Doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2007.12.004

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
Biological effects from electromagnetic field exposure and
a Department of Oncology, University Hospital, SE-701 85 O¨rebro, Sweden
b Sage Associates, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Received 6 December 2007; accepted 12 December 2007
During recent years there has been increasing public concern on potential health risks from power-frequency fields (extremely low frequency
electromagnetic fields; ELF) and from radiofrequency/microwave radiation emissions (RF) from wireless communications. Non-thermal (low-intensity) biological effects have not been considered for regulation of microwave exposure, although numerous scientific reports indicate sucheffects. The BioInitiative Report is based on an international research and public policy initiative to give an overview of what is known of bi-ological effects that occur at low-intensity electromagnetic fields (EMFs) exposure. Health endpoints reported to be associated with ELF and/orRF include childhood leukaemia, brain tumours, genotoxic effects, neurological effects and neurodegenerative diseases, immune system dereg-ulation, allergic and inflammatory responses, breast cancer, miscarriage and some cardiovascular effects. The BioInitiative Report concluded thata reasonable suspicion of risk exists based on clear evidence of bioeffects at environmentally relevant levels, which, with prolonged exposuresmay reasonably be presumed to result in health impacts. Regarding ELF a new lower public safety limit for habitable space adjacent to all new orupgraded power lines and for all other new constructions should be applied. A new lower limit should also be used for existing habitable spacefor children and/or women who are pregnant. A precautionary limit should be adopted for outdoor, cumulative RF exposure and for cumulativeindoor RF fields with considerably lower limits than existing guidelines, see the BioInitiative Report. The current guidelines for the US andEuropean microwave exposure from mobile phones, for the brain are 1.6 W/Kg and 2 W/Kg, respectively. Since use of mobile phones is asso-ciated with an increased risk for brain tumour after 10 years, a new biologically based guideline is warranted. Other health impacts associatedwith exposure to electromagnetic fields not summarized here may be found in the BioInitiative Report at .Ó 2007 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Electromagnetic fields (EMFs); Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF); Radiofrequency fields (RF); Carcinogenesis; Public health;Standard setting
electromagnetic fields; ELF) and from radiofrequency/micro-wave radiation emissions (RF) from wireless communications
During recent years there has been increasing scientific
and data transmission. So far, guidelines for exposure to
evidence for, and public concern on potential health risks
microwaves have been based on thermal (heating) effects.
from power-frequency fields (extremely low frequency
Non-thermal (low-intensity) effects have not been consideredfor regulation of exposure. Recently a more comprehensivereport was published at Internet that documents consider-
Note: the views expressed in this paper are not necessarily those of the
able scientific evidence for bioeffects and adverse health im-
whole BioInitiative Report group. Some parts of this article rely on chapters
pacts at exposure levels far below current public safety
by different authors in the BioInitiative Report.**
standards. The purpose of that report was to assess scientific
This manuscript is a part of the dossier ‘‘Cancer: Influence of environ-
evidence on health impacts from electromagnetic radiation
ment’’, Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2007;61:10.
below current public exposure limits and evaluate what
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ46 19 602 10 00; fax: þ46 19 10 17 68.
changes in these limits are warranted now to reduce possible
0753-3322/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2007.12.004
L. Hardell, C. Sage / Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
public health risks in the future. This report was written by
for exposure to microwaves during mobile phone use is not
14 scientists, public health and public policy experts to doc-
safe for long-term exposure and needs to be revised.
ument the scientific evidence on electromagnetic fields. Thecurrent short review is based on the BioInitiative Report
2.2. RF fields other than from mobile phones and
and gives summaries of relevant topics. For more details in-
epidemiological evidence for brain tumours
cluding complete reference list, see that document at
It is concluded that only few studies of long-term exposure
Everyone is exposed to two types of electromagnetic fields
to low levels of RF fields and brain tumours exist, all of
(EMFs): (a) ELF fields from electrical and electronic appli-
which have methodological shortcomings including lack of
ances and power lines, and (b) RF radiation from wireless
quantitative exposure assessment. Given the crude exposure
devices such as cell phones and cordless phones, cellular an-
categories and the likelihood of a bias towards the null hy-
tennas and towers, and broadcast transmission towers. In this
pothesis of no association, the body of evidence is consistent
report we will use the term EMFs when referring to all electro-
with a moderately elevated risk. Occupational studies indicate
magnetic fields in general, and the terms ELF and RF when
that long-term exposure at workplaces may be associated
referring to the specific type of exposure. They are both types
of non-ionizing radiation, which means that they do not have
Although in some occupations (especially in military jobs)
sufficient energy to break off electrons from their orbits
current exposure guidelines may have sometimes been reached
around atoms and ionize (charge) the atoms, as ionizing
or exceeded, overall the evidence suggests that long-term
exposure to levels generally lying below current guidelinelevels still carry the risk of increasing the incidence of brain
Despite a rather low population attributable risk (likely be-
2.1. Mobile phone use and evidence for brain
low 4%), still more than 1000 cases per year in the US can be
attributed to RF exposure at workplaces alone.
We made a review including 18 studies, two cohort studies
2.3. Evidence for childhood cancers and leukaemia
and 16 case-control studies. Most studies have published datawith rather short latency period and limited information on
The only endpoint studied so far in sufficient detail is child-
long-term users. Thus, a meta-analysis of the risk for acoustic
hood leukaemia. Brain and nervous system tumours were also
neuroma, glioma and meningioma was performed for mobile
studied in some detail but due to the diversity of these tumours
phone use with a latency period of 10 years or more . Over-
no conclusions can be drawn. Childhood leukaemia is the most
all OR ¼ 1.3, 95% CI ¼ 0.6e2.8 was obtained increasing to
frequent childhood malignancy that peaks in the age group of
OR ¼ 2.4, 95% CI ¼ 1.1e5.3 for ipsilateral mobile phone
2 to about 5 years. This peak seems to have been newly
use. For glioma OR ¼ 1.2, 95% CI ¼ 0.8e1.9 was calculated.
evolved in the early quarter of the 20th century and may be
Ipsilateral use yielded OR ¼ 2.0, 95% CI ¼ 1.2e3.4. In total
due to electrification This assumption is supported by
OR ¼ 1.3, 95% CI ¼ 0.9e1.8 was found for meningioma in-
the absence of this peak or it being much less pronounced in
creasing to OR ¼ 1.7, 95% CI ¼ 0.99e3.1 for ipsilateral use.
Only two studies have been published since then. Both were
An overview of existing evidence from epidemiological
on acoustic neuroma They were small and included no
studies indicates that there is a continuous increase of risk
cases with a latency period of at least 10 years. Furthermore,
with increasing levels of average magnetic field exposure.
most ORs were <1.0 in these two studies indicating serious
Risk estimates reach statistical significance at levels of 3e
methodological problems. The final results on this topic
4 mG (0.3e0.4 microTesla or mT). The overall odds ratio in
from the Interphone study led by the International Agency
nine studies was 2.1, 95% confidence limit 1.3e3.3. A low
for Research on Cancer (IARC) are expected during 2008.
number of children are exposed at these or higher levels.
No other studies than from the Hardell group has published
The balance of evidence suggests that childhood leukaemia
results for use of cordless phones (DECT) As we have
is associated with exposure to power-frequency ELFs either
discussed in our publications it is pertinent to include also
during pregnancy or early life. Considering only average
such use in this type of studies. Cordless phones are an impor-
MF flux densities the population attributable risk is low to
tant source of exposure to radiofrequency microwaves and
moderate. However, there is a possibility that other exposure
they are usually used for a longer time period on daily basis
metrics are much stronger related to childhood leukaemia
as compared with mobile phones. Thus, to exclude such use,
and may account for a substantial proportion of cases, perhaps
as was done in e.g. the Interphone studies, could lead to an un-
up to 80% of all cases. The population attributable fraction
derestimation of the risk for brain tumours from use of wire-
ranges between 1 and 4% assuming only exposures above
In summary our review yielded a consistent pattern of an
Other childhood cancers except leukaemia have not been
increased risk for acoustic neuroma and glioma after 10
studied in sufficient detail to allow conclusions about the exis-
years mobile phone use. We conclude that current standard
L. Hardell, C. Sage / Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
The International Commission for Non-ionizing Radiation
conclusive evidence is untenable given the enormous costs
Protection (ICNIRP) and Institute of Electric and Electronics
and societal and personal burdens caused by this disease.
Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) guideline levels are designed to protectfrom short-term immediate effects only, but not chronic expo-
2.5. Changes in the nervous system and brain function
sures. Long-term effects such as cancer are evoked by expo-sure several orders of magnitudes below current guideline
Exposure to electromagnetic fields has been studied in con-
levels. The BioInitiative Report concludes that the evidence
nection with Alzheimer’s disease, motor neuron disease and
for increased risk of childhood leukaemia with chronic expo-
Parkinson’s disease. There is evidence that high level of amy-
sure to ELFs is sufficient to warrant revision of ELF public
loid beta is a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, and exposure
to ELF can increase this substance in the brain. There is con-siderable evidence that melatonin can protect the brain against
damage leading to Alzheimer’s disease, and also strong evi-dence that exposure to ELF can reduce melatonin levels.
There is evidence from multiple areas of scientific investiga-
Thus it is hypothesized that one of the body’s main protections
tions that ELF is related to breast cancer. Over the last two de-
against developing Alzheimer’s disease (melatonin) is less
cades there have been numerous epidemiological studies on
available to the body when people are exposed to ELF. Pro-
breast cancer in both men and women, although this relationship
longed exposure to ELF fields could alter calcium (Ca2þ)
remains controversial. Many of these studies, however, report
levels in neurons and induce oxidative stress. Concern has
that ELF exposures are related to increased risk of breast cancer.
also been raised that humans with epileptic disorders could
The evidence from studies on women in workplaces sug-
gests that ELF is a risk factor for breast cancer for women
Laboratory studies show that the nervous system of both
with long-term exposures of 10 mG (1.0 mT) and higher.
humans and animals is sensitive to both ELF and RF. Mea-
Laboratory studies that examine human breast cancer cells
surable changes in brain function and behaviour occur at
have shown that ELF exposure between 6 mG and 12 mG
levels associated with new technologies including cell phone
(0.6e1.2 mT) can interfere with protective effects of melatonin
use. Exposing humans to cell phone radiation can change
for the growth of these breast cancer cells. For a decade, there
brainwave activity at levels as low as 0.1 watt per kilogram
has been evidence that human breast cancer cells grow faster if
(W/Kg) specific absorption rate (SAR) in comparison to the
exposed to ELF at low environmental levels. This is thought to
US allowable level of 1.6 W/Kg (in 1 g of tissue) and IC-
be because ELF exposure can reduce melatonin levels in the
NIRP allowable level of 2.0 W/Kg (in 10 g of tissue). Cell
phone radiation can affect memory and learning.
Laboratory studies of animals that have breast cancer tu-
Changes in the way in which the brain and nervous system
mours have been shown to have more tumours and larger
react depend very much on the specific exposures. Most studies
tumours when exposed to ELF and a chemical tumour pro-
only look at short-term effects, so the long-term consequences
moter at the same time. These studies taken together indicate
of exposures are not established, but existing scientific docu-
that ELF is a likely risk factor for breast cancer, and that
mentation of effects is sufficient to warrant preventative action
ELF levels of importance are no higher than many people
with reduction in exposures, particularly for vulnerable groups
are exposed to at home and at work. A reasonable suspicion
of risk exists and is sufficient evidence on which to recom-
Factors that determine effects can depend on head shape
mend new ELF limits; and to warrant preventative action.
and size, the location, size and shape of internal brain struc-
Given the very high lifetime risks for developing breast
tures, thinness of the head and face, hydration of tissues, thick-
cancer in women, and the critical importance of prevention,
ness of various tissues, dielectric constant of the tissues and so
ELF exposures should be reduced for all people who are in
on. Age of the individual and state of health also appear to be
high ELF environments for prolonged periods of time. Reduc-
ing ELF exposure would be particularly important for people
There is large variability in the results of ELF and RF test-
who have breast cancer. The recovery environment should
ing, which would be expected to be based on the large variabil-
have low ELF levels given the evidence for poorer survival
ity of factors that can influence test results. However, it is
rates as shown for subjects with another malignant disease,
clearly demonstrated that under some conditions of exposure,
childhood leukaemia patients in ELF fields over 2 mG or
the brain and nervous system functions of humans are altered.
The consequence of long-term or prolonged exposures has not
Preventative action for those who may be at higher risk for
been thoroughly studied in either adults or in children.
breast cancer is also warranted, particularly for those taking ta-
The consequence of prolonged exposures to children, whose
moxifen during their anti-cancer treatment, since in addition to
nervous systems continue to develop until late adolescence, is
reducing the effectiveness of melatonin, ELF exposure may
unknown at this time, but there are credible, published studies
also reduce the effectiveness of tamoxifen at these same low
reporting bioeffects and adverse health impacts with exposures
exposure levels. There is no excuse for ignoring the substantial
at very low levels (far below public safety standards). This
body of evidence we already have that supports an association
could have serious implications to adult health and functioning
between breast cancer and ELF exposure; waiting for
in society if years of exposure of the young to both ELF and RF
L. Hardell, C. Sage / Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
result in diminished capacity for thinking, judgment, memory,
Factors that may explain the failure of some studies to dem-
learning, and control over behaviour.
onstrate effects, while others report clear and reproducibleeffects include (a) which DNA assay is used, (b) the exposure
2.6. Evidence for effects on gene and protein expression
parameters of the experiment, and (c) which cell lines areused. Any effect of EMF has to depend on the energy absorbed
The effects of RF EMF on global gene and protein expres-
by a biological entity and on how the energy is delivered in
sion have been investigated in different biological systems,
space and time. Frequency, intensity, exposure duration, and
and most of the studies were focused on the mobile phone uti-
the number of exposure episodes can affect the response,
lization frequency (800e2000 MHz) at a relatively low expo-
and these factors can interact with each other to produce dif-
sure density (average SAR near 2.0 W/Kg). Some studies
reported negative results of RF EMF exposure on gene
The ‘comet assay’, has been used in most of the EMF stud-
ies to determine DNA damage. Different versions of the assay
Based on current available literature, it is justified to con-
have been developed. These versions have different detection
clude that EMF exposure can change gene and/or protein
sensitivities and can be used to measure different aspects of
expression in certain types of cells, even at intensities lower
DNA strand breaks. A comparison of data from experiments
than ICNIRP recommended values. However, the biological
using different versions of the assay may be misleading, and
consequences of most of the changed genes/proteins as based
may explain differing study results since some DNA comet
on early studies from proteomics and transcriptomics are still
assays are far more sensitive in detecting DNA damage than
unclear, and need to be further explored. Thus, it is not the
time point yet to assess the health impact of EMF based on
A plausible biological mechanism to account for carcino-
the gene and protein expression data. The IEEE and WHO
genesis is via free radical formation inside cells. Free radicals
databases do not include the majority of ELF studies; they
kill cells by damaging macromolecules, such as DNA, protein
do include the majority of the RF studies.
and membrane. Furthermore, free radicals play an essential
Currently, the state of proteomics and transcriptomics is in
role in the activation of certain signalling pathways. Several
its infancy, with only a few dozen studies reporting results,
reports have indicated that EMFs enhance free radical activity
some positive and some negative. The EMF research commu-
in cells particularly via the Fenton reaction The Fenton
nity should pay equal attention to the negative reports as to
reaction is a catalytic process of iron to convert hydrogen per-
the positive ones. Not only the positive findings need to be
oxides, a product of oxidative respiration in the mitochondria,
replicated, the negative ones need to be critically assessed
into hydroxyl free radical, which is a very potent and toxic free
radical. Any exposure, including prolonged low-intensity ELFand RF exposures that result in increased free radical produc-
2.7. Evidence for genotoxic effects e DNA damage
tion may be considered a plausible biological mechanism forcarcinogenesis.
From this literature survey, about 50% of the studies re-
ported effects. Not every study, however, would be expected
to document effects, given the wide range of exposure condi-tions and varying sensitivity of assays. One can conclude that
Studies of the stress response in different cells under vari-
under certain conditions of exposure, radiofrequency radiation
ous conditions have enabled us to characterize the molecular
is genotoxic. Data available are mainly applicable only to cell
mechanisms by which cells respond to EMF and their effects
phone radiation exposure. Other than the study by Phillips
on health risk. That information can now correct assumptions
et al. there are very few published studies of RF radiation
about biological effects of EMF, and establish a scientific basis
at levels that one can experience in the vicinity of base stations
It is generally agreed that EMF safety standards should be
During cell phone use, a relatively constant mass of tissue in
based on science, yet recent EMF research has shown that a ba-
the brain is exposed to the radiation at relatively high intensity
sic assumption used to determine EMF safety is not valid. The
(peak SAR of 4e8 W/Kg). Several studies reported DNA dam-
safety standard assumes that EMF causes biological damage
age at lower intensity than 4 W/Kg. The IEEE has revised its
only by heating, but cell damage occurs in the absence of heat-
recommended standard for localized tissue exposure, changing
ing and well below the safety limits. This has been shown in
it from 1.6 W/Kg over 1 g of tissue to 2 W/Kg over 10 g of tis-
many studies, including the cellular stress response where cells
sue, although the Federal Communications Commission has
synthesize stress proteins in reaction to potentially harmful
not adopted this change. Since distribution of radiofrequency
stimuli in the environment, including EMF. The stress response
energy is non-homogenous inside tissue, this change allows
to both the power-frequency (ELF) and radiofrequency/micro-
a higher peak level of exposure. Furthermore, since critical ge-
wave (RF) ranges shows the inadequacy of the thermal SAR
netic mutations in one single cell are sufficient to lead to cancer
and there are millions of cells in a gram of tissue, it is incon-
The stress response is a natural defence mechanism activated
ceivable that the base of SAR standard was changed by IEEE
by molecular damage caused by environmental forces. The re-
from averaged over 1 gm of tissue to 10 gm.
sponse involves activation of DNA, i.e., stimulating stress genes
L. Hardell, C. Sage / Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
as well as genes that sense and repair damage to DNA and pro-
acceptable to build new power lines and electrical facilities
teins. Scientific research has identified specific segments of
that place people in ELF environments that have been associ-
DNA that respond to both ELF and RF. It has been possible
ated with an increased risk of adverse health effects, levels
to move these specific segments of DNA and transfer the sensi-
generally at 2 mG (0.2 mT) and above.
tivity to EMF. At high EMF intensities, the interaction with
A new, lower planning limit for habitable space adjacent to
DNA can lead to DNA strand breaks that could result in muta-
all new or upgraded power lines and for all other new con-
tion, an initiating step in the development of cancer.
struction should be applied. A lower limit should also be
Scientific research has shown that ELF and RF fields inter-
used for existing habitable space for children and/or women
act with DNA to stimulate protein synthesis, and at higher in-
who are pregnant. This recommendation is based on the as-
tensities to cause DNA damage. The biological thresholds
sumption that a higher burden of protection is required for
(field strength, duration) are well below current safety limits.
children who cannot protect themselves, and who are at risk
To be in line with EMF research, a biologically based standard
for childhood leukaemia at rates that are traditionally high
must replace the thermal SAR standard, which is fundamen-
enough to trigger regulatory action.
tally flawed. EMF research also indicates a need for protection
While it is not realistic to reconstruct all existing electrical
against the cumulative biological effects stimulated by EMF
distributions systems in the short-term, steps to reduce expo-
across the electromagnetic spectrum.
sure from these existing systems need to be initiated, espe-cially in places where children spend time, and should be
A precautionary limit should be adopted for outdoor, cumu-
lative RF exposure and for cumulative indoor RF fields withconsiderably lower limits than existing guidelines. It should
Exposure to EMFs has been linked to a variety of adverse
reflect the current RF science and prudent public health re-
health outcomes. There are other effects not summarized
sponse that would reasonably be set for pulsed RF (ambient)
here, see the BioInitiative Report Health endpoints that
exposures where people live, work and go to school. This level
have been reported to be associated with ELF and/or RF in-
of RF is experienced as whole-body exposure, and can be
clude childhood leukaemia, adult brain tumours, childhood
a chronic exposure where there is wireless coverage present
brain tumours, genotoxic effects (DNA damage and micronu-
for voice and data transmission for cell phones, pagers and
cleation), neurological effects and neurodegenerative diseases,
personal digital assistants (PDAs) and other sources of radio-
immune system deregulation, allergic and inflammatory re-
frequency radiation. Although this RF target level does not
sponses, breast cancer in men and women, miscarriage and
preclude further rollout of WI-FI technologies, wired alterna-
tives to WI-FI should be implemented, particularly in schools
Effects are not specifically segregated for ELF or RF, since
and libraries so that children are not subjected to elevated RF
many overlapping exposures occur in daily life, and because
levels until more is understood about possible health impacts.
this is an artificial division based on frequencies as defined
This recommendation should be seen as an interim precaution-
in physics that have little bearing on the biological effects.
ary limit that is intended to guide preventative actions. More
Both ELF and RF, for example have been shown to cause cells
conservative limits may be needed in the future.
to generate stress proteins, a universal sign of distress in plant,
The current guideline for microwave exposure from mobile
animal and human cells, and to cause DNA damage and neu-
phones in Europe is 2 W/Kg for the brain. This is based on
rological impacts at levels far below current safety standards.
thermal effect using cataract development in animal eyesinduced at 100 W/Kg with a safety factor of 50 for standard
3.2. Public health policy recommendations
setting. There were also considerations about the relationshipbetween the whole-body SAR and local hot spots and local
There are many historical examples of scientifically based
SAR in relation to whole-body SAR. Since use of mobile
early warnings about potential health effects from environ-
phones is associated with an increased risk for brain tumours
mental hazards and a long time period until precautionary
(glioma, acoustic neuroma) after 10 years a new biologically
and preventive measures were undertaken . Vested inter-
based guideline should be applied. This new guideline should
ests may thereby counteract necessary public health actions
be based on non-thermal (low-intensity) effects from micro-
The precautionary principle should be used when there
wave exposure. It should be added that in toxicology normal
is reasonable ground for concern. Based on the BioInitiative
practice is to add a safety limit of at least factor 100, which
Report , this criterion is fulfilled regarding exposure to
is factor 10 from animal to human beings and factor 10 for in-
electromagnetic fields, both extremely low frequency electro-
Exposure from base stations for DECT phones are not
New regulatory limits for ELF based on biologically rele-
specifically addressed in the BioInitiative Report. However,
vant levels of ELF are warranted, see the BioInitiative Report.
we conclude that indoor exposure to RF should be assessed
ELF limits should be set below those exposure levels that have
as well as exposure while using DECT phones. There is indi-
been linked in childhood leukaemia studies to increased risk of
cation of increased brain tumour risk associated with DECT
disease, plus an additional safety factor. It is no longer
phones and a safety factor is warranted both for these phones
L. Hardell, C. Sage / Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 62 (2008) 104e109
and indoor base station exposures. The same standard might
[3] Klaeboe L, Blaasaas KG, Tynes T. Use of mobile phones in Norway and
be applied to cordless phones as for a new guideline for mo-
risk of intracranial tumours. Eur J Cancer Prev 2007;16:158e64.
[4] Schlehofer B, Schlafer K, Blettner M, Berg G, Bo¨hler F, Hettinger I,
bile phones based on biological effects. This is a reasonable
et al. Environmental risk factors for sporadic acoustic neuroma (Inter-
suggestion to address the condition where occupied interior
phone Study Group, Germany). Eur J Cancer 2007;43(11):1741e7.
space is affected by DECT phones or other RF-emitting
devices installed by the occupants. As with ELF fields also
[5] Hardell L, Carlberg M, Hansson Mild K. Pooled analysis of two case-
for RF fields different limits may be needed in the future as
control studies on the use of cellular and cordless telephones and therisk of benign tumours diagnosed during 1997
[6] Hardell L, Hansson Mild K, Carlberg M. Pooled analysis of two case-
control studies on use of cellular and cordless telephones and the risk
for malignant brain tumours diagnosed in 1997e2003. Int Arch OccupEnviron Health 2006;79:630e9.
Supported by grants from a private philanthropic organiza-
[7] Milham S, Ossiander EM. Historical evidence that residential electrifica-
tion administered by Commonweal, Bolinas, California, USA,
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and from Cancer-och Allergifonden, Sweden. The paper is
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based on the BioInitiative Report, and its individual chapters
by the authors of this article, and by Carl F. Blackman, PhD,
Martin Blank, PhD, Professor, David Gee, European Environ-
[9] European Environmental Agency. Highlights: European Environmental
mental Agency, Michael Kundi, PhD med. habil. Professor,
Agency website by Dr. Jacqueline McGlade, Director. Statement ofSeptember
David O. Carpenter, MD, Zoreh Davanipour, DVM, PhD,
Olle Johansson, PhD, Associate Professor, Henry Lai, PhD,
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Kjell Hansson Mild, PhD, Professor, Amy Sage, BS, Research
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[1] BioInitiative report: a rationale for a biologically-based public exposure
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[13] Hardell L, Walker M, Walhjalt B, Friedman LS, Richter ED. Secret ties
to industry and conflicting interests in cancer research. Am J Ind Med
[2] Hardell L, Carlberg M, So¨derqvist F, Hansson Mild K, Morgan LL.
Long-term use of cellular phones and brain tumours: increased risk
[14] Scinicariello F, De Rosa CT. Genetic heterogeneity and its effect on
associated with use for 10 years. Occup Environ Med 2007;64:
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626e32. doi:10.1136/oem.2006.029751.

June1997 Column, Country Life in B.C. Wendy R. Holm, P.Ag. I didn’t make it to Wayne Wicken’s farewell dinner. Something of a “pressing and urgent nature” (somuch so I can’t now recall what it was) caused me to be unable to leave Bowen that night to attend. Only last week did I take down the “invite fax” from the board. Wayne took early retirement rather than stomach the gruel b