Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are installed to provide for occupant comfort, health and safety. They are usually the key energy users and their design is affected by architecture features and occupant needs.

While being energy efficient, HVAC systems should have a degree of flexibility to allow for future extensions and change.

To achieve optimum energy efficiency, designers should evaluate:

Thermal comfort criteria

Load calculation methods

System characteristics

Equipment and plant operation (part-load)

Lighting systems is another key energy user and additional cooling energy will be required to remove the heat generated by luminaires.

Energy efficient lighting should ensure that:

Illumination is not excessive.

Switching is provided to turn off unnecessary light.

Illumination is provided in an efficient manner.

General design strategies for lighting design:

Combination of general and task lighting.

Electric lighting integrated with daylight.

The use of energy efficient lamps and luminaires.

Use light-coloured room surfaces.

Other building services systems consuming energy include:

Electrical installations

Lifts and escalators

Water supply systems

Town gas supply system

3. TECHNOLOGIES

3.1 Passive Cooling and Sun Control

Passive systems - internal conditions are modified as a result of the behavior of the building form and fabric.

General strategies for passive heating and cooling:

Cold winters - maximize solar gain and reduce heat loss.

Hot summers - minimize solar gain and maximize heat removal.

Correct orientation and use of windows.

Appropriate amounts of thermal mass and insulation.

Provision for ventilation (natural).

Strategies for shading and sun control:

External projection (overhangs and side fins).

External systems integral with the window frame or attached to the building face, such as louvers and screens.

Internal treatments either opaque or semi-opaque, such as curtains and blinds.

For hot and humid climate, extensive shading without affecting ventilation is usually required all year round. Shading of the east and west facades is more important.

3.2 Daylighting

Daylight can be used to augment or replace electric lighting. Efficient daylighting design should consider:

Sky conditions

Site environment

Building space and form

Glazing systems

Artificial lighting systems

Air-conditioning systems

The complex interaction between daylight, electric lights and HVAC should be studied carefully in order to achieve a desirable solution.

Day lighting design in an atrium

Advanced window technologies have been developed to change/switch the optical properties of window glass so as to control the amount of daylight. There are also innovative day lighting technologies now being investigated:

Light pipe systems

Light shelves

Mirror systems

Prismatic glazing

Holographic diffracting systems

3.3 HVAC Systems

Energy efficiency of many HVAC sub-systems and equipment has been improved gradually over the years, such as in air systems, water systems, central cooling and heating plants.

Energy efficient HVAC design now being used or studied include:

Variable air volume (VAV) systems to reduce fan energy use.

Outside air control by temperature/enthalpy level.

Heat pump and heat recovery systems

Building energy management and control systems.

Natural ventilation and natural cooling strategies.

Schematic of a typical solar hot water system

Thermal storage systems (such as ice thermal storage) are also being studied to achieve energy cost saving. Although in principle they will not increase energy efficiency, they are useful for demand-side management.

The system consists of solar collectors, a heat storage tank and water distribution mains. An integrated collector storage system has also been developed recently to eliminate the need for a separate storage tank.

Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight into electricity using a semi-conductor device. The main advantages of PV systems include:

In practice, PV technology can be used for central generation or building-integrated systems (BIPV). The systems can be of the standalone type, hybrid type or grid-connected type. Although the cost of PV is still high at present, it may become cost-effective in the hear future.

Grid-connected solar photovoltaic system

4. EVALUATION METHODS

4.1 Bioclimatic Design

The integration of design, climate and human comfort -- the bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism -- was first proposed in mide-1950s by Victor and Aladar Olgyay.

Their intention was to highlight the belief that architectural design should begin with understanding of the physiological needs of human comfort and take advantage of local climatic elements to optimize these requirements naturally and efficiently.

Building design itself is conceived as natural energy systems that restores environmental quality to its site.

The aim is to create a supportive and productive environment that ultimately can contribute to sustaining the regional and global environment.

4.2 Building Thermal and Energy Simulation

Nowadays, building energy design often require the analytical power to study complicated design scenario. Computer-based building energy simulation will provide this power and allow greater flexibility in design evaluation.

The simulation method is based upon load and energy calculations in HVAC design. The purpose is to study and determine the energy characteristics of buildings and their building systems.

The cost effectiveness of any energy conservation measures will be a compromise between initial, maintenance and energy costs. Simulation techniques can provide the tools for assessing different design options based on their energy performance and life cycle costs.

4.3 Building Energy Audits

Building energy auditing can be defined as "measuring and recording actual energy consumption, at site, of a completed and occupied building (expressed in units of energy, not monetary value); fundamentally for the purposes of reducing and minimising energy usage".

Energy audits identify areas where energy is being used efficiently or is being wasted, and spotlight areas with the largest potential for energy saving. They are useful for establishing consumption patterns, understanding how the building consumes energy, how the system elements interrelate and how the external environment affects the building.

There are different approaches to conducting a full building energy audit, but the following stages are often adopted:

Stage 1 - An audit of historical data

Stage 2 - Survey

Stage 3 - Detailed investigation and analysis

A proper energy audit is useful for more than energy conservation goals. Energy audits can be employed to assist in areas such as:

Establishment of data bank and consumption records.

Estimating of energy costs.

Determining of consumption patterns and utility rates.

Establishment of an operational overview.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Building energy design challenges building designers to think about climate, orientation, day lighting, and the qualities of environment as part of the initial design conception.

It also requires the architectural and engineering disciplines to work as a team early in the design phase and to conceptualize the building as a system.

Architects and engineers who incorporate energy design concepts and methods into their design projects can play a significant role in reducing energy consumption and achieving sustainable energy structure for our society.

About the Author

Syed Jibran Hashmi He is B.Sc in Civil Engineering from "National University of Sciences and Technology Pakistan"