Emergency Services – AFSCME Information Highwayhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org
Resources brought to you by the library at the American Federation of State, County, & Municipal EmployeesThu, 17 Aug 2017 17:52:23 +0000en-UShourly1https://wordpress.org/?v=4.7.5124494356‘Giving Help and Not Asking for It’: Inside the Mental Health of First Respondershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2017/07/giving-help-and-not-asking-for-it-inside-the-mental-health-of-first-responders.htm
Fri, 07 Jul 2017 16:29:10 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=42577Source: Katherine Barrett & Richard Greene, Governing, July 7, 2017 Teaching cops, firefighters and prison workers to recognize and know how to handle people with mental illness is a big part of the efforts to reduce suffering and death at the hands of law enforcement. Less talked about is the mental health of the cops, […]

Teaching cops, firefighters and prison workers to recognize and know how to handle people with mental illness is a big part of the efforts to reduce suffering and death at the hands of law enforcement. Less talked about is the mental health of the cops, firefighters and prison workers themselves. ….

From the press release:
More than 16,000 emergency medical service workers are employed in California, with the vast majority working for private providers. Wages in the industry are low, employees work long hours often without rest and meal breaks, and injury rates are high, according to a joint study by UC Berkeley’s Center for Labor Research and Education and the UCLA Labor Center. The study looks at working conditions addressed in the Emergency Medical Services Workers’ (EMS) Bill of Rights, or Assembly Bill 263, proposed today by Assemblymember Freddie Rodriguez (D-Pomona/Chino).

Emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics provide critical pre-hospital emergency care often in life or death situations. Unfortunately, the stress of the job and long work shifts can take a toll on their health. Previous research has found that EMS workers suffer disproportionately from post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and suicidal ideation. ….
Related:Summary

]]>41555Firefighters protect us. Who protects them?http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2016/12/firefighters-protect-us-who-protects-them.htm
Fri, 09 Dec 2016 22:04:52 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=41194Source: Mike Hendricks and Matt Campbell, Kansas City Star, 2016 ….Tough luck sums it up well on both the regulatory and legal fronts, The Star found in an investigation of shortcomings in firefighter safety. In most occupations, there are rules to follow and legal consequences for flouting them. Not necessarily with firefighters. Because local fire […]

….Tough luck sums it up well on both the regulatory and legal fronts, The Star found in an investigation of shortcomings in firefighter safety. In most occupations, there are rules to follow and legal consequences for flouting them.

Not necessarily with firefighters.

Because local fire departments are subject to no federal workplace safety rules and scant state regulation in much of the country, firefighters cannot count on government to help correct unsafe practices.

“OSHA cannot come in and do nothing for us, because we are not under OSHA,” Waycross, Ga., firefighter Bill Jordan said.

And because the survivors of fallen firefighters generally cannot file wrongful-death lawsuits against fire departments in Missouri, Kansas and most other states, the fear of shelling out big damage awards won’t spur departments to exercise more caution.

That lack of accountability, especially on the regulatory front, officials inside and outside government say, hampers efforts to prevent injuries and line-of-duty deaths…..
Related:Fatal Echoes

About this series:
The Star set out to examine how and why U.S. firefighters die on the job after Kansas City firefighters John Mesh and Larry Leggio were killed in October 2015.

Reporters Mike Hendricks and Matt Campbell interviewed scores of experts on fire behavior and firefighter safety. Hendricks and photographer/videographer Joe Ledford visited Texas, Georgia, New York, Maryland and Washington, D.C., to speak with firefighters and survivors, visit the National Fire Fighters Memorial and observe a federal rule-writing committee in action.

The reporters analyzed hundreds of federal and state fatality investigative reports, five years’ worth of federal workplace safety inspection records and reams of meeting transcripts of an advisory board that recently proposed the first new federal safety regulations governing the fire service in decades.

]]>41194Fifteen years after 9/11, illnesses compound for first respondershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2016/09/fifteen-years-after-911-illnesses-compound-for-first-responders.htm
Mon, 12 Sep 2016 20:17:57 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=40473Source: Sam Weber and Laura Fong, PBS NewsHour, September 11, 2016 Tens of thousands of people who worked at ground zero are still coping with the long-term health effects from the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history. 15 years after the attack, doctors and researchers continue to study the connection between the toxins at the site […]

Tens of thousands of people who worked at ground zero are still coping with the long-term health effects from the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history. 15 years after the attack, doctors and researchers continue to study the connection between the toxins at the site and physical ailments, along with complications from mental health issues like post-traumatic stress disorder. NewsHour Weekend Special Correspondent Karla Murthy reports.

]]>4035224-hour work shifts, sedentary work, and obesity in male firefightershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2016/05/24-hour-work-shifts-sedentary-work-and-obesity-in-male-firefighters.htm
Tue, 17 May 2016 18:08:20 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=39104Source: BongKyoo Choi, Marnie Dobson, Peter Schnall, and Javier Garcia-Rivas, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, Volume 59 Issue 6, June 2016 (subscription required) From the abstract: Background: Little is known about the occupational risk factors for obesity in US firefighters. Methods: 308 male California firefighters, who participated in a work and obesity project, were chosen. […]

From the abstract:
Background: Little is known about the occupational risk factors for obesity in US firefighters.
Methods: 308 male California firefighters, who participated in a work and obesity project, were chosen. Working conditions were measured with a firefighter-specific occupational health questionnaire. Adiposity was clinically assessed using body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and body fat percent.
Results: In a multivariate analysis, the prevalence of obesity by all measures was significantly higher in the firefighters who reported seventeen to twenty-one shifts than those who reported eight to eleven shifts in the past month. Prolonged sedentary work was also a risk factor for obesity by BMI. Furthermore, there was a linear dose-response relationship of obesity by BMI and WC with the number of 24-hr shifts and sedentary work.
Conclusions: Many additional 24-hr shifts and prolonged sedentary work substantially increased the risk for obesity in male firefighters.

]]>39104Would You Trust A Robot To Rescue You From A Burning Building?http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2016/03/would-you-trust-a-robot-to-rescue-you-from-a-burning-building.htm
Mon, 21 Mar 2016 21:35:39 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=38487Source: Robert Siegel, NPR, All Things Considered, March 21, 2016 Would you trust a robot to escort you out of a burning building? Maybe you shouldn’t. NPR’s Robert Siegel talks with roboticist Paul Robinette, lead author of the Georgia Tech study, “Overtrust of Robots in Emergency Evacuation Scenarios.”

From the abstract:
Background: Rescue and recovery workers responding to the 2001 collapse of the World Trade Center (WTC) sustained exposures to toxic chemicals and have elevated rates of multiple morbidities.

Methods: Using data from the World Trade Center Health Program and the National Death Index for 2002–2011, we examined standardized mortality ratios (SMR) and proportional cancer mortality ratios (PCMR) with indirect standardization for age, sex, race, and calendar year to the U.S. general population, as well as associations between WTC-related environmental exposures and all-cause mortality.

Results: We identified 330 deaths among 28,918 responders. No cause-specific SMRs were meaningfully elevated. PCMRs were elevated for neoplasms of lymphatic and hematopoietic tissue. Mortality hazard ratios showed no linear trend with exposure.

Conclusions: Consistent with a healthy worker effect, all-cause mortality among responders was not elevated. There was no clear association between intensity and duration of exposure and mortality. Surveillance is needed to monitor the proportionally higher cancer mortality attributed to lymphatic/hematopoietic neoplasms

From the abstract:
Background: Three longitudinal studies of cancer incidence in varied populations of World Trade Center responders have been conducted.

Methods: We compared the design and results of the three studies.

Results: Separate analyses of these cohorts revealed excess cancer incidence in responders for all cancers combined and for cancers of the thyroid and prostate. Methodological dissimilarities included recruitment strategies, source of cohort members, demographic characteristics, overlap between cohorts, assessment of WTC and other occupational exposures and confounders, methods and duration of follow-up, approaches for statistical analysis, and latency analyses.

Conclusions: The presence of three cohorts strengthens the effort of identifying and quantifying the cancer risk; the heterogeneity in design might increase sensitivity to the identification of cancers potentially associated with exposure. The presence and magnitude of an increased cancer risk remains to be fully elucidated. Continued long-term follow up with minimal longitudinal dropout is crucial to achieve this goal.

From the abstract:
Background: Struck by injuries experienced by females were observed to be higher compared to males in an urban fire department. The disparity was investigated while gaining a grounded understanding of EMS responder experiences from patient-initiated violence.

Methods: A convergent parallel mixed methods design was employed. Using a linked injury dataset, patient-initiated violence estimates were calculated comparing genders. Semi-structured interviews and a focus group were conducted with injured EMS responders.

Results: Paramedics had significantly higher odds for patient-initiated violence injuries than firefighters. Females reported increased odds of patient-initiated violence injuries compared to males, but this relationship was entirely mediated through occupation. Qualitative data illuminated the impact of patient-initiated violence and highlighted important organizational opportunities for intervention.

]]>37690The Effects of Collective Bargaining Rights on Public Employee Compensation: Evidence from Teachers, Firefighters, and Policehttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2016/01/the-effects-of-collective-bargaining-rights-on-public-employee-compensation-evidence-from-teachers-firefighters-and-police.htm
Mon, 04 Jan 2016 18:13:49 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=37662Source: Brigham R. Frandsen, ILR Review, Vol. 69 no. 1, January 2016 (subscription required) From the abstract: Widespread public-sector unionism emerged only in the 1960s, as individual states opened the door to collective bargaining for state and municipal workers. In this study, the author exploits differences in timing of legislative reforms across states to construct […]

From the abstract:
Widespread public-sector unionism emerged only in the 1960s, as individual states opened the door to collective bargaining for state and municipal workers. In this study, the author exploits differences in timing of legislative reforms across states to construct estimates of the causal effects of public-sector collective bargaining rights on pay, benefits, and employment for teachers, firefighters, and police. Perhaps surprisingly, estimates that allow for state fixed effects and state-specific trends show little effect on teachers’ pay, benefits, or employment, despite significantly increasing union presence among teachers. For firefighters, the results show a substantial positive effect on wages. For police, the wage effect was more modest but the workweek was significantly shortened.

From the abstract:
Background: Firefighters participate in activities with intense physical and psychological stress.
Aims To examine the correlation between work-related injuries (WRIs), burnout and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in firefighters.
Methods: The method used for the recording of the elements was the collection of self-report anonymous questionnaires, the completion of which was optional. The questionnaires used were: (i) a WRIs questionnaire, (ii) the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and (iii) the Impact of Event Scale-Revised-Greek version. Descriptive statistics along with univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were applied.
Results: The study population consisted of 3289 firefighters. There was a significant association between WRIs, burnout syndrome, PTSD symptoms and age, work experience and physical condition. Relationships were found between PTSD symptoms, the MBI–emotional exhaustion dimension and WRIs and between MBI–depersonalization dimension and PTSD symptoms. The most traumatic event was the ‘dealing with death or rescue of a child’ and the top stress factor was ‘depression about the responsibility for quality of victims’ life’.
Conclusions: The occupational obligations may be responsible for the psychological and musculoskeletal problems experienced by firefighters. Early recognition and response to psychosomatic issues in firefighters is of high importance.

]]>36948How Modern Furniture Endangers Firefightershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2015/09/how-modern-furniture-endangers-firefighters.htm
Tue, 22 Sep 2015 15:39:47 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=36907Source: Olga Khazan, The Atlantic, September 11, 2015 Consumer goods are increasingly made of synthetic materials and coatings. The carcinogens they give off when they burn could be driving high cancer rates among first responders…..

Doctor shortages in rural America have paramedics stepping up to the plate when needed. … Community paramedicine systems are popping up in Colorado, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri and Nevada to provide health care where few services exist. Often, they save money for patients, hospitals and insurance companies, mostly in avoided costs. A leg amputation, for example, costs around $76,000. That’s about what it would cost to fund community paramedic home visits to Robert for 11 years. Minnesota reported that because of the paramedicine program there, Medicaid providers serving 100,000 residents spent $10.5 million less in 2014 than analysts projected they would. ….

Despite a tremendous diversity in how emergency medical services (EMS) are provided in municipalities around the country, most U.S. EMS systems share one commonality: They remain primarily focused on responding quickly to serious accidents and critical emergencies even though patients increasingly call 911 for less severe or chronic health problems.

Recent efforts in health care to improve quality and reduce costs pose significant challenges to the existing EMS response model. Health care payers have become increasingly unwilling to reimburse for services that fail to prove their value. As a consequence, EMS agencies will soon be required to demonstrate their worth like never before.

It’s critical for city and county managers to know that despite these challenges, the changing health care landscape also presents opportunities for EMS systems to evolve from a reactive to a proactive model of health care delivery—one that better meets the needs of their communities by preventing unnecessary ambulance transports, reducing emergency department visits, and providing better care at a lower cost. This InFocus is intended as a guide to identify challenges and opportunities and help you measure your efforts and define success.

From the abstract:
Objective: Emergency Medical Services (EMS) workers are shift workers in a high-risk, uncontrolled occupational environment. EMS-worker fatigue has been associated with self-reported injury, but the influence of extended weekly work hours is unknown.

Methods: A retrospective cohort study was designed using historical shift schedules and occupational injury and illness reports. Using multilevel models, we examined the association between weekly work hours, crew familiarity, and injury or illness.

Results: In total, 966,082 shifts and 950 reports across 14 EMS agencies were obtained over a 1–3 year period. Weekly work hours were not associated with occupational injury or illness. Schedule characteristics that yield decreased exposure to occupational hazards, such as part-time work and night work, conferred reduced risk of injury or illness.

Conclusions: Extended weekly work hours were not associated with occupational injury or illness. Future work should focus on transient exposures and agency-level characteristics that may contribute to adverse work events

]]>36331High Stress at EMShttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2015/05/high-stress-at-ems.htm
Tue, 12 May 2015 20:34:58 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=35579Source: Chase Hoffberger, Austin Chronicle, May 8, 2015 Austin-Travis County Emergency Medical Services has a rep as one of the best services in the country. But after years of structural problems – highlighted by recent suicides – its own personnel might call it the worst.

Austin-Travis County Emergency Medical Services has a rep as one of the best services in the country. But after years of structural problems – highlighted by recent suicides – its own personnel might call it the worst.

]]>35579Cuts to the Lawrence Fire Department pushed costs onto property ownershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2015/05/cuts-to-the-lawrence-fire-department-pushed-costs-onto-property-owners.htm
Mon, 04 May 2015 21:29:33 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=35468Source: Alex Richardson, MuckRock, March 24, 2015 In 2008, the average fire in Lawrence caused $18,936 in property damage compared to a state average of $8,435.

]]>35468Guidelines for Preventing Workplace Violence for Healthcare and Social Service Workershttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2015/05/guidelines-for-preventing-workplace-violence-for-healthcare-and-social-service-workers.htm
Mon, 04 May 2015 16:38:51 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=35448Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA 3148-04R, 2015 Healthcare and social service workers face significant risks of job-related violence and it is OSHA’s mission to help employers address these serious hazards. This publication updates OSHA’s 1996 and 2004 voluntary guidelines for preventing workplace violence for healthcare and social service workers. […]

Healthcare and social service workers face significant risks of job-related violence and it is OSHA’s mission to help employers address these serious hazards. This publication updates OSHA’s 1996 and 2004 voluntary guidelines for preventing workplace violence for healthcare and social service workers. OSHA’s violence prevention guidelines are based on industry best practices and feedback from stakeholders, and provide recommendations for developing policies and procedures to eliminate or reduce workplace violence in a range of healthcare and social service settings.

These guidelines reflect the variations that exist in different settings and incorporate the latest and most effective ways to reduce the risk of violence in the workplace. Workplace setting determines not only the types of hazards that exist, but also the measures that will be available and appropriate to reduce or eliminate workplace violence hazards.

For the purpose of these guidelines, we have identified five different settings:
■ Hospital settings represent large institutional medical facilities;
■ Residential Treatment settings include institutional facilities such as nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities;
■ Non-residential Treatment/Service settings include small neighborhood clinics and mental health centers;
■ Community Care settings include community-based residential facilities and group homes; and
■ Field work settings include home healthcare workers or social workers who make home visits.

Indeed, these guidelines are intended to cover a broad spectrum of workers, including those in: psychiatric facilities, hospital emergency departments, community mental health clinics, drug abuse treatment centers, pharmacies, community-care centers, and long-term care facilities. Healthcare and social service workers covered by these guidelines include: registered nurses, nurses’ aides, therapists, technicians, home healthcare workers, social workers, emergency medical care personnel, physicians, pharmacists, physicians’ assistants, nurse practitioners, and other support staff who come in contact with clients with known histories of violence. Employers should use these guidelines to develop appropriate workplace violence prevention programs, engaging workers to ensure their perspective is recognized and their needs are incorporated into the program….

]]>35448Emergency Management and the Management of Emergence: Climate Change and Crowdsourcinghttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2015/04/emergency-management-and-the-management-of-emergence-climate-change-and-crowdsourcing.htm
Wed, 15 Apr 2015 21:46:28 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=35168Source: Bruce J. Perlman, State and Local Government Review, Vol. 47 no. 1, March 2015 (subscription required) Taken together, the two articles in this issue of the State and Local Government Review’s (SLGR) Governance Matters (GM) section might be said to be as much about the management of emergence as they are about emergency management. […]

Taken together, the two articles in this issue of the State and Local Government Review’s (SLGR) Governance Matters (GM) section might be said to be as much about the management of emergence as they are about emergency management. Although both articles focus on the administrative practice of emergency management in state and local governments, they do so without focusing on suddenly developing crisis events or predetermined, agency-based reaction to them. Rather, they emphasize slowly developing, less specific (yet potentially as disastrous in the long run) occurrences like climate change as well as broad-based, decentralized (although likely as sound) possibilities for developing responses. They combine the ideas of emergency and emergence in a unique way….

From the abstract:
Local governments in the United States have become central actors in addressing climate change as a hazard management challenge. Using evidence from a purposive sample of 10 U.S. cities, this article examines how local government officials view climate change in hazard vulnerability terms, what motivates local efforts in this area, and how officials initiate internal collaboration and external stakeholder outreach. The findings suggest level of hazard risk does influence a city’s efforts to address climate change, as does resource availability. In contrast, geographic location and associated hazard type (drought vs. flooding) does not appear to be a key driver of a municipality’s actions in this domain. Further, the results point to how addressing the climate hazard and improving commitment to emergency management is relevant to increasing community resilience for future emergencies and disasters.

From the abstract:
Over the last century, state and local governments have been challenged to keep proactive, emergency planning efforts ahead of the after-the-disaster, response efforts. After moving from decentralized to centralized planning efforts, the most recent policy has returned to the philosophy that a decentralized planning approach is the most effective way to plan for a disaster. In fact, under the Obama administration, a policy of using the “whole community” approach to emergency planning has been adopted. This approach, however, creates an obvious problem for state and local government practitioners already under pressure for funding, time, and the continuous need for higher and broader expertise—the problem of how to actually incorporate the whole community into emergency planning efforts. This article suggests one such approach, crowdsourcing, as an option for local governments. The crowdsourcer-problem-crowd-platform-solution (CPCPS) model is suggested as an initial framework for practitioners seeking a practical application and basic comprehension. The model, discussion, and additional examples in this essay provide a skeletal framework for state and local governments wishing to reach the whole community while under the constraints of time, budget, and technical expertise.

From the summary:
The Outbreaks: Protecting Americans from Infectious Diseases report finds that the Ebola outbreak exposes serious underlying gaps in the nation’s ability to manage severe infectious disease threats.
Half of states and Washington, D.C. scored five or lower out of 10 key indicators related to preventing, detecting, diagnosing and responding to outbreaks. Maryland, Massachusetts, Tennessee, Vermont and Virginia tied for the top score – achieving eight out of 10 indicators. Arkansas has the lowest score at two out of 10.

]]>34226Protecting worker and public health during responses to catastrophic disasters—learning from the World Trade Center experiencehttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/11/protecting-worker-and-public-health-during-responses-to-catastrophic-disasters-learning-from-the-world-trade-center-experience.htm
Thu, 13 Nov 2014 21:16:16 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=33706Source: David M. Newman, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, Volume 57, Issue 11, November 2014 (subscription required) From the abstract: Despite incremental lessons learned since 9/11, responder and community health remain at unnecessary risk during responses to catastrophic disasters, as evidenced during the BP Deepwater Horizon spill and Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Sandy. Much of […]

From the abstract:
Despite incremental lessons learned since 9/11, responder and community health remain at unnecessary risk during responses to catastrophic disasters, as evidenced during the BP Deepwater Horizon spill and Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Sandy. Much of the health harm that occurs during disaster response, as distinct from during the disaster event itself, is avoidable. Protection of public health should be an integral component of disaster response, which should “do no additional harm.” This commentary examines how challenges and gaps the World Trade Center response resulted in preventable occupational and environmental health harm. It proposes changes in disaster response policies to better protect the health of rescue and recovery workers, volunteers, and impacted worker and residential communities.

]]>33706The FDNY Is a Force of More Than 10,000. Can You Guess How Many Are Women?http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/02/the-fdny-is-a-force-of-more-than-10000-can-you-guess-how-many-are-women.htm
Thu, 27 Feb 2014 20:36:42 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=30908Source: Anna Merlan, Village Voice, Vol. 59 no. 7, February 12-18, 2014 …These women want to join the tiny sisterhood Srisakul is part of: the women of the FDNY, who make up less than one-half of 1 percent of the department’s active-duty firefighters. There are 37 female firefighters in the department, alongside some 10,500 men. […]

…These women want to join the tiny sisterhood Srisakul is part of: the women of the FDNY, who make up less than one-half of 1 percent of the department’s active-duty firefighters. There are 37 female firefighters in the department, alongside some 10,500 men. No two women work in the same firehouse. The most women who ever served in the department at one time is 41.

]]>30908Expect the Unexpected: Lessons for Employers from Recent Tragedieshttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/02/expect-the-unexpected-lessons-for-employers-from-recent-tragedies.htm
Sat, 22 Feb 2014 18:50:06 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=32981Source: Katharine H. Parker, Employee Relations Law Journal, Vol. 39 no. 4, Spring 2014 (subscription required) While the personal and societal impact of natural disasters and other tragedies are the first and foremost concern, these events also highlight for business the importance of having a plan in place before disaster strikes. The authors of this […]

While the personal and societal impact of natural disasters and other tragedies are the first and foremost concern, these events also highlight for business the importance of having a plan in place before disaster strikes. The authors of this article reviews employers’ legal obligation to employees during these events.

]]>32981ICMA 2013 Police and Fire Personnel and Expenditureshttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/01/icma-2013-police-and-fire-personnel-and-expenditures.htm
Wed, 22 Jan 2014 20:01:56 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=30487Source: International City/County Management Association (ICMA), ICMA Survey Research, Survey Summary, 2014 From an ICMA article: ICMA’s Police and Fire Personnel and Expenditures Survey provides an overview of trends in staffing and expenditures across the country. As local governments have wrestled with budgets for the last six years, police and fire departments have not been […]

From an ICMA article:
ICMA’s Police and Fire Personnel and Expenditures Survey provides an overview of trends in staffing and expenditures across the country. As local governments have wrestled with budgets for the last six years, police and fire departments have not been immune, although they may have been among the last departments to be affected by reduced budgets. Staffing and expenditures are always a topic of discussion as budgets are prepared.
– The average entrance salaries are $45,664 for police officers and $40,887 for fire fighters.
– The average maximum salaries for police officers and fire fighters are $64,897 and $57,091, respectively.
– Both police and fire show average overtime expenditures of approximately $500,000.

The survey also covers staffing shifts and workweeks, which have been a focus of recent questions in the Knowledge Network related to police departments.

Results from ICMA’s 2013 Police and Fire survey show that
– Over 70% of local governments report a 40-hour workweek for police officers.
– Slightly more than 50% report 10/12-hour shifts for police officers.

Other highlights from the 2013 survey include:
– For firefighters, a plurality of local governments reports a 56-hour workweek.
– Approximately 75% of local governments report that firefighters work 24-hour shifts.
– The average number of police officers for responding local governments is 105 and 72 for firefighters, but population size, density, and other factors influence the staffing in each locality.
– For both police and fire the average per capita number of officers has decreased since 2012.

The survey summary also includes minimum and maximum salaries for an additional 12 police and fire department officer positions.

]]>30487Property Tax Caps and Citizen Perceptions of Local Government Service Quality: Evidence From the Hoosier Surveyhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/01/property-tax-caps-and-citizen-perceptions-of-local-government-service-quality-evidence-from-the-hoosier-survey.htm
Wed, 15 Jan 2014 18:52:53 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=30411Source: Charles D. Taylor, American Review of Public Administration, Published online before print January 8, 2014 (subscription required) From the abstract: This study examines the relationship between property tax caps and citizens’ perceptions of local government service quality using data from the 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011 Hoosier Surveys conducted by the Bowen Center for […]

From the abstract:
This study examines the relationship between property tax caps and citizens’ perceptions of local government service quality using data from the 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011 Hoosier Surveys conducted by the Bowen Center for Public Affairs at Ball State University. These surveys include questions asking respondents whether the quality of local government services in various categories has improved, declined, or stayed about the same over the previous year. Analysis of these data using generalized ordinal logistic regression indicates that urban residents of counties experiencing relatively large revenue cuts from property tax caps are significantly more likely to report declines in the quality of fire and police protection. Urban and rural residents of high-impact counties are significantly more likely to report declines in the quality of schools. Citizens’ perceptions of road maintenance, which is funded through shared state gas tax revenues rather than property taxes, are not significantly influenced by the impact of property tax caps.

]]>30411The Legal Definitions of “First Responder”http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2014/01/the-legal-definitions-of-first-responder.htm
Fri, 10 Jan 2014 17:35:23 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=30355Source: Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Research Results Digest 385, Project Number: 20-59(41), November 2013 The Legal Definitions of “First Responder” explores the definition of “first responders.” The report also contains an analysis of grants available from the federal government to aid state and local governmental entities in preparing for and […]

The Legal Definitions of “First Responder” explores the definition of “first responders.” The report also contains an analysis of grants available from the federal government to aid state and local governmental entities in preparing for and responding to natural or man-made disasters and emergencies.

]]>30355Re-sizing Local Government after the Recessionhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2013/11/re-sizing-local-government-after-the-recession.htm
Tue, 26 Nov 2013 17:29:34 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=29800Source: International City/County Management Association (ICMA), November 19, 2013 As a result of the recession, local governments were forced to reevaluate their size while ensuring that they would still be able to provide all the necessary services. Finding the right size of local government for your community is a delicate, difficult, and highly individualized task. […]

As a result of the recession, local governments were forced to reevaluate their size while ensuring that they would still be able to provide all the necessary services. Finding the right size of local government for your community is a delicate, difficult, and highly individualized task. There is no one-size-fits-all solution; only you know your community’s needs.

]]>29800The Most Dangerous Government Jobs and Why They’re Riskier Than the Private Sectorhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2013/11/the-most-dangerous-government-jobs-and-why-theyre-riskier-than-the-private-sector.htm
Thu, 21 Nov 2013 16:50:52 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=29754Source: Mike Maciag, Governing November 19, 2013 Public-sector workers typically face a greater risk of suffering an injury on the job than other segments of the workforce. Read five key takeaways from new industry-level data. … Public transportation employees are far more likely to suffer an injury on the job than those working in most […]

Public-sector workers typically face a greater risk of suffering an injury on the job than other segments of the workforce. Read five key takeaways from new industry-level data. … Public transportation employees are far more likely to suffer an injury on the job than those working in most private transportation operations. Public hospital staff don’t have a hazard-free work environment, either. For police and fire personnel, the risk of getting hurt is even greater….

Natural disasters, even those that affect large geographic areas, have extreme localized repercussions. … Certainly, upon the initial impact of a natural disaster, communities look to their local first response agencies such as police and fire personnel to respond to immediate needs. Local responders are expected to respond and assess the damage prior to the mobilizing of federal assets. …Communities trust and indeed count on their first response agencies to respond when the call is made. It is easy to forget that those we count on are just as susceptible to disaster as any other citizen. …

]]>32140How Mobile Devices Are Transforming Disaster Relief and Public Safetyhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2013/07/how-mobile-devices-are-transforming-disaster-relief-and-public-safety.htm
Thu, 18 Jul 2013 16:36:11 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=28716Source: Darrell M. West and Elizabeth Valentini, Brookings Mobile Economy Project, Issues in Technology Innovation, July 2013 From the summary: In this paper, part of the Brookings Mobile Economy Project, Darrell West and Elizabeth Valentini examine how mobile technology assists in the creation of early warning systems, aids in emergency coordination, and improves public communications […]

From the summary:
In this paper, part of the Brookings Mobile Economy Project, Darrell West and Elizabeth Valentini examine how mobile technology assists in the creation of early warning systems, aids in emergency coordination, and improves public communications in times of crisis. West and Valentini advise policymakers to make better use of current mobile technologies and promote future advances to provide first responders and citizens with the tools necessary to save lives during threatening events. Governments and businesses alike should take full advantage of mobile technology to mitigate property damage, inform the public and save lives.

]]>28716An Analysis of the U.S. Supreme Court’s Decision in Ricci v. DeStefano: The New Haven Firefighter’s Casehttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2013/07/an-analysis-of-the-u-s-supreme-courts-decision-in-ricci-v-destefano-the-new-haven-firefighters-case.htm
Wed, 03 Jul 2013 19:11:07 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=28583Source: Charles E. Mitchell, Public Personnel Management Vol. 42 no. 1, March 2013 (subscription required) From the abstract: Almost 6 months after winning their U.S. Supreme Court case, a group of New Haven, Connecticut, firefighters celebrated their victory in grand style. The decision in Ricci v. DeStefano proved that the City of New Haven erred […]

From the abstract:
Almost 6 months after winning their U.S. Supreme Court case, a group of New Haven, Connecticut, firefighters celebrated their victory in grand style. The decision in Ricci v. DeStefano proved that the City of New Haven erred when it denied promotions to White firefighters who fared better on promotional examinations than did minority applicants. This article (a) examines the thrust of the Ricci decision, which involved two competing facets of the same equal employment opportunity (EEO) statute; (b) discusses the mistakes inherent in the testing procedures of the City of New Haven, Connecticut; (c) addresses the involvement of Justice Sonya Sotomayor in the decision; and (d) examines the implication of the decision for public-sector employers using testing procedures of the nature found in Ricci v. DeStefano. The author concludes that the decision underscores the need for use of alternative testing procedures and suggests that Ricci v. DeStefano is but a precursor to further litigation designed to render use of disparate-impact analysis unconstitutional.

From the abstract:
In June 2009, the Ricci v. DeStefano case was decided by five of the nine U.S. Supreme Court judges. This case impacts public-sector employers by expanding on the rule called a “strong basis in evidence.” Under this rule, a public-sector employer cannot engage in certain activities for the asserted purpose of avoiding or remedying unintentional disparate impact, unless the employer has a “strong basis in evidence” to believe it will be subject to disparate-impact liability. The evidence for this rule must be in place before a public-sector employer takes a race-conscious action to minimize adverse impact. This article critically evaluates the test validity discussion that occurred in the Ricci case; addresses topics relevant to the new rule not covered by the decision, such as the cutoff used, weights used, differentiating requirements of the rank-ordered list, and the rule of three; and describes guidelines for conducting a particular kind of study in an employment context, called a Croson Study, that can be used to gather a “strong basis in evidence.” This article identifies circumstances under which a Croson Study is needed, and how to do it that will allow public-sector employers to evaluate whether they may be justified—using the Supreme Court’s “strong-basis-in-evidence” rule—to institute race-conscious remedies under Title VII.

From the abstract:
The research described in this report was performed to develop a more complete picture of how hospital emergency departments (EDs) contribute to the U.S. health care system, which is currently evolving in response to economic, clinical, and political pressures. Using a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods, it explores the evolving role that EDs and the personnel who staff them play in evaluating and managing complex and high-acuity patients, serving as the key decisionmaker for roughly half of all inpatient hospital admissions, and serving as “the safety net of the safety net” for patients who cannot get care elsewhere. The report also examines the role that EDs may soon play in either contributing to or helping to control the rising costs of health care.

Results: Professionals such as police officers, firefighters and ambulance personnel often experience incidents that satisfy the stressor criterion for the PTSD diagnosis. Other professional groups such as health care professionals, train drivers, divers, journalists, sailors and employees in bank, post offices or in stores may also be subjected to work-related traumatic events. Work-related PTSD usually diminishes with time.

Conclusions: Mental health problems prior to the traumatic event and weak social support increase the risk of PTSD. Prevention of work-related PTSD includes a sound organizational and psychosocial work environment, systematic training of employees, social support from colleagues and managers and a proper follow-up of employees after a critical event.

]]>39712Most States Used 911 Funds for Intended Purposes, but FCC Could Improve Its Reporting on States’ Use of Fundshttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2013/05/most-states-used-911-funds-for-intended-purposes-but-fcc-could-improve-its-reporting-on-states-use-of-funds.htm
Wed, 01 May 2013 21:58:17 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/?p=27952Source: U.S. Government Accountability Office, GAO-13-376, April 2013 From the summary: Although states faced challenges and delays in the past, states have made significant progress implementing wireless Enhanced 911 (E911) since 2003. Wireless E911 deployment usually proceeds through two phases: Phase I provides general caller location information by identifying the cell tower or cell site […]

From the summary:
Although states faced challenges and delays in the past, states have made significant progress implementing wireless Enhanced 911 (E911) since 2003. Wireless E911 deployment usually proceeds through two phases: Phase I provides general caller location information by identifying the cell tower or cell site that is receiving the wireless call; Phase II provides more precise caller-location information, usually within 50 to 300 meters. Currently, according to the National Emergency Number Association (NENA), nearly 98 percent of 911 call centers, known as Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs), are capable of receiving Phase I location information, and 97 percent have implemented Phase II for at least one wireless carrier. This represents a significant improvement since 2003 when implementation of Phase I was 65 percent and Phase II was 18 percent. According to NENA’s current data, 142 U.S. counties (representing roughly 3 percent of the U.S. population) do not have some level of wireless E911 service. The areas that lack wireless E911 are primarily rural and tribal areas that face special implementation challenges, according to federal and association officials.

According to data collected by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), all 50 states and the District of Columbia reported collecting–or authorizing local entities to collect–funds for wireless E911 implementation, and most states reported using these funds for their intended purpose. Six states–Arizona, Georgia, Illinois, Maine, New York, and Rhode Island–reported using a total of almost $77 million of funds collected for 911 implementation for other purposes (e.g., transferring 911 funds to the general fund) in 2011. Using funds in this way is permissible by state law in these states, but it creates the risk of undermining the credibility of 911 fees in those states. The manner in which FCC collects and reports information on state 911 funds limits the usefulness of its annual report. In particular, contrary to best practices for collecting and analyzing data, FCC uses only open-ended questions to solicit information from states, lacks written guidelines for interpreting states’ responses and ensuring that results can be reproduced, and does not describe the methodology used to analyze the data it collects. As a result, FCC is missing an opportunity to analyze trends and to provide more detailed aggregated information that would be useful to decision makers.
See also:Highlights Page

From the summary:
In the 10th annual Ready or Not? Protecting the Public from Diseases, Disasters, and Bioterrorism report, 35 states and Washington, D.C. scored a six or lower on 10 key indicators of public health preparedness.
The report found that while there has been significant progress toward improving public health preparedness over the past 10 years, particularly in core capabilities, there continue to be persistent gaps in the country’s ability to respond to health emergencies, ranging from bioterrorist threats to serious disease outbreaks to extreme weather events. In the report, Kansas and Montana scored lowest – three out of 10 – and Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Vermont and Wisconsin scored highest – eight out of 10.

The Ready or Not? report provides a snapshot of our nation’s public health emergency preparedness. Its indicators are developed in consultation with leading public health experts based on data from publicly available sources, or information provided by public officials. Some key findings from the report include:

-29 states cut public health funding from fiscal years (FY) 2010-11 to 2011-12, with 23 of these states cutting funds for a second year in a row and 14 for three consecutive years. In addition, federal funds for state and local preparedness have decreased 38 percent from FY 2005-2012 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) funds, adjusted for inflation). States are reporting that gains in public health preparedness achieved in the past decade since September 11, 2001 are eroding, and since 2008, budget cuts have resulted in more than 45,700 job losses at state and local health departments;
-Only two states have met the national goal of vaccinating 90 percent of young children, ages 19-36 months, against whooping cough (pertussis). This year Washington state has seen one of the most significant whooping cough outbreaks in recent history;
-35 states and Washington, D.C. do not currently have complete climate change adaptation plans, which include planning for health threats posed by extreme weather events;
-20 states do not mandate all licensed child care facilities to have a multi-hazard written evacuation plan; and
-13 state public health laboratories report they do not have sufficient capacity to work five, 12-hour days for six to eight weeks in response to an infectious disease outbreak, such as novel influenza A H1N1.
See also:Press Release

From the abstract:
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, resulted in the release of known and suspected carcinogens into the environment. There is public concern that exposures may have resulted in increased cancers…. Among persons enrolled in the World Trade Center Health Registry, there was an excess risk for prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and myeloma in 2007-2008 compared with that for New York State residents; however, these findings were based on a small number of events and multiple comparisons. No significant associations were observed with intensity of World Trade Center exposures. Longer follow-up for typically long-latency cancers and attention to specific cancer sites are needed….

From the abstract:
Unlike those in many other professions, firefighters regularly face hazardous working conditions. Candidates undergo rigorous training and generally must pass written, physical, and medical examinations before they are allowed to work in hazardous working environments. Despite the prerequisites, the risk of fatal injuries is 25.7 percent higher and the risk of nonfatal injuries and illnesses to firefighters is over two times greater than to all workers. This article uses data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII) and Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) to observe how often firefighters are injured at work, when they are hurt, where they are injured, and how their injuries compare with those of workers in other professions.

]]>http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/12/stop-drop-and-roll-workplace-hazards-of-local-government-firefighers-2009.htm/feed026527EMS Licensing: An Interstate Problemhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/11/ems-licensing-an-interstate-problem.htm
http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/11/ems-licensing-an-interstate-problem.htm#respondThu, 08 Nov 2012 22:47:57 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/2012/11/ems-licensing-an-interstate-problem.htmSource: Crady deGolian, Council of State Governments, Capitol Research, September 2012 While states have had the authority to license emergency medical services personnel since the 1970s, the EMS industry has changed considerably in recent years. It is becoming increasingly more...

While states have had the authority to license emergency medical services personnel since the 1970s, the EMS industry has changed considerably in recent years. It is becoming increasingly more common for EMS emergency services personnel to cross state lines to provide services in non-declared states of emergency, meaning in some instances EMS professionals are practicing medicine without a license. While there have been limited efforts to address the problem–notably border states entering into memorandums of understanding to allow EMS personnel to work across state lines–a more permanent and wide-reaching solution has not been found. One possible way to solve this growing problem may be the formation of an interstate compact, which would allow member states to self-regulate the existing system for licensing EMS personnel.

]]>http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/09/police-and-fire-personnel-salaries-and-expenditures-2011-survey-summary.htm/feed026225Five Things Government Does Better Than You Dohttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/08/five-things-government-does-better-than-you-do.htm
http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2012/08/five-things-government-does-better-than-you-do.htm#respondWed, 22 Aug 2012 16:08:10 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/2012/08/five-things-government-does-better-than-you-do.htmSource: Monica Potts, American Prospect, August 21, 2012 Economics assumes people are rational actors in the market, but we know a lot less about how to manage money than we think....The conservative approach to government stems from a basic tenet...

Economics assumes people are rational actors in the market, but we know a lot less about how to manage money than we think….The conservative approach to government stems from a basic tenet of free-market economics: that people always act rationally to maximize their own benefits, and that from this rises a general state of well-being for society as a whole. But this isn’t always true. One of the hottest academic disciplines to arise in the last few decades is behavioral economics, which explores the ways in which people behave irrationally. In addition, easy-predictable problems with certain markets prevent us from achieving the best outcomes. These two facts have consequences for how we should think about government in certain instances. There are many ways in which the government can make better decisions with our money than we can, and there are many ways that the Ryan budget would make society worse off by getting rid of government programs. Here are five:

Retirement Insurance…Health Care…Addressing Poverty…Disaster Relief…
All the Little Things
While I’ve been focused so far on specific things that the federal government can do better than individuals or the private market, there are a number of tiny things that local governments do to create the world in which you live–building roads, taking out the trash, keeping traffic flowing, and turning street lights on at night. Basically, we can call this “running your community.” …

From the summary:
Ready or Not? Protecting the Public from Diseases, Disasters, and Bioterrorism finds key programs that detect and respond to bioterrorism, new disease outbreaks and natural or accidental disasters are at risk due to federal and state budget cuts.

The report, supported by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), identifies some key programs at risk due to continued cuts to federal public health emergency preparedness funds include:
– 51 of the 72 cities in the Cities Readiness Initiative are at risk for elimination; the Initiative supports the ability to rapidly distribute and administer vaccines and medications during emergencies;
– All 10 state labs with “Level 1” chemical testing status are at risk for losing top level capabilities, which could leave the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) with the only public health lab in the country with full ability to test for chemical terrorism and accidents;
– 24 states are at risk for losing the support of Career Epidemiology Field Officers – CDC experts who supplement state and local gaps to rapidly prevent and respond to outbreaks and disasters, such as during the H1N1 flu pandemic and responding to the health impact of the Gulf Oil Spill in 2010; and
– The ability for CDC to mount a comprehensive response to nuclear, radiologic and chemical threats as well as natural disasters is at risk due to potential cuts to the National Center for Environmental Health. All 50 states and Washington, D.C. would lose the support CDC provides during these emergencies.

Washington, DC — On September 11, 2001, “First Responders” to the World Trade Center conflagration and nearby residents waded into dust so corrosive that it resulted in chemical burns to their respiratory system. These New York City police and firefighters were needlessly sacrificed due to woefully lax U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards which remain in effect but need correction, according to a rulemaking petition filed today by Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER). …WTC First Responders were subjected to dust so caustic as to cause respiratory disabilities and deaths. Yet, if a similar scenario occurred today, the same results would recur. That is because EPA misapplied the international corrosivity standard and then systematically failed to test and communicate the caustic properties of WTC dust. As a result, the EPA standard is ten times more lax than the presumed safe levels for alkaline corrosives set by the United Nations (UN).

]]>http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/09/preventing-another-911-first-responders-tragedy-irresponsible-epa-corrosive-dust-standards-uncorre.htm/feed023857911 under constructionhttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/08/911-under-construction.htm
http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/08/911-under-construction.htm#respondThu, 11 Aug 2011 14:41:40 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/2011/08/911-under-construction.htmSource: Barry Furey, American City and County, August 10, 2011 Emergency networks need significant development. More than 240 million 911 calls are made each year in the United States, and a majority of them come from wireless digital devices, according...

More than 240 million 911 calls are made each year in the United States, and a majority of them come from wireless digital devices, according to the Alexandria, Va.-based National Emergency Number Association (NENA). However, while the number of emergency calls has increased over the last four decades, the 911 network — the piece that connects the caller with emergency assistance — has not changed to meet the demands. In many cases, 911 networks cannot fully use the features of modern telephone devices, such as the ability to send text messages and photos.

From the abstract:
Supplementary contributions to pension plans are predicted to increase for some Florida municipal governments because of the funding source used for police and fire plans. This article examines the history of local government pensions and focuses on Chapter 175 and 185 Pension Plans, which access funding through a tax on property insurance premiums. The notable legislative changes, Attorney General Opinions and court cases are also briefly assessed. This study research examines a sample of 32 pension funds in 20 Florida cities and indicates that the cost of providing these pensions is increasing because of legislative mandates for use of these revenues. This is evidenced by a historical decrease in the funding ratios of the funds of the cities sampled.

]]>http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/06/police-and-fire-pensions-in-florida-a-historical-perspective-and-cause-for-future-concerns.htm/feed023112In Case of Emergency: New Data on Medical Benefitshttp://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/04/in-case-of-emergency-new-data-on-medical-benefits.htm
http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/blog/2011/04/in-case-of-emergency-new-data-on-medical-benefits.htm#respondSat, 30 Apr 2011 02:10:14 +0000http://www.afscmeinfocenter.org/2011/04/in-case-of-emergency-new-data-on-medical-benefits.htmSource: Paul A. Welcher, Bureau of Labor Statistics, April 15, 2011 This article is the first of three articles, the purpose of which is to highlight the findings of the formal report. The 12 health benefits data are presented in...

This article is the first of three articles, the purpose of which is to highlight the findings of the formal report. The 12 health benefits data are presented in three basic groups. This article presents health benefits related to emergencies. The formal report included two benefits of this nature: emergency room visits and ambulance services. The second article will present data on reproductive health benefits: maternity care, infertility treatment, sterilization, and gynecological exams and services. The third article will present data on health benefits involving chronic illness and maintenance care: diabetes care management, kidney dialysis, physical therapy, durable medical equipment, prosthetics, and organ and tissue transplantation.

Cedar Rapids Mayor Ron Corbett has come calling at the State Capitol seeking support for a plan to help his city recover from the devastating floods of 2008. He arrived with a plan that lawmakers have seen before from others — and approved with the promise that it was a one-time arrangement.

The proposal: a tax-increment financing plan using sales-tax revenues, known as a sales-tax TIF. (The city calls it a “Growth Reinvestment Initiative” or GRI.) This would permit diversion of sales-tax revenue from the state general fund to local projects, much as lawmakers permitted in 2005 for the Iowa Speedway project in Newton, but on a much larger scale. That arrangement was for a maximum of $12.5 million; the Cedar Rapids proposal would cost $200 million to $214 million over 20 years.

Simply put, the rest of Iowa would be paying for the cost of Cedar Rapids flood levee construction, to the tune of $14 million per year for 15 years

From the abstract:
What is the most effective framework for analyzing complex accountability challenges within governing networks? Recognizing the multiscale and intersector (public, private, and nonprofit) characteristics of these networks, an accountability model is advanced organized around democratic (elected representatives, citizens, and the legal system), market (owners and consumers), as well as administrative (bureaucratic, professional and collaborative) relationships. This concept draws from 2005 events following Hurricane Katrina. Multiple failures of governing networks to plan for and respond to Katrina include a breakdown in democratic, market, and administrative accountability as well as a pervasive confusion over trade-offs between accountability types emerging from crises. This essay offers several useful recommendations for emergency management planners as well as for those who teach and research.