Monday, November 27, 2006

Question: When I need to go to the toilet (to answer the call of nature) - may Allaah honour you (O Shaykh) - I take with me a book or newspaper (to read) whilst I am in there. So is this permissible?

Response: It is not permissible to take anything into the toilet which has the mention of Allaah ('Azza wa Jall) in it, be it a book, newspaper or other than that, for that which it entails in exposing the mention of Allaah ('Azza wa Jall) therein.

In light of the recent police killing I would like to present the following about a man whom was at the forefront of the struggle (and search) for social justice, especially in the area of police brutality.

On Friday December 1st, The Center for Puerto Rican Studies at Hunter College will unveil the Richie Perez archives. Richie Perez left us a great amount of documents, tapes, transcripts, etc. These are a goldmine of history, political analysis and views of the future from which we can all benefit. It was very important for Richie to document our stuggle and organizing, so that the next generation will learn from our mistakes and not repeat them.

Please Join us on Friday December the 1st when the Richie Perez archives are unveiled.

Below is a brief biography of Richie followed by some quotes of Richie.

Richie Pérez (1944-2004)

http://www.virtualboricua.org/Docs/perez.htmA longtime activist and leader in the struggle for global human rights, Richie Pérez was a leading exponent for social justice and political participation. A former Young Lord and National Congress for Puerto Rican Rights co-founder, Richie brought his unique mix of integrity, zeal and unity to the diverse ethnic and racial communities of New York City and beyond.

Born and raised in the Bronx, Richie graduated from the NYC public school system and the City University of New York. He also earned an MA in Business Economics from NYU and completed course work toward a Ph.D. in Bilingual Education.

He taught at Monroe High School and was involved in the movement for community control of the schools. He also taught college courses on the Puerto Rican urban experience, the mass media, social policy in the United States, the history of the Civil Rights and labor movements at institutions like Hunter and Brooklyn Colleges, the College of New Rochelle, and the Center for Legal Education and Urban Policy.

As a member of the Young Lords Party, he served as editor of its weekly newspaper Pa’lante and was the party’s Deputy Minister of Information. He was also active in the Anti Bakke Decision; the New York Committee to Free the Puerto Rican Nationalist Prisoners; and founded and led the Committee Against Fort Apache (the movie).

Richie spent the last 21 years working at the Community Service Society where he was the Director of Political Development and where he shared responsibility for the agency’s urban agenda. Over the last decade, grassroots projects he designed and ran registered more than 250,000 new voters. Most recently, Richie worked closely with the CSS Legal Department on the issue of felon disenfranchisement.

As a founder and co chair of the Justice Committee, he was responsible for organizing efforts against police brutality and racially motivated violence. He worked closely with youth organizations and families of victims.

He was the lead plaintiff in the lawsuit aimed at abolishing the NYPD’s Street Crimes Unit. In addition, he was a founder of People’s Justice 2000, a coalition formed to mobilize support during the trials of the police officers who killed Amadou Diallo and tortured Abner Louima.Richie also wrote and lectured extensively on topics including urban problems, restructuring of the US economy, race relations, media stereotyping, electoral politics, community organizing, youth leadership development and political empowerment. His views were frequently sought by the media and his interviews were shown on programs including 60 Minutes, NY I, Like It Is, Visiones, Positively Black and Tiempo.

Richie is survived by his wife, Martha Laureano, son, Danny and his mother Ann Pérez.

Revolutionary, teacher, mentor, lifetime visionary and leader in the struggle for global human rights and social justice

"The arc of history is that every generation has to fight the liberation struggle. Every generation, it doesn't matter what the generation before you did or didn't do. You're going to have to deal with it."

"It helps if there is a connection between the previous generation and the new generation.It helps; it doesn't prevent you from making mistakes. Every generation will make their own mistakes, will create its own organizations, and will create its own cultural forms, its own expression everything. And every generation will have its own rhythm."

"See that's what I want to be for this generation. At this point, I figure that's what my role is. I mean I'm a great organizer and I'm an activist and I still like to kick ass, but how I can make my greatest contribution is I got to be part of that transmission of history. Because the time that you're on the historical stage is short, man." R. Perez

On Friday, December 1, 2006 those of us who shared Richie’s life, who struggled side-by-side with him, those who came in contact with him in the many arenas of work and those who never had the opportunity to cross paths with him, but share a common goal and destiny, should plan to come together and celebrate his life and legacy as The Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños/Center for Puerto Rican Studies at Hunter College inducts into the Centro’s Archives of the Puerto Rican Diaspora,

The Richie Perez Collection

We welcome you to this chronological representation of his vision, work and activism, that spans nearly four decades

Friday, December 1, 2006 6:30 pm to 9:30 pmHunter College-School of Social Work Auditorium129 East 79th Street (between Lexington and Park Avenues)New York City

Just when we thought that police brutality was a thing of the past, the NYPD kill a man out in Queens. Will this brutality and inhumanity ever end? Here is an article about the incident and the rally that was held yesterday.

It is known in police parlance as “contagious shooting” — gunfire that spreads among officers who believe that they, or their colleagues, are facing a threat. It spreads like germs, like laughter, or fear. An officer fires, so his colleagues do, too.

The phenomenon appears to have happened last year, when eight officers fired 43 shots at an armed man in Queens, killing him. In July, three officers fired 26 shots at a pit bull that had bitten a chunk out of an officer’s leg in a Bronx apartment building. And there have been other episodes: in 1995, in the Bronx, officers fired 125 bullets during a bodega robbery, with one officer firing 45 rounds.

Just what happened on Saturday is still being investigated. Police experts, however, suggested in interviews yesterday that contagious shooting played a role in a fatal police shooting in Queens Saturday morning. According to the police account, five officers fired 50 shots at a bridegroom who, leaving his bachelor party at a strip club, twice drove his car into a minivan carrying plainclothes police officers investigating the club.

The bridegroom, Sean Bell, who was to be married hours later, was killed, and two of his friends were wounded, one critically.

To the layman, and to the loved ones of those who were shot, 50 shots seems a startlingly high number, especially since the men were found to be unarmed. And police experts concede that the number was high. Yet they also note that in those chaotic and frightening fractions of a second between quiet and gunfire, nothing is clear-cut, and blood is pumping furiously. Even 50 shots can be squeezed off in a matter of seconds.

“We can teach as much as we can,” said John C. Cerar, a retired commander of the Police Department’s firearms training section. “The fog of the moment happens. Different things happen that people don’t understand. Most people really believe what it’s like in television, that a police officer can take a gun and shoot someone out of the saddle.”

The five officers involved in the shooting were placed on administrative duty yesterday — without their guns — as the Police Department and the Queens district attorney investigated the circumstances surrounding the shooting, and relatives of Mr. Bell, joined by the Rev. Al Sharpton, staged a rally and a march to demand answers.

The officers have not yet been interviewed by police investigators or prosecutors to give their account.

Again and again, the focus of the day returned to the number of bullets that went flying.One of the officers fired more than half the rounds, pausing to reload, and then emptying it again, 31 shots in all, according to the police. Another officer fired 11 shots. The others fired four shots, three shots and one shot apiece, the police said.

But it is the total number of shots that shook and angered the families of the men and community leaders. “How many shots?” Mr. Sharpton asked yesterday, over and over, in a chant at a rally in a park near Mary Immaculate Hospital, where the wounded men were being treated. The crowd called back, “Fifty!”

Statistically, the shooting is an aberration. The number of shots fired per officer who acted in the 112 shooting incidents this year, through Nov. 19, is 3.2, said Paul J. Browne, a department spokesman. Last year, that number was 3.7 shots fired per officer in 109 incidents. They are down from 4.6 in 2000 and 5.0 in 1995.

But shootings with high numbers of shots fired, however rare, call to mind dark events of the city’s past, like the 1999 killing of Gidone Busch, who was clutching a hammer when officers fired 12 times, and, most notably, the shooting of Amadou Diallo, an unarmed West African immigrant who died in a hail of 41 bullets, also in 1999.

In the 1995 Bronx bodega robbery in which officers fired 125 shots, the suspects did not fire back. “They were shooting to the echo of their own gunfire,” a former police official said at the time.

The shooting on Saturday unfolded in a flash. An undercover officer posted inside the Club Kalua, a site of frequent drug, weapon and prostitution complaints in Jamaica, overheard an exchange between a stripper and a man that led the officer to suspect the man was armed, Police Commissioner Raymond W. Kelly said on Saturday. The undercover officer alerted the officers acting as backup outside — there were seven officers in all — about 4 a.m., setting into motion the events to follow later.

Eight men left the club and argued briefly with another man, with one from the group saying, “Yo, get my gun,” Mr. Kelly said.

The eight men apparently split into two groups of four, with one group piling into a Nissan Altima driven by Mr. Bell, Commissioner Kelly said. As an undercover detective who had been following the group on foot approached the vehicle, Mr. Bell drove into him, striking his leg, before plowing into a minivan carrying two backup officers, the commissioner said.

The Altima reversed, mounting a sidewalk and hitting the lowered gate of a building before going forward and striking the van again. The officers opened fire, striking Mr. Bell, 23, twice, in the right arm and neck, Commissioner Kelly said. The critically wounded man, Joseph Guzman, 31, was struck 11 times, and the third man, Trent Benefield, 23, three times. Mr. Kelly said it was unclear whether there was a fourth man in the car and what became of him.

A person familiar with the case who knows the detectives’ version of events said yesterday that it was Mr. Guzman who asked for his gun, and that the first undercover detective on foot clearly identified himself to the occupants of the car and, gun drawn, told them to get out. Instead, the person said, they roared toward him. That detective fired the first shot.

In the ensuing barrage, one shot struck the window of a house, another a window at an AirTrain platform, injuring two Port Authority police officers with flying glass. It appeared that the Altima was struck by 21 shots, fewer than half of the number fired, the police said.

The whole thing most likely took less than a minute. The officer who fired 31 times could have done so in fewer than 20 seconds, with the act of reloading taking less than one second, Mr. Cerar said. The 49 shots that followed the undercover detective’s first may have been contagious shooting, said one former police official who insisted on anonymity because the investigation is continuing.

“He shoots, and you shoot, and the assumption is he has a good reason for shooting. You saw it in Diallo. You see it in a lot of shootings,” the official said. “You just chime in. I don’t mean the term loosely. But you see your partner, and your reflexes take over.”

The phenomenon of officers’ firing dozens of shots at a time dates back in part to 1993 and the department’s switch from six-shot .38-caliber revolvers, cumbersome to reload, to semiautomatic pistols that hold 15 rounds in the magazine and one in the chamber. The change, like any of its magnitude, followed years of studies and differences of opinion, and finally came into effect after the 1986 murder of a police officer, Scott Gadell, who was reloading his six-shooter when he was fatally shot.

Commissioner Kelly, during his first term in the office, in 1992 and 1993, ordered a switch to semiautomatics, but ordered the clips modified to hold only 10 rounds. That modification was later undone, prompting him, after Mr. Diallo’s shooting six years later, to speculate in a New York Times op-ed article, “Now may be the time to re-impose it and to intensify training that teaches police officers to hold their fire until they know why they are shooting.”

Eugene O’Donnell, a professor of police studies at John Jay College, said a high number of shots fired underscores the threat the officers felt.

“The only reason to be shooting in New York City is that you or someone else is going to be killed and it’s going to be imminent,” he said. “It’s highly unlikely you fire a shot or two shots. You fire as many shots as you have to, to extinguish the threat. You don’t fire one round and say: ‘Did I hit him? Is he hit?’ ”

Mr. Cerar said, “Until we have some substitute for a firearm, there will always be a situation where more rounds are fired than in other situations.”

On November 20, 2006, at 7pm at Giovanni’s Restaurant, New Yorkers will hold a farewell party for former Light Heavyweight boxing champion, Jose “Chegui” Torres. After living in New York for forty years, during which he was a boxer, Boxing Commissioner, author and newspaper columnist, he will be moving back to his homeland (Puerto Rico.) Friends of the South Bronx along with the Juan LaPorte Gym will be hosting the event. The activity will also serve as a fundraiser for the Juan LaPorte Gym located in the South Bronx at 700 Elton Avenue. Among those from the boxing world that will be present are former boxers Emil Griffith, Juan LaPorte, Iran Barkley and Saoul Mamby. Also present will be current Welterweight Edgar Santana and the “Shakespeare” of boxing, Bert Randolph Sugar. For more information call (917)517-1320

Since we saw the Democrats defeat the Republicans, does that mean that Realism has finally defeated Neo-Conservatism (Idealism)? Was the shift from Rumsfeld to Gates management and the Baker commitee the first signs of the beginning of the end for Neo-Con politics on the international level?

Saturday, November 18, 2006

Who Were the Young Lords ?

This is a short clip about the Young Lords Party of New York. They are part of the continual Puerto Rican resistance to oppression. It was also part of the Puerto Rican search for truth. Islam, of course, is the final truth and the answer to all of humanity's needs.

Sunday, November 05, 2006

I found this at Dr. Raquel Rivera's blog on myspace.com. For those of you who do not know of her she is one the premier reseachers of our time on issues of Puerto Ricans and race. Her doctoral thesis was on New York Puerto Ricans and Hip Hop. You can find her thesis (now book) at:

********PLEASE NOTE: SOME OF THE PICTURES HAVE BEEN DELETED OR EDITED FROM THE AUTHOR'S ORIGINAL IN ORDER TO BE MORE IN LINE WITH ISLAMIC STANDARDS*********

The Myth of Latino Brown-ness

by Dr. Raquel Rivera

Language conspires against us. How to make ourselves understood and at the same time speak in a way that does not perpetuate crazy myths?

For example: Black is used as a synonym for African American in the U.S. and, more and more often African Americans and Latinos are spoken about using the language of skin color: Blacks and Browns.

But is brown a useful label when so many Latinos are (whether by looks or by ancestry) just as black or even "blacker" than many African Americans? Is brown a useful label to describe Latinos ranging from the milkiest skin-toned to the ebony complexioned?

The work of photographer Luis M. Salazar, born in El Salvador in 1974, was showcased last year at the S-Files collective exhibit at El Museo del Barrio in East Harlem.

The photo series is titled Spark La Música: Hip Hop en español in New York City, 2003-2005 and features artists like La Bruja, Enemigo, Divine, Inti and El Meswy. Considering the huge range of skin tones evident in the photos (from Divine's and Inti's deep brown skin to La Bruja's and El Meswy's cream-colored complexions) the text accompanying the photos struck me: They come from [description of their various regional backgrounds]. And besides their color of skin and mother tongue, they all share the love of hip-hop culture.

I wondered: How can the text state these artists share a color while the photographic evidence right next to those words screams to the contrary?

To add yet another spin to the matter, while the above mentioned hip hop artists featured in Salazar's photo series are from Latin America (Puerto Rico and Colombia), El Meswy is from Spain. So not only is this European artist being incorporated into the definition of Latino, but he is also endowed with the mythical brown-ness of Latinos and Latin Americans. It is a brown-ness that, though using the language of racial phenotypes (looks), stands as a synonym for a Latino pan-ethnicity that reaches across the Atlantic to Spain.

Some people insist that describing Latinos as brown is appropriate because we are supposedly all mixed. Yet, describing all Latinos as brown is tricky considering some of us are more mixed than others; also considering that some of us are just as mixed as African Americans, Native Americans, Asians or whites in the U.S.; also considering that some of us are not mixed at all; AND, also considering that depending on how mixed you are, you get treated differently, courtesy of Latino and Latin American-style racism and self-hatred.

Other people say that Latino brown-ness is just a convenient label that uses the language of skin color but really points beyond race. They say that brown-ness is a good symbolic way for Latinos to bridge our racial differences. But I do not buy it. This all sounds way too much like Mexican writer Jose Vasconselos' dangerous myth of the so-called cosmic race from back in the 1920s or like 1930s Puerto Rican writer Tomas Blanco playing down Latin American racism as a kid's game (compared to racism in the U.S.). Using the label brown to describe all Latinos sounds like a re-packaging of the old myth of racial democracy in Latin America.

As long as white is the color of privilege among Latinos and Latin Americans, pretending we are all brown sounds like a terrible idea to me. How can we address racial conflict, differences and inequality among Latinos if, supposedly, we are all brown?

IntroductionUpon leaving the entrance of any given train station in The Bronx, one can immediately hear Salsa music blaring from an open car window or storefront boom box. The smell of lechon asado fills your lungs with every breath as you listen to the harmonious voices of the people around you speaking Spanish all at the same time. Looking in all directions it is not hard to find this community's symbol of pride and pure love for their homeland- the Puerto Rican flag waving gracefully in the wind.

New York has always been considered the gate of opportunity to immigrants all over the world, this includes the citizens of Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans have been immigrating to New York since 1838, before they were even granted United States citizenship (Hosay 40). Since then the number of Puerto Ricans moving to the Bronx has taken an interesting turn. In 1910 only 500 people of Puerto Rican descent maintained residences in New York City (Hosay 40), this number skyrocketed to an astounding 817,000 in 1970, of those about 40 percent of them lived in the Bronx according to Philip M. Hosay in his essay "The Puerto Rican Experience." The Bronx continued and continues to be a very dense region of Puerto Ricans despite the lowering numbers. According to the 2000 census, 57 percent of Hispanics in New York State live in the borough of The Bronx, and 319,000 of them are Puerto Ricans. This is down from the 1990 census when the Puerto Rican population of The Bronx was 349,115.

The Puerto Ricans of The Bronx do not seem to be discouraged or even affected by the low numbers ever since their arrival to the mainland and they continue to participate in their rich culture despite mainstream America's view that non-English speakers should fully assimilate into American culture. This is most likely due to the strong presence that they have throughout most of The Bronx and the lack of other ethnic groups in Puerto Rican neighborhoods.

LanguageLike in many other cultures, language is an extremely important aspect of Puerto Ricans' ethnic identity. Being of Puerto Rican descent and having grown up in The Bronx, we can speak from experience when we say that it is extremely difficult to escape encounters with the Spanish language. When one is Puerto Rican it is almost expected to have some sort of Spanish language background, if not one is often mocked by other Puerto Ricans of all age groups. For example, Stephanie is a twelve-year-old Puerto Rican girl from The Bronx who recalls a time when her Puerto Rican heritage was questioned. She grew up speaking Standard English and knew only a few words in Spanish. Stephanie recalls telling one of her friends one day that she was Puerto Rican, but he didn't believe her saying "but you don't speak Spanish, you can't be Puerto Rican." Many of her physical traits are that of a typical "White girl", light blue eyes, white skin and she has what is known as "good hair" (the texture of "good hair" is less coarse and often straight or wavy as opposed to tight, kinky curls). Her identity was never questioned because of her physical traits but rather because of her lack of ability to speak Spanish. This is proof of just how much Puerto Ricans value their language and identify themselves with their speech. Paca in Ana Celia Zentella's Growing Up Bilingual says "Spanish [is] crucial 'if you Puerto Rican, you SHOULD know it, because that's their blood, because that's what they are. They should learn." ( 146)

When visiting The Bronx, Spanish is inescapable; it is on the radio, in the stores and on the streets. Even if you are speaking English to a Bronx Puerto Rican, many times they will respond back to you in Spanish, especially if you are of Latino descent. When Jessica, a dark skinned, or triguena, Puerto Rican woman walked into a Bronx clothing store, she asked the saleswoman if there was a fitting room in English. The saleswoman responded "No, porque no puede medir las camisas" she was completely confident that Jessica would have understood her despite the fact that they have never conversed in Spanish before this encounter. Karen Pedrosa, director of basketball operations and recreation specialist, at Roberto Clemente Park reveals that many of the Spanish-speaking children that go to the park are of Puerto Rican descent and speak little to no English at all. She explains that "these kids are straight off the boat" and despite attending bi-lingual classes their English skills are still minimal. This is most likely the result of a lack of education and proper training in many Bronx schools.

EducationMany of the schools throughout The Bronx are not up to par, there seems not to be any logical reason for this but it is a sad reality. In the words of one Bronx schoolteacher who worked within the school system for eighteen years "Bronx schools stink." The New York City's Board of Education's Chancellor report for the year 2000 report that 15 percent of all New York City public school students are in English as a Second Language (ESL) programs, of them 26 percent are Latinos. Ms. Rosemary Nieves explained that the ESL programs are "maintenance programs" meaning that the programs are not designed to teach English but rather enhance the skills that the students already have. "Half the classes are taught in English and half the classes are taught in Spanish...[since] they will be tested in Spanish." Karen Pedrosa "[knows] kids who have been left back two years in a row because of their [lack of] English.... it's terrible." The majority of ESL classes in The Bronx are filled with Hispanic students, and even those students who are not of Spanish descent or linguistic background, will learn Spanish as their second language over English. This re-enforces the idea expressed by Ofelia Garcia in her essay "Multilingualism: World languages and their role in a U.S. City" that many times immigrants will learn a language other than English before they learn English, if they ever do in fact learn English at all (6). The language which they will learn is dependant upon the neighborhood they are living in and the language that those people speak. The way in which it is determined whether or not a child should enter into an ESL class is through a lab test, in which the child takes a written and oral exam, and depending upon their scores, the child will either be placed in mainstream classes or ESL. Those children that are in mainstream classes are English dominant even if they are of Latino heritage.

Puerto Rican Influence on Bronx LifeWalking down the streets of Westchester Avenue, we encountered many Chinese fast food restaurants which have become the staples of the Puerto Rican culture. Most of these Chinese owned restaurants are run by people who are of Chinese descent, but can speak enough Spanish and English to maintain their businesses. Although these people carry their own accents, they still manage to open doors between themselves and their customers by gaining basic language skills and communicating to their customers in the tongue which suits them most. Within these places of business, we came to find that 99 percent of them were in a transitional phase of cultural assimilation. The workers did not speak fluent English or Spanish, but could convey certain phrases like, "You want pork fried rice, or chicken fried rice?", pronounced, "Yoo wah pooah fri ry, o chiki fri ry?" It seems as though these people will stay at this phase for a long time until they have fully assimilated into The Bronx.

While visiting the Shop Smart, we interviewed the owner by the name of David, and found that not only were all of his customers Puerto Rican, but so was most of his inventory. Goya beans, Adobo, Sazón, and Canella rice filled one aisle from the bottom to the top. He even directed us to the platanos at the end of the counter. The store, in which all of the workers are from Yemen, was blasting music from a pronounced Spanish radio station, which told us that they had taken something from their Puerto Rican counterparts. These people spoke Arabic but made their business inside a predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood. David also realized that in order to run a successful business he would have to embrace some of the Puerto Rican culture- such as the music and food in order to make the store seem inviting to the neighborhood's inhabitants. They were not intimidated by the lack of other Yemeni neighbors, rather they were relieved that the Puerto Ricans had taken them in so kindly.

After our vigorous and tiresome task of interviewing, walking, and shopping, we decided to eat at a near-by restaurant called El Pabellon. As a special treat, we came to find out that not only did this place serve Spanish food, but they also served Chinese food. Even more interesting was the fact that the waiters, who were Chinese, could speak Chinese, Spanish, and English with ease and fluidity. We spoke to the waiters in English and were responded back to in Spanish, then overheard them tell the cooks in Chinese what our orders were, showing a full command of all three languages in an acculturated phase. We came to find out later that there are many other restaurants in The Bronx where people do not even question the fact that these are Chinese people speaking Spanish, rather it is an acceptable notion. It is as if the Puerto Ricans in the community were oblivious to what ethnicity the waiters were born into.

Services Available to Puerto RicansEvery church along Soundview Ave, whether it be Catholic or Pentecostal, offers both English language mass and Spanish language mass. Holf Cross Church offered more Spanish language masses than English to cater to its predominantly Hispanic community. There were no churches along Soundview Avenue that did not offer at least one Spanish language mass. The churches' signs also highlighted events, special days of prayer and greetings in Spanish, rather than English. Most churches in The Bronx offer Spanish language services although the only time to catch the masses are in the early hours of the morning, such as 7 or 8. St. Frances de Chantal church on Harding Avenue only offers their Spanish mass at 7:30 a.m. This neighborhood is a predominantly Irish/Italian neighborhood, but the parish recognizes that some of the members of their church may not be able to partake fully in their normal masses because of a language barrier. However in other areas of The Bronx where Latinos are the predominant group, many churches, especially small "store-front" churches offer solely Spanish language services, or perhaps only a few services in English which are very hard to come by.

Aspira is one of the most renown organizations dedicated to the advancement of Puerto Rican culture. It was founded in 1961 by a group of Puerto Rican educators who were appalled by the dropout rates among Puerto Rican youth. The services that Aspira offers vary greatly from drop-out prevention programs in the less prestigious schools of the city to leadership clubs and career advisement for the more fortunate schools. They also are starting a program that will teach "job readiness" to High School students so that they can graduate High School and enter a work field and are found in 40 percent of all schools through out the city.

The program was created with the interests of Puerto Ricans in mind; however anyone is invited to share the benefits this program has to offer. Most of the students utilizing the program are of some Hispanic heritage and only about 20 percent of them are African-American and other races. Ann Marquez explains that the highest volume of students are "second and third generation Aspirantes, whose parents were Aspirantes as well."

While bilingual services are available in Spanish, Mrs. Marquez points out that most of those seeking out Aspira's programs are English dominant students who "need more training in Spanish than in English", which according to Marquez, they do not provide. The only instances where English is not the dominant language are in those schools requiring drop out prevention programs. Due to such a small volume of other ethnicities that reach out to Aspira, staff normally do not speak any other languages other than English and Spanish. As Mrs. Marquez points out, there has never been such an instance yet where it would be needed.

An interesting point has been brought up by these findings. Those students who are English dominant, are those who belong to more prestigious High Schools and who utilize college counseling services as opposed to poorer High Schools where the students are Spanish dominant and utilize job training and drop-out prevention programs. We feel that Aspira should develop an ESL program, which would emphasize the teaching of Spanish to English dominant speakers while simultaneously encouraging them to pursue a higher education, since that is after all, their main goal.

Medical ServicesThe Soundview Health Center, a place which offers check-ups, x-rays, blood work, and prescriptions is the most prominent clinic in one large part of the Bronx community. Mrs. Lillian DeJesus, a supervisor for the clinic gave some insight as to the population of Puerto Rican patients that visit the clinic daily. About 70-80 percent of all patients are of Puerto Rican descent, while the other 20-30 percent are mostly African American with a few Caucasians. The facility is run by employees who for the most part speak English and Spanish equally well, but no other languages; the doctors consist of Turks, Asians, and Puerto Ricans.

About 60 percent of all incoming Puerto Rican patients have a problem communicating in English, so one would think that it would be hard for these patients to talk to a doctor who does not know Spanish. When asked if the clinic offered translators to these patients, Mrs. DeJesus replied, "No, we don't have to... They bring their own most of the time." The clinic staff has no trouble running the facility smoothly in terms of language barriers because they rarely encounter patients who speak any other languages beyond Spanish and English unless the patients bring their own translators. Ms. Rosalie Monroig, a secretary at the Einstein Hospital in The Bronx claims that most if not all of the employees, even the janitors within the hospital speak Spanish and English equally. She claims that one girl in her department "can't speak a lick of English" and therefore has a hard time communicating with the patients. This is the case in many hospitals in The Bronx due to the high volume of monolingual Puerto Ricans who are qualified for such jobs. For the most part, there seem to be no major discrepancies within the medical field in The Bronx in terms of language barriers.

ConclusionPuerto Rican culture, in and of itself, is one of diversity and sometimes one of seclusion. As Mr. Mike Alavarez points out in his highly Puerto Rican accent, "Dominicans, they really kill the language... Sometimes, they don't, they don't even know what you are talking about." Puerto Ricans want to learn the English language but sometimes denounce the advancement of some other ethnic communities around them, as seen in Mr. Alvarez' statement. Many Puerto Ricans believe that they could not get by in The Bronx without knowing at least some basic English. The Post Office had only one piece of literature in Spanish, demonstrating that not all businesses want to preserve languages other than English.

To some extent, Puerto Ricans in The Bronx want to assimilate so much into American culture that they lose some of their culture. This is true of Puerto Ricans who are moving out of The Bronx slowly, shown by the census data, and into suburban environments. Many Puerto Ricans feel that this Americanization is a threat to the conservation of Puerto Rican communities and identities. Unlike the Chinese in Chinatown who speak mostly Chinese and will contain the state of their community for generations to come, Puerto Ricans seek to move up in class and branch out into the surrounding areas allowing them to get out of the so-called "ghetto." In doing so, they leave behind their Spanish language 9 a.m. Pentecostal mass or their Saturdays with the Catholic parishioners of the Puerto Rican community. They must learn to assimilate rapidly once they get out of The Bronx, but in The Bronx, it is a slow and gradual process. The reason for this seems to be due to those Hispanic people who live there who have a family history of living there so they continue to speak their native language to those around them, who most likely, also come from the same ethnic background. Often times if English is learned, it is done through schooling but not practiced frequently in the home or neighborhood. For this reason many Bronx Latinos are unable to assimilate into an English speaking society as quickly as other people who move into neighborhoods where Spanish is not so widely used.

There is something to say about the progress of Puerto Rican education in The Bronx. Although a person can be bombarded with hundreds of Spanish named record shops on any given street, Spanish named bookstores are a rarity. Is it to say that Puerto Ricans value their cultural identity more than their intellectual identity? Yes, this is the case. Puerto Ricans in The Bronx uphold certain traditions: Three Kings day, throwing block parties which can be heard for blocks around, having two sets of godparents for a son or daughter. Puerto Ricans are not always concerned with educational sectors of their communities; they leave this medium to the Board of Education. This is directly correlated to the low education and high drop out rates in The Bronx. All of a child's learning is done in the classroom, but when they get home, they'd better do their chores lest they get hit with a chancleta (Puerto Rican slipper).

Puerto Ricans in The Bronx embrace the American culture, but try to remain Puerto Rican throughout the duration of the process, meaning that they continue to speak Spanish to their neighbors and children. Despite the fact that Puerto Ricans want to learn English to expand their range of communication, Spanish remains an integral part of their identity. It is through their social networks and surroundings that they remain a cohesive ethnicity, not solely a secluded one, but one which upholds traditional values.

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[1] ChildhoodAhmed ibn Hanbal was born in Central Asia to Arab parents from Banu Shaiban in 780. He was a distinguished child known for his piety, cleanliness and asceticism. Once, his uncle sent him with several documents containing information about some people to the Caliph's office. Ahmad took those papers and did not see his uncle for a long time. When his uncle eventually met him, he asked him about the documents and discovered that Ahmad – who was then a boy – did not deliver them. When asked why, Ahmad replied: "I wouldn’t hand in those reports, and I have thrown them in the sea!" To this, his uncle replied: "This little boy fears Allah so much! What then of us?" Thus, Ahmad refused to act as an informant, even on behalf of his uncle, due to the fear of Allah that had been instilled in his heart from such a young age.[3][2] Youth and EducationHe started his career by learning jurisprudence (Fiqh) under the celebrated Hanafi judge, Abu Yusuf, the renowned student and companion of Imam Abu Hanifah. He then discontinued his studies with Abu Yusuf, in the pursuit of Hadith, travelling around the Islamic Caliphate, at the tender age of 16. As a student, he was held in awe by his teachers, to the same degree that they would respect their own. Ibn al-Jawzi states that Imam Ahmad had 414 Hadith masters whom he narrated from. Imam al-Shafi’i was from the most beloved of Ahmad’s teachers, held in high esteem by him for his deep insight into jurisprudence. Al-Shafi’i equally admired Ahmad, for his expertise in jurisprudence and Hadith. He would often say to Imam Ahmad: “Tell us if you know of an authentic Hadeeth so that we may act on it.” What demonstrates Imam Ahmad’s love and admiration for al-Shafi’i is that when the latter would pass by him riding a mule, Imam Ahmad would follow al-Shafi’i on foot to enquire about various issues of jurisprudence. The great affect and regard between the two Imams is clearly reflected in the resemblance between the Shafi’i and Hanbali schools of jurisprudence.Imam Ahmad did not suffice himself with seeking knowledge, but he also adorned it with actions, by making Jihad, performing the guard duty at Islamic frontiers (Ribat) and making Hajj five times in his life, twice on foot.[3] Expertise in Various SciencesThe Imam spent 40 years of his life in the pursuit of knowledge, and only thereafter did he assume the position of a Mufti. By this time, Imam Ahmad had become a leading authority in six or seven Islamic disciplines, according to al-Shafi'i.Imam Ahmad became – unquestionably – a leading authority in Hadith, and left a colossal Hadith encyclopaedia, al-Musnad, as a living proof of his proficiency and devotion to this science. He is also remembered as a leading and the most balanced critic of Hadith (Naqid) of his time.Imam Ahmad became a principal specialist in jurisprudence, since he had the advantage of benefiting from some of the famous early jurists and their heritage, such as Abu Hanifah, Malik, al-Shafi'i and many others. Imam Ahmad further improvised and developed upon previous schools, such that he became the founder of a new independent school, that was to be attributed to him as the Hanbali school. Some scholars, such as Qutaiba b. Sa’id noted that if Ahmad were to witness the age of Sufyan al-Thawri, Malik, al-Awza’i and Laith b. Sa’d, he would have surpassed them all.Imam Ahmad, despite being bilingual, became an expert in the Arabic language, poetry, grammar. He gave great importance to the Arabic language, the proper application of grammar and correct pronunciation, such that he would often discipline his daughter for making a grammatical error in her everyday speech.Imam Ahmad established himself as the Imam in the sciences of Quran, authoring works in exegesis (Tafsir), science of abrogation (al-Nasikh wal-Mansukh), as well as the different modes recitations (Qira’at), preferring some modes of recitation over others, and even expressing dislike for the recitation of Hamza due to its exaggerated elongation of vowels.Imam Ahmad notably evolved into the most celebrated theologian, to be known as the ‘Imam Ahl al-Sunnah’, the leading authority on the Orthodox doctrine. Imam Ahmad personified the theological views of the early orthodox scholars, and in particular, the founders of the three juristic schools before him, Hanafi, Maliki and al-Shafi’i. This proved to be historically significant, since the Hanbali doctrine remained the only school representing the views of the founders of the other three juristic schools, that later became dominated by Ash’arites or the Maturidis. What also gained him a resounding reputation was his vigorous refusal to accept the dogma of the ‘creation of the Quran’, in spite of going through a protracted, arduous period of severe persecution. He is often likened to Abu Bakr, as the lone champion of Islam during the wars of apostasy.Imam Ahmad was equally considered to be a leading example in Zuhd (material and spiritual asceticism), for he lived a very simple life, detached from worldly pleasures. His work on Zuhd (Kitab al-Zuhd) is regarded to be the most profound contribution to the Islamic heritage. Abu Dawud, the famous compiler of Sunan, observed that sessions with Ahmad were sessions devoted to the Hereafter, for he would never mention anything of this world. His travels lasted several years. Upon returning home, he studied under Imam Shafi on Islamic law. Ibn Hanbal was very devoted to traditional views and was opposed to innovations in Islamic law.The strength of his views was tested under the caliphsal-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim. During the mihna period, a kind of "inquisition court" was created to deal with people who would not profess certain doctrines that the Abbasid caliphs thought were correct. These doctrines were from the Mutazilite school of thought, and held that the Qur'an was created and not eternal. Ibn Hanbal was arrested and brought in chains before the court, and suffered a great deal. But he patiently submitted to corporal punishment and imprisonment, and resolutely refused to abjure his beliefs.Caliph al-Ma'mun reportedly had Ibn Hanbal flogged. Ya'qubi, vol.lll, p.86; Muruj al-dhahab, vol.lll, p.268-270.Under the rule of Al-Mutawakkil however, the policy of the government changed and Ibn Hanbal's trials came to an end. From then onwards he was accorded honor befitting his great knowledge and on several occasions he was invited to the court and granted a generous pension. Ibn Hanbal, however, turned down the offers due to his general dislike of being close to the rulers. Al-Mutawakkil, knowing that Imam Ahmad would refuse his offerings, instead presented some gifts to his son, Salih b. Ahmad. When it came to his knowledge, Imam Ahmad showed strong disapproval and refused to consume anything from his son’s wealth.Among the works of Ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopaedia of Traditions called Musnad, compiled by his son from his lectures and amplified by supplements - containing over twenty-eight thousand traditions. His other works include Kitab-us-Salaat, on the Discipline of Prayer and Kitab-us-Sunnah, on the Traditions of the Prophet.Ibn Hanbal's fame spread far and wide. His learning, piety and unswerving faithfulness to traditions gathered a host of disciples and admirers around him. His teachings plus his books would lead his disciples to form the Hanbali school of jurisprudence.He died in Baghdad on July 31, 855 CE; according to the Tarjamatul Imam, over 800,000 men and 60,000 women attended his funeral.[4] Ahmad’s Five Basic Juristic PrinciplesDespite being an exceptional jurist, Imam Ahmad detested that his opinions be written and compiled, fearing that it may swerve his students away from studying the sources of Law, the Quran and the Sunnah. Yet, as Ibn al-Jawzi comments, Allah knew the sincerity in his heart and raised around him faithful students who would record his opinions, such that an independent school of jurisprudence and theology was formed and attributed to Imam Ahmad.Imam Ahmad employed exceptional caution while formulating juristic opinions and issuing verdicts, and would frequently warn his students of speaking in a matter in which you have no reputable predecessor. This prudent attitude is clearly demonstrated in the thought process applied by Ahmad in extrapolation of laws from the divine sources, which is as follows:1) Divine text (Nass) from the Quran and the Sunnah was the first point of reference for all scholars of jurisprudence, and in this, Ahmad was not an exception. Whenever he noticed a divine textual evidence for an issue, he never referred to other sources, opinions of the Companions, scholars or resorted to analogical deduction (Qiyas).2) Verdicts issued by the Companions were resorted to when no textual evidence was found in the Quran or the Sunnah. The reasons for ranking the verdicts of the Companions after the Quran and the Sunnah are obvious: The Companions witnessed the revelation of the Quran, and its implementation by the Prophet – SallAllahu ‘alaihi wa-sallam, who advised the Ummah to adhere to the rightly-guided caliphs, hence, the Companions ought to have a better understanding than the latter generations.Imam Ahmad, would likewise, never give precedence to a scholarly opinion or analogical deduction (Qiyas) over that of the Companions’, to the extent that if they were divided into two camps over an issue, two different narrations would similarly be documented from Imam Ahmad.3) In a case where the Companions differed, he preferred the opinion supported by the divine texts (Nass).4) In instances where none of the above was applicable, Ahmad would resort to the Mursal Hadith (with a link missing between the Successor and the Prophet – SallAllahu ‘alaihi wa-sallam) or a weak Hadith. However, the type of weak Hadith that Ahmad relied on was such that it may be regarded as ‘fair’ Hadith due to other evidences (Hasan li Ghairihi), not the type that is deemed very weak and thus unsuitable as an evidence for Law. This was due to the fact that, during his time, the Hadith was only categorised into ‘sound’ (Sahih) and ‘weak’ (Dha’if). It was only after Ahmad, that al-Tirmidhi introduced a third category of ‘fair’ (Hasan).5) Only after having exhausted the aforementioned sources would Imam Ahmad employ analogical deduction (Qiyas) due to necessity, and with utmost care.[5] Ahmad’s doctrineAs demonstrated previously, Imam Ahmad became the leading authority on the Orthodox doctrine of Islam, which represented the first three blessed generations of Islam, untainted with foreign dogmas. Ahmad’s doctrinal influence can be measured by the fact that, out of the four traditional schools, the Hanbali school alone maintained its own theological view, unlike the Hanafi school which adopted the Maturidi doctrine, or the Shafi’i and Maliki schools that adopted the Ash’ari doctrine. The secret for this was the depth and length at which Ahmad spoke in matters of theology, due to the prevailing unorthodoxy in his age, headed by the Mu’tazilites. Due to this it is noted that there have been, in comparison to other schools, very few Hanbalis who inclined towards unorthodox views, for the copious volume of narrations from Imam Ahmad dealing with specific issues of doctrine made it extremely difficult for his followers to adhere to any other, yet still remain faithful followers.Imam Ahmad’s doctrine could be summarised as follows:1) He would believe in the description that Allah gave to himself in the Quran, or inspired the Prophet with, and affirm them at their face value (Dhahir), while generally negating any resemblance between the Creator and the creation.2) He would vigorously reject negative theology (Ta’til), as well as allegorical exegesis (Ta’wil), with respect to belief in Allah, which was heavily employed by the Jahmites, Mu’tazilites and the Kullabites (later to be known as the Ash’arites) to justify their philosophical approach to God.3) He believed that Allah Speaks with letters and sound, for he believed every word and letter of the Quran to be the word of Allah, contrary to the Kullabites, who, in their opposition to the Mu’tazilites, affirmed eternal Speech for Allah, yet still agreed with them in that they believed that the Quran, which is composed of letters, was created.4) He believed that Allah literally Hears and Sees; that He has two Hands with which He created Adam; that Allah has a Face5) He believed that Allah literally Rose over the Throne after Creating the heavens and the Earth in six days.6) He believed that Allah is High above and distinct from His creation7) He believed that Allah is all Knowing, All Wise, All Power and All Able, and that Allah has His own Will, He Does what He likes out of His Wisdom. Whatever Allah has Written and Decreed upon His creation, must come to pass. Nothing leaves His knowledge, or happens without His Permission or Will.8) He believed that Allah becomes Pleased when obeyed and Displeased when disobeyed.9) He would regard the Jahmiyah (followers of al-Jahm ibn Safwan), and the Rafidha (the Imami Shias) who curse the Companions, to be disbelievers (Kuffar).10) He held that the sinners amongst the Muslims are under the threat of Allah's punishment; that if He wishes He may Punish them or Forgive them; Contrary to the Khawarij. He would not declare a Muslim to be a disbeliever (Kafir) on account of his sins, nor would he exclude actions from Iman unlike the Murji'a. He was once asked about those who declare their belief in the five pillars of Islam, yet refuse to perform them; he said, in reply, they are disbelievers (Kuffar).11) He believed in the miracles that occurred at the hands of the Awliya (pious Muslims) as a favour from Allah.12) He believed that Abu Bakr is the best of the Companions, followed by Umar, then the six companions chosen by the latter as Ashab al-Shura (members of Shura council): Uthman, Ali, al-Zubair, Talha, ‘Abd al-Rahman b. ‘Awf and Sa’d b. Abi Waqqas; followed by the fighters of Badr from the Emigrants (Muhajirin) and then the Helpers (Ansar).13) He prohibited discussions on the differences between the Companions or dislike of any of them; for the honour of Companionship with the Prophet – SallAllahu ‘alaihi wa-sallam – is sufficient a virtue to rank them higher than the entire Muslim Ummah until the end of time.[6] The TrialImam Ahmad is remembered as a legendary figure in the Islamic history for his uncompromising stance and for withstanding immense pressure during the trial of ‘the creation of the Quran’. The Caliph at the time, Ma’mun, subjected the scholars to severe persecution, at the behest of the Mu’tazilite theologians who attributed themselves to Imam Abu Hanifa in jurisprudence. The Mu'tazilites were a heretical Muslim sect, who sanctified their intelligence above the revelation and espoused the belief that, even though, the Quran is the speech of Allah, He created that speech as a distinct entity and called it ‘the Quran’. This was in opposition to the orthodox belief that Allah spoke every word of the Quran, and indeed: ‘Allah spoke to Moses directly’, as Allah states in the Quran.The Mu’tazilites were discredited throughout the Umayyad rule and never given the position of prominence and influence, until the Caliph al-Ma'mun came to power, during the ‘Abbasids, who took them into confidence and bestowed them with official positions within the state as judges. Bishr al-Marrisi and Ahmad b. Abi Du’ad were the two important figures behind the Mu’tazilite inquisition, which systematically placed many jurists and traditionists on trial until they were forced to acknowledge that the Quran is created, and their acknowledgement publicised in all major cities.Nearly all the scholars of Baghdad from the jurists and the traditionists were tested, and all of them acknowledged the doctrine of the created Quran, with the exception of the two; Ahmad b. Hanbal and Muhammad b. Nuh. This greatly pained and angered Imam Ahmad, such that he boycotted some of the great traditionists for their acknowledgement, and often refused to narrate from them. Amongst those boycotted were a close companion and a colleague of Imam Ahmad, Yahya b. Ma’in, about whom, it is said that Imam Ahmad refused to speak to him until he died and composed the following lines of poetry censuring his acknowledgement of heresy:Ya ibn al-madini al-ladhi 'uridat lahuDunya fa Jada bi dinihi li yanalahaMadha da'aka li intihali maqalatinKunta taz'umu kafiran man qalahaO Ibn al-Madini, to whom the world was offered,So he strove to attain it at the expense of his religionWhat made you embrace a dogma (about which)You would impute disbelief on the one who adopts it!Finally, Ahmad b. Hanbal and Muhammad b. Nuh were also put to the test on the order of al-Ma’mun, but they refused to acknowledge the creation of the Quran. Consequently, they were despatched in irons to be dealt with by al-Ma’mun himself. On the way, Imam Ahmad supplicated to Allah to prevent him from meeting al-Ma’mun. His prayer was answered in the sudden death of al-Ma’mun due to which they were both sent back. Muhammad b. Nuh passed away on their return journey, and there was none to prepare his funeral, pray over, and bury him, except Imam Ahmad.He remained imprisoned in Baghdad until al-Mu’tasim assumed power. Al-Mu’tasim, unlike al-Ma’mun, was a destitute to knowledge. Nevertheless, he continued the Mu’tazilite inquisition as explicitly requested by al-Ma’mun in his will. His rule was perhaps the most brutal towards Sunni scholars in general, and Imam Ahmad in particular who intransigently continued to resist all attempts by the authorities to force him to acknowledge the creation of the Quran. The frustrated Caliph finally ordered Ahmad to be flogged in public, which resulted in Ahmad falling unconscious. Imam Ahmad was released shortly afterwards, when al-Mu’tasim feared that the commotion caused in Baghdad due to mistreatment of Ahmad may reach an uncontrollable pitch.After al-Mu’tasim’s death, al-Wathiq took over the office of Khilafa, and ordered his loyal Mu’tazili judge in Egypt, Ibn Abi al-Layth to press hard with the inquisition. This caused many to flee from Egypt, while the prisons became full of jurists and traditionists who resisted the government demands. In Baghdad, however, the general public had become enraged over the policies of the government, which made it difficult for al-Wathiq to pursue the inquisition with the same vigour. He therefore, instead of re-imprisoning Imam Ahmad, resolved on banishing him from Baghdad, saying: “Do not live with me on this earth!”, and henceforth, Ahmad b. Hanbal went into hiding.Towards the end of al-Wathiq’s reign, a close student of al-Shafi’i, Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khaza’i was caught by the officials and charged for organising an uprising in Baghdad. When Ahmad al-Khaza’i was brought to al-Wathiq in chains, the latter, instead of asking him about his role in the uprising, questioned him about his belief in the creation of the Quran, to which Ahmad al-Khaza’i gave the standard Sunni reply. The enraged Caliph, upon hearing his response, personally decapitated him. His head remained in Baghdad, while his body remained on a crucifix in Samurra for six years, as a grisly warning to potential rebels.After al-Wathiq’s death, his brother al-Mutawakkil took charge of the office. Al-Mutawakkil, unlike his predecessors had the utmost respect and admiration for the Sunni school, and through him, Allah decided to put an end to the inquisition. Promptly after assuming the position as Caliph, he sent orders throughout the Caliphate to put an immediate end to all discussions regarding the Quran, released all the prisoners of faith, dismissed the Mu’tazili judges, and more significantly deported the chief instigator of the inquisition, Ahmad b. Abi Du’ad along with his family. He further ordered that the Mu’tazili judges responsible for the inquisition be cursed from by the pulpits, by name.Al-Mutawakkil, on the other hand, showed his utmost reverence to the Sunni hero of the inquisition, Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal, and wished to take care of all his affairs. Ahmad, however, turned down the offers due to his general dislike of being close to the rulers. Al-Mutwakkil, knowing that Imam Ahmad would refuse his offerings, instead presented some gifts to his son, Salih b. Ahmad. When it came to his knowledge, Imam Ahmad showed strong disapproval and refused to consume anything from his son’s wealth.[7] Illness, Death and FuneralAfter Imam Ahmad turned 77, he was struck with severe illness and fever, and became very weak, yet never complaining about his infirmity and pain until he died. In spite of his debilitation, he would urge his son, Salih b. Ahmad, to help him stand up for prayer. When he was unable to stand, he would pray sitting, or sometimes lying on his side. After hearing of his illness, the masses flocked to his door. The ruling family also showed the desire to pay him a visit, and to this end sought his permission. However, due to his desire to remain independent of any influence from the authority, Ahmad denied them access.Once during his illness, an old man entered upon Imam Ahmad and reminded him of his account before Allah, to which Imam Ahmad began to weep profusely. On another occasion, a man who partook in the beatings inflicted on Imam Ahmad, came to Salih b. Ahmad, the son of the Imam, and begged him to seek permission from his father to allow him to enter, for he felt the guilt of his involvement in the suffering of the Imam. When he was finally given permission, he entered upon the Imam and wept, begging for his forgiveness. Imam Ahmad forgave him on the condition that he would never repeat his actions. The man left the Imam, and all those present, in tears.‘Abdullah b. Ahmad b. Hanbal narrates, that while Imam Ahmad was on his death bed, he kept drifting in and out of consciousness, and gesturing with his hands saying: ‘No… No… No…’ When enquired about it, Ahmad replied: ‘The Devil was standing near me, trying his hardest to mislead me, saying: ‘Come on, Ahmad!’, and I was replying back: ‘No… No…’On Friday, the 12 of Rabi' al-Awwal 241 AH, the legendary Imam breathed his last. The news of his death quickly spread far and wide in the city and the people flooded the streets to attend Ahmad’s funeral. One of the rulers, upon hearing the news, sent burial shrouds along with perfumes to be used for Ahmad’s funeral. However, respecting the Ahmad’s wishes, his sons refused the offering and instead used a burial shroud prepared by his female servant. Moreover, his sons took care not to use water from their homes to wash Imam Ahmad as he had refused to utilise any of their resources, for accepting the offerings of the ruler.After preparing his funeral, his sons prayed over him, along with around 200 members of the ruling family, while the streets were teeming with both men and women, awaiting the funeral procession. Imam Ahmad’s funeral was then brought out and the multitudes continued to pray over him in the desert, before and after his burial at his grave.During the trial of Imam Ahmad, he would often say: “Say to the heretics, the decisive factor between us and you is the day of funerals”; meaning, the adherents to the orthodox doctrine always have a good end, for they earn the love of Allah, as well as the affection of the multitudes, and their death has a great impact on people’s lives. This is exactly what took place in this instance, for it is estimated that about 1 300 000 people attended his funeral. One of the scholars said in relation to this that such a massive attendance at a funeral has never been equalled in the history of the Arabs, neither in the pre-Islamic era (Jahiliyah) nor in Islam. The masses were engulfed in the genuine popular emotion, while the scene of his grave became overwhelmed by such sentiments that the graveyard had to be guarded by the civil authorities.Another scholar relates that when he attended the funeral of Ahmad, he wanted pray over him at his grave. But the crowds were so awe-inspiring that he didn’t reach the grave until after a week. The funerals of the famous opponents of Imam Ahmad, however, were in stark contrast, which where not attended by more than a handful. The funeral procession of the Ahmad ibn Abi Du’ad – the chief instigator of the inquisition – went largely unnoticed, with none willing to carry his funeral to the graveyard, except a few from the ruling family. Such was also the case with al-Harith al-Muhasibi – a theologian and an ascetic – who, despite being a bitter enemy of the Mu’tazilites, was still discredited by Imam Ahmad for his interests in Kalam (speculative theology). Only three or four people prayed over al-Muhasibi, and a similar fate met Bishr al-Mirrisi.In the Islamic history, Ahmad’s funeral is noted as the day when the Mu’tazilite doctrine was brought to a decisive and a humiliating end, whilst the Sunni Islam and the Prophetic guidance were the order of the day. Ahmad’s death had proven the ineffectiveness of the Caliph’s role in defining Islam, and further unquestionably acknowledged that it were the scholars, rather than the Caliphs, who were the true ‘inheritors of the Prophets’. Ahmad’s funeral was marked by the multitudes flocking, and openly cursing al-Karabisi and al-Marrisi, the chief heretics. This became a frequent practise amongst the subsequent Hanbali funerals throughout Islamic history, where the masses would rally behind prominent Hanbali funerals proclaiming: This day is for Sunnis and Hanbalis! Not Jahmis, Mu’tazilis or Ash’aris![8] The Madhab of Imam AhmadAfter the death of Imam Ahmad, his students travelled across the Muslim world along with the responsa (Masa’il) of Ahmad concerning theology, jurisprudence and traditions. From the foremost of his students are: his two sons, Salih and Abdullah, Hanbal b. Ishaq, al-Marrudhi, al-Kawsaj, Ibn Hani, Abu Dawud (compiler of Sunan Abi Dawud), al-Athram, Abu Zur’ah al-Razi, Abu Hatim al-Razi, ‘Abdul-Wahhab al-Warraq, al-Tirmidhi and many others.However, it was not until al-Khallal travelled the Muslim world, collecting the responsa of Imam Ahmad from his students scattered across the Caliphate, that the Madhab of Imam Ahmad was compiled in an organised form. This vast compilation became known as al-Jami’, which is still used in the 8th Islamic century by Ibn Taymiyah and his contemporary Hanbali jurists.This collection was then summarised into a short treatise on the Fiqh of Imam Ahmad by the Baghdadi-Hanbali jurist al-Khiraqi, which became known as Mukhtasar al-Khiraqi. This treatise was the first Fiqh manual ever written in the Madhab, and its first ever commentary was also written by its very author, thus, making al-Khiraqi the first author of a Fiqh manual in the Madhab, the first one to write a commentary on a manual, and indeed the first Hanbali to comment on his own manual.The summarised treatise on Fiqh by al-Khiraqi proved to be the most important contribution to Hanbali Fiqh, with over 300 commentaries, according to Yusuf b. ‘Abd al-Hadi, which even today remains an excellent introductory manual to the Hanbali school of jurisprudence. The famous commentaries to al-Mukhtasar include, but are not restricted to: a commentary by Ibn Hamid, then al-Qadhi Abu Ya’la, then Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi, whose commentary, famously known as al-Mughni, is considered to be a timeless masterpiece.[9] Hanbali Books on TheologySince Hanbalism is as much a school of theology as it is a school of Law, the Hanbali theologians have contributed several works, at various intervals in history, representing the doctrine of Ahmad b. Hanbal. Imam Ahmad himself played a leading role in authoring books on doctrine, such as the Kitab al-Sunnah (Book of Sunnah) and al-Rad 'Ala al-Zanadiqah wa al-Jahmiyah (The refutation of the Heretics and the Jahmis). Apart from these two works, Imam Ahmad wrote several letters addressed to some of his contemporaries, explaining the orthodox creed, found in the Tabaqat of Ibn Abi Ya'la, although not all of the letters are authentic.Subsequently, the students of Ahmad in particular, and the rest of his followers, continued to contribute works in theology. Several Hanbalis authored books, in the footsteps of their Imam, with a common title: Kitab al-Sunnah, such as al-Athram, ‘Abdullah (the son of Imam Ahmad), Hanbal b. Ishaq (the cousin of Imam Ahmad), al-Khallal.Some of the important manuals on doctrine accepted by the mainstream Hanbalis include: Lum’at al-I’tiqad by Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi, al-I’tiqad by al-Qadhi Abu Ya’la, al-Iqtisad fi al-I’tiqad by ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi, and various treatise written by Ibn Taymiyah, such as al-Wasitiyah and al-Tadmurriyah, as well as his close student Ibn al-Qayyim, such as his famous Nuniyah, an ode rhyming in the letter Nun.It is worthy to note that many works on theology by some Hanbalis were reactionary to the Hanbali-Ash’ari feud, such as al-Radd ‘Ala al-Asha’irah (Rebuttal of the Ash’arites) by Ibn al-Hanbali, and by Abul-Wafa Ibn ‘Aqil with the same title. Another example of such work is Ibtal al-Ta'wilat li Akhbar al-Sifat (Negation of the Allegorical Interpretations of the Traditions Pertaining to Divine Attributes) by al-Qadhi Abu Ya’la, which came is a rebuttal of the book Mushkil al-Hadith wa Bayanuhu (The Problematic Traditions and their Interpretations) by Ibn Furak, the Ash’ari theologian and a traditionist, who compiled the aforementioned book, giving allegorical interpretations to divine texts that seemed problematic according to Ash’ari principles; and al-Munadhara fi al-Quran ma’a Ahl al-Bid’ah (The Debate Regarding the Quran with Some Heretics), by the great Hanbali jurist, Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi, where he relates his violent discourse with his contemporaries from the Ash’aris, whom he refers to as ‘Heretics’, about the nature of the Quran contained in a book-form (Mushaf), whether it is created or uncreated.Other Hanbalis, although they did not author books dedicated to doctrine, they did, however, include sections of doctrine in books of Fiqh and Suluk (ethics). Al-Ghunya, by 'Abdul-Qadir al-Jailani – a famous Hanbali jurist and the founder of the Qadiri Sufi order – is for the most part, a manual in ethics and morality, yet it begins with a thorough presentation of the Hanbali doctrine, which paints al-Jailani as an ardent follower of the mainstream Hanbalism, and an avowed antagonist of the Ash’aris.[10] Hanbali Books on FiqhThe first manual in Fiqh, as mentioned earlier was the famous al-Mukhtasar by al-Khiraqi, which has remained up until this day, from the most important introductory works on Hanbali Fiqh, with its commentary par excellence, al-Mughani by Ibn Qudama.Al-Majd Ibn Taymiyah, who was the grandfather of the famous Hanbali theologian and jurist, Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyah, was considered to be one of the great authorities in the school, along with Ibn Qudama, such that if the two Sheikhs agreed upon an issue, it would be considered the reliable opinion (mu’tamad) in the school. Al-Majd Ibn Taymiyah authored his famous and reliable Fiqh manual called al-Muharrar fi al-Fiqh.Ibn Qudama played a key role in developing a Hanbali curriculum of Fiqh for all levels of students. He wrote a preparatory manual for the beginners called al-‘Umdah, with the objective of developing an all-round surface understanding of jurisprudence, without confusing the student with difference of opinion within the school. For the students at an intermediate level, he authored al-Muqni’, aimed at training the students at exercising preference (tarjih) upon conflicting opinions (ta’arudh) within the school. For the next level, he authored al-Kafi, with the goal of acquainting the student with the sources of the Law, and the methodology for extrapolating rules from the revelation. Al-Mughni (lit. rich), which is a commentary on al-Mukhtasar by al-Khiraqi, was compiled for the advanced students, to familiarise them with the difference of opinion and the respective arguments, beyond the school, even surpassing the four traditional schools.The aforementioned book, al-Muqni’ by Ibn Qudama had received two main important commentaries: al-Sharh al-Kabir (the Great Commentary) by al-Muwaffaq Ibn Qudama’s nephew, Shams al-Din Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi; and al-Insaf by the famous Hanbali jurist and judge, ‘Ala al-Din al-Mardawi. These two commentaries have remained popular amongst post-Ibn Qudama generations up until today.Al-Muqni’, also has a very popular abridgment by the famous Hanbali jurist Sharf al-Din Abu al-Naja al-Hajjawi called: Zad al-Mustaqni’ fi Ikhtisar al-Muqni’. This abridgement became particularly famous amongst the Hanbalis from Najd, where it is regarded as the primer to the Madhab. The most common and widely accepted commentary on Zad was written by the Egyptian Hanbali jurist, Mansur b. Yunus al-Buhuti called: al-Rawdh al-Murbi’, which was further commented on by the Najdi-Hanbali jurist, ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Muhammad b. Qasim. The latter commentary, which is informally known as Hashiyat Ibn Qasim is regarded to be one of the greatest contributions to the school in the modern times. Another invaluable contribution to the school has been al-Sharh al-Mumti’ ‘Ala Zad al-Mustaqni’, by the famous and profound Hanbali jurist, theologian, traditionist, linguist and a grammarian, Muhammad b. Salih al-‘Uthaimin. Al-Sharh al-Mumti’, originally, was delivered as a series of lectures over the years, which was then written, compiled and then published by his loyal students into volumes.The aforementioned author of Zad al-Mustaqni’ – al-Hajjawi, is also the author of al-Iqna’ which serves today as a major reference work for verdicts (Ifta) in Saudi Arabia, along with Muntaha al-Iradat by al-Futuhi. Both of these voluminous manuals have been commented on by several authors. The most famous of those commentaries are Kashaf al-Qina’ ‘An Matn al-Iqna’, which is a commentary on al-Iqna’, and Sharh Muntaha al-Iradat, both by al-Buhuti.[11] Notable Hanbali ScholarsMany celebrated personalities in the Islamic history received their tutelage in the Hanbali school, in Baghdad, Greater Syria (Sham), Egypt and finally the Arabian Peninsula. The following is a very humble list comprising of some of the notable Hanbalis – bar the direct students of Imam Ahmad:Al-Khallal (d. 311) – A student of some of the closest companions and students of Imam Ahmad. He is remembered and honoured for collecting the responsa of Imam Ahmad from his students, who were scattered across the Muslim world.Ghulam al-Khallal (d. 363) – A servant and a devout student of al-Khallal, and author of many works in various sciences. It is reported that, days before his death, in his illness, he said to his companions: I am with you until this Friday. Upon being asked why, he said: al-Khallal informed me from Abu Bakr al-Marrudhi that Ahmad lived until he was 78 and died on Friday. Abu Bakr al-Marrudhi lived until he was 78 and died on Friday. Al-Khallal lived until he was 78 and died on Friday. On Friday, Ghulam al-Khallal breathed his last when he was 78.Ibn Hamid (d. 403) – He was a leading authority on the Hanbali school in his time, and known for his frequent performance of Hajj, such that he died on his way back from Makkah. He is regarded to be the last of the early class (Tabaqa) of the Hanbalis.al-Qadhi Abu Ya'la (d. 458) – He was born to a Hanafi family, but became a Hanbali after studying under Ibn Hamid. He became the leading authority on the school after Ibn Hamid, who is remembered for spreading the Madhab far and wide. His Hadith assemblies were very popular and attended by thousands of Traditionists, where he would sit on the chair of ‘Abdullah b. Ahmad b. Hanbal and narrate Hadith.Abu al-Khattab (d. 510) – A devout student of al-Qadhi Abu Ya’la, and author of many works in the Madhab, the most important of them: al-Intisar authored as a defence to various Hanbali juristic opinions in comparison to other schools. His students included many prominent Hanbali figures, such as ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jailani.Abu Isma’il al-Harawi (d. 481) – A celebrated Hanbali jurist and a theologian, known for his awe-inspiring personality, and ardent enmity towards the Ash’arites. He was one of the great Sufi figures in the history, who authored Manazil al-Sa’irin – a manual in Tasawwuf – which was later expounded by Ibn al-Qayyim in Madarij al-Salikin. He was a fearless defender of the Hanbali faith such that he would often say:Ana Hanbaliyun Mahayiytu fa in amutFa wasiyati li al-Nasi an yatahanbaluI am a Hanbali as long as I live, and when I dieMy legacy to the people is to become HanbalisAbul-Wafa ‘Ali ibn ‘Aqil (d. 488) – One of the most intelligent jurists the Hanbalis ever had within their ranks. He was, in his youth, influenced by the Mu’tazlites and showed admiration for al-Hallaj (a pantheist who pretended to be a Muslim), but soon repented and wrote various rebuttals against the Mu’tazlites and the Ash’arites. Ibn al-Jawzi relates that Ibn ‘Aqil once said: I say with utmost certainty that the Companions died having no knowledge of the atoms (Jawhar) or accidents (‘Aradh). Hence, if you feel that you should be like them, then be! But, if you think that the way of the Doctors of Kalam is better than the way of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, then how evil is what you think! He left behind many works, amongst them voluminous al-Funun, of which only a small portion is found today.‘Abdul-Qadir al-Jailani (d. 561) A Hanbali theologian, great preacher and, perhaps the most influential Sufi figure who founded the Qadiriyah way (Tariqa). Although, his life is regarded as a chain of miracles, so much has been claimed about his ‘sainthood’ by his passionate Sufi followers that very little of his biographical accounts can be verified. The only book one can attribute to al-Jailani with a level of surety is al-Ghunya, in which he spells out his strict adherence to the Hanbali dogma and Law.Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 597) A famous jurist, exegete, critic, preacher and a prolific author, with works on nearly all subjects. He began his preaching career at a very young age and gained popularity amongst the masses. Although, he never met Ibn ‘Aqil, he did receive a fair amount of tutelage from his books, which left him perplexed about the orthodox doctrine of the Hanbali school; as reflected in his theological opinions that are often contradictory, and at times leaning towards allegorical exegesis (ta’wil) conflicting with the mainstream Hanbali position. His works in theology, thereafter, were criticised by the mainstream theologians of the Madhab, such as Ibn Qudama.Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi (d. 620) One of the major Hanbali authorities and the author of the profound and voluminous book on Law, al-Mughni, which became popular amongst researchers from all juristic backgrounds. He was also an authority on Hanbali doctrine and a passionate opponent of the Ash’arites, but that did not prevent him from joining the military campaign of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, who was an Ash’ari, against the Crusaders in Palestine.Majd al-Din Ibn Taymiyah (d. 653) A great jurist, traditionist, grammarian and exegete of Harran. He was the grandfather of the celebrated Sheikh al-Islam Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyah. The well-known grammarian and the author of Alfiya, Ibn Malik would hold al-Majd in high regard. He also enjoyed an esteemed position in the Hanbali school, as the term ‘The Two Sheikhs’ (Sheikhan) would only refer to him and Ibn Qudama.Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyah (d. 728) – A legendary figure in the Islamic history, known by his friends and foes for his expertise in all Islamic sciences. Aside from being a celebrated scholar, he also gained much prominence due to his fearlessness, zealous activism, political and military campaigns in Damascus against the invading Tatar. Ibn Nasir al-Din al-Dimashqi in his book al-Radd al-Wafir mentions 87 scholars from all schools who referred to Ibn Taymiya as ‘Sheikh al-Islam’, a prestigious title given only to jurists and traditionists whose verdicts reached a high level of fame and acceptance. His fame also earned him many envious enemies who continued to conspire against him, until he was imprisoned in the citadel of Damascus and died therein. His funeral was attended by a mammoth number of inhabitants of Damascus, while the funeral prayer in absentia was prayed over him throughout the Islamic world. He is remembered for his invaluable contributions, not only to the Hanbali school of jurisprudence and theology, but also to the rich Islamic heritage. He also produced many students of high calibre. Names such as Ibn al-Qayyim, al-Dhahabi and Ibn Kathir are but some of his virtues.Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya (d. 751) – The closest companion and a student of Ibn Taymiyah who shared with him the moments of ease and hardship, until the latter’s death in the citadel. His works in various Islamic sciences earned him much acceptance and fame. Some of his important works include Zaad al-Ma’ad in Seerah and Fiqh, I’lam al-Muwaqqi’in in Usul al-Fiqh, and al-Kafiyah fil-Intisar lil-Firqat al-Najiyah, an ode rhyming in the letter Nun on Hanbali theology, which is taught and studied in Hanbali schools until today.Ahmad ibn ‘Abdil-Hadi (d. 744) – A devout and close student of Ibn Taymiyah and an expert traditionist. He wrote at length the legendary accounts of his beloved teacher Ibn Taymiyah. He is also the author of al-Sarim al-Munki fi al-Radd ‘Ala al-Subki, a violent rebuttal of al-Subki’s attempt to justify taking long journeys for the visitation of the Prophet’s grave. Unfortunately, he died before completing this book at the age of forty.Najm al-Din al-Tufi (d. 716) – The author of several important works, such as the summarisation of Rawdat al-Nadhir by Ibn Qudama, also known as al-Bulbul, widely taught until today. In spite of being a Hanbali in Fiqh, he would often refer to himself as an Ash’arite and extreme Shi’ite. He was chastised in public and imprisoned several times for his unorthodox views. Although, his repentance is reported; however, Ibn Rajab doubted the sincerity of his repentance.Shams al-Din b. Muflih (d. 763) – One of the leading authorities in Hanbali Law who received his tutelage amongst several prominent Hanbali figures, including Ibn Taymiyah. He gave particular attention to the juristic preferences of Ibn Taymiyah, and included them in his voluminous and renowned masterpiece on Hanbali jurisprudence known as al-Furu’.Ahmad b. Qadhi al-Jabal (d. 771) – A chief judge and a devout student of Ibn Taymiyah. He is regarded to be the leading Hanbali poet of his time. He would often recite the following:Nabiyi Ahmad wa Kadha Imamiwa Sheikhi Ahmad Ka al-Bahri Tamiwa ismi Ahmad Li Dhaka ArjuShafa'ata Ashrafi al-Rusul al-KiramiMy Prophet is Ahmad, and so is my ImamMy Sheikh, Ahmad (b. Taymiya), is like an ocean abundant with knowledgeMy name is Ahmad and henceforth I wish forThe intercession of the most noble of the MessengersIbn Rajab al-Hanbali (d. 795) – A prominent jurist, traditionist, ascetic and preacher, who authored several important works, largely commenting upon famous collections of traditions, such as al-Tirmidhi, al-Bukhari and the Forty Hadith of al-Nawawi. His teachers include Ibn al-Qayyim, under whom he learnt his famous Hanbali ode al-Kafiyah.‘Ala al-Din Al-Mardawi (d. 885) – A chief judge and one of the foremost specialists in the Madhab amongst the latter Hanbali generations. He is the author of al-Insaf, a rich commentary on al-Muqni’ of Ibn Qudama, where he lists the variance of opinion, then declares the correct position in the school.Sharaf al-Din Al-Hajjawi (d. 968) A distinguished figure amongst the latter Damascan Hanbali scholars, and the author of two important manuals that were to remain the basis for verdicts amongst the Hanbalis until today: Zad al-Mustaqni’, a summarisation of al-Muqni’; and al-Iqna’.Ibn al-Najjar al-Futuhi (d. 980) – A notable Egyptian Hanbali authority and the author of Muntaha al-Iradat, which were to become another widely accepted manual amongst the latter Hanbalis, along with al-Iqna’.Mar’i b. Yusuf al-Karmi (d. 1033) – A Palestinian born scholar who resided in Egypt and wrote extensively on various sciences. He is particularly remembered for making two important contributions to Hanbali Fiqh: i) Ghayat al-Muntaha, which came as a merger between the two relied-upon manuals, al-Iqna’ and Muntaha al-Iradat; and ii) Dalil al-Talib, a summarisation of Muntaha al-Iradat. This manual received various commentaries, the most famous of which is Manar al-Sabil, by Ibn Dhuwayyan.Mansur b. Yunus al-Buhuti (d. 1051) An Egyptian jurist of great stature, held in much respect for his invaluable contribution to the Hanbali school. His works mostly comprise of commentaries on various manuals, such as al-Rawdh al-Murbi’, a commentary on Zad; Kashaf al-Qina’, a commentary on al-Iqna’; and a commentary on Muntaha al-Iradat. He became the centre of learning for the Hanbalis from Jerusalem, the Greater Syria and Najd.‘Abd al-Baqi al-Hanbali al-Ba’li (d.1071) – A jurist and a traditionist who received his tutelage from al-Azhar. He assumed the position of Ifta for the Hanbalis in Jerusalem, and dedicated his life to learning and teaching various sciences.Ibn al-‘Imad (d. 1089) – A Syrian-Hanbali scholar and the author of a large biographical history, known as Shadharat al-dhahab fi akhbar man dhahab, covering the Hijra years one to 1000.Abu al-Mawahib al-Hanbali (d. 1126) – A Damascan Hanbali traditionist and a leading reciter of the Quran, who wrote extensively on various topics. Due to his known piety, he would often be asked to lead the prayer for rain (Salat al-Istisqa’), as occurred in the year 1108 when Damascus was hit by a drought. Abu al-Mawahib then led the masses in prayer, beseeching Allah for rain, and his prayer was instantly answered.Muhammad Al-Saffarini (d. 1188) – A traditionist and jurist and a profound writer on various issues. He is most commonly famous for his poetic treatise on Hanbali theology called: al-Durrah al-Mudhiyah fi ‘Aqd al-Firqat al-Mardhiyah, which generally falls in line with the mainstream Hanbali dogma, bar few instances. However, in his commentary, known as Lawami’ al-Anwar al-Bahiyah, he often tends to contradict his poem, in agreement with the mainstream Hanbali doctrine. His poem, nevertheless, still remains popular amongst Hanbali students.Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1206) A leading Hanbali jurist and a theologian of Najd; more notably remembered as the pioneer of the revivalist movement which began in the Arabian Peninsula, and continued to influence various Islamic movements until today. The focus of his call was to revive the true Islamic monotheism (Tawhid) which – in Najd – had been tainted over the years with various pre-Islamic and pagan practises. After a period of persecution, he was finally triumphant, joining forces with the leader of al-Dar’iyah, Muhammad b. Su’ud (Saud).Sulaiman b. ‘Abd Allah b. Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1233) – Grandson of Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab, who excelled in traditions, Fiqh and theology. He was brutally executed on the orders of the viceroy of Egypt, Ibrahim Pasha, by a firing squad in a graveyard. His flesh was then collected and buried.Fatima bint Muhammad al-Hanbaliyah (d. 1247) – A famous female scholar of traditions, Fiqh, an ascetic and a popular preacher. She died in Makkah and was buried in al-Mu’lla graveyard.‘Abdullah Aba Butain (d. 1282) – The grand Mufti of the 13th Islamic century Najd, and an undisputable Hanbali authority on Fiqh, traditions and theology. He was also a great admirer and defender of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab.‘Uthman b. Bishr al-Najdi (d. 1290) – A Najdi historian and a follower of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, known for his work on history: 'Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd.Muhammad b. Humaid al-Najdi (d. 1295) – A Hanbali jurist, traditionist , historian, and an ardent enemy of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s followers, in spite of being a student of Aba Butain and a great admirer of Ibn Taymiyah and Ibn al-Qayyim. He is the author of al-Suhub al-Wabila ‘ala Dhara’ih al-Hanabilah, which is a continuation of Dhail Tabaqat al-Hanabila of Ibn Rajab.Hamad b. ‘Atiq (d. 1301) – A jurist and a judge in al-Kharaj, and then al-Aflaj, and an author of several works in theology and Fiqh.Ahmad b. ‘Isa al-Najdi (d. 1329) – A jurist, traditionist, theologian, a student of Aba Butain and a passionate follower and a propagandist of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s revivalist movement. He would travel to Makkah, the centre of the Islamic world, and would often discuss theology with various scholars of the Muslim world. He managed to earn great respect from the Sharif of Makkah, who, at his encouragement, demolished all the domed-tombs in al-Mu’alla graveyard. His invaluable contributions include his two volume commentary on al-Nuniyah of Ibn al-Qayyim in theology.‘Abd al-Qadir b. Badran (d. 1346) – A Damascan scholar in Fiqh, Usul al-Fiqh, theology, grammar, and a great enthusiast for Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s movement. He was initially a Shafi’i, and later, after much research and investigation decided to be a Hanbali. His invaluable contributions to the Madhab include: al-Madkhal ila Madhab al-Imam Ahmad, an all-round introduction to the Madhab; a commentary on Ibn al-Qayyim’s al-Nuniyah; a commentary on a Hanbali manual on Usul, Rawdhat al-Nadhir by Ibn Qudama, and many other works.Abu Bakr Khuqir (d. 1349) – A prominent Hanbali scholar of Makkah, and a student of Ahmad b. ‘Isa. He was an outspoken propagandist of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s movement, due to which he was imprisoned along with his sons, while the eldest of them died in prison. He was eventually released upon ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Su’ud’s conquest of Makkah, where he was, thereafter, appointed as a Mufti for Hanbalis. His contributions mainly comprised of works and rebuttals on theological issues.Ibrahim al-Dhuwaiyyan (d. 1353) – A jurist, traditionist, genealogist and a judge in Qasim, most notably known for his commentary on Dalil al-Talib, called Manar al-Sabil.‘Abd al-Rahman b. Nasir al-Sa’di (d. 1376) – A prominent jurist, exegete, grammarian with a great interest in poetry. He contributed many works in different subjects, the most of celebrated of them: Taysir al-Karim al-Mannan in exegesis; Manhaj al-Salikin a primer in Fiqh. His students include Muhammad b. Salih al-‘Uthaimin and ‘Abdullah b. ‘Aqil.Muhammad b. Ibrahim (d. 1389) – The Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, and a prominent Hanbali jurist. He played a leading role in the development of some important legal and educational institutes. His students include: Ibn Baz, Muhammad b. Abd al-Rahman al-Qasim and ‘Abd Allah b. Jibrin.‘Abd al-Rahman b. Qasim (d. 1392) A prominent jurist, traditionist and a theologian, who is particularly esteemed for the most valued contribution to the Islamic heritage in this age, a 35-volume Majmu’ al-Fatawa of Ibn Taymiyah. His seven-volume commentary on al-Rawdh al-Murbi’ has also become considerably popular amongst the latter Hanbalis.Muhammad b. Salih al-Uthaimin (d. 1421) – A leading jurist, grammarian, linguist, and a popular preacher. A close and devout student of ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Sa’di, and a commentator on Zad al-Mustaqni’; his commentary is known as al-Sharh al-Mumti’. His students include Ahmad al-Qadhi, Khalid al-Muslih, Khalid al-Mushayqih, and many others.‘Abdullah b. ‘Aqil – A jurist and formerly chief justice in Saudi Arabia. One of the closest students of Ibn al-Sa'di‘Abd al-Rahman al-Sa’di]], who is known today as Sheikh al-Hanabilah. His close students include: Dr. al-Shibl, Haitham al-Haddad and Anas b. ‘Aqil, his grandson.Bakr b. ‘Abd Allah Abu Zaid – A jurist, traditionist, linguist and a profound author of many works. His important contributions to the Hanbali Madhab include al-Madkhal al-Mufassal ila Fiqh al-Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal, a two-volume in-depth introduction to the Madhab, which serves today as one of the main reference work on the school.[12] Increasing Number of HanbalisHistorically, the Hanbali Madhab has always been known for having fewer followers comparatively to the remaining schools. Some even argued that the small number of followers was indicative of an inherent weakness of the Madhab and its lack of popularity. Hanbalis often responded with the following verse of poetry:Yaquluna fi ashabi ahmada qillatunFa qultu lahum inn al-kirama qaliluThey say of Ahmad’s followers: How few they are!Thus, I said to them: The dignified are always fewThe secret behind the spread of any particular Madhab, or lack thereof, has mainly been the authorities, responsible for bestowing the Islamic courts to one faction, at the expense of the other. In a land where courts were dominated by a particular Madhab, a student qualifying in a different Madhab had no future, and consequently, was forced to migrate, or embrace the native Madhab.The Hanbalis, however, had an inherent tendency of declining lofty positions offered by the authorities. Hence, Abu al-Wafa Ibn ‘Aqil al-Hanbali remarks that the Hanbali Madhab has been ‘oppressed’ by none other than Hanbalis themselves. For whenever a Hanbali would excel in knowledge, he would submerge himself in worship and gratitude to Allah, embrace the ascetic life (Zuhd) and divorce himself from fame, status and worldly life. This was also confirmed by a prominent Shafi’i traditionist and a historian, al-Dhahabi, in his book Zaghl al-‘Ilm where he describes the Hanbalis with similar distinguishing qualities.The Hanbalis had remained an insignificant minority, and perhaps, close to extinction, until Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab arose in Najd forming an influential revivalist movement, with the aim to purify the true understanding of Islamic monotheism (Tawhid), in a society stained with pre-Islamic pagan beliefs and practices. After a period of persecution and exile, he joined forces with Muhammad b. Su’ud and successfully revived the enforcement of the much-neglected Shariah laws.It is solely to the credit of the Wahhabist revivalist movement, that until today, the courts in the Arabian Peninsula are predominantly Hanbali, bar some areas to the south near Yemen, which still remain Shafi’i. The significance of the Wahhabist call is demonstrated in an undeniable fact that nearly all Islamic reformist movements in the 20th century, directly or indirectly, are influenced by the basic call of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. Egypt, for example, apart from being the centre for Ash’ari learning, with its political life dominated by a brutal socialist-dictatorship, has been historically at odds with the followers of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab; yet, one cannot but notice that the majority of ‘The Youth of Awakening’ (Shabab al-Sahwah) are somewhat more inclined towards the Wahhabist thought than the dogma propagated by the local Azharites. Hence, it comes at no surprise that ‘Wahhabism’ has been singled out as an ideological target in the so-called ‘War on Terror’.A scant reading of the Islamic history illustrates that the Hanbalis are known for having an outstanding character, fearlessness and eagerness for enjoining the good and forbidding the evil, with Imam Ahmad setting the precedence by remaining steadfast during the inquisition. After the demise of Imam Ahmad, the Hanbalis grew stronger in Baghdad, and as Ibn ‘Asakir notes, they would patrol the streets, during which, if they noticed a man with an unrelated woman, they would report him to the police; or if they noticed a musical instrument or a bottle of alcohol, they would smash it. Al-Khiraqi, who was the first Hanbali scholar to write a Fiqh manual, died after being severely beaten while attempting to combat evils in Damascus. Ibn Taymiyah would likewise patrol the streets with his students, during which, if they noticed anyone playing chess they disrupt the game; or if they saw utensils of alcohol or musical instruments, they would smash them. Ibn Taymiyah was also greatly admired for his fearless encounter with the ruthless Mongolian invader of Damascus, Qazan; as he is also remembered for his frequent imprisonment for in defence of the orthodox doctrine.[13] ConclusionIf a hundred-and-fifty pages by al-Dhahabi, or over seven-hundred pages by Ibn al-Jawzi could not encompass all the details in the life of such a magnificent figure in our history, as that of Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal al-Shaibani, then how can one claim to do justice in this brief twenty page introduction. The unavoidable omission of detail in such a piece, should not be considered as a disservice to the Madhab.The enthusiastic reader with a keen interest to inquire more about Imam Ahmad is recommended to read the most comprehensive biography of Imam Ahmad by Ibn al-Jawzi called Manaqib al-Imam Ahmad; followed by Imam Ahmad’s biography by al-Dhahabi in Siyar al-‘Alam al-Nubula’. Those seeking in-depth information about the Madhab are recommended to read the richest introduction to the Madhab by Dr. Bakr b. ‘Abd Allah Abu Zaid called al-Madkhal al-Mufassal Ila Fiqh al-Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal (A detailed introduction to the jurisprudence of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal). Equally recommended is another primer, albeit not so detailed, but still unique, titled: al-Madkhal ila Madhab al-Imam Ahmad, by Ibn Badran al-Dimashqi. Ahmad b. Hanbal al-Sirah wal-Madhab (Ahmad ibn Hanbal – the life and the Madhab) by Sa’di Abu Jaib is similarly recommended for a devotee of the Madhab, dealing with various aspects of the life of Imam Ahmad and his Madhab not addressed in the two aforementioned introductory books.[14] QuoteIf I remained silent (when threatened by the Caliph not to speak) and you remained silent, then who will teach the ignorant? [citation needed][15] WorksMusnad Ahmad ibn HanbalVirtues of the Companions (Arabic:Fadail al Sahabah)Fatwas:triple talaq[16] See alsoNotable Hanbali ScholarsTaba Taba'een[17] References^ ab [[1]]^http://fatwa-online.com/classicalbooks/hadeeth/0000101.htm^ Ibn al-Jawzi, Manaqib al-Imam Ahmad p. 24, Hajr 1988[18] External linksBiography of Imaam Ahmad Bin Hanbal RahimahullahFrom the Life and Works of Imaam Ahmad Bin HanbalImam Ahmad ibn Hanbal: Life & MadhabThe Development of Fiqh[19] ReferencesNadwi, S. A. H. A., Saviours of Islamic Spirit (Vol. 1), translated by Mohiuddin Ahmad, Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Lucknow, 1971.Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal"

Disclaimer

This weblog tries to draw from many different ideas, cultures, religions, and methodologies that have helped to shaped whom I am. I may differ with some of the authors of some of material I post or links that I have here. My other blog "Islam is the Sunnah and Sunnah is Islam" is more oriented toward the correct Salafi understanding of Islam.

I appreciate if anyone has any criticism with regards to my blog, that you bring it to my attention.

Khalil

About Me

I am 35 years old, and I adhere to the Salafi methodology/way. I was born in the Bronx to New York Puerto Rican (Catholic) parents. During my teenage years, I starting to learn about my history since of course they don't teach us that in school. As a teenager, I had a lot of interaction with "Latino" and African-American Muslims. That lead to me taking my shahadah during my first semester of college. I eventually earned a bachelor's of art with a double major in Arabic and political science at the State University of New York at Binghamton. My concentration was in the Middle East and North Africa Studies. In 2000, I was offered a scholarship to study at Umm Al-Qura University. I studied there from 2000 to 2005. May Allah reward King Fahd (rahimahullah) for giving me a scholarship to teach in Saudi, Amin. Alhamdulillah, I have been fortunate to have sat with several scholars in Saudi Arabia. I currently live in Saudi Arabia with my wife and two children. I also hold a master's in TESOL.