José Cornelio Bernal (1796–1842), grandson of Juan Francisco Bernal, who was a Spanish soldier on the Anza Expedition, was also to become a soldier and married Maria Carmen Sibrian (1804–) in 1819. José Cornelio Bernal, was regidor (a member of the ayuntamiento, or town council) of San José starting in 1828. In 1834 as secularization of the Missions began, Bernal was granted 6 acres (24,000 m2) at Mission Dolores by Governor José Figueroa.[3] Rancho Rincon de las Salinas in was granted in 1839, and Rancho El Potrero Viejo in 1840. José Cornelio Bernal died in 1842, and the grant inherited by his widow, Carmen Sibrian de Bernal, and their son, José de Jesus Bernal (1829–1870).

The family gradually sold off the land. The first portion of the Bernal grant to pass to other hands occurred in 1859, when General William Tecumseh Shermanforeclosed on a mortgage. In the 1860s the rancho was subdivided into small lots, primarily populated by immigrants who farmed the land and ran dairy ranches.[6]

In 1867, George Treat provided testimony at the U.S. Board of Land Commissioners’ that ultimately resulted in the denial of the De Haro family’s longstanding land claims and his action caused the De Haro family to lose their ranch named Rancho Potrero Viejo, effectively opening it for residential and industrial development.[7]

1.
Ranchos of California
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The Spanish and later Mexican governments encouraged settlement of Alta California by giving prominent men large land grants called ranchos, usually two or more square leagues. Land-grant titles were government-issued, permanent, unencumbered property-ownership rights to land called ranchos, devoted to raising cattle and sheep, the owners of the ranchos attempted to pattern themselves after the landed gentry of Spain. Their workers included Californian Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish, Spain made about 30 grants between 1784 and 1821, and Mexico granted about 270 more between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established land-use patterns and place names that are still in use in California today, Rancho boundaries became the basis for Californias land survey system, and can still be found on modern maps and land titles. Ranchos were partially based on geography, such as access to river water, Land development in the 20th and 21st century often follow the boundaries of the ranchos, and often retain the original name. For example, Rancho San Diego, an unincorporated rural-burb east of San Diego, or Rancho Bernardo, during Spanish rule, the ranchos were concessions from the Spanish crown, permitting settlement and granting grazing rights on specific tracts of land, while the crown retained the title. The land concessions were usually measured in leagues, a league of land would encompass a square that is one Spanish league on each side – approximately 4,428 acres. The Spanish and Mexican governments made a number of grants from 1785 to 1846. It was not until the Mexican era that the titles to the plots of land were granted to individuals, in 1821, Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California, and by 1828, the Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. Secularization was implemented between 1834 and 1836, the Mexican government allowed the padres to keep only the church, priests quarters and priests garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed, a commissioner would oversee the missions crops and herds, while the land was divided up as communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots for each Indian family. The Mission Indians, freed from the missions, often joined other tribes or sought work on the new ranchos along the troops formerly assigned to each mission. The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after the secularization of the missions in 1834, the Mexican rancho grants were provisional. The boundaries, on paper, had to be surveyed and marked. This produced a diseño, a topological map, to define the area. Since there were very few surveyors this requirement was seldom met, the grantee could not initially subdivide or rent out the land. The land had to be used for grazing or cultivated, some kind of residential house had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe walled cabins

2.
San Francisco, California
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush

3.
San Mateo County, California
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San Mateo County is a county located in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 718,451, the county seat is Redwood City. San Mateo County is included in the San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, and is part of the San Francisco Bay Area and it covers most of the San Francisco Peninsula. San Francisco International Airport is located at the end of the county. The countys built-up areas are mostly suburban with some areas being very urban, San Mateo County was formed in 1856 after San Francisco County, one of the states 18 original counties since Californias statehood in 1850, was split apart. Until 1856, San Franciscos city limits extended west to Divisadero Street and Castro Street, in response to the lawlessness and vigilantism that escalated rapidly between 1855 and 1856, the California government decided to divide the county. A straight line was drawn across the tip of the San Francisco Peninsula just north of San Bruno Mountain. The consolidated city-county of San Francisco was formed by an introduced by Horace Hawes. San Mateo County was officially organized on 18 April 1857 under a bill introduced by Senator T. G, San Mateo County then annexed part of northern Santa Cruz County in March 1868, including Pescadero and Pigeon Point. Although the forming bill named Redwood City the county seat, a May 1856 election marked by unblushing frauds, perpetuated on an unorganized and wholly unprotected community by thugs and ballot stuffers from San Francisco named Belmont the county seat. The election results were declared illegal and the county government was moved to Redwood City, Redwood Citys status as county seat was upheld in two succeeding elections in May 1861 and 9 December 1873, defeating San Mateo and Belmont. Another election in May 1874 named San Mateo the county seat, but the supreme court overturned that election on 24 February 1875. San Mateo County bears the Spanish name for Saint Matthew, until about 1850, the name appeared as San Matheo. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 741 square miles. It is the third-smallest county in California by land area, a number of bayside watercourses drain the eastern part of the county including San Bruno Creek and Colma Creek. Streams draining the county include Frenchmans Creek, Pilarcitos Creek, Naples Creek, Arroyo de en Medio. These streams originate along the spur of the Santa Cruz Mountains that run through the county. San Mateo County straddles the San Francisco Peninsula, with the Santa Cruz Mountains running its entire length, the county encompasses a variety of habitats including estuarine, marine, oak woodland, redwood forest, coastal scrub and oak savannah

4.
Islais Creek
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Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel is a small creek in San Francisco, California. The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word slay or islay, around the time of the Gold Rush, the area became an industrial hub, and the condition of the creek worsened. After the devastating earthquake in 1906, the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris, though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert, remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street. Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants, as they are important wildlife habitats, the historic Islais Creek, the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5,000 acres, had two main branches. One originated near the slope of Twin Peaks, slightly north of Portola Drive. It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park paralleling Bosworth Street, the other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street. It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I-280 viaduct, together, as a wider creek, it ran parallel to Alemany Boulevard and I-280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary, near Industrial Street and Oakdale Avenue. Precita Creek, a creek that originated from Noe Valley, also joined Islais Creek at the César Chávez Boulevard. From its sources in the Glen Canyon, the entire creek stretched about 3.5 miles to the San Francisco Bay, the mouth was nearly 2 miles wide, providing up to 85% of the drinking water in San Francisco. Due to urban development, however, the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80% from its historical extent. A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today, such as Bernal Heights, Hunters Point, Visitacion Valley, parts of the Mission and Potrero Hill, was once covered by the extent of the creek. In 2007, the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, which manages the citys water, as of 2009, remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1-mile channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay. The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century, the name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834, named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area. By 1850, water from the creek was used by farmers to irrigate crops, the Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers swarmed into the city. The Potrero And Bay View Railroad Company, Islais Creek was declared a non-navigable waterway in 1883, in 1871, the area along the creek became known as the city’s New Butchertown when more than 100 slaughterhouses opened. Since then, the condition of the creek deteriorated, literally becoming a place of garbage, sewage, animal waste. The condition became so bad that the creek was referred to as Shit Creek by San Franciscans. After the 1906 earthquake, San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris, during World War II, it served as docking areas for large ocean-going tugs

5.
Mission Dolores
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Mission San Francisco de Asís, or Mission Dolores, is the oldest surviving structure in San Francisco and the sixth religious settlement established as part of the California chain of missions. The settlement was named for St, during the expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, this site was identified by Pedro Font as the most suitable site for a mission in the San Francisco area. The original Mission consisted of a structure dedicated on October 9,1776. A historical marker at that location depicts this lake, but whether it actually existed is a matter of some dispute. The present Mission church, near what is now the intersection of Dolores, at the time of dedication a mural painted by native labor adorned the focal wall of the chapel. The Mission was constructed of adobe and part of a complex of buildings used for housing, agricultural, the California missions were not only houses of worship. Its ranching and farming operations extended as far south as San Mateo, horses were corralled on Potrero Hill, and the milking sheds for the cows were located along Dolores Creek at what is today Mission High School. Twenty looms were kept in operation to process wool into cloth, the circumference of the missions holdings were said to have been about 125 miles. The Mission chapel, along with Father Serras Church at Mission San Juan Capistrano, is one of two surviving buildings where Junípero Serra is known to have officiated. In 1817, Mission San Rafael Arcángel was established as an asistencia to act as a hospital for the Mission, the Mexican War of Independence strained relations between the Mexican government and the California missions. Supplies were scant, and the Indians who worked at the continued to suffer terrible losses from disease. In 1834, the Mexican government enacted laws whereby most church property was sold or granted to private owners. In practical terms, this meant that the missions would hold only to the churches, the residences of the priests. In the period followed, Mission Dolores fell on very hard times. By 1842, only eight Christian Indians were living at the Mission, the California Gold Rush brought renewed activity to the Mission Dolores area. In the 1850s, two roads were constructed from what is today downtown San Francisco to the Mission. Some of the Mission properties were sold or leased for use as saloons, racetracks were constructed, and fights between bulls and bears were staged for crowds. The Mission complex also underwent alterations, during this period, wood clapboard siding was applied to the original adobe chapel walls as both a cosmetic and a protective measure, the veneer was later removed when the Mission was restored

6.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush

7.
Bernal Heights, San Francisco, California
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Bernal Heights is a residential neighborhood in southeastern San Francisco, California. The prominent Bernal Heights hill overlooks the San Francisco skyline and features a microwave transmission tower, the nearby Sutro Tower can be seen from the Bernal Heights neighborhood. Bernal Heights lies to the south of San Franciscos Mission District and its most prominent feature is the open parkland and radio tower on its large rocky hill, Bernal Heights Summit. Bernal is bounded by Cesar Chavez Street to the north, San Jose Avenue to the west, US101 to the east, and I-280 to the south. Bernal Heights was part of the 1839 Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo, by 1860, the land belonged to François Louis Alfred Pioche, a frenchman and financier, who subdivided it into smaller lots. Its streets were laid out during the Civil War by Army engineers from the Presidio and it was first populated primarily by Irish immigrants who farmed the land and ran dairy ranches. According to legend, a gold rush was triggered in 1876 when con artists planted the hilltop with traces of gold. Bernal Heights remained undeveloped until the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, built atop bedrock, the hills structures survived the tremor, and the sparseness of the development saved much of Bernal from the ravages of the firestorm that followed. The commercial corridor of Eugenia Avenue filled in with shops as the pastureland on the hilltop was developed for homes during the rapid rebuilding of the city. Some of the tiny earthquake cottages, which the city built to house refugees, survive to this day. During World War II, the area saw another population surge, the new arrivals included many African-American families who worked at the nearby San Francisco Naval Shipyard at Hunters Point. During the Vietnam War, the neighborhood was known as Red Hill for the activists in shared households. By the 1990s, Bernals pleasant microclimate, small houses and freeway access to the peninsula, Bernal has not gentrified to the extent of its neighbor Noe Valley, but gentrification and property values are increasing as urban professionals replace working-class home owners and renters. Bernal is a haven for young families with children, notable residents include Tom Ammiano, Dan Nakamura, Annie Sprinkle, Charles Gatewood, Terry Zwigoff Matt Nathanson, childrens author Jane Wattenberg and Matt Stewart. Bernal Heights was long known as family oriented neighborhood, giving rise to the nickname Maternal Heights, the local branch of the San Francisco Public Library at 500 Cortland was built by Frederick H. Meyer with funding from the Works Progress Administration and dedicated in 1940. After closing for two years for renovations and after much long-standing contention over the murals that adorn the librarys exterior. There is also a collection of restaurants and cafés at the bottom of the northern slope and they center around the newly renovated, rectangular Precita Park. Also notable is Precita Eyes, a mural art center

8.
Excelsior District, San Francisco
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The Excelsior District is a neighborhood in San Francisco, California. The Excelsior District is located along Mission Street, east of San Jose Ave, south of Interstate 280 Southern Fwy, west of John McLaren Park, neighborhoods within the Excelsior District include the Excelsior Neighborhood itself, Mission Terrace, Outer Mission neighborhood, Portola, & Crocker Amazon. On April 15,1869, the Excelsior Homestead was filed at city hall, the record is in books “C” and “D” and in the book of city maps on page 129. This map section showing the area called the Excelsior can be found in Bancrofts Official Guide Map of City and County of San Francisco and this map indicates that the Excelsior area was previously part of the Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo. Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo later became known as Southern San Francisco on city maps, the Southern San Francisco area referred to everything south and central along with the eastern bent of Mission Street and District. The neighborhood extends to its end at the county line, over the years, as the southern end of San Francisco was developed, the city created Major neighborhoods & Districts within the area, and these were given names that appeared on city maps. These are, Bernal Heights, Ingleside, The Excelsior District, as the city grew, The Excelsior District was developed further, and it was split into even smaller sub-neighborhoods useful for Real Estate. Some of these names are, the Excelsior neighborhood itself, Mission Terrace, the Outer Mission neighborhood, Portola. Despite this division into smaller sub-neighborhoods, most of areas are still referred to as being the Excelsior District today. Many of the streets, those named for the capitals of countries, and its avenues. Emanuel built 200 houses which sold as a result of the 1906 earthquake and it is evident that many names have been retained, and from the various neighborhoods inceptions, while some have changed to accommodate changes in political climate. As an example, Excelsior Avenue itself was originally named China, due to anti-Asian feelings that led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, India, Japan and China Streets were changed to Peru, Avalon, and Excelsior Streets. In the 1980s, the neighborhood became predominantly Latino when it was settled by refugees of Central American wars, in its earlier days, the Excelsior District was predominantly Italian, Irish, and Swiss. During the late 1970s, 80s, and 90s, the Excelsior District, like the Mission District, the Excelsior District also has a large Filipino community. Today it is one of the most ethnically diverse districts in San Francisco and this annual event typically occurs in August. The Excelsior Festival is typically held on the first Sunday in October, displays of low riders and Muscle cars line the street of Madrid, food, vendors, live local rap artist performances all take place within Excelsior Park. Central to the neighborhood for quite some time was the landmark Granada Theater, at the intersection of Mission and Ocean. In 1922 it opened with the name Excelsior but, was replaced with the name Granada in 1931 after the downtown Granada Theater changed its name to the Paramount, both the name and a vertical Granada sign were deployed in the Excelsior

9.
Bayview-Hunters Point, San Francisco
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Bayview-Hunters Point or The Bayview, is a neighborhood in the southeastern corner of San Francisco, California, United States. The decommissioned Hunters Point Naval Shipyard is located within its boundaries and Candlestick Park, Redevelopment projects for the neighborhood became the dominant issue of the 1990s and 2000s. Efforts include the Bayview Redevelopment Plan for Area B, which includes approximately 1300 acres of existing residential, commercial and industrial lands and this plan identifies seven economic activity nodes within the area. The former Navy Shipyard waterfront property is also the target of redevelopment to residential, commercial. The Bayview-Hunters Point district is located in the part of San Francisco. The boundaries are Cesar Chavez Boulevard to the north, U. S. Highway 101 to the west, Bayview Hill to the south, and the San Francisco Bay to the east. Neighborhoods within the district include Hunters Point, India Basin, Bayview, Silver Terrace, Bret Harte, Islais Creek Estuary, the entire southern half of the neighborhood is the Candlestick Point State Recreation Area as well as the Candlestick Park Stadium. Primarily composed of wetlands with some small hills, the area was inhabited by the Ohlone people prior to the arrival of Spanish missionaries in the 1700s. It was first surveyed in 1775 by Juan Bautista Aguirre, a pilot for Captain Juan Manuel de Ayala who named it La Punta Concha. Later explorers renamed it Beacon Point, for the next several decades it was used as pasture for cattle run by the Franciscan monks at Mission Dolores. In 1839, the area was part of the 4, 446-acre Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo Mexican land grant given to José Cornelio Bernal, following the California Gold Rush, Bernal sold Bayview-Hunters Point property for real estate development in 1849. Within ten years,18 slaughterhouses were located in the area along with their production facilities for tanning, fertilizer, wool. The reservation and the houses and businesses became known as Butchertown. The butcher industry declined following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake until 1971 when the final slaughterhouse closed, shipbuilding became integral to Bayview-Hunters Point in 1867 with the construction there of the first permanent drydock on the Pacific coast. World War I increased the contracts there for building Naval vessels and, in 1940 and they were a presence until the 1960s when they began moving into the suburbs. The shipbuilding industry saw an influx of blue collar workers into the neighborhood. This migration into Bayview increased substantially after World War II due to segregation and eviction of African Americans from homes elsewhere in the city. Between 1940 and 1950, the population of Bayview saw an increase to 51,000 residents

10.
Anza Expedition
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Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was a New-Spanish explorer of Basque descent, and Governor of New Mexico for the Spanish Empire. Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, New Spain in 1736 and he was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras and he advanced rapidly and was a captain by 1760. His wife was the daughter of Spanish mine owner Francisco Pérez Serrano and his military duties mainly consisted of forays against hostile Native Americans, such as the Apache, during the course of which he explored much of what is now Arizona. The Spanish began colonizing Alta California with the Portolá expedition of 1769-1770, the two-pronged Portolá effort involved both a long sea voyage against prevailing winds and the California Current, and a difficult land route from Baja California. Colonies were established at San Diego and Monterey, with a presidio, a more direct land route and further colonization were desired, especially at present-day San Francisco, which Portolá saw but was not able to colonize. By the time of Juan Bautista de Anzas expedition, three missions had been established, including Mission San Antonio de Padua in the Salinas Valley. In 1772, Anza proposed an expedition to Alta California to the Viceroy of New Spain, Anza heard of a California Native American called Sebastian Tarabal who had fled from Mission San Gabriel to Sonora, and took him as guide. The expedition took a route along the Rio Altar, then paralleled the modern Mexico/California border. This was in the domain of the Yuma tribe, with which he established good relations, Anza reached Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, near the California coast, on March 22,1774, and Monterey, California, Alta Californias capital, on April 19. He returned to Tubac by late May,1774 and this expedition was closely watched by Viceroy and King, and on October 2,1774, Anza was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and ordered to lead a group of colonists to Alta California. The expedition got under way on October 23,1775, and arrived at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel in January,1776, today this route is marked as the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail. The expedition continued on to Monterey with the colonists, in Anzas diary on March 25,1776, he states that he arrived at the arroyo of San Joseph Cupertino, which is useful only for travelers. Here we halted for the night, having come eight leagues in seven, from this place we have seen at our right the estuary which runs from the port of San Francisco. Pressing on, Anza located the sites for the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asis in present-day San Francisco and he did not establish the settlement, it was established later by José Joaquín Moraga. While returning to Monterey, he located the sites for Mission Santa Clara de Asis and the town of San José de Guadalupe. On August 24,1777, the Viceroy of New Spain appointed Anza as the Governor of the Province of Nuevo México, Governor Anza led a punitive expedition against the Comanche group of Native Americans, who had been repeatedly raiding Taos during 1779. With his Ute and Apache Native American allies, and around 800 Spanish soldiers, Anza went north through the San Luis Valley, entering the Great Plains at what is now Manitou Springs, circling El Capitan, he surprised a small force of the Comanche near present-day Colorado Springs

11.
Mexican Cession
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The Mexican Cession was the third largest acquisition of territory in US history. The northern boundary of the 42nd parallel north was set by the Adams–Onís Treaty signed by the U. S. and Spain in 1821 and ratified by Mexico in 1831. The eastern boundary of the Mexican Cession was the Texas claim at the Rio Grande and extending north from the headwaters of the Jojo Rivera, not corresponding to Mexican territorial boundaries. The southern boundary was set by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and it was uncertain whether any treaty could be reached. Although Mexico did not overtly cede any land under the treaty, the United States also paid $15,000,000 for the land, and agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts to US citizens. While technically the territory was purchased by the United States, the $15 million payment was simply credited against Mexicos debt to the U. S. at that time. The Mexican Cession as ordinarily understood amounted to 525,000 square miles, if the disputed western Texas claims are also included, that amounts to a total of 750,000 square miles. If all of Texas had been seized, since Mexico had not previously acknowledged the loss of any part of Texas, eventually the Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade. Passed by the United States House of Representatives in August 1846 and February 1847, later an effort to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also failed. Failed amendments to the Wilmot Proviso by William W, the line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850. Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the eventual Democratic Party position, none of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories. Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850, Texass western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west, Texas dropped its claim to the disputed northwestern areas in return for debt relief, and the areas were divided between the two new territories and unorganized territory. El Paso where Texas had successfully established county government was left in Texas, no southern territory dominated by Southerners was created. Also, the trade was abolished in Washington, D. C. It quickly became apparent that the Mexican Cession did not include a route for a transcontinental railroad connecting to a southern port. The topography of the New Mexico Territory included mountains that naturally directed any railroad extending from the southern Pacific coast northward, to Kansas City, St. Louis, or Chicago. Southerners, anxious for the business such a railroad would bring, agitated for the acquisition of land at the expense of Mexico. A Continent Divided, The U. S. -Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington

12.
Mexican-American War
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It followed in the wake of the 1845 U. S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory in spite of its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution. After its independence in 1821 and brief experiment with monarchy, Mexico became a republic in 1824 and it was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill-prepared for conflict when war broke out in 1846. In 1845, Texas agreed to an offer of annexation by the U. S. Congress, and became the 28th state on December 29 that year. In 1845, James K. Polk, the newly-elected U. S. president, when that offer was rejected, American forces commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor were moved into the disputed territory. They were then attacked by Mexican forces, who killed 12 U. S. soldiers and these same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. This led to the war and the loss of much of Mexicos northern territory. The U. S. army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, captured the capital, Mexico City, marching from the port of Veracruz. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and specified its major consequence, the U. S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt owed by the Mexican government to U. S. citizens, Mexico acknowledged the loss of Texas and thereafter cited the Rio Grande as its national border with the United States. The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of US President James K. Polk, at first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Critics in the United States pointed to the casualties suffered by U. S. forces. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, in Mexico, the war came in the middle of political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. Border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government, for the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City, after independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios, there were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche–Mexico Wars, the Apache–Mexico Wars also made Mexicos north a violent place, with no effective political control. The Apache raids left thousands of people dead through out northern Mexico, when the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population, hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult

13.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
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With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U. S. to pay $15 million to Mexico, Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexicos new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. Over 90% chose to become U. S. citizens, the U. S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico. Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U. S. –Mexico border. Comparing the boundary in the Adams–Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims, articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were not honored by the U. S. in accordance with modifications to. The U. S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens, the residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship, Over 90% chose American citizenship, which included full voting rights. The others returned to Mexico, or in cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens. Article XII engaged the United States to pay, In consideration of the acquired,15 million dollars. Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. S, would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war and this article promised relief to them Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U. S. presence near the Mexican border, Mexico filed 366 claims with the U. S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, the remainder of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million, however, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah

14.
Land patent
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A land patent is an exclusive land grant made by a sovereign entity with respect to a particular tract of land. To make such a grant “patent”, a sovereign must document the land grant, securely sign and seal the document, an official land patent is the highest evidence of right, title, and interest to a defined area. It is usually granted by a central, federal, or state government to an individual or to a private company, besides patent, other terms for the certificate that grants such rights include first-title deed and final certificate. A land patent is known in law as letters patent, and usually issues to the grantee and to their heirs. Land in the United States of America was acquired by purchase, war, or treaty from the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Mexico, Russia, the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Native American peoples. As Great Britain began to colonize colonial America, the Crown made large grants of territory to individuals, in turn, those companies and colonial governors later made smaller grants of land based on actual surveys of the land. Thus, in colonial America on the Atlantic seaboard, a connection was made between the surveying of a tract and its patenting as private property. Many original colonies land patents came from the country of control. Most such patents were permanently granted and those patents are still in force, the United States government honors those patents by treaty law, and, as with all such land patents, they cannot be changed. After the American Revolution and the ratification of the Constitution of the United States, in 1812, the General Land Office was created to assume that duty. Some of the land so granted had survey or other associated with it. Whatever the method, the General Land Office followed a two-step procedure in granting a patent, first, the private claimant went to the land office in the land district where the public land was located. The claimant filled out entry papers to select the land. The receiver took the payment, because even homesteaders had to pay administrative fees. Next, the land office register and receiver sent the paperwork to the General Land Office in Washington. That office double-checked the accuracy of the claim, its availability, finally, the General Land Office issued a land patent for the claimed public land and sent it on to the President for his signature. The first United States land patent was issued on March 4,1788 and that patent reserves to the United States one third of all gold, silver, lead and copper within the claimed land. Usage restrictions placed on the land are spelled out in the patent, such private property rights can also be thereafter negotiated in accord with the terms of private contracts

15.
William Tecumseh Sherman
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William Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and he served under General Ulysses S. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war and he proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of Abraham Lincoln. Shermans subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacys ability to continue fighting and he accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in April 1865, after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater. When Grant assumed the U. S. presidency in 1869, Sherman succeeded him as Commanding General of the Army, as such, he was responsible for the U. S. Armys engagement in the Indian Wars over the next 15 years. Sherman advocated total war against hostile Indians to force them back onto their reservations and he steadfastly refused to be drawn into politics and in 1875 published his Memoirs, one of the best-known first-hand accounts of the Civil War. British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was the first modern general, Sherman was born in 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio, near the banks of the Hocking River. His father Charles Robert Sherman, a lawyer who sat on the Ohio Supreme Court. He left his widow, Mary Hoyt Sherman, with eleven children, Sherman was distantly related to American founding father Roger Sherman and grew to admire him. Shermans older brother Charles Taylor Sherman became a federal judge, one of his younger brothers, John Sherman, served as a U. S. senator and Cabinet secretary. Another younger brother, Hoyt Sherman, was a successful banker, Sherman would marry his foster sister, Ellen Boyle Ewing, at age 30 and have eight children with her. Shermans unusual given name has attracted considerable attention. Sherman reported that his name came from his father having caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees. Since an account in a 1932 biography about Sherman, it has often reported that, as an infant. According to these accounts, Sherman only acquired the name William at age nine or ten and his foster mother, Maria Willis Boyle, was of Irish ancestry and a devout Roman Catholic. Sherman was raised in a Roman Catholic household, though he left the church. Sherman wrote in his Memoirs that his father named him William Tecumseh, Sherman was baptized by a Presbyterian minister as an infant, as an adult, Sherman signed all his correspondence – including to his wife – W. T. Sherman. His friends and family called him Cump

16.
Foreclosure
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Formally, a mortgage lender, or other lienholder, obtains a termination of a mortgage borrower s equitable right of redemption, either by court order or by operation of law. Usually a lender obtains a security interest from a borrower who mortgages or pledges an asset like a house to secure the loan. If the borrower defaults and the lender tries to repossess the property, while this equitable right exists, it is a cloud on title and the lender cannot be sure that they can successfully repossess the property. Therefore, through the process of foreclosure, the lender seeks to foreclose the equitable right of redemption, other lien holders can also foreclose the owners right of redemption for other debts, such as for overdue taxes, unpaid contractors bills or overdue homeowners association dues or assessments. Commonly, the violation of the mortgage is a default in payment of a promissory note, the mortgage holder can usually initiate foreclosure at a time specified in the mortgage documents, typically some period of time after a default condition occurs. Within the United States, Canada and many countries, several types of foreclosure exist. In the U. S. two of them – namely, by sale and by power of sale – are widely used. Under this system, the lender initiates foreclosure by filing a lawsuit against the borrower, as with all other legal actions, all parties must be notified of the foreclosure, but notification requirements vary significantly from state to state. A judicial decision is announced after the exchange of pleadings at a hearing in a state or local court, in some rather rare instances, foreclosures are filed in federal courts. In some states, like California and Texas, nearly all so-called mortgages are actually deeds of trust and this process involves the sale of the property by the mortgage holder without court supervision. This process is much faster and cheaper than foreclosure by judicial sale. As in judicial sale, the holder and other lien holders are respectively first. Other types of foreclosure are considered minor because of their limited availability, should the mortgagor fail to do so, the mortgage holder gains the title to the property with no obligation to sell it. This type of foreclosure is available only when the value of the property is less than the debt. Historically, strict foreclosure was the method of foreclosure. Acceleration is a clause that is found in Sections 16,17. Not all accelerations are the same for each mortgage, as it depends on the terms, when a term in the mortgage has been broken, the acceleration clause goes into effect. It can declare the entire debt to the Lender if the Borrower were to transfer the title at a future date to a purchaser

17.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

18.
History of California
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California was settled from the North by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years. It was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America, after contact with Spanish explorers, most of the Native Americans died out from European diseases. After the Portolà expedition of 1769–70, Spanish missionaries began setting up 21 California Missions on or near the coast of Alta California, during the same period, Spanish military forces built several forts and three small towns. Two of the pueblos would eventually grow into the cities of Los Angeles, after Mexican Independence was won in 1821, California fell under the jurisdiction of the First Mexican Empire. Fearing the influence of the Roman Catholic church over their newly independent nation and they left behind a small Californio population of several thousand families, with a few small military garrisons. After the Mexican–American War of 1846-48, Mexico was forced to relinquish any claim to California to the United States, the unexpected discovery of gold in 1849 produced a spectacular gold rush in Northern California, attracting hundreds of thousand of ambitious young men from around the world. Only a few struck it rich, and many returned home disappointed, most appreciated the other economic opportunities in California, especially in agriculture, and brought their families to join them. California became the 31st US state in 1850 and played a role in the American Civil War. Chinese immigrants increasingly came under attack from nativists, they were forced out of industry and agriculture, as gold petered out, California increasingly became a highly productive agricultural society. The coming of the railroads in 1869 linked its rich economy with the rest of the nation, in the late 19th century, Southern California, especially Los Angeles, started to grow rapidly. Different tribes of Native Americans lived in the area that is now California for an estimated 13,000 to 15,000 years, over 100 tribes and bands inhabited the area. Various estimates of the Native American population in California during the period range from 100,000 to 300,000. Californias population held about one-third of all Native Americans in what is now the United States and this popular Spanish fantasy was printed in several editions with the earliest surviving edition published about 1510. In exploring Baja California the earliest explorers thought the Baja California peninsula was an island, mapmakers started using the name California to label the unexplored territory on the North American west coast. European explorers flying the flags of Spain and of England explored the Pacific Coast of California beginning in the mid-16th century, the first European to explore the California coast was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, working for Spain. He died in California, and his expedition found no wealth, no advanced Indian civilization, no apparent agriculture, California was of little further interest. They depicted the Indians as living at a subsistence level. They had no apparent agriculture, no domesticated animals except dogs, no pottery, and their only tools were made out of wood, leather, woven baskets and netting, stones and horns

19.
History of California before 1900
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Human history in California begins with indigenous Americans first arriving in California some 13, 000–15,000 years ago. Exploration and settlement by Europeans along the coasts and in the valleys began in the 16th century. California was acquired by the United States under the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the defeat of Mexico in the Mexican–American War, American westward expansion intensified with the California Gold Rush, beginning in 1849. California joined the Union as a state in 1850, due to the Compromise of 1850. By the end of the 19th century, California was still rural and agricultural. The most commonly accepted model of migration to the New World is that peoples from Asia crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas some 16,500 years ago. The remains of Arlington Springs Man on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of an early habitation. In all, some 30 tribes or culture groups lived in what is now California and these groups included the early-arriving Hokan family and the recently arrived Uto-Aztecan of the desert southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America, and was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10, 000–15,000 years. At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes included the Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tataviam, Tongva, Wintu, tribes adapted to Californias many climates. Coastal tribes were a source of trading beads, produced from mussel shells using stone tools. Tribes in Californias broad Central Valley and the surrounding foothills developed an early agriculture, burning the grasslands to encourage growth of wild plants. The acorns from these trees were pounded into a powder, tribes living in the mountains of the north and east relied heavily on salmon and game hunting, and used Californias volcanic legacy by collecting and shaping obsidian for themselves and for trade. The deserts of the southeast were home to tribes who learned to thrive in harsh environment by making careful use of local plants and living in oases. The indigenous people practiced various forms of forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, by burning underbrush and grass, the Native Americans revitalized patches of land whose regrowth provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle. The relative strength of the tribes was dynamic, as the more successful expanded their territories, slave-trading and war among tribes alternated with periods of relative peace. The total population of Native California is estimated, by the time of extensive European contact in the 18th century, before Europeans landed in North America, about one-third of all natives in what is now the United States were living in the area that is now California

20.
Indigenous peoples of California
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With over forty groups seeking to be federally recognized tribes, California has the second largest Native American population. The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of Californias boundaries, many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes, and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes. Tribes in Baja California who do not cross into California are classified as Indigenous peoples of Mexico, before European contact, native Californians spoke over 300 dialects of approximately 100 distinct languages. The majority of California Indian language belong either to highly localized language families with two or three members or are language isolates, of the remainder, most are Uto-Aztecan or Athapaskan languages. The Hokan superstock has the greatest time depth and has been most difficult to demonstrate, wiyot and Yurok are distantly related to Algonquian languages in a larger grouping called Algic. The several Athapaskan languages are relatively recent arrivals, no more recent than about 2000 years ago, evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago. Prior to European contact, California Indians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, the size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of the United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now Mexico. Because of the climate and easy access to food sources. Early Native Californians were hunter-gatherers, with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE, due to the local abundance of food, tribes never developed agriculture or tilled the soil. Two early southern California cultural traditions include the La Jolla Complex, from 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE, the indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They controlled fire on a scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology. By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land, a form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle, a primitive permaculture. Different tribes encountered non-native European explorers and settlers at widely different times, the southern and central coastal tribes encountered Spanish and British explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the Quechan or Yuman Indians in present-day southeast California, tribes on the coast of northwest California, like the Miwok, Yurok, and Yokut, had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century. In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century, the Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of Mission San Diego de Alcalá in San Diego. The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California and their introduction of European invasive plant species and non-native diseases resulted in unintended havoc and high fatalities for the Native populations

21.
California Trail
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The California Trail was an emigrant trail of about 3,000 miles across the western half of the North American continent from Missouri River towns to what is now the state of California. In the present states of Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah, by 1847, two former fur trading frontier forts marked trailheads for major alternative routes through Utah and Wyoming to Northern California. The first was Jim Bridgers Fort Bridger in present-day Wyoming on the Green River, from Salt Lake the Salt Lake Cutoff went north and west of the Great Salt Lake and rejoined the California Trail in the City of Rocks in present-day Idaho. From Fort Hall the Oregon and California trails went about 50 miles southwest along the Snake River Valley to another parting of the trail junction at the junction of the Raft. The California Trail from the junction followed the Raft River to the City of Rocks in Idaho near the present Nevada-Idaho-Utah tripoint, the Salt Lake and Fort Hall routes were about the same length, about 190 miles. From the City of Rocks the trail went into the present state of Utah following the South Fork of the Junction Creek. By following the crooked, meandering Humboldt River Valley west across the arid Great Basin, emigrants were able to get the water, grass, the water turned increasingly alkaline as they progressed down the Humboldt, and there were almost no trees. Firewood usually consisted of broken brush, and the grass was sparse, few travelers liked the Humboldt River Valley passage. Humboldt is not good for man nor beast, an alternative route across the present states of Utah and Nevada that bypassed both Fort Hall and the Humboldt River trails was developed in 1859. In addition to immigrants and migrants from the East, after 1859 the Pony Express, Overland stages, the main routes initially were the Truckee Trail to the Sacramento Valley and after about 1849 the Carson Trail route to the American River and the Placerville, California gold digging region. Starting about 1859 the Johnson Cutoff and the Henness Pass Route across the Sierras were greatly improved and developed and these main roads across the Sierras were both toll roads so there were funds to pay for maintenance and upkeep on the roads. The Johnson Cutoff, from Placerville to Carson City along todays U. S. Route 50 in California, was used by the Pony Express year-round and in the summer by the stage lines. It was the overland route from the East to California that could be kept partially open for at least horse traffic in the winter. After about 1848 the most popular route was the Carson Route which, while rugged, was easier than most others. The trail was used in the summers until the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 by the Union Pacific. Trail traffic rapidly fell off as the trip was much quicker and easier by train—about seven days. The economy class fare across the western United States of about $69 was affordable by most California-bound travelers, the trail was used by about 2,700 settlers from 1846 up to 1849. These settlers were instrumental in helping convert California to a U. S. possession, fremonts California Battalion assisted the Pacific Squadrons sailors and marines in 1846 and 1847 in conquering California in the Mexican–American War

22.
Californio
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The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho grants from the Mexican government. Most such grants occurred after mission secularization in the 1830s, an even looser definition may include descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californio descendants. The much larger population of non-Spanish-speaking indigenous peoples of California who lived in the prior to. Many Californios, however, were the California-born children of non-Spanish speakers who married Spanish speakers, such spouses usually also converted to the Catholic faith and, after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, often became naturalized Mexican citizens. The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the presidios, missions. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the lands into new ranchos. The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, People from other parts of Latin America did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first Californios. Sporadic colonization efforts continued under Mexican rule, including the Hijar-Padres group of 1834, One genealogist estimated that, by 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios. Alta California was nominally controlled by a national-government appointed governor, the governors of California were at first appointed by the Viceroy, and after 1821 by the approximate 40 Mexican Presidents from 1821 to 1846. The costs of the minimum Alta California government were paid by means of a roughly 40–100% import tariff collected at the entry port of Monterey. The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the Franciscan friars who, as heads of the 21 missions, none of the Franciscan friars were Californios, however, and their influence rapidly waned after the secularization of the missions in the 1830s. Governors had little support from far-away Mexico to deal with Alta Californians. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against an uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass. As Californios matured to adulthood and increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government, several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably Juan Bautista Alvarado in 1836. Southern regional leaders, led by Pio Pico, made attempts to relocate the capital from Monterey to the more populated Los Angeles. Alvarado recruited a company of Tennessean riflemen, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area, the company was led by another American, Isaac Graham, the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans

23.
California Republic
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In June 1846, a number of American immigrants in Alta California rebelled against the Mexican departments government. The immigrants had not been allowed to buy or rent land and had threatened with expulsion from California because they had entered without official permission. Mexican officials were concerned about a war with the United States coupled with the growing influx of Americans into California. The rebellion was soon overtaken by the beginning of the Mexican–American War, the name California Republic appeared only on the flag the insurgents raised in Sonoma. It indicated their aspiration of forming a government for California. The insurgents elected military officers but no structure was ever established. The flag featured an image of a California grizzly bear and became known as the Bear Flag and the revolt as the Bear Flag Revolt. Three weeks later, on July 5,1846, the Republics military of 100 to 200 men was subsumed into the California Battalion commanded by U. S. Army Brevet Captain John C. By 1845–46, Alta California had been neglected by Mexico for the twenty-five years since Mexican independence. The 1845 removal of Manuel Micheltorena, the latest governor to be sent by Mexico and forcefully ejected by the Californians, resulted in a divided government. The region south of San Luis Obispo was ruled by Governor Pio Pico with his capital in The Town of Our Lady the Queen of Angels of the Porciúncula River, Pico and Castro disliked each other personally and soon began escalating disputes over control of the Customhouse income. Decrees issued by the government in Mexico City were often acknowledged and supported with proclamations. By the end of 1845, when rumors of a force being sent from Mexico proved to be false. The relationship between the United States and Mexico had been deteriorating for some time, texas, which Mexico still considered to be its territory, had been admitted to statehood in 1845. Mexico had earlier threatened war if this happened, james K. Polk was elected President of the United States in 1844, and considered his election a mandate for his expansionist policies. Mexican law had long allowed grants of land to naturalized Mexican citizens, obtaining Mexican citizenship was not difficult and many earlier American immigrants had gone through the process and obtained free grants of land. The orders also required Californias officials not to land grants. All non-citizen immigrants, who had arrived without permission, were threatened with being forced out of California, Alta Californias Sub-Prefect Francisco Guerrero had written to U. S

24.
California Gold Rush
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The California Gold Rush began on January 24,1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States, the Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide, with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory to the state of the first nominee for the Republican Party. The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial, whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold-seekers, called forty-niners. The first to hear confirmed information of the rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands, and Latin America. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California, in 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by vote, and the future states interim first governor. In September,1850, California became a state, at the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of staking claims was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service, by 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, Gold worth tens of billions of todays dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few. However, many returned home with more than they had started with. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3,1848, although California was firmly in American hands before that, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutters Mill, near Coloma, on January 24,1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two tested the metal. However, rumors started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher

25.
California in the American Civil War
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The State of California did not send its units east, but many citizens traveled east and joined the Union Army there, some of whom became famous. Californias Volunteers also conducted operations against the native peoples within the state and in the other Western territories of the Departments of the Pacific. Following the Gold Rush, California was settled primarily by Midwestern and Southern farmers, miners, Democrats dominated the state from its foundation. In the beginning of 1861, as the crisis began, the secessionists in San Francisco made an attempt to separate the state and Oregon from the union. Patriotic fervor swept California after the attack on Fort Sumter, providing the manpower for Volunteer Regiments recruited mainly from the counties in the north of the State. When the Democratic party split over the war, Republican supporters of Lincoln took control of the state in the September elections, Volunteer Regiments were sent to occupy pro-secessionist Southern California and Tulare County, leaving them generally powerless during the war itself. However some Southerners traveled east to join the Confederate Army, evading Union patrols, others remaining in the state attempted to outfit a privateer to prey on coastal shipping, and late in the war two groups of partisan rangers were formed but none was successful. When California was admitted as a state under the Compromise of 1850, as a result, Southerners in Congress voted against admission in 1850 while Northerners pushed it through, pointing to its population of 93,000 and its vast wealth in gold. Northern California, which was dominated by mining, shipping, and commercial elites of San Francisco, in the 1856 presidential election, California gave its electoral votes to the winner, James Buchanan. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, weller, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado and sent to Washington, D. C. with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However the secession crisis following the election of Lincoln in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote. In 1860 California gave a plurality of 38,733 votes to Abraham Lincoln, whose 32% of the total vote was enough to win all its electoral votes. During the secession crisis following Lincolns election, Federal troops were under the command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, in Benicia, General Johnston strongly believed in the Southern right to secede but regretted that it was occurring. A group of Southern sympathizers in the state plans to secede with Oregon to form a Pacific Republic. The success of their plans rested on the cooperation of General Johnston and he told them to tell this to their Southern friends. Deprived of his aid the plans for California and Oregon to secede from the United States never came to fruition, meanwhile, Union men feared Johnston would aid such a plot and communicated their fears to Washington asking for his replacement. Brig. Gen. Edwin Vose Sumner was soon sent west via Panama to replace Johnston in March 1861, Johnston resigned his commission on April 9, and after Sumner arrived on April 25 turned over his command and moved with his family to Los Angeles. He would soon travel with other Southerners across New Mexico Territory to Texas and he died at the Battle of Shiloh

26.
California Water Wars
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The California Water Wars were a series of conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California. As Los Angeles grew in the late 19th century, it started to outgrow its water supply, fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, realized that water could flow from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aqueduct. The aqueduct construction was overseen by William Mulholland and was finished in 1913, the water rights were acquired through political fighting and, as described by one author, chicanery, subterfuge. and a strategy of lies. Since 1913, the Owens River had been diverted to Los Angeles, by the 1920s, so much water was diverted from the Owens Valley that agriculture became difficult. This led to the farmers trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924, Los Angeles prevailed and kept the water flowing. By 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was completely dry due to water diversion, the water needs of Los Angeles kept growing. In 1941, Los Angeles diverted water that previously fed Mono Lake, north of Owens Valley, Mono Lakes ecosystem for migrating birds was threatened by dropping water levels. Between 1979 and 1994, David Gaines and the Mono Lake Committee engaged in litigation with Los Angeles, the litigation forced Los Angeles to stop diverting water from around Mono Lake, which has started to rise back to a level that can support its ecosystem. The Paiute natives were the inhabitants living in the valley. In 1833, Joseph Reddeford Walker led the first known expedition into the central California area that would later be called the Owens Valley. Walker saw that the soil conditions were inferior to those on the other side of the Sierra Nevada range. Von Schmidt reported that the soil was not good for agriculture except for the land near streams. In 1861, Samuel Bishop and other ranchers started to raise cattle on the luxuriant grasses that grew in the Owens Valley. They came into conflict with the Paiutes over land and water use, many settlers came to the area for the promise of riches from mining. The availability of water from the Owens River made farming and raising livestock attractive, the Homestead Act of 1862 gave pioneers five years to claim and take title of their land for a small filing fee and a charge of $1.25 per acre. The Homestead Act limited the land an individual could own to 160 acres in order to create small farms. The amount of land settled by the late 1870s and early 1880s was still relatively small. ”By 1866, rapid acquisition of land had begun. The large number of made by land speculators hindered the region’s development because speculators would not participate in developing canals

27.
History of California's state highway system
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The state highway system in the U. S. state of California dates back to 1896, when the state took over maintenance of the Lake Tahoe Wagon Road. Construction of a connected system began in 1912, after the states voters approved an $18 million bond issue for over 3000 miles of highways. The last large addition was made by the California State Assembly in 1959, the 58 mile road had been operated as a toll road until 1886, when El Dorado County bought it, the county deeded the road to the state on February 28,1896. Funding was only enough for minimal improvements, including a bridge over the South Fork American River in 1901. Also in 1895, on March 27, the created the three-person Bureau of Highways to coordinate efforts by the counties to build good roads. The bureau traveled to every county of the state in 1895 and 1896 and prepared a map of a system of state roads. Several more state highways were legislated in the decade. This new department, in addition to duties, was to maintain all state highways. On March 22,1909 the State Highways Act was passed and this law authorized the Department of Engineering to issue $18 million in bonds for a continuous and connected state highway system that would connect all county seats. To this end, the department created the three-member California Highway Commission on August 8,1911 to take charge of the construction. As with the 1896 plan by the Bureau of Highways, the Highway Commission traveled the state to determine the best routes, construction began in mid-1912, with groundbreaking on Contract One - now part of SR82 in San Mateo County - on August 7. Noteworthy portions of the built by the commission included the Ridge Route in southern California. This gave the Department of Engineering an additional $12 million to complete the original system, at this time, each route was assigned a number from 1 to 34, this system of labeling routes, although never marked with signs, remained until the 1964 renumbering. Where not serving as extensions of existing routes, these -, the three bond issues together totaled 5560 miles, of which just over 40% was completed or under construction in mid-1920. The Department of Engineering became part of the new Department of Public Works in 1921, in order to pay for the roads, a 2-cent per gallon gasoline tax was approved in 1923. The legislature continued to add highways to the system, including the Mother Lode Highway in 1921 and the Arrowhead Trail in 1925. In January 1928, the California State Automobile Association and Automobile Club of Southern California, Highways along several of the most major state highways. The California Toll Bridge Authority was created in 1929 to acquire and operate all toll bridges on highways, including the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge

28.
Maritime history of California
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In the northwest coast of California near the redwood forests several Indian tribes developed large dugout canoes they used for fishing, trade and warfare. These canoes were constructed by taking a tree and shaping it with hand tools. A redwood log 4 metres long and 240 centimetres diameter weighs about 2,000 kilograms and this large weight meant that the logs were selected that required a minimum of movement—usually driftwood or dead fall trees that had been blown over by the wind. Sometimes logs were cut to length and rolled into water where they could be floated to a work area. The logs were cut to length by fire and stone age hand tools. The basic procedure was to start a fire on the tree where it needed shaping. This would leave one or more centimeters of charred wood where the fire was built that would be easier to remove. By successively using small fires to char the areas that needed to be worked the logs could be shaped by the crude scrapers and rock, shellfish, a finished 4 metres long dugout canoe with a nominal 5 centimetres thickness still weighed over 100 kilograms. Most larger dugouts weighed too much to move easily and were usually just pulled up on a far enough to get them above high tide. Constructing these types of dugout canoes took considerable time and skill with stone age tools, dugout canoes typically lasted several years. Tule have a diameter, rounded green stems that grows to 1 to 3 metres tall. They grow well in marshes, wetlands or at the edges of bodies of water, the tule stem has a pithy interior filled with spongy tissue packed with air cells—this makes it float well on water as well as a good insulator. Native Americans used tule for making and thatching huts, baskets, mats, boats, decoys, hats, clothing, Tule was typically cut using deer scapula saws that had rough saw like edges cut into them. Tule has to be handled with care when green to avoid breaking the stem, to make a tule boat, green tule was cut and then spread out in the sun to dry for several days. Tule canoes were constructed of cut stalks of tule plants bundled together around a core for extra strength. The bundle of tules could be pre-bent as they were being bundled to form a raised prow, the length of each bundle depends on the size of the boat that were then typically about 10 feet to 15 feet. The bundle that formed the bottom of the canoe on which the boatman or boatmen sat, Tule canoes typically accommodated one to four people. Tule boats can be built from dried tule, by experienced canoe builders

29.
Spanish missions in California
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The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and this divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives, to convert, educate, today, the surviving mission buildings are the states oldest structures, and its most-visited historic monuments. Prior to 1754, grants of lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. The missions were to be interconnected by a route which later became known as the Camino Real. The detailed planning and direction of the missions was to be carried out by Friar Junípero Serra, work on the coastal mission chain was concluded in 1823, completed after Serras death in 1784. Plans to build a mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a mother mission, in addition to the presidio and pueblo, the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, to sustain a mission, the padres required converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials, although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of priestly whim. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes and it was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church, once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and it was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish states right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos, the civilized and disciplined culture of the natives, developed over 8,000 year, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, mostly Spaniards by birth, were ordained as priests, sixty-seven missionaries died at their posts, while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment

30.
History of rail transportation in California
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In recent years, passenger rail transportation has undergone something of a renaissance, with the introduction of services such as Metrolink, Coaster, Caltrain, Amtrak California, and others. On November 4,2008, the People of California passed Proposition 1a, the early Forty-Niners of the California Gold Rush wishing to come to California were faced with limited options. From the East Coast, for example, a voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months. Eventually, most gold-seekers took the route across the continental United States. Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards, from shipwreck to typhoid fever to cholera or Indian attack, the very first inter-oceanic railroad which affected California was built in 1855 across the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Railway. The Panama Railway reduced the time needed to cross the Isthmus from a week of difficult, the 1,600 mile trip from Omaha, Nebraska would now take mere days. The Wild West was quickly transformed from a lawless, agrarian frontier to what would become an urbanized, industrialized economic, of perhaps greater significance is the unbridled economic growth that was spurred on by the sheer diversity of opportunities available in the region. The four years following the Golden Spike ceremony saw the length of track in the U. S. double to over 70,000 miles, virtually the entire country was accessible by rail, making a national economy possible for the first time. As rail lines pushed further and further into the wilderness, they opened up huge areas which would have lain fallow. The railroads helped establish countless towns and settlements, paved the way to abundant mineral deposits and fertile tracts of pastures and farmland, and created new markets for eastern goods. It is estimated that by the end of World War II, rail companies nationwide remunerated to the government over $1 billion dollars, the railroads would, in time, provide equally important linkages to move the inhabitants throughout the state, interconnecting its blossoming communities. Transportation determines the flow of population, declared J. D. Spreckels, one of Californias early railroad entrepreneurs, just after the dawn of the twentieth century. Before you can hope to get people to live anywhere. you must first of all them that they can get there quickly, comfortably and, above all. Among Spreckels many accomplishments was the formation of the San Diego Electric Railway in 1892, which radiated out from downtown to north, south. Henry Huntington, the nephew of Central Pacific founder Collis P. Huntington, would develop his Pacific Electric Railway in Los Angeles, the Southern Pacific soon followed suit and the level of real estate speculation reached a new high, with boom towns springing up literally overnight. Free, daily railroad-sponsored excursions enticed overeager potential buyers to visit the many undeveloped properties firsthand, despite all of the shortcomings, in the end the State reaped innumerable and unprecedented benefits from its associations with the railroad companies, which helped put California on the map. Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of berries or grew on small bushes

31.
Etymology of California
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California is a place name used by three North American states, in the United States by the state of California, and in Mexico by the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. Collectively, these three constitute the region formerly referred to as The Californias. The name California is shared by other places in other parts of the world whose names derive from the original. Several other origins have suggested for the word California, including Spanish, Latin, South Asian. After Mexicos independence from Spain, the territory became the Alta California province. In even earlier times, the boundaries of the Sea of Cortez, the Sea of Cortez is also known as the Gulf of California. This popular Spanish novel was printed in editions with the earliest surviving edition published about 1510. The Island was ruled by Queen Calafia, when the Spanish started exploring the Pacific coast they applied this name on their maps to what is now called the Baja California Peninsula, which they originally thought was an island. Once the name was on the maps it stuck, eran de bellos y robustos cuerpos, fogoso valor y gran fuerza. Su isla era la más fuerte de todo el mundo, con sus escarpados farallones y sus pétreas costas. Sus armas eran todas de oro y del mismo metal eran los arneses de las bestias salvajes que ellas acostumbraban domar para montarlas and they had beautiful and robust bodies, and were brave and very strong. Their island was the strongest of the World, with its cliffs and their weapons were golden and so were the harnesses of the wild beasts that they were accustomed to taming so that they could be ridden, because there was no other metal in the island than gold. –Las Sergas de Esplandián, by García Ordóñez de Montalvo, for many years, the de Montalvo novel languished in obscurity, with no connection known between it and the name of California. In 1864, a portion of the original was translated by Edward Everett Hale for The Antiquarian Society, Hale supposed that in inventing the names, de Montalvo held in his mind the Spanish word calif, the term for a leader of an Islamic community. Hales joint derivation of Calafia and California was accepted by many, then questioned by a few scholars who sought further proof, george Davidson wrote in 1910 that Hales theory was the best yet presented, but offered his own addition. In 1917, Ruth Putnam printed an account of the work performed up to that time. She wrote that both Calafia and California most likely came from the Arabic word khalifa which means steward or leader, the same word in Spanish was califa, easily made into California to stand for land of the caliph خلیف, or Calafia to stand for female caliph خلیفه. Putnam discussed Davidsons 1910 theory based on the Greek word kalli but discounted it as exceedingly unlikely, Putnam also wrote that The Song of Roland held a passing mention of a place called Califerne, perhaps named thus because it was the caliphs domain, a place of infidel rebellion

32.
History of the San Fernando Valley
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In winter, torrential downpours over the western-draining watershed of the San Gabriel Mountains entered the northeast Valley through Big Tujunga Canyon, Little Tujunga Canyon, and Pacoima Canyon. By the time the Spanish conquest of Mexico reached Alta California in 1769, successive groups of indigenous peoples and these peoples tended to settle on well-watered and wooded areas at the Valleys margins. The Tongva, who spoke the Tongva language, a Uto-Aztecan or Shoshonean language, had a series of villages in the southern Valley along or near the river, including Totongna, Siutcanga and Kawengna. In the north-central Valley was a permanent village called Pasakngna, in the lower foothills of the mountains near natural springs. Other characteristic place-names of Tongva origin in the Valley include Tujunga and Topanga, the Tataviam were established in the valleys to the north, Pacoima is believed to be of Tataviam-Fernandeño peoples Tataviam language origin. The Hokan-speaking Chumash people inhabited Malibu, the Santa Monica Mountains, and the Simi Hills in the area of the Valley. In the Simi Hills the Burro Flats Painted Cave pictographs are located on Rocketdynes Santa Susana Field Laboratory property, inaccessible, the Tataviam-Fernandeño people inhabited the foothills of the Santa Susana Mountains in the Valley. The Tongva-Fernandeño inhabited the Valley, along the tributaries to the Los Angeles River, in 1769 the expedition led by explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the Los Angeles area of California overland from Baja California. We saw a very pleasant and spacious valley and we descended to it and stopped close to a watering place, which is a large pool. Near it we found a village of heathen, very friendly and we gave to this plain the name of Santa Catalina de Bononia de Los Encinos. It has on its hills and its valleys many live oak, - Father Juan Crespi, August,1769 The watering place was a pool fed by a perennial spring at what is now Encino, near the village of Siutangna. The name El Valle de Santa Catalina de Bononia de los Encinos refers to the encinos or evergreen Coast Live Oaks that studded the area, the expedition proceeded northward, camping at a site in the northern Valley before crossing over the mountains into the Santa Clarita Valley. By royal edict, all of the waters of the river and its tributaries were reserved for the Pueblo de Los Angeles, a condition which would have a profound impact on development of the Valley. By the end of the century, Spain had issued two grazing concessions north of the pueblo that included the southeastern corner of the Valley, Rancho San Rafael and Rancho Portesuelo. Francisco Reyes, alcalde or mayor of Los Angeles from 1793–1795, had set up an operation which he called Rancho Encino located in what is now Mission Hills near the village of Pasakngna. Reyess property had a water supply from artesian wells and limestone for building. This property he also called Rancho Encino, Mission San Fernando Rey de España was founded at Reyess original rancho site on September 8,1797 by Father Fermín Lasuén. The missions grazing lands extended over the flatlands of the valley, from this time the valley began to be called after the mission

33.
List of counties in California
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The state of California is divided into 58 counties. The region was first divided into counties on February 18,1850. These were further sub-divided to form sixteen additional counties by 1860, another fourteen were counties formed though further sub-division from 1861 to 1893. The last, Imperial County, was formed in 1907, California is home to San Bernardino County, the largest county in the contiguous United States, as well as Los Angeles County, the most populous county in the United States. More counties in California are named for saints than any other state, klamath County was created in 1851 from the northern half of Trinity County. Part of the territory went to Del Norte County in 1857. Pautah County was created in 1852 out of territory which, the state of California assumed, was to be ceded to it by the United States Congress from territory in what is now the state of Nevada. When the cession never occurred, the California State Legislature officially abolished the county in 1859. Buena Vista County - created in 1855 by the California legislature out of the territory of Tulare County on the west of the Sierra Nevada but was never officially organized. The south of Tulare County was later organized as Kern County in 1866, with additions from Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties. Coso County - created in 1864 by the California legislature out of territory of Mono County, the region was later organized in 1866 as Inyo County with additions from Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties. 1850–1900 California State Association of Counties, Map of California Counties, c

Ranchos of California
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The Spanish and later Mexican governments encouraged settlement of Alta California by giving prominent men large land grants called ranchos, usually two or more square leagues. Land-grant titles were government-issued, permanent, unencumbered property-ownership rights to land called ranchos, devoted to raising cattle and sheep, the owners of the ra

1.
Sketch map or diseño of Rancho Providencia, 1840s.

San Francisco, California
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856

San Mateo County, California
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San Mateo County is a county located in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 718,451, the county seat is Redwood City. San Mateo County is included in the San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, and is part of the San Francisco Bay Area and it covers most of the San Francisco Peninsula. S

Islais Creek
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Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel is a small creek in San Francisco, California. The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word slay or islay, around the time of the Gold Rush, the area became an industrial hub, and the condition of the creek worsened. After the devastating earthquake in 1906, the city decided to reclaim th

Mission Dolores
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Mission San Francisco de Asís, or Mission Dolores, is the oldest surviving structure in San Francisco and the sixth religious settlement established as part of the California chain of missions. The settlement was named for St, during the expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, this site was identified by Pedro Font as the most suitable site for a miss

1.
The original adobe Mission structure is the smaller building at left, while the larger structure is a basilica completed in 1918 (the architectural style was influenced by designs exhibited at San Diego's Panama-California Exposition in 1915).

2.
Mission Dolores, 1856

3.
The interior of the Mission chapel.

4.
Mission San Francisco de Asís around 1910. The wooden addition has been removed and a portion of the brick Gothic Revival church is visible at right. The large stone church was severely damaged in the 1906 'quake.

San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856

Bernal Heights, San Francisco, California
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Bernal Heights is a residential neighborhood in southeastern San Francisco, California. The prominent Bernal Heights hill overlooks the San Francisco skyline and features a microwave transmission tower, the nearby Sutro Tower can be seen from the Bernal Heights neighborhood. Bernal Heights lies to the south of San Franciscos Mission District and it

1.
The Bernal Heights hill and microwave tower.

2.
Bernal Heights. The Mission District is in the foreground and Hunters Point and the bay are in the background

3.
San Francisco as seen from Bernal Heights

Excelsior District, San Francisco
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The Excelsior District is a neighborhood in San Francisco, California. The Excelsior District is located along Mission Street, east of San Jose Ave, south of Interstate 280 Southern Fwy, west of John McLaren Park, neighborhoods within the Excelsior District include the Excelsior Neighborhood itself, Mission Terrace, Outer Mission neighborhood, Port

1.
A feature of the Excelsior District is that nearly all of the streets are named after national capitals such as London, Paris, and Moscow, or famous universities such as Cambridge or Bowdoin.

Bayview-Hunters Point, San Francisco
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Bayview-Hunters Point or The Bayview, is a neighborhood in the southeastern corner of San Francisco, California, United States. The decommissioned Hunters Point Naval Shipyard is located within its boundaries and Candlestick Park, Redevelopment projects for the neighborhood became the dominant issue of the 1990s and 2000s. Efforts include the Bayvi

1.
A birds-eye view of the Bayview/Hunters Point neighborhood of San Francisco. Candlestick Park, a Football stadium, is in the foreground

2.
The Bayview Opera House (previously South San Francisco Opera House), was constructed in 1888 and designated a California landmark on December 8, 1968. It was nominated for the National Registry in 2010

3.
Outline

Anza Expedition
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Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was a New-Spanish explorer of Basque descent, and Governor of New Mexico for the Spanish Empire. Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, New Spain in 1736 and he was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras and he advanced rapidly and was a capt

1.
Juan Bautista de Anza

2.
Signature

3.
Juan Bautista de Anza, from a portrait in oil by Fray Orsi in 1774

4.
Map of the route, Juan Bautista de Anza travelled in 1775–76 from Mexico to today's San Francisco

Mexican Cession
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The Mexican Cession was the third largest acquisition of territory in US history. The northern boundary of the 42nd parallel north was set by the Adams–Onís Treaty signed by the U. S. and Spain in 1821 and ratified by Mexico in 1831. The eastern boundary of the Mexican Cession was the Texas claim at the Rio Grande and extending north from the headw

2.
Area Mexico ceded to the United States in 1848, minus Texan claims. The Mexican Cession consist of present day U.S. states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico, about a quarter of Colorado, and a small section of Wyoming.

Mexican-American War
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It followed in the wake of the 1845 U. S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory in spite of its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution. After its independence in 1821 and brief experiment with monarchy, Mexico became a republic in 1824 and it was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill-prepare

1.
Clockwise from top left U.S. soldiers engaging the retreating Mexican force during the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, American victory at Churubusco outside Mexico City, U.S. marines storming Chapultepec castle under a large American flag, Winfield Scott entering Plaza de la Constitución after the Fall of Mexico City.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
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With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U. S. to pay $15 million to Mexico, Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexicos new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. Over 90% chose to become U. S.

1.
Cover of the exchange copy of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

2.
"Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Méjico. The Distrunell map used during the negotiations.

William Tecumseh Sherman
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William Tecumseh Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and he served under General Ulysses S. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war and he proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city

1.
Sherman as a major general in May 1865. The black ribbon of mourning on his left arm is for U.S. President Lincoln. Portrait by Mathew Brady.

2.
Sherman's childhood home in Lancaster

3.
Young Sherman in military uniform

4.
An 1866 painted portrait of Sherman, by George P.A. Healy.

Foreclosure
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Formally, a mortgage lender, or other lienholder, obtains a termination of a mortgage borrower s equitable right of redemption, either by court order or by operation of law. Usually a lender obtains a security interest from a borrower who mortgages or pledges an asset like a house to secure the loan. If the borrower defaults and the lender tries to

1.
House in Salinas, California under foreclosure, following the popping of the U.S. real estate bubble.

2.
Notices accumulate on the door and window of a foreclosed, unoccupied house

Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

History of California
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California was settled from the North by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years. It was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America, after contact with Spanish explorers, most of the Native Americans died out from European diseases. After the Portolà expedition of 1769–70, Spanish mi

1.
A 1562 map of the Americas, which applied the name California for the first time.

2.
The journey of Francis Drake up the Pacific Coast in 1579.

3.
The Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó, Loreto, Baja California Sur, was founded in 1697.

History of California before 1900
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Human history in California begins with indigenous Americans first arriving in California some 13, 000–15,000 years ago. Exploration and settlement by Europeans along the coasts and in the valleys began in the 16th century. California was acquired by the United States under the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the defeat of M

1.
California's Yosemite Valley

2.
California was misrepresented in early maps as an island. This example c. 1650. Restored.

3.
A portrait of Junípero Serra

Indigenous peoples of California
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With over forty groups seeking to be federally recognized tribes, California has the second largest Native American population. The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of Californias boundaries, many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes, and some tribes on the Oregon border are cla

1.
A map of California tribal groups and languages at the time of European contact.

California Trail
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The California Trail was an emigrant trail of about 3,000 miles across the western half of the North American continent from Missouri River towns to what is now the state of California. In the present states of Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah, by 1847, two former fur trading frontier forts marked trailheads for major alternative routes through Utah and Wy

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California Trail Auto Tour Route Marker

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A night snowshoe hike on the California Trail near Elko, Nevada.

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South Pass sign

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Chimney Rock, Nebraska

Californio
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The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho g

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José Antonio Estudillo

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USS Cyane taking San Diego 1846

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Juan Bautista Alvarado

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The California state flag flying at San Francisco City Hall

California Republic
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In June 1846, a number of American immigrants in Alta California rebelled against the Mexican departments government. The immigrants had not been allowed to buy or rent land and had threatened with expulsion from California because they had entered without official permission. Mexican officials were concerned about a war with the United States coup

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Pío Pico

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The Bear Flag

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US President James K Polk

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José Castro

California Gold Rush
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The California Gold Rush began on January 24,1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States, the Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide, with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868. By the time i

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Sailing to California at the beginning of the Gold Rush

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Merchant ships fill San Francisco harbor, 1850–51

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Panning for gold on the Mokelumne River

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"Independent Gold Hunter on His Way to California", circa 1850. The gold hunter is loaded down with every conceivable appliance, much of which would be useless in California. The prospector says: "I am sorry I did not follow the advice of Granny and go around the Horn, through the Straights, or by Chagres [Panama]."

California in the American Civil War
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The State of California did not send its units east, but many citizens traveled east and joined the Union Army there, some of whom became famous. Californias Volunteers also conducted operations against the native peoples within the state and in the other Western territories of the Departments of the Pacific. Following the Gold Rush, California was

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Union states in the American Civil War

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Company Guidon, Company A ('California' 100), raised in Massachusetts

California Water Wars
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The California Water Wars were a series of conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California. As Los Angeles grew in the late 19th century, it started to outgrow its water supply, fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, realized that water could flow from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aquedu

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The Los Angeles Aqueduct in the Owens Valley

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Joseph Reddeford Walker explored the Owens Valley

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Frederick Eaton

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William Mulholland with a surveyor's scope, ca.1908-1913

History of California's state highway system
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The state highway system in the U. S. state of California dates back to 1896, when the state took over maintenance of the Lake Tahoe Wagon Road. Construction of a connected system began in 1912, after the states voters approved an $18 million bond issue for over 3000 miles of highways. The last large addition was made by the California State Assemb

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Recommended state highway system, 1896

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The Bureau of Highways with their buckboard wagon in Riverside County, 1896

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The Ridge Route, ca. 1920

Maritime history of California
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In the northwest coast of California near the redwood forests several Indian tribes developed large dugout canoes they used for fishing, trade and warfare. These canoes were constructed by taking a tree and shaping it with hand tools. A redwood log 4 metres long and 240 centimetres diameter weighs about 2,000 kilograms and this large weight meant t

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Monterey Bay

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Dugout canoe

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Tule reeds growing wild near water

Spanish missions in California
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The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authorit

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A view of Mission San Juan Capistrano in. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added espadaña; behind the campanario, or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins."

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The Missionaries as They Came and Went. Franciscans of the California missions donned gray habits, in contrast to the brown that is typically worn today.

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The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians."

History of rail transportation in California
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In recent years, passenger rail transportation has undergone something of a renaissance, with the introduction of services such as Metrolink, Coaster, Caltrain, Amtrak California, and others. On November 4,2008, the People of California passed Proposition 1a, the early Forty-Niners of the California Gold Rush wishing to come to California were face

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The Golden Spike ceremony held at Promontory Summit, Utah on May 10, 1869. Photograph by Andrew J. Russell.

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A streetcar of the Pacific Electric Railway makes a stop at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, circa 1905.

Etymology of California
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California is a place name used by three North American states, in the United States by the state of California, and in Mexico by the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. Collectively, these three constitute the region formerly referred to as The Californias. The name California is shared by other places in other parts of the world wh

History of the San Fernando Valley
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In winter, torrential downpours over the western-draining watershed of the San Gabriel Mountains entered the northeast Valley through Big Tujunga Canyon, Little Tujunga Canyon, and Pacoima Canyon. By the time the Spanish conquest of Mexico reached Alta California in 1769, successive groups of indigenous peoples and these peoples tended to settle on

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Mission San Fernando c. 1900

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Don Andrés Pico

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Beale's Cut through the San Fernando Pass, c.1872

List of counties in California
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The state of California is divided into 58 counties. The region was first divided into counties on February 18,1850. These were further sub-divided to form sixteen additional counties by 1860, another fourteen were counties formed though further sub-division from 1861 to 1893. The last, Imperial County, was formed in 1907, California is home to San