Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (College Version)

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For Introduction to Forensic Science courses offered by Forensic Science or Criminal Justice programs.Written by a renowned authority on forensic science, this text introduces the non-scientific student to the field of forensic science through an exploration of its applications to criminal investigations, and clear explanations of the techniques, abilities and limitations of the modern crime laboratory.

Preface

p. xiii

About the Author

p. xvii

Introduction

p. 1

Definition and Scope of Forensic Science

p. 1

History and Development of Forensic Science

p. 2

The Organization of a Crime Laboratory

p. 7

Services of the Crime Laboratory

p. 9

The Functions of the Forensic Scientist

p. 12

Other Forensic Science Services

p. 18

Review Questions

p. 23

Further References

p. 25

Case Reading

p. 26

The Crime Scene

p. 34

Processing the Crime Scene

p. 34

Legal Considerations at the Crime Scene

p. 50

Review Questions

p. 52

Further References

p. 53

Case Reading

p. 54

Physical Evidence

p. 62

Common Types of Physical Evidence

p. 62

The Significance of Physical Evidence

p. 63

Review Questions

p. 74

Further References

p. 75

Case Reading

p. 75

Physical Properties: Glass and Soil

p. 89

The Metric System

p. 90

Physical Properties

p. 92

Comparing Glass Fragments

p. 99

Glass Fractures

p. 106

Collection and Preservation of Glass Evidence

p. 109

Forensic Characteristics of Soil

p. 111

Collection and Preservation of Soil Evidence

p. 114

Review Questions

p. 116

Further References

p. 117

Organic Analysis

p. 119

Elements and Compounds

p. 119

Selecting an Analytical Technique

p. 123

Chromatography

p. 124

Spectrophotometry

p. 136

Mass Spectrometry

p. 143

Review Questions

p. 147

Further References

p. 148

Inorganic Analysis

p. 150

Evidence in the Assassination of President Kennedy

p. 152

The Emission Spectrum of Elements

p. 154

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

p. 158

The Origin of Emission and Absorption Spectra

p. 159

Neutron Activation Analysis

p. 162

X-Ray Diffraction

p. 165

Review Questions

p. 167

Further References

p. 168

The Microscope

p. 169

The Compound Microscope

p. 170

The Comparison Microscope

p. 174

The Stereoscopic Microscope

p. 175

The Polarizing Microscope

p. 176

The Microspectrophotometer

p. 178

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

p. 179

Review Questions

p. 184

Further References

p. 185

Case Reading

p. 186

Hairs, Fibers, and Paint

p. 194

Morphology of Hair

p. 194

Identification and Comparison of Hair

p. 198

Collection and Preservation of Hair Evidence

p. 204

Types of Fibers

p. 205

Identification and Comparison of Man-Made Fibers

p. 210

Collection and Preservation of Fiber Evidence

p. 216

Forensic Examination of Paint

p. 219

Collection and Preservation of Paint Evidence

p. 228

Review Questions

p. 230

Further References

p. 231

Drugs

p. 233

Drug Dependence

p. 234

Narcotic Drugs

p. 237

Hallucinogens

p. 240

Depressants

p. 245

Stimulants

p. 247

Club Drugs

p. 249

Anabolic Steroids

p. 250

Drug-Control Laws

p. 251

Drug Identification

p. 254

Collection and Preservation of Drug Evidence

p. 260

Review Questions

p. 261

Further References

p. 263

Forensic Toxicology

p. 264

Toxicology of Alcohol

p. 265

The Role of the Toxicologist

p. 283

Techniques Used in Toxicology

p. 284

The Significance of Toxicological Findings

p. 288

The Drug Recognition Expert

p. 289

Review Questions

p. 293

Further References

p. 295

Forensic Aspects of Arson and Explosion Investigations

p. 296

The Chemistry of Fire

p. 296

Searching the Fire Scene

p. 303

Collection and Preservation of Arson Evidence

p. 305

Analysis of Flammable Residues

p. 307

Types of Explosives

p. 311

Collection and Analysis of Explosives

p. 316

Review Questions

p. 324

Further References

p. 327

Forensic Serology

p. 328

The Nature of Blood

p. 329

Immunoassay Techniques

p. 333

Forensic Characterization of Bloodstains

p. 336

Stain Patterns of Blood

p. 342

Principles of Heredity

p. 346

Forensic Characterization of Semen

p. 348

Collection of Rape Evidence

p. 352

Review Questions

p. 358

Further References

p. 360

DNA: The Indispensable Forensic Science Tool

p. 361

What Is DNA?

p. 361

DNA at Work

p. 364

Replication of DNA

p. 366

Recombinant DNA: Cutting and Splicing DNA

p. 368

DNA Typing

p. 368

Mitochondrial DNA

p. 382

The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)

p. 389

The Collection and Preservation of Biological Evidence for DNA Analysis

p. 390

Review Questions

p. 397

Further References

p. 399

Case Reading

p. 399

Fingerprints

p. 406

History of Fingerprinting

p. 406

Fundamental Principles of Fingerprints

p. 408

Classification of Fingerprints

p. 414

Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems

p. 415

Methods of Detecting Fingerprints

p. 417

Preservation of Developed Prints

p. 425

Digital Imaging for Fingerprint Enhancement

p. 426

Review Questions

p. 430

Further References

p. 431

Firearms, Tool Marks, and Other Impressions

p. 432

Bullet Comparisons

p. 432

Cartridge Cases

p. 439

Automated Firearm Search Systems

p. 440

Gunpowder Residues

p. 444

Primer Residues on the Hands

p. 448

Serial Number Restoration

p. 451

Collection and Preservation of Firearm Evidence

p. 452

Tool Marks

p. 454

Other Impressions

p. 457

Review Questions

p. 464

Further References

p. 465

Document and Voice Examination

p. 466

Handwriting Comparisons

p. 467

Collection of Handwriting Exemplars

p. 469

Typescript Comparisons

p. 471

Photocopier, Printer, and Fax Examination

p. 472

Alterations, Erasures, and Obliterations

p. 474

Other Document Problems

p. 478

Voice Examination

p. 480

Review Questions

p. 487

Further References

p. 488

Forensic Science on the Internet

p. 489

What Is the Internet?

p. 490

Where to Go on the Internet

p. 491

Exploring Forensic Science on the WWW

p. 496

Web Sites You May Wish to Explore

p. 497

Review Questions

p. 502

Further References

p. 503

The Future

p. 504

Further References

p. 510

Case Readings

p. 511

Appendices

Guides to the Collection of Physical Evidence--FBI

p. 543

Instructions for Collecting Gunshot Residue (GSR)

p. 558

FBI Policy for Submitting DNA Evidence

p. 560

Chromatographic and Spectrophotometric Parameters for Figures Contained within the Text

p. 562

Chemical Formulas for Latent Fingerprint Development

p. 564

Chemical Formulas for Development of Footwear Impressions in Blood

p. 569

Answers

p. 573

Index

p. 579

Table of Contents provided by Rittenhouse. All Rights Reserved.

Few could have envisioned just a few years ago how ingrained the subject of forensic science would become in our television culture. Perhaps we can attribute our obsession with forensic science to the yearnings of a society bent on apprehending criminals but desirous of a system of justice that ensures the correctness of its verdicts. The level of sophistication that forensic science has brought to criminal investigations is awesome. This eighth edition ofCriminalisticsand its predecessors have aimed to make the subject comprehensible to a wide variety of readers who are or plan to be aligned with the forensic science profession, as well as to those who have a curiosity about the subject's underpinnings. One of the constants of forensic science is how frequently its applications become front-page news. Whether the story is sniper shootings or the tragic consequences of the terrorist attacks of 9/11/01, forensic science is at the forefront of the public response. The horror of the terrorist attacks exemplified the critical role DNA has come to play in identifying victims of mass disaster. In this new century, the science of DNA profiling has altered the complexion of criminal investigation. DNA collected from saliva on a cup or from dandruff or sweat on a hat exemplifies the emergence of nontraditional forms of evidence collection at crime scenes. Currently the criminal justice system is creating vast DNA data banks designed to snare the criminal who is unaware of the consequence of leaving the minutest quantity of biological material behind at a crime scene. During the highly publicized O. J. Simpson criminal and civil trials, forensic scientists systematically placed Simpson at the crime scene through DNA analyses, hair and fiber comparisons, and footwear impressions. As millions of Americans watched the case unfold, they, in a sense, became students of forensic science. Intense media coverage of the crime-scene search and investigation, as well as the ramifications of findings of physical evidence at the crime scene, all became the subject of study, commentary, and conjecture. For those of us who have taught forensic science in the classroom, it comes as no surprise that forensic science can grab and hold the attention of those who otherwise would have no interest in any area of science. The 0. J. Simpson case amply demonstrates how intertwined criminal investigation has become with forensic science. Through eight editions,Criminalisticshas striven to depict the role of the forensic scientist in the criminal justice system. The current edition builds on the content of its predecessors and updates the reader on the latest technologies available to crime laboratory personnel. Like all facets of modern life, forensic science has been touched by the Internet. This new edition introduces the reader to basic concepts of Internet use and encourages exploration of Web sites particularly relevant to forensic science and criminal investigation. Making science relevant and pertinent to the interests and goals of the student is a desirable but often elusive goal of educators.Criminalisticsstrives to meet this goal by, first and foremost, explaining the techniques, skills, and limitations of the modern crime laboratory to a reader who has no background in the forensic sciences. The nature of physical evidence is defined, and the limitations that technology and current knowledge impose on its individualization and characterization are examined. A major portion of the text centers on discussions of the common items of physical evidence encountered at crime scenes. These chapters include descriptions of forensic analysis, as well as updated techniques for the proper collection and preservation of evidence at crime scenes. Particular attention is paid to the meaning and role of probability in interpreting the evidential significance of scientifically evaluated evidence. The implicat