In 1888, the great
General Emory Upton passed to his reward. Emory Upton perhaps was born
at the wrong time. As a young man, he had great success as a
general in the fedral army. He then revamped the Tactics, for the
first real revision in over 30 years

Upton, in his later service never found our country in a major foreign
conflict. While this is to the best for our country, it did
hinder his advancement as a general officer in the army.

Upton did remain perhaps the most important tactician in the US Army,
with his great work, the Infantry Tactics, first issued in 1867.
He revised the Tactics in the 1870's, and, upon his death, had
almost complerted a new revision. This revision comprised, in no
small part, the 1891 Infantry Tactics.

The
edition of infantry tactics adopted in 1891 was the work of a board,
consisting of Col. John C. Bates, 20th Infantry;
Lieut. Col. George B. Sanford, 9th Cavalry; Maj.
Henry C. Hasbrouck, 4th Artillery; Maj. John C.
Gilmore, AAG; Capt. John C. Haskell, 23rd
Infantry; Capt. Edward S, Godfrey, 7th Cavalry;
and Capt. James S. Lancaster, 3rd
Artillery. The recorder, at first, was 1st
Lieut. George Andrews, of the 25th Infantry, who
was later replaced by 1st Lieut. John T. French,
Jr., of the 4th Artillery. The tactics
were approved by Secretary of War, Redfield Proctor.

The
purpose of this comparison is to find the differences, or lack of, in
drill techniques in the nearly 30 years since Emory Upton's
Tactics. These covered the years of the Indian Wars, but,
terrible though they may have been, the US Army faced no combat against
a foe armed with modern weaponry and using standard military
tactics. Upton revised his tactics in 1874, and they were
reissued in 1883, although they were virtually unchanged.

Perhaps
the first true "modern war" would have been the Franco-Prussian War of
the 1870's. Upton, and the board had the insights gained from military
observers of that conflict. Their work would be put to the
test in the Spanish War that was about to occur.

Definitions,
Signals, and General Principles

The
manual dispenses with the familiar "Title First, Formation of a
Regiment" which Upton had retained almost verbatim from
Hardee. It begins instead with a glossary, containing terms
that would mostly be familiar to the modern reenactor. The
term "base comes into play as in base file which would be the directing
file, that upon which a movement is executed. "Extended
order" replaces skirmish order, and we see a reference to "scouts" that
none of the earlier tacticians had made.

There
is a section of "Signals" which is of some interest. These
were arm signals that could be used with an officer's sword, either
alone or in conjunction with verbal or bugle commands. They
are, for the most part, common sense, i.e. pointing straight ahead for
"Forward" raising the arm vertically for "halt, pointing at a change of
direction, etc. "As skirmishers" is to point in both
directions with both arms. "Assemble is to raise the arm
overhead, and make slow circles. "Rally" is the same, but
with rapid circles.

The
application to us is confirmation of something that most of us have
been doing for some time. Hardee and his colleagues make no
mention of sword signs, nor does Upton. Yet it seems so
obvious. While we need not necessarily adopt these signals, I
think we are justified in continuing our past practice.

The
"General Principles" make up the first nine paragraphs of the manual
proper. They would seem very familiar to either Hardee or
Upton. Formation in two ranks, guide right and left, commands
of preparation and execution, all are substantially unchanged.

The
manual begins in earnest with "Close Order, School of the
Soldier.

Close Order

1891
Drill Regulations SotS begins with a set of instructions for the
School. They begin with paragraph 10, picking up after the
General Principles. A few of these have some application for
us.

"11.
Short and frequent drills are preferable to long ones, which exhaust
the attention of both instructor and recruit."

This is common sense, but oft
overlooked nonetheless.

"13.
The instructor will always maintain a military bearing, and by a quiet,
firm demeanor set a proper example to the men."

This is vital to good instruction.

"14.
The instructor explains each movement in as few words as possible, at
the same time executing it himself.

"He
requires the recruits to take by themselves the proper positions and
does not touch them for the purpose of correcting them, except when
they are unable to correct themselves; he avoids keeping them too long
at the same movement, although each should be understood before passing
to another. He exacts by degrees the desired precision and
uniformity."

The first sentence is Hardee
rephrased, but the second, particularly the injunction against touching
the recruits, is interesting.

"17.
When the execution of a movement is improperly begun and the instructor
wishes to begin it anew for the purpose of correcting it, he commands: As
you were, at which the movement ceases and the former
position is resumed."

This could be very handy.

The
manual proceeds to indicate that recruits should be trained in groups
no larger than four, in a single rank, and spaced. The
spacing is created by placing the left hand on the hip, and opening out
the elbow. The left elbow should touch the right arm of the
man on the left, which creates the proper interval.

Both
Hardee and Upton state that recruits will be at one pace distance, but
for both, this is for initial training only. Once marching
under arms commences, the recruits are shoulder to shoulder, as we are
accustomed. In the 1891 manual, however, this method of
dressing with the left hand on the hip is consistent
throughout.

The
position of the soldier without arms is nearly identical to Hardee and
Upton. The only minor deviation is a stricture to keep the
backs of the hands outwards, instead of the palms turned a little to
the front.

I would
not change our practice, but I would point out that I often see
soldiers without arms taught to turn their palms completely to the
front. This is incorrect.

1891's
first real difference is in the Rests. It describes three
types of rest. The first is "Fall Out", the equivalent of
Hardee's "Rest", which allows the soldiers to leave ranks and move
about, but not leave the immediate area. The second is
"Rest", which is the equivalent to Hardee's "In Place, Rest".
We also find "At Ease" which is In Place Rest with a stricture against
talking.

To
resume attention, we see "Squad, Attention", reversing the commands of
preparation and execution from both earlier tacticians. 1891
also tells us to dismiss the squad by commanding "Dismissed", rather
than "Break Ranks".

Eyes
right and left are executed exactly as in the earlier manuals, with the
same commands.

Facings
have some slight though instructive differences. The right
face is very similar to Hardee and Upton, with one slight
difference. "Raise slightly the right heel and the left toe,
turning on the left heel, assisted be a slight pressure on the ball of
the right foot; replace the right foot."

We have
all seen how awkward Hardee's (and Upton's, which are identical)
facings can be. This little assist with the ball of the right
foot could make all the difference. I don’t know
that I would adopt it, bit we might make the soldiers aware that it
might help on bad ground.

The
about differs a little more. "Raise slightly the left heel
and right toe, face to the rear, turning to the right on the right heel
and the ball of the left foot; replace the left foot beside the
right." Actually, the Hardee's/Upton's about works pretty
well.

1891
then covers saluting, a topic Hardee ignores, but Upton
addresses. The wording is different, but the salute itself
seems the same as Upton's, which differs from our salute, which we take
from 1863 CS Regulations. It is the same as the modern
salute, but both 1891 and Upton allow for a left hand salute.
1891 also covers a hand salute while uncovered, which Upton does not
mention.

1891
then covers "setting up." Those who have read the Upton's
comparison will remember these period calisthenics or stretching
exercises. 1891 expands quite a bit on Upton's setting up,
adding several more exercises, for a total of 17, as opposed to Upton's
four.

These
exercises are of interest, but if any are going to be used, they should
be those of Upton's. I will gladly send these to anyone
interested. I will not print the 1891 exercises
here.

The 1891 manual now proceeds to
marching.

"31.
The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from
heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per minute."

The
cadence is more what we expect in modern marching, but I find the
length of the step instructive. Let us not complain about the
28 inches, lest we should have to reenact the Spanish War.

Double
time also increases the length of the step to 36 inches, yes, a full
yard, and the rate to a standard 180 steps per minute. Hardee
permits this, but it is reserved for such maneuvers as turns, when the
men must catch up to a guide marching at double quick.

I
remember at a Confederate Memorial Day drill, checking a metronome,
discovering just how fast Hardee's (and Upton's) 165 steps per minute
was. We agreed at that time to strive for 144 steps per
minute, and to try to toughen up.

It is
not important, but perhaps interesting to note the
terminology. To Hardee it is Double Quick, to Upton it is
Double Step, but by 1891 it had become Double Time.

The
directions for marching differ only in wording. It is
interesting to note that any reference to common time has vanished.

1891
does contain directions for the short step, a 15 inch quick time, or 18
inch double time.

I
realize that this is tempting, but this is 40 years after the American
Civil War. I cannot see allowing a half step to creep in as a
standard command. I still maintain that if all troops will
step off together at the command "March", and march at a 28 inch step,
the rear companies in a flank march will not fall so far behind.

1891
contains a side step, as did Upton, but not Hardee. The back
step is increased to 15 inches, still half of the forward
step. 1891 cautions the back step is used only for very short
distances, and never at double time.

Each
recruit is instructed in marching on points, much as the guides are in
the earlier manuals. Remember that there is no touch of the
elbows in this manual. Each soldier must march directly by
his own means.

Instruction
with Arms

Instruction with arms
begins with a number of preparatory paragraphs, one of which bears
reprinting here.

"46. To prevent accidents, the chambers will be opened whenever the
squad is first formed, and again just before being dismissed. This rule
is general."

Strict safety concerns are not a reenactorism.

1891 then proceeds to the Manual of Arms. Unlike Hardee's and Upton's,
that begin at the shoulder (carry), 1891 begins, quite sensibly with
the order, which is identical to ours.

As an aside, it is interesting to see the illustrations. The soldier
pictured wears a kepi and a sack coat. The weapon could easily be a two
band percussion musket, although this is in no way the rifle described
in the Manual. These illustrations could easy be Civil War era.

1891 retains the nomenclature of "Carry" arms, as per Upton's, but the
position remains our good old "Shoulder". Present is identical. Right
Shoulder Shift has become more simply, "Right Shoulder, Arms" but is
the same position.

Arms Port remains in the manual, but the command has morphed into
"Port, Arms". As we progress, we will find a much greater use of this
arms position. The Rests are as described in Instruction without Arms,
but with the addition of Parade Rest, which is identical to 1862
Hardee's.

Two instructive points here. We in the 1st Maryland have returned Arms
Port to the Manual, and instruct it regularly at Morning Parade. We use
it, not only as the rear rank position for Charge Bayonets, but on long
marches as well. It is a comfortable and convenient manner to hold the
piece. We see it returned to the manual in Upton's and expect it was
returned during the war.

As for Parade Rest, I originally taught the manner I was taught, which
is in Gilham's, and CS and US Regulations, that is the rifle tucked
into the hollow of the shoulder, with the arms folded around it. Yet
Hardee, Casey, Upton, and now 1891 are all in agreement that the piece
be angled across the body, lock plate in, left hand just above and
right hand at the upper band. I still see many soldiers doing it the
old way. We should make the correction.

Fix and unfixing bayonet remains as in 1862 Hardee's, with the right
hand, however there are some interesting points.

1862 Hardee's has slightly different directions for fixing and unfixing
from the order and from the shoulder. The actual fix and unfix is the
same, but when going form the order, the piece is automatically
returned to the order. From the shoulder, the piece is left
butt at the left side, awaiting further commands. Upton never does
describe fixing from the order, an oversight I am sure. In fixing from
the carry, the troops again wait for a command before moving the piece.

1891 gives three directions, from the carry, the order, and, unfixing
only, from the port. From all three, the piece remains at the left side
until further commands are given. There are also directions for the rod
bayonet, which is a spring loaded bayonet which is releases from the
rifle itself. Interesting, but of no application to us.

Of some application to us, 1891 comments on fixing on the march, a
matter never addressed by the earlier tacticians. It is simple common
sense.

"66. If marching, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in the most
expeditions and convenient manner."

Charge Bayonet is similar to our practice, with the right foot brought
back 6 inches, rather than 3. Again there are no specific directions
for the rear rank.

It interesting to note that Secure and Trail have disappeared from the
Manual. They will reappear later. Support has disappeared
altogether.

Kneeling and lying down are discussed, with instructions to teach the
position first without arms, and then with. There are specific
commands, again common sense, "Kneel", "Lie Down", "Rise". This could
be of interest to us since the earlier manuals, while they contain
extensive directions for loading and firing in these positions, do not
give specific commands.

Load is, of course, very different, due to the advances on weaponry,
but there is one interesting point. The front rank half faces to the
right, as we do. The rear rank, however, steps obliquely to the right
with the left foot, actually turning away with the front rank. This may
seem odd until we remember that these troops are not shoulder to
shoulder, allowing this safety feature.

Aiming and firing are much the same, with the one addition that the
officer commands "At that (tree, rock, whatever), or At (so) many
yards, Ready", etc. This is to cause the men to judge distances, and
adjust their sights.

It interesting that Hardee and Upton never discuss this, even though
many of Hardee's recruits, and all of Upton's had adjustable sights.
Gilham, however, includes an extensive section on "Target Practice."

For some odd reason, directions for the rifle salute are inserted here,
between firing and inspection. It is identical to ours.

Inspection again differs due to advances in weaponry, but there are two
interesting points. First, cartridge boxes are opened automatically,
and two, arms are brought to the port for the inspection.

Both of these are sensible adjustments, but, of course, cannot be
adopted for ACW use. Our tacticians gave us explicit directions, and we
need to follow them. It is interesting to follow the development,
however.

1891 does cover inspection of boxes and knapsacks, which are left out
of Hardee's, but covered in CS Regulations.

Stacking arms with bayonets is exactly as in 1862 Hardee's, but troops
are cautioned not to do this if the rifles are equipped with a stacking
swivel. This swivel sounds like a great idea, I wish someone would
invent it.

We then find a sort of "mini-manual" of arms positions intended for
extended marches. Here we find Trail, which is ours, but with direction
that the piece can be lowered to horizontal, if it is not inconvenient
to others, and, interestingly, mentions that the same position can be
used in the left hand.

We also find two new positions. First is "Left Shoulder, Arms", not the
modern military position, but, by our terms, a "Left Shoulder
Shift". It seems to replace "Support, Arms."

While the ACW tacticians never spell this out, they do imply a couple
of times. For example, at the end of SotS, Hardee states:

"407. He will cause long marches to be executed in double quick time,
both by the front and by the flank, and by constant practice will lead
the men to pass over a distance of five miles in sixty minutes. The
pieces will be carried on either shoulder, and sometimes at a trail."

Casey writes in identical words. Both are clearly not referring to arms
at will, for in the next paragraph we find:

"408. He will also exercise them in long marches at a run, the pieces
carried at will.."

Hardee is even clearer in his
"Remarks on the School of the Battalion", where he says:

"After arms have been carried for
some time on the right shoulder, they may be shifted, in like manner,
to the left shoulder."

Clearly what is implied here is a
"Left Shoulder Shift" for an extended march when soldiers tire. This is
food for thought and discussion.

We also see "Sling
Arms". While slings have been around for a long time, earlier
tacticians never mentioned their use.

The most surprising one
is Secure, which is now under the right arm, with the barrel up.
(Remember there is no rammer to fall out.) We are also told that the
piece can be held in like manner on the left.

There is one last point
made before proceeding to marching, that I believe is of interest to
us, and has application for our period.

"113. In the battle
exercises, or whenever circumstances require, the regular positions of
the manual of arms and the firings may be ordered without regard to the
previous position of the piece; such movements as are not in the manual
will be executed without regard to motions or cadence. It is laid down
as a principle that the effective use of the weapon is not to be
impeded by the formalities of drill."

The
Squad

1891
Regulations now causes the recruits to divided into 7 man squads, with
a corporal as leader. These squads are the basis for much of
the later schools, particularly in extended order. They are,
in effect Upton's fours; the group of four two man files upon which
Upton based his maneuvers. The corporal, while named as
instructor of the squad, marches with it as the front rank man on the
left.

The
distance between ranks is referred to as "facing distance", that is the
distance required so that the men are dressed when faced to the right
or the left (remember the elbow out spacing). On rough
ground, or in double time, it increases to 36 inches, which is
automatically closed up at the halt.

It is
interesting to note that the directions for forming the squad in two
ranks still leave the slightly shorter man in the rear rank.
Otherwise, the squad is aligned as we would expect, save that the
leader is on the left, and there a gap, rather than elbow to elbow.

Alignments
are taught in very much the same manner as in Hardee and Upton's day,
with two files being aligned on the new line, and the men taught to
dress, at first, file by file, and then all at once. The
command remains the same, "Right (Left) Dress, Front." All
men should remain at eyes right (left) until the command
front. The only difference if the left hand on hip procedure,
described earlier. The left hand drops at the command "Front".

This
causes no change in our procedure, but does give the chance to address
one of my pet peeves, incorrect commands. I so often hear the
command "Dress Right (Left), Dress", with "Dress" as the command of
execution. According to Hardee it is Right Dress.
So it was for Winfield Scott. We must go back all the way to Baron Von
Steuben, to find any difference, where we find "To the Right (Left)
Dress). Certainly from 1829, with the publishing of Scott's Abstract
of Infantry Tactics, it was Right (Left Dress). So
it was in 1891, as we now see. Indeed, a quick glance at the
1911 Infantry Drill Regulations shows it remained
Right (Left) Dress. So it was for over 80 years of military
History. Let's get this one right!

Also,
as aside to officers, after you command a dress, you must command
"Front". Otherwise, if your men are well trained, they will
continue to look in the direction of the dress until you do.

"126.
When the squad dresses quickly and well, the guide alone is first
established."

This is
our practice, and I think it a good one. Much of what Hardee
wrote was intended as training exercises.

The
march in line did not change appreciably in the 40 years. We
do have to remember that men are not actually touching elbows, making
the alignment more difficult to maintain. A slight change is
that "Rightabout, March" has become "To the rear, March".

Again
let's get our commands straight. It is "Rightabout, March"
but "About Face" "Rightabout, Face" does not exist in
Hardee's, or any other manual I have ever read.

In
marching by the flank, Upton's fours have disappeared. Fear
not, they return in School of the Company. The commands "By
the Right (Left) Flank", which Upton abandoned, have
returned. However, Hardee's system of doubled files remains a
point of history. The men do not double and
undouble. The command to front the troops, however, is now
"Left (Right) Face". Front is now reserved for returning the
eyes.

Changing
direction in the flank march is now commanded as "Column Right (Left)"
for a 90 degree turn, or "Column Half-Right (Left)" for something
less. "By File Right (Left) which was abandoned by Upton in
favor of "Column Right (Left)" remains in the past, with doubling.

Again, it is "By FILE
Right (Left)" not "By FILES". I will be a happy man when we
finally rid ourselves of the superfluous pluralization. Do
note, by the way, that the wheel by file does not need to be 90
degrees, it can be at any desired angle.

The
oblique march did not change in any detail. The manual does
state that the flank march or "column of files" can be obliqued in the
same manner. Hardee is silent on that, although I am sure he
took it for granted.

The
change of direction marching in line is, arguably, the biggest surprise
yet. In 1891, troops did not wheel. The guide takes
the short step, which, we will remember, is 15 inches, and the rest of
the squad obliques to the new direction, arriving in line
successively. Indeed, it more like our turn than our wheel,
and is commanded "Right (Left) Turn."

Firings
are of note, changing of course because of advances in
weaponry. When firing in two ranks, the rear rank does not
step. Remember that they have stepped over in the loading
process, into the gap created by the left hand on hip dress. They need
only lean forward to clear the front rank. Also, there are no
directions for oblique fire. The instructor can give a
target, which renders it unnecessary. If the target is at an
extreme angle, the leader is obliged to change the front of his squad
to facilitate better aim.

The
firings are reduced to two, Fire by Squad, and finally, Fire At
Will. The fires by rank and by file have
disappeared. The much faster loading breechloaders have
rendered them unnecessary.

For us,
however, they are very much a fact of life. Note that the
proper command is "Fire by FILE", not
"Fire by Files from the right". "From the Right" is
superfluous, it always begins on the right. Certainly it is
never "Fire by Files from right to left". "Fire at Will" does
not exist, unless you are reenacting from the Spanish War up.

Also note the Fire by Rankalways begins with the
rear rank.

The
remainder of SotS consists of Bayonet drill. Both Hardee and
Upton restrict the bayonet exercise to almost nothing. Hardee
gives only three movements, Charge Bayonet in the Manual, and then
Guard against Infantry and Cavalry after firing kneeling and
Lying. Upton gives only the Charge Bayonet.

In 1891
recruits are give a much more extensive exercise. It is an
abridged version of MacClellan's Bayonet Exercise.
There are small changes in commands, such as "Retreat" becoming
"Retire", and the "Passade" becoming simply "Pass". Sadly, my
favorite MacClellan command "Leap to the, Rear" has
disappeared.

I will
not go into detail on the drill, as it is 40 years in advance of us,
but I will point out that we have an excellent volume to work from, the
afore mentioned MacClellan"s which is available in reprint.
If you have never tried bayonet drill, I suggest you try it.
It makes an outstanding living history display, and is perfectly
effective with a small number of troops.

School of the Company

In 1891, each company is grouped into
squads, which consist of seven privates, under the leadership of a
corporal, as explained in SotS. These squads are referred to
as fours in close order drill, functioning exactly as Upton's
fours. In extended order, our skirmish order, they are
squads, and replace the Comrades in Battle.

The
1891 companies are divided into platoons, an arrangement abandoned by
Upton, but reinstituted here. The right or 1st
platoon is to be the larger, a stricture not placed by
Hardee. The first platoon must be complete groups of fours,
which creates an even number of files, as Hardee requires.

As I
came up as a reenactor, I was taught that the first platoon should be
the larger, even though Hardee does not specify this. Perhaps
we now see where that developed.

The
formation of the company does differ in small detail. The
second sergeant is the right guide, and the third the left, with the
first a file closer, posted to the right on the line of file closers,
which is still two paces to the rear of the rear rank. The
first Lieutenant is now chief of the 1st
platoon, not the second, which is now commanded by the 2nd
Lieutenant. Platoons now have two guides, utilizing the 4th
and 5th sergeants. The Captain is a
mini-major, in charge of a column by platoon.

Sections
(half platoons) also reappear, but if the platoon is less than four
sets of “fours”, sections are omitted.

We see
here a position for musicians, when not united with the
battalion. They are behind the 1st
platoon, to the left of the 1st
sergeant. In the flank march, they would be in the rank of
file closers.

This
gives us a clue as to where to position musicians attached to a
company. Behind a company in flank march is not the place.

The
company is formed as was a squad, resulting in the slightly shorter men
in the rear. As firing was explained, in 1891, this was not a
problem.

The
companies then count fours, as in Upton’s, and are divided
into platoons and sections, as in Hardee’s

Roll
call is specified, and is much as in Upton’s, which follows
muster directions in US and CS Regulations. The difference is
that the soldiers are put at the Right Shoulder, instead of the
Support, which no longer exists.

Opening
and closing ranks is much the same, keeping in mind the new positions
of the subalterns and sergeants. The commands are
different. “Open Ranks”, and
“Close Ranks”, instead of “To the rear,
open order”, and “Close Order,
March”. Note, this is not “to the rear in
open
order”, in our period, as we so often hear.

In the
different firings, which we found in SotS to be only by Squad, now
company, and at will the captain is placed three paces behind the
company, rather than four.

To dismiss the company, the
captain turns over command to the 1st sergeant, who commands,
Port, Arms, Dismissed.
Again we see the increased use of the port.

To
effect slight changes of direction in march the captain is to command,
Incline to the Right (Left). Hardee actually does much the
same, suggesting that the guide move insensibly to one side or the
other. I will often tell my 1st
sergeant to “insensible” to one side or the
other.

In the
march by the flank, we see the return of Upton’s beautiful
system of fours. “Fours Right” is the
command. Rather than go into an extensive description here, I
refer you to my Upton’s comparison. It is
interesting to note that the fours wheel, both on fixed and moving
pivots, even though they are not so instructed in SotS. None
the less, it is a lovely system. I hope, one day, to see it
in action.

The
column of fours continues according to Upton. The first
deviation is a command to break into smaller columns. These
are only to used to pass narrow defiles. The column of fours
can now be broken into a column of twos. The procedure is
rather like a mini break into platoons, with the rear two files
obliquing behind the first two.

The
column of files here seems a little different than in SotS.
It becomes a single file, with the second file obliquing behind the
first.

Returning
to the twos or fours is much like Form Company. The
differences, which are slight, can be explored at another time.

We now
find the column of platoons, with which Upton dispensed.
There are directions concerning the repeating of commands, which we
shall explore in detail in SotB.

It of interest to note that, in forming a column of platoons, the
platoons turn, as in the 1891 Squad drill, rather then wheel as we are
accustomed to do. In changing direction, they also turn in
the new sense, rather than wheel, as do the fours. The
directions for Column Right (Left), or Half Right (Left) as are in
Squad drill.

To
countermarch the column, we return to fours. “Fours
Right (Left)” is the command. The platoon are
inverted by fours, but this does not seem to be problem, as we have
seen in our drill.

To form line, our Left into Line,
Wheel, the platoons simply turn rather than wheel.

Forming
column of platoons to the front is exactly like Break into
Platoons. The second platoon obliques into column behind the
first.

To form
company, I am somewhat confused. Reading the directions, it
would seem to invert the platoon order, with the second platoon
obliquing to the right to join with the first, rather than
Hardee’s 1st platoon obliquing to the
right to join the second. Were the second platoon to oblique
left instead of right, it would work Hardee causes the 1st
platoon to oblique right, allowing the 2nd to
catch up, thus forming the company. Perhaps I misread the
directions.

A
Column of platoons can march to a flank, in column of fours, by the
command “Fours Right (Left), March), rather as though we had
commanded “By Platoon, by the Right (Left) Flank,
March”. They would be returned by “Fours
Left (Right)’, by our terms, “By Platoon, By the
Left (Right) Flank.”

Platoons
can advance by the right of platoons, with the command, “
Platoons, Right (Left) Forward, Fours Right (Left),
March”. We would command “ By the right
of Platoons to the Front, etc.”. Our ‘By
Platoon into Line” becomes “Platoons, Right (Left)
Front into Line”.

The
remaining evolutions from fours into platoons, or line of platoons,
will be omitted. They have interest, but no application to
ACW drill.

Company
columns can be marched at Route Step, which identical to our practice,
or At Ease, which is Route Step, with silence preserved.
Officers are told to place swords in the scabbard at either step.

School of the Battalion

In 1891
Regulations, battalion takes on a slightly different meaning than in
1862. It is now considered a subdivision of a regiment, which
is made up of three battalions. This was not uncommon in the
Federal army. Casey, and Upton after him, made provision for
this by specifying senior and junior majors, as opposed to Hardee's one
major. The three battalions would be commanded by the
lieutenant colonel and the two majors, under the overall command of the
colonel. I am not aware of this division of regiments in the
Confederate army, but it may well have happened.

While
Casey and Upton never spelled out the subdivision, in 1891 it is an
integral part of military organization. Each battalion is
supposed to be commanded by a major, with the colonel and lieutenant
colonel in overall command of the regiment. It is clearly
specified that each captain should be required to drill the battalion.

As in
Hardee's, the battalion is composed of at least two companies, but in
1891 cannot be more than six. These companies are arranged in
line according to the seniority of captains, as in the earlier manuals,
but we see here that if a captain is absent, the company is arranged by
the seniority of the officer in command. However, if the
captain is absent only a short time, or is commanding the battalion,
the company retains its usual place in line. The companies
are numbered and divided into wings, as we are accustomed to do, but
there is no mention of the two company division.

By the
way, a division is only called a division in Civil War commands, when
it functions within the battalion. As soon as it is detached,
it is called a battalion, and is maneuvered as one.

The
color guard is deployed differently. The color bearer alone
is in line, between the right and left guides of the two center
companies. The rest of the guard marches in the
rank of file closers. The right center company is still
considered the color company. If the left of this company
changes position, as it would when wheeling by fours to face to the
rear, the color guard moves the center of the wings.

In
line, the major is 20 paces in front, the adjutant and the Sgt. Major
on their normal flanks, six paces behind the rank of file
closers. The commissioned staff is to the right of the
battalion, and the non-commissioned staff to its left. The
band is to the right of the staff officers.

The
formation has some of the features of dress parade, with the adjutant
forming the battalion, and reporting "Sir, the battalion is
formed." The major opens ranks, again "Open (Close) Ranks",
and can exercise the men in manual of arms, either in open or closed
ranks. The only difference in the firing between battalion
and squad is "Fire by Company", which we would find familiar, the odd
companies firing first and the even companies waiting for the odd
companies to reload., continuing to fire rather like Hardee's skirmish
partners. The major can also command "Fire by Battalion" and
"Fire at Will". Firing by rank or wing have
disappeared. To dismiss the battalion, rather than giving his
own "Break Ranks", as Hardee specifies, he commands "Dismiss your
companies", at which point the company officers march the men to their
company parade ground and dismiss them as in SotC. This is
the equivalent of "Company Officers, take charge of your companies".

By the
way, where does that come from? It is not specified in any
period manual I know, nor is it in US or CS Regulations.

In successive formations, the
Adjutant and Sgt. Major act as right and left general guides, similar
to the practice we often adopt in absence of the guides.

Directions
for marching to the front place the left guide of the right center
company as the center guide of the battalion. Keep in mind
that each battalion will not necessarily have a color bearer, there
being only one for the regiment. A slight change of direction
brings the command, "Incline to the right (left)", as discussed in SotC.

The
about is accomplished by "Fours right (left) about", exactly as in
Upton's. However, a few paces to the rear may be gained by
facing about, "to the rear, March", our rightabout, which Upton
eliminated entirely. A long march is to be accomplished
habitually in a column of fours. Obliques and alignments are
basically unchanged.

The
flank march is the column of fours, as in Upton, but again, a short
distance can be marched "by the right (left) flank, March" which is
familiar to us, if we remember that the troops never double in Hardee's
sense.

The
maneuvering in columns of fours is essentially unchanged from
Upton's. It is of interest, but of no application to Civil
War reenacting. See the Upton's comparison for
details.

In
1891, battalions still march in columns of companies, as did
Upton's. The procedures are much the same, although while
fours still wheel, companies turn, as seen in the earlier
schools. Remember, this is not our version of the
turn. It is of some small interest to note that "On the right
(left) into line" uses the new version of the turn as well, making it
slightly different from Upon's.

Incidentally,
the use of the new turn does greatly simplify the change of direction
of a close column.

There
are extensive directions to march in "line of companies" in columns of
fours, a version of our "by the right (left) of companies to the front,
although seemingly of much greater importance. Upton seems to ignore
this, although it could easily be done in his system.

Other
then that, most of the evolutions of columns of companies are as in
Upton's. Refer to that comparison for a detailed
discussion.

Upton's
battalions continued to march in two company divisions, as did
Hardee's, but the platoon had entirely disappeared from the
manual. By 1891, it was the division that had disappeared,
but the platoon had made a dramatic comeback.

Hardee
devoted little attention to the column if platoons, considering it to
be more a method of passing narrow ways than a standard column of
march.

Much of
this drill is simply column of company commands given to
platoons. However, the full distance is defined as platoon
front plus three paces. The close interval is defined as
eight paces. (Right (left) front into line", our "Forward
into Line", also differs a bit. The 1st
company forms company, much as in Hardee's. The other
companies march in column of platoons, half right (left) to their
position in line, and form company when at platoon distance.

The
Regulations also speak at length about a "line of companies" in column
of platoons. The companies of a four company battalion would
march in four parallel columns of platoons. Almost all of
these evolutions could be accomplished with the commands General Hardee
gave us. It is interesting to read, but of little Civil War
application.

A
totally new wrinkle is the "Street Column". In a four company
battalion, the first and fourth companies are in company
fronts. The second company forms a column of fours behind the
right four of the first company. The third forms a column of f ours
behind the left four of the first company. Why this is called
a "Street Column" is unclear.

1891
battalions are still instructed in forming square. Both Upton
and Hardee before him prescribe this to be done from a column by
division at half distance. 1891 does it from the
street column. It works beautifully. The first
company halts, forming the first front. The second and third companies
wheel by fours in opposite directions, forming the second and third
fronts. The fourth company faces about to form the fourth
front. It is returned to street column by reversing the
procedure.

The
street column can also form easily into a column of companies or a
column if fours. It is an intriguing formation.
Interestingly, in correspondence with Col. Huddleston a few years ago,
he suggested use of a similar formation, one company in front, followed
by a second company marching by the left flank behind its right, and an
third marching by the right flank behind the left of the
first. The idea was to be able to protect flanks easily.
The street column is almost the twin of that.

Evolutions of a Regiment

1891
Drill Regulations specify a regiment as consisting of three battalions,
although it permits more or less. The regiment functions more
like a brigade in our terms. It is formed by seniority of the
majors, as a battalion is formed by rank of captains. The colonel is
placed 60 paces in front, or, in a line of masses, that is parallel
columns of companies by battalions, sort of a by the right of
battalions to the front, he is 30 paces ahead. In column, he
marches (rides) at the side of the guide abreast of, and 20 paces from
the head of the column.

I will
omit the positioning of the remainder of the staff and the band, as it
does not have ACW implications.

The
battalions can form in separate lines, or in combinations, to form in
one two or three lines. They may also be formed in line of
platoon columns (parallel columns of platoons) or in the aforementioned
line of masses.

When
the regiment is formed there is to be an interval of 24 paces between
battalions, whether in line or line of masses. The battalions
are designated 1st, 2nd,
etc. from their positions in line.

There
are directions for the colonel's commands, and how the majors are to
repeat them. The colonel prefaces commands by, "Battalions",
as in "Battalions, Attention." The term regiment is not used
in commands.

Ranks
are opened and closed, and firings conducted as in SotB. To
dismiss the regiment, the colonel commands "Dismiss your
Battalions".

Yes, to
dismiss, the colonel must turn battalions over to their majors, who
march to their parade, and, in turn, give command of companies to the
captains, who march to their parade, who can then dismiss their
companies. I suppose the soldiers were glad they did not to
be dismissed by platoons and then squads.

To face
to the rear and to march to the rear, we see "fours about" as in SotB,
and Upton's. To halt the regiment we find "Battalions, Halt".

Some things never change.

In
successive formations, the Adjutant and Sgt. Major of each battalion
act as right and left general guides. The line is formed on
the base company so there is no need for regimental guides.
At least, none are mentioned.

When
forming in multiple lines, the distance prescribed is battalion depth,
plus 24 paces. A two line formation is rather like a two
battalion line with a third in reserve. Like a reserve, the
rear lines conform to all movements of the front, maintaining spacing.

The
column of fours remains the primary formation of maneuver.
Each battalion maneuvers independently to its place.

Again,
I will omit extensive description of these maneuvers. Anyone
interested in maneuvering by the fours should refer to the Upton's
comparison.

The
regiment can march in columns of companies and platoons, by exactly the
means used in SotB. The only change is forming two or three
lines, which is self-evident. Most of the evolutions are
covered in SotB.

The
regiment can march in Column of Masses, basically a close column by
company, which Upton wrote about in his Evolutions of a
Brigade. Again there is little difference from Upton, save
the deployment from column of masses to line of masses.

In
1891, regiments maneuvered by platoons, with the same commands as
SotB. Again though, we see much mention of Line of platoon
columns.

The
Evolutions of a regiment close with the order in echelon, with the
command "Form Echelon at so many yards". Hardee, having
stopped at SotB never dealt with echelons. However, Scott,
Casey and Upton all did. Scott is most detailed., giving
credence to Hardee's theory that he did not need to improve on Scott's
work.

Detailed
analysis of these evolutions is not needed. It is enough to
make note of the most significant change, the Line formation, Fours in
company line, Line of platoon columns and Line of Masses. We
have seen how valuable advancing or retiring by the right or left of
companies can be. By 1891, it was an involved, detailed
procedure, with many variations.

The Brigade

1891's brigade is formed
of three regiments, but could be more or less. The regiments are posted
in order, by the rank of their colonels, again exactly as a battalion
is by the captains' rank.

The section is quite
short, as many of the maneuvers of the regiment are applicable to the
brigade.

The general's commands
are directed in some detail, with 5 key points that he should cover:

"1. The
maneuver to be executed by the brigade.

2. The particular formation the regiment is to take; as in two lines,
line of masses, etc. When the formation is not specified, the
regiment forms in line.

3. When forming the brigade in two or more lines by regiment, the
number of lines, the distance between the lines, the line in which the
regiment is to form, and its point of rest.

4. Whether the right or left of the regiment is to connect with the
left or right of another regiment, that precedes it on line.

5. Whether the right or left flank of the regiment will be exposed."

As an example, being in a column of fours, when the general wishes to
form front into line, he will send the following orders:

"The brigade to form front into line." To the leading regiment, " Form
left front into line", to the center regiment, "Form front into line,
your right connecting with left of leading regiment"; to the rear
regiment, " Form right front into line, your left connecting with right
of leading regiment, right flank exposed."

By similar means, the general can form line to the right and left from
the standard column of fours, or in two or three lines. The regiments
forming alongside each other as in the preceding evolutions.

He can also form lines of platoon columns, masses, or lines of columns
of fours.

To march to front or rear, the general must designate a base battalion,
in Scott's old terms, the battalion of direction.

To march to the flank, the general simply commands March by the right
(or left) flank, and allows the colonels to effect the maneuver in
their regiments.

To change front, the regiments are formed into columns of fours, and
formed into line as already explained.

The Division and Corps

The
division consists of three brigades of infantry and two or more
batteries, but can be more or less. The evolutions are those of the
brigade, converted to the larger number.

The corps consists of three divisions, one or more regiments of
cavalry, and the corps artillery, which is in addition to the
divisional artillery. Again, there are no evolutions stated
as specific to the corps.

The remaining few pages
cover salutes, the about for officers, the manual of the sword, the
manual of the color, and color guard, and directions for the band and
drum major.

Salute with the hand.

In this section, officers are
enjoined to salute with the right hand only, unless it is otherwise
occupied. Enlisted men, however, are to salute with the hand furthest
from the officer, and to hold it until the salute is returned, or the
officer passed, as is the rifle salute, which is familiar to us.

About Face

Officers are to face about in the
modern military manner, unlike men in the ranks, who still have a
version of facing on the heel. Enlisted men out of ranks,
however, can face about as officers.

Manual of the sword.

The manual of the sword differs little from ACW manuals. There is a
provision for suspending the sword by the sword knot from the right
wrist, when publishing orders.

The order places the tip of the sword on the ground, at the right side.
Parade rest places it on the ground in front of the body, hands
clasped, left on top. I mention this because of some interest in the
artillery rest. I feel this to be inappropriate for
infantry, obviously specified here in 1891, and, I would believe, in
the 1860's as well.

Colors

The manual of the color is more
extended than our manuals, which generally give only a color salute and
the carry. In 1891 we find the order, where the heel of the lance rests
on the ground near the right toe, the right hand holding the pike in a
vertical position.

We also find a parade
rest, where the heel is on the ground, left hand uppermost.

At a halt, the color
salutes at the command, present arms, and returns to the carry at carry
arms. Here we see that the present is not given on the march.

The guard is much more
limited than on our period, restricted to the color-sergeant and two
other soldiers. If a regimental color is used, there is a second color-
bearer.

The color is taken from
the colonel by the guard only, and taken to the parade of the color
company, and returns it, without an escort.

The Band

The band is drawn up in
two or more ranks, depending on its size. It is specified that a
sufficient interval be provided to permit a free use of the instruments.

The field music, bugles and drums
at this time, when united (i.e. not with their companies) forms in the
rear of the band. If a musician is in charge (as opposed to a drum
major) he is posted on the right of the front rank.

When the battalion
wheels by fours, the band countermarches. Other maneuvers are the same
for both the battalion and band.

In opening ranks, each
rank of the band takes a three pace interval from that in front, the
drum major verifying the alignment.

The drum major is placed
two paces in front of the center of his band, and gives commands as for
a squad, substituting band for squad. The signals are almost identical
to those given by Upton, with the common sense addition that he will
beat time with his staff in the right hand, when the band plays, left
hand at the hip, fingers in front, thumb to the rear.

In making his report on
parade, the drum major salutes by bringing the staff to a vertical
position, head of the staff up and opposite the left shoulder. In
marching in review, he salutes by passing the staff between the right
arm and body, head of the staff to the front, and salutes with the left
hand.

Extended Order

Extended
order is the 1891 version of skirmish drill. As had been
recognized as early as the Civil War, fighting in line was doomed by
modern weaponry. Troops extended, with space between them,
was the way to fight the modern war.

Thus,
the fighting unit of 1891 became the squad, the eight man unit from
SotS, which is under the command of a corporal. This unit
corresponds beautifully with Upton's Fours.

The men
are enjoined to remain with their squad at all times, but, if
separated, to place themselves with another squad until they can be
reunited.

This
order is of primary importance, and its drill comes after only a few
drills in close order. Officers and sergeants must preserve
the integrity of the squads.

All
instruction must be give in reference to an enemy supposed to be in an
indicated direction . An imaginary enemy
is one whose position and force are merely assumed. An outlined
enemy is one who is indicated by only a few men.
The represented enemy is one whose main
body is visible.

Commands are given by bugle, as
we are accustomed,or
should be, and the extended order may be taken from any formation.

There
are no commands to dress. The alignment is based roughly on
the base file, the men standing or marching at ease, arms at will, as
we are accustomed.

The
squad is led by its corporal, and, as far as possible, without formal
commands. Thus we have commands such as follow me.
When the corporal does not wish the squad to follow him, he commands guide
right (or left), and indicates the point of direction.The squad then follows the man placed as the guide.

Deployments
of the squad are forward and by the flank, as we are
accustomed. The interval between skirmishers ( and here we do
see the use of that term) is now only two paces. A different
interval can be given in the preparatory command.

The
command is simply as skirmishers, MARCH.
The men move into alignment on the specified base file. The
line becomes front rank, rear rank, as Hardee specified 35 years
before. If the corporal wishes to extend the intervals, he
command To (so many) paces, extend (or
close)intervals, MARCH. The paces specified are
between soldiers, as in Upton's, not groups of four, as in Hardee's.

Marchings

To move
the line forward, we have Forward, MARCH.
To the rear we have To the rear, MARCH, as opposed
to in retreat. Here the men face to rear and march, as Hardee
and Upton specify. The squad can be marched to the flank, or
turned, in order to change front.

Rally

The
rally is used for immediate action, when there is no time to form in
normal order. The corporal commands or signals rally.
The men run to him and group themselves in one or two ranks.
If he advances, they advance with him. Should he command deploy,
they resume their places as skirmishers.

Assembly

The
assembly is as we accustomed. At the command Assemble,
MARCH, the men move to their proper places in close order.

Firings

The specified firing
are three; at will, counted cartridges, and rapid.

To fire at will, the skirmishers
who can see an enemy aim,fire and load deliberately, and
continue until commanded Cease Firing.

With
counted cartridges, the corporal specified how many rounds are to be
fired , and at what object. Another volley requires another
command

The
rapid fire is usually used in an attack, with bayonets fixed and
advancing. The men fire as rapidly as possible, until
commanded to cease fire.

The
troops will have extensive instruction on fighting on varied
ground. Hardee's instruction to take advantage of any cover
is here added to by paragraphs on how to use that cover, whether rocks,
walls heaps of stone, ditches, furrows, woods and others.
They are taught how to prepare the crest of a wall and how to create
loopholes for their weapons.

We then
find extensive directions for the actions of a platoon, company,
battalion, and regiment in extended order, with specific directions for
the offensive and defensive. These are of interest, but are not of
application to the 1860's context. There are interesting
points, such as the relief of a firing line, which is much as Hardee
outlined.

Of some
interest for another article, is the section on outposts.
These are divided into sentinels, pickets, supports, and
reserves. A comparison with Mahon's might prove most
instructive.

Marches

The
average march for infantry is placed at 15 to 20 miles per
day. The march should be in several columns, to diminish the
front of the columns, and expedite the deployment into line of
battle. Pioneers are detailed to prepare the way for the
march. Roads, if possible are left open for artillery and
supply trains.

No. 657
states, "When practicable, marches should begin in the morning after
the men have had their breakfasts". This
is well known to reenactors.

Breaks
are specified for marches of varied duration. The provost
guard is to follow to pick up stragglers, as we are
accustomed.

Camping

The
directions for camping need not be repeated here, with the exception of
a few points.

"Ground
for camping should be susceptible of good drainage, and be near wood
and water". Words for event organizers to live by!

"When
time will permit, all the streets are ditched; a shallow ditch is made
around each tent." Words for reenactors to live by.

"When straw, leaves or boughs are
at hand, the men should be required to raise their beds above the
ground; attention to this rule, to cleanliness, and to the proper
cooking of food will greatly diminish the number and frequency of camp
diseases."

"In
winter quarters, tents may be pitched on frames of boards or split
logs, the bunks of the men being arranged one above another."
Randolph McKim specifies a similar arrangement for the 1st
Maryland winter camp.

Ceremonies

The directions for ceremonies may have some application to ACW use.
Since three battalions of the ANV are formed as Legions, with
Artillery anc Cavalry components, we are always faced with the question
of where to place these components in line. The 1891 manual
gives
us some direction:

"On occasions of ceremonies, except funeral escort, troops are arranged
from right to left in line, and from head to rear in column., in the
following order:
First infantry; seconds light artillery; third cavalry.
Artillery
serving as infantry is posted as infantry. Dismounted cavalry
and
marines are on the left of the infantry".

While the above is intended for brigade or larger, I think it does give
guidance for postioning our components in dress parade and reviews.

We also saee some guidance in reference to the position of NCO's in
command of companies. "A non-commissioned officer in command
of
his company retains his post on the right of the right guide when the
battalion is in line;" This is essentially what we do in
dress
parade. "...he has the post of his captain when the battalion is in
column". This is rather different then we have done.
Usually sergeants commanding companies have remained in their
positions as company right guides. At least in 1891,
sergeants
commanding were expected to have right guides, and, in column, to
actually take the place of the captain. While 1891 is not
1961,
this makes perfect sense, and I suggest that we adopt this procedure.

Further directions for reviews of units of various sizes do not seem to
have ACW applications.

Guard Mounting

The
directions for Guard Mounting are a subset of the Ceremonies section.
I shall not go into detail here, other then to note that when
dismounted cavalry and infantry are united in a guard detail, the
cavalry retains its one rank formation.

Battalion Parade

The
directions for battalion dress parade caontain only minor changes from
the form we use. Captains are already in front of their companies when
the adjutant gives them the direction to bring their companies to
parade rest. They then face about to their
companies,
succesively from the right, and give the sequence of commands.
The adjutant, instead of commanding the music to "beat off",
commands "sound off".

When the 1st sergeants give their report, they face themselves to the
front as they arrive in position, rather then waiting for the
adjutant's command. We can see that so many of our NCO's who
have
made the mistake a facing front are really 30 years ahead of their time!

At the conclusion of the
parade, the
captains returned swords, and came to the commanding officer, just as
in the ACW parade. However, the directions here are much
clearer,
and more military. The captains were directed to face inward,
march to the center, then face front to the battalion commander. Under
the command of the senior captain, they march forward to the battalion
commander in line. As in the ACW parade, 1st sergeants take
charge of their companies, and march them back to their company parade.
Something simlar in our parade would have a nice effect.

Regimental Parade

Note that the 1891 regiment
consited of
three battalions. These directions for regimental dress
parade
may give us some guidance as to the form that should be used for an ACW
brigade dress parade, which is not addressed in our period's
regulations.

Basically, each battalion conducts itself much like a company in
battalion dress parade. A line of battalion commanders is
formed
six paces in front of the line of company commanders. The
regimental adjutant directs the battalion commanders to bring their
battalions to parade rest.

Instead of a 1st sergeants report, there is a batalion adjutants
report, done in much the same manner. In short, for our use,
a
brigacde dress parade would follow the form of a battalion dress
parade, with the battalions being treated as companies. US
and CS
Regulations hint at this, but never do spell it out. Here it
is
quite clear. Since the basic format of dress parade changed
so
little in 30 years, it is not too much of a leap of faith to think that
brigade dress parades would have been held in this manner in our period.

Battalion Inspection

Battalions were inspected
according the
same basic form as given in the ACW regulations, that is in a
column of companies, opened ranks, with field and staff officers at the
front of the column. Note that this inspection was a detailed
one. Arms were inspected, as were knapsacks. This
is not
really different from ACW practice, but is a little different then
reeanctor practice.

There is also the first mention I have seen of the practice of NCO's
saluting officers when in camp, rather then all soldiers. The
soldiers simply come to attention. This has always been our practice in
camp, but once again, here it is clearly spelled out.

Company and Regimental Inspection

These inspections simply
follow the form of the Battalion inspections.

Regimental or Battalion Muster

The
form of the muster is essentially as given in Upton's, and is also
essentially same as CS regulations prescribes for a muster by a
visiting inspector. Company musters are to be done by the same form.
Upton was much more specific in setting this as the standard
procedure for company roll calls.

Escort of the Color

This is little changed
from General Hardee's manual. I have never seen this formal
escort done at a reeactment.

Escorts of Honor

Personages of high rank,
military or
civilian, received an escort, made up of the best troops available.
It is basically a battalion of picked men. It forms
in line
in where the personage presents himself. At his appearance,
it
renders the appropriate honors due his rank.

It then forms column, either by company, platoons, or fours, the
personage, and his staff or retinue takes place at the rear of the
column. An officer is detailed to the personage, to convey
communications to the commander of the escort. This is almost
verbatim from Upton's.

Funeral Escort

This form is spelled out in
more detail
then Upton's, but is essentially similar. With the much
smaller
long arms used, the incredibly awkward Reverse Arms, has disappeared.
The pallbearers were to be of the same grade as the deceased,
or
the next grade above or below, similar to the ACW Regulations.
Oddly, it then states that the coffin of a commissioned
officer
would be borne by six sergeants, and that of an NCO or private would be
borne by six privates, which is as Upton states. Best of both
worlds, I suppose.

Trumpet Calls, etc.

A quick glance at the
trumpet calls
shows them to be the same as the post war calls, as given by Upton,
which are very, very different from the pre war calls. It
does,
however, give a series of fife and drum signals which would be very
familiar to me. I tend to doubt that fie and drum corps were
actually used for signals in this period, but the vestigal remains are
there.

Appendix

The
appendix has the various sections taken from the Army Regulations of
1889, which were cited in the body of the manual.