1.
1807 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1807 in Sweden Monarch – Gustav IV Adolf January - French occupation of Swedish Pomerania. - The first Steam engine in Sweden is constructed by Samuel Owen, - The land reform Enskiftet is enforced in all Sweden-Finland, which signified the end of traditional village life. - A reform allows anyone to establish themselves as bakers without a membership in the guild with a permit form the authorities. 8 August – Emilie Flygare-Carlén, writer Sophie Bolander, writer 22 June - Princess Cecilia of Sweden, princess Anna Christina Cronquist, entrepreneur and weaver - Anna Sophia Holmstedt, ballerina

2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India

3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina

4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States

5.
1770s
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January 1 – Foundation of Fort George, Bombay laid by Colonel Keating, principal engineer, on the site of the former Dongri Fort. March 5 – Boston Massacre, Eleven American men are shot, five fatally, march 26 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook and his crew aboard HMS Endeavour complete the circumnavigation of New Zealand. April 1818,00 – First voyage of James Cook, English explorer Captain James Cook, April 20 – Georgian king Erekle II defeats the Ottoman forces in the battle of Aspindza, despite being abandoned by an ally, Russian General Totleben. April 29 – First voyage of James Cook, Captain Cook drops anchor on HMS Endeavour in a bay about 16 km south of the present city of Sydney. Because the young botanist on board the ship, Joseph Banks, discovers 30,000 specimens of plant life in the area,1,600 of them unknown to European science, may 7 – Fourteen-year-old Marie Antoinette arrives at the French court. May 16 –Marie Antoinette marries Louis-Auguste, may 20 – A stampede at a celebration of the newly wedded Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste in Paris kills more than a hundred people. June 9 – Falklands Crisis, Some 1600 Spanish marines, sent by the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires in five frigates, the small British force present promptly surrenders. June 11 – First voyage of James Cook, HMS Endeavour grounds on the Great Barrier Reef, july 1 – Lexells Comet passes the Earth at a distance of 2184129 km, the closest approach by a comet in recorded history. July 5 – Battle of Chesma and Battle of Larga, The Russian Empire defeats the Ottoman Empire in both battles, august 1 – Russo-Turkish War – Battle of Kagul, Russian commander Pyotr Rumyantsev routs 150,000 Turks. Johann Gottfried Herder meets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Strasbourg, Joseph Priestley, British chemist, recommends the use of a rubber to remove pencil marks. The Baron dHolbachs materialist work Le Système de la Nature ou Des Loix du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral is produced in Neuchâtel, January 9 – Emperor Go-Momozono accedes to the throne of Japan, following his aunts abdication. February 12 – Upon the death of Adolf Frederick, he is succeeded as King of Sweden by his son Gustav III, at the time, however, Gustav is unaware of this, since he is abroad in Paris. The news of his fathers death reaches him about a month later, march – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon raises a militia to put down the long-running uprising of backcountry militias against North Carolinas colonial government. March 12 – The North Carolina General Assembly establishes Wake County from portions of Cumberland, Johnston, bloomsbury is made the informal county seat. March 15 – Society of Civil Engineers first meets, the worlds oldest engineering society, may 11 – War of the Regulation, North Carolina Governor William Tryon marches his military out of Hillsborough to come to the aid of General Hugh Waddells beleaguered forces. Tryons army stops at Alamance Creek,5 miles away from the Regulator army, may 16 – War of the Regulation, The Battle of Alamance commences after Regulators reject an appeal by Governor Tryon to peacefully disperse. Governor Tryons forces crush the rebellion, causing many Regulators to move to areas outside of North Carolina. May 23 – Battle of Lanckorona, A force of 4,000 Russians under Alexander Suvorov defeat a Polish formation of 1,300 men, july 13 – Russo-Turkish War, Russian forces occupy the Crimea under Prince Vasily Dolgorukov

6.
1780s
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January 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Cape St. Vincent, British Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a Spanish fleet. February 29 – The Omicron Delta Omega co-ed fraternity is founded by Benjamin Franklin, March 26 – The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain, begins publication. April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, may 4 – The first Epsom Derby horse race is run on Epsom Downs, Surrey, England. May 12 – American Revolutionary War, Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces, may 13 – Cumberland Compact signed by American settlers in the Cumberland Valley of Tennessee. May 19 – New Englands Dark Day, An unaccountable darkness spreads over New England, may 29 – American Revolutionary War, Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre. June 2 – An Anti-Catholic mob led by Lord George Gordon marches on Parliament of Great Britain leading to the outbreak of the Gordon Riots in London, June 7 – The Gordon Riots in London are ended by the intervention of troops. About 285 people are dead, with another 200 wounded. June 23 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Springfield – The Continental Army defeats the British in New Jersey, July 11 – French soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce colonists in the American Revolutionary War. August 16 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Camden, British troops inflict heavy losses on a Patriot army at Camden, South Carolina. August 9 – American Revolutionary War, Spanish admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova captures a British convoy totalling 55 vessels amongst Indiamen, frigates, August 24 – Louis XVI of France abolishes the use of torture in extracting confessions. September 21 – Benedict Arnold gives detailed plans of West Point to Major John André, three days later, André is captured with papers revealing that Arnold was planning to surrender West Point to the British. September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York, October 2 – American Revolutionary War, In Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forces. October 7 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Kings Mountain, October 10–October 16 – The Great Hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and Sint Eustatius,22,000 dead. November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, December 16 – Emperor Kōkaku accedes to the throne of Japan. December 20 – Start of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, jose Gabriel Kunturkanki, businessman and landowner, proclaims himself Inca Túpac Amaru II. The Duke of Richmond calls, in the House of Lords of Great Britain, for manhood suffrage and annual parliaments, jeremy Benthams Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation, presenting his formulation of utilitarian ethics, is printed in London. Nikephoros Theotokis starts introducing Edinoverie, an attempt to integrate the Old Believers into Russias established church, woodford Reserve bourbon whiskey distillery begins operation in Kentucky. C. s pitch. The amateur dramatic group Det Dramatiske Selskab in Christiania is founded in Norway, western countries pay 16,000,000 ounces of silver for Chinese goods

7.
1790s
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January 8 – United States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York City. January 11 –11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789 sign a Treaty of Union creating the United States of Belgium, prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederations independence. January 26 – Mozarts opera Così fan tutte premiered in Vienna, January 30 – The first boat specialized as a rescue lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne in England. February 1 – In New York City the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first time, February 4 – Louis XVI of France declares to the National Assembly that he will maintain the constitutional laws. February 11 – Two Quaker delegates petition the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery, march 1 – The first United States Census is authorized, it is held later in the year. March 4 – France is divided into 83 départements, which cut across the former provinces, march 21 – Thomas Jefferson reports to President George Washington in New York as the new United States Secretary of State. April 10 – The United States patent system is established, may 17–18 – Battle of Andros, an Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis. May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so, June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales. June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London, july – Louis XVI of France accepts a constitutional monarchy. July 12 – French Revolution, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed and this completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships. July 14 – French Revolution, Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people, july 16 – The signing of the Residence Bill establishes a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia, the capital district of the United States. S. July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria, july 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U. S. patent. August 4 – A newly passed U. S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement, August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War. December 11 – Russo-Turkish War,26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives during Alexander Suvorovs storm of Izmail, January 12 – Holy Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution and the restoration of its Prince-Bishops. January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, February 21 – The United States opens diplomatic relations with Portugal. March 2 – In France, Abolition of guilds is enacted, a mechanical semaphore line for rapid long-distance communication is demonstrated by Claude Chappe in Paris. March 4 – Vermont is admitted as the 14th U. S. state, march 13 – Thomas Paines chief work Rights of Man is published in London. March – In France, the National Constituent Assembly accepts the recommendation of its Commission of Weights, april 21 – The first of forty boundary stones delineating the borders of the new District of Columbia in the United States is laid at Jones Point Light, in Alexandria, Virginia

8.
1800s (decade)
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The 1800s decade lasted from January 1,1800, to December 31,1809. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade, on 9 November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after an assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austrias withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. The War of the Fifth Coalition, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire, major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the struggle at Wagram in early July. End of the White Lotus Rebellion, an uprising against the Qing Dynasty in China, beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The First Barbary War is fought between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa, the Fulani War is fought in present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. The First Serbian Uprising marks the first time in 300 years Serbia perceives itself an independent state, haiti gains independence from France on January 1,1804. This decade marked the height of the Atlantic slave trade to the United States, during the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States. Still, the abolitionist movement began to ground in this period. Britain enacted the Slave Trade Act 1807, which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain, the United States enacted a similar ban in 1808. However, Napoleon revoked the French Empires ban on slavery with the Law of 20 May 1802. 1801 Under the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D. C. a new planned city, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. 1803 United States doubles its size with territories gained from Napoleon Bonaparte in the Louisiana Purchase and this decade contained some of the earliest experiments in electrochemistry. In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed a voltaic pile, the first device to produce an electric current. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a performance of his experiments

9.
1810s
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The 1810s decade ran from January 1,1810, to December 31,1819. In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent, on the continent, the British and Portuguese remained restricted to the area around Lisbon and to besieged Cadiz. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archduchess, with the aim of ensuring a stable alliance with Austria. As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Duchy of Warsaw, Denmark–Norway also allied with France in opposition to Great Britain and Sweden in the Gunboat War. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total amounted to as many as two million. This era included the battles of Smolensk, Borodino, Lützen, Bautzen, and it also included the epic Battle of Leipzig in October,1813, which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, which drove Napoleon out of Germany. The final stage of the War of the Sixth Coalition, the defense of France in 1814, ultimately, the Allies occupied Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Also in 1814, Denmark–Norway was defeated by Great Britain and Sweden and had to cede the territory of mainland Norway to the King of Sweden at the Treaty of Kiel. Napoleon shortly returned from exile, landing in France on March 1,1815, marking the War of the Seventh Coalition, Spain in the 1810s was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. Already in 1810, the Caracas and Buenos Aires juntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain, the remaining Spanish colonies had operated with virtual independence from Madrid after their pronouncement against Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish government in exile created the first modern Spanish constitution, even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain. King Ferdinand VII, who assumed the throne after Napoleon was driven out of Spain, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in New Granada, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. Venezuela was liberated June 24,1821, when Bolivar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo, Argentina declared its independence in 1816. Spain would also lose Florida to the United States during this decade, First, in 1810, the Republic of West Florida declared its independence from Spain, and was quickly annexed by the United States. Later, in 1818, the United States invaded Florida, resulting in the Adams-Onís Treaty, in 1820, Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Central America still remained under Spanish control. Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, King Ferdinand was still dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it

10.
1820s
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The 1820s decade ran from January 1,1820, to December 31,1829. 1820, Anchor coinage is issued for use in some British colonies,1824 – The Dutch sign the Masang Agreement, temporarily ending hostilities in the Padri War in West Sumatra. The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830 and it started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro after the Dutch decided to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his parents tomb. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java, furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. As the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops, Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. The Dutch colonial army was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi, the rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 being Dutch, the campaign initiated a period of two decades in which Kedah resisted Siamese control. The Sultan took refuge on Penang Island, then under British control, by 1822 there was a rise in the population of the British territories caused by an influx of Malays displaced by the invasion. 1826 – The Burney Treaty allowed the Siamese view of their rights to prevail in Kelah,1826 – The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established in what is now Malaysia and Singapore. February 14,1820 – Minh Mang starts to rule in Vietnam,1825 – Minh Mang outlaws the teaching of Christianity in Vietnam. 1828 Siamese-Lao War, Siam invades and sacks Vientiane,1827 – Laos, King Anouvong of Vientiane declares war on Siam and successfully attacks Nakhon Ratchasima. November 12,1828 – Anouvong, ruler of the Kingdom of Vientiane, is deposed, during the war, the city of Vientiane is obliterated by Siamese forces. 1824-1826, The First Anglo-Burmese War ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma lost territory previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan. The British also took possession of Tenasserim with the intention to use it as a chip in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam. 1824-1826 - Rattanakosin Kingdom, Rama II died in 1824 and was succeeded by his son Jessadabodindra. In 1825 the British sent another mission to Bangkok led by East India Company emissary Henry Burney and they had by now annexed southern Burma and were thus Siams neighbours to the west, and they were also extending their control over Malaya. The King was reluctant to give in to British demands, in 1826, therefore, Siam concluded its first commercial treaty with a western power, the Burney Treaty. Under the treaty, Siam agreed to establish a uniform system, to reduce taxes on foreign trade

11.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan

12.
1801
–
As of the start of 1801, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Giuseppe Piazzi discovers the asteroid and dwarf planet Ceres, First day of the 19th century. January 3 – Toussaint Louverture triumphantly enters Santo Domingo, the capital of the former Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, january 31 – John Marshall is appointed Chief Justice of the United States. February 4 – William Pitt the Younger resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, february 9 – The Treaty of Lunéville ends the War of the Second Coalition between France and Austria. Under the terms of the treaty, Aachen is officially annexed by France, february 27 – Washington, D. C. is placed under the jurisdiction of the United States Congress. March 4 – Thomas Jefferson is sworn in as President of the United States, march 10 – The first census is held in Great Britain. The population of England and Wales is determined to be 8.9 million,1.5 million people live in cities of 20,000 or more in England and Wales, accounting for 17% of the total English population. March 14 – Henry Addington becomes First Lord of the Treasury, march 21 – Second Battle of Abukir in Egypt, British troops defeat the French, but the British commander, Sir Ralph Abercromby, dies later of a wound received in the action. March 23 – Tsar Paul I of Russia is murdered and he is succeeded by his son Alexander I. April 2 – First Battle of Copenhagen, The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom under Admiral Sir Hyde Parker forces the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy to accept an armistice, vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson leads the main attack, deliberately disregarding his commanders signal to withdraw. He is created a Viscount on May 19, Denmark is forced to withdraw from the Second League of Armed Neutrality, April 21 – Ranjit Singh is invested as Maharaja of Punjab. May 10 – The pascha of Tripoli declares war on the United States by having the flagpole on the chopped down. June 7 – Portugal and Spain sign the Treaty of Badajoz, June 15 – A bull breaks through barriers at a bullfight in Madrid, killing two people and injuring a number of other spectators. June 27 – Cairo falls to British troops, july 6 – Battle of Algeciras, The French fleet defeats the British fleet. July 7 – Toussaint Louverture promulgates a reforming constitution for Santo Domingo, declaring himself emperor for life of the island of Hispaniola. July 12 – Second Battle of Algeciras, The British fleet defeats the French, july 18 – Napoleon signs a Concordat with Pope Pius VII. August 1 – Action of 1 August 1801, United States Navy schooner USS Enterprise captures the 14-gun Tripolitan corsair polacca Tripoli off the north African coast in a single-ship action. September 30 – The Treaty of London is signed for peace between the French First Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

13.
1802
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As of the start of 1802, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 15 – Canonsburg Academy is chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly, january 29 – A French expeditionary force led by General Charles Leclerc lands in Saint-Domingue to restore colonial rule. Where Toussaint Louverture has himself proclaimed Governor-General for Life and established control over Hispaniola, march 16 – The United States Army Corps of Engineers is re-established and the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York established under its management, opening on July 4. March 25–27 – Napoleonic Wars, The Treaty of Amiens between France and the United Kingdom ends the War of the Second Coalition, march 28 – H. W. Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas. April 10 – Great Trigonometrical Survey of India begins with the measurement of a baseline near Madras, may 19 – Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the French Légion dhonneur. May 20 – By the Law of 20 May 1802, Napoleon reinstates slavery in the French colonies, june 1 – United States Patent and Trademark Office established within the Department of State. June 2 – Indigenous Australian Pemulwuy, a leader of the resistance to European settlement of Australia, is dead by Henry Hacking. June 8 – Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture is seized by French troops, june – Gia Long is crowned as first Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam. July – Éleuthère Irénée du Pont founds E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, July 5–August 28 – A United Kingdom general election brings victory for the Tories, led by Henry Addington. July 22 – Gia Long captures Hanoi, completing his unification of Vietnam, august 2 – In a plebiscite, Napoleon Bonaparte is confirmed as the First Consul of France. September 3 – William Wordsworth composes the poem Westminster Bridge in London, september 11 – The Italian region of Piedmont becomes a part of the French First Republic. October 2 – War ends between Sweden and Tripoli, the United States also negotiates peace, but war continues over the size of compensation. October – The French army enters Switzerland, december 2 – The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act in the United Kingdom comes into effect, regulating conditions for child labour in factories. Although poorly enforced, it pioneers a series of Factory Acts, thomas Wedgwood publishes an account of his experiments in photography, along with Humphry Davy. Since they have no means of fixing the image, their photographs quickly fade, ludwig van Beethoven publishes his Piano Sonata No.14 in Vienna. Marie Tussaud first exhibits her wax sculptures in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror in France to make masks of the victims

14.
1803
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As of the start of 1803, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The first edition of Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynières Almanach des gourmands, january 5 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat, in Scotland. January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, february 19 – Act of Mediation issued by Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the Swiss Confederation to replace the Helvetic Republic. Under the terms of the act, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, february 20 – Kandy took by a British detachment. February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged and beheaded for plotting to assassinate King George III of the United Kingdom, february 24 – Marbury v. Madison, The Supreme Court of the United States establishes the principle of judicial review. February 25 – A major redistribution of territorial sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire is enacted via an act known as the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, march 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U. S. state, retroactive from August 7,1953. March 9 – Aargau becomes a Swiss canton, march–April – The franc germinal is introduced in France. April 26 – The LAigle meteorite falls in Normandy, causing a shift in opinion on the origin of meteorites. April 30 – Louisiana Purchase is made by the United States from France, may – The First Consul of France Citizen Bonaparte begins making preparations to invade England. May 18 – The United Kingdom resumes war on France after France refuses to withdraw from Dutch territory, may 19 – Master Malati, a Coptic Christian leader, is beheaded by a Muslim mob in Cairo, Egypt. July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people, july 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover. July 23 – Robert Emmets uprising in Ireland begins, july 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line in England. August 3 – The British begin the Second Anglo-Maratha War against the Scindia of Gwalior, september 11 – Battle of Delhi, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, between British troops under General Lake, and Marathas of Scindias army under General Louis Bourquin. September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed, september 23 – Battle of Assaye, British-led troops defeat Maratha forces. October 20 – The Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States, november 18 – Battle of Vertières, The Haitian army led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeats the army of Napoleon. November 30 – The Balmis Expedition starts in Spain with the aim of vaccinating millions against smallpox in Spanish America, odisha, India is occupied by the British under the British East India Company after the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Major breakthroughs in chemistry occur, with the identification of the elements rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and cerium

15.
1804
–
As of the start of 1804, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France and becomes the first black republic, february 14 – The First Serbian Uprising begins as an intro into Serbian Revolution. By 1817, Principality of Serbia proclaims self-rule from Ottoman Empire, february 15 – New Jersey becomes the last northern state to abolish slavery. February 16 – First Barbary War, Stephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate USS Philadelphia at Tripoli to deny her further use by the captors, february 18 – Ohio University is chartered by the Ohio General Assembly. February – The 1804 Haiti Massacre, a cleansing, eradicates the white population on Haiti. March 7 John Wedgwood founds the Royal Horticultural Society, Thomas Charles is instrumental in founding the British and Foreign Bible Society. March 10 – Louisiana Purchase, In St. Louis, a ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of Louisiana Territory from France to the United States. March 17 – First performance of Friedrich Schillers play Wilhelm Tell, march 21 – The Napoleonic Code is adopted as French civil law. April 2 – Forty merchantmen are wrecked when a convoy led by the HMS Apollo runs aground off Portugal, April 26 – Henry Addington resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. May 10 – William Pitt the Younger begins his term as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. May 14 – The Lewis and Clark Expedition departs from Camp Dubois, may 18 – Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of the French by the French Senate. May 21 – Père Lachaise Cemetery a 118 acres cemetery in Paris, june 9 – Beethovens Symphony No.3 in E–flat premiered in Vienna. June 15 – The Twelfth Amendment to the U. S, constitution is ratified by New Hampshire, and arguably becomes effective. July 11 – Alexander Hamilton is shot during a duel with Aaron Burr, july 27 – The Twelfth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution ratified by Tennessee, removing doubt surrounding adoption, september 1 – German astronomer K. L. Harding discovers the asteroid Juno. November 3 – The Treaty of St. November 20 – Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat, december 2 – Coronation of Napoleon I, At the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, Napoleon crowns himself as the first Emperor of the French in a thousand years. Witnessing this, Simón Bolívar dedicates himself to liberating Venezuela from Spanish rule, december 3 – Thomas Jefferson defeats Charles C. Pinckney in the United States presidential election, december 12 – Spain declares war on the United Kingdom

16.
1805
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As of the start of 1805, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. After thirteen years the First French Empire abolished the French Republican Calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, January 11 – Michigan Territory is created. February 15 – The Harmony Society is officially formed as a Christian community in Harmony, march 1 – Justice Samuel Chase is acquitted of impeachment charges by the United States Senate. March 4 – Thomas Jefferson is sworn in for a term as President of the United States. March 5 – The New Brunswick Legislature passes a bill to advance literacy in the province, april 7 – Beethovens Symphony No. 3, Eroica, has its premiere at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna under his baton. April 27 – Battle of Derne, United States Marines and Berbers attack the Tripolitan city of Derna, april 29 – Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck is appointed as Grand Pensionary of the Batavian Republic by Napoleon. May 26 – Napoleon is crowned King of Italy, may 31–June 2 – Napoleonic Wars – Battle of Diamond Rock, A Franco-Spanish fleet captures the strategic island of Diamond Rock off Martinique in the West Indies from the British occupying force. June 1 – Tuscan-born composer Luigi Boccherini is buried in St. Michaels Basilica, Madrid, june 4 – The First Barbary War ends between Tripoli and the United States of America. June 4 The first Trooping the Colour ceremony is held at the Horse Guards Parade in London, detroit burns to the ground, most of the city is destroyed. July 9 – Muhammad Ali Pasha founds his dynasty in Egypt, october 16–19 – War of the Third Coalition, Ulm Campaign, Battle of Ulm – Austrian General Mack von Leiberich is forced to surrender his entire army to Napoleon after being surrounded. November 7 – The Lewis and Clark Expedition arrives at the Pacific Ocean, november 11 – Napoleonic Wars – Battle of Dürenstein,8,000 French troops attempt to slow the retreat of a vastly superior Russian and Austrian force. November 16 – Napoleonic Wars – Battle of Schöngrabern, Russian forces under Pyotr Bagration delay the pursuit by French troops under Joachim Murat. November 20 – Beethovens only opera Fidelio in its form is premiered at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna. November 26 – The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct is opened in Wales, it is 1,007 ft long and 126 ft tall, december 2 – Napoleonic Wars – Battle of Austerlitz, French troops under Napoleon decisively defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force. December 26 – The Peace of Pressburg is signed between France and Austria, King Anouvong becomes ruler of Vientiane. Napoleon annuls the 10-day week of the French Republican Calendar with effect from 1 January 1806, the Horse Patrol, a mounted law enforcement force, is founded in London, England. James Squire becomes the first person in Australia to cultivate Hops, old Man of the Mountain is first mentioned

17.
1806
–
As of the start of 1806, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The French Republican Calendar is abolished, january 1 – Kingdom of Bavaria established by Napoleon. January 5 – The body of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, january 8 – Cape Colony becomes a British colony. January 9 – Lord Nelson is given a funeral at St Pauls Cathedral. January 10 – The Dutch in Cape Town surrender to the British forces, january 19 – The British occupy the Cape of Good Hope. February 6 – The Royal Navy gains a victory off Santo Domingo, march 23 – After traveling through the Louisiana Purchase and reaching the Pacific Ocean, explorers Lewis and Clark and their Corps of Discovery begin their journey home. March 28 – Washington College is chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly, march 29 – Construction is authorized of the National Road. April 8 – Stéphanie de Beauharnais, adopted daughter of Napoleon Bonaparte, may 30 – Andrew Jackson kills a man in a duel after the man had accused Jacksons wife of bigamy. June 5 – Louis Bonaparte is appointed as King of Holland by his brother, Emperor Napoleon, july 4 Battle of Maida, Britain defeats the French in Calabria. The legendary ship The Irish Rover sets sail from the Cove of Cork, july 10 – Vellore Mutiny, the first mutiny by Indian sepoys against the East India Company. July 15 – Pike expedition, Near St. Louis, Missouri, july 23 – A British expeditionary force of 1,700 men landed on the left bank of the Río de la Plata and invaded Buenos Aires. August – English seal hunter Abraham Bristow discovers the Auckland Islands, august 6 – Francis II, the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, thus ending the Holy Roman Empire after about a millennium. September – Prussia declares war on France, and is joined by Saxony, september 23 – The Lewis and Clark Expedition reaches St. Louis, Missouri, ending a successful exploration of the Louisiana Territory and the Pacific Northwest. October 9 – Battle of Schleiz, First clash of the Franco-Prussian conflict, the Prussian army is easily defeated by a more numerous French force. October 17 – Emperor Jacques I of Haiti is assassinated at the Pont-Rouge, Haiti, october 24 – French forces enter Berlin. October 30 – Capitulation of Stettin, Believing themselves massively outnumbered, november – Napoleon declares a Continental Blockade against the British. November 15 – Pike expedition, During his second exploratory expedition, november 24 – The last major Prussian field force, under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, surrenders to the French near Lübeck. Frederick William III has by this time fled to Russia, november 28 – French troops enter Warsaw

18.
1807
–
As of the start of 1807, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 3 – Napoleonic Wars and Anglo-Spanish War – Battle of Montevideo, february 7 – Battle of Eylau, Napoleons French Empire begins fighting against Russian and Prussian forces of the Fourth Coalition. February 8 – Battle of Eylau, Napoleon fights a hard, february 10 – The United States Coast Survey is established, work begins on August 3,1816. February 17 – Henry Christopher is elected first President of the State of Haiti, february 19 – In Alabama, former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr is tried for conspiracy but acquitted. March 2 – The U. S. Congress passes an act to prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States, from any foreign kingdom, place, or country. March 25 The Slave Trade Act becomes law, abolishing the trade in the British Empire. The Swansea and Mumbles Railway in South Wales, at this time known as the Oystermouth Railway, march 29 – H. W. Olbers discovers the asteroid Vesta. April 4–12 – Froberg mutiny at Fort Ricasoli on Malta by men of the irregularly-recruited Frobert Regiment, april 27 – French forces capture Danzig after a 6-week siege. May 22 – A grand jury indicts former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr for treason, may 29 – Selim III, Ottoman Emperor since 1789, is deposed in favour of his nephew Mustafa IV. May 31 – Primitive Methodism originates in an All Day of Prayer at Mow Cop in the midlands of England. June 9 – The Duke of Portland wins the United Kingdom general election, june 14 – Battle of Friedland, Napoleon decisively defeats Bennigsens Russian army. June 22 – Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, British Royal Navy warship HMS Leopard attacks and boards the United States Navy frigate USS Chesapeake off Norfolk, Virginia, july 5 – A disastrous British attack is mounted against Buenos Aires during the second failed invasion of the Río de la Plata. July 7–July 9 – The Peace of Tilsit is signed between France, Prussia and Russia, Napoleon and Russian Emperor Alexander I ally together against the British. The Prussians are forced to more than half their territory, which is formed into the Duchy of Warsaw in their former Polish lands. July 13 – With the death of Henry Benedict Stuart, the last Stuart claimant to the throne of the United Kingdom, the movement of Jacobitism comes to an effective end. August 17 – The North River Steamboat, Robert Fultons first American steamboat, leaves New York City for Albany on the Hudson River, Vice President Aaron Burr is acquitted of treason. He had been accused of plotting to annex parts of Louisiana, september 4 – Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary to China, arrives in Guangzhou. October 9 – Serfdom is abolished in Prussia by law, october 13 – Geological Society of London founded

19.
Martina von Schwerin
–
Martina von Schwerin, née Martina Törngren, was a Swedish Lady of letters, salonist and culture personality. She is known for her correspondence with A. S. de Cabre, Carl Gustaf von Brinkman and Esaias Tegnér, Martina von Schwerin was renowned in contemporary Sweden for her intellectual gifts and was referred to as The Swedish Madame de Stael. She had a daughter by the name, Martina von Schwerin. Her marriage was arranged and unhappy, and she is described as patiently suffering, Martina von Schwerin preferred the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although she was influenced by the enlightenment ideas of Nils von Rosenstein. She supported the romanticism, but one a bit more affected by the enlightenment era, until the death of her spouse in 1840, she hosted a literary salon. She socialized in circles and met Germaine de Stael in 1813. She met Eaias Tegnér in 1816, with whom she developed a deep friendship, after the death of her spouse in 1840, she withdrew from social life and settled outside of Gothenburg - she also made several travels. Her letters to Tegnér was published in Ur Esaias Tegnérs papper, ryssläder - Sekretär Theorell, Anita, Resa i tysta rum, okända svenska slottsbibliotek

20.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe

21.
Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden
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Gustav IV Adolf or Gustav IV Adolph was King of Sweden from 1792 until his abdication in 1809. He was the son of Gustav III of Sweden and his queen consort Sophia Magdalena, eldest daughter of Frederick V of Denmark and his first wife Louise of Great Britain. He was the last Swedish ruler of Finland, the occupation of which by Russian Czar Alexander I in 1808-09 was the cause of his violent downfall. After an army revolt, the king was seized by officers and forced to relinquish the throne on behalf of his family on March 29, the anniversary of his fathers death. The Instrument of Government subsequently written was adopted on June 6, the current National Day of Sweden, gustavia in Swedish Pomerania was named after Gustav, but was lost in the Napoleonic Wars. Gustav Adolf was born in Stockholm, after his birth, he was put under the supervision of Maria Aurora Uggla. He was raised under the tutelage of his father and the liberal-minded Nils von Rosenstein, in August 1796 his uncle the regent arranged for the young king to visit Saint Petersburg to betroth him to Catherine the Greats granddaughter, Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna. However, the whole arrangement foundered on the refusal of Gustav to allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites of the Russian Orthodox Church. Nobody seems to have suspected the possibility at the time that emotional problems might lie at the root of Gustavs abnormal piety, Gustav Adolfs prompt dismissal of the generally detested Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, the duke-regents leading advisor, added still further to his popularity. When the king encountered serious opposition at the Riksdag, he resolved never to call another and his reign was ill-fated and was to end abruptly. In 1805, he joined the Third Coalition against Napoleon and his campaign went poorly and the French occupied Swedish Pomerania. When his ally, Russia, made peace and concluded an alliance with France at Tilsit in 1807, Sweden, on 21 February 1808, Russia invaded Finland, which was ruled by Sweden, on the pretext of compelling Sweden to join Napoleons Continental System. Denmark likewise declared war on Sweden, in just few months after, almost all of Finland was lost to Russia. As a result of the war, on 17 September 1809, in the Treaty of Hamina, the autonomous Grand Principality of Finland within Imperial Russia was established. Gustav Adolfs inept and erratic leadership in diplomacy and war precipitated his deposition through a conspiracy of army officers. A more likely cause, however, is that the revolutionaries feared that Gustavs son, if he inherited the throne, would avenge his fathers deposition when he came of age. On 5 June, Duke Charles was proclaimed king under the name of Charles XIII, after accepting a new liberal constitution, in December, Gustav and his family were transported to Germany. In 1812, he divorced his wife and it was there that he suffered a stroke and died

22.
Cerium
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Cerium is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metallic chemical element with symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is enough to be cut with a knife. Cerium is the element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the +3 state characteristic of the series. It is also considered to be one of the rare earth elements. Cerium has no role, and is not very toxic. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum and it is the 26th most abundant element, making up 66 ppm of the Earths crust, half as much as chlorine and five times as much as lead. The first of the lanthanides to be discovered, cerium was discovered in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803 and it was first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses, for example, cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. Cerium is the element of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium and it is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver. Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration 4f15d16s2, of which the four electrons are valence electrons. The stable form below 726 °C to approximately room temperature is γ-cerium, the dhcp form of β-cerium is the equilibrium structure approximately from room temperature to −150 °C. The fcc α-cerium exists below about −150 °C, it has a density of 8.16 g/cm3, other solid phases occurring only at high pressures are shown on the phase diagram. Both γ and β forms are stable at room temperature. Cerium has an electronic structure. This gives rise to dual valency states, for example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed. At lower temperatures the behavior of cerium is complicated by the rates of transformation

23.
Dramatens elevskola
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It was established in 1787 by the theatre and art loving King Gustav III and was for many years under the protection of the Swedish royal family. The school was founded in 1787, in 1788, it was called The Childrens Theatre, teaching children between the ages of 9-14. The school is noted to have performed a play for the king, one of the first students known was Lars Hjortsberg, who also performed at this occasion and became one of the stars of Swedish theatre history. The school was re-organised in 1793 by Anne Marie Milan Desguillons and her spouse, the students was often used in small parts by the royal theatre and in student performances. The instructors were often actors from the royal theatre, the education originally was one year long, but later in the end of the 1910s became two years and later in 1930s extended to three years. In the 1960s, Sweden - as many other countries - was influenced by new theatre traditions, such as method acting, the International Theatre Institute arranged several symposia in Europe, which both students and teachers attended and the debate grew. The opinion in Sweden was strong to make the school a national, non-traditional. The old education and teaching methods were questioned, and it was decided by the Swedish government that the school was to be separated from the Royal Dramatic Theatre. It was the director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre, Ingmar Bergman. For better or worse can always be debated, but its a fact that the students lost contact with the Royal Dramatic Theatres long tradition, drama history, the last class of Dramatens elevskola was the class of 1967. o. Om igen, herr Molander. by Ingrid Luterkort, Stockholmia Förlag, Borås, teater före 1800 Sten Carlsson, Den svenska historien, Gustav III, en upplyst envåldshärskare. Band 10 The Royal Dramatic Theatre - DRAMATEN. se Greta Garbo at Dramaten

24.
Carl Johan Billmark
–
Carl Johan Billmark was a Swedish landscape painter. Billmark was born at Stockholm in 1804 and he visited Dalecarlia, St. Petersburg, and Paris, where he studied under Deroy. He was a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and received the decoration of the Wasa order and he died in Paris in 1870

25.
Christina Enbom
–
Christina Wilhelmina Enbom, was a Swedish operatic soprano. She was active at the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm in 1819–1825, in 1830–1841, Enbom was a student at the Royal Swedish Opera in 1819. She became a member of the chorus there in 1821. She abruptly retired in 1825 after having married sea captain, writer and this was seen as surprising, as she had made a very appreciated debut. In 1830, she divorced her husband, who was given the custody of their children, during these years, she was a celebrated star. Among her most noted parts were the Queen of the Night in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts The Magic Flute and she was known to cause scandals because of her temperament. Enraged, Enbom spoke her line harshly instead of friendly when she said, upon which Widerberg answered, Do it yourself, you - after which their lines, as was reported, was given a few extra words, which caused both merriness as well as annoyance. Her voice was damaged, in 1841, the critics said that only her former spouse liked former Mrs Lindebergs former voice. In 1841–1850, she was active at Mindre teatern, the theatre of her former spouse, in 1850–1857, she was again active at the RSO, but only as a member of chorus. Orvar Odd in the publication Grupper och personager wrote of her, Mrs Enbom was with no doubt, and had even lesser doubt been. J. N. Ahlström, Musikalisk fick-ordbok för Tonkonstnärer och Musikvänner Nordisk Familjebok, band 7 Georg Nordensvan, första bandet 1772–1842 Wilhelmina Stålberg & P. G. Berg, Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor Svenska män och kvinnor Europas konstnärer, Enbom, Christina Wilhelmina, Stockholm,1887

28.
1741 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1741 in Sweden Monarch – Frederick I31 March - The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences is given its rules. 15 May - Carolus Linnaeus travel to Öland, the reason is to spare unmarried mothers the social stigma which results in infanticide, as the Uppenbar kyrkoplikt in practice exposed them and makes their indiscretion impossible to hide. The guild membership requirement for innkeepers are dropped and this makes the profession considerably more accessible for women and makes it one of the most common for women. Et ankommit bref om såningsmachinen under namn af Lotta Triven by Charlotta Frölich

29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

30.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the first Europeans who managed to reach it, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.

The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that …

The Bailiwick of Jersey

La Pouquelaye de Faldouet was constructed on a site on the east coast looking across to the Cotentin Peninsula.

Mont Orgueil dominates the small harbour of Gorey and guards Jersey from attack from the French coast opposite

This map of Jersey, published in 1639, shows interior details such as Le Mont ès Pendus (the gallows hill, now called Westmount). At first sight, the coastline appears wildly inaccurate, but if the image is rotated a little clockwise, the shape becomes much closer to what is known today.