OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of physical, psychological, emotional, and sexual violence during pregnancy and the association that that violence has with low birthweight. METHODS: For 118 women who gave birth between September 1998 and November 1999 we explored the violence that they had suffered during their pregnancy. All the women were residents of Finca San Juan, a low-income urban settlement in the Rincón Grande de Pavas section of San José, Costa Rica. We used a previously validated questionnaire with closed questions. A multiple linear regression model was used to adjust the average weights of the newborns according to the characteristics of the mother: age, years of schooling, marital status, desire for the pregnancy, harmful habits (smoking, drinking alcohol), number of previous pregnancies and childbirths, birth interval, physical stature, total increase in weight during the pregnancy, and illnesses during the gestation. A logistic regression model was used to measure the direct effect of violence on low birthweight, and a nonparametric method was used to calculate the attributable fraction among the exposed women. RESULTS: The newborns of the mothers who suffered acts of violence weighed on average 449.4 g less that the newborns of the women who had not been exposed to acts of violence (P < 0.001). The mothers who suffered acts of violence were three times as likely to have a newborn with low birthweight (95% confidence interval: 1.39 to 8.10). The variables that were most closely associated with low birthweight were violence suffered by the mother (direct association) and the mother’s weight gain during pregnancy (inverse relation). CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate the need to investigate this subject more deeply, to train health workers concerning violence toward women as a reproductive-risk factor, and to form groups of experts on this subject to develop specialized protocols for the early identification of pregnant women subject to violence.

Behavioral problems and tobacco use among adolescents in Chile Articles

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between behavioral problems and tobacco smoking among adolescent students in Chile. METHODS: Data were drawn from a study that included questionnaire surveys of 46 907 school-attending adolescents in all 13 of the administrative regions of Chile. Assessments were based on an adapted, Spanish-language version of the Drug Use Screening Inventory. The conditional form of the logistic regression model was used for analysis, with matching of students on individual schools, and with further statistical adjustments for sex, age, and selected risk factors. RESULTS: The prevalence of tobacco smoking among the adolescents was very high across all of Chile, with a level between 56% and 65% in each of the 13 regions. The estimated odds of tobacco use in youths at the highest level of behavioral problems was about twice that for youths at the lowest levels, both before and after controlling for sex, age, lack of participation in recreational activities, level of irritability, and levels of problems with school, family attention, and mental health. CONCLUSIONS: These findings help to complement and complete the evidence of prior studies on tobacco smoking among adolescents with behavior problems, including recent research on Central American youths. Although the magnitude of observed associations in Chile was not as great as that for the associations found in Central America, both the strength of these associations and their statistical significance were observed throughout Chile. This is the first study in Chile on potentially causal relationships such as these.

An overview of hepatitis B in Brazil and in the state of Santa Catarina

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of hepatitis B infection in Brazil overall, in the South of Brazil, and in the state of Santa Catarina (in southeastern Brazil) for the period of 1996 through 2002, taking into consideration such epidemiological aspects as age and sex. SOURCE OF DATA: Data were obtained through a literature review and by consulting with Brazil's National Health Foundation and with Santa Catarina's Department of Epidemiological Surveillance. RESULTS: In Brazil, from 1996 through 2000, hepatitis B was the second most prevalent type of viral hepatitis (25%), with hepatitis A leading in terms of the proportion of cases (43%). In Santa Catarina there was a predominance of hepatitis B in relation to other types of hepatitis from 1997 through 2001. In both Brazil and Santa Catarina there was a larger number of cases among males than among females. In terms of age, the highest incidence was found among those 20 to 49 years old in Santa Catarina and among those over 30 for Brazil overall. The South of Brazil was the country's region with the highest incidence of hepatitis B from 1997 through 1999. In Santa Catarina the largest number of cases from 1996 through 2002 occurred in the southern part of the state, followed by the northeastern and far western sections of the state. CONCLUSIONS: The number of cases of hepatitis B is still growing in Brazil, and it is important to consider that underreporting may have affected the results described in this study. Throughout Brazil, vaccination should be extended to include adolescents in regions that have a moderate to high incidence of hepatitis B.

OBJECTIVE: To obtain information on the perceptions and experiences of violence among secondary school students in Kingston, Jamaica, and its environs. METHODS: Data collection was carried out from September through December 1998. Two researchers administered questionnaires in 11 randomly selected secondary schools, to a total of 1 710 students who were in either grade 7 or grade 9 and who were aged 9-17 years old (mean of 13.2 years). Frequency distributions of the responses were compared by gender, age, grade level, socioeconomic status, and school type. RESULTS: Seventy-five percent of the students thought that someone who was reluctant to fight would be "picked on" more, 89% thought it generally wrong to hit other people, and 91% thought it wrong to insult other people. Eighty-four percent knew of students who carried knives or blades from such items as a scalpel or a utility knife to school, and 89% were worried about violence at school. Thirty-three percent had been victims of violence, and 60% had a family member who had been a victim of violence. Eighty-two percent thought that violent television shows could increase aggressive behavior. Factor analysis of selected responses was carried out, yielding five factors: neighborhood violence, school violence, perceptions of acceptable behaviors, level of concern about violence, and general experiences and perceptions of violence. The factors varied with gender, age, grade level, socioeconomic status, and school type. CONCLUSIONS: These results will help focus interventions aimed at reducing violence, provide a baseline for later comparisons of perceptions and experiences of violence, and offer a basis for comparing the experiences of young people in urban Jamaica with those of young persons elsewhere.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of eight neurological problems-migraine, cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson's disease, peripheral neuropathy, disorders of neurological development, epilepsy, dementia, and sequelae of head trauma-in Colombia as a part of the National Neuroepidemiological Study (EPINEURO). METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was carried out in two phases between September 1995 and August 1996. In the first phase persons who might be suffering from a neurological disease were identified, and in the second phase a specific diagnosis was made. A sample of 8 910 people were examined, distributed in proportion to the population in each of the five geographical areas of Colombia (central, southwest, northwest, eastern, and Caribbean coast). The evaluation was done using a modified version of the neuroepidemiology protocol of the World Health Organization, along with a simplified physical examination. With the patients with possible dementia a neuropsychological examination designed for this study was used in order to thoroughly examine the cognitive aspects analyzed in the initial mental screening. The scales of Hachinski, Yesavage, and Blessed and the diagnostic criteria of the NINCDS-ADRDA were used for Alzheimer's disease; the NINDS-AIREN criteria for dementia of vascular origin; and the DSM-IV criteria for all types of dementia. A survey was conducted in order to determine if there were sequelae of head trauma. Persons 12 years old or older were evaluated by an adult neurologist and those under 12 years old by a pediatric neurologist. The prevalences of neurological disorders were calculated by age and sex, for each region and also for the entire country, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: The prevalence per 1 000 population for the disorders investigated was: migraine, 71.2 (95% CI: 65.5 to 76.8); disorders of neurological development, 46.1 (95% CI: 35.5 to 58.9); cerebrovascular disease, 19.9 (95% CI: 14.3 to 27.4); dementia, 13.1 (95% CI: 8.5 to 19.3); epilepsy, 10.3 (95% CI: 8.5 to 13.0); peripheral neuropathy, 8.5 (95% CI: 6.8 to 10.7); sequelae of head trauma, 6.4 (95% CI: 5.0 to 7.8); and Parkinson's disease, 4.7 (95% CI: 2.2 to 8.9). In all those cases except head trauma the prevalence was higher among women than among men. CONCLUSIONS: These results make it possible to design more up-to-date health policies aimed at achieving more effective prevention, better control, and more adequate treatment of neurological disorders in Colombia. The easy application of these surveys and the low cost of this type of research make this methodology ideal for countries with shortages of specialized personnel.

The association between oral manifestations and the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of HIV-infected children in Brazil and in the United States of America

OBJECTIVES: This study had two objectives: (1) to investigate the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of HIV-infected children and their families in relation to the presence of oral manifestations of AIDS and (2) to identify the most frequent oral manifestations of AIDS in the sample of children studied. METHODS: The sample consisted of a total of 184 children-both boys and girls-from 0 to 13 years old. The children were receiving care at two hospitals in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil (the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre and the Hospital São Lucas da Pontifícia Universidade Católica), and at Stony Brook University Hospital, which is in the state of New York, United States. Data were analyzed using the chi-square test, Student's t test, and analysis of variance. RESUlTS: Of the 184 patients, 117 of them (63.59%) were receiving care at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, 26 (14.13%) at the Hospital São Lucas, and 41 (22.28%) at Stony Brook University Hospital. In the Brazilian sample (the two hospitals in Porto Alegre) 42.66% of the children were living with their natural parents (mostly with the mother), while in the United States 56.10% of the children were living with foster families. Concerning income, 39.86% of the Brazilian families had a monthly income ranging from US$ 180 to US$ 450, and 33.57% had no income or did not provide information. With the United States sample, we were not allowed to ask about income, but all the families were classified by the social workers as having a monthly income below US$ 1 000. HIV was acquired through vertical transmission by 97.20% of the Brazilian children and by 97.56% of the children in the United States sample. Oral manifestations were more frequent in the Brazilian children (72.73%) than in the children in the United States sample (53.66%) (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of oral manifestations in the samples in both Brazil and the United States was influenced by socioeconomic and cultural conditions, family structure and income, access to information concerning AIDS, and adherence to treatment.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the distribution of Cuban smokers in the first two stages of the process of behavior change (precontemplation (that is, no desire to quit smoking) and contemplation (thinking about quitting)), the characteristics of these smokers, and the relationship between these characteristics and some variables of interest. METHODS: The First National Survey of Risk Factors and Chronic Non-communicable Disease Prevention Activities was carried out in Cuba in 1996. As a part of that Survey, a probability sample was selected using three-stage clustering, with stratification of the primary units, which were the census districts in the 14 provinces and 169 municipalities that make up the country. The census districts were selected in proportion to their number of dwellings. A total of 4 835 smokers 15 years old or older were selected to answer a questionnaire on sociodemographic variables and smoking-related behaviors. The sociodemographic variables included age, sex, skin color, level of schooling completed, and work status (working, looking for work, retired, housewife, or student). The smoking-related behaviors included knowledge of tobacco's harmful effects on health, age when smoking began, number of cigarettes smoked daily, willingness to give up the habit, and the number of attempts made to quit smoking. The questionnaire information made it possible to place the smokers in one or the other of the two initial stages of smoking behavior change. The probability of being in the precontemplation stage was modeled through logistic regression. The standardized coefficients that the model produced were used to calculate the weight of the explanatory variables included in the model. To calculate the estimates and their errors, the SAS 6.12 and SUDAAN 7.5 statistical software packages were used, taking into account the complex design of the sample. The level of significance was set at 0.05. RESULTS: We found that 46.4% of the smokers surveyed were in the precontemplation stage, and 53.6% were in the contemplation stage. Women were more prepared to quit the habit than were men. The more formal the education that a person had, the stronger was the desire to quit smoking. Persons who were retired were the ones least likely to be considering giving up smoking. The probability of being in the precontemplation stage decreased with an increase in the age of beginning to smoke, the number of cigarettes smoked daily, and the number of attempts made to quit smoking. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of Cuban smokers in the contemplation stage places the country in a favorable position for developing effective smoking prevention interventions. The majority of the factors identified (age when smoking began, number of cigarettes consumed daily, and number of attempts to give up the habit) can be modified through preventive actions. Identifying the stages in the process of change and the factors linked to them are necessary for designing and implementing effective smoking prevention and control programs.

Abortion, contraceptive use, and adolescent pregnancy among first-year medical students at a major public university in Mexico City Articles

OBJECTIVE: If properly trained, medical students could become future opinion leaders in health policy and could help the public to understand the consequences of unwanted pregnancies and of abortions. The objective of this study was to analyze the frequency of unwanted pregnancies and induced abortions that had occurred among women who were first-year medical students at a major public university in Mexico City and to compare the experiences of those women with the experiences of the general population of Mexican females aged 15 to 24. METHODS: In 1998 we administered a cross-sectional survey to all the first-year medical students at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, which is the largest university in Latin America. For this study we analyzed 549 surveys completed by female students. RESULTS: Out of the 549 women, 120 of them (22%) had been sexually active at some point. Among those 120 sexually active students, 100 of them (83%) had used a contraceptive method at some time, and 19 of the 120 (16%) had been pregnant. Of those 19 women who had been pregnant, 10 of them had had an illegal induced abortion (in Mexico, abortions are illegal except under a small number of extenuating circumstances). The reported abortion rate among the female medical students, 2%, was very low in comparison with the 11% rate for women of similar ages in the Mexican general population. CONCLUSIONS: The lower incidence of abortion among the female medical students indicates that when young Mexican women have access to medical information and are highly motivated to avoid unintended pregnancy and abortion, they can do so.