Ochre is a ubiquitous artefact in Middle Stone Age (MSA) contexts throughout Africa and the
Near East. Archaeological evidence for the abrasive processing of ochre to extract pigment
powder becomes increasingly prevalent after 100 ka. The habitual exploitation of ochre is
interpreted as evidence for symbolism, a proxy for the origin of language and as a key
element of ‘symbolic’ and ‘modern’ human behaviour. Evolutionary explanations agree that
ochre and the products of its processing played a significant role in the adaptive strategies of
early modern humans, but they differ in the functions assigned to it. I therefore ask the
following question: What role did symbolic and functional applications of ochre play in the
enhancement of prehistoric technology, and how may these have functioned to promote and
maintain social relations within MSA Homo sapiens societies?
With the aim of answering this question, I follow a chaîne opératoire approach to elucidate
the exploitation of ochre during the MSA. First, I present the results of an experimental study
devised to infer the methods employed to process ochre. It is demonstrated that functional
data derived from actualistic experiments can enhance our understanding prehistoric
behaviour. Second, I describe one of the oldest instances of a deliberate engraving on ochre
at 100 ka to 85 ka. I consider the possibility that specific types of raw material were selected
for engraving purposes and expand on whether all engraved depictions inevitably functioned
in ‘symbolic’ contexts. The third objective entails the evaluation of an often cited functional
hypothesis for ochre, namely the use of red ochre as a ‘hide-tanning’ ingredient.
I also introduce and discuss three further functional hypotheses, namely those concerning
the use of ochre as a form of mineral supplementation and detoxification agent, as a sunprotection
element and as an insect repellent. Ethnoarchaeological research has proven to
be informative in terms of revealing a range of functional uses for red ochre. I therefore
consider how data derived from the Ovashimba of northern Namibia can enhance current
understandings of ochre use in the MSA. I propose that in order to assess any hypothesis
concerning the exploitation of ochre in the MSA methodically and in a scientific manner, it is
necessary to engage with the theories and analytical methods of cognitive and technical
sciences not normally viewed as applicable to archaeological enquiry.

en_ZA

dc.language.iso

en

en_ZA

dc.subject.lcsh

Stone Age - South Africa.

dc.subject.lcsh

South Africa - Antiquities.

dc.subject.lcsh

Pigments.

dc.title

The symbolic and functional exploitation of ochre during the South African Middle Stone Age