an effective [counterinsurgency] campaign becomes well-nigh impossible. an attempt to overthrow or oppose a state or regime by force of arms. The ambush and attacks on the enemy’s lines of supply have always and everywhere been favorite guerrilla tactics. Those guerrilla insurgencies were waged by poor countries. But however dramatic. an astute observer wrote that “guerrilla warfare is what regular armies always have most to dread.Prologue
1
PROLOGUE
GUERRILLA INSURGENCY AS A POLITICAL PROBLEM
THE POWER OF GUERRILLA INSURGENCY
Insurgency. and when this is directed by a leader with a genius for war.1 Over a century ago. but “iron weighs at least as much as gold in the scales of military strength. Hence those who undertake counterinsurgency by treating it as such are committing an error with possibly grievous consequences.S. both cases illustrate that guerrilla insurgency is not simply a scaled-down version of conventional war. Guerrillas therefore seek to wage a protracted conflict. very often takes the form of guerrilla war. administrations and the war in Afghanistan that helped unravel the USSR. conventional battle. Certainly. the Vietnamese and Afghan conflicts are only the most recent cases where great powers have encountered ca1
.”2 In witness to this dramatic statement stand the Vietnam conflict that destroyed two U. It is waged by those whose inferiority in numbers. winning small victories over government forces by attaining numerical superiority at critical points through speed and deception. and financial resources makes it impossible to meet their opponents in open.”3 Guerrillas mauled the Americans and the Soviets because those countries’ militaries were deficient in proper doctrine and prepared troops and were slow to adapt to unforeseen difficulties. equipment. That happens because guerrilla war is the weapon of the weak.

In Chechnya. found itself enmeshed in a long and frustrating struggle against Cambodian guerrillas. “let no state believe that it can always follow a safe policy. the all-powerful armies of Napoleon were frustrated and bloodied by guerrillas. exulting in the (partly correct) conviction that it had defeated both the French and the Americans.8 Clearly. French embroilment with guerrilla war in Indochina and then Algeria resulted in a virtual army coup d’état and the collapse of the Fourth Republic. In China. the Russians had eighty thousand armed troops as late as 2003. the armed forces of post-Soviet Russia proclaimed “final” victory many times over the guerrillas. Protracted guerrilla war in her African colonies was the principal factor bringing revolution to Portugal in 1974. Imperial Japanese forces were ultimately unable to cope effectively with widespread guerrilla resistance. the renewal of guerrilla insurgency in western France almost certainly cost Napoleon victory at Waterloo. the North Vietnamese Army. Britain eventually crushed the Boer guerrillas under weight of numbers. In Spain. but the unexpectedly protracted and difficult conflict was a painful embarrassment for the British government and earned it much domestic and international opprobrium.”9
THE SCOPE OF INSURGENCY
Many Americans who came to maturity in the Cold War era tend to identify guerrilla war with Communist subversion. the French lost more soldiers in Spain than in Russia.6 In South Africa. Everybody once knew that the American War of Independence came to an end because General Cornwallis surrendered his trapped army at Yorktown. rather let it think that all policies are doubtful.7 Just a few years after the fall of Saigon. In that little region (smaller than New Jersey). then. with a population of less than half a million.4 Additional examples of the power of guerrilla insurgency abound. a spectacle that encouraged renewed European resistance to the Corsican conqueror. with regard to the question of becoming involved in combat against guerrillas. In Cuba.5 Later. Spanish failure to suppress guerrillas provided the occasion for the blowing up of the Maine.2
RESISTING REBELLION
lamity at the hands of guerrillas. Fewer have been aware that Cornwallis was in Yorktown in the first place because his army had been badly cut up by guerrilla forces in the Carolinas. But guerrilla war
. Indeed.

The superpower. conservative. Consider the following scenario: A superpower.
ROOTS OF THE PROBLEM
The power of nationalism (and xenophobia) to generate armed conflict. and casual murder. having grossly underestimated the difficulty of subduing this neighbor. Angola. Vietnam. meaning “little war”—a misnomer if there ever was one. including guerrilla insurgency. commits forces inadequate to the task. The most famous of these insurgencies have arisen against foreign occupation or foreign-
. and. and/or religious movements have engaged in guerrilla insurgency.”10 In fact. sacrilege. Tibet. at which the Spaniards were so adept. Afghanistan. conflicts ostensibly about Communism exhibited deep ethno-religious roots. Spain was Napoleon’s Afghanistan. In the same period. guerrilla war flared simultaneously in the Boer Republics. But exactly the same words would describe the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808. Even during the Cold War. the Romans had to confront “the peculiarly wearing and expensive character of guerrilla tactics. The United States itself lent assistance to insurgencies in Tibet. John Mosby. Its venerable record includes the brilliant exploits of Judas Maccabeus against the Syrians in the decade after 170 B. is well known. To a lack of numbers the invaders add atrocious conduct. Thomas Sumter. it is.Prologue
3
has not been exclusively nor even mainly Communist. and Afghanistan. Throughout history. and contributes to its eventual collapse. This behavior provokes a fierce popular resistance. As the nineteenth century was turning into the twentieth. Indeed some notable guerrilla chieftains have been Americans. Peru. much less Mao. or Ho Chi Minh. and Nicaragua. its morale sustained by religious fervor and outside support. and the Philippines.C. out of which conflict comes our word guerrilla. Castro. looting. including Francis Marion. This protracted and bitter conflict has very damaging effects on the superpower. these Spanish tactics were remarkably similar to those used in the same country two thousand years later against Napoleon. Angola. bearer of a universalistic ideology. nationalist. William Clarke Quantrill. royalist. Cuba. as in Malaya. in a different category altogether. Is this a serviceable summary of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan? Yes. long before the world had heard of Lenin. invades an underdeveloped country right across its border. including widespread rape.

It is of more than passing interest that no Communist party ever came to power on its own except through identification with a nationalist struggle. these conflicts include the Vendée. and the closing off of any peaceful avenue to change through rigged or cancelled elections. the Spanish against Napoleon. contemporary Colombia. the combination of religious persecution and rigged elections produced major explosions of guerrilla insurgency.
THE PERSISTENCE OF THE PHENOMENON
Since guerrilla insurgency transcends Communism. These include defeat in war. and the Nicaragua of the Somozas.4
RESISTING REBELLION
imposed regimes. therefore. but it almost always receives reinforcement from additional ones. The distinguished political analyst Lucian Pye wrote: “The possibility of an insurrectionary movement arising and then employing organized violence depends upon the existence of sharp divisions within the society created by regional. the Tibetans against the Chinese. linguistic. postwar Greece. ethnic. religious or other communal differences that may provide the necessary social and geographic basis for supporting the movement. and the Chechens against the Russians. it is no surprise that the end of the Cold War has not meant the end of guerrilla conflict. religious rebellion. the Boers against the British Empire. the Cuba of Batista. In the case of both the Vendée (1790s) and Mexico (1920s).11 Ordinarily. the Philippines. One or another of these causes is often dominant. therefore. They include the Americans in the Carolinas during the War of Independence. In addition. the desire of would-be or former elites to gain power. the Cambodians against the Vietnamese. for example. But many notable eruptions have occurred against indigenous regimes. “It is abundantly clear today that the collapse of ideol-
. his wish to call attention to domestic causes of insurgency is valid and useful. to those famous insurgencies arising out of foreign occupation or intervention. a tradition of civil conflict. both the Viet Minh and the Algerian Muslims against the French. the Afghans against the Soviets. resistance to a murderous regime. guerrilla insurgency has its best chance against an occupying foreign power and its local allies. the Chinese against the Japanese. other insurgency-generating circumstances also need analysis. class.”12 While Pye’s statement clearly needs fine-tuning. far from it. and a central authority that is unable to maintain uniform and consistent administrative controls over the entire country.

15 It might be rash to predict where the next Sri Lanka or Chechnya or Kosovo or Somalia or Colombia will appear. will do the same.
THE NEGLECT OF THE SUBJECT
In spite of all this. and how not. sometimes hardly even there. Moros. Kurds. Endless guerrilla clashes in Kashmir have brought Pakistan and India to the brink of war more than once. but it would be even more rash to predict that it will appear nowhere. The academic community generally ignores warfare. Communist wars of national liberation were gone. to fight guerrillas—that is.14 The Balkan turmoils that so disturbed the twentieth century will not quickly fade in the twentyfirst. society pay little attention to the accumulated store of experience regarding how. from Nepal to Turkey. Many ethnic groups—Basques.”16 The academy is not alone in this neglect. and the list of such failed or failing states grows longer.N.Prologue
5
ogy with the end of superpower rivalry has not served to dampen Third World conflicts. and now both states possess nuclear weapons. Although things have improved somewhat since he made it. Many so-called states cannot maintain even a semblance of order outside the capital city. including some unheard of at this time (because nationality arises first of all in the human mind). as opposed to war and propaganda.”13 As the twentieth century was turning into the twentyfirst. Uighers. crucial segments of U. Conflicts with religious causes or rationalizations.S. and fight for. from Sri Lanka and Mindanao and Chechnya to Sudan and Kashmir and Kosovo. and resource struggles will trigger U. religious. “Most [governments that have faced insurgency] have been quick to put their experiences out of mind.
. will continue to spread. and thus they have failed to acknowledge and codify their accumulative understanding of how to cope with insurrections. especially Islamic. supposedly for good. how to conduct counterinsurgency. “peacemaking operations” that will look very much like traditional counterinsurgency. Wars to control drugs or diamonds will not disappear. In any case. there is still much truth in Bertrand Russell’s observation that it has “been customary to accept economic power without analysis. Chechens. to an undue emphasis upon economics. a national state of their own. Kashmiris. in the causal interpretation of history. Some of these ethnic. Other groups. but guerrilla wars flared from Colombia to Algeria. and others—continue to demand. and this had led. in modern times.

”18 In other words. requires almost the diametrically opposite approach: patience. for memories on this subject seem always to be peculiarly short. opinion display little clear understanding of what happened in Vietnam.S. the French. Even so. This has been in part an understandable. the Soviets/Russians. from the Swamp Fox to Lawrence of Arabia to Ahmed Shah Massoud.6
RESISTING REBELLION
each outbreak of insurgency seems to call for relearning old lessons. Today.S.”20 But this shall change. governing classes forgot or ignored many valuable lessons acquired from experience in the Philippines of the early 1900s or Central America of the 1920s (nor did they bother to study the perplexities of the French in Indochina).S. as if the lack of preparedness might prevent our going. “the exercise of maximum violence for swift results has been the American way. Those historians who write about war focus on great battles. however. Why do guerrilla insurgencies arise? Against whom are they directed? Who participates in these insurgencies? Who leads them? Are there differences in motivation and expectation between insurgent leaders and followers? Who will oppose the insurgents? What is the counterinsurgency record of the U. before and during the Vietnam wars the U. why? Are there replicable and nontrivial aspects common to successful or unsuccessful insurgencies and counterinsurgencies?
.) Successful counterinsurgency. consequence of the events in and after Vietnam. those who seek to shape U.”17 Certainly. circumspection.S. But a third element of American society that has ignored the counterinsurgent experience (their own and others’) is the U.? How does that record compare to those of the British.” 19 (One might add. and the strict limitation of violence. and others? Have any countries been successful in one counterinsurgency and frustrated in another. if regrettable. military. there are no famous commanders of counterinsurgency—although there should be. not to speak of why it happened. and if so. All these factors contribute to the situation in which “our military is determined to be unprepared for missions it does not want. while there are famous guerrilla leaders. not guerrilla campaigns. It is also a product of American strategic culture in which “two dominant characteristics stand out: the preference for massing a vast array of men and machines and the predilection for direct and violent assault. like the Romans.
AN APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
This book is concerned with answering a number of questions.

the assumption is that no insurgency is so distant from us in time or space or culture that it cannot cast some light of wisdom upon the path ahead. Since very few. rising expectations. at least by some. First. internal conflicts—including guerrilla insurgency—occur in a global vacuum. The concern here with identifying valid counterinsurgency methods therefore reflects a concern to save American lives. including primary sources. structural strain. having been long and well studied. and so on. the organization of coercion. U. and the like.S. as well as lives of the civilian populations among whom such methods will unfold. The emphasis is on “lessons learned”. are better understood than those of counterinsurgency. The U. and from eighteenth-century Vendée to twenty-first-century Chechnya. the legitimacy of the state—these traditional concerns of political thought provide the main guides to the explanation of revolution. This approach to the dual subject of insurgency/counterinsurgency is comparative and developmental. The central concept of this study is that guerrilla insurgency is quintessentially a political phenomenon. perhaps not infrequently. based on interpretation and synthesis of the extant literature.Prologue
7
The search for answers to these questions will range across five continents. role conflict. in the role of counterinsurgents. there can be no doubt that in the twenty-first century. This is certainly not because of any generalized lack of sympathy with insurgents per se (as the reader will soon discern). The structure of power.S. military personnel will find themselves cast. Rather. the emphasis on counterinsurgency arises from two other reasons. as well as discussions with individuals who had or have a personal involvement with the subject. Analysis will usually be from the perspective of the counterinsurgents. alienation. Second. if any. political ones. on the whole. the factors which hold up under close scrutiny are. alternative conceptions of justice. Many years ago a distinguished student of internal conflict articulated a view whose wisdom continues to impress: “Despite the many recent attempts to psychologize the study of revolution by introducing ideas of anxiety. Americans have sometimes been the guerrillas. the conduct of war. has assisted guerrillas in most areas of the globe and will do so in the future. and to sociologize it by employing notions of disequilibrium. Indeed.”21
. guerrilla strategy and tactics. and that therefore any effective response to it must be primarily political as well. the formation of coalitions. the international and geographical contexts of the struggles herein considered receive much attention.

”31 Basil Liddell Hart: “The object in war is to attain a better peace—even if only from your own point of view. Callwell: “Expeditions to put down revolt are not put in motion merely to bring about a temporary cessation of hostilities. Clausewitz taught that “war is the continuation of policy by other means. the overawing and not the exasperation of the enemy is the end to keep in view.”29 Gene Hanrahan: “Of first importance [is] the recognition that guerrilla warfare is politico-military in nature and hence must necessarily be countered by a combination of political as well as military means. Their purpose is to ensure a lasting peace.”23 Concurrence with this essential concept—the primacy of the political in war—by distinguished practitioners and/or students of war and counterinsurgency across time and culture is abundant. an insurgency is not suppressed just because the insurgents cannot be seen.”26 J. . Certainly. Sun Tzu: “To win one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the acme of skill.”22 Military victory is sometimes illusory and often ephemeral. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill.C.F. and hence cannot in itself produce or guarantee lasting peace. This is the truth underlying Clausewitz’s definition of war as a ‘continuation of policy by other means’—the prolongation of that policy
. that does not aim at a solution which takes into account the fears. here defined as “a pattern of stability acceptable to those with the capacity to disturb it by violence. The following statements are only a sampling. then. Therefore . and not least the honour of the defeated peoples is unlikely to decide anything for very long.8
RESISTING REBELLION
Substituting “insurgency” for “revolution” neatly captures the general orientation of the present volume. what is the essential aim of any intelligent counterinsurgency policy? That essential aim is peace.”30 Charles Freeman: “A peace based on the humiliation of the vanquished contains the germs of renewed warfare. than to subordinate the military point of view to the political. If insurgency and counterinsurgency are fundamentally political.” that “war is only a branch of political activity.”28 Michael Howard: “[A] war. Fuller: “A military victory is not in itself equivalent to success in war.”25 C.” and that “no other possibility exists.”27 General Sir Gerald Templer: “The shooting side of the business is only 25% of the trouble and the other 75% lies in getting the people of this country behind us. the interests. . fought for whatever reason.”24 Julius Caesar: “Victory through policy is as much a mark of the good general as victory by the sword.E. Hence it is essential to conduct war with constant regard to the peace you desire.

.”32 In brief. unblemished by any errors or excesses or stupidities. This is achieved first by military actions involving minimum violence through an emphasis on conservative but effective tactics.Prologue
9
through the war into the subsequent peace must always be borne in mind. justice defined in terms of the particular society in question. attending to legitimate popular grievances. it is almost certain that the peace will be a bad one. justice that is seen to be done. In a word.”33 To summarize: lasting peace—that is. they are relevant because they resulted not only in the complete defeat of the insurgents but also in reconciliation between the counterinsurgent power and the large majority of the civil population. by a political program focused on splitting the revolutionary elite from their followers: that is. containing the germs of another war. . If you concentrate exclusively on victory with no thought for the aftereffect . The principal models for this kind of counterinsurgent approach are the U. the British administration thought it worthwhile to wield (with great effect) a sophisticated political strategy against the guerrillas. counterinsurgent victory derives from justice supported by military power. lasting victory—comes through conciliation.S. The point is certainly not that these counterinsurgencies were immaculate.
. where the counterinsurgents had the advantages of overwhelming numbers and favorable geography. and. “Gaining military victory is not itself equivalent to gaining the object of the war. It is notable that even in the latter case. and offering the possibility of reintegration into society and a peaceful method for the adjustment of disputes. Rather. in the Philippines (1899– 1902) and the British in Malaya (1946–1954). second.

Guerrilla war is a kind of attrition against the regime. and foreign assistance. and who are sustained by popular support. century. the “basic winning formula for an insurgency is as follows: if an insurgent movement can.
GUERRILLA STRATEGY
Guerrilla warfare is not a phenomenon peculiar to a particular ideology. impose costs on a government which are not indefinitely acceptable. In the ideal. In contrast. exhausting or outlasting the enemy will produce victory. the insurgents need merely to survive. or that the regime has displayed unusual incompetence—or both. asymmetry affects the strategic tasks of the antagonists. at least for the intermediate term. high morale. Extreme asymmetries in physical power characterize most contests between insurgents and almost any state. But another. or culture.10
RESISTING REBELLION
CHAPTER 1
GUERRILLA STRATEGY AND TACTICS
This chapter reviews the fundamental strategic and tactical aspects of successful guerrilla insurgency. It is. at a cost which is indefinitely acceptable. or at least reduce them to unimportance. a method employed by those seeking to force a militarily superior opponent to accept their political objectives. then. good intelligence. secure bases. while losing
10
. For guerrillas. guerrillas are those who fight against ostensibly more powerful forces by unexpected attacks against vulnerable targets. Therefore a victory of guerrilla insurgents indicates either that they have employed excellent strategy and/or tactics. One of the most notable aspects of guerrilla warfare is the lack of symmetry regarding the military power of the two sides.”1 Thus. “Tactics favor the regular army while strategy favors the enemy [guerrillas]. The regime (of whatever nature) usually believes it must destroy the insurgents. and profound. with the regime always having the advantage at the beginning. rather.

the worse it is for the regime. The famous 1968 Tet Offensive “was the end of People’s War.”7 That statement needs considerable refining.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
11
every battle. This pattern was clearly visible in South Carolina during the American War of Independence. they therefore will be able neither to pursue guerrilla bands nor to occupy important points nor to control the population.4 From Vietnam to Somalia. and essentially of any strategy built on guerrilla warfare and a politically inspired insurgency. firepower had reduced the Viet Cong to secondary importance. and then carrying out spectacular operations against attention-getting targets. Nevertheless. At the same time.”8 U. at enormous cost. the American public has shown particular vulnerability to such dramatic actions.6 Thus guerrillas contribute to overall victory both by inflicting losses on the enemy and by drawing elements of his forces away from the main battlefields. it is winning the war. and in Vietnam. A student of guerrilla insurgency once wrote that the Vietnamese Communist strategy for making war “is a strategy for which there is no known proven counterstrategy. both cases that will be considered later in this work. Guerrilla victories can be ephemeral unless assisted or consolidated by allied regular forces. Hanoi got its way in the end.3 This is an inestimable advantage to the guerrillas. well-led guerrillas will distract or exhaust enemy troops. then it must inflict more damage on the enemy (and for a longer time) than the enemy inflicts on it—or lose.”2 The longer the guerrilla insurgency lasts.5 This scenario most commonly arises when guerrillas are supporting the government of their own country against a foreign invasion or occupation. If a guerrilla movement is not supporting and supported by regular forces.S. the presence of regular troops hostile to the counterinsurgent forces will usually prevent the latter from dividing into small units. in Napoleonic Spain. but the vaunted guerrilla strategy called People’s War was defeated. Perhaps the most notable examples are the Cuban Fidelistas and the Afghan Mujahideen. in some instances guerrillas have in fact succeeded without the help of regular forces. Guerrillas tend to do best when they operate in a symbiotic relationship with elements of a friendly regular army. But more immediately. because they have the power to protract the conflict. for fear of meeting equal or larger units of hostile regular troops.
. They do this by avoiding contact with their enemies while and where the latter are strong or alert. making them unavailable to concentrate against the regular forces that the guerrillas are supporting.

During the Gallic wars. blowing up railroad tracks. compensating for inferiority of numbers.”11 Effective guerrillas attack the enemy’s flanks and rear. guerrillas will often attack a particular place in order to lure a relief force into an ambush. But tactically—in terms of particular combats—guerrillas must strive to be the superior force at the point of contact with the enemy. He meant that strategically—in terms of the conflict viewed as a whole— guerrillas are by definition the inferior force.9 The constant guerrilla aim will therefore be to concentrate strength against weakness by carrying out surprise attacks.12 The favorite tactical operation of guerrillas is the ambush. or in the rain. who were. and then he would pull his forces together at a suitable opportunity and like a tiger make a
. undermining morale. And not only of guerrillas. quite bold enough to lay an ambush and surround any of our men who strayed from the main body of our army. but the tactics are to pit ten men against one. They interrupt his lines of communication by ambushing convoys.”14 The great Boer guerrilla chief Jacobus De La Rey “masked his essentially offensive plan in continual retreats until at last his unwary enemy was lulled into a false sense of security and would think he was no longer worth much care or watchfulness. If I wanted to follow the established practice of the Roman army and keep the companies in regular formation. or when the enemy troops are eating or have just finished a march.13 All these activities create casualties and anxieties among the enemy. as individuals. To destroy. This is not a new phenomenon. mining or damaging roads. trains. one government outpost is to make all such places feel vulnerable.12
RESISTING REBELLION
That is why the fall of Saigon in 1975 required one of the largest conventional military operations since the end of World War II. surprise has been the “master-key of all the great captains of history.10 Surprise is a true force multiplier. They strike at night. and isolating small enemy military units.
GUERRILLA TACTICS
Mao Tse-tung wrote that the strategy of the guerrillas is to pit one man against ten. or even to attack. then the terrain itself acted as a protection for the enemy. It is the primary and decisive weapon of successful guerrillas. Caesar observed: “If I wanted the business finished off and the criminals [Gallic rebels] rooted out and killed. and bridges. I had to divide my troops into a number of small detachments and send them out in different directions.

that is. During the Greek civil war.”15 De La Rey thus anticipated Mao’s tactic of “luring the enemy in deep. to be effective—indeed to survive—guerrillas must rely on sur-
. pro-regime political parties. surprise attack—and guerrilla warfare—will be nearly impossible. Castro’s guerrillas released large numbers of captured Batista soldiers outright. knowing how many of the enemy are in a particular place. Guerrillas can also gather valuable intelligence.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
13
terrific spring at his enemy. the police.) As for reliable and timely intelligence. by sending selected members of their group to join the army. By such methods guerrillas and their sympathizers thoroughly penetrated the army and government of both South Vietnam and Soviet Afghanistan.” Surprise attack requires mobility. labor unions. Mao Tsetung taught that “the most effective method of propaganda directed at the enemy forces is to release captured soldiers and give the wounded medical treatment. quickly bringing sufficient numbers of guerrillas together and dispersing as soon as the attack is over.16 Surprise also requires intelligence.17 Properly led guerrillas will also treat their prisoners well. Mao said that the guerrillas must move among the people as fish move in the water. (The revealing Roman word for the equipment and baggage that a conventional army must transport is impedimenta. an “expression of utter contempt for their fighting potential. This statement has several meanings: a vital one is that to get good intelligence it is essential to establish and maintain rapport with the local population.”18 Such a policy will not only produce excellent intelligence but will also undermine the willingness of the enemy to fight to the death. Without mobility and intelligence. An excellent method for establishing good relations with the civilians is for guerrilla units to operate in their native districts. and so on. and create dissension among the foe at the same time. that is. Guerrillas are mobile by definition: they lack the heavy weapons and equipment that slow the movement of conventional forces. the most important source will be the civilian population.”19
TO WAGE GUERRILLA WAR
Clearly. Communist-led guerrillas systematically violated this principle of good relations with the civilian population. with what weapons and what morale. to their eventual serious cost. the press. the civil administration.

The certainty that the guerrilla will receive medical assistance if wounded will also be a major factor in maintaining morale. Religious faith has also sustained guerrilla insurgencies fighting against enormous odds. a well-organized infrastructure. the life of the guerrilla is rarely romantic and never comfortable. if their opponents are foreign and/or brutal. which in turn derives from mobility and intelligence. Morale Filled with danger and deprivation. the feeling of invincibility generated by consistently winning small engagements. Living ostensibly peaceful lives in civilian society. a guerrilla insurgency can flourish indefinitely. effective leadership. For example.22 Infrastructure A well-organized guerrilla movement will have an infrastructure. So will the practice of hostage-taking. Such infrastructures can continue to function even in areas under hostile military occupation. and. guerrillas will usually find it easy to obtain good intelligence from the civilian population. members of the infrastructure furnish the fighting guerrillas with intelligence. often quite elaborate. not the guerrillas or local forces. analysts have noted that “it was the VC [infrastructure]. supplies.14
RESISTING REBELLION
prise. the belief that one’s cause is just. Under these conditions.”23 Leadership Talented guerrilla leaders repeatedly arise from the most unexpected places. Their contribution to the guerrilla movement is always important and often indispensable. High morale comes primarily and abundantly from two principal sources: first. recalling to us the lines of Thomas Gray:
. But they also need good morale. assistance from outside the country.20 and second. Maintaining morale is essential if guerrillas are to sustain their commitment to the conflict. which was the foundation of the insurgency [in South Vietnam]. a secure base inside it. that consists of persons who do not normally bear arms but render vital assistance to the guerrillas. ideally. to ensure that captured guerrillas will not be executed out of hand. Under these circumstances.21 The justice of the guerrillas’ cause will be particularly apparent to them. and recruits. and others. as in Napoleonic Spain and Soviet Afghanistan.

Yet “underneath the simple and rustic peasant there lay dormant a complex and powerful individual. Frail and sickly as a youth. John Mosby was a young attorney.”32 Jan Christian Smuts.”27 During the winter of 1811–1812.”30 Mosby summed up his ideas of irregular warfare thus: “We had to make up by celerity for lack of numbers. who has become so familiar with brave deeds as to consider them too tedious to treat unless when necessary to reflect glory on his gallant comrades.28 when he became a leader of a Confederate guerrilla unit.33 The number of active guerrillas in Cape Colony never exceeded three
. under winter rains. and over roads that had become all but impassable.24 Guerrilla annals are full of examples of this phenomenon. Consider Francisco Espoz y Mina. since he was wearing out a French force fives times his own strength in fruitless marches. From this unlikely apprenticeship he emerged as one of the great guerrilla chiefs in the Boer war. They captured several British posts in the western area of Cape Colony and managed to maintain themselves right up until the peace negotiations. then be the attacker. a reader of Plutarch and Byron. As such “his exploits are not surpassed in daring and enterprise by those of petite guerre in any age. “If you are going to fight.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
15
Some village Hampden that with dauntless breast The little tyrant of his fields withstood. “his services were invaluable during [Wellington’s] campaign in Portugal. he emerged as “the greatest guerrilla warrior of them all. began what was to prove a long and brilliant career as an international statesman when he was appointed—at the age of twenty-eight—state’s attorney for the Transvaal Republic. and most especially because he left the war no richer than when he took it up. he actually led incursions into French territory. Espoz y Mina was unusual in his time because he discouraged camp followers. Some Cromwell guiltless of his country’s blood. Cambridge. Smuts’s mounted guerrillas penetrated so far south into Cape Colony that they could see the night lights of Port Elizabeth on the Indian Ocean. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest. educated at Christ College. Eventually the king of Spain made him a field marshal. To all the world he would have seemed merely a semiliterate Basque bumpkin.”26 Indeed. Mosby.”31 and.”29 Confederate Secretary of War Seddon endorsed a paper by Mosby with these words: “A characteristic report from Col.”25 In the days of the Napoleonic occupation of Spain.

energy. an Oxford student of archaeology. promptitude. whose unsuspected powers won for him—in his twenties— the chieftainship of ten thousand Arab horsemen and world celebrity as “Lawrence of Arabia. quick in conception and equally swift in execution.”36 And. austere. unrelenting in the pursuit of his purposes. activity. ever vigilant and active. yet void of ruthlessness or cruelty to his victims. outside help will usually become essential at some point.16
RESISTING REBELLION
thousand at any one time. dauntless courage and unshaken self-control. In dangerous places he must dismount and walk.” What are the qualities that make a great leader of guerrillas? An answer lies in the example of Francis Marion. and more than one thousand miles separated Smuts’s guerrillas in the Cape region from Boer forces in the northern Transvaal. Sun Tzu wrote that “the [great] commander must be first in the toils and fatigues of the soldiers. “Since his men had no tents. because guerrillas cannot typically obtain. to become itself a conventional military force39—a guerrilla insurgency will need assistance from outside the country. Long ago. against forty-five thousand British troops there. the guerrilla chieftain known to history as the “Swamp Fox. it is not enough for the leader to be brave. writes Marion’s biographer. and self-sacrificing. until the soldiers’ food is cooked before he eats. a strict disciplinarian.34 Or consider the shy young Englishman. or produce on their own. weapons of sufficient quality and quantity. Accordingly. fertile in stratagems and expedients that justified his nickname of Swamp Fox.”38 Help from Outside Because the true long-range aim of the guerrilla movement is to be able to meet the enemy army on its own terms—that is. More immediately. wrote that Marion excelled “in all the qualities which form the consummate partisan—vigilance. until the defenses have been completed. He waits until the army’s wells have been dug and only then drinks. perhaps the finest strategist of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence. abstemious in his habits. These qualities need to be seen by his followers. to shelter himself.”37 This is indeed a cardinal point: the great leader leads by the force of his example.” General Nathanael Greene. In the heat of summer he does not spread his parasol nor in the cold of winter don thick clothing. he also slept in the open. Such assistance was of tremendous value to the Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon and to the Afghan Mujahideen
.”35 Marion was “sparing of words.

Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
17
against the Soviets. and primitive in transportation. it was difficult to determine how much of Sendero’s expansion was due to effective guerrilla strategy and how much to the breakdown of governance. and civil organizations makes the planting and growth of a guerrilla movement easier. have sought to set up a secure base for themselves.”42 An especially notable instance of the influence of topography on
. such as highland Peru. in Peru. for whatever reason. in lurid contrast to the usual situation. including those of the Swamp Fox. the Japanese badly mauled the forces of his enemy Chiang Kai-shek.S. such a base would exist in an area far from the developed sections of the country. and indoctrinate recruits and train them in tactics so as to minimize accidents in guerrilla operations. “the Colombian guerrilla war is a rich war. defeated the Japanese. army.”40 The Question of Base Areas The term “secure base” normally refers to an area within the boundaries of a state into which the counterinsurgent forces of that state either cannot reach effectively or will not attempt. outside forces indirectly but effectively opened the road to power for Mao Tse-tung: first. The absence or intermittent presence of state. “by the end of the 1980s. Indeed. were of inestimable value to the forces of Ho Chi Minh. to occupy. The Japanese occupation of French Vietnam. very often what guerrillas call “liberated” areas are in fact areas that have been abandoned by the government. who have in some years obtained an annual income of close to $1 billion. or southeastern Colombia. care for the sick and wounded. mainly from narcotics and kidnapping. Mao. During World War II. Another highly desirable aspect of the selected area is location in a lightly administered part of the country. and medicine. and leaves civilians with little or no protection against threats or acts by the guerrillas. Many guerrilla movements. For example. rough in terrain. and Castro. A secure base is invaluable to the guerrillas. and later the help of Chinese advisers and artillery. A noteworthy and very ominous variation on outside aid is the situation of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) guerrillas. food. close to an international border.41 Establishing the base in a province with a history of rebellion facilitates the recruitment of local people into the guerrilla organization and the building of good relations with the civilian population. northeastern Thailand. Thus. In the best circumstances. and then the U. Within it they can stockpile armaments.

Tibet did not produce enough food to feed massive armies. Clearly. Mao believed that it was not possible to wage effective guerrilla war in a small country.009 square miles. and in Northern Ireland (5. for one reason or another.43 Furthermore. today. while the regular troops’ baggage (impedimenta again!) slows their progress. In addition. Still. on Cyprus (3. a move that would place the very survival of the insurgency at risk. even in large countries. survival is the supreme consideration. governments’ modern. but notable guerrilla struggles have occurred in Chechnya (with an area of 6.18
RESISTING REBELLION
guerrilla warfare is found in the Tibetan resistance to Chinese Communist invasion in the 1950s.
. Mao was able to possess such havens because of China’s vast spaces. During the long Chinese civil war Mao Tse-tung derived immeasurable benefits from his guerrilla base areas. who became exhausted after short marches.45 As a substitute for a secure indigenous base. feeding one Chinese soldier in Tibet cost the Communist regime as much as feeding fifty in Beijing. deciding not to defend their base is one instance among many in which the guerrillas can turn their weaknesses into advantages. The guerrillas’ lack of equipment and numbers allows them to move quickly and relatively quietly. Afterward. nor did the Chinese troops like the Tibetan barley-and-dried-meat diet. the utter inadequacy of the country’s transportation network. The air of Tibet was too thin for the Chinese troops. In any event. guerrillas may find a foreign sanctuary—territory across the border where.459 square miles). a sixteenday trip. Retreat before the enemy involves no disgrace. Hence food had to be trucked in to Lhasa across Sinkiang. it is the highest wisdom. and the limited numbers and technology of the invading Japanese. and similar weaponry may have put an end to the possibility of truly safe and extensive guerrilla bases such as Mao’s forces enjoyed. including their base. For comparison.473 square miles). makes certain routes impassable. long-range aircraft. guided missiles. eventually. satellite communications. Connecticut is 5.44 Perhaps he was on the whole correct.000 square miles). Fighting to hold a piece of territory is to give up guerrilla tactics and face the conventional enemy force on its own terms. and provides plenty of warning of their approach. Guerrillas therefore must always be prepared to abandon any position. a secure base can be of inestimable value to guerrillas. indeed. For guerrillas. a cardinal rule for guerrillas—perhaps the most important—is: Never attempt to hold onto a particular piece of territory in the face of determined enemy attack.

Laos. This policy was effective at first. “urban terrorism was a much more important factor than in most popular rebellions. nor the Boers. In Algeria. the leftist Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) turned increasingly to operations and tactics to inflict pain and death on innocent civilians (e.”49 French Army efforts to deal with this terrorism eventually led to the mutiny of 1958 and the collapse of the Fourth Republic. their sanctuaries were in the territory of countries many Greeks had long considered as hostile. successful attacks on isolated posts. as the Viet Cong did in North Vietnam.46 The Afghan Mujahideen possessed an invaluable sanctuary in Pakistan. and supply lines of the enemy. Unfortunately for them. The Spanish guerrillas of Napoleon’s day had all the waters surrounding Spain as a sort of sanctuary. has nothing to do with guerrilla warfare per se. for on those seas sailed the British navy and the guns and gold it brought to the insurgents. a course that eventually generated a major public split within the insur-
. even murderous. insurgents directed terror at the population as an integral part of their strategy.47
GUERRILLAS AND TERRORISM
The essence of guerrilla warfare is to carry out swift. possessing a foreign sanctuary can sometimes turn out to be a grave source of weakness. so that they felt free to express their profound. bombing cafés). the possession of sanctuaries and outside sources of supply encouraged the guerrillas to discount the importance of popular support inside Greece itself. In the post-1898 Philippines.g. nevertheless. Nevertheless.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
19
they can be relatively safe. guerrilla movements have often resorted to it. For years the Communist-led guerrillas in the Greek civil war enjoyed unparalleled access to foreign sanctuaries across Greece’s northern frontiers.S. nor the Huks possessed secure bases or foreign sanctuaries. contempt for the Greek peasantry among whom they operated. guerrillas turned to terrorism against the civilian population when it became clear that they were losing the conflict. small units. forces. all of them met an unfavorable end. here understood to be the deliberate targeting of civilians for death or injury..50 In El Salvador. tellingly. More destructively. Neither the Vendeans. planting mines near populated areas. and Cambodia. by far the majority of people killed in Malaya by guerrillas were Chinese civilians.48 During the Greek civil war and the Malayan Emergency. but soon enough turned many Filipinos to cooperation with U. Terrorism.

then the U. partly because they had a firm base area in North Vietnam and Laos.53 But the premier examples of deliberate terrorism by a guerrilla force remain the Viet Minh and their successors. However sensational the violence they may perpetrate. usually very difficult to distinguish from mere terrorists.
“URBAN GUERRILLAS”
Certain groups. but that it is indeed antithetical to it (especially if one believes Mao’s adage about fish in the water). This suggests that not only is terrorism not intrinsic to properly waged guerrilla war.55 This reliance on terrorism was the most notable Vietnamese Communist innovation to (or deviation from) the Maoist model of insurgency. the Viet Cong. and they have been
. or that eventually lost. these self-defense paramilitaries were both controversial and effective. those who plan and wage counterinsurgency need to be aware that their very successes may unleash an ugly terrorist campaign by the remnants of the defeated insurgents. have called themselves “urban guerrillas.S.”54 By 1965 the Communists had assassinated literally thousands of local officials and schoolteachers. “The elimination of their opponents was one of the most common means the Communists used to establish Viet Minh control over the entire nationalist movement.52 In any event.20
RESISTING REBELLION
gent ranks. and partly because they had little hope of winning over substantial new numbers of the peasantry by that point. All but one of the instances of deliberate terrorism cited here were employed by insurgencies that were losing. (Another important Vietnamese addition was reliance on manipulation of opinion in democratic societies—first France. the insurgents used violence against civilians as one of their cardinal methods. guerrilla operations in cities defy the clear teachings of Clausewitz and Mao. From the beginning of the Vietnam wars. including the shelling of crowded market places.)56 Open Viet Cong terrorism. Nevertheless. FARC kidnappings and murders produced the counter-phenomenon that came to be known as the self-defense groups (“paramilitaries”). In Colombia during the 1980s. increased in the 1970s.” A notable example would be the Uruguayan “Tupamaros” of the early 1960s.51 Many contend that these groups were an unavoidable consequence of the failure of the Colombian state to mobilize civilians into legally sanctioned self-defense forces.

”61 During its two-year conflict with the guerrillas. Castro promised free elections and a return to the constitution of 1940—definitely not the Leninist dictatorship and explosive confrontation with the U. but was instead a clash—forced upon the Home Army—of two wildly asymmetrical military formations within a metropolitan setting.62 An arresting contrast to the isolated.60 The mythology of the Maoist revolution is examined in chapter 14. were not engaging in guerrilla tactics as that term is used in the literature. Despite the romantic myths and clouds of propaganda surrounding that event.57 The tragic uprising of Polish Home Army units in Warsaw in 1944 is not a true instance of urban guerrilla war. In actuality. Insurgents attempting to operate permanently in confined urban areas expose themselves to classic sweep and encirclement actions. or region.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
21
victorious nowhere. especially in the 1970s. it suffered a total of three hundred fatalities—an average of three per week.58 The insurgent forces in Grozny in the 1990s. therefore. including the Church and the business elites. The failures of these imitators stemmed in large part from their misunderstanding of the paradigm they thought they were copying.S. Identified with no particular class. the simple truth is that the increasingly repressive and corrupt Batista regime had alienated key strata of Cuban society. employing artillery and even aircraft in a determined effort to hold onto key locations in that city. that he eventually imposed. Ernesto Guevara quite predictably met his premature death in the mountains of Bolivia. cruel and lazy officers without combat experience. The high command of the Batista Army consisted of “corrupt. and earned the open distaste of the Eisenhower administration. All of them failed. group. Here it may be opportune to take a brief look at the true nature of Fidel Castro’s successful revolt against the regime of Fulgencio Batista. Toward the end of the conflict. Leading a band of a few hundred guerrillas in the mountains. personalistic Batista dictator-
. many units of this fifteen-thousand-man force never fired a shot. Inexplicably overlooking these facts and acting on a totally illusory version of the Castro revolt. the Eisenhower administration imposed an arms embargo on the Cuban regime. the Castro revolution was a Batista collapse.59
GETTING THE PARADIGM WRONG
The victories of Mao Tse-tung and Fidel Castro spawned many wouldbe imitators. by 1956 the regime was isolated.

”63 Against this steely phalanx. withdrawal from Chihuahua. hurled itself in vain for a decade. Thus. the largest military operation East Asia had witnessed since the Chinese intervention in Korea a quarter of a century before. and then disappeared. Fourth. And last (at least in this account).S. Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan was the equivalent of a U.65 Second. forces in South Vietnam in 1968. the solidarity of the upper and upper-middle classes with the army produced “the strongest anticommunist sentiment in Latin America. relying increasingly on forced recruitment and terrorism. any two guerrilla conflicts will display certain similarities. There. In the first place. hence the conquest of South Vietnam required a full-scale invasion by the North Vietnamese Army. the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan contributed indirectly but effectively to the dissolution of the Soviet
. Yet the differences between the Soviet experience in Afghanistan and the American experience in Vietnam are patent and profound. Hanoi was incomparably more successful at manipulating perception and opinion in Washington (and elsewhere) than the Mujahideen ever were in Moscow. in terms of training and equipment the Afghan Mujahideen were simply not in the same class as the North Vietnamese Army and many of the main force Viet Cong units the Americans had to face.” Clearly. whereas Washington was closer to the South Pole than to South Vietnam. Fifth. indigenous support for a noncommunist South Vietnam was incomparably greater than indigenous support for a Soviet-dominated Afghanistan.22
RESISTING REBELLION
ship existed in El Salvador. Third. however impressive their bravery and resolution.64 “Russia’s Vietnam” Another notable example of the dangers of getting the paradigm wrong arises from the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Five times more Soviet citizens died in road accidents during any single year of the 1980s than in the entire Afghan conflict.S. the geographical circumstances of the two conflicts differed dramatically: Afghanistan was right across the Soviet border. and clearly implementing some democratic reforms. which was both receiving aid from the U. Many have referred to that conflict as “Russia’s Vietnam. the openly authoritarian and pro-Castro FMLN guerrilla movement.S. especially if they involve superpowers failing to achieve their principal objectives. Soviet forces committed to Afghanistan were less than one-fifth of the U. Afghanistan was not Russia’s Vietnam but rather Russia’s Mexico. at their numerical peak.

66 But perhaps some sort of award for the most grandiose failure to understand a guerrilla paradigm should go to those Americans who in the 1980s displayed bumper stickers demanding “No Vietnams in Central America.Guerrilla Strategy and Tactics
23
empire.”
. however painful the American experience in Vietnam. its effects were ephemeral in comparison.

24
RESISTING REBELLION
CHAPTER 2
SOME WELLSPRINGS OF INSURGENCY
Many factors have produced insurgencies.
24
. The present chapter examines five elements that have played such a role in insurgency: rigged or suppressed elections. or at least as the road to peaceful change. While insurgencies always have multiple causes. and Kashmir in the 1990s. a tradition of internal conflict. (Religiously motivated insurgencies will be considered in separate chapters. and/or the opportunity for an outbreak. Mexico in the 1920s. the justification. or especially the shutting down. El Salvador in the 1970s. and a response from those targeted for genocide. about great revolutions is that they do not occur in democratic political systems. This section examines five cases of the connections between denied or rigged elections and the development of insurgency: France in the 1790s.1 “Perhaps the most important and obvious.”2 Che Guevara insightfully observed that it is not possible to make a successful insurgency against a government that is democratic. defeat in war.3 On the other hand. but also the most neglected fact. by providing either the provocation. the Philippines in the 1950s. for at least the past two hundred years the absence. of a peaceful means of redressing grievances has clearly contributed to the outbreak and continuation of insurgency. in almost every instance one factor predominates.)
RIGGED ELECTIONS: CLOSING THE PEACEFUL ROAD TO CHANGE
Popular elections have achieved a quasi-universal status as the symbol of legitimate authority. or that pretends to be so. the aspirations of former or marginal or would-be elites. almost as many as the ways in which rulers can commit folly or self-seeking men disguise their aims.

Marie Antoinette. and wage genocidal war against French men and women in the Vendée and other provinces. devastating and depopulating entire regions of France. government candidate Plutarco Calles was credited with 1. enforcing an unprecedentedly radical program while restricting the electorate to its own narrow base of supporters and beneficiaries. Yet in those 1792 elections. It maintained itself by authoritarian means. Spain. found itself confronted by widespread and serious insurgencies. from an already narrowly restricted pool of electors. execute King Louis and his wife.7 In 1924. publicly guillotine thousands of citizens (most of them persons of quite humble condition).000 votes. impose the draft. The new constitution had been imposed by a small minority of revolutionaries and had never been submitted to a vote for popular approval or rejection. In the presidential election of 1920.949. the official results gave Ortiz Rubio. Most of those who did vote were compelled to do so orally and in the presence of government authorities.000 votes. including the famous General Antonio
.”6 The subsequent electoral record speaks for itself. shut all the churches in Paris and elsewhere.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
25
France The French revolutionary regime would eventually wage war not only against the whole of Europe. initiate the Terror. and Austria. 1.5 Mexico The revolutionary regime that ruled Mexico after 1915 “had come to power through military force. In 1934 the government candidate Lázaro Cárdenas supposedly obtained 2.225. the candidate of the revolutionary oligarchy. 250. General Obregón. and all other candidates together less than 50.4 Thus the revolutionary regime. Such conduct was possible because the revolutionary government had come to power through elections that were totally unrepresentative of popular desires. The French elections of August–September 1792 installed a new parliament. allegedly received 1. without free elections. carry the country into war against Britain. confiscate the equivalent of hundreds of billions of dollars in private property. all his opponents. less than one eligible voter in five participated. the official count for all his opponents.000.000. a body that would proclaim the end of the monarchy.340. but against its own citizens as well.1 million votes.000 votes. the so-called National Convention. the government candidate. in some states the vote for Obregón was actually declared to be unanimous. while the distinguished educator José Vasconcelos allegedly received but 111.000.8 In 1929.

prodigious stealing. the looting of the Church. the U. shortly before the election of 1928 officially won by Obregón (who was soon thereafter killed). but the presidential term was extended to six years. Third.11 President Calles (1924–1928) treated public criticism of any constitutional provisions or laws as sedition. the only shred of ideological cohesion among the revolutionary general-politicians was the sacred slogan of “No Reelection” of presidents.10 Twenty-three members of the Federal House of Deputies who dared to criticize these changes were stripped of office. Not only was “No Reelection” cast aside. the cry of Francisco Madero and his followers in 1910.12 The Philippines After the Japanese invasion of the Philippines. The largest of these was a rising of Catholic peasants called the “Cristeros” (a name given to them in derision by the regime and then adopted by the insurgents). But these men rewrote their own constitution in 1926.26
RESISTING REBELLION
Villareal. eschewing violence or actually welcoming the prospect of martyrdom. Nevertheless. refused to endorse the rising. to permit former president Obregón to take a second term.000. and executed them. Furthermore. Fourth. the Tagalog acronym for “People’s Army against Japan”). The rebellion flamed from 1926 into 1929. was 41. supported the regime in Mexico City and prevented vital arms purchases by the insurgents. especially in western Mexico. the Cristeros suffered defeat for several reasons. First. Generals Arnulfo Gomez and Francisco Serrano. the government arrested both of the leading opposition candidates.9 Aside from their antireligious posture. Second. it counted the ballots and accumulated great wealth from recurrent civil wars. many Mexican bishops. rich Catholics on both sides of the border remained aloof from the predominantly peasant movement.S. and the emoluments of office. and electoral fraud predictably produced violent reactions. The regime was able to impose these measures because in addition to controlling the army and the labor unions. one of the main resistance groups formed there became known as the Huks (short for Hukbalahap. and they inflicted some notable reverses on regime troops. This organization fell increasingly under the influence of Communist
. The regime’s combination of religious persecution. Pope Pius XI pressured those elements of the Mexican Church hierarchy who were favorable to the Cristeros to accept his view that peace must be made at almost any price. The insurgents enjoyed at certain periods quite widespread popular support.

Less than a year after the surrender of Japan. hoping to benefit from growing disillusionment among the population. 1946). the U. The insurgency derived support from many sources. whose conflict has its most visible roots in the partition of British India into a Hindu-dominated India and a Muslim-dominated Pakistan in 1947.16 Kashmir Kashmir has long been a deeply troubled region. Its stronghold was in the central region of Luzon. Above all.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
27
elements. At the time. the so-called princely (semi-independent) states were free to choose which of the two successor countries they would join. The Huks soon took up arms against this government. mistreatment of the peasantry by the military increased. an island about the size of Kentucky. Indeed. Alarmed by Huk progress. The only path to change appeared to be that of the insurgency. principal military leader of the insurgency. first president of the independent Philippines. and had been saved from postwar prosecution only by the intervention of General Douglas MacArthur. which had a long history of agrarian rebellion. Quirino did not ultimately need their help. Magsaysay immediately set to work improving both the military’s counterinsurgency tactics and their treatment of the civilian population. recognized the independence of the Philippine Republic (July 4. Magsaysay used the army to ensure the cleanliness of the 1951 congressional elections.15 The collapse of the Huk movement followed inevitably. however: electoral dishonesty was so egregious that the “dirty election of 1949” played directly into the Huks’ hands.S.13 As the Huk rebellion spread. Magsaysay had restored the efficacy of the ballot box. Everyone ex-
. the opposition party won every senate seat at stake that year. Quirino appointed Ramón Magsaysay as secretary of defense. Roxas had served in the pro-Japanese puppet regime. Corruption in the Quirino government was so blatant that the Huks supported his reelection in 1949. Dislocation following the expulsion of the Japanese was compounded by widespread corruption in the administration of Manuel Roxas. and thus “to all intents and purposes the 1951 elections sounded the death knell of the Hukbalahap movement. Vice President Elpidio Quirino succeeded to the Philippine presidency after Roxas’s death in 1948. symbolized by the surrender in May 1954 of Luis Taruc.”14 Two years later Magsaysay defeated President Quirino in a landslide.

rigged elections. Kashmir had an area of eighty-six thousand square miles. But he decided otherwise.S. the curious and combustible mixture of Marxism and Christianity called “Liberation Theology” had been finding an attentive audience among some of the clergy and other middleclass elements.”19 “The same boys who joined the insurgents in 1989 had been poll watchers during the 1987 elections—and then found the elections to be rigged.18 “The conduct and outcome of this election closed the last possible venue for the expression of legitimate dissent in Kashmir. In December 1979. the size of Romania or Utah.”17 Outside observers have maintained that the latest eruption of insurgency in Kashmir is primarily the result of India’s rigging of the 1987 state elections and the imposition of a puppet regime through fraud and intimidation. Massive government fraud against reformist candidates in the presidential elections of 1972 and 1977 effectively closed off the electoral road to change. and the living conditions of El Salvador’s lowest strata had been for decades the worst of any Latin American country except perhaps Haiti. directly followed. repression. corruption and nepotism in Kashmir in the name of national interest. No election or referendum was held to ratify this decision. as well as within Kashmir. Prime Minister Nehru “connived at regimentation. several Salvadoran revolutionary groups gathered in Castro’s Havana to organize the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN). a Hindu ruling over a largely Muslim population. remained under Indian occupation.”20 Estimates of those killed in the fighting in Kashmir between 1990 and 2000 reach sixty thousand—more than U. (The name derived from a Salva-
. Following a U.23 Meanwhile. Warfare between India and Pakistan. After the partition. would join Pakistan. with a population of 7. and Kashmir thus became the only non-Hindu princely state to adhere to India. fatalities in the entire Vietnam conflict. Certainly no other Central American society had a greater potential for class conflict. with grave maldistribution of land and wealth and a dreary history of oligarchical control and military dictatorship. cease-fire in 1949.N.28
RESISTING REBELLION
pected that the maharaja of Kashmir. fiftyfour thousand square miles of Kashmir (equal to Bangladesh or Wisconsin). the rest was occupied by Pakistan.22 The country has the highest population density in Latin America.21 El Salvador El Salvador was for generations a commodity-export economy.5 million.

a centerpiece of U.25 In the 1989 elections Alfredo Cristiani. in 1984. which greatly improved the army’s counterinsurgency effectiveness. seem to possess a proclivity for protracted internal con-
. His successor. Venezuela. Some others. to preventing an FMLN victory. at the very least such practices have provided a justification for such resistance. mayor of San Salvador.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
29
doran Communist contemporary of the 1930s Nicaraguan guerrilla chieftain Augusto Sandino. the first time in the country’s history that an opposition candidate had been victorious. was elected president. graduate of Notre Dame. often permanently. President Carter committed the U. President Reagan. granted increased military aid to El Salvador. At the same time. Summary The record strongly suggests that denying or corrupting free elections has served to provoke armed resistance to a regime.27 Greece.S. President Reagan sent Vice President George Bush to San Salvador in December 1983 to warn the Salvadoran military not to interfere with the approaching elections.26 The restoration of honest national elections. observers have often noted that the “ballot box is the coffin of insurgency. which insisted that further U.24 Accordingly. military aid should “be made contingent upon demonstrated progress toward free elections” and other political reforms. this was El Salvador’s first-ever transfer of power from an elected civilian president to the elected civilian leader of the opposition. succeeded in maintaining the practice of free elections even while facing serious challenges from insurgencies—challenges that were eventually defeated. appreciating the importance of restoring an honest ballot to the strife-torn country. however. In contrast. contributed to the negotiated ending of the conflict in 1992. policy during the Salvadoran insurgency.
A TRADITION OF INTERNAL CONFLICT
Many societies have experienced an insurgency that flared brightly for a period and then became extinguished. who himself had never been a Communist. José Napoleon Duarte. a Georgetown graduate.S. A month later appeared the famous Kissinger Commission Report.” a dictum that receives ample support from the Philippines to El Salvador. and critic of the Salvadoran establishment.) In 1980. and Colombia. among other countries.S. defeated the candidate of Duarte’s party and was inaugurated.

31 Estimates of the number of Colombians who perished in la violencia run to 200. Yet neither class nor ethnic nor ideological divisions satisfactorily accounts for these conflicts. the warfare in Colombia is not caused by outsiders.28 Colombia also has the unfortunate distinction of being the locus of the longest-lasting guerrilla insurgency in the twentieth century. a culture of violence that solidified itself during the nineteenth century. a conflict that has generated the world’s fourthlargest internal refugee problem.000.30 The period 1863–1880 is known in Colombia as the “Epoch of Civil Wars. the princi-
. the country with the longest record of civilian rule in South America. Angola.000 killings per week. and beginning in the late 1940s. Yugoslavia and its successors. even indictments. This is misleading on several levels. Few if any societies. Sudan.) Moreover. On the contrary. for these crimes are uncommon. Colombia and Its Violence Colombia is a land of superlatives: it is at least the fourth most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.33 Convictions. however. and the third-largest annual recipient of U. Algeria. the country entered into a decade of slaughter. impunity is the rule. The Colombian army has always been too small to maintain order.30
RESISTING REBELLION
flict that continues from one generation to another and for which no realistic set of solutions or palliatives is readily available.” From 1899 to 1903 the War of a Thousand Days killed 130. Second. have exhibited the tragic syndrome of chronic internecine destructiveness as severely as Colombia. and some other countries.S. military aid. Colombia has become a self-perpetuating “war system. at the latest. would produce 8. la violencia was notable not only for the scale of killing but for the truly horrific brutality inflicted upon many of the victims. First. called simply la violencia.29 Although help for the guerrillas once came. at least indirectly.000 people out of a total population of a few million. Today the homicide rate in the city of Medellín is twice that of Detroit. Long internal conflict of this type has plagued Northern Ireland. especially women.32 (Violence on a proportional scale in the present-day U.S. insurgencies in Central America ended in the 1980s and 1990s without fundamental changes in social conditions. from the USSR and Cuba.”34 It is sometimes said that an insurgency cannot end until the social conditions that caused it also end. At least ten Colombians die in political violence per day. Mozambique. it is rooted in the country’s history and culture. the Colombian national homicide rate is fourteen times that of the United States. out of a 1952 population of 12 million.

element of daily life. Extensive eastern regions have never been integrated into national life. the ELN bombed Colombia’s main oil pipelines seven hundred times. was never an authentic social movement. is Colombian.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
31
pal insurgent force in Colombia. that prize
. FARC also gets about $250 million annually from kidnapping and extortion. the ELN. From the early days of the republic until today. and Rhode Island combined. larger than Long Island. Between 1985 and 2000.. and Utah combined.e.. inflicting untold damage on the ecology. Perhaps as much as 90 percent of the cocaine coming into the U. Colombia today supplies 80 percent of the world’s cocaine. and hence normal.S. and Italy combined.000-square-mile region in eastern Colombia (called the despeje). internal violence and state weakness have fed on one another.S.37 Another guerrilla group. Colombia is equal in size to France. and has little popular support.35 But if the FARC guerrillas lack popular support. Poor communications in many areas of the country have been an advantage to the guerrillas. and 75 percent of the heroin seized on the east coast of the U. In short. how can they survive? The answer lies in the last and most devastating of Colombia’s superlatives: it is the greatest drug producer in the Western Hemisphere. abandoned) a 16.36 The drug trade annually generates $900 million for the FARC and smaller insurgent groups. the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia). the Colombian guerrillas are rich. the Colombian government provided the insurgents with a secure base area. The ELN also received an area of its own. New Mexico.000 square miles. extorts money from oil companies. thus handing the FARC control of an area the size of Switzerland. mainly from “taxes” on coca. Worse. Colorado.38 Large strata of the rural population have traditionally had no positive contacts with the national government. thus. Germany. or to Arizona. unlike almost all other guerrillas in world history. predictable. Historically the control of the central government over this sprawling area extended not very far beyond the major cities. Connecticut. at one time the military arm of the Colombian Communist Party.. in the mid-1990s the administration of President Andrés Pastrana “demilitarized” (i. Organized violence becomes an expected. Several ranges of the great Andes Mountain chain traverse the country. bigger than Massachusetts. In effect. With 439. Colombian guerrilla groups have adopted many of the key methods of organized crime.

The ELN guerrillas had perhaps another 5. (Then-president Fujimori of neighboring Peru publicly criticized President Pastrana for these surrenders. many of these groups arose spontaneously to protect villages from FARC kidnappings and depredations. and even global implications and effects. Attempting to fill a role that the national army and police were not satisfying. The Colombian government finally rescinded this misguided despeje policy in January 2002. Clearly. but it also has regional.S.000 first-line fighters.41 The self-defense groups have proven to be the most aggressive and successful anti-FARC organizations in the country. Venezuela (with its petroleum). handing these extensive zones over to the insurgents did not promote peace. while high school graduates receive exemption from serving in combat units.000.
. The Colombian army numbered approximately 146. the national army needs significant enlargement and improvement. media. Colombia’s fighting and its refugees have been spilling over into Panama (with its canal). misleadingly labeled “paramilitaries” by the U. considerably less than one-half of one percent of the population. In August 2003. estimates of FARC strength hovered around 15. the distribution of Colombian cocaine increasingly involves European organized crime. advances that will almost certainly not occur until all Colombian social classes accept the need to make real sacrifices in order to establish government control of their country. the rebels used these areas to train fighters. to the contrary. hemispheric.43 And a permanent end to this strife is not on the horizon. stockpile supplies. and prepare attacks.000 national police. which was able to deploy fighting units as large as 700 men.32
RESISTING REBELLION
of prizes for guerrillas. The exact nature of the relationship between the army and the AUC—beyond the obvious fact that they have a common enemy—is hotly disputed. Despite (or rather because of) President Pastrana’s granting them a safe base.000 soldiers.39 During the 1990s the Colombian army suffered several humiliating defeats at the hands of the FARC. and Brazil (with its extensive borders as the fifth-largest country on the planet).42 Meanwhile. Thus Colombia’s long-standing violence is today not only disintegrating that country itself. it has become clear that FARC will not seriously negotiate until the national army develops the capacity to defeat it.) Predictably.40 (Army casualties have been overwhelmingly from the lower classes.) A complicating factor is the rise of self-defense groups (often referred to as the AUC—“Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia”). backed up by 120.

“Guerrilla movements are not best understood as the response of oppressed peoples to government repression. .’ heretofore excluded from full power. and the very occurrence of revolutionary violence establishes a prima facie judgment in our minds in favor of the rebels and against the authorities. university-educated young men. . After their defeat. which took place under ideal conditions for the regime: control of the army. and several are discussed in this volume. . revolutionary leadership prominently displayed this elitist character. one can offer numerous instances in which the policies of an indigenous regime or a foreign occupation predictably provoked armed resistance. . who wished to be a sort of latter-day Lawrence of Arabia. are an attempt to secure that power through the unorthodox means of a military alliance with the peasantry. only bad governments. graduated from medical school in Argentina. Ernesto Guevara. But popular exasperation with government oppression does not exhaust the etiology of insurgency.”45 As the Cold War evolved. Fidel Castro. was a philosophy instructor at a provincial university. and the labor unions. we tend to work on the assumption that there is no such thing as bad peoples. Their revolts . Abimael Guzman. the Sandinistas spent their
.”47 Supporting evidence for this view is not hard to find. studied law at Havana University.”46 Especially but not exclusively in Latin America. analysts of rebellion challenged the view that guerrilla insurgency is primarily and invariably a mass uprising against gross exploitation. Rather they better fit Theda Skocpol’s concept of ‘marginal political elites.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
33
THE DESIRE OF ASPIRANT ELITES TO GAIN POWER
Certainly. the police. . “Put crudely. founder of Peru’s Sendero Luminoso.”44 This belief that internal conflicts “erupt spontaneously out of conditions grown socially and economically intolerable—and can only erupt out of such conditions—is a very important propaganda weapon in the hands of sympathizers with revolutionary warfare. who turn to revolutionary organizations. the son of a landowner. Other examples abound.48 An even more telling instance of the elitist nature of Latin American revolutionary/leftist movements was provided by the resounding defeat suffered by the Sandinista regime in the 1990 Nicaraguan elections. the media. Accordingly. “few scholars would now dispute the fact that Latin American modern guerrilla movements have been led to a large extent by middle class. as distinguished students of the phenomenon labored to illustrate during the Cold War.

is not necessary to explain even a successful armed insurgency. has long impressed students of revolutionary conflict. On the contrary.S. But in recent times—actually for some considerable period—a new constituency is available to support elite-driven violence: what Ralph Peters has called the “new warrior class. In the Philippines. humanity. revolutionary elites sought to enlist oppressed or disrespected elements in the country. The power of well-organized minorities under determined leaders. from Columbia University and was a professor of chemistry at the University of the Philippines. occupation after 1898 was to play the card of class war. liberty. Emilio Aguinaldo’s best chance to defeat the U.”)51 Neither does elite leadership in itself mean that such movements are without significant popular support.52 The definitive example of the power of a self-selected and highly restricted group of insurgent leaders. Vicente Lava. especially (but not only) in its most radical phases. is the French Revolution. not a personal advantage for themselves and their class.”50 (Traditionally. it means that the support of a majority of the population. it may be necessary here to emphasize that elites or would-be elites who organize revolutionary and insurgent movements are not necessarily engaging in conscious deception. especially in times of political upheaval. of course. had been a medical student and a successful candidate to the Philippine Congress. Fifty years later prominent Philippine guerrilla leaders continued to come largely from the country’s elite classes: Luis Taruc.D. The Sandinistas’ subsequent efforts to return to office met with even more decisive rebuffs by the electorate. But he chose to lose the conflict rather than take such a fateful step against his own class. Rather. held a Ph. While further elaboration of the elitist nature of revolutionary leadership will follow. “Participation in the revolutionary movement involved only a narrow militant minor-
. but an advantage for the masses. Pareto was assuredly correct when he observed that “many of the counterelite [revolutionary leadership] believe that they are pursuing. or even a large minority. promising to distribute the property of the rich to the impoverished peasantry if it would follow him. head of the Philippine Communist Party.49 Latin American revolutionary movements have not been the only ones dominated by members or near-members of the domestic elite. the principal figure of the Huk rebellion. and that they are simply struggling for what they call justice.34
RESISTING REBELLION
brief remaining time in power distributing state property among themselves in the form of large landholdings.

55 An arresting example of both the elitist-minority nature of a famous revolutionary movement. salaries. as well as the ability of such a movement to obscure that nature.58 As late as the 1950s Hanoi actually had French traffic policemen. The partial failure of the revolution stems from the fact that it was a popular movement only to a very limited degree.56 In the mid-1920s. But their discipline and ruthlessness empowered them to disperse that representative assembly and then to lash the peoples of the Russian empire through experiences from which they have not recovered to this day.54 Reflecting on the upheavals of the twentieth century. and education. it was clear that their own opportunities for advancement were inseparably bound up with eliminating French rule in Viet Nam. The Vietnamese Revolution Perhaps the key mistake of French colonial policy in Vietnam was to allow thousands of Vietnamese to obtain a European-style education and then deny them the positions.
. including police. before World War II almost all the government services in the islands.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
35
ity. and many middle-ranking ones.”62 Thus we see a familiar picture in Vietnam: elements of a social elite organizing a revolutionary movement in order to come into power. in both government and business were closed to the Vietnamese. French civil servants in Vietnam were three times as numerous as their British equivalents in India. The violence it engendered was related to this fact. Any Vietnamese fortunate enough to get a job in those spheres usually received from one-fifth to one-half the salary paid to a Frenchman in the same position. 5. On the contrary. and status in government service and private enterprise for which their educations had prepared them. but somehow it required the same number of Frenchmen to govern only 30 million Vietnamese. Hannah Arendt concluded that armed uprisings organized by small bands of professional revolutionaries have been the predominant revolutionary motif of this century. is provided by the Vietnamese Communists.61 It is no mystery why “for most of those [Vietnamese] who became revolutionaries. were run and staffed by Filipinos. it increasingly incurred the hatred of the masses.”53 Similarly. Lenin’s Bolsheviks received only 25 percent of the vote in the elections for a Russian Constituent Assembly in 1917.57 By the mid-1930s. health.59 All the top positions.000 British civil servants governed 325 million Indians.60 Contrast the situation in the Philippines: the Americans established an elected legislature there in 1907.

This apparent paradox grows out of the political history of Vietnam. The Revolutionary Minority Soon after the partition of Vietnam in 1954. dominated by the Red River Delta. was the great-grandson of a provincial governor and cabinet minister. who led the final North Vietnamese assault on the Presidential Palace in Saigon in 1975. the Japanese had treated Cochin China as a
. it took a massive. who organized the Viet Minh army and defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu. French political and economic interests were much more firmly planted in Cochin China (Saigon and the Mekong Delta) than in other parts of Vietnam. was the son of an Annamese mandarin. between the North. had also been a minority there. equal to the distance from Rome to Copenhagen.64 Colonial experience reinforced this regional diversity. comprising mainly the Mekong Delta.63 The Japanese invasion of Vietnam in 1940 destroyed French control and prestige and opened the way to power for this privileged but frustrated Vietnamese elite. had graduated from the University of Hanoi and taught history in a private school. even after the withdrawal of American forces. who employed a chauffeur and several house servants and possessed a degree in French literature. the Communists began organizing the insurgency against South Vietnam. Bui Tin. During their occupation.36
RESISTING REBELLION
The revolutionary icon Ho Chi Minh attended a select prep school in Hué (and then was rejected for government employment). the Viet Minh. not unity. For centuries rival kingdoms contended in Vietnam. Pham Van Dong. Bui Tin’s father. much commented upon by Vietnamese themselves up to the present day. was not representative of the majority of the South Vietnamese population. a history of division. the future premier of North Vietnam. the so-called Viet Cong. Vietnam stretches a thousand miles from north to south. and the South. history and geography explain the marked differences in accent and psychology between northerners and southerners. the boundary between them usually coinciding roughly with the 1954 line of partition. The Viet Cong were a minority in South Vietnam primarily because their predecessors. Thus. who had defeated the French and their indigenous allies. had also been a provincial governor and cabinet minister. The reason why that insurgency failed—and why. conventional invasion by the entire North Vietnamese Army to subdue the South—is that the Communist organization in the South. Vo Nguyen Giap.

many groups—Northern refugees.000 armed men and controlled extensive areas north and west of Saigon. becoming a bulwark against the Viet Cong.000 members. the Viet Minh guerrillas sought refuge near or across the Chinese border. thus necessarily establishing their base in northern Tonkin. troops of Chiang Kai-shek occupied the northern Vietnamese provinces. At the same time. The self-defense forces (PSDF). Additionally. The popular Western image of Vietnam as an overwhelmingly Buddhist society is quite mistaken. In 1947. great numbers of Catholic Vietnamese moved from North to South after the partition of 1954. eight hundred miles away from Saigon. the latter group mustered from 15. racial minorities— were irreconcilably opposed to a Northern takeover. the Viet Cong’s strength diminished over time due to their tremendous casualties.5 million people. Assuming that each member of these forces had four close civilian relatives (a very conservative estimate for a peasant society). Communists assassinated the leader of the Hoa Hao religion. only 23.000 to 20. a city of 2. At the same time. 10 percent of the total population. losses they tried to replace through coercion. the southern provinces were the stronghold of powerful indigenous religious sects. The returning French reestablished their control first in the Saigon area.66 Even in their stronghold of the countryside. An assertively pro-Viet Cong source estimates that in Saigon. militia. Communist activists in 1974 numbered perhaps 500. members of the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao sects. made up fully 50 percent in some provinces. The Saigon government’s sweeping land reform in the early 1970s also dimmed the luster of Communist revolution. After the Japanese surrender. The ARVN and the territorial (militia) forces numbered over a million men. soldiers. By the middle 1970s outside observers estimated Viet Cong support at less than a third of the South Vietnamese population.65 Neither was the Viet Cong insurgency able to develop much support in the cities. ARVN (South Vietnamese regular army) officers and their extended families.000 of them lived in heavily populated Cochin China. At the end of the Viet Minh war in 1954. militia members. The Catholic minority. while the Vietnamese Communist Party claimed 180. composed of persons too
. Another major difference between the two regions was religion.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
37
region distinct from the rest of the country. while British forces entered the southern ones.67 On the other hand. and their families alone comprised almost a third of the population of South Vietnam. the urban middle classes. the Hoa Hao and the Cao Dai. Catholics.

ARVN stood up to the supreme challenges of the 1968 and 1972 Offensives. Indeed one expert observer stated that ARVN could stand comparison to the Israeli army.68 Most important of all. A notable.”74 After 1968 at the latest. “It is very possible that [observers] were right when they claimed that most peasants did not care who ruled in Saigon and just wanted to be left alone.5 million persons. the [Viet Cong] offered the idealistic vision of a unified socialist Viet Nam. It also recruited and promoted on the basis of merit and offered to the ambitious an opportunity to help govern the new Viet Nam. Nevertheless. the support of the most politically aware and most determined segment of the peasantry. an individual broke his ties with family and village. fled South Vietnam. obedience.S. (This is the equivalent of 24 million Americans fleeing the U. Notably. defection to the enemy (as distinguished from desertion) was extremely rare in ARVN—but not among the Viet Cong. which would be the most enormous refugee mass in Western history. the party “asked absolute political dedication.69 In 1975.) It is not unreasonable to assume that more would have fled if leaving Vietnam had been easier. But insurgencies are not elections. “To young men and women from the countryside. becoming totally committed to the revolution. The Party had what it needed. similarity exists between young recruits
. over 1. the Viet Cong almost certainly would have lost an internationally supervised election in South Vietnam. especially before 1968. a Vietnam which they themselves would rule.”71 The Viet Cong showed to rural youth a vision of a Vietnam from which the French and the landlords were gone.”72 By joining the Viet Cong.”70 And after the fall of Saigon. out of a population of roughly 17 million. but casualty rates in the territorial forces were higher than in ARVN. In return for this promise of social advancement. and a willingness to face the very real prospect of death. the Viet Cong were able to mobilize considerable strength. whether or not the party had the support of the majority of the peasants made little real difference. if unsurprising. counted an additional halfmillion members.38
RESISTING REBELLION
young or too old for the army or militia. by promising to redistribute wealth and especially status in the countryside. or if they could have been sure they had someplace to go.. ARVN has been much criticized for its desertion rates (which had nothing at all to do with political loyalties). North Vietnamese premier Pham Van Dong estimated that between 50 percent and 70 percent of the Southern population would need to be reeducated about the benefits of “reunification.73 Thus. while desertion rates were lower.

was comprised quite disproportionately of young men and women from ruling. in George Orwell’s words: “One does not establish the dictatorship in order to safeguard the revolution.”77
DEFEAT IN WAR
Any search for understanding of insurgency requires an examination of the armed forces that an insurgent movement will challenge. the leadership of many insurgent movements. which has been confirmed by all revolutions and especially by all three Russian revolutions in the twentieth century. displaced. Revolutionary leaders from these relatively privileged social strata were able to attract recruits from elements of the depressed or marginalized classes with promises of future social advancement and political preferment.”76 Or. and demand changes. is as follows: for a revolution to take place it is not enough for the exploited and oppressed masses to realize the impossibility of living in the old way.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
39
to the Viet Cong in the 1950s and those elements of Peruvian Indian youth in the 1980s who viewed membership in Sendero Luminoso as an avenue to social advancement. During the twentieth century. they went instantly from the bottom to the top of the social pyramid. one makes the revolution in order to establish the dictatorship. For brown-skinned women this meant achieving a double equality—to whites and to men. “The fundamental law of revolution. “By joining Abimael Guzman’s movement. for a
. But more often. and/or apathetic. revolutionary guerrilla warfare has arisen in circumstances in which involvement in a conventional conflict had seriously weakened or even obliterated the regime’s military defenses.”75 Summary In times of social malaise or political upheaval. the power of organized minorities to impose their will can affect the course of national and even global events. badly trained. from Latin America to Southeast Asia. The elite or quasi-elite leadership of revolutionary movements reminds us of Aristotle’s observation that “men do not become tyrants in order that they will not have to suffer from the cold. Lenin wrote. Some insurgencies have confronted regimes whose militaries were corrupt. A classic example is the collapse of the Batista regime in Cuba. young people became better than whites. or aspiring elite groups.

disaster in war was the fundamental circumstance leading to the rise of Communist regimes. under modern conditions. “The political function of Communism is not to overthrow authority. but it provides its opponents with the opportunity for a successful armed strike. This truth can be expressed in other words: revolution is impossible without a nation-wide crisis affecting both the exploited and the exploiters.”80 Whatever the precise accuracy of these pronouncements. fundamental change in the leadership of the state is required.”78 This “nation-wide crisis” is. students of political upheaval would hardly deny that “the part played by the army is decisive in any revolution.
. A generation ago an acute observer wrote that “existing theories [of revolution] focus primarily or exclusively upon intra-national conflicts and processes of modernization [but] modern social revolutions have happened only in countries situated in disadvantaged positions within international arenas.”82 Disaster in war therefore has served as a crucible of internal upheaval. From France in 1789 to Russia in 1917 and China in 1945.”79 The profoundly anti-Leninist scholar Hannah Arendt agrees: “Generally speaking.”83 that is to say. we may say that no revolution is even possible where the authority of the body politic is truly intact. repeated military failures. and deprived them of the physical means to stave off attack by internal enemies. Again Lenin: “No revolution of the masses can triumph without the help of a portion of the armed forces that sustained the old regime. It is only when the lower classes do not want to live in the old way and the upper classes cannot carry on in the old way that the revolution can triumph. have destroyed ruling regimes’ reputations for wisdom or even competence. at bottom. even catastrophic defeats. where the armed forces can be trusted to obey the civil authorities. from Russia to Vietnam. and this means.40
RESISTING REBELLION
revolution to take place it is essential that the exploiters should not be able to live and rule in the old way.84 Most particularly. and may also suggest to those not previously hostile to the regime that immediate. the regime’s loss of its military defenses. countries whose military power has been broken by foreign adversaries.”81 Perhaps the Russian Revolution of October 1917 most persuasively demonstrates the effect of the collapse of a government’s military power: “the ultimate complete loss by [Kerensky’s] Provisional Government of control over its armed forces predetermined and made possible the scope and success of the social upheaval throughout the country. The crumbling or cracking of the regime’s armed forces does not in itself produce insurgency.

88 The Case of Malaya89 In Malaya. and Peru have successfully resisted quite serious insurgencies in large part because their respective armies remained solidly opposed to the insurgents and therefore generally willing to submit to government direction. the upheavals wrought by World War II provided the circumstances for guerrilla insurgency. and not an accident at all. “the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history. And on February 15. the Philippines. Colombia. before the war the French had been able to maintain order in Vietnam with a few thousand troops.”85 That was why “all Marxist revolutions. Japanese operations began in northern Malaya on December 8. the severe mauling that the Imperial Japanese Army inflicted year after year on the Chinese forces of Chiang Kai-shek prepared the path to power for Mao Tse-tung after the end of World War II. then it strongly suggests that successful guerrilla insurgency is unlikely in a country whose army is intact and loyal. On December 24 they took the capital. the severe dislocations produced by the Japanese occupation opened the road to the Huk rebellion. the prestige of the European colonial establishments in British Malaya. sixty-two thousand British and Imperial troops surrendered Singapore to a considerably smaller number of Japanese. the Communist-dominated Viet Minh guerrillas marched unopposed into Hanoi. many scores of thousands would prove insufficient. There is evidence to support this thesis: Despite all their confusion. Similarly. corruption. Between the surrender of the Japanese and the reappearance of the French. This is their logic. after the war. If all this is true. were produced in backward countries and under the impact of war. And in the Philippines. or mainly true.”87 In the same period. Dutch Indonesia. “Communism in China has very little meaning apart from the trials China experienced during the war of resistance [to the Japanese]. the regimes of El Salvador.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
41
but to fill the vacuum of authority. and from the First World War to after the Second. Kuala Lumpur. as in many other societies. from that of Lenin to those of Mao and Ho Chi Minh. 1941.”90 The British collapse at the hands of the Japanese stripped them of
. 1942. or incompetence. Thus.”86 The German occupation of Greece and Yugoslavia early in World War II made possible the Communist-led insurgencies in those countries. and French Vietnam suffered ultimately fatal blows from the rapid and apparently effortless advances of the victorious Japanese.

they did not see the British defeat the Japanese. The ethnic policies of the Japanese occupation—which favored the Malays and persecuted the Chinese—also complicated the British restoration. some of the troops committed rape. the Allied victory in 1945 did little to restore British prestige in the eyes of the Malayans: While the peoples of Malaya had seen the Japanese defeat the British. because Japan surrendered before the arrival of British forces in the peninsula. but the returning British were reluctant to antagonize the Malay majority.94 A key reason for the disorder was the devastating impact of the Japanese occupation on
. the crucial weeks between the Japanese capitulation and the reestablishment of British power provided the Communist-led guerrillas of the MPAJA precious time to solidify their organization. the British trained a guerrilla force eventually called the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA). while bandits took hostages. Between the Japanese surrender and the British reoccupation many racial scores were settled. seeing them as useful allies in holding down the Chinese population. and during the early days of the insurgency protected British plantations but not Chinese. . for ransom.93 After the war the returning British had little money with which to restore an economy damaged by war and Japanese neglect. and European. . prestige in Asia. Elements of the ethnic Malay population had viewed the invading Japanese with equanimity. and few personnel familiar with the languages and customs of the various ethnic groups in Malaya.”91 The disaster also exposed many serious flaws in the British administration of those colonies. The Chinese community wanted prosecution of those who had collaborated with the Japanese. the behavior of newly-arrived British troops often resembled that of an army occupying a conquered territory: soldiers were frequently billeted in civilian homes. especially Chinese. At the end of the war. “[Singapore’s] easy capture . As the Japanese were advancing down the Malay peninsula in early 1942. None of this strengthened British authority. and released numbers of Communists from prison to participate in that force.42
RESISTING REBELLION
the aura of invincibility that had been the main source of their power.92 Moreover. was shattering to British. Moreover. and others either ignored or participated in petty corruption. Maintenance of an impartial reign of law and order had been a chief justification for British colonialism. The administration favored British businesses over Chinese. and the widespread disorder was upsetting to many and undermined British authority probably as much as the 1942 defeat.

In the midst of these conflicting pressures unleashed by defeat and occupation. Summary After 1945. The Japanese occupation had broken up many traditional social groupings. The only news the Chinese in Malaya received during the war was through Japanese propaganda or the MPAJA. Meanwhile. the whole family felt obliged to protect him/her. British postwar plans for a Malayan constitution offended the Malays because the proposals seemed too friendly to Chinese interests and too limiting of the powers of the Sultans in the various Malay states. The Chinese were inclined to believe the latter source. which swept aside the forces of the colonial or tutelary power in each case and thus stripped away the ruling authorities’ aura of competence and permanence.
. Once a Chinese joined the MPAJA guerrillas. Indonesia. moreover. and low pay encouraged corruption. had for years been inculcating nationalist and anti-British attitudes. the long Malayan guerrilla insurgency arose and developed.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
43
the police forces. During the insurgency. but on the whole the British authorities nonetheless tended to be suspicious of all Chinese. the Japanese had used Malay police brutality to control the Chinese community. thereby alienating the Chinese but not recapturing the trust of the previously offended Malays. those very factors that made the MPAJA powerful among the Chinese community tended to hurt it among Malays and Indians. and the returning British had very few Chinese speakers or contacts in the Chinese community through whom grievances could be expressed. Communist or nationalist insurgencies flared across Southeast Asia. By war’s end the Communist-led MPAJA had little competition within the Chinese community. the British backtracked on their original proposals. On the other hand. It is not easy to imagine how these insurgencies would have been possible had there been no Japanese invasion. Chinese schools in Malaya. indeed. in the Philippines. Communist guerrillas killed more Chinese than any other ethnic group. who comprised a majority of the total population. many of them believed that the MPAJA had won the war. To an equal degree. In the face of criticism. the Yugoslav and Greek insurgent movements received their opportunity from the German occupation of their countries. Malaya. and Vietnam. And it is hardly an accident that the insurgency in French Algeria broke out a few months after the fall of Dien Bien Phu.

Perhaps one-third of the deportees perished. The Chechen conflict of recent years and the Polish uprising against Nazi occupation are two examples of insurgency as a response to a genocidal regime. most insurgencies can be usefully understood as having multiple interconnected causes. because they had been occupied by the German army. By the end of the 1980s the area suffered from widespread unemployment.”96 During and after World War II. transported thousands of miles.”98 After the war. In light of Chechen experience with the Russians and Soviets—conquest. As has been noted. The Chechens’ experiences of the past two hundred years “made them in fact one of the great martial peoples of modern history. confiscations. the population in 1992 was about one million. nearly the lowest medical and educational levels in the USSR. purges. so systematically destructive. the Stalinists deported Chechens and other groups from their traditional homelands. collectivization. that it is tantamount to genocide. and consequently provokes armed rebellion. Conquering the region that included Chechnya took the Russians most of the first half of the nineteenth century. this time within their own borders. massacres. and often simply dumped into desolate areas devoid of shelter or food.95 The Chechen Wars Not long after their withdrawal from Afghanistan. the Soviets found themselves facing another insurgency. Six hundred thousand Chechens were packed into overcrowded railroad cars without heat or sanitation. Chechnya is smaller than El Salvador or New Jersey.97 “The memory of the deportation became the central defining event in modern Chechen history.44
RESISTING REBELLION
INSURGENCY AS A RESPONSE TO GENOCIDE
It would clearly be an error to assume that all insurgencies are a reaction to oppressive practices by those in power. With an area of about six thousand square miles. scores of thousands of surviving Chechens made their way back to their homeland. which they declared offi-
. deportations—it should have surprised no one when during the breakup of the USSR they sought to reclaim their independence. in Chechnya. and very high mortality rates from infectious diseases and parasites. But in some instances the approach taken by those in power toward the general population is so thoroughly hostile. and czarist aggression and repression were the principal instruments in forming Chechen national and religious self-identification.

and to prepare for a general uprising when the hour of Poland’s deliverance approached. however appalling.104 8. Polish fighter squadrons accounted for 15 percent of German aircraft destroyed during the Battle of Britain. physicians. By July 1944 the AK had 380. is overshadowed. many of whom died in labor camps in Siberia and inner Asia.105 The AK’s principal aims were to support Poland’s allies by gathering intelligence and distracting German units. to be raised as Germans.”101 Poland lost six million inhabitants in the war. Poland was the only occupied country in which the Germans imposed the death penalty on anyone helping Jews. In the Royal Air Force (RAF). “The conditions of German occupation were worse for the Poles than for any other nation except the Jews.106
. sadly. Belgium. Normandy. Aiming to exterminate the intelligentsia.103 The Home Army—Organized underground resistance in Poland began in September 1939 when. in the face of the Nazi invasion.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
45
cially in November 1991. Many young Polish children were kidnapped. The unprecedented enormities of the Nazi occupation help explain why Poles who were able to escape abroad pursued the fight against Nazism with unparalleled ferocity. priests. which eventually became known as the Home Army (Armja Krajowa). by 1944 there were two hundred thousand Polish fighting men under British command.000 “sworn members”. and Italy. the Soviets deported around one and a half million Poles. 22 percent of her total population—the largest loss of any country in Europe. Polish ground units fought in Libya.99 The Polish Home Army Against the Nazis100 Soviet brutality in Afghanistan and Chechnya. designated AK in the following discussion. At the same time.102 The German occupation was so harsh that no Polish Quisling ever appeared. and journalists.000 women belonged to the Warsaw AK. Thus began a cruel war that raged into the next century and exposed Russian military weakness even more glaringly that had the war in Afghanistan in the previous decade. the Nazis systematically murdered teachers. Out of the hell the Nazis created in that land arose one of the most desperate and tragic insurgencies of the blood-soaked twentieth century. professors. in their half of Poland. by the enormities that the Nazis perpetrated in Poland after 1939. the commander of the troops defending Warsaw authorized creation of a secret military organization.

which included damaging or destroying literally thousands of locomotives and military vehicles and blowing up thirty-eight railroad bridges. The AK also sheltered escaped Allied prisoners of war and carried out a vast program of sabotage.46
RESISTING REBELLION
The Polish intelligence services had already helped to change the course of history by their role in breaking the vaunted German “Enigma” code before the outbreak of World War II.110 Perhaps the most famous AK reprisal against the Nazis involved General Franz Kutschera. who had inaugurated random street executions in Warsaw. in order to avoid developing a corps of professional assassins.111 The AK also published its own newspaper. No one was permitted to participate in more than three executions. After warning Kutschera twice that if he continued such practices he would be killed. many Polish jurists were very reluctant to serve on these panels because of the impossibility. under the Nazi occupation. Predictably. the AK executed him on February 1. if a spy or traitor was about to betray someone to the Gestapo). a priceless source of information concerning military morale and order of battle. a secret panel of three professional jurists would hear an indictment. enabling the RAF to attack the factories there in August 1943. of having the accused person appear in his own defense. thus setting back the German V1 rocket program by several months. A local resistance commander could order an execution without a trial in an emergency (for example. which it mailed regu-
. His successor evidently took this lesson to heart because the Germans ceased to perform public executions in the capital. All these activities slowed down delivery of Polish quotas of food and material to Germany and were worth several divisions to the Allied cause.107 The AK also made vital contributions to Allied intelligence during the war. It had warned of Hitler’s approaching invasion of the USSR. 1944.108 Polish postal workers randomly opened and photographed letters from German soldiers in Poland to their homes in Germany. The panel could then render one of three verdicts: guilty. It also discovered the secret activities at Peenemunde. The AK set up the panel system in order to provide some legal sanction for its use of reprisals as a means of imposing some restraint on the Nazis. not guilty.109 The AK also executed officials who exceeded the usual Nazi standard of savagery. as well as Polish traitors and spies. or case postponed because of the nature of the evidence (the last being in fact the most common verdict). in downtown Warsaw. In most of these cases.

in Lwow on July 31.115 At the outbreak of fighting about fifteen thousand German and other Axis troops were in the city. including women and children. Heinrich Himmler gave orders that everyone in Warsaw should be killed. No European capital suffered so much destruction as Warsaw. As the war ground on. The AK had many good reasons to fear the advancing Soviets. 1944. of whom only one in ten had a gun. Eventually discovering this fact. which the AK had been using for communications. In the city of Wilno on July 17. Substantial AK units in eastern Poland had been taken prisoner by Russian troops. SS
. mainly as a result of the 1944 rising. the Soviet High Command called for a meeting with the AK leadership. along with civilian representatives of the Polish governmentin-exile in London. the site of many medieval structures and the easternmost outpost of baroque architecture in Europe. eventual commander of the AK in Warsaw. the Germans attacked the sewers with hand grenades and poisonous gas and engaged in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting in conditions of unimaginable filth. The Germans dropped more bombs and shells on the Old Town than on any other single place in World War II. who had invited the Poles to a conference. It detailed which execution and act of sabotage had been committed in retaliation for which German atrocity. At the time.113 The Death Struggle—At the time of the uprising. believed that many Gestapo agents began to be more hesitant to commit criminal acts. the Warsaw AK had around twenty-five thousand members.112 Similarly. August 1.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
47
larly to the Gestapo. and German troops began retreating slowly westward. 1944. the AK started preparations to liberate Warsaw before the Russians arrived. Bor). at least openly.114 Before the rising the AK had actually managed to purchase some firearms from the Germans themselves. for fear of AK reprisal. General Komorowski (hereinafter referred to by his nom de guerre. To reinforce the German army garrison during the uprising. that number would soon be increased. the NKVD (Stalin’s secret police) then seized the Polish soldiers. Fifteen hundred Old Town defenders escaped via the sewers. AK commanders and staff were arrested by Soviet commanders. The AK in that sector suffered from 50 percent to 80 percent casualties. Warsaw was fifty-four square miles in area with between one and one and a half million inhabitants. The Luftwaffe bombed Warsaw for the first time since 1939. Massive air attacks and artillery fire destroyed the Old Town section. 1944.

General Bach-Zalewski. the Germans were announcing plans to take one hundred thousand young persons out of Warsaw to dig fortifications. AK Warsaw commander Bor believed that if a rising did not take place before the end of summer 1944. They committed every kind of subhuman atrocity. but they killed on the spot any captured SS men.119 The Germans also lost 270 tanks. while Bor said ten thousand Germans were killed. and the AK would thereby lose many of its members. AK members treated captured soldiers of the regular German army as prisoners of war. including two thousand women. Seeing no hope of outside help reaching Warsaw. commander of the AK in the city.118 Third. while the Nazis bombed and burned and killed. He even refused to allow Allied pilots who had dropped supplies into Warsaw to land within Russian
. The AK suffered twenty-two thousand casualties. claimed twenty thousand German casualties. General Bor. men who had been living for years in a psychotic. the Soviet armies halted their advance within binocular range of Warsaw. by 1944 the AK had an “overwhelming impatience to fight. the Poles believed they had to do something to avoid being portrayed as German collaborators by the Soviets. the AK leadership wished to prevent the destruction of Warsaw’s population and structures when a general German retreat should become necessary. marched out of Warsaw as German prisoners. and seven thousand missing. But motivations for the AK rising certainly included the following: First.”117 Second. and would soon roll across Poland’s borders. Fifteen thousand AK. highly vulnerable in narrow streets to young men and women with homemade gasoline bombs (“Molotov cocktails”). Fifth. satanic Nazi world. During the nine weeks of the rising. Soviet armies were advancing rapidly across White Russia.48
RESISTING REBELLION
troops were brought into the city. gave himself up on October 5. nine thousand wounded. Why Did the AK Rise?—The source of the AK’s rising is a very complicated question.116 On October 2 the Germans agreed to treat surrendering Warsaw AK members as prisoners of war under the Geneva Convention. Perhaps a quarter of a million civilians perished in the city. The German commander in Warsaw. Fourth. One who was not there cannot hope to understand fully the pressures felt by those in charge of the AK. Stalin repeatedly rebuffed pleas from his Western allies to relieve the dying city. the Germans would have time to send ample reinforcements into the city.

After six indescribably horrible years.120 for two hundred thousand men.”121 As the Hitlerite occupation of Poland was replaced by the Stalinist occupation. Truly. a worse crime even than Katyn. The Polish Home Army believed that Poland would be enslaved forever if Warsaw did not free itself from the Nazis. Poland’s geography was her destiny. Many were never seen again. women and children paid for it with their lives. and her tragedy. “The Soviets’ conduct during the Rising should be branded as the greatest crime of that war. the Nazis were gone.
.Some Wellsprings of Insurgency
49
lines. the Soviets imprisoned all the AK leaders they could locate. Then the Russians and their native stooges subjected what was left of the country to a regime both tyrannical and incompetent for the next forty-four years. Because of the excessive rate of loss caused by this refusal. British flights to Warsaw from bases in Italy were soon halted.

and Sudan). especially those in rural communities. at home and abroad.50
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CHAPTER 3
RELIGION AND INSURGENCY IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES
While it would be difficult to identify a guerrilla insurgency driven exclusively by religious issues. an insurgency in defense of religion will be resolute and protracted. Kashmir. The present chapter shows as well the undeveloped and self-destructive counterinsurgency methods of the armies of Revolutionary and Napoleonic France. Sinkiang. the result of conflicts in Afghanistan. The most famous of these. Tibet. Tibet. The enormities committed by
50
.
THE VENDÉE
As the Revolutionary regime in Paris entered its most radical phase in the early 1790s. and three against a foreign occupation (in Spain. In our own time. Mexico. But five of the six insurgencies analyzed in this chapter and the following one were non-Islamic: in France. Spain. and may have the most serious consequences for the regime that provokes it. For countless millions of human beings. Three of these insurgencies arose against a domestic regime (in the Vendée. especially on their religious practices. Kosovo. Mexico. insurgencies broke out in several areas of France. it is undeniable that a number of insurgencies have had their primary genesis in a reaction to perceived outrages against religious institutions and sentiments. religious insurgency is widely and understandably associated with Islam. driven to desperation by a full-scale assault on their way of life. Mindanao. and elsewhere. Consequently. in the province of La Vendée.”1 There and in other areas2 rural folk rose up. Palestine. and Afghanistan). religion is intimately connected to their self-definition and to their perceived well-being both in this world and in the next. and Sudan. became “the symbol of the counterrevolution. Chechnya.

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the Revolutionary regime against its own civilians.”4 The Revolution suppressed religious orders and confiscated Church lands. The Legislative Assembly. This document provided that “the laws of the state are absolutely binding upon the clergy. authority and truth. enormities perhaps assumed to be exclusive to the twentieth century.”11 All but seven bishops (out of 160) and about half of the parish priests became “nonjurors. and with it a powerful and conservative group of Catholics was forced irreconcilably into opposition.”8 Here “was the fatal moment in the history of the Revolution. They were certainly much closer to the People so freely apostrophized by the Third Estate than the lawyers.12 Women on their way to religious services were beaten on the streets “before the eyes of the jeering
.6 Indeed.” That is. successor to the Constituent Assembly. This marked the end of national unity and the beginning of civil war. imprisoned or exiled recalcitrant priests. In many areas of rural France. Although there was the usual diplomatic delay.”9 because “it brought wide popular support to its adversaries.” refusing the oath. make these Vendean events all too familiar to present-day observers. functionaries and professional men who made up that body.”5 In March 1791 Pope Pius VI condemned the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. 1790. even when they are opposed to the discipline or dogma of Catholicism. November 27.3 The “country curates [parish priests] of the Estates General [were] the most authentic representatives of the majority of Frenchmen. most of which went to rich bourgeoisie. But the Revolution’s main blow to the Church was the cluster of decrees known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of July 1790. the social life of the people revolved around the parish church. For the first time popular forces were made available to the opponents of the Revolution. “no pope could for a moment have considered accepting it.’ it was when the Constituent Assembly imposed the oath to the Civil Constitution of the clergy. “the state was master even in the religious sphere.”10 It was “certainly the Constituent Assembly’s most serious mistake. “If there was a point at which the Revolution ‘went wrong. the break between the pope and the revolutionary government was inevitable. it was the source of all law.”7 “The Turning Point” The regime demanded that every bishop and priest not merely conform to the Civil Constitution but swear a public oath of allegiance to it.

its officials.”17 The Insurgency “In the Vendée it was the republican assault on religion that turned the peasants into potential insurgents. It might have chosen to remove or mitigate some of the main causes of this discontent. (just before the first major rising).”18 But what turned potential insurgents into actual ones was the Revolution’s declaration in March 1793 that it would draft three hundred thousand peasants into the army while public officials (the republican bourgeoisie) granted themselves an exemption from this very draft.14 In June 1792 local authorities began the illegal deportation of all clergy who refused the oath. supporting a population of eight hundred thousand in an area half the size of Connecticut. full of grain and beef and sturdy houses. so it seemed.52
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National Guards.25 These bourgeois had always looked upon the
. it chose to suppress and eventually obliterate the Vendée.24 Regime militia units. composed largely of republican refugees from inflamed areas of the Vendée. of surrounding peasant communities and the Church upon which loyalties had focused.”20 The Vendean peasantry rose up against the draft from reluctance to be sent far away from their home districts. The regime struck Sunday from the calendar and forbade the erection of crosses on graves. the peasants-only draft was “the spark in the building stuffed with combustibles. nearly all the churches in the Vendée were declared closed. Having turned all Europe against itself.21 Coming on top of the assault on their priests.”13 Nonjuring priests risked harsh penalties for ministering secretly to their flocks. townsmen who had done consistently well out of the Revolution at the expense.”22 And so. and friends were manifestly unjust. one of the most prosperous regions in the country. in the spring of 1793. the same people who had bought up the best Church lands when they had come on the market. extensive areas of western France erupted in revolt. 1793. It thus provided “the sine qua non of any peasant rebellion: an overwhelming conviction that the government.15 On March 3. “A Movement Purely Democratic” The conflict was to a large degree a battle of town versus village.16 Soldiers carried off the bells and sacramental vessels. Instead.19 These bourgeois officials were “the same people who had ejected non-juring priests in 1791. predictably were bent on revenge against the country people.23 the Paris regime now faced rebellion at home.

facing worldwide demands on its slender military resources. The Vendeans first took the name of “The Catholic Army”. believed it could not afford to waste any assistance to what appeared to be a series of peasant riots.”26 The Vendean rebellion was spontaneous and local.”27 The insurgents elected their own local commanders. above all the reopening of their parish churches with their former priests.35 The British government.29 “Everything in this army was religion.”30 The Vendeans fought for local goals. it did not give them a strategic vision. Spain. Between 60. a Vendean force of ten thousand took the sizable town of Cholet. The Regime Responds At war with England.000 persons. Most Vendeans were armed with farm tools. and Prussia.”32 Here the Vendeans had an advantage: “A patriot gained so little by dying for the republic. the government dispatched inadequate numbers of ill-trained troops. the Revolutionary regime did not at first appreciate the magnitude of the revolt.Religion and Insurgency in the 18th and 19th Centuries
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peasants “not as potential partners to be won over but as potential enemies to be controlled. As late as the end of July only 80. When appeals by republican officials in the region could no longer be ignored.34 They received no arms from abroad. They obtained some real weapons from the republican troops. the phrase “and Royal” came later. The republicans now encountered an ideological fervor equal to their own.36 This was a major error.000 republican troops had reached the area. through combat or purchase.28 the longer the rebellion went on. whilst a Vendean braved death for his God and his King. the more certain that hostility toward the republican authorities would turn into support for monarchical restoration.37 Sometimes
. including thousands of women. Austria. This localism was to prove their main weakness. and the more violent the republican response to it. eventually took part in the rising. and the physical and moral initiative of the individual fighter. the sense of conviction. because it gave the Vendeans time to organize. But in March 1793.000 and 120.31 “The insurrection was the first instance of that modern type of war in which both sides stress the ideological involvement of their troops and use tactics that attempt to exploit the enthusiasm. “a movement purely democratic in its origin.”33 Religious exaltation gave the peasants courage and a cause. or from their own forges. Although at its core a religious revolt. other towns fell to them the same month without a fight.

In contrast the Vendeans combined the skill of the American Indian. Such propaganda was ineffective.39 Also inadequate were the army’s tactics. and imprisoned some of its best officers because they had previously held commissions in the royal army. who carried at most a gun and some ammunition. could move much more quickly than the pursuing republican troops heavily burdened with weapons and ammunition. an invading force of twenty thousand republican troops encountered thirty thousand insurgents. to see to their families and farms. that is what makes the Vendeans fearsome enemies. By late May. the fury of the Scots Highlander. thickets.”43 In April 1793.54
RESISTING REBELLION
the Vendeans would assemble a force of 100. bearing the face of the boy King Louis XVII (who would die in a republican prison). And political interference from Paris played its predictable role: to ensure the fidelity of republican officers fighting in the Vendée. and the zeal of the Cromwellian Ironside. the National Convention sent civil commissioners to oversee military operations.40 They fired at their antagonists from behind trees. and houses.” the Vendeans maneuvered and struck quickly. unlimited confidence in their chiefs. fatigues and privations. When they suffered defeat or encountered danger at a certain place. Many simply left their units and went home whenever it seemed appropriate.000 at a time.42 constantly amazed their foes. A republican general wrote: “Invincible attachment to their party. indomitable courage. By the end of the month the invaders had endured a severe mauling. A further handicap of the regime’s troops was their open contempt for the peasantry among whom they were operating. they vanished into the countryside. strong enough to meet the test of all sorts of dangers.41 Rebel mobility.45 This was especially likely to occur immediately after they had won a victory.38 The insurgency owed its early successes in part to the inadequate quality of the republican forces in the affected areas. especially among the followers of Charette. at the
. the insurgents were organizing a government and issuing their own currency. These peasant guerrillas. Operating on interior lines and unburdened by a heavy logistical “tail. That same month the Paris regime informed the Vendean rebels that they were being misled by priests who had sold themselves for English gold.44 Victory of the Regime But the Vendean forces had their serious shortcomings. principally indiscipline. such fidelity to their promises that it could take the place of discipline.

1793. an insurgent force of forty thousand attacked Saumur. The Vendeans gave up their attack on Nantes on June 29. Years later Napoleon said that after the capture of Saumur. if they had had an educated military leader. in part because of the death of a widely esteemed leader but more so because
. the Vendeans could have reached Paris and “the white flag [of the Catholic and Royal Army] would have flown over the towers of Notre Dame before it was possible for the armies on the Rhine to come to the aid of the government.47 They established no strict authority. It was this fact that saved the republic. They allowed their personal rivalries to impede coordination. they lacked strategic vision: nothing demonstrates this more clearly than their decision to turn back to their own country. writes Paret. they neither entered neighboring provinces.52 Most of the Vendean chiefs were brave and clever. the insurgent forces were not an army but a sort of home guard: the Vendean “fought for his church and his village. but after a victory they returned to their homes. But it meant as well that it was next to impossible for Vendean commanders to make long-range plans or mount long-term operations. “nothing could have halted the triumphant progress of the [Vendean] forces. but only await defeat. wasting time and lives on a fruitless siege of Nantes. with most of the republican forces engaged on the eastern frontier. But they did not.Religion and Insurgency in the 18th and 19th Centuries
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very point they should have been pursuing the beaten foe. This fateful error may well have saved the Revolution.”50 After Saumur. The Vendeans now had a truly golden opportunity. but their lack of a professional military background proved decisive. All this explains why. rather than pressing on toward Paris after their victory at Saumur. Unable to launch a strategic counterattack.”46 Local people joined together quickly from their farms and jobs to defend the local territory. 1793. nor consolidated their home base for a war of attrition.”51 Marching straight to Paris is what the Vendeans would have done. trained no full-time formations. Very few officers from the regular army joined the Vendean cause. and made no sustained attempt to burst through the ring of steel that their enemies were slowly constructing around them. they could not win. They captured the town along with eleven thousand prisoners and sixty cannon.48 “The peasants hastened forth when the ‘Blues’ [regime troops] were reported. although the Vendeans captured a considerable armament. Thus. The fall of Saumur interrupted traffic between Tours and Nantes and left the latter quite isolated. This defense of hearth and Church constituted the real source of Vendean strength and fierceness. Most of all.”49 On June 9.

”61 The hallmark of this new era was to be “the first ideological genocide” in human history. Instead they besieged Granville.”59 Genocide Far from bringing the war to a close. some miles from Nantes. 1793. This was “a true turning point in the war.53 Then. fled across the Loire heading in a generally northern direction. General Kleber caught the few thousand Vendean survivors at Savenay. after which many prisoners were killed. but this fact was unknown to them. priests. on December 23.58 “On that day. another slaughter took place. numerically and psychologically.63 In January 1794 more regime units invaded the Vendée. all have been put to death. brush and in general all things that can be burned are to be delivered to the flames. On December 12. Eventually their leaders decided to get to a seaport. sixty-five thousand Vendeans. “the column was utterly destroyed and the war of La Vendée was truly brought to a close. with no clear idea of where to go next.56
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it was simply beyond their ability to capture defended walled cities.62 This genocidal campaign commenced after the armed rebels had been slaughtered and scattered at Savenay.”54 Repulsed before the walls of Nantes. with no real organization or effective leaders.” wrote Adolphe Thiers.”57 A week and a half later. a republican army caught them in the open near Le Mans. the Vendeans suffered a demoralizing defeat at Cholet. the tide had turned against the Vendeans. General Westermann boasted that “women. including women and children and old men. approximately twenty thousand Vendeans repelled an equal number of regime troops near Dol. monks. I have spared nobody. wasted precious weeks wandering aimlessly and without order. once again failing to take a fortified city. What resulted was not a battle but a massacre. heath.56 But this victory was illusory. This was the end of the Catholic and Royal Army. and faced with an increasing inundation of destructive enemies. Among them were the so-called infernal columns. Indeed they almost certainly could have captured Cherbourg. 1793. Their orders were that “Villages.60 The radicalization of the regime had “ushered in a new era of warfare. beaten at Cholet.55 Yet on November 21–22. woods. in one of the largest encounters of the entire uprising. Thus the Vendeans. the massacre at Savenay brought instead the “most abominable” period of the Vendean struggle. “the death of a man is quickly forgotten. farms. children. on October 17. but the memory of a
. where perhaps they might receive succor from England.”64 As one republican official stated.

”71 and the Convention adopted a true “policy of extermination. hacking them with sabres to conserve ammunition. Old men. Many were simply buried alive in the “unconscionable slaughters of the winter of the Year II. women.77 During the first months of 1794 republican troops received orders to kill anybody. it addressed the Army of the West: “Soldiers of liberty! The brigands of the Vendée must be exterminated. their hands tied behind their backs.”65 The infernal columns began their work immediately after Savenay.80 Women in particular had opposed the regime’s attack on their customs and beliefs. Then they would kill them.82 Soldiers would gather great masses of women and rape them. only to be seized and executed. or wore the white cockade. General Kleber was transferred because he advocated a policy of moderation.”75 After defeating and destroying the Vendean army at Savenay. whom they found in areas recently cleared by patrols.”79 The savageries against women in the Vendée were perhaps the most revealing feature of the entire holocaust. the Committee of Public Safety commanded: “Totally crush this horrible Vendée.”73 On February 11. They also indiscriminately killed civilians.”74 “Conciliation was never seriously considered by the government. Thousands of Vendeans took advantage of this amnesty. or spoke against the draft. including women.68 The Convention had decreed the death penalty for all rebels—meaning anybody of either sex who bore arms.69 The Convention also ordained (contrary to its own statutes) that all captured Vendeans could be executed without trial. along with their children. Not only legitimate prisoners but even mere suspects were shot out of hand. then were shot beside them. 1793.67 But these “infernal columns” were more than incendiaries and animal-killers.Religion and Insurgency in the 18th and 19th Centuries
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house set afire remains with people for years.81 Now they would pay the price for daring to attract such attention to themselves. and children were forced to dig mass pits.78 Distinctions between combatants and noncombatants were erased.70 The Vendée became “a revolutionary police state.”72 On October 1.85 Putting all humanitarian considerations aside for the moment (if
.84 Others wrote of the bodies of young girls.83 One republican officer wrote to his sister that he had seen soldiers rape women by the roadside and then shoot them or stab them to death. Thousands died in this manner. naked. 1794.66 Perhaps one million cattle were also slaughtered or burned by the regime forces.76 During early 1794 the Republic promised pardon to all rebels who would surrender. hanging from the branches of trees.

94 At the end of 1794. committed war crimes. . were thus executed. So out of control had many regime units become that they ravaged not only the rebellious districts but also those in the hands of the loyalists.90 Later.92 plans were adopted for poisoning wells and spreading infection. Upon capturing them a subsequent time. . as well as they could. were loaded onto boats. All this burning and raping and killing undermined the discipline and morale of the republican troops. usually the older ones who could not or would not escape. The Paris regime was responsible for
. along with its women and children . in the full light of day. which supplied grain to several departments and meat to Paris and horses for the army. Generally.97 But rebel wrongdoing is quite beside the point: it is inadmissible to equate rebel and governmental acts of criminality in order to excuse or lessen the guilt of the latter. all suspicious persons.86 Another negative consequence was that these enormities inflamed and prolonged the fighting. it is dead under our sabre. of which they had tens of thousands.91 In this “generalized and daily terror” campaign. . which were then taken out to the middle of the Loire and sunk in the dark of night. too.”95 Another wrote to the Committee of Public Safety: “There is no longer a Vendée.88 One Revolutionary officer wrote: “The death of a patriot [republican] is a small thing when the public security is at stake. the Vendeans treated prisoners. regime troops often executed local republicans along with everybody else. French forces participating in the Vendean slaughter had the worst record for indiscipline of all the Revolutionary armies. is now only a pile of ruins. massacred the women.”89 Les Noyades Priests. however. including women and children. they executed them. The sheer terror of 1794.”96 It must be noted that the Vendeans.87 Indeed. which offered the inhabitants no chance of survival. sent many of them back into the ranks of the formerly beaten rebels. . one general reported: “This rich country. following the orders which you have given me. it is clear that allowing an army to sink to such acts is not good military practice.93 and for the use of poison gas against both prisoners and entire districts. They were often infuriated to discover that their prisoners were soldiers whom they had captured before and had released on the solemn promise to fight against the Vendeans no more. . and this was widely known. I have crushed the children under horses’ hooves.58
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possible).

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law and order and justice. Thus its acts—systematic trampling even on its own laws, butchering and drowning its own unarmed citizens— were far worse than the lapses of the rebels. The rebels carried out their atrocities in hot blood, while the executions and burnings and drownings of the Republic were “administrative,” that is, planned policy, as in the Nazi death camps.98 “There was something horribly new and unimaginable in the prospect of a government systematically executing its opponents [its own citizens] by the carload for months on end, and . . . this occurred in what had passed for the most civilized country in Europe.”99 But how could all this have happened? Where were Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity? A Republican Dictatorship In the 1790s it was not at all difficult or expensive for politicians to produce a mob in Paris, shouting revolutionary slogans and ready for sanguinary deeds. But Paris was not France. Outside of the large cities where it drew its mass support, the Revolution, especially in its Robespierrean phase, was decidedly a minority movement, with relatively little strength in most rural areas.100 Voting was by spoken word, in public, and exercised by less than half of the quite restricted pool of eligibles.101 Nevertheless, the radical minority was able to maintain its grip on power because of its superior organization, because its many opponents did not coordinate their rebellions against Paris, but most of all, because of its alliance with the army. Many army officers benefited directly and dramatically from the changes the Revolution had imposed. France was in effect a military dictatorship long before Napoleon. The events in the Vendée therefore confront us with “a central truth of the French revolution: its dependence on organized killings to accomplish political ends. [Its] power to command allegiance depended, from the very beginning, on the spectacle of death.”102 Most of the people executed by the Revolution were simple peasants and the urban poor, obscure, helpless, and forgotten.103 Almost every section of the country witnessed mass executions of civilians, sometimes by cannon fire. Resistance to the Revolution was “endemic throughout the south.”104 By 1795, “an enormous proportion of the population in the south and west supported movements which demanded nothing less than a return to the Old Regime.”105 In

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brief, “the insurrection which broke out on March 10, 1793, in [the Vendée and adjacent areas] was only the supreme manifestation, the most formidable episode, of the opposition and discontent which were seething among the mass of the populace throughout the whole of France.”106 A Kind of Peace Robespierre’s fall from power in July 1794 signaled the end of the official Reign of Terror. The new leaders began slowly to take steps to dampen the rebellion in the West, removing local authorities whom they considered to be too provocative, and releasing thousands of peasants held on mere suspicion. In December 1794 they also proclaimed a new amnesty—which this time seemed to have been fairly well observed—to all who would lay down their arms.107 Paris also revised its military approach to the Vendée. In August 1794 General Louis-Lazare Hoche, twenty-six years old, son of a groom in the royal stables, received command of the Army of Cherbourg and other forces. Hoche and his masters in Paris agreed that they must settle affairs in the Vendée first.108 Hoche’s pacification plan included preventing foreign assistance from reaching the rebels, cutting communications between the Vendée and Brittany, and covering the Vendée itself with constant patrols.109 Hoche built numerous strongpoints all around the northern and eastern boundaries of the Vendée. Heavy patrols constantly moved back and forth between these posts, so that no large groups of guerrillas could pass near them. To the west of this line he deployed powerful mobile columns, attempting thereby to force the rebel units either to disperse or to come up against the line of strongpoints and their patrols.110 He chose a certain area demarcated by strongpoints and then inundated that area with troops, thus forcing any rebels in that sector to move westward, ever closer to the imprisoning sea. Hoche gradually pushed his line of fortified posts deeper and deeper into the Vendée, continuously reducing the territory in which the rebels could roam. He was thus developing a variant of the clear-and-hold strategy that would become famous later in Malaya and Algeria. By making his columns support one another he deprived the rebels of the advantages of their mobility and knowledge of the territory. Confronted by overwhelming numbers of effectively deployed troops, hemmed into a small and constantly diminishing area with no place to hide or run, the Vendean rebels were doomed.

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At the same time Hoche proceeded systematically to disarm the entire Vendean population. Officers would estimate the male population of a given parish, and set a quota of one musket for every four males. Then they would seize hostages and cattle, to be held until the requisite number of muskets had been handed in.111 In addition to these military measures, Hoche emphasized the importance of political considerations in ending the Vendean insurgency. As early as October 1793, before he arrived to command in the West, he had written that “the enemy was not the Vendée . . . the only enemy was England.”112 This interesting view would have very important consequences. “Let us never forget that politics must play a great role in this war. Let us in turn use humaneness, virtue, probity, force, cunning, and always that dignity proper to republicans.”113 That is, military operations must be supplemented by political concessions. In the last months of 1795 Hoche devoted much effort to improving relations with the local clergy. “The Vendeans have but one real sentiment, that is, attachment to their priests. These latter want nothing but protection and tranquility. Let us ensure both to them, let us add some benefits, and the affections of the country will be restored to us.”114 On the other hand, Hoche recognized that “if religious toleration is not allowed, there will be no peace in this part of France.”115 What a lot of blood had to be spilled in order for somebody in authority to arrive at this simple idea. In pursuit of his elementary but powerful concepts, Hoche (who himself had once been thrown into prison by the Terror) would extend tolerance to the nonjuring priests, treat the civil population leniently, and punish pillaging soldiers severely. (Despite Hoche’s orders and fierce threats, many of his troops continued to kill, steal, and rape.)116 This policy of political conciliation made Hoche many enemies among the local republicans, but his political friends were able to sustain him.117 In February 1795, Hoche arranged a peace between the Convention and the insurgent leader François Charette at Nantes. The treaty promised the Vendeans freedom of religion, exemption from the draft, the return of confiscated property, and indemnity for victims of the worst outrages.118 Most of the fighting in the Vendée then came to a close. Hoche’s campaign succeeded primarily because he had sufficient troops to carry out his policy of gradual occupation of every square mile of Vendean territory. But peace was also attained because the surviving inhabitants of the countryside were physically and morally ex-

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hausted, and because the regime was finally willing to compromise with the religious sentiments of the people.119 The Aftermath The conflict, and the manner in which it was waged, was quite unnecessary: Hoche showed this by conceding the Vendeans’ main demands. Yet the suppression of the Vendée resulted in “the total economic devastation of the region.”120 Over ten thousand houses had been burned down and four-fifths of the male population killed or chased out. The war reduced the permanent population of the Vendée by one-third.121 “Historians agree that this insanity cost the lives of one hundred and fifty thousand victims.”122 More French died in the Vendée than in Napoleon’s Russian campaign.123 Indeed, in relation to the total population of the time, the number of Frenchmen, soldiers and civilians, killed as a result of the Revolution—before the Napoleonic wars began—represents a greater loss than France suffered during all of World War I.124 (The equivalent figure in the United States in the year 2000 would be twenty times the total American military losses in World War II.)125 And within the lifetime of some of those who had been at Waterloo, the victorious armies of Prussia would parade down the Champs Élysées. The French army learned little from the Vendean experience. It would behave the same way in Spain. Command of French artillery in the Vendée had been offered to the young Bonaparte. His refusal was good for his historical reputation, but he missed the chance to learn some lessons about guerrilla warfare that might have influenced his policy in Spain, and thus have changed the destiny of France.126 Reflection The Vendean insurgents had important sources of strength. They drew inspiration from both religious fervor and a deep sense of injustice. The regime’s brutal methods further alienated the population.127 But they carried serious burdens as well. They lacked proper terrain for guerrilla war, the support of regular military units,128 and most of all, help from outside. However brave and exasperated, the plain people of the Vendée possessed neither strategic vision nor political coherence. Nevertheless, in the end, the Vendée had its revenge. When Bonaparte, heir and embodiment of the Revolution, escaped his Elban exile, the Vendeans (and many others) rose up once more. The thirty thousand troops Napoleon sent to suppress the Vendean rebellion might

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have made all the difference between victory and defeat at Waterloo, where on the climactic day Bonaparte commanded but seventy-two thousand soldiers.129

SPAIN
In October 1805, Nelson’s victory over the combined French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar sank Napoleon’s plans for an invasion of England.130 Consequently, Napoleon instead decided to bring the British to their knees with a Europe-wide economic blockade. As part of this grand enterprise, in May 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain; forcing its king to abdicate, he put his brother Joseph on the throne. Possession of Spain would shut out English goods, and also (presumably) bring Napoleon control of Spain’s vast overseas empire and respectable fleet. Thus Trafalgar was one of the most important battles in world history. In its absence, it is hard to see how there would have been an occupation of Spain, a Peninsular War, a Duke of Wellington—or a Waterloo. In 1808 France was a country of thirty million people, with the most puissant armies in Europe. Spain counted only eleven million, and had long ceased to be a power of the first rank. These undeniable facts, plus years of battlefield success, allowed Napoleon to underestimate most gravely the difficulty of the Spanish undertaking,131 a fateful error similar to the one he had already committed in Haiti132 and would commit in Russia. From the start, things in Spain went badly. In July 1808, at Bailén, a French army of twenty thousand capitulated to the army of the Spanish national resistance government centered in Cádiz. This French force had been considerably harried by guerrillas, partly because it had earlier plundered the Cathedral of Córdoba. Two weeks after Bailén, the future Duke of Wellington landed in Portugal with a small professional British army and took command of all Portuguese forces. Throughout the war, the Royal Navy carried supplies to the Anglo-Portuguese forces, protected the flow of assistance to the Cádiz government from Latin America, and carried weapons to the ever more numerous Spanish guerrillas, who were rendering vital assistance to Wellington.133 In the early days, the French concentrated on defeating the regular forces of the Cádiz government, thus giving the guerrillas the chance to organize themselves. As a consequence, the French could devote full attention neither to Wellington’s British and Portuguese regulars nor to the Spanish guerrillas.134

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In these circumstances, the best strategy for the French would have been to win over key strata of the Spanish population, or at least reduce the number of their enemies. Actually, notable elements of the Spanish elite and middle class were not unhappy to see a Napoleonic regime in Madrid. These “Afrancesados” hoped that French control would help to modernize a Spain that had descended to the status of a second-class power, at best. To them, the French seemed invincible; and besides, King Joseph Bonaparte was relatively enlightened and obviously well-meaning. Beyond these elite groups, the French might have tried to attract those elements of the popular classes who had reason to be dissatisfied with the status quo, and they would have been many. But the French did not pursue a policy of attraction. On the contrary, their behavior in Spain was egregious. The depredations and atrocities of the Napoleonic troops made ready recruits for the Cádiz forces and most of all for the guerrillas—a story to be repeated again and again in the annals of insurgency. Everywhere the French raped women of all conditions, including minors, nuns, and expectant mothers.135 They pillaged and burned whole cities. They made little effort to distinguish the peaceful from the resistant. Most disastrously for themselves, they looted and gutted cathedrals and churches, murdered priests, and committed public sacrilege of the grossest sort. When Saragossa fell after a heroic resistance, the French made a point of desecrating the city’s churches. Spain had sixty thousand parish priests and many thousands more in religious orders. “It was they, in close touch with the people . . . who instilled the spirit of revolt.”136 Under the leadership of their priests, great numbers of humble folk, who might otherwise have remained passive, took up arms against the French, in a popular resistance movement that took on the aspects of a holy war.137 Thus, “the war in Spain [became] the most cruel, the most pitiless, the most desperate of all wars.”138 Guerrillas frequently mutilated their French prisoners; once they actually boiled a general in a cauldron. Imperial soldiers who found themselves cut off or surrounded often committed suicide rather than fall into guerrilla hands.139 The Spanish insurgency was thus a grisly harbinger of modern wars of national liberation. Defeat of the French The guerrillas concentrated on disrupting Imperial supplies and communications. Spain is the size of Austria, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands combined, or of Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea com-

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bined. The distance from Paris to Cádiz is greater than that from Chicago to Austin. Indeed Paris is closer to Warsaw than to Cádiz. Numerous mountain chains and rivers cross the country from east to west—major obstacles to any invading force. And the Napoleonic armies of course had no aircraft, no telephones, not even a telegraph. Hence messengers with the most urgent dispatches would take two weeks to travel from Paris to Madrid, if they arrived at all, across a barren landscape with a hostile population and ubiquitous guerrillas. Sometimes a French commander in one region of Spain would have no idea, literally for weeks, of what was going on in other areas of the peninsula. (Even before the guerrilla insurgency had really gotten started, none of the pleas for help from the commander of the ill-fated army at Bailén had reached Madrid.) When campaigning in Belgium and Italy and the Rhineland, the victorious French had “lived off the land” (a euphemism for looting the civilian population). Hence their system of logistics was woefully underdeveloped. “Alternating between total privation on the one hand and feasting and drunkenness on the other, [the French soldier] was condemned to a life of disease. No one cared about his health. The medical service continued to be utterly neglected. . . . Napoleon’s military strategy was predicated on the existence of fertile and populous lands. . . . When he invaded North Germany, Poland, Spain and Russia, geographical conditions made his system unworkable and the army was imperiled.”140 Soon enough, French forces in Spain went unpaid and unfed. Cavalry horses died by the hundreds from overwork and malnutrition.141 It was of course “the power of rapid movement that was the true strength of the guerrillas.”142 Eventually even columns of two thousand soldiers were not safe from severe guerrilla mauling.143 The day came when the French controlled “only the ground upon which the soles of their shoes rested.”144 The French learned little from this hellish experience, and thus plodded on to another disaster in Russia. From the beginning of the occupation, the French and Imperial forces had only a very marginal technological superiority over the guerrillas. French advantages lay in their superior tactics and numbers, and these proved to be waning assets. Guerrilla tactics notably improved during the course of the conflict (all guerrillas have a self-activating, Darwinian merit system: incompetently-led guerrillas soon die). Besides, Napoleon opposed static defense; hence the French relied very heavily upon sweep maneuvers. Of course these usually failed, and the guerrillas quickly returned to the swept areas.

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As for the French numerical advantage, it soon showed itself to be a fatal illusion. To fight Wellington, the guerrillas, and the forces of the Cádiz government successfully, the French would have needed 825,000 troops. Such a figure would have been impossible to reach, even if all Napoleonic forces in Europe, including Polish and Italian allies, could by some miracle (or insanity) have been concentrated in Spain. And of course the Russian adventure soon drew away thousands of soldiers. The quarter-million Imperial troops south of the Pyrenees were quite inadequate for controlling the guerrillas, containing Wellington, and conquering Cádiz, but they were more than adequate to account for Napoleonic defeats elsewhere in Europe. “The trained cavalry still locked up in Spain might well have turned the scale in the campaign of Germany [in 1813].”145 Napoleon’s invasion of Spain thus opened up the continent to the British army, helped to train the future Duke of Wellington, sacrificed tens of thousands of Imperial troops badly needed elsewhere—more French soldiers perished in Spain than in Russia146—and, above all, destroyed the potent myth of French invincibility: Spanish resistance to Napoleon soon rekindled Europe’s determination to rid itself of the Corsican conqueror, with disastrous results for Napoleon. There can be little doubt that “the decision to seize Iberia was probably the most disastrous blunder of Napoleon’s career.”147 At any rate, on Saint Helena Napoleon declared: “That miserable Spanish affair is what killed me.”

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CHAPTER 4

RELIGION AND INSURGENCY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The twentieth century witnessed religious insurgencies as violent as those of the preceding century, and in the case of Afghanistan, as consequential internationally as the anti-Napoleonic revolt in Spain.

AFGHANISTAN
For generations, Afghanistan ranked as one of the most remote and obscure places on earth. Yet the religiously inspired uprising that swept across that country beginning in 1979 is probably the best-known guerrilla insurgency of the last quarter of the twentieth century. Because several chapters of this book discuss key aspects of that conflict, only the outlines of the religious basis of the war are presented here. The Communist Party of Afghanistan, the PDPA, came into existence in 1965. It always remained an exiguous minority, beset by bloody factional divisions. In 1978, after a coup and assassinations, the minuscule and inexperienced PDPA unexpectedly found itself in power, and it began imposing Leninist reforms. The urban membership and Soviet orientation of the PDPA had incubated a fierce hatred both of Islam and of the peasantry. The PDPA regime launched an all-out assault on the customs of the population, aiming in effect for a latter-day, full-scale Central Asian Stalinism. Forcible and arbitrary land reform offended Muslim concepts of legality.1 As part of the PDPA literacy campaign, women were dragged from their homes to listen to antireligious lectures. The regime admitted to killing without trial 12,000 political prisoners and religious teachers in its first two years of power; the actual number was probably much larger. The regime appeared as “repulsively anti-Islamic.”2 Such egregious behavior, in a country with perhaps 320,000 mullahs, naturally called forth a widespread popular rebellion, in fact “the largest single national rising in the twentieth century.”3
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In March 1979, anti-regime riots rocked the streets of Herat. The PDPA reprisals, including aerial bombings, killed between three thousand and five thousand inhabitants of that city. Revolt swept over the country, and soon most provinces were in the hands of the insurgents. To prevent the fall of the PDPA regime, the Soviet army invaded in December 1979. The entrance of Soviet troops enflamed rather than quenched the rebellion. In the eyes of most of the Mujahideen guerrillas, the conflict became a defense of religion against foreign atheists. To the Kremlin’s incredulous dismay, the resistance stalemated the Soviet forces, the first clear reversal of the “historical inevitability of Marxism-Leninism” since the 1920 war with Poland. The invincible Red Army, conquerors of Berlin, held at bay by semiliterate warriors of God, Leninism tamed by Islam—what a spectacle. Faced with this burgeoning disaster, Mikhail Gorbachev and others initiated a major reexamination of the entire Soviet national defense doctrine, a move that resulted in the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, and eventually from Central Europe. Trotsky supposedly said in 1919 that “the road to Paris and London lies through the towns of Afghanistan, the Punjab and Bengal.”4 As in so many things, Trotsky was wrong about this—dead wrong, so to speak. But in a devastating way, Trotsky’s aphorism about the relationship between revolution in Europe and Asia turned out to be correct. The cries of battle in the Afghan mountains found their echo in the shouts of freedom on the Berlin Wall.5 And even with all this, the world had not heard the last of Afghanistan. The religiously generated insurgencies considered below are not nearly so well known as the Afghan case, even though they all produced major conflict in their respective countries, and one of them— the Sudanese—still continues after more than forty years.

MEXICO
The Cristero rebellion—“the last insurrection of the masses” in Mexico6—was one of the largest insurgencies in the Western Hemisphere. Yet few Americans have ever heard of it. As the foremost student of that conflict observed, “history has failed the Cristeros.”7 The Cristero movement, called by Mexicans La Cristiada, fought against religious persecution by the regime in Mexico City. Although Mexico has an overwhelmingly Catholic population, the Church there

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suffered considerable tribulation for more than a century. After independence from Spain, “the definition of the proper role of the Church became the critical issue; the history of Mexico from 1821 to 1872 could be written in terms of the search for that definition.”8 Power in Mexico has often been in the hands of men implacably hostile to religion, a condition facilitated by the political ineptitude of many Mexican Church leaders. The civil war called the War of the Reform was “essentially a religious conflict.”9 Benito Juárez and his followers seized the Church’s property and persecuted both clergy and laymen. Confiscations of Church lands led to great profits for speculators but little benefit for peasants. In reaction to Juárez, many Church leaders joined with the Conservative Party in supporting the reign of the French-imposed Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. The withdrawal of French backing for Maximilian and the return to power of Juárez exposed the Church to new attacks.10 After the fall of the dictator-president Díaz in 1911,11 prominent Catholic leaders supported the regime of General Victoriano Huerta. The price for this miscalculation was physical outrages against clergy and property, including open murder. (The Huerta regime would almost certainly have survived and established a semblance of order in Mexico, thus saving hundreds of thousands of lives, except for the opposition of President Woodrow Wilson.)12 The State The post-Huerta regime “had come to power through military force. It maintained itself by authoritarian means, without free elections. The constitution had been imposed by a small minority of revolutionaries and had never been submitted to a vote for popular approval or rejection.”13 The regime desired not the separation of Church and state but rather the control of the Church by the state. Elections became fraudulent to the point of tragicomedy. The semi-sacred battle cry of the Madero revolution of 1910—“No reelection!”—was crudely cast aside by President Obregón.14 Members of the Mexican Congress who dared to object to this power grab were expelled.15 General Venustiano Carranza, “Mexico’s last [L]iberal,”16 organized the convention that produced the constitution of 1917. Only his followers were allowed to vote for or be elected to this convention.17 The new constitution was far more hostile to the Church than the Juárez constitution of 1857. “Indeed, if [the 1917 constitution had been] strictly executed, the very existence of the Church would have

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been threatened.”18 “From the standpoint of religious freedom, most of the restrictions bordered on the ridiculous,”19 and “no religious body anywhere in the world could have accommodated itself to them.”20 Article 130 declared that clerics who were arrested for violating antireligious decrees could not have a trial by jury, thus acknowledging the wide unpopularity of these measures.21 No referendum or freely elected assembly ever ratified the 1917 constitution. Carranza’s successor was General Álvaro Obregón. He and his henchman Plutarco Calles had fought against and eventually killed the populist leaders Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata, saving the Carranza regime. But when Carranza sought to extend his presidential term, Obregón and Calles, hungry to take office themselves, revolted, and Carranza was murdered. At the end of his term in 1924, Obregón imposed his minister of the interior, the arch-anticatholic Plutarco Calles, as the next president of Mexico. In his earlier life Calles had been fired as a schoolteacher in Hermosillo and later suffered dismissal as treasurer of a municipality in Sonora because of shortfalls in funds with which he had been entrusted. He gathered more experience as a bartender and hotel manager. As governor of Sonora (Obregón’s bailiwick) under Carranza, Calles expelled all priests from that state. Most of the revolutionary leaders who had opposed both Díaz and Huerta were of northern origin.22 They were men of means who had been deprived of what they saw as their share of the political spoils. Many led or joined the revolution for personal or political gain: revolution was the only way to make room at the top or the middle for new men. During the succession of civil wars that wracked Mexico after 1910, officers quickly improved their rank by switching again and again from one side to another. As the years of fighting went on, the leaders of the different revolutionary currents enriched themselves. “Palatial homes, fine estates, prosperous ranches, flourishing businesses—these were the fruits of revolution.”23 More importantly, the revolutionary men of the North “were the enemies of the Indian, of the peasant, of the priest of that Old Mexico which they never understood because they never belonged to it.” They “hated the Old Mexico and despised its traditions, looking down on both its customs and its faith.”24 Their soldiers sacked cities, raped women, looted churches, burned libraries, massacred peasants, broke strikes, shot priests (including foreign nationals), and extorted money from everyone.25

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Mexico on the Eve In the 1920s, the great majority of devout Catholics were either peasants or upper- and upper-middle-class women. Mexican women did not have the vote, and peasants, mostly Indian, did not normally challenge governmental authority, that is, the army and police. (Thus the 1926 Cristero rising would be a big surprise to leaders of both Church and state.) There was a severe shortage of clergy, especially in the rural areas. Many of the Mexican bishops were men of learning and probity. But they, like the city priests, the canon lawyers, and Catholic intellectual and political lay leaders in Mexico City (not to speak of Vatican City) lived in a world so completely removed from that of the devout peasants who would make up the rank and file of the Cristero rebellion that they might have come from a different century or even a different planet.26 (The peasant army of Emiliano Zapata, perhaps the most authentically popular movement of the entire revolutionary period, never attacked the Church per se.)27 Under Calles, clashes between government forces and Catholic citizens became more violent. In July 1925 police and troops fired on worshippers in and around churches in the city of Guadalajara, inflicting perhaps six hundred casualties.28 Police in other cities often fired into crowds of women inside or in front of churches, causing many deaths.29 Regime goons assaulted members of Catholic labor unions. In February 1926, Archbishop Mora y del Rio was arrested for critical remarks regarding the constitution in a newspaper interview. President Calles used this incident to launch a determined assault against the Church.30 Neither Carranza nor Obregón had enforced the antireligious clauses of the 1917 constitution with any vigor. But in June 1926 Calles, employing “utterly ruthless and vindictive methods,”31 decreed the activation of the antireligious articles in the constitution (though his manner of handing down decrees often violated that very constitution). The regime confiscated what Church property had not already been nationalized. Eager for the “progressive deChristianization” of Mexico,32 the regime expelled all foreign-born priests. It closed down all schools, asylums, and orphanages where religious instruction had been given (this in a society with distressingly large numbers of illiterates).33 It prohibited all religious education, even in private schools. No private school could display a religious picture, and no teacher in such a school was permitted even to mention a religious subject.34 In the states of Michoacan, Hidalgo, and elsewhere,

This was a grave circumstance. with the departure of four hundred foreign-born priests. The rising also found significant support in the states of Colima. Puebla. . there were but thirty-six hundred priests left in all of Mexico. But the Cristeros were weak in Chihuahua and other states along the U. into which police or troops could enter at will to look for evidence or make arrests (or steal). 1926.S.36 In many areas of the country religious practices were illegal even in private homes. border.) In protest. the Mexican Church was on the road to physical disappearance. some priests were trained in secret.37 No one was permitted to remain or become a member of a monastic order.”35 Any cleric who criticized the regime or the authorities could be jailed for five years. because of the insurgents’ need for munitions from the United States. fighting between armed Catholics and regime troops broke out in various places. The Cristeros In August 1926. Calles began expelling foreign-born nuns.40 Most of the rebels used as a battle cry “Viva Cristo Rey!” (Long Live Christ the King!). forbidden to open seminaries to train new ones. Deprived of priests from abroad. Vera Cruz.72
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teachers swore this oath: “I declare that I am an atheist.39 With 8 percent of the country’s population and 20 percent of its priests. . that I will endeavor to destroy it. Clearly. . The coming suppression of these services made them all the more desirable and well attended. The rising was most massive in the state of Jalisco. In January 1927. most of them teachers or nurses. especially in the great cities. Guanajuato. huge crowds seeking baptisms and/or marriages overwhelmed the churches. Traditional Mexican uprisings took the name of a famous leader—
. and others educated in seminaries in Texas. an irreconcilable enemy of the Catholic. and Zacatecas. Guerrero. In July. the Mexican bishops took an unprecedented and perilous step: they declared a nationwide cessation of all religious services to begin August 1. Their name also reflected a great truth about their movement. a name they adopted with panache. Apostolic and Roman religion. Querétero. From this phrase the regime contemptuously pinned the name Cristeros on them. and the rebellion lasted longest there. Michoacan. “the enemies of Catholicism were legislating it out of existence in Mexico. though.”38 (In practice. The governor of Campeche limited the number of priests in the entire state to five. Jalisco was the most populous and most Catholic of all the states.

When they captured a town with a telephone. advancement or punishment. Formed from and sustained by family and village. but dexterous with machetes. but not the officers. the most important weapon of any guerrilla movement. as in much of Jalisco state. Women were the secret backbone of the movement. The rebels operated predominantly in the mountainous areas of western Mexico. Lacking in munitions.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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Juáristas.”44 Estimates of the number of Cristero fighters vary widely. and regional. But even in open terrain unsuitable for guerrillas. intelligence.46 And at the same time. they often engaged in hand-tohand combat. and they were often accompanied by their entire families. Carrancistas. They blew up bridges and attacked baggage trains and supply columns in the mountainous areas that were their strongholds and refuges. Some Cristero units shot their prisoners. dedicated to a righteous cause. and carried food. supplied money. sometimes they allowed common soldiers to go free. But the Cristeros had no such leader.45 These brigades enrolled thousands of members. The Cristeros had few weapons except their rifles. a practice they copied from the army. Even so. their movement was spontaneous. Women’s Brigades set up and ran rudimentary field hospitals.42 “That was why the peasants took up arms—because the Revolution was trying to take their priest away from them. but fifty thousand seems a reasonable figure. Maderistas. “The Cristeros were free men who were unmoved by considerations of pay.”43 As one student of the rebellion in the Los Altos region of Jalisco concluded: “It was a people’s war in the truest sense. long abused by the regime. local. without national organization. usually between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five. Cristeros usually operated in their home territory. and ammunition to Cristero units. the Cristeros had very high morale.”41 Their goal was not to overthrow the regime but to win recognition of basic religious rights. Zapatistas. in the mountains of Sonora the Yaqui Indians. urban and rural. Beyond the mountains Cristeros often proved to be excellent cavalrymen. Many Cristeros had ample courage. during 1927 most Cristero units accepted the name of The Army of National Liberation. the conviction of the Cristeros and the support of the civilian population enabled them to fight with success. rose up and cooperated with local Cristero units. convinced that any one of them killed in battle was a true martyr. but lacked the most elemen-
. which they knew well. the Cristeros immediately put in an insulting call to the nearest regime garrison.

If they were to have a serious chance of winning. they simply were not able to obtain adequate ammunition. some of them “found martyrdom for the cause glorious. provided to them by the villagers of the western states. Lack of ammunition was the principal weakness of the Cristeros: it was the main cause of the failure of their attack on Guadalajara in March 1929. the bishops would not condemn the rebellion. Enrique Gorostieta. or achievement of surprise. But in June 1929 regime agents murdered Gorostieta during a parley in which his safety had been guaranteed. even if it were available. and that in turn would require the open support of the Mexican bishops. and thus their forces suffered far fewer casualties than the regime troops did. another quite vital element was lacking to the Cristeros. As a collegial body. the Cristeros would make many grenades from one unexploded bomb dropped by an army aircraft. they would need the backing of the large majority of devout Catholics.47 Gorostieta advised Cristero commanders never to fight unless they were sure of victory because of superiority of numbers. they sometimes captured ammunition from enemy troops. This was not forthcoming. his loss was of course a grave blow to Cristero morale. but neither would they urge Catholics to embrace it.50 Some bishops forbade Catholics under their jurisdiction to join the Cristeros. Some of the bishops were philosophical pacifists.48 By 1928 the Cristeros had learned how to maneuver in large numbers. But there was never nearly enough. exhaustion of the enemy. Working with what little they had. Most Cristero leaders instinctively knew all this. or purchased it from regime generals. without money—which could come only from rich Catholics. and the root of their tactic of charging well-armed enemies in order to engage in close combat.”51 Others believed that violence would be fruitless or even bring about
. and thus in the end they could not win. very few of whom assisted them. Although the rebels had plenty of food. Many of the bishops opposed the rebellion because they were hopeful that persecution would abate in a second Obregón administration. or soon learned it. became commander of the Cristeros in Jalisco. The Cristero failure to win a quick victory further undermined support for them.49 In all the civil wars and rebellions that followed the Revolution of 1910. tactics were less important than logistics.74
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tary military training and tactical knowledge. Besides ammunition. and later in all Mexico. advantage of position. This situation improved after August 1927 when a professional officer. They would not even appoint chaplains for Cristero units.

The Army Under the long rule of Porfirio Díaz. while Archbishop Orozco y Jimenez of Guadalajara (in pro-Cristero Jalisco) secretly traveled around his state. even for non-capital offenses. not satisfied with looting property. By 1928.”57
.”54 President Obregón had tamed the ever-restless army leaders in part by allowing them to engage in systematic corruption.55 Some regime generals falsified reports about the strength of their units so that they could pocket the pay and supplies for phantom soldiers. the Calles regime executed suspects without trial.S. Consequently. had scattered into several countries. In brief.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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increased persecution. especially in Jalisco. and were deeply divided about what to do. Both portraits are grotesque. sheltered by humble folk. especially in western states. or as a White Guard paid by the great landlords.52 By 1928 the army desertion rate may have reached 35 percent annually. “it was a colonial war. the Mexican army’s main task was to suppress internal opposition.56 Others have since tried to paint the Cristeros as small landowners threatened by land reform. The regime also fought the rebellion by population removal. still others thought that engaging in violence would make Catholics morally indistinguishable from the Calles forces. Generals like Manuel Ávila Camacho made a fortune out of the anti-Cristero campaigns. in fear of their lives. kill. and move on.53 Consequently the Calles regime emptied the penitentiaries and forced the inmates into the army. sold arms directly to the Cristeros. several commanders. The regime army fielded around seventy-five thousand soldiers. the third year of the rebellion. carried on by a colonial army against its own people. many of the bishops. rape. Some lived in comfort across the U. Not surprisingly. eluding the police and the army for years. a view that resonated among some urban Catholic elements. a task to which it had proved inadequate in the Revolution of 1910. border. Then the Cristeros would return and receive new recruits into their ranks. “The only ‘white guards’ in Los Altos were Federal [regime] troops defending the latifundistas [great landlords] against a revolutionary peasantry. loot. It also heavily censored press coverage of the rebellion and sought to portray the rebels as backward rural fanatics. And so it remained. while the army was conducting itself as a sort of recruiting agency for the rebels. Meanwhile. against fifty thousand Cristeros. army units would come into a disaffected area. the Cristeros.

60 was confronted by dangers from every quarter. in combination with the Cristeros. several Obregónist generals. of Sorts By the end of 1927 the regime was clearly unable to bring the western states under its control. Moreover. President Portes Gil was not a fierce Church-hater like Calles. a sine qua non of rebel victory. the conciliatory Arch-
. Obregón wanted the religious question settled. he would undoubtedly raise a revolt and cooperate with the Cristeros. to offer financial assistance. and unknown numbers of civilians. including several who had been on the winning side in previous struggles. was clearly not imminent. the disinclination of Catholics in the U. appeared to believe that President Calles had been involved in the deed. on the death of the Archbishop of Mexico City. would have smashed the Calles establishment. Calles’s handpicked successor. By then the war had cost the lives of sixty thousand soldiers and forty thousand Cristeros. the rebels’ continuing inability to obtain sufficient quantities of ammunition. an open endorsement of the Cristeros by the Mexican bishops. following his inevitable “defeat” at the polls. Moreover.61 The rebels had also largely given up any hope of either U. and prominent Catholics’ public support for the Mexican government in its disputes with the U. Former President Obregón was declared to have been elected president again on July 1.76
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A Peace. President Calles issued a violent statement accusing the clergy of engineering the killing. were plotting to take advantage of the Cristero revolt.S.S. after the violent deaths of the opposition candidates. but in the midst of peace talks on July 17.S.59 It was also devouring great chunks of the national budget. Provisional President Emilio Portes Gil. The rebellion’s effectiveness was becoming increasingly hampered by the improved efficiency of army operations. In addition. 1928.S. intervention or successful anti-Calles revolts within the army. 1928. the somewhat more lenient treatment accorded to surrendered Cristeros. infuriated by their leader’s assassination. And in March 1929 a new military rebellion was offering cooperation to the Cristeros. a twenty-six-year-old art teacher named José de Leon Toral fatally shot him. A revolt by them.. Besides. The regime feared that the renowned intellectual José Vasconcelos would seek the presidency in 1929. But the Cristeros faced mounting problems as well.58 A subsequent offensive by regime troops from December 1928 to February 1929 failed. And in April 1928. Groups of exiled politicians in the U.

U. an official settlement came in the form of statements issued by Provisional President Portes Gil and Archbishop Ruiz y Flores. over the heads of the Cristeros and even of the Mexican bishops. government for fear that they would make Mexican Catholics seem unpatriotic. Meanwhile. And—perhaps equally troubling—what if the Cristeros should win. but only through a verbal agreement.63 The war was ended by negotiations among Calles. and at the cost of a deeply divided Catholic community. the numbers apprehended and killed may have reached five thousand. He opposed efforts to seek intervention by the U. the criticisms and fears expressed by the Cristeros soon seemed more than justified. Portes Gil acknowledged the right of bishops to appoint priests.S. Predictably. the Vatican. and especially guerrilla war. As it turned out.64 On June 21. Pope Pius XI believed that passive resistance was the Christian tradition. and Ambassador Morrow. Still. many Cristeros expressed great bitterness. Despite President Portes Gil’s promise of amnesty. and of Catholic citizens to petition for redress of grievances. that war.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow was able to bring President Calles and Mexican Catholic leaders into contact. emerged as leader of the Mexican episcopate. not mere verbal promises by a Calles regime politico. there was to be no religious instruction in schools. that the Cristero rebellion might lead to religious schism. Hunts went on for leaders of the former rebellion.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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bishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores. Post-1929 Struggles Peace had apparently been restored. he wanted the Mexican bishops to accept the best settlement available. and to embrace his ideas of social reform.62 In these circumstances. 1929. the army shot several hundred surrendered Cristeros without the pretense of a trial. on June 27. which the bish-
.66 Reprisals against the Cristeros provoked further and more desperate rebellious outbreaks.65 Nevertheless. even private ones. and that if the guerrillas were defeated the Mexican Church would pay a terrible price. not by a signed document. was full of moral ambiguities. the Mass was openly celebrated in Mexico City for the first time in three years. 1929. Vatican ambassador to Mexico. thousands of their comrades had suffered death to obtain real constitutional changes. what then? What inappropriate responsibilities for governing Mexico would fall upon the Church? The Pope’s formula for peace in Mexico excluded armed revolt.

the governor had the churches stripped of all objects of value.73 In Vera Cruz.76 And Archbishop Ruiz y Flores. and churches were burned. members of the clergy were informed that there was no religious persecution. was deported.72 Political opponents of the Tabasco governor were shot down in the streets of his capital.77 Pius XI decried the persecution of Mexican Catholics but counseled nonviolence. despite constitutional guarantees of the free practice of religion. the consciences of the young.69 In that same year in all Mexico there were only 322 priests functioning legally. a fight broke out in the Chamber of Deputies between supporters of President Cárdenas and former president Calles. despite being a Mexican citizen. The conflict went on. two deputies were killed and several wounded. this move clearly aimed at the extinction of the priesthood and ultimately of the Church. killing and wounding many. and a group of paramilitaries from Tabasco fired pistols at civilians coming out of a church in the Coyoacan district of Mexico City. police shot women and priests in the streets. In July 1934 former president Calles announced that “we must enter into and take possession of the minds of the children.70 The Mexican hierarchy allowed Catholics to fulfill their Sunday obligation on any day of the week.74 Violence permeated even the inner sancta of the national regime: on September 11. For good measure. because he “owed allegiance to a foreign sovereign.78
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ops publicly disowned. because they do belong
.67 In half of the states no priests at all were permitted. police carried off religious images from private homes. By 1934 thirteen states had closed almost all the churches within them. and compelled unwilling citizens to participate in the destruction of church buildings.68 A constitutional amendment in November 1934 forbade the existence of seminaries for training new priests. Since no foreign priests were permitted in the country. the pope. removed crosses from graveyards. The governor of Vera Cruz state expelled 187 of its 200 priests. because even the vast cathedral in Mexico City was too small to hold all the people crowding in to hear Mass. who had made the peace agreement with Portes Gil. Even the traditional term adios was forbidden. 1935. nonreligious or antireligious names. a decree of 1935 prohibited sending religious information through the mail.75 Petitioning the courts for relief.71 The governor of Chihuahua decreed that all places and villages with names of saints must be given new. Private homes used for religious services or teaching could be confiscated.” that is. In Tabasco state.

and totalitarian police practices. no peaceful transfer of national power took place.”78 He continued in admiration: “and this is what is being done at present in [Stalinist] Russia. [National Socialist] Germany.83 Accordingly. press censorship. confrontations with both the U. with justification. concerning nationalization of the petroleum industry.S. Then in May 1937 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that the law permitting only one priest in the entire state of Chihuahua (for over six hundred thousand inhabitants) was too arbitrary. when President Cárdenas’s chosen successor.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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and should belong to the Revolution.S.” In 1946. and [Fascist] Italy. And when in February 1937 a fourteen-year-old girl in Vera Cruz state was shot dead during a police raid on a private house where Mass was being celebrated. violations of its own constitution and laws. every presidential election was followed (or preceded) by rebellion on the part of those who claimed. had been a protégé of Calles. were on the horizon. For decades after 1910. it was his “firm intention of achieving the spiritual liberation of the people” from Catholicism. Besides. he did not wish to see another Cristero rebellion. that the ruling clique made elections a total mockery. the constitutional article requiring antireligious education was repealed. financial corruption. The average peon ate measurably less in 1936 than in 1896.”81 President Lázaro Cárdenas. General Ávila Camacho. in March 1936 Cárdenas proclaimed that “the government shall not incur the error of previous administrations by treating the religious question as the pre-eminent problem that subordinates other aspects of the program of the Revolution. now an enemy of Cárdenas. and the low real wage paid to him in 1910 would have looked magnificent in 1934.”84 Most of the clergy supported President Cárdenas in his explosive controversy with the U. and the machine of ex-president Calles. for the ordinary Mexican.
.”79 Many public schools were filled with antireligious posters. “conditions [were] worse than those for which the Diaz regime has been so bitterly castigated. Reflection The Cristero rebellion confronted a regime that had achieved power by armed conquest and that held onto it through rigged elections.82 Nevertheless.80 Meanwhile. Fighting continued sporadically in various states until 1940. inaugurated in 1934. publicly declared that he was “a believer. the popular outcry resulted in the reopening of several churches.

and the Kunlun Shan to the north. France. Tibet is also quite extensive. or Texas plus Oklahoma and New Mexico. In any event. reflecting the urgings of the Vatican. Catholic leaders. The effort of the Tibetan people to protect their independence and preserve their culture resulted in one of the most protracted and strenuous guerrilla wars in Asian history. and Indian aspirations. mainly poor peasants in the western states. and consequently could not obtain direct foreign assistance or even purchase foreign ammunition. Indus. Against these obstacles. Ultimately. the Cristeros received the active support of only a minority of Catholics. Chinese. larger in area than Spain. The numerical ratio of the army to the rebels was wholly insufficient. the Mexican bishops declined to support the Cristeros collegially. notably the Himalayas to the south and west. most of the railways. But the Calles regime had control of the big cities. That conflict also contributed to a military confrontation between China and India. and Brahmaputra—have their sources within its borders. against an enemy like the Cristeros with broad and only partly mobilized popular support. also stood aloof.S. and few did so individually. the rebels possessed not a single border town or seaport. and perhaps for disaster. and U.S.86 One of the remotest of countries. not the military prowess of the regime. Four of Asia’s mightiest rivers—the Yangtze. But.
TIBET
In the 1950s Tibet experienced a massive invasion by its Communist Chinese neighbor. government. But even this was more than the regime could successfully cope with.85 In contrast. a zone that has witnessed several major guerrilla insurgencies in recent times. And Tibet comprises. along with Kashmir and Afghanistan. and the borders. the Cristero rebellion could not have hoped to win unless it could rally a greater proportion of the Catholic population. to do this.80
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The regime failed to defeat the Cristeros. This was a recipe for stalemate. Mekong. what prevented a Cristero victory was the lack of both sufficient arms and the unambiguous endorsement of the episcopate. the convergence zone of Russian. Rich Mexican Catholics. it needed the endorsement of the bishops. The Plateau of Tibet. its predatory tactics toward civilians were self-destructive.87
. the political unreliability of many of its officers was notorious. is surrounded by forbidding mountains. twelve thousand feet high. as well as the all-important recognition of the U. and Portugal combined.

before the Chinese invasion there were three hundred thousand monks of various grades. was traditionally selected from Tibet. thirty thousand Chinese troops crossed the borders of Kham. conquering horsemen had several times swept eastward deep into China. the Tibet-Nepal War of 1857. had been the Dalai Lama (a term more common outside Tibet than inside). the leader of Tibetan society. Tibetan influence in Manchuria and Mongolia has been profound and long lasting: the leader of Mongolian Buddhism. Lhasa. without even a radio station. until today.”90 The collapse of the Manchu dynasty in 1911 enabled the Dalai Lama to expel all remaining Chinese officials and troops. Even Genghis Khan did not subdue the fierce Khambas of eastern Tibet. At least one male from every family became a monk. to claim sovereignty over Tibet. Nepal. For twenty centuries the Chinese looked upon the Tibetans as a distinct race. The country never experienced foreign colonization. Religion. the Nationalist regime of Chiang Kai-shek continued. the strategic heart of Asia. was the very essence of Tibetan society. Manchu Chinese influence was minuscule[. awaited events with foreboding. The Invasion The 1949 Maoist victory heralded a new era. both temporal and spiritual. and not only for China. out of Tibet. the isolated Tibetans. his reincarnated successor was traditionally discovered among the country’s humblest classes. a claim the Tibetans explicitly repudiated. For the first time in a century Beijing had a government both willing and able to impose control over far-flung regions like Tibet. not China. Burma. As the victory of the Communists in China approached. like the Manchu empire before it.] the Tibet-Dogra war of 1841.91 Beijing informed the government in Lhasa
. In midApril 1950. the Nyarong War of 1862–1865 and the British invasion of Tibet in 1903–1904 were fought and settled without Chinese assistance. The Tibetans once ruled a great empire stretching from Siberia to India and from Afghanistan to Burma. Upon the death of a Dalai Lama.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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Tibet’s population in 1950 was perhaps three million. had about twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Nevertheless. in eastern Tibet. one-quarter of the entire male population. Parts of Kashmir. the Grand Lama of Urga. and Sinkiang still employ the Tibetan tongue. Since the fourteenth century. the capital.88 On the contrary. Spoken Tibetan is not like Chinese. in the form of Lamaist Buddhism. and its script derives from India.89 “By the mid-nineteenth century if not earlier.

giving Tibetan land to these immigrants and Chinese officials. the Tibetans found sympathy only from El Salvador and Ireland. The U. then sent them to their homes. transition to Socialism meant collectivization. and in any case they doubted that Tibetan resistance could have any chance of success.N. and they proclaimed that they would not injure Tibet’s religion or the monastic system. for help.101 The “transition to Socialism” was imposed on the eastern Tibetan areas of Kham and Amdo. ignored these appeals in part because the Chinese invasion of Tibet had occurred at exactly the same time that world attention was focused on the massive Chinese intervention in the Korean conflict. For the Chinese.96 In December 1950 the Dalai Lama fled from the Chinese invaders to the Indian border.82
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that it must acknowledge Tibet as part of China. The Tibetan army had only nine thousand poorly trained and meagerly equipped troops.98 At the end of 1953 there were three hundred thousand Chinese troops in Tibet. collectivization represented increased Chinese control of Tibetan society. and had been fighting both the Pakistanis in Kashmir and internal Communist-inspired uprisings.100 Tibetan schoolchildren now received instruction only in Chinese. and imposing higher taxes on the population.94 Newly independent India did not oppose Chinese occupation of Tibet: the British-trained Indian army had been badly shaken by partition. in
.97 But after receiving Chinese promises of respect for Tibetan culture he returned. urging his people to submit. Chinese troops had received instruction not to mistreat Tibetan civilians.92 Within two weeks the Chinese invaders had captured most of the members of this army. while they brought in more troops and built access roads and fortifications. 1950. with Chinese control over Tibetan defenses as well as diplomatic and trade relations with foreign states.93 Throughout the first half of the twentieth century Tibetans had relied on support from British India against Chinese encroachment.99 Once their projects and troop movements were well under way the Chinese felt strong enough to crush any Tibetan resistance.N. The Chinese at first showed restraint. To the Tibetans. ninety thousand Communist Chinese soldiers invaded eastern Tibet from the east and north. bringing with them venereal diseases hitherto unknown in that isolated country. But by 1950 the British were gone from India. on October 5.” which included moving in large numbers of Chinese immigrants. In 1955 they began imposing “reforms. provoking revolts there. In the face of Tibetan reluctance to accede to these demands.95 Appealing to the U.

106 Chinese brutality toward Tibetans also reflected “primal fears in the [Chinese Communist Party] of territorial dismemberment of China and [Western] exploitation of national separatist movements. or destroyed scores of monasteries. the Dalai Lama accepted an invitation to visit Nepal and
. but a major guerrilla rebellion broke out in the eastern regions of the country (Kham and Amdo) by the turn of 1955–1956. and the most shocking brutalities. compulsory marriages. which in turn produced more recruits for the guerrillas. the Chinese moved ferociously against it.109 The Khamba guerrillas formed the Tibetan Resistance Army (the PTTM). guerrillas attacked his escort. many lamas were beaten to death. Beginning in the mid-1950s. manuscripts. By mid-1956 the revolt in Kham had acquired a permanent character. and the destruction of monasteries.”107 It was the territory and resources of Sinkiang. and art works.108 The Resistance Armed clashes between Chinese and Tibetans had been occurring since 1952.”105 The Chinese Communists displayed the same sense of their cultural and racial superiority to frontier peoples as the ancient emperors had. They tied elderly lamas to horses and dragged them through the towns. closed. the looting and destruction of monasteries. killing or capturing three hundred Chinese soldiers. the Chinese leaders tried to deal with this revolt by mere force. Correctly viewing Tibetan Buddhism as a competing ideology to Maoism. Concerning those atrocities the commission wrote: “It would seem difficult to recall a case in which ruthless suppression of man’s essential dignity has been more systematically and efficiently carried out. and Tibet that the Beijing regime desired. whose symbol was a snow lion on a triangular banner. In July 1956 Chinese Vice-Premier Marshal Chen Yi went to eastern Tibet to see what the trouble was. they looted. forced labor.”102 Under Chinese occupation Tibetan culture suffered brutal public ridicule. while other thousands fled to central Tibet carrying tales of the executions of lamas. Tens of thousands of guerrillas were in the mountains. Fresh from their “victory” in Korea.103 The International Commission of Jurists104 issued a press statement in 1959 condemning Chinese massacres of Tibetan civilians. Inner Mongolia.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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which environmental and demographic factors had long ago produced “an ideology of individualism unique among the usually densely populated societies of Asia. not the friendship—or even the presence—of the peoples of those regions.110 In 1956.

the Tibetans seemed doomed to quick annihilation. outclassed in training and equipment. where he requested asylum. Nehru himself pointed out that the growing numbers of Tibetan refugees in India were mainly from the humble classes.116 The Chinese air force attacked the rebels not only with bombs but also with napalm and gas. Most of the guerrillas were Khamba tribesmen of eastern Tibet. The Chinese informed the world that the uprising was the work of a decadent religious aristocracy that sought to maintain its grip on the enslaved Tibetan people. animated by religious conviction. Yet the guerrillas were not without advantages.84
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then crossed into India. Four times the size of Italy. who would not wish the outside world to view such a sizeable rebellion and hence might make concessions.112 In 1958 various guerrilla groups formed the National Volunteer Defense Army (NVDA). and or-
.”117 They had never before been bombed. Chinese Foreign Minister Chou En-Lai promised the Dalai Lama a new policy of moderation in Tibet and urged him to return home. The Tibetans of Kham and Amdo provinces were familiar since childhood with guns. and Chinese propaganda indirectly admitted the popular character of the resistance. with headquarters in Lhoka province on the Indian frontier. ten times the size of Pennsylvania. Their wounds could quickly become gangrenous.000 Chinese troops in eastern Tibet trying to suppress the revolt.111 The absence of any outside help for the Tibetans. isolating the Chinese garrison in the capital). Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru also wished the Dalai Lama to leave his country. the overwhelming power of the Chinese. He therefore declined to bless the revolt. because the intense cold prevented frequent or even infrequent bathing. “the Tibetan revolt was a national uprising against the Chinese invasion and occupation of Tibet.118 Inferior in numbers. or even seen bombing aircraft. guerrilla leaders believed they could inflict heavy losses on the Chinese. with its few roads often impassable in winter (in good weather the NVDA closed the road between Kanting and Lhasa with landslides. ignored by the outside world. most of Tibet is covered by the world’s most daunting mountains.113 Aside from the obvious question of how such a group could sustain a widespread and vigorous guerrilla war. and often monks’ urine was applied to wounds as medicine. and the Dalai Lama’s innate pacifism led him to conclude that Tibet could not survive if it resisted.114 In fact. In contrast.”115 By the end of 1957 there were at least 150. “the last cavaliers of the fierce warrior tribes of Central Asia. Under these circumstances the Dalai Lama reentered Tibet.

across some of the most rugged terrain on earth.123 The standard formula for counterinsurgency suggests that the Chinese needed eight hundred thousand troops to quell this revolt. swollen with refugees from the East. and elsewhere.120 In Katmandu the NVDA had contact with the CIA and Chiang Kai-shek’s Taiwan regime and received training in communication and parachuting from both. in the thin air of Tibet. They summoned up as well “their fearless fighting qualities.)125 Besides.127 The outraged population of Lhasa. thus death at the hands of Chinese soldiers would be merely an episode.129 The Dalai Lama has ever since lived in exile.121 And not the least of the guerrillas’ advantages was their Buddhist belief in reincarnation. Litang.128 This escape from Tibet.126 Then on March 18.130
. From there they crossed the border into Bhutan and then decided to go on to India. (The Khamba guerrillas. believing him to be inside. “occupied in an all-out war of extermination in East Tibet. rose in revolt. costing the Communist regime fifty times as much to feed a Chinese soldier in Tibet as in Beijing. The Chinese invaders in their turn confronted many serious difficulties.”124 During 1956–1958 alone. with at least two hundred thousand Chinese troops in the country (and between thirty thousand and fifty thousand in Lhasa alone) was a remarkable achievement. The Dalai Lama fled under NVDA protection to their stronghold in Lhoka province. For allies. they had their excellent horses and fierce mastiffs. In 1956 Khamba bands wiped out Chinese garrisons in Chamdo. But in fact they seem to have had only between two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand. And the guerrillas found a sanctuary in the Tibetanspeaking border districts of Nepal (which the Chinese sometimes violated). And the army had to bring food in from Sinkiang to Lhasa by truck convoys that took sixteen days. and their implacable hatred of the Chinese. rarely took prisoners and often killed their own wounded to prevent them from falling into Chinese hands. In July 1958 Beijing withdrew its invitation to Nehru to visit Tibet.”119 They were used to a spartan life and had no real supply problems. devoid of medical facilities of any kind and constantly on the move. Chinese soldiers became exhausted after only short marches. not a finale. Chinese troops tried to kill the Dalai Lama by shelling the Norbulinka Palace.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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ganized into kinship units. living on mare’s milk and hiding from Chinese aircraft in caves. their knowledge of mountain warfare. forty thousand Chinese died in eastern Tibet. fearing large anti-Chinese demonstrations in Lhasa. 1959.122 By 1957 perhaps eighty thousand guerrillas were in the field.

133 By 1961–1962 the Chinese held the Tibetan population centers. In 1962 Chou En-lai publicly accused India of helping to foment the Tibetan revolt. The only reliable link between Lhasa and Beijing was by air.134 At the same time Tibetan refugees in India were turning popular and elite opinion there strongly against the Chinese. and India now allowed supplies to go across its borders to the Tibetans there.139 Furthermore. including Chinese foreign minister Chou En-lai’s deep personal distaste for Nehru. and also to the Soviets (who had been stirring up anti-Chinese rebellion in Sinkiang). long-standing suspicions between newly independent India and newly Communist China. even at the cost of dissembling about what was happening in Tibet and suppressing Lhasa’s efforts to communicate with the outside world. the Dalai Lama’s friendly reception in India placed an immediate strain on that country’s relations with China. helped make a clash between the two Asian giants inevitable.86
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India and China Clash Indian prime minister Nehru had long pursued good relations with Communist China.137 The results were a rapid and resounding humiliation for the Indian army and for Nehru himself. India turned for support to the British and the Americans. across territory claimed by India. who received CIA training under supervision of the Indian army. having learned in 1962 of the new invasion road in Aksai Chin. precipitated by the Chinese invasion of Tibet. widened the Sino-Soviet split. and of the military posts along it. blasted the superficial diplomatic friendship be-
. Furthermore.135 And it was no longer possible to deny that Chinese occupation of Tibet and the consequent revolt had “converted India’s peaceful border with Tibet into a hostile frontier with China.131 He failed to see at first the strategic implications for India of China’s massive occupation of Tibet.140 The 1962 Sino-Indian border conflict. consisting of ten thousand Tibetans. with that government’s permission. Nehru ordered the Indian army to kick the Chinese out.138 Close to panic.132 Nevertheless.”136 Accordingly. One of these strategic roads ran from Sinkiang into northern Tibet through the Aksai Chin area (thirty-three thousand square kilometers). The Tibetan resistance benefited from these events: many of the guerrillas had moved into Nepal. while the NVDA controlled the mountains and the remote valleys— the classic guerrilla insurgency situation. the Chinese fought the guerrillas with new roads. Indian intelligence services organized Unit 22. Along with aircraft and great numbers of troops.

S. In his view. and refused to allow sufficient foreign
. including forced collectivization. everything had to be painted a proletarian blue or green. had devastated the culture. the grotesque excesses of the Cultural Revolution had called forth a renewal of armed resistance.141 By the end of the Cultural Revolution fewer than one thousand monks remained in the eight monasteries that the Chinese had not yet demolished.142 Of course.000 were tortured to death. and 343. placing the Tibetan language on the road to extinction. And one has to wonder: what lessons.000 had perished in various revolts. declined to have large numbers of Tibetan army officers trained abroad. ecology. the overwhelming power of the Chinese had suppressed any major fighting. to quell this latest outbreak the Chinese were forced to move in fresh troops from Sinkiang. did the Beijing oligarchy think its actions in Tibet were teaching to the Taiwanese? Reflection In his excellent history of Tibet.000 Tibetans lived in exile in India. 433. A few years after the Indo-Chinese border clash.000 had starved..”145 In 1984 the Tibetan government-in-exile estimated that the Chinese invasion and occupation had cost the lives of 1. and Chinese words were added to the Tibetan vocabulary. the equivalent of over seven million Americans. The “modernizing reforms” of the Communist occupation. those leaders. an influx of Chinese colonists. and economy of Tibet.144 Tragically. of these.143 By 1970. the destruction of art works and monasteries. the so-called Nemyo revolt in central Tibet in 1969. fearful of contaminating Tibetan and Buddhist values. China’s principal adversary in the world. and the dumping of nuclear waste. compulsory cultivation of wheat. 80. The Chinese even declared that traditional Tibetan decorations and painted cooking utensils were reactionary. had neglected to modernize the army.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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tween Beijing and New Delhi. Tibetans were now required to cut their hair short in the Chinese style. Melvin Goldstein contends that much of the blame for the destruction of Tibet as a polity and as a culture must fall upon the leaders of Tibet itself. and moved India closer to the U. 93. And many of the remaining religious buildings and monuments in the country were looted and destroyed. Mao Tse-tung’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution reached Tibet. 73. “the old Tibet was gone.000 died in prison and labor camps.146 In the 1990s.2 million Tibetans (mainly between 1950 and 1965). exactly.

Muslim northern Sudan. The Dalai Lama received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.88
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officers into the country to develop the army. quite negated what would have been the otherwise formidable advantages of a guerrilla movement composed of rugged mountaineers inspired by religious conviction and operating in forbidding terrain against an alien and brutal invader. approximately half of Sudan’s twenty-five million people are Arabic-speaking. closely identifying itself with the Arab world. even one that was highly in favor of modernization. Thus “the monastic and religious conservatives [so influential in the government] created a set of conditions whereby the government was unable to defend and preserve those very religious values from the Chinese Communists. the Sudan has experienced major guerrilla conflict. but its primary creation may have been Tibetan nationalism—that which it had devoted its most intense efforts to eradicate. Tibet would have needed the steadfast and generous support of the Indian government to have had even a serious chance of preserving its independence. notably including Tibet. in the following decade Tibet again became an object of international concern. Faced with this determination. concentrated on the subjugation of a black.150
.000 square miles.149 Most of the fighting has taken place in the three southernmost provinces. largely animist or Christian. and perhaps two-thirds Muslim. Yet the last chapter has not been written. There is no denying the innate conservatism of Tibet’s ruling groups. Southerners usually refer to northerners as “Arabs”. Instead. (If the West could not save Hungary. the size of Texas or Afghanistan. Yet it is hard to imagine that any government could have saved Tibet. how could it have saved Tibet?) This absence of effective help. along with the overwhelming numbers and grim determination of the Chinese.”148
SUDAN
For the past half century. And “Chinese rule in Tibet was responsible for destroying much. Tibet received utterly inadequate amounts of assistance from the outside world. southern Sudan. The conflict has become one of the bloodiest and most protracted of the twentieth century. high on this list was the denigration of Chinese sovereign rights in border areas. The new Communist regime in Beijing was determined to set right what it perceived as a long list of historical wrongs. a region of about 250.”147 This stark judgment needs some shading.

For generations. the British contemplated erecting southern Sudan as a barrier against Muslim penetration of central Africa. Arabize. 1955–1972 As Anglo-Egyptian Sudan approached independence.151 In the late nineteenth century. A military regime soon took power in Khartoum and “adopted a policy of unabashed Islamization and Arabization in the south. Arab slavers carried out destructive raids in southern Sudan. abolished the Sunday holiday. Arabs traditionally looked upon black Sudanese as racial inferiors. The breakup of Sudan along religious/ethnic lines could thus reverberate throughout world politics. In contrast.”154 The government closed southern missionary schools. Many southerners. served as prime minister during 1967–1969 and 1986–1989. although its southern boundaries with Uganda and Ethiopia were not settled until 1913. The regime of the Mahdi (1881–1898) legalized slavery and attempted to force Islam on the blacks. and expelled hundreds of Catholic and Protestant missionaries. Opposition to Anglo-Egyptian efforts to suppress the slave trade had been a major focus of Mahdism. intending instead to make Islam the religion and Arabic the language of a centralized state.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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With an area of one million square miles. slave-raiding Mahdist state left important residues in present-day Sudan: the greatgrandson of the Mahdi. The first anti-Islamist guerrillas called themselves the Land Free-
. Thirteen hundred miles from north to south.152 After the final defeat of the Mahdist state. Thus. Islam did not come to Sudan until a thousand years after adherents of that faith had conquered Egypt. The First Sudan War. Sudan is the biggest country on the African continent. Sudan links the Middle East with the heart of Africa. Sudan became an AngloEgyptian condominium. which came in 1956. their self-consciousness long sharpened by northern efforts to enslave. five times the size of Spain. Protest was met with violent assertions of government authority. southerners wanted protection for English and Christianity in their own region.153 Thus rebellion broke out even before independence. and Islamize them. one Sadiq al-Mahdi. ten times that of Wyoming. perceived that a benevolent British rule was about to be replaced by a malevolent Arab rule. The predatory. and the Mahdist movement still possesses a private militia. an overwhelmingly northern constitutional commission rejected federalism. Sudan is marginal in more than one way to the Islamic world.

In the first days of the rebellion. Thus. receiving Soviet instructors and arms. so the northern army became dependent on inadequate air transport. when the guerrillas appealed to the U. nevertheless.155 After 1965. (The United States during the 1960s was of course increasingly enmeshed in Vietnam. equipment. he promised regional autonomy and better treatment of civilians by the army. and to the Organization of African Unity to investigate government atrocities.N. Still. But by far the principal factor operating in favor of the guerrillas was the weakness of the regime’s armed forces. due in part to the weaknesses of the Khartoum army. discipline. On the contrary. and the fighting went on.90
RESISTING REBELLION
dom Army and also Anya-Nya (“snake venom”). only a tenth of whom possessed firearms. son of Anglican mission teachers. there were no secondary schools in the south. Anya-Nya mistreated civilians. their Soviet instructors
. In May 1969. Before 1949. Rival guerrilla groups and self-proclaimed “southern governments” sprang up. Born in Equatoria province in 1931. the guerrillas were able to get some good weapons from outside Sudan. By 1971.) But the guerrilla movement benefited from the eventual emergence of Joseph Lagu. having no doctrine of organizing the civil population to support the guerrillas. They built small base camps deep in the forests or in border regions. Lagu received an army commission in 1960. The period 1955–1963 was mainly one of guerrilla survival. The consequent absence of a large southern educated class meant a lack of good political leadership and of effective spokesmen to arouse interest abroad. Lagu had imposed his leadership over almost all of the southern fighting groups. seized power. they received no response. Numeiry built up his armed forces (to thirty-six thousand). Anya-Nya mined the few roads and bridges. and coordination remained poor. especially from defeated rebels in Zaire. commander of the Khartoum garrison. thanks in part to his ability to procure arms from Israel. Declaring that a military solution to the rebellion in the south was impossible. By the end of 1968 the guerrillas numbered perhaps ten thousand. Colonel Gafaar Numeiry. Three years later he joined AnyaNya and was made a colonel. which may have enrolled twentyfive thousand men. Later most of these groups gathered together in the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM). By the end of 1964 Anya-Nya counted perhaps five thousand fighters. mainly based on those tribal divisions that have permitted the conquest and exploitation of the southerners for centuries. which had little or no counterinsurgency training.

.”160
. and sanctuary in Ethiopia. The Israelis helped the guerrillas in both conflicts. a ceasefire came into effect mainly through the efforts of the World Council of Churches and Emperor Haile Selassie. Joseph Lagu received command of all Sudanese government troops in the south. that led to the resumption of hostilities in 1983 by the leadership of the [SPLM]. In March 1972. and trained some of them in Uganda. reinforcing the hostility of most southerners to the Khartoum regime. Col. In May 1983 the 103d Battalion under Lt. and incorporation of thousands of guerrillas into the national army.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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inculcated the doctrine of the Big War.159 This unit and other groups. the Khartoum regime promised amnesty for insurgents. Northern soldiers looked upon assignment to duty in the south as punishment. Over time foreign governments interested themselves in the long conflict: Khartoum received help at various points not only from the USSR but also from Iran. War would almost certainly have begun again eventually. . The Conflict Renewed.156 Its numbers were always too small (never more than forty thousand) to control a huge territory with primitive communications. The Khartoum regime made no distinction between loyal southern army units and groups of bandits or antiKhartoum guerrillas who were operating in the south in the early 1980s. in retaliation for Khartoum’s assistance to Eritrean rebels. even whole villages. China. schools. clinics. proclaimed in Ethiopia in July 1983. According to the so-called Addis Ababa Agreement. John Garang mutinied and crossed the border into Ethiopia. Northern troops routinely burned missions. the regime tried to disarm and move them into the north. The dictator General Numeiry then imposed the Islamic penal code on the whole country. usually former Anya-Nya men.157 Ethiopia also aided the guerrillas. equality of all religions. Indeed. comprised the nucleus of the Southern People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and the Southern People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM). and Libya (a Libyan pilot flying a Sudan regime MiG-23 was taken alive by guerrillas in December 1988). but “it was Numeiry’s unilateral abrogation of the Addis Ababa Agreement .158 During the second phase of the conflict. recognition of English as a major language in the south. distrusting all southern regular units. self-government for the black provinces. elements of the guerrilla forces received training. 1983– Eventually it became clear that the Addis Ababa Agreement was not a peace but rather a truce. arms.

holding three-fourths of the territory of the south including the three southern provincial capitals. Numeiry was ousted in a coup in 1985. fueled by Chinese arms and Iranian gold. which had to be supplied very expensively by air. The operation ended in July with the capture of the key town of Torit.161 At the same time the fall of the Mengistu dictatorship in Ethiopia ended the SPLA sanctuary there. In these circumstances Khartoum planned a final offensive. with the rebels retreating in the face of overwhelming regime power. By 1991 the rebels were besieging the main regime garrison at Juba. although fierce guerrilla fighting continued. when those desiring an independent south broke away from the leadership of John Garang. Meanwhile Khartoum failed to devise any sort of political program to weaken the insurgents. Eventually several of these militia groups proved quite effective in combating the SPLA units. Since most of the fighting was now being done by troops from the north.
. who advocated not secession but federalism. the establishment of local militias was the only option for the Khartoum regime.162 The offensive opened in March 1992. Civilian sympathy often came to SPLA if only because of the reprehensible behavior of regime troops. Proclaiming holy war against the southern rebels. Because conscription would have been unacceptable in the north. It captured a dozen towns held by rebels.92
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The regime responded with a conventional military offensive. The early tactics of the SPLA were to attack small police and army outposts while consolidating its hold in south-central Sudan and working out supply lines from Ethiopia. The regime therefore resorted to the formation of local militias. handicapped as it was with an army that was too small. plus much of the Ethiopian border (in contrast. a major blow. but this merely forced their defenders back into the impenetrable forests. developed inside SPLM. Partly in consequence of all this. SPLA leaders proved immune to bribes. In December 1991 Iranian president Rafsanjani visited Khartoum after declaring the regime’s efforts in the south to be a jihad. which had first been used in the mid-1960s to fight the Anya-Nya. regime units suffered many northern casualties—a very important development as Khartoum was not accustomed to losses of this kind. partly tribal-based. the regime drove four hundred thousand southern refugees out of Khartoum into the desert. the old Anya-Nya had never held an important town). But in that same year a split. By 1989 SPLA had moved to conventional war. and their military successes humiliated the regime.

the civil service. By the mid-1990s the conflict had cost at least one million lives and generated another one and a half million refugees. The Mexican.Religion and Insurgency in the 20th Century
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The regime purged the judiciary. and the teaching profession of non-Muslims.164 The war helped produce one of the worst famines in African history. it can expect determined. the Vendean and Spanish guerrillas fatally undermined the Napoleonic Empire.166
. Perhaps a religiously motivated insurgency presents the gravest challenge of all. Many years ago C. With its inadequate material resources. Khartoum would have been hard pressed to cope with such a development in the best of circumstances. Tibetan. The non-Muslim Africans of southern Sudan have many historical and contemporary grievances against the Khartoum regime. Moreover.E.163 In February 1993 Pope John Paul II arrived in Khartoum and. and the Afghan insurgency produced fateful consequences for the Soviet Union. in the presence of the dictator Colonel Bashir. Their rebellion. and Sudanese conflicts shook their respective regimes. received assistance from abroad. the human rights group Africa Watch attested that slavery had reappeared in Sudan. even furious. Callwell suggested that a well-led insurgency confronts any state with a very grave challenge. The defense of religion against perceived assault legitimizes an insurgency and sustains its morale. deplored forced Islamization. and Secretary of State Warren Christopher declared Sudan to be a sponsor of international terrorism. resistance. over a vast area of very difficult terrain.165
SUMMARY
The essentiality of religion in the lives of millions of people around the globe means that when a regime outrages religious sensibilities. but the outrages against civilians committed by its troops in the southern areas undercut the possibility of playing on traditional tribal rivalries and guaranteed that the fighting would be protracted and bitter.

Angola. It is very important. the American War of Independence was only one more episode in a global contest with the British that stretched from the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697) to Waterloo (1815). the British and the French governments each sent notable assistance to rebels against the other power. even insurgencies that originated in the most arcane local circumstances became entangled in the schemata of that global ideological struggle. precisely because of outside interference. a struggle whose duration dwarfs that of the Cold War. Afghanistan. The Soviets in Afghanistan learned some “major lessons of mod94
. second. to recall that outside intervention was not unique to the Cold War era. and Eritrea. Machiavelli observed that “when once the people have taken up arms against you. preventing outside assistance from reaching the guerrillas. French Indochina.94
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CHAPTER 5
FOREIGN INVOLVEMENT WITH INSURGENCY
The fundamental method of guerrilla war-making is to attack the enemy’s lines of communication. On the contrary. was especially notable in Greece. South Vietnam. It is the latter effort that this present chapter examines.”1 During the Cold War. This in itself is a powerful argument against the proposition that. direct or by proxies. and. there will never be lacking foreigners to assist them. Western and/or Soviet intervention. Indeed in the French view.
THE IMPORTANCE OF OUTSIDE HELP
The presence or absence of outside help for an insurgency can be decisive. lessons derived from insurgencies during the Cold War are of little relevance to the twenty-first century. El Salvador. among others. however. isolating the civilian population from the guerrillas. The counterinsurgent equivalent of this is twofold: first. from the American War of Independence to the anti-Bonapartist struggle in Spain.

Or consider the victory of Benito Juárez over the short-lived.7 All this is to say that.Foreign Involvement with Insurgency
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ern war in much the same hard way the U.3 Eritrea. French-backed empire in Mexico. South Africa. as well as in French Indochina. although he was undeniably attractive as a human being. despite favorable topography.S. and includes his failures to build a true indigenous army. foreign assistance to the insurgents poured in. whereas in Spain. Similarly. South Vietnam. Help for Juárez flowed abundantly across the U. or a peninsula. it contains a good deal of truth. and El Salvador. Meanwhile.4 Sudan. border. South Vietnam. the catalog of Maximilian’s political ineptitude is impressive. geography facilitated cutting off the insurgents from effective external aid. learned them in Viet Nam.S. like the Philippines. the geographical location of an insurgency can profoundly influence its outcome. insurgents received outside help that was undoubtedly a necessary condition for their success. The thirty-year war in Vietnam clearly illustrates that sometimes geography is destiny. and the brutality and inadequate numbers of the Axis invaders. and (to a lesser degree) Tibet. it is hard to imagine that Tito’s Communist resistance in Axis-occupied Yugoslavia would have survived without British aid. [notably that] it is virtually impossible to defeat a popular guerrilla army [that has] secure sources of supply and a recovery area. Help from neighboring Maoist China enabled the Viet Minh to stalemate the French. outside support became literally matters of life and death for both Juárez and Maximilian.”2 While this statement clearly needs some modification.5 and Soviet-occupied Afghanistan. rally the peasantry through a program of social reform. Sudan. the Hanoi regime freely acknowledged that the military highway incongruously known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail was decisive in the Communist conquest of South Vietnam. During the American War of Independence and the Spanish guerrilla against Napoleon. had South Vietnam been an archipelago. Because outside assistance is so vital. Afghanistan. Malaya. and hold the support of the initially enthusiastic Catholic hierarchy.6 In subsequent years. but they were not a match for the French forces supporting Maximilian of Habsburg. and then played a key role in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Cambodia. Under these circumstances. On the other hand. In the Philippines. like South Korea. a regional tradition of guerrilla warfare. Juárez and his followers were certainly tenacious. con-
. it would probably be in existence today. French Indochina.

and even decisive. see below). All were eventually defeated. the Malayan Communists. the Algerian FLN (National Liberation Front. They include the Vendeans. Napoleon III lost interest in his transoceanic imperial project and left Maximilian to his perhaps undeserved fate. and political influence in countries near and far. capitalist-roading Communist states. Indeed. A note of caution: while outside help may be a necessary condition for insurgent victory. Indirect foreign assistance to insurgents can also be vital. the Huks. Aguinaldo’s followers. For example.9 Riches of that magnitude—and that provenance—can corrupt an insurgent movement and cause internal rifts.96
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fronted by the open hostility of the victorious Union government with its great armies. although loudly proclaiming their Maoism. The Communist-organized insurgencies in Greece and El Salvador11 received substantial for-
. Estimates of the money derived from FARC drug activities run into the hundreds of millions of dollars. the Boers. and hence their chances for independence once Portuguese rule in neighboring Mozambique collapsed and South Africa cut off its previous assistance. In Vietnam. the adherents of the former Rhodesia lost their outside support. intelligence. the Cristeros. their morale. some quite famous. so close to the United States!”8 Geography has not only physical but also political and psychological dimensions. the one-time leftist guerrillas of the FARC have evolved into an international criminal organization by enmeshing themselves heavily in the drug trade. To paraphrase Porfirio Díaz: “Poor Maximilian—so far from France. recruits. can provide money. Numerous insurgent movements. and Sendero Luminoso. the Senderistas disdainfully refused to ask for help from the world’s allegedly backsliding.10 What the ultimate effects of becoming more and more dependent on drug money will be for the FARC remain to be seen. made incalculable contributions to the eventual Communist victory there. it does not guarantee it. did not receive outside assistance or were eventually cut off from such help. The Japanese mauling of Chiang Kai-shek’s regime severely weakened it for the coming contest with Mao’s Communist guerrillas. such as those of the Palestinians and the Tamils. Diasporas. It is not always from governments alone that outside support reaches insurgent movements. and the distance between Mexico and France. And in Colombia. the Polish Home Army. the Japanese humiliation of the French forces during World War II. followed by a massive Chinese Nationalist occupation of the North. including the USSR—and China.

and in El Salvador a decisive one. because it made them believe they did not have to cultivate the good will of the peasant population among which they operated. both geographically and sociologically. The Moros. What the Moros claim to want. or diminish supplies coming into a country to help insurgents. fundamentally. which the media often portray as their stronghold. from their base. to little avail. have fought the Spanish. assistance to South Vietnam resulted in the defeat of the guerrilla insurgents there. but were ultimately unsuccessful. the Americans. in the defeat of guerrilla insurgencies in those countries. assisted the regime in Khartoum against southern rebels. and to the Kabul regime in Afghanistan after 1979. a city inconceivably remote. Since the 1930s. South Vietnam later succumbed to a conventional invasion from North Vietnam. along with Iran. Indeed the evidence suggests that outside aid actually hurt the guerrillas in Greece.
PREVENTING OUTSIDE HELP
Counterinsurgent forces have employed several means to deter. another primary
. cut off.12 And even on the island of Mindanao. is an independent Islamic state based on Mindanao. whose economy has historically been based on piracy and slavery. U. and the Philippine Republic. the insurgents in each of those countries were victorious. On the other hand. China.13 On the other side of the ledger is outside assistance from one government to another government confronted by insurgency.Foreign Involvement with Insurgency
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eign assistance for protracted periods. Hence the only possible winning strategy for the Moros would be to march on Manila. but. U. deserted by its American ally. Consider the various Moro (Muslim) rebellions in and around the Philippine island of Mindanao. One means has been diplomacy. but unambiguous successes under this heading have not been common.S. could consider such a demand. Some insurgencies would almost certainly not have been able to achieve their principal aims even if they had been able to obtain outside help. massive American financial assistance to the French in Indochina did not prevent France from ultimately abandoning that region. no matter what its political orientation. Despite massive Soviet aid to both Ethiopia against the Eritrean insurgency after 1974. the Muslims are but a minority of the population. No Philippine government. and Libya. The Soviet Union.S. aid to the governments of the Philippines and Greece was an important element.

success before them) should have believed that. a tower every third of a mile. Air Force.D.
FRENCH STRONGPOINTS IN VIETNAM
The conflict between the French and the Communist-led Viet Minh was for years a small-scale affair because the latter faced many difficulties in obtaining modern weapons in quantity.17 Other instances of fortified lines will receive examination below. along with naval airpower. This also has met with quite limited success. the kings of England wished to incorporate Wales into their domains. strong forts—which greatly aided in subduing the warlike and stubborn Welsh who had waged guerrilla war against them for two hundred years. and twelve feet high in many places. it is a touching testimony to military faith in technology14 that both the Americans and later the Soviets (with the example of the relative lack of U. many today would agree with the judgment that “it is extremely difficult—if not impossible—to use modern weapons technology to cut off a guerrilla force from food and other basic supplies. By A.S.98
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method has been interdiction of supply routes through air power. the prospects of the guerrillas improved dramatically. 126. with a ditch in front. At any rate. The wall was seventy-four miles long from sea to sea. the Romans had finished Hadrian’s Wall. less expensive. and a fort every seven miles. even in terrain favorable to guerrillas. air power would be able to disrupt outside aid to them. to stem the flow of conventional troops and supplies from China into North Korea. But with the triumph of Mao Tse-tung’s forces across the mountainous Chinese border. and certainly less controversial method of interdiction has been the construction of fortified lines.16 A thousand years after the Romans abandoned Britannia. especially the efforts of the Americans in Vietnam and Laos (the Ho Chi Minh Trail) and of the Soviets in Afghanistan (the Pakistan border). In light of the inability of the U. however. This was not a static platform from which to fight—its defending troops were trained to fight in the open—but a means of controlling cross-border traffic and impeding incursions by light forces.”15 A more successful. They ultimately adopted the method of encastellation—covering the country with a system of small. and from North Korea into South Korea. very close to the present-day English-Scottish border. ten feet wide.S. but here it may be helpful to consider briefly some peculiar travails of French fortification in Vietnam. Guarding one of the
.

A proven. the French did not destroy the great quantities of military supplies within it. the abandonment of Lang Son was “France’s greatest colonial defeat since Montcalm had died at Quebec. Thus sixteen hundred French and Vietnamese troops. the French would fight one more great outpost battle—at Dien Bien Phu.
BLOCKHOUSE LINES
Any sound counterinsurgent strategy will make a priority of interfering with the guerrillas’ mobility. General Vo Nguyen Giap. France’s last remaining major strongpoint along the Chinese border. To avoid alerting the Viet Minh that they were about to evacuate the city. Hence the guerrillas obtained ten thousand 75mm shells and thousands of automatic weapons. The Cao Bang affair was “the greatest French defeat in the history of colonial warfare. highly effective means for diminishing guerrilla mobility is the
.Foreign Involvement with Insurgency
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few good passages between China and northern Vietnam was the French fort at Cao Bang. and were free to raid the vital Red River Delta and the Hanoi area almost at will. a miserable track through thick jungle. At about the same time. accompanied by fifteen hundred Indochinese civilians. pursuit unless they can be reliably supplied. The two groups linked up. a city of one hundred thousand. once such strongpoints are established. These French disasters along the Sino-Vietnamese border suggest that building outposts is a worthless. the troops within them fare better if they stay and fight the enemy rather than expose themselves to attack by trying to move toward safety over inadequate roads without air cover.” a defeat made possible because the French both lacked air power and underestimated the abilities of the Viet Minh commander. Nevertheless.18 The calamity of Cao Bang somehow convinced the French Command that it should also abandon Lang Son. only to be cut to pieces by the swarming Viet Minh.20 Of course. along with large quantities of gasoline and medicine. thirty-five hundred French Moroccan troops headed north out of Lang Son to meet and escort the column coming down from Cao Bang. In October 1950 the French Command in Hanoi made the fateful decision to abandon Cao Bang. and even dangerous. with excellent natural and man-made defenses. eightyfive miles away down Colonial Route 4.”19 The withdrawal of the French from the northern border passes meant that the Viet Minh now had unrestricted access to Communist Chinese supplies. headed south toward the supposed safety of the city of Lang Son. one of their most valuable weapons. According to Bernard Fall.

The program soon became quite extensive. Though very effective. the British blockhouse lines were not impenetrable. eight thousand blockhouses extended for thirty-seven hundred miles.23 The original purpose of blockhouse cordons was to keep the enemy out. bloodiest and most humiliating” of Britain’s wars between 1815 and 1914. manned by fifty thousand white troops and sixteen thousand Africans. later they turned into an offensive means to hem him in. as the Boers turned to guerrilla warfare. costliest. or had been depleted of ammunition. Armored patrol trains both protected and were protected by the blockhouses. “[These drives] present perhaps the most remarkable feature of that long drawn-out campaign against the Boer guerrillas. South Africa The conflict in South Africa of 1899–1902.”25 (During the conflict in East
. On more than one occasion the great guerrilla chieftain Christiaan De Wet cut the wires between blockhouses at night and led his men through without a shot being fired. usually called the Boer War. By May 1902. in January 1901. one man on horseback every ten yards— often rode from blockhouse line to blockhouse line. Each blockhouse was connected to its neighbors by telephone wire. “the blockhead system. became “the greatest nineteenth-century partisan war”21 as well as the “longest. the Boers possessed few field guns. Besides. as the typical earth-and-iron blockhouse cost only £16 to construct. By the time the blockhouse program neared completion. His great mounted drives—fifty miles across. cannon hampered their mobility. During the course of the war. (De Wet called the blockhouse lines.22 During that conflict.100
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blockhouse line.”)24 In these circumstances British commander Lord Kitchener began the campaign to flush the guerrillas out of hiding. two did not have as their principal purpose the closing off of outside assistance to guerrillas. Nonetheless it became obvious to later counterinsurgents that blockhouse lines can be very effective for achieving that end. Of the three instances of that tactic examined here. between the blockhouses also stretched barbed wire and trip-wires rigged with pebble-filled tin cans. or from a blockhouse line to a railroad patrolled by armored trains. the British began to erect blockhouses to defend railroad lines. most of their artillery had been lost or captured. inaccurately but forgivably.

since the guerrillas rarely had artillery.26 The Nationalist forces erected thousands of small forts. The whole system involved eighty thousand troops.Foreign Involvement with Insurgency
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Timor in the 1990s. barbed wire. the services of black and Boer soldiers and scouts. In Vietnam. extending for hundreds of miles along the Tunisian border. Attempts to break through the electrified fence set off signals at monitoring stations. complete with trenches. The last Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902. but not in Algeria. and the nonexistence of British airpower. with minefields on both sides and watchtowers at regular intervals. civilian sympathy. mainly as a protection against small arms fire and grenades. These blockhouses both protected the Nationalist troops and reduced Communist mobility. On the Algerian side the French built a constantly patrolled road protected by barbed wire. China During the mid-1930s. as well as from great numbers of troops. A Notable Algerian Adaptation The French developed a variant of the blockhouse tactic during the Algerian war (1954–1962). level.) After their invasion of China proper in 1937. For their part the British benefited greatly from their burgeoning blockhouse lines.”) Boer advantages included mobility (mounted guerrillas in an extensive. an improving intelligence system. Indeed they determined to limit to the greatest possible degree outside help to the Algerian guerrillas. the French forces conceded to the enemy free passage across international borders. Blockhouses emerged as a major factor in the struggle.27 (This subject is treated more intensively in chapter 14. and the absence of any significant outside help for their opponents. Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek launched several campaigns to exterminate Mao’s Communist guerrillas. to which the
. and familiar land). the Indonesian army often flushed guerrillas out of their hiding places by using a similar method. The line consisted of an electrified wire barrier. and interconnecting fields of machine-gun and artillery fire. some really excellent guerrilla tacticians. with long lines of infantry and civilians moving in the same direction. called the “fence of legs. the Japanese built thirty thousand strongpoints in the country. especially from neighboring Tunisia. To that end the French constructed the famous Morice Line.

”31 The U. and avoided forcing the very numerous southern pro-Unionists into the arms of the rebellion. and the Malayan Communists. among others. to anyone who wished to know. and mobile ground units. no less) of the Confederacy—without the aid of radio. Regardless of the nature of the conflict. But. the power of a tight and sustained blockade has deeply impressed many strategic thinkers. less dramatically but no less importantly.”30 The “Anaconda Plan was strategically sound. The effectiveness of the Union blockade also made it obvious.29 Scott aimed at exhausting the seceded states rather than subjugating them. that if the defeated Confederates turned to
. the Huks. aircraft. naval interdiction of vital supplies has at other times seriously undermined the efforts of guerrillas. Clearly. Such a strategy would have both been far less expensive in blood and treasure. perhaps most famously in the case of the British navy during the Spanish rising against Napoleon.”28 But perhaps the American Civil War offers the most striking illustration of the power of naval interdiction. “events proved the old veteran [Scott] to have been right.102
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French responded almost immediately with artillery. It would also have made postwar reconciliation easier. The Union blockade of the Confederacy was an essential element of General Winfield Scott’s conservative strategy for winning the Civil War. as in the case of Aguinaldo’s Philippine followers. Scott’s critics—the fatuous “On to Richmond” crowd— derided his strategy as the Anaconda Plan (after the snake that slowly crushes its prey). His plan called for pinning down major Confederate forces in Virginia by a constant threat to Richmond. Early efforts to break through the line cost the guerrillas so many casualties that serious attempts to infiltrate from Tunisia came to an end. the Union would have implemented it in full. before the end of the civil war in 1865. Nevertheless. Navy successfully blockaded the extensive and highly indented coastline (three thousand miles.S. or aircraft. naval forces can be of great effect in carrying gold and guns to guerrillas. the Boers.
ISOLATING GUERRILLAS BY SEAPOWER
A variation on blockhouse systems and the Morice Line is using seapower to interdict supplies to guerrillas. radar. Basil Liddell Hart wrote that the British blockade of Germany during World War I was “clearly the decisive agency in the struggle. and shutting off the Confederacy’s contact with Europe through an effective coastal blockade. conquering and holding the Mississippi River.

element of insurgent success. British Malaya. notable successes at impeding external aid. fortified lines. in both conventional conflicts and insurgencies. ground patrols. Napoleonic Spain. some insurgencies are beset by so many strategic disadvantages that probably no amount of outside help. the Philippines. The profound impact of the Union blockade on the outcome of the Civil War has received relatively little attention.S. First.”35 Harold and Margaret Sprout: Victory closely depended upon “that blockade which relentlessly sapped the military strength and morale of the Confederacy.Foreign Involvement with Insurgency
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guerrilla war. Nevertheless. the ships of the blockading squadrons. of the Cold War. Sherman and Grant. French Indochina. Fourth.”38
SUMMARY
An inventory of valid principles regarding foreign intervention in insurgencies across regions and time periods would include the following points. and air interdiction. not so much in the hammer blows of Thomas. Third. Merton Coulter: “Without a doubt the blockade was one of the outstanding causes of the strangulation and ultimate collapse of the Confederacy. Fifth. but not invariably a sufficient.”36 And Allan Nevins: Life in the blockading squadrons was monotonous and confining. South Africa. would be decisive. include the U. methods for preventing foreign assistance for guerrillas have included diplomacy.”33 Albert Bushnell Hart: “The true military reason for the collapse of the Confederacy is to be found. As Bern Anderson writes: “[the blockade] was one of the major factors that brought about the ultimate collapse and defeat of the South. and French Algeria. Second. foreign help has in almost all cases been a necessary. “but no service was more important than this strangling hold on the economy of the South”37 because “the [blockade] had stiffened until near the end it was perhaps the major element in garroting the South. they could hope for precious little outside help. insurgencies received outside assistance long before the beginning. short of conventional invasion. and So-
.”34 Samuel Eliot Morison: “The South showed that she could take care of herself until starved by the blockade and split by the Mississippi. notable failures include the American War of Independence. South Vietnam. and continued to do so after the ending. Civil War. as in the efforts of an unseen enemy.”32 E. naval blockade. the testimony of distinguished observers on the consequences of that naval interdiction is impressive in volume and conviction.

it appears that great quantities of money derived from the drug trade can in some instances substitute for foreign help. at least in the intermediate term.104
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viet Afghanistan. and even for domestic support. Sixth.
.

From Malaya to Colombia and Peru. assassination had claimed the lives of over twenty-five thousand civilians.5 Therefore. terrorists killed fourteen hundred local officials and other civilians.3 In South Vietnam “the local inhabitants judged the [Saigon government] and the [Communists] above all on their respective ability to provide security. the government. These methods need not be mutually exclusive. Two principal methods have dominated counterinsurgent efforts to separate and protect rural civilians from the guerrillas: resettlement and local self-defense.
105
.”4 The Viet Cong targeted for assassination the cream of South Vietnam’s emerging middle class: officials. The true objective of intelligent counterinsurgency is not to kill guerrillas but to marginalize them. Therefore. as will appear below. medical personnel. the civilians will have no choice but to support the guerrillas. and schoolteachers. By 1965.Establishing Civilian Security
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CHAPTER 6
ESTABLISHING CIVILIAN SECURITY
It is an essential thesis of this book that in a guerrilla insurgency the civil population is Clausewitz’s “center of gravity. “the first reaction to guerrilla warfare must be to protect and control the population.” 1 Effective counterinsurgency therefore means establishing secure control over the civilian population. guerrillas flourished where the forces of order failed to offer effective protection. Between 1954 and 1958 the terror campaign killed 20 percent of village chiefs.”2 Insurgents may employ terrorist tactics in the villages in order to demonstrate that the government cannot protect civilians. Separating the guerrillas from the population is the crux of counterinsurgency and the government’s principal challenge. social workers. In 1960 alone. or would side with. while exacerbating internal guerrilla contradictions. a central question for the counterinsurgents is how best to protect from retaliation those civilians who side with. who will in turn hesitate to cooperate with the government through fear of reprisal. especially in rural areas. Without security.

Eventually. Concentration also protected isolated farm families from guerrilla looting or vengeance.”6 The most notorious feature of the British counterinsurgency effort was the erection of camps in which to concentrate the civilian population of contested areas. The Boer guerrillas themselves bear a large responsibility for the camps: they left their own families without protection. “the greatest nineteenth century partisan war. The objectives of such a policy are to deprive the guerrillas of their main sources of intelligence and food. died of typhoid fever and other diseases. All these conflicts witnessed resettlement efforts of one kind or another. in order to deprive the guerrillas of food and intelligence.7 Of these. The war seemed over. All told. “More Boer boys and girls under the age of 16 died in British concentration camps than all the fighting men on both sides in the
. significant guerrilla insurgencies arose in three widely separated localities: South Africa. turning the women and children onto the open veld. many thousands. By early summer British forces had beaten the Boer armies and occupied Johannesburg and Pretoria. guerrilla phase. In the waning years of the nineteenth century. from South Africa to South Vietnam. Instead the war entered a new. however.000 Boer and African civilians were inmates of some fifty camps at one time or another. Resettlement has always been controversial. Both its exponents and its critics include distinguished and knowledgeable students and practitioners of counterinsurgency.000 and 154. In South Africa The war between the British Empire and the Boer Republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State began as a conventional war in October 1899. the Philippines. and will remain so. But the defeat of the Boer armies and the occupation of their capitals did not bring peace. and very often burned the farms of neutral or surrendered Boers.106
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RESETTLEMENT
From Manchuria to Mexico. The first camps were to protect Boers and native Africans who had accepted British rule and taken an oath of neutrality. counterinsurgent forces have employed some form of resettlement in order to move rural populations away from guerrilla areas. These “concentration camps” were intended to serve several purposes. civilians were brought into the camps against their will. mainly women and children. and Cuba. between 120.

and of those available many spoke only English. along with their truly ghastly “home remedies. no accusation of torture of prisoners arose on either side. Actual combat between Aguinaldo’s followers and U. almost all of the camps were lightly defended and could have been taken by Boer guerrillas. U.” Eventually most of the camps introduced strict sanitation discipline. Besides. Even when Boers did attack a camp.” helped to cause and spread illness.S. President McKinley. soldiers were carrying out many fundamental reforms in the judicial and health systems of the islands. or condemned the meth-
. Boer guerrillas and politicians bitterly criticized conditions in the camps. large numbers of Filipinos either supported temporary U. The camp populations received British army rations and still succumbed to disease in great numbers. The U. Revelations about the high death rates caused a worldwide scandal: in London. Their primitive notions of sanitation.S. forces began in February 1899.Establishing Civilian Security
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course of the entire war. mainly of the Tagalog ethnic group. they carried off supplies. however. The latter had proclaimed himself provisional president of a Philippine Republic. and the latter turned to guerrilla tactics. who had lived their entire lives on the spacious veld. had no concept of the hygienic necessities of camp life. leader of the opposition Liberal party. and the death rates plummeted.11 In the Philippines Fighting between the Spanish and the Americans in the Philippines had not yet been concluded when tensions developed between U.S. And—incredibly—by the conclusion of this long and often bitter struggle. Henry Campbell-Bannerman. rule. declared that British forces in South Africa were employing “methods of barbarism.S. for the latter would have been an intolerable burden. The Americans soon dispersed Aguinaldo’s regular units. an indication of the poor quality of those rations. forces and Filipino nationalists under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo.”8 The appallingly unhealthful conditions in the camps were almost invariably the result not of cruelty but of incompetence. But the Boer fighting men had left their women and children unprotected.10 There was too little discipline in the camps: thus many Boer women. government had promised the Filipinos eventual independence. and had expected the Americans to back him. not inmates.9 There was a severe shortage of medical doctors. Consequently. rightly judged that Aguinaldo’s supporters.S. could neither unite the islands nor defend them from Japanese and German imperialism (Wilhelmine Germany had colonies in the area).

The commander of Spanish forces on the island. had two hundred thousand troops under him. animals and goods outside the town were subject to confiscation and adult men liable to arrest. After McKinley’s reelection. medicine (especially vaccination). of varying quality. General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau (1838–1930). and even though the Americans repeatedly invited them to accept honorable surrender.108
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ods of the guerrillas. Weyler’s excesses14 helped prepare U. army strove to provide the relocated civilians with food. injustices and hardships were many. and employment on public works. In some areas poor sanitary conditions contributed to the deaths of at least eleven thousand Filipinos. fighting continued in certain areas. Nevertheless.13 In Cuba Cuba was the largest of the remnants of Spain’s once vast seaborne empire in the Americas. Weyler embarked on a mass reconcentration campaign during 1896–1897. mainly from typhoid. Nevertheless. The last of these (as it turned out) began in 1895. it was clear that the Americans would not pull out and that Aguinaldo’s forces could not possibly win. his forces herded hundreds of thousands of peasants into camps where great numbers perished. animals. These policies made many recruits for the insurgents and turned even conservative Cuban opinion against Spain. The inhabitants of a given area were informed that they must bring their families. (At the same time. the concentration of civilians and the regulation of food were highly effective against the guerrillas. despite all their attendant problems.S.
. especially in those areas where the remaining guerrillas seemed determined to fight on even without hope of success. British efforts to concentrate the Boer population produced a much greater loss of life. Relocation followed a pattern. and moveable possessions to a designated town by a particular date.)12 Still. foodstuffs. a veteran of campaigns against guerrillas in the Philippines. The food-denial campaign led inevitably to plans to relocate the rural population. mainly from preventable epidemics. several serious revolts aiming at independence wracked the island. The U. Accompanying the resettlement were the deliberate devastation of the countryside and the slaughter of animals. In the waning decades of the nineteenth century. Strict controls were imposed on food shipments between towns.S. After that date. American commanders in the islands soon grasped that the most effective way to defeat the guerrillas was to disrupt their food supplies.

This consisted of three major elements: (1) clearing the Malayan peninsula of guerrillas methodically. Insurgent leaders in flight from the army or the police often found refuge among these displaced people. after their crops and animals had been seized and their houses looted. and Asia. by 1954. Africa. and rice convoys went heavily guarded. a particular center of Cristero support.15 In Malaya In 1950 Malaya’s military chief. began to put into action what became known as the Briggs Plan.S. Storekeepers were obliged to puncture cans of food upon sale. and (3) resettling the numerous Chinese squatters. The untold suffering of the persons affected increased the numbers and the determination of the Cristeros. battleship Maine. draining away the water in which the guerrillas had formerly been swimming.000 Chinese squatters had been placed in new communities.Establishing Civilian Security
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public opinion for intervention. The enterprise stood Mao on his head. Resettlement was the major component of a general food denial program: controls were placed on all food bought and sold. one district at a time. General Sir Harold Briggs. Almost one million villagers were forced from their homes. bringing the Cristero message and organization with them. 570. Various epidemics of course followed upon these mass removals. (2) uprooting the guerrilla infrastructure in the cleared areas. especially in western states. who relied more and more on extortion from local peasants. The process began in April 1927 in Jalisco state. the principal source of food for the guerrillas. Simply getting enough food to stay alive became the primary concern of the guerrillas. into secure villages. The regime fought the insurgency through population removal. Meanwhile peasant refugees flooded into Leon. In Mexico Mexico’s Cristero rebellion had its roots in religious persecution and electoral corruption. Guadalajara.
. and other cities. which became inevitable after the explosion that sank the U. Techniques of relocation ranged from simple expulsion to elaborate efforts to establish entirely new communities. This last element became the centerpiece of the entire counterinsurgency. Relocation of civilians continued to be a notable aspect of counterinsurgency strategy into the twentieth century in Latin America. where they received title to land. The presumably emptied rural areas then became free-fire zones. from south to north.

and this figure does not include Muslim auxiliaries. They consistently violated a most fundamental principle of effective counterinsurgency: Never abandon a village after letting civilians rally to your standard. Nevertheless. In addition. the Malayan experience offers probably the most successful plan of resettlement on record. The army settled many of these into new villages and towns. were not always situated to provide employment for the inhabitants. the resettlement program was not without its problems.110
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Of course. Denmark. including over a million of European ancestry. because the boom in rubber prices helped pay for the war. and then leave.000 at its peak. to isolate the guerrillas from outside assistance. question people. resting on three pillars. by the summer of 1954 the combination of resettlement and general food denial had become “the most effective planned operation against a guerrilla target and its support organizations. The first was the deployment of a great number of troops— 450. The Malayan state governments. Algeria is larger than Germany. The resettlement areas. mainly political. In fact. The second pillar was a system of effective barriers. tight food control worked hardships on day laborers who had to carry their midday meal with them.”16 It was “a devastating measure that did more than any other single thing to defeat the Communists in Malaya. under Muslim control. While the border barriers choked off outside assistance. the army’s regrouping of Muslim peasants dried up the insurgents’ internal support. and of course many had insurgent spies within them.”17 The Korean War greatly facilitated the British victory in Malaya. out of guerrilla areas. France. were very reluctant to see Chinese receiving title to good land (or any land). and Finland combined. notably the Morice Line along the border with Tunisia. called New Villages. and un-
. The third pillar was population resettlement. Sweden. Britain. In addition. But a successful French counterinsurgency effort eventually emerged. the Algerian guerrillas could count on help from friendly states on the eastern and western borders. In Algeria The problems of counterinsurgency in French Algeria were incomparably more massive than in British Malaya. Norway. Algeria is eighteen times the size of Malaya. Early French counterinsurgency tactics in Algeria were poor: enter a village. Two million Arabs eventually moved. the equivalent of one soldier for every 23 inhabitants of Algeria. or were moved. In the 1950s Algeria had a population of about ten million. Nevertheless.

The army also increased the number of its Muslim auxiliary troops to over 150. the basic assumption behind the program was that the only important threat came from outside the fortified hamlet.19 In Manchuria Victory in the war with Russia (1904–1905) had established Japanese influence in southern Manchuria.18 Most decidedly. These sentiments lit the fuse for the army mutiny of 1958 that brought the turbulent Fourth Republic to an inglorious end.20 In South Vietnam The so-called strategic hamlets were the centerpiece of counterinsurgency in South Vietnam during the early 1960s. which it named Manchukuo. many of whom were not even French. the French army strove to convert hostile or indifferent Muslim peasants into acquiescent French subjects. even employment. setting up a puppet state. The hamlets served their principal purpose of isolating the guerrillas from civilians fairly successfully. the Japanese began a program of regrouping rural civilians into protected hamlets. and enlisting so many Muslims in the armed forces. Guerrilla resistance was fairly widespread from the beginning. the strategic hamlet program collapsed after 1963 for several reasons.21 Inside. Nevertheless. In 1931 Japan invaded and occupied the region.000. the army in Algeria rejected any idea that its main objective was to protect the privileges of the European colons. deepened the commitment of many French officers to victory in the war and the permanence of French control over Algeria.Establishing Civilian Security
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dertook to provide them with law and order. In 1933. taking on responsibility for the care of so many civilians. the harshly administered program caused much suffering among the affected civilian population. a lightly armed band of local militia would hold off any attacking guerrillas until help arrived in the form of the army or provincial militia. First. By 1937 they had set up about ten thousand of these hamlets. little attention was paid to the threat from inside via the Viet Cong infrastructure—whose
. containing a population of five and a half million persons. Predictably. On the whole. and drove many into the arms of the guerrillas. schooling. The plan called for creating physical security and social improvement for the peasantry by erecting elementary fortifications around a hamlet (a subsection of a village). While based on a fundamentally sound concept. medical care. Japanese Manchuria became both a protection for Japanese-occupied Korea and a staging area for invasion of China proper.

Ngo Dinh Nhu.23 Fourth. was himself a Communist. thus inviting instead of deterring attack. the director of the program under the president’s brother.28 In Portuguese Africa During the 1960s. the inhabitants were also required to dig ditches and undergo rudimentary military training without compensation. 1963. While the original concept called for fortifying and defending an existing hamlet. Portugal faced guerrilla insurgencies in her sprawling and relatively underpopulated African possessions. or there had been no radio to begin with.112
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members provided intelligence to the guerrillas outside and sometimes assassinated prominent anticommunist villagers. the strategic hamlet program was not without its good effects. the assassination of President Diem brought to power a military regime uninterested in carrying on the effort. (a week before Diem’s murder). many aspects of the program alienated the peasantry. and Indonesia. and so on. and it could have been much more successful had it received more attention.22 Third. the South Vietnamese erected twelve thousand in two years. and time. money. China. the Communists devoted a great deal of effort against it. Sixth. the British built five hundred defended villages in three years. or the designated relief force had no means of transportation. Second. instead of fortifying hamlets in relatively controlled areas and then moving outward—a variant of the classic clear-and-hold strategy—the government would often locate a strategic hamlet in a dangerous area. the South Vietnamese Army disliked the strategic hamlets. On October 23.24 Fifth. While in their Malayan counterinsurgency. Often the promised social services for the fortified hamlet never materialized. viewing them as a drain of resources away from the army. the program extended too rapidly. Secretary McNamara and General Maxwell Taylor told President Kennedy that “we found unanimous agreement that the strategic hamlet program is sound in concept and generally effective in execution. Not infrequently when the exposed hamlet came under attack it was unable to receive the necessary outside support because the radio intended to call for help was useless for lack of replacement parts. sometimes peasants were unwillingly relocated to new land.26 Finally.25 The consequences of this over-rapid growth were severe.
.”27 Certainly. the last bastions of any European empire on that continent and all that remained of a vast Portuguese colonial enterprise that had once stretched from Brazil through Africa to India. and above all. Nevertheless.

For example. adequate finance. In all these countries Maoist-style guerrillas had alienated important civilian strata through terror. Of at least equal importance. . the Portuguese pursued an inexpensive. First. properly trained and equipped militias possess advantages over regular troops in terms of population defense. like their predecessors the British and the French.29 Not unexpectedly.32 The Malayan Home Guard eventually mobilized 250. militias release regular government troops for more direct action against the guerrillas. Success depended on thorough planning. and Peru. and knowledgeable people. Another has been local self-defense through reliance on militia or territorial forces. had both success and failure in the application of this concept. become in effect bound to the government.
LOCAL SELF-DEFENSE: TERRITORIAL FORCES AND MILITIA
Local militia or rural self-defense forces are often a major component of even poorly conceived counterinsurgency efforts. During the Napoleonic occupation of Spain. .) Resettlement became a key piece of that strategy: in Angola alone. Consequently the Portuguese. their “resettlement concept was sound in theory but so often went wrong in execution. on the middle classes.31 In contrast. while protecting village officials from assassination. local forces tend to be more conservative in their use of firepower. civilians mobilized for local self-defense. low-technology strategy against the various rebel groups. the Portuguese eventually regrouped more than one million persons. Such organizations can perform several very important functions. Third. These ingredients were not always present. . very few
. militia systems enjoyed notable success in Malaya. a profoundly important political consideration. including many Chinese. Second. the French tried to construct civic militias based. was much smaller than its trans-Pyrenean counterpart. however. (See the discussion of their counterinsurgency concepts in chapter 16.000 members. as in France.Establishing Civilian Security
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Out of necessity. as well as in the Philippines against the New People’s Army. along with their family members. Thailand. And they are of course intimately familiar with the local inhabitants and terrain. a major concern in South Vietnam and Peru.”30 Relocating the population has been one major arm of counterinsurgency campaigns. In addition. they separate rural civilians from the guerrillas. the Spanish middle class. French arrogance toward their Spanish supporters and widespread atrocities all but destroyed the usefulness of any militias that came into existence.

37 The guerrillas were asphyxiated under a mobilized population. Regional Forces could be used anywhere in their province (a typical southern province was twelve hundred square miles in area.40
. along with perhaps 20. (True enough. recruited from militia and former regular army troops. Members of the Popular Forces were recruited and stationed in their home villages.000 militiamen in Angola alone. there were 30. Learning to counter this sort of activity must be a main priority for self-defense forces in any country. the situation of the Territorials was deplorable: in the Popular Forces. rather than patrol. called Territorial Forces.000 militia in the Northeast alone.38 Consequently. and the navy with 28. In the northeast region. and hardly any weapons were lost. by 1982 in Thailand fewer than 4. equal to a circle with a radius of twenty miles). the Territorials would have been extremely vulnerable if there had been no shield of regular troops to keep away heavily armed North Vietnamese Army [NVA] and Viet Cong main-force units. no decorations. almost everything went into building up the conventional ARVN forces. While their effort to hold onto their centuries-old African empire was eventually unsuccessful.000 personnel. a center of insurgency where once five thousand guerrillas operated.35 There were also about 13. Before 1968.114
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defected from the Guard. there were only 800 left. few decent weapons. the Territorials were given cast-off weapons and very little attention. no promotions.000 rangers.33 Opposed to these were 170.000 paramilitary border patrol police. members developed a tendency to stay inside their flimsy posts at night. Between 1955 and 1960.) As a result. the air force with 43.000.000 guerrillas were operating in the whole country.34 Village militia—Tahan pran—defended their own villages and acted as liaisons with the army to obtain local improvements. and then ambush the rescuing force (if any arrived). and very low pay. but the latter were few before the mid-1960s. consisted of two main elements: the Regional Forces (RF) and the Popular Forces (PF). the self-defense organization in South Vietnam. In South Vietnam By the mid-1960s.39 A favorite guerrilla tactic against the Territorials was to attack a village or hamlet.36 Backing up these forces was the Royal Thai Army with 141. bordering Laos. As a result of successful militia programs. there were no ranks. the Portuguese employed local defense quite extensively: by the end of the wars in 1974.000.

“The Combined Action Program’s basic concept was to bring peace to the Vietnamese villages by uniting the local knowledge of the Popular Forces with the professional skill and superior equipment of the Marines. while RF/PF lost 69.”48 The U. and on the whole did well. more than any other South Vietnamese armed force. some RF companies had had to face NVA regulars. (Many CAPs in practice had fewer than 14 Marines. successor to Westmoreland. “their virtues were seldom extolled and their accomplishments usually slighted.”49 Under that program.291. during the NVA’s all-out Easter Offensive.47 Nevertheless. a 14-man squad of Marine volunteers would take up permanent residence in a particular village. insisted that upgrading the Territorials should become the highest priority. with 114 by early 1970. the regular army lost 36. Marines developed another type of civilian security system. The Combined Action Platoon program.500 thirtyman platoons.) A typical Vietnamese village consisted of five hamlets with a total population of roughly 3. It also protected them from excessive American firepower. just south of the North Vietnamese border. the Regional Forces consisted of 1.Establishing Civilian Security
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The great Tet Offensive of 1968 galvanized South Vietnam and the Territorials.”45 The Territorials received between 2 and 4 percent of the national budget. Territorial casualties were higher than those of ARVN. “the RF/PF took the brunt of the war.050 enlisted Marines.43 Between 1968 and 1972. working with and training a local Popular Forces platoon of 38 men. The Saigon government upgraded the weapons of the RF/PF. begun in the summer of 1965.500 and an area of about four square kilometers. and as time went on not all were volunteers.44 Indeed.S. The permanent Marine presence assured the villagers that they would not be abandoned. but their desertion rates were lower.932 men. but accounted for 30 percent of North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong casualties.” 46 General Creighton Abrams. the Popular Forces counted 7. By December 1972. all of them situated in the very dangerous Military Region 1.42 Throughout most of the conflict.51 (The destructiveness of the American
.800 onehundred-man companies. was possibly “the most imaginative strategy to emerge from the Viet Nam conflict. The Territorial forces were “the most cost-effective military force employed on the allied side. as well as 2 navy officers and 126 navy hospital corpsmen.41 The previous spring. At its peak the program counted 42 Marine officers and 2. and also passed out weapons to tens of thousands of civilians. or CAPs.”50 At the end of 1967 there were 79 CAPs.

To station a rifle squad of Marines in each of two thousand villages would have required twenty-eight thousand troops. Peruvian rural defense units were known as rondas (members were ronderos).”55 The Senderista leadership trivialized peasant values and treated Indians as inert objects with but one dimension. few large landowners remained for Sendero to attack. but surely few Americans would want to see their families or their neighborhoods “liberated” in the manner of U. a philosophy professor at a provincial university. Hence the insurgents selected Indian “backwardness” as their target. the “possibility of social ascent through the new Senderista state. and other youths as well. forces in Vietnam or Korea. which would have amounted to about 5 percent of the total American military presence in Vietnam in 1968. Abimael Guzman. using ideas of intellectual superiority and party infallibility. In Peru One of the most successful experiments in armed rural self-defense occurred in Peru. He devotes exactly one paragraph in his memoirs to it.”53 In order to understand the origins and success of the rondas. An overexpansion of the provincial university system had produced a large number of unemployed graduates who had hoped to enter the middle class as schoolteachers.”52 It is hard to understand why he said that.”54 Since Peru had undergone extensive land reforms in the 1970s.S. justified the racial hierarchies in which it silently believed.S. troops could have provided vastly increased security to seven million peasants—as well as depriving the enemy of their services. stating. the Shining Path elite. one needs to appreciate the true nature of the Sendero movement. graduates. notably provincial professors. Yet this small fraction of U. By 1990 the proliferation and successes of these rondas produced “the first real defeat of Shining Path since the war had started. “Instead of eliminating racial sentiment. and students. Sendero Luminoso represented to such disappointed former students.116
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way of war is a complex question. Sendero Luminoso was never an uprising of oppressed Indians. but rather a movement of the semi-educated middle class. “I simply had not enough numbers to put a squad of Americans in every village and hamlet. founded Sendero as a splinter of one of Peru’s several Communist parties. during the bitter struggle against the Sendero Luminoso insurgency. that
.) General Westmoreland did not support the CAPs program.

Predictably. Many Indians willingly moved into consolidated villages. notable for the absence of salt and meat. In the early stages.62 Eventually they began to receive some good weapons from the government.63 “These [groups] constitute the state’s greatest success in the war.”66 Another stimulus was improved conduct by the
.61 Usually a rondero had to go out on patrol only once a week or even less.60 By mid-1993 about four thousand rondas mobilized three hundred thousand peasants. Forcible recruitment also extended to young girls. and mass murders produced a semi-spontaneous mushrooming of rondas. where they erected walls and watchtowers and set up road checkpoints. Sendero closed Indian markets to starve the cities. the army distributed ten thousand shotguns to the highland Indians rondas.57 Eventually the Shining Path was making war on the poorest peasants. By the early 1990s. numerous in the highland areas. for example.”64 The rondas had several deep roots. in 1991.56 Sendero also wiped out the membership of the center-left Aprista Party in several regions and killed resistant miners-union leaders as well. and in macabre ways. who according to their Maoist theories were supposed to be their firmest supporters. and outlawed Christmas and other major feasts. Indian mothers became among the first to openly resist Sendero policies. “Disenchantment with the Shining Path represents a basic cause for the explosive expansion of the rondas. pitilessly ignoring the entreaties of anguished families.”58 To the Indians of the Sierra.”65 But these self-defense organizations also “grew out of the broad context of the failure of the besieged Peruvian state to guarantee order [to the highland population] in the 1980s and early 1990s.”59 Sendero’s exactions. removed traditional village authorities. But Sendero’s most dramatic violation of Indian custom consisted of mass executions. In their racist intolerance. ronderos armed themselves with homemade weapons and farm implements. Sendero was committing numerous massacres of entire families including young children and the elderly. The primary source was of course the growing peasant revulsion toward and fear of Sendero. Sendero forcibly recruited children as young as eight to be trained as terrorists and soldiers. kidnappings. A special target were members of Pentecostal sects. in public. The Senderistas stood for “an explicit revindication of Stalinism and a clear determination to replicate the Chinese [Cultural Revolutionary] experience in Peru.Establishing Civilian Security
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of social class. taken to serve as prostitutes to Sendero fighting men. “they were priests of a god that spoke Chinese. Real malnutrition plagued Sendero-controlled villages.

as village defense forces. peasant-despising Shining Path. reflecting peculiarities of Colombian political society and the profound ambivalence of that country’s elites toward the question of rural selfdefense.67 Fostered by these improving ties. The armed forces. “the Guatemalan armed forces have demonstrated on two occasions (1966 and 1982) that the mobilization and arming of local populations to fight against guerrillas and the concentration of government services on basic human needs in the areas of conflict are essential elements of a successful counterinsurgency strategy. As a result. the rondas expanded.
. the image and conduct of the army. had often imposed mass punishments on the civilian population. however. and paramilitaries. In Guatemala Various insurgencies smoldered in Guatemala from the early 1960s. out of a 1981 census population of slightly over six million. the army embarked upon fundamental social reforms in the rebellious regions. the ronda system of the late 1980s and early 1990s worked because it was the true representative of the peasant community against the university-oriented. mainly northern Indians. The insurgents sometimes mounted operations by as many as two hundred fighters. The army also served as a path of upward mobility. police. with a fairly elaborate infrastructure in the Northwest. In addition to peasant mobilization.”71 In Colombia The conditions affecting the formation of self-defense forces in Colombia have differed radically from those in neighboring Peru.118
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military.68 Guatemala had one of the best armies in the Caribbean Basin. the insurgency began to wither. something on the order of three thousand guerrillas were operating in more than half of the country’s twenty-two provinces. In brief.69 To multiply its force. Thus. By 1982. between 1978 and 1982 they killed over one thousand soldiers. As time went on. the army began to train peasants. especially the Peruvian marines. improved through its recruitment of more local personnel and engagement in beneficial projects for villages. in particular.70 These local Civil Defense Patrols— Patrullas de autodefensa civil (individual members were called patrulleros)—enrolled between three hundred thousand and four hundred thousand members.

it was inevitable that local populations would either have to become refugees or else take matters into their own hands. In 1994 President César Gaviria issued a presidential authorization for self-defense groups under the Ministry of Defense.”75 These new protagonists functioned as “irregular forces . and allowed the first paramilitary groups to obtain a firm foothold. and thus it largely remained.”74 It should not have been difficult to foresee all this. that. Here is the true genesis of the Colombian paramilitaries. In 2002 newly inaugurated
. in their struggle against the guerrillas. even though the convivirs were forbidden to have rifles or machine guns. As of the end of 2002. The following year President Samper accepted the creation of the convivirs. its members reject the term. . The AUC developed as a loose organization of provincial or local groups. President Pastrana then dismantled the convivirs as part of his ill-conceived and unsuccessful peace offering to the FARC. “The FARC’s kidnapping campaign and indiscriminant extortions created widespread exasperation . Though commentators usually employ the term “paramilitaries” to describe the AUC. .72 What insurgent groups often proclaim to be “liberated areas” are usually just regions the government has abandoned or never really tried to control. most often the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia).73 With the Colombian elites unwilling to take those steps necessary to provide a semblance of rural security.” especially by “imitating the mobility of the guerrillas and taking advantage of their intimate knowledge of the terrain. after many years of FARC excesses. the Colombian army still consisted of well under one-half of 1 percent of the total population. local militia units. several presidential proclamations of new initiatives.Establishing Civilian Security
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The principal nongovernmental organizations that presently combat the narco-guerrilla Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) have been known by several names. At one time over four hundred of these groups were operative. . “perhaps there has not been sufficient emphasis on the fact that the accelerated growth of the paramilitary groups coincides with the period following the declaration of the illegality of self-defense and all private justice groups [in April 1989]. The absence of the state from much of Colombia has left the rural population exposed to FARC violence (a similar situation once existed in Peru).”76 The attitude of governments in Bogotá toward self-defense has been inconsistent and ambiguous. only pistols. . and much wringing of hands and raising of alarms in Washington and elsewhere. the AUC. replicate guerrilla methods step by step.

The question of the success or failure of resettlement has a great deal to do with who is being resettled. A landmark study of Portuguese efforts in sub-Saharan Africa concluded that “the pursuit of [resettlement] is invariably a difficult and chancy policy decision in any counterinsurgency strategy. “empirically the case against resettlement is overwhelming. Prosperous farmers may well resent resettlement. expressed his determination to once again mobilize the civil population against the guerrillas. and John J. In the absence of these components. who had backed the convivirs when governor of the key Department of Antioquia. during the 1960s Edgar O’Ballance wrote that the removal of civilians from near guerrilla-controlled areas during the Greek civil war greatly impeded the insurgents. Such an undertaking requires money. For example. In Malaya.80 Later analyses were less sanguine. .79 Earlier studies of resettlement were relatively optimistic.120
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President Uribe. . and the relocation centers can turn into recruiting grounds for the insurgents. The inescapable conclusion here appears to be that “paramilitary power is a fact of life in Colombia that will only go away when the force that called them forth. the resettled were poor to begin with.”81 In the view of a major British study. At any rate. careful planning.”78
SUMMARY
Clearly. the leftist guerrillas. army commanders in the field have often cooperated with the AUC—who have been notably successful against the FARC—on the venerable principle that the enemy of my enemy is my friend. is also eliminated from the political scene. and thus had little objection to moving into villages specially set up for them. Resettlement
. skilled administrators. and especially.77 Nevertheless. the affected civilian population may become frustrated and angry. whereas tenants and the landless probably will not. McCuen stressed resettlement as a valuable tool of counterinsurgency. a well-executed relocation program can be a very effective weapon of counterinsurgency. . These relationships remain extremely difficult to unravel. One experienced student of insurgency has written that the Colombian army is hostile to any sort of self-defense system similar to the successful Peruvian rondas because it wishes to preserve its monopoly of legal violence. neither the Americans nor their South Vietnamese allies seemed to have learned very much of value from the Malayan experiment.

With or without relocation. . supported by (3) a foolproof alert system to summon mobile relief forces who are prepared to deal with ambush. .83 Well-conceived and well-founded local self-defense units are major force multipliers. (4) effective methods of keeping the guerrillas off-balance and unable to come together in large formations. to employ only conservative military tactics in populated areas.”82 The safest conclusion may be that one should undertake any large-scale relocation program only in rare circumstances. rather than the other way around. . they paid three-day visits to villages exposed to danger. three enlisted men.84 In this absolutely critical area of civilian security perhaps more than in any other. a mobile advisory team program. Recently an interesting proposal has come forth that in Colombia (and presumably other places). Nevertheless. and above all. In most instances. rural militia units would have the full-time services of a retired army or marine officer. These teams consisted of two officers. beginning in late 1967. in the capacity of adviser (not commander).Establishing Civilian Security
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cannot be regarded as a cure but as a symptom—a sign that government control over the people has so evaporated that the destruction of society is contemplated to protect it. offering advice and bolstering morale. and a Vietnamese interpreter. especially at night.
. and (5) a rigorous program to uproot the guerrilla infrastructure (where it exists) in the defended villages. in South Vietnam the Americans established. To this end. achieving the supreme objective of security in the countryside requires a system of local self-defense. the authorities should concentrate on bringing security to the civilians. until there exist (2) reliable militia units within the villages. or else the guerrillas will overwhelm them one village at a time. This will require the regular army to maintain (or establish) good relations with the population to be mobilized into militia units. they clearly need support. military operations need to support and supplement clear political objectives. Perhaps future counter-revolutionary exponents would be wise to regard Malaya and the New Villages as aberrations rather than examples. such as aircraft surveillance and special units to harass the guerrillas in their own areas. probably best begun with (1) a variant of the Marine CAPs. in addition to the CAPs.

the ranks of loyalism included many poor backcountry farmers. Indochina. as well as into the complex meanings of nationalism by taking a look at indigenous groups that opposed the insurgent movements in the American colonies. or actually oppose. it appears that at least one-fifth of the white colonial population remained loyal to the crown. with higher percentages in parts of the South (including perhaps as much as onethird in South Carolina). Napoleonic Spain.2 The popular image of the American Tories as being all rich and well-born is wide of the mark. and Indonesia.122
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CHAPTER 7
LOYALISTS: INDIGENOUS ANTI-INSURGENCY
This volume examines many insurgent movements that claimed to fight for national independence against foreign oppression.” are often branded as collaborators or traitors. the Philippines. loyalism tended to be high among the Scots and the Germans of North Carolina. the Confederate States of America. Yet these derogatory labels serve to obscure the fact that numerous anticolonial or secessionist struggles bear striking resemblances to true civil wars. Portuguese Africa. Algeria. referred to here by the general term “loyalists. in particular. notable elements in the affected society do not support. In addition to members from the elite class.1
THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS
It is clear that during the American War of Independence the patriotic party comprised the great majority of the politically active population in the former colonies. One can acquire insights into the phenomenon of insurgency. India. Almost invariably. the self-proclaimed independence movement. many frontier smallholders menaced by Indian attacks stayed aloof from the revolutionary cause. and among settlers who had not been born in
122
. Moreover. Afghanistan. however. In the southern colonies. These elements. Nevertheless.

11 Thus. In the aftermath of the war. many Tories remained in the new United States.10 They spread terror in New York’s Mohawk Valley for years. hence efforts to mobilize them were haphazard and disorganized. Leger’s failed expedition on the eve of Saratoga. This sort of activity predictably provoked ferocious counterviolence. in spite of all this British mistrust and mismanagement.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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the American colonies. Few in London wished to understand that political loyalty to the crown did not necessarily indicate a willingness. but over sixty thousand left for British territory.6 Worst of all.5 In contrast to the patriot party. especially in the cities. when British forces retreated out of or evacuated an area. armed Tory bands were very active. the Tories never produced any national leaders. South Carolina. loyalism seems to have been above average among non-English minorities. The exaggerated belief in southern Loyalist strength undermined the British war effort and prepared the road to Yorktown. All the other colonies furnished as many more.9 Tories composed a substantial portion of St. a thousand-man Loyalist force suffered annihilation at the battle of King’s Mountain. in October 1780. for a total of about fifty thousand American Loyalist regulars and militia. This lack of initiative was one of the Loyalists’ greatest weaknesses. or an ability.3 Perhaps paradoxically. relying on British direction and seeking protection from British regulars. They made up two-thirds of the British forces in Savannah in 1779.12 Despite some very good monographs
.”8 New York alone furnished fifteen thousand men to the regular British army. And “altogether there were at times more Loyalists in America who were fighting in the British armies than Washington had in his Continental Army.7 Nevertheless.4 After their disaster at Saratoga in October 1777. For their part. At the same time. the British concentrated on the southern colonies in large part because of their belief that the South was swarming with Loyalists. and eight thousand militia. to bear arms for it. and they often treated such units with indifference or contempt. they often abandoned those who had revealed their loyalism. British commanders were also hesitant to incorporate Loyalists into their own ranks or to grant them regular commissions. In general. and they engaged in plunder and house-burning in the Carolinas. especially in New York and Pennsylvania. they were ineffectual on their own. the British were very late in raising armed Tory units. mainly Canada. the British never developed a clear doctrine of how best to use the Loyalists.

not resistance. “The Loyalists in the American Revolution suffered a most abject kind of political failure. was the best way to protect national independence. not France). the role played by the Tories in the War of Independence has virtually disappeared from view. for example. perhaps one
. losing not only their argument. implying that opinion was homogeneous and united on both sides of the Mason-Dixon Line. the term Afrancesado indicated Spaniards who adopted French manners and/or expressions.124
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concerning them. At any rate. their war and their place in American society. the War of Secession. fought in the Union armies. twelve thousand Spanish families followed him. Afterward it denoted those Spaniards who supported Napoleon’s imposition of his brother Joseph as king of Spain. ideological (France can bring renewed prosperity and strength to backward Spain). These included about thirty-two thousand Union soldiers from the western counties of seceded Virginia (these counties later emerged as the state of West Virginia). or self-interested (the anti-French guerrillas will eventually produce social revolution)—and often a mix of these motives were at work. Each of these figures exceeds the number of troops from several northern states. undoubtedly it fluctuated according to the perceived chances of French success in Iberia. The reasons for such support were varied—geopolitical (the true enemy of Spain was England. All told. when erstwhile King Joseph Bonaparte retreated across the Pyrenees in 1813. as a struggle between “North” and “South” (or worse. the “war between the states”). “The core of the Afrancesado position was that collaboration. but even their proper place in history.15
LINCOLN’S SOUTHERNERS
Americans often refer to their Civil War. These are crude and misleading characterizations. a far cry from the reality. Scores of thousands of men from seceded states. allegiance to Joseph [Bonaparte] at least saved Spain from direct military rule from Paris and the division of the kingdom by right of conquest. Another thirty thousand Union troops came from the eastern parts of Tennessee. patriotic (resistance to the puissant French will destroy Spain).”13
THE AFRANCESADOS
Before 1808.”14 No one can be sure of the number of these Afrancesados.

To appreciate these figures. Mississippi. If approximately nine hundred thousand men served at various points in the Confederate armies. The McKinley administration had concluded. Hostility among many ethnic minorities toward the Tagalogs was one. Men from the vicinity of the town of Macabebe. and that when Lee won his great victory at Chancellorsville. Lee surrendered only twenty-eight thousand men. if geography had not prevented them from doing so. reflect that at Appomattox. thus making a real difference of two hundred thousand between the two sides. The American-led unit that captured Aguinaldo himself in April 1901 was composed largely of Filipinos. with a long tradition of service to Spain and hatred of the dominant Tagalog ethnic group (to which Aguinaldo belonged).S.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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hundred thousand white southerners served in the Union armies. expected American recognition of his new government. several reasons led Filipinos to support the Americans. Aguinaldo and his followers consequently attacked U. and many more joined U.
THE PHILIPPINES AFTER 1898
During the Spanish-American War.18 Predictably. he commanded fifty-seven thousand soldiers.S. and thus a lengthy armed resistance would merely result in
.17 By mid-1901 thousands (mostly non-Tagalogs) were serving as intelligence agents and scouts for the Americans. initiating what is very misleadingly described as the Philippine-American War. Emilio Aguinaldo. The Americans immediately began successfully recruiting Filipinos to help them against Aguinaldo’s forces. however.-sponsored local police forces. and Georgia might have served in the Union armies. that an independent Philippines was not viable at that time and would dissolve into civil strife and anarchy. then this southern Unionist figure of one hundred thousand soldiers is of great consequence. for it not only represents an addition to the Union forces but also a subtraction from the Confederate forces.16 And of course there is no way of estimating how many men from such states as Alabama. Manila fell to U. The self-proclaimed provisional president of the Philippine Republic.S. thus inviting invasion by the Japanese. became the nucleus of an eventual auxiliary force of fifteen thousand. Many Filipinos believed the Americans were unbeatable. forces in August 1898. forces. Another was the McKinley administration’s published written promise to prepare the Philippines for democratic self-government and eventual independence.

000 were Punjabi Muslims and 88. Furthermore. the Indian Army on the whole remained loyal to Britain (actually. In these campaigns they suffered twentyfour thousand dead and sixty-four thousand wounded. Nevertheless. the army of the Indian Republic. which alienated many.5 million of whom were Muslim. To combat
. Algeria has always been sparsely populated. East Africa.000 wounded.
FRENCH ALGERIA
Despite being a sprawling area larger in size than Western Europe. Italy. guerrilla units began using terrorist tactics. with 2. of indigenous troops is “the supreme achievement of a colonial power. to their British officers). in large part. 8. Despite widespread and sometimes violent agitation for independence during the 1930s.000 killed and 70.000 Sikhs. Greece. the American troops in the islands practiced a policy of attraction. Iraq.5 million members the British Army in India during World War II constituted the largest volunteer army in history. North Africa. and Syria. with the approval of nationalist leader and future prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. providing free smallpox vaccination and other medical services.000 Indians. often with soldiers as teachers. Both the advancing Japanese and the pro-Axis Indian National Army (INA) offered the members of the enormous British Indian Army many inducements to desertion or rebellion. During World War I. Iran. the British Indian Army became.20 and also fought in Malaya.
BRITISH INDIA
If obtaining and holding the loyalty. introducing systematic sanitation in the urban areas. Bravery and obedience were authentic and fundamental values of those Indians who wore the British Indian Army uniform.19 British regiments recruited peasants from backward areas. British Indian forces suffered 36. as well as the obedience. Over the course of that conflict. as the war wound on. improving the courts.126
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useless destruction of life and property. and—perhaps the most popular measure—setting up free public schools. where loyalty was first to the clan. with a total in the 1950s of only 9. of whom 136. British Indian troops beat the Japanese in Burma.” then the British in India attained that objective.5 million people. that army included 740. and then to the military unit raised among the clan. Not least in importance.21 Because India attained its independence peacefully.

000. In addition to untold numbers in the militia. the latter figure is almost three times the U.000 loyalist Muslim auxiliaries. in both militia and regular army units blacks and whites served happily together.23 The Algerian Muslims who had fought on the side of the French only to find themselves deserted by them paid a horrific price.000 to 150.”25 The Portuguese often incorporated ex-guerrillas into their service. In the words of one observer. among others. Hence more than 2 percent of the Muslim population served with the French. Indeed.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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the Muslim-led rebellion in Algeria which began in 1954. it was almost certainly some of these who assassinated the well-known independence leader Amilcar Cabral.7 million Americans in 2005.24
PORTUGUESE AFRICA
The Portuguese were employing substantial numbers of native Africans in their armed forces as early as the 1870s. The army paid its African soldiers relatively good wages. the French utilized the services of 180. Africans of different ethnic and religious derivation from the dominant guerrilla groups believed that they would fare better under the Portuguese than under any possible indigenous regime. the equivalent of 5. and sharing the same barracks rooms. but President de Gaulle abandoned Algeria anyway. Mozambique. more Algerian Muslims actively served the French cause than the revolutionary National Liberation Front (FLN): “At no time from 1954 to 1962 did the numbers of those fighting with the FLN for independence match the number of Algerians on the French side. the Portuguese completely integrated their forces.”22 The French army and its Muslim auxiliaries defeated the rebellion. eating the same food. “twelve years after fighting began. losses in the Vietnam War.
. Apparently not one single mutiny or mass desertion in a regular unit occurred.000 who belonged to special operational units.) While the British in Malaya and the French in Algeria had separate European and native units. Estimates of pro-French Muslims executed by the regimes of independent Algeria after 1962 run from 30.S. and Portuguese Guinea between 1961 and 1974. including 60. fifty-four thousand African soldiers—representing 35 percent of regular Portuguese army units—took part in the independence conflicts in Angola. But quite beyond that. both officers and men. (The Portuguese were especially assiduous in their cultivation of Muslims in Guinea.

the Communist regime in Kabul reduced the training period for officers in its army from three years to two. that the resistance had thoroughly penetrated it. and lengthened the term of conscript service from three years to four.27 These militias normally consisted of ethnic groups different from those supporting the insurgency in a particular province.26 After the Portuguese left their African colonies. Ever more desperate measures followed.
THE KABUL ARMY
When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.128
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These African conflicts were protracted but not intense. or joined the resistance. in territories sixteen times the size of the state of New York. over half either deserted or defected to the resistance. Such Draconian measures predictably increased the number of mutinies as well as desertions. others found jobs in civilian government agencies. the Kabul army counted thirty thousand. twenty were brigadier generals. Kabul army outposts and bases were surrounded with thick belts of land mines. went into exile. conscripts were stationed outside of their home areas. and although of questionable loyalty and lacking centralized organization. and various militias. correctly. All these inducements failed. the secret police. Portuguese army combat deaths over a thirteen-year period of struggle. In response to this alarming hemorrhage of manpower. But even Afghans sent to the USSR for officer training deserted or defected. The regime paid well for militia services. The Soviets deeply distrusted this army. plus ten thousand in the air force and forty thousand in paramilitary units. these groups
. one of their first acts was to disarm most units of the Afghan army. totaled four thousand. By the end of 1986. Promotions flowed abundantly: one defector said that of four hundred men in his unit. bloody conflict between indigenous groups continued for more than a quarter of a century. Any tenth grader who volunteered would receive a twelfth grade diploma upon leaving. not to keep the enemy out but the soldiers in. fearing. Among the eighty thousand men in the preinvasion army. To control desertion. and later to fourteen. Hence in 1984 the regime lowered the draft age to sixteen. Any eleventh grader was guaranteed entrance into a university upon completion of his service. of which 23 percent were African. Many of the eight thousand pre-invasion army officers had been killed by the native Communist regime. Young volunteers received higher pay than pre-invasion deputy ministers.

for the reasons stated above. It is difficult to say whether it was Ambonese admiration of and loyalty to the Dutch that stimulated conversions. the inability of the Soviets to take better advantage of the abundant ethnic and religious cleavages in Afghanistan is astounding.
INDONESIA
Indonesia before and during World War II was the scene of a dual collaboration—one of ethnic minorities with the Dutch. Conversions to Christianity had begun with the arrival of the Portuguese. along with
. The Ambonese and the Dutch The island of Ambon. A main consequence of all this ineptitude was the Soviet discovery that trying to impose a Communist regime over Afghanistan involved incomparably more fighting than they had supposed. has an area of three hundred square miles. and that. The separateness of the Ambonese had many roots. or the other way around. In retrospect. In 1605 the Dutch expelled the Portuguese28 and established a major naval base near the island’s principal town. In any event. Perhaps most important of all was the Ambonese acceptance of Christianity. the education young Ambonese received in Christian schools gave them clear advantages over the Muslim population. and of Indonesian nationalists with the Japanese. When the Dutch replaced the Portuguese. if not long before. most of this fighting had to be borne by the Soviets themselves. the Ambonese have considered themselves a people apart. or both. and admiration for Dutch abilities and methods. Educated Christian Ambonese made careers as bureaucrats and soldiers. including their peripheral location in an eastern corner of the Malay Archipelago. one of the Moluccas in the Banda Sea. the Dutch East India Company encouraged further conversions among the Ambonese as a means of solidifying their loyalty. Since those days. also called Ambon.29 The relative lack of economic opportunities on Ambon. The Portuguese arrived in 1512 and made the island their military and religious headquarters. a dislike for actual or potential domination of the Indonesian islands by the Javanese (a dislike the Ambonese shared with many other peoples in the area). who shunned all Dutch schools whether Catholic or Protestant.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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often succeeded in keeping guerrilla units out of their immediate territory.

enticed young Ambonese to join the colonial army. Most Ambonese soldiers were proud to be seen as such. Japan had long coveted the archipelago for its petroleum. very few of whom joined the army before 1929. Units of the Imperial Japanese Army began landing in Indonesia in December 1941 and quickly overwhelmed the poorly-equipped Dutch.31 The Dutch recruited the Ambonese primarily for their political reliability.33 rubber.) By the mid-nineteenth century.000 men of the KNIL surrendered to the Japanese. In 1876. as did other Allied units. and tea.”34 During the
. the Royal Netherlands Indies Army (KNIL). and they came to value these recruits highly. the Dutch had undertaken a systematic recruitment of Ambonese Christians. and British allies. 1942.130
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their religious and emotional affinity for the Dutch. this role engendered widespread dislike of the Ambonese on the part of other Indonesians. the first fleet action of the Pacific war.”30 Until 1921. the Netherlands East Indies had a population of about 70 million. as a result many Ambonese members of the KNIL were stationed outside Ambon. identification with the KNIL. Dutch policy usually tried to maintain a ratio of one European for every three indigenous soldiers.000 Ambonese. quinine. isolated from the populations among whom they were stationed. nickel.32 It became the common practice for Ambonese sons to follow their soldier fathers into the KNIL. (In this they differed radically from the Muslims. rice. destroyed the small naval squadron of the Dutch and their American. of these. of whom 1 million were Chinese and about 250. The Ambonese “were seen both by fellow Indonesians and the Japanese as loyal supporters of the Dutch. Absent from their own homes and communities. and a feeling of superiority to other indigenous groups. Australian. The Japanese soon began releasing the native soldiers they had taken prisoner. Ambonese units enjoyed better food and living conditions than other native units in the KNIL. there were approximately 220. According to the 1930 census. to deter possible rebellion by other ethnic groups. the commander of the KNIL wrote to the governor general that “the closer binding to us and promotion of the Ambonese soldiers cannot be too highly recommended. the Ambonese soldiers developed into a subculture based on loyalty to the Dutch. but not the Ambonese. Combined with their differing ethnicity and religion. who had to remain in prison camps along with the Dutch. 4. On March 8. 93. The Battle of the Java Sea in February 1942.000 Dutch nationals.300 were serving in the KNIL. When World War II broke out.

and also from Muslim Indonesians. Early in 1951 about four thousand Ambonese soldiers and their families were evacuated to the Netherlands. With Japanese backing. In the Javanese capital of Jakarta bitter clashes occurred between Ambonese soldiers and troops of the Indonesian Republic. Ambonese living outside of Ambon were physically attacked. and on the Ambonese.
. Large-scale fighting between the KNIL and republican forces accompanied and sometimes replaced negotiations. Finally the Dutch recognized the federal United States of Indonesia in December 1949.” Indonesian troops destroyed the monument on the island erected by the Dutch in memory of Ambonese soldiers who had suffered for their loyalty to the Netherlands. 1945. On Ambon. Most Ambonese were alarmed by these developments. Returnees to Ambon reported widespread anti-Ambonese atrocities.35 During the period between the Japanese surrender and the reestablishment of Dutch authority. Since then many others have followed their example. A republican guerrilla group declared war on the Dutch.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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occupation both the Dutch and the Ambonese suffered much from the Japanese. as Ambonese soldiers had always done. including attacks on families. Instead they entered into negotiations with the republican nationalists for an Indonesian federation united with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. the returning Dutch did not prosecute those who had collaborated with the Japanese.36 When Dutch troops returned. Except for a few cases. Ambonese everywhere openly rejoiced. 1945. In subsequent years the increasingly centralized and dictatorial regimes in Jakarta have provoked other revolts in various parts of Indonesia. These experiences served to bind the Ambonese all the more closely in their loyalty to the Dutch. In particular. The outlook for the Ambonese was grim. they much preferred a direct union with the Netherlands along the lines of Suriname or Curaçao. the nationalist leader Sukarno declared Indonesia an independent republic on August 17. a rebellion against the new centralizing regime flared briefly in the name of the “Republic of the South Moluccas. viewing federation as the antechamber to a centralized Indonesia dominated by the Javanese. Ambonese KNIL soldiers gave important assistance to the Dutch reoccupation of Jakarta. identifying the perpetrators as primarily Indonesian nationalists. Most of the emigrants continued to send money home. on Eurasians. In 1950 Sukarno and his allies dissolved the federation and proclaimed the consolidated Indonesian Republic. reaching Ambon on September 22.

There was perhaps more discussion than implementation of this policy. not loyalists. A third fundament of Dutch rule was assimilation: the aim was to bind Indonesia to the Netherlands by creating a proDutch middle class through Western-style education and then admission into the middle and upper ranges of the bureaucracy. both Portuguese and Dutch. not the Middle East. To counter Islamic resistance. Islam was facing a degree of competition from Commu-
. Islam had taken root in almost all the islands. It is very revealing that the Indonesian Republic claimed for itself those territories of the archipelago—and only those— that had been part of the former Netherlands East Indies. when the Dutch arrived in what eventually became Indonesia. Alliance with the aristocracy was a centerpiece of Dutch rule. and on Sumatra as late as 1908. Aside from nationalism. holy wars of liberation broke out in Java throughout the nineteenth century. the Dutch colonial administration allied itself with the local aristocracy.37 The Muslims and the Japanese A Muslim state flourished in northern Sumatra early in the thirteenth century. in Indonesia as in other colonial areas. For devout Muslims.39 Indonesian nationalists of Western education were usually secularist. sought to counter nationalism with a vision of an Islamic world community. While not all Muslim elements in Indonesia manifested permanent hostility to the Dutch. and it had required generations of Dutch administration to give it shape and a semblance of reality. the Ambonese hardly merited the title of “traitors to Indonesia. which of course rejected secularism whether Dutch or indigenous. at any rate. orthodox Muslim elements. and certainly not devout Muslims. final acceptance of rule by unbelievers is not possible. Western education had a tendency to create nationalists. and the colonial governments subsidized both Protestant and Catholic missionary activities.38 Islam served as a rallying point for resistance to Christian Westerners. and learned to adapt itself to societies in the archipelago that had already absorbed heavy doses of Hindu culture. Consequently. Four hundred years later. So was the policy of Christianization. Indonesian Islam was of a special kind: it had arrived by way of India.” Such a country did not exist until the end of World War II. which was often quite lukewarm in its devotion to Islam and definitely opposed to the social predominance of religious leaders.132
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However wise or unwise their choices may have been along the way.

Japanese insistence on recognition of the divinity of the emperor. While they supported the idea. not exile. and partly of police surveillance.42 which was called Peta. and throughout the war. as a rule nationalists—mainly Western-educated and urban—did not join the new army. Later the Japanese set up an Islamic volunteer corps called Hizbu’llah. By 1944 Peta counted thirty-five thousand members. early Japanese occupation policy relied on the ancient principle of divide-and-rule. To a large degree. serious Muslims could simply ignore the Dutch presence. the result partly of the long alliance between the Dutch and the local aristocrats. The arrogance of the Japanese occupation forces in Southeast Asia eventually proved deeply offensive even to their collaborators. Thousands of others were enrolled in semimilitary organizations armed only with bamboo spears. to serve as a support organization for Peta. Most of the prominent nationalists were of course Dutch-educated. greatly augmenting their prestige. however. indigenous forces were seen as a means to continue the struggle against the Allies after the Japanese had left Indonesia. Secular nationalism remained relatively weak among the peasantry.43 In Indonesia. naturally. Nationalist groups also flourished under the Japanese. and on the necessity to bow deeply toward Tokyo. most Muslims in Indonesia favored the Axis rather than the Allies. No such option existed. The Imperial Japanese Army that arrived in 1941 was very demanding toward the indigenous peoples and extremely punitive toward disobedience.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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nism as well: in the early 1920s the Dutch quickly suppressed a Communist-led uprising and exiled its leaders to New Guinea. All over occupied Southeast Asia.41 The Japanese-trained officer corps consisted predominantly of Muslim notables and local aristocrats. with a crescent moon in the center. was of course
. the acronym for Defenders of the Homeland. The Japanese made clear their intention to incorporate the Netherlands Indies into what they euphemistically called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. with the Japanese. Their original purpose was to assist the Japanese occupation in maintaining order. The Peta flag featured a rising sun. who placed them in the seats of power. was their sanction. To accomplish this aim. But after it became clear that Japan was going to lose the war.40 With Japanese favoritism toward Muslims. the Japanese tried to promote Islam. with another twenty-five thousand military auxiliaries. The Japanese soon began building indigenous armed forces. the Army of God. came persecution of Christians. Death.

44 In summary.45 along with the indigenous southern religious sects.46 large sectors of the native Catholic minority. in fact of the entire thirty-year Vietnamese conflict that ended in 1975. soon followed by the looming defeat of the Japanese conquerors themselves. Thus Japanese-trained armies in Southeast Asia would turn against their Japanese masters late in the war. the ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam). and long lasting. As the conflict entered its last and
. training guerrillas to continue the struggle against the returning forces of the Western powers. mobilized 300. mainly Javanese. Besides. That struggle is often portrayed as a contest between French colonialism on one side and the Viet Minh organization on the other. The effects of this fundamental fact on minority groups throughout the archipelago would be profound. the relatively rapid Japanese defeat of the Western overlords of Indonesia. In this context occurred the February 1945 revolt of Peta at Bitar. but it is misleading. under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh and General Vo Nguyen Giap. exposed the myth of imperial omnipotence. Beginnings of the South Vietnamese Army The South Vietnamese Army. By 1953. must always remain obscure unless one grasps that the Viet Minh were opposed by Emperor Bao Dai’s army. Such a depiction is not totally incorrect. both because the Japanese were losing and also because they were reneging on their promises to install their collaborators as rulers of independent states. whatever its other features. the Communist-dominated Viet Minh. was in fact a Vietnamese civil war. hundreds of Japanese soldiers remained behind in Indonesia after the surrender.
THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE
The history of the state of South Vietnam began with one conflict and ended with another. on Java. had its roots in the 1946–1954 conflict for control of Vietnam. Consequently the story of its army and the fate of the country were one and the same.000 conventional troops and guerrillas.134
RESISTING REBELLION
repugnant to most Muslims. the armed forces of the newly proclaimed Indonesian Republic were composed and led to a large degree by those. who had collaborated with and been trained by the Japanese. and other important social groupings. Hence the 1946–1954 conflict. The subsequent nature and record of ARVN. Despite such serious problems.

American officers arrived to assist in training and expanding ARVN. Instead the Americans built an army capable of repelling the North Korean invasion of 1950.000.000 more armed personnel mobilized by the sects and the Catholic militias. out of roughly 450. especially Catholics and members of the indigenous sects. Thus. equipment.48 plus 30. Hence neither the Vietnamese in French uniform nor those in Emperor Bao Dai’s army had proper training.000.000 were Foreign Legionnaires. Thus ARVN became roadbound
. U. or leadership. equivalent to nineteen million Americans today—migrated from their ancestral homes and property to face the uncertainties of a new life in the South. Further. only 50. for decades and in great danger. were Vietnamese. when Vietnam was partitioned in 1954 into a Communist North and a Bao Dai South. it must surely have seemed more patriotic—more Vietnamese— to support Bao Dai and his traditionalist nationalism rather than the local representatives of Euro-Leninism.50 The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was the heir to those several hundred thousand Vietnamese who. ARVN also enrolled a generous sprinkling of former Viet Minh and (later) Viet Cong who had grown disillusioned with the Communists. Of this (totally inadequate) number. in spite of these conditions. the Viet Minh and later the Viet Cong? No doubt local circumstances influenced the decision of some. nearly a million persons on the Northern side of the line—7 percent of the North’s population.000 Vietnamese in Bao Dai’s National Army.52 What motivated those hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese to resist.53 At any rate.000 were French nationals. Vietnamese units were forced to operate with no artillery or heavy armor and inadequate engineering and communications components. approximately 330. had fought against the Viet Minh. and North Africans. To this last figure one needs to add another 150.S. over 73 percent.000 personnel on the anti–Viet Minh side.000 in the French naval and air forces. Senegalese.51 When the French army left South Vietnam in 1956. But for others. military advisers did not develop the type of forces that had proved effective against guerrillas in Malaya and the Philippines. And fully 150.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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most desperate phase. In South Vietnam.47 Another 50. Few officers above the rank of lieutenant were Vietnamese. the forces under the French flag totaled perhaps 265. including 15.49 The French were hesitant to create a Vietnamese armed force that might one day challenge them.000 of the soldiers in French uniform were Vietnamese.

s. was inferior to that of the enemy’s: ARVN did not get the M-16 rifle in any significant numbers until after the Tet Offensive of 1968. ARVN’s American M-41 tanks were inferior to the Soviet-supplied T-54s. as a result competent but unconnected field commanders were left in the field. crucial elements in any counterinsurgency. ARVN was exactly the opposite.57 Northernborn officers (very many of them Catholic) comprised fully one-quarter of the officer corps. Nevertheless. before then it was outgunned by the Communist forces armed with excellent automatic weapons. but generally they served only one-year tours and did not speak the language.56 The shortage of officers was a heritage of the French colonial period.54 Further. 13 percent of colonels. veterans. The French army required that an officer possess a high school education.D. Because Catholics were more likely to have attended European-type schools. The Romans fielded armies that were small. because ARVN was the main institution holding the country together.S. and well equipped. advisers were competent and well-meaning. ARVN in fact had one of the world’s best-educated officer corps: in the mid-1960s. the equipment ARVN received from the U.59 In 1974 an experienced British authority actu-
. Many U. Under President Nguyen Van Thieu. the average ARVN unit received less than two hours’ training a week. with some getting much less than that.S. despite all these handicaps.S.58 The keys to advancement were personal connections. and 15 percent of other officers held Ph. and almost always engaged in operations. But the high school requirement excluded from the officer corps practically the entire peasant class. moreover. the South Vietnamese Airborne and Marine Divisions outclassed anything in the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). one-fifth of ARVN officers were Catholics. Vietnamese pride made it impossible to adopt inferior educational standards for their own officers.55 And of course for a long time little attention was paid to the police and local militia. 5 percent of the generals. twice the proportion in the general population. maintain that the M-16 was not as good as the Communists’ AK-47. the great majority of the population. U. Worse. There were other problems.136
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like the French and overreliant on heavy firepower like the Americans. Always short of good officers. President Diem had politicized the army. political considerations for promotion to the highest ranks became even more central. well trained. consequently they taught and learned little.

when all was collapsing. and very puzzling.6 million. whose
. During the Korean War.”61 In the disastrous spring of 1975. one hundred thousand per year. the comparable figure is eighteen thousand U. military deaths would have numbered not fifty-eight thousand. If the U. nobody’s idea of an elite unit. fuel and maintenance. Numbers do not bear out this belief. Between the buildup under President Kennedy and the fall of Saigon. was the last obstacle between the conquering Northern armies and Saigon. for example. ARVN combat deaths were higher than those of the Americans in Vietnam.S. In the long struggle against an armed Communist takeover. Yet the 18th’s resistance was so ferocious that the NVA was forced to commit four of its best divisions to overcome it.S. could overcome the traditional advantages enjoyed by the attacker.63 But to say that the South Vietnamese army took higher casualties than the Americans hardly tells the story. During the entire Vietnam conflict from 1954 to 1975. about two hundred thousand ARVN personnel were killed. Every year from 1954 to 1975. South Vietnamese Casualties A persistent. ARVN would do some of its best fighting. ARVN held on to it.60 During the battle for Quang Tri at the end of 1972. provided sufficient ammunition. some authors give higher figures. Nevertheless. one must consider that total American military fatalities in all American wars over the past two hundred years—from the American Revolution through Vietnam. The town of Xuan Loc.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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ally ranked ARVN second only to the Israeli army among free-world land forces. had suffered fatal casualties in the same proportion to its population as ARVN did in relation to the population of South Vietnam. those U. and in World War II. the NVA concentrated overwhelming numbers against ARVN units in that city. ARVN alone (excluding the militia. military deaths per year. showing that “the South Vietnamese. because the population of South Vietnam was many times smaller than that of the United States. Xuan Loc was the locale of the 18th ARVN Division. To grasp the significance of that figure. and these numbers do not include the militia (or civilians). the Americans incurred an average of four thousand military deaths a year. including both sides in the Civil War as well as World War I and World War II—amount to less than 1 million.62 In all. accusation against ARVN is that it did not do very much fighting. but 2. fiftyeight thousand Americans lost their lives—a number almost exactly equal to highway fatalities in the United States in 1970 alone.S.

desertion from ARVN meant a shift of manpower from the army to the militia.66 And it should be noted that Viet Cong
. “Few steps the [Communist] Party could have taken would have been so effective in crippling the morale and effectiveness of the government’s military forces as was the government’s own decision to adopt a policy of nonlocal service. In retrospect. and finally collapsed because. despite casualty rates higher than ARVN’s. a wiser assignment strategy would have been to give ARVN soldiers a fixed tour and then rotate them to a militia unit near their homes. ARVN waged war for twenty years.”64 This factor accounts for the high desertion rates among first-year soldiers at harvest time and around the family-oriented Tet holidays. In summary. in terms of population. indeed that they desired it. In addition. Desertion in ARVN had sociological. abandoned by its U. desertion rates were close to zero. allies. more than forty times as many fatalities as the Americans. The Problem of Desertion ARVN desertion rates were high. ARVN had an inappropriate structure. there was no social stigma attached to desertion. Other deserters joined militia units closer to their homes. But the nexus between political conviction and military valor is not always direct and obvious. some who deserted ARVN later rejoined. and the Saigon government did not itself punish deserters with rigor. Hence to a substantial degree.S.65 Thus desertion within ARVN hardly indicates eagerness for a Communist victory. It had second-rate weapons and inadequate training. Fighting a war of survival while trying to hold its country together. Much more importantly. Among the militia units defending their native villages or provinces. In rural South Vietnam. or even clean bandages for its wounded and dying. established by its U. Indeed. it was consequently riddled with political interference and financial corruption.S. in contrast to the Americans’ one-year tour of duty. With all these burdens. including ammunition. ARVN’s practice of assigning peasant draftees to units far from their home provinces was incompatible with the values of rural society (a consequence of having an officer corps drawn overwhelmingly from urban areas). gasoline. advisers. it lacked adequate supplies to go on. took enormous casualties. not political roots.138
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casualty rates were actually higher) suffered. ARVN soldiers served for the duration of the war. Some American journalists concluded from this that the South Vietnamese people did not oppose a Northern victory.

and social organization. one of the world’s best land forces. the average Union desertion rate was 33 percent. and for the Confederates. Such an argument is like claiming that the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865. it is difficult to understand why such a huge military operation was necessary to overcome them. crucial point: desertion from ARVN hardly ever meant defection to the Communists. but rather to a massive conventional invasion by the North Vietnamese Army. is this: Saigon did not fall to rioting mobs.000 had deserted. The South Vietnamese state. or of the Spanish Republic in 1939. the victory of the Hanoi regime. But that statement does not prove that in later years no large social groupings within the population of South Vietnam opposed a Communist conquest. the people of the southern provinces of Vietnam had become notably different from those of the North. The evidence usually offered for this proposition is the eventual collapse of the South Vietnamese state and army. in terms of speech.67 To put this question into some comparative perspective. 40 percent. newly appointed General George Meade arrived to take command of his Army of the Potomac. much less to the pajama-clad guerrillas of American mythology. was no historical anomaly. There is no doubt that the French colonial regime in Vietnam carried out.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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desertion rates were as high as ARVN’s. He expected to find 160. religion. The historical record. proves that the majority of the people who lived under those governments desired the victory of the opponent. Long before the partition of 1954. patent to anyone who will look.000 soldiers. based on the Mekong Delta. One month before that battle. During the Civil War. in July 1863. Pennsylvania. or permitted. A final. indeed long before the arrival of the French.000 because 75. and the Saigon regime so bereft of support. Many factors ac-
. many serious abuses. whereas two hundred thousand Viet Cong actually defected to South Vietnamese forces. and considerable longing for. recall that the principal sword and shield of the Union cause during the Civil War was the Army of the Potomac. Recall also that the largest battle ever fought on the continent of North America took place at Gettysburg. If South Vietnamese society was so apathetic. but instead found only 85.68 Popular Opposition to Communist Conquest Another strange but widespread belief about the South Vietnamese is that there was little opposition to.

their support had been slowly declining for a long time. informed observers estimated that less than one-third of the South Vietnamese population supported the Communist side. and others. the ARVN and the Territorials (militia) numbered over a million men. In the South’s large and growing urban areas. the Communists’ popularity suffered severely as they began forcing young men into their ranks to replace their enormous combat losses. In addition.”69 thus depriving the Communists of the main source of their rural attraction. the Southern religious sects. ARVN and the Territorials had beaten back the uttermost Communist military efforts. the post–World War II occupation of the North by Chiang Kai-shek’s forces and the South by British troops. the robust membership of indigenous southern religious sects.S. non-Vietnamese mountain tribes. Over the course of the conflict.140
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counted for and reinforced those differences. Many elements in South Vietnam opposed a Northern takeover. Clearly. the large Chinese minority. These included close to a million post-partition Northern refugees. Consequently. in the early 1970s the South Vietnamese government carried out “the most extensive land reform program yet undertaken in any non-Communist country in Asia. Together. broad strata of the Southern population opposed a Communist takeover. the urban middle class. the reestablishment of French control first in the Saigon area. especially the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao. During the mid-1970s. The brutal Viet Cong massacres of civilians in the city of Hué during the 1968 Tet Offensive confirmed the rejection of the Communist cause by urban Vietnamese. the necessity for the Viet Minh guerrillas to operate close to the Chinese border. ardent Communist exhortations for the urban population to carry out a general uprising failed resoundingly during the Tet and the Easter Offensives. Catholics. Nevertheless. altogether their membership was nonetheless quite numerous.70 Clearly. neither the Viet Minh nor the Viet Cong had been able to develop much strength. While there was overlapping among some of these groups. would
. far from the Mekong Delta. ARVN officers and their families. the U. While the rural areas were the wellsprings of Communist sympathy in South Vietnam. Japanese wartime administrative policy that reinforced regionalism. the most important being the usual division of Vietnam into a northern and a southern kingdom. and so on. Reinforcing southern separateness were the longer-established French presence in the Saigon–Mekong Delta area (“Cochin China”).

President Nixon assured South Vietnam President Thieu in writing that if Hanoi resumed its effort to conquer the South. in January 1973. Washington and Hanoi signed peace accords. the Paris Agreements.S. gasoline. These drastic cuts “seriously undermined South Vietnamese combat power.S. in contrast. The U. North Vietnam. By 1974. a figure totally inadequate to keep ARVN’s American equipment working. South Vietnam’s American ally began to turn against it.”74 The Easter Offensive of 1972 had shown that regular NVA divisions. This stunning asymmetry sealed the fate of the South Vietnamese. Meanwhile large quantities of Soviet ammunition. Saigon pleaded for 1 percent of that amount.S. 1973. and heavy weapons flowed in to the North. the United States had spent $150 billion (perhaps $425 billion in 2005 values) on the war. Artillery units in heavy combat areas were limited to four shells per day. U.S. Abandons Its Allies After years of negotiations. By summer 1974. Between 1976 and 1980. air attacks on North Vietnam and provided that the few remaining U.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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decide to withdraw all its forces from the conflict and. were incomparably more vulnerable to air attack than Viet
. to deprive the South Vietnamese of the means to defend themselves.”72 ARVN radio communications declined by half. military forces would intervene. In addition.71 Simultaneously.S. But the absence of American air strikes allowed the North to ignore the accords completely and greatly increase the number of its troops inside the South. Fighter planes stopped flying because they had no replacement parts. Congress managed to find $15 billion for Israel and Egypt. further. plus another fifty thousand across the Laos border. Congress prohibited any combat by U. fighting forces would withdraw from South Vietnam. Bandages removed from dead soldiers were washed and used again. each ARVN soldier was allotted eighty-five bullets per month. forces in or over Vietnam for any reason after August 15. By repudiating President Nixon’s written pledges to South Vietnam. The accords prohibited U. but Congress begrudgingly granted them only $700 million. would tacitly be allowed to maintain nearly a quarter of a million troops in South Vietnam. with their tanks. however. Congress gave Hanoi the signal for a new offensive.73 These drastic reductions in American aid to the South convinced Hanoi that the war had reached “a fundamental turning point. in 1973 Congress slashed assistance to the South to but a third of the aid it had received in 1972.

Tens of thousands of civilian family members had settled in the areas to which their soldiers had been assigned. Hanoi agents within the Saigon government spread rumors and panic. But when President Thieu decided to regroup ARVN southward. President Ford made no mention whatever of Vietnam in his first State of the Union address. Hence the halting of all U. he and his staff had done little serious preparation for such a massive operation. Here was the final disastrous consequence of assigning draftees far from their home villages. where less than 20 percent of the South’s people lived. The Fall When NVA units seized Ban Me Thuot on March 11.S. To this undeniable repudiation of the peace agreements. Thus President Thieu decided on a massive strategic retrenchment: ARVN was to withdraw from northern and central South Vietnam. On March 24. The Hanoi politburo now knew it had a green light for all-out invasion. Many ARVN officers and government officials received no warning about the retrenchment. In December 1974. Halving the amount of territory to be defended would be the equivalent of doubling the size of ARVN. As civilians in the northern provinces realized that ARVN was leaving. 1975.
.S. the U. Six days later the NVA entered Da Nang. except for enclaves at Hué and Da Nang. and several of the roads and bridges intended for the retreat to the south turned out to be impassable. Thus. Many of those soldiers. Most of ARVN’s thirteen divisions were in the northern and central provinces. left their units to search for them. within a few days retrenchment turned into collapse. fears of Communist massacres like those in Hué in 1968 galvanized an exodus of refugees. amid scenes of indescribable suffering. making movement difficult and defense impossible. North Vietnamese Army units overran Phuoc Long province. made no response. Congress rejected President Ford’s pleas for emergency aid. desperate to ensure that their families were moving south. such a strategic retrenchment was long overdue. air activity was an irresistible invitation for the North to violate the peace accords and take the offensive. North Vietnamese aircraft bombed and strafed the civilian columns thronging the roads. the ancient capital of Hué fell. They clogged the roads to Hué and Da Nang. and fall back to Saigon and the Mekong Delta.142
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Cong units had been. Most ARVN units in the northern and central provinces disintegrated. Actually.

whatever their political frailties. The South still held Saigon. Then. It still controlled all sixteen of the provincial capitals of the Mekong Delta. would by today have made similar advances. and often a salient. rain began to pour down. The identity of loyalist groups is almost invariably linked to ethnicity. religion. exactly twenty-five years after President Truman authorized the first U. Between the capital and the Cambodian border ARVN units were putting up fierce resistance. protection for more than half a century. But they never got that chance. independent South Korea today lives in unprecedented prosperity. kinship and/or venerable tradition. At any rate.
REFLECTION
One major source of the phenomenon of loyalism is the frequent resemblance of insurgencies and so-called wars of national liberation to civil wars. assistance to the French effort in Vietnam. all was calm. the torrent that would have stopped the NVA. But on April 30.Loyalists: Indigenous Anti-Insurgency
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But all was not yet lost. One is that loyalty to the regime—domestic or imported—or hostility to the insurgents does not necessarily entail willingness to bear arms. feature of such struggles. the South Vietnamese could not have preserved their independence. loyalism has been a common. General Duong Van Minh. Yet it has rarely been a decisive one. proclaimed the surrender. ARVN units had broken out of the NVA encirclement of Xuan Loc and were approaching Saigon. Thirty miles north of Saigon. with the NVA conveniently arranged in a circle around Saigon. Under U. assassin of President Diem and last president of the Republic of Vietnam.75 And very soon would come the inundating rains that would mire NVA tanks in a sea of mud. Another is that governmental authorities can resoundingly fail to make
. while military leaders took steps to turn the city into a second Stalingrad. for several reasons. Within Saigon.76 Without long-term help from the United States.S. one single massive B-52 strike could crush Hanoi’s military power for a decade. the 5th ARVN Division was fighting its way toward the capital. As he spoke.S. Hence reflexively classifying as traitors those indigenous elements that do not support a self-styled national revolution can obscure important realities. But for decades the same was true about the West Europeans and the Israelis. Thus Saigon fell. There is little reason to doubt that the people of South Vietnam.

Vietnam.144
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effective use of loyalist potential. and Afghanistan. and the Soviets in Afghanistan. Indonesia. One of the most prominent and persistent features of the annals of loyalism is also the most disturbing. From the thirteen American colonies to contemporary Algeria.
. the French in Indochina. as in the examples of the British in colonial America. the one-time organizers and protectors of loyalist elements have abandoned them to a fate that was predictably cruel and often deadly.

Callwell observed that “In no class of warfare is a well-organized and well-served intelligence department more essential than in that against guerrillas. particularly of the enemy’s intentions. For upon secrecy success depends in most enterprises of the kind. and for want of it they are generally defeated. Pye.” And John P.”3
THE USES OF INTELLIGENCE
Clearly. General George Washington wrote to Col. cannot be overemphasized. C. however well-planned and promising a favorable issue. a main purpose of intelligence in counterinsurgency is to facilitate successful operations against both armed enemy units and specific
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. 1777. Elias Dayton that “the necessity of procuring good intelligence is apparent and need not be further argued. All that remains for me to add is that you keep the whole matter as secret as possible.”2 On July 26.” Twentieth-century students and practitioners of counterinsurgency have provided similar testimony.E.” For Lucian W. Sun Tzu observed: “Now the reason the enlightened prince and the wise general conquer the enemy whenever they move and their achievements surpass those of ordinary men is foreknowledge. “The very essence of counterinsurgency is the collection of intelligence for the government. it is easy to recognize the paramount importance of good information.” Field Marshal Lord Carver wrote: “The importance of timely and accurate intelligence at every level.The Centrality of Intelligence
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CHAPTER 8
THE CENTRALITY OF INTELLIGENCE
The most effective weapon against an armed insurgency is a good intelligence organization. Cann concluded that “the centralized flow of intelligence was the key to [the Portuguese] counterinsurgency [in Africa].”1 Machiavelli believed that “nothing is more worthy of the attention of a good general than to endeavor to penetrate the designs of the enemy.” Frank Kitson argues that “if it is accepted that the problem of defeating the enemy consists very largely of finding him.

In South Vietnam. ethnic. Similarly.4 Another invaluable benefit of good intelligence is that it can identify internal divisions among the insurgents. Almost invariably. Therefore a major objective of any well-led counterinsurgency should be to acquire prisoners. agitated guerrilla ranks. neglect of good intelligence can lead to a general underestimating of the enemy—and the disastrous surprises that follow from such an error. sometimes producing violent internal clashes. This event radically disorganized the Sendero movement. Because it can have such lasting effects on intelligence gathering and the potential for future insurgencies. indeed. irregular British forces in the Carolinas often shot captured or surrendered American prisoners on the spot. Various fissures beset any insurgent movement. founder of Sendero Luminoso. In the Malayan Emergency. especially regarding food and women. This was the experience. while he was visiting his girlfriend’s house in Lima. With some help from the U. commanders of South Vietnamese Army units gave little attention to interrogating prisoners.5 By revealing the nature and extent of such divisions. or other cleavage lines. This principle is not always self-evident: in the early 1960s. the increasingly effective intelligence work of the Police Special Branch heavily depended on the visibly improving level of local security.146
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individuals.S.
SOURCES OF INTELLIGENCE
Besides cooperative civilians. or at least how people think it is going. the most obvious source of intelligence is captured enemy personnel. for example.. good intelligence can be used to drive a wedge between leaders. the incarceration of prisoners requires attention. of the French in their war with the Viet Minh. captured Viet Cong were sometimes executed without having been questioned at all. the special privileges of leaders. tribal. Peruvian intelligence improved to the point that in September 1992 the authorities were able to apprehend Abimael Guzman. between leaders and some of their followers. captured or surrendered Viet
. the dominant direction of the intelligence flow is toward the side perceived to be winning. By 1951 at the latest in Malaya.6 On the other hand. or between different segments of the rank and file along religious. The quality and quantity of intelligence available to the authorities also serves as a gauge of how the war is going. during the American Revolution. for example.

as well as their movements. allowing crucial information about the number and condition of his followers. penetrating insurgent organizations. British intelligence benefited greatly from
. during their invasion of Lebanon. In all.”8 Counterinsurgent forces can augment the flow of intelligence by recruiting among the local population. Overcrowded conditions in these places often resulted in the judicial release of enemy prisoners after only two years or less.”9 Sometimes the insurgents cooperate unknowingly (or at least unwillingly) with the counterinsurgent intelligence. These scouts knew the countryside and the sympathies of its inhabitants. employing technological means such as aircraft and satellites.11 In the South African war. Observing the great increase in the volume of enemy radio traffic helped U.S. Intercepting enemy couriers often provides priceless information. In Bolivia. prisons have proven to be schools for revolutionaries. who turned their prison cells into veritable schools of indoctrination. the U. Proactive counterinsurgent tactics also damage the enemy’s intelligence capability: “A guerrilla band which is constantly harassed and driven from place to place soon loses contact with its own sources of information. In its efforts to subdue Filipino guerrillas after the Spanish-American War.S. the Israelis kept most of their Palestinian prisoners confined in the huge Ansara Prison Camp—a move that inadvertently served to increase the solidarity and cohesion of the prisoners. Thus vigorous and sustained efforts at apprehending couriers should be a high priority in any counterinsurgency strategy.7 In other cases. Hence local recruits can be a valuable force multiplier for any counterinsurgency. to fall into the hands of his pursuers. Similarly. Army recruited scouts from among the many ethnic groups unfriendly to the mainly Tagalog guerrillas. debriefing amnesty-takers. intelligence become aware of the impending Tet Offensive in 1968. if prisoners are not carefully segregated.10 Recall that insurgencies usually display the characteristics of civil wars.The Centrality of Intelligence
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Cong were frequently confined in ordinary jails along with common criminals. about fifteen thousand Filipinos served in auxiliary units. incarcerating them will merely produce more sophisticated enemies. This was notably the case with members of Sendero Luminoso. the capture of such persons also disrupts the enemy’s internal command system. it becomes confused and its intelligence system breaks down. He paid for these errors with his life. who later emerged as “the military of the future Palestinian state. Che Guevara committed the most elementary security blunders. and especially by monitoring enemy communications.

it is important to identify and interrogate local government officials in contested rural areas who seem to take no serious precautions against assassination or kidnapping. ARVN suffered remarkably few defections in the 1968 Tet Offensive. Concerning these. and even during the collapse of 1975. but we utterly despised them for allowing themselves to be hired. they need reassurance about the protection of their identity. Much information can come from the simple surveillance of suspects. At the start of the post-1898 Philippine insurgency. hundreds of Cape Colony Boers fought in British uniform. “Counterinsurgents seem unaware of how commonly the police of a defending power are penetrated by the revolutionary party and therefore how dangerous it is to an informant to have his name in a police file. Enemy agents thoroughly penetrated the pro-Soviet Kabul army in Afghanistan and the South Vietnamese ARVN.) Additionally. we admitted.”)13 A well-timed and sincere offer of amnesty to the insurgents can not only reduce the number of armed opponents but also provide another lucrative source of intelligence. the counterinsurgent side must be very wary of false defectors. and informants may consequently risk exposure and severe punishment. forces in the islands were completely unfamiliar with the local languages and
. the guerrilla chief De Wet wrote: “The English. and then collect these items by means of a suitable box. and spies. Insurgents often succeed in infiltrating the police forces. such data is best gathered and handled by the police. One authority on the Malayan conflict concluded that the police—whose intelligence often identified targets for operations by the security forces—were “the decisive element” in defeating the insurgents. At the same time. and to use them against us. had a perfect right to hire such sweepings. (In spite of this. distribute paper and pencils to every house.12 (In addition.”15 A simple and effective method for providing assurance of anonymity to civilian informants is for security forces to enter a village or a neighborhood. and gain valuable intelligence for their own side.S. scouts. Usually.148
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the use of natives as guides. In Malaya the British effectively weeded out false recruits by requiring self-proclaimed defectors to identify the hideouts of their former comrades. U.14 But in order for civilians to be willing to provide helpful information to the authorities. as well as from tips by government well-wishers and the personal enemies of a guerrilla or his family. whose mission is to sow confusion and error. Counterinsurgent intelligence must also be on guard against insurgents seeking admission into military or militia units.

he was “armed with the greatest powers enjoyed by a British soldier since Cromwell. within a few weeks Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the United States. imprisoned Senderista guerrillas sometimes plea-bargained information about former comrades for lenient sentences. Army achieved its greatest intelligence coup: the capture of the Philippines insurgent leader Emilio Aguinaldo himself. the Marines’ Small Wars Manual. General Sir Gerald Templer arrived to take charge of insurgency-torn Malaya. blandly states: “The liberal use of intelligence funds will be of assistance in obtaining information of hostile intentions. Templer understood the key role of good intelligence in counterinsurgency. during the Huk rebellion.”)16 The lure of amnesty was another effective enticement to share information.20 Consequently. they learned through close observation to identify supporters of the insurgency. in Peru during the 1980s. In the same country. the intelligence available to the armed forces greatly improved under Secretary of Defense Ramón Magsaysay. commanders often paid handsome sums to those who provided knowledge about the insurgent organization in a village or town. and partly because of the universal rule that intelligence flows more freely to the side that is perceived to be winning.18 Welltreated by his captors.21 In 1952.The Centrality of Intelligence
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culture (and some remained that way).S. One key technique was surveillance. This occurred partly because the image of the soldiers benefited from Magsaysay’s insistence that they respect civilian dignity. and guerrillas and prisoners often identified former comrades or locations of hideouts in exchange for their freedom. Combining the chief civil and military posts in himself. Local U. along with literally truckloads of documents that provided him and his military commanders with much fascinating reading. a relatively small number of soldiers stationed in one place for a long time can be worth more than several units of troops rotating in and out on a fixed. on March 23. When army units remained in a given area for an extended period.17 (Similarly. Money also purchased much information. 1901. partly because he offered big rewards for information leading to the capture of guerrillas or the discovery of arms caches. He later wrote his memoirs19 and even ran for president of the Philippine Commonwealth (he was badly defeated). Magsaysay was able to bag most of the members of the Philippine Communist Politburo. (That repository of practical wisdom. Promising that “the emergency [conflict] will be won by our intelli-
. Nevertheless.S. Thus. short-term schedule.”22 A former intelligence director. American intelligence constantly improved by exploiting several resources. in one notable raid.) By these means the U.

army. General Giap was convinced. and perhaps the most costly. military intelligence branches sometimes find themselves treated like Cinderellas (receiving the same
. not corpses. But the most notable error of Hanoi. High-ranking South Vietnamese commanders often gave wide-ranging interviews to the press. involvement in Vietnam. was planning to carry out major amphibious assaults on North Vietnam.S.25 During the U. and civil service. the best source of intelligence proved to be surrendered enemy personnel (SEPs). a continual stream of SEPs came in. and even military affairs. great numbers of SEPs began to appear in response both to the unmistakably waning prospects for a guerrilla victory and to impressive monetary rewards for information. But they also harvested much valuable intelligence in other. the Viet Cong were very successful in penetrating the South Vietnamese police.150
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gence system. despite every indication. Many if not most of those who had joined the Malayan insurgency had been motivated not by ideology but by a desire to improve their social position. For instance. South Vietnamese newspapers were always full of information concerning political.26 Despite all this access to open-source intelligence. the Hanoi regime made some serious blunders. Budget hearings and debates in the South Vietnamese Congress were available to anyone who was interested. despite being warned by the Communists that if taken by the British they would be tortured and shot.
PROBLEMS WITH INTELLIGENCE
Although army staff colleges around the globe stress the vital importance of intelligence in combat.23 Templer wanted prisoners. but the evidence offered for these violations frequently allowed the North Vietnamese to identify its origins. as he expected. especially defectors. The South Vietnamese government was constantly able to prove that North Vietnam was violating agreements. financial. that the U. Indeed.24 Many SEPs led the British straight to their former encampments. was the belief that the 1968 Tet Offensive would trigger a massive popular uprising throughout the South (see below). Hence.” he brought with him the second in command of MI5 (the British equivalent to the FBI) to help build up his intelligence services. and he thus insisted on maintaining a numerous militia there. ways.S. quite convenient. At least one student of this conflict expressed amazement at the readiness of these persons to betray former comrades for cash.

often characterizes the relations between these organizations. sometimes quite intense. Thus the Japanese were unprepared for intelligence operations against the Anglo-American Allies in World War II. Rivalry. priority being given to surveillance of other enemies of the regime or of one another. “Intelligence work as a profession was not highly regarded in the Imperial [Japanese] Army.28 Many countries maintain more than one intelligence agency. It seemed in many ways the antithesis of action.S. Similarly.29 One of the most distinguished student-practitioners of counterinsurgency has written: “When I added up the intelligence organizations that were operating in Saigon in 1966 against the Viet Cong there were seventeen.”31
HOW NOT TO DO INTELLIGENCE: FRENCH ALGERIA
From the beginning of their campaign against the French in 1954. and in addition it feared creating an uncontrollable power base if all intelligence activities were to be united under one director. stealth. reflected in budget allocations and career paths. both American and South Vietnamese. patience. in South Vietnam ARVN had had little experience with intelligence. not counterinsurgency. During the war with the Viet Minh (1946–1954) intelligence had been the responsibility of the French. While the market places were glutted with spies. the security forces were starved of substantial intelligence.The Centrality of Intelligence
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unglamorous status usually accorded to counterintelligence in many national intelligence organizations). “for all the intelligence services it is a valid criticism that the Viet Cong were generally a secondary target.”27 Moreover. the best students in Japanese military academies of the 1930s studied Russian. not English. military intelligence personnel trained ARVN intelligence for conventional war operations. but they
. requiring caution. and none of them were talking to each other!”30 Consequently. partly because such targets were easier to deal with and less able to take reprisals when an operation miscarried. the South Vietnamese government did not place a very high priority on intelligence. Algerian Muslim insurgents had occasionally employed terror. the importance of intelligence work deserves higher status. each with its own special mission or target. partly because the Palace wanted things that way. forethought—none of these being prized martial virtues. Clearly. Subsequently U. The effects of interagency hostility on successful counterinsurgency are not difficult to imagine. Under President Diem. Consider the example of pre-1945 Japan.

then the torture had been in vain. This was simply intolerable. Thus in the spring of 1958 the army in Algeria issued a thinly disguised warning to the government in Paris that negotiations with the Algerian rebels were unacceptable. Third. the politicians could not be permitted to pull the rug out from under the French army yet again. the French army began torturing prisoners to obtain information in order to combat the insurgents’ terrorist plans—a move that would eventually disrupt the army itself. Paratroopers descended upon Corsica and visible preparations were made for a landing on the continent. it set the stage for a collective mutiny against the constitutional authorities of the Fourth Republic by those officers who were participating in. as they had in Vietnam and at Suez. the use of torture was utterly incompatible with this self-image. who had a romantic image of their profession. as well as the preservation of French Algeria against its malevolent enemies. it provided a weapon for those groups in French politics that for one reason or another wished to undermine the state and/or damage the army. The justification for employing torture—that it was not a shameful crime but a grim necessity—had of course been that it was in the service of protecting innocent civilians against maiming or murder. informants. and many good officers had implicated themselves in illegal and unethical procedures for nothing. First.
. Growing awareness of the army’s torture practices had several disastrous effects. Second. bribery. who saw themselves as knights defending Western civilization against a barbaric and unscrupulous foe. Eventually hundreds of army officers resigned or were dismissed. the torture of prisoners. by 1958. In the face of these alarming threats. Appalled by such indiscriminate acts of terrorism that struck both soldiers and civilians. Typical terrorist incidents involved planting explosive devices near bus stops where schoolchildren congregated and throwing bombs into crowded restaurants. or had long been aware of. the Fourth Republic collapsed and the retired General de Gaulle accepted the premiership with emergency powers. But if. the politicians in Paris were intending to hand over Algeria to insurgent terrorists. it corroded the morale of many officers. Compounding the tragedy of these events is the fact that torture of prisoners in Algeria yielded very little additional information to the army than was being obtained through the usual and much more acceptable methods of surveillance. especially younger ones.152
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resorted to terrorism much more systematically once it became clear that the French were decisively defeating their guerrilla efforts.

and eventually itself. to obtain only a small increment of supplementary information through torture. Then the North Koreans seized the USS Pueblo on January 23. Hanoi’s foreign minister Trinh was proposing peace negotiations. is actually not uncommon in war.The Centrality of Intelligence
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and civilian cooperation. The 1968 Tet Offensive in South Vietnam involved a double surprise: to the Americans and their allies. analogies to the fall of the French fortress at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 panicked many in Washington. the German invasion of Russia in 1941. (Indeed. Many circumstances distracted Americans from the coming Tet Offensive. the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo. American intelligence analysts knew that no general uprising of the urban population would materialize (as did many local Viet Cong cadres). Pearl Harbor. allied
. and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. the Yom Kippur War of 1973. among other examples. including large-scale (“strategic”) surprise. In January 1968 the enemy launched a major sustained attack against the American base at Khe Sanh. the North Korean attack of 1950. the landings in Sicily in July 1943. The Hanoi leadership based plans for the Tet Offensive on the double belief that (1) many if not most ARVN units would crumple or defect.32 the Normandy invasion. through December 1967 and January 1968. They also understood that without such a rising no Viet Cong military offensive could possibly succeed. was on the part of Hanoi. and to the Viet Cong and their Hanoi directors as well. But one can make a powerful case that the main surprise. Nevertheless.”)33 As it turned out. “the concept of a general uprising represents the major Vietnamese contribution to the theory of people’s war. both the CIA and the South Vietnamese were accumulating much information from prisoners. and yet leaders in Hanoi held onto them despite clear and repeated warnings from numerous and reliable Communist sources in South Vietnam. MacArthur’s landing at Inchon. and (2) simultaneously with the collapse of the army great strata of the civilian population would rise up against the Saigon government. the Ardennes Offensive of 1940.
THE TET OFFENSIVE: SURPRISE ALL AROUND
Surprise. Consider the unanticipated Japanese attack that opened the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. both these beliefs were disastrously mistaken. the Battle of the Bulge. Thus. the French army in Algeria destroyed the Fourth Republic. the supreme “intelligence failure” of the Tet Offensive.

On January 20.S.34 But American intelligence operatives were simply not able to accept that their Communist enemies really believed in the probability of such an event—it was inconceivable to them that the Communists would make such a gross error. decision-makers in both Hanoi and Saigon declined to accept the generally accurate intelligence available to them.”36 In brief. businessmen and professionals.154
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agents. “for the allies to predict the Tet Offensive. not only did not rise in support of the Viet Cong but in many instances acted against them.”40 In any event. According to an authoritative observer. ethnic Chinese. almost two weeks before the outbreak of the Offensive. “a failure to anticipate the possibility of enemy miscalculation had confounded intelligence analysts. the ARVN
. as set forth in the Communists’ doctrine for revolutionary war. and NSA monitoring of enemy radio traffic that indicated strongly that Hanoi was counting on a mass uprising. an essential reason for the failure of the Tet Offensive was that the populations of the large cities. the CIA had long been warning of some kind of serious Communist move. and ARVN units on leave for the Tet holiday were ordered back to station. General Westmoreland told the Joint Chiefs that something big was coming. Hence.”39 And Machiavelli warned that “the commander of an army should always mistrust any manifest error which he sees the enemy commit. as it invariably conceals some stratagem.”35 A highly placed CIA analyst wrote later that “since we did not believe that conditions met the criteria for such a rising. as Tet approached. The cities were filled with elements that feared a Communist victory: Catholics. forces inside Saigon were reinforced. they would have to overcome probably the toughest problem that can confront intelligence analysts: they would have to recognize that the plan for the Tet Offensive rested on a Communist mistake. especially Saigon. they interpreted Communist calls for such an uprising as an elaborate deception. U. But in addition to these military preparations. Indeed it is right not to rest our hopes on a belief in his blunders. we dismissed the possibility of an attack on the population centers as not being a viable option.”38 Thucydides observed that “in practice we always base our preparations against an enemy on the assumption that his plans are good. Nevertheless. Consequently. captured documents. Northern refugees.”37 This problem is not new. Clausewitz wrote that “as a rule most men would rather believe bad news than good and rather tend to exaggerate the bad news.

and so on. and a reasonable level of security for the civilian population. defectors.42 Rectitude on the part of the authorities plays a central role here. and amnesty-takers. often changed sides and offered their captors much crucial information. and Sendero Luminoso’s brutality to Indian peasants. such as Ernesto Guevara’s failure in Bolivia to observe the most elementary security measures.The Centrality of Intelligence
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officer corps. Police efforts based on systematic surveillance and record keeping.S. employees of South Vietnamese and U. government agencies. All together these comprised a dominant majority of the urban population. intercepted enemy communications can provide a rich harvest of information. it was not from humanitarianism that Sun Tzu insisted: “Treat captives well and care for them!”43 In addition.41
SYNOPSIS
The most valuable sources of intelligence are usually prisoners. can also be extremely productive. as in so many other areas. Last but not least. will often produce abundant information for the counterinsurgents. mistakes on the part of the insurgents. members of indigenous religious sects.
. soldiers’ families. the politically disengaged. In Malaya and South Vietnam. captured guerrillas. when treated well.

A peasant population generally desires security. tolerance. or instead of. the guilty. the U. and often advisable—so long as it is discriminating. Marines distilled the following sage advice from their experience fighting guerrillas in Central America in the 1920s: “In small wars. rectitude does not mean wearing kid gloves while fighting insurgents and their supporters. or of guerrillas who refuse to negotiate even though they are clearly losing. the ability to live and work
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. sympathy and kindliness should be the keynote of our relationship with the mass of the population.”1 Along the same lines. many found it safer to abandon normal activities and join the guerrillas. Severity in such cases is acceptable.156
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CHAPTER 9
THE REQUIREMENT OF RECTITUDE
A principal thesis of this book has been that true victory is one that leads to true peace. Obtaining such an outcome requires that the counterinsurgent forces practice rectitude.”2 Clearly. or of civilians who live in secure areas but persist in cooperating with guerrillas. a peace founded on legitimacy and eventual reconciliation. Counterinsurgent forces ought always to remember that they do not need the active support of the majority of the population. Right behavior does not preclude the rigorous punishment either of criminal elements among the insurgents. and in accordance with the highest civilized standards. They need merely the support of some and the neutrality of most.S. The harshness of Japanese and German counterinsurgency forces worked against their own aims mainly because of its indiscriminate nature: since the peaceful and law-abiding were punished along with. that is.
THE FOUNDATION FOR LASTING VICTORY
The noted theorist and practitioner of counterinsurgency Sir Robert Thompson defines rectitude as meaning that the forces of order are “acting in accordance with the law of the land.

stealing) from the population only create tension and resentment.
. Both civilian fear of disorder and demonstrations of organizational efficacy by the military will reinforce this friendly predisposition. In these circumstances. numerous civilians in a given area will be supportive of the military and police because they have relatives and friends in those organizations.The Requirement of Rectitude
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according to norms they see as just. this was a circumstance that was more conducive to the reduction of Spain than force of arms ever could have been. Because they had provided decent administration during their occupation of Manchukuo—in stark contrast to the previous corrupt and arbitrary Chinese regimes—the Japanese won the gratitude of much of the population. especially if military units are stationed in areas from which they have been recruited. the entrance of government forces into a district or village should not resemble the descent of a plague of locusts. Caesar acquired such reputation for his justice in paying for the wood which he cut down to make palisades for his camps in Gaul that it greatly facilitated the conquest of that province.3 In some cases. providing the rural population with at least a minimal level of security—they will normally win the acquiescence of that key sector.
Writing of Roman campaigns against irregular forces. Outraging sexual or religious mores and killing prisoners (whether civilian or guerrilla) will nearly always increase recruits for the guerrillas and hence increase casualties among government troops. right conduct by the military can solidify civilian support and marginalize guerrilla activity.6 But even lesser crimes such as “requisitioning” (that is. Therefore. Machiavelli observed: “Of all the methods that can be taken to gain the hearts of a people.5 Naturally. If the forces of order behave as they should—specifically.”4 Intelligence provided to Union forces in Virginia during the American Civil War improved notably after special guerrilla-hunting units learned to deal justly with civilians. This is even more true in those instances in which the guerrillas accept the aid or even membership of blatantly antisocial and criminal elements (a phenomenon that severely hurt the Philippine Huks. for but one example). none contribute so much as remarkable examples of continence and justice. quite the contrary result derives from bad behavior by the counterinsurgent forces. such was the example of Scipio in Spain when he returned a most beautiful young lady safe and untouched to her father and her husband.

some of which have already appeared in earlier sections of this book. or actually encouraged.10 Besides generating sympathy and recruits for the insurgency. even sincere onetime supporters. in large part because he allowed his wide-ranging armies to “live off the land. mistreatment of civilians and prisoners erodes military discipline. the bad behavior of their armies.9 Indeed one can make a good case that the Nazis’ savage treatment of the population of the Ukraine and western Russia cost them victory in World War II. with the natural result of hardening the resistance you are trying to overcome. and by German units in Russia and the Ukraine. Robert E. merely the notorious SS) in Russia forced many anti-Stalinist civilians to join the Soviet army or the partisans.12 Violations of rectitude during insurgencies on the part of the supposed forces of order. No British commander in chief ever found a way to turn the neutrals into active supporters—or keep his troops from providing endless ob-
. Consider the following examples. but are subversive of the discipline and efficiency of the army.”11 The enormities committed against civilians by French Revolutionary troops in the Vendée and Brittany. Consider how all Europe. The atrocities of the German army (not. are unfortunately not difficult to find. as is often alleged. . and their grave consequences for the latter. eventually turned against Napoleon. .8 Not just insurgencies but even historic continental struggles have been lost because governments either failed to control. . not only degrade the perpetrators and all connected with them.”7 Insurgents are well aware of this: the Greek and Yugoslavian Communist guerrillas and the Sendero Luminoso constantly sought to provoke the military into harsh reprisals against the civilian population. the more bitter you will make your opponents. greatly reduced the economic value of the occupied territories. “Wherever the British Army went between 1775 and 1781. Lee warned his soldiers that “perpetration of barbarous outrages upon the unarmed and the defenseless and the wanton destruction of private property .158
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THE PRICE OF MISCONDUCT
The strategist Basil Liddell Hart once observed that “the more brutal your methods. quite predictably led to insubordination and acts of violence by soldiers against their officers. the neutrals.” a quaint circumlocution for looting civilians. and caused Russian troops to fight to the death rather than be taken prisoner. it invariably alienated the people whose support it needed. . .

”14 In the 1790s the French Revolutionary regime—which had come into power through terror. KMT armies benefited from a reputation for not mistreating peasants. a higher number even than in the much more sensational Russian campaign.15 The excesses of the Mexican regime and the brutality of its armed forces provoked and sustained the Cristero rebellion. Mao Tse-tung correctly identified Japanese cruelty as a principal justification for his conviction that they would suffer eventual defeat. at least compared to the warlord armies that the KMT fought against. some of Chiang Kai-shek’s Kuomintang (KMT) troops returning to formerly Japanese-occupied areas mistreated Chinese civilians on a vast scale. The use of torture by certain elements of the French army in Algeria to obtain information from captured terrorists contributed to grave disorders within the army.16 At the end of World War II. a constitutional crisis in France. both systematic and casual. a strictly limited suffrage. they might easily have recovered the revolted colonies. The great American insurgent leader Francis Marion. the Swamp Fox himself. and the destruction of the careers of hundreds of French officers. The Soviet policy of devastating the Afghan countryside (“migratory genocide”) aroused the Afghan resistance to steely determination. and the support of the army—carried out genocidal policies in the Vendée region. wrote: “Had the British officers acted as became a wise and magnanimous enemy. committed by the Napoleonic armies in Spain directly contributed to the huge numbers of French casualties in that country. The outraged Pickens became a guerrilla chieftain and made his notable contribution to the events that led to Yorktown. they compelled him to send into their region thousands of troops that might well have made all the difference at Waterloo.’”13 For one instance. The great irony here is that before the war. the Vendeans nevertheless had their revenge.17
. Burned and bludgeoned into submission. Rising in revolt against the return of Napoleon in 1815. They thus undermined Chiang in the looming death struggle with Mao’s Communists. British forces burned down the house of the former South Carolina Revolutionary officer Andrew Pickens. complete with mass drownings and experiments with poison gas. The atrocities.The Requirement of Rectitude
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ject lessons in British ‘tyranny. after he had given his parole to remain peacefully at home.

the murder of six Jesuit priests in El Salvador at the height of a major insurgency nearly caused the U. as members of the ethnic Macedonian minority came to dominate the ranks of the Communist-led insurgents. are among the latest examples of how violations. and deliberately destroyed villages to create refugees for the hard-pressed government to care for.
Of course. In the post-1898 Philippines. counterinsurgent forces are not the only ones that violate rectitude. along with serious failures of the Indian army to maintain military discipline. The Salvadoran FMLN caused many civilian casualties during the later stages of the conflict by placing landmines near inhabited areas.160
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Chinese military atrocities in Tibet have stimulated the independence movement on Taiwan.18 In South Vietnam. The closing off of a peaceful road to change in Kashmir during the 1990s. guerrilla war often attracts plain criminals seeking a cover of semi-legitimacy. The Peruvian Sendero Luminoso engaged in truly grisly atrocities in the countryside and in Lima. Luis Taruc. Prolonged guerrilla campaigning can facilitate a coarsening of standards among the most high-minded individuals. in addition.
. In 1989. or wholesale rejection. government to cut off aid to that beleaguered country. the Viet Cong bombarded the marketplaces of villages unfriendly to them and attacked columns of helpless refugees. sending them to be raised in Eastern Europe. none of them achieved victory. In Colombia. others took up the practice of burning villages that were cooperating with the Americans. consistently maintained that the major generative force of that conflict was gross and systematic misconduct by the army of the Philippine Republic.S. the FARC and ELN continue to kidnap and/or murder civilians and deliberately damage the regional ecology. of right behavior work against the true interests of the violators. increasing Huk terrorism and brutality turned many peasants toward the government. and deliberately provoked reprisals by the Peruvian army against Indian villages. nevertheless. kidnapped children. During the Greek civil war. some of Aguinaldo’s followers made assassination of members of the pro-peace Federal Party a specialty. they forced young persons to join them. Taruc admitted that during the conflict’s latter stages. the principal military leader of the Huk insurrection. All of these movements flagrantly violated the norms of their own societies.

Boer guerrillas as a rule did not fear to abandon a wounded man to the British. But it is certain that allowing all to see that prisoners receive humane treatment is a weapon of great value. First. Mao Tse-tung wrote that “the most effective method of propaganda directed at the enemy forces is to release captured soldiers and give the wounded medical treatment.20 And—incredible as it may seem in our own era—throughout the increasingly fierce conflict.21 In Manchukuo. when Japanese troops treated their prisoners decently and then released them. right behavior toward prisoners is good training for right behavior toward the civilian population. the Japanese would torture and then kill them. Communist political officers told their guerrillas that if they were captured.23 Finally. no accusation of torture surfaced against either the Boers or the British. as discussed in another chapter. Consequently. treating enemy prisoners correctly discourages the enemy from fighting to the death. They assigned POWs to ordinary jails along with common criminals. when released prisoners return to their units they are living proof to their comrades that if they surrender they will not be harmed. guerrillas rejected Japanese offers of amnesty because they remembered previous Japanese brutality to prisoners. perhaps.22 (But in other parts of China. guerrilla confidence in their leaders declined. in the early 1960s at least.
. a policy of easy surrender followed by decent treatment can very effectively drain numbers from the insurgent ranks. Of course. prisoners can be a rich source of intelligence. rectitude toward prisoners on the part of the forces of order is crucial for several reasons. Second. Therefore. During the South African war. Conditions in overcrowded prisons often resulted in the judicial release of actual or suspected Viet Cong inmates. ARVN commanders gave little attention to the interrogation of prisoners. And in fact. Ernesto Guevara’s practice was to give his prisoners a lecture and then turn them loose. such treatment of prisoners during insurgencies is not uncommon.”19 During the struggle between the Fidelistas and the Batista regime.The Requirement of Rectitude
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THE TREATMENT OF PRISONERS
In addition to just treatment of civilians. insurgents recruited many of their members by force. those who oppose guerrillas must never lose sight of the fact that from Greece to Vietnam. Third. Under many circumstances. simply releasing prisoners might not be advisable.) In South Vietnam.

contain. Another key factor in morale is safety.26 The inability of the Kremlin to commit sufficient Soviet forces to the war in Afghanistan directly contributed to the self-defeating devastation of wide areas of that country. the government must see to the well-being of the troops.
. but to improve its basic skills and its conduct toward civilians.162
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HOW TO PROMOTE RECTITUDE
“To behave correctly toward civilians is not usually the overriding disposition of armed young men who find themselves in a strange country filled with people who want to kill them. or even locate the guerrillas. Young men require proper nourishment for morale as well as health.25 Numerical inadequacy led the Japanese army to the “Three alls” campaign (“kill all. Union troops in Civil War Missouri committed many violations of rectitude in large part because their insufficient numbers made them feel constantly vulnerable to guerrilla attacks. has inevitable corrupting effects on any army. Unable to defeat. burn all. the national army will likely be in poor condition. a government is confronted by a domestic insurgency. Promotions and decorations need to be distributed fairly. especially the conscript. its soldiers will often abuse civilians. The morale of Portuguese troops in southern Africa greatly benefited from the certainty that if wounded they would receive prompt medical attention via helicopter evacuation. on the other hand. where soldiers are forced to perform policing functions. must know that the members of his family are not destitute. Hence the essential priority in counterinsurgency is not to increase the size of the army or its ratio to the guerrillas. this is especially so because by definition guerrillas seek to look like and hide among the civilian population. but how is this to be done? How can the leadership of counterinsurgent forces promote rectitude? In the first place. Hence the size of the counterinsurgent forces must be adequate to their task. The prolonged occupation of foreign territory. The soldier. Yes. If. and that he will receive opportunities to visit them on an equitable basis.27 It is further essential to control firepower around populated areas. conduct is closely related to morale. Therefore. therefore adequate food preparation is very important (Sun Tzu wrote: “Take heed to nourish the troops!”).”24 Protracted armed conflict loosens the bonds of civilized behavior. destroy all”) that played into the hands of the Communist guerrillas.

29 Every effort should be made to have at least one reliable speaker of the local language accompany the troops in the area. that commander would be appointed governor of that same area. Responsibility aids rectitude. the Marines advise that “in small wars. and instead of striving to generate the maximum power with forces available. and village commanders must be convinced that they will be held strictly accountable for violations of right conduct. upon the cessation of hostilities. Table 1 suggests a very strong relationship between rectitude and counterinsurgent success. caution must be exercised. All regional. This will not only make them more familiar with and to the inhabitants. Nevertheless. seldom truthful and in most cases deliberately falsified”. but will also allow them to learn the terrain.”30 Certainly no insurgency has been defeated by a display of rectitude alone on the part of its opponents. The great French colonial commander Lyautey indirectly but effectively taught his soldiers the importance of rectitude by letting the military commander of counterinsurgent operations in a particular area know that. district. the goal is to gain decisive results with the least application of force and the consequent minimum loss of life. When Ramón Magsaysay was Philippine secretary of defense.The Requirement of Rectitude
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In their 1940 Small Wars Manual. If there are no local troops available.” Clausewitz wrote: “casualty reports on either side are never accurate. Finally. Officers and key noncoms need to be able to provide convincing answers to questions their troops ask them about why and against whom they are fighting. there must absolutely never be quotas for enemy dead—no “body counts. his practice of making unannounced descents from the sky (a latter-day diabolus ex machina) infused local commanders with unaccustomed zeal against the local Huk forces. rectitude—and the general morale of a fighting force— is related to political awareness. “that is why guns and prisoners have always counted as the real trophies of victory.
. Moreover. as well as someone who is conversant with local religious practices. commanders will need to leave headquarters and visit the field. an activity they should be performing anyway. then whatever troops are at hand need to remain in a given area for an extended period of time. Many factors must come together to produce a successful counterinsurgency. To accomplish this end.”28 The best way to guard against indiscriminant fire is to station troops in their native area.

it depresses the number of their own casualties. The counterinsurgent side can promote rectitude by committing an adequate number of troops to the struggle. right conduct toward civilians and prisoners has the following principal justifications. it helps prepare postconflict reconciliation with (or at least acquiescence from) those who supported the insurgency. Fourth. by avoiding the creation of new recruits for the guerrillas and by encouraging the surrender of enemy personnel.164
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Table 1: Counterinsurgent Rectitude and Victory
Rectitude Generally Present YES
Malaya Philippines (post-1898) Huk War (post-1951) Greece South Vietnam Vendée (after July 1794) Peru (Sendero Luminoso) El Salvador (post-1984) Moros (post-1898)
Rectitude Generally Absent
French Algeria Tibet
Counterinsurgent Victory?
NO
Soviets in Afghanistan Japanese in China Germans in Yugoslavia British in Carolina Napoleonic Spain Huk War (to 1951) Vendée (to 1794) Cuba (Batista) El Salvador (pre-1984)
SUMMARY: THE BENEFITS OF RECTITUDE
For the forces combating insurgency. legitimizing the guerrillas. by providing those troops
. First. by implication. it increases the likelihood of receiving intelligence from both civilians and prisoners. Fifth. it helps prevent the world media from sensationalizing the counterinsurgency and. Second. it promotes morale and discipline within the counterinsurgent forces. Third.

and geographical stability. All this is very well worth doing. political awareness. and by enforcing accountability for violations. care.
.The Requirement of Rectitude
165
with sufficient means. Rectitude is worth many battalions. by insisting on a responsible employment of firepower. The long road of warfare is strewn with the wreckage of those who forgot about or sneered at the necessity for right conduct.

or additionally. Ramón Magsaysay became secretary of defense. The reasons for joining a guerrilla band can be complex. But Magsaysay. at the height of the Communist-dominated Huk insurgency in the Philippine Republic.166
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CHAPTER 10
THE UTILITY OF AMNESTY
As Sun Tzu wrote in his Art of War. a mainstay of the Greek guerrillas of the 1940s and an increasingly common practice of the Viet Cong in the 1960s. Alternatively. the absence of governmental authority— that is. was well aware that some had joined the Huks a decade before. especially for very young persons.
EFFECTIVE AMNESTY
To be effective. when they were mere boys. and a small loan to sustain him until the first crops came in. Sometimes. an amnesty program must be based on a realistic understanding of why people become guerrillas. Many of them would have had no place to return to nor life to resume if they left the guerrilla organization. the real lure is adventure. some
166
. opening the way to forced recruitment. placing great stress on reducing the Huk ranks through amnesty. Magsaysay’s solution was to open up virgin lands on some of the southern islands. A house. A guerrilla who accepted amnesty could obtain twenty acres. himself a former anti-Japanese guerrilla.” A well-implemented amnesty program can be a very powerful instrument toward this end in the hands of any counterinsurgent force. In 1951. absence of security—can play a main role. getting away from a dull routine or a confining family situation. help from the army to build a house. a piece of land. their only home. Assuming the cause stems always from economic hardship or government brutality can be grossly misleading. He would henceforth be the dominant figure in the effort against the guerrillas. “To subdue the enemy without fighting is the supreme skill.

not that they abase themselves. To prove his good faith. In his declarations regarding amnesty. Magsaysay carefully avoided the word “surrender. and not least the honour of the defeated peoples. fought for whatever reason. This can be an excellent means of spreading suspicion and dissension inside the insurgent ranks. The counterinsurgents must of course exercise strict vigilance against false defectors. is unlikely to decide anything for very long. etc. Magsaysay’s amnesty-plus-resettlement turned people who had been threats to the constitutional order into productive and eventually taxpaying citizens.2 In Thailand during the 1980s. As Michael Howard wrote: “[A] war. the major amnesty program was called Chieu Hoi (“Open Arms”). American officers would hold impressive ceremonies to honor and reassure their former foes. Also.
THE CHIEU HOI PROGRAM
In South Vietnam. The Communist-dominated Viet Cong (VC) guerrillas attracted ambitious but uneducated young men of low status who saw no future
.3 For counterinsurgents. Indeed it was not unusual for the Americans to immediately appoint a surrendered insurgent chief to some provincial or local office.The Utility of Amnesty
167
cash: a simple concept. the new lives of the amnestied former guerrillas showed the remaining Huks that escape from war to peace was indeed possible.4 The South Vietnamese Chieu Hoi program paid well for returnees to lead ARVN soldiers to weapons caches. those who may have been sent by the enemy leadership to accept amnesty in order to deceive or disrupt. Besides. the British distinguished carefully between surrendered and captured enemy personnel (SEPs and CEPs.” What is essential is that the guerrillas stop fighting. an inexpensive program. In Malaya.”1 In like manner. the interests. wisdom consists in making resistance perilous and surrender easy. when insurgent Filipino commanders would surrender with their men. groups of surrendered guerrillas received an honorable welcome back to society. that does not aim at a solution which takes into account the fears. during the guerrilla conflict following the Spanish-American War. to arms caches. respectively). a SEP would have to lead government forces to the hideouts of his former comrades. as a general rule no amnesty should be available to guerrillas accused of personal criminal acts. an effective weapon. instead huge cash bounties should be placed on their heads.

7 Despite its success in attracting rank and file members of the VC. NVA soldiers were far from home. Many defectors identified the principal inducements to “return” to allegiance to the government of South Vietnam as loss of faith in ultimate Communist/ Northern victory. which would include political representatives of the Viet Cong. And especially for the growing numbers of VC whose recruitment had involved coercion. were uneasy with Chieu Hoi. especially if it involved the return of civil rights to defectors. and so could not be easily integrated into society in the manner of Southern defectors. the party assumed in the lives of VC members the functions normally played by the extended family and village. a VC guerrilla’s motives for “rallying” to the government side were mainly personal. of highranking Communist political or military figures. they feared that permitting large numbers of former Viet Cong to exercise the functions of citizenship would lead eventually to a coalition government. not ideological. and/or the availability of the “Open Arms” program. Many Southerners. rallying to the government was morally easy. Besides offering such persons promises of an important role in a bright new society.8 Another group from which amnesty-seekers were rare was the North Vietnamese Army. leadership cadres had absorbed very heavy doses of political indoctrination. One of those was composed. Recall that opportunities for upward mobility had been a key factor for many— North or South—in joining the Communist side in the first place. In addition. All Vietnamese have historically considered themselves free (and well-advised) to recognize or follow the “Mandate of Heaven.5 Generally. of course.
. the Chieu Hoi program had little appeal for two particular groups among the enemy. not only in ARVN but also in the civilian government services. especially in light of the not unreasonable suspicions that will inevitably arise regarding the true motives of high-ranking defectors.6 revulsion at atrocities against civilians. as well as an uncertain future.168
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for themselves in Vietnamese society as it then existed. Such a program will not be easy to accomplish. the greater effectiveness of the allies. this meant that switching adherence to the winning side did not amount to treason or dishonor. because it involved no change of heart or betrayal of original principles.” In practical terms. Upper-level defectors faced loss of status and income. An amnesty program that aims to attract high-level defectors will therefore need to offer them both political justification for their change of side and some sort of status equivalency.

Indeed. But such settlements for former Viet Cong could not provide the consolations of an extended family. the Viet Cong leadership and the North Vietnamese Army reacted vigorously against the Hoi Chanh. and whoever killed a Hoi Chanh received the same status as one who killed ten enemies. Chieu Hoi was the beginning of a blueprint for national reconciliation.000 Viet Cong and NVA personnel accepted amnesty under Chieu Hoi. the Communist leadership imposed the death penalty on relatives of amnesty-takers.000 to kill one guerrilla.”11 During the war the cost to process. They ordered heavy increases of counterpropaganda and reindoctrination for their own soldiers. Moreover. Successful amnesty campaigns
. Chieu Hoi settlements provided convenient targets for Communist reprisals. as Viet Cong units came actually to consist more and more of NVA during the 1970s. was spending $150. This clearly represented an intolerable loss to the Communist side. a program that attempted to address a ver y important counterinsurgent consideration: How can an insurgency end if the guerrillas are afraid of reprisals and have few certain prospects for reinsertion into society? As in the case of the Huk rebellion.9 Further. One solution was to set up Chieu Hoi villages and hamlets. they tended to keep their inhabitants outside the mainstream of Vietnamese society. Even the higher figure was a risible pittance. can be an effective and inexpensive weapon against insurgents. however. Profoundly alarmed. “Chieu Hoi had the most favorable cost/benefit ratio of any counterinsurgency operation in Viet Nam. besides. and notably. retrain. many surrendered Viet Cong were not eager to return to farming. properly implemented.”12
SUMMARY
An amnesty program.10 Hence it is not very surprising that even during the great Tet Offensive of 1968.The Utility of Amnesty
169
Therefore. the rate of defection decreased.S. “no Hoi Chanh (of record) went [back] over to the other side. and resettle former guerrillas or soldiers who returned to the side of the South Vietnamese government went from $14 to $350 each. many Hoi Chanh joined ARVN or the various militias. the Vietnamese Hoi Chanh (amnesty-takers) clearly needed some way of earning a living. bringing with them rich intelligence regarding the methods and locations of their former comrades. considering that by 1968 the U. in terms both of manpower and of propaganda. Approximately 194. Finally. As an even clearer sign of their agitation. the main occupation in the villages.

and protection from reprisals. To actualize this potential. Finally.170
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begin with the understanding that certain elements of an insurgent movement may be inclined to desert—either because they were forcibly recruited initially or because they have become disenchanted with their situation and prospects within the movement. amnesty programs should avoid any association with humiliation.
. work to do. the would-be amnesty-taker needs to know that he will have someplace to go.

Nevertheless. discipline. because such parsimony may prolong the conflict and increase friendly casualties. generally about twenty thousand men. without an appropriate commitment of ground forces. to be successful. False economy in this area may actually bring about disaster: the low British commitment of troops to the American War of Independence led to the defeat at Saratoga. Hence the counterinsurgents must give an impression of strength and permanency. supply. which in turn magnified the myth of southern loyalism and produced the final blow at Yorktown. while the guerrillas
171
. deploying inadequate numbers of soldiers and police against guerrillas can in fact be extremely expensive. training.1 This cardinal error of the British in America in 1780 was repeated by. the counterinsurgent side needs a ratio of ten-to-one over the guerrillas. but excellent in training and discipline. Numerous analysts of insurgency have suggested that. The Romans fielded armies small in size. Morale. First. that is. weapons. leadership. among others. Appearing to be the winning side is extremely important for both discouraging the enemy and obtaining civilian support and local recruits. The ideal situation from the point of view of the counterinsurgents is for the civilian population to support their side.The Question of Sufficient Force Levels
171
CHAPTER 11
THE QUESTION OF SUFFICIENT FORCE LEVELS
Everyone knows that mere numbers do not win wars. The counterinsurgents require such a seemingly great preponderance of manpower for several reasons. one cannot successfully wage counterinsurgency on the cheap. the Soviets in Afghanistan in 1980. The record is replete with examples of disaster descending upon counterinsurgencies that would not or could not observe this fundamental principle. On the other hand. and finance are crucial. and nothing accomplishes that aim quite like an abundance of well-turned-out troops. the next-best situation is for the civilian population to believe that the counterinsurgent side is going to win.

and to fight or not.3 The Revolutionary regime eventually committed great numbers to suppress the uprisings: in October 1794 it had 130. They also must set up and maintain patrols to hamper guerrilla movements. down to 1. To this effort Britain committed 366. hunter units to target specific insurgent leaders or groups. and mobile response forces to go to the aid of militia groups under attack.000 troops in the rebellious western provinces. compared to 180.000 fighting major European powers on the northern and eastern frontiers. as they please. where between 1912 and 1925 their numbers usually consisted of no more than one hundred men. Marines’ inimitable 1940 Small Wars Manual: “The occupying force must be strong enough to hold all the strategical points of the country. protect its communications. Between 1928 and 1933. in a country with a population of seven hundred thousand and an area the size of Pennsylvania.000 soldiers.500 by the end of 1927. complete with mass drownings and poison gas.300 Marines were in Nicaragua during 1926. Just over 3. especially in the Vendée and Brittany.000
. The British in the Boer War and Malaya From 1898 to 1902 the British Empire engaged in a war of conquest against the southern African Boer (Dutch) Republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. forty-seven Marines died in or as a result of fighting—less than one per month. never commanded a force equal to one-tenth of 1 percent of the Nicaraguan population at one time. the counterinsurgents must garrison cities and key installations and protect roads and railways. In the words of the U. militia groups for local defense.S. one for every seven civilian inhabitants of that unhappy province.”2 The Marines derived their concepts largely from their relatively unhappy experiences in Nicaragua.4 In December 1795 the Paris regime sent General Lazare Hoche into Brittany with 140. The regime responded with what amounted to genocide in the Vendée.
INSTANCES OF ADEQUATE COMMITMENT
Revolutionary France in the Vendée In the early 1790s the radical policies of the Terror provoked widespread popular rebellions across France. Their principal opponent. the guerrilla leader Augusto Sandino. and at the same time furnish an operating force sufficient to overcome the opposition wherever it appears.172
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are free to come and go.

In proportion to France’s population. 225.6 In 1914. The French in Algeria The Algerian conflict broke out in October 1954. 37.000 British forces were evacuated from Dunkirk. Commonwealth. maintaining only about 50. But by April 1956 the army had committed 450. General George Meade commanded 85. this was equal to three times the size of U. An American comparison: on the eve of Gettysburg. not counting 10. In 1856. Wellington had 32. the British Expeditionary Force that landed in France counted 75.000.000 men there. and 16. less than one per week. Against them. 112. About 12. the entire white population of the Orange Free State numbered only 90. and scour the intervals
.000 colonial troops (including 17. a variant of those employed against the Vendeans in the 1790s: hold the major towns in strength. and Malayan).The Question of Sufficient Force Levels
173
imperial and 83. At first.000 men.000 British soldiers.5 The half million British soldiers of various sorts in South Africa absolutely dwarf other British military efforts both before and after. 24. and the United Kingdom. the largest battle ever fought on the continent of North America. In 1958 the insurgents numbered perhaps 40. Germany. after his peninsular victories against Napoleonic forces. Against these approximately half a million troops. station small garrisons in the lesser communities.000 Malayan Federation police. 21.000. At the end of the war in spring 1902.000 had perished from wounds and disease. 512 British and Commonwealth soldiers lost their lives.000 British troops. France. the French took the uprising lightly. by 1954 the authorities were deploying 40. Finland.000 white South Africans. forces in Vietnam at their numerical height.000 armed militia. and 250.7 In the conflict. In 1809. Sweden.000 French troops in all Algeria. fewer than half of whom were actually inside Algeria. as 500 insurgents attacked 60 French military posts and police stations across eastern Algeria.000 sick. At Waterloo.000 Boer troops surrendered.000 Union soldiers. 6. The French troops’ great numbers allowed them to use quadrillage tactics.000 others had died in combat.000 regular troops (British.000 special constables.000 British troops went to the Crimea to fight the Russians.000 Australians). In 1940. Wellington commanded 26. Denmark. a territory larger than the combined area of Norway. constantly expand the number of places held. along with 53. Gurkha.S.000 guerrillas participated at one time or another in the ill-fated Communist-led attempt to seize control of British Malaya (1948–1960).

at least 60. The soldiers he initially sent into Spain were second quality at best.000 men. even if the French had been able to deploy scores of thousands of allied Polish and Italian troops. the Imperial forces would have had to number 350. the “command was also distinctly second rate. the French and their allies never came close to having enough soldiers there. a move as fateful for his throne as the Russian adventure four years later. It was the Emperor who brought disaster upon [the French army in Spain] by despising the rebels and so disbursing [the army] in order to occupy all the provinces at the same time. Wellington commanded an Anglo-Portuguese force of 60. whose inhabitants were fanatical.000—then the French would have needed over 800.000 and 300.”9 Worse.
INSTANCES OF INADEQUATE COMMITMENT
The French in Spain In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain. badly equipped.”10 But it was quantity at least as much as quality that doomed French efforts in Spain. impressionable troops.000 to contain Wellington.000 to besiege Cádiz. and that in a country incapable of providing the resources usually presumed to be available on the spot. and perhaps another 50.000 men. Employing the oft-cited ten-to-one ratio of soldiers to guerrillas necessary to achieve counterinsurgent success. hastily mustered. one accepts the higher estimates of the number of the guerrillas—around 70. rebellious. barely educated or trained. Such a figure was utterly beyond discussion. and savage [sic]. however. a remarkable barrier that effectively isolated those guerrillas inside the country both from their compatriots across the border and from much-needed supplies as well.11 If. These tactics deprived the guerrillas of a secure base and kept them on the move.000 to combat and hunt the guerrillas.000 men. “young. Confronted by popular fury and Wellington’s regulars. And of course the Russian campaign drained regi-
. This comes to a total of 460.000 troops in Spain.000. and charged with the invasion of a poor tormented country.174
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between garrisoned towns with frequent patrols. A very conservative estimate of guerrilla strength in 1812 would place their forces at 35. but in fact the French usually had only between 230. material preparations— as always—more or less non-existent. where the Spanish government had taken refuge.8 The French supplemented their ample numbers by constructing the famous Morice Line along the Algeria-Tunisia frontier. feebly officered.

000. the French would have needed 3 million troops to achieve victory.000—precisely half of the quite inadequate three-to-one ratio. something like 90. were attempting to keep the roads open and the guerrillas scattered between Tarragona and Oviedo. “each night the roads were left to the enemy.000 soldiers from metropolitan France (out of a population of over 40 million). By the fall of 1965 President Johnson had sent 184. Besides.S.S.000 U. the French and Imperial forces suffered from “far too low a ratio of force to space to [be able to] dominate the country. (Even at that peak. (The notoriously colossal army Napoleon led into Russia actually counted around 500. the grand total is at most 450. and by the spring of 1968 the number had swollen to well over half a million. The French in Vietnam By 1953 General Giap and the Communist-dominated Viet Minh controlled an estimated 300.000 soldiers.000 colonial troops (mainly North Africans and Senegalese).000. Even to attain the quite insufficient ratio of three to one would have required 900.000 in the Catholic and Sect militias. Kennedy entered the White House fewer than 1. forces in Vietnam amounted to less than one-third of 1 percent of the U. population. upon his death less than three years later. they had lost their tactical superiority as well. 20.) This growing Americanization of the conflict in Vietnam was just one of the poisoned fruits of the assassination of President Diem. fewer than half of them French. there were 16. commitment of forces in its Vietnam involvement was massive without being efficacious.The Question of Sufficient Force Levels
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ment after regiment out of Spain. in the ominous words of one French officer. service people were in Vietnam. Under the standard ratio.”13 Moreover. the Viet Minh usually operated at night.S. and 150. and another 30.14 French air power was too small to right this imbalance: as late as 1954 there were only ten French helicopters in Vietnam. along with 30.16
. U.000 Imperial troops.000 fighters.) By the spring of 1812. Thus.000.12 In sum.000 men in Emperor Bao Dai’s army. a totally inadequate number. plus 15.S. But because French law forbade the sending of draftees to Vietnam. When John F.000 air and naval personnel.000 Foreign Legionnaires. Even after adding to these the 150. because the fighting skills of the guerrillas were improving all the time.”15 The Americans in Vietnam The U. French forces there consisted of only 50.000 Vietnamese in French ranks.

The Soviets in Afghanistan When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.176
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The presence of this American force in Vietnam was highly problematic. since the administration would not permit the closing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The unexpected intensity of popular resistance.5 to 1 over their enemies. most of the others “were busy protecting their own installations. maintain such a huge investment of manpower in Southeast Asia. Thus the Americans and their South Vietnamese allies never exceeded the totally inadequate ratio of 1. But with regard to actual fighting troops. when nearly everybody concurred that Europe was of incomparably greater strategic importance to the U. made it clear that the Soviets were going to have to do a lot more fighting than originally planned.000 U. forces by infiltrating troops equal to one-fourth or even one-tenth of the American increment. the situation was much worse.000 by 1987.000 were combat infantry. How long could the U.S. since many Soviet privates arrived in Afghanistan with just one month’s training. and officers even less. only 80. North Vietnam could negate increases to U. so that the American forces constantly experienced an inflow of green troops to replace seasoned soldiers. many of them recently mobilized Muslim reservists from Soviet Central Asia. a figure that rose to 120. 115. or talking on radio telephones.000 Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan.000 of these.S.000 Soviet military personnel were in the country. however. or compiling questionable statistics. As many have noted. and the quality of those that were there was often poor. Soviet troops in Afghanistan never amounted to as much as 4 percent of all Soviet ground forces. military personnel in Vietnam in 1968. or unloading large crates of canned peaches. the U.S. Yet Moscow never committed adequate numbers of troops to Afghanistan.”17 An additional grave problem was that most American military personnel served a one-year tour. only 6 out of 194 Soviet combat divisions were in Afghanistan
. as well as the reluctance to fight and the inclination to desert shown by the Kabul troops. Five years after the initial invasion. Thus by January 1980 there were only about 50.? Besides. Of the nearly 600. with a consequent higher casualty rate. it fought a one-year war ten times.S. Merely maintaining a precarious hold on Kabul required 22. they imagined that the troops of the Communist regime in Kabul would do most of what little fighting might need to be done. did not fight a ten-year war in Vietnam.S.

By 1987 the Mujahideen numbered approximately 200. Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan. and assuming the ineffective Kabul forces remained at around 80. Imperial Japan deployed troops only twice as numerous as Mao’s guerrillas. all the while
. consider the following instances.The Question of Sufficient Force Levels
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on a full-time basis. the guerrillas suffered defeat.
REFLECTION
While the following examples of force commitment deal purely with estimates. they would destroy it. the challenge of adequately supplying such a huge force in the daunting Afghan terrain swarming with dedicated guerrillas was beyond comprehension. of whom perhaps 100. Still. In their campaigns against the Boers. Because “the Soviet leadership recognized that there could be no military solution in Afghanistan without a massive increase in their military commitment. To reach the standard ten-to-one ratio. the Soviets were left with only about one battalion in each province for offensive operations. while well below this number. Systematic Soviet brutality of course increased the determination of the Mujahideen to rid their land of the invader. after subtracting garrison security forces. Britain and her allies achieved a truly impressive ratio of 28 to 1 over the guerrillas. It may be superfluous to restate that in these three conflicts. In Malaya.”20 and because by the mid-1980s that same leadership had ceased trying to hide the fact that the USSR was facing a profound and systemic economic crisis.19 the Soviets would have had to send at least an additional 800. a much higher ratio than the Americans ever reached in Vietnam.18 The grotesquely inadequate numbers of Soviet troops resulted in the adoption of a strategy observers called “migratory genocide”: since the Soviets could not control the Afghan population. still reached a very comfortable ratio of 20 to 1.000 (an optimistic assumption indeed). the British were able to reach an advantage of at least 21 to 1. all of which resulted in either defeat or profound embarrassment for the counterinsurgent side. During her efforts to subdue sprawling China. Over 50 percent of these forces were combat troops.000.000 were active fighters. The French in Algeria. they are nonetheless instructive. Quite aside from the question of where these troops would come from.000 troops into Afghanistan—seven times their actual commitment.21 By way of contrast.

that is why the con-
.000 guerrillas in the field. and the Partisans were by no means the only anti-German guerrillas in the country. But that is too easy. yet by 1968 the guerrilla movement had clearly suffered strategic defeat.5 to 1.23 The Chinese forces experienced grave difficulties for years. hastily granted those colonies independence. This gave the Axis a mere 3 to 1 advantage.5 to 1 ratio over the Viet Minh.178
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having to deal with Kuomintang armies several times the size of the Japanese army in China.6 to 1 ratio over their Viet Cong and North Vietnamese adversaries. (3) the Portuguese. at the height of World War II in Europe. the Batista regime enjoyed an advantage in troops of 15 to 1. with an unimpressive ratio over the various guerrillas in their African colonies of 6.000 Germans along with 160.24 (4) the Americans and their South Vietnamese and other allies never had much more than a 1. One may. but then. presumably.8 to 1. (2) the French army sent plenty of troops to Algeria and defeated the guerrillas there. In summer 1943. one must recall that (1) even after the Castro guerrilla movement had successfully established itself as a fighting force on the island.000 by German estimate. Tito’s Partisans numbered 110. but the Axis forces could never reduce them to the level of a minor threat. defeated the guerrillas. In Tibet. The Soviets in Afghanistan. the Colombian government as of 2003 managed to field an army of about 140. By 1957. but then saw independence granted to that country by the politicians in Paris. And in the increasingly well-publicized war against the FARC guerrillas. even with the aid of their unimpressive indigenous allies.000 Chinese troops faced perhaps 80. following a 1974 coup d’état in Lisbon. Axis forces in occupied Yugoslavia included 200.000 Bulgarians and other allies.22 In Vietnam the French would achieve only a 1. a ratio of 2. were hard-pressed to maintain a simple parity with the guerrillas.000 out of a total population of approximately 36 million. The Partisans suffered many reverses and heavy casualties. a massive guerrilla revolt against Chinese Communist occupation broke out at the turn of 1955–1956. considerably less than one-half of 1 percent of that population. which proved totally insufficient. When thinking about numbers. be tempted to conclude that successful (or unsuccessful) counterinsurgency is a matter of numerical ratios. 200.

The Question of Sufficient Force Levels
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quest of Saigon required one of the largest conventional military invasions since World War II. women.25 A last cautionary example: as late as 2003. the Russians were maintaining troops in Chechnya equal to one soldier for every six inhabitants—men.
. and children—and still could not control that unhappy land.

lasting—success in a political rubbish dump. must be extremely selective in committing its troops to waging counterinsurgency in a foreign environment.S. experience in Vietnam—rightly or wrongly—it seems to be this: the U. U.S.S. Washington policymakers will need to provide clear answers to questions such as the following:
• What are the origin and nature of the insurgency in question? • What is the clear and direct U. TROOPS IN A COUNTERINSURGENT ROLE
A POLITICALLY CHARGED QUESTION
If a single point of consensus emerged from the deeply divisive U.180
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CHAPTER 12
DEPLOYING U. in a post–Cold War environment? Under the
180
.S.S. pressure on El Salvador substantially aided the cleaning up of the regime there. But it is hard to imagine an American ground commitment achieving real—that is. intervention be persuasively presented to the American electorate and its representatives in Congress. On the other hand. sooner or later it will have to address the host country’s political situation— always a tricky and often an explosive business.S. intervenes on the ground against insurgents. • Can the necessity for sustained U. intervention will effectively
influence the conflict?
• Why can’t the foreign country’s government handle the insurgents on its own? An effective government will almost certainly not be faced with a major insurgency.S. Hence if the U. interest in the conflict? • What evidence exists that U. When confronting the possibility of involvement in such a conflict.S. This is not of course to repeat the fatuous insistence by some Americans on instant democracy in South Vietnam.

the U. then intervention will probably be frustrating and frustrated because cultures are slow to change. especially under foreign pressure. Portuguese forces waged largely successful counterinsurgencies in their African
. which will provide sensational pictures for the media and disturb the U. during the height of the Communist-led Huk rebellion in the Philippines. electorate. intervention under consideration? Clearly. however benign. These and other considerations help explain why in some key crises during the Cold War.” The U.S. To accomplish all these ends would seem to require locally recruited soldiers.S. For example.S. most third world conflicts (at least) exhibit extreme moral ambiguities.S.2 Assuredly. ground troops to be dispatched to that country. what is the definition of success for the U. and they did very well against the Communist insurgency in Malaya. Armed Forces manifested similar opposition to committing U. combat troops in a faraway insurgency is this: To be effective.S. Not infrequently.S. Another persuasive argument against using U. or at least troops designated for long-term service in the same place. however. and to give proof to the local civilians that the troops will not eventually abandon them. Military action should not be an alternative for [erecting] a stable and efficient government based on sound economic and social foundations. foreign troops have defeated insurgents: British soldiers held Athens against a Communist uprising in 1945. from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson in September 1950 pointed out the nonmilitary roots of the Philippine insurgency. • Finally. some policymakers in Washington gave serious consideration to the Manila government’s repeated pleas for U. ground troops—or any foreign troops—to a counterinsurgency mission is a complex question. military vigorously and successfully opposed assuming a prominent counterinsurgent role. A memorandum.S.Deploying U.S. Troops in a Counterinsurgent Role
181
very best of circumstances. to be familiar with the terrain.1 If the reasons for the origin and continuation of the conflict are mainly cultural. any counterinsurgency force needs to obtain useful intelligence.S. such a list of questions would prove daunting to any but the most enthusiastic or convinced interventionist. “The basic problem [in the Philippines] is primarily political and economic. the wisdom of committing U. ground troops during the Greek civil war.

the Viet Cong did not defeat the Americans in Vietnam—quite the contrary. great attention would need to be given to such matters as rectitude.S.S. achieving its major objectives in each case. and securing local personnel as guides. Such limited involvement would emphasize U. Nevertheless. civilian-friendly tactics. Colombia. the Combined Action Platoons of the U. In contrast. France. occupying key installations and centers in order to free indigenous troops for more offensive operations.182
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possessions in the 1960s and early 1970s. the U.6 In such circumstances. the U.S.S. technology. and especially if U. and the ability to discourage outside aid to the insurgents.S. strengths. they could assume the operational defensive. Thailand. probably the soundest military and safest political course for it to follow would be to encourage regional powers and/or the former colonial power to shoulder the main responsibility.3 Moreover. to enter into a counterinsurgency in the company of allies. and auxiliaries. however. or instead of it if necessary. when an American administration faces an insurgency against a government whose survival is deemed important to the U. Yet that does not mean that American troops should never be used against any insurgents anywhere.. and especially of at least one ally with key cultural characteristics (language.S.4 Thus.5 In addition to this course. Much depends on political and geographic factors. Indonesia.7
. and the Marines in Haiti and Nicaragua in the inter-war period.S.S. committed many errors in South Vietnam (the first direct confrontation between U. It would almost certainly be of the utmost importance for the U. and Turkey. Countries with extensive counterinsurgent experience include Britain. India. Morocco. Peru. ethnicity) similar to those of the host country. Besides. intelligence. In fact Americans have achieved some impressive successes in counterinsurgency. ground involvement should widen.S. troops would be involved. Governments and armed forces can and do learn from their own and others’ mistakes. as well as how many and what kind of U. scouts. Portugal. mobility. including money. If. Israel. as it did in both the Greek civil war and the Huk insurgency. troops and a Communist insurgency). religion. Marines made an impressively successful record in Vietnam.S. might confine its counterinsurgency effort to offering advice and support. the Philippines.S. the question of whether or not to commit U. it must be acknowledged that the U. notably by the army in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War. troops to future counterinsurgent missions requires very careful study and reflection. decides to commit ground forces.

a US adviser could always establish instant rapport and affection. and they were treated as such.11 “Then there was the problem of regional accents and vocabulary which differed to the point of incomprehensibility even among natives. Army evaluated its members serving as advisers.10 For Americans. many American advisers viewed the assignment as detrimental to their careers. advisers served with a particular South Vietnamese unit for only six months. learning the language was indeed a challenge. was a most effective tool for winning the ‘hearts and minds’”13 of the South Vietnamese. representing the largest such commitment in the history of warfare.Deploying U. Most U. to attain fluency in Vietnamese. Despite General William Westmoreland’s plans to upgrade their status.S. and this seems indeed to have been the case. advisory effort] had grown to about ten thousand a decade or so later. In July 1967 General Creighton Abrams stated that U. The adviser was
. therefore.9 Aside from the question of how the U. one that became and remains profoundly controversial. and “it was no secret that the most successful and popular advisers were those who came back for a second or third tour and spoke the native language well. “Beginning almost unnoticed with a few hundred individuals in 1954. largely because the adviser program was part of a vastly larger U. “experience showed that even with a smattering of conversational Vietnamese. Some of them became openly critical of the Vietnamese value system. ADVISERS IN VIETNAM
It is difficult to isolate specific lessons from the activities of U. advisers to South Vietnamese military units.S.S. advisory undertaking. General Westmoreland wrote this about American advisers in Vietnam: “It can be said that during the crisis days of 1964. advisers saw themselves as second-class citizens in the army. [the U.S.S. military commitment.S. The ability to speak the language. Nevertheless.”14 In his memoirs.S.S. structural aspects of the program interfered with its effective functioning. when coup followed coup [after the assassination of President Diem] American advisers literally held the country together. certain fundamental aspects of the program merit attention because they may potentially resurface in a future U.”12 Nevertheless. a Westerner needs between eight hundred and one thousand hours of intensive study. Relatively few possessed any useful knowledge of the Vietnamese language.”8 Many advisers had contradictory feelings toward their own roles. Troops in a Counterinsurgent Role
183
U.S.

large numbers of U.18
. advisory effort in that war. seven days a week. As General Westmoreland observed: “Although advisers drew some American rations. Learning to live under the most primitive sanitation conditions was in itself trying. advisers fulfilled their assigned roles with dedication and effect.S.”15 Many advisers even feared to eat Vietnamese food.”17 In spite of all these difficulties. which took considerable adjusting to when the main course might be rat or dog.S. It is truly regrettable that the clouds of controversy and ignorance still surrounding the American experience in Vietnam have obscured the valuable lessons of the U.184
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on duty twenty-four hours a day.16 This last is not surprising. often under severe field conditions. Almost all advisers operating with troops had recurrent bouts of amoebic dysentery. they ate most of their meals with the Vietnamese troops.

The attack failed and an uneasy armistice followed. and the Viet Cong during the Tet Offensive of 1968. desiring a capital for their “Free Greece.Guerrillas and Conventional Tactics
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CHAPTER 13
GUERRILLAS AND CONVENTIONAL TACTICS
Sometimes insurgents have abandoned their guerrilla tactics in favor of conventional warfare. the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. government forces beat off the attack. the insurgents’ guerrilla strategy had been reasonably successful: large areas of Greece’s rugged terrain were under their control. Communist-led guerrillas attempted in early December 1944 to expel newly arrived British forces from Athens. but by January 4 this effort had also suffered defeat. After many casualties on both sides. In December
185
. impatient for victory and jealous of Vafiades. But Greek Communist Party boss Nikos Zachariades. Under their military commander Markos Vafiades. This section considers three major instances of such a fateful change in method: the Greek guerrillas in 1948–1949. 1947. In May 1947. along with a substantial portion of the civilian population. insisted on a permanent turn to conventional war.
THE CIVIL WAR IN GREECE
The Communist-led Greek insurgents passed from guerrilla tactics to conventional tactics more than once. Following the German evacuation of Greece. It is important to note that these insurgent attacks failed when the Greek National Army was in perhaps its weakest condition. however. near the Yugoslavian border. close to Albania. began on December 25.” the insurgents attacked the town of Florina. A major insurgent assault on the town of Konitsa. In November 1948 Zachariades succeeded in ousting Vafiades from military command. Churchill himself arrived on Christmas Day 1944 to hearten the defenders of the besieged capital. Fighting soon broke out anew.

But in fact one could argue that the change happened much too late: the Communists’ best opportunity to seize power in Greece was probably between late 1944 and the spring of 1945. in which superior French discipline. and prisoners. aid to the Greek government. Nevertheless. After heavy fighting and severe casualties. beginning another big siege of Florina in February 1949. and equipment would grind the enemy down. but Europeans could
. North Africans. Communist Radio Free Greece announced the suspension of hostilities. French Muslim troops could not eat the canned pork ration. and the closing of the Yugoslavian border against the guerrillas. adopting conventional tactics. T’ais. The French Expeditionary Corps in Vietnam included no fewer than seventeen distinct nationalities. most of the surviving insurgents scuttled over the border of Communist Albania. Communist atrocities against civilians.S.186
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the insurgents launched major conventional actions. Along with U. At any rate. for the last time. was a grave blunder. The fortress became the scene of one of the most famous battles in modern history. the Vietnamese needed rice. which had failed previously.2
DIEN BIEN PHU
The village of Dien Bien Phu lies in northwest Vietnam. At Dien Bien Phu. Lacking air cover and confronting a much-improved National Army (thanks in part to the effects of the Truman Doctrine). sub-Saharan Africans. On October 16. training. near the Laotian border. The main idea behind building this complex was to lure the Communist-led Viet Minh guerrillas into a pitched battle. Vietnamese. 1949. in August 1949 Zachariades assembled twelve thousand insurgents in an “impregnable bastion” in the Grammos Mountain area. but the French had to fly six different kinds of food into the fortress: one menu each for the Europeans.1 Critics of the Greek insurgents maintain that they turned to conventional war too early. against a Greek army much better organized and equipped in 1948 than it had been in 1947. on November 28 President Truman informed Congress that the Greek government had been victorious. and parachuted soldiers in to defend them. There in 1954 the French constructed an airstrip. surrounded it with interconnected strongpoints. the insurgents suffered heavy casualties and increasing desertions. half of the thirteen-thousand-man garrison consisted of Vietnamese. this miscalculation ranks as a major cause of the total defeat of the insurgency.

”7 The French Command considered it impossible to send an overland expedition strong enough to save the fortress.Guerrillas and Conventional Tactics
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not subsist indefinitely on it. especially toward the end. “nobody believed in the strategic mobility and logistics of the Viet Minh. and the wounded lay in that dirty water and in their own waste. Charles Piroth. Planes brought in huge containers of dehydrated wine. Thus Dien Bien Phu’s lifeline was gone. and besides.8 On March 17. the Viet Minh might well have run out of sufficient shells for their own artillery. As one after another of the French defenses collapsed in the rain. Col.
. The fortress also had a brothel. the trenches filled up with water. On almost all sides. Even if they did they would not be able to keep it supplied. transcended description. staffed by Algerians and Vietnamese.”3 The battle began on March 13. The French Command insisted that the Viet Minh would be unable to position artillery up onto that high ground. and in all Indochina only about one hundred combat aircraft were available to support Dien Bien Phu. the water pumps eventually broke down. the fourth day of the siege. The besiegers had a four to one advantage in artillery. or under cover. In short. French artillery inside the fortress would blow them to pieces. 1954— with a Communist artillery bombardment. the French gunnery chief. Two days later. the suffering of the wounded. killed himself with a hand grenade. the airfield became unusable because of enemy artillery hits. the garrison was left only with its completely inadequate forty-four-bed hospital. Another of the fundamental assumptions of those who planned the fortress was that the wounded would be evacuated by air. so that French pilots could not easily see them. In addition.”5 One noted student of the war observed that antiaircraft fire over Dien Bien Phu was thicker than over Germany in World War II. high ground overlooked Dien Bien Phu.4 “The failure at Dien Bien Phu was due to the fact that this isolated base was attacked by an enemy with artillery and antiaircraft. the Viet Minh usually moved at night. Since this was now impossible. then it must be the Viet Minh anti-aircraft gunners and their Chinese instructors. As the fighting went on and the casualties mounted. as soon as any Viet Minh guns fired on Dien Bien Phu. which was at the edge of their flying range.6 “If any particular group of enemy soldiers should be considered indispensable to victory. Further. And available French air power was often misused. French aircraft often mistakenly dropped loads of 105mm shells into enemy lines. Without this unanticipated supply.

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During this drama, somewhere between three thousand and four thousand men in the garrison became “internal deserters”—these were tribesmen, Vietnamese, Foreign Legionnaires, and Frenchmen who threw their weapons aside and literally sat out the siege in remote trenches, in relative safety if not comfort. And back in France, Communists in the labor unions and elsewhere sabotaged shipments of supplies to French forces in Vietnam.9 Dien Bien Phu fell on May 8, 1954, the ninth anniversary of VE Day. When Prime Minister Joseph Laniel announced the fall of the fortress in the French National Assembly, all the deputies present rose to their feet, everybody except the Communists. Dien Bien Phu was a tactical disaster for the French, but hardly a strategic one. The French had committed about one-twentieth of the troops they had in Indochina, of whom 7,800 became casualties. On the other hand, General Giap had gathered together nearly all his available forces, approximately 100,000, of whom over 20,000 became casualties. Yet for orchestrating the collapse of this isolated and hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned French garrison, Giap somehow attained a reputation as a Southeast Asian Napoleon. Nevertheless, if the “primary objective of Giap’s military operations was always to weaken the will of the French people to fight,” then he was successful.10 Dien Bien Phu “effectively brought to an end [France’s] 200 years as an Asian power.”11 And France’s travails in Vietnam laid the groundwork for the revolt in Algeria.

THE TET OFFENSIVE
The Tet Offensive of 1968 was the turning point of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. While there were many reasons behind Hanoi’s decision to unleash the Offensive, the primary and decisive one was that the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces were suffering casualties at a rate that could not be sustained. From 1960 to 1967, thirteen thousand Americans lost their lives in Vietnam. In every one of those years, a greater number of Americans died in the U.S. by falling off the roofs of their houses than died in Vietnam. In contrast, General Giap, victor of Dien Bien Phu, told a journalist that between 1965 and 1968 the Communist side had lost six hundred thousand men. There is no good reason to believe Giap was exaggerating.12 The North Vietnamese regime was requiring its popu-

Guerrillas and Conventional Tactics

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lation to endure casualty rates higher than those sustained by the Japanese during World War II. (In all of World War II, in all theaters, U.S. war deaths numbered four hundred thousand.) Many signs pointed to an approaching general collapse of Communist morale. Clearly, something drastically different had to be done to bring the war to an end on terms favorable to the Communist side. The decision to carry out the Tet Offensive was a recognition by Hanoi that its guerrilla-based People’s War strategy was failing. This was the genesis of the Tet Offensive. The rationale for the Offensive was Hanoi’s insistence that in a crisis ARVN would disintegrate and the oppressed masses of South Vietnamese would rise up against the hated Saigon government. However, during the Offensive, although the Viet Cong were better armed than the South Vietnamese forces, the great majority of ARVN units neither collapsed nor defected, but held their own. “The professionalism and steadfastness of ARVN during the Tet offensive surprised not only the enemy but the Americans and themselves as well.”13 General Westmoreland declared that “the South Vietnamese had fully vindicated my trust.”14 Even the militia (the Regional Forces and Popular Forces, RF/PF—called Ruff-Puffs by acronym-loving U.S. soldiers) generally did well.15 The fighting power of ARVN and the militia was not the only shock for the Viet Cong; they were profoundly stunned by the failure of the South Vietnamese people to rise up in support of the Offensive.16 These disastrous surprises were largely due to the Communist leadership’s poor use of available intelligence. Consequently, the Offensive was a military debacle for the Communist side. Of approximately eighty-four thousand Viet Cong involved in Tet, thirty thousand were killed. Some estimates run much higher. No one knows how many were wounded.17 “In truth, the Tet Offensive for all practical purposes destroyed the Viet Cong.”18 After Tet 1968, the war increasingly became a conventional one with the regular North Vietnamese Army playing an ever more dominant role in place of the broken VC. “Tet was the end of People’s War, and essentially of any strategy built on guerrilla warfare and a politically inspired insurgency.”19 Accordingly, “never again was the Tet strategy repeated.”20

SUMMARY
In each of these cases, the insurgent forces abandoned guerrilla tactics for conventional warfare. Two of the three switchovers culminated in

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defeat for the insurgents. In all of them, the defeated side had underestimated the enemy: the Greek Communist leadership regarding the National Army, the French regarding the Viet Minh, the Hanoi politburo regarding ARVN. In the Greek case, the change to conventional war resulted as much from internecine Communist party jealousies as from military analysis. Adopting conventional warfare undeniably hurt the guerrillas. Nevertheless, their error affected the final outcome only marginally, since the insurgents had already been defeated strategically, due to U.S. economic assistance, improvements in the Greek National Army, and the rebels’ alienation of much of the rural population. Thus, the outcome of the war was clear before the guerrillas changed their tactics. In 1954, the French set up Dien Bien Phu as an enticement for their guerrilla enemies, whose war-making capabilities they had consistently—and unaccountably—disparaged, to the extent of setting their “trap” for the Viet Minh in a place that was both overlooked by high ground and beyond the effective range of French military power. The Viet Minh, much better informed about their adversaries than vice versa, took the “bait” and overran Dien Bien Phu (with substantial Chinese assistance), breaking the will of the French political classes to continue the war. In 1968, the Hanoi regime, ignoring intelligence from its own sources and insisting that ARVN would crumble and the civil population would revolt, hurled the Viet Cong into a disastrous conventional confrontation from which it never recovered.21 After Tet, the conflict in South Vietnam became essentially a conventional war in which North Vietnamese Army regulars increasingly filled the place of the disrupted Viet Cong, even in so-called Viet Cong units. The post-Tet conflict would last another seven years.

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CHAPTER 14

THE MYTH OF MAOIST PEOPLE’S WAR
Out of China came one of the great myths of the twentieth century, the myth of guerrilla invincibility. During the 1930s and 1940s, Mao Tse-tung worked out methods of peasant-based revolutionary guerrilla warfare, linking guerrilla tactics to political organization. He then wielded this type of warfare to checkmate the Japanese and defeat the Kuomintang. That, at any rate, is the myth, which throughout the second half of the twentieth century exerted incredible power over revolutionaries and counterrevolutionaries alike.1 In order to evaluate the Maoist myth, one needs to review both the genesis and nature of Maoist revolutionary guerrilla warfare, and the strategy and tactics it employed against the Chinese Nationalists and the Japanese army. Contemporary Chinese politics begins with the Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the Sinicized but still foreign Manchu Dynasty. The major catalyst for this event had been the series of humiliations suffered by China during the nineteenth century at the hands of foreigners, especially the notorious Opium Wars. The crowning humiliation was the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), in which a small but burgeoning Japan achieved rapid and total victory over a huge but foundering China. The war stunned a whole generation of educated young Chinese, who thereafter searched desperately for leaders with an effective program to lift China out of her backwardness and weakness, and out of the clutches of the encroaching barbarians. One may summarize Chinese politics between the end of the Sino-Japanese War in 1895 and the entry of Mao into Peking in 1949 as the rivalry between the Nationalists and the Communists to establish their identity as the true saviors of China. It had been easy to overthrow the senile Imperial regime in 1911. It was much harder to establish an effective republican government in
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its place. The vacuum of legitimate power led to the militarization of Chinese politics; indeed, “the role of the military in shaping twentiethcentury Chinese politics and society cannot be overemphasized”2 because “in no country in the world have soldiers dominated politics so extensively and for so long as in China.”3 A few years after the revolution China descended into the era of warlord politics: provincial military governors exercised semisovereign powers in alliance with or in opposition to the central government in Peking, often under the tutelage of the Russians or the Japanese. Not for the first (or the last) time, China seemed in danger of falling apart into a gaggle of small, squabbling states.

THE KUOMINTANG
The father of modern Chinese nationalism was Sun Yat-sen. Born near Canton in 1866, he was educated at an Anglican school in Honolulu and a medical college in Hong Kong. Active in the 1911 Revolution, Sun founded the National People’s Party—the Kuomintang (KMT)— to advance his vision of a reunited and rejuvenated China. The KMT soon became one of the two great contenders for the right to lead China into modernity and unity. Then, as now, there were two Chinas: heartland (interior) China and maritime (coastal) China.4 Despite the impositions and invasions of militarily superior foreign states, by the year 1900 the overwhelming majority of Chinese had never even seen a foreigner in the flesh. The great interior heartland, remote, poor, and immobile, had remained relatively untouched by foreign incursion and influence. The impact of Europeans and Japanese had been almost completely limited to the great coastal cities of maritime China. There, the increasing presence of foreign personnel, ideas, and methods had produced a significant number of Chinese with “modern,” or at least certainly nontraditional, aspirations. This emerging middle class became the basis of the KMT’s support. The KMT wanted to end warlordism and imperialism—that is, to establish an effective central government. It wanted to modernize the country under the leadership of the educated classes. It wanted, in short, a political revolution, not a social one. The party’s base was in Canton, but it received crucial financial support from the great business houses in Shanghai, and also from China’s numerous and prosperous diaspora—the Overseas Chinese. “The Kuomintang was the

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party of the bourgeoisie,” the party of maritime China.5 As such, it never understood the desires of the peasantry. Neither was the KMT the party of the rural elite, the landowners and magistrates of the countryside. Yet the KMT mistook this rural elite for a stabilizing influence, rather than the profoundly destabilizing force that, because of its exploitation and illegitimacy, it actually was. It is not Sun Yat-sen but rather Chiang Kai-shek who personifies, at least to the West, the aspirations and frailties of the KMT. The militarization of politics in China following the Revolution of 1911 convinced Sun that the KMT could achieve power only if it built its own army. Thus Chiang, graduate of a Japanese military academy and Sun’s military adviser, came to the fore. The first director of the KMT military academy at Whampoa (near Canton), he journeyed to Moscow to enlist Soviet help in the coming campaign against the warlords. After breaking violently with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), Chiang turned to the army of Weimar Gemany for advice and equipment. When Sun died in 1925, Chiang became head of the KMT. He had two key aims: (1) territorial integrity, meaning the expulsion of the imperialists and abolition of the unequal treaties they had imposed on China, and (2) national unification, meaning the destruction of warlordism and communism.6 Expulsion of the imperialists would be impossible without national unity, that is, the suppression of all internal regional or class struggles. Hence in the KMT program for national salvation, anti-imperialism required anticommunism.7 China’s sprawling size, complex topography, poor communications,8 teeming and largely uneducated population, and extreme linguistic and provincial diversity were truly daunting obstacles to the achievement of KMT aims.

THE NORTHERN EXPEDITION
The KMT’s most immediate priority was eliminating the warlords who controlled northern China. In July 1926 Chiang led the KMT army out of its Canton base on the Northern Expedition. The warlords were no match for the KMT. “The rank and file of warlord armies was made up largely of peasants, recruited by poverty. . . . These armies gave the Chinese military an extremely bad reputation.”9 Within Chiang’s Nationalist forces, promotion for merit and combat ability was more common than in warlord armies, or in the former Chinese Imperial armies. KMT party cadres looked after the pay and food of the troops. They

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taught their men that they were the saviors of China, not social outcasts like traditional soldiers. All this kept up morale and held down depredations against the civilian population. Thus KMT troops benefited from a good reputation among the peasantry; “the [KMT army] proved to be far superior to its military opponents in its fighting spirit and political awareness, which were closely related.”10 The army of the KMT was but one of many armies in China, and the party’s announced program of national unification alerted all its actual and potential enemies. Thus, even to get the Northern Expedition started, Chiang had had to enter into alliances with local warlords in and around the KMT’s Canton base in Kwangtung Province. As he progressed north, Chiang offered the warlords in the path of his army a stark choice: resist and be destroyed, or join the KMT. Several warlords prudently chose the latter alternative, bringing their armed followers onto the side of the KMT; in return they were confirmed as being in control of their territories, not as warlords but as official KMT governors. This policy of co-opting warlords allowed the KMT to present the Northern Expedition as an instrument of unification rather than conquest. More fundamentally, if Chiang had not been willing to accept the conversion of at least some of the warlords, the Northern Expedition might well have suffered military defeat. Besides, if the expedition had fought its way across central and northern China victoriously but too slowly, it could have opened the door to renewed foreign intervention. Clearly, then, co-opting warlords was not in itself a bad idea; it was the plan’s execution that contained the seeds of future trouble. Chiang incorporated several warlord armies into the KMT ranks as whole units, rather than admitting their members on an individual basis. This cooption, along with defection from warlord forces and civilian volunteering, increased the KMT army from one hundred thousand in July 1926 to one million in February 1928.11 The flood of new soldiers into the KMT overwhelmed and discouraged the competent and sincere party cadres. Consequently these new “allies” received very little political indoctrination. Most of them remained the instruments of former warlords who had donned the KMT colors, for the time being. Additionally, the success of the Northern Expedition brought great numbers of bureaucrats and political careerists into the KMT. Chiang accepted them in wholesale batches, in an effort to establish KMT authority over a unified China as quickly as possible: “Mao purged, Chiang tried to convert.”12

“Thus. Here the Chinese Communist Party had established its main base. though the politically aware looked forward with hope in 1928. effective communications.”17
THE ENCIRCLEMENT CAMPAIGNS
Since the time of the Ming Dynasty. taking advantage of interior lines. Even if conditions had been ideal. And such were not to be. and would become catastrophically worse. “although today Nationalist China has become a synonym for corruption and ineptitude. And here Chiang Kai-shek concentrated his efforts on the final destruction of the CCP in the form of the five Encirclement Campaigns. inaugurating the period of Nationalist rule known as the “Nanking Decade. Nonetheless. and to introduce marriage choice. Chiang established his capital at Nanking. the new government could have done little more than initiate political. The reforms since 1976 reestablish this lineage but do not acknowledge it. Consequently.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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The Northern Expedition ended in June 1928 when the KMT occupied Peking.15 The regime also made serious efforts to abolish concubinage and footbinding. They allowed the Nationalist forces to penetrate deep into their Kiangsi stronghold. from December 1930 to October 1934.”13 Clearly.”14 Conditions were of course far from ideal. to foreign observers at the time it was a truism that the provinces ruled by Nanking [the KMT] were the heart of an emerging. modern state which was attracting the loyalty of more and more Chinese. social and economic reforms. progress toward creating a modern nation-state was sure to be slow even under the most favorable conditions. “ten years [would be] too brief a time to establish a completely new national administration and to turn back the tide of political disintegration and national humiliation that for a century and a half had assailed the nation.” The tasks facing the new regime were staggering because the multiple pathologies afflicting China were deeply rooted and interconnected. The Communists defeated the first four campaigns. then. and good intelligence.”16 During the Nanking Decade “the KMT regime established the foundations of the modern Chinese State and created an incomplete set of political structures which served as a ‘rough draft’ for the [Communist regime to come]. they mobilized their whole strength in surprise night attacks against first one relatively small
. the Nanking Decade witnessed an impressive industrial growth rate of 6 percent per annum. the southeast province of Kiangsi had been a stronghold of rebellion against central authority.

then another. but wound down in the face of superior Communist tactics. That is.000 troops against 150. employing three armies. in contrast. Nationalist forces would often end the day’s march in mid-afternoon. His slogan “unification before resistance” encapsulated his desire to defeat the Communists first before dealing with the invading Japanese. which lasted from October 1933 to October 1934. from January to May 1933. Factional and regional antagonisms among the commanders undermined Nationalist efforts in Kiangsi.18 In addition. An additional favorite CCP tactic was to surround some vital point and then ambush the rescuing force.”19 The Third Encirclement Campaign occurred between July and September 1931 and deployed 300. The Fourth Encirclement Campaign. and above all a lack of air power. as they would in the coming war against the Japanese. developed between December 1930 and January 1931. But Chiang remained profoundly convinced that the Communists were a greater threat to China than the Japanese.20 Renewed Japanese aggression in north China halted this effort. forcing the guerrillas out and away. Aware of the factionalism that had hampered the first two campaigns. especially ones developed during the suppression of the Taiping rebellion in the mid-nineteenth century. was based more heavily on traditional Chinese strategic concepts.000 Nationalist troops against 65.196
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group of KMT troops. This allowed the troops time to build a
. The Second Encirclement Campaign.000 Communists22 in a campaign that united strategic offensive with tactical defensive. The First Encirclement Campaign. Other factors besides good Communist tactics account for the failures of the first four Encirclement Campaigns. The Fifth Encirclement Campaign.000 Communists. The first four campaigns had been “modern”—employing ideas borrowed from Europe—and their objective had been the annihilation of the enemy forces.21 This Fifth Campaign sought to take and hold territory. poor communications and logistics. KMT forces would move massively into Communist territory while employing self-protective tactics to deter enemy attack. Chiang took personal charge of the third campaign.000 Nationalist troops. always hampered KMT counterinsurgency moves. Chiang deployed about 800. pitted 153. but his efforts met with little success owing in large part to a rebellion in Canton by anti-Chiang factionalists and the Japanese invasion of distant Manchuria. deployed 200. “[W]arlordism and factionalism made cooperation between Nationalist Army units difficult and was the principle reason for their defeat [in that campaign].000 soldiers. between April and May 1931.

the troops would advance a few kilometers. however. thanks largely to the radicalization of the CCP program after 1933. . the KMT introduced a major new weapon against the Communists: lines of blockhouses. and. the Nationalists had built new roads to help overcome the serious supply problems that had hindered their earlier movements.24 So undeniable were the successes of the Fifth Campaign that the CCP leadership decided to abandon Kiangsi completely and embark upon the famous Long March (actually a Long Retreat). In the Fifth Campaign. surrounded by trenches and barbed wire. They also allowed quick medical care for wounded KMT soldiers. to support Chiang. It is doubtful. with interconnecting fields of machine-gun and artillery fire. At the same time. because of the latter’s superior weaponry. in north-central China. To support all this building the KMT constructed hundreds of miles of roads. the ability to maneuver.25 The March began in the fall of 1934 and ended with the arrival one year later of the party’s tattered remnants in their new home in Shensi Province.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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fortified camp in order to discourage night attack (a standard procedure of the ancient Roman army). the Communist forces would almost
. “The Red Army had given a brilliant account of itself [on the Long March]. that it could have continued to maintain itself if Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek had pursued his policy of military annihilation of the Red forces. which drove the rural elite.23 Rural laborers under supervision of the local elite constructed ultimately thousands of small fortifications. Had he decided to open this campaign. To the same end they had constructed new airports and set up telephone units. . three stories high. They had also gained another accession of supporters. Since the end of the Third Campaign in September 1931. erect a new line of them. At the end of 1936 [Chiang] was preparing a new ‘blockhouse-fortress’ campaign around the [CCP] base in Shensi along the lines of the Fifth Campaign in Kiangsi. After a line of blockhouses had been erected. . The blockhouses choked Communist economic activities. Some of the biggest blockhouses were made of brick and stone. the Communist forces could not meet the Nationalists in positional warfare. then advance again. but simpler ones were put up in from one to three days. But above all the blockhouse system deprived the Communists of their greatest advantage. hitherto deeply suspicious of the reforming and urban KMT. under the protection of the existing blockhouses. very good for morale.

but Chiang lost seven hundred thousand of his best troops. Japan’s incursion into China proper had two complementary and decisive effects on the balance of power between the KMT and the CCP. Rapid expansion and heavy casualties in turn required the creation of a huge number of new officers. First. in the eighth year of the war. retreating in the face of a superior enemy is exactly what guerrillas are supposed to do.’ probably across Mongolia to Soviet Russia. it rescued the CCP from annihilation and provided an environment for its growth. whom the Nationalist government was hardly ever able to feed. they inflicted tremendous numbers of casualties upon them.”27 Rather. and many candidates were accepted as officers who previously would have been judged unsuit-
. political.28 For one example. clothe.29 These great losses forced the KMT to resort to wholesale conscription. Consequently. The battle left the KMT devastated psychologically as well as physically. Second. felt obliged to hold fast and defend key areas. The Japanese advanced to within three hundred kilometers of Chiang’s wartime capital at Chungking. Communist guerrillas were quite free to abandon any area that the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) entered in force. the KMT lost the post–World War II struggle with the Communists as a direct result of the Japanese invasion of 1937.”26
THE JAPANESE WAR
It has sometimes been claimed that the Chinese Communists were able to expel the Nationalists from the mainland because of the latter’s military. the IJA launched Operation Ichigo (April–December 1944) with the express purpose of breaking up the Nationalist armed forces. forcing Chiang to make a stand. the backbone of the KMT. The draft produced large numbers of new soldiers.198
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certainly have been either ‘exterminated’ or forced to begin a new ‘Long March. Nationalist troops. The efforts to support the enlarged KMT armies became a new and onerous burden to the civilian population. or pay properly. To meet these demands the training period for officers was reduced from three years to only one. in contrast. although the better-trained and better-equipped IJA troops were never able to destroy the KMT forces. The Japanese eventually withdrew. it ruined the army. But the “simplistic dichotomy between a ‘corrupt KMT’ and an ‘honest CCP’ is far too crude an explanation of modern developments in China to be of much value. and moral inferiority.

through their brutal tactics (see below). were indifferent to what the Communist Party had to offer. this critical question of loyalty was the poisoned fruit of Chiang’s policy of massive co-option of warlord forces during the Northern Expedition. “the question of what troops would obey whom under what circumstances could not be answered with any certainty.”34 In fact.”31 In selecting his commanders and sub-commanders. “From 1921 to 1937 Communism failed in China because the Chinese people. At the same time. These regimes flew the old KMT flag and even used the party name. Equally clearly. then. where it was cut off from its middle-class constituency (as well as its foreign allies) and forced to rely on the predatory rural elites. formerly the essence. at least not in the extreme form they did. without the crisis of the Japanese war. Of at least equal importance. thus opening that area up to CCP organization and control. The Japanese occupation of most of maritime China. The resulting confusion made it close to impossible for Chiang’s government to carry on effective propaganda in Japanese-occupied areas.30 Consequently. in general. of the party’s hopes. The war further undermined the Nationalist army by increasing the centrifugal forces within it: the presence or approach of Japanese troops meant that former warlords and provincial military commanders now had the option of switching their allegiance to Japan or to one of the several Chinese collaborationist regimes established by the IJA. During the Nanking Decade. was in its worst straits just before the Japanese invasion. and slogans as their own. . uniform. the Japanese acted as a recruiting agency for the CCP: “peasants who survived the [IJA] mopping-up campaigns were forced to conclude that
.”35 But that invasion “provided the means by which the Communist Partry reentered Chinese political life. Thus the Japanese war ravaged the Nationalists not only as an army but as a party as well.33 pushed the KMT into the interior. such issues of loyalty and disloyalty would not have arisen. .”36 The IJA effectively squeezed Nationalist forces out of north China. Thus the war ruined the KMT officer corps. thanks to Chiang’s Fifth Encirclement Campaign “the [Communist] Party . the very flower. the war also meant a new lease on life for the Communists. most of the KMT’s efforts at modernization had concentrated on the coastal provinces.32 Clearly. which were the most developed areas of the country and the KMT’s political base. including the notorious Rape of Nanking.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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able. Chiang was compelled to emphasize personal loyalty over professional competence.

”37 A few numbers quickly tell the tale.”41 Mao proclaimed that “we [Communists] must unite the nation without regard to parties or classes and follow our policy of resistance to the end. The Japanese war devastated the Nationalist forces.000 to 1. It was under these circum-
. revived the Communist party. when Japan surrendered.5 million inhabitants. and thus changed the history of the world. During the anti-Japanese war “the Communists . On the eve of the 1937 Japanese invasion. with 1. the CCP controlled about 35. with its concomitants of ex-warlord treachery and wholesale collaborationism. In 1937 the Red Army had 50. Mao always believed that the Communist conquest of China would require large. the CCP ruled 225. But then in 1937 came the Japanese invasion. by 1945 that army.44 “[T]he strategic role of guerrillas is two-fold: to support regular warfare and to transform themselves into regular forces. between 1928 and 1937 the KMT regime had had to confront a legacy of backwardness and decay. a world economic depression.200
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their only hope lay in resistance. “There is no very good reason to believe that the CCP and the Red Army would have triumphed had it not been for the Japanese invasion of China and the methods of pacification adopted in support of the consolidation of Japanese politico-military power. not counting guerrilla units.000 men. .000 members.39 Chiang and his followers could not stand up against these storms. To recapitulate. by 1945.2 million. the Japanese invasion saved Chinese Communism. Mao’s basic program began to resemble that of the KMT. .43 Guerrillas alone could not deliver victory.
MAOIST GUERRILLA WARFARE
In 1936 Mao and his party/army were on the edge of extermination by Chiang’s forces. Against all of these challenges the regime was making visible progress. and the Communists were widely regarded as the most competent organizers of resistance.38 In the same period.000 square miles. well-equipped conventional forces.”45 But in the late 1930s the CCP was by no means strong enough to confront the regular armies of the KMT.”42 That is. totalled 900. and a Communist insurgency.”40 In short. party membership ballooned from 40.000 square miles and 65 million people. eschewed their old slogans of class warfare and violent redistribution of property in their post-1937 propaganda and concentrated solely on national salvation.

Therefore Mao asserted that “every communist must grasp the truth that ‘political power grows out of the barrel of a gun. so Mao’s army would be a party in arms.”48 Questions regarding the proper treatment of civilians and enemy prisoners further revealed the political foundations of guerrilla insurgency. Mao wrote that “the most effective method of propaganda directed at the enemy forces is to release captured soldiers and give the wounded medical treatment. Here the guerrillas’ light armament becomes an advantage: “the great superiority of a small guerrilla unit lies in its mobility. Indeed “the peculiar quality of the operations of a guerrilla unit lies in taking the enemy by surprise. Mao maintained that good morale required constant political indoctrination: the insurgents must be assured that their cause is just. “The fighting capacity of a guerrilla unit.” Mao insisted.”51 All this depends upon the guerrillas moving quickly. and their triumph certain.”52 And hence “the sole habitual tactic of a guerrilla unit is the ambush. if the first duty of the guerrilla is to survive. and the gun must never be allowed to command the party.
. Hence “if we do not have a 100 percent guarantee of victory.”50 The guarantee of victory lies in concentrating greatly superior numbers at the critical point. that Mao developed his theories and techniques of guerrilla warfare. and largely because he had no other choice. But of course the best morale-builder is victory in combat. their enemy wicked. and in surprise.”46 As Cromwell’s army was a church in arms. Good morale is essential if the guerrillas are to bear up over a long period under the sacrifices and dangers in their daily lives. Proper behavior toward the civilian population was essential (“Return borrowed articles. They also allowed Mao to develop his concept of the secure regional base: a remote area in which to build up and supply a regular army. “is not determined exclusively by military arts. First and foremost among his ideas was the primacy of politics: guerrilla war was a political process.’”47 but “our principle is that the party commands the gun. and which also served as a laboratory for political and social experimentation.”49 Treating captured enemies in this manner would increase the tendency of the opponent to give up rather than fight to the death. we should not fight a battle.”53 The vastness of the country and its poor communications greatly hampered the counterinsurgency efforts of the KMT. the second is to win. be sanitary. be polite”).The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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stances. As for prisoners. but depends above all on political consciousness.

burn all. In that struggle. we pursue.”55 Or. in drawing off his principal forces to the flanks or to the rear. in an oft-quoted summary: “The enemy advances. driving them into the waiting arms of the Communist guerrillas. The second stage will be the period of the enemy’s strategic consolidation and our preparation for the counter-offensive. The golden age of Maoist guerrillas was the struggle against the Japanese during World War II. to fight. The enemy tires. he can neither advance nor retreat. The enemy encamps. especially the famous Hundred Regiments Offensive (in late 1940). The Japanese army had been able to push the KMT forces out of vast areas. Rather it was the barbarous behavior of the Imperial Japanese Army—barbarism partly provoked by the operations of Maoist guerrillas. In committing their incredible atrocities in the Three-Alls campaign (“kill all. which were growing as a direct result of Japanese policy. even if the peasants did not help the guerrillas. Mao envisioned that the anti-Japanese war would consist of three periods or stages. even if they opposed the guerrillas.202
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In strategic terms. destroy all”). we harass. even by rapid and deceptive actions. it was not the attractions of Communist ideology that produced recruits for Mao’s guerrilla forces. we retreat. we attack. but in so doing it overextended itself to the point that it could not effectively repress the guerrilla bands behind Japanese lines. “The first stage covers the period of the enemy’s strategic offensive and our strategic defensive.”54 How do guerrillas contribute to final victory in Mao’s view? “The principal object of the action of a guerrilla unit lies in dealing the enemy the strongest possible blows to his morale.57 The annihilation campaigns of the Japanese not only in-
. The IJA thus compelled the peasantry to mobilize. The enemy retreats. no matter how intriguing or self-evident on paper. and ultimately in dissipating his fighting strength so that the enemy’s units are crushed one by one [by conventional forces] and he is precipitated into a situation where. The third stage will be the period of our strategic counter-offensive and the enemy’s strategic retreat. The activities of CCP guerrillas in north China.”56 Maoist tactics. brought down the wrath of the Imperial Japanese Army upon the exposed peasantry. It taught the peasants that there was simply no living with the Japanese. and in creating disorder and agitation in his rear. in stopping or slowing down his operations. would have had no effect whatsoever without men and women to put them into practice. the IJA did not distinguish between peaceful and hostile peasants.

By the end of 1942 the IJA had constructed over nine thousand miles of roads.60 An IJA report from Kwantung in February 1944 stated that the guerrillas did not present much of a threat because they were intent on conserving their strength. as the Communists were often poorly equipped. The IJA countered guerrilla attacks on its lines of communication with massive construction projects.61 Moreover. so that they could attack Japanese units from what at first appeared to be deserted villages.58 Partly as a response to IJA fortified-road tactics. and the consequent great showdown with the KMT. And yet despite all the shortcom-
. as the end of World War II came clearly into view. and nine thousand forts.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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creased hatred for them and made recruits for the Communists. the IJA was strong enough to push the Nationalists out of Nanking and Shanghai all the way back to Chungking. after the Hundred Regiments Offensive. reinforced by fortified structures. the CCP began making overtures to the troops of the various Chinese collaborationist regimes. they also severely limited the amount of economic strength the Japanese could derive from the areas they had occupied. Precisely because the CCP refrained from attacks on areas occupied by such troops. To protect an important road or railway.59 This was partly from necessity. But what is the actual validity of that criterion? Clearly. The tunnels also aided the guerrillas in escaping from encirclement efforts. and had similar consequences. Japanese brutality in China resembled German policy in Russia. the IJA turned more and more territory over to them. whose forces they constantly attacked. thirty thousand blockhouses.62
THE IJA IN CHINA
Mao Tse-tung established his reputation as a great guerrilla strategist mainly in fighting against the Imperial Japanese Army. to say the very least. But by any account the KMT army was no world-class organization. Communist forces did not engage heavily in fighting against the IJA. They also thrust these new fortified roads directly into guerrilla-infested areas. cutting them up into sectors. All this digging aside. which of course freed Japanese soldiers for other duties. the guerrillas built tunnels and tunnel complexes under and sometimes between villages. But the primary rationale for this passivity toward the Japanese was that the Communists were awaiting the end of the war. the Japanese built broad ditches and walls on both sides.

71 The fighting equipment of the Japanese also left much to be de-
. Communist forces numbered about 440. the KMT began the war in 1937 with 1. for about 1. the IJA came off very badly. not against the Communists. to conclude that the IJA in China proper never had many more than 1 million troops. not first-line combat troops.000 IJA soldiers in China. on the average. A substantial proportion of IJA forces in China were garrison units.000. The grotesquely inadequate numbers of Japanese troops allowed space for Communist guerrillas to operate. One million soldiers to subdue and occupy a country of 480 million (85 percent of whom were rural): this would be the statistical equivalent of President Lincoln trying in 1861 to suppress the Confederate rebellion with an army of 19. during the so-called Nomonhan Incident in the summer of 1939.2 million. As the quantity of Japanese troops in China was insufficient. But why not? What was the actual strength of the Imperial Japanese Army in China proper (excluding Manchukuo63)? One distinguished study states that in 1937 the IJA totaled less than 1 million men. by 1941 the IJA had twenty-seven divisions in China.204
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ings and mistakes of the KMT forces.69 Confronting these Japanese forces.70 In 1939.67 At the time of the surrender there may have been 950.000 men. Yet—revealingly—when it clashed with this same Soviet army in Manchuria.7 million by 1941.5 million men. out of a total of fifty-one. the IJA was never able to force them into surrender or accommodation. soon that army would make a scandalously poor showing against little Finland.66 Other authoritative sources suggest that Japanese troops in China and Manchukuo numbered between 1 million and 1. the Soviet army was still reeling from the incredibly destructive Stalinist purges of its officer corps. Most of the Japanese forces were engaged in operations against the KMT army. so too was their quality uneven. not impressive.68 It appears not unreasonable.64 Another authority states that there were only twenty-three divisions in China by late 1941.1 million men. Mao himself commented on the less-than-first-rate condition of his Japanese foes many times. and disillusionment to spread among those conservative Chinese who initially entertained some pro-Japanese sentiments. of whom about two-thirds were in China. of which many were watching the Soviet border. then. Their levels of training and discipline were. a number which increased to 5.65 The Statesman’s Yearbook 1944 estimates fourteen IJA divisions in China in late 1942. anarchy to develop. most of poor quality.

and the Communists had physically and morally exhausted the KMT.73 As to mobility and armor. the Soviet T-34 medium tank carried a 76mm gun and 45mm of armor. KMT troops arriving in Manchukuo treated the collaborationist (Japanese puppet) soldiers there so badly that about 75. the Japanese. along with the IJA field artillery and most of their machine guns.000 soldiers.75 (In comparison. the Imperial Japanese Army was able to inflict much damage on Communist forces.80 The KMT reoccupied all the great cities of China just in time for the renewed civil war to increase food prices dramatically.000 officers. reliant on horses. and general ability to undertake effective counterinsurgency. The regime tried to pay its mounting costs by inflating the money supply.)76 Thus in terms of numbers. This overextension of the battered Nationalist army exposed it to Mao’s favorite tactic: concentrating overwhelming force against a particular enemy unit. far from his wartime capital of Chungking. traditional constituency of the KMT. was of World War I design. Nevertheless.
. the IJA against which Mao would make his reputation was notably inadequate. CONTINUED
Soon after the surrender of Japan in August 1945. Desiring to take possession of the former Manchukuo before Mao’s forces. quality. Chiang and his associates committed one blunder after another.72 The standard-issue IJA rifle. ravenous KMT soldiers engaged in extortion and even looting. errors of the KMT had a simple root cause: a dozen years of fighting the warlords. the American Sherman tank had a 75mm gun and 75mm of armor. the Japanese forces on the mainland were no Nazi blitzkrieg force: “the army remained an infantry army.5 million men. Desperate. copied from European models.79 Previously. was too long for the average Japanese soldier. jobless and deeply embittered. even fatal. equipment. Chiang rushed large units there.000 of them went over to the CCP. Moreover. All this shocked and alienated the urban middle classes.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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sired.78 By the fall of 1948 the protracted fighting in Manchuria had cost Chiang 400. its armor was so thin that small-arms fire could penetrate it. the KMT had demobilized 1.”74 The standard IJA tank carried a 37mm gun.77
CIVIL WAR. open civil war between Chiang’s KMT regime and Mao’s Communists inevitably resumed. many of these men also joined the Communists. including 200. This rifle. as an economy measure.81 These drastic.

could have healed those deep wounds in one decade. But the fourth burden was decisive: the Japanese invasion of 1937. so the Japanese stripped it from the Kuomintang. no party. Chiang’s chosen capital. In his haste to unify the country. It was thus vulnerable to a wellorganized group that would seek to mobilize the peasantry for revolution. first at the hands of the KMT and then of the Japanese. fell in October. The first burden was the legacy of one hundred years of Chinese humiliation and disintegration. saved Chinese Communism. The second was the nature of the party’s leading elements: the KMT was a bourgeois party in a peasant country. careerists. both of whom were prematurely diverted from their anti-guerrilla campaigns by developments in international affairs beyond their control. But then the Japanese invasion. no leader. Nevertheless.
SOME CONCLUSIONS
A review of some fundamental but often-ignored facts may sharpen this evaluation of the Maoist model of revolution. it was the clear inability of the Nationalists to carry out their program of unity and independence—their inability to protect China. women. Canton. blindingly revealed and epitomized in the inconceivable savageries perpetrated by the Japanese army upon the men. Rather. and children of helpless Nanking. On two occasions—in 1936 and in the early 1940s—the Communists were on the edge of destruction. the Japanese inflicted many casualties on the
. The ultimate defeat of the Kuomintang resulted from the many burdens under which it labored. cradle of the KMT. and mercenaries who flocked into the KMT during the Northern Expedition. The third burden consisted of the former warlords. The remnants of Chiang’s government and army sought refuge on Taiwan. Chiang permitted the dilution of the original nationalist and revolutionary KMT to the point that it could no longer serve as an instrument of renewal. As the Europeans had stripped the Mandate of Heaven from the Manchu Dynasty.206
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The rest of the story is quickly told: the Communists took Peking in January 1949 and Nanking the following April. by humiliating the KMT and providing operational space for Mao’s guerrillas. It was not the attractions of Communist ideology or even the KMT’s many shortcomings that produced Chiang’s final defeat. In 1936 Chiang’s forces had Mao and his party/army within their grasp.

Certainly. None can deny that he emerged as one of the great guerrilla theorists and chieftains of history. and savage tactics.The Myth of Maoist People’s War
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guerrillas and could well have destroyed them as a serious force. The CCP survived primarily because of limitations on Japanese manpower— limitations severely aggravated when Japan became involved in war against the U. it was the Americans. after the end of World War II. not the Chinese—and certainly not the Maoists—who caused the surrender of the Japanese Empire.84 Quite aside from the special geographical.000 Chinese casualties. with its 900. inadequate numbers. Third. with their alien ways. But however sound his basic concepts—establish good relations with the civilian population. were the best recruiting agents for the CCP. without Mao’s victory it is difficult to imagine how there would have been a Korean War. But. Second. the Philippines (the New People’s Army [NPA]). three aspects of the Maoist victory stand out as both essential and nonreplicable. treat prisoners humanely—they were neither original82 nor arcane nor infallible. and Great Britain.
AN ACCOUNTING
No one can know how differently history would have played out if the KMT had defeated or stalemated the CCP after 1945. It would be impossible to overemphasize the importance of this latter point: Mao’s movement presented itself as one of national resistance. Mao’s enemies exhibited peculiar weaknesses that played directly into his strategy. Mao played with consummate skill the cards that had been dealt him. take advantage of interior lines to defeat the enemy piecemeal. the Japanese.S. Cambodia. explain the political framework of the struggle to the troops. Maoist-style insurgencies have been contained or eliminated in Angola.83 These defeats occurred primarily because Mao’s would-be imitators in various areas of the world became the victims of a fatally incorrect understanding of why Mao had been able to achieve what he did. establishing Maoist control over China required years of hard fighting between massive conventional armies. Thailand. or why
. not Leninist revolution. and elsewhere. pitting Mao’s forces against a regime already devastated militarily and morally by the Japanese invasion and occupation and never fully in command of its own armed forces. Peru. social. Since the triumph of the Communists in China. and political conditions of China. at the very least. And during the anti-Japanese war Mao all but abandoned his Communist program and stressed national unity. First.

In the end some twenty to thirty million people lost their lives through malnutrition and famine because of the policies imposed upon them by the CCP. while Taiwan. Singapore. Certainly the people of China would have escaped Mao’s economic Great Leap Forward: “The national catastrophe of the Great Leap Forward in 1958–1960 was directly due to Chairman Mao. Therein are the keys to understanding why thirty years of Maoist Communism failed to make China a modern country. on the four thousand-year-old culture of China. while 220 million people (70 percent of them women) over the age of fourteen did not know how to read or write.90
. forty years after Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic. it signaled the victory of rural. whose “undeniable madness”87 led to more millions of deaths. On another level.”85 This figure represents “more Chinese than died in all the famines of the preceding one hundred years.88 On one level.”89 In 1989. heartland China over urban. South Korea. maritime China.”86 In addition. and the irredeemable destruction of much of the priceless patrimony of Chinese culture.208
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the Americans would have gone into Vietnam. Hong Kong—even Malaysia—surged forward. Chinese government figures revealed that 100 million people in the western provinces suffered from malnutrition. Maoism brought the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. barely thirty years old. and Japan became an economic superpower. Mao believed that “only people infected with the evils of bourgeois materialism could want an improved standard of living. the burning down of the British and Indonesian embassies by mobs of young Red Guards. Mao’s military victory over the KMT represented the forcible imposition of Leninist/Stalinist concepts and policies.

the Venezuelan Communist Party.5 million.3 They could also count on money. In return for cooperating with the recently ousted dictator Marcos Perez Jimenez. The outcomes of these decisions were quite unexpected. with between 30. especially to those who had made them.000 members (hardly a mass movement). the population was about 7. the Communists had been allowed to take control of many labor unions. larger than Texas and Oklahoma combined. for reasons that may be difficult to comprehend today. Venezuela was a society of ominous social disparities aggravated by high unemployment. arms. the reformer Rómulo Betancourt won the Venezuelan presidency in a free election. Much of the national territory. especially in the south and east. According to many analysts (notably Ernesto Guevara). The country had a long tradition of successful revolts.Two False Starts: Venezuela and Thailand
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CHAPTER 15
TWO FALSE STARTS: VENEZUELA AND THAILAND
During the 1960s. after helping to oust a military dictatorship. but no sustained experience with representative democracy. as well as in certain conservative army circles. the nerve center of the nation.1 In 1958. nevertheless. Betancourt’s insistence on obser209
. determined that that the time was propitious for a Communist revolution in that country. the Communist Parties in Venezuela and Thailand decided to launch guerrilla insurgencies against their respective governments. and training from Castro’s Cuba. was sparsely populated.000 and 40. In the early 1960s. At the same time. President Betancourt himself was unpopular in Caracas.2 it is not possible to stage a successful popular revolution against a democratic government.
VENEZUELA
Venezuela is three times the size of Poland.

The Communists then decided to disrupt the December 1963 presidential elections. Their guerrilla arm. Ultimately. thus the insurgents found little space for recruitment. the Communists carried out their “Rapid Victory” campaign. so that by 1969 the country was free of any notable guerrilla activity. the government gave the coup de grâce to any possibility of a serious guerrilla war by carrying out an extensive land reform. Neither could the police fingerprint anybody under the age of eighteen. only two points down from the 1958 turnout. the FALN (Armed Forces of National Liberation). the army had established good relations with the rural population. robberies.5 After this humiliating rebuff. Instead. At the same time.6 In 1966. The Venezuelan army did not move in sufficient strength against the guerrillas to eradicate them. Moreover. which it undertook in late 1963. warned that anyone found out of doors on election day. (Two small. and perhaps most importantly. Nothing much came of this move. even women. rioting. Fidel Castro deposited some of his own guerrillas on the Venezuelan coast in an attempt to support the Communists’ insurgency.210
RESISTING REBELLION
vance of civil rights guaranteed Communists freedom of travel and communication. Between late 1960 and early 1963. the party turned to rural insurgency. Finally. the Venezuelan insurgency faded away. an even more impressive failure of Communist insurgency was taking shape literally on the opposite side of the globe. giving them time to become familiar with terrain and population.4 Nevertheless. However.) Young Communists went to the countryside to convert the peasants. and sniper attacks. except a further deflation of the myth of the exportable Fidelista revolution. the peasants turned them over to the authorities. and on the whole treated prisoners humanely. however. into which the police were forbidden to go. And they lacked cars with radios until late 1963. Most of the perpetrators of these acts were university and high school students. 91 percent of the registered electorate went to the polls.
. intended to seize control of Caracas and other cities through terror. uncoordinated mutinies at military bases were easily put down. as well as the right to organize within the precincts of the Central University of Caracas. would be shot down. Betancourt’s Democratic Action Party had been organizing the peasantry in most of the countryside for decades. in Southeast Asia. The Communists’ attempts to get a foothold within the rural population were further handicapped by their identification with unpopular foreign states.

The country had long borders with Communist states. and obtained material aid through offshoots of the famed Ho Chi Minh Trail. however incongruously and uncomfortably. it is not surprising that an experienced student of Southeast Asian politics should have concluded in the early 1970s that “Thailand’s counterinsurgency record to date does not inspire confidence that she will be able to meet this [challenge].7 At the same time the government in Bangkok did not react with much vigor in the early stages of the Communist insurgency. being habituated to a certain amount of dissidence and even internal violence. This was extremely significant. During the 1960s. Living along extensive segments of these borders were unassimilated ethnic minorities who displayed notable social and economic inequalities with the majority Thai population.Two False Starts: Venezuela and Thailand
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THAILAND
Thailand has an area of two hundred thousand square miles. During the late 1950s Thai Communists had received training in China. carried out a bloodless coup d’état that transformed the absolute monarchy into a constitutional one.10 Thailand also possessed two powerful and popular institutions: Buddhism and the monarchy. hence the insurgents could not fly the attractive banner of national independence against a foreign overlord. Thailand looked to some like a good venue for a successful. North Vietnam. with the robe of nationalism. unlike in other countries where insurgencies flourished. This turned out to be a very fortunate change indeed. 70 percent of Thai farmers owned at least some of the land that they tilled. and at its nearest point is less than seventy miles from China.8 In light of all these factors.11 In 1932 young army officers and civil servants. the Communist insurgency in Thailand had considerably more weaknesses than strengths.12 Communist popular appeal also encountered severe limitations because. In the first place. in light of its unique geography and population disparities. many of whom had studied in Europe. and Laos. The government also found it impossible to believe that the Thai people would find any significant appeal in Communism. Communist insurgency.8 percent as Muslims. and 3. for the monarchy and the country both. or of Colorado and Wyoming combined. The 1980 census recorded 95 percent of Thais as Buddhists. the country had never in modern times been colonized.”9 But as it turned out. because no Communist party had ever come to power on its own without being able to drape itself. or at least very troublesome.
. the size of Spain.

and therefore uninterested in supporting a Communist revolution. and in 1954 Thailand vigorously welcomed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.23 Thai troops participated in the Korean War.20 Aside from its identification with ethnic minorities and national disintegration. Air Force at four major Thai air bases unmistakably symbolized Thailand’s foreign policy orientation during the 1960s.17 The first efforts to build a Communist Party in Thailand focused on Chinese and Vietnamese living in the country.”18 Ironically. the most stigmatized ethnic identity in Thailand was that of the Chinese. indeed Bangkok became the headquarters of SEATO. in Laos might be difficult to contain. because “prior to World War II. sent into the country from China. Communism represented the potential for invasion and/or dismemberment of Thailand at the hands of traditional enemies. the country had relatively few intellectuals whom the Communists could recruit as a membership base.S.19 The Communists also sought.14 In addition. the Chinese minority in Thailand was both economically prosperous and socially vulnerable. and they had long since been integrated into government service. with very limited success. And Ho Chi Minh himself had lived in Thailand from circa 1928 to 1930. The earliest Communists in Thailand appear to have been Chinese.”21 That is. and allowed the KMT to maintain a Chinese-language radio station in Thailand and mount operations into China. all the members of the Thai Communist Party politburo came from urban middle-class or elite backgrounds.212
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partly for this reason “there has been little class friction in the countryside.22 Hence the Thai government has consistently taken an anticommunist stance. . It supported the French in Indochina and the British in Malaya. The presence of the U.”13 Yet while the great majority of the population was rural. moreover.16 Perhaps the biggest albatross around the neck of the Communist Party in Thailand was its association with particular ethnic and racial groups. It recognized the Nationalist regime on Taiwan.24
.15 Another barrier to Communist appeal was the widely noted disinclination of Thais to entertain abstract schemes and ideas. most intellectuals shared in the national ethos. The party’s peculiar ethnic flavor was a significant hindrance to its growth. Communism was also linked with foreign enemies in the minds of many Thais: “from the 1954 Geneva Conference onwards Thailand has been fearful that the power obtained by the Viet Minh in North Viet Nam and the Pathet Lao . to promote separatism among the eight million Thai of Lao ethnic origin. .

Most of this region’s population were Muslim Malays. the politburo of the Thai Communist Party decided to launch an insurgency by 1965. and the northeast. The first notable armed clash of the insurgency occurred in August 1965 in Thailand’s northeast region.28 The southern region. Thai Counterinsurgency The Thai military’s initial response to the insurgency in 1965–1966
. along the Mekong River border with Laos. which was where millions of Thais lived and the center of everything important. the insurgents gathered recruits in remote villages of this region where a government presence had always been intermittent or nonexistent. especially Communist ones.27 Here the guerrillas sometimes operated in battalion size. even though membership in the party was probably less than one thousand. The Thai guerrillas in the region received cooperation and guidance from two thousand veteran Malayan guerrillas living illegally in Thai territory. Serious fighting broke out there in 1967. Communist guerrillas obtained money from government officials and road builders in exchange for peace and protection. and bordering Laos. Insurgent activities also displayed considerable decentralization. the region became the center of the Communist insurgency.29 The Thai government did not establish real control over the northeastern region until the late nineteenth century.Two False Starts: Venezuela and Thailand
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The Thai Communist Party Rising Sometime during 1963 or 1964. The northern region shared mountainous borders with Laos and Burma. The Thai Communists adopted a version of classic Maoist strategy.)26 In addition to foreign assistance.” This orientation ruled out expending very much effort in the Bangkok area. using weapons they received from the outside. the far south. The regions of especially notable guerrilla activity were the north. Combining persuasion and terror. both because of the difficulty of communications and because the regions of Thailand varied a great deal in ethnic composition and of course in proximity to frontiers. scene of a Communist insurgency in the 1940s and 1950s. with its fundamental concept that in a successful insurgency “the countryside surrounds the cities. one of the poorest areas of the country. Densely populated. bordered Malaya.25 (The decision of the Mao Tse-tung regime to aid the Thai insurgency predates the Thai government’s involvement in the Vietnam war. perhaps the most backward in the country.

This Black Panther Division returned from Vietnam with its own ideas about what to do and not to do in effective counterinsurgency. of which 50. the army counted the number of surrendered enemy personnel. building militia groups.32 In spite of these initial errors. the Thais had maintained in that country a full infantry division. rather than ascertaining what the people themselves actually wanted or needed. and improving physical conditions in the villages. featuring sweep operations supported by artillery. which often caused casualties among largely non-Thai ethnic minorities. sending out special units to harass the guerrillas.”36 The army also rejected American-style body counts as a way of measuring progress in the conflict.34 The Thai army kept draftees in their home area and in the same unit for the two-year conscription period. As late as January 1972 the army launched a huge. The Thai army responded to ambushes by calling down air and artillery strikes. One problem with economic development efforts apparently lay in the fact that the government would arrive in a province or village and tell the inhabitants what it intended to do for them.37
. and the combination of coercion and resentment predictably resulted in guerrilla reinfiltration among these peoples.214
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was quite heavy-handed. The government also tried resettlement among the 260. two-month search-and-destroy operation near the Laos border that accomplished very little except for generating 260 army casualties.30 At the same time the government sought to defeat the guerrillas through projects for “economic development. uprooting the guerrilla infrastructure. mainly in the North. mainly from booby traps. Indeed.000 were Meo (also known as Hmong).35 Compare the situation in South Vietnam: “Few steps the [Communist] Party could have taken would have been so effective in crippling the morale and effectiveness of the [South Vietnamese] government’s military forces as was the government’s own decision to adopt a policy of nonlocal service.S. the Black Panthers. while the guerrillas escaped into Laos. during the Vietnam conflict. along with support troops and naval units. To assist the U.000 members of the hill tribes.31 This effort proceeded badly.” but this expensive program seemed to have little effect. serious armed clashes occurred with the Meo. Instead of corpses. those areas that received the most investment were also the areas of the most numerous guerrilla incidents.33 Army leaders developed a strategy based on blanketing target areas with troops. a sound counterinsurgency program was germinating within the Thai army.

seriously damaged the Thai Communists’ already limited ability to attract support. many of them veterans of action in Laos. but produce much suffering and resentment among civilians. the thirty-nine-year-old King Bhumibol. they became more willing to provide government forces with information. police. Previously. The government also began settling contested areas with ex-soldiers.Two False Starts: Venezuela and Thailand
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A key aspect of Thai counterinsurgency was the realization that great sweep operations accomplish little against guerrillas. By 1979.42 Things were about to change in a decidedly negative direction. This new anti-monarchical stance. The Thais were thus evolving a strategy of “counterinsurgency as countermobilization”39—strengthening local organization around religious and traditional groups and peasant conservatism. Consequently the Communists turned increasingly to terrorism. especially if they recently involved military defeat and/or foreign occupation. the Communists began openly to vilify the person of the monarch. and military efforts in combating the insurgency. the popularity of the king had persuaded the Communists to avoid any serious criticism of him. Concomitantly with these sound military developments. The guerrillas clearly were flourishing in areas where there was no state presence. the Thai government strove to coordinate civilian. Events in Thailand offer an arrest-
. As the villagers began to see for themselves that the Communists were no longer winning. further alienating civilians. organized around a small group of permanently-stationed police.38 To counter the guerrillas by increasing security in these areas. along with growing party hostility toward Buddhism. who can evade them. or VST). The return of the Black Panther Division from Vietnam undoubtedly helped produce the change in emphasis from sweeps to security. Communist guerrillas numbered perhaps thirteen thousand (with five thousand of these in the northeast). Students of revolution have pointed out the close connection between the success of a country’s revolutionary movement and that country’s external relations. the government began to set up village militias (Village Security Teams.40 It also wisely offered surrendered or captured guerrillas vocational training in its national Open Arms and Rehabilitation program. at the height of their strength. and their families. villagers had been ignored by the government and were helpless before the insurgents. there. who cannot.41 The End In the fall of 1976. exercising some degree of control over approximately two million people.

. All this was of course disastrous for Thai Communism.000 rangers. also under Vietnamese control.500 Thai guerrillas inside Cambodia at that time). because the Thai Communist Party took China’s side in its growing hostility toward Vietnam (there may have been as many as 1. The Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979 deeply split the Thai Party.45 Then in January 1979 Laos. there were fewer than 4. Yet the Vietnamese closed down Thai Communist bases in Cambodia. “Early in 1981 the first groups of Communist guerrillas surrendered to Government forces. recruited from militia and former regular army personnel.50 Backing up these forces was the Royal Thai Army with 141. Nevertheless. to be welcomed back into Thai society. with but 800 in the northeast (down from 5. received the bulk of refugees fleeing the Communist regimes in Laos and Cambodia. the air force with 43. This move brought to life a basic strategic nightmare of the Thais: Vietnamese military power on their borders. Two months later the Vietnamese army invaded Cambodia and brushed aside Pol Pot’s army. For all practical purposes any serious Communist threat to Thailand had ceased to exist.000 paramilitary Border Patrol Police.”47 By early 1982. but on the whole it publicly supported the Chinese side.000.43 By 1976 knowledge about the dreadful events in Pol Pot’s Cambodia was becoming widespread. which should have been the best recruiting ground for the Thai Communist insurgency. by the late 1970s the Chinese for their own reasons wanted improved relations with Thailand.216
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ing example of this relationship.000 militia in the northeast alone. That message had its desired effect. and perhaps 20.51 In the beginning of 1982 the Communist Party headquarters and main guerrilla base in the Khao Khor mountain area52 fell to the Thai army. expelled most Thai guerrillas within its borders. hence Beijing cut off the aid that had previously been going to the guerrillas.44 In September 1978 Vietnamese premier Pham Van Dong made a five-day visit to Thailand and promised that his government would not support insurgency in that country. Indeed in November 1978 Deng Xiaoping visited Thailand. Indeed the northeast. always much more dependent on outside help than other Southeast Asian parties. and the navy with 28. and at his own request attended the Buddhist ordination of the crown prince.000.000 personnel.48 Opposed to these were 170.49 There were also about 13.000 in 1979).46 The predictable denouement followed fairly quickly. also to be welcomed back with honour and the gift of good farming land. and additional larger groups started to surrender.000 guerrillas nationwide.

thereby heading off the alliance of revolutionaries with the middle class that had occurred in Cuba and Nicaragua. the abandonment of Thai Communism by those same foreign powers in the late 1970s. third. or even survive. In Venezuela. fourth. fifth. The army remained cohesive in support of the civilian president. an unavoidably close association in the popular consciousness between Communism and the Chinese minority in Thailand. these two cases of failed insurgency reveal the most serious miscalculations on the most fundamental issues of strategy. the Thai Communists were not able to overcome. The U. Oil money paid for land reform. In Thailand. second. their fundamental handicaps. and sixth.
.Two False Starts: Venezuela and Thailand
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REFLECTION
From beginning to end. the existence of strong and popularly rooted national institutions. first. everything worked against the guerrillas. the sensible and effective counterinsurgency tactics eventually adopted by the Royal Thai Army. Free and democratic elections provided a peaceful path to change.S. the identification of the Thai Communists with foreign powers traditionally deemed dangerous. Primary among these were. notably the Buddhist religion and the monarchy (which the Communists chose to attack). the impossibility of the party to assume the mantle of an oppressed Thai nationalism. despite the existence of substantial ethnic minorities all to some degree disaffected from mainstream Thai society. despite having for years enjoyed outside assistance and cross-border sanctuaries. provided counterinsurgency training. certainly by no means least.

comparative analytical overview of several general national approaches to. in the Vendée and Brittany. and then by unleashing systematic violence against them. and the conflict became the bleeding ulcer of the Napoleonic system: more French and Imperial troops perished in Spain than in Russia. In dramatic contrast. the other in Spain. the insurgents succeeded in extracting major concessions from the regime. Portuguese. British troops and supplies poured into the peninsula. in return for laying down their arms. the Revolutionary regime in Paris soon embarked upon a campaign of extermination similar to that of the Soviets in Afghanistan. counterinsurgency: those of the French. or styles of. The government employed overwhelming numbers of troops against the Vendean rebels.
THE FRENCH
During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.218
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CHAPTER 16
COMPARING NATIONAL APPROACHES TO COUNTERINSURGENCY
This section offers a brief. first by outraging the religious sentiments of generally law-abiding peasants. Chinese. Japanese. Spain became the testing ground of the future Duke of Wellington. One of these raged along her own Atlantic coast.3 Again in contrast to the Vendée. the French never employed enough troops in Spain to achieve even superficial pacification. and Americans. France faced two major guerrilla conflicts. who received no substantial foreign assistance. Years later they took their full vengeance on the heirs of the Revolution by contributing notably to Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo. At first failing to gauge correctly the seriousness of the rebellion in the Vendée.2 The French had succeeded in isolating the Vendean rebels from foreign help. Those
218
. Nevertheless. Russians/Soviets.1 The regime both provoked and protracted these insurgencies. British.

in order to inhibit needless damage to the economic life of the area being occupied. the two French counterinsurgency campaigns display certain glaring similarities. Out of these wars three major figures emerged in the field of French counterinsurgency: Robert-Thomas Bugeaud (1784– 1849). conqueror and governor of Morocco. The demoralized French forces there had been notably unsuccessful against Muslim insurgents. never received proper operational coordination. his troops indulged in an “orgy of brutality and excess” that both offended public opinion in France and corroded the discipline of the troops. During the earlier phases of his career. Lyautey was an evangel of la mission civilisatrice. killing hundreds of unarmed civilians. These include notable tendencies both to underestimate their opponents and to abuse the civil population—practices that proved extremely costly to the French regime. but he also pursued a policy of punishing civilians for acts committed by guerrillas. France engaged in several sizable colonial conflicts. whereby beginning from secure bases the French would slowly extend outward their control over a restless territory. destroying orchards. Bugeaud soon rekindled the offensive spirit of the troops. Gallieni developed and applied these concepts with great success in Senegal. He believed that French rule in Africa would liberate the native peoples from interethnic violence and from their oppressive and extortionate traditional rulers. had published some perceptive articles on the subject of colonial pacification and administration. Bugeaud became governor-general and commander in chief in Algeria in 1840. burning fields. and Madagascar. During the nineteenth century. He urged that the person in charge of the military conquest of an area should be designated the future civil governor. Raping at will. A veteran of the Napoleonic disaster in Spain. In short. Joseph Gallieni (1849–1916). Even with these major differences. His already distinguished career reached its culmination when as military governor of Paris in 1914 he played a key role in the crucial French victory on the Marne. and justice. moreover.
. nor did they develop effective counterinsurgency tactics. prosperity.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
219
forces the French had there. A major element of this oil-stain method was that soon after military occupation came civil administration.4 Joseph Gallieni was the father of the famous “oil stain” metaphor for counterinsurgency. Louis Lyautey. with the aim of attracting native support by promoting peace. and Louis Lyautey (1854–1934). while it respected local customs and forms and especially the Muslim religion. Tonkin.

or to do both. through military and/or diplomatic means. eager to provide substantial and perhaps decisive assistance to the Viet Minh. textbook example of an incorrect and unsuccessful approach to counterinsurgency. and in North Africa—that helped make the Viet Minh victory possible. Nevertheless. As it turned out. then the only sound recourse for the French would have been (5) to retrench into their base areas in the Red River Delta and Cochin China. trained. properly officered. These were.”5 It is in light of these experiences that one must view the French effort in Vietnam. the French needed either to reach some agreement with the Viet Minh. To accomplish this essential task. it was imperative for them (1) to keep the Chinese border shut. Finally. as displayed in the scandalous and bloody
. or show that the Viet Minh could not defeat them. first. or at least important parts of it. That challenge was the presence of a newly Communist China right across the frontier. and equipped. “If [French troops] could not punish the guilty. To hold onto Vietnam. or (3) to raise an authentic indigenous army. it was necessary either (2) to send substantial reinforcements from France and the Empire.220
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France’s mission to bring civilization to less fortunate peoples. for all his exalted rhetoric. in Spain. Making peace with the Viet Minh would have involved either cutting a deal to preserve French interests in return for recognizing Vietnamese independence under the Viet Minh. To these fundamental failures one must add two venerable practices of French counterinsurgency—easily visible as well in its earlier efforts in the Vendée. a classic. after the conflict had been going on for almost three years. the French adopted none of these courses. if unwilling either to send enough French forces or to build a real native army. But the Chinese did not become a direct factor in the Vietnam war until 1949. and withdrawing French forces. or offering to share power with the Viet Minh until French withdrawal at some future date.6 In Vietnam the French confronted a massive challenge with which neither the Americans in the post-1898 Philippines nor the British in Malaya had had to contend. Since the French opted for war. A subsidiary but nevertheless very important step would have been (4) to redress some of the main socioeconomic grievances of the peasantry. Lyautey eventually showed himself to be quite as prepared as other French colonial commanders to respond to rebellion with brutality. they would punish whom they could. collective punishment of the civilian population. and consequently finding themselves unable to hold the northern border.

Consequently it was desirable. In
. French counterinsurgency in Algeria provides at least in certain respects a model of effective counterinsurgency. the French were able to mobilize more Algerians than the insurgent National Liberation Front (FLN) did.
THE BRITISH
One of the most notable. Consequently. British conflicts with insurgents occurred in the Carolinas during the American War of Independence. with significant success. severely limited in the number of troops available to them. its far-flung territories included peoples of many different races and religions. Second. Thus. and. but not least. Almost immediately after their defeat in Indochina the French faced a new insurgency in Algeria. Notwithstanding all the faults of the colonial regime. elements of which rose from time to time in armed rebellion against British control. (The great exception to this condition was of course the Boer War.7 And so the French lost the war. British strategists developed a policy of restricting the use of conventional military force to the minimum level possible.)10 Third. Three characteristics of the British Empire were especially relevant to that development. to recruit soldiers from among the local peoples. persistence in underestimating the enemy—the cardinal sin of the soldier—which led to the debacle of Dien Bien Phu. both to augment available manpower and to obtain useful intelligence about the nature of the particular rebellion they faced. and vigorously sought. Of first importance. even though the latter eventually received control of the country through political decisions in Paris. the standing military forces available to Imperial Britain were never large.9 But modern British counterinsurgency technique and strategy developed principally during the half-century preceding the outbreak of World War II. and unsuccessful. reliant on Parliament for both soldiers and supplies. Britain was in those years transforming itself into a political democracy. during the Algerian conflict the French deployed troops in abundance. Constantly confronted with faraway rebellions. indeed imperative. while not perfectly comparable to the very successful British effort in Malaya and in polar contrast to the experience in Indochina. the French militarily defeated the Algerian insurgents. second.8 In contrast to their policies in Vietnam. to mobilize popular support among the Arab population. deprived the rebels of almost all outside aid.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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naval bombardment of the defenseless port of Haiphong.

(5) deny the guerrillas a reliable supply of food (the Malayan campaign saw special emphasis on this technique). the nationalist/restorationist Kuomintang (KMT) regime under Chiang Kai-shek waged repeated and very damaging campaigns against the Chinese Communists. so that the authorities could move quickly toward granting Malaya independence.
THE CHINESE
An impressive continuity characterizes Chinese counterinsurgency strategy from 1850 to 1950. indeed Malaya became a textbook example of successful counterinsurgency. and (7) identify and ameliorate major sociocultural irritants. (2) emphasize the central role of police measures and civil administration in counterinsurgency. and the civil government. In these campaigns the KMT deliberately sought to imitate the techniques employed by the Ch’ing Dynasty against the Taiping rebellion (1850– 1864) and the Nien rebellion (1853–1868). Perhaps the most salient of those peculiarities was Malayan geography. and to the American reliance in Vietnam on indiscriminantly destructive technology). During the 1930s. Another was the reflex hostility of the ethnic Malay majority to the essentially Chinese insurgency. (3) establish the closest cooperation among the military. (4) regroup exposed civilian settlements into more secure and defensible areas where feasible. the police. the Ch’ing retrained their ineffective
.12 These principles showed their effectiveness in the Malayan conflict following World War II. A third peculiarity of the Malayan conflict was British awareness that retention of Malaya was neither strategically nor psychologically vital to the survival of the British state.222
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addition. highly trained units. (6) harass guerrilla base areas with small. British authorities were often ready to consider that a colonial uprising might derive to some degree from legitimate grievances which they should try to address.14 In dealing with the Taiping. which made it easy for the British to prevent outside help from reaching the insurgents. especially with regard to sharing intelligence.11 All these factors helped eventually to produce a British style of counterinsurgency consisting of a locally variable mix of the following principles: (1) employ conventional military force sparingly and selectively (in contrast to the French tendency to resort quickly to general punishment and intimidation.13 Nevertheless. certain peculiarities of that struggle limit to a degree the relevance of its lessons to other conflicts.

and primitive transportation infrastructure of China. the Japa-
. Burma. caused the deaths of countless thousands of civilians. strategic blockades and encirclement. and granted amnesty to most of the others. Like the KMT after them. During the Nien conflict. the Philippines. the Ch’ing produced some effective leaders at the highest levels but suffered from a lack of good field-grade officers. the Imperial Japanese Army fought guerrillas in Malaya. But otherwise. The great size. The Ch’ing placed major emphasis on good leadership (Napoleon said there are no bad soldiers. widespread poverty. hampered rebel mobility with cordons of fortifications. and amnesty. also affected their Communist successors. and the cultural values of the upper classes hindered their ability to become effective field commanders. the Ch’ing also deprived the rebels of food by erecting walls around countless villages. which had limited the counterinsurgent operations of the Ch’ing and the KMT. and Manchuria. after the initial failure of their wide sweep operations. the Communists built roads to facilitate the movement and supply of troops into rough and remote terrain. During the 1950s the Maoist regime faced a major national uprising in Tibet. food deprivation. only bad officers). Communist counterinsurgency policies in Tibet contrasted grimly with those of their predecessors. The Beijing regime suffocated Tibet under huge numbers of troops. The essence of Ch’ing counterinsurgency strategy thus consisted of conciliation of the population in affected areas. In the manner of the Ch’ing and the KMT. In its campaigns against the Communists during the 1930s.15 The KMT also made use of strategic blockade in the form of extensive lines of blockhouses. Peasants could not become officers. In Manchuria (where the guerrillas often cultivated opium).Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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armies. ruthlessly exterminated rebel leaders.16
THE JAPANESE
During the 1930s and 1940s. which successfully contained the guerrillas and then evicted them from their strongholds. the KMT employed all the methods developed by the Ch’ing and added to them co-option (often premature and superficial) of warlord troops into the KMT armies. a variant of Ch’ing amnesty policies. and deliberately sought to destroy the structure and values of Tibetan society. and weaned civilian support away from the Nien through benevolent administration. as well as in China proper.

224
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nese developed effective techniques of counterinsurgency. intended mainly to protect troops from small arms fire and grenades. the number of Manchurian guerrillas fell from 120. since the guerrillas almost never had artillery. They also suffered increasingly from lack of supplies. which they had erected and stocked with supplies during the summer. the Japanese built thirty thousand strongpoints (reminiscent of British practice during the Boer War). By such means the Japanese cleared the guerrillas out of large areas of Manchuria.19 They also relied on the various Chinese puppet regimes to produce armies. Kim Il Sung. Their efforts focused primarily on holding key points and the lines of communications between them.5 million in 1938) and restrict the purchase and movement of food. Responding to the Communists’ so-called Hundred Regiments Campaign in north China. Japense operations were seriously hindered by inadequate numbers. the Japanese strictly limited their numbers. These conditions resulted in inadequate control in the puppet states and thus provided scope for guerrillas.17 The Japanese built roads and railroads to increase the mobility of their limited numbers. and sometimes these ex-guerrillas would join counterinsurgent units or act as spies. The Japanese paid relatively little serious attention to political means of counterinsurgency and imposed group responsibility and collective punishment on peasant communities. with only an occasional large operation against guerrilla areas. To mitigate their numerical deficiency. This was aimed less at the guerrillas than at the peasantry from whom they derived sustenance. destroy all.000 in 1937. in early 1941 the Japanese launched the infamous Three-Alls (sanko-seisaku) operation: Kill all. animals. The Three-Alls campaign obliterated
. Japanese troops would surround a given area and then kill every living thing in it: people. training. Decent treatment of prisoners induced guerrillas to surrender. replaced corrupt local officials. But fearing that these puppet troops might one day defect to the KMT. crops. During the harsh Manchurian winters small groups of around fifty volunteers hunted guerrillas. burn all. including the future dictator of North Korea. In China proper. In wintertime leafless trees offered inadequate shelter to guerrillas. These Japanese guerrillahunters operated out of caves or wooden blockhouses. and directed propaganda toward the peasantry. who possessed no real sanctuary. and equipment. trees. owing to Japanese efforts to concentrate the civil population (estimated at 5. driving many into the USSR.000 in 1933 to 20.18 According to Japanese estimates.

In the 1920s and 1930s. and (5) dry up the springs of resistance by the destruction of settlements. and thus forced many peasants into the arms of the Communist guerrillas. thus constricting the enemy’s movements into an ever-smaller area. (4) build successive lines of forts. the need to guard the dangerous Soviet border. was actively suppressing often very large guerrilla uprisings in those regions. and enemy. the Ukraine (after World War I and World War II). the subjugation of Manchuria and China was beyond Japan’s capacity. “even given their lack of understanding of what was politico-military good sense in northern China. (2) isolate that area from outside assistance. China was too big. which usually took the form of national independence movements. Japanese numbers too small (as with the Nazis in Russia). Soviet counterinsurgency technique included systematic assassination
. and Lithuania. neutral. livestock. constantly occupying new territories from the Caucasus to Central Asia. popular hostility to Communist agricultural collectivization and religious persecution ignited these insurgencies. the Japanese and their puppet forces came close in 1941– 1942 to breaking the links between the Red Army and the peasantry.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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the distinction among friend.20 Nevertheless.
THE RUSSIANS AND THE SOVIETS
The Russian/Soviet experience in counterinsurgency probably most familiar to the West is the Afghanistan War of 1979–1988. The overriding concern to destroy the KMT armies. the Russian state was amassing experience in similar types of struggles. In addition. crops. western Siberia. and orchards. and then the all-consuming Pacific War prevented the Japanese from making a priority of counterinsurgency in China. But for generations before that conflict.”21 In the end. (3) establish tight control of central cities or major towns first and then extend domination outward from these (a variation of Gallieni’s “oil-stain” doctrine). During most of the nineteenth century the Czarist Empire. Japanese aims there were so exploitative and their methods so brutal as to be self-defeating. Most often.22 The Soviet regime acquired its own extensive experience with campaigns against insurgencies. Major instances of these flared in Daghestan and other Caucasian regions. Here the Russians developed their basic formula for defeating guerrillas: (1) deploy great numbers of troops into the disaffected area. Central Asia. long before the Bolshevik Revolution. Only a lack of troops and time prevented the campaign from being even more savagely destructive than it actually was.

as well as the position that anti-Bolshevik rebellions must have been fomented by foreign agents and “kulaks. the Soviets failed—in contravention of tried-and-true Czarist and Communist practice—to isolate Afghanistan from the outside world. It also deported 600. and directing campaigns of mass terror against civilians. Soviet ideology nevertheless severely hampered the application of these sound concepts by requiring Tukhachevsky to endorse collective guilt and mass deportation. Yet. and permanent mass deportation of civilians. During the counterinsurgency in the Ukraine after 1918. Tukhachevsky died in one of Stalin’s purges. the principal aspects of Soviet counterinsurgency style included committing great numbers of soldiers and secret police.24 Without sanctuaries. During the 1920s his astute prescription for counterinsurgent forces emphasized creating an integrated political-military command. so that many died of typhus. This failure proved to be fateful. has been called the father of Soviet counterinsurgency. the successors to Lenin’s Cheka. a one-time Czarist officer. two hundred thousand peasants died and one hundred thousand families were deported.000 Lithuanians. and more died of hunger and exposure in the areas in which they were eventually dumped.” Having attained the rank of marshal. and therefore top secret. and recruiting former guerrillas. hostage-taking from among family heads. Mikhail Tukhachevsky (1893–1937). following their invasion of Afghanistan in late 1979. the imposition of collective guilt. showing respect for local cultures. which sought to discourage resistance through exemplary massacres of local civilians. because once the insurgents began receiving sophisti-
.23 Toward the end of World War II. these uprisings were suffocated by Soviet troops and hordes of the dreaded political police.000 Chechens aboard cattle trains without sanitation. Up to 1979. At least in part because of this numerical inadequacy. the Soviets deployed troops in numbers quite inadequate to deal with the massive popular uprising that confronted them. Between 1944 and 1952 the Stalinist regime deported 350. the Soviet army and its successors were unable to derive and preserve much of value from the experience of these conflicts.25 But since serious revolts against the Communist regime by Soviet peoples were officially unthinkable.226
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of insurgent leaders. shutting off the rebellious area from the outside world. isolated from and ignored by the outside world. offering timely amnesties. guerrilla insurgencies confronted Moscow in Lithuania and the Ukraine.

Mozambique. the full implications of which have yet to manifest themselves. the inadequacy of Soviet counterinsurgency doctrine. In the 1990s the successor Russian Federation confronted “one of the greatest epics of colonial resistance of the past century. as well as external aid and Cuban advisers. and sparsely populated.”27 the uprising of the Chechens.29 The guerrillas enjoyed sanctuaries across lengthy and remote borders. in the Afghan conflict the Soviets employed only one element of their traditional strategy: the unrestrained devastation of Afghan civilian society. who numbered less than three-quarters of a million people and inhabited a territory smaller than New Jersey or Wales. European empire in Africa. and its army had not engaged in serious combat operations since 1918. Beginning in 1961. and Guinea-Bissau—were vast (twenty-three times the size of Portugal). Faced with these far-flung rebellions. Lisbon had to confront various independence movements in her African colonies. and also the last. far from the metropolitan center of the empire and each other. These exercises yielded little that was useful to them. the Soviets had neither the technological superiority nor the numerical sufficiency to defeat or even contain them. Clearly. Thus. with the notable exceptions of making clear that they needed to avoid both the major mistake of the Americans in Vietnam—substituting weap-
.26 The failure of its counterinsurgency in Afghanistan in the 1980s presaged the collapse of the Soviet Union.S. Portuguese officers made a thorough examination of the international literature on counterinsurgency. To deal with such an enormous challenge. so evident in Afghanistan. a course of action that inflamed the native populations and also aroused the anger of the Muslim world.28
THE PORTUGUESE
Portugal possessed the first. with a population smaller than Ohio’s. had combined with a remarkable deterioration in the quality of Russia’s armed forces to produce one of the most disastrous counterinsurgency experiences on record.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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cated weapons from outside in some quantity. and U. Her twentieth-century holdings there—Angola. The country was relatively underdeveloped. French. They also sent study missions to the British. Portugal’s national resources were quite modest. The Russians were unable to achieve victory in Chechnya despite overwhelming numbers and uncontested air supremacy. armies.

During the 1961–1974 effort such recruitment was greatly amplified. became a high priority. continent-wide effort. Health care. both because of the small size of Portugal’s own population. Immediate medical attention to wounded soldiers. In the thirteenyear. about 0. From the beginnings of their African empire the Portuguese had recruited large numbers of troops from the indigenous populations. the reluctance of the guerrillas to make contact with troops. Eventually Portugal’s forces in Africa would equal five times those of the U. In the early 1970s the insurgents in all colonies totaled around twenty-two thousand. and the commercial infrastructure received special attention. because of the perception that the Portuguese would win. the army adapted itself to the war. the Portuguese employed them with such skill that they provided the government forces’ principal mobility advantage over the guerrillas. Although they had few helicopters. That is to say.228
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onry for strategy—and the ultimately devastating consequences that overtook the French army from its use of torture in Algeria. which the Portuguese intelligence services deftly exploited. Side by side with sound military tactics. the Portuguese attempted to address systematically the social problems which they believed constituted some of the roots of the insurgencies. with all units fully integrated. Native Africans served in the Portuguese army because of the good pay and medical attention. limited casualties. 23 percent of them African.15 percent of the indigenous populations. The Por-
. and converted itself almost entirely into a counterinsurgency force. The Portuguese army developed its own sound doctrine of counterinsurgency. in Vietnam.S. instead of trying to do the reverse. The Portuguese effort came to resemble that of the British in Malaya—long-term. roughly one out of every seven hundred. and most of all because of internecine ethnic conflicts. education. while decent treatment of prisoners yielded the predictable intelligence harvests. in proportion to population. Portuguese forces suffered only four thousand combat deaths. a powerful morale-builder. Africans comprised over 50 percent of total Portuguese military forces. and Portugal’s limited industrial base combined to shape these conflicts into low-tech wars of small infantry or cavalry units. These small numbers in a combined area of over eight hundred thousand square miles (four times the size of France). and because the Portuguese believed that the willingness of numerous Africans to serve under the flag of Portugal increased the legitimacy of their African presence. At the end. low-tech.

they effected notable improvements in the courts and penal institutions. For example. but it was undoubtedly “the most successful counterinsurgency campaign in U. health care. More immediately. They used heavy weaponry sparingly.”32 Some aspects of the American effort make it even more impressive than the British victory in Malaya. which in many areas was not extensive to begin with. and the conflict in Vietnam—has been mixed. The Americans made sure the insurgents received no help from outside. and basic sanitation. The end of the conflict was quickly followed by reconciliation and indeed friendship between the Philippine and American peoples that has endured. history. The Philippine War was not an immaculate struggle on either side (and how could it have been?). These policies helped limit the appeal of the guerrillas. the civil war in Greece. but this was the consequence of domestic upheavals within Portugal and not of any fundamental inadequacy within their counterinsurgency doctrine and practice. Soviet aid. all of which made a deeply favorable impression on the Filipinos.30
THE AMERICANS
During their War of Independence and War of Secession. Americans gave ample evidence of their ability to effectively assume the guerrilla role.S. By 1972 the guerrillas had clearly suffered near-total defeat in Angola. They offered sincere and credible promises of selfgovernment and eventual independence.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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tuguese linked their social and military efforts by establishing a workable village militia system. however. in conflicts involving counter-guerrilla warfare—including the Philippine rising under Aguinaldo after 1898. where the insurgents enjoyed foreign sanctuary. and Cuban advisers. They took pains to isolate the guerrillas from the civilian population. The Portuguese eventually lost their African colonies. and they were being contained in Mozambique and even in Guinea. for a century. relying instead on good small-unit tactics. the Americans lacked the long and intimate experience of the country that the British enjoyed in
. the Americans battled the guerrillas with the weapons of political and social reform. even through the darkest days of World War II. Perhaps most decisively. as well as in education.31 Their experience. The American campaign in the post–Spanish War Philippines is a first-rate example of intelligent counterinsurgency culminating in complete victory and enduring peace. the Huk rebellion following World War II. including even the insurgents.

great quantities of enemy personnel and supplies continuously rolled into South Vietnam. the U. exception to this distressing picture.S. and despite the fact that until close to the end of the Greek war the insurgents there both enjoyed cross-border sanctuaries and received significant outside assistance. if neglected. and afflicted friends as well as foes with their destructive firepower. troops and applying devastating technology. They waged a conventional war. Notable aspects of American involvement in these struggles include (1) providing economic assistance that permitted the allied governments to sustain substantial counterinsurgency efforts without unduly dislocating their civilian economies. Reverting to their World War II model of warfare. In the entire history of warfare there must be few if any precedents for the combination of unnecessarily aggressive tactics with unnecessarily passive strategy pursued by the Americans in Vietnam. and in spite of the massive American military presence.35 But the Kennedy and Johnson administrations abandoned those policies and Americanized the war against the Viet Cong and Hanoi to an unprecedented degree.33 After World War II. such as Ramón Magsaysay.230
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Malaya. and they deployed incomparably fewer troops. (In the northernmost provinces of the country the Marines and their CAPs program were a notable. and (3) limiting their military presence to an advisory role. In its initial involvement in the Vietnam conflicts. All this was grotesquely inappropriate to sound counterinsurgency. adopted policies similar to those it successfully pursued in the Greek and Philippine insurgencies.)36 At the same time.34 American participation in these Balkan and Southeast Asian conflicts was largely indirect. because Washington decision-makers failed to grasp the absolute necessity of isolating the battlefield by shutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Nevertheless—or perhaps one could say “therefore”—the Americans achieved their aims. rather than providing ground combat units. defined progress in terms of attrition and “body counts” rather than civilian security. the Americans sought to achieve their ends through committing great numbers of U. and supporting effective leaders committed to those reforms. the United States assisted the governments of Greece and the Philippine Republic against Communist-led insurgencies. (2) advocating military and social reforms in the assisted countries. even though Washington had pronounced the defeat of the Communist insurgencies in both countries to be vital to its national interest.37
. both absolutely and proportionately.S.

again committed itself to stem an advancing Communist tide.S combat troops. at the time one of the largest and best-equipped on the planet. and the insurgents agreed to lay down their arms. and insistence on socioeconomic and political reforms. Accordingly. this time in Central America.S. The conflict in El Salvador witnessed an American return to the fundamental policies of their Greek and Philippine experiences: the provision of financial aid and military advice.38
. two and a half years after the departure of U. a more democratic regime eventually emerged in El Salvador. Under Presidents Carter and Reagan. the Americans broke the myth of Maoist Revolutionary People’s War in South Vietnam by inflicting insupportable numbers of casualties on the Viet Cong. the conquest of South Vietnam required a full-scale conventional invasion by the North Vietnamese Army. despite these grim self-imposed handicaps. the U.Comparing National Approaches to Counterinsurgency
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Nevertheless. At least in large part because of these policies.

“the most successful counterinsurgency campaign in U. victory over Aguinaldo in the Philippines. the Japanese in China. in Spain.”1 It is certainly reasonable to caution against a Procrustean approach to a complex set of phenomena. U. But it is equally reasonable to seek to learn from experience.S. Two unfolded as the nineteenth century turned into the twentieth: the British defeat of Boer guerrillas in South Africa. four successful counterinsurgencies have proven especially instructive. history. Concerning the question of “learning” (and unlearning) in counterinsurgency. Careful analysis of failed guerrilla efforts and successful counterinsurgent campaigns may therefore be highly informative in identifying elements for a viable strategy of counterinsurgency. The efforts of the Portuguese in southern Africa and the French in Algeria have also provided some valuable lessons. and the U. and the Indonesian Abdul Suharto were
232
. so governments fighting guerrillas must be quick-witted and unencumbered by doctrine.232
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CHAPTER 17
ELEMENTS OF A COUNTERINSURGENT STRATEGY
A distinguished student of civil conflict once observed: “The difficulty in generalizing about insurrections arises from the fact that strategies that may be highly successful in one situation may be completely irrelevant in another. As guerrillas must live by their wits. and President Magsaysay’s successful.S.2 For present purposes. and the Soviets in Afghanistan.-backed campaign against the Philippine Huks.S. At least equally instructive are the counterinsurgency errors of the French in the Vendée. recall that the Filipino Ramón Magsaysay. the Americans in Vietnam. the Irishman Michael Collins. and in Indochina.”3 The other two are episodes from the Cold War: another British victory. this time over Communist-led guerrillas in Malaya.

. the actions recommended here are clearly interdependent. as in Algeria. among other things. perhaps especially so for the United States. A peaceful path for the redress of grievances need not mean Western-style elections. the Hanoi regime. but even the simplest thing is very difficult. a recognized method of seeking redress of grievances. having come to power by means of guerrilla insurgency.4 On the other side of the ledger were entire regimes. As an additional example. Skillfully led guerrillas present a grave challenge even to countries with impressive military power. (Of course. and its allies. offering amnesty. All that is required is a method of representation that the affected society views as legitimate. The first presents courses of action that establish the strategic environment for victory: providing a peaceful path to change. that found themselves cast unsuccessfully in the counterinsurgent role. The second segment identifies measures to disrupt and marginalize the guerrilla effort: displaying rectitude. That type of conflict will be exceedingly difficult for a democratic society. expensive. It consists of two main segments. that is. And the best preventative is an effective government that offers a peaceful path to change. and isolating the conflict area.
FIRST PART: SHAPING THE STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT
Provide a Peaceful Path to Change The ultimate method of counterinsurgency is to prevent an insurgency from arising in the first place. and Nicaragua.S. and reducing the insurgents’ access to firearms and food.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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successful counterinsurgents who had all been at one time insurgent leaders themselves. This chapter therefore offers an approach to counterinsurgency that. emphasizing intelligence. Under the best of circumstances a counterinsurgency campaign can be protracted. Mozambique. Angola. committing sufficient forces. became enmeshed in a very difficult counterinsurgent struggle against the Cambodian Khmer Rouge guerrillas. it would be helpful to keep in mind the observation of Clausewitz that in war everything is simple. dividing insurgent leaders and followers. and filled with moral ambiguity. should prove least taxing to such a polity. whose members had waged a successful insurgency against the French and a (militarily) unsuccessful insurgency against the U.) Before proceeding.

the 1955 elections gave the coup de grâce to a failing Communist insurgency by providing a legal method to express grievances.6 In El Salvador. Inadequate commitment of forces has often stemmed from underestimating the task at hand. The Philippine Huks profited greatly from the “dirty elections of 1949. In different but highly relevant circumstances. he was quite right in his insistence that it is not possible to wage a successful insurgency against a democratic regime. In consequence. Napoleon Duarte won election to the presidency. “to all intents and purposes the 1951 elections sounded the death knell of the Hukbalahap movement.S. concerned with winning the allegiance. Guerrilla warfare and counterinsurgency share some important features: both are (or should be). the first time in El Salvador’s history that an opposition candidate peacefully attained that office.” but as a result of Ramón Magsaysay’s decisive actions to clean up the electoral process. the French toward the Viet Minh. physical control of a given territory. Commit Sufficient Resources The key idea here is. But among their essential differences. and pressuring that army to practice rectitude. or even against one that merely tries to appear as such. establishing free elections was the foundation of U. the fewer the casualties—for everybody concerned. mass deportations.”5 In Malaya. toward North Vietnam.S.” In the early 1900s the British promised postwar self-government to the Boers. instead of all that. strategy there. President Lincoln’s policies during the closing phase of the Civil War avoided the outbreak of a much-dreaded guerrilla conflagration. none is more salient than this: visible. or at least the acquiescence. the Katyn Forest. and the people in it. Lincoln offered the defeated Confederates quick reentry into the national political community from which they had separated themselves a scant fifty-two months before.234
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While Che Guevara got many important things wrong. as the Americans did to the Filipinos. as with the initial British posture toward the Boer Republics. sweeping confiscations. and the U. along with rapidly building up the Salvadoran army to forestall an immediate guerrilla victory. Vendean drownings. Examples abound to verify the aphorism that “the ballot box is the coffin of insurgency. the more troops. for example.
. of the civilian population. Instead of vengeful executions. but it is the heart of a wellplanned counterinsurgency. the Gulag Archipelago. is of quite secondary importance to guerrillas.

Committing a sufficient number of troops and auxiliaries to a given region does much to convince ever ybody—insurgents. Assuming for the time being the desirability of such a ratio. The Romans held their empire together with a system of excellent roads. yet “surprisingly little attention has been given to roads as a measure of the ability to exert authority.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
235
It is essential that the government side establish and maintain the perception that it is going to win. and to stay. The historical record is littered with the debris of counterinsurgency efforts that were parsimonious regarding numbers. Students of guerrilla warfare have long maintained that in order to win. But there is another approach to achieving a favorable numerical ratio: reduce or contain the number of insurgents through sound policy. even great numbers of troops may prove inadequate. So does road construction. then many who support the insurgents will change sides or become neutral. and the British built military roads and fortified railways from South Africa to Malaya. If this is done. In addition to good governance. They help conventional forces overcome the guerrillas’ advantages in mobility and serve to cut up guerrilla territory. Secure control enhances the flow of intelligence. from Chiang Kaishek in Kiangsi to Mao Tse-tung in Tibet. Well-conceived political and economic measures can depress support for the guerrillas. some still in use today. The Italians in Ethiopia harassed guerrillas with a road system protected by forts. timely intelligence and air transport serve as counterinsurgent force multipliers. confidence. and makes easier the practice of rectitude by the counterinsurgent forces.”7 Roads—and railways—are evidence that the government is there. civilians. Sometimes an apparent insufficiency of
. is the one absolute essential for guerrilla success. discourages people from joining or supporting the insurgency. Nevertheless. The appearance of being the eventual victor is an incalculable force multiplier. the counterinsurgent side needs a ratio of at least ten-to-one over their opponents.8 Of course. sufficient numbers do not have to mean vast numbers. however obtained. and many neutrals will shift toward the government. it must give the appearance of strength. and unshakable permanency. The Chinese employed road building as an anti-guerrilla tactic. the most obvious way to achieve it—deploying sufficient numbers—may be impossible. and popular support. even the counterinsurgent forces themselves—that the guerrillas cannot win. without a well-developed strategy of counterinsurgency based on sound political and military analysis.

A decade later. Therefore. forces and their South Vietnamese allies were negated and then obliterated by unwillingness to block the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Laos. which stopped the passage of supplies and men from Tunisia and hence reduced the guerrillas inside Algeria to impotence. then the Philippine Republic. Specially selected and trained counterguerrilla units may be needed to more successfully reduce movement across borders. The failure to cut guerrillas off from supplies coming across international borders. Recent Moro insurgencies claiming to fight for an independent Moro state
. all possible diplomatic and military means must be harnessed to this fundamental objective.)10 Conversely. the French built the formidable Morice Line.S. For example. especially one geographically concentrated in an area away from an international border. the defeat of the insurgents in South Africa. has been the undoing of major counterinsurgencies from Napoleonic Spain to Soviet Afghanistan. An insurgency based on an ethnic or religious minority. The efforts of U. the Soviets paid a very high price for failing to prevent men and arms passing from Pakistan into Afghanistan.236
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government forces is actually the result of trying to do everything at once. instead of proceeding systematically according to an intelligent order of priorities. or at least limited. Malaya. Chiang Kai-shek in Manchuria. then the Americans. the Japanese in China. and the Philippines was intimately related to their inability to receive foreign assistance. attempting to hold or take over too much territory was a key mistake of Napoleon in Spain. however massive. and President Thieu in South Vietnam. If across-the-border supplies to guerrillas cannot be interdicted. and to prevent the easy passage of guerrillas across those lines. prove sufficiently effective against guerrillas and their supply lines. in neither Laos nor Afghanistan did air interdiction. Consider the Islamic Moros in the Philippines. then no level of counterinsurgent commitment on the part of the ruling regime is likely to be adequate. In that struggle. (Notably. The Moros have a venerable history of rebellion against non-Islamic authority: first against the Spanish. But perhaps the most impressive example of a counterinsurgent power choking off aid to guerrillas from a neighboring sovereign state arises from the Algerian conflict.9 Isolate the Conflict Area This principle is intimately related to the government’s level of counterinsurgent commitment. is highly vulnerable to a conservative strategy of containment.

The world supposes Mindanao to be the Moros’ stronghold. But by definition a Moro insurgency cannot mobilize popular support in non-Moro areas. whatever its origins or composition.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
237
have been notably unsuccessful. who are overwhelmingly concentrated in thirteen provinces on the island of Mindanao. because the object of the counterinsurgents is not (or ought not to be)
. But with regard to insurgents.)
SECOND PART: DEFEATING THE INSURGENTS
Display Rectitude Rectitude toward civilians and prisoners helps to hold down casualties and keep up morale among the counterinsurgent forces.11 Connections they establish with international terrorist groups are only proofs of their strategic impotence. and acts of terrorism.12 Many later conventional-war theorists and practitioners would reject this advice. please see the Appendix to this chapter. Moro guerrillas are far removed from any potential assistance from presumably sympathetic Arab states. for several quite fundamental reasons. Its only hope would be to menace the government by carrying the conflict to the heavily populated areas of Luzon. misbehavior by counterinsurgent forces has played into the hands of rebellion. century after century. the majority of the population would be non-Moro. In addition to these formidable obstacles. no government in Manila of any stripe. mostly occurring in areas far from the centers of national life. Here is one area where the record of counterinsurgency “learning” is dismal. They have few options besides continuing with sabotage. Therefore in any new state containing most of the Moros and ruled by them. Sun Tzu’s advice is apt. Moreover. could survive if it agreed to a partition of the Philippine Republic’s territory. kidnappings. yet even there they are a minority of the population. fewer than four million are Muslim (Moros). census figures show that of over eighty-five million Filipinos. Hence the insurgents are self-isolated and strategically defeated. (On isolating the battle area in Vietnam. In the first place. Thus a Moro secessionist insurgency cannot rely on a regional war of exhaustion to attain its aims. Long ago Sun Tzu wrote that the enemy should always be allowed an escape route. thus diffusing support for an insurgency in these areas. the central government in Manila has granted autonomy to certain districts where Moros are very numerous. In country after country. Besides.

. “The first reaction to guerrilla warfare must be to protect and control the population. Stationing soldiers in their home areas is usually an effective means of promoting correct behavior toward civilians. and offering sizable rewards for information. wrote that “the guerrilla fighter must be separated from the people. or help in the capture of leaders. forces proved quite able to do this in the Philippines: “After 1900 the American stress on the isolation of the guerrillas and the protection of townspeople from terrorism and intimidation was an important element in the success of the pacification operations. recruiting locals as soldiers. thus marginalizing the guerrillas spatially and morally. and informants. . Effective counterinsurgency means marginalizing the guerrillas. And if counterinsurgent forces gain a reputation for rectitude toward prisoners. then even when surrounded or cornered.238
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to kill or even capture guerrillas. and it is in turn essential to the success of the lines of action discussed in the following pages. One of the most important tasks of intelligence is to discern to what degree the insurgency is a truly popular movement as opposed to principally a vehicle for would-be or former elites.”15
.S. Another is to discover the role criminal elements may play in it. police. defection.”13 Effective counterinsurgency does not mean killing guerrillas. Divide Insurgent Leaders from Their Followers Indonesian general Abdul Nasution.”14 U. guerrillas will be disinclined to fight to the death. The collection of worthwhile intelligence of course depends to a vital degree on the practice of rectitude. Even less does it mean killing civilians. and civilian intelligence units learn to share their findings with each other. but to occupy territory and to justly administer the civil population. by providing security to civilians. or at least in the same particular area for an extended period. It is absolutely vital that the military. Methods that have facilitated the gathering of intelligence by counterinsurgent forces include stationing troops in their home area. rectitude needs to be seen to be done. . Emphasize Intelligence The necessity of timely intelligence for successful counterinsurgency hardly needs elaboration. at different times a guerrilla leader and a counterinsurgent commander. scouts. police. [This is] the essence of antiguerrilla strategy. Like justice. Systematic sharing of information among various services encounters much resistance but produces rich rewards.

Areas inhabited by ethnic or religious groups hostile to the insurgents. “Helicopters. as well as small or isolated police stations and army outposts. steadily and methodically. criminal bands can join an insurgency and carry on their usual activities under cover of some political cause. in clearing-and-holding. found out in Korea and Laos. air patrols can reduce or eliminate daytime guerrilla ef-
. reliance on air superiority to interdict enemy supplies can be gravely disappointing. so that the guerrillas are literally crowded out. fueled by ethnic conflicts. Guerrilla insurgencies are often disguised civil wars. It also acts as a force multiplier. parachutists and special forces made mobility a weapon the French shared with the guerrillas. the counterinsurgents need to erect local militia units.”16 But there are always caveats in combat. a village can be very vulnerable.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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Providing security for the civilian population is the diametric opposite of the notorious “body count” approach so disastrously imposed on U. The process is repeated in one neighboring district and then another. should therefore be priority targets for clear-and-hold operations. or troubled by criminals posing as insurgents. demonstrated by Sir Robert Thompson in Malaya. Well-led guerrillas will assemble rapidly in large numbers to attack unsympathetic civilian settlements. Its essence is that the counterinsurgent forces secure the government’s geographic base areas first (usually urban areas) by saturating them with troops and police. Soviet air mobility was mortally challenged in Afghanistan once the insurgents obtained Stinger-type missiles. freeing counterinsurgent forces to clear additional areas. possibly stiffened by a U. Airlift can neutralize this danger and can also serve as an invaluable force multiplier. Clearing-and-holding resembles conventional warfare in slow motion. Combined Action Platoon-type program. one moves the guerrillas. In relocation. Once guerrillas have been driven out of a village or district. and the Soviets in Afghanistan. the most practical and successful method of separating guerrillas from civilians is the clearand-hold method. But guerrilla mining of access roads over which rescue forces were likely to pass was a major problem in Vietnam. one moves the civilians. forces in Vietnam. This sort of mobilization of the civilian population prevents the reentry of guerrillas into a cleared area.S. In Algeria.17 Nevertheless. Protecting the civilian population therefore requires a rapid response capability to counter guerrilla mobility. Moreover.S.S. In the countryside. Besides. as the U. enabling a relatively few soldiers to do the work of many. But even with its own militia unit.

20 It is doubtful. in the form of civilian sympathizers who supply them with intelligence and food. guerrillas are strangers to the civilians among whom they operate. A distinguished student of the U.”19 To settle the Vendean insurgency. In the post-1898 Philippines.240
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forts to reenter cleared zones. we must see to it that the Empire has no resentful people. Even after a village has been cleared of guerrillas and a militia unit established. however. General Hoche assembled powerful military forces against the insurgents. will inevitably push the guerrillas into poorer and more remote regions.S. and the efficacy of fences and blockhouse lines. Guerrillas who have been cleared out of a village or district will try to leave behind them an infrastructure there. and punished pillaging soldiers. the American “policy of attraction” through educational and legal reforms had great effect. removed brutal officials.S. That is. The infrastructure is to the guerrillas as the root system is to the plant. through patient police work. statesmen of the Ch’ing monarchy viewed conciliation as an essential element of pacification: “those who cannot win the support of the people cannot permanently suppress a rebellion. This is a key consideration: once driven out of their home areas.” 18 An official of the Tung-Chih restoration observed that “if we wish the Empire to have no rebellious people. even though their lives were improved. effort in Vietnam observed that American development projects in the villages were ineffective measures of counterinsurgency because they benefited everybody. whereas the Communists promised a totally new redistribution of wealth and status. Ruling regimes can attain another powerful means of separating guerrilla leaders from their actual and potential followers by addressing the insurgents’ legitimate social grievances. but rather that the entire
. properly executed. it does not follow from it that socioeconomic reforms per se are everywhere of little avail.21 Even granting the truth of this position. and who may also terrorize persons of known anti-insurgent views. those on the bottom of the social pyramid remained on the bottom. as did similar policies of the U. that youthful guerrillas motivated by religious fanaticism may be easy to reach through reforms and concessions. to identify and uproot this infrastructure. Clear-and-hold procedures. Marines in Haiti. augmenting both the effectiveness and confidence of local militia units. real security will not exist until every effort has been made. but he also restored religious worship. In China. and their lives can become exceedingly difficult.

But attempts to confiscate arms from a large civilian population by house-to-house searches are disruptive and dangerous. In the Vendée. colonial governments especially were highly intolerant of any type of armed resistance. perhaps grants of land. it will be very hard to induce guerrillas to surrender. relocation of the population in certain areas can effectively separate guerrillas and civilians. hostage-taking is another provocative approach to controlling insurgents’ access to arms. Under these circumstances. As such. That indeed was happening by the early 1970s when the South Vietnamese government carried out the most serious land reform in noncommunist Asia. Amnesty should be available to almost everyone. Yet if a government views guerrillas and those who support them as criminals. and the like. small loans. as in Malaya and Vietnam. except real criminals and longtime insurgent leaders. the stage is prepared for negotiation and/or surrender. it will have to make every effort to stamp them out and punish as many as possible. reducing the availability of weapons in the zone of conflict can be an especially powerful counterinsurgent device.23 Intelligent amnesty programs save blood and money. A well-executed amnesty program can also provide a cornucopia of intelligence. resettlement probably should be considered only as a last resort or on a limited scale. Drain Disturbed Areas of Firearms If the guerrillas are receiving little or no outside help. then demanded that one musket be handed over for every four
. In addition to such searches. Because maintaining peace was the principal foundation of their claim to legitimate rulership. Reintegrating amnesty takers into normal society requires education or vocational training.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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social structure of rural Vietnam needed reformation. these governments rarely offered amnesty to insurgents. if the government characterizes the guerrillas as mostly misguided or deceived persons who need to be brought back into society (the Magsaysay approach). but this is an expensive and complicated undertaking.22 Finally. which in the past has had some resounding failures. On the other hand. Offer Amnesty In a literal sense. amnesty is a particular method of separating insurgent leaders from their followers. Ralliers (guerrillas who come over to the government side) can join special guerrilla-hunting units. General Hoche estimated the male population of a given parish.

Much less provocative is the offer of cash payment.S.24 This practice produced the desired results. Thus the capture or redemption of rifles became a powerful instrument for reducing the insurgency to helplessness. This kind of harassment causes guerrillas to break up their bases. but it is a powerful weapon in any conflict.242
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males. and the Malayan Communists. and in none more so than counterinsurgency. but one needs to recall that Hoche was dealing with a profoundly alienated civilian population. thanks in part to the U. in return for a gun—no questions asked. coming to the guerrillas from over the Thai
. and tempts them into unwise courses of action. It is easy to imagine a whole plethora of ways in which hostage-taking could backfire destructively. Operations of this sort worked very well against Aguinaldo. Discipline and morale begin to deteriorate after several days without adequate food.”26 During the Nien rebellion in China. amnestied or surrendered guerrillas often know the location of arms caches. “It is better to subdue the enemy by famine than by the sword. far-ranging and independently operating. A favorite tactic of guerrillas is to harass the enemy’s lines of supply. to reduce the guerrillas’ access to food and water is to turn one of their main weapons against them. the authorities confined peasants to walled villages and removed all outside food supplies. the Huks. thus. specially-trained hunter groups. some food did escape British control. In the latter case. In addition. and he was also busy removing the original causes of that alienation. After 1898 the Philippine insurgents were woefully short of modern weapons. Disrupt Insurgent Food Supplies To concentrate on interfering with the enemy’s food and water supplies may seem unromantic and unheroic. Small. Long ago the Roman commentator Vegetius wrote. because in battle fortuna plays a greater role than virtu. “The main and principal point in war is to secure plenty of provisions and to weaken or destroy the enemy by hunger. Navy. and the bravest and most disciplined soldiers are reduced to helplessness after only three days without water. To reduce the amount of food going to guerrillas requires security for the civilian population. detaining hostages until his demand was met. adds to their general feeling of insecurity. including protection of the crops and animals of friendly or neutral peasants. or the release of a bona fide prisoner. can aggressively seek out guerrilla food-growing areas. supplied with timely intelligence and aided by observation aircraft.”25 In Machiavelli’s view.

scouring a given territory for hidden fields and storehouses. guerrilla life. Constant American patrolling kept the guerrillas on the move and uncovered many food caches. We were always encircled and always came through. in any country and any conflict. Sweeps provide all the circumstances for frustrated soldiers to abuse civilians. Sweeps carried out by conventional forces can be heard coming from far away. and setting up outposts that are hard to defend or supply. “it was vital to impress upon our men that they must never allow the fact of being surrounded to demoralize them.27 After the Spanish-American War.”28 The other side of this coin is taking care of one’s own troops. Encirclements too have a notable record of failure. but must regard it as the normal situation in our kind of war. By concentrating our efforts against one point. The food-denial campaign seriously hurt both the guerrillas’ morale and their health. They must also guard against providing guerrillas the opportunity to score victories. “In the later stages of the conflict.”30
. is often filled with hardships. as usual: “Pay heed to nourishing the troops!”29
A WORD ABOUT TACTICS
In guerrilla warfare. U. for example. first and foremost. Soldiers living under stress need proper food. even small ones. Men had to switch their attention and activity from fighting the Americans to getting or growing or stealing food.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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border or from discontented elements in some of the resettled villages. we could always break out of any encirclement. from Napoleon’s Spain to Hitler’s Yugoslavia. no medical facilities and decreasing food supplies meant increasing illness. Thus they provide any guerrillas with ample time to flee (assuming insurgent spies have not already betrayed the sweep plans). the food deprivation program received high praise from distinguished commentators. sweep and encirclement operations. Therefore they ought to avoid. The Americans devoted increasingly successful efforts to cutting off food supplies to the guerrillas. Hence. forces in the Philippines used food interdiction very effectively. counterinsurgents should make every effort to abstain from tactics that harm or antagonize civilians. they should be avoided except for the most compelling reasons. or at least they ought to be. In Tito’s words. food became as problematical for the insurgents as rifles. tactics are politics. for the Philippine insurgents.S. Nevertheless. Sun Tzu’s advice on this point is excellent.

Keeping Pressure on Guerrillas Some counterinsurgent forces should always be ready to hunt for guerrilla bands. it is less dangerous for the occupants to stay put and defend it rather than try to escape from it.32 It was to little avail: “the French lived in fear of ambushes to the end of the war. so does the level of guerrilla morale.35 Quite apart from the danger of capture or death. Nevertheless. as in Peru and Malaya. became a favorite target of Viet Minh ambushes. conventional counterinsurgent forces must absolutely avoid the use of inappropriate weapons and tactics (especially artillery and bombing aircraft) in populated areas.34 Of course. The young Reitz left a memorable picture of the difficult early days of this undertaking. Hence.244
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In Vietnam. the French began building strongpoints at places where ambushes had previously occurred. The following are but two examples. Failures such as that one illustrate that outposts only make sense if they can be supplied. literally. convoys went forth to supply outposts that had been erected to protect the convoys. These convoys. Our
. And as the expectation of early victory ebbs. the outpost to end all outposts. in turn. And they must never leave a village or district undefended after they have entered it and allowed their sympathizers to reveal themselves. During the Boer conflict (as in others) guerrillas were often mere lads. Seasonal conditions can make their search more successful. French airpower was weak.36 One of these was Deneys Reitz. and of the less glamorous aspects of guerrilla life: “The night that followed was the most terrible of all.”33 Dien Bien Phu was. harsh winter weather cuts down the guerrillas’ food supplies and makes them easy to track in the snow (as in Greece) or among the leafless trees (as in Manchuria). 31 To discourage ambushes. Government troops. in contrast. can have the reassurance provided by mobile hospitals and kitchens. once an outpost has been established. in almost every instance. Between 1952 and 1954 alone. Of course these strongpoints then needed to be supplied. and so these outposts depended on convoys for supplies. a favorite French tactic was to establish outposts far from their Hanoi-Haiphong base. Son of a former president of the Orange Free State. guerrilla life can hold many hardships. For example. he entered the fight at the age of seventeen and was part of the guerrilla force that invaded the British Cape Colony under the command of Smuts. Jungle conditions are hard on guerrillas as well. the French lost almost four hundred armored vehicles.

with which to pay for supplies. . The grain bag which I wore [from lack of other clothing] froze solid on my body. in small bills or coin. ride or march to it hard all night. attack them energetically and then pursue them to the limit.S.”37 Half a century later and half a world away. Therefore there should be nothing in its composition or armament that would tend to reduce its mobility or independence of action. guides. Our squadrons were often forced to live in the swamps. Luis Taruc.” The Manual further sagely advises flying columns to carry plenty of cash. the U. . interpreters—and information. Independently operating mobile strike units were increasingly able to locate Boer encampments beyond the blockhouse lines.39 Along with their blockhouse system. guides. . against even the great De Wet. It was the one problem we were never quite able to overcome. Marines’ Small Wars Manual. principal Huk military commander.”42 (One might have supposed that both guerrillas and their opponents would always assume the possibility of night or dawn attacks.”38 “Flying” Columns That admirable compendium of good advice. thanks mainly to greatly improved intelligence. and site and guard their encampments accordingly. Alas!)
.. we were floundering ankle-deep in mud and water.40 The famous guerrilla leader Christiaan De Wet believed that the British learned their dawn-attack method from the despised National Scouts. and spies. which were thickly infested by malarial mosquitoes. simple and devastating: identify the location of a Boer laager (encampment). . Towards midnight it began to sleet. states that “the mission of the flying [i. recalled that “sickness was our worst enemy and accounted for many times the casualties inflicted by the Japanese and [their] puppets. Malaria was the worst cause of death.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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guide lost his way.e. Dysentery and stomach ulcers from inadequate food were often serious afflictions. . . “We soon discovered that these night attacks were the most difficult of the enemy’s tactics with which we had to deal. our poor weakened horses stumbling and slipping at every turn. much of which came from native African scouts. and I believe that if we had not kept moving every one of us would have died.41 The Boers were incredibly lax about posting sentinels. and attack furiously at dawn. the British in South Africa developed a new anti-guerrilla tactic. fast-moving] column will be to seek out the hostile groups. and so the new tactics were often successful. the rain beat down on us and the cold was awful. like a coat of mail.

”43 Thus.246
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U. redress salient grievances. The regime in Hanoi had become convinced by the last half of 1967 that People’s War. carrying the conflict to the guerrillas is the work of small units. their version of guerrilla
. fast-moving patrol of soldiers who are familiar with the people and terrain of the area of operations. The purpose of such units was to disrupt the security and rest that guerrillas expect to have in their customary areas. Such units will not normally have to fear being outnumbered and overwhelmed: “most irregular fighting in thick country takes place at short or point-blank ranges where the accuracy of a military rifle is wasted even in the hands of a well-trained man. Furthermore. and unable to rely on neatly programmed artillery fire from far away. “weapons and training count far more than mere numbers. make amnesty attractive.”45
SUMMARY
The aim of true counterinsurgency is to reestablish peace. constantly engaged in long patrols. not their lives. Under these circumstances a shotgun blast is likely to be pretty effective. Its essence is maximum force with minimum violence.
APPENDIX: A STRATEGY FOR A VIABLE SOUTH VIETNAM
Out of American involvement in the war to save South Vietnam has emerged a great paradox. of such reintegration depends in great part on how the counterinsurgency was conducted. even the possibility.S. Its goal is to destroy the will of the enemy. The rate. Such an approach combines sound political initiative with appropriate military actions. dependent on the initiative of junior officers. Marines in Nicaragua developed small hunter groups for long patrols. much of the fighting takes place in the dark of night when accurate aiming is impossible. here as in so many other conflict situations. Reintegration becomes incomparably more likely if the counterinsurgents deliberately choose conservative military tactics. Real peace means reintegrating into society its disaffected elements. “Nothing upsets a guerrilla band more than to be chased by a compact. and are willing to stay in the field until decisive contact is made. and erect a legitimate government.”44 Besides. and certainly not the lives of civilians. undergirded by serious efforts to limit abuses against the civil population.

but also in the Middle East. then the openly conventional Easter Offensive and finally the conventional 1975 offensive. seem to believe to this day that the U. large numbers of Americans. forces and U.47 Therefore. The myth of the invincible guerrilla clearly affects contemporary U. The latter two campaigns were massive. on how best to respond to guerrilla insurgency.S. foreign policy. and any U. what was needed was a strategy for fighting the war that would have kept U.S. was defeated in Vietnam by guerrilla tactics. But if all this is true. and a near-total absence of popular support. even in 1975?46 These are just some of the central myths about Vietnam that continue to befog debate in the U. Perhaps South Vietnam would have fallen to invasion in 1976 or 1980 or 1985. The war ended when North Vietnamese tanks rolled into Saigon. And that attempt in turn was provoked by the increasingly open abandonment of the South Vietnamese by the Americans.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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insurgency. military incompetence and cowardice. From that conviction came the Tet Offensive. any effort to conceive a more viable strategy in South Vietnam has important implications for present and future insurgencies.S. as well as pernicious.S. despite the classically conventional nature of the war after 1968.S. then why did the North have to mount a massive conventional invasion—the largest movement of regular troops since the Korean War—to conquer the South? Why didn’t the politburo in Hanoi just wait for the overripe fruit to drop into its hands? And why were the huge movements of Vietnamese refugees always southward.
. Perhaps the most influential. role in them. of the myths regarding Vietnam holds that South Vietnam fell because its citizens were disinclined to fight on their own behalf. but the reason it fell in 1975 was not because the South Vietnamese were not fighting. had failed. casualties in Vietnam at acceptable levels. Of course. Yet. not guerrilla operations. World War II–style land invasions by the regular North Vietnamese Army. notably in Latin America. And here is another paradox: one frequently hears critics of the regime in Saigon explain its fall in terms of corruption. but rather because of the disastrous attempt to re-deploy ARVN from the north to the south of the country. Earlier chapters have offered evidence that these beliefs—these myths—contradict easily ascertainable facts.S. including many who could be expected to know better. and they have shrunk from involvement against guerrilla insurgency ever since (“No More Vietnams!”).

in those very years an invaluable critique of and alternative to the Johnson administration’s military policies was at hand. Tragically. The Americans and their allies therefore assumed the strategic defensive and the tactical offensive. devastated friendly civilians. “The first. in terms of inspiration. neither mistaking it for. and because North Vietnam was able to send great numbers of troops into the South and was willing to accept enormous casualties. and confused the U. Thus the Americans settled on the so-called attrition strategy. probably the worst possible stance. was in Hanoi. casualties. The Johnson administration was unwilling to carry the ground war into the North. and supply (of both material and personnel). the most far-reaching act of judgment that the statesman and commander have to make is to establish the kind of war on which they are embarking. They concluded that “without question. nor trying to turn it into. electorate. In July 1965 the Army Chief of Staff commissioned a study that was completed by March 1966: a nine-hundred-page document titled A Program for the Pacification and Long-Term Development of South Viet Nam (PROVN for short).248
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An Alternative Strategy Clausewitz wrote. organization. ravaged the environment.”48 Today no one disputes that the seat of the war in South Vietnam. direction. the American news media) would find acceptable. At the same time.S.S. which aimed to kill more of the enemy than could be replaced. village and hamlet50 security must be achieved throughout Viet Nam” by means of “effective area saturation tactics in and around populated areas. mainly for fear of Chinese intervention on the Korean model. something that is alien to its nature.49 PROVN’s officer-authors studied the history and culture of Vietnam and questioned numerous army officers about their experiences in that country. Attrition ignored the essence of sound counter-guerrilla warfare by concentrating on destroying main-force Viet Cong and North Vietnamese units instead of protecting the population. a huge American army went through South Vietnam on one-year tours. Because the Communist side usually controlled both the timing and the scale of combat. This style of warmaking inflated U.” PROVN correctly identified the cutting of the allimportant Ho Chi Minh Trail as a key requirement. It also urged unification of American programs and personnel in South Vietnam under
. the supreme. the attrition strategy was doomed to failure—if only in the sense that it could not be successful in a time frame and at a cost that the notoriously impatient American public (actually.

isolated the North Vietnamese/Viet Cong forces from the village population. optimized U. calmed alarms in the American media and Congress about a “wider war. neutralized the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The need for a workable alternative strategy was palpable and urgent. Primary among these considerations was fear of Chinese intervention. an attempt that produced the conquest of South Vietnam? How could all this be done? During and after the conflict.” and above all avoided the 1975 ill-organized attempt of the South Vietnamese Army to retrench into the populous areas in the deep south. casualties. ambassador. roughly the distance between New York City and Philadelphia. the Combined Action Platoons (CAPs). and ARVN forces would have deployed on an east-west axis across Laos to the Thai border. on civilian security. and direct American involvement with key South Vietnamese governmental functions. Abrams well understood the essentials of counterinsurgency. the war had become largely a conventional one. (This fear was unfounded but not unreasonable: by 1968 over three hundred thousand Chinese military personnel were in North Vietnam in engineering and anti-aircraft units. numerous analysts made a convincing case that the key to stopping the invasion53 of South Vietnam was cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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the U. and the Americans were beginning to pull out. what strategy would have reduced the number of U. strengths.”52 The emphasis was where it belonged.51 Its recommendations received little application until 1969. In their plan.)55 Any successful counterinsurgency strategy would employ the kind of clear-and-hold operations that worked so well in Malaya. The Marines had already embarked on their own counterinsurgency program. however. PROVN got a cool reception from General Westmoreland. As set forth
. by then.S. allocated the principal responsibility for dealing with guerrillas to the South Vietnamese forces. But what would such a strategy have looked like? That is to say. about one hundred miles.S.54 But powerful political and military considerations prevented the Johnson administration from committing ground forces to Laos. U. minimized damage to Vietnamese society. PROVN and the CAPs show that there was widespread understanding of the weaknesses of the administration policies in Vietnam.S.S. Because it criticized attrition and the search-and-destroy tactics underlying it. “the most imaginative strategy to emerge from the Viet Nam conflict. not to mention the southern provinces of North Vietnam. when General Abrams took over command in South Vietnam.

South Vietnam’s geography would prove to be its doom—unless that geography were altered. how the allies could deal with the Northern troops and supplies coming through Laos. South Korea had successfully escaped Communist conquest in large part because it was a peninsula.S. then redraw the battlefield. in Vietnam. it was essential to redefine the shape of South Vietnam: if you can’t isolate the battlefield.250
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by their principal exponent. and auxiliaries. too poorly configured. because the guerrillas were only one aspect of the conflict. In South Vietnam.56 clear-and-hold means systematically driving the guerrillas out of first one designated area and then another. and too exposed to invasion to be defended in its entirety.
. without going into Laos themselves (although a Laotian defense line would certainly have been the optimal choice). That is. therefore. the other was the slow-motion invasion of South Vietnam from the North by way of Laos (which became fastmotion in 1972 and 1975). Too big. however. Approaches to the Vietnam War TACTICS Offensive Offensive Defensive
Invade North Vietnam
Close Ho Chi Minh Trail by a Line Across Laos
STRATEGIC POSTURE Defensive
Actual U. police. A successful strategy to save South Vietnam.57 Table 2 presents a schematic view of the fundamental choices available to the U. and specifically. would have been rooted in clear thinking about that country’s geography.S. clear-and-hold operations in themselves would not have been sufficient. Sir Robert Thompson. by inundating that area with troops. But South Vietnam was neither of these things.
TABLE 2: Alternative U. Approach
Approach Proposed Here
Geographical Realities The Philippine government had defeated Communist insurgency in no small measure because that country was an archipelago.S.

much reduced in numbers. The northern boundary of Military Region III—roughly 12 degrees north latitude—constituted the demographic frontier between the areas of heavy and sparse population.58 Ranging over all these forces would be the mighty air power of the allied states. and some ARVN. and it is the heart of the strategy proposed here. The construction of a line across Laos to block the Ho Chi Minh Trail would have been the most effective U. supported by the U.S. forces in Vietnam and their casualty rates. Therefore the defense of the demographic frontier. In this approach. it would greatly decrease the size of the U. plus some coastal enclaves. The refugees who would flood into those coastal cities could be sealifted south. would deploy along the demographic frontier and along the border between Military Region III and Cambodia—a total of about 375 miles. All civilians wishing to do so would be free to move south into the defended zone. CAPs would deploy in highly exposed districts. the allied forces would withdraw from the northern and central provinces of South Vietnam. the South Vietnamese forces could receive weapons equal in quality to those of the Communists much earlier.S. With far fewer U. plus a few urban enclaves along the central coast. (Some well-trained South Vietnamese guerrilla units would remain behind in the highlands.S. becomes the next best option. the length of the northern border of the state of Colorado. Navy. troops in country. choice for holding South Vietnam. Allied forces would hold it as an enclave. twice the size of Switzerland with a population larger than Australia’s. Mobile reserves would be in support of this deployment. along with Da Nang.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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The population of South Vietnam was heavily concentrated in greater Saigon and the Mekong Delta (Military Regions III and IV). but the Johnson administration ruled that strategy out. With allied troops guarding the demographic frontier. First.
. ARVN and the Territorials would deal with what Viet Cong elements remained active behind (inside) it. forces.) U.S. except that U. Retrenchment along the demographic frontier would have several major beneficial consequences for the allies.S. These areas altogether—Military Regions III and IV (historic Cochin China) plus the coastal enclaves—would comprise a viable state. Each place would be a potential launching area for seaborne flanking attacks: Da Nang would be the South Vietnamese Inchon. forces would already be there.S. The ancient capital city of Hué was a tremendously important symbol to all Vietnamese.

and so would the bombing of North Vietnam. But with the demo-
. perhaps completely volunteer—the end of the disastrous one-year tour policy. no more “search and destroy. and sea (producing “attrition” to end all attrition). That was the key to the final debacle. That ARVN soldiers wished to prevent their families from falling into Communist hands is perfectly understandable. Second. But the 1975 retrenchment turned into a catastrophe for two main reasons. no more booby-trap casualties. Third. President Thieu’s decision to remove the bulk of these forces to positions closer to Saigon was a very good one and should have been carried out years earlier. the effort that produced the final disaster. confronted by a true front line.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
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The conflict in South Vietnam would now have true front lines. with allied firepower directed toward the enemy and away from civilians. With the enemy on one side and the civilians on the other. more professional. For years ARVN had followed a very inadvisable policy of stationing its soldiers far from their home areas and allowing their families to follow them. the Ho Chi Minh Trail would become irrelevant. Employing conservative tactics. Instead of a part-conscript army of more than half a million. but their attempts to achieve that end resulted in disintegration of many ARVN units and hence the collapse of the South.” no more body counts. With the allies retrenched into Military Regions III and IV and the coastal enclaves. In January 1975. most of ARVN was in the sparsely populated Central Highlands and the dangerously exposed Military Region I below the 17th parallel. The fourth advantage of the demographic strategy is perhaps the decisive one: in this strategy the ARVN effort to retrench to the south in 1975. The other. Hanoi would have two choices: either to accept this de facto new partition and abandon the struggle. American firepower could have free play. much more important. or else to mount massive assaults in the face of overwhelming allied fire superiority from the land. One was hasty planning. American forces in Vietnam would be far fewer. air. the strategy would have made possible a thorough clear-and-hold operation in the regions of dense population and also have allowed time for serious social and economic improvements to take effect in those same regions. by creating an authentic rear area. was the presence of the families of ARVN troops in the areas to be left behind. those forces would incur far fewer losses: no more hunting the enemy all over the country. could not have occurred.

thanks mainly to their sanctuaries in Laos and Cambodia.”60 In his The Art of War. First.-recognized government of Bao Dai. after its dependents had been evacuated southward. Besides. “invincibility lies in the defense. Consider the 18th ARVN Division. While agreeing with this assessment. so much the worse for them. But even the bonds of patriotism. believing that by their sacrifice they are safeguarding their families also. but in the last days of the war. the 18th put up a defense of the city of Xuan Loc that was truly ferocious. or surrender would have become hardly thinkable. a demographic strategy is defensive. The Communists primarily dictated the time.” Lee won perhaps his greatest victory at Fredericksburg. desertion. but also bring down on themselves everything from B-52s to the sixteeninch guns of the USS New Jersey. (Liddell Hart observed: “So long as their families are safe [men] will defend their country. over which the Saigon government always claimed to be the sole legitimate authority. against the will of the U. critics will object. place. discipline and comradeship are loosened when the family itself is menaced. If before 1975 ARVN units had redeployed farther south. with ARVN deployed to defend them. In 1954 Washington had acquiesced in giving up the northern half of Vietnam to the Communists. Sun Tzu wrote. That would have been Clausewitz’s defensive with a vengeance. Nobody had ever imagined that it was worth much in a fight. One may respond to this criticism by citing both traditional strategic theory and the actual situation on the ground in Vietnam. How to reduce or eliminate the effects of those sanctuaries is the real question. the great Clausewitz taught that “the defensive form of warfare is intrinsically stronger than the offensive” and “it is easier to hold ground than to take it. with their families on one side of them and the Communists on the other. the soldiers’ families would stay put in their true homes. on the defensive. If the North Vietnamese took the offensive against the demographic frontier. After all. retreat.254
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graphic strategy in place. They would not only hurl themselves against entrenched positions. other critics might find fault with the plan’s call for giving up territory in Military Regions I and II.”)59 But. is that what the Americans were in Vietnam to do. and intensity of the fighting. The borders of
. it would give the all-important initiative to the enemy. in an orderly manner. hand over territory to the enemy? Yet consider the case of the territory in North Vietnam.S. in actual fact General Westmoreland was on the defensive anyway.

Trading territory for time is a venerable strategy: the Russians retreated before Napoleon and Hitler.S. South Vietnam was under no obligation to defend every inch of the territory within those borders. In short. but it was considered politically unacceptable at the time. And the South Vietnamese did indeed eventually see the wisdom of retrenchment. outflanked by the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
. not Arkansas. Retrenching to the southern demographic frontier—drawing that defensive line farther south. By fighting in the Central Highlands. Even the clear-and-hold strategy has as a fundamental operating principal that one concentrates on solidifying the base areas first. the Chinese before the Japanese. has been defending for more than half a century. of trading space for time—only too late. blocking the Ho Chi Minh Trail—drawing a defensive line across Laos—would have been the best strategic option to ensure a viable South Vietnam. like the South Korean state the U. allowing the enemy to run loose in other areas for the time being. would nonetheless most likely have preserved a viable South Vietnamese state. Lee defended Virginia.61 Besides. and their casualty lists showed it.S.Elements of a Counterinsurgent Strategy
255
South Vietnam had been created by an agreement between the French Army and Ho Chi Minh. a strategic regroupment is not equivalent to a political/diplomatic cession. the Americans were allowing the enemy to choose the battlefield. neither was the U. across Military Region III—while only a second-best option.

how vulnerable they are to an Iraqi version of the Tet Offensive. As the problems in Iraq became grist (or rather chaff) for partisan mills. and forty-three times the size of Kosovo. casualties in the second year after the end of the conventional war alarmed many Americans.S. Almost immediately. consider the size of the country. Iraq is larger than Germany and Austria combined. even children. widespread and indignant comparisons of Iraq to Vietnam showed how inadequately the Americans understand what happened in Vietnam. moreover. and fifteen times that of Northern Ireland. yet within its constricted space.S.000 square miles. and. a very few hundred terrorists were able to operate in the presence of twenty-five thousand British troops. and Indiana together. for almost three decades beginning in 1972. Then terrorism elided into guerrilla insurgency as assaults on coalition military units became frequent. thirty-two times the size of Northern Ireland. a regrettable fact that some of the Americans who
256
. Iraq’s population of twenty-three million is twenty-five times that of Chechnya.256
RESISTING REBELLION
EPILOGUE
CONFLICT IN IRAQ
In 2003. Iraq is twenty-nine times the size of Chechnya (called for good reason the “tombstone of Russian Power”). Ohio. foreign civilians in general. In what comparative contexts might one realistically view U. The predictable postwar outbreak of terrorism struck at “soft” targets. consequently. how ill-served they are by their news media. having swiftly toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein. the victorious coalition—more than thirty countries—pledged to establish a democratic government in Iraq. however. casualties in Iraq? For one. Rising U. The latter province is smaller than Aroostook County in the state of Maine. Pennsylvania. With 173. the situation began to darken. larger than New York. including United Nations and Red Cross personnel. It is. who had the support of a majority of the local population and were close to their home bases.

nearly 16. Nevertheless. it certainly represents core Western values. and of the foreign casualties. are American. In the difficult days that lie ahead.3 Whether or not the U. “the international community. rather hopefully.000 American military personnel died in accidents—an average of 833 deaths every year.S. Clearly. or consumed by civil wars—another. and 43. will have to remain a primary actor there for at least the intermediate term.Epilogue: Conflict in Iraq
257
have lost their lives in Iraq would have died even if they had been serving in the U.. The international community.2 and constitutional guarantees for ethnic and religious minorities and women—in a country riven by internecine conflict. over 29. with potentially broad support.” But the U.) Nevertheless.000 commit suicide. Here is an instance of that “clash of civilizations” identified years ago by Samuel P.1 (Violent death also strikes American civilians in distressing numbers: in an average year in the U.000 persons are murdered. Conversely.S. a peaceful Iraq under a civilized government would be in almost everybody’s interest. or elsewhere. far more fundamentally and violently than the Soviets ever did. reject such values. an Iraq dominated by vengeful Islamists. Between 1980 and 2004. the question legitimately arises: American casualties in Iraq to achieve what? U.S.S. where the vast majority of the population has had no experience of democracy.4 Nothing is going to fix that situation in the short term. aims in Iraq are tremendous: to construct a democratic order—with honest elections.”5
. much larger Lebanon—would destabilize the entire Middle East and menace the interests of what many call.S.S.000 die in motor vehicle accidents. in conditions of peace. or even of decent government. vision for the peoples of Iraq is truly achievable. electorate will not indefinitely support an effort in Iraq in which over three–quarters of the foreign troops. must therefore accept its proper share of responsibility for maintaining a reasonable order in Iraq. such as it is. the U.. There is the essence of the problem: influential elements in Iraq. nearly 20. Huntington. to attain that goal. “perseverance may be the most formidable weapon in the counterinsurgency arsenal.

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1975). “The Portuguese Armed Forces Movement: Historical Antecedents. G. Lovett. Union battle deaths during the American Civil War totaled 138. politically motivated violence against noncombatants. J. 46. Philippe S. See Anthony James Joes. Neil Bruce.H. 2. Clements. One might add: “With help from outside. and Class Conflict.NOTES
PROLOGUE: GUERRILLA INSURGENCY AS A POLITICAL PROBLEM
1. see Napoleon’s War in Spain. 1990 [orig. Grayson. n. It is not always easy to differentiate guerrilla acts from terrorist acts in practice. 1838]).” 5. 4. The Russian campaign cost the French 210. Mendell and W.-C. Tranie and J. Small Wars (London: Greenhill. 7. Schmitter. trans. but does not include losses among Napoleon’s allies. Terrorists are those who perpetrate premeditated.E. On the eve of Waterloo Napoleon had to send over 30. Janet Mallender and J. G.” Politics and Society 6 (1976). In this volume.” 3.000.d. Estimates of French and allied casualties during the Spanish occupation run from 200. Portugal: The Last Empire (New York: Wiley. UK: Jane’s. guerrillas are irregular troops who conduct military operations against conventional government forces. such as the Poles. Antoine-Henri Jomini. 1982). 10. trans.S. p.P. 6. U. Callwell.000 troops to contain the royalist insurgency in the Vendée.112n.” Armed Forces and Society 2 (Fall 1975). this figure includes prisoners and missing. French General Bigarre wrote that guerrillas killed 180. chapter 1. 363.
259
. 1896]). see Gabriel H.” Orbis 19 (Summer 1975). America and Guerrilla Warfare (Lexington. Demands. KY: University Press of Kentucky. For comparison. The general distinction. however. 2000). DE: Scholarly Resources. “Liberation by Golpe. deaths from all causes in Vietnam were 58. Guerrillas have the ability to do whatever terrorists can. Napoleon from Tilsit to Waterloo (New York: Columbia University. “American Guerrillas: The War of Independence. p.000 to 400.000. Consult Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism (Surrey. leaving him but 72. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain (New York: New York University. is valid. May-August 2002). (London: Arms and Armour. CT: Greenwood.000 Imperial troops. 683. 126. C. “Portugal and the Armed Forces Movement.000 soldiers with whom to meet Wellington. The Art of War. p. 1975). p.000 soldiers. Owen Connelly leans toward the higher number. 1969). Georges Lefebvre. Antonio Rangel Bandiera. Carmigniani tend to favor the lower figure. Craighill (Westport. p. but the reverse is not true. see Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (Wilmington. p.W. [orig.000. 1987).

Internal War (Glencoe. IL: Free Press. 2003. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton. 1 (Spring 1999). CA: University of California. 17. Eliot Cohen. 25. NJ: Princeton University. p. Moses Hadas (New York: Modern Library. 1999). 13.. Ralph Peters.
. Malone. New York Times. 1964). The Making of Strategy: Rulers. 464. But they do so indirectly. 114. Griffith (New York: Oxford University Press. Small Wars.” in Mats Berdal and D. A8. Power (London: Allen and Unwin. p. industrialization. Tilly continues: “Population growth. CT: Praeger. 16. p. 21. 605.” Samuel P. 1982 [orig.” in Anthony James Joes. ed. 87. 1973). “Strategy in the Nuclear Age: The United States. 1997). transforming the techniques of governmental control. 1976). “In terms of revolutionary strategy. p. 82. Saving Democracies: U. “From Counterinsurgency to Peacemaking: New Applications for an Old Approach. Colin Gray. and other large-scale structural changes. pp. 1964). 23. 2002). See Thomas R. 1920–1945” in Williamson Murray. 12. p. 603. DC: United States Institute of Peace. Lucien Pye. On War. v. Mockaitis. 26. p. Callwell. even when supporting a war of national liberation. States and War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IL: Free Press. 19. my italics. 70. 447. p. and Venezuela. Chapter XXI... 9. 41–42. no. 67. eds. a distinguished American political scientist wrote: “The most important political distinction among countries concerns not their form of government but their degree of government. 607. 1968). p. 1939]). The Prince. trans. Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Boulder.. 1945–1991” in Murray et al.V. 1962). The Romans in Spain (Westport. in Harry Eckstein. 5 (April 1973). in The Gallic War and Other Writings of Julius Caesar. trans. Statesman’s Yearbook 2002 (New York: Palgrave.260
Notes to Pages 2–8
8. Sun Tzu. Making of Strategy. ed. p. affect the probabilities of revolution. 11. p. 1. 14. Needless to add. the communists have occasionally been defeated. Algeria. Internal War (Glencoe. and shifting the resources available to contenders and governments. Arts of Power: Statecraft and Diplomacy (Washington. p. Malaya. Carl von Clausewitz. Close to four decades ago. 162. Freeman. pp. March 4.. urbanization. “Heavy Peace. and it has failed whenever it was opposed to or isolated from a national liberation struggle. communism has succeeded only when it has been able to co-opt a national liberation struggle. p. Autopsy on People’s War (Berkeley.. 10. Lucian Pye in Harry Eckstein.” 22. to be sure. Machiavelli. Jr. the Philippines. 2000). The Civil War. Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven. 15. My italics. MacGregor Knox and Alvin Bernstein. by shaping the potential contenders for power. 24.H. vol. Indonesia. 1963).M. “Does Modernization Breed Revolution?” Comparative Politics. 29.” Parameters. 18. Huntington. Indra de Soysa. p. C. CO: Lynne Rienner. ed. 77.” Chalmers Johnson. CT: Yale University. such as those in Israel. eds. The Art of War. 20. CT: Greenwood. Charles W. Samuel B. Sutherland. 247. Intervention in Threatened Democratic States (Westport. as in Greece. Caesar. 1957). Charles Tilly. 163.S. and Burma. “The Strategy of Innocence? The United States. 1994). 10. “The Resource Curse: Are Civil Wars Driven by Rapacity or Paucity. Bertrand Russell. p.

From People’s War to People’s Rule: Insurgency. however. p. Art of War. IN: Indiana University press. p. Callwell. ed. 4. p. 1996). Chapter XXVI. 341. “A Strategy of Attrition: George Washington. but rather a fast dash into the capital city. “Regular Armies and Insurgency. For much of the American War of Independence. 9. 135.” 3. Lomperis. p. so many states are such in name only that it may not be necessary or even advisable for guerrilla insurgents to seek a protracted war. PAVN: People’s Army of Viet Nam (Novato. 10. III. Liddell Hart. 1930). chapter 9.” Small Wars and Insurgencies. Freeman. 1954). and the Lessons of Viet Nam (Chapel Hill. probably invented the phrase “winning hearts and minds. 7. vol. 2. pp. On War. 1977). 32. 67.
CHAPTER 1: GUERRILLA STRATEGY AND TACTICS
1.” in Ronald Haycock.
. was finished. vol.” Timothy J. But in fact well-led guerrillas will most certainly not be “losing every battle. 7 (1996). 262. MD: Operations Research Office. Liddell Hart. Chapter X. 85. Small Wars. The Real War 1914–1918 (Boston: Little Brown.” Basil Liddell Hart. “A small but highly trained force striking ‘out of the blue’ at a vital spot can produce a strategical effect out of all proportion to its slight numbers. Basil H. 31. 1994). victor over the Communist insurgents in Malaya. Thoughts on War (London: Faber and Faber. General George Washington employed tactics similar to those of guerrilla warfare. Hanrahan. p. Gene Z. Quoted in B. as a banner that had led the Party through a generation of trials. Intervention. p. “A commander can more easily shape and direct the popular insurrection by supporting the insurgents with small units of the regular army. see no less an authority than Sir John Fortescue. Quoted in John Cloake.” Clausewitz. 8. 5. Sir Robert Thompson. “When are Wars Decisive?” Survival. CA: Presidio Press. 41 (Spring 1999). 1944). Scipio Africanus (New York: Da Capo. Strategy (London: Faber and Faber. NC: University of North Carolina Press. A History of the British Army (London: Macmillan. On the fruitful symbiotic relationship between Marion the Swamp Fox and General Nathanael Greene against General Lord Cornwallis. Liddell Hart. both quotations on p. Regular Armies and Insurgency (London: Croom Helm. 42. Michael Howard. 30. first line. 153. 6. Johns Hopkins University. vol.9–10. 15. “The Victors and the Vanquished: The Role of Military Factors in the Outcome of Modern African Insurgencies. Japanese Operations Against Guerrilla Forces (Chevy Chase. 1985). 353. 1986). 33. 1899–1930). “People’s War. 409.” in The American Way of War (Bloomington. Arts of Power.” 29. See Victor Young.. Jomini’s first principle of war is “to obtain by free and rapid movements the advantage of bringing the mass of the troops against fractions of the enemy”: Antoine-Henri Jomini.” The Histories. Compare Polybius: “Those who know how to win are much more numerous than those who know how to make proper use of their victories. Douglas Pike. p. p. Weigley. 28. 1979). p. In today’s world. Templer: Tiger of Malaya (London: Harrap. 299. p.Notes to Pages 8–12
261
27.H. Templer. Basil H. See Russell F. 1967).

33. but the annihilation of small units and the preservation of one’s own vital force. 15. See also John P. If you are captured a second time or even a third time by us. Disputed Barricade. 1. 149. 34. Mao Tse-tung. And when he prepares in a great many places. 87.000 Communist agents were ARVN officers and NCOs. 18. 144–45. anymore than we are doing to you at this moment. Edgar O’Ballance. armed forces intelligence services and the CIA.T. On War. Gallic Wars. 235. he must prepare in a great many places. 20. Soldier and Tyrant (New Brunswick. see his Julius Caesar: Man. eds. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1973 (Westport. 19. “Operations directed against an opponent’s communications represent the most effective weapon in the armoury of strategy.” Sun Tzu. Others had penetrated U. Vercingetorix also used these tactics after he could no longer meet the Romans in open combat. “The enemy must not know where I intend to give battle. Reflections on the Viet Nam War (Washington. 23.” Tito to author. “We sought to instill in our units the strictest possible discipline. Selections from the Smuts Papers. 1977). 1957). See also Douglas Pike. 1981).S. especially Defeating Communist Insurgency: The Lessons of Malaya and Viet Nam (New York: Praeger. Fitzroy Maclean. The Cuban Revolution (New York: Harper and Row. pp. Art of War.” Hugh Thomas. The War in Viet Nam (New York: Hippocrene.262
Notes to Pages 12–14
11. Perhaps 20. The Gallic Wars. Jan Christian Smuts. 1997).” Milovan Djilas. 13.” Clausewitz. not by extra drills but by ceaseless political instruction with the object of improving both individual and collective morale and of securing a proper attitude toward the population. Book III. Selected Military Writings (Peking: Foreign Languages Press. 1977). we will again return you exactly as we are doing now.” Tito to author. DC: US Army Center of Military History. Real War. as well as South Vietnamese intelligence and police. p. 14. Cann. “The two factors that produce surprise are secrecy and speed. and the works of Sir Robert Thompson. vol. NJ: Rutgers University. 1966). 1966). Chapter 9. 324. 217– 18. 1966). “It is not spectacular victories and territories that count. Petrovich (London: Secker and Warburg.” Callwell. 22. VII. Small Wars. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 14–16. 609. “It was particularly important for us to look after our wounded and never to relax our care for them whatever the difficulties. MA: M.14 12. Raul Castro said to one group of captured Batista soldiers: “We took you this time. Press. That had a very great effect on the morale of our troops. Caesar. though very often to save one wounded man cost us the lives of three or four [of our] soldiers. We can take you again.B. Maclean. 32. VI. W. p. p. Hancock and Jean van der Poel. Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National Liberation Front of South Viet Nam (Cambridge. VI. trans.I. 1966). 16.F. Viet Cong guerrilla units sometimes lay in wait at an ambush site for as long as ten days. p. p. p. for if he does not know where I intend to give battle. 236. Wartime: With Tito and the Partisans. p. Disputed Barricade (London: Jonathan Cape. those I have to fight in any one place will be few. M. Fuller among others has pointed out that the organization and tactics of the Roman armies made them unwieldy against guerrilla tactics. CT: Greenwood. Cao Van Vien and Dong Van Khuyen.C. especially chapters 10 and 20. 21. 1980). 17. 1965).K. pp.
. General J. And when we do we will not frighten or torture or kill you. Liddell Hart.

and Byron. 32. Mosby wrote his wife to send him his copies of Macauley. 1974). Unless we have regular armed forces of adequate strength. Byron Farwell. Scott. 34. 29. 2. 40. 2. . 26. (2) It must not be decided by a single stroke. Jeb Stuart. p. v. (3) The theater of operations must be fairly large. Lovett.S. G. and annual reports of the U. 27. Smuts served as prime minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 to 1924. . p.W. or the local methods of cultivation. 126. 95. Wert. While on campaign in December 1862. John S. Charles Oman. 1990). 1902– 1930). 41. Jeffrey D. Robert D. p. The Fatal Knot: The Guerrilla War in Navarre and the Defeat of Napoleon in Spain (Chapel Hill. 1994). let alone an independent regime that lasts long and develops daily. or forests. NC: University of North Carolina. (4) The national character must be suited to that type of war. 20. 28. 167. Book Six. Francisco Thoumi. p. See also Kevin H. 1995). next to these are countries covered with extensive forests. 27. Sun Tzu. v. 2. The White Labyrinth: Cocaine and Political Power (New Brunswick. Plutarch. Swamp Fox (New York: Henry Holt. Shakespeare. CO: L. Martin’s. England: Penguin.Notes to Pages 15–17
263
24. even though we have won the mass support of the workers and peasants. vol. 37. 285. Memoirs. 1976). p. 1983).” On War. Art of War. Nasty habits persist. p. 1989). Rebel: The Life and Times of John Singleton Mosby (New York: St. or marshes. 267 31. Chapter XXVI. p. 35. (5) The country must be rough and inaccessible. War of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan. Political Economy and Illegal Drugs in Colombia (Boulder. See Rensselaer Lee.
. “In mountainous countries the people are always most formidable. The Great Anglo-Boer War (New York: Norton. p. A History of the Peninsular War (Oxford: Clarendon Press. Siepel. The Nationalist Party finally drove him from office. 1871). 36. “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. 92n. In Jomini’s words. 83. we certainly cannot create an independent regime. quoted in The Memoirs of Col. 1965). 3. Mosby. 661. Compare the well-known advice of Clausewitz to guerrillas: “The following are the only conditions under which a general uprising can be effective: (1) The war must be fought in the interior of the country. 30. Greene. Life of Nathanael Greene (Cambridge. X. In 1928. because of mountains. 33. Mao wrote: “The existence of a regular Red Army of adequate strength is a necessary condition for the existence of Red political power. Rienner. Gabriel H. He was active in organizing the United Nations. The vast sums available to Colombian guerrillas through the international narcotics trade are an important and ominous variation on this theme of outside help to insurgents. p. Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare: The Countryside Version (Harmondsworth. . Becoming a proponent of cooperation with the British.” Art of War. Thomas Gray. Mosby’s Rangers (New York: Simon and Schuster. Mosby. 39. Memoirs. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain (New York: New York University. NJ: Transaction.” 25. 489. p. Mosby (Nashville: J. Bass.” Geoffrey Fairbairn. 1995). and again from 1939 to 1948. 332. Sanders. p. p.S. 270. John Lawrence Tone. 709. Christopher Ward. DEA. 1959). 38. MA: Hurd and Houghton. 1962). p. vol.

1967. 54. both articles in Charles Bergquist. CO: Westview. CA: University of California. 53. Fernando Cubides. The French Army: A Military-Political History (New York: George Braziller.” in David Scott Palmer. From the Barrel of a Gun: Armies and Revolution (Washington. CO: Westview. Saigon. 408. 1992). DE: Scholarly Resources. 1972). 12–13. Penaranda and G. 1967). See Anthony James Joes. A1. 55.” Washington Post. 50. November 25. Brian McAlister Linn. The Philippine War. p. Eric M. The Communist Road to Power in Viet Nam (Boulder. Bergerud. PA: Strategic Studies Institute. Michael L. 47. 44. “Colombia’s Other Army. “Taking the High Ground: Shining Path and the Andes. 171. 1977). like the Cambodians to the Viet Cong. Bernard Fall. DC: Pergamon-Brassey’s. p.” Gordon H. America and Guerrilla Warfare (Lexington. Viet Nam: A Dragon Embattled. 52. 2001. Mao Tse-tung. McCormick. to its great cost. 180. “Rightist Squads in Colombia Beating the Rebels. kidnapping and terror brought forth a ruthless paramilitary right that . the Viet Cong abandoned guerrilla for conventional tactics. ed. R. 49. Martin’s. p. 48. 408–12.. 2000. 1899–1902 (Lawrence. pp. 2000). The Counterinsurgency Era: United States Doctrine and Performance 1950 to the Present (New York: Free Press. Anthony James Joes. Paul-Marie De La Gorce. A13. 56. Colombian Army Adaptation to FARC Insurgency (Carlisle. . and allowed the first paramilitary groups to gain a firm foothold”. is now contending for control of some of the rural areas long dominated by the guerrillas”. p. 281. The Dynamics of Defeat (Boulder. p. March 12. Sometimes the inhabitants of the sanctuary can be unwilling hosts. “The guerrillas’ use of tactics such as extortion. May 1970). Smith. 2001). William J. Sanchez. Buttinger. Violence in Colombia. It is reasonable to suspect that modern airpower and armored desert vehicles have made a repetition of a Lawrence-of-Arabia campaign impossible. See Tom Marks. 1990–2000 (Wilmington. Douglas Blaufarb.). 1986). “Waging War and Negotiating Peace: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical perspective”. KS: University Press of Kansas. “Small countries like Belgium which lack this [territorial] condition have little or no such possibility” of waging successful guerrilla warfare. Jeffrey Race. War Comes to Long An (Berkeley. 2000). The Viet Cong Strategy of Terror (Monograph. Viet Nam: A Dragon Embattled (New York: Praeger. pp.” New York Times. 2002). 47. p. 448. p. . pp. 1970). p. December 5. During the 1968 Tet Offensive. p. 1991). 46. “Colombians Petition for Force against Kidnappers. Viet Cong Repression [Assassinations] and its Implications for the Future (Santa Monica: RAND. 268. The Two Viet Nams (New York: Praeger. From the Sierra to the Cities: The Urban Campaign of the Shining Path (Santa Monica. This was a major error of the Greek guerrillas in 1948. CA: RAND. 2000. KY: University Press of Kentucky. Selected Military Writings. . Duiker. 43. 2d ed.” Washington Post. 1963). Hosmer. Shining Path of Peru (New York: St. 1.264
Notes to Pages 17–20
42. p. “Sendero is often able to mobilize population in many parts of the sierra because there is no one to stop them. “FARC’s kidnapping campaigns and indiscriminant exactions created widespread exasperation . “From Private to Public Violence: The Paramilitaries”. Joseph Buttinger. Douglas Pike. 1994). 45. p. Stephen T. Charles Bergquist. 51. 67–68. 83.
. 1981). .

p.” Parameters. (New York: Cooper Square Press. vol.” Journal of Slavic Military Studies.. KY: University Press of Kentucky. Cynthia McClintock. Autopsy on People’s War (Berkeley. For a shorter analysis of the conflict in El Salvador. 2001). Soldiers in Cities: Military Operations on Urban Terrain (Carlisle. 66. See Michael Desch.” Parameters. The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation. Of the 25. Rajan Menon and Graham E. 79 (March/April. 1 (Spring 1996). CA: RAND. CA: University of California. 1991). 2000). Before the rising. 2000). p. and Ralph Peters. xxix (1999). Henry Kissinger et al. 2001). Olga Oliker. XXVI. Raymond C. 1998. 13 (2000). 1986). see Anthony James Joes. Their Cities. 61. 1995). DC: U. The Russian Army in a Time of Troubles (London: Sage. Army Foreign Military Studies Office.” the fighting was hardly a fair test of whether sustained urban guerrilla warfare is possible. Russia’s Chechen Wars 1994–2000: Lessons for Urban Combat (Santa Monica.” Foreign Affairs. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path (Washington. 60. Thomas. The Complete Bolivian Diaries of Che Guevara and Other Captured Documents. NJ: Princeton University. ed. Bor [T. CA: Presidio Press. OR: Frank Cass. pp. they suffered 22. the Russian army displayed such incredible disorganization and incompetence that. John R. KS: U. Pilloni. Benjamin Schwarz. The Fateful Pebble: Afghanistan’s Role in the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Novato. and assassinating particularly brutal Nazis officials. Chalmers Johnson. 1984).” See also José Napoleon Duarte. PA: Strategic Studies Institute. only 2. 30. ed. no. 64. “Russia’s Ruinous Chechen War.000 Home Army personnel involved.. 1951). Richard Lukas. “The Battle for Grozny: Deadly Classroom for Urban Combat. Cuban Revolution. publishing a clandestine press. See Pavel Baev. The Secret Army (New York: Macmillan. 1998). Report of the Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington. Komorowski]. 287. Timothy Wickham-Crowley. 219. 1991). 1939–1945 (Lexington. 1986). 1993). vol. Afghanistan: The Soviet Union’s Last War (Portland. “El Salvador: A Long War in a Small Country. Daniel James. “Burning Corpses in the Streets: Russia’s Doctrinal Flaws in the 1995 Fight for Grozny. America and Guerrilla Warfare. The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers. Duarte: My Story (New York: Putnam’s. gathering intelligence. Mark Galeotti. 1973). p. the Home Army had been committing sabotage. 378.Notes to Pages 21–23
265
57.
. American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and El Salvador: The Frustrations of Reform and the Illusions of Nation Building (Santa Monica. 1998).” Fort Leavenworth. Henry Butterfield Ryan. Institute of Peace.000 casualties and inflicted 20.000 casualties on the German forces. vol. 28. p. Anthony Arnold. Guerrillas and Revolutions in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes since 1956 (Princeton. 62.S.500 had firearms. “Our Soldiers. The rising was provoked by the announcement of an imminent Nazi dragnet of all young persons in Warsaw and the approach of the Red Army (which halted when the rising began). and Timothy Thomas. Before their inevitable surrender. DC: U. 59. Spies and Diplomats (New York: Oxford University Press. 1996). Government Printing Office.S. Finch. 63. 65. CA: Rand.S. even if one insists on calling the resistance forces “guerrillas. “Why the Russian Military Failed in Chechnya. during its operations in Chechnya in 1994–1996. 58. Fuller. 215. Besides.

Yesterday in Mexico. 193. 1973). 1961). 1955). 1956). IN: Indiana University. 238. IN: Indiana University. Benedict J. Forrest and C. This status is not always deserved. 3. Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution. p. See Donald L. and went to Bolivia to be killed trying to overthrow a government that pretended to be democratic. 1947). p. Dulles. 1973). The Magsaysay Story (New York: John Day. 1978). Brian Kelly. 12. 1985). vol.266
Notes to Pages 24–27
CHAPTER 2: SOME WELLSPRINGS OF INSURGENCY
1.). p. it must be remembered. 1. Counter-Guerrilla Operations: The Philippine Experience (New York: Praeger. The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church (Bloomington. For sources on the Vendean revolt. 421–22. Quirk. p. 1962). Jones (New York: Random House. Yesterday in Mexico. Lloyd Mecham. The Cristero Rebellion (Ph. Gray. University of New Mexico. NJ: Princeton University.” Journal of Church and State. Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley. Huntington. 1973). 13. 1972). p. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Knopf. and another a permanent minority. Brown. 351. p. Ernesto Guevara. Horowitz. AZ: University of Arizona. 86. Where one well-defined group comprises a permanent majority. 1880–1964 (Boston.. NC: University of North Carolina. Kerkvliet. CA: University of California. 525–26. 1982). 2. Guerrilla Warfare (New York: Vintage. CT: Yale University. American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur. vol. 1919–1936 (Austin. free elections can lead to civil war. translated by A. Samuel P. “The Meaning of the Cristero Religious War Against the Mexican Revolution. 265. Dulles. pp. James W. Then he forgot his insight. and Albert Soboul. Wilkie. p. 267.D. see also Napoleon Valeriano and Charles T. 1989). Meyer. J. The Cristero Rebellion (New York: Cambridge University. p. Dulles. See also Georges Lefebvre. 14. 5. William Doyle. the most democratic and honest elections can be the occasion for exacerbating cleavages. p. ed. 1960). 10. Quirk. 4. 9. MA: Little. Bohannan. 8. Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion (Tucson. TX: University of Texas. 1968). 8 (1966). 1966. 1989). In the Midst of Wars: An American’s Mission to Southeast Asia (New York: Harper and Row. pp. See Jean A. The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley. Robert E. dissertation. Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven. 177. 1975). The Coming of the French Revolution (Princeton.F. pp. 644–46. 241. David Bailey. only a small minority to begin with) actually voted. 275.P. rev. Robert E. Romulo and Marvin M. Jim Tuck. The fate of the other principal demand of the Maderistas—clean elections—is well known. Crusade in Asia (New York: John Day.
. The French Revolution 1788–1799. William Manchester. 1977). CA: University of California. Edward Lansdale. 11. 6. 342ff. John W. Romulo. Viva Cristo Rey! (Austin. 1976). see footnotes in chapter 3 of this book. Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill. TX: University of Texas. as in Northern Ireland. 7. The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press. In states afflicted with deep ethnic or religious divisions. Carlos P. Carlos P. The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church (Bloomington. Ibid. Simon Schama writes that only 6 percent of those eligible (who were. 1974).

17. and He Who Rides the Tiger (New York: Praeger. 104. 26. “Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World. 16. Double Betrayal: Repression and Insurgency in Kashmir (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Balraj Puri. 1995). 1998). The Failure of Union: Central America. 2000). “The Kashmir Insurgency: As bad as it gets. 42. and Thomas L. 1997). Hopes of Peace (New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. Stephen Webre. José Napoleon Duarte and the Christian Democratic Party in Salvadoran Politics 1960–1972 (Baton Rouge. James Dunkerly. See the very interesting works by Taruc. 1824–1975 (Chapel Hill. and Economic Strategy (Princeton.” Small Wars and Insurgencies. 2000.” Politics and Society 17. 22. “El Salvador: Recent Elections in Historical Perspective. CT: Greenwood. no. 1984). See The Christian Science Monitor. On Kashmir. Government Printing Office.” Small Wars and Insurgencies. 18. p. The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War. Victoria Schofield Kashmir in Conflict (London: Tauris. 20.” in John Booth and Michael Seligson. “Restoring Normalcy: The Evolution of the Indian Army’s Counterinsurgency Doctrine. 89. Paula R. 1993). NJ: Princeton University. Kashmir Toward Insurgency (New Delhi: Orient Longman. José Garcia. Repression. April 5. 1973 [orig. 1967). For analysis of the 1953 campaign and results. Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left after the Cold War (New York: Vintage. Duarte: My Story (New York: Putnam’s 1986). Elections and Democracy in Central America (Chapel Hill. 11. 25. vol. no. p. 1 (Spring 2000). Magsaysay and the Philippine Peasantry (Berkeley.. 98–99. 4 (1989). 27. Kashmir and Tibet (NY: Routledge. LA: Louisiana State University. Margolis. 15–16. See José Napoleon Duarte. 21. p. 1961). Rajagopalan. Patterns of Development in Latin America: Poverty. the M-19 insurgent effort arose in Colombia in large measure because of the widespread belief that former President Rojas Pinilla had been cheated out of his victory in the presidential election of 1970.S. See also Timothy Wickham-Crowley. Cynthia McClintock places great stress on the stolen 1972 elections as an explanation for the emergence of the FMLN several years later. 1988). In a similar fashion.Notes to Pages 27–29
267
15. Central America: A Nation Divided (New York: Oxford University. see Ralph Lee Woodward. NJ: Princeton University. For historical background on Central America. see Eric S. see Frances Lucille Starner. 1979). Henry Kissinger et al. See Jeff Goodwin and Theda Skocpol. 24. Born of the People (Westport. eds. Report of the Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington. The Lost Rebellion (New Delhi: Penguin. R. chapters 3. On the relationship between poverty and the system of landownership in El Salvador. Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America (New York: Verso. NC: University of North Carolina. Manoj Joshi. 11. Karnes. DC: U.
. 4 and appendix 1. CA: University of California. 1999). 1991). 1989). Castañeda. vol. 224 and passim. NC: University of North Carolina. p. no. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path (Washington. 1976). 1976). Jorge G. DC: United States Institute of Peace. pp. 1953]). Newberg. see John Sheahan.. War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan. Sumir Ganguly. 1 (Spring 2000). Guerrillas and Revolutions in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes since 1956 (Princeton. 409 and 424n. Alexander Evans. 1987). 1993). 2000). Most observers believed that Duarte had won the presidential election of 1972 but had been counted out. 23. 19.

p. CA: University of California. 1 (Spring 1999). PA: Strategic Studies Institute.” The World Today. Chalmers Johnson. p. no. 1966). 1968). 2002). 1973). p. 1974). Rempe. 1954–1960. England: Penguin. Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare: The Countryside Version (Harmondsworth. See also the valuable series of articles in Small Wars and Insurgencies by Dennis M. A Strategic View of Insurgencies: Insights from El Salvador (Washington. 2 (Summer 1994). this is also a major thesis of Timothy Wickham-Crowley. Counterinsurgency Policy in Colombia. v. he received 38 percent.” Politics and Society. 1958–1966 (Carlisle Barracks. Timothy Wickham-Crowley. 10. Internal Security Policy. 135. The reference is to Theda Skocpol.” vol. Bandits and Independent Republics: U. “From Causes to Causers: The Etiology of Salvadoran Internal War Revisited. and no future. and Jorge Osterling. in 1996. 10.Notes to Page 33
269
gional Security Crisis in the Andes (Carlisle Barracks. Samuel Huntington had offered a similar suggestion in the 1960s. Guerrillas and Revolutions in Latin America. In 1990. p. Manwaring and Court Prisk. PA: Strategic Studies Institute.” in Comparative Studies in Society and History. XVI (Fall 1996). attempting a return to power. Revolutionary War in World Strategy 1945–1969 (New York: Taplinger.S. Counterinsurgency Efforts in Colombia 1955–1965. p.S. (Winter 1999). 71. See Also Robert Thompson. vol. vol. He continues: “This illusion operates also on the [incumbent] elite. .S. Latin America. “France. Charles Bergquist et al. 41. Rempe. See also Jeff Goodwin and Theda Skocpol. “Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World.” Journal of Conflict Studies. 1998). 48. “The New Warrior Class. Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes Since 1956 (Princeton. “Colombia and the Drug Barons: Conflict and Containment. DC: U. v. Autopsy on People’s War (Berkeley.. believing they are fighting for the realization of these fine principles all to help the unfortunate masses. no. 1989).” Parameters. Institute of Peace. . NJ: Princeton University. DE: Scholarly Resources.
. Russia and China: A Structural Analysis of Social Revolutions. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America (Washington. “The Origin of Internal Security in Colombia”. 44.” Ralph Peters. NJ: Transaction. no. whereas in reality the sole effect of their action is to fasten onto the masses a yoke which may be more severe than that of the [displaced] elite. Violence in Colombia: The Contemporary Crisis in Historical Perspective (Wilmington. Yvon Grenier. . Guerrillas and Revolutions in Latin America. DC: Institute for National Strategic Studies. a loser with little education. the end of fighting means the end of the good times. 17. and the Development of U.” vol. 1970). no legal earning power. 1991). Geoffrey Fairbairn. 45. see his Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University. XVII (1989). May 1993. 47. 1990). pp. Democracy in Colombia: Clientelist Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (New Brunswick. no abiding attractiveness to women. 3. 6 (Winter 1995). XXIV. and Dennis M. “An American Trojan Horse? Eisenhower. 1992). see also Christopher Abel. For the new warrior class. Sociological Writings (New York: Praeger. 18 (April 1976). “The archetype of the new warrior class is a male who has no stake in peace. many of whose members possess no skills marketable in peace. The Past as Prologue? A History of U. and Cynthia McClintock. 50. Vilfredo Pareto. 5. See especially Wickham-Crowley. Max G. 49. 24–25. 46. the incumbent President Ortega received 41 percent of the total vote. “Guerrillas.S. many among them betray the interests of their class.” 51. 2001).

Fall. Jacques Solé. 1966). On Revolution (New York: Viking. 64. Samuel Popkin. The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Vintage. my italics. Hannah Arendt. 242. 1965). Questions of the French Revolution (New York: Pantheon. ed. 59. Ellen J. Anatomy of a War (New York: Pantheon. 1968). 1968). Another class of “insurgents” is comprised of what can perhaps be best described as pirates. (New York: Praeger. 1965). Viet Nam. 644–46 and passim. 4 (Winter 1995– 96). December 11. 1989). see Simon Schama. Lenin. 300–1. p. no. 482. Viet Nam: The Origins of Revolution (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor. pp. 35. and passim. Dennis J. Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1967). 26.I. 1770–1798 (Oxford: Oxford University. CO: Lynne Rienner. Albert Mathiez writes of “the opposition and discontent which were seething among the mass of the populace throughout the whole of France. 193. For a Vietnamese with a European education. see especially chapter 6. 1928]). 1971). Viet Nam: A Political History (New York: Praeger. “The Accession of the Extremists. “Doing Well Out of Civil War. The Dynamics of Defeat: The Viet Nam War in Hau Nghia Province (Boulder.” Parameters XXV. The theme of frustrated upward mobility is prominent in Eric M. Duncanson. pp. Robert Scalapino. 55. 659. CA: University of California. p. IL: Peacock. 35. One example is Crane Brinton’s classic. 31. 2 (Summer 1997). 1985).” The Chouans: The Social Origins of Popular Counterrevolution in Upper Brittany. McAlister. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Knopf. The Two Viet Nams: A Political and Military Analysis. v. pp. pp. 1995). 60. 1989). p. Donald Sutherland writes: “By 1795 at the latest. 73. 1968). Bernard Fall. William Doyle. 67. eds. For more on the minority nature of the French Revolutionary regimes. CO: Westview. Duiker. and the Modern Historical Experience (New York:
. 241–42. Two Viet Nams. 65.” 52. 56. 6–9. The Oxford History of the French Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press. pp. Greed And Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Boulder. 2000). Viet Nam: Anatomy of a Conflict (Itasca. no. V. Joseph Buttinger. 1989). 1966).” William J. Wesley Fishel. see Mats Berdal and David Malone. and “Our Old New Enemies. The Communist Road to Power in Viet Nam (Boulder. McAlister. 87n. p. Following Ho Chi Minh: Memoirs of a North Vietnamese Colonel (Honolulu.” Parameters XXVII. 54. pp. Government and Revolution.” the New York Times Magazine. Gabriel Kolko. an enormous proportion of the population in the west and south supported movements that demanded nothing less than a return to the old regime. 406. p. ed. the United Sates. HI: University of Hawaii. 66.” 53. See Bui Tin. CO: Westview. Anatomy of a War: Viet Nam. 304. 57. 1962 [orig. p. The Rational Peasant (Berkeley. Hammer.270
Notes to Pages 35–37
See also his “The Culture of Future Conflicts. p. 653. Bergerud.. “to be a Marxist represented a grand gesture of contempt for the corrupt past as well as the humiliating present. 1991). 63. 2d rev. chapter 3. 58. p.” The French Revolution (New York: Russell and Russell. Gabriel Kolko. “We Cannot Accept a Communist Seizure of Viet Nam. This is a theme running throughout John T. 61. 1979). 1966. CA: Stanford University. The Struggle for Indochina. 1981). especially Paul Collier. p. 1982). 1940–1955 (Stanford. Duncanson Government and Revolution in Viet Nam (New York: Oxford University Press. p. 103. 103. 62.

p. see also Carlotta Gall and Thomas de Waal. p. 102. ed. Timothy Garton Ash. Lukas. 73–74. 1995). p. 1975). The genocidal policies of the French revolutionary government in the Vendée developed after the insurgency had broken out. 233. Russia’s Invasion of Chechnya: A Preliminary Assessment (Carlisle Barracks. and Anthony Short. President Carter’s memoirs are silent on this episode. Richard C. Polish Society Under German Occupation (Princeton.272
Notes to Pages 41–45
88. Tilford. Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus (New York: New York University Press. S. On the Ghetto rising see Dan Kurzman. 1998). 1950). MA. 97.” Dunlop.” Lieven. v. Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (New York: Houghton Mifflin. This conflict is not the rising of the Warsaw Ghetto. John B. “Kabul to Grozny: A Critique of Soviet (Russian) Counterinsurgency Doctrine.” Steven J. 1998). 100. See New York Times. p.3. 1948–1960 (New York: Crane. In Nicaragua.H. See also Jan Gross. Japan’s Role in Southeast Asian Nationalist Movements 1940– 1945 (Cambridge. Elsbree. rather. 1998). The Uses of Adversity (New York: Vintage. 101. Israel Gutman. Lieven. Malaya.H. Shmuel Krakowski. which occurred in 1943. Woodburn Kirby. KY: University Press of
. Chechnya. p. The Second Chechen War (Camberley. 1953). Winston Churchill. the army of the Somoza regime was not defeated. 9 (1996).” Journal of Slavic Military Studies. England: Conflict Studies Research Center. 1994). p. 1976]). The Bravest Battle: The 28 Days of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (New York: Da Capo 1993 [orig. 134. Japanese-Trained Armies in Southeast Asia: Independence and Volunteer Forces in World War II (New York: Columbia University. 58–69. p. 1977). 1979). Hearts and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency. Liddell Hart. pp. Joyce Lebra. Dunlop. 94. corruption. “It is hard to believe that the Russian Army has found it so difficult to overwhelm and defeat the Chechen rebels. 99. see Richard Stubbs. and rampant inefficiency of the Russian military.. Anatol Lieven. 2000). The Chechen campaigns exposed the “demoralization. Russak. 213. 90. after most of the Ghetto’s population had been expelled by the Nazis. The War of the Doomed: Jewish Armed Resistance in Poland 1942–1944 (New York: Holmes and Meier 1984}. 324. Singapore: The Chain of Disaster (New York: Macmillan. July 12. 1990). pp. 95. See also Anne Aldis. “The victory of the Chechen separatist forces over Russia has been one of the greatest epics of colonial resistance of the past century. The Hinge of Fate (Boston. 1979. Chechnya. The Communist Insurrection in Malaya. 92. Russia Confronts Chechnya. p. 1999 [orig. 1948–1960 (New York: Oxford University. MA: Houghton Mifflin. 321. 160. B. For serious irregularities in the behavior of returning British forces toward the Chinese in Malaya. 4. PA: Strategic Studies Institute. and Carl Van Dyke. became the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven. 93. Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict (Oxford: Clarendon Press. CT: Yale University. Blank and Earl H. NJ: Princeton University Press. 1970]). The Forgotten Holocaust (Lexington. History of the Second World War (New York: Da Capo. See W. 91. 89. the Carter administration negotiated an agreement between that army and the Sandinista insurgents. along with some other formerly British territories in the area. 96. 98. 92. 1971). 1989).

136. but unlike the Vendeans they received substantial foreign aid and operated in close to ideal terrain. MA: Harvard University. 1. As the British ships drew near the enemy fleet. La Vendée et la France. the Afghan insurgency did well enough without the presence of friendly troops. 8. Armies of the First French Revolution. 130. vol. TN: University of Tennessee. True. Charles Oman. Oxford History of the French Revolution. 425. vol. pp. John Lawrence Tone. 2 vols. p. A. Napoleon from Tilsit to Waterloo. Martin. vol. 21 132. p. 120. Christophe Roguet. 1973). 45ff. 126. Solé. 23. vol. La Vendée et La France. See Lefebvre. 105–7. 36. p. For the French disaster in Haiti. The Fatal Knot: The Guerrilla War in Navarre and the Defeat of Napoleon in Spain (Chapel Hill. From the American Revolution and Napoleonic Spain to the Viet Minh and the Viet Cong. John M. 121. 359. 1834). p. Laqueuer. Une Guerre subversive. 1993). and C. 9. Lovett. James. 144. 6. 2d edition (New York: Vintage. 1987). which led to the sale of Louisiana to the United States. Martin. It was not the brutality of the regime. Coreard. The Haitian Revolution (Knoxville. J. Macdonnell. 278. One Hundred Days: Napoleon’s Road to Waterloo (Oxford University Press. 134. NC: University of North Carolina. 1934). 129. pp. The Art of War in the Western World (New York: Oxford University. p. 118. 7 vols. Napoleon. Martin. Napoleon. 138. 276–79. Alan Schom. The Chouans. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain. Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France.” 131. 1919–1920). Lefebvre. p. A History of the Peninsular War. see Gabriel H. that finally defeated the rebels. 265. Lovett. p. 45. plus the sagacity of Hoche. Pacification. Pierre Chaunu in Secher. 1994). Sherwig. 2. but its overwhelming numbers of troops. pp. Ott. Guerrilla. Phipps. 312. Doyle. 363. p. 273ff. Questions of the French Revolution. 435. esp. 119. 23. 123. Génocide franco-français.L. Montagnon. 219–21 and 227–29. DE: Scholarly Resources. 128.
.W. vol. 149–54. p. 1969).R. guerrillas have benefited greatly from symbiotic operations with regular units. p. 133. 122. an additional one million lives would be lost. 144.G. La Vendée et la France. Napoleon and his Marshals (New York: Macmillan. Nelson sent his captains the signal that has come down to us through two centuries: “England expects that every man will do his duty. 1793–1815 (Cambridge. p. Secher. 213.Notes to Pages 61–64
277
116. 201. pp. Archer Jones. (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 124. p. Génocide franco-français. pp. Alexander. Don W. p. 243. For example. pp. pp. Sutherland. 2. p. 1965). 137. vol. 1902–1930). History of the British Army (London: Macmillan. 127. 725–28. Rod of Iron: French Counterinsurgency Policy in Aragon During the Peninsular War (Wilmington. 292. By 1815. see Thomas R. Solé. 1963). Fortescue. p. 19. 98. 135. 125. for his efforts see Chassin. Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. (New York: New York University. Questions of the French Revolution. 1985). pp. p. Napoleon. 117. Lefebvre. De la Vendée militaire (Paris: J.

171–77. pp. Quirk. but two years later Wilson sent forces under General Pershing into northern Mexico against the protests of President Carranza. Meyer.” in Frank Brandenburg. 37. 395. Meyer. p. 28. 182. Cristero Rebellion. PA: Lippincott. See. See the discussion of the “psychopathology of the Catholic [sic] in Mexico. Meyer. 32. consult the following works by pro-regime observers: Ernest Gruening. 1973). 149. American and Mexican lives were lost when U. 20. 11. Mexican Revolution. 17. Ibid. Maximilian Emperor of Mexico: Memoirs of his Private Secretary (New Haven. 388. Idols Behind Altars (New York: Harcourt. According to the 1921 census. p. Quirk. 35. Mecham..” Mecham. The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs. 270. Obregón and Calles from Sonora. pp. pp. Church and State. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Vintage. Mecham. Quirk. 1928). 1931). p. 13. 177. Villa from Chihuahua. Quirk. 389. Church and State. IN: Indiana University. of Mexico’s 14 million inhabitants Jalisco had 1. Brace. p. Yesterday in Mexico. p. 96. 74–75. 25. p. Ibid. 1934). 403. 27. The fate of the other principal demand of the Maderistas—clean elections—is well known. even totalitarian. Mecham. Cristero Rebellion. 31. Cristero Rebellion. and thoroughgoing electoral corruption. p. Mexican Revolution. 41. 23. 14.. Meyer. correct relations with the U. and Carlton Beals. And the well-done if controversial study by Anita Brenner. Church and State. Mexican Revolution. 29. Even Obregón had said that “it is preferable that [Mexican children] receive any instruction rather than grow illiterate. 30. 407. 2 vols. For instances of the repressive. 38. 389. p. 18. 394. Meyer. 26. assumed the presidency after a civil war in 1876 and held it with a brief interruption until overthrown by the Madero revolution in 1911. nature of the Calles regime.S. 1929). 24. 25. 16. p. See the excellent study of Zapata and his movement by John Womack.. p. and José Luis Blasio. a lieutenant of Juárez. p. p. 34. p. 37. p. 112. 26 and 31. Cristero Rebellion. 36. NJ: PrenticeHall). Dulles. landed in Vera Cruz. In April 1914. Church and State. 15. Carranza came from Coahuila. Ibid. Quirk. CT: Yale University. 154 and 176. pp. 12. 21. in an antiHuerta move. Marines.2 million. And see Dulles. 301. p. Mexico and Its Heritage (New York: Century. Yesterday in Mexico. 39. 19. 33. p. His regime was notable for domestic peace. systematic injustice toward the peasantry. Yesterday in Mexico. p.Notes to Pages 69–72
279
and Charlotte of Mexico (New York: Knopf. Quirk. Mecham. Mexico. 302. Cristero Rebellion. p. Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915). 384. financial stability. p.S. 1969). The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church (Bloomington. for examples. 22. 351. 1928). Robert E. Church and State. p. Mexican Revolution.. Cumberland. Dulles. rising material prosperity. Mexican Maze (Philadelphia.
. Mexican Revolution.

Meyer. James W. 47. he had his own reasons for joining the Cristeros.” pp. Cristero Rebellion. 79. pp. p. 44. TX: University of Texas. The Fugitive. 8 (1966).” Journal of Church and State. 48. Meyer. Viva Cristo Rey! (Austin. because he is taciturn and suspicious. 53. Wilkie. p. pp. and ill-considered. chapter 8. Meyer. “The Meaning of the Cristero Religious War Against the Mexican Revolution. Meyer estimates 35. 67. p. Calles’s statement was premature. p. p. 170–73 and passim. Church and State. 95–98. Besides. 1982). Cristero Rebellion. 187. 230–31. p. Meyer. pp. 66. Quirk. 227.. “There is little doubt that the [bishops] were sincerely laboring in support of a policy of conciliation and cooperation. Cristero Rebellion. 408. p.” p. “Statistical Indicators of the Impact of the National Revolution
. 51. p. 245. 65. Cristero Rebellion. 61. 55. Mexican Revolution. Dwight Morrow (New York: Harcourt. the Mexican Congress had refused countless times before to accept Catholic petitions. p. 1974). Ibid. Tuck. Yesterday in Mexico. 50. 65 and passim. Mexico.” Foreign Affairs. AZ: University of Arizona. “Meaning of the Cristero Religious War. p. pp. Cristero Rebellion. Tocqueville observed that “it is only with difficulty that men of the better classes come to a clear understanding of what goes on in the souls of the people and especially of the peasants. 49. 43. starring Henry Fonda. See Quirk.000 Cristeros in January 1928 and 50. David Bailey. Ibid.. 73. 311. 472. p. Dulles. but eventually he became devoutly religious. p. with good reason. These events provided the inspiration for Graham Greene’s The Power and the Glory (1940). viii (1930). Mecham. Wilkie. 400. Jim Tuck.280
Notes to Pages 72–78
40. 293–94. Wilkie. 52. Mexican Revolution. Cristero Rebellion. 62. 201–2. A meeting of Calles and leading generals had decided on Minister of the Interior Portes Gil to be provisional president. Holy War in Los Altos. x. Cristero Rebellion. untrue. Meyer. later made into a John Ford film. 56. p. 1935). vol. James W. p. 63. Brace. See Wilkie. pp. 58–59. Tuck. Church and State.” Mecham. “Meaning of the Cristero Religious War. 135 and passim. Church and State. 70. In The Old Regime and the French Revolution.. pp. Unsurprisingly. 52. 51. pp. 398. 68. p. 59. 161. Meyer. vol. 60. 64. 45.” 57. the man who became commander of all the Cristeros called for votes for women. Meyer. Cristero Rebellion. 54. Yesterday in Mexico. Mecham. Cristero Rebellion. Ibid. Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion (Tucson.000 in June 1929. 58. Cumberland. Meyer. Gorostieta was a northerner and possibly at one time a Freemason. Holy War in Los Altos. p. Cristero Rebellion. See Harold Nicolson. 41. 128. 404–5. 280. p. Cristero Rebellion. 14. 181ff. 403. p. 42. Walter Lippmann. p. “The Church and State in Mexico: The American Mediation.. The peasant often appears to the city man as stupid. Meyer. 69. 46. See estimates in Meyer. Ibid. Dulles.

99. p.S. 136. A secret Aide-Memoire from the Department to the British Embassy in Washington dated December 30.” U. 59. Dreyer. 107. 110. The International Commission of Jurists is a non-governmental organization with 35. Seven Years in Tibet (New York: Dutton.
.282
Notes to Pages 82–83
ers. 92. Peissel. Ibid. 103. 1954). The Dalai Lama correctly noted that the U. 86. DC: USGPO. As early as July 11. Chapter 10 and passim. Smith.” Mullik. the State Department inquired of the U. 1962). pp. p. Tibetan Nation. see his Freedom in Exile (New York: Harper Perennial. General Secretary of the Indian Commission of Jurists. p. Smith. Smith. xxvii. 1950. . 613 and 618. George N. Mullik. the Indian government declared that the “invasion by Chinese troops of Tibet cannot but be regarded as deplorable. Requiem for Tibet (London: Aurum.S. 1973). watched events in Tibet with interest. p. Smith. . Patterson. My Land and My People (New York: McGraw-Hill. 108. Ambassador in New Delhi that the “US Govt still stands ready [to] extend some material assistance if appropriate means can be found for expression Tibetan resistance to aggression. p. 1971).S. 1976). The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law. 100. My Years. pp. p. . all this was “to hoodwink the United Nations and give China the excuse to induct an unlimited number of troops into Tibet. Embassy in New Delhi if arms should be sent to Tibet. And see the Dalai Lama. . . 404 and passim. The Chinese betrayed “a prima facie case of a systematic intention by such acts and other acts to destroy in whole or in part the Tibetans as a separate nation and the Buddhist religion in Tibet. Tibetan Nation. On Chinese desire for the land and resources of neighboring areas.S. 1959). MA: Harvard University. 377. 106. p. Trikamdas. 421–22. Tibetan Nation. Department of State. pp.” Mullik.132. 426. 71. China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China (Cambridge. 450. The Secret War in Tibet (Boston: Litle. Secret War. p. 1950. 136. see Heinrich Harrar. 104. p. My Years. consult June T. “The great monasteries of Tibet were attacked and looted and unspeakable sacrileges were committed. 1959). Tibetan Nation. 97. 102. was less interested in helping Tibet than in promoting anticommunism.S. Brown. Many monks were beaten to death. 1990). Foreign Relations of the United States 1950. pp. Patterson.” A week later Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed the U. 1976). Tibetan Nation.” The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (Geneva: The International Commission of Jurists. 121–22. Smith. pp. 96. pp. and has consultative status to the United Nations. 109. Requiem. 156–58. Vol. 1950. Tibetan Nation. stated that “consideration could be given to recognition of Tibet as an independent State.” The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists. p. According to one hostile but well-informed Indian observer. The U. 402. 79–80. 599.. pp. 1990). 101.000 members in 53 countries. My Years. Michel Peissel says that 250 monasteries were destroyed. For an account of this journey. . p. On the public torture and killing of monks see Smith. p. on October 26. 98. VI: East Asia and the Pacific (Washington. 105. p. 597–98. Nevertheless. 220. This International Commission was headed by P.

Dragon in the Land of Snows. p. 1962). and growing U. p. Secret War. 154. 122. XIX. Tibet in Revolt. 60. 751–801. John F. p. 129. 112. Patterson. and Jamyang Norbu. Tibetan Nation. 164. pp. p. Secret War. Patterson. vol. Peissel. 123. 444. Tibetan Nation. 152. See the Dalai Lama. Smith. 210. 1996). p. Patterson. Tibetan Nation. Requiem. 122. had died in the fighting. 113. Peissel. 128. 173. Requiem. 4. 130. see My Years. But the increasing hopelessness of the situation. pp. 132. John Kenneth Knaus. 124. p. Tibet Disappears: A Documentary History of Tibet’s International Status. The one-time head of India’s Intelligence Bureau wrote that “India’s security is seriously threatened by the Chinese presence on the Himalaya frontier. See The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law. 1986). Tibetan Nation. My Years. 54. 1960). 136. 507. Requiem. John Ranelaugh. 120. and Chanakya Sen. 2002). Patterson. 213. George N. recognition of a Free Tibet in Foreign Relations of the United States. p. 105. pp. Requiem.Notes to Pages 84–86
283
111. p. . 120. DC: USGPO. 395. Smith. p. 219. The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster. Smith. Smith. 105. mostly civilians. To guaran-
. 412–15. Peissel. p. Requiem. p. chapter 10. p. p. . Colorado. See also Frank Moraes. Peissel. and Patterson. 125. 443 and passim. In Exile From the Land of Snows (New York: Knopf. involvement in Vietnam caused U. Patterson. Peissel. 1984). p. 119. 127. Tibet in Revolt. pp. Secret War. 118. commitment to the Titans to wane. p. 131. Tibetan Nation. 139ff. Secret War. Secret War. p. pp. the Great Rebellion and its Aftermath (New Delhi: Asia Publishing House 1960). KS: University Press of Kansas. Mullik agrees with these figures. p. 1960). p. Kenneth Conboy and James Morrison. The CIA’s Secret War in Tibet (Lawrence. In June 1959 a press statement issued by the International Commission of Jurists estimated that at least 65. There may have been 5. My Land and My People (New York: McGraw-Hill. Patterson. 116. in the techniques of guerrilla warfare. And see discussions as to the possible repercussions of U. 67. Avedon.S. p. Secret War. 222. Secret War.. 1987). 114. p. Patterson. ed. 216. Patterson.” Shakya.S. 115. As a matter of fact. Secret War. My Years. Freedom in Exile. Peissel. 117.S. “The revolt was essentially in defense of the value system of the ordinary men and women. 126. Requiem. 1999). to which the Dalai lama was central. 1958–1960 (Washington. Mullik.000 guerrillas in the Lhoka district.000 Tibetans. p. See also the Dalai Lama. Peissel. p. The Agency also supported NVDA raids with their Civil Air Transport company. Smith. The CIA recruited Tibetans in Darjeeling and Kalimpong and trained them on Saipan and at a camp near Leadville. p. 335–36. the majority of the agricultural population owned land. 187. The Revolt in Tibet (New York: Macmillan. This epic drama has been well captured in the film masterpiece Kundun. Mullik. Orphans of the Cold War: Americans and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival (New York: Public Affairs. Warriors of Tibet (London: Wisdom. . 170. Tibet in Revolt (London: Faber and Faber. p. 447. 150. 121. Peissel.

eds.. NC: University of North Carolina. O’Ballance. 1964–1969: A Chinese Perspective. p. p. Prunier. 25. Requiem.
CHAPTER 5: FOREIGN INVOLVEMENT WITH INSURGENCY
1.000 Dinka children were sold into northern slavery. Foreword to Qiang Zhai. Viorst. no. 3. “Trained as a regular army to fight conventional wars.” Armed Forces and Society. “The Foundation and Expansion of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army. agriculture. 5. Daly and A. ed. 1992.” p. 1990). The Eritrean insurgents first received help from the Soviets. The guerrillas were of course defeated in South Vietnam. Chen Jian. 44 (August. Sherman. Born 1945.” Middle East Journal. 1996). 164. Sikainga. 163. February 22. among others. Cordesman and Abraham Wagner. Callwell. “The Viet Nam War. Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning (Trenton. 1990). 14. See M. 1950–1954. eds. vol. The Prince. 1992. 1977). CT: Archon. 4 (October. Ph. 18. 1990). The distance across Laos from South Vietnam to Thailand is less than that between Philadelphia and Washington. 4. 2. The Afghan and Falklands Conflicts (Boulder. See J. Khalid. The failure of the Johnson administration to block the Trail is in the opinion of many the key to the fall of South Vietnam. p. 158. 159. “Le Sud-Soudan. Bowyer Bell. DC. p. p. ix. p. and “The Eritrean War... In 1993 Amnesty International accused the Khartoum regime of “ethnic cleansing” in the South.” Journal of Military History.” China Quarterly. Richard F.” in Daly and Sikainga. Chapter XX. 165. a position endorsed by Harry Summers (On Strategy: A Critical
. Eritrea in Revolution (doctoral dissertation. 156. Douglas H. 1987). Iowa State University. Francis Mading Deng.” Burr and Collins.” John Lewis Gaddis. 596.A. New York Times. “Chinese military assistance was critical to the Viet Minh in their war against the French.” in M. “Broken Bridges and Empty Baskets: The Political and Economic Background of the Sudanese Civil War. March 1983. Burr and Collins. “War of Visions for the Middle East. 60. Small Wars. Requiem. Edgar O’Ballance. 122. 166. chapter 10. p. 85–110. 148). China and the Viet Nam Wars 1950–1975 (Chapel Hill. 3. 161. but later from the Americans. Civil War in the Sudan. v. pp. p. See also Xiaoming Zhang. John Garang Speaks (London: KPI. Johnson and Gerard Prunier. 160. 7. Southern Sudanese insurgents at various times received help and training from Israel and Ethiopia. 133. Brandeis University. 17 (Fall 1990). Roy Pateman.Notes to Pages 90–95
285
Daly. CO: Westview. General Westmoreland believed a line across Laos could be held by three divisions (A Soldier Reports. Perhaps as many as 75. 157. and June 3. The Lessons of Modern War.” p. 95. 6. 162. Anthony H. p. Secret War. The Secret War in the Sudan (Hamden. 50. “Endemic Insurgency and International Order: The Eritrean Experience. a Dinka. vol. Civil War in the Sudan (New York: British Academic Press. 155.” Orbis (Summer 1974). “Sudan’s Islamic Experiment. 257. 2000). the Sudanese army was illequipped to combat the highly mobile and elusive insurgents. NJ: Red Sea Press. “China and the First Indo-China War.W. 1993). 1980).D. 79.

The Roman Imperial Army (Totowa. Bacevich. 9. vol. TX: Texas A&M University. Dobson.” Military Review. 74–80. “El Salvador’s Forgotten War. Eric Birley. The Pentagon Papers. José Moroni Bracamonte and David E. The reader interested in the Maximilian affair might wish to consult Ralph Roeder. Even if Moro units were able to reach the outskirts of Manila. pp. Defeat in Viet Nam (London: Frank Cass. 1973.).S. 8. Maximilian and Charlotte of Mexico (New York: Knopf. Pershing (New York: Scribner’s.). Maximilian and Juárez (New York: Ticknor and Fields. Corti.J. 1976). George. Andrew J. 1947. Johnson. and technologies exist today that were not available in Korea or Vietnam. vol. it would not guarantee them success. Los Angeles. 95. 1999). 16. From Viet Nam to El Salvador: The Saga of the FMLN Sappers and Other Guerrilla Special Forces in Latin America (Westport. 1–276. pp. Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements (Santa Monica. Gravel Edition (Boston: Beacon Press. 2001). 1995). The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain (New York: St. 1996). Aerial Interdiction: Air Power and the Land Battle in Three American Wars (Washington. Juárez and his Mexico (New York: Viking.” Ph. PA: Strategic Studies Institute. 15. Leonard Wood (New York: Harper. 1994). Lessons. Herman Hagedorn. T. David J. IV. see Joes. 12. The French Army in Mexico. Jack Autrey Dabbs. 10. 1985. Jasper Ridley. CA: RAND. 62 (June 1982). 1861–1867 (The Hague: Mouton 1963). Strategy at the Crossroads (Carlisle Barracks. CT: Praeger. On help to the Salvadoran guerrillas see James LeMoyne. Jornacion. Colombia’s Three Wars: U. The Naval Air War in Korea (Baltimore. James S. Daniel Byman et al. Richard Hallion.). See Eduard Mark. Wilson. Strategy and Tactics of the Salvadoran FMLN Guerrillas (Westport. v. dissertation. Maximilian Emperor of Mexico: Memoirs of his Private Secretary (New Haven. 1986). CA: Presidio 1982). 1973). pp. NJ: Barnes and Noble. and Bui Tin. U. 1971). “Disagreeable Work: Pacifying the Moros 1903–1906. p. Revolt on Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University.
. 1977). Research on Hadrian’s Wall (Kendal.286
Notes to Pages 96–98
Analysis of the Viet Nam War (Novato. See Graham Webster. Cordesman and Wagner. MD: Nautical and Aviation Publishing.). 2 vols. 2002). 11. v. Air Power in Small Wars: Fighting Insurgents and Terrorists (Lawrence. Dale Walton. From Enemy to Friend (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. III. 2003). England: T. pp. See also C. 1992). Corum and Wray R. Egon C. see George W. 2 vols. 2002). On the Moros. America and Guerrilla Warfare.D. Vandiver. Spencer. “Time of the Eagles: United States Army Officers and the Pacification of the Philippine Moros. 1931. 1914). as the Huks discovered in the 1940s. 1934). University of California. 66 (Summer 1989). Martin. Pershing (College Station. 1928. David J.S. Donald Smythe. Hadrian’s Wall (London: Allen Lane. Breeze. Spencer. Granted. And to the ability of intelligent human beings not to see what they do not wish to see. past and present. For a broader discussion of the issue of the Trail. Maximilian in Mexico (New York: Scribner’s. Guerrilla Warrior: The Early Life of John J. Gabriel Marcella and David Shulz. air power operated under many politically imposed restraints both in Korea and in Vietnam (at least until 1972 in the latter case). 1961). 66–73. 1980). David E. 14. 240–42. 2 vols. The Myth of Inevitable U. Breeze and B. CT: Yale University. 13. CT: Praeger. Percy F.S. and José Luis Blasio. KS: University Press of Kansas.. 3d ed. Black Jack: The Life and Times of General John J.” Foreign Affairs. Frank E. DC: Center for Air Force History.

Christiaan Rudolf De Wet. 38. 17. 22. 1861. 472. p. Three Years’ War (New York: Scribner’s. David Divine. On War. By Sea and by River: The Naval History of the Civil War (New York: Knopf. 1971). 1971). 36.” in Practical Essays on American Government (New York: Longmans. War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. p. 108ff. The Boer War (New York: Random House.D. 260.. pp. p. p. 1966). p. Counterrevolution in China: The Nationalists in Jiangxi During the Soviet Period (Ann Arbor. 277. p. 103–4. pp. The Real War (Boston: Little Brown. The War for the Union: The Organized War to Victory 1864–1865 (New York: Scribner’s. p. 1976). 1963 [orig. Clausewitz. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. These are the essence of
. 232. 626. Street Without Joy (Harrisburg. Revolution and Peace. 1897). Luttwak. 21. 29. vol. 569. The Oxford History of the American People (New York: Oxford University Press. pp. MI: University of Michigan. Series 1. The Rise of American Naval Power. The guerrilla must be fought with his own tactics. 1964). 1930]). 1959). Oxford History of the American People. See Joes. May 3 and May 21. 1966). Gann. Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of General Winfield Scott (New York: Free Press. Lewis H. 290. 143. 1903). 1961). xix. see below. 30. 51. p. Donald Lancaster. 164. 1982). DC: Government Printing Office. p. 24.Notes to Pages 98–105
287
Martin’s. 31. p. Scott outlined his Anaconda Plan in letters to General George McClellan. 1967). Richard L. Bernard Fall. 386. for example. Guerrillas in History (Stanford. 1997).” Ibid. Eisenhower. “The guerrilla fighter must be separated from the people. 19. 1962). The Long. 294. 35. Thomas Pakenham. 23.. See the discussion of similar strategies in the Vendean and Boer conflicts. PA: Stackpole. Callwell. The North-west Frontier of Rome: A Military Study of Hadrian’s Wall (London: Macdonald. 1965). Allan Nevins. The Emancipation of French Indochina (London: Oxford University. 1985). Morison. See William Wei. 272. CA: Hoover Institution on War. 25. 218. p. The Confederate States of America. Chapter Four. Long War: Counterinsurgency in Malaya and Viet Nam (New York: Praeger. The Japanese also employed lines of blockhouses. The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (New York: Scribner’s. 37. pp. 18. Owen Glendower (London: Oxford University Press. John S. Harold and Margaret Sprout. Small Wars.
CHAPTER 6: ESTABLISHING CIVILIAN SECURITY
1. See. LA: Louisiana State University. 642–45. 26. 1979). Samuel Eliot Morison. chapter 2. 34. p. 2. 36.369–70 and 386–87. Clutterbuck. Book Eight. 28. 1776–1918 (Princeton. p. 1893). 1861–1865 (Baton Rouge. see also “Sea Power and the War. 1950). Modern Guerrilla Warfare. 20. p. 27. “Why the South was Defeated in the Civil War. Ibid. p. NJ: Princeton University Press. 30. 626. Green. p. Edward N. p. Part 1(Washington. 33. 32. Glanmor Williams. 1969).

Loyalists and Redcoats. See V. 1956). almost all southerners. “the presence of tens of thousands of armed Muslims under the tricolor gave credence to the French claim to fight for Algeria rather than against it. Robert Stansbury Lambert. Peter Paret says 150. James M. 41. Guillebaud. 32 20. p. 1977). p.000 Muslims fought with the French. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (Harmondsworth. 1808–1939. The War of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan. p. 172. vol.. pp. “Les harkis oubliés par l’histoire” Le Monde. John Shy. Red Coats to Olive Green: A History of the Indian Army 1600–1974 (Bombay: Allied Publications 1974) and Roger Beaumont. Gabriel H. 573. 255. 9. Karens. Brian McAlister Linn. p. 14. The Loyalists. 1978). Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Algeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press.” French Revolutionary Warfare from Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine (New York: Praeger. xiii. CT: Archon. CT: Greenwood. 128.
. and vol. The Algerian Insurrection. Sword of the Raj: The British Army in India 1747–1947 (Indianapolis. p. Les Harkis au service de la France (Paris: Editions France Empire. Cohen. MA: Harvard University. Edgar O’Ballance. 12. Loyalists in North Carolina. p. The American Tory. vol. 179. 2. Spain. 10. p.S. 1979. ch. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain (New York: New York University. These figures do not of course include or take account of the roughly 180. Moore. 1987). Defeat into Victory (London: Cassell. Loyalists in North Carolina. Van Tyne. 2000). The U. Smith. SC: University of South Carolina. 16. The War for America 1775–1783 (Cambridge. J. p. 1963). 102 and passim. 1. 17. The Loyalists. Demond. 9. 19. 185. 15. Stephen P. See the classic account of the Burma war by Field Marshall Viscount William Slim. Van Tyne. p. 13. chapter vii. Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University. 1924). and others. 2. Gurkhas. p. pp. 22. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (New York: Macmillan. McPherson. July 3. 1965). p. see also Brian McAlister Linn. Memories of Two Wars: Cuban and Philippine Experiences (New York: Scribner’s. pp. See intriguing details of this famous capture in Frederick Funston. 11. IN: Bobbs Merrill. p. chapter 62. Spain. ed. NC: University of North Carolina.C. Nelson. 1989). pp. who served in Union uniform. See also Alf Andrew Heggoy. Christopher Ward. p. 61. Reconsiderations on the Revolutionary War (Westport. Van Tyne. 21. 1964). 1987). Piers Mackesy. 357–58. Bachaga Boualam. Albert B. 1954–1962 (Hamden. Carr. 306–7n. 112. whatever the exact number.000 blacks. 105. 18. England: Penguin. 138–40 and passim. The Philippine War. 182–83. 1911). DeMond. sub-Saharan Africans. The Loyalists. The Indian Army (Berkeley. 112..292
Notes to Pages 123–127
7. KS: University Press of Kansas. “American Society and Its War for Independence” in Don Higginbotham. p. 1966). CA: University of California. p. 1972). 1952). Chinese. Ibid. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War. p. 1988). 8. 1808–1939 (London: Oxford University Press. 203. 1899–1902 (Lawrence. Alistair Horne. p. South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution (Columbia. 1965). 299. 1967). 1899–1902 (Chapel Hill. Slim’s ultimately victorious forces included Burmans. v. Raymond Carr. 1971). Longer. Lovett.

p. 1971). p. “French Algeria: The Victory and Crucifixion of an Army. 32. Fifty-nine million barrels in 1940. Afghanistan: Three Years of Occupation (Washington.” in Josef Silverstein. chapter 8. pp. Martin’s. Benda. The Dutch Colonial Army in Transition (Rotterdam: Erasmus University. 1961–1974. 1961–1974 (Westport. p.. Viet Nam: Origins of Revolution (Garden City. 1982). 38. 1980). War in Afghanistan (New York: St. CT: Yale University. 41. 32n. Nationalists. Gérard Chaliand (Berkeley. Cann. see John T. From Empire to Nation. In addition to Ambonese. Wheeler. Ibid.” Journal of The Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies. Portugal: The Last Empire (New York: Wiley. Ibid. Department of State. Asia and Western Dominance (London: Allen and Unwin. 31. 201. and Shans. vol. and also Dorothy Guyot. NJ: Princeton University. 124–25. 28. To this day the people of the island of Bali have retained their Hindu religion. CA: University of California. Joyce Lebra. Consult also Gerke Teitler. Kahin. Consult Rupert Emerson. Martin’s. see K. the KNIL recruited well among the Menadonese and Timorese. 25.S. 1959). p. Soldiers and Separatists: The Ambonese Islands from Colonialism to Revolt (Leiden: KITLV. 1981). 123 (1978). 1986). ed. Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca. pp. The Crescent and the Rising Sun (The Hague: Van Hoeve. “Lessons from Portugal’s Counterinsurgency Operations in Africa.. 1986). p. CT: Greenwood.M. 70. Japanese-Trained Armies in Southeast Asia (New York: Columbia University. 37. Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation (Washington. 1985). In Burma. Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and Neth-
.Notes to Pages 127–133
293
23. see Joes. 1997). 39. Michael Carver. DC: U. 1975).. 34. 1988). chapter 7. 44. 35. See Lebra. Chauvel.M. 36. J. “The Burman Independence Army: A Political Movement in Military Garb.” in Guerrilla Strategies. p. “The Bargain War in Afghanistan. Department of State. 30. Southeast Asia in World War II (New Haven. Hendriksen. 39. For scathing remarks on the effects of Dutch rule in Indonesia.S. MA: Harvard University. p. Japanese-Trained Armies. Nationalists.” in Armed Forces and Society 2 (February 1976). 1960). For a brief treatment of the conflict and its ending. Consult G. Nationalists. Edward Girardet. See Harry J. 33. John P. Mark Urban. Bruce Amstutz. The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon 1942–1945 (Princeton. 1959). See Theodore Friend. DC: U. “African Elements in Portugal’s Armies in Africa. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War. NY: Cornell University. Neil Bruce. while the Japanese occupation relied on ethnic Burmans. 27. The Portuguese retained control of the eastern part of Timor until late in the twentieth century. ed. McAlister. Afghanistan: The Soviet War (New York: St. Kachins. War Since 1945 (New York: Putnam’s. 1966). For comparative examples of this process. From the Barrel of a Gun. From Empire to Nation (Cambridge. Douglas L. 40. 73. 1977). 1988). Richard Chauvel. the British recruited Karens. 111. 1990). See Thomas H. Panikkar. 26. Afghanistan: Seven Years of Soviet Occupation (Washington. and John Furnivall. and Emerson.” 24. NY: Doubleday Anchor. 1982). 103–4. Craig Karp. DC: National Defense University. Gérard Chaliand. 29. 1958). Chauvel. Eliza Van Hollen.

p. PAVN: People’s Army of Vietnam (Novato. Every upgrade of weapons sent to ARVN was in response to a previous superiority on the side of the enemy. 170. See Lebra. Douglas Pike. Combat Recon: My Year with the ARVN (New York: St. CA: Presidio. The French Republic recognized Emperor Bao Dai as head of state of independent Vietnam on June 5. Jean Marchand. p. Bureaucracy at War: U.S. CA: Presidio. 660. p. The number of U.S. Agonie de l’Indochine. the U. 1976). 159. Henri Navarre. 178–85. The population of metropolitan France at that time was over 40 million.S. Struggle for Indochina. CO: Westview.000. Indochine française (Paris: Editions France-Empire. Davidson. Hammer. 1966). Hammer. 51. p. 287. 54. American officers tended to shun assignment as advisers to ARVN because they believed such service did not enhance their prospects for promotion. In the Jaws of History (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Paul Ely. Estimates of the number of French and allied forces in Vietnam vary. 1988). Viet Nam at War: The History. Navarre. I have derived these figures mainly from Edgar O’Ballance. 1986). 3d edition. “On the military side we simply did not do the job with the South Vietnamese that we did with the South Koreans because
. and Henri Navarre. Between them the Cao Dai and the Hoa Hao sects numbered millions of adherents in the southern provinces. 1995). 1962). 1955). 660. Viet Nam at War. pp. A Soldier Reports (Garden City. Spector. 53. Agonie de l’Indochine (Paris: Plon. Robert W. NY: Doubleday. 321.. Henri Marc and Pierre Cony. L’Indochine en guerre (Paris: Pouzet. 47. pp. Agonie de L’Indochine. 1948). Ronald Spector. 1946–1975 (Novato. The Indo-China War. p. Parrish. 44. The Struggle for Indochina 1945–1955 (Stanford. not Vietnamese. Army Center of Military History. 1948. 46. Army picked advisers on the basis of their ability to speak French. despite official assurances. 1946). 45. Advice and Support: The Early Years. 50. 46. 1950–1972 (Washington. p. 1956). p. And see R. The Development and Training of the South Vietnamese Army .000 by June 1954. with many of them in administrative. DC: Department of the Army. 1964). CA: Stanford University. Philippe Devillers. Davidson. 1945–1954 (London: Faber and Faber. Japanese-Trained Armies. Crescent and the Rising Sun. Martin’s. 138ff. 1987). advisers peaked at around 16. p. Pacification: The American Struggle for Viet Nam’s Hearts and Minds (Boulder. L’Indochine dans la tourmente (Paris: Plon. See William Westmoreland. Komer. 52. Benda. confirmed by the Élysée Agreement of March 1949. Assassinations of their leaders by the Viet Minh turned them into bitter opponents. 48. 1986). By 1954 thirty-five countries maintained diplomatic relations with Bao Dai’s government.S. 1964). Le Martyre de l’Armée française: de l’Indochine a l’Algérie (Paris: Presses du Mail. Bui Diem. on the Burma Independence Army. The number may have reached 400. 131. 49. CO: Westview. 47. Advice and Support. Well into the 1960s.294
Notes to Pages 133–136
erlands India [sic] (Cambridge: Cambridge University. Phillip B. pp. 1941–1960 (Washington: U. 128. Ellen J. 1952). p. 55. Performance in the Viet Nam Conflict (Boulder. roles. 1991). 1983). hence ARVN was almost always outclassed in equipment. Richard A. Hunt. 43. p. Histoire du Viet-Nam de 1940 à 1952 (Paris: Editions du Seuil. Ibid. p. 46. 1975).D. See Pierre Boyer de Latour. 101. 5. James Lawton Collins. not combat. 42.

see also Eric Bergerud. pp.S. Marine Corps. p.500 troops (all that was left of the 7. vii and passim. Byron Farwell The Great Anglo-Boer War (New York: Norton. 1987). p. 607. chapter two. Koch. 16. The Boer War (New York: Random House 1979). paragraph 1. 6. 1963–1971 (Santa Monica. 1972). Ibid. January 1973). see Pye. 3.
CHAPTER 11: THE QUESTION OF SUFFICIENT FORCE LEVELS
1. 12. America and Guerrilla Warfare.. aided by small numbers of British troops. Receding hopes of victory also deeply affected guerrillas in Malaya. Guerrilla Communism.100 (500 casualties). vi. Edgar O’Ballance. Pacification: The American Struggle for Viet Nam’s Hearts and Minds (Boulder. Dynamics of Defeat. 9. p. 7. Tranie and Carmigniani.. p. Ibid.” 2. 1939). War Without Fronts: The American Experience in Viet Nam (Boulder. because it convinced the French to give open aid to the Americans. 6. A Viet Cong Memoir (New York: Harcourt. p.. passim. p. pp. even though Cornwallis’s trapped army numbered but 7. in which guerrilla chieftains such as the Swamp Fox (Francis Marion) and the Game Cock (Thomas Sumter) achieved deserved fame. Donnell. the Battle of Saratoga was one of the most decisive in history. Truong Nhu Tang. p. 33. 1995). 1963). Ramsay Weston Phipps. 101–2. 1966). pp. CT: Greenwood. CO: Westview. nevertheless. See also Charles Oman. “Genocide in La Vendée. Vulliamy. CO: Westview. This was the real root of the convenient belief in London that the war. Crimea: The Campaign of 1854–1856 (London: Jonathan Cape. 7. See also C. Malaya: The Communist Insurgent War (Hamden. p. 1975). For ARVN skepticism about ralliers.300
Notes to Pages 168–174
Nam.E. see Richard A. Village in Viet Nam (New Haven. The Viet Cong Style of Politics (Santa Monica. The surrender at Yorktown convinced the British government to end the war. CA: RAND. p.” 4. “American Guerrillas: The War of Independence. Ibid. 1964). Gerald C. Thomas Pakenham. See a brief but incisive description of these tactics in Paul-Marie De la Gorce. Out of these woeful misconceptions arose the fierce and protracted struggle in the Carolinas. at least in the southern colonies. CT: Yale University. 5 5. The Crimean War: A Reappraisal (New York: Taplinger.700 he started the campaign with). when British General Burgoyne surrendered there. 107. Chieu Hoi. 5. 9. Koch. Philip Warner. 1985). CT: Archon. Hunt. Viet Cong Recruitment: Why and How Men Join (Santa Monica. 1980). See Joes. 10.
. The French Army (New York: George Braziller. 154. chapter 1. U. p. p. 11. 8.9. Guerrilla Conflict Before the Cold War. 233–47. Ibid. 6–7.. CA: RAND. Thayer. The reduction of the British commitment in India freed large numbers of troops and other personnel for service in Malaya. CA: RAND. 8. 452. Napoleon’s War in Spain. 1976). The British ruling class did not want to spend much money on subduing the American rebels. he commanded only 3. 442–43. Hickey. Chieu Hoi. 1969). Thus. The Armies of the First French Republic and the Rise of the Marshals of Napoleon I (Westport. could be won by mobilizing the allegedly quite numerous native Loyalists. Small Wars Manual. Thomas C. 341. See Joes. John C. pp. Nathan Leites.

.” From U. Afghanistan: Soviet Occupation and Withdrawal (Washington. 1986). pp. The Army and Viet Nam (Baltimore.” Self-Destruction: The Disintegration and Decay of the United States Army During the Viet Nam Era (New York: Norton. Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation (Washington. pp. War Without Fronts. AL: Air University Press.000 men and boys the pro-Soviet Kabul regime was able to scrape together out of a population of 15 million. p.. J. 16.).S. 1993). out of a population of about 17 million. Lefebvre. Andrew Krepinevich. pp. no. Department of State. II. Thayer. 4 (July 1968). 2001. 12. 168. 1967). 296–97. 103–7. My Years with Nehru (Bombay: Allied Publishers. MD: Johns Hopkins.
. Agonie de l’Indochine (Paris: Plon. 1987). revised ed. 152. 1954. 1981). The Indo-China War 1945–1954 (London: Faber and Faber. p. George N. p. 76. 21. rev. p. See the very good study of the Portuguese counterinsugent efforts in John P. James R. “Soviet Forces in Afghanistan: Unlearning the Lessons of Viet Nam.). Edgar O’Ballance. 1964). 1902). 1945–1954. 195–96. vol. 53.” in Stephen Blank et al. America and Guerrilla Warfare. Martin’s. 13. 1971). Foreword. compare this to the 80. p.129. 1988). see. but had their independence given to them in Paris. 21. See also “Cincinnatus. War in Afghanistan (New York: St. Department of State. War Without Fronts. Street Without Joy (Harrisburg. B. 197. 435. Assisting the Americans in South Vietnam was an indigenous force eventually numbering 1 million regulars and militia. Westmoreland. vol. ed. pp. 1954–1975 (Westport. p. Herman Kahn. Department of State. Responding to Low-Intensity Conflict Challenges (Maxwell AFB. DC: Department of State. The War for South Viet Nam. Lessons of the War in Indochina. p. Ebert. 1988). 46. 20.N. DC: U. 22.. War in Peace: Conventional and Guerrilla Warfare since 1945 (New York: Harmony. History of the British Army. 1965–1972 (Novato. 1987).” Foreign Affairs vol. eds.000 men. 417.W. Patterson. Tibet in Revolt (London: Faber and Faber. 216. Figures vary from year to year and from source to source. Agonie de l’Indochine. 23. The Indochina War. Lessons. 46. 359. 2. II (Santa Monica. Archer Jones. p. 15. CT: Praeger. 14. 1957). Mark Urban. 11. Edgar O’Ballance. England: Clarendon Press. Mullik. 1 (Oxford. Peissel. The guerrillas were defeated in Algeria. Bruce Amstutz. Afghanistan: Soviet Occupation and Withdrawal. See Joes. pp. Fitzroy Maclean. 18. p. No Exit from Viet Nam. Disputed Barricade (London: Jonathan Cape. PA: Stackpole. 17. 19. 24. p. p. Bernard Fall. David Chandler. 1986). 10. p. vol. Secret War in Tibet. 1990). p. U. Henri Navarre. pp. 105. 10. A Soldier Reports. p. p. CA: RAND. “If Negotiations Fail. 8 (London: Macmillan. 248. Afghanistan: Eight Years of Soviet Occupation (Washington. Stephen Blank. for example.Notes to Pages 174–178
301
History of the Peninsular War. The Art of War in the Western World (New York: Oxford University Press. These figures have been computed from Ely. and Thayer. p. DC: National Defense University. “Most Western estimates put Soviet troop strength at about 120.S. in Tranie and Carmigniani. Craig Karp.S. Napoleon. 1964). 1919). 218–23. 67. Henri Navarre. Napoleon’s War in Spain. p. 2. 1960). vol.116. J. and Ian Beckett et al. CA: Presidio. Paul Ely. p. 1982). Joes. Thompson. A Life in a Year: The American Infantryman in Viet Nam. Fortescue. 5.114. 170. 196.

Ibid. Westmoreland.155. Hickey. “Viet Nam: A Case of Multiple Pathologies.193.S. Westmoreland. See Christopher Harmon. vol. 237. 39. Foreign Relations of the United States 1950: vol.S. Millet. Joes. see Joes. Hosmer. CT: Greenwood. “‘Restoring Normalcy’: The Evolution of the Indian Army’s Counterinsurgency Doctrine. The American Military Advisor. A Soldier Reports. 1997). Clarke. 294. pp.. 17.. Ibid. Army Field Manual 100–20. In 1994. 497.. Nothing about government is done as incompetently as the reporting of it. On Indian counterinsurgency. then-U. pp. 11. no. For opposition on the part of U. 510 11. Advice and Support. War for South Viet Nam. October 1. 1994. military leaders to large-scale American ground commitment in the Greek civil war. “Illustrations of Learning in Counterinsurgency Warfare.” Small Wars and Insurgencies. reputation. 511. Gerald C. America and Guerrilla Warfare. See Hickey. Allan R. 2–45 and 2–47. The Sword and the Olive: A Critical History of the Israeli Defense Force (New York: Public Affairs. The U. The Development and Training of the South Vietnamese Army. DC: U. 10. and America and Guerrilla Warfare.. 1980). See James L. chapter 4. U.S. DC: U. See Joes. p. Cann. Collins. 294. Army Center of Military History. p.” Representative Barney Frank (Dem-Mass. “Nicaragua: A Training Ground”. Also consult Stephen T. For the damage done to the readiness. 8.S. John P.S. 15. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1974 (Westport. 1998). There is something close to a consensus today that the major media misreported the 1968 Tet offensive in South Vietnam and thereby changed the course of that conflict. 1990). 1980). CA: RAND. Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell (Dem-Maine) stated that the American news industry was “more destructive than constructive than ever. 13.S. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1974 (Westport. chapter seven. p. DC: U. Ibid. 1976). Government Printing Office. 12. 1997). 239.” New York Times. A Soldier Reports. Adviser (Washington. Cao Van Vien et al. 6. CT: Greenwood. U. 16. 169–70. Advice and Support: The Final Years (Washington. 18.”
CHAPTER 12: DEPLOYING U. 195. Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps (New York: Macmillan.” see Martin Van Creveld. Department of State. p.” Comparative Strategy 11 (1992). 1 (Spring 2000). and morale of the Israeli army by its protracted occupation of Lebanon and the “Territories. 4. p. The American Military Advisor and His Foreign Counterpart: The Case of Viet Nam (Santa Monica. 9. 5. East Asia and the Pacific (Washington. Clarke. 3.) declared that “You people [the media] celebrate failure and ignore success. Jeffrey J.S. 6. see Rajesh Rajagopalan. 1965). CA: RAND. The Army’s Role in Counterinsurgency and Insurgency (Santa Monica.S. 2. 14. Long-term occupation of a foreign land and a foreign people can have a profoundly corrupting effect on any army. 1485–89. pp. Army Center of Military History. 1988). 7.
. p. pp. p. 25. p. TROOPS IN A COUNTERINSURGENT ROLE
1.302
Notes to Pages 179–184
Cann.S. America and Guerrilla Warfare.

1941–1949 (London: Hart-Davis. On the 1974 overthrow of the Portuguese government by the armed forces. involvement in Vietnam is voluminous and growing. Swamp Fox (New York: Henry Holt. Krepinevich. Winston. Grayson. The Partisan War: The South Carolina Campaign of 1780–1782 (Columbia. 1987). 1961). Andrew F. Robert O. O’Ballance. Greek Civil War. In contrast. p. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution (Stanford. 1976). introduced less destructive tactics. Soviet loss of interest in the struggle was of course another important factor. Noel B. Schmitter. Ramage. 1899–1902 (Lawrence. “Portugal and the Armed Forces Movement.M. The Philippine War.S. no attempt is made to identify even a sampling of the best works. MacGibbon. Bass. See the following excellent studies: John Morgan Gates.Notes to Pages 229–231
313
(April 1972). Woodhouse. Francis Marion: The Swamp Fox (New York: Crowell. 36. 1909]). 30. “Counter-Insurgency in Mozambique. see Russell F. to the other sections of this essay. Gerson. On guerrillas in the American War of Independence. Rinehart. 1977). CA: Hoover Institution. Philippe C. C. see John S. D. 1964 [orig. Mosby. The Memoirs of Colonel John S. 37. For the Civil War. El Salvador: Observations and Experiences in Counterinsurgency (Carlisle Barracks. 1967). Quantrill and the Border Wars (New York: Pageant. Consult John Waghelstein. 1999). Mosby (New York: Kraus Reprint.” Orbis (Summer 1977). 38. 32. 1898–1902 (Westport. Michael Fellman. Manwaring and
. George Kousoulas. 1940]). Robert D. William Elsey Connelley. 33. 1991). 1959). but by then the Americans were pulling out. Michael Calvert. Brian McAlister Linn. Robert Stansbury Lambert. Hendrikson. therefore. The U. Portugal: The Last Empire. General Westmoreland’s successor. Douglas Porch. 1969). 1965). Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War. The Swamp Fox: Francis Marion (Garden City. 1986). Brian McAlister Linn. 1956 [orig. PA: U. 1973). 31. “Liberation by Golpe. The Struggle for Greece. 2000). Brace. Rankin. Martin’s. Glenn A. CT: Archon. 328.” Armed Forces and Society 2 (Fall 1975). “Portugal in Africa: Comparative Notes on Counter-Insurgency. KS: University of Kansas. 1973). SC: University of South Carolina. Revolution and Defeat: The Story of the Greek Communist Party (London: Oxford University. South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution (Columbia. Thomas H.W. A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America’s Last Years in Viet Nam (New York: Harcourt. 1899–1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. The literature on the U. Army War College. Quantrill’s War (New York: St. The Army and Viet Nam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Gamecock: The Life and Times of General Thomas Sumter (New York: Holt. Albert Castel. Robert D. Bass. G. SC: University of South Carolina.S. May. NY: Doubleday. CT: Yale University. William Clarke Quantrill: His Life and Times (New York: Frederick Fell. Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven. Hugh F. Max G. 1985). 1996). Gray Ghost. Duane Schultz. 34. 1989). CT: Greenwood. Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines. See the excellent study by Lewis Sorley. DeMond. 1970 ). Creighton Abrams. 1989). Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University. The Loyalists in North Carolina During the Revolution (Hamden.S. Weigley. 1962).” Journal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies (March 1973).” Orbis 19 (Summer 1975). 35. see the following: Neil Bruce.

1988).” Comparative Strategy. 160 (Summer 1997). Benedict J.
CHAPTER 17: ELEMENTS OF A COUNTERINSURGENT STRATEGY
1. “El Salvador: A Long War in a Small Country. ed. 6. Institute of Peace. “El Salvador’s Lessons for Future U. Timothy Wickham-Crowley. 1997). Internal Wars: Rethinking Problem and Response (Carlisle Barracks. 1985). Linn. 312.” in Harry Eckstein. CT: Greenwood. Institute Peace. Lucian Pye. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path (Washington.” in America and Guerrilla Warfare. DC: U. CA: Rand. CO: Roberts Rinehart. The Man Who Made Ireland: The Life and Death of Michael Collins (Niwot. 7. Vol.. 1991). on how the Portuguese deliberately framed their counterinsurgent efforts to avoid the kinds of mistakes the U. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War.” But of course the point is not that free elections and a peaceful path will always prevent the rise of insurgencies. 1964). she writes that “these movements are likely to reject elections—criticizing their procedural flaws as well as their failures to produce effective governments—and rather base their claims to legitimacy on quasireligious and ideological grounds.” Consequently. “Lessons from Central America’s Revolutionary Wars.. 2001). “at century’s end. 1988).J. PA: Strategic Studies Institute.J. Bacevich et al. Hearts and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency of 1948–1960 (Singapore: Oxford University.S. A. 1972–1984.S. ed.. A. 85. “The Roots of Insurgency. Cynthia McClintock. Bacevich et al.314
Notes to Pages 232–235
Courtney Prisk. 328. Cynthia McClintock seems to believe that insurgencies can succeed even in countries with a “peaceful path. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control (Princeton. IL: Free Press. 1998).S. vol. Anthony James Joes. and see John P. Cann. 1992). pp.. 1961–1974 (Westport. NJ: Princeton University. made in Vietnam. 1977). See Cynthia McClintock. 238.” Concerning Sendero Luminoso and similar groups.” World Affairs. American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and El Salvador: The Frustrations of Reform and the Illusions of Nation-Building (Santa Monica. 11 (1992). eds. 5. The fate of Sendero as of 2004 seems to reinforce the view of Guevara and many others that insurgencies against democratic or even pseudo-democratic regimes must eventually fail. The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley. Harkavy and Stephanie G. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path (Washington. 4. Chapter 7. Richard Stubbs. Newman (Lexington. Christopher Harmon. American Military Policy in Small Wars: The Case of El Salvador (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey’s. DC: U.
. 162. p. p. See also Max G. 2. See Tim Pat Coogan. American Military Policy in Small Wars: The Case of El Salvador (Washington. Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Movements and Regimes since 1956 (Princeton. 1992). Benjamin Schwarz. Manwaring. Interventions. 3. Jeffrey Herbst. DC: National Defense University. Robert E. El Salvador at War: An Oral History (Washington. ‘democracy’— defined as elections—is not enough to doom revolution. p. “Illustrations of Learning in Counterinsurgency Warfare. but rather that they will prevent their success. Philippine War. 1988).” in The Lessons of Recent Wars in the Third World. CA: University of California. Internal War (Glencoe. MA: Lexington Books. p. Ernest Evans. NJ: Princeton University. Caesar Sereseres. 1989). 1998). 306. 2000). DC: Brassey’s. Kerkvliet.S.

Malaya. Richard L. George W. George. 213. p. 80ff. NC: University of North Carolina. 1966). Nathan
. Guerrilla Conflict before the Cold War. 1970). Book VII. 10. Donald Smythe. 15. Army and the Pacific. p. 1851–1868 (Paris: Mouton. 1990 [orig. Wright. KS: University Press of Kansas. The Time of the Eagles: United States Army Officers and the Pacification of the Philippine Moros (Doctoral dissertation. The Nien Army and Their Guerrilla Warfare. The Long. War for South Viet Nam. For more on the great Nien rebellion and its pacification. chapter VII. p. 1973). 22. CO: Westview. see The Cambridge History of China. “The Roots of Insurgency. 1975). 1980). Suzanna Pepper. 144 20. 108. 176. 1983). p. 11. MD: University Press of America. NJ: Princeton University. 21. 310–16 and 456–77. 1978). See F. 9. p. CO: Westview. 17.” p. 10. 14. Charles Stuart Callison. Fundamentals of Guerrilla Warfare (Praeger. CT: Greenwood. 23. and see Philip Anthony Towle. p. 32.J. 10 (August. 2001). Machiavelli. see Bacevich. 178. Vandiver. pp. 1953]). 19. “Foreign Involvement with Insurgency. T. Guardians of Empire: The U. The Communist Insurrection in Malaya. Jeffery Race. 1918–1988 (London: Brassey’s. Mars Learning: The Marine Corps’ Development of Small Wars Doctrine. p. “Disagreeable Work”. 1989). On Moro society and its wars. Jornacion. p. See among others. 1966).S. CA: Stanford University. pp. 13. O’Ballance. p. 16. 1936). UCLA. Machiavelli agrees: see his The Art of War (New York: Da Capo. 12. 27. Corum and Wray R.Y.” 24. 64. 1956). Liu. Johnson. Revolt on Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 1521]). 111. 1967). 1948– 1960 (London: Frederick Muller. 1978).F. Denis Twichett and J. Teng. CA: University of California. See Keith Bickel. “How They Won. 1915–1949 (Boulder. Art of War. v. Civil War in China: The Political Struggle. Swish of the Kris: The Story of the Moros (New York: Dutton. See James S. 73. The Art of War. General Abdul H. 26. Land to the Tiller in the Mekong Delta (Lanham. Epitoma rei militaris. 2003). Harmon.” Asian Survey. 1961). vol. Black Jack. 25. John Morgan Gates. 1902–1940 (Chapel Hill. Vic Hurley. Anthony Short. 1945–1949 (Berkeley. p. Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The Art of Counter-Revolutionary War: The Strategy of Counterinsurgency (London: Faber and Faber. Clutterbuck. Mary C. Air Power in Small Wars: Fighting Insurgents and Terrorists (Lawrence. See Pye. p. ed. The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism (Stanford. Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines 1898–1902 (Westport. 271. iii. 1997). Brian McAllister Linn. Nasution. part 1. 1994). 1965 [orig.Notes to Pages 235–243
315
8. A Military History of Modern China 1924–1949 (Princeton. John McCuen. Suppressing Insurgency: An Analysis of the Malayan Emergency 1948–1954 (Boulder. 378. Vegetius. Long War: Counterinsurgency in Malaya and Viet Nam (New York: Praeger. See John Coates. “Illustrations of Learning in Counterinsurgency Warfare. Quoted in S. Guerrilla Warrior: The Early Life of John J. Pilots and Rebels: The Use of Aircraft in Unconventional Warfare. 83. Joes. Joes.K. And see footnote 15 in chapter 5. Pershing (New York: Scribner’s 1973). 1973).” 18.

33. p. Terry Rambo. Luis Taruc. Modern Guerrilla Insurgency. trans. ed. pp. Commando (New York: Praeger. 28. 148–51. 44. The famous Confederate guerrilla chief John Mosby wrote that most of his men were in their teens or early twenties because “they haven’t the sense to know danger when they see it. 32. 1931).000 served. 42. 1967). p. 266. See Le Thi Que. CA: RAND 1970). Mars Learning. 82. MA: Little. pp. 32. 269. 138ff. see Reitz. p. Tanham. 75. The Real War. p. 29.). and if captured they were frequently killed on the spot. PA: Stackpole. Conflict in the Shadows. concluding that the struggle against British power was hopeless. p. 43. pp. 1964). Born of the People (Westport. 1914–1918 (Boston. 239. On War. Neil Macauley. drawn mostly from the lower strata of Boer society. 1967). Tito to author Fitzroy Maclean. Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Santa Monica. Disputed Barricade. p. Small Wars Manual. 77. 90. p. 1967. 223. beautiful in their simplicity. 1957). Marine Corps. Lucien Bodard. 46. Jonathan Cape. 41. including evacuation by helicopter. Murfin. CT: Greenwood. p. 91ff. in Joes. Three Years’ War. 45. See the fate of the French garrisons at Cao Bang and Lang Son. p. Brown. 1973 [orig. “Why They Fled: Refugee Movement during the Spring 1975 Communist Offensive in South Viet Nam. eventually over 2. 203–14. O’Brian (Boston: Little. 236. Bernard Fall. 30. see Bickel. 170 36. were written immediately after the war. The National Scouts were Boers of the Transvaal who. Counterinsurgency in Africa. 40. composed 1903]). 110. p. 263. De Wet. America and Guerrilla Warfare. 1990). For the opening of the Smuts invasion of the Cape. Basil Liddell Hart. is not a good season for guerrillas.” Asian Survey 16 (September 1976). p. The Marines also used aggressive combat patrols in Haiti. Christiaan Rudolf De Wet. see Callwell. 1970 [originally published 1929. 35. P. On British flying columns. with no food in the countryside and no leaves on the trees to give cover. pp.316
Notes to Pages 243–247
Leites and Charles Wolf. Joes. Wert. 1902). Most Boer soldiers looked upon these Scouts as traitors. 31. See the letter written by General Bruce Hamilton in Victor Sampson and Ian Hamilton. rev. had very good effects on the morale of Portuguese soldiers. Sun Tzu. U. Small Wars. George K.” Jeffrey D. and Gary D. 1953]). Cann emphasizes that prompt medical attention to the wounded. Disputed Barricade (London. Reitz’s memoirs. Mosby’s Rangers (New York: Simon and Schuster. Commando. 39.S. Deneys Reitz. pp.” Maclean. while he was still quite young and an exile in Madagascar. A. 34. One of these National Scouts was Piet De Wet. honesty and clarity. 177–82. The Sandino Affair (Chicago: Quadrangle. 37. John P. 263. pp. Brown. In 1975 North Vietnamese Premier Pham Van Dong
. Eliot Cross. Street Without Joy (Harrisburg. p. had surrendered and then volunteered to fight against the guerrillas to hasten the coming of peace. The Quicksand War. 103–4. XI. 38. p. “Winter. 139. p. younger brother of the famed guerrilla leader. The first National Scouts were raised in 1901. Three Years’ War (London: Constable. Communist Revolutionary Warfare: From the Viet Minh to the Viet Cong (New York: Praeger. 1930). chapter 5–8. 354. p. Anti-Commando (London: Faber and Faber.

376. “We Cannot Accept a Communist Seizure of Viet Nam. pacification efforts. the CBS survey in Wesley Fishel. 55. Sir Robert Thompson. pp. “South Viet Nam on Its Own. Pacific. “Viet Nam: A Case of Multiple Pathologies”. 51. The Key to Failure: Laos and the Viet Nam War (Lanham. Regular Armies and Insurgency (London: Croom Helm. 369. 1968). 1964–1969. Book 1. On Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Viet Nam War (Novato. On War.J. pp. 250.
. 1972). Penniman. 1974).” Parameters. 199. liked PROVN a great deal. Silence Was a Weapon: The Viet Nam War in the Villages (Novato. 659. no. Malcolm Salmon. See Lewis Sorley. chapter one. Dennis J. War Without Fronts. Clausewitz. 1979). 53. p. p. and The War for South Viet Nam (Westport. 32–34. 47. 54. CA: Presidio. VA: U. Marine Corps. Hannah. 142 (June 1995). 11.S. Strategy. 49. The Village (New York: Harper and Row. IV. p. 13) estimates that the Communists had the support of one-fourth of the South Vietnamese. 1994). 57. pp. DC: American Enterprise Institute.” China Quarterly. “To Change a War: General Harold K. 374. See the geographical distribution of U. Elections in South Viet Nam (Washington.. If all the North Vietnamese who came down the Ho Chi Minh Trail over a period of years had entered South Vietnam in one day. in charge of U. see F. 60. Sir Robert Thompson. commander of Fleet Marine Force. CA: Presidio. 1982). p. America and Guerrilla Warfare. See Joes. For the CAPs. CT: Praeger. vol. 371. 482. Evolution. Chen Jian. Scalapino. 1972). 1966. Johnson and the PROVN Study. MD: Madison Books. see also The Pentagon Papers. IL: Peacock. And if the North Vietnamese had committed the colossal error of trying to outflank the blockage on the Ho Chi Minh Trail by invading Thailand? So much the better! 58. and Stuart A. Book VI. casualties in Thayer. 1967). 153.” Far Eastern Economic Review. DC: Department of the Army. West. 1966). But General Victor Krulak. 1987). Viet Nam: Anatomy of a Conflict (Itasca. 46. Defeating Communist Insurgency: The Lessons of Malaya and Viet Nam (New York: Praeger. General Westmoreland does not even mention PROVN in his memoirs. p.Notes to Pages 247–255
317
allowed that from 50 to 70 percent of the Southern population would need to be persuaded of the benefits of “reunification”. On the weaknesses of the Communists in the South and the strength of Southern popular opposition to conquest by the North. “After Revolution. Basil Liddell Hart. xxviii (Spring 1998). and Robert Komer. Invasion is the proper term. Chapter 12. 2001.S. Dec. Clausewitz. 1968. MD: Naval Institute Press. Al Hemingway.” New York Times Magazine. Robert A. 1985). No Exit from Viet Nam. pp. Howard R. A hamlet is a subdivision of a village. Norman B. 1975. 2d edition). Washington. Herrington. Government and Revolution in Viet Nam (New York: Oxford University Press. Anatomy of a War (New York: Pantheon. “Regular Armies and Counterinsurgency” in Ronald Haycock. “China’s Involvement in the Viet Nam War. Dec. 61. Peace is Not at Hand (New York: David McKay. it would have looked like the Korean invasion of 1950. and Small Unit Action in Viet Nam (Quantico. Chapter One. 12. March 1962. 52. vol.S.” 48. chapter 7. Harry Summers. 59. 56. 178. On War. see also Gabriel Kolko. 1982). ed. Duncanson. Our War Was Different: Marine Combined Action Platoons in Viet Nam (Annapolis. 653. 50.

1996). January 4. 1985). 129. and in the U. The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder. 2003. British Counterinsurgency in the Post-Imperial Era (Manchester. CO: Westview. 4. Huntington. 5.S. From the end of World War II until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958. 2. See Phebe Marr. p. Iraq did have a quasi-parliamentary system.” in The Wall Street Journal. chapters 4 and 5. in Spain in 1936. 1995). also R. Samuel P. Free elections brought the German National Socialists to power. in 1861. Free elections have served as an effective path to peaceful change. 2004.318
Notes to Page 257
EPILOGUE: CONFLICT IN IRAQ
1. and may install a militant fundamentalist regime in Iraq.
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