Rawls, Political Liberalism and Reasonable Faith // …

Clash essay faith plantinga reason when

"man is no upstart in the creation, but has been prophesied in nature for a thousand thousand ages before he appeared; that, from times incalculably remote, there has been a progressive preparation for him, an effort to produce him; the meaner creatures containing the elements of his structure and pointing at it from every side.

It is a long way from granite to the oyster; farther yet to Plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul."Emerson - Nature (1836)Emerson seems to have been capable of envisioning such theistic "almost evolutionism?" whilst also continuing to see potentially redemptive and illuminatory powers, highly beneficial to the individual and to society, to being accessible through spirituality!

Every thing that concerns you concerns me & I should be most unhappy if I thought we did not belong to each other forever…"

All things considered it becomes distinctly possible to suggest that the Faith and Reason debate has long been conducted "at cross-purposes" with Faith upholding what it believes of as being Spiritual Truth, (whilst tending in many cases to regard scientific truth as being of importance but of ultimately lesser significance), and Reason upholding what it perceives of as being Scientific Truth (whilst often having little or no conception that Spiritual Truth could be of value or even exist).

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There has been a debate on the question to what extent randomness is agenuine feature of creation, and how divine action and chanceinterrelate. Chance and stochasticity are important features ofevolutionary theory (the non-random retention of random variations).In a famous thought experiment, Gould (1989) imagined that we couldrewind the tape of life back to the time of the Burgess Shale (508million years ago); the chance we would end up with anything like thepresent-day life forms is vanishingly small. However, Simon ConwayMorris (2003) has argued species very similar to the ones we know now(including human-like intelligent species) would evolve under a broadrange of conditions.

It is part of his Essays: Second Series, published in 1844

Given his practice of scientific theorising in ways that distinctly contrasted with the accepted, and religiously informed, wisdoms of the day it seems reasonable to depict Charles Darwin as having been more of a skeptical Man of Science than a believing Man of Faith.

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Several historians (e.g., Hooykaas 1972) have argued that Christianity was instrumental to thedevelopment of western science. Peter Harrison (2009) thinks thedoctrine of original sin played a crucial role in this, arguing therewas a widespread belief in the early modern period that Adam, prior tothe fall, had superior senses, intellect, and understanding. As aresult of the fall, human senses became duller, our ability to makecorrect inferences was diminished, and nature itself became lessintelligible. Postlapsarian humans (i.e., humans after the fall) areno longer able to exclusively rely on their a priorireasoning to understand nature. They must supplement their reasoningand senses with observation through specialized instruments, such asmicroscopes and telescopes. As Robert Hooke wrote in the introductionto his Micrographia:

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A one-hour special under the title Faith and Reason, and with funding support from the John Templeton Foundation,the Pew Charitable Trusts, the Counterbalance Foundation, was broadcast on the PBS channel in September, 1998.

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every man, both from a deriv’d corruption, innate and born withhim, and from his breeding and converse with men, is very subject toslip into all sorts of errors … These being the dangers in theprocess of humane Reason, the remedies of them all can only proceedfrom the real, the mechanical, the experimental Philosophy[experiment-based science]. (1665, cited in Harrison 2009: 5)

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Sociological studies (e.g., Ecklundt 2010) have probed the religiousbeliefs of scientists, particularly in the United States. Theyindicate a significant difference in religiosity in scientistscompared to the general population. Surveys such as those conducted bythe Pew forum (Masci and Smith 2016) find that nearly nine in tenadults in the US say they believe in God or a universal spirit, anumber that has only slightly declined in recent decades. Amongyounger adults, the percentage of theists is about 80%. Atheism andagnosticism are widespread among academics, especially among thoseworking in elite institutions. A survey among National Academy ofSciences members (all senior academics, overwhelmingly from elitefaculties) found that the majority disbelieved in God’sexistence (72.2%), with 20.8% being agnostic, and only 7% theists(Larson and Witham 1998). Ecklund and Scheitle (2007) analyzed responsesfrom scientists (working in the social and natural sciences) from 21elite universities in the US. About 31.2% of their participantsself-identified as atheists and a further 31 % as agnostics. Theremaining number believed in a higher power (7%), sometimes believedin God (5.4%), believed in God with some doubts (15.5%), or believedin God without any doubts (9.7%). In contrast to the generalpopulation, the older scientists in this sample did not show higherreligiosity—in fact, they were more likely to say that they didnot believe in God. On the other hand, Gross and Simmons (2009)examined a more heterogeneous sample of scientists from Americancolleges, including community colleges, elite doctoral-grantinginstitutions, non-elite four-year state schools, and small liberalarts colleges. They found that the majority of university professors(full-time tenured or tenure-track faculty) had some theistic beliefs,believing either in God (34.9%), in God with some doubts (16.6%), inGod some of the time (4.3%), or in a higher power (19.2%). Belief inGod was influenced both by type of institution (lower theistic beliefin more prestigious schools) and by discipline (lower theistic beliefin the physical and biological sciences compared to the socialsciences and humanities).

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These latter findings indicate that academics are more religiouslydiverse than has been popularly assumed and that the majority are notopposed to religion. Even so, in the US the percentage of atheists andagnostics in academia is higher than in the general population, adiscrepancy that requires an explanation. One reason might be a biasagainst theists in academia. For example, when sociologists weresurveyed whether they would hire someone if they knew the candidatewas an evangelical Christian, 39.1% said they would be less likely tohire that candidate—there were similar resultswith other religious groups, such as Mormons or Muslims (Yancey 2012). Anotherreason might be that theists internalize prevalent negative societalstereotypes, which leads them to underperform in scientific tasks andlose interest in pursuing a scientific career. Kimberly Rios et al.(2015) found that non-religious participants believe that theists,especially Christians, are less competent in and less trustful ofscience. When this stereotype was made salient, Christian participantsperformed worse in logical reasoning tasks (which were misleadinglypresented as “scientific reasoning tests”) than when thestereotype was not mentioned.

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“ Even his terms now stand as Heads of my Chapters …

The full title of Charles Darwin's notable work on Evolution is quite lengthy:-

Whilst in his private correspondence the scientific and rational Charles Darwin tended to see life as originating through natural, chemical, processes; (the phrase "spontaneous generation not improbable" was used by him in one of his notebooks as early as 1837), perhaps not wishing to appear as being completely faithless he nevertheless included the following sentence, as the concluding sentence, in the second, (1860), and subsequent editions of the "Origin of Species". ”