Tuesday, June 24, 2014

Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space.
International lawyers have been unable to agree on a uniform definition
of the term "outer space", although most lawyers agree that outer space
generally begins at the lowest altitude above sea level at which
objects can orbit the Earth, approximately 100 km (60 mi).

The inception of the field of space law began with the launch of the world's first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957. Named Sputnik 1, the satellite was launched as part of the International Geophysical Year.
Since that time, space law has evolved and assumed more importance as
mankind has increasingly come to use and rely on space-based resources.

Early developments

Beginning in 1957, nations began discussing systems to ensure the peaceful use of outer space.[1][2] Bilateral discussions between the United States and USSR in 1958 resulted in the presentation of issues to the UN for debate.[1][3][4] In 1959, the UN created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).[5]
COPUOS in turn created two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical
Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee
has been a primary forum for discussion and negotiation of international
agreements relating to outer space.

International treaties

Five international treaties have been negotiated and drafted in the COPUOS:

The 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in
the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other
Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty").

The 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement").

The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention").

The 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon Treaty").

The outer space treaty is the most widely adopted treaty, with 100 parties.[6]
The rescue agreement, the liability convention and the registration
convention all elaborate on provisions of the outer space treaty. UN
delegates apparently intended[according to whom?]
that the moon treaty serve as a new comprehensive treaty which would
supersede or supplement the outer space treaty, most notably by
elaborating upon the outer space treaty's provisions regarding resource
appropriation and prohibition of territorial sovereignty.[7] The moon treaty has only 13 parties however, and many consider it to be a failed treaty due to its limited acceptance.[6]
India is the only nation that has both signed the moon treaty and
declared itself interested in going to the moon. India has not ratified
the treaty; an analysis of India's treaty law is required to understand
how this affects India legally.[8]
In addition, the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water ("Partial Test Ban Treaty") banned the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space.

International principles and declarations

The five treaties and agreements of international space law cover
"non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the
freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects,
the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of
harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the
notification and registration of space activities, scientific
investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space
and the settlement of disputes." [9]
The United Nations General Assembly adopted five declarations and
legal principles which encourage exercising the international laws, as
well as unified communication between countries. The five declarations
and principles are:

The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (1963)

All space exploration will be done with good intentions and is
equally open to all States that comply with international law. No one
nation may claim ownership of outer space or any celestial body.
Activities carried out in space must abide by the international law and
the nations undergoing these said activities must accept responsibility
for the governmental or non-governmental agency involved. Objects
launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including
people. Objects, parts, and components discovered outside the
jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a
nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any
damages that occur internationally.

The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth
Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982)

Activities of this nature must be transpire in accordance with the
sovereign rights of States. Said activities should "promote the free
dissemination and mutual exchange of information and knowledge in
cultural and scientific fields, assist in educational, social and
economic development, particularly in the developing countries, enhance
the qualities of life of all peoples and provide recreation with due
respect to the political and cultural integrity of States." All States
have equal rights to pursue these activities and must maintain
responsibility for anything carried out under their boundaries of
authority. States planning activities need to contact the
Secretary-General of the United Nations with details of the undergoing activities.

The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986)

Fifteen principles are stated under this category. The basic
understanding comes from these descriptions given by the United Nations
Office for Outer Space Affairs:

(a) The term "remote sensing" means the sensing of the Earth's
surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic
waves emitted, reflected or :diffracted by the sensed objects, for the
purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the
protection of the environment;

(b) The term "primary data" means those raw data that are acquired
by remote sensors borne by a space object and that are transmitted or
delivered to the ground :from space by telemetry in the form of
electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any
other means;

(c) The term "processed data" means the products resulting from the
processing of the primary data, needed to make such data usable;

(d) The term "analysed information" means the information resulting
from the interpretation of processed data, inputs of data and knowledge
from other sources;

(e) The term "remote sensing activities" means the operation of
remote sensing space systems, primary data collection and storage
stations, and activities in :processing, interpreting and disseminating
the processed data.[10]

The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (1992)

"States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board
shall endeavour to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
against radiological hazards. The design and use of space objects with
nuclear power sources on board shall ensure, with a high degree of
confidence, that the hazards, in foreseeable operational or accidental
circumstances, are kept below acceptable levels..."

The Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and
Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States,
Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries (1996)

"States are free to determine all aspects of their participation in
international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space on
an equitable and mutually acceptable basis. All States, particularly
those with relevant space capabilities and with programmes for the
exploration and use of outer space, should contribute to promoting and
fostering international cooperation on an equitable and mutually
acceptable basis. In this context, particular attention should be given
to the benefit for and the interests of developing countries and
countries with incipient space programmes stemming from such
international cooperation conducted with countries with more advanced
space capabilities. International cooperation should be conducted in the
modes that are considered most effective and appropriate by the
countries concerned, including, inter alia, governmental and
non-governmental; commercial and non-commercial; global, multilateral,
regional or bilateral; and international cooperation among countries in
all levels of development."

Consensus

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Scientific and Technical and Legal Subcommittees operate on the basis of consensus, i.e.
all delegations from member States must agree on any matter, be it
treaty language before it can be included in the final version of a
treaty or new items on Committee/Subcommittee's agendas. One reason that
the U.N. space treaties lack definitions and are unclear in other
respects, is that it is easier to achieve consensus when language and
terms are vague. In recent years, the Legal Subcommittee has been unable
to achieve consensus on discussion of a new comprehensive space
agreement (the idea of which, though, was proposed just by a few member
States). It is also unlikely that the Subcommittee will be able to agree
to amend the Outer Space Treaty in the foreseeable future. Many space
faring nations seem to believe that discussing a new space agreement or
amendment of the Outer Space Treaty would be futile and time consuming,
because entrenched differences regarding resource appropriation,
property rights and other issues relating to commercial activity make
consensus unlikely.

1998 ISS agreement

In addition to the international treaties that have been negotiated at the United Nations, the nations participating in the International Space Station have entered into the 1998 Agreement among the governments of Canada, Member States of the European Space Agency, Japan, Russian Federation, and the United States of America concerning cooperation on the Civil International Space Station (the "Space Station Agreement"). This Agreement provides, among other things, that NASA
is the lead agency in coordinating the member states' contributions to
and activities on the space station, and that each nation has
jurisdiction over its own module(s). The Agreement also provides for
protection of intellectual property and procedures for criminal
prosecution. This Agreement may very well serve as a model for future
agreements regarding international cooperation in facilities on the Moon
and Mars, where the first off-world colonies and scientific/industrial
bases are likely to be established.[11]

National law

Space law also encompasses national laws, and many countries have
passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space
Treaty requires parties to authorize and supervise national space
activities, including the activities of non-governmental entities such
as commercial and non-profit organizations. The Outer Space Treaty also
incorporates the UN Charter
by reference, and requires parties to ensure that activities are
conducted in accordance with other forms of international law such as customary international law (the custom and practice of states).

The advent of commercial space activities beyond the scope of the
satellite communications industry, and the development of many
commercial spaceports, is leading many countries[which?] to consider how to regulate private space activities.[12]
The challenge is to regulate these activities in a manner that does not
hinder or preclude investment, while still ensuring that commercial
activities comply with international law. The developing nations are
concerned that the space faring nations will monopolize space resources.[12] However this may be resolved by simply extending the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to outer space.[13]

Geostationary orbit allocation

Satellites in geostationary orbit
must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately
35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart
means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus
only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary
orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing
access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same longitude but differing latitudes). These disputes are addressed through the ITU allocation mechanism.[14]
Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal
claim to control the use of space above their territory,[15] notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's equator created the Bogota Declaration, in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.[16]

Future

American Society of International Law Space Interest Group 2014 Board meeting

While this field of the law is still in its infancy, it is in an era
of rapid change and development. Arguably the resources of space are
infinite. If commercial space transportation becomes widely available,
with substantially lower launch costs, then all countries will be able
to directly reap the benefits of space resources. In that situation, it
seems likely that consensus will be much easier to achieve with respect
to commercial development and human settlement of outer space. High
costs are not the only factor preventing the economic exploitation of
space: it is argued that space should be considered as a pristine
environment worthy of protection and conservation, and that the legal
regime for space should further protect it from being used as a resource
for Earth's needs.[17][18]
Debate is also focused on whether space should continue to be legally
defined as part of the “common heritage of man,” and therefore
unavailable for national claims, or whether its legal definition should
be changed to allow private property in space.[17][19][20]

The University of Nebraska College of Law offers the U.S.’s first and only LL.M. in space and telecommunications law.[26]
Professor Frans von der Dunk, former Director of space law research at
Leiden University joined the program in 2007. In addition to the LL.M.,
students can earn a J.D. at Nebraska Law with an emphasis in space and
telecommunications law. The program also hosts three space and
telecommunications conferences each year [27][full citation needed]

In September 2012, the Space Law Society (SLS) at the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law was established.[29]
A legal resources team united in Maryland, a "Space Science State,"
with Jorge Rodriguez, Lee Sampson, Patrick Gardiner, Lyra Correa and
Juliana Neelbauer as SLS founding members.[30]

NASA's plans to capture an asteroid has raised questions about how space law would be applied in practice.[31]

Recently initiatives that capitalise on the public’s interest in space
and astronomy have proliferated, some putting a price tag on naming
space objects and their features, such as Mars craters. The
International Astronomical Union (IAU) would like to emphasise that such
initiatives go against the spirit of free and equal access to space, as
well as against internationally recognised standards. Hence no
purchased names can ever be used on official maps and globes. The IAU
encourages the public to become involved in the naming process of space
objects and their features by following the officially recognised (and
free) methods. See: Concerns and Considerations with the Naming of Mars Craters

***

I am re-posting this article for further considerations to possible attempts to change the way we look at property in space.

To advance perceptions outside of the link provided and site that
goes beyond the science of, I would ask that you consider the movement
in Ladee. My early research on the moon's matters are of importance when colonization of the moon takes place because resources have to be used there to support the community. So the use of measure to ascertain elements is an important function of how we can utilize not only our science in the cosmos but of how we can measure those matters.

In the exploration and use of outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies, States Parties to the Treaty shall
be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance and
shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the moon
and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding
interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty. States Parties
to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the moon
and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to
avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the
environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of
extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate
measures for this purpose. If a State Party to the Treaty has reason
to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its
nationals in outer space, including the moon and other celestial
bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities
of other States Parties in the peaceful exploration and use of outer
space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, it shall
undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with
any such activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which
has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by
another State Party in outer space, including the moon and other
celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with
activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space,
including the moon and other celestial bodies, may request
consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

Space
entrepreneur Robert Bigelow (left) discusses layout plans of the
company's lunar base with Eric Haakonstad, one of the Bigelow Aerospace
lead engineers.

Wednesday, March 26, 2014

Recently initiatives that capitalise on the public’s interest in space and astronomy have proliferated, some putting a price tag on naming space objects and their features, such as Mars craters. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) would like to emphasise that such initiatives go against the spirit of free and equal access to space, as well as against internationally recognised standards. Hence no purchased names can ever be used on official maps and globes. The IAU encourages the public to become involved in the naming process of space objects and their features by following the officially recognised (and free) methods. See: Concerns and Considerations with the Naming of Mars Craters

***

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967

Treaty on principles governing the activities of states in
the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other
celestial bodies.

Opened for signature at Moscow, London, and Washington on 27 January, 1967 THE STATES PARTIES. TO THIS TREATY,

INSPIRED by the great prospects opening up before mankind as a result of man's entry into outer space,

RECOGNIZING the common interest of all mankind in the
progress of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful
purposes,

BELIEVING that the exploration and use of outer space
should be carried on for the benefit of all peoples irrespective of the
degree of their economic or scientific development,

DESIRING to contribute to broad international co-operation
in the scientific as well as the legal aspects of the exploration and
use of outer space for peaceful purposes,

BELIEVING that such co-operation will contribute to the
development of mutual understanding and to the strengthening of friendly
relations between States and peoples,

RECALLING resolution 1962 (XVIII), entitled "Declaration of
Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space", which was adopted unanimously by
the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 1963,

RECALLING resolution 1884 (XVIII), calling upon States to
refrain from placing in orbit around the earth any objects carrying
nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction or
from installing such weapons on celestial bodies, which was adopted
unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly on 17 October
1963,

TAKING account of United Nations General Assembly
resolution 110 (II) of 3 November 1947, which condemned propaganda
designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression, and considering that the
aforementioned resolution is applicable to outer space,CONVINCED that a Treaty on Principles Governing the
Activitiesof States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including
the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, will further the Purposes and
Principles ofthe Charter of the United Nations,

HAVE AGREED ON THE FOLLOWING:

Article I

The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon
and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in
the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of
economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all
mankind.
Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies,
shall be free for exploration and use by all States without
discrimination of any kind, on a basis of equality and in accordance
with international law, and there shall be free access to all areas
of celestial bodies.
There shall be freedom of scientific investigation in outer
space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and States shall
facilitate and encourage international co-operation in such
investigation.

Article II

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies,
is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by
means of use or occupation, or by any other means.

Article III

States Parties to the Treaty shall carry on activities in
the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other
celestial bodies, in accordance with international law, including the
Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining
international peace and security and promoting international co-
operation and understanding. States Parties to the Treaty undertake not to place in
orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other
kinds of weapons of mass destruction, install such weapons on
celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer space in any other
manner.
>
The moon and other celestial bodies shall be used by all
States Parties to the Treaty exclusively for peaceful purposes. The
establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the
testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military manoeuvres
on celestial bodies shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel
for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not
be prohibited. The use of any equipment or facility necessary for
peaceful exploration of the moon and other celestial bodies shall
also not be prohibited.

Article V

States Parties to the Treaty shall regard astronauts as envoys of mankind in
outer space and shall render to them all possible assistance in the event of accident,
distress, or emergency landing on the territory of another State Party or on the high
seas. When astronauts make such a landing, they shall be safely and promptly returned
In carrying on activities in outer space and on celestial bodies, the astronauts
of one State Party shall render all possible assistance to the astronauts of other States
Parties.
States Parties to the Treaty shall immediately inform the other States Parties to
the Treaty or the Secretary-General of the United Nations of any phenomena they
discover in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, which could
constitute a danger to the life or health of astronauts.

Article VI

States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international
responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried
on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for
assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with
the provisions set forth in the present Treaty. The activities of
non- governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and
other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing
supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty. When
activities are carried on in outer space, including the moon and
other celestial bodies, by an international organization,
responsibility for compliance with this Treaty shall be borne both by
the international organization and by the States Parties to the
Treaty participating in such organization.

Article VII

Each State Party to the Treaty that launches or procures
the launching of an object into outer space, including the moon and
other celestial bodies, and each State Party from whose territory or
facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for damage
to another State Party to the Treaty or to its natural or juridical
persons by such object or its component parts on the Earth, in air
space or in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies.

Article VIII

A State Party to the Treaty on whose registry an object
launched into outer space is carried shall retain jurisdiction and
control over such object, and over any personnel thereof, while in
outer space or on a celestial body. Ownership of objects launched
into outer space, including objects landed or constructed on a
celestial body, and of their component parts, is not affected by their
presence in outer space or on a celestial body or by their return to
the Earth. Such objects or component parts found beyond the limits of
the State Party of the Treaty on whose registry they are carried
shall be returned to that State Party, which shall, upon request,
furnish identifying data prior to their return.

Article IX

In the exploration and use of outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies, States Parties to the Treaty shall
be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance and
shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the moon
and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding
interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty. States Parties
to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the moon
and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to
avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the
environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of
extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate
measures for this purpose. If a State Party to the Treaty has reason
to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its
nationals in outer space, including the moon and other celestial
bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities
of other States Parties in the peaceful exploration and use of outer
space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, it shall
undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with
any such activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which
has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by
another State Party in outer space, including the moon and other
celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with
activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space,
including the moon and other celestial bodies, may request
consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

Article X

In order to promote international co-operation in the
exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other
celestial bodies, in conformity with the purposes of this Treaty, the
States Parties to the Treaty shall consider on a basis of equality
any requests by other States Parties to the Treaty to be afforded an
opportunity to observe the flight of space objects launched by those
States.
The nature of such an opportunity for observation and the
conditions under which it could be afforded shall be determined by
agreement between the States concerned.Article XI

In order to promote international co-operation in the
peaceful exploration and use of outer space, States Parties to the
Treaty conducting activities in outer space, including the moon and
other celestial bodies, agree to inform the Secretary-General of the
United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific
community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of the
nature, conduct, locations and results of such activities. On
receiving the said information, the Secretary-General of the United
Nations should be prepared to disseminate it immediately and
effectively.

Article XII

All stations, installations, equipment and space vehicles
on the moon and other celestial bodies shall be open to
representatives of other States Parties to the Treaty on a basis of
reciprocity. Such representatives shall give reasonable advance
notice of a projected visit, in order that appropriate consultations may
be held and that maximum precautions may be taken to assure safety
and to avoid interference with normal operations in the facility to
be visited.

Article XIII

The provisions of this Treaty shall apply to the activities
of States Parties to the Treaty in the exploration and use of outer
space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such
activities are carried on by a single State Party to the Treaty or
jointly with other States, including cases where they are carried on
within the framework of international inter-governmental
organizations.
Any practical questions arising in connexion with
activities carried on by international inter-governmental
organizations in the exploration and use of outer space, including
the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be resolved by the States
Parties to the Treaty either with the appropriate international
organization or with one or more States members of that international
organization, which are Parties to this Treaty.

Article XIV

1. This Treaty shall be open to all States for signature.
Any State which does not sign this Treaty before its entry into force
in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article may accede to it at
any time.
2. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification by
signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of
accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are
hereby designated the Depositary Governments.
3. This Treaty shall enter into force upon the deposit of
instruments of ratification by five Governments including the
Governments designated as Depositary Governments under this Treaty.
4. For States whose instruments of ratification or
accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this
Treaty, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their
instruments of ratification or accession. 5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all
signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date
of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to
this Treaty, the date of its entry into force and other notices.
6. This Treaty shall be registered by the Depositary
Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United
Nations.

Article XV

Any State Party to the Treaty may propose amendments to
this Treaty. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party
to the Treaty accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a
majority of the States Parties to the Treaty and thereafter for each
remaining State Party to the Treaty on the date of acceptance by it.

Article XVI

Any State Party to the Treaty may give notice of its
withdrawal from the Treaty one year after its entry into force by
written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal
shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this
notification.

Article XVII

This Treaty, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian
and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the
archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this
Treaty shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the
Governments of the signatory and acceding States.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorised, have signed this Treaty.

DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and
Washington, the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand nine
hundred and sixty-seven.

Sunday, January 01, 2012

GRAIL Spacecraft Logo

NASA's Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory, or GRAIL, spacecraft logo is emblazoned on the first stage of a United Launch Alliance Delta II launch vehicle, now secured in the gantry at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Space Launch Complex 17B.

Image credit: NASA/Jim Grossmann

Mission Overview

The GRAIL mission will place two spacecraft into the same orbit around the Moon. As they fly over areas of greater and lesser gravity, caused both by visible features such as mountains and craters and by masses hidden beneath the lunar surface, they will move slightly toward and away from each other. An instrument aboard each spacecraft will measure the changes in their relative velocity very precisely, and scientists will translate this information into a high-resolution map of the Moon's gravitational field.

Our views in terms of the gravity field becomes part and parcel of our assessment as we venture out into space. So why not the Moon.

Image Credit: NASA/Goddard

Early assessment of Clementine along with LCROSS paints a interesting feature of our Moon as we look to understand the matter constituent makeup of the moon, along with what it's gravity field.

Here at Dialogos of Eide I am concerned about this relationship. Such mapping not only becomes useful in the determination of the gravity field but it also heightens the understanding of relating to the elemental.

Part of this move into the cosmos will be the need to understand "something spiritual about ourselves and while ethereal in it's assessment this relationship to gravity." It is also necessary to go "even deeper" to understand our ability to manipulate the force of gravity as a product of the mechanism of the Higg's field as we move through our own psychological underpinnings with the way in which we choose to live. (I know we have yet to proof this connection).

I give some inkling with the four links below. This is my assessment of the relationship toward "my gravity" as I choose to live in the world of reality.

Friday, January 14, 2011

This treaty became effective on January 27, 1967. As its name implies, the Outer Space Treaty prohibits placing into orbit around the Earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, the installation of such weapons on celestial bodies, or their stationing in outer space in any other manner. Also forbidden are the establishment of military bases, installations, and fortifications; the testing of any type of weapons; and the conduct .

NASA has once again landed on the lunar surface with the goal of colonization, research, and further exploration. Shortly after the return to the Moon, NASA has established a small outpost on the south pole of the moon called Moonbase Alpha. Utilizing solar energy and regolith processing, the moonbase has become self-sufficient and plans for further expansion are underway.

Moonbase Alpha Game ScreenShot -- Repairing the Life Support System

In Moonbase Alpha, you assume the exciting role of an astronaut working to further human expansion and research. Returning from a research expedition, you witness a meteorite impact that cripples the life support capability of the settlement. With precious minutes ticking away, you and your team must repair and replace equipment in order to restore the oxygen production to the settlement.

Team coordination along with the proper use and allocation of your available resources (player controlled robots, rovers, repair tools, etc.) are key to your overall success. There are several ways in which you can successfully restore the life support system of the lunar base, but since you are scored on the time spent to complete the task, you have to work effectively as a team, learn from decisions made in previous gaming sessions, and make intelligence decisions in order to top the leaderboards.

Well Steven we know we need water if we are ever to establish a base. The support system for establishment of that base, require elements that can be found there, as they will be necessary for the foundation and support of "creating the place" in which to live. The property has to have some value. Who is to determine it's owner ship? So how one looks at the planets is to think about it's structure and what benefits can be gained from establishing locations for ventures further out into space. What it's gravity field looks like may aid in the determination of the mass and density of that planet n aiding the elemental determination of that structure? Colonization. I just thought if I was to gain from mining profits it would have to be for a reason in order to get my capital expenses out of such an investment. Then, what mining and values understood in terms of those elements is to be able to look at the moon in such a way that such support for that colonization for the moon base is established. Is it a international mining company, then a private one? Who shall have the say over where such mining can or can't occur, if property rights are or are not given? Just some of the thoughts that have occurred for me. Best,

January 13,

NASA's Mini-SAR instrument, which flew aboard India's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, found more than 40 small craters with water ice. The craters range in size from 1 to 9 miles (2 to 15 km) in diameter. Although the total amount of ice depends on its thickness in each crater, it's estimated there could be at least 600 million metric tons of water ice. The red circles denote fresh craters; the green circle mark anomalous craters. NASA

Hi, Plato, Water, and air! In the long run I don't see that being as much of a problem as shelter from cosmic rays and solar radiation, which we can also solve. Air and water will have to be imported from Earth for the first century, maybe less. There's titanium oxide on the moon, right? That means oxygen. I'll make a deal with you. You can keep the titanium, I'll take the O2. With the O2 we'll get our air, and if we can locate some hydrogen we can combine that with the O2 to make water. And once someone gets off their duff and repeats Biosphere, except this time with less mistakes both managerial and engineering-wise of the first one, we'll recycle that stuff. For food: plants, and the small furry animals that love them. For shelter, the best news of late is that there are Caves on the moon! That's where we'll settle first. It'll sure save on excavation costs. Now, I know this will be pricey, but that hasn't stopped exploration before. We know who the Ferdinands and Isabellas of our day are, all that remains is to find the Columbuses, and I suspect there are no shortage of them either. And in any event, as Kennedy said, we won't go to the moon because it is easy, we will go to the moon because it is hard! A challenge! A goal. Goals are good. As a fringe benefit, we can solve the massive poverty problem here on Earth in doing this. Full employment for all humans is possible, provided we have a goal and people want to help. I have a cousin who worked at Grumman in the 60's - he was pretty darn proud to be one of the hundreds of thousands that allowed Neil and Buzz to step on our sister planet and return safely to the Earth. The Moon with it's 1/4th gravity will provide a saner place to build and launch a Mars mission one day. Also, in about 2 months we'll have a probe in orbit around planet Mercury. It's quite possible Mercury has more rich minerals and precious metals than any other planet, and if so, our successes on establishing a lunar base will be priceless in terms of experience to go after the Gold planet. Both seem equally hostile. So did North America back in the day, given the technology of those days, but, our ancestors conquered that eventually, eh? Yes they did, and we're the living proof. :-)

Steven:There's titanium oxide on the moon, right? That means oxygen. You get my point well then that, "the elements" are factors that we have to take into consideration if the future of colonization has a step off point. The life cycle of a lunar impact and associated time and special scales. The LCROSS measurement methods are “layered” in response to the rapidly evolving impact environment. See: Impact:Lunar CRater Observation Satellite (LCROSS) So one must first plan for the expansion based on a blueprint for future generations. So you develop a research scenario based on the development and support of building such a base. As you have shown we are part way to the moon "so structure of habitation is and has already shown it can "withstand" through how such a design must be built on the moon. Of course first habitations is going to be the capsules in which it got us there. Metallurgic and refinement processes are developed for specific kinds of materials needed in the development of. Politics is an interesting question when it comes to how we want to move out toward space colonization, beyond the boundaries earth has to this date incorporated so as to benefit investment, while developing for all humankind? So is it a "public company" or "a private Corporation" through future developmental designs that shall lead the way? Best,

So is it a "public company" or "a private Corporation" through future developmental designs that shall lead the way? You handle the Legal end and I'll handle the Sales end. :-) As a tip though, what did it take to start up the Dutch East India Trading Company? It's in the History books, a not-small dose of which I believe you lawyers had to study in your undergraduate days. :-) Also, regarding Columbus. Was he really Italiano, or was he the Portuguese double-spy Salvador Fernandes Zarco, who played King John against Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand and vice versa, until he got the 3 ships he couldn't afford himself? And who then, on the high seas, ran into, got info from, then killed: John Cabot, the alleged REAL discoverer of the New World? Well, I don't know, sounds like conspiracy crackpottery to me, but however he did it, he sure got it done.

Steven: You handle the Legal end and I'll handle the Sales end. You have to lead first by example? At 9:11 AM, November 05, 2009, Steven:How can Quantum Gravity help? Transmutation. Once we know how matter and energy work on the smallest scales, Engineers should shortly thereafter learn how to turn Lunar titanium into any other form of matter we desire, and Newton's dream of Alchemy will finally be realized. Unfortunately I am embroiled in United States sovereignty claim because of the flag planted on the moon and various mirrors for measure as claims to land. Setting up the infrastructure like Christine said is first and foremost. An elementary consideration as to how we can support that community on the Moon and provide for manufacture and production is why my companies move to land claims of the Aristarchus Crater and Surrounding Region. If different countries can challenge Canada's sovereignty of it's north, then I should have no problem contesting any rights to United States sovereignty on the moon.:) If we as a global community dispense with such borders then as a community it then belongs to all people, not just "capitalistic control." I as a mining company will bequeath all my lands to such an endeavor. Best,

Treaty on principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies.

Opened for signature at Moscow, London, and Washington on 27 January, 1967

THE STATES PARTIES. TO THIS TREATY,

INSPIRED by the great prospects opening up before mankind as a result of man's entry into outer space,

RECOGNIZING the common interest of all mankind in the progress of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes,

BELIEVING that the exploration and use of outer space should be carried on for the benefit of all peoples irrespective of the degree of their economic or scientific development,

DESIRING to contribute to broad international co-operation in the scientific as well as the legal aspects of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes,

BELIEVING that such co-operation will contribute to the development of mutual understanding and to the strengthening of friendly relations between States and peoples,

RECALLING resolution 1962 (XVIII), entitled "Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space", which was adopted unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 1963,

RECALLING resolution 1884 (XVIII), calling upon States to refrain from placing in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction or from installing such weapons on celestial bodies, which was adopted unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly on 17 October 1963,

TAKING account of United Nations General Assembly resolution 110 (II) of 3 November 1947, which condemned propaganda designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression, and considering that the aforementioned resolution is applicable to outer space,

CONVINCED that a Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, will further the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nations,

HAVE AGREED ON THE FOLLOWING:

Article I

The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind.

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be free for exploration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind, on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law, and there shall be free access to all areas of celestial bodies.

There shall be freedom of scientific investigation in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and States shall facilitate and encourage international co-operation in such investigation.

Article II

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.

Article III

States Parties to the Treaty shall carry on activities in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international co- operation and understanding.

Article IV

States Parties to the Treaty undertake not to place in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, instal such weapons on celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer space in any other manner.

The moon and other celestial bodies shall be used by all States Parties to the Treaty exclusively for peaceful purposes. The establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military manoeuvres on celestial bodies shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. The use of any equipment or facility necessary for peaceful exploration of the moon and other celestial bodies shall also not be prohibited.

Article V

In carrying on activities in outer space and on celestial bodies, the astronauts of one State Party shall render all possible assistance to the astronauts of other States Parties.

Article VI

States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in the present Treaty. The activities of non- governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty. When activities are carried on in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, by an international organization, responsibility for compliance with this Treaty shall be borne both by the international organization and by the States Parties to the Treaty participating in such organization.

Article VII

Each State Party to the Treaty that launches or procures the launching of an object into outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and each State Party from whose territory or facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for damage to another State Party to the Treaty or to its natural or juridical persons by such object or its component parts on the Earth, in air space or in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies.

Article VIII

A State Party to the Treaty on whose registry an object launched into outer space is carried shall retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and over any personnel thereof, while in outer space or on a celestial body. Ownership of objects launched into outer space, including objects landed or constructed on a celestial body, and of their component parts, is not affected by their presence in outer space or on a celestial body or by their return to the Earth. Such objects or component parts found beyond the limits of the State Party of the Treaty on whose registry they are carried shall be returned to that State Party, which shall, upon request, furnish identifying data prior to their return.

Article IX

In the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, States Parties to the Treaty shall be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance and shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty. States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose. If a State Party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its nationals in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities of other States Parties in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, it shall undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with any such activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

Article X

In order to promote international co-operation in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, in conformity with the purposes of this Treaty, the States Parties to the Treaty shall consider on a basis of equality any requests by other States Parties to the Treaty to be afforded an opportunity to observe the flight of space objects launched by those States.

The nature of such an opportunity for observation and the conditions under which it could be afforded shall be determined by agreement between the States concerned.

Article XI

In order to promote international co-operation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, States Parties to the Treaty conducting activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, agree to inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of the nature, conduct, locations and results of such activities. On receiving the said information, the Secretary-General of the United Nations should be prepared to disseminate it immediately and effectively.

Article XII

All stations, installations, equipment and space vehicles on the moon and other celestial bodies shall be open to representatives of other States Parties to the Treaty on a basis of reciprocity. Such representatives shall give reasonable advance notice of a projected visit, in order that appropriate consultations may be held and that maximum precautions may be taken to assure safety and to avoid interference with normal operations in the facility to be visited.

Article XIII

The provisions of this Treaty shall apply to the activities of States Parties to the Treaty in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by a single State Party to the Treaty or jointly with other States, including cases where they are carried on within the framework of international inter-governmental organizations.

Any practical questions arising in connexion with activities carried on by international inter-governmental organizations in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be resolved by the States Parties to the Treaty either with the appropriate international organization or with one or more States members of that international organization, which are Parties to this Treaty.

Article XIV

1. This Treaty shall be open to all States for signature. Any State which does not sign this Treaty before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article may accede to it at any time.
2. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments.
3. This Treaty shall enter into force upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by five Governments including the Governments designated as Depositary Governments under this Treaty.
4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Treaty, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession.
5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Treaty, the date of its entry into force and other notices.
6. This Treaty shall be registered by the Depositary Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article XV

Any State Party to the Treaty may propose amendments to this Treaty. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Treaty accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Treaty and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Treaty on the date of acceptance by it.

Article XVI

Any State Party to the Treaty may give notice of its withdrawal from the Treaty one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

Article XVII

This Treaty, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this Treaty shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorised, have signed this Treaty.
DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and Washington, the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven.

Stephen J. Garber, NASA History Web Curator

***

Space entrepreneur Robert Bigelow (left) discusses layout plans of the company's lunar base with Eric Haakonstad, one of the Bigelow Aerospace lead engineers.