India’s frontier, which is roughly one-third coastline, abuts six countries. It is bounded to the northwest by Pakistan, to the north by Nepal, China, and Bhutan; and to the east by Myanmar (Burma). Bangladesh to the east is surrounded by India to the north, east, and west. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 km) off the southeast coast of India across the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.

The land of India—together with Bangladesh and most of Pakistan—forms a well-defined subcontinent, set off from the rest of Asia by the imposing northern mountain rampart of the Himalayas and by adjoining mountain ranges to the west and east. In area, India ranks as the seventh largest country in the world.

Much of India’s territory lies within a large peninsula, surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east; Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of the Indian mainland, marks the dividing line between these two bodies of water. India has two union territories composed entirely of islands: Lakshadweep, in the Arabian Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which lie between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.

Relief

It is now generally accepted that India’s geographic position, continental outline, and basic geologic structure resulted from the a process of plate tectonics—the shifting of enormous, rigid , crustal slabs called tectonic plates. These plates, which form the entire surface layer of the Earth, collide or slip by one another as they move across the plates over the Earth’s underlying layer of molten material. India India’s landmass, which forms the northwestern portion of the Indian-Australian Plate.Hundreds of millions of years ago, much of India’s landmass was a fragment of an , began to drift slowly northward toward the much larger Eurasian Plate several hundred million years ago (after the former broke away from the ancient southern-hemispheric supercontinent known as Gondwana, or Gondwanaland(which also included what are now South America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica). With the shifting of tectonic plates, Gondwanaland began to break up, and the Indian fragment, carried by the Indian-Australian Plate, began to drift slowly northward toward the much larger Eurasian Plate. When they When the two finally collided (approximately 50 million years ago), the northern edge of the Indian-Australian Plate was thrust under the Eurasian Plate at a low angle. The collision reduced the speed of the oncoming plate, but even today the underthrusting, or subduction, of the plate continueshas continued into contemporary times.

The effects of the collision and continued subduction are numerous and extremely complicated. An important consequence, however, was the slicing off of crustal rock from the top of the underthrusting plate. These slices were thrown back onto the northern edge of the Indian landmass and came to form much of the Himalayan mountain system. The new mountains—together with vast amounts of sediment eroded from them—were so heavy that the Indian-Australian Plate just south of the range was forced downward, creating a zone of crustal subsidence, or geosyncline. Continued rapid erosion of the Himalayas added to the sediment accumulation, which was subsequently carried by mountain streams to fill the geosyncline subsidence zone and cause it to sink more.

India’s present-day relief features have been superimposed on three basic structural units: the Himalayas in the north, the Deccan Plateau (or Deccanplateau region) in the south, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain (lying over the geosynclinesubsidence zone) between the two. For a detailed discussion of the plate tectonic process and its role in the formation of the Indian subcontinent, see the article plate tectonics. Further information on the geology of India is found in the article Asia.

The Himalayas

The Himalayas (from the Sanskrit : words hima, “snow,” and alāyaalaya, “abode”), the loftiest mountain system in the world, form the northern limit of India. This great, geologically young mountain arc is about 1,550 miles (2,500 kilometreskm) long, stretching from the peak of Nānga Parbat Nanga Parbat (26,660 feet [8,126 metres]) in Pakistan-held Jammu and administered Kashmir to the Namcha Barwa peak in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Between these extremes the mountains fall across India, southern Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan. The width of the system varies between 125 and 250 miles (200 and 400 km).

Within India the Himalayas are divided into three longitudinal belts, called the Outer, Lesser, and Great Himalayas. At each extremity there is a great bend in the system’s alignment, from which a number of lower mountain ranges and hills spread out. Those in the west lie wholly within Pakistan and Afghanistan, while those to the east straddle India’s border with Myanmar (Burma). North of the Himalayas are the Plateau of Tibet and various Trans-Himalayan ranges, only a small part of which, in the Ladākh Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir state, are within the territorial limits of India.

Because of the continued underthrusting subduction of the Indian peninsula against the Eurasian Plate, the Himalayas and the associated eastern ranges remain tectonically active. As a result, the mountains are still rising, and earthquakes—often accompanied by landslides—are common. Several since 1900 have been devastating, including one in 1934 in what is now Bihar state that killed more than 10,000 persons. In 2000 another tremor, farther from the mountains, in Gujarat state, was less powerful but caused extensive damage, taking the lives of more than 20,000 people and leaving more than 500,000 homeless. The relatively high frequency and wide distribution of earthquakes likewise have generated controversies around about the safety and advisability of several hydroelectric and irrigation projects.Despite the tectonic instability, the Himalayas, with their sacred peaks, occupy a major place in the life and culture of India.

The Outer Himalayas (the Shiwālik HillsShiwalik Range)

The southernmost of the three mountain belts are the Outer Himalayas, also called the Shiwālik HillsShiwalik Range. Crests in the ShiwāliksShiwaliks, averaging from 3,000 to 5,000 feet (900 to 1,500 metres) in elevation, seldom exceed 6,500 feet (2,000 metres). The range narrows as it moves east and is hardly discernible beyond the DuārsDuars, a plains region in West Bengal state. Interspersed in the Shiwāliks Shiwaliks are heavily cultivated , flat valleys (dūnduns) with a high population density. To the south of the range is the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Weakly indurated, largely deforested, and subjected subject to heavy rain and intense erosion, the Shiwāliks Shiwaliks provide much of the sediment transported onto the plain.

The Lesser Himalayas

To the north of the Shiwāliks Shiwaliks and separated from them by a fault zone, the Lesser Himalayas (also called the Lower or Middle Himalayas) rise to heights ranging from 11,900 to 15,100 feet (3,600 to 4,600 metres). Their ancient name is Himāchal Himachal (Sanskrit: hima, “snow,” and acal, “mountain”). These mountains are composed of both ancient crystalline and geologically young rocks, sometimes in a reversed stratigraphic sequence because of thrust faulting. The Lesser Himalayas are traversed by numerous deep gorges formed by swift-flowing streams (some of them older than the mountains themselves), which are fed by glaciers and snowfields to the north.

The Great Himalayas

The northernmost Great, or Higher, Himalayas (in ancient times, the HimādriHimadri), with crests generally exceeding above 16,000 feet (4,900 metres) in elevation, are composed of ancient crystalline rocks and old marine sedimentary formations. Between the Great and Lesser Himalayas are several fertile longitudinal vales; in India the largest is the Vale of Kashmir, an ancient lake basin with an area of about 1,700 square miles (4,400 square kilometreskm). The Great Himalayas, ranging from 30 to 45 miles (50 to 75 km) wide, includes include some of the world’s highest peaks. The highest, Mount Everest (at 29,028 035 feet [8,848 850 metres]), is on the northern China-Nepal borderof Nepal, but India also has many impressive lofty peaks, such as Kānchenjunga Kanchenjunga (28,208 feet169 feet [8,586 metres]) on the border of Nepal and the state of Sikkim and Nanda Devi (25,646 feet [7,817 metres]), Kāmet Kamet (25,446 feet [7,755 metres]), and Trisūl Trisul (23,359 feet [7,120]) in Uttar PradeshUttaranchal. The Great Himalayas lie mostly above the line of perpetual snow and thus contain most of the Himalayan glaciers.

Associated ranges and hills

In general, the various regional ranges and hills run parallel to the Himalayas’ main axis. These are especially prominent in the northwest, where the Zāskār Mountains Zaskar Range and the Ladākh Ladakh and Karakoram ranges, all in Jammu and Kashmir state, run to the northeast of the Great Himalayas. Also in Jammu and Kashmir is the Pīr Panjāl Pir Panjal Range, which, extending along the southwest of the Great Himalayas, forms the western and southern flanks of the Vale of Kashmir.

At its eastern extremity, the Himalayas give way to a number of smaller ranges running northeast-southwest, including southwest—including the heavily forested Pātkai, Nāga, and Mizo hills, which Patkai Range and the Naga and Mizo hills—which extend along India’s borders with Myanmar and the southeastern panhandle of Bangladesh. Within the Nāga Naga Hills, the reedy Logtāk Logtak Lake, in the Manipur River valley, is an important feature. Branching off from these hills to the northwest are the Mīkīr Mikir Hills, and to the west are the Jaintia, KhāsiKhasi, and Gāro Garo hills, which run just north of India’s border with Bangladesh. Collectively, the latter group is also designated as the Shillong (MeghālayaMeghalaya) Plateau.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain

The second great structural component of India, the Indo-Gangetic Plain (also called the North Indian Plain), lies between the Himalayas and the Deccan. The plain occupies the Himalayan foredeep, formerly a seabed but now filled with river-borne alluvium to depths of up to 6,000 feet (1,800 metres). The plain stretches from the Pakistani provinces of Sind and Punjab in the west, where it is watered by the Indus River and its tributaries, eastward to the Brahmaputra River valley in Assam state.

The Ganges (Ganga) River basin (mainly in Uttar Pradesh and BihārBihar states) forms the central and principal part of this plain. The eastern part portion is made up of the combined delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, which, though mainly in Bangladesh, also occupies a part of the adjacent Indian state of West Bengal. This deltaic area is characterized by annual flooding attributed to intense monsoon rainfall, an exceedingly gentle gradient, and an enormous discharge that the alluvium-choked rivers cannot contain within their channels. The Indus River basin, extending west from Delhi, forms the western part of the plain; the Indian portion is mainly in the states of Haryāna Haryana and Punjab.

The overall gradient of the plain is virtually imperceptible, averaging only about 6 inches per mile (95 millimetres mm per kilometrekm) in the Ganges basin and slightly more along the Indus and Brahmaputra. Even so, to those who till its soils, there is an important distinction between bhāngarbhangar—the slightly elevated, terraced land of older alluvium—and khādarkhadar, the more fertile fresh alluvium on the low-lying floodplain. In general, the ratio of bhāngarbhangarareas to those of khādarkhadarincreases upstream along all major rivers. An exception to the largely monotonous relief is encountered in the southwestern portion of the plain, where there are gullied badlands centring on the Chambal River. This That area has long been famous for harbouring violent gangs of criminals called dacoitsdacoits, who find shelter in its many hidden ravines.

The Great Indian, or Thar, Desert, forms an important southern extension of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is mostly in India but also extends into Pakistan and is mainly an area of gently undulating terrain, and within it are several areas dominated by shifting sand dunes and numerous isolated hills. The latter provide visible evidence of the fact that the thin surface deposits of the region, partially alluvial and partially wind-borne, are underlain by the much older Indian-Australian Plate, of which the hills are structurally a part.

The DeccanPlateau

The remainder of India is designated, not altogether accurately, as either the Deccan Plateau plateau or peninsular India. It is actually a topographically variegated region that extends well beyond the peninsula—that portion of the country lying between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal—and includes a substantial area to the north of the Vindhya Range, which has popularly been regarded as the divide between Hindustan (northern India) and the Deccan (from Sanskrit : dakṣiṇadakshina, “south”).

Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of GondwanalandGondwana, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. The plateau is mainly between 1,000 and 2,500 feet (300 to 750 metres) above sea level, and its general slope descends toward the east. A number of the hill ranges of the Deccan have been eroded and rejuvenated several times, and only their remaining summits testify to their geologic past. The main peninsular block is composed of gneiss, granite-gneiss, schists, and granites, as well as of more geologically recent basaltic lava flows.

The Western GhātsGhats

The Western GhātsGhats, also called the SahyādriSahyadri, are a north-south chain of mountains or hills that mark the western edge of the Deccan Plateauplateau region. They rise abruptly from the coastal plain as an escarpment of variable height, but their eastern slopes are much more gentle. The Western Ghāts Ghats contain a series of residual plateaus and peaks separated by saddles and passes. One of The hill station (resort) of Mahabaleshwar, located on a laterite plateau, is one of the highest elevations in the northern half, Mahābaleshwar (rising to 4,718 700 feet ), is a laterite plateau(1,430 metres). The chain attains greater heights in the south, where the mountains terminate in several uplifted blocks bordered by steep slopes on all sides. These include the Nīlgiri Nilgiri Hills, with the their highest peak, Doda Betta (8,651 feet652 feet [2,637 metres]); and the Anaimalai, Palni, and Cardamom hills, all three of which radiate from the highest peak in the Western GhātsGhats, Anai Peak (Anai Mudi, 8,842 feet [2,695 metres]). The Western Ghāts Ghats receive heavy rainfall, and several major rivers—most notably the Godāvari, Krishna (Kistna) and the two holy rivers, the Godavari and Kāverī the Kaveri (Cauvery)—have their headwaters there.

The Eastern GhātsGhats

The Eastern Ghāts Ghats are a series of discontinuous low ranges running generally northeast-southwest parallel to the coast of the Bay of Bengal. The largest single sector—the remnant of an old ancient mountain range that eroded and subsequently rejuvenated—is found in the Daṇḍakāranya Dandakaranya region between the Mahānadi Mahanadi and Godāvari Godavari rivers. This narrow range has a central ridge, the highest peak of which is Arma Konda (5,512 feet [1,680 metres]) in Andhra Pradesh state. The hills become subdued farther southwest, where they are traversed by the Godāvari Godavari River through a gorge 40 miles (65 km) long. Still farther southwest, beyond the Krishna River, the Eastern Ghāts Ghats appear as a series of low ranges and hills, including the Erramala, Nallamala, Velikonda, and PālkondaPalkonda. Southwest of the city of Chennai (Madras), the Eastern Ghāts Ghats continue as the Javādi Javadi and Shevaroy hills, beyond which they merge with the Western GhātsGhats.

Inland regions

The northernmost portion of the Deccan Plateau may be termed the Peninsular Forelandpeninsular foreland. This large, ill-defined area lies between the peninsula proper to the south (roughly marked off demarcated by the Vindhya Range) and the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Great Indian Desert (beyond the Arāvali Aravali Range) to the north.

The Arāvali Aravali Range runs southwest-northeast for more than 450 miles (725 km) from a highland node near AhmadābādAhmedabad, GujarātGujarat, northeast to Delhi. These mountains are composed of ancient rocks and are divided into several parts, in one of which lies Sāmbhar Sambhar Salt Lake. Their highest summit is Guru Sikhar Peak (5,650 feet [1,722 metres]), on Mount ĀbuAbu. The Arāvalis Aravalis form a divide between the west-flowing streams, draining into the desert or the Rann of Kachchh (Kutch), and the Chambal and its tributaries within the Ganges River catchment area.

Between the Arāvalis Aravalis and the Vindhya Range lies the fertile, basaltic Mālwa Malwa Plateau. This plateau gradually rises southward toward the so-called Vindhya Range, which is actually a south-facing escarpment deeply eroded by short streams flowing into the valley of the Narmada River below. The escarpment appears from the south as an imposing range of mountains. The Narmada valley forms the western and principal portion of the Narmada-Son trough, a continuous depression running southwest-northeast, mostly at the base of the Vindhya Range, for about 750 miles (1,200 km).

To the east of the Peninsular Foreland peninsular foreland lies the mineral-rich Chota Nāgpur Nagpur Plateau (mostly within eastern Madhya Pradesh, southern BihārJharkhand, northwestern Orissa, and interior OrissaChhattisgarh states). This is a region of numerous scarps separating areas of rolling terrain. To the southwest of the Chota Nāgpur Nagpur Plateau is the Chhattīsgarh Chhattisgarh Plain, centred in Chhattisgarh on the upper course of the Mahānadi Mahanadi River.

Most of the inland area south of the Peninsular Foreland peninsular foreland and the Chota Nāgpur Nagpur Plateau is characterized by rolling terrain and generally low relief, within which a number of hill ranges, some of them mesalike formations, run in various directions. Occupying much of the northwestern portion of the peninsula (most of Mahārāshtra Maharashtra and some bordering areas of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and KarnātakaKarnataka) is the Deccan Lava Plateaulava plateau. The mesalike mesa-like features are especially characteristic of this large, fertile area, which is cut across by the SātpuraSatpura, Ajanta, and Bālāghāt Balaghat ranges.

Coastal areas

Most of the coast of India flanks the Eastern and Western GhātsGhats. In the northwest, however, much of coastal Gujarāt Gujarat lies to the northwest of the Western GhātsGhats, extending around the Gulf of Khambhāt Khambhat (Cambay) and into the salt marshes of the Kāthiāwār Kathiawar and Kachchh (Kutch) peninsulas. These tidal marshes include the Great Rann of Kachchh along the border with Pakistan and the Little Rann of Kachchh between the two peninsulas. Because the level of these marshes rises markedly during the rainy season, the Kachchh Peninsula normally becomes an island for several months each year.

The area farther south, especially the stretch from Damān Daman to Goa (known as the Konkan Coastcoast), is indented with rias (flooded valleys) extending inland into narrow riverine plains. These plains are dominated by low-level lateritic plateaus and are marked by alternating headlands and bays, the latter often sheltering crescent-shaped beaches. From Goa south to Cape Comorin (the southernmost tip of India) is the Malabār Malabar coastal plain, which was formed by the deposition of sediment along the shoreline. This plain, varying between 15 and 60 miles (25 to 100 km) wide, is characterized by lagoons and brackish, navigable backwater channels.

The predominantly deltaic eastern coastal plain is an area of deep sedimentation. Over most of its length it is considerably wider than the plain on the western coast. The major deltas, from south to north, are of the KāverīKaveri, the Krishna-GodāvariGodavari, the MahānadiMahanadi, and the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers. The last of these is some 190 miles (300 km) wide, but only about one-third of it lies within India. Traversed by innumerable distributaries, the Ganges delta is an ill-drained region, and the western part within Indian territory has become moribund because of shifts in the channels of the Ganges. Tidal incursions extend far inland, and a any small temporary rise in sea level would could submerge Kolkata (Calcutta), located about 95 miles (155 km) from the head of the Bay of Bengal. The eastern coastal plain includes several lagoons, the largest of which, Pulicat and Chilika (Chilka) lakes, have resulted from the deposition of sediment being deposited along the shoreline.

Islands

Several archipelagoes in the Indian Ocean are politically a part of India. The union territory of Lakshadweep is a group of small coral atolls in the Arabian Sea to the west of the Malabār Malabar Coast. Far off the eastern coast, separating the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, lie the considerably larger and hillier chains of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Also , also a union territory, ; the Andamans are closer to Myanmar and the Nicobars closer to Indonesia than to the Indian mainland.

Drainage

More than 70 percent of India’s territory drains into the Bay of Bengal via the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system and a number of large and small peninsular rivers. Areas draining into the Arabian Sea, accounting for about 20 percent of the total, lie partially within the Indus drainage basin (in northwestern India) and partially within a completely separate set of drainage basins well to the south (in GujarātGujarat, western Madhya Pradesh, northern MahārāshtraMaharashtra, and areas west of the Western GhātsGhats). Most of the remaining area, less than 10 percent of the total, lies in regions of interior drainage, notably in the Great Indian Desert of Rājasthān Rajasthan state (another is in the Aksai Chin, a barren plateau in Jammu and Kashmir controlled a portion of Kashmir administered by China but claimed by India). Finally, less than 1 percent of India’s area, along the border with Myanmar, drains into the Andaman Sea via tributaries of the Irrawaddy River.

Drainage into the Bay of Bengal

The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system

The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the country’s Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country’s other rivers. Its source is at the foot of a Himalayan glacier It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the Bhagirathi River, rises at an elevation of some 22about 10,100 feet000 feet (3,000 metres) at the foot of the Gangotri Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.

The Ganges enters the Indo-Gangetic Plain at Haridwār (Hardwārthe city of Haridwar (Hardwar). From Haridwār Haridwar to Calcutta Kolkata it is joined by numerous tributaries. Proceeding from west to east, the GhāgharaGhaghara, Gandak, and Kosi rivers, all of which emerge from the Himalayas, join the Ganges from the north, while the Yamuna and Son are the two most important tributaries from the south. The Yamuna, which also has a Himalayan source (the Yamunotri glacier) and flows roughly parallel to the Ganges throughout its length, receives the flow of several important rivers, including the Chambal, Betwa, and Ken, which originate in India’s Peninsular Forelandpeninsular foreland. Of the northern tributaries of the Ganges, the Kosi, India’s most destructive river (referred to as the “Sorrow of Bihār”Bihar”), warrants special mention. Because of its large catchment in the Himalayas of Nepal and its gentle gradient once it reaches the plain, the Kosi is unable to discharge the large volume of water it carries at its peak flows, resulting in and it frequently floods and frequent changes of its course.

The seasonal flows of the Ganges and other rivers fed by meltwaters from the Himalayas vary considerably less than those of the exclusively rain-fed peninsular rivers. This consistency of flow enhances their suitability for irrigation and—where the diversion of water for irrigation is not excessive—for navigation as well.

Although the total length of the Brahmaputra (about 1,800 miles [2,900 km]) exceeds that of the Ganges, only 450 miles (725 km) of its course lies within India. The Brahmaputra, like the Indus, has its source in a trans-Himalayan area about 60 miles (100 km) southeast of Mānasarowar (Ma-fa-mu; Mapam ) Lake in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The river runs east across Tibet for more than half its total length before cutting into India at the northern border of Arunāchal Arunachal Pradesh. It then flows south and west through the state of Assam and south into Bangladesh, where it empties into the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The narrow Brahmaputra basin in Assam is prone to flooding because of its large catchment areas, parts of which experience exceedingly heavy rainfallprecipitation.

Peninsular rivers

The peninsular drainage into the Bay of Bengal includes a number of major rivers, most notably the MahānadiMahanadi, GodāvariGodavari, Krishna, and KāverīKaveri. Except for the MahānadiMahanadi, the headwaters of these rivers are in the high-rainfall zones of the Western GhātsGhats, and they traverse the entire width of the plateau (generally from northwest to southeast) before reaching the Bay of Bengal. The Mahānadi Mahanadi has its source at the southern edge of the Chhattīsgarh Chhattisgarh Plain.

India’s peninsular rivers have relatively steep gradients and thus rarely give rise to floods of the type that occur in the plains of northern India, despite considerable variations in flow from the dry to wet seasons. The lower courses of a number of these rivers are marked by rapids and gorges, usually as they cross the Eastern GhātsGhats. Because of their steep gradients, rocky underlying terrain, and variable flow regimes, the peninsular rivers are not navigable.

Drainage into the Arabian Sea

A substantial part of northwestern India is included in the Indus drainage basin, which India shares with China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The Indus and its longest tributary, the Sutlej, both rise in the trans-Himalayan region of Tibet. The Indus initially flows to the northwest between towering mountain ranges into and through Jammu and Kashmir state before entering the Pakistani-administered portion of Kashmir. It then travels generally to the southwest through Pakistan until it reaches the Arabian Sea. The Sutlej also flows northwest from its source but enters India farther south, at the border of Himāchal Himachal Pradesh. From there it travels west into the Indian state of Punjab and eventually enters Pakistan, where it flows into the Indus.

Between the Indus and the Sutlej lie several other major Indus tributaries. The Jhelum, the northernmost of these rivers, flows out of the Pīr Panjāl Pir Panjal Range into the Vale of Kashmir and thence via Bāramūla Baramula Gorge into Pakistani-held Jammu and administered Kashmir. The three others—the ChenābChenab, RāviRavi, and Beās—originate Beas—originate in the Himalayas within the Indian state of Himāchal Himachal Pradesh. The Chenāb Chenab travels across Jammu and Kashmir state before flowing into Pakistan; the Rāvi Ravi forms a part of the southern boundary of between Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh states and thereafter a short stretch of the IndoIndia-Pakistani Pakistan border prior to entering Pakistan; and the Beās Beas flows entirely within India, joining the Sutlej in the Indian state of Punjab. The area through which the five Indus tributaries flow has traditionally been called the Punjab (from Persian : panj, “five,” and āb, “water”). This That area currently falls in the Indian state of Punjab (containing the Sutlej and the BeāsBeas) and the Pakistani province of Punjab. Despite low rainfall in the Punjab plains, the moderately high runoff from the Himalayas ensures a year-round flow in the Indus and its tributaries, which are extensively utilized for canal irrigation.

Farther to the south, another notable river flowing into the Arabian Sea is the Lūni Luni of southern RājasthānRajasthan, which in most years has carried enough water to reach the Great Rann of Kachchh in western GujarātGujarat. Also flowing through Gujarāt Gujarat is the Mahi River, as well as the two most important west-flowing rivers of peninsular India—the Narmada (catchment area drainage basin 38,200 square miles [98,900 square km]) and Tāpi Tapi (TāptiTapti; 25,000 square miles [65,000 square km]). The Narmada and its basin are undergoing large-scale , multipurpose development. Most of the other peninsular rivers draining into the Arabian Sea have short courses, and those that flow westward from headwaters in the Western Ghāts Ghats have seasonally torrential flows.

Lakes and inland drainage

For such a large country, India has few natural lakes. Most of the lakes in the Himalayas were formed when glaciers either dug out a basin or dammed an area with earth and rocks. Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, by contrast, is the result of a tectonic depression. Although its area fluctuates, Wular Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake in India.

Inland drainage in India is mainly ephemeral and almost entirely in the arid and semiarid part of northwestern India, particularly in the Great Indian Desert of RājasthānRajasthan, where there are several ephemeral salt lakes, most prominently Sāmbhar (lakes—most prominently Sambhar Salt Lake, the largest lake in India). These lakes are fed by short, intermittent streams, which experience flash floods during occasional intense rains and become dry and lose their identity once the rains are over. The water in the lakes also evaporates and subsequently leaves a layer of white saline soils, from which a considerable amount of salt is commercially produced. Many of India’s largest lakes are reservoirs formed by damming rivers.

Soils

Although India There is endowed with a wide range of soils, at least two-thirds of the total land area consists of one of three general soil types: alluvial, soil types in India. As products of natural environmental processes, these can be broadly divided into two groups: in situ soils and transported soils. The in situ soils get their distinguishing features from the parent rocks, which are sieved by flowing water, sliding glaciers, and drifting wind and are deposited on landforms such as river valleys and coastal plains. The process of sieving such soils has led to deposition of materials in layers without any marked pedologic horizons, though it has altered the original chemical composition of the in situ soils.

Among the in situ soils are the red-to-yellow (including laterite) , and black (soils known locally as regur). . After these the alluvial soil is the third most common type. Also significant are the desert soils of RājasthānRajasthan, the saline soils ( in GujarātGujarat, southern RājasthānRajasthan, and some coastal areas), and the mountain soils of the Himalayas. The type of soil is determined by numerous factors, including climate, relief, altitudeelevation, and drainage, as well as by the composition of the underlying rock material.

Alluvial soils

Alluvial soils are widespread. They occur throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain and along the lower courses of virtually all the country’s major rivers (especially the deltas along the east coast). The nondeltaic plains along India’s coasts are also marked by narrow ribbons of alluvium.

New alluvium found on much of the Indo-Gangetic floodplains, which is called khādar, is extremely fertile and uniform in texture; conversely, the old alluvium on the slightly elevated terraces, termed bhāngar, carries patches of alkaline efflorescences, called usar, rendering some areas infertile. In the Ganges basin, sandy aquifers holding an enormous reserve of groundwater ensure irrigation and help make the plain the most agriculturally productive region of the country.

In situ soils

Red-to-yellow soils

These soils are encountered over extensive nonalluvial tracts of peninsular India and are made up of such acidic rocks as granite, gneiss, and schist. They develop in areas in which rainfall leaches soluble minerals out of the ground and results in a loss of chemically basic constituents; a corresponding proportional increase in oxidized iron imparts a reddish hue to many such soils.

In wetter areas, these soils are often categorized as lateritic (after

Hence these are commonly described as ferralitic soils. In extreme cases, the concentration of oxides of iron leads to formation of a hard crust, in which case they are described as lateritic (for later, the Latin term

for brick

meaning “brick”) soils. The heavily leached red-to-yellow soils are concentrated in the high-rainfall areas of the Western

Ghāts

Ghats, the western

Kāthiāwār

Kathiawar Peninsula, eastern

Rājasthān

Rajasthan, the Eastern

Ghāts

Ghats, the Chota

Nāgpur

Nagpur Plateau, and other upland tracts of northeastern India. Less-leached red-to-yellow soils occur in areas of low rainfall immediately east of the Western

Ghāts

Ghats in the dry interior of the Deccan

Plateau

. Red-to-yellow soils are usually infertile, but this problem is partly ameliorated in forested tracts, where humus concentration and the recycling of nutrients help restore fertility in the topsoil.

Black soils

Black soils, also called regur or black-cotton soil, are spread mostly across the Deccan Lava Plateau, the Mālwa Plateau, and interior Gujarāt,

Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most conspicuous. These soils are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa Plateau, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during the dry season, but their iron-rich granular structure makes them resistant to wind and water erosion. They are

These soils are also found on many peripheral tracts where the underlying basalt has been shifted from its original location by fluvial processes. The sifting has only led to an increased concentration of clastic contents.

Alluvial soils

Alluvial soils are widespread. They occur throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain and along the lower courses of virtually all the country’s major rivers (especially the deltas along the east coast). The nondeltaic plains along India’s coasts are also marked by narrow ribbons of alluvium.

New alluvium found on much of the Indo-Gangetic floodplain is called khadar and is extremely fertile and uniform in texture; conversely, the old alluvium on the slightly elevated terraces, termed bhangar, carries patches of alkaline efflorescences, called usar, rendering some areas infertile. In the Ganges basin, sandy aquifers holding an enormous reserve of groundwater ensure irrigation and help make the plain the most agriculturally productive region of the country.

Climate

India provides the world’s most-pronounced example of a monsoon climate. The wet and dry seasons of the monsoon system, along with the annual temperature fluctuations, produce three general climatic periods over much of the country: (1) hot, wet weather from about mid-June to the end of September, (2) cool, dry weather from early October to February, and (3) hot, dry weather (though normally with high atmospheric humidity) from about March to mid-June. The actual duration of these periods may vary by several weeks, not only from one part of India to another but also from year to year. Regional differences, which are often considerable, result from a number of internal factors—including elevation, type of relief, and proximity to bodies of water.

The monsoons

A monsoon system is characterized by a seasonal reversal of prevailing wind directions and by alternating wet and dry seasons. In India the wet season, called the southwest monsoon, occurs from about mid-June to early October, when winds from the Indian Ocean carry moisture-laden air across the subcontinent, causing heavy rainfall and often considerable flooding. Usually about three-fourths of the country’s total annual precipitation falls during these those months. During the driest months (called the retreating monsoon), especially from November through February, this pattern is reversed, as dry air from the Asian interior moves across India toward the ocean. October and March through May, by contrast, are typically periods of desultory breezes with no strong prevailing patterns.

The southwest monsoon

Although the winds of the rainy season are called the southwest monsoon, they actually follow two generally distinct branches, one initially flowing eastward from the Arabian Sea and the other northward from the Bay of Bengal. The former begins by lashing the west coast of peninsular India and rising over the adjacent Western GhātsGhats. When crossing these mountains, the air cools (thus losing its moisture-bearing capacity) and deposits rain copiously on the windward side of that highland barrier. Annual precipitation in parts of this region exceeds 100 inches (2,540 millimetresmm) and is as high as 245 inches at Mahābaleshwar (6,250 mm) at Mahabaleshwar on the crest of the Western GhātsGhats. Conversely, as the winds descend on the leeward side of the Western GhātsGhats, the air’s moisture-bearing capacity increases and the resultant rain shadow makes for a belt of semiarid terrain, much of it with less than 25 inches (635 mm) of rain precipitation per year.

The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon sweeps across eastern India and Bangladesh and, in several areas, gives rise to rainfall in much the same way as occurs along the Western GhātsGhats. The effect is particularly pronounced in the Shillong (MeghālayaMeghalaya) Plateau, where at Cherrapunji the average annual rainfall is 450 inches (11,430 mm), one of the heaviest in the world. The Brahmaputra valley to the north also experiences a rain-shadow effect; the problem is mitigated, however, by the adjacent Himalayas, which cause the winds to rise again, thereby establishing a parallel belt of heavy rainfallprecipitation. Blocked by the Himalayas, the Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon is diverted westward up the Gangetic Plain, reaching Punjab only in the first week of July.

In the Gangetic Plain the two branches merge into one. By the time they reach the Punjab their moisture is largely spent. The gradual reduction in the amount of rainfall toward the west is evidenced by the decline from 64 inches at Calcutta (1,625 mm) at Kolkata to 26 inches (660 mm) at Delhi and to desert conditions still farther west. Over the northeastern portion of peninsular India, the two branches also intermittently collide, creating weak weather fronts with sufficient rainfall to produce patches of fairly high precipitation (more than 60 inches [1,520 mm]) in the Chota Nāgpur Nagpur Plateau.

Rainfall during the retreating monsoon

Much of India experiences infrequent and relatively feeble precipitation during the retreating monsoon. An exception to this rule occurs along the southeastern coast of India and for some distance inland. When the retreating monsoon blows from the northeast across the Bay of Bengal, it picks up a significant amount of moisture, which is subsequently released after moving back onto the peninsula. Thus, from October to December the coast of Tamil Nādu Nadu state receives at least half of its roughly 40 inches (1,000 mm) of annual precipitation. This rainy extension of the generally dry retreating monsoon is called the northeast, or winter, monsoon.

Another type of winter rainfall precipitation occurs in northern India, which receives weak cyclonic storms originating in the Mediterranean basin. In the Himalayas these storms bring weeks of drizzling rain and cloudiness and are followed by waves of cold temperatures and snowfall. The state of Jammu and Kashmir in particular receives much of its precipitation from these storms.

Tropical cyclones

Fierce tropical cyclones occur in India during what may be called the premonsoon, early monsoon, or postmonsoon periods. Originating in both the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, tropical cyclones often attain velocities of more than 100 miles (160 km) per hour and are notorious for causing intense rain and tidal waves storm tides (surges) as they cross the coast of India. The Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal coasts are especially susceptible to such storms.

Importance to agriculture

Monsoons play a pivotal role in Indian agriculture, and the substantial year-to-year variability of rainfall, in both timing and quantity, introduces much uncertainty in the country’s crop yield. Good years bring bumper crops, but years of poor rain may result in total crop failure over large areas, especially where irrigation is lacking. Large-scale flooding can also cause damage to crops. As a general rule, the higher an area’s average annual precipitation, the more dependable is its rainfall, but few areas of India have an average precipitation high enough to be free from the possibility of occasional drought and consequent crop failure.

Temperatures

Temperatures in India generally are the warmest in May or June, just prior to the cooling downpours of the southwest monsoon. A secondary maximum often occurs in September or October when precipitation wanes. The temperature range tends to be significantly less along the coastal plains than in interior locations. The range also tends to increase with latitude. Near India’s southern extremity the seasonal range is no more than a few degrees; for example, at Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), in Kerala, there is an average fluctuation of just 4.3 °F (2.4 °C) around an annual mean temperature of 81 °F (27 °C). In the northwest, however, the range is much greater, as, for example, at AmbālaAmbala, in HaryānaHaryana, where the temperature fluctuates from 56 °F (13 °C) in January to 92 °F (33 °C) in June. Temperatures are also moderated wherever elevations are significant, and many Himalayan resort towns, called hill stations (a legacy of British colonial rule), afford welcome relief from India’s sometimes oppressive heat.

Plant and animal life

Plant lifeVegetation

The flora of India largely reflect the country’s distribution of rainfall. Tropical broad-leaved evergreen and mixed, partially evergreen forests grow in areas with high precipitation; in successively less rainy areas are found moist and dry deciduous forests, scrub jungle, grassland, and desert vegetation. Coniferous forests are confined to the Himalayas. There are about 17,000 species of flowering plants in the country. The subcontinent’s physical isolation, caused by its relief and climatic barriers, has resulted in a considerable number of endemic flora.About 185 million acres (75 million hectares) are officially classified as forest in India; the actual amount of forested area, however, is lower

Roughly one-fourth of the country is forested. However, beginning in the late 20th century, forest depletion accelerated considerably to make room for more agriculture and urban-industrial development. This has taken its toll on many Indian plant species. About 20 species of higher-order plants are believed to have become extinct, and already some 1,300 species are considered to be endangered.

Tropical evergreen and mixed evergreen-deciduous forests generally occupy areas with more than 80 inches (2,000 mm) of rainfall per year, mainly in upper Assam, the Western Ghāts Ghats (especially in Kerala), parts of Orissa, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Common trees in these tall , multistoried forests include species of Mesua, Toona ciliata, Hopea, and Eugenia, as well as gurjun(Dipterocarpus turbinatus), which grows to over 165 feet (50 metres) on the Andaman Islands and in Assam. The mixed evergreen-deciduous forests of Kerala and the Bengal Himalayas have a large variety of commercially valuable hardwood trees, of which Lagerstroemia lanceolata, East Indian, or Malabar, kino(Pterocarpus marsupium), and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) are well known.

Tropical - moist deciduous forests generally occur in areas with 60 to 80 inches (1,500 to 2,000 mm) of rainfall, such as the northern part of the Eastern GhātsGhats, east-central India, and western KarnātakaKarnataka. Dry deciduous forests, which grow in places receiving less than 60 inches (1,500 mm) of precipitation, characterize the subhumid and semiarid regions of GujarātGujarat, Madhya Pradesh, eastern RājasthānRajasthan, central Andhra Pradesh, and western Tamil NāduNadu. Teak, sal(Shorea robusta), axle-wood (Anogeissus latifolia), tendu, ain, and Adina cardifolia are some of the major deciduous species.

Tropical thorn forests occupy areas in various parts of the country, though mainly in the northern Gangetic Plain and southern peninsular India. These forests generally grow in areas with less than 24 inches (600 mm) of rain but are also found in more humid areas, where deciduous forests have been degraded because of unregulated grazing, felling, and slash-and-burn shifting agriculture. In such those areas, such xerophytic (drought-tolerant) trees as species of Acaciaacacia (babul and catechu) and Butea monosperma predominate.

The important commercial species include teak and sal. Teak, the foremost timber species, is largely confined to the peninsula. During the period of British rule, it was used extensively in ship-buildingshipbuilding, and certain forests were therefore reserved as teak plantations. Salis confined to the lower Himalayas, Uttar Pradesh, BihārBihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. Other species with commercial uses are sandalwood (Santalum album), the fragrant wood of which that is perhaps the most precious in the world, and rosewood, an evergreen used for carving and furniture.

Many other species are noteworthy, some because of special ecological niches they occupy. Deltaic areas, for example, are fringed with mangrove forests, in which the dominant species, sundri, is species—called sundri or sundari (Heritiera fomes), which is not, properly speaking, a mangrove—is characterized by respiratory roots that emerge from the tidal water. Conspicuous features of the tropical landscape are the palms, which are represented in India by some 100 species. Coconut and betel nut (the fruit of which is chewed) are cultivated mainly in coastal Karnātaka Karnataka and Kerala. Among the common, majestic-looking trees found throughout much of India are the mango—a major source of fruit—and two revered Ficus species, the pipal (famous as the Bo tree of Buddha) and the banyan. Many types of bamboo (members of the grass family) grow over much of the country, with a concentration in the rainy areas.

Vegetation in the Himalayas can be generally divided into a number of altitude elevation zones. Mixed evergreen-deciduous forests dominate the foothill areas up to a height of 5,000 feet . Beyond this (1,500 metres). Above that level subtropical pine forests make their appearance, followed by the Himalayan moist-temperate forests of oak, fir, deodar (Cedrus deodara), and spruce. The highest tree zone, consisting of Alpine alpine shrubs, is found up to a height an elevation of about 15,000 feet (4,500 metres). Rhododendrons are common at 12,000 feet (3,700 metres), above which occasional junipers and Alpine alpine meadows are encountered. Zones overlap considerably, and there are wide transitional bands.

Animal life

India forms an important segment of what is known as the Oriental, or Sino-Indianzoogeographic province, biogeographic region, which extends eastward from India to include mainland and much of insular Southeast Asia. Its fauna are numerous and quite diverse.

Mammals

Almost all orders of mammals are encountered in India. Mammals of the submontane region include Indian elephants (Elephas maximus)—associated from time immemorial with mythology and the splendour of regal pageantry—the great one-horned Indian rhinoceroses, a wide variety of ruminants, and various primates. There are also numerous predators represented by various genera.

Wild herds of elephants can be observed in several areas, particularly in such renowned national parks as Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, in Kerala, and Bandipur, in Karnataka. The Indian rhinoceros is protected at Kaziranga National Park and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam.

Examples of ruminants include the wild Indian bison, or gaur (Bos gaurus), which inhabits peninsular forests; Indian buffalo; four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), known locally as chousingha; blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), or Indian antelope; antelope known as the nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), or bluebuck; and Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur), or ghorkhar. There are also several species of deer, such as the rare Kashmir stag (hangul), swamp deer (barasingha), spotted deer, musk deer, brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi; an endangered species known locally as the sangai or thamin), and mouse deer.

Among the primates are various monkeys, including the rhesus monkey monkeys and the gray, or Hanumanlangur, langurs (Presbytis entellus), both of which are found in forested areas and near human settlements. The only ape found in India, the hoolock gibbon, is confined to the rainforests of the eastern region. Lion-tailed monkeys, denizens macaques of the Western Ghāts, Ghats, with halos of hair around their faces, are becoming rare because of poaching.

The country’s carnivora carnivores include cats, dogs, foxes, jackals, and mongooses. There are also four species of large cats: the leopard, ounce (or snow leopard), Bengal tiger (the largest of India’s carnivores), and the lion, now confined to the Gīr National Park in the Kāthiāwār Peninsula of GujarātAmong the animals of prey, the Asiatic lion—now confined to the Gir Forest National Park, in the Kathiawar Peninsula of Gujarat—is the only extant subspecies of lion found outside of Africa. The majestic Indian, or Bengal, tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), the national animal of India, is known for its rich colour, illusive design, and formidable power. Of the five extant tiger subspecies worldwide, the Bengal tiger is the most numerous. Tigers are found in the forests of the Tarai region of Uttar Pradeshnorthern India, BihārBihar, and Assam; the Ganges delta in West Bengal; the Eastern GhātsGhats; Madhya Pradesh; and eastern RājasthānRajasthan. Once on the verge of extinction, Indian tigers have increased to several thousand, thanks largely to Project Tiger, which has established reserves in various parts of the country. Other Indian mammals include wild herds of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus), which can be observed in several areas, particularly in such renowned national parks as Periyār Lake in Kerala and Bāndipur in Karnātaka. The Indian rhinoceros is protected at Kāziranga National Park and Mānas Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam. The country also has several species of deerAmong other cats are leopards, clouded leopards, and various smaller species.

The Great Himalayas have notable fauna that includes wild sheep and goats, markhor (Capra falconeri), and ibex. Lesser pandas and snow leopards are also found in the upper reaches of the mountains.

Oxen, buffalo, horses, dromedary camels, sheep, goats, and pigs are common domesticated animals. The cattle breed Brahman, or zebu (Bos indicus), a species of ox, is an important draft animal, while the wild Indian bison (Bos gaurus) inhabits the peninsular forests.

Birds

India has more than 1,200 species of birds and perhaps 2,000 subspecies, although some migratory species are found in the country only during the winter. This amount of avian life represents roughly one-eighth of the world’s species. The major reason for such a high level of diversity is the presence of a wide variety of habitats, from the cold and dry alpine tundra of Ladakh and Sikkim to the steamy, tangled jungles of the Sunderbans and wet, moist forests of the Western Ghats and the northeast. The country’s many larger rivers provide deltas and backwaters for aquatic animal life, and many smaller rivers drain internally and end in vast saline lakes that are important breeding grounds for such birds as black-necked cranes (Grus nigricollis), barheaded geese (Anser indicus), and great crested grebes, as well as various kinds of terns, gulls, plovers, and sandpipers. Herons, storks, ibises, and flamingos are well represented, and many of these birds frequent the Keoladeo Ghana National Parkin Rājasthān, near Bharatpur, Rajasthan (designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985). The Rann of Kachchh forms the nesting ground for one of the world’s largest breeding colonies of flamingos.

Birds of prey include hawks, vultures, and eagles. Vultures are ubiquitous consumers of carrion. Game birds are represented by pheasants, jungle fowl, partridges, and quails. Peafowls Peacocks (peafowl) are also common, especially in Gujarāt Gujarat and RājasthānRajasthan, where they are kept as pets. The resplendently Resplendently feathered, the peacock has been adopted as India’s national bird.

Other notable birds in India include the Indian crane, commonly known as the sārassarus (Grus antigone); a large , gray bird with crimson legs, the sārassarusstands as tall as a human. Bustards inhabit India’s grasslands. The great Indian bustard (Choriotis nigriceps), now confined to central and western India, is an endangered species protected by legislation. Sand grouse, pigeons, doves, parakeets, and cuckoos are found throughout the country. The mainly nonmigratory kingfisher, living close to water bodies, is considered sacred in many areas. Hornbills, barbets, and woodpeckers also are common, as are larks, crows, babblers, and thrushes.

Reptiles, fish, and insects

Reptiles are well represented in India. Crocodiles inhabit the country’s rivers, swamps, and lakes. The estuarine crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), —once attaining a maximum length of 30 feet , usually (9 metres), though specimens exceeding 20 feet (6 metres) are now rare—usually lives on the fish, birds, and crabs of muddy deltaic regions. The long-snouted gavial, or gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), a species similar to the crocodile, is endemic to northern India; it is found in a number of large rivers, including the Ganges and Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Of the nearly 400 species of snakes, one-fifth are poisonous. Kraits and cobras are particularly widespread poisonous species. King cobras often grow to at least 12 feet (3.6 metres) long. The Indian python frequents marshy areas and grasslands. Lizards also are widespread, and turtles are found throughout India, though especially along the eastern coast.

Of some 2,000 species of fish in India, about one-fifth live in fresh water. Common edible freshwater fish include catfish and several members of the carp family, notably the mahseer, which grows up to 6.5 feet (2 metres) and 200 pounds (90 kilogramskg). Sharks are found in India’s coastal waters and sometimes travel inland through major estuaries. Commercially valuable marine species include shrimpshrimps, prawnprawns, crabs, lobsters, pearl oysters, and conchconchs.

Among the commercially valuable insects are silkworms, bees, and the lac insect (Laccifer lacca). The latter secretes a sticky, resinous material called lac, from which shellac and a red dye are produced. Many other insects, such as various species of mosquitomosquitoes, are vectors for disease (e.g., malaria and yellow fever) or for human parasites (e.g., certain flatworms and nematodes).

Conservation

The movement for the protection of forests and wildlife is strong in India. A number of species, including the elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger, have been declared endangered, and numerous others—both large and small—are considered vulnerable or at risk. Legislative measures have declared certain animals protected species, and areas with particularly rich floral diversity have been adopted as biosphere reserves. Virtually no forests are left in private hands. Projects likely to cause ecological damage must be cleared by the national government’s Ministry of the Environment and Forests. Despite such measures, the reduced acreage areas of forests, savannasavannas, and grasslands provides provide little hope that India’s population of animals can be restored to what it was at the end of the 19th century.