Vaishnavism, also called Vishnuism , or Viṣṇuism, Sanskrit Vaiṣṇavism, worship of the one of the major forms of modern Hinduism, characterized by devotion to the god Vishnu and of his incarnations , principally as Rāma and as Krishna. It is one of the major forms of modern Hinduism—with Śaivism and Shaktism (Śāktism).

A major characteristic of Vaishnavism is the strong part played by bhakti, or religious devotion. The ultimate goal of the devotee is to escape from the cycle of birth and death so as to enjoy the presence of Vishnu. This cannot be achieved without the grace of God. Vishnu is not only the end (upeya) but also the means (upāya). For his part, the devotee must cultivate the auxiliary disciplines of karman, the path of good works, and jñāna, the way of spiritual knowledge.

Sectarian Vaishnavism had its beginnings in the cult of Vāsudeva-Krishna, who may have been a Yādava tribal leader (c. 7th–6th century BC). The Vāsudeva cult coalesced with others worshiping the deified sage Nārāyaṇa so that by about the 2nd century AD Vāsudeva, Krishna, and Nārāyaṇa appeared in the celebrated religious poem the Bhagavadgītā as interchangeable names of Lord Vishnu. The cult of the pastoral Krishna was soon added.

The philosophical schools of Vaishnavism (avatars), the most popular of which are Rama and Krishna. A devotee of Vishnu is called a Vaishnava.

Vishnu and his worship

Rama, renowned for his chivalry and virtue, may have been an actual historical figure, a tribal hero of ancient India who was later deified. He is often depicted in Hindu art and literature with his consort Sita, an incarnation of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth and good fortune. Krishna, who also may have been a tribal hero, manifests his true identity as Vishnu to his warrior friend Arjuna in the 2nd-century-CE poem Bhagavadgita (“Song of the Lord”). He is often portrayed with the gopi (milkmaid) Radha or with other gopis.

All Vaishnava profess saguna brahman, the belief that absolute reality (brahman) is manifested in Vishnu, who in turn is incarnated in Rama, Krishna, and other avatars. Through his avatars Vishnu defends traditional righteousness in keeping with the moral law (dharma). The ultimate goal of religious devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu is liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and eternal spiritual existence in Vishnu’s presence. Vaishnavas hold that Vishnu or one of his avatars confers upon devotees the grace that is necessary for total surrender (prapatti) to God.

Sects and other groups

Vaishnavism comprises many sects and groups that differ in their interpretation of the relationship between the individual

souls

and God. The

doctrines of the most important schools are: (1) viśiṣṭādvaita (“qualified monism”

Srivaishnava sect, for example, emphasizes the doctrine of visistadvaita (“qualified nondualism”), associated with the

name of Rāmānuja (11th century) and continued by the Śrīvaiṣṇava sect, prominent in South India; (2) dvaita (“dualism”), the principal exponent of which was Madhva (13th century), who taught that although the soul is dependent on God it is not an extension of God, that the soul and God are separate entities; (3) dvaitādvaita (“dualistic monism”), taught by Nimbārka (12th century), according to which the world of souls and matter is both different and not different from God; (4) śuddhādvaita (“pure monism”) of Vallabha, which explains the world without the doctrine of maya (illusion); (5) acintya-bhedābheda

South Indian theologian Ramanuja (1017–1137). According to visistadvaita, God is undifferentiated and the ultimate reality (brahman). Although the differentiated phenomenal world is illusory (maya), it is nevertheless the medium through which devotees may gain access to God. Another group, associated with the theology of the 13th-century philosopher Madhva, professes dvaita (“dualism”), the belief that God and the soul are separate entities and that the soul’s existence is dependent on God. The Pushtimarga sect maintains the suddhadvaita (“pure nondualism”) doctrine of the theologian Vallabhacharya (1479–1531), which (unlike visistadvaita theology) does not declare the phenomenal world to be an illusion. The Gaudiya sect, founded by the ecstatic Bengali Krishna devotee Caitanya (1485–1533), teaches acintya-bhedabheda(“inconceivable duality and nonduality”), the

doctrine of Caitanya, in which

belief that the relation between God and the world

of souls and matter on the one hand and God on the other is not to be grasped by thought but is both different and nondifferent

is beyond the scope of human comprehension.

In addition to these philosophical

schools, each of which has its own sectarian following, Vaishnavism also includes a number of popular expressions of devotionalism, which were furthered in the late medieval period by the vernacular writings of Rāmānanda and his disciples and by Vaishnava poets such as Tulsīdās in the Hindi area, Mīrā Bāī in Gujarāt, and Nāmdev and Tukārām in the Marāthā country

sects, many other Vaishnava groups are scattered throughout India, often centred in local temples or shrines. They continue to be inspired by popular devotional literature that emerged in Sanskrit and vernacular writings from the 10th through the 16th century.