A reference electrode is an electrode which has a stable and well-known electrode potential. The high stability of the electrode potential is usually reached by employing a redox system with constant (buffered or saturated) concentrations of each participants of the redox reaction.
There are many ways reference electrodes are used. The simplest is when the reference electrode is used as a half cell to build an electrochemical cell. This allows the potential of the other half cell to be determined. An accurate and practical method to measure an electrode's potential in isolation (absolute electrode potential) has yet to be developed.

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The potential difference can be measured between two identical reference electrodes placed in the two phases. ... an ion selective electrode and a reference electrode, placed in the sample solution. .... Warsaw University of
Technology

Reference Electrodes are a crucial part of any electrochemical system, yet an up-to-date and comprehensive handbook is long overdue. Here, an experienced team of electrochemists provides an in-depth source of information and data for the proper choice and construction of reference electrodes. This includes all kinds of applications such as aqueous ...

Get fast access to important diagnostic tests and procedures with Mosby's Diagnostic & Laboratory Test Reference, 11th Edition by Kathleen Deska Pagana and Timothy J. Pagana. In this bestselling handbook, concise test entries are arranged alphabetically and reflect the latest in research and diagnostic testing. Each test entry includes vit...

7.4a is for macrosized (1—5 mm diameters) disk working electrodes the region
where Ru can be minimised is in the 5—10 mm separation region or below.
Again practically this means that a choice of correct reference electrode
assembly ...

Energy Diagram of Semiconductor/Electrolyte Junctions Juan Bisquert, Peter Cendula, Luca Bertoluzzi, and Sixto Gimenez J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, pp 205–207, 2014. In photoelectrochemistry, the voltage is measured with respect to a reference electrode, or in a two electrode cell, but only the points at the surface of a semiconductor electrode are measured. In solid…

The practical feasibility of using a Kelvin Probe as a novel reference electrode in the measurement of both potential and polarization pulse response of reinforcing steel in concrete is demonstrated. Potential values measured using a KP reflect greater stability and repeatability than can typically be attained with conventional reference electrodes. Duplicate reinforced concrete beam test specimens with well-differentiated centrally corroding rebar segments were analyzed using both the Kelvin Probe (KP) and a conventional Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE). Potential profile maps were developed using potential values recorded under static conditions with both the SCE and the KP. Nominal polarization resistance was obtained using potential values recorded under dynamic polarization in both the active and passive regions using the KP and the SCE in conjunction with a customized counter electrode that applied a small galvanostatic polarizing current. In all cases the observed static potential values and dynamic potential response and recovery curves observed using the KP were consistent in shape and magnitude with those observed using conventional reference electrodes.

So I've wanted to build an EEG since I was in college and have numerous times spec'd out parts etc but never really got going. I've followed the OpenEEG project for ages, but technology wise it has remained rather stagnant.

Cathelco are supplying ICCP hull corrosion protection systems for two FPSOs which are being constructed through conversion by SBM Offshore to provide production and storage facilities in the Lula field off the Brazilian coast for a consortium headed by Petrobras.

Over the past two decades, there has been an increasing trend towards miniaturization of both biological and chemical sensors and their integration with miniaturized sample pre-processing and analysis systems. These miniaturized lab-on-chip devices have several functional advantages including low cost, their ability to analyze smaller samples, faster analysis time, suitability for automation, and increased reliability and repeatability. Electrical based sensing methods that transduce biological or chemical signals into the electrical domain are a dominant part of the lab-on-chip devices. A vital part of any electrochemical sensing system is the reference electrode, which is a probe that is capable of measuring the potential on the solution side of an electrochemical interface. Research on miniaturization of this crucial component and analysis of the parameters that affect its performance, stability and lifetime, is sparse. In this paper, we present the basic electrochemistry and thermodynamics of these reference electrodes and illustrate the uses of reference electrodes in electrochemical and biological measurements. Different electrochemical systems that are used as reference electrodes will be presented, and an overview of some contemporary advances in electrode miniaturization and their performance will be provided.