Introduction

The papers in this volume
were originally presented at a migration workshop funded by thew Japan
Foundation in 1998. The workshops were organised by members of the Asia
Pacific Migration Research Network based at the Population Studies Center,
Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The aim of the workshop
was to bring together migration researchers and officials, identify key
issues in migration and ethnic relations and develop priorities for
research. This volume is one output of the workshop.

The first paper is by Sukamdi and Abdul Haris and is entitled ‘A Brief
Overview of International Migration’. The authors set out some of the
principal issues to be dealt with in this collection of papers. They point
out that Indonesia's reputation as a closed society in terms of labour
migration is undeserved because Indonesia is the largest exporter of
labour to the ASEAN region and the number of migrants is growing all the
time. There has been a change in the destination of Indonesian migrants in
recent years from the Middle East to the Southeast Asian region. For the
Indonesian government there are major issues to be addressed, especially
the low level of skills and education of many migrant workers. Labour
migration is a serious issue because it has the potential to harm
inter-governmental relations. Research will have to be carried out in an
inter-disciplinary fashion that makes use of the neo-liberal,
structuralist and functionalist approaches that dominate migration
literature.

The second paper is by Aris Ananta and is entitled ‘Economic
Integration and Free Labour Area: an Indonesian Perspective’. The author
surveys the available economic data and analyses concerning labour
migration and argues that a free labour movement does not necessarily
imply that everybody can automatically work wherever they choose. The
recruitment of workers, either skilled or unskilled, no longer depends on
her/his nationality, but on her/his qualification. Countries export and
import goods not on the basis of whether they produce and sell the
product, but whether the society really wants to buy the product. The
Indonesian government should make more information available to the
migrant workers about what jobs are available and let the market set a
price for their labour. The Indonesian government should also certify the
skill level of its workers. Sending workers to and receiving workers from
abroad must not be seen simply as efforts in producing foreign exchange.
The process of migration should be organized by the government in a
straightforward and inexpensive way that does not lead to the creation of
the huge black market in labour migration that exists currently.

The third paper is the work of Prijono Tjiptoherijanto, Assistant IV to
the Minister for Population and a staff member with the Faculty of
Economics at the University of Indonesia. The paper is entitled
‘International Migration: Process, System and Policy Issues’. Its central
contention is that in a globalizing era, labour migration is a key issue
for public policy in Indonesia. The problems are many not least the fact
that perhaps half the Indonesians working abroad do so illegally and some
are treated inhumanely by their employers. For Indonesia, labour migration
abroad has a positive side both for the individuals who receive higher
wages in the receiving countries, and for the state, which benefits from
remittances and the training received by Indonesian workers abroad. The
Indonesian government needs to do more to stamp out illegal migration so
as to protect Indonesians working abroad and to improve the educational
and skill levels of Indonesian migrants to ensure the maximum advantage
both for individual migrants and for Indonesia as a whole.

The fourth paper is by Riwanto Tirtosudamo and is entitled ‘The
Political Dimensions of International Migration: Indonesia and its
Neighboring Countries’. Following the work of Myron Weiner this paper
warns against an over emphasis on economic factors in understanding the
process of labour migration. The political dimensions of international
migration are crucial. Colonization and transmigration are examples of
political migration employed by the ruling elite to reduce the
possibilities of social unrest in Java and to remove the potential for
political instability in various places outside Java. The strong
geographical groupings of people based on race, tribe, language, and
religion have motivated the ruling elite to emphasize "unity" and national
integration. The two characteristics mentioned above cannot be isolated
from internal politics that have been very much dominated by the military,
particularly the infantry, throughout the New Order regime. The present
economic crisis has given rise to a fear of a migration exodus from
Indonesia to various neighboring countries, a prospect about which
Malaysia, Singapore and Australia have already expressed deep concern. The
plight of thousands of Indonesian migrant workers in Saudi Arabia and
Malaysia is clear, yet the Government has not created an institution to
protect migrant workers. The paper concludes that migrant workers should
be looked upon as citizens who have rights deserving respect.

The fifth paper is by Suko Bandiyono andFadjri Alihar and is
entitled ‘A Review of Research Work on International Migration in
Indonesia’. The authors argue that more macro studies of international
labour migration to and from Indonesia are needed and that they be backed
up with micro studies that are sensitive to historical and regional
factors. The authors point out that Indonesian international migration
takes two forms, the legal and the illegal. The travel arrangements and
other formalities for workers who go abroad legally are currently
processed by the government in liaison with the organizations that handle
the migration activities of these workers. Often the destination of
Indonesian migrant workers reflects historical factors such as the
existence in Malaysia of supportive Indonesians who have acquired
Malaysian citizenship in earlier decades. Studies on Indonesian
international migration indicate that migrants of Indonesian origin are
characterized by low education, limited knowledge and skills and are aged
between 15 and 40. They are often extremely vulnerable to exploitation
through practices like low pay, long work hours and engagement in multiple
tasks and even torture. Although international migration only contributes
US $ 800 million or 0.2% of Indonesian GDP, micro studies indicate that
international migration makes a significant contribution to regional
development and to the lives of the members of a migrant's family. The
need for improved access to data and an improved research effort on
international migration should be a priority for the Indonesian
government, the authors argue.

The sixth paper is by Ida Bagoes Mantra, Professor in the Faculty of
Geography, and a member of the Senior Research Staff at The Population
Studies Center, Gadjah Mada University. The paper is entitled ‘Indonesian
Labour Mobility to Malaysia: A Case Study - East Flores, West Lombok, And
The Island Of Bawean’. This paper aims to provide a picture of the nature,
the determinants and the movement of Indonesian migrant workers to
Malaysia so that the two governments involved may be able to anticipate
and plan for the impact of these migration activities. Malaysia has long
been an important destination for Indonesian migrant workers. The movement
of Indonesian migrant workers to Malaysia follows the pattern of a chain
migration process and the migrant's decision to work in Malaysia is
usually strongly supported by his family. The sharp economic contrast
between Indonesia and Malaysia had made the movement of Indonesian migrant
workers to Malaysia difficult to contain or prevent. Most Indonesian
migrant workers, especially those from East Flores, Lombok districts, and
Bawean island, go to Malaysia through illegal channels. The legal
procedure, according to the migrants, is too intricate and consumes a lot
of time and money. Indonesian migrant workers rely upon middlemen to help
them reach Malaysia but there is often conflict between the migrants and
the middlemen. The remittance carried back home by the returnee migrants
to their areas of origin represents a relatively small amount of money and
they often have to make return visits to Malaysia. A problem for the area
of origin is that the migrants represent a lost source of labour. The
author hopes that this research can be used as a basis to develop more
appropriate policies which can address issues like how best to maximize
benefits accruing to the people involved in migration activities and to
minimize conflicts between Indonesia and Malaysia over the issue of
illegal migration.

The penultimate paper is by M. Arif Nasution and is entitled
‘International Migration in South-East Asia: A Case Study of Indonesian
Workers in the Malaysian Peninsula’. This paper discusses workers
migration among ASEAN countries in the context of economic globalization.
Cases in this research are taken from the survey of Indonesian workers in
the construction sector in Kuala Lumpur in 1993. The paper concludes that
Indonesian workers have good prospects for entering the international
labour market, as evidenced by the increasing number of Indonesian workers
migrating to various countries. However, Indonesian workers generally work
as blue-collar workers. Their low level of education and skills represents
an obstacle for them in competing with other foreign workers (Indians,
Pakistani, Thai and Philippine workers). The government has not paid
enough attention to their protection and promotion in the international
labour market. The experiences of the migrants indicate that they were
often inhumanely treated. Consequently the government and related sectors
should empower Indonesian workers in order to be able to compete with
other foreign workers. Government protection is deserved not just for
humanitarian reasons but because of the achievement of Indonesian workers
abroad in boosting national income.

The final paper ‘International Migration, the Strategy for National
Development and Globalization’ is by Yeremias T. Keban. He notes that, in
theory, Indonesia is aiming for an approach to development that pays
attention to the decisions of the local community and reflects local
priorities and potential. Unfortunately, regional development has not yet
done much to help the areas concerned. Programs are very centralized and
bureaucratic, an approach that is not suitable for Indonesia considering
its diverse geography. Unless measures are taken, regions will become
increasingly dependent and backward, and poverty and unemployment will
inevitably reach explosive degrees. The tendency to look at the advantages
of migration from the viewpoint of economic benefits accruing to the areas
of origin of these workers is not convincing, in the opinion of this
author. The economic situation may be worse than before if the worker
decides to reside abroad, because a good number of them decide to go along
with their wives. This not only reduces the economic remittance to
Indonesia, but it also harms the local region. Economic problems, like the
ones presently experienced by Malaysia, results in Indonesian migrant
workers being forced to return to Indonesia. If Indonesia and Malaysia are
to enjoy the benefits of migration, a number of issues will have to be
addressed. These issues include the number and quality of migrants,
procedures for sending and settling migrant workers in places which are
legal, secure and guaranteed, and the establishment of policies concerning
workers rights and obligations while abroad. On this last point, all of
the contributors to this collection are in agreement.

Stephen Brown & Patrick
Brownlee

Foreword

International migration has become a
more important issue in population studies in Indonesia during the last
decade. Earlier studies in the field are concentrating on economic aspects
of labour migration. But, more studies currently have been conducted in
the area to disclose a much broader issues of international migration. The
Population Studies Centre, Gadjah Mada University (PSC-GMU) is conducting
a research projects to understand various problems facing Indonesian
working overseas in both destination and origin areas, including political
and cultural problems. Political and cultural aspects of international
migration deserve more attention due to the lack of information available
in this area.

This publication is a collection of papers presented at an
international workshop on international migration conducted by the PSC-GMU
in cooperation with the Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (AMPRN)
and Multi-cultural Studies, University of Wollongong, Australia. As the
national coordinator of the AMPRN, the Centre has initiated the workshop
to better understanding on various issues of international migration. The
workshop has set up a research agenda of the network. The workshop lasted
for five days and involved about twenty five migration researchers of all
over the country.

As the number of Indonesian labours working abroad increases
significantly during the last five years, more policy issues are facing
government officials and policy makers regarding this matter. Pro and con
arguments have come up in the public discourse on whether the government
should support or abolish the Indonesian labours working overseas. The
fact that international labour migration has involved various aspects of
the relationship between countries, such as political, cultural, legal,
and economic aspects, have made the debate even become very
complicated.

Due to the lack of reading on the international labour migration, the
publication is expected to enrich the debate. It is also expected to fill
the gap in knowledge on international migration that in the past years was
neglected by population researchers. For students who are interested in
international migration, I believe that they will find the publication
helping them to broader interest on various issues of international
migration. On behalf of the Centre, I would like to thank to all speakers
who have written a paper and participated in the workshop. For editors,
Sukamdi, Abdul Haris, and Patrick Brownlee who have work hard to prepare
the publication, I would like to appreciate all your works to make the
publication available.