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Studies from countries with laws against
discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation suggest that gay and
lesbian employees report more incidents of harassment and are more likely to
report experiencing unfair treatment in the labor market than are
heterosexual employees. Both gay men and lesbians tend to be less satisfied
with their jobs than their heterosexual counterparts. Gay men are found to
earn less than comparably skilled and experienced heterosexual men. For
lesbians, the patterns are ambiguous: in some countries they have been found
to earn less than their heterosexual counterparts, while in others they earn
the same or more.

Greater representation of women may better
represent women’s preferences but may not help economic performance

Women's representation on corporate boards,
political committees, and other decision-making teams is increasing, this is
in part because of legal mandates. Evidence on team dynamics and gender
differences in preferences (for example, risk-taking behavior, taste for
competition, prosocial behavior) shows how gender composition influences
group decision-making and subsequent performance. This works through
channels such as investment decisions, internal management, corporate
governance, and social responsibility.

Gender quotas for women on boards of directors
improve female share on boards but firm performance effects are mixed

Arguments for increasing gender diversity on
boards of directors by gender quotas range from ensuring equal opportunity
to improving firm performance. The introduction of gender quotas in a number
of countries has increased female representation on boards. Current research
does not justify gender quotas on grounds of economic efficiency. In many
countries the number of women in top executive positions is limited, and it
is not clear from the evidence that quotas lead to a larger pool of female
top executives, who are the main pipeline for boards of directors. Thus,
other supplementary policies may be necessary if politicians want to
increase the number of women in senior management positions.

Can free-trade policies help to reduce gender
inequalities in employment and wages?

Women consistently work less in the labor
market and earn lower wages than men. While economic empowerment of women is
an important objective in itself, women's economic activity also matters as
a condition for sustained economic growth. The political debate on the labor
market impacts of international trade typically differentiates workers by
their educational attainment or skills. Gender is a further dimension in
which the impacts of trade liberalization can differ. In a globalizing world
it is important to understand whether and how trade policy can contribute
toward enhancing gender convergence in labor market outcomes.

A mix of policies could be the solution to
reducing discrimination in the labor market

Discrimination is a complex, multi-factor
phenomenon. Evidence shows widespread discrimination on various grounds,
including ethnic origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion or
beliefs, disability, being over 55 years old, or being a woman. Combating
discrimination requires combining the strengths of a range of
anti-discrimination policies while also addressing their weaknesses. In
particular, policymakers should thoroughly address prejudice (taste-based
discrimination), stereotypes (statistical discrimination), cognitive biases,
and attention-based discrimination.

This is a revision, version 3.

This is a revision, version 3. Most OECD countries spend substantially more on maternity leave
schemes than on early childcare. However, given high tax burdens and rapidly aging
populations, female labor force participation is critically needed. Moreover, it is important
to know whether the main beneficiaries, the children themselves, reap more benefits from one
or the other in the long term. The first cohorts exposed to the introduction or extension of
maternity/paternity leave schemes and subsidized childcare programs have now completed
education and entered the labor market, allowing an investigation of these programs’ long-term
economic effects.

As the third largest economy in the world and a
precursor of global trends in population aging, Japan’s recent experiences
provide important lessons regarding how demographic shifts affect the labor
market and individuals’ economic well-being. On the whole, the labor market
has shown a remarkable stability during the recent financial crisis, despite
decades of economic stagnation and sluggish real wage growth. Rapid
population aging, however, has brought substantial changes to individuals in
the labor market, most notably among women, by augmenting labor demand in
the healthcare services industry.

Transitioning across gender is related to
greater life and job satisfaction but also affects acceptance in one’s
society

Acceptance of one’s gender identity and
congruence between one’s gender identity and outward appearance are
associated with less adverse mental health symptoms, and greater life and
job satisfaction. However, trans people are subject to human rights
violations, hate crimes, and experience higher unemployment and poverty than
the general population. Trans people often feel that they are citizens who
are not allowed to be themselves and practice their authentic identity. Many
biased treatments of trans people could be attenuated if legal protections
and inclusive workplace practices were in place.