Rulers of the Hawaiian Islands

The rulers of the Hawaiian islands (noho aliʻi o ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻAina) are a line of native Hawaiians who were independent rulers of various subdivisions of the land and islands of Hawaii. Their genealogy is traced to Hānalaʻanui and others.[1] The caste system of ancient Hawaiian society was established around 1200 AD and separated the people into 4 distinct ranks that were all below the supreme ruler (ali‘i nui) of the island. The ali‘i nui would distribute the land to the lower ranking chiefs who would run the land and collect offerings and taxes. The ali‘i nui would also ultimately be responsible for the sacred kapu, a system of rules designed to control social order. The noho ali‘i were known for their brightly colored and intricately constructed battle regalia of feathered capes and helmets called a mahiole (helmet) and ʻahu ʻula (cloak or cape).

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The history of the ancient Polynesians was passed down through oral genealogy chants that were recited at both formal and family functions. The genealogy of the high chiefs could be traced back to the period believed to be inhabited by gods. The pua ali‘i were considered to be living gods.[2] Sometime between 1 and 600, the first Polynesians began to settle the islands. By about 1000, settlements founded along the perimeters of the islands were beginning to cultivate their own foods in gardens, and by 1500, they would begin to spread inward to the interiors of the islands and religion began to be more emphasised.[3]

A Tahitian priest named Pā‘ao is said to have brought a new order to the islands around 1200. The new order included new laws and a new social structure for the islands separating the people into classes. The ali‘i nui was the king, with his ‘aha kuhina just below them. The ali‘i were the royal nobles with the kahuna (high priest) below them, the maka‘āinana (commoners) next with the kauā below them as the lowest ranking social caste.[4]

Land was divided up in strict adherence to the wishes of the Ali‘i Nui. The island was called the mokupuni and was split into several Kapana. The Kapana (district) parameters ran from the highest mountain peak down to about a mile out to sea. These divisions were ruled by an Aliʻi ʻAikapana, who would have been appointed by the ruling chief (Alii 'Aimoku). Each of these Kapana were further split into Ahupua'au, named after the dividing boundary alter where taxes were collected for each area during the Makahiki. And each Ahupua'a was ruled by an Alii 'Ai Ahupua'a.

Furthermore, each Ahupua'a was cut into smaller slivers of land ('Ili Ahupua'a), each ruled by an Alii 'Ai 'Iliahupua'a. These were the divisions of land which the commoners or Maka'ainana possessed. Although the land belonged to the Chiefs, the commoners were their tenants and were given use of the land.

The ali‘i nui were responsible for making sure the people observed a strict Kapu (a code of conduct relating to taboos). The system had rules regarding many aspects of Hawaiian social order, fishing rights, and even where women could eat. After the death of Kamehameha I the system was abolished, and the Hawaiian religion soon fell as the gods were also abandoned.[6]

The ali‘i had a number of specific items, tokens and other regalia that identified them as divine, powerful, high ranking and wealthy by ancient Hawaiian standards. Many of these items were status symbols for their rarity, high value, or magnificence.[7] The regalia was also designed to emulate European royalty after foreign contact was established on a regular basis.[8]

The mahiole (helmet) and ʻahu ʻula (cloak or cape) were the right of only the highest ranking chiefs.[9] They were created using intricate feather crafting in designs to represent the divinity of the chiefs as well as their power.[10] A single ʻahu ʻula took thousands of birds to supply feathers.[11] The regalia were worn only during battle or ceremonial acts.[12][13]

1.
Native Hawaiian
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Native Hawaiians are the indigenous Austronesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the original Polynesian settlers of Hawaii,140,652 people identified themselves as being Native Hawaiian alone. The majority of Native Hawaiians reside in the State of Hawaiʻi, and the rest are scattered among other states, especially in the American Southwest, another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Early historians, such as Fornander and Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, king Kalakaua claimed that Paʻao was from Samoa. Some writers claim that other settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals and they claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. At the time of Captain Cooks arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000, over the span of the first century after first contact, the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, the 1900 U. S. Census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U. S. Census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, the Hawaiian language was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people, today, native Hawaiians predominately speak the English language. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English be the medium and basis of instruction in all public. This law prevented the Hawaiian language from being taught as a second language, in spite of this, some native Hawaiians have learned ʻŌlelo as a second language. Nowadays ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the language of the State of Hawaii. The Hawaiian language has been promoted for revival most recently by a program of cultural preservation enacted in 1978. Programs included the opening of Hawaiian language immersion schools, and the establishment of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, as a result, Hawaiian language learning has climbed among all races in Hawaiʻi. In 2006, the University of Hawaii at Hilo established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In fall 2006, they established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In addition to being the first doctoral program for the study of Hawaiian, both the masters and doctoral programs are considered by global scholars as pioneering in the revival of native languages. Hawaiian is still spoken as the language by the residents on the private island of Niʻihau. Alongside ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, some Maoli spoke Hawaiʻi Sign Language, little is known about the language by Western academics and efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the language

2.
Islands of Hawaii
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The following is a list of islands of Hawaii. The state of Hawaii, consisting of the Hawaiian Islands, has the fourth-longest ocean coastline of the 50 states at 750 miles and it is the only state that consists entirely of islands with 6,422.62 mi² of land. The Hawaiian Island archipelago extends some 1,500 miles from the southernmost island of Hawaiʻi to the northernmost Kure Atoll, Hawaii is divided into five counties, Hawaiʻi, Honolulu, Kalawao, Kauaʻi, and Maui. Each island is included in the boundaries and under the administration of one of these counties, Honolulu County, despite being centralized, administers the outlying Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Kalawao and Maui, both occupying the island of Molokaʻi, are the counties that share the same island. Hawaii is typically recognized by its eight main islands, Hawaiʻi, Maui, Kahoʻolawe, Lānaʻi, Molokaʻi, Oʻahu, Kauaʻi, the state of Hawaii officially recognizes only 137 islands in the state which includes four islands of the Midway Atoll. An island in this sense may also include much smaller and typically uninhabited islets, rocks, coral reefs, for that reason, this article lists 152 separate islands. Some of these are too small to appear on maps, and others, such as Maro Reef, others, such as Shark and Skate islands, have completely eroded away. The majority of the Hawaiian Islands are uninhabited with Niʻihau being the westernmost island with a permanent population, all the islands west of Niʻihau—those categorized as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands—are unpopulated and recently incorporated into the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. The island of Oʻahu has 953,207 residents, and the island of Hawaiʻi is by far the largest island with an area of 4,028 mi² —62. 7% of the land area. The islands were first settled as early as AD300 by Polynesian long-distance navigators, british captain James Cook was the first European to land on the islands in January 1778. The islands, which were governed independently up until 1898 were then annexed by the United States as a territory from 1898–1959, on August 21,1959, they were collectively admitted as the 50th state. The islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The archipelago formed as the Pacific plate moved slowly northwestward over a hotspot in the mantle at about 32 miles per million years, the islands in the northwest of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to erosion. The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods, Hawaiʻi County centers on Hawaiʻi Island. With an area of 4,028 mi², it is larger than all of the islands of Hawaii combined. It is also the largest island in the United States, in modern times, Hawaiʻi is known commonly as the Big Island to reduce confusion between the island and the state itself. The island also contains the states highest peak, Mauna Kea at 13,796 feet, Hawaiʻi County as a whole has 27 islands and a total population of 185,079

3.
Ancient Hawaii
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Ancient Hawaiʻi is the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great. Researchers had based their estimates of first settlement by Polynesian long-distance navigators sometime between 300 and 800, in 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples and it suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in c. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing, elaborate temples were constructed from the lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a dense population, organized by a ruling class. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778 and he was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawaii, radiocarbon Dating in Hawaii initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124. Patrick Vinton Kirchs books on Hawaiian archeology, standard textbooks, date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 with more recent suggestions by Kirch as late as 600, Other theories suggest dating as late as 700 to 800. In 2010 researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were used in many dating studies. According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place ∼1219–1266CE and this rapid colonization is believed to account for the remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language. Some writers believe that there were settlers in Hawaiʻi, peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, the colonists brought along with them clothing, plants and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo, maiʻa, niu, ulu, and raised puaʻa, moa, and ʻīlio, although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included paakai, ground nut, limu. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired ʻuala, a few researchers have argued that the presence of the sweet potato in the ancient Hawaiian diet is evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi, estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making Hawaiians some of the earliest, if not the first, over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation projects for kalo cultivation. As soon as arrived, the new settlers built hale

4.
Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand

5.
Tahitians
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The Tahitians, or Maohis, are indigenous peoples of Tahiti and thirteen other Society Islands, as well as the modern population of these lands of mixed ancestry. The Tahitians are one of the most significant indigenous Polynesian peoples of Oceania, the original Tahitian society was unaware of metal as it was based on Stone Age technology. However, it enabled Tahitians to clear land for cultivation on the volcanic soils and build fishing canoes. The tools of the Tahitians when first discovered were made of stone, bone, the Tahitians were divided into three major classes, arii, raatira and manahune. Arii were relatively few in number while manahune constituted the bulk of population and it is estimated that by the first contact with Europeans in 1767 the population of Tahiti was no more than 40,000 while other Society Islands held probably 15, 000-20,000 natives. Tahitians divided the day into the periods of daylight and darkness, there was also a concept of irrational fear called mehameha, translated as uncanny feelings. The healers, familiar with herbal remedies, were called taata rāau or taata rapaau, in the 19th century Tahitians added the European medicine to their practice. The most famous Tahitian healer Tiurai, of arii, died aged 83 during the outbreak on Tahiti in 1918. When British Captain Samuel Wallis discovered Tahiti on 18 June 1767, philibert Commerçon in his The Tahitian Savage to the French wrote, They have a fruit instead of bread. Their other foods are equally simple, Commerçon also described the practice of public sex, which he said Tahitians engaged in while being cheered on by applause and musical instruments. In the marital relationships Tahitians closely approached the situation where all women were the wives of men, louis Antoine de Bougainville described a scene, where a young girl came on board, placed herself upon the quarter deck and carelessly dropt the cloth. The European ships however brought such diseases for which Tahitians had little or no immunity, such as dysentery, smallpox, scarlet fever, typhoid fever and tuberculosis. As a result of changes by 1797 the population of Tahiti decreased to 16,000 from estimated 40,000 in 1767. The 1881 census enumerated about 5,960 native Tahitians, the recovery continued in spite of a few more epidemics. Three hundred Tahitian volunteers fought in the European theatre of World War II with the Free French Forces, in the late 1960s and early 1970s Tahitian poets Henri Hiro, Charles Manutahi, Vaitiare and Turo Raapoto spearheaded the anticolonial writing in Tahiti. Hiros God of Culture implores Oihanu, the Tahitian god of culture and husbandry, three women writers - Michou Chaze, Chantal Spitz and Vaitiare explore the problems of Tahitian identification in contemporary French Polynesia. Tahitian peasants and workers call themselves the true Tahitians to distinguish from part-Europeans, at the same time demis quite frequently identify themselves as indigenous people in terms of culture and political affiliation. Such Tahitian activists as Pouvanaa a Oopa, Francis Sanford and Charlie Ching and Catholic bishops Michel-Gaspard Coppenrath, many natives were painted from life by Paul Gauguin, who gave Taitian titles to his works

6.
Makahiki
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The Makahiki season is the ancient Hawaiian New Year festival, in honor of the god Lono of the Hawaiian religion. It is a holiday covering four consecutive months, approximately from October or November through February or March. The focus of the season is a celebration of the bounty of the land, in antiquity, many religious ceremonies occurred during this period. Commoners stopped work, made offerings to the chief or aliʻi, during the four lunar months of the Makahiki season warfare was forbidden which was used as a ritually inscribed means to assure that nothing would adversely affect the new crops. Today, the Aloha Festivals celebrate the Makahiki tradition, the Makahiki festival was celebrated in three phases. The first phase was a time of cleansing and making hoʻokupu. The Konohiki, a class of chiefs that managed land, provided the service of tax collector, collected agricultural and aquacultural products such as pigs, taro, sweet potatoes, dry fish, kapa, some offerings were in the form of forest products such as feathers. The Hawaiian people had no money or other medium of exchange. These were offered on the altars of Lono at heiau - temples - in each district around the island, offerings were also made at the ahu, stone altars set up at the boundary lines of each community. All war was outlawed to allow unimpeded passage of the image of Lono, the festival proceeded in a clockwise circle around the island as the image of Lono was carried by the priests. At each ahupuaʻa the caretakers of that community presented hoʻokupu to the Lono image, a fertility god who caused things to grow, the Akua Loa was adorned with white kapa streamers and the king placed a niho palaoa necklace on the deity. During a certain time the deities couldnt be upright therefore were laid down or put horizontally as a “sign of homage to the king, the second phase was a time of celebration, of hula dancing, of sports, of singing and of feasting. One of the best preserved lava sled courses is the Keauhou Holua National Historic Landmark, in the third phase, the waʻa ʻauhau — tax canoe — was loaded with hoʻokupu and taken out to sea where it was set adrift as a gift to Lono. At the end of the Makahiki festival, the chief would go off shore in a canoe, when he came back in he stepped on shore and a group of warriors threw spears at him. He had to deflect or parry the spears to prove his worthiness to continue to rule, a royal birth during the season was sometimes given the name Lono i ka makahiki. The sails and masts of Captain James Cooks ship resembled Lonos Akua Loa, Captain Cook arrived at Kealakekua Bay, near a large heiau to Lono, during the Makahiki season in 1778. The ancient Hawaiians split the year two seasons. The first was called the Makahiki season which was a period of four lunar months, the second lasted eight lunar months where rituals of Kū were practiced

7.
Kapu
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Kapu is the ancient Hawaiian code of conduct of laws and regulations. The kapu system was universal in lifestyle, gender roles, politics, an offense that was kapu was often a corporal offense, but also often denoted a threat to spiritual power, or theft of mana. Breaking one, even unintentionally, often meant immediate death, Koʻo kapu, the concept is related to taboo and the tapu or tabu found in other Polynesian cultures. The Hawaiian word kapu is usually translated to English as forbidden, though it carries the meanings of keep out, no trespassing, sacred, consecrated. The opposite of kapu is noa, meaning common or free, the Kapuhili were restrictions placed upon contact with chiefs, but these also apply to all people of known spiritual power. Kapu Kū mamao means prohibited from a place of the chief and it was kapu when entering a chiefs personal area to come in contact with his hair or fingernail clippings, to look directly at him, and to be in sight of him with a head higher than his. Wearing red and yellow feathers was kapu, unless an individual was of the highest rank, places that are kapu are often symbolized by Pahu Kapu, two crossed staffs, each with a white ball atop. The ʻAi kapu was the kapu system governing contact between men and women, many aliʻi obtained their power through this system, and then would give thanks to the god of politics Kū. ʻAi means to eat and Kapu means sacred, therefore, it is translated to sacred eating. It first came about because Wākea wanted to sleep with his daughter, to do this, his kupuna advised him to establish the ʻAi kapu which allowed him time away from his wife to be alone with his daughter. In this particular practice, men and women could not eat meals together, furthermore, certain foods such as pork, most types of bananas, and coconuts were considered kapu to women. In fact, women could not even make coconut rope, taro was kapu for women to cook and prepare. Some large fish were also kapu for women to eat, isabella Abbott, a leading ethnobotanist of Hawaii theorizes that because of the limited noa diet for Hawaiian women, seaweeds were relied upon more heavily for Hawaiians than other Pacific islands. Abolishing the ʻai kapu assured political power to the line of Kamehameha rulers as monarchs because it limited the power of the rulers below them, originally, it was from this political system that the rulers throughout the island would gain rank, power, and prestige. Although kapu can be taken to keep out, kapu has a larger meaning to most residents of Hawai‘i. By contrast, in New Zealand, the word tapu is almost always applied in English as meaning sacred. Some terms using Kapu, ʻaha kapu, the sennit cord put across the portal of a house to signify a ban on entering the house, ʻai kapu, the protocol regarding food. Hei kapu, The place where priests await messages from the gods, huʻa kapu, the borders of an off-limits place

8.
Kamehameha I
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Kamehameha I, also known as Kamehameha the Great, full Hawaiian name, Kalani Paiʻea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiʻikui Kamehameha o ʻIolani i Kaiwikapu kauʻi Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea was a Hawaiian king. He conquered most of the Hawaiian Islands, formally establishing the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1810, by developing alliances with colonial powers, Kamehameha preserved Hawaiʻis independence. Kamehameha is remembered for the Kānāwai Māmalahoe, the Law of the Splintered Paddle, accounts of Kamehameha Is birth vary. Hawaiian historian Samuel Kamakau published an account in the Ka Nupepa Kuokoa in 1867 and this version was challenged by the oral history of the Kaha family, as published in newspaper articles also appearing in the Kuoko. Her version is verified by others within the Kaha family, Kamehameha is considered the son of Keōua, founder of the House of Keoua, and Kekuʻiapoiwa II. Keōua and Kekuʻiapoiwa were both grandchildren of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, Aliʻi nui of the island of Hawaiʻi, and came from the district of Kohala, Hawaiian genealogy notes that Keōua may not have been Kamehamehas biological father, suggesting instead Kahekili II of Maui. Either way, Kamehameha was a descendant of Keawe through his mother, Keōua acknowledged him as his son and this was recognized in official genealogies. The traditional mele chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha was born in the month of ikuwā or around November. Alapai had given the child, Kamehameha, to his wife, Keaka, Kamakau wrote, It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of Hawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island that Kamehameha I was born. However, his general dating has been challenged, abraham Fornander wrote, An Account of the Polynesian Race, Its Origins and Migrations, when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter, a Brief History of the Hawaiian People by William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date in the Chronological Table of Events of Hawaiian History as 1736. At the time of Kamehamehas birth, Keōua and his half-brother Kalaniʻōpuʻu were serving Alapaʻinui, Alapaʻinui had brought the brothers to his court after defeating both their fathers in the civil war that followed the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. Keōua died while Kamehameha was young, so Kamehameha was raised in the court of his uncle, Prophecy states that the man who moves the Naha Stone would be the one to unite the islands. Many tried and failed to get the stone to move from its original spot and those who have tried were of high-ranking naha blood. Kamehameha was of nīʻaupiʻo descent and Ululani believed that Kamehameha was not worthy of attempting to move the stone, Ululani then introduced her son Keawe I Kahikona of Keaau Village as the younger brother to Kamehameha, so later they would not fight. In the gathering of the Ohana for Unity, Keawe I Kahi Kona chose Kamehameha I over his father Keawe Mauhili, Kamehameha ignored all negativity and moved the stone. Legend says the stone was overturned, Kamehameha went on to unite the islands through a series of battles. Kamehameha was raised in the court of his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu

9.
Hawaiian religion
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Hawaiian religion encompasses the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the Native Hawaiians. It is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves. Hawaiian religion originated among the Tahitians and other Pacific islanders who landed in Hawaiʻi between 500 and 1300 AD, today, Hawaiian religious practices are protected by the American Indian Religious Freedom Act. Traditional Hawaiian religion is unrelated to the modern New Age practice known as Huna, Hawaiian religion is polytheistic, with four deities most prominent, Kāne, Kū, Lono and Kanaloa. Other notable deities include Laka, Kihawahine, Haumea, Papahānaumoku, in addition, each family is considered to have one or more guardian spirits known as ʻaumakua that protected family. The Kumulipo is divided two sections, night, or pō, and day, or ao, with the former corresponding to divinity. This, in turn, illustrates the transition of mankind from being symbols for the gods into the keeper of these symbols in the form of idols, the Kumulipo was recited during the time of Makahiki, to honor the god of fertility, Lono. The kahuna were well respected, educated individuals that made up a social class that served the King. Selected to serve many practical and governmental purposes, Kahuna often were healers, navigators, builders, prophets/temple workers and they also talked with the spirits. Kahuna Kūpaʻiulu of Maui in 1867 described a ritual to heal someone ill due to hoʻopiʻopiʻo. He said a kapa was shaken, then, If the evil spirit suddenly appears and possesses the patient, then he or she can be immediately saved by the conversation between the practitioner and that spirit. Pukui and others believed kahuna did not have mystical transcendent experiences as described in other religions, although a person who was possessed would go into a trance-like state, it was not an ecstatic experience but simply a communion with the known spirits. Kapu refers to a system of taboos designed to separate the pure from the potentially unclean. Thought to have arrived with Pāʻao, a priest or chief from Tahiti who arrived in Hawaiʻi sometime around 1200 AD, the spiritually pure or laʻa, meaning sacred and unclean or haumia were to be separated. During times of war, the first two men to be killed were offered to the gods as sacrifices, other Kapus included Mālama ʻĀina, meaning caring of the land and Niʻaupiʻo. The Hawaiian islands are all children of Papa, Wākea and Hoʻohokukalani so basically meaning that they are siblings of the Hawaiian chiefs. Second child of Wākea and Hoʻohokukalani became the first Aliʻi Nui and this came to be called Niʻaupiʻo, the chiefly incest to create the godly child. Punishments for breaking the kapu could include death, although if one could escape to a puʻuhonua, kāhuna nui mandated long periods when the entire village must have absolute silence

10.
Mahiole
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Hawaiian feather helmets, known as mahiole in the Hawaiian language, were worn with feather cloaks. These were symbols of the highest rank reserved for the men of the aliʻi, there are examples of this traditional headgear in museums around the world. At least sixteen of these helmets were collected during the voyages of Captain Cook and these helmets are made from a woven frame structure decorated with bird feathers and are examples of fine featherwork techniques. One of these helmets was included in a painting of Cooks death by Johann Zoffany, while the question has been posed if the influence is from the Spanish, the tradition comes from the northern coast of New Ireland. The design for mahiole is a basketry frame cap with a central crest running from the center of the forehead to the nape of the neck. However the variation in the design is considerable with the colour and arrangement of the feather patterns differing, a number of museums have numerous examples in different designs and stages of preservation. A related Hawaiian term Oki Mahiole means a haircut where a strip of hair is left on the head, the image of the Hawaiian god Kū-ka-ili-moku is sometimes presented with a similar shaped head. The helmets are constructed on a basket type construction which gives a light, the frame is decorated usually with feathers obtained from local birds although there have been variations which have used human hair instead. The plant used to make the baskets is Freycinetia arborea, a plant often used to make basketware, in addition to Freycinetia arborea the makers also used fibre from the Touchardia latifolia plant which is a type of nettle. Touchardia latifolia was used to create string or thread to tie the feathers to the basketry, the colouring was achieved using different types of feathers. The black and yellow came from a bird called the Moho or ʻOʻo in Hawaiian, there were four varieties of this bird. The last type became extinct in 1987 with the cause being disease. Black feathers were also sourced from the called the Mamo which is also now extinct. The distinctive red feathers came from Vestiaria coccinea - the Scarlet Hawaiian Honeycreeper or ʻIʻiwi, both species are still moderately common birds in Hawaii. Although birds were exploited for their feathers the effect on the population is thought to be minimal, the birds were not killed but were caught by specialist bird catchers, a few feathers harvested and then the birds were released. Tens of thousands of feathers were required for each mahiole, a small bundle of feathers was gathered and tied before being tied into the framework. Bundles were tied in close proximity to form a covering of the surface of the mahiole. When Captain James Cook visited Hawaii on 26 January 1778 he was received by a chief called Kalaniʻōpuʻu

11.
Captain James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea

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Sperm whale
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The sperm whale, or cachalot, is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of genus Physeter, and one of three extant species in the whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus Kogia. Mature males average 16 metres in length but some may reach 20.5 metres, plunging to 2,250 metres, it is the second deepest diving mammal, following only the Cuviers beaked whale. The sperm whales clicking vocalization, a form of echolocation and communication and it has the largest brain of any animal on Earth, more than five times heavier than a humans. Sperm whales can live for more than 60 years, the sperm whale can be found anywhere in the open ocean. Females and young males live together in groups while males live solitary lives outside of the mating season. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young, females give birth every four to twenty years, and care for the calves for more than a decade. A mature sperm whale has few predators, although calves. From the early eighteenth century through the late 20th, the species was a target of whalers. The head of the whale contains a liquid wax called spermaceti, spermaceti was used in lubricants, oil lamps, and candles. Ambergris, a product from its digestive system, is still used as a fixative in perfumes. Occasionally the sperm whales great size allowed it to defend effectively against whalers. The species is now protected by a moratorium, and is currently listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. The name sperm whale is a clip of spermaceti whale, spermaceti, originally mistakenly identified as the whales semen, is the semi-liquid, waxy substance found within the whales head. The sperm whale is known as the cachalot, which is thought to derive from the archaic French for tooth or big teeth. The etymological dictionary of Corominas says the origin is uncertain, but it suggests that it comes from the Vulgar Latin cappula, plural of cappulum, the word cachalot came to English via French from Spanish or Portuguese cachalote, perhaps from Galician/Portuguese cachola, big head. The term is retained in the Russian word for the animal, кашалот, the scientific genus name Physeter comes from Greek physētēr, meaning blowpipe, blowhole, or – as a pars pro toto – whale. The specific name macrocephalus is Latinized from the Greek makrokephalos, from makros + kefalos and its synonymous specific name catodon means down-tooth, from the Greek elements cat- and odṓn, so named because it has visible teeth only in its lower jaw

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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

Native Hawaiian
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Native Hawaiians are the indigenous Austronesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the original Polynesian settlers of Hawaii,140,652 people identified themselves as being Native Hawaiian alone. The majority of Native Hawaiians reside in the State of Hawaiʻi, and the rest are scattere

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Kalaimanokahoʻowaha

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Kalākaua

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David Malo

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Bernice Pauahi Bishop

Islands of Hawaii
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The following is a list of islands of Hawaii. The state of Hawaii, consisting of the Hawaiian Islands, has the fourth-longest ocean coastline of the 50 states at 750 miles and it is the only state that consists entirely of islands with 6,422.62 mi² of land. The Hawaiian Island archipelago extends some 1,500 miles from the southernmost island of Haw

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Location of Hawaii within the United States

Ancient Hawaii
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Ancient Hawaiʻi is the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great. Researchers had based their estimates of first settlement by Polynesian long-distance navigators sometime between 300 and 800, in 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable sample

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Petroglyphs at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

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Priests traveling across Kealakekua Bay for first contact rituals. Each helmet is a gourd, with foliage and tapa strip decoration. A feather-surrounded akua is in the arms of the priest at the center of the engraving.

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18th century Hawaiian helmet and cloak, signs of royalty.

Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli,

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Hawaiians

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The Polynesian spread of colonization in the Pacific

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Maori

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Polynesian warrior canoes

Tahitians
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The Tahitians, or Maohis, are indigenous peoples of Tahiti and thirteen other Society Islands, as well as the modern population of these lands of mixed ancestry. The Tahitians are one of the most significant indigenous Polynesian peoples of Oceania, the original Tahitian society was unaware of metal as it was based on Stone Age technology. However,

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Omai

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Queen Pōmare IV

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Oscar Temaru

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Pouvanaa a Oopa

Makahiki
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The Makahiki season is the ancient Hawaiian New Year festival, in honor of the god Lono of the Hawaiian religion. It is a holiday covering four consecutive months, approximately from October or November through February or March. The focus of the season is a celebration of the bounty of the land, in antiquity, many religious ceremonies occurred dur

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Hoʻokupu gifts to the Hawaiian god Lono during the hookupu protocol presentation of a Makahiki festival at Bellows Air Force Station in Waimanalo, Hawaii, 2010

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Hawaiian wrestling matches during Makahiki

Kapu
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Kapu is the ancient Hawaiian code of conduct of laws and regulations. The kapu system was universal in lifestyle, gender roles, politics, an offense that was kapu was often a corporal offense, but also often denoted a threat to spiritual power, or theft of mana. Breaking one, even unintentionally, often meant immediate death, Koʻo kapu, the concept

Kamehameha I
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Kamehameha I, also known as Kamehameha the Great, full Hawaiian name, Kalani Paiʻea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiʻikui Kamehameha o ʻIolani i Kaiwikapu kauʻi Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea was a Hawaiian king. He conquered most of the Hawaiian Islands, formally establishing the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1810, by developing alliances with colonial powers, Kamehameha pr

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The god Kū-ka-ili-moku was left to Kamehameha I by his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu

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Portrait of King Kamehameha The Great

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Kamehameha I in later life. Portrait by Louis Choris

Hawaiian religion
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Hawaiian religion encompasses the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the Native Hawaiians. It is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves. Hawaiian religion originated among the Tahitians and other Pacific islan

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A depiction of a royal heiau (Hawaiian temple) at Kealakekua Bay, c. 1816

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Kailua-Kona, Island of Hawaii

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King Kamehameha II, who abolished the kapu system through the symbolic act of ʻai noa in 1819.

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Hawaiian sacrifice, from Jacques Arago 's account of Freycinet 's travels around the world from 1817 to 1820.

Mahiole
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Hawaiian feather helmets, known as mahiole in the Hawaiian language, were worn with feather cloaks. These were symbols of the highest rank reserved for the men of the aliʻi, there are examples of this traditional headgear in museums around the world. At least sixteen of these helmets were collected during the voyages of Captain Cook and these helme

Captain James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. Th

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Endeavour replica in Cooktown, Queensland harbour — anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770.

Sperm whale
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The sperm whale, or cachalot, is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of genus Physeter, and one of three extant species in the whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus Kogia. Mature males average 16 metres in length but some may reach 20.5 metres,

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Sperm whale

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Unusual among cetaceans, the sperm whale's blowhole is highly skewed to the left of the head

International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code