We have search spectra obtained by the Solar Maximum Mission Gamma-Ray Spectrometer during 1981-1988 for evidence of transient gamma-ray lines from the Crab Nebula which have been reported by previous experiments at energies 400-460 keV and 539 keV. We find no evidence for significant emission in any of these lines on time scales between aproximately 1 day and approximately 1 yr. Our 3 sigma upper limits on the transient flux during 1 d intervals are approximately equal to 2.2 x 10(exp -3) photons/sq cm/s for narrow lines at any energy, and approximately equal to 2.9 x 10(exp -3) photons/sq cm/s for the 539 keV line if it is as broad as 42 keV Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM). We also searched our data during the approximately 5 hr period on 1981 June 6 during which Owens, Myers, & Thompson (1985) reported a strong line at 405 keV. We detected no line down to a 3 upper sigma limit of 3.3 x 10(exp -3) photons/sq cm/s in disagreement with the flux 7.2 +/- 2.1 x 10(exp -3) photos/sq cm/s measured by Owens et al.

Although there are a number of interesting phenomena, such as Nucleosynthesis in stars, in the MeV energy region, the observations have been difficult due to a small signal to noise (background) ratio (less than 1%). While NASA's Compton Gamma-ray Observatory (CGRO) enabled us to explore the Gamma-ray universe, ESA's INTEGRAL mission, launched in 2002, is providing us more detailed information with its superior energy and angular resolution. We will briefly discuss some of the current issues in MeV Gamma-ray Astrophysics. Then, we will focus on the Galactic 511 keV emission with the latest INTEGRAL observations, and talk about challenges we currently have.

Several thousands of gamma-ray bursts were observed by various experiments, but their sources origin still remains unclear up to now. During several GRBs very high-energy photons were detected both in space and ground-based experiments (up to some tens of GeV and up to some TeV, respectively). The GAMMA-400 future space experiment consists of the GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope to detect gammas in the energy range of 100 MeV - 3 TeV and the KONUS-FG system to detect gamma-ray bursts in the range of 100 keV - 10 MeV similar to the KONUS/WIND instrument. The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope will have the angular resolution of 0.02 deg for E > 100 GeV, the energy resolution of 2% for E > 10 GeV, time resolution of ˜ 0.1 ms and allow us together with KONUS-FG to investigate GRBs spectra and temporal profiles in details in the wide energy range.

We attempt to explain simultaneously the Galactic center gamma-ray excess and the 3.5 keV X-ray line from the Perseus cluster based on a class of non-abelian SU(2) DM models, in which the dark matter and an excited state comprise a “dark” SU(2) doublet. The non-abelian group kinetically mixes with the standard model gauge group via dimensions-5 operators. The dark matter particles annihilate into standard model fermions, followed by fragmentation and bremsstrahlung, and thus producing a continuous spectrum of gamma-rays. On the other hand, the dark matter particles can annihilate into a pair of excited states, each of which decays back into the dark matter particle and an X-ray photon, which has an energy equal to the mass difference between the dark matter and the excited state, which is set to be 3.5 keV. The large hierarchy between the required X-ray and γ-ray annihilation cross-sections can be achieved by a very small kinetic mixing between the SM and dark sector, which effectively suppresses the annihilation into the standard model fermions but not into the excited state.

We attempt to explain simultaneously the Galactic center gamma-ray excess and the 3.5 keV X-ray line from the Perseus cluster based on a class of non-abelian SU(2) DM models, in which the dark matter and an excited state comprise a ''dark'' SU(2) doublet. The non-abelian group kinetically mixes with the standard model gauge group via dimensions-5 operators. The dark matter particles annihilate into standard model fermions, followed by fragmentation and bremsstrahlung, and thus producing a continuous spectrum of gamma-rays. On the other hand, the dark matter particles can annihilate into a pair of excited states, each of which decays back into the dark matter particle and an X-ray photon, which has an energy equal to the mass difference between the dark matter and the excited state, which is set to be 3.5 keV. The large hierarchy between the required X-ray and γ-ray annihilation cross-sections can be achieved by a very small kinetic mixing between the SM and dark sector, which effectively suppresses the annihilation into the standard model fermions but not into the excited state.

This paper presents results on the angular distribution of Compton scattering of 662 keVgamma photons in both forward and backward hemispheres in copper medium. The number of scattered events graph has been determined for scattered gamma photons in both the forward and backward hemispheres and theoretical saturation thicknesses have been obtained using these results. Furthermore, response function of a 51 x 51 mm NaI(Tl) detector at 60 degrees angle with incoming photons scattered from a 10mm thick copper layer has been determined using Monte Carlo method.

Four catalogued (BETA) ray bursts that occurred between 79/3/7 and 79/7/31 were observed over the 3 to 10 keV range. The bursts were also well observed by members of the interplanetary network. Hardness ratios, X-ray/(BETA)-ray luminosity ratios, and are presented. The results are summarized as follows: (1) gammaray bursters can emit fairly strongly at X-ray energies near the time of the (BETA) burst with L/sub x//L/sub (BETA)/approx. .02 (L/sub x/ approx. 10(37) ergs s(+1), 3 to 10 keV, assuming a distance of 1 kpc); (2) the centroid of the X-ray emission generally lags the (BETA)-ray centroid, but there is also evidence for one or more types of X-ray precursor activity; (3) the (BETA)-ray hardness ratios were not highly variable for these particular events; (4) the X-ray/(BETA)-ray power law number index during times of the strongest (BETA)-ray emission ranged from 0.8 to approx. 1.1 for the four bursts; (5) the X-ray tail of GB790307 probably can be modeled as the cooling of hot plasma generated during the (BETA)-ray burst. Simple versions of this model can be used to estimate various source parameters. These estimates imply a distance of a few hundred to a few thousand pc; (6) gamma-ray bursters probably do not produce events similar to classical X-ray bursts independently of the (BETA)-ray emission.

The RBE for neutrons was assessed in a head-to-head experiment in which cultures of lymphocytes from the same male donor were irradiated simultaneously with 144 keV neutrons and with 60Co gammarays as the reference radiation and evaluated using matched time, culture conditions, and the end point of chromosomal aberrations to avoid potential confounding factors that would influence the outcome of the experiment. In addition, the irradiation time was held constant at 2 h for the high-dose groups for both radiation types, which resulted in rather low dose rates. For the induction of dicentric chromosomes, the exposure to the 144 keV neutrons was found to be almost equally as effective (yield coefficient alpha(dic) = 0.786 +/- 0.066 dicentrics per cell per gray) as that found previously for irradiation with monoenergetic neutrons at 565 keV (alpha(dic) = 0.813 +/- 0.052 dicentrics per cell per gray) under comparable exposure and culture conditions (Radiat. Res. 154, 307-312, 2000). However, the values of the maximum low-dose RBE (RBE(m)) relative to 60Co gammarays that were determined in the present and previous studies show an insignificant but conspicuous difference: 57.0 +/- 18.8 and 76.0 +/- 29.5, respectively. This difference is mainly due to the difference in the alpha(dic) value of the 60Co gammarays, the reference radiation, which was 0.0138 +/- 0.0044 Gy(-1) in the present study and 0.0107 +/- 0.0041 Gy(-1) in the previous study. In the present experiment, irradiations with 144 keV neutrons and 60Co gammarays were both performed at 21 degrees C, while in the earlier experiment irradiations with 565 keV neutrons were performed at 21 degrees C and the corresponding reference irradiation with gammarays was performed at 37 degrees C. However, the temperature difference between 21 degrees C and 37 degrees C has a minor influence on the yield of chromosomal alterations and hence RBE values. The large cubic PMMA phantom that was used for the gamma irradiations

In this paper the energy, intensity and angular distributions of multiple scattering of 662 keVgamma photons, emerging from targets of aluminium, copper, iron and glass samples are studied as a function of target thickness. An intense collimated beam obtained from a 137Cs source of 5.8 mCi is allowed to impinge on samples of varying thickness. The scattered photons are detected by a properly shielded 76 mm × 76 mm NaI (Tl) scintillation detector. In Compton scattering experiments, it is observed that the number of multiple backscattered photons increase with an increase in target thickness and become almost constant for particular target thickness called saturation thickness. The saturation thickness decreases with increasing atomic number. The multiple scattering, an interfering background noise in Compton profile, has been successfully used to assign effective atomic number (Z eff ) to composite materials. The experimental results are compared with the Monte Carlo calculations using Monte Carlo nuclear particle code.

The authors describe a microcalorimeter {gamma}-ray detector with measured energy resolution of 42 eV full width at half maximum for 103 keV photons. This detector consists of a thermally isolated superconducting transition-edge thermometer and a superconducting bulk tin photon absorber. The absorber is attached with a technique compatible with producing arrays of high-resolution {gamma}-ray detectors. The results of a detailed characterization of the detector, which includes measurements of the complex impedance, detector noise, and time-domain pulse response, suggest that a deeper understanding and optimization of the thermal transport between the absorber and thermometer could significantly improve the energy resolution of future detectors.

The position sensitivity of a thick, cylindrical and continuous 3" x 3" (7.62 cm x 7.62 cm) LaBr3:Ce crystal was studied using a 1 mm collimated beam of 662 keVgammarays from a 400 MBq intense 137Cs source and a spectroscopic photomultiplier (PMT) (HAMAMATSU R6233-100SEL). The PMT entrance window was covered by black absorber except for a small window 1 cm x 1 cm wide. A complete scan of the detector over a 0.5 cm step grid was performed for three positions of the 1 cm x 1 cm window. For each configuration the energy spectrum was measured and the peak centroid, the FWHM, the area and peak asymmetry of the 662 keVgamma transition were analyzed. The data show that, even in a 3" thick LaBr3:Ce crystal with diffusive surfaces the position of the full energy peak centroid depends on the source position. We verified that, on average, the position of the full energy peak centroids measured in the three 1 cm x 1 cm window configurations is sufficient for the correct identification of the collimated gamma source position.

The mass attenuation coefficients (μm) for organic nonlinear optical materials measured at 122-1330 keV photon energies were investigated on the basis of mixture rule and compared with obtained values of WinXCOM program. It is observed that there is a good agreement between theoretical and experimental values of the samples. All samples were irradiated with six radioactive sources such as 57Co, 133Ba, 22Na, 137Cs, 54Mn and 60Co using transmission arrangement. Effective atomic and electron numbers or electron densities (Zeff and Neff), molar extinction coefficient (ε), mass energy absorption coefficient (μen/ρ) and effective atomic energy absorption cross section (σa,en) were determined experimentally and theoretically using the obtained μm values for investigated samples and graphs have been plotted. The graph shows that the variation of all samples decreases with increasing photon energy.

The authors present a prototype for a high-energy-resolution, high-count-rate, gamma-ray spectrometer intended for nuclear forensics and international nuclear safeguards. The prototype spectrometer is an array of 14 transition-edge-sensor microcalorimeters with an average energy resolution of 47 eV (full width at half maximum) at 103 keV. The resolution of the best pixel is 25 eV. A cryogenic, time-division multiplexer reads out the array. Several important topics related to microcalorimeter arrays are discussed, including cross-talk, the uniformity of detector bias conditions, fabrication of the arrays, and the multiplexed readout. The measurements and calculations demonstrate that a kilopixel array of high-resolution microcalorimeters is feasible.

Via refractive or diffractive scattering one can shape {gamma} ray beams in terms of beam divergence, spot size and monochromaticity. These concepts might be particular important in combination with future highly brilliant gammaray sources and might push the sensibility of planned experiments by several orders of magnitude. We will demonstrate the experimental feasibility of gammaray monochromatization on a ppm level and the creation of a gammaray beam with nanoradian divergence. The results are obtained using the inpile target position of the High Flux Reactor of the ILL Grenoble and the crystal spectrometer GAMS. Since the refractive index is believed to vanish to zero with 1/E{sup 2}, the concept of refractive optics has never been considered for gammarays. The combination of refractive optics with monochromator crystals is proposed to be a promising design. Using the crystal spectrometer GAMS, we have measured for the first time the refractive index at energies in the energy range of 180 - 2000 keV. The results indicate a deviation from simple 1/E{sup 2} extrapolation of X-ray results towards higher energies. A first interpretation of these new results will be presented. We will discuss the consequences of these results on the construction of refractive optics such as lenses or refracting prisms for gammarays and their combination with single crystal monochromators.

The coherent (Rayleigh) to incoherent (Compton) scattering cross-section ratio of elements, in the range 13 ≤ Z ≤ 82, are determined experimentally for 59.54 keV incident gamma photons. An HPGe (High purity germanium) semiconductor detector is employed, at scattering angle of 110°, to record the spectra originating from interactions of incident gamma photons with the target under investigation. The intensity ratio of Rayleigh to Compton scattered peaks observed in the recorded spectra, and corrected for photo-peak efficiency of gamma detector and absorption of photons in the target and air, along with the other required parameters provides the differential cross-section ratio. The measured values of cross-section ratio are found to agree with theoretical predictions based upon non-relativistic form factor, relativistic form factor, modified form factor and S-matrix theory.

Gammarays probably emitted by the fissioning nucleus {sup 236}U* at the instant of the break of the neck or within the time of about 10{sup -21} s after or before this were discovered in the experiment devoted to searches for the effect of rotation of the fissioning nucleus in the process {sup 235}U(n,{gamma}f) and performed in a polarized beam of cold neutrons from the MEPHISTO Guideline at the FRM II Munich reactor. Detailed investigations revealed that the angular distribution of these gammarays is compatible with the assumption of the dipole character of the radiation and that their energy spectrum differs substantially from the spectrum of prompt fission gammarays. In the measured interval 250-600 keV, this spectrum can be described by an exponential function at the exponent value of {alpha} = -5 x 10{sup -3} keV{sup -1}. The mechanism of radiation of such gammarays is not known at the present time. Theoretical models based on the phenomenon of the electric giant dipole resonance in a strongly deformed fissioning nucleus or in a fission fragment predict harder radiation whose spectrum differs substantially from the spectrum measured in the present study.

Detection efficiency of a gamma-ray spectrometry system is dependent upon among others, energy, sample and detector geometry, volume and density of the samples. In the present study the efficiency calibration curves of newly acquired (August 2008) HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry system was carried out for four sample container geometries, namely Marinelli beaker, disc, cylindrical beaker and vial, normally used for activity determination of gamma-ray from environmental samples. Calibration standards were prepared by using known amount of analytical grade uranium trioxide ore, homogenized in plain flour into the respective containers. The ore produces gamma-rays of energy ranging from 53 keV to 1001 keV. Analytical grade potassium chloride were prepared to determine detection efficiency of 1460 keVgamma-ray emitted by potassium isotope K-40. Plots of detection efficiency against gamma-ray energy for the four sample geometries were found to fit smoothly to a general form of {epsilon} = A{Epsilon}{sup a}+B{Epsilon}{sup b}, where {epsilon} is efficiency, {Epsilon} is energy in keV, A, B, a and b are constants that are dependent on the sample geometries. All calibration curves showed the presence of a ''knee'' at about 180 keV. Comparison between the four geometries showed that the efficiency of Marinelli beaker is higher than cylindrical beaker and vial, while cylindrical disk showed the lowest.

An embodiment of a gammaray generator includes a neutron generator and a moderator. The moderator is coupled to the neutron generator. The moderator includes a neutron capture material. In operation, the neutron generator produces neutrons and the neutron capture material captures at least some of the neutrons to produces gammarays. An application of the gammaray generator is as a source of gammarays for calibration of gammaray detectors.

Electronic brachytherapy systems are being developed that can deliver X rays of varying energy depending on the material of a secondary target. A copper target produces characteristic 8 keV X rays. Our aim was to determine whether 8 keV X rays might deliver greater biological effectiveness than megavoltage photons. Cells of the U251 human glioma cell line were used to compare the biological effects of 8 keV X rays and (60)Co gammarays in terms of relative biological effectiveness (RBE), oxygen enhancement ratio (OER), and DNA damage. The RBE at 50% and 10% survival was 2.6 and 1.9, respectively. At 50% survival, the OER for cells treated with 8 keV X rays was 1.6 compared with 3.0 for (60)Co gammarays. The numbers of H2AX foci per Gy after treatment with 8 keV X rays and (60)Co gammarays were similar; however, the size of the foci generated at 8 keV was significantly larger, possibly indicating more complex DNA damage. The mean area of H2AX foci generated by 8 keV X rays was 0.785 microm(2) (95% CI: 0.756-0.814) compared with 0.491 microm(2) (95% CI: 0.462-0.520) for (60)Co gammarays (P < 0.0001). Characteristic 8 keV X rays produce two to three times the biological effectiveness of megavoltage photons, with a radiobiological profile similar to higher-LET radiations.

in loaded detonators and delays. The 317 KEVgammarays from an Ir192 source were collimated into a beam of 0.002 by 0.100 inch. A scanning system...minus 3%. With Ir192 , density measurements on NOL-130 were reproduced to plus or minus 5%, and on RDX to plus or minus 16%. Based on gammaray

The Arthur Holly Compton GammaRay Observatory (Compton) was launched by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on 5 April 1991. The spacecraft and instruments are in good health and returning exciting results. The mission provides nearly six orders of magnitude in spectral coverage, from 30 keV to 30 GeV, with sensitivity over the entire range an order of magnitude better than that of previous observations. The 16,000 kilogram observatory contains four instruments on a stabilized platform. The mission began normal operations on 16 May 1991 and is now over half-way through a full-sky survey. The mission duration is expected to be from six to ten years. A Science Support Center has been established at Goddard Space Flight Center for the purpose of supporting a vigorous Guest Investigator Program. New scientific results to date include: (1) the establishment of the isotropy, combined with spatial inhomogeneity, of the distribution of gamma-ray bursts in the sky; (2) the discovery of intense high energy (100 MeV) gamma-ray emission from 3C 279 and other quasars and BL Lac objects, making these the most distant and luminous gamma-ray sources ever detected; (3) one of the first images of a gamma-ray burst; (4) the observation of intense nuclear and position-annihilation gamma-ray lines and neutrons from several large solar flares; and (5) the detection of a third gamma-ray pulsar, plus several other transient and pulsing hard X-ray sources.

Gamma-rays are the highest-energy photons in the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM and their detection presents unique challenges. On one hand it is easy to detect γ-rays. The interaction cross-sections are large and above a few MeV the pair production interaction, the dominant γ-ray interaction with matter, is easily recognized. Gamma-ray detectors were far advanced when the concept of `γ-ray astronomy' ...

The discovery of cosmic gammaray bursts was made with systems designed at Los Alamos Laboratory for the detection of nuclear explosions beyond the atmosphere. HELIOS-2 was the first gammaray burst instrument launched; its initial results in 1976, seemed to deepen the mystery around gammaray transients. Interplanetary spacecraft data were reviewed in terms of explaining the behavior and source of the transients.

This monograph reviews the major theoretical and experimental efforts made during the past 12 years in gamma-ray astronomy over the energy range from 10 keV to about 100 MeV, where nuclear-transition lines are expected. Early attempts to detect celestial gammarays are recounted, mechanisms of gamma-ray line and continuum production are examined, and formulas giving the various possible differential gamma-ray spectral shapes are provided. Predicted fluxes are discussed for solar gammarays as well as for gamma emission from supernova remnants, supernovae, neutron stars, flare stars, the galactic core and disk, black holes, and diffuse sources. Gamma-ray interactions with matter are analyzed, particularly the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering from free electrons, and pair production in nuclear fields. Significant results are summarized for observations of gammarays from the sun as well as from point and extended sources within and beyond the Galaxy, including diffuse fluxes and transient gamma-ray bursts. Factors pertaining to the design of gamma-ray astronomy experiments are considered, especially detector background limitations, gamma-ray production within instruments, and present-day detection methods.

We present detailed observations of the bright short-hard gamma-ray burst GRB 090510 made with the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) and Large Area Telescope (LAT) on board the Fermi observatory. GRB 090510 is the first burst detected by the LAT that shows strong evidence for a deviation from a Band spectral fitting function during the prompt emission phase. The time-integrated spectrum is fit by the sum of a Band function with E peak = 3.9 ± 0.3 MeV, which is the highest yet measured, and a hard power-law component with photon index -1.62 ± 0.03 that dominates the emission below ≈20 keV and above ≈100 MeV. The onset of the high-energy spectral component appears to be delayed by ~0.1 s with respect to the onset of a component well fit with a single Band function. A faint GBM pulse and a LAT photon are detected 0.5 s before the main pulse. During the prompt phase, the LAT detected a photon with energy 30.5+5.8 -2.6 GeV, the highest ever measured from a short GRB. Observation of this photon sets a minimum bulk outflow Lorentz factor, Γgsim 1200, using simple γγ opacity arguments for this GRB at redshift z = 0.903 and a variability timescale on the order of tens of ms for the ≈100 keV-few MeV flux. Stricter high confidence estimates imply Γ >~ 1000 and still require that the outflows powering short GRBs are at least as highly relativistic as those of long-duration GRBs. Implications of the temporal behavior and power-law shape of the additional component on synchrotron/synchrotron self-Compton, external-shock synchrotron, and hadronic models are considered.

Kβ/Kα, intensity ratios and σKα,β production cross-sections of Cu and Sn were measured in pure metals and in different alloys which have different compositions (CuxSn1-x x=0.48, 0.41, 0.14 and 0.06). The samples were excited by 59.5 keV γ-rays from 241Am annular radioactive source. K X-rays emitted by samples were counted by an Ultra-LEGe detector with a resolution of 150 eV at 5.9 keV. Comparison of the σKβ production cross-sections and Kβ/Kα X-ray intensity ratio values for Cu and Sn with the theoretical and semi-empirical calculations indicates that they are in the inverse direction with concentration of constituent element in the alloys. The results show that variations in these parameters can be explained with the charge transfer process between the elements which constitute the alloys.

Conference papers on gammaray astrophysics are summarized. Data cover the energy region from about 0.3 MeV to a few hundred GeV and theoretical models of production mechanisms that give rise to both galactic and extragalactic gammarays.

The Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope has revolutionized the study of pulsar physics with the detection of over 80 gamma-ray pulsars. Several new populations have been discovered, including 24 radio quiet pulsars found through gamma-ray pulsations alone and about 20 millisecond gamma-ray pulsars. The gamma-ray pulsations from millisecond pulsars were discovered by both folding at periods of known radio millisecond pulsars or by detecting them as gamma-ray sources that are followed up by radio pulsar searches. The second method has resulted in a phenomenally successful synergy, with -35 new radio MSPs (to date) having been discovered at Fermi unidentified source locations and the gamma-ray pulsations having then been detected in a number of these using the radio timing solutions. The higher sensitivity and larger energy range of the Fermi Large Area Telescope has produced detailed energy-dependent light curves and phase-resolved spectroscopy on brighter pulsars, that have ruled out polar cap models as the major source of the emission in favor of outer magnetosphere accelerators. The large number of gamma-ray pulsars now allows for the first time meaningful population and sub-population studies that are revealing surprising properties of these fascinating sources.

Cosmic gammarays, the physical processes responsible for their production and the astrophysical sites from which they were seen are reported. The bulk of the observed gammaray emission is in the photon energy range from about 0.1 MeV to 1 GeV, where observations are carried out above the atmosphere. There are also, however, gammaray observations at higher energies obtained by detecting the Cerenkov light produced by the high energy photons in the atmosphere. Gammaray emission was observed from sources as close as the Sun and the Moon and as distant as the quasar 3C273, as well as from various other galactic and extragalactic sites. The radiation processes also range from the well understood, e.g. energetic particle interactions with matter, to the still incompletely researched, such as radiation transfer in optically thick electron positron plasmas in intense neutron star magnetic fields.

Miscellaneous tasks related to the development of the Bursts and Transient Source Experiment on the GammaRay Observatory and to analysis of archival data from balloon flight experiments were performed. The results are summarized and relevant references are included.

An overview is given of the GammaRay Observatory (GRO) mission. Detection of gammarays and gammaray sources, operations using the Space Shuttle, and instruments aboard the GRO, including the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), the Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment (OSSE), the Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL), and the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) are among the topics surveyed.

A gammaray camera is disclosed for detecting rays emanating from a radiation source such as an isotope. The gammaray camera includes a sensor array formed of a visible light crystal for converting incident gammarays to a plurality of corresponding visible light photons, and a photosensor array responsive to the visible light photons in order to form an electronic image of the radiation therefrom. The photosensor array is adapted to record an integrated amount of charge proportional to the incident gammarays closest to it, and includes a transparent metallic layer, photodiode consisting of a p-i-n structure formed on one side of the transparent metallic layer, and comprising an upper p-type layer, an intermediate layer and a lower n-type layer. In the preferred mode, the scintillator crystal is composed essentially of a cesium iodide (CsI) crystal preferably doped with a predetermined amount impurity, and the p-type upper intermediate layers and said n-type layer are essentially composed of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H). The gammaray camera further includes a collimator interposed between the radiation source and the sensor array, and a readout circuit formed on one side of the photosensor array. 6 figs.

The project has progressed successfully during this period of performance. The highlights of the GammaRay Astronomy teams efforts are: (1) Support daily BATSE data operations, including receipt, archival and dissemination of data, quick-look science analysis, rapid gamma-ray burst and transient monitoring and response efforts, instrument state-of-health monitoring, and instrument commanding and configuration; (2) On-going scientific analysis, including production and maintenance of gamma-ray burst, pulsed source and occultation source catalogs, gamma-ray burst spectroscopy, studies of the properties of pulsars and black holes, and long-term monitoring of hard x-ray sources; (3) Maintenance and continuous improvement of BATSE instrument response and calibration data bases; (4) Investigation of the use of solid state detectors for eventual application and instrument to perform all sky monitoring of X-Ray and Gamma sources with high sensitivity; and (5) Support of BATSE outreach activities, including seminars, colloquia and World Wide Web pages. The highlights of this efforts can be summarized in the publications and presentation list.

A gammaray camera for detecting rays emanating from a radiation source such as an isotope. The gammaray camera includes a sensor array formed of a visible light crystal for converting incident gammarays to a plurality of corresponding visible light photons, and a photosensor array responsive to the visible light photons in order to form an electronic image of the radiation therefrom. The photosensor array is adapted to record an integrated amount of charge proportional to the incident gammarays closest to it, and includes a transparent metallic layer, photodiode consisting of a p-i-n structure formed on one side of the transparent metallic layer, and comprising an upper p-type layer, an intermediate layer and a lower n-type layer. In the preferred mode, the scintillator crystal is composed essentially of a cesium iodide (CsI) crystal preferably doped with a predetermined amount impurity, and the p-type upper intermediate layers and said n-type layer are essentially composed of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H). The gammaray camera further includes a collimator interposed between the radiation source and the sensor array, and a readout circuit formed on one side of the photosensor array.

The only previous space instrument which had sufficient spectral resolution and directionality for the resolution of astrophysical sources was the Gamma-Ray Spectrometer carried by HEAO-3. A broad variety of astrophysical investigations entail gamma-ray spectroscopy of E/Delta-E resolving power of the order of 500 at 1 MeV; it is presently argued that a sensitivity to narrow gamma-ray lines of a few millionths ph/sq cm, from about 10 keV to about 10 MeV, should typify the gamma-ray spectrometers of prospective missions. This performance is achievable with technology currently under development, and could be applied to the NASA's planned Nuclear Astrophysics Explorer.

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are bright flashes of gamma-rays coming from the cosmos. They occur roughly once per day ,last typically lOs of seconds and are the most luminous events in the universe. More than three decades after their discovery, and after pioneering advances from space and ground experiments, they still remain mysterious. The launch of the Swift and Fermi satellites in 2004 and 2008 brought in a trove of qualitatively new data. In this review we survey the interplay between these recent observations and the theoretical models of the prompt GRB emission and the subsequent afterglows.

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) is an international space mission that will study the cosmos in the energy range 10 keV-300 GeV, the upper end of which is one of the last poorly observed region of the celestial electromagnetic spectrum. The ancestor of the GLAST/LAT was the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) detector, which flew onboard the Compton GammaRay Observatory (CGRO). The amount of information and the step forward that the high energy astrophysics made thanks to its 9 years of observations are impressive. Nevertheless, EGRET uncovered the tip of the iceberg, raising many questions, and it is in the light of EGRET's results that the great potential of the next generation gamma-ray telescope can be appreciated. GLAST will have an imaging gamma-ray telescope, the Large Area Telescope (LAT) vastly more capable than instruments own previously, as well as a secondary instrument, the GLAST Bursts Monitor, or GBM, to augment the study of gamma-ray bursts. Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) science is one of the most exciting challenges for the GLAST mission, exploring the high energy emission of one of the most intense phenomena in the sky, shading light on various problems: from the acceleration of particles to the emission processes, to more exotic physics like Quantum Gravity effect. In this paper we report the work done so far in the simulation development as well as the study of the LAT sensitivity to GRB.

The recent launches of GRANAT and GRO provide unprecedented opportunities to study compact collapsed objects from their hard x ray and gammaray emissions. The spectral range above 100 keV can now be explored with much higher sensitivity and time resolution than before. The soft gammaray spectral data is reviewed of black holes and neutron stars, radiation, and particle energization mechanisms and potentially distinguishing gammaray signatures. These may include soft x ray excesses versus deficiencies, thermal versus nonthermal processes, transient gammaray bumps versus power law tails, lines, and periodicities. Some of the highest priority future observations are outlines which will shed much light on such systems.

The 1001 keVgamma line of (234m)Pa became important in gamma spectrometric measurements of samples with (238)U content with the advent of development of HpGe detectors of great dimension and high efficiency. In this study the emission probability of the 1001 keV (Y(gamma)) peak of (234m)Pa, was determined by gamma-ray spectrometric measurements performed on glass with Uranium content using Monte Carlo simulation code for efficiency calibration. This method of calculation was not applied for the values quoted in literature so far, at least to our knowledge. The measurements gave an average of 0.836 +/- 0.022%, a value that is in very good agreement to some of the recent results previously presented.

The Galactic diffuse soft gamma-ray (30-800 keV) emission has been measured from the Galactic center by the High Resolution Gamma-Ray and Hard X-Ray Spectrometer balloon-borne germanium instrument to determine the spectral characteristics and origin of the emission. The resulting Galactic diffuse continuum is found to agree well with a single power law (plus positronium) over the entire energy range, consistent with RXTE and COMPTEL/Compton GammaRay Observatory observations at lower and higher energies, respectively. We find no evidence of spectral steepening below 200 keV, as has been reported in previous observations. The spatial distribution along the Galactic ridge is found to be nearly flat, with upper limits set on the longitudinal gradient and with no evidence of an edge in the observed region. The soft gamma-ray diffuse spectrum is well modeled by inverse Compton scattering of interstellar radiation off of cosmic-ray electrons, minimizing the need to invoke inefficient nonthermal bremsstrahlung emission. The resulting power requirement is well within that provided by Galactic supernovae. We speculate that the measured spectrum provides the first direct constraints on the cosmic-ray electron spectrum below 300 MeV.

The scope of the GEL 1 and 2 balloon-borne gammaray telescope experiments is described. The gammaray spectrometer to be used on GEL 1 is described. It is designed to study the nature of the Galactic center positron annihilation 511 KeV line. The telescope effect is achieved through the aperture angle formed by the gammaray spectrometer anticoincidence crystals. The balloon gondola and onboard instrumentation of the balloon are described.

This report documents the research activities performed by Stanford University investigators as part of the data reduction effort and overall support of the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton Observatory. This report is arranged chronologically, with each subsection detailing activities during roughly a one year period of time, beginning in June 1991.

Miscellaneous tasks related to the development of the Burst and Transient Source Experiment on the GammaRay Observatory and to collection, analysis, and interpretation of data from the MSFC Very Low Frequency transient monitoring program were performed. The results are summarized and relevant references are included.

Miscellaneous tasks related to mission operations and data analysis for the Burst and Transient Source Experiment on the GammaRay Observatory, to collection, analysis, and interpretation of data from the Marshall Space Flight Center Very Low Frequency transient monitoring program, and to compilation and analysis of induced radioactivity data were performed. The results are summarized and relevant references are included.

The gamma-ray sky offers a unique view into broad range of astrophysical phenomena, from nearby solar flares, to galactic pulsars, to gamma-ray bursts at the furthest reaches of the Universe. The Fermi mission has dramatically demonstrated the broad range of topics that can be addressed by gamma-ray observations. The full range of gamma-ray energies is quite broad, covering the electromagnetic spectrum at energies above about 100 keV. The energy range below several hundred GeV is the domain of space-based gamma-ray observatories, a range that is not completely covered by the Fermi LAT instrument. The gammaray community has recently embarked on an effort to define the next steps for space-based gammaray astronomy. These discussions are being facilitated through the Gamma-ray Science Interest Group (GammaSIG), which exists to provide community input to NASA in regards to current and future needs of the gamma-ray astrophysics community. The GammaSIG, as a part of the Physics of the Cosmos Program Analysis Group, provides a forum open to all members of the gamma-ray community. The GammaSIG is currently working to bring the community together with a common vision that will be expressed in the form of a community roadmap. This talk will summarize some of the latest results from active gammaray observatories, including both Fermi and INTEGRAL, and will summarize the status of the community roadmap effort.

INTEGRAL is dedicated to the fine spectroscopy and imaging of celestial gammaray sources in the energy range 15 keV to 10 MeV. The instruments on INTEGRAL will achieve a gammaray line sensitivity of 3 times 10 to the minus 6th power ph/sq cm/s, a continuum sensitivity of 3 times 10 to the minus 8th power ph/sq cm/s/keV at 1 MeV (approximately 10 mCrab at 1 MeV) and imaging with an angular resolution of better than 20 minutes. This represents an order of magnitude improvement over the GammaRay Observatory (GRO) in line sensitivity, energy resolution and angular resolution. Comparison with the low energy gammaray telescope Sigma also shows a major advance: the continuum sensitivity improvement is considerably more than one order of magnitude between 100 keV and 1 MeV; and the narrow line sensitivity is increased by nearly two orders of magnitude. INTEGRAL consists of two main instruments: a germanium spectrometer and a caesium iodide coded aperture mask imager. These instruments are supplemented by two monitors: an X-ray monitor and an optical transient camera.

The gamma-ray spectrometer on SMM is sensitive to bursts within its field of view with intensities greater than 0.000005 erg/sq cm above 100 keV. It has detected 17 events between February 1980 and March 1981 with the characteristics of cosmic gamma-ray bursts. The most intense burst, on 19 April 1980, had a photon spectrum consistent with a power law with spectral index - 2.5 from 300 keV to approximately 7 MeV. It is not possible at present to exclude the sun as the source of this burst. Spectra of 11 of the bursts have been studied for line features with no clear evidence for line emission greater than 300 keV. The continuum radiation from about half of these events have hard emission extending to approximately equal to or greater than 2 MeV.

The Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) is one of four instruments on the Compton observatory which was launched by the space shuttle Atlantis on April 5, 1991. As of mid-March, 1994, BATSE detected more than 925 cosmic gamma-ray bursts and more than 725 solar flares. Pulsed gammarays have been detected from at least 16 sources and emission from at least 28 sources (including most of the pulsed sources) has been detected by the earth occultation technique. UAH participation in BATSE is extensive but can be divided into two main areas, operations and data analysis. The daily BATSE operations tasks represent a substantial level of effort and involve a large team composed of MSFC personnel as well as contractors such as UAH. The scientific data reduction and analysis of BATSE data is also a substantial level of effort in which UAH personnel have made significant contributions.

Observations of gammarays from solar flares, gammaray bursts, the Galactic center, galactic nucleosynthesis, SS433, and Cygnus X-3, and their effects on astrophysical problems are discussed. It is observed that gammaray spectra from solar flares are applicable to the study of particle acceleration and confinement and the determination of chemical abundances in the solar atmosphere. The gammaray lines from the compact galactic object SS433 are utilized to examine the acceleration of jets, and analysis of the gammaray lines of Cygnus X-3 reveal that particles can be accelerated in compact sources to ultrahigh energies.

One of the main scientific objectives of the ongoing Fermi mission is unveiling the nature of the unidentified {gamma}-ray sources (UGSs). Despite the large improvements of Fermi in the localization of {gamma}-ray sources with respect to the past {gamma}-ray missions, about one third of the Fermi-detected objects are still not associated to low energy counterparts. Recently, using the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) survey, we discovered that blazars, the rarest class of Active Galactic Nuclei and the largest population of {gamma}-ray sources, can be recognized and separated from other extragalactic sources on the basis of their infrared (IR) colors. Based on this result, we designed an association method for the {gamma}-ray sources to recognize if there is a blazar candidate within the positional uncertainty region of a generic {gamma}-ray source. With this new IR diagnostic tool, we searched for {gamma}-ray blazar candidates associated to the UGS sample of the second Fermi {gamma}-ray catalog (2FGL). We found that our method associates at least one {gamma}-ray blazar candidate as a counterpart each of 156 out of 313 UGSs analyzed. These new low-energy candidates have the same IR properties as the blazars associated to {gamma}-ray sources in the 2FGL catalog.

The radiation is an essential phenomenon in daily life. There are various amounts of radioactivite substances in the underground and the earth was irradiated by this substances. Humans are exposed to various kind of radiation from these sources. The travertines are usually used as a coating material in buildings. In this study, the photon attenuation coefficients of some travertines have been measured using a gamma spectroscopy with NaI(Tl) detector. The measurements have been performed using {sup 60}Co source which gives 1173 and 1332 keV energies gammarays and {sup 137}Cs source which gives 662 keV energy gammarays and the results will be discussed.

the next- generation high- energy gamma- ray observatory covering the photon energy range from 10 keV to more than 100 GeV. NRL was responsible for...model. We describe these dependences and construct a self-consistent approach to the analysis of high- energy flare data that provides an optimum set...electromagnetic spec- trum: radio, visible, UV, X-rays, and gammarays. The energy released in a solar flare can be greater than 1032 ergs, enough

The gamma-ray sky offers a unique view into broad range of high energy astrophysical phenomena, from nearby solar flares, to galactic pulsars, to gamma-ray bursts at the furthest reaches of the Universe. In recent years, results from the Fermi mission have further demonstrated the broad range of topics that can be addressed by gamma-ray observations. The full range of gamma-ray energies is quite broad, from about 100 keV up to about 100 TeV. The energy range below several hundred GeV is the domain of space-based gamma-ray observatories, a range that is not completely covered by the Fermi LAT instrument. The gammaray community has embarked on an effort to define the next steps for space-based gammaray astronomy. These discussions are being facilitated through the Gamma-ray Science Interest Group (GammaSIG), which exists to provide community input to NASA in regards to current and future needs of the gamma-ray astrophysics community. Through a series of workshops and symposia, the GammaSIG is working to bring the community together with one common vision, a vision that will be expressed in the form of a community roadmap. This talk will summarize some of the latest results from active gammaray observatories and will summarize the status of the community roadmap effort.

Gammaray astronomy represents the study of the universe on the basis of the electromagnetic radiation with the highest energy. Gammaray astronomy provides a crucial tool for the understanding of astronomical phenomena, taking into account nucleosynthesis in supernovae, black holes, active galaxies, quasars, the sources of cosmic rays, neutron stars, and matter-antimatter annihilation. Difficulties concerning the conduction of studies by gammaray astronomy are related to the necessity to perform such studies far from earth because the atmosphere is a source of gammarays. Studies involving the use of gammaray instruments in earth orbit have been conducted, and more gammaray astronomy observations are planned for the future. Imperfections of studies conducted in low earth orbit could be overcome by estalishing an observatory on the moon which represents a satellite orbiting at 60 earth radii. Details concerning such an observatory are discussed.

The most important observational characteristics of gamma-ray bursts are reviewed, with emphasis on X-ray and gamma-ray data. The observations are used to derive some basic properties of the sources. The sources are found to be isotropically distributed; the burster population is limited in space, and the edge of the distribution is visible.

The solid-state hard X-ray imager of AGILE gamma-ray mission -- SuperAGILE -- has a six arcmin on-axis angular resolution in the 15-45 keV range, a field of view in excess of 1 steradian. The instrument is very light: 5 kg only. It is equipped with an on-board self triggering logic, image deconvolution, and it is able to transmit the coordinates of a GRB to the ground in real-time through the ORBCOMM constellation of satellites. Photon by photon Scientific Data are sent to the Malindi ground station at every contact. In this paper we review the performance of the SuperAGILE experiment (scheduled for a launch in the middle of 2006), after its first onground calibrations, and show the perspectives for GammaRay Bursts.

The IAEA established a Coordinated Research Program (CRP) on the measurements and evaluation of x- and gamma-ray standards for detector efficiency calibration in 1986 with the aim of alleviating the generation of such discrepancies. Within the framework of this CRP, representatives of nine research groups from six member states and one international organization performed a number of precise measurements and systematic in-depth evaluations of the required decay data. They have also contributed to the development of evaluation methodology and measurement techniques, and stimulated a number of such studies at laboratories not directly involved in the IAEA project. The results of the work of the CRP, which was finished in 1990, are presented in this report. Recommended values of half-lives and photon emission probabilities are given for a carefully selected set of radionuclides that are suitable for detector efficiency calibration (x-rays from 5 to 90 keV and gamma-rays from 30 to about 3000 keV). Detector efficiency calibration for higher gamma-ray energies (up to 14 MeV) is also considered. The evaluation procedures used to obtain the recommended values and their estimated uncertainties are reported, and a summary of the remaining discrepancies is given.

AGILE will explore the gamma-ray Universe with a very innovative instrument combining for the first time a gamma-ray imager and a hard X-ray imager. AGILE will be operational in spring 2007 and it will provide crucial data for the study of Active Galactic Nuclei, Gamma-Ray Bursts, unidentified gamma-ray sources. Galactic compact objects, supernova remnants, TeV sources, and fundamental physics by microsecond timing. The AGILE instrument is designed to simultaneously detect and image photons in the 30 MeV - 50 GeV and 15 - 45 keV energy bands with excellent imaging and timing capabilities, and a large field of view covering {approx} 1/5 of the entire sky at energies above 30 MeV. A CsI calorimeter is capable of GRB triggering in the energy band 0.3-50 MeV AGILE is now (March 2007) undergoing launcher integration and testing. The PLSV launch is planned in spring 2007. AGILE is then foreseen to be fully operational during the summer of 2007.

We are in an exciting period of discovery for gamma-ray bursts. The Swift observatory is detecting 100 bursts per year, providing arcsecond localizations and sensitive observations of the prompt and afterglow emission. The Fermi observatory is observing 250 bursts per year with its medium-energy GRB instrument and about 10 bursts per year with its high-energy LAT instrument. In addition, rapid-response telescopes on the ground are providing new capabilities to study optical emission during the prompt phase and spectral signatures of the host galaxies. The combined data set is enabling great advances in our understanding of GRBs including afterglow physics, short burst origin, and high energy emission.

The Arthur Holly Compton GammaRay Observatory Compton) is the second in NASA's series of great Observatories. Launched on 1991 April 5, Compton represents a dramatic increase in capability over previous gamma-ray missions. The spacecraft and scientific instruments are all in good health, and many significant discoveries have already been made. We describe the capabilities of the four scientific instruments, and the observing program of the first 2 years of the mission. Examples of early discoveries by Compton are enumerated, including the discovery that gamma-ray bursts are isotropic but spatially inhomogeneous in their distribution; the discovery of a new class of high-energy extragalacatic gamma-ray sources, the gamma-ray AGNs; the discovery of emission from SN 1987A in the nuclear line of Co-57; and the mapping of emission from Al-26 in the interstellar medium (ISM) near the Galactic center. Future observations will include deep surveys of selected regions of the sky, long-tem studies of individual objects, correlative studies of objects at gamma-ray and other energies, a Galactic plane survey at intermediate gamma-ray energies, and improved statistics on gamma-ray bursts to search for small anisotropies. After completion of the all-sky survey, a Guest Investigator program is in progress with guest observers' time share increasing from 30% upward for the late mission phases.

The Arthur Holly Compton GammaRay Observatory Compton) is the second in NASA's series of great Observatories. Launched on 1991 April 5, Compton represents a dramatic increase in capability over previous gamma-ray missions. The spacecraft and scientific instruments are all in good health, and many significant discoveries have already been made. We describe the capabilities of the four scientific instruments, and the observing program of the first 2 years of the mission. Examples of early discoveries by Compton are enumerated, including the discovery that gamma-ray bursts are isotropic but spatially inhomogeneous in their distribution; the discovery of a new class of high-energy extragalacatic gamma-ray sources, the gamma-ray AGNs; the discovery of emission from SN 1987A in the nuclear line of Co-57; and the mapping of emission from Al-26 in the interstellar medium (ISM) near the Galactic center. Future observations will include deep surveys of selected regions of the sky, long-tem studies of individual objects, correlative studies of objects at gamma-ray and other energies, a Galactic plane survey at intermediate gamma-ray energies, and improved statistics on gamma-ray bursts to search for small anisotropies. After completion of the all-sky survey, a Guest Investigator program is in progress with guest observers' time share increasing from 30% upward for the late mission phases.

High energy gammaray astronomy has evolved with the space age. Nonexistent twenty-five years ago, there is now a general sketch of the gammaray sky which should develop into a detailed picture with the results expected to be forthcoming over the next decade. The galactic plane is the dominant feature of the gammaray sky, the longitude and latitude distribution being generally correlated with galactic structural features including the spiral arms. Two molecular clouds were already seen. Two of the three strongest gammaray sources are pulsars. The highly variable X-ray source Cygnus X-3 was seen at one time, but not another in the 100 MeV region, and it was also observed at very high energies. Beyond the Milky Way Galaxy, there is seen a diffuse radiation, whose origin remains uncertain, as well as at least one quasar, 3C 273. Looking to the future, the satellite opportunities for high energy gammaray astronomy in the near term are the GAMMA-I planned to be launched in late 1987 and the GammaRay Observatory, scheduled for launch in 1990. The GammaRay Observatory will carry a total of four instruments covering the entire energy range from 30,000 eV to 3 x 10 to the 10th eV with over an order of magnitude increase in sensitivity relative to previous satellite instruments.

The scientific objectives of the Sneg-3 experiment are examined. The gamma-ray spectrometer installed on the French Sneg-3 satellite has 14 differential channels in the 20 keV to 10 MeV range and 256 channels for amplitude analysis in the 200 keV to 2.5 MeV range. The processing of Helios, Prognoz-6 (Sneg-2MP), and Sneg-3 data has made it possible to localize transient gamma-ray sources by the triangulation method.

High-energy gammarays are a valuable tool for studying particle acceleration and radiation in the magnetospheres of energetic pulsars. The seven or more pulsars seen by instruments on the Compton GammaRay Observatory (CGRO) show that: the light curves usually have double-peak structures (suggesting a broad cone of emission); gammarays are frequently the dominant component of the radiated power; and all the spectra show evidence of a high-energy turnover. For all the known gamma-ray pulsars, multiwavelength observations and theoretical models based on such observations offer the prospect of gaining a broad understanding of these rotating neutron stars. The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST), now in planning for a launch in 2006, will provide a major advance in sensitivity, energy range, and sky coverage.

Photon-photon pair production in active galaxies is considered, and the concept of the annihilation efficiency, the efficiency of the conversion of continuum luminosity of greater than 511 keV into positron annihilation luminosity, is introduced. Equations that give the source's annihilation luminosity and 511-keV flux as a function of its size, continuum luminosity and distance are developed. These are applied to the available X-ray and gamma-ray data on active galaxies in order to make specific predictions. Efficiencies as high as over 6 percent and fluxes up to 0.0008 ph/sq cm s result. While the latter are below present limits, they are within the reach of advanced instruments now in development.

A lasing cylinder emits laser radiation at a gamma-ray wavelength of 0.87 .ANG. when subjected to an intense neutron flux of about 400 eV neutrons. A 250 .ANG. thick layer of Be is provided between two layers of 100 .ANG. thick layer of .sup.57 Co and these layers are supported on a foil substrate. The coated foil is coiled to form the lasing cylinder. Under the neutron flux .sup.57 Co becomes .sup.58 Co by neutron absorption. The .sup.58 Co then decays to .sup.57 Fe by 1.6 MeV proton emission. .sup.57 Fe then transitions by mesne decay to a population inversion for lasing action at 14.4 keV. Recoil from the proton emission separates the .sup.57 Fe from the .sup.57 Co and into the Be, where Mossbauer emission occurs at a gamma-ray wavelength.

We report on the performance of our NTD-Ge microcalorimeters. To date, the spectral resolution for x-ray and gamma-ray lines from radioactive sources and laboratory plasmas is 4.8 eV in the entire 1 - 6 keV band and 52 eV at 60 keV. Technical details responsible for this performance are presented as well as an innovative electro-thermal approach for enhancing count-rate capability.

Discovered serendipitously in the late 1960s, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are huge explosions of energy that happen at cosmological distances. They provide a grand physical playground to those who study them, from relativistic effects such as beaming, jets, shocks and blastwaves to radiation mechanisms such as synchrotron radiation to galatic and stellar populations and history. Through the Swift and Fermi space telescopes dedicated to observing GRBs over a wide range of energies (from keV to GeV), combined with accurate pinpointing that allows ground based follow-up observations in the optical, infrared and radio, a rich tapestry of GRB observations has emerged. The general picture is of a mysterious central engine (CE) probably composed of a black hole or neutron star that ejects relativistic shells of matter into intense magnetic fields. These shells collide and combine, releasing energy in "internal shocks" accounting for the prompt emission and flaring we see and the "external shock" or plowing of the first blastwave into the ambient surrounding medium has well-explained the afterglow radiation. We have developed a shell model code to address the question of how X-ray flares are produced within the framework of the internal shock model. The shell model creates randomized GRB explosions from a central engine with multiple shells and follows those shells as they collide, merge and spread, producing prompt emission and X-ray flares. We have also included a blastwave model, which can constrain X-ray flares and explain the origin of high energy (GeV) emission seen by the Fermi telescope. Evidence suggests that gamma-ray prompt emission and X-ray flares share a common origin and that at least some flares can only be explained by long-lasting central engine activity. We pay special attention to the time history of central engine activity, internal shocks, and observed flares. We calculate the gamma-ray (Swift/BAT band) and X-ray (Swift/XRT band) lightcurves for arbitrary

A new digital logarithmic airborne gammaray spectrometer is designed in this study. The spectrometer adopts a high-speed and high-accuracy logarithmic amplifier (LOG114) to amplify the pulse signal logarithmically and to improve the utilization of the ADC dynamic range because the low-energy pulse signal has a larger gain than the high-energy pulse signal. After energy calibration, the spectrometer can clearly distinguish photopeaks at 239, 352, 583 and 609 keV in the low-energy spectral sections. The photopeak energy resolution of 137Cs improves to 6.75% from the original 7.8%. Furthermore, the energy resolution of three photopeaks, namely, K, U, and Th, is maintained, and the overall stability of the energy spectrum is increased through potassium peak spectrum stabilization. Thus, it is possible to effectively measure energy from 20 keV to 10 MeV.

We have compiled a complete, significance limited extragalactic sample based on approximately 25,000 deg(sup 2) to a limiting flux of 3 x 10(exp -11) ergs per square centimeter per second. (approximately 7,000 deg(sup 2)) to a flux limit of 10(exp -11) ergs per square centimeter per second)) in the 20 - 40 keV band with INTEGRAL. We have constructed a detailed exposure map to compensate for effects of non-uniform exposure. The flux-number relation is best described by a power-law with a slope of alpha = 1.66 plus or minus 0.11. The integration of the cumulative flux per unit area leads to f(sub 20-40 keV) = 2.6 x 10(exp -10) ergs per square centimeter per second per sr(sup -1) which is about 1% of the known 20-40 keV X-ray background. We present the first luminosity function of AGN in the 20-40 keV energy range, based on 68 extragalactic objects detected by the imager IBIS/ISGRI on-board INTEGRAL. The luminosity function shows a smoothly connected two power-law form, with an index of gamma (sub 1) = 0.9 below, and gamma (sub 2) = 2.2 above the turn-over luminosity of L(sub *), = 4.6 x 10(sup 43) ergs per second. The emissivity of all INTEGRAL AGNs per unit volume is W(sub 20-40keV)(greater than 10(sup 41) ergs per second) = 2.8 x 10(sup 38) ergs per second h(sup 3)(sub 70) Mpc(sup -3). These results are consistent with those derived in the 2-20keV energy band and do not show a significant contribution by Compton-thick objects. Because the sample used in this study is truly local (z(raised bar) = 0.022)), only limited conclusions can be drawn for the evolution of AGNs in this energy band. But the objects explaining the peak in the cosmic X-ray background are likely to be either low luminosity AGN (L(sub x) less than 10(sup 41) ergs per second) or of other type, such as intermediate mass black holes, clusters, and star forming regions.

The French Space Agency (CNES) in collaboration with the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) are developing a new mission aiming at studying Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) called SVOM (Space-based multi-band astronomical Variable Objects Monitor). The mission will consist of a set of space borne instruments and a set of ground based ones. The space borne instruments include two wide field of view gamma-ray instruments, and two narrow field ones operating in the X-ray and visible domains. The two gamma-ray instruments are a coded mask soft-gammaray imager (4-250 keV), ECLAIRs, with a 2 sr field of view, which detects and localizes in real time GRB candidates, and a gamma-ray spectrometer (50 keV-5 MeV), GRM, with the same field of view as ECLAIRs, but without imaging capabilities. The narrow field instruments, used after an autonomous satellite slew for fine localization and afterglow studies, are MXT (0.2-10 keV) and VT (400-950 nm). The space borne instruments are complemented on ground by two dedicated robotic telescopes (GFTs), designed for position refinement and early afterglow studies, and a set of ground wide angle cameras (GWACs) that aim at monitoring the field of view of ECLAIRs with the goal of detecting the prompt optical emission of GRBs.

Gamma-ray astronomy which includes the spectral region from above approximately 100 keV to greater than or equal to 1000 GeV permits investigation of the most energetic photons originating in our galaxy and beyond and provides the most direct means of studying the largest transfers of energy occurring in astrophysical processes. Of all the electromagnetic spectrum, high-energy gamma-ray astronomy measures most directly the presence and dynamic effects of the energetic charged cosmic ray particles, element synthesis, and particle acceleration. Further, gammarays suffer negligible absorption or scatterings as they travel in straight paths; hence, they may survive billions of years and still reveal their source. The high energy processes in stellar objects (including our Sun), the dynamics of the cosmic-ray gas, the formation of clouds and nebulae, galactic evolution and even certain aspects of cosmology and the origin of the universe may be explored by gamma-ray observations.

The imaging Compton telescope COMPTEL on the GammaRay Observatory (GRO) has unusual spectroscopic capabilities for measuring solar gamma-ray and neutron emission. The launch of the GRO is scheduled for June 1990 near the peak of the sunspot cycle. With a 30 to 40 percent probability for the Sun being in the COMPTEL field-of-view during the sunlit part of an orbit, a large number of flares will be observed above the 800 keVgamma-ray threshold of the telescope. The telescope energy range extends to 30 MeV with high time resolution burst spectra available from 0.1 to 10 MeV. Strong Compton tail suppression of instrumental gamma-ray interactions will facilitate improved spectral analysis of solar flare emissions. In addition, the high signal to noise ratio for neutron detection and measurement will provide new neutron spectroscopic capabilities. Specifically, a flare similar to that of 3 June 1982 will provide spectroscopic data on greater than 1500 individual neutrons, enough to construct an unambiguous spectrum in the energy range of 20 to 200 MeV. Details of the instrument and its response to solar gamma-rays and neutrons will be presented.

The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer is designed to make prompt multi-wavelength observations of Gamma-Ray Bursts and GRB afterglows. The X-ray Telescope enables Swift to determine GRB positions with a few arcseconds accuracy within 100 seconds of the burst onset. The XRT utilizes a mirror set built for JET-X and an XMM-Newton/ EPIC MOS CCD detector to provide a sensitive broad-band (0.2-10 keV) X-ray imager with an effective area of more than 120 sq cm at 1.5 keV, a field of view of 23.6 x 23.6 arcminutes, and an angular resolution of 18 arcseconds (HPD). The detection sensitivity is 2x10(exp 14) erg/sq cm/s in 10(exp 4) seconds. The instrument provides automated source detection and position reporting within 5 seconds of target acquisition. It can also measure the redshifts of GRBs with Iron line emission or other spectral features. The XRT operates in an auto-exposure mode, adjusting the CCD readout mode automatically to optimize the science return as the source intensity fades. The XRT measures spectra and lightcurves of the GRB afterglow beginning about a minute after the burst and follows each burst for days or weeks. We provide an overview of the X-ray Telescope scientific background from which the systems engineering requirements were derived, with specific emphasis on the design and qualification aspects from conception through to launch. We describe the impact on cleanliness and vacuum requirements for the instrument low energy response and to maintain the high sensitivity to the fading signal of the Gamma-ray Bursts.

The gamma-ray band is the most energetic part of the electromagnetic spectrum. As such it is also where selection effects are most severe, as it can only be reached by the most extreme non-thermal AGN. Blazars, with their emission dominated by non-thermal blue-shifted radiation arising in a relativistic jet pointed in the direction of the observer, naturally satisfy this though requirement. For this reason, albeit these sources are intrisically very rare (orders of magnitude less abundant than radio quiet AGN of the same optical magnitude) they almost completely dominate the extragalactic gamma-ray and very high energy sky. I will discuss the emission of different types of blazars and the selection effects that are at play in the gamma-ray band based on recent results from the current generation of gamma-ray astronomy satellites, ground-based Cherenkov telescopes, and Monte Carlo simulations.

Fermi is a large space gamma-ray mission developed by NASA and the DOE with major contributions from France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Sweden. It was launched in June 2008 and has been performing flawlessly since then. The main instrument is the Large Area Telescope (LAT) operating in the 20 MeV to 300 GeV range and a smaller monitor instrument is the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) operating in the 8 keV to 40 MeV range. New findings are occurring every week. Some of the key discoveries are: 1) Discovery of many new gamma-ray pulsars, including gamma-ray only and millisecond pulsars. 2) Detection of high energy gamma-ray emission from globular clusters, most likely due to summed emission from msec pulsars. 3) Discovery of delayed and extended high energy gamma-ray emission from short and long gamma-ray busts. 4) Detection of approximately 250 gamma-ray bursts per year with the GBM instrument. 5) Most accurate measurement of the cosmic ray electron spectrum between 30 GeV and 1 TeV, showing some excess above the conventional diffusion model. The talk will present the new discoveries and their implications.

We calculate the {gamma}-ray albedo flux from cosmic-ray (CR) interactions with the solid rock and ice in Main Belt asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) using the Moon as a template. We show that the {gamma}-ray albedo for the Main Belt and KBOs strongly depends on the small-body mass spectrum of each system and may be detectable by the forthcoming GammaRay Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST). If detected, it can be used to derive the mass spectrum of small bodies in the Main Belt and Kuiper Belt and to probe the spectrum of CR nuclei at close-to-interstellar conditions. The orbits of the Main Belt asteroids and KBOs are distributed near the ecliptic, which passes through the Galactic center and high Galactic latitudes. Therefore, the {gamma}-ray emission by the Main Belt and Kuiper Belt has to be taken into account when analyzing weak {gamma}-ray sources close to the ecliptic. The asteroid albedo spectrum also exhibits a 511 keV line due to secondary positrons annihilating in the rock. This may be an important and previously unrecognized celestial foreground for the INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) observations of the Galactic 511 keV line emission including the direction of the Galactic center. For details of our calculations and references see [1].

A directional detector of gammarays comprises a strip of an electrical cuctor of high atomic number backed with a strip of a second electrical conductor of low atomic number. These elements are enclosed within an electrical conductor that establishes an electrical ground, maintains a vacuum enclosure and screens out low-energy gammarays. The detector exhibits a directional sensitivity marked by an increased output in the favored direction by a factor of ten over the output in the unfavored direction.

The application of liquid xenon in high-resolution detectors for gamma-ray astronomy is being investigated. Initial results from a pulse-shape analysis of ionization signals in a liquid-xenon gridded chamber indicate that it is possible to achieve the necessary liquid purity for the transport of free electrons with simple techniques. The energy resolution has been measured as a function of applied electric field, using electrons and gamma-rays from a 207Bi source. At a field of 12 kV/cm the noise-substracted energy resolution of the dominant 569-keVgamma-ray line is 34 keV FWHM (full width at half maximum). This value is mostly determined by recombination of electron-ion pairs on delta-electron tracks.

The Gamma-ray Large Area space Telescope, GLAST, is a mission to measure the cosmic gamma-ray flux in the energy range 20 MeV to >300 GeV, with supporting measurements for gamma-ray bursts from 8 keV to 30 MeV. The very large field of view will make it possible to observe 20% of the sky at any instant, and the entire sky on a timescale of a few hours. With its upcoming launch, GLAST will open a new and important window on a wide variety of phenomena, including black holes and active galactic nuclei; the optical-UV extragalactic background light, gamma-ray bursts; the origin of cosmic rays and supernova remnants; and searches for hypothetical new phenomena such as supersymmetric dark matter annihilations. In addition to the science opportunities, this talk includes a description of the instruments, the opportunities for guest investigators, and the mission status.

This photograph shows the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory being released from the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) arm aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis during the STS-35 mission in April 1991. The GRO reentered the Earth's atmosphere and ended its successful mission in June 2000. For nearly 9 years, GRO's Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), designed and built by the Marshall Space Flight Center, kept an unblinking watch on the universe to alert scientist to the invisible, mysterious gamma-ray bursts that had puzzled them for decades. By studying gamma-rays from objects like black holes, pulsars, quasars, neutron stars, and other exotic objects, scientists could discover clues to the birth, evolution, and death of star, galaxies, and the universe. The gamma-ray instrument was one of four major science instruments aboard the Compton. It consisted of eight detectors, or modules, located at each corner of the rectangular satellite to simultaneously scan the entire universe for bursts of gamma-rays ranging in duration from fractions of a second to minutes. In January 1999, the instrument, via the Internet, cued a computer-controlled telescope at Las Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, within 20 seconds of registering a burst. With this capability, the gamma-ray experiment came to serve as a gamma-ray burst alert for the Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, and major gound-based observatories around the world. Thirty-seven universities, observatories, and NASA centers in 19 states, and 11 more institutions in Europe and Russia, participated in BATSE's science program.

This photograph shows the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (GRO) being deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) arm aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis during the STS-37 mission in April 1991. The GRO reentered Earth atmosphere and ended its successful mission in June 2000. For nearly 9 years, the GRO Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), designed and built by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), kept an unblinking watch on the universe to alert scientists to the invisible, mysterious gamma-ray bursts that had puzzled them for decades. By studying gamma-rays from objects like black holes, pulsars, quasars, neutron stars, and other exotic objects, scientists could discover clues to the birth, evolution, and death of stars, galaxies, and the universe. The gamma-ray instrument was one of four major science instruments aboard the Compton. It consisted of eight detectors, or modules, located at each corner of the rectangular satellite to simultaneously scan the entire universe for bursts of gamma-rays ranging in duration from fractions of a second to minutes. In January 1999, the instrument, via the Internet, cued a computer-controlled telescope at Las Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, within 20 seconds of registering a burst. With this capability, the gamma-ray experiment came to serve as a gamma-ray burst alert for the Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, and major gound-based observatories around the world. Thirty-seven universities, observatories, and NASA centers in 19 states, and 11 more institutions in Europe and Russia, participated in the BATSE science program.

The observed gammaray energy spectrum of CG 195 + 4 is compared with the predictions of various proposed emission models. It is shown that the observations favor an inverse Compton origin of the gammaray emission from this source. A scenario is suggested in which ultraviolet and soft X-ray photons (E less than 20 keV) are scattered by relativistic electrons into the gammaray regime.

If gamma-ray bursts originate at cosmological distances, as strongly indicated by the results from Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO), then ultrarelativistic ejecta are the likely consequence of the highly super-Eddington luminosity of the sources. If the energy injection rate varies with time, then the Lorentz factor of the wind also varies, and the shells of ejected matter collide with each other. The collisions between baryons produce pions which decay into high-energy photons, electrons, electron positron pairs, and neutrino pairs. The bulk Lorentz factor of approximately 300 is required if our model is to be compatible with the observed millisecond variability. The strongest gamma-ray bursts are observed to deliver approximately 10(exp -4) ergs/sq cm in 100-200 keV photons. In our scenario more energy may be delivered in a neutrino burst. Typical neutrinos may be approximately 30 GeV if the protons have a Maxwellian energy distribution, and up to approximately TeV if the protons have a power-law distribution. Such neutrino bursts are close to the detection limit of the DUMAND II experiment.

Overall five major areas of technology are recommended for development in order to meet the science requirements of the Astrotech 21 mission set. These are: detectors for high resolution gammaray spectroscopy, cryogenic detectors for improved x ray spectral and spatial resolution, advanced x ray charge coupled devices (CCDs) for higher energy resolution and larger format, extension to higher energies, liquid and solid position sensitive detectors for improving stopping power in the energy range 5 to 500 keV and 0.2 to 2 MeV. Development plans designed to achieve the desired capabilities on the time scales required by the technology freeze dates have been recommended in each of these areas.

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope with excellent angular and energy resolutions is designed to search for signatures of dark matter in the fluxes of gamma-ray emission and electrons + positrons. Precision investigations of gamma-ray emission from Galactic Center, Crab, Vela, Cygnus, Geminga, and other regions will be performed, as well as diffuse gamma-ray emission, along with measurements of high-energy electron + positron and nuclei fluxes. Furthermore, it will study gamma-ray bursts and gamma-ray emission from the Sun during periods of solar activity. The GAMMA-400 energy range is expected to be from ∼20 MeV up to TeV energies for gammarays, up to 10 TeV for electrons + positrons, and up to 1015 eV for cosmic-ray nuclei. For 100-GeV gammarays, the GAMMA-400 angular resolution is ∼0.01° and energy resolution is ∼1% the proton rejection factor is ∼5x105. GAMMA-400 will be installed onboard the Russian space observatory.

We investigate the origin of diffuse low-energy Galactic gamma-ray continuum down to about 30 keV. We calculate gamma-ray emission via bremsstrahlung and inverse Compton scattering by propagating an unbroken electron power law injection spectrum and employing a Galactic emmissivity model derived from COSB observations. To maintain the low energy electron population capable of producing the observed continuum via bremsstrahlung, a total power input of 4 x 10 exp 41 erg/s is required. This exceeds the total power supplied to the nuclear cosmic rays by about an order of magnitude.

GRB 990123 was the first burst from which simultaneous optical, X-ray, and gamma-ray emission was detected; its afterglow has been followed by an extensive set of radio, optical, and X-ray observations. We have studied the gamma-ray burst itself as observed by the Compton GammaRay Observatory detectors. We find that gamma-ray fluxes are not correlated with the simultaneous optical observations and that the gamma-ray spectra cannot be extrapolated simply to the optical fluxes. The burst is well fitted by the standard four-parameter GRB function, with the exception that excess emission compared with this function is observed below approx. 15 keV during some time intervals. The burst is characterized by the typical hard-to-soft and hardness-intensity correlation spectral evolution patterns. The energy of the peak of the vf (sub v), spectrum, E (sub p), reaches an unusually high value during the first intensity spike, 1470 plus or minus 110 keV, and then falls to approx. 300 keV during the tail of the burst. The high-energy spectrum above approx. 1 MeV is consistent with a power law with a photon index of about -3. By fluence, GRB 990123 is brighter than all but 0.4% of the GRBs observed with BATSE (Burst and Transient Source Experiment), clearly placing it on the -3/2 power-law portion of the intensity distribution. However, the redshift measured for the afterglow is inconsistent with the Euclidean interpretation of the -3/2 power law. Using the redshift value of greater than or equal to 1.61 and assuming isotropic emission, the gamma-ray energy exceeds 10 (exp 54) ergs.

Gammarays reveal extreme, nonthermal conditions in the Universe. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has been exploring the gamma-ray sky for more than four years, enabling a search for powerful transients like gamma-ray bursts, novae, solar flares, and flaring active galactic nuclei, as well as long-term studies including pulsars, binary systems, supernova remnants, and searches for predicted sources of gammarays such as dark matter annihilation. Some results include a stringent limit on Lorentz invariance derived from a gamma-ray burst, unexpected gamma-ray variability from the Crab Nebula, a huge gamma-ray structure associated with the center of our galaxy, surprising behavior from some gamma-ray binary systems, and a possible constraint on some WIMP models for dark matter.

In this document we discuss specific implementations for gamma-ray imaging instruments including the principle of operation and describe systems which have been built and demonstrated as well as systems currently under development. There are several fundamentally different technologies each with specific operational requirements and performance trade offs. We provide an overview of the different gamma-ray imaging techniques and briefly discuss challenges and limitations associated with each modality (in the appendix we give detailed descriptions of specific implementations for many of these technologies). In Section 3 we summarize the performance and operational aspects in tabular form as an aid for comparing technologies and mapping technologies to potential applications.

For more than 50 years, the measurement of radioactivity has been used for onshore geological surveys and in laboratories. The British Geological Survey (BGS) has extended the use of this type of equipment to the marine environment with the development of seabed gammaray spectrometer systems. The present seabed gammaray spectrometer, known as the Eel, has been successfully used for sediment and solid rock mapping, mineral exploration, and radioactive pollution studies. The range of applications for the system continues to expand. This paper examines the technological aspects of the Eel and some of the applications for which it has been used.

Results from the use of the gammaray telescope SIGMA are given. An identification and an extensive study was done of sources contributing to the emission of the Galactic center region above 30 keV. A strong line was observed at 480 keV from Nova Muscae, which may be interpreted as an annihilation line with a redshift due to the presence of a compact object. The soft x-ray tails observed by SIGMA in some transient sources already identified as soft x-ray transients might be a common characteristic of these objects and has to be explained. The unusual spectrum of NGC4151 with a break around 50 keV can characterize a particular state of this kind of object. If it is the case, it has interesting implications for the origin of the Cosmic Diffuse Background.

Six articles addressing cosmic and solar gammaray transients are presented. The topics covered include: gammaray lines from solar flares and cosmic transients including burst spectra; a review of the 1979 March 5 transient; time variation in the 511 KeV flux observed by the ISEE spectrometer; time variations of an absorption feature in the spectrum of the burst on 1980 April 19; and the theory of gammaray amplification through stimulated annihilation radiation.

Low energy gamma-ray detectors play an important role in diagnosis in nuclear medicine, in detection of gamma-ray bursts for gravitational wave research and in detection of underground nuclear tests. The silicon positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diode detector is useful for detection of low energy gamma radiation without using a scintillator because it generates a high signal in a small active volume, has a fast response time and has good intrinsic energy resolution. We measured the detector responses, energy resolutions and signal-to-noise ratios for various gamma energies by using manufactured silicon PIN diode and photodiodes. Radioactive gamma sources, 241Am, 133Ba, and 57Co, providing gamma-rays with energies between 14.4 keV and 136.5 keV are used for the measurements. The energy resolution and the signal-to-noise ratio for 14.4 keVgamma-ray are measured to be 17.1 % and 12.8 for a 500 μm thick silicon diode. The energy resolutions measured at the FWHM for 59.5 keV and 122.1 keVgamma-rays by using the silicon diode are better by up to two times compared to those obtained using the NaI:Tl or the BGO scintillator with a photomultiplier tube. The dependence of detection speeds of the signals on the diode's thickness is also measured.

The measurements of gamma-ray fluxes and cosmic-ray electrons and positrons in the energy range from 100 MeV to several TeV, which will be realized by the specially designed GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope, concern with the following broad range of science topics. Search for signatures of dark matter, surveying the celestial sphere in order to study point and extended sources of gamma-rays, measuring the energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse gamma-ray emission, study of gamma-ray bursts and gamma-ray emission from the Sun. To clarify these scientific problems with the new experimental data the GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope possesses unique physical characteristics comparing with previous and present experiments. For gamma-ray energies more than 100 GeV GAMMA-400 provides the energy resolution nearby 1% and angular resolution better than 0.02 deg. The methods, developed to reconstruct the direction of incident gamma photon, are presented in this paper. The main point concerns with the space topology of high energy gamma photon interaction in the matter of GAMMA-400. Multiple secondary particles, generated inside gamma-ray telescope, produce significant problems to restore the direction of initial gamma photon. Also back-splash particles, i.e., charged particles and gamma photons generated in calorimeter and moved upward, mask the initial tracks of electron/positron pair from conversion of incident gamma photon. The processed methods allow us to reconstruct the direction of electromagnetic shower axis and extract the electron/positron trace. As a result, the direction of incident gamma photon with the energy of 100 GeV is calculated with an accuracy of more than 0.02 deg.

AGILE is a Scientific Mission dedicated to high-energy astrophysics supported by ASI with scientific participation of INAF and INFN. The AGILE instrument is designed to simultaneously detect and image photons in the 30 MeV - 50 GeV and 15 - 45 keV energy bands with excellent imaging and timing capabilities, and a large field of view covering {approx} 1/5 of the entire sky at energies above 30 MeV. A CsI calorimeter is capable of GRB triggering in the energy band 0.3-50 MeV. The broadband detection of GRBs and the study of implications for particle acceleration and high energy emission are primary goals of th emission. AGILE can image GRBs with 2-3 arcminutes error boxes in the hard X-ray range, and provide broadband photon-by photon detection in the 15-45 keV, 03-50 MeV, and 30 MeV-30 GeV energy ranges. Microsecond on-board photon tagging and a {approx} 100 microsecond gamma-ray detection deadtime will be crucial for fast GRB timing. On-board calculated GRB coordinates and energy fluxes will be quickly transmitted to the ground by an ORBCOMM transceiver. AGILE have recently (December 2005) completed its gamma-ray calibration. It is now (January 2006) undergoing satellite integration and testing. The PLSV launch is planned in early 2006. AGILE is then foreseen to be fully operational during the summer of 2006. It will be the only mission entirely dedicated to high-energy astrophysics above 30 MeV during the period mid-2006/mid-2007.

Experimental and theoretical aspects of gammaray spectroscopy in high energy astrophysics are discussed. Line spectra from solar, stellar, planetary, and cosmic gammarays are examined as well as HEAO investigations, the prospects of a gammaray observatory, and follow-on X-ray experiments in space.

Post-processed total neutron, RIF neutron, gamma-ray, and x-ray images from 2D LASNEX calculations of burning ignition capsules are presented. The capsules have yields ranging from tens of kilojoules (failures) to over 16 MJ (ignition), and their implosion symmetry ranges from prolate (flattest at the hohlraum equator) to oblate (flattest towards the laser entrance hole). The simulated total neutron images emphasize regions of high DT density and temperature; the reaction-in-flight neutrons emphasize regions of high DT density; the gammarays emphasize regions of high shell density; and the high energy x rays (>10 keV) emphasize regions of high temperature.

Low-energy gammaray emissions ((is) approximately 30keV to (is) approximately 30MeV) are significant to astrophysics because many interesting objects emit their primary energy in this regime. As such, there has been increasing demand for a complete map of the gammaray sky, but many experiments to do so have encountered obstacles. Using an innovative method of applying the Radon Transform to data from BATSE (the Burst And Transient Source Experiment) on NASA's CGRO (Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory) mission, we have circumvented many of these issues and successfully localized many known sources to 0.5 - 1 deg accuracy. Our method, which is based on a simple 2-dimensional planar back-projection approximation of the inverse Radon transform (familiar from medical CAT-scan technology), can thus be used to image the entire sky and locate new gammaray sources, specifically in energy bands between 200keV and 2MeV which have not been well surveyed to date. Samples of these results will be presented. This same technique can also be applied to elemental planetary surface mapping via gammaray spectroscopy. Due to our method's simplicity and power, it could potentially improve a current map's resolution by a significant factor.

The Swift mission: scheduled for launch in early 2004: is a multiwavelength observatory for gamma-ray burst (GRB) astronomy. It is the first-of-its-kind autonomous rapid-slewing satellite for transient astronomy and pioneers the way for future rapid-reaction and multiwavelength missions. It will be far more powerful than any previous GRB mission, observing more than 100 bursts per year and performing detailed X-ray and UV/optical afterglow observations spanning timescales from 1 minute to several days after the burst. The objectives are to: 1) determine the origin of GFU3s; 2) classify GRBs and search for new types; 3) study the interaction of the ultra-relativistic outflows of GRBs with their surrounding medium; and 4) use GRBs to study the early universe out to z greater than 10. The mission is being developed by a NASA-led international collaboration. It will carry three instruments: a new-generation wide-field gamma-ray (15-150 keV) detector that will detect bursts, calculate 1-4 arcmin positions: and trigger autonomous spacecraft slews; a narrow-field X-ray telescope that will give 5 arcsec positions and perform spectroscopy in the 0.2 to 10 keV band; and a narrow-field UV/optical telescope that will operate in the 170-600 nm band and provide 0.3 arcsec positions and optical finding charts. Redshift determinations will be made for most bursts. In addition to the primary GRB science, the mission will perform a hard X-ray survey to a sensitivity of approx. 1 mCrab (approx. 2 x l0(exp -11) erg/sq cm s in the 15-150 keV band), more than an order of magnitude better than HEAO A-4. A flexible data and operations system will allow rapid follow-up observations of all types of high-energy transients. with rapid data downlink and uplink available through the NASA TDRSS system. Swift transient data will be rapidly distributed to the astronomical community and all interested observers are encouraged to participate in follow-up measurements. A Guest Investigator program

Gammarays, the most powerful form of light, reveal extreme conditions in the Universe. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and its smaller cousin AGILE have been exploring the gamma-ray sky for several years, enabling a search for powerful transients like gamma-ray bursts, novae, solar flares, and flaring active galactic nuclei, as well as long-term studies including pulsars, binary systems, supernova remnants, and searches for predicted sources of gammarays such as dark matter annihilation. Some results include a stringent limit on Lorentz invariance derived from a gamma-ray burst, unexpected gamma-ray variability from the Crab Nebula, a huge ga.nuna-ray structure associated with the center of our galaxy, surprising behavior from some gamma-ray binary systems, and a possible constraint on some WIMP models for dark matter.

In this work we present the detection capability of the MIRAX (Monitor e Imageador de RAios-X) experiment for Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs). MIRAX is an X-ray astronomy mission designed to perform a wide band hard X-ray (10-200 keV) survey of the sky, especially in the Galactic plane. With a total detection area of 169 cm2, large field of view (FoV, 20 ° × 20 °), angular resolution of 1°45‧ and good spectral and time resolution (∼8% at 60 keV, 10 μs), MIRAX will be optimized for the detection and study of transient sources, such as accreting neutron stars (NS), black holes (BH), Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs), and both short and long GRBs. This is especially important because MIRAX is expected to operate in an epoch when probably no other hard X-ray wide-field imager will be active. We have performed detailed simulations of MIRAX GRB observations using the GEANT4 package, including the background spectrum and images of GRB sources in order to provide accurate predictions of the sensitivity for the expected GRB rate to be observed. MIRAX will be capable of detecting ∼44 GRBs per year up to redshifts of ∼4.5. The MIRAX mission will be able to contribute significantly to GRB science by detecting a large number of GRBs per year with wide band spectral response. The observations will contribute mainly to the part of GRB spectra where a thermal emission is predicted by the Fireball model. We also discuss the possibility of detecting GRB afterglows in the X-ray band with MIRAX.

Gamma-ray lines from radioactive isotopes, ejected into interstellar space by cosmic nucleosynthesis events, are observed with new space telescopes. The Compton Observatory had provided a sky survey for the isotopes 56Co, 22Na, 44Ti, and 26Al, detecting supernova radioactivity and the diffuse glow of long-lived radioactivity from massive stars in the Galaxy. High-resolution spectroscopy is now being exploited with Ge detectors: Since 2002, with ESA's INTEGRAL satellite and the RHESSI solar imager two space-based Ge-gamma-ray telescopes are in operation, measuring Doppler broadenings and line shape details of cosmic gamma-ray lines. First year's results include a detection and line shape measurement of annihilation emission, and 26Al emission from the inner Galaxy and from the Cygnus region. 60Fe gamma-ray intensity is surprisingly low; it may have been detected by RHESSI at 10% of the 26Al brightness, yet is not seen by INTEGRAL. 44Ti emission from Cas A and SN1987A is being studied; no other candidate young supernova remnants have been found through 44Ti. 22Na from novae still is not seen.

A balloon-borne coded-aperture gamma-ray telescope for galactic and extragalactic astronomy observations is described. The instrument, called GammaRay Imaging Payload (GRIP), is designed for measurements in the energy range from 30 keV to 5 MeV with an angular resolution of 0.6 deg over a 20 deg field of view. Distinguishing characteristics of the telescope are a rotating hexagonal coded-aperture mask and a thick NaI scintillation camera. Rotating hexagonal coded-apertures and the development of thick scintillation cameras are discussed.

If cyclotron scattering, rather than absorption, is responsible for the line features observed recently in two gamma-ray burst spectra (Murakami et al., 1988), then the second and higher harmonics are due to resonant scattering events that excite the electron to Landau levels above the ground state. Here, relativistic Compton scattering cross sections are used to estimate the expected ratio of third to second harmonics in the presence of Doppler broadening. At the field strength (1.7 TG) required to give first and second harmonics at 19 keV and 38 keV, there should be no detectable third harmonic in the spectrum.

Most gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) exhibit deficits of X-rays below approximately 200 keV. Here we consider a spectral model in which the burst source is shielded by an optically thick layer of circumburster material (CBM) rich in iron-group elements whose photoelectric absorption opacity exceeds the Thomson opacity below approximately 120 keV. For power-law distributions of absorption depths along the lines of sight the absorbed spectrum can indeed mimic the typial GRB spectrum. This model predicts that (a) the spectrum should evolve monotonically from hard to soft during each energy release, which is observed in most bursts, especially in fast rise exponential decay bursts; (b) Fe spectral features near 7 keV may be present in some bursts; and (c) the ratio of burst distances to the CBM and to Earth should be approximately 10(exp -11) if the spectral evolution is purely due to Fe stripping by the photons.

Gammaray production processes are reviewed, including Compton scattering, synchrotron radiation, bremsstrahlung interactions, meson decay, nucleon-antinucleon annihilations, and pion production. Gammaray absorption mechanisms through interactions with radiation and with matter are discussed, along with redshifts and gammaray fluxes.

Gammaray line emission from nuclear deexcitation following energetic particle reactions is evaluated. The compiled nuclear data and the calculated gammaray spectra and intensities can be used for the study of astrophysical sites which contain large fluxes of energetic protons and nuclei. A detailed evaluation of gammaray line production in the interstellar medium is made.

Measurements of the gamma-ray line intensities from depleted uranium allowed us to determine which of two conflicting previous experiments was correct. For the 1001-keV line we obtain a branching ratio of 0.834 +- 0.007, in good agreement with one of the previous experiments. A table compares our intensities for several lines with those obtained in previous experiments. 5 refs., 2 figs., 1 tab.

Long term all-sky monitoring of the 20 keV - 2 MeV gamma-ray sky using the Earth occultation technique was demonstrated by the BATSE instrument on the Compton GammaRay Observatory. The principles and techniques used for the development of an end-to-end earth occultation data analysis system for BATSE can be extended to the GLAST Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM), resulting in multiband light curves and time-resolved spectra in the energy range 8 keV to above 1 MeV for known gamma-ray sources and transient outbursts, as well as the discovery of new sources of gamma-ray emission. In this paper we describe the application of the technique to the GBM. We also present the expected sensitivity for the GBM.

Most part of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) spectra are well described by Band model with following parameters: α, β (spectral indices in low and high energy bands) and Epeak (energy of spectral peak). For several GRB parameter β characterizing the spectral shape in the region up to some hundred MeV (for example, GRB100724B). Moreover, Band spectrum of GRB080916C covering 6 orders of magnitude. Until recently spectral hardness parameter H32 (the ratio of total counts in the 100 - 300 keV and 50 - 100 keV energy range) was used for additional classification events on hard and soft, for GRBs groups selection on hardness and duration distributions (subgroup of intermediate bursts) and so on. However, H32 is defined in energy intervals 50-100 keV and 100-300 keV, but for some GRB Epeak> 300 keV and this value is outside regions of H32 definition. Thus, parameter H32 is incompletely represents spectral properties of such events. Basing on Band model we introduce new integral criteria could be used in the wide energy band for data analysis in past experiments such as BATSE (0.02 - 2 MeV), COMPTEL (0.8 - 30 MeV); EGRET (20 MeV - 30 GeV); in now operated experiments Fermi (8 keV - 1MeV, 200 keV - 40 MeV and 300 MeV - 300 GeV), AGILE (18 - 60 keV and 30 MeV - 50 GeV) and in future experiments: GAMMA-400 (0.1 - 3000 GeV) and so on. In the present work spectral parameters taken from BATSE and from Fermi catalogues were analyzed and the new integral criteria were investigated. Results of data studying have shown that new criteria allow making GRB classification including intermediate bursts subgroup separation.

This slide presentation reviews the observation of Terrestrial GammaRay Flashes (TGFs) by Gamma-Ray Telescopes. These were: (1) BATSE /Compton Observatory, (2) Solar Spectroscopic Imager, (3) AGILE Gamma-ray Telescope, and (4) Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. It contains charts which display the counts over time, a map or the TGFs observed by the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). and a map showing the latitude and longitude of 85 of the TGFs observed by the Fermi GBM.

Astrophysical phenomena discussed are: the very energetic and nuclear processes associated with compact objects; astrophysical nucleo-synthesis; solar particle acceleration; the chemical composition of the planets and other bodies of the solar system; the structure of our galaxy; the origin and dynamic pressure effects of the cosmic rays; the high energy particles and energetic processes in other galaxies, especially active ones; and the degree of matter antimater symmetry of the universe. The gammaray results of GAMMA-I, the gammaray observatory, the gammaray burst network, solar polar, and very high energy gammaray telescopes on the ground provide justification for more sophisticated telescopes.

We report on the first experimental demonstration of Compton imaging of gammarays with a single coaxial high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector. This imaging capability is realized by two-dimensional segmentation of the outside contact in combination with digital pulse-shape analysis, which enables to image gammarays in 4{pi} without employing a collimator. We are able to demonstrate the ability to image the 662keVgammaray from a {sup 137}Cs source with preliminary event selection with an angular accuracy of 5 degree with an relative efficiency of 0.2%. In addition to the 4{pi} imaging capability, such a system is characterized by its excellent energy resolution and can be implemented in any size possible for Ge detectors to achieve high efficiency.

We are currently monitoring the transient hard X-ray/soft gammaray sky using the GammaRay Burst Monitor (GBM) on-board Fermi. The twelve GBM NaI detectors span 8 keV to 1MeV, while the two GBM BGO detectors span about 150 keV to 40 MeV. With GBM, we detect transient events on multiple timescales. Brief events, such as GammaRay Bursts, Solar flares, and magnetar bursts are detected with on-board triggers. On longer timescales, we use the Earth occultation technique to monitor a number of sources, including X-ray binaries, AGN, and solar flaring activity. To date we have detected 7 sources above 100 keV. Transient activity from accretion-powered pulsars is monitored using epoch-folding techniques. With GBM we track the pulsed flux and frequency for a number of pulsars. We will present highlights of GBM observations on various timescales.

Various apparatus for x and (gamma) -ray computed tomography (CT) have been constructed by us during the last 20 years, with the aim of producing simple and low-cost systems for nondestructive testing. The first one was constructed in 1980 and used an Am241 radioactive source emitting 59.6 keV (gamma) -rays and a single NaI(Tl)-x ray detector. Successively, the radioactive source was substituted during the years by x-ray tubes, and the single detector by multi- detection system such as arrays of detectors and image intensifiers. The last CT-scanner employs a 160 kV x-ray tube and a 6' X 6' image intensifier coupled through a lens to a cooled CCD-camera. At the same time, also (gamma) CT-scanners were constructed for large size and/or high-density samples. These are based on Ir192 or Cs137 radioactive sources coupled to a single NaI(Tl)(gamma) -ray detector. The characteristics and properties of the CT-scanners based on the use of x-ray tubes, emitting x-rays in the energy range 20 - 100 keV, and on (gamma) emitting radioisotopes (Ir192 and Cs137) have been studied and will be described in this paper. Various types of objects have been studied: test objects and common objects such as tree trunks, wood fragments, nuts, ceramic samples, insulators and, etc. Samples have been imaged, after using iodine compounds as tracers.

During the three years between satellite launch in June 1975 and turn-off in October 1978, the high energy X-ray spectrometer on board OSO-8 observed nearly all of the COS-B gamma-ray source positions given in the 2CG catalog (Swanenburg et al., 1981). An X-ray source was detected at energies above 20 keV at the 6-sigma level of significance in the gamma-ray error box containing 2CG342 - 02 and at the 3-sigma level of significance in the error boxes containing 2CG065 + 00, 2CG195 + 04, and 2CG311 - 01. No definite association between the X-ray and gamma-ray sources can be made from these data alone. Upper limits are given for the 2CG sources from which no X-ray flux was detected above 20 keV.

In the last few years we have been working on feasibility studies of future instruments in the gamma-ray range, from several keV up to a few MeV. The innovative concept of focusing gamma-ray telescopes in this energy range, should allow reaching unprecedented sensitivities and angular resolution, thanks to the decoupling of collecting area and detector volume. High sensitivities are essential to perform detailed studies of cosmic explosions and cosmic accelerators, e.g., Supernovae, Classical Novae, Supernova Remnants (SNRs), Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs), Pulsars, Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). In order to achieve the needed performance, a gamma-ray imaging detector with mm spatial resolution and large enough efficiency is required. In order to fulfill the combined requirement of high detection efficiency with good spatial and energy resolution, an initial prototype of a gamma-ray imaging detector based on CdTe pixel detectors is being developed. It consists of a stack of several layers of CdTe detectors with increasing thickness, in order to enhance the gamma-ray absorption in the Compton regime. A CdTe module detector lies in a 11 x 11 pixel detector with a pixel pitch of 1mm attached to the readout chip. Each pixel is bump bonded to a fan-out board made of alumina (Al2O3) substrate and routed to the corresponding input channel of the readout ASIC to measure pixel position and pulse height for each incident gamma-ray photon. We will report the main features of the gamma-ray imaging detector performance such as the energy resolution for a set of radiation sources at different operating temperatures.

At 24.5-keV neutron energy, the radiative capture of neutrons proceeds with only a few parts per million compared to to the scattering and (n,p) reactions. Nevertheless, the radiative capture is of interest in the study of fusion reactions, which occur in the sun or in fusion reactors. This reaction yields very high energy (20.6-MeV) gammarays which are outstanding above any background and therefore may be of diagnostic value in fusion reactor research. A cross-section value {sigma}/sub n{gamma}/ (24.5 keV) = 9.2 +- 2.0 {mu}b is obtained, which is in good agreement with the value 12 +- 6 {mu}b from earlier literature.

Attempts to arrive at a unified scenario for the optical, X-ray, and gamma-ray emission of SN 1987A are discussed. Theoretical spectra are in reasonable agreement with recent observations of hard X-rays by the Ginga and Mir satellites, but the early turn-on of X-rays suggests that the mantle and envelope may be 'leaky', perhaps as a result of Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and clumping. The soft X-ray spectrum should be dominated by a 6.4 keV Fe K-alpha fluorescence line. The reported Ginga detection of 4-10 keV X-ray emission is also discussed.

We present upper limits in the hard X-ray and gamma-ray bands at the time of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) gravitational-wave event GW151226 derived from the CALorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET) observation. The main instrument of CALET, CALorimeter (CAL), observes gamma-rays from ˜1 GeV up to 10 TeV with a field of view of ˜2 sr. The CALET gamma-ray burst monitor (CGBM) views ˜3 sr and ˜2π sr of the sky in the 7 keV-1 MeV and the 40 keV-20 MeV bands, respectively, by using two different scintillator-based instruments. The CGBM covered 32.5% and 49.1% of the GW151226 sky localization probability in the 7 keV-1 MeV and 40 keV-20 MeV bands respectively. We place a 90% upper limit of 2 × 10-7 erg cm-2 s-1 in the 1-100 GeV band where CAL reaches 15% of the integrated LIGO probability (˜1.1 sr). The CGBM 7σ upper limits are 1.0 × 10-6 erg cm-2 s-1 (7-500 keV) and 1.8 × 10-6 erg cm-2 s-1 (50-1000 keV) for a 1 s exposure. Those upper limits correspond to the luminosity of 3-5 × 1049 erg s-1, which is significantly lower than typical short GRBs.

This presentation is a part of the DHS LSS spectroscopy training course and presents an overview of the following concepts: identification and measurement of gammarays; use of gamma counts and energies in research. Understanding the basic physics of how gammarays interact with matter can clarify how certain features in a spectrum were produced.

In recent decades gamma-ray observations have become a valuable tool for studying the universe. Progress made in diverse 8re1lS such as gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), nucleosynthesis, and active galactic nuclei (AGNs) has complimented and enriched our astrophysical understanding in many ways. We present an overview of current and future planned space y-ray missions and discussion technology needs for- the next generation of space gamma-ray instruments.

With four major NASA and ESA hard X-ray and gamma-ray missions in orbit (Swift, NuSTAR, INTEGRAL, and Fermi) hard X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy is making major contributions to our understanding of the cosmos. In this talk, I will summarize the current and upcoming activities of the Physics of the Cosmos GammaRay Science Interest Group and highlight a few of the future hard X-ray and gamma-ray mission discussed by the community. HK thanks NASA for the support through the awards NNX14AD19G and NNX16AC42G and for PCOS travel support.

The AGILE Mission will explore the gamma-ray Universe with a very innovative instrument combining for the first time a gamma-ray imager and a hard X-ray imager. AGILE will be operational at the beginning of 2007 and it will provide crucial data for the study of Active Galactic Nuclei, Gamma-Ray Bursts, unidentified gamma-ray sources, Galactic compact objects, supernova remnants, TeV sources, and fundamental physics by microsecond timing. The AGILE instrument is designed to simultaneously detect and image photons in the 30 MeV - 50 GeV and 15 - 45 keV energy bands with excellent imaging and timing capabilities, and a large field of view covering {approx} 1/5 of the entire sky at energies above 30 MeV. A CsI calorimeter is capable of GRB triggering in the energy band 0.3-50 MeV. The broadband detection of GRBs and the study of implications for particle acceleration and high energy emission are primary goals of the mission. AGILE can image GRBs with 2-3 arcminute error boxes in the hard X-ray range, and provide broadband photon-by photon detection in the 15-45 keV, 03-50 MeV, and 30 MeV-30 GeV energy ranges. Microsecond on-board photon tagging and a {approx} 100 microsecond gamma-ray detection deadtime will be crucial for fast GRB timing. On-board calculated GRB coordinates and energy fluxes will be quickly transmitted to the ground by an ORBCOMM transceiver. AGILE is now (January 2007) undergoing final satellite integration and testing. The PLS V launch is planned in spring 2007. AGILE is then foreseen to be fully operational during the summer of 2007.

Using the GammaRay Burst Monitor (GBM) on-board Fermi, we are monitoring the hard X-ray/soft gammaray sky using the Earth occultation technique (EOT). Each time a source in our catalog is occulted by (or exits occultation by) the Earth, we measure its flux using the change in count rates due to the occultation. Currently we are using CTIME data with 8 energy channels spanning 8 keV to 1 MeV for the GBM NaI detectors for daily monitoring. Light curves, updated daily, are available on our website http://heastro.phys.lsu.edu/gbm. Our software is also capable of performing the Earth occultation monitoring using up to 128 energy bands, or any combination of those bands, using our 128-channel, 4-s CSPEC data. The GBM BGO detectors, sensitive from about 200 keV to 40 keV, can also be used with this technique. In our standard application of the EOT, we use a catalog of sources to drive the measurements. To ensure that our catalog is complete, our team has developed an Earth occultation imaging method. In this talk, I will describe both techniques and the current data products available. I will highlight recent and important results from the GBM EOT, including the current status of our observations of hard X-ray variations in the Crab Nebula.

The solar corona is the brightest source of X-rays in the solar system, and the X-ray emission is highly variable with solar activity. While this is particularly true during solar flares, when emission can be enhanced by many orders of magnitude up to gamma-ray energies, even the so-called "quiet Sun" is bright in soft X-rays (SXRs), as the ~1-2 MK ambient plasma of the corona emits significant thermal bremsstrahlung up to ~5 keV. However, the actual solar SXR (0.5-5 keV) spectrum is not well known, particularly during quiet periods, as, with few exceptions, this energy range has not been systematically studied in many years. Previous observations include ultra-high-resolution but very narrow-band spectra from crystral spectrometers (e.g. Yohkoh/BCS), or integrated broadband irradiances from photometers (e.g. GOES/XRS, TIMED/XPS, etc.) that lack detailed spectral information. In recent years, broadband measurements with fair energy resolution (~0.5-0.7 keV FWHM) were made by SphinX on CORONAS-Photon and XRS on MESSENGER, although they did not extend below ~1 keV. We present observations of the quiet Sun SXR emission obtained using a new SXR spectrometer flown on the third SDO/EVE underflight calibration rocket (NASA 36.286). The commercial off-the-shelf Amptek X123 silicon drift detector, with an 8-micron Be window and custom aperture, measured the solar SXR emission from ~0.5 to >10 keV with ~0.15 keV FWHM resolution (though, due to hardware limitations, with only ~0.12 keV binning) and 2-sec cadence over ~5 minutes on 23 June 2012. Despite the rising solar cycle, activity on 23 June 2012 was abnormally low, with no visible active regions and GOES XRS emission near 2010 levels; we measured no solar counts above ~4 keV during the observation period. We compare our X123 measurements with spectra and broadband irradiances from other instruments, including the SphinX observations during the deep solar minimum of 2009, and with upper limits of >3 keV quiet Sun emission

68Ga decays to the excited states of 68Zn through the electron capture decay mode. New recommended values for the emission probability of 1077 keV γ-ray given by the ENSDF and DDEP databases all use data from absolute measurements. In 2011, JIANG Li-Yang deduced a new value for 1077 keV γ-ray emission probability by measuring the 69Ga(n,2n) 68Ga reaction cross section. The new value is about 20% lower than values obtained from previous absolute measurements and evaluations. In this paper, the discrepancies among the measurements and evaluations are analyzed carefully and the new values are re-recommended. Our recommended value for the emission probability of 1077 keV γ-ray is (2.72±0.16)%.

The discovery in XMM-Newton X-ray data of X-ray emission above 2 keV from Jupiter's aurorae has led us to reexamine the Chandra ACIS-S observations taken in Feb 2003. Chandra's superior spatial resolution has revealed that the auroral X-rays with E > 2 keV are emitted from the periphery of the region emitting those with E < 1 keV. We are presently exploring the relationship of this morphology to that of the FUV emission from the main auroral oval and the polar cap. The low energy emission has previously been established as due to charge exchange between energetic precipitating ions of oxygen and either sulfur or carbon. It seems likely to us that the higher energy emission is due to precipitation of energetic electrons, possibly the same population of electrons responsible for the FUV emission. We discuss our analysis and interpretation.

The GammaRay Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) is a high energy astronomy mission planned for launch in 2005. GLAST features two instruments; the Large Area Telescope (LAT) operating from 20 MeV - 300 GeV and the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) operating from 10 keV - 25 MeV. GLAST observations will contribute to our understanding of active galactic nuclei and their jets, gamma-ray bursts, extragalactic and galactic diffuse emissions, dark matter, supernova remnants, pulsars, and the unidentified high energy gamma-ray sources. The LAT sensitivity is 4 x 10(exp -9) photons per square centimeter per second (greater than 100 MeV) for a one year all-sky survey, which is a factor of greater than 20 better than CGRO/EGRET. GLAST spectral observations of gamma-ray bursts cover over 6 orders of magnitude in energy thanks to the context observations of the GBM. The upper end of the LAT energy range merges with the low energy end of ground-based observatories to provide a remarkable new perspective on particle acceleration in the Universe.

A survey is given of gammaray astronomy topics presented at the Cosmic Ray Conference. The major conclusions at the Cosmic Ray Conference in the field of gammaray astronomy are given. (1) MeV-emission of gamma-ray bursts is a common feature. Variations in duration and energy spectra from burst to burst may explain the discrepancy between the measured log N - log S dependence and the observed isotropy of bursts. (2) The gamma-ray line at 1.809 MeV from Al(26) is the first detected line from a radioactive nucleosynthesis product. In order to understand its origin it will be necessary to measure its longitude distribution in the Milky Way. (3) The indications of a gamma-ray excess found from the direction of Loop I is consistent with the picture that the bulk of cosmic rays below 100 GeV is produced in galactic supernova remnants. (4) The interpretation of the large scale distribution of gammarays in the Milky Way is controversial. At present an extragalactic origin of the cosmic ray nuclei in the GeV-range cannot be excluded from the gammaray data. (5) The detection of MeV-emission from Cen A is a promising step towards the interesting field of extragalactic gammaray astronomy.

The cross section for Li-7 production in alpha-alpha reactions is shown to be increased by about a factor of 2 due to the excitation levels of Li-7 and Be-7 at 478 keV and 431 keV, respectively. The cross section for Li-6 production, however, remains the same as calculated on the basis of the detailed balance principle. The lines at 478 keV and 431 keV may link Li-7 production to feasible gamma-ray observations.

This slide presentation reviews the GammaRay Astronomy as enhanced by the Fermi GammaRay Space Telescope and Radio Astronomy as a synergistic relationship. Gammarays often represent a significant part of the energy budget of a source; therefore, gamma-ray studies can be critical to understanding physical processes in such sources. Radio observations offer timing and spatial resolutions vastly superior to anything possible with gamma-ray telescopes; therefore radio is often the key to understanding source structure. Gamma-ray and radio observations can complement each other, making a great team. It reviews the Fermi Guest Investigator (GI) program, and calls for more cooperative work that involves Fermi and the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), a system of ten radio telescopes.

The origin of celestial gammaray bursts remains one of the great mysteries of modern astrophysics. The GAMCIT Get-Away-Special payload is designed to provide new and unique data in the search for the sources of gammaray bursts. GAMCIT consists of three gammaray detectors, an optical CCD camera, and an intelligent electronics system. This paper describes the major components of the system, including the electronics and structural designs.

Doppler-broadened gammaray peaks are observed routinely in the collection and analysis of gamma-ray spectra. If not recognized and understood, the appearance of Doppler broadening can complicate the interpretation of a spectrum and the correct identification of the gammaray-emitting material. We have conducted a study using a simulation code to demonstrate how Doppler broadening arises and provide a real-world example in which Doppler broadening is found. This report describes that study and its results.

The nature of high energy radiation and its penetration through earth's atmosphere is examined with emphasis on X-rays, gammarays, and cosmic radiation and the instruments used in their detection. The history of radio astronomy and the capabilities of the Uhuru satellite are summarized. The ASTP soft X-ray experiment (MA-048) designed to study the spectra in the range from 0.1 to 10 keV and survey the background over a large section of the sky is described, as well as the determination of SMC C-1 as an X-ray pulsar. The crystal activation experiment (MA-151) used to measure the radioactive isotopes created by cosmic rays in crystals used for gammaray detectors is also discussed.

The Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) for the GammaRay Observatory (GRO) consists of eight detector modules that provide full-sky coverage for gamma-ray bursts and other transient phenomena such as solar flares. Each detector module has a thin, large-area scintillation detector (2025 sq cm) for high time-resolution studies, and a thicker spectroscopy detector (125 sq cm) to extend the energy range and provide better spectral resolution. The total energy range of the system is 15 keV to 100 MeV. These 16 detectors and the associated onboard data system should provide unprecedented capabilities for observing rapid spectral changes and gamma-ray lines from solar flares. The presence of a solar flare can be detected in real-time by BATSE; a trigger signal is sent to two other experiments on the GRO. The launch of the GRO is scheduled for June 1990, so that BATSE can be an important component of the Max '91 campaign.

A Cauchois transmission-crystal spectrometer has been developed with high crystal resolving power in the 6 keV-15 keV energy range and sufficient sensitivity to record single-shot spectra from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) Titan laser and other comparable or more energetic lasers. The spectrometer capabilities were tested by recording the W L transitions from a laboratory source and the extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectrum through a Cu foil.

Over the last fifty years the field of gamma-ray bursts has shown incredible growth, but the amassing of data has also left observers and theorists alike wondering about some of the basic questions surrounding these phenomena. Additionally, these events show remarkable individuality and extrema, ranging in redshift throughout the observable universe and over ten orders of magnitude in energy. This work focuses on analyzing groups of bursts that are different from the general trend and trying to understand whether these bursts are from different intrinsic populations and if so, what can be said about their progenitors. This is achieved through numerical Monte Carlo simulations and statistical inference in conjunction with current GRB observations. Chapter 1 gives a general introduction of gamma-ray burst theory and observations in a semi-historical context. Chapter 2 provides an introduction to the theory and practical issues surrounding the numerical simulations and statistics. Chapters 3--5 are each dedicated to a specific problem relating to a different type of GRB population: high-luminosity v. low-luminosity bursts, constraints from high-redshift bursts, and Type I v. Type II bursts. Chapter 6 follows with concluding remarks.

It has recently been suggested that gravitational lensing studies of gamma-ray blazars might be a promising avenue to probe the location of the gamma-ray emitting region in blazars. Motivated by these prospects, we have investigated potential gamma-gamma absorption signatures of intervening lenses in the very-high-energy gamma-ray emission from lensedblazars. We considered intervening galaxies and individual stars within these galaxies. We find that the collective radiation field of galaxies acting as sources of macrolensing are not expected to lead to significant gamma-gamma absorption. Individual stars within intervening galaxies could, in principle, cause a significant opacity to gamma-gamma absorption for VHE gamma-rays if the impact parameter (the distance of closest approach of the gamma-ray to the center of the star) is small enough. However, we find that the curvature of the photon path due to gravitational lensing will cause gamma-ray photons to maintain a sufficiently large distance from such stars to avoid significant gamma-gamma absorption. This re-inforces the prospect of gravitational-lensing studies of gamma-ray blazars without interference due to gamma-gamma absorption due to the lensing objects.

Gamma-ray bursts remain one of the greatest mysteries in astrophysics. Observations of gamma-ray bursts made by the BATSE experiment on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory will be described. Most workers in the field now believe that they originate from cosmological distances. This view has been reinforced by observations this year of several optical afterglow counterparts to gamma-ray bursts. A summary of these recent discoveries will be presented, along with their implications for models of the burst emission mechanism and the energy source of the bursts.

Low-level gamma-ray spectrometry generally equates to high-sensitivity gamma-ray spectrometry that can be attained by background reduction, selective signal identification, or some combination of both. Various methods for selectively identifying gamma-ray events and for reducing the background in gamma-ray spectrometers are given. The relative magnitude of each effect on overall sensitivity and the relative cost'' for implementing them are given so that a cost/benefit comparison can be made and a sufficiently sensitive spectrometer system can be designed for any application without going to excessive or unnecessary expense. 10 refs., 8 figs.

The gamma-ray emission expected from compact extragalactic sources of nonthermal radiation is examined. The highly variable objects in this class should produce copious amounts of self-Compton gamma-rays in the compact relativistic jet. This is shown to be a likely interpretation of the hard gamma-ray emission recently detected from the quasar 3C 279 during a period of strong nonthermal flaring at lower frequencies. Ways of discriminating between the self-Compton model and other possible gamma-ray emission mechanisms are discussed.

Optical waveguides fabricated by gamma-ray irradiation on polymer through a gold mask are presented. The gamma-ray induced index change is found almost linearly dependent on the dose of the irradiation. And the measured propagation losses are low enough for practical application. Due to the high penetrability of gammaray, uniform refractive index change in depth can be easily achieved. Moreover, due to large-area printing, the uniformity of waveguide made by gamma-ray irradiation is much better than that by e-beam direct writing.

Improving the resolution of gamma-ray detectors is important for many fields, including determinations of the Lamb shift in atoms with high atomic numbers, nuclear treaty verification, and environmental monitoring. High-purity germanium detectors are currently the tool of choice for precision gamma-ray spectroscopy. The resolution of these detectors is limited to about 500 eV full-width-at-half-maximum at 100 keV by Fano statistics. In comparison, low-temperature microcalorimeters can provide over an order of magnitude improvement in photon resolution. For instance, a gamma-ray microcalorimeter has achieved 25 eV FWHM resolution at 103 keV. These calorimeters consist of two components, a bulk absorber to stop incident gammarays and a thermometer made from a thin film electrically biased in the superconducting-to-normal phase transition, called a Transition Edge Sensor, or TES. The standard absorber is bulk, superconducting tin. While tin has historically been the best performing absorber, pulse decays in Sn devices are much slower than predicted. We have begun a systematic study of absorber behavior in order to assess and improve response times. This study leverages two capabilities: the ability to microfabricate highly uniform arrays of gamma-ray detectors and the ability to read out many detectors in a single cool-down using SQUID multiplexer circuits. Here, we present two experiments to identify the source of thermal time constants. The first involves varying properties of the Sn absorber including purity, vendor, and crystal grain size. The second examines the role of the other elements in the microcalorimeter assembly.

Improving the resolution of gamma-ray detectors is important for many fields, including determinations of the Lamb shift in atoms with high atomic numbers, nuclear treaty verification, and environmental monitoring. High-purity germanium detectors are currently the tool of choice for precision gamma-ray spectroscopy. The resolution of these detectors is limited to about 500 eV full-width-at-half-maximum at 100 keV by Fano statistics. In comparison, low-temperature microcalorimeters can provide over an order of magnitude improvement in photon resolution. For instance, a gamma-ray microcalorimeter has achieved 25 eV FWHM resolution at 103 keV. These calorimeters consist of two components, a bulk absorber to stop incident gammarays and a thermometer made from a thin film electrically biased in the superconducting-to-normal phase transition, called a Transition Edge Sensor, or TES. The standard absorber is bulk, superconducting tin. While tin has historically been the best performing absorber, pulse decays in Sn devices are much slower than predicted. We have begun a systematic study of absorber behavior in order to assess and improve response times. This study leverages two capabilities: the ability to microfabricate highly uniform arrays of gamma-ray detectors and the ability to read out many detectors in a single cool-down using SQUID multiplexer circuits. Here, we present two experiments to identify the source of thermal time constants. The first involves varying properties of the Sn absorber including purity, vendor, and crystal grain size. The second examines the role of the other elements in the microcalorimeter assembly.

The current status of gamma-ray-telescope technology for ground, airborne, and space observations is surveyed and illustrated with drawings, diagrams, and graphs and tables of typical data. For the low- and medium-energy ranges, consideration is given to detectors and detector cooling systems, background-rejection methods, radiation damage, large-area detectors, gamma-ray imaging, data analysis, and the Compton-interaction region. Also discussed are the gamma-ray interaction process at high energies; multilevel automated spark-chamber gamma-ray telescopes; the Soviet Gamma-1 telescope; the EGRET instrument for the NASA Gamma-Ray Observatory; and Cerenkov, air-shower, and particle-detector instruments for the TeV and PeV ranges. Significant improvements in resolution and sensitivity are predicted for the near future.

Observations for transient radiation made by the GammaRay Spectrometer on the SMM satellite are summarized. Spectra were obtained from 215 solar flares and 177 gamma-ray bursts. No narrow or moderately broadened lines were observed in any of the bursts. The rate of bursts is consistent with a constant over the mission but is weakly correlated with solar activity. No evidence was found for bursts of 511 keV line emission, unaccompanied by a strong continuum, at levels not less than 0.05 gamma/sq cm s for bursts lasting not more than 16 s. No evidence was found for broad features near 1 MeV from Cyg X-1, the Galactic center, or the Crab in 12-d integrations at levels not less than 0.006 gamma/sq cm s. No evidence was found for transient celestial narrow-line emission from 300 keV to 7 MeV on min-to-hrs-long time scales from 1984 to 1989.

Cygnus X-1 and the gamma-ray transients GROJ0422+32 and GROJ1719-24 displayed similar spectral properties when they underwent transitions between the high and low gamma-ray (30 keV to few MeV) intensity states. When these sources were in the high (gamma)-ray intensity state ((gamma)2, for Cygnus X-l), their spectra featured two components: a Comptonized shape below 200-300 keV with a soft power-law tail (photon index >= 3) that extended to 1 MeV or beyond. When the sources were in the low-intensity state ((gamma)0, for Cygnus X-l), the Comptonized spectral shape below 200 keV typically vanished and the entire spectrum from 30 keV to 1 MeV can be characterized by a single power law with a relatively harder photon index 2-2.7. Consequently the high- and low-intensity gamma-ray spectra intersect, generally in the 400 KeV - 1 MeV range, in contrast to the spectral pivoting seen previously at lower (10 keV) energies. The presence of the power-law component in both the high- and low-intensity gammaray spectra strongly suggests that the non-thermal process is likely to be at work in both the high and the low-intensity situations. We have suggested a possible scenario (Ling & Wheaton, 2003), by combining the ADAF model of Esin et al. (1998) with a separate jet region that produces the non-thermal gamma-ray emission, and which explains the state transitions. Such a scenario will be discussed in the context of the observational evidence, summarized above, from the database produced by EBOP, JPL's BATSE earth occultation analysis system.

Significant progress has been made recently in the development of mercuric iodide detector arrays for gamma-ray imaging, making real the possibility of constructing high-performance small, light-weight, portable gamma-ray imaging systems. New techniques have been applied in detector fabrication and then low noise electronics which have produced pixel arrays with high-energy resolution, high spatial resolution, high gamma stopping efficiency. Measurements of the energy resolution capability have been made on a 19-element protypical array. Pixel energy resolutions of 2.98% fwhm and 3.88% fwhm were obtained at 59 keV (241-Am) and 140-keV (99m-Tc), respectively. The pixel spectra for a 14-element section of the data is shown together with the composition of the overlapped individual pixel spectra. These techniques are now being applied to fabricate much larger arrays with thousands of pixels. Extension of these principles to imaging scenarios involving gamma-ray energies up to several hundred keV is also possible. This would enable imaging of the 208 keV and 375-414 keV 239-Pu and 240-Pu structures, as well as the 186 keV line of 235-U.

We present a simple and versatile polarimeter for x rays in the energy range of 10-30 keV. It uses Compton scattering in low-Z materials such as beryllium or boron carbide. The azimuthal distribution of the scattered x rays is sampled by an array of 12 silicon PIN diodes operated at room temperature. We evaluated the polarimetry performance using Monte-Carlo simulations and show experimental results.

We present a simple and versatile polarimeter for x rays in the energy range of 10–30 keV. It uses Compton scattering in low-Z materials such as beryllium or boron carbide. The azimuthal distribution of the scattered x rays is sampled by an array of 12 silicon PIN diodes operated at room temperature. We evaluated the polarimetry performance using Monte-Carlo simulations and show experimental results.

X-ray and gammaray astronomy was made possible by the advent of space flight. Discovery and early observations of celestial x-rays and gammarays, dating back almost 40 years, were first done with high altitude rockets, followed by Earth-orbiting satellites> once it became possible to carry detectors above the Earth's atmosphere, a new view of the universe in the high-energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum evolved. Many of the detector concepts used for x-ray and gammaray astronomy were derived from radiation measuring instruments used in atomic physics, nuclear physics, and other fields. However, these instruments, when used in x-ray and gammaray astronomy, have to meet unique and demanding requirements related to their operation in space and the need to detect and measure extremely weak radiation fluxes from celestial x-ray and gammaray sources. Their design for x-ray and gammaray astronomy has, therefore, become a rather specialized and rapidly advancing field in which improved sensitivity, higher energy and spatial resolution, wider spectral coverage, and enhanced imaging capabilities are all sought. This text is intended as an introduction to x-ray and gammaray astronomy instruments. It provides an overview of detector design and technology and is aimed at scientists, engineers, and technical personnel and managers associated with this field. The discussion is limited to basic principles and design concepts and provides examples of applications in past, present, and future space flight missions.

Excited states of the extremely neutron-deficient nucleus {sup 197}At have been studied in an in-beam experiment using the fusion-evaporation reaction {sup 118}Sn({sup 82}Kr,p2n){sup 197}At. {gamma} rays belonging to {sup 197}At feeding the I{sup {pi}}=(9/2{sup -}) ground state, as well as {gamma} rays feeding the 311-keV I{sup {pi}}=(13/2{sup +}) isomer, decaying via the emission of {gamma} rays, and the 52-keV I{sup {pi}}=(1/2{sup +}){alpha}-decaying isomer have been identified using the recoil-{alpha}-decay tagging technique. Total Routhian surface calculations predict a near-spherical shape for the (9/2{sup -}) ground state and oblate shapes with {beta}{sub 2} around -0.2 for the (1/2{sup +}) and the (13/2{sup +}) states. These predictions agree with our experimental findings.

We present the results of 16 Swift-triggered Gamma-ray burst (GRB) follow-up observations taken with the Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System (VERITAS) telescope array from 2007 January to 2009 June. The median energy threshold and response time of these observations were 260 GeV and 320 s, respectively. Observations had an average duration of 90 minutes. Each burst is analyzed independently in two modes: over the whole duration of the observations and again over a shorter timescale determined by the maximum VERITAS sensitivity to a burst with a t{sup -1.5} time profile. This temporal model is characteristic of GRB afterglows with high-energy, long-lived emission that have been detected by the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi satellite. No significant very high energy (VHE) gamma-ray emission was detected and upper limits above the VERITAS threshold energy are calculated. The VERITAS upper limits are corrected for gamma-ray extinction by the extragalactic background light and interpreted in the context of the keV emission detected by Swift. For some bursts the VHE emission must have less power than the keV emission, placing constraints on inverse Compton models of VHE emission.

This report covers the work completed in the third year of the contract. The principle activities during this period were (1) the characterization of the NEAR 2 GammaRay Spectrometer using a neutron generator to generate complex gammaray spectra and a large Ge Detecter to identify all the major peaks in the spectra; (2) the evaluation and repair of the Engineering Model Unit of the GammaRay Spectrometer for the NEAR mission; (3) the investigation of polycapillary x-ray optics for x-ray detection; and (4) technology transfer from NASA to forensic science.

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope, GLAST, is a mission to measure the cosmic gamma-ray flux in the energy range 20 MeV to more than 300 GeV, with supporting measurements for gamma-ray bursts from 8 keV to 30 MeV. The very large field of view will make it possible to observe 20% of the sky at any instant, and the entire sky on a timescale of a few hours. With its upcoming launch, GLAST will open a new and important window on a wide variety of high-energy phenomena, including black holes and active galactic nuclei; the optical-UV extragalactic background light, gamma-ray bursts; the origin of cosmic rays and supernova remnants; and searches for signals of hypothetical new phenomena such as supersymmetric dark matter annihilations. In addition to the science opportunities, this talk includes a brief description of the instruments, the opportunities for guest investigators, and the mission status.

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope, GLAST, is a mission to measure the cosmic gamma-ray flux in the energy range 20 MeV to more than 300 GeV, with supporting measurements for gamma-ray bursts from 8 keV to 30 MeV. The very large field of view will make it possible to observe 20% of the sky at any instant, and the entire sky on a timescale of a few hours. With its upcoming launch, GLAST will open a new and important window on a wide variety of phenomena, including black holes and active galactic nuclei; the optical-UV extragalactic background light, gamma-ray bursts; the origin of cosmic rays and supernova remnants; and searches for hypothetical new phenomena such as supersymmetric dark matter annihilations and Lorentz invariance violation. In addition to the science opportunities, this talk includes a description of the instruments, the opportunities for guest investigators, and the mission status.

A number of topics relating to astrophysical observations that have already been made or are currently planned of spectral features, mostly emission lines, in the X-ray and gammaray region of the electromagnetic spectrum are investigated. These topics include: the production of characteristic X-ray and gammaray lines by nonthermal ions, spectral features induced by processes occurring in strong magnetic fields, and the positron annihilation line at 0.5 MeV. The rate of X-ray production at 6.8 keV by the 2p to 1s transition in fast hydrogen- and helium-like iron ions, following both electron capture to excited levels and collisional excitation is calculated. The cross section for electron-ion Coulomb collisions in strong fields is also calculated.

Research activities in cosmic rays, gammarays, and astrophysical plasmas are covered. The activities are divided into sections and described, followed by a bibliography. The astrophysical aspects of cosmic rays, gammarays, and of the radiation and electromagnetic field environment of the Earth and other planets are investigated. These investigations are performed by means of energetic particle and photon detector systems flown on spacecraft and balloons.

New observations by the gamma-ray burst detector on board the Ginga satellite, which has two well-calibrated detectors covering a wide energy range of 1.5 to 375 keV, are reported. The spectral features obtained are consistent with first and second cyclotron harmonics. This finding is taken as strong evidence for the magnetized neutron star model of gamma-ray bursts.

An overview is presented for a set of simple and robust X-ray and gammaray instruments which have both cosmic and solar objectives. The primary solar scientific objective is the study of the beaming of energetic electrons and ions in solar flares. The instrument will measure spectra and polarization of flare emissions up to 10 MeV. At X-ray energies both the directly emitted flux and the reflected albedo flux will be measured with a complement of six X-ray sensors. Each of these detectors will have a different high Z filter selected to optimize both the energy resolution and high rate capabilities in the energy band 10 to 300 keV. At energies greater than 100 keV seven 7.6 x 7.6 cm NaI and a set of 30 concentric plastic scattering detectors will record the spectra and polarization of electron bremsstrahlung and nuclear gammarays. All of the components of the instrument are in existence and have passed flight tests for earlier space missions. The instrument will use a spinning solar oriented Scout spacecraft. The NaI detectors will act as a self-modulating gammaray detector for cosmic sources in a broad angular band which lies at 90 degrees to the Sun-Earth vector and hence will scan the entire sky in 6 months.

Active Galactic Nuclei are the brightest continuous objects in the universe. Non-termal radiation is produced by synchrotron radiation that is accelarated by the magnetic fields in the jet. Relativistic electrons interact with photons via inverse-Compton scattering to generate highly energetic photons , which is also called as 'synchrotron self-Compton (SSC)' that the seed photons are generated by relativistic electron particles. According to the SSC models, relativistic electron particles are responsible for production of high energy photons such as hard x-rays and gamma-rays. We here present the results of ZDCF (Z-Transform Discrete Correlation Function) analysis of 19 BL Lac objects and 13 Seyfert 1 galaxies. We aimed to understand the correlation between gamma-rays (0.1-300 GeV obtained with Fermi LAT) and X-rays (MAXI 2-20 keV, Swift/BAT 15-150 keV) in these two different types of objects. Strong Correlation coefficients and time lags were found both for the BL Lac objects and Seyfert 1 galaxies. Our results are consistent with SSC model and Leptonic model in which the x-rays and gamma-rays are produced in same electron population and same physical region.

The detection rate of a gamma-ray burst detector can be increased by using a count rate trigger with many accumulation times DELTAt and energy bands DELTAE Because a burst's peak flux varies when averaged over different DELTAt and DELTAE the nominal sensitivity (the numerical value of the peak flux) of a trigger system is less important than how much fainter a burst could be at the detection threshold as DELTAt and DELTAE are changed. The relative sensitivity of different triggers can be quantified by referencing the detection threshold back to the peak flux for a fiducial value of DELTAt and DELTA E. This mapping between peak flux values for different sets of DELTAt and DELTAE varies from burst to burst. Quantitative estimates of the burst detection rate for a given detector and trigger system can be based on the observed rate at a measured peak flux value in this fiducial trigger. Predictions of a proposed trigger's burst detection rate depend on the assumed burst population, and these predictions can be wildly in error for triggers that differ significantly from previous missions. I base the fiducial rate on the BATSE observations: 550 bursts per sky above a peak flux of 0.3 ph per square centimeter per second averaged over DELTAt=1.024 sec and DELTAE=50-300 keV. Using a sample of 100 burst lightcurves I find that triggering on any value of DELTAt that is a multiple of 0.064 sec decreases the average threshold peak flux on the 1.024 sec timescale by a factor of 0.6. Extending DELTAE to lower energies includes the large flux of the X-ray background, increasing the background count rate. Consequently a low energy DELTAE is advantageous only for very soft bursts. Whether a large fraction of the population of bright bursts is soft is disputed; the new population of X-ray Flashes is soft but relatively faint.

NASA at the University of Chicago, provided support for a program of theoretical research into the nature of the thermonuclear outbursts of the classical novae and their implications for gammaray astronomy. In particular, problems which have been addressed include the role of convection in the earliest stages of nova runaway, the influence of opacity on the characteristics of novae, and the nucleosynthesis expected to accompany nova outbursts on massive Oxygen-Neon-Magnesium (ONeMg) white dwarfs. In the following report, I will identify several critical projects on which considerable progress has been achieved and provide brief summaries of the results obtained:(1) two dimensional simulation of nova runaway; (2) nucleosynthesis of nova modeling; and (3) a quasi-analytic study of nucleosynthesis in ONeMg novae.

The whole set of INTEGRAL observations of Type Ia supernova SN 2014J, covering the period 19–162 days after the explosion, has been analyzed. For spectral fitting the data are split into early and late periods covering days 19–35 and 50–162, respectively, optimized for {sup 56}Ni and {sup 56}Co lines. As expected for the early period, much of the gamma-ray signal is confined to energies below ∼200 keV, while for the late period it is strongest above 400 keV. In particular, in the late period, {sup 56}Co lines at 847 and 1248 keV are detected at 4.7σ and 4.3σ, respectively. The light curves in several representative energy bands are calculated for the entire period. The resulting spectra and light curves are compared with a subset of models. We confirm our previous finding that the gamma-ray data are broadly consistent with the expectations for canonical one-dimensional models, such as delayed detonation or deflagration models for a near-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf. Late optical spectra (day 136 after the explosion) show rather symmetric Co and Fe line profiles, suggesting that, unless the viewing angle is special, the distribution of radioactive elements is symmetric in the ejecta.

BATSE's Spectral Detectors provide a series of high resolution spectra over the duration of a gamma-ray burst; fits to these spectra show the evolution of the continuum as the burst progresses. The burst continuum can usually be fit by the spectral form AE sup alpha exp(-E/kT) from around 25 keV to more than 3 MeV, with varying trends in the value and evolution of the spectral parameters. As a result of limited statistics for E greater than 1 - 2 MeV in the individual spectra, a high energy power law is not required. Only long duration strong bursts can be studied by fitting a series of spectra, and therefore our conclusions concern only this class of burst. The bursts we analyzed tend to be characterized by a hard-to-soft trend both for individual intensity spikes and for the burst as a whole: the hardness leads the count rate in spectra which resolve the temporal variations, while the hardness of successive spikes decreases. We also summarize the performance of the Spectral Detectors and the development of analysis tools to date.

This paper reviews recent results in gamma-ray astronomy obtained from experiments flown on high-altitude balloons. New generation balloon-borne imaging experiments have produced the first gamma-ray maps of the Galactic center (GC) region. Balloon flights of new gamma-ray spectrometers with improved sensitivity have provided important new information on the GC annihilation line. For the first time, the narrow 511 keV line as been resolved (FWHM approx. = 3 keV). A very interesting spectral feature at approximately 170 keV has been attributed to backscattered annihilation, probably from the vicinity of a compact object. New results from the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO)/OSSE and Granat/SIGMA experiments on the annihilation line, when considered together with the recent balloon results, have added greatly to our knowledge and understanding of the origin and distribution of this emission. Balloon-borne instruments have made important measurements of gamma-ray continuum and line emission from SN 1987A. The GRIS spectrometer unambiguously resolved the 847 and 1238 keV line emission from radioactive Co-56 synthesized during the explosion. This data indicated that simple spherically symmetric and homogeneous models did not provide an adequate description of the expanding SN shell.

The routines of the Gauss Algorithms library are used to implement special purpose products that need to analyze gamma-ray spectra from Ge semiconductor detectors as a part of their function. These routines provide the ability to calibrate energy, calibrate peakwidth, search for peaks, search for regions, and fit the spectral data in a given region to locate gammarays.

Titanic explosions that emit powerful flashes of energetic gammarays are one of astronomy's hottest mysteries. Now an analysis of the nearest gammaray burst yet detected has added weight to the popular theory that they are expelled during the death throes of supermassive stars.

This paper reports upper limits to the 50 keV-10 MeV gamma-ray pulsations from PSR 1509 - 58 and PSR 0833 - 45 (Vela) made with the HEAO 3 gamma-ray spectrometer. The 2 sigam upper limit to the 50 - 300 keV flux from PSR 1509 - 58 is 6.9 x 10 to the -6th photons/sq cm per sec per keV. Combined with the best-fit X-ray spectrum, this limit suggests there is a break in the spectrum below about 100 keV. This upper limit is not stringent enough, however, to distinguish between thermal and nonthermal models for the source of the X-ray emission. The 2 sigma upper limit to the 3.2 - 10 MeV flux from PSR 0833 - 45 is 4.9 x 10 to the -8th photons/sq cm per sec per keV.

The Dortmund Low Background Facility is an instrument for low-level gammaray spectrometry with an artificial overburden of ten meters of water equivalent, an inner shielding, featuring a neutron absorber, and an active muon veto. An integral background count rate between 40keV and 2700keV of (2.528±0.004)counts/(kgmin) enables low-background gammaray spectrometry with sensitivities in the range of some 10mBq/kg within a week of measurement time.

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) is an international and multi-agency space mission that will study the cosmos in the energy range 10 keV-300 GeV. Several successful exploratory missions in gamma-ray astronomy led to the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) instrument on the Compton GammaRay Observatory (CGRO). Launched in 1991, EGRET made the first complete survey of the sky in the 30 MeV-10 GeV range. EGRET showed the high-energy gamma-ray sky to be surprisingly dynamic and diverse, with sources ranging from the sun and moon to massive black holes at large redshifts. Most of the gamma-ray sources detected by EGRET remain unidentified. In light of the discoveries with EGRET, the great potential of the next generation gamma-ray telescope can be appreciated. GLAST will have an imaging gamma-ray telescope vastly more capable than instruments flown previously, as well as a secondary instrument to augment the study of gamma-ray bursts. The main instrument, the Large Area Telescope (LAT), will have superior area, angular resolution, field of view, and deadtime that together will provide a factor of 30 or more advance in sensitivity, as well as provide capability for study of transient phenomena. The GLAST Burst Monitor (GBM) will have a field of view several times larger than the LAT and will provide spectral coverage of gamma-ray bursts that extends from the lower limit of the LAT down to 10 keV. The basic parameters of the GBM are compared to those of the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) instrument on CGRO in Table 1-2. With the LAT and GBM, GLAST will be a flexible observatory for investigating the great range of astrophysical phenomena best studied in high-energy gammarays. NASA plans to launch GLAST in late 2005.

The discovery in XMM-Newton X-ray data of X-ray emission above 2 keY from Jupiter's aurorae has led us to reexamine the Chandra ACIS-S observations taken in Feb 2003. Chandra's superior spatial resolution has revealed that the auroral X-rays with E > 2 keV are emitted from the periphery of the region emitting those with E < 1 keV. We are presently exploring the relationship of this morphology to that of the FUV emission from the main auroral oval and the polar cap. The low energy emission has previously been established as due to charge exchange between energetic precipitating ions of oxygen and either sulfur or carbon. It seems likely to us that the higher energy emission is due to precipitation of energetic electrons, possibly the same population of electrons responsible for the FUV emission. We discuss our analysis and interpretation.

Very high-energy (VHE) gamma-ray astronomy has undergone a transformation in the last few years, with telescopes of unprecedented sensitivity having greatly expanded the source catalogue. Such progress makes the detection of a gamma-ray burst at the highest energies much more likely than previously. This paper describes the facilities currently operating and their chances for detecting gamma-ray bursts, and reviews predictions for VHE gamma-ray emission from gamma-ray bursts. Results to date are summarized.

An apparatus utilizing filter-fluorescer combinations is provided to measure short bursts of high fluence x-rays above 120 keV energy, where there are no practical absorption edges available for conventional filter-fluorescer techniques. The absorption edge of the prefilter is chosen to be less than that of the fluorescer, i.e., E.sub.PRF E.sub.F. In this way, the response function is virtually zero between E.sub.PRF and E.sub.F and well defined and enhanced in an energy band of less than 1000 keV above the 120 keV energy.

Gamma-ray pulses are calculated from 2D numerical simulations of an upward atmospheric discharge in a self-consistent electric field using the multigroup approach to the kinetics of relativistic runaway electrons (REs). Computed {gamma}-ray numbers and spectra are consistent with those of terrestrial {gamma}-ray flashes (TGFs) observed aboard spacecrafts. The RE flux is concentrated mainly within the domain of the Blue Jet fluorescence. This confirms that exactly the domain adjacent to a thundercloud is the source of the observed {gamma}-ray flashes. The yield of photonuclear neutrons is calculated. One {gamma}-ray pulse generates {approx}10{sup 14}-10{sup 15} neutrons. The possibility of the direct deposition of REs to the detector readings and the origin of the lightning-advanced TGFs are discussed.

GammaRay Bursts are unpredictable and brief flashes of gammarays that occur about once a day in random locations in the sky. Since gammarays do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere, they are detected by satellites, which automatically trigger ground-based telescopes for follow-up observations at longer wavelengths. In this introduction to GammaRay Bursts we review how building a multi-wavelength picture of these events has revealed that they are the most energetic explosions since the Big Bang and are connected with stellar deaths in other galaxies. However, in spite of exceptional observational and theoretical progress in the last 15 years, recent observations raise many questions which challenge our understanding of these elusive phenomena. GammaRay Bursts therefore remain one of the hottest topics in modern astrophysics.

Gamma-ray astronomy has made great advances in recent years, due largely to the recently completed 9-year mission of the Compton GammaRay Observatory. In this talk I will give an overview of what advances we may expect in the near future, with particular emphasis on earth-orbiting missions scheduled for flight within the next 5 years. Two missions, the High Energy Transient Explorer and Swift, will provide important new information on the sources of gamma-ray bursts. The Gamma-Ray Large Area Space Telescope will investigate high energy emission from a wide variety of sources, including active galaxies and gamma-ray pulsars. The contributions of ground-based and multiwavelength observations will also be addressed.

The high energy gamma-ray (30 MeV to 100 GeV) sky has been relatively poorly studied. Most of our current knowledge comes from observations made by the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) detector on the Compton GammaRay Observatory (CGRO), which revealed that the GeV gamma-ray sky is rich and vibrant. Studies of astrophysical objects at GeV energies are interesting for several reasons: The high energy gamma-rays are often produced by a different physical process than the better studied X-ray and optical emission, thus providing a unique information for understanding these sources. Production of such high-energy photons requires that charged particles are accelerated to equally high energies, or much greater. Thus gamma-ray astronomy is the study of extreme environments, with natural and fundamental connections to cosmic-ray and neutrino astrophysics. The launch of GLAST in 2008 will herald a watershed in our understanding of the high energy gamma-ray sky, providing dramatic improvements in sensitivity, angular resolution and energy range. GLAST will open a new avenue to study our Universe as well as to answer scientific questions EGRET observations have raised. In this talk, I will describe the GLAST instruments and capabilities and highlight some of the science we expect to address.

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are the most luminous electromagnetic explosions in the Universe, which emit up to 8.8 × 1054 erg isotropic equivalent energy in the hard X-ray band. The high luminosity makes them detectable out to the largest distances yet explored in the Universe. GRBs, as bright beacons in the deep Universe, would be the ideal tool to probe the properties of high-redshift universe: including the cosmic expansion and dark energy, star formation rate, the reionization epoch and the metal enrichment history of the Universe. In this article, we review the luminosity correlations of GRBs, and implications for constraining the cosmological parameters and dark energy. Observations show that the progenitors of long GRBs are massive stars. So it is expected that long GRBs are tracers of star formation rate. We also review the high-redshift star formation rate derived from GRBs, and implications for the cosmic reionization history. The afterglows of GRBs generally have broken power-law spectra, so it is possible to extract intergalactic medium (IGM) absorption features. We also present the capability of high-redshift GRBs to probe the pre-galactic metal enrichment and the first stars.

We examine the accretion properties in a sample of 42 hard (3-60 keV) X-ray selected nearby broad-line active galactic nuclei (AGNs). The energy range in the sample is harder than that usually used in similar previous studies. These AGNs are mainly complied from the RXTE All Sky Survey, and complemented by the released INTEGRAL AGN catalog. The black hole masses, bolometric luminosities of AGN, and Eddington ratios are derived from their optical spectra in terms of the broad Hβ emission line. The tight correlation between the hard X-ray (3-20 keV) and bolometric/line luminosity is well identified in our sample. Also identified is a strong inverse Baldwin relationship of the Hβ emission line. In addition, all of these hard X-ray AGNs are biased toward luminous objects with a high Eddington ratio (mostly between 0.01 and 0.1) and a low column density (<1022 cm-2), which is most likely due to the selection effect of the surveys. The hard X-ray luminosity is consequently found to be strongly correlated with the black hole mass. We believe the sample completeness will be improved in the next few years by the ongoing Swift and the International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory missions, and by the next advanced missions, such as NuSTAR, Simbol-X, and NeXT. Finally, the correlation between RFe (= optical Fe II/Hβ) and disk temperature as assessed by T vprop (L/L Edd)M -1 BH leads us to suggest that the strength of the Fe II emission is mainly determined by the shape of the ionizing spectrum.

We present the design and construction of a sensitive pinhole camera for imaging suprathermal x-rays. Our device is a pinhole camera consisting of four filtered pinholes and microchannel plate electron multiplier for x-ray detection and signal amplification. We report successful imaging of 20, 45, 70, and 100 keV x-ray emissions from the fusion targets at our Novette laser facility. Such imaging reveals features of the transport of hot electrons and provides views deep inside the target.

Galactic cosmic rays (CR), interstellar gamma-ray emission and synchrotron radiation are related topics. CR electrons propagate in the Galaxy and interact with the interstellar medium, producing inverse-Compton emission measured in gammarays and synchrotron emission measured in radio. I present an overview of the latest results with Fermi/LAT on the gamma-ray diffuse emission induced by CR nuclei and electrons. Then I focus on the recent complementary studies of the synchrotron emission in the light of the latest gamma-ray results. Relevant observables include spectral indices and their variations, using surveys over a wide range of radio frequencies. As a result, this paper emphasizes the importance of using the parallel study of gammarays and synchrotron radiation in order to constrain the low-energy interstellar CR electron spectrum, models of propagation of CRs, and magnetic fields.

Galactic cosmic rays (CR), interstellar gamma-ray emission and synchrotron radiation are related topics. CR electrons propagate in the Galaxy and interact with the interstellar medium, producing inverse-Compton emission measured in gammarays and synchrotron emission measured in radio. I present an overview of the latest results with Fermi/LAT on the gamma-ray diffuse emission induced by CR nuclei and electrons. Then I focus on the recent complementary studies of the synchrotron emission in the light of the latest gamma-ray results. Relevant observables include spectral indices and their variations, using surveys over a wide range of radio frequencies. As a result, thismore » paper emphasizes the importance of using the parallel study of gammarays and synchrotron radiation in order to constrain the low-energy interstellar CR electron spectrum, models of propagation of CRs, and magnetic fields.« less

The TGF detection rate of Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) has been increased twice since launch. The most recent improvement is from a new operating mode in which data for individual photons are down-linked for selected portions of the orbit, enabling a more sensitive ground-based search for TGFs. The new search has increased the TGF detection rate and is finding TGFs more than five times fainter than the TGFs of the previous GBM sample. We summarize the properties of the original GBM TGF sample and compare to the less intense TGFs now being detected. In addition to gamma-ray TGFs, GBM is observing distant TGFs from the propagation of charged particles along geomagnetic field lines. Strong 511 keV annihilation lines have been observed, demonstrating that both electrons and positrons are present in the particle beams. Spectral fits to these electron/positron TGFs will be shown.

These are slides on special nuclear material gamma-ray signatures for reachback analysts for an LSS Spectroscopy course. The closing thoughts for this presentation are the following: SNM materials have definite spectral signatures that should be readily recognizable to analysts in both bare and shielded configurations. One can estimate burnup of plutonium using certain pairs of peaks that are a few keV apart. In most cases, one cannot reliably estimate uranium enrichment in an analogous way to the estimation of plutonium burnup. The origin of the most intense peaks from some SNM items may be indirect and from ‘associated nuclides.' Indirect SNM signatures sometimes have commonalities with the natural gamma-ray background.

Gamma-ray imaging is the most important way to identify unknown gamma-ray emitting objects in decommissioning, security, overcoming accidents. Over the past two decades a system for producing of gamma images in these conditions became more or less portable devices. But in recent years these systems have become the hand-held devices. This is very important, especially in emergency situations, and measurements for safety reasons. We describe the first integrated hand-held instrument for emergency and security applications. The device is based on the coded aperture image formation, position sensitive gamma-ray (X-ray) detector Medipix2 (detectors produces by X-ray Imaging Europe) and tablet computer. The development was aimed at creating a very low weight system with high angular resolution. We present some sample gamma-ray images by camera. Main estimated parameters of the system are the following. The field of view video channel ∼ 490 deg. The field of view gamma channel ∼ 300 deg. The sensitivity of the system with a hexagonal mask for the source of Cs-137 (Eg = 662 keV), is in units of dose D ∼ 100 mR. This option is less then order of magnitude worse than for the heavy, non-hand-held systems (e.g., gamma-camera Cartogam, by Canberra.) The angular resolution of the gamma channel for the sources of Cs-137 (Eg = 662 keV) is about 1.20 deg. (authors)

We are developing high-resolution cryogenic gamma-ray spectrometers for nuclear science and non-proliferation applications. The gamma-ray detectors are composed of a bulk superconducting Sn foil absorber attached to multilayer Mo/Cu transition-edge sensors (TES). The energy resolution achieved with a 1 x 1 x 0.25 mm{sup 3} Sn absorber is 50 -90eV for {gamma}-rays up to 100 keV and it decreases for large absorber sizes. We discuss the trade-offs between energy resolution and dynamic range, as well as development of TES arrays for higher count rates and better sensitivity.

The high precision gamma-ray spectrometer (PGS) is scheduled to be launched on the Mars-94 mission in October 1994, and to go into an elliptical polar orbit around Mars. The PGS consists of two high-purity germanium (Ge) detectors, associated electronics, and a passive cooler and will be mounted on one of the solar panels. The PGS will measure nuclear gamma-ray emissions from the martian surface, cosmic gamma-ray bursts, and the high-energy component of solar flares in the broad energy range from 50 KeV to 8 MeV using 4096 energy channels.

The authors are developing x-ray and gamma-ray spectrometers with high absorption efficiency and high energy-resolution for x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy. They are microcalorimeters consisting of a bulk Sn absorber coupled to a Mo/Cu multilayer superconducting transition edge sensor (TES). The authors have measured an energy resolution of 70 eV FWHM for 60 keV incident gamma-rays using electrothermal feedback. They have also operated these microcalorimeters with an external active feedback bias to linearize the detector response, improve the count rate performance, and extend the detection energy range. They present x-ray and gamma-ray results operation of this detector design in both bias modes.

Gamma-ray spectrometers with high spectral resolution have been operated in space since 2002. Major efforts to understand instrumental response and backgrounds are a requird before detailed science interpretations can be derived; by now, high-resolution line-shape studies have resulted in significant astrophysical constraints, not only through studies of solar-flare details, but also for nuclear processes in the Galaxy: 44Ti from the Cas A supernova could only be detected in the low-energy lines at 68 and 78 keV, the 1157 keV line from the same decay is not seen; this constrains 44Ti ejection in core collapse supernovae. Diffuse nucleosynthesis is studied through 26 Al, 60Fe, and positron annihilation gamma-ray measurements. The gamma-ray line from decay of radioactive 26Al could be measured at unpredecented spectroscopic precision. The new determination of the total mass of 26Al produced by stellar sources throughout the Galaxy yields 2.8 ±0.9 M , and the interstellar medium around 26Al sources appears characterized by velocities in the ~100 km s-1 region. 60Fe is clearly detected with SPI, its intensity ratio to 26Al of ~15% is on the lower side of predictions from massive-star and supernova nucleosynthesis models. Nucleosynthesis sources are probably minor contributors to Galactic positrons; this may be deduced from the bulge-centered spatial distribution of the annihilation gamma-ray emission, considering that nucleosynthesis sources are expected to populate mainly the disk part of the Galaxy. It is evident that new views at nuclear and astrophysical processes in and around cosmic sources are being provided through these space missions.

The Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton GammaRay Observatory (GRO) is sensitive in the energy range from about 20 MeV to about 30,000 MeV. Electron-positron pair production by incident gamma photons is utilized as the detection mechanism. The pair production occurs in tantalum foils interleaved with the layers of a digital spark chamber system; the spark chamber records the tracks of the electron and positron, allowing the reconstruction of the arrival direction of the gammaray. If there is no signal from the charged particle anticoincidence detector which surrounds the upper part of the detector, the spark chamber array is triggered by two hodoscopes of plastic scintillators. A time of flight requirement is included to reject events moving backward through the telescope. The energy of the gammaray is primarily determined by absorption of the energies of the electron and positron in a 20 cm deep NaI(Tl) scintillator.

The solar corona is the brightest source of X-rays in the solar system, and the X-ray emission is highly variable on many time scales. However, the actual solar soft X-ray (SXR) (0.5-5 keV) spectrum is not well known, particularly during solar quiet periods, as, with few exceptions, this energy range has not been systematically studied in many years. Previous observations include high-resolution but very narrow-band spectra from crystal spectrometers (e.g., Yohkoh/BCS), or integrated broadband irradiances from photometers (e.g., GOES/XRS, TIMED/XPS, etc.) that lack detailed spectral information. In recent years, broadband measurements with moderate energy resolution (~0.5-0.7 keV FWHM) were made by SphinX on CORONAS-Photon and SAX on MESSENGER, although they did not extend to energies below ~1 keV. We present observations of solar SXR emission obtained using new instrumentation flown on recent SDO/EVE calibration rocket underflights. The photon-counting spectrometer, a commercial Amptek X123 with a silicon drift detector and an 8 μm Be window, measures the solar disk-integrated SXR emission from ~0.5 to >10 keV with ~0.15 keV FWHM resolution and 1 s cadence. A novel imager, a pinhole X-ray camera using a cooled frame-transfer CCD (15 μm pixel pitch), Ti/Al/C filter, and 5000 line/mm Au transmission grating, images the full Sun in multiple spectral orders from ~0.1 to ~5 nm with ~10 arcsec/pixel and ~0.01 nm/pixel spatial and spectral detector scales, respectively, and 10 s cadence. These instruments are prototypes for future CubeSat missions currently being developed. We present new results of solar observations on 04 October 2013 (NASA sounding rocket 36.290). We compare with previous results from 23 June 2012 (NASA sounding rocket 36.286), during which solar activity was low and no signal was observed above ~4 keV. We compare our spectral and imaging measurements with spectra and broadband irradiances from other instruments, including SDO/EVE, GOES/XRS, TIMED

Measurements of secondary gammaray production from neutron interactions have been made over the entire energy range of interest in shielding applications. The epithermal capture gammaray yields for both resolved gammaray lines and continuum have been measured from thermal energies to 100 KeV for natural tungsten and U-238, two important candidate shield materials in SNAP reactor systems. Data are presented to illustrate the variation of epithermal capture gammaray yields with neutron energy. The gammaray production cross sections from (n,xy) reactions have been measured for Fe and Al from the threshold energies for inelastic scattering to approximately 16 MeV. Typical Fe and Al cross sections obtained with high-neutron energy resolution and averaged over broad neutron-energy groups are presented.

Quasielastic gamma-ray scattering of 46.5-keV Moessbauer photons by polydimethylsiloxane has been studied at room temperature as a function of dilution in benzene. The high energy resolution of this novel technique allowed the separation of the scattering signal into a narrow component associated with stiff motions along the polymer chain backbone and a quasielastic component associated with softer side group motions. The narrow component disappears upon dilution in benzene while the intensity of the quasielastic component grows proportionately. This result is interpreted as a softening of the backbone normal modes upon dilution.

The study of soft gamma emissions from black-hole candidates is identified as an important element in understanding black-hole phenomena ranging from stellar-mass black holes to AGNs. The spectra of Cyg X-1 and observations of the Galactic Center are emphasized, since thermal origins and MeV gamma-ray bumps are evident and suggest a thermal-pair cloud picture. MeV gamma-ray observations are suggested for studying black hole astrophysics such as the theorized escaping pair wind, the anticorrelation between the MeV gamma bump and the soft continuum, and the relationship between source compactness and temperature.

Some basic observed properties of gamma-ray bursts are reviewed. Although some properties were known 25 years ago, new and more detailed observations have been made by the Compton Observatory in the past three years. The new observation with the greatest impact has been the observed isotropic distribution of bursts along with a deficiency of weak bursts which would be expected from a homogeneous burst distribution. This is not compatible with any known Galactic population of objects. Gamma-ray bursts show an enormous variety of burst morphologies and a wide spread in burst durations. The spectra of gamma-ray bursts are characterized by rapid variations and peak power which is almost entirely in the gamma-ray energy range. Delayed gamma-ray burst photons extending to GeV energies have been detected for the first time. A time dilation effect has also been reported to be observed in gamma-ray, bursts. The observation of a gamma-ray burst counterpart in another wavelength region has yet to be made.

Gamma-ray astronomy is a relatively new window on the cosmos. The first source detected from the ground was the Crab nebula, seen by the Whipple telescope in Arizona in 1989. Today, about 150 sources have been detected at TeV energies using gamma-ray telescopes from the ground such as H.E.S.S. in Namibia or VERITAS in Arizona, and about 3000 sources at GeV energies using the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. Soon construction will start for the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), which will be the first ground-based gamma-ray telescope array operated as an open observatory, with a site in the southern and a second site in the northern hemisphere. In this presentation I will give a very brief introduction to gamma-ray astronomy and data analysis, as well as a short overview of the software used for the various missions. The main focus will be on recent attempts to build open-source gamma-ray software on the scientific Python stack and Astropy: ctapipe as a CTA Python pipeline prototype, Fermipy and the Fermi Science Tools for Fermi-LAT analysis, Gammapy as a community-developed gamma-ray Python package and naima as a non-thermal spectral modeling and fitting package.

The IBIS Telescope is the high angular resolution Gamma-Ray imager on-Board the INTEGRAL Satellite. IBIS features a coded aperture mask and a novel large area (~3,000 cm2) multilayer detector which utilises both Cadmium Telluride (16,384 detectors) and Caesium Iodide elements (4,096 detectors) to provide the fine angular resolution ~12 arcmin, wide spectral response (20 keV to 10 MeV), high resolution timing (61 μs) and spectroscopy (6% at 100 keV) required to satisfy the mission's imaging objectives. This paper will focus on the IBIS hardware characteristics while the Scientific Performance of the telescope have been recently addressed elsewhere [1]. .

The Galactic center region was observed with the HEAO 3 High Resolution Gamma-Ray Spectrometer during the fall of 1979 and the spring of 1980. Between these epochs we observed (1) a statistically significant decrease in the high-energy (511 keV to approx.3 MeV) luminosity (2) a decrease in the positron annihilation line intensity, reported previously, and (3) a low positronium annihilation fraction f = 0.38 +- 0.19 during the fall of 1979. If positrons are generated by photon-photon collisions of high-energy photons, then the absence of a detected flux above 511 keV in the spring of 1980 may indicate a time delay between positron production and annihilation.

The hard X-ray (>2 keV) emission of the local and distant universe as observed with the HEAO 1 A-2 experiment is reconsidered in the context of large-scale cosmic structure. Using all-sky X-ray samples of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and galaxy clusters, we remove the dominant local X-ray flux from within a redshift of ~0.02. We evaluate the dipolar and higher order harmonic structure in four X-ray colors. The estimated dipole anisotropy of the unresolved flux appears to be consistent with a combination of the Compton-Getting effect due to the Local Group motion (dipole amplitude Δ=0.0042) and remaining large-scale structure (0.00232 keV Galactic X-ray emission. Comparison of the soft and hard color maps with a harmonic analysis of the 1.5 keV ROSAT all-sky data qualitatively suggests that at least a third of the faint, unresolved ~18° scale structure in the HEAO 1 A-2 data may be Galactic in origin. However, the effect on measured flux dipoles is small (ray frame can constrain the amplitude of bulk motions of the universe. From observed bulk motions over a local ~50 h-1 Mpc radius volume, we determine 0.14ray source density and the mass density.

Some pulsars have their maximum observable energy output in the gamma-ray band, offering the possibility of using these high-energy photons as probes of the particle acceleration and interaction processes in pulsar magnetospheres. After an extended hiatus between satellite missions, the recently-launched AGILE mission and the upcoming Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) Large Area Telescope (LAT) will allow gamma-ray tests of the theoretical models developed based on past discoveries. With its greatly improved sensitivity, better angular resolution, and larger energy reach than older instruments, GLAST LAT should detect dozens to hundreds of new gamma-ray pulsars and measure luminosities, light curves, and phase-resolved spectra with unprecedented resolution. It will also have the potential to find radio-quiet pulsars like Geminga, using blind search techniques. Cooperation with radio and X-ray pulsar astronomers is an important aspect of the LAT team's planning for pulsar studies.

Two rocket-borne proportional counters, each with 650 sq c, met area and 1.8 x 7.1 deg FWHM rectangular mechanical collimation, surveyed the Cygnus region in the 2 to 20 keV energy range on two occasions. X-ray spectral data gathered on 21 September 1970 from discrete sources in Cygnus are presented. The data from Cyg X-1, Cyg X-2, and Cyg X-3 have sufficient statistical significance to indicate mutually exclusive spectral forms for the three. Upper limits are presented for X-ray intensities above 2 keV for Cyg X-4 and Cyg X-5 (Cygnus loop). A search was made on 9 August 1971 for a diffuse component of X-rays 1.5 keV associated with an interarm region of the galaxy at galactic longitudes in the vicinity of 60 degrees. A statistically significant excess associated with a narrow disk component was detected. Several possible emission models are discussed, with the most likely candidate being a population of unresolvable low luminosity discrete sources.

This paper presents the complete characterization of a kilo-electron-volt laser-based x-ray source. The main parameters of the electron motion (amplitude of oscillations and initial energy) in the laser wakefield have been investigated using three independent methods relying on spectral and spatial properties of this betatron x-ray source. First we will show studies on the spectral correlation between electrons and x-rays that is analyzed using a numerical code to calculate the expected photon spectra from the experimentally measured electron spectra. High-resolution x-ray spectrometers have been used to characterize the x-ray spectra within 0.8-3 keV and to show that the betatron oscillations lie within 1 µm. Then we observed Fresnel edge diffraction of the x-ray beam. The observed diffraction at the center energy of 4 keV agrees with the Gaussian incoherent source profile of full width half maximum <5 µm, meaning that the amplitude of the betatron oscillations is less than 2.5 µm. Finally, by measuring the far field spatial profile of the radiation, we have been able to characterize the electron's trajectories inside the plasma accelerator structure with a resolution better than 0.5 µm.

We propose that axionlike particles (ALPs) with a two-photon vertex, consistent with all astrophysical and laboratory bounds, may lead to a detectable signature in the spectra of high-energy gamma-ray sources. This occurs as a result of gammarays being converted into ALPs in the magnetic fields of efficient astrophysical accelerators according to the "Hillas criterion", such as jets of active galactic nuclei or hot spots of radio galaxies. The discovery of such an effect is possible by GLAST in the 1-100 GeV range and by ground-based gamma-ray telescopes in the TeV range.

The various processes that lead to gamma-ray line emission and the possible astrophysical sources of such emission are reviewed. The processes of nuclear excitation, radiative capture, positron annihilation, and cyclotron radiation, which may produce gamma-ray line emission from such diverse sources as the interstellar medium, novas, supernovas, pulsars, accreting compact objects, the galactic nucleus and the nuclei of active galaxies are considered. The significance of the relative intensities, widths, and frequency shifts of the lines are also discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on understanding those gamma-ray lines that have already been observed from astrophysical sources.

We use the GEANT4 Monte Carlo framework to calculate the gamma-ray albedo of the Moon due to interactions of cosmic ray (CR) nuclei with moon rock. Our calculation of the albedo spectrum agrees with the EGRET data. We show that the spectrum of gamma-rays from the Moon is very steep with an effective cutoff around 3 GeV (600 MeV for the inner part of the Moon disc). Since it is the only (almost) black spot in the gamma-ray sky, it provides a unique opportunity for calibration of gamma-ray telescopes, such as the forthcoming GammaRay Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST). The albedo flux depends on the incident CR spectrum which changes over the solar cycle. Therefore, it is possible to monitor the CR spectrum using the albedo gamma-ray flux. Simultaneous measurements of CR proton and helium spectra by the Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA), and observations of the albedo -rays by the GLAST Large Area Telescope (LAT), can be used to test the model predictions and will enable the GLAST LAT to monitor the CR spectrum near the Earth beyond the lifetime of PAMELA.

We review our current understanding of the progenitors of both long and short duration gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Constraints can be derived from multiple directions, and we use three distinct strands; (i) direct observations of GRBs and their host galaxies, (ii) parameters derived from modelling, both via population synthesis and direct numerical simulation and (iii) our understanding of plausible analog progenitor systems observed in the local Universe. From these joint constraints, we describe the likely routes that can drive massive stars to the creation of long GRBs, and our best estimates of the scenarios that can create compact object binaries which will ultimately form short GRBs, as well as the associated rates of both long and short GRBs. We further discuss how different the progenitors may be in the case of black hole engine or millisecond-magnetar models for the production of GRBs, and how central engines may provide a unifying theme between many classes of extremely luminous transient, from luminous and super-luminous supernovae to long and short GRBs.

The recent technological developments and availability of mercuric iodide detectors have made their application for astronomy a realistic prospect. Mercuric iodide, because of its high resistivity and high density, can be used in a variety of astronomy instrumentation where high spectral resolution, low noise levels, stability of performance, resistance to damage by charged particles and overall ruggedness are of critical importance. X-ray detectors with areas of 12 to 100 mm square and 1 mm thickness have absorption efficiencies approaching 100% up to 60 keV. The spectral resolution of these detector's ranges from 400 eV to 600 eV at 5.9 keV, depending on their area, and the electronic noise threshold is less than 1.0 keV. Gammaray detectors can be fabricated with dimensions of 25 mm x 25 mm x 3 mm. The spectral resolution of these detectors is less than 4% FWHM at energies of 662 keV. Because of the high atomic numbers of the constituent elements of the mercuric iodide, the full energy peak efficiency is higher than for any other available solid-state detector that makes measurements up to 10 MeV a possibility. The operation of gammaray detectors has been evaluated over a temperature range of -20 through + 55 degrees Celsius, with only a very small shift in full energy peak observed over this temperature range. In combination with Cesium Iodide scintillators, mercuric iodide detectors with 25 mm diameter dimensions can be used as photodetectors to replace bulky and fragile photomultiplier tubes. The spectral resolution of these detectors is less than 7% FWHM at 662 keV and the quantum efficiency is larger than 80 % over the whole area of the detector.

We present the SVOM (Space-based multi-band astronomical Variable Object Monitor) mission, that is being developed in cooperation between the Chinese National Space Agency (CNSA), the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) and the French Space Agency (CNES), and is expected to be launched in 2013. Its scientific objectives include the study of the GRB phenomenon (diversity and unity), GRB physics (particle acceleration, radiation mechanisms), GRB progenitors, cosmology (host galaxies, intervening medium, star formation history, re-ionization, cosmological parameters), and fundamental physics (origin of cosmic rays, Lorentz invariance, gravitational waves sources). SVOM is designed to detect all known types of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs), to provide fast and reliable GRB positions, to measure the broadband spectral characteristics and temporal properties of the GRB prompt emission. This will be obtained in first place thanks to a set of four space flown instruments. A wide field (~2 sr) coded mask telescope (ECLAIRs), operating in the 4-250 keV energy range, will provide the triggers and localizations, while a gamma-ray non-imaging spectrometer (GRM), sensitive in the 50 keV-5 MeV domain, will extend the prompt emission energy coverage. After a satellite slew, in order to place the GRB direction within field of view of the two narrow field instruments-a soft X-ray (XIAO), and a visible telescope (VT)-the GRB position will be refined and the study of the early phases of the GRB afterglow will be possible. A set of three ground based dedicated instruments, two robotic telescopes (GFTs) and a wide angle optical monitor (GWAC), will complement the space borne instruments. Thanks to the low energy trigger threshold (~4 keV) of the ECLAIRs, SVOM is ideally suited for the detection of soft, hence potentially most distant, GRBs. Its observing strategy is optimized to facilitate follow-up observations from the largest ground based facilities.

Algae and cyanobacteria are capable living under harsh conditions in the natural environments and can develop peculiar survival processes. In order to evaluate radiation shielding properties of green algae; Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus obliquus, and cyanobacteria; Synechococcus sp., Planktothrix limnetica, Microcystis aeruginosa, Arthrospira maxima, Anabaena affinis, Phormidium articulatum, and Pseudoanabaena sp. were cultured in batch systems. Air dried biomass was tested for its high tolerance to gamma-radiations in terms of linear attenuation coefficients. In the present work, the linear and mass attenuation coefficients were measured at photon energies of 1173 and 1332 keV. Protection capacity of some biomass was observed to be higher than a 1-cm thick lead standard for comparison. Gammaray related protection depends not only to thickness but also to density (g/cm3). Hence the effect of biomass density also was tested and significantly found the tested biomass absorbed more of the incoming energy on a density basis than lead. This paper discusses the a new approach to environmental protection from gammaray. The findings suggest that the test samples, especially cyanobacteria, have a potential for reducing gammaray more significantly than lead and can be used as shielding materials.

Absorbed dose distributions in lineal energy for neutrons and gammarays of mono-energetic neutron sources from 140 keV to 15 MeV were measured in the Fast Neutron Laboratory at Tohoku University. By using both a tissue-equivalent plastic walled counter and a graphite-walled low-pressure proportional counter, absorbed dose distributions in lineal energy for neutrons were obtained separately from those for gammarays. This method needs no knowledge of energy spectra and dose distributions for gammarays. The gamma-ray contribution in this neutron calibration field >1 MeV neutron was <3%, while for <550 keV it was >40%. The measured neutron absolute absorbed doses per unit neutron fluence agreed with the LA150 evaluated kerma factors. By using this method, absorbed dose distributions in lineal energy for neutrons and gammarays in an unknown neutron field can be obtained separately.

The Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory's Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) has a powerful capability to provide nearly uninterrupted monitoring in the 25 keV-10 MeV range of both active galactic nuclei (AGN) and galactic black hole candidates (GBHC) such as Cygnus X-1, using the occultation of cosmic sources by the Earth. Since the Crab is detected by the BATSE Large Area Detectors with roughly 25(sigma) significance in the 15-125 keV range in a single rise or set, a variation by a factor of two of a source having one-tenth the strength of Cygnus X-1 should be detectable within a day. Methods of modeling the background are discussed which will increase the accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability of the results beyond those obtainable from a linear background fit with a single rise or set discontinuity.

We estimate the flux of gamma-rays that result from collisions of high energy galactic cosmic rays with the solar atmosphere. An important aspect of our model is the propagation of cosmic rays through the magnetic fields of the inner solar systems. We use diffusion to model propagation down to the bottom of the corona. Below the corona we trace particle orbits through the photospheric fields to determine the location of cosmic ray interactions in the solar atmosphere and evolve the resultant cascades. For our nominal choice of parameters, we predict an integrated flux of gammarays (at 1 AU) of F(E(sub gamma) greater than 100 MeV) approximately = 5 x 10(exp -8)/sq cm sec. This can be an order of magnitude above the galactic background and should be observable by the Energetic GammaRay experiment telescope (EGRET).

Discussed here is research in cosmic ray and gammaray astrophysics at the Space Radiation Laboratory (SRL) of the California Institute of Technology. The primary activities discussed involve the development of new instrumentation and techniques for future space flight. In many cases these instrumentation developments were tested in balloon flight instruments designed to conduct new investigations in cosmic ray and gammaray astrophysics. The results of these investigations are briefly summarized. Specific topics include a quantitative investigation of the solar modulation of cosmic ray protons and helium nuclei, a study of cosmic ray positron and electron spectra in interplanetary and interstellar space, the solar modulation of cosmic rays, an investigation of techniques for the measurement and interpretation of cosmic ray isotopic abundances, and a balloon measurement of the isotopic composition of galactic cosmic ray boron, carbon, and nitrogen.

Using gamma radiation, seedless forms of some varieties of oranges and grapefruit are being produced. Since it has long been known that radiation causes mutations in plants and animals, experiments were conducted to determine if seediness could be altered by exposing seeds or budwood to higher than natural doses of gamma radiation. Orange and grapefruit seeds and cuttings exposed to gammarays in the early 1970's have produced trees that bear fruit superior to that now on the market.

The intense gamma-ray burst of 1993 January 31 was detected by the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton Observatory. Sixteen gammarays above 30 MeV were imaged in the telescope when only 0.04 gammarays were expected by chance. Two of these gammarays have energies of approximately 1 GeV, and the five bin spectrum of the 16 events is fitted by a power law of photon spectral index -2.0 +/- 0.4. The high-energy emission extends for at least 25 s. The most probable direction for this burst is determined from the directions of the 16 gammarays observed by Egret and also by requiring the position to lie on annulus derived by the Interplanetary Network.

It is quite important to obtain wide band spectra of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) at the same time in order to probe the emission processes or the structure of GRBs. An avalanche photo diode (APD) is a compact photon sensor with an internal gain of 100. We have developed an X-ray/gamma-ray detector using a back-illuminated reach-through APD (5x5 mm{sup 2}) optically coupled with a conventional CsI(Tl) scintillator, which covers typically from 1 keV to 1 MeV. Further, we developed a 1-dimensional array of the 8/16 APDs (net 16x20 mm{sup 2}) for the purpose of an imaging photon detector to be used in future GRB missions. Here we present the current status and performance of our hybrid detector.

This paper discusses the optimization of the performance of imaging scintillation detectors used in the hard X-ray/soft gamma-ray (20-300) keV region of the spectrum. In these devices, absorption of an incident gamma-ray within an alkali halide crystal induces a scintillation light distribution which is centroided by an imaging photomultiplier tube mounted to the crystal. The ultimate imaging resolution is strongly affected by the detailed propagation of the scintillation light within the crystal and at the interface between the crystal and the phototube face plate. A number of refined techniques for preparing the scintillation crystals so as to optimize the imaging resolution have been investigated. The results indicate very good agreement with relatively simple models of the light propagation. It is shown that it is possible to achieve resolution consistent with the most optimistic models.

The use of gamma-ray strength function systematics to calculate neutron capture cross sections and capture gamma-ray spectra is discussed. The ratio of the average capture width, GAMMA/sub ..gamma../-bar, to the average level spacing, D/sub obs/, both at the neutron separation energy, can be derived from such systematics with much less uncertainty than from separate systematics for values of GAMMA/sub ..gamma../-bar and D/sub obs/. In particular, the E1 gamma-ray strength function is defined in terms of the giant dipole resonance (GDR). The GDR line shape is modeled with the usual Lorentzian function and also with a new energy-dependent, Breit-Wigner (EDBW) function. This latter form is further parameterized in terms of two overlapping resonances, even for nuclei where photonuclear measurements do not resolve two peaks. In the mass ranges studied, such modeling is successful for all nuclei away from the N = 50 closed neutron shell. Near the N = 50 shell, a one-peak EDBW appears to be more appropriate. Examples of calculated neutron capture excitation functions and capture gamma-ray spectra using the EDBW form are given for target nuclei in the mass-90 region and also in the Ta-Au mass region. 20 figures.

The scientific aims of the European Space Agency's International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory are considerably extended because of its unique capability to identify electromagnetic counterparts to sources of gravitational waves and ultra-high-energy neutrinos.

Population synthesis studies of binaries are always limited by a myriad of uncertainties from the poorly understood effects of binary mass transfer and common envelope evolution to the many uncertainties that still remain in stellar evolution. But the importance of these uncertainties depends both upon the objects being studied and the questions asked about these objects. Here I review the most critical uncertainties in the population synthesis of gamma-ray burst progenitors. With a better understanding of these uncertainties, binary population synthesis can become a powerful tool in understanding, and constraining, gamma-ray burst models. In turn, as gamma-ray bursts become more important as cosmological probes, binary population synthesis of gamma-ray burst progenitors becomes an important tool in cosmology.

COS-B viewed the Cyg X-3 region seven times between November, 1975, and February, 1982; a search for steady gamma-ray emission pulsed at the characteristic 4.8-hour period did not reveal its source. Leiden-MIT balloon experiment observations of Cyg X-3 in May, 1979 show the 4.8-hour modulation with sinusoidal light curve and modulation depth of 0.30, for energies of up to about 140 keV. The strong variability of Cyg X-3 over more than one order of magnitude at energies below 20 keV does not emerge in the data collected at hard X-ray energies.

Due to the large activity we had during these last months with the Swift satellite I started the writing of the presentation I gave at the SAIt Catania meeting only in the middle of September. The Swift satellite, however, never rested. Since then and in addition to the results I showed at the meeting in relation to the early and steep light curves observed with the XRT telescope in the 0.2 - 10 keV band, we had fundamental discoveries among which the detection and localization of short bursts and the detection of the largest redshift ever. It obviously would be improper to discuss here the most recent results but it would also be silly in such a fast evolving topics where the day by day observations show excellent results and the observer is far ahead of the theoretician, to write an article that, from the observational point of view, would be completely obsolete. The best approach here seems to be a brief description of what was presented during the meeting briefly mentioning also some of the most recent results. We remind the reader, however, that a copious literature written, and in preparation, exists so that we urge the reader to refer to the specialized articles. This brief article will touch on the basic characteristics of the GammaRay Bursts (GRBs) in the Introduction (section 1) and illustrate the basic characteristics of the Swift mission in section 2. Preliminary science results will be discussed in section 3 and finally we will mention one, among many, of the main goal we plan to achieve in Cosmology via the observations of very distant GRBs.

In a two-day balloon flight during October 1995, the Caltech coded aperture gammaray imaging payload (GRIP-2) imaged various fields in the Galactic plane and center in the 25 to 600 keV energy band. The large phoswich detector, the 15 deg field of view, the 30 arcmin angular resolution and 6 arcmin point source localization capability of GRIP-2 provides the possibility of surveying the accreting binary population of the Galaxy at high energy. The instrument is described and preliminary imaging results are reported on. The capabilities of this instrument for hard X-ray/gammaray imaging are demonstrated.

In the past decade, hard x-ray transmission microscopy experienced tremendous developments. With the avail-ability of efficient Fresnel zone plates, even set-ups utilizing laboratory sources were developed [1]. In order to improve the performance of these x-ray microscopes, novel approaches to fabricate optical elements [2] and brighter x-ray tubes [3] are promising candidates. We are currently building a laboratory transmission x-ray microscope for 9.25 keV, using an electron impact liquid-metal-jet anode source. Up to now, the further elements of our setup are: a polycapillary condenser, a tungsten zone plate, and a scintillator which is optically coupled to a CMOS camera. However, further variations in terms of optical elements are intended. Here we present the current status of our work, as well as first experimental results.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy holds great promise for probing nucleosynthesis in individual supernova explosions via short-lived radioactivity, and for measuring current global Galactic supernova nucleosynthesis with longer-lived radioactivity. It was somewhat surprising that the former case was realized first for a Type II supernova, when both Co-56 and Co-57 were detected in SN 1987A. These provide unprecedented constraints on models of Type II explosions and nucleosynthesis. Live Al-26 in the Galaxy might come from Type II supernovae, and if it is eventually shown to be so, can constrain massive star evolution, supernova nucleosynthesis, and the Galactic Type II supernova rate. Type Ia supernovae, thought to be thermonuclear explosions, have not yet been detected in gamma-rays. This is somewhat surprising given current models and recent Co-56 detection attempts. Ultimately, gamma-ray measurements can confirm their thermonuclear nature, probe the nuclear burning conditions, and help evaluate their contributions to Galactic nucleosynthesis. Type Ib/c supernovae are poorly understood. Whether they are core collapse or thermonuclear events might be ultimately settled by gamma-ray observations. Depending on details of the nuclear processing, any of these supernova types might contribute to a detectable diffuse glow of Fe-60 gamma-ray lines. Previous attempts at detection have come very close to expected emission levels. Remnants of any type of age less that a few centuries might be detectable as individual spots of Ti-44 gamma-ray line emission. It is in fact quite surprising that previous surveys have not discovered such spots, and the constraints on the combination of nucleosynthesis yields and supernova rates are very interesting. All of these interesting limits and possibilities mean that the next mission, International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), if it has sufficient sensitivity, is very likely to lead to the realization of much of the great potential

Gamma-ray bursts remain on of the greatest mysteries in astrophysics in spite of recent observational advances and intense theoretical work. Although some of the basic properties of bursts were known 25 years ago, new and more detailed observations have been made by the BATSE (Burst and Transient Source Experiment) experiment on the Compton GammaRay Observatory in the past five years. Recent observations of bursts and some proposed models will be discussed.

I’ll review the status of the Supernova/Gamma-Ray Burst connection. Several pieces of evidence suggest that long duration Gamma-ray Bursts are associated with bright SNe-Ic. However recent works suggest that GRBs might be produced in tight binary systems composed of a massive carbon-oxygen cores and a neutron star companion. Current estimates of the SN and GRB rates yield a ratio GRB/SNe-Ibc in the range ∼ 0.4% − 3%.

The counting rate as measured by the gammaray monitor on the OSO-7 satellite, covering the energy range 0.3-10 MeV, during a sixteen month period (October 1971-December 1972) was considerably higher than expected from balloon data previously reported. Dyer et al. (1971) have shown the importance of activation in satellites for diffuse gamma flux measurements. The OSO-7 spectra exhibit strong, complex line structure, especially between 400 keV and 900 keV, and several identifications can be made consistent with the model of Dyer et al. The spectral structure and time variations are presented which must be explained by any activation model.

Increasing observational evidence gathered especially in X-rays and {gamma}-rays during the course of the last few years support the notion that Supernova remnants (SNRs) are Galactic particle accelerators up to energies close to the ''knee'' in the energy spectrum of Cosmic rays. This review summarizes the current status of {gamma}-ray observations of SNRs. Shell-type as well as plerionic type SNRs are addressed and prospect for observations of these two source classes with the upcoming GLAST satellite in the energy regime above 100 MeV are given.

A careful new measurement of the {sup 238}U(n,{gamma}) cross section from 10 eV to 100 keV has been made using the DANCE detector at LANSCE. DANCE is a 4{pi} calorimetric scintillator array consisting of 160 BaF{sub 2} crystals. Measurements were made on a 48 mg/cm{sup 2} depleted uranium target. The cross sections are in general good agreement with previous measurements. The gamma-ray emission spectra, as a function of gamma multiplicity, were also measured and compared to model calculations.

Microfocusing of 100 keV x ray with a sputtered-sliced Fresnel zone plate (ss-FZP) has been performed at the 250-m-long beamline (20XU) of SPring-8. The ss-FZP with an outermost zone width 0.16 μm which is composed of 70 layers of alternating Cu and Al layers and having thickness ˜180 μm was fabricated and characterized. The minimum focal spot size attained for the first order focal beam was 0.5 μm with a focal distance 900 mm at a photon energy 100 keV. The total flux of the microprobe was ˜2×106 photons s-1 μm-2.

To evaluate the feasibility of measuring differences in bulk composition among carbonaceous meteorite parent bodies from an asteroid or comet orbiter, we present the results of a performance simulation of an orbital gamma-ray spectroscopy (GRS) experiment in a Dawn-like orbit around spherical model asteroids with a range of carbonaceous compositions. The orbital altitude was held equal to the asteroid radius for 4.5 months. Both the asteroid gamma-ray spectrum and the spacecraft background flux were calculated using the MCNPX Monte-Carlo code. GRS is sensitive to depths below the optical surface (to ≈20-50 cm depth depending on material density). This technique can therefore measure underlying compositions beneath a sulfur-depleted (e.g., Nittler et al.) or desiccated surface layer. We find that 3σ uncertainties of under 1 wt% are achievable for H, C, O, Si, S, Fe, and Cl for five carbonaceous meteorite compositions using the heritage Mars Odyssey GRS design in a spacecraft-deck-mounted configuration at the Odyssey end-of-mission energy resolution, FWHM = 5.7 keV at 1332 keV. The calculated compositional uncertainties are smaller than the compositional differences between carbonaceous chondrite subclasses.

Model fits are presented for 18 gamma-ray burst spectra from 100 keV to 27 MeV made with the BATSE spectroscopy detectors on the Compton GammaRay Observatory. Most of the bursts are well fitted as power laws with spectral indices between -1.36 and -2.29; however, five bursts show definite departures from a simple power-law fit at high energies. Three of these bursts are well fitted with broken power-law spectra and break energies of from 400 to 690 keV, such as might arise from photon-photon interactions. If so, then the source compactness and hence distance will be sharply constrained. Two of the bursts have spectra with sharply confined slope changes and are well fitted with broken power-law spectra with break energies of 1.2 and 1.6 MeV at peak, such as might arise from photon-magnetic field interactions. If so, then these spectral breaks provide strong evidence for the existence of high magnetic fields in the burst emission region.

The Gamma-ray Burst Polarimeter-POLAR is a highly sensitive detector which is dedicated to the measurement of GRB's polarization with a large effective detection area and a large field of view (FOV). The optimized performance of POLAR will contribute to the capture and measurement of the transient sources like GRBs and Solar Flares. The detection energy range of POLAR is 50 keV 500 keV, and mainly dominated by the Compton scattering effect. POLAR consists of 25 detector modular units (DMUs), and each DMU is composed of low Z material Plastic Scintillators (PS), multi-anode photomultipliers (MAPMT) and multi-channel ASIC Front-end Electronics (FEE). POLAR experiment is an international collaboration project involving China, Switzerland and Poland, and is expected to be launched in September in 2016 onboard the Chinese space laboratory "Tiangong-2 (TG-2)". With the efforts from the collaborations, POLAR has experienced the Demonstration Model (DM) phase, Engineering and Qualification Model (EQM) phase, Qualification Model (QM) phase, and now a full Flight Model (FM) of POLAR has been constructed. The FM of POLAR has passed the environmental acceptance tests (thermal cycling, vibration, shock and thermal vacuum tests) and experienced the calibration tests with both radioactive sources and 100% polarized Gamma-Ray beam at ESRF after its construction. The design of POLAR, Monte-Carlo simulation analysis, as well as the performance test results will all be introduced in this paper.

The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope, GLAST, is a mission to measure the cosmic gamma-ray flux in the energy range 20 MeV to >300 GeV, with supporting measurements for gamma-ray bursts from 8 keV to 30 MeV. The very large field of view makes it possible to observe 20% of the sky at any instant, and the entire sky on a timescale of a few hours. With its recent launch on 11 June, GLAST now opens a new and important window on a wide variety of phenomena, including black holes and active galactic nuclei; the optical-UV extragalactic background light, gamma-ray bursts: the origin of cosmic rays and supernova remnants; and searches for hypothetical new phenomena such as supersymmetric dark matter annihilations. In addition to the science opportunities, this talk includes a description of the instruments and the mission status and plans.

Two new missions will be launched in 1996 and 1997, each carrying X-ray and gammaray detectors capable of high spectral resolution at room temperature. The Argentine Satelite de Aplicaciones Cientificas (SAC-B) and the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) Clark missions will each carry several arrays of X-ray detectors primarily intended for the study of solar flares and gamma-ray bursts. Arrays of small (1 cm{sup 2}) cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) units will provide x-ray measurements in the 10 to 80 keV range with an energy resolution of {approx_equal}6 keV. Arrays of both silicon avalanche photodiodes (APD) and P-intrinsic-N (PIN) photodiodes (for the SAC-B mission only) will provide energy coverage from 2-25 keV with {approx_equal}1 keV resolution. For SAC-B, higher energy spectral data covering the 30-300 keV energy range will be provided by CsI(Tl) scintillators coupled to silicon APDs, resulting in similar resolution but greater simplicity relative to conventional CsI/PMT systems. Because of problems with the Pegasus launch vehicle, the launch of SAC-B has been delayed until 1997. The launch of the SSTI Clark mission is scheduled for June 1996.

It is shown in this study that two different types of spectral emission are generally produced in gamma-ray bursts. A subset of bursts is identified that exhibits a marked lack of fluence above 300 keV, and these bursts are shown to have luminosities about an order of magnitude lower than bursts with significant fluence above 300 keV. The bursts lacking emission above 300 keV exhibit an effectively homogeneous intensity distribution. In addition, it is shown that both types of emission are common in many bursts, demonstrating that a single source object is capable of generating both of them. These results strongly favor a gamma-ray burst source object that produces two different types of emission with varying degrees of superposition. The impact of this behavior is strong enough that it affects the properties of the burst intensity distribution, as well as the burst spectral characteristics.

Important developments in gamma-ray astrophysics up to energies of 100 GeV during the last decade are reviewed. Also, the report seeks to define the major current scientific goals of the field and proposes a vigorous program to pursue them, extending to the year 2000. The goals of gamma-ray astronomy include the study of gammarays which provide the most direct means of studying many important problems in high energy astrophysics including explosive nucleosynthesis, accelerated particle interactions and sources, and high-energy processes around compact objects. The current research program in gamma-ray astronomy in the U.S. including the space program, balloon program and foreign programs in gamma-ray astronomy is described. The high priority recommendations for future study include an Explorer-class high resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy mission and a Get Away Special cannister (GAS-can) or Scout class multiwavelength experiment for the study of gamma-ray bursts. Continuing programs include an extended GammaRay Observatory mission, continuation of the vigorous program of balloon observations of the nearby Supernova 1987A, augmentation of the balloon program to provide for new instruments and rapid scientific results, and continuation of support for theoretical research. Long term recommendations include new space missions using advanced detectors to better study gamma-ray sources, the development of these detectors, continued study for the assembly of large detectors in space, collaboration with the gamma-ray astronomy missions initiated by other countries, and consideration of the Space Station attached payloads for gamma-ray experiments.

An upper limit of less than 4 mg TNT equivalent fission energy release from the HOLOG experiment was determined using a germanium {gamma}-ray detector to measure the ratio of selected fission-product and plutonium {gamma} rays. Only three hours of {gamma}-ray data collected immediately after the zero-time were analyzed to calculate the above limit. We found no peaks corresponding to the {sup 97} Zr - {sup 97} Nb fission product pair at the gamma-ray energies of E{sub {gamma}} = 743 keV and E{sub {gamma}} = 658 keV, respectively. No information on the plutonium isotopic ratios is revealed because {gamma}-ray peaks in the energy region below 100 keV are not observed due to the high absorption in the containment barrier. The measurement is relatively easy to perform and is not subject to false-positive results because specific fission product and plutonium {gamma} ray energies need to be detected.

The background measured with space-borne gamma-ray spectrometers (GRS) in the 100 keV-10 MeV energy region consists of both discrete lines and continuum. The discrete lines originate in the decay of radioactive species. The continuum originates from a number of different processes and can be an important factor in the detection, for example, of weak gamma-ray lines from a planetary surface. Measurements of the gamma-ray background have been made during the cruise portion of a number of planetary missions. The three missions described here are the Apollo 15 and 16 missions each of which carried a 7 cm x 7 cm NaI scintillation detector, the Mars Observer (MO) mission which used a 5.5 cm X 5.5 cm high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector, and the Near Earth Rendezvous Asteroid (NEAR) mission that has a 2.54 cm x 7.6 cm NaI detector. A comparison of the intensity and spectral shape of these background spectra can be useful to help understand how these backgrounds vary with spacecraft size, detector position, and detector size. The use of shields to reduce the background components on these three missions is a test of the effectiveness of different shield designs.

The energy band from a few hundred keV to a few hundred GeV offers a unique window for studying both thermal and the non-thermal astrophysical processes. Important science can be gleaned fom investigations of emission mechanisms and environments of the most extreme objects that populate this mostly unexplored energy range. The All-sky Medium Energy Gamma-Ray Observatory (AMEGO) is a next-generation mission concept builing on the pioneering observations by COMPEL, on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, and the heritage of recent successful missions, such as Fermi-LAT, AGILE, AMS and PAMELA. With its capability of detecting both Compton-scattering events at lower energy and pair-production events at higher energy, AMEGO can explore the energy regime from 300 keV to > 10 GeV with unprecedented sensitivity. We describe the concept of this wide-aperture instrument and discuss its power to address fundamental questions from a broad variety of astrophysical topics. NPP Fellow at NASA/GSFC.

A growing source of gammarays at Duke has scientists eager to glean insights into nuclear structure and nuclear astrophysics. At the same facility, meanwhile, energies are being edged down toward the biologically significant water window.

Recent reanalysis of data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has resulted in the first detection of high-energy gammarays emitted from a nearby galaxy. This discovery reveals more about how supernovae interact with their environments.Colliding Supernova RemnantAfter a stellar explosion, the supernovas ejecta expand, eventually encountering the ambient interstellar medium. According to models, this generates a strong shock, and a fraction of the kinetic energy of the ejecta is transferred into cosmic rays high-energy radiation composed primarily of protons and atomic nuclei. Much is still unknown about this process, however. One open question is: what fraction of the supernovas explosion power goes into accelerating these cosmic rays?In theory, one way to answer this is by looking for gammarays. In a starburst galaxy, the collision of the supernova-accelerated cosmic rays with the dense interstellar medium is predicted to produce high-energy gammarays. That radiation should then escape the galaxy and be visible to us.Pass 8 to the RescueObservational tests of this model, however, have beenstumped by Arp 220. This nearby ultraluminous infrared galaxy is the product of a galaxy merger ~700 million years ago that fueled a frenzy of starbirth. Due to its dusty interior and extreme levels of star formation, Arp 220 has long been predicted to emit the gammarays produced by supernova-accelerated cosmic rays. But though weve looked, gamma-ray emission has never been detected from this galaxy until now.In a recent study, a team of scientists led by Fang-Kun Peng (Nanjing University) reprocessed 7.5 years of Fermi observations using the new Pass 8 analysis software. The resulting increase in resolution revealed the first detection of GeV emission from Arp 220!Acceleration EfficiencyGamma-ray luminosity vs. total infrared luminosity for LAT-detected star-forming galaxies and Seyferts. Arp 220s luminosities are consistent with the scaling relation. [Peng et al. 2016

We propose a series of simulations about the potential use of Boron isotopes to trigger neutron-free (aneutronic) nuclear reactions in cancer cells through the interaction with an incoming energetic proton beam, thus resulting in the emission of characteristic prompt gamma radiation (429 keV, 718 keV and 1435 keV). Furthermore assuming that the Boron isotopes are absorbed in cancer cells, the three alpha-particles produced in each p-11B aneutronic nuclear fusion reactions can potentially result in the enhancement of the biological dose absorbed in the tumor region since these multi-MeV alpha-particles are stopped inside the single cancer cell, thus allowing to spare the surrounding tissues. Although a similar approach based on the use of 11B nuclei has been proposed in [Yoon et al. Applied Physics Letters 105, 223507 (2014)], our work demonstrate, using Monte Carlo simulations, the crucial importance of the use of 10B nuclei (in a solution containing also 11B) for the generation of prompt gamma-rays, which can be applied to medical imaging. In fact, we demonstrate that the use of 10B nuclei can enhance the intensity of the 718 keVgamma-ray peak more than 30 times compared to the solution containing only 11B nuclei. A detailed explanation of the origin of the different prompt gamma-rays, as well as of their application as real-time diagnostics during a potential cancer treatment, is here discussed.

We used Kr K{alpha} (12.6 keV) and Ag K{alpha} (22.1 keV) x-rays, produced by petawatt class laser pulses interacting with a Kr gas jet and a silver foil, to measure the integrated crystal reflectivity of flat Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG) up to fifth order. The reflectivity in fourth order is lower by a factor of 50 when compared to first order diffraction. In second order the integrated reflectivity decreases from 1.3 mrad at 12.6 keV to 0.5 mrad at 22.1 keV. The current study indicates that HOPG crystals are suitable for measuring scattering signals from high energy x ray sources (E {ge} 20 keV). These energies are required to penetrate through the high density plasma conditions encountered in inertial confinement fusion capsule implosions on the National Ignition Facility.

A group of middle-aged mixed-morphology (MM) supernova remnants (SNRs) interacting with molecular clouds (MCs) has been discovered to be strong GeV gamma-ray emitters by the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on board the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope (Fermi-LAT). The recent observations of the Suzaku X-ray satellite have revealed that some of these interacting gamma-ray-emitting SNRs, such as IC443, W49B, W44, and G359.1-0.5, have overionized plasmas. 3C 391 (G31.9+0.0) is another Galactic MM SNR interacting with MCs. It was observed in GeV gammarays by Fermi-LAT as well as in the 0.3-10.0 keV X-ray band by Suzaku. In this work, 3C 391 was detected in GeV gammarays with a significance of ∼18σ and we showed that the GeV emission is point-like in nature. The GeV gamma-ray spectrum was shown to be best explained by the decay of neutral pions assuming that the protons follow a broken power-law distribution. We revealed radiative recombination structures of silicon and sulfur from 3C 391 using Suzaku data. In this paper, we discuss the possible origin of this type of radiative plasma and hadronic gammarays.

high resolution mercuric iodide room temperature gamma-ray detectors have excellent potential as an essential component of space instruments to be used for high energy astrophysics. Mercuric iodide detectors are being developed both as photodetectors used in combination with scintillation crystals to detect gamma-rays, and as direct gamma-ray detectors. These detectors are highly radiation damage resistant. The list of applications includes gamma-ray burst detection, gamma-ray line astronomy, solar flare studies, and elemental analysis.

The Detector for Advanced Neutron Capture Experiments (DANCE) at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) was used for a neutron capture cross section measurement on {sup 241}Am. The high granularity of the DANCE array (160 BaF2 detectors in a 4{pi} geometry) enables an efficient detection of prompt gammarays following neutron capture. The preliminary results on the {sup 241}Am(n,{gamma}) cross section are presented from 0.02 eV to 300 keV. The cross section at thermal energy E{sub n} = 0.0253 eV was determined to be 665{+-}33 barns. Resonance parameters were obtained using the SAMMY7 fit to the measured cross section in the resonance region. Significant discrepancies were found between our results and data evaluations for the first three lowest lying resonances. The cross section for neutrons with E{sub n}>l keV agrees well with the ENDF/B-VII.0 and JENDL-3.3 evaluations.

The measurement of gammarays from cosmic sources at ~MeV energies is one of the key tools for nuclear astrophysics, in its study of nuclear reactions and their impacts on objects and phenomena throughout the universe. Gammarays trace nuclear processes most directly, as they originate from nuclear transitions following radioactive decays or high-energy collisions with excitation of nuclei. Additionally, the unique gamma-ray signature from the annihilation of positrons falls into this astronomical window and is discussed here: Cosmic positrons are often produced from β-decays, thus also of nuclear physics origins. The nuclear reactions leading to radioactive isotopes occur inside stars and stellar explosions, which therefore constitute the main objects of such studies. In recent years, both thermonuclear and core-collapse supernova radioactivities have been measured though 56Ni, 56Co, and 44Ti lines, and a beginning has thus been made to complement conventional supernova observations with such measurements of the prime energy sources of supernova light created in their deep interiors. The diffuse radioactive afterglow of massive-star nucleosynthesis in gammarays is now being exploited towards astrophysical studies on how massive stars feed back their energy and ejecta into interstellar gas, as part of the cosmic cycle of matter through generations of stars enriching the interstellar gas and stars with metals. Large interstellar cavities and superbubbles have been recognised to be the dominating structures where new massive-star ejecta are injected, from 26Al gamma-ray spectroscopy. Also, constraints on the complex interiors of stars derive from the ratio of 60Fe/26Al gammarays. Finally, the puzzling bulge-dominated intensity distribution of positron annihilation gammarays is measured in greater detail, but still not understood; a recent microquasar flare provided evidence that such objects may be prime sources for positrons in interstellar space, rather than

High energy (>10 keV) x-ray self-emission imaging and radiography will be essential components of many NIF high energy density physics experiments. In preparation for such experiments, we have evaluated the pros and cons of various static [x-ray film, bare charge-coupled device (CCD), and scintillator + CCD] and time-resolved (streaked and gated) 10-1000 keV detectors.

High pressure x-ray absorption has been performed down to 3.6 keV, thanks to the new LUCIA beamline (SLS, PSI) and to the use of perforated diamonds or Be gasket. Various experimental geometries are proposed, depending on the energy of the edge and on the concentration of the studied element. A few examples will be presented: BaTiO3 at the titanium K edge, Zn0.95 Mn0.05O at the manganese K edge, KCl at the potassium K edge.

Gammaray astronomy is currently in an exciting period of multiple missions and a wealth of data. Results from INTEGRAL, Fermi, AGILE, Suzaku and Swift are making large contributions to our knowledge of high energy processes in the universe. The advances are due to new detector and imaging technologies. The steps to date have been from scintillators to solid state detectors for sensors and from light buckets to coded aperture masks and pair telescopes for imagers. A key direction for the future is toward focusing telescopes pushing into the hard X-ray regime and Compton telescopes and pair telescopes with fine spatial resolution for medium and high energy gammarays. These technologies will provide finer imaging of gamma-ray sources. Importantly, they will also enable large steps forward in sensitivity by reducing background.

The COS-B satellite carries a single experiment, capable of detecting gammarays with energies greater than 30 MeV. Its objectives are to study the spatial, energy, and time characteristics of high energy radiation of galactic and extragalactic origin. The capability to search for gammaray pulsations is enhanced by the inclusion in the payload of a proportional counter sensitive to X-rays of 2-12 Kev. The experiment was calibrated using particle accelerators. The results of these measurements are presented and the performance of the system in orbit is discussed.

The strong 0.5-2 MeV gamma-ray bump of Cyg X-1 recently reported by HEAO 3 observers can be interpreted self-consistently as the emission from a hot (kT of about 400 keV) pair-dominated plasma. The emission region parameters are uniquely determined by the spectral fit and observed luminosity via the pair-balance condition, suggesting that the gammarays are produced in the inner region of the accretion flow at the expense of the normal power-law hard X-rays.

While the cosmic soft X-ray background is very likely to originate from individual Seyfert galaxies, the origin of the cosmic hard X-ray and MeV gamma-ray background is not fully understood. It is expected that Seyferts including Compton thick population may explain the cosmic hard X-ray background. At MeV energy range, Seyferts having non-thermal electrons in coronae above accretion disks or MeV blazars may explain the background radiation. We propose that future measurements of the angular power spectra of anisotropy of the cosmic X-ray and MeV gamma-ray backgrounds will be key to deciphering these backgrounds and the evolution of active galactic nuclei (AGNs). As AGNs trace the cosmic large-scale structure, spatial clustering of AGNs exists. We show that e-ROSITA will clearly detect the correlation signal of unresolved Seyferts at 0.5-2 keV and 2-10 keV bands and will be able to measure the bias parameter of AGNs at both bands. Once the future hard X-ray all sky satellites achieve the sensitivity better than 10-12 erg/cm2/s-1 at 10-30 keV or 30-50 keV - although this is beyond the sensitivities of current hard X-ray all sky monitors - angular power spectra will allow us to independently investigate the fraction of Compton-thick AGNs in all Seyferts. We also find that the expected angular power spectra of Seyferts and blazars in the MeV range are different by about an order of magnitude, where the Poisson term, so-called shot noise, is dominant. Current and future MeV instruments will clearly disentangle the origin of the MeV gamma-ray background through the angular power spectrum.

Using the GammaRay Burst Monitor (GBM) on-board Fermi, we are monitoring the hard X-ray/soft gammaray sky using the Earth occultation technique. Each time a source in our catalog is occulted by (or exits occultation by) the Earth, we measure its flux by determining the change in count rate due to the occultation. Currently we are using CTIME data with 8 energy channels spanning 8 keV to 1 MeV for the GBM NaI detectors and spanning 150 keV to 40 MeV for the GBM BGO detectors. Our preliminary catalog consists of galactic X-ray binaries, the Crab Nebula, and active galactic nuclei. We will present early results. Regularly updated results can be found on our website http://gammaray.nsstc.nasa.gov/gbm/science/occultation.

Using the GammaRay Burst Monitor (GBM) on-board Fermi, we are monitoring the hard X-ray/ soft gammaray sky using the Earth occultation technique. Each time a source in our catalog is occulted by (or exits occultation by) the Earth, we measure its flux using the change in count rates due to the occultation. Currently we are using CTIME data with 8 energy channels spanning 8 keV to 1 MeV for the GBM NaI detectors and spanning 150 keV to 40 MeV for the GBM BGO detectors. Our preliminary catalog consists of galactic X-ray binaries, the Crab Nebula, and active galactic nuclei. In addition, to Earth occultations, we have observed numerous occultations with Fermi's solar panels.

Monochromatic neutrinos from dark matter annihilations (χχ→νν-bar) are always produced in association with a gamma-ray spectrum generated by electroweak bremsstrahlung. Consequently, these neutrino lines can be searched for not only with neutrino detectors but also indirectly with gamma-ray telescopes. Here, we derive limits on the dark matter annihilation cross section into neutrinos based on recent Fermi-LAT and HESS data. We find that, for dark matter masses above 200 GeV, gamma-ray data actually set the most stringent constraints on neutrino lines from dark matter annihilation and, therefore, an upper bound on the dark matter total annihilation cross section. In addition, we point out that gamma-ray telescopes, unlike neutrino detectors, have the potential to distinguish the flavor of the final state neutrino. Our results indicate that we have already entered into a new era where gamma-ray telescopes are more sensitive than neutrino detectors to neutrino lines from dark matter annihilation.

Ongoing deep surveys of galaxy luminosity distribution functions, spectral energy distributions and backwards evolution models of star formation rates can be used to calculate the past history of intergalactic photon densities and, from them, the present and past optical depth of the Universe to gamma-rays from pair production interactions with these photons. The energy-redshift dependence of the optical depth of the Universe to gamma-rays has become known as the Fazio-Stecker relation (Fazio & Stecker 1970). Stecker, Malkan & Scully have calculated the densities of intergalactic background light (IBL) photons of energies from 0.03 eV to the Lyman limit at 13.6 eV and for 0$ < z < $6, using deep survey galaxy observations from Spitzer, Hubble and GALEX and have consequently predicted spectral absorption features for extragalactic gamma-ray sources. This procedure can also be reversed. Determining the cutoff energies of gamma-ray sources with known redshifts using the recently launched Fermi gamma-ray space telescope may enable a more precise determination of the IBL photon densities in the past, i.e., the "archaeo-IBL.", and therefore allow a better measure of the past history of the total star formation rate, including that from galaxies too faint to be observed.

We investigate the electrodynamic structure of a pulsar outer-magnetospheric particle accelerator and the resulting gamma-ray emission. By considering the condition for the accelerator to be self-sustained, we derive how the trans-magnetic-field thickness of the accelerator evolves with the pulsar age. It is found that the thickness is small but increases steadily if the neutron-star envelope is contaminated by sufficient light elements. For such a light element envelope, the gamma-ray luminosity of the accelerator is kept approximately constant as a function of age in the initial 10,000 yr, forming the lower bound of the observed distribution of the gamma-ray luminosity of rotation-powered pulsars. If the envelope consists of only heavy elements, on the other hand, the thickness is greater, but it increases less rapidly than a light element envelope. For such a heavy element envelope, the gamma-ray luminosity decreases relatively rapidly, forming the upper bound of the observed distribution. The gamma-ray luminosity of a general pulsar resides between these two extreme cases, reflecting the envelope composition and the magnetic inclination angle with respect to the rotation axis. The cutoff energy of the primary curvature emission is regulated below several GeV even for young pulsars because the gap thickness, and hence the acceleration electric field, is suppressed by the polarization of the produced pairs.

Digital discrimination of neutron and gamma-ray events in an organic scintillator has been investigated by moment analysis. Signals induced by an americium-beryllium (Am/Be) isotropic neutron source in a stilbene crystal detector have been sampled with a flash analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) of 1 GSamples/s sampling rate and 10-bit vertical resolution. Neutrons and gamma-rays have been successfully discriminated with a threshold corresponding to gamma-ray energy about 217 keV. Moment analysis has also been verified against the results assessed by a time-of-flight (TOF) measurement. It is shown that the classification of neutrons and gamma-rays afforded by moment analysis is consistent with that achieved by digital TOF measurement. This method has been applied to analyze the data acquired from the stilbene crystal detector in mixed radiation field of the HL-2A tokamak deuterium plasma discharges and the results are described.

The investigation of the high-energy gamma-ray band by Fermi has revolutionized our understanding of the populations of pulsars - and by extension neutron starts - in the Galactic field. However, there exist a number of pulsars with energy output that peaks below 500 GeV, and whose gamma-ray characteristics are not well constrained by Fermi. The Compton-Pair Telescope (ComPair) is a proposed wide-field medium-energy gamma-ray mission (0.2 keV to > 500 MeV), re-opening an energy regime that was last investigated by COMPTEL on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory. The increased sensitivity and spatial resolution of the proposed instrument may lead to a similar knowledge revolution for these MeV-peaked pulsars. Here we discuss the properties of the MeV-peaked pulsar population, and speculate on the potential new science that ComPair may provide.

Digital discrimination of neutron and gamma-ray events in an organic scintillator has been investigated by moment analysis. Signals induced by an americium-beryllium (Am/Be) isotropic neutron source in a stilbene crystal detector have been sampled with a flash analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) of 1 GSamples/s sampling rate and 10-bit vertical resolution. Neutrons and gamma-rays have been successfully discriminated with a threshold corresponding to gamma-ray energy about 217 keV. Moment analysis has also been verified against the results assessed by a time-of-flight (TOF) measurement. It is shown that the classification of neutrons and gamma-rays afforded by moment analysis is consistent with that achieved by digital TOF measurement. This method has been applied to analyze the data acquired from the stilbene crystal detector in mixed radiation field of the HL-2A tokamak deuterium plasma discharges and the results are described.

Instrumental background in balloon-borne gamma-ray spectrometers is presented. The calculations are based on newly available interaction cross sections and new analytic techniques, and are the most detailed and accurate published to date. Results compare well with measurements made in the 20 keV to 10 MeV energy range by the Goddard Low Energy Gamma-ray Spectrometer (LEGS). The principal components of the continuum background in spectrometers with GE detectors and thick active shields are: (1) elastic neutron scattering of atmospheric neutrons on the Ge nuclei; (2) aperture flux of atmospheric and cosmic gammarays; (3) beta decays of unstable nuclides produced by nuclear interactions of atmospheric protons and neutrons with Ge nuclei; and (4) shield leakage of atmospheric gammarays. The improved understanding of these components leads to several recommended techniques for reducing the background.

A Laue lens is an innovative approach to focus x and gammaray in the energy range from ~60 keV to 600 keV through Laue diffraction by a properly arranged array of crystals. Good candidates as optical elements for such lenses are selfstanding bent crystals, in which the permanent curvature is obtained by a controlled surface treatment. We present a study based on the dynamical theory of x-ray diffraction efficiency of bent Si, Ge and GaAs crystals. We demonstrate that optimizing the curvature and the thickness for a proper diffraction geometry, relatively light Si, Ge and GaAs crystals may diffract with the same or even higher efficiency than higher density mosaic crystals, such as Cu, Ag and Au also permitting to accurately design the diffraction angular range. Thus, the use of low-Z curved crystals in Laue lenses may permit an increase of the lens performance. This opens important opportunities for use in x-ray astronomy for space telescopes and in nuclear medicine for the localization of cancers in the human body.

A computer code has been developed which is used to calculate ab initio the laboratory shapes and energy shifts of gamma-ray lines from (C-12)(p, gamma/4.438/)p-prime(C-12) and (O-16)(p, gamma/6.129/)p-prime(O-16) reactions and to calculate the expected shapes of these lines from solar flares. The sensitivity of observable solar flare gamma-ray line shapes to the directionality of the incident particles is investigated for several projectile angular distributions. Shapes of the carbon and oxygen lines are calculated assuming realistic proton energy spectra for particles in circular orbits at the mirror points of magnetic loops, for particle beams directed downward into the photosphere, and for isotropic particle distributions. Line shapes for flare sites near the center of the sun and on the limb are shown for both thin-target and thick-target interaction models.

Relativistic feedback discharges, also known as dark lightning, are capable of explaining many of the observed properties of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) and gamma-ray glows, both created within thunderstorms. During relativistic feedback discharges, the generation of energetic electrons is self-sustained via the production of backward propagating positrons and back-scattered x-rays, resulting in very larges fluxes of energetic radiation. In addition, ionization produces large electric currents that generate LF/VLF radio emissions and eventually discharge the electric field, terminating the gamma-ray production. In this presentation, new relativistic feedback model results will be presented and compared to recent observations.

A method for 222Rn concentration monitoring by means of intensity measurement of its daughter nuclei (214Pb and 214Bi) gamma-ray emission using xenon gamma-ray spectrometer is presented. Testing and calibration results for a gamma-spectrometric complex based on xenon gamma-ray detector are described.

By utilizing the Earth occultation technique (EOT), the Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor (GBM) instrument aboard Fermi has been used to make nearly continuous full-sky observations in the 8-1000 keV energy range. The GBM EOT analysis program currently monitors an input catalog containing 235 sources. We will present the GBM catalog of sources observed in the first 3 years of the EOT monitoring program, with special emphasis on the high energy (>100 keV) and time-variable sources, in particular the Crab, Cyg X-1, and A0535+26. We will also describe the initial results of an all-sky imaging analysis of the EOT data, with comparisons to the Swift, INTEGRAL, and Fermi LAT catalogs. This work is supported by the NASA Fermi Guest Investigator program, NASA/Louisiana Board of Regents, and Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia de Innovacion.

Observations and theoretical models of X-ray/gammaray spectra of radio quiet Seyfert galaxies and Galactic black hole candidates are reviewed. The spectra from these objects share the following characteristics: an underlying power law with a high energy cutoff above 200 keV; a Compton reflection component with a Fe K alpha line, and a low energy absorption by intervening cold matter. The X-ray energy spectral index, alpha, is typically in the range between 0.8 and 1 in Seyfert spectra, and that of the hard state spectra of the black hole candidates Cygnus X-1 and GX 339-4 is typically between 0.6 and 0.8. The Compton reflection component corresponds with cold matter covering a solid angle of between 0.8pi and 2pi as seen from the X-ray source. The broadband spectra of both classes of sources are well fitted by Compton upscattering of soft photons in thermal plasma. The fits yield a thermal plasma temperature of 100 keV and the Thomson optical depth of 1. All the spectra presented are cut off before the electron rest energy 511 keV, indicating that electron/positron pair production is an important process.

Over the last few years, the data obtained using the Large Area Telescope (LAT) aboard the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has provided new insights on high-energy processes in globular clusters, particularly those involving compact objects such as MilliSecond Pulsars (MSPs). Gamma-ray emission in the 100 MeV to 10 GeV range has been detected from more than a dozen globular clusters in our galaxy, including 47 Tucanae and Terzan 5. Based on a sample of known gammaray globular clusters, the empirical relations between gamma-ray luminosity and properties of globular clusters such as their stellar encounter rate, metallicity, and possible optical and infrared photon energy densities, have been derived. The measured gamma-ray spectra are generally described by a power law with a cut-off at a few gigaelectronvolts. Together with the detection of pulsed γ-rays from two MSPs in two different globular clusters, such spectral signature lends support to the hypothesis that γ-rays from globular clusters represent collective curvature emission from magnetospheres of MSPs in the clusters. Alternative models, involving Inverse-Compton (IC) emission of relativistic electrons that are accelerated close to MSPs or pulsar wind nebula shocks, have also been suggested. Observations at >100 GeV by using Fermi/LAT and atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes such as H.E.S.S.-II, MAGIC-II, VERITAS, and CTA will help to settle some questions unanswered by current data.

Recent progress in the understanding of the physical nature of neutron star equilibrium configurations and the first observational evidence of a genuinely short gamma-ray burst (GRB), GRB 090227B, allows us to give an estimate of the gravitational waves versus the X-ray and gamma-ray emission in a short GRB.

The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS), which is a part of the Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer Instrument, and the X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) on the MESSENGER spacecraft made calibration measurements during the Venus flyby on June 5, 2007. The purpose of these instruments is to determine elemental abundances on the surface of Mercury. The GRS measures gamma-rays emitted from element interactions with cosmic rays impinging on the surface, while the XRS measures X-ray emissions induced on the surface by the incident solar flux. The GRS sensor is a high-resolution high-purity Ge detector cooled by a Stirling cryocooler, surrounded by a borated-plastic anticoincidence shield. The GRS is sensitive to gamma-rays up to ~10 MeV and can identify most major elements, sampling down to depths of about ten centimeters. Only the shield was powered on for this flyby in order to conserve cooler lifetime. Gamma-rays were observed coming from Venus as well as from the spacecraft. Although the Venus gamma-rays originate from its thick atmosphere rather than its surface, the GRS data from this encounter will provide useful calibration data from a source of known composition. In particular, the data will be useful for determining GRS sensitivity and pointing options for the Mercury flybys, the first of which will be in January 2008. The X-ray spectrum of a planetary surface is dominated by a combination of the fluorescence and scattered solar X-rays. The most prominent fluorescent lines are the Kα lines from the major elements Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Ti, and Fe (1-10 keV). The sampling depth is less than 100 u m. The XRS is similar in design to experiments flown on Apollo 15 and 16 and the NEAR-Shoemaker mission. Three large-area gas-proportional counters view the planet, and a small Si-PIN detector mounted on the spacecraft sunshade monitors the Sun. The energy resolution of the gas proportional counters (~850 eV at 5.9 keV) is sufficient to resolve the X-ray lines above 2 keV, but Al and Mg

Data from the SAS-2 high-energy gamma-ray experiment reveal the existence of four pulsars emitting photons above 35 MeV. An attempt is made to explain the gamma-ray emission from these pulsars in terms of an electron-photon cascade that develops in the magnetosphere of the pulsar. Although there is very little material above the surface of the pulsar, the very intense magnetic fields (10 to the 12th power gauss) correspond to many radiation lengths which cause electrons to emit photons by magnetic bremsstrahlung and which cause these photons to pair-produce. The cascade develops until the mean photon energy drops below the pair-production threshold which is in the gamma-ray range; at this stage, the photons break out from the source.

An investigation is conducted concerning the possibility that supernovae (SN), located in dense interstellar clouds, might become the sources of gammaray lines. The SN progenitor, in such a case, has to be an O or B star so that its evolutionary lifetime is short, and an explosion inside the cloud is still possible. It is shown that, in principle, a measurement of the abundances in the ejecta is possible. Attention is given to the characteristics of a model, the expected luminosity of gamma-ray lines, and the study of specific numerical examples for testing the feasibility of the considered mechanism. On the basis of the obtained results, it is concluded that gamma-ray line production by collisional excitation in confined supernovae remnants may be quite important.

It has been suggested that gamma-ray burst light curves may consist of many superposed flares with a duration shorter than 30/microsec. If true, the implications for the interpretation of burst data are enormous. With the launch of the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, four predictions of Mitrofanov's (1989) suggestion can be tested. Our results which contradict this suggestion are (1) the photon arrival times are not correlated between independent detectors, (2) the spectral hardness and intensity does not depend on the detector area, (3) the bursts seen by detectors which measure photon positions do not see microsecond flares, and (4) burst positions deduced from detectors with different projected areas are close to the positions deduced from time-of-flight differences between separated spacecraft. We conclude, therefore, that gamma-ray bursts are not composed of microsecond flares.

We describe a gamma-ray imaging camera (GIC) for active interrogation of explosives being developed by NASA/GSFC and NSWCICarderock. The GIC is based on the Three-dimensional Track Imager (3-DTI) technology developed at GSFC for gamma-ray astrophysics. The 3-DTI, a large volume time-projection chamber, provides accurate, approx.0.4 mm resolution, 3-D tracking of charged particles. The incident direction of gammarays, E, > 6 MeV, are reconstructed from the momenta and energies of the electron-positron pair resulting from interactions in the 3-DTI volume. The optimization of the 3-DTI technology for this specific application and the performance of the GIC from laboratory tests is presented.

The origin of gamma-ray bursts is not known, both in the sense of the nature of the source emitting the radiation and literally, the position of the burst on the sky. Lacking unambiguously identified counterparts in any wavelength band studied to date, statistical approaches are required to determine the burster distance scale. Angular correlation analysis is one of the most powerful tools in this regard. However, poor detector resolution gives large localization errors, effectively beam smearing the positions. The resulting fuzzy angular correlation function is investigated and the generic isotropization that smearing induces on any intrinsic clustering is discussed. In particular, the extent to which gamma-ray burst observations by the BATSE detector aboard the Gamma-Ray Observatory might recover an intrinsic source correlation is investigated.

The High Altitude Water Cherenkov (HAWC) Gamma-ray observatory is a wide field-of-view observatory sensitive to gammarays in the 100 GeV - 100 TeV energy range, located in Mexico at an altitude of 4100 m. In the present work we present results on the search for excesses in the rates of signals from the individual photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) using the Time to Digital Converters (TDC) of HAWC. This search is based on the implementation of the Moving Average Ratio Analysis (MARA) focused on the characterization of the different physical phenomena that may give rise to such excesses: noise in the PMTs, atmospheric conditions related with thunderstorms and excesses of astrophysical origin such as variable sources of high energy gammarays and in particular GRBs. In particular we present an analysis over the HAWC historical data for the search of such excesses and elaborate on the possible physical interpretation of the found excesses.

New surveys of galactic gammaray emission together with millimeter wave radio surveys indicated that cosmic rays were produced as the result of supernova explosions in our galaxy with the most intense production occurring in a Great Galactic Ring about 35,000 light years in diameter where supernova remnants and pulsars were concentrated.

The gammaray line intensities due to cosmic ray spallation reactions in clouds, the galactic disk and accreting binary pulsars are calculated. With the most favorable plausible assumptions, only a few lines may be detectable to the level of 0.0000001 per sq. cm per sec. The intensities are compared with those generated in nuclear excitation reactions.

Thunderstorms emit bursts of energetic radiation. Moreover, lightning stepped leader produces X-ray pulses. The phenomena, their interrelation and impact on Earth's atmosphere and near space are not fully understood yet. In-flight Lightning Strike Damage Assessment System ILDAS is developed in a EU FP6 project ( http://ildas.nlr.nl/ ) to provide information on threat that lightning poses to aircraft. It consists of 2 E-field sensors, and a varying number of H-field sensors. It has recently been modified to include two LaBr3 scintillation detectors. The scintillation detectors are sensitive to x- and gamma-rays above 30 keV. The entire system is installed on A-350 aircraft and digitizes data with 100 MSamples/sec rate when triggered by lightning. A continuously monitoring channel counts the number of occurrences that the X-ray signal exceeds a set of trigger levels. In the beginning of 2014 the aircraft flies through thunderstorm cells collecting the data from the sensors. The X-rays generated by the lightning flash are measured in synchronization with the lightning current information during a period of 1 second around the strike. The continuous channel stores x-ray information with less time and amplitude resolution during the whole flight. That would allow x-rays from TGFs and continuous gamma-ray glow of thundercloud outside that 1 s time window. We will give an overview of the ILDAS system and show that the X-ray detection works as intended. The availability of the lightning associated data depends on the flight schedule. If available, these data will be discussed at the conference.

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope is designed to measure the fluxes of gamma-rays and cosmic-ray electrons + positrons, which can be produced by annihilation or decay of the dark matter particles, as well as to survey the celestial sphere in order to study point and extended sources of gamma-rays, measure energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse gamma-ray emission, gamma-ray bursts, and gamma-ray emission from the Sun. GAMMA-400 covers the energy range from 100 MeV to 3000 GeV. Its angular resolution is approx. 0.01 deg (E(sub gamma) > 100 GeV), the energy resolution approx. 1% (E(sub gamma) > 10 GeV), and the proton rejection factor approx 10(exp 6). GAMMA-400 will be installed on the Russian space platform Navigator. The beginning of observations is planned for 2018.

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope is designed to measure the fluxes of gamma-rays and cosmic-ray electrons (+) positrons, which can be produced by annihilation or decay of the dark matter particles, as well as to survey the celestial sphere in order to study point and extended sources of gamma-rays, measure energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse gamma-ray emission, gamma-ray bursts, and gamma-ray emission from the Sun. GAMMA-400 covers the energy range from 100 MeV to 3000 GeV. Its angular resolution is approximately 0.01deg (E(sub gamma) greater than 100 GeV), the energy resolution approximately 1% (E(sub gamma) greater than 10 GeV), and the proton rejection factor approximately 10(exp 6). GAMMA-400 will be installed on the Russian space platform Navigator. The beginning of observations is planned for 2018.

The Soft Gamma-ray Detector (SGD) on board NeXT (Japanese future high energy astrophysics mission) is a Compton telescope with narrow field of view, which utilizes Compton kinematics to enhance its background rejection capabilities. It is realized as a hybrid semiconductor gamma-ray detector which consists of silicon and Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) detectors. It can detect photons in an energy band 0.05-1 MeV at a background level of 5 x 10{sup -7} counts/s/cm{sup 2}/keV; the silicon layers are required to improve the performance at a lower energy band (<0.3 MeV). Excellent energy resolution is the key feature of the SGD to achieve both high angular resolution and good background rejection capability. Its ability to measure gamma-ray polarization opens up a new window to study gamma-ray emission in the universe. We will present the development of key technologies to realize the SGD; high quality CdTe, low noise front-end VLSI and bump bonding technology. Energy resolutions of 1.7 keV (FWHM) for CdTe pixel detectors and 1.1 keV for silicon strip detectors have been measured. We also present the validation of Monte Carlo simulation used to evaluate the performance of the SGD.

Much of George Dracoulis's research career was devoted to utilising gamma-ray spectroscopy in fundamental studies in nuclear physics. This same technology is useful in a wide range of applications in the area of nuclear forensics. Over the last several years, our research group has made use of both high- and low-resolution gamma-ray spectrometers to: identify the first sample of plutonium large enough to be weighed; determine the yield of the Trinity nuclear explosion; measure fission fragment yields as a function of target nucleus and neutron energy; and observe fallout in the U. S. from the Fukushima nuclear reactor accident.

An account is given of the implications of several calculations relevant to the estimation of gamma-ray signals from various explosive astronomical phenomena. After discussing efforts to constrain the amounts of Ni-57 and Ti-44 produced in SN 1987A, attention is given to the production of Al-27 in massive stars and SNs. A 'delayed detonation' model of type Ia SNs is proposed, and the gamma-ray signal which may be expected when a bare white dwarf collapses directly into a neutron star is discussed.

We review the current status of the Los Alamos program to develop a high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometer for the Lunar Scout-II mission, which is the second of two Space Exploration Initiative robotic precursor missions to study the Moon. This instrument will measure gammarays in the energy range of approximately 0.1 - 10 MeV to determine the composition of the lunar surface. The instrument is a high-purity germanium crystal surrounded by an CsI anticoincidence shield and cooled by a split Stirling cycle cryocooler. It will provide the abundance of many elements over the entire lunar surface.

Observations from the oriented scintillation spectrometer experiment of the gammaray lines originating from a variety of Galactic center sources are reviewed. Extensive observations were acquired of the Galactic center region, including the 0.511 MeV positron annihilation line and associated positronium continuum and Al-26 emission. The results reviewed include: Co-57 from SN 1987A; limits on Co-56 from SN 1991T; gammaray lines from solar flares; searches for Ti-44 emission from Cas A, and searches for C-12 and O-16 lines from the Orion region.

The BATSE experiment on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory is a nearly uninterrupted all-sky monitor in the hard X-ray/gamma-ray energy range. Count rate data continuously transmitted to the ground from Low Earth Orbit (altitude ~450km) is dominated, in the 20-300keV energy range, by diffuse cosmic background modulated by blocking effects of the Earth. Other background sources include atmospheric gamma-rays and the decay of radionuclides created in cosmic ray and radiation belt trapped particle interactions with the detector. Numerous discrete cosmic sources are also present in these data. In this paper we describe a semi-empirical background model which has been used to reduce the effect of dominant background sources. The use of this model can increase the sensitivity of the experiment to sources observed with the Earth occultation technique; to long period pulsed sources; to analysis of flickering noise; and to transient events.

In order to explore possible improvements of the existing techniques developed to estimate the neutron fluence in low-background Ge-spectroscopy systems, gamma spectra were collected by a HPGe detector in the presence of the 252Cf spontaneous fission neutron source. The spectra were taken with and without a Cd envelope on the detector dipstick, with different thicknesses of plastic used to slow down neutrons. We have analyzed the complex 595.8 keVgamma peak, as well as several more gamma peaks following the neutron interactions in the detector itself and surroundings materials. The investigation shows that some changes of the initial neutron spectra can be monitored by the analysis of the 595.8 keVgamma peak. We have found good agreement in the intensity changes between the long-tail component of the 595.8 keV and the 691 keVgamma peak (72Ge(n,n‧)72Ge reaction), usually used for the estimation of the fast neutron fluence. Results also suggest that the thermal neutrons can have a stronger influence on creation of the Gaussian-like part of 595.8 keV peak, than on the 139 keV one following 74Ge(n,γ)75mGe reaction and used in the standard methods (Škoro et al., 1992) [8] for determination of the thermal neutron flux.

High-resolution x-ray measurements were performed with a von Hamos-type bent crystal spectrometer using for the detection of the diffracted photons either a back-illuminated charge-coupled device (CCD) camera or a front-illuminated one. For each CCD the main x-ray emission lines (e.g., Kalpha, Kbeta, Lalpha, and Lbeta) of a variety of elements were measured in order to probe the performances of the two detectors between 1 and 18 keV. From the observed x-ray lines the linearity of the energy response, the noise level, the energy resolution, and the quantum efficiency ratio of the two CCDs were determined.

Cosmic rays (CRs) are highly energetic nuclei (plus a small fraction of electrons) which fill the Galaxy and carry on average as much energy per unit volume as the energy density of starlight, the interstellar magnetic fields, or the kinetic energy density of interstellar gas. The CR spectrum extends as a featureless power-law up to ~2 PeV (the 'knee') and it is believed to be the result of acceleration of those CRs in Galactic Sources and later diffusion and convection in galactic magnetic fields. Those energetic CRs can interact with the surrounding medium via proton-proton collision resulting in secondary gamma-ray photons, observed from 100 MeV to a few tens of TeV. The results obtained by the current Cherenkov telescopes and gamma-ray satellites with the support of X-ray observations have discovered and identified more than 50 Galactic gamma-ray sources. Among them, the number of Supernova remnants (SNRs) and very-high-energy hard-spectrum sources (natural candidates to originate CRs) are steadily increasing. We expect to increase by a factor 10 at least this population of source with the future CTA experiment. I will review our current knowledge of Galactic gamma-ray sources and their connection with energetic CRs and the scientific prospects for CTA in this field. Those observations, together with a strong multi-wavelenght support from radio to hard X-rays, will finally allow us to establish the origin of the Galactic CRs.

The solar corona is orders of magnitude hotter than the underlying photosphere, but how the corona attains such high temperatures is still not understood. Soft X-ray (SXR) emission provides important diagnostics for thermal processes in the high-temperature corona, and is also an important driver of ionospheric dynamics at Earth. There is a crucial observational gap between ∼0.2 and ∼4 keV, outside the ranges of existing spectrometers. We present observations from a new SXR spectrometer, the Amptek X123-SDD, which measured the spatially integrated solar spectral irradiance from ∼0.5 to ∼5 keV, with ∼0.15 keV FWHM resolution, during sounding rocket flights on 2012 June 23 and 2013 October 21. These measurements show that the highly variable SXR emission is orders of magnitude greater than that during the deep minimum of 2009, even with only weak activity. The observed spectra show significant high-temperature (5–10 MK) emission and are well fit by simple power-law temperature distributions with indices of ∼6, close to the predictions of nanoflare models of coronal heating. Observations during the more active 2013 flight indicate an enrichment of low first-ionization potential elements of only ∼1.6, below the usually observed value of ∼4, suggesting that abundance variations may be related to coronal heating processes. The XUV Photometer System Level 4 data product, a spectral irradiance model derived from integrated broadband measurements, significantly overestimates the spectra from both flights, suggesting a need for revision of its non-flare reference spectra, with important implications for studies of Earth ionospheric dynamics driven by solar SXRs.

Even before the discovery of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), Stirling Colgate proposed that bursts of x rays and gammarays might be produced by a relativistic shock created in the supernova explosion of a massive star. We trace the scientific story of GRBs from their detection to the present, highlighting along the way Stirling's interest in them and his efforts to understand them. We summarize our current understanding that short, soft, repeating bursts are produced by magnetic neutron stars; short, hard bursts are produced by the mergers of neutron star-neutron star binaries; and long, hard bursts are produced by the core collapse of massive stars that have lost their hydrogen and helium envelopes. We then discuss some important open questions about GRBs and how they might be answered. We conclude by describing the recent serendipitous discovery of an x-ray burst of exactly the kind he proposed, and the insights into core collapse supernovae and GRBs that it provided.

Unexpectedly high energy gamma radiation over a broad region of the galactic plane in the general direction of the galactic center was observed. A model is proposed wherein the galactic cosmic rays are preferentially located in the high matter density regions of galactic arm segments, as a result of the weight of the matter in these arms tieing the magnetic fields and hence the cosmic rays to these regions. The presently observed galactic gammaray longitudinal distribution can be explained with the current estimate of the average galactic matter density: if the average arm to interarm matter ratio is five to one for the major arm segments toward the galactic center from the sun; and if the cosmic ray density normalized to its local value is assumed to be directly proportional to the matter density.

We are working to perfect the growth of divalent Eu-doped strontium iodide single crystals and to optimize the design of SrI2(Eu)-based gammaray spectrometers. SrI2(Eu) offers a light yield in excess of 100,000 photons/MeV and light yield proportionality surpassing that of Ce-doped lanthanum bromide. Thermal and x-ray diffraction analyses of SrI2 and EuI2 indicate an excellent match in melting and crystallographic parameters, and very modest thermal expansion anisotropy. We have demonstrated energy resolution with SrI2(4-6%Eu) of 2.6% at 662 keV and 7.6% at 60 keV with small crystals, while the resolution degrades somewhat for larger sizes. Our experiments suggest that digital techniques may be useful in improving the energy resolution in large crystals impaired by light-trapping, in which scintillation light is re-absorbed and re-emitted in large and/or highly Eu2+ -doped crystals. The light yield proportionality of SrI2(Eu) is found to be superior to that of other known scintillator materials, such as LaBr3(Ce) and NaI(Tl).

We calculate the {gamma}-ray albedo flux from cosmic-ray (CR) interactions with the solid rock and ice in Main Belt asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) using the Moon as a template. We show that the {gamma}-ray albedo for the Main Belt and Kuiper Belt strongly depends on the small-body mass spectrum of each system and may be detectable by the forthcoming GammaRay Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST). The orbits of the Main Belt asteroids and KBOs are distributed near the ecliptic, which passes through the Galactic center and high Galactic latitudes. If detected, the {gamma}-ray emission by the Main Belt and Kuiper Belt has to be taken into account when analyzing weak {gamma}-ray sources close to the ecliptic, especially near the Galactic center and for signals at high Galactic latitudes, such as the extragalactic {gamma}-ray emission. Additionally, it can be used to probe the spectrum of CR nuclei at close-to-interstellar conditions, and the mass spectrum of small bodies in the Main Belt and Kuiper Belt. The asteroid albedo spectrum also exhibits a 511 keV line due to secondary positrons annihilating in the rock. This may be an important and previously unrecognized celestial foreground for the INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) observations of the Galactic 511 keV line emission including the direction of the Galactic center.

We report our recent progress on wide bandgap ternary halide compounds CsPbBr3 and CsPbCl3 for room temperature x-ray and gamma-ray detectors. Their bandgaps are measured to be 2.24 eV and 2.86 eV, respectively. The measured mobility-lifetime products of CsPbBr3 are 1.7×10-3, 1.3×10-3 cm2/V, for electron and hole carriers, respectively, comparable to those of CdTe. We measured the room temperature spectral response of CsPbBr3 sample to Ag x-ray radiation. It has a well-resolved spectral response to the 22.4 keV Kα radiation peak and detector efficiency comparable to that of CdZnTe detector at 295 K.

We investigate the scaling relation between the observed amount of absorption in the X-ray spectra of gamma-ray burst afterglows and the absorber redshift. Through dedicated numerical simulations of an ideal instrument, we establish that this dependence has a power-law shape with index 2.4. However, for real instruments, this value depends on their low-energy cut-off, spectral resolution and on the detector spectral response in general. We thus provide appropriate scaling laws for specific instruments. Finally, we discuss the possibility to measure the absorber redshift from X-ray data alone. We find that 105-106 counts in the 0.3-10 keV band are needed to constrain the redshift with 10 per cent accuracy. As a test case, we discuss the XMM-Newton observation of GRB 090618 at z = 0.54. We are able to recover the correct redshift of this burst with the expected accuracy.

An analysis was made of prospects for gammarays coming from two sources outside the solar system: (1) radioactive decay of fresh nuclear products to explosive nucleosynthesis, and (2) scattering of low energy cosmic rays. The former should be detectable and will provide a factual base for many suppositions about the site and history of nucleosynthesis. The latter may be detectable and, if so, will probably provide factual information about high-flux regions of cosmic radiation.

This is the catalog of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) detected with the GammaRay Burst Monitor aboard the BeppoSAX satellite. It includes 1082 GRBs with 40-700keV fluences in the range from 1.3x10-7 to 4.5x10-4erg/cm2, and 40-700keV peak fluxes from 3.7x10-8 to 7.0x10-5erg/cm2/s. We report in the catalog some relevant parameters of each GRB. (1 data file).

This paper is intended to identify the uncertainties of activities in environmental samples measured with gamma-ray spectrometry that result from uncertainties in matrix composition, density and geometrical dimensions of the sample. For that purpose efficiencies were calculated for a wide range of environmental matrices such as fresh and ashed food samples, water samples and soil samples. Compositions were mainly taken from literature. Densities and geometry parameters were varied in a range occurring in practice. Considered energies cover a range from 46.5keV to 2000keV. Finally, a couple of recommendations in respect to gamma-ray spectrometric measurements of environmental samples are given.

Integral's gamma-ray map of the galaxy hi-res Size hi-res: 430 kb Credits: ESA/SPI team A portion of Integral's gamma-ray map of the galaxy A portion of Integral's gamma-ray map of the galaxy. This false colour picture was taken by the spectrometer on board Integral (SPI) between December 2002 and March 2003. The yellow dots correspond to bright known gamma-rays sources, whilst blue areas indicate regions of low emission. Data similar to these, but in a higher energy range, have been used to study where aluminium and iron are produced in the Galaxy. Since its formation from a cloud of hydrogen and helium gas, around 12 000 million years ago, the Milky Way has gradually been enriched with heavier chemical elements. This has allowed planets and, indeed, life on Earth to form. Today, one of those heavier elements - radioactive aluminium - is spread throughout the Galaxy and, as it decays into magnesium, gives out gammarays with a wavelength known as the '1809 keV line'. Integral has been mapping this emission with the aim of understanding exactly what is producing all this aluminium. In particular, Integral is looking at the aluminium 'hot spots' that dot the Galaxy to determine whether these are caused by individual celestial objects or the chance alignment of many objects. Astronomers believe that the most likely sources of the aluminium are supernovae (exploding high-mass stars) and, since the decay time of the aluminium is around one million years, Integral's map shows how many stars have died in recent celestial history. Other possible sources of the aluminium include 'red giant' stars or hot blue stars that give out the element naturally. To decide between these options, Integral is also mapping radioactive iron, which is only produced in supernovae. Theories suggest that, during a supernova blast, aluminium and iron should be produced together in the same region of the exploding star. Thus, if the iron's distribution coincides with that of the aluminium, it

Our knowledge of the γ-ray sky has dramatically changed due to the advent of the new ground-based Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (H.E.S.S., MAGIC and VEPJTAS) and the satellite-borne instruments (AGILE and Fermi). These facilities boosted the number of γ-ray sources by one order of magnitude in the last 6 years, providing us with about 2000 sources detected above 100 MeV (from space) and about 100 sources detected above 100 GeV (from the ground). The combination of this large leap in experimental capabilities together with the fact that the Universe is still quite unexplored at these extreme energies is evidence of a large scientific discovery potential that will surely make the decade 2010-2020 a golden age for γ-ray astronomy. In this manuscript I provide a subjective review of some of the most exciting observations from this rapidly evolving field during the last two years.

The operation of gammaray lasers (gasers) are studied. It is assumed that the nuclear isomers mentioned in previously published papers have inherent limitations. It is further assumed that the judicious use of Bormann effect or the application of the total external reflection of low energy gamma radiation at grazing angle of incidence may permit the use of a gaser crystal sufficiently long to achieve observable stimulated emission. It is suggested that a long lived 0(+) isomer decaying by low energy gammaray emission to a short lived 2(+) excited nuclear state would be an attractive gaser candidate. It is also suggested that the nuclear isomer be incorporated in a matrix of refractory material having an electrostatic field gradient whose principal axis lies along the length of the medium. This results in the preferential transmission of electric quadrupole radiation along the length of the medium.

Most pulsars observed by the Fermi Large Area Telescope have {gamma}-ray luminosities scaling with spin-down power E-dot as L{sub {gamma}}{approx}(E-dot x 10{sup 33} erg s{sup -1}){sup 1/2}. However, there exist one detection and several upper limits an order of magnitude or more fainter than this trend. We describe these 'sub-luminous' {gamma}-ray pulsars and discuss the case for this being an orientation effect. Of the 12 known young radio pulsars with E-dot >10{sup 34} erg s{sup -1} and d {<=} 2 kpc several are substantially sub-luminous. The limited available geometrical constraints favor aligned geometries for these pulsars, although no one case for alignment is compelling. In this scenario GeV emission detected from such sub-luminous pulsars can be due to a lower altitude, lower-power accelerator gap.

GammaRay Bursts (GRBs) are a powerful probe of the high-redshift Universe. We present a tool to estimate the detection rate of high-z GRBs by a generic detector with defined energy band and sensitivity. We base this on a population model that reproduces the observed properties of GRBs detected by Swift, Fermi and CGRO in the hard X-ray and γ-ray bands. We provide the expected cumulative distributions of the flux and fluence of simulated GRBs in different energy bands. We show that scintillator detectors, operating at relatively high energies (e.g. tens of keV to the MeV), can detect only the most luminous GRBs at high redshifts due to the link between the peak spectral energy and the luminosity (Epeak-Liso) of GRBs. We show that the best strategy for catching the largest number of high-z bursts is to go softer (e.g. in the soft X-ray band) but with a very high sensitivity. For instance, an imaging soft X-ray detector operating in the 0.2-5 keV energy band reaching a sensitivity, corresponding to a fluence, of ˜10-8 erg cm-2 is expected to detect ≈40 GRBs yr-1 sr-1 at z ≥ 5 (≈3 GRBs yr-1 sr-1 at z ≥ 10). Once high-z GRBs are detected the principal issue is to secure their redshift. To this aim we estimate their NIR afterglow flux at relatively early times and evaluate the effectiveness of following them up and construct usable samples of events with any forthcoming GRB mission dedicated to explore the high-z Universe.

This paper presents an introduction to the astrophysics of cosmic rays and diffuse gamma-rays and discusses some of the puzzles that have emerged recently due to more precise data and improved propagation models: the excesses in Galactic diffuse gamma-ray emission, secondary antiprotons and positrons, and the flatter than expected gradient of cosmic rays in the Galaxy. These also involve the dark matter, a challenge to modern physics, through its indirect searches in cosmic rays. Though the final solutions are yet to be found, I discuss some ideas and results obtained mostly with the numerical propagation model GALPROP. A fleet of spacecraft and balloon experiments targeting these specific issues is set to lift off in a few years, imparting a feeling of optimism that a new era of exciting discoveries is just around the corner. A complete and comprehensive discussion of all the recent results is not attempted here due to the space limitations.

We analyze time-averaged spectra from 86 bright gamma-ray bursts from the first 5 years of the Burst And Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) on board the Compton GammaRay Observatory to determine whether the lowest energy data are consistent with a standard spectra form fit to the data at all energies. The BATSE Spectroscopy Detectors have the capability to observe photons as low as 5 keV. Using the gamma-ray burst locations obtained with the BATSE Large Area Detectors, the Spectroscopy Detectors' low-energy response can be modeled accurately. This, together with a postlaunch calibration of the lowest energy Spectroscopy Detector discriminator channel, which can lie in the range 5-20 keV, allows spectral deconvolution over a broad energy range, approx. 5 keV to 2 MeV. The additional coverage allows us to search for evidence of excess emission, or for a deficit, below 20 keV. While no burst has a significant (greater than or equal to 3 sigma) deficit relative to a standard spectra model, we find that 12 bursts have excess low-energy emission, ranging between 1.2 and 5.8 times the model flux, that exceeds 5 sigma in significance. This is evidence for an additional low-energy spectral component in at least some bursts, or for deviations from the power-law spectral form typically used to model gamma-ray bursts at energies below 100 keV.

Two general categories are discussed concerning the evolution of the solar system: the dualistic view, the planetesimal approach and the monistic view, the nebular hypothesis. The major points of each view are given and the models that are developed from these views are described. Possible applications of gammaray astronomical observations to the question of the dynamic evolution of the solar system are discussed.

Two general categories are discussed concerning the evolution of the solar system: the dualistic view, the planetesimal approach; and the monistic view, the nebular hypothesis. The major points of each view are given and the models that are developed from these views are described. Possible applications of gammaray astronomical observations to the question of the dynamic evolution of the solar system are discussed.

Gamma-ray shield that can be evacuated, refilled with a clean gas, and pressurized for exclusion of airborne radioactive contaminants effectively lowers background noise. Under working conditions, repeated evacuation and filling procedures have not adversely affected the sensitivity and resolution of the crystal detector.

The world's largest and most modern gamma-ray observatory has carried out its first successful observations. Located inside the Pico de Orizaba national park in the Mexican state of Puebla, the High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Observatory (HAWC) is a collaboration between 26 Mexican and US institutions.

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle is one of the important basic principles of quantum mechanics. In most of the books on quantum mechanics, this uncertainty principle is generally illustrated with the help of a gammaray microscope, wherein neither the image formation criterion nor the lens properties are taken into account. Thus a better…

The critical physics issues in the interpretation of gamma-ray-burst spectra are reviewed. An attempt is made to define the emission-region parameter space satisfying the maximum number of observational and theoretical constraints. Also discussed are the physical mechanisms responsible for the bursts that are most consistent with the above parameter space.

Pulsed emission from gamma-ray pulsars originates inside the magnetosphere, from radiation by charged particles accelerated near the magnetic poles or in the outer gaps. In polar cap models, the high energy spectrum is cut off by magnetic pair production above an energy that is, dependent on the local magnetic field strength. While most young pulsars with surface fields in the range B = 10(exp 12) - 10(exp 13) G are expected to have high energy cutoffs around several GeV, the gamma-ray spectra of old pulsars having lower surface fields may extend to 50 GeV. Although the gamma-ray emission of older pulsars is weaker, detecting pulsed emission at high energies from nearby sources would be an important confirmation of polar cap models. Outer gap models predict more gradual high-energy turnovers of the primary curvature emission around 10 GeV, but also predict an inverse Compton component extending to TeV energies. Detection of pulsed TeV emission, which would not survive attenuation at the polar caps, is thus an important test of outer gap models. Next-generation gamma-ray telescopes sensitive to GeV-TeV emission will provide critical tests of pulsar acceleration and emission mechanisms.

The anisotropic array of detectors to be used in the Burst and Transient Experiment (BATSE) for locating gammaray burst sources is examined with respect to its ability to locate those sources by means of the relative response of its eight detectors. It was shown that the energy-dependent attenuation effects of the aluminum window covering each detector has a significant effect on source location determinations. Location formulas were derived as a function of detector counts and gammaray energies in the range 50 to 150 keV. Deviation formulas were derived and serve to indicate the location error that would be cuased by ignoring the influence of the passive absorber.

Gamma-telescope GAMMA-400 is designed to measure fluxes of γ-rays and the electron-positron cosmic ray component possibly associated with dark matter particles annihilation or decay; and to search for and study in detail discrete γ-ray sources, to investigate the energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse γ-rays, and to study γ-ray bursts (GRB) and γ-rays from the active Sun. GAMMA-400 gamma-ray space-based telescope scientific goals require fine angular resolution. GAMMA-400 is the pair production telescope. In the converter-tracker the incident gamma-quantum convert into electron-positron pair in the tungsten layer and then the tracks are registered by silicon-strip position-sensitive detectors. Multiple scattering processes become a significant obstacle in the incident gamma direction reconstruction for energies below several GeV. The method of utilising this process to improve the resolution is proposed in the presented work.

207Pb(n,2n{gamma})206Pb cross section were measured for incident neutron energies between 6 and 20 MeV with the white neutron beam produced at GELINA. The {gamma}-ray production cross section for the main transition (803 keV, 2+{yields} 0+) in 206Pb is compared to results obtained at Los Alamos and to the TALYS and EMPIRE-II code predictions.

While the cosmic soft X-ray background is very likely to originate from individual Seyfert galaxies, the origin of the cosmic hard X-ray and MeV gamma-ray background is not fully understood. It is expected that Seyferts including Compton thick population may explain the cosmic hard X-ray background. At MeV energy range, Seyferts having non-thermal electrons in coronae above accretion disks or MeV blazars may explain the background radiation. We propose that future measurements of the angular power spectra of anisotropy of the cosmic X-ray and MeV gamma-ray backgrounds will be key to deciphering these backgrounds and the evolution of active galactic nuclei (AGNs). As AGNs trace the cosmic large-scale structure, spatial clustering of AGNs exists. We show that e-ROSITA will clearly detect the correlation signal of unresolved Seyferts at 0.5-2 keV and 2-10 keV bands and will be able to measure the bias parameter of AGNs at both bands. Once future hard X-ray all sky satellites achieve a sensitivity better than 10–12 erg cm–2 s–1 at 10-30 keV or 30-50 keV—although this is beyond the sensitivities of current hard X-ray all sky monitors—angular power spectra will allow us to independently investigate the fraction of Compton-thick AGNs in all Seyferts. We also find that the expected angular power spectra of Seyferts and blazars in the MeV range are different by about an order of magnitude, where the Poisson term, so-called shot noise, is dominant. Current and future MeV instruments will clearly disentangle the origin of the MeV gamma-ray background through the angular power spectrum.

Building on the success of the Energetic GammaRay Experiment Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton GammaRay Observatory, the GammaRay Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) will make a major step in the study of such subjects as blazars, gammaRay bursts, the search for dark matter, supernova remnants, pulsars, diffuse radiation, and unidentified high energy sources. The instrument will be built on new and mature detector technologies such as silicon strip detectors, low-power low-noise LSI, and a multilevel data acquisition system. GLAST is in the research and development phase, and one full tower (of 25 total) is now being built in collaborating institutes. The prototype tower will be tested thoroughly at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in the fall of 1999.

The observations and interpretations of cosmic (nonsolar) gammaray lines are discussed. The most prominent of these lines is the e(+)e(-) annihilation line which was observed from the Galactic Center and from several gammaray transients. At the Galactic Center the e(+)e(-) pairs are probably produced by an accreting massive black hole (solar mass of approximately one million) and annihilate within the central light year to produce a line at almost exactly 0.511 MeV. In gammaray transients the annihilation line is redshifted by factors consistent with neutron star surface redshifts. Other observed transient gammaray lines appear to be due to cyclotron absorption in the strong magnetic fields of neutron stars, and nuclear deexcitations and neutron capture, which could also occur on or around these objects.

The CubeSat mission with the demonstrator of miniaturized X-ray telescope is presented. The paper presents one of the mission objectives of using the instrument for remote sensing of the Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes (TGFs). TGFs are intense sources of gamma-rays associated with lightning bolt activity and tropical thunderstorms. The measurement of TGFs exists and was measured by sounding rockets, high altitude balloons or several satellite missions. Past satellite missions were equipped with different detectors working from 10 keV up to 10 MeV. The RHESSI mission spectrum measurement of TGFs shows the maximum counts per second around 75 keV. The used detectors were in general big in volume and cannot be utilized by the CubeSat mission. The presented CubeSat is equipped with miniaturized X-ray telescope using the Timepix non-cooled pixel detector. The detector works between 3 and 60 keV in counting mode (dosimetry) or in spectrum mode with resolution 5 keV. The wide-field X-ray "Lobster-eye" optics/collimator (depending on energy) is used with a view angle of 3 degrees for the source location definition. The UV detectors with FOV 30 degrees and 1.5 degrees are added parallel with the optic as a part of the telescope. The telescope is equipped with software distinguishing between the photons and other particles. Using this software the TGF's detection is possible also in the field of South Atlantic anomaly. For the total ionization dose, the additional detector is used based on Silicone (12-60 keV) and CdTe (20 keV - 1 MeV). The presented instruments are the demonstrators suitable also for the astrophysical, sun and moon observation. The paper shows the details of TGF's observation modes, detectors details, data processing and handling system and mission. The CubeSat launch is planned to summer 2016.

With the success of the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer currently in orbit, this is quite an exciting time in the history of GammaRay Bursts (GRBs). The study of GRBs is a modern astronomical mystery story that began over 30 years ago with the serendipitous discovery of these astronomical events by military satellites in the late 1960's. Until the launch of BATSE on the Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, astronomers had no clue whether GRBs originated at the edge of our solar system, in our own Milky Way Galaxy or incredibly far away near the edge of the observable Universe. Data from BATSE proved that GRBs are distributed isotropically on the sky and thus could not be the related to objects in the disk of our Galaxy. Given the intensity of the gamma-ray emission, an extragalactic origin would require an astounding amount of energy. Without sufficient data to decide the issue, a great debate continued about whether GRBs were located in the halo of our own galaxy or were at extragalactic - even cosmological distances. This debate continued until 1997 when the BeppoSAX mission discovered a fading X-ray afterglow signal in the same location as a GRB. This discovery enabled other telescopes, to observe afterglow emission at optical and radio wavelengths and prove that GRBs were at cosmological distances by measuring large redshifts in the optical spectra. Like BeppoSAX Swift, slews to new GRB locations to measure afterglow emission. In addition to improved GRB sensitivity, a significant advantage of Swift over BeppoSAX and other missions is its ability to slew very quickly, allowing x-ray and optical follow-up measurements to be made as early as a minute after the gamma-ray burst trigger rather than the previous 6-8 hour delay. Swift afterglow measurements along with follow-up ground-based observations, and theoretical work have allowed astronomers to identify two plausible scenarios for the creation of a GRB: either through core collapse of super massive stars or

Quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs) of gamma-ray emission with a period of about 40 s are found in a single loop X-class solar flare on 2005 January 1 at photon energies up to 2-6 MeV with the SOlar Neutrons and Gamma-rays (SONG) experiment aboard the CORONAS-F mission. The oscillations are also found to be present in the microwave emission detected with the Nobeyama Radioheliograph, and in the hard X-ray and low energy gamma-ray channels of RHESSI. Periodogram and correlation analysis shows that the 40 s QPPs of microwave, hard X-ray, and gamma-ray emission are almost synchronous in all observation bands. Analysis of the spatial structure of hard X-ray and low energy (80-225 keV) gamma-ray QPP with RHESSI reveals synchronous while asymmetric QPP at both footpoints of the flaring loop. The difference between the averaged hard X-ray fluxes coming from the two footpoint sources is found to oscillate with a period of about 13 s for five cycles in the highest emission stage of the flare. The proposed mechanism generating the 40 s QPP is a triggering of magnetic reconnection by a kink oscillation in a nearby loop. The 13 s periodicity could be produced by the second harmonics of the sausage mode of the flaring loop.

The method for activity measurements of the (232)Th daughters, developed at the six-crystal gamma-ray coincidence spectrometer PRIPYAT-2M and based on coincidence counting of the 583 and 2615 keV photons from cascade transitions which follow beta(-)-decay of (208)Tl, as well as on counting the 911 keV photons which follow beta(-)-decay of (228)Ac in the integral and non-coincidence mode of counting, is presented.

Gammarays produced in an ICF environment open up a host of physics opportunities we are just beginning to explore. A branch of the DT fusion reaction, with a branching ratio on the order of 2e-5 {gamma}/n, produces 16.7 MeV {gamma}-rays. These {gamma}-rays provide a direct measure of fusion reaction rate (unlike x-rays) without being compromised by Doppler spreading (unlike neutrons). Reaction-rate history measurements, such as nuclear bang time and burn width, are fundamental quantities that will be used to optimize ignition on the National Ignition Facility (NIF). Gas Cherenkov Detectors (GCD) that convert fusion {gamma}-rays to UV/visible Cherenkov photons for collection by fast optical recording systems established their usefulness in illuminating ICF physics in several experimental campaigns at OMEGA. Demonstrated absolute timing calibrations allow bang time measurements with accuracy better than 30 ps. System impulse response better than 95 ps fwhm have been made possible by the combination of low temporal dispersion GCDs, ultra-fast microchannel-plate photomultiplier tubes (PMT), and high-bandwidth Mach Zehnder fiber optic data links and digitizers, resulting in burn width measurement accuracy better than 10ps. Inherent variable energy-thresholding capability allows use of GCDs as {gamma}-ray spectrometers to explore other interesting nuclear processes. Recent measurements of the 4.44 MeV {sup 12}C(n,n{prime}) {gamma}-rays produced as 14.1 MeV DT fusion neutrons pass through plastic capsules is paving the way for a new CH ablator areal density measurement. Insertion of various neutron target materials near target chamber center (TCC) producing secondary, neutron-induced {gamma}y-rays are being used to study other nuclear interactions and as in-situ sources to calibrate detector response and DT branching ratio. NIF Gamma Reaction History (GRH) diagnostics, based on the GCD concept, are now being developed based on optimization of sensitivity, bandwidth

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray space-based telescope has as its main goals to measure cosmic γ-ray fluxes and the electron-positron cosmic-ray component produced, theoretically, in dark-matter-particles decay or annihilation processes, to search for discrete γ-ray sources and study them in detail, to examine the energy spectra of diffuse γ-rays — both galactic and extragalactic — and to study gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and γ-rays from the active Sun. Scientific goals of GAMMA-400 telescope require fine angular resolution. The telescope is of a pair-production type. In the converter-tracker, the incident gamma-ray photon converts into electron-positron pair in the tungsten layer and then the tracks are detected by silicon- strip position-sensitive detectors. Multiple scattering processes become a significant obstacle in the incident-gamma direction reconstruction for energies below several gigaelectronvolts. The method of utilising this process to improve the resolution is proposed in the presented work.

The SMM gammaray experiment and the important scientific capabilities of the instrument are discussed. The flare size detectable as a function of spectrum integration time was studied. A preliminary estimate indicates that a solar gammaray line at 4.4 MeV one-fifth the intensity of that believed to have been emitted on 4 August 1972 can be detected in approximately 1000 sec with a confidence level of 99%.

The EGRET (Energetic Gamma-Ray Experiment Telescope) detector will provide a much more detailed view of the diffuse galactic gammaray intensity in terms of higher resolution, greater statistical significance, and broader energy range than earlier missions. These observations will furnish insight into a number of very important questions related to the dynamics and structure of the Galaxy. A diffuse emission model is being developed that incorporates the latest information on matter distribution and source functions. In addition, it is tailored to the EGRET instrument response functions. The analysis code of the model maintains flexibility to accommodate the quality of the data that is anticipated. The discussion here focuses on the issues of the distributions of matter, cosmic rays, and radiation fields, and on the important source functions that enter into the model calculation of diffuse emission.

The paper presents advances in two new sensor technologies and a miniaturized associated electronics technology which, when combined, can allow for very significant miniaturization and for the reduction of weight and power consumption in x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy systems: (1) Mercuric iodide (HgI2) x-ray technology, which allows for the first time the construction of truly portable, high-energy resolution, non-cryogenic x-ray fluorescence (XRF) elemental analyzer systems, with parameters approaching those of laboratory quality cryogenic instruments; (2) the silicon avalanche photodiode (APD), which is a solid-state light sensitive device with internal amplification, capable of uniquely replacing the vacuum photomultiplier tube in scintillation gamma-ray spectrometer applications, and offering substantial improvements in size, ruggedness, low power operation and energy resolution; and (3) miniaturized (hybridized) low noise, low power amplification and processing electronics, which take full advantage of the favorable properties of these new sensors and allow for the design and fabrication of advanced, highly miniaturized x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy systems. The paper also presents experimental results and examples of spectrometric systems currently under construction. The directions for future developments are discussed.

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope is intended to measure the fluxes of gamma-rays and cosmic-ray electrons and positrons in the energy range from 100 MeV to several TeV. Such measurements concern the following scientific tasks: investigation of point sources of gamma-rays, studies of the energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse emission, studies of gamma-ray bursts and gamma-ray emission from the Sun, as well as high precision measurements of spectra of high-energy electrons and positrons. Also the GAMMA- 400 instrument provides the possibility for protons and nuclei measurements up to knee. But the main goal for the GAMMA-400 mission is to perform a sensitive search for signatures of dark matter particles in high-energy gamma-ray emission. To fulfill these measurements the GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope possesses unique physical characteristics in comparison with previous and present experiments. The major advantage of the GAMMA-400 instrument is excellent angular and energy resolution for gamma-rays above 10 GeV. The GAMMA-400 experiment will be installed onboard of the Navigator space platform, manufactured by the NPO Lavochkin Association. The expected orbit will be a highly elliptical orbit (with apogee 300.000 km and perigee 500 km) with 7 days orbital period. An important profit of such an orbit is the fact that the full sky coverage will always be available for gammaray astronomy.

Both of the Gamma-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (GRIS) experiment's two observations of the Galactic center region, at l = zero and 335 deg respectively, detected Al-26 gamma-ray line emission. While these observations are consistent with the assumed high-energy gamma-ray distribution, they are consistent with other distributions as well. The data suggest that the Al-26 emission is distributed over Galactic longitude rather than being confined to a point source. The GRIS data also indicate that the 1809 keV line is broadened.

We perform Monte Carlo simulations of the expected gammaray signatures of Galactic supernovae of all types to estimate the significance of the lack of a gammaray signal due to supernovae occurring during the last millenium. Using recent estimates of the nuclear yields, we determine mean Galactic supernova rates consistent with the historic supernova record and the gammaray limits. Another objective of these calculations of Galactic supernova histories is their application to surveys of diffuse Galactic gammaray line emission.

Gamma-rays provide us with powerful insight into the highest energy processes occurring in the cosmos. This review highlights some of the progress in our understanding of gamma-ray astronomy that has been enabled by new data from GRANAT and the Compton Gamma-Ray Observaatory, and suggests requirements for future progress. In particular, the unique role of the International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) mission and concurrent multiwavelength observations is highlighted.

The GammaRay Spectrometer (GRS) on the Solar Maximum Mission spacecraft was primarily designed and calibrated for nuclear gammaray line measurements, but also has a high energy mode which allows the detection of gammarays at energies above 10 MeV and solar neutrons above 20 MeV. The GRS response has been extrapolated until now for high energy gammarays from an early design study employing Monte Carlo calculations. The response to 50 to 600 MeV solar neutrons was estimated from a simple model which did not consider secondary charged particles escaping into the veto shields. In view of numerous detections by the GRS of solar flares emitting high energy gammarays, including at least two emitting directly detectable neutrons, the calibration of the high energy mode in the flight model has been recalculated by the use of more sophisticated Monte Carlo computer codes. New results presented show that the GRS response to gammarays above 20 MeV and to neutrons above 100 MeV is significantly lower than the earlier estimates.

Recent Swift observations suggest that the traditional long versus short gamma-ray burst (GRB) classification scheme does not always associate GRBs to the two physically motivated model types, i.e., Type II (massive star origin) versus Type I (compact star origin). We propose a new phenomenological classification method of GRBs by introducing a new parameter {epsilon} = E{sub {gamma},iso,52}/E {sup 5/3}{sub p,z,2}, where E{sub {gamma},iso} is the isotropic gamma-ray energy (in units of 10{sup 52} erg) and E{sub p,z} is the cosmic rest-frame spectral peak energy (in units of 100 keV). For those short GRBs with 'extended emission', both quantities are defined for the short/hard spike only. With the current complete sample of GRBs with redshift and E{sub p} measurements, the {epsilon} parameter shows a clear bimodal distribution with a separation at {epsilon} {approx} 0.03. The high-{epsilon} region encloses the typical long GRBs with high luminosity, some high-z 'rest-frame-short' GRBs (such as GRB 090423 and GRB 080913), as well as some high-z short GRBs (such as GRB 090426). All these GRBs have been claimed to be of Type II origin based on other observational properties in the literature. All the GRBs that are argued to be of Type I origin are found to be clustered in the low-{epsilon} region. They can be separated from some nearby low-luminosity long GRBs (in 3{sigma}) by an additional T{sub 90} criterion, i.e., T{sub 90,z} {approx}< 5 s in the Swift/BAT band. We suggest that this new classification scheme can better match the physically motivated Type II/I classification scheme.

X-ray production was calculated at approximately 6.8 keV by the 2p to 1s transition in fast hydrogen- and helium-like iron ions, following both electron capture to excited levels and collisional excitation. A refinement of the OBK approximation was used to obtain an improved charge exchange cross section. This, and the corresponding ionization cross section were used to determine equilibrium charge fractions for iron ions as functions of their energy. The effective X-ray line production cross section was found to be sharply peaked in energy at about 8 to 12 MeV/amu. Because fast ions of similar energies can also excite nuclear levels, the ratio of selected strong gammaray line emissivities to the X-ray line emissivity was also calculated. Limits set by this method on the intensity of gammaray line emission from the galactic center and the radio galaxy Centaurus A are generally lower than those reported in the literature.

X-ray production at about 6.8 keV by the 2p to 1s transition in fast hydrogen- and helium-like iron ions is calculated, following both electron capture to excited levels and collisional excitation. A refinement of the Oppenheimer-Brinkman-Kramers (1930) approximation is used to obtain an improved charge-exchange cross-section. This, and the corresponding ionization cross section, were used to determine equilibrium charge fractions for iron ions as functions of their energy. The effective X-ray line production cross section was found to be sharply peaked in energy at about 8 to 12 MeV per amu. Since fast ions of similar energies can also excite nuclear levels, the ratio of selected strong gamma-rays line emissivities to the X-ray line emissivity is calculated. These calculations are employed to set limits on the intensity of gamma-rays line emission from the galactic center and the radio galaxy Cen A, and it is found that these limits are generally lower than those reported in the literature.

The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope is designed to measure the fluxes of gamma-rays and cosmic-ray electrons + positrons, which can be produced by annihilation or decay of the dark matter particles, as well as to survey the celestial sphere in order to study point and extended sources of gamma-rays, measure energy spectra of Galactic and extragalactic diffuse gamma-ray emission, gamma-ray bursts, and gamma-ray emission from the Sun. GAMMA-400 covers the energy range from 100 MeV to 3000 GeV. Its angular resolution is ~0.01° (Eγ > 100 GeV), the energy resolution ~1% (Eγ > 10 GeV), and the proton rejection factor ~106. GAMMA-400 will be installed on the Russian space platform Navigator. The beginning of observations is planned for 2018.

Gamma-ray multiplicities, individual gamma-ray energy spectra, and total gamma energy spectra following neutron-induced fission of 239Pu were measured using the DANCE detector at Los Alamos. Corrections for detector response were made using a forward-modeling technique based on propagating sets of gammarays generated from a paramaterized model through a GEANT model of the DANCE array and adjusting the parameters for best fit to the measured spectra. The results for the gamma-ray spectrum and multiplicity are in general agreement with previous results, but the measured total gamma-ray energy is about 10% higher. A dependence of the gamma-ray spectrum on the gamma-raymore » multplicity was also observed. Global model calculations of the multiplicity and gamma energy distributions are in good agreement with the data, but predict a slightly softer total-energy distribution.« less

X-ray/gammaray imaging apparatus is disclosed for detecting the position, energy, and intensity of x-ray/gammaray radiation comprising scintillation means disposed in the path of such radiation and capable of generating photons in response to such radiation; first photodetection means optically bonded to the scintillation means and capable of generating an electrical signal indicative of the intensity, and energy of the radiation detected by the scintillation means; second photodetection means capable of generating an electrical signal indicative of the position of the radiation in the radiation pattern; and means for optically coupling the scintillation means to the second photodetection means. The photodetection means are electrically connected to control and storage means which may also be used to screen out noise by rejecting a signal from one photodetection means not synchronized to a signal from the other photodetection means; and also to screen out signals from scattered radiation.

X-ray/gammaray imaging apparatus is disclosed for detecting the position, energy, and intensity of x-ray/gammaray radiation comprising scintillation means disposed in the path of such radiation and capable of generating photons in response to such radiation; first photodetection means optically bonded to the scintillation means and capable of generating an electrical signal indicative of the intensity, and energy of the radiation detected by the scintillation means; second photodetection means capable of generating an electrical signal indicative of the position of the radiation in the radiation pattern; and means for optically coupling the scintillation means to the second photodetection means. The photodetection means are electrically connected to control and storage means which may also be used to screen out noise by rejecting a signal from one photodetection means not synchronized to a signal from the other photodetection means; and also to screen out signals from scattered radiation. 6 figs.

The Burst and Transient Spectroscopy Experiment (BATSE) on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory has a powerful capability to provide nearly uninterrupted monitoring in the 25 keV-10 MeV range of both AGN and Galactic black hole candidates such as Cygnus X-1, using the occultation of cosmic sources by the Earth. Progress in background modeling indicates that the data accept region, or fit window tau, around the occultation step can be substantially increased over that conservatively assumed in earlier estimates of BATSE's Earth occultation sensitivity. We show samples of large-tau fits to background and source edges. As a result we expect to be able to perform long-term monitoring of Cygnus X-1 and many of the brighter AGN for the duration of the CGRO mission.

Self-attenuation correction factors were experimentally determined using radioactive point sources in combination with a subject material of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) obtained from oil exploration waste products. The self-attenuation correction factors were taken across a range of gammaray energies from 41.73 to 1408.0keV. It is noted that the greatest amount of self-attenuation occurs in the energy regime below 200keV and rises to near zero attenuation at higher energies for these types of samples. For the 46.5keVgammaray of (210)Pb there can be an underestimation of 62%.

The last half-century has seen dramatic developments in gamma-ray telescopes, from their initial conception and development through to their blossoming into full maturity as a potent research tool in astronomy. Gamma-ray telescopes are leading research in diverse areas such as gamma-ray bursts, blazars, Galactic transients, and the Galactic distribution of Al-26.

External nuclear medicine diagnostic imaging of early primary and metastatic lung cancer tumors is difficult due to the poor sensitivity and resolution of existing gamma cameras. Nonimaging counting detectors used for internal tumor detection give ambiguous results because distant background variations are difficult to discriminate from neighboring tumor sites. This suggests that an internal imaging nuclear medicine probe, particularly an esophageal probe, may be advantageously used to detect small tumors because of the ability to discriminate against background variations and the capability to get close to sites neighboring the esophagus. The design, theory of operation, preliminary bench tests, characterization of noise behavior and optimization of such an imaging probe is the central theme of this work. The central concept lies in the representation of the aperture shell by a sequence of binary digits. This, coupled with the mode of operation which is data encoding within an axial slice of space, leads to the fundamental imaging equation in which the coding operation is conveniently described by a circulant matrix operator. The coding/decoding process is a classic coded-aperture problem, and various estimators to achieve decoding are discussed. Some estimators require a priori information about the object (or object class) being imaged; the only unbiased estimator that does not impose this requirement is the simple inverse-matrix operator. The effects of noise on the estimate (or reconstruction) is discussed for general noise models and various codes/decoding operators. The choice of an optimal aperture for detector count times of clinical relevance is examined using a statistical class-separability formalism.

Scintillators have long been used for probing the high energy universe. The reliability and low cost of scintillator-PMT detectors have made them the de facto standard for experiments on high altitude balloons and in orbiting satellites. New scintillators and new readout technologies offer important opportunities for more capable experiments. Recent scintillator developments include faster signals, increased light output, improved energy resolution, and better handling characteristics. Although PMTs remain effective for scintillator readout, new technologies offer more compact, rugged devices with much lower operational voltages. The adoption of these technologies is not without its difficulties, especially for space applications, where the technology readiness level can be an important consideration. To illustrate these issues, we will discuss the use of scintillators in Compton imaging experiments. At energies from about 500 keV to 30 MeV, Compton telescopes are the most effective means of imaging the gammaray sky. To date, the only Compton telescope that has flown in space was the COMPTEL instrument on NASA's Compton GammaRay Observatory (CGRO). CGRO, launched in 1991 and de-orbited in 2000, was based entirely on the use of technologies from the 1980’s. We have been working on an improved Compton telescope design, called the Advanced Scintillator Compton Telescope (ASCOT). It is much like COMPTEL, but utilizes up-to-date scintillator and readout technologies.

Am241 (59.5 keV) gammaray attenuation characteristics were investigated in 270 aviation fuel (Jet A and Jet A-1) samples from 76 airports around the world as a part of world wide study to measure the variability of aviation fuel properties as a function of season and geographical origin. All measurements were made at room temperature which varied from 20 to 27 C. Fuel densities (rho) were measured concurrently with their linear attenuation coefficients (mu), thus providing a measure of mass attenuation coefficient (mu/rho) for the test samples. In 43 fuel samples, rho and mu values were measured at more than one room temperature, thus providing mu/rho values for them at several temperatures. The results were found to be independent of the temperature at which mu and rho values were measured. It is noted that whereas the individual mu and rho values vary considerably from airport to airport as well as season to season, the mu/rho values for all samples are constant at 0.1843 + or - 0.0013 cu cm/gm. This constancy of mu/rho value for aviation fuels is significant since a nuclear fuel quantity gauging system based on low energy gammaray attenuation will be viable throughout the world.

X-ray flares are generally supposed to be produced by later activities of the central engine, and may share a similar physical origin with the prompt emission of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). In this paper, we have analyzed all significant X-ray flares from the GRBs observed by Swift from 2005 April to 2015 March. The catalog contains 468 bright X-ray flares, including 200 flares with redshifts. We obtain the fitting results of X-ray flares, such as start time, peak time, duration, peak flux, fluence, peak luminosity, and mean luminosity. The peak luminosity decreases with peak time, following a power-law behavior {L}{{p}}\\propto {T}{peak,z}-1.27. The flare duration increases with peak time. The 0.3-10 keV isotropic energy of the distribution of X-ray flares is a log-normal peaked at {10}51.2 erg. We also study the frequency distributions of flare parameters, including energies, durations, peak fluxes, rise times, decay times, and waiting times. Power-law distributions of energies, durations, peak fluxes, and waiting times are found in GRB X-ray flares and solar flares. These distributions could be well explained by a fractal-diffusive, self-organized criticality model. Some theoretical models based on magnetic reconnection have been proposed to explain X-ray flares. Our result shows that the relativistic jets of GRBs may be dominated by Poynting flux.

We report the discovery of pulsed {gamma}-ray emission and X-ray emission from the black widow millisecond pulsar PSR J2051-0827 by using the data from the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer array on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. Using three years of LAT data, PSR J2051-0827 is clearly detected in {gamma}-rays with a significance of {approx}8{sigma} in the 0.2-20 GeV band. The 200 MeV-20 GeV {gamma}-ray spectrum of PSR J2051-0827 can be modeled by a simple power law with a photon index of 2.46 {+-} 0.15. Significant ({approx}5{sigma}) {gamma}-ray pulsations at the radio period were detected. PSR J2051-0827 was also detected in soft (0.3-7 keV) X-ray with Chandra. By comparing the observed {gamma}-rays and X-rays with theoretical models, we suggest that the {gamma}-ray emission is from the outer gap while the X-rays can be from intra-binary shock and pulsar magnetospheric synchrotron emissions.

Detectors of gamma-rays carried by satellites and later by high-flying balloons showed the existence of events lasting from fifteen milliseconds to about a hundred seconds, arriving from all directions in space. A few hundred events have been observed in a little more than a decade. The energy of gamma-rays range from a few kilovolts to millions of volts. Recent evidence indicates that considerable energy may be carried at least in some cases even above 10 MeV. But the bulk of the energy appeared to be emitted between 100 and 200 keV. The observed intensities range between 10/sup -3/ and 10/sup -7/ ergs/cm/sup 2/. The simple facts about intensity distribution are compatible with two extreme assumptions but exclude intermediate hypotheses. Either the events occur in our own galaxy in a region smaller than the thickness of the galaxy or they are of extragalactic origin and come from distant galaxies. Practically all attempted explanations have made the former explanation which requires that a mass of approximately 10/sup 20/ grams impinges on a neutron star (assuming a near to 100% conversion of gravitational energy available on the surface of the neutron star or 10/sup 20/ ergs/gram into gamma-rays which, of course, is unrealistic). In case of an extragalactic origin, the neutron star must attract and convert, as we shall see, about 2 x 10/sup 30/ grams or 10/sup -3/ of the solar mass. It is perhaps the size of such events which deterred a detailed discussion of this alternative. Montgomery Johnson and I have tried to assume these big collisions, explore the consequences, and I shall talk about this extragalactic hypothesis.

Conventional scintillation detectors are typically single crystals of heavy-metal oxides or halides doped with rare-earth ions that record the recombination of electron-hole pairs by photon emission in the visible to ultraviolet. However, the light yields are typically low enough to require photomultiplier detection with the attendant instrumental complications. Here we report initial studies of gammaray detection by zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires, grown by vapor-solid deposition. The nanowires grow along the c-axis in a wurtzite structure; they are typically 80 nm in diameter and have lengths of 1- 2 μm. The nanowires are single crystals of high quality, with a photoluminescence (PL) yield from band-edge exciton emission in the ultraviolet that is typically one hundred times larger than the PL yield from defect centers in the visible. Nanowire ensembles were irradiated by 662 keVgammarays from a Cs-137 source for periods of up to ten hours; gammarays in this energy range interact by Compton scattering, which in ZnO creates F+ centers that relax to form singly-charged positive oxygen vacancies. Following irradiation, we fit the PL spectra of the visible emission with a sum of Gaussians at the energies of the known defects. We find highly efficient PL from the irradiated area, with a figure of merit approaching 106 photons/s/MeV of deposited energy. Over a period of days, the singly charged O+ vacancies relax to the more stable doubly charged O++ vacancies. However, the overall defect PL returns to pre-irradiation values after about a week, as the vacancies diffuse to the surface of these very thin nanowires, indicating that a self-healing process restores the nanowires to their original state.

We have demonstrated that a bulk absorber coupled to a TES can serve as a good gamma-ray spectrometer. Our measured energy resolution of 70 eV at 60 keV is among the best measurements in this field. We have also shown excellent agreement between the noise predictions and measured noise. Despite this good result, we noted that our detector design has shortcomings with a low count rate and vulnerabilities with the linearity of energy response. We addressed these issues by implementation of an active negative feedback bias. We demonstrated the effects of active bias such as additional pulse shortening, reduction of TES change in temperature during a pulse, and linearization of energy response at low energy. Linearization at higher energy is possible with optimized heat capacities and thermal conductivities of the microcalorimeter. However, the current fabrication process has low control and repeatability over the thermal properties. Thus, optimization of the detector performance is difficult until the fabrication process is improved. Currently, several efforts are underway to better control the fabrication of our gamma-ray spectrometers. We are developing a full-wafer process to produce TES films. We are investigating the thermal conductivity and surface roughness of thicker SiN membranes. We are exploring alternative methods to couple the absorber to the TES film for reproducibility. We are also optimizing the thermal conductivities within the detector to minimize two-element phonon noise. We are experimenting with different absorber materials to optimize absorption efficiency and heat capacity. We are also working on minimizing Johnson noise from the E S shunt and SQUID amplifier noise. We have shown that our performance, noise, and active bias models agree very well with measured data from several microcalorimeters. Once the fabrication improvements have been implemented, we have no doubt that our gamma-ray spectrometer will achieve even more spectacular results.

Gamma-ray lines from cosmic sources provide unique isotopic information, since they originate from energy level transitions in the atomic nucleus. Gamma-ray telescopes explored this astronomical window in the past three decades, detecting radioactive isotopes that have been ejected in interstellar space by cosmic nucleosynthesis events and nuclei that have been excited through collisions with energetic particles. Astronomical gamma-ray telescopes feature standard detectors of nuclear physics, but have to be surrounded by effective shields against local instrumental background, and need special detector and/or mask arrangements to collect imaging information. Due to exceptionally-low signal/noise ratios, progress in the field has been slow compared with other wavelengths. Despite the difficulties, this young field of astronomy is well established now, in particular due to advances made by the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory in the 90ies. The most important achievements so far concern: short-lived radioactivities that have been detected in a couple of supernovae (56Co and 57Co in SN1987A, 44Ti in Cas A), the diffuse glow of long-lived 26Al that has been mapped along the entire plane of the Galaxy, several excited nuclei that have been detected in solar flares, and, last but not least, positron annihilation that has been observed in the inner Galaxy since the 70ies. High-resolution spectroscopy is now being performed: since 2002, ESAs INTEGRAL and NASAs RHESSI, two space-based gamma-ray telescopes with Ge detectors, are in operation. Recent results include: imaging and line shape measurements of e e annihilation emission from the Galactic bulge, which can hardly be accounted for by conventional sources of positrons; 26Al emission and line width measurement from the inner Galaxy and from the Cygnus region, which can constrain the properties of the interstellar medium; and a diffuse 60Fe gamma-ray line emission which appears rather weak, in view of current theoretical

The development of high brilliance X-ray sources coupled with advances in manufacturing technologies has led to significant improvements in submicrometre probes for spectroscopy, diffraction and imaging applications. The generation of a small beam spot size is commonly based on three principles: total reflection (as used in optical elements involving mirrors or capillaries), refraction (such as in refractive lenses) and diffraction. The latter effect is employed in Bragg-Fresnel or Soret lenses, commonly known as Fresnel zone plate lenses. These lenses currently give the best spatial resolution, but are traditionally limited to rather soft X-rays-at high energies, their use is still limited by their efficiency. Here we report the fabrication of high-efficiency, high-contrast gold and nickel multistep (quaternary) Fresnel zone plates using electron beam lithography. We achieve a maximum efficiency of 55% for the nickel plate at 7keV. In addition to their high efficiency, the lenses offer the advantages of low background signal and effective reduction of unwanted diffraction orders. We anticipate that these lenses should have a significant impact on techniques such as microscopy, micro-fluorescence and micro-diffraction, which require medium resolution (500-100nm) and high flux at fixed energies.

Transition edge sensor (TES)-based gammaray detectors have been developed primarily for use up to energies of {approx}100 keV. However, there are many interesting applications at higher energies. We have started to develop a TES gamma-ray detector to apply to Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy analysis at 511 keV. Our detector is composed of a bulk lead absorber, which is coupled to a thin-film TES using a small amount of epoxy. The response of our first detector showed a very long decay tail of {approx}135 ms. To improve the device response time we have designed a new detector in which the response time is improved by a factor of five.

The aim of the present work is the determination of porosity in tablets by using the gamma-ray transmission technique. Tablet dissolution depends on some inherent characteristics of the manufacturing process, such as compression force, tablet volume, density and porosity, nature of excipients, preparation methods and its physical-chemical properties. Porosity is a measure of empty spaces in a material and can be determined by various techniques. In this paper, we propose the use of a gamma-ray transmission technique to obtain the porosity of experimental formulation of tablets. The results of porosity were compared with those obtained by using conventional methodology (density and mercury intrusion). The experimental setup for gamma-ray transmission consists of a gamma-ray source of (241)Am (photons of 59.6 keV and an activity of 3.7 × 10(9)Bq), an NaI(Tl) scintillation detector, collimators and a standard gamma-ray spectrometry electronics. Our results suggest that the gamma-ray transmission technique is a powerful tool for non-destructive porosity quantification of solid pharmaceutical forms and presents smaller errors than those obtained with conventional methodologies.

Superconducting Gamma-ray microcalorimeters operated at temperatures around {approx}0.1 K offer an order of magnitude improvement in energy resolution over conventional high-purity Germanium spectrometers. The calorimeters consist of a {approx}1 mm{sup 3} superconducting or insulating absorber and a sensitive thermistor, which are weakly coupled to a cold bath. Gamma-ray capture increases the absorber temperature in proportion to the Gamma-ray energy, this is measured by the thermistor, and both subsequently cool back down to the base temperature through the weak link. We are developing ultra-high-resolution Gamma-ray spectrometers based on Sn absorbers and superconducting Mo/Cu multilayer thermistors for nuclear non-proliferation applications. They have achieved an energy resolution between 60 and 90 eV for Gamma-rays up to 100 keV. We also build two-stage adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators for user-friendly detector operation at 0.1 K. We present recent results on the performance of single pixel Gamma-ray spectrometers, and discuss the design of a large detector array for increased sensitivity.

While the proposed research received partial funding under this grant, during the term of support substantial progress was made on the development of a new model for the emission of gamma-rays from isolated rotation-powered pulsars. In phase one of the work, we showed how a modified version of the 'outer gap' model of pulsar emission could reproduce the double peaked profiles seen in CGRO pulsar observations. This work also demonstrated the spectrum of gap radiation varies significantly with position in the magnetosphere, and produced approximate computations of the emission from outer magnetosphere gap zones, including primary curvature radiation, gamma - gamma pair production and synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton scattering by the resulting secondary particles. This work was followed in phase two by a more complete treatment of the geometry of the radiation zone, and improved connections with observations at other wavelengths.

The University of California, San Diego (UCSD)/MIT hard X-ray and gamma-ray instrument on the HEAO 1 surveyed the region near the Galactic center 3 times during its lifetime in 1977-1979. During the 1977 September-October scan, a gamma-ray source was detected south of the Galactic center. The source was below the threshold sensitivity in the spring and fall of 1978. The source was detected with the medium energy phoswich scintillation counters which operated over the 80 keV-2 MeV range, had an area of 42 sq cm each, and a 17 deg FWHM aperture. The error box for the source is centered on l = 2.4 deg, b = -12.2 deg, with a 90% confidence error circle of approximately 3.5 deg radius. The flux in the 333-635 keV range was (1.89 +/- 0.29) x 10(exp -5) photons/(sq cm s keV) and was constant within statistics during the 1 month period the source was in the field of view. The spectrum can be characterized as a Gaussian in the range 300 less than or = E less than or = 650 keV, with a FWHM of 249 +/- 51 keV centered on 461 +/- 22 keV. The flux of this broad Gaussian is (6.6 +/- 1.1) x 10(exp -3) photons/(sq cm s). The source is tentatively identified with the 5.57 hr period low-mass X-ray-emitting binary system 1H 1822-371. Assuming this is correct, the ratio of gamma-ray to X-ray luminosity during the outburst was about 5; at a distance of 8 kpc, the gammaray luminosity is 4 x 10(exp 37) ergs. The emission may be interpreted as a positron-pair plasma ejected from a compact object, possibly a black hole, and annihilating in a thick accretion disk surrounding the object.

We study the spectral evolution on second and subsecond time-scales in 11 long and 12 short gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) with peak flux >8.5 × 10-6 erg cm-2 s (8 keV-35 MeV) detected by the Fermi satellite. The peak flux correlates with the time-averaged peak energy in both classes of bursts. The peak energy evolution, as a function of time, tracks the evolution of the flux on short time-scales in both short and long GRBs. We do not find evidence of a hard-to-soft spectral evolution. While short GRBs have observed peak energies larger than few MeV during most of their evolution, long GRBs can start with a softer peak energy (of few hundreds keV) and become as hard as short ones (i.e. with Eobspeak larger than few MeV) at the peak of their light curve. Six GRBs in our sample have a measured redshift. In these few cases we find that their correlations between the rest frame Epeak and the luminosity Liso are less scattered than their correlations in the observer frame between the peak energy Eobspeak and the flux P. We find that the rest frame Epeak of long bursts can be as high or even larger than that of short GRBs and that short and long GRBs follow the same Epeak(t)-Liso(t) correlation, despite the fact that they likely have different progenitors.

We report the detection of a flaring gamma-ray source by the University of New Hampshire (UNH) balloon-borne coded aperture gamma-ray telescope (DGT) on 1984 October 2. The source was detected at the significance level of 7.2 sigma over the energy range 160-2000 keV. The intensity in the range (160-200) keV was 1.1 Crab. The best-fit position of the source is given by R.A. = 3h 25.8m and Decl. = 67 deg 653 min and is located in the constellation of Camelopardia. The source was visible within the Field of View (FOV) of the telescope for approximately = 2 hr and exhibited signs of flaring. The derived photon spectrum can be equally fitted by an optically thin bremsstrahlung distribution of kT approximately = 52 keV or a power law of the form, dN(E)/dE = 3.7 x 10(exp -6) (E/400)(exp -4.5) photons/sq cm/keV. We compare its spectral characteristics ad energy output to various types of fast X-ray transients. No measurable flux could be detected from CG 135+1, the COS B source which was in the FOV and therefore, we present 2 sigma upper flux limits on its spectral emission over the energy range 160 keV to 9.3 MeV.

A long duration balloon flight instrument for Max 1991 designed to study the acceleration of greater than 10 MeV ions and greater than 15 keV electrons in solar flares through high resolution spectroscopy of the gammaray lines and hard X-ray and gammaray continuum is described. The instrument, HIREGS, consists of an array of high-purity, n-type coaxial germanium detectors (HPGe) cooled to less than 90 K and surrounded by a bismuth germanate (BGO) anticoincidence shield. It will cover the energy range 15 keV to 20 MeV with keV spectral resolution, sufficient for accurate measurement of all parameters of the expected gammaray lines with the exception of the neutron capture deuterium line. Electrical segmentation of the HPGe detector into a thin front segment and a thick rear segment, together with pulse-shape discrimination, provides optimal dynamic range and signal-to-background characteristics for flare measurements. Neutrons and gammarays up to approximately 0.1 to 1 GeV can be detected and identified with the combination of the HPGe detectors and rear BGO shield. The HIREGS is planned for long duration balloon flights (LDBF) for solar flare studies during Max 1991. The two exploratory LDBFs carried out at mid-latitudes in 1987 to 1988 are described, and the LDBFs in Antarctica, which could in principle provide 24 hour/day solar coverage and very long flight durations (20 to 30 days) because of minimal ballast requirements are discussed.

We reevaluate evidence indicating that gamma-ray-line (GRL) flares are fundamentally different from other large flares without detectable GRL emission and find no compelling support for this proposition. For large flares observed by the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) from 1980 to 1982, we obtain a reasonably good correlation between 4-8 MeV GRL fluences and greater than 50 keV hard X-ray fluences and find no evidence for a distinct population of large hard X-ray flares that lack commensurate GRL emission. Our results are consistent with the acceleration of the bulk of the approximately 100 keV electrons and approximately 10 MeV protons (i.e., the populations of these species that interact in the solar atmosphere to produce hard X-ray and GRL emission) by a common process in large flares of both long and short durations.

Gamma-ray imaging is useful for detecting, characterizing, and localizing sources in a variety of fields, including nuclear physics, security, nuclear accident response, nuclear medicine, and astronomy. Compton imaging in particular provides sensitivity to weak sources and good angular resolution in a large field of view. However, the photon origin in a single event sequence is normally only limited to the surface of a cone. If the initial direction of the Compton-scattered electron can be measured, the cone can be reduced to a cone segment with width depending on the uncertainty in the direction measurement, providing a corresponding increase in imaging sensitivity. Measurement of the electron's initial direction in an efficient detection material requires very fine position resolution due to the electron's short range and tortuous path. A thick (650 mum), fully-depleted charge-coupled device (CCD) developed for infrared astronomy has 10.5-mum position resolution in two dimensions, enabling the initial trajectory measurement of electrons of energy as low as 100 keV. This is the first time the initial trajectories of electrons of such low energies have been measured in a solid material. In this work, the CCD's efficacy as a gamma-ray detector is demonstrated experimentally, using a reconstruction algorithm to measure the initial electron direction from the CCD track image. In addition, models of fast electron interaction physics, charge transport and readout were used to generate modeled tracks with known initial direction. These modeled tracks allowed the development and refinement of the reconstruction algorithm. The angular sensitivity of the reconstruction algorithm is evaluated extensively with models for tracks below 480 keV, showing a FWHM as low as 20° in the pixel plane, and 30° RMS sensitivity to the magnitude of the out-of-plane angle. The measurement of the trajectories of electrons with energies as low as 100 keV have the potential to make electron

We report on new results on the development activity of broad band Laue lenses for hard X-/gamma-ray astronomy (70/100-600 keV). After the development of a first prototype, whose performance was presented at the SPIE conference on Astronomical Telescopes held last year in Marseille (Frontera et al. 2008), we have improved the lens assembling technology. We present the the development status of the new lens prototype that is on the way to be assembled.

A comprehensive search of BATSE Spectroscopy Detector data from 117 GammaRay Bursts (GRBs) has uncovered 13 statistically significant line candidates. The case of a candidate in GRB-930916 is discussed. In the data of SD-2 there appears to be a emission line at 46 keV, however the line is not seen in the data of SD-7. Simulations indicate that the lack of agreement between the results from SD-2 and SD-7 is implausible but not impossible.

utilized under this contract. Resolution of the question of the feasibility of a gamma-ray laser now rests upon the determination of: I) the identity of...even for an idealized nuclear material, computations of threshold levels of pumping are not without difficulty. However. under idealized conditions...125Te’" at 35.5 keV are clearly visible. ments. In particular, the charge passed to the converter Because of the shorter isomeric lifetimes the SrF2

The Large Area Telescope on the recently launched Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (formerly GLAST), with its large field of view and effective area, combined with its excellent timing capabilities, is poised to revolutionize the field of gamma-ray astrophysics. The large improvement in sensitivity over EGRET is expected to result in the discovery of many new gamma-ray pulsars, which in turn should lead to fundamental advances in our understanding of pulsar physics and the role of neutron stars in the Galaxy. Almost immediately after launch, Fermi clearly detected all previously known gamma-ray pulsars and is producing high precision results on these. An extensive radio and X-ray timing campaign of known (primarily radio) pulsars is being carried out in order to facilitate the discovery of new gamma-ray pulsars. In addition, a highly efficient time-differencing technique is being used to conduct blind searches for radio-quiet pulsars, which has already resulted in new discoveries. I present some recent results from searches for pulsars carried out on Fermi data, both blind searches, and using contemporaneous timing of known radio pulsars.

The GAMCIT payload is a Get-Away-Special payload designed to search for high-energy gamma-ray bursts and any associated optical transients. This paper presents details on the design of the GAMCIT payload, in the areas of battery selection, power processing, electronics design, gamma-ray detection systems, and the optical imaging of the transients. The paper discusses the progress of the construction, testing, and specific design details of the payload. In addition, this paper discusses the unique challenges involved in bringing this payload to completion, as the project has been designed, constructed, and managed entirely by undergraduate students. Our experience will certainly be valuable to other student groups interested in taking on a challenging project such as a Get-Away-Special payload.

The subject apparatus provides a means to identify the presence of fissionable material or other nuclear material contained within an item to be tested. The system employs a portable accelerator to accelerate and direct protons to a fluorine-compound target. The interaction of the protons with the fluorine-compound target produces gammarays which are directed at the item to be tested. If the item to be tested contains either a fissionable material or other nuclear material the interaction of the gammarays with the material contained within the test item with result in the production of neutrons. A system of neutron detectors is positioned to intercept any neutrons generated by the test item. The results from the neutron detectors are analyzed to determine the presence of a fissionable material or other nuclear material.

The HEAO-3 gammaray spectrometer has provided evidence in the quest for the understanding of complex element formation in the universe with the discovery of Al-26 in the interstellar medium. It has demonstrated that the synthesis of intermediate mass nuclei is currently going on in the galaxy. This discovery was confirmed by the Solar Maximum Mission. The flux is peaked near the galactic center and indicates about 3 solar masses of Al-26 in the interstellar medium, with an implied ratio of Al-26/Al-27 = .00001. Several possible distributions were studied but the data gathered thus far do not allow discrimination between them. It is felt that only the spaceflight of a high resolution gammaray spectrometer with adequate sensitivity will ultimately resolve the issue of the source of this material.

A real time gamma-ray signature/source identification method and system using principal components analysis (PCA) for transforming and substantially reducing one or more comprehensive spectral libraries of nuclear materials types and configurations into a corresponding concise representation/signature(s) representing and indexing each individual predetermined spectrum in principal component (PC) space, wherein an unknown gamma-ray signature may be compared against the representative signature to find a match or at least characterize the unknown signature from among all the entries in the library with a single regression or simple projection into the PC space, so as to substantially reduce processing time and computing resources and enable real-time characterization and/or identification.

The purpose of this project is the statistical evaluation of the occurrence of spectral lines in the gamma-ray burst spectra detected by the Ginga burst detector, and the comparison of the Ginga results to the BATSE observations. Two significant line features were detected in the Ginga bursts, but thus far none have been detected in the bursts BATSE detected. These line features may indicate the presence of strong magnetic fields in bursts, and therefore are important physical diagnostics of the conditions in the plasma which radiates the observed gamma-rays. The issue is whether there is a discrepancy between the Ginga and BATSE results; the potential discrepancy must be evaluated statistically. Even if BATSE line detections are announced, the statistical methodology we have developed can be used to estimate the rate at which different types of spectral features occur.

Magnetic fields are important in a variety of astrophysical scenarios, ranging from possible creation mechanisms of cosmological magnetic fields through relativistic jets such as that from Active Galactic Nuclei and gamma-ray bursts to local phenomena in the solar system. Here, the outstanding importance of plasma instabilities to astrophysics is illustrated by applying the so-called neutral point method to gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), which are assumed to have a homogeneous background magnetic field. It is shown how magnetic turbulence, which is a prerequisite for the creation of dissipation and, subsequently, radiation, is created by the highly relativistic particles in the GRB jet. Using the fact that different particle compositions lead to different instability conditions, conclusions can be drawn about the particle composition of the jet, showing that it is more likely of baryonic nature.

I hesitate to spawn a thousand bad sci-fi flicks, but here it goes: Scientists now say that some gamma-ray bursts, the most powerful explosions in the universe, originate in nearby galaxy clusters. If one were to occur nearby, it could wipe out life on Earth. Fortunately, the chances of mass extinction are slimmer than the Chicago Cubs meeting the Boston Red Sox in the World Series (. . . and the Red Sox winning). But a new analysis of over 1400 archived gamma-ray bursts reveals that about 100 bursts originated within 325 million light-years of Earth, and not billions of light-years away as previously thought. If so, there's no reason why a burst couldn't go off in our galaxy.

Externally segmented germanium detectors promise a breakthrough in gamma-ray imaging capabilities while retaining the superb energy resolution of germanium spectrometers. By combining existing position-sensitive detectors with an appropriate code aperture, two-dimensional imaging with 0.2-deg angular resolution becomes practical for a typical balloon experiment. Much finer resolutions are possible with larger separations between detectors and the coded aperture as would be applicable for space-based or lunar-based observatories. Two coaxial germanium detectors divided into five external segments have been fabricated and have undergone extensive performance evaluation and imaging testing in our laboratory. These tests together with detailed Monte Carlo modeling calculations have demonstrated the great promise of this sensor technology for future gamma-ray missions.

The Arthur Holly Compton GammaRay Observatory (Compton) is the second in NASA's series of Great Observatories. Compton has now been operating for over two and a half years, and has given a dramatic increase in capability over previous gamma-ray missions. The spacecraft and scientific instruments are all in good health, and many significant discoveries have already been made and continue to be made. The authors describe the capabilities of the four scientific instruments and the observing programs for the first three years of the mission. During Phases 2 and 3 of the mission a Guest Investigator program has been in progress with the Guest Observers' time share increasing from 30% to over 50% for the later mission phases.

Gammaray burst observations are reviewed with mention of new gamma-ray and optical transient measurements and with discussions of the controversial, contradictory and unresolved issues that have recently emerged: burst spectra appear to fluctuate in time as rapidly as they are measured, implying that any one spectrum may be incorrect. Energy spectra can be obligingly fitted to practically any desired shape, implying, in effect, that no objective spectral resolution exists at all. Burst fluxes and temporal quantities, including the total event energy, are characterized very differently with differing instruments, implying that even elementary knowledge of their properties is instrumentally subjective. Finally, the log N-log S determinations are deficient in the weak bursts, while there is no detection of a source direction anisotropy, implying that Ptolemy was right or that burst source distance estimates are basically guesswork. These issues may remain unsolved until vastly improved instruments are flown.

Gammaray burst observations are reviewed with mention of new gamma-ray and optical transient measurements and with discussions of the controversial, contradictory and unresolved issues that have recently emerged: burst spectra appear to fluctuate in time as rapidly as they are measured, implying that any one spectrum may be incorrect; energy spectra can be obligingly fitted to practically any desired shape, implying, in effect, that no objective spectral resolution exists at all; burst fluxes and temporal quantities, including the total event energy, are characterized very differently with differing instruments, implying that even elementary knowledge of their properties is instrumentally subjective; finally, the log N-log S determinations are deficient in the weak bursts, while there is no detection of a source direction anisotropy, implying that Ptolemy was right or that burst source distance estimates are basically guesswork. These issues may remain unsolved until vastly improved instruments are flown.

Gamma-ray bursts have been observed, but these enigmatic objects are yet unexplained. These short duration events are undoubtedly due to high-energy events. Fading optical emission and even radio emission has been observed from such events, but prompt radio emission from these events would be very useful in pinning down the physics of the bursts, the nature of the progenitor object,and possibly the medium in which it occurs. If these phenomena occur at large redshifts, there is the possibility that the observations could probe the Epoch of Reionization, or the intergalactic medium. A number of models have been proposed to explain the gamma-ray bursts, ranging from compact object mergers, to maser-like coherent emission. These models are not well constrained by current observations. Prompt radio emission may be detected by a transient radio array. I will discuss a planned search for such signals by the Eight-meter-wavelength Transient Array (ETA). )

The “tender” energy range of 1 to 5 keV, between the energy ranges of most “hard” (>5 keV) and “soft” (<1 keV) synchrotron X-ray facilities, offers some unique opportunities for synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy in life sciences. In particular the K absorption edges of Na through Ca offer opportunities to study local structure, speciation, and chemistry of many important biological compounds, structures and processes. This is an area of largely untapped science, in part due to a scarcity of optimized facilities. Such measurements also entail unique experimental challenges. Lastly, this brief review describes the technique, its experimental challenges, recent progress in development of microbeam measurement capabilities, and several highlights illustrating applications in life sciences.

The measurement of energy spectrum of the diffuse component of cosmic X-ray flux made on the OSO-5 spacecraft is described. The contributions to the total counting rate of the actively shielded X-ray detector are considered in some detail and the techniques used to eliminate the non-cosmic components are described. Positive values for the cosmic flux are obtained in seven energy channels between 14 and 200 keV and two upper limits are obtained between 200 and 254 keV. The results can be fitted by a power law spectrum. A critical comparison is made with the OSO-3 results. Conclusions show that the reported break in the energy spectrum at 40 keV is probably produced by an erroneous correction for the radioactivity induced in the detector on each passage through the intense charged particle fluxes in the South Atlantic anomaly.

Almost all of the B band (0.10-0.19 keV) and C band (0.15-0.28 keV) X-rays probably originate in a hot region surrounding the Sun, which Cox and Anderson modeled as a supernova remnant. This same region may account for a significant fraction of the M band (0.5-1 keV) X-rays if the nonequilibrium models of Cox and Anderson are applicable. A population of distant SNR similar to the local region, with center-to-center spacing of about 300 pc, could provide enough galactic M band emission to fill in the dip in the count rate in the galactic plane that would otherwise be present due to absorption of both the extra galactic power law flux and any large-scale-height stellar (or galactic halo) emission.

The “tender” energy range of 1 to 5 keV, between the energy ranges of most “hard” (>5 keV) and “soft” (<1 keV) synchrotron X-ray facilities, offers some unique opportunities for synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy in life sciences. In particular the K absorption edges of Na through Ca offer opportunities to study local structure, speciation, and chemistry of many important biological compounds, structures and processes. This is an area of largely untapped science, in part due to a scarcity of optimized facilities. Such measurements also entail unique experimental challenges. Lastly, this brief review describes the technique, its experimental challenges,more » recent progress in development of microbeam measurement capabilities, and several highlights illustrating applications in life sciences.« less

To measure the polarization of gamma-ray bursts in X-ray energy band, we have developed a 50 kg micro-satellite named "SUBAME". The satellite has a compact and high-sensitive hard X-ray polarimeter employing newly-developed shock resistant multi-anode photomultipliers and Si avalanche photodiodes. Thanks to the ultra low-noise detectors and signal processors, the polarimeter can cover a wide energy range of 30􀀀200 keV even at 25°C with a high modulation factor of 62 %. TSUBAME is in the phase of final functional tests waiting for shipping to Baikonur and will be launched into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 700 km in late 2014. In this paper, the pre-ight performance of the gamma-ray detector system and the satellite bus system are presented.

Achromatic combinations of a diffractive phase Fresnel lens and a refractive correcting element have been proposed for x-ray and gamma-ray astronomy and for microlithography, but considerations of absorption often dictate that the refractive component be given a stepped profile, resulting in a double Fresnel lens. The imaging performance of corrected Fresnel lenses, with and without stepping, is investigated, and the trade-off between resolution and useful bandwidth in different circumstances is discussed. Provided that the focal ratio is large, correction lenses made from low atomic number materials can be used with x rays in the range of approximately 10-100 keV without stepping. The use of stepping extends the possibility of correction to higher-aperture systems, to energies as low as a few kilo electron volts, and to gammarays of mega electron volt energy.

We carry out a theoretical investigation of jet propagation in GammaRay Bursts and examine the jitter radiation mechanism as a means of producing prompt and afterglow emission. We study the long-term evolution of relativistic jets in collapsars and examine the effects of viewing angle on the subsequent gammaray bursts. Our simulations allow us to single out three phases in the jet evolution: a precursor phase in which relativistic material turbulently shed from the head of the jet first emerges from the star; a shocked jet phase where a fully shocked jet of material is emerging; and an unshocked jet phase where the jet consists of a free-streaming, unshocked core surrounded by a thin boundary layer of shocked jet material. We also carry out a series of simulations with central engines that vary on long time periods comparable to the breakout time of the jet, on short time periods (0.1s) much less than the breakout time, and finally that decay as a power law at late times. We conclude that rapid variability seen in prompt GRB emission, as well as shallow decays and flares seen in the X-ray afterglow, can be caused by central engine variability. Finally, we present a detailed computation of the jitter radiation spectrum, including self-absorption, for electrons inside Weibel-like shock- generated magnetic fields. We apply our results to the case of the prompt and afterglow emission of gamma-ray bursts. We conclude that jitter and synchrotron afterglows can be distinguished from each other with good quality observations. However, it is unlikely that the difference can explain the peculiar behavior of several recent observations, such as flat X-ray slopes and uncorrelated optical and X-ray behavior.

Gamma-ray glows are continuous, long duration gamma- and x-ray emission seen coming from thunderclouds. The Airborne for Energetic Lightning Emissions (ADELE) observed 12 gamma-ray glows during its summer 2009 flight campaign over the areas of Colorado and Florida in the United States. For these glows we shall present their spectra, relationship to lightning activity and how their duration and size changes as a function of distance. Gamma-ray glows follow the relativistic runaway electron avalanche (RREA) spectrum and have been previously measured from the ground and inside the cloud. ADELE measured most glows as it flew above the screening layer of the cloud. During the brightest glow on August 21, 2009, we can show that we are flying directly into a downward facing relativistic runaway avalanche, indicative of flying between the upper positive and negative screening layer of the cloud. In order to explain the brightness of this glow, RREA with an electric field approaching the limit for relativistic feedback must be occurring. Using all 12 glows, we show that lightning activity diminishes during the onset of the glow. Using this along with the fact that glows occur as the field approaches the level necessary for feedback, we attempt to distinguish between two possibilities: that glows are evidence that RREA with feedback, rather than lightning, is sometimes the primary channel for discharging the cloud, or else that the overall discharging is still controlled by lightning, with glows simply appearing during times when a subsidence of lightning allows the field to rise above the threshold for RREA.

A deep and abiding mystery is one of the greatest treasures nature has to offer to scientists and the public alike. Gamma-ray bursts have been observed for over 20 years. More than 2000 papers have been published about them and numerous theoretical models proposed, yet no one knows for sure what they are, where they come from, or even if they are a single class of phenomena. Isotropy and confinement (i.e., a deficiency of faint sources compared to that expected for an unbounded homogeneous sample), as exhibited in the BATSE observations from the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, have lead us to consider seriously only two sites - an extended Galactic halo populated by neutron stars, or else cosmologically distant sources. Models of both varieties will be reviewed. At the present time, both classes of models are given about equal credence, though ALL current models make troublesome assumptions requiring clarification. Halo models have received several boosts lately, including the realization that the mean velocity of pulsars is greater than previously thought, the certain localization of two out of three (and possibly all) soft gamma-ray repeaters to supernova remnants in our Galaxy and in the LMC, and calculations to show that under certain, albeit highly restrictive assumptions, the BATSE statistics can be satisfied by high velocity neutron stars ejected from the Galaxy. Several current halo oriented theories would like to relate the soft repeaters to the more common ``classical" bursts and claim that the former are an earlier evolutionary stage of the latter. If, on the other hand, the soft repeaters are a separate class, as the cosmologists would require, perhaps there are other classes as well. Amid all this theoretical speculation, the solution to the gamma-ray burst riddle will most likely come from further observation. Some prospects for future observations, especially with the High Energy Transient Experiment, will be briefly discussed.

The best astrophysical accelerators are quasars and the 'progenitors' of GRBs which, after decades of observations and scores of theories, we still do not understand. But, I shall argue, we now know quite well where GRBs come from, and we understand how their 'beams' behave, as they make short pulses of gammarays and long-duration X-ray, optical and radio 'afterglows'. I shall argue that our understanding of these phenomena, based on the 'Cannonball Model', is unusually simple, precise and successful. The 'sociology' of GRBs is interesting per se and, in this sense, the avatars of the Cannonball Model in confronting the generally accepted 'fireball models' are also quite revealing.

We present predictions of centimeter and millimeter radio emission from reverse shocks (RSs) in the early afterglows of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) with the goal of determining their detectability with current and future radio facilities. Using a range of GRB properties, such as peak optical brightness and time, isotropic equivalent gamma-ray energy, and redshift, we simulate radio light curves in a framework generalized for any circumburst medium structure and including a parameterization of the shell thickness regime that is more realistic than the simple assumption of thick- or thin-shell approximations. Building on earlier work by Mundell et al. and Melandri et al. in which the typical frequency of the RS was suggested to lie at radio rather than optical wavelengths at early times, we show that the brightest and most distinct RS radio signatures are detectable up to 0.1–1 day after the burst, emphasizing the need for rapid radio follow-up. Detection is easier for bursts with later optical peaks, high isotropic energies, lower circumburst medium densities, and at observing frequencies that are less prone to synchrotron self-absorption effects—typically above a few GHz. Given recent detections of polarized prompt gamma-ray and optical RS emission, we suggest that detection of polarized radio/millimeter emission will unambiguously confirm the presence of low-frequency RSs at early time.

Neutron moderation effects were measured in bulk soil samples through prompt gammaray measurements from water and benzene contaminated soil samples using 14 MeV neutron inelastic scattering. The prompt gammarays were measured using a cylindrical 76 mm x 76 mm (diameter x height) LaBr{sub 3}:Ce detector. Since neutron moderation effects strongly depend upon hydrogen concentration of the sample, for comparison purposes, moderation effects were studied from samples containing different hydrogen concentrations. The soil samples with different hydrogen concentration were prepared by mixing soil with water as well as benzene in different weight proportions. Then, the effects of increasing water and benzene concentrations on the yields of hydrogen, carbon and silicon prompt gammarays were measured. Moderation effects are more pronounced in soil samples mixed with water as compared to those from soil samples mixed with benzene. This is due to the fact that benzene contaminated soil samples have about 30% less hydrogen concentration by weight than the water contaminated soil samples. Results of the study will be presented. (authors)

Gamma-ray bursts (GRB) are huge fluxes of gammarays that appear randomly in the sky about once a day. It is now commonly accepted that GRBs are caused by a stellar object shooting off a powerful plasma jet along its rotation axis. After the initial outburst of gammarays, a lower intensity radiation remains, called the afterglow. Using the data from a hydrodynamical numerical simulation that models the dynamics of the jet, we calculated the expected light curve of the afterglow radiation that would be observed on earth. We calculated the light curve and spectrum and compared them to the light curves and spectra predicted by two analytical models of the expansion of the jet (which are based on the Blandford and McKee solution of a relativistic isotropic expansion; see Sari's model [1] and Granot's model [2]). We found that the light curve did not decay as fast as predicted by Sari; the predictions by Granot were largely corroborated. Some results, however, did not match Granot's predictions, and more research is needed to explain these discrepancies.

The field of high energy gamma-ray astronomy grew tremendously in the last decade due to the launch of the EGRET detector on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory in 1991 and the proliferation of ground-based air Čherenkov telescopes (ACTs) such as the Whipple 10 meter reflector. Interestingly, the ground-based telescopes only see 4-5 of the over 170 objects detected by EGRET. A simple extrapolation of the EGRET objects' energy spectra up to the energies which the ACTs are sensitive suggests that many of them should have been detected. The key to resolving this lack of detections is to observe these sources in the previously unobserved 20-250 GeV energy range. The Solar Two Observatory collaboration is developing a secondary optics system on the central tower of the world's largest solar energy pilot plant, Solar Two, to observe gamma-ray sources in this energy range. The progress in building the secondary optics system to be used to image ˜64 heliostats at Solar Two located in Barstow, California, is presented. We hope to design and build this detector over the next 2 years.

Astrophysical {gamma}-ray sources come in a variety of sizes and magnetizations. We deduce general conditions under which {gamma}-ray spectra from such sources would be significantly affected by axion-photon mixing. We show that, depending on strength and coherence of the magnetic field, axion couplings down to {approx}(10{sup 13}GeV){sup -1} can give rise to significant axion-photon conversions in the environment of accreting massive black holes. Resonances can occur between the axion mass term and the plasma frequency term as well as between the plasma frequency term and the vacuum Cotton-Mouton shift. Both resonances and nonresonant transitions could induce detectable features or even strong suppressions in finite energy intervals of {gamma}-ray spectra from active galactic nuclei. Such effects can occur at keV to TeV energies for couplings that are currently allowed by all experimental constraints.

The GammaRay Polarimeter Experiment (GRAPE), a balloon borne polarimeter for 50~300 keVgammarays, successfully flew in 2011 and 2014. The main goal of these balloon flights was to measure the gammaray polarization of the Crab Nebula. Analysis of data from the first two balloon flights of GRAPE has been challenging due to significant changes in the background level during each flight. We have developed a technique based on the Principle Component Analysis (PCA) to estimate the background for the Crab observation. We found that the background depended mostly on the atmospheric depth, pointing zenith angle and instrument temperatures. Incorporating Anti-coincidence shield data (which served as a surrogate for the background) was also found to improve the analysis. Here, we present the calibration data and describe the analysis done on the GRAPE 2014 flight data.

Relativistic electrons in large solar flares produce gamma-ray continuum by bremsstrahlung and microwave emission by gyrosynchrotron radiation. Using observations of the August 4, 1972, flare, a detailed evaluation is made of the electron spectrum and the physical properties (density, magnetic field, size, and temperature) of the common emitting region of these radiations. Information is also obtained on energetic protons in this flare by using gamma-ray lines. From the electron spectrum, the proton-to-electron ratio, and the time dependences of the microwave emission, the 2.2-MeV line, and the gamma-ray continuum, it is concluded that relativistic electrons and energetic nuclei are accelerated in large solar flares by a mechanism which is different from the mechanism which accelerates electrons with energies not exceeding about 100 keV in flares.

Relativistic electrons in large solar flares produce gammaray continuum by bremsstrahlung and microwave emission by gyrosynchrotron radiation. Using observations of the 1972, August 4 flare, the electron spectrum and the physical properties of the common emitting region of these radiations were evaluated. Information was also obtained on energetic protons in this flare by using gammaray lines. From the electron spectrum, the proton-to-electron ratio, and the time dependences of the microwave emission, the 2.2 MeV line and the gammaray continuum, it was concluded that in large solar flares relativistic electrons and energetic nuclei are accelerated by a mechanism which is different from the mechanism which accelerates approximately less than 100 keV electrons in flares.

Gamma-ray continuum emission from 0.3 to 1 MeV was observed with the gamma-ray spectrometer on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite during two impulsive solar flares on 1980 March 29, from active region 2363 at 0918 UT and from active region 2357 at 0955 UT. Evidence is presented for a hardening of the spectrum during the impulsive phase of the flares. The photon intensity greater than 100 keV appears to decay at a slower rate than that at lower energies. Time-integrated photon spectra for both flares are incompatible with a single-temperature thermal-bremsstrahlung model. Upper limits for prompt and delayed gamma-ray lines are presented.

This work presents the results obtained in the inspection of several mechanical components through neutron and gamma-ray transmission radiography. The 4.46 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 5} n.cm{sup -2}.s{sup -1} thermal neutron flux available at the main port of the Argonauta research reactor in Instituto de Engenharia Nuclear has been used as source for the neutron radiographic imaging. The 412 keV {gamma}-ray emitted by {sup 198}Au, also produced in that reactor, has been used as interrogation agent for the gamma radiography. Imaging Plates - IP specifically designed to operate with thermal neutrons or with X-rays have been employed as detectors and storage devices for each of these radiations.

A new solar gamma-ray telescope is described which is intended to take advantage of current long-duration ballon facilities such as the RACOON system. The primary scientific objective is to detect and measure gamma-ray lines from solar flares, along with the associated low-energy continuum. The proposed instrument is centered on a multiheaded Ge system and is designed to operate over the energy range 50 keV to 200 200 MeV. In the nuclear transition energy region, the average energy resolution of the primary detectors is over 20 times better than that achieved with the gamma-ray spectrometer on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite.

An atomic nucleus is excited by absorption of incident photons with an energy the same as the excitation energy of the level, and subsequently a gamma-ray is emitted as it de-excites. This phenomenon is called Nuclear Resonance Fluorescence and mostly used for studies on Nuclear Physics field. By measuring the NRF gamma-rays, we can identify nuclear species in any materials because the energies of the NRF gamma-rays uniquely depend on the nuclear species. For example, 235U has an excitation level at 1733 keV. If we irradiate a material including 235U with a gamma-ray tuned at this excitation level, the material absorbs the gamma-ray and re-emits another gamma-ray immediately to move back towards the ground state. Therefore we can detect the 235U by measuring the re-emitted (NRF) gamma-rays. Several inspection methods using gamma-rays, which can penetrate a thick shielding have been proposed and examined. Bertozzi and Ledoux have proposed an application of nuclear resonance fluorescence (NRF) by using bremsstrahlung radiations. However the signal-to-noise (SN) ratio of the NRF measurement with the bremsstrahlung radiation is, in general, low. Only a part of the incident photons makes NRF with a narrow resonant band (meV-eV) whereas most of incident radiation is scattered by atomic processes in which the reaction rate is higher than that of NRF by several orders of magnitudes and causes a background. Thus, the NRF with a gamma-ray quasi-monochromatic radiation beam is proposed. The monochromatic gamma-rays are generated by using laser Compton scattering (LCS) of electrons and intense laser photons by putting a collimator to restrict the gamma-ray divergence downstream. The LCS gamma-ray, which is energy-tunable and monochromatic, is an optimum apparatus for NRF measurements We have been conducted NRF experiment for nuclear research, especially with high linear polarized gamma-ray generated by LCS, to survey the distribution of M1 strength in MeV region in LCS

The Soft Gamma-ray Detector (SGD) on board the NeXT (Japanese future high energy astrophysics mission) is a Compton telescope with narrow field of view (FOV), which utilizes Compton kinematics to enhance its background rejection capabilities. It is realized as a hybrid semiconductor gamma-ray detector which consists of silicon and CdTe (cadmium telluride) detectors. It can detect photons in a wide energy band (0.05-1 MeV) at a background level of 5 x 10{sup -7} counts/s/cm{sup 2}/keV; the silicon layers are required to improve the performance at a lower energy band (<0.3 MeV). Excellent energy resolution is the key feature of the SGD, allowing it to achieve both high angular resolution and good background rejection capability. An additional capability of the SGD, its ability to measure gamma-ray polarization, opens up a new window to study properties of astronomical objects. We will present the development of key technologies to realize the SGD: high quality CdTe, low noise front-end ASIC and bump bonding technology. Energy resolutions of 1.7 keV (FWHM) for CdTe pixel detectors and 1.1 keV for Si strip detectors have been measured. We also present the validation of Monte Carlo simulation used to evaluate the performance of the SGD.

We develop transition-edge-sensor microcalorimeters for gamma-ray spectroscopy. To develop mechanically robust detectors, we fabricated devices with no membrane structure. We report results of three such devices, two with a Bi-absorber and the other with a Sn-absorber. The thickness and volume of each absorber are 1 mm and 0.5-0.6 mm3. We cooled the detectors and irradiated each with gammarays from a Cs-137 source and observed two types of pulses: slow-rise and fast-rise. The slow-rise pulses are signals from gammarays absorbed or Compton scattered in the absorbers and the fast-rise pulses are signals resulting from Compton scattering in the Si substrate. We selected the slow pulses to obtain energy spectra. The energy resolutions of the 662-keV photo peak for the Bi-absorber and Sn-absorber devices are, respectively, 4.1 and 7.5 keV, whereas their baseline energy resolutions are 3.2 and 2.6 keV. The degradation in energy resolution is mainly because of the fluctuation of bath temperature. The baseline energy resolutions are more than an order of magnitude worse than the design values. The poor resolution probably arises because of thermal noise from Compton events on the Si substrate.

Because high-energy gammarays are primarily produced by high-energy particle interactions, the gamma-ray survey of the sky by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope offers a view of sites of cosmic ray production and interactions. Gamma-ray bursts, pulsars, pulsar wind nebulae, binary sources, and Active Galactic Nuclei are all phenomena that reveal particle acceleration through their gamma-ray emission. Diffuse Galactic gamma radiation, Solar System gamma-ray sources, and energetic radiation from supernova remnants are likely tracers of high-energy particle interactions with matter and photon fields. This paper will present a broad overview of the constantly changing sky seen with the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on the Fermi spacecraft.

The origin of the soft gamma-ray (200 keV - 1 MeV) galactic ridge emission is one of the long-standing mysteries in the field of high-energy astrophysics. Population studies at lower energies have shown that emission from accreting compact objects gradually recedes in this domain, leaving place to another source of gamma-ray emission that is characterised by a hard power-law spectrum extending from 100 keV up to 100 MeV The nature of this hard component has remained so far elusive, partly due to the lack of sufficiently sensitive imaging telescopes that would be able to unveil the spatial distribution of the emission. The SPI telescope aboard INTEGRAL allows now for the first time the simultaneous imaging of diffuse and point-like emission in the soft gamma-ray regime. We present here all-sky images of the soft gamma-ray continuum emission that clearly reveal the morphology of the different emission components. We discuss the implications of our results on the nature of underlying emission processes and we put our results in perspective of GLAST studies of diffuse galactic continuum emission.

We describe a search of archival data from the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE). The purpose of the search is to find astronomically interesting transients that did not activate the burst-detection (or "trigger") system on board the spacecraft. Our search is sensitive to events with peak fluxes (on the 1.024 s timescale) that are lower by a factor of approximately 2 than can be detected with the on-board burst trigger. In a search of 345 days of archival data, we detected 91 events in the 50-300 keV range that resemble classical gamma-ray bursts but that did not activate the on-board burst trigger. We also detected 110 low-energy (25-50 keV) events of unknown origin that may include activity from' soft gamma repeater (SGR) 1806-20 and bursts and flares from X-ray binaries. This paper gives the occurrence times, estimated source directions, durations, peak fluxes, and fluences for the 91 gamma-ray burst candidates. The direction and intensity distributions of these bursts imply that the biases inherent in the on-board trigger mechanism have not significantly affected the completeness of the published BATSE gamma-ray burst catalogs.

The balloon-borne Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar flares (GRIPS) instrument will provide a near-optimal combination of high-resolution imaging, spectroscopy, and polarimetry of solar-flare gamma-ray/hard X-ray emissions from ~20 keV to >~10 MeV. GRIPS will address questions raised by recent solar flare observations regarding particle acceleration and energy release, such as: What causes the spatial separation between energetic electrons producing hard X-rays and energetic ions producing gamma-ray lines? How anisotropic are the relativistic electrons, and why can they dominate in the corona? How do the compositions of accelerated and ambient material vary with space and time, and why? The spectrometer/polarimeter consists of sixteen 3D position-sensitive germanium detectors (3D-GeDs), where each energy deposition is individually recorded with an energy resolution of a few keV FWHM and a spatial resolution of <0.1 mm3. Imaging is accomplished by a single multi-pitch rotating modulator (MPRM), a 2.5-cm thick tungstenalloy slit/slat grid with pitches that range quasi-continuously from 1 to 13 mm. The MPRM is situated 8 meters from the spectrometer to provide excellent image quality and unparalleled angular resolution at gamma-ray energies (12.5 arcsec FWHM), sufficient to separate 2.2 MeV footpoint sources for almost all flares. Polarimetry is accomplished by analyzing the anisotropy of reconstructed Compton scattering in the 3D-GeDs (i.e., as an active scatterer), with an estimated minimum detectable polarization of a few percent at 150-650 keV in an X-class flare. GRIPS is scheduled for a continental-US engineering test flight in fall 2013, followed by long or ultra-long duration balloon flights in Antarctica.

The new balloon-borne Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar flares (GRIPS) instrument will provide a near-optimal combination of high-resolution imaging, spectroscopy, and polarimetry of solar-flare gamma-ray/hard X-ray emissions from ~20 keV to >~10 MeV. The spectrometer/polarimeter consists of sixteen 3D position-sensitive germanium detectors (3D-GeDs), where each energy deposition is individually recorded with an energy resolution of a few keV FWHM and a spatial resolution to within <0.1 mm3. Imaging is accomplished by a single multi-pitch rotating modulator (MPRM), a 2-cm thick tungsten grid with pitches that range quasi-continuously from 1 to 13 mm. With the MPRM situated 8 meters from the spectrometer, this instrument will provide excellent image quality and unparalleled angular resolution at gamma-ray energies (12.5 arcsec FWHM), sufficient to separate the 2.2 MeV footpoint sources for almost all flares. Polarimetry is accomplished by analyzing the anisotropy of reconstructed Compton scattering in the 3D-GeDs (i.e. as an active scatterer), with an estimated minimum detectable polarization of a few percent at 150--650 keV in an X-class flare. GRIPS will address questions relevant to particle acceleration and energy release that have been raised by recent solar flare observations, such as: What causes the spatial separation between energetic electron producing hard X-rays and energetic ions producing gamma-ray lines? How anisotropic are the accelerated electrons, and why do relativistic electron dominate in the corona? How does the composition of accelerated and ambient material vary with space and time, and why?

The balloon-borne Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar flares (GRIPS) instrument will provide a near-optimal combination of high-resolution imaging, spectroscopy, and polarimetry of solar-flare gamma-ray/hard X-ray emissions from approximately 20 keV to greater than approximately 10 MeV. GRIPS will address questions raised by recent solar flare observations regarding particle acceleration and energy release, such as: What causes the spatial separation between energetic electrons producing hard X-rays and energetic ions producing gamma-ray lines? How anisotropic are the relativistic electrons, and why can they dominate in the corona? How do the compositions of accelerated and ambient material vary with space and time, and why? The spectrometer/polarimeter consists of sixteen 3D position-sensitive germanium detectors (3D-GeDs), where each energy deposition is individually recorded with an energy resolution of a few keV FWHM and a spatial resolution of less than 0.1 cubic millimeter. Imaging is accomplished by a single multi-pitch rotating modulator (MPRM), a 2.5-centimeter thick tungsten alloy slit/slat grid with pitches that range quasi-continuously from 1 to 13 millimeters. The MPRM is situated 8 meters from the spectrometer to provide excellent image quality and unparalleled angular resolution at gamma-ray energies (12.5 arcsec FWHM), sufficient to separate 2.2 MeV footpoint sources for almost all flares. Polarimetry is accomplished by analyzing the anisotropy of reconstructed Compton scattering in the 3D-GeDs (i.e., as an active scatterer), with an estimated minimum detectable polarization of a few percent at 150-650 keV in an X-class flare. GRIPS is scheduled for a continental-US engineering test flight in fall 2013, followed by long or ultra-long duration balloon flights in Antarctica.

The main scientific interest of the Russian Gamma-400 team: Observe gamma-rays above approximately 50 GeV with excellent energy and angular resolution with the goals of: (1) Studying the fine spectral structure of the isotropic high-energy gamma-radiation, (2) Attempting to identify the many still-unidentified Fermi-LAT gamma-ray sources. Gamma-400 will likely be the only space-based gamma-ray observatory operating at the end of the decade. In our proposed Gamma-400-LE version, it will substantially improve upon the capabilities of Fermi LAT and AGILE in both LE and HE energy range. Measuring gamma-rays from approx 20 MeV to approx 1 TeV for at least 7 years, Gamma-400-LE will address the topics of dark matter, cosmic ray origin and propagation, neutron stars, flaring pulsars, black holes, AGNs, GRBs, and actively participate in multiwavelength campaigns.

The GAMMA-400 space observatory will provide precise measurements of gammarays, electrons, and positrons in the energy range 0.1-3000 GeV. The good angular and energy resolutions, as well as identification capabilities (angular resolution ~0.01°, energy resolution ~1%, and proton rejection factor ~106) will allow us to study the main galactic and extragalactic sources, diffuse gamma-ray background, gamma-ray bursts, and to measure electron and positron fluxes. The peculiar characteristics of the experiment is simultaneous detection of gammarays and cosmic-ray electrons and positrons, which can be connected with annihilation or decay of dark matter particles.

We are reporting the investigation result of channeling and concentrating soft gammarays (above 100 keV) using multilayer thin films of alternating low and high-density materials. This will enable future telescopes for higher energies with same mission parameters already proven by NuSTAR. Base on initial investigations at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) we are investigating of producing these multilayers with the required thicknesses and smoothness using magnetron sputter (MS) and pulsed laser deposition (PLD) techniques. A suitable arrangement of bent multilayer structures of alternating low and high-density materials will channel soft gamma-ray photons via total external reflection and then concentrate the incident radiation to a point. The high-energy astrophysics group at the UNH Space Science Center (SSC) is testing these structures for their ability to channel 122 keVgammarays in the laboratory. In addition of experimental works, we have been working on gammaray tracing model of the concentrator by IDL, making use of optical properties calculated by the IMD software. This modeling allows us to calculate efficiency and focal length for different energy bands and materials and compare them with experimental result. Also we will combine concentrator modeling result and detector simulation by Geant4 to archive a complete package of gamma-ray telescope simulation. If successful, this technology will offer the potential for soft gamma-ray telescopes with focal lengths of less than 10 m, removing the need for formation flying spacecraft and opening the field up to balloon-borne instruments and providing greatly increased sensitivity for modest cost and complexity.

Instruments directly measuring properties of cosmic rays (CRs) have given us insight into their origins, acceleration mechanisms, and propagation. Indirect measurements provide complementary information which can help disentangle particle types and energetics at sources such as supernova remnants (SNRs), can suggest new sources, and can trace the propagation of CRs through, for instance, interactions with a galaxy's interstellar medium. Gammarays are particularly good at indirectly illuminating CRs as they are sensitive to the pion decay channel (CR+p+ -->π0 --> γ + γ). Recent work, e.g., using the pion turn-on energy to show proton acceleration in 3 SNRs and mapping CR interactions with Galactic gas using Fermi-LAT, bears this out. The survey capability of instruments like Fermi and HAWC nicely complements the isotropized CRs measured near Earth while VERITAS, MAGIC, and HESS Imaging Air Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs) provide greater insight into potential sources, including constraining maximum energy both within and beyond our Galaxy. Upcoming IACTs like CTA will greatly enhance this. This talk will explore recent results and potential future insights into CRs using gamma-ray emission and touch on direct measurements made with gamma-ray instruments. This work was supported in part by the Fermi-LAT Collaboration.

Significant effort currently is being devoted to the development of noninvasive imaging systems that allow in vivo assessment of biological and biomolecular interactions in mice and other small animals. While physiological function in small animals can be localized and imaged using conventional radionuclide imaging techniques such as single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET), these techniques inherently are limited to spatial resolutions of 1-2 mm. For this reason, we are developing a small animal radionuclide imaging system (SARIS) using grazing incidence optics to focus gamma-rays emitted by {sup 125}I and other radiopharmaceuticals. We have developed a prototype optic with sufficient accuracy and precision to focus the 27.5 keV photons from {sup 125}I onto a high-resolution imaging detector. Experimental measurements from the prototype have demonstrated that the optic can focus X-rays from a microfocus X-ray tube to a spot having physical dimensions (approximately 1500 microns half-power diameter) consistent with those predicted by theory. Our theoretical and numerical analysis also indicate that an optic can be designed and build that ultimately can achieve 100 {micro}m spatial resolution with sufficient efficiency to perform in vivo single photon emission imaging studies in small animal.

During this grant period, the physics of gamma-ray bursts was investigated. A number of new results have emerged. The importance of pair formation in high compactness burst spectra may help explain x-ray flashes; a universal jet shape is a likely explanation for the distribution of jet break times; gravitational waves may be copiously produced both in short bursts from compact mergers and in long bursts arising from collapsars; x-ray iron lines are likely to be due to interaction with the stellar atmosphere of the progenitor; prompt optical flashes from reverse shocks will give diagnostics on the Lorentz factor and the environment; GeV and TeV emission from bursts may be expected in the external shock; etc. The group working with the PI included postdocs Dr. Bing Zhang (now assistant professor at University of Nevada); Dr. Shiho Kobayashi; graduate student Lijun Gou; collaborators Drs. Tim Kallman and Martin Rees. Meszaros shared with Rees and Dr. Bohan Paczynsky the AAS Rossi Prize in 2000 for their work on the theory of gammaray bursts. The refereed publications and conference proceedings resulting from this research are summarized below. The PI gave a number of invited talks at major conferences, also listed.

The death of some of the most massive stars are manifest as long gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Studying their light curves and spectra are uncovering some of the properties of the "central engine" that remains after the progenitor star collapses, as well as the environment in which they reside. Much of our current understanding comes from data obtained in the gamma-ray to X-ray. Despite this progress in the high-energy regime, our understanding of the soft-energy component (UV/optical) is lacking, particularly with regards to UV/optical flaring from the central engine and distinguishing between interstellar material and wind environments. Although these questions have been addressed for individual bursts, no systematic study in the UV/optical has been done due to the lack of a large homogenous sample. The Swift Ultra-Violet/Optical Telescope (UVOT) has observed more GRBs in the UV/optical than any other telescope. From these observations we have generated a homogenous UV/optical GRB afterglow catalog. From this catalog and coupled with archival Swift X-Ray Telescope (XRT) data, we examine the spectral evolution of GRBs in order to probe the circumburst environment and to test current progenitor models.

Originally selected as a neutron star (NS) candidate in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey, 1RXS J141256.0+792204 ('Calvera') was discovered to be a 59 ms X-ray pulsar in a pair of XMM-Newton observations by Zane et al. Surprisingly, their claimed detection of this pulsar in Fermi {gamma}-ray data requires no period derivative, severely restricting its dipole magnetic field strength, spin-down luminosity, and distance to small values. This implies that the cooling age of Calvera is much younger than its characteristic spin-down age. If so, it could be a mildly recycled pulsar, or the first 'orphaned' central compact object (CCO). Here we show that the published Fermi ephemeris fails to align the pulse phases of the two X-ray observations with each other, which indicates that the Fermi detection is almost certainly spurious. Analysis of additional Fermi data also does not confirm the {gamma}-ray detection. This leaves the spin-down rate of Calvera less constrained, and its place among the families of NSs uncertain. It could still be either an ordinary pulsar, a mildly recycled pulsar, or an orphaned CCO.

We present models for reprocessing of an intense flux of X-rays and gammarays expected in the vicinity of gammaray burst sources. We consider the transfer and reprocessing of the energetic photons into observable features in the X-ray band, notably the K lines of iron. Our models are based on the assumption that the gas is sufficiently dense to allow the microphysical processes to be in a steady state, thus allowing efficient line emission with modest reprocessing mass and elemental abundances ranging from solar to moderately enriched. We show that the reprocessing is enhanced by down-Comptonization of photons whose energy would otherwise be too high to absorb on iron, and that pair production can have an effect on enhancing the line production. Both "distant" reprocessors such as supernova or wind remnants and "nearby" reprocessors such as outer stellar envelopes can reproduce the observed line fluxes with Fe abundances 30-100 times above solar, depending on the incidence angle. The high incidence angles required arise naturally only in nearby models, which for plausible values can reach Fe line to continuum ratios close to the reported values.

The technical activities, scientific results, related space hardware projects and personnel of the high energy astrophysics program are reported. The development of observational and instrumental techniques in hard X-ray (0.001 to 100 keV) and medium energy gamma-ray (0.1 to 10 MeV) astronomy are examined. Many of these techniques were developed explicitly for use on high altitude balloons where most of the scientific results were obtained. The extensive observational activity using balloons are tabulated. Virtually every research activity will eventually result in a major space hardware development effort.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has been observing the sky in gamma-rays since August 2008. In addition to breakthrough capabilities in energy coverage (20 MeV-300 GeV) and angular resolution, the wide field of view of the Large Area Telescope enables observations of 20% of the sky at any instant, and of the whole sky every three hours. It has revealed a very animated sky with bright gamma-ray bursts flashing and vanishing in minutes, powerful active galactic nuclei flaring over hours and days, many pulsars twinkling in the Milky Way, and X-ray binaries shimmering along their orbit. Most of these variable sources had not been seen by the Fermi predecessor, EGRET, and the wealth of new data already brings important clues to the origin of the high-energy emission and particles powered by the compact objects. The telescope also brings crisp images of the bright gamma-ray emission produced by cosmic-ray interactions in the interstellar medium, thus allowing to measure the cosmic nuclei and electron spectra across the Galaxy, to weigh interstellar clouds, in particular in the dark-gas phase. The telescope sensitivity at high energy will soon provide useful constraints on dark-matter annihilations in a variety of environments. I will review the current results and future prospects of the Fermi mission.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has been observing the sky in gamma-rays since August 2008. In addition to breakthrough capabilities in energy coverage (20 MeV-300 GeV) and angular resolution, the wide field of view of the Large Area Telescope enables observations of 20% of the sky at any instant, and of the whole sky every three hours. It has revealed a very animated sky with bright gamma-ray bursts flashing and vanishing in minutes, powerful active galactic nuclei flaring over hours and days, many pulsars twinkling in the Milky Way, and X-ray binaries shimmering along their orbit. Most of these variable sources had not been seen by the Fermi predecessor, EGRET, and the wealth of new data already brings important clues to the origin of the high-energy emission and particles powered by the compact objects. The telescope also brings crisp images of the bright gamma-ray emission produced by cosmic-ray interactions in the interstellar medium, thus allowing to measure the cosmic nuclei and electron spectra across the Galaxy, to weigh interstellar clouds, in particular in the dark-gas phase. The telescope sensitivity at high energy will soon provide useful constraints on dark-matter annihilations in a variety of environments. I will review the current results and future prospects of the Fermi mission.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has been observing the sky in gamma-rays since August 2008. Â In addition to breakthrough capabilities in energy coverage (20 MeV-300 GeV) and angular resolution, the wide field of view of the Large Area Telescope enables observations of 20% of the sky at any instant, and of the whole sky every three hours. It has revealed a very animated sky with bright gamma-ray bursts flashing and vanishing in minutes, powerful active galactic nuclei flaring over hours and days, many pulsars twinkling in the Milky Way, and X-ray binaries shimmering along their orbit. Most of these variable sources had not been seen by the Fermi predecessor, EGRET, and the wealth of new data already brings important clues to the origin of the high-energy emission and particles powered by the compact objects. The telescope also brings crisp images of the bright gamma-ray emission produced by cosmic-ray interactions in the interstellar medium, thus allowing to measure the cosmic nuclei and electron spectra across the Galaxy, to weigh interstellar clouds, in particular in the dark-gas phase. The telescope sensitivity at high energy will soon provide useful constraints on dark-matter annihilations in a variety of environments. I will review the current results and future prospects of the Fermi mission.

The initial purpose of this experiment was to provide a consistent data base of neutron-induced gamma-ray production cross sections over a large energy range for use in estimating elemental composition of the martian surface by observing gammarays produced by cosmic ray interactions on the planet's surface [Bo02]. However, these data should be useful for other projects such as oil-well logging, accelerator transmutation of nuclear waste, shielding calculations, gamma-ray heating for nuclear reactors and verification of nuclear model calculations and databases. The goal of the measurements was to collect data on the strongest gammarays from many samples of interest. Because of the available beam time this meant that many of the measurcments were rather short. Despite the short running time the large samples used and the good beam intensity resulted in very satisfactory results. The samples, chosen mainly as common constituents of rock and soil and measured in the same few week period, include: B&, BN, C, Al, Mg, Si, S, Cay Ti, Cr, Mn, and Fe. Be was also used as a neutron scatterer that only produces one gammaray (478 keV from 7Li) with appreciable intensity. Thus Be can serve as a measure of neutron-induced backgrounds. In this first paper we present results for Fe.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, formerly named GLAST, is a mission in low-Earth orbit to observe gammarays from the cosmos in the broad energy range from 20 MeV to >300 GeV, with supporting observations of gamma-ray bursts from 8 keV to 30 MeV. The telescope far surpasses previous generations in its ability to detect and localize faint gamma-ray sources, as well as its ability to see 20% of the sky at any instant and scan the entire sky on a timescale of a few hours. With its recent launch on 11 June 2008, Fermi has opened a new and exciting window on a wide variety of exotic astrophysical objects, including pulsars, black holes, active galactic nuclei, and gamma-ray bursts, and it will enable new research on such topics as the origin and circulation of cosmic rays and searches for hypothetical new phenomena such as annihilation of supersymmetric dark matter.

AGILE is a small gamma-ray astronomy satellite mission of the Italian Space Agency dedicated to high-energy astrophysics launched in 2007 April. It provides large sky exposure levels (> or approx. 10{sup 9} cm{sup 2} s per year on the Galactic Plane) with sensitivity peaking at E{approx}400 MeV(and simultaneous X-ray monitoring in the 18-60 keV band) where the bulk of pulsar energy output is typically released. Its {approx}1 {mu}s is absolute time tagging capability makes it perfectly suited for the study of gamma-ray pulsars following up on the CGRO/EGRET heritage. In this paper we summarize the timing results obtained during the first year of AGILE observations of the known gamma-ray pulsars Vela, Crab, Geminga and B 1706-4. AGILE collected a large number of gamma-ray photons from EGRET pulsars ({approx}10,000 pulsed counts for Vela) in only few months of observations unveiling new interesting features at sub-millisecond level in the pulsars' high-energy light-curves and paving the way to the discovery of new gamma-ray pulsars.

We are investigating the use of thin-film, multilayer structures to form optics capable of concentrating soft gammarays with energies greater than 100 keV, beyond the reach of current grazing-incidence hard X-ray mirrors. Alternating layers of low- and high-density materials (e.g., polymers and metals) will channel soft gamma-ray photons via total external reflection. A suitable arrangement of bent structures will then concentrate the incident radiation to a point. Gamma-ray optics made in this way offer the potential for soft gamma-ray telescopes with focal lengths of less than 10 m, removing the need for formation flying spacecraft and opening the field up to balloon-borne instruments. Following initial investigations conducted at Los Alamos National Laboratory, we have constructed and tested a prototype structure using spin coating combined with magnetron sputtering. We are now investigating whether it is possible to grow such flexible multi-layer structures with the required thicknesses and smoothness more quickly by using magnetron sputter and pulsed laser deposition techniques. We present the latest results of our fabrication and gamma-ray channeling tests, and describe our modeling of the sensitivity of potential concentrator-based telescope designs. If successful, this technology offers the potential for transformational increases in sensitivity while dramatically improving the system-level performance of future high-energy astronomy missions through reduced mass and complexity.

The fluxes of cosmic-ray-produced gammarays escaping from Mars were calculated using the LAHET Code System and basic nuclear data for {gamma}-ray production. Both surface water content and atmospheric thickness strongly affect the fluxes of {gamma}-ray lines escaping from Mars.

In order to explain the recently reported peak at 3.55 keV in the galactic X-ray spectrum, we propose a simple model. In this model, the Standard Model is extended by including a neutral spin-3/2 vector-like fermion that transforms like a singlet under SM gauge group. This 7.1 keV spin-3/2 fermion is considered to comprise a portion of the observed dark matter. Its decay into a neutrino and a photon with decay life commensurate with the observed data, fits the relic dark matter density and obeys the astrophysical constraints from the supernova cooling.

The Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) on board Fermi has been providing continuous data to the astronomical community since 2008 August 12. In this paper, we present the results of the analysis of the first three years of these continuous data using the Earth occultation technique to monitor a catalog of 209 sources. From this catalog, we detect 99 sources, including 40 low-mass X-ray binary/neutron star systems, 31 high-mass X-ray binary/neutron star systems, 12 black hole binaries, 12 active galaxies, and 2 other sources, plus the Crab Nebula, and the Sun. Nine of these sources are detected in the 100-300 keV band, including seven black hole binaries, the active galaxy Cen A, and the Crab. The Crab and Cyg X-1 are also detected in the 300-500 keV band. GBM provides complementary data to other sky-monitors below 100 keV and is the only all-sky monitor above 100 keV. Up-to-date light curves for all of the catalog sources can be found online.

The spectrum of {gamma}rays coincident with SD transitions contains the transitions which populate the SD band. This spectrum can provide information on the feeding mechanism and on the properties (moment of inertia, collectivity) of excited SD states. We used a model we developed to explain the feeding of SD bands, to calculate the spectrum of feeding {gamma}rays. The Monte Carlo simulations take into account the trigger conditions present in our Eurogam experiment. Both experimental and theoretical spectra contain a statistical component and a broad E2 peak (from transitions occurring between excited states in the SD well). There is good resemblance between the measured and calculated spectra although the calculated multiplicity of an E2 bump is low by {approximately}30%. Work is continuing to improve the quality of the fits, which will result in a better understanding of excited SD states. In addition, a model for the last steps, which cool the {gamma} cascade into the SD yrast line, needs to be developed. A strong M1/E2 low-energy component, which we believe is responsible for this cooling, was observed.

Following the use of in vivo measurements of 210Pb to estimate retrospectively radon exposure, interest has been expressed in the use of in vivo measurements of 208Tl to estimate thorium intake. To aid with calibration and to determine the optimum part of the body on which in vivo measurements should be made, the distribution of 208Tl and 228Ac amongst different human bones was measured in the underground laboratory HADES. The 208Tl activity was determined by the 2614.5 keV and the 583.2 keVgammaray lines. The 225Ac activity was determined by the 911.2 keV and the 969.0 keVgammaray lines. The background under those peaks when measured on the 106% relative efficiency coaxial HPGe detector in HADES is of the order of 1 d(-1), resulting in detection limits in the order of 1 mBq for both radionuclides for a typical 10 g bone sample and for a measuring time of I week.

Under this grant the UC Berkeley PI, K. Hurley, joined a Goddard-led effort to develop large area, multi-pixel Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride (CdZnTe, or CZT) detectors for gamma-ray astronomy. His task was to advise the project of new developments in the area of cosmic gamma-ray bursts, in order to focus the detector development effort on the construction of an instrument which could be deployed on a spacecraft to localize and measure the energy spectra of bursts with good angular and energy resolution, respectively. UC Berkeley had no hardware role in this proposal. The result of this effort was the production, at Goddard, of five CZT prototype modules. A proposal was written for SWIFT, a MIDEX mission to study cosmic gamma-ray bursts. One experiment aboard SWIFT is the Burst Arcminute Telescope (BAT), which consists of a 5200 sq cm hard X-ray detector and a coded mask. The detector comprises 256 CZT modules, each containing 128 4 x 4 x 2 mm CZT detectors. Each detector is read out using an ASIC. The angular resolution achieved with this mask/array combination is 22 arcminutes, and a strong gamma-ray burst can be localized to an accuracy of 4 arcminutes in under 10 seconds. The energy resolution is typically 5 keV FWHM at 60 keV, and the energy range is 10 - 150 keV. The BAT views 2 steradians, and its sensitivity is such that the instrument can detect 350 gamma-ray burst/year, localizing 320 of them to better than 4 arcminute accuracy. The BAT concept therefore met the science goals for gamma-ray bursts. The UCB effort in the SWIFT proposal included the scientific objectives for gamma-ray bursts, and the assembly of a team of optical and radio observers who would use the BAT data to perform rapid multi-wavelength searches for the counterparts to bursts. This proposal was submitted to NASA and peer-reviewed. In January 1999 it was one of five such proposals selected for a Phase A study. This study was completed in June, and SWIFT was formally presented to NASA in

An analysis of light curves and spectra of observed gamma-ray bursts in gamma-ray ranges is frequently demanded because the prompt emission contains immediate details regarding the central engine of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). We have revisited the relationship between the collimation-corrected peak luminosity and the spectral lag, investigating the lag-luminosity relationships in great detail by focusing on spectral lags resulting from all possible combinations of channels. Firstly, we compiled the opening angle data and demonstrated that the distribution of opening angles of 205 long GRBs is represented by a double Gaussian function having maxima at 0.1 and 0.3 radians. We confirmed that the peak luminosity and the spectral lag are anti-correlated, both in the observer frame and in the source frame. We found that, in agreement with our previous conclusion, the correlation coefficient improves significantly in the source frame. It should be noted that spectral lags involving channel 2 (25-50 keV) yield high correlation coefficients, where Swift/Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) has four energy channels (channel 1: 15-25 keV, channel 2: 25-50 keV, channel 3: 50-100 keV, channel 4: 100-200 keV). We also found that peak luminosity is positively correlated with peak energy.

Traditional multilayer reflective optics that have been used in the past for imaging at x-ray photon energies as high as 200 keV are governed by classical wave phenomena. However, their behavior at higher energies is unknown, because of the increasing effect of incoherent scattering and the disagreement between experimental and theoretical optical properties of materials in the hard x-ray and gamma-ray regimes. Here, we demonstrate that multilayer reflective optics can operate efficiently and according to classical wave physics up to photon energies of at least 384 keV. We also use particle transport simulations to quantitatively determine that incoherent scattering takes place in the mirrors but it does not affect the performance at the Bragg angles of operation. Furthermore, our results open up new possibilities of reflective optical designs in a spectral range where only diffractive optics (crystals and lenses) and crystal monochromators have been available until now.

Traditional multilayer reflective optics that have been used in the past for imaging at x-ray photon energies as high as 200 keV are governed by classical wave phenomena. However, their behavior at higher energies is unknown, because of the increasing effect of incoherent scattering and the disagreement between experimental and theoretical optical properties of materials in the hard x-ray and gamma-ray regimes. Here, we demonstrate that multilayer reflective optics can operate efficiently and according to classical wave physics up to photon energies of at least 384 keV. We also use particle transport simulations to quantitatively determine that incoherent scattering takes place in the mirrors but it does not affect the performance at the Bragg angles of operation. Our results open up new possibilities of reflective optical designs in a spectral range where only diffractive optics (crystals and lenses) and crystal monochromators have been available until now.

High-energy monoenergetic gammarays (6.13 and 7.12 MeV) from the decay of excited states of the 16O* nucleus are highly penetrating and thus offer potential for non- intrusive inspection of loaded containers for narcotics, explosives, and other contraband items. These excited states can be produced by irradiation of water with 14-MeV neutrons from a DT neutron generator or through the 19F(p,alpha)16O* reaction. Resonances in 19F(p,alpha)16O* at proton energies between 340 keV and 2 MeV allow use of a low-energy accelerator to provide a compact, portable gamma source of reasonable intensity. The present work provides estimates of gamma source parameters and suggests how various types of contraband could be detected. Gammarays can be used to perform transmission or emission radiography of containers or other objects. Through the use of (gamma,n) and (gamma,fission) reactions, this technique is also capable of detecting special nuclear materials such as deuterium, lithium, beryllium, uranium, and plutonium. Analytic and Monte Carlo techniques are used to model empty and loaded container inspection for accelerator-produced gamma, radioisotope, and x-ray sources.

High-energy monoenergetic gammarays (6.13 and 7.12 MeV) from the decay of excited states of the {sup 16}O* nucleus are highly penetrating and thus offer potential for non-intrusive inspection of loaded containers for narcotics, explosives, and other contraband items. These excited states can be produced by irradiation of water with 14-MeV neutrons from a DT neutron generator or through the {sup 19}F(p,{alpha}){sup 16}O* reaction. Resonances in {sup 19}F(p,{alpha}){sup 16}O* at proton energies between 340 keV and 2 MeV allow use of a low-energy accelerator to provide a compact, portable gamma source of reasonable intensity. The present work provides estimates of gamma source parameters and suggests how various types of contraband could be detected. Gammarays can be used to perform transmission or emission radiography of containers or other objects. Through the use of ({gamma}, n) and ({gamma}, fission) reactions, this technique is also capable of detecting special nuclear materials such as deuterium, lithium, beryllium, uranium, and plutonium. Analytic and Monte Carlo techniques are used to model empty and loaded container inspection for accelerator-produced gamma, radioisotope, and x-ray sources.

High mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs) consist of an O or B star orbited by either a neutron star or a black hole. Of the 114 known Galactic HMXBs, a handful of these objects, dubbed gamma-ray binaries, have been observed to produce MeV-TeV emission. The very high energy emission can be produced either by accretion from the stellar wind onto a black hole or a collision between the stellar wind and a relativistic pulsar wind. Both these scenarios make gamma-ray binaries valuable nearby systems for studying the physics of shocks and jets. Currently, the nature of the compact object and the high energy production mechanism is unknown or unconfirmed in over half of these systems. My goal for this dissertation is to constrain the parameters describing two of these systems: LS 5039 and HD 259440. LS 5039 exhibits gamma-ray emission modulated with its orbital period. The system consists of an ON6.5V((f)) star and an unidentified compact companion. Using optical spectra from the CTIO 1.5m telescope, we found LS 5039 to have an orbital period of 3.90608 d and an eccentricity of 0.337. Spectra of the Halpha line observed with SOAR indicate a mass loss rate of ˜ 1.9x10 -8 M yr-1. Observations taken with ATCA at 13 cm, 6 cm, and 3 cm indicate radio fluxes between 10--40 mJy. The measurements show variability with time, indicating a source other than thermal emission from the stellar wind. HD 259440 is a B0pe star that was proposed as the optical counterpart to the gamma-ray source HESS J0632+057. Using optical spectra from the KPNO CF, KPNO 2.1m, and OHP telescopes, we find a best fit stellar effective temperature of 27500--30000 K, a log surface gravity of 3.75--4.0, a mass of 13.2--19.0 Msolar, and a radius of 6.0--9.6 Rsolar. By fitting the spectral energy distribution, we find a distance between 1.1--1.7 kpc. We do not detect any significant radial velocity shifts in our data, ruling out orbital periods shorter than one month. If HD 259440 is a binary, it is likely a long

Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) were among the greatest mysteries in modern astrophysics. They were first observed 50 years ago but it took three decades before optical counterparts could be found and the underlying physical phenomena studied in detail. GRB research represents currently one of the most rapidly growing areas in extragalactic astronomy. This is due in large part to the numerous connections that GRBs have with other disciplines like cosmology, supernovae, stellar evolution, nuclear physics, astroparticle and gravitational wave astronomy. Therefore, their study is of great importance to understand various astrophysical phenomena such as the formation of the first stars, the chemical evolution and the expansion of the Universe. Since gamma radiation can travel along cosmological distances without being affected by any possible intervening absorption, GRBs can be detected from the most distant universe, reaching redshifts up to z = 10 or more.

These studies were stimulated by the reported COMPTEL detection of nuclear gammaray line emission from the Orion star formation region. Although the observation have very recently been retracted, the detailed analyses that we carried out clearly showed that the low energy cosmic rays that would have been required to explain the reported fluxes were exceedingly restrictive and thus highly improbable. More importantly, these studies proved to be the trigger for very productive new work. In particular, they led us into carefully re-examining the problem of the origin of the light elements, Li, Be and B, where we showed that the light elements could, in fact, be produced primarily by Galactic cosmic rays and did not require an unobserved low energy cosmic ray source , as had been suggested. We further showed that the observed abundances of Be and B in old halo stars contradicted the common belief that the Galactic cosmic rays were accelerated out of the well mixed interstellar medium, and required instead that they be accelerated out of freshly synthesized matter from supernovae. This work, in turn, led us to propose a new origin of Galactic cosmic rays from the refractory grains in supernova enriched core of superbubbles, which is now the subject of our on-going research under a new grant from the Astrophysics Theory Program.

In a scope of a collaboration between Thales Communications & Security and CEA DAM DIF, 11 keV Xrays were produced by inverse Compton scattering on the ELSA facility. In this type of experiment, X-ray observation lies in the use of accurate electron and laser beam interaction diagnostics and on fitted X-ray detectors. The low interaction probability between < 100 μm width, 12 ps [rms] length electron and photon pulses requires careful optimization of pulse spatial and temporal covering. Another issue was to observe 11 keV X-rays in the ambient radioactive noise of the linear accelerator. For that, we use a very sensitive detection scheme based on radio luminescent screens.

Gamma-ray emission was detected from the radio pulsars PSR1818-04 and PSR1747-46, in addition to the previously reported gamma-ray emission from the Crab and Vela pulsars. Since the Crab pulsar is the only one observed in the optical and X-ray bands, these gamma-ray observations suggest a uniquely gamma-ray phenomenon occurring in a fraction of the radio pulsars. Using distance estimates it is found that PSR1818-04 has a gamma-ray luminosity comparable to that of the Crab pulsar, while the luminosities of PSR1747-46 and the Vela pulsar are approximately an order of magnitude lower. This survey of SAS-2 data for pulsar correlations has also yielded upper limits to gamma-ray luminosity for 71 other radio pulsars.

We report 3% conversion efficiency of laser energy into Kr K-shell (≈13 keV) radiation, consistent with theoretical predictions. This is ≈10× greater than previous work. The emission was produced from a 4.1-mm-diameter, 4-mm-tall gas pipe target filled with 1.2 or 1.5 atm of Kr gas. 160 of the National Ignition Facility laser beams deposited ≈700 kJ of 3ω light into the target in an ≈140 TW, 5.0-ns-duration square pulse. The Dante diagnostics measured ≈5 TW into 4π solid angle of ≥12 keV x rays for ≈4 ns, which includes both continuum emission and flux in the Kr Heα line at 13 keV.

A Monitoring Monitoring X-Ray Equipment (MOXE) is being developed for the Soviet Spectrum-X-Gamma Mission. MOXE is an X-ray all-sky monitor based on array of pinhole cameras, to be provided via a collaboration between Goddard Space Flight Center and Los Alamos National Laboratory. The objectives are to alert other observers on Spectrum-X-Gamma and other platforms of interesting transient activity, and to synoptically monitor the X-ray sky and study long-term changes in X-ray binaries. MOXE will be sensitive to sources as faint as 2 milliCrab (5 sigma) in 1 day, and cover the 2 to 20 KeV band.

We present precise phase-connected pulse timing solutions for 16 {gamma}-ray-selected pulsars recently discovered using the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope plus one very faint radio pulsar (PSR J1124-5916) that is more effectively timed with the LAT. We describe the analysis techniques including a maximum likelihood method for determining pulse times of arrival from unbinned photon data. A major result of this work is improved position determinations, which are crucial for multiwavelength follow-up. For most of the pulsars, we overlay the timing localizations on X-ray images from Swift and describe the status of X-ray counterpart associations. We report glitches measured in PSRs J0007+7303, J1124-5916, and J1813-1246. We analyze a new 20 ks Chandra ACIS observation of PSR J0633+0632 that reveals an arcminute-scale X-ray nebula extending to the south of the pulsar. We were also able to precisely localize the X-ray point source counterpart to the pulsar and find a spectrum that can be described by an absorbed blackbody or neutron star atmosphere with a hard power-law component. Another Chandra ACIS image of PSR J1732-3131 reveals a faint X-ray point source at a location consistent with the timing position of the pulsar. Finally, we present a compilation of new and archival searches for radio pulsations from each of the {gamma}-ray-selected pulsars as well as a new Parkes radio observation of PSR J1124-5916 to establish the {gamma}-ray to radio phase offset.

A gammaray monitor with a NaI crystal shielded with a cup-shaped CsI cover was contained in the rotating wheel compartment of the OSO-7 spacecraft for measuring the gammaray spectra from 0.3 to 10 MeV in search for gammaray lines from a possible remnant in the Gum Nebula and the apparent Type I supernovae in NGC5253. A brief analysis of data yielded no positive indications for X-rays, gammaray lines, or continuum from these sources.

Context. Anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs) and soft gamma-ray repeaters (SGRs) exhibit characteristic X-ray luminosities (both soft and hard) of around 1035 erg s-1 and characteristic power-law, hard X-ray spectra extending to about 200 keV. Two AXPs also exhibit pulsed radio emission. Aims: Assuming that AXPs and SGRs accrete matter from a fallback disk, we attempt to explain both the soft and the hard X-ray emission as the result of the accretion process. We also attempt to explain their radio emission or the lack of it. Methods: We test the hypothesis that the power-law, hard X-ray spectra are produced in the accretion flow mainly by bulk-motion Comptonization of soft photons emitted at the neutron star surface. Fallback disk models invoke surface dipole magnetic fields of 1012 - 1013 G, which is what we assume here. Results: Unlike normal X-ray pulsars, for which the accretion rate is highly super-Eddington, the accretion rate is approximately Eddington in AXPs and SGRs and thus the bulk-motion Comptonization operates efficiently. As an illustrative example we reproduce both the hard and the soft X-ray spectra of AXP 4U 0142+61 well using the XSPEC package compTB. Conclusions: Our model seems to explain both the hard and the soft X-ray spectra of AXPs and SGRs, as well as their radio emission or the lack of it, in a natural way. It might also explain the short bursts observed in these sources. On the other hand, it cannot explain the giant X-ray outbursts observed in SGRs, which may result from the conversion of magnetic energy in local multipole fields.

The second reflector (project GRANITE) is on schedule. At present (January 1992) it and the 10 m reflector are obtaining stereoscopic views of gamma-ray air showers from the Crab Nebula which verify the expected performance of the twin reflector telescopes. With the additional improvements of the upgrade (a pending DOE proposal) the twin reflectors should reach a limiting intensity of 1% that of the Crab. The astonishing early results from the EGRET detector aboard the Compton GammaRay Observatory indicate that distant quasars (powered by supermassive black holes) are active at GeV energies. The Whipple instruments are poised to see if such behavior continues above 100 GeV, as well as perform sensitive observations of previously reported GeV (Geminga) and TeV (Hercules X-1, etc.) sources. In addition to observing sources and identifying their location in the sky to one arcminute, experiments are planned to search for WIMPS in the mass range 0.1 to 1 TeV, and to determine the abundance of anti-protons in the cosmic rays. The successful performance of the stereoscopic reflectors demonstrates the feasibility of the concept of arrays of Cherenkov receivers. Design studies for a much larger array (CASITA) are just beginning.

The unrivalled, extreme luminosities of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) make them the favored beacons for sampling the high redshift Universe. To employ GRBs to study the cosmic terrain -- e.g., star and galaxy formation history -- GRB luminosities must be calibrated, and the luminosity function versus redshift must be measured or inferred. Several nascent relationships between gamma-ray temporal or spectral indicators and luminosity or total energy have been reported. These measures promise to further our understanding of GRBs once the connections between the luminosity indicators and GRB jets and emission mechanisms are better elucidated. The current distribution of 33 redshifts determined from host galaxies and afterglows peaks near z $\\sim$ 1, whereas for the full BATSE sample of long bursts, the lag-luminosity relation predicts a broad peak z $\\sim$ 1--4 with a tail to z $\\sim$ 20, in rough agreement with theoretical models based on star formation considerations. For some GRB subclasses and apparently related phenomena -- short bursts, long-lag bursts, and X-ray flashes -- the present information on their redshift distributions is sparse or entirely lacking, and progress is expected in Swift era when prompt alerts become numerous.

The problem of measuring the gamma heating in a mixed DT neutron and gammaray environment was explored. A new detector technique was developed to make this measurement. Gamma heating measurements were made in a low-Z assembly irradiated with 14-Mev neutrons and (n, n{prime}) gammas produced by a Texas Nuclear Model 9400 neutron generator. Heating measurements were made in the mid-line of the lattice using a proportional counter operating in the Continuously-varied Bias-voltage Acquisition mode. The neutron-induced signal was separated from the gamma-induced signal by exploiting the signal rise-time differences inherent to radiations of different linear energy transfer coefficient, which are observable in a proportional counter. The operating limits of this measurement technique were explored by varying the counter position in the low-Z lattice, hence changing the irradiation spectrum observed. The experiment was modelled numerically to help interpret the measured results. The transport of neutrons and gammarays in the assembly was modelled using the one- dimensional radiation transport code ANISN/PC. The cross-section set used for these calculations was derived from the ENDF/B-V library using the code MC{sup 2}-2 for the case of DT neutrons slowing down in a low-Z material. The calculated neutron and gamma spectra in the slab and the relevant mass-stopping powers were used to construct weighting factors which relate the energy deposition in the counter fill-gas to that in the counter wall and in the surrounding material. The gamma energy deposition at various positions in the lattice is estimated by applying these weighting factors to the measured gamma energy deposition in the counter at those locations.

Computed radiography (CR) can be used for imaging the spatial distribution of photon emissions from radionuclides. Its wide dynamic range and good response to medium energy gammarays reduces the need for long exposure times. Measurements of small doses can be performed without having to pre-sensitize the computed radiography plates via an x-ray exposure, as required with screen-film systems. Cassette-based Agfa MD30 and Kodak GP25 CR plates were used in applications involving the detection of gammaray emissions from technetium-99m and iodine-131. Cassette entrance doses as small as 1 µGy (140 keVgammarays) produce noisy images, but the images are suitable for applications such as the detection of breaks in radiation protection barriers. A consequence of the gammaray sensitivity of CR plates is the possibility that some nuclear medicine patients may fog their x-rays if the x-ray is taken soon after their radiopharmaceutical injection. The investigation showed that such fogging is likely to be diffuse.

Using observations of the INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), we put tight upper limits on the gamma-ray and hard X-ray prompt emission associated with the gravitational wave event GW150914, discovered by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. The omni-directional view of the INTEGRAL/SPI-ACS has allowed us to constrain the fraction of energy emitted in the hard X-ray electromagnetic component for the full high-probability sky region of LIGO/Virgo trigger. Our upper limits on the hard X-ray fluence at the time of the event range from F_{γ}=2 × 10^{-8} erg cm^{-2} to F_{γ}=10^{-6} erg cm^{-2} in the 75 keV - 2 MeV energy range for typical spectral models. Our results constrain the ratio of the energy promptly released in gamma-rays in the direction of the observer to the gravitational wave energy E_γ/E_{GW}<10^{-6}. We discuss the implication of gamma-ray limits on the characteristics of the gravitational wave source, based on the available predictions for prompt electromagnetic emission. This work has been possible thanks to a Memorandum of Understanding with the LIGO-Virgo scientific collaboration and is presented on behalf of a larger collaboration.

Using observations of the INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), we put tight upper limits on the gamma-ray and hard X-ray prompt emission associated with the gravitational wave event GW150914, discovered by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. The omni-directional view of the INTEGRAL/SPI-ACS has allowed us to constrain the fraction of energy emitted in the hard X-ray electromagnetic component for the full high-probability sky region of LIGO/Virgo trigger. Our upper limits on the hard X-ray fluence at the time of the event range from F_{γ}=2 × 10^{-8} erg cm^{-2} to F_{γ}=10^{-6} erg cm^{-2} in the 75 keV - 2 MeV energy range for typical spectral models. Our results constrain the ratio of the energy promptly released in gamma-rays in the direction of the observer to the gravitational wave energy E_γ/E_{GW}<10^{-6}. We discuss the implication of gamma-ray limits on the characteristics of the gravitational wave source, based on the available predictions for prompt electromagnetic emission for this and forthcoming events. Our team has a memorandum of understanding to follow-up possible triggers issued in near real time from the analysis of the gravitational wave teams.

This paper presents the design and feasibility study of a very-high resolution gamma camera for detecting 27–35 keV X and gammarays emitted by I-125 labelled radiotracers. This detector consists of a newly developed Electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD) sensor and a de-magnifier tube coupled to a thin layer of scintillator. A prototype detector was developed and experimentally evaluated. This detector has a detection area of ~ 5 cm2. It provided an intrinsic spatial resolution of < 60 µm FWHM and a high signal-to-noise ratio for detecting the 27–35 keV photons, which ensures an excellent counting efficiency. This detector will be used as the key component for a single photon emission microscope (SPEM) system that is under development.

The properties of gammaray bursts of classical type are found to be explicable in terms of high speed collisions between stars. A model is proposed in which the frequency of such collisions can be calculated. The model is then applied to the nuclei of galaxies in general on the basis that galaxies, or at least some fraction of them, originate in the expulsion of stars from creation centers. Evidence that low level activity of this kind is also taking place at the center of our own Galaxy is discussed. The implications for galactic evolution are discussed and a negative view of black holes is taken.

We explore the analogy between a rotating magnetized black hole and an axisymmetric pulsar and derive the black hole's electromagnetic spindown after its formation in the core collapse of a supermassive star. The spindown shows two characteristic phases: an early Blandford-Znajek phase that lasts a few hundred seconds and a late pulsar-like afterglow phase that lasts much longer. During the first phase, the spindown luminosity decreases almost exponentially, whereas during the afterglow phase it decreases as t {sup –a} with 1 ≲ a ≲ 1.5. We associate our findings with long duration gamma-ray bursts and compare them with observations.

Sources of very high energy gammarays (E(BETA) (11) eV) and improvement of the instrumentation of detectors in this energy regime were investigated. Approximately 4 x 10(5) Cerepkov air shower events from the region of Cygnus X-3 and the Crab nebula were collected with the JPL instrumentation during the fall of 1982. Significant improvement on the 1981 sensitivity to source variations and the development of a Cerenkov air shower camera are reported. A suitable mirror and mount for use as a detector auxiliary to the primary 10 inch Mt. Hopkins detector is located.

We report on an intense gamma-ray flash observed at ground level in August 2014 at the International Center for Lightning Research and Testing, Camp Blanding, Florida, that occurred 13 ms after the initiation of the first stroke of an altitude-triggered lightning discharge. The measurements were made with an array of 78 plastic, liquid, and fast inorganic scintillators for robust spectroscopy of high-rate transients. The gamma-ray spectrum, time-intensity profile, and luminosity at the putative source altitude are consistent with those of a Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flash (TGF). The fluence of >100 keVgammarays at ground level in the ~200 μs flash was in excess of 10 photons / cm2, an order of magnitude brighter than typical TGFs observed from low-Earth orbit. The proximity of the TGF to our large scintillator array allows these to be the most detailed gamma-ray measurements ever made of a TGF. Work at NRL was sponsored by the Chief of Naval Research.

The high atomic number of some superconducting elements such as niobium (Z=41) and tantalum (Z=73) and a high material thickness (e.g., t=300 mum) are emphasized as essential properties for development of a gamma-ray solid state detector with high intrinsic detection efficiency in the energy range up to 100 keV. To exploit these properties, a new detection principle based on the interaction of a single gamma-ray photon with Abrikosov vortex is proposed. The interaction of gamma-ray photon with a superconductor is discussed in terms of the photoelectric absorption and a hot-spot formation, the last acts as a short-time pinning center on an Abrikosov vortex and activates its motion, namely, a jump or damped vibration. Both types of vortex motion lead to variation (either static or dynamic) in the magnetic field on the absorber surface. The high sensitivity of the Josephson tunneling to weak magnetic field can be exploited for revealing the magnetic field variation and to make the readout of the detector. Main intrinsic properties of a gamma-ray detector based on Abrikosov vortices are evaluated, including the possibility to measure the energy deposited in the detector. A single Josephson tunnel junction configuration or a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) configuration is proposed and discussed as possible realization of working gamma-ray detector both in the counter operation mode and in the radiation spectroscopy operation mode.

With exciting new detections of gravitational waves by LIGO and astrophysical neutrinos by IceCube and ANTARES, the era of multi-messenger time-domain astronomy has arrived. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) continuously observes the entire sky that is not occulted by the Earth in gamma-rays from 8 keV - 40 MeV with 2 microsecond temporal resolution, and that continuous data is downlinked every few hours. This wealth of near-real-time all-sky data has lead to the development of continuous data searches for gamma-ray events, such as Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs), in coincidence with astrophysical neutrinos and gravitational wave events. Additionally, GBM has the ability to localize triggered and un-triggered transient events to a few-degree accuracy, rapidly disseminate the alerts and localization sky maps, and there have been several successful follow-up attempts by wide-field optical telescopes, such as the Palomar Transient Factory, to catch the fading optical afterglow of GBM-triggered GRBs. We discuss the current applications and importance of Fermi GBM in leading multi-messenger time-domain astronomy in the gamma-ray regime.

With exciting new detections of gravitational waves by LIGO and astrophysical neutrinos by IceCube and ANTARES, the era of multi-messenger time-domain astronomy has arrived. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) continuously observes the entire sky that is not occulted by the Earth in gamma-rays from 8 keV - 40 MeV with 2 microsecond temporal resolution, with regular data downlinks every few hours. This wealth of near-realtime all-sky data has lead to the development of continuous data searches for gamma-ray events, such as Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs), in coincidence with astrophysical neutrinos and gravitational wave events. Additionally, GBM has the ability to localize triggered and untriggered transient events to a few-degree accuracy, rapidly disseminate the alerts and localization sky maps within tens of seconds, and there have been several successful follow-up attempts by wide-field optical telescopes, such as the Palomar Transient Factory, to catch the fading optical afterglow of GBM-triggered GRBs. We discuss the current applications and importance of Fermi GBM in leading multi-messenger time-domain astronomy in the gamma-ray regime.

Polarized gamma-rays were generated through laser-Compton backscattering (LCS) of a conventional Nd:YAG laser with electrons circulating in the electron storage ring TERAS at Electrotechnical Laboratory. We measured the energy, the energy spread, and the yield of the gamma-rays to characterize our gamma-ray source. The gamma-ray energy can be varied by changing the energy of the electrons circulating the storage ring. In our case, the energy of electrons in the storage ring were varied its energy from 200 to 750 MeV. Consequently, we observed gamma-ray energies of 1 to 10 MeV with 1064 run laser photons. Furthermore, the gamma-ray energy was extended to 20 MeV by using the 2nd harmonic of the Nd:YAG laser. This shows a good agreement with theoretical calculation. The gamma-ray energy spread was also measured to be 1% FWHM for -1 MeV gamma-rays and to be 4% FWHM for 10 MeV gamma-rays with a narrow collimator that defined the scattering cone. The gamma-ray yield was 47.2 photons/mA/W/s. This value is consistent with a rough estimation of 59.5 photons/mA/W/s derived from theory. Furthermore, we tried to use these gamma-rays for a nuclear fluorescence experiment. If we use a polarized laser beam, we can easily obtain polarized gamma-rays. Elastically scattered photons from {sup 208} Pb were clearly measured with the linearly polarized gamma-rays, and we could assign the parity of J=1 states in the nucleus. We should emphasize that the polarized gamma-ray from LCS is quit useful in this field, because we can use highly, almost completely, polarized gamma-rays. We also use the LCS gamma-rays to measure the photon absorption coefficients. In near future, we will try to generate a circular polarized gamma-ray. We also have a plan to use an FEL, because it can produce intense laser photons in the same geometric configuration as the LCS facility.

Imaging of large objects at 17.7-keV low x-ray energy causes huge x-ray exposure to the objects even using interferometric phase-contrast x-ray CT (PCCT). Thus, we tried to obtain PCCT images at high x-ray energy of 35keV and examined the image quality using a formalin-fixed VX2 rabbit cancer specimen with 15-mm in diameter. The PCCT system consisted of an asymmetrically cut silicon (220) crystal, a monolithic x-ray interferometer, a phase-shifter, an object cell and an x-ray CCD camera. The PCCT at 35 keV clearly visualized various inner structures of VX2 rabbit cancer such as necrosis, cancer, the surrounding tumor vessels, and normal liver tissue. Besides, image-contrast was not degraded significantly. These results suggest that the PCCT at 35 KeV is sufficient to clearly depict the histopathological morphology of VX2 rabbit cancer specimen.

We present the first Swift Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) catalog of gammaray bursts (GRBs), which contains bursts detected by the BAT between 2004 December 19 and 2007 June 16. This catalog (hereafter BAT1 catalog) contains burst trigger time, location, 90% error radius, duration, fluence, peak flux, and time averaged spectral parameters for each of 237 GRBs, as measured by the BAT. The BAT-determined position reported here is within 1.75' of the Swift X-ray Telescope (XRT)-determined position for 90% of these GRBs. The BAT T(sub 90) and T(sub 50) durations peak at 80 and 20 seconds, respectively. From the fluence-fluence correlation, we conclude that about 60% of the observed peak energies, E(sup obs)(sub peak) of BAT GRBs could be less than 100 keV. We confirm that GRB fluence to hardness and GRB peak flux to hardness are correlated for BAT bursts in analogous ways to previous missions' results. The correlation between the photon index in a simple power-law model and E(sup obs)(sub peak) is also confirmed. We also report the current status for the on-orbit BAT calibrations based on observations of the Crab Nebula.

Recent developments in modeling the X-ray and gamma-ray emission from SN 1987A are discussed by taking into account both the decaying cobalt and the buried neutron star. The light curve and the spectra evolution of X-rays and gamma-rays are well modeled up to day of about 300 if mixing of Co-56 into hydrogen-rich envelope is assumed. However, the 16-28 keV flux observed by Ginga declines very slowly, whereas the spherical mixing model predicts that the flux should have decreased by a large factor at t greater than 300d. It is shown that this problem can be solved if the photoelectric absorption of X-rays is effectively reduced as a result of the formation of chemically inhomogeneous clumps. Based on the adopted hydrodynamical model and the abundance distribution, predictions are offered for future optical, X-ray, and gamma-ray light curves by taking into account other radioactive sources and various types of the central source, e.g., a buried neutron star accreting the reinfalling material or an isolated pulsar.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has detected the gamma-ray glow emanating from the giant radio lobes of the radio galaxy Centaurus A. The resolved gamma-ray image shows the lobes clearly separated from the central active source. In contrast to all other active galaxies detected so far in high-energy gamma-rays, the lobe flux constitutes a considerable portion (greater than one-half) of the total source emission. The gamma-ray emission from the lobes is interpreted as inverse Compton-scattered relic radiation from the cosmic microwave background, with additional contribution at higher energies from the infrared-to-optical extragalactic background light. These measurements provide gamma-ray constraints on the magnetic field and particle energy content in radio galaxy lobes, as well as a promising method to probe the cosmic relic photon fields.

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are short and intense emission of soft {gamma}-rays, which have fascinated astronomers and astrophysicists since their unexpected discovery in 1960s. The X-ray/optical/radio afterglow observations confirm the cosmological origin of GRBs, support the fireball model, and imply a long-activity of the central engine. The high-energy {gamma}-ray emission (> 20 MeV) from GRBs is particularly important because they shed some lights on the radiation mechanisms and can help us to constrain the physical processes giving rise to the early afterglows. In this work, we review observational and theoretical studies of the high-energy emission from GRBs. Special attention is given to the expected high-energy emission signatures accompanying the canonical early-time X-ray afterglow that was observed by the Swift X-ray Telescope. We also discuss the detection prospect of the upcoming GLAST satellite and the current ground-based Cerenkov detectors.

Gammaray shielding behaviour of any material can be studied by various interaction parameters such as total mass attenuation coefficient (μm); half value layer (HVL); tenth value layer (TVL); effective atomic number (Zeff), electron density (Nel), effective atomic weight (Aeff) and buildup factor. For gammarays, the accurate measurements of μm (cm2 g-1) theoretically require perfect narrow beam irradiation geometry. However, the practical geometries used for the experimental investigations deviate from perfect-narrowness thereby the multiple scattered photons cause systematic errors in the measured values of μm. Present investigation is an attempt to find the optimum value of absorber thickness (low-Z) for which these errors are insignificant and acceptable. Both experimental and theoretical calculations have been performed to investigate the effect of absorber's thickness on μm of six low-Z (10gamma-ray energies 661.66 keV, 1173.24 keV and 1332.50 keV. A computer program (GRIC2-toolkit) was designed for theoretical evaluation of shielding parameters of any material. Good agreement of theoretical and measured values of μm was observed for all absorbers with thickness ≤0.5 mean free paths, thus considered it as optimum thickness for low-Z materials in the selected energy range. White cement was found to possess maximum shielding effectiveness for the selected gammarays.

Continuing analysis of the data from the SAS-2 high energy gamma-ray experiment has produced an improved picture of the sky at photon energies above 35 MeV. On a large scale, the diffuse emission from the galactic plane is the dominant feature observed by SAS-2. This galactic plane emission is most intense between galactic longitude 310 and 45 deg, corresponding to a region within 7kpc of the galactic center. Within the high-intensity region, SAS-2 observes peaks around galactic longitudes 315 deg, 330 deg, 345 deg, 0 deg, and 35 deg. These peaks appear to be correlated with such galactic features and components as molecular hydrogen, atomic hydrogen, magnetic fields, cosmic ray concentrations, and photon fields.

Relativistic outflows or "jets" are collimated streams of high-energy electrons that emit synchrotron radiation at radio wavelengths and have bulk velocities that are a substantial fraction of the speed of light. They trace the outflow of enormous amounts of energy and matter from a central supermassive black hole in distant radio galaxies. As Fender explains in this Perspective, much smaller, more local sources may also produce such jets. Data presented by Paredes et al. point toward association of one such source, a relatively faint x-ray binary, with a gamma-ray source. This and similar pairs may contribute substantially to the production of high-energy particles and photons within our galaxy.

This slide presentation explores the relationship between Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGF) and lightning. Using data from the World-Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN), and the gammaray observations from Fermi's Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM), the study reviews any causal relationship between TGFs and lightning. The conclusion of the study is that the TGF and lightning are simultaneous with out a causal relationship.

Los Alamos has designed gammaray and neutron spectrometers for Lunar Scout, two robotic missions to map the Moon from 100 km polar orbits. Knowledge of the elemental composition is desirable in identifying resources and for geochemical studies and can be obtained using gammaray and neutron spectrometers. Measurements with gammaray and neutron spectrometers complement each other in determining elemental abundances in a planet's surface. Various aspects of the instruments are discussed.

The Research Institute of Pulse Technique has constructed a gamma-ray camera for imaging radioactive materials. The work was performed under the DOE Lab to Lab Dismantlement Transparency Program with the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (USA). The gamma-ray camera was intended for imaging radioactive materials, including fissile materials, in a storage container. In this case, the spatial resolution established in the specifications for the gammaray camera was limited for reasons of inspection non-intrusiveness.

A novel, light-weight, hand-held gamma-ray detector with directional sensitivity is being designed. The detector uses a set of multiple rings around two cylindrical surfaces, which provides precise location of two interaction points on two concentric cylindrical planes, wherefrom the source location can be traced back by back projection and/or Compton imaging technique. The detectors are 2.0 × 2.0 mm europium-doped strontium iodide (SrI2:Eu2+) crystals, whose light output has been measured to exceed 120,000 photons/MeV, making it one of the brightest scintillators in existence. The crystal’s energy resolution, less than 3% at 662 keV, is also excellent, and the response is highly linear over a wide range of gamma-ray energies. The emission of SrI2:Eu2+ is well matched to both photo-multiplier tubes and blue-enhanced silicon photodiodes. The solid-state photomultipliers used in this design (each 2.0 × 2.0 mm) are arrays of active pixel sensors (avalanche photodiodes driven beyond their breakdown voltage in reverse bias); each pixel acts as a binary photon detector, and their summed output is an analog representation of the total photon energy, while the individual pixel accurately defines the point of interaction. A simple back-projection algorithm involving cone-surface mapping is being modeled. The back projection for an event cone is a conical surface defining the possible location of the source. The cone axis is the straight line passing through the first and second interaction points.

Korea is preparing for a lunar orbiter mission (KPLO) to be developed in no later than 2018. Onboard the spacecraft is a gammaray spectrometer (KLGRS) allowing to collect low energy gamma-ray signals in order to detect elements by either X-ray fluorescence or by natural radioactive decay in the low as well as higher energy regions of up to 10 MeV. Scientific objectives include lunar resources (water and volatile measurements, rare earth elements and precious metals, energy resources, major elemental distributions for prospective in-situ utilizations), investigation of the lunar geology and studies of the lunar environment (mapping of the global radiation environment from keV to 10 MeV, high energy cosmic ray flux using the plastic scintillator).The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) system is a compact low-weight instrument for the chemical analysis of lunar surface materials within a gamma-ray energy range from 10s keV to 10 MeV. The main LaBr3 detector is surrounded by an anti-coincidence counting module of BGO/PS scintillators to reduce both low gamma-ray background from the spacecraft and housing materials and high energy gamma-ray background from cosmic rays. The GRS system will determine the elemental compositions of the near surface of the Moon.The GRS system is a recently developed gamma-ray scintillation based detector which can be used as a replacement for the HPGe GRS sensor with the advantage of being able to operate at a wide range of temperatures with remarkable energy resolution. LaBr3 also has a high photoelectron yield, fast scintillation response, good linearity and thermal stability. With these major advantages, the LaBr3 GRS system will allow us to investigate scientific objectives and assess important research questions on lunar geology and resource exploration.The GRS investigation will help to assess open questions related to the spatial distribution and origin of the elements on the lunar surface and will contribute to unravel geological surface

Reaction history measurements, such as nuclear bang time and burn width, are fundamental components of diagnosing ICF implosions and will be employed to help steer the National Ignition Facility (NIF) towards ignition. Fusion gammas provide a direct measure of nuclear interaction rate (unlike x-rays) without being compromised by Doppler spreading (unlike neutrons). Gas Cherenkov Detectors that convert fusion gammarays to UV/visible Cherenkov photons for collection by fast optical recording systems have established their usefulness in illuminating ICF physics in several experimental campaigns at OMEGA. In particular, bang time precision better than 25 ps has been demonstrated, well below the 50 ps accuracy requirement defined by the NIF. NIF Gamma Reaction History (GRH) diagnostics are being developed based on optimization of sensitivity, bandwidth, dynamic range, cost, and NIF-specific logistics, requirements and extreme radiation environment. Implementation will occur in two phases. The first phase consists of four channels mounted to the outside of the target chamber at ~6 m from target chamber center (GRH-6m) coupled to ultra-fast photo-multiplier tubes (PMT). This system is intended to operate in the 1013-1017 neutron yield range expected during the early THD campaign. It will have high enough bandwidth to provide accurate bang times and burn widths for the expected THD reaction histories (> 80 ps fwhm). Successful operation of the first GRH-6m channel has been demonstrated at OMEGA, allowing a verification of instrument sensitivity, timing and EMI/background suppression. The second phase will consist of several channels located just inside the target bay shield wall at 15 m from target chamber center (GRH-15m) with optical paths leading through the cement shield wall to well-shielded streak cameras and PMTs. This system is intended to operate in the 1016-1020 yield range expected during the DT ignition campaign, providing higher temporal resolution for the

Discussions are presented of the associations between cosmic gammaray bursts and transient X-ray sources, and the release of gravitational binding energy during the formation of neutron stars. The model for studying the associations is described along with the release of neutrinos during the collapse of white dwarfs.

In January 1990, the Department of Energy initiated this project with the objective to develop the technology for general purpose, portable gammaray imaging cameras useful to the nuclear industry. The ultimate goal of this R D initiative is to develop the analog to the color television camera where the camera would respond to gammarays instead of visible photons. The two-dimensional real-time image would be displayed would indicate the geometric location of the radiation relative to the camera's orientation, while the brightness and color'' would indicate the intensity and energy of the radiation (and hence identify the emitting isotope). There is a strong motivation for developing such a device for applications within the nuclear industry, for both high- and low-level waste repositories, for environmental restoration problems, and for space and fusion applications. At present, there are no general purpose radiation cameras capable of producing spectral images for such practical applications. At the time of this writing, work on this project has been underway for almost 18 months. Substantial progress has been made in the project's two primary areas: mechanically-collimated (MCC) and electronically-collimated camera (ECC) designs. We present developments covering the mechanically-collimated design, and then discuss the efforts on the electronically-collimated camera. The renewal proposal addresses the continuing R D efforts for the third year effort. 8 refs.

We reconsider the model of Minimal Dark Matter (a fermionic, hypercharge-less quintuplet of the EW interactions) and compute its gammaray signatures. We compare them with a number of gammaray probes: the galactic halo diffuse measurements, the galactic center line searches and recent dwarf galaxies observations. We find that the original minimal model, whose mass is fixed at 9.4 TeV by the relic abundance requirement, is constrained by the line searches from the Galactic Center: it is ruled out if the Milky Way possesses a cuspy profile such as NFW but it is still allowed if it has a cored one. Observations of dwarf spheroidal galaxies are also relevant (in particular searches for lines), and ongoing astrophysical progresses on these systems have the potential to eventually rule out the model. We also explore a wider mass range, which applies to the case in which the relic abundance requirement is relaxed. Most of our results can be safely extended to the larger class of multi-TeV WIMP DM annihilating into massive gauge bosons.

We reconsider the model of Minimal Dark Matter (a fermionic, hypercharge-less quintuplet of the EW interactions) and compute its gammaray signatures. We compare them with a number of gammaray probes: the galactic halo diffuse measurements, the galactic center line searches and recent dwarf galaxies observations. We find that the original minimal model, whose mass is fixed at 9.4 TeV by the relic abundance requirement, is constrained by the line searches from the Galactic Center: it is ruled out if the Milky Way possesses a cuspy profile such as NFW but it is still allowed if it has a cored one. Observations of dwarf spheroidal galaxies are also relevant (in particular searches for lines), and ongoing astrophysical progresses on these systems have the potential to eventually rule out the model. We also explore a wider mass range, which applies to the case in which the relic abundance requirement is relaxed. Most of our results can be safely extended to the larger class of multi-TeV WIMP DM annihilating into massive gauge bosons.

Monte Carlo simulations of the expected gamma-ray signatures of galactic supernovae of all types are performed in order to estimate the significance of the lack of a gamma-ray signal due to supernovae occurring during the last millenium. Using recent estimates of nuclear yields, we determine galactic supernova rates consistent with the historic supernova record and the gamma-ray limits. Another objective of these calculations of galactic supernova histories is their application to surveys of diffuse galactic gamma-ray line emission.