Marco Polo {1254-1324] is the most famous of medieval European travelers. His account of China inspired other Europeans, including Columbus, to both interest and greed. Serious questions have always been raised about the authenticity of the text. Most recently Frances Wood, head of Chinese language materials at the British Library, has pointed out that much of Polo's vocabulary is Persian rather than Chinese, and suggested that he got only as far as Persia. Others have noted that he omits descriptions of certain aspects of Chinese life which would seem unmissable - the Great Wall for instance, or the custom of foot-binding [which was well established by the 13th century].

Fact of fiction, the book was extraordinarily important and can be read now with pleasure and profit.

Chapter 44

Of the origin of the kingdom of the Tartars--of the
quarter from whence they came--and of their former
subjection to Un-khan, a prince of the north, called
also Prester John.

The circumstances under which these Tartars first began to
exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the
northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, but without fixed
habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where
there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and
plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and were
tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed) was
named in their language, Un-khan, by some thought to have the
same signification as Prester John in ours. To him these Tartars
paid yearly the tenth part of the increase of their cattle. In
time the tribe multiplied so exceedingly that Un-khan, that is to
say, Prester John, becoming apprehensive of their strength,
conceived the plan of separating them into different bodies, who
should take up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With
this view also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a
rebellion in any of the provinces subject to him, he drafted
three or four hundred of these people, to be employed on the
service of quelling it, and thus their power was gradually
diminished. He likewise despatched them on other expeditions,
and sent among them some of his principal officers to see that
his intentions were carried into effect. At length the Tartars,
becoming sensible of the slavery to which he tried to reduce
them, resolved to maintain a strict union amongst themselves, and
seeing that he planned nothing short of their final ruin, they
adopted the measure of leavingthe places they then inhabited, and
proceeded north across a wide desert, until they felt assured
that the distance afforded them security, when they refused any
longer to pay to Un-khan the accustomed tribute.

Chapter 45

Concerning Chingis-khan, first emperor of the Tartars,
and his warfare with Un-khan, whom he overthrew, and of
whose kingdom he possessed himself.

Some time after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and
about the year of our Lord 1162, they proceeded to elect for
their king a man named Chingis-khan, one of approved integrity,
great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his valor.
He began his reign with so much justice and moderation, that he
was beloved and revered as their deity rather than their
sovereign; and as the fame of his great and good qualities spread
over that part of the world, all the Tartars, however dispersed,
placed themselves under his command. Finding himself thus at the
head of so many brave men, he became ambitious of emerging from
the deserts and wildernesses by which he was surrounded, and gave
them orders to equip themselves with bows, and other weapons they
were expert at using from the habits of their pastoral life. He
then made himself master of cities and provinces, and such was
the effect produced by his character for justice and other
virtues, that wherever he went, he found the people disposed to
submit to him, and to esteem themselves happy when admitted to
his protection and favor. In this manner he acquired the
possession of about nine provinces. Nor is his success
surprising, when we consider that at this period each town and
district was either governed by the people themselves or had its
petty king or lord; and as there was no general confederacy, it
was impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a
power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed
governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct that
the inhabitants did not suffer either in their persons or their
properties. He likewise adopted the policy of taking along with
him, into other provinces, the principal people, on whom he
bestowed allowances and gratuities. Seeing how prosperously his
enterprises succeeded, he resolved on attempting still greater
things. With this view he sent ambassadors to Prester John,
charged with a specious message, which he knew at the same time
would not be listened to by that prince, demanding his daughter
in marriage. Upon receiving the application, the monarch
indignantly exclaimed: "Whence arises this presumption in
Chingis-khan, who, knowing himself to be my servant, dares to ask
for the hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, "and let
him know from me, that upon the repetition of such a demand, I
shall put him to an ignominious death." Enraged at this reply,
Chingis-khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he
entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a great
plain called Tenduk, sent a message desiring him to defend
himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with a vast
army, and took his position at the distance of about ten miles
from the other. In this conjuncture Chingis-khan commanded his
astrologers and magicians to declare to him which of the two
armies in the approaching conflict should obtain the victory.
Upon this they took a green reed, and dividing it lengthways into
two parts, they wrote upon one the name of their master, and upon
the other the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the
ground, at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the
king that during the time of their pronouncing their
incantations, the two pieces of reed, through the power of their
idols, would advance towards each other, and that the victory
would fall to the lot of that monarch whose piece should be seen
to mount upon the other. The whole army was assembled to be
spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were
employed in reading their books of necromancy, they perceived the
two pieces begin to move and to approach, and after a short time,
the one inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan placed itself on
top of its adversary. Upon witnessing this, the king and his
band of Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of the army
of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely routed it.
Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror,
and Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After this battle he
continued during six years to render himself master of additional
kingdoms and cities; until at length, in the siege of a castle
named Thaigin, he was struck by an arrow in the knee, died of the
wound, and was buried in the mountain of Altai.

Chapter 46

Of six successive emperors of the Tartars, and of the
ceremonies that take place when they are carried for
interment to the mountain of Altai.

To Chingis-khan succeeded Cyhn-khan; the third was Bathyn-khan,
the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mongu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan,
who became greater and more powerful than all the others,
inasmuch as he inherited what his predecessors possessed, and
afterwards, during a reign of nearly sixty years, acquired, it
may be said, the remainder of the world. The title of khan, or
kaan, is equivalent to emperor in our language. It has been an
invariable custom that all the grand khans and chiefs of the race
of Chingis-khan should be carried for interment to a certain
lofty mountain named Altai, and in whatever place they may happen
to die, even if it should be at the distance of a hundred days'
journey, they are nevertheless conveyed there. It is likewise
the custom, during the progress of removing the bodies of these
princes, for those who form the escort to sacrifice such persons
as they chance to meet on the road, saying to them, "Depart for
the next world, and there attend upon your deceased master,"
believing that all they kill do actually become his servants in
the next life. They do the same also with respect to horses,
killing the best of the stud, in order that he may have the use
of them. When the corpse of Mongu was transported to this
mountain, the horsemen who accompanied it, having this blind and
horrible persuasion, slew upwards of twenty thousand persons who
fell in their way.

Chapter 47

Of the wandering life of the Tartars--of their domestic
manners, their food, and the virtue and useful
qualities of their women.

Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell you
more about them. The Tartars never remain fixed, but as the
winter approaches remove to the plains of a warmer region, to
find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and in summer they
frequent cold areas in the mountains, where there is water and
verdure, and their cattle are free from the annoyance of horse-
flies and other biting insects. During two or three months they
go progressively higher and seek fresh pasture, the grass not
being adequate in any one place to feed the multitudes of which
their herds and flocks consist. Their huts or tents are formed
of rods covered with felt, exactly round, and nicely put
together, so they can gather them into one bundle, and make them
up as packages, which they carry along with them in their
migrations upon a sort of car with four wheels. When they have
occasion to set them up again, they always make the entrance
front to the south. Besides these cars they have a superior kind
of vehicle upon two wheels, also covered with black felt so well
that they protect those within it from wet during a whole day of
rain. These are drawn by oxen and camels, and convey their wives
and children, their utensils, and whatever provisions they
require. The women attend to their trading concerns, buy and
sell, and provide everything necessary for their husbands and
their families; the time of the men is devoted entirely to
hunting, hawking, and matters that relate to the military life.
They have the best falcons in the world, and also the best dogs.
They live entirely upon flesh and milk, eating the produce of
their sport, and a certain small animal, not unlike a rabbit,
called by our people Pharaoh's mice, which during the summer
season are found in great abundance in the plains. They eat
flesh of every description, horses, camels, and even dogs,
provided they are fat. They drink mares' milk, which they
prepare in such a manner that it has the qualities and flavor of
white wine. They term it in their language kemurs. Their women
are not excelled in the world for chastity and decency. Of
conduct, nor for love and duty to their husbands. Infidelity to
the marriage bed is regarded by them as a vice not merely
dishonorable, but of the most infamous nature; while on the other
hand it is admirable to observe the loyalty of the husbands
towards their wives, amongst whom, although there are perhaps ten
or twenty, there prevails a highly laudable degree of quiet and
union. No offensive language is ever heard, their attention
being fully occupied with their traffic (as already mentioned)
and their several domestic employments, such as the provision of
necessary food for the family, the management of the servants,
and the care of the children, a common concern. And the virtues
of modesty and chastity in the wives are more praiseworthy
because the men are allowed the indulgence of taking as many as
they choose. Their expense to the husband is not great, and on
the other hand the benefit he derives from their trading, and
from the occupations in which they are constantly engaged, is
considerable; on which account when he receives a young woman in
marriage, he pays a dower to her parent. The wife who is the
first espoused has the privilege of superior attention, and is
held to be the most legitimate, which extends also to the
children borne by her. In consequence of this unlimited number
of wives, the offspring is more numerous than amongst any other
people. Upon the death of the father, the son may take to
himself the wives he leaves behind, with the exception of his own
mother. They cannot take their sisters to wife, but upon the
death of their brothers they can marry their sisters-in-law.
Every marriage is solemnized with great ceremony.

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