Even as Gandhi was
preparing himself for the struggle ahead, the Government of the State of
Transvaal notified the draft of a new Ordinance on the 22nd of August 1906.
The new law made it compulsory for all Indians, even children, to register
themselves with their finger prints. Everyone would have to carry a
certificate on his person at all times. Those who did not would lose the
right of residence, and would face prison or deportation from Transvaal. The
Indian community was incensed at the thought of their women being stopped
and searched for certificates. So great was the indignation that some
Indians threatened to shoot policemen who stopped or submitted their women
to search.
Gandhi was clear that if
the Ordinance became law and the Indians acquiesced, they and their honour
would be wiped out. The Ordinance had to be resisted. But resistance would
bring unprecedented suffering. Would his people stand up and fight? He
convened a meeting of all Indians at the Empire Theatre, Johannesburg. On
the 11th of September 1906, when the time of the meeting came, the hall was
overflowing with people. Haji Habib read out the resolution drafted by
Gandhi. It declared that Indians would not submit to the Ordinance. They
would suffer the penalties that would result from defiance, but would not
submit. Gandhi did not want them to pass the resolution without full
knowledge of the consequences. He told them they might be arrested. They may
have to spend several months in dark and dingy prisons. They might not be
able to eat the food that they would be given. They would be at the mercy of
African warders. They should expect no mercy. They might be assaulted,
hand­cuffed. They might take ill and die in prison. Their families might
suffer. Would they still pass the resolution and pledge resistance?
At this time, the
Chairman suggested that they should pass the resolution with God as witness.
Gandhi's ears stood up. In a flash, he saw a great opportunity. He asked for
permission to speak again. He explained to the listeners what it meant to
take a pledge or vow in the name of God. The resolution ceased to be an
ordinary resolution. It became a pledge or vow before God. There could be no
going back from a vow taken with God as witness. It became a spiritual
obligation. Would they still take the pledge and pass the resolution? There
was still time for those who were not sure, to desist. But for him, the
leader, "only one course is open to me ... to die rather than submit to the
law". The listeners were electrified. Some were in tears. All of them rose
and took the pledge or vow in the name of God.
Gandhi said that at that
moment, he did not understand all the implications of the new method of
resistance that the vow symbolized. "I only knew that some new principle had
come into being, which was capable of revolutionizing individual and social
life." This was the birth of Satyagraha. To begin with he called it passive
resistance; but this did not clearly convey the inspiration behind the fight
or the nature of the fight. So the term 'Satyagraha' was coined on the basis
of suggestions that came from Indian friends.
Many Indians refused to
register. Gandhi was ordered to leave Transvaal. He refused. He was arrested
on the 10th of January 1908. As was to become his custom later, he asked the
magistrate to award him the heaviest sentence that the law prescribed, since
he was the main culprit. He was sentenced to two months in prison. By the
end of January many Indians were in jail. General Smuts who was the Prime
Minister was perplexed. He sent Mr. Cartright, the editor of a journal and a
friend of Gandhi's, with a proposal for a compromise. Cartright met Gandhi
in prison and gave him the General's message. The Government only wanted to
prevent further immigration of Indians into Transvaal. So, if the Indians in
Transvaal registered themselves voluntarily he would withdraw the Ordinance.
Gandhi was taken to meet the General.
Gandhi believed in the
General's intentions and his promise to repeal the Act, and agreed to the
compromise. Gandhi was released. But he found it hard to convince many of
his followers who had no faith in the government. Gandhi explained his
reasons and announced that he would be the first to register.
On the appointed day,
Gandhi was proceeding to the office of the Registrar to register
voluntarily. He was surrounded by his friends and followers. Suddenly, a
Pathan who had taken the pledge of resistance stepped forward, asked Gandhi
what he was about to do, and felled him with severe blows. Gandhi exclaimed
'Hai Ram' and fell unconscious. He was removed to the house of a Christian
missionary, Rev. Doke. When he regained his consciousness, Gandhi made two
requests. One was that Mir Alam and his assistant should not be prosecuted,
but should be forgiven. The other was that he (Gandhi) should be taken to
the Asiatic Registrar so that he might be the first to register. But his
physical condition was such that he could not be taken to the office of the
Registrar. Gandhi then wanted that the Registrar should be requested to go
to his bed side. The Registrar came, but advised Gandhi to wait till he was
well enough. But Gandhi would not agree. He had to be the first to register
as he had promised to do. But he could not lift his swollen and bruised
hand. His hand was lifted up and placed on the spot, and he signed and gave
his finger prints. Mr. Channey, the white Registrar, wiped his tears as he
saw Gandhi sign. This was not the last time Gandhi brought tears of
affection and admiration to the eyes of his adversaries.
But Gandhi's Indian
critics were proved right. General Smuts betrayed Gandhi. As soon as he
found that a large number of Indians had registered voluntarily, the General
brought in a Bill to validate voluntary registration in the eyes of the law,
and announced that the Black Act (on registration) would not be repealed.
Gandhi was truly tricked. The honour as well as the future of the Indian
community was in danger. It seemed as though they had defeated themselves.
Gandhi rose to the
occasion. He found a dignified way of exposing the General's perfidy and
vindicating the honour, intentions and courage of the Indians. He declared
that the Indians would stop registering and would publicly burn the
certificates of registration that had been issued to them, thus voluntarily
defying the Government and inviting them to take action against them under
the Act. A mammoth meeting was arranged at the grounds of the Hamidia
mosque, and a cauldron was set up near the dais. An ultimatum was sent to
the Government. From suffering in silence and petitioning, Gandhi had led
the people to a position of fearlessness and defiance. It was they who were
now issuing an ultimatum to the Government. "We regret to state that if the
Asiatic Act is not repealed in terms of the settlement, and if the
Government's desire to this effect is not communicated to the Indians before
a 'specific date', the certificates collected by the Indians would be burnt,
and they would humbly but firmly take the consequences."
The response was
tremendous. There was high drama, open rebellion of the kind the world had
never witnessed. The world press had assembled to witness the bonfire. The
Government did not relent. It replied in the negative. As its telegram was
read out at the meeting, there were cheers. Again, Gandhi declared that
anyone who was afraid of consequences could take back his certificate before
it was burnt. There was only one shout that rent the air : "Burn them." And
as the certificates in the cauldron were about to be set fire to, Mir Alam
who had been released from prison stepped forward and hugged Gandhi, and
apologized for mistaking Gandhi's intentions and suggesting that he had been
bought over by the whites.
The struggle against the
Black Act was intensified. Gandhi found many ingenious ways of defying the
Act. He inducted prominent and respected leaders of the community like Parsi
Sorabji and Adajania from Natal into the struggle of defiance, to court
arrest and imprisonment.
The Government had to
act. They arrested Gandhi and imprisoned him. This was in 1908. He was sent
to Volksrust prison. It was there, in the prison, that Gandhi read Thoreau's
book on Civil Disobedience. He was happy to find that the book vindicated
his views and plan of action. By now, many Indians had courted arrest
through defiance or Satyagraha. They were lodged in prison. Their courage
and determination were exemplary.
When Gandhi was released
from prison after his third stint, in 1909, constitutional issues relating
to the Union of South African states were before the British Parliament.
Many Indians felt that Gandhi should use the opportunity to present the
Indian point of view to the Government and Members of Parliament. He
proceeded to London in the compay of a colleague. He had great faith in the
fair play and sense of justice of the British nation. But he was
disappointed. Indian demands met with a negative and cynical response. The
visit to England, however, gave him an opportunity to secure sympathy and
support from many leaders of public opinion in England. It also gave him an
opportunity to meet and exchange views with many Indian revolutionaries who
were advocating violent means to seek India's independence. This saddened
him. He felt that they had not thought out the meaning of independence or
the impact that one's methods would have on the attainment or distortion of
one's goals. He was also saddened by their unthinking acceptance of Western
Civilization and the cult of industrialism. He was convinced that the
philosophy of greed and indulgence would destroy human civilization. To him
Satyagraha was the answer. These thoughts were very much in his mind, and
so, on his way from England to South Africa, he put his views down in the
form of a dialogue. This book was published first in Gujarati as Hind
Swaraj. It was later translated into English, and is often looked upon as a
basic exposition of Gandhi's political and economic views.
It was during this visit
to London that Gandhi first started corresponding with Tolstoy, the great
Russian thinker and litterateur. Gandhi had read his books.
To him Tolstoy was a
sage, a revolutionary thinker. He had been greatly influenced by Tolstoy's
spiritual perceptions as well as his thoughts on social and economic
matters.
On his return from
London, Gandhi was confronted with the need to intensify his struggle. Many
Satyagrahis were in prison. Many more would have to serve terms in prison.
He had to find a way of looking after their families while they were in
prison. He could not depend only on public funds. So he conceived the idea
of setting up a farm where the families could live, work on land or crafts
and produce what was needed for the community. One of his close associates,
Herman Kallenbach, an architect of German stock offered him a plot of 1000
acres which had already been acquired. On this plot was set up the Tolstoy
Farm. The object of the farm was to train Satyagrahis and their families to
lead a life of simplicity, love and truth, and to depend on one's own
labour. Kallenbach and other colleagues of Gandhi — Indian as well as
Western — joined him. Everyone had to do manual work including the grinding
of corn. The community baked its own bread; had its tannery and shed for
shoe-making. Inmates had wooden pillows and two blankets each. Life was
rigorous, but it was lived on the high plane on which the Satygrahi was
expected to function. Gandhi also dealt with the need to provide education
to the children of the families. His own children were part of the young
community that Gandhi tried to teach and guide. Gandhi conducted his
experiments with education and dietetics both at the Phoenix settlement and
the Tolstoy Farm.
Meanwhile, a new King
was ascending the throne of England, and the British wanted to create an
atmosphere of good will. They decided to amend and soften the Black Act, to
make it look as though it was not specifically discriminatory against
Indians. They released the Satyagrahis who were in jail. The Satygraha
movement had gone on for four years or more. It was now decided to suspend
Satyagraha and review the next moves.
At this time, the
British Government in India encouraged the great Indian patriot Gopal
Krishna Gokhale to visit South Africa. He was a highly respected figure in
the Empire as a great scholar, man of integrity, wisdom, moderation and high
values. He had espoused the cause of South African Indians for many years,
and done so with great force and effect. Gandhi looked upon him as his
political Guru. He, therefore, saw a great opportunity in the visit of
Gokhale. He took personal responsibility for all arrangements and for
attending to Gokhale's needs and serving him in every way. The Government of
South Africa treated Gokhale with great respect. He was received by General
Botha, General Smuts and other ministers. Gokhale got the impression that
General Botha had agreed to repeal the Black Act and abolish the 3 pounds
tax. But Gandhi knew the South African leaders better. He expressed his
disbelief.
During the visit,
Gokhale got an opportunity to observe Gandhi at close quarters. On his
return to India, he said that Gandhi "has in him the marvellous spiritual
power to turn ordinary men around him to heroes and martyrs. In Gandhi's
presence one is ashamed to do anything 'unworthy', indeed afraid of thinking
anything 'unworthy'." Gokhale expressed the hope that Gandhi would now be
able to return to India since the struggle in South Africa was nearly over.
But soon, it was seen
that Gokhale had been misled by the South African Leaders. General Smuts
regretted that the proposal to abolish the 3 pounds tax and withdraw the
Black Act had to be given up because of opposition from the whites.
A new challenge had been
flung at the Indian community. Gandhi decided to respond with swift and
decisive moves. He moved his family to Phoenix, and decided to clear the
Tolstoy farm and induct all inmates into the battle. Upto now, there were
two issues that had rallied the community, namely the withdrawal of the Back
Act or ban on Asian immigration, and the abolition of the 3 pounds tax.
A third was now added by
a judgement delivered by Judge Searle. With one verdict the Judge declared
all marriages solemnized by rites outside the Christian Church invalid. By
this stroke, all marriages of Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs became
invalid in the eyes of law, thus undermining the legal status of families,
wives and children. This infuriated women and men alike. Women became as
keen to fight the government as men. Gandhi realized that this one act of
the government had awakened women and made soldiers and militants of them.
He wanted to give women equal opportunity to take part in the struggle. He
knew they were capable of great heroism and powers of endurance. These were
qualities that the Satyagrahi needed. So he forged a plan of action.
But to implement that he
had first to persuade his own wife Kasturba to join the struggle, offer
Satyagraha and court imprisonment and prosecution. This was done without
difficulty. Kasturba was ready to show Gandhi that she too was willing to
suffer imprisonment or work for the sake of justice.
Gandhi formulated new
plans. He would send women Satyagrahis including Kasturba across the borders
of the two states. If arrested, they would gd to prison. If left free, they
would go to the coal mines at New Castle, where Indian indentured labourers
were working. They would tell the workers of the struggle and the
government's undermining of Indian marriages and families.
Gandhi's plan worked.
Women Satyagrahis crossed the frontiers. Some including Kasturba were
arrested and sent to prison. Others who were allowed to go free reached the
mines. Their story sent the miners into a fit of indignation. They downed
their tools and came out of the pits. The response was over­whelming.
Gandhi came to know of
the strike and rushed to New Castle. He cautioned the miners. They were
staking their all. They would lose the huts that the employers had given
them. They would lose their jobs and incomes. Their families would suffer.
They should leave the mines only if they were prepared for all these
possibilities.
The struggle might be
long. All that he could promise was that he would "live and have my meals
with them as long as the strike lasted".
The workers reaffirmed
their determination and arrived in their thousands, with their women and
children. Gandhi had a big problem on his hands. Surely, the workers added a
new dimension to the force at his command. But where was he to house them?
How was he to feed them? How was he to use them in the struggle? They had to
be housed under the roof of the sky. Some Indians helped in finding grains
and other requirements. One of them, Lazarus looked after their needs with
all that he had, housing them in his compound and putting his stocks of
grain at their disposal. But how long could thousands be fed that way?
Gandhi hit upon a plan
that would meet many of his objectives. He would take the workers to the
Tolstoy Farm where they could work and wait to participate in the struggle.
If they were arrested at the frontier of the State, Government would take
responsibility for them.
It was no easy task to
take thousands of hungry illiterate men, women and children on a long march.
They had to get food on the way. A white baker came to the rescue. He agreed
to make bread available at the stages of the march on the appointed days.
Everyone would get Vi lbs. of bread and half an ounce of sugar. That was
all. Gandhi himself had to serve the rations, since no one else could deal
with the men who were angry and hungry. The rules of the march were read
out. The marchers had to be disciplined. They should be non-violent.
They should do nothing
to provoke the white men in the areas through which they passed. They should
observe good sanitary habits. Otherwise they may cause epidemics.
They would cover the 200
miles from Charlestown to the Tolstoy Farm in eight days, walking 24 miles a
day. Kallenbach, Polak and others helped him to organize and conduct the
march. The long march was perhaps the first long march in recorded history.
It started on the 6th of November 1913 at the break of dawn. It bore witness
to the heroism and determination of the Indians. While the marchers forded a
river at one point, a child perched on the hip of a mother slipped into the
swirling waters of the river. The mother did not wait to wail and mourn, but
kept up the march with others.
There were no incidents
involving the white population or the Police till the marchers reached the
frontier. There Gandhi was arrested at night and removed, but released on
bail. He and his leading colleagues were arrested, released on bail and
rearrested when they resumed the march.
At Balfour, three
special trains were waiting. The marchers were arrested. But now something
unexpected happened. The workers were not taken to prison. Instead they were
taken back to the mines. The mines were declared part of the premises of the
prisons of New Castle and Dundee. The white managerial staff of the mines
were vested with the powers of jailors. Workers refused to go down the pits.
They were whipped. They refused. They were forced down and beaten with iron
chains. They refused to pick up tools and work. They persisted in their
defiance. Wherefrom did these indentured labourers who were condemned as
cowards and slaves get the iron will to resist without raising their arms?
The news of the
atrocities that followed shocked the capitals of the world, and sparked off
'hartals' and strikes by Indians all over South Africa. The Government
inducted mounted military police. They were ordered to shoot at sight. There
were many scenes of heroic non­violent defiance all over South Africa.
Gandhi went on a fast.
This was the first of his many fasts for public causes. In utter
identification with the indentured labourer, who was derisively called a
'Coolie', Gandhi gave up his European dress. He cut his hair short like the
coolie, wore a lungi and discontinued the use of footwear.
When reports reached
England, there were a deep sense of shame and waves of indignation. In
India, people were shocked and enraged. Gokhale and other Indian leaders
wanted an immediate end to atrocities and discrimination. India was on fire.
The British Viceroy himself was moved to make a speech at Madras, in support
of the Satyagrahis and their cause. Gokhale sent two prominent Englishmen to
help Gandhi and to act as intermediaries. One of them was the great leader,
educationist and missionary, Rev. C. F. Andrews.
The British Government
was in a quandary. They brought pressure on the South African Government to
appoint a commission to enquire into Indian grievances and demands. Gandhi
was not satisfied. There was no Indian on the Commission. The Commission
might turn out to be an eye wash. He, therefore, prepared to restart the
struggle.
But an unforeseen
development took place. The workers of the South African Railway System went
on a nation-wide strike. This caused great hardship to all South Africa.
Gandhi immediately suspended Satyagraha, explaining that it was against the
tenets of Satyagraha to exploit the distress of the adversary.
This had a disarming
effect on General Smuts and the whites. They did not know how to fight and
hate Gandhi in the face of such love and generosity. They realised the truth
of what Gandhi had claimed from the very beginning : that he had nothing
against the white population of South Africa; all that he wanted was the
removal of injustice. Love and suffering had melted the intransigence and
resistance of the whites. The Government decided to accept all the three
demands of the Indians, — abolition of the poll tax, validation of marriages
and abolition of restrictions on travel and residence. The Satyagraha came
to a successful close.
Gandhi had discovered a
new weapon. He had demonstrated the power of the weapon — a weapon or power
that every human being had within himself. He had shown the power of love
and suffering. He had taken his people from the depths of helplessness to
the peaks of victory: from contempt and ridicule to respect; from fear to
fearlessness and bravery.
He felt he had completed
his work in South Africa. He decided to return to the wider theatre of the
motherland to serve his people and to further demonstrate the power of
Satyagraha.