Trees, carbon and climate change

!
NC Woody Biomass
“Nature’s renewable energy!”
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/fore
stry/biomass.html
Extension Forestry
Campus Box 8008
NC State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-8008
Trees, Carbon and Climate Change!
Current policy discussions about climate change suggest that forestry
is an inexpensive way to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide and
potentially reduce forecasted climate change. This fact sheet discusses
which forestry practices are being considered to capture carbon
dioxide and how landowners might engage in trading as carbon
markets develop.
Background
In late 2008 the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) atmospheric observatory in Hawaii documented atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration of 386 parts per million by volume
(ppmv). This is the highest atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide ever recorded since monitoring has begun. Even accounting for
seasonal variations (Figure 1), recorded evidence indicates a steady
increase in atmospheric CO2 levels. Although the full extent and future
impacts of CO2 increases are uncertain, current models predict a rise in
temperature, climate shifts and sea level rise.
Figure 1. Monthly carbon dioxide levels (parts per million) in Mauna Loa, Hawaii
(2004-2009). The red line depicts average monthly values. The black line represents
average levels corrected for seasonal cycles.
Source: Dr. Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL (www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)
For more information, see:
􀀉􀤀􀀢􂈀􀀊􀨀􀀁􀄀
!
!
!
! ! "!
Concern about the rise in CO2 stems from
consumption of fossil fuels and clearing land
of vegetation. These activities release
significant amounts of CO2, which is the
dominant greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases
refer to a few specific gases which reduce
the loss of heat from earth’s atmosphere –
similar to the glass in a greenhouse –
thereby keeping the earth’s temperature in a
livable range. Since CO2 represents 60% of
the total long-lived global greenhouse gases
it has become the focus of most efforts to
slow and ultimately, reduce global warming.
The justification for limiting CO2 production
stems from the assumption that a reduction
in the use of fossil fuels and land clearing
will lead to significant reductions in
atmospheric CO2. It follows that if trees can
absorb excess CO2 from the atmosphere, then
humans can mitigate a portion of the
anticipated future global climate change by
planting trees, burning wood in place of
fossil fuels, and storing carbon in trees and
long-lived wood products.
Carbon dioxide isn’t the only culprit in
global climate change. Methane (CH4), the
natural “swamp” gas, and nitrous oxide
(NOx), a byproduct of fossil fuel
combustion, are also prominent green house
gases. Not all green house gases are equal
in their warming potential. To help compare
the warming potential of various gases,
scientists have established a common
measure called global warming potential
(GWP) which describes the warming
potential over time of greenhouse gases
relative to a similar quantity of CO2. Using
the GWP measure for a 100-year period, a
methane (CH4) molecule would have a GWP
of 23, while a nitrous oxide molecule (NOx)
would have a GWP of 296. (1) Stated
plainly, NOx has almost 300 times the
warming potential of a single C02 molecule.
Yet NOx and the high-GWP gases exist in
much lower atmospheric concentrations than
CO2, which contributes approximately 70%
of human-induced greenhouse effect. (2)
Trees and Carbon Sequestration
Most grade school children learn that green
plants take in CO2 and through
photosynthesis produce sugar and oxygen in
the presence of sunlight. Carbon is stored
throughout all plants while they are alive.
Carbon is released back into the
environment when trees and other carbon-based
materials decompose or are burned.
Because of this carbon cycle relationship,
scientists and policy makers see trees as a
means to capture the excess CO2 in the
atmosphere and help balance the carbon that
is released through fossil fuel combustion.
Estimates suggest that U.S. forests currently
capture only 1/10th of total U.S. greenhouse
gas emissions. With appropriate rewards and
compensation, scientists have calculated that
planting new forests (afforestation),
avoiding deforestation, and improving forest
management could cost-effectively
sequester additional carbon in the U.S. and
across the world.
Table 1 shows forestry practices currently
being studied for their role in capturing
carbon from the atmosphere – essentially
“offsetting” the carbon emissions released
by the burning of fossil fuels or clearing of
land. Carbon sequestration is the long-term
storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere,
underground, or in the oceans in an attempt
to reduce or slow atmospheric concentration.
Similar efforts are underway in the
(1) IPCC Third Assessment Report “Climate Change 2001” (Table 6.7)
http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/248.htm
(2) EPA Climate Change – International Analyses
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/economics/international.html
!
#!!
Table 1. Forestry Practices that Sequester or Avoid Carbon Emissions (Source: U.S. EPA)
Forestry
Practice
Definition (Examples) Effect on greenhouse gases
Afforestation Tree planting on non-forest land (pasture or
marginal cropland)
Sequesters carbon in soils, roots, stem, twigs
and foliage.
Reforestation Tree planting on existing forest land
(immediately after harvest or to restore
denuded areas where natural regeneration
not possible).
Sequesters carbon in soils, roots, stem, twigs
and foliage.
*Fertilization may generate some N2O
emissions.
Sustainable
Forest
Management
Modification of forestry practices/harvest to
sequester additional carbon over time.
(Lengthening rotation or retaining partial
over story rather than clear cutting.)
Sequesters carbon and may avoid CO2
emissions by altering management.
*Fertilization may generate some N2O
emissions.
Preservation
or avoided
deforestation
Protection of forests threatened by
development, land clearing, or deforestation.
Avoids CO2 emissions via conservation of
existing carbon stocks.
agricultural community to increase soil
carbon through native prairie restoration, no-till
cropping systems and even wetland
restoration.
Reviewing the chart above, some
landowners will have to modify their
management practices to fully participate in
current carbon offset markets. Efforts are
underway to document and provide credit
for the carbon content of long-lived forest
products that remains out of the atmosphere
for decades.
To earn carbon credits and participate in
certain carbon offset markets, landowners
will have to verify the extent to which their
project satisfies the following criteria:
• Sustainability – An accepted organization
must verify that management of the
project is sustainable.
• Additionality – Landowners must show
what their baseline of growing stock and
carbon sequestration would have been
under “business as usual” practices
without the carbon market. Preparing a
baseline inventory of existing trees or
vegetation (and their carbon content) is
usually required. Estimates may also be
made of the carbon stored in soil under
current management practices. The
baseline values allow certifiers to
calculate credits for the new tree growth
and management that provides
additional carbon sequestration.
• No Leakage – Landowners may need to
show that their change in land use or
management does not merely displace
the activity, resulting in an increase in
emissions elsewhere. Such displacement
is referred to as leakage. Some
verification processes are beginning to
calculate leakage as an average
deduction.
In most instances, verification of carbon
inventory will be required by a third party.
The process is likely to be fairly complex. It
may require grouping small forest projects
to obtain a sufficient quantity of tradable
carbon to sell as offsets. As with any new
enterprise, a thorough review of the costs,
requirements, returns and standard due
diligence is strongly recommended.
!
$!!
Net Project Offset Potential
The net project offset potential is calculated as the annual carbon sequestered, less the baseline flux and any
leakage. Results can also be viewed as carbon stock accumulation (the sum of fluxes) over the course of the
project.
Metric tons (CO2
equiv.)/year
Annual flux
Years 0-5
Annual flux
Years 5-10
Annual flux
Years 10-15
Annual flux
Years 15-20
Gross CO2 estimate 47 46 37 37
Baseline CO2 deduction 0 ~1 ~2 2
Net Additional CO2 47 46 35 35
Leakage deduction 19 19 15 15
NET OFFSET
POTENTIAL 28 27 20 20
Totals reflect annual carbon accumulations for 10 acres. To calculate per acre estimates, divide results by 10.
!
Understanding Carbon Offsets Markets
Carbon offsets refer to a financial instrument
that represents a unit of greenhouse gas
reduction. Purchasers “offset” their own
emissions through the efforts of landowners
and managers. The reason that a purchaser
may be willing to purchase an offset is that it
is an efficient and timely means of reducing
carbon emissions rather than immediate
investment in control or capture technology.
As a potential supplier of carbon offsets you
must decide if the price offered to you
(market incentive) is sufficient to warrant
you to forgo other management alternatives
for your property.
Currently, there are two primary markets for
carbon offsets: a compliance market, often
denoted as “cap and trade” system; or a
voluntary market, where individuals,
companies and government purchase carbon
offsets to mitigate their carbon emissions
from travel, energy use and the like. Most
offsets are associated with energy
conservation and efficiency or renewable
energy alternatives, such as bioenergy, wind,
solar and hydroelectric dams. Policy makers
are increasingly looking to forest landowners
and farmers as potential carbon offset
providers because of a perceived ability to
provide offsets at lower cost than the more
common methods.
Measuring Tree Growth and Carbon
Accumulation
The task of establishing baseline carbon and
accumulation rates on existing land is
complex. To aid in that effort many
organizations have developed online
estimators or “look-up “ tables that allow
landowners and professionals to calculate
carbon accumulation rates from average
regional growth rates, management schemes
and species information.
The example below is a 10-acre afforestation
effort on an old pasture with low intensity
management in Alamance County, North
Carolina. In this example, only net carbon
offsets are credited to the project because of
deductions for baseline (initial inventory)
carbon pools and for leakage outside the
project boundaries. Baseline refers to the
stock of carbon present in the soil and pasture
grasses before tree planting. Leakage refers
to offsite increases in greenhouse gas
!
%!!
emissions caused by the project that might
shift production (of pasture, in this case) to
other acres outside the project boundary. As
this example shows, leakage can substantially
reduce the direct benefits of the project.
Each carbon credit program has a unique
protocol for calculating these numbers. It is
crucial to understand the procedures before
entering into the carbon marketplace. More
importantly, seek the advice and counsel of
professionals who understand the intricacies
of this rapidly developing marketplace and
can explain whether entering into a carbon
offset trading scheme will add or detract from
your current cash flow projections.
Are Carbon Offsets in Your Future?
The U.S market for carbon offsets is in
transition, and unless or until there is a
mandatory cap and trade program or a
carbon tax instituted, there will continue to
be many unanswerable questions and
uncertainty. As with any innovation, many
“early adopters” will be learning their way
and gaining experience for the remainder
who follow. Interested individuals are
encouraged to learn as much as they can
about pricing, commitment period,
transaction fees, inventory procedures and
carbon calculations for their target crop.
Your decision to trade carbon offsets should
be proceeded by consultation with
experienced professionals, careful
deliberation and due diligence.
Summary
There is great uncertainty about carbon
emissions policy, trading, and the extent to
which forestry offsets will be accepted.
Since climate change is a long-term global
issue, regional and national strategies differ.
This publication has focused only on
forestry carbon offsets. Future policy will pit
greenhouse gas reduction against rising
energy demands. Policy discussions center
around two likely market solutions, cap ‘n
trade or carbon emission tax legislation.
Both strategies attempt to place a value on
carbon to facilitate an efficient reduction of
emissions (essentially creating a market
price so that reduction in carbon emissions
can be tracked and traded). National and
global policies will likely impose additional
energy efficiency standards to reduce fossil
fuel consumption (carbon emissions).
Additional research, development and use of
improved emission controls will
undoubtedly impact the future market price
for carbon. Prudent tree growers should
consider how energy conservation
incentives, efficiency and renewable energy
efforts may affect their ability to market
forestry carbon offsets.
Carbon Trading: A primer for forest landowners
http://carbon.sref.info/
Carbon Trading for Landowner
http://www.sref.info/publications/online_pubs/publications/online_pubs/carbon_credits
Carbon Calculator
http://carbon.sref.info/estimating/calculator
Reforestation Afforestation Project Carbon On-Line Estimator
http://ecoserver.env.duke.edu/RAPCOEv1/
!
!
!
www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/biomass.html
!
Published by North Carolina Cooperative Extension
Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves
to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status or disability. In addition, the two Universities
welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local
governments cooperating.
copies of this public document were printed at a cost of . or per copy.
!
Author:
Mark Megalos, Extension Forestry Specialist and Assistant Extension Professor
WB-0013/2010

Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

!
NC Woody Biomass
“Nature’s renewable energy!”
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/fore
stry/biomass.html
Extension Forestry
Campus Box 8008
NC State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-8008
Trees, Carbon and Climate Change!
Current policy discussions about climate change suggest that forestry
is an inexpensive way to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide and
potentially reduce forecasted climate change. This fact sheet discusses
which forestry practices are being considered to capture carbon
dioxide and how landowners might engage in trading as carbon
markets develop.
Background
In late 2008 the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) atmospheric observatory in Hawaii documented atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration of 386 parts per million by volume
(ppmv). This is the highest atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide ever recorded since monitoring has begun. Even accounting for
seasonal variations (Figure 1), recorded evidence indicates a steady
increase in atmospheric CO2 levels. Although the full extent and future
impacts of CO2 increases are uncertain, current models predict a rise in
temperature, climate shifts and sea level rise.
Figure 1. Monthly carbon dioxide levels (parts per million) in Mauna Loa, Hawaii
(2004-2009). The red line depicts average monthly values. The black line represents
average levels corrected for seasonal cycles.
Source: Dr. Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL (www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)
For more information, see:
􀀉􀤀􀀢􂈀􀀊􀨀􀀁􀄀
!
!
!
! ! "!
Concern about the rise in CO2 stems from
consumption of fossil fuels and clearing land
of vegetation. These activities release
significant amounts of CO2, which is the
dominant greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases
refer to a few specific gases which reduce
the loss of heat from earth’s atmosphere –
similar to the glass in a greenhouse –
thereby keeping the earth’s temperature in a
livable range. Since CO2 represents 60% of
the total long-lived global greenhouse gases
it has become the focus of most efforts to
slow and ultimately, reduce global warming.
The justification for limiting CO2 production
stems from the assumption that a reduction
in the use of fossil fuels and land clearing
will lead to significant reductions in
atmospheric CO2. It follows that if trees can
absorb excess CO2 from the atmosphere, then
humans can mitigate a portion of the
anticipated future global climate change by
planting trees, burning wood in place of
fossil fuels, and storing carbon in trees and
long-lived wood products.
Carbon dioxide isn’t the only culprit in
global climate change. Methane (CH4), the
natural “swamp” gas, and nitrous oxide
(NOx), a byproduct of fossil fuel
combustion, are also prominent green house
gases. Not all green house gases are equal
in their warming potential. To help compare
the warming potential of various gases,
scientists have established a common
measure called global warming potential
(GWP) which describes the warming
potential over time of greenhouse gases
relative to a similar quantity of CO2. Using
the GWP measure for a 100-year period, a
methane (CH4) molecule would have a GWP
of 23, while a nitrous oxide molecule (NOx)
would have a GWP of 296. (1) Stated
plainly, NOx has almost 300 times the
warming potential of a single C02 molecule.
Yet NOx and the high-GWP gases exist in
much lower atmospheric concentrations than
CO2, which contributes approximately 70%
of human-induced greenhouse effect. (2)
Trees and Carbon Sequestration
Most grade school children learn that green
plants take in CO2 and through
photosynthesis produce sugar and oxygen in
the presence of sunlight. Carbon is stored
throughout all plants while they are alive.
Carbon is released back into the
environment when trees and other carbon-based
materials decompose or are burned.
Because of this carbon cycle relationship,
scientists and policy makers see trees as a
means to capture the excess CO2 in the
atmosphere and help balance the carbon that
is released through fossil fuel combustion.
Estimates suggest that U.S. forests currently
capture only 1/10th of total U.S. greenhouse
gas emissions. With appropriate rewards and
compensation, scientists have calculated that
planting new forests (afforestation),
avoiding deforestation, and improving forest
management could cost-effectively
sequester additional carbon in the U.S. and
across the world.
Table 1 shows forestry practices currently
being studied for their role in capturing
carbon from the atmosphere – essentially
“offsetting” the carbon emissions released
by the burning of fossil fuels or clearing of
land. Carbon sequestration is the long-term
storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere,
underground, or in the oceans in an attempt
to reduce or slow atmospheric concentration.
Similar efforts are underway in the
(1) IPCC Third Assessment Report “Climate Change 2001” (Table 6.7)
http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/248.htm
(2) EPA Climate Change – International Analyses
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/economics/international.html
!
#!!
Table 1. Forestry Practices that Sequester or Avoid Carbon Emissions (Source: U.S. EPA)
Forestry
Practice
Definition (Examples) Effect on greenhouse gases
Afforestation Tree planting on non-forest land (pasture or
marginal cropland)
Sequesters carbon in soils, roots, stem, twigs
and foliage.
Reforestation Tree planting on existing forest land
(immediately after harvest or to restore
denuded areas where natural regeneration
not possible).
Sequesters carbon in soils, roots, stem, twigs
and foliage.
*Fertilization may generate some N2O
emissions.
Sustainable
Forest
Management
Modification of forestry practices/harvest to
sequester additional carbon over time.
(Lengthening rotation or retaining partial
over story rather than clear cutting.)
Sequesters carbon and may avoid CO2
emissions by altering management.
*Fertilization may generate some N2O
emissions.
Preservation
or avoided
deforestation
Protection of forests threatened by
development, land clearing, or deforestation.
Avoids CO2 emissions via conservation of
existing carbon stocks.
agricultural community to increase soil
carbon through native prairie restoration, no-till
cropping systems and even wetland
restoration.
Reviewing the chart above, some
landowners will have to modify their
management practices to fully participate in
current carbon offset markets. Efforts are
underway to document and provide credit
for the carbon content of long-lived forest
products that remains out of the atmosphere
for decades.
To earn carbon credits and participate in
certain carbon offset markets, landowners
will have to verify the extent to which their
project satisfies the following criteria:
• Sustainability – An accepted organization
must verify that management of the
project is sustainable.
• Additionality – Landowners must show
what their baseline of growing stock and
carbon sequestration would have been
under “business as usual” practices
without the carbon market. Preparing a
baseline inventory of existing trees or
vegetation (and their carbon content) is
usually required. Estimates may also be
made of the carbon stored in soil under
current management practices. The
baseline values allow certifiers to
calculate credits for the new tree growth
and management that provides
additional carbon sequestration.
• No Leakage – Landowners may need to
show that their change in land use or
management does not merely displace
the activity, resulting in an increase in
emissions elsewhere. Such displacement
is referred to as leakage. Some
verification processes are beginning to
calculate leakage as an average
deduction.
In most instances, verification of carbon
inventory will be required by a third party.
The process is likely to be fairly complex. It
may require grouping small forest projects
to obtain a sufficient quantity of tradable
carbon to sell as offsets. As with any new
enterprise, a thorough review of the costs,
requirements, returns and standard due
diligence is strongly recommended.
!
$!!
Net Project Offset Potential
The net project offset potential is calculated as the annual carbon sequestered, less the baseline flux and any
leakage. Results can also be viewed as carbon stock accumulation (the sum of fluxes) over the course of the
project.
Metric tons (CO2
equiv.)/year
Annual flux
Years 0-5
Annual flux
Years 5-10
Annual flux
Years 10-15
Annual flux
Years 15-20
Gross CO2 estimate 47 46 37 37
Baseline CO2 deduction 0 ~1 ~2 2
Net Additional CO2 47 46 35 35
Leakage deduction 19 19 15 15
NET OFFSET
POTENTIAL 28 27 20 20
Totals reflect annual carbon accumulations for 10 acres. To calculate per acre estimates, divide results by 10.
!
Understanding Carbon Offsets Markets
Carbon offsets refer to a financial instrument
that represents a unit of greenhouse gas
reduction. Purchasers “offset” their own
emissions through the efforts of landowners
and managers. The reason that a purchaser
may be willing to purchase an offset is that it
is an efficient and timely means of reducing
carbon emissions rather than immediate
investment in control or capture technology.
As a potential supplier of carbon offsets you
must decide if the price offered to you
(market incentive) is sufficient to warrant
you to forgo other management alternatives
for your property.
Currently, there are two primary markets for
carbon offsets: a compliance market, often
denoted as “cap and trade” system; or a
voluntary market, where individuals,
companies and government purchase carbon
offsets to mitigate their carbon emissions
from travel, energy use and the like. Most
offsets are associated with energy
conservation and efficiency or renewable
energy alternatives, such as bioenergy, wind,
solar and hydroelectric dams. Policy makers
are increasingly looking to forest landowners
and farmers as potential carbon offset
providers because of a perceived ability to
provide offsets at lower cost than the more
common methods.
Measuring Tree Growth and Carbon
Accumulation
The task of establishing baseline carbon and
accumulation rates on existing land is
complex. To aid in that effort many
organizations have developed online
estimators or “look-up “ tables that allow
landowners and professionals to calculate
carbon accumulation rates from average
regional growth rates, management schemes
and species information.
The example below is a 10-acre afforestation
effort on an old pasture with low intensity
management in Alamance County, North
Carolina. In this example, only net carbon
offsets are credited to the project because of
deductions for baseline (initial inventory)
carbon pools and for leakage outside the
project boundaries. Baseline refers to the
stock of carbon present in the soil and pasture
grasses before tree planting. Leakage refers
to offsite increases in greenhouse gas
!
%!!
emissions caused by the project that might
shift production (of pasture, in this case) to
other acres outside the project boundary. As
this example shows, leakage can substantially
reduce the direct benefits of the project.
Each carbon credit program has a unique
protocol for calculating these numbers. It is
crucial to understand the procedures before
entering into the carbon marketplace. More
importantly, seek the advice and counsel of
professionals who understand the intricacies
of this rapidly developing marketplace and
can explain whether entering into a carbon
offset trading scheme will add or detract from
your current cash flow projections.
Are Carbon Offsets in Your Future?
The U.S market for carbon offsets is in
transition, and unless or until there is a
mandatory cap and trade program or a
carbon tax instituted, there will continue to
be many unanswerable questions and
uncertainty. As with any innovation, many
“early adopters” will be learning their way
and gaining experience for the remainder
who follow. Interested individuals are
encouraged to learn as much as they can
about pricing, commitment period,
transaction fees, inventory procedures and
carbon calculations for their target crop.
Your decision to trade carbon offsets should
be proceeded by consultation with
experienced professionals, careful
deliberation and due diligence.
Summary
There is great uncertainty about carbon
emissions policy, trading, and the extent to
which forestry offsets will be accepted.
Since climate change is a long-term global
issue, regional and national strategies differ.
This publication has focused only on
forestry carbon offsets. Future policy will pit
greenhouse gas reduction against rising
energy demands. Policy discussions center
around two likely market solutions, cap ‘n
trade or carbon emission tax legislation.
Both strategies attempt to place a value on
carbon to facilitate an efficient reduction of
emissions (essentially creating a market
price so that reduction in carbon emissions
can be tracked and traded). National and
global policies will likely impose additional
energy efficiency standards to reduce fossil
fuel consumption (carbon emissions).
Additional research, development and use of
improved emission controls will
undoubtedly impact the future market price
for carbon. Prudent tree growers should
consider how energy conservation
incentives, efficiency and renewable energy
efforts may affect their ability to market
forestry carbon offsets.
Carbon Trading: A primer for forest landowners
http://carbon.sref.info/
Carbon Trading for Landowner
http://www.sref.info/publications/online_pubs/publications/online_pubs/carbon_credits
Carbon Calculator
http://carbon.sref.info/estimating/calculator
Reforestation Afforestation Project Carbon On-Line Estimator
http://ecoserver.env.duke.edu/RAPCOEv1/
!
!
!
www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/biomass.html
!
Published by North Carolina Cooperative Extension
Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves
to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status or disability. In addition, the two Universities
welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local
governments cooperating.
copies of this public document were printed at a cost of . or per copy.
!
Author:
Mark Megalos, Extension Forestry Specialist and Assistant Extension Professor
WB-0013/2010