Tatiana Segal (The Sergiu
Al-George Oriental Studies Institute)

Aspects of the Relationship
between "Moral Values" and Xing ("Inner
Nature") in the Zhuangzi

Xing ("inner nature") is the most
important feature of each of "the ten thousand things"
wan wu, or, as Isabelle Robinet (1986, 183) called it,
"that something which every being is born with, that is, its
original nature and thus, fundamentally, that which is inborn in
it."

The character xing comes from the root
"heart" (xin) and the phonetic "life,"
"to give birth," "to be born,"
(sheng). In Léon Wieger's opinion xing
designates "the complex of features and dispositions, the
heart (xin) that a human being has received at
birth," namely his nature, qualities and natural
dispositions that are inborn. By this explanation, Léon Wieger
reduces the semantic field of the term xing ("inner
nature") to the human perspective. Similarly restrictive,
the definition in Shuo wen jie zi yi zheng reads:
"xing is the human being's yang breath;
xing is that which is good."[1] However, in Wang Chong's (27 ~ 97)[2] commentary in the Lun Heng (Ben
xing) that follows this definition, the term xing
("nature", "intrinsic nature") is related to
qing ("feelings") and is thus introduced in the
complex system of Chinese concepts and categories. According to
Wang Chong, from the writings of his predecessors one may draw a
conclusion such as the following: "Heaven's major law is
that it is composed of a yin element and a yang
element; man's major law is that it is composed of feelings
and nature; nature is born in the yang, feelings are born
in the yin; the yin breath lacks humanity, the
yang breath is full of humanity..."[3]and so on; from this point forward,
correlations keep growing both numerologically, by discussing the
five elements of nature and the six feelings, and ethically, by
distinguishing the components of good and evil. Thus xing
("inner nature") seen as being of the yang
("male," "bright," "active") kind
is for qing ("feelings"), which is classified as
yin ("female," "dark,"
"passive"), just as light is to dark. At the same time,
in general "feelings" (qing) are considered to
be basic impulses, uncontrolled urges that demean inner nature
and cause excess.

We shall not insist upon the various possibilities
of defining and understanding "inner nature"
(xing) as related to other notions, nor shall we linger
over the debate concerning the essence of "human
nature" (ren xing), however interesting the analysis
of the decisive factor of defining traditional Chinese thought as
philosophy may be;[4] much
less shall we dwell on the philosophical debate that various
theories put forward during the Warring States period and
developed over the centuries caused in the Song dynasty, when a
movement of recovering the legacy of antiquity burst out.[5] Instead, we shall concentrate
our analysis upon the various aspects of the relationship between
the notion of xing ("inner nature") and moral
values in the Zhuangzi, whether this relationship is mediated,
conditioned or caused by other notions such as qing
("feelings"), ming ("destiny"), etc.,
or not. We must emphasize the fact that we are engaging upon this
course of analysis fully aware that the notion of xing
("inner nature") appears but once in the first seven
chapters of the Zhuangzi, the only chapters that are almost
unanimously recognized as authentic. We must also specify that in
the course of our analysis we shall consider the Zhuangzi as a
unitary whole. The notion of xing ("inner
nature") is frequently used in the middle part of the book
with meanings that do not differ from the ones we find in the
Confucian texts.

In our opinion, the Zhuangzi makes it quite clear
that the "World under Heaven" (tian xia) is
ruled by the disorder caused exclusively by human factors, such
as a sovereign (jun) unworthy of his task or a so-called
"sage" (sheng ren) who promotes different
doctrines than the one promoted by the author of the text. The
only one who can straighten the World under Heaven and discard
all evil is yet another human factor, represented by the true
"sage" who acts according to a law superior to human
laws - the dao. That is why the Daoist philosopher takes into
consideration the relationship between xing ("inner
nature," specifically understood as "human
nature") and morality, i.e. the way in which the inner
nature of things and humans may be and actually is modified by
the acceptance of moral values, the way in which morality is a
component of human nature and, of course, the way in which human
ethics correspond to the universal order.

Should one go back, along with Zhuangzi, to the
ideal level of the "time of perfect virtue" (zhi de
zhi shi), one might find out that each thing has the shape
and role allotted to it by nature, the very ones that make it
possible for it to fulfill itself in universal harmony.
Therefore, for the Daoist philosopher, "The fact that things
fulfill themselves in their natural reason is called shape. The
shape and the body protect the spirit. The fact that each has its
own principle is called inner nature. Inner nature cultivates
itself and returns to virtue. Virtue perfects itself and
resembles the beginning. The resemblance is indeed the void; the
void is indeed great."[6]
Thus, for Zhuangzi, in those immemorial times, "inner
nature" (xing) interrelates with "shape"
(xing), in the sense that, on the one hand,
"shape" matches "inner nature" and, on the
other, "inner nature" makes possible the realization of
"shape": It should also be pointed out that
"nature", to the degree it is cultivated according to
Daoist principles, is rediscovered and completed in
"virtue" (de), the supreme human value.

Nevertheless, in opposition to the statement above
about the necessity for "inner nature" (xing) to
be cultivated in order to complete itself as well as to his
entire system of thought, Zhuangzi, the unparalleled master of
relativity for whom everything is in ceaseless change, holds that
"Nature cannot be changed, destiny cannot be transformed,
time cannot be stopped, the dao cannot be confined."[7] If we proceed to a more
careful analysis of this contradiction, we shall find out that it
is, in fact, only apparent, as there is no real inadvertence. In
our view, the fact that "nature cannot be changed " or
that "destiny cannot be transformed" does not mean
either permanence or stillness. Both "inner nature"
(xing) and "destiny" (ming) enclose
within themselves the very core of motion and becoming; they do
move and evolve, but this time only unidirectionally, in the
natural course imposed by natural laws. That is why, for
Zhuangzi, "In the World under Heaven there is common nature,
according to which whatever is bent is not so because of the
hook, whatever is straight is not so because of the rope,
whatever is round is not so because of the compass, whatever is
angled is not so because of the square..."[8]; any outer intervention on
"shape" (xing), in the sense of violating
natural laws and the commandments of Heaven, can only result in
modifying, demeaning or even annihilating "nature"
(xing). Thus, in order to avoid any reckless intervention,
the one who has acquired the skill of "acting by
non-action" (wu wei wei zhi) must be fully aware of
the "inner nature" (xing) of each and every
thing, as well as their features and destinations. But in the
field of knowledge, where everyone strives to promote his own
teachings, his individual point of view, and to convince the
others - mostly the rulers - about his own "truth" and
thus gain a privileged position or greater and more numerous
advantages, relativity has no limits. Moreover, whatever is
favorable, good, suited to the "inner nature"
(xing) of a certain category of beings or things becomes
the very opposite with respect to all the others. For example:
"Should somebody sleep in dampness, his kidneys could catch
a fatal disease; but is it the same for the loach? Should he
dwell up in trees, he would feel frightened and restless; but is
it the same for the monkey? Which one of the three knows the
normal dwelling? Man feeds on plants and various animals, the
stag feeds on grass, the myriapod makes the snake's desert
and the owl likes mice. Which one of these four knows the normal
taste?"[9]

Synthesizing the few points that we have applied to
a general, abstract field, or maybe to "the time of perfect
virtue" (zhi de zhi shi), we may now emphasize, first
of all, the fact that "inner nature" (xing) and
"shape" (xing) are of major importance to the
establishing of the place and meaning of each entity in the World
under Heaven; in other words, to the establishing of its mission
or "destiny" (ming). Secondly, it should be
pointed out that, in order to act according to the universal
natural laws, man must be aware of the particulars of each one of
the "ten thousand things" wan wu, namely their
"shape" (xing), their "inner nature"
(xing) and their "destiny" (ming).
Finally, it should be emphasized that "inner nature"
(xing) completes itself in "virtue" (de)
- the dao's way of manifestation on the human plane.

These facts grant us at least three new
possibilities of analysis. The first would focus on the study of
the relational field of "inner nature" (xing)
beginning from the binomial pair "inner nature"
(xing) . "shape" (xing) with a focus on
the Zhuangzi; this analysis is out of the scope of the present
paper. The second would consist in approaching the relationship
between "inner nature" (xing) and
"knowledge" (zhi), with an emphasis on the
second notion, followed by an exploration of the theme of
knowledge in Daoist perspective as contrasted with the Confucian
one: this analysis will make the subject of further research.
Finally, another possibility is to analyze the relationship
between "inner nature" (xing) and moral values
with a focus on the relationship between "inner nature"
(xing) and "virtue" (de): this is what we
shall attempt below.

Taking into account the ideas above, namely that
"inner nature" (xing) perfects itself in
de ("virtue"), which is the corresponding term of
the dao, the way in which the dao manifests itself especially on
the human level, and also that "virtue" covers the
particular moral values of human beings beginning with the major
ones - ren, "humanity", and yi,
"justice" - as well as fulfilled "inner
nature" (xing), one may want to explore the
possibility of direct connection between these elements, which
are all contained in de ("virtue"). At the same
time, we should point out that, on one hand, from the Daoist
perspective the supreme moral values are similar to those of the
Confucians, i.e. ren ("humanity") and yi
("justice"), and that, on the other hand, "inner
nature" (xing) manifests itself through
"feelings" qing.[10] Thus, a possible way to connect "inner
nature" and moral values is that of inclusion, in the sense
that "inner nature" (xing), interposing itself
between de ("virtue") and the particular moral values
of ren ("humanity") and yi
("justice"), comprises them within itself, while the
latter take up the same form of manifestation as "inner
nature" (xing), namely that of "feelings"
(qing). Yet, the Daoist philosopher, looking around and
noticing that "The man who is an example of humanity of our
times grieves over the misfortunes of the world with bleary eyes;
the man who lacks humanity, despising the feelings of nature and
fate, ardently seeks fame and fortune,"[11] is right in wondering whether
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi) belong to human nature or not, whether they are truly
human feelings or not; in other words, whether they are natural
features or artificial skills, imposed by human laws and obtained
by altering "inner nature" (xing).

The conclusion reached by Zhuangzi brings us to
another aspect of social polarization in the Daoist perspective.
At one end we find "the man full of humanity,"
"the humane man" (ren ren), the Daoist scholar,
of course, who finds himself incapable of taking any action; at
the other end we see " the man who lacks humanity,"
"the inhumane man" (bu ren), the Confucian or
the Mohist scholar (but not only), who can but strive for social
fame and who would, for his goal, "& demean and
interrupt rites and music, cultivate and order humanity and
justice, serve and soothe the hearts in the World under Heaven
yet loses his ordinary nature."[12] If, as we have suggested elsewhere,[13] we can find in the Daoist
message two categories of "humanity" (ren) and
"justice" yi - one, of Confucian origin, which
is artificial, human, separated from the commandments of
"Heaven" (tian) and "inner nature"
(xing) and which alters the very inner nature of each and
every thing, and another one, of Daoist origin, which is natural,
subject to universal laws and which allows change to be as
natural as it can be, then there are no more paradoxes in the
quoted passage. It then becomes more clear that "the man who
lacks humanity" (bu ren) can be any scholar, not only
the Confucian or the Mohist scholar who criticizes the Daoists,
and that the type of "humanity" (ren) and
"justice" (yi) that he promotes are, of course,
artificial.

If we accept that Daoist moral values are included
in "inner nature" (xing), it is interesting to
notice that the man who practices a kind of morality that is of
human and not heavenly origin and which harms both the others and
himself, "loses his ordinary nature."[14] He is, however, sincerely convinced of
the just character of the teachings he has received from his
Master, which he assiduously advocates, and thus does not notice
the harm done by the constraints imposed upon the "inner
nature" (xing) of things. Moreover, he even despises
the solution put forward by the Daoist scholar who promotes the
observance of the commandments of "Heaven"
(tian) and of the natural laws just as in the "time
of perfect virtue" (zhi de zhi shi), taking this
solution to be regress rather than progress. On the other hand,
the Daoist scholar vehemently criticizes the actions of all those
who, through their teachings, turn the young away from obeying
the laws of "nature" (xing), and condemns them
for their actions, which he sees as crimes that irreversibly
modify the "nature" (xing) of the various
beings, even though this modification is not indispensable to the
existence and life of human beings. But when it comes to human
life, of course, the attitude of the Daoist philosopher is not
the same.

Therefore, Zhuangzi states implicitly and not
explicitly that the relationship between xing ("inner
nature") and moral values is one of inclusion, in the sense
that moral values are included in "nature"
(xing) and manifest themselves through qing
("feelings"). Also, in our view, Zhuangzi dissociates,
once more implicitly and not explicitly, the moral values of
"humanity" (ren), "justice"
(yi) and so on into moral values of Confucian origin and
moral values of Daoist origin, while referring to them with the
same words and thus making them harder to differentiate. For the
Daoist philosopher, this kind of dissociation opens a wide field
for the action of relativity, and the only way through which
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi) can be harmonized with "nature (xing)
begins with the rejection of the desire for fame and the return
to the universal natural laws for which "nature"
(xing) is partly the measure. Since moral values are
included in "nature" (xing) and manifest
themselves through "feelings" (qing), thus being
considered natural features, it is also quite interesting that
Zhuangzi does not appeal to reason as a means of becoming aware
of them.

The fact that reason does not intervene in the ways
of manifestation of moral values is illustrated by the Daoist
philosopher in the equation he draws between what is
"good" (zang) - a term synonymous to
(shan), "good" - and the "feelings of
nature" (xing qing), which he differentiates from the
moral values of Confucian kind, "humanity" (ren)
and "justice" (yi). That is why he states that
"What I call good is neither humanity nor justice; it is the
free rein given to the feelings of nature and to fate and nothing
more."[15] Thus by
relating "nature" (xing) to zang
("good") there emerges a new possibility of analyzing a
particular aspect of the relationship between xing
("inner nature") and moral values and of explaining
what Zhuangzi thinks to be "good" (zang), namely
the dao as a norm for perfection.

Analyzing the dichotomies established in the
Zhuangzi with respect to moral values as embodied in "the
humane man" (ren ren) and "the inhumane
man" (bu ren), it may be appropriate to specify that,
just as the lack of "humanity" (ren) of the
Daoist kind is not welcome, as it alters "nature"
(xing), so the excess of moral values, of whatever sort,
has no beneficial effect and does not make the one who abuses
them one of "the true men of the olden days" (gu zhi
zhen ren). Hence, "The one who abuses humanity and
justice that dwell in the five viscera is not the norm of the dao
and virtue."[16] And if
"the inhumane man" (bu ren) strives to gain
"fame and fortune," "The man who has humanity to
spare gets rid of virtue, suppresses his nature and rejoices on
fame."[17] It is thus
quite clear that the excessive "humanity" (ren)
and "justice" (yi) Zhuangzi refers to represent
as many distorted aspects of these values -
"Confucian", as we might call them - because they do
not dwell in the dao ("The Absolute") and in de
("virtue"). The one who has such values, overlooking
his own "inner nature" (xing), aims at goals
that the Daoists find unworthy and mean, such as titles, wealth
and fame. The distortion of these moral values does not come from
the fact that they dwell within the very human being, in definite
spaces such as "the five viscera" (wu zang), but
from their way of action. It may be appropriate to mention here
that, according to traditional Chinese thought, man is one of the
three fundamental elements of the cosmos, the equal of Heaven and
Earth, contained in the dao ("The Absolute") and
containing the dao ("The Absolute") within himself.
That is why Zhuangzi is of the opinion that moral values are not
perverted by the space in which they are situated - "the
five viscera" (wu zang) are also the headquarters of
emotions, except for the "heart-mind" xin which
is also the headquarters of "reason" (li) - but
by their excessive use, in disagreement with the universal
laws.

At the same time, the Daoist philosopher realizes
that immoderation does not stop at the manifest forms of
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi) or to their exponent - "the humane man,"
"the man full of humanity" (ren ren) - but harms
the whole field of affectivity. Thus, for example, "The one
with excessive feelings in his five viscera, spoiling the acts of
humanity and justice, abuses his hearing and vision."[18] Therefore, the existence of
the excessive and its misuse not only in the manifest forms of
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi), but in those of any kind of "feelings"
(qing) put us in the vicious circle of distortion. The
excess of "feelings" (qing) perverts moral
values and the perverted moral values, included in
"nature" (xing), pervert it once more. The
"inner nature" (xing) that has been harmed
manifests itself in the "feelings" (qing) which
it perverts once more, and the twice-perverted
"feelings" (qing) act upon moral values and so
forth. The way of reestablishing harmony lies, of course, in
eliminating the excess and compensating for the deficiency. This
demonstration also makes it clear that "feelings"
(qing) are not mere forms of manifestation of moral
values, but that they establish with them relationships of
inter-determination.

As we have already seen, man is where the
connection between xing ("inner nature"),
qing ("feelings") and moral values, particularly
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi), is realized. Yet man, whether he is a "man full
of humanity" (ren ren) or a man "lacking
humanity" (bu ren), is not only a driving belt
between causes and effects, be they positive or negative; he is,
most of the times, an active factor, even though, by behaving
this way and changing "nature" (xing), he
distorts, from a Daoist perspective, the essence. This is what
the Carpenter who "destroyed the pure wood in order to make
plates out of it,"[19]
the Horse-trainer who shod and harnessed wild horses in order to
tame them, the Stone-cutter who broke white jade in order to
carve slates and seals out of it, did. Yet Zhuangzi notices that
the difference between the things that these artisans made -
things that they thought useful for humans - and the waste that
appears after processing is over is only apparent. Such is the
case with "the one-hundred-year-old tree out of which they
carve libation vessels adorned with green and yellow; the waste
is tossed in the hole. Should one compare the libation vessels to
the waste in the hole, the difference between beauty and ugliness
will appear; but they had already lost their own nature."[20] From this example it would
follow that the Daoist philosopher embraces wild nature and
opposes any form of human progress. But let us not forget that
"the libation vessels" do not truly represent worship
objects, but rather symbols of the traditional cult, the cult of
the ancestors, which had only begun to be taken over by a
particular category of "scholars" who, for the sake of
its preservation, dared to enclose it within the limits of
stricter and stricter rules and to make a living out of
practicing and spreading it. And these "scholars" whom
Zhuangzi fought were mostly, but not exclusively, Confucians.

From the level of surrounding nature Zhuangzi
extends his analysis on the human world and discovers that the
effects of human action on it are utterly the same as that on
other creatures, i.e. a loss of "inner nature"
(xing). Thus, "Comparing Zhi[21] to Zeng[22] and Shi [23] brings up the difference in making justice,
even if they have equally lost their nature."[24] The association of these three
characters is striking at first. The fact that Zeng and Shi have
lost their "inner nature" (xing) should not
surprise us. The first character, Zengzi, was one of
Confucius's disciples, and it was only natural, at least from
the Daoist philosopher's point of view, that through the
doctrine he embraced and passed on he perverted his own
"inner nature" (xing). The second character, Shi
Qiu, exemplary in his practice of "justice" (yi)
- of course, of Confucian flavor - chose to be put to death, to
lose not only his "inner nature" (xing) but also
its support, "life" (sheng), rather than fail to
make his master, King Ling of Wei, aware of his own mistakes. In
contrast, Great Robber Zhi and his moral teachings - such as
"To presume that there are treasures in a room is wisdom; to
go in [there] first is courage; to be the last to go out is
justice; to know for sure what can be [stolen] and what cannot is
knowledge; to equally share [the plunder] is humanity; [and]
without these five qualities no one has ever become a Great
Robber in the World under Heaven."[25] - received the author's true support. And
yet, because of his activity, even Great Robber Zhi lost his
life. Therefore he also acted in the sense of harming "inner
nature" (xing). That is why Zhuangzi believes that,
in regard to the destruction of "nature" (xing),
Great Robber Zhi is not different from the other two.

The Daoist philosopher does not overlook this kind
of conclusion and tries to reveal the causes of the loss or
distortion of "inner nature" (xing). A possible
interpretation could be that: "The dao was forsaken and
humanity was used. Virtue was put at risk and action was used.
Abandoning their nature, men submitted to the heart-mind. One
heart-mind knew another heart-mind, but this knowledge was not
enough to put the World under Heaven on a path. Then they added
the Scriptures[26] to
knowledge and enriched it with erudition. The Scriptures
destroyed substance, erudition stifled the heart-mind."[27] Therefore the use of
"good" shan, "action" (xing) but
especially that of "knowledge" (zhi) led to
man's estrangement from the natural factors, i.e. "inner
nature" (xing), "virtue" (de) and
the dao. But this time Zhuangzi does not insist anymore on the
conditions which have led to the substitution of the natural
factors with the artificial ones nor on the agents that realized,
or at least favored, the transformation.

Instead, sensing the structural alteration of the
natural elements of all kingdoms, mineral, vegetal, and animal,
induced by the actions of men and determined by
"knowledge" (zhi) and ethics, Zhuangzi inquires
about the possibility of harmonizing the negative, artificial
factors and the positive, natural ones. That is why he asks and
asks himself rhetorically: "How can humanity and justice be
reached without discarding the dao and virtue? How can rites and
music be used without forsaking nature and feelings?"[28] He cannot grant us any
explicit solution, just as with all his essential questions. The
implicit answer is negative and leads to the conclusion that, in
order to keep what is natural - the dao and its form of
manifestation, de ("virtue"), xing
("nature") and its semblance, qing
("feelings") - everything artificial, namely
"knowledge" (zhi), the moral values of
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi), as well as all the other factors it comes in
relationship with must be abandoned. We must point out that, in
our view, the Daoist philosopher refers to "knowledge"
(zhi), "humanity" (ren),
"justice" (yi), etc. as understood, practiced
and transmitted to the descendants by other philosophical
schools, especially by the Confucians, and not to the ones that
he himself advocates, which are comprised in "the great
humanity" da ren or in "virtue" (de), found
in the dao and impossible to forsake.

Moreover, for the Daoist philosopher it is
extremely disturbing that the people of his times do not contend
themselves with altering the "inner nature"
(xing) of the things or creatures around them, but that
they extend this kind of action to other humans and even on to
themselves. And this is even more disturbing as this kind of
situation has not been so forever, for there was a time,
"the time of perfect virtue" (zhi de zhi shi),
when people had only one purpose, as it were, which they did not
admit or even know of, i.e. to preserve their vital energy,
"the breath" (qi). It was the time when men were
passionless and different only by virtue of skill not of rank, a
time when the entire human existence was developing naturally,
within the limits of necessity. But the ideal society of these
times evolved and became transformed; in fact, it underwent a
process of moral decay which spoiled not only the entire system
of government but also "nature" (xing) and
"virtue" (de), without even compensating for
this disturbance of things with other values cherished by the
Daoists such as "peace" (tian) and
"happiness" (yu). That is why, "In the old
days, Yao, governing the World under Heaven, made people rejoice.
People brought happiness to their nature but this did not bring
them peace. Jie, governing the World under Heaven, made people
get tired. People embittered their nature but this did not bring
them happiness. So, without peace and happiness there is no
virtue."[29]

This primary stage of harming "inner
nature" (xing) by of "joy" (le) and
"toil" (ku) is followed, during the Warring
States period - when the task of governing is fulfilled by a
"sovereign" (junzi) more or less wise, with the
help of a "sage" (shengren), mostly a Confucian
- by a total modification of "inner nature"
(xing). Therefore, when "The Great Sage governs the
World under Heaven, he troubles the hearts of people, having them
change their customs in order to fulfill his teachings, burn down
their thievish hearts and follow all his will only. If he only
acts according to his nature, the people will never be aware of
the reason of their actions."[30]

It is interesting to note, in view of a possible
analysis of the relationship between "inner nature"
(xing) and "knowledge" (zhi), that in
this case the modification of "inner nature"
(xing) did not imply the awareness or the agreement of
those who are subject to it. Thus, the "Great Sage"
(da sheng) can be simultaneously blamed for many mistakes,
the result of, in fact, one single action. First, he is guilty of
having distorted the "inner nature" (xing) of
the people he governs. Second, he is guilty of not having made
the people aware of his actions and their consequences. Third, he
is guilty of having made people adopt a certain way of action
and/or reaction.... And the list of charges could go on and
on.

From this secondary stage of "changing the
inner nature" (yixing), the supreme one, i.e.
sacrifice, is reached, because, through their efforts, people
uselessly consume their vital energy, "the breath"
(qi). This is why ever since the three dynasties - Xia,
Shang-Yin and Western Zhou - when "humanity"
(ren) and "justice" (yi) as practiced by
Huangdi, Yao and Shun first emerged, but mostly since the times
of Yu, when the Confucians and the Mohists appeared, each
individual, regardless of his position in society, has pursued a
goal for the sake of which he has harmed his own nature and body.
Thus, "The common man sacrifices for wealth, the officer
sacrifices for fame, the nobleman sacrifices for his clan, the
sage sacrifices for the World under Heaven."[31] It goes without saying that
Zhuangzi equally discards all the four kinds of sacrifice, and
that by the expression "sage" (sheng ren) he
means all the thinkers of the other schools and philosophical
doctrines. Yet all the other humans perceive differently their
own actions and the actions of their fellows. That is why for
them, "The one who sacrifices for humanity and justice is
usually called a sage king, whereas the one who sacrifices for
assets and wealth is usually called a commoner."[32] "The sage king"
(junzi) of the Warring States cannot be equated with
"the sage king" (junzi) of the "times of
true virtue" (zhi de zhi shi) who followed
"Heaven" (tian) and obeyed the commandments of
"The Great Dao" (da dao). That is why the ruler
of Zhuangzi's time was "a sage king for the people, but
a commoner for Heaven:"[33] he stops at human laws.

At this point of our analysis, where we have
reached a new relationship created around moral values, this time
with the act of governing seen from the point of view of its
impact on "inner nature" (xing), we actually
find ourselves at a new juncture. Without claiming to have
followed all the way to the end the problems concerning the
relationship between "inner nature" (xing) and
moral values, we should point out that this analysis could go on
in three directions. First, one could follow the links
established between "inner nature" (xing) and
other notions such as "knowledge" (zhi),
"life" (sheng) and "death"
(si), "good" (hao), "beautiful"
(mei) and even the "heart-mind" (xin). Second,
one could analyze the binomial pair moral values.governing, from
the point of view of the actors, the upholders of such values as
"humanity" (ren) and "justice"
(yi). And last, if we concentrate upon the pair made by
the two poles of society - "the wise ruler"
(junzi) and the "commoner" (xiao ren) - a
survey of the social typology during the Warring States period
could be conducted, with the possibility of extending the field
of study both synchronically and diachronically.

[4] Cf.
François Julien (1995, 57), who states that ren xing
("human nature") "becomes a subject of debate, the
first important philosophical debate in the Chinese
tradition."

[5] A more
complex analysis of the notion of xing ("inner
nature") in Daoism and Confucianism - both classical and
neoclassical - is undertaken by Isabelle Robinet (1986, 183-196).
Her survey seeks both to elucidate the meaning of one of the most
important notions found in the inner alchemy texts, (especially
the ones of the Quanzhen school - "The School of Total
Truth" - in the 12th century) and to point out the
connection between the alchemy texts of Daoist origin and the
Confucian ones. Major emphasis is laid on the various senses of
the word xing ("inner nature") as related to
li ("principle"), ming ("heavenly
decree", "destiny") and xin
("heart-mind"). As for the correlations of xing
("inner nature") analyzed in the system proposed by Zhu
Xi (1130 ~ 1200), a philosopher who tried to harmonize
Confucianism and Daoism, see Zhong Yingzheng (1986,
159-167).

[21] Zhi is
Great Robber Zhi. Great Robber Zhi was from the Kingdom of Lu. He
was said to be the younger brother of Liu Xiahui, the Sage. His
first name was said to be Zhi. He was the leader of a band of
nine thousand men with whom he roamed all over China robbing the
noblemen. The character is also present in the Mengzi and the
Xunzi. In the Zhuangzi an entire chapter is dedicated to him. Cf.
Ciyuan, 1988, p. 1187.

[22] Zengzi
(505 ~ 435 B.C.), a disciple of Confucius, was from the Kingdom
of Lu. He was said to be an example of "filial piety"
(xiao). He was also said to have sensed the unity of his
master's teachings. Cf. Ciyuan, 1988, p. 749.

[23] Shi
Qiu was a high minister in the Kingdom of Wei during the Spring
and Autumn period. He was said to be an example of exercising
"justice" yi and to have remonstrated, just
before his death, with King Ling of Wei, who had granted more
importance and trust to an ordinary courtier, such as Mi Zixia,
than to a sage, such as Qu Boyu. Cf. Ciyuan, 1988, p.
254.