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1 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No pp Akiko Okamura This study aims to investigate how the speaker employs personal pronouns (we, you, I) in academic speech with special attention to the use of you through the analysis of the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE). In the MICASE, two speech events (undergraduate lectures and public lectures) were chosen within which two linguistic environments were examined (words before and after the pronoun). The results show that you was the most common personal pronoun in both undergraduate and public lectures. The analysis of words before the pronouns shows that if goes with you much more than we and I in both lectures, making if you were/are the most frequent pattern in undergraduate lectures. you seems to be a useful tool for engaging students in the narrative of the lecture. Key words : academic speech 1 Among the personal pronouns, I and we have often drawn attention from researchers in academic writing (Ivanic 1998; Kuo 1999; Tang and John 1999; Hyland 2001; Harwood 2005, for example). In academic speech, based on the examination of personal pronouns in five university mathematics classes, Rounds (1987a,b) found we was the most frequently employed personal pronoun and described we as a useful device for the teacher because of its dual functions of exclusive and inclusive use. The use of exclusive we can show the teacher s authority, by referring to both the teacher and the experts in the field, while inclusive we can form solidarity between the teacher and the students in class. By contrast you has been understood to maintain

2 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No some distance between them (Rounds 1987a,b). It has to be noted that Rounds classical study derived from a time when US universities offered non-english speaking graduate students work teaching undergraduates as teaching assistants (TAs), and needed to train them to be competent teachers (Byrd and Constantinides 1988, 1992; Hoekje and Williams 1992; Luo et al. 2001; Tanner et al. 1993). The focus of Round s studies (1987 a,b) was to identify successful TA performance, and to find the link with the use of personal pronouns. Because the analysis was based on the TAs teaching practice, Rounds data did not necessarily represent the use of pronouns in academic speech in general. For example, professors may not use we as frequently as TAs to create rapport with their students. In fact, a recent study (Fortanet 2004) based on a much larger corpus of academic speech (the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English, MICASE) found that the most frequently used personal pronoun was not we but you. Fortanet (2004) further compiled the sub-corpus consisting of a selection of speech events related to mathematics (Fortanet 2004, p. 52), the discipline of Rounds corpus. The investigation showed the rate of I to be more than double that of both we and you (Fortanet 2004). It seems that the choice of personal pronouns is not simply due to the disciplinary character of mathematics. We may need to consider the purpose of academic speech and the relationship between the speaker and the audience which will reflect the purpose of the talk. The concept of stance is useful to understand how speakers create and signal relationships with the propositions they give voice to, and the people they interact with (Biber and Finegan 1988,1989; Conrad and Biber 2000). Sets of choices for stance to present participant roles or subject positions are referred to as footing by Goffman (1981) and framing by Tannen (1979). The speaker s footing or framing can be shown in personal pronouns. Analysis of personal pronouns can reveal the change in the stance to the audience due to the purpose of the speech. Furthermore, the purpose can be shown not only in the use of personal pronouns but also their collocates. It seems interesting to compare how speakers use personal pronouns, in particular you, and the surrounding linguistic context in different types of monologic academic speech. 2 How does the type of academic speech influence the choice of personal pronouns ( you, we and I )? Which words would be used before and after you in relation to we and I in two types of

3 USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN TWO TYPES OF MONOLOGIC ACADEMIC SPEECH (Okamura) academic speech? 3 The data were based on two types of academic speech (nine undergraduate lectures: 69,083 words, and nine public lectures: 80,250 words) from the Michigan Corpus (MICASE), as was also used in Fortanet s study (2004). Undergraduate lectures were only given by full-time teaching staff at the university, while public lectures refers to one-off academic talks given at the university for those interested in some particular subject such as Peking opera. Interactional lectures and questions and answer periods in monologic lectures were excluded to avoid possible uses of a singular you referring to one student or one listener, because the purpose was to analyze the plural you. Two linguistic environments were examined in this sub-corpus: one was the words prior to these pronouns, such as when, if, that and what, and the other was the words after these pronouns such as see and know. In other words, one linguistic environment looks into the sentence structure, while the other investigates the use of verbs to go with you The results in Tables 1 and 2 show that unlike Rounds study (1987a,b), among you, I and we, you was most frequently used in undergraduate lecturers while I was employed most in public lectures. 1 2

4 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No As shown in Tables 3 and 4, personal pronouns we, you and I do not seem to be combined randomly with conjuncts and a relative pronoun that. The two tables show one contrasting and one common features of the two corpora. First, as shown in bold letters below, what seems to be combined with the most frequently used personal pronoun in each corpus, thus producing what you in undergraduate lectures and what I in public lectures. 3 4 Example collocates of what you in undergraduate lectures are what you get (7 occurrences) and what you want (7), while those of what I in public lectures include what I mean. (5). The use of what you and what I in the two types of academic speech seems to reflect the purpose of the lectures. The purpose of public lecture is to presert the speaker s perspecture on the topic, while that of undergraduate lectures is to pass the knowledge to the students. Second, the common feature is that in both corpora if goes with you much more frequently than I and we. Table 5 shows examples of the collocate of if you which appeared more than

5 USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN TWO TYPES OF MONOLOGIC ACADEMIC SPEECH (Okamura) five times in each corpus, and the actual number of occurrences. The interesting aspect in undergraduate lectures is that if you was often combined with either were or are. 5 Examples such as if you are a predator or If you are the actor below indicate that the speaker is talking about a hypothetical condition, and making the audience part of a story he/she is creating in class. The same collocate never occurred in public lectures. Examples of if you were in undergraduate lectures Examples of if you are in undergraduate lectures

6 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No Tables 6 and 7 show the verbs and modals after we, you and I occurring at least ten times with one personal pronoun. Proportion of the occurrences of one personal pronoun with a verb against the total occurrences of the verb is shown next to the number of occurrences. 6

7 USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN TWO TYPES OF MONOLOGIC ACADEMIC SPEECH (Okamura) 7 The analysis of words appearing after you in Tables 6 and 7 shows that some verbs and modal verbs tended to accompany either I or you. In undergraduate lectures, the most frequently used pronoun, you tended to go with verbs to show students activities such as read, need, find, get, see and look. On the other hand, in public lectures where the purpose is to present the speaker s opinion on the topic, I seems to be the most dominant pronoun and tends to accompany think, mean, guess, show and hope. The choice of verbs to accompany personal pronouns again seem to be related to the purpose of the speech. Thus to examine the collocate further in two corpora, you was analyzed with the four most frequently employed verbs and modal verbs in each corpora.

8 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No Tables 8 and 9 show that you know, which was four times more often in undergraduate lectures than public lectures, did appear on its own; it seems that you know has a different function from other collocates. It is interesting that you can see was the most frequently used collocate in both types of lecture, while you have to only appeared in undergraduate lectures. 5 This study has shown that you was the most common pronoun in the undergraduate lectures, while it was I in the public lectures. To understand the functions of these personal pronouns in two types of academic speech, it seems that we need to examine not only the choice of personal pronouns in academic speech, but also the preceding conjuncts and proceeding verbs of pronouns. The use of you can see in both types of lecture shows that this collocate seems useful for guiding the audience, irrespective of the type of lecture. It is interesting that in the two corpora if is the most common word to go before you, and you can see is one of the most common collocates. you does not seem to be used to create a distance from the audience. The analysis of preceeding and proceeding words of the pronouns has also shown some variation between the two types of monologic academic speech. Unlike Rounds findings (1987a,b), this study has shown that the speaker in undergraduate lectures used you most often. Why not we? As

9 USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN TWO TYPES OF MONOLOGIC ACADEMIC SPEECH (Okamura) we can either refer to the experts and the teacher on one hand, and the teacher and the students (Rounds 1987 a,b) on the other, use of we may be ambiguous. Teachers may have avoided this ambiguity and chosen you to talk directly to their audience. Evidence to this can be found in some of the most frequently used collocates of you. One is a hypothetical form if you were/are in undergraduate lectures, which demonstrates that the speaker intends to engage the audience in the talk, rather than using impersonal forms or third party nouns. Another is that you accompanies verbs to show that it is the students who need to act, such as you read as was also shown in the collocate of what you. In contrast, in public lectures I tends to precede the verbs to show the speaker s thinking, such as I mean, which was also part of collocate of what I. Because the purpose is to present the speaker s ideas to the audience, it can be said that the speaker often refers to I as the thinker in the presentation. Professor, The Faculty of Economics, Takasaki City University of Economics BIBER, D., FINEGAN, E Adverbial stance types in English, Discourse Processes, 11: Style of stance in English: lexical and grammatical marking of evidentiality and affect, Text 9: BYRD, P., CONSTANTINIDES, J.C FTA training programs: searching for appropriate teaching styles, English for Specific Purposes, 7: The language of teaching Mathematics: Implications for training ITAs, TESOL Quarterly, 26: CONRAD, S., BIBER, D Adverbial marking of stance in speech and writing, HUNSTON, S., THOMPSON, G. (ED.) Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. FORTANET, I The use of we in university lectures: reference and function, English for Specific Purposes, 23(1): GOFFMAN, E Footing, in Forms of Talk, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: HARWOOD, N We do not seem to have a theory... The theory I present here attempts to fill this gap : inclusive and exclusive pronouns in academic writing, Applied Linguistics, 26: HOEKJE, B., WILLIAMS, J Communicative Competence and the Dilemma of International Teaching Assistant Education, TESOL Quarterly: HYLAND, K Humble servants of th discipline? Self-mention in research articles, English for Specific Purposes, 20: IVANIC, R Writing and Identity: The Discoursal Construction of Identity in Academic Writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. KUO, C-H The use of personal pronouns: Role relationships in scientific journal articles, English for Specific Purposes, 18: LUO, J., GRADY, M.L., BELLOWS, L.H Instructional issues for teaching assistants, Innovative Higher Ecucation, 25: QUIRK, R, GREENBAUM, S., LEECH, G., SVARTVIC, J A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Harrow. ROUNDS P. 1987a. Multifunctional personal pronoun use in educational setting, English for Specific Purposes, 6(1): b. Characterizing successful classroom discourse for NNS teaching assistant training, TESOL

10 The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.52 No Quarterly, 21(4): TANG, R., JOHN S The I in identity: Exporing writer identity in student academic writing through the first person pronoun, English for Specific Purposes, 18: TANNEN, D What s in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations, Feedle, R. (ED), New Directions in Discourse Processing, Norwood, NJ: Ablex: TANNER, M.W., SELFE, S.,WIEGAND, D The balanced Equation to Training Chemistry ITAs, Innovative Higher Education, 17:

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