Overview

Does Money Matter?: The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success / Edition 1

Many believe that American education can only be improved with a sizable infusion of new resources into the nation's schools. Others find little evidence that large increases in spending lead to improvements in educational performance. Do additional school resources actually make any difference?

The evidence on this question offers a striking paradox. Many analysts have found that extra school resources play a negligible role in improving student achievement while children are in school. Yet many economists have gathered data showing that students who attend well-endowed schools grow up to enjoy better job market success than children whose education takes place in schools where resources are limited. For example, children who attend schools with a lower pupil-teacher ratio and a better educated teaching staff appear to earn higher wages as adults than children who attend poorer schools.

This book, which grew out of a Brookings conference, brings together scholars from a variety of disciplines to discuss the evidence on the link between school resources and educational and economic outcomes. In a lively exchange of views, they debate whether additional spending can improve the performance of the nation's schools.

In addition to editor Gary Burtless, the contributors include Eric Hanushek, University of Rochester; James Heckman, University of Chicago; Julian Betts, University of California, San Diego; Richard Murnane, Harvard University; Larry Hedges, University of Chicago; and Christopher Jencks, Northwestern University.

Read an Excerpt

Many believe that American education can only be improved with a sizable infusion of new resources into the nation's schools. Others find little evidence that large increases in spending lead to improvements in educational performance. Do additional school resources actually make any difference?

The evidence on this question offers a striking paradox. Many analysts have found that extra school resources play a negligible role in improving student achievement while children are in school. Yet many economists have gathered data showing that students who attend well-endowed schools grow up to enjoy better job market success than children whose education takes place in schools where resources are limited. For example, children who attend schools with a lower pupil-teacher ratio and a better educated teaching staff appear to earn higher wages as adults than children who attend poorer schools.

This book, which grew out of a Brookings conference, brings together scholars from a variety of disciplines to discuss the evidence on the link between school resources and educational and economic outcomes. In a lively exchange of views, they debate whether additional spending can improve the performance of the nation's schools.

In addition to editor Gary Burtless, the contributors include Eric Hanushek, University of Rochester; James Heckman, University of Chicago; Julian Betts, University of California, San Diego; Richard Murnane, Harvard University; Larry Hedges, University of Chicago; and Christopher Jencks, Northwestern University.

First Chapter

Many believe that American education can only be improved with a sizable infusion of new resources into the nation's schools. Others find little evidence that large increases in spending lead to improvements in educational performance. Do additional school resources actually make any difference?

The evidence on this question offers a striking paradox. Many analysts have found that extra school resources play a negligible role in improving student achievement while children are in school. Yet many economists have gathered data showing that students who attend well-endowed schools grow up to enjoy better job market success than children whose education takes place in schools where resources are limited. For example, children who attend schools with a lower pupil-teacher ratio and a better educated teaching staff appear to earn higher wages as adults than children who attend poorer schools.

This book, which grew out of a Brookings conference, brings together scholars from a variety of disciplines to discuss the evidence on the link between school resources and educational and economic outcomes. In a lively exchange of views, they debate whether additional spending can improve the performance of the nation's schools.

In addition to editor Gary Burtless, the contributors include Eric Hanushek, University of Rochester; James Heckman, University of Chicago; Julian Betts, University of California, San Diego; Richard Murnane, Harvard University; Larry Hedges, University of Chicago; and Christopher Jencks, Northwestern University.

Have Times Changed? The Relation between School Resources and Student Performance

74

Aggregate Data

74

Educational Production Function Estimates

80

Improving Research on Resource Utilization

88

References

90

4.

Evidence from Fifteen Schools in Austin, Texas

93

5.

Labor Market Effects of School Quality: Theory and Evidence

97

A Theoretical Model of School Quality, Education, and Earnings

100

Summary of the Literature

104

Lessons from the Experiences of Southern-Born Blacks

128

Conclusions

133

References

136

6.

Is There a Link between School Inputs and Earnings? Fresh Scrutiny of an Old Literature

141

The Direct Impact of School Inputs on Earnings

143

Five Hypotheses to Explain the Observed Patterns

163

The Impact of School Inputs on Educational Attainment

178

Suggestions for Future Research

182

Conclusion

183

Appendix A

A Response to Card and Krueger

185

References

188

7.

Does Measured School Quality Really Matter? An Examination of the Earnings-Quality Relationship

192

The Empirical Plan and the Framework for Organizing the Evidence

198

A Comparison of the Aggregate- and Individual-Level Data Approaches

207

Migration: The Source of Identifying Information in Aggregate-Data Models

209

Testing Monotonicity of the Quality-Earnings Relationship

213

An Empirical Exploration of Two Representative Models

220

Conclusion

252

Appendix A

Description of the Analysis Samples

254

Appendix B

Schooling Quality Data Sources

257

Appendix C

Additional Tables

260

Appendix D

Rejoinder to David Card and Alan Krueger

281

References

288

Index

290

Tables

Spending per Pupil and Average Teacher Salaries in Selected States, 1993-94

Real Current Expenditure on Public Schools, Selected Years, 1890-1990

Sources of Growth in Instructional Expenditure, by Period, 1890-1990

Percentage Distribution of Estimated Effects of Key Resources on Student Performance, Based on 377 Studies

Summary of the Estimated Relationship between Student Performance and Various Components of School Expenditure, Based on Thirty-Nine Value-Added Studies of Individual Student Performance within Individual States

Distribution of Estimated Effect of Teacher-Pupil Ratio and Expenditure per Pupil, by State Sampling Scheme and Aggregation

Trends in National Assessment of Educational Progress Achievement Scores, Selected Years, 1970-92

Indicators of Social Capital, Selected Years, 1940-70

Summary of the Production-Function Coefficients Used in the Combined Significance Analyses of Longitudinal Studies

Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Expenditures per Student on Earnings

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Earnings

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to One Year of Schooling

Summary of Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd's Study of Effect of School Quality on Return to Education

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to Education, Based on Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd

Percentage of Wage Regressions with Significant Results at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Spending per Pupil, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to the Teacher-Pupil Ratio, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Education, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Salary or Relative Salary, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Length of the School Year, by Author and Data Source

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Male Wage Profiles, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Wage Profiles of All Workers, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefit to Cost for Spending per Pupil versus Spending on One Additional Year of Schooling

Percentage of Educational Attainment Regressions with Results Significant at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Increase in Educational Attainment with Respect to Spending per Pupil and Elasticity

The Impact of a 1 Percent Increase in the Pupil-Teacher Ratio on the Percentage Returns to Education in the Log Earnings Equation

Proportion of States for Which the Average Educational Quality or Average Weekly Wage of Migrants Exceeds That of Nonmigrants, by Birth Cohort, 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to One to Three Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to Four or More Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Hypothetical Improvements in Quality on Earnings for High School Graduates (HSG) and College Graduates (CG), Nonlinear Model including Region-Education Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

F-Tests for Significance of Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, Both in Intercepts and in Slopes for the Linear Model, by Birth Cohort 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Return to Education, Linear Model with Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, 1980 Census

F-Tests for the Restriction That Quality Effects Are Equal across Regions of Residence in the Linear Second-Stage Model with Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Summary of Sample Restrictions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Sample Sizes for Birth Cohorts, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1970 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1990 Census

Have Times Changed? The Relation between School Resources and Student Performance

74

Aggregate Data

74

Educational Production Function Estimates

80

Improving Research on Resource Utilization

88

References

90

4.

Evidence from Fifteen Schools in Austin, Texas

93

5.

Labor Market Effects of School Quality: Theory and Evidence

97

A Theoretical Model of School Quality, Education, and Earnings

100

Summary of the Literature

104

Lessons from the Experiences of Southern-Born Blacks

128

Conclusions

133

References

136

6.

Is There a Link between School Inputs and Earnings? Fresh Scrutiny of an Old Literature

141

The Direct Impact of School Inputs on Earnings

143

Five Hypotheses to Explain the Observed Patterns

163

The Impact of School Inputs on Educational Attainment

178

Suggestions for Future Research

182

Conclusion

183

Appendix A

A Response to Card and Krueger

185

References

188

7.

Does Measured School Quality Really Matter? An Examination of the Earnings-Quality Relationship

192

The Empirical Plan and the Framework for Organizing the Evidence

198

A Comparison of the Aggregate- and Individual-Level Data Approaches

207

Migration: The Source of Identifying Information in Aggregate-Data Models

209

Testing Monotonicity of the Quality-Earnings Relationship

213

An Empirical Exploration of Two Representative Models

220

Conclusion

252

Appendix A

Description of the Analysis Samples

254

Appendix B

Schooling Quality Data Sources

257

Appendix C

Additional Tables

260

Appendix D

Rejoinder to David Card and Alan Krueger

281

References

288

Index

290

Tables

Spending per Pupil and Average Teacher Salaries in Selected States, 1993-94

Real Current Expenditure on Public Schools, Selected Years, 1890-1990

Sources of Growth in Instructional Expenditure, by Period, 1890-1990

Percentage Distribution of Estimated Effects of Key Resources on Student Performance, Based on 377 Studies

Summary of the Estimated Relationship between Student Performance and Various Components of School Expenditure, Based on Thirty-Nine Value-Added Studies of Individual Student Performance within Individual States

Distribution of Estimated Effect of Teacher-Pupil Ratio and Expenditure per Pupil, by State Sampling Scheme and Aggregation

Trends in National Assessment of Educational Progress Achievement Scores, Selected Years, 1970-92

Indicators of Social Capital, Selected Years, 1940-70

Summary of the Production-Function Coefficients Used in the Combined Significance Analyses of Longitudinal Studies

Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Expenditures per Student on Earnings

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Earnings

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to One Year of Schooling

Summary of Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd's Study of Effect of School Quality on Return to Education

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to Education, Based on Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd

Percentage of Wage Regressions with Significant Results at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Spending per Pupil, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to the Teacher-Pupil Ratio, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Education, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Salary or Relative Salary, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Length of the School Year, by Author and Data Source

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Male Wage Profiles, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Wage Profiles of All Workers, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefit to Cost for Spending per Pupil versus Spending on One Additional Year of Schooling

Percentage of Educational Attainment Regressions with Results Significant at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Increase in Educational Attainment with Respect to Spending per Pupil and Elasticity

The Impact of a 1 Percent Increase in the Pupil-Teacher Ratio on the Percentage Returns to Education in the Log Earnings Equation

Proportion of States for Which the Average Educational Quality or Average Weekly Wage of Migrants Exceeds That of Nonmigrants, by Birth Cohort, 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to One to Three Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to Four or More Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Hypothetical Improvements in Quality on Earnings for High School Graduates (HSG) and College Graduates (CG), Nonlinear Model including Region-Education Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

F-Tests for Significance of Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, Both in Intercepts and in Slopes for the Linear Model, by Birth Cohort 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Return to Education, Linear Model with Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, 1980 Census

F-Tests for the Restriction That Quality Effects Are Equal across Regions of Residence in the Linear Second-Stage Model with Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Summary of Sample Restrictions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Sample Sizes for Birth Cohorts, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1970 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1990 Census

Have Times Changed? The Relation between School Resources and Student Performance

74

Aggregate Data

74

Educational Production Function Estimates

80

Improving Research on Resource Utilization

88

References

90

4.

Evidence from Fifteen Schools in Austin, Texas

93

5.

Labor Market Effects of School Quality: Theory and Evidence

97

A Theoretical Model of School Quality, Education, and Earnings

100

Summary of the Literature

104

Lessons from the Experiences of Southern-Born Blacks

128

Conclusions

133

References

136

6.

Is There a Link between School Inputs and Earnings? Fresh Scrutiny of an Old Literature

141

The Direct Impact of School Inputs on Earnings

143

Five Hypotheses to Explain the Observed Patterns

163

The Impact of School Inputs on Educational Attainment

178

Suggestions for Future Research

182

Conclusion

183

Appendix A

A Response to Card and Krueger

185

References

188

7.

Does Measured School Quality Really Matter? An Examination of the Earnings-Quality Relationship

192

The Empirical Plan and the Framework for Organizing the Evidence

198

A Comparison of the Aggregate- and Individual-Level Data Approaches

207

Migration: The Source of Identifying Information in Aggregate-Data Models

209

Testing Monotonicity of the Quality-Earnings Relationship

213

An Empirical Exploration of Two Representative Models

220

Conclusion

252

Appendix A

Description of the Analysis Samples

254

Appendix B

Schooling Quality Data Sources

257

Appendix C

Additional Tables

260

Appendix D

Rejoinder to David Card and Alan Krueger

281

References

288

Index

290

Tables

Spending per Pupil and Average Teacher Salaries in Selected States, 1993-94

Real Current Expenditure on Public Schools, Selected Years, 1890-1990

Sources of Growth in Instructional Expenditure, by Period, 1890-1990

Percentage Distribution of Estimated Effects of Key Resources on Student Performance, Based on 377 Studies

Summary of the Estimated Relationship between Student Performance and Various Components of School Expenditure, Based on Thirty-Nine Value-Added Studies of Individual Student Performance within Individual States

Distribution of Estimated Effect of Teacher-Pupil Ratio and Expenditure per Pupil, by State Sampling Scheme and Aggregation

Trends in National Assessment of Educational Progress Achievement Scores, Selected Years, 1970-92

Indicators of Social Capital, Selected Years, 1940-70

Summary of the Production-Function Coefficients Used in the Combined Significance Analyses of Longitudinal Studies

Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Expenditures per Student on Earnings

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Earnings

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to One Year of Schooling

Summary of Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd's Study of Effect of School Quality on Return to Education

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to Education, Based on Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd

Percentage of Wage Regressions with Significant Results at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Spending per Pupil, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to the Teacher-Pupil Ratio, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Education, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Salary or Relative Salary, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Length of the School Year, by Author and Data Source

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Male Wage Profiles, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Wage Profiles of All Workers, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefit to Cost for Spending per Pupil versus Spending on One Additional Year of Schooling

Percentage of Educational Attainment Regressions with Results Significant at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Increase in Educational Attainment with Respect to Spending per Pupil and Elasticity

The Impact of a 1 Percent Increase in the Pupil-Teacher Ratio on the Percentage Returns to Education in the Log Earnings Equation

Proportion of States for Which the Average Educational Quality or Average Weekly Wage of Migrants Exceeds That of Nonmigrants, by Birth Cohort, 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to One to Three Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to Four or More Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Hypothetical Improvements in Quality on Earnings for High School Graduates (HSG) and College Graduates (CG), Nonlinear Model including Region-Education Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

F-Tests for Significance of Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, Both in Intercepts and in Slopes for the Linear Model, by Birth Cohort 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Return to Education, Linear Model with Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, 1980 Census

F-Tests for the Restriction That Quality Effects Are Equal across Regions of Residence in the Linear Second-Stage Model with Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Summary of Sample Restrictions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Sample Sizes for Birth Cohorts, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1970 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1990 Census

Have Times Changed? The Relation between School Resources and Student Performance

74

Aggregate Data

74

Educational Production Function Estimates

80

Improving Research on Resource Utilization

88

References

90

4.

Evidence from Fifteen Schools in Austin, Texas

93

5.

Labor Market Effects of School Quality: Theory and Evidence

97

A Theoretical Model of School Quality, Education, and Earnings

100

Summary of the Literature

104

Lessons from the Experiences of Southern-Born Blacks

128

Conclusions

133

References

136

6.

Is There a Link between School Inputs and Earnings? Fresh Scrutiny of an Old Literature

141

The Direct Impact of School Inputs on Earnings

143

Five Hypotheses to Explain the Observed Patterns

163

The Impact of School Inputs on Educational Attainment

178

Suggestions for Future Research

182

Conclusion

183

Appendix A

A Response to Card and Krueger

185

References

188

7.

Does Measured School Quality Really Matter? An Examination of the Earnings-Quality Relationship

192

The Empirical Plan and the Framework for Organizing the Evidence

198

A Comparison of the Aggregate- and Individual-Level Data Approaches

207

Migration: The Source of Identifying Information in Aggregate-Data Models

209

Testing Monotonicity of the Quality-Earnings Relationship

213

An Empirical Exploration of Two Representative Models

220

Conclusion

252

Appendix A

Description of the Analysis Samples

254

Appendix B

Schooling Quality Data Sources

257

Appendix C

Additional Tables

260

Appendix D

Rejoinder to David Card and Alan Krueger

281

References

288

Index

290

Tables

Spending per Pupil and Average Teacher Salaries in Selected States, 1993-94

Real Current Expenditure on Public Schools, Selected Years, 1890-1990

Sources of Growth in Instructional Expenditure, by Period, 1890-1990

Percentage Distribution of Estimated Effects of Key Resources on Student Performance, Based on 377 Studies

Summary of the Estimated Relationship between Student Performance and Various Components of School Expenditure, Based on Thirty-Nine Value-Added Studies of Individual Student Performance within Individual States

Distribution of Estimated Effect of Teacher-Pupil Ratio and Expenditure per Pupil, by State Sampling Scheme and Aggregation

Trends in National Assessment of Educational Progress Achievement Scores, Selected Years, 1970-92

Indicators of Social Capital, Selected Years, 1940-70

Summary of the Production-Function Coefficients Used in the Combined Significance Analyses of Longitudinal Studies

Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Results of Combined Significance Tests of Longitudinal Studies

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Expenditures per Student on Earnings

Summary of Studies that Estimate the Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Earnings

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to One Year of Schooling

Summary of Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd's Study of Effect of School Quality on Return to Education

Effect of Pupil-Teacher Ratio on Return to Education, Based on Heckman, Layne-Farrar, and Todd

Percentage of Wage Regressions with Significant Results at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Spending per Pupil, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to the Teacher-Pupil Ratio, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Education, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Teachers' Salary or Relative Salary, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Elasticity and Standard Error of Earnings with Respect to Length of the School Year, by Author and Data Source

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Male Wage Profiles, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefits to Costs from Increasing Given Type of School Expenditure, Calculated from Average Elasticities of Earnings with Respect to School Inputs and Average Wage Profiles of All Workers, 1992

Internal Rate of Return and Ratio of Net Benefit to Cost for Spending per Pupil versus Spending on One Additional Year of Schooling

Percentage of Educational Attainment Regressions with Results Significant at 5 Percent, by Author and Data Source

Estimates of Increase in Educational Attainment with Respect to Spending per Pupil and Elasticity

The Impact of a 1 Percent Increase in the Pupil-Teacher Ratio on the Percentage Returns to Education in the Log Earnings Equation

Proportion of States for Which the Average Educational Quality or Average Weekly Wage of Migrants Exceeds That of Nonmigrants, by Birth Cohort, 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to One to Three Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Marginal Rate of Return to Four or More Years of College, Nonlinear Model, 1980 Census

Effect of Hypothetical Improvements in Quality on Earnings for High School Graduates (HSG) and College Graduates (CG), Nonlinear Model including Region-Education Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

F-Tests for Significance of Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, Both in Intercepts and in Slopes for the Linear Model, by Birth Cohort 1910-59, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Return to Education, Linear Model with Region of Birth-Region of Residence Interactions, 1980 Census

F-Tests for the Restriction That Quality Effects Are Equal across Regions of Residence in the Linear Second-Stage Model with Interactions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Summary of Sample Restrictions, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Sample Sizes for Birth Cohorts, Census Years 1970, 1980, 1990

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1970 Census

Effect of Schooling Quality on the Rate of Return to Education, Linear Model, 1990 Census

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