Strategies: are those specific attacks that we make on a given problem.

They are the moment by moment techniques that we employ to solve

problems passed by second language input and output.

Types of strategy: Learning strategies and Communication strategies.

Learning Strategies: these were divided into three main categories:

Metacognitive: Is a term used in information-processing theory to indicate anexecutive function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinkingabout the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones productionor comprehension and evaluating learning after an activity is completed(Pirparra 1997).

Cognitive Strategies: Are more limited to specific learning tasks and involvemore direct manipulation of the learning material itself.

Socioaffective strategies: Have to do with social mediating activity and

interacting with others.

Omalley, Chamot, and Kupper (1989) found that second language learnersdeveloped effective listening skills through the use of monitoring. Elaborationand inferencing.

Communication strategies: while learning strategies deal with the receptive

domain of intake, memory, storage, and recall, communication strategiespertain to the employment of verbal or nonverbal mechanisms for theproductive communication of information.Avoidance strategies: The most common type of avoidance strategy isSyntactic or Lexical Avoidance within a semantic category, consider thefollowing conversation.

L: I lost my road.NS: You lost your road?L: Vh,. I last. I last. I got Lost.

The learner avoided the lexical item road entirely, not being able to come upwith the word way at that point.

Phonological avoidance: Is also common, as in the case of a Japanese who

avoided using the word rally (because of its phonological difficulty) andinstead opted to say, simply, hit the ball.

Topic avoidance: which in a whole topic of conversation (say, taking about

what happened yesterday if the past tense is unfamiliar) might be avoidedentirely. Learners manage to devise ingenious methods of topic avoidance:changing the subject, pretending not to understand (a classical means foravoiding answering a question), simply not responding at all, or noticeablyabandoning a message when a thought becomes too difficult to express.

Compensatory strategies: is another common set of communication that

are memorized chunks of language, and are often found in pocket bilingualphrase books, which list hundreds of sentences for various occasions; Howmuch does this cost? Where is the toilet? I dont speak English.

I dont understand you. Such phrases are memorized by rote to fit theirappropriate context. An example is the memorization of certain stock phrasesor sentences without internalized knowledge of the learners components.Code-switching: is the use of a first or third language within a stream ofspeech in the second language. Often code-switching subconsciously occursbetween two advanced learners with a common first language or not as acompensatory strategy. Learners in the early stages of acquisition, however,night code-switch use their native language to fill in missing Knowledgewhether the hearer knows that native language or not. Sometimes the learnerslips in just a cord or two, in the hope that the hearer will get the gist of whatis being communicated.

Cohen and Aphek (1981) found that successful learners in their study madeuse of word association and generating their own rules.

Chesterfield and chesterfield (1985) reported instances of self-talk as learners

practiced their second language.

Rest and Ross (1991) discovered that learners benefited from asking forrepetition and seeking various forms of clarification.

Huang and Van Naerssen (1987) attributed the oral production success ofChinese learners of English to functional practice (using language forcommunication) and, even more interesting, to reading practice. And theresearch continues.Strategies-Base Introductions (SBI):

These are the application of both Learning and Communication Strategies to

classroom learning; and are known as learner strategy training, too.

Wenden (1985) was among the first to assert that learner strategies are therekey to learner autonomy, and that one of the most important goal of languageteaching should be the facilitation of that autonomy.

Teachers can benefit from an understanding of what makes learners successful

and unsuccessful, and establish in the classroom a milieu for the realization ofsuccessful strategies. However, it has been found that students will benefitfrom SBI if they a) Understand the strategy itself b) Perceive it to be affective and c) Do not consider its implementation to be overly difficult (Macintyre an Noels 1996).LEARNING STRATEGY DESCRIPTION

MetacognitiveStrategies Making a general but comprehensiveAdvance Organizers preview of the organizing concept or principle in an anticipated learning activity. Deciding in advance to attend inDirect Attention general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant distractors. Deciding in advance to attend toSelective Attention specific a aspects of language input or situational details that will cue the retention or language input. Understanding the conditions that helpSelf-Management one learn and arranging for the presence of those conditions.

Planning for and rehearsing linguistic

Correcting ones speech for accuracy

in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary,Self-Monitoring or for appropriateness related to the setting or to the people who are present. Consciously deciding to postponeDelayed Production speaking in order to learn initially though listening comprehension. Checking the outcomes of ones ownSelf-Evaluation language leaning against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy.

Cognitive Strategies

Repetition Imitating A language model,

including overt practice and silent rehearsal.

Resourcing Using target language reference

materials.

Using the first language as a base

for understanding and/or producingTranslation the second language.

Reordering or reclassifying, and

perhaps labeling, the material toGrouping be learned based on common attributes.

Relating new information to visual concepts

Retention of a word, phrase, or longer

Auditory language sequence.representation

Remembering a new word in the second

language by (1) identifying a familiar wordKeyword in the first language that sounds like or otherwise resembles the new word and (2) generation easily recalled images of some relationship between the new word and the familiar word.