3 Early Explanations of Mental IllnessLO 14.1 Early explanations of mental illnessEarly Explanations of Mental IllnessIn ancient times holes were cut in an ill person’s head to let out evil spirits in a process called trepanning.Hippocrates believed that mental illness came from an imbalance in the body’s four humors.In the Middle Ages, the mentally ill were labeled as witches.Menu

4 Definitions of AbnormalityLO Defining abnormal behaviorDefinitions of AbnormalityPsychopathology - the study of abnormal behavior.Psychological disorders - any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life.Menu

5 Definitions of AbnormalityLO Defining abnormal behaviorDefinitions of AbnormalityDefinitions of Abnormality:Statistically rareDeviant from social normsSituational context - the social or environmental setting of a person’s behavior.Subjective discomfort - emotional distress or emotional pain.Maladaptive - anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life.Menu

6 Biology and PsychopathologyLO How psychological disorders relate to brain and bodyBiology and PsychopathologyBiological model – model of explaining behavior as caused by biological changes in the chemical, structural, or genetic systems of the body.Menu

7 Psychological Viewpoints of PsychopathologyLO How different viewpoints explain psychological disordersPsychological Viewpoints of PsychopathologyPsychoanalytic theorists - assume that abnormal behavior stems from repressed conflicts and urges that are fighting to become conscious.Behaviorists - see abnormal behavior as learned.Cognitive theorists - see abnormal behavior as coming from irrational beliefs and illogical patterns of thought.Menu

8 Culture and PsychopathologyLO Abnormality in other culturesCulture and PsychopathologyCultural relativity - the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behavior takes place.Culture-bound syndromes – disorders found only in particular cultures.Menu

9 LO 14.6 How psychologists diagnose disordersDSM-IV-TRDiagnostic and Statistical Manual, Version IV, Text Revision is a manual of psychological disorders and their symptoms. DSM-IV-TRMenu

11 LO 14.7 Types of psychological disordersTypes of DisordersThere are five axes in the DSM-IV-TR, which include clinical disorders, personality disorders, general medical conditions, psychosocial and environmental problems, and a global assessment of functioning.Over one-fifth of all adults over age 18 suffer from a mental disorder in any given year.Major depression is one of the most common psychological disorders worldwide.Menu

15 LO 14.8 Types and symptoms of anxiety disordersAnxiety disorders - disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness.Free-floating anxiety - anxiety that is unrelated to any realistic, known source.Phobia - an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity.Social phobia - fear of interacting with others or being in social situations that might lead to a negative evaluation.Menu

16 LO 14.8 Types and symptoms of anxiety disordersSpecific phobia - fear of objects or specific situations or events.Claustrophobia - fear of being in a small, enclosed space.Acrophobia - fear of heights.Agoraphobia - fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible.Menu

18 LO 14.8 Types and symptoms of anxiety disordersObsessive-compulsive disorder – disorder in which intruding, recurring thoughts or obsessions create anxiety that is relieved by performing a repetitive, ritualistic behavior (compulsion).Panic disorder – disorder in which panic attacks occur frequently enough to cause the person difficulty in adjusting to daily life.Panic attack - sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying.Menu

20 LO 14.8 Types and symptoms of anxiety disordersPanic disorder with agoraphobia - fear of leaving one’s familiar surroundings because one might have a panic attack in public.Generalized anxiety disorder - disorder in which a person has feelings of dread and impending doom along with physical symptoms of stress, which lasts six months or more.Menu

21 Causes of Anxiety DisordersLO Causes of anxiety disordersCauses of Anxiety DisordersPsychoanalytic explanations point to repressed urges and desires that are trying to come into conscious, creating anxiety that is controlled by the abnormal behavior.Behaviorists state that disordered behavior is learned through both positive and negative reinforcement.Menu

22 Causes of Anxiety DisordersLO Causes of anxiety disordersCauses of Anxiety DisordersCognitive psychologists believe that excessive anxiety comes from illogical, irrational thought processes.Magnification - the tendency to interpret situations as far more dangerous, harmful, or important than they actually are.All-or-nothing thinking - the tendency to believe that one’s performance must be perfect or the result will be a total failure.Overgeneralization - the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure.Minimization - the tendency to give little or no importance to one’s successes or positive events and traits.Biological explanations of anxiety disorders include chemical imbalances in the nervous system, in particular serotonin and GABA systems.Menu

23 LO 14.10 Types of somatoform disordersSomatoform disorders - disorders that take the form of bodily illnesses and symptoms but for which there are no real physical disorders.Psychosomatic disorder - disorder in which psychological stress causes a real physical disorder or illness.Psychophysiological disorder - modern term for psychosomatic disorder.Menu

24 LO 14.10 Types of somatoform disordersHypochondriasis - somatoform disorder in which the person is terrified of being sick and worries constantly, going to doctors repeatedly, and becoming preoccupied with every sensation of the body.Somatization disorder - somatoform disorder in which the person dramatically complains of a specific symptom such as nausea, difficulty swallowing, or pain for which there is no real physical cause.Conversion disorder – somatoform disorder in which the person experiences a specific symptom in the somatic nervous system’s functioning, such as paralysis, numbness, or blindness, for which there is no physical cause.Menu

26 Causes of Somatoform DisordersLO Causes of somatoform disordersCauses of Somatoform DisordersPsychoanalytic explanations of somatoform disorders assume that anxiety is turned into a physical symptom.Behavioral explanations point to the negative reinforcement experienced when the “ill” person escapes unpleasant situations such as combat.Cognitive explanations assume that people magnify their physical symptoms and normal bodily changes into ailments out of irrational fear.Menu

27 Dissociative DisordersLO Types of dissociative disordersDissociative DisordersDissociative disorders – disorders in which there is a break in conscious awareness, memory, the sense of identity, or some combination.Dissociative amnesia - loss of memory for personal information, either partial or complete.Dissociative fugue - traveling away from familiar surroundings with amnesia for the trip and possible amnesia for personal information.Menu

28 Dissociative DisordersLO Types of dissociative disordersDissociative DisordersDissociative identity disorder - disorder occurring when a person seems to have two or more distinct personalities within one body.Depersonalization disorder – dissociative disorder in which a person feels detached and disconnected from themselves, their bodies, and their surroundings.Menu

29 Development of Dissociative DisordersLO How dissociative disorders developDevelopment of Dissociative DisordersPsychoanalytic explanations point to repression of memories, seeing dissociation as a defense mechanism against anxiety.Cognitive and behavioral explanations see dissociative disorders as a kind of avoidance learning.Biological explanations point to lower than normal activity levels in the areas responsible for body awareness in people with dissociative disorders.Menu

30 LO 14.14 Controversy surrounding “Sybil”Sybil ControversyThere is taped evidence to suggest that the psychiatrist treating “Sybil,” the famous multiple personality case, may have suggested to “Sybil” that she view her emotions as separate personalities.Menu

31 Mood Disorders Affect – in psychology, an emotional reaction.LO Types of mood disordersMood DisordersAffect – in psychology, an emotional reaction.Mood disorders - disorders in which mood is severely disturbed.Dysthymia - a moderate depression that lasts for two years or more and is typically a reaction to some external stressor.Cyclothymia - disorder that consists of mood swings from moderate depression to hypomania and lasts two years or more.Menu

33 LO 14.15 Types of mood disordersMajor depression - severe depression that comes on suddenly and seems to have no external cause.Manic - having the quality of excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability.Bipolar disorder - severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes.Menu

36 Causes of Mood DisordersLO Causes of mood disordersCauses of Mood DisordersPsychoanalytic theories see depression as anger at authority figures from childhood turned inward on the self.Learning theories link depression to learned helplessness.Cognitive theories see depression as the result of distorted, illogical thinking.Biological explanations of mood disorders look at the function of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine systems in the brain.Menu

37 LO 14.17 Main symptoms of schizophreniaSchizophrenia - severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality.Psychotic - the break away from an ability to perceive what is real and what is fantasy.Menu

38 LO 14.17 Main symptoms of schizophreniaPositive symptoms - symptoms of schizophrenia that are excesses of behavior or occur in addition to normal behavior; hallucinations, delusions, and distorted thinking.Delusions - false beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness.Delusional disorder - a psychotic disorder in which the primary symptom is one or more delusions (may or may not be schizophrenia).Hallucinations - false sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist.Menu

39 LO 14.17 Main symptoms of schizophreniaNegative symptoms - symptoms of schizophrenia that are less than normal behavior or an absence of normal behavior; poor attention, flat affect, and poor speech production.Flat affect - a lack of emotional responsiveness.Menu

40 Types of SchizophreniaLO Types of schizophreniaTypes of SchizophreniaDisorganized - type of schizophrenia in which behavior is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered.Catatonic - type of schizophrenia in which the person experiences periods of statue-like immobility mixed with occasional bursts of energetic, frantic movement and talking.Paranoid - type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations.Menu

42 Types of SchizophreniaLO Types of schizophreniaTypes of SchizophreniaUndifferentiated - type of schizophrenia in which the person shows no particular pattern, shifting from one pattern to another, and cannot be neatly classified as disorganized, paranoid, or catatonic.Residual - type of schizophrenia in which there are no delusions and hallucinations, but the person still experiences negative thoughts, poor language skills, and odd behavior.Menu

43 Causes of SchizophreniaLO Causes of schizophreniaCauses of SchizophreniaPsychoanalytic theories see schizophrenia as resulting from a severe breakdown of the ego, which has become overwhelmed by the demands of the id and results in childish, infantile behavior.Behaviorists focus on how reinforcement, observational learning, and shaping affect the development of the behavioral symptoms of schizophrenia.Cognitive theorists see schizophrenia as severely irrational thinking.Menu

44 Causes of SchizophreniaLO Causes of schizophreniaCauses of SchizophreniaBiological explanations focus on dopamine, structural defects in the brain, and genetic influences in schizophrenia.Stress-vulnerability model - explanation of disorder that assumes a biological sensitivity, or vulnerability, to a certain disorder will develop under the right conditions of environmental or emotional stress.Menu

46 Personality DisordersLO Types of personality disordersPersonality DisordersPersonality disorders - disorders in which a person adopts a persistent, rigid, and maladaptive pattern of behavior that interferes with normal social interactions.Antisocial personality disorder - disorder in which a person has no morals or conscience and often behaves in an impulsive manner without regard for the consequences of that behavior.Borderline personality disorder - maladaptive personality pattern in which the person is moody, unstable, lacks a clear sense of identity, and often clings to others.Menu

48 Causes of Personality DisordersLO Causes of personality disordersCauses of Personality DisordersPsychoanalysts blame an inadequate resolution to the Oedipal complex for personality disorders, stating that this results in a poorly developed superego.Cognitive-learning theorists see personality disorders as a set of learned behavior that has become maladaptive—bad habits learned early on in life. Belief systems of the personality disordered person are seen as illogical.Menu

49 Causes of Personality DisordersLO Causes of personality disordersCauses of Personality DisordersBiological explanations look at the lower than normal stress hormones in antisocial personality disordered persons as responsible for their low responsiveness to threatening stimuli.Other possible causes of personality disorders may include disturbances in family communications and relationships, childhood abuse, neglect, overly strict parenting, overprotective parenting, and parental rejection.Menu

50 Seasonal Affective DisorderLO Seasonal affective disorderSeasonal Affective DisorderSeasonal affective disorder (SAD) - a mood disorder caused by the body’s reaction to low levels of sunlight in the winter months.Phototherapy - the use of lights to treat seasonal affective disorder or other disorders.Menu

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