try
' It's channel surfing time folks !
Console.Write("Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' ")
' Get the channel number from the user
Dim strChannel As String = Console.ReadLine()
' Check if the user wants to quit
If (strChannel.Equals("Q") Or strChannel.Equals("q")) Then
Exit Do
End If
' Convert the channel number to an integer
Dim nChannel As Integer = Int32.Parse(strChannel)
' Flip away to the requested channel
channelZapper.FlipToChannel(nChannel)
Catch exChannel As ChannelNotAvailableException
Console.WriteLine("Channel not supported: {0}", _
exChannel.Message)
Catch exFormat As FormatException
Console.WriteLine("Caught a format exception: {0}", _
exFormat.Message)
Catch ex As Exception
Console.WriteLine("Caught a exception: {0}", ex.Message)
Finally
' What channel are we watching ?
Console.WriteLine("You are watching Channel: {0}", _
channelZapper.CurrentChannel)
End Try
Loop While True
End Sub
End Module
The Main() entry point creates an instance of the ChannelSurfer class and sets up a loop
that requests channel numbers from the user until the user presses the ‘Q’ or ‘q’ key to
quit the application. When the channel number input is received, it calls the
FlipToChannel() method of the ChannelSurfer object. The FlipToChannel() method call is
enclosed within a try block and an appropriate catch handler for the
ChannelNotAvailableException will catch the exception if an invalid channel number is
passed to the FlipToChannel() method. Also, if the user enters non-numeric input, the
Int32.Parse() method will throw a System.FormatException that will be caught by the catch
handler that we’ve setup to handle FormatException exceptions.
Compile the file using the following command from the DOS command line:
Compiling in C#
csc /target:exe ChannelSurfer.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /target:exe ChannelSurfer.vb
That generates the executable file ChannelSurfer.exe. Run the application and feed it with
input containing both valid and invalid input values. Here’s a sample interaction with the
ChannelSurfer application.
Press 'Q' or 'q' to quit zapping channels
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' 62
You are watching Channel : 62
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' 56
You are watching Channel : 56
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' 104
Channel not supported: We support only 80 channels. Please enter a number between 1
and 80
You are watching Channel : 56
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' abcd
Caught a format exception : Input string was not in a correct format.
You are watching Channel : 56
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' 15
You are watching Channel : 15
Please enter a channel number and press 'Enter' q
You are watching Channel : 15
You will notice from the output above that when the user enters 104 for the channel
number, the ChannelNotAvailableException is thrown from the FlipToChannel() method,
which is then handled by the catch handler. Similarly, when the user keys in a
non-numeric value such as abcd, a System.FormatException is raised by the Int32.Parse()
method, which then gets caught by the catch handler that filters the FormatException
exceptions. Using application specific exceptions like ChannelNotAvailableException
allows you to build exception-handling classes around your business-logic and
application specific scenarios. Be sure to check if the framework provides a predefined
exception class that suits the exception type that you want to handle. If so, reuse FCL
provided system exceptions. Otherwise, feel free to model custom exception classes that
are modeled around application specific exception scenarios.
7.7 Nesting try/catch/finally blocks and re-throwing exceptions
It should be noted that structured exception handling allows you to nest try/catch/finally
blocks within one another. This allows multiple levels of nesting and if the inner catch
blocks cannot handle a specific exception type, the runtime will look for a matching catch
handler in one of the outer try blocks. This repeats until a matching catch handler is found
in one of the enclosing blocks. If the outermost try block is reached and no such matching
catch handler is found, the runtime forces an unhandled exception to be raised. Let’s take
a look at a quick example of how to nest try/catch/finally blocks within one another.
Code listing in C#
using System;
class HelloNested
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
try
{
throw new Exception("It's just too warm in here !");
}
catch(Exception exInner)
{
// Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an exception: {0}",
exInner.Message);
}
finally
{
// The inner finally block that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Inner finally");
}
// Continue execution in the Outer try block
Console.WriteLine("Continue executing in Outer ...");
}
catch(Exception exOuter)
{
// Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Outer catch caught an exception: {0}",
exOuter.Message);
}
finally
{
// The outer finally block that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Outer finally");
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Module HelloNested
Sub Main()
' This is the beginning of the Outer Try block
Try
' This is the beginning of the Inner Try block
Try
Throw New Exception("It's just too warm in here !")
Catch exInner As Exception
' Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an exception: {0}", _
exInner.Message)
Finally
' The inner finally clause that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Inner finally")
' The Inner Try/Catch/Finally blocks ends here
End Try
' Continue execution in the Outer try block
Console.WriteLine("Continue executing in Outer ...")
Catch exOuter As Exception
' Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Outer catch caught an exception: {0}", _
exOuter.Message)
Finally
' The outer finally clause that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Outer finally")
' The Outer Try/Catch/Finally blocks ends here
End Try
End Sub
End Module
As shown in the example above, we have an inner try/catch/finally triad nested within an
outer try block. The code within the inner try block raises an exception, so the runtime
will check to see if one of the inner catch handlers will be able to handle the exception.
Only when none of the inner catch handlers can handle that exception type, will the catch
handlers of the outer try block be examined if they’ll be able to handle the error.
Save the example shown above in a file named HelloNested.cs/HelloNested.vb. Compile the
application by running the following command from the DOS command line:
Compiling in C#
csc /target:exe HelloNested.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /target:exe HelloNested.vb
Run the program HelloNested.exe and observe the output:
Inner catch caught an exception : It's just too warm in here !
Inner finally
Continue executing in Outer ...
Outer finally
As seen from the output above, the inner catch handler catches an exception raised by the
code in the inner try block since it can handle System.Exception exceptions. Now replace
the inner catch block in the above example to handle only System.OverflowException
exceptions.
Code listing in C#
catch(OverflowException exInner)
{
// Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an exception: {0}", exInner.Message);
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Catch exOverflow As OverflowException
' Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an overflow exception: {0}", _
exOverflow.Message)
Compile and run the modified program HelloNested.exe and observe the output:
Inner finally
Outer catch caught an exception : It's just too warm in here !
Outer finally
Notice that since the inner catch block can handle only System.OverflowException
exceptions the runtime looks for a matching catch handler in the outer blocks and locates
the outer catch handler, which subsequently handles the System.Exception exception.
Until now, we’ve seen how exceptions are raised by code enclosed within the try block.
But also take note that you can throw exceptions from within catch and finally blocks too.
There are times when a catch handler catches an exception and examines it only to find
that it cannot handle the exception. In such cases, the catch handler can re-throw the
exception hoping that one of the outer catch handlers will be able to catch the exception
and handle it appropriately. In this case, the runtime checks for a matching catch handler
in one of the enclosing outer catch blocks to handle the re-thrown exception. Let’s modify
the earlier example to re-throw the exception that we caught in the inner catch block.
Modify the inner catch block in the HelloNested code as shown below:
Code listing in C#
// Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
try
{
try
{
throw new Exception("It's just too warm in here !");
}
catch(Exception exInner)
{
// Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an exception: {0}",
exInner.Message);
// Rethrow the exception
throw exInner;
}
finally
{
// The inner finally block that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Inner finally");
}
// Continue execution in the Outer try block
Console.WriteLine("Continue executing in Outer ...");
}
// Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
Code listing in VB.NET
' Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
' This is the beginning of the Inner Try block
Try
Throw New Exception("It's just too warm in here !")
Catch exInner As Exception
' Display the exception message
Console.WriteLine("Inner catch caught an exception: {0}", exInner.Message)
' Rethrow the exception
Throw exOverflow
Finally
' The inner finally clause that executes always
Console.WriteLine("Inner finally")
' The Inner Try/Catch/Finally blocks ends here
End Try
' Rest of the code omitted for brevity . . .
You will notice that the inner catch block re-throws the exception that it catches and
hopes that one of the outer catch handlers will be able to handle it. Compile and run the
application. Observe the output:
Inner catch caught an exception : It's just too warm in here !
Inner finally
Outer catch caught an exception : It's just too warm in here !
Outer finally
You’ll notice that both the inner and the outer catch handlers have a go at handling the
exception. The inner catch block catches the exception and re-throws it. The re-thrown
exception is then subsequently caught and handled by the outer catch handler. Take note
that you can throw exceptions from finally blocks too.
How the CLR uses the call-stack to locate a matching catch handler:
When an exception occurs, the CLR tries to locate an appropriate catch handler
(associated with the current try block), which is capable of handling the exception. If it
cannot find an appropriate catch handler, then the next outer try-catch block is examined
for appropriate catch handlers. This search continues until it finds a matching catch
handler within the scope of the currently executing method (in C#) / procedure (in
VB.NET). If it still cannot find a matching catch handler within the scope of the currently
executing method/procedure, it pops the current method/procedure out of the call-stack
thus causing the current method to lose scope, and then searches for matching catch
handlers in the next method (the method that had originally called the current
method/procedure) in the call-stack. If it cannot find a matching catch handler there too, it
pops this method/procedure out and examines the next one in the call-stack. This stack
unwinding continues until a matching catch handler is found for the exception that was
thrown. If no such matching catch handler is found when the stack is completely
unwound, then the exception becomes an unhandled exception.
Code listing in C#
using System;
// Rest of the code omitted for brevity...
class Diver
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
Console.WriteLine("Get Set Go...");
// Call the DiveIn() static method
Diver.DiveIn();
}
catch(SharkAttackException ex)
{
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In Main finally");
}
}
static void DiveIn()
{
try
{
// Call the DiveDeeper static method
Diver.DiveDeeper();
}
catch(WaterTooColdException ex)
{
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In DiveIn finally");
}
}
static void DiveDeeper()
{
try
{
throw new SharkAttackException("Two hungry Great-White sharks " +
"on the prowl");
}
catch(OutOfOxygenException ex)
{
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message);
}
finally
{
// This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In DiveDeeper finally");
}
}
}
Code listing in VB.NET
Imports System
' Rest of the code omitted for brevity...
Module Diver
Sub Main()
Try
Console.WriteLine("Get Set Go...")
' Call the DiveIn() subroutine
Call DiveIn
Catch ex As SharkAttackException
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message)
Finally
' This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In Main finally")
End Try
End Sub
Sub DiveIn()
Try
' Call the DiveDeeper() subroutine
Call DiveDeeper
Catch ex As WaterTooColdException
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message)
Finally
' This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In DiveIn finally")
End Try
End Sub
Sub DiveDeeper()
Try
Throw New SharkAttackException("Two hungry Great-White sharks " + _
"on the prowl")
Catch ex As OutOfOxygenException
Console.WriteLine(ex.Message)
Finally
' This should always get called
Console.WriteLine("In DiveDeeper finally")
End Try
End Sub
End Module
Compile the application by running the following command from the DOS command
line:
Compiling in C#
csc /target:exe Diver.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /target:exe Diver.vb
Run the program Diver.exe and observe the output:
Get Set Go...
In DiveDeeper finally
In DiveIn finally
Two hungry Great-White sharks on the prowl
In Main finally
In the above code fragment, the Main() entry point in the program calls the DiveIn()
method (in C#) / Subroutine (in VB.NET), which in turn calls the DiveDeeper()
method/subroutine. Notice that the DiveDeeper() method throws a custom
application-defined exception called SharkAttackException.
Explanation using C#
Explanation using VB.NET
When the SharkAttackException exception is thrown the CLR checks to see if the catch
handlers associated with the try block in DiveDeeper() can handle the exception Since the
only exception type handled by the catch handler in DiveDeeper() happens to be
OutOfOxygenException, the CLR will pop the DiveDeeper() method out of the stack after
executing the finally block in DiveDeeper(). It will then go on to search for a suitable catch
handler in the next method/procedure in the call-stack, which happens to be the DiveIn()
method/subroutine. Since the try-catch block in the DiveIn() method also happens to have
a catch handler that handles only WaterTooColdException exceptions, this method/procedure
is also popped out of the call-stack after executing its finally block. The Main()
method/subroutine, which is the next in the call-stack is then examined for matching
catch handler within the try-catch block. As you can see, the try-catch block within the
Main() method/subroutine does have a catch handler that can handle the
SharkAttackException and so control is eventually passed over to this catch handler after
which the corresponding finally block is executed. Assuming that the Main() entry-point
method/subroutine did not have an appropriate catch handler too, then the next pop
operation would have completely unwound the call-stack thereby making the
SharkAttackException an unhandled exception
Catching arithmetic overflow exceptions with C#’s checked keyword:
Never ever discount the destructive effects that arithmetic overflow exceptions bring to
the stability of your software. For starters, recollect the tragic crash of the $7 billion
Ariane 5 rocket – A crash that resulted because its software system attempted to convert
a 64-bit floating-point number to a signed 16-bit integer, which subsequently caused an
overflow exception, and worse yet, there was no exception handler to handle this
exception. Sadly enough, the backup systems were also running on the same copy of the
software, without the exception handler. Read an account of the Ariane 5 crash at:
http://www.cs.ucsd.edu/users/goguen/courses/230/ariane5nyt.pdf
Let’s face it – How many times have we been in situations where we’ve stared in
disbelief at our program spewing some insanely odd numerical output on arithmetic
operations when it’s fairly obvious that the output is in not even slightly connected to
what was expected of the program. Let’s quickly see what we mean here with an
example. Consider the following C# program:
using System;
class ByteBites
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
byte b1 = 57;
byte b2 = 200;
byte bResult = (byte)(b1 + b2);
Console.WriteLine("{0} + {1} = {2}", b1, b2, bResult);
}
}
Save this program to a file called ByteBites.cs. Compile the program using the following
command from the DOS command line:
csc /target:exe ByteBites.cs
Run ByteBites.exe and observe the output:
57 + 200 = 1
Many of us know what went wrong here. It’s fairly obvious here that a byte data type can
hold only values from 0 to 255. Yet we are trying to add two bytes whose result over
shoots the range of values that the resultant byte can hold, resulting in an overflow, and
hence the absurd result 1. This is what the less wary among us (at least I do) run into
when choosing data types to work with, paying little attention to the range of data that the
program expects these data types to store and handle. A subtle arithmetic addition
operation that has the potential to generate an overflow operation is enough to send your
application to the tomb. Most often, good testing practices catch these bugs during the
testing phase. But it certainly might get past the QA team if the test data being fed to the
program is not very exhaustive and if every possible test case is not being taken into
account – The Ariane 5 crash of 1996 is a testimony to that. So as developers, we need to
code defensively to catch such arithmetic overflow errors and handle them appropriately
in the execution flow of the program as our application logic dictates, thus leaving no
room for inconsistent or incorrect results to bring down the application to a grinding halt.
So let’s see where C# can help us here. C# provides the checked keyword to trap and
handle such arithmetic overflows. When an arithmetic operation that is enclosed within a
checked block (or checked expression) results in an overflow, the runtime generates a
System.OverflowException. Compare this to our previous example where the overflow
result was silently assigned to the resulting byte. So let’s modify the previous example to
enclose the arithmetic addition of the two bytes within a checked block. The modified
code is shown below:
using System;
class ByteBites
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
try
{
checked
{
byte b1 = 57;
byte b2 = 200;
byte bResult = (byte)(b1 + b2);
Console.WriteLine("{0} + {1} = {2}", b1, b2, bResult);
}
}
catch(OverflowException exOverflow)
{
Console.WriteLine("Caught overflow exception: {0}",
exOverflow.Message);
}
}
}
You’ll notice that we now have a checked block that encloses the arithmetic operation,
which in turn is enclosed within a try block. Compile and run the application. Notice the
output:
Caught overflow exception: Arithmetic operation resulted in an overflow.
You’ll notice that the addition operation generated a System.OverflowException because it
was enclosed within a checked block. Remove the checked block and you’ll notice that
you’ll again get back the cryptic 1 as the result. But then, wouldn’t it be asking too much
if we had to put each and every arithmetic operation that had the potential to generate an
overflow within a checked block. Thankfully, there’s an easier way to turn on arithmetic
overflow checking for the entire application by using the /checked compiler option when
compiling your application. To test this, go ahead and remove the checked block that is
enclosing the addition operation. This time compile the program with the /checked switch
turned on, by typing the following command in the DOS command line:
csc /target:exe /checked ByteBites.cs
Run the program and observe the output that the program spews out:
Caught overflow exception: Arithmetic operation resulted in an overflow.
Notice that the /checked option has the same effect as using the checked block around your
arithmetic operations. This option thereby allows you to enforce arithmetic overflow
checks and to catch such exceptions throughout your application. So what if you’ve
turned on the /checked option and want to selectively prevent certain parts in your
application from generating an overflow exception when an overflow occurs. For
example, assume you have a scenario where you need the check the value of the
overflowed result to determine what action to take and so on. In such cases, you can use
the unchecked keyword and enclose those arithmetic operations within an unchecked
block so that an OverflowException is not generated for those operations. This is shown in
the snippet of code below:
unchecked
{
byte b1 = 57;
byte b2 = 200;
byte bResult = (byte)(b1 + b2);
Console.WriteLine("{0} + {1} = {2}", b1, b2, bResult);
}
Of course, the above code fragment gives you yet another opportunity to see the
infamous 1 as the result.
Using the checked keyword and /checked compiler option judiciously in your C#
applications can help you catch arithmetic overflow exceptions and to ensure that your
application stays sane.
7.8 Parting thoughts…
It has always been our tendency to put together our application’s functional capabilities
in leaps and bounds paying little attention to analyzing where those functional
capabilities could possibly go wrong during execution and to handle those error
conditions appropriately. Today’s software systems are increasingly expected to meet
high levels of fault tolerance and reliability. To meet that objective, we need to adopt
effective exception and error handling strategies in our applications to trap errors and to
recover from them gracefully. The C#/VB.NET language supports powerful constructs to
handle exceptions in our applications. Hopefully, this tutorial gave you an introduction on
how to use those constructs in your applications to handle errors and exceptions. Put
them to good use and you’ll be well on your way to writing robust, fault tolerant, and
reliable applications.
8. Assemblies and Application Domains
S ect i on Owner : Akila Manian ( MV P)
C ontent C ont r ibut o r s : N a ra y ana Ra o S u rapaneni ( MV P)
8.1 Introduction
In Microsoft .NET, when an application is compiled, the output of the compilation
produces what is known as an Assembly. Two types of assemblies can be produced by the
compilation procedure. One is the executable file (*.exe) and the other is a dynamic link
library file (*.dll). Basically the assembly is the unit of deployment in Microsoft .NET
and it can be thought of as a collection of types and resources that form a logical unit of
functionality.
An assembly is a self-describing entity. It contains all information about the types
(classes) contained in the assembly, all external references needed for executing the
assembly and so on. This is possible with an assembly manifest. The manifest contains
assembly’s identity and version information, a file table containing all files that make up
the assembly and the assembly reference list for all external dependencies. Thus
assemblies do not need to depend on the registry values for compilation or execution.
An assembly contains manifest data and one or more modules. Manifest data contains
information about the assembly and other list of assemblies that it depends on. It also
contains all the publicly exposed types and resources. An assembly contains various
modules. Each module contains metadata and IL.
Assemblies can be viewed by application developers with the help of a tool called ildasm
(IL Disassembler) provided by the .NET Framework.
8.2 Assembly Types
Assemblies can be single file assemblies or multi file assemblies. In multi file assemblies
one of the files must contain the assembly’s manifest data. Multi file assemblies can have
only one entry point even though the assembly can contain multiple code modules. A
multi file assembly is created primarily for combining modules written in different
programming languages. Once the assembly is created, the file that contains the
assembly manifest (and hence the assembly) can be signed, or one can give the file (and
the assembly) a strong name and put it in the global assembly cache.
Main uses of multi file assembly are for combining modules written in different
programming languages. They enable optimization of downloading an application by
putting seldom-used types in a module that is downloaded only when needed. The .NET
Framework downloads a file only when it is referenced; keeping infrequently referenced
code in a separate file from the application optimizes code download.
Let us look at an example of how to create multi file assembly.
AddModule.cs
Copy and Paste the following code into Notepad and save it as or AddModule.vb,
depending on the language that you are using
Code Listing in C#
using System;
public class AddClass
{
public int Add(int Operand1, int Operand2)
{
return Operand1 + Operand2;
}
}
Compiling in C#
/Compilation csc /r:System.dll /t:Module AddModule.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Public Module AddModule
Public Class AddClass
Function Add(ByVal Operand1 As Integer, ByVal Operand2 As Integer) As Integer
Add = Operand1 + Operand2
End Function
End Class
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /r:System.dll /t:Module AddModule.vb
This file is compiled with the target option as module. Hence an assembly is not created.
The output is a file with an extension of .netmodule.
Similarly create SubtractModule.cs/ as shown below
SubtractModule.vb
Code Listing in C#
using System;
public class SubtractClass
{
public int Subtract(int Operand1 , int Operand2 )
{
return Operand1 - Operand2;
}
}
Compiling in C#
csc /r:System.dll /t:Module SubtractModule.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Public Module SubtractModule
Public Class SubtractClass
Function Subtract(ByVal Operand1 As Integer, ByVal Operand2 As Integer) As
Integer
Subtract = Operand1 - Operand2
End Function
End Class
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /r:System.dll /t:Module SubtractModule.vb
Now create the main module, which references the above modules. The code is as shown
below for MainModule.cs/MainModule.vb
MainModule.cs
Code Listing in C#
using System;
public class MainModule
{
public static void Main()
{
int iOperand1, iOperand2, iResult ;
iOperand1 = 22;
iOperand2 = 11;
iResult = 0;
AddClass objAddClass = New AddClass();
SubtractClass objSubtractClass = New SubtractClass();
iResult = objAddClass.Add(iOperand1, iOperand2);
Console.WriteLine(iResult.ToString());
iResult = objSubtractClass.Subtract(iOperand1, iOperand2);
Console.WriteLine(iResult.ToString());
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Compiling in C#
Compilation csc /r:System.dll MainModule.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Public Module MainModule
Sub Main()
Dim iOperand1, iOperand2, iResult As Integer
iOperand1 = 22
iOperand2 = 11
iResult = 0
Dim objAddClass As New AddClass
Dim objSubtractClass As New SubtractClass
iResult = objAddClass.Add(iOperand1, iOperand2)
Console.WriteLine(iResult.ToString)
iResult = objSubtractClass.Subtract(iOperand1, iOperand2)
Console.WriteLine(iResult.ToString)
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /r:System.dll MainModule.vb
The code is compiled as follows
To create a multi file assemble, which contains the two modules created previously
namely AddModule and SubtractModule, compile using the following command at the
command prompt
Compiling in C#
csc /System.dll /addModule:AddModule.netmodule
/addModule:SubtractModule.netmodule MainModule.cs
Compiling in VB.NET
Vbc /System.dll /addModule:AddModule.netmodule
/addModule:SubtractModule.netmodule MainModule.vb
This process creates a multi file assembly. This assembly contains the two modules
created previously namely AddModule and SubtractModule. Thus this assembly contains
multiple modules. If ildasm utility is executed on the MainModule assembly, it shows
that the manifest information in the MainModule contains references to the AddModule
and the SubtractModule modules. That is the modules are linked to the main assembly by
the information contained in the main assembly’s manifest information.
8.3 Private Assemblies
A private assembly is an assembly that is deployed with an application and is available
only for that application. That is, other applications do not share the private assembly.
Private assemblies are installed in a folder of the application's directory structure.
Typically, this is the folder containing the application's executable file.
For most .NET Framework applications, you keep the assemblies that make up an
application in the application's directory, in a subdirectory of the application's directory.
You can override where the CLR looks for an assembly by using the <codeBase>
element in a configuration file.
8.4 Shared Assemblies
A shared assembly is an assembly available for use by multiple applications on the
computer. To make the assembly global, it has to be put into the Global Assembly Cache.
Each computer where the common language runtime is installed has a machine-wide
code cache called the global assembly cache. The global assembly cache stores
assemblies specifically for sharing by several applications on the computer.
You should share assemblies by installing them into the global assembly cache only
when you need to. As a general guideline, keep assembly dependencies private and locate
assemblies in the application directory unless sharing an assembly is explicitly required.
This is achieved with the help of a global assembly cache tool (gacutil.exe) provided by
the .NET Framework. One can also drag & drop the assemblies into the Global Assembly
Cache directory.
However, when an assembly has to be put into the Global Assembly Cache it needs to be
signed with a strong name. A strong name contains the assembly's identity i.e. it’s text
name, version number, and culture information strengthened by a public key and a digital
signature generated over the assembly. This is because the CLR verifies the strong name
signature when the assembly is placed in the Global Assembly Cache.
8.5 Application Domains
Introduction
Traditionally when many applications are executed on the same machine, they are
isolated by something known as process. Ideally each application is loaded in its own
process also known as address space. This isolation is need so that these applications do
not tamper with other applications either intentionally or accidentally. Isolating
applications is also important for application security. For example, one can run controls
from several Web applications in a single browser process in such a way that the controls
cannot access each other's data and resources.
There are however many instances in which one would like an application to have the
ability to communicate with other applications. Since these applications are loaded into
different address spaces, there must be some form of context switching needed to allow
one application to communicate with another. Inter process communication has to rely on
operating systems support to manage this context switching and it is generally an
expensive operation. Context switching means saving a process's context, it could also
mean swapping the process out to virtual memory (to the page file stored on disk). If a
single machine has a large number of active processes, the CPU is often reduced to
swapping processes in and out of memory continuously, a phenomenon known as
thrashing.
Application Domains
There should be a method by which the different applications can be executed in isolation
from each other and which would also allow these applications to communicate with each
other in a better way than offered by context switching. Microsoft .NET has introduced
the Application Domain concept for precisely this reason. Application domains provide a
secure and versatile unit of processing that the CLR can use to provide isolation between
applications. Further, one can specify custom security policies on an Application Domain
to ensure that codes run in an extremely strict and controlled app domain. One can run
several application domains in a single process with the same level of isolation that
would exist in separate processes, but without incurring the additional overhead of
context switching between the processes. In Microsoft .NET, code normally passes a
verification process before it can be executed. This code is considered as type-safe code
and this allows CLR to provide a great level of isolation at the process level. Type-safe
codes have less chances of causing memory faults.
Code running in one application should not directly access code or resources from
another application. The CLR enforces this isolation by preventing direct calls between
objects in different application domains. Objects that pass between domains are either
copied or accessed by proxy. If the object is copied, the call to the object is local. That is,
both the caller and the object being referenced are in the same application domain. If the
object is accessed through a proxy, the call to the object is remote. In this case, the caller
and the object being referenced are in different application domains. As such, the
metadata for the object being referenced must be available to both application domains to
allow the method call to be JIT-compiled properly.
Application Domains And Assemblies
Before an assembly can be executed, it must be loaded into an application domain. By
default, the CLR loads an assembly into an application domain containing the code that
references it. In this way the assembly’s data and code are isolated to the application
using it. In case, multiple application domains reference an assembly, the assembly’s
code is shared amongst the different application domains. Such an assembly is said to be
domain-neutral. An assembly is not shared between domains when it is granted a
different set of permissions in each domain. This can occur if the runtime host sets an
application domain-level security policy. Assemblies should not be loaded as domain-
neutral if the set of permissions granted to the assembly is to be different in each domain.
Programming with Application Domains
Application domains are normally automatically created and managed by runtime hosts.
However, Microsoft .NET also provides control to application developers to create and
manage their own application domains. This would allow the developers to have control
over loading and unloading the assemblies in different domains for performance reasons
and maintain a high degree of isolation. Note that individual assemblies cannot be
unloaded, the entire app domain has to be unloaded.
If development is being carried out with some code or components downloaded from the
Internet, running it in its own application domain provides an excellent way to isolate the
rest of the applications from this code.
The System namespace contains the class AppDomain. This class contains methods to
create an application domain, to load and unload assemblies in the application domain.
An example will be useful to illustrate how application domains can be created and
assemblies loaded and unloaded into the application domains. Note that only those
assemblies that have been declared as Public can be loaded at runtime.
Copy and paste the following code into Notepad and save it as Display.cs/Display.vb,
depending on the programming language used.
Display.vb
Code Listing in C#
using System;
public class Display
{
public static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine("This is written by assembly 1");
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Compiling in C#
Compilation csc /r:System.dll Display.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Public Module Display
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine("This is written by assembly 1")
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
vbc /r:System.dll Display.vb
Similarly, copy and paste the following code into Notepad and save it as
Display2.cs/Display2.vb, depending on the programming language used.
Display2.cs
Code Listing in C#
Imports System
Public Module Display
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine("This is written by assembly 2")
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
End Module
Compiling in C#
Compilation csc /r:System.dll Display2.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Public Module Display
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine("This is written by assembly 2")
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
'Compilation vbc /r:System.dll Display2.vb
The following code - CreateAppDomain.cs/CreateAppDomain.vb contains the following
code that shows how to create an application domain programmatically and how to load
assemblies during runtime.
Code Listing in C#
using System;
using System.Reflection;
public class CreateAppDomain
{
AppDomain m_objAppDomain;
public static void Main()
{
String strAppDomainName1 ;
String strAppDomainName2 ;
String strAssemblyToBeExecuted ;
strAppDomainName1 = "TestAppDomain1";
strAppDomainName2 = "TestAppDomain2";
strAssemblyToBeExecuted = "Display.exe";
CreateApplicationDomain(strAppDomainName1, strAssemblyToBeExecuted);
AppDomain.Unload(m_objAppDomain);
strAssemblyToBeExecuted = "Display2.exe" ;
CreateApplicationDomain(strAppDomainName2, strAssemblyToBeExecuted);
AppDomain.Unload(m_objAppDomain);
}
private void CreateApplicationDomain(String p_strAppDomainName , String
p_strAssemblyToBeExecuted)
{
try
{
m_objAppDomain = AppDomain.CreateDomain(p_strAppDomainName);
m_objAppDomain.ExecuteAssembly(p_strAssemblyToBeExecuted);
}
catch(AppDomainUnloadedException objException )
{
Console.WriteLine("Unable to create application domain");
Console.WriteLine("Exception is " + objException.toString());
}
}
}
Compiling in C#
Compilation csc /r:System.dll CreateAppDomain.cs
Code Listing in VB.NET
Imports System
Imports System.Reflection
Module CreateAppDomain
Dim m_objAppDomain As AppDomain
Sub Main()
Dim strAppDomainName1 As String
Dim strAppDomainName2 As String
Dim strAssemblyToBeExecuted As String
strAppDomainName1 = "TestAppDomain1"
strAppDomainName2 = "TestAppDomain2"
strAssemblyToBeExecuted = "Display.exe"
CreateApplicationDomain(strAppDomainName1, strAssemblyToBeExecuted)
AppDomain.Unload(m_objAppDomain)
strAssemblyToBeExecuted = "Display2.exe"
CreateApplicationDomain(strAppDomainName2, strAssemblyToBeExecuted)
AppDomain.Unload(m_objAppDomain)
End Sub
Private Sub CreateApplicationDomain(p_strAppDomainName As String,
p_strAssemblyToBeExecuted As String)
Try
m_objAppDomain = AppDomain.CreateDomain(p_strAppDomainName)
m_objAppDomain.ExecuteAssembly(p_strAssemblyToBeExecuted)
Catch objException As AppDomainUnloadedException
Console.WriteLine("Unable to create application domain")
Console.WriteLine("Exception is " & objException.toString())
End Try
End Sub
End Module
Compiling in VB.NET
Compilation vbc /r:System.dll CreateAppDomain.vb
8.6 Conclusion
Thus in this article we have seen what assemblies are in Microsoft .NET. We have seen
single file and multi file assemblies. We have also seen private and public assemblies.
We have also taken a look at application domains and how they are supported in .NET.
Application domains offer all the benefits of process isolation, but are much more
efficient than processes. The Microsoft .NET runtime host automatically manages the
loading / unloading of the assemblies into the appropriate application domains. However,
Microsoft .NET Framework class library also offers application developers with various
classes that can be used to programmatically create application domains and ensure that
the various applications can be isolated from each other. Also the inter-application
communication is not that expensive because context switching is not involved in
application communication using application domains in Microsoft .NET.