Tuesday, 20 October 2015

After doing the piece 5
Deadly Diseases that Affect Turkeys, I have been inundated with requests to
do a follow up with more common diseases. I always love to hear from my
readers! I encourage you to keep all comments and suggestions coming up because
I love to read them!

Upon receipt of so many requests I decided to do this piece and
highlight 5 of the commonest, yet deadly diseases, which affect turkeys. Every experienced
turkey farmer can relate to the list in this piece.

1.Blackhead Disease

i.Description:
More commonly known as blackhead, the disease is a form of condition
collectively termed as histomoniasis.

Characteristically, an infected bird may develop dark red discoloration
of the head and skin thus the name ‘blackhead’.

The disease is very dangerous with high mortality rate.

ii.Causes:
The disease is caused by a parasitic protozoan called Histomonas meleagridis. Another parasite Heterakis gallinarum, which is a worm, plays host to the protozoan. Matured Histomonas meleagridis is secreted in the eggs of the worm into the
soil.

When the secreted egg or larvae is eaten by a turkey, the bird becomes
infected. Infected birds in turn may pass the parasite onto others in the
flock.

Chicken have improved immunity to the disease and are common carriers of
the disease. They can also pass the infection through their droppings.

iii.Incubation
Period: Infected birds start showing symptoms of the disease 15 to 20 days after
ingesting the egg.

iv.Symptoms:
Some of the symptoms of the disease include

1.Listlessness

2.Cyanosis
(dark-red discoloration) of head

3.Loss of
appetite

4.Stunted
growth

5.Depression

6. Diarrhea (Yellow-colored droppings)

v.Diagnosis:
Laboratory investigation is needed to confirm the disease. Several other
diseases may mimic some of the symptoms and should not be relied on solely for diagnosis.

vi.Prevention:
Prevention is your sure best against blackhead. Good biosafety measures are
needed to combat the condition. Wild birds and chickens should be kept away
from the flock.

Worms and other nematodes should also be controlled around the brooder
house. Feed and water should be kept clean and away from the droppings of the
birds.

Free ranging should be restricted in areas of outbreak.

vii.Treatment:
The bad news is that there is no authorized medication to effectively treat the
condition. The FDA’s approved arsenicals can be used to treat the condition but
they are not known to be that effective against the condition.

Historically drugs were furazolidone, dimetridazole and nifursol were
used to successfully treat the condition. Approval for those drugs has however
been removed leaving farmers with very few options.

2.Coccidiosis in turkeys

i.Description:
There are about five species of Eimeria
that causes infection in turkeys. Three of the species E. meleagrimitis, E. gallopavonis and E. adenoides
are known to cause the most serious damage to the birds.

ii.Causes:
Each of the three species of coccidia affects different part of the
intestinal track of the bird. E. meleagrimitis affects the upper part of the small
intestines causing it to thicken.

E. adenoides affects the
caecae, small intestine and rectum of young poults. The parasite causes severe
enteritis of the affected organs.

E. gallopavonis affects
the lower part of the small intestine, caecae and the rectum.

iii.Incubation
Period: Incubation period for the infection is usually between 5 and 8
days.

vi.Prevention:
Vaccines against the condition are available. The use of lasalocid and monensin which
are part of the medications called ionophore coccidiostats are used in the
first few weeks of the poult.

vii.Treatment:
Treatment of the condition is by the use of drugs such as Sulphaquinoxaline(or
other Sulphonamides ), Amprolium and Toltrazuril.

3.Escherichia coli(Colibacilliosis)

i.Description:
This may come as a surprise to many people but the much dreaded E. coli is actually kept harmless in the
gut of poultries for most of the time! The bacterium is mostly regarded as an
opportunistic pathogen due to the fact that it strikes when the host’s immunity
is down.

ii.Causes:
As indicated earlier, E. coli is
an opportunistic pathogen. It is not a disease unto itself. However when the
immune system is suppressed in any way, the bacterium will strike and leading
to serious consequences.

iii.Incubation
Period: Incubation period for the bacterium is between one and three days.

iv.Symptoms:
Birds infected with the bacterium
will show the following symptoms

vi.Prevention:
Wet litter creates the right environment for the development of the E. coli bacterium. Ensure dry litter and
keep the brooder clean at all times. Dead birds should be quickly removed from
the house.

As much as possible the birds should be kept away from wild and other
stray birds. All foreign materials and visitors should be properly disinfected
before entry into the brooder house.

vii.Treatment:
Wide range of antibacterial are used to treat the condition. The FDA has
however banned the use of Fluoroquinolone. Available treatment includes the use
of streptomycin, tetracycline and sulfa drugs.

4.Mycoplasma
gallisepticum infection

i.Description:
This respiratory condition affects the upper respiratory track of the bird. The
infection is caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum and has low mortality rate but recovered birds are carriers for life. The
disease can re-occur in recovered birds if stress conditions returns.

ii.Causes:
Infection can occur through contaminated feed or water. Transmission can
occur through the air which can greatly speed up the rate of infection.

vi.Prevention:
To prevent the outbreak of the
disease in your farm it is important to obtain your poults from farms where
biosafety standards are high.

vii.Treatment:
Treatment is by the use of broad spectrum antibiotics. Tetracyclines are
effective against the infection.

5.Necrotic enteritis

i.Description:
Caused by the anaerobic bacteria Clostridium
perfringens, Necrotic enteritis
affects birds between the ages of 7 and 12 weeks. The disease can cause lesions
on the liver, damage the small intestine and eventually kill the bird. The
disease has a mortality rate range of 2% to 50%.

ii.Causes:
Infection is by the ingestion of feed and water contaminated with infected
droppings.

iii.Incubation
Period: Incubation period for the disease is 5 to 10 days.

iv.Symptoms:
Symptoms of the infection includes

1.Ruffled
feathers

2.Darkened
diarrhea

3.Loss of
appetite

4.Depression

5.Listlessness

6.Closed
eyes

7.Sudden
death

v.Diagnosis:
Smear observation of the affected tissues is required to make conclusive
diagnosis.

vi.Prevention:
Probiotics, Penicillin and normal
levels of ionophore anticoccidials help to prevent the multiplication of the
bacteria and acts as preventive measure in the flock.

vii.Treatment:
Use of Penicillins such as amoxicillin and phenoxymethyl administered
in water effectively treats the condition. An alternative treatment is the use
of Bacitracin in feed.

Treatment should be continued for 3-5 days when used in water. The
treatment days should be 5-7 days when administered in feed.

Every baby is delicate. Whether humans, plants, insects,
pets or wild animals – you name them! Special care is needed for the young of
any kind! The statement cannot be any truer for turkey poults. Domesticated
turkeys remain one of the strongest birds. However the young remains very
fragile and needs virtually constant care to survive. Their nutritional
requirement is very high during the growing stage of the bird.

Caring for young turkeys requires proper planning. There are
four stages involved in raising a day-old poult until the sixth week. Each
stage, as stated earlier, requires proper plan and execution.

Note of caution- raising turkey poults is a FULL-TIME JOB!

·Pre-Order Preparation

This is the first stage. Okay you have decided
to raise turkeys. You have Googled your way around and decided to raise your
own poults rather than buying an older turkey. Now what is next?

Before making that call to order
for your poults, there are several decisions and preparations you need to make.
The preparations can be the difference between a failed venture and a
delightful farming experience.

üChoosing
breed of poult: Currently there are about eight recognized breeds of
domestic turkeys, according to the American Poultry Association. Each breed has
its strengths and weaknesses. Choosing a poult breed should not only be based
on the popularity of the breed.

Factors that need to be considered include survival rate, immunity, adaptation
to your local weather and nutritional requirements of the breed. Choose the
breed that scores highest on these marks.

üChoosing
your poult supplier: Deciding on where to buy your poult is very important.
Poults from a farm with poor biosafety measures are more likely to develop
infections and diseases later on. These poults may also be carriers of deadly
diseases that may later affect healthy flock from other farms.

Request for biosafety data from the farm and satisfy yourself before
deciding on your poults’ farm source.

üChoosing
your brooder: The choice of a brooding house to a large extent depends on
the number of poults. Overcrowding should be avoided at any cost. If the number
of poults is fewer than 10, a cardboard is normally recommended. This choice is
cheaper and easy to clean and maintain. It is also reusable, meaning a new
batch can take over after the current ones vacate.

However if the number is higher, a metal or wooden brooder house should
be the option. The brooder house should be kept warm, well ventilated, dry and
spacious and kept free from pests and insects. Cleaner brooder house is ideal
to raising healthy poults.

Each poult should have about one square feet of floor space in the
brooder.

üChoosing
heater: Until the poults are all well feathered, the brooder house should
be kept warm at all times. The heat source is usually an electric bulb. In some
countries, other sources of heat such as a kerosene lantern, a coalpot and heated
kettle are used to keep the brooder warm.

There is always the risk of fire outbreak with the use of naked flames.
The use of electric bulb reduces that risk. It should however be noted that the
heating bulbs should be kept at least 20 inches away from flammable materials.

In a small brooder house, a 100 to 150 watt bulb is enough to keep the
house warm. However when the brooder house is bigger, infra-red bulbs can be
used to keep the inside warm.

The bulbs should be spaced well enough to allow the poults escape the
heat source when the temperature gets too high.

üPreparing
the brooder house: The brooder house needs to be ready before the poults
arrive. Thoroughly clean the brooder house ensuring that there is no dirt,
dust, cobwebs and insects inside. Wash down all the washable areas of the
brooder house and disinfect. Afterwards, leave the brooder house to dry.

Once the brooder house is dry, you can start fixing the bedding.

üChoosing
bedding material: The floor must be littered to keep the brooder house
clean and dry. The litter material should be able to serve its core purpose of
keeping the floor dry and providing bedding for the birds. A good litter
material therefore is the one that can absorb all the wet materials that will
be thrown to it. Several options are available when it comes to the choice of a
good litter material.

Some common ones are straw shavings, wood shavings, saw dust, dead leaves
and peat moss. Newspaper as a litter should be avoided because it can cause the
poults to slip and break leg.

üChoosing water
container: The choice of water container should be influenced by visibility
and accessibility. The design of the container should protect against spill.

oVisibility:
Choosing bright-colored water containers aid the poults to easily take note
of where the water is. This in turn encourages the poults to drink.

oAccessibility:
The water container should be accessible to the poults. The height should be
such that the shortest poult should be able to reach it. However it should be
tall enough to prevent the poults from drowning in it.

üChoosing feeder:
Consideration for the feeder should be the same as that for the water
container. The poults should be able to easily access the feeder and
distinguish it from the water container.

·Arrival of Poults

On arrival of the poults, the
brooder house should be ready to receive them immediately. However before
taking the poults into the brooder house, make sure to carry out the following checks.

üWeak
poults: Physically inspect each poult to ensure there is no weak poult in the
lot. Poor packaging during transport can stress the poults out. Make sure to
reject all weak poults.

üDiseased
poults: There is a difference between a diseased and a weak poult. However they
should both be rejected. Inspect each poult looking out for signs of infection
and disease. Any sign of bumps, colored face, listlessness, diarrhea and
ruffled feathers indicate sickness and that particular poult should be
rejected.

üDeformed poults:
Look out for crooked legs, strange-looking feet, closed or swollen eyes and
odd-shaped beak are some of the signs of a deformed poult. Deformities cannot
be healed so such poults should be rejected.

üDead poults:
Obviously any bird that does not show sign of life should be rejected.

After the selection, the poults
should be moved to the brooder house as soon as possible. However before
putting each poult inside, dip the beak into the water. This is a way to teach
the pouls where the water can be located.

·Caring
for the Poults

Water and food should be changed daily. Diseases
and infections can be kept at bay if the food and water are properly kept cleaned.
Feed spill should be cleaned as quickly as possible.

üFeeding: There
is an ongoing debate on whether young poults should be put on medicated feed or
not. I have a personal opinion on that subject. I believe that as much as possible,
all kinds of medications should be kept away from the turkeys. That is why
every care should be taken to protect the flock from infections and diseases.
Raising the birds free from medicine should be the ideal standard. In fact most
regulatory authorities require the minimal use of medicine when raising
turkeys.

For optimal performance, the poults should be fed on a well balanced
diet. The poults require a lot of nutrients due to their rapid growth rate. For
the first six weeks, the poults should be fed on well balanced feed containing
about 28 percent of protein. The high protein level will compensate for the
relatively low feed intake during that period. However from 8 weeks upwards,
the protein percentage should be reduced but it should never be below 14
percent at anytime in the bird’s life.

The poults should not be fed on feed high on calcium as it can have fatal
consequence.

üWater:
Fresh water should be available to the poults at all times. As stated earlier,
the water should be changed each day or whenever it is dirty. The water
container should be placed on a leveler to prevent spillage. However the birds
should have access to the drink.

Raising the water container level will prevent the droppings of the
poults from contaminating it.

üDisease prevention:
Prevention should be a priority. Many diseases that affect turkeys can be
prevented. However the danger is that most of those preventable diseases have
no cure. Recovered birds may continue to be carriers of deadly parasites. As a
result it is important to prevent disease.

Keeping the brooder house clean in itself can prevent many diseases.

If you live in an area which has been hit by a recent poultry disease, it
is necessary to vaccinate the poults against that particular disease.

All other poultry should be kept away from the poults for the first 8
weeks. The period is crucial because the immune system is not yet fully
developed.

üEarly
detection of diseases: Disease is the nightmare of any turkey farmer. An entire
flock can be wiped away in a few hours by disease. Good biosafety measures
prevent outbreak of diseases.

However when disease does occur, there is no need to panic. There have
been extensive researches into the poultry industry over the years. Early detection
of diseases can help stop its spread.

Detecting diseases and infections involve

§Know the regular activity level of the poults

§Look out for behavior and signs which are out of
the ordinary

§Quickly isolate the affected bird/birds

§Keep the affected birds in quarantine until
proper diagnosis is made.

§If diagnosis is made and treatment is possible,
start with treatment.

§If diagnosis is unclear or treatment is not
possible, quickly contact your vet.

§Keep treated birds in quarantine until all symptoms
of the sickness are gone.

üHeating: Until
the birds are fully feathered, the brooder house should be kept warm. Properly
position the heat source so that birds can escape it when the temperature is
too hot.

The heat source should be raised every week until it will not be
necessary to keep it there again.

üDisposing
off dead birds: It is normal to lose few birds especially in the first few
weeks. Quickly remove dead poults from the brooder house. Investigate every
death before disposal to ensure that you don’t miss the onset of a major
problem.

If
in doubt as to the cause of death of the poult, you will have to take the dead
carcass to the vet for necroscopy.

·Moving poults to main flock

The last stage is introducing the poults to the main flock. If you
already have adult poults, this stage can be very challenging. New turkeys are
not easily accepted into the flock. It is therefore important to manage the
stage to prevent possible attacks on the young ones.

I
normally choose to introduce the young turkeys to the flock at night. In the
morning, I allow all of them out of the brooder house. It is important to stay
around and observe any aggression towards the poults. Only intervene when the
assault is excessive, otherwise, leave them and let them get to know each other
in any way that they choose.

Each year several millions of turkeys are lost through
diseases and infections. Young turkeys are especially susceptible to diseases
because their immune systems are not well developed. This makes mortality in
poults quite higher than in adult turkeys.
Diseases remain one of the critical topics in the poultry industry at
large. Some diseases are non-fatal while others are deadly and can even be
transmitted to humans.

Early detection of disease and proper diagnosis can make a
lot of difference. It must however be stressed that an absolute diagnosis can
only be made after a visit to the vet. Using only symptoms may confuse you
because of the similarities in the symptomatic signs of several of the
diseases.

Having mentioned that, let us examine five of the deadliest
diseases that affect turkeys. The list is however not in any particular order.

1.LEUCOCYTOZOON INFECTION

i)Description:
Caused by a protozoan, the Leucocytozoon Infection is a dreaded disease with
very high mortality rate in poults. Adult turkeys with matured immune system
may recover from the infection. The disease attacks the internal organs of the
animal and may lead to internal bleeding. Affected organs may have lesions on
them which may cause other serious infections. The disease may also affect the
blood of the infected bird. Leucocytozoon Infection may lead to sudden death in
the infected bird.

ii)Causes:
The disease is caused by the bite of the black fly. Infection is a cycle which
starts with a bite of an infected turkey by a black fly. Leucocytozoon smithi, which is the host specific to turkeys, is
sucked up by the black fly after biting the infected turkey. The parasite later
develops and when the fly bites another turkey, new infection takes place. The
infection is only possible when the parasite matures in the black fly.

iii)Incubation
Period: The incubation period for the parasite is approximately 1 week. Mortality
may occur between 7 and 20 days after the incubation period.

iv)Symptoms:
Some of the symptoms of the disease include

(1)Listlessness

(2)Loss of appetite

(3)Excessive intake of water

(4)Stunted growth

(5)Coughing

(6)Tracheal sound

(7)Signs of depression

(8)Lack of coordination

(9)Tiredness

(10)Decreased egg production

(11)Decreased egg hatchability

v)Diagnosis:
The vet may screen the blood of the entire flock to detect the presence of Leucocytozoon smithi.

vi)Prevention:
Currently, only the black fly is known to transmit the disease through its bite. Controlling the population of the insect may
reduce the risk of infection. Black flies are common at locations with running
water. Steps should be taken to prevent the invasion of the insect when the
farm is located near such a place.

In places where the population of
the black fly cannot be controlled, preventive medication can be used to protect
the flock. Drug manufacturer, Merck,
recommends that pyrimethamine (1 ppm) and sulfadimethoxine (10 ppm) added to
the feed may be effective.

vii)Treatment:
There is no known effective treatment for the disease currently.

2)HEXAMITIASIS

i)Description:
Caused by the flagellate protozoan Hexamita meleagridis, Hexamitiais affects poults and is very rare in
adult turkeys. Mortality is very high in poults between the ages of 3 and 8
weeks. Recovered birds build resistance to the disease but they may continue to
be carriers of the parasite for the rest of their lives.

ii)Causes: Chicken remains the number one
carrier of the parasite. The protozoan is passed to other flocks through the
droppings of the infected bird which may come in contact with the food or water
of the flock.

iii)Incubation Period: The animal begins to
show symptoms of the disease 4 to 5 days after getting infected by the
parasite.

iv)Symptoms: Some of the symptoms of the
disease include

(1)Ruffled
feathers

(2)Chilled

(3)Prolonged
chirping,

(4)Listlessness

(5)Huddling

(6)Nervousness

(7)Convulsion

(8)Comatose

(9)Loss
of appetite

(10)Extreme
thirst

v)Diagnosis: Scientific analysis of
intestinal mucosa may confirm the presence of the protozoa.

vi)Prevention: Separate poults from the
adult flock. This may reduce the transmission of the disease from carrier
adults to the poults. Feed and water should be placed at a higher level to
prevent droppings getting into them. Chicken should be isolated from the flock.
Medication like histomonastats also helps to prevent infection.

vii)Treatment: Mixing 0.22% Oxytetracycline
in a feed for two weeks helps to prevent secondary infection. Alternatively, 0.022–0.044%
of chlortetracycline in feed for two weeks also serves the same purpose.

3)Fowl Cholera

i)Description:
Fowl cholera is caused by the bacteria Pasteurella
multocida. The parasite is mainly found in the soil and affects turkey
birds aged 6 weeks and older. Death is sudden and recovered birds may be carriers
of the bacteria for life.

ii)Causes: The parasite can survive in
several hosts including domestic cats, rodents and wild birds. Turkeys may
become infected when they eat infected feces in water or feed.

iii)Incubation Period: Symptoms of the
disease will manifest 5 to 8 days after infection.

iv)Symptoms: Some of the symptoms of the
disease include

(1)Mucus
discharge from mouth

(2)Diarrhea

(3)Anorexia

(4)Pneumonia

(5)Depression

(6)Ruffled
feather

(7)Fever

(8)Lethargy

(9)Dark
blue skin

(10)Excessive
thirst

(11)Nasal
cleft

v)Diagnosis: Vets may test for the
presence of Pasteurella multocida in infected tissues.

vi)Prevention: Infected birds should be
culled and the brooding place thoroughly disinfected. The parasite cannot
survive disinfectants and direct sunlight.

Carriers like rats, cats, dogs and wild birds should be controlled.In healthy flocks, live
vaccines can induce immunity against the bacteria.

vii)Treatment:
0.04% tetracycline in water or feed is effective against fowl cholera. Norfloxacin effectively
treat symptoms of the disease.

Sulfonamides such as sulfaquinoxaline sodium can also be used to
treat the infection. However when treatment is discontinued, mortality returns.
This is an indication that treatment does not effectively eliminate the
parasite.

4)Turkey Coronavirus

i)Description:
Turkey Coronavirus is a gastrointestinal tract disease. The disease is highly contagious
affecting the bird at all ages. Mortality however is higher in poults than in
adult turkeys. Mortality rate can be as
high as 90% in poults. Recovered birds remain immune for the rest of their
lives.

ii)Causes: Carrier birds may pass the
virus in their droppings. When the infected dropping is eaten by a bird, the
animal will become infected. In about 72 hours, the infected turkey can also
pass it through its droppings.

iii)Incubation Period: The disease has very
short incubation period. After ingesting an infected dropping, the bird may
start showing symptoms between 18 and 24 hours.

iv)Symptoms: Some of the symptoms of the
disease include

(1)Low
body temperature

(2)Diarrhea

(3)Weight
loss

(4)Loss
of appetite

(5)Dehydration

(6)Depression

(7)Stunted
growth

v)Diagnosis:
Scientific analysis of the intestine will determine the presence of the
virus. The virus needs to be isolated and accurately identified from other
enteric causing parasites.

vi)Prevention: There is no known vaccine
for the infection. Droppings of recovered birds may still contain the virus.It is therefore important to properly
keep the feed and water to prevent transmission of the virus. The brooding
place should be kept clean and overpopulation should be avoided.

Contaminated brooding places should be emptied and thoroughly disinfected.
The place should remain empty for up to 4 weeks to ensure total viral
elimination.

vii)Treatment: There is no known cure for
the disease. However alternative therapies include the administration of
antibiotics, milk suspension mixed with potassium chloride and copper sulphate.

5)Avian Influenza

i)Description:
Turkeys are very susceptible to this
viral infection. Avian Influenza is caused by a highly mutated virus with 256
variations. The deadliest of the strain is the HPH5N1 which can also affect
humans. Another strain of the virus, H1N1, is more famous for the 2009 world
flu pandemic that resulted in the deaths of about 17,000 people worldwide(World
Health Organization).

ii)Causes: Wild birds carry the virus and
transmission is through oral and respiration. The virus can survive in viable
environment for several months. Recovered birds can still excrete the virus in
their droppings several weeks later.

iii)Incubation Period: Incubation period
for the disease is between 2 and 17 days.

iv)Symptoms:

(1)Diarrhea

(2)Facial
swelling

(3)Dehydration

(4)Lesions

(5)Respiratory
problems

(6)Hemorrhages throughout the body

(7)Listlessness

v)Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is by the examination of a dead bird for the presence of the
virus.

vi)Prevention:
Wild birds are the major carrier of the virus. The brooder should be kept
securely from wild birds. Roaming birds should be protected from coming into
direct contact with wild birds.

Infected birds should be depopulated from the flock and a report should
be made to the regulatory authority in your country. Infected broody houses
should be thoroughly disinfected before new birds can be moved back in.

Vaccines are available but require approval from regulatory authorities
before use.

vii)Treatment:
Current laws in several countries require outbreaks to be reported.
Infected birds are usually culled.