Improving Air Quality with UA Cities have notoriously poor air quality due to their large amount of vehicle and industrial emissions

advertisement

Improving Air Quality with UA Cities have notoriously poor air quality due to their large
amount of vehicle and industrial emissions. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur
oxides (SOx), CO2, particulates, ozone, and VOCs are often measured at dangerous levels.
The urban 39 layout in many cities also causes the formation of dust domes containing a
variety of these airborne pollutants (Christopherson, 2009). Urban areas in North America
often have nitrogen dioxide levels which are 10-100 times higher than that of non-urban
areas, mostly resulting from vehicle exhaust. Condensation nuclei and particulates are found
at levels 10 times higher than rural environments and gaseous admixtures at 5-25 times the
rural levels (Christopherson, 2009). This is a leading cause of many health issues for urban
residents, especially children; air pollution accounts for approximately 2% of annual deaths
in the U.S. (Christopherson, 2009). The urban heat island effect also leads to the
concentration and exacerbation of air contamination. Energy-related emissions as a response
to high temperature levels account for a large portion of this increase. In addition, groundlevel ozone levels are directly increased by warmer air. This surface ozone is formed when
VOCs and NOx react due when they come into contact with heat and sunlight. Ozone
exposure can cause a number of respiratory ailments, from irritation of the lungs and throat to
lung inflammation, wheezing and difficulty breathing, and can worsen existing cases of
bronchitis, emphysema and asthma (Yip, Pearcy, Garbe, & Truman, 2011). In 2010,
Philadelphia (and the surrounding counties) exceeded the EPA standard for ozone (0.075
ppm as an 8 hour average) nineteen times (Philadelphia's Air Quality Report, 2010). In
addition to providing cooling benefits, green spaces such as rooftop gardens can help reduce
levels of air contaminants through their dry deposition and microclimate effects (Yang, et al.
2008 as cited in (Barreiro, 2012)). In dry deposition, vegetation filters the air by capturing
particulate matter. Leaf surfaces on these greened areas act as natural sinks for common
contaminants (Barreiro, 2012). Through this decrease in 40 temperature, ozone levels may be
reduced by the slowing of photochemical reactions. Plant photosynthesis contributes to
mitigation of urban CO2. Since rooftop gardens generally have taller plants with larger leaf
sizes, they may provide significant ozone and air pollutant mitigation benefits even beyond
traditional green roofs. In order to get a sense of the quantity of air pollution removal benefits
of urban agriculture, some comparisons must be drawn to other types of urban green spaces.
As numerous studies have shown, trees are very effective at reducing urban air pollution.
Approximately 711,000 metric tons of air pollution is removed annually by urban trees
(Nowak et al., 2006 as cited in (Yang, Yu, & Gong, 2008)). However, in densely populated
urban areas, it is not always possible to plant enough trees to mitigate a significant amount of
air pollution. Contaminant removal by traditional green roofs has also been evaluated and
should be considered. Levels of acidic gaseous chemicals and particulate matter decreased by
37 and 6%, respectively, on a 4,000 m2 green roof built in Singapore (Tan & Sia, 2005, as
cited in (Yang, Yu, & Gong, 2008)). Similarly, a Toronto study estimated that 7.87 metric
tons of air pollutants per year could be removed by 109 ha of green roofs (Currie and Bass,
2005, as cited in (Yang, Yu, & Gong, 2008)). Yang et al. reviewed these prior studies while
devising their research. Their study involved analyzing the pollution removing abilities of
intensive green roofs in Chicago. They found that as many as 2,046.89 metric tons of air
pollutants would be removed if the intensive green roofs were planted on Chicago’s
remaining green roofs. It can be extrapolated that rooftop gardens would have a similar air
pollution removal effect as that of non-agricultural green roofs, though further research is
needed to accurately quantify the comparative benefit. 41 As a result of increasing knowledge
of the benefits of green space on air quality, many cities are pursuing greening projects aimed
towards improving their air quality and helping to reduce the urban heat island effect. Urban
agriculture in the form of rooftop and community gardens/urban farms offers an alternative
form of green space that can be incorporated into urban design to help to address the issues of
excess urban heat and poor air quality. Also, utilizing urban agriculture in the form of
community gardens for air quality improvement may be a superior alternative to more
expensive greening projects, including rooftop gardens, since they would be comparatively
less expensive.
Food Waste Growing locally can also substantially help reduce food waste. According to a
UN report, “Global Food Losses and Food Waste in Western Countries”, approximately 95115 kg/year per capita is lost in food waste (Gustavsson & Cederberg, 2011). In terms of the
total percentage, about 30% of food, worth approximately $48.3, billion is discarded (Field to
Fork, 2008). 10-15% percent of this loss takes place during processing, transport and storage
(Field to Fork, 2008). Distribution accounts for about 10% of the loss for fruits and
vegetables. This is due mainly to food spoilage during transportation and rejection of produce
by supermarkets due to high “appearance quality standards” (Gustavsson & Cederberg,
2011). Non-uniformity and imperfection are the more likely causes of food loss in North
America and Europe, whereas in Africa and Southeast Asia the majority of waste occurs as
during transportation. According to an article based on the report (2011), appearance quality
standards are, So stringent that carrots with even a slight bend (making peeling a touch
harder) are discarded, and then pass through an ultraviolet light to eliminate those with even a
slight blend of colors or a somewhat duller orange coloration. Supermarkets demand apples
in exactly uniform sizes and shapes, refusing or not stocking those that muss the perfect fruit
pyramid (Gilbert, 2011). Much of this waste could be eliminated by transitioning more of the
urban food supply to locally produced fruits and vegetables. Food waste due to rejection is
less 47 likely with local produce because consumers are more aware that “prettier apples
don’t equate to better quality” and the food is less likely to have been damaged in
transportation. When people grow their own food in a community garden, know the person
who grew it, or know that it came from less than a few miles away, there is a much higher
perceived value and it is less likely to be sorted into the trash or allowed to spoil. They are
more likely to welcome a diverse range of shapes, sizes, and colors of produce, and to
understand that a blemish does not mean that an entire piece of produce should necessarily be
thrown out.
Growing Locally – Many Positives 1. Food Miles Historically, cities have not been places
for agricultural production; that purpose is left to the countryside. Urban historian Arnold
Toynbee’s definition of a city is even 44 based on a lack of ability to grow food, “A city is a
human settlement whose inhabitants cannot produce, within the city limits, all of the food that
they need for keeping them alive” (Toynbee, 1970: 8, as cited in (Pothukuchi & Kaufman,
1998)). In fact, over the centuries, food surpluses are often credited for enabling urban
development, and increased ease of processing, transportation, and refrigeration during the
Industrial Revolution led to an increased separation of cities from the land on which the food
supporting them is grown. The results of the (worldwide) Census of 2010 indicate that more
than half of the world population lives in urban environments. In recent decades several more
factors have contributed to the distancing of food production from the consumer, “The
centralization of supermarket buying, the globalization and consolidation of the food
industry, and the increased usage of regional distribution centers have all contributed to the
escalation of (global, addition mine) food transportation over the past 30 years,” (Finney
2006, as cited in (Pullman, 2010)). Despite the apparent “ease” of the current mainstream
food distribution system, the distance and means by which a great majority of food travels to
reach its point of consumption poses serious threats to the environment and human health in
terms of fossil fuel emissions. The “local food movement” has grown largely in response to
the negative impact of long distance food distribution on the environment. Long distance
transportation of produce requires enormous amounts of fuel and is a source of CO2
emissions which contribute to global climate change. Conscious consumers are intent on not
only on purchasing food that is organic, but that has traveled less “food miles”. Food miles
are a relative indicator of the amount of energy or fuel used to transport from farm to store,
with lower food miles representing lower transportation fuel usage and cost. As 45 a result,
they often signify lower greenhouse gas emissions. A total of .16 metric tons of CO2 are
emitted annually as a result of fruit and vegetable distribution (See figure 6). This also
accounts for the largest category of direct transport related CO2 emissions, at 50% of the total
transportation requirements (Weber & Matthews, 2008) (Weber & Matthews, 2008). A large
portion of this transportation is made by truck (accounting for about .13 metric tons CO2),
which is the mode responsible for the highest greenhouse gas emissions (71%) due to a
relatively high GHG intensity and the long distances typically traveled (Weber & Matthews,
2008). While distribution of carbohydrates initially accounts for a higher level of CO2
emissions per household (23%), when considering the fact that a higher percentage of
produce is delivered by truck, the impact reaches the same level. In order for food to be
transported, it must also be specially packaged, which adds to the environmental burden as
compared to locally grown food. Figure 6:CO2 Emission per Food Category and
Transportation Method. Credit: Weber & Matthews, 2008 The difference in total emissions
for a pound of beef from a farm outside the city and one that’s 3,000 miles away is only about
1% due to the relative intensity of other 46 inputs. However, the difference between
emissions to transport a locally grown tomato, such as from a community garden, and one
that is shipped in from across the country can be as much as 50%. While there are many other
great reasons to support local farmers, this example illustrates the impact that can be made by
growing and buying product locally.
Growing Biodiversity 79% of the total population of the U.S. resides in its urban land,
which only makes up about 2.6% of the total land area (Lubowski et al., 2006, as cited in
(Matteson K. C., 2007)). In the highly developed environment of cities, there is less room and
less opportunity for a diverse range of species to thrive. In fact, urbanization is considered
one of the leading causes of species endangerment due to the large range of environmental
alterations, resulting in habitat fragmentation, modifications of light and moisture systems
and a large number of invasive species (Rebele 1994, Niemela et al. 2002, Connor et al.
2003, McDonnell and Pickett 1990, Czech et al., 2000, as cited in (Matteson K. C., 2007)).
Increasing biodiversity of species in cities can be beneficial for local and regional ecosystems
as well as human health. Biodiversity in urban areas raises quality of life – improving
ecosystem services such as clean air and water and fertile soil. As one form of urban
agriculture, green roofs appear to be a significant contributor to urban biodiversity. Extensive
green rooftops, which are often preferred to more complex intensive roof gardens due to ease
of maintenance, typically contain close to a monoculture of Sedum plantings, and yet they
even they can provide habitat for wildlife. In general, 42 however, the greater the number of
species planted on a green roof, the more biodiversity that is promoted. A number of studies
in various countries have indicated the presence of avian and invertebrate communities on
different types of green roofs. A wide range of insects, including beetles, ants, bugs, flies,
bees, spiders and leaf-hoppers are commonly found on green roofs (Coffman and Davis 2005,
as cited in (Oberndorfer, et al., 2007), and rare beetle and spider species have occasionally
been documented (Brenneisen 2006 and Grant 2006, as cited in (Oberndorfer, et al., 2007)).
Plant species richness is positively correlated with a rich variety of beetle and spider species
(Gedge and Kadas 2004, as cited in (Oberndorfer, et al., 2007)). In turn the success of these
populations benefits other species, such as birds, increasing their numbers and types of
species. A Fordham University study looked at the frequency of migratory birds landing on
four green roofs and four traditional roofs passing through New York City on their southern
route. The green roofs appeared to be very effective at providing a stopping ground for the
birds, with three to four times the avian traffic compared to the traditional roofs (Sassi, 2011).
Threatened and endangered bird species may find suitable habitat on green roofs. Two
endangered bird species, northern lapwings and little ringed plovers, have used flat, extensive
green roofs in Switzerland for nesting and breeding (Baumann, 2006). Many of the
pollinators that support native vegetation and common garden species originate in urban areas
(St. Claire, et al., 2010). Even in New York City, 220 individual bee species have been
identified with the city limits, with 54 of these species being unique to New York City
community gardens (Giles and Asher 2006 and Matteson et al. 2008, as cited in (Matteson &
Langellotto, 2009). Urban agriculture can often allow for greater levels of biodiversity than in
similarly sized rural areas. One NYC study which surveyed small community gardens
ranging from 640 to 2188 m2, found that “florally rich community 43 gardens may be
utilized by over 100 bumble bee workers, with a density of 8 bumble bees per 100 m2 of
garden area”. In comparison, grassland habitats in Sweden were found to have a mean density
of less than 1 bumble bee per 100 m2 (Öckinger and Smith 2007). Similarly, relatively fewer
bumble bees (4 to 5 per sampling date) were found in 400 m2 plots within agricultural fields
in England, UK” (Carvell et al. 2004) (Matteson & Langellotto, 2009). It is a symbiotic
relationship between pollinators and a diverse range of urban floral vegetation, which allows
for the perpetuation and enhancement of both populations. Having a range of urban gardens,
parks and green space were attributed in part to the success of butterfly and burnet moth
species in grassland reserves in Prague, Czech Republic (Kadlec, Benes, Jarosik, &
Konvicka, 2008). By ensuring that a portion of the green spaces in cities are utilized as
community gardens or urban farms, biodiversity can be promoted within cities. Lovell agrees,
“Urban agriculture, like urban gardens, can also contribute to biodiversity conservation,
particularly when native species are integrated into the system.” (Lovell, 2010) (Smit & Nasr,
1992). As Garnett (1996) points out, urban food growers often cultivate varieties of fruits and
vegetables which are no longer commercially available, sometimes referred to as heirloom
varieties, which might otherwise cease to exist. She also mentions that beehives in cities have
been known to produce more honey, due to a higher density of flowers and trees. In addition,
organic farming attracts birds and other small wildlife as natural predators, creating corridors
of biodiversity in cities (Garnett, 1996)