Transcription

2 Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2008 Compliance and Innovative Strategies Division and Transportation and Climate Division Office of Transportation and Air Quality U.S. Environmental Protection Agency NOTICE This technical report does not necessarily represent final EPA decisions or positions. It is intended to present technical analysis of issues using data that are currently available. The purpose in the release of such reports is to facilitate the exchange of technical information and to inform the public of technical developments. EPA420-R September 2008

5 I. Executive Summary Introduction This report summarizes key trends in fuel economy and technology usage related to model year (MY) 1975 through 2008 light-duty vehicles sold in the United States. Light-duty vehicles are those vehicles that EPA classifies as cars or light-duty trucks (sport utility vehicles or SUVs, vans, and pickup trucks with less than 8500 pounds gross vehicle weight ratings). The data in this report supersede the data in previous reports in this series. Since 1975, overall new light-duty vehicle fuel economy has moved through four phases: 1. a rapid increase from 1975 through the early 1980s, 2. a slower increase until reaching its peak in 1987, 3. a gradual decline until 2004, and 4. an increase beginning in The projected fleetwide average MY2008 light-duty vehicle fuel economy is 20.8 miles per gallon (mpg). The fleetwide average MY2007 value is 20.6 mpg. There is greater confidence in the MY2007 value as the database for 2007 includes formal sales data for about 80% of the MY2007 fleet, while the projected MY2008 value is based on pre-model year sales projections provided by automakers. The 20.8 mpg value for model year 2008 represents a 1.5 mpg, or 8%, increase over the 19.3 mpg value for 2004, which was the lowest fuel economy value since More so than in any other recent report, EPA believes that the pre-model year 2008 sales projections provided by automakers to EPA do not accurately reflect the actual light-duty vehicle market in MY2008. Automakers submitted MY2008 sales projections to EPA in the spring and summer of 2007 when average nationwide gasoline prices were in the $2.50 to $3.00 per gallon range. Actual gasoline prices have averaged about $3.50 per gallon during MY2008, or $0.50 to $1.00 per gallon higher than at the time automakers provided sales projections to EPA. Based on publicly available sales data, which are not part of the formal EPA database, it appears that higher gasoline prices have led to a 10 to 15 percent decrease in overall light-duty vehicle sales relative to automaker projections. Further, the sales data suggest that subcompact, compact, and midsize cars have been the only vehicle classes to have met or exceeded sales projections by automakers, while sales of midsize SUVs, large SUVs, and large pickup trucks are 15 to 25 percent lower than automaker projections. It also appears that 4-cylinder engines have gained market share from 6-cylinder and 8-cylinder engines. Accordingly, it is extremely likely that the projected fleetwide average MY2008 fuel economy value of 20.8 mpg is too low. EPA will provide a more accurate value for MY2008 in the 2009 report, based on formal end-of-year submissions to EPA by automakers. The fuel economy values in this report are either adjusted (ADJ) EPA "real-world" estimates provided to consumers, or unadjusted EPA laboratory (LAB) values. Most of the data is presented in adjusted values. Either adjusted or laboratory fuel economy may be reported as city, highway, or, most commonly, as composite (combined city/highway, or COMP). In 2006, EPA revised the methodology by which EPA estimates adjusted fuel economy to better reflect changes in driving habits and other factors that affect fuel economy such as higher highway speeds, more aggressive driving, and greater use of air conditioning. This is the second report in this series to reflect this new real-world fuel economy methodology, and every adjusted fuel economy value in this report for 1986 and later model years is lower than values in pre-2007 i

6 reports in this series. To reflect that these changes did not occur overnight, these new downward adjustments are phased in, gradually, beginning in 1986, and for 2005 and later model years the new adjusted composite values are, on average, about 6% lower than under the methodology used by EPA in older reports. See Appendix A for more details. Because the underlying methodology for generating unadjusted laboratory fuel economy values has not changed since this series began in the mid-1970s, they provide an excellent basis for comparing long-term fuel economy trends from the perspective of vehicle design, apart from the factors that affect real-world fuel economy that are reflected in the adjusted fuel economy values. Laboratory composite values represent a harmonic average of 55 percent city fuel economy and 45 percent highway fuel economy, or 55/45. For 2005 and later model years, unadjusted laboratory composite fuel economy values are, on average, about 25% greater than adjusted composite fuel economy values. The projected fleetwide average 26.0 mpg unadjusted laboratory composite fuel economy value for MY2008 is an all-time high. The Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has the overall responsibility for the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program. For 2008, the CAFE standards are 27.5 mpg for cars and 22.5 mpg for light trucks (for light trucks, individual manufacturers can choose between the fixed, unreformed 22.5 mpg standard and a reformed vehicle footprint-based standard which yields different compliance levels for each manufacturer). EPA provides laboratory composite fuel economy data, along with alternative fuel vehicle credits and test procedure adjustments, to NHTSA for CAFE enforcement. Accordingly, current NHTSA CAFE values are a minimum of 25% higher than EPA adjusted fuel economy value. ii

8 Highlight #1: Fuel Economy Increases Beginning in 2005 Reverse the Long-Term Trend of Declining Fuel Economy From 1987 through Overall average fuel economy is projected to increase by 1.5 mpg, or 8%, from 19.3 mpg in MY2004 to 20.8 mpg in MY2008. The actual fuel economy performance for MY2008 will likely exceed 20.8 mpg as this value is based on pre-model year sales projections made by automakers at a time when gasoline prices were considerably lower. The fuel economy increases beginning in MY2005 reverse a long trend of slowly declining fuel economy since The projected MY2008 unadjusted laboratory fuel economy value of 26.0 mpg, which does not account for real world fuel economy performance, represents an all-time high. Since 1975, the fuel economy of the combined car and light truck fleet has moved through several phases: (1) a rapid increase from 1975 to the early 1980s, (2) a slow increase to the fuel economy peak of 22.0 mpg in 1987, (3) a gradual decline from the peak to 19.3 mpg in 2004, and (4) consecutive annual increases beginning in 2005, growing to 20.8 mpg in The 20.8 mpg value for model year 2008 is 1.2 mpg below the peak of 22.0 mpg in MY1987. But it is important to note that this difference is due to the new methodology for calculating adjusted fuel economy values that is gradually phased in over the 1986 to 2005 timeframe. Based on the laboratory composite fuel economy values, which are not affected by the new methodology for calculating adjusted fuel economy values, the projected MY2008 value of 26.0 mpg is 0.1 mpg higher than the previous peak of 25.9 mpg in MY2008 cars are projected to average 24.1 mpg and MY2008 light trucks are estimated to average 18.1 mpg. Since 2004, light truck fuel economy has increased by 1.4 mpg, while car fuel economy has increased by 1.0 mpg (car market share has also increased). The recent increase in truck fuel economy is due, in part, to higher truck CAFE standards, which have risen from 20.7 mpg in 2004 to 22.5 mpg in Adjusted Fuel Economy by (Annual Data) 30 Adjusted MPG Cars Both 15 Trucks iv

9 Highlight #2: Trucks Continue To Represent About Half of New Vehicle Sales. Sales of light trucks, which include SUVs, vans, and pickup trucks, have accounted for about 50 percent of the U.S. light-duty vehicle market since MY2002. After two decades of constant growth, light truck market share has been relatively stable from 2002 through While projected MY2008 truck market share is relatively stable, it is likely that actual truck market share in MY2008 will be less than the projected value, which is based on pre-model year sales projections, given higher gasoline prices. Historically, growth in the light truck market was primarily driven by the explosive increase in the market share of SUVs (EPA does not have a separate category for crossover vehicles and classifies many crossover vehicles as SUVs). The SUV market share increased from less than 10 percent of the overall new light-duty vehicle market in MY1990 to about 30 percent of vehicles built each year since By comparison, market shares for both vans and pickup trucks have declined slightly since The increased overall market share of light trucks, which in recent years have averaged 5-7 mpg lower than cars, accounted for much of the decline in fuel economy of the overall new light-duty vehicle fleet from MY1987 through MY2004. The MY2008 light truck market share is projected to be 48 percent, based on pre-model year sales projections by automakers. It is likely that actual light truck market share will be less than 48 percent, due to the impact of high gasoline prices on consumers. Sales Fraction by Vehicle Type (Annual Data) 100% 80% 60% Market Share Car SUV Van Pickup 40% 20% 0% v

10 Highlight #3: Technological Innovation Since 2005 Is Being Used for Higher Fuel Economy and Performance. Automotive engineers are constantly developing more advanced and efficient vehicle technologies. From 1987 through 2004, on a fleetwide basis, this technology innovation was utilized exclusively to support market-driven attributes other than fuel economy, such as vehicle weight (which supports vehicle content and features), performance, and utility. Beginning in MY2005, technology has been used to increase both fuel economy and performance, while keeping vehicle weight relatively constant. Vehicle weight and performance are two of the most important engineering parameters that help determine a vehicle's fuel economy. All other factors being equal, higher vehicle weight (which supports new options and features) and faster acceleration performance (e.g., lower 0-to-60 mile-per-hour acceleration time), both decrease a vehicle's fuel economy. Average vehicle weight and performance had increased steadily from the mid-1980s through Average light-duty vehicle weight has been fairly constant since 2004, with a small increase in weight of cars offset by a small decrease in truck market share. Average fleetwide performance has improved slightly in MY2006 and MY2007. The projection for MY2008 is for a small increase in both vehicle performance and weight, but it is likely that weight, and possibly performance as well, will be lower in MY2008 once we get final sales data. Weight and Performance (Annual Data) 4500 Weight (lbs.) 0 to 60 Time (sec.) 15 0 to 60 Time Weight vi

11 Highlight #4: Differences between Marketing Group Fuel Economies Are Narrowing. In 1987, when industry-wide fuel economy peaked, some major marketing groups had average fuel economies 6 to 8 mpg higher than other top marketing groups. The typical difference between higher and lower fuel economy marketing groups is now 3 to 4 mpg. Most, if not all, of these marketing groups will likely have higher MY2008 fuel economy values when final sales data is reported, due to higher gasoline prices. For MY2008, the nine highest-selling marketing groups (that account for over 95 percent of all sales) fall into three fuel economy groupings: Honda, Toyota, and Hyundai-Kia (HK) have estimated fuel economies of 22.6 to 23.6 mpg; BMW, Nissan, and Volkswagen have projected fuel economies of 21.0 to 21.2 mpg; and General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler have estimated fuel economies of 18.9 to 19.6 mpg. Note that these adjusted fuel economy values for marketing groups can not be directly compared to those in reports in this series prior to 2007, since this year's report uses the new methodology where adjusted fuel economy values since 2005 are, on average, about 6% lower than in previous reports. Each of these marketing groups has lower average fuel economy today than in 1988, with the exception of BMW. Since then, the differences between marketing group fuel economies have narrowed considerably, with some of the higher mpg marketing groups in 1988 showing larger fuel economy decreases since Three of the marketing groups show a slight increase in average fuel economy since 1998: Toyota, BMW, and Chrysler. For MY2008, Volkswagen and BMW are the only two of the nine highest-selling marketing groups to have a projected truck market share of less than 39 percent. 30 Adjusted Composite MPG Marketing Group Fuel Economy for Three s Honda Toyota HK BMW Nissan Marketing Group VW GM Ford Chrysler vii

12 Important Notes with Respect to the Data Used in This Report Most of the fuel economy values in this report are a single adjusted composite (combined city/highway) fuel economy value, based on the real-world estimates for city and highway fuel economy provided to consumers on new vehicle labels, in the EPA/DOE Fuel Economy Guide, and in EPA=s Green Vehicle Guide. This 2008 report supersedes all previous reports in this series, which date back to the early 1970s. In general, users of this report should rely exclusively on data in this 2008 report, which covers the years 1975 through 2008, and not try to make comparisons to data in previous reports in this series. There are at least two reasons for this. One, EPA revised the methodology for estimating real-world fuel economy values in December This is the second report in this series to reflect this new real-world fuel economy methodology, and every adjusted (ADJ) fuel economy value in this report for 1986 and later model years is lower than given in reports in this series prior to the 2007 report. Accordingly, adjusted fuel economy values for 1986 and later model years should not be compared with the corresponding values from pre-2007 reports. These new downward adjustments are phased in, linearly, beginning in 1986, and for 2005 and later model years the new adjusted composite (combined city/highway) values are, on average, about 6% lower than under the methodology previously used by EPA. See Appendix A for more in-depth discussion of this new methodology and how it affects both the adjusted fuel economy values for individual models and the historical fuel economy trends database. Two, when EPA changes a marketing group definition to reflect a change in the industry s financial arrangements, EPA makes the same adjustment in marketing group composition in the historical database as well. This maintains a consistent marketing group definition over time, which allows the identification of trends over time. On the other hand, it means that the database does not necessarily reflect actual past financial arrangements. For example, the 2008 database no longer reflects the fact that Chrysler was combined with Daimler for several years. In some tables and figures in this report, a single laboratory composite (combined city/highway) value is also shown. Because the underlying methodology for generating and reporting laboratory fuel economy values has not changed since this series began in the mid- 1970s, these laboratory fuel economy values provide an excellent basis for comparing long-term fuel economy trends from the perspective of vehicle design, apart from the factors that affect real-world fuel economy that are reflected in the adjusted fuel economy values. For 2005 and later model years, laboratory composite fuel economy values are, on average, about 25% greater than adjusted composite fuel economy values. Formal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) compliance data as reported by the Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) do not correlate precisely with either the adjusted or laboratory fuel economy values in this report. While EPA's laboratory composite fuel economy data form the cornerstone of the CAFE compliance database, NHTSA must also include credits for alternative fuel vehicles and test procedure adjustments (for cars only) in the official CAFE calculations. Accordingly, NHTSA CAFE values are at least 25% higher than EPA adjusted fuel economy values for model years 2005 through In general, car/truck classifications in this database parallel classifications made by NHTSA for CAFE purposes and EPA for vehicle emissions standards. However, this report viii

13 relies on engineering judgment, and typically there are a few cases each model year where the methodology used for classifying vehicles for this report results in differences in the determination of whether a given vehicle is classified as a car or a light truck. See Appendix A for a list of these exceptions. The data presented in this report were tabulated on a model year basis, but many of the figures in this report use three-year moving averages that effectively smooth the trends, and these three-year moving averages are tabulated at the midpoint. For example, the midpoint for model years 2006, 2007, and 2008 is MY2007. Figures are based on annual data unless otherwise noted. All of the data in this report are from vehicles certified to operate on gasoline or diesel fuel. There are no data from the very small number of vehicles that are certified to operate only on alternative fuels. The data from ethanol flexible fuel vehicles, which can operate on both an 85 percent ethanol/15 percent gasoline blend or gasoline, are from gasoline operation. All average fuel economy values were calculated using harmonic rather than arithmetical averaging, in order to maintain mathematical integrity. See Appendix A. The EPA fuel economy database used to generate the fuel economy trends database in this report was frozen in January 2008, yielding additional data beyond that used in last year's report for model years beginning in 2005, although additional data for MY2007 was added in April Through MY2006, the fuel economy, vehicle characteristics, and sales data used for this report were from the formal end-of-year submissions from automakers obtained from EPA's fuel economy database that is used for CAFE compliance purposes. Accordingly, values for all model years up to 2006 can be considered final. For MY2007, the data used in this report are based on a database where about 80 percent of the total sales are from formal end-of-year CAFE submissions by automakers, and about 20 percent are from confidential pre-model year sales projections submitted to the Agency by the automakers, with these latter projections updated based on actual 2007 sales data reported in trade publications. EPA has a high level of confidence in the data for MY2007, given that 80 percent of the 2007 data is based on actual CAFE reports. It is noteworthy that the 20.6 mpg adjusted fuel economy value for MY2007 in this report is 0.4 mpg higher than the projected 20.2 mpg adjusted fuel economy value for MY2007 in the 2007 report. This suggests that higher gasoline prices have led to actual 2007 sales that differ from the projected 2007 sales provided to EPA by automakers in For MY2008, EPA has exclusively used confidential pre-model year sales projections. Accordingly, MY2008 projections are much more uncertain, particularly given the changes in the automotive marketplace driven by higher fuel prices. For model years 1998 through 2005, the final laboratory fuel economy values for a given model year have varied from 0.4 mpg lower to 0.4 mpg higher compared to original estimates for the same model year that were based exclusively on projected sales. ix

14 For More Information Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 through 2008 (EPA420-R ) is available on the Office of Transportation and Air Quality=s (OTAQ) Web site at: Printed copies are available from the OTAQ library at: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Transportation and Air Quality Library 2000 Traverwood Drive Ann Arbor, MI (734) A copy of the Fuel Economy Guide giving city and highway fuel economy data for individual models is available at: or by calling the U.S. Department of Energy at (800) EPA's Green Vehicle Guide providing information about the air pollution emissions and fuel economy performance of individual models is available on EPA=s web site at: For information about the Department of Transportation (DOT) Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program, including a program overview, related rulemaking activities, and summaries of the fuel economy performance of individual manufacturers since 1978, see: and click on "Fuel Economy" x

15 II. Introduction Light-duty automotive technology and fuel economy trends are examined here, as in the preceding reports in this series [1-34] *, using the latest and most complete EPA data available. When comparing data in this and previous reports, please note that revisions are made for some prior model years for which more complete and accurate sales and fuel economy data have become available. In addition, changes have been made periodically in the way EPA calculates adjusted fuel economy values which means it is not appropriate to compare adjusted fuel economy values from this report with others in this series. Finally, the grouping of individual manufacturers into broader marketing groups also changes over time to reflect changes in the financial arrangements within the automobile industry. The EPA fuel economy database used to generate the fuel economy trends database in this report was frozen in January 2008, yielding additional data beyond that used in last year's report for model years 2005 through 2008, though additional data for MY2007 was added in April Through MY2006, the fuel economy, vehicle characteristics, and sales data used for this report were from the formal end-of-year submissions from automakers obtained from EPA's fuel economy database that is used for CAFE compliance purposes. For MY2007, the data used in this report is based on a database where about 80% of the total sales are from formal end-of-year CAFE submissions by automakers, and about 20% of the total sales are based on confidential pre-model year sales projections submitted to the Agency by the automakers, with these latter projections updated based on actual 2007 sales data reported in trade publications. For MY2008, EPA has exclusively used confidential pre-model year sales projections. Accordingly, values for all model years up to 2006 can be considered final. EPA has a high level of confidence in the data for MY2007, given that 80% of the 2007 data is based on actual CAFE reports. MY2008 projections are much more uncertain, particularly given the changes in the automotive marketplace driven by much higher fuel prices. Over the last several years, the final fuel economy values for a given model year have varied from 0.4 mpg lower to 0.4 mpg higher compared to original estimates for the same model year that were based exclusively on projected sales. All fuel economy averages in this report are sales-weighted harmonic averages. In prior reports in this series, up to and including the one for MY2000, the only fuel economy values used in this series were the laboratory-based city, highway, and composite (combined city/highway) mpg values C the same ones that are used as the basis for compliance with the fuel economy * Numbers in brackets denote references listed in the references section of this report. 1

16 standards and the gas guzzler tax. Since the laboratory mpg values tend to over predict the mpg achieved in actual use, adjusted mpg values are used for the Government=s fuel economy information programs: the Fuel Economy Guide and the Fuel Economy Labels that are on new vehicles and in EPA's Green Vehicle Guide. Starting with the report issued for MY2001, this series of reports has provided fuel economy trends in adjusted mpg values in addition to the laboratory mpg values. In this way, the fuel economy trends can be shown for both laboratory mpg and mpg values which can be considered to be an estimate of on-road mpg. In the tables, these two mpg values are called "Laboratory MPG" and "Adjusted MPG," and abbreviated "LAB" MPG and "ADJ" MPG. Where only one mpg value is presented in this report, it is the "adjusted composite" fuel economy value. This value represents a combined city/highway fuel economy value, and is based on equations (see Appendix A) that allow a computation of adjusted city and highway fuel economy values based on laboratory city and highway fuel economy test values. It is important to note that EPA revised the methodology by which EPA estimates real-world fuel economy values in December This is the second report in this series to reflect this new real-world fuel economy methodology, and every adjusted (ADJ) fuel economy value in this report for 1986 and later model years is lower than given in pre-2007 reports in this series. Accordingly, adjusted fuel economy values for 1986 and later model years should not be compared with corresponding values from older reports. These new downward adjustments are phased in, linearly, beginning in 1986, and for 2005 and later model years the new adjusted composite values are, on average, about 6% lower than under the methodology previously used by EPA. See Appendix A for more in-depth discussion of this new methodology and how it affects both the adjusted fuel economy values for individual models and the historical fuel economy trends database. The data presented in this report were tabulated on a model year basis, but many of the figures in this report use three-year moving averages which effectively smooth the trends, and these three-year moving averages are tabulated at their midpoint. For example, the midpoint for model years 2002, 2003, and 2004 is model year 2003 (See Table A-2, Appendix A). Use of the three-year moving averages results in an improvement in distinguishing real trends from what might be relatively small year-to-year variations in the data. To facilitate comparison with data in older reports in this series, most data tables include laboratory 55/45 fuel economy values as well as the adjusted city, highway, and composite fuel economy values. Presenting both types of mpg values facilitates the use of this report by those who study either type of fuel economy metric. The fuel economy values reported by the Department of Transportation (DOT) for compliance with the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) compliance purposes are higher than the data in this report for four reasons: (1) the DOT data does not include the EPA real world fuel economy adjustment factors for city and highway mpg, (2) the DOT data include CAFE credits for those manufacturers that produce dedicated alternative fuel vehicles and CAFE credits up to 1.2 mpg for those manufacturers that produce flexible fuel vehicles, (3) the DOT data include credits for test procedure adjustments for cars, and (4) there are some differences in the way vehicles are classified as cars and trucks for this report compared to the way they are classified by DOT. Accordingly, the fuel economy values in this series of reports are always lower than those reported by DOT. Table A-6, Appendix A, compares CAFE data reported by DOT with EPA adjusted and laboratory fuel economy data. 2

17 Other Variables All vehicle weight data are based on inertia weight class (nominally curb weight plus 300 pounds). For vehicles with inertia weights up to and including the 3000-pound inertia weight class, these classes have 250- pound increments. For vehicles above the 3000-pound inertia weight class (i.e., vehicles 3500 pounds and above), 500-pound increments are used. All interior volume data for cars built after model year 1977 are based on the metric used to classify cars for the DOE/EPA Fuel Economy Guide. The car interior volume combines the passenger compartment and trunk/cargo space. In the Fuel Economy Guide, interior volume is undefined for the two-seater class; for this series of reports, all two-seater cars have been assigned an interior volume value of 50 cubic feet. The light truck data used in this series of reports includes only vehicles classified as light trucks with gross vehicle weight ratings (GVWR) up to 8500 pounds (lb). Vehicles with GVWR above 8500 lb are not included in the database used for this report. Omitting these vehicles influences the overall averages for all variables studied in this report. The most recent estimates we have made for the impact of these greater than 8500 lb GVWR vehicles was made for model year In that year, there were roughly 931,000 vehicles above 8500 lb GVWR. A substantial fraction (42 percent) of the MY2001 vehicles above 8500 lb GVWR were powered by diesel engines, and three-fourths of the vehicles over 8500 lb GVWR were pickup trucks. Adding in the trucks above 8500 lb GVWR would have increased the truck market share for that year by three percentage points. Based on a limited amount of actual laboratory fuel economy data, MY2001 trucks with GVWR greater than 8500 lb GVWR are estimated to have fuel economy values about 14 percent lower than the average of trucks below 8500 lb GVWR. The combined fleet of all vehicles under 8500 lb GVWR and trucks over 8500 lb GVWR is estimated to average a few percent less in fuel economy compared to that for just the vehicles with less than 8500 lb GVWR. In addition to fuel economy, some tables in this report contain alternate measures of vehicle fuel efficiency as used in reference 17. "Ton-MPG" is defined as a vehicle=s mpg multiplied by its inertia weight in tons. Ton-MPG is a measure of powertrain/drive-line efficiency. Just as an increase in vehicle mpg at constant weight can be considered an improvement in a vehicle's efficiency, an increase in a vehicle=s weight at constant mpg can also be considered an improvement. "Cubic-feet-MPG" for cars is defined in this report as the product of a car's mpg and its interior volume, including trunk space. This metric associates a relative measure of a vehicle's ability to transport both passengers and their cargo. An increase in vehicle volume at constant mpg could be considered an improvement just as an increase in mpg at constant volume can be. "Cubic-feet-ton-MPG" is defined in this report as a combination of the two previous metrics, i.e., a car's mpg multiplied by its weight in tons and also by its interior volume. It ascribes vehicle utility to fuel economy, weight and volume. This report also includes an estimate of 0-to-60 mph acceleration time, calculated from engine rated horsepower and vehicle inertia weight, from the relationship: t = F (HP/WT) -f where the values used for F and f coefficients are.892 and.805 respectively for vehicles with automatic transmissions and.967 and.775 respectively for those with manual transmissions [35]. Other authors [36, 37, and 38] have evaluated the relationships between weight, horsepower, and 0-to-60 acceleration time and have calculated and published slightly different values for the F and f coefficients. Since the equation form and coefficients were developed for vehicles with conventional powertrains with gasoline-fueled engines, we have 3

18 not used the equation to estimate 0-to-60 time for vehicles with hybrid powertrains or diesel engines. Published values are used for these vehicles instead. The 0-to-60 estimate used in this report is intended to provide a quantitative time "index" of vehicle performance capability. It is the authors' engineering judgment that, given the differences in test methods for measuring 0-to-60 time and given the fact that the weight is based on inertia weight, use of these other published values for the F and f coefficients would not result in statistically significantly different 0-to-60 averages or trends. The results of a similar calculation of estimated Atop are also included in some tables. Grouping all vehicles into classes and then constructing time trends of parameters of interest, like mpg, can provide interesting and useful results. These results, however, are a strong function of the class definitions. Classes based on other definitions than those used in this report are possible, and results from these other classifications may also be useful. For cars, vehicle classification as to vehicle type, size class, and manufacturer/origin generally follows fuel economy label, Fuel Economy Guide, and fuel economy standards protocols; exceptions are listed in Table A-3, Appendix A. In many of the passenger car tables, large sedans and wagons are aggregated as "Large," midsize sedans and wagons are aggregated as "Midsize," and "Small" includes all other cars. In some of the car tables, an alternative classification system is used, namely: Large Cars, Large Wagons, Midsize Cars, Midsize Wagons, Small Cars, and Small Wagons with the EPA Two-Seater, Mini-Compact, Subcompact, and Compact car classes are combined into the ASmall class. In some of the tables and figures in this report, only four vehicle types are used. In these cases, wagons have been merged with cars. This is because the wagon sales fraction for some instances is so small that the information is more conveniently represented by combining the two vehicle types. When they have been combined, the differences between them are not important. The truck classification scheme used for all model years in this report is slightly different from that used in some previous reports in this series, because pickups, vans, and sports utility vehicles (SUVs) are sometimes each subdivided as "Small," "Midsize," and "Large." These truck size classifications are based primarily on published wheelbase data according to the following criteria: Pickup Van SUV Small Less than 105" Less than 109" Less than 100" Midsize 105" to 115" 109" to 124" 100" to 110" Large More than 115" More than 124" More than 110" This classification scheme is similar to that used in many trade and consumer publications. For those vehicle nameplates with a variety of wheelbases, the size classification was determined by considering only the smallest wheelbase produced. The classification of a vehicle for this report is based on the authors' engineering judgment and is not a replacement for definitions used in implementing automotive standards legislation. Published data is also used for two other vehicle characteristics for which data is not currently being submitted to EPA by the automotive manufacturers: (1) engines with variable valve timing (VVT) that use either cams or electric solenoids to provide variable intake and/ or exhaust valve timing and in some cases valve lift; and (2) engines with cylinder deactivation, which involves allowing the valves of selected cylinders of the engine to remain closed under certain driving conditions. 4

19 III. General Car and Truck Trends Figure 1 and Table 1 depict time trends in car, light truck, and car-plus-light truck fuel economy. Also shown on Figure 1 is the fraction of the combined fleet that are light trucks and trend lines representing threeyear moving averages of the fuel economy and truck sales fraction data. Since 1975, the fuel economy of the combined car and light truck fleet has moved through several phases: 1. a rapid increase from 1975 through the early 1980s, 2. a slow increase until reaching its peak in 1987, 3. a gradual decline until 2004, and 4. an increase beginning in Adjusted Fuel Economy and Percent Truck by (Three Year Moving Average) 30 Adjusted Composite MPG Percent Truck 100% Moving Avg. 25 Cars 75% Yearly Data Cars 20 Both 50% Both Trucks Percent Truck 15 Pct. Truck Trucks 25% 10 0% Figure 1 5

20 As shown in Table 1, the projected MY2008 fleetwide fuel economy value of 20.8 mpg is the highest value since 1993 and is 1.5 mpg higher than the 2004 value of 19.3 mpg, which was the lowest value since Average fleetwide fuel economy has now increased for four consecutive years. These increases reverse the longer term trend of declining fuel economy since its peak in Most of the increase in overall fuel economy since 2004 is due to higher truck fuel economy, as truck fuel economy has increased by 1.4 mpg since 2004, while car fuel economy has increased by 1.0 mpg. The 20.8 mpg adjusted fuel economy value projected for 2008 is 1.2 mpg below the peak in 1987, but this difference is due to the new methodology for calculating adjusted fuel economy values that is phased in over the timeframe. As shown in Table 1, based on laboratory 55/45 fuel economy values, the projected value of 26.0 mpg is an all-time record, and is 0.1 mpg higher than the previous peak of 25.9 mpg in Figure 1 shows that the estimated light truck share of the market, based on the three-year moving average trend, has leveled off at about 50 percent. Figure 2 compares laboratory 55/45 fuel economy for the combined car and truck fleet and the sales fraction for trucks. MY2008 cars are estimated to average 24.1 mpg, matching the peak also achieved in MY1988 and MY2007. For MY2008, light trucks are estimated to average 18.1 mpg, their highest level since Fuel economy standards were unchanged for MY1996 through MY2004. In 2003 DOT raised the truck CAFE standards for , and in 2006 DOT raised the truck CAFE standards for The recent fuel economy improvement for trucks is likely due, in part, to these higher standards. The CAFE standard for cars has not been changed since Truck Sales Fraction vs Fleet MPG by Lab. 55/45 MPG % 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Percent Truck Figure 2 6

24 The distribution of fuel economy in any model year is of interest. In Figure 3, highlights of the distribution of car mpg are shown. Since 1975, half of the cars have consistently been within a few mpg of each other. The fuel economy difference between the least efficient and most efficient car increased from about 20 mpg in 1975 to nearly 50 mpg in 1986, but was less than 35 mpg in With the introduction for sale of the Honda Insight gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle in MY2000, the range once again approached 50 mpg. The increased market share of hybrid cars also accounts for the increase in the fuel economy of the best 1% of cars with the cutpoint for this stratum now over 40 mpg. The ratio of the highest to lowest has increased from about three to one in 1975 to nearly five to one today, because the fuel economy of the least fuel efficient cars has remained roughly constant in comparison to the most fuel efficient cars whose fuel economy has more than doubled. The overall fuel economy distribution trend for trucks (see Figure 4) is narrower than that for cars, with a peak in the efficiency of the most efficient truck in the early 1980s when small pickup trucks equipped with diesel engines were being sold. As a result, the fuel economy range between the most efficient and least efficient truck peaked at about 25 mpg in The fuel economy range for trucks then narrowed, but with the introduction of the hybrid Escape SUV in MY2005, it is nearly 20 mpg. Like cars, half of the trucks built each year have always been within a few mpg of each year=s average fuel economy value. Appendix C contains additional fuel economy distribution data. Sales Weighted Car Fuel Economy Distribution Adjusted Composite MPG First Hybrid Car Sales Weighted Truck Fuel Economy Distribution Adjusted Composite MPG Best Car Best 1% % of Cars Worst 1% Worst Car 50% of Trucks Figure 3 Figure 4 Best Truck Worst Truck Best 1% Worst 1% 10

Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on Fuel Economy for Various Vehicle Architectures Research Report Conducted by Ricardo Inc. for The Aluminum Association 2008-04 Impact of Vehicle Weight Reduction on

New Fuel Economy and Environment Labels for a New Generation of Vehicles Why New Label Designs? The U.S. Department of Transportation joined with EPA today in unveiling new fuel economy and environment

THE TECHNOLOGY TO REACH 60 MPG BY 2025 Putting Fuel-Saving Technology to Work to Save Oil and Cut Pollution Increasing the fuel efficiency of new cars and trucks is a critical step towards cutting America

GAO United States Government Accountability Office Report to the Chairman, Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. Senate August 2007 VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY Reforming Fuel Economy Standards

DOT HS 809 952 January 2006 Technical Report VEHICLE SURVIVABILITY AND TRAVEL MILEAGE SCHEDULES Published By: NHTSA s National Center for Statistics and Analysis This document is available to the public

EPA and NHTSA Set Standards to Reduce Greenhouse Gases and Improve Fuel Economy for Model Years 2017-2025 Cars and Light Trucks The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of Transportation

Submitted by United States of America Informal document WP.29-155-11 (155 th WP.29, 15-18 November 2011, agenda item 14) United States of America Environmental Protection Agency and National Highway Traffic

NHTSA and EPA Set Standards to Improve Fuel Economy and Reduce Greenhouse Gases for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks for Model Years 2017 and Beyond The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)

Reducing CO2 Emissions from New Cars: A Study of Major Car Manufacturers' Progress in 2006 November 2007 1 Reducing CO2 Emissions from New Cars: A Study of Major Car Manufacturers' Progress in 2006 November

by Christopher R Sherman A paper submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Public Administration

United States Environmental Protection Agency Air and Radiation EPA420-R-01-047 September 2001 M6.FLT.007 Fleet Characterization Data for MOBILE6: Development and Use of Age Distributions, Average Annual

Final Technical Support Document Fuel Economy Labeling of Motor Vehicle Revisions to Improve Calculation of Fuel Economy Estimates Office of Transportation and Air Quality EPA420-R-06-017 December 2006

Submission to Environment and Communications Legislation Committee Inquiry into the Motor Vehicle Standards (Cheaper Transport) Bill 2014 Dr Anna Mortimore Griffith University Business School University

ATTACHMENT 3-A A Technical Evaluation of Two Weight- and Engineering-Based Fuel Efficiency Parameters for Cars and Light Trucks Measuring fuel economy of vehicles in miles per gallon (mpg) alone does not

Moving Forward With Fuel Economy Standards BY LEE SCHIPPER IN THE EARLY 1970S, the American Petroleum Institute had a slogan: A nation that runs on oil can t afford to run short. Yet at the beginning of

United States Air and Radiation EPA420-F-03-045 Environmental Protection December 2003 Agency (Rev 9/2012) Office of Transportation and Air Quality Frequently Asked Questions In-Depth Information for Motorcycle

Automakers Are on the Road to Meeting Fuel Efficiency Standards An Analysis of Automaker Progress in Meeting 2025 Fuel Efficiency Requirements and A Look At Consumer Attitudes Towards Fuel Efficiency Jack

COMPARISON OF PASSENGER VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION STANDARDS AROUND THE WORLD Prepared for the Feng An ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES LLC Amanda Sauer WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE

Calculators, Automobiles, and Climate Change Activity 5 Students gather information on their family car(s) and use a web-based calculator to help them evaluate the potential for reducing CO 2 emissions

energy facts Relieving Pain at the Pump: Thanks to Stronger Standards, Consumers Have More Fuel-Efficient Choices As gas prices are once again soaring, the oil industry and its allies are renewing their

UMTRI-2009-27 JULY 2009 ECONOMIC INDICATORS AS PREDICTORS OF THE NUMBER AND FUEL ECONOMY OF PURCHASED NEW VEHICLES MICHAEL SIVAK BRANDON SCHOETTLE ECONOMIC INDICATORS AS PREDICTORS OF THE NUMBER AND FUEL

The Relative Safety of Large and Small Passenger Vehicles NHTSA Mass-Size Safety Symposium Washington, DC February 25, 2011 Adrian Lund, Ph.D. Overview What is the history of motor vehicle crash safety

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR FLEET ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE ACQUISITION REPORT FOR FISCAL YEAR 2009 February 2010 Office of the Assistant Secretary for Administration and Management 200 Constitution Avenue,

Why Some Fuel-Efficient Vehicles Are Not Sold Domestically Bill Canis Specialist in Industrial Organization and Business August 17, 2012 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress

Green Fleet Policy Ordinance Section 1 Basis for ordinance 1. The total energy bill in for the City and/or County of was $ million and in projected to increase by percent to about $ million by. 2. Public

STAYING ON THE ROAD TO 54.5 MPG BY 2025 RIDING THE GASOLINE ROLLER COASTER DR. MARK COOPER DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH FEBRUARY 19, 2015 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Section I: Since the start of the 21 st century, gasoline

1957: Toyota imports two sample Toyopet Crown sedans to the U.S. This marks the first effort by Toyota to enter the North American market. Toyota files for a retail dealer s license with the State of California,

Reducing CO2 emissions from cars and vans Backgrounder May 2015 SUMMARY a. The automobile industry in Europe has invested heavily in innovations designed to bring down significantly the CO2 emissions from

Meet Clean Diesel Improving Energy Security Fueling Environmental Progress Powering the Economy What is Clean Diesel? Diesel power is cleaner and more vital to the U.S. economy than ever before. The diesel

PURPOSE The purpose of this policy is to document the process for purchasing and managing the City s diverse vehicle fleet, which include both vehicles and heavy equipment, in a manner that minimizes greenhouse

Propane as the Alternate Fuel for Fleets Company Profile Located in Quincy, Illinois since 1848 Fifth Generation, Family Company Nation s largest manufacturer of service, platform and utility van bodies

2014 Vehicle Technologies Market Report Quick Facts Energy and Economics Transportation accounts for 28% of total U.S. energy consumption. According to one study, dependence on oil cost the U.S. economy

IMPLEMENTATION OF DIGITAL MAP ENHANCED ECO-DRIVING, ECO-ROUTING AND POWERTRAIN CONTROL Bob Denaro Vice President, ADAS It starts with a map That s a map but we need something more like this 4 and this!

New Automobile Regulations Double the Fuel Economy, Half the CO 2 Emissions, and Even Automakers Like It NIC LUTSEY NO INDUSTRY, LET ALONE THE AUTO INDUSTRY, ASKS TO BE REGULATED. And if just five years

STATEMENT OF HOWARD GRUENSPECHT DEPUTY ADMINISTRATOR ENERGY INFORMATION ADMINISTRATION U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON ENERGY AND COMMERCE SUBCOMMITTEE ON ENERGY AND POWER UNITED STATES

PURPOSE U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, SPACE, AND TECHNOLOGY SUBCOMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT HEARING CHARTER Mid-Level Ethanol Blends: Consumer and Technical Research Needs Tuesday, February