tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63597024526027068662015-03-20T07:20:29.908-07:00Indian LawIndian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.comBlogger24125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-88805333292644127962015-03-06T05:05:00.000-08:002015-03-06T05:17:00.952-08:00ADOPTED CHILD'S PASSPORT<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp; &nbsp; <span style="color: red;">&nbsp;-P. RAJENDRAN, Advocate</span> &nbsp;<a href="http://www.prassociate.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prassociate.com</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;In the case of an adopted child, is it the name of the biological father or the name of the adoptive father that should find a place in the child’s passport against the column “name of father”? In some cases, it so happens that after the marriage of the biological parents is dissolved by a decree of divorce and the biological mother takes&nbsp;</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">the custody of the minor child and after some time she re-marries and gives the child in adoption to &nbsp;the second husband (without the consent of the first husband) and the name of the child is changed and a notification is published in the official gazette to that effect and &nbsp;while applying for passport for the child the name&nbsp; of the adoptive father is given against the column “name of father” and thus a discrepancy &nbsp;arises between the name of the biological father as found in the Hospital Records and in the Birth Register Extracts &nbsp;and the name&nbsp; indicated in the application form and the passport office rejects the application. What is the way out?</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-FXBEAMSFeDg/VPmoIPTMk-I/AAAAAAAAAGc/6Q2YnIvqchU/s1600/adoption.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-FXBEAMSFeDg/VPmoIPTMk-I/AAAAAAAAAGc/6Q2YnIvqchU/s1600/adoption.jpg" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp; Under Section 7 of the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, a male Hindu who wishes to take a child in adoption, shall not adopt, except with the consent of his wife, unless such wife has completely and finally renounced the world or ceased to be a Hindu or has been declared by a competent court to be of unsound mind. Under Section-8 of the Act, the mother may give the child in adoption if the father is dead or has completely and finally renounced the world or ceased to be a Hindu or has been declared by a competent court to be of unsound mind. The Explanation to Section 9 of the Act declares that the expressions “father” and “mother” do not include adoptive father and adoptive mother.&nbsp;&nbsp; Section 12 of the Act deals with the effect of adoptions and as per the said provision, an adopted child shall be deemed to be the child of his or her adoptive father or mother for all purposes with effect from the date of the adoption and from such date all the ties of the child in the family of his or her birth shall be deemed to be severed and replaced by those created by the adoption in the adoptive family,&nbsp; provided that- (a) the child cannot marry any person whom he or she could not have married if he or she had continued in the family of his or her birth; (b) any property which vested in the adopted child before the adoption shall continue to vest in such person subject to the obligations, if any, attaching to the ownership of such property, including the obligation to maintain relatives in the family of his or her birth; (c) the adopted child shall not divest any person of any estate which vested in him or her before the adoption. Therefore the fundamental premise on which the Hindu Law of Adoptions proceeds is that the relationship between the biological parents and the child can never get severed, <u>except in accordance with the above said provision of the Act.<o:p></o:p></u></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is clear from the above discussion that there should be a <u>valid adoption</u> in order to sever the relationship between the biological parents and the child.&nbsp; Valid adoption is the one done in accordance with the above mentioned provisions and other provisions of the Act.&nbsp; If the adoption is not valid as per the said Act, then the relationship between the biological parents and the child continues and in such cases the name of the biological father can never be replaced with that of the adoptive father. If there is a valid adoption, the name of the biological father can be replaced with that of the adoptive father.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In view of the said legal position, the Madras High Court has suggested that the Ministry of External Affairs, Union of India may incorporate suitable provisions in the Passport Manual and incorporate suitable columns in the applications for the issue of passports, to enable the parties to indicate either the names of the biological parents or the names of the adoptive parents or the names&nbsp; of the step parents or all of them and it can be left to the will of the parties either to indicate the names of one or more of the biological parents along with the name/names of the adoptive or step-parent/ parents or to indicate the names of all.&nbsp; Let us hope that the Ministry will take the said suggestion seriously and make necessary changes and come to the rescue of such adopted children.&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-28038186825190920542013-12-14T04:20:00.001-08:002013-12-14T04:27:37.738-08:00Section 377 IPC and the Verdict of the Supreme Court<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: red;">-P.RAJENDRAN</span> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<a href="http://www.prassociate.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prassociate.com</span></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"><b>The Supreme Court’s judgment on Section 377 IPC has driven the LGBT (Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender) activists into a rebellious mood.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; What does Section 377 IPC say?&nbsp; It states as follows:-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">“</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">377. Unnatural offences: Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to ten years, and shall also be liable to fine.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>Explanation: Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offense described in this section” <o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #444444; font-size: 14pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Homosexuals are clearly not the targets. The section clearly mentions "whosoever" and "man, woman or animal". If one looks into the history of convictions under this section, it can be seen that there has been no case of a consensual homosexual act being prosecuted / convicted under this law.&nbsp;</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mqq4Eex6fAU/UqxMp7TzNbI/AAAAAAAAAFg/c-R2RKJ9kB0/s1600/gay.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><b><span style="color: #444444;"><img border="0" height="202" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mqq4Eex6fAU/UqxMp7TzNbI/AAAAAAAAAFg/c-R2RKJ9kB0/s320/gay.jpg" width="320" /></span></b></a></div><b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br /></span></b><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Now, let us see the definition of&nbsp; ‘rape’ under Section 375 IPC.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;“375. Rape: A man is said to commit &nbsp;‘rape’ who, except in the case hereinafter excepted, has sexual intercourse with a woman under circumstances falling under any of the six following descriptions:- First.- Against her will. Secondly.- Without her consent. Thirdly.- With her consent, when her consent has been obtained by putting her or any person in whom she is interested in fear of death or of hurt. Fourthly.- With her consent, when the man knows that he is not her husband, and that her consent is given because she believes that he is another man to whom she is or believes herself to be lawfully married. Fifthly.- With her consent, when, at the time of giving such consent, by reason of unsoundness of mind or intoxication or the administration by him personally or through another of any stupefying or unwholesome substance, she is unable to understand the nature and consequences of that to which she gives consent. Sixthly.- With or without her consent, when she is under sixteen years of age. <o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>Explanation.- Penetration is sufficient to constitute the sexual intercourse necessary to the offence of rape.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;Exception.- Sexual intercourse by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape.”<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 4.5pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="background: white; color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A man cannot commit rape on another man.&nbsp; Nowadays we often hear school boys being forced to have sex with male teachers, male inmates of hostels being subjected to such behavior by male members of the staff, male employees being subjected to similar behavior by employers.&nbsp; Section 375 will not apply to such cases.&nbsp; It is only Section 377 that will apply to such cases.&nbsp; <o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.0pt; margin-bottom: 10.65pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Offence under Section 377 is a cognizable offence.&nbsp; Under Section 154 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, “e</span><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;">very information relating to the commission of a cognizable offence, if given orally to an officer in charge of a police station, shall be reduced to writing by him or under his direction, and be read over to the informant; and every such information, whether given in writing or reduced to writing as aforesaid, shall be signed by the person giving it, and the substance thereof shall be entered in a book to be kept by such officer in such form as the State Government may prescribe in this behalf.”&nbsp; The police officer will register the First Information Receipt (FIR) on receipt of a complaint.&nbsp; In the case of consensual sexual act in private, there is no question of giving any complaint and therefore no FIR will be registered.&nbsp; Unless one of the parties gives a complaint alleging unnatural offence no action can be taken.&nbsp; Even in the case of married couple, if one subjects the other to unnatural sexual act against the will of the other, the other party can file a complaint for offence under Section 377.&nbsp; <o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b><span style="color: #444444;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The movement to repeal Section 377 was initiated by AIDS Bhedbhav Virodhi Andolan in 1991. Their publication “Less than Gay: A Citizen's Report” dealt with Section 377 and asked for its repeal. The</span>&nbsp;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naz_Foundation_(India)_Trust" title="Naz Foundation (India) Trust"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Naz Foundation (India) Trust</span></a>, <span style="color: black;">an activist group, filed a&nbsp; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_interest_litigation" title="Public interest litigation">public interest litigation</a>&nbsp;(PIL) in the&nbsp;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_High_Court" title="Delhi High Court"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Delhi High Court</span></a>&nbsp;in 2001, seeking legalisation of homosexual intercourse between consenting adults.&nbsp; However, in 2003, the&nbsp;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_High_Court" title="Delhi High Court"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Delhi High Court</span></a>&nbsp;refused to consider the petition regarding the legality of the law saying that the petitioners had no&nbsp;<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_standi" title="Locus standi"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">locus standi</span></a></i>&nbsp;in the matter. Naz Foundation appealed to the Supreme Court against the decision of the High Court dismissing the petition on tech</span><span style="color: #444444;">nical grounds. The Supreme Court decided that Naz Foundation had the locus standi to file a PIL in this case and sent the case back to the Delhi High Court to reconsider it on merit. Subsequently, there was a significant intervention in the case by a Delhi-based coalition of LGBT, women's and human rights activists called “Voices Against 377”, which supported the demand to 'read down' section 377 to exclude adult consensual sex from its purview. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On 2-7-2009, the Delhi High Court held as follows:-<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; “We declare that Section 377 IPC, in so far as it criminalises consensual sexual acts of adults in private, is violative of Articles 21, 14 and 15 of the Constitution.&nbsp;&nbsp; The provisions of Section 377 IPC will continue to govern non consensual penile and non-vaginal sex and penile non-vaginal sex involving minors. By ‘adult’,&nbsp; we mean everyone who is 18 years of age and above. A person below 18 would be presumed not to be able to consent to a sexual act. This clarification will hold till, of course, Parliament chooses to amend the law to effectuate the recommendation of the Law Commission of India in its 172<sup>nd</sup>Report which we believe removes a great deal of confusion. Secondly, we clarify that our judgment will not result in the re-opening of criminal cases involving Section 377 IPC that have already attained finality.”<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The order of the High Court was challenged by a large number of organizations and individuals including Joint Action Council, Kannur and Shri B.P.Singhal who were interveners before the High Court by filing Special Leave Petitions in the Supreme Court of India.&nbsp; During the pendency of the SLP, several individuals and organisations filed applications for permission to intervene and all the applications were allowed. <o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On December 11, 2013 the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of Section 377 IPC in the following terms:<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; “Those who indulge in carnal intercourse in the ordinary course and those who indulge in carnal intercourse against the order of nature constitute different classes and the people falling in the latter category cannot claim that Section 377 suffers from the vice of arbitrariness and irrational classification. What Section 377 does is merely to define the particular offence and prescribe punishment for the same which can be awarded if in the trial conducted in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure and other statutes of the same family the person is found guilty.&nbsp; Therefore, the High Court was not right in declaring Section 377 IPC ultra vires Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution. …..<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;While reading down Section 377 IPC, the Division Bench of the High Court overlooked that a miniscule fraction of the country’s population constitute lesbians, gays, bisexuals, or transgenders and in the last more than 150 years less than 200 persons have been prosecuted (as per the reported orders) for committing offence under Section 377 IPC and this cannot be made sound basis for declaring that section ultra vires the provisions of Articles 14,15 and 21 of the Constitution…..<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It is well settled that the mere possibility of abuse of provision of law does not, per se, invalidate a legislation. It must be presumed, unless contrary is proved, that administration and application of a particular law would be done “not with an evil eye and unequal hand”. ……<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; We hold that Section 377 does not suffer from the vice of unconstitutionality and the declaration made by the Division Bench of the High Court is legally unsustainable….<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; While parting with the case, we would like to make it clear that this court has merely pronounced on the correctness of the view taken by the Delhi High Court on the constitutionality of Section 377 IPC and found that the said section does not suffer from any constitutional infirmity.&nbsp; Notwithstanding this verdict, the competent legislature shall be free to&nbsp; consider the desirability and propriety of deleting Section 377 IPC from the statute book or amend the same as per the suggestion made by the Attorney General.”<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; What else could the Supreme Court have done? It is for the Parliament to amend the law in accordance with the Constitution of India.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 0px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 6.65pt 6.65pt 6.65pt 6.65pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="top" width="20"></td> <td style="padding: 2.65pt 6.65pt 2.65pt 6.65pt;" valign="top"></td> <td style="padding: 6.65pt 6.65pt 6.65pt 6.65pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="20"></td> </tr></tbody></table><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.8pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-22656360962550194192013-06-30T21:45:00.003-07:002013-06-30T21:50:18.286-07:00COMMUNITY CERTIFICATE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;">- P.RAJENDRAN</span> </span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<a href="http://www.prassociate.com/"><span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">www.prassociate.com</span></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"><div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;">What is a Community Certificate?&nbsp; A Community &nbsp;Certificate is the proof of one’s belonging to a particular caste, especially in case one belongs to any of the ‘Scheduled Castes’, ‘Scheduled Tribe’ and the Backward Class as specified in the Indian Constitution. The Government felt that the Scheduled Castes and Tribes need special encouragement and </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-4YhwKyJMRQk/UdEKc6CbQLI/AAAAAAAAAFI/Y87aEOVL_M0/s272/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-4YhwKyJMRQk/UdEKc6CbQLI/AAAAAAAAAFI/Y87aEOVL_M0/s272/images.jpg" /></a></div>opportunities to progress at the same pace as the rest of the citizenry. As a result, as part of the Indian system of Protective Discrimination, there exist certain special privileges granted to this category of citizens, such as reservation of seats in the Legislatures and in the Government Service, waiving off a part or the whole of the fees for admission to schools and colleges, quotas in educational institutions, relaxation of upper age limits for applying to certain jobs, etc. To be able to avail the privileges reserved for a particular caste, a citizen belonging to the caste must be in possession of a valid Caste Certificate.<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 338 of the Constitution of India mandates the constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Article 338A mandates the constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.<span class="apple-converted-space">&nbsp; </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;">It is evident from Article 338 as it originally stood, that the Commission was constituted to protect and safeguard the persons belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes by ensuring : (i) anti- discrimination, (ii) affirmative action by way reservation and empowerment, and (iii) redressal of grievances. The duties under clause 5(b) of Article 338 did not extend to either issue of caste/tribe certificate or to revoke or cancel a caste/tribe certificate or to decide upon the validity of the caste certificate. Having regard to the sub-clause (b) of clause (5) of Article 338, the Commission could no doubt entertain and enquire into any specific complaint about deprivation of any rights and safeguards of Scheduled Tribes. When such a complaint was received, the Commission could enquire into such complaint and give a report to the Central Government or State Government requiring effective implementation of the safeguards and measures for the protection and welfare and socio-economic development of scheduled tribes. This power to enquire into `deprivation of rights and safeguards of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes' did not include the power to enquire into and decide the caste/tribe status of any particular individual. In fact, as there was no effective mechanism to verify the caste/tribe certificates issued to individuals, the Supreme Court of India in<span class="apple-converted-space">&nbsp;</span><span style="color: black;">Madhuri Patil vs. Addl. Commissioner (Tribal Development)</span><span class="apple-converted-space">&nbsp;</span>- 1994 (6) SCC 241 directed constitution of scrutiny committees.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;">The &nbsp;Supreme Court held that on account of false social status certificates being obtained by unscrupulous individuals, and cornering the benefits meant for SCs and STs, persons who genuinely belonged to scheduled castes/scheduled tribes were denied the benefit of reservation in posts/seats and other benefits extended to SCs and STs. It therefore, felt that there was a need to streamline the procedure for issuance of social status certificate, their scrutiny and approval and issued the following directions : (1) The application for grant of social status certificate shall be made to the Revenue-Sub-Divisional Officer and Deputy Collector or Deputy Commissioner and the certificate shall be issued by such Officer rather than at the Officer, Taluk or Mandal level.&nbsp; (2) All the State Governments shall constitute a Committee of three officers, namely, (I) an Additional or Joint Secretary or any officer higher in rank of the Director of the concerned department, (II) the Director, Social Welfare/Tribal Welfare/Backward Class Welfare, as the case may, and (III) in the case of Scheduled Castes another officer who has intimate knowledge in the verification and issuance of the social status certificates. In the case of the Scheduled Tribes, the Research Officer who has intimate knowledge in identifying the tribes, tribal communities, parts of or groups of tribes or tribal communities. (3)&nbsp; Each Directorate should constitute a vigilance cell consisting of Senior Deputy Superintendent of Police in over all charge and such number of Police Inspectors to investigate into the social status claims. The Inspector would go to the local place of residence and original place from which the candidate hails and usually resides or in case of migration to the town or city, the place from which he originally hailed from. The vigilance officer should personally verify and collect all the facts of the social status claimed by the candidate or the parent or guardian, as the case may be. He also should examine the school records, birth registration, if any. He should also examine the parent, guardian or the candidate in relation to their caste etc. or such other persons who have knowledge of the social status of the candidate and then submit a report to the Directorate together with all particulars as envisaged in the proforma, in particular, of the Scheduled Tribes relating to their peculiar anthropological and ethnological traits, deities, rituals, customs, mode of marriage, death ceremonies, method of burial of dead bodies etc. by the concerned castes or tribes or tribal communities etc. (4) On receipt of the report from the vigilance officer &nbsp;the entire matter should be placed before the Scrutiny Committee and the Committee should issue show cause notice supplying a copy of the report of the vigilance officer to the candidate by &nbsp;registered post with acknowledgement due or through the head of the concerned educational institution in which the candidate is studying or employed. The inquiry should be completed as expeditiously as possible preferably by day-to-day proceedings within such period not exceeding two months. If after inquiry, the caste Scrutiny Committee finds the claim to be false or spurious, they should pass an order cancelling the certificate issued and confiscate the same. It should communicate within one month from the date of the conclusion of the proceedings the result of enquiry to the parent/guardian and the applicant.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;The Supreme Court thus formulated a scheme for verification of tribal status and held that any application for verification of tribal status as a scheduled tribe should be carried out by such Committees. The verification of the validity of caste certificates and determination of the caste status should therefore be done by the Scrutiny Committees constituted as per the directions in Madhuri Patil or in terms of any statute made by the appropriate government in that behalf.<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"><br /></div></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-18578335876176769842013-06-23T01:15:00.000-07:002013-06-23T01:46:36.143-07:00PREMARITAL SEX AND MARRIAGE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 13pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><o:p>&nbsp;- P. Rajendran&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prassociate.com/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.prassociate.com</span></a></o:p></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="color: black;"><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; “If any couple, subject to their attaining the mandatory age of freedom, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>indulge in sexual gratification, then that would be considered as valid marriage and they could be termed as “husband and wife”, as a result of their choice of freedom. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 13pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Marriage formalities as per various religious customs such as &nbsp;the tying of a mangalsutra, the exchange of garlands and rings or the registering of a marriage are <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>only to comply with religious customs for the satisfaction of society”. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>This ruling by Mr. Justice C. S. Karnan of&nbsp;&nbsp; <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-za3AU85K3vE/UcaxTMazDYI/AAAAAAAAAEk/1yzwseZSKXQ/s1600/imagesCAYDSM6Y.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="142" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-za3AU85K3vE/UcaxTMazDYI/AAAAAAAAAEk/1yzwseZSKXQ/s320/imagesCAYDSM6Y.jpg" width="320" wya="true" /></a></div>&nbsp;the Madras High Court has sparked humorous reactions across the Internet and a heated debate over the fundamental relationship between a man and a woman. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span><span style="border-bottom: windowtext 1pt; border-left: windowtext 1pt; border-right: windowtext 1pt; border-top: windowtext 1pt; color: black; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Two days after he gave the nation-jolting order interpreting any consensual sex between majors as marriage, Justice C.S. Karnan came out with an interesting <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>modification of his earlier judgment to clarify his intent and said : </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>“If a bachelor aged 21 years or above and a spinster aged 18 years or above had pre-marital sex, with intention to marry and subsequent to this the man deserts the woman, the victim woman can approach a civil forum for remedy after producing necessary substantial evidence to grant her social status as wife”.&nbsp; The Judgment was delivered in a case of maintenance claim under Section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Sir James Fitz Stephen, who piloted the Criminal Procedure Code of 1872, a legal member of Viceroy's Council, described the object of Section 536 of the Code (Section 125 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1973 is a reincarnation of Section 536 and Section 488 of the Code of 1898) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>as a mode of preventing vagrancy or at least preventing its consequences. In the1898 Code the same provision was incorporated in Section 488 as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">“ (1) If any person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his wife or his legitimate or illegitimate child unable to maintain itself, the </span></span><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">District Magistrate, a Presidency Magistrate, a Sub-divisional Magistrate or a Magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of his wife or such child, at such monthly rate, not exceeding five hundred rupees in the whole as such Magistrate thinks fit, and to pay the same to such person as the Magistrate from time to time directs.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">As per the above provision of law, a “wife” is entitled for maintenance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Now, the question is: who is a wife?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">In Lieutenant C.W. Campbell v. John A.G. Campbell [(1867) Law Rep. 2 HL 269], also known as the Breadalbane case, the House of Lords held that cohabitation, with the required repute, as husband and wife, was proof that the parties between themselves had mutually contracted the matrimonial relation. A relationship which may be adulterous at the beginning may become matrimonial by consent. This may be evidenced by habit and repute. The House of Lords again observed in Captain De Thoren v. The Attorney-General [(1876) 1 AC 686], that the presumption of marriage is much stronger than a presumption in regard to other facts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>In India, the same principles have been followed in the case of A. Dinohamy v. W.L. Balahamy [AIR 1927 P.C. 185], in which the Privy Council laid down the general proposition that where a man and woman are proved to have lived together as man and wife, the law will presume, unless, the contrary is clearly proved, that they were living together in consequence of a valid marriage, and not in a state of concubinage. In the case of Gokal Chand v. Parvin Kumari [AIR 1952 SC 231], the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India held that continuous co- habitation of man and woman as husband and wife may raise the presumption of marriage, but the presumption which may be drawn from long co- habitation is rebuttable and if there are circumstances which weaken and destroy that presumption, the Court cannot ignore them. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Further, in the case of </span><a href="http://indiankanoon.org/doc/215649/"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Badri Prasad <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Vs <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Dy. Director of Consolidation &amp;</span></a><span style="color: black;"> others [(1978) 3 SCC 527], the Supreme Court held that a strong presumption arises in favour of wedlock where the partners have lived together for a long spell as husband and wife. Although the presumption is rebuttable, a heavy burden lies on him who seeks to deprive the relationship of legal origin. Again, in Tulsa and others Vs <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Durghatiya<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>others [2008 (4) SCC 520], the Supreme <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Court held that where the partners lived together for a long spell as husband and wife, a presumption would arise in favour of a valid wedlock.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>In Nanak Chand v. Chandra Kishore Aggarwal &amp;amp; Ors. [1969 (3) SCC 802], the Supreme Court, discussing Section 488 of the older Cr.P.C, virtually came to the same conclusion that Section 488 provides a summary remedy and is applicable to all persons belonging to any religion and has no relationship with the personal law of the parties. Section 125 is a reincarnation of Section 488 of the Cr.P.C. of 1898 except for the fact that parents have also been brought into the category of persons entitled for maintenance. In </span><a href="http://indiankanoon.org/doc/861619/"><span style="color: black;">Vimala (K) Vs <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Veeraswamy (K)</span></a><span style="color: black;"> [(1991) 2 SCC 375], a three-Judge Bench of the Hon’ble Supreme Court held that Section 125 of the Code of 1973 is meant to achieve a social purpose and the object is to prevent vagrancy and destitution. Explaining the meaning of the word `wife' the Court held: “The object is to prevent vagrancy and destitution. It provides a speedy remedy for the supply of food, clothing and shelter to the deserted wife. When an attempt is made by the husband to negative the claim of the neglected wife depicting her as a kept-mistress on the specious plea that he was already married, the court would insist on strict proof of the earlier marriage. The term `wife' in Section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, includes a woman who has been divorced by a husband or who has obtained a divorce from her husband and has not remarried. The woman not having the legal status of a wife is thus brought within the inclusive definition of the term `wife' consistent with the objective.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Thus, in those cases where a man, who lived with a woman for a long time and even though they may not have undergone legal necessities of a valid marriage, should be made liable to pay the woman maintenance if he deserts her. The man should not be allowed to benefit from the legal loopholes by enjoying the advantages of a de facto marriage without undertaking the duties and obligations. Any other interpretation would lead the woman to vagrancy and destitution, which the provision of maintenance in Section 125 is meant to prevent”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>However,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>in </span><a href="http://indiankanoon.org/doc/663395/"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Yamunabai Anantrao Adhav v. Anantrao Shivram Adhav and</span></a><span style="color: black;"> another, reported in AIR 1988 SC 644, a two-Judge Bench of the Supreme Court held that an attempt to exclude altogether personal law of the parties in proceedings under Section 125 is improper and the learned Judges also held that the expression `wife' in Section 125 of the Code should be interpreted to mean only a legally wedded wife. Again in a subsequent decision of the Supreme Court in </span><a href="http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1590152/"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Savitaben Somabhat Bhatiya v. State of Gujarat and others</span></a><span style="color: black;">, reported in AIR 2005 SC 1809, the Supreme Court held that however desirable it may be to take note of plight of an unfortunate woman, who unwittingly enters into wedlock with a married man, there is no scope to include a woman not lawfully married within the expression of `wife'. The Bench held that this inadequacy in law can be amended only by the Legislature. While coming to the aforesaid finding the learned Judges relied on the decision in the Yamunabai case (supra).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System, headed by Dr. Justice V.S. Malimath, in its report of 2003 opined that evidence regarding a man and woman living together for a reasonably long period should be sufficient to draw the presumption that the marriage was performed according to the customary rites of the parties. Thus, it recommended that the word `wife' in Section 125 Cr.P.C. should be amended to include a woman who was living with the man like his wife for a reasonably long period. This amendment has not been made till now. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>It is, therefore, clear from what has been discussed above that there is a divergence of judicial opinion on the interpretation of the word `wife' in Section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The law in America has proceeded on a slightly different basis. The social obligation of a man entering into a live-in relationship with another woman, without the formalities of a marriage, came up for consideration in the American courts in the leading case of Marvin v. Marvin [(1976) 18 Cal.3d 660]. In that context, a new expression of `palimony' has been coined, which is a combination of `pal' and `alimony', by the famous divorce lawyer in the said case, Mr. Marvin Mitchelson.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>In this case, the plaintiff, Michelle Marvin, alleged that she and Lee Marvin entered into an oral agreement which provided that while the parties lived together they would combine their efforts and earnings and would share equally any and all property accumulated as a result of their efforts whether individual or combined and the parties further agreed that Michelle would render her services as a companion, homemaker, housekeeper and cook. Michelle sought a judicial declaration of her contract and property rights, and sought to impose a constructive trust upon one half of the property acquired during the course of the relationship. The Supreme Court of California held as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">(1) The provisions of the Family Law Act do not govern the distribution of property acquired during a non-marital relationship; such a relationship remains subject solely to judicial decision. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>(2) The courts should enforce express contracts between non-marital partners except to the extent that the contract is explicitly founded on the consideration of meretricious sexual services. (3) In the absence of an express contract, the courts should inquire into the conduct of the parties to determine whether that conduct demonstrates an implied contract, agreement of partnership or joint venture, or some other tacit understanding between the parties. The courts may also employ the doctrine of quantum meruit, or equitable remedies such as constructive or resulting trusts, when warranted by the facts of the case. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>In our country, law has not developed on the lines of the Marvin case.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>However, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 assigns a very broad and expansive definition to the term `domestic abuse' to include within its purview even economic abuse. `Economic abuse' has been defined very broadly in sub-explanation (iv) to explanation I of Section 3 of the said Act to include deprivation of financial and economic resources. Section 20 of the Act allows the Magistrate to direct the respondent to pay monetary relief to the aggrieved person, who is the harassed woman, for expenses incurred and losses suffered by her, which may include, but is not limited to, maintenance under Section 125 Cr.P.C. [Section 20(1)(d)]. Section 22 of the Act confers upon the Magistrate, the power to award compensation to the aggrieved person, in addition to other reliefs granted under the Act. In terms of Section 26 of the Act, these reliefs mentioned above can be sought in any legal proceeding, before a civil court, family court or a criminal court, affecting the aggrieved person and the respondent. Most significantly, the Act gives a very wide interpretation to the term `domestic relationship' as to take it outside the confines of a marital relationship, and even includes live-in relationships in the nature of marriage within the definition of `domestic relationship' under Section 2(f) of the Act. Therefore, women in live-in relationships are also entitled to all the reliefs given in the said Act. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>If the abovementioned monetary relief and compensation can be awarded in cases of live-in relationships under the Act of 2005, they should also be allowed in a proceedings under Section 125 of Cr.P.C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>In light of the constant change in social attitudes and values, which have been incorporated into the forward-looking Act of 2005, the same needs to be considered with respect to Section 125 of Cr.P.C. and a broad interpretation of the same should be taken. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>In fact a two judge Bench of the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Hon’ble Supreme Court of India, in the case of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Chanmuniya Vs Virendra Kumar Singh Kushwaha, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>has requested the Hon'ble <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Chief Justice <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>of India to refer the following questions to be decided by a larger Bench: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">“1. Whether the living together of a man and woman as husband and wife for a considerable period of time would raise the presumption of a valid marriage between them and whether such a presumption would entitle the woman to maintenance under Section 125 Cr.P.C?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">2. Whether strict proof of marriage is essential for a claim of maintenance under Section 125 Cr.P.C. having regard to the provisions of Domestic Violence Act, 2005?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;">3. Whether a marriage performed according to customary rites and ceremonies, without strictly fulfilling the requisites of Section 7(1) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, or any other personal law would entitle the woman to maintenance under Section 125 Cr.P.C.?”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Therefore, whether <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>a broad and expansive interpretation should be given to the term `wife' to include even those cases where a man and woman have been living together as husband and wife for a reasonably long period of time, and strict proof of marriage should not be a pre-condition for maintenance under Section 125 of the Cr.P.C, so as to fulfill <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>the true spirit and essence of the beneficial provision of maintenance under Section 125 has to be decided by the larger Bench of the Supreme Court of India. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The judgment of Mr. Justice Karnan that i</span><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">f any couple, subject to their attaining the mandatory age of freedom, indulge in sexual gratification, then that would be considered as valid marriage and they could be termed as “husband and wife” should be examined in the light of the above cited decisions of the Supreme Court of India. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>The settled legal position is that </span><span style="font-size: 13pt;">a strong presumption arises in favour of wedlock where the partners have lived together for a long spell as husband and wife and even this presumption is a rebuttable presumption.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>In the case before Mr. Justice Karnan, the parties lived together for a long time and therefore he was perfectly right in upholding the claim of the woman who claimed maintenance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>But his judgment goes beyond that and states that i</span><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 13pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">f any couple, subject to their attaining the mandatory age of freedom, indulge in sexual gratification, then that would be considered as valid marriage is not in line with the above cited decisions of the Supreme Court of India particularly when he has not clarified whether the rule laid down relates to sustained cohabitation or just sexual consummation. </span><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black;"><br /></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-33840118836204461762013-01-15T05:22:00.001-08:002013-01-15T08:03:26.743-08:00FRANCHISING IN INDIA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: red;">-&nbsp;P.RAJENDRAN</span>, ADVOCATE&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="color: blue;"> </span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kRcbW14JX50/UPV9kIe5HTI/AAAAAAAAAD0/Na7tij1L7bQ/s1600/Franchise-Business.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kRcbW14JX50/UPV9kIe5HTI/AAAAAAAAAD0/Na7tij1L7bQ/s320/Franchise-Business.jpg" width="306" /></a></div><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span style="color: black; font-size: large;">What is a franchise business?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>It is a business in which the owners, or franchisers, sell the rights to their business logo and model to third parties, called <em>franchisees</em>. Examples of well-known franchise business models include </span></span><span lang="EN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;">Baskin Robbins, Subway, McDonald's, TGI Friday's, Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, Dominos Pizza, Ruby Tuesdays, Barista, Costa, Wetzel Pretzel, Papa John's and KFC. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Beauty and Health Care Fitness clubs such as VLCC and Talwalkers have established chains while hair and beauty salons offering domestic branded products including Shanaz Hussein, Biotique and Habibs, and international brands, for example, L'Oreal and Tony &amp; Guy, have marked their presence through the franchise model.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0.25in 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="color: black;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">There are many different types of franchises. Many people associate only fast food businesses with franchising. In fact, there are over 120 different types of franchise businesses available today, including automotive, cleaning &amp; maintenance, health &amp; fitness, financial services, and pet-related franchises, just to name a few. </span><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Franchising has become one of the most popular ways of doing business in today's marketplace.</span><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Franchise business opportunities are available across a variety of industries in India. </span><span class="lblbigtextresttext1"><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%;">Today, India is one of the biggest emerging markets for various goods and services, ranging from bare necessities to expensive luxuries. After the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>coming into force of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA), foreign investors found their passage into India with rules for entry becoming far more favourable. Today, a convenient medium of entry by foreign companies into the Indian market is franchising. Franchising also exists as a successful business module for local companies in India within various sectors</span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">How to start a franchise business in India?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>To invest in a franchise, the franchisee must first pay an initial fee for acquiring the rights to the business, training, and the equipment required by that particular franchise. Thereafter, the franchisee will generally pay the franchise business owner an ongoing royalty payment, either on a monthly or quarterly basis. This payment&nbsp;is usually calculated as a percentage of the franchise operation’s gross sales.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">As a first step to start the franchise business a contract will have to be signed by the parties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>After the contract has been signed, the franchisee will open a replica of the franchise business, under the direction of the franchiser. The franchisee will not have as much control over the business as he or she would over his or her own, but may benefit from investing in an already-established brand. Generally, the franchiser will require that the business model stay the same. For example, the franchiser will require the franchisee to use the uniforms, business methods, and signs or logos particular to the business itself. The franchisee should remember that he or she is not just buying the right to sell the franchiser’s product, but is buying the right to use the successful and tested&nbsp;business process. The franchisee will also usually have to use the same or similar pricing, in order to keep the advertising streamlined. Apart from using the business model determined by the franchiser, the franchisee will otherwise remain an independent owner of the franchise.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;"><span class="lblbigtextresttext1"><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%;">However, there are no laws enacted solely for the purpose of regulating the growing business of franchising in India, even though many nations across the world have enacted such laws. The result is that when franchisors enter India they are governed by a number of different statutes and codes like t</span></span><strong><span lang="EN" style="font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">he Indian Contract Act,</span></strong><strong><span lang="EN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> </span></strong><span lang="EN" style="line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;">the Competition Act, 2002, the Trademarks Act, 1999 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>etc., <strong><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span></strong></span><span class="lblbigtextresttext1"><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%;">rather than a single comprehensive enactment. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Therefore the parties proposing to enter into a franchise business should contact an experienced franchise attorney for assistance in order to comply with the legal requirements in India. </span></span><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span></span><span class="lblbigtextresttext1"><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 4.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span class="lblbigtextresttext1"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com16tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-55833409655717258662013-01-10T22:07:00.000-08:002013-01-15T08:05:05.767-08:00MINOR'S PROPERTY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="font-size: large;">- P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="color: blue;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JYiGmWSkDRk/UPV-FRRS6oI/AAAAAAAAAD8/X63ha8WXXdY/s1600/minor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JYiGmWSkDRk/UPV-FRRS6oI/AAAAAAAAAD8/X63ha8WXXdY/s320/minor.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="color: #444444;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">Whether the property of a minor can be alienated by his guardian?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>This is the issue dealt with in this Article.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Who is a Minor? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Section 4 (a) of the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 defines a Minor as “a person who has not completed the age of eighteen years”. Under Section-6 of the said Act, the natural guardians of a Hindu minor, in respect of the minor's person as well as in respect of the minor's property (excluding his or her undivided interest in joint family property) are -&nbsp;</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;“(a) in the case of a boy or an unmarried girl—the father, and after him, the mother: provided that the custody of a minor who has not completed the age of five years shall ordinarily be with the mother;</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;(b) in the case of an illegitimate boy or an illegitimate unmarried girl&nbsp;-&nbsp;the mother, and after her, the father;</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;(c) in the case of a married girl - the husband;</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;Provided that no person shall be entitled to act as the natural guardian of a minor under the provisions of this section—</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;(a) if he has ceased to be a Hindu, or</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;(b) if he has completely and finally reno</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;">unced the world by becoming a hermit (vanaprastha) or an ascetic (yati or sanyasi)<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-language: TA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>Explanation.—</b>In this section, the expressions 'father' and 'mother' do not include a step-father and a step-mother”.</span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 6.65pt 0pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">Under Section-7 of the said Act, the natural guardianship of an adopted son who is a minor passes, on adoption, to the adoptive father and after him to the adoptive mother. Under Section-8 (2) of the Act, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>the natural guardian shall not, without the previous permission of the court,—</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">&nbsp;(a) mortgage or charge, or transfer by sale, gift, exchange or otherwise any part of the immovable property of the minor or&nbsp;</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;(b) lease any part of such property for a term exceeding five years or for a term extending more than one year beyond the date on which the minor </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;">will attain majority.</span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">No court shall grant permission to the natural guardian to do any of the acts mentioned above except in case of necessity or for an evident advantage to the minor. Now, the question is whether any alienation made by a natural guardian without previous permission of the court is illegal for ever. Under Section 8 (3) any disposal of immovable property by a natural guardian, in contravention of the above provisions is <u>voidable</u> at the instance of the minor or any person claiming under him. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Therefore the alienation is not void but it is voidable at the instance of the minor or any person claiming under him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>If the minor, on attaining majority (18 years) chooses not to challenge the alienation, the alienation will be perfectly valid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>But, on the other hand, if he challenges the alienation, the validity of the alienation will be decided by the court. However, such a challenge should be made within 3 years after the attainment of majority. Any suit to set aside an alienation of minor’s property by the guardian filed more than three years after the attainment of majority is barred under Section-60 of the Limitation Act.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Therefore the alienation cannot be challenged by a minor after three years from the attainment of majority.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>In some cases, it may so happen that the elder son did not challenge the alienation within three years after attainment of majority but the younger son challenges within three years. In other words, the suit filed by the younger son is within three years. The question is whether the suit filed by the younger son (within three years of attainment of majority) is maintainable. Section-7 of the Limitation Act states as follows:-</span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>“Where one of several persons jointly entitled to institute a suit or make an application for the execution of a decree is under any such disability, and a discharge can be given without the concurrence of such person, time will run against them all; but, where no such discharge can be given, time will not run as against any of them until one of them becomes capable of giving such discharge without the concurrence of the others or until the disability has ceased.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;">Explanation I - This section applies to a discharge from every kind of liability, including a liability in respect of any immovable property.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp;Explanation II - For the purposes of this section, the manager of a Hindu undivided family governed by the Mitakshara law shall be deemed to be capable of giving a discharge without the concurrence of the other members of the family only if he is in management of the joint-family property”<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Full Bench of the Madras High Court has held that the claim being a joint claim and the suit having been brought more than three years after the attainment of majority by the elder brother (who was the manager of the joint family, competent to give discharge) the claim was barred by limitation even in respect of the share of the younger brother who had not yet completed 21 years. Therefore if the eldest male member and Manager of the Hindu Undivided Family does not file a suit within three years after his attainment of majority, he cannot do it after three years and the said disability would extend to the other younger members of the joint family also and they are barred from bringing any suit.&nbsp;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>This is because as the eldest member and manager, he is deemed to be<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>capable of giving a discharge without the concurrence of the other members of the family.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><span style="color: red;"></span></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-29131619398423590722012-08-17T05:39:00.000-07:002012-08-17T05:48:44.784-07:00COMMUNAL RESERVATION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">P.RAJENDRAN</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0.9pt 10pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="color: black;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;">All reservations are not of the same nature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>There are two types of reservations, namely, ‘vertical reservations” and “horizontal reservations”. Social Reservation in favour or SCs, STs and OBCs under Article 16(4) of the Constitution of India are “vertical reservations”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Special Reservations in favour of Physically handicapped, Women etc. under Articles 16 (1) or 15 (3) of the Constitution of India are “horizontal reservations”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0.9pt 10pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Horizontal reservations cut across the vertical reservations – what is called interlocking reservations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>To be more precise, suppose 3% of the vacancies are reserved in favour of physically handicapped persons; this would be a reservation relatable to Article 16 (1).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>The person selected against this quota will be placed in the appropriate category; if he belongs to SC category he will be placed in that quota by making necessary adjustments;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>similarly, if he belongs to open competition (OC) category he will be placed in that category by making necessary adjustments. Even after providing for these horizontal reservations, the percentage of reservations in favour of the particular category, that is,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>BC, SC, ST <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>remains – and should remain – the same. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0.9pt 10pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India has repeatedly pointed out that the proper and correct course is to first fill up the OC quota (50%) on the basis of merit; then fill up each of the social reservation quotas, i.e. SC, ST and BC; the third step would be to find out how many candidates belonging to special reservations have been selected on the above basis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>If the quota fixed for horizontal reservations is already satisfied no further question arises.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>But if it is not so satisfied, the requisite number of special reservation candidates shall have to be taken and adjusted / accommodated against their respective social reservation categories by deleting the corresponding number of candidates from that category.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>For example,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>if 19 posts are reserved for SCs (of which the quota for women is four), 19 SC candidates shall have to be first listed in accordance with merit, from out of the successful eligible candidates. If such list of 19 candidates contains 4 SC woman candidates, then there is no need to disturb the list by including any further SC woman candidate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>On the other hand, if the list of 19 SC candidates contains only two woman candidates, then the next two SC woman candidates in accordance with merit will have to be included in the list and corresponding number of candidates from the bottom of such list shall have to be deleted so as to ensure that the final 19 selected SC candidates contain 4 woman SC candidates. But if the list of 19 SC candidates contains more than four woman candidates, selected on own merit, all of them will continue<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>in the list and there is no question of deleting the excess woman candidates on the ground that “SC women” have been selected in excess of the prescribed internal quota of four.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0.9pt 10pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Where a vertical reservation is made in favour of a Backward Class under Article 16 (4), the candidates belonging to such Backward Class, may compete for non-reserved posts and if they are appointed to the non-reserved posts on their own merit, their number will not be counted against the quota reserved for respective Backward Class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Therefore, if the number of BC candidates, who by their own merit, get selected to open competition vacancies, equals or even exceeds the percentage of posts reserved for BC candidates, it cannot be said that the reservation quota for BCs has been filled.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>The entire reservation quota will be intact and available in addition to those selected under open competition category.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0.9pt 10pt 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>But, the aforesaid principle applicable to vertical (social) reservations will not apply to horizontal (special) reservations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Where a special reservation for women is provided within the social reservation for Scheduled Castes, the proper procedure, as explained above, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>is first to fill up the quota for Scheduled Castes in order of merit and then find out the number of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>candidates among them who belong to the special reservation group of ‘Scheduled Caste Women”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>If the number of women in such list is equal to or more than the number of special reservation quota, then there is no need for further selection towards the special reservation quota.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Only if there is any shortfall, the requisite number of Scheduled Caste Women shall have to be taken by deleting the corresponding number of candidates from the bottom of the list relating to Scheduled Castes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>To this extent, horizontal (special) reservation differs from vertical (social) reservation. Thus women selected on merit within the vertical reservation quota will be counted against the horizontal reservation for women.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-25595158016601657012012-05-07T00:57:00.000-07:002012-05-07T01:20:50.794-07:00CONVERSION AND MARRIAGE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">- P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="http://www.prajendran.com/" target="_blank"> <span style="color: blue; font-size: large;">www.prajendran.com</span></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img border="0" height="223" mea="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZEYI20FRoFg/T6eDnWcaoSI/AAAAAAAAADQ/h2rpVVCqG8I/s320/largest-conversion-in-buddhism_26%5B1%5D.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span><span style="color: black;">Whether the second marriage of a Hindu husband after conversion to Islam, without having dissolved his first marriage under law would be valid?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Whether the husband would be guilty of committing the offence of Bigamy under Section 494 IPC? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Whether the second marriage would be void in terms of the provisions of Section 494 IPC? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>Such questions are being raised very often.</span></span></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Section 494 IPC reads as follows:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>“Whoever, having a husband or wife living, marries in any case in which such marriage is void by reason of its taking place during the life of such husband or wife, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine”.</span></span><br /><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The Hindu Marriage Act strictly enforces monogamy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>A marriage performed under this Act cannot be dissolved except on the grounds available under Section 13 of the Act. In that situation, parties who have solemnized the marriage under this Act remain married even when the husband embraces Islam in pursuit of another wife. Till the time a Hindu marriage is dissolved under the Hindu Marriage Act none of the spouses can contract a second marriage. Conversion to Islam and marrying again would not, by itself, dissolve the Hindu Marriage under the Hindu Marriage Act. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>A second marriage of an apostate, would be illegal marriage qua his wife who married him under the Hindu Marriage Act and continues to be a Hindu. Though the marriage solemnized<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>by a Hindu husband after embracing<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Islam may not strictly be a void marriage under the Hindu Marriage Act because he is no longer a Hindu, but between the apostate and his Hindu wife the second marriage is in violation of the provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act and as such would be non est.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The expression “void” defined under Section 11 of the Hindu Marriage Act has a limited meaning within the definition under that Section. On the other hand the same expression has a different purpose under Section 494 IPC and has been used in the wider sense. A marriage which is in violation of the provisions of law would be void in terms of the expression used under Section 494 IPC.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>The real reason for the voidness of the second marriage is the subsistence of the first marriage which is not dissolved even by the conversion of the husband. The second marriage by a convert, therefore, being in violation of the Hindu Marriage Act, would be void in terms of Section 494 IPC. Any act which is in violation of mandatory provisions of law is per se void.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The conduct of a spouse who converts to Islam has to be judged on the basis of the rule of justice and right or equality and good conscience. A matrimonial dispute between a convert to Islam and his or her non Muslim spouse is not a<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>dispute “where the parties are Muslims”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>and therefore the rule of decision in such a case was or is not required to be the “Muslim Personal Law”. In such cases the courts shall act and the judge shall decide according to justice, equity and good conscience. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>The second marriage of a Hindu husband after embracing Islam being violative of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>justice, equity and good conscience would be void on that ground also and attract the provisions of Section 494 IPC.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The above interpretation of Section 494 IPC would advance the interest of justice. It is necessary that there should be harmony between the two systems of law just as there should be harmony between the two communities. The result of the interpretation would be that the Hindu law on the one hand and the Muslim law on the other hand would operate within their respective ambits without trespassing on the personal laws of each other.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Much misapprehension prevails about bigamy in Islam. To check the misuse, many Islamic countries have codified the personal law, wherein the practice of polygamy<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>has been either totally prohibited or severely restricted. But India is a Democratic Republic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Freedom of religion is the core of our culture. Even the slightest deviation shakes the social fibre.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Article 25 of the Constitution of India guarantees religious freedom whereas Article 44 seeks to divest religion from social relations and personal law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>Marriage, succession and like matters of a secular character, cannot be brought within the guarantee enshrined under Articles <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp;</span>25 and 26 of the Constitution of India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">&nbsp; </span>The personal law of the Hindus such as relating to marriage, succession and the like have all an origin in the same manner as in the case of the Muslims or Christians. The Legislation – not religion – being the authority under which personal law was permitted to operate and is continuing to operate, the same can be superseded /supplemented by introducing a uniform civil code for all the citizens in the territory of India. The successive Governments till date have been wholly remiss in their duty of implementing the constitutional mandate under Article 44 of the Constitution of India, namely, “endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India”</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-86012099279127112192012-05-03T01:07:00.000-07:002012-05-03T07:46:03.931-07:00DAUGHTER'S RIGHT IN ANCESTRAL PROPERTY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;">-P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span style="color: blue;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #20124d; font-size: large;">http://www.prajendran.com/</span></a><br /><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><br /><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3zn3ygR5S2U/T6KZmKpUg8I/AAAAAAAAADE/RsI9N0czg0k/s1600/daughter%5B1%5D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="132" mea="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3zn3ygR5S2U/T6KZmKpUg8I/AAAAAAAAADE/RsI9N0czg0k/s200/daughter%5B1%5D.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">The Hindu Succession &nbsp;Act, 1956 is an Act to codify the law relating to intestate succession among Hindus. Intestate succession means succession to property left by a Hindu without any testamentary instrument like Will, Settlement etc. The Act brought about important changes in the law of succession but without affecting the special rights of the members of a coparcenary. &nbsp;Coparcenary consists of&nbsp; a male Hindu, his son,&nbsp; grand son (son’s son) and great grand son (son’s son’s son). &nbsp;Daughters were excluded from succession to coparcenary property. The law by excluding the daughter from participating in the coparcenary ownership not only contributed to her discrimination on the ground of &nbsp;gender but also led to oppression and negation of her fundamental right of equality guaranteed under Article 226 of the Constitution of India. &nbsp;Parliament felt that non inclusion of daughters in the coparcenary property was causing discrimination to them and accordingly decided to bring in necessary changes in the law. &nbsp;Accordingly Section-6 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 was substituted by a new provision vide the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 as follows:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">'6. Devolution of interest in coparcenary property.-(1) On and from the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, in a Joint Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law, the daughter of a coparcener shall,- (a) by birth become a coparcener in her own right in the same manner as the son; (b) have the same rights in the coparcenary property as she would have had if she had been a son; (c) be subject to the same liabilities in respect of the said coparcenary property as that of a son, and any reference to a Hindu Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to include a reference to a daughter of a coparcener: Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall affect or invalidate any disposition or alienation including any partition or testamentary disposition of property which had taken place before the 20th day of December, 2004. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">(2) Any property to which a female Hindu becomes entitled by virtue of sub-section (1) shall be held by her with the incidents of coparcenary ownership and shall be regarded, notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, or any other law for the time being in force, as property capable of being disposed of by her by testamentary disposition. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">(3) Where a Hindu dies after the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, his interest in the property of a Joint Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law, shall devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by survivorship, and the coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been divided as if a partition had taken place and,- (a) the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a son; (b) the share of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as they would have got had they been alive at the time of partition, shall be allotted to the surviving child of such pre-deceased son or of such pre-deceased daughter; and (c) the share of the pre-deceased child of a pre-deceased son or of a pre-deceased daughter, as such child would have got had he or she been alive at the time of the partition, shall be allotted to the child of such pre-deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as the case may be.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: large;">Explanation.- For the purposes of this sub-section, the interest of a Hindu Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to be the share in the property that would have been allotted to him if a partition of the property had taken place immediately before his death, irrespective of whether he was entitled to claim partition or not.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">(4) After the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, no court shall recognise any right to proceed against a son, grandson or great-grandson for the recovery of any debt due from his father, grandfather or great-grandfather solely on the ground of the pious obligation under the Hindu law, of such son, grandson or great-grandson to discharge any such debt: Provided that in the case of any debt contracted before the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, nothing contained in this sub-section shall affect- (a) the right of any creditor to proceed against the son, grandson or great-grandson, as the case may be; or (b) any alienation made in respect of or in satisfaction of, any such debt, and any such right or alienation shall be enforceable under the rule of pious obligation in the same manner and to the same extent as it would have been enforceable as if the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 had not been enacted.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: large;">Explanation.-For the purposes of clause (a), the expression "son", "grandson" or "great-grandson" shall be deemed to refer to the son, grandson or great-grandson, as the case may be, who was born or adopted prior to the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;</span> <br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></span><br /><div style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;">(5) Nothing contained in this section shall apply to a partition, which has been effected before the 20th day of December, 2004".</span></div></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The new Section 6 provides for parity of rights in the coparcenary property among male and female members of a joint Hindu family on and from 09-09-2005. &nbsp;Thus on and from 09-09-2005 the daughter is entitled to a share in the ancestral property and is a coparcener as if she had been a son.&nbsp; The States of Tamil Nadu, &nbsp;Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka &nbsp;and Maharashtra &nbsp;made necessary changes in the law giving equal rights to daughters in the ancestral property by enacting State amendments and in these states the daughters have been provided parity of rights in the co-parcenary property with effect from the dates notified by the said State amendments.&nbsp; The effective dates are:- Tamil Nadu(25-03-1989), &nbsp;Andhra Pradesh (5-9-1985)&nbsp; Karnataka (30-07-1994) and Maharashtra (22-06-1994).&nbsp; The State of Kerala abolished the joint family system by enacting the Kerala Joint Hindu Family System (Abolition) Act. 1975 with effect from 1-12-1976.</span> <br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp;</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;</span><br /><span style="color: black; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, &quot;serif&quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The right accrued to a daughter in the ancestral property, by virtue of the Amendment &nbsp;Act, 2005 is absolute, except in the circumstances provided in the amended Section-6.&nbsp; The excepted categories to which new Section-6 is not applicable are two, namely, (1)&nbsp; where the disposition or alienation including any partition which took place before 20-12-2004 and (2) where testamentary disposition of the property was made before 20-12-2004. </span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com138tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-25317351295391137602012-01-30T23:46:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:36:10.527-08:00LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIP<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 48px;">- By P.Rajendran &nbsp;<a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></b><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-size: 17px;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eLV98pzU2iM/TyfmY3EvjlI/AAAAAAAAACg/Ox3FryFpFGs/s1600/part.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="color: #4c1130;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eLV98pzU2iM/TyfmY3EvjlI/AAAAAAAAACg/Ox3FryFpFGs/s1600/part.jpg" /></span></a></div><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;">&nbsp;</span><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Limited Liability Partnership&nbsp; (LLP) &nbsp;is an alternative corporate business form that gives the benefits of limited liability of a company and the flexibility of a partnership. Since LLP contains elements of both ‘a corporate structure’ as well as ‘a partnership firm structure’ LLP is called a hybrid between a company and a partnership<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>&nbsp; &nbsp; The LLP structure is available in countries like&nbsp;United Kingdom, United States of America, various Gulf countries, Australia and Singapore.&nbsp;On the advice of experts who have studied LLP legislations in various countries, the&nbsp;LLP Act&nbsp;is broadly based on UK LLP Act 2000 and Singapore LLP Act 2005.&nbsp;Both these Acts allow creation of LLPs in a body corporate form i.e. as a separate legal entity, separate from its partners/members.&nbsp;<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>The desirability of LLP form in India was expressed&nbsp;in the context of small enterprises&nbsp;by Bhat Committee&nbsp;(1972), Naik Committee&nbsp;(1992), Expert Committee on Development of Small Sector Enterprises headed by Sh.&nbsp;Abid Hussain in 1997&nbsp;and&nbsp; Study Group on Development of Small Sector Enterprises (SSEs) headed by&nbsp;Dr. S P Gupta (2001). The committees set up by the Ministry of Company Affairs, namely, Committee on Regulation of Private Companies and Partnerships headed by Sh.&nbsp;Naresh Chandra&nbsp;(2003),&nbsp; Committee on New Company Law (Dr. J.J.&nbsp;Irani Committee) (2005) also recommended for legislation on LLPs.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>The Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) Bill, 2006 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 15th December, 2006. The Bill was referred to the Lok Sabha Standing Committee on Finance, for examination. The Standing Committee consulted various chambers of commerce, professional institutes and other experts and also heard the M/o Corporate Affairs. The said Committee presented/submitted its report to the Parliament on 27th November, 2007. Based on such report the Ministry of Corporate Affairs revised the LLP Bill and the revised LLP Bill, 2008 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 21st October, 2008. This was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 24th October, 2008. The Bill was passed by Lok Sabha on &nbsp;12th December, 2008. The President gave assent to this Bill on 7th January, 2009.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>Any two or more persons associating for carrying on a lawful business&nbsp;with a view to profit&nbsp;may set up an LLP. The LLP Act does not restrict the benefit of LLP structure to certain classes of professionals only. A&nbsp;minimum of two&nbsp;partners will be required for formation of an LLP.&nbsp;There will not be any limit to the maximum number of partners. A body corporate may be a partner of an LLP. An entity which has objectives like “charitable or other not for profit objectives” would not be able to set up LLP since the essential requirement for setting LLP is ‘carrying on a lawful business&nbsp;with a view to profit’. The LLP Act 2008 allows Foreign Nationals including Foreign Companies &amp; LLPs to incorporate a LLP in India provided at least one designated partner is resident of India. However, the LLP/Partners would have to comply with all relevant Foreign Exchange Laws/ Rules/ Regulations/ Guidelines. Every limited liability partnership shall have either the words “limited liability partnership” or the acronym “LLP” as the last words of its name. Indian Partnership Act, 1932 is not applicable to LLPs.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>LLP form is a form of business model which is organized and&nbsp;operates on the&nbsp;basis of an Agreement and it provides&nbsp;flexibility&nbsp;without imposing&nbsp; detailed legal and procedural requirements, enables professional/technical expertise and initiative to combine with financial risk taking capacity in an innovative and efficient manner. LLP shall be a&nbsp;body corporate&nbsp;and a&nbsp;legal entity&nbsp;separate from its partners. It will have&nbsp;perpetual succession. &nbsp;The LLP is a separate legal entity, and is liable to the full extent of its assets but liability of the partners is limited to their agreed contribution in the LLP The LLP can continue its existence irrespective of changes in partners. It is capable of entering into contracts and holding property in its own name. The mutual rights and duties of partners&nbsp;<i>inter se</i>&nbsp;and those of the LLP and its partners shall be governed by the agreement between partners or between the LLP and the partners. This Agreement would be known as&nbsp;“LLP Agreement”. As per provisions of the LLP Act, in the absence of agreement as to any matter, the mutual rights and liabilities shall be as provided for under&nbsp;Schedule I&nbsp;to the Act. Therefore, in case any LLP proposes to exclude provisions/requirements of Schedule I to the Act, it would have to enter into an LLP Agreement, specifically excluding applicability of any or all paragraphs of Schedule I.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>LLP form is a form of business model which is organized and&nbsp;operates on the&nbsp;basis of an Agreement and it provides&nbsp;flexibility&nbsp;without imposing&nbsp; detailed legal and procedural requirements, enables professional/technical expertise and initiative to combine with financial risk taking capacity in an innovative and efficient manner. LLP shall be a&nbsp;body corporate&nbsp;and a&nbsp;legal entity&nbsp;separate from its partners. It will have&nbsp;perpetual succession. &nbsp;The LLP is a separate legal entity, and is liable to the full extent of its assets but liability of the partners is limited to their agreed contribution in the LLP The LLP can continue its existence irrespective of changes in partners. It is capable of entering into contracts and holding property in its own name. The mutual rights and duties of partners&nbsp;<i>inter se</i>&nbsp;and those of the LLP and its partners shall be governed by the agreement between partners or between the LLP and the partners. This Agreement would be known as&nbsp;“LLP Agreement”. As per provisions of the LLP Act, in the absence of agreement as to any matter, the mutual rights and liabilities shall be as provided for under&nbsp;Schedule I&nbsp;to the Act. Therefore, in case any LLP proposes to exclude provisions/requirements of Schedule I to the Act, it would have to enter into an LLP Agreement, specifically excluding applicability of any or all paragraphs of Schedule I.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>Under “traditional partnership firm”, every partner is liable, jointly with all the other partners and also severally for all acts of the firm done while he is a partner. Under LLP structure, liability of the partner is limited to his agreed contribution.&nbsp; Further, no partner is liable on account of the independent or un-authorized acts of other partners, thus allowing individual partners to be shielded from joint liability created by another partner’s wrongful acts or misconduct.&nbsp;Mutual rights and duties of the partners within a LLP are governed by an agreement between the partners or between the partners and the LLP as the case may be. The LLP, however, is not relieved of the liability for its other obligations as a separate entity.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>A basic difference between an LLP and a joint stock company lies in that the&nbsp;internal governance structure&nbsp;of a company is regulated by statute (i.e. Companies Act, 1956) whereas for an LLP it would be by a contractual agreement between partners. The&nbsp;management-ownership divide&nbsp;inherent in a company is not there in a limited liability partnership. &nbsp;LLP will have&nbsp;<u>more flexibility</u>&nbsp;as compared to a company. LLP will have&nbsp;<u>lesser compliance requirements</u>&nbsp;as compared to a company.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>LLPs shall be&nbsp;registered with&nbsp;the Registrar of Companies (ROC) appointed under the Companies Act, 1956) after following the provisions specified in the LLP Act. Every LLP shall have a&nbsp;registered office. An&nbsp;Incorporation Document&nbsp;subscribed by at least two partners shall have to be filed with the Registrar in a prescribed form.&nbsp;Contents of LLP Agreement,&nbsp;as may be prescribed, shall also be required to be filed with Registrar, online.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>Every LLP would be required to file annual return in Form 11 with ROC within 60 days of closer of financial year. The annual return will be available for public inspection on payment of prescribed fees to Registrar. The incorporation document, names of partners and changes, if any, made therein, statement of account and solvency annual return will be available for inspection by any person and the fees for such inspection of an LLP is Rs 50/- and fees for certified copy or extract of any document u/s 36 shall be Rs. 5/- per page.<o:p></o:p></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><b><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For more details, send your queries to</span> <span style="color: blue; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;">mail@prajendran.com</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: 13pt;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: 17px;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-87033916440835416192012-01-07T03:27:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:37:11.535-08:00BENAMI TRANSACTIONS IN PROPERTY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;"><b><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Whenever a property has been purchased by one person for which consideration has been paid or provided by another person, the said transaction is considered to be a “benami” transaction. The proposition of law regarding the ownership of any property would be that the person in whose name the property has been purchased is presumed to be the real owner of the property and the burden of proving the transaction as benami is on the person who asserts that the property was purchased through the funds provided by him. &nbsp;Property means property of any kind, whether movable or immovable, tangible or intangible, and includes any right or interest in such property.</span> The Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 is a piece of prohibitory legislation and it prohibits benami transactions subject to stated exceptions. <span style="line-height: 150%;">Sections 3,5,8 </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">of the Act </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">came into force on 5-9-1988 and the remaining sections came into force on 19-05-1988</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;"><b><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The object of the Benami Transaction (Prohibition) Act, 1988 is to vest ownership rights in benamidar as against the real owner.</span> &nbsp;The benamidar before the enactment of Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 could not have any right, title and interest in the property which the benamidar could convey. &nbsp;Before the Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 was passed, two kinds of transaction were recognized by the courts in India. The first kind of benami transaction was called the real benami transaction in which when ‘A" sells a property to ‘B’ but the sale deed mentions ’C’ as the purchaser. Here the real owner is ‘B’ and ‘C’ is only the benamidar. The second class or kind of transaction is the sham transaction in which one person purports to transfer his property to another without intending to pass the title to the transferee. This second type of transaction was ‘loosely’ called benami transaction. In the first type of transaction, since there are three persons involved, it is also referred as tripartite benami transaction. The fundamental difference between the two categories of transactions is that in the former there is an operative transfer resulting in the vesting of title in the transferee, whereas in the latter there is no operative transfer and the transferor continues to retain title of the property notwithstanding execution of the documents;&nbsp; <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #CCCCCC 1.0pt; border: none; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #CCCCCC .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;"><h2 style="border: none; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.55pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #CCCCCC .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"> <span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 150%;">Section-3 of the Act reads as follows:-</span></h2><h2 style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 5.55pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"> <span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; font-size: small; line-height: 150%;">“</span><b style="background-color: #eeeeee; font-size: medium; line-height: 150%;">(1) No person shall enter into any benami transaction.</b></span></h2></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee;">&nbsp;(2) Nothing in sub-section (1) shall apply to the purchase of property by any person in the name of his wife or unmarried daughter and it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that the said property had been purchased for the benefit of the wife or the unmarried daughter.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee;">&nbsp;(3) Whoever enters into any benami transaction shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or with fine or with both.”<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;"><b><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Therefore, purchase of property by any person in the name of his wife or unmarried daughter for the benefit of the wife or the unmarried daughter is not prohibited under the Act.&nbsp; T</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">here is a rebuttable presumption that the property had been purchased for the benefit of the wife or unmarried daughter. If the concerned person does not let in any satisfactory evidence to rebut the presumption that the property was purchased for the benefit of the wife or unmarried daughter, &nbsp;the transaction cannot be treated as a benami transaction and he cannot be held to be the real owner</span>. If he fails to prove that the property was purchased not for the benefit of the wife or unmarried daughter he cannot claim that he is the owner of the property. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee;">To prove benami the following aspects should be considered:<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(1)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the source from which the purchase money came<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(2)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the nature and possession of the property after the purchase<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(3)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">motive, if any, for giving the transaction a benami colour<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(4)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the position of the parties and the relationship, if any, between the claimant and the alleged benamidar<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(5)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the custody of the title deeds after the sale<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(6)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the conduct of the parties concerned in dealing with the property after the sale.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></b><br /><b style="background-color: #eeeeee; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Section 4 of the Act reads as follows:-</span></b></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee;">“(1) No suit, claim or action to enforce any right in respect of any property held benami against the person in whose name the property is held or against any other person shall lie by or on behalf of a person claiming to be the real owner of such property.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(2) No defence based on any right in respect of any property held benami, whether against the person in whose name the property is held or against any other person, shall be allowed in any suit, claim or action by or on behalf of a person claiming to be the real owner of such property.”</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 40.5pt;"><b style="background-color: #eeeeee; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 40.5pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Therefore, on coming into force of the Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 defence raised for the proof of the fact that the property held by a person is in the capacity of a benamidar is expressly prohibited. Neither the court is permitted in law to consider such defence nor to record its findings.<span class="apple-converted-space">&nbsp;</span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></span><span style="font-size: 13pt; text-indent: 40.5pt;">-P.RAJENDRAN &nbsp;</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; text-indent: 40.5pt;"> &nbsp;</span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; text-indent: 40.5pt;">www.prajendran.com</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: -4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-19164891041754352632011-10-29T23:17:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:37:52.036-08:00FORMATION OF COMPANY IN INDIA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 129.0pt; margin-top: 0in; tab-stops: 513.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; line-height: 150%;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;Formation of company in India is governed by the Companies &nbsp;Act, 1956. For incorporating a private limited company a minimum of two directors and a minimum of two shareholders are required. The number of shareholders is limited to 50. An invitation to the public to subscribe to any shares or debentures is prohibited.&nbsp; No invitation or acceptance of deposits from persons other than&nbsp;members,&nbsp;directors or their relatives is allowed.&nbsp; Before starting the process of registering&nbsp;a company the prospective directors must have Director Identification Number (DIN) and Digital Signature Certificate (DSC).&nbsp;&nbsp;DIN and DSC can be obtained by submitting online application. &nbsp;After acquiring the DIN and DSC, the next step is to get the name of the Company approved by the Registrar of Companies (ROC).&nbsp; An online application should be submitted to the Registrar of Companies giving a maximum of six names and the ROC will reply within seven days as to the availability of the names.&nbsp; Once the name is approved, the next step is drafting the Memorandum of Association (MOA) and the Articles of Association (AOA) of the proposed company. After the MOA and AOA are prepared they are printed and sent to the ROC for vetting and to mark out objections, if any. The documents are then stamped and finally all the&nbsp;documents along with some other details like particulars of appointment of Managing Director, Directors, Manager and Secretary are sent to the concerned Registrar. The last step is to pay the registration fee, which varies on the basis of the company’s authorized capital, after which the company gets registered as a private limited company under the Companies Act, 1956 and gets its certificate of incorporation. There are some more things that are required by a private limited company, like getting a Permanent Account Number and a Company Seal, after it is registered. However, unlike a public limited company, a private company can begin its operation right after getting a certificate of incorporation and complete the rest of the formalities simultaneously.</b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 129pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; line-height: 28px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;A foreign company can commence operations in India by incorporating a company under the Companies Act, 1956 through Joint Ventures (JV)&nbsp; or Wholly Owned Subsidiaries (WOS).&nbsp; Foreign Companies can set up their operations in India by incorporating a JV Company with an Indian Partner and / or with the general public and operating either as a listed company or as an unlisted company. Foreign companies can also set up wholly owned subsidiary in Sectors where 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permitted under the FDI policy of the Government of India. &nbsp;Once the company is incorporated in India, foreign investor has to either intimate Reserve Bank of India (RBI) of the foreign equity or take approval of Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB). Intimation to RBI or approval from FIPB is dependent upon the sector in which foreign investor intends to do business.&nbsp; Once a company has been duly registered&nbsp; and incorporated as an Indian Company it is subject to Indian laws and regulations as applicable to other &nbsp;domestic Indian companies. All foreign investments are freely repatriable (net of applicable taxes) except in cases where (i) the foreign investment is in a sector like Construction and Development Projects and Defence wherein the foreign investment is subject to a lock-in-period and (ii) Non Resident Indians (NRI) choose to invest specifically under non repatriable schemes.&nbsp; Further, dividends (net of applicable taxes) declared by foreign investments can be remitted freely through an Authorized Dealer Bank.</b></span></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 129.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p>&nbsp;- P.Rajendran &nbsp;</o:p></span></div><div style="margin-right: 129pt; text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/">www.prajendran.com&nbsp;</a></span></o:p></span></div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-33835826767652088242011-08-26T03:12:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:38:51.843-08:00CORRUPTION, ANNA HAZARE AND LOKPAL<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" closure_uid_w4k8gu="116" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Anna Hazare’s fast at the Ramlila Grounds has drawn good support from the urban middle class people.&nbsp; Lokpal and Jan Lokpal are the oft-repeated words on the digital media and in the print media. Will such Lokpal or Jan Lokpal put an end to corruption?</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 14 of the Constitution of <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> reads as follows:- “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the <place w:st="on"><placetype w:st="on">territory</placetype> of <placename w:st="on">India</placename></place>”.&nbsp; This is a fundamental right. Since the guarantee of equal protection embraces the entire realm of “State action” it would extend not only when an individual is discriminated against in the matter of exercise of his rights or in the matter of imposing liabilities upon him, but also in the matter of granting privileges, e.g., granting licences for entering into any business, inviting tenders for entering into a contract relating to Government business, or issuing quotas, giving jobs etc.&nbsp; In all these cases, the principle is the same, viz., that there should be no discrimination between one person and another if as regards the subject-matter of the legislation their position is the same or in other words, its action must not be arbitrary but must be based on some valid principle which itself must not be irrational or discriminatory.</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Corruption results in infringement of the above said fundamental right. The moment the said fundamental right is infringed, corruption steps in. For example, if two persons apply for a job, one with 85 per cent marks and the other with 70 per cent marks and if the person with 70 per cent marks is selected for the job, where the marks is the criterion for appointment, then the presumption is the appointing authority has done favour to the person with 70 per cent marks for extraneous considerations. Likewise, in awarding a contract, if a person who offers to do a particular work for the Government at a lower rate is not given the contract and a person who offered to do the same work for a higher rate is given the contract, both the persons standing on the same footing in all other aspects, then the presumption is the person who is awarded the contract has managed to get the contract by bribing the concerned authority. When a person who applies for electricity connection on 1<sup>st</sup> January by complying with all the requirements is not given the connection and another person who applies for the connection on 1<sup>st</sup> February is given the connection, the presumption is the latter person bribed the concerned official to get the connection earlier. We can show a large number of such examples.</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span closure_uid_w4k8gu="138" style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All the public authorities must be directed to publish the details on their official website and on their official notice boards. If it is electricity connection,&nbsp; the details must include, the date of application and the date of giving connection. If it is a college admission, the details must include the marks of all selected candidates. If it is a case of public employment the details must include the marks obtained by each candidate in the written examination and in the interview.&nbsp; If it is a case of awarding contracts, the details must include the amounts tendered by all the persons who submitted the tenders. If such details are published on the website and&nbsp;the official notice boards, any person who participated in the process can know whether he has been overlooked for extraneous reasons and considerations. If a person who stands on a better footing than the selected person, then he must be given the right to ask for the reasons for not selecting him and the concerned authority should have the duty to give the reason within a prescribed time limit, say a week or so. If no reason is given by the concerned public authority within the prescribed time limit, the said person should be given the right to lodge a complaint against the concerned public official and a case should be registered against the concerned public official and it should be made a cognizable offence and prosecution much be launched besides taking departmental disciplinary action as per law. On the other hand, if any reason is given by the public official the concerned person can approach a court of law contending that the said reason is unreasonable and contrary to law and the court of law will have to decide on the validity of the selection. If such transparency and enforcement are ensured, it will go a long way in preventing corruption to a large extent.</span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Corruption cannot be eliminated if the machinery supposed to eliminate corruption itself is corrupt&nbsp; &nbsp;Therefore it is highly important and absolutely necessary to appoint persons of known integrity and honesty to such posts in a transparent manner. If a member of the Lokpal or Lokayukta is corrupt, what is the point in approaching him complaining of corruption? &nbsp;The recent large scale scams such as CWG scam, 2G scam, etc would have died a natural death but for the active intervention of the Hon’ble Judges of the Supreme Court of India who are known for their integrity and honesty.&nbsp; We can not expect such a course of action from corrupt judges especially when big business houses are involved in such scams. </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">No person is above the law. The present requirement of obtaining sanction to prosecute the public servants, including Ministers, should be done away with.&nbsp; It should be left to the concerned court of law to examine whether there is any prima facie case against the concerned public servant and if the court comes to the conclusion that there is a prima facie case the court may direct prosecution and if no prima facie case is made out the court may reject the complaint.&nbsp; The requirement of obtaining sanction from the Governor should be done away with.</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">With regard to corruption in the Judiciary, a National Judicial Commission should be set up to examine all complaints against the judges of the higher judiciary and to take such follow-up action as may be necessary. With regard to the lower judiciary, the High Court of the concerned State may take action on the basis of complaints that show a prima facie case.</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" closure_uid_w4k8gu="137" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Therefore, without ensuring transparency and enforcement, as stated above, we cannot hope to go a long way in preventing or eliminating corruption.&nbsp; &nbsp;</span></b></div><div closure_uid_w4k8gu="139"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>-P. RAJENDRAN</b></span></div><div closure_uid_w4k8gu="139"><br /></div><div closure_uid_w4k8gu="139"><a closure_uid_w4k8gu="142" href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span closure_uid_w4k8gu="150" style="background-color: white; color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></div><div closure_uid_w4k8gu="139"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-62427093012692913002011-07-20T00:47:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:41:22.311-08:00NRI PROPERTY ISSUES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="color: blue;">Definition of NRI and PIO</span></span></u></i></b><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-oPJ1ReG5Kao/Tyfo0ErG11I/AAAAAAAAACw/Yz23cOpC7Xg/s1600/nri.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-oPJ1ReG5Kao/Tyfo0ErG11I/AAAAAAAAACw/Yz23cOpC7Xg/s1600/nri.jpg" /></a></div><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Non-Resident Indian (NRI) is a citizen of <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> but a resident outside <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place>.&nbsp;&nbsp; ‘Person of Indian Origin' (PIO) means an individual (not being a citizen of Pakistan or Bangladesh or Sri Lanka or Afghanistan or China or Iran or Nepal or Bhutan) who at any time, held an Indian Passport or who or either of whose father or mother or whose grandfather or grandmother was a citizen of India by virtue of the Constitution of India or the Citizenship Act, 1955 (57 of 1955). </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Acquisition of immovable property in <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place> by NRIs / PIOs is regulated in terms of Section 6 (3) (i) of the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999 and the regulations made thereunder from time to time.</b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Purchase of immovable property</b></span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Under the general permission available,&nbsp; Non-Resident Indian (NRI) and&nbsp; Person of Indian Origin (PIO) can purchase immovable property in <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place>. The general permission, however, covers only purchase of residential and commercial property and is not available for purchase of agricultural land / plantation property / farm house in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>. In other words, &nbsp;NRI/PIO cannot acquire agricultural land/ plantation property / farm house in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>. However, a person who had bought the&nbsp; agricultural land/ plantation property / farm house in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> when he was a resident, can continue to hold the immovable property without the approval of the Reserve Bank even after becoming an NRI/PIO.&nbsp; An NRI / PIO who has purchased residential / commercial property under general permission, is not required to file any documents/reports with the Reserve Bank. There are no restrictions on the number of residential / commercial properties that can be purchased.&nbsp; Payment can be made by NRI / PIO out of (a) funds remitted to <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> through normal banking channels or (b) funds held in NRE / FCNR (B) / NRO account&nbsp;maintained in <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place>. No payment can be made either by traveler’s cheque or by foreign currency notes or by other mode except those specifically mentioned above.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><place w:st="on"><city w:st="on"><i><u>Sale</u></i></city></place><i><u> of immovable property</u></i></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>NRIs can sell property in India to i)&nbsp;&nbsp; a person resident in India; or ii)&nbsp; an NRI; or (iii) a PIO.&nbsp; PIOs can sell property in India to i)&nbsp;&nbsp; a person &nbsp;resident in India; or ii)&nbsp;&nbsp; an NRI; or iii)&nbsp; a PIO ( <i>with the&nbsp; prior approval</i> of the Reserve Bank). An NRI / PIO may sell agricultural land /plantation property/farm house (already owned by him) to a person resident in <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> who is a citizen of <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place>. The sale proceeds may be credited to NRO account of the NRI /PIO. From the balance in the NRO account, NRI/PIO may remit abroad up to USD one million, per financial year, subject to the satisfaction of Authorised Dealer and payment of applicable taxes.&nbsp;&nbsp; </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Inheritance of immovable property:</b></span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>NRIs and&nbsp; PIOs can inherit and hold immovable property in <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> from a person who is resident in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>. However, a citizen of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, China, Iran, Nepal and Bhutan should seek prior approval of the Reserve Bank for inheriting immovable property in India. NRIs/PIOs can sell such inherited property. General permission is available to the NRIs/PIOs to repatriate the sale proceeds of the immovable property inherited from a person resident in India subject to the following conditions:&nbsp; (i) the amount should not exceed USD one million, per financial year (ii) this is subject to production of documentary evidence in support of acquisition / inheritance of assets and an undertaking by the remitter and certificate by a Chartered Accountant in the formats prescribed by the Central Board of Direct Taxes vide their Circular No.4/2009 dated June 29, 2009 (iii) in cases of deed of settlement made by either of his parents or a close relative (as defined in section 6 of the Companies Act, 1956) and the settlement taking effect on the death of the settlor ) the original deed of settlement and &nbsp;a tax clearance / No Objection Certificate from the Income-Tax Authority should be produced&nbsp; for the remittance &nbsp;(iv) where the remittance as above is made in more than one installment, the remittance of all such installments shall be made through the same Authorised Dealer.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Acquiring immovable property by Gift, Settlement etc.</b></span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>NRIs and&nbsp; PIOs can freely acquire immovable property by way of gift either&nbsp;from i) a person resident in <place w:st="on"><country-region w:st="on">India</country-region></place>; or ii) an NRI;&nbsp; or iii) a PIO.&nbsp; However, the property can only be commercial or residential in nature. Agricultural land / plantation property / farm house in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> <em>cannot</em> be acquired by way of gift. The sale proceeds of immovable property acquired by way of gift should be credited to NRO account only. From the balance in the NRO account, NRI/PIO may remit up to USD one million, per financial year, subject to the satisfaction of Authorised Dealer and payment of applicable taxes.&nbsp;&nbsp; NRI / PIO may gift residential / commercial property to (i) person resident in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> or (ii) an NRI or (iii) PIO.&nbsp;&nbsp; However NRI / PIO can gift an agricultural land / a plantation property / a farm house in <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> (already owned by him as explained above)&nbsp; only&nbsp;to a person resident in <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> who is a citizen of&nbsp;<country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Lease of Immovable Property</b></span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>NRI/PIO can rent out the property without the approval of the Reserve Bank. The rent received can be credited to NRO / NRE account or remitted abroad. Powers have been delegated to the Authorised Dealers to allow repatriation of current income like rent, dividend, pension, interest, etc. of NRI/PIO who do not maintain an NRO account in India based on an appropriate certification by a Chartered Accountant, certifying that the amount proposed to be remitted is eligible for remittance and that applicable taxes have been paid/provided for. </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><u><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Mortgage of Immovable Property</b></span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>NRI / PIO can mortgage a residential / commercial property to (a) an Authorised Dealer / Housing Finance Institutions in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> without the approval of Reserve Bank (b) a bank abroad, with the prior approval of the Reserve Bank.</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">&nbsp;-P.RAJENDRAN</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 14pt;"><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/">http://www.prajendran.com/</a></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 19px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com20tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-68598029077025893892011-06-30T08:06:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:42:21.222-08:00CHILDREN BORN OF INTER CASTE MARRIAGE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YiB52fPKMnI/TyfWUvrOhZI/AAAAAAAAACA/dVHe6BRYmDk/s1600/children.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YiB52fPKMnI/TyfWUvrOhZI/AAAAAAAAACA/dVHe6BRYmDk/s1600/children.jpg" /></a><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>Children born of inter caste marriage of which either of the parents belongs to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe should have a caste status either that of the mother or that of the father.&nbsp;</b></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><div style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">The question of the status of a child born to a scheduled&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">tribe mother from a forward caste father came up for consideration before the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">Rameshbhai Dabhai Naika &nbsp; &nbsp;Vs&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">State of Gujarat &amp; Others &nbsp; (</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;CIVIL APPEAL NO. &nbsp; &nbsp;654 &nbsp; &nbsp; OF 2012- &nbsp;Decided on&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">January 18, 2012) and the Supreme Court held as follows:-</span></b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;"></span></b></div><div style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>"In an inter-<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">caste marriage or a marriage between a tribal and a non-tribal&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">there may be a presumption that the child has the caste of the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">father. This presumption may be stronger in the case where in&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">the &nbsp;inter-caste &nbsp;marriage &nbsp; or &nbsp;a &nbsp;marriage &nbsp; between &nbsp; a &nbsp;tribal &nbsp; and &nbsp;a&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">non-tribal the husband belongs to a forward caste. &nbsp; But by no&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">means &nbsp; the &nbsp; presumption &nbsp; is &nbsp; conclusive &nbsp; or &nbsp; irrebuttable &nbsp; and &nbsp; it &nbsp; is&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">open &nbsp; to &nbsp; the &nbsp; child &nbsp; of &nbsp; such &nbsp; marriage &nbsp; to &nbsp; lead &nbsp; evidence &nbsp; to &nbsp; show&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">that he/she was brought up by the mother who belonged to the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">scheduled caste/scheduled tribe. By virtue of being the son of a&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">forward caste father he did not have any advantageous start in&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">life &nbsp; but &nbsp; on &nbsp; the &nbsp; contrary &nbsp; suffered &nbsp; the &nbsp; deprivations, &nbsp; indignities,&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">humilities &nbsp; and &nbsp; handicaps &nbsp; like &nbsp; any &nbsp; other &nbsp; member &nbsp; of &nbsp; the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">community to which his/her mother belonged. &nbsp;Additionally, that&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">he was always treated a member of the community to which her&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">mother &nbsp; belonged &nbsp; not &nbsp; only &nbsp; by &nbsp; that &nbsp; community &nbsp; but &nbsp; by &nbsp; people&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">outside the community as well. &nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;In the case in hand the tribal certificate has been taken&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">away from the appellant without adverting to any evidences and&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">on &nbsp;the &nbsp;sole &nbsp;ground &nbsp; that &nbsp; he &nbsp;was &nbsp;the &nbsp;son &nbsp;of &nbsp;a &nbsp;Kshatriya father.&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">The &nbsp; orders &nbsp; passed &nbsp; by &nbsp; the &nbsp; High &nbsp; Court &nbsp; and &nbsp; the &nbsp; Scrutiny&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Committee, therefore, cannot be sustained. The orders passed&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">by the High Court and the Scrutiny Committee are, accordingly,&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">set aside and the case is remitted to the Scrutiny Committee to&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">take a fresh decision on the basis of &nbsp;the evidences that might&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">be &nbsp; led &nbsp; by &nbsp; the &nbsp; two &nbsp; sides. "</span></b></span></div><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /><span style="line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;Therefore in the enquiry which will be conducted before issuing the community certificate, the person who claims the status of Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe of his/her father or mother has to establish that on his/her birth, he/she is subjected to the same social disabilities and also following the same customs and traditions and that the community has accepted that person to its fold. </span></b></span></div><div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>The provision to inherit the caste from mother will go a long way in mitigating the hardships faced by a large number of children born of inter caste marriages.&nbsp; Suppose a neglected or deserted SC/ST woman, married to a non SC/ST man, brings up her child with the same handicaps, sufferings, disadvantages attached to that caste/tribe, it is too harsh to deny the benefit to that child on the sole reason that the child's father belongs to non scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.&nbsp;</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</b></span></div>- <span style="color: #660000;">P.RAJENDRAN</span><br /><br /><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a><br /><br /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com47tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-11222531016310441692011-06-21T02:51:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:43:34.482-08:00LIVE-IN-RELATIONSHIP<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_8oj6GN1SFI/TgBtSESuUVI/AAAAAAAAABs/U-oBZOXQ860/s1600/live-in-relationship%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" i$="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_8oj6GN1SFI/TgBtSESuUVI/AAAAAAAAABs/U-oBZOXQ860/s200/live-in-relationship%255B1%255D.jpg" width="198" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>A new social phenomenon has emerged in our country known as “live-in-relationship”. This new relationship is still rare in our country and is sometimes found in big urban cities, but it is very common in North America and <place w:st="on">Europe</place>. When a wife is deserted, in most countries the law provides for maintenance to her by her husband, which is called “alimony”. However, earlier there was no law providing for maintenance to a woman who was having a live-in- relationship with a man without being married to him and was then deserted by him. In the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">United States of America</place></country-region>, the expression “palimony” was coined which means grant of maintenance to a woman who has lived for a substantial period of time with a man without marrying him, and is then deserted by him. The first decision on palimony was the well-known decision of the <state w:st="on"><place w:st="on">California</place></state> Superior Court in Marvin Vs Marvin. This case related to the famous film actor Lee Marvin, with whom a lady Michelle lived for many years without marrying him and was then deserted by him and she claimed palimony.&nbsp; Subsequently in many decisions of the courts in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region>, the concept of palimony has been considered and developed.&nbsp; The <country-region w:st="on">US</country-region> Supreme Court has not given any decision whether there is a legal right to palimony, but there are several decisions of the courts in various States in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region>.&nbsp; These courts in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region> have given divergent views, some granting palimony, some denying it altogether, and some granting it on certain conditions.&nbsp; Hence in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region>, the law is still in a state of evolution on the right to palimony. Although there is no statutory basis for grant of palimony in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region>, the courts there which have granted it have granted it on a contractual basis.&nbsp; Some Courts in the US have held that there must be a written or oral agreement between the man and the woman that if they separate the man will give palimony to the woman, while other courts have held that if a man and woman have lived together for a substantially long period without getting married there would be deemed to be an implied or constructive contract that palimony will be given on their separation. A law has now been passed in the year 2010 by the State Legislature of <state w:st="on"><place w:st="on">New Jersey</place></state> that there must be a written agreement between the parties to claim palimony. Thus, there are widely divergent views of the courts in the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">US</place></country-region> regarding the right to palimony.&nbsp; Some States like <country-region w:st="on">Georgia</country-region> and <state w:st="on"><place w:st="on">Tennessee</place></state> expressly refuse to recognize palimony agreements. </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>In our country, while enacting the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 the Parliament has taken notice of this new relationship, that is, live-in- relationship.&nbsp; Section 2(a) of the Act states: </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;“2.(a) “aggrieved person” means any woman who is, or has been, in a domestic relationship with the respondent and who alleges to have been subjected to any act of domestic violence by the respondent.”</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>Section 2(f) states:</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; “2.(f) “domestic relationship” means a relationship between two persons who live or have, at any point of time, lived together in a shared household, when they are related by consanguinity, marriage or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>through a relationship in the nature of marriage</u>, </i>adoption or are family members living together as a joint family”.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Therefore, the expression “domestic relationship” includes not only the relationship of marriage but also a relationship <u>“in the nature of marriage”</u>. Unfortunately, this expression has not been defined in the Act.&nbsp; </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Some countries in the world recognize common law marriages.&nbsp; A common law marriage, sometimes called de facto marriage, or informal marriage is recognized in some countries as a marriage though no legally recognized marriage ceremony is performed or civil marriage contract is entered into or the marriage registered in a civil registry.&nbsp; The Supreme Court of <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> has held that “relationship in the nature of marriage” is akin to a common law marriage.&nbsp; Common law marriages require that although not being formally married:</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 39pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(a)&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">The couple must hold themselves out to society as being akin to spouses.</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 39pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(b)&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">They must be of legal age to marry</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 39pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(c)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">They must be otherwise qualified to enter into a legal marriage including being unmarried.</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 39pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">(d)&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">They must have voluntarily, cohabitated and held themselves out to the world as being akin to spouses for a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">significant period of time</i>.</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>The Supreme Court of India has held that “relationship in the nature of marriage” under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 must also fulfill the above requirements, and in addition, the parties must have lived together in a “shared household” as defined in Section 2 (s) of the Act.&nbsp; “Shared household” means a household where the person aggrieved lives or at any stage has lived in a domestic relationship either singly or along with the respondent and includes such a household whether owned or tenanted either jointly by the aggrieved person and the respondent or owned or tenanted by either of them in respect of which either the aggrieved person or the respondent or both jointly or singly have any right, title, interest or equity and includes such a household which may belong to the joint family of which the respondent is a member, irrespective of whether the respondent or the aggrieved person has any right, title or interest in the shared household. Merely spending weekends together or a one night stand would not make it a “domestic relationship”.&nbsp; </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; An ‘aggrieved person” under the Act can approach the Magistrate under Section 12 for the relief mentioned in Section 12 (2). Under Section 20 (1) (d) the Magistrate can grant maintenance while disposing of the application under Section 12(1).&nbsp; Section 26(1) provides that the relief mentioned in Section 20 may also be sought in any legal proceeding, before a civil court, family court or a criminal court.&nbsp; Thus, a woman who can prove that she has been in a live- in -relationship with a man as explained above can claim maintenance under the Act.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>The Supreme Court of India has said:&nbsp; “In feudal society sexual relationship between man and woman outside marriage was totally taboo and regarded with disgust and horror, as depicted in Leo Tolstoy’s novel <i>Anna Karenina,</i> Gustave Flaubert’s novel <i>Madame Bovary </i>&nbsp;and the novels of the great Bengali writer Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyaya.&nbsp; However, Indian society is changing and this change has been reflected and recognized by Parliament by enacting the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005”.</b></span></div><br /><span style="color: #4c1130;">- P.RAJENDRAN</span><br /><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a><br /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-10193495940924927972011-06-09T06:27:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:44:25.451-08:00ADOPTION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BJdxOBd4aLQ/TfDPHRuHvaI/AAAAAAAAABc/8_eXNoCPYTY/s1600/adoption_horiz%255B1%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="145" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BJdxOBd4aLQ/TfDPHRuHvaI/AAAAAAAAABc/8_eXNoCPYTY/s200/adoption_horiz%255B1%255D.jpg" t8="true" width="200" /></a></div><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>In Indian society, a male spouse enjoyed the position of dominance for centuries together. This was particularly so in Hindu families.&nbsp; Under the old Hindu Law, a Hindu male had an absolute right to adopt a male child and his wife did not have the locus to question his right or to object to the adoption. A wife could adopt a son to her husband but she could not do so during her husband’s life time without his express consent.&nbsp; After his death she could adopt a son to him, in certain parts of <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>, only if he had expressly authorized her to do so.&nbsp; In other parts of <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>, she could adopt without such authority.&nbsp; However, in no case, a wife or widow could adopt a son to herself.&nbsp; An adoption by a woman married or unmarried of a son to herself was invalid and conferred no legal rights upon the adopted person.&nbsp; A daughter could not be adopted by a male or female Hindu.&nbsp; The physical act of giving was a prime necessity of the ceremonial requirements relating to adoption.&nbsp; </strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>After <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> became a sovereign, democratic republic, this position has undergone a sea change.&nbsp; The old Hindu Law has been codified to a large extent on the basis of constitutional principles of equality.&nbsp; The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 codifies the law on the subject of marriage and divorce.&nbsp; The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 codifies the law relating to intestate succession.&nbsp; The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 codifies the law relating to minority and guardianship among Hindus. The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956 codifies the law relating to adoptions. The said Act is also a part of the scheme of codification of laws.&nbsp; Once the Hindu Succession Act was passed giving equal treatment to the sons and daughters in the matter of succession it was only logical that the fundamental guarantee of equality of a status and equality before law is recognized in the matter of adoption. </strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><strong><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The 1956 Act, now provides for adoption of boys as well as girls. An adopted child shall be deemed to be the child of his or her adoptive father or mother for all purposes with effect from the date of the adoption and from such date all the ties of the child in the family of his or her birth shall be deemed to be severed and replaced by those created by the adoption in the adoptive family. The child cannot marry any person whom he or she could not have married if he or she had continued in the family of his or her birth and any property which vested in the adopted child before the adoption shall continue to vest in such person subject to the obligations, if any, attaching to the ownership of such property including the obligation to maintain relatives in the family of his or her birth and the adopted child shall not divest any person of any estate which vested in him or her before the adoption. The adopted child should not have completed the age of fifteen years, unless there is a custom or usage applicable to the parties which permits persons who have completed the age of fifteen years being taken in adoption. I</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">f the adoption is by a male and&nbsp; the person to be adopted is a female, the adoptive father should be at least twenty one years older than the person to be adopted. If the adoption is by a female and the person to be adopted is a male, the adoptive mother should be at least twenty -one years older than the person to be adopted.</span></span></strong></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>&nbsp;By virtue of the proviso to Section 7 the consent of wife has been made a condition precedent for adoption by a male Hindu.&nbsp; The mandatory requirement of the wife’s consent enables her to participate in the decision making process which vitally affects the family.&nbsp; If the wife finds that the choice of the person to be adopted by the husband is not appropriate or is not in the interest of the family, then she can veto his discretion.&nbsp; A female Hindu&nbsp; who is of a sound mind and has completed the age of eighteen years can also take a son or daughter in adoption to herself and in her own right.&nbsp; A female Hindu who is unmarried or a widow or a divorcee can also adopt a son to herself, in her own right, provided she has no Hindu daughter or son’s daughter living at the time of adoption. However, if she is married a female Hindu cannot adopt a son or a daughter during the life time of her husband unless the husband is of unsound mind or has renounced the world. A married woman cannot adopt at all during the subsistence of the marriage except when the husband has completely and finally renounced the world or has ceased to be a Hindu or has been declared by a Court of competent jurisdiction to be of unsound mind.&nbsp; If the husband is not under such disqualification, the wife cannot adopt even with the consent of the husband whereas the husband can adopt with the consent of the wife. </strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>&nbsp;By incorporating the requirement of wife’s consent in the proviso to Section 7 and by conferring independent right upon a female Hindu to adopt a child, Parliament has tried to achieve one of the facets of the goal of equality enshrined in the Preamble and reflected in Article 14 read with Article 15 of the Constitution of India. </strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>The term “consent” has not been defined in the Act.&nbsp; Therefore, while interpreting these provisions, the Court shall have to keep in view the legal position obtaining before the enactment of the 1956 Act, the object of the new legislation and apply the rule of purposive interpretation and if that is done, it would be reasonable to say that the consent of wife envisaged in the proviso to Section 7 should either be in writing or reflected by an affirmative/ positive act voluntarily and willingly done by her.&nbsp; If the adoption by a Hindu male becomes subject matter of challenge before the Court, the party supporting the adoption has to adduce evidence to prove that the same was done with the consent of his wife. This can be done either by producing document evidencing her consent in writing or by leading evidence to show that the wife had actively participated in the ceremonies of adoption with an affirmative mindset to support the action of the husband to take a son or a daughter in adoption.&nbsp; The presence of wife as a spectator in the assembly of people who gather at the place where the ceremonies of adoption are performed cannot be treated as her consent. In other words, the Court cannot presume the consent of wife simply because she was present at the time of adoption.&nbsp; The wife’s silence or lack of protest on her part also cannot give rise to an inference that she had consented to the adoption.</strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">-<strong>P.RAJENDRAN</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: blue;">&nbsp;</span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.prajendran.com/</span></a><span style="color: blue;">&nbsp;</span></span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: blue;">&nbsp;</span><a href="mailto:mail@prajendran.com"><span style="color: blue;">mail@prajendran.com</span></a><span style="color: blue;"> &nbsp;</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-87076771154240591622011-05-01T00:18:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:45:59.738-08:00SC/ST RESERVATION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z0R2g05aObg/Tyfip85UcoI/AAAAAAAAACI/9f0uYv4KCfU/s1600/reservation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z0R2g05aObg/Tyfip85UcoI/AAAAAAAAACI/9f0uYv4KCfU/s1600/reservation.jpg" /></a></div><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>The issue discussed in this Post is : When a person belonging to Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe of one State migrates to another State what happens to his caste status?&nbsp; </strong></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes for each State are indicated in the Notifications issued by the President of <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> under Article 341 of the Constitution of <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> for each State.&nbsp; The castes that are notified in such Notifications are treated as Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe in the concerned State. In other words, a caste which is not notified as Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe in the Presidential Notification issued for the concerned State will not be treated as a Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe in that State even though the very same caste finds a place in the Presidential Notification issued for another State. </strong></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The considerations for specifying a particular caste or tribe or class for inclusion in the list of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes/Backward Classes in a given State would depend on the nature and extent of disadvantages and social hardships suffered by that caste, tribe or class in that State which may be totally non existent in another State to which persons belonging thereto may migrate. Coincidentally, it may be that a caste or tribe bearing the same nomenclature is specified in two states but the considerations on the basis of which they have been specified may be totally different. So also the degree of disadvantages of various elements which constitute the input for specification may also be totally different. Therefore, merely because&nbsp; a given caste is&nbsp; specified in&nbsp; State – A as s Scheduled&nbsp; Caste does not necessarily mean that if there be another caste bearing the same nomenclature in another State the person belonging to the former would be entitled to the rights, privileges and benefits admissible to a member of the Scheduled&nbsp; caste of the latter State.</strong></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="line-height: 150%;"><strong>Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes belonging to a particular area of the country must be given protection so long as and to&nbsp; the extent they are entitled in order to become equal with others. But equally those who go to other areas should also ensure that they make way for the disadvantaged and disabled of that part of the community who suffer from disabilities in those areas.</strong></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>A Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe person who migrates from the State of his origin to another State in search of employment or for educational purposes or the like,&nbsp; cannot be treated as person belonging to the Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe of the State to which he migrates and hence he cannot claim benefit as such in the latter State. A person belonging to the reserved category in one State cannot ipso facto claim the same benefit on his migration to another State. If a State makes a provision to the effect that the benefit of reservation is extended only to such Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes which are recognized as such in relation to that State then such a provision would be perfectly valid. Therefore, unless the caste of the migrant is notified in the Presidential Notification issued for the State to which he migrates he cannot claim the benefits of&nbsp; reservation in that State.</strong></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><strong><span style="color: #660000;">-P.RAJENDRAN</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></strong></span></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com31tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-68224115959634255862011-04-05T23:22:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:46:59.047-08:00HARASSED HUSBANDS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-egJ3g2UlCmw/TZwF8_nbQoI/AAAAAAAAABY/anJeknBCuB4/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" r6="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-egJ3g2UlCmw/TZwF8_nbQoI/AAAAAAAAABY/anJeknBCuB4/s1600/images.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>Violence against women is a phenomenon that cuts across boundaries of culture, class, education, ethnicity and age. The feminist movement of the 70s and 80s made a major contribution in bringing pressure on the &nbsp;Central Government and the Criminal Law Amendment Committee (1982) to provide legislative protection to women against domestic violence and dowry so that the victim gets justice while she is alive. As a result significant amendments were made in the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act and the Dowry Prohibition Act, with the intention of protecting women from marital violence, abuse and dowry demands. The most important amendment came in the form of the introduction of Section 498-A in the Indian Penal Code which reads as follows:-</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;“Whoever, being the husband or the relative of the husband of a woman, subjects such woman to cruelty shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;<u>Explanation-</u>&nbsp; For the purpose of this section, "cruelty" means-</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;(a) Any willful conduct which is of such a nature as is likely to drive the woman to commit suicide or to cause grave injury or danger to life, limb or health (whether mental or physical) of the woman; or</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;(b) Harassment of the woman where such harassment is with a view to coercing her or any person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any property or valuable security or is on account of failure by her or any person related to her meet such demand.”</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">The offence under Section 498-A is </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">cognizable&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">(the accused can be arrested and jailed without warrant or investigation), non-compoundable&nbsp;(</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">the complaint cannot be withdrawn by the petitioner) and non-bailable&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">(the accused must be produced in court for getting bail and he will have to be put behind the bars till bail is granted). </span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>In several cases, the FIR (complaint given by the wife) is typically an imaginary story, running into many pages, with absolutely no supporting evidence. It typically takes about 3 to 8 years for the accused (husband and his relatives) to prove their innocence in the court. There is no penalty for the misuse of this provision of law and after acquittal of the accused the courts are reluctant to entertain defamation and perjury cases against the falsely testifying witnesses. This has given rise to the formation of Harassed Husbands Associations in various States and also at the All India level. Seminars, Conferences, Processions etc are organized by such associations to throw light on the harassment suffered by the husbands at the hands of their wives. </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>The Supreme Court of India, &nbsp;in &nbsp;Sushil Kumar Sharma vs. Union of India and others, JT 2005(6) 266 was pleased to observe as follows:</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>“The object of the provision is prevention of the dowry menace. But as has been rightly contented by the petitioner&nbsp; many instances have come to light where the complaints are not bonafide and have been filed with oblique motive. In such cases acquittal of the accused does not in all cases wipe out the ignominy suffered during and prior to trial. Sometimes adverse media coverage adds to the misery. The question, therefore, is what remedial measures can be taken to prevent abuse of the well-intentioned provision. Merely because the provision is constitutional and intra vires, does not give a licence to unscrupulous persons to wreck personal vendetta or unleash harassment. It may, therefore, become necessary for the legislature to find out ways how the makers of frivolous complaints or allegations can be appropriately dealt with. Till then the Courts have to take care of the situation within the existing frame work. But by misuse of the provision a new legal terrorism can be unleashed. The provision is intended to be used a shield and not an assassin’s weapon. If cry of “wolf” is made too often as a prank, assistance and protection may not be available when the actual “wolf” appears. There is no question of investigating agency and courts casually dealing with the allegations. They cannot follow any straitjacket formula in the matters relating to dowry tortures, deaths and cruelty. It cannot be lost sight of that ultimate objective of every legal system is to arrive at truth, punish the guilty and protect the innocent. There is no scope for any pre-conceived notion or view. It is strenuously argued by the petitioner that the investigating agencies and the courts start with the presumptions that the accused persons are guilty and that the complainant is speaking the truth. This is too wide available and generalized statement. Certain statutory presumptions are drawn which again are rebuttable. It is to be noted that the role of the investigating agencies and the courts is that of watch dog and not of a bloodhound. It should be their effort to see that an innocent person is not made to suffer on account of unfounded, baseless and malicious allegations. It is equally undisputable that in many cases no direct evidence is available and the courts have to act on circumstantial evidence. While dealing with such cases, the law laid down relating to circumstantial evidence has to be kept in view.”</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>Justice Malimath Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2003 observed the following and gave the recommendation to amend the law immediately:</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; “16.4.4.&nbsp;&nbsp;Less tolerant, impulsive woman may lodge an FIR even on a trivial act. The result is that the husband and his family may be immediately arrested and there may be a suspension or loss of job. The offence alleged being non-bailable, innocent persons languish in custody. There may be a claim for maintenance adding fuel to fire, if the husband cannot pay. She may change her mind and get into the mood to forget and forgive. The husband may realize the mistakes committed and come forward to turn a new leaf for a loving and cordial relationship. The woman may like to seek reconciliation. But this may not be possible due to the legal obstacles. Even if she wishes to make amends by withdrawing the complaint, she can not do so as the offence is non compoundable. The doors for returning to family life stand closed. She is thus left at the mercy of her natal family.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 16.4.5. &nbsp;This section, therefore, helps neither the wife nor the husband. The offence being non-bailable and non compoundable, makes an innocent person undergo stigmatization and hardship. Heartless provisions that make the offence non-bailable and non-compoundable operate against reconciliations. It is therefore necessary to make this offence (a) bailable and (b) compoundable to give a chance to the spouses to come together.”</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 6.7pt 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Taking cognizance of the increasing number of false complaints being filed under section 498-A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), the Central Government recently issued directives to the State Governments not to make any immediate arrests but conduct thorough investigations before taking any action. However, it is widely felt that unless women are punished for lodging false complaints, this directive would not help. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><strong>-&nbsp;P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">www.prajendran.com</span></a></strong></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com90tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-28328151506933864562011-03-19T23:21:00.000-07:002012-01-31T20:47:43.865-08:00DIVORCE-II<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><strong>In my last Post (Divorce-I),&nbsp;the question was whether the Family Courts in India have jurisdiction to pass divorce decrees or decrees of other types (alimony, judicial separation etc.,) against persons who have been granted citizenship of another country on his/her migration to the said country. You would have seen that the Family Courts in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> have jurisdiction to pass such decrees in respect of such persons. </strong></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-3wCefD6j2pU/TYWbPlX5__I/AAAAAAAAABU/o-L4u4UsObI/s1600/imagesCAII5JMK.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; cssfloat: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" r6="true" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-3wCefD6j2pU/TYWbPlX5__I/AAAAAAAAABU/o-L4u4UsObI/s1600/imagesCAII5JMK.jpg" /></span></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold;">&nbsp;</span><b>Now, the question is : Whether a court of a foreign country can grant any decree of divorce or other matrimonial relief in respect of marriages performed under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1956 and whether such judgments and decrees of foreign courts can be enforced in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>?&nbsp; Interesting question!</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In a case before the Supreme Court of India, the marriage took place at Tirupathi in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> according to the Hindu law and the parties settled down&nbsp;at New Orleans, Lousiana, USA&nbsp;but they&nbsp;separated after three years. Thereafter the husband moved to Missouri&nbsp; and set up a residence in the State of <state w:st="on"><place w:st="on">Missouri</place></state>. The wife returned to India.&nbsp;The husband&nbsp;filed a petition for dissolution of marriage in the Circuit Court of&nbsp; St. Louis County, Missouri, USA on the ground that his wife deserted him for more than one year and that the marriage was irretrievably broken. The Circuit Court assumed jurisdiction over the matter on the ground that the husband had been a resident of the State of Missouri for over 90 days immediately preceding the date of filing the Petition and passed a decree for dissolution of the marriage in the absence of the wife on the only ground that the marriage was “irretrievable broken”.&nbsp; Thereafter the husband returned to <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> and married another woman.&nbsp; The first wife filed a criminal complaint against her husband for the offence of bigamy. The husband contended that the first marriage was dissolved by the Circuit Court of St. Louis County, Missouri, USA and therefore he did not commit the offence of bigamy.&nbsp; Accepting his contentions the Magistrate acquitted him.&nbsp; The wife took the matter on appeal to the High Court and the High Court reversed the judgment of the Magistrate on the ground that a Photostat copy of the decree of the Circuit Court of St. Louis County, Missouri was not admissible in evidence to prove the dissolution of marriage.&nbsp; The husband filed an appeal before the Supreme Court of India.</b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>The Supreme Court of India held that even assuming that the foreign court by its own rules of jurisdiction had rightly entertained the dispute and granted a valid decree of divorce according to its law, it cannot be recognized by the courts in India and therefore unenforceable in India since with regard to the jurisdiction&nbsp; of the forum as well as the ground on which it was passed, the foreign decree is not in accordance with the Hindu Marriage Act under which the parties were married &nbsp;and the wife had not submitted to the jurisdiction of the foreign court or consented to its passing a decree. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Therefore, the decree of divorce passed by a foreign court in respect of a marriage performed under the Hindu Marriage Act is not enforceable in <country-region w:st="on">India</country-region> and the courts in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> shall not recognize such a decree as valid. However, if the wife submits to the jurisdiction of the foreign court and contests the proceedings without raising any objection with regard to the jurisdiction of the foreign court or consents to passing a decree by the foreign court, then such a decree is binding on her.&nbsp; If she does not appear in such proceedings and remains ex-parte, the decree that may be passed in such proceedings is not enforceable in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region>. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>The message is clear:&nbsp; If your husband initiates any matrimonial proceedings against you in any foreign court &nbsp;in respect of your marriage performed according to the Hindu Marriage Act, do not submit to the jurisdiction of such foreign courts. If you do not submit to the jurisdiction of such a foreign court, its decree will not be binding on you and it cannot be enforced in India and no court in India will recognize such decrees as valid in India.</b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;"><b>P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/">www.prajendran.com</a></b></span><span style="color: blue;"> </span></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-9477027273703608422011-03-10T02:24:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:48:36.339-08:00DIVORCE - I<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-FQdkDyHVnNM/TXmDOrvcBqI/AAAAAAAAABQ/TrRqalLKpF4/s1600/images%255B6%255D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" q6="true" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-FQdkDyHVnNM/TXmDOrvcBqI/AAAAAAAAABQ/TrRqalLKpF4/s200/images%255B6%255D.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp;</span><span style="color: #4c1130;"> <b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Can the right of the wife to initiate matrimonial proceedings before a Family Court in <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> be defeated on account of foreign citizenship of the husband or his domicile in another country?&nbsp; In other words, do the Family Courts in India have jurisdiction to pass divorce decrees or decrees of other types (alimony, judicial separation etc.,) against persons who have been granted citizenship of another country on his/her migration to the said country?&nbsp; </span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;To cite an example, an Indian Citizen migrated to the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">United States of America</place></country-region> and on his migration he was granted US Citizenship.&nbsp; His wife, before the marriage, was residing adjacent to his residence and their marriage was solemnized in the year 2002. The marriage was conducted in accordance with the Hindu Rites and Customs in the <placename w:st="on">Balaji</placename> <placetype w:st="on">Temple</placetype> at <state w:st="on">New Jersey</state>, <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">USA</place></country-region>. The parties were living happily as husband and wife.&nbsp; Subsequently, in the year 2003, the wife came to <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">India</place></country-region> for a short visit promising to return after completing her dance program.&nbsp; However, all of a sudden she changed her mind and contrary to the promise made, began to act in films with no idea of returning to the <country-region w:st="on"><place w:st="on">United States</place></country-region>. She then filed a divorce petition before the Principal Family Court, Chennai on the ground of cruelty. The husband was not aware of the proceedings initiated at Chennai since summons were not served on him.&nbsp; However, an ex-parte order of divorce was granted by the Family Court, Chennai. On coming to know of the said decree the husband engaged a lawyer at Chennai and filed a petition to set aside the ex-parte decree. The ex-parte decree was set aside and the husband filed his counter in the original petition filed by his wife and opposed her plea.&nbsp; He also filed a Writ Petition in the High Court, Madras &nbsp;contending that the Family Court at Chennai has no jurisdiction to entertain the divorce proceedings, as he is a citizen of the US and a permanent resident in the said country and therefore the Family Court proceedings at Chennai was one without jurisdiction and he prayed for a direction to the Family Court to refrain from taking up the matrimonial proceedings.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The moot question to be decided is as to whether the Indian Courts have jurisdiction to take up matrimonial proceedings involving two Hindus governed by the Hindu Marriage Act even in cases where the opposite party is a foreign national having his domicile outside India.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Section 19 of the Hindu Marriage Act was amended in the year 2003 and with effect from 23-12-2003&nbsp; the wife is entitled to file a matrimonial petition before the District Court in whose territorial jurisdiction she is residing.&nbsp; Prior to this amendment, women were compelled to approach the courts in whose jurisdiction the marriage was solemnized or the husband resides or the parties to the marriage last resided together. Now she can file a petition in the local court within whose jurisdiction she is residing, no matter where the husband resides.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; The High Court decided that the domicile or citizenship of the opposite party is immaterial in a case like this (mentioned above). In case the marriage was solemnized under the Hindu Law, marital relationship is governed by the provisions of the Hindu Marriage Act and therefore Section 19 referred to above has to be given a purposeful interpretation. It is the residence of the wife, which determines the question of jurisdiction. </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The High Court therefore held that when the marriage was solemnized under the Hindu law, the proceedings for divorce has also to be&nbsp; made under the Hindu Marriage Act and that the Hindu Marriage Act has to given an extended coverage even outside the territory to which the Act extends. The High Court held that the right of the wife to initiate proceedings before the local District Court where she is actually residing cannot be defeated by taking a technical plea that no such proceeding would lie on account of Foreign Citizenship of the husband or his domicile in another country.&nbsp; A great relief to the women seeking divorce against their husbands who are residing in foreign countries as foreign citizens.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">- P.Rajendran&nbsp; <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.prajendran.com/</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><br /></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-42263832737356579952011-02-25T06:15:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:49:24.952-08:00WOMEN'S RIGHT TO PROPERTY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span style="font-size: medium;"></span><span style="background-color: #fce5cd;"></span><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #4c1130;"><b>In this Post I shall briefly explain the property rights of women under the Hindu law. There are four stages here, to wit, pre-1937, 1937-1956, 1956-2005 and post-2005.</b></span><span style="color: #660000; font-weight: bold;">&nbsp; </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #660000; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong></strong></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q-RDo6C4Gmw/TyfVP1SvyoI/AAAAAAAAAB4/U1yBE891PyM/s1600/women.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q-RDo6C4Gmw/TyfVP1SvyoI/AAAAAAAAAB4/U1yBE891PyM/s320/women.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></div><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #660000; font-weight: bold;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="color: #4c1130;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp; In theory, in the ancient times, the woman could hold property but in practice, in comparison to men’s holding, her right to dispose of the property was qualified, the latter considered by the patriarchal set up as necessary, lest she became too-independent and neglect her marital duties and the management of household affairs. This was the situation prior to 1937 when there was no codified law. The Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act, 1937 was one of the most important enactments that brought about changes to give better rights to women. The said Act was the outcome of discontent expressed by a sizeable section of society against the unsatisfactory affairs of the women’s rights to property. Even the said Act did not give an absolute right to women. Under the said Act a widow was entitled to a limited interest over the property of her husband – what was to be termed as Hindu widow’s estate.&nbsp; The Act was amended in 1938 to exclude the widow from any interest in agricultural land. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 introduced many reforms and it abolished completely the essential principle that runs through the estate inherited by a female heir, that she takes only a limited estate. The Supreme Court put a lot of controversy at rest by holding that the woman becomes the absolute owner under Section-14 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The object of Section 14 is two-fold : (1) to remove the disability of a female to acquire and hold property as an absolute owner and (2) to convert the right of woman in any estate held by her as a limited owner into an absolute owner. The provision was retrospective in the sense that it enlarged the limit of the estate into an absolute one even if the property was inherited or held by the woman as a limited owner before the Act came into force. Any property acquired under the 1937 Act held in capacity of a limited owner was now converted to her absolute estate.&nbsp; The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 abrogates all the rules of the law of succession hitherto applicable to Hindus whether by virtue of any text or rule of Hindu law or any custom or usage having the force of laws in respect of all matters dealt with in the Act.&nbsp; Therefore no woman can be denied property rights on the basis of any custom,&nbsp; usage or text and the said Act reformed the personal law and gave woman greater property rights. The daughters were also granted property rights in their father’s estate. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Under Section 8 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 the property of a male Hindu dying intestate (that is, without leaving any testamentary instrument like will, settlement etc.,) shall devolve on his son, daughter, widow, mother, son of a predeceased son, daughter of a predeceased son, son of a predeceased daughter, daughter of a predeceased daughter, widow of a predeceased son, son of a predeceased son of a predeceased son,&nbsp; daughter of a predeceased son of a predeceased son, widow of a predeceased son of a predeceased son. Thus female heirs were granted property rights in the estate of the deceased male Hindu.&nbsp; </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The above said Section applies to the self acquired property or the separate property of a male Hindu.&nbsp; </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; However Section-6 of the Act clearly states that in the case of joint family property, known as coparcenary property, the interest of a male Hindu, on his death,&nbsp;&nbsp; would devolve by survivorship upon the surviving members of the coparcenary and not in accordance with the above said provision. Coparcenary consists of grandfather, father, son and son’s son. However, if the deceased had left him surviving a female relative (daughter, widow, mother, daughter of a predeceased son, widow of a predeceased son, daughter of a predeceased son of a predeceased son, widow of a predeceased son of a predeceased son) the interest of the deceased in the coparcenary shall devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by survivorship. For example, A (who had an interest in the coparcenary property) dies leaving behind him his 2 sons B &amp; C and a daughter D. When he was alive, B &amp; C (sons) were members of the coparcenary and D (daughter) was not a member of the coparcenary.&nbsp; On the death of A,&nbsp; his daughter D will get only 1/3 share in the 1/3 share of her father in the coparcenary property. It means the sons B &amp; C will get 1/3 +1/9 each where as the daughter D will get only 1/9 share in the property. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Under Section 23 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, where a Hindu intestate has left surviving him or her both male and female heirs and his or her property includes a dwelling house, wholly occupied by members of his or her family, the right of any such female heir to claim partition of the dwelling house shall not arise until the male heirs choose to divide their respective share therein; but the female heir shall be entitled to a right of residence therein; Provided that where such female heir is a daughter, she shall be entitled to a right of residence in the dwelling-house only if she is unmarried or has been deserted by, or has separated from, her husband or is a widow. </b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; No doubt, the above provisions of&nbsp; the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 are gender discriminatory. To remove the said gender discriminatory provisions the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 was enacted and the said Act came into force on <date day="9" month="9" year="2005">9th September, 2005</date> and it gives the following rights to daughters:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;In a Joint Hindu family the daughter of a coparcener shall,-</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>(a) by birth become a coparcener in her own right in the same manner as the son; (b) have the same rights in the coparcenary property as she would have had if she had been a son; (c) be subject to the same liabilities in respect of the said coparcenary property as that of a son, and any reference to a Hindu coparcener shall be deemed to include a reference to a daughter of a coparcener:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Where a Hindu dies after the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, his interest in the property of a Joint Hindu family shall devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by survivorship, and the coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been divided as if a partition had taken place and (a) the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a son; (b) the share of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as they would have got had they been alive at the time of partition, shall be allotted to the surviving child of such pre-deceased son or of such pre-deceased daughter; and&nbsp; (c) the share of the pre-deceased child of a pre-deceased son or of a pre-deceased daughter, as such child would have got had he or she been alive at the time of the partition, shall be allotted to the child of such pre-deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as the case may be.</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The above mentioned provision under Section 23 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 relating to right of residence in dwelling houses has been omitted under the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005. </b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;Thus gender discrimination has been removed to a larger extent by the 2005 Act. Now, daughters can claim equal right in the self acquired/separate property and also coparcenary property left by their father.&nbsp; </b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeee;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>P.RAJENDRAN&nbsp;<span style="color: blue;"> </span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.prajendran.com/</span></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 18pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #660000;"></span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com220tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-3719376848163887942011-02-14T08:00:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:50:25.978-08:00INTER - CASTE MARRIAGE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><div style="line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RlFjvd1Xkeo/TyfUcLZ9_1I/AAAAAAAAABw/sTdX9j7DtNs/s1600/inter+caste.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RlFjvd1Xkeo/TyfUcLZ9_1I/AAAAAAAAABw/sTdX9j7DtNs/s1600/inter+caste.jpg" /></a></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><b style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 24px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">When persons belonging to different castes marry, what happens to their caste status?&nbsp; What will be the caste status of their children?&nbsp; Whether a woman belonging to a forward community and marrying a Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe/OBC citizen becomes entitled to claim reservation under the SC/ST/OBC quota? &nbsp;&nbsp;</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 24px;">The issue&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">"If &nbsp; a &nbsp; woman &nbsp; who &nbsp; by &nbsp; birth &nbsp; belongs &nbsp; to &nbsp; a &nbsp; scheduled &nbsp; caste &nbsp; or &nbsp; a&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;scheduled tribe marries to a &nbsp;man belonging to a &nbsp;forward &nbsp;caste,&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;whether on marriage she ceases to belong to the scheduled caste&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;or the scheduled tribe?" came up for consideration before the Full Bench of the Bombay High Court in&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">Rajendra Shrivastava &nbsp; vs. S</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">tate of Maharashtra, (2010) 112 Bom LR 762&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">and the Full Bench held as follows:-&nbsp;</span></b></span><br /><b><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-indent: 36pt;"></span></b><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 28px;">&nbsp;"When a woman born in a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">marries &nbsp;to a person &nbsp;belonging to &nbsp;a forward &nbsp;caste, &nbsp;her &nbsp;caste by&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">birth does not change by virtue of the marriage. A person born as&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">a member of a scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe has to suffer&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">from &nbsp;disadvantages, &nbsp;disabilities &nbsp;and &nbsp;indignities &nbsp;only &nbsp;by &nbsp;virtue &nbsp;of &nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; belonging &nbsp; to &nbsp; the &nbsp; particular &nbsp; caste &nbsp; which &nbsp; he &nbsp; or &nbsp; she &nbsp; acquires&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;involuntarily on birth. The suffering of such a person by virtue of&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">caste is not wiped out by a marriage with the person belonging to&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;a &nbsp; forward &nbsp; caste. &nbsp; The &nbsp; label &nbsp; attached &nbsp; to &nbsp; a &nbsp; person &nbsp; born &nbsp; into &nbsp; a&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp; scheduled caste or a scheduled tribe continues notwithstanding&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;the &nbsp; marriage. &nbsp; No &nbsp; material &nbsp; has &nbsp; been &nbsp; placed &nbsp; before &nbsp; us &nbsp; by &nbsp; the&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp; &nbsp;applicant &nbsp; so &nbsp; as &nbsp; to &nbsp; point &nbsp; out &nbsp; that &nbsp; the &nbsp; caste &nbsp; of &nbsp; a &nbsp;person &nbsp; can &nbsp; be&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;changed either by custom, usage, religious sanction or provision&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">of law."</span></b></span><br /><div style="line-height: 28px;"><b style="color: #4c1130; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">The Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Rameshbhai Dabhai Naika &nbsp; Vs&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">State of Gujarat &amp; Others &nbsp; (</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;CIVIL APPEAL NO. &nbsp; &nbsp;654 &nbsp; &nbsp; OF 2012- &nbsp;Decided on&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">January 18, 2012)&nbsp;was pleased to endorse the above view of the Full Bench Judgment of the Bombay High Court. &nbsp;The Supreme Court was also pleased to observe that&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">view &nbsp; expressed &nbsp; earlier by the Supreme Court in &nbsp;Valsamma &nbsp;judgment&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">that &nbsp; in &nbsp; an &nbsp; inter-caste &nbsp; marriage &nbsp; or &nbsp; a &nbsp; marriage &nbsp; between &nbsp; a &nbsp; tribal&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">and &nbsp; a &nbsp; non-tribal &nbsp; the &nbsp; woman &nbsp; must &nbsp; in &nbsp; all &nbsp; cases &nbsp; take &nbsp; her &nbsp; caste&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">from &nbsp; the &nbsp; husband, &nbsp; as &nbsp; a &nbsp; rule &nbsp; of &nbsp; Constitutional &nbsp; Law &nbsp; is &nbsp; a&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">proposition, the correctness of which is not free from doubt."</span></span></b></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="color: #4c1130; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">However, the question is: Whether a woman marrying a Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe/OBC citizen becomes entitled to claim reservation under the SC/ST/OBC quota?</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">The answer is: No. The Supreme Court of</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">India has held that a candidate who had the advantageous start in life being borne in a forward community and had march of advantageous life but is transplanted in backward class by adoption, marriage or conversion does not become eligible to the benefits of</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 36pt;">reservation.</span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><b style="color: #4c1130; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">What will be the caste of the children?&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">The question of the status of a child born to a scheduled&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">tribe mother from a forward caste father came up for consideration before the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">Rameshbhai Dabhai Naika &nbsp; &nbsp;Vs&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">State of Gujarat &amp; Others &nbsp; (</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;CIVIL APPEAL NO. &nbsp; &nbsp;654 &nbsp; &nbsp; OF 2012- &nbsp;Decided on&nbsp;</span><span style="line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;">January 18, 2012) and the Supreme Court held as follows:-</span></span></b><br /><b><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;"></span></b><br /><b style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-indent: 36pt;">"In an inter-<span style="text-indent: 36pt;">caste marriage or a marriage between a tribal and a non-tribal&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">there may be a presumption that the child has the caste of the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">father. This presumption may be stronger in the case where in&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">the &nbsp;inter-caste &nbsp;marriage &nbsp; or &nbsp;a &nbsp;marriage &nbsp; between &nbsp; a &nbsp;tribal &nbsp; and &nbsp;a&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">non-tribal the husband belongs to a forward caste. &nbsp; But by no&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">means &nbsp; the &nbsp; presumption &nbsp; is &nbsp; conclusive &nbsp; or &nbsp; irrebuttable &nbsp; and &nbsp; it &nbsp; is&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">open &nbsp; to &nbsp; the &nbsp; child &nbsp; of &nbsp; such &nbsp; marriage &nbsp; to &nbsp; lead &nbsp; evidence &nbsp; to &nbsp; show&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">that he/she was brought up by the mother who belonged to the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">scheduled caste/scheduled tribe. By virtue of being the son of a&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">forward caste father he did not have any advantageous start in&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">life &nbsp; but &nbsp; on &nbsp; the &nbsp; contrary &nbsp; suffered &nbsp; the &nbsp; deprivations, &nbsp; indignities,&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">humilities &nbsp; and &nbsp; handicaps &nbsp; like &nbsp; any &nbsp; other &nbsp; member &nbsp; of &nbsp; the&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">community to which his/her mother belonged. &nbsp;Additionally, that&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">he was always treated a member of the community to which her&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">mother &nbsp; belonged &nbsp; not &nbsp; only &nbsp; by &nbsp; that &nbsp; community &nbsp; but &nbsp; by &nbsp; people&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">outside the community as well. &nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">&nbsp;In the case in hand the tribal certificate has been taken&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">away from the appellant without adverting to any evidences and&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">on &nbsp;the &nbsp;sole &nbsp;ground &nbsp; that &nbsp; he &nbsp;was &nbsp;the &nbsp;son &nbsp;of &nbsp;a &nbsp;Kshatriya father.&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">The &nbsp; orders &nbsp; passed &nbsp; by &nbsp; the &nbsp; High &nbsp; Court &nbsp; and &nbsp; the &nbsp; Scrutiny&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">Committee, therefore, cannot be sustained. The orders passed&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">by the High Court and the Scrutiny Committee are, accordingly,&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">set aside and the case is remitted to the Scrutiny Committee to&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">take a fresh decision on the basis of &nbsp;the evidences that might&nbsp;</span><span style="text-indent: 36pt;">be &nbsp; led &nbsp; by &nbsp; the &nbsp; two &nbsp; sides. "</span></b><br /><b style="color: #4c1130; line-height: 28px; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The above mentioned decisions of the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India provide the answers to the questions mentioned at the &nbsp;beginning of this post.</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;------ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: large;">&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-size: medium;">-P. Rajendran&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><a href="http://www.prajendran.com/"><span style="font-size: medium;">www.prajendran.com</span></a><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com306tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6359702452602706866.post-44326801983988972112011-02-10T01:50:00.000-08:002012-01-31T20:51:05.537-08:00CAN A FOREIGN CITIZEN OWN PROPERTY IN INDIA?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Z7O9_cp5KOE/TyfoCn1iPYI/AAAAAAAAACo/HEIWuksi8Hs/s1600/property.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Z7O9_cp5KOE/TyfoCn1iPYI/AAAAAAAAACo/HEIWuksi8Hs/s1600/property.jpg" /></a></div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: medium;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Can a foreign citizen hold any immovable property in </span></span></b><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><country-region><place><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">India</span></b></place></country-region><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">? This is the question often raised by Non Resident Indians.&nbsp; Several Indians owning property in India and&nbsp; desirous of settling their property in favour of&nbsp; their sons, daughters and grand children&nbsp; who are citizens of another country also raise this question quite often. </span></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Section 31 (1) of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 categorically states that no person who is not a citizen of India shall, except with the previous general or special permission of the Reserve Bank of India, &nbsp;acquire or hold or transfer or dispose of by sale, mortgage, lease, gift, settlement or otherwise any immovable property situate in India.&nbsp; The only exception is acquisition or transfer of any such immovable property by way of lease for a period not exceeding five years.&nbsp;&nbsp; The dictionary meaning of the word “hold” as given in The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary &nbsp;is “ to have or keep as one’s own; to own as property; to be in possession or enjoyment of”. Therefore it is clear that a foreign national cannot hold any immovable property situate in </span></b><country-region><place><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">India</span></b></place></country-region><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"> whatever is the means by which the said property comes to him. </span></b></span><br /><span style="color: #4c1130; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Now the question is: If some one purchases any property in </span></b><country-region><place><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">India</span></b></place></country-region><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> in contravention of the said statutory provision, will he acquire a valid title to the property?&nbsp; The above said Section 31 (1) does not provide that if some one purchases any property the title therein does not pass to him.&nbsp; What the Act provides is that if a person contravenes Section 31 and some other Sections, he can be penalized under Section 50 and can also be prosecuted under Section 56.&nbsp; However there is no provision in the Act which makes transaction void or says that no title in the property passes to the purchaser in case there is a contravention of the provision of Section 31 (1).&nbsp; Section 63 contains a proviso regarding confiscation of certain properties but it does not contain any provision for confiscation if there is a breach of Section 31 (1).&nbsp; Therefore the property purchased or acquired in any manner whatsoever in contravention of Section 31 (1) is also not liable to confiscation. It is therefore clear that if a person contravenes the provisions of Section 31 he can be penalized under Sections 50 and 56, but it will not invalidate the passing of title to the purchaser of the property and he can have a valid title to the property even if there is a violation of the provisions of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act and it is for the concerned authorities to take action against him if there is any violation of the said Act.</span></b></span><br /><strong>- P.Rajendran <a href="http://www.prajendran.com/">http://www.prajendran.com<span style="font-size: x-large;">/</span></a><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span></strong></div></div>Indian Lawhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04103391078644311213noreply@blogger.com12