Preface by Lord Nicholas Stern

1

Arguments for Protection
In 2000 a conference organised in Bangkok by WWF and the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas agreed that there was an urgent need to identify and quantify the wide range of social and environmental benefits offered by protected areas. The WWF Arguments for Protection project was developed in response. The project aims to: • Identify and where possible quantify the wide range of benefits derived from protected areas • Increase support for protection • Develop new interdisciplinary partnerships • Identify innovative financing mechanisms • Broaden and strengthen protected area management strategies Since 2003 the project has created the world’s largest information source on the wider values of protected areas. Six reports have been published to date (see www.panda.org/protection/arguments) and a new simple-to-use tool, the Protected Area Benefit Assessment Tool (PA-BAT), has been developed, field-tested and is now being implemented. The published reports are: • Running Pure: The importance of forest protected areas to drinking water • Food Stores: Using protected areas to secure crop genetic diversity • Beyond Belief: Linking faiths and protected areas to support biodiversity conservation • Safety Net: Protected areas and poverty reduction • Natural Security: Protected areas and hazard mitigation • Vital Sites: The contribution of protected areas to human health The project has worked with a number of partners including: The World Bank; UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction; World Health Organisation; University of Birmingham; Alliance of Religions and Conservation, and many protected area agencies. This new report in the series continues the relationship with the World Bank and has been carried out in collaboration with UNDP and many members of the PACT 2020: Protected Areas and Climate Turnaround Alliance.

PACT 2020: Protected Areas and Climate Turnaround
At the IUCN Council Meeting held from 8-10 March 2008, climate change was acknowledged to be the greatest threat to biodiversity and the global system of protected areas was noted as one of the most powerful solutions. This was the genesis of PACT 2020: Protected Areas and Climate Turnaround, formally launched at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in 2008 and supported by IUCN’s Innovation Fund. PACT 2020 involves a partnership led by IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas, together with the IUCN Secretariat, IUCN members and international organizations, including The Nature Conservancy, WWF International, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation International, the Wild Foundation, Fauna and Flora International, the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance, The World Bank, United Nations Development Programme and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. PACT 2020 aims to “Ensure that protected areas and protected area systems are recognised as an important contribution to climate change adaptation/mitigation strategies for biodiversity and human livelihoods”. Activities include developing: • A situation analysis leading to the articulation of a compelling case and action plan for protected areas as an integral element of climate change adaptation/mitigation • Guidance and project proposals are developed for regional implementation programmes • A policy action plan championed by IUCN is agreed by key stakeholders • Protected area and climate change policy interventions are designed and undertaken at global and national levels • A functional communications/learning network is developed This publication is one of the first products of this collaboration, and will be a primary input into the PACT 2020 Protected Areas and Climate Change Summit held in November 2009 in Granada, Spain, hosted by the Junta de Andalucía.

Managing natural ecosystems as carbon sinks and resources for adaptation is increasingly recognised as a necessary. But these co-benefits for climate. A. But protected areas have advantages over other approaches to natural ecosystem management in terms of legal and governance clarity. communities. London School of Economics and Political Science
* Nelson. lose less forest than other management systems*. water supply. Without the investment made in protected areas systems worldwide. Independent Evaluation Group. Chomitz (2009). In many cases protection is the only way of keeping carbon locked in and ecosystem services running smoothly. food and public health. especially those conserved by indigenous peoples. Increasing investment through a partnership of governments. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change recommended that governments develop policies for “climate sensitive public goods including natural resource protection. non-governmental organisations and the private sector would ensure greater protection of these essential services. the situation would be even worse. capacity and effectiveness. The world’s protected area network already helps mitigate and adapt to climate change. As we enter an unprecedented scale of negotiations about climate and biodiversity it is important that these messages reach policy makers loud and clear and are translated into effective policies and funding mechanisms. a new World Bank review shows how tropical protected areas. and K. biodiversity and society are often missed or ignored. efficient and relatively cost-effective strategy. Evidence suggests that protected areas work: even since this report was completed. coastal protection and emergency preparedness”. indigenous peoples. This book clearly articulates for the first time how protected areas contribute significantly to reducing impacts of climate change and what is needed for them to achieve even more. Protected areas store 15 per cent of terrestrial carbon and supply ecosystem services for disaster reduction. IG Patel Professor of Economics & Government. Washington DC
. all of which enable community-based adaptation. The World Bank. Lord Nicholas Stern
Chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. Evaluation Brief 7.Preface
Responses to climate change must now focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions enough to avoid runaway impacts (“avoiding the unmanageable”) and on addressing the impacts that are already with us (“managing the unavoidable”). Many natural and managed ecosystems can help reduce climate change impacts. Protected Area Effectiveness in Reducing Tropical Deforestation: A global analysis of the impact of protection status.

Various types of adaptation exist. and spiritual fulfilment. Permanence: The longevity of a carbon pool and the stability of its stocks. and supporting services such as soil formation. anticipatory and reactive. mitigation means implementing policies to reduce GHG emissions and enhance sinks10. Although several social. and its adaptive capacity14. Vulnerability: The degree to which a system is susceptible to.
Glossary
Adaptation: Initiatives and measures to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected climate change effects. Vulnerability is a function of the character. and involving the storage of carbon in soils. its sensitivity. Mitigation: Technological change and substitution that reduces resource inputs and emissions per unit of output.000. aesthetic enjoyment.000. Leakage: the situation in which a carbon sequestration activity (e. and autonomous and planned1.6
Acronyms. photosynthesis. The net change of anthropogenic emissions by sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) which occurs outside the project boundary.000 tonnes or 1 million metric tonnes) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature Mg Megagram (1. and crops.000 grams) Mt Megatonne (1. and unable to cope with.g.000 (one trillion) grams) TNC The Nature Conservancy UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas (of IUCN) WCS Wildlife Conservation Society WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Ecosystem-based adaptation: The use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change5. and rate of climate change and variation to which a system is exposed. which in whole or part. directly or indirectly. Carbon sequestration: Carbon sequestration is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon is absorbed by living organisms. disease. and nutrient cycling6. cultural services such as recreation. An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system. and which is measurable and attributable to a project activity designed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions9. including climate variability and extremes. adverse effects of climate change. private and public.g.000. tree planting) on one piece of land inadvertently. counteracts the carbon effects of the initial activity8. economic and technological policies would produce an emission reduction. including trees.000. water. and water quality. Additionality of emission reductions: Reduction in emissions by sources or enhancement of removals by sinks that is additional to any that would occur in the absence of a project activity designed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions2.000. floods. Ecosystem services (also ecosystem goods and services): the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. wastes. it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks11.
.000 metric tonnes) REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation PoWPA Programme of Work on Protected Areas (of the CBD) Tg Teragram (1.000. These include provisioning services such as food. regulating services such as the regulation of climate. Joint Implementation or a Clean Development Mechanism project activity as defined in the Kyoto Protocol Articles on Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism3. given the management and disturbance environment in which it occurs12 Resilience: The amount of change a system can undergo without changing state. and fibre. magnitude.000. abbreviations and formula
CBD CDM CH4 C CO2 EBA GEF GHG Gt Convention on Biological Diversity Clean Development Mechanism Methane Carbon Carbon dioxide Ecosystem-based adaptation Global Environment Facility Greenhouse gases Gigatonne (1. e.. with the potential to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels4. Resilience is a tendency to maintain integrity when subject to disturbance13. Equivalent CO2 concentration (carbon dioxide): The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the same amount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases7. triggers an activity. timber. soil micro-organisms. with respect to climate change.

management and governance institutions. They contain the only remaining large natural habitats in many areas.Executive summary and key policy statements
7
Natural Solutions: the argument
The following section is a summary and an associated policy analysis. to the creation. disease and agricultural productivity caused by climate change Protected area systems have the advantage that they are already established as efficient. staff and capacity. The role of protected areas as part of national strategies for supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation should also be recognised by the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). in liaison with other CBD programmes • National and local governments: incorporate the role of protected area systems into national climate change strategies and action plans. This means: • UNFCCC: recognise protected areas as tools for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. fisheries. and open up key climate change related funding mechanisms.
Protected areas are an essential part of the global response to climate change. including REDD and adaptation funds. enhancement and effective management of protected area systems • CBD: renew the Programme of Work on Protected Areas at COP10 to address more specifically the role of protected areas in responses to climate change. and for adaptation by reducing the vulnerability and increasing the resilience of natural ecosystems
. Opportunities exist to increase their connectivity at landscape level and their effective management so as to enhance the resilience of ecosystems to climate change and safeguard vital ecosystem services. and their strengthening will yield one of the most powerful natural solutions to the climate crisis. the challenges would be even greater. The main text includes references and data supporting the case. They are helping society cope with climate change impacts by maintaining essential services upon which people depend. reduce risks and impacts from extreme events such as storms. with associated laws and policies. Opportunities to use protected areas in climate response strategies need to be prioritised by national and local governments. At a global level. successful and cost effective tools for ecosystem management. Without them. They are helping address the cause of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. droughts and sea-level rise • Provide: Maintain essential ecosystem services that help people cope with changes in water supplies. Protected areas can contribute to the two main responses to climate change through: Mitigation • Store: Prevent the loss of carbon that is already present in vegetation and soils • Capture: Sequester further carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in natural ecosystems Adaptation • Protect: Maintain ecosystem integrity. including for mitigation by reducing the loss and degradation of natural habitats. the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Programme of Work on Protected Areas should be deployed as a major climate change mitigation and adaptation tool. knowledge. buffer local climate.

9 per cent of the world’s land surface and a growing (although still inadequate) area of coasts and oceans. World Heritage. Recent research shows an increasingly bleak picture. with a range of extremely serious and hard-to-predict consequences. and to sustain ecosystem services vital to climate change adaptation. protected areas safeguard the only remaining natural ecosystems. Ideally protected areas and conservation needs should be integrated into wider landscape and seascape strategies. dedicated and managed. But protected areas are uniquely positioned to support national climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies as they benefit from existing policies. Protected areas are most effective when they have good capacity. Various land use management strategies will be needed to combat greenhouse gas emissions from land use change. protected area systems at national scale: Governance and safeguards • Have defined borders. During the period of writing this report new information suggests that: we may already be too late to prevent widespread collapse of coral reef systems due to ocean acidification. which can facilitate rapid responses to new information or conditions related to climate change • Have staff and equipment which provide management expertise and capacity. agreed governance structures and strong support from local and resident communities. In the rush for “new” solutions to climate change. national and international attention on a particular protected area. Protected areas already cover over 13. Atmospheric greenhouse gases are creating warmer temperatures. efficient management. But serious as the situation has now become. climate change adaptation will cost US$75-100 billion a year from 2010 onwards for developing countries according to the World Bank. including particularly the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas and conservation NGOs Monitoring. sea-level rise and an unpredictable climate. verification and reporting • Are supported by government commitments under the CBD to establish ecologically-representative protected area systems • Have organised and populated data sources to set baselines and facilitate monitoring. we are in danger of neglecting a proven alternative. including government budgetary appropriations. which provide a stable. such as the IUCN management categories. local approaches involving people in a legitimate and effective way in management
. In addition. much can still be done to reduce the problems created by climate change. In many places where population or development pressures are particularly strong. and funding from the GEF and LifeWeb • Are backed up by networks of experts ready to provide advice and assistance. In particular. recognised. and the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) World Database on Protected Areas (these systems would need some strengthening to meet UNFCCC needs) Well managed protected areas can provide a cost effective option for implementing climate change response strategies because start-up costs have already been met and socio-economic costs are offset by other services that protected areas supply. long-term mechanism for managing land and water ecosystems • Have agreed governance structures to meet a wide range of social and cultural requirements • Are backed by a range of supportive conventions and agreements (CBD.
Why protected areas?
A protected area is defined by IUCN as a “clearly defined geographical space. through legal or other effective means. which can be used to measure carbon sinks and storage and ecosystem services • Operate under legal or other effective frameworks.8
Executive summary and key policy statements
A unique challenge
Climate change poses an unprecedented level of threat to life on the planet. predictions about the scale and speed of impact are continually being revised upwards. This report focuses on the role that protected areas can play in mitigating and adapting to climate change. and climate change may move faster than expected with average temperatures rising 4ºC by 2060 compared to pre-industrial levels according to the UK Meteorological Office. CITES etc) and regional agreements such as Natura 2000 to provide policy frameworks. Ramsar. a set of options that hitherto has been under-represented in global response strategies. governance types and Red List. ice melt. Man and the Biosphere. The best protected areas are inspirational models for the management of natural ecosystems. adding to the area’s protection Effectiveness • Are proven to work as an effective way of retaining natural ecosystems and ecosystem services especially through protected area systems at the landscape/seascape scale • Are supported by management plans. to achieve the longterm conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values”. laws. and institutions that govern their management and on-theground capacities and expertise. tools and political support • Recognise cultural and social values of protected areas and have experience in implementing accessible. The facts are well known. including understanding of how to manage ecosystems to generate a range of ecosystem services vital for climate change adaptation • Provide opportunities to bring the experience developed in planning and managing protected areas to bear on developing broader landscape and seascape scale approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation • Can draw on existing funding mechanisms. so that what was already a serious situation continues to look even more threatening.
Permanence • Are based around a commitment to permanence and long-term management of ecosystems and natural resources • Focus local.

000 km² of deforestation by 2050. storing over 4 billion t C. will also need to consider carbon emissions implications and the relationship of such practices to any agreed UNFCCC rules. Economic losses from climate disasters have increased ten-fold in 50 years. Role of protected areas: Protected areas are the most effective management strategy known to avoid conversion to other land uses and loss of carbon and to secure carbon in natural ecosystems: research by the UNEP-WCMC shows that tropical forests inside protected areas lose far less carbon than those outside. Implications: Carbon storage provides arguments for increasing protected area coverage and for changing management in some protected areas to retain more carbon. estimated to be worth between US$39-$87 billion • Canada: 4. storms. suggesting a need for new selection tools. tidal surges.5 million t C is protected • Bolivia. especially inland waters. Some of these services are at risk due to habitat destruction and degradation: if these trends persist. 60 per cent of which is in existing forest reserves • Belarus: on-going restoration and protection of degraded peatlands is leading to an annual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 448. in particular for forests. reduce risks and impacts from extreme climatic events such as storms.432 million t C is sequestered in 39 national parks. The role of restoration will increase in some protected areas. representing 8 billion t of avoided carbon emissions
Adaptation
Protect: Maintain ecosystem integrity. such as prescribed burning. and “natural” disasters from floods. thus reducing greenhouse gases. habitats for carbon retention. may have to be tailored to maintain sequestration potential. responsible for 4 million t of avoided CO2 a year • Tanzania: the Eastern Arc Mountains store over 151 million t C. Role of protected areas: Protection of ecosystems usually secures their sequestration potential. Management operations within individual protected areas. at a value of between US$72-78 billion • Brazil: protected areas and indigenous lands in the Brazilian Amazon are likely to prevent an estimated 670. even inside protected areas. and in some cases restore. Mexico and Venezuela: protected areas contain 25 million ha of forest. or 15 per cent of the world’s terrestrial carbon stock. this includes active restoration and encouragement of natural regeneration.Executive summary and key policy statements
9
What protected areas can do to respond to the climate change challenge
Mitigation
Store: Prevent the loss of carbon that is already present in vegetation and soils
Challenge: Ecosystem loss and degradation are major causes of greenhouse gas emissions. mangroves and within natural and managed grasslands. droughts and sea-level rise
Challenge: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates that 60 per cent of global ecosystem services are degraded. estuaries and peatlands. Data from the UNEP-WCMC suggests that there are already 312 Gt of carbon stored in the world’s protected area network. Role of protected areas: Protected areas can help to reduce the impact of all but the largest natural disasters:
.
Capture: Sequester further carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in natural ecosystems
Challenge: Most natural and semi-natural ecosystems sequester carbon dioxide. Degraded forests can have less than half the carbon value of intact forests. buffer local climate. there is the potential to modify management specifically to increase sequestration. There are opportunities to protect additional “high carbon” ecosystems and to manage.
Examples of storage and capture
• Madagascar: around 6 million ha of new protected
areas are being created.000 t CO2 from peatland fires and mineralization • Russian Federation: the protection of 1. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that 20 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions come from deforestation and other forms of land use change. When climate change or other factors continue to undermine carbon dioxide capture. some ecosystems could switch from carbon sinks to carbon sources over the next few years and specialised management responses are needed to address this threat. such as increasing water levels in peat.63 million ha of virgin taiga forests and peat soils in the Komi Republic is ensuring that their store of over 71. which: “…contributed to a significant rise in the number of floods and major wild fires on all continents since the 1940s”. Implications: Management of some protected habitats. under credible scenarios. droughts and avalanches will continue to increase in frequency and intensity. New protected areas may soon be chosen partly for their carbon storage potential.

But their potential is still only partially realised and their integrity remains at risk. management effectiveness and inclusive governance would enable a scaling up of the potential of the global protected areas system as a solution to the challenge of climate change and as a model for other resource management programmes. coverage. or where important ecosystem services are under threat – particularly tropical forests. Financial and policy instruments are needed to address six important responses. selection tools and management approaches as necessary
. summarised in the box below. mangroves. as well as marine ecosystems • Connecting protected areas within landscapes/ seascapes: using management of natural or seminatural vegetation outside protected areas or intervening waters.
Six key policy and management developments are needed for protected areas to function more effectively as a climate change response mechanism
• More and larger protected areas: particularly in ecosystems where much carbon is stored and/or captured and is likely to be lost without protection. freshwater and coastal marshes and seagrass beds. analysis shows that support for the global protected area network is far less than half that needed for maximum efficiency and that some governments are reducing net support at the moment. and the decisions taken within the context of the CBD have highlighted the threat of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystems. connectivity.Executive summary and key policy statements
11
Next steps in building and strengthening protected area systems
Protected areas are already providing vital climate change mitigation and adaptation benefits. avoid ground disturbance or drying out of peat and also using restoration in protected areas where vegetation has been degraded • Focusing some management specifically on mitigation and adaptation needs: including modification of management plans. including extra capacity development to meet new challenges and opportunities presented by climate change. Several initiatives are also required from national governments. biological corridors and ecological stepping stones. peatlands. for example to maintain old-growth forest. The two key multilateral environmental agreements – the UNFCCC and the CBD – are responsible for climate change mitigation and adaptation and ecosystem conservation and management respectively. Two issues are critical: • Finances: despite some welcome funding initiatives. • Policy: currently national and international policy instruments aimed at the twin environmental crises of biodiversity loss and climate change are often not sufficiently coordinated. Increasing protected area size. which are important to build connectivity to increase ecosystem resilience to climate change at the landscape/seascape scale and to increase the total amount of habitat under some form of protection • Recognition and implementation of the full range of governance types: to encourage more stakeholders to become involved in declaring and managing protected areas as part of community • climate response strategies. Further resources are needed to maintain and enable an expanded role for protected areas. Several steps are needed to improve the effectiveness of protected areas as a significant tool for climate change mitigation and adaptation within the implementation programmes of both conventions. thus enhancing their potential to achieve targeted outcomes at country level. The UNFCCC explicitly recognises the relationship between ecosystem resilience and the vulnerability and resilience of human communities. This can include buffer zones. vegetation restoration. particularly through indigenous and community conserved areas and private protected areas • Improving management within protected areas: to ensure that ecosystems and the services that they provide within protected areas are recognised and not degraded or lost through illegal use or unwise management decisions • Increasing the level of protection for carbon stores within protected areas: by recognising protection and management aimed at specific features that have high value in carbon storage. and collectively for the global community. wasting resources and missing valuable and complementary policy opportunities. indeed research shows that unless protected area systems are completed and effectively managed they will not be robust enough to withstand climate change and contribute positively to response strategies.

and most importantly. along with some basic statistics about coverage and area. particularly the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. protected areas are introduced as a concept. Finally. The first part of this section summarises the latest IPCC thinking on issues that relate most closely to protected areas. this section explains why protected areas are uniquely placed to help confront climate change.Section 1 Introduction
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has laid out in considerable detail the likely trends in climate and the expected ecological responses. The second part looks at how intergovernmental processes. Some examples of national government responses are also included.
. Next. The range of different management models and governance approaches is described. have dealt with mitigation and adaptation in relation to protected areas.

e. including: • Earlier timing of spring events.” The following section summarises some IPCC conclusions relating to natural ecosystems and natural resources and outlines the consequences for human communities. species will be lost and ecosystems destroyed or degraded. human health put at risk. a standardised framework for the treatment of uncertainties is used when discussing the effects of climate change
• Increased runoff and earlier spring peak discharge in many glacier. changes in infectious disease vectors in parts of Europe. Overall the analysis led the IPCC to conclude: “Observational evidence from all continents and most oceans shows that many natural systems are being affected by regional climate changes. such as changes in mountain sports activities
. and the confidence the IPCC attaches to reports assessing the impacts on these systems is therefore lower (50 per cent): • In the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere agricultural and forest management impacts include earlier spring planting of crops. and affecting top predators There is also high confidence of the effects on hydrological systems including:
* As with all IPCC reports. with effects on thermal structure and water quality There is high confidence that changes in marine and freshwater biological systems are associated with rising water temperatures and related changes in ice cover. Current impacts The IPCC assesses that there is very high (i. 90 per cent) confidence* that recent warming is strongly affecting terrestrial biological systems. However it is difficult to separate these from other stresses (e. Ecosystems and species in protected areas will not be exempt from these affects.14
Section 1
The consequences of climate change for nature. including those in sea-ice biomes. egg-laying and bird migration • Plants and animals shift ranges polewards and upwards There is high (80 per cent) confidence that natural systems related to snow. Sea-level rise and human development are also contributing to losses of coastal wetlands and mangroves and increasing damage from coastal flooding. including the: • Enlargement and increased numbers of glacial lakes • Increasing ground instability in permafrost regions and rock avalanches in mountain regions • Changes in Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems. This means that food and water will be less available. natural resources and the people who depend on them
KEY MESSAGES It is highly probable that climate change is already adversely affecting terrestrial and marine ecosystems and that these changes will increase in rate and severity during the century. natural disasters more frequent. salinity.g. oxygen levels and circulation including: • Shifts in ranges and changes in algal. more than 89 per cent are consistent with the projected effects of climate change on natural systems. and earlier onset of and increases in seasonal production of allergenic pollen in the high and mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere • Impacts on human activities in the Arctic. are discussed further in section 5. and in lower-elevation alpine areas. over-fishing and pollution).
The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published in 2007 draws on more than 29. particularly temperature increases. and possible management responses. The results show significant changes in many physical and biological systems.and snow-fed rivers • Warming of lakes and rivers in many regions. ice and frozen ground (including permafrost) are affected. such as excess heat-related mortality in Europe. Assessment of managed and human systems is particularly difficult given that the drivers of change are so complex.000 observational data series from 75 studies15. in relation to hunting activities and shorter travel seasons over snow and ice. Impacts on protected areas. and alterations in disturbances of forests due to fires and pests • Some impacts on human health. plankton and fish abundance in high-latitude oceans • Increases in algal and zooplankton abundance in high-latitude and high-altitude lakes • Range changes and earlier fish migrations in rivers There is increasing evidence of climate change impacts on coral reefs. such as leaf-unfolding.

and consequently severe fire weather phenomena. water security problems are projected to intensify in southern and eastern Australia and. but decreases at lower latitudes Regional impacts are also reported. In central Victoria. southern Africa and north-eastern Brazil) will suffer a decrease in water resources. research organisations16 and researchers17. Flames of over 100 metres in length were observed. flooding from the rivers • Climate change is projected to compound pressures associated with rapid urbanisation and industrialisation • Endemic morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoeal disease. will be at greatest risk due to increased flooding from the sea and. agriculture and forestry production is projected to decline over these area. I have been involved in bushfire management in Australia since the 1970’s as an on-ground fire fighter. many fires. Worboys
increase by 10-40 per cent by mid-century at higher latitudes and in some wet tropical areas. When we look at the conditions in which the fire burnt. This extreme spotting effect was unprecedented. those fires influenced by an upper atmosphere trough were the worst. a fire strategist and as an incident controller for many. Of the 100 fires that started on Black Saturday. 75-250 million people are projected to be exposed to increased water stress • By 2020. significant loss of biodiversity is projected to occur in some ecologically rich sites. and the intensity and ferocity of the February 2009 Victorians exceeded the hottest of the fires I have ever experienced.. with predominantly adverse impacts • Slight increases in crop productivity in mid. increased temperatures will affect the physical. there is likely to be a decrease in runoff of between 10-30 per cent in some dry regions at midlatitudes and in the dry tropics. the Mediterranean Basin. in Northland and some eastern regions • By 2030. ongoing coastal development and population growth in some areas is projected to exacerbate risks
. the 12-year rainfall totals were 10-13 per cent below the lowest on record for any 12 year period before 199719. due to reduced rainfall and higher rates of evapotranspiration. a record breaking heat wave meant maximum temperatures were above 30 degrees Celsius every day of the 11 days prior to the 7th February (called Black Saturday). This caused extensive drying and curing of vegetation matter and forest fuels. atmospheric instability provided an opportunity for massive convection columns to develop. Climate change forecasts identify that the number of extreme fire days will increase between 15 per cent and 65 per cent by 2020 (relative to 1990) for high global warming estimates and the number of catastrophic fire weather events will increase from 12 sites from 1973 (over 36 years) to 20 sites between 2009 and 202018. in New Zealand. hotter. especially heavily populated mega-delta regions in South. On Black Saturday. The fires were preceded by a severe and protracted drought which is without historical precedent. South. It was fire weather behaviour influenced by climate change. The situation will get worse. due to drought and fire • By 2050.to high latitudes. Regrettably. are expected to rise in East. and the total amount of heat released has been estimated to equal 1500 atomic bombs the size of the one used in Hiroshima20. chemical and biological properties of freshwater lakes and rivers. arid and semi-arid land is projected to increase by 5-8 per cent Asia • By the 2050s. it is not surprising this was the case. Finally. although the magnitude and timing of impacts will vary with the amount and rate of climate change..16
Section 1 CASE STUDY
Fires . Source: Graeme L.g. Africa • By 2020. For the capital city Melbourne. something more severe than I have ever encountered before and a portent of fire behaviour for Australians for the future. South and South-East Asia Australia and New Zealand • By 2020. western United States. Many semi-arid areas (e. Up to 20 per cent of people will live in areas where river flood potential could increase by the 2080s • Conversely. Apart from a fire in South Australia in 2005. these were the most extreme fire weather conditions in the recorded history of Australia. particularly in large river basins. in some mega-deltas. however fire brands ahead of the fire. primarily associated with floods and droughts. beneficial impacts are expected to be offset by the negative effects of increased variability in precipitation and runoff. The cost of adaptation could amount to at least 5-10 per cent of GDP • By 2080. Even worse. driven by the 100 km/hr winds were causing spot fires up to 35 kilometres down wind. East and South-East Asia. in some countries. the highest ever recorded temperature was recorded for Melbourne (46 degrees Celsius) and the humidity was less than 10 per cent for many hours. including the Great Barrier Reef and the Wet Tropics in Queensland • By 2030. freshwater availability in Central. yields from rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by up to 50 per cent • Towards the end of the century. The IPCC attaches high or very high confidence to all of the impacts below. projected sea-level rise will affect low-lying coastal areas with large populations. East and South-East Asia. more severe and more frequent in Australia
Climate change is influencing the nature and intensity of Australian bushfires such as the disastrous Victorian fires of 7th February 2009 according to bushfire management experts. is projected to decrease • Coastal areas. The average spread of the fire was 12 km/hr (and faster in localised situations). there were 173 fatalities and 2029 homes lost in the fires.

called at SBSTTA 11 (Recommendation XI/14) for “guidance for promoting synergy among activities addressing biological diversity.2 and related actions) specifically in relation to marine protected areas (Strategy 4. where glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply are projected to recede as a result of global warming”. More explicitly. its Subsidiary Body on Scientific. and connect protected areas. Actions include: “identification of public forests to be protected. build ecosystem resilience and design. The programme outlines objectives to 2010. The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem includes: “aims to conserve biodiversity. waste. It covers energy generation. and 22 million hectares of desertified lands are under control. pilot and implement REDD projects36. and … to strengthen forest and wetland restoration and afforestation to enhance capacities for carbon sequestration. By 2010. animal and marine biodiversity. most by 2012. 2 related to forests including: “Seek for sustained reduction in deforestation rates. preserved and managed”. The plan defines actions and measures aimed at mitigation and adaptation to climate change. especially in the Amazon forest”. and other land uses. and creation of an Amazon Fund to “raise financial resources nationally and internationally for the reduction of deforestation. forest cover. widen. it is necessary … to strengthen forest and wetland conservation to enhance capacities for climate change adaptation. However protected areas in southern Finland are less extensive and “the possibilities for the protected areas to provide species with opportunities for adaptation/transition are restricted.”
Brazil
China
National Climate Change Program (2007)33
Finland
National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (2005)34
India
National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008)35
Mexico
Special Program on Climate Change (2009 review draft)
South Africa
A national climate change response strategy for South Africa (2004)37
. energy use.5 Integrate climate change adaptation measures in protected area planning.3. The plan identifies 8 core “national missions” running through to 2017 and directs ministries to submit detailed implementation plans to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change. forests. It includes strategies and actions related to protected areas including the development of new reserves incorporating assessment of climate change impacts (Strategy 5.2 and 4.4 states: “To combat climate change.4. in order to reach zero illegal deforestation”. within the Barents cooperation…”. It has 7 specific objectives. The programme’s objectives are to develop and solidify guidelines contained in the previously released National Strategy on Climate Change (ENACC). The strategy concludes with 22 key actions relating a range of issues from CDM projects to health protection and promotion measures to counter climate change. for example. agriculture.” Responses include: “a more extensive international evaluation and development of the network of protected areas.” The protected area network in the Alpine and eastern zones should be sufficient to adapt to climate change as there is an opportunity to: “control land use efficiently to reduce the human-induced stress and thus promote the conservation of alpine habitat types and the habitats of species”. and Technological Advice (SBSTTA).20
Section 1
Convention on Biological Diversity: The CBD has recognised the role of protected areas in addressing climate change in its Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA): “1. management strategies and in the design of protected area systems”.” Section 3. and private sector. Technical.3. section 2.
Table 1: National climate change responses using protected areas Country
Australia
Document
National Biodiversity and Climate Change Action Plan (20042007)31 National Plan on Climate Change (2008)32
Details
The plan was developed to coordinate activities of different jurisdictions to address the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. 90% of typical forest ecosystems and national key wildlife are effectively protected and nature reserve area accounts for 16% of the total territory. and includes an action to: “Develop protection plans for plant. It includes plans to preserve.2: “Through strengthening the natural forest conservation and nature reserve management and continuously implementing key ecological restoration programmes. and contains 41 mitigation objectives and 95 related targets. and other ecological values in the Himalayan region. Natural resource conservation is mentioned twice. in all Brazilian biomass.5). establish key ecological protection area and enhancing natural ecological restoration. sustainable use and conservation.

g. a narrow focus on emission reductions has encouraged biofuel production. The recognition of the cost-benefit case for public investment in ecological infrastructure (especially restoring and conserving forests. but capturing them through priced rewards”.
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The main findings from the study of the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (TEEB) will be published in 2010. Other international conventions: Many other international agreements include discussion of climate change. water and other biota (flows) and the stock of carbon are less developed and not standardised. For example. The measurement of carbon sequestration (flow) by forests is relatively well established and accurate. Very high benefit-cost ratios are observed. The paper also stresses that including forests as a major mitigation option would set an important precedent and a potential platform for the development of other payments for ecosystem services. An early and appropriate agreement on forest carbon to mitigate climate change. particularly because of its significant potential as a means of adaptation to climate change. river basins. and compute social returns on investment. and economic consequences. etc. the CBD and UNFCCC already have a joint working group looking at synergies between the two conventions29. TEEB suggest indicators of conservation effectiveness may include: • Efforts to develop non-agricultural income-generating activities in forest dependent communities • Improving the management of existing protected areas by increasing staffing and equipment as well as agreements with forest communities • Expanding protected areas through new legislation • Promoting independent verification of protected area management Overall.). delivering ecosystem services. the World Summit on Sustainable Development and its Johannesburg Plan for Implementation. Such an agreement would mark the beginnings of the change in the global economic model that TEEB is recommending in all its reports. Urgent consideration of the imminent loss of coral reefs due to climate change. e. The paper also notes the importance of ensuring that a global forest carbon agreement includes the assessment of conservation success. impacts and responses. so long as we include amongst benefits a valuation of the public goods and services of ecosystems. the World Heritage Convention (which explicitly looks at the role of protected areas in mitigation)30 and the UN Commission on Sustainable Development.Introduction
desertification.) and not always considering the knock-on effects to the “green” or “blue” solutions (carbon stored in terrestrial vegetation or in the seas and oceans). which if not properly planned frequently results in additional carbon being lost from terrestrial systems. However. wetlands. social. whereas the measurement of carbon sequestration by soil. and the assessment of linkages across ecosystems services remain weak. In addition. 3. Due to its complexity and the array of causes. which will result in serious ecological. via protected areas. these issues featured very strongly at recent meetings to plan the future of the PoWPA28. At present. mangroves. this is frequently not happening. Thus to implement such an agreement will require the reliable global measurement and accounting for carbon storage and sequestration in a variety of ecosystems. highlights some urgent issues for policy makers. such as the Millennium Declaration and its Millennium Development Goals (MDG). however a summary report on climate change. released in 2009 as an input to the Copenhagen climate negotiations. as the report notes: “we cannot manage what we do not measure”.
The TEEB Climate Issues Update40 highlights three issues of particular importance to be considered by policy-makers in Copenhagen: 1. Governments are focusing on “brown solutions” (emissions reductions etc. or sustainable use restrictions. Table 1 outlines some examples of national initiatives. National responses: An increasing number of governments are drawing on protected areas as tools for combating climate change. 2. land degradation and climate change” and called for a range of responses27. It is likely that the review of the PoWPA scheduled for late 2010 will increase the emphasis on climate change mitigation and adaptation within protected area policies. co-operation between different government departments within countries and the involvement of different stakeholder groups. in economic terms the TEEB report notes that: “Direct conservation. are means of maintaining our ecological infrastructure healthy and productive. More integrated approaches are urgently required39. climate change requires synergy between many international instruments38. although the large majority are still not including them in their National Adaptation Programmes of Action.”
. To this end TEEB recognises that a “successful global agreement would mark society’s entry into a new era which ‘mainstreams’ the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: not just demonstrating ecosystem benefits.

communities or indigenous peoples’ groups. bird and reptile and amphibian species are already represented in protected areas.
Map of the global protected area network
. The IUCN Species Survival Commission reports that 80 per cent of mammal.22
Section 1
The potential of the world’s protected areas system to address climate change
KEY MESSAGES Protected areas are essential for maintaining natural ecosystems in perpetuity and already provide critically important ecosystem functions. An increasing number of governments consciously try to include all national ecosystems and species within the protected area system. They use numerous management approaches and governance types. Management can rest with the state. • IUCN definition: A clearly defined geographical space. to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values41. worldwide network. on a scale large enough to support populations of resident plant and animal species in the long-term. which are also reflected in management. through legal or other effective means. • CBD definition: A geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives. Protected areas range from places so strictly preserved that human visitation is banned or strictly controlled.
What are protected areas? Although there are two global protected area definitions. recognising six categories of management objective and four governance types. not-for-profit trusts. where biodiversity protection takes place alongside regulated traditional (and in some cases modern) production activities often with resident human communities. facilitating the development of a resilient. these can be used in any combination as shown in figure 1. participatory and varied management systems. Over time protected areas have developed from rather top-down. recognised. centrally managed designations to far more inclusive. Modern protected areas focus explicitly on the conservation of biodiversity although most have other roles in terms of providing social and cultural values. An internationally recognised typology describes different approaches. it is recognised that they convey essentially the same message. from IUCN and the CBD. companies. local government. private individuals. dedicated and managed. to protected landscapes and seascapes.

Although protected areas exhibit huge variety. some ecosystems remain poorly protected. Opportunities for further protection will inevitably decrease over time as available land and water becomes scarcer. the establishment of the world’s protected areas estate represents the fastest conscious change in land management that has ever occurred. which in some countries may provide comparable coverage to those protected areas set up by the state43. trusts. Protected areas are embedded within landscapes and seascapes.
* As listed by the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)
Purpose: Protected areas are the cornerstones of national and international biodiversity conservation strategies. local communities.Introduction
Figure 1: Matrix of IUCN protected area management categories and governance types IUCN Governance type
A. marine protected areas cover 5. Governance by governments Federal or national ministry or agency in charge Local ministry or agency in charge Management delegated by the government B. often forming the core of remaining natural ecosystems and in this way contribute to the composition. recreational opportunities provided by wild spaces and the refuge that protected areas can give to traditional and vulnerable human societies. Protected areas also provide a wide variety of more immediate human benefits. Most protected areas were created during the twentieth century. A global system: There are some 120. as captured in the CBD and IUCN definitions. Private governance D. ecosystem services.9 per cent of the Earth’s land surface. Most people believe that we have an ethical obligation to prevent species loss due to our own actions. They are all identifiable.000 designated protected areas* covering 13.
. and many have irreplaceable cultural and spiritual values alongside their rich biodiversity. These together represent a huge investment by governments. Protected areas thus form the core of most national or regional biodiversity conservation strategies but are not the only conservation tool. inland waters and the marine environment. structure and wider functioning of ecosystems well beyond their own borders.5 per cent of the high seas42. They act as refuges for species and ecological processes that cannot survive in intensely managed landscapes and seascapes and provide space for natural evolution and future ecological restoration. Shared governance C. Despite this rapid growth. Governance by indigenous peoples and local communities Declared and run by indigenous peoples Declared and run by local communities
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Transboundary protected area
Collaborative management (various pluralist influences)
Collaborative management (pluralist management board)
Declared and run by private individual
Declared and run by nonprofit organisations
Declared and run by forprofit individuals
IUCN category (management objective)
I – Strict nature or wilderness protection II – Ecosystem protection and recreation III – Protection of natural monument or feature IV – Protection of habitats and species V – Protection of landscapes or seascapes VI – Protection and sustainable resource use
Most protected areas do not work in isolation but need to be inter-connected through biological corridors or other suitable habitats. There are also an unknown number of protected areas outside the state system. indigenous peoples and individuals to protect land and water for conservation purposes. Flagship protected areas are as important to a nation’s heritage as. they are also all bound to certain obligations. People – both those living nearby and at a national or international level – gain from the genetic resources found in wild species. Notre Dame cathedral or the Taj Mahal. including for example grasslands.9 per cent of territorial seas and 0. say. including indigenous and community conserved areas.

agreed management and governance approaches. Although it is well established that natural systems have high values. which can be used to measure carbon sinks and storage and ecosystem services • Operate under legal or other effective frameworks. For instance a forested watershed may benefit downstream communities by providing clean water with a high market value. unless it is implemented within a strong national and international policy framework. In theory.g. which provide a stable. So too can many managed ecosystems. their services are also degraded or lost. adding to the area’s protection Effectiveness • Are proven to work as an effective way of retaining natural ecosystems and ecosystem services especially through protected area systems at the landscape/ seascape scale • Are supported by management plans. long-term commitment to protection. it is often more profitable to use the resources in a non-renewable way. and in both the short. As the ecosystems deteriorate. Governments and other land owners will need to be creative in finding ways to recognise and maintain ecosystem values within all natural and cultural habitats. and sometimes due to social changes within communities. protected areas: Governance and safeguards • Have defined borders. protected areas offer several advantages: recognition (often legal). These include population pressure and demands for access to natural resources. tools and political support • Recognise cultural and social values of protected areas and have experience in implementing accessible.and long-term. Protected areas are in a unique position compared with other governance systems for land and natural resource management in terms of the contributions they can make in the dual areas of climate change mitigation and adaptation. any natural or semi-natural ecosystem can be managed to assist mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Ramsar. unused lands. but the individual owning the land can often make an immediate profit by selling the timber even if by doing so water quality regulation and provisioning services are compromised. CITES etc) and regional agreements such as Natura 2000 to provide policy frameworks. They are often the most cost effective option.Introduction
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Why protected areas?
KEY MESSAGES Although many natural and managed ecosystems can help to mitigate or adapt to climate change. which can facilitate rapid responses to new information or conditions related to climate change • Have staff and equipment which provide management expertise and capacity. For an individual or company. More specifically. whatever its governance system: e. Indigenous peoples and local communities often recognise the values of natural systems and may have been managing to sustain these values for millennia45. long-term mechanism for managing land and water ecosystems • Have agreed governance structures to meet a wide range of social and cultural requirements • Are backed by a range of supportive conventions and agreements (CBD. local approaches involving people in a legitimate and effective way in management Permanence • Are based around a commitment to permanence and long-term management of ecosystems and natural resources • Focus local. many traditional management systems are breaking down due to outside pressure. these usually accrue in a dispersed form to many people in a community and even more tenuously to the national or global community in terms of ecosystem services. World Heritage. The global economic system can exacerbate this process. In many situations they contain the only natural or semi-natural habitats remaining in large areas. and management planning and capacity. However. Man and the Biosphere. including understanding of how to manage ecosystems to generate a range of ecosystem services vital for climate change adaptation • Provide opportunities to bring the experience developed in planning and managing protected areas to bear on developing broader landscape and seascape scale approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation • Can draw on existing funding mechanisms. including government budgetary appropriations. Protected areas offer means to maintain the global and local benefits of ecosystems. and funding from the GEF and LifeWeb
.
Much of this report focuses on the role of natural ecosystems in helping human communities to mitigate and adapt to climate change. indigenous lands or those set aside as strategic reserves. national and international attention on a particular protected area.

In many places where population or development pressures are particularly strong. agreed governance structures and strong support from local and resident communities. Ideally protected areas and conservation needs should be integrated into wider landscape and seascape strategies. and thus the value added provided by the protected area. yet overall. and the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) World Database on Protected Areas (these systems would need some strengthening to meet UNFCCC needs) Well managed protected areas can provide a cost effective option for implementing climate change response strategies because start-up costs have already been met and socio-economic costs are offset by other services that protected areas supply. verification and reporting • Are supported by government commitments under the CBD to establish ecologically-representative protected area systems • Have organised and populated data sources to set baselines and facilitate monitoring. West Africa. found biodiversity condition consistently scoring high48. carried out by WWF and The World Bank. as well as habitat degradation. establishment and management of protected areas (although implementation of policy and legal frameworks needs further development) • A study of the results of management effectiveness assessment of 2. the effectiveness of the protected area in buffering land from humaninduced threats. One largescale study looked at anthropogenic threats facing 92 protected areas in 22 tropical countries. this team characterized protected areas as effective. Specifically they do so by stopping land clearance. and plans under development for an additional 30 per cent • Many countries have legislative and policy frameworks for the equitable sharing of costs and benefits arising from the establishment and management of protected areas and relevant laws and policies incorporate a clear requirement for the participation of stakeholders and indigenous and local communities in the planning. including particularly the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas and conservation NGOs Monitoring. coordinated by the University of Queensland.
. which varied greatly among these regions. fire and domestic animal-grazing compared to un-protected areas47. The best protected areas are inspirational models for maintenance and management of natural ecosystems. Do protected areas work effectively in protecting ecosystems and the carbon that they contain? The utility of protected areas in maintaining ecosystem functions and supplying ecosystem services depends on a number of factors including: the integrity of lands outside the boundaries of the protected area. Although implementation remains incomplete and variable. as well as preventing illegal logging. and concluded that the majority of protected areas are indeed successful in protecting ecosystems. The methodology included an assessment of natural vegetation changes at varying distances within and around protected areas. and the Congo. using a metadata analysis that incorporated 22 countries and 49 different locations. and lowered rates within their boundaries following the initiation of protection50. that might undermine ecosystem function elsewhere. The research concluded that protected areas had lower rates of land-clearing compared to their surroundings. Another recent report compared multiple protected area management types (using IUCN’s protected area categorisations) across four tropical areas: the Amazon. the Atlantic Coast. Research on protected area effectiveness has focused on potential benefits in terms of reductions in outright habitat loss. protected areas are the only remaining natural ecosystems and thus play a particularly critical role in regulating the supply of ecosystem services.26
Section 1
• Are backed up by networks of experts ready to provide advice and assistance. such as the IUCN management categories. This research emphasised that the degree to which protected areas protect natural vegetation depends on the specific geographic context. stating that forest cover was found to be high inside reserves and even “strikingly higher” compared to surrounding areas where there were formidable levels of human impact51. since coming into force in 2004 significant progress has been reported in relation to the actions set out in the PoWPA including: • 27 countries reporting the establishment of about 5. and any displacement effect the creation of the protected area may have on land uses. Another major study from 2008 assessed the effectiveness of protected areas in terms of avoided land-cover clearance. This report describes the climate change benefits that well designed and managed protected area systems can provide and looks at the steps needed to ensure that such a system is developed and managed effectively on a global scale. Protected areas are most effective when they have good capacity. assessed management effectiveness evaluations from over 2300 protected areas and found that 86 per cent met their own criteria for good management49. of which 22 per cent had good management46
around the world using a consistent methodology. A global metastudy.322 protected areas found 86 per cent had met criteria for effective management. A survey of 330 protected areas
The CBD’s Programme of Work on Protected Areas has shown some major achievements between 2004 and 2009
The PoWPA is widely regarded as the most successful CBD initiative and was the first to set measurable targets so that progress can be monitored.900 new protected areas covering approximately 60 million ha of terrestrial and marine areas • A 34 per cent increase in transboundary protected areas between 2005 and 2007 • 30 per cent of protected areas now have management plans. efficient management. governance types and Red List. hunting.

Although there is currently no comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of the global system of protected areas in securing ecosystems and ecosystem services, they are already more comprehensively assessed than is the case for most comparable land and water management systems.

They have been found to perform better than surrounding areas. Without them, the challenges of biodiversity loss and the loss of services upon which human communities depend would be far greater.

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Section 1

Ways in which protected areas assist climate change mitigation and adaptation
KEY MESSAGES Protected areas can help nature and society to mitigate climate change by sequestering and storing carbon in natural ecosystems, and to adapt to current and predicted changes through the provision of various forms of ecosystem services.
Protected areas can serve to both mitigate and help adapt to climate change. Mitigation is achieved by storing and removing carbon that would otherwise be emitted into or retained within the atmosphere and adaptation is achieved through provision of a range of environmental goods and services that address directly some of the likely impacts of climate change on people. These roles have gone largely unnoticed or been under-estimated in the past – at best they have been taken for granted. In later sections we fill in gaps in understanding and outline the steps needed to maximise the potential of protected areas to support climate change response strategies. The three “pillars” of protected area benefits are summarised in the figure below and discussed in more detail in sections 2 and 3.

Section 2 Mitigation: The role of protected areas
This section looks at how protected areas contribute to mitigation (capture, storage and avoidance of loss of carbon) in forests, inland and marine waters, grasslands and within agricultural systems. Although the amounts of carbon sequestered vary between biomes, some common features emerge: ➜ All biomes store important reservoirs of carbon ➜ All biomes can capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, although there is sometimes uncertainty about the net flows ➜ Current changes in land and water use are causing loss of stored carbon, often at an accelerating rate ➜ Some of these changes are also reducing the ability of ecosystems to capture additional carbon dioxide ➜ Most ecosystems can therefore switch between being sinks of carbon to becoming net sources depending on factors such as the management employed and the nature and scope of external threats ➜ Climate change will likely create a negative feedback: as climate change progresses it may further undermine the sequestration potential of natural ecosystems (for example by increasing the incidence and severity of fires and droughts) ➜ Protected areas have a key role to play in securing carbon currently stored in natural ecosystems and in capturing additional carbon: effective management will help to ensure that protected areas continue as net carbon sinks rather than becoming carbon sources

Forests and mitigation
KEY MESSAGES Forests are the world’s largest terrestrial carbon stock and continue to sequester in old-growth phases, but risk losing this characteristic due to deforestation, degradation and the longer-term impacts of climate change. Protected areas offer an important way to maintain and enhance carbon stores in forests, although they need careful management if they are to succeed.
The Potential Forests contain huge stocks of carbon. Deforestation and forest degradation are seen as key drivers of climate change. The IPCC estimates that forest loss and degradation are together responsible for 17 per cent of global carbon emissions, making this the third largest source of greenhouse gas emissions, outstripping the entire global transport sector53. The Eliasch Review estimates that without a substantial reduction, the global economic cost of climate change caused by forest loss could reach US$1 trillion a year by 210054. Other recent estimates of the role of land conversion to greenhouse gas emissions reach broadly similar conclusions55. Virtually all forest loss currently occurs in developing countries. Halting and reversing forest loss and degradation, particularly in the tropics, is thus one of the most urgent challenges in addressing climate change and is widely recognised as such by intergovernmental bodies such as the IPCC56, researchers57, governments58 and NGOs59,60. Each of the world’s major forest types has a different potential for carbon storage and presents different opportunities and challenges for policy makers. The most important ones are discussed below. Tropical forests: are the largest terrestrial carbon stores and are still active sinks, although deforestation and forest degradation continue to erode their role, including from conversion to cropland61 and pasture62 with biofuels63 such as soybean64 emerging as an important new factor in losses. Estimates for the amount of carbon stored in tropical moist forests range from 170-250 t carbon/hectare (tC/ha)65,66,67 and the ability of forests to store carbon depends partly on the amount of large woody species68 (suggesting that a logged-over forest is less useful than a primary forest). Much of the stored carbon resides in above ground biomass, with estimates of around 160 tC/ha in above-ground biomass, 40tC/ha below ground and 90-200tC/ha as soil carbon69. Recent research has provided strong evidence that tropical moist forests continue to sequester carbon once they reach old-growth stage, both in the Amazon70 and in Africa71, adding to the arguments for retaining natural forests. However, the effects of climate change itself may reduce or even reverse this sequestration; drying out of the Amazon could result in major additional carbon loss for example72. Other tropical forests such as miombo forests store less carbon on a per hectare basis but their total reservoir may be large because they cover vast areas. Research in natural

CASE STUDY
Studies of forest sequestration in the mature forests of Gabon illustrate the importance of effective long-term conservation in capturing and storing carbon.
The government of Gabon established its national parks system in 2002; it comprises 13 protected areas and represents more than 10 per cent of the country’s total land area. Deforestation is not an issue in Gabon as population pressure on the forests resources is low and the government development policy is partly based on forestry. Due to the vast extent of forests, there is a rich biodiversity and the country is considered a hot spot for wildlife and rainforest vegetation. Researchers from Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), in collaboration with other scientists, performed studies on continued sequestration in mature forests in the country, and found that from 1968 to 2007 above-ground carbon storage in live trees increased across study sites. Extrapolation to unmeasured forest components (live roots, small trees, necromass) and scaling to the continent implies a total increase in carbon storage in African tropical forest trees of approximately 260 million t CO297 in that time period. This study shows that although fast-growing new forests have been thought of as the best carbon sinks, the mature forests of Gabon continue to fix new carbon and act as a carbon sink. This demonstrates the importance of protected areas in regions of oldgrowth forest like those in Gabon, in ameliorating climate change. Source: WCS

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Section 2
miombo forests in Southern Africa measured 94-48 Mg C/ha, which declined steeply to 9-28 Mg C/ha once woodland was replaced by maize73. Some 50-80 per cent of the total carbon stock in miombo is in the top 1.5 metres of soil74, but rate of accumulation in soils is very slow after clearance75. Boreal forests: are found mainly in Canada, Alaska, Russia and Scandinavia, consisting of mixed conifer and broadleaved forests, often slow growing and with a small range of species. They contain the second largest terrestrial stock of carbon, stored mostly in soil and leaf litter, averaging 60-100 tC/ha76,77. There has long been a debate about whether old-growth boreal forests continue to sequester carbon, but the latest research suggests that they do78. The future role of boreal forests remains uncertain however because of the ecological effects of predicted climate change, such as increased fire and insect damage. Carbon is lost if fire frequency is high79; and climate modelling suggests that fire is likely to increase dramatically in Russia and Canada due to higher temperatures80, which means that the biome could switch from a sink to a source of carbon in the future unless strategies such as fire management can help reduce the risks. Temperate forests: although temperate forests have undergone an enormous historical retraction81, they are currently expanding in many areas82,83 and actively building carbon stores. Changes in land use policy and population distribution mean that this trend is likely to continue in many countries. Recent research found the highest known carbon storage (living plus dead matter) was in temperate Eucalyptus reglans forests in Australia at an average of 1,867 tC/ha: the authors suggest that important criteria for high carbon includes (i) relatively cool temperatures and high precipitation causing high growth but slow decomposition and (ii) older, multi-layered and multi-aged forests that have experienced little disturbance84. There are also increasing options for reforestation in many temperate regions, adding to carbon benefits85. In Europe, for example, forests are currently sequestering 7-12 per cent of European carbon emissions86,87. Estimates for carbon storage in temperate forests range from 150-320 tC/ha, 60 per cent in plant biomass and the rest in the soil88. Some of this sequestration could be lost in the future, for example through increased forest fires in Mediterranean regions89 and Australia90. The role of protected areas It is widely recognised that protected areas could and should have a key role in reducing forest loss and degradation91,92. For example, the IPCC clearly identifies the role of protection (whilst also noting the need for good management): “While regrowth of trees due to effective protection will lead to carbon sequestration, adaptive management of protected areas also leads to conservation of biodiversity and reduced vulnerability to climate change” and “Legally protecting forests by designating protected areas, indigenous reserves, non-timber forest reserves and community reserves have proven effective in maintaining forest cover in some countries, while in others, a lack of resources and personnel result in the conversion of legally protected forests to other land uses”93. Similarly, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, a coalition of 14 research organisations, UN bodies and IUCN, notes that, although all forms of sustainable forest management have a role to play in helping to sequester carbon, “Protected forest areas increase the resilience of ecosystems and landscapes to climate change and can provide a ‘safety net’ for climate change adaptation through their genetic resources and ecosystem services. Inadequate funding for the management of protected areas, however, poses a significant threat to climate change mitigation and adaptation and needs to be addressed”94.

CASE STUDY
Protected areas in Bolivia, Mexico and Venezuela contain around 25 million hectares of forest, storing over 4 billion t C, estimated to be worth between US$45 and US$77 billion in terms of global damage costs avoided98.
Bolivia: Tropical forests in Bolivia’s protected areas are estimated to store around 745 million t C, worth between US$3.7 billion to 14.9 billion at international carbon market prices (US$5 minimum and US$20 maximum). Deforestation poses a real threat with almost 10 per cent of forest cover already lost through logging, conversion to agriculture and settlement, and fire damage. Mexico: Over 2.2 billion t C is locked up in Mexico’s federal and state protected areas. Even at a very conservative price, this service is worth at least US$34 billion. In addition, low-lying coastal areas of Mexico are vulnerable to sea-level rise; particularly the Rio Bravo Delta, Alvarado Lagoon and lower reaches of the Papaloapan River, the GrijalvaMezcapala-Usumacinta Delta Complex, Los Petenes and Sian Ka’an Chetumal Bays. Protected areas in these regions have been established in four out of these five sites, to protect coastal settlements, minimise coastal erosion and help to reduce damage from storms and tidal surges. Venezuela: Carbon storage is currently estimated to be worth US$1 billion in Canaima National Park, US$94 million in Imataca Forest Reserve, and US$4.5 million in Sierra Nevada National Park. Almost 20 million hectares of forest have been identified by the government as being available for mitigation – potentially storing more than 1.4 billion t C worth between US$7 billion and 28 billion. Between 1990 and 2005 Venezuela lost 7.5 per cent of its forest and woodland habitat. Source: TNC

Forest protected areas will become increasingly important in a climate context, but only if efficiently managed and with adequate staff and resources. Research by the UNEP-WCMC95 suggests that protected areas are far more effective than other management options in maintaining tropical forests. They are not perfect; it was

estimated that forests in protected areas accounted for 3 per cent of the tropical forest losses from 2000-2005 that occurred in the countries studied, but this is far better than average. Protected areas have the legal conditions to control deforestation, so that an increase in funds and resources can lead to further improvements.

SOLUTIONS Increase the area of forest protected areas: both by expanding existing protected areas and creating new protected areas. Increase the efficiency of management in forest protected areas: by further application of assessment drawing on the IUCN-WCPA management effectiveness assessment framework96 and building management capacities. Restore forests in protected areas: for example in logged over areas, abandoned farmland and in places where climate changes make other land uses untenable. Develop more efficient methodologies and criteria for identifying areas with high carbon storage and sequestration potential: and use this as an additional filter in selecting protected areas. Undertake management training: to plan for climate change, including likely responses to fire regimes, stream flow and invasive species.

such as the depth of flooding and time of immersion117. Rehabilitation of degraded peatlands saves the Government some US$1. and similar results are reported from Southeast Asia. an increase in the resident human population in upland areas has increased the harvest of peat for fuel and cultivation in the wetlands. Impressed by the economic and ecological benefits of peatland rehabilitation.
In Belarus 40. moreover. This system is being replaced by a more sedentary management system that concentrates livestock in wetlands in the mountains. Half of these areas currently occur in protected areas. and a further 150.Mitigation: The role of protected areas
draining peat to plant fuel crops makes no sense: it is calculated that it would take 420 years of biofuel production to replace the carbon lost in establishment107. This puts pressure on wetlands.000 ha are awaiting restoration. A recent review found estimates for sequestration ranging from gains of 220g CO2 per m2 per year to losses of 310g CO2 per m2 per year113. Sequestration can be extremely long-term when carbon is stored in anaerobic conditions. There is fairly poor information for anything except temperate peat and all figures and estimates should therefore be treated with caution. including particularly peatlands. where emissions of CO2 are slowed or stopped due to the lack of oxygen. the balance between these various interactions determines whether the wetland system as a whole is a net source or sink of carbon. peatland rehabilitation projects may be eligible for financing under the Joint Implementation and Clean Development mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. If successful. because cattle trample peat (thus increasing carbon loss). The German Government is supporting efforts to develop greenhouse gas mitigation methodologies for peatland management for the Clean Development Mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. Slight changes in management (especially that related to hydrology) or climatic conditions can switch a site from being a net sink to a net source of carbon. based on the experience in Belarus. Given that peat loses carbon particularly when it is dry (in extreme cases when it catches fire). the Government has mandated that all current peat extraction companies restore peatlands to their natural state at the end of mining operations. they have the potential to exceed those from the tropics. Pressure on wetlands is likely to increase as climate change drives communities that are dependent on wetland resources to increase exploitation levels.
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CASE STUDY
Under a UNDP project. this is particularly true for peat deposits.000 t CO2 from peatland fires and mineralization120.
.8 Gt carbon a year is already being lost as a result of peatland conversion108. which are also important storehouses of peat. but it is clear that draining or burning peatlands increases emissions to the atmosphere from the enormous stores that have been accumulated over the millennia in those ecosystems. While carbon losses from the tundra regions are currently lower. Russia. net carbon balance depends on climate and hydrological variables leading to variation between sites and also within one site over time. Wetlands. conversely a research project in Kalimantan found that re-flooding areas of cleared peat made relatively little difference to the carbon balance118. Recent estimates by the UNEP-WCMC are that 0. The methods employed in Belarus have been adopted by the Government for country-wide replication. Argentina and the Himalayas115. Source: UNDP
However. the restoration of peatlands in Belarus has proven to be a cost-effective way of restoring degraded wetlands and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This work has led to an annual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 448. Some assessments of overall sequestration from inland wetlands have concluded that carbon sequestration is likely to be balanced out fairly equally by losses. there is also evidence that conscious changes in management approaches can help to at least slow and possibly eventually reverse carbon losses from degraded peat systems. The potential of peat to continue sequestering carbon is variable and still incompletely understood. Caution needs to be exercised in claiming that these ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation through continued sequestration. re-flooding peatland habitat is one relatively straightforward management response116. Many of the most serious predictions of climate change running out of control centre on the risk of a sudden pulse of carbon being released from the Arctic tundra110. particularly of methane112.5-0. some research sites in Alaska have already switched from sinks to sources of carbon109. the rest will be protected by a new category of protection currently being developed by the Government. increased degradation of land in the lowland ranges in Lesotho has undermined traditional transhumance systems that interspersed cattle grazing in these areas with grazing in upland areas. Research in Canada found that CO2 losses from cut peat areas could be slowed through restoration and revegetation114.5 million annually in terms of the avoided costs of fire-fighting operations. For example.000 ha of degraded peatlands have been restored to their natural state. Restoration of peatlands is widely supported by local communities who benefit from recreated wetland hunting and fishing grounds. although a number of issues need to be considered. tend to be sinks for carbon and nitrogen but sources for methane and sulphur111. collection of medicinal plants and wild berries. as warming thaws ice and further dries and warms peat.

Particular priorities include protection of remaining peat. particularly from burning. Overall boreal areas in Canada store the largest amount of carbon. as much as the areas themselves. which currently occupy about 2. Protected areas are vital in retaining natural peatlands and other inland water habitats that sequester carbon (see case study from the Caribbean and Canada). Working out the best management strategies: further work is needed to find out more about carbon balance in peatlands and other inland waters. and re-establishment of natural hydrological systems in degraded peatlands. which intends to purchase about 193. is a nationally and internationally significant wetland with high biodiversity and habitat value. temperate and tropical regions.25 per cent of Canada landmass. including where appropriate by expansion of protected areas networks. of which about 47 per cent is in the soils.000 t CO2 equivalent up to 2017123. Reforesting parts of the degraded wetland with native tree species will be funded by The BioCarbon Fund. The cost of replacing carbon through reforestation of protected areas. Using a Carbon Budget Model developed by the Canadian Forestry Service. a biodiverse ecosystem and a natural buffering system against coastal storms. the parks store in total approximately 4. using two scenarios. to help people cope with this additional flooding the natural flood regime of the protected Nariva Swamp in Trinidad is being restored. The project is an important opportunity to combine the goals of greenhouse gas mitigation with adaptation needs.36
Section 2 CASE STUDY
Flooding is a major problem in the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago and is likely to increase due to climate change. The Nariva Protected Area. along with the best management methods to maintain wetlands as sinks for carbon.25 and Cdn$17. another 8 per cent in the plant biomass and the remaining 45 per cent in the peatlands. Total storage is estimated at 4.
Research has estimated the amount of carbon stored in Canada’s 39 National Parks. Using these prices as proxy values. on the eastern coast of Trinidad.432 million t with a value of over Cdn$70 billion. which will remove artificial barriers allowing the restoration of the natural water cycle of the swamp to its original drainage regime124.5 per t respectively at 2000 prices. Source: Parks Canada
SOLUTIONS Protection of natural peat: urgent steps are needed to protect standing sources of peat in the boreal. and the costs of afforesting marginal agricultural lands were worked out to be Cdn$16. Further research is needed to improve management (see case study on Belarus). The Nariva Reforestation and Carbon Sequestration Project will contribute to efforts to restore and conserve the Nariva wetlands through the recognition of the services it provides as a carbon sink. and particularly the combination of conditions that can tip a system from being a sink to source of carbon.
.
CASE STUDY
Parks Canada has researched the amount and value of the carbon stored in its network of national parks. This will often involve some protection for entire watersheds that feed into the peat areas. This funding will contribute to implementing a water management plan. the value of national parks for carbon sequestration was estimated at between Cdn$72 and Cdn$78 billion119. Source: World Bank
The role of protected areas Management of the carbon already stored in peat is one of the most critical elements in carbon response strategies and well-managed protected areas have the potential to lock up vast amounts of carbon.
Recent major flooding events in Trinidad and Tobago are likely to be further exacerbated by climate change making the need to introduce mitigation measures particularly urgent121. The study looked at the costs of replacing this carbon. The wetlands have however been threatened by hydrological changes arising from a dam upstream and rice production122.432 million t.

the net carbon balance is better from the perspective of sequestration)134. existing as dissolved CO2. However. A review of rates of carbon stored in tidal salt marshes around the world revealed that. There is a strong consensus that net sequestration from the coastal zone could be reversed into a net loss of carbon if current rates of environmental degradation continue130. water diversion. Tidal salt marshes Salt marshes occur on sheltered marine and estuarine coastlines in a range of climatic conditions. the net primary
. leading to a number of ecosystem problems. thus maintaining below-ground production142 and hence sequestration potential.e. from sub arctic to tropical. Marine protected areas should encompass a strip of inland coastal areas to allow for future changes. including ocean acidification128.139. Tidal floodwaters contribute inorganic sediments to intertidal soils.Mitigation: The role of protected areas
37
Marine and coastal ecosystems and mitigation
KEY MESSAGES Coastal and marine areas store huge amounts of carbon. probably has greater value than that stored in any other natural ecosystem due to the lack of production of other greenhouse gases from these ecosystems (i.2 Gt/year. development immediately inland to marshes should be discouraged and if possible regulated through the establishment of buffer zones. Also. Dissolved inorganic carbon is transformed into dissolved particulate organic carbon through photosynthesis by phytoplankton126. to less than half their original area143. in total equivalent to 0. however as with other sequestration. Restoration of tidal salt marshes could help to increase the world’s natural carbon sinks.144 as a result of145 clearance. without better protection they could switch from being sinks to sources of emissions. Mangroves Mangroves systems grow mainly in tropical and subtropical inter-tidal zones. the coastal zone is the place where most marine mineralization and burial of organic carbon takes place. extensive areas of salt marsh continue to be lost through drainage. our confidence in the science of ocean sequestration is still incomplete. For example. There is an urgent need both for new protected areas to be established and for better implementation and management of existing protected areas. Anaerobic decomposition is much less efficient. their soils store 210 g C per m2 per annum or 770 g CO2135. Salt marshes. carbonic acid and carbonates125. but are most extensive in temperate climates133. The world’s oceans are believed to have absorbed 30 per cent of CO2 from human sources since industrialisation127. urbanisation.2 Gt/ year129. and the effective carbon sink. with nutrient enrichment and sea-level rise adding further threats to their survival and integrity140. All these systems are currently under pressure. The role of protected areas: Sustaining marshes in the face of accelerating sea-level rise requires that they be allowed space to migrate inland. The potential: Mangroves can play an important role in carbon sequestration. Although small amounts of carbon can be sequestered in the longer term through phytoplankton sinking into deep water and being buried in the sea bed. in Canada it has been estimated that if all of Bay of Fundy marshes “reclaimed” for agriculture could be restored. on average. Using a current estimate of global area of mangroves of 160. The carbon sequestration potential of four major coastal zone vegetation types is examined separately below. with cold waters absorbing greater amounts of carbon than warmer areas. population growth.131.
Oceans contain fifty times as much inorganic carbon as the atmosphere. However.000 km². Slight changes in uptake can therefore be very significant in terms of global carbon balance. mangrove swamps.132. Terrestrial buffer zones also help to reduce nutrient enrichment of salt marshes from agriculture. aquaculture (perhaps the most important cause146) and salt-pond construction. tourism. Mangroves are rapidly declining worldwide. particularly in coastal zones where capture is equivalent to 0. but more importantly. enabling accumulation of organic matter in the soil. The potential: Each molecule of CO2 sequestered in soils of tidal salt marshes and their tropical equivalents. This will require the abandonment of agricultural or other land near to shore in the face of rising sea levels. Returning the tides to drained agricultural marsh could also make a significant increase in the salt marsh carbon sink. the rate of productivity and hence carbon capture varies considerably between geographic location136 and species137. mangroves and seagrass beds all have important potential to sequester carbon. they saturate the soil and reduce the potential for aerobic decomposition. coastal development. the rate of CO2 sequestered each year would be equivalent to 4-6 per cent of Canada’s targeted reduction of 1990-level emissions under the Kyoto Protocol141.138.

for example a study in China found rapid increases in the rate of loss from grasslands from the 1980s to the 2000s194. 8. 12. have already released large amounts of carbon from this biome. although this remains uncertain197. Savannah and tropical grasslands usually have higher rates of carbon storage than temperate grassland.5 per cent of the Earth’s terrestrial area (excluding Greenland and Antarctica) is grassland: 13. Grasslands still contain major stores of carbon: estimates suggest that grazing lands alone could hold between 10-30 per cent of the world’s soil carbon188 and grasslands hold in excess of 10 per cent of total carbon in the biosphere189. Conversion or degradation of grassland can dramatically increase carbon losses. including particularly conversion to cultivation. Clear. in part through creation of charcoal which is resistant to decomposition. Conversion from cultivation. Replacing agriculture with permanent grassland is also likely to result in increased carbon sequestration204 and may be an option in places where agriculture is unproductive (or will become so under conditions of climate change). However. Burning coupled with grazing on some rangelands has been found to increase carbon storage207. Historical changes.Mitigation: The role of protected areas
41
Grasslands and mitigation
KEY MESSAGES Natural grasslands represent a major carbon store but loss and degradation are currently releasing large amounts of carbon. The main controlling factors appeared to be either light availability or precipitation202.7 per cent tundra193. as a result of intensive grazing and replacement with agricultural crops. Around 40. ranging from less than 2 tC/ha for tropical grass and up to 30 tC/ha for wooded savannah192. Research suggests that degraded grasslands can be a major source of carbon. Research shows that some management changes can increase carbon capture and retention in grassland and these should be more widely introduced.1 per cent208) and conversion continues at a rapid pace. The role of protected areas Temperate grasslands are the least protected terrestrial biome (4. mainly but not entirely within soils. Droughts tended to limit periods of high carbon uptake and thus cause even the most productive sites to become sources of carbon201. will increase net carbon sequestration.7 per cent open and closed shrub. It is generally assumed that a switch to wooded savannah from grassland. and mean soil carbon increased with all types of improvement. Grasslands can also capture additional carbon in some situations. and 5. Inter-year variation has been demonstrated for example in Tibet199 and Canada200. These globally important carbon stores are increasingly under threat. a synthesis of numerous experiments suggests that grassland can either be a net source or sink of carbon. but this needs to be balanced against losses from the biomass burning. site and conditionspecific guidance is still lacking in most cases. creating a negative feedback.
The Potential Natural grasslands contain large stores of carbon. five of the eight native rangelands typically were sinks for atmospheric CO2 during the study period. Rising CO2 levels are thought to be increasing soil carbon losses. the introduction of earthworms. measured and modelled rates of carbon sequestration in temperate grasslands range from 0 to greater than 8 Mg C per ha per year198. Management practices can help to curb losses and increase the potential for sequestration203 including those that build surface biomass and soil carbon content. A meta-analysis of 115 studies found that useful management improvements could increase soil carbon content and concentration in 74 per cent of the studies. Temperate grasslands and steppe generally have lower carbon in biomass than temperate forests (for example in the steppes of China190) but can have higher levels of soil carbon191. and irrigation resulted in the largest increases205.
.3 per cent nonwoody grassland. a situation that appears supported by study of long-term data in the UK195. along with policies to protect remaining natural grasslands against conversion or mismanagement. Changes do not necessarily need to be sophisticated: for example introduction of sustainable grazing systems and reducing over-grazing in wetter areas206 could directly lead to sequestration. A study of eight North American rangelands found that while almost any site could be either a sink or source for carbon depending on yearly weather patterns.8 per cent woody savannah and savannah. Establishing expanded protected areas in grasslands is an important immediate step towards reducing future carbon losses from grassland that could be taken relatively quickly. biofuels and pulp plantations. being influenced in particular by precipitation and light availability along with clay and silt content. which is one potential consequence of rising CO2 levels196. and grasslands can either be a source or sink for carbon depending on management. precipitation and CO2 levels. CO2 levels and temperature.

Soil carbon influences all terrestrial biomes.7 per cent of the EU’s anthropogenic CO2 emissions: technical measures would be linked to organic additions.213. Most of agricultural emissions are not from soil and although agricultural lands generate very large CO2 fluxes both to and from the atmosphere. Changes in farming practices that sequester more carbon. The European Union (EU) has conservatively estimated the potential of EU agricultural soils to sequester CO2 at 60-70 Mt CO2 per year. so that several biomes claim to be the “largest” carbon store. Soil can either be a source or a sink for greenhouse gases. whilst increased frequency of climatic extremes may affect the stability of carbon and soil organic matter pools. and growing woody bioenergy crops instead of a rotational fallow220. But results differ with soil type and conditions. Actual figures will depend
. At the other extreme. for instance. There is no universally applicable list of practices which need to be evaluated for individual agricultural systems and settings. compared organic and conventional cropping systems and claims that universal adoption of organic methods on agricultural land could sequester nearly 40 per cent of current CO2 emissions222. It is the greatest agent of change to natural habitat on a global scale. Building up soil organic matter also boosts crop yield218. including reduced tillage farming. and enhance soil fauna activity. and efficient application of manures. zero tillage. permanent re-vegetation of some areas. stored soil carbon may be vulnerable to loss through both land management change and climate change. greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced by 5 to 14 per cent221. A 2006 study for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change in the U. equivalent to 1. of relevance here including216: • Improved crop and grazing land management to increase soil carbon storage • Restoration of cultivated peaty soils and degraded lands • Improved rice cultivation techniques and livestock and manure management to reduce CH4 emissions • Improved nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to reduce N2O emissions Low-tillage farming practices can build up soil carbon whilst reducing erosion and use of fossil fuels217. with estimates that most agricultural soils have lost 50-70 per cent of their original soil organic content215. Present day agriculture: Agriculture is often a source rather than a sink of greenhouse gas emissions and accounts for an estimated 10-12 per cent of total global anthropogenic emissions. a 23-year experiment by the Rodale Institute also in the U. Carbon is sequestered into soils by transferring CO2 from the atmosphere through crop residues and other organic solids. holding more than the atmosphere and vegetation combined210. However. the IPCC identified mitigation practices currently available to agriculture. aggregate U.Mitigation: The role of protected areas
43
Soils and mitigation
KEY MESSAGES Soil provides a huge carbon reservoir. depending on management. organic farming. and undertook cost-effective reductions in nitrous oxide and methane. There are large variations in claims of what agriculture has to offer for carbon sequestration. and measured rates of carbon sequestration from a variety of the methods outlined above ranges from 50-1000 kg/ha/year219.S. the net flux is relatively small214.S. more long-term crops and organic methods.5-1. conservation tillage. conserve soil and water. the European heat wave of 2003 led to significant soil carbon losses212. improve soil structure. Soil carbon sequestration is increased by management systems that add biomass to the soil. Relatively small changes in soilcarbon flux can be significant on a global scale: yet soil carbon has often been ignored as a mitigation strategy in intergovernmental climate change initiatives211. providing ample room for restoration and hence further carbon capture. can have important global impacts. such as retention of crop residues. Soil management in IUCN category V and VI protected areas can be enhanced to achieve greater carbon storage. estimated that if many farmers adopted techniques to store carbon. making broadscale calculations of net benefits very difficult. Conversely. past losses are very large. depending on what is included
Potential changes in agricultural practices to increase carbon sequestration: Agriculture has the potential to mitigate carbon through management changes designed to conserve and rebuild carbon stores. here the role of soils in agricultural systems is examined and the implications for the management of agricultural soils in protected areas (particularly IUCN categories V and VI). although estimates vary widely*.
The potential Soils are thought to be the largest carbon reservoir of the terrestrial carbon cycle.
* Many estimates of carbon potential in vegetation include the soil beneath. in a form that is not immediately re-emitted. However. fertilizers and water.S. reduce soil disturbance.

to maintain ecosystem resilience and to safeguard the economic values they may supply.
. addressing climaterelated health issues and protecting food supplies including wild foods. This is important to prevent their extirpation and possible extinction. although there is still much to be learned about integrating these into national and local adaptation strategies and management plans. protection and restoration of ecosystems to maintain services that help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change In this section we look explicitly at how protected areas can contribute to ecosystem-based adaptation across a spectrum of adaptation challenges. It includes the sustainable management. fisheries and crop wild relatives.45
Section 3 Adaptation: The role of protected areas
Protected areas provide a cost-effective and practical means of addressing many aspects of adaptation through ecosystem-based approaches. This includes their role in preventing or reducing the effects of “natural” disasters. and particularly at a local level. Ecosystem-based adaptation uses biodiversity and ecosystem services in an overall adaptation strategy. using community-based approaches to address climate change impacts. providing a secure and potable water supply. Some protected areas are being established primarily for their wider ecosystem services. Finally we look at the role of protected areas in protecting biodiversity under climate change stress.

Therefore. particularly in poor countries (where poor infrastructure and inadequate disaster warning also increases vulnerability). In subtropical South America. The intensity and frequency of extreme rainfall are also likely to result in increased magnitude and frequency of landslides236. reductions in precipitation in China. east of the Andes. Values rise in years when there is flooding and it is estimated that flood prevention in 1998 was worth US$4 million alone. and the effectiveness of ecosystem services are correspondingly reduced. An assessment of the value of the wetland concluded that: “If Whangamarino wetland didn’t exist. flooding risks can be increased by changes in the sea (higher sea-levels and storm surges). Already in Malaysia.000 a year for wetland restoration281. There is also growing evidence that the climate is becoming more variable and more subject to extreme weather. annual precipitation has increased in some areas by as much as 40 per cent since the 1960s238. The wetland has a significant role in flood control (the value of which has been estimated at US$601. This diversity gives it an ability to support a wide range of regionally rare communities280. the consequences of natural hazards such as heavy rain. filled or otherwise destroyed277. most natural disasters result from heavy rains239. New Zealand
. more rainfall means more flooding. The site is of considerable biodiversity value and is more botanically diverse than any other large low-lying peatland in the North Island.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
The Challenge There is a rapid increase in natural disasters associated with extreme climatic events. Climate change is creating more unsettled weather and human societies. the regional council would be faced with constructing stopbanks along the lower course of the river at a cost of many millions of dollars”279. hurricanes. if natural ecosystems are degraded through activities such as deforestation and wetland drainage. disaster-prone areas.871 ha Wetland Management Reserve. protection of the Whangamarino Wetlands is calculated to save the country millions of dollars in disaster prevention. Furthermore. are increasingly at risk. Source: Department of Conservation. The latest IPPC report states “Increased precipitation intensity and variability are projected to increase the risks of flooding and drought in many areas”233. Whangamarino is one of three wetland sites in New Zealand which each receive funding of approximately NZ$500. Approximately 90 per cent of the wetlands that existed in New Zealand 150 years ago have been drained. glacial lake outburst (a problem in countries such as Nepal). Although geological hazards such as earthquakes tend to cause greatest loss of life per event.037 per annum at 2003 values278) and sediment trapping. 1. respectively276. needs to be carefully managed to ensure the indirect impacts of climate change are also mitigated. Australia and the Pacific Small Island States. which increase nutrient and sediment loads. The vulnerability of communities in many developing countries is exacerbated because rising populations and in some cases inequality in land ownership force people to live in marginal.
47
CASE STUDY
New Zealand is predicted to incur ever more severe flooding under climate change. A review of global changes in rainfall found increased variance in precipitation everywhere: in particular increased precipitation in high latitudes (Northern Hemisphere). The 7.0°C and 2. Climate change was also recognised as an underlying threat in relation to disasters by the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Japan in 2005234. the input of floodwaters. Climate change is having a direct impact on many of the hazards that can lead to disasters. for instance. for example. insurance systems and other resources to recover from extreme weather events230.
A recent study of actual storm events and modelling for different temperature increase scenarios found rainfall in New Zealand increased on average by 3. hydro-meteorological hazards are affecting larger numbers of people. and increased variance in equatorial regions237. 5 and 33 per cent for temperature changes of 0.5°C.7°C. Economic losses from weather and floods have increased ten-fold in 50 years231 and over half the world’s population are now exposed to hazards with the potential to become disasters232. For example. A trade-off exists however between the increased use of the wetland for flood control and the conservation of other ecosystem values. In these situations the chances that a natural hazard will develop into a full scale disaster will increase. Such communities also lack the financial wherewithal. The wetland also supports the largest known populations of the endangered Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus) and is valued for fishing and hunting. which includes a 4. is the second largest bog and swamp complex in the North Island. Disaster reduction specialists stress that climate change impacts need to be assessed along with other drivers of natural disasters240. And generally. Natural solutions can be effective and. and heavier or more prolonged episodic rainfall events235.290 ha Whangamarino Wetland. earthquakes or drought are likely to be exacerbated.

5 billion per year292. The role of protected areas The protection and restoration of ecosystem services is seen as an important step towards enhancing disaster preparedness by many governments and intergovernmental organisations. Ecologists. Forest clearance can also dramatically increase the frequency of shallow landslides on steep slopes285. environmental management tools do not systematically integrate trends in hazards occurrence and vulnerability”250.
. Around 150 years ago the Swiss government recognised that over-exploitation of trees was leading to serious avalanches. Switzerland has been following a policy of natural hazard management through protecting Alpine forests for more than 150 years. The European Commission. This has been identified as a problem in Switzerland283. the more areas will reach this critical temperature and more storms will develop245. The warmer seas become. The World Bank and the US Geological Survey suggests that every dollar invested in effective disaster reduction saves seven dollars in terms of reduced losses from natural disasters252. conservation and disaster preparedness. The IPCC reports that future tropical cyclones are likely to become more intense. Coastal wetlands are already declining by one per cent per year due to indirect and direct human activities. However. If sea levels rise by one metre. with larger peak wind speeds and heavy precipitation241. resulting in protection worth billions of dollars. This is despite the fact that research shows that the cost of disaster reduction is usually much less than the cost of disaster recovery251. Their combined impacts may be compounded in future in the absence of integrated mitigation and adaptation measures”253. health hazards. The impacts of such disasters can include loss of life and displacement of whole communities. including water. In Switzerland.48
Section 3
When cyclones develop sustained winds of 119 km an hour they become the hurricanes of the Atlantic and northeast Pacific and the typhoons of the western Pacific. There is already evidence of more severe storm occurrences. only two tropical cyclones had been recorded in the South Atlantic. the southern coast of Brazil saw its first ever hurricane. and no hurricanes. landslides and flooding and introduced a rigorous system of protection and restoration288. with recent increases in landslide activity being attributed to more torrential rainfall and higher livestock density284.3 million in 2007244. Use of forests was recognised as a major component of disaster prevention and today forests in the Alpine region.
Climate change has the potential to increase the severity of all types of hydro-meteorological hazards. In Mexico. Until recently. landslides and avalanches289. are managed mainly for their protective function.5°C and 50 m deep. As the IPCC notes “Climate change will interact at all scales with other trends in global environmental and natural resource concerns. Four main elements of natural hazard management were identified: hazard assessment. One estimate suggests that 10 million people are currently affected each year by coastal flooding and this number will increase dramatically under all the climate change scenarios249. Cyclones are ‘fuelled’ by warm and humid air above tropical oceans. and the Tabasco floods. planning of measures and emergency planning291. study of the pollen record provides strong evidence of anthropogenic forest clearance and agricultural activity correlated with increased landslide activity in the past287. recommends that: “The reforestation of hill slopes can help to reduce the occurrence of shallow but still dangerous landslides (mainly mud flows and debris flows)” and that “excessive deforestation has often resulted in a landslide”286.788 million in 2005 by way of the damage sustained243. In vulnerable coastal areas the consequences of greater storm events will be exacerbated by sea-level rise. Apart from the important human benefits. these protection forests provide services estimated at between US$2 and 3.100. and deforestation. through the Federal Ordinances on Flood and Forest Protection290. forest
CASE STUDY
Protected areas can help guard against landslides by reducing forest loss and increasing soil stability. In 2005 Latin America and the Caribbean experienced 26 tropical storms including 14 hurricanes – one of the most destructive hurricane seasons in history242. which must be at least 26. as well as economic costs which countries are often ill able to afford. for example. But on 28 March 2004. definition of protection requirements. more than half the world’s current coastal wetlands could be lost247. In Japan. Some of the earliest protected areas were established to buffer human communities against extremes of climate and associated hazards. often drawing on traditional approaches used by indigenous peoples or local communities. According to the IPCC this process is already underway leading to increasing damage from coastal flooding248. engineers and disaster relief specialists are increasingly looking for the best balance between development. Hurricane Wilma was estimated to cost US$17. Hurricane Catarina246. soil and air pollution. Stands are managed to help protect against rock fall. making up 17 per cent of the total area of Swiss forests. US$3. further steps were taken to use forests as protection against natural hazards. more intense and frequent rainfall is likely to result in more numerous landslides282. Following a serious flooding event in 1987. disaster risk. the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction recognises that “At present.

providing services worth some US$2–3. and damage and flooding occurred up to 1. claiming around 200 lives a year261. loose rock and snow Buffering against earth and snow movement Tidal waves and storm surges Creating a physical barrier against ocean incursion
49
Protected area habitat type
Marshes. Shivapuri National Park is the main source of water for domestic consumption in Kathmandu. • Studies in and around Kutai National Park. where fire swept through undergrowth. Being members of volunteer guard initiatives fits well with traditional ideas of land stewardship and a council of tribe elders endorses their appointment271. found that the 1982-3 forest fires killed more trees in secondary forest than in protected primary forests. noted that damage reached only 50 m inland and waves were only 2-3 m high. the role of national parks in desertification control is recognised. peat bogs. • Floods and landslides are frequent hazards in Nepal. • Following the 2004 Tsunami. • The protected mangrove system known as the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India helps to stabilise wetland and coastlines and contributes to the Sundarbans’ role in buffering inland areas from cyclones. in Madagascar. in Sri Lanka. At nearby Peraliya.700 (in 1991 Madagascar had per capita GNP of US$207)260. with regeneration projects initiated to prevent further loss of this important forest area and further desert encroachment269. dry and temperate forests. where reefs have been extensively affected by coral mining. Forest fragmentation also leads to desiccation of ground cover.000 people. • 150 years ago the Swiss government recognised that forest loss was linked to serious avalanches. where reefs are in a marine park. rock fall and avalanche Stabilising soil.5 billion per year265. Similarly recent studies in the Amazon found the incidence of fire to be lower in protected areas relative to surrounding areas273. sand dunes
Providing overspill Coastal marshes space for tidal surges Drought and desertification Reducing grazing and trampling Maintaining drought-resistant plants Fire Maintaining management systems that control fire Maintaining natural fire resistance Particularly grasslands but also dry forest All dryland habitats Savannah. has been estimated at US$5. only affecting larger trees when fire crept up lianas272. the waves were 10 m high. volunteers from different ethnic communities in the area undertake fire watching duties. • In Mali. barrier islands
. wetlands
Hurricanes and storms
Buffering against immediate storm damage
Forests. Mangroves can break up storm waves that can exceed 4 m in height during cyclones274. The economic value of flood attenuation (converted to 2003 values). barrier islands. Philippines. Indonesia.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
Table 4: Examples of the role of protected areas in preventing or mitigating against natural disasters
Hazard Role of protected area
Providing space for overspill of water / flood attenuation Absorbing and reducing water flow Landslip. Sri Lanka.033. in terms of reduced flood damage to crops were estimated at US$126. coastal wetlands. • The indigenous communities living in the Rio Plátano Reserve in Honduras are reforesting the shore of the Ibans Lagoon with mangrove and other species to improve fish habitats and counter the erosion of the narrow coastal strip266.5 km inland267. mangroves. Landslide protection measures have been implemented in 12 localities in the park262.
Forest on steep slopes
Forests on and beneath slopes
Mangroves. increasing the fire hazard. landslides and flooding263. • In Djibouti the Day Forest is a protected area. • The Black River Lower Morass is the largest freshwater wetland ecosystem in Jamaica. • In Mount Kitanglad National Park. cover an area of 3. • Benefits from forest protection in the upper watersheds of Mantadia National Park. natural lakes Riparian and mountain forests
Examples
Flooding
• The two reserves which form the Muthurajawella Marsh. and result in the coastal areas protected by these forests suffering less from wind and wave surges than those areas with little or no mangrove cover275. and protected areas are seen as important reservoir of droughtresistant species270.068 ha near Colombo. scrub land Fire refugia in forests. coral reefs. coral reefs.800 per year259. 17 per cent of forests are managed to protect against landslides and avalanches264. studies in Hikkaduwa. The marsh acts as a natural buffer against river flood waters and incursions by the sea268 and is an important economic resource for 20.

13. Source: WWF
. in recharging groundwater supplies. 21. Overall water use by cloud forests is typically much lower than that of forests lower on the mountains. Protected areas can ensure both the continued function of wetland ecosystems. and therefore the inclusion of cloud forests in systems of protected areas is one way to secure and maintain these water supply benefits. reduced rainfall and more extreme climate events. from disturbances such as bushfires or logging.600 ha). unsustainable pastoralist and other uses can help avoid climate related impacts on these systems. and can take as long as 150 years to recover fully. 25 per cent in the Americas and 15 per cent in Africa. Many wetlands and hydroscopic soils play a key role in capturing and storing incident rainfall during the wet season. including young forests and exotic plantations. collected from large forested catchments in the area that were completely or partially burnt by a wildfire in 1939. which has been particularly important in clarifying links between water yield and forest disturbance.
CASE STUDY
A number of governments and municipalities around the world are protecting their forests in order to maintain drinking water supplies. and is also more dependable during dry periods. 90 per cent of Melbourne’s water comes from forested catchments. Yarra Ranges National Park (category II.000 ha). agricultural and other uses. However. Management of Melbourne’s water catchment has been guided by a programme of experimental and analytical research on the relationship between catchment disturbance and catchment water yield. resulting in year-round water availability for domestic. although in humid areas.
Climate change impact predictions for Melbourne tell a story of increased temperatures. These two factors together mean that stream-flow emanating from cloud forests tends to be larger for the same amount of rainfall. by fire or logging. so that in conditions where natural forests are likely to be cleared. although this is likely to alter under climate change304. the invasion of woody plants. and evaporation309. because trees have higher evapotranspiration rates than alternative vegetation such as grassland and crops. concluded that water yield from forested catchments is related to forest age307. Cloud forests cover 381. The theoretical range is considerably larger. Cloud forest belts or zones typically occur at elevations of 2000-3500 m on large continental interior mountains or mountain ranges. Research in Australia also suggests that some older eucalypt forests can also increase net water flow from catchments (see case study). and management regimes to control fires. It was found that forest disturbance can reduce the mean annual runoff by up to 50 per cent compared to that of a mature forest. and Baw Baw National Park (category II.166 km2 (2004 figures). reduce net water flow. reduces water yield in the short to medium term (except in the few years immediately after disturbance)308. A range of water supply management options have been identified that can help people cope with climate change impacts in Melbourne. and particularly in mediating the rate of runoff. This is because evapotranspiration from older forests is lower per unit area than from younger forests. Protected areas important for water management include Kinglake National Park (IUCN category II. and thus adding to the water supply305. 76. In Australia effective management is particularly important given the challenges of climate change. 60 per cent in Asia. but on island mountains may occur as low as 400-500 m above sea-level303. In terms of catchment and reservoir management these include managing forested catchments to minimise water yield impacts. Potential impacts on the water supply include reduced supply due to decreased stream flows and increased risk of bushfires in catchments which could also lead to decreased stream flows and have an impact on water quality306. This water extraction function is lost if cloud forests are cleared. other natural forests (particularly tropical montane cloud forests and some older forests) increase total water flow. Water gains from cloud forest can be 100 per cent or more than from ordinary rainfall. it may be only 15-20 per cent greater – but even this addition can be significant to communities that are experiencing shortages of quality water. Studies of rainfall and runoff data.300 ha). and maintain essential water services for dependent communities because it is an addition to vertical precipitation.52
Section 3
The role of protected areas Many forests. The implication is that forest disturbance. the establishment of protected areas can help to maintain water supplies302. Cloud forests have the ability to “scavenge” atmospheric moisture by condensing it on leaves and other vegetation. Almost half are protected and much of the rest is managed for water collection.

these reserve lands are also used for cattle. four per cent of all fatalities. or are currently drawing water from forests that are being considered for protection because of their values to water supply. All these pressures will increase under conditions of climate change. 150 million in Africa and 120 million in Latin America and the Caribbean do not have access to adequate potable water314 and these numbers are expected to increase315. Source: TNC
. but water demand for human purposes has multiplied six-fold310. with less sediment and fewer pollutants than water from other catchments317. including wetlands and grassland habitats. Increasingly.
55
CASE STUDY
Although rapid glacial melt is threatening the water supply to many Andean countries. At least eight more obtain water from forests that are managed in a way that gives priority to maintaining their hydrological system functions. Sometimes this is recognised and watershed protection has been a major reason for establishing a protected area. Climate change combines with other pressures and is exacerbating an existing crisis. Many of the forested watersheds that supply municipal drinking water are already protected. also play a key role in reducing pollution levels and particulate matter in water. The 2008 IPCC report Climate Change and Water concludes that: “Changes in water quantity and quality due to climate change are expected to affect food availability. In some cases. which will highlight actions to protect the watersheds. national or local governments. Wetlands can also be highly effective in dealing with high levels of nutrients and some water plants can concentrate toxic materials in their tissues.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
The challenge In the past century world population tripled. Several countries already consciously or unconsciously utilise forests as a cost effective means of supplying potable drinking water. but still socially and economically important. are attributed to lack of clean water and sanitation. increased water stress (i. Annually. protect waterholes. 2.
About 80 per cent of Quito’s 1.e. periodic shortages) in some regions and breakdown in environmental services. thus purifying the water in which they grow318. More effective management of the protected areas is being achieved thanks to the establishment in 2000 of a trust fund (called Fondo del Agua. Lack of clean water already has a huge effect on public health. including acquisition of critical lands and improved agricultural practices326. 98 per cent of nitrogen and 97 per cent of phosphorous in waste water entering the wetlands is removed before water reaches the groundwater reservoirs319. and between States are creating political problems316. full protection may not be feasible due to population pressure or existing land ownership patterns and a range of other forest management options is available. The fund helps finance watershed protection measures. Some key examples of protected areas that maintain urban water sources are outlined in table 5 overleaf323. At the same time many watersheds have been degraded through deforestation and other changes.5 million people obtain their drinking water from two protected areas: Antisana and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve. in these cases water values have sometimes led to the protection of natural areas around cities that would otherwise have disappeared. access and utilisation313”. in Florida’s cypress swamps. At least another five of these cities get water from sources originating in distant watersheds that include protected areas. or FONAG) with support from The Nature Conservancy and the US Agency for International Development. To control threats to the reserves. including stricter enforcement of protection to the upper watersheds and measures to improve or protect hydrological functions. Although formally protected as part of Ecuador’s national park system. prevent erosion and stabilise banks and slopes325. leading to a variety of hydrological impacts311. private individuals and communities are recognising that this can also help to finance protection320 for example through payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes321.000 people living within or around the reserves324. dairy and timber production by the 27. The role of protected areas Well managed natural forests almost always provide higher quality water. For example. Other natural habitats. In other situations. Tensions over water access between communities. Several others of these mega-cities are conversely suffering problems with their water supply because of the degradation of their watersheds. Cities are badly affected: it is estimated that 700 million urban dwellers in Asia. an innovative trust fund in Ecuador is ensuring watershed protection measures are adequately managed in the two protected areas vital for the capital city’s water supply. Water quality is expected to be negatively impacted by climate change. although climate models differ312. the government is working with a local NGO to design management plans. due to greater variability in rainfall. the watershed values of protected areas have remained largely unrecognised and the downstream benefits are accidental. including multiple purpose management with an emphasis on maintaining or enhancing water quality (for example through a forest management certification system) and restoration. Research has shown that around a third (33 out of 105) of the world’s largest cities obtain a significant proportion of their drinking water directly from protected areas322.2 million deaths. Effective management of the existing protected areas is crucial to maintaining these water sources and expansion of the protected areas system will ensure that a greater area of these watersheds is buffered against degradation caused by the conjunction of climate change and other human-induced stressors. stability.

such as coral reef bleaching. and Medes. and ocean circulation will also change. Marine species tend to have complex life histories with eggs. could be a key adaptation strategy335. Cabrera. which is more complex than simply a response to warmer water temperatures331. larvae. Nonetheless. but it is difficult to predict the aggregate effects on national or regional scales. The role of protected areas Marine and freshwater protected areas provide an important tool for offsetting the combined impacts of over-fishing and climate change on fish stocks. For marine fisheries. Spain344 Côte Bleue MPA. of which the best known is ocean acidification332. by providing safe havens for breeding to rebuild populations after catastrophic events. The study concluded that steps to reduce large-scale habitat impacts. Freshwater fish are also likely to be impacted. Western Australia356
355
Increased Spill-over fish numbers
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Note: not all studies referred to above looked at spill-over (which refers to the movement of fish out of the MPA to surrounding areas)
. and Uganda). Point Lobos State & Ecological Reserve. recruitment and productivity tend to vary from year to year in a way that makes it difficult to identify longer term trends329. geographically and in the water column. USA353 Soufrie`re Marine Management Area. Big Greek Marine Ecological Reserve. drawing on 288 individual studies. and Cabo de Palos MPAs in Spain346 Nabq Managed Resource Protected Area. (ii) an increase in abundance in the northern part and a decrease in the southern part of their range. Bangladesh. juveniles. making it difficult to predict the impact of a particular change factor328. Pakistan. and tropical Asia (e. The International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) examined evidence of the effect of climate change on the distribution and abundance of marine species in the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (the OSPAR convention) Commission Maritime Area. Guinea.g. St Lucia354 Abrolhos National Marine Park. we are building a picture of the impact of climate change on fisheries. Senegal. such as a reduction in fishing pressure. Brazil Rottnest Island. and adults often found in different places. and Yemen)337. for example by reduced water availability334 and shortage of oxygen. Malawi. Kenya348 Malindi and Watamu Marine National Parks. Tabarca. Problems are exacerbated by lack of data: the status of most marine fish stocks remains largely unknown. with knock-on effects to human nutrition336. Highest vulnerability was found in central and west Africa (e. There are already some important regional studies of the effects of climate change on marine fisheries. South Africa350 Apo Island. Impacts on one or two important species may have larger changes at community level. It found that climate change is a recognisably important factor in around three quarters of cases. Preliminary studies suggest that some freshwater fisheries will also decline as a result of climate change. Philippines351 Wakatobi Marine National Park. Spain343 Columbretes Islands Marine Reserve. Furthermore.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
Identifying root causes of fish decline is difficult.g. Vulnerability of marine capture fisheries to potential climate change was calculated for 132 countries with an indicator-based approach. changes in ocean chemistry may be more important overall. France345 Cerbere-Banyuls and Carry-le-Rouet MPAs in France. Langebaan Lagoon. A precautionary approach
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Table 6: Impact of MPAs on fisheries – some recent research examples from around the world MPA
Medes Islands MPA. Indonesia352 Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Cambodia. Egypt347 Mombasa MPA. And synergistic effects between climate and other human pressures are likely to be important. Hopkins Marine Life Refuge. even in developed countries330. particularly for fish species where research found (i) a northward shift or deepening of their distribution. affecting larval transport333 and thus population dynamics. Peru and Colombia. Kenya349 Saldanha Bay.

This benefit will become increasingly important under conditions of climate change. the boundary length of the reserve (with greater edge to area ration increased spill-over). • Promoting development of natural biological communities (which may be different from communities found in fishing grounds): for example in Chile establishment of an MPA led to a replacement of mussel beds with barnacles. Six factors affect spill-over: the success of protection. and thus providing for long-term food security. In a broad review undertaken for WWF. • Preventing habitat damage: all forms of fishing create some associated damage: trawling and use of dynamite are the most serious but even line fishing results in some disturbance and litter that can damage bottom-living communities. with out-migration encouraged if there is continuous habitat type340. Four large locally-managed marine areas have already been established and a further six are in development369. particularly when surrounding areas are heavily fished338. for example areas that have proven more resilient to past coral bleaching events. The locally-managed marine areas are being established under local government legal frameworks. the length of time that the MPA has been established. which is expected to play a critical part in enhancing their resilience. maintain connectivity for larval dispersal and protect areas more likely to survive the effects of climate change. the mobility of species. due to recovery of a predatory snail Concholepas concholepas. • Allowing spill-over of adults and juveniles into fishing grounds: as population size and the size of individual fish increases within MPAs. population densities were 91 per cent higher. and boundary porosity. A recent review of 112 independent studies in 80 different MPAs found that all biological measures were strikingly higher inside the reserve than in surrounding areas (or in the same area before an MPA was established). Source: TNC
. and plans are being developed for a Bay-wide designation to encompass the whole MPA network. • Providing a refuge for vulnerable species: that react to even minor disturbance or fishing pressure. • Facilitating recovery from catastrophic human disturbance: healthy ecosystems. with rising sea temperatures leading to coral bleaching and death. Roberts and Hawkins (2000). providing additional catch for fishing operations and helping build up wider populations. Table 6 on the previous page summarises some recent research. they will have the effect of reducing other stressors on the area’s ecosystems. and average organism size and diversity were 20–30 per cent higher in MPAs. These efforts seek to ensure that coral reefs can survive the effects of rising sea temperatures and allow coral larvae from healthy reefs to replenish those affected by bleaching. Relative to reference sites. biomass was 192 per cent higher.60
Section 3
to fishery management would seek to reduce existing stressors to marine and freshwater ecosystems and fish stocks: these will not be able to “solve” all the problems for marine ecosystems emerging from climate change but can provide a higher chance of maintaining fish stocks. usually after as little as 1-3 years. Socioeconomic studies were also carried out during the planning of the network to ensure communities’ marine resource needs were also addressed. which controlled the former but was over-exploited elsewhere341. The approach is necessarily participatory. because local communities are ultimately the decision-making powers in the region367. and sea-level rise threatening critical coastal habitats such as mangroves and turtle nesting areas. are more likely to recover from sudden major disruptions than ecosystems that are already weakened by overexploitation342. The Nature Conservancy has been working with the provincial and local governments of West New Britain province in Papua New Guinea and with many of the communities in the biologically richest areas of Kimbe Bay to develop a marine protected area (MPA) network that is designed specifically for resilience to climate change366. intensity of fishing outside the MPA. they will start to spill-over into surrounding waters. with a full complement of species and effective ecosystem functioning. identify a range of benefits of fully protected reserves for marine fish: • Enhancing the production of offspring which can restock fishing grounds: researchers conclude that fish density is generally higher inside marine protected areas (MPAs). The network aims to ensure representation of each habitat type. Preliminary research in the area suggests that even quite small MPAs could be effective in replenishing some fish stocks368. furthermore these increases were found even in small MPAs339.
CASE STUDY
A new marine protected area network in Papua New Guinea is being specifically designed to maintain marine resources and biodiversity in the face of climate change
Climate change will add to the existing pressures on both coral reefs and marine resources. While these efforts may not address the impacts on coral reefs of ocean acidification.

Research in Lao PDR suggests that co-management approaches in protected areas can often be particularly successful in terms of protecting fisheries. Studies show that both a one year moratorium359 and protection afforded by the Lake Malawi National Park360 resulted in increased fish catches. Plan for marine and freshwater protected areas in light of predicted climate change. and for freshwater protected areas. Fisheries provide nearly 75 per cent of the animal protein consumed by people in Malawi and are significant source of employment357. These need to be planned taking into account changes likely under climate change. protected areas can provide an insurance mechanism for fisheries as part of a comprehensive adaptive management approach. creating intense interest in their conservation. given the huge scientific uncertainties surrounding the impacts of climate change on many fish species. However. Current understanding about MPA effectiveness with respect to corals is summarised in table 7 above. Protected areas may be able to increase the resilience of marine and aquatic ecosystems and of species. and wellbeing. e. so that they are located in optimal conditions and of the best possible size and connectivity. MPAs can address some but not all of the problems facing corals. for local fishing communities.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
Table 7: Status of knowledge about the effects of fully protected marine reserves on fisheries in coral reef areas363 Reserve impact
Increased fish and invertebrate biomass within borders Adult spillover to support adjacent fishery
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Status of science
Confirmed and widely reported Confirmed by a few studies but not others
Larval spillover to provide demographic support to nearby fished reefs Expected but not demonstrated Increased coral recruitment (Caribbean) Enhanced biodiversity Confirmed by few studies so far Mixed results (positive.
SOLUTIONS Establish marine and freshwater protected areas agreed and managed with local communities as reservoirs for fish stocks threatened by climate change.
Currently most MPAs are inshore. otherwise they can be protecting the wrong places365. Enhance resilience of marine systems and manage marine protected areas as part of a comprehensive adaptive management strategy for addressing the impacts of climate change on fisheries. Such protected areas should be carefully monitored for their impact on surrounding fish populations and size and management regimes adapted if necessary. New protected areas need to be established in areas that are likely to be extremely vulnerable. Coral reefs around the world have suffered extensive declines. negative and no impact reported)
The impacts of freshwater protected areas on fish have been less fully studied. in location of larval stages of fish.
. including the role of protected areas362. through removal of non climate pressures and in particular offtake pressure. which exceeded 95 per cent in many locations. for example for Lake Malawi. But a few decades ago they were declining seriously358.g. amongst other things to rebuild fish stocks. Protected areas will not resolve all of the impacts of climate change on fish populations. although evidence of beneficial effects exists. such as those emanating from changes in ocean chemistry. partly because there are often high levels of traditional ecological knowledge amongst fishing communities361. There is increasing support for MPAs for pelagic conservation364. Corals are also important breeding sites for many fish.

such as Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas along with support from the agricultural industry and NGOs. The project also hopes to address the lack of practical examples by producing a Manual of In Situ Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives based on lessons learned and good practices arising from the project. These should be nested within national adaptation strategies and action plans designed to maintain food security under conditions of climate change. This has resulted in comprehensive assessment of threats to wild relatives and actions for their management. Sadly their importance is little understood by those who could make a difference – policy makers and conservation administrations – a situation not helped by the current disconnect between the agriculture and conservation sectors. including the drafting of CWR national action plans and management plans for specific species and protected areas as well as guidelines and procedures for conservation of wild relatives outside protected areas. Bolivia. Sri Lanka and Uzbekistan the project has invested significant time and resources establishing effective partnerships involving relevant stakeholders. Despite their importance wild relatives are not considered flagship species and securing such commitment and resources is difficult.
. Information and data from the project has been integrated in national information systems linked to a Global Portal which will provide much needed support to future decision-making and action. in promoting in situ protection. including inventories406 and gap analyses407 of agrobiodiversity.
Agriculture began with the domestication of wild plants. including in particular seed companies. and the wild relatives of today’s crops remain vital for a food-secure future. Madagascar. Unfortunately. Novel approaches: are needed for agrobiodiversity conservation.64
Section 3
Researching conservation of crop wild relatives in protected areas to provide best practice standards. Through the UNEP-GEF supported global project. There are also few examples of successful wild relative conservation to follow or replicate and there is no easy blueprint for success. Combined with innovative public awareness and extensive capacity building the project has contributed substantially to enhanced conservation status of crop wild relatives. CWR contribute resistance to pests and other stresses and will play an important role in future crop adaptation to climate change. Protected areas provide an obvious focus for conservation of wild relatives thereby ensuring availability for future crop improvement.
Danny Hunter: Bioversity International
SOLUTIONS Increase protected areas in Centres of Crop Diversity: using gap analysis to identify those places with high levels of diversity. and protected areas should identify and address conservation of CWR and landraces needs in their management plans. Introduce national and local planning: states need National Agrobiodiversity Conservation Strategies405. their conservation. requiring considerable political and institutional effort. Preliminary evaluation programmes are also underway in all countries which will see wild relatives contribute traits to crop improvement. Bioversity International is committed to meeting many of these challenges. Climate adaptation: management needs to consider the possibility that ranges will shift out of reserves408. especially in their centres of origin or diversification. including community approaches. Working with international and national partners in Armenia. remains an immense challenge and is by no means guaranteed. Analysis and strengthening of national legislation to support wild relative conservation has added to this protection. necessitating creation of new protection in predicted ranges. ‘In situ conservation of crop wild relatives through enhanced information management and field application’. New partnerships: increasing collaboration with the agricultural sector. as well as time and resources.

trypanosomiasis. In particular: “work on: . In 2008. aims to strengthen and restore traditional culture and associated landscapes. resistance to pesticides used to control disease vectors. Conservation strategies focus on preserving the shamanic tradition of local peoples and on the protection of the associated medicinal plants. Lyme disease. proliferation of livestock and crops. where protection does exist. As the disturbance of ecosystems often results in the proliferation of some reservoir species and arthropod vectors. in part because indigenous health care is often unable to cope with the consequences of habitat degradation or loss of resources and homelands442. filariasis. uncontrolled urban sprawl. trade (legal and illegal). changes in surface waters. Ebola. and transport.66
Section 3
Vector-borne diseases kill over 1. arthropod vectors and their pathogens. Recent increases may be related in part to climate change422. The influence of climate change might act synergistically. in particular where these could have positive benefits for health protection”.300 metres above sea level. The role of protected areas Protected areas can provide an opportunity to benefit from the conscious management of ecosystems against disease. research is beginning to show the benefits. Many of the areas where malaria poses a serious risk have seen major habitat loss and relatively low levels of conservation433. and dengue in Latin America and South Asia426. hydrological and climatic change is already leading to increases in malaria440.430. Studies suggest that climate change may put 90 million more people at risk of malaria in Africa by 2030 and 2 billion more people around the world at risk of dengue by the 2080s423. The establishment of the Orito Ingi Ande Medicinal Plants Sanctuary was proposed by the indigenous communities who live in Southwestern Colombia. Conversely. gave unanimous support for a resolution calling for more engagement on climate change. Research suggests that for example climate change is likely to increase diarrhoeal disease in the Pacific islands417. For example.
Climate change is expected to increase the spread and prevalence of many diseases. along with increasing resistance to antibiotics425.
Source: WWF
. particularly in Eurasia and Africa421. In Colombia. However this integrity is under threat441. although others challenge these numbers424. A study in the Peruvian Amazon found that the primary malaria vector. The incidence of diarrhoea may increase as a result of scarcity of water needed to maintain hygiene in areas likely to suffer from water shortages under conditions of climate change. Climate change often acts in concert with factors such as the destruction or degradation of natural ecosystems. and onchocerciasis. schistosomiasis. Avoiding deforestation or restoring natural vegetation can reduce the risk of vectorborne diseases432. ecological disturbances have been linked to the emergence and proliferation of diseases such as malaria. The protected area. further favouring reservoir hosts. water resources. Changing temperatures and rainfall are expected to alter the distribution of insect disease vectors. among other diseases. (our emphasis). New infectious diseases have also emerged at an unprecedented rate: between 1976-1996 WHO recorded over 30 emerging infectious diseases*. giardiasis. for maintaining both the species concerned and the cultural knowledge of their use. The protected area fulfils the aims of local indigenous healers to: “regain possession of
our territories and sacred sites. Legionnaires’ disease. Anopheles darlingi. migration and international travel. Colombia is one of many countries relying on locallycollected traditional medicines as a major resource for meeting primary health care needs. Many of these diseases are sensitive to changes in temperature and rainfall.8 million415. with malaria419 and dengue420 being of greatest concern. the 193 countries at the 61st World Health Assembly.200 ha of tropical rainforests and Andean forests ranging from between 700 and 3. especially those transmitted by arthropod vectors429. Sustainable sources of traditional medicines depend to a large extent on ecosystem integrity. coli and a new hantavirus. and diarrhoeal diseases 1.1 million people a year. on the eastern slope of Patascoy hill. There has also been a re-emergence and spread of existing climate-sensitive infections: such as cholera and Rift Valley fever in Africa. the predominance of these emerging pests results in higher prevalence and abundance of pathogens with zoonotic potential. land use. The sanctuary covers 10. had a biting rate that was more than 278 times higher in deforested areas than in areas that were heavily forested431. Other impacts could include the northerly spread of tick-borne encephalitis in Sweden and increases in cholera in the Bay of Bengal418.. toxic E.
* An infectious disease whose incidence has increased in the past 20 years and threatens to increase in the near future
CASE STUDY
In Colombia a new protected area is being used to ensure the survival of traditional health care options. (c) the health impacts of potential adaptation and mitigation measures in other sectors such as marine life. leishmaniasis. cryptosporidiosis. However. designated in 2008. If the forests disappear so will medicine and life” 443.. and the introduction of pathogens427. The Assembly requested WHO to strengthen its programme of support and to ensure that health is fully represented within the international climate change debate428. including HIV/AIDS. The forest is for us the fountain of our resources. diarrhoea is also likely to increase in areas where climate change causes flooding if this overwhelms drainage and sewage systems416.

A second school argues that it is not species richness per se but functional diversity that plays the pivotal role: this argues in effect that managers should manage ecosystems for their functions. They provide space for evolution and a baseline for future restoration444. At this stage the precautionary principle would support the reduction of existing (non climate related) stressors to ecosystems that provide critical services. parts of which have sympathetic management. Protected areas offer unique benefits for species and ecological processes that cannot survive in managed landscapes and seascapes. Transboundary protected areas may have a key role to play here. narrow environmental tolerances. dependence on inter-specific interactions that are likely to be interrupted. New tools and approaches have increased the precision with which sites are selected448. Failure to provide for this may lead to the collapse of wildlife populations.g. which may help buffer the impacts of climate change. including by the CBD452. chemical. dead wood446). however. but must be embedded in a wider landscape or seascape. Moreover. such as natural regeneration. may need access to large dry season forage areas.449 and managed450. The role of protected areas The key roles of protected areas in conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem resilience are outlined below: • Manage protected areas within the context of sustainable management of ecosystems and maintaining functional diversity: protected areas cannot usually conserve biodiversity on their own. intact ecosystems: at a scale that maintains ecosystem structure and diversity. in addition to the other practical and ethical issues involved. dependence on specific environmental triggers that are likely to be disrupted. A climate resilient ecosystem would retain its functions and ecosystem services in the face of climate change. However the science of resilience is unclear. Ecosystem-based adaptation will require measures to maintain the resilience of ecosystems under new climatic conditions. • Conservation of large. Resilience is likely to be enhanced through the protection of functions and structural diversity. For example. water dependent antelope and other large fauna in areas of Africa likely to witness water stress. Scientists still do not fully understand the impact on ecosystem function of different climate change scenarios. there is considerable uncertainty about how to manage ecosystems to maintain resilience. species that are important to the tourism industry). Scientists believe that the removal of non climate related stressors on ecosystems (which would otherwise lead to ecosystem degradation) should serve to make most ecosystems more resilient under conditions of climate change: many examples of this have been detailed in previous sections.Adaptation: The role of protected areas
Protected areas are usually established primarily for biodiversity conservation. with populations of species large enough to survive over time456. the essential core of such strategies and a fundamental tool in addressing the uncertainties of climate change. Even “sustainably-managed” ecosystems often eliminate key ecosystem functions or species. the most sensitive species445 and some microhabitats (e. Resilience refers to the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its functions (biological. which is especially vital during rapid environmental change. Here protected areas provide key elements in wider efforts to maintain resilient ecosystems. Furthermore. • Conservation of endangered fragments of ecosystems: is useful where degradation and ecosystem loss is already widespread and where key features are at risk within otherwise managed landscapes or seascapes. Ecological processes may be as important as species or habitats. For example. the IUCN Species Survival Commission has identified traits that make species particularly susceptible to climate change. Such areas protect both known species and species not yet been described by science457. as one element in a suite of responses458. there are uncertainties about how to manage ecosystems to maintain their functions. There is a growing conviction amongst conservation biologists that greater biodiversity also confers greater resilience within ecosystems453 and recognition that ecosystems with high carbon frequently also have high biodiversity454. One school hypothesizes that greater species richness within ecosystems increases ecosystem resilience by increasing the interdependencies and robustness of the system (the so called stability-diversity hypothesis).
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. There are two additional schools of thought on the subject of how to manage ecosystems adaptively to maintain ecosystem resilience. including: specialized habitat requirements. Irrespective of which hypothesis proves to be correct. They remain. and physical) in the face of disturbance. and species that maintain biological functions (such as seed dispersers) should be the target of management interventions. and poor ability or limited opportunity to disperse455. so that they can continue to supply essential services. Protected areas are often the only remaining natural or semi-natural areas in whole regions and significant numbers of species are found nowhere else447. due in part to the complex biological and physical feedback loops involved. given uncertainties regarding the management strategies that need to be employed to maintain functional diversity.451 and their role is acknowledged in national and global policies. The conservation of large intact ecosystems may be an important measure for sustaining the populations of species in areas where climate change will reduce habitat condition. Climate change puts biodiversity under pressure and thereby throws up new problems for protected areas in their role as the primary vehicle for biodiversity conservation and as a mechanism to enhance ecosystem resilience. measures to maintain species richness in ecosystems are warranted from the perspective of ecosystem resilience. including those of economic importance (for example.

WCS’s researchers recently obtained new data on economic improvements in fishing communities: this economic benefit can be explained by the fact that not only did fish stocks overall improve in fisheries next to the protected areas. A study of coral reef fish and other herbivores in four national marine parks off the coast of Kenya. corals are more susceptible to bleaching events induced by warming temperatures468. They may include provision of food for migratory birds. Protected areas can maintain flyways.460. • Conservation of habitat fragments for migratory species: migratory species face particular challenges in needing suitable habitat along routes of hundreds or thousands of miles. including to fisheries. or protection of “stepping stones” for migratory birds. Management decisions are driven primarily by conservation needs. using nearly continuous data spanning 37 years. which often builds on traditional practices as in the Pacific464.
CASE STUDY
Fishery health through protection of coral reefs can provide dual benefits by protecting both corals and livelihoods in East Africa. Additionally. While climate change on the levels projected threatens mass species extinction in the wild. by removing other human induced stressors on vulnerable species. nutrient cycling and tourism. species susceptible to introduced diseases462. the reefs become significantly more prone to the detrimental effects of climate change and less able to support their vital ecosystem functions as nursery ground for fish. but more valuable fish groups recovered sooner and were more common. Many migratory species provide important economic benefits.g. WCS scientists have been able to use these finding to recommend changes in management practices. some species. Such intervention may be particularly important in managing habitats threatened by fire. they support coral reef health and can also increase income for fishers operating nearby. animals with easily disturbed social structures 461. enabling better catches. This may be critical in allowing vulnerable species to cope with the impacts of climate change by reducing the other threats they face. fishing restrictions on rivers with spawning salmon466. • Conservation of particular aspects of species’ lifecycles: protected areas can be established to conserve particular periods of the life-cycle of a species or group. helps build increased resilience in marine systems against the impacts of rising sea temperatures. The most common cases are temporary zoning to protect the breeding grounds of marine or freshwater fish. has provided scientists with valuable information on coral reef management469. at particular times or with some kind of flexible zoning. Studies on herbivore and coral interactions suggest that in the absence of herbivores. Reefs are better able to withstand the impacts of climate change if herbivorous fish species that graze on algae and help keep the ecosystem in balance are present. Kenya was found to be one of the fishing nations worldwide which showed marked improvements in fish stock health. spread of new invasive alien species and other risks and manifestations of climate change. • Protecting range-limited and endemic species: some species are so rare or restricted that protected areas conserve all or much of the population. • Conservation of species or habitats through management tailored to their specialised needs: in places where ecosystem change has been profound (including from invasive species).70
Section 3
• Conservation of natural ecosystems without human interference: despite the long history of human influence. respectively. drought. Working with local communities. Source: WCS
. When herbivores disappear from the waters.
Marine protected areas have a dual benefit: by rebuilding depleted fish stocks. Closing some key areas to fishing and restricting certain types of particularly detrimental fishing gear. like the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network in the Americas467. or subject to over-collection463. and these ecosystem benefits are likely to be further undermined by climate change. as for the white-necked crane465. This may be an important measure to reduce existing pressures on species that are vulnerable to climate change. protected areas will diminish the conjunction effect of pressures and so reduce extinction risk. on par with industrialized countries such as New Zealand and Iceland470. protected areas may need management actions tailored explicitly to maintain or if necessary restore a particular species or type of ecosystem functioning. In a recent study by a team of scientists. “swim-ways” or mammal routes. Strictly protected areas provide a buffer from interference. The gross effect was such that per capita incomes in the restricted gear and closure sites were. habitats and ecosystems remain highly fragile: e. as insurance. plant species damaged by trampling459. 41 per cent and 135 per cent higher than landing sites with no restrictions471.

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Section 4 Opportunities to use protected areas to address climate change
Reviewing the evidence collected above. through: ➜ Increasing the total area within protected area systems ➜ Extending existing protected areas through landscape management approaches that integrate protected areas within a matrix of land uses and as part of local adaptation strategies through community-based approaches ➜ Increasing the level of protection within existing protected area systems to ensure that they are effectively addressing threats and storing carbon ➜ Improving and adapting management of protected areas ➜ Encouraging different protected area governance models including indigenous and community conserved areas and private reserves ➜ Focusing protected areas management explicitly on climate change mitigation and adaptation. this section therefore also briefly reviews the current situation regarding protected area finance and specifically looks at the potential use of fund and market based mechanisms to finance adaptation and mitigation.
. in addition to addressing biodiversity conservation and other objectives These strategies however will only be effective if protected areas are incorporated into national and local climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies and action plans and these efforts integrated with other community and sector-based adaptation and mitigation actions. the next section looks at the opportunities for protected area systems to maintain and increase their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. These plans will require capacity-building and adequate finance.

1. (2) extending the functions of protected areas through landscape/seascape approaches. particularly indigenous and community conserved areas and private protected areas. avoid ground disturbance or drying out of peat. (5) increasing the level of protection within protected areas. Consolidating. and (6) focusing some management activities specifically on climate responses. Overall size of protected areas can be addressed by expanding borders of individual protected areas and by linking different protected areas including across national
. mangroves. Connecting protected areas within landscapes/ seascapes: using management of ecosystems outside protected areas or intervening waters. site selection tools and management approaches as necessary. This can include buffer zones. and particularly of large protected areas. In addition. peatlands. (3) encouraging different protected area governance models.
Protected area systems are effective means of retaining and maximising the mitigation and adaptation functions of natural ecosystems. impacts from invasive species and poor fire management. for example: to maintain old-growth forest. expanding and improving the protected area system is a logical response to climate change that meets many aims of proposed mitigation strategies. other forms of poaching. freshwater and coastal marshes and seagrass beds. Focusing some management specifically on mitigation and adaptation needs: including modification of management plans. will become important for maintaining ecosystem integrity and for maximising ecosystem resilience under conditions of climate change473. (4) increasing protected area management effectiveness. Recognition and implementation of the full range of protected area governance types: to encourage more stakeholders to become involved in declaring and managing protected areas as part of community climate response strategies. or where important ecosystem services are under threat – such as in tropical forests. special planning requirements will be needed to maximise the contributions of protected area systems to ecosystem-based adaptation. Increasing the level of protection within protected areas: by recognising protection and management aimed at specific features that have high carbon storage values. so that many of the initial steps needed to implement these responses have already been taken. There are existing legal and policy initiatives and tools to accelerate this process. as well as marine ecosystems. More and larger protected areas Increasing the number of protected areas. Improving management within protected areas: to ensure that ecosystems and the services that they provide within protected areas are not degraded or lost through illegal use or unwise management decisions such as illegal logging and conversion. which are important to build connectivity to increase ecosystem resilience to climate change at the landscape/seascape scale and to increase the total amount of habitat under some form of protection. Such measures will need to be taken within the framework of a landscape level land use plan and management system. and also to restore degraded ecosystems. biological corridors and ecological stepping stones472. particularly those to reduce deforestation and the loss of other ecosystems with large carbon reservoirs. integrate it into broader conservation strategies and national and local climate change mitigation and adaptation plans
KEY MESSAGES The role of protected areas in climate response strategies can be increased in six ways: (1) increasing protected area size and coverage.72
Section 4
Opportunities to expand the protected areas system. There are six options available for increasing the role of protected area systems in contributing to climate change response strategies (each of which is discussed in greater detail in the following pages): More and larger protected areas and buffers: to improve ecosystem resilience particularly where much carbon is stored and/or captured and is likely to be lost without protection.

Gap analysis is not the only source of information on these issues: other prioritisation exercises including those run on a global scale (such as ecoregions480 and key biodiversity areas481) and national initiatives. and reduce threats to ecosystem integrity that stem from them. countries have identified high priority sites (HiPs) to expand or improve protected area systems. institutions and interests.
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or regional borders. This could provide a policy framework for additional
. competing visions (economic development. the main objective of which is to complete ecologically representative well managed protected area networks. the UNDP GEF is supporting ongoing gap analysis in 20 more countries (see table 9). many high in carbon stocks and currently without protection. Technology and capacity are available in countries that have completed or are undergoing gap analyses of their protected areas. 2. Accordingly. Portions of these biomes.1. As part of the landscape approach. also provide value data on site selection. Data on area and location of protected areas is improving all the time476. The overall principle of a landscape approach is to create a balanced mosaic of protection. Details of the methodology for national protected area gap analysis process are available. The CBD provides a range of tools to help identify areas that should be considered for inclusion within national protected area systems. The overall goal is to complete ecologically representative networks of protected areas. appropriate to particular locations and circumstances. opportunities to create corridors between and among natural protected areas will substantially contribute to the persistence of ecosystem services provided – for example in providing migratory pathways for wildlife. hold the potential to be protected in order to safeguard natural carbon reservoirs under REDD or as part of countries’ individual efforts to address climate change. A mixture of protection. in many countries it has resulted in concrete actions to identify and gazette new protected areas475. local communities living within these areas or adjacent to them.482 Implicit within this are the twin concepts of increasing ecological connectivity with a view to increasing resilience483 and thinking constructively about other management systems that can contribute to broader-scale conservation aims484.Opportunities to use protected areas to address climate change
Gap analysis as a way of identifying suitable sites for expansion of protected areas
The CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) contains multiple objectives with time-bound targets. Connecting protected areas within landscapes/ seascapes and increasing connectivity among protected areas Protected areas do not exist in isolation and function as part of a larger landscape or seascape. ecological. once achieved. Appropriate social safeguards are needed to address the needs of. cultural values) and planned or unplanned social and political upheavals. economic and social benefits and resisting detrimental change. and Parties were guided to begin by completing a gap analysis of their protected area systems with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities and relevant stakeholders (activities 1. Given the complexity of issues involved in their establishment and management. actually or potentially. the proportion of territory under protection has to remain flexible to local conditions. Any such approach will need to be nested into a landscape level land use planning and management system. forestry. that seeks to reform the production practices employed by economic sectors such as agriculture. including information on tools and casestudies478. considering livelihood issues and existing policies. The identified areas are of high value for biodiversity and important for the livelihoods of surrounding populations through the provision of ecosystem services479. Many pilot countries are within the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility and/ or the UN REDD Programme. which if implemented can help to make a landscape or seascape resilient to environmental change. management and restoration providing biodiversity. including a gap analysis methodology that can help to locate the most suitable areas of land and water (see box). Through their national gap analyses. several Parties have completed gap analyses of their protected area systems. will remain static indefinitely. Many governments are currently still expanding and consolidating their protected area systems. sustainable development. HiPs are proposed for protection based on a rigorous analysis of multiple GIS data layers including ecosystem characteristics. Source: CBD protection aimed at addressing climate change adaptation. in line with the commitments made in the CBD’s PoWPA474. fisheries and mining. Any “conservation vision” will exist alongside other. Adaptive management will therefore be essential over the timescale needed to implement a landscape approach. but rather that there are a range of possible mosaics. Currently.1.5 of the PoWPA477). The approach does not imply that there is one “ideal” mosaic which. The CBD gap analysis can already provide mapping data and tools for identification of carbon-rich natural ecosystems in need of protection. a timetable and political support. and generate livelihoods and other benefits for. Relevant stakeholders have been involved in the analysis. Interventions are needed at both national and local scales. Successful broad-scale conservation programmes have therefore built partnerships with governments.4 and 1. The PoWPA has agreed actions. private sector and local communities. management and usually also restoration is therefore required in what has become known as a landscape approach. Many protected area agencies are adapting gap analysis methodologies so as to integrate climate modelling and improve the robustness of systematic conservation plans to climate change impacts.

taking risks and including other peoples’ priorities within planning processes. while respecting the rights and cultures of these communities. Papua New Guinea. Armenia. Micronesia. Armenia. incorporating traditional approaches to adaptation that have been developed over centuries. climate change and conversion. Nicaragua Afghanistan. Mauritania Albania. Panama. so that attention must also be paid to these issues in landscape-scale approaches. Nicaragua becomes a reality. for example the new Australian report Australia’s Biodiversity and Climate Change485 stresses the need for new governance approaches. Dominican Republic. national. perverse subsidies. savannahs & shrub lands Deserts & xeric shrub lands Temperate broadleaf & mixed forests Boreal forest/taiga Tropical &subtropical dry broadleaf forests Mediterranean forests. In particular. for example. Papua New Guinea Dominican Republic. Antigua & Barbuda. Mauritania Afghanistan. As with other elements of a landscape approach. and reviving traditional enclosures to encourage regeneration in Tanzania487. Mongolia. Samoa. Dominican Republic. encroachment. 4. sometimes moving faster than the government. Micronesia. Some “bottom up” responses compiled by the World Resources Institute. New protected area initiatives are more effective if a far broader range of stakeholders is involved. Governments are recognising this need. Samoa. Recognition and implementation of the full range of protected area governance types A major expansion of protected areas driven entirely by the state is a limited and probably unachievable target. Solomon Islands. there is a need for governments to recognise the long-term existence of indigenous and community conserved areas. Solomon Islands. woodlands & shrub Tropical & subtropical coniferous forests Temperate grasslands. Mongolia. Improving management within protected areas Protected areas also usually exist in the presence of a range of cross cutting pressures and threats (or “drivers of change”). Armenia. Mongolia Albania. savannahs & shrublands Marine biomes (coastal shelf)
3. East Timor Albania. This also means accepting and welcoming new concepts of protection. Panama. Wherever possible. Maldives. forest fires. and also the underlying causes such as poor governance. Comoros Papua New Guinea. Antigua & Barbuda. including REDD Biome
Flooded grasslands & savannahs Temperate coniferous forests Montane grasslands & shrub lands Mangroves Tropical & subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Countries currently implementing gap analysis
Dominican Republic Mongolia Afghanistan. include: participatory reforestation of Rio de Janeiro’s hillside favelas to combat flood-induced landslides. Djibouti. Increasingly. It will often mean negotiating precise forms of protection with many other stakeholders. local communities are themselves taking the initiative and recognising the importance of natural ecosystems. trade barriers and investment flows.74
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Table 9: Countries currently assessing gap analyses and carbon rich biomes with potential to implement land-use and forest based mitigation measures. accepting different management models. illegal logging.
Tropical & subtropical grasslands. ecoregional and international level. Fiji. poverty. Djibouti. including in particular the local communities and indigenous peoples living in natural and semi-natural ecosystems. such as increasing community involvement in forest management. reinstating pastoral networks in Mongolia. attempts to counter specific pressures should make the most of opportunities for work with partners. Bosnia and Herzegovina Mongolia Antigua & Barbuda. as climate change
. Samoa. Nicaragua Afghanistan. but also involving private individuals. Papua New Guinea. Once pressures have been identified and assessed. Antigua & Barbuda. Panama. Panama. Dominican Republic. Papua New Guinea. trusts and companies that are willing and able to manage land and water for its conservation and climate response values. some of which may fall outside the precise definition of a protected area but nonetheless contribute to viable climate response strategies486. it is important to build strategies that address both the key threats: such as poaching. strategic interventions to address threats will range from site-based actions to those at landscape. Maldives. Bosnia & Herzegovina Dominican Republic.

Natural disturbance patterns need to be factored into efforts to increase sequestration. release some carbon but may prevent future. Prescribed burning to reduce fuel load will. implementing such wide-ranging changes will require that a major change strategy plan be developed at the protected area systems level and management plans for individual protected areas. UNDP with funding from GEF is helping to establish better protection of 1. Approaches to understanding protected area management effectiveness are well developed488 and assessment tools are widely applied489. In other instances. for example in calculating benefits of ecosystems services to adaptation. The methodological details of using protected
. More generally.
A quarter of the Earth’s remaining virgin forests are in Russia. Details of such changes are beyond the scope of the current report. to establish the know how at the institutional level and within staff cadres. Improving management of current protected area sites is also of importance to sequestration potential. Within protected area agencies. the effort might be focused on vegetation restoration or changes in patterns of fire management or water flow. The Komi Government is committed to achieve a target of 14. organisation. Under the project capacity is being developed in Komi’s protected areas to better manage fire and increase resilience of the coniferous stands to the impact of rising temperatures. park managers will need to implement periodic assessment of these benefits in a fully participatory manner.63 million ha of virgin taiga forests and peat soils in the Komi Republic. both in terms of maintaining particular ecosystems and in maximising the value of the services that they provide. In order to manage effectively for the range of valuable ecosystem services especially in light of climate change. Source: UNDP
leadership and evaluation. Capacity building will also be needed. although there is still a lack of advice for managers about how climate change will affect protection. Further scientific research may be needed to define the exact protected area management prescriptions needed in some ecosystems. increasing the effectiveness with which ecosystems are protected within protected areas can be as effective as creating new protected areas. The highly biodiverse boreal forests of the Komi Republic are home to threatened species and habitats of international importance.75 million t CO2 between 2010 and 2020. which will improve the global scientific understanding of the taiga forests’ and peatsoils’ carbon cycles. each under different governance systems (depending on the uses to which they are put). including with respect to issues that relate to planning. This might involve modifying management aims. about 41. In line with that commitment. A sophisticated carbon monitoring system is being installed. and climate change is impacting forest structure through increased deciduous trees and loss of endemism. Assessing and improving protected area management effectiveness are both the subject of a range of quantifiable targets in the CBD PoWPA.5 million t C but are at risk from fires and climate change. particularly in fire-prone ecosystems. 6. those responsible for protected areas may need special planning and assessment tools.63 million ha of virgin taiga forests and peatlands in the Republic. protected areas will be one management tool along with a range of other land management systems within an overall matrix of land uses at landscape level. for example.
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CASE STUDY
UNDP/GEF protection of 1.6 per cent protected areas coverage. Some of these may require adaptation to meet the needs of protected areas used in climate adaptation strategies.760 ha of forest are destroyed annually by fires. managing protected areas under conditions of climate change will require significant changes in the way in which protected area agencies do business. However. giving important impetus to this development. They are listed on the WWF Global 200 ecoregions and UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. to provide stricter protection for natural habitats: for instance zoning areas of stricter protection within protected areas that have previously allowed some utilisation within their borders (in other words moving from an IUCN category V or VI protected area to one closer to category Ia. some related issues are discussed in section 5 following. to deal with the emerging management challenges and opportunities. Increasing the level of protection for carbon stores within protected areas In some cases. In such cases. Other management solutions to address adaptation Maintaining ecosystem function generally requires management of large areas. These store over 71. Many of these skills will also be needed by local communities and others managing land for protection outside government agencies and indeed protected area agencies may in some cases be a useful conduit for such information. as do the likely impacts of climate change itself on ecosystem functioning. such as in peatlands. Russian Federation. and to maintain ecosystem resilience. Focusing some management specifically on mitigation and adaptation needs To implement the management effectiveness and management planning issues identified above. In general carbon storage and sequestration needs to be measured and planned for at a landscape scale rather than simply within individual sites and will be subject to some trade-offs. will ensure a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 1. often larger than the boundaries of an individual protected area. extra steps may be justified to maximise protection for carbon stored in protected areas. 5. more catastrophic losses.Opportunities to use protected areas to address climate change
From a mitigation and adaptation perspective. Ib or II).

but some of the key elements are worth outlining. costs and benefits of engineered solutions or behaviour-based solutions be addressed. This has had severe consequences for cultural sites and wildlife. ecosystem restoration. Wildfires have increased dramatically since Aboriginal people left the area several decades ago. and changing production practices employed by economic sectors. Moreover the costs of ecosystem-based adaptation will depend on the management system employed. The first four years have been successful. offsets the emissions from a liquefied natural gas plant in Darwin. The project. political and cultural grounds. the Northern Territory Government and the Northern Land Council. it can also reduce carbon emissions. As part of the arrangement.76
Section 4 CASE STUDY
A partnership between Aboriginal owners and a liquefied natural gas producer in Australia is improving wild fire management to offset greenhouse gas emissions. Although some fires are ecologically necessary.
• What are the comparative costs and benefits of ecosystem-based adaptation in a long-term versus other adaptation options? The opportunity costs of conservation need to be factored into this equation. Australia
areas as a tool for climate change responses are beyond the scope of this publication. and what evidence (scientific or Traditional Ecological Knowledge) exists to show that the options are feasible? • What are the thresholds for failure in buffering risks (this question also applies to engineered solutions: a typical question would be: what is the maximum rainfall that wetlands can absorb. The new management strategy creates a mosaic of patch burns across the landscape early in the dry season. in which case the question arises as to what protected areas design and management system is appropriate. a partnership between Aboriginal traditional owners and indigenous ranger groups. • What can existing protected areas do to contribute to ecosystem-based adaptation and what new protected areas might need to be established to supply the necessary services? • What other benefits (economic and non-economic) might such protected areas supply to be included within cost comparisons? • How do local communities and other stakeholders view the various options? Ecosystem-based adaptation solutions should not be pursued in an ad hoc way – but assessed and developed as part of comprehensive national adaptation strategies. including in protected areas. limiting both spread of wildfires and greenhouse gas emissions. There has been a significant reduction in destructive wildfires. without leading to catastrophic flooding?). Darwin Liquefied Natural Gas (DLNG). • What measures are needed to maintain resilience? • What other adaptation options exist? This would require that the feasibility. The lessons learned have potential application across fire-prone tropical Australia and other tropical savannahs. wildfire is increasing as a result of carelessness. Eventually they will need to be assessed and compared with other options and decisions made on economic.000 km2 of Western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. payments for ecosystem services. • What ecosystem management options exist? • Which option is most suitable given the local socioeconomic and ecological context? Options could include protected area establishment. savannah fires are now also the greatest source of greenhouse gases in the Northern Territory. arson and the impacts of climate change. DLNG is providing around Aus$1 million a year for the next 17 years for fire management. Wildfires are responsible for roughly 40 per cent of fossil fuel carbon emissions490. and insurance schemes. to reduce threats to ecosystems. abating the equivalent of around 122. however it will take time to discover if this has produced a recovery in the status of threatened species.
. Source: Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Savannas Management.000 t CO2 a year.
Appropriate fire management is a major issue for social. In Australia. Major companies are investigating the feasibility of entering into similar offset agreements using this approach491. economic and cultural reasons. The following questions need to be answered in developing an ecosystem-based adaptation strategy: • What are the ecosystem-based options available. indigenous ranger groups are implementing strategic fire management across 28. • What incentives are needed to sustain ecosystembased adaptation? These may include for instance tax credits.

Amongst other benefits.2 million t CO2 equivalent over 30 years. and specifically to address the opportunities to invest in the maintenance of essential ecosystem services that will be vital to effective climate change adaptation. mixed endemic species plantations and fuelwood plantations.0-1. until they are compared with the annual value of total goods and services provided by protected areas. fruit gardens. Yet in the same period. freshwater. Carbon credits will be channelled back into communities and further incentives range from additional health care to support in establishing sustainable agriculture. provide alternative income through carbon credits and in addition offers five specific sustainable livelihood activities for local communities: forest gardens. the world’s protected areas have grown by almost 100 per cent in number and 60 per cent in area. For the role of protected areas in mitigating and adapting to climate change laid out in this report to be realised. This gap in funding is currently not being addressed. The project is expected to secure 10 million t CO2 equivalent over 30 years505. despite commitments made to the CBD PoWPA498.7 billion a year493. The idea of linking multiple benefits into Payment for Environmental Services schemes is gaining widespread attention502. saroka gardens. The alternative is to forego the huge contribution that systems of protected areas could make to address climate impacts. such as the management of peat. CASE STUDY
In Madagascar. US$23 billion a year494 up to US$45 billion per year495. An analysis of government funding of protected areas in over fifty countries carried out in 2008 suggested that financial support is generally declining. particularly in times of economic downturn. Protected areas are expected to provide triple benefits in the form of carbon storage and capture. Protected areas should be included as a key component of national REDD and other land use strategies.78
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Financing effective protected area networks
KEY MESSAGES Despite some welcome initiatives. Source: Conservation International
Background Since the CBD came into force in 1993. For example. the Mantadia forest corridor restoration project is restoring 3. grasslands. The project also aims to reduce slash and burn agriculture. These shortfalls seem to represent massive amounts of money. current funding for protected areas remains inadequate. at 425. marine and soil carbon stores as part of mitigation action.200 billion. international financing for biodiversity conservation has grown only 38 per cent492.
. which are estimated to be between US$4. and that may result in even more costly measures having to be taken at a later stage. estimates of global shortfalls range from US$1. forest conservation projects aim both to address the causes of climate change through sequestration and to help communities in adapting to existing climate change pressures.000 t CO2 equivalent by 2012 and 1. provision of a range of ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation501.020 ha of forest linking the Antasibe and Mantidia protected areas503. Taking into account the benefits of climate mitigation and adaptation amongst the outputs from protected area system increases recognition of the true value of protected areas and should be taken into consideration by various financial mechanisms. and ecological gap analyses should be used to help identify priority investments from a climate perspective.
Around six million hectares of new protected areas are being created in Madagascar – responsible for 4 million t of avoided CO2 a year. The Ankeniheny-Zahama corridor. New opportunities Climate change incentive mechanisms open up a number of new opportunities that should be factored into national planning and financing. will be conserved by local communities under contractual agreements.400 and US$5. Current financing for protected areas is generally judged to be inadequate. depending on the level of resource use permitted within protected areas497.000 ha one of the largest tracts of remaining forest in the country. A separate estimate suggested that funding a comprehensive marine protected areas system covering 20-30 per cent of the seas and oceans would cost US$5-19 billion a year496. Habitat restoration and reforestation are together expected to sequester 113. the current protected areas are important in ameliorating floods504. which provide them with secure legal access to forests and use rights under a quota system. Countries should explore opportunities to include “other” sequestration mechanisms. this shortfall will have to be confronted.

REDD has the potential to address several critical issues within a single mechanism: mitigation of climate change. To date other natural carbon stores. Similarly. and wetlands. such REDD activities may have the perverse effect of placing renewed pressure on the protected areas estate. reporting and verification systems on a nationwide basis. REDD incentives focused on the most carbon-rich forest ecosystems may devalue other habitats. some freshwaters and marine ecosystems such as seagrass beds will not fall under REDD.Opportunities to use protected areas to address climate change
Background Forests. Most discussions about REDD focus on avoiding forest loss in multiple-use landscapes. although in theory they might do so in the future. in Bali Indonesia in 2007. However. REDD schemes should incorporate biodiversity safeguards and be part of a broader national land-use planning process that takes into account the needs of people and wildlife as it optimizes land-based carbon sequestration. It is also possible that maintenance of carbon stored in other ecosystems. and historically have had low emissions levels from deforestation and forest degradation as a result. which may not in fact be well protected. The details of what REDD will mean in practise are still to be worked out. this could change. and possibly other habitats. As of this writing. Agreement was reached at the 13th UNFCC Conference of Parties (COP). to develop a mechanism to compensate reduced emissions from avoided deforestation and degradation in the replacement to Kyoto. Compensation may occur within a system of nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) with relatively flexible accounting standards and supported through fund-based mechanisms. particularly on local and indigenous people. contained within protected areas offer important potential for “reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation” (REDD). including protected areas and indigenous and community conserved areas.
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effective management of protected areas or other means. National baselines will help insure against leakage that may occur in any individual project. Depending on national REDD implementation strategies adopted. meaning that protection of existing forests fall outside the mechanism. This is important so as to avoid creating perverse incentives for conservation. predictable and long-term funding. Existing forest conservation efforts. need to be taken into account when establishing national REDD programmes so as not to penalise these efforts. either through the establishment and
* Under the UNFCCC Kyoto Process Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). project-based approaches may continue as a good way of addressing local drivers of forest loss and insuring accountability and equity of REDD strategies. REDD policies must take into account the need to fortify protected areas against potential incursions due to the implementation of REDD elsewhere. which will require capacity building and continuous. Governments will ultimately choose how to reduce emissions. Strong international support exists for the development of social safeguard policies and other guidelines to ensure broad stakeholder consultations and programme designs that avoid adverse effects. increased human well-being and poverty alleviation. but forests in protected areas also offer important options in conjunction with commercial or community forest management outside those areas. only afforestation and reforestation projects are eligible to be used as offsets. wide participation in REDD initiatives from among forested developing countries will guard against international displacement of deforestation (international leakage). initial plans to make REDD incentive only available to high emitting countries that have undertaken deep cuts seems to be giving way to inclusion of the full Bali Action Plan’s definition of REDD (i. Most REDD funding is expected to go to both countries and to regions within countries that are currently experiencing the highest rates of deforestation. However there will be challenges for protected areas in implementing REDD in overall forest policy.
. National governments would therefore have to negotiate a scientifically-defensible reference emission level from deforestation and forest degradation. The Stern report510 suggests that US$10 billion/year would be needed to implement REDD mechanisms. The major policy negotiations currently underway envision the establishment of reference emissions levels and monitoring. peatlands. While interventions in high deforestation areas might stem forest loss locally. could be eligible for funding under REDDtype mechanisms508. that have reduced reference deforestation levels. which are also crucial for biodiversity and which may provide other significant ecosystem services. such as peat. Pros and cons of REDD The resources needed to effectively implement REDD throughout the developing countries are substantial: figures of up to US$55 billion a year have been suggested509 although there are major differences in predictions about both the potential for reducing deforestation through financial incentives and the likely money available. and will design the internal incentive and policy mechanisms to reduce emissions from land use change and forestry. reduced land degradation. such as grasslands. which is also now explicitly investigating the potential synergies between protected areas and carbon sequestration and storage.e. improved biodiversity conservation. There is also discussion about the need for REDD to recognise the efforts and cater to the needs of countries that have already invested in conservation. inclusion of conservation of standing forests and enhancement of carbon stocks or “REDD Plus”). and reduce emissions below that level in order to receive compensation through REDD mechanisms. Institutions such as the World Bank and the United Nations are investing in REDD projects. or under a market-based approach that would be financed by private sector investors seeking more preciselymeasured emissions reductions. Many institutions already assume that protected areas will be a part of REDD506 and the need for a global network of forest protected areas has been identified under the CBD507. such as wetlands and grasslands. Methods to measure and verify reductions resulting from changes in land-use and management are currently being developed under the UNFCCC*.

to certify forests in protected areas.Opportunities to use protected areas to address climate change
Table 10: Comparison of elements in the WWF Meta-standard framework for carbon projects with likely conditions in protected areas Issue
Carbon accounting
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Details
Additionality
Protected area implications
REDD funding should only usually be applicable to new protected areas in areas where forests are at risk or to protected areas where independent assessment shows clearly that vegetation is being lost or degraded and where additional resources could reduce this. Protected areas aim to protect native vegetation in perpetuity. Application of a range of management approaches and governance types can help.
Leakage
Permanence
Social and environmental impacts
Stakeholder consultation
Sustainable development
Identification of High Conservation Values Assessment of environmental impacts Long-term viability
Similarly. The IUCN definition of a protected area stresses the long-term nature of protection as a key feature that distinguishes protected areas from other forms of sustainable and nature-friendly land use. Some protected area certification schemes exist. Protected areas increasingly adhere to rigorous social and environmental safeguards to ensure that they do not undermine livelihoods. for example IUCN category VI extractive reserves facilitate sustainable collection of valuable products (such as non-timber forest products) whilst maintaining living trees: an ideal scenario for a REDD project if the forest would otherwise have been under threat.
. Protected areas are increasingly required to have strong stakeholder processes – for example this is a requirement for new protected areas established under the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas. e. the Pan Parks scheme in Europe and green ecotourism schemes. i.g. It is reflected in a growing number of selfdeclared protected areas by indigenous peoples’ communities. there is now a range of methodologies for assessing the environmental benefits of protected areas in terms of e.. by establishment of timber plantations or other renewable energy sources. although some development work would be needed. proper registration procedures and issuance and tracking are not discussed in this table. if fire control uses prescribed burns to reduce fuel.g. This will only apply to some places in some countries (and would be applicable in forest outside protected areas). Analysis will be needed to ensure that establishment of a protected area does not simply move forest loss elsewhere. There are also a growing number of certification schemes developing especially for REDD projects. Approaches exist for accounting for such losses.e. such as the Forest Stewardship Council. water supply.g. Methodologies for monitoring and assessing management effectiveness of protected areas have developed rapidly over the past decade.g. Some of these already address issues relating to carbon (for example monitoring of forest cover through remote sensing) and it would be possible to integrate carbon accounting into existing assessments. Protected areas are selected specifically for their value to conservation and an increasingly sophisticated set of tools are available to identify suitable sites. This could be complicated if vegetation removal is part of management: e. Some protected areas also use existing schemes. soil stabilisation or protection of communities from climatic extremes. that any loss of resources to local communities is adequately compensated e. Either approach could be applied to carbon accounting under REDD. others are being developed.
Validation and certification
Validation
Certification
Note that some purely technical issues common to all carbon offset projects – such as avoidance of double counting.

and the paper park syndrome. reportable. together results in continued emissions from these sites • Immediate emerging REDD frameworks will most likely reward reduced emissions against national baselines • Indigenous lands and protected areas will have to make the case that they reduce emissions • Their advocates must focus on placement of new reserves and better management of existing ones if REDD funding is to be accessed Source: WWF We argue for a balance in approaches. not for the carbon stocks themselves). Protected areas are ideally suited and tested conduits for such initiatives. such as: an agency linked to the relevant ministry. representing 8 billion t of avoided carbon emissions527.
. Many countries also have associated NGOs to help implementation.84
Section 4
The potential for carbon sequestration from protected areas and indigenous peoples’ lands in the Amazon: results of a workshop at Stanford University
Combining maps of carbon stocks. Brazil favours non-offset rules (Amazon Fund). models of future land use change. tropical forests. This could include measures to avoid deforestation and forest degradation in biodiversity hotspots. Protected areas offer several advantages in terms of carbon sequestration. and investing in measures to protect threatened species. Peru allows project-based offsets that directly benefit the areas being protected. such as reforestation and afforestation in protected area buffer zones.e. Credits are therefore most likely for newly established sites in areas of current deforestation.
in existence for voluntary schemes (e. verifiable (MRV) ways • How much depends on location. Location is important: those protected areas and indigenous lands in areas of high deforestation risk have more potential to reduce emissions by lowering that risk. so that funding protected areas under REDD can fit into an existing framework. plus associated capacity such as equipment. which are also a focus for many conservation strategies516. Advantages of including protected areas in REDD programmes: One way of reducing forest loss and degradation is to set forests permanently aside from development – the philosophy of both REDD and of many protected area management models – so incorporating REDD mechanisms into protected area networks is a potentially powerful way of achieving both ends simultaneously. though markets could be allowed to operate. • Carbon storage is likely to be particularly high in biodiversity-rich. the fact that many indigenous peoples organisations and local communities are already investigating REDD schemes suggests that many do not see these problems as intractable. the Climate Community and Biodiversity Alliance). data management systems and consultation procedures (although improving all of these is a potential use for REDD funds where capacity is low or lacking). Bolivia and Brazil (three in protected areas and one on indigenous lands) demonstrating the potential of and challenges to REDD projects using these mechanisms. • Most countries have laws and policies governing protected areas. or for existing sites that improve their management and reduce deforestation and degradation. and other areas with high human population growth where intervention might not otherwise be as cost effective. • Most countries also already have an institutional framework for protected areas. and whether this carbon is currently vulnerable • Funding gaps for protected areas and indigenous lands. The conference concluded that: • Indigenous lands and protected areas can be attractive options for REDD frameworks and can reduce deforestation in measurable. which have been mentioned above but are worth summarising in this context: • Effectively managed protected areas usually offer complete protection for forests. • Most countries have a cadre of trained protected area staff. funding. One study found that together they are likely to prevent an estimated 670. etc. However. and a staffing structure. coupled with a strong policy framework. but only if there are sufficient social and environmental safeguards in place to ensure that REDD delivers real benefits within a framework that maximises social benefits to those most in need. Four REDD projects were described at the workshop. particularly in protected areas that include more stringent controls on use (IUCN categories I-IV). and information on location and management of protected areas and indigenous lands allows estimates of their impact on REDD. Protected areas and indigenous lands could be credited under likely emerging REDD frameworks but probably only for the “additional” emissions they avoid (i. both for biodiversity conservation and for people living in natural forests. There are potential benefits from a REDD mechanism. so that the application of REDD would have a readymade infrastructure.000 km² of deforestation by 2050 in the Brazilian Amazon alone. Stopping forest loss is the most urgent priority for use of potential REDD funds at present. which has already been identified as a key requirement of REDD. in Peru. laws. agreed standards for protected areas. there is also significant potential to develop enhanced REDD initiatives that compensate for other ecosystem services vital to climate change adaptation. thus maximising the climate benefits and making measurement and accounting relatively easy.g. • Protected areas usually have systems for establishing and codifying land tenure agreements. without long political and legal delays.

and describing mechanisms to avoid emissions leakage including broadscale assessment methods526. Permanence: developing mechanisms for improving guarantees of permanence in non-state protected areas. Assessment of environmental and social impacts: outline of methods used in assessing additional benefits from REDD projects in terms of environmental services.
SOLUTIONS Forest protected areas provide viable and practical tools for implementing REDD within national adaptation strategies. such as peat. Proper application will be a pre-requisite of success and for public acceptance of REDD offset schemes524. Forests that would be particularly valuable include those with the highest levels of biomass. might store as much or more carbon than a forest. Validation and certification: identification of how carbon accounting could be integrated into existing management effectiveness assessments. such as the peat forests of south-east Asia where carbon in living trees is dwarfed by carbon stored below-ground525 and other forests of the tropics. a number of developments or refinements are required: Additionality and leakage: spelling out clearly how additionality can be assured in protected area projects and what would count as additionality in terms of protected area creation and management. Would “upgrading” of an area currently protecting a forest under a less rigorous scheme into a full protected area “count” under REDD? Examples might be changing the status of forest reserves into protected areas. In order to maximise this potential. these steps are taken as a framework and the implications for protected areas discussed. Ensuring social equity and environmental success WWF has identified critical steps needed to ensure that potential REDD projects are effective and socially equitable523.
. poverty reduction and other social issues relevant to human well-being. including in company reserves and indigenous and community conserved areas. In table 10. How would the offsets be calculated in the case of capacity building? Would REDD projects be confined to forests? Protection or restoration of other vegetation types. and an outline of how certification processes could either be adapted for protected areas or. Potential gains in terms of climate change will vary depending on the type of forest. particularly with indigenous and local communities. how they could be modified to include carbon accounting. with the potential to address successfully some of the criticisms of REDD schemes that have arisen to date. its age and associated soils and vegetation. Stakeholder consultation and active involvement: agreeing minimum standards for stakeholder consultation and involvement in REDD schemes associated with protected areas. in the case of those already used in protected areas.86
Section 4
There are a number of issues relating to protected areas that are still to be worked out.

. management and governance
Protected areas themselves face many problems related to climate change. and conclude that protected area systems will be able to cope with a large proportion of these pressures and maintain their values and services. This brief section offers some suggestions for adaptation actions to maintain the effectiveness of protected areas in conserving biodiversity. maintaining ecosystem services and contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation. these problems must be overcome before the incremental impacts of climate change can be addressed. At present. We summarise some of the key threats identified.87
Section 5 Implications of climate change for protected area design. provided that the predicted course of climate change and resilience building principles are explicitly included in design and management. most protected area systems remain incomplete and many are inadequately managed. or protected areas can achieve their full potential.

and the Arctic tundra. structure and function of natural ecosystems. but the areas projected to be most vulnerable include the Amazon region. Only seven or eight species were predicted to lose all suitable habitats530. One study modelled shifts in distribution of all sub-Saharan African breeding birds. varying from an average of 24 per cent in Africa to 46 per cent in Europe529. forest dieback and wildfire. pressures from invasive species. the study found that in the Cape 78 per cent of species met the representation target for future range. These studies look at climate impacts alone and assume that species are otherwise secure. especially those resulting from the impacts of climate change on human settlements and resource use. found theoretical losses of 6-11 per cent of the bioclimatic range of species within Europe by 2050531. These findings are important indicators of future trends under changing climate. and associated human pressures. using an “ideal” rather than the actual reserve network. Changes are expected everywhere. For now. and in Europe 94 per cent. backed by field observations. Another study applied distribution modelling in three regions: Mexico. few protected area systems are ‘complete’ – a global analysis estimated that 6-11 per cent of mammals and 16-17 per cent of amphibians were “gap species” with inadequate protection. climate change is likely to have a transformational impact on ecosystems. and are fully ecologically representative and well managed. and parts of the fynbos biome will be transformed to more arid. In fact. at risk from forest invasion528. This is not always the case at present. which have fixed locations and are often isolated. loss of suitable conditions for individual species. and major changes in ecosystem functions and ecological processes. but there is evidence that well designed protected area systems may be able to withstand climate change reasonably well.
The challenge Modelling exercises. include resilience building principles. the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa and Western Europe. Climate models undertaken in South Africa have indicated that large areas in the south and western parts of the country. if they are designed to take future climate change into account. Assuming a completed protected area network. In some areas. research on 1. In fact modelling and field observations show mixed responses. will be particularly vulnerable. What is less well understood is the relationship between ecosystem resilience and the maintenance of ecosystem services upon which so much of climate mitigation and adaptation action depends. within the Succulent and Nama Karoo. threatened by drought. alteration of fire and other disturbance regimes and extreme weather events. It predicted that species turnover (local extinction and replacement by other species) across Africa’s Important Bird Area (IBA) network will involve over half the priority species at 42 per cent of IBAs by 2085. poor connectivity. in Mexico 89 per cent retained full representation. but in the whole network 88–92 per cent of priority species would find suitable habitat in one or more of the IBA(s) where they are currently found. ecologically representative protected area networks. Many individual protected areas are likely to lose habitats and species.
. provide the basis for assessment of climate change impact on ecosystems. desert like conditions – an ecosystem not presently found within the boundaries of the country. if the current protected area system was assessed. Impacts will come from habitat loss. parts of the boreal forest. It might be expected that protected areas. However. leading to extreme risk of species extinction. So as things stand. we are making the assumption that an important component of maintaining ecosystem resilience is the maintenance of the underlying composition. survival of many more species was jeopardised532. with the percentage larger for threatened species533. Similarly. climate change may have even greater impacts for protected areas than elsewhere as systems are not fully representative and there is a northerly bias in protection where more extreme climate change is predicted534. based on the bioclimatic model and scenario used 10 per cent of endemic Proteaceae have restricted ranges within areas of the biome that are likely to be lost. A loss of the fynbos biome of between 51 and 65 per cent is expected by 2050. Researchers at The Nature Conservancy studied potential climate-related vegetation shifts at an ecoregional level and found potential vegetation changes on 34 per cent of global non-ice areas from 1990-2100. in well managed.88
Section 5
Likely climate change impacts on protected areas
KEY MESSAGES Studies suggest that under moderate change scenarios protected area systems will be reasonably robust in terms of sustaining biodiversity.200 plant European species. For example one study estimated that between 37-48 per cent of Canada’s protected areas could experience a change in terrestrial biome type due to climate change535.

however more of Bangladesh’s natural mangrove forests.5 million people and offer protection from cyclones in southwest Bangladesh580. break up storm waves that exceed four metres in height581 and result in the areas with good mangrove coverage suffering less from wind and wave surges than those areas with less or no mangroves582. The natural protective functions of mangroves have proved to be effective in mitigating storm damage. in terms of lives and livelihoods lost. The Sundarbans bore the brunt of cyclone. and only one area. it is also one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to the effects of climate change574.90
Section 5 CASE STUDY
Low-lying Bangladesh is more vulnerable to flooding than most countries. “climate change could be a double whammy for coastal flooding. as predicted. higher storm surges could also result in over-topping of saline water behind the embankments. with serious impacts underway547. despite World Heritage status. need to be effectively protected to ensure these vital ecosystem services can mitigate climate change impacts. As the ecosystem services provided by natural habitats have failed through environmental degradation. and be very destructive575. Protected areas also lack trained and dedicated personnel and infrastructure for adequate management585. the width of the mangrove belt is rapidly being diminished583 and some 50 per cent of the forest has been lost over the last fifty years584. USA. The human toll of these events is dreadful – with those affected by floods always in the many millions.
consistent temperature-related shift in species ranging from molluscs to mammals and from grasses to trees544. and climate predictions suggest that flooding will increase. optimum habitat for many species will move to higher elevations or higher latitudes. particularly in relation to amphibians548.) Climate change associated with an El Niño/Southern Oscillationrelated drought in 1986/7 is thought to have caused amphibian losses in Monteverde Cloud Forest. with average range shifts of 6. Analysis of global climate models suggest a five-fold increase in rainfall during the Asian monsoon over the next 100 years. particularly in areas that are currently protected by embankments” 577. consistent with predictions of climate-induced extirpation of high-elevation species546. Normal flooding (barsha) affects about 30 per cent of Bangladesh each year. Mean summer temperature during
this period averaged 0. During the later half of the twentieth century a series of coastal embankments were constructed in Bangladesh to protect low lying lands from tidal inundation and salinity penetration. a detailed survey in a 30 km2
. The embankments. thus saving residents near this area from more disastrous consequences. The golden toad (Bufo periglenes) and harlequin frog (Atelopus varius) disappeared551. Where there is no higher ground or where changes are taking place too quickly for ecosystems and species to adjust. Observations suggest that tropical montane cloud forests are at high risk due to fewer clouds and warmer temperatures. The most disastrous floods. settlements are well adapted to flood. the thick growth of mangrove trees successfully reduced the intensity of both the wind and the storm surge587. The effectiveness of the mangrove buffer was reinforced after Cyclone Sidr in 2007. Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. As average temperature increases. and four other frog and two lizard species suffered population crashes. seven arctic-alpine vascular plants at or near the southern limits of their ranges were studied in Glacier National Park. The Sundarbans are the largest mangrove forest in the world578. A similar study of 1700 species also confirmed climate change predictions. Only 15 per cent of the Sundarbans ecoregion is strictly protected. however. Four species declined in abundance from 31-65 per cent. while none increased. Due to deforestation. Abnormal flooding (bonya) can submerge more than 50 per cent of the total land area. The mangroves’ extensive root systems help stabilise wet land and coastlines. local losses or global extinctions will occur unless there are direct interventions (such as artificial translocation of species). with major implications for flooding in Bangladesh576. As the OECD concludes. is considered large enough adequately to protect ecosystem functions. the Sundarbans. and represent about 43 per cent of the total natural forest in Bangladesh579. recognised as a natural World Heritage site. The land created behind the embankments has been converted to highly valuable agricultural land.
Bangladesh tops the list of countries facing the highest mortality rate from multiple hazards573. which provide major benefits in terms of soil fertilisation and the provision of breeding grounds for fish. block the drainage of freshwater from the land on the other side of the barriers after excess rainfall and /or riverine flooding. Natural habitats able to mitigate the impacts of hazards do still exist in Bangladesh.6 °C higher than the previous four decades. If sea-levels rise. (Amphibian species are declining throughout the world549. from 1989 to 2002. They provide a subsistence living to 3. a wellmanaged protected area in Costa Rica550. however. occur in the coastal areas when high tides coincide with the major cyclones586.1 km/decade towards the poles545. Species at the extremes of their ranges are likely to be impacted first. For example. infrastructure has been developed in their place.

Joshua Tree National Park may lose the tree for which it is named.
SOLUTIONS Complete fully representative protected area networks: studies suggest that protected area systems can continue to be reasonably effective. Extreme events: in addition to gradual shifts in species. Step up measures to increase effectiveness: climate change will operate in tandem with existing pressures from human use. Recognise that there will be tradeoffs: climate change will have a transformational effect on natural ecosystems. it will also facilitate working with stakeholders to modify approaches to resource use that could undermine ecosystem integrity. In Lake Constance. but only if they are completed. the proportion of long-distance migrant birds decreased and short-distance migrants and residents increased between 1980 and 1992. a Ramsar site at the border of Germany. This will have a bearing on decisions regarding where to focus investments geared to adapting protected area management. Flora is also being affected. Austria and Switzerland. Promote connectivity: ensuring that protected area systems are ecologically linked through use of buffer zones.
. biological corridors and stepping stones to facilitate genetic interchange. which can accelerate the impacts already being caused by resource exploitation. during a period when winter temperature increased. The costs and benefits of adaptation measures required to maintain ecosystem integrity within protected areas will need to be considered in the context of the likelihood of success. though there will be a huge asymmetry between regions in terms of the scale of impacts. leading to increased fire risk570. Juniperus procera woodlands of the Asir Highlands of Saudi Arabia are exhibiting widespread decline. as reduced soil moisture and aeration. climate change can also affect ecosystem functioning and increase drought and fire risk. Climate change is an additional pressure. Researchers predict that because of climate warming the Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia) will be unable to persist much longer within the park569. suggesting that warmer winters may pose a particularly severe threat to long-distance migrants566. driving reefs increasingly toward functional collapse. for example. linked to climate change568. In the USA. Warmer conditions are blamed for increased fires in many protected area systems. the study concluded that climate change is now the biggest threat to coral reefs572. Increases in mean annual temperature of around 3°C in the Peak District National Park in the UK may result in a reduction of 25 per cent in the extent of blanket bog. and increased oxidation of peat soils change vegetation type from blanket bog to dry heath and acid grassland. pollution and degradation. Extra human pressure: impacts from climate change cannot usually be assessed in isolation from human pressures. Understanding how resource uses will change under a range of climate change scenarios can help managers foresee impacts on protected areas. posing direct threats to protected areas such as the Swiss National Park567. particularly in Australia571.92
Section 5
and Australia565 show similar patterns of birds arriving at their breeding grounds earlier and delaying departure. recent research suggests that climate change is exacerbating existing local stresses from declining water quality and overexploitation of key species. Climatic warming observed in the European Alps has been associated with upward movement of some plant species of 1-4 metres per decade and loss of some high altitude species. In coral reefs. ecologically representative and designed with increasing options for resilience. given that it will not be possible to maintain the status quo.

protected area planning and management must evolve if the opportunities identified here are to be maximised. but also to align protected area systems to changing environmental conditions such as marine incursions as necessary. to the wider community. This section therefore looks briefly at some of the steps needed to maintain resilience in protected area systems and individual protected areas. Implementing management effectively: to minimise existing stresses on protected areas and thus strengthen their resilience to climate change591. with implications for planning. Improving and maintaining a comprehensive and representative reserve system: in particular to expand the number of core. Capacity building: changing management to build the skills and knowledge needed to manage protected areas under conditions of climate change and to integrate protected areas into wider efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. assessment. capacity. Protected areas thus become a core part – often the core part – of broader strategies to build resilience into natural and semi-natural ecosystems. and on their relationship with the wider landscape or seascape. innovations and practices related to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. thereby contributing to sectoral and community-based adaptation. important refugia areas. similar protected areas590. reflecting forecasts of future ambient weather conditions. Investing in quality information: management of research to ensure that the information to help manage rapidly changing environments is readily available to protected area managers and. (ii) existing protected areas are managed for their present and future conservation values. changes to biomes. which have implications for planning. and from a climate change mitigation perspective to ensure additionality593. under climate change. This can act to help ensure support from stakeholders and to unleash the potential value of many traditional approaches to conservation by collecting. for example. which are effectively buffered and linked ecologically to other. Some general management considerations Those managing protected area systems under climate change need to consider a range of issues that are new or newly emphasised. strictly protected areas. and to use this for the purposes of conserving biodiversity and supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation functions. through them. In addition. and areas of importance to facilitate the movement of species where feasible589. so that: (i) protected area systems are expanded and integrated as part of large scale natural areas.
As outlined in section 4. incentive schemes and policy instruments. protected area agencies have the potential to be major facilitators of natural resource management in the wider landscape. policy and training. with protected areas identified and designated using full knowledge of and accommodation for likely climate changes. These need to address resilience both at a general ecosystem level and also at the finer scale of species and genetic diversity. (iii) connectivity ensures that protected areas are embedded into the wider landscape and seascape and (iv) additional benefits in terms of mitigation and adaptation to climate change are maximised. Individual protected areas will need adaptive management to meet changing conditions. in a dynamic environment. Facilitating connectivity: to ensure that protected areas are linked both with other protected areas and with land and water that is managed in ways that help to maintain genetic links and ecosystem functioning in the wider landscape and seascape. encouraged through. and day to day management and include: Forecasting: to decide on the number and location of protected areas. conserving and disseminating traditional and local knowledge. with prior and informed consent from traditional knowledge holders596. Using flexible approaches: exploring new management models594 and governance options595 to maximise the flexibility of the system and its effectiveness.
. although restoration will need careful planning to account for natural disturbance and for social and cultural values. Retaining and restoring key habitats: applying restoration techniques as necessary to regain or to increase the degree of ecological integrity and to strengthen resilience592.Implications for protected area management and governance
93
Planning and managing protected areas under climate change
KEY MESSAGES Protected area systems will need to be adjusted and often expanded to fulfil their potential climate response roles of mitigation and adaptation.

maximising utilisation of renewable energy sources588. ecological baselines. In many situations. changing conditions and new threats. • Recognising the need to accommodate the predicted changes in rivers flows and coastal topography601. If adaptation strategies are implemented proactively. resource management responses and the skills and knowledge needed to adapt to climate change. Planning – individual protected areas • Allowing as much altitudinal. north and south facing slopes. This new additional emphasis for protected areas implies more resources and a paradigm shift in approaches to management and expectations amongst staff. glacial lake burst. Individual protected area management teams could thus provide the conduit for wider access to knowledge and skills in natural resource management under rapidly changing climatic conditions. leading by example and playing a key role in education and awareness-raising. for example on weather patterns. particularly if the gradient change is abrupt604. • Linking the management of protected areas and buffer zones into land use planning and management systems at landscape level. and community services. natural adaptation and evolution. to facilitate dispersal as temperature and precipitation change. • Seeking to include topographic heterogeneity within a protected area to provide room for utilisation of new sites by species (e. • Seeking to maintain viable ecosystems and populations of species to facilitate rapid. Planning – buffer zones • Encouraging establishment of buffer zones around protected areas through use of sympathetic management such as sustainable forest management. there is also a wider role open to protected areas in providing information and resources to the wider community.g. implemented with prior informed consent by local communities. etc. longitudinal and altitudinal gradients that allow species to shift ranges quickly. • Maximising potential conservation gains from predicted climate changes: such as new areas of coastal wetland. which manage economic activities to ensure the overall ecological integrity of the landscape. (ii) climate refugia at all scales599 including for marine species600.
. recycling. • Assuring the involvement of stakeholders. along with educational material and facilities for adults and children. and conserving species throughout their range and variability. with multiple designations and management approaches. emergency responses. they can also be major sources of practical experience about management responses. by for example minimising greenhouse gas emissions caused by consuming fossil fuel energy through aircraft use. life cycle assessment of materials used. new vegetation assemblages. with more than one area designated for each important habitat and community type597. and (iii) areas where climate is predicted to be stable. protected areas should also be exemplars of the principles of sustainable management. some other important issues in relation to developing protected area networks include: Planning – designing representative systems and identifying potential new protected areas • Designing at least some protected areas to be as large as possible. returning to traditional management practices. • Reducing fragmentation and maximising large-scale connectivity between protected areas603 and the introduction of active management to these large scale natural areas (with the caveat that some areas may need to remain isolated in a trade-off between genetic interchange and risk of invasive species). They should demonstrate a full range of adaptation and mitigation responses to climate change. use of effective design. Policy and legislation relating to planning resilient protected area systems • Ensuring strong political support for the maintenance and expansion of protected areas. heating and cooling. to reduce the probability of all viable habitats being lost598. • Facilitating large-scale conservation corridors to include an latitudinal. local and indigenous communities as well as national interest
Providing a greater role in the surrounding landscape and community: such as education and advice on management in changing conditions. and by facilitating the use of public transport to reach protected areas. elevation differences and presence of valleys). • Focusing particularly on maintenance of: (i) vulnerable ecosystems and species. waste management. Challenge 1 Building representative and resilient protected area networks In addition to the general points above. stream drying.94
Section 5
Protected areas as models for adaptation
In addition to immediate management issues. technology and insulation. invasive species etc605.602. designation of agricultural land suitable for extensification606. latitudinal and longitudinal variation as possible within individual protected areas. fires. Protected areas will often be the only source of local information on weather. or changing fishing permits607. so as to sustain ecosystem functions and resilience. • Factoring predicted stress factors into management plans: such as drought.

modelling. Some of these are introduced in more detail below: Assessment Currently protected area managers seek to understand their site’s biological values and. managerial (e.g. changing flux of water in ephemeral wetlands. ice-melt616. • Identifying key indicators (species. requiring: • An understanding of the amount of carbon stored within the protected area. including in the country of origin609. threshold of potential concern. control measures against harmful invasive species619 and new diseases caused by or exacerbated by changing climate. hurricanes. Adaptive management often starts by strengthening existing management612. to maximise the ability of protected area staff to meet changing conditions613. forecasting. Training and capacity building to develop a new approach to protected area systems • Providing detailed training for managers and rangers covering technical (e. procedures for translocation of species that cannot move quickly enough themselves in the event of altitudinal changes in weather conditions. torrential rain. ecological processes etc) that can be used to monitor any future changes in climate and ecosystem responses624. Challenge 2 Adaptive management of existing protected areas A considerable amount of the world’s land surface is already in protected areas. etc. information provision. to help ensure that species are conserved and may one day be returned to nature. negotiation. new management challenges) and social (e. • Introducing new approaches to managing visitors in light of expected changes to the ecology and the biome: such as additional fire hazards. increasingly. ramification of changes) issues. yet much of this is still inadequately managed and under threat. • Planning. catastrophic weather events such as typhoons. Implications for managers The changes listed above imply a major new role and new challenges for protected area managers and also the development of skills and tools. both for long-term migrants and changes in movement patterns of large mammals within a landscape. • Planning for. • Carrying out long-term monitoring and assessment and applying the results to design adaptive management strategies625. flooding or ocean incursions618. such as allowing flexible zoning of protected area boundaries if species response to climate change necessitates this need. • Drafting legislation to accommodate potential change. these problems will be exacerbated by climate change. particular on issues relating to management approaches and wider connectivity. the potential for further carbon
95
. also to measure social and economic values for local communities and other stakeholders. including climate trends and population ecological modelling. this implies some selection process for which species are conserved outside their natural habitats. as appropriate. new investments. Extending the role of protected areas into climate stabilisation implies that a number of additional values will need to be taken into account. adding to a biodiversity crisis611 and reducing environmental services including carbon sequestration. along with actions to reduce carbon emissions such as better public transport access to protected areas. and if necessary implementing. and if necessary implementing. Modifications to the structure of individual protected areas • Assessing boundaries and considering whether these need to be changed in light of changing environmental conditions. degree and incidence of drought617. but there are a wide variety of additional actions that managers can take to reduce the impact of climate change: • Introducing effective forecasting. • Building up buffer zones around protected areas wherever possible621. • Recognising and planning for changes in species’ migration patterns. to reconnect protected areas via biological corridors and other management strategies. stabilising measures to address likely changes in fire frequency614. budget implications.Implications for protected area management and governance
groups and supportive private sector enterprises. adaptive management). Monitoring and research • Establishing baselines for key conditions and species against which to measure future changes623.g. • Implementing.g. encouraging more sustainable forms of management where natural resources can help to support human communities and also where wild species are able to colonise if the climate changes. extra avalanche risk or severe heat. snowfall615. and some is deteriorating in quality and unlikely to maintain its values610. • Providing insurance through appropriate ex-situ conservation of rare or endangered species608. for example to include different altitudinal gradients or areas inland of coastal reserves. such as low impact tourism. • Increasing permeability for species within landscapes and seascapes dominated by human activity622. sea-level rise or other major changes620. • Developing new approaches to collaborating with local communities and indigenous peoples in and around protected areas.

sequestration. taking into consideration the likelihood of success. • Quick assessment methods to identify and measure the value (social and economic) of wider protected area benefits626. for instance. It is noted that areas of suitable habitat are more likely to remain available in larger protected areas. but these regions already have extensive protected areas that can help to reduce the impacts on arctic plants and animals. but can also be expected to continue to occur in the future. to either forming a protected area or increasing management effectiveness of an existing protected area) as well as effectiveness of climate adaptation measures – this may involve taking into account responses at a national or even a global level. supply of valuable genetic material. understanding the carbon release and sequestration implications of varying burning regimes will be important. particularly fire. • Goods and services offered by the protected area that could help to mitigate impacts and adapt to climate change.
In terms of designation and management of protected areas.g. in this case. a greater emphasis will need to be placed on resource assessment and monitoring. It is particularly important to protect areas where threatened species occur today. along with proposals for ways to mitigate
. timber poaching) and periodic disturbance factors. the cost benefit calculus of planned adaptation measures will need to be taken into account. a number of new tools need to be identified or refined: • Rapid methods for calculating current and potential carbon sequestration from different vegetation types and ages within a protected area. the southern limit of spruce forest would shift northwards as far as Oulu and eastwards to the Finnish-Russian border.g. to form networks that allow species to spread and migrate. In order to be able to undertake such assessments and to implement an adaptive approach to management under the uncertainties created by climate change. such as amelioration of natural disasters. potential for restoration of vegetation on degraded lands. If spruce trees are gradually replaced by broadleaved tree species across much of southern Finland. provision of food and water etc. to take into account tradeoffs and the cost effectiveness of different adaptation options. • Modifications to protected area management effectiveness assessment systems to include additionality (the net increase in carbon stored in response. Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
such losses. carbon sequestration opportunities through restoration of degraded lands within protected areas may be particularly significant. • Cost benefit assessment. In terms of the current protected area network it is noted that many parts of northern Finland lie within arctic regions that may be greatly affected by climate change. • An understanding of the tradeoffs associated with protected area management adaptation measures. The prospects for threatened species can be improved by restoring habitats in protected areas. • The potential for carbon release through human activities (e. ecological implications).96
Section 5 CASE STUDY
The Finnish government has identified the need for policies to help adaptation to climate change627 and a National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change628 has been completed. In southern Finland. several issues are identified in relation to the size and location of protected areas. and the management implications of increasing stocks of carbon (e. Attention should also be paid to climate change when decisions are made about the locations of protected areas. contrastingly. Current management of protected areas also highlights that the prospects for some native species may be improved by preventing the spread of invasive species that would otherwise compete with them. there will inevitably be considerable changes in other forest species. Managers will need to have a well developed understanding of the key biotic and abiotic characteristics and interactions that maintain the major values of the area and how these might be affected by climate change. including a discussion of the role of protected areas. given prevailing budget constraints. • Additional methodologies to be integrated into national protected area gap analysis to factor in potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation within protected area networks (such refinements may also be needed with some reserve selection software such as MARXAN). In the most extreme scenarios. Tools To achieve this. there are fewer large protected areas. and that protected areas should be interconnected where possible by ecological corridors or ‘stepping stones’. risks of fire. Adaptation will impose new costs on protected area agencies. but it may also be necessary to expand the network of protected areas as conditions change. But the capability of ecosystems and species to adapt will ultimately depend on the extent of climate change. Where prescribed fire is used as a necessary management tool.

This indicates that the former is ‘correlated with improving forest condition’. This demonstrated a ‘greater number of trees per ha. climatic events and disease break down under the pressure of rapid environmental change. presents a very different approach. These approaches will not solve all the problems. If protected areas are going to succeed in helping us cope with the climate crisis. equitable compensation and a fair distribution of costs and benefits. This balancing of cost and benefit will become even more critical when decisions about protecting essential ecosystem functions are made in areas with depleted resources and high levels of poverty and/or where resources from protected areas. and where stakeholders are supportive of protected area objectives and ideally are also actively involved in management decision taking. Climate change will put pressure on societies around the world as systems for managing water. than if the site’s values are not recognised or are seen as irrelevant to their needs. Some of the social problems of badly-planned protected areas have become well known: dispossession from land. and mean height and diameter of trees compared to three otherwise similar forests under state management’. social exclusion. including such elements as prior informed consent. such as compounds for pharmaceuticals or plant breeding for agriculture. Gaining acceptance for the rationale of particular governance and the management objectives often depends on an understanding of socio-economic questions. will need to be agreed amongst all those who are affected by protection strategies. understand and manage the costs and benefits of protection.’ Key drivers of success and failure in this context include the degree of social cohesion at the village level. Case studies published in 2008635 compared forest condition in forest reserves managed using participatory forest management approaches. which seeks to involve rather than exclude people. The CBD PoWPA also provides clear guidance on how protected areas should be governed and in particular in ensuring that issues of protected areas’ costs and benefits are equitably managed. degree of leadership. are used to help adaption to climate change impacts. increased poverty and resources being appropriated without adequate benefit sharing629. and address social and environmental issues side by side. issues related to the governance of a site. nor will they automatically sweep away the tensions that surround protected areas in many situations. As noted earlier in this report. Poorly planned protection policies can do more harm than good. The first case study showed ‘increasing basal area and volume of trees per ha over time in miombo woodland and coastal forest habitats under participatory forest management compared with similar forests under state or open access management’. but they can certainly help. It is clear that the increased levels of protection that we are promoting here will only be possible if they are implemented through socially and culturally acceptable processes. short-term demands for essential resources may result in conflict over the land which has been protected. But the “new paradigm” of protected areas agreed at the Fifth World Parks Congress in Durban in 2003. food.Implications for protected area management and governance
Many years of experience has shown that protected areas are most effective when governance issues are both understood and agreed by all or at least most of the people involved. Land conversion is occurring at a greater rate outside these protected areas than within them – meaning that reserves have proven to be an effective vehicle for reducing deforestation and thus ensuring effective carbon sequestration. these changes need to be addressed within an equitable social and environmental context.
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CASE STUDY
Community protection of forests in Tanzania is proving a very effective at reducing deforestation and thus carbon sequestration
A large portion (45 per cent) of Tanzania’s forests are found in forest reserves of different types. the design of the institutional arrangement and the degree of support rendered by the local government authority. managing land use change responsible for emissions and facilitating ecosystem-based adaptation. If local people know the value of a site they are more likely to support or be involved in management. Although this report argues the case for greater use of protected areas in addressing the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. The second case study looked at three coastal forest and sub-montane Eastern Arc forests under participatory forest management. If more land and water resources are protected for long-term climate mitigation and adaptation purposes. such as accountability and sharing of responsibilities. compared to areas where participatory forest management approaches were not employed. including those under participatory forest management through joint forest management arrangements (communities and government working together) and within village land forest reserves (managed only by the local communities). tenure security and distribution of the resources. Source: UNDP/Neil Burgess
. The third case study showed that ‘cutting in coastal forest and Eastern Arc forests declined over time since initiation in participatory forest management sites. and further codified within the CBD’s 2004 PoWPA. IUCN recognises a range of different governance types for protected areas – from governance by governments to local community responsibility.

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Section 5
(It is equally important that managers of a site. It is acknowledged that reducing forest deforestation and degradation is an important strategy against climate change – but how can this be achieved without economic and social disadvantage? A project in Guyana has a possible answer. where a logging company pays the government for the right to extract timber from an area of public forestlands631. and applying them more generally in approaches to development of protected areas of all management and governance types. In the villages protected by the mangroves. compared with damage costing US$153 per household in villages that were not sheltered by mangroves.
‘Conservation concessions’ aim directly to reconcile resource protection with development by protecting natural ecosystems in exchange for structured compensation. For instance. multiple benefits in community resilience can be achieved. adverse factors were lower (e. in India. Over this period CI will pay the Government annual fees comparable to those that would have been paid by a logging company. is a critical factor in the wider use of ecosystems within climate responses. But when asked about the services provided by.g.937 ha of relatively pristine forest. However. quality freshwater and climate regulation. in the face of climate change. at present countries like Guyana with negligible rates of deforestation and intact high biodiversity-value rainforests wait upon the proposed modifications to the Kyoto Protocol634. and is also providing a Voluntary Community Investment Fund to ensure benefits to local communities632. the local people were aware of and appreciated the functions performed by the mangrove forests in protecting their lives and property from cyclones. Although the conservation concession is currently not recognised as an official protected area in Guyana. CI obtained a 30-year logging license for a portion of the upper Essequibo River watershed. it functions like a protected area by safeguarding the forests and its resources from the pressures of extractive economic development – for at least the 30 year period633. Source: Conservation International
. Overall. Based on the timber concession model. Economically the villages protected by mangroves suffered damage worth the equivalent of about US$44 per household when cyclones stuck. for example. with the objective of managing the area for conservation rather than timber exploitation. Taking the lessons from this and many other similar examples. Conservation International (CI) and the Government of Guyana entered into an agreement that protects 80. the ecosystem services provided by mangroves are often ignored in the process of mangrove conversion. but instead had an embankment. and importantly in terms of governance and management issues were willing to cooperate with the forest department in mangrove restoration630. when they engage with each other in planning and implementing programmes.
CASE STUDY
Resource use such as logging provides economic benefit but little environmental benefit. The simplest model mirrors a timber concession. In particular. crop yield) higher than in the villages not sheltered by mangroves. In 2002. Surveys were carried out in households in 35 villages located in the Bhitarkanika Conservation Area. managers and local people must work together in designing solutions to reduce the vulnerability to climate change impacts. understand its often intangible values and that these are also seen as part of a site’s management). damage to houses) and positive factors (e. the Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem in relation to cyclone damage (taking the cyclone of 1999 as a reference point) householders were clearly positive about mangrove protection.g. When communities work together. In many cases protected area staff will have valuable expertise that can be shared by the whole community. if it is not managed by the local community. Through the project it is hoped that Guyana can also become a beneficiary of carbon credits and/or other payment schemes for the provision of ecological goods and services such as clean air.

we call on national and local governments to incorporate protected area systems into national climate change adaptation strategies and action plans. we call on the two key multilateral environmental agreements – the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity – to recognise and support the role of protected areas in climate change mitigation and in providing adaptation benefits. Firstly. Secondly.101
Section 6 Policy recommendations
We conclude this report with some specific policy recommendations.
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especially IUCN and WWF. his professional interests have focused on the nexus between climate risk management and ecosystem management. Until 2001. Landscape Conservation. and now has a primary interest in how emerging biodiversity and climate policy will enable effective societal adaptation to climate change. Nik was first elected Chair of WCPA in 2004 and is now serving a second term. focused on mainstreaming biodiversity into social and economic development at scale. especially in Asia. More recently. She has extensive field experience. Sue Stolton is an environmental consultant. His current position is Manager. Nikita (Nik) Lopoukhine was Director General of the National Parks Directorate in Canada until retiring in 2005. protected areas and measurement of ecological integrity. he has extensive experience working across the world on ecosystem management.
. in particular with respect to international conventions. She is a member of IUCN-WCPA. Nik Sekhran is the Senior Technical Adviser for Biodiversity at UNDP. An economist by training. protected areas and landscape approaches.Alexander Belokurov has worked for WWF International for nine years adding to previous experience with the Ramsar Convention Secretariat and his work in Russia. on tropical ecology research. Trevor Sandwith is Director of Biodiversity and Protected Areas Policy at The Nature Conservancy and Deputy Chair of IUCN-WCPA. including through the vehicle of protected areas. Kathy has worked extensively with international NGOs. Nigel Dudley is an ecologist and consultant with Equilibrium Research. conservation and protected area planning and management. Sue established Equilibrium Research in partnership with Nigel Dudley in 1991. where she has served in various positions for the last 10 years. His work currently focuses particularly on issues relating to broadscale approaches to conservation. His expertise is in environmental science and management. Her work focuses mainly on issues relating to protected areas. Kathy MacKinnon is the World Bank’s Lead Biodiversity Specialist. Nigel is a member of IUCN-WCPA and an industrial fellow at the University of Queensland Linda Krueger is Vice President for Policy at WCS. and government agencies in developing countries. she served as a consultant to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) Scientific and Environmental Affairs Division and worked 6 years as a legislative assistant in the United States Congress. he was responsible for South Africa’s Cape Action for People and the Environment programme. Prior to joining WCS.

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Environment Department The World Bank 1818 H Street. Lord Nicholas Stern
IUCN-WCPA (International Union for Conservation of Nature’s World Commission on Protected Areas) Rue Mauverney 28 Gland 1196 Switzerland www.nature.panda.iucn.wcs.org
. NW Washington DC 20433 USA www.org/biodiversity
WWF International Avenue du Mont-Blanc Gland 1196 Switzerland www.the ArgUmeNTS For ProTeCTIoN series
book articulates “Thisthe firstclearlyhow for time protected areas contribute significantly to reducing impacts of climate change and what is needed for them to achieve even more. 9th Floor New York NY 10017 USA www.org
Wildlife Conservation Society 2300 Southern Boulevard Bronx New York NY 10460 USA www.worldbank.org
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Environment and Energy Group Bureau for Development Policy United Nations Development Programme 304 East 45th Street.org /wcpa
The Nature Conservancy 4245 North Fairfax Drive Suite 100 Arlington VA 22203-1606 USA www. As we enter an unprecedented scale of negotiations about climate and biodiversity it is important that these messages reach policy makers loud and clear and are translated into effective policies and funding mechanisms.undp.