The received text is not viewed. and a variety of editorial influences. We call it an "approach" because it is not the method of a new school with a binding and polemical programme. as a barrier beyond which one must . Gunn Alan 3. Among Biblical scholars in recent decades a critical approach that adopts such a viewpoint has often been termed "rhetorical criticism".PREFACE The title of this book expresses the viewpoint common to all the contributors that Biblical authors were artists of language. are the work of scholars who adopt a stance that is essentially neutral towards the past praxis of Biblical scholarship and who probe in diverse ways the many dimensions of the Biblical text as literary work. it is itself . David J. nor an end product that should most properly be analysed for evidences of its origins. and represent the continuing work of that group.their rhetoric . Through their verbal artistry . that is. So meaning is ultimately inseparable from art.susceptible of study as a system of meaningful and artistic wholes.in order to do Biblical scholarship . and those who seek to understand the Biblical literature must be sensitive to the writer's craft.the final text . Clines David M. True though it is that its literary history may at times encompass many centuries.they have created their meaning. We should note finally that a majority of the papers contained in this volume originated in the Rhetorical Criticism Section of the (American) Society of Biblical Literature. Another characteristic of the papers presented here is that the primary focus of their interest is the final form of the Biblical text. samples of this approach.necessarily press. several strata of tradition.A. Hauser
. The present studies.

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In this situation. traditio-historical criticism. one cannot help but experience a kind of sympathy with a statement by a grand old literatus of another day. unable to make pots and pans. rhetoric has since classical times been looked upon as an instrument of dubious morality. Indeed. Sir Walter Scott: As to the herd of critics. form criticism. often make two holes in patching one. Pennsylvania 17821 USA Discussions dealing with biblical methods of interpretation have become a veritable confusion of tongues. many of these gentlemen appear to me to be a sort of tinkers. for. partly because some of the above-mentioned methods necessarily overlap in part. who. set up for menders of them. Unfortunately. we talk in a foreign language to each other. rhetorical criticism. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the scope of rhetorical criticism and to propose a setting within the methodological spectrum. it is impossible for me to pay much attention to them. redaction criticism. not to speak of the perhaps equally important interdisciplinary approaches) but the precise definition of each of these is a matter of much controversy. text-criticism.A METHODOLOGICAL SETTING FOR RHETORICAL CRITICISM Martin Kessler Trinity Lutheran Church Danville. and.
I
The basic problem with rhetorical criticism is that English literary critics are by no means agreed as to what that well-worn term "rhetoric" signifies or ought to signify. structuralism. God knows.
1
. as they do not understand what I call poetry. In the light of this it can hardly be deemed surprising if biblical critics wonder. Not only is the scholar confronted by a host of different labels (such as literary criticism. as bombast.

published in 86 B. Further. An obvious advantage of this definition is that it brings together the formal and the functional aspects. Disposition or arrangement (collocutio) deals with structure. so that one could speak without notes /VAfter the contributions to the subject by Quintilian /5/ and Cicero /6/. Shakespeare's Use of the Arts of Language /8/. Memory (memoria) deals with mnemonic techniques for committing speeches to mind. Cicero developed ornateness to the point of eccentricity. first expounded in the Rhetorica ad Herennium (sometimes attributed to Cicero). The publication of a new edition of Aristotle's Rhetoric in 1619 by Theodore Goulston. Style (elocutio) concerns itself with the manner of effective expression. listing
2
. serving falsification. 4. Sister Miriam Joseph's book.Art and Meaning high-sounding words without content. From a modern perspective. signalled the heightened interest in the subject /7/. 3. the planning and organization of the discourse. but also with the arrangement of larger units. As Cicero put it. not rhetoric" he merely illustrated a popular. both as a whole and in the constituent parts. They are: 1. though by this time Cicero reigned supreme in rhetoric. While Aristotle called for a clear. or somewhat more positively: literary ornamentation. 3. complete with a Latin translation. have served to categorize the concerns which are appropriate to the method. albeit rather benign. Aristotle's definition of rhetoric as "the art of discovering the best possible means of persuasion in regard to any subject whatever" /1/ still merits attention. at best minimally related to content. first regarding word choices.2). unadorned with rhetorical flowers (Rhetoric. we might label this simple research.C. Invention (inventio) refers to the amassing of material for discourse. 2. it refers to the attempt "to find what the orator should say". understanding of the term. Augustine became the authority on this subject as on so many others during the Middle Ages. appropriate style. the four classical divisions of rhetoric. W. When President Eisenhower said that the Americans wanted "action from the Russians. Ross Winterowd /2/. It is quoted with approval by a modern rhetorician.. who is critical of traditional systems /3/. in this it is closely related to arrangement.

II
How may rhetoric be related to biblical studies /10/? It may be quite surprising to consider that biblical criticism has virtually neglected this crucial method till quite recently. Because this area is still very much in flux. Not all aspects of rhetoric are equally relevant to biblical criticism. However. shows the intense preoccupation with the subject during the Renaissance /9/. first. for us the movement is from the written literature via (rhetorical) criticism to interpretation (and possible persuasion) /13/. rhetorical criticism is hardly new in biblical studies. Erasmus (1469-1536) needs to be mentioned here as one of the first modern literary critics of the New Testament. by trying to keep abreast of recent developments in modern language criticism. such as the explication of rhetorical devices. and common agreement has not yet been established. by his reading of the text in the light of contemporary conditions. draws a distinction between a narrower and a broader rhetorical criticism. Rhetoric as an instrumental discipline /12/ served a practical purpose. Aristotle was clearly concerned with spoken discourse: from thought via discourse to persuasion. the latter tends to incorporate recent developments in literary criticism in the area of linguistics. The significant studies published in Semitics. by his sensitivity to the literary qualities of the biblical story /15/. in other words. critical theory and semantics. biblical critics may profit by "listening in". Whether or not the term was actually used (and it was generally not). in terms of rhetorical criticism. as scholars dealing with a corpus of classical literature (unless we write a new Bible) we are interested in how rhetoric. English literary criticism. by his edition of the Greek text /14/. may aid our understanding of a traditional text. Meanwhile. It has in fact a rather impressive pedigree. the former follows the traditional concerns of rhetoric. secondly.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism more than 300 rhetorical figures. its precise methodological boundaries must remain undefined. Another milestone is the work of Bishop
3
. under the impact of what is now called the "new rhetoric" /I I/. but more generally. which have received world-wide attention demonstrate beyond cavil that rhetorical criticism has a notable contribution to make to biblical interpretation.

Descending to the micro-structure. though his name is usually associated with Gattungsgeschichte. certainly not exclusivist in any way. in exhibiting the structural patterns that are employed for the fashioning of a literary unit. Rhetorik. Thus. Muilenburg states that he is above all concerned. Muilenburg specifically mentions climactic and ballast lines as well as ring composition. Muilenburg's SBL Presidential address is significant both for its summation of his own accomplishments in literary criticism /20/ and as a kind of manifesto.a concern also expressed by form critics /24/. he is interested in what might be called macro-structure and micro-structure or structure and texture of pericopes and poems. but attempting to persuade scholars to shift their accent toward the kind of criticism which takes sufficient cognizance of the text in its particularity. However. He further calls attention to the need to identify rhetorical devices: parallelismus membrorum. strophic structure. This point is reiterated and demonstrated in all of his exegetical work. delivered in an irenic spirit. Stilistik.Art and Meaning Robert Lowth of London (1710-1787) De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum (1753). as may be amply demonstrated from their published work. and James Muilenburg's calling for rhetorical criticism "beyond form criticism" /19/. Muilenburg does not reject form criticism any more than Gunkel did source criticism. Poetik(1900) There is perhaps an analogy present in Gunkel's gradual moving away from the historical criticism of the documentary hypothesis (Baumgartner refers to Gunkel's opposition to Wellhausen) toward form criticism. unlike
4
. the work of Hermann Gunkel (1862-1932) resulted in a partial shift of accent from diachronic approaches /17/. in his own words. in "understanding the nature of Hebrew literary composition. particles and repetition. 2. whether in poetry or in prose. The best-known work which deals consciously with rhetorical criticism during this period is Eduard Konig. Muilenburg mentions specifically: 1. A primary task is the defining of the limits of literary units: their beginning and end . While the rise of historical (source) criticism eclipsed genuinely synchronic methods /16/ to a large extent. The need for literary sensitivity. However. and in discerning the many and various devices by which the predications are formulated and ordered into a unified whole" /21/. a plea likewise made by the proponents of the New Criticism /22/ and the German Werkinterpretation /23/.

etc. hymns and songs of thanksgiving contain petitions originating with the lament of
5
. or component literary types (Gliedgattungen) /27/ or even pre-literary units. as his own work has amply demonstrated. und allein in diesem besonderen Verhaltnis der Teile untereinander und der Teile zum Ganzen. but to be regarded as significant building blocks and meaningful components of the structure of the whole. prose. or for that matter with the view which Weiss espoused in his answer to a question addressed to him after his Uppsala discourse . Though genre is often regarded as a synonym for Gattung. but promising in terms of exegetical usefulness. It is highly dubious that Muilenburg would concur with Weiss's view. and is therefore broader than Gattung. in diesem Rhytmus. Perhaps the greatest merit of Muilenburg's inspiring address is that he pointed to a challenging task. is subtitled "theory of genres". which is used to label concise occurrences of literary types. etc.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism Konig. mean the invention of an indefinite number of new labels. in diesem Satzbau. That this is far easier said than done was already demonstrated by Gunkel. Klagelieder. such devices are to be studied not for their own sake (the temptation to which classical rhetorical criticism is apt to fall prey). in dieser Wortpragung. and may well keep growing if the stated goals of the form criticism seminars of the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL). Frye lists only four genres: epos. Thronbesteigungslieder.) had to resort to Mischungen. a list which has since grown. d. Northrop Frye's fourth essay in his Anatomy of Criticism.h. Doty /26/ writes that genre (from Latin genus) refers to large units such as gospel or epistle (in the New Testament). entitled "Rhetorical Criticism". Fluchwort.h. einmaligen Gestalt offenbar. D. calling for progressive refinement of literary types. Segenswort..that form criticism is irrelevant to biblical criticism. and the kleinere Gattungen (Siegeslied. We must now turn to English literary criticism to see how it might illuminate our enterprise. drama and lyric a very small number compared to the list of Gattungen proposed by Gunkel. in dieser ihrer Struktur. This point has been expressed with the greatest possible emphasis by Meir Weiss: Daher macht die Dichtung ihren Sinngehalt nur in dieser ihrer konkreten. also: Dichtung spricht zu uns nur mit ihrer ganzheitlichen Gestalt /25/. nur mit diesen syntaktischen Gebilden. who in addition to the major Gattungen such as Hymnen. hardly commenced.

form criticism by its very nature is bound to generalize because it is concerned with what is common to all the representatives of a genre. he writes about epos and fiction /36/ that they "first take the form of scripture and myth. This does not negate the fact that some basic problems have arisen. but far more complex outside the Psalter. then of narrative and didactic poetry.. Professor Frye's discussion (in his fourth essay in Anatomy) deals with literature generally. His caveat is now widely appreciated. which have become acute of late. then of novels and other written forms" /37/. whereas popular laments move in the direction of wisdom poetry /29/. It does not focus sufficient attention upon what is unique and unrepeatable. upon the particularity of the formulation" /31/.. Moreover. etc. then of traditional tales. and therefore applies an external measure to the individual pericopes. Thus. how may we label this genre? As war poetry? Or is it a sermon addressed to Israel? A handbook of modern literary criticism flatly states that "the concept that there are literary genres. including the epic proper. For example. for example. He does not pretend to offer any solutions to the basic literary problems in the Bible in his Anatomy. a subtle shift from Gattungskritik to the more general direction of "morphology" is in evidence /32/. That form criticism has accomplished noteworthy results /30/ during the intervening decades is not to be gainsaid. with only sporadic references to the Bible. In the form criticism seminars of the SBL..Art and Meaning the individual /28/. Jeremiah 50f.. drama and lyric /35/.has. recent scholarship has made it clear that Gunkel's favourite question "was denn die erste Frage sei bei einem Psalm" (related by his student Walter Baumgartner) /33/ may be relatively simple with the psalms. been loosing ground" and suggests that perhaps three "categories" of genres is all that is needed: fiction. are part of a collection of oracles against foreign nations. is the story of Gilgamesh really an epic ohne weiteres? Or does it share at least some features of wisdom literature? Similar questions have been asked about Beowulf /34/. But difficulties with generic classification are not unique to the Bible. he clearly does not regard the genres as tightly separated compartments. This seems to agree generally with Frye's thinking. neverthe6
. since the early nineteenth century. Muilenburg has put it well: ". and of oratorical prose.

what is said in general. In other words. Frye suggests that there are several epic frameworks in the Bible. with the entire range of structure (including texture) and the features which have sometimes been regarded as rhetorical refinements /^3/. 1. already referred to. such as the epic of return and the epic of wrath /39/. Regarding the four classical divisions of rhetoric /42/ referred to above. and the social from the giving of the law to the established kingdom of the law: Zion and the New Testament millennium) /40/ within the biblical cycle. the sexual from Adam and Eve to the apocalyptic wedding. biblical criticism is predominantly concerned with the second (disposition or arrangement) and the third (style). The whole piece . Winterowd avers that the critic ought to be
7
. because of which fact he characterizes such literatue as encyclopaedic. rhetorical criticism in Frye's treatment is difficult to relate to the central concerns of what this method is understood to mean by biblical scholars. it is Frye's important contribution to point out the pervasive movements (he names the individual movement from birth to salvation. He then proceeds to enumerate what he calls a modus operandi.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism less. a single archetypal structure extending from creation to apocalypse" /38/. Yet. Overall. the biblical critic can only be expected to interest himself in rhetoric so far as it offers any help in his interpretative endeavours. far from being a random collection of heterogeneous literary fragments. his comments on the biblical corpus are provocative. an overview. Biblical critics may prefer to label them dominant motifs. Though the New Criticism has downplayed this aspect. unless one accepts it as a healthy corrective against the ubiquitous fragmentizing tendencies which have plagued our profession /M/.
Ill
A rather different road is travelled by modern rhetoricians of the stripe of Winterowd. Winterowd feels rhetoric is flexible enough to accommodate the needs of the reader (as opposed to the needs of the speaker or writer) /W/. The Bible. Within that unified structure are found a plethora of forms. is to be regarded as containing a "definitive myth. Author. one of the ways "in" to the literature. a procedure for literary criticism along the lines of the new rhetoric /45/. that is to say. something like a first impression gained from one's initial exposure. 2.

though authorship is always a problem in biblical literature because it is virtually anonymous throughout. in which the New Criticism has been keenly interested. 3. Stance is not defined in rhetorical terms but by way of an example. It is now claimed by proponents of generative and transformational grammar that they can "clear away a good deal of the mist from stylistic theory.
8
. It deals with the particularity (the "flavour") of a pericope rather than with its likeness as representative of a literary type. second. Form corresponds more precisely with the particularity of a piece.. Winterowd says virtually nothing about this aspect. Metastyle.make possible a corresponding refinement in the practice of stylistic analysis" /49/. biography adds as much to the poem as the poem does to biography. 6. the form also controls the poet" /48/.Art and Meaning interested in his person. symbol and miscellaneous figures of thought. Biblical critics have learned to come to terms with this bipolarity. Generally. This would roughly correspond to Sitz im Leben. that a prophetic oracle must only be compared to other prophetic oracles. "the medium is the message". Winterowd quotes with approval Marshall McLuhan's dictum. in other words. though it is also directly related to rhetorical criticism. Circumstances. 4. though it does not seem extravagant to suggest that modern rhetorical criticism of the Bible should come to terms with the new English grammar /50/. Medium.. 5. metaphor. this may be a useful point. In literary critical terms it means that for example a lament must be taken seriously in its given literary form. 8. they recognize that biblical authors use traditional ways of expression (such as stock or stereotype phraseology or the shape of a particular Gattung) as the literary material out of which they create their piece. thus the critic is left with the necessity of focusing on the nature of the book rather than the personality of its author. 7. etc. Winterowd remarks: "Not only does the poet control the form. and. in fact biography and writing are mutually interpretative. Style. but they do so with remarkable individuality. It is always occasional in one sense of the word" /46/. Whether this claim will be substantiated remains to be seen. setting /47/. under which Winterowd arranges diction. or more generally. "Poetry is not produced in a vacuum.

though geared to modern literature. is for the most part germane to the Bible.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism Presumably. 10. the overwhelming emphasis is on the analytical or synchronic (non-historical). the function of exegesis consists in continually pushing back the boundary of ignorance. writer and audience" /52/.Medium: Gattung ^. apart from two basic concerns. This is where semantics and linguistics would come into their own.Metastyle 9. the traditional rhetorical figures would find their home under this rubric. of a high diachronic interest.Form: Structure /. Ratio Though diachronic rubrics are listed.Stance 6. Ratio deals with compositional ratios: a quantifying feature. it spans from the exegete's initial encounter with the text (//I) to "meaning" or interpretation (#10) . Rhetorical criticism may perhaps be seen as dealing with the juncture of diachronic and synchronic methods. The Hebrew Verbless Clause in the Pentateuch /51/. This is of course the heart of the exegetical enterprise and the difficult problem in classical literature especially. In this light.the capstone of the literary critical endeavour. Rhetoric tries not merely to communicate so many things in almost an equal number of words.Setting ^.Whole piece 3. Andersen. In Winterowd's words: "The rhetorical motive is toward identification.Authorship 1. undoubtedly necessarily so. but to bring about a kind of consubstantiality between speaker.clearly of paramount concern with rhetoric since its foundational statement by Aristotle. Meaning. Winterowd's list. Biblical critics are timidly beginning to look in this direction.Style S. Biblical criticism has a tradition. Viewed from the diachronic-synchronic perspective we find that. By this Winterowd seems to have in mind communication and the effectiveness of it . it will probably not be too foolhardy to predict that they will do so increasingly. Diachronic Synchronic 2. the synchronic outweigh the former significantly in terms of defined approaches. A trail-blazer for this approach in biblical studies is Francis I. and not with
9
. it deals minimally with Vorgeschichte. 9.

It is here proposed that rhetorical criticism may serve as a suitable rubric for the kind of biblical criticism which deals with the literary analysis of the Massoretic text. where specific pericopes are given dates and accordingly printed in chronological order. presently form criticism seeks to define itself vis-a-vis methods which concentrate on the analysis of the text in its given form. particularly in biblical studies. it remains therefore to be seen to what extent it can contribute to exegesis. not only because we are not limiting ourselves to the analysis of structure. Gunkel made a new departure when he dissociated himself from the attempt of writing a history of Hebrew literature. has contributed to the problem of defining these methods which are admittedly contiguous and even overlapping. this aspect of biblical criticism deserves a far more substantial portion of our efforts than it has received heretofore. thus it is set apart from historical (source) criticism and what Childs has called "canonical criticism" as well as the study of the historical influence of the biblical text in the Jewish and Christian communities. The changing methodological scene. This is suggested by the fact that both are concerned with structure in the broad sense. Obviously. but also the widened perspectives of the new rhetoric. and that both are essentially synchronic in approach. but particularly because it may easily be confused with literary structuralism /55/. There is some truth in the statement that whereas in Gunkel's day form criticism had to relate itself to source criticism.
10
. compare for example Eichhorn's introduction /57/. though the outlook seems promising. As Brevard Childs /53/ and W. now being transformed at an increasing momentum. This is not to say that the two methods may not be eventually fruitfully related. Rhetorical criticism might include not only the identification and description of classical rhetorical figures (tropes and schemes). Rhetorical criticism seems a more suitable term than structural analysis.Art and Meaning Nachgeschichte at all. this calls for an increasingly interdisciplinary approach and more dialogues with literary critics in English and other modern literatures. But even Gunkel's substitute program. Cantwell Smith /54/ have suggested. Structuralism as a literary critical method is relatively new. such as rhetorical criticism /56/. More problematic is the relationship between rhetorical and form criticism.

as for example outlined by Martin Buss in an unpublished draft entitled "Terminology for Methods" (1969). An overview of the methodological map as presently conceived by some leading writers on critical methodologies may add a needed perspective at this point of our discussion. both in Germany and the United States. but that many leading scholars now openly disavow their loyalty to the method. form criticism has some significant functions to perform even if its precise locus in the methodological spectrum needs to be reconsidered. Scholars associated with these seminars have sounded the warning that Sitz im Leben can no longer be rigidly related to Gattung /58/. which is a traditional rhetorical concern. 4. After the initial concern with the text (basically text criticism and translation) Richter /60/ and Zenger /61/ describe Literarkritik. 2. has at best proved to be problematic. Genre criticism (Gattungskritik). repetitions. With the growing emphasis on synchronic methods. a distinction is now made between Formkritik (morphology) and Gattungskritik (genre criticism). 3. as well as the attempt to establish coherent sources based on these phenomena. but also the function or intention (Ziel) is emphasized /59/. The overall result is that form criticism has not only greatly declined in importance. essentially the older literary criticism (source criticism). more broadly": style criticism. Undoubtedly the situation has partly been caused by extravagant claims for the method. the other to diachronics. the text is then (in its given shape) * subjected to Formkritik (morphology. This constitutes an attempt to organize the various concerns understood by the term form criticism. which subsequent study found necessary to modify or invalidate. as follows: 1.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism namely to construct a Gattungsgeschichte. tensions. "intermediate in generality". Nevertheless. In this connection. thus. Idem: history of style. apparently
11
. the form criticism seminars of the SBL have been uniquely useful. "Not altogether inappropriate. Presently we are witnessing a drastic realignment of the Gunkelian methodological framework to the dismay of such "orthodox" form critics as Henning Graf Reventlow. History of types (Gattungsgeschichte). Presumably. identification of doubtlets. It should be noted that the first and third of these refer to synchronies. Not only the setting.

under "literary criticism" /66/. The question about the original form of the genre lands us in Gattungsgeschichte. but then we have to consider the broader (literary) contexts. Tucker's discussion on the setting looks very much like traditio-historical criticism. as Tucker himself says. and then proceed to subsume several related approaches under it. His discussion on genre is likewise strongly historically oriented. The more thorough-going historical approaches are subsumed under Traditionskritik. Horizont are all specifically mentioned. hence. Both are also concerned with Sitz im Leben (Zenger) or Funktion (Richter) as well as Sitz in der Literatur (Zenger) or Verhaltnis der Gattungen zu einander (Richter). structure. This leads to the conclusion that several layers of tradition are indicated /64/. but it is unfortunate that the reflection of such diachronic perspective results prevents the type of engagement with the text whereby structure is given its full due. 4. A similiar procedure is followed by Gene Tucker. which is helpful for interpretation of the pericope. or function. Description of genre.Art and Meaning synonymous with Tucker's structural analysis) /62/. which properly belong to other methods.22-32. Otto Kaiser includes a host of methodological steps. reflects strong diachronic concerns. All of this may very well be the case. some scholars gravitate toward one method which they prefer and know best. Definition of setting(s). Both Richter and Zenger refer to the need to compare the example at hand with other examples of the same Gattung. that it is but loosely set within its literary context and that the transition between the story and what precedes is very rough /63/. What is clearly needed is a fuller appreciation of all
12
. Thus Klaus Koch makes the older literary criticism a branch of form criticism /65/. which he has chosen as an example. His discussion of Genesis 32. who outlines the steps of form critical analysis as follows: 1. Some genre elements may be identified. style. Next comes Gattungskritik (genre criticism). Ziel. The genre elements and their precise relationship to the overall genre are not clarified. under structure Tucker remarks that the story once circulated independently. the difficulty of determining settings for both levels. 2. Structural analysis. 3. Unfortunately. syntax. Intention purpose. On the other hand. Thus.

as well as their setting. tradition blocks. or else are already in a period of methodological transition. Why not press into service an older useful term with a long tradition: rhetorical criticism. seems to underscore this fact. The present tendency to broaden its tasks can only lead to more confusion. their present as well as historical setting. to be more specific. and particularly for what we have termed here rhetorical criticism /67/. generally as understood in non-biblical criticism. That the label Formkritik (Tucker and others: structural analysis) is now used for the study of structure may suggest increasing interest in synchronic approaches. The unsuspecting English reader translates: form criticism. On the other hand. and just plain dust should be removed to make room for what we really need to produce fruitful exegesis. rubbish. the sociological setting of literary units from the smallest genre element. judging by the fact that so many scholars are no longer greatly dedicated to establishment methods. Take the term Formkritik for example. As to source criticism. with the realization that biblical studies have inordinately emphasized diachronics at the expense of synchronies. The present scene. something may be said in favour of form criticism limiting its field of operation to the analysis and history of genres. and perhaps even entire biblical books. In this manner. skeletons. But this is not the same as Gunkel's method. best known by English-speakers as form criticism. synchronic method would be served by rhetorical criticism. Edwin Good has suggested that the term literary criticism should be used in the new sense. This would correspond to Zenger's and Richter's Gattungskritik. The methodological closet needs to be tidied. And now.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism dimensions of the methodological spectrum. to the genre. the pericope. for an exclusively structural (in the broader senses). and form criticism would pursue the typical Gunkelian concerns with genres. the law of diminishing returns has been operating here for a longer time than we care to admit. This procedure would be less confusing and be in line with Gunkel's program. which.
13
. genre elements. It is interesting to note that William Beardslee's Literary Criticism of the New Testament /68/ takes this new direction. diachronics would be represented well by source criticism and/or traditio-historical criticism. synchronic preoccupation of the text. suggesting that we are either still in the doldrums. which is termed Gattungskritik. and a willingness to do justice to all useful approaches.

particularly if its definition is attempted along the lines of both classical rhetoric and the new rhetoric. beyond the theoretical description of a method. 2 Rhetoric.The special task in the present situation is "to coordinate and integrate the divergent methods and tendencies.to prevent the independent or mutually hostile development of the various schools . In sum. biblical critics give equal time to synchronic criticism. In this vein. Ross Winterowd. 1. Rhetoric. must be accomplished. and allowing other methods a place only if source criticism were guaranteed continued eminence. In the process some new labels may be needed. 1968) 14.. 2. if spurred by the desire to give all methods their due. It is not only a legitimate. a synthesis (New York: Holt. rhetorical criticism deserves serious consideration as a label for the leading candidate for synchronic criticism. Rinehart & Winston.
14
. but also a necessary demand. correlation. which is another advantage for its use. which Fohrer quotes: "to examine and describe the growth of the Old Testament from its earliest beginnings to its conclusions" /71/. However. at best. Fohrer speaks of his dual concerns in Old Testament introduction: l. Rhetoric.. must never be allowed to recur /70/. not until then can there be any fruitful co-ordination and integration.. Rhetoric has proven to be a flexible term." /72/. tolerating no challenge (see the response Umberto Cassuto received when he dared to attack the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis).. In various quarters the call for correlation of methods is heard.In the words of Eichhorn. The situation during the first half of this century when one method dominated the scene.1 as quoted by W. NOTES 1 Aristotle. Thus. Presently. in a parallel series. the demonstration of the skill of those utilizing it is the ultimate proof of its quality: the tree is known by its fruits. Fohrer's concerns would have been more compelling if the need for synchronic criticism would have been juxtaposed to Eichhorn's definition of historical criticism. 14.Art and Meaning Norman Mabel's Literary Criticism of the Old Testament /69/. others may need to be discarded and still others may need to be redefined. pursues the older literary criticism: source criticism.

C. 5 Marcus Fabius Quintilianus. a disciple of Kenneth Burke. Edward J. published ca. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (New York: Oxford. born ca. John E. particularly chapters 2-4. Das sprachliche Kunstwerk (14. 36). Bryant. Province of Rhetoric. 11 See Winterowd. the Renascence (2nd ed.Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism 3 Modern interest in rhetoric runs along conservative lines (those who limit their interest to classical rhetoric. Ross Winterowd. now Lee A.D. in Schwartz. 6 Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B. De duplici copia verborum ac rerum
15
. Joseph Schwartz & John A. Rhetoric). Craig Baird. representative of the Werkinterpretation method. has characterized the genius of his master as "showing the relevance of rhetoric in literature" (Rhetoric.C. (Cf. English Literary Criticism. The Province of Rhetoric (New York: Ronald. But Erasmus was also keenly interested in rhetoric" as a subject. author of Institutio oratoria. 1965) 15f. 78f. 14 His publication of the first edition of the Novum Testamentum in 1516 represents a milestone in European religious history. though by the conceptions basic to this paper. A Handbook to Sixteenth Century Rhetoric (New York: Barnes <3c Noble. Atkins. 1951). 35 A. the best-known being De Oratore (55 B. ed. A.g. Rycenga.).) wrote several works on rhetoric. 12 Donald C.. 1965) and progressive lines (those who seek a broadened setting for rhetoric within literary criticism. Cf. Rhetoric.. New York: Barnes & Noble. Jordan. Rinehart & Winston. Winterowd. he deals with rhetoric throughout. Bern & Munchen: Francke.. 1965) 139f. the contributions of Erasmus (14697-1536) in particular are to be noted. "Rhetoric: its function and scope". 1947.g.D. 1969). 35.H. W. 4 See Winterowd. Auflage. Richards and Francis Christensen are also pioneers of a "new rhetoric". 9 See J. Sonnino.York: Ronald. Questions of Rhetoric [New York: Holt. Province of Rhetoric. Corbett.. as e. cf. a philosophical inquiry (New . barely mentions rhetoric.W..). Bryant adds philosophical and social aspects (Schwartz.A. 13 In addition to rhetoric as instrumental discipline and literary study. 95 A. 15f. 10 Wolfgang Kayser. chapters 4-6. 1968). 8 New York: Columbia University. I. Rhetoric. 1971] 3). e. 7 From the perspective of biblical criticism.

or provenance. Scott. Das sprachliche Kunstwerk. setting. delivered in San Francisco. Five Approaches of Literary Criticism (New York: Collier. 1900. Auflage. Kleine Schriften. As a modern critic puts it. Stanley E. 24 O. "the individual poem became hermetically sealed off from life" (Barbara D. The New Criticism (Norfolk. 1322). The thrust of this school was the focus on the literature in its given form. Korpan.
16
. 15 See Atkins. a paper delivered at the 7th Congress of the International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament. 1963) and Kayser. 22 This label was given by John Crowe Ransom. Contemporary New Testament Interpretation (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.C. "Literary Evolution as Style: the 'Intrinsic Historicity' of Northrop Frye and Juri Tynianov". "Die Kleinste literarische Einheit in den Erzahlungsbuchern des AT".B. diachronic or synchronic. 1521) and Opus de conscribendis epistolis (Basel. Die Kunst der Interpretation (4. 1941). Doty. Other representatives of this "school". such as the author's biography. 20 Here this is taken as a general term for any kind of critical study of a text. and Cleanth Brooks. are I. Connecticut: New Directions. without reference to the provenance of it. Veltkirchii (Basel. 26 William G. Mohr. who also designated formalistic criticism. 19 A phrase used in his SBL Presidential address. 278ff. August 1971 (my emphasis). 1962) 179-184. 21 "Form criticism and beyond". 16 Here we refer generally to the methods which deal with the meaning of the text in its present form. The Armed Vision (New York: Vintage.. Wilbur S. Pacific Coast Philology 2(1967) 47. 23 See Emil Staiger. This has been disputed of late however. i (Tubingen: 3. 1972) 167. in December 1968. English Literary Criticism. 59f. 18 Leipzig: Theodor Weicher. Hyman. entitled: "Form Criticism and Beyond".149. 8. Richards.Art and Meaning Commentariis M. Cf. Zurich: Atalantis. to the total exclusion of any data external to the piece. 25 "Die Methode der "Total-Interpretation"1. 1955). 1962) 143-. Uppsala. published in 3BL 88 (1969) 1-18. Eissfeldt. 17 These approaches concern themselves with the question: How did the text get into its present form? Thus: source criticism.A.

39 Anatomy. "Modern Issues in Biblical Studies: The Gains of Form Criticism in Old Testament Studies". 42 Actually. "Appropriate and not-so-appropriate ways of relating historical and functional methods: a draft". 45 Rhetoric. Frye defines fiction as "the genre of the printed page" (Anatomy. Buss. Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag. 245). 445. Auflage. Biblical scholars would generally tend to agree with Frye's milder dictum that "ornamental rhetoric is inseparable from literature itself" (Anatomy. The extreme view. 31 "Form criticism and beyond". is held by Meir Weiss. 316f. 28 Einleitung in die Psalmen (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. It is obviously also irrelevant to the biblical scholar. interest focuses of course on reading and interpretation. a view which may be inspired by a religious view of the nature of the text. 41 Frye has reminded us that biblical literary criticism must move on different levels. Geburtstag von Hermann Gunkel. there is a fifth one: delivery (pronuntiatio) which deals with vocal utterance and bodily activity. 44 For biblical studies. 248). 34 See Stanley B. Genesis ubersetzt und erkla'rt (6. 317. 29 Einleitung. Expository Times 71 (1960) 229-233. Auflage: Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Was ist Formgeschichte? (1. 5. Greenfield. 315. 35 Barnet. Martin J. rhetorical features tend no longer to be regarded as refinements which the author could have done without. 180-196. 40 Anatomy. Klaus Koch. 36 In his discussion on the genres. 91. 1971.
17
. 38 Anatomy. Vortrag auf dem Alttestamentlerkongress Bonn 1962" in Hermann Gunkel. Study of Literature. 401. Comparative Literature 14 (1962) 91-105. 32 Cf. 1964) CV-CXXII. 37 Anatomy. 250. quoted above. 43 With the growing preoccupation with literature in its givenness. 1933) 399. "Beowulf and Epic Tragedy".Kessler: Methodology of Rhetorical Criticism 27 Cf. all the way from the smallest unit via the biblical books to the Bible as a whole. 1964) 214ff. SBL Seminar Papers. 30 For a survey see James Muilenburg. which is probably related to the nature of the Bible qua scripture. 33 "Zum 100.

From Symbolism to Structuralism (New York: Harper & Row 1973). The Quest for Mind (New York: Knopf. 1973).. occurring once. 55 In fact. Linguistics and English Grammar (New York: Holt. The New English Grammar. English tr. science and literature (Garden City: Doubleday. Jennings. Cattell. Nashville: Abingdon. Brill. See also H. in: Edward M. 1970).R. Boon. 1970. 56 Needless to say. 1969) and Randolph Quirk. Probably the best introduction for beginners is N. Structural Analysis and Biblical Exegesis. 189.Art and Meaning 46 Rhetoric. 53 Brevard S. Michael Lane.A. Culley. 51 JBL Monograph Series 14. thus stressing uniqueness and particularity. 1974]). the term "structural analysis" is used for the type of literary criticism inspired by Levi-Strauss. 1972) 120-142. 1970). 49 Richard Ohmann. Interpretational Essays [Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series. Gleason Jr.J. New Lenses for Criticism. Structuralism (New York: Basic Books. et al. Introduction to Structuralism (New York: Harper & Row. (See his Reden und Aufsatze [Gottingen:
18
. but transformed the concept of authorship to include a long period of oral tradition. 3. The following works may be useful: Roland Barthes. VTSup 22 (Leiden: E. Whereas the Sitz im Leben is recurrent. 194. ed. 48 Rhetoric. Howard Gradner. "Some Comments on Structural Analysis and Biblical Studies". Childs. Analyse structurale et exegese biblique (Neuchatel: Delachaux & Niestle. Cantwell Smith. 1971. 1970)88. this is an oversimplification. "The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible". Pittsburgh: Pickwick... 1965). JAAR 39 (1971) 131-140. setting may include a unique historical context. 50 The bibliography has become sizable in the last few years. 47 In this case. Rinehart & Winston. 52 Rhetoric. Jean Piaget. Biblical Theology in Crisis (Philadelphia: Westminster. 1973). "Generative Grammars and the Concept of Literary Style". anglicizing includes liberation from the Gunkelian framework. The Use of English (Harlow: Longman. 192. 1965). a descriptive introduction (Cambridge: MIT. James A. appropriate in a particular sociological setting such as the cult. Gunkel's relationship to the older literary criticism is ambiguous in the sense that he accepted its source critical results. See also Robert C. 54 W.

I
In ch. These are my words. this study will fall into two parts. the garden (hgn) and its trees (kl cts). the Lord God (yhwh ?lhym). the first and central element in the created order. USA The narrative in Genesis 2-3 is one of the better-known pieces of Western literature. largely because it has the ability to focus the reader's attention on key issues relating to man's existence. Any attempt to make a complete analysis of this writer's work would be a major undertaking. by means of numerous literary devices. not his. North Carolina 28608.2 the writer weaves several components into an intimate picture of harmony. or the form and function of the knowledge that woman so strongly desires. to experience the shattering of the closely-knit created order and the onslaught of that divisiveness which both writer and reader know to be a part of their everyday life. especially when one considers the complexity of issues such as the role and identity of the serpent. I will pay special attention to the ways in which the writer leads his audience. and woman
20
. but it is my conviction that they clearly express a major motif the writer has used to focus and integrate his narrative. with all revolving around man.GENESIS 2-3: THE THEME OF INTIMACY AND ALIENATION Alan Jon Hauser Department of Philosophy-Religion Appalachian State University Boone. Of necessity. The first will treat the development of the theme of intimacy in Genesis 2. The second will analyze the theme of alienation as it unfolds in Genesis 3. In this study I have a fairly limited goal: to analyze the writer's development of the two-dimensional theme of intimacy and alienation. The writer has artfully woven his story. the animals. As I analyze this motif. using a limited number of characters and objects to present in brief but moving form the stcry of man's fall. These components are: the ground (h^drnh).

Man is formed by God from the dust of the ground (2:7): after man has disrupted creation he must return to the ground as dust (3:19).16). wypch b*pyw nshmt chyym wyhy hMm Inpsh chyh (and he breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. It would have been adequate for the writer to say.2 continues to stress the gift of life. wysm shm H hMm ^hr ytsr (and there he set the man whom he had formed). as here with the words Mm and Mmh. Significantly. As a result. Verse 8. and man became a living creature). 2 and 3. It is in 3:19 that the gift of life is withdrawn. Verse 7. Furthermore. In addition to further developing God's closeness to man during the act of creation. A study of select verses from this chapter will show in detail how the writer has used various stylistic devices to convey the theme of intimacy. Man is therefore most special. as when God causes trees to grow out of the ground to provide food for man (2:9. wyytsr yhwh *lhym *t hMm (then the Lord God molded man). c pr mn hMmh (dust from the ground). as a key to the interrelatedness of the persons. these words stress through repetition the gift of life that man has received.Hauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 Oshh). "And there he set the
21
. The verb ytsr (to form. The garden is created for man. God does not simply create man or bring him into being: he takes pains with him. the life-death sequence forms a further link between 2:7 and 3:19. or when God forms animals out of the ground as companions for man (2:19). even though Mmh is used repeatedly in chs. or concepts embodied in the words. The writer emphasizes this fact by having God plant it immediately after man receives life. mold) underlines the intimacy between God and man. and by having God set the man in the garden immediately after it is planted /!/. This phrase points to man's close association with the ground. 2:7 and 3:19 are the only two points where Mmh and cpr are directly associated with one another. In subsequent verses the writer will develop this association of man with the ground. objects. The rest of ch. The Hebrew mind viewed the similarity of sounds. thus. just as a potter would in forming a fine vessel. Mm is taken from Mmh. life which is created for the benefit of man and in order to provide him with companionship. the phrase cpr mn hMmh forms an inclusio with 3:19. the writer parallels nshmt chyym (breath of life) with Inpsh chyh (living creature). In a fashion reminiscent of Hebrew poetry. the statement of consequences in 3:19 harks back directly to the time of beginning. making more poignant man's fall.

but only after prolonged effort by God. The writer now turns to the element of creation closest to man. being formed in the same way and being taken from the same source. where there were as yet no plants. Three times the verb cjr^ (to name) is used. "It is not good that man should be alone. he is alone (Ibd). is able to enjoy through sight and taste the produce God has brought forth for him from the ground. where none of the animals proves acceptable as man's companion. however. This is stressed by the clause wyb* *1 h*dm IrSvt mh yqr1 Iw (and he
22
. The writer places great stress on the naming of the animals by man. to add the last two words. In light of this failure. where enjoying the tree in the midst of the garden belongs to the sequence of disruption. in close harmony with God and the garden. Now.15). v. using the identical verb (ytsr) from v. who is the appropriate companion. Man's closeness to the garden is again stressed. Verse 15. Man. He tells us this not only by using the programmatic clause.20. Verse 9. This sets up the failure at the end of v. care for) points back to v. The writer also makes his point by means of a word play: although man is part of the created order. and the noun shm (name) is used twice. Like man." but also by means of the phrase czr kngdw (a companion corresponding to him. however. lacking a close companion. because there was no man to till (cbd) the ground. woman. so that he may again stress the close association between man and God. a helper like him). helps to emphasize the closeness to man of the ultimate companion. Verse 19. who himself was taken from the ground.7.16). God causes the trees to grow mn hMmh (from the ground). The fact that a suitable companion is not found immediately. because the man must examine each thoroughly and discern for himself a companion. someone to care for him. even while he enjoys its fruit (v.Art and Meaning man. having the responsibility of caring for it. This sets the stage for 3:6. Verse 18. The writer thus represents God as attempting to create a companion for man who is as much like him as possible. must be seen to be very close to man. He lives in harmony with it. The verb cbd (to till. the animals are formed (ytsr) from the ground Cdmh)." He chooses. Verses 19-20. for which he cares (cbd. Here man's enjoyment of the trees through sight and taste is part of God's plan. The writer does not have God name the animals. woman.5. it is appropriate that God has planted trees in the garden: there is a man to care for them.

20 will be even more emphatic: wPdm 1* mts1 czr kngdw (but there was not found for man a companion like him). The animals.18. 29:23). all serve to elongate the process of man's careful scrutinizing of the animals. wyb*h *1 iVdm (and he brought her to the man). Gen. Despite God's efforts to make the animals as much like man as possible. and thereby focus on the contrast between woman. The demonstrative pronoun z*t (this) /2/ is used three times in order to single out wo"rnan emphatically as the one who is suited to be man's
23
. he builds up woman from man's rib.19. The writer deliberately parallels the wording in the two scenes so that the reader will keep the former scene in mind." since from a small part of man God fashions a companion for him. for whereas God formed (ytsr) man and the animals from the ground.Hauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 brought them unto the man. Man's being alone is especially stressed by the repetition of the phrase czr kngdw (a companion like him) from v. to see what he would name them). The writer uses this short piece of poetry to bring to a climax the search for man's czr (helper). wybn (and he built): the writer uses the verb bnh in order to stress the uniqueness of woman's creation. who indeed is man's czr kngdw (companion like him). like man. This phrase also suggests the way in which a father brings to a man his bride (cf. because the creation of a companion for man literally requires that God take a part of man himself: wyqch *cht mtsl c tyw (and he took one of his ribs). While bnh normally means "to build. but this does not give them the closeness to man which woman will possess. and man is still alone. thereby preparing the reader for v. These words echo God's bringing the animals to man in v. which are not. and the clause wkl *shr yqr' Iw h'dm npsh chyh hw1 shmw (and whatever the man named each living creature. were taken from the ground. the long search is fruitless. Verse 21." in this context it carries the connotation of "building up. This clause.24 where man and woman are described as one flesh. Verse 23. The writer has chosen to employ this repetition so that the last phrase in v. and the animals. The closing up of the wound with flesh (bsr) enables the writer to anticipate the end of the scene in v.24. that was its name). the two lists naming categories of animals God has created (vv. Verse 22. The writer repeats the phrase "the rib which he had taken from man" in order to stress again the intimate connection between man and woman. which described the beginning of the search. God now causes a deep sleep to fall upon man.19 and 20).

and with whom he will become one flesh. Again the writer makes his point about woman being one flesh with man. While there is no etymological relationship between the two words /5/. again accentuates woman as she receives a name indicating her closeness to man. Here. as in Gen. at the beginning of line two. The poetry begins with man exclaiming z|t. man names the woman. As with the animals. As close as man is to his parents. In such cases. declaring man's exasperation over the long wait. Furthermore. Thus. is also man's zr. Judg. however. who is tsm of c c man's tsm. The writer does not specifically use that phrase here. he employs a word play between ^hh (woman) and Vsh (man) to make his point. It also serves to emphasize for a third time woman's suitability as the writer repeats. the theme of alienation in ch. while man's observation of each animal led him to give each a name. he will be even closer to his wife. 9:2. since the writer is clearly alluding to v. as if he has been watching a long parade of nominees and now suddenly sees the right one. lz*t yqr1 *shh (for this will be called "woman").3 becomes even more tragic in light of this special oneness
24
.21. so his perception of woman causes him to give her a name closely akin to his. 5:1. The second use of z't. The writer knew that the special twist he was putting on the common phrase would seize the attention of his reader and therefore stress even more the intimacy of man and woman /4/.22. The final z't. 19:1213. The next word. Thus. recalling man's earlier word of joy upon having at last found his companion. But in this first instance the relationship is even closer. the fact that woman is taken from man (m'ysh Iqchh z*t) /3/. except that in this case he clearly perceives the woman to be his czr kngdw (companion like him). 29:14. ctsm (bone).21). hp c m (at last. to whom he will cleave (dbg). Verse 24. 2 Sam. a common ancestry is assumed. finally). strengthens the image. where the first woman is taken directly from man /6/. who have given him life.Art and Meaning companion. at the end of the short poem. in language closely parallel to v. forms a neat inclusio with the opening word. woman is literally man's bone and flesh (see the writer's earlier setting of the stage in v. c tsm mctsmy wbsr mbsry (bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh). the phonetic similarity makes a "common sense" case for the closeness between man and woman. This phrase is often used in the OT to express intimate family ties. Rather. c calls to the reader's attention the fact that woman. because of its vocal similarity to c zr (companion).

" but rather "his woman. Nah.3.Mauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 of the first man and woman. 23:22-35. In v.24. The reference in v. with it being presumed that one's nakedness is. Their vulnerability causes no anxiety. ^hh. and are not ashamed /7/.. This sets the stage for ch.sounding rwmym (naked) from the previous verse. is the same as that used in w. The sudden introduction of the serpent /8/ alerts the reader that he is entering a new stage of the narrative.39. 2). 16:22. Verse 25. It often means to expose one to shame (1 Sam. to be shielded from the eyes of others. The nakedness of man and woman had given expression to their intimacy." The word c rwm (cunning) also presents a new element.12-13. To expose someone's nakedness was to lay them bare before the world. 2 Sam. 20... with only rare exception. Hos. where the intimacy is disrupted. It is for this reason that the phrase "to expose the nakedness of . which may be translated "Now the serpent was . The intimacy of ch. as expressed in part through the urgent need of man and woman to cover up their nakedness. 42:9. 47:3. 20). to make them open and vulnerable. in v. 3:5).2 dissolves in a rapid sequence of events. The world of harmony and intimacy becomes a world of disruption and alienation.
25
. Ezek.
II
As we move into ch. the sense of the passage makes "his wife" a better translation.." While the root word in Hebrew. 18. wherein two people open themselves to one another in the most complete way possible. 10:4-5. however. the writer dramatically shifts the course of his narrative. Thus.24 to being one flesh does not refer only to sexual relations (nor does it exclude them). Throughout the OT there is basically a reserved attitude towards nakedness. as does also the format of the opening words.3.. Now. the word is not simply "woman. one's nakedness was seen as a very personal thing. Beginning with v.22-23. a key to one's innermost self. Isa.12. one which is accentuated byc the writer's word play between it and the similar . " is often used to refer to sexual intercourse (Lev. Isa.25 man and his wife stand naked before one another. expose themselves completely to one another. and their intimacy is complete. Clearly. 20:30.25 the sexual overtones are more pronounced. the cunning of the serpent injects into the created order a disruptive feature which grows until it reaches a climax in vv. in a most thoroughgoing sense (Gen.

In the encounter between woman and the serpent. In a series of steps. the most complete form of intimacy described in ch. The writer's use of these plural verbs /10/ implies that man and woman are one. temporarily continues as a remnant of the harmonious world of ch. and woman in speaking of herself and man uses a plural verb (v. other elements of the intimate world described in ch. in w. This use of
26
.1-6. woman is led to doubt God. "God knows that when you eat of it. The writer has used the verb ydc (to know) to strengthen the image of alienation.1-6 the writer has artfully woven together his themes of intimacy and alienation. we may eat).g. you shall not eat) /9/..12-13).5. It is first used at the beginning of v. where the woman is told. plural verbs are used to summarize God's command concerning the fruit of the trees (e.2 are already being torn apart.Art and Meaning Verses 1-6. But if the intimacy between man and woman continues in vv. The intimacy with God is being destroyed by the serpent's cunning even before woman eats of the fruit. v. as though man were also being addressed (e.1-6. the serpent moves woman from correcting the serpent's false statement about God's command.5c there is the phrase "knowing good and evil. desiring to keep his creatures in their place. and desiring to be wise like God. craving the forbidden fruit. One might loosely paraphrase the sense of this word play as follows: God knows that . the writer is using a word play.2. that they cannot be dealt with or addressed apart from one another.2 n'kl. Furthermore.2. the writer subtly but firmly continues to stress the intimacy between man and woman. and the writer further stresses the intimacy by using the phrase Pyshh c mh (to her husband with her).. for at the end of v. The intimacy of man and woman. plural verbs are used when the serpent addresses woman.5 whyytm kMhym. Thus. While the intimacy between man and woman continues to be stressed in the opening verses of ch.g. Thus. and you will be like God). your eyes will be opened. it will soon dissolve into open animosity between the two (especially in vv." Both forms of yd are participles. to doubting God's truthfulness. When woman eats the fruit of the forbidden tree.3. even while the disruption between God and his creatures grows at a rapid pace." The tone of this statement is that God is deliberately withholding information. v.. you will know good and evil (and he doesn't want you to knowJ). her first act thereafter is to give some to man..3 1* t*klw. Throughout vv.

As a result of their eating. man and woman desire that they not be seen.6). Here the writer's interweaving of the themes of intimacy and alienation continues.5 sets the stage for the knowledge that is actually received in v. Beginning in v. the knowledge they have gained separates them. The writer uses this fear of being seen as a key means to express the alienation that destroys the harmony of ch. Although the tree was a delight (t*wh) to the eyes (v.21-22).5. and even a majority of these words are used to indicate that man and woman take part in the act together. It is therefore ironical that after the fruit has been eaten (v. The clause.5.2. any human desire to be like God places the creature in rebellion against his creator. and there now is an attempt to cover up (vv. man is different from God. Since. and has a clearlydefined place as God's creature (as in 2:16-17. He becomes estranged from God. man and woman are pulling apart from one another: their intimacy is no longer complete.6). the man and woman see things very differently. It is noteworthy that.Mauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 ydc in v. unlike Genesis 1. While knowing had appeared very attractive in v.5. Genesis 2-3 stresses this intimacy by means of God's great care in the creation of man and man's companion." is rather surprising. The writer has also stressed this change by means of the word play on ydc (to know). one's nakedness is a key to one's innermost self.18. While they experience this together /12/.711). She saw (wtrQ that the tree was good for food (v. the writer places great stress on the motif of seeing. the "eye opening" experience they have after eating the fruit is anything but delightful. Thus. As a consequence of their rebellion against God. The writer also stresses the divine-human alienation by means of the clause whyytm kMhym (and you will be like God) in v. "Then the eyes of the two of them were opened. both man and woman have their eyes opened. and that it was a delight to the eyes /I I/. Verse 7. The writer is using this clause to express the dramatic change that has come about as a result of the forbidden act.5). Although God forms man and breathes into him the breath of life.
27
.7. given all the seeing that has taken place in the previous verses. The writer has devoted only a bare minimum of words to the act of eating. Woman is told that their eyes ( c ynykm) will be opened if they eat the fruit of the tree (v. They can no longer tolerate being naked in one another's presence. which stresses the intimacy between God and man by man's being made in the image and likeness of God. as noted earlier.6).

Upon hearing God. the phrase "the man and his wife" (h'dm w'shtw) is the last time the two words are used in relation to one another to express intimacy. their mutual hiding from God. In ch.5). Thus. with whom they formerly had been intimate. The writer is also being ironical: man and woman eat of the fruit of the tree in the midst of the garden in order to be like God (v. and God recedes into the background.23-25). The influence of alienation is not yet complete.3. man and his wife hide themselves (wytchb*) in the midst of the trees of the garden. along with the stress in 2:23-24 on man and woman being one flesh. and the plural verbs of vv. They sin by means of a tree. Similarly. every28
.3 God continues to be absent as the forces of disruption are turned loose. by using the same words (slightly rearranged) in v. he also brings out into the open all the divisive consequences of man's rebellion(3:9-13). they must hide among the trees. But she and her husband did eat of it. and by the plural Ihm (for themselves). This act. The phrase btwk cts hgn (in the midst of the trees of the garden) points back to v. and singly the words "his wife" Qshtw) and "her husband" Qyshh) appear in 2:24 and 3:6. and they make clothes. from this point on. Indeed. In ch. respectively. and now causes man and woman to hide from the presence of God (mpny yhwh *lhym). yet. The complete phrase appears earlier in 2:25. God has been absent since 2:22. Verses 8-10. Thus. His reappearance in v. brings the theme of alienation to its climax. not only does God create the most complete form of intimacy (2:22). his absence being part of a deliberate pattern by the writer. they hide from God in the midst of the trees of the garden /13/. Thus.2 God and man had been quite intimate. There is a remnant of togetherness. is the last remnant of the "togetherness" of man and woman. Woman had told the serpent that they were forbidden to eat the fruit of the tree in the midst of the garden (hcts ?shr btwk hgn). however.Art and Meaning now man and woman know that they are alienated from one another. as indicated by the plural verbs describing the making of clothes. but the chapter closes by stressing the complete intimacy of man and woman (vv.8 the writer again brings to the reader's attention the offense that unleashed the forces of disruption and alienation. they cannot escape what they have done. as a consequence of their eating.8. is in stark contrast to the way man refers to woman in 3:12. This usage. now. Hereafter they act as individuals.1-8 are absent.

"Because I am naked. Verse 8 had begun by stating.8. Man's response (v." and he hides himself.10 stresses the alienation of man from woman. one's nakedness was seen as a key to one's innermost self.10 stand out all the more in contrast to the plural form of v. Man hears God's voice in the garden. Man's alienation is further underlined by the final verb w'chb* (and I hid myself). as he soon will stress more bluntly (v. of his alienation. as a consequence. which more than anything else is what he wishes to hide. planting the garden for him. and 'ykh (where are you?). forming him from the dust of the ground. Thus. however.12). gn. The writer uses God's questions to recall that for the reader: "Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten of
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. that man and woman no longer are one." In v. Man is afraid. is now gone. It was after his eating that man became conscious of his nakedness. As noted earlier. since he fears having God see him as he is. The writer also stresses man's aloneness through the singular verb w'yr' (and I was afraid) and through the phrase ky c yrm 'nky (because I was naked). forming animals for him from the ground.8 and the singular forms of v. and is afraid. but rather calls to man (wyqr* yhwh 'Ihym '1 h'dm). the writer adds wy'mr Iw (and he said to him).9 God does not address man and woman together. "and they heard (wyshm c w) the sound (qwl) of the Lord God walking in the garden (bgn). in v. This makes the singular form of shm c ty (I heard) in v. All this. in v.10 the words qwl.8 man and woman hear together. which contrasts with the plural wytchb' of v. as man fears the very one who has given him life and his world. While the contrast between the plural forms of v. Significantly. being comfortably naked in another's presence was a sign of real intimacy. the latter having a second person masculine singular ending /14/.10) to God's question emphatically stresses man's aloneness. But now man must cover up. and the root shmC are repeated. in v. Verse 11 stresses man's act of rebellion against God. and building up woman from the rib taken from man's side. so as to underline the parallelism between vv.8 and 10.Hauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 where man and woman turn they encounter as symbols of alienation what had formerly been elements of the created world of harmony. The writer is thus suggesting. To stress further that God is speaking to man alone.8.10 man has become alienated to the point that he now perceives himself to have heard alone. the writer also emphasizes man's alienation from God. God heretofore has been very intimate with man.

however. The writer also continues to underline man's alienation from woman by having God address man with singular verbs and pronouns. 3:8). man refuses to accept responsibility for what he has done. especially through the idea that man and woman are one flesh (2:23-25). she has consistently been referred to as *shtw (his wife.ll called for a simple yes or no answer. and I ate). and he ate). While God's question in v.6 to describe the act /J5/. The alienation of man from woman is complete. when woman's relationship to man has been described. Now. Thus.Art and Meaning the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?" The double use of the verb^kHto eat) focuses the reader's attention even more sharply on the act. since this is the same verb used three times in v. however. not only has man ceased to see woman as a companion: he also has ceased to see God as a well-intentioned creator who provides man with all good things.6. and the clause *shr ntth mdy (whom you gave to be with me) points the reader back to an earlier situation of intimacy which no longer exists.12 it again serves this function in the clause hw' ntnh ly mn hcts w'kl (she gave to me from the tree. Furthermore.25. man stands before God completely alone. in v.6. wttn gm fyshh Cmh wy'kl (and she gave also to her husband with her. Furthermore. In previous scenes the intimacy between man and woman has been thoroughly developed. To man she has cbecome an object. Furthermore. *kl (to eat) is used to point to the act of rebellion. The alienation of man from God is also complete. and
the use of cmdy (with me) in v. which closely parallels the wording in v. man coldly passes the blame for his deed to "the woman" OVshh) /16/: "she gave to me" (hw* ntnh ly) /17/. 2:24. Thus. the writer's emphasis on the fact that God commanded man not to eat of the tree helps stress even more man's alienation from God. It is not only woman who is blamed. The motif of man's alienation from God and from woman reaches its climax in v. most importantly in the twofold usage in v.6. Thus.6.12 points back to cmh (with
her) in v.ll and in the threefold usage in v. Verse 12.12 helps recall woman's giving of the fruit to man in v. the double use of ntn in v. As previously noted. as indicated by the words *shr ntth c mdy (whom you gave to be with me) /18/. not a companion.12. since God gave to man the woman who led him astray. which closely parallel the immediately following words hw* ntnh ly (she gave me).12 the writer has carefully constructed a
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. Man is clearly saying that God is to blame. In v.

The tone of God's question is. and instead passes to the serpent the blame for her own deed. Nevertheless. because of what he has done /20/. The writer has stressed the serpent's role in causing alienation by paralleling *rwr Hh mkl hbhmh wmkl chyt hsdh (cursed are you more than all the cattle and all the creatures of the field) with c rwm mkl chyt hsdh (more cunning than all the creatures of the field) from 3:1. although he is one with it in
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. The final word w*kl (and I ate). Although God formed man from the dust of the ground (hMmh. that has become his enemy (3:17-19). As was the case with man (v. further stresses woman's aloneness and alienation from man.6. being in the singular.Man has become alienated from the ground.As in the previous section (3:9-13). and the woman will desire her husband (cf.12). and from the ground created for man the trees of the garden (2:9) and the animals (2:19). 2:24-25). Verse 13. "What is this that you have done?. "How could you do such a horrible thing?" /19/. since it is in v. woman refuses to shoulder any blame. This is most appropriate. While man and woman remain together. leading woman to eat of the fruit of the tree. Their relationship to one another is consistently depicted as one of animosity and separation.13. man's concluding word. 3:20). he is now cursed (*rwr). since man will rule over his wife (3:16). Verses 14-19. Finally. 3. since the verb is in the singular.Hauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 number of links with the description of the act of rebellion in v." underlines the devastating nature of woman's deed. He must constantly wrestle with it to sustain his life. yet in the end his life must be surrendered to the ground. This directly parallels the aloneness of woman in v. God's question to woman. There are a number of ways in which the writer expresses his motif of alienation in the poetry of these verses: l. 2:7). w'kl (and I ate) points once again to man's aloneness.The serpent is singled out from the cattle and the creatures of the field and cursed (3:14). where her concluding word is exactly the same. Thus. they no longer are intimate in the way they were previously. There will be enmity and strife between the serpent and woman. and between the serpent's seed and woman's seed (3:15).12 that the consequences of the act are most sharply focused. man must now cope with a ground that is cursed. Because the serpent was cunning ( c rwm). 2. She ignores man's claim that she had led him to sin. the principal figures are each addressed separately by God. which means all mankind (cf.

to cause to settle). 8 The inverted word order. 4 See the discussion of Umberto Cassuto. 1958) 250.1-6. hVJm w'shtw (the man and his wife). 1964) 18. continuing the pattern of vv.
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.4-5). A Commentary on the Book of Genesis: Part I (Jerusalem: Magnes Press. places even greater emphasis on the serpent. specifically using the verb nwch (to place. but that would have reduced the emphasis on woman provided by the demonstrative pronoun. It should further be noted that the verbs throughout v. with earlier conditions where the created world was in harmony.7 are plural. Speiser. "and that the tree was to be desired to make one wise. where the plural verbs indicate the oneness of man and woman. Introduction. 3 See also the use of the verb Iqch in v. 12 As indicated by the phrase c yny shnyhm (the eyes of the two of them). Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (Leiden: Brill. On the use of z't for emphasis. almost all these plural verbs are second person masculine.15 of the idea that God placed man in the garden.A. Translation. Garden City. even when woman alone is addressed (vv.Mauser: Intimacy and Alienation in Genesis 2-3 NOTES 1 The creation of the garden for man is further stressed by the repetition in v. and Notes (AB.21. except that in 3:6 there is the additional clause. 2 The writer could have used hwMshe) in some or all of the instances where zH is used.Y. 1961) 135-36." The addition of this clause in 3:6 helps contrast the situation there. 6 It is precisely this point which allows the writer to stress in v.1-6. 5 E. 9 This despite the fact that woman has not yet been created when man alone receives the command from God in 2:16-17.: Doubleday. N. The writer thus makes it impossible for the reader to think of woman apart from man in vv. Genesis. where disruption is breaking into the created order. 10 Interestingly. 11 This wording parallels 2:9.24 the fact that man and woman become one flesh. see Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner. 7 The writer stresses their standing in each other's presence both by using shnyhm (the two of them) and by specifically mentioning each. with the noun hnchsh (the serpent) coming first.

19 See Cassuto. 15 Note also the usage in w. 20 Note the parallelism of ky csyt z*t (because you have done this) to mh z't csyt (What is this that you have done?) in v. 1910) 256. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar as Edited and Enlarged by the Late E. the writer has used h*shh only in 3:1-6. there was great stress on the delight of seeing in vv.22 and 23 helps strengthen this point.
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. 18 The writer has used the longer spelling. or by one another. 16 Prior to 3:12. either by God.23) so that he would not stretch out (yshlch) his hand to take and eat from the tree of life.7-11 man and woman cannot bear to be seen.l 3.5-6. 175). 17 Note the stress that is placed on hw* (she). 158. The Clarendon Press. as opposed to the shorter ntt (see Gesenius. 1. which is opposite to the normal verb-subject word order in Hebrew. and by its position at the beginning of the clause. Cowley (ed. 121. and 5. 21 The word play on shlch in w.E. 14 See A. whereas in vv.3. ntth. both by the fact that it is an added element.2. not really required in its clause. where he describes the serpent's tempting of the woman.).Art and Meaning 13 As noted above. God sent man forth (wyshlchhw) from the garden (v. so as to make a more perfect parallel to the subsequent ntnh. Kautzsch (Oxford.

We must attempt to read the accounts of creation as if we had never seen them before" /2/. have to be carefully studied. our attention is drawn in part to the specific meaning of single motifs. Martin Buber comments on his method of biblical study as follows: I have treated the Hebrew text in its formal constituents more seriously than has become the general custom in modern exegesis. The first of
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. and sentences recur. In particular. rounds off the content. and in part to common analogies and completions of meaning as between them /!/. in my view.R. i. a special function is exercised.R. as one might say.EXODUS 1-2 IN THE CONTEXT OF EXODUS 1STORY LINES AND KEY WORDS Charles Isbell INTRODUCTION In his fascinating little book on Moses. The choice of words in a given section. whether in the same passages or in other corresponding ones. by identical sounds.e. however. In the course of dealing with this text over a period of many years.. Gros Louis in an article investigating Genesis 1-11: "To analyze the opening chapters of Genesis as literature we must come as close as possible to performing a very difficult feat. as well as the sentence structure to be found on each occasion. My conviction is that careful study of the Exodus text as if we were hearing it for the first time will enable us to explore in depth two important aspects of the text. ignorance of which make it impossible to hear the story correctly. words. I have also tried to adopt a principle enunciated by K. and in this connection the original meaning of the words and the changes in meaning. I have been ever more strongly reaching the conclusion that the form frequently. that we are often shown something important by means of it. My study of Exodus 1-1* is undertaken in the spirit of Buber.

In addition to the fun of the surprise. as-if-for-the-first-time study of the text is the discovery of "key words. In simple terms. Generally. and if we cannot forget the ending of the story which we already know from Sunday School as we read each unit. for all good authors hope their readers or hearers will allow them to manipulate them a bit. we may note words within each unit of the narrative (intra-unit key words). the exodus is a story which begins with a people enslaved and proceeds fairly rapidly to a people freed. herd them into blind alleys . they will be the word(s) apart from which the meaning of the unit cannot be derived. lead them toward false clues. In order to illustrate these points about story lines and key words I have chosen to focus upon only one small unit (Exodus 1:8-2:25) which heads a much larger portion of material extending at least as far as Exodus 14:31. These may be unusual words or they may be quite common ones with uncommon meanings or functions in a particular place. And then we can no longer be surprised by the text. Rather. however.Art and Meaning these I shall call the "story lines" (see Chart 1). I realize of course that even this short passage is seldom treated as a unit. and there must be some functional or associational or theatrical peculiarity involved with their appearance in a unit. The course of these lines must be charted. each unit within the whole projects a line (or lines) which is sometimes upward. sometimes downward. Again. virtually all scholars have judged that
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. at times even backward. surprise them with a story line that moves in different directions before arriving at its concluding point. our study will also disclose overall patterns of meaning which may be charted by observing key words shared by more than one unit of the narrative (inter-unit key words). Whichever the case. 2:1-10 are accepted on form critical grounds as the primary story to which 1:8-22 have been added as a second expansion /3/. is the increasing excitement which can be created as a story develops its meaning using those early clues with expanding or changing functions until everything at last becomes clear. we will force the lines into a path which we think they ought to follow rather than pursue the lines indicated by the narrator. But a straight horizontal line from beginning to end is not an accurate chart of the whole story. These key words may be intra-unit words. but are not necessarily the same." First. even in its tersest form. Next.in short. A second product of careful. Yet the element of surprise in a story is essential.

which indicates that the continued growth and prosperity of the Israelites was in direct proportion to the amount of oppression which they endured. only to be brought plummeting downward by the addition of new information which bespeaks worse oppression yet to come. 2:11-22).Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 Exodus 2:11-22 should be separated from the three paragraphs which immediately precede /4/. 1:15-22.8-2. it is necessary to make several assertions with respect to the unit being chosen for study. STORY LINES A. The arrow swings sharply upward. the design to oppress. I shall proceed now to examine Exodus 1:8-2:25 in depth. I shall conclude with an examination of the final three verses of the unit and a discussion of their relationship to the rest of the story through 14:31. 1:8-14
This paragraph begins on a note of despair. the gang-foremen. But immediately following the negative words of despair is the formula expressed in v. EXODUS l. Exodus 2:23-25 are treated as a "P" comment which is almost wholly unrelated to all except two (1:13-14) of the preceding 37 verses in the story /5/Thus.12) is plural. C. The unknowing new king. (d) I believe that key words introduced in this opening unit indicate the essence of the exodus story. The root cbd is then repeated five times in rapid-fire succession. all testify to the sharp downward thrusting of the arrow /6/. Then I shall examine the key words used in these four major paragraphs.22. First I shall discuss the story lines of the first four paragraphs (A. at the outset.12.
I. again the signal of worse oppression than that demanded by the
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. D. The word "loathe" (wayyaqutsQ. B. the building projects. 2:1-10. v. the burdens. indicating the involvement of many Egyptians joining the evil monarch. (a) I believe that the rhetorical form of the story itself demands a unit which includes all of Exodus 1:8-2:25. (c) I believe that the keywords of the paragraphs in the unit need to be re-examined. (e) I believe that several of the concepts introduced in this opening unit are not fully explained by the narrative until the final unit (Exodus 13:17-14:31). 1:8-14. (b) I believe that the general lines presented in this opening unit prepare and to some extent delimit the story lines of the units which follow. And finally.

Art and Meaning original decree. Again." hope proves fleeting and is followed by additional kinds of oppression. there will be other oppressors aplenty to see that slavery does not end. every expectant couple would have prayed that the child soon to be born would be a daughter who could be spared instead of a son (ben) who would have to be cast into the Nile River. this one involving more than hard work or bad treatment from bosses. But surely in light of the command given in 1:22. the plan which was designed to destroy life fails. B. the phrase "the woman conceived and bore a son" (v. exactly as has happened in paragraph "A. Accordingly. This time. And the adverb "ruthlessly" (bprk. the announcement here that a "son" had been born means that the very worst has happened. But again. Hope comes in the guise of a "daughter. Normally. vv. 1:15-22 Now a new plan is devised by the king. the plan is thwarted by two midwives.2) is employed to signal great and joyous news. the impression is left that even though one plan might fail.14) along with mrr ("makes bitter") and qshh ("hard") completes the picture of a worse ending than that anticipated early in the paragraph. repeated." As Ackerman and Cassuto have empha40
. Was there no end to the measures which Egypt would enact against the Israelites? Paragraphs "A" and "B" answer resoundingly "nol" C. The arrow plunges lower than ever before. Again the paragraph ends on a lower point of despair than that with which it began. 2:1-10 It might appear that this paragraph begins on a more positive note than the two immediately preceding ones. Verse 22 stipulates that not only two powerless midwives but everyone in the country be legally bound to participate in the slaughter of Hebrew baby boys.!2a. hope is raised following the initial decree of the king. Even though the king might devise a plan which really works the opposite effect from what he intended. The word 'kill" crackles like a rifle shot on a still evening. hope follows despair quickly. But. In short. the arrow rises. But again. of course. another will be implemented to take its place. An unidentified deity is mentioned who honors their courage. The paragraph ends on this downward arrow indicating despair that is only momentarily brightened by the report of v.13.

In short.Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 sized correctly. now carry quite a negative impact. Moses replaced the Pharaoh and ended the slavery along with the reign of terror of the "bad guy" (B' or 1s)... hope. Now an even more powerful ally than the midwives or Pharaoh's daughter herself has joined the opposition to the monarch. It appears that something substantive has been done to thwart the evil law of the king. this paragraph has a different function in the overall narrative. His name. despair. are all Egyptian. Notice the action verbs: wayyetse' . one might reasonably expect a BAB1 sequence. one who can do more for the Israelites than the faithful midwives in the preceding paragraph." watched over by his parent's "daughter. 10 that Moses had "become one of them" is shown to be untrue after all. The arrow plunges lower still. 2. The opening of this paragraph with "hope" ("B") would seem to foreshadow a closing with hope. way e ht-lah jeben (RSV: "and he became her son")." In other words. even as the preceding paragraphs had begun and ended with "despair. his training. the Pharaoh sought to oppose those efforts (A or 40." that he joined the enemy. which had an ABA 1 pattern of despair. that the one to whom attention and hope had been turned was now on the side of the oppressors. for someone did what the king said could not be done. The king's own daughter spared a Hebrew "son. one who has political clout. his home.ll-22 This paragraph opens on a note of hope." and finally spared by the "daughter of the Pharaoh. often a happy phrase in the Hebrew Bible. This time hope is longer in duration than before. Moses gets involved. Moses became an adult and immediately got involved in the fight for freedom (B or'T). Moses and the Pharaoh engaged in a fierce duel which Moses naturally won. D. thereby exhibiting a stylistic switch from the preceding three paragraphs. all too soon. his mother.10. the word "daughter" is of crucial and symbolic significance in this paragraph." But despair does come. The words in v. Moses is born to a "daughter of Levi." Above all. these actions of the daughter of the evil monarch represent the element of hope by introducing a more powerful ally.
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. The hint of v. Immediately the paragraph opens. "they all lived happily ever after." But of course it is not yet time for the happy ending. The story should go something like this. Here they mean that Moses became one of "them.

wayyar* . wayyaqom mosheh wayyoshican ("and Moses arose and helped them". and he saw . of course. and he stayed . and Moses was content to stay with the man. This is negative information. but Moses strikesl The story line reaches its highest point of hope so far. The midwives merely avoided obeying evil decrees. but the the real bully is still safely far away. Even the apparently upbeat sound of the phrase.. Clearly this son.... surely in keeping with action expected from a hero. and he sat .. For soon we read almost incomprehensible words. Thrashing some country shepherds who terrorize helpless maidens is one thing. Gershom. to be sure. wayyesheb .. and he looked .l9)..l 7).." vv.Art and Meaning wayyar' . a life removed from the sights and sounds of injustice and suffering happening in Egypt. wayyippen ...... a life of safety and comfort.. the Pharaoh learns of Moses1 action and initiates action to have him killed. that intriguing word ben ("son") occurs again. wayyak ("and he went out and he looked .. hardly what we expect to learn about our Hebrew freedom fighter. a ben demands an arrow shooting sharply downward. 14:5) . And here. still belching forth orders of death. 15-16. but nothing has happened in the story so far which the structural signals have not prepared us to anticipate. But it does not stay up very long... and he killed..11-12). Instead..the beginning of a new era. just as it did in the two preceding paragraphs. wayyo'el m5sheh lashebet 'et-ha'Tsh ("and Moses fled .. And finally. lives as a constant reminder to Moses that his old life has ended. wayyesheb . This is the first overt action against Egypt. First we learn from the daughters that Moses was passing himself off as an Egyptian (v." And then in rapid succession." vv.. "Moses became frightened.. and he saw . v. the royal princess merely exercised human compassion upon a crying baby.21). Then we observe that Moses opts rather permanently for the safe and simple life in Midian. This ben means something symbolic to Moses .. But there is more. we read something shockingly opposite: the "hero" turns tail and runs away! Note again the sharpness of the verbs which describe the actions of Moses in this moment: wayyibrach mosheh (cf. wayyar' .... Even our faint hopes of finding in Moses the real deliverer are dashed by what follows.. a new life. The pungent
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.. Now all that remains is for us to hear something like "and Moses killed Pharaoh and became king in his stead" and we will have our expected ending. still enslaving the "brothers" with whom Moses had once felt such solidarity. is muted by our realization that his heroics are taking place in the minor leagues.

Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 sound of ger hay it i ("I have become a sojourner") drives this home with force /8/. Thus any hint of "heroism" in Moses is ironically circumscribed. He can be a hero (of sorts) in Midian, but not in Egypt where it really would have counted. Now he is driven to abandon any idea he might have entertained of freeing his "brothers." Appropriately, Clements speaks of "no hope of returning to Egypt" /9/. The arrow plunges /10/. II. EXODUS l;8-2;22. INTRA-UNIT KEY WORDS An examination of the first four paragraphs of our text reveals the following words which function as key words within the unit (intra-unit key words).
A. 1;8-14

That the key word to this paragraph is cbd ("serve," etc.) has been shown by more than one scholar /I I/. The principle of repetition cited by Buber is well attested here: a single sentence in v.l 4 in fact containes the root cbd four times. As will be shown below, this repetition not only singles out the root as the key word of the paragraph in which it appears but it also portends further significance for the root as the story develops. B. 1:15-22 In this paragraph, >e lohim ("God") is probably the most significant single word of all. The Pharaoh himself was commonly viewed as a deity; certainly lowly midwives would be expected to fear him greatly and to accept his word as law. In the words of J.A. Wilson, "there was no need to codify law, because the word of the god-king was present to make law" /12/. Yet subtly the text makes clear that the Pharaoh was not really divine because when the midwives feared God, god was thwarted.
C. 2;1-10

Ben forms the inclusio for this paragraph just as it does for the preceding one. In this paragraph it is also the key word. Notice that Moses is referred to six times as a yeled ("child," vv. 3, 4, 8, 9, 10), once as a na c ar ("boy," v.6), and 14 times by a pronoun such as "it" or "him" or even the demonstrative zeh ("this one") in v.6. In only two places (vv.2,10) is he called a
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Art and Meaning ben, the kind of child which faces destruction under the orders of the Pharaoh (1:22). Thus, the word ben both opens and closes the paragraph on a note of despair. To return to an earlier point, how can it be said that "the story points expectantly toward the future" /13/? Is it correct to title this paragraph "Birth and Deliverance of the Deliverer" /14/ or to observe that "God's plan for his people rested on the helpless child, floating down the river" /15/? On the contrary, God has not even been mentioned in this paragraph. Moses is spared, to be sure, but he has given no evidence that he will himself become a savior of others. No, the child, the ben who appeared for the moment to be evidence that the cruel decree of the Pharaoh could be skirted at least once, now is adopted by and goes off to live with the very people who are responsible for the trouble in the first place. Nothing else could be implied by the force of the phrase, "He became a ben to her." D. 2;ll-22 This paragraph lacks an inclusio with ben comparable to those of the two preceding paragraphs. Still, because of the position of ben at the end (v.22), as well as its function in relating paragraph "D" to paragraphs "B" and "C," I believe that the term is also the key word for the paragraph. III. EXODUS l:8-2;22. INTER-UNIT KEY WORDS As indicated earlier, this first unit of the exodus story introduces words whose significance only gradually becomes fully apparent as the story proceeds. Accordingly, we now extend the discussion by including a survey of several other units in the exodus story which use words introduced in our four paragraphs. (Note that the inter-unit and the intra-unit key words are not always identical.) A. 1;8-1» A major concept of the entire exodus narrative is introduced in this paragraph by means of the root cbd. The helpless people called "the sons of Israel" are enslaved by the Egyptians who are led by a cruel Pharaoh. Their slavery, which is introduced here, comes in later units to stand as a symbol of their inability to do anything in their own power to change their situation. They could not liberate themselves; and this is a

M

Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 theme which is repeated often in subsequent units; indeed, it is a large part of what the following units set out to demonstrate. For example, in 2:23, the cry of Israel min-hacab5da ("from their slavery") will ascend to God even though they are not addressing it particularly to him. In 3:12, the task to be given Moses is that of freeing people who are serving (cbd) the Pharaoh in Egypt so that they may serve (cbd) God on Mt Sinai instead. In a sense, then, the real issue throughout the narrative is not slavery versus freedom, but merely the identity and character of the master whom Israel must serve. In the words of Nahum Waldman, summarizing an article by Jehudah Ahuviah, "the biblical view is that service to God and servitude to man are antithetical. Without the Lord as protector, they became victims of the Egyptians. When they were redeemed, they entered upon the service of God" /16/. This point may be illustrated further. Over twenty times in the text following chapter two, reference is made to various people in Egypt who function as the "servants" of the Pharaoh. Conversely, ten times in the famous formula, the would-be master of Israel commands the Pharaoh to release "my people, so that they may serve me." In other words, although Egypt comes to be known as "the house of slavery," although many persons accept the designation of themselves as slaves of the Pharaoh, Yahweh is pictured in the exodus story as one who is determined that his people will not be among their number. Throughout the narrative, the people are consistently portrayed as helpless pawns being moved back and forth by the two larger-than-life chess masters. The story is complicated by the fact that although the Israelites dislike being manipulated by the Pharaoh, they finally arrive at the point of accepting their status as his slaves. (Note 5:15,16 where they call themselves the slaves and the people of the Pharaohl) They reject efforts to free them as too painful and risky, and view the slavery which they already know to be preferable to freedom as Moses and Yahweh seem to define it (14:12). The point seems to be what a current Bob Dylan hit proclaims: "You've got to serve somebody; it may be the devil or it may be the Lord, but you've got to serve somebody." In addition to the idea developed around the root cbd the word "war" (milchama) introduced in this paragraph also plays an important role in the story as a whole. According to the Pharaoh (1:10), the necessity for enslaving the Israelites arose from the possibility that they would hold improper allegiance to
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Art and Meaning the enemy in case of a war. The word "war" does not occur in the story again until 13:17. This time the God of Israel steers his people the long way around to avoid the land of the Philistines for fear the people will change their minds about leaving when they see "war." Thus one character in the story fears they will leave Egypt because of war, another fears they will return to Egypt because of warl The issue of "war" is not finally settled until chapter 14 when Moses seeks to allay the fear of the Israelites by promising them that "Yahweh will war (yillachem) for them (v.14). Shortly thereafter (v.25), the Egyptians, unfortunate victims of a power struggle themselves, acknowledge the fulfillment of Moses1 promise, again using the verb "war" ("for Yahweh fights [nilcham] for them"). In other words, the fear of the Pharaoh which at first (1:10) appeared to be so paranoid and completely unfounded, ultimately proves to be exactly what did happen. A "war" was declared, the Israelites did in fact line up on the side opposite the Egyptians, and after the war was over (= after Yahweh finished warring for his peoplel), the Israelites did indeed "go up from the land." B. 1:13-22 In terms of the introduction of concepts to be expanded later in the narrative, "fear" (yr1) must also be judged a key word. The phrase "But the midwives feared (wattire'na) God" (v. 17) stands in stark contrast to "And Moses was afraid (wayyira 0 )" in 2:14. The latter sentence pointedly omits a direct object but as the next verse shows, it was the Pharaoh whom Moses feared, not God. And even as fear of God becomes the turning point in 1:15-22, the fear of Pharaoh becomes the turning point in 2:11 -22. Again we are introduced to a dramatic counterpoint. It is a question of "Whom shall I fear?" And again the principles in the drama are God and god. Nowhere is this contrast drawn more sharply than in chapter 14. Trapped between the sea and the rapidly approaching Egyptian army, the people of Israel "feared greatly" (wayyire'Q meod) as 14:10 puts it, because they saw "the Egyptians coming after them." As in 2:14, the specific direct object is omitted, although again the object of the fear is clear enough from the context. But after the deliverance at the Sea and after seeing those same ferocious Egyptians "dead on the beach" (14:30), the fear of the Israelites received a new object. As 14:31 states it, "the people feared (wayyire>Q) Yahweh" /17/.
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Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 C. 2:1-10 In addition to the frequent employment of plural ben£ in the phrase ben^ yisra'el, singular ben also plays a significant role in Exodus 1-14. As paragraph "B" shows, the birth of a son was made a major issue by Pharaoh. Every son born to the Hebrews was to be killed by being cast into the water. As paragraph "C" shows, the orders of the Pharaoh simply had to be carried out, no matter how "beautiful" (t6b) a child might be or how lovingly cared for by his parents. This unsparing destruction of "sons" in 1:22 sets the stage for the remarkable saga of the bekor ("first-born") which follows. Normally, of course, Hebrew bekor stands alone and does not need the word ben to make it a complete phrase /18/. But the ominous passage in Exodus 4:22-23 places the two words in apposition to good effect. Thus says Yahweh, "Israel is my son, my first-born (b e nt b e kori), and I say to you, 'Let my son go that he may serve me1; if you refuse to let him go, behold, I will slay your son your first-born (binka bekoreka)". The point is that the same general idea could have been conveyed if the word ben were left out both times. But ben sharpens the focus and recalls 1:22. Because Pharaoh has made ben the issue, Yahweh has no choice but to do battle with him in this way. Yahweh stiffens the ground rules and challenges the Pharaoh to risk not only the life of a nameless, faceless ben out there somewhere but specifically his son and pointedly his heir which is the real meaning of bekor rather than simply "first-born" /19/. To say it another way, the Pharaoh had taken something joyous and good, the birth of a son, and had made a nightmare out of the whole thing. So Yahweh will take the thing which the Pharaoh surely prizes the most and will turn it into a nightmare for him. The simple word ben points this contrast sharply. It should also be noted that the phrase "in the midst of the reeds" (betok hassQp) is of special importance in the paragraph, giving an ironic twist to the story when the mother of Moses technically complies with the order of the Pharaoh in 1:22 by setting her son in the water. After all, the royal decree did not say one could not use a basketl But beyond this function, the expression bet6k hassup here cannot be divorced from the five-fold repetition of the phrase "in the midst of the sea"
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16. By the time of the second occurrrence of yshc." "kill") ably discussed by Ackerman. a
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.2:11-22
There are four words used in paragraph "D" which are important in subsequent units. Then in the concluding scene of the entire narrative.27. The first of these is the root nkh ("strike. the location of the basket containing the baby Moses implies what the mother hopes will be a place of hiding from the Pharaoh. But later.Art and Meaning (betok hayyam) in chapter lit (vv.29). yam sQp (13:18). the phrase "at the sea's edge" (cal-sepat hayya"m.23. 14:30) describes a place where Yahweh had not only confronted but totally defeated the Pharaoh. especially when we remember that the sea is the sea of reeds. the phrase indicates a place in which life was granted when death was to have been expected. already touched upon earlier. The third word which is crucial both here and in later units is Hebrew yshc ("deliver") which we have already noted in 2:17. In his words. This is a common phrase which no one would initially suspect to be a carrier of meaning throughout the narrative. But it is quite striking that this root never occurs again in the entire exodus narrative until chapter 14. 2:3). A final phrase introduced in paragraph "C" and seen only later to be significant throughout the story is "at the river's edge" (cal-sepat haye)or. Obviously in this early unit.22. The second word is yr' ("fear"). In both cases (chapter 2 and chapter 14). But Moses fears the king and flees for his life" 1221. It will be remembered that the saving deed of Moses in 2:17 was actually quite insignificant with respect to the situation of the Hebrews in Egypt. "the mid wives had feared God and acted to defy the king. In Ackerman's words. "it cannot be accidental that this is also the same word which will later describe what God does to Egypt through the plagues (called 'the ten smitings1 in Hebrew)" /21/.
0. the phrase "at the river's edge" (7:15) indicates the place where the adult Moses confronts the Egyptian monarch /20/. to open the first plague in the entire plague sequence which features Moses in debate with the Pharaoh over the future of the people of Israel. This transformation from a place of hiding to a place of confrontation to a place of victory signalled by "at the edge of" (cal-sepat) parallels the development of the story line in general.

All except four of these fit into one of three functional groups. The contrast between the deliverance accomplished by Moses and that achieved by Yahweh is sharp and clear. the report is made that Moses had rescued the daughters of the Midianite priest "from the hand of the shepherds.1 [note the translation by Childs]. the narrator can make us wait more and more anxiously for a savior who can accomplish a real deliverance.5.20. Attempting to encourage and embolden his fearful followers. as if to show that the tables are being turned so that the oppressed are now making demands . or delivering Israel (3:197. (a) Five times yad denotes the power of oppression. the yad being described is that of Moses (or Aaron) working miracles with or without the "rod. 5:21. Moses demands that sacrifices be given to the Israelites (beyade"nu).Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 radically new dimension must be added.15). A fourth key word in paragraph "D" is the common word "hand" (yad). By introducing the saving activity of Moses so early in the narrative. (b) 23 times. Cassuto remarks simply that "the Bible uses the word hand here in antithesis to the hand of the Egyptians in the preceding verse" /23/. delivering the land of promise to his people (6:8). the use of yad in this rather awkward fashion in 14:31 sets the activity of God in antithesis to the basic character of the Egyptian oppressors throughout the story." But what a difference in the salvation which each provided. One thinks naturally here of the phraseology of 3:8." This innocent sounding statement actually signals the first of nearly fifty occurrences of the word yad in the first fourteen chapters of Exodus. In fact. 13:3. The Egyptians lay dead.16. but quite tricky to render into adequate English. The Hebrew is plain enough in meaning. (wayyar* yisra'el *et-hayyad haggedola >as. the story ended as it should." And this time. In 2:19. 6:1. Moses assures them that they will soon "see the deliverance of [better: "from"] Yahweh" (14:13). wielded first by the harassing shepherds (2:19) and then by the Egyptians (3:8. 14:30).14. (c) 14 times yad means the power of God. and 14:30 picks up his idea in the following statement "Then Yahweh delivered (wayyoshac) Israel on that very day. 14:31). Of special significance is the function of yad in 14:31.
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.just like oppressors.9. His words prove true. At one point in the story (10:25). the Israelites marched free. Both were "saviors.her casah yhwh b e mitsrayim). This is partially correct. plaguing Egypt (7:4. I believe. the saving was a major event." 9:35 describes YHWH as having communicated to Egypt through Moses (beyad mosheh). 9:3.

The arrow rises. following the death of the trouble-maker. "And there arose a new king over Egypt" (wayyaqom melek . That it was still necessary. F. Part of "E" of the unit appears to redirect the arrow sharply upward again.Art and Meaning where Yahweh is quoted as saying. one might note that the power of the one is defeated by the superior power of the other by means of (beyad) Moses. the fact that the trouble continues
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. Hope here reaches its zenith." "C. The statement that "the king of Egypt died. 23b immediately plunges as low as the height momentarily attained in 23a. the news of his death would make a most appropriate and joyous ending to a otherwise unhappy tale. 2:23b Unfortunately. Structurally the terse statement "the king of Egypt died" (wayyamot melek mitsrayim) serves as the exact counterpoint to the equally terse statement which opens the drama in 1:8. The trouble had all begun with a new king. the entire story is about how Israel was transferred from the hand of one (Pharaoh) into the hand of the other (Yahweh). EXODUS 2:23-25. 2:23a is not the end of the story." the arrow indicating the story line had dropped to its lowest point yet. His death will surely end it." taken alone or as the final sentence in the story. IV. Accordingly. Instead. Throughout the first two chapters. mitsrayim). for Israel to groan and cry and shriek in agony is chilling evidence that the trouble did not end when it should have." and "D.." Again we note the struggle for Israel being waged by two potential masters /24/. The accession of one evil person began it all. a paranoid king. "I have come down to deliver them (Israel) from the hand of (miyyad) the Egyptians. Now we learn that the oppression of Israel involved more than a single evil individual. would convey the highest and most optimistic note yet attained by the narrator. the impression is given that the source of the problem for all the Israelites was none other than the one evil and deranged monarch." "B. an unknowing king. STORY LINES E." As we saw at the end of paragraph "C.. Or. 2. an unreasonable king who committed murder. In the truest sense.23a It is necessary now to return to the identification of story lines discussed above for paragraphs "A.

yet spoke. v. True. they were still in force. was the startling realization that someone else was there to carry on the oppression for him. Even the salvation of Moses is explained as due to the ingenuity of his mother and the compassion of the Egyptian princess rather than as divinely miraculous in any way at all. the God mentioned here in 2:23-25 is distant. Second.24 and 25 could hardly be better suited to the overall scheme of things if the "3" writer himself had written theml Several points are noteworthy. But without these last two verses. but has been at most in the background otherwise. the chapters function to introduce all the main characters. as prelude. "God" has been referred to in 1:17. Greenberg's statement would barely be correct. For even worse than the woe of a slave's existence." True. Tellingly. He. and mysterious. The arrow plunges. True. The commands to "all his people" (1:22) were not to be rescinded. "God" could be seen to be an intrusion here.21. such an assignment has had the effect of isolating the verses from everything which precedes (except 1:13-14) as well as from everything which follows until chapter 6:2ff. the story needs another character.Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 beyond the lifetime of the king means that his attitude to the Hebrews had been widely accepted among the Egyptians. the text uses ^elohTm instead of yhwh (which "P.23 ends with that most odious of words.20." it is argued. 2:24-23 As is well known. G. I suppose there is no reason why 2:23-25 may not be designated "priestly". "slavery" (cabodci). transcendent. It is only with 2:23-25 that God is fully introduced into
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. the story line needs an upward arrow again unless slavery is to be the final word. does not use until chapter six). Whether this is a valid source assessment or not. Greenberg /25/ can speak of Exodus 1-2 as a prelude to the main drama and can assert that. First. Exodus 2:23-25 have commonly been assigned by the source critics to the priestly document. being dead. But the function of vv. brightened only by the hope that the tyrant had to die eventually (meaning that there would someday be an end to it all). having had only an elusive presence in paragraph "B. but I do find it interesting that the wording of the "P" source here dovetails so nicely with the general structure determined so far by "J" and "E" as well as with several 3E blocks of material soon to follow.

would "God" suddenly appear in Midian to enlist Moses? Verses 24-2. 2:6) for the suffering Israelites. probably the end is missing. and God remembered his covenant . Targum Onqelos paraphrases it radically. actionless.. thereby avoiding the need for a direct object. for example.. Why. And the structure of the four simple clauses employed contribute to the intrigue. He is nameless. undefined in any way. in 2:23-25 the deity is almost casually and at best cryptically mentioned." I would like to suggest on the contrary that nothing is missing. Each clause has >e loh!m as subject and an active verb. Indeed precisely this construction is ideally suited to make the point of the entire prelude. heard. It is not really until the next scene (3:1-4:17) that the deity "bestirs itself" /26/. The fourth sentence is the surprise. our fancy or deserve our respect.5 answer that question in advance. Rashi expands the phrase by commenting that it means "he paid attention to them and did not close his eyes" /29/. And modern commentators have been no less concerned to help the narrator tell his story more clearly. The story opens with the introduction of a human king who did not know. And God heard their groaning. There is wide agreement with the opinion expressed by a Jerusalem Bible footnote that "the verse does not yield satisfactory sense. and God saw the people of Israel and God knew (wayyedac >e lohim). And this contrast will be
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. Yet it must be emphasized that there has been little evidence of God acting crucially in the story so far. the first three add *et and a definite direct object. Only with 2-?3-25 will the rest of the story begin to make sense. and even in these final two verses of the unit. But the deity of Exodus 2:24-25 is hardly what the story appears at this point to need. the deity who is mentioned seems hardly designed to capture. formless. The LXX transposes active ydc into a passive /27/ and reads ^l^hem instead of )e lohim.Art and Meaning the narrative: we are told that God saw. it now ends by introducing a deity who does know. and knew. Our curiosity is aroused enough to make us want to read further. remembered. We are not even told that this god cared or felt compassion (cf. Now this fourth sentence has elicited scholarly comment from earliest times. Still. the statements about God fascinate just because of their lack of definition.

It is noteworthy that the object in each case is the cry uttered by the oppressed Israelites /31/. 5:2 has the
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. Moses was tending the flock ." There is a pause in the narrative. 3:7. the text also indicates that Israel had trouble "hearing" in the sense of "obeying" what was being heard /32/: 6:9 and 6:12 point to Israel's refusal to "obey. "hear" The verb "hear" (shmc) appears three times in the exodus story (chapters 1-14) with the God of Israel as its subject: 2:24a. EXODUS 2:23-23. V. On the other hand. Still. Always. Chapters 1-2 end mysteriously by noting that although Moses was away from Egypt and the Hebrews were still groaning in their misery. Instead. then the story re-centers on Moses: "Meanwhile... KEY WORDS We have examined briefly the impact of the term ^ e lohim at this point in the narrative. This anguished cry which he hears is part of the reason for the deity to initiate acion on behalf of Israel. "What did God know?" And in order to answer that question. For example. and I have come down to deliver them. the missing direct object cannot be supplied by reference to anything revealed in the story so far. It is necessary also to look more closely at the four verbs which are employed in 2:24-25. as it were.8." But what "first-time" listener will not interrupt the narrative immediately with the demand. as is explicitly stated in 3:7-8: "I have heard their cry ." A second usage of shm c places Israel as its subject. in this construction.. the emphasis is upon refusal or inability to "hear" and thus to "obey" the commandments of the God of the Hebrews. the narrator will be forced to proceed with the narrative all the way down to 14:31. the people are under obligation to "hear" the report of Moses1 meeting with God (3:18. "God knew. we have yet to learn that the missing direct object of 2:25b is what now appears in the text as chapters 3-14. Each continues throughout the story as a word of major significance (inter-unit key word)." A third way in which shmc is used is with the Pharaoh as its subject.Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 repeated again and again as the narrative unfolds. 4:1.. and 6:5. There is conscious art to the structure of 2:24-25. 1. In these cases.9) or the joyous news that Yahweh had visited his people (4:31).

Art and Meaning Pharaoh boasting with a rhetorical question, "Who is Yahweh that I should obey his voice?" Moses himself recognizes the difficulty of persuading the Pharaoh to obey Yahweh in 6:12 and 6:30, noting wryly in 6:12 that if Yahweh's own people would not obey, the Pharaoh of Egypt could hardly be expected to do so. But above all, the refusal of the Pharaoh to obey the voice of that other god is attested in the plague cycle. Twice (7:4; 11:9) there is the prediction and six times there is the report that the Pharaoh did not hear (= obey) the words being spoken to him by the messenger of Yahweh (cf. 7:13,16,22; 8:11,15; 9:12). 2. "remember" The verb zkr has more than one subject in the narrative. First, of course, is the divine subject introduced in 2:24b. This same statement regarding God's remembrance of his "covenant" also occurs in 6:5. But the necessity for Israel also to remember is attested with the root zkr. Thus in 3:15, the name of God /33/ is disclosed to Moses with the rather solemn statement that it (the name) was the "memorial" (zeker) by which God was to be remembered forever. Again, in 12:14, the Passover was cited as a day which was to be perpetually a day of "remembrance" for the Israelites; in 13:3, the day of the exodus event proper is a day which Israel is commanded to "remember." And finally 13:9 specifies the feast of unleavened bread as an event to commemorate with a "reminder" which was to be worn on the forehead. What happens in the narrative, then, both with "hearing" and "remembering" is that the people of Israel (or the Pharaoh) must come to the point where they are able to share the perspective of the God mentioned in 2:24. God hears and remembers and because of it moves into action to bring about salvation. But part of that salvation is the coming to "obedience" (= hearing) and the responsibility of remembering which is laid upon God's people. 3."see" The root r'h occurs far more frequently throughout the exodus story than either shm c or zkr. Already by the time of its use in 2:25, it has appeared seven times in the unit. Pharaoh's order to the midwives hinged upon their "seeing" Hebrew women in labor in time to extinguish the life from their sons (1:16). In 2:2, the mother of Moses makes the decision to
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Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14 hide her son upon "seeing" that he was t6b /34/. In 2:5, the "sight" of the boy-bearing basket arouses the curiosity of the Egyptian princess while in 2:6 the "sight" of a crying infant evokes compassion from her. Three times in rapid succession (2:11,11,12) Moses, now grown, "saw" his oppressed brothers and then the clear coast which made his act of justice possible. But all of these "sightings" do little to alter the final course of the story. The "seers" are all human and their ability to change the course of events limited. This simply means that the stage was set for the statement made in 2:25a. That "God saw" could lead to something exciting. In fact, that God could see was only a part of the solution. For as the story develops, we learn that a big part of the problem is that of perspective. First of all, the God who sees in 2:25a must be seen (3:2,16; 4:1,5) as he had once been seen by (i.e., appeared to) the patriarchs (6:3a). But beyond that, the children of Israel were going to "see" things differently with respect to their situation in Egypt. After the initial appearance of Moses and Aaron before the Pharaoh had resulted in increased trouble for Israel, the promise of God to Moses, was "Now you will see what I will do" (6:1). And this promise finally finds fulfillment in the final unit of the story. The Israelites, advised by Moses to "stand by and see deliverance from Yahweh" (14:13), learned that shortly they would see the Egyptians in a new light. True enough, in 14:30 they did see the Egyptians "dead on the beach." This is described as the prelude to faith in the next verse: "When Israel saw, ... then they believed" (14:31). 4. "know" Part of the significance of ydc ("know") has already been discussed above by noting it as the inclusio for the entire unit 1:8-2:25. But this notation is far from exhausting the significance of the term throughout the exodus narrative. To begin with, as scholars have often noted /35/ and as I have emphasized in another paper /36/, the purpose and literary function of the plague stories is also closely tied to the theme of knowledge as signaled by ydc. Repeatedly, Yahweh promises to send a plague for the purpose of allowing the Pharaoh to get to know him, the point continuing to be that never in the narrative does the Pharaoh know anything and never does the God of Israel not know anything. Apart from this theme of the knowledge of God versus the
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Art and Meaning ignorance of the Pharaoh, however, is the critical fact that the God who knows is not known by those whom he would designate to be his people. Accordingly, the task of making himself known (and seen and heard and remembered'.) constantly challenges God throughout the narrative. To return to an earlier point, this probably means that )e lohim is used in 2:24-25 precisely because the deity to that point in the story is essentially nameless or unknown. For the story to develop adequately, the one who knows must be known (cf. 6:3b,7), even as the one who sees must be seen and then must have his saving activity seen by his people /37/ before any substantive change in their situation can be made. CONCLUSION In this paper I have tried to show how Exodus 1:8-2:25 functions as a kind of "prelude" to the whole story of Exodus 1-14. This unit sets out important lines along which the story will proceed and indicates key themes which the story will develop. In the course of the discussion, particularly by isolating and exploring key words in the unit, I have tried to demonstrate something of the internal coherence of the exodus story in its present form. As a postscript, several particular observations may be made. First, analysis of the story lines has shown that Moses is not a hero figure in the usual sense and that attempts to relate the story of his birth to other ancient Near Eastern epics miss the point of the paragraph in its own setting. Second, it should be noted that the story lines often cross the boundaries commonly set down by source analysis. This is a point which Greenberg has made eloquently /43/ but which needs constantly to be remembered and buttressed if meaningful analysis of the biblical text is to be possible. Third, I have attempted to refine discussion of key words for some of the paragraphs in the unit under examination. Thus, for paragraph A, for example, cbd ("serve") is widely agreed upon. But the function of "son" as an inclusio for both paragraphs B and C has been neglected, as has the fact that the son in 2:2, unlike any other son born in the Bible, represents an unanswered prayer if the context created by 1:22 be remembered. Fourth, my study has pointed to the close relationship
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Isbell: Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-1* between the first unit (1:8-2:25) and the final unit (13:17-14:31) in the exodus story. The connection is evident, for example, in the appearance, in these two units only, of the phrase "at the edge of" (cal-sepat) or the roots Ichm ("war," 1:10 and 13:17; 14:14,25), and yshc ("deliver," 2:17 and 14:13,30). Fifth, the striking pattern noticed in 2:24-25 attests to the tight relationship among all the units in the exodus story as a whole. Nothing is missing at the end of 2:25 except all of 3:1-14:31. In future studies, I hope to demonstrate the structure of additional units in the exodus story along lines which I have explained in this paper. In particular, I believe the final unit (13:17-14:31) will prove fruitful under this kind of analysis. But I trust that enough has been said to demonstrate the importance of a close, as-if-for-the-first-time study of the biblical text. I trust that I have been able to recapture the viability of the exodus story in its canonical form which remains, after all, the only form we have. NOTES 1 Martin Buber, Moses, The Revelation and the Covenant (New York: Harper Torchbacks, 1958), 8-9. 2 Kenneth R.R. Gros Louis, "Genesis I-II," in Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives, ed. Gros Louis, Ackerman, Warshaw (New York: Abingdon, 1974) 41. 3 This was originally the thesis of Gressman. See now Brevard Childs, The Book of Exodus (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974) 8-11. 4 See for example, Childs; Umberto Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Exodus, trans. Israel Abrahams (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967); Ronald E. Clements, Exodus, Cambridge Bible Commentary (Cambridge: University Press, 1972); Frank Michaeli, Le Livre de 1'Exode, Commentaire de 1'Ancien Testament (Paris: Delachaux and Niestle, 1974); Werner H. Schmidt, Exodus, Biblischer Kommentar (Neukirchen Vluyn, 1974, 1977); F.C. Fensham, Exodus, De Prediking van het Oude Testament (Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1977). 5 Verse 23b is often assigned to "J." 6 See Chart I on the story lines and Chart II for the words which indicate those lines plus the intra-unit and inter-unit key words. 7 James S. Ackerman, "The Literary Context of the Moses Birth Story," Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives 97.
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The early confident gains from stylistic observations in the separation of literary documents of the Pentateuch have had to be more modestly restated.and stylistic critics. the Pentateuchal narratives have offered some of the most difficult challenges to form. the impression of fragmentation within certain stories (like the Flood and the Plagues) due to the presence of several "sources" has been difficult to overcome for rhetorical critics. Both Luis Alonso Schokel /!/ and dames Muilenburg /2/ have stressed the complementary nature of form criticism and rhetorical criticism. for example. an approach that may enable the cooperation of these two methods in future study of the Pentateuchal narratives. Vater Western Illinois University Macomb IL 61*55. whether of analytic or synthetic tendencies. PROBLEMS IN THE PLAGUES STORY Let us begin with a consideration of certain problems in the Plagues story: the extent and form of the story.
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. however. The expectations provided by the conventions of oral and literary genres are more skillfully broken in the stories of the Torah than elsewhere in the OT. Rather than abandoning form criticism or rhetorical (stylistic) criticism.A PLAGUE ON BOTH OUR HOUSES: FORM. Many stories still elude a precise designation of their genre.AND RHETORICAL-CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON EXODUS 7-11 Ann M. the Joseph story and the story of the Plagues. are continually challenged by the difficulties of Torah literature. I would like to propose a new solution to certain problems surrounding the Plagues story. USA In modern Old Testament study. Also. Stylistic critics also. Some of the narratives seem to stand in an intermediary position between prose and poetry." I. Schokel stating that "both belong together and will develop most copiously if they walk hand in hand. its structure.

While not claiming to solve all these difficulties. Moses. Certainly the Plagues story has become a plague upon the houses of both form and rhetorical critics.Vater: Observations on Exodus 7-11 its development. For example.g. the oracle of judgment or the private oracle? Is there a narrative pattern which provides a clear structure? Do God. and Pharaoh speak and act in patterned ways? Finally. structure and development of the Plagues story. or a steadily accelerating sequence of ten /12/? Is there a structuring sub-genre in the story. Aaron. The first difficulty is the question of the story's limits.10 (Noth) /5/ or 11 or 12? What is the overall mood. 5 as McCarthy has argued /3/. a sort of rebuttal to Pharaoh's refusal to recognise the Holy Name. or in 7:8 or 7:14? Does it end in ch. how does development take place in the story? Does the vocabulary of hardening or the severity of the plagues display a decisive movement? Do formulae like "that they may know that I am the LORD" or the Messenger Formula undergo change that signals the movement in the story? Do a succession of stylistic devices or sub-motifs like the concessions to Pharaoh or struggle with the magicians show development to a climax? The present answers to these questions are either negative. or "The Vindication of the Holy Name" (Greenberg) /8/? Further. the disputation. "Yahweh's Plagues" (Dumermuth) /7/. Childs' commentary on Exodus wrestles with many of these questions.. This study also
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. two groups of five (McCarthy) /I I/. or in 6:28 (Childs) /&/. and that stylistically it is best not to insist upon any one literary pattern but rather to agree with Greenberg's conclusion that the theme of the revelation of God's nature to all predominates. what is the structure of the story? How is the tenth event related to the rest? Are the plagues organised in three groups of three plus one (Greenberg /9/. although the story imitates the prophetic legend. Cassuto /10/). e. or that the complexities do not allow clear answers. coming to the form-critical conclusion that there is no one clearly underlying genre. Does it begin in Ex. genre and Sitz of the story? Is it prophetic legend or a segment of a Passover saga? What is its major theme? Should the story be subtitled "Moses1 Dealing with Pharaoh" (McCarthy) /6/. I would like to suggest that a study of the narrative patterns for oracle communication in this story does provide certain form-critical and stylistic clues to the questions of overall story form.

(vi) Pharaoh's heart hardens and he refuses to let Israel go (1-10). One type employs double scenes (both commissioning and delivery) so that the message or oracle is narrated twice. 3. 7. 8. The Eighth and Tenth Plagues are the only ones to have an announcement of the plague to Pharaoh. This first type is infrequent (3%. In a recent study I have delineated several patterns used for narrating message and oracle communication in two hundred and thirty examples in the OT /14/. e. 2 Kgs 9:17. (iv) the plague is performed (1-9). II. A second type employs neither commissioning nor
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. (ii) Moses announces a plague to Pharaoh (8. 8. YHWH gives Moses either a message or a command which initiates each plague. The plagues are told with the help of between three and six of these elements. These observations suggest the need for a new look at the pattern for communication in the Plagues Story. 2. (iii) YHWH commands Moses concerning the plague (1. 7. 9).Art and Meaning provides literary evidence for the role of Moses which Childs has suggested in his analysis of the Sinai tradition in Exodus (19:1-25. 4. The ironic way in which the narrator silences this mediator is characteristic of a type of story which I have chosen to call the Story of the Living Oracle. Moses the continual mediator of God's will /13/. 4. (b) the plague is performed. and (c) Pharaoh's heart remains unmoved. (v) Pharaoh asks Moses to intercede (2. 6. and the Tenth Plague is the only one whose performance is omitted immediately in the text. and then conclude this study by applying this story type to the Plagues Story. 10). 7. I have concluded that in the Biblical stories from Genesis to 2 Chronicles there are basically four types of patterns for narrating the communication of messages and oracles. After describing a set of patterns which I think provide structure and development of the plagues story. The Eighth Plague is the only one to be narrated with all six elements. These are two of the several possible elements used in the narrative patterns for the Plagues story: (i) YHWH announces the plague to Moses (1. 8.34). I will present the Story of the Living Oracle. 20:18-21. 5. The constant three elements are (a) YHWH communicates with Moses. PATTERNS FOR NARRATING THE COMMUNICATION OF ORACLES AND MESSAGES IN THE PLAGUES STORY One of the consistent scenes in the story of the Plagues is YHWH and Moses1 communication.g. 9).18). 10). 2.

That is. As established above. and begins. the Tenth Plague is structured differently than the rest. 3 [8:12-15]. Usually there is no subsequent reference to a delivery of the announcement or command (Plagues 1 [7:14-18]. Especially from the point of view of literary structure. Does Moses then deliver the oracles which YHWH commissioned? Only twice in the ten plagues is such a scene narrated. 7:22. 10:21^). this is the one example where Moses actually comes forth.) The P source's conclusory note for the nine plagues at 11:9 is prefaced by: "And the LORD said to Moses. The introductory formula is the same (11:1). 8:15 [8:19 EVV]. "Thus says the LORD" (Delivery pattern). especially to Moses and Aaron together. 7 [9:13-21]) or some further reference indicates obedience (Plagues 1 [7:19-22]. or Moses is told to instruct the people (11:2^). without any previous commissioning. It is generally characteristic of the P document to have the Lord speaking to Moses. 9:12 welo' shamac 'alehem ka'asher dibber yhwh and the somewhat garbled attempt by the redactor of P at 9:35b: "as the Lord had spoken by the hand of Moses"). 2 [7:26-29.Art and Meaning or Moses and Aaron are told to perform the plague (9:8^. 10 [11:1-2. The actual performance of four of the plagues is initiated again by the formula "And the LORD said unto Moses" (with a Commissioning pattern in 7:19P and 8:1 P. 5 [9:1-7]. (In the remaining examples the Lord himself swiftly performs the plague and in the Tenth Plague no performance is narrated until 12:29 after the first two sets of Passover regulations. the final redaction of the plague stories does not have as its central theme Moses as bearer of God's word or the realization of God's word in absolute accordance
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. Moses' pronouncement at 11:4 carries great force.Commissioning pattern). Perhaps not unexpectedly. 8:1-2]. Moses is commanded to tell Aaron to perform it (8:12P [8:16 EVV] . 4 [8:16-19]. without in 9:22E and 10:12E). 12:35]). instead of an Israelite wizard. This consistent pattern of YHWH's speaking is bolstered by P's closing formula: "But he did not listen to them as YHWH had spoken" (7:13." Each plague begins with a communication between God and Moses. Here (Ex 11:4) the 3 source resumes with Moses announcing the tenth plague to Pharaoh very much like a prophet before the king. but the announcement of what the plague will be comes only three verses later. 8:1 Ib [8:15b EVV]. This and the use of the formula heighten the impression that the Lord is really the source who causes all things to happen.

the story of the living oracle. and often the person is consulted in order to learn the answer to the question. This knowledge is the result of an oracular communication from God. Micaiah ben Imlah. however. 1 Sam 10:11. 1 Kgs 22:5. leaves the overall impression that everything that happened is the immediate result of God's miraculous power. etc. I would like to suggest a story type which answers these questions in the affirmative. 1 Kgs 22. 2 Kgs 19:2067
. but the stories in the Masoretic text unleash the power of God's word in a different fashion. prophet or prophetess who knows whether people will live or die. and uses his God-given power to tip the scale of life or death. The whole process of consultation is usually not narrated. 23:2. The prophet or prophetess also may be asked to pray or to ask for the answer to prayers. 1 Sam 10:17-19. While at first sight the plague stories appear to have certain elements in common with the prophetic legend. STORY OF THE LIVING ORACLE Several times within the OT. but simply a question is put to the ark or an altar. 2 Kgs 3:11-25. God wins deliverance for his people by an awesome display of power over death. Does this situation occur elsewhere in the scripture? Is it accompanied by the same literary patterns for narrating the communication of oracles? Is a mediating function described which is similar to the actions of Moses in the plague story? On the basis of my study of the commissioning pattern in the Deuteronomistic history. Of course there are many examples of people going to the Lord to "enquire" (KJV. a person (prophet or prophetess) is consulted." In the story of the Living Oracle. bqsh in 2 Sam 21:1. The Samaritan Pentateuch's efforts to "aid" the stories by inserting scenes of delivering oracles push them in this latter direction. the oracular communication. III. shM_in Judg 20:27. the story is told of a leader. with the response being prefaced by "and the LORD said. Elisha. 1 Chr 13:3. Thus it is the oracular communication of Yahweh to Moses which always is in the limelight. and he or she responds with an oracle introduced with the Messenger Formula (Samuel. 22:10.).. the prophet is also shown to be in control of natural processes.the two main themes of the "prophetic legend" genre. 28:7. At times.Vater: Observations on Exodus 7-11 with what was said earlier . this translates bqr in 2 Kgs 16:15. etc. Isaiah.4. particularly with the employment of commissioning patterns. and especially drsh in 1 Sam 9:9.

and is narrated rarely with the delivery pattern. The leader. The Living Oracle stories in the Deuteronomistic history are not typical of prophets' stories. while at crucial points the delivery pattern is employed (Eighth. 5:3). while God raises up various people to deliver a
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. In these stories. however. Usually a prophet simply goes and stands before his audience and delivers the word of God.14. 2 Kgs 19:5-7. 2 Kgs 22:14-20). or else narrated in a changed fashion. or God commissions the oracle. in the following story. In a variation of this story that is of most interest here. Shemaiah (1 Kgs 12:22-24 // 2 Chr 11:2-4). often with the commissioning pattern. either the prophet is consulted.Art and Meaning 35). 2 Kgs 1). Sometimes a prophet or prophetess gives subsequent instructions to deliver the oracle to the concerned party (Ahijah. but deliver a different one (Ex 3:18. and Huldah. Isaiah. Gideon (Jdg 7:2-3). prophet or prophetess is presumed to be a continual medium of God's will in the "living oracle" story. and then delivers an oracle. This distribution of patterns is remarkably similar to the Plagues Story. The oracular message in the story of the Living Oracle usually contains the Messenger Formula. and Isaiah (2 Kgs 20:4-6 // Isa 38:4-8). Gad (2 Sam 24:11-14 // 1 Chr 21:9-15). Tenth Plagues). 2 Kgs 8:10. where the predominant pattern is the commissioning one. Rather. and once Moses and Aaron are commissioned with one oracle. 1 Kgs 14:4-16. which is not narrated at all. Nathan (2 Sam 7:4-17 // 1 Chr 17:3-15). the oracles are related in the commissioning scene only. In the subsequent narration the oracle may be narrated in a varied form (2 Sam 24:11-14. The dire life and death situation is raised for the Israelites' enemies as well as for the Israelites themselves. The mood in this last type of the story of the Living Oracle is one of crisis: should we fight? will we win? how will the king be punished? will the king live? The mood of the Plagues Story is very similar. a leader or prophet receives an oracle from God in answer to a life or death problem posed by the story. Elisha. The presumption about the prophet or prophetic leader in the "living oracle" story is different from that predominating in the Deuteronomistic history. with no subsequent reference to delivery. A few times both scenes for commissioning and delivery are narrated. but more frequently the delivery of these oracles is never narrated in the story. 2 Kgs 1). whereupon he is commissioned to deliver that oracle to the people or to the king: so Joshua (Josh 7:13-15). Elijah (1 Kgs 21:17-29.

IV. The sub-theme is the marvelous display of God's power over death in face of refusal to accept the authority and message of the Living Oracle.Vater: Observations on Exodus 7-11 specific message in a specific situation in the majority of stories in the Deuteronomistic history. the Jahwist source in particular knows of a prophetic office of the continual mediation of God's will. so that the listener is attuned to the divine power. In nearly every chapter which Childs discusses as illustrative of this office. are enhanced by the direct communication of startling answers to the prophetic characters in the stories. The legitimation of that continuing oracular function is produced by the writer by narrating the commissioning scene in particular. which was absorbed into the Elohist covenant tradition by the Deuteronomist. I find the commissioning pattern for the narration of the communication of oracles (Ex 33. and posits the tradition being coined by the southern tribes. The narration of oracles in the commissioning scene without a scene of any subsequent delivery is also an effective way of silencing the oracular messenger. Num 12). THE PLAGUES STORY AND THE LIVING ORACLE The story of the Living Oracle provides some suggestions for answers to the questions raised above concerning the Plagues story. In his analysis of Moses' role in the Sinai traditions. with the oracles usually narrated in the situation of commissioning. The story of the living oracle. Brevard Childs has described a prophetic office which is different from that of covenant mediator /15/. Childs traces the origin of the tradition to the tent of meeting (Ex 33. Num 14.
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. including the rescue of Jerusalem from the Assyrians in Hezekiah's days. This continual mediation office also includes an intercessory function (Ex 32. His suggestion of the provenance of this prophetic role in the Jahwist source is further corroborated by the preference I found in my study of the 3ahwist document for narrating the communication of oracles and messages with the commissioning scene /16/. The marvelous reversals in these stories of the living oracle. 16). The mood of the story is that of horror in the situation of dire calamity for the Israelites and rising terror for the enemy. 14). A dreaded crisis is finally resolved through a powerful injection of an oracle into the prophet's own consciousness. where eventually the priestly traditions absorbed it. Rather. Num 11.

and sets up the intercession of Moses for Pharaoh. Moses. the only time in the story when Moses breaks his (literary) silence before Pharaoh in a startling fashion. 10:12).also appear in the occurrences of the story of the Living Oracle in the Deuteronomistic history. The limits of the story broadly extend from chapters 3 to 12. while setting the stage for the marvelous deed to follow. The story of the Plagues. The message does not get through in the story until the Tenth Plague's announcement. and one in the Tenth Plague . marvelous actions.with no preparation) deliver the message of the impending death of the first-born. is an underlying form which the author employs here. The sub-genres of the story oracles.Art and Meaning clearing the stage for a marvelous reversal by God. situation. and the slavery is hardened). and intercessions . allows God's marvelous power over life and death to predominate in the midst of human suffering and intransigence. and the JE theme of the Plagues as punishment have been forced into a broader structure of the Plagues as vindications of the Living Oracle's power to announce and effect death upon the enemy. 8:12. then. 7:26. 9:13). First the double scene pattern of communication fails (in 5:3 Moses and Aaron do not speak as they have been commanded in 3:18. can be understood as an example of the story of the Living Oracle. commands. more narrowly from 7:1* to 11:8. and communication with the Pharaoh deteriorates to zero (9:8. By emphasizing primarily the commissioning scene. The development of the story takes place in the establishing and breaking of the communication patterns. through silent compliance with the Ten Plagues. messages. 9:1. The P theme of the Plagues as demonstrations of God's power. Then the commissioning scene pattern fails to "get through" (7:14. The powerful speech initiates the performance of the Plagues. two delivery scenes (one in the Eighth Plague prepared for in 10:1. the continual messenger and intercessor.
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. The hardness of Pharaoh takes on the full dimension of refusal to hear that is already signalled in 7:13. Finally. It is the overall mood. The structure of the story is provided by the initiating communications by God with Moses. and communication patterns of this story type which provide the impression of literary unity in this skillfully redacted unit. the author legitimates the authority of the continual human oracle.

or surveys the whole. Gunn Department of Biblical Studies The University of Sheffield Sheffield S10 2TN. Pharaoh's heart is "hardened" and he continues to resist Moses1 demands. 17*):
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. England Concluding his study of Exodus 1-15 and Euripides' play. Exodus excludes ambiguity and irony in the presentation of its characters (and values) /!/. "Ambiguity obfuscates moral clarity" (p. a rare and refreshing experience. So I offer here an alternative view which works. of a familiar feature of the plagues story /2/. in his splendid commentary on Exodus. Despite the terrible plagues. my enemy is bad. god is not on my side). My precise starting point is (appropriately for a "final form" paperl) a discussion by Brevard Childs. Having surveyed the vocabulary of "hardening" (the verbs kbd. To read and reflect on his essay was.THE "HARDENING OF PHARAOH'S HEART": PLOT. David Robertson argues that. unlike the Greek play. with the "final form of the text". But the more I read and reflect on the story in Exodus 1-1* (or 15) the more I doubt that his conclusion is the right one. as he will naturally do in the course of reading the story. for me. CHARACTER AND THEOLOGY IN EXODUS 1-1 David M. like Robertson's analysis. The Bacchae. Childs devotes a brief excursus to the subject. he will experience essentially childlike emotions (I love my side. he concludes as follows (p. hzq qsh) and its use according to the different constituent "sources" of the text (mostly J and P).28) and the values urged by the Exodus story are essentially simple: "Whether the reader identifies with Moses. I hate my enemy) and learn essentially childlike lessons (I am good. or with Pharaoh. god is on my side." Robertson's comparative reading of the Exodus story is stimulating and his moral evaluation challenging.

seeks to express both God's complete control over the destinies of men (that is. Divine or human causality? Divine and human causality? The "hardening" seems to me to be vital to the plot.. I think. It is clear that the P source extended the origin of hardening into the plan of God and thus went beyond 3. The occupation with this problem by commentators has contributed to their failure to determine its major role within the passage. This means that all attempts to relate hardness to a psychological state or derive it from a theology of divine causality miss the mark .a theme which he (and others. including Childs) sees at the centre of the whole story /5/. John Rogerson writes that In the case of the hardening of Pharaoh's heart. in P the hardness results in the multiplication of signs as judgment. At the same time he argues that the 3 legacy in the story . and the part that can be played by a man in shaping his own destiny and those of others (that is... With some justification.. /V For Rogerson the element of divine causality remains important for through it is expressed God's power .Pharaoh hardens his own heart ..also needs to be taken into account. God hardened Pharaoh's heart). and in its final form there is an apparent contradiction between Pharaoh hardening his own heart (8:32) and God hardening Pharaoh's heart (9:12) . it is part of the
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. Childs is right to reject attempts to see the hardening as simply a picturesque way of speaking of an inner psychological state. The final narrative .the hardening terminology is closely connected to the giving of signs. In 3 hardness prevents the signs from revealing the knowledge of God. I do agree and shall elaborate my agreement in due course.. Pharaoh hardened his own heart).Gunn: Exodus 1-14 . The motif has been consistently over-interpreted by supposing that it arose from a profoundly theological reflection and seeing it as a problem of freewill and predestination.. the narrative displays some subtlety.. "the inner human reaction of resistance which once begun could no longer be reversed by the individual will" /3/.. But the polarity between hardening as a decision of Pharaoh and as an effect of God never was seen as a major issue.. But I am not so sure that the factor of divine causality is of as little significance in the story as he seems to suggest.

For the paradigm "Pharaoh" of this phase of Israel's history has already been established as a ruler whose methods of control are ruthless. Is this rejection the first indication of God's prediction coming to pass? Or is it simply Pharaoh being "Pharaoh"? The ambiguity continues into the early stages of the subsequent "signs" sequence (approaches by Moses and refusals by Pharaoh. This series of episodes is prefaced by another word from Yahweh (7:2-4):
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. from chapter 7 onwards). In the wider context. Hence it seems reasonable to suppose that the cause or source of this key plot element might be of some importance in our understanding of the narrative. action by characters and actions impinging on characters. We are not suprised.of birth and plagues episodes . however. And in the process themes will emerge that. so that he will not let the people go. will be theological.tend to merge somewhat as characters. by the very nature of this story of interaction between God and man. So moving between these points of reference . Character depiction is thus closely tied up with plot. perhaps the more easily since they are not given personal names.without it there would be no plagues story. Questions about the cause or motivation of the hardening will therefore rapidly develop into questions about the characters involved. Pharaoh and the hardening of his heart Both Pharaohs .Art and Meaning essential chain of cause and effect in the story .plot. to find the second Pharaoh in chapter 5 simply rejecting out of hand any thought that he should "let Israel go".let me explore the hardening of Pharaoh's heart. even when that letting go is ostensibly only to hold a feast to Yahweh in the wilderness. we may recall the words of the previous scene (4:21): When you go back to Egypt [says God to Moses]. theology . a little further. see that you do before Pharaoh all the miracles which I have put in your power. character. Pharaoh is simply contemptuous of Moses and seizes the occasion to heap on the agony (bricks without straw). whether by God or Pharaoh himself. Thus we are left uncertain in chapter 5. Plot implies action. In the passage recounting the first rejection of Moses' demands (5:1-9) there is nothing about hardening. and with it the story in Exodus 1-14 as a whole. therefore. but I will harden his heart.

and Aaron your brother shall tell Pharaoh to let the people of Israel go out of his land. suggesting that Yahweh's announced manipulation has begun. this time (unless his response is itself "duplicity"!) the absurdity of the situation would seem to have dawned on him: frogs upon the land are frogs upon the land. too. Yet. the RSV would seem to have understood the clause in just this way. we are told only that "Pharaoh's heart hardened/was hardened (wayyeh e zaq leb parcoh. Yet in the first of the succeeding interviews (7:6-13). and I will let the
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. as in the earlier report.. In the next scene (the frogs. But I will harden Pharaoh's heart. If. the narrator does add the clause "as Yahweh had said".Gunn: Exodus 1-14 You shall speak all that I command you..they. whoever conjures them up. brought frogs upon the land. The same touch of ambiguity recurs in the report of the next sign (the Nile turned to blood. unprompted decision.8:7 [8:3] . and he would not listen to them" (7:22). since it places a semi-colon between the two main clauses and translates the linking waw-consecutive by "so": "But the magicians of Egypt did the same by their secret arts. and though I multiply my signs and wonders in the land of Egypt. Pharaoh weakens for the first time: "Entreat Yahweh to take away the frogs from me and from my people.with the added observation that "they brought frogs upon the land of Egypt"!). 7:13) and he would not listen to them". made particularly obvious when it is repeated in the next scene . Pharaoh will not listen to you. What matters is getting rid of them. 7:14-25). like the response in chapter 5. the possibility that Yahweh has a hand in this response is brought back into focus by the addition of: "as Yahweh had said". We are told that the frogs came up and covered the land. on the previous occasion. leaving it possible still. Indeed. Pharaoh had been impressed by the ability of his magicians to duplicate the plague. so Pharaoh's heart remained hardened (wayyeh e zaq lebpar c oh). On the other hand.. but that again "the magicians of Egypt did the same by their secret arts" . that the rejection is Pharaoh's own. 8:1-15 [Heb. especially since it includes a clause which could be taken to provide an explanation for why Pharaoh hardened his own heart: "But the magicians of Egypt did the same by their secret arts" (a nice touch of humour.7:26-8:l 1]) there appears for a moment to be a development.

and they do so both totally (we shall notice that the story proceeds without them) and with a remarkable admission: "This [they say] is the finger of God" (8:19 [15]). too. At the next sign (the gnats. sacrifice to your God within the land". The logic of their predicament has been borne in on them. so foolish? The possibility that we should be reckoning with Yahweh's intervention accordingly strengthens. distinguishing now between the people of Israel and those of Egypt. as Yahweh had said" (8:15 [Heb. By contrast the unreasonableness of Pharaoh's subsequent rejection ("but Pharaoh's heart was hardened". Pharaoh's heart-hardening (wayyikbad leb par oh. Pharaoh hardens his heart (wayyakbed parCph 'et-libbo. he hardened [wehakbed] his heart. The discrimination speaks volumes. 8:32 [28]) "this time also" and refuses to keep his word. but is even prepared to make a subsequent concession to a haggling opponent. the report hints at further movement in the struggle between Moses and Pharaoh: Pharaoh not only weakens once more and says "Go. and would not listen to them. indeed. but that thrust tempered with the touch of ambiguity at the very end by the reference back to Yahweh's prediction.8:ll]). 8:16-19 [12-15]). Its message to Pharaoh is thus transparent. we have the same ingredients as earlier: the main thrust of the report seeming to suggest a humanly motivated rejection on Pharaoh's part. Again. The development. Moreover. So in this scene. Can he really be so blind. however. distinguishing between the cattle of Israel and cthose of Egypt. wayyehezaq leb-parcoh) begins to emerge unmistakeably. we have a vastly puzzling contrast. is cut short with 1 the removal of the plague: "But when Pharaoh saw [wayyar ] that there was a respite. this time between the reasonable negotiator (before) and the unreasonable refuser (after). we are being invited to look to Yahweh's intervention to provide some explanation. 9:7). This time the magicians capitulate. The net effect of this report is reinforced by the similar effect of the subsequent one (the plague on the cattle. And again we may wonder whether. the absence this time of any reference back to 4:21 and 7:3). despite the primary force of "Pharaoh hardened his heart" (and. Yet with the plague removed. there is also development. still not explicitly ascribed to
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. The plague of flies (8:20-32 [16-28]) takes a more pointedly selective form than the previous plagues. therefore.Art and Meaning people go to sacrifice to Yahweh" (8:8 [8:4]) /6/. 9:1-7) which also takes a selective form.

. So there is no need to doubt the sincerity of Pharaoh's confession. Yahweh is in the right and I and my people are in the wrong". 9:34-35). and. The confession is striking (9:27-28): "I have sinned this time. His initial responses show him. 9:13-35).had ceased". "Weakening" gives place this time to an outright and humiliating acknowledgment of being in the wrong. on the other. with the familiar conclusion. Instead of "but Pharaoh hardened his heart" or "but Pharaoh's heart was hardened" we read "but Yahweh hardened the heart of Pharaoh (wayehazzeq yhwh 'et-leb parcoh. What was previously implicit has become explicit. His subsequent turn-abouts are irrational by comparison. like those around about. that I may show these signs of mine among them. Pharaoh's initial responses together with the responses of those around him. some of Pharaoh's own servants "fearing the word of Yahweh" take heed and protect their slaves and cattle /7/. on the one hand. his decisions consequent upon his heart being hardened. given a warning. Pharaoh's obstinacy makes sense.'". "and he did not listen to them. the formula is immediately placed in the context of Yahweh's causality (10:1): "Then Yahweh said to Moses. Finally in the aftermath of the plague of ashes (9:8-12. Is this sincere? Moses confidently claims that "I know that you do not yet fear the God Yahweh" (9:30) and on top of that we find the hardening formula expressed in the form. What is being demonstrated is that he is now so totally under Yahweh's control that he is unable to sustain any consistency in his responses. growing in awareness of the true state of affairs. The concluding formula is varied just that crucial degree.. complete with "explanatory" clause ("and Pharaoh saw that the rain. 9:12)". Yet Moses is in the position of knowing that more is to come: in that sense Pharaoh indeed does not fully know the fear of Yahweh. by this time the magicians themselves are unable even to stand before Moses because of the boils) any ambiguity that might remain about Yahweh's role in the hardening disappears. Likewise Pharaoh no longer just "weakens". The story continues to develop the incongruity between. for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his servants.. "Go in to Pharaoh. He is like a
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.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 Yahweh. is made to appear even more unreasonable. Thus the realization of the hopelessness of the Egyptian position spreads amongst those around Pharaoh: in the next plague (hail. "and [Pharaoh] hardened his heart".. as Yahweh had spoken to Moses". And as for the hardening.

and he did not let the children of Israel go" (10:20). The concessions in chapters 9 and 10 which "give something without really giving anything" are in fact triggers for further disaster. Yahweh. Herein lies a rather nice irony. Even his servants begin to despair (10:7): "Let the men go that they may serve Yahweh their god. though that betrayed a definite suspicion of Moses purpose. This is a clearer expression of his apprehension than his warning not to go too far 1 in 8:24. Pharaoh's bargaining with Moses is as crazy as his earlier turn-abouts /12/. His humbling goes even further. it so happens that this is no normal negotiation. Only Moses and the reader have the key to the "inexplicable". irrelevant. Pharaoh's "hardness" is utterly inexplicable. For while. from Pharaoh's response . He begs now for forgiveness (10:17).as he skilfully offers concessions which give nothing away and saddles his opponent with the logic of his own deception (if a sacrifice. intervenes: "But Yahweh hardened Pharaoh's heart (wayehazzeq yhwh 'et-leb parcoh). Do you not understand that Egypt is ruined?" To them. Here negotiating skills are irrelevant. It is the brute force of the plagues that makes the niceties of negotiation.and once again he confesses sin (10:16).is a realistic appreciation of the part the plagues are playing in the "negotiation". With the plague of locusts (10:1-20) Pharaoh calls for Moses and Aaron "in haste" . Pharaoh might appear to be on top of the situation. the concessions which Pharaoh offers are concessions which he knows will not satisfy Moses' real demand: "Like many a skillful bargainer he appears to give something without really giving anything" /10/. too. bewildered by their king's behaviour. Moshe Greenberg notes that Pharaoh eventually sees through Moses' request to be allowed to attend a sacrifice in the wilderness /8/: Pharaoh plainly hints in [chapter 10] verse 10 that he knows whither the Hebrews' demand is tending. David Robertson. What is missing. namely. So too. why children?) /I I/ . toward escape. Robertson suggests. argues that Pharaoh is early aware of Moses' real objective /9/. however. of course. In the face of repeated plagues.for when "himself" again he recognizes the peril he is in . On the basis of 8:28 [8:24] and especially 10:10. Hence.Art and Meaning schizophrenic. of ploy and counter-ploy. in terms of his confrontations with Moses. "Do you not understand that Egypt is ruined?" demand the servants. on the next
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.

we can say that while in the early stages of the story we are invited to see Pharaoh as his own master. "Pharaoh's heart was hardened" thus becomes a kind of shorthand for "Yahweh caused Pharaoh's heart to tiarden". The story of the plagues is not a simple repetition of a formula. But the explanation is there in the text.8]: "And I will harden Pharaoh's heart. Pharaoh's destruction is not self-destruction. The destruction of the Egyptian host and Pharaoh himself at the Sea. If Pharaoh may have been directly responsible
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. In his discussion of the plagues and the Sea of Reeds. Verse 5 is framed by unambiguous declarations of divine causality (14:4. and he will pursue them and I will get glory [kabed . on either side of 14:5 where we are told of Pharaoh's crucial and fatal change of mind.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 occasion (the darkness. stolen his will.10:24: "your children also may go with you. his movement through compromise . Dennis McCarthy remarks /16/: "Pharaoh's readiness to pursue Israel cries for explanation after the event of Exod 12:29 and Pharaoh's response to it". The threat of death to the first-born fits the same pattern (chapter 11) /14/.. hardening his own heart (perhaps the legacy of the J story). if ever I let you and your children go!" towards the possibility of turning his confession (10:16) into concrete action is destroyed by God (10:20): "But Yahweh hardened Pharaoh's heart and he would not let them go" (wayehazzeq yhwh 'et-leb parcoh) /13/. Yahweh has split his mind. 10:21-29). It is from Yahweh himself that we learn the fact (11:1).a nice irony!] over Pharaoh and all his host." And Yahweh hardened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt and he pursued the people of Israel as they went forth defiantly. Pharaoh completes his humbling response by asking. only let your cattle and your herds remain behind". so that the aftermath of this plague is entirely predictable (12:31-2). compare 10:10: "Yahweh be with you. as the narrative develops it becomes crystal clear that God is ultimately the only agent of heart-hardening who matters (the P legacy) /18/. for Pharaoh is no longer a "self". in parting.. it develops /17/. for their blessing! /15/ There is one "plague" yet to come. To summarize so far. except that this time Yahweh has decided the moment of departure has come.

the two functions of hardening noted by Childs . then. but perhaps it overstates its point a little in suggesting that the issue of slavery vs. He can turn the wisdom of the king to folly. Yahweh can and does manipulate Pharaoh. moreover. of human authority. by the end of the story he is depicted as acting against his own better judgment. I would rather say that the story nuances the theme of slavery vs. freedom by recognizing that the freedom into which Israel is delivered is in
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. that is what cannot coexist with God's authority. freedom is not still central. freedom.Art and Meaning for his attitude at the commencement. Yahweh. to grant the freedom that Moses was demanding for Israel was tantamount. in Pharaoh's view. the real issue throughout the narrative is not slavery vs.. a mere puppet of Yahweh. but merely the identity and character of the master whom Israel must serve". Greenberg's rich analysis of the story repeatedly comes back to the theme of "sovereignty" /20/: Pharaoh was willing to be "God-fearing" within the bounds of his sovereignty. Thus the opposition of Pharaoh is the archetypal opposition of human power. leaves the king starkly isolated in his folly. In the truest sense the entire story is about how Israel was transferred from the hand of one (Pharaoh) into the hand of the other (Yahweh)" /19/.to prevent the signs from revealing the knowledge of God. Discussing the motif of yad (hand or power) in his analysis of the Exodus story in the present volume Charles Isbell points in the text to a "struggle for Israel being waged by two potential masters. and to multiply the signs as judgment are subsumed. Yahweh is truly master.. is truly God. to abdicating the throne. to a ruinous recalcitrance which. That is the crux of the matter. It is Yahweh who prompts refusal so that the signs are heaped up as "punishment". It is Yahweh who decides when Pharaoh shall know that he. he can control the response of Pharaoh to these marvels. that is the offense to the Godhead's kingship.Rogerson). to the claims of God. This perceptively emphasizes Israel's servant status. Yahweh can not only out-magic the mighty wizards of Egypt. In the theme of mastery.the core of his intransigence [is] the maintenance of his sovereignty. Certainly the hardening motif is expressive of mastery or control (or power . . Isbell goes on to say: "In a sense.

have the human participants anything positive to contribute in this story in which divine direction and miraculous intervention seem to be the hallmarks of the plot? And why does Yahweh act as he does? What motivates him? If he is the master of masters in our story. So Pharaoh abdicates as master. serve). any "struggle" between "masters" is palpably an unequal one.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 fact a different kind of servitude /21/. he is a puppet before God. on their own human initiative? Are any of them allowed so to act once Yahweh has intervened? In short. This action of God may be proleptic . Repeatedly the characters use the the phrase "serve (cbd) Yahweh" to refer to the sacrifice. serve Yahweh".it also. that Yahweh. not Pharaoh. His freedom is illusory. But it has no direct function in
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.for the story as a whole will lead to the multiplication of Israel's family. yet which presents the real struggle for Israel's "release" as being between rival masters. focuses on the implicit (thematic) issue which is that the Israelites must serve Yahweh and not Pharaoh. Thus a certain irony underlies this story which tells of freedom gained. We have already noted that throughout the "negotiation" between Moses and Pharaoh the ostensible issue is not whether Israel is to be allowed to leave Egypt permanently but whether Israel is to be allowed to offer a sacrifice to Yahweh.a reward which ironically undermines the Egyptians' attempt to curtail the Israelite increase /23/ on account of their "fear" of Israel. and not just to those of the midwives. What of the other characters in the story? Do any of them act independently. creating thereby some excellent ironies. We have seen that the hardening motif powerfully expresses Yahweh's manipulative power. then what sort of character _is he? Yahweh His first involvement is in response to the midwives1 deception of Pharaoh (1:20). From the point where God intervenes. through a play on words (cbd. Nor does the ironic perception of "freedom" touch only Israel. itself motivated by the "fear" of God: he sanctions their deception and gives them families . Not only does this twist in the narrative introduce a dimension of intrigue into the story . Pharaoh is doomed. The freedom of the master turns out to be no more than that of the slave. Here is sophisticated storytelling. is master.will Moses succeed in tricking Pharaoh into letting his people leave? /22/ . as when Pharaoh himself urges Israel to "Go. slavery overthrown.

a future that has already been promised in the past. Yahweh will take them as a people. to Isaac. Yahweh's dealings with Moses are patiently forceful. rather it singles out plan. will be their God (6:7). in the speeches of chapter 3. and the God of Jacob". Also I heard the groaning of the people of Israel whom the Egyptians held in bondage and I remembered my covenant with them . But if he acts out of simple compassion. therefore. and to Jacob. control.15-17) /26/. compassion.. and I will bring you unto the land which I swore to give to Abraham. implied). to Isaac. of course.Art and Meaning the plot. a land of milk and honey. promise. The affliction of Israel spells the end of the promise of land. seen their suffering. The story could have emphasized the motivating power of pity. and will deliver them out of Egypt into a land flowing with milk and honey (3:6-8. for they are no longer free to inherit /28/.. and to Jacob . obligation. affliction and oppression.. Yahweh has seen suffering. even though the "covenant" is not explicitly mentioned. Only with 2:23-25 do we find an unmistakeable prelude to crucial divine involvement (the people cry for help /24/. "Covenant" is now defined (6:2-8): I am Yahweh.. His culminating anger is followed by silent acquiescence on Moses1
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. The call of Moses follows immediately. Chapter 2:23-25 thus provides the first major clue to Yahweh's motivation: his action is bound up with his covenant with Abraham. the story is about mastery. Yahweh is the "God of Abraham... the God of Isaac. /25/). Yahweh's response to the sight of Israel's oppression is couched in covenantal terms and will give effect to the covenantal "plan". His action is spelled out in terms of obligation. too. As Isbell emphasizes. love. remembers his covenant with the patriarchs. we are not told so. God hears their groaning. I appeared to Abraham. So. Also I established my covenant with them. in short. Nor is the emphasis of the speech upon the alleviation of the suffering (though the alleviation is. Yahweh. to give them the land of Canaan. In chapter 6 this line of emphasis comes even more clearly into focus. honour his covenantal obligation to dispose favourably of these children of the patriarchs. Isaac and Jacob. the Provider of a future. and knows . and so perhaps a land in which to flourish /27/. he will. he has heard their cry. is Providence. Rather the keynote is the covenantal promise of land. sees the people.

so Yahweh has exalted himself over Pharaoh. so that my name may be declared throughout all the earth". it will appear that Yahweh is patient with him.and thereby demonstrates his mastery. It is not only Egypt and the nations who will learn of God's
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. he goes on. It is. of course. and all the earth (14:4. like Moses. he says to Pharaoh (9:14-16) that he will send him plagues. the motivation for his treatment of Pharaoh. for the king is thereby reminded of his proper place in the scheme of things: as he has exalted himself over Israel. Moses is treated with some patience. Not so Pharaoh. Pharaoh will continue to object. By the simple act of deliverance out of Egypt he re-activates that promise and demonstrates his mastery. Ironically. Why does God treat Pharaoh like this? Explicitly. Indeed.Gunn: Exodus 1-1 4 part and again gives clear indication of what is to follow. Yahweh is the master of all masters /30/.18). "Who is Yahweh. by effecting the deliverance with repeated signs and wonders he elevates the belittling of Pharaoh into an event of cosmic proportions. Pharaoh. "that you may know that there is none like me in all the earth". however. Pharaoh is but a servant before Yahweh as will be made plain not only to Pharaoh but to all his subjects. an appropriate purpose to express to Pharaoh. This is. Yahweh JLS_ all-powerful and cannot be resisted without incurring terrible anger. perhaps. that I should heed his voice and let Israel go?" The answer is that Yahweh is "the one who may bid 'let go' when he chooses". and will be destroyed. for the final retribution will be delayed by the prolonged sequence of plagues. will hold out against reasoned appeal and ignore the message of harmless "signs". to show you my power. an answer to Pharaoh's (rhetorical) question back in chapter 5 (v. The manipulation of Pharaoh provides a practical demonstration of this point. doubly so in the climactic crossing of the sea where we see the world revert to chaos and then become dry land once again /31/ . as it were. Yahweh delivers Israel. This is not to say that Yahweh's self-glorification is his primary motivation for delivering Israel. each plague purporting to give him a chance to repent /29/.2). because compelled to do so. as obliged by his covenant promise to see them in a land which may be called their own. But where Moses succumbs as servant to Yahweh in the face of his anger. but that it is. he could have destroyed Pharaoh and Egypt by this time but "for this purpose have I let you live.

Ann Vater
8*
. I appeared to Abraham. and I will take you for my people.. 'Yahweh did not appear to you'". what does it profit God if he "provides" but his people fail to identify their provider? It is a vulnerability of all gods! Yahweh needs Israel.. 6:1 -7): Then Moses said to God. Early in the story there runs an unease concerning God's identity (3:13. It is also Israel herself. After all. 4:1.. and to Jacob. "If I come to the people of Israel and say to them. says Yahweh in 10:1-2. Chapter 14 ends (verse 31): "And Israel saw the great work which Yahweh did against the Egyptians. and I will bring you out . The God of your fathers has sent me to you'. like Pharaoh.". and that you may tell in the hearing of your son and your son's son how I have made sport of the Egyptians and what signs I have done among them.Art and Meaning power. as El Shaddai. "I am Yahweh. Moses And what of Moses? Is he. "For I have hardened his heart. paradoxically as it may appear in the context of this massive demonstration of his mastery. for they will say. At this point appears a curious hint of insecurity in God himself. and they believed in Yahweh and his servant Moses". 'I am Yahweh. "But behold. and the people feared Yahweh. 'What is his name?' what shall I say to them?" Then Moses answered. and I will be your God'".. Yahweh's demonstration of his power over the Egyptians is also bound up with his need to establish himself securely as Israel's God.. "that I may show these signs of mine among them. Thus by his signs and wonders Yahweh seeks to secure his identity /33/. that you may know that I am Yahweh". And God said to Moses. to make unchallengeable Yahweh's claim to be the "God of the fathers". but by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them . The signs and wonders are also calculated to direct Israel to Yahweh /32/. and they ask me.. to Isaac. merely a puppet in God's hands? Following the lead of Childs and others. Say therefore to the people of Israel. the god of the covenantal promise. they will not believe me or listen to my voice. in the eyes of Israel. just as Israel needs Yahweh.

. God's speaking with Moses. (The contrast is with figures such as Elijah or Elisha. a commissioning may be "understood" here. for example. Out of the four main available patterns of narrating the communication of a message. Nevertheless we have just noted one
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. The nuance: Vater observes that it is only in the tenth plague (chapter 11: the destruction of the first born) that Moses "breaks his (literary) silence before Pharaoh" and. And. Moses takes an initiative.Pharaoh's oppression.this scurry of human initiative comes to an abrupt end at the burning bush. taking initiative has been significantly absent from the Moses configuration during the plagues narrative. Thereafter Yahweh dictates the action /36/. our author/editor predominantly chooses one which highlights the commissioning scene (as. which sometimes results in a brief notice of a delivery or no mention of a delivery at all.. his helping of the daughters of Reuel . "actually comes forth.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 has explored the prophetic dimension in our story's presentation of Moses and refined our understanding of it /34/.) This is a valuable perception. and see that the scurry of human initiatives in the action at the beginning . We have glimpses of individual human action. Buber's prophetic Moses who provides the movement in the story by confronting the Egyptian king. like a prophet. the midwives' trick. This commissioning pattern emphasizes the privileged communication between God and Moses . and begins. From this observation we move to our story as a whole (chapters 1-14)." whose own voice melts into the words of God. as when some among Pharaoh's servants take their slaves and cattle into shelter against the predicted hailstorm (9:20). the saving of Moses by his mother and sister. discloses the "silenced messenger. the pattern does not present us with a Moses regularly confronting Pharaoh. without any previous commissioning. of course.. However. not Moses and Pharaoh. Moses' killing of the Egyptian. in 7:14-18). The play and counterplay is between God and Pharaoh. Instead of M. To be sure. /35/ Moses is not so much a prophet as a "living oracle". but in literary terms at least. but these do not affect the plot. It is of course this plague which produces finally the unqualified capitulation of Pharaoh. 'Thus says the Lord'". the more so when we nuance it a little and then set it in a broader context. Pharaoh's initiatives towards compromise or even capitulation are all frustrated by Yahweh and Moses does only as he is directed.

After the burning bush he becomes a rather characterless instrument in Yahweh's hands. the narrative also depicts an independence on the part of Moses.. Yahweh will fight for you. His first. gradually loses prominence in the action and virtually disappears. for the Egyptians whom you see today. 'Why do you cry to me? Tell the people of Israel to go forward . and a man of initiative has re-emerged. attacking Moses for bringing them to their deaths in the wilderness. Moses comes into his own as an agent of political change and at the Sea controls the people in masterly fashion. much has changed. but by the time he gets to the Sea.. stand firm. that there is disorganization in the text here. you shall never see again. and see the salvation of Yahweh. because of the verse that follows. It is sometimes argued. No mighty political deeds here.ironically. his much more mundane courtesy of protection towards the daughters of Reuel brings him success at a domestic level. but achievement nonetheless. who is a vital prop for Moses at the beginning. Certainly there is a cryptic quality to verse 15a as it appears in the present context and it may be the case that a sentence of petition by Moses to Yahweh is missing after verse 14. yet there has been no mention of Moses "crying" to God /38/. and Moses stands and speaks alone /37/. it also marks the re-birth of Moses!) The people see the approaching Egyptian army and cry out in fear. And in this domestic success Moses echoes that of the midwives in preserving the Hebrew families. My point is that. But attempts to rearrange the existing
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. which he will work for you today. self-prompted initiatives as protector and mediator fail . although most of the key actions in the story (including the hardening) are shown to be dictated by Yahweh. The process of his (literary) withdrawal is subtle so that by the time we come to the crossing of the Sea we are likely to have hardly noticed his disappearance. On the other hand. Verse 15 narrates that "Yahweh said to Moses. and you have only to be still". Aaron. But he is gone. There is another indication. dependent on Aaron for speech and on God for instructions how to act. He is a man of initiative until the incident at the burning bush. since it is his act of protection that is turned against him in his attempt as mediator.". But Moses (without consulting Yahweh) says to the people (14:13-14): "Fear not.Art and Meaning "literary" expression of independence. (If the Sea marks the birth of Israel.

comes fittingly at this point in the process of his re-growth as a character. ask the quarrelling Israelites (2:14). The consequences of this character development are. They co-exist in tension. who disputes with God in the wilderness /39/. set up Moses as their prince and judge? Yahweh delivers an oppressed Israel and destroys Egypt. It is his action. of course. Such servants may raise their hands against their masters. however. yet his authority in Israel proves not to have been established thereby . Moses direct response to the people. He is a match for the people. The people of Israel will also be characterized by rebellion in the wilderness. and at least
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. Perhaps. Moses survives in servanthood and gives intimations of independence. Moses. He acts in faith but also in freedom. therefore. we might say. The king's willingness to compromise is frustrated by God. Yet I believe our story does not allow mere condemnation as our response. We have already noted that from this action he desires recognition as supreme prince and judge. For much of the story. whereas Pharaoh perishes in a manic pursuit propelled by God. freedom incubates rebellion. a Moses who protests. not just a reflex of God's. then.on the contrary his action is turned against him. Rather the story illustrates the point that freedom and servitude in faith will always coexist uneasily. and his own spontaneous utterance of reassurance. is a servant of God. Moses acts for an oppressed Israelite and kills an Egyptian. God can coopt faith from puppets or risk faith from human beings. The people Nor is it only Moses who will live uneasily in the new servitude.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 order of the verses so as to place Yahweh's response1 before Moses' speech to the people lack conviction. Looking into the story that follows our story we are not surprised to see a Moses unwilling to be a mere unthinking tool of God. but not a puppet. who can live and move and have his own being. Moses's early objections to his commission are likewise frustrated by God. as it were. For this they have been condemned by generations of exegetes and there is no doubt that the biblical text itself conveys condemnation for their uncertain faith. Moses is puppet-like . Who. A parallel between Moses and God makes this point nicely. In the event. without rebellion. Freedom and service can never fully be co-terminous. As in the Garden.like Pharaoh. important. At the Sea we glimpse a character who can decide for himself. "freedom in servitude" is an illusion.

Art and Meaning momentarily he gains what he desires. no wonder. No. have been wrong.Moses and the people. For the whole story may be seen in these terms . Pharaoh (Egypt) exalts his own mastery and is cast into a total and mortal servitude. The people of Egypt and Israel are buffeted this way and that in varying indirect roles of servitude. despite all. of course. He can treat the people as puppets (as he treats Pharaoh) or he can risk that in freedom the people reject him. but freedom turns out to involve varieties of servitude. that those critics. Moses who sits removed in Midian finds himself forced by Yahweh into a direct servitude but is nevertheless allowed to develop a measure of freedom. who have seen here a theological dimension of predestination and freewill. I would say. just as the quarrelling Israelites are to some extent justified in looking suspiciously at Moses ("Do you mean to kill us as you killed the Egyptian?") so the people will have some warrant for rebelling against God /40/. whether directly or indirectly. especially God. no sign. And. too.' Conclusion Let me now return to the beginning of the essay. Are they independent agents? Are they manipulated by God? (Have they freewill? Are they "pre-destined"?) The story is about freedom. Yet no deliverance. exist and act within a framework of divine "causality". they have been right (at least in principle) to sense such a dimension. No one in the story entirely escapes God's control or its repercussions. as well as Pharaoh. "Is it because there are no graves in Egypt that you have taken us away to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us. 'Let us alone and let us serve the Egyptians'? For it would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness". In 14:11 they shout suspiciously. Childs suggests that the matter of causality in the heart-hardening is a side-track. With them. but wrong to see the question of divine determination in human affairs arising only in connection with Pharaoh's heart-hardening. is wholly unambiguous. God cannot buy certain recognition by these means. Their suspicion is entirely on the mark. Their freedom will be to serve God rather than the Egyptians and to die in the wilderness. the question arises. in bringing us out of Egypt? Is not this what we said to you in Egypt.
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. for example. Thus Isbell's observation bears repeating: the story is above all one about masters.

itself "unreal". in his relations with humankind. may freely come to recognize that Yahweh is indeed master. that life in Midian may itself be seen as a rural idyll. a contrast to the unreality of the world of magic.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 Superficially the story provides a glorious tableau of deliverance with great signs and wonders. The Exodus story. from slavery into freedom. because that is the price of allowing his servants a dimension of freedom. will experience essentially only childlike emotions and learn essentially childlike lessons. deserved and undeserved . however. Clearly the story lauds his success as political servant of God. Moses must leave it to achieve a full humanity. to die there. he argued. signs and wonders. At his own initiative Moses had built himself a family and a quiet life in Midian. There is no ideal world in this story. The "simplicity" of the story is deceptive. It is but a temporary dwelling place. The signs and wonders conceal destruction and suffering. so that Israel. though their children will be enabled by this deliverance to build a nation (though again built on the destruction of others). Robertson himself observes that "it is ironic that the righteous
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. yet it does not sneer at his earlier success as a domestic "master". a piece of soft romance. would indeed be a fairy tale. At times those earlier chapters may seem to depict a life in terms of a modest naturalism.an excess of havoc we might be tempted to argue. he argued. I trust I have indicated some kind of answer to this evaluation. the whole world. An exodus story that saw no murmuring. Its readers. the more muted that picture appears. In short. But to talk of God and "insecurity" in the same breath is also to see that the gift of human "freedom" (to some if not to others) itself creates external pressures on God which in turn circumscribe his own action. At God's prompting Moses delivers the people into a wilderness. excluded ambiguity and irony in the presentation of its characters. God himself is depicted as risking insecurity. the one who brings the people out of the land and across the Sea. The more one looks into it. no rebellion (or potential for rebellion) by Moses and by Israel. removed from the "real" world of masters and slaves. spectacularly. one who remembers his obligations as well as one who demands "service" (labour!). I started this paper with Robertson's essay. God's freedom is circumscribed by humankind just as the freedom of humankind is circumscribed by God. On the other hand. Egypt/Pharaoh must be made an example of. which so much of the rest of the story inhabits.

118.155. I have argued that it is part and parcel of a narrative which explores the ambiguous nature of human "freedom" in a theist world. cancelled out another's freedom. A Commentary (Old Testament Library. 1977). Ronald E. Or it may warn us against becoming as Pharaoh so that through mocking (usurping?) God's rule we risk losing our freedom totally. 4 John Rogerson.Art and Meaning Yahweh himself has to harden the tyrannical Pharaoh's heart to keep the series of plagues going". 1974). It may encourage us to anticipate the challenge from God to leave Midian for a more glorious servanthood. released me then. in conclusion. Childs. kept me there for fifty days." /41/ NOTES 1 David Robertson. and when the kings of the nations enter. a story to recite in times of great despair. and brought me up. but believes this irony to lie outside the text. obscurity. Exodus. 3 Childs. he makes the power of God known to them at once. 5 Childs. Exodus. The Supernatural in the Old Testament (London: Lutterworth Press.. rather Moses1 call is "a radical break with the past. Or it may move us to thank God that he has passed by. e.
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. initiated by God" (my stress) (p. Pharaoh never died. and He brought ten plagues upon me. I would say that the exodus story has a number of dimensions. He always stands at the portal of hell. The Old Testament and the Literary Critic (Philadelphia: Fortress Press. left us in decent. Chapter R.but avoiding the waves. Thus. 1976) 41. 170. he resists interpreting the call of Moses in terms of the "internal brooding of a man over the problems of his people and the mounting religious conviction that God wanted him to aid". Thus I could not but believe in Him. On the contrary. So. and never will die. in these words: "O ye fools! Why have ye not learnt knowledge from me? I denied the Lord God.73). 2 Brevard S. risk being treated as puppet rather than person. to respond as best we can to the ripples of his involvement in human life . cf. It may function as a paradigm of hope the story of God bringing new life out of death and oppression. too. summoned another to great deeds. Exodus.. London: SCM Press. "Comedy and Tragedy". mediocre. sent me to the bottom of the sea. 24-25.g.

Exodus. 10 O. Childs. See further below. beside the point.. Pharaoh does not seem to be in much of a hurry. his "rightful authority over Israel". II. "tomorrow" must be understood as allowing the barest minimum time to elapse for the job to be done. 1972) 30. on the contrary. The Bruce Publishing Company. 164) rightly notes the prima facie "reasonableness" of Pharaoh's claim that there is no need to take children if the Israelites are really only going to make sacrifice. 1966) 124. As far as Moses (and the reader) is concerned. Pharaoh's only realistic option is capitulation.T. Part I.34. observes that Pharaoh's apparently "reasonable" readiness to negotiate is. and Literary Critic. Exodus (Cambridge: CUP. points out that the Egyptian is at last ready to "negotiate seriously". 7 So Moshe Greenberg: ". To have said "today" would have been to ask the impossible. 11 Greenberg (Understanding Exodus. however. but for a different (though I think not incompatible) reason. in a private communication.43. 1969] 158. 155-56) observes in some detail the place of "concessions" in the negotiation and the skill of both negotiators. whereas Moses has "challenged the established power-political relationships". 160. Note also. New York: Behrman House. and Literary Critic. on the spread of recognition. Vol. 24. too. I think that. 12 Greenberg. and contrasts the provocative posture adopted by Moses. On reflection. 8 O. Childs (Exodus. James Plastaras. observes that by stipulating "tomorrow" as the time for the removal of the frogs.step by step the narrative builds up the overwhelming evidence of God's power and control over events" (Understanding Exodus [The Heritage of Biblical Israel..T. for The Melton Research Center of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. 8 Understanding Exodus.38. 165. nonetheless. And compare Romans 9:17. 24. Pharaoh's negotiating position still mistakenly assumes his sovereignty. 6 Alan Hauser.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 Clements. cf. The God of Exodus. Pharaoh does want to get rid of the frogs) and a demand. pp. 80-84. "tomorrow" is both a concession (after all. The Theology of the Exodus Narratives (Milwaukee. This understanding of "tomorrow" as essentially indicating remarkable speed would fit with 8:23 [19] where Yahweh undertakes to deliver the next sign "by tomorrow". Inc. 135-36. since Pharaoh's human sovereignty is being
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.

and see also on this theme. 17 Alan Hauser points out to me (private communication) that in this last section of the story Yahweh's purposeful hardening is extended even to the ordinary Egyptians. (Understanding Exodus. 9:20 and 10:7): "'I will harden Pharaoh's heart . See further Michael Fishbane's interesting discussion of the (triadic plus one) structure of this material (Text and Texture. 25) observes nicely: "This request [for a blessing] is the final in a series of confessions by Pharaoh. pp. 153. 1979] 70-71. "Plagues and Sea of Reeds: Exodus 5-14". and finally he asks for a blessing. The mind of Pharaoh and his servants was changed toward the people . as the story now stands the death of the first-born does provide the climax (though still to be capped by chapter 14) to the cycle of plagues in 7:8-10:27. and he pursued the people of Israel . JBL 85 (1966) 137-158. CBQ 27 [1965] 336-47.. 127-28. and the Egyptians shall know that I am Yahweh' .180-81. then he confesses his sin.. Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts [New York. and the series taken together describes the course of his acknowledgment of Yahweh as a god to whom worship is properly due. 1980) 77-83." 16 Dennis J. The Egyptians pursued them .9). and Literary Critic.T. An Interpretation of a Biblical Story (Sheffield. 164. who earlier had thought Pharaoh to have lost all sense of proportion in his dealings with the Israelites (cf... Cf.166. the essay is called "Exodus 1-4 / The Prologue to the Exodus Cycle".8.74. McCarthy ("Moses1 Dealings with Pharaoh: Ex 7. climactic function. 14 While recognizing with Dennis J. see p... my The Fate of King Saul." (14:4.) Robertson (O. see p.27".63-76).. JSOT Press.Art and Meaning challenged by the supreme sovereignty of God.8-10. First he requests intercession..340) that there are differences between chapter 11 and the foregoing episodes. in which case any differences in chapter 11 only serve to mark out its special.having earlier confessed his "sin" to Samuel. 15 (Again compare the rejected Saul in 1 Sam 15 . McCarthy. Schocken Books..) 13 I am reminded of Yahweh's crucial intervention to destroy the reconciliation apparently effected by Jonathan between Saul and David in 1 Sam 19:1-17. 18 Increasingly where expressions occur such as "Pharaoh
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..

Cf. 91-92): ""[Israel] escapes from the service/servitude of Egypt that she may freely engage in the service of Yahweh. 166. Goldingay. Goldingay ("The Man of War".28.50-53 of his essay. 32) on the ambiguity of the term cbd: "This ambiguity of vocabulary in the Hebrew text is used to underline the basic theme of the exodus story: Israel is delivered from servitude to man in order to be free to serve God".89-91. observing the thematic significance of the covenantal promise ("the divine
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. 26 Fishbane (Text and Texture. Tyndale Bulletin 27 (1976) 79-113. between freedom from the service of the oppressor and freedom for the service of the liberating God" (my stress). Long. e. though perhaps with a tendency to minimize the extent to which Yahweh's mastery itself requires human servitude.g..27. or Plastaras (The God of Exodus. On cbd.. ed. 166. see also Greenberg. "The Man of War and the Suffering Servant. Almond Press. The Old Testament and the Theology of Liberation". 9:12. 10:20. Exodus. "Moses". 14:17). 20 Understanding Exodus. Exodus. Childs. 164-67. 63). I note with interest that Calvin came to a similar conclusion . De la servitude au service [Paris: Orante. Childs. see p. see pp.. "Exodus 1-2 in the Context of Exodus 1-14: Story Lines and Key Words". 128.cf.. Understanding Exodus. 24 See further on this cry. 136. "Exodus 1-2" above pp. above pp. "The Man of War".. in Burke O. 1981) 35-57.Exod 8:11.4:21. 22 Cf.52-53. 19 Charles Isbell. There is an inextricable link between exodus and Sinai. 181. 169-70. 11:10. the suggestion by Isbell.Gunn: Exodus 1-14 hardened his heart" (kbd in hiphil with Pharaoh as subject and libbo as object . pp. Exodus. Old Testament Short Stories in Literary Focus (Sheffield.. Yahweh as subject and "heart of Pharaoh" as object . 180-81. 28. 82. See also John Goldingay.50. 7:3. 23 On the theme of increase and curtailment see James Nohrnberg's stimulating discussion on pp. cf. 25 On the difficulty in the text here see Childs. 9:34) or "the heart of Pharaoh was hardened" (frzq in qal with "heart of Pharaoh" as subject) we are forced to read them in the context of a series of explicit attributions of ultimate causality to Yahweh (usually hzq in Piel. 1961]). and cf.37-61. Cf. Images of Man and God. 21 This point is well observed by the commentators (hence the title of George Auzou's book.

99-100. While I would agree that there are (implicit) signs in the narrative that justice is an issue (cf. Greenberg. 28 Goldingay ("The Man of War". Especially rewarding is James Ackerman's exploration of the cosmic dimension to the exodus story as a whole and chapters 1-2 in particular (through repeated allusions to the primeval stories of Genesis 1-11): "The Literary Context of the Moses Birth Story (Exodus 1-2)". whereby the oppressed were released and the oppressors punished". Nohrnberg. 66. R. "The Man of War". see Greenberg.Y. but is it also over-kill? We are touching now on the troubled question of the morality of violence which is raised early in the story with Moses killing the Egyptian. 1974] 88-89).87-88 and n.135-36. See further his comments on pp. 44-47. N.. 92-93. See further below. 31 On the cosmic imagery here. 84-85).
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.Art and Meaning appearances to Moses are also linked to the chain of promises to the patriarchs") usefully compares Exod 3:16-17 with Gen 50:25. The "covenant God" is also a focus for Childs in his discussion of chapter 3 (p. 32 Cf. 53 (quoting Ramban) and pp. and that death in the Sea contrasting ironically with the salvation of Moses from the water. Ackerman and Thayer S.g. pp. McCarthy. Understanding Exodus. of course.9) it seems to me to be subordinated in the text to the covenantal motivation. Understanding Exodus. 237-38. 3:7. Fishbane. Greenberg. Miranda (Marx and the Bible [Maryknoll. Kenneth R.88)and6:2-13(p. 27 For a contrary view. argues that a second motivation is simply God's sense of justice: "The act of God at the exodus was an act of justice. drawing on J. Gros Louis. Text and Texture. 29 Another dimension of the retribution is. e.40. Warshaw (Nashville: Abingdon. 343. in Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives. 127-28. that it conveys a measure of poetic justice: kbd ("hardening" of Pharaoh's heart leading to "hard" [grievous] plagues and in turn to Yahweh's "honour") for kbd ("hard" labour). with James S.H5). 30 Cf. ed. emphasizing rather compassion as the motivating force for Yahweh. Exodus. the death of the first-born plus Pharaoh and his host for the death of the Hebrew male babies. Goldingay. 1974) 74-119..: Orbis Books.64. see e. 162. "Moses1 Dealings with Pharaoh". 169-70.g. Understanding Exodus.P. "Moses". Childs. Is this balance or imbalance? The treatment of Pharaoh is appropriate.

Exodus. 35 Vater. At first afraid to look at the divine apparition. 3BL (1980). Greenberg argues that. Cf. be edited out" is only true up to a point. Cf. but for the depiction of Moses. 159-60. p. Yahweh's hand is behind these events (pp. Exodus. Understanding Exodus. Aaron is not important for the plot. having here (and cf. both "serving as seconds to the principal anatagonists". see further Greenberg. also Childs. '"A Plague on Both Our Houses': Form.53-56. 65. 'Oh let me
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. and see 90-97. 226. Israel's identity is marked out above all by the Passover ritual. "Moses1 Dealings with Pharaoh". 365-382. p. 13. Understanding Exodus. "Moses". Ackerman ("The Literary Context of the Moses Birth Story"). 95: "It is noteworthy how Moses' diffidence vanishes later. On the other hand. see Childs.36) stressed the human initiatives of these first two chapters. 47-49. 39 As well. while noting that the "'behind-the-scenes' activity of God" (until the last three verses) "contrasts sharply with the description of divine intervention beginning in Exodus 3 and building to a climax in Chapters 15 and 19" (p. Greenberg. 345. 20) that Aaron could "just as well . of course. as acting boldly in concert with God. 182). 59. too. 112-13. 37 Thus Robertson's point (O.g. nevertheless. 36 See also Greenberg. So.62-71. he will later ask boldly. "A Plague". who sees in these chapters a "partnership between Hebrew shrewdness [initiative?] and divine providence" (p. character depiction). "Narrative Patterns for the Story of Commissioned Communication in the Old Testament". He notes that Aaron and the magicians are "counterparts". 38 Thus NEB: "What is the meaning of this clamour?" for mah-ti§caq 'elay. 115. above pp.and Rhetorical-Critical Observations on Exodus 7-11". McCarthy. too. I agree about the hint of a providential presence (especially in the theme of "increase").T. itself a sign and the remembrance of a wonder in which Israel was separated from Egypt (chapters 11-13).Gunn: Exodus 1-14 33 Conversely. Understanding Exodus. On Aaron's role. A Form.34-36 and cf.172-73.. On the text here. 34 In her essay in the present volume. See also Nohrnberg.or Literary-Critical Concern?" 3SOT 11 (1979) 47-56.. but find it strictly subordinated to the depiction of human initiatives from the midwives' deception onwards. and Literary Critic. 115-119). cf. or for himself (e. 112). See also "Story Patterns for a Sitz..

at the end of his life. 43. See also Goldingay. 89-91. drawing upon (amongst other sources) Pirkey R. the contemporary issue of using physical violence as a means to social change).112-113. London) for drawing my attention to this passage." 40 Childs (Exodus. The Legends of the Jews (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America. 99-100. He who is not 'a man of words (debarim)' will.26). and be singled out of all prophets for TJeholding the likeness of the Lord' (Num. He who was at a loss to deal with an incredulous people until armed with a few petty signs.Art and Meaning behold your presence!' (33:18). The negative side to the Hebrews' attack on Moses' intervention against the Egyptian is well expressed by Acker man. My thanks to Raphael Loewe (University College. 41 Louis Ginzberg. Eliezer. As noted above (n. make some of the finest orations (d e barim) in the whole of scripture (Deuteronomy). "The Man of War". will later create an unheard of prodigy to crush it (Num. 12:7). "The Literary Context of the Moses Birth Story".104-105. 30.
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. 44-46) points perceptively to some of the moral ambiguities of Moses' action in killing the Egyptian (cf. 1911 [1968]) HI. the discussion could be extended to include Yahweh's violence against Egypt. 30).

If the excision should be completed too quickly. Num. distort the interpreter's perception of the narrative's function and meaning simply by virtue of the fact. Here he and Miriam together reproach Moses for his audacious behavior as leader of the people and claim for themselves in the process the right of
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. The culpable rebel in this stage appears to be Miriam alone. Aaron appears in the tradition as a part of a second stage. the contribution intended by the problem may be completely lost. a word or sentence in a pericope appears on the surface to be disruptive or unnecessarily repetitive. That loss would. In accord with a singular subject. Rhetorical patterns function not only as elements of beauty in ancient art but also as keys for seeing clearly what the narrator wants to say. Thus v. the conclusion of the chapter describes the punishment of God for the rebellion as leprosy exacted against Miriam alone (v. The tradition embodied by the narrative reveals at least three stages of growth. for example. moreover. the interpreter may simply excise the problem without considering the possibility that the word or phrase may have had a role to play in the rhetoric native to the narrator's own world of narration technique. The oldest would have been an account of reproach against Moses for his Cushite marriage /!/. It is therefore of critical importance in any effort to recover meaning from any example of narrative art to recognize whatever sense of rhetorical unity may be at the heart of the piece.10). USA Interpretation of Pentateuchal narratives commonly begins with assumptions about disunity. 12 constitutes a prime example of literary and traditio-historical disunity in Old Testament narrative. If.HUMILITY AND HONOR: A MOSES LEGEND IN NUMBERS 12 George W.l begins with a third feminine singular imperfect verb and apparently assumes that Miriam alone was the subject. For past interpreters. Coats Lexington Theological Seminary 631 South Limestone Street Lexington KY 40508.

a complex which.Art and Meaning leadership. from the
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. The older literary critics tended to define this disruption as a late redaction of the story without attributing the insertion to a particular source. whereas the dispute concerning the special place accorded to Moses in matters concerning the receiving of revelation is reported as stemming from 'Aaron and Miriam. de Vaulx avers that "the redactor. It must therefore be accepted that in the complex of this chapter. But he stands at a distance simply as an observer when punishment for the rebellion comes from God.4" /3/. 16). expressed as a mediation of God's word to the people (v. to see critics who are bolder in their literary constructions..2. Yet. The disunity of this chapter represents not only a problem in the history of the traditon...3 is a later addition which disrupts the close connection between v. the response loses contact at key points with both the tradition about a Cushite wife and the one about rebellion over rights of leadership. The third stage in the tradition's history loads the narration with various accounts of Moses' position before God and his people /2/. for example. are now so closely joined together that it is impossible to pursue a division into separate literary sources . Noth refuses to analyze the literary disunity of the chapter in terms of a combination of sources.3.2). In what manner is v. who has narrowly tied down the two accounts compares the claims of the 'nebi'im' of the northern kingdom of the ninth century with the ancient relics of family opposition against Moses" /5/.3. who is the one who is punished for it. The disunity between these two stages emerges most sharply in the ambiguous role of Aaron. He apparently joins Miriam in rebellion against Moses. Martin Noth observes: "The modest reserve on the part of Moses is particularly stressed in v.' . but it also presents an image of Moses incompatible with other pictures of his leadership (contrast Num. In his comment on v. "The reproach with regard to the Cushite marriage actually comes originally from Miriam. so it would appear. Yet. the Elohist..2b and v. Baentsch observes simply that "in any case the verse does not belong to the old narrative" /4/. a fitting response to the challenge against Moses as leader? Not only does Moses" retirement as meek fail to present a response suited to such an aggressive challenge as the one represented by v.. The two subjects of the chapter . In the received text this stage functions as a response to the rebellion.. Thus. It also reflects a literary disunity. however. with its depiction of Moses as the meekest of all people. however.3. It is possible. In any case v.

I do not even contest the apparent disunity at points in the literary construct. that a pattern of unity does emerge in the received text and that it overshadows the disjointed facets still preserved from the tradition's past. In what fashion can the chapter be classified as a unit? In answer to this question I propose a hypothesis. As a legend the narrative now focuses on the virtues of Moses. In Ex.
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. now hypothetically reconstructed tale was transformed in the course of its history into a legend /7/. That pattern can be identified by paying attention to questions of structure and genre in the received text. His steady hands endure all the way to the conclusion for the day's work: cad-bo' hassames. I propose. the form of the story sets this unit among the Old Testament legends about the leaders of Israel /8/. for example.3 may be disruptive vis-a-vis the old narrative traditon about a rebellion. the subject is now the unusual status of Moses among all the people of the world. the story of Israel's struggle against the Amalekites.Coats: Humility and Honor literary point of view.
I
The virtues of Moses constitute a vital part of the Old Testament tradition about Israel's famous leader. Thus. two different strands have been combined" /6/. And it provides the necessary key for defining the unity of the pericope. To the contrary. And his ability to stand by his responsibilities shows his integrity as a leader of the people. 17:8-16. Although the rebellion tradition lies in the immediate background for the narrative. v. Rather. it is now the center of the unit. If this chapter appears so completley disjointed. can no longer be disentangled. then one must ask whether there is any sense of unity at all within its limits. I do not deny the complexity of the tradition's history outlined in some detail by Noth. Thus the hypothesis: The narrative as it has been preserved (by 3) is no longer a tale designed primarily to narrate the events of rebellion against Moses by Miriam or by both Miriam and Aaron. that old. both in tradition history and in the literary structure of the received text. Moses sticks to his job despite physical difficulties. That hypothesis would mean that while v. This picture describes Moses" peculiar quality in leading his people in the face of wilderness crises. it is not now the primary subject for narration.12 depicts Moses as a leader with steady hands: way e hi yadayw 'emuna. however.

In 1 Sam. 12:1-16 function to give expression to this virtue? And what precisely is the virtue of faithfulness in the house of God? In order to clarify the virtues of Moses as they appear in this unit. c nw. The image would be like the one depicting Joseph in Gen. to find parallels with ne'eman as a designation of virtue. though based on a different grammatical form. 12:7b observes: "He is entrusted with all my house": bekol-beti ne'eman h(V." or "submissive. 17. clear that the words. Num. Isa. 39:1-6. 22:14." then it does not describe the Moses of this pericope. The immediate point of contact appears not simply in a common interest in the virtues of Moses. 7:9). however.7 has nothing to do with humility. But how.Art and Meaning This picture of Moses1 virtues enlarges when Num.3? "The man Moses was very meek. Joseph. There is no way to depict Moses as deficient in spirit when he intercedes for Miriam before God (v. the steward over all the house of Potiphar. more than every other person on the face of the earth. or "humble". What is the significance of the attribute canaw in v. It is a virtue that should set him above Saul's rampage (compare also 1 Sam. 42:20). To be ne'eman is to be honest in fulfillment of duty (cf. The Joseph parallel does not use the key word. and his responsibility undergirds the picture of Moses as a person with integrity. then. 2:35.
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. It is not difficult. "meek". draws on the same root word and meaning (Jmn) from Ex. do justice as tools for translating the term /I I/. The apparent image of this verse. does the unit in Num. we must define the crucial role of v. The basic thesis is that the word derives from a root. If meek means "deficient in spirit and courage. the term describes David in a manner that reveals integrity. belongs to Moses more than to all other persons who are on the face of the earth? And how does that virtue relate to the description of Moses as responsible in v. shows himself responsible in the administration of his responsibilities. 3:20. but more particularly in repetition of the virtue announced in Ex. It is not.13). we might ask. The virtue of v. Moses shows himself a responsible steward in God's house. What kind of virtue.3. even when his master's wife makes such responsibility very difficult /9/.7? My intention here is not to present a full etymology for the term canaw but rather to build on work already established. 12:1-15 comes into consideration. 17:12. however. Gen." The key term canaw refers to a leading virtue of Moses who exemplifies the virtue better than any other person in the land /10/.

Let the faithful exult in glory. a conclusion lies at hand: To be "meek" is to be responsible for the whole household of the master. This kind of passive quality does not do justice to the pericope. but comes to expression in his role as servant with responsibility for the Lord's house: bekol-betT ne'eman hO*." Support for c this deriviation lies at hand. Am. not only from the Arabic root nw." L. (iii) Except in a very limited context. but also from the parallel alignment of the plural c anawim with "poor." dallim (cf. Delekat suggests rather that the word comes from the verb cang (I). 29:19. The context highlights rather obedience within the context of personal responsibility. They are not oppressed. Ps. Moreover. 1:27: "For the fear of the Lord is wisdom and instruction. Moses' characteristic quality as canaw is not a strictly inner personal virtue. They are committed in loyalty to the Lord /15/. Thus. (ii) A traditional analysis of canaw derives the word from the verb canci (III). with some intimate relationship to the feminine noun anaw3 (cf. however. The servant devotes himself in obedience to his master.). It suggests the kind of relationship that obtains between a master and his servant. 8:4. 3. "to answer" /14/. the verb connotes "answer" in a very particular way.1 " If C3naw derives from such a stem. The following observations seem to me relevant to that end: (i) Written without a yod. Isa.) /12/. with denotation of obedient response. he adorns the humble ( c anawim) with victory. 12 should follow in unforced c sequence. and he delights in fidelity and 'meekness. This masculine singular noun would suggest derivation from a root cC nw. loss of immediacy in responsibility /16/. He complies with his master's designs for his affairs. The same parallel appears in Sir.Coats: Humility and Honor connoting responsibility or integrity. 32:7: Am. 149:4 offers an appropriate parallel: "For the Lord takes pleasure in his people." nor even "reticent. 2:7. the connotations of the word in Num.
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. etc. c nw. if one considers the context of the crucial term canaw. the form of the word now preserved in the MT (canaw) is without parallel." The c anawim parallel the h a sidim. that the verb anci can suggest "willfahrig" or "horig" with certain tones of complacency. etc. "to be bowed down. for example. Schildenberger opens this connotation a step farther: "The attitude or virtue of c anawa is revealed precisely in the fact that Moses does not defend himself but rather that Yahweh takes over responsibility for Moses1 justification" /13/. canaw does not mean "oppressed. Delekat observes. afflicted.

22:36 describes an attribute of God: "You have given me the shield of your salvation. 2 Sam. Kabod is the honor imposed on a person by his supporters. public celebration of deeds or character. Behind the emphasis on the virtue lies a tale of opposition to Moses. Moreover. then. Indeed. 12:3 might thus read: "The man Moses was the most honorable of all persons who are on the face of the earth. 18:36). Ps. and your 'honor' made me great" (cf.3 and v. But if c anaw precedes the public display of honor. public display of honor may spell the destruction of an honored person. concerning genre and structure in this pericope? In its final form the unit appears as a legend.5:5 requires such a translation: "In your majesty ride forth victoriously for the cause of truth (cal-debar-'emet) and the honor of right (wecanwctsedeq). Prov. the integrity of character that makes public honor well bestowed.Art and Meaning The range of connotation in the word emerges even more clearly when one compares the virtue with "honor. Thus. 4. Typically the story line recedes behind the various points that advance the virtue. Num. also Ps." This connotation for the masculine noun c anaw can be confirmed by reference to all other parallel feminine nouns."
II
What can be said. in two cases the word canawci creates an impossible combination if the meaning is related to meek or humble. G Anaw is therefore the personal honor. while the virtue itself becomes a central datum in the narrative. then honor may be embraced as good. In every case the noun appears to be more clearly defined if it is taken as a term for honor or integrity. for an early account of the opposition because of Moses' marriage to a Cushite woman becomes a story of opposition to
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. And in contrast to the RSV emendation. It implies recognition." kabod.7 depict the same virtue of responsibility in the administration of God's household. In Numbers 12. Both refer to the quality of Moses' leadership as a man of honor who fulfills the responsibility God gives him. if the fear of the Lord prepares a person for honor in the same way that canaw does. A legend builds its narrative in order to emphasize a virtue in the central hero /17/. Indeed. both v. But integrity or honor serves both well. the tale itself shows some evidence of growth. 15:33 and 18:12 suggest that canaw comes before such public honor. either by repetition or by structural elevation.

1-3. however. It spells rather a new attempt to advance interpretation of the tradition. Miriam and Aaron may challenge the position Moses holds.6-8. (II) The second element in the pericope. vv. that the resolution of the conflict does not bring the pericope to its close.4-8. Moses administers the house of the Lord. 30-32).3. the narrative account of the hearing (vv. (Ill) The final element of structure in vv.3 and 7 are simply disruptive.4-5) merges with an oracle. the transformation effected by the legend does not spell simple disunity in the pericope. announcement of the punishment motivates immediate appeal from Aaron to Moses not to punish the rebels for the rebellion. And in the oracle is the legendary expansion. The rebellion ends in dire punishment against the rebel. Legends typically appear as transformations of original tales. The intercession itself
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. He is ne'eman.llb) and a petition (vv.9-15 resolves the tension. (I) The point of tension in the story appears in vv. But the storyteller assures his audience that Moses will respond with honor. Moses1 authority receives a just confirmation (vv. A report of the conflict. contrasts with the legendary note in v. The appeal comprises both a confession of guilt (v. The working hypothesis for defining the unity of the pericope is that the responsibility as connoted by c anaw is clearly demonstrated in the event of intercession as described in vv. 32:21-24. Rather. It is important to note. vv.1-2. But of more importance. heightens the tension by introducing Yahweh as judge. 9-14. But what is the relationship between the tradition as tale and the legendary emphasis on Moses1 honor? In its final form the pericope appears as a legend. The structure of the pericope supports the viability of the hypothesis. and the struggle leads to an appropriate punishment of the rebels in a manner that at the same time affirms the authority of Moses. Miriam and Aaron struggle against Moses' exclusive right to represent the Word of God to the people. The question of unity in the pericope is thus the more pressing. vv. but nonetheless as significant stages in the history of the tradition. Ex. a vehicle for presenting Moses1 virtue.12) and leads to Moses' intercession (cf.lla. But are the legendary elements simple additions to the text that disrupt the story /18/? It seems to me that the genre distinctions between tale and legend cannot serve as evidence that the legendary elements in vv. Significantly. the legend demands serious effort in interpretation. This tale thus becomes a legend. As a significant stage.Coats: Humility and Honor Moses1 role as leader of the people and mediator of the divine Word.9-10).

Punishment. Mosaic leadership. 32:31-32.Art and Meaning appears under the narrative verbal form. 5 C. And his audacity to address God with such an appeal is the act that exemplifies the virtue. Each element of structure in the unit exhibits a transformation from a focus on opposition to Moses1 leadership to a depiction of Moses1 virtue as a leader. Resolution 9-14 A. 6 2. Yet. "Moses cried out to the Lord" (wayyi§caq mosheh Jel 'adonay). Here it appears as a contrast to the prophets. Moses petitions Yahweh to change the course of his action. Affirmation of Mosaic Virtue. 9-10 B. then. Theophany. Moreover. Virtue. 1 2. Relationship between God and prophet. the intercession with its result must be understood directly in relationship to the virtue of 1Moses at the center of the legend. The virtue focuses on Moses integrity of leadership before God. Summons. And the intercession achieves a compromise: in fact. And the final element shows the unit as a picture of an honorable man. 11-12
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. a man whose virtue is exemplified by his intercession for his opponent. 8b III. 7-8a 3. Accusation. 4 B. Exposition 1-3 A. Appeal for intercession.8 as the unique position of Moses which enables him to speak "mouth to mouth" with God. Challenge 1. That virtue is described in v. Relationship between God and Moses. 2 B. It would appear to me. despite its formal polite structure. Cushite wife. 12:1-15 appears as a well unified legend. 3 II. the pericope in Num. The following outline illustrates the pattern of unity: I. therefore. Complications 4-8 A. In its final form. It is precisely the mouth to mouth relationship that facilitates Moses1 position as intercessor. that intercession cannot be taken simply as a sign for a prophetic office. and features e the stereotypes of supplication: "O God! Heal herl" ('el na' r pa* na' lah). the healing process which forms the content of Moses1 petition. it shares in the radical opposition characteristic of the intercession in Ex. 6-8 1.

It would be more likely that the Moses traditions and traditions derived from prophetic or royal offices depend on a common third source. Rather. 13 D. it involves articulation of needs among the led. 12 has explicit theological consequences that need a hearing. That pattern.Coats: Humility and Honor C. effective. as 3. a pattern for depicting particular leadership figures that is not limited to one institution. The prophet receives the Word of God in a vision or a dream.R. Response. the responsibility of administration in the house of God. It is possible to see the king as a representative of this virtue. There is no limitation of this virtue to the royal office. (ii) That leadership is not a strong. The same point applies to the definition of the Mosaic tradition in terms of a royal office /20/. Yet. ik IV. in just this pericope the virtue of Moses is denied to the prophetic office. to define the imagery as royal. derives from folklore and can best be described as heroic. Indeed. But loyalty to God means loyalty in responsibility to the hero's people. silent type. the intimacy of direct communication. But Moses enjoys a more personal relationship. Thus. Conclusion 15
III
What kind of imagery dominates this pericope? The office of intercessor is commonly tied to the prophets /19/. Moses does
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. it is clear that reference to a prophetic office will not adequately account for this unit in the Moses traditions. responsible leadership. certainly not in this pericope. fulfillment of virtue. Intercession. retiring. unassertive leadership. The legend that depicts Moses as more honorable than any person on the face of the earth should be understood as a part of the heroic Moses tradition so common in the Pentateuch.
IV
This perspective on Num. Porter has shown. (iii) Loyalty within the scope of such leadership belongs to God. Yet. It calls rather for strong. so it seems to me. some intimate contact between the prophetic office and the Mosaic tradition can be seen. a meek. (i) The legendary quality of leadership exemplified by Moses does not call for a deficiency of spirit and courage. there is no concern in the Mosaic tradition at large.

in my opinion.. INTRODUCTION It is generally agreed that Is. Interpretation of the text as it now stands. To pursue this kind of questioning would be."WHOM WILL HE TEACH KNOWLEDGE?": A LITERARY APPROACH TO ISAIAH 28 J. is the subject of this study. In places I think this meaning is different from the understanding one gains by treating the individual oracles independently. my major concern is not just to show catchword and thematic connections. Hirsch. the kinds of rhetorical devices employed and the result they meaning. namely. 28-32 from a literary perspective. to run the risk of falling into the intentional fallacy /3/. An issue often raised with regard to this kind of analysis of biblical texts is whether or not the observed literary structures and devices are intended by the ancient authors and editors. and a rather complex one at that. USA I. an author (or. but to study the effect produced when the material under scrutiny is read as a literary whole. joined on the basis of catchword and theme /!/. then. I am interested less in the editorial principles behind the present arrangement of the oracles. on exploration of the relation of form and
. Their context gives them new meaning /2/. we might say. Jr. Our attention will centre on considerations of such literary matters as the interrelations of certain key themes and motifs. E. makes a valuable observation with regard to conscious and unconscious literary meanings. 28-32 is a collection. and more in the meaning the prophetic words take on in light of their present context. The question whether or not certain literary
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produce. in short. In approaching Is.D. of independent oracles from different situations. that when meaning is complicated. the use of tropes and how they work. editor) cannot possibly at a given moment be paying attention to all its complexities /4/. Cheryl Exum Boston College Chestnut Hill Massachusetts 02167.

I find their observations applicable to the literary study of Is.14 is this applicability made explicit. and will. and then moves to address the Kingdom of Judah. a strong similarity between vv. which prophets. Whereas it is not the individual oracle or the growth of the tradition which concerns me here. but only with v.7-13. 28 to literary scrutiny.. suspicion may grow that the situation applies to the Southern Kingdom. and we are dealing in Is. 28 begins with an oracle against the Northern Kingdom.if speculate we must .7 the indictment of Judah begins ///.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 features are deliberate or spontaneous receives a similar evaluation by Cleanth Brooks: The truth of the matter is that we know very little of the various poets' methods of composition. make use of insights gained through these approaches. While the above citation refers to written literature. One result of this delay is a certain ambiguity with regard to the referents of vv. Moreover. 1-4 apply to Ephraim. After subjecting ch. We may accept the arguments for this assessment while at the same time observing that from a literary perspective. II. and that what may seem to us the product of deliberate choice may well have been as "spontaneous" as anything else in the poem . 28-32 with material which most likely grew up in oral tradition. Verses 7f.. speak of priest and prophet. l^ff. Most commentators agree that only vv.on the possible significant interrelations of image with image rather than on the possible amount of pen-biting which the interrelations may have cost the author /5/. 28-32. it is striking that not until v. and that with v.1-4 in terms of both form and content serves to show the
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. Ephraim.7 on. chs. ISAIAH 28 Is. 28 presented below /6/. they should be able to recognize themselves in the descriptions of vv. and which people are meant? From v. and while both critics are concerned with modern literature.7-13. but which priests. and in vv. I shall make some general remarks about its larger context. We shall probably speculate to better advantage . my analysis presupposes form critical and tradition critical investigation. Now that Jerusalem's leaders are directly called to task. at points.9-13 "this people" comes under judgment. and vv.J4 does the name Jerusalem appear.

The
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. Destruction pushes beyond the storm imagery. Verse 1 addresses the proud crown of Ephraim. vv. and the destruction of the Jerusalemites will be like a trampling (j^mirmas). Another consequence of the delay of direct reference to Jerusalem is that the addresses to Ephraim and Jerusalem in vv.. Nevertheless.14-15. v. Yhwh informs them that.l. 18. (iii) the oracle returns to the images with which it began to describe the punishment: vv.1-13. In vv. vv.1-4) and Jerusalem (vv. to the contrary. introduced by hinneh.5f. v. v. In any event. mention is made of a remnant. I am doubtful whether vv. vv. is described with new imagery and new terminology.3. salvation is not the final word in either of the two parts. Verses 1-13 conclude with an example of unsuccessful instruction. 14-29. and justice (mishpat) is associated with it. like a downpour of hail (baradh) and of mighty overflowing waters (mayim kabbirim shot e phim). so that as the chapter now stands.!4f. In each oracle. For both Ephraim and Judah. 16-17a (17a where Yhwh's wejamtT echoes the Jerusalemites1 samnu presents the only exception). a metaphor which suggests Ephraim's leaders. a similar pattern is followed: (i) rich metaphoric language depicts the condition which calls forth Yhwh's wrath. hail (bharadh) will sweep away their refuge of falsehood and waters will overflow (mayim yishtophu) their hiding place. which justifies our seeing the former as a lesson and a warning to the subjects of the latter.!6-17a hold out much hope for a remnant /8/. its presence and its assoc. Let me say at the outset that I make this structural observation tentatively.2. In particular.2. Against Ephraim Yhwh sends one strong and mighty. Although the Jerusalem leaders imagine through their alliances to have avoided the overflowing scourge (shot (Q) shoXe'ph). Verse 14 speaks to the rulers of Jerusalem. The proud crown of Ephraim will be trampled (teramasnah) under foot. I am struck by the number of parallels which exist between the two parts.l7. v.iation with justice (mishpat) provide another point of contact between the two parts of the chapter.l and 14 mark a kind of natural division of the chapter into two major parts. but if so. Yhwh's instrument of punishment is the same. the oracles against Ephraim (vv. vv.!7b-18 use the image of vv. repeat the metaphors of v.3f.l.14-19) display a remarkable correspondence. v.l5. vv. the prophet continues. v.Art and Meaning Jerusalemites that their situation is not so different from that of their northern neighbors. (ii) Yhwh's response.

On the contrary. in v.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 prophet asks whom will Yhwh teach (yoreh) knowledge. indeed. the issue is Yhwh's strange. v.11-13. destruction is directly associated with the strange and alien action of Yhwh. Destruction comes about. one part flows into the next.9. A decree of destruction. v. The similarities noted above between vv. Since I do not find in ch.9. the division of this material in the discussion which follows is used purely for convenience.23-29 makes its point with clarity. Should not the farmer serve as a model for the Jerusalemites to follow? Instruction is an essential theme in ch. be incomprehensible. We may assume that the message includes the idea of rest and trust in Yhwh. The order indicates that perhaps there is yet time to hear and thus avoid the catastrophe. To those unwilling to be instructed. Yhwh's strange and alien work. in this case it is left open for the people to decide whether or not they will hear (shim c u). Yhwh's actions will. precedes the instruction of vv. 28 some kind of clear-cut strophic arrangement.19). this final lesson in vv. and understanding the message. incomprehensible language. and it is this movement within the chapter which calls for exploration. like the motif of teaching (vv. v. In the first part of the chapter. but they are now associated in such a way as to give the whole chapter a remarkable unity. In each instance. Verses 14-29 also conclude with instruction.9-13. 28 (vv. for this is the gist of the message as it appears in each section. the message is outrightly rejected.1-13 and 14-29 do not indicate some sort of static or artificial division of the material within the chapter. because the people reject instruction. vv. vv. a lesson will be taught which will destroy them. In contrast to the confusion created by the instruction given in vv. the motif of understanding the message occurs once in each section of ch.23-29. Some of these sections may well have once been individual poems (oracles).12. in the second. The motif of hearing receives greater elaboration in the chapter. We shall explore below the development of three motifs in which it finds expression: teaching. and no one would dispute the benefits of this instruction. but because the people are unwilling to hear (shemoac).9-13.12 and 16. Yhwh teaches (yorennu) the farmer. giving expression to the basic concept that to understand the message (shemGcah) one must be willing to hear (shm£) it.23.21. v. Suffice it here to say that. 28. v. it is significant that no explicit statement about its rejection appears. hearing.
Ill
. In vv.26.26).9.22.

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. 4 and the fading flower. will sweep away the unworthy Ephraimites. which. will be like a first-ripe fig before summer. drunkards of Ephraim. which is upon the head of the fertile valley.l with a metaphor describing certain Ephraimites. 2 Behold. These few verses describe judgment upon Ephraim (vv. its glorious beauty. 6 and (like) a spirit of justice to the one sitting in judgment. Yhwh of hosts will be (like) a crown of beauty and (like) a diadem of glory to the remnant of his people. 3 Underfoot will be trampled the proud crown. as soon as it is in his hand. Verse 4 continues the description of punishment with an extended simile in which the swiftness and completeness of the destruction are conveyed by comparison to an early fig. Contrary to this expectation. the Lord has one strong and mighty like a torrent of hail.5f. the imagery climaxes in four similes describing Yhwh in various roles as provider of strength and security for a remnant. those smitten with wine. a storm of destruction.3 presents a metaphor in which Ephraim's punishment is described as a trampling. which themselves appear among elaborate metaphoric descriptions. v. like a torrent of mighty waters overflowing he casts down to the earth with (his) hand. v. sees it. 28-32. It begins in v.) using no less than seven similes. drunkards of Ephraim. 28:1-6 represents the densest figurative language in all of chs.2. its glorious beauty. one might expect. fading flower. In vv. which is upon the head of the fertile valley. he swallows it up. 5 In that day. who by virtue of their drunkenness (itself perhaps symbolic) have brought upon themselves Yhwh's wrath.Art and Meaning Isaiah 28:1-6 1 Alas! proud crown. when the one who sees.1-4) and promise for a remnant (vv. which. Metaphor and simile alternate in the poem. to two similes which describe Yhwh's instrument of punishment in terms of a mighty storm.5f. Is. It moves. and (like) strength to those turning back battle at the gate. eaten as soon as it is seen.

implicit. For example. our goal is not to explain the imagery here. for one can also think of Samaria as the crown on the head of the fertile valley. but rather to comment upon how it works: how is it used and what effects does it produce? The terms tenor and vehicle will be useful in this analysis to refer respectively to the subject to which the metaphor is applied and to the metaphoric description itself /10/. a fact which has led some interpreters to consider it less than successful /9/. diadem. While trampling may serve as a figurative description of the destruction accomplished by a hail storm. strains the imagery. while mixed metaphor defies explanation. Fortunately. it is mixed as well. The imagery is fluid. Only the third tenor is explicit. and the drunkards as the citizens of Samaria. We are probably correct in understanding the tenor to be Assyria. 8:6-8. and strength. images. exactly who or what is meant by the phrase "proud crown. in contrast to the transitory crown of the leaders of Ephraim. and the image of the head of the fertile valley suggests Samaria (cf. it seems difficult to picture an atmospheric condition with feet. if. drunkards of Ephraim"? The word "crown" brings to mind Ephraim's leaders. Yhwh is presented as the true crown of the people. serves to underscore a
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.4.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 Even a casual reader will note that metaphor in these verses is not only dense. comparison of a fading flower to an early fig. sometimes obscure. as well as the fact that these four similes climax the poem. the least. The differences with regard to specificity of tenor reveal the concerns of the poem. The first is marked by a certain vagueness.3). spirit of justice. Whereas the first tenor is somewhat vague. Let us consider first the tenors. Assyria is described in a similar manner in Is. The Ephraimites about whom the oracle is uttered are described as a proud crown. The clear identification of Yhwh as crown. There are three tenors in the poem. the next tenor is implicit. Carl Sandburg notwithstanding. but through a series of ironic. The most important tenor is explicit. Yhwh's instrument of punishment is never identified in the poem. 7:9). corresponding to three important figures in the background of the oracle. this oracle comes from the period between the Syro-Ephraimitic war and the fall of the Northern Kingdom /I I/. they are shown to be no crown at all. v. Moreover. as most commentators think. Density of metaphor makes interpretation of the poem difficult. we move from the description of Yhwh's instrument of punishment as a storm (v.2) to the image of a crown trampled "with feet" (v.

and as far as the poet of 28:1-6 is concerned. Already the crown fits ill. we shall consider at the same time other literary and rhetorical features of the poem.ld then connects through
11*
. The first stichos of the poem ushers us into the world of ironic metaphor /12/. that deliverance or salvation comes only through Yhwh. yet the descriptions which are surrounded belie the claim to honour. or it may be figurative for their confusion and faulty perception of Yhwh's will and their inability to grasp the realities of their political situation (cf. the metaphor "proud crown.. drunkards of Ephraim" points to the leaders in Samaria. in which case the Ephraimites suffer not only from drunkenness but also from hubris. the prophet denies Assyria ground for boasting. A double meaning is likely /13/. through its indefiniteness. But proud crown. It is surely ironic that the drunkards of Ephraim are referred to as its source of pride. while at the same time permitting. We move from imagery of majesty to imagery of drunkenness.. too.1-6.
AlasJ proud crown
drunkards of Ephraim fading flower its glorious beauty . extension of the indictment to all Ephraimites. The term "drunkards" may be taken in a literal sense. The first two stichoi introduce the intricate imagery which characterizes the poem. Thus the imagery of majesty surrounds the other descriptions of the Ephraimites just as a crown surrounds their head. As for the Ephraimites. Verse Ic shifts from the themes of pride and drunkenness to agricultural imagery. 29:9f. Elsewhere Isaiah comments upon Assyria's folly in regarding itself as responsible for the conquest of Israel.Art and Meaning fundamental theological tenet of Isaiah. or the saw magnify itself against the one who wields it? (10:15) The Assyrians are simply an instrument of Yhwh. As we turn our attention to the vehicles of the metaphors in vv.). to imagery of agriculture and frailty. By not mentioning Assyria by name. which v. back to imagery of majesty. Shall the axe vaunt itself over the one who hews with it. specific identification of Yhwh's instrument is irrelevant. in this context appears ironic.

The phrase "those smitten with wine" (yayin). holes. Whereas some interpreters seek to identify the subject of this
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. Ephraim's glorious beauty (tsebhT) is a fading flower (tsits). hail. The series of related images (torrent. mighty waters which overflow) constitutes the vehicle." moreover. a fruitful field (cf. but (as I read the imagery) what we have at the head of the fertile valley is not. As we noted above. Yhwh. hills. Another word play is presented by the term thiph'arto. for example. destructive storm. In v. caverns) /15/. which contains consonants of the word T ephrayim in a different order. however. one strong and mighty (belongs) to the Lord b like a torrent of hail. A third instance of paronomasia in v. but rather a fading flowerl Agricultural and drunkenness imagery merge in v. while b and b' present this force as a storm through the use of two similes beginning with k e zerem. while yayin at the same time suggests the fruitfulness of the vine.l. Verse 2 introduces new imagery. The "head" of the fertile valley would be the most luxuriant part.le. where pride is associated with things possessing physical height (mountains. The participle indicates that Ephraim's degeneration ("fading") is ongoing and not yet complete.lf. ambiguous.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 paronomasia to the imagery of pride. "Smitten (h a lume) ^tib wine. It draws attention to Ephraim's pride and anticipates the humbling of the proud crown which we meet in the following verses. the tenor is implicit. and we have here only a description of it with the adjectives "strong" and "mighty. recalls the drunkards (shikkore) of Ephraim. 29:17. a storm of destruction b' like a torrent of mighty waters overflowing a' he casts down to the earth with (his) hand The subject of a and a' is Yhwh's destructive force. The transitory and fragile nature of Ephraim's glory is exposed through the image of a fading flower. walls) and humility with low places (caves. towers. and thus is under the control of. The verse appears to be chiastic: a Behold. gffuth and gj\ sets up a contrast between the high and the low /14-/." The most important thing about this strong and mighty force is that it belongs to. 32:15). Verse 2d (a1) is. implies that the drunken Ephraimites are the victims of the very thing they pursue. This kind of contrast between attitude and physical height or depth receives fuller development in 2:6-22. the agricultural imagery is expanded with the image of the fertile valley. So much for glory.

l-^ a unified poem. a later editor has added these verses so that they build with vv. these verses exhibit the same reliance on metaphorical language and delight in word play as the rest of the poem /18/. The description of Ephraim's punishment begins with its flower/crown cast down with the hand and ends with its flower/fig gobbled up from the hand. at the same time. A mighty storm could also knock a crown from the head to the ground. Verses 5f. The poem returns to agricultural imagery and.
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. Once on the ground. It is precisely the ambiguity of the language which allows a variety and complexity of image. crown. Four similes introduced by l_ expound what Yhwh will be in that day to three categories of people. No sooner is this delicacy seen by someone than it is in his hand and then his mouth. as well as from vv. wilting flower is almost ludicrous). a mighty storm would surely beat it quickly to the ground (the image of a mighty downpour against a single. we have the fourth reference to a part of the body in the poem. Whereas a fading flower might benefit from a gentle shower. v. and the object as either the flower. The simile of the fig is deftly extended with a description which conveys vividly the suddenness which will mark Ephraim's destruction. in v. Moreover. That this day has not yet arrived is clear from the imperfect tense. With considerable skill. are commonly recognized as a message of hope appended at a later time to the oracle of destruction against Ephraim /17/. The imagery becomes anthropomorphic.3.4 the imagery shifts again. Although at first sight the image of an early fig before summer suggests renewal. or Samaria. With the palm of the hand (bekhappo).6. it can be trampled with the feet (beraghlayim). exchanges the idea of drinking (which describes the sin of the Ephraimites) for the idea of eating (which describes their punishment).Art and Meaning verse as either the strong one or Yhwh /16/. The fate of the fading flower of Ephraim's glory will be like that of an early summer fig.7ff. "In that day" in this context applies to the day of destruction for the proud crown of Ephraim. which plunge us back into the real world. I would resist trying to pin down the metaphoric language. this is not the case. Only after establishing a link with the preceding by picking up three key words (Cj^ereth. ts e bhi. and tiphfarah) does the poet move to something new in v. The proud crown is cast down from the head (r51sh) to the ground with the hand (beyadh). Thus far Ephraim has been threatened with storm and trampling.

based on reversal of consonants. the editor now moves beyond it. and applied them to Yhwh. This expansion of imagery sets the sin of Ephraim in a new context. what will be left is only a remnant. in the end. as the Ephraimites in v. Yhwh will be a spirit of justice (mishpat) to the one sitting in judgment (hammishpSt) and strength to those turning back battle at the gate. Since Yhwh in v. v. The beginning of the poem presents a picture of all of proud Ephraim. the poet has taken the three other terms of v. but not. but. And now comes the crowning word play! Yhwh is going to be a crown. with Samaria at its head. tsebht. calls attention to a dramatic change in the situation. 28:1-6 to underscore this point.6b to external. ca^reth. Perhaps because it is possible to see ge'uth in v. we may conclude that what characterizes Yhwh in the role as crown is absent among those who should provide responsible leadership for Ephraim. Verses 1-4 present drunkenness as the reason for Ephraim's destruction. an implicit reason may be pride.l.
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.l draws out the contrast between illusory crown (the leaders of Ephraim) and true crown (Yhwh). Why the combination ca tereth ts e bhi and not catereth ge'uth to describe Yhwh? I shall offer a tentative suggestion. The repetition of catereth from v.l as a pejorative term for pride. This word play.5 is described as a true crown of glory in contrast to the unworthy crown of the drunkards of Ephraim.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 like (1) a crown of beauty and like (1) a diadem of to (1) the remnant glory of his people and like (1) a spirit of to (1) the one sitting justice in judgment and like (1) strength to [supplying j] those turning back battle at the gate To the remnant Yhwh will be like a crown of beauty and a diadem of glory. Verse 6a points to internal. and tiph'arah. a crown for the head (r*sh) but rather a crown for a remnant (shV). Establishing justice and providing military defense are precisely the areas in which Ephraim's leaders failed. security. and the last verse of this poem permits Is.l which unequivocally suggest honour. Having established continuity with the imagery of the rest of the poem.

A further catchword connection exists between vv. The renewal of the charge of . present a situation not totally new. who will constitute the remnant of vv.5f. rendering a decision /19/. Which ones? These verses do not give an answer. something is seen (yir*eh haro'eh) and
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. Verses 7f.7f. There is no denying the abruptness of the transition between vv.5f. and may be even worse.1-4 and three times in vv. they stumble in giving a decision. for the priest.1-4 and twice in vv. they stagger from beer. But where are we? Perhaps the prophet has turned to the Southern Kingdom. no place is without filth. The key word yayin appears once in vv.1-4 and 7f. But drunkenness is not the only offense attributed to these two groups. having a vision. 8 for all tables are full of vomit. The ramifications of this separation we shall explore below. Both groups represent persons from whom one would expect responsible action. and the charge of inebriety against priest and prophet is jarring. twice in vv. one might ask. so also priest and prophet fail in fulfilling the functions of their office: for the prophet.7f. The abrupt transition serves to set 28:1-6 apart from what follows.). The contrast between the picture of peace and security of vv.1-4 and the priests and prophets.7f. Yet priest and prophet are no better than Ephraimite. It seems we have left the Ephraimite leaders. they are engulfed by wine. Given the rejection of the Ephraimites.? To whom would one look for special guidance? Priest and prophet. but can we be sure? Notice that the subject is delayed: "these also reel with wine and stagger with beer. 3ust as the leaders of Ephraim fail in their responsibility of maintaining justice and military security (vv.7-8 7 These also reel with wine and stagger with beer. priest and prophet reel with beer. In the former. An abrupt transition may also signal a move to something new.Art and Meaning Isaiah 28. Is greater insobriety implied by the frequency with which these terms reappear (five times as against three)? Clearly the issue of drunkenness receives more attention in vv. they reel with the vision. the root shkr.6 and 7." Who? The answer comes in the second stichos: priest and prophet.. drunkenness establishes a link between the Ephraimites of vv.5f.

Verse 7e returns to the earlier imagery..4. Similar imagery and double meaning complete the picture: they also stumble in giving a decision. Verse 8 puts the finishing touch to the tableau with a graphic illustration of their wretched situation. The repetition also creates effect by arousing the expectation of a certain consequent. A distinguishing feature of these two verses is their creative use of repetition. but rather something quite different . "they reel . one would expect "they stagger with wine. Since shaghu may also mean "they err" (cf. The objects "wine" and "beer" come first in the first two lines for emphasis. The words yayin and shekhar (for alcoholic drink) and shaghu and taCQ (for the effect of drinking) are repeated in various combinations. v. priest and prophet are swallowed up (nibhl ec u) by wine and thus cannot see (baro*eh) properly: "they reel with the vision. The ambiguity allows us to imagine either that their drunkenness prevents them from carrying out their functions properly or that they are as intoxicated with their own visions as with strong drink. v. back and forth." v.." But suddenly it is no longer wine or beer with which they reel." Instead of continuing to emphasize how drunk they are.. paqu with shaghu and tacu).7f continues. paqu p_ e liliyyah (note the alliteration as well as the rhyme. only to present a different one /20/.7 begins to set up a pattern: with wine they reel and with beer they stagger they reel with beer .
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. in reality.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 swallowed up (yibhla c ennah). those taken from the breast? 10 For it would be tsaw latsaw tsaw latsaw qaw laqaw qaw laqaw.the vision. Isaiah 28:9-13 9 Whom will he teach knowledge and whom will he cause to understand the message? Those weaned from milk. In the latter. To complete the pattern. in an almost willy-nilly fashion which suggests the staggerings of the drunkards." But the text gives us something else: "they are swallowed up by wine. "they stagger from beer. consumes them. the poet shows us that the thing which they consume. RSV) the result is a double meaning eminently suited to the situation." and v.. For example.7.

According
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. a reading which finds support in the context of vv.9-13 reflect a dispute between Isaiah and the priests and prophets of vv.15). for the moment. 11 For with stammerings of speech and with another tongue he will speak to this people.9 and vv. The root shmc appears here and in the introduction to vv. 9-23 it appears three times (vv. 12 to whom he has said: "This is the rest. Let us simply take the oracle as it stands /23/. or they are making fun of Isaiah's speech or his message. and be broken.9 is not identified. I take the "he" to refer to Yhwh.9 is a question rather than a statement leaves open. a little there. a little there. or they point to a lesson going on nearby as an analogy to Isaiah's methods of instruction /22/. taking on additional significance with each repetition. 28 only here and in v. 13 So the word of Yhwh will be to them. where instruction is also the topic.7f.Art and Meaning a little here. and stumble backward. and this is the repose.9-13 to the priests and prophets.23-29. and snared.23-29 is accepted. It has been suggested. In the absence of any indication in the text that Isaiah is referring either directly or indirectly to the words of his opponents (e. for example.14. further support for Yhwh as teacher appears in v. in order that they may go. Some commentators who take these verses as part of a disputation think the priests and prophets are speaking of Isaiah. the issue whether or not instruction is possible. such interpretations attribute some of the words in vv. give rest to the weary. 12. The "he" of v. that the priests object that Isaiah is treating them like school children. it is clear when he quotes in v. To varying degrees.26. between vv.23-29. assigning parts and providing reconstructions of a dispute seems too precarious. Verse 9a raises a question of major concern in Is." but they were not willing to hear /21/. If the close association of v. The crucial word "teach" (yoreh) occurs in Is. a little here. It forms an inclusion with the agricultural lesson of vv.ll and 13. tsaw latsaw tsaw latsaw qaw laqaw qaw laqaw. 28. A number of scholars posit that vv.26.g. That v.19). and taken.

If the words are taken to represent unintelligible speech. Now. who have not yet had the occasion to succumb to wine or beer as the Ephraimites. Verse 11 introduces a new frame of reference for the words of v. Like v. but presents difficulties in v. the point seems to be that in the past (v. to be sure.10 are chosen to echo tsS'ah and qi 1 of v. the babble of drunkards. the befuddled speech of the priests and prophets is being compared to the nonsense talk of infants. that Yhwh might teach them the message? Perhaps infants just weaned from milk. but babble just the same. therefore. the leaders of Ephraim are drunk.7f. Yhwh will speak gibberish to them.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 to vv. that some such interpretation as above makes sense. absurd.12). for if Yhwh were to teach children.8. and prophets have. Since the terms "teach" and "explain the message" may be thought of as referring to the functions of priest and prophet respectively /24/.13 ambiguous.9 reflects ironically upon the incompetence of these two groups. v. We are obviously dealing with irony and with words which are meant to take on different meanings. In fact.13. I find v. Or it may express an idea
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. a single meaning or translation for the words in these two verses is difficult to obtain. Baby talk . and according to v. following as they do the description of the crapulous priests and prophets. in vv. Van Selms1 attempt to give the words meaning by seeking an Akkadian prototype suits v. Who then remains.1-6.not. the message will be: tsaw latsaw tsaw latsaw qaw laqaw qaw laqaw. but they were unwilling to hear.10). what would the message be? Tsaw latsaw tsaw latsaw qaw laqaw qaw laqaw (v. a little here. Yhwh offered a clear message to the people.10 /27j. It seems to me. of course. the priests and prophets. The suggestion is. a little there. priests. and thus to suggest the drunken cries and shouts of the revelers /25/. which here picks up the idea of unintelligible speech and associates it with foreigners /26/. with the implication that the priests and prophets are about as effective in serving Yhwh as infants would be.10. Driver makes the intriguing suggestion that the words tsaw and qaw in v. Yhwh will speak to this people in a foreign tongue. It may mean that Yhwh will speak unintelligibly through a foreign language (in which case the message would be only too clear!). If this be the case.10 it begins with the deictic particle ki. and is meant to draw out the irony of the situation.13. Or is that the meaning of this cryptic verse? These strange words test the ingenuity of commentators..

12 is chiastic. According to this interpretation the words of vv." These words convey a different kind of stumbling from that brought about by wine and beer (vv. The question of v.Art and Meaning similar to 6:10.J3ef emphasizes the completeness of destruction: "that they may go. the purpose of which (lgmacan) is to destroy rather than to protect. we have moved from the harmony conveyed by the phrase "his people" in v. "this is the rest" matches "this is the repose. you scoffers. If v.a stumbling caused by the word of Yhwh. Verses 11-13 contain a message within a message. Obtaining rest (hamm e nuchah) depends upon giving rest (hantchu) /30/." v.12) has been rejected.5 to the rejection implied by "this people. and be broken.10 and 13 is that they refer to letters of the alphabet /28/. and snared. whereas according to the interpretation discussed above. Irwin draws attention to the concentric structure of v.ll.
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. c .7f. In vv." and "give rest to the weary" stands at the centre /29/. and stumble backward.12 in which speaking ("to whom he has said") corresponds to listening ("they would not hear"). the meaning of which is as simple as a. For the present reader that is a striking example of double meaning.but the language of the lesson will be a foreign one.10 and 13a represent the basic significants of meaning. We should look briefly at the instruction which the people rejected. Moreover. and taken. Another possible meaning of the words in vv.11-13 it is not the priests and prophets who are being reproached. Yhwh determines a different lesson. Repetition in~v.) . whom Yhwh will cause to understand the message (sh e mu c ah). and now the people will be given a lesson in destruction. Isaiah 28:14-22 14 Therefore hear the word of Yhwh. so also Yhwh is going to give the people a lesson. letters. the emphasis appears to fall on social responsibility.9. In that case the point would be that just as Yhwh begins at the most elementary level to teach children. they are meaningless. b. that the divine word would be incomprehensible to them in order to prevent their returning to Yhwh and being delivered. but rather the people. becomes more poignante when we learn that the p~ebple are not willing to hear (sh moac). It seems we now have a negative answer to the question: 'no one. But the outcome is the same in either case: beneficial instruction (v. Since the people refuse this instruction.

with Sheol we have a vision /31/. when it passes through. I am founding in Zion a stone.14 and 22. to do his deed. when it passes through. Two oracles of Yhwh introduced by
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. B' 17 And I will make justice the line and righteousness the plummet. a foundation founded. These verses form an inclusion based on the address to "scoffers" in vv.' 22 And now do not scoff." 20 For the bed is too short to stretch oneself out. and the hiding place waters will overflow. 21 For like Mount Perazim Yhwh will rise up and like the valley of Gibeon he will shake. And it will be sheer terror to understand the message. will not come to us.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 rulers of this people who are in Jerusalem: A 15 Because you have said. a tested stone. you will be for it a trampling place. the one who stands firm will not hasten. the overflowing scourge. and hail will sweep away the refuge of lies. and the covering too narrow to wrap oneself up. alien is his work. strange is his deed and to work his work. by day and by night. for a decree of destruction I have heard from the Lord Yhwh of hosts against the whole land. 1 A 18 Cancelled will be your covenant with death and your vision with Sheol will not rise up. a precious cornerstone. 19 As often as it passes through it will take you. for morning by morning it will pass through."
C 16 Therefore thus says the Lord Yhwh: "Behold. the overflowing scourge. B for we have made a lie our refuge and in falsehood we have hidden ourselves. lest your bonds be strengthened. "We have made a covenant with death.

16).15 are chiastic. B..15). vv. and A1 refer to Yhwh's words and arrangements to show the ineffectiveness of that security. "proverbmakers of this people. According to the division indicated in the translation above. These two sections are longer than the corresponding sections A and B. although there is disagreement among interpreters on precise division of the material /32/. The command presents a striking contrast to vv. A and B refer to the rulers' words and their arrangements for security. chiastic structures appear in divisions A. I take vv." 14b. with the verbs appearing atlRe
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.Art and Meaning lakhen form a chiasmus. The call to hear in v. That the structure of these verses is chiastic is clear. this action has no counterpart in human endeavors. But the fact that 14a uses a term from the language of wisdom raises the possibility of understanding mosheje in 14b in wisdom terms also. In parallelism with "rulers of this people who are in Jerusalem. vv.llf. B1.l^f. v. Within this large chiasmus. This suggests that latson is a play on tsiyyon. and the expansion gives increased attention to the destruction which results from trust in self-made shelter rather than in Yhwh. Yhwh's foundation of true security appears at the center. The first. Its position focuses attention upon it. and A'. the second. and. while C. scoffers-proverb-makers." The pun rests on suggested double meaning: men of Zion-rulers. a b we have made a covenant with death b' a' with Sheol we have a vision They claim on this basis that the shot (Q) shoteph (note the alliteration) which overcame their neighbors the Ephraimites (mayim kabbirim sh5t e phim. where Yhwh will speak (yedhabber) to this people incomprehensibly because they were not willing to hear (shemoaC). B'. In B1 and A' Yhwh demolishes the false supports established by the Jerusalem rulers.14 contains a delightfully ironic pun.2) will not come "to us. as the structure indicates.20-22 as an elaboration upon it.14-19 as the core of the message and vv. The words of the Jerusalem scoffers in v. The rulers of "this people" are called to hear (shimCfl) the word (debhar) of Yhwh. reports what Yhwh says. ^a mar tern l (v. one would expect "men of Zion" in 14a.16-19. reveals what the rulers have said. k5h" amar 1adhonai yhwh (v. C." Their reasoning is also chiastic..

Again the accent falls on the surety of Yhwh's foundation. The verse does not appear to be a guarantee of future salvation. whether the stone is Zion or is in Zion. In v.16 is itself a building process. and the one who trusts in it will be like it. The firmness of Yhwh's foundation stone is emphasized through repetition.M. in B1 Yhwh establishes (w£samt_i) justice as the meas126
. In B (v.l 5) the Judahites established (samnu) a lie as their refuge. the repetition of initial and final consonants.l 7 (B1) the metaphor moves from the founding of the stone to the divine measuring instruments of justice and righteousness. "tested stone" and "granite stone" /37/. whether the stone is tested or is itself an instrument of testing. I think. musadh and mussadh. but rather to offer the possibility of escaping disaster to the one who trusts in Yhwh.. Although the precise meaning of the verse is uncertain. "Justice" recalls the justice Yhwh brings to the remnant of the people in v. and "line" is a word play on qaw in v. Such a one will neither rely upon foreign alliances nor fear the onslaught which may come. The description ^bhen bochan conveys the double meaning. The piling up of phrases in v. bgtsiyyon *abhen 'ebhen bochan pinnath yiqrath musadh mussadh hammtemtn 15' yachish If one follows Irwin in rendering yiqrath as "weighty. and the preponderance of alephs and nuns render v. Yhwh has laid a sure foundation.6. as in vv.Art and Meaning (reading the perfect) or is founding (reading a participle) the stone. Lindblom has pointed out that the foundation stone is the metaphorical counterpart to the covenant with death /35/." the firmness and security of Yhwh's stone is emphasized all the more /36/. The juxtaposition of 'abhen and *ebhen. the meaning of the phrase hamma'a m t n 15' yachish and its relationship to the stone . clear.all these are problematic issues. The contrast is between a foundation which will stand firm and a refuge which will be swept away by storm waters and hail.16 particularly assonant. the intention of the imagery is. From my translation it can be seen that I take the founding to be in process and the stone to be in Zion.10. though I am prepared to be convinced by arguments to the contrary. The fact that in the following verses we hear of destruction and not deliverance indicates that the prophet holds out little hope of convincing the leaders to change their policy. standing firm.

you will be for it a trampling place." But Yhwh retorts. however. and in the variant of the message of attentive trust in Yhwh in v.1 they will meet the same fate which befell Ephraim. ironically.9. is destruction for those who will not stand firm .12. to make the picture more ironic.3. The devastation of this refuge is recounted in an even more intricate chiasmus of verb-subject-object/ objectsubject-verb. "The overflowing scourge. a b cancelled will be your covenant with death b' a1 and your vision with Sheol will not rise up The leaders had boasted. We may also take this promise of security for the faithful as the substance of the message elsewhere in the chapter . so too in A1 (vv. v. The corollary of the promise. "The overflowing scourge.!6-17a. a b c weygcgh bharadh machseh khazabh c1 b' a' whether mayim yishtophu Similarly.lSf.e. How often will it pass through? morning by morning it will pass through by day and by night The result of this constant attack will be that "it will be sheer terror to understand the message. it will take them.. Against justice. We saw that the leaders' statement about their refuge is chiastic. Understanding the message will be terrible because." Melugin considers the message referred to here as Yhwh's promise of security to those who trust. whereas in A (v. v.15) the leaders spoke of their covenant with death and vision with Sheol in chiastic order. will not come to us. and.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 suring line. when it passes through.) Yhwh cancels it with a chiasm. there will be more than one onslaught). A underscores its point through expansion.for those who refuse to hear the message
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. vv." The outcome will be precisely the opposite of that they had devised. the Judahites 1 edifice does not measure up. one understands its promise that the faithful will stand firm while one is being swept away /38/.19: "as often as it passes through" (i. when it passes through.in the question of v.

which is fitting in an address to "proverb-makers" (v. Earlier Yhwh had fought for Israel at Perazim and Gibeon (2 Sam 5:17-25. Who will do the strengthening (yechzeqQ) of the bonds? In view of the points of contact we have already observed between the storm imagery here and that of vv. 14-19 /40/." laca/gth macasehG zar macasehQ w e la ca bhodh Ca bhodhath6 nokhriyyah Cabh5dhath6 The alien character of Yhwh's action recalls Yhwh's alien speech in vv.9-13. Perazim receives its name on the basis of a statement made by David. Yhwh sends hail against the enemies of Israel. Verse 20 sounds like a proverb.22cd the prophet speaks of his own experience. What bonds are meant? Irwin proposes the bonds of their covenant with death /41/. Thus the irony becomes deadly: dependence on a covenant with death strengthens death's claim on them.21 presents a paradox. The simile in v. Verse 22. lest their bonds be strengthened. comparing Yhwh's "breaking through" his enemies to a bursting flood. is contrasted to the scope of Yhwh's action. In 2 Sam 5. In Jos 10.14). The action of Yhwh in v. indicated through that of height and depth /39/. "for a decree of destruction I have heard (shamaCti).14. The inadequacy of the Judahites1 preparations. Verse 21 shows why the arrangements are inadequate: Yhwh will fight against the people. Here they are told not to scoff.. Jos 10:9-14).
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." This is the fifth appearance of the root shmc in Is.2. Destruction unfolds in vv.20-22 with two explications introduced by kT. exposed through the imagery of length and width. In v. The allusions to flood and hail in the Perazim and Gibeon comparison complement the storm imagery in vv. 28. Verses 20-22 develop this aspect of the message. The root gives expression to the dominant theme of instruction in the chapter. the paradoxical nature of this action is high lighted" by the~~fact that the only words not repeated are the synonyms "strange" and "foreign. perhaps we should think of the strong one (chazaq) of v.21cd receives attention through the threefold repetition of the roots c£h and cbd. contains a direct address to the scoffers.Art and Meaning or who try to arrange their own security. like v. the covering is too narrow. now Yhwh fights against them. It points to the inadequacy of the Judahites' arrangements for security through an illustration based upon length and width: the bed is too short.2f. like Mount Perazim and like the valley of Gibeon.

As a question. In v. We saw in vv.22 the prophet hears only the latter. priests. 27 For dill is not threshed with a sledge. security for those who trust in Yhwh.22 we discover one person out of all these . Jerusalemite leaders who has heard (shamactT).9.9 held open the possibility that a positive answer might follow. but with a staff dill is beat out. scatter dill and toss cummin. Shmc then became part of the punishment which the leaders could expect to encounter in the future: it will be a terrible thing to understand the message (shemucah). In v. his God teaches him. It first occurred in v. that he opens and harrows his soil? 25 Does he not. prophets. people.23-29 23 Give ear and hear my voice. Isaiah 28. 24 Is it all the time that the plower plows for sowing. but not unceasingly. listen and hear my speech.
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. nor is a cart wheel rolled over cummin. 28 Grain is crushed. v. Following the statement that the people would not hear came a command to hear (shimCQ) addressed to the leaders of the people. and barley in plots. one carefully threshes it /43/. "they were not willing to hear" (shemoac).1-4) were too drunk to be taught. However. and destruction for those who seek safeguards apart from Yhwh. and cummin with a rod. the root then occurred in an accusation of the people.Ephraimites. when he has leveled its surface. and spelt at its border /42/? 26 He instructs him properly. and set wheat in rows.7f. 14-19 that the message is double-edged. the prophet Isaiah.) as well as the Ephraimites (vv. "Whom will he cause to understand the message" (shemucah)? The question seemed to stem from the fact that the priests and prophets (vv.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 and its associations in different contexts produce important variations on that theme. and it seemed we had a negative answer to the qTiestion.

v. vv. the second ends with it
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. v. indicating how the harvesting should not be done (with a sledge and cart wheel) and then how it is done (with a staff). The refrains indicate that knowledge in both areas comes from Yhwh. The proper procedure is presented as an inclusio. After calling for the audience's attention in stanza 1. the second. which my translation above does not reveal. dealing with techniques of sowing and harvesting. v. The wheel of a cart ca (c ghalah) is not rolled over cummin. the poet poses two rhetorical questions. gives the reason for the farmer's correct procedures his God teaches him. The first deals with proper timing. and the second speaks of tinning in connection with the sowing of dill. This also comes from Yhwh of hosts.
29
Is.26. it moves from negative observation to positive. however. he makes wonderful counsel. and various grains.26. are applied to grain in v.23-25. Verse 25b is a chiasmus. Both stanzas contain the notion of proper timing. 28:23-29 is a beautifully crafted poem of two stanzas (vv. and cummin with a rod In a similar fashion. The first calls for a negative answer. "Dill is not threshed (yudhash) with a sledge". a positive one. It begins with dill and cummin. grain is carefully threshed Qadhosh y e dhushennu). the second. Rhetorical questions are a forceful way of making a point. Whereas the first stanza begins with it (the plower does not plow all the time).28. with a staff dill is beat out.Art and Meaning When he drives his cart wheel. Two terms used in the description of how dill and cummin should not be harvested. cummin.28 deals with grain. v. with techniques of harvesting. it should be done carefully.27ab.27-28) plus refrain (v. he magnifies wisdom. The crushing should not be done unceasingly. nor does a cart wheel ( eghlatho) crush grain. The second stanza focuses upon techniques of harvesting. The first stanza deals with sowing. Like the first stanza. a b bf a1 he scatters dill and cummin he tosses
The refrain.29). It begins with a call to hear in the manner of a wisdom teacher and presents its lesson in parabolic style /W/. his horses do not crush it.

29 may be seen to have three referents. The refrain of v. and nothing is said about either doom or deliverance. one should cease and (we must infer this for the second stanza) turn to the next phase. There it also led to a message of destruction. (ii) the entire poem. but stands apart as an independent reflection on the wisdom of God" /^6/. The poem begins with a call to hear (weshimcu. though I find the confirmation of Yhwh's wisdom more important for the larger context of chs. It is also the second use of the root as an imperative. at the proper time. "this also" may refer to the whole lesson of vv.23-29 shares with v. 28-32 than for the immediate context of ch. the farmer is not only instructed in sowing but also in harvesting.23-29 as a parable or allegory of God's activity in history /47/.23 follows a message of destruction (vv.29 is an example of what he calls the summary-appraisal form.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 (grain is not endlessly crushed). does not seem to me to find enough support from the text. and (iii) the wisdom of Yhwh in general.13. but.23-29 is not only on Yhwh's wisdom but also on Yhwh's teaching.23-29 /45/. However. If the people hear the message of the poem. \ submit that we have
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. the call to hear in v. which move from the narrow to the broad: (i) the preceding stanza. Whedbee's contention that the poem is a defense of Yhwh's wisdom is convincing /^8/. At the same time.29 shows that "this also" is from Yhwh. The point is that Yhwh's instruction is thorough. by suggesting that Isaiah is defending himself against the charge that his message is inconsistent. might they thereby avoid decimation? I find no compelling reasons to take vv. Fohrer's attempt to connect these verses with the preceding. "This also" may refer to stanza 2. that is. As in the case of the Jerusalem leaders. Each time emphasis is on an action which ought to take place. Fohrer's observation that the farmer is a divinely taught person is important /49/. It "relates organically to the parable. The emphasis in vv.22). the final occurrences of the root shm c in the chapter. here the possibility of hearing is left open. the poem in vv. we shall now inquire about its relationship to its present context. 28. 2 times). v.9 an interest in teaching (yrh) and in hearing (shmC). Thus v. Having examined the structure of the parable of the farmer. although in this case the audience is not specified. Childs suggests that v.14. As I noted above. Yhwh does not teach half a lesson and withhold the necessary counterpart.

vv. Along the way there are allusions to a clear message (v.23-29. And what is the result? The farmer knows the proper time and the proper means.26 we learn for the first time of someone who is taught.1-4 and vv. with whom the chapter begins.12. Addressing neither Ephraim. Yhwh's strange and alien action) to clarity (the clarity of the final lesson in vv. incomprehensible language. to repeat: who will constitute the remnant? The chapter begins and ends with metaphoric language.23). But the lesson extends beyond v.23) and make the decision to stand firm (v. Who will hear the message (v. the rejection of which leads to awesome results.7 sets vv. let them hear (we s him c u.
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. v.l6)? Or. with whom it ends. It uses agricultural imagery to describe judgment. Whom will he teach.) where a clear promise of salvation appears. In v. yet there will be a remnant. Only by hearing the message and being taught can clarity be obtained. Is.23-29 follows upon the message to the leaders of Jerusalem. v. it returns to agricultural imagery to make its final point. Who will constitute the remnant? Judah is threatened with similar treatment.23-29).l^ff. 28 concludes with the issue of instruction unresolved.5f.11-13) and alien work (v. There is one point early in the chapter (vv. 28 shifts its focus from Ephraim to Judah.1-6 apart from what follows.23). While the poem about the farmer in vv. the farmer. whom will he cause to understand the message? The answer is. From vv.l6).6 and v. the poem is an invitation to all. In the process. they will meet the same fate. the prophet. we encountered the first statement to the effect that someone has heard the message.23-29 the benefits of instruction are evident.21). The Judahites have a lesson to learn from the example of the Ephraimites: if they are no better. in effect: those who have ears.9. The chapter moves from confusion (confusion caused by drunkenness. In v.23-29 an implied answer to the question about teaching in v. and in vv. The implication is that if the people will follow the farmer's example and hear (v.4. Ephraim will be humbled by storm and trampling.22.Art and Meaning in w. Is. nor Jerusalem. Yhwh creates confusion through alien speech (vv. warrant comparison between Ephraim and Jerusalem. God may teach them also. it is not aimed specifically at them. We also saw above that the similarities in form and content between vv. I mentioned above that the abrupt transition between v.1-4.

with its attendant motifs of teaching and hearing. Cornill. 28-32 /53/. 28 is easily distinguishable as the beginning of a collection. These verses draw a contrast between two groups and represent a movement from judgment to promise. 13-27] zu der eng zusammengehorigen Gruppe 29-33. 28-35 /54/. IS. however.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 III. Since. instruction and counsel.' wahrend es im weiteren Verlaufe mit Jerusalem zu dem ausschliesslichen Gegenstand von Cap. a second *ashre saying appears in 30:18). is open to debate. a movement from confusion to clarity accompanies the essential movement from judgment to promise. Space does not allow discussion of catchword connections within these chapters or of any kind of careful attention to common themes and motifs /57/. Is. Duhm considers 2832(33) to constitute a collection /50/. which also begins with hoy /55/. Drunkenness as an aspect of confusion appears only once more in the collection. 28.7ff. Not only does ch. Let us focus therefore on the dominant theme of ch. why does an oracle against Ephraim introduce the collection? Many years ago Cornill recognized its transitional function: "Cap. 29:9. Where the collection ends. this theme plays an important role in chs. where it is used figuratively. and Liebreich. 33. as scholars agree. 28-32. I shall confine my remarks to the material organized as a series of five woe sections addressed to Israel in chs. 29-32. although I recognize points of contact with ch. the essential development both within the collection and of the collection as a whole is from judgment to promise. confusion versus clarity. calls attention to the introductory function of the judgment against Ephraim with its promise of a remnant. indem es anfangt mit Samarien steht es gewissermassen noch mit Einem Fusse in den 'Volkern. THE LARGER CONTEXT. its first six verses also provide a paradigm for the movement within the collection 28-32(33). The abrupt transition which sets 28:1-6 apart from vv. 28-32 Following the apocalypse of chs. 28-32 /52/. Fohrer. 28 serve as a transition. As one might expect. 29-33 ubergeht" /56/. 24-27. 28-32(33) /51/. The theme of incomprehensibility is developed in the following
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. 28 bildet eine sehr angemessene Ueberleitung von den Reden gegen die Volker [Cap. The introduction of the collection with hoy (28:1) is balanced by its conclusion with *ashre (32:20. Not surprisingly. the subject of 28:7-32:20 is 3erusalem/Judah. Kaiser. Though judgment and promise alternate in 28-32.

however. like 29:15 before it. 28 give way to their opposites in the human realm in 32:1-8. With 30:1 Yhwh's wisdom begins to receive less emphasis.18-21. Here we have a positive answer to the question about teaching (yoreh) and understanding the message (shemucah) in 28:9. this refusal leads to destruction. end with a focus on instruction. to create confusion. 28. To think they could deceive their creator is absurd. v. the situation is reversed.. take place "in that day. with Yhwh acting. however. "I will again do wonders OfhaphltO with this people. 28 that Yhwh makes wonderful (hiphlT') counsel (cetsah) is echoed in 29:14.16)? A message of promise follows immediately. Yhwh's incomprehensible speech and~~confusing deeds of ch. where even the tongue of stammerers will speak distinctly. The affirmation in ch. but that it also will be given to those erring in spirit and those who murmur. For the people. as in ch. 29:24 relates that human understanding will not only be possible. In 30:20f. and the description of the security which results is reminiscent of the promise for "that day" in 28:6. how can one b sure Yhwh's counsel is wise /58/? The collection explores the tension between human and divine counsel and shows a concern to defend the latter. Its concern is to
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. begin with the idea of human counsel (cetsah). do they suppose Yhwh has no understanding (v. are taken up again in 30:9-11 and 15-16.Art and Meaning verses (10-14). The importance of the theme of counsel is confirmed by its structural prominence in Is." vv. which the people think they can conceal from Yhwh.J4b). the way out of confusion is to accept instruction. and noble and wicked deeds will be easily distinguished. The five blocks of material introduced by hoy either begin or end with an expression of this theme (29:13-24 does both). Here the issue is human counsel. This woe section does not. Instruction and understanding will. 28-32. The woe section which begins 29:15-24 picks up the motif of hiding with an address to those who hide counsel (cetsah). As before. Even those who murmur and err in spirit will accept instruction. In contrast to 29:14. both prominent in ch. 28. like the previous ones. Finally. 28: Yhwh will hide wisdom and understanding (v." But the wondrous action here is a variation on the incomprehensibility theme of ch. It does however. But if Yhwh acts incomprehensibly. wondrous and marvelous (haphle* \va~phele'). and the people will discover their teacher (moreykha) and will hear (tishmagnah).24. where human wisdom is confounded. The refusal to hear and the rejection of a clear message.

Wimsatt. "Yet he is wise and brings disaster.3. W M A N T 48 (Neukirchen.K. 28. from their refusal to hear . G. the collection is concerned to demonstrate the wisdom of Yhwh. Aufl. 1977) 284-85." v.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 show the folly of following a plan (turning to Egypt for aid) which is not Yhwh's.2. 1967). and Monroe C. "The Origin of the Book of Isaiah. "Zum literarischen Aufbau verschiedener Stucke im Buche des Propheten Isaias. 3. see 3. For the first time. Numerous other points of contact among chs. Band (2. "The Compilation of the Book of Isaiah. 28-32 move from judgment to promise. 31 pursues the theme of turning to Egypt without consulting Yhwh. 29-32 along the lines of the present investigation of Is." 3QR 46 (1956) 268-69. Fohrer. NOTES 1 On the arrangement of these chapters. 2 Cf. Ziegler. "The Origin. Die Jesaja-Worte in der Josiazeit.from their pursuit of their own course rather than Yhwh's. To summarize: like 28:1-6. Beardsley. Zurich: Zwingli.noble or foolish. 2. Ch. Liebreich.. L. This final reference to Yhwh's wisdom makes the point forcefully: Yhwh's enmity toward them may seem incomprehensible to Yhwh's people." in The Verbal Icon." VT 9 (1959) 150. "The Intentional Fallacy. 279-80. Detailed literary analysis of Is. These verses speak of an ideal time when what people plan (y_£ts_) will be clearly recognizable for what it is . 1954) 2-18. as we saw in ch.H. chs. and his discussion in Das Buch 3esaja. And. 28. 237-54. and it places this demonstration at crucial junctures. Barth. H. 3r. For particular sensitivity to literary style in portions of these chapters. 3 See W. Eaton. 28 remains for future study." Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society 3 (1961-62) 19-20. it is not in conflict with divine counsel. Composition and Tradition of Isaiah I-XXXIX. but it does not mean that Yhwh acts unwisely. Like ch. Disaster derives. see esp. cf. the collection in 28-32 displays an essential development from confusion to clarity. 47 (1956) 121-22." BZ 21 (1933) 131-49. like 28:23-29. The last reference to human counsel appears in 32:1-8. Studies in the Meaning of Poetry (Kentucky: University Press. and one hopes such study will contribute to our appreciation of the literary quality of prophetic collections and to our understanding of aesthetic concerns which guided the arrangement of this material.
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. 28-32 could be explored.

which suggests understanding v. 20 For this particular way of discussing the possibilities of a poem. and G. Winton Thomas). 22 See the commentators. 24 Duhm. Donner.7-13 as a unit. If the interpretation discussed below is accepted . P. Wildberger.R. 1059. W.the connection with vv. 25 '"Another Little Drink.7f. Jesaja. 1978). and most
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.9-13 belong with vv. is even more problematic in my opinion. 174.: Scholars Press. Irony. 1050-51. "Entwohnung und Entwohnungsfest im Alten Testament: der Schlussel zu Jesaja 28:7-13?. Jesaia. Driver.. Terrien). Fohrer. For a different reading. 1958) 24.7f. Duhm. based on the idea that "Vision1 and "judgment 1 are out of place in parallelism with 'strong drink 1 and 'wine." in Israelite Wisdom (Fs S.that v.H. 31 Taking chozeh as "agreement" with LXX. Ackroyd and B. see E.10 refers to alphabetic instruction . esp. Vg. 26 On the significance of k± as a connective and pointer to what follows.Exum: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 28 17 E. Israel unter den Volkern. 19 Duhm. 23-24. 23 Although many commentators take vv. cf. Jesaja. MT. Isaiah 13-39.Isaiah 28:1-22.G. Wildberger. 162. ed.R. There are no repetitions of terms and no mention of priest and prophet in vv. I am not convinced that form critically vv. et al. 244-45. Hallo.9-13. 128-29." JBL 77 (1958) 337-38. The connection is supported by the context. van Selms. "The Unfilled Sea: Style and Meaning in Ecclesiastes 1:2-11. Jesaja. Muilenburg. Good.W. 1058.60-63.M. Pfeifer. rather "this people" is the subject of the accusation. "Isaiah 28:9-13 and the Ugaritic Abecedaries. 29 Isaiah 28-33." HUCA 32 (1961) 135-60.10 in light of drunken babble. Kaiser. All the Kingdoms.'" 55. Jesaia. the interpretations in Good. Blank. Jesaja. 27 A. J. 159. (Missoula. see J. "Isaiah 28:9-13: An Attempt to Give a New Interpretation. Jesaia. T8 Contra Good. and cf. "The Linguistic and Rhetorical Usages of the Particle kt in the Old Testament. Wildberger. ed. Gottwald. Gammie. '"Another Little Drink1 . Prophetic Faith in Isaiah (New York: Harper <5c Brothers. 48. Irony. 21 Reading '5bu with many mss and IQIsa.g." in Words and Meanings (Fs D. 30 S.'" see G. 28 Esp. 1968) 52-53." ZAW 84 (1972) 341-47. 173. 76. Lindars (Cambridge: University Press. 172. pp." ZAW 85 (1973) 332-39.

28. I have retained the translation "vision" here and in v. 36." in Studies in Old Testament Prophecy (Fs T." TZ 3 (1947) 390-93. "A Note on Isaiah XXVIII 25 and 28.C. H. Lund. Isaiah 28-33. 1950) 183." A3SL 46 (1930) 112-13. Isaiah and Wisdom. "Zwei Fachworter der Bausprache in Jesaja 28. 130. 119-20. 1971) 57-67 et passim. cf. While I find Lund's arrangement attractive. yaqum. 29:7 and 11.18. 35 J. makes for better parallelism and a smoother reading. Robinson). see esp. 41 Isaiah 28-33. <5c T. 44 See 3. 46 Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis. Mowinckel(Oslo: Fabritius & Sonner.18 as an anticipation of visions to come." Interpretationes ad Vetus Testamentum pertinentes S. Isaiah 28-33.. Whedbee.16. 43 Reading. 39 Irwin. Necromancy or some kind of dealings with the netherworld may be meant.Art and Meaning commentators. "Der Eckstein in Jes. Scott. the citation is from p. e. Note also the play on words. "The Literary Structure of Isaiah's Oracles. Isaiah and Wisdom (Nashville: Abingdon. Clark. 40 The point about flood imagery is made by Irwin. 120. thaqum. Cf. with Good. 30:10. 31. 47 See Whedbee's criticism of this view. 37.21. 38 "The Conventional and the Creative.H.
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. 37 See L. which echoes samnu in B.!7ab together with v. Though the result is somewhat obscure.H. ed.16 and sees in these verses a further development: C = 16bcde. Isaiah 28-33.g. 126. D = 16f. I prefer to read 17ab in B1 because of the appearance of samti.18. also 29:4. Lindblom. All the Kingdoms.. and Yhwh who will rise up. cf. 42 The translation is conjectural. O = 17ab. on the mythological imagery.Y. S. Irwin. shoteph to describe the agent of destruction and mishpat as Yhwh's measuring line. Irony. My arrangement differs from Lund's in that he reads v.16. 161." 309.B. There is also a contrast produced between the vision which will not rise up. "The Presence of Chiasmus in the Old Testament. R. 1955) 126-27. 36 Isaiah 28-33. He ends the chiasmus at v. Koehler. 32 On the structure." VT 2 (1952) 81-82. 28-29.W. 45 So e. v. 35-36. but as a solution is almost too easy. 33 Irony.g. N. dosh. to destroy in v. Rowley (Edinburgh: T.W. 34 So Gottwald. Thexton.

and (3) to subject its individual strophes to close rhetorical analysis. the form
. For some time I have regarded Isa. it is not surprising that some chapters outdistance others. (2) to grasp the literary unit of Isa. I therefore welcome this opportunity to focus on the literary characteristics and artistic aspects of that pericope. 51:1-16 in its entirety. Kenneth Kuntz University of Iowa Iowa City Iowa 52242.THE CONTRIBUTION OF RHETORICAL UNDERSTANDING ISAIAH 51:1-16 J. Foremost among them is the late James Muilenburg. and to give credit to a few scholars whose direct and indirect comments about rhetorical criticism have helped me to apprehend its potential as a truly viable tool for biblical exegesis. 51:1-16 as a most deserving candidate for rhetoricalcritical analysis /!/. USA
CRITICISM
TO
Although one might argue that any chapter of the Hebrew Bible could be chosen as the desired target of the rhetorical critic. In the first section of this essay I shall briefly deal with the nature and function of rhetorical criticism in such a manner as to endorse the significance of the rhetorical-critical enterprise. whose student I was during his last years at Union Theological Seminary (1959-63) when he was advancing the worth of rhetorical criticism by compelling statement and example. when it comes to literary craft. to delineate what I take to be many of its primary interests. In this essay I seek to honor three main concerns: (1) to enter into the record a few remarks about the enterprise of rhetorical criticism. RHETORICAL CRITICISM: CELEBRATION AND CLARIFICATION In his oft-cited presidential address delivered at the annual meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature Muilenburg declared that whereas the advances of twentieth-century scholarship owe much to the insights of
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1968 /2/.

form criticism was manifesting all too frequently a generalizing tendency which underestimates the significance of the unique and unrepeatable." Some scholars have held that what he was advocating actually constitutes a supplement to the formcritical task. For Muilenburg. intent. which exist beyond the spectrum of the genre. he sought its supplementation by emphasizing a vast range of structural and stylistic features within mainly poetic texts in the Old Testament in the hope that the Hebrew literary craft might be properly appreciated. Muilenburg claimed that only by the resolute recognition of such phenomena. and in discerning the many and various devices by which the predications are formulated and ordered into a unified whole. Anderson judged this address to be the "crowning climax" of Muilenburg's career. too much importance has been attached to the typical and representative.. for in it "he pressed the frontiers of biblical studies into new regions which will be explored further in years to come" /4/. but neglected. and meaning. is in understanding the nature of Hebrew literary composition. Indeed. Six years later. In its handling of individual texts. a deficiency in understanding the movement of the writer's thought. He spoke of the importance of chiasmus. and especially. Muilenburg saw in the enterprise of stylistics or aesthetic criticism the needful corrective: What I am interested in. therefore. is it possible for us to grasp at all adequately the biblical writer's artistry. in exhibiting the structural patterns that are employed for the fashioning of a literary unit . it was a matter of "form criticism and beyond. Muilenburg had no desire to repudiate form criticism. dimension of form criti-
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.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 criticism. Others have not felt that "rhetorical criticism" merits a designation of its own since what is involved is an obviously appropriate. As one who had been deeply influenced by Gunkel's Gattungsforschung. He called for the need to perceive the structure and balance of Hebrew poetry and to discern the configuration of its components. the repetition of key words and phrases in strategic collocations.W. above all. Such an enterprise I should describe as rhetoric and the methodology as rhetorical criticism /3/.. Rather. He highlighted the significance of inclusio and climactic or ballast lines for helping the rhetorical critic to determine the limits of a given literary unit. acrostic formulations. B.

Art and Meaning cism. Even so. including the recurrence of the same word stem in close proximity.the similarity of sound in words or syllables. Freedman alluded to matters dear to the rhetorical critic when he said of Hebrew poetry.the addressing of a thing ordinarily personified or a person ordinarily not present for rhetorical ends. not a few literary terms are surfacing with greater frequency in the discussion of biblical poetry. or the relatively close juxtaposition of like sounds. sentence. the literary genius of ancient Israel's poets. a definitive judgement about the propriety of the "and beyondness" need not be reached in order for us to observe approvingly that in the scholarly examination of Hebrew poetry.N. At the outset of his presidential address to the 1976 annual meeting of SBL. "The form and style. The following might be mentioned as examples: (1) assonance . Moreover. and feeling. stylistic and structural elements are now receiving more attention.a word play involving use of the same word in different senses. and spiritual" /5/.the coordination of words. (8) paronomasia . Zion for Jerusalem). Freedman acknowledged that many poems exhibit irregular metrical
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. all play a vital role in conveying content. the medium and message are inseparably intertwined to produce multiple effects at different levels of discourse and evoke a whole range of response: intellectual.the inversion of the order of parallel words or ideas in a bicolon. (6) onomatopoeia . Accordingly. In his discussion of the forms and structures of Hebrew poetry. emotional. (5) metonymy . without using coordinating connectives that would specify their syntactic relation. as they enable the various Gattungen to achieve their particularity. the selection and order of words. (7) parataxis .the actual or apparent redundancy of expression. or more expansive literary unit in order to secure an ABBA arrangement. (9) pleonasm .a figure of speech in which a word replaces the specific object it is intended to suggest (Mt. In poetry. and on occasion the use of words whose sound is used for its own effect. (2) apostrophe . or clauses one after another. (4) inclusio (ring composition) the repetition or less exact restatement of an opening phrase or idea at the conclusion of a literary unit (often useful in helping the critic to determine the limits of a literary composition). phrases. (3) chiasmus . or the restatement of a thought by means of synonyms. meaning. is being freshly appreciated. D.the formation of a word by an imitation of the sound associated with the thing or action designated.

as a form critic. in our analysis of that composition.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 and strophic patterns and thus one must not lose sight of their individuality /6/. With these remarks as hopefully useful background. form critics are still not about to deprecate the role conventional genres must have played in the shaping of individual pericopes. Today it is not uncommon for articles on Hebrew poetry to concentrate on one specific aspect of stylistics. rhetorical criticism with its synchronic emphasis and concern for the unique can further the work of the form critic with his penchant for highlighting diachronic concerns and conventionality. 51:1-16 and consider. then. At the same time. Yet some are maintaining that notwithstanding its limitations. some of its more noteworthy literary characteristics and the nature of its artistic achievement. Resident within the melody of five strophes and an interlude is a message of comfort and expectation addressed to a people who are presently enduring the inconvenience and outrage of Babylonian exile. Good exegesis.F. so that his words would have a frame of reference understandable to his audience . Thus.. The words of assurance and eschatological anticipation set forth in this piece are well grounded on a faith thoroughly sensitive to the motifs of history and creation. let us turn to Isa. to some degree at least. Rather. THE POEM AS A WHOLE Isa. R. Despite many serious attempts to explore the structural features of particular texts and to gain further insight into the stylistics of Hebrew poetry. 51:1-16 is undoubtedly one of the most eloquent and moving literary creations to spring from that prophet-poet of the Babylonian exile whom we commonly designate as Second Isaiah. the writer/speaker wanted to do something particular with the inherited speech pattern as he fashioned the individual unit of tradition. invariably each example of a genre is in some sense a unique formulation of the genre. They are not the product of idle dreaming. Melugin rightly reminds us of the inevitable blending of the typical and the unique within a given text: The author or speaker used conventional forms of speech. will study both the typical and the unique /7/. Here Second Isaiah's message is intended for the
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. the composition consents to the eventfulness of Heilsgeschichte..

Art and Meaning faithful who in their faintheartedness need strengthening. Look to the rock from which you were hewn. he will comfort all her desolate places. In the light of such a promising message. and to Sarah who in pain bore you. and my nation. He will establish her wilderness like Eden. For when he was but one I called him. Look to Abraham your father. my salvation is going forth and my arms will govern the peoples. For Yahweh will comfort Zion. and look upon the earth beneathi For the heavens will be dissipated like smoke. thanksgiving and the voice of song. you seekers of Yahweh. For me the coastlands wait eagerly. Strophe II Eternal and victorious salvation is imminent Pay attention to me. Without delay I shall bring near my deliverance. and I blessed him and made him increase. and for my arm they hope. my people.
1
2
3
4
5
6
m
. Lift up your eyes toward the heavens. her desert-plain like the garden of Yahweh. give ear to meJ For instruction will go forth from me. These verses convey with considerable imagination and artistry the welcome news that Yahweh's salvation is imminent. 51:1-16 has been understood: Strophe I Comfort extended to those who seek Yahweh Listen to me. and to the quarry from which you were dug. you pursuers of deliverance. Translation The following is presented as both a working translation of the text and a ready indication of how the strophic structure of Isa. and the earth will wear out like a garment. Exultation and joy will be found in her. and my truth as a light to the peoples. the mood of the faithful members of the Israelite community might shift from despair to hope.

But my salvation will be eternal. and at their revilings be not dismayed. as in the days of old. who is made like grass? And have you forgotten Yahweh your maker.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 while its inhabitants will die like locusts. they will attain joy and gladness. that you fear. and my salvation to all generations. and the worm will consume them like wool. Historical-eschatological Interlude An earnest (Qinah) cry for Yahweh to continue intervening in history Awake. Strophe IV Yahweh the creator is the consoler of Israel I. I am your comforter. Eternal joy will be upon their heads. awake. And established the earth. a people in whose hearts is my instruction. Strophe III The righteous instructed to forego fear and dismay Listen to me. For the moth will consume them like a garment. and grief and groaning will flee away. Fear not the reproach of mankind. O arm of Yahweh. the waters of the great deep. and they will come to Zion with a joyous cry. be clothed with strength. establishing the depths of the sea as a way for the redeemed to pass over? So the ransomed of Yahweh will return. piercing the sea monster? Is it not you who are drying up Sea. in the generations of long ago! Is it not you who are hewing Rahab in pieces. Awake. and my triumph will never be abolished.
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7
8
9
10
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. who are you that you should fear Man and the son of man who will die. you knowers of righteousness. who stretched out the heavens. But my triumph will be eternal.

First. Yet form-critically. the emphatic first-person pronoun *anoki ("I") employed
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.9). who agitates the sea so that its waves roar. with its introductory cry for help and review of Yahweh's past acts of creative redemption. Yahweh himself stands behind the prepositional 'elay ("to me") in vv. when he is fixed ready to destroy. and 7a. And I shall put my words in your mouth.D. and shall hide you in the shadow of my hand.9-11) and an oracle of assurance (vv. the prepositional meMtti ("from me") in v.5d. declares that the prophet's prayer is divinely answered /10/. Strophe V Yahweh the creator purposes to protect and elect Israel For I am Yahweh your God.12-16). Due to the fury of the oppressor. The latter.4ab.la. 51 /8/. Such emphasis is rhetorically realized in at least seven different ways. and saying to Zion.Art and Meaning continually all day long. 51:1-16 emphasizes that Israel's deliverance is close at hand. Isa. Rhetorical realization of the poem's central concern More than anything else. Smart rightly remarks that sharply defined themes and readily discernible thought sequence are not especially characteristic of Isa.9-16 we confront a communal prayer of lament (vv.1-8 as an oracle of comfort which takes a sustained look at Israel's past relation with the deity and eschatologically anticipates the future deliverance which Yahweh will assuredly bring about. In vv. Also a sophisticated use of the language of exhortation is readily evident. we accept vv. "You are my people. The former. and where is the fury of the oppressor? He who is bowed down will quickly be released. Setting up the heavens and establishing the earth. and he will not die into the Pit. Yahweh of hosts is his name.4c. in a somewhat argumentative manner /9/. functions as a magnificent historical-eschatological interlude and involves the poet's skillful apostrophizing of Yahweh's arm (v. nor will his bread be lacking. Yahweh is often presented in the first person."
14
15 16
Form
J.

15a). In their totality. yish T^ ("my salvation").7c with 'al tTr e 'u ("fear not") and in v. The poet's ready assumption that Yahweh is sovereign over all the world and fully intends to sponsor the deliverance of his people is well served by these first-person expressions. Addressed to the covenant people.8.lc the faithful of Israel are called upon to look to Abraham who is the rock (tsur) from which they have been hewn. and debaray ("my words"). l e 'ummT ("my nation"). Especially in the first half of the poem. and z e ro c ay ("my arms") in v. haqshibu ("pay attention"). which is repeated in v. Strophe II commences with a divine imperative. The first word of Strophe I is a divine imperative. At once a new metaphor of like kind is added. and c ammT ("my people") in v. Moreover. wishu c at! ("but my salvation") and tsidqatt ("my triumph") in v. addressed by Yahweh to his own.6.2a and v.Id as the quarry (maqqebet bor) from which those who seek Yahweh and his
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. and "I shall put my words in your mouth" (v. is a command spoken by Yahweh to his faithful people. they collectively emphasize the sovereign design of the deity: "I.6 is an imperative. The sovereign Yahweh issues commands to his people. following the historical-eschatological interlude. tsidqi ("my deliverance").!5a. "For I am Yahweh your God" (v. we meet three crucial first-person climactic cola.7a as the opening word ol Strophe III. The prophet-poet's deft use of imagery may be identified as a third device /I I/.!2a). In v.7d with 'al techattu ("be not dismayed") we witness the imperative preceded by the emphatic negative. shim c u ("listen").4.7. habbitu ("look"). Use of the divine imperative constitutes a second device whereby Second Isaiah underscores his belief in an imminent salvation.!6a). 12a and once more in v. I am your comforter" (v. the initial word of v. in v. Similarly. se'u ("lift up").5. tsidqatT ("my triumph") and wishu c ati ("and my salvation") in v. 16.6b. yadi ("my hand"). one image is piled on another. Sarah is introduced in v.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 twice in v. and the first word of v. and c mishpati ("my truth") in v. and the numerous nouns possessing first person pronominal suffixes .c ammi ("my people"). or they solicit confidence ('al tir e > u ["fear not"] and 'al techattu ["be not dismayed"]) which casts out fear and dares to hope in the assured prospects of a future subservient to Yahweh's will. these imperatives either evoke Israel's attentiveness with ear (shim c u and haqshibu) and eye (habbitu and se'u) so that she may be ready for the deliverance at hand. Moreover. torati ("my instruction") in v. Finally. Ic as well as in v.

It will become "like Eden" (keceden). and often is employed as a literary device in an abundant variety of ways /13/. the deity favored him with call and blessing. in both v. my people"). worn out garment (beged tibleh).lOa. the poet writes in v.!3bc is reaffirmed in v.4d. Moreover. nicham ("comfort") in v. The transitory aspect of the present heaven and earth and the oncoming transformation is developed in v. ysd). give ear to me") repeats in an artful and fresh manner what was just stated in v. In fact. Here may be noted the presence of habbttu ("look") in v.6cde through the similies of smoke (cashan). the trium148
. and dying locusts (reading k e mo-ken as one word) /12/. c ammim ("the peoples") in v. and as well provides a significant clue for discerning what the poet most wishes to emphasize.7c-8d.3b. an obvious contrast may be noted in v. The stretching out (nth) of the heavens and establishment (ysd) of the earth in v.!2a. Second.4b ("and my nation.5c. and the second mention of the deity's "arm1' (z^r5ci) in v. Such imagery effectively points to the corporate nature of the elect who have Abraham and Sarah as parents. First.3ef).!2d.Art and Meaning deliverance have been dug. Such striking images and figures of speech both enrich the prophet's central message of imminent deliverance for the fainthearted and contribute to its content.2a. At least four strong contrasts are to be noted in Isa. this stylistic feature is common to much of the Hebrew Bible. From the solitary Abraham and Sarah a mighty nation emerged.5 is figurative in function.3cd with its reference to the great reversal that is imminent the sterile wilderness (midbar) will be transformed into the garden of Yahweh (gan-YHWH).9e and v. mortal humankind is compared to grass (chatsir) in v. 51:1-16. The repetition of key words and phrases constitutes a fourth device for emphasizing impending salvation. This body is to be comforted now by Yahweh who will transform Zion into a garden (v. Then the colon in v.lc and its repetition in v.4a ("pay attention to me.4d and its repetition in v. The presence of such repetition attests to both the importance and urgency of the word. halp' fet-hi ("is it not you who") in both v.9c. Similarly. This will evoke "exultation and joy" and "the voice of song" (v. Yahweh's truth is depicted "as a light" (letpr) in v.2cd that when Abraham was "but one" Qechad). A fifth rhetorical device to be mentioned is Second Isaiah's deft use of contrast.3a and again in v.!6c (where the verbs employed are nt c and.9a as well as in v. c uri ("awake") in v. Third. once more.6c-g and v. and 'anoki ("I") twice in v.3cd).

The last rhetorical device to be enumerated here is Second Isaiah's use of the direct quotation. collectively make a significant contribution to the drama of the poem. it is a means whereby the dialogic style of the poetry may come into its own.13g). Indeed. and three others are spoken by Yahweh to his covenant people in the oracle of assurance which follows (vv. throughout the poem there resounds the expectation that Israelite despair generated by Babylonian oppression will be displaced by an authentic rejoicing on the part of a people expressing its natural response to the marvelous deliverance that lies in store. Finally. The former move the deity's attention to his great creative and historical deeds in times past in the fervent hope that he will mobilize himself anew for his people.13a. that eternal salvation is even set over against the passing of the created order itself.3e. In Second Isaiah's employment of rhetorical questions we find a sixth stylistic device contributing to the overall success of the poetry.llb-d). Such questions.v.10a-d). Though the oracle of comfort (vv. it does appear at the end of the poem in a most strategic collocation: "You are my people" ( c ammi 'atta. two rhetorical questions are directed by the poet toward the deity in the historical-eschatological interlude (vv. "Have you forgotten Yahweh your maker?" (v.9ef.l^a). A key motif is given vivid expression. joy. 51:1-16 there is only one brief quotation.1-8) lacks interrogatives. We need not doubt that part of the excitement of the prophet's lyrics is to be found in the contrasts which he so skillfully draws. this is to be seen as the very climax of the poem.!6d) /14/« The divinely spoken quotation is formally introduced by the ubiquitous le^mor ("saying"). While in all of Isa. Like the rhetorical question. In fact. The latter address Israel in the uncomfortable particularity of her present and stir her to rekindle her recently waning faith in divine sovereignty: "Who are you that you should fear?" (v. v.!3a). The "grief and groaning" (v. "Where is the fury of the oppressor?" (v.!2b. Clearly. which constitute an integral part of Second Isaiah's dialogic style. and closely linked with that inquiry. It is because Israel has been divinely elected that she is to be delivered by the deity who is at once covenant
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.!3g). and gladness (vv.lle) of the people will be dramatically set aside. "he who is bowed down will quickly be released" (v.!2b).Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 phant deliverance of his people that Yahweh resolves to achieve is magnificently set over against the temporal madness of earth's mortals. Israel will be virtually overcome by exultation.

These seven rhetorical devices.the initial word of each of our strophes is also the first word of a line in the lQIsa text. Together these three strophes form a stirring oracle of comfort. vv. and 8cd). with v. but this can scarcely be set forth with much confidence. Perhaps the Qumran community did take into account here the commencement and termination of strophes. which virtually ignores the metrical arrangement of the poem. but rather. The first three strophes manifest an identical structure. the Isaiah manuscript of St Mark's monastery (lQIs a ). Clearly.Art and Meaning Lord and active sovereign over all dimensions of time. zeroac YHWH ("the arm of Yahweh"). will do no less in the near future. who has effectively redeemed his people in the remote past.3ef. be they historical or eschatological. Curiously. (3) Then comes a concluding bicolon sharing in the poem's total affirmation of the joy and power of deliverance itself (vv. but c uri ("awake").lc-3d in the first. (2) After the imperative comes the hieros logos. haqshibu in v. 51:1-16 the persistent hope resounds that Yahweh's deliverance of his faithful is truly at hand.6fg. The poet now provides us a daring apostrophe in the form of a prayer of lamentation.4c-6e in the second. This arrangement is primarily informed by an observation of the location of key words within the poem. the specific word of divine disclosure. especially initial imperatives and emphatic first-person singular pronouns.9 the poet's thought and expression exhibit a dramatic shift. does agree with this strophic structure at one point . vv. and the briefer vv.4) followed immediately by the emphatic suffixed preposition "to me" Celay) /16/. therefore. unlike the previous imperatives. (1) They begin with an imperative to listen (shim c Q in both vv. Strophic structure The translation I have provided reveals the outcome of my strophic analysis /15/. 16 in order to throw into bold relief Israel's mission. one which declares that Yahweh. Second Isaiah uses the direct quotation in v. Again we meet an initial imperative. is second masculine singular. The object of the imperative is not the faithful Israel.l and 7.7c-8b in the third strophe. While earlier imperatives in the
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. Through such dialogic expression the poet reminds his audience that those delivered by Yahweh will be used by him for greater purpose. emphasize and enrich the central concern of the poem. Throughout Isa.

That summons issued 4n a blessing on its auditor. Because vv. Westermann. Moreover. the thought of v. Since with v. A further shift is manifested in v.ll the poet sets forth the promise that a return to Zion is imminent. Second Isaiah is both concerned with Israel's past and future. Then in v. it is more attractive to consider vv. In the way the text is set up in BH 3 (1937) it appears as prose.9 and the conspicuous Qinah (lament) meter perfectly executed in vv. Here the lament form has been modified. its singularity stands forth /[?/. Similarly. Indeed. and v. Accordingly. In that way. and BHS (1977771 take these lines to be poetic /18/. they may be considered as cola initiating new strophes. In v. In v. by its very nature. In vv. vv. Against BH3.!2a Israel is told that Yahweh is m e nachemkem ("your comforter").!2a and 15a militate against this. A special problem does confront us with vv.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 poem have been spoken by the sovereign deity who calls his people to attention and confidence. Both the fourth and fifth strophes begin with the emphatic first-person pronoun ^noki.14.9 and 10.12-16 constitute one long final strophe. 12 the prophet returns to his original stance. This anticipation of the restoration of Yahweh's people is obviously based on the assumption that. but the affinity between vv. Yahweh is the speaker.!5a she is instructed that Yahweh is ^gloheyka ("your God"). One might argue that vv.!2a and 15a are basically parallel in structure and witness Yahweh's self-disclosure to the faithful yet weak members of the Israelite community. the poet's con151
.9-11 the fervent character of the appeal is indicated both by the threefold Curi in v.9-11 as an interlude than as a strophe. but in agreement with Torrey. here the poet issues an earnest call on behalf of the faithful for Yahweh to intervene.14-16. divine deliverance is not simply a property of times past.16 offers a pair of bicola. The first two verses dramatically refer to the divine call to the solitary Abraham.14 and 15 each contain a tricolon.12 where Yahweh is again the speaker and confidence displaces apprehension as the dominant theme. this shift of metrical beat from 3+3 to 3+2 produces a welcome artistic effect.!5a is scarcely congruent with v. RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE INDIVIDUAL STROPHES Strophe I Comfort extended to those who seek Yahweh In his introductory strophe.

namely. Thus the cohortative of Hos.3ef). persecute. In any case. Then as we
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. Thereupon the reactio hominum to the actio dei will be that of conspicuous joy and thanksgiving (v." Often it manifests positive nuances which convey what the God-man relation in Israel is all about.that poses no problem. tsedeq is precisely that which is being sought here. Verse 3 assures that such a blessing will obtain its concrete form in God's comforting Zion /19/. Yahweh is the speaker." Most helpful here is Deut. Having noted the general design and intention of Strophe I. Perhaps tsedeq should be interpreted as a divine attribute. it points to Yahweh or to the righteous truth which he characteristically speaks. 16:20 which offers tsedeq as the accusative of the root rdp.1-3 manifest an indigenous disputational quality. With vv. and its reference is clearly eschatological in character /22/.l and 3 each contain a third-person reference to Yahweh. In its capacity to denote vindication or salvation. Immediately following the opening imperative to listen (shimcQ) there comes a Qal active masculine construct plural participle from the root rdp meaning "to pursue. which indicates what Yahweh did when he called Abraham /20/.la-2a three imperatives lead up to the first deictic k_t particle. in v. only justice. who are urged to listen (shimCQ) and look (habbitQ) to Abraham. 6:3 admonishes. the speaker throughout Strophe I appears to be the deity. Yahweh is speaking but in the third person. you shall follow (tirdop) so that you may live and possess the land which Yahweh your God is giving you. is "undoubtedly the result of Deutero-Isaiah's creativity" /21/. As is true of Strophe II and III. This uniting of genres. chase. may expect to win God's blessing.2 Yahweh speaks in the first person ." In Isa. he claims. Melugin cogently observes that whereas the declarations of vv. "Justice (tsedeq).J5c. Verse I.3 the language of salvation speech is quite evident. let us inspect some of its terms more closely." In other contexts. that Yahweh will comfort Zion (note the twofold use of nicham).Art and Meaning temporary "pursuers of deliverance" and "seekers of Yahweh" (v. In v. "Let us press on (rdp) to know Yahweh. 51:1 rdp and tsedeq are closely linked in construct fashion. depending on the nature of the "chase. Though vv. the context offers a strong note of continuity so as to suggest that in both instances. and that truth for Second Isaiah has sturdy futuristic implications. The next kjt introduces the central thought of the strophe. this root has both negative and positive connotations. The same situation also obtains in v.l).

78:15) or to the deity as a metaphorical indication of his desire and capacity to defend his people (Isa. Moving on to v. there are authentic grounds for optimism. rather than to take the latter as a gloss on the former (in agreement with Torrey and contrary to McKenzie) /23/." The verb nbj is employed in a normative manner. In v. bore through"). clarify the imagery of v.2a makes
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. 48:21. 30:29). Israel's mother par excellence.ld. a colon of Second Isaiah's poetry is introduced by the imperative habbitu ("look"). and other active uses of chtsb may be uncovered in Deut. A hapax in construct state with bor. The repetition of this imperative in v. Tsur usually refers to a rocky wall or cliff (Isa. for they are the actual entities implied in the metaphors of that verse. 6:11 (digging cisterns) and Deut. These self-consciously employed rhetorical images for Abraham and Sarah persuasively point to Israelite solidarity. 17:10. In tsur chutst sab tern ("the rock from which you were hewn") we encounter the figure of Abraham.la to v. Hence. cleave"). This time the two objects of the verb.l. pick dig") relates directly to the quarry from which Israel was dug. namely. The second word of the image comes from chtsb ("to hew. Only here is tsur used in a figure for Abraham. 22:8). this noun is derived from the verb nqb ("to pierce. A new imperative is introduced in v.lc: "Look (habbttu) to the rock from which you were hewn. and "consider" (as here). The root nqr ("to bore. These two words constitute a vivid metaphor on Sarah. It is often used figuratively to mean "regard" (1 Sam. just as v.lb we learn that those who pursue righteousness are further defined as the faithful who explicitly seek after (bqsh) Yahweh. B6r ("well. Then. Ps. Abraham and Sarah. Abraham's and Sarah's offspring will likewise participate in divine blessing. pit. Sarah.2a suggests the same thing. Israel's ancestor par excellence. Verse 2.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 move from v. Maqqebet refers to a hole. or cistern opening. Again. 8:9 (mining).9 the HiphCil feminine singular participle refers to the hewing of Rahab to pieces. "attend to" (Isa. it is more tempting to consider maqqebet and bqr (together meaning "quarry") as both original to the text. 16:7). The people are at one with their momentous past. The imperative in this verse presents itself as a direct appeal to the weak yet faithful members of the community that as "historians" they take serious thought of Abraham. it occurs in the Hiphcn and is addressed to a human subject. cistern") is used only here as a figure of Sarah. excavation.

or Nebuchadnezzar. With v. bring forth. v. he chose only Abraham and Israel. which is employed six times by Second Isaiah. 51:1-16 /27/. the prophet fulfills a rhetorical purpose. or Hiram of Tyre. I am your comforter. Knight claims that by alluding to Sarah. and v. out of all the world" /25/.12 its participial function is attested where the deity declares.Art and Meaning absolutely clear the meaning of the metaphor in v. G." Curiously.2c we meet the first of the five kt particles located in the poem.3ab: "For Yahweh will comfort Zion. "I.3 the verb is directly related to Zion. Here Westermann correctly observes that the parallelism between "Zion" and "her desolate places" is ready indication that Zion at the present moment lies in ruins /26/. if not more. who rightly asserts that the position of 'echad is emphatic. so will he console Zion and her ruins. His already well drawn image of Abraham. this is the only mention of Sarah in the Hebrew Scriptures apart from the Book of Genesis." The deictic k_I particle and the twofold use of nicham ("to comfort") invite the conclusion that this bicolon indeed enjoys an emphatic function. The root nchm. Second Isaiah is articulating his faith that just as Yahweh has enlivened the barren mother of Israel. The verb used is chul (in the Poclel conjugation) and it means "to writhe in travail.2b clarifies the picture drawn in v. is found twice in Isa.v. with its emphatic use of 'echad ("but one"). Torrey. It is equally.3ef depicts the human emotion that will be evoked
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. and strong contrast at that. is appreciably enhanced.lc. or the Phoenicians.A./ he will comfort all her desolate places. The faithful of Israel are summoned to listen and look because (ki) Abraham their father was called and blessed when he was merely one. so also he can make new life surge through the now weakened Israelites living in Babylonian exile /24/. Verse 3: We have already stated that the central thought of Strophe I is contained in v. declares. or the Persians.F. This initial k^ is the word toward which all the imperative clauses move.3bcd expresses the character of the transformation that God will bring about.C. important to recognize that by his explicit mention of Sarah. In v. The many of Israel are deliberately set over against the solitary Abraham. Such comfort is to be wrought by a thorough transformation of nature. Sarah is the one who bore Israel. This crucial theological observation is rhetorically reinforced by means of contrast.Jd. he did not elect Rameses II. As Yahweh has blessed Abraham. "The One God did not choose the Egyptians." In v. C.

The rhetorical capacity of Strophe II has been enthusiastically recognized by Muilenburg: "The imperatives are more urgent. It is throughout a divine oracle spoken to the covenant people in the hope that their faith might be strengthened. which is the longest of the five. meaning "to give ear.
f
Strophe II Eternal and victorious salvation is imminent A theological and literary intensity characterizes the second strophe. rejoicing") will be found in Zion's midst.lld. in v. "and my truth as a light to the peoples.5a). The strophe opens with a new imperative. listen. and in so doing he focuses on those who wait eagerly for its coming (v. Again.3c. v." we discern echoes of the first servant poem (42:1-4). This implies that a shift from historical to eschatological time will necessarily incorporate a return to primordial time /28/. the repetitions more impressive. Both here and in Gen.4d. hear. the midbar ("wilderness") will be changed into the likeness of cgden (Eden). the words of address more inward.4b. First. Second.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 within the restored community of Zion. haqshibu. First. Lifeless land will become invitingly inhabitable. the noun is buttressed by another noun having similar meaning simcha /29/.3ef the joyous emotions arising from / those who inhabit the transformed Zion are enumerated." is employed almost entirely in poetic passages. 13:10. The heavens are personified as giving ear in
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. Both here and in v. the an-YHWH is a simile for the garden of Eden.5de). The root qshb ordinarily appears in the Hiphcn conjugation and means "to give attention to. Yahweh's impending transformation of Zion is vividly portrayed by two related images. In this strophe.e'eztnu (Hiphcil form of 'zn) in v." The verb is parallel to h.4d. he anticipates in some measure how the eternal salvation will be victoriously achieved (v. Second.3d obviously parallels v. the prophet appears to have two main considerations in mind. desert-steep") will become like the gan-YHWH ("garden of Yahweh"). Sas'on ("exultation. Verse 4.6cde). Moreover. The caraba ("arid place. and the imagery more vivid and sublime" /30/. In v. Such rejoicing is concretely expressed within the context of cultic thanksgiving (toda) and song (zimra). the prophet's rhetoric is artful. he insists that Israel's rescue is imminent (vv. The latter. Surely in 51:3cd econd Isaiah intends eg den and gan-YHWH to be accepted as equivalents.

The "instruction" and "truth" will collectively function as a "light" Cor) for those who confront them. Tora ("instruction").4ab is stylistically matched by the intensive use of the first-person suffix in vv. their inhabitants. 42:1-4. The first is qwh.5de).) and Isa. 119:95). in the first song. ychl (v. Indeed. 49:2 (v.
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.4d mishpat stands parallel to tora. for it discloses why Israel should in fact give ear. which is also explicitly mentioned in v.4c-. whereas v. Among the various options. "My arms will govern the peoples" (v. Chiasmus is achieved in v. Verse 5. 42:4 and Jer. In the light of that sovereignty. 28:23. Eng. Second Isaiah perceives such tora as instruction to be issued by Yahweh in the impending new age. the balance of v. Ps. suddenly. It should also be noted that the repeated use of }elay ("to me") in v. is parallel with mishpat ("truth").4 justifies the imperative.6. as the sovereign deity who governs (shp{) all. thus. tora and mishpat are linked as they are here. Introduced by the deictic particle ki.]. Hope as well as patience are denoted by the second verb of waiting. 37:31).4. it is well within his power to do so.7b. wait for Yahweh and hope in his strong arm (v. and by implication. the imperative is addressed to the Israelite nation. Yahweh promises to bring his yeshac ("deliverance") at once and. whereas men give ear in Ps. 59:9.11). 31:33.7 at least implies that suchinstruction is to be interpreted as a coherent body of teaching (see Isa. Because the verb is parallel to ychl. Second Isaiah employs two verbs of waiting in this verse. which surely includes the Gentile world that is of considerable interest to this universalistic prophet in the Servant Songs.Art and Meaning Deut. 32:1 and the earth in Isa. As is likewise the case in Isa.5d. 1:2. it would seem best to link it with v. 'argiac. is problematic.l. The concluding word of v. or "to lie in wait for" (Ps.5e). Yahweh's instruction and light are about to radiate. "without delay. The deity emphatically declares. 56:7 [v. Verse 4a opens with an imperative which is followed by preposition and noun.5. the translation "truth" is not inappropriate. In v. In the present context.24. Eng.4ab." which brings it in accord with the LXX reading. and v. identify its root as rgc. tora here refers to Yahweh's instruction in the future.5c). meaning either "to wait or look eagerly for" (Isa. "to wait eagerly for" commends itself as the meaning here intended. 42:21. the coastlands.4b begins with a noun and is followed by the same preposition and then a verb. and render it adverbially.

Strophe III The righteous instructed to forego fear and dismay In the present two-verse strophe. It appears that Second Isaiah intentionally employs the noun both ways in the present verse. This time the faithful are told to lift up (£e>Q) their eyes toward the heavens and then look (repeating the familiar habbitu imperative of vv. As has already been mentioned. That righteousness will endure and on that thought an intensely drawn strophe comes to its close. the veritable instrument of deliverance and judgement.6cde). / and the earth will wear out like a garment.6fg." or it may serve as a symbol of strength. The feminine noun z£roac may refer in a literal sense to "arm.5e the arm becomes a symbolic expression for help or deliverance ("for my arm they hope") /31/. In v. That noun also appears in v. The reason for the imperative is aptly introduced by the deictic ki particle. Again Second Isaiah ushers us into the rhetorical realm of contrast. the noun is parallel with tsidqa in an adjacent colon. v. Once more in v.5 serves in some measure to prepare the reader for its apostrophized employment in v. That in which the coastlands hope is the arm of Yahweh. shoulder.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 Our attention is more forthrightly turned toward the realm of expectation. and yeshuca is incorporated in the concluding and climactic line of its strophe. and again that contrast impresses the reader as the finished product of the poet's craft.6f: eternal salvation is referred to. In fact. Involving the eternality of God (v. the twofold mention of Yahweh's arm in v. the concluding bicolon of Strophe II. / while its inhabitants will die like locusts" /32/.8d where it manifests threeT similarities with its use in v. The transient nature of the present heaven and earth are set over against the deity who in his person and redemptive design is eternal. the contrast is superbly drawn by means of an extended simile: "For the heavens will be dissipated like smoke.5c the literal sense is maintained ("my arm will govern the peoples").l and 2) at the earth beneath.9 the noun functions as a precise designation of Yahweh's arm. It is intimately linked with the one God who rules over all things. the thought of the two
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. Here Second Isaiah celebrates a righteousness (tsidqa) which is triumph personified. brilliantly attests to the eternity of Yahweh's victorious salvation (v_eshuca).6fg) and the temporality of all other things (v. but in v. Verse 6: Again a verse is introduced by an imperative.9.

The opening address closely resembles v. In the Old Testament.8.7d).7cd. Second Isaiah contrasts man's precarious existence with the eternal triumph of Yahweh who promises his salvation to all generations.Art and Meaning preceding strophes is carried further. The first colon proclaims that just as the moth (cash) consumes the garment. In the articulations which follow. Though the reason for reproach may be explicit. at times it is not. it is possible that he has come under the influence of Jeremiah's own reflections on the new covenant /33/. their attachment with tsedeq is claimed to be all the more intimate. At best. then. is to clarify the imagery of v. reproach may be that cast by one individual on another (as here). her present awareness of Yahweh's claim and power. Verse 8. present. Our main task. Moreover.4. v. since Second Isaiah uses the noun leb ("heart"). it does become clear why the faithful need not give way to the reproach and revilings of arrogant mortals.l. Thought of God's eternity already advanced in v.7cd. and future quality. Most likely the knowing which is here attested has concern itantly a past. The pattern of issuing an imperative and accompanying it with the k_T particle introducing the reason as to why it is uttered has already been highlighted in our analysis of vv. k_t reappears in v. and now the pursuers of righteousness are designated as knowers (yodece) of righteousness. Israel's past confrontation with the revealed tora. With recourse to vivid imagery. and her anticipated new knowledge of God to be acquired through a fresh experience of Yahweh's deliverance may all occupy the poet's mind. however. v.7c) and "be not dismayed" (yal techattu. so haughty mankind will be devoured. man is a transient creature. and again the transitory aspect of mortal life is contrasted with the eternal character of divine purpose.7d aptly reinforces the thought of the preceding colon.6 is here extended by means of new imagery. The shimcu ("listen") imperative is repeated. Mention of the "revilings" (gidupim) in v. the Cash is regularly regarded as a
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.2. Israel is enjoined not to fear the "reproach" (cherpa) of mortal humankind. or it may involve the action of humans against God (so Ps. Such is the situation here. Similarly. Within the Hebrew Bible. The already persistent note of comfort is extended by means of assuring discourse "fear not" Qal tir e> Q. Verse 7.8 where it prefaces the reason justifying the "fear not" and "be not dismayed" imperatives of v. 74:22 and 79:12). Hence. In the chiastic bicolon of v. and 6.

"they [men] will all wear out like a garment.8b a second and similar image appears. waste away").9-10 here often erroneously translated as if they were equivalent to
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. and v.history With v. Yet in v.6fg and v.6g). where God's eternality is the prophet's concern.8c). / the moth will devour them" (50:9). it might also participate in the present crisis. This need not be interpreted as a lapse of imagination on the poet's part. since in v.Sab many images are employed for the purpose of highlighting man's transitory situation. They are instead the prophet's words to Yahweh (in behalf of his compatriots) entreating him to intervene /35/. The series of participal phrases in vv.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 wasteful consumer (see Isa. In v.6cde and v.R. Historical-eschatological Interlude An earnest (Qinah) cry for Yahweh to continue intervening in. that as it has made itself effectively present in primordial and historical time. Job 13:28).ll. Here we would do well to take note of P. Yahweh's salvation endures for all time. no word pictures are provided.Scd provide three important and related affirmations about Yahweh's triumph and salvation: (1) it will be eternal (vv. Ps. In v. On two occasions the prophet thus proclaims that mortal humankind will be subjected to the same outcome as the garment which is eaten up by the consuming moth. 50:9. The call for divine intervention is actually made to the apostrophized arm of Yahweh.9-11 are not those of Yahweh to his dispirited people. and (3) it will be available to all generations (v. the noun is derived from cshsh ("to become weak. The absence of any poetic imagery is noteworthy. (2) it will never (even momentarily) be abolished (v. The concluding bicolon of the strophe (v. 39:12 [v. The worm/moth (sas is a hapax) will devour man like wool /34/. The many statements of divine assurance now terminate.Scd. In the composition preceding this poem it is said. The words expressed in vv. Since the strophe is short.8d).Scd) states that in contrast to these images depicting the frail human condition. however.6fg coupled with v.6f. Ackroyd's insightful comment: The actualization of the events of creation and redemption in the present situation is here made most plain. Eng.5ce two references have already been made to the effective arm of Yahweh. In fact.].9 we are confronted by a dramatic shift. there would have been room for such.

9cd the poet. the prophet offers a sophisticated allusion to the creation myth.ll). In v. for we encounter now the fervent appeal that the arm of Yahweh show itself to be endowed with the strength that will enable it to usher in the promised salvation 1371. Here Rahab is paralleled with tannin (sea monster). the attributes of God whose power is invoked. Now the situation is reversed. does. all of the poem's imperatives have moved in a God-to-man direction. "Awake" ( c urf twice) and "be clothed (libshi) in strength" introduce the interlude. Verse 9. "My flesh is clothed with worms. refers to instances in which Yahweh's strong arm has already shown itself to be efficacious.10). the poet speaks confidently that the ransomed will be joyously restored to Zion (v. Three imperatives.express. Attention is called to "days of old" and "generations of long ago. vv. For example. with its presentation of the deity's conflict with the sea monster sometimes known as Tiamat but mentioned here (via West Semitic terminology) as Rahab /38/. for
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. but in v. The sense of the contemporaneity of history is here most obvious /36/.9 and 10 are cast in the Qinah meter. 49:18 the prophet promises that Jerusalem will be clothed with inhabitants.9e is. The root Ibsh is frequently taken up in highly figurative biblical discourse. Job 7:5 reads. and "Sea" (yam lacking the definite article) and "the great deep" (jehom rabba) in v. After reviewing the effect of Yahweh's intervention in history (v.Art and Meaning past tenses . as is so often the case also in the hymns of the psalter. Second Isaiah seems content simply to allude to the primordial reality of chaos by means of four specific nouns: "Rahab" and "sea monster" (tannin) in v. Second Isaiah is not only pointing to~a myth involving the creator deity's fight against chaos (Chaoskampf). Appropriately. This three-verse interlude thus commences on a quite urgent note and closes with vivid words expressing full confidence in what Yahweh did. with its word of assurance. "Of course. Rather.9ef. As is true elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. it is Yahweh who does such things!" In framing this question.l 1." The answer to the rhetorical question commencing with v. there is a return to the typical three-beat colon. and will do." and in Isa. The figurative significance of the verb is likewise evident here. in an entirely general manner. however. Thus far. the basic details of the ancient Oriental myth are not delineated.lOab.

and it was dried up. Second Isaiah is here assuming that Yahweh has full control over all forces of nature. By so doing. The poet has skillfully appropriated popular mythology in order to advance his own message. the presence of flood imagery in v." Yahweh's control over the waters in the Exodus event here recalled by Second Isaiah resulted in his drying up the waters of the great deep.9ef focuses on creation.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 in the same breath he alludes to the Reed Sea incident. He overcomes the sea and makes it serve his own purpose. Both begin.M.9-10 are identical in both introductory formulation and overall intention. The waters which are here dried up are specified as the waters of the deep (tehom). hglo' 'at-hi1 ("Is it not you who?"). As D. Yahweh can intervene as Lord over specific historical events as at the Reed Sea. which. that in v. 1:2 to refer to the primordial waters. The final verb of passing over (Iacab5r) jn v > io is carried over into the initial action of
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.lOab on the flood.ll) /41/. the very word used in Gen. as the climax of the three images. the cosmic sea notwithstanding. Moreover. For Second Isaiah this formative historical event at the Sea of Reeds has a vivid eschatological. and he led them through the deep (tehom) as through a desert. As a consequence. 106:9 presents us with the closest parallel: "He [Yahweh] rebuked the Reed Sea. Gunn has carefully pointed out. Still we should remember that tehom is used elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible to designate the abyss of any sea or body of water /40/. as well.lOcd on the Reed Sea crossing. Again creation and historical motifs are closely knit. The answer expected is once more. as well as past. as Gerhard von Rad has emphasized. aspect to it. belief in creation (Schopfungsglaube) and belief in salvation (Heilsglaube) are two distinct acts falling together before the eyes of the prophet as one universal act of divine deliverance /39/. and.lOab should not go unnoticed. "Certainly." Both questions are designed to emphasize the poet's belief in the efficacious creative and historical power of Yahweh. readily moves our attention to the poem's last two strophes /42/. anticipates the impending new exodus (v. Ps. and that in v. Obviously the cosmic combat has here been intentionally historicized. Verse 11. The two rhetorical questions in vv. Verse 10. Thus. Yahweh established a way (derek) for the redeemed to traverse. watery imagery in v. a poet of Second Isaiah's skill is capable of multiple allusion. This verse stands in an intimate connection with the preceding. it is Yahweh.

Strophe IV Yahweh the creator is the consoler of Israel Though the earnest cry initiated in v. the redeemed (g e) ulTm) of Yahweh. and in like manner this strophe begins with the twice-stated emphatic first-person singular pronoun 'anokt ("I"). Thus once more Yahweh is the speaker. Specifically the injunction aga'.9 is answered by the assuring message of the prophet in v. v. at the outset Strophe IV contains Yahweh's emphatic response to the impassioned appeal begun in v.7c is now directed in the singular to each individual. create. and the language of this strophe and the next have a disputational aspect that is reminiscent of Strophe I /W/. literally means "a ringing cry.ll offers a most fitting eschatological conclusion to the interlude. Even so.9a). the climax provided by this verse closely approximates the concluding cola of the first strophe. from beginning to end. exists in close relation with the subject of the first verb of v. The noun at the end of v. the subject of the verb in v. 10. That exultation will directly motivate their praise of Yahweh for having delivered them. attests to the joy which Yahweh's redeemed will experience. the prophet's eschatological expectation here encompasses a further range of expression than previously: Second Isaiah eagerly anticipates that Yahweh's ransomed will return joyously to Zion." It is entirely at home in a verse which.llb. and deliver.!2a is plural. Moreover." v.ll. I am your comforter. and enjoys at least some affinity with the concluding cola of the second and third. The strophe simply begins with the confident emphatic declaration. rinna. In its very tonality. Though the pronominal suffix of rnenachemkem ("your comforter") in v.nst fear which is addressed to all faithful Israelites in the plural in v.ll functions as a significant "eschatological finale" /43/.ll. Accordingly.9. in this strophe Yahweh announces his concern and ability to comfort." The historical-eschatological interlude opened with the twofold use of c uri ("awake. "I. Verse 12. This repetition of the sovereign "I" of the deity aptly presents itself as a direct answer to Second Isaiah's twice-uttered plea.ll embodied in the verb of returning (yeshubun). the pTonoun 'at
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. At once Second Isaiah's artistic skill is evident in his reinforcement of the thought of Strophe III. Clearly. Thus v. Yahweh's ransomed (peduye).Art and Meaning v. "Awake" /45/. This time the customary introductory imperative to listen is wanting.

the verb "to make" (Csh) is used to acknowledge Yahweh's having brought the nation Israel into existence. Immediately in v. "Your Maker.!3b Israel's Maker is presented as the one responsible for having "stretched out" (nth) the heavens.!3d. As in Deut. Thus in its somewhat ponderous mention of fury and oppression.13 portrays the experience of mortal Israel. It introduces the reason for the deep dread mentioned in v.!3c Israel's Maker is also confessed as the one who "established" (ysd) the earth. will die like grass. The deity issues this interrogative sentence: "Who are you that you should fear?" Muilenburg cogently asserts that m i >at ("Who are you?") is not contemptuouse but means "Why?" or "How is it that?" /46/. The twice-offered Hiphc il participle of tswq in this verse is used somewhat abstractly to denote the oppressor /47/. v.!3cd the oppressor is consumed by fury (chema). In mipne ("due to." is scarcely fortuitous. In close accord with the prevailing ancient Near Eastern cosmogony. perhaps related to the oppressor in v. Verse 13.!3e) we meet a preposition indicating cause (see Gen. stands in dread before other mortal powers. the poetry might well be intent on symbolizing the consuming destruction
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. And that fury is again explicitly mentioned in v. in v. Second Isaiah's imagery assumes that the earth has been fixed on massive pillars. Humankind 0_ nosh). In v. Whereas v. the forthright tenor of the divine message is hereby secured by the poet's intentional recourse to the interrogative pronoun mi. and here the prophet's use of the second-person suffix. Through another rhetorical question Second Isaiah now admits to the possibility that the exiles are currently trapped by a fear that has led them to forget their Maker. He intuits the importance of this useful rhetorical device. With artistic acumen the poet portrays the spreading in the manner of the action required in pitching a tent. Though 13efg has at times been assessed as marginal gloss. Israel has no reason to fear.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 in v. In large measure.!2b is deliberately singular in order that the immediacy of divine address might be expressed more poignantly.7.!3g. who. tarn id kol-hayyom ("continually all day long"). 26:19 and 32:6. in her state of having forgotten Yahweh. The balance of v. its rhetoric seems to be in full accord with that of Second Isaiah.!3bc celebrates the creative capacities of the deity.!3a focuses briefly but intently on Yahweh as the one who made Israel into a people. the unmitigated character of the dread is deftly stated. Moreover. 3:7)." v. 36:7 and Exod.

The theme of divine assurance. The noun shachat ("pit") may well imply Sheol. Strophe IV terminates with further words of divine assurance. too. It promises that release will come quickly. These include poetic disclosures that Yahweh is both creator of the universe and the covenant Lord of Israel.l4. Presumably the Israelite captives are addressed as those existing near the pit. I am your comforter. The strophe opens (v. but the Akkadian cognate shuttu is a specific name for the abode of the dead. that he is sovereign over the sea. The one who is bowed down under the burden of the Babylonian fetters will soon be released. they will soon experience release from exile." Further
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. has set up the heavens.!5a) and closes (v. specific kinds of divinely inspired comfort are enumerated . Moreover. established the earth. Moreover. Verse 14.l by representing Yahweh as speaking once more words of second-person address. Not only is shachat typically used in the Old Testament contexts along with Sheol. "For I am Yahweh your God. The Picel perfect mihar ("to hasten").Art and Meaning wrought by the Babylonians against Jerusalem. the deity speaks this word of self-asseveration to the struggling exiles: "I. Israel really has no occasion to fear. is really adverbial in function.release from bondage.12. It appears from the very construction of this strophe that it is Second Isaiah's deliberate rhetorical design to move from the general to the specific.!6d) with the same crucial covenantal message which forthrightly declares that Yahweh is Israel's God and Israel is God's people. is carried into Strophe V through the first-person statement. is to be appreciated as one more manifestation of the poet's rhetorical skill. As the strophe opens with v. and this. and doing so for the greater purpose of declaring in faith that such oppression is contingent and transitory.!4b shachat stands immediately beside the root mwt ("to die"). and physical sustenance. Strophe V Yahweh the creator purposes to protect and elect Israel This final strophe provides an artful recapitulation of several themes which have previously been dominant in the poem. Against all physical indications to the contrary. Second Isaiah adroitly recaptures the atmosphere of v. in v. rescue from death. dominant throughout Strophe IV. and that he speaks a particular word to Zion. appearing with the verb ptch ("to release")." As the strophe terminates with v. Verse 15.

Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 promises are spoken to the fearful (v.C.13 and emend the verb to nth ("to stretch out") /48/." This shadow image is likewise attested in Isa. Their appearance is unexpected. This prophet-poet of sixth-century B. 49:2b. njc ("to plant"). 51:1-16 is that of arming a dispirited people with firm hope. since njc mav be employed figuratively to represent something which is established.!6cd). seek conformity with v. Yet this is really unnecessary. Israel is here chosen to be the agent of divine revelation. Verse 16. His intense lyricism vividly conveys his assurance of impending salvation. If one of the functions of Isa.!6b. In no small measure that realization is actualized by the closing words of the deity which present themselves as a quotation manifesting crucial covenantal overtones: "You are my people. "And I shall hide you in the shadow of my hand." We have thus sought to appreciate one of Second Isaiah's poems for its literary merit as well as for its momentous message. Second Isaiah has already done just this in 40:24 where he has declared that scarcely are the princes planted (nittaCQ) before they are uprooted. Yahweh resolves to put his words into Israel's mouth (v. Most importantly. As the new heaven and the new earth unfold. though now a new verb is employed. Yahweh's capacity as creator and sovereign. This is especially the case in v. In fact. yet they succeed in highlighting Yahweh's cosmic and historical design /49/.!6c). Israel will be found instructing others. In the concluding verse of the poem." Another recurring theme is Yahweh's establishing the heavens and the earth (v. It has often been lamented that Second Isaiah is all too much an
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.!2b). along with restatement something new emerges in this concluding strophe.!5c) itself signals his ready capacity to act as sovereign over creation and history. The deity who causes the waves to roar (hmh) manifests himself as precisely the one who is Israel's covenant Lord. As Yahweh's chosen people. and his name YHWH ts£ba|at ("Yahweh of hosts. One can. in one of the servant songs: "In the shadow (tse*l) of his hand he hid me. the theme of Israel's security under sovereign divine protection continues to resound clearly.!6a) /50/. she will be mediating his revelation to humankind. surely another is that of helping Israel to realize her calling. Israel enjoyed gifts of literary expression. and his readiness to continue in close covenantal relation with those whom he protects are celebrated by explanatory infinitives (v. of course." v. and they were rigorously employed in his theologically rich proclamations.

" Similarly. The Interpreter's Bible (Nashville: Abingdon Press.E. 51:1-16. effectively argues for the thematic unity of Isa. I believe. 51:1-16 does. 51:1-16 as a coherent whole.). it is difficult to imagine that Westermann's solution can easily stand up under sustained scrutiny. 1968). (eds. depends on a particular selection of fiftyfive italicized words. though there are numerous form-critical insights in his discussion. Fredrick Holmgren. 1969). he contends that Isa. 589.Art and Meaning anonymous figure. "The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-66. Brown et al. "Strength for the Fainthearted. J." On the basis of a chiastic pattern which Holmgren believes he has uncovered.A. Given the rich recourse to divine imperatives. 1956)." in G. We must not be insensitive to textual disturbances. seems arbitrary." VT 19 (1969).). it is entirely understandable that this remarkably courageous and articulate exilic prophet has often been celebrated as one of Israel's greatest poets. it engenders in us a fresh appreciation of Second Isaiah's talent as a master of Hebrew stylistics. the deft use of stirring imagery. vol." in R. He judges that theme to be "the comforting of Zion by the repeated assurance that the time of her deliverance is at hand. 196. His argument. The poetry he provides us in the passage under consideration bears the markings of a superb craftsman. "Chiastic Structure in Isaiah 51:1-11." He detects here "two skillfully wrought poems" (vv. Buttrick et al. who comprehends Isa. and that selection is not so very well defined.1-8 and 9-16) which reveal the poet's "keen appreciation of Israel's epic literature on creation and the first patriarchs (3 tradition). however. Even more. and still other rhetorical devices at his command. I find more compelling the analysis of Carroll Stuhlmueller. Claus Westermann's reconstruction of the text in his Isaiah 40-66 commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster Press."
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. move us a little closer to his person. 232-244. we accept Isa. 377. At the same time. "Deutero-Isaiah. NOTES 1 While some scholars limit their attention to Isa. 51:1-16 as a meaningful unit to which he gives the title. (eds. dismisses Westermann's radical textual reconstruction as "subjective" and "unconvincing. 51:1-11. Muilenburg. The Jerome Biblical Commentary (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 51:1-11 is the proper literary unit. the studied repetition of key words and phrases.5. Yet a sustained rhetorical-critical study of such a poem as Isa.

Clearly. Kessler (eds. op. and Prophecy: An Essay on Biblical Poetry. must be subjected to sound form-critical analysis if it is to be adequately understood. The Formation of Isaiah 40-55. must not be carried to excess. Even so. and here Westermann's method provides a needful corrective. Westminster Press.. ix.3. and Theological Exegesis. Poetry. Melugin. 175. "The New Frontier of Rhetorical Criticism. 240. 4 B." ZAW 34 (1914). Form Criticism. Freedman. applies the term "disputation" to vv.N. 40-55 is well stamped with the literary genius of its author. 3 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 8 3. History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 35. 40-55. 1965). 94.
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. "The Book of Isaiah. the use of traditional genres was in considerable flux.) and the thorough study of R. Smart." 385. he does rightly emphasize that they typically involve a thorough interweaving of a variety of genres. "Die literarische Analyse Deuterojesajas. Anderson. "Muilenburg.F. like other bodies of Old Testament prophetic literature. While he upholds Muilenburg's judgement that the individual literary units in Second Isaiah are longer than form critics have ordinarily taken them to be.. in turn. Fortress Press. Encounter with the Text. it cannot be held that Second Isaiah was impervious to traditional ways of speaking. 9 Westermann. Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of 3ames Muilenburg (Pittsburgh: Pickwick Press.). 1-18. 1974).W. Form and History in the Hebrew Bible (Philadelphia. 8. Rhetorical criticism dares not make light of this poet's imitation of conventional forms of discourse when traces of that imitation are clearly evident in the text. 1976). 10 To be sure. cit. I am impressed with the observation of H.. 10-11. cit. 5 D. BZAW 141 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter." 3BL 96 (1977). Buss (ed. that well established forms of speech were being severed from their conventional settings.12-16. "Pottery.C. is endorsed by Muilenburg. Gressmann. This assessment. Isa." in 3. Noteworthy here are Westermann's work on the text (op.).. "Form Criticism and Beyond.D. that by the late seventh century B. however. 1979). 295-296.F. 7 R. Isa. which. 6-7.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 2 James Muilenburg." in M. Accordingly. 40-66 (Philadelphia. Melugin." 3BL 88 (1969). Jackson and M.3.

my people")." This does not. 13 For a useful discussion of the matter. The Second Isaiah (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. of course..9-11 as interlude has earlier been advanced by Muilenburg. 40:1.Art and Meaning 11 In fact. "The supreme exemplar of Hebrew repetitive style is Second Isaiah" (109). however.4a following v. "Contributions to the Hebrew Lexicon. A Study of Isaiah Ch. "A Study in Hebrew Rhetoric: Repetition and Style. cit.6fg. They are not followed by the emphatic *elay as is true with the initial imperatives in vv. 238.2 and s*6^ at the head of v. that kemo-ken should be read as one word and rendered "like locusts.C. just so shall mankind die and disappear. and 7a.W." 595. holds that the strophic analysis of Old Testament texts "suffers from lack of agreement on the criteria for detecting strophes. and Westermann. Also they do not follow bold concluding bicola from which the poem derives momentum and strength.G.3ef and with v. 51:6e with kemo-ken is problematic. comfort. "The Book of Isaiah.K. op. but the case he makes is not particularly convincing." 388. In the case of Second Isaiah. 1928). 1956). 18 See Torrey. 398. 17 This designation of vv." C. Torrey. 19 To be sure. maintains that ki_ in v. argues that this would be a "natural way of saying that as the heavens and the earth are perishable. 73. yet find persuasive the suggestion of Joseph Reider. 51:6. considers Second Isaiah's use of imagery to be "the most revealing feature of the poet's style. cit. as is the case with v.la. 16 There are good reasons for disregarding habb i\u at the beginning of v. 270-271. op.6 as imperatives which commence strophes. "The Book of Isaiah." This translation is also advanced in the critical apparatus of BHS." As a pleonastic form of k£. 14 L. Muilenburg. 40-55 (Lund: C. In the entire Hebrew Bible. mean that this endeavor is futile. this carries one back to the initial imperative of Isa. who claims. nachamu nad^mO Cam mi ("Comfort.4a. The Formation of Isaiah 40-55. see James Muilenburg. Assuming that the two words mean "likewise. Melugin." 12 Isa.7a coming after v. a detection of numerous rhetorical devices contributes more significantly toward the proper delineation of the strophes than Melugin is prepared to admit. 15 With good reason. Gleerup. Rignell.
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." ZAW 53 (1935). We are left with uncertainty.. k e mo is common in Hebrew poetry. 97-111. 402.4c indicates a quotation. 8." VTSup 1 (1953). kemo-ken is met only in Isa.

7:11. Amos 7:4. 51:13 . 30:7)." 43 Following the designation of Muilenburg. that of Israel's creative redemption. which "at its best . 42 Torrey. claims that Second Isaiah appropriated v . 1973). 1970). cit. 63:13. to which quality a certain initial capacity or ambiguity in the language often contributes significantly" (495). 160.M. Note in particular his discussion of Isa. l l from the conclusion of an earlier poem he had written (35:10)....." 598. "The Book of Isaiah. I am in complete agreement with his judgement that multiple allusion exists in the poetry of Second Isaiah. who holds that "lament and oracle are strongly linked together.3. and Isa. I am God Your Saviour.Art and Meaning throws into relief that activity in history on God's part which for Deutero-Isaiah and the entire Old Testament alike so largely decides his divinity. Gunn." 38 In v. 1966). suggests that "the question is asked with astonishment. Prov. shares with other fine poetry an openness to interpretation." 599. "Deutero-Isaiah and the Flood. 399. Brill. Ps. VTSup 24 (Leiden. Torrey rightly credits this verse with a transitional capacity to return us "to the main current of the poem without any sense of interruption.9 Rahab is not an emblematic name of Egypt (as is the case in Ps. A Form-Critical Study of the Main Genres in Is. 126. 40-55. 89. 40 See Gen." 47 In an intricate article. However. 493-508. op." JBL 94 (1975). "The Book of Isaiah. 45 In agreement with Antoon Schoors. 39 Gerhard von Rad." 46 Muilenburg. 51:10 in which he discerns the flood allusion as a transitional image which accords completely with the "subtle texture" of the verse (502). who posits on grammatical and stylistic grounds that "the lines of 51:9-10 are so closely interwoven as to form a single pattern and to relate all ideas under a unified theme. 217. 106:9. Knight. The Formation of Isaiah 40-55. E. 87:4 and Isa. 44 Following Melugin. op. cit. See also Carroll Stuhlmueller. Creative Redemption in Deutero-Isaiah (Rome: Biblical Institute Press. 41 D. 8:2.Who was He?" JBL 81 (1962). The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (London: Oliver and Boyd. Julian Morgenstern opts for the
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. but is rather the mythical sea monster linked in lob 26:12 with yam. "The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation. 8:27. 25-34." in von Rad." namely. "The Oppressor1 of Isa. 104:6. 136.

disinterested prose? Surely this observation must remain foremost in our minds as we read the majestic lyrics of Second Isaiah. Both nouns point to the same reality.7b with mention of torati ("my instruction"). 49 In fact.).
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. His denial that the term metstq could refer collectively to the Babylonians is based on too rigid a reading of v. have already been anticipated in v.C.13.Kuntz: Rhetorical Criticism and Isaiah 51:1-16 Persian Monarch Xerxes (ca. thus conferring strength upon this final element in the poem. "The Book of Isaiah." But what of the shambles they made of Jerusalem. is recommended by Muilenburg. 50 The words (d e barim). 48 This. Morgenstern maintains that the Babylonians were too considerate of the exiled 3ews for them to have been labeled "oppressors. however. and not as some kind of objective." 602. the prefixed lamedh (preposition) occurs no less than four times in the concluding bicolon of the strophe. 485 B. to say nothing of the fact that Hebrew poetry should be read as poetry. for example.

DC 20064. its description of the utter abandonment of the psalmist at the beginning of the psalm and the invitation to the dead to join in the universal chorus of praise of God at the end have occasioned comment."WHY HAVE YoU ABANDONED ME?" A RHETORICAL STUDY OF PSALM 22 John S. 27:46). but (to my knowledge) no extended study of the whole psalm from the perspective of rhetorical criticism has been presented. USA Because its opening words occur on the lips of the crucified Jesus (Mark 15:34 // Matt. stressing rhetorical features and themes which run through the whole psalm .for instance. Such common perspectives will give support to the integrity claimed for this dramatic and moving Old Testament lament. then a commentary on the psalm is provided. and the universal chorus of praise in vv. what I will call the vertical and horizontal perspectives that mark the lament in vv. Finally. This paper will present such a study. Theologically.23-27. some older scholars have considered all of the thanksgiving to be an addition. while several more recent studies have argued for the secondary and non-original character of only vv. the integrity of the psalm has been questioned. as several critics have pointed out. First I offer a translation of the psalm. with notes that give the basis for some of the translation choices made.
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. Kselman The Catholic University of America Washington.28-32. but. Form-critically. it is obviously a lament. Structurally. the thanksgiving in vv.2-22 /2/. there have been scattered comments in a number of studies that could be called rhetorical-critical.28-32. Psalm 22 is a point of intersection for both Testaments. Not surprisingly it has been the object of extensive study from several perspectives /!/. since it has characteristics of both genres. its classification as an individual or communal lament is more difficult to determine. along with other minor matters.

a pack of evildoers has closed in on me. from the words of my groaning? My God. To you they cried out. All who see me jeer at me. But you among the holy ones sit enthroned. for trouble is near and there is no one to help. amid Israel's praises. all my strength is dissipated. My throat is as dry as a potsherd. and they escaped. pacifying me on my mother's breast. My hands and my feet are shriveled up.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 TRANSLATION OF PSALM 22 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 My God my God. I call out by day. and my tongue sticks to my jaws. Indeed. they open wide their mouths against me. and there is no respite for me. They look on and gloat over me -
17 18
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. the scorn of mankind. let him rescue him. fierce bulls of Bashan encircle me. But I am a worm. My heart has become like wax. and they were not shamed. dogs have surrounded me. to the dust of death you bring me down. Do not be far from me. In you our fathers trusted. despised by the people.let him deliver him. melting away within me. and you delivered them. they trusted. why have you abandoned me? Why are you far from my cry. Like water I am poured out. they stick out their tongues and shake their heads: "He lived for Yahweh . if he delights in him. Many bulls surround me. not a man. but you do not answer by night. like a lion that rends and roars. from my mother's womb you are my God. I can count all my bones." Yet you are the one who drew me forth from the womb. in you they trusted. Upon you was I cast from the womb.

" The reason for the emendation of myshw c ty ("from my salvation") to mshw c ty ("from my
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23 24 25
26 27
28 29 30 31 32
.Art and Meaning 19 20 21 22 they divide my garments among themselves. But you. in the midst of the assembly I will praise you. Save my neck from the sword. all you descendants of Israel! For he has neither despised nor spurned the piety of the afflicted one. and let them proclaim to a people yet to be born the salvation he has surely accomplished. honor himl Stand in awe of him. my vows I will fulfill before those who fear him. Save me from the mouth of the lion. those who seek Yahweh will praise him. he listened. The devout will eat and be full. do not be distant. For truly Yahweh is king. praise himl All you descendants of Jacob. May your hearts live foreverl All the ends of the earth will call upon Yahweh's name and return to him. O Yahweh. O my help. You have answered mel I will proclaim your name to my brothers. before him shall bow all those who go down to the dust. Over and over I will sing my praise in the great congregation. come quickly to my aid. all the clans of the nations shall bow down before him. for my clothes they cast lots. nor did he turn his face away from him. when he cried out to him. indeed he is ruler of the nations. "From my cry. my only life from the power of the dog. Surely to him shall bow down all the living of the earth. NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION 2. When a person lives no more. his descendants will serve Yahweh. You who fear Yahweh. from the horns of the wild bulls. Let the generation to come be told of the Lord.

by day I cry out. For stfg ("groan") in laments. Give yourself no rest. "when he cried out"). O remorseful Zion . "An Interpretation of Psalm 93. The meaning of v. by night before you"). we would have another instance of the pair shwc // tscq (so NAB. "praise" = "the praiseworthy One. 3er. 32:3. And see the conclusion of this paper for a proposal to read "my salvation" here in Ps.25 (bshwcw. O Glory of
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cry") jn j0k 19. Ps. governing dbry srr*gty ("words of my groaning") as well. Pss. to Yahweh and he did not answer them (wl* cnm)". Ps. Ps. 83:2 f o r ' l d m y // »1 tshqt ("be not silent" // "be not still"). as the variety of translation possibilities shows: (1) the traditional translation. let your eyes not be still (*1 tdm). and cf. 3:8. cf. my God. 22:2. and pointing shiwwa c ti ("I cry"). 3. However. Pour down tears like a river.5. enthroned on the praises of Israel". "Words of my groaning. suggested by Sinaiticus and Alexandrinus) and understands thlwt as a divine epithet ("Glory" = "the Glorious One". 3ob 35:9." Bib 46 [1965] 411-12)." as in Pss. 1:2. by day I cry out. Ps. 38:9. which renders Ps. 88:2: yhwh Mhy yshw c ty ywm tscqty blylh ngdk ("O Yahweh.D. However. whence its translation "Yet you are enthroned in the holy place. a significant point in a psalm that uses a high degree of repetition of key words. Deut. the occurrence of a verbal form of the same root in v. God of my salvation.4 is not immediately clear. MT's "my salvation" is not
. Finally. the contrast between the psalmist's fruitless cry and the fathers' successful one in v.6 (gCqw: "they cried out") employs a standard pair: for shwc // gCq ("cry" // "cry out") cf. cf. day and night (ywmm wlylh). at night I clamor in your presence"). 3. also tscq // shwc ("cry out" impossible. (2) NAB reads bqdsh ("in holiness/in the holy place"." 4. 27:10: wM t c zbny 'Ihy yshcy ("do not abandon me. 2:18: "Cry out (tscq) from the heart to the Lord.3 is found in Lam. O God of my salvation"). Note also the parallels in Job 3:24: "my groans (sh*gty) pour forth like water". 10:21. 3:26: "I have no peace or ease".Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 cry") include the following: the synonymity of mshw c ty with the following dbry sh*gty ("words of my groaning"). 147:1." The preposition "from" (m) with "my cry" is double-duty. 33:1. by reading the yod of yshw c ty as a dittography of the final yod of *lhy. Hab. 88:2: "O Lord. 18:42: "they cried out (wyshw c w) but there was no one to save (mwshy c ) them.. as in RSV.7.. cf. and the collocation in Lam. 17:14. renders the verse "Yet thou art holy. Shenkel. to form an inclusion with tsdqtw in 22:32. A good parallel to v.

Psalms I (AB 16. (5) if qdwsh is a collective here. Ps. NY: Doubleday. the Glory of Israel".. "The Broken Construct Chain.10-11:
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. cf.N. 24:6-7: w>tsy> *t 'bwtykm mmtsrym . A. Ceresko. where similarity in sound is in counterpoint to opposition in meaning (intimacy vs. 93:5.. 18:20 = 2 Sam 22:20 where chits ("rescue"). then the verse might be rendered "You are enthroned among the holy ones (members of God's heavenly council)". 1 Sam. 15:11 and Ps. as my student Mark Futato pointed out to me. thus: "While you sit upon the holy throne. Note the assonance and word-play in mbtn ("from the womb") and mbtychy ("pacifying me"). occurs in a similar context: ychltsny ky chpts by ("he rescues me because he delights in me"). with thlwt ysr7! meaning "the Glory of Israel. "The Function of Chiasmus in Hebrew Poetry. 139. they cried out to Yahweh"). "He lived. understands the adjective qdwsh as a metonym for God's throne. 10-11. I prefer this last and so would translate "But you among the holy ones sit enthroned. would be to understand qdwsh ." On balance.. a possibility suggested by LXX en hagiois." CBQ 40 (1978) 10. amid the praises of Israel. so far not proposed. a synonym of gM. 26:7: wntscq '1 yhwh Mhy *btynw ("we cried out to Yahweh. such parallels as Deut. 1966) 138-39. Dahood. (3) Dahood.12. in support of translating gl "*! as "trust in." note Ps. rely on. the God of our fathers").. with some such translation as "let Yahweh the go'el (redeemer) deliver him . (4) another possibility." Bib 53 [1972] 534-36). Finally.. D. 12:8: wyzcqw 'btykm *1 yhwh ("your fathers cried out to Yahweh").Art and Meaning Israel". distance).." 6.. 9. wytscqw *1 yhwh ("I brought your fathers out of Egypt . Josh. 37:5 where. or "amid Israel's praises. Cf. as well as in mrchm ("from the womb") and trchq ("be distant") in v. gwl cl yhwh drkk (RSV: "commit your way to the Lord") is in parallelism with btch clyw ("trust in him"). Psalms I. However." as above in (2). enthroned with praise" (on this poetic technique. " Cf. ysr*l as a broken construct chain with ywshb thlwt interposed: "You are the Holy One of Israel. as it may be in Exod. Freedman. cf. Garden City. one wonders if gl *I could be a corruption of g^ ("redeem").. has pointed out the chiastic arrangement of eight of the elements in vv." For gj^ with this meaning.

so Dahood. my God. O Yahweh. My heart has become like wax. melting with the flowing of my intestines. 38:22: '1 tczbny yhwh Jlhy *1 trchq mmny chwshh l c zrty ?dny tshwcty ("do not abandon me. 71:5-6: "For you are my hope. Yahweh. from my mother's womb (mmcy »my) you Oth) are my strength". the parallels in Ps. from my youth. "The Physiology of Tears in the Old Testament: Part II. all my strength is dissipated. be not far from me. and my tongue cleaves to my jaws. 15-16. he cites Ps. He retains MT kchy ("my force").clyk ("upon you") C mbtn ("from the womb") B MyFmy God") A HhT'you") Cf. my salvation"). Ps. hasten to help me. Lam. 140). 22:15-16. O Lord. The translation presumes the emendation of kchy ("my force") to chky ("my throat"). "They stick out their tongues. a matter of a simple inversion of two letters. My force is dried up like a potsherd. 31:11. guiding me even from my mother's womb (wmbtn *my). we find a neat chiasmus of nouns:
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. suggesting that the phrase whtprdw kl c tsmw t y ("all my strength is dissipated") is expressing the same idea as ybsh kchy ("my force is dried up"). On you (glyk) I depend from birth (mbtn). 2:16. ptsw c lyk pyhm ("they open wide their mouths against you"). Cf. Psalms I. O Lord. 3:46.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 A »th ("you") B gchy ("who drew me forth") C mbtn ("from the womb") D q ("upon") . 14. and an enclitic mem in Ishwn-m dbq ("my tongue sticks"." Cf." 12. Collins. If Collins is correct. where we find kchy // c tsmy ("force" // "bones") in a context similar to Ps. and in 3ob 31:18: "For from my youth he Tcfod] has reared me like a father." CBQ 33 (1971) 191-94. my trust (mbtchy).cl shdy >my ("on my mother's breast") D £T("upon") . who translates the whole as follows: I am poured out like water. "All my strength is dissipated" is adopted (instead of the more common "all my bones are out of joint") following the proposal of T.

(like) a lion" 17-18: sbbwny klbym ..) Finally note how the images of fluidity in v. 140. Iby // kchy P'my heart" // "my force"] cf. Finally... from the mouth of the lion . VT 23 [1973] 111-12). mpy 'ryh .l8).. "The Verb 'arah. And cf. Psalms I.. 'to pick clean'.. 17-18. 4:19. like a lion my hands . k'ry ydy wrgly. the presence of so many second person singular verbs in the poem makes this unlikely. "they" (vv.. on the basis of the synonymous pair klbym // k'ry
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.. 16. Roberts. presumably because of the seemingly abrupt shift from the third plural to the second singular. like wax melting away") change to images of desiccation in v.. dust of death"). in Ps. Tournay.. "You bring me down. "I" (v..3. perhaps to form a merism expressing the overwhelming distress of the psalmist. "you" (singular . 'spr "from the power of the dog . "A New Root for an Old Crux. I can count" 21-23: myd klbym ... proposes analyzing tshptny ("you bring me down") as a "third-person feminine collective with a plural subject" (translated "they put me"). and 21-23: 13-14: sbbwny prym rbym .. literally. note the similarities between vv. Dahood. Ps. poured out ." Dahood.vv.. XXII 17. 'ryh many bulls surround me . Ps. "like a lion my hands and my feet.M." This phrase is the most refractory in the whole psalm.. who presents convincing comparative data for this analysis.." VT 23 (1973) 246-52.13-14) to first person "I" (vv.!6b) is similar to the change of persons in the following verses: "they" (with sbbwny ["they surround me"] again ..15 ("like water . I have accepted provisionally the translation advanced by J.. For the variety of solutions proposed. k'ry ydy ..18-19).. 'spr "dogs nave surrounded me . Also possible is the translation of M. However.13-14.Art and Meaning ("my strength") ("my heart") ("my intestines") mcy ("my force") kchy (For Iby // mCy ["heart" // "intestines"] cf.v. 38:11..." VT 24 (1974) 370-71: "Because they picked clean my hands and my feet. XXII 17c.. I will proclaim"
cTSMWTY lby
One wonders.l6 ("dry as a potsherd . see the standard commentaries.. The change from the third person "they" (vv. 17.J5-16a) to second person "you" (v.20-21). Jer.l7).. I can number all my bones" (so also R.

38:13: kVy kn yshbr c tsmwty ("like a lion he breaks all my bones"). Kraus. O Yahweh.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 ("like a lion") in Num. 1978) 329-30. based on Begrich's famous article "Das priesterliche Heilsorakel. Kilian.17-18 to 13-14 and 21-23 noted above could have contributed to the confusion. which differs from klby* ("like a lion") in only one consonant. 23:24 and 24:9 (in reverse order). ". for discussion H." Forming an inclusion with wl* tcnh ("and you do not answer") in v. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag. 1964J 217-31). be not far 22:20 w*th yhwh *1 trchq from me" "But you. do not be distant" 22. in the parallel passage from Ps.
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." Certainly the similarities of vv.-3. This position. 35:17. Munchen: Chr. an animal designation stands in the same position: hshybh npshy msh'yhm (read msh*gym?) mkpyrym ychydty ("save me from the roaring beasts. also Isa. And cf. 141) would disturb the chiasmus of animal designations in vv.13-14. "From the power of the dog. 17." BZ 12 (1968) 172-85. Cf. Psalmen (BKAT XV/1. did not trigger somehow the misunderstanding of kVy (the verb "shrivel up" or "pick clean") as "like a lion." ZAW 52 (1934) 81-92 (= Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament [Theologische Biicherei 21..3 that brackets the lament." Dahood's proposal of "from the blade of the ax" for myd klb (Psalms I. in the great in the mighty throng assembly my praise" I will praise you" 35:21 wyrchybw cly pyhm 22:14 ptsw cly pyhm "They open wide their "They open wide their mouths against me" mouths against me" 22:12 *1 trchq mmny 35:22 *dny *1 trchq mmny "Be not far from me" "O Lord. from the lions my only life"). and 21-22 (see commentary below). This parallel is especially significant in view of the considerable number of parallels between Pss. c nytny ("you have answered me") stands as the psalmist's response to a salvation oracle pronounced by some cultic official. "You have answered me. Further. if klbym ("dogs") in the previous verse. 22 and 35: 35:18 'wdk bqhl rb 22:23 btwk qhl 'hllk *wdk bcm c tswm *hllk 22:26 bqhl rb thlty "In the midst of the "I will give you thanks assembly I will praise you" in the great assembly. has been challenged by R. 21. "Ps 22 und das priesterliche Heilsorakel. Kaiser Verlag..

24. among all peoples his marvels")." Jnt 28 (1974) 43-44. "Psalm 22 at the Cross. stand in awe"). 142)." "glorious"): Deut. in which the last element of the chiasmus noted above is in turn the first element of the following: A kl zrc yCgb "all the descendants of Jacob" B kbdwhw "honor him" B wgwrw mmnw "stand in awe of him" A kl zrc ysr*l "all descendants of Israel" For y_r^ // gwr ("fear.12. 9:5: shm kbwdw/kbwdk ("his/your glorious name").H.Art and Meaning Begrich's position. Cf. 96:8 (= 1 Chron 16:29): kbwd shmw ("glory of his name"). the AA lines share two of the familial relationships (brothers and descendants) that are characteristic of this poem. recently 3. "The piety of the afflicted one. H. is to understand c nwt as "piety. shm is the object of piel kbd ("honor").24. Besides the line-to-line parallelism. 23-24. for kbd // y_r^ ("honor // fear") cf. 66:2. however. And cf. Ps. "Some Literary Elements in the Opening Sections of the
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. "the song of the afflicted" (Psalms I. 29:2. Tawil. as well as the commonly associated shm ("name") and kbd ("honor. thus: A *sprh shmk Pchy "I will proclaim your name to my brothers" B btwk qhl *hllk "In the midst of the assembly I will praise you" B yr'y yhwh hllwhw "You who fear Yahweh. as in Ps. Dahood felt the problem of the tautology and suggested for c nwt the reading cny. Pss. 25. Note the ABBA chiasmus of v. adopted in this paper. 86:9. But a better solution. honor him" The BB lines share the verb hll_ ("praise"). 28:58: hshm hnkbd whnwr* ("the glorious and fearsome name"). 33:8. Ps. In Ps. Ps. 22:24. devotion" or the like. 25:3. there may be a chiasmus in these verses. praise him" A kl zrc ycqb kbdwhw "All you descendants of Jacob. cf . Neh. Reumann. Isa. 72:19. 96:3 where kbwd ("glory") is the object of piel spr ("proclaim") as is shm in 22:22: sprw bgwym kbwdw bkl h c mym plVtyw ("proclaim among the nations his glory." This is a departure from the traditional "the misery of the afflicted" or the like. cf. still commands assent from the majority of interpreters.

also M. 40:10-11. Garden City: Doubleday. "name" in v. Dahood." makes excellent sense as well. 109:30: wbtwk rbym 'hllnw ("and in the midst of the great throng I will praise him"). I accept here Dahood's interpretation: "One hundred times (= "over and over") I will repeat to you my (song of) praise in the great assembly" (Psalms I.28 and its object in v. but the occurrence of the noun c nwt in 22:25. and Nerab II Inscriptions in the Light of East and West Semitic Royal Inscriptions. so D. E. "The Covenant of Grant in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East. 1970) 105. Dahood. "L'hymne a Yahwe Roi au Psaume 22. I am indebted to Dr Michael L. piety").28-32. 69:33: "Let the pious ( c nwym) see it and be glad. "Ritual Procession of the Ark and Ps. you who seek God." Note similar expressions in Pss. Millers. he would restore the text before the assumed insertion to \£d yzkrw ky csh ("May they remember forever what Yahweh has done"). and see Ps. 28. For another arrangement of v.
who demonstrates that cnh in Old Aramaic }sh cnh in the
Zakir inscription is the West Semitic equivalent of Akkadian (w)ashrum nd should be translated as "pious. in my view) that vv.26. 27.23). In view of the idiom zkr (hiphil) bshm ("call upon the name of"). Zakir." Tawil sees in the adjective c nwym in 22:27 the Hebrew equivalent (hence our translation "devout"). shm. O Yahweh. 26:12. This noun may also occur in Ps 132:1: "Remember. yzkrw. Lipinski. Psalms III (AB 17A. an originally independent hymn.32. m'tk. 132. "In the great congregation. 149:1. given the absence of any object to the verb.R. meaning "religious piety. devout. I would suggest another possibility. Note the parallel in Ps.28-32. let your hearts revive" (drshy 'Ihym wychy Ibbkm). Such alteration of the text does not inspire confidence in the results. Cf. 107:10. suggests (improbably. M. was inserted between yzkrw in v. 26. see M.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 Hadad. Or one might
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." 3AOS 90 (1970) 187. Weinfeld. The traditional translation ("all the ends of the earth shall remember") does not seem particularly appropriate here." CBQ 30 (1968) 53-54. Barre for the suggestion and the references above. ky csh. Taking lcd ("forever") as adverbial modifier of yzkrw." Orientalia 43 (1974) 51-55." Bib 50 (1969) 155-56. Orientalia 45 (1976) 346. for David kl c nwtw ("all his devotion. This difficulty has been felt by several commentators (see the comments of Kraus and Kissane in their commentaries). I have understood yzkrw alone as equivalent to that idiom (cf. 142).

" 162-63." This translation presumes the usual emendation of Ipnyk ("before you") to Ipnyw ("before him"). Yahweh is his name") to the similar expressions in Amos 5:27." This reading produces an ABC // CAB chiasmus: A ky ("For") B lyhwh ("truly Yahweh") C hmlwkh ("is king") C wmshl bgwym ("and rule over the nations") A J<("also") B hv ("his") If 'k Iw ("surely to him") were transferred from v. with slight changes. Dahood (in Orientalia 45 [1976] 352) proposed reading 'k Iw ("also to him") of v. argues for the retention of Ipnyk on stylistic grounds. then Ipnyw ("before him") in v. translating "Indeed to Yahweh belongs kingship. I understand hmlwkh ("king") as the predicate of a nominal sentence. 135:13. Prov.29. 97:2 is the equivalent of the common shm qdshw ("his holy name").30 would be a double-duty complement to both lines. even Dahood translates "to him. on the basis of the LXX. Syriac. and Juxta Hebraeos. Also compare Hos. Isa. I prefer Dahood's earlier analysis. 3:15. and 9:6 with shm in place of zkr.Art and Meaning understand yzkrw as a denominative from zeker. as Dahood suggests. On balance. Following Dahood. which one finds in parallelism with shm in Exod. Lipfnski. Significantly. Memory and Tradition in Israel (SBT 37. "Before him. 10:7. Childs." although he is more cautious in the note (Psalms I.29.. 26:8. and rule [vocalizing as abstract moshel] over the nations is also his. Ps. Subsequently to the publication of the first volume of his Psalms commentary. ruler") as containing an emphatic waw balancing the emphatic lamed of lyhwh ("Truly Yahweh"). all the more likely in my view since the kap could be a dittography from the immediately following kl_("all"). 143). I would under-
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.30 with the preceding phrase in v. London: SCM. 5:9.. Job 18:17. 12:6>(wyhwh 'Ihy htsb'wt yhwh zkrw = "Yahweh the God of hosts. "L'hymne a Yah we Roi. and zkr qdshw ("his holy name") in Pss 30:5. Cf. 143. "name". B. and wmshl ("indeed . 1962) 70-71. Psalms 1.30 to the end of v. I have chosen the emendation to the third-person form. 29. thus: All the living of the earth shall bow down before him (Ipnyw) shall bow all those who go down to the dust.

28-32.. particularly from the 3rd person sing. expressed in rchq ("far"). the poet employs a merism: the absence of God in space and time. 10-11
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. The fundamental theme of the poem.. crying out continually.4 (spatial) and 5-6. In cosmos and history. "When a person lives no more. which may be double-duty. Krahmalkov." For this translation of kj_ dshny Vts. wlylh. to no avail (v." Bib 50 (1969) 389-92. a person")." I understand csh ("has . by night"). announcing themes and perspectives that will recur throughout the poem. forming an inclusion. "Nochmals Psalm 22. the psalmist finds only the distance. descendants") as "his descendants" comes from the context. "for you do not answer")." The determination of zrc ("seed. vindication"). "is king").. and with emphatic ky_ ("surely"): "the salvation he has surely accomplished". accomplished") as the verb of a relative clause (like ybV in the same verse: "a generation [which] shaU come") modifying tsdqtw ("his salvation.2-12 Vv. "His descendants. (2) the horizontal (or historical) axis of separation from God as the psalmist moves through time (v. in space and time.2-3 are taken up and elaborated in the following vv. contained in the word rchq ("far. "All the living of the earth.4: "But you among the holy ones sit enthroned. cf. Both clauses express Yahweh's heavenly ("among the holy ones") and earthly ("over the nations") rule ("sit enthroned"." Bib 51 (1970) 405-413.. is the psalmist's experience of the distance of God. masc.2 and in the repeated plea *1 trchq ("be not far") in vv.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 stand v.2-3 serve as an overture to Psalm 22. To use a visual metaphor. Keel-Leu. the absence of God /3/. vv.28-32. COMMENTARY Section I. suffix of npshw ("his soul" = "someone. in the totality of his experience. To express the full force of this experience. The spatial and temporal axes announced in vv.3: wP t c nh. O. distant") in v.12 and 20. "by day . Psalm 22. we might think of two axes: (1) the" vertical (or cosmological) axis of separation from the transcendent God in a spatial sense." This is the suggestion of C.29 as the counterpart of another nominal sentence at the beginning of the poem (v. for the difficult phrase wnpshw 1' chyh. 30... amid Israel's praises"). 32.3: ywmm . "The salvation he has surely accomplished.

4 ("But you among the holy ones sit enthroned. In v.16-19)" /5/. Enclosed by the past-time frame of vv. my God") in v. "our fathers". and as in Isaiah 6.. "the praises of Israel") suggests that the praise of God by the holy ones. are linked to vv. both "from the womb"). a scene reminiscent of Isaiah 6.2-4. Trible has made the following comment on vv. from the community to an individual. dealing with the psalmist's birth and infancy.l 1. is mirrored by the praise of God by Israel on earth (a sense caught well in the NEB translation: "And yet thou art enthroned in holiness. from the distant past of the national ancestors (vv.4 considered the distance in space of God. "my mother") /6/ to child (v.5-6 and 10-11 are
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." a theme to be taken up in the thanksgiving section of the poem (vv.10: "pacifying me") and other connections that make for a smooth transition: the poet moves from parent (v. alienation.5-6) and the immediate past of the psalmist (vv. Vv.5-6) to the recent past of the psalmist's birth (vv.2 to My *th ("you are my God") in v. the psalmist's sense of distance. wherein the poet moves from *ly *ly ("My God. the members of his court in heaven. "trust. the transcendent God is seen enthroned among the members of his heavenly court. This movement from Yahweh who draws the infant from the womb to Yahweh who cares for the child with maternal love is like the inclusion we will discuss below.10-11). enthroned far off in heavenly realms. mrchm. thou art he whose praises Israel sings").. his birth and his infancy.5-6). Clifford has seen a similar shift of perspective in Psalm 89: "Psalm 89 gives us two scenes of acclamation of Yahweh by reason of his victory: a celebration in heaven among the divine beings (vv. is the first gleam of light in the darkness and emptiness of vv. 10-11. then "the praises of Israel.5: *btynw.lQ^my. and separation is profound /4/. If this analysis is correct.10: mbtn .5-6 not only by the temporal theme. R. In turn the tranquillity of the breasts becomes a symbol of divine care" /7/. But the second element of the colon (thlwt ysr*!. As v. v. 10-11). amid Israel's praises").6-15) and a celebration on earth among his people (vv.Art and Meaning (temporal). Yahweh takes the baby from the womb and places it upon the breasts of the mother. 10-11: "In this poetry the divine and the maternal intertwine.4 to the fathers who called upon him and trusted him (btch. subsequent verses consider the dimension of time: the remote past of the fathers (vv." occurs three times in vv. The poet moves naturally from Israel's praise of God in v.23-26). P. but by the key word mbtychy (v.

7-9. Abandoned by the saving God and without human support. In v.. 44:14-15: Ps.19-21. 35:15-16. But this traditional element is used in a novel way. the psalmist experiences a profound sense of dehumanization. his lament answered only by mockery. and shake their heads" Isa. The language of these verses is traditional. despised by the people" 22:8 "They jeer at me . the theme of the mockery of the psalmist's distress by onlookers (v. 37:23 "scorn. let him rescue him if he delights in him" /9/. as can be seen when comparing them to two other laments. when they see me they shake their heads") and Ps. "all who see me") is also traditional. expressed starkly in v. cf. 37:23 chrpt Ps. The effect of this is to allow the lament to be expanded and elongated until the oracular assurance actually does come. 22:7 "the scorn of mankind.22. dealing with the present condition of the psalmist. 22:7 chrpt *dm Isa. 109:25 (w'ny hyyt chrph Ihm yr*wny yny c wn r*shm. however. 44:14 chrph wbzwy cm 37:22 bzh Ik 22:8 ylcgw ly jCgh Ik lcg c ynyCw t*sh r*sh hny h 44:15 mnwd r*sh Ps. in c nytny ("you have answered me") in v. Isa.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 vv. Ps. It is this Heilsorakel which leads to the thanksgiving that ends the lament. disgrace" Isa.8: kl r*y. "I am an object of scorn to them. 12:6.let him deliver him. the words the psalmist hears are not the oracular assurance of divine help.9. 35:3). In the form-critical thesis advanced by Begrich and accepted by many. 37:22 "she despises you" "she jeers at you" "she shakes her head" Ps. but the mocking words of the onlookers: "He lived for Yahweh . 37:22 (= 2 Kgs 19:21) and Ps. an oracle in which the person uttering the lament is assured by a cultic prophet or priest that God has heard his plea and will deliver him (Pss. a Heilsorakel (oracle of salvation) is traditionally pronounced at the conclusion of the lament.7: "I
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. disgrace" "jeering. taunt" 44:15 "a shaking of the head"/8/ In addition to the language. 44:14 "scorn..

but you do not answer . 103 . the God in whom the fathers trusted..ll recalling *ly My ("My God. the opening words of the psalm in v.... 13-22 Section II. Structurally. Another link is created by the shifting of perspective from the "I" of the psalmist in his misery to the "you" of God: in vv.. which surrounds the psalmist's plea as the psalmist's enemies surround him in the next section (vv. 33. Time and space are experienced as empty of God. I call out . 22:2-12 is of a remote God enthroned on high. as we shall see below. my God.14).2-12 by the first of these inclusions /I I/. though none are acrostic" /12/.Art and Meaning am a worm. Other biblical poems with twenty-two lines exist . What Millers says of Lamentations 5 may be relevant here: "Chapter 5 is not an acrostic. 38. But counterposed to this inclusion of the distance of God is the second.2) is drowned out by the roar (wsh^g) of his enemies at the beginning of Section II (v. The poet has enveloped this first section of the poem in vv. you sit
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.like: not only does it form an inclusion with v. The presence of the trustworthy God in the past of the community and of the psalmist makes his absence in the present all the more poignant. the "roaring" (sh'gty) of the psalmist's prayer at the beginning of Section I (v." the object of Israel's praises. vv. my God"). Still. it is also part of the structure of section II. Section II.2: that ends the first section.. the saving God of Israel's sacral traditions. not a man" /10/." even in deepest distress. The first section of the poem ends with two inclusions: that formed by rchwq (v. containing almost the same number of cola as Section I (24). is joined to the first section by a series of links.12: "be not far") just mentioned.13 and 17).2 "far") and '1 trchq (v. First.and it is reasonable to suppose that in all these cases the number of the lines is chosen intentionally.Pss. he is "my God.2.12 is Janus. The concluding plea of v. 13-22: sbbwny. which shows that the psalmist is also enveloped by the care of a God whom the poet can address from beginning to end as "my God. why have you abandoned me? . and *ly *th ("you are my God") of v. but has exactly twenty-two lines and thus conforms to the alphabet to a lesser degree. by the repetition of the root sh*g. far from the lament of the psalmist. To sum up: the picture drawn in Ps.2-4 ("My God. it is interesting to note that Section I contains 22 or 23 cola of poetry. "they surround me" in vv.

" Finally..7-11 ("But I am a worm . do not be distant. The psalmist can now consider the possibility of divine aid and appeal for it.. (they) jeer at me . in you").11-12) and "But you.13-18. The enemies of the psalmist.!7-18a reflect the same progression of thought found in vss. vv.. vv. as 3... O my help .. Here the response to "like water I am poured out" is the low point of the poem..20).. Their arrangement is chiastic /15/:
/1V-
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.. from his dehumanizing loneliness to God's care for him in his infancy.. the same shift in perspective occurs. Against those who would transpose vv.2-11.. in v.J."). Roberts points out that "vss.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22
enthroned .20 the mood changes in a positive..... In the alternating focus of vv. a possibility denied in v.the psalmist moves from the enemies who surround him to his own physical condition" There is an even more elaborate structure present in this section. the poet moves from his present distress to God's kingly care for the fathers. the plea "do not be far from me" concludes with the phrase ky *yn c zr ("for there is no one to help").. In v. you are my God").M.5-6 ("in you our fathers trusted ... when God is addressed as "my help" Cylwty) and in the concluding l c zrty chwshh ("come quickly to my aid"). who are his chief concern in Section II. O Yahweh.12.13-16 .15-16. Structure is an important element of Section II. to you .!7c-18a to a position between 16ab and 16c (since these verses all concern the psalmist's condition). we have noted already the refrain-like conclusion of both sections: ". ending finally with the cry of faith "you are my Godl"/13/. but the death-dealing God: "to the dust of death yo bring me down. where the poet confronts not the saving and the rescuing." (v. Roberts has shown in his remarks on vv. hopeful direction.12 ("no one to help"). you are my God. you delivered them . but without the relief brought by the consciousness of God's past care.. upon you was I cast . are described with a variety of animal names that cluster at the beginning and end of the section. But there is a subtle change as well.. Do not be far from me" (vv. Yet you . In vv.

for there is no one to help") A (v. Some (e.23-32 /17/. In this section. The poem began with an expression of radical alienation: on the one hand.28-32 are an addition to it /20/.23-32 The final section of the poem has been the object of considerable study and controversy. 12) ("Be not far from me . If previously the roars of the psalmist's enemies were loud enough to drown out the prayer of the psalmist.22) rmym (' ym ("wild bulls") /16/ This chiastic arrangement is a good example of how structure can mirror and reinforce meaning. come quickly to my aid") C(v. *byry bshn ("many bulls . Section III: vv. fierce bulls of Bashan") B(v. ky *yn czr (v. As mentioned above. the situation now is decisively changed: God has finally broken through his silence (wl* t c nh) and answered the psalmist's lament.21-22 prepares for the coming reversal of the poet's situation (from lament to thanksgiving) in vv. with no response from the distant God. an opinion that is deservedly out of favor now. The final link that knits together Sections I and II is the inclusion of wP tCnh ("but you do not answer") in v.23-27 are part of the original Psalm 22. on the other.3 and c nytny ("you have answered me") in v.21)klb ("dog") B (v.20) ("Be not distant ..l4)Vyh("lion") C (v. This experience of the absence of God in space and
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. the function of v.g. Bertholet.. and to introduce the first set of animal designations in the chiasmus presented above.22..13) prym rbym . Another possibility to be considered is the proposal of several that.12 is twofold: to conclude by inclusion Section I. the psalmist. Duhm..22) l»ryh ("lion") ryh A (v. l c zrty chwshh (v. vv.. Kautzsch..28-32 as an integral part of the rhetorical unity that is Psalm 22 /21/. crying out day and night. I shall attempt to demonstrate that a good case can be made for vv..TTTklbym ("dogs") *! trchq ... Schmidt) judged it to be an originally independent piece added to vv.. transcendent God.Art and Meaning *1 trchq mmny . given the form-critical evaluation of the praise and thanksgiving section as integral to the lament form /19/. the remote.. while vv.. The reversal of the animal names in vv.2-22 /18/.

using spatial images: from his brothers. The poet continues by inviting an ever-widening circle to join him in praising God. His reintegration into the community. widens out to its corresponding element "all the ends of the earth" /23/.the psalmist as a child in vv.26 becomes "my praise" (thlty). mother in vv. also unify this final section of the poem. who are now invited to join in Israel's praise of God. the psalmist praises God in the presence of his brothers (Pchy) who in this section replace the mocking onlookers (vv. present. In the interpretation of these verses I follow the proposal advanced by O.10-11. The psalmist can now join his voice to the chorus of Israel's praise.24.2. just as the God of Israel's fathers could consistently be addressed as "my God" (vv. He understands the problematic dshny in v.3) now invites past. the God-fearing descendants of Israel. Israel. which now in v.3.23. has its temporal counterpart in vv. the movement is from Israel to the Gentiles. a geographical as well as a personal designation.20).4. which pictured God enthroned in his far-off heavenly court (a spatial image).7-9).4) leads the poet to speak of the descendants of Jacob/Israel. and future to join him in praise and worship. The recalling of "the praises of Israel" (v.23) /22/. the mention of descendants (zrc.30-32 /24/. The praise of God resounding through space in vv.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 time was taken up in the following verses. descendants of Jacob/Israel in vv.also "my help" in v.24) brings to mind the vertical axis of parent and child (fathers in v.23-28. Space and time. and contrasted the bleak present of the psalmist with the gracious past (a temporal image). but resound with the praise of God who has answered the psalmist's lament.30 to refer not to the dead (as is
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.8-9) and his fierce enemies (vv. from Israel to the ends of the earth. the theme of this section.28 ends of the earth families of nations "Brothers" widens out to "all the families of nations". v.17-19).10-11 . In v.5. the vertical and horizontal perspectives. to the ends of the earth and all the families of nations. puts an end to the dehumanizing solitude that the poet experienced (vv.11 . In a reoccurrence of the vertical-horizontal perspectives.31) and the horizontal axis of brothers (v. The structure may be chiastic: vv. Keel-Leu /25/. Whether chiastic or not. The psalmist who prayed day and night to no avail (v. 13-14.23-2^: brothers descendants of Israel v. Now space and time are no longer experienced as empty. first mentioned in v.

it supplies a meaning for dshny appropriate to the context without emendation.23) 'hllk '"'I will praise you" C (v.3). descendants") also without emendation. it preserves MT npshw . three points along a vertical. temporal axis /271.27) yhllw "they will praise" The descendants of Jacob/Israel.24) hlwhw "praise him" D (v.Art and Meaning assumed in the frequent emendation to yshny. "those sleeping [in the earth]").. those on the point of death. or those already dead. is summoned to join "all the ends of the earth" in worship. those who come after them "when someone lives no more" (v. and those yet to be born). second. those in vigorous good health. "All the ends of the earth" in v.26) ngd yr*yw "before those that fear him" B (v.30: "all the living of the earth").26) bqhl rb "in the great congregation" C (v. those in full possession of life. When someone lives no more. Based on his analysis. invited to join in the chorus of praise of God. before him shall bow all those who go down to the dust. a merism meaning that all time (perhaps recalling ywm wlylh.23) btwk qhl "in the midst of the assembly" B (v. those dead. zrC ("someone . vv. past.30: "all those who go down to the dust").24) kl zrc ysr*l "all descendants of Israel" B (v.30-31a: Surely to him shall bow down all the living of the earth.30).30-32 contain a three-part merism: kl dshny Vts (v. taking the place of the dead /26/.24) kl zrc ycqb »au descendants of Jacob" D (v. and their descendants after them (the generation to come.23 to v.. There are two elaborate chiastic structures in Section III that merit attention. but to the living. horizontal plane. is a notion on the cosmological..27a: A (v. it employs the horizontal-vertical perspectives that occur elsewhere in this psalm. In his view.. I would suggest the following translation of v.
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. and their descendants (v. while in v. among whom is the psalmist.30 as a merism has several advantages: First. "continuously" of v. and future. This understanding of v.26) thlty "my praise" A (v. The first extends from v. kl ywrdy cpr (v. his descendants will serve Yahweh.31: zrc).28. and third.24) yr*y yhwh "who fear Yahweh" B (v. are present.30 those in full possession of life.

Ipnyw = "before him" in v. my praise") and that of all those who seek Yahweh and fear him." The second.29) ky lyhwh hmlwkh wmshl bgwym ("for truly Yahweh is king.27) ychy Ibbkm leg ("may your hearts live forever") B (v.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 are surrounded by his praise ("I will praise you .30) Ipnyw ykr c w kl ywrdy c pr ("before him shall bow all those who go down to the dust") A (v. In CC the verb (w)yshtchww
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.28.28) yzkrw wyshbw *1 yhwh kl ?psy } rts ("all the ends of the earth will call upon Yahweh's name and return to him") C (v. ykrC\y = "they will bow" in v. kl ywrdy cpr = "all those who go down to the dust" in v.30) in which we find the standard formulaic pair J rts // c pr ("earth" // "dust") /29/.28.30).28. the descendants of Jacob/ Israel.28) wyshtchww Ipnyw kl mshpchwt gwym ("all the clans of the nations shall bow down before him") D (v. in contrast to the earlier alienation and aloneness of the psalmist.27b-30.30) »k Iw yshtchww kl dshny Vts ("surely to him shall bow down all the living of the earth") B (v.23) of the psalmist. where the central assertion of Yahweh's kingship is placed in the center of the structure: A (v.28. a prepositional phrase rPyhwh = "to Yahweh" ["to him" in our translation] in v. BB share a similar concept regarding the relationship to Yahweh expressed in a series of imperfect verbs (yzkrw = "they will call" in v. in sharp contrast to the terrifying enemies of the psalmist who surrounded him (vv.. in vv. and a similarly constructed subject (kl }psy ? rts = "all the ends of the earth" in v. he is now able to utter publicly his praise "in the great congregation.. and who are now replaced by the "brothers" (v. wyshbw = "they will return" in v.30) wnpshw kl chyh ("when someone lives no more") AA are joined by the repetition of ychy/chyh ("live") and the virtually synonymous (or complementary) Ibb ("heart") and npsh ("soul" = "someone") /28/.30). And again. is a superb example of extended chiasmus. indeed he is ruler of the nations") C (v.17).13.

Finally. the nominal sentence in v.4 in the context of the lament. or tshwch are found in parallelism with tsdq(h) /30/. For instance.Art and Meaning ("they shall bow down") occurs in each. 13-14. there are several that are found near the beginning and end of the whole poem. against the common emendation to mshwcty ("far from my cry").4 ("but you among the holy ones sit enthroned.17.25..31 recalls *spr ("I will proclaim") in v. forming an inclusion at the limits of the section. thus bringing the totality to a satisfying conclusion.23. Given the number of places where yshc. at the end of Section III. his salvation [tsdqtw] that he ha surely accomplished") at the end (v.. kl dshny Vts = "all the living of the earth" in v.30). the poet may have intended that the psalm move from the God initially perceived as "far from my salvation" at the beginning of the poem (v.7 to wP bzh ("he has not despised") in v.25. my God .30) and a similarly constructed subject (kl mshpchwt gwym = "all the clans of the nations" in v. he listened") in v. This is not because we have exhausted all possibilities for analysis and appreciation. And there may be an inclusion that supports the MT reading of myshwcty in v. indeed he is ruler of the nations") may form an inclusion with the nominal sentence in v. In addition to these section-marking inclusions. yshwch.. to a triumphal affirmation of God's majesty and universal rule in the thanksgiving (v.2.29). jw = "to him" in v. "you are my God. Note the similar shifts in tone from wbzwy Cm ("despised by the people") in v. along with a prepositional phrase (Ipnyw = "before him" in v. we have reached the end of our consideration of Psalm 22. And note how the similarity of statement is in counterpoint to the shift in tone: from the remoteness and distance of the divine king in v.32). We have noted above similar inclusions in Section I ("my God. far from my cry" in v. repeated chiastically in vv.2 ("far from my salvation").29 ("for truly Yahweh is king.21-22). do not be far from me" in vv. amid Israel's praises") which also focuses on God's sovereignty and the praise that it inspires.2) to the God finally praised by all for having brought it to pass ("let them proclaim . Having discussed the inclusions that round off the poem by linking beginning and end.28. In the center (D) is placed a statement of God's sovereignty over all.11-12) and in Section II (the series of animal names in vv. yspr ("let [the generation to come] be told") in v.28. to cite
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.2 to wbshwcw vlyw shmc ("when he cried out to him.. an from rchwq mshwcty ("far from my cry") in v.

But I hope that enough has been said to support the proposition that this carefully constructed and developed psalm demonstrates the high degree of artistry of which the Hebrew poets are capable. 1978) 320-21. Stolz. 1-72 (Sources Bibliques.. NOTES 1 For extensive bibliography on Psalm 22. or by one who enjoys a work of art. Let me close with some words of a scholar who has long been interested in the artistic dimension of Hebrew poetry. 2 V. many who have been patient enough to work through the details of the analysis given here respond with the judgment that it is too subtle. 3 For another instance of this sort of change from a spatial to a temporal perspective. Beaucamp. in a climactic
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. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.. and the systematic analysis of the structure by a critic. and certainly a topic integral to the appreciation of the poet's skill. "Biblical Narrative. cf. cf. F. "Notes for the Christian Exegesis of the first part of Psalm 22. Ps.-J. "Psalm 22: Alttestamentliches Reden vom Menschen und neutestamentliches Reden von 3esus. it could apply equally well to the work of other Old Testament poets: Finally." Commentary 61 (May 1976) 65-66. Rome: Biblical Institute. 1975) 152-65. Reumann. on the other /31/." Int 28 (1974) 39-58. An Italian article cited by Kraus is now available in English translation: J.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 but one area only dealt with in passing references. the comments of R. But surely it is evident that there can be a great gap between structure that is sensed by a poet or artist. Psalmen (BKAT XV/1.H. Soggin. on the one hand. or whatever. Although he was speaking of the poetry of Jeremiah. Kraus. on the Balaam oracles (emphasis added): ". H. Alter. Paris: Gabalda. "Psalm 22 and the Cross. the aural dimension of the poem might be a fruitful topic for investigation.I of the psalm is the psalm title "For the leader: according to The hind of the dawn1. A psalm of David" (NAB). that one cannot expect ancient man to have paid so much attention to key words.A. to the balance of phonemes. E. 1976) 108-109." Old Testament and Oriental Studies (BibOr 29. that no ancient collector could have been conscious of anything so intricate. Le Psautier." ZTK 77 (1980) 129-48. Balaam. Two articles not cited in these bibliographies ought to be noted: J.

" OTS 13(1963)56.7-10). It may be said that in ancient Israel. Ridderbos. Understanding the Psalms (Valley Forge. Brueggemann. Talmon. NeuchStel: Delachaux et Niestle." Bib 50 (1969) 389-92.H. Becker. "A New Root for an Old Crux. Roberts." 122: "Der Einschnitt [between vv. 3. C. "From Hurt to 3oy. they could still be part of the final rhetorical unity. On this cf.. "Psalm 22.28-32 were not originally part of the psalm. 1975) 381: ". Westermann. "The Psalms: style-figures and structure. The Praise of God in the Psalms (Richmond: 3ohn Knox. 20 So R. From Death to Life." CBQ 40 (1978) 1-10. dass manche Ausleger meinten. "Psalm 22. Martin-Achard.. where r'mym // wprym c m J byrym ("bulls // bulls with fierce bulls"). has also noted it." _Irvt 28 (1974) 3-19 (esp. Isa. 1966) 49-53. 19 See typically C. Krahmalkov. "The Textual Study of the Bible .28-32. the professional scribe seldom if ever was a slavish copyist of the material
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. 16 For the change of prym ("bulls") and *byry ("fierce bulls") to synonymous rmym in A. J. 18 Schmid." 252.M."
14 Cf. eds.24) and the "vertical-horizontal" perspectives of which Keel-Leu speaks (n.27). Cross and S. especially in Mesopotamia.2 and 23] ist so tief. and probably in other ancient Near Eastern cultures. pp. 34:7." Approches des Psaumes (Cahiers Theologiques 60. "Remarques sur le psaume 22.. S. T7 Cf. in ancient literature no hard and fast lines can be drawn between authors' conventions of style and tradents' and copyists' rules of reproduction and transmission. These too had occurred to me. Harvard University." Bib 50 (1969) 153-68.Art and Meaning
(10-11). "L'hymne a Yahwe Roi au Psaume 22. cf. E.. Ceresko. 15 After noticing this chiastic structure I discovered that N. "The Function of Chiasmus in Hebrew Poetry. Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text (Cambridge.A New Outlook. The same is true of the "spacetime" dimension pointed out by Beauchamp (n. Lipinski. Hayes.22) and Schmid (n. PA: Hudson." in P.H. 1965) 57-78. Israel deutet seine Psalmen (SBS 18.28-32. hier seien zwei urspriinglich selbstandige Psalmen zu einem einzigen zusammengefugt. A." It should be added that Schmid himself does not share this view. 1976) 62-64.. Talmon. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk. W. and found some degree of confirmation when they were pointed out by others. 21 Even if vv. 1969) 22-40 (= Verbum Caro 65 [1963] 78-87).

which would be an appropriate assurance of the divine presence to be alluded to in Psalm 22. Isa. 24 Schmid. das bisher nur in der Gemeinde laut wurde. one might ask if the poet here intended a reference to the blessings promised to the patriarch Jacob/Israel in Gen 28:14: wnbrkw bk kl mshpcht h'dmh wbzrck ("all the families of the earth shall find blessing in you and in your descendants"). The poet of Psalm 22 transcends this topos. Anthropology of the Old Testament (Philadelphia. 26 In the more traditional rendering of these verses dshny would be emended to yshny ("sleeping". Fortress. Cf. npshw to npshy ("my soul" = "I") and zrc to zrCy ("my descendants". 22 Beauchamp. in hyperbole." 25 Keel-Leu. although see Dahood.28-32. those on the point of death. et aux fils a travers le temps. Wolff. I am with you").15) by the divine promise whnh *ny c mk ("Behold. 28). I believe that the evidence points more strongly to Ps.Kselman: A Rhetorical Study of Psalm 22 which he handled. 22:2-32 as an original unity. npshy and zrcy to the psalmist and his children in the present. those to come in the future." 23 When one sees the connection between vv. 88:10-12. notice that immediately following y_cbddnw would make the loss of y by haplography a possibility).23-24 and 28." 135: "In das Lob. and Idwr yb*w . which began by lamenting God's absence but now praises God for his gracious and saving presence. H. Thus kl yshny Vts // kl ywrdy cpr would both synonymously refer to the dead (in the past).
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. wird nun die ganze Welt einbezogen. "Psalm 22. 230: "II faut 1'annoncer aux freres a travers 1'espace. see Textual Notes on the New American Bible (Paterson.W. Keel-Leu understands kl ywrdy Cpr as "the dying. On these emendations... just as he calls upon those not yet born to praise God." in view of the OT topos of the inability of the dead to praise Yahweh (Ps. 38:18-19)." 410. N3: St. who proposes arriving at this conclusion without emendation). jCm nwld to the unborn. Psaums. Hence the translation of NAB: To him shall bow down all who sleep in the earth." Granted the importance of Talmon's view. und zeitlich neben den Lebenden auch die bereits Gestorbenen und die noch nicht Geborenen (29-32). He rather should be considered a minor partner in the creative literary process. 1970) 381. raumlich all Enden der Erde (V. 143. "Nochmals Psalm 22. Anthony's Guild. This is followed immediately (v. Psalms I. 1974) 117.

The concern of this paper is more limited: it is first to treat three rhetorical elements in their speeches that are relevant to the questions of their coherence and of their distinctiveness. and certainly cannot be determined in advance of engagement with the whole of the speech. and. Perception of tonality depends partly on the subjective impression of the reader. sympathetic.4 begins: "Are we to speak to you a word? You cannot bear it. or tone. Eliphaz in ch.THE ARGUMENTS OF JOB'S THREE FRIENDS David 3. at the least. or indeed of the three speeches.5 he concludes: "Hear. of each of the speakers in each of their speeches is fundamental to interpretation. England What I am offering here is a rhetorical analysis of rhetoric. The mood. But neither can we bear to hold back our words". an application of certain methods of rhetorical criticism in the broadest sense to rhetoric in a narrower sense (declamatory speech designed to persuade). It would be a very considerable undertaking to argue in detail for the coherence of the speeches of Job's three interlocutors. and in ch. But exordium and conclusion tones can be misleading: the first speeches of both Bildad and Zophar each end with a similar
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. that is.A. The tone in this speech thus appears to be deferential. e. I hope to show that awareness of rhetorical devices can lead to large-scale exegetical gains.g. positive. can help to preserve the interpreter from major errors /!/. Clines Department of Biblical Studies The University of Sheffield Sheffield S10 2TN. Clues to tonality are sometimes given rather unmistakably by the exordium and conclusion of a speech. and know for your own good". Tonality. of the friend. and the distinctive viewpoints each represents. and secondly to set out some general arguments for their coherence and their distinctiveness.
I
1.

but in fact it is different.5).he is essentially affirming Job in speaking without qualification of his "piety" (yir'ah) and his "blameless life" (torn derakim). 2.6. cajole or humiliate Job in any way. but in the shadow of the clear tonality of v.which the rest of the speech gives us no reason to suppose .at first hearing . In 4:6. Eliphaz does not command. Eliphaz's mood may be felt to be mildly reproachful or wholly encouraging.. Zophar. but it is certainly non-authoritarian. A second nodal sentence may be found in 5:8: "As for me. Some further clues in the text to the tonality of the speech beyond those of exordium and conclusion . To be sure. It is not exactly non-directive counselling. 18:5-21. We might infer from the similarity that the tonality of the two speeches is identical. In most of the speeches there appear one or two sentences. the final verse marking a downbeat note in each case (8:22. Here Eliphaz puts himself in Job's shoes and suggests what he would do in the same situation. Similarly. I would seek God.a rather ambiguous tonality: "Now. even if expressed with a mild and unhurtful irony. when it meets with you. "Is not your piety your source of confidence? Does not your blameless life give you hope?". 20:5-29). Unless he says "piety" and "blameless life" with a sneer . By itself. usually addressed to Job directly. in the second cycle. sarcastic. and you are dismayed" (v. "He will yet fill your mouth with laughter" (8:21). the previous verse has .Art and Meaning contrast between the fate of the righteous and that of the wicked. but certainly not hostile.. 15:20-35. 11:20). since in Bildad's speech the final contrast proceeds from an unconditional affirmative.must be sought. The facts that he is far from recognising Job's
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.. threaten.15. but the significance of these depictions varies considerably. Eliphaz's first speech provides two good examples. it is to God that I would commit my suit". but enters into his situation with all the imagination and sympathy he can muster. all the friends' speeches conclude with a lengthy elaboration of the fate of the wicked (Eliphaz. you cannot bear it! It strikes at you. Bildad. you will lie down with no one to frighten you" (11:13. as we will see below. Nodal Sentences. whereas in Zophar's speech it proceeds from a hypothetical "If you set your heart aright . which further define the tonality of the speech as well as pinpointing the content of the speech's argument. or dismissive. surely then . it can only be heard as sympathy..19). it could be heard as a rather aggressive assessment of Job's impatience.

that is. But in the light of the tonality of the speech. and account for the discursiveness of the book that many modern readers find tiresome. Job is among the righteous (v. 3. 25:4. but in line with what I have in mind. Urbrock's Harvard dissertation discussed twelve such topoi (which he called "themes") in Job /5/. mocking the incapacity of theoretical wisdom to handle the realities of human experience /3/.7).30. like Dhorme /6/ and Weiser /?/. All the speeches of the book use stylised descriptions or accounts. A topos on a particular subject may serve quite different purposes in different speeches according to the tonality and argument of the speech. 22:21. of Eliphaz: 15:4-5. which cannot be examined in detail here. via Eliphaz. defined topoi as "general rhetorical patterns which may be used as building blocks for literary structures". that the author of the book may be. Other nodal sentences in the friends' speeches. Some commentators. 20:4-5. if the destruction of the lions is a symbol of the destruction of the wicked) we have a brief topos on the fate of the wicked. can be identified in the following: of Bildad: 8:4-6. This remains a crucial sentence for perceiving Eliphaz's mood and message. The first speech of Eliphaz again offers us a useful example. indeed. it becomes impossible to view this description as any kind of criticism or warning. are suddenly brought to an end (vv. Precisely because Job is righteous he need have no
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.8-9). In 4:8-9 (or 4:8-11. More significant exegetically is the fact that the function of a topos is often far from its obvious significance when considered out of context. Kingsbury /4/. that patience is for Job the "hard thing" (as Hopkins' sonnet has it /2/). the retribution of the wicked and their destruction by God should find a place.6. find Eliphaz to be intentionally insulting Job by assuming him to be the cause of his own misfortune. 18:4. precisely because Eliphaz's intention is encouraging.G. Such topoi frequently form the bulk of a speech (as they do in the second cycle of speeches). E. this topos depicts a fate that is the opposite of what is in store for Job. Any reader. die in their prime (v.Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends real situation. On the contrary. in another context. of Zophar: 11:4-6. Topoi. in a speech that has set out to be reassuring. and especially of the nodal v. [27:13-14]. the innocent and upright are not cut off.6). a somewhat loose definition. William J. are all beside the point. must wonder why. which I propose to call topoi. the wicked. on the other hand.

He does not belong to "the company of the godless" (v. which is the subject of the topos that occupies the second half of his speech.8a).7). "writhed in pain all his days" (v. But as for the relevance of the life and destiny of the wicked. 12:13-25).13. then.35). Eliphaz is charitable enough to think. and so this topos concerns what does not apply to him. v. Job has without question been irreligious ("doing away with the fear of God". tongue and lips have been leading him into sin ("Your mouth increases your wrongdoing". like the wicked. Job has not.7-16): Job has not the wisdom of Adam (v. Some have argued that Eliphaz has by now become convinced that Job is an evildoer. Job's mouth. In this context. 17-35). that Job is not being wise in letting his tongue lead him into sin. Job has ceased to behave like the wise man he really is (v. It is true that in this speech Eliphaz takes a firmer line with Job: he reproaches him for so letting his tongue run away with him that. This interpretation is confirmed by Eliphaz's words of encouragement in 5:18-26. nor that of the prophets (v. nor even that of his older friends (vv. nor does he "conceive mischief and bring forth evil" (v.4). indeed. First appearances to the contrary. he is clearly maintaining that Job is not one of the truly wicked. but is in danger of becoming.34).14-16). the function of the to DOS is plain.6) /9/. with his multitude of windy words. which assures Job that he will not die until he has reached a ripe old age (5:26). And even though this sentence may be more a recognition of the tempestuousness of Job's speech than a reproach of his language in demanding vindication from God and in speaking of God's destructive power (cf. and have read this topos as Eliphaz's prognostication of the fate in store for Job /8/.25) that only shows that he is making a serious mistake and forgetting where his loyalty lies. although Eliphaz insists (as in 4:17-19) that no man can be perfectly righteous and therefore must expect some suffering (vv. The same point.9-10).2). is reiterated in the second strophe of the speech (vv. cf.Art and Meaning fear that he is about to die. In Eliphaz's second speech (15:1-35) there is a lengthier to DOS on the miserable life and the fearsome fate of the wicked (vv.
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. in other cases it must be admitted that its function is not so obvious. that Job is venting his anger (v.20). this topos does not function as a judgement upon Job's character but as an elaborate sketch of the kind of person Job is not. he can have hope. It is through lack of wisdom. and if he "bids defiance to the Almighty" (v. NEB) against God. v.

"should". past continuous. present. humankind generally. and so on. however. "can". I direct attention to a short passage^in Eliphaz's first speech. on the "fate-producing deed" (20:12-22). This is not a very surprising conclusion to reach in the case of such traditional or stock material. probability. of themselves. Of them he
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. The topoi do not therefore offer. compression of the content of each speech to a few lines of prose /10/. and reality. Rhetoric thrives on the modulation of possibility. concerning "those who dwell in houses of clay" (4:19).Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends In the case of Zophar's second speech (20:1-29). such as we would represent in English by the modal auxiliaries "may". Zophar's disquisitions on the brevity of the happiness of the wicked (20:4-11). and to remark on how a rather straightforward example of a modal use of a verb directly affects the argument of a speech. Another aspect of Hebrew rhetoric that is frequently ignored is the range of modalities covered by the indicative form of the Hebrew verb in the "imperfect" /I I/. Simply to illustrate the point. a topos on the same subject probably has quite a different intention. most of these nuances are not explicit linguistically. Zophar's attitude towards Job has been established by the nodal sentences of 11:5-6: Job is a secret sinner from whom God exacts less than his guilt deserves. 4. the topoi come to hold a disproportionate and often misleading place in the interlocutors' argument. "would". but must rather be interpreted from the matter that lies outside them. Especially if the commentator adopts the principle of synopsis. and may only be grasped by the sensitised reader. insight into their function in the arguments of Job's friends.e. viz. and on the sudden end of the wicked (20:23-29) all apply directly to Job. but it is remarkable what an important role the topoi play in some commentators' analysis of the Joban arguments. this portrayal of the end of the wicked is not even a warning: it is a prediction. Combined with the range of temporal senses the imperfect has (future. and perhaps also it is sometimes identical with "preterite" or "point" tense) is the series of modal implications it may convey. The student of the rhetoric of these speeches cannot assume that the speaker affirms everything he expresses with an "imperfect" verb (and most verbs in these speeches are "imperfects"). Far from being an encouragement to Job. Verb Modality. i. and trades in hypotheticals and exhortatives. obligation. In the poetry of these speeches.

rather he argues the insubstantiality of the human frame from the fact that it is possible for a person to live and die without ever gaining the wisdom that he. "pulverized") between a dawn and a dusk.7-8). the innocent and the wicked (vv. may die".die between dusk and dawn (cf.8). as one of the wise. namely that humankind is divided into two camps... a Babylonian text. do they not die. they perish for ever without any regarding it. the premise from which he began. Eliphaz will have destroyed. that verbs in these sentences are to be read modally. that each camp receives its proper reward (v. Likewise. not that all human lives are ephemeral. we not only restore the emphasis of Eliphaz to the fragility of human existence.to be prosaic . it can hardly be imagined that Eliphaz maintains that humankind as a whole (himself included!) invariably dies "without wisdom". All people do not expire so rapidly. regards as essential for a truly human life. in this case.Art and Meaning says. Plainly also it is untrue that humans in general perish "without anyone setting it to heart" (if that is how mibbelt mestm is to be translated).. and relieve him of the responsibility of wildly untrue generalizations.19) is that they can be of such slight account that they may die without their passing being noticed. rather than its brevity. and that Job unquestionably belongs to the former
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. It seems far more likely. If their tent-cord is plucked up within them. and that without wisdom? Translations and commentaries alike universally assume that Eliphaz is speaking of humankind in general /12/. as equivalent to "may be destroyed . but also help to re-create coherence in the speech. may perish . but that humankind is so fragile that a person may be destroyed (yukkattu. for some . if we read his speech in the RSV: Between morning and evening they are destroyed. what serves Eliphaz's point about the fragility of human beings as "dwellers in houses of clay" (v. For if these verses are taken as general statements about humankind. however. Verse 20 means. They are not statements of general actuality but of particular possibility. and on the basis of which alone he can offer consolation to Job. By understanding the verbs of these sentences modally. that is. "he who in the evening was alive is dead in the morning" /13/).. by the time he reaches the mid-point of his speech. for some suffer lingering deaths. Nor do all die between dawn and dusk.

influence our analysis of the arguments in the book of Job. that the speech lacks coherence. each of which has its own structure of thought and thesis within itself. G. especially if the subordinate role of topoi and the dominating role of nodal
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. concluded that Eliphaz's first speech (chs. A]. if we make due allowance for them. a logic operates which is valid by standards either of the author's day or of our own: for. plausible. for example. part of which we have examined above. The foregoing are elements of rhetoric that can. the distinctive viewpoints of the individual speakers. we may allow that it is not necessary to affirm the logical validity of an argument in order to maintain its coherence.Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends camp (vv. at least. of course.and macro-coherence the evidence for (B). For convenience. I shall discriminate in (A) between coherence within a single speech ( A j S micro-coherence) and coherence throughout the whole body of the speeches of each of the friends in turn (A2: macro-coherence).
II
My concern in this section of the paper is a more ambitious one. It is customary to despair of the possibility ol discovering coherence. But the coherence of these verses is beyond question: they are linked by an a maiore ad minus argumentation that is superficially. It is always possible. As against such a position. but is a series of entities of very different kinds. at least in our judgement. it does not follow that men are more untrustworthy than angels just because they "dwell in houses of clay" whereas angels presumably do not. for example. Eliphaz offers Job at least five different and remarkably slightly connected propositions to ponder" /15/.3-4.4-5). It is to affirm: (A) the coherence of the speeches of Job's three friends. Granted such an understanding of "coherence". von Rad. I shall interpose between my claims for micro. even on the scale of the single speech. "does not in any sense consist of a fairly unified sequence of thought. and (B) the distinctive viewpoints of the three friends. We may. but such is an unhappy conclusion to which we may finally be driven only when we have allowed for the possibility of modal interpretations /14/. within the book of Job.6). deny that in 4:18-21. Micro-coherence.

Eliphaz's speech (chs. he believes that suffering is punishment. Zophar argues. God does not pervert justice (8:3). so the possibility is still open that he is innocent of any sin deserving of death. Job is an innocent man and therefore can expect to continue living (4:6). however. 3. claiming that he is "clean in God's eyes" (11:4). In the first cycle. since his suffering is bound to be soon over. perfect innocence.8) is no less coherent. the argument is again plain. Job himself. as~~NEB has rightly recognised). The first speech of Bildad (ch. must expect to suffer deservedly on occasion.Art and Meaning sentences is taken into account. has not been struck dead. so he has abandoned them to the power of their own transgression". so if there is suffering.4-5) starts from the fundamental position that the innocent are never "cut off". 5:8). and the topos of 8:8-19 on the theme "no effect without a cause" (the death of the wicked [vv. there has been sin. and since Job has failed to acknowledge his sinfulness. transform what is apparently an assertion into a statement of possibility). 2. This can only mean that he is a sinner. so even the most innocent. and if allowance is made for the range of verb modality (which may. That general point made. "purity" or "righteousness" (4:17). The comparatively cheerful note on which Bildad concludes (8:21-22) leaves open the question of Job's innocence. Bildad therefore affirms that if Job is "pure and upright" he will be delivered from his affliction. he argues. is not to be found among men. that suffering is deserved. it follows that Job is a secret sinner. In fact.except perhaps toward the end of the third cycle of speeches. so the only practical advice Eliphaz can give to Job is to be patient (commit his case to God. Like all the friends. if the truth were known it would no doubt be apparent that God
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. Job is suffering on this occasion. the "if" [cim] of "if your children have sinned" is not hypothetical. The arguments of the nine speeches of the friends may thus be briefly stated: 1. In Zophar's speech in the first cycle (ch. Eliphaz can proceed to nuance the concept of "innocence". I would claim that coherence within each speech always emerges . In fact. Starting from the same presupposition as the other friends.13-19] being a prime example of this truth) serves only to reinforce Bildad's fundamental position: justice is not perverted. for example.ll). he concentrates wholly upon the fact that Job js suffering. like Job. and that the death of Job's children is proof of that (8:4 "Your children have sinned against him.

Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends exacts of Job jess than his guilt deserves (v.7-12). Eliphaz's speech (ch. for only guilt explains suffering. 6. offers direct practical advice to Job: Job must. He is therefore not destined for ultimate disaster or continued suffering. and.12-22). If he were wise. and the topos on the wicked and their fate (vv. but must be assessed in the context of all three of his speeches. the self-destructive nature of sin (vv. it is lack of adequate wisdom that is Job's chief fault (vv. Indeed. as with theirs.7-16): he has not the wisdom of Adam (v.20) is even more thoroughly preoccupied with an extended topos on the fate of the wicked.18) is almost entirely devoted to a topos on the fate of the wicked. but the thread of his speech is picked up again at v. In the second movement (vv. In its first movement (vv. but the coherence of his rhetoric is beyond question /16/. he would know that no man . since Job admits to great suffering but
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. like all the friends. presumably. only great guilt can explain great suffering. 5. Nevertheless. 15-20). its function must be understood in the context of his other speeches.nor any angel .14). Eliphaz (ch.5 should probably be translated "your mouth makes you guilty of great wrongdoing.22) eschews extensive topos material and delivers a three-pronged address to Job. Its content is not essentially different from the speeches of Eliphaz and Bildad. 4. Job is not wicked.6c)I The logic of Zophar's argument is on this point rather shaky.4-11).14-16). and the sudden end of the wicked (vv. v.is wholly innocent. Bildad's second speech (ch. in a word. but. and that a certain amount of suffering can only be expected (vv. 7. developing three themes: the brevity of the rejoicing of the wicked (vv. "Is not your wickedness great?" (v. 12-20).13 where he. What he means by it as far as Job is concerned cannot be discerned from the speech itself.7) nor of the friends themselves (vv. In the third cycle. In the second cycle.2-11). it must be. and your tongue chooses guileful words").6) leads him into a digressive topos on that theme (vv.15) takes cognizance of Job's responses and asserts that Job is not speaking like a wise man but allowing his tongue to run away with him (15:2-6. Zophar's second speech (ch. The lot of the repentant and therefore righteous man is contrasted with that of the wicked in a concluding topos (vv.23-29).8-9). and as such is thoroughly coherent. Zophar's reference to the wisdom of God (v. repent (v. 17-35) is a description of precisely what Job is not.5). he asks.

It should occasion no surprise that a speech from Zophar should dwell upon "the portion of a wicked man with God" (27:13-27). Eliphaz's continuing conviction of Job's essential innocence surfaces again. A less bold reconstruction of Zophar's third speech. for the preoccupation of the speech will be with the "portion" of the wicked. Zophar's third speech does not.4f. and the most convincing picture of the restoration Job can rightly hope for is painted (we note that Eliphaz retreats from the logic of Job's suffering to the logic of Job's character). God's unsearchable wisdom in company with his irresistible power (cf. 8. Even the profound and intricate knowledge acquired by humankind (28:1-11) gives them no sure hold upon real "wisdom". will have even less difficulty in discerning coherence in the speech. Suppose. appear in the present form of the text (and we could therefore immediately forego an attempt to display its coherence). as it stands.ll. The best wisdom humanity can have is to acknowledge the omniscient Yahweh and keep his commandments (28:28). it follows that the guilt must be hidden (we note that Eliphaz is being pushed towards Zophar's position). to be followed immediately by a disquisition on the secret wisdom of God (28:1-28). that allocates 27:7-23 together with 24:18-24 to it /19/. In the third movement (vv. hid as it is "from the eyes of all living" (28:21). of course. a tppos simply prefaced by a few sentences of exordium (27:7-12)7
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.21-30). the speech continues with a topos upon the creatorial wisdom and power of God (the two attributes are frequently virtually equated in Job). however. and especially not man. The argument. and if 26:5-14 also is rightly to be attached to this third speech of Bildad /17/. will be the same: the fate of the wicked is lodged with God (Cjm 'el. 27:13).ll).25).Art and Meaning not to great guilt. If some disturbance to the text has occurred in the course of transmission. because God alone is the master of the knowledge required to dispense justice among human beings (28:23-28). Bildad's third speech (ch. "with God". simply rehearses the by now conventional idea that nothing in the created order. not so clearly stated as in ch. since these two themes have been combined in Zophar's first speech (ch. 26:14) is the guarantee that "uncleanness" in the world of nature and man will be detected and dealt with by God. but in the course of transmission) into Job's tenth speech (27:1-28:28) and that it consisted of 27:13-28:28 (so Hoffmann /18/). 9. that it has been erroneously incorporated (not by the final editor.). can show any kind of "cleanness" (vv.

Students of the book of Job have frequently attempted to discriminate between the friends on psychological grounds. their presence is not only not gratuitous but positively essential for the exploration of the problem raised by the book. I can do no better than quote some sentences that are somewhat buried away in a corner of Marvin Pope's commentary. Only genuinely distinctive argumentation would fully justify the introduction of three interlocutors into the body of the book. There may be a modicum of truth in some of these distinctions. "Eliphaz appears to concede that Job's piety and conduct have been exemplary. in which alone I have found.dines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends Only a closer analysis can demonstrate the validity of the general argument presented here.. the friends each take a distinctive position vis-a-vis Job in spite of sharing the most fundamental presuppositions.. and Bildad a man of the stand-nononsense kind" /20/.and what one looks for in vain among the commentaries . Bildad is purely "a traditionalist who contributes little more to the discussion than a restatement of accepted views". but enough has perhaps been said to suggest that in each of the speeches of the three friends a high degree of coherence is to be found. But to put it directly. and Zophar as a blunt Yorkshireman. thus. but if. in their various argumentations. What I see as their distinctive viewpoints has already become partly visible in outlining the coherence of each of their speeches. B. possesses the brashness and dogmatism associated with youth" /21/. as I find Zophar rather noticeably a mean-minded greybeard. Thus. in embryonic form at least. Robert Gordis finds Eliphaz "the most dignified and urbane of the Friends . should have confidence and hope that God will deal with
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. the book is indeed long-winded and flabby. observed: "I find Eliphaz more of personage than the other two. Distinctive Viewpoints. the profoundest spirit among them". logical or theological. Arthur Quiller-Couch. a presentation of the friends' distinctive viewpoints which jibes with my own. If they all have the same point to make. Bildad as a provincial Midlander.is a set of notations of the distinctiveness. Job. but what one really wants to see . A British acquaintance confides that he has always seen Eliphaz as a smooth southerner from the Home Counties. securer in wisdom. a literary critic of a former era. while Zophar. "probably the youngest. as I argue. grander in the volume of the mind.

Zophar is sure that God must have something against Job and could make it known if he cared to speak about it" /22/. as becomes clear from the friends' directives to Job. In advancing this view Elihu correctly proclaims himself opposed both to the three friends and to Job (32:6-12. if he cared to. Zophar argues from the suffering of Job in order to denounce Job. for it may be not the penalty for sin already committed. what it is that he has against Job. I should wish to nuance Pope's presentations a little: Eliphaz does not only appear to concede Job's piety to be exemplary. though not in the way the other friends have viewed it. that the position of Elihu represents yet another variation on the same fundamental suppositon of the causal nexus between sin and suffering: viz. Zophar's intention is to summon Job to repentance for sins that he clearly has already committed (1 l:6c)..12). The coherence of the stance taken by each 6T tfTe friends throughout his set of three speeches (macro-coherence) has already been to some extent established by the analysis given above of the argument of each individual speech. parenthetically. Secondly. he is certainly punishing Job for it (God knows which men are worthless and marks them down for punishment. What we have to remark upon here is that the macro-coherence of each of the three arguments depends upon our recognising the stance adopted in the first cycle as determinative for the whole of the particular friend's utterances. ^2. but that no matter whether or not God divulges what he knows to be Job's sin. Eliphaz's intention is to encourage Job to patience and hope (5:8. Eliphaz argues from the piety of Job in order to offer consolation. What Bildad says is conditional: if Job were innocent. given in advance. Bildad argues from the contrast between the fates of Job and Job's children in order to offer warning. The distinctiveness of the friends' arguments can be expressed in two further ways: first. 4:6). 33:5. God would restore him. to keep a man back from sin (33:19-28) /23/. And Zophar's point is not precisely that God could make known. It may be added.
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. Bildad's intention is to urge Job to search his heart before God in order to ensure that he is not guilty of crimes such as those for which his children have died (8:5-6). Macro-coherence.Art and Meaning him accordingly . To concede that Job was innocent would wreck [Bildad's and Zophar's] argument completely. suffering may be discipline. he actually assumes it and argues from it.. 11:11). but a warning..

and perhaps the only significant. but may yet be avoided by him.. to be interpreted according to the previously announced intention of the speaker. largely consisting of topos material.4-5): he believes that Job will be delivered "through the cleanness of [his] hands" (22:30). asserting that Job's present suffering proves him to be a sinner (albeit a secret sinner). and for this reason it deserves our special attention. The most striking. Likewise. and most unjust words spoken against Job in the whole book.4-5) requires us to read his description of the fate of the wicked in the second cycle (ch. of course.21. As for the second cycle. that Zophar's plea for Job's repentance (ll:13f. and to argue that Eliphaz has lost patience with Job. and in his exasperation has charged Job with crimes that he could not possibly have believed Job had
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. mainly in the nature of social injustice: "you have exacted pledges of your brothers for nothing . the same principle applies.22).. In similar fashion.3) how Eliphaz's affirmation of Job's piety in the first cycle (chs.6-9). NEB) and "be at peace". Of course it is possible to maintain that there has been a change in Eliphaz's attitude. sent widows away empty" (vv. and it is strange to find them on the lips of Eliphaz. v.) is ignored. withheld bread from the hungry .8) to search his heart and take warning from the fate of his children becomes the hermeneutical clue for the reading of his second cycle speech (ch.18): the fate of the wicked is a possibility that confronts Job.15) as a depiction of what Job's fate is certainly not. most harsh. As for the third cycle of speeches. that the topos material is to be interpreted in the light of the speaker's stance distinctively spelled out in the first cycle. In two respects Eliphaz's argument in this speech is in full accord with his position in his first speech (chs. however.Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends From that position. apparent exception to this generalisation is the speech of Eliphaz in the third cycle (ch.. and his advice is to "come to terms with God" (v.assuming. he seems to be wholly at variance with his former position: he seems to accuse Job of untold wickedness ("no end to your iniquities". In another respect.ll). Bildad's exhortation to Job in his first cycle speech (ch. I have noted above (under 1. the first cycle speech of Zophar (ch. we may go on to allow the content of the second and third cycles of speeches. demands that his second cycle speech (ch.5).20) be understood as descriptive of the future he sees in store for Job . These are the most specific.. out of all the friends.

hence the psalmist's plea is not "return to me". that Job is suffering for some cause . Eliphaz believes. for Eliphaz has no other way of explaining Job's suffering. It is true that he has moved somewhat beyond the position he had adopted in chs. (In the same way. He is rather saying that it is not for Job's righteousness . If we adhere to the Massoretic assignment of ch.that God "enters into judgment" with him (v. there will be certain members of Job's community untouched by his social concern.6-9).10-11). in hyberbolic fashion Eliphaz pictures their plight as Job's wilful fault. where he first affirmed Job's piety. his insistence upon the
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. Doubtless. but for leaving undone those things that ought to have been done (vv.brief though the suffering may be (4:5).Art and Meaning committed when he addressed him in chs. and so on. but that he has failed to come tc his help. When Eliphaz asks. take Eiiphaz's accusations at their face value. Less taxing is the question of the relation of the third cycle speeches of Bildad (? and Zophar) to their general position outlined in their opening speeches. That is the fact that in all the cases Eliphaz mentions it is the neglect of some social duty that Job is charged with. for he seems to have done none. Now he will specify in what ways he conceives Job to have been open to reproach.5).4-5.4). "Is it any pleasure to the Almighty if you make your ways blameless?" (v. Only in this way can he explain why "snares are round about" Job and why his "light is darkened" (vv. But this is only a development of his original position. but "hasten to my help". indeed. since Job is not absolutely perfect (nor omnicompetent). and since the cause cannot be found in any wrong that Job has done. but there is one indication that Eiiphaz's strictures may be read somewhat differently. and then allowed that the righteous are not perfectly so.25 alone to Bildad. prima facie) that are Job's "great wickedness" (v. They must be sins of omission rather than sins of commission (which admittedly his language describes.20). To say that Job has stripped the poor of their clothing need not mean that he has actively done any such thing.3). he does not disparage righteousness or the fear of God. as do all the friends.which Eliphaz fully recognises . the psalmist who reproaches God for having "forsaken" him [Ps. v. but rather that he must have failed to offer clothing to some needy person.4-5. 22:2] does not mean that God has actively departed from him. Most commentators. From this perspective the meaning of 22:2-4 becomes plain. his sin must lie in what he has failed to do. and no doubt need be cast on the overall coherence of Eiiphaz's attitude and argument.

If we extend Bildad's speech by the addition of 26:5-14. "Double Entendre in the First Speech of Eliphaz". and that the detection and display both of coherence and distinctiveness are materially assisted by the recognition of certain rhetorical features characteristic of such speeches. though sharing the presupposition of a causal nexus between sin and suffering. JBL 86 (1967). Gardner [1953]. Patience is" (Poems and Prose of Gerard Manley Hopkins. 4 E. SBL 1972 Proceedings. 205-210 (205 n.20). 320-74 (340).though this must be the subject of another paper . "The Theophany Topos and the Mountain of God". By contrast . hard thing! the hard thing but to pray. 2 "Patience.27 and 28.ljT 5 See W. 1979. 11:20) which we have observed in Zophar's initial speech.Clines: The Arguments of Job's Three Friends "uncleanness" of all created beings harmonises with his original affirmation that since God does not pervert justice (8:3) sin must inevitably be punished. that every speech exhibits coherence. 2. 459-87 (487 n. flexible. The intentions of this paper have been to show that the arguments of Job's three friends.G. are distinct from one another. And if Zophar's third speech is to be salvaged from the material of chs.J. we may see in these verses further illustration of the incontrovertible justice of the Almighty. experimental. 62). "Formula and Theme in the SongCycle of Job". or argument of Job's friends: their minds are set in familiar patterns. vol. and that each set of speeches delivered by each friend maintains the same position throughout the course of the dialogue. JBL 49 (1930). the friends provide a static stylised background against which the tortured but adventurous hero of the book excites our imagination and sympathy. we find only further illustration of the twin themes of the all-seeing wisdom of God (cf. 11:7-11) and the doom of the wicked foreseen and prepared by that selfsame wisdom (cf. Kingsbury./ But bid for.H. A final implication of the present study is that the author of Job does not portray any development in the position.Job's mind is confused. Fullerton. selected by W. 3 K. and his argument constantly in course of development. Urbrock. November. NOTES 1 A preliminary form of this paper was read to the Rhetorical Criticism Section of the Society of Biblical Literature in New York. Even in their style of argumentation.
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. theology.

Luke establishes continuity with the Old Testament by narrating an epiphany which fulfills the prophetic promises to Israel and creates the long awaited messianic age. III Appalachian State University Bo one NC 28608. The hero's life and character are subordinated to this central concern. The actual birth of Jesus.
I. The reader's attention is focused on the decisive acts of God in creating the world long promised to Israel. Luke's Declaration of Purpose (1: 1-fr)
The fulfillment motif is introduced by Luke immediately.
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. "The acceptable year of the Lord" promised by Isaiah 61:2. as he spoke to our fathers. Zechariah praises God for the fulfillment of prophecy (1:67-72) /!/. is treated by Luke only as a detail within the framework of a much larger narrative. The eschatological joy of Israel can be heard in Mary's declaration to Elizabeth: "He has helped his servant Israel in remembrance of his mercy. The speeches of Gabriel delivered to Zechariah and Mary concern the fulfillment of God's promise of a king. Centuries of Jewish suffering and aspiration are gathered up and vindicated by the angel's words to Mary: "the Lord God will give to him the throne of his father David.THE LITERARY STRUCTURE OF LUKE 1-2 Charles Thomas Davis. The narrative focuses upon the incursion of the divine into time and space for the accomplishment of creative or original acts. The passive voice points to God as the agent of the actions narrated. to Abraham and to his posterity forever" (1:54-55). and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever" (1:32-33). He informs us that "many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things which have been accomplished among us" (1:1). which is so frequently the main concern of modern readers. This is confirmed by the stories which follow. USA Luke 1-2 is structured literarily around the visits of the Angel of the Lord.

e. Theophilus has been taught about
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. Luke's introduction is carefully formulated to convey that he is chronicling revelation.. the prophecies' time is at hand. Jesus is clearly the sign of the time of fulfillment. those significant moments in the early Christian experience of Jesus where God is rendered transparent in human affairs. not to all the people but to us who were chosen by God as witnesses . Mary is called blessed because she "believed that there would be a fulfillment of what was spoken to her from the Lord". presume that such events were transparent to all. The fulfillment motif dominates the words and actions of the main characters. It is the subject of the Lucan narrative. And he commanded us to preach to the people.. Luke writes so that the arche.Art and Meaning and later announced by Jesus as the opening words of his public ministry (4:19). but. The angel's words to Zechariah . Anna. Peter declares: God raised him on the third day and made him manifest. can be accessible to Theophilus.. carries the presentation "to all who were looking for the redemption of Jerusalem" (2:38). the devout prophetess. Luke is careful to establish his own authority as a narrator of fulfillment by proposing to order his narrative strictly in keeping with the testimony of those "who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word" (1:2-3).. and to testify that he is the one ordained by God . Men would have expected such an announcement to have come to one of greater priestly position.. The aged Simeon is honoured by being the one to welcome the Messiah into the Temple because he "was righteous and devout. looking for the consolation of Israel" (2:25). the moment of origin. has arrived. however.. Acts 10:34-42 makes it clear that "true history" has to be revealed. i. The time of God's word and the time as it lives in human expectation and impatience are different. For Luke. One cannot. Zechariah is chosen as the priest to receive the eschatological announcement because of his unflagging obedience to the Law (1:6).. The Magnificat praises God for fulfilling the word of promise."You did not believe my words which will be fulfilled in their time" (1:20) have a double reference: (1) to Zechariah's immediate doubt of the announcement that the eschatological fulfillment is at hand and (2) to Israel's doubt that the words of prophecy would be fulfilled at all. at last.

but that issue is settled. and views this as an action properly continuous with the tradition arising from the arche. like the writers who preceded him.Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 these matters. Luke knows that the witness of those created by and for the arche. and John. It would be proper to assume that Luke is being very careful to compose his narrative under the guidance of oral tradition /3/. must make present this witness.
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. the eyewitnesses to whom God rendered his own acts transparent and humanly comprehensible. Luke's purpose is in keeping with the traditional function of narrative in Jewish ceremonies of remembrance such as Passover. apostolic word. Writing the first gospel was probably a traumatic breach with the oral. cannot be abandoned without reducing the gospel to trivia. Like Matthew. Luke will narrate the sacred drama of the arche so that Theophilus may find it actualized in his own experience. At the very least. Luke is concerned simply to establish the proper experience of continuity between the witness to the ministers of the Word and Theophilus. so that there may be a re-presentation of the sacred drama of God's acts in creating the age of redemption. It is unlikely that Luke is merely "linking" traditions to which he has no living continuity. It is probable that he is functioning like a story teller /4/ who must now transfer the power of the oral art to the written record. the one beloved of God. lest he evoke opposition to the still novel idea of writing a gospel. He writes in the wake of an earlier writer. Innovation is impossible. or writers. Luke does not wish to reopen it. Luke's reference to the many who have compiled narratives and to his own competence to narrate the original events in proper order make it clear that he is working within a tradition and imply that he is correcting an earlier narrative or narratives so that Theophilus may have an "orderly account" (1:3). The introduction helps us to clarify Luke's relationship to his sources. Luke is saying that the present narrative is his rendering of a tradition already rendered by others. Only thus can he come to "know the truth concerning the things of which [he] has been informed" (1:4). Mark. Luke is concerned with the creative moment of God's act in Jesus /2/. He. This moment created the eyewitnesses as servants of the Word. but he has not yet gained access to the Presence which created the age of fulfillment and to which the testimony of the eyewitnesses points.

(2) The response of the faithful in Jerusalem attendant upon the fulfillment of the Law by Mary (2:21-40). resulting in Mary's visit to Elizabeth (1:39-56). setting the stage for the Messiah to appear. as prophecied. The remaining narrative material is clearly subordinated to these three appearances: (1) The fulfillment of the angel's word to Zechariah (1:57-80). Fear is the initial response of the participants. The center of this literary unit is the announcement of the King's advent and the new relationship between God and man which it occasions (2:10-14). Verses 6-7 detail the birth in indirect narration singling out the swaddling clothes and the manger bed for mention. thus preparing the way for the angel to announce a sign by which the King may be recognized. (2) An angel visits Mary to announce the coming of the Christ (1:26-38). The event of the taxation puts Joseph in movement from Galilee to Bethlehem. Three appearances determine the basic literary structure of the two chapters: (1) An angel visits Zechariah to announce the coming of the new Elijah (1:5-25). As in 1:5-25 and 1:26-38. Verses 1-7 simply set the stage with adequate background for the comprehension of this announcement. as in Luke 1:5 and 3:1-2. the angel of the Lord appears. (3) An angel visits the shepherds to announce the advent of the King (2:1-14). It is the presupposition of a larger drama in which the angel of the Lord appears revealing the arche of the new age. in the City of David. The Literary Structure of Luke 1:5-2:52 The birth of Jesus is only incidentally narrated by Luke. In 2:1-3 the creational acts of God are linked with world history. (A) Luke 2:1-20 This scene is structured around the visit of an angel of the Lord (2:8-14) to announce the birth of the long awaited Messiah to Israel and the response of the shepherds to the angel's implied command (2:15-20). The angel speaks to
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. (3) The King comes of age proclaiming God as his true father (2:41-52).Art and Meaning II. resulting in their visit to pay homage to the child (2:15-20).

By contrast.12). at long last.. A sub-scene develops (2:15-20) as the shepherds obey without question. for your prayer is heard . Zechariah is chosen to serve as priest by the ordinary means. Zechariah is seized by fear (v.. They are heralds of a new age.ll) by the altar. Zechariah is portrayed in tones reminiscent of an Old
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. Luke 1-2 is structured around the activity of an angel of the Lord in announcing the fulfillment of God's word. Mary's pondering. Verses 5-10 give the background necessary for understanding the angel's appearance. has a worthy heir. This announcement is both an answer to the prayer of Zechariah and Elizabeth for a child and an anticipation of the event which will "cause many to rejoice" at John's birth (1:14). The poetry of 1:14-17 is a revelation of the End and of messianic joy. Luke dramatizes the acts of God in announcing and establishing the new age. and on earth peace among men with whom he is pleased^" (2:14). The revelation given by the angel is a proof that God does not forsake his Law-abiding servants but in fact fulfills his promises. The couple are Law-abiding but childless. and the shepherd's praise of God. The people are gathered at the usual hour. We see the appearance of the angel of the Lord to announce the coming of the new Elijah (1:1-25). only a sign for recognition of the child. Zechariah. The divine proclamation thus produces wonder among the people. Mystery and rejoicing are the key themes of this unit. portions of which are in poetic form. 57-80 Following the preface. The shepherd-king David from Bethlehem." (v. No explicit command is given.13). This annoucement is not just for Israel but "to all the people" (2:10). (B) Luke 1:5-23. they find matters as spoken by the angel. The angel commands him: "Do not be afraid. the most unusual action then takes place. Seeking out the new "Shepherd".Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 allay the fear by giving a joyous message. The narrative accents both their response and the way in which this event transcends their individual lives: "And when they saw it they made known the saying which had been told them concerning this child" (2:17). The climax is the song of the angelic choir: "Glory to God in the highest. The announcement of the new relation between heaven and earth is central. The shepherds are implicitly expected to seek this Savior-King. The new day from on high anticipated by Zechariah in 1:78 has dawned. The angel appears (v.

(4) The angelic answer. (1) The necessary minimum of background detail is given in 1:26-27 (par 1:5-10). The same comic element is also present as is typically found in portrayals of Jewish heroes. who like Zechariah has dared at times to question God's promises. Mary's submission to the angel. on the other hand. becomes an issue in her visit to Elizabeth. the fulfillment theme is underscored. When Ezra was approached in II Esdras by the Angel of the Lord. (2) The angelic greeting. (5) Mary's eventual submission to the word of the angel. 1:34 (par 1:18). my Lord. His sentence is pronounced: "Behold. Zechariah is portrayed as a figure of equal dignity and strength. because you did not believe my words. as he challenges the angel's authority with a blunt "How shall I know this?" (1:18). The fulfillment of the angel's word to Zechariah will simultaneously be the fulfillment of God's word to Israel. The hero is thus humbled into ordinary manhood. 1:35-37 (par 1:19-20). he dares to challenge the Lord. Ezra replies: "Yes. 1:38 (contrasting with Zechariah's lack of trust). and thus to God.Art and Meaning Testament prophet. my Lord" (4:3). Who is Zechariah to challenge Gabriel who stands by the throne of GodJ The rebuff of Zechariah's challenge sets up further development of the action in a sub-scene. Uriel. I pray. (C) Luke 1:26-56 Structurally the narration of the angel's visit to Mary is parallel to the visit to Zechariah. the response of the angel allaying the fear coupled with the announcement of a revelation cast largely in poetic form. is already familiar with Mary's response to the angel
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. and the groundwork is laid for further development of the action in a later sub-scene (1:57-80). This narrative is also continued by a sub-scene. he was asked: "Your understanding has utterly failed regarding this world. It is motivated by 1:36 where the angel informs her of Elizabeth's situation. send. 1:30-33 (par 1:13-17). prompting a troubled response in 1:29 (par 1:12). Zechariah is stricken dumb. (3) A question forming the human response. Like the great figures of the Old Testament. some other person" (Ex 4:13). or of Moses. This patiently obedient servant of God has evidenced disbelief at the very apex of his experience with God. which will be fulfilled in their time" (1:20). 1:28 (par absent). Jonah dared flee. Moses had dared to declare: "Oh. you will be silent and unable to speak until the day that these things come to pass. Unflinchingly. Elizabeth. and do you think you can comprehend the way of the Most High?" (II Esdras 4:1-2).

God's King. What is startling is that a Galilean maiden is greeted as if she were a royal personage. Luke's literary structure has prepared the reader for the announcement of the Messiah. that the mother of my Lord should come to me?" (v. Normally servants visit the king. and my wife is advanced in years" (1:18). An issue which transcends Mary's and Elizabeth's private and personal fates is reflected in the question with which Elizabeth greets Mary: "And why is this granted me. The Messiah is expected to follow Elijah (1:17). She is greeted with a greeting fit for royalty: "Hail. Mary's question is empirical nonsense. It is the center of the sub-scene. like God himself. Mary raises a common sense objection: "How can this be. God announces the new Elijah in the Temple during the ordinary course of Temple service. Those of low degree are raised up /5/. What could be more appropriate? The announcement to Mary introduces a vivid contrast. but they are also very different in detail. The one who is engaged to a son of David (1:27) will bear the final Son of David. Zechariah is stricken with a godly fear upon seeing the angel by the altar. the one who prepares the way. What sort of greeting is this? The answer is clear. Mary is troubled differently from Zechariah. John will be born of parents who walk perfectly in the Torah (1:6). The Messiah is announced in Galilee . It is simply the question of how Jesus.Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 (v. The long awaited King will appear and "reign over the house of Jacob forever" (1:32-33). That he will be the "Son of the Most High" comes as no surprise. since I have no husband?" (1:34). reverses the expected pattern of power. Why this surprising departure from convention? The Magnificat forms Mary's answer. The accounts of the angelic visitation to Zechariah and to Mary are very similar in structure.43). O favored one.a province long regarded as hostile to true religion /6/. the King. So was every Davidic King over whom the ancient words of Psalm 2 were spoken at coronation.45). What more natural expectation for a young Jewish woman already engaged than that a soon to be conceived child would be by her betrothed? Mary's question is a literary
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. the Lord is with you!" (1:29). The tension implied here is only slightly relieved by the angel's announcement that the lowly Galilean maiden has "found favor with God". relates to John. Unlike Zechariah's question: "How shall I know this? For I am an old man. Like Zechariah.

Art and Meaning necessity. Without it, and the question of parentage it raises, the angel cannot spring the ultimate surprise - which also explains the royal greeting: "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you" (1:35). This child will be directly the Son of God, a perfect King with an enduring Kingdom. The announcement comes with an unimaginable shock. Not since the days of the Nephilim, and the consequent limitation of man's life to a mere 120 years, has there been intercourse between Heaven and Earth (Gen. 6:1-4). One greater than the mighty men of old, who were begotten of the daughters of men and angels, is appearing. Of his days there will be no end. Without question, as if accepting a proposal of marriage, and with royal simplicity, Mary replies: "Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me according to your word". This will be celebrated by Elizabeth, who says in the Spirit: "And blessed is she who believed that there would be fulfillment of what was spoken to her from the Lord" (1:45). Mary's reply creates an archetypal pattern: "Henceforth all generations will call me blessed" (1:48). This scene moves so smoothly that it is easy to overlook a crucial shift in interest. The angel commands Mary to name the child she bears Jesus /7/. Very subtly the focus of the story is shifted away from the angel's command to name the child to Mary's virginity - "How can this be, since I have no husband?" (1:34). This question totally disregards the introduction of her as "a virgin betrothed to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; the virgin's name was Mary" (1:27). It disregards the historical context as well; for what is more natural than for a betrothed Jewish virgin to expect children in the near future? But the story is not concerned with normal births. This child is to be of divine paternity. Without Mary's question, the miraculous "how" of this birth could not be introduced as the climax of the story. Mary's question is governed by literary necessity /8/. The literary shaping of the scene creates the need for a later reference to the naming of the child. The act of naming is a necessary narrative element because of the direct command to name, but the naming is found neither in this scene nor its continuation in the visit to Elizabeth. It is not part of the scene involving the announcement of the birth to the shepherds. This suspended literary pattern is abruptly completed in 2:21, lest Mary appear to be disobedient. Following the conclusion of the
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Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 Visit of the Shepherds, it is said: "And at the end of eight days, when he was circumcised, he was called Jesus, the name given by the Angel before he was conceived in the womb". Verse 21 is, as it were, a tag added to an already completed drama. It belatedly corrects the narration of this scene and serves also to introduce the next scene: the presentation of the child in the Temple. (D) Luke 2:22-32 The startling news of a Messiah who is biologically the Son of God (1:35) immediately raises a question for the sensitive reader: "Can God violate his Torah?" /9/. As if in response to such an intelocutor both 2:21 and the next scene repeat the motif of fulfillment of the Torah. Mary has obeyed the angel. The Law is being followed with regard to circumcision (v.21) even though circumcision is a father's occasion and Luke is concentrating on the mother's fulfillment of her legal responsibilities (vv.22-24) /10/. Verse 22 notes that all is "according to the Law of Moses" and verse 23 announces, lest one miss the point, in a parenthesis: "as it is written in the Law of the Lord, "Every male that opens the womb shall be called holy to the Lord' ". One cannot miss the allusion to Lev. 12:1-4,6,8, which specify the legal responsibilities of women at childbirth. Indeed, verse 24 quotes from Lev. 12:8 as "the Law of the Lord". With this child, the Law is followed to the letter. This reference to the woman's legal responsibility following childbirth provides the motive for Mary's visit to the Temple. It is within the framework of this visit that the strong emphasis on Simeon and Anna develops. This reference insures that the role of Mary does not get displaced by the attention given to Simeon and Anna. Simeon's speech to Mary (2:34-35) serves to reassert the awareness that this is a story about Mary. From the accent placed on Luke 2:24, we are served notice that Mary is poor, a fact in keeping with her song-reply to Elizabeth in l:46ff. with its repeated references to those poor and of low degree. Simeon is now introduced. He, like Zechariah and Elizabeth, is "righteous and devout" - yet another allusion to the Law and its fulfillment (2:25). His character is confirmed by the fact that he actively expects God's promise to materialize. He is "looking for the consolation of Israel" which has been announced by the songs of Mary and Zechariah. Simeon's reward is that God grants him to see the Messiah before he dies. This forms
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Art and Meaning the immediate background for the action of this scene. Under the guidance of the Spirit, Simeon comes to the Temple intercepting Mary as she comes to perform her legal obligations. Nothing is said of his identity or function. It is possible that he is a priest, but the narrative presents him as an obedient servant of God whose feet are directed by the Spirit to this interception of Mary's path. He appears as one of the "poor" of Israel. Likewise, no description is given of Mary's performance of her Temple duties. These are merely recalled by the conclusion: "And when they had performed everything according to the Law of the Lord, they returned into Galilee" (2:39). Simeon appears in the story as a righteous man whose patience in awaiting the Lord's own time is rewarded. Whether he is old or young is not stated, only his willingness to die now that that the personal promise of God, made to him, has been fulfilled. Simeon is, however, more than a mere individual. He is a type of a faithful Israel. His song accentuates the role of promise-fulfillment as his personal situation soars into a figure of all men: "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word; for mine eyes have seen thy salvation which thou hast prepared in the presence of all peoples, a light for revelation to the Gentiles, and for a glory to thy people Israel" (2:29-32). The earlier themes of peace, fulfillment, light-Messiah, and all people come together as Simeon offers an interpretation of this creational event. Israel's poor, servant existence has at times made it a mockery among men. Power and politics have seemed to take the victory from those of simplicity and godliness. This is only appearance. In this child the Light, the Messiah - Israel's life is vindicated. He is a glory to Israel (Isa. 42:6; 49:6). Under him all men shall see clearly God's pattern. He is for revelation and light. There is more. The pattern of power earlier described by Mary to Elizabeth is again introduced: "This child is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel, and for a sign that is spoken against ... that thoughts out of many hearts may be revealed" (vv.34-35). Not all within Israel are poor and godly. The role of the King will be to effect a judgement. The reversal already begun will include a surprising reversal within the leadership of Israel. For the first time, our drama turns to a darker note. The child is "for a sign that is spoken againstl" The proud and the powerful will reject him. This is ironic. The King is not visible with the trappings of power respected among men. He comes with God's power. Thus he functions as a sign. Can men see
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Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 beyond the concrete reality of the servant to the invisible presence of the King? Hearts will be revealed! Unexpectedly we encounter a sub-scene in the Temple. The role of Mary as one who comes to be purified fades. The response to Simeon comes from Anna, a prophetess (2:36-38). We are given her background. Her character is reflected in her marital situation. She was widowed at an early age, living only seven years from the time of "her virginity" with her husband. Subsequently, "she did not depart from the Temple, worshipping with fasting and prayer night and day" (2:37). At the age of 84, she becomes the witness to Simeon's prophetic interpretation of the Lord's faithfulness and of the child's role and destiny. The prophetess thanks God and speaks not to everyone but simply to those prepared to listen - "to all who were looking for the redemption of Jerusalem" (2:38). The mystery of the King is hidden among the poor and the faithful who have patiently awaited the day of fulfillment. This aside having ended, we discover that the role of Mary is accentuated solely by the act itself: "And when they had performed everything according to the Law of the Lord, they returned to Galilee, to their own city, Nazareth" (2:39). The scene has established the fact of Mary's obedience to the Law by her visit to the Temple, but this act is dwarfed by the roles of the "holy man" and "holy woman" who are from among the "poor" of Israel. The work of the Spirit intersects the scene and shifts attention away from the institutional acts undertaken. This is the result of the action of God, the true father. God here functions much as did Zechariah in the equivalent scene in chapter 1. Through Simeon, he reveals to Mary, and to all by implication, the role of the child; just as Zechariah's speech, under the guidance of the spirit, interpreted the significance of John's birth. A scene which began by focusing attention on the mother's role has unexpectedly developed along lines which emphasize the child's paternity. The sub-theme of fatherhood now emerges into full view. A second Temple scene concludes the chapter, 2:41-52. The expected pattern of family loyalty is contradicted. The devout family is in Jerusalem at Passover when the child reaches the age of accountability. The child disappears. He is not among the family kin, as expected. Having discovered him, the anguished mother questions: "Son, why have you treated us so? Behold, your father and I have been looking for you anxiously" (2:48). The child's reply is ironic: "How is it that you sought me? Did
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Art and Meaning you not know that I must be in my Father's house?" (2:49). What audacity! A Jewish child putting down his parents! We can believe that "they did not understand the saying" (2:50). Perhaps we here see that even Mary's heart is pierced in the presence of the sign who reveals the heart. The child is truly beyond the boundaries of blood kinship. Having put down even his greatly honored mother, the child submits to Mary and Joseph as a matter of choice and not of necessity. His Otherness emerges in the haunting words of conclusion: "And he went down with them and came to Nazareth, and was obedient to them; and his mother kept all these things in her heart" (2:51). The child of God, prefiguring his latter life and his servant role, submits to those who are merely his servants. The reference to Mary pondering these strange events hints that the reader should recall the beginning of the drama: And the angel said to her, "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God" (1:35). III. Conclusion We may now summarize and draw several conclusions regarding the literary integrity of Luke 1-2. The central structure is provided by the three visits of the angel of the Lord (Gabriel): (1) The Visit to Zechariah (1:5-25) (2) The Visit to Mary (1:26-38) (3) The Visit to the Shepherds (2:1-20). The births of John and Jesus, Mary's visit to Elizabeth, the Shepherd's visit, and the events transpiring in the Temple represent the completion of the events set in motion by the angelic announcements. The theme of fatherhood forms a sub-plot linking the fulfillment of the laws on circumcision and purification with the question raised by Mary in 1:35: "How can this be, since I have no husband?" This then is strongly tied to the fulfillment motif in the songs of Mary and Zechariah. It is the ultimate confirmation that God had indeed "visited and redeemed his people" (1:68) as it was promised to Israel's "father Abraham" (1:54-55,
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and of his kingdom there will be no end" (1:33). 2 Mk. They introduce and develop themes which are central to the later development of the book. Mary (1:54-55). The fulfillment of the Angel's words cannot be doubted. arche is used to refer to the initial
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. humanistic reader. NOTES 1 The words spoken by Zechariah (1:67-72). to Mary (1:35). The scene of the child's coming of age is the point towards which the drama has been moving (2:41-51). The work of the Spirit promised to John (1:15). He seeks to root the creative events in his time to the ancient story of Israel. and Simeon (Lk.recalling the angel's promise: "He will reign over the house of Jacob forever. The Messiah who is a glory to Israel and a revelation to the Gentiles commissions his disciples to go to the nations of the earth (24:47) .. 18:9-14). Luke narrates an epiphany which fulfills the most ancient promises and deepest hopes of Israel.Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 72-73). His is no ordinary parentage. 1:1 and John 1:1 make similar use of the term arche. The theme that those who walk in the way of the Law receive the promise although they be few in number and among the poor is the key issue in Jesus' reception in Nazareth (4:24-27). It is at issue in every conflict between Jesus and the leaders of Israel. 2:29-35) anticipate the words of the Messiah as he reveals himself in the Nazareth synagogue: " 'the spirit of the Lord is upon me .' 'Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing' " (4:18-21). and evidenced through Zechariah's prophecy and Simeon's timely visit to the Temple culminates in the words of the one whose "Father's house" is the Temple (2:49). All the nations shall look to Jerusalem and its Davidic king for salvation. Continually Jesus is spoken against by the religiously powerful and affirmed unexpectedly by the outcast (7:1-23. The theme of the fulfillment of promise is the keynote of Jesus' first public appearance (4:16-22) and it is the heart of the last speeches to the disciples (24:27. It is perhaps best to characterize Luke 1-2 as the advent of the consolation of Jerusalem. Certainly the concept of "birth story" would not have the same significance for him that it would bear for a modern.44-53). Luke's narrative is only secondarily concerned with the actual birth of Jesus.. The events of the "nativity" narrative are closely intertwined with each other and with the structure of the whole gospel. In the New Testament.

9 The reader would also perceive that Mary is the property of Joseph and that God's approach to Mary would be a violation of Joseph's rights under the Torah. See Davis. this problem is made very explicit in the narrative. Speaking of Jesus.Davis: The Literary Structure of Luke 1-2 humiliation on the cross. 10 It would be out of place to emphasize the circumcision given the lack of a human father. The true father is yet hidden from the universal view. 144-149. The father's scene will come in 2:41-52 when the child comes of age and declares God to be his true father. In Matt. but to omit reference to it would be out of the question.
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. The stronger literary pattern is the fulfillment of the mother's role. 1:18-25. The child's role in the Temple is not unlike that of the apostles in Acts 10:34-42 who are chosen to be witnesses to the acts of God.

5.from the opening of the Gospel to the healing of the paralytic at the pool (the 1st and 2nd episodes of Dodd). in the several essays of the Muilenburg Festschrift /4/.c').c"). suggesting broad use of such patterning in post-exilic narrative /5/. employs the following devices to achieve literary symmetry: 1. II.b' being the paired units).5:19-47.b. These vary considerably in literary mode.c. Vanhoye analyzes Hebrews in these terms /7/. N. Studies in Ruth.a' and b. I.W.b.b' .).the passion and resurrection narratives. 6th. This paper will demonstrate that the Fourth Gospel. 13-17 . and 7th episodes). as heir to this tradition. or chiastic order (a-b-c-b'-a1): a pattern consisting of two overlapping triads .the dialogues at supper.the events in Galilee at Passover and those in Jerusalem at Tabernacles (Dodd's 3rd and 4th episodes). 8:31-59. Let us first briefly examine the units found at the close of each section but the last . 1-5 .249f. a balancing of incident against incident and theme against theme in paired complementary units. parallel sequences within complementary units. 14 (see the outline. V. 3. and Judith have set forth the structure of an entire book in terms of symmetrical design. chs. when sections II and III are halved. Lund was a pioneer in relating such structures to the NT /6/.a. for example. chs. sequential (a. word or formula repetitions to mark units. III. IV. THE CHRISTOLOGICAL STATEMENTS The basic division of the Gospel is taken as five-fold: I.a1 .b'. A detailed study by A. 1:1-18. chs. With such division. 9-12 . chs. of actions outside Jerusalem with events within the city. 18-21 . a close balance as to length between complementary units. 6-8 . Esther. triadic (with some quadratic) arrangements of paired units in consecutive (a.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel as has been demonstrated.the healing of the man born blind and the raising of Lazarus (Dodd's 5th. the most obvious pattern is the pairing. The prologue is a statement by
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. We shall return to these and the series of pairs in sections I and V. and the double nature of section IV when the dialogues are divided at the close of ch. 4. 17:1-26 together with the prologue to the Gospel. 2.c a'. 12:23-50. chs. pp.

iv. This geographic balancing may be outlined thus with paired units connected by dashes: [c.s. 1:1-18] I. 5:19-47] II. The correspondence is especially close within the longest pair of I and the extended pairs of II and III: 0)3:1-4:3 (C)6:l-71 0)9:1-10:42 lines [88] —(C)4:4-44 [157] — (3)7:1-8:3 [179] — (C to J)l 1:1-12:2 lines [88] [155 [170
3. (J) 1:19-34—(01:35-51 (02:1-12—0)2:13-25 0)3:1-4:4—(C)4:4-44 (C)4:45-54-(J)5:l-18 [c. "So whe he came to Galilee.).iii.ii.^ A named feast in one unit is balanced by another named feast in its complement: (Owedding feast 2:1-12 — (J)lst Passover 2:13-25 (C)2nd Passover 6:1-71 — 0)Tabernacles 7:1-8:30 (J)Dedication 10:22-42 — (C to J) entry before 3rd Passover
12:1-22
Even the unnamed feast (5:1) has in its complement. 0)9:1-10:42 (C to 3)11:1-12:22 [c. etc.Art and Meaning 1. Characteristics in subject matter a.i. Length of paired units A unit and its complement are of about the same length.s. 12:23-50] 2. for they too had gone to the feast" (4:45). If one unit centers in (J) Jerusalem (or concerns John the Baptist in Judea or addressing men of Jerusalem). its complement centers in (C) the countryside (Galilee. Bethany. 8:31-59] III.s.s. the Galileans welcomed him having seen all that he had done at the feast.
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. (An approximation is made through counting the lines in the NestleAland text). (C)6:l-71 0)7:1-8:30 [c. Geographic contrast Geographic contrast is found throughout these sections. Samaria.

"I lay down my life for the sheep.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel b^ Healing signs are paired: (C)official's son 4:45-54 (J)paralytic 5:1-18 (J)man born blind 9:1-41 (C to J) Lazarus 11:1-46 o_ Other signs. where Caiaphas says to the chief priests and Pharisees gathered in council. theme against theme. in Galilee.. Incident is balanced against incident. Each of the pairs in the first three sections is marked by at least one of these characteristics in subject matter in addition to the geographic contrast and the similarity in length of its units. pious Pharisee 3:1-21 — (C)sinful Samaritan woman 4:4-26 (J)a beggar." (10:7-21).. are balanced by pronouncements in Jerusalem indicating signs to come: (C)water to wine 2:1-12 — (J)true temple signified 2:13-25 (C)fceding of 5000. B. "It is expedient for you that one man should die for the people." (11:47-57). the person in one unit will be strongly contrasted to the person in its complement: (C)official's son 4:45-54 — (J)friendless paralytic 5:1-18 (J)Nicodemus. e^ When other individuals are given prominent treatment.. walking on water 6:1-71 coming of the Spirit 7:1-8:30 cL_ Mention of John the Baptist in one unit is always followed by specific mention of the disciples in the complement: (JXJohn: men of Jer. in its complement are found the words of the Good Shepherd.. — (J)signs to come: his departure. 1:19-34 — (C)Galilean disciples 1:35-51 (J)John's ministry closes — (C)disciples' ministry opens 3:22-4:3 4:27-44 The final reference to John (10:40-42) has in its parallel the encounter of Philip and Andrew with the Greeks (12:20-22). blind from birth 9:1-41 —(C)the beloved Lazarus 11:1-46 In a variant on this characteristic. Section I The four pairs of complementary units in the first section have the following balance (square brackets enclose the number of lines in Nestle-Aland):
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.

. 45.He confessed. Jesus: the source and giver of life A..43). The coming of the Christ 1:19-34. (J) 1:19-34 2... 13-23 1. [35] 2....the divisions being marked by the phrase "the next day" (1:29. References to signs in Cana and to feasts in Jerusalem tie the shorter pairs B and D to each other...We have found the Messiah the Christ.23 He said. I (which means Christ^ am the voice of one crying in the wilderness..Beholdt^he Lamb_of^ God the pj-pjDhets_wrote. b.35. III.. John's ministry closes. 3:22-4:3 2. Jesus' ministry Samaritan response to proclaimed [38] Jesus [37] D. and the as a dove from heaven and it angels of God ascending and remained on him.. (C) 4:4-26.. 20. (J) 3:1-21. Gifts of new life: healing signs 4:45-54. (JXJohn: men of Jer. descending upon the Son of man. (C)Wedding feast [26] 2. His authority manifested 2:1-12.... the pairs of section I have complementary verbal patterns.32 I saw the Spirit descend will see heaven opened.. (C)Official's son [25] 2.. 5:1-18 1. 35-51 1. though not as striking as those in the extended pairs of sections II.Art and Meaning I... (J)Passover: temple [29] C. the incidents in the first pair take place on four days .. Nicodemus [50] a. and IV (see below). For example.51 .... Baptismal dialogues & baptismal ministry 1. The coming of the Christ 1.! am not 41 . Note the following complements: A..you ..as_the (fourth day) p_rophet jsaiahjsaid.BehokiJLtheLamb_of^od. Disciples' ministry opens.. (C) 1:35-51 (third day) (first day) 36.two in the first member of the pair and two in the second . (J)Paralytic [35] [174] [193] In addition to the parallels noted above. enhance the subject balance between the members. Samaritan woman [51] b. 27-44 a. The verbal complements in the other paired units of section I.
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. (C)Galilean disciples [41] B.We have found him of (second day) whom Moses in the law andl_also 29..

deed the Savior of the world.. 33 he who receives his testimony 42.. among others.... Samaritan woman 4:4-26 14. 23 Now when he was in Jesus did at Cana in Galilee. and those who worship him must worship comes to the light.the water that I shall give him will become a spring of water welling up to eternal life. considers the "third day" to be. and Jesus went up to Jerusalem. feast....Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel B. D. the second after the events at the close of ch. Disciples' ministry opens. Samaritan response to Jesus ministry proclaimed 3:22-4:3 4:27-44 28. Jerusalem at the Passover and his disciples believed in him." 29. Son has eternal life. Jerusalem & Judea a. he cannot enter the kingdom of God..] was at hand...Can this be the Christ? 30 He must increase. 21 But he who does what is true 24 God is spirit. Samaria a.) 11 This..36 He who believes in the for we have heard for ourselves and we know that this is in. "Destroy this temple. Jesus' b.. 1 /9/. by our reckoning. true. Brown. Nicodemus 3:1-21 5. the first of his signs. Baptismal dialogues & ministry 1. in spirit and truth. many believed in his name when they saw his signs which he did...It is no longer because of sets his seal to this.others have labored.. (C) Off icial's son 4:45-54 2. 2.... and you have entered into must decrease their labor. (J)Passover: temple 2:13-25 [1 On the third day there was a [13 The Passover of the Jews marriage in Cana of Galilee.unless one is born of water and the Spirit. but I 38..I am not the Christ. b.. John's ministry closes. C. If water-to-wine points to new life through Christ when "his hour has come" there may be an intended parallel to Jesus' answer in 2:19...(C) Wedding feast 2:1-12 2. His authority manifested l. (J) Paralytic 5:1-18
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.. Gifts of new life: healing signs 1. that God is your words that we believe. and in three days I will raise it up"..] (R....

. 46 So he came again to Cana in Galilee where he had made the water wine. and the second on the seventh day. His departure & coming of 6:28-59 [69] the Spirit signified 7:31-8:20 [69] c. The four longer divisions are marked. the concluding shroter ones by a strong messianic statement:
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.Art and Meaning 45. that the first healing occurs at the seventh hour. section II. 5:9.The Holy One of God [26] c. Living bread offered b. III and IV 1. for example.) 54 This was now the second sign that Jesus did when he had come from Judea to Galilee. 7:1-8:30) The extended pair of II has. Teaching in the temple & standing 6:1-27 [62] threats of death 7:1-30 [63] b. by similar endings. It is rather curious. (C)Signs at Passover . in addition to the parallels between its members described above. Jesus. Section II (6:1-71. however. Divisions within the extended pairs.law a. sustainer of life amidst the hostility of the world signs present and signs to come (Jesus and Moses) 1. "I am he" 8:21-30 [23] 6:60-71 [157] [155] Theme and structure join in balanced presentation. (J)Tabernacles & signs to come . feast of the Jews and Jesus for they too had gone to the went up to Jerusalem feast. a certain design within itself. In each of its members there are two thematically linked divisions of similar length followed by a third shorter division: II.having seen all that he had 1 After this there was a done in Jerusalem at the feast. 4:52.manna 2. (In these healing narratives there are no specific parallels except in terminology common to such. Feeding & lack of undera.. C.

In 10:40-41 the place in which John first baptized and his words concerning Jesus are recalled. Jesus washes their feet. The disciples and the world a. In 10:36 Jesus used the title "Son of God". 11:55-57). recall in a striking manner the very first pair of narratives in the Gospel (1:19-34.43). Jesus and the disciples 2.Dedication. 3. The evangelist invites a comparison of the two signs by reference within the Lazarus episode to the healing of the blind man (11:37). 13-14.Passover). In its parallel. Dialogue on Jesus' [74] departure 13:33-14:31 departure 16:1-33 [154] [134] The example of Jesus' love as he washes his disciples' feet followed by Judas' departure has as its complement the metaphor of the vine and the branches followed by Jesus' words on
243
. chs. The final verses in each member. let us go hence" (14:31). a." These are precisely the titles placed on Nathanael's lips in 1:49.9-10). 11:4. Judas' departure [24] b. 13-14. 12:1 . Metaphor of vine & his example 13:1-20 [46] branches. in 12:13 the crowd hails him as "king of Israel. 35-51). 15-16. The world's hatred [24] 13:21-32 15:17-27 c. 15-16) The pairs in IV and V have no geographic distinctions everything now centers in Jerusalem. 12:21-22. Section IV (chs. example of his love [46] 15:1-16 [36] b. with the point between being the words "Rise. followed by a reference to light (9:3-5. taken together. Each member may be separated into three divisions: IV. the two disciples who called others to Jesus (1:40. 11:49-51). Philip and Andrew. Section IV consists of one extended pair. Abiding love & the Counselor: example & promise 1. Dialogue on Jesus' [84] c. Each member closes with "the Jews" questioning among themselves concerning Jesus (10:19-21. In the second division. the third divisions open with mention of a feast in each member (10:22 .Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel Each of the members opens with Jesus correcting the disciples' misunderstanding of an affliction. Jesus' words on the good shepherd are paralleled by the high priest's statement that it is expedient that one man should die for the people (10:11-15. now bring word of Greeks who seek him.

. "A servant is than his master.Where I am going you cannot come.. but....20 Remember the word that you.... "He .. over. These exchanges (five in 13:33-14:31 and three in ch. I chose you.. 27 and you also are witnesses. even God is glorified in him." Others are closely parallel: 17 If you know these things. and glorify him will bear witness to me. with the witness of the Father and the Son (13:31-32) and the witness of the disciples and the Spirit (15:26-27): 31 When he had gone out.. 16:1-15." because you have been with me from the beginning. His pronouncements and his replies prepare the disciples for the signs to come..but he is clean all which I have spoken to you. at once. 13: 13:1-20. 16) follow a consistent pattern of proclamation-response-amplification (see appended note A). he God will also glorify him in in himself. In the third division of each member.. "Now is the Son comes whom I shall send to of man glorified... Two sayings of Jesus in ch. truly. who proceeds from the Father.. I say to . dialogue centers on Jesus' announcement of his departure.. 26 But when the Counselor Jesus said. 18.the hourjs
com ing. .. 13:33-38..17-27 .10 Jesus said to him." not greater than his master.3 You are already made clean by the word who has bathed does not need to wash. respectively. love one another as I have 16:1-33
[ a ] c. ments you will abide in my love. a servant is not greater I said to you.... 10 If you keep my commandblessed are you if you do them. 32 if you from the Father.. The relationship between the two series may be diagrammed as follows: 13:33-14:31 a. These passages conclude. the Spirit of truth...I know whom I have chosen 16 You did not choose me.Art and Meaning the world's hatred of himself and his disciples. and you are clean.16 Truly.they have not known the Father or me
2M
. 15 refer specifically to sentences in ch....21-32 15:1-16.

..
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. b'.. believe in God..... 16:16-24 A little
while and you will see me no more...Counselor loves you because you have loved me.. b.
[?] a. 16: [a] the Counselor and the Spirit of truth. that I love the Father.that in me you have peace ruler of this world. [3] a little while..He who has seen me has seen the Father..... ask and you will receive.Counselor..a little while . I have overcome the world.Spirit of truth
[?] b.. 16:25-33.remembrance.. (See appended note A for a more detailed analysis)... leave me alone. indeed has come... .....ruler of this world... Spirit of truth......5-24 (programmatic to ch.... again a little while and you will see me.he who loves me will be loved by my Father. that your joy may be full. 14:7-14..till you have denied me three times.... [y] 21 .. sorrow has filled your hearts .the Father c. 14:1-6 Let not your h_earts_be troubled....Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel loved you. 14:15-24 is programmatic to the presentation of themes in ch._let^not^y_our hearts_be troubled.. 14:1.. that the Father may be glorified in the Son.you have asked nothing in my name..16) [a] 15-17 . [3] 18-20 .. (c) the Counselor and the ruler of this world..whatever you ask in my name I will do it. Each exchange turns on or concludes with an effect of Jesus' departure. (b) seeing and asking. that the world may know ..... remember.. a'.. The inverted (chiastic) parallelism of other themes in the exchages is diagrammed above: (a) love and rejection.you will see me. In addition.. believe also in me..The the Holy Spirit...you will to you. 14:25-31 ..Counselor. [y] the Father's love..be of good cheer......the hour
_is_commg.I am the way..my peace I give hour_i^coming.

19:38-20:31). 15-22). Jesus. 15-32) make up the first pair." was to die. the two appearances before Pilate.Art and Meaning D. Section V Section V (chs. subject parallelism is more fully developed. In V the complementary units are not as closely balanced as to length as they are in sections I to III. Jesus before Pilate 1. the second (18:33-19:7. However. The third. 21 makes the fourth pair (1-14. is marked by the twin endings 19:35-37 and 20:30-31. Note also the parallel passages at the close of each of the first three divisions. The cross [32]
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2. The scenes in the garden and the court (18:1-14. Death and Resurrection A. Burial and Resurrection a. The first judgment [42] The second judgment [23] 18:33-38a Kingship (dialogues with Pilate) 19:8-11 Power 38b-40 Barabbas (rejected for another) 12 Caesar 19:1-5 Purple robe (displayed) 13-14 Your Kingl 6-7 The demands (condemned) 15-16 Demands heeded "Crucify him" "Crucify him" C. V. The court [46] 18:1-3 The meeting place (disciples) 18:15-18 Peter in the court 4-9 Confrontation (adversaries) 19-24 The high priest 10-11 Peter & Malchus (disciples) 25-27 Peter & Malchus' kin 12-24 To Annas (words fulfilled) 28-32 to Pilate "It was Caiaphas who had given "This was to fulfill the counsel to the Jews that it word which Jesus had spoken was expedient that one man to show by what death he should die for the people. similar in this respect to the first narrative section. The tomb [57]
. The garden [32] 2. Obedience and triumph 1." B. 18-21) has pairs of shorter length. Ch. which includes the crucifixion and resurrection narratives (19:17-37. Space precludes a detailed presentation. 19:8-16). closing with an ascription (23-25). Execution a. abandoned by disciples and rejected by authorities 1. but the following outline illustrates the argument in brief.

. authorities.. 1. Shepherd & flock 21:15-22 [33] Ascription 21:23-25
[165]
[194]
E. Section I and V The first and last sections are almost identical in length. temple on kingship & power.. Resurrection. Risen Lord & disciples [35] 19:28-30 spirit given up (spirit) 20:19-23 Spirit bestowed 31-34 Water <5c blood (wounds) 24-29 Wounds shown 35-37 ". abandoned & rejected. Certain parallels may be seen in the subject matter:
1 Y
[76] A. Death [22] b." D. "lifted up". Each has four pairs of complementary units. Baptismal dialogues [146] C. disciples.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel 19:17-22 Crucifixion (departure) 19:38-42 Burial 23-25a Garments parted (vesture) 20:1-10 Empty tomb & linen cloths 25b-27 Mother & disciples (mourners) 11-18 Mary at the tomb b. baptismal (Nicodemus) ministry. blood & opening of disciples' water. The figures of the church: third appearance 1. cleansed 2:1-24 displayed as a king 18:33-19:16 [176] C.that believing may believe." you may have life in his name. Death & burial (Nicodemus). Chiasmus In addition to the parallelism within the pairs of each section. disciples 1:19-51 18:1-32 [55] B. Coming of Christ hailed: [78] A. gift of Holy Spirit ministry 3:1-4:44 to disciples 19:17-20:31
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. John. Dialogues with Pilate water to wine. Jesus.. Authority manifested [65] B. men of Jer.that you also 30-31 ".. The drag-net 21:1-14 [37] 2. the lengths of the pairs in I parallel the lengths of those in V. there are indications of chiastic symmetry among the sections. Jer.

The structure of the Gospel may be represented thus (with underlined letters representing the christological statements):
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. too. comes the final reference to John the Baptist: "And many came to him. but everything John said about this man was true. Sections II and IV There are some specific parallels in subject matter between II and IV. So. Structure This analysis of the structure of the Fourth Gospel in terms of a specific literary tradition marked by symmetrical design and balanced units has presented an outline of the thematic. "As I said to the 3ews now I say to you. It has been argued that the structure of the Johannine Gospel follows a regular pattern of paired complementary units which themselves appear to be arranged in an over-all chiastic scheme. 6) have direct relevance to the last supper (ch. and they said. The sections are separated by a series of structurally similar christological statements which also fall into a chiastic pattern. at the mid-point of the Gospel. in IV the hour has come (13:1. 'John did no sign. the extended pair concerning light and life: 9:1-10:42 11:1-12:22 (J)Man born blind. Dedication (C-J)Lazarus. The feeding of the 5000 and the words on the bread of life (ch. In 13:33 Jesus quotes. the enigmatic saying about the Spirit in 7:37-39 is made explicit in the promise of the Counselor in chs. Section III At the center of the chiasmus stand the two members of III. In II his hour had not yet come (7:30. 3. Figures of the Church: drag-net & shepherd ch.' And many believed on him there" (10:41-42). 13) /I I/. 8:20). F.1' words spoken before in 7:34 and 8:21. and quantitative elements which suggest that it does fall within that tradition. verbal. Gifts of new life: two healing signs 4:45-5:18 [367] [70] D. 'Where I am going you cannot come1. 14 and 16.21
[359]
2.Art and Meaning [60] D. 16:32). entry before Passover Between them.

14) which have suggested piecemeal redaction are. a similar precision may well be found in the presentation of its theology. in fact.) B. In R. Dodd expressed the unity of the Gospel in terms of intricate and subtle links between episodes so ordered that they represent a progression of thought concerning eternal life from birth. Only in stage 3 is there a consecutive Gospel as a distinct work. If the Gospel is as precisely patterned as suggested in this paper. close the paper and suggest a rationale for the structure. The narrative
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. It has been noted above that the christological statements set forth in concise form (1) a developed theology of the Son's person. (There might possibly have been a stage when the narrative sections. met by the theory of balanced pairs. Theology C. the seeming duplication in ch.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel reflect a Semitic tradition which may be observed in biblical literature from the Pentateuch to the post-exilic narratives. there are five such stages. if the four-document hypothesis is correct. 21. formed a distinct book to which the christological statements were later added. Further editing would have been relatively minor since it did not destroy the detailed structure of the Book. Some of the problems (for example. The second implication has to do with the theory that there were several stages in the composition of the Gospel. Or perhaps a later redactor carefully reshaped an earlier form into the balanced pattern the Gospel now presents (as Matthew. and of (3) the effects of his presence among men. in a brief sketch. the first two of which concern the existence of traditional material and its development in Johannine thought-forms. A proposal as to possible theological implications of the patterning will. The use of such pairs reflects a particular literary tradition and is not the result of editorial insertion of later material. 16 of material in ch. but the two elements complement each other so well that this seems unlikely.H. reshaped Mark and Q). Brown's proposal. to the transmutation of death into glory /14/. the 5th stage is that of the final redactor /13/. except perhaps for ch. through victory of life over death. This is re-edited to meet contemporary problems in the 4th stage. It is possible that the material when first organized into a coherent whole was in large measure the Gospel as we have it today. together with surveys of (2) the witnesses to his coming. The precise and detailed pattern suggested above would seem to preclude a final redaction through patch-work editing.

he will send the Spirit to dwell in them and teach them. Brown's article "The Johannine Sacramentary" /15/. is contrasted with the rejection both he and his disciples will face.a dual reference to the life of Christ and to the life of the community. however.) The Spirit's descent at Jesus' own baptism makes clear that this authority is from the Father. II. The Gospel's first narrative section points to the coming of Christ with authority. sustainer of life amidst the hostility of
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. recognition. healing signs of new life. the Samaritan woman. unable to receive the healing gift through his own strength) prepares. He follows O. Blood has the double implication of man's enmity and of nurture through sacrifice. temple cleansed. John baptizing. through the sabbath controversy. water to wine. However. set forth in example and command. and the marriage in Cana. Section II concerns feeding and promise in the context of open hostility and threats of death. Baptism became the focal point of an individual's acceptance of that authority. especially those of (2) and (3). (Blood) Jesus.Art and Meaning sections include elaborations on these concepts. Nicodemus. 1:19-5:18. Arguments for and against interpreting this in terms of a sacramental orientation have been summarized and a mediating position suggested in R. The Christian experience embodied in the Gospel is. bringing to remembrance all he has said: I. Cullmann and others in "seeing any sacramental reference as the second of a two-fold meaning present in the words and works of Jesus" and subjects the suggested elements of sacramental symbolism to careful scrutiny /16/. hence the specific symbolism of water in the units of Nicodemus. the source and giver of life. baptismal ministry. Its manifestation concerns not only rebirth but also that cleansing and healing so needed by man and temple. the Samaritan woman. the evangelist has blended his vision of the life and words of 3esus with his own apprehension of the effect these have had and still have on the disciple . With his departure. Brown's criteria for authentic baptismal symbolism /17/. (The signs in these units meet R. (Water) Jesus. In each. broader than that. a central thought behind each of the sections seems to turn on some specific element in Christian life. Jesus' love. In the fourth section. The second of the healing signs (the paralytic. for the conflicts in the next section.

not with water only but with the water and the blood. of course. This is. In the central section of the Gospel the narratives of the man born blind and of Lazarus are vivid exemplars of the promise: III. 12:3-13). 12:12-13). 11:23-26). There are three witnesses..those who have once been enlightened. the theme of the final section in the Fourth Gospel.He who believes in the Son of God has the testimony in himself. Through the self-offering and resurrection of Christ made present through baptism. and have become partakers of the Holy Spirit. the Spirit.. and have tested the goodness of the word of God and the powers of the age to come. 18-21. the fulfillment of all prophecies and promises. the water and the blood. too. chs. the Christian enters into light and life. Rom 6:1-11. eucharist. Spirit.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel the world. In his epistles he directly links each of these with Christ's death and resurrection (for example. baptism. 13-16.. "My flesh is food indeed. 6:1-8:30. "I am the Bread of life". (Spirit) Abiding love & the Counselor: example & promise. and the Spirit (I Cor 2:10-13. chs. Death and resurrection. I Cor 11:26." (5:6-lOa) The same are perhaps behind the reference in Hebrews to: ". who have tasted the heavenly gift. 9:1-12:22 John presents the life of Christ in relation to what happens in
253
. Jesus Christ. Light and life: the penultimate signs. The first Epistle of John probably refers to the same concepts and uses the term 'witnesses' (martyrountes). Feeding of 5000. and the Spirit. because the Spirit is the truth. and these three agree." (6:4-5) Paul. signs to come. and my blood is drink indeed". eucharist (I Cor 10:16. seemingly witnesses within the experience of each Christian: This is he who came by water and blood. growing hostility and threats of death. writing to the church in Corinth reminds his readers of what they have received and are receiving through baptism (I Cor 6:11. V. And the Spirit is the witness. IV. Rom 8:9-11). eucharist.

these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ.. dialogues and discourses. the revelation of Jesus. he has life in Jesus for he eats the flesh of the Son of man and drinks his blood (6:54). In fact. though the term can be misleading. Johnston. the parallelism in this section of the Gospel begins with
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. Blood. grace upon grace.16-33" has suggested that these verses be considered as a series of six exchanges. and that believing you may have life in his name. each following the pattern of revelation-question-clarification /18/. I agree that ch. John writes: "And from his fulness have we all received.. grace and truth came through Jesus Christ. Reese in his article "Literary structure of Jn 13:31-14:31. 16 is not a variant of ch. The revelation concerning the Holy One of God is sealed by the witnesses working within. 16 to be a deliberate parallel." (1:16-17) These terms typify the two elements in the symmetrical structure of the Gospel: truth. I find ch. and Spirit. parallelism being a structural feature central to the literary form of the entire Gospel. At the close of the prologue to the Gospel. Rather. The emphasis is not so much on sacraments as liturgy as on elements in the Christian life of which the liturgical sacraments became focal points. And this experience includes guidance by the Spirit as well as the acts of baptism and eucharistic participation. 16:5-6. In a true sense the Gospel is sacramental in approach. In taking 13:31 and 16:40 as the openings of the two sections he follows the division proposed by G. He holds that some of the material in the passages is a later addition but questions the theory that ch. 14. for the law was given through Moses. the Son of God. 16 is a variant of ch. given through the Lord's death and resurrection as presented in the narrative sections. the power of God working in men by Water. 16 J. develop the themes: ".5). 14. the Holy One of God. The Christian has been born anew of water and the Spirit (3:3. as presented in the Christological statements. the Christ.John 13:33-14:31.Art and Meaning the experience of each Christian." (20:31) APPENDED NOTE A . and the Spirit guides him into all truth (16:13). grace. Signs and narratives.M.

too. will be with them. Jesus' departure means that they.
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. (3) 14:7-14. 16) rather than the six in Reese's analysis. having departed. as demonstrated above.Webster: Pattern in the Fourth Gospel 13:1 and 15:1 respectively. The three proclamations which open this exchange (15-17. "I have told you before it takes place. 3esus' conclusion in each exchange does not always clarify but does amplify his original proclamation. 15-16 at 16:1. The disciples cannot follow him now but will later. 14:1-6. (5) 14:25-31." (6) 16:1-15. so that when it does take place you may believe. For. If they believe his words or works. In him they have seen the Father. the Spirit of truth. the "response" in two of the exchanges is not a question by the disciples but Jesus' statement of what their inner response has been (sorrow. 13-14 begins at 13:33 and that of chs. In the amplification (23-24) Jesus promises that he and his Father will dwell in them. Second. but it also means that they will receive the Counselor. but I differ from him in several details. Parallelism and development of theme give sufficient purpose to supposedly extraneous passages. (b) they will see him again: (c) and the Father himself will love them. Thus it is probably correct to begin the exchange at 16:1 rather than at the more usual division point 16:4b. will suffer. First. They should rejoice in his departure because he goes to the Father. When the evangelist returns to the exchanges he develops the themes in the order given in the proclamations of 14:15-21. (4) 14:15-24. 16: Jesus' departure means that (a) the Counselor. Each exchange turns on or concludes with an effect of Jesus' departure: (1 & 2) 13:33-38. Reese's three-fold pattern of exchanges is instructive. I see no need to posit extensive additions to an original core /19/. Their strength is not sufficient in itself but Jesus is their Way and goes to prepare a place for them. 14:28). 16:6) or should have been (joy. will do through them greater works than they have yet known. I divide the material into eight exchanges (five in 13:31-14:31 and three in ch. the Spirit of truth. 18-20. Jesus. 21) prepare for the three exchanges of ch. In the synoptics (Mark 13:9-13 and parallels) the guidance of the Spirit is closely tied to the disciples' suffering for the Gospel's sake. One minor matter: I believe the terms proclamation-response-amplification are somewhat more accurate than revelation-question-clarification. example. In the analysis here proposed the third part of chs.

and each repeats the proclamation which precedes it. The disciples profess their belief. The responses in the two concluding exchanges of ch. pp. 14: (1) the disciples will be guided by the Counselor and (2) a peace not of this world will be given them (14:25-26. the example of his love remains to guide them and to identify them.244f. returning to a theme of the first exchange (13:33-38). Of the remaining six exchanges. Thomas. (8) 16:25-33.29-30). 16:20-23a.). 14 and the first of ch. Response The response in each of the first four exchanges of 13:33-14:31 comes from a single disciple: Peter. If he goes he will come again to them and their sorrow will be turned into everlasting joy.12-13 Jesus' works . In 14:28-29 he states that if they loved him they would rejoice. In the one exception the proclamation is threefold. The Pattern Proclamation In the first exchange (13:33-38) Jesus' proclamation is twofold: (1) repetition of his word to the Jews on his departure and (2) the new commandment. Yet. each part developed more fully in one of the exchanges of ch. In the three where it is two-fold.Spirit of truth. Those who love him and believe will themselves be loved by the Father. In 16:4-6 he tells them what will happen so they will remember. Jesus came from the Father and now goes to the Father.12-15 Counselor . 16:7-11. foretells their desertion. but Jesus. through him they have peace and through him the world has been overcome. 16 (14:14-21 . he reveals to them what will take place in order that when it occurs they will believe. and then Judas. five open with a single proclamation.16 come from the disciples as a group (16:1719. Philip. In the final exchange of ch.the disciples' works. Amplification In five of the exchanges each response is followed by a single amplification.
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.see (4) above and b' in the thematic diagram. the parts are complementary: 14:10-11. each directly question a proclamation of their Lord.27). There is another double proclamation at the close of ch. They are complementary: though the disciples cannot follow him.Art and Meaning (7) 16:16-24. though now sorrow has filled their hearts.16 Jesus himself expresses the response or desired response of his followers.