In justice and law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or, in modern times, electronic monitoring) is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to a residence. Travel is usually restricted, if allowed at all. House arrest is an alternative to prison time or juvenile-detention time.

While house arrest can be applied to criminal cases when prison does not seem an appropriate measure, the term is often applied to the use of house confinement as a measure of repression by authoritarian governments against political dissidents. In that case, typically, the person under house arrest does not have access to any means of communication. If electronic communication is allowed, conversations will most likely be monitored. With some electronic monitoring units, the conversations of prisoners can be directly monitored via the unit itself.

Judges have imposed sentences of home confinement, as an alternative to prison, as far back as the 17th century. Galileo was confined to his home following his infamous trial in 1633. Political authorities have often confined leaders to house arrest who were deposed in a coup d'état, but this method was not widely used to confine numerous common criminals.

This method did not become a widespread alternative to imprisonment in the United States and other western countries until the late 20th century, when newly designed electronic monitoring devices made it inexpensive and easy to manage by corrections authorities. Although Boston was using house arrest for a variety of arrangements, the first-ever court sentence of house arrest with an electronic bracelet was in 1983.[1]

Home detention is an alternative to imprisonment; its goals are both to reduce recidivism and to decrease the number of prisoners, thereby saving money for states and other jurisdictions. It is a corrective to mandatory sentencing laws that greatly increased the incarceration rates in the United States.[2] It allows eligible offenders to retain or seek employment, maintain family relationships and responsibilities and attend rehabilitative programs that contribute towards addressing the causes of their offending.

The terms of house arrest can differ, but most programs allow employed offenders to continue to work, and confine them to their residence only during non-working hours. Offenders are commonly allowed to leave their home for specific purposes; examples can include visits to the probation officer or police station, religious services, education, attorney visits, court appearances, and medical appointments.[3][4] Many programs also allow the convict to leave their residence during regular, pre-approved times in order to carry out general household errands, such as food shopping and laundry. Offenders may have to respond to communications from a higher authority to verify that they are at home when required to be. Exceptions are often made to allow visitors to visit the offender.[5]

The types of house arrest vary in severity according to the requirements of the court order. A curfew may restrict an offender to their house at certain times, usually during hours of darkness. "Home confinement" or detention requires an offender to remain at home at all times, apart from the above-mentioned exceptions. The most serious level of house arrest is "home incarceration", under which an offender is restricted to their residence 24 hours a day/7 days a week, except for court-approved treatment programs, court appearances, and medical appointments.[2]

In some exceptional cases, it is possible for a person to be placed under house arrest without trial or legal representation, and subject to restrictions on their associates.[6] In some countries this type of detention without trial has been criticized for breaching the offender's human right to a fair trial.[7] In countries with authoritarian systems of government, the government may use such measures to stifle dissent.

In some countries, house arrest is often enforced through the use of technology products or services. One method is an electronic sensor locked around the offender's ankle (technically called an ankle monitor, also referred to as a tether). The electronic sensor transmits a GPS signal to a base handset. The base handset is connected to a police station or for-profit monitoring service.

If the offender goes too far from their home, the violation is recorded, and the police will be notified. To discourage tampering, many ankle monitors detect attempted removal. The monitoring service is often contracted out to private companies, which assign employees to electronically monitor many convicts simultaneously. If a violation occurs the unit signals the office or officer in charge immediately, depending on the severity of the violation. The officer will either call or verify the participant's whereabouts.[8] The monitoring service notifies a convict's probation officer. The electronic surveillance together with frequent contact with their probation officer and checks by the security guards provides for a secure environment.

Another method of ensuring house arrest compliance is achieved through the use of automated calling services that require no human contact to check on the offender. Random calls are made to the residence. The respondent's answer is recorded and compared automatically to the offender's voice pattern. Authorities are notified only if the call is not answered or if the recorded answer does not match the offender's voice pattern.

Electronic monitoring is considered a highly economical alternative to the cost of imprisoning offenders. In many states or jurisdictions, the convict is often required to pay for the monitoring as part of his or her sentence.

Aung San Suu Kyi, winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize and leader of her country's pro-democracy movement, was punished with house arrest for most of the period from July 1989 to November 2010. After being released from her initial confinement after six years in 1995, she was convicted again and imprisoned in 2000. Two years later, she was again released. She was convicted and jailed for the third time under house arrest for her criticism of the government following the infamous Depayin Massacre in 2003. After her 14th year of prison, she was released to her dilapidated home in Rangoonhe. She had to serve another 18 months in prison, convicted by a Burmese regional court in August 2009 after an American swam across Inya Lake to her house.[9] The United Nations has declared all of her periods under house arrest as arbitrary and unjust. She was released on 13 November 2010.

Ne Win, former military commander of Burma from 1962. He was believed to be behind the coup d'état of 1988 which officially deposed him. Following his son-in-law's effort to regain power, Ne Win was sentenced to house arrest in 2001, serving until he died in December 2002.

The last Hawaiian queen Liliuokalani persuaded leaders of the Republic of Hawaii to commute her prison sentence to house arrest. She was confined to an upstairs bedroom of Iolani Palace until she was released in 1896.

In Italy, house arrest (in Italian arresti domiciliari) is a common practice of detaining suspects, as an alternative to detention in a correctional facility, and is also commonly practiced on those felons who are close to the end of their prison terms, or for those whose health condition does not allow residence in a correctional facility, except some particular cases of extremely dangerous persons. As per article 284 of the Italian Penal Procedure Code, house arrest is imposed by a judge, who orders the suspect to stay confined in his house, home, residence, private property, or any other place of cure or assistance where he/she may be housed at the moment. When necessary, the judge may also forbid any contact between the subject and any person other than those who cohabit with him/her or who assist him/her. If the subject is unable to take care of his/her life necessities or if he/she is in conditions of absolute poverty, the judge may authorize him/her to leave his/her home for the strict necessary time to take care of said needs or to exercise a job. The prosecuting authorities and law enforcement can check at any moment whether the subject, who is de facto considered in state of detention, is complying with the order; violation of house arrest terms is immediately followed by transfer to a correctional facility. House arrests cannot be applied to a subject that has been found guilty of escape within the previous five years.

Notable cases:

Erich Priebke, former SS captain, condemned for war crimes (Ardeatine massacre in Rome on 24 March 1944, when 335 Italian civilians were killed by Nazi force of occupation) to life imprisonment in 1996, spent under house arrest for the last part of his life, from 1998 to 2013 (when he died age of 100).

Adriano Sofri, journalist and former far left political leader, convicted in 1997 for the murder of Police Officer Luigi Calabresi (1972), spent under house arrest, for health reasons, the period between 2005 and 2012.

At sentencing, the judge may sentence an offender to home detention where they would otherwise receive a short-term prison sentence (i.e. two years or less). Home detention sentences range from 14 days and 12 months; offenders are confined to their approved residence 24 hours a day and may only leave with the permission of their probation officer.

Electronic monitoring equipment is extensively used by the New Zealand Department of Corrections to ensure that convicted offenders subject to home detention remain within approved areas. This takes the form of a Global Positioning System tracker fitted to the offender's ankle and monitoring units located at their residence and place of employment. As of 2015 over three thousand persons were serving home detention sentences under GPS surveillance.

Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, Pakistan's top scientist and founder of Pakistan's Gas-centrifuge programme of the Pakistan's nuclear device was also put under house arrest for a long time by General Pervez Musharraf. Khan was forced to attend continuous military debriefings by Musharraf and was put in house arrest for a long time. Later, he was released from imprisonment in 2008 by the order of Islamabad High Court and the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Although the order has not been fully acted upon, he is legally out of house arrest.

Galileo Galilei was put under house arrest for his advocacy for Copernicus's theory of the Sun in the middle of the universe and the Earth in motion about the Sun. He stayed under house arrest from 1634 until his death in 1642.

Chia Thye Poh, former leftist Member of Parliament, was arrested without charges and held under detention without trial in 1966. 22 years later, he was released and placed under house arrest in a guardhouse on the resort island of Sentosa and made to pay the rent, on the pretext that he was now a "free" man.

Sami Al-Arian, a Professor and prominent advocate for human rights, named by Newsweek as a "premier civil rights activist" for his efforts to repeal the use of secret evidence in trials, was held under house arrest in Northern Virginia from 2008 until 2014 when federal prosecutors filed a motion to dismiss charges against him. Dr. Al-Arian had visited the White House several times, had met Bill and Hillary Clinton, and had met and campaigned for George W. Bush.

William Calley, U.S. Army officer responsible for the My Lai massacre, served ​31⁄2 years under house arrest when the president commuted his original sentence of life imprisonment.

Dr. Dre (born Andre Romelle Young), one of the founding fathers of gangsta rap and former member of the influential hip-hop group N.W.A, was sentenced to house arrest after being convicted of assaulting a record producer.

Rodney King, motorist who served a short sentence under house arrest for reckless driving.[17]

Norman Whitfield, former Motown producer and songwriter, was convicted in 2005 of tax evasion for failing to report more than $4 million worth of royalties to the Internal Revenue Service, fined $25,000 and sentenced to six months under house arrest in lieu of jail time because of health issues, including diabetes. Whitfield died of diabetes three years later.

Tay-K (born Tamar McIntyre), an American rapper, was sentenced to house arrest while awaiting trial for capital murder and aggravated burglary charges. He somehow cut off his ankle monitor and fled from his hometown of Arlington, Texas to Elizabeth, New Jersey to spend some time in a recording studio, recording his biggest hit single to date (while remaining a fugitive), "The Race", prior to his recent capture in June 2017 for violating his house arrest terms.[20]

Austin Jones (musician), American former YouTuber and singer placed on home confinement 3 days after he was arrested on June 12, 2017 for producing child pornography. As a part of his release he was barred from using the Internet and social media while he awaits trial.

1.
Arrest
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Police and various other bodies have powers of arrest. The word arrest is Anglo-Norman in origin, derived from the French word arrêt meaning to stop or stay, lexicologically, the meaning of the word arrest is given in various dictionaries depending upon the circumstances in which word is used. There are numerous terms for being arrested throughout the world. In British slang terminology, the term nicked is often synonymous with being arrested, and nick can also refer to a station. In the United States and France the term collared is sometimes used, the term lifted is also heard on occasion. According to Indian law, no formality is needed during the procedure of arrest, the arrest can be made by a citizen, a police officer or a Magistrate. The person must then appear in court on the date provided on the citation, prior to the court date, the prosecution will decide whether to file formal criminal charges against the individual. When the accused appears in court, they will be advised if formal criminal charges have been filed, if charges are filed, they will be asked to plead guilty or not guilty at the initial court hearing, which is referred to as the arraignment. When a person is arrested for a crime, in California for example. The accused will be advised of the amount, which is based upon a bail schedule that is established on an annual basis by the judges in each county. When law enforcement agents believe to have cause to arrest a person for a serious crime. The accused will have their mug shot taken and be held in a station or jail pending their ability to post bail. If the accused cannot post bail, they appear at their arraignment where the judge will determine if the bail set by the schedule should be raised, lowered. Also, in states, the prosecution has 48 hours to decide whether or not to file formal charges against the accused. For example, in California, if no charges are filed within the 48-hour period. If formal charges are filed, the accused will be asked to appear at their arraignment, at the arraignment, the accused will be asked to plead guilty or not guilty, and the judge will set a bail amount for the accused. In 2010, the FBI estimated that law enforcement agencies made 13,120,947 arrests. Of those persons arrested,74. 5% were male and 69.4 percent of all persons arrested were white,28.0 percent were black, Arrests under English law fall into two general categories—with and without a warrant—and then into more specific subcategories

2.
Justice
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Justice is the legal or philosophical theory by which fairness is administered. The concept of justice differs in every culture, an early theory of justice was set out by the Ancient Greek philosopher Plato in his work The Republic. Advocates of divine command theory argue that justice issues from God, in the 17th century, theorists like John Locke argued for the theory of natural law. Thinkers in the social contract tradition argued that justice is derived from the agreement of everyone concerned. In the 19th century, utilitarian thinkers including John Stuart Mill argued that justice is what has the best consequences, Theories of distributive justice concern what is distributed, between whom they are to be distributed, and what is the proper distribution. Egalitarians argued that justice can only exist within the coordinates of equality, John Rawls used a social contract argument to show that justice, and especially distributive justice, is a form of fairness. Property rights theorists take a view of distributive justice and argue that property rights-based justice maximizes the overall wealth of an economic system. Theories of retributive justice are concerned with punishment for wrongdoing, restorative justice is an approach to justice that focuses on restoring what is good, and necessarily focuses on the needs of victims and offenders. Understandings of justice differ in culture, as cultures are usually dependent upon a shared history. Each cultures ethics create values which influence the notion of justice, although there can be found some justice principles that are one and the same in all or most of the cultures, these are insufficient to create a unitary justice apprehension. In his dialogue Republic, Plato uses Socrates to argue for justice that covers both the just person and the just City State, Justice is a proper, harmonious relationship between the warring parts of the person or city. Hence, Platos definition of justice is that justice is the having and doing of what is ones own, a just man is a man in just the right place, doing his best and giving the precise equivalent of what he has received. This applies both at the level and at the universal level. A persons soul has three parts – reason, spirit and desire, similarly, a city has three parts – Socrates uses the parable of the chariot to illustrate his point, a chariot works as a whole because the two horses power is directed by the charioteer. Lovers of wisdom – philosophers, in one sense of the term – should rule because only they understand what is good, if one is ill, one goes to a medic rather than a farmer, because the medic is expert in the subject of health. Similarly, one should trust ones city to an expert in the subject of the good, not to a politician who tries to gain power by giving people what they want. For Socrates, the way the ship will reach its destination – the good – is if the navigator takes charge. Advocates of divine command theory argue that justice, and indeed the whole of morality, is the command of God

3.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books

4.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands

5.
Travel
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Travel can also include relatively short stays between successive movements. The origin of the travel is most likely lost to history. The term travel may originate from the Old French word travail, according to the Merriam Webster dictionary, the first known use of the word travel was in the 14th century. It also states that the word comes from Middle English travailen, travelen, in English we still occasionally use the words travail, which means struggle. According to Simon Winchester in his book The Best Travelers Tales and this link may reflect the extreme difficulty of travel in ancient times. Today, travel may or may not be much easier depending upon the destination you choose, how you plan to get there, theres a big difference between simply being a tourist and being a true world traveler, notes travel writer Michael Kasum. This is, however, a distinction as academic work on the cultures. Travel may occur by human-powered transport such as walking or bicycling, or with vehicles, such as transport, automobiles, trains. In some countries, non-local internal travel may require a passport, while international travel typically requires a passport. A trip may also be part of a round-trip, which is a type of travel whereby a person moves from one location to another. Once difficult, slow and dangerous, travel has tended to become easier, quicker, the evolution of technology such as horse tack and bullet trains has contributed to this trend. While travel in the Middle Ages offered hardships and challenges, it loomed large in the economy, pilgrimages involved streams of travellers both locally and internationally. Travel by water provided more comfort and speed than land-travel - at least until the advent of a network of railways in the 19th century. Airships and airplanes usurped much of the role of surface travel in the twentieth century. Authorities emphasize the importance of taking precautions to ensure travel safety, when traveling abroad, the odds favor a safe and incident-free trip, however, travelers can be subject to difficulties, crime and violence. Many countries do not recognize drivers licenses from other countries, however most countries accept international driving permits, automobile insurance policies issued in ones own country are often invalid in foreign countries, and it is often a requirement to obtain temporary auto insurance valid in the country being visited. It is also advisable to become oriented with the driving-rules and -regulations of destination countries, wearing a seat belt is highly advisable for safety reasons, many countries have penalties for violating seatbelt laws

6.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies

7.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society

8.
Telephone
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A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls

9.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri

10.
Galileo affair
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In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius, describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the theory of Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileos initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas. Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, in 1632 Galileo, now an old man, published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was immensely popular. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642, other observations followed, including the phases of Venus and the existence of sunspots. In 1611, Galileo visited the Collegium Romanum in Rome, where the Jesuit astronomers by that time had repeated his observations, truly, just as the asp stops its ears, so do these philosophers shut their eyes to the light of truth. Brahe argued that the distance to the stars in the Copernican system would have to be 700 times greater than the distance from the sun to Saturn, Galileo became involved in a dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots with Christoph Scheiner, a Jesuit. This became a lifelong feud. Neither of them, however, was the first to recognise sunspots—the Chinese had already been familiar with them for centuries, at this time, Galileo also engaged in a dispute over the reasons that objects float or sink in water, siding with Archimedes against Aristotle. The debate was unfriendly, and Galileos blunt and sometimes sarcastic style, though not extraordinary in academic debates of the time, according to Cigoli, one of the plotters asked a priest to denounce Galileos views from the pulpit, but the latter refused. Nevertheless, three years later another priest, Tommaso Caccini, did in fact do precisely that, as described below. Geostaticism agreed with an interpretation of Scripture in several places, such as 1 Chronicles 16,30, Psalm 93,1, Psalm 96,10, Psalm 104,5. Heliocentrism, the theory that the Earth was a planet, which along with all the others revolved around the Sun, contradicted both geocentrism and the prevailing theological support of the theory. One of the first suggestions of heresy that Galileo had to deal with came in 1613 from a professor of philosophy, poet and specialist in Greek literature, Galileo was defended on the spot by his former student Benedetto Castelli, now a professor of mathematics and Benedictine abbot. Later, in 1615, he expanded this into his much longer Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in late 1614 or early 1615, one of Caccinis fellow Dominicans, Niccolò Lorini, acquired a copy of Galileos letter to Castelli. Lorini and other Dominicans at the Convent of San Marco considered the letter of doubtful orthodoxy, Lorini and his colleagues decided to bring Galileos letter to the attention of the Inquisition. Were taking it upon themselves to expound the Holy Scripture according to their private lights, on March 19, Caccini arrived at the Inquisitions offices in Rome to denounce Galileo for his Copernicanism and various other alleged heresies supposedly being spread by his pupils. Galileo soon heard reports that Lorini had obtained a copy of his letter to Castelli and was claiming that it contained many heresies and he also heard that Caccini had gone to Rome and suspected him of trying to stir up trouble with Lorinis copy of the letter

11.
Electronic bracelet
–
Electronic tagging is a form of surveillance which uses an electronic device fitted to the person. It is commonly used as a form of electronically monitored punishment for people who have been sentenced to electronic monitoring by a court, however, electronic tagging and monitoring is also used in healthcare settings with people with dementia and in immigration contexts in some jurisdictions. The combination of electronic monitoring with a curfew usually relies on radio frequency technology, the use of home detention as a means of confinement and control within the home can be traced back to biblical times when the Romans placed Paul the Apostle, under house arrest. In the 18th century, the English philosopher and social theorist Jeremy Bentham designed the Panopticon, inside the Panopticon, the prisoners are arranged in a ring of cells surrounding their guard, who is concealed in a tower in the center. The idea is that the controls the prisoners through his presumed observation, they constantly imagine his eyes on them. It is worth remembering that when the modern prison emerged, it, early prison reformers—many of them Quakers bent on repentance and redemption—suggested that cutting people off from the rest of the world would bring them closer to God. Whereas the guard in Benthams day had two eyes, however, todays watcher can be virtually all-seeing, thanks to GPS monitoring technology. The modern prisoner, in words, need not wonder whether he is being observed, he can be sure that he is. The technologies of electronic monitoring have their roots in the work of Dr. Ralph Schwitzgebel of the Science Committee on Psychological Experimentation at Harvard University, in 1964, Ralph Kirkland Schwitzgebel headed a research team that experimented with prototype electronic monitoring devices. Schwitzgebel and William S. Hurd were granted patent #3,478,344 and he developed a one-kilogram Radio Telemetry Device that could be worn by a person. The device transmitted signals to a modified missile-tracking unit up to 400 metres away, the Harvard researchers invented and assessed a prototype monitoring system to use upon juvenile offenders. The public responded unfavorably on the whole, fearing that the devices were overly intrusive, twenty years later, in 1983, a New Mexico district court judge first sentenced offenders to electronic monitoring by home. It could also be adapted to serve as a listening device or two-way radio. The system was tested on volunteers who included students, parolees and mental patients, Schwitzgebel was granted a patent in relation to the system in 1969. A diversion from its criminal justice application, in 1978, a company called BI Incorporated began selling systems that allowed farmers to dispense feed to their cows automatically. The company fitted a radio-frequency tag on each cows ear so that when the cow approached the feed dispenser, a sensor in the latter caused it to drop a ration of fodder. If the same cow returned, the sensor recognized the unique signal of the tag, in 1981 writer Tom Stacey took to the British Home Office a proposal for the electronic tagging of offenders to track their movements, or fix a home curfew, using cellular radio telephone technology. Stacey had been briefly imprisoned abroad in his role as a foreign correspondent and had for several years served as a Prison Visitor in England

12.
Incarceration
–
Imprisonment is the restraint of a persons liberty, for any cause whatsoever, whether by authority of the government, or by a person acting without such authority. In the latter case it is false imprisonment, people become prisoners, wherever they may be, by the mere word or touch of a duly authorized officer directed to that end. Usually, however, imprisonment is understood to imply an actual confinement in a jail or prison employed for the purpose according to the provisions of law, in English law, imprisonment is the restraint of a persons liberty. This passage was approved by Atkin and Duke LJJ in Meering v Grahame White Aviation Co and it is not imprisonment to prevent a person from proceeding along a particular way if it is possible for him to reach his intended destination by another route. Imprisonment without lawful cause is a tort called false imprisonment, Imprisonment is a type of sentence. Prison English criminal law#General power of Crown Court to impose a sentence of imprisonment on conviction on indictment, detention Life imprisonment Imprisonment for public protection

13.
Curfew
–
A curfew is an order specifying a time during which certain regulations apply. The word curfew comes from the French phrase couvre-feu, which means fire cover and it was later adopted into Middle English as curfeu, which later became the modern curfew. An order issued by the authorities or military forces requiring everyone or certain people to be indoors at certain times. It can be imposed to maintain order, or suppress targeted groups. An order by the guardians of a teenager to return home by a specific time. This may apply daily, or vary with the day of the week, a daily requirement for guests to return to their hostel before a specified time, usually in the evening or night. In baseball, a time after which a game must end, for example, in the American League the curfew rule for many years decreed that no inning could begin after 1 am local time. In aeronautics, night flying restrictions may restrict aircraft operations over a period in the nighttime. Notable examples are the London airports of Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, in a few locations in the UK patrons of licensed premises may not enter after a curfew time. In Inverclyde for example this is set at 12,00 am. On 28 January 2011, and following the collapse of the police system, however, it was ignored by demonstrators who continued their sit-in in Tahrir Square. Concerned residents formed vigilante groups to defend their communities against looters. In defiance, the locals took to the streets during the curfew, organizing football tournaments and street festivals, prohibiting police, under Icelands Child Protection Act, children aged 12 and under may not be outdoors after 20,00 unless accompanied by an adult. Children aged 13 to 16 may not be outdoors after 22,00, unless on their way home from an event organized by a school. During the period 1 May to 1 September, children may be outdoors for two hours longer, children and teenagers that break curfew are taken to the local police station and police officers inform their parents to get them. The age limits stated here shall be based upon year of birth, if a parent cannot be reached, the child or teenager is taken to a shelter. The United Kingdoms 2003 Anti-Social Behaviour Act created zones that allow police from 9 PM to 6 AM to hold and escort home unaccompanied minors under the age of 16, whether badly behaved or not. Although hailed as a success, the High Court ruled in one case that the law did not give the police a power of arrest

14.
Trial
–
In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. One form of tribunal is a court, the tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury, or other designated trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute. Where the trial is held before a group of members of the community, where the trial is held solely before a judge, it is called a bench trial. Hearings before administrative bodies may have many of the features of a trial before a court, trials can also be divided by the type of dispute at issue. A criminal trial is designed to resolve accusations brought against an accused of a crime. In common law systems, most criminal defendants are entitled to a trial held before a jury, because the state is attempting to use its power to deprive the accused of life, liberty, or property, the rights of the accused afforded to criminal defendants are typically broad. The rules of criminal procedure provide rules for criminal trials, a civil trial is generally held to settle lawsuits or civil claims—non-criminal disputes. In some countries, the government can both sue and be sued in a civil capacity, the rules of civil procedure provide rules for civil trials. Although administrative hearings are not ordinarily considered trials, they retain many elements found in more formal trial settings, when the dispute goes to judicial setting, it is called an administrative trial, to revise the administrative hearing, depending on the jurisdiction. The types of disputes handled in these hearings is governed by administrative law, labor law is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees, in Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no distinction is made. However, there are two categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labour law concerns employees rights at work and through the contract for work, the labour movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labour rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the industrial revolution, there are two primary systems for conducting a trial, Adversarial, In common law systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate guilt or innocence. In several jurisdictions in more cases, there is a jury to determine the facts. This polarizes the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, to maintain fairness, there is a presumption of innocence, and the burden of proof lies on the prosecution

15.
Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts

16.
Human rights
–
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery

17.
Ankle monitor
–
An ankle monitor is a homing device that individuals under house arrest or parole are required to wear. At timed intervals, the monitor sends a radio frequency signal containing location. If an offender moves outside of a range, the police will be notified. Ankle monitors are designed to be tamper-resistant and can alert authorities to removal attempts, the most common configuration is a radio-frequency transmitter unit that sends a signal to a fixed location receiving unit in the offenders residence. The residence unit uses either a line or a cellular network to relay information to a service center computer. If the offender is not at the residence at times stipulated, a message is sent to the service center. GPS units are similar in design, but the offender also carries a GPS cell phone unit that receives a signal from the ankle unit, persons subject to a restraining order may also be subject to GPS monitoring. Electronic monitoring was originally developed by a group of researchers at Harvard University in the 1960s, headed by R. Kirkland Schwitzgebel and his twin brother. In 1983, Judge Jack Love in Albuquerque, New Mexico, inspired by a Spider-Man comic strip and these were produced by Michael T. Goss, a former Honeywell computer sales representative. Shortly thereafter, programs began in Florida using a cuff invented by Thomas Moody, within six years, at least 16 manufacturers were listed in the Journal of Offender Monitoring. In 2006, an estimated 130,000 units were deployed daily in the United States and they also gained popularity in the United Kingdom, but adoption in the rest of the EU was a little slower. The effectiveness of monitoring in reducing crime is uncertain, as people who violate parole may be preparing to commit more serious crimes. A SCRAM bracelet – water-resistant and worn on either leg as a condition of probation or parole – can detect any alcohol consumption via transdermal measurements throughout the day. Anti-tamper features are in place to thwart attempts such as placing a flat item between the leg and the device to block skin contact. They typically also function as a tether, i. e. providing 24-hour location-based data on the persons whereabouts. Both cannot be removed by the user without it being reported to the base station, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration produced a favorable report on the use of electronic monitoring of DUI offenders, with lower recidivism rates and less cost compared to jail. Electronic tagging Media related to Ankle monitor at Wikimedia Commons

18.
Global Positioning System
–
The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time

19.
Electronic tagging
–
Electronic tagging is a form of surveillance which uses an electronic device fitted to the person. It is commonly used as a form of electronically monitored punishment for people who have been sentenced to electronic monitoring by a court, however, electronic tagging and monitoring is also used in healthcare settings with people with dementia and in immigration contexts in some jurisdictions. The combination of electronic monitoring with a curfew usually relies on radio frequency technology, the use of home detention as a means of confinement and control within the home can be traced back to biblical times when the Romans placed Paul the Apostle, under house arrest. In the 18th century, the English philosopher and social theorist Jeremy Bentham designed the Panopticon, inside the Panopticon, the prisoners are arranged in a ring of cells surrounding their guard, who is concealed in a tower in the center. The idea is that the controls the prisoners through his presumed observation, they constantly imagine his eyes on them. It is worth remembering that when the modern prison emerged, it, early prison reformers—many of them Quakers bent on repentance and redemption—suggested that cutting people off from the rest of the world would bring them closer to God. Whereas the guard in Benthams day had two eyes, however, todays watcher can be virtually all-seeing, thanks to GPS monitoring technology. The modern prisoner, in words, need not wonder whether he is being observed, he can be sure that he is. The technologies of electronic monitoring have their roots in the work of Dr. Ralph Schwitzgebel of the Science Committee on Psychological Experimentation at Harvard University, in 1964, Ralph Kirkland Schwitzgebel headed a research team that experimented with prototype electronic monitoring devices. Schwitzgebel and William S. Hurd were granted patent #3,478,344 and he developed a one-kilogram Radio Telemetry Device that could be worn by a person. The device transmitted signals to a modified missile-tracking unit up to 400 metres away, the Harvard researchers invented and assessed a prototype monitoring system to use upon juvenile offenders. The public responded unfavorably on the whole, fearing that the devices were overly intrusive, twenty years later, in 1983, a New Mexico district court judge first sentenced offenders to electronic monitoring by home. It could also be adapted to serve as a listening device or two-way radio. The system was tested on volunteers who included students, parolees and mental patients, Schwitzgebel was granted a patent in relation to the system in 1969. A diversion from its criminal justice application, in 1978, a company called BI Incorporated began selling systems that allowed farmers to dispense feed to their cows automatically. The company fitted a radio-frequency tag on each cows ear so that when the cow approached the feed dispenser, a sensor in the latter caused it to drop a ration of fodder. If the same cow returned, the sensor recognized the unique signal of the tag, in 1981 writer Tom Stacey took to the British Home Office a proposal for the electronic tagging of offenders to track their movements, or fix a home curfew, using cellular radio telephone technology. Stacey had been briefly imprisoned abroad in his role as a foreign correspondent and had for several years served as a Prison Visitor in England

20.
Ahmed Ben Bella
–
Ahmed Ben Bella was an Algerian socialist soldier and revolutionary who was the first President of Algeria from 1963 to 1965. Ahmed Ben Bella was born in Maghnia, in the department of Oran, western Algeria, on 25 December 1916. He was son of a farmer and small businessman, who supported his family through this economic activities and he had five brothers and two sisters. As it, he started complaining and chafed imperialism and colonialism and criticized French cultural influence, Ben Bella volunteered for service in the French Army in 1936. The Army was one of the few avenues of advancement for Algerians under colonial rule, posted to Marseille he played center mid-field for Olympique de Marseille in 1939–1940. His only appearance for the club was in a game against FC Antibes in the Coupe de France on 29 April 1940 in Cannes and he also scored a goal during the game. The club officials offered him a spot on the team. He also played for IRB Maghnia, Ben Bella conscripted to the army again in 1940, believing that this would give Algerians an equal treatment. Thereby, he fought for the French during World War II and he received the ″Croix de guerre″ after manning an anti-aircraft post during the german invasion in 1940. He was demobilised after the fall of France but joined a regiment of Moroccan tirailleurs with whom he saw throughout the Italian campaign. There, he was awarded because of his bravery demonstrated at Monte Cassino. For this, he was promoted to the rank of warrant officer, and he received the ″Médaille militaire″, on May 81945, while France was celebrating Germany’s capitulation, big protests started to occur in the Algerian town of Setif. Cruelties of colonialism became worse during the period, so Algerian people stood up against it. Thus, the protests turned to five days of rape and killing, the anti-colonialist however, put Algerian number of deaths around ten thousands. This shocked Ben Bella and his Algerian companions, as they realized that they start receiving an equal treatment even after their services in war. After the events of Setif, Ben Bella returned to Algeria, reincorporating into its political life, French authorities sent assailants with the intentions of assassinating him on his farm. The attempt to his life failed, but Ben Bella’s farm was confiscated, after the Government election of Marcel-Edmond Naegelen, he became part of a group that thought democratic independence was something illusory. Together with Messali Hadjs and his party, he founded the Organisation Spéciale and this was the immediate predecessor of the National Liberation Front

21.
Jorge Rafael Videla
–
Jorge Rafael Videla was a senior commander in the Argentine Army and dictator of Argentina from 1976 to 1981. He came to power in a coup détat that deposed Isabel Martínez de Perón, an estimated 13, 000-30,000 political dissidents vanished during this period. Videla was also convicted of the theft of many babies born during the captivity of their mothers at the detention centres. In his defence, Videla maintains the female guerrilla detainees allowed themselves to fall pregnant in the belief they wouldnt be tortured or executed, on 5 July 2010, Videla took full responsibility for his armys actions during his rule. I accept the responsibility as the highest military authority during the internal war and my subordinates followed my orders, he told an Argentine court. Videla also sheltered many Nazi fugitives along with Juan Perón before him, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay and he was under house arrest until 10 October 2008, when he was sent to a military prison. Following a new trial, on 22 December 2010, Videla was sentenced to life in a prison for the deaths of 31 prisoners following his coup. On 5 July 2012, Videla was sentenced to 50 years in prison for the kidnapping of children during his tenure. The following year, Videla died in the Marcos Paz civilian prison five days after suffering a fall in a shower, Jorge Rafael Videla was born on 2 August 1925 in the city of Mercedes. He was the third of five born to Colonel Rafael Eugenio Videla Bengolea. Videlas family was a prominent one in San Luis Province, and they had seven children, María Cristina, Jorge Horacio, Alejandro Eugenio, María Isabel, Pedro Ignacio, Fernando Gabriel and Rafael Patricio. Two of these, Rafael Patricio and Fernando Gabriel, joined the Argentine Army, Videla joined the National Military College on 3 March 1942 and graduated on 21 December 1944 with the rank of second lieutenant. After steady promotion as a officer in the infantry, he attended the War College between 1952 and 1954 and graduated as a qualified staff officer. Videla served at the Ministry of Defence from 1958 to 1960, in 1971, he was promoted to brigadier general and appointed by Alejandro Agustin Lanusse as Director of the National Military College. In late 1973 the head of the Army, Leandro Anaya, during July and August 1975, Videla was the Head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Argentine Armed Forces. In August 1975, the President, Isabel Perón, appointed Videla to the Armys senior position, upon the death of President Juan Perón, his widow and Vice President Isabel became President. Videla headed a military coup which deposed her on 24 March 1976, during increasing violence, social unrest and economic problems. A military junta was formed, made up of him, representing the Army, Admiral Emilio Massera representing the Navy, two days after the coup, Videla formally assumed the post of President of Argentina

22.
President of Argentina
–
The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces

23.
Derryn Hinch
–
Derryn Nigel Hinch is an Australian Senator for Victoria and media personality, best known for his work on Melbourne radio and television. Hinch was elected to the Senate representing Victoria as the head of Derryn Hinchs Justice Party at the 2016 federal election, aged 72 at the time, Hinch is the oldest federal parliamentarian ever to be elected. He remained host of his weekly program Hinch Live until the campaign period officially commenced. He has been the host of 3AWs Drive radio show, and he has also been a police reporter, foreign correspondent, newspaper editor, television show host, actor, novelist and vintner. In January 2014, Hinch was found in contempt of court, Hinch began his career at the age of 15 with the Taranaki Herald in New Plymouth, New Zealand in 1960. In 1963, he came to Australia on the MV Wanganella, by 1966 he had become a foreign correspondent for the Fairfax organisation, and in New York became bureau chief in 1972. He remained living in New York for 11 years, Hinch returned to Sydney and was editor of The Sun in 1976-1977. Hinch hosted Beauty and the Beast on the Seven Network between 1982 and 1983, from 1987 to 1991, Hinch hosted his own current affairs show on the Seven Network titled Hinch, which later moved to Network Ten where it ran from 1992–1994. In 1994, Hinch joined the Nine Network and hosted The Midday Show for a year and he has also appeared on Dancing with the Stars, Underbelly and Millionaire Hot Seat as a guest playing for charity. In September 2012, Hinch rejoined the Seven Network as national public affairs commentator, from February 2015, Hinch hosted a twice weekly news opinion program, Hinch Live, over the weekend on Sky News Australia. In August 2012, it was announced Hinchs contract would not be renewed by 3AW and he is the Melbourne correspondent for New Zealand radio network Newstalk ZB and often presents political commentaries on the station. In September 2008, Hinch had a run as The Criminologist in the Australian tour of The Rocky Horror Show. He also appeared as himself, in a role, in the film The Wog Boy with Nick Giannopoulos, in 2000. Hinch played the role of Senator in 2016 movie The Colour of Darkness, in 2015, Hinch established Derryn Hinchs Justice Party, and was subsequently elected to the Australian Senate as senator for Victoria at the 2016 double dissolution election on 2 July 2016. He became the oldest person ever elected to the Australian parliament. Other positions include equal rights for all regardless of race, religion or sexual orientation, tougher laws against animal cruelty. In 1985, Hinch found that Michael Glennon, who had previously convicted on a charge of indecent assault with a minor, was to be tried on new charges while still running a youth camp. Subsequently, Hinch publicly identified Glennon during his trial on the set of charges

24.
Gag orders
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A gag order is an order, typically a legal order by a court or government, restricting information or comment from being made public or passed onto any unauthorized third party. The phrase may sometimes be used of an order by an employer or other institution. Gag orders may be used, for example, to legitimate trade secrets of a company, to protect the integrity of ongoing police or military operations. Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation orders may potentially be abused in this way, in a similar manner, a gag law may limit freedom of the press, by instituting censorship or restricting access to information. This has been opposed by Indian media who argue that they have adopted self-regulation during such events and it is uncertain if the draft law will be passed. In late 2009 Israel issued a gag order against the Israeli media reporting on facts surrounding the Anat Kamm–Uri Blau affair, the gag order was ultimately subject to widespread criticism and publicity as the details of the case were reported overseas. The scandal centered around leaked documents from the Israeli Defense Force which suggested the military had engaged in extrajudicial killings, a gag order concerning the Prisoner X affair prevented Israeli coverage of the topic for more than two years. On 13 November 2013 a gag order concerning a famous Israeli singer suspected of sex with girls below the age of consent was issued, while the traditional media did not advertise the name of the singer, social media platforms users like Facebook published the singer name and incriminating photos. On 20 November Eyal Golan released a statement announcing he was the suspected singer. There was speculation that a gag order may be imposed by the MCA on their press statements before they are released to the public to ensure maximum effectiveness, such releases would have to be approved by the president. These claims in the media were later denied, North Korea responded by saying that reptile media had insulted its highest dignity by spreading lies. Sources inside North Korea reported it had become a scandal with many rumors spreading despite an official gagging order. A gag order, or anonymity order, is issued by courts in the United Kingdom to protect privacy, prevent harm to suspects, prisoners, witnesses, victims. In the Allan Chappelow murder case, the trial was mostly in camera. The order was imposed after a case made by prosecutors. This criminal case has been thought to be the first in which an order was imposed. According to WikiLeaks, the Guardian been served with 10 secret gag orders —so-called super-injunctions—, in 2008, the paper was served with six. In The Netherlands ethologist Gerrit van Putten was given two separate gag orders by the Minister of Agriculture to protect intensive farming. e, the tails were docked rather than that housing conditions were improved

25.
Aung San Suu Kyi
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Aung San Suu Kyi is a Burmese politician, diplomat, and author who is the First and incumbent State Counsellor and Leader of the National League for Democracy. The youngest daughter of Aung San, Father of the Nation of modern-day Myanmar, after graduating from the University of Delhi in 1964 and the University of Oxford in 1968, she worked at the United Nations for three years. She married Michael Aris in 1972, and gave birth to two children, Aung San Suu Kyi rose to prominence in the 1988 Uprisings, and became the General Secretary of the newly formed National League for Democracy. In the 1990 elections, NLD won 81% of the seats in Parliament and she had, however, already been detained under house arrest before the elections. She remained under house arrest for almost 15 of the 21 years from 1989 to 2010 and her party boycotted the 2010 elections, resulting in a decisive victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party. Aung San Suu Kyi became a Pyithu Hluttaw MP while her party won 43 of the 45 vacant seats in the 2012 by-elections and she is an honorary citizen of many countries, including Canada, and was an honorary member of Nelson Mandelas Elders. The Burmese refer to her as Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Daw, literally meaning aunt, is not part of her name but is a Burmese honorific for any older and revered woman, akin to Madame. Burmese sometimes address her as Daw Suu or Amay Suu, Aung San Suu Kyi was born on 19 June 1945 in Rangoon, British Burma. According to Peter Popham, she was born in a village outside Rangoon called Hmway Saung. Her father, Aung San, founded the modern Burmese army and negotiated Burmas independence from the British Empire in 1947 and she grew up with her mother, Khin Kyi, and two brothers, Aung San Lin and Aung San Oo, in Rangoon. Aung San Lin died at the age of eight, when he drowned in a lake on the grounds of the house. Her elder brother emigrated to San Diego, California, becoming a United States citizen, after Aung San Lins death, the family moved to a house by Inya Lake where Aung San Suu Kyi met people of various backgrounds, political views and religions. She was educated in Methodist English High School for much of her childhood in Burma and she speaks four languages, Burmese, English, French and Japanese. Suu Kyis mother, Khin Kyi, gained prominence as a figure in the newly formed Burmese government. She was appointed Burmese ambassador to India and Nepal in 1960 and she studied in the Convent of Jesus and Mary School in New Delhi, and graduated from Lady Shri Ram College in New Delhi with a degree in politics in 1964. Suu Kyi continued her education at St Hughs College, Oxford, obtaining a B. A degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1967, graduating with a third and M. A degree in politics in 1968. After graduating, she lived in New York City with family friend Ma Than E and she worked at the United Nations for three years, primarily on budget matters, writing daily to her future husband, Dr. Michael Aris. On 1 January 1972, Aung San Suu Kyi and Aris, the following year she gave birth to their first son, Alexander Aris, in London, their second son, Kim, was born in 1977

26.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK

27.
Inya Lake
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Inya Lake is the largest lake in Yangon, Burma, a popular recreational area for Yangonites, and a famous location for romance in popular culture. Inya Lake is a lake created by the British as a water reservoir between 1882 and 1883 in order to provide a water supply to Yangon. The lake was formed by joining small hills that surrounded creeks which formed during the monsoon season, a series of pipes and cables distributes water from Inya Lake to Kandawgyi Lake near downtown Yangon. On 4 May 2009, the American citizen John William Yettaw trespassed upon the residence of Burmese political prisoner Aung San Suu Kyi. This was two weeks before her release on May 27. They were both arrested after the incident, the area surrounding Inya Lake is one of the most exclusive neighborhoods in Yangon. Except for a park on the southwestern bank by Yangon University. Lakefront properties include residences of Aung San Suu Kyi, the late strongman Ne Win, public access to the lake is available through Kaba Aye Pagoda Road, and most popularly, through Inya Road and Pyay Road, next to Yangon University. It takes about two hours to circle the lake on foot, yangons premier sailing club is based on the lake

28.
Ne Win
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Ne Win was a Burmese politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and he founded the Burma Socialist Programme Party in 1962 and served as its chairman until 1988. He was the leader of Burma for 26 years. Ne Wins date of birth is not known with certainty, the English language publication Whos Who in Burma published in 1961 by Peoples Literature House, Rangoon, stated that Ne Win was born on 14 May 1911. Dr. Maung Maung stated in the Burmese version of his book Burma and General Ne Win, also published in English, however, in a book written in Burmese titled The Thirty Comrades, the author Kyaw Nyein gave Ne Wins date of birth as 10 July 1910. Kyaw Nyeins date of 1910 can be considered as the more plausible date, first, Kyaw Nyein had access to historical records and he interviewed many surviving members of the Thirty Comrades when he wrote the book in the mid-to late 1990s. In his book published around 1998, Kyaw Nyein lists the names of the members of the Thirty Comrades whom he had interviewed, although Ne Win was not one of them. )Secondly, when Ne Win died on 5 December 2002. According to Burmese custom, an age is their age upon their next birthday. Since Ne Win turned 92 in July 2002, when he died in December 2002 he was considered to be 93 years old. Ne Win, born Shu Maung, was born into an middle class Burmese Chinese family in a small village near Paungdale about 200 miles north of Rangoon. He spent two years at Rangoon University beginning in 1929, and took biology as his subject with hopes of becoming a doctor. In 1931 he was expelled from the university after he failed an exam, Ne Win eventually became Thakin Shu Maung, or a member of the nationalist organisation Dobama Asiayone. Other members of the group included Aung San and U Nu, in 1941 Ne Win, as a member of the Ba Sein-Tun Ok faction of the Dobama, was one of thirty young men chosen for military training by the Japanese operative Colonel Suzuki Keiji. Their leader was Aung San and they formed the Burma Independence Army, during military training on the Japanese-occupied Hainan Island, Shu Maung chose a nom de guerre, Bo Ne Win. In early 1942 the Japanese Army and the BIA entered Burma in the wake of the retreating British forces, Ne Wins role in the campaign was to organize resistance behind the British lines. The experience of the Japanese occupation of Burma worked to alienate the nationalists as well as the population at large, toward the end of the Second World War, on 27 March 1945 the Burma National Army turned against the Japanese following the British re-invasion of Burma. Following independence there were uprisings in the army and among ethnic minority groups, Ne Win immediately adopted a policy of creating Socialist militia battalions called Sitwundan under his personal command with the approval of U Nu. On 31 January 1949, Ne Win was appointed Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and given control of the army, replacing General Smith Dun

29.
Pol Pot
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Pol Pot was a Cambodian politician and revolutionary who led the Khmer Rouge from 1963 until 1997. From 1963 to 1981, he served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea, as such, he became the leader of Cambodia on 17 April 1975, when his forces captured Phnom Penh. From 1976 to 1979, he served as the Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea. He presided over a totalitarian dictatorship, in which his government made urban dwellers move to the countryside to work in collective farms, the combined effects of executions, strenuous working conditions, malnutrition and poor medical care caused the deaths of approximately 25 percent of the Cambodian population. In all, an estimated 1 to 3 million people perished as a result of the policies of his four-year premiership, after Cambodia lost the Cambodian–Vietnamese War in 1979, Pol Pot relocated to the jungles of southwest Cambodia, and the Khmer Rouge government collapsed. From 1979 to 1997, he and a remnant of the old Khmer Rouge operated near the border of Cambodia, until 1993, they clung to power as part of a coalition government that was internationally recognized as the rightful government of Cambodia. Pol Pot died in 1998, while under house arrest by the Ta Mok faction of the Khmer Rouge, since his death, rumours that he committed suicide or was poisoned have persisted. Saloth Sar was born on 19 May 1925, the eighth of nine children and his older brother Saloth Chhay was born three years earlier. The family was living in the fishing village of Prek Sbauv. Pen Saloth was a farmer who owned 12 hectares of land and several buffaloes. Saloth Sar was educated in a Buddhist monastery and he would later give his Marxism a tincture of Buddhism. Later he became an ardent atheist, in 1935, Saloth Sar left Prek Sbauv to attend the École Miche, a Catholic school in Phnom Penh. He lived with his cousin, a woman called Meak, a member of the Royal Ballet, in 1926, she bore King Monivongs son, HRH Prince Sisowath Kusarak. She was given the official title Khun Preah Moneang Bopha Norleak Meak, Saloth Sar stayed with Meaks household until 1942. His sister Roeung was a concubine of King Monivong, so through the two women, he often had cause to visit the royal palace, in 1947, he gained admission to the exclusive Lycée Sisowath, but was unsuccessful in his studies. After switching to a school at Russey Keo, north of Phnom Penh. He studied radio electronics at the EFR in Paris from 1949 to 1953 and he also participated in an international labour brigade building roads in Zagreb in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1950. After the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh as the government of Vietnam in 1950, the PCFs anti-colonialism views attracted many young Cambodians, including Sar

30.
Augusto Pinochet
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Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte was a Chilean general, politician and the military ruler of Chile between 1973 and 1990, he remained the Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 1998. He was also president of the Government Junta of Chile between 1973 and 1981 and his rule of Chile was a dictatorship. Several academics have stated that the support of the United States was crucial to the coup, Pinochet had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army by Allende on 23 August 1973, having been its General Chief of Staff since early 1972. From the start of the new military government harsh measures were implemented. During the period of Pinochets rule, various investigations have identified the murder of 1,200 to 3,200 people with up to 80,000 people forcibly interned, according to the Chilean government, the official number of deaths and forced disappearances stands at 3,095. Chile was, for most of the 1990s, the economy in Latin America. Pinochets 17-year rule was given a legal framework through a controversial 1980 plebiscite, in a 1988 plebiscite 56% voted against Pinochets continuing as president, which led to democratic elections for the Presidency and Congress. However, Pinochet was arrested under an international arrest warrant on a visit to London on 10 October 1998 in connection with human rights violations. Following a legal battle he was released on grounds of ill-health, in 2004, Chilean Judge Juan Guzmán Tapia ruled that Pinochet was medically fit to stand trial and placed him under house arrest. Despite the indictment and 300 charges, he served time in house arrest. Pinochet was born in Valparaíso, the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera, a descendant of a French Breton immigrant from Lamballe, and Avelina Ugarte Martínez, in 1935, after four years studying military geography, he graduated with the rank of alférez in the infantry. In September 1937, Pinochet was assigned to the Chacabuco Regiment, two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of Sub-lieutenant, he moved to the Maipo Regiment, garrisoned in Valparaíso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940, on 30 January 1943, Pinochet married Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez, with whom he had five children, Inés Lucía, María Verónica, Jacqueline Marie, Augusto Osvaldo, and Marco Antonio. By late 1945 Pinochet had been assigned to the Carampangue Regiment in the city of Iquique. Three years later, he entered the War Academy but had to postpone his studies because, being the youngest officer, he had to carry out a service mission in the coal zone of Lota. The following year he returned to his studies in the Academy, at the same time, he worked as a teachers aide at the War Academy, giving military geography and geopolitics classes. He was also the editor of the institutional magazine Cien Águilas, at the beginning of 1953, with the rank of major, he was sent for two years to the Rancagua Regiment in Arica. While there, he was appointed professor of the Chilean War Academy, in 1956 Pinochet and a group of young officers were chosen to form a military mission to collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of Ecuador in Quito

31.
Supreme Court of Chile
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The Supreme Court of Chile is the highest court in Chile. It also administrates the lower courts in the nation and it is located in the capital Santiago. In the Chilean system, the court lacks the power of judicial review — it cannot set binding precedent or invalidate laws. Instead, it acts on a case-by-case basis, trials are carried out in salas, chambers of at least five judges, presided over by the most senior member. The members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President from a list of five choices prepared by the members of the court. Two of the choices must be senior judges from appellate courts, the presidents choice must then be ratified by a two-thirds majority of the Senate. Supreme Court justices must be at least 36 years old, once appointed, a Chilean Supreme Court justice is entitled to remain on the Court until the compulsory retirement age of 75. The only exception is if a justice can be removed by notorious abandonment of duty, the Supreme Court has twenty-one members, called ministros. One member is selected to serve a term as President of the Supreme Court. The composition of the Supreme Court changes relatively quickly, as judges attain the retirement age of 75 and this list was last updated on 22 January 2016. The Chilean Supreme Court has been involved in many important human rights regarding the former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet. In July 2002, it dismissed a case against Pinochet, saying that he was unfit to stand due to dementia. In August 2004, it confirmed a lower courts decision that Pinochet should lose his automatic immunity he acquired from being a former senator, in March 2005, it reversed a lower courts decision stripping Pinochet of immunity in the case of the assassination of Carlos Prats. In August 2007, it upheld a sentence for Hugo Salas Wenzel. The Chilean Supreme Court has made decisions in the area of gay rights. In 2004, it confirmed a lower courts decision that stripped former judge Karen Atala of custody of her three daughters because she is a lesbian, in 2012, the case was overturned by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. In January 2004, it removed judge Daniel Calvo from his position on the Santiago Court of Appeals, in November 2005, the Chilean Supreme Court ruled that the sale of contraceptive morning-after pill Postinor 2 is constitutional. On September 21,2007, the court accepted Perus request to extradite former president Alberto Fujimori, on human rights and corruption charges

32.
History of China
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Written records of the history of China can be found from as early as 1500 BC under the Shang dynasty. Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian and the Bamboo Annals describe a Xia dynasty, with thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the worlds oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. Much of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during the Zhou dynasty. This is one of multiple periods of failed statehood in Chinese history, between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China, in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang united the warring kingdoms and created for himself the title of emperor of the Qin dynasty. Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly, in the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite, the Scholar-officials. Young men were selected through difficult examinations and were well-versed in calligraphy and philosophy. What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago, recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, the excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923–27, fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125, 000–80,000 BC have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan. The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC, Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago, farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in Ningxia,3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and these pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols were the earliest Chinese writing system. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site, The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a ancient city. The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986, Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings

33.
Zhao Ziyang
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Zhao Ziyang was a high-ranking politician in China. As a senior government official, Zhao was critical of Maoist policies and instrumental in implementing reforms, first in Sichuan. He emerged on the scene due to support from Deng Xiaoping after the Cultural Revolution. He also sought measures to streamline Chinas bureaucracy and fight corruption, Zhao Ziyang was also an advocate of the privatization of state-owned enterprises, the separation of the Party and the state, and general market economic reforms. Many of these views were shared by General Secretary Hu Yaobang, Zhao also began to lose favour with paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. In the aftermath of the events, Zhao was purged politically and effectively placed under house arrest for the next 15 years, in 2005, he died from a stroke in Beijing. Because of his fall from grace, he was not given the funeral rites generally accorded to senior Chinese officials. His unofficial autobiography was published in English and in Chinese in 2009, Zhao was born Zhao Xiuye, but changed his given name to Ziyang while attending middle school in Wuhan. He was the son of a landlord in Hua County, Henan. Zhao joined the Communist Youth League in 1932, and became a member of the Party in 1938. Unlike many Party members active in the 1930s and 1940s who later became senior Chinese leaders and he served in the Peoples Liberation Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent civil war, but his posts were largely administrative. Zhaos career was not especially notable before he emerged as a Party leader in Guangdong in the early 1950s, Zhaos faith in Mao led him to take a leading role in a local campaign aimed at torturing peasants into revealing their imaginary food supplies. Through supporting the Great Leap Forward, Zhao was partially responsible for the millions of people who died from starvation and malnutrition in Guangdong between 1958 and 1961. Zhaos experiences during the Great Leap Forward led him to moderate political and economic policies, including those supported by Deng Xiaoping. He led efforts to re-introduce limited amounts of agriculture and commerce. After achieving senior positions in Guangdong, Zhao directed a purge of cadres accused of corruption or having ties to the Kuomintang. By 1965 Zhao was the Party secretary of Guangdong province, despite not being a member of the Communist Party Central Committee and he was forty-six at the time that he first became Party secretary, a notably young age to hold such a prestigious position. Because of his political orientation, Zhao was attacked by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution

34.
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
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The officeholder is usually considered the paramount leader of China. According to the Constitution, the General Secretary serves as an ex member of the Politburo Standing Committee. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012, as China is a de facto one-party state, the General Secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government. However, the men who have held the post have held far less power than Chairman Mao Zedong, since the mid-1990s, the General Secretary has traditionally also held the post of President of the PRC. While the presidency is nominally a ceremonial post, it is customary for the General Secretary to assume the presidency to confirm his status as de jure head of state. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by the General Secretary, that the power of the General Secretary has become more concentrated

35.
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
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The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in China as the June Fourth Incident, were student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period. The protests were suppressed after the government declared martial law. The number of deaths has been estimated at anywhere between the hundreds to the thousands. The reforms of the 1980s had led a nascent market economy which benefited some groups but seriously disaffected others, common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, at the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square. As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership, by May, a student-led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, Chinas paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and other party elders believed the protests to be a political threat, Party authorities declared martial law on May 20, and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. The Chinese government was condemned internationally for the use of force. Western countries imposed sanctions and arms embargoes. The Chinese government initially condemned the protests as a counter-revolutionary riot, the police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged, more broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization in the 1980s. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century. Its memory is associated with questioning the legitimacy of Communist Party rule. In the Chinese language, the incident is most commonly known as the June Fourth Incident, June Fourth refers to the day on which the Peoples Liberation Army cleared Tiananmen Square of protesters, although actual operations began on the evening of June 3. Some use the June Fourth designation solely to refer to the carried out by the Army. Names such as June Fourth Movement and 89 Democracy Movement are used to describe the event in its entirety, outside mainland China, and among circles critical of the crackdown within mainland China, it is commonly referred to in Chinese as June Fourth Massacre and June Fourth Crackdown. The government of the Peoples Republic of China have used numerous names for the event since 1989, in English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events

36.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops

37.
Gedhun Choekyi Nyima
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Gedhun Choekyi Nyima is the 11th Panchen Lama of Tibetan Buddhism as recognised by the Dalai Lama and various other Tibetan Buddhist leaders. He was born in Lhari County, Tibet, on 14 May 1995, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima was named the 11th Panchen Lama by the 14th Dalai Lama. After his selection, he was taken into custody by authorities of the Peoples Republic of China and has not been seen in public since 17 May 1995. Another child, Gyancain Norbu, was named as Panchen Lama by the Peoples Republic of China. After the Dalai Lama named Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th incarnation of the Panchen Lama on 14 May, according to the Tibetan Government in Exile, he was replaced by Sengchen Lobsang Gyaltsen, so chosen because he was more likely to agree with the party line. Sengchen had been an opponent of both the Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama. The new search committee ignored the Dalai Lamas 14 May announcement, in selecting a name, lottery numbers were drawn from a Golden Urn, a procedure used in Tibet by the Chinese emperor in 1793. The Tibetan method involves using possessions of the former Lama to identify his reincarnation, Chinese authorities announced Gyancain Norbu as the search committees choice on 11 November 1995. Since his selection, the whereabouts of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima have been unknown, officials state that his whereabouts are kept undisclosed to protect him. Human rights organizations termed him the youngest political prisoner in the world, no foreign party has been allowed to visit him. Those who say Nyima is the 11th Panchen Lama call upon the Chinese authorities to prove that he is safe, the Committee on the Rights of the Child requested to be told of Nyimas whereabouts on 28 May 1996. Xinhua declined, responding that Nyima was at risk of being kidnapped by separatists, the Committee requested a visit with Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, supported by a campaign of more than 400 celebrities and associations petitioning for the visit, including six Nobel Prize winners. According to statements by the Chinese government from 1998, he was leading a normal life. He is currently in upper school, he measures 165 cm in height and is easy-going by nature. He studies hard and his results are very good. He likes Chinese traditional culture and has taken up calligraphy. His parents are both State employees, and his brothers and sisters are either working or at university. The allegation that he disappeared together with his parents and that his whereabouts remain unknown is not true

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A curfew is an order specifying a time during which certain regulations apply. — Etymology — The word "curfew" comes …

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