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Physics 213: Lecture 2, Pg 2 William Thomson (1824 – 1907) a.k.a. “Lord Kelvin” l First wrote down Second Law of Thermodynamics (1852) l Became Professor at University of Glasgow at age 22! l (not age 1.1 x ) l

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Lecture 2, p 3 Equipartition & Absolute Temperature One of the principal aims of this course is to gain a generally applicable definition of absolute temperature from statistical mechanics (counting). For now: absolute temperature T is proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of a particle in a gas: = constant x T In fact, each independent quadratic term in the energy of a particle in the gas (e.g., ½ mv x 2, ½  x 2, ½  2, but not mgh) is found to have the average energy: = ½ kTEquipartition Theorem k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x J/K is independent of the particle’s properties (mass, charge, etc.) We will show later why and when this theorem applies.

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Lecture 2, p 5 Bowling Ball Puzzle Why does the Bowling ball slow down? Explain using the Equipartition Theorem. (Hint: Treat the ball as one big particle.) What’s the average speed of the bowling ball after it comes into equilibrium with the room? Assume that M = 10 kg and T = 300 K. Neglect the motion in the z direction.

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Lecture 2, p 6 Bowling Ball Solution Why does the Bowling ball slow down? Explain using the Equipartition Theorem. (Hint: Treat the ball as one big particle.) What’s the average speed of the bowling ball after it comes into equilibrium with the room? Assume that M = 10 kg and T = 300 K. Neglect the motion in the z direction. The center of mass velocity of this “large particle” is given by the Equipartition Theorem:

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Lecture 2, p 7 Example: Speed of Sound The speed of sound in a gas is roughly equal to the average speed of the particles. Compare the speed of a typical helium atom (m He = 4 amu) to that of a typical nitrogen molecule (m N2 = 2 x 14 amu) in a gas mixture in thermal equilibrium. What do you expect to be the ratio of sound speeds in pure helium and nitrogen?

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Lecture 2, p 8 Solution The speed of sound in a gas is roughly equal to the average speed of the particles. Compare the speed of a typical helium atom (m He = 4 amu) to that of a typical nitrogen molecule (m N2 = 2 x 14 amu) in a gas mixture in thermal equilibrium. What do you expect to be the ratio of sound speeds in pure helium and nitrogen? He = N 2 Equipartition of translational kinetic energy. The rotational energy of nitrogen molecules is not important here. m He /m N 2 = 4/28Helium doesn’t form molecules. v He /v N 2 = (28/4) 1/2 = 2.65KE = mv 2 /2 so the speed ratio is the inverse square root of the mass ratio. The ratio of sound speeds should be approximatelyThe actual ratio of sound speeds is the same as this ratio.

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Lecture 2, p 9 Recall that we derived this pressure-energy relation: Let’s add equipartition: This gives us the Ideal Gas Law: pV = NkT From Last Lecture: The Ideal Gas Law This relation is independent of the internal modes of the molecules, but it does require that the molecules don’t interact much with each other.

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Lecture 2, p 10 For an ideal gas at constant T, p is inversely proportional to the volume. Ideal Gas p-V, p-T Diagrams Real gases may obey more complicated equations of state, but two of these variables always determine the third. Ordinary gases are often quite close to ideal. p vs V at various constant T’s Constant Volume Gas Thermometer Pressure  zero as T  absolute zero, because the thermal kinetic energy of the molecules vanishes. p vs T at constant V Isotherms

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Lecture 2, p 11 Consider a fixed volume of an ideal gas. Because pV = NkT, if you double either T or N, p goes up by a factor of 2. If you double N, how many times as often will a particular molecule hit the container walls? A) x1B) x1.4C) x2D) x4 ACT 1: Ideal gas behavior

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Lecture 2, p 12 Consider a fixed volume of an ideal gas. Because pV = NkT, if you double either T or N, p goes up by a factor of 2. If you double N, how many times as often will a particular molecule hit the container walls? A) x1B) x1.4C) x2D) x4 In an ideal gas, the molecules are non-interacting except for occasional elastic collisions, so the motion of an individual molecule does not depend on the others. The total collision rate is proportional to N, but the rate per molecule is independent of N. Solution

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Lecture 2, p 13 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures for Ideal Gases In the derivation of pV=NkT, we never assumed that the molecules were all the same. All we used was equipartition and that they don’t interact much. So, N is the total number of molecules in the gas, independent of type. Because p is proportional to N, if a gas has multiple components, the total pressure is the sum of the individual partial pressures: p total = p 1 + p 2 + p 3 +…, where p i = N i kT / V Example: Air is 78% N 2 (by number of molecules, not by mass), so the partial Pressure of the N 2 is 0.78 atmospheres. NOTE: Dalton’s law does not hold for internal energy, because the energy per molecule does depend on the type. The energy per molecule is proportional to the number of energy modes.

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Lecture 2, p 14 The Avogadro Constant, N A and the Gas Constant, R Sometimes it is useful to specify the number of moles n instead of the number of atoms or molecules N: The ideal gas law can be written in terms of n or N: pV = NkT = n(N A k)T = nRT R  N A k is the gas constant = J/mol-K Example: Consider one mole of an ideal gas at atmospheric pressure and 0º C: T = 0º C = 273 K, and p = 1 atm = 1.01  10 5 Pa N A = x molecules/mole  the Avogadro constant

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Lecture 2, p 19 Act 2: Solution Container A contains 1 mole helium gas (a monatomic gas) at a pressure p and volume V. Container B contains 1 mole of hydrogen (H 2, a a diatomic gas) at the same p, V. 1. Compare the thermal energies in the two cases. A: U He U H2 2. Compare the temperatures in the two cases. A: T He T H2 Each quadratic degree of freedom gets kT/2. The monatomic gas has 3 degrees of freedom. The diatomic gas has

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Lecture 2, p 20 Act 2: Solution Each quadratic degree of freedom gets kT/2. The monatomic gas has 3 degrees of freedom. The diatomic gas has As we have defined it thus far, the temperature depends only on the translational kinetic energy. pV = NkT Container A contains 1 mole helium gas (a monatomic gas) at a pressure p and volume V. Container B contains 1 mole of hydrogen (H 2, a a diatomic gas) at the same p, V. 1. Compare the thermal energies in the two cases. A: U He U H2 2. Compare the temperatures in the two cases. A: T He T H2

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Lecture 3, p 21 Example: Kinetic Energy of a Gas l A small room at room temperature (T = 300 K) and atmospheric pressure measures 3.0 m  2.4 m  5.2 m. l 1) Estimate the number of molecules in the room. l 2) Estimate the total translational KE associated with the molecules. l 3) If we assume these molecules are primarily nitrogen (N 2 ) molecules, what is their average (rms) speed?

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Lecture 3, p 22 l A small room at room temperature (T = 300 K) and atmospheric pressure measures 3.0 m  2.4 m  5.2 m. l 1) Estimate the number of molecules in the room. l 2) Estimate the total translational KE associated with the molecules. l 3) If we assume these molecules are primarily nitrogen (N 2 ) molecules, what is their average (rms) speed? Solution

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Lecture 2, p 23 Changing the Internal Energy U is a “state” function. It depends only on the state of the system (that is, on N, p, V, T, etc.) U does not depend on the history. W and Q are “process” energies. They only tell you about the flow of energy, not how much there is. W and Q depend on the history of the system, as it evolves from one state to another. There are two simple ways to change the internal energy (U) of a system:  Let the environment do Work (W) on the system.  Let Heat (Q) flow into the system from the environment. Nomenclature: One can also talk about work done by the system on the environment: W by = - W on. Be careful about  signs. W by is positive if the system expands; W on is positive if the system is compressed. Thermal reservoir Q W on U Moveable piston

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Lecture 2, p 24 Energy is conserved !!! The First Law of Thermodynamics  U = Q + W on work done on the system change in total internal energy heat added to system alternatively:  U = Q - W by Note: For the rest of the course, unless explicitly stated, we will ignore KE CM, and only consider internal energy that does not contribute to the motion of the system as a whole.

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Lecture 2, p 25 What is Heat? Up to mid-1800’s heat was usually considered to be a distinct substance, caloric fluid, stored in an objects and transferred between objects. In the 1840s Joule, Rumford, and others discovered that heat is energy. The term “heat” (Q) is now used to describe thermal energy flow - thermal energy transferred into or out of a system from some other object that has thermal energy. (cf. cash transfers into and out of your bank account) Do not confuse heat (Q) with the system’s internal thermal energy (U). That’s confusing the account balance with the deposits and withdrawals. Sign convention: Q > 0: Thermal energy is flowing in. Q < 0: Thermal energy is flowing out.