ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following people for contributing to the development of this manual:

Thank you...
To the people who work at Alto Cauquenes including the owner Alberto Ellena; General Manager
Carlos Nilo; Secretary Bernarda Salgado Machuca; Field Operations staff, Eduardo Lineros, Ivan Moraga,
Reinaldo Alarcon, Domingo Henriquez; and general caretaker Margarita Henriquez.
To the following business owners and government officials: Louis Antoine Luyt, Don Francisco, Don
Raul, Don Jose Alarcon, Las Lomas Vinas de Cauquenes, and Fernando Fernandez of INIA.
To the ecologists and foresters that consulted with us throughout the project, John Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Keefe, John
Barclay and Glenn Motzkin.
To the professors who worked diligently to advise and edit the manual.
Thank you for the continued inspiration, support and enthusiasm of Pamela Hurtado without whom
this project would not have been possible.

CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1

INTRODUCTION

2

CONTEXT

6

SOILS

14

HYDROLOGY

18

NATIVE VEGETATION

26

FORESTRY

34

AGRICULTURE

50

HUMAN INFRASTRUCTURE

58

OFF-SITE CONNECTIONS

66

CONCLUSION

71

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Alto Cauquenes is an agroforestry businessâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;owned by Alberto Ellena and Pamela Hurtadoâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;that manages 1,380 hectares of land in south-central Chile. The land in production was purchased in 2002 and is referred to as Campo San
Francisco. The land serves as a business operation and a homestead for the owners and property caretakers. When
Campo San Francisco was purchased, the soils were eroded and degraded, which is a common condition in the region.
Today, Alto Cauquenes has reclaimed the landscape and diversified it by planting three types of timber trees, vineyards,
olives and experimental field crops. This manual offers management strategies for Campo San Francisco based on principles of ecology, sustainability, and resilience. By incorporating these strategies into the management of the soil, water,
native vegetation, forestry, agriculture, human infrastructure, and off-site connections of Campo San Francisco, the land
will continue to be a place from which others may learn.
Due to its erosive nature and previous history of management, soil has been a defining element in the landscape patterns
of this region of Chile. At Campo San Francisco, the new plantation trees and other vegetation have helped slow erosion
and stabilize soils, however, fully rehabilitating the soils will be an ongoing process. Strategies such as reducing mechanical
and chemical disturbance will increase soil fertility and overall soil health to benefit all crops grown at the Campo.
Because the region is subjected to extreme flood-drought cycles, the water resources on the site are precious, especially
in the dry summer months. Implementing ecological strategies in the management of water sources is crucial to maintaining water quality for those living downstream, as well as for use at Campo San Francisco. Strategies such as expanding
riparian buffers will help filter harmful sediments and chemicals from streams. Another strategy is to create uneven edges
along man-made waterbodies that mimic natural shorelines. This will encourage diversity among plants and create high
quality habitat for wildlife.
Native vegetation is important due to the high rates of endemism that are found in both plant and animal species in the
region. In the region, only 7 percent of the original native forest still stands. Campo San Francisco has an opportunity to
contribute to the conservation and preservation of remaining native forests. Strategies such as developing corridors and
connecting existing patches of native vegetation will enrich the biodiversity within Campo San Francisco. Also, by taking
inventory and monitoring the plants and animals on-site, Alto Cauquenes can create a conservation program that can also
be used to teach other landowners about the native forest and the importance of these efforts in the region.
Forestry is paramount in the region. The Chilean forestry sector has helped to remediate degrading soils, and boost Chile
into the global export market. These systems are generally monocultures, and diversifying the even-aged and singlespecies stands is necessary in order to increase resilience. Diverse stands will be less susceptible to natural disturbances
and will contribute to the overall health of the ecosystem, thus making the system more productive. Strategies such as
increasing rotation times for tree harvest and incorporating native trees in the system will increase the overall diversity
of forest stands.
Agriculture at Campo San Francisco has been instrumental in increasing both species and economic diversity within the
landscape. Because agriculture is important to the culture of the region its success and continued resilience is imperative
to teaching the current generation the opportunities that are present in this business. Strategies including experimenting
with different agricultural systems such as crop rotation and keyline design will present alternative ways to encourage soil
health, limit erosion and improve soil structure. Expanding and investing in the vineyards will allow the Campo to diversify
products and encourage crop diversity.
By investing in infrastructure such as roads and trails, the natural beauty found in the ponds, river and native forest can be
enjoyed by the people who interact with the landscape. The land can be used for recreation and education, teaching other
landowners about the importance of maintaining a healthy ecosystem while maintaining a thriving agroforestry business.
Ultimately, Campo San Francisco is more than an agroforestry business, it is a place where people can take part in the
farming culture. It is a place that can serve as a model for soil, water and forest health, allowing those practices to sustain,
in turn, the people who live on the land.

INTRODUCTION
In 2002, Alberto Ellena and Pamela Hurtado purchased 1,380 hectares in
Cauquenes, Chile. This property, called Campo San Francisco, is located in
the dry interior of the coastal mountain range in south-central Chile. Alberto
began a forestry company called Alto Cauquenes to manage and rehabilitate
the degraded land at Campo San Francisco. Alto Cauquenes, whose office is
based in the nearby city of Cauquenes, has transformed a degraded, eroded
landscape into an expansive forest dotted with vineyards and olive trees.

CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO, 2002

CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO, 2012

This guide aims to offer strategies that will inform future management decisions made at Campo San Francisco. The
strategies presented are founded in ecological and sustainable management. Identifying and assessing the various
ecological systems on the property lead to holistic recommendations that encompass the whole system and ensure
its lasting health and vitality. Implementing sound ecological strategies will increase Campo San Franciscoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resilience
to natural and anthropogenic disturbances.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

IntRodUctIon

3

GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Four main principles guided the development of the strategies
presented in this document. These principles were considered
with the ultimate goal of further integrating Campo San
Francisco into the agrarian heritage of Chileâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Central Valley. If
Campo San Francisco adopted strategies based on these principles, it would cultivate a resilient and productive landscape.

GUIdInG PRIncIPLeS
1. ensure the health, safety and stability of families
2. Sustain the capability of land production for
future generations
3. contribute to and integrate local communities
4. ensure economic return on production
investments

PRoJect GoALS
to assess the landscape patterns in the region and
at campo San Francisco, and to present ecological
management strategies which cultivate resilience
within the landscape.
to recommend strategies that will allow campo San
Francisco to serve as a model of a successful and
sustainable forestry business that will enrich and
contribute to the culture of the region.

4

A ModeL FoR otHeR LAndoWneRS
In response to the opportunities and challenges presented
at Campo San Francisco, and the Cauquenes province, this
guide recommends strategies that other landowners in the
region can employ on their own land. If Campo San
Francisco implements these strategies, Alto Cauquenes
would establish itself as a pioneer in sustainable agriculture
and forestry in the region.

Alto Cauquenes is in the fortunate position to serve as a
leader and innovator in these fields, and this leadership
could greatly contribute to revitalizing the agrarian culture
in Cauquenes province.
ReSILIence
This document recommends management strategies that
are meant to further strengthen the resilience of Campo
San Francisco and the operations that occur within the
landscape. These strategies will increase adaptability to
inevitable changes in the market, climate, and social and
cultural systems. For more information see Resilience section.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

IntRodUctIon

MOVING TOWARDS A RESILIENT SYSTEM
The Central Valley experiences disturbances such as pests and
disease, ﬂood, drought and wildfires. It is probable that climate change will alter or exacerbate these disturbances.
Further uncertainties lie in the stability of the economic and
cultural systems of the Central Valley, and building a resilient
system could allow for ﬂexibility in face of ecological, economic or cultural disturbance. Below is a historical example
of a cultivation system in the Central Valley that was not created with resilience in mind, and today is obsolete.

A resilient system is able to absorb and adapt to disturbance
while maintaining its original function. Resilience in forestry
and agriculture is dependent on the health and vitality of the
land. Natural systems are highly adaptable, and natural disturbances constantly challenge these systems, but do not significantly alter their functioning. In order for a system based on
cultivation to be resilient, it must mimic the adaptability of
these natural systems.
BUILdInG ecoLoGIcAL ReSILIence In cHILe’S centRAL VALLey
By the end of the 19th century, the once fertile land of chile’s
central Valley had become unproductive and erosive, after years
of supporting wheat and cereal plantations (Aronson 1998).
Between 1850 and 1900, these crops were planted in large
monocultures across the valley, and were a source of economic
stability for chile. over the years, these cash crops stripped the
soil of nutrients, minerals and organic matter and very little
effort was made to replenish the soil.
After more than 50 years of intensive wheat production, chile
lost its ability to compete with other large wheat-producing
nations, and its soils were extremely degraded. the chilean
wheat industry collapsed into stagnation from which it never
recovered (Wilcox 1996). this system failed in part because of
its lack of resilience.
the historical chilean wheat industry depended heavily on
nourishment from fertile soils and the widespread demand for
a single product. When both of these scenarios had shifted,
the inﬂexible wheat production system was so greatly disturbed
that it dissolved, leaving behind a degraded landscape and a
desperate economic situation.

HI

GH

the widespread planting of fast growing tree species has
evolved into a booming forestry sector, and these forest
products have become one of chile’s leading exports.
the forests were planted to alleviate a problem, and they
do successfully reduce erosion across the landscape.
However, with economic stability that has come with these
plantations, it is easy to forget the story of the chilean
wheat industry. the forestry industry is in the position to
direct resources not only toward reducing erosion, but
also toward replenishing the landscape so that it is able to
provide economically viable products well into the future.
there are countless methods in which a forestry business
might reach a state of resilience, such as natural
replenishment of the soil, and diversiﬁed products that can
adapt in an uncertain economic market.
INGTREE
SPEC
ROW
I ES
TG

T
OR

FA
RM

AB
AN
DO
NM
EN
T

PLANT
ING
FA
S

WHEAT
PLANTATIONS

P
EX

today, chileans are working to remedy the issues that this
failed system left behind. one widely applied strategy to
alleviate soil degradation is the planting of fast growing tree
species, whose roots help to hold the eroding soil in place.

DEGRADED SOILS
REDUCED EROSION
HIGH YIELD
HIGH DEMAND FOR
PRODUCT
MODERN DAY

ReSILIence

5

CONTEXT
PROJECT SETTING
The country of Chile is divided into 12 regions, and within
each region are a number of provinces. Campo San
Francisco is located in the Cauquenes province within the
Maule Region (VII).

LAnd tyPeS oF cHILe
Three major land types exist between regions IV and X, the
coastal range, the Central Valley, and the Andes mountains.
Campo San Francisco is located between the foothills of the
coastal range and the Central Valley.

REGIONS IV-X

CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
MAULE REGION (VII)

SOUTH AMERICA
CHILE

ANDES MOUNTAINS
CENTRAL VALLEY
COASTAL MOUNTAINS

Coastal Mountain Range

Central Valley

Andes Mountain Range

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

context

7

While Alto Cauquenes operates primarily
within the property boundaries of Campo
San Francisco, there are many broader factors that inﬂuence what happens on the
property. These include:

REGIONAL CLIMATE PATTERNS
The dry interior of the Central Valley in Chile receives an average of
600 to 1000 mm of rain each year (Aronson 1999) and this falls mainly
between the months of May and September, in the winter season.
During the summer, the coastal mountain range casts a rainshadow
over the dry interior. Additionally, the water running down from the
Andes mountain range infiltrates into the soil before running into the
dry interior area.
This pattern results in an area that is very dry during the summer
months. This dry period makes cultivation difficult and has also encouraged native species that are specialized and highly adaptable to this climatic variability (Fernandez 2009).
These weather patterns describe the current situation in the area, but
with the uncertainty of climate change’s effects on regional weather
patterns, the property should be managed to exhibit resilience.

4500

ME
LT
AL
GL
AC
I

ALTITUDE (M)

3500

2500

1500
RA

IN

SH

AD

500

OCEAN

8

DRY
COAST

25

COASTAL DRY
RANGE INTERIOR

OW

115

65
CENTRAL VALLEY

135
PRE-ANDES
RANGE

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

215
ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE

context

DISTANCE
FROM
OCEAN
(km)

(C)

TEMPERATURE

+3

Cross-section of average annual rainfall and
temperature in central
Chile. Temperature
decreases further from
the ocean and rainfall
increases then drops
suddenly after the
coastal mountain range
due to the rainshadow.

0
1500
1100
700

(mm)

RAIN FALL

+6

25

50

115

135

215

DISTANCE FROM THE OCEAN (km)

REGIONAL SOILS

CAUQUENES

In the dry interior, there are two main land types, the hills and
the plains. The soil type for each area is based on the same granitic parent material; however, each area has evolved to exhibit
different soil profiles.
In the hills the soils are characterized by severe erosion and are
well drained (Olivares 2011). The soils in the plains are mostly
clay material and are therefore less susceptible to erosion than
the soils in the hills, but are poorly drained.
Since Campo San Francisco exhibits both land types and soil
qualities, the difference between these soil types should be considered in any management strategies applied to the property.

HILLS

PLAINS

DRY INTERIOR

Soils in the Hills: Generally more suited to forestry
• Low fertility
• Average pH of 6
• Low levels of nutrients and organic matter
Soils in the Plains: Generally more suited to agriculture
• Mostly clay
• Less susceptible to erosion than soils in the hills
• Poorly drained
• Higher levels of fertility than in the hills
• Rich in magnesium and iron
Adapted from (Fernandez 2009)

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

context

9

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
The social and cultural history of the Cauquenes province has
informed many of the landscape patterns seen in both the region
and Campo San Francisco.
The indigenous community which inhabited Cauquenes was the
Promaucaes del Maule, but the Spanish included them with the
Mapuche “earth man” (Aronson 1998). Their agrarian society
was based on soil building and irrigation systems.
During the Spanish Conquest, they joined the Mapuche people to
fight in the Arauco War which lasted for three centuries.
Throughout this conﬂict the indigenous people were displaced
and repressed, and their traditional cropping systems were displaced by sweeping fields of Spanish wheat and cereal crops.
By 1814, Chilean patriots overturned the Spanish government,
and with the new Republic of Chile, the culture of modern day
Chile was born. These exchanges of power have inﬂuenced the
transformation of the country’s landscape patterns.

FRoM SUBSIStence to PLAntAtIon FARMInG
Before the Spanish Conquest the Central Valley was covered in an oak-dominated forest, which built up large
amounts of fertile organic matter in the soil. The indigenous people burned tracts of this forest to grow crops in
a rotational pattern, leaving old fields fallow (Aronson
1998).

These crops depleted the soil which led to the abandonment of degraded fields. The lack of vegetative cover
caused heavy erosion, which threatened to degrade the
land beyond repair. In the early 1900’s the country began
to address this issue by planting fast growing tree species
to stabilize the soil.
Since then, this solution has been applied widely over the
region, and has evolved into a expansive plantation forestry system. Today, plantation forestry functions both as a
soil stabilizer and a large part of Chile’s export market.
As a forestry company, Alto Cauquenes is in the position
to be a leader in soil restoration, and there are many
opportunities for the organization to further improve the
soil health and ecological functioning of the landscape.

PAtteRnS oF LAndScAPe USe In ReGIon MAULe, cHILe
AGRICULTURE

NATIVE FOREST

AGRICULTURE

NATIVE
FOREST

10

PLANTATION
FORESTRY

GRASSLAND

AGRICULTURE

Promaucaes del Maule

NATIVE
FOREST

AGRICULTURE

Spanish Conquistadores

Post-Spanish

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

context

GRASSLAND

NATIVE
FOREST

Modern Day

A SHIFt FRoM RURAL to URBAn
The fertile soils have inﬂuenced the historical land uses in the
Cauquenes province, which in turn has inﬂuenced social practices
in the region. The culture in the area has historically been based on
rural agrarian practices.

These practices have historically been grounded in agriculture, but
today the region is currently in a period of transition. More and
more young people are leaving the countryside and seeking a less
agrarian lifestyle in the city of Cauquenes or in other Chilean cities.
The population of the city of Cauquenes grew, according to the
2002 census by 2.3 percent in ten years, and the demographic trend
for the province shows a 2 percent annual decrease in rural population (Institute of National Statistics, Chile).

Mural, downtown Cauquenes

This culture shift can be partially attributed to the degraded soils
and lack of arable land. Because many fast growing tree species are
a valuable commodity that are able to grow well in this degraded
land, they are more viable than traditional agrarian crops, and many
small farmers have been physically and economically displaced
from their land (Aronson 1998).
Small-and-medium sized farms are not as prevalent in the province
as they once were, and the operations on Campo San Francisco
have the potential to re-instill pride in the agrarian lifestyle. Alto
Cauquenes manages both plantation forestry and agricultural operations at Campo San Francisco and therefore is in a position to
serve as an example by demonstrating a successful union of forestry and agriculture in one operation.
Cauquenes holds a market every Wednesday in the central part of the
city. Farmers come from around the province to sell their fresh fruits
and vegetables, and other household items.

A VIeW oF cAUQUeneS todAy
As you travel through the Cauquenes Province between the city
and the rural landscape, there is a visible tension between the desire
for urban efficiencies and the strength of agrarian traditions.

Long expanses of vineyards line the country roads and the hills are
covered with pine trees and eucalyptus as far as the eye can see.
With the exception of some small farm operations, much of the
land is covered with an industrial-scale plantation of either vineyards or forests. These patterns translate directly to the economy
of the province; wine and pine are major exports and they support
the local economy of the province.

Long expanses of vineyards and small olive groves line the country
roads and the hills are covered with pine trees and eucalyptus as far
as the eye can see. Wine and pine are major exports that support the
local economy of Cauquenes.

As you travel from the countryside into the city, roots of true
agrarian tradition can be seen. Cauquenes holds a market every
Wednesday that ﬂoods the streets with fresh fruits and vegetables
and traditional artisan crafts. Some agrarian traditions have been
transplanted to the modern, urban landscape and evidence of corporate-scale technology is evident throughout the countryside.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

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11

REGIONAL DISTURBANCES
Disturbances can throw a functioning, stable system into disarray
without warning. Understanding the potential damage from disturbances at Campo San Francisco can inform effective planning
that might allow Campo San Francisco to be resilient to unexpected changes.
Potential disturbances within the Central Valley range from pest
or disease to wild fires, all of which have to potential destroy a
plantation crop. Other potential disturbances are economically
driven such as the rising price of oil or the decreasing demand for
forestry products. If any one of these disturbances were to affect
Campo San Francisco it would challenge the functioning of the
production systems currently in place.
Pine plantation affected by disease, Maule Region, Chile. Potential disturbances within the Central Valley range from pest or disease to wild fires,
all of which could destroy a plantation crop without warning.

View of wildfire from Campo San Francisco

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change in this region is predicted to bring changes in
temperature and precipitation patterns. The projected temperature increase is between one and one-and-a-half degrees over the
next forty years, and rainfall is predicted to drop anywhere
between ten and fifteen percent (Fernandez 2009). Each of these
changes not only might be inﬂuential in and of themselves, but
also could exacerbate the potential threat of existing regional
disturbances.

“Agriculture is the most exposed sector, particularly
the forestry sector, and the vines and fruits in the
central region which are reliant on irrigation schemes”
-Professor Santibanez of University of Chile on climate
change in Chile

CLIMATE CHANGE and CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
The effects of climate change coupled with the alterations and manipulation of land cover occurring in the
region could potentially exacerbate the negative effects
exhibited by both phenomena. According to Professor
Santibanez of the University of Chile, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Agriculture is
the most exposed sector, particularly the forestry sector,
and the vines and fruits in the central region which are
reliant on irrigation schemesâ&#x20AC;? (Painter 2009).
Species Shift: The temperature increase will likely entail
range shift or shrink for native species. These species are
also threatened by the expansion of plantation forestry.
The deforestation of native vegetation, along with afforestation followed by clearcut of plantation species,
decreases native species range and further increases air
temperature (Hansen et al. 2011).
Risk to Water Quality: Both deforestation and the
increase in air temperature could affect water quality.
The loss of riparian vegetation and decreased water
infiltration after clearcutting could lead to increased runoff into water systems. If air temperature increases, the
water runs off at increased temperatures, potentially
altering aquatic habitat. Buildup of soil contaminants
could also occur during long dry periods. This buildup
would be quickly washed into water systems during periods of heavy rain (Hansen et al. 2011).

Additionally, runoff from clearcut forest stands can
carry increased amounts of soil particles and agricultural
chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, which
would further degrade aquatic habitat and increase the
occurrence of eutrophication and harmful algal blooms
(Hansen et al. 2011).
Wildfires: Increased air temperature associated with climate change also has the potential to increase the frequency and intensity of wildfires This is of particular
concern in the Central Valley, because monoculture forestry plantations are susceptible to fire.
The systems in place to combat fire were developed
with the current climate and fire patterns in mind, but
with the increase of fire frequency and intensity likely to
occur from climate change, it is possible that fire management needs to focus on prevention-based strategies.
In addition, as fire frequency increases, so will the deforestation that occurs as a result of fire. This deforestation
then intensifies climate change, further increasing air
temperatures and in turn, the risk of large wildfires
(Hansen et al. 2011). All of these risks apply to Campo
San Francisco, and they should be strongly considered in
future management decisions.

Strategies for ecological management: campo San Francisco

context

13

LANDSCAPE PATTERNS
SOILS
campo San Francisco sits in the foothills of the dry interior of the coastal range in chile. It regionally represents the
landscape pattern of south central Valley with steeper hills (lomas) to the west and plains (llanos) to the east. Along with
the topographical variation there is variation in soil type and structure. Soil is a deﬁning element in the landscape pattern
of the region due to its erosive nature that resulted from historical mismanagement of soil health. Increasing soil health by
encouraging the growth of beneﬁcial bacteria and fungi, decreasing or eliminating fertilizer and herbicide use, and limiting
mechanical disturbance could increase the productive capabilities of the land at campo San Francisco.

REGIONAL PATTERNS
HIStoRIcAL USe
The historical land use patterns have had an impact on the
existing soil conditions. After years of intensive farming
and overgrazing, most of the soil in both the hills and
plains of the dry interior was heavily degraded, compacted, and highly erosive (Aronson 1998).

The erosion was causing large amounts of soil to break
off, leaving areas unmanageable and unproductive.
Erosion creates instability in soil health by not allowing
organic matter to accumulate and by disrupting beneficial
organism development that would otherwise help stabilize
the soil structure. In part to combat this erosion, and to
aerate the compacted soil, pines have been planted extensively throughout the dry interior.

SoILS todAy
As stated in the Context chapter, there are two main land
types in the dry interior. The soils in each area are based on
the same granitic parent material but have different
characteristics.

The Hills: The hills are undulating with steep slopes of
approximately 15-20 percent. The soil in the hills is clay and
sandy loam. The combination of steep slopes and clay and
sandy loam contributes to high susceptibility to erosion and
increased infiltration of water (Olivares 2011).
The soil is low in organic matter, phosphorous, nitrogen,
calcium, and sulfur, all of which indicate poor soil health
and low fertility (Fernandez 2009). Nitrogen and phosphorous levels often determine vegetative vitality, and low levels of these nutrients could inhibit plant growth.
The Plains: The plains are generally found east of the
hills, farther from the coastal range and into the Central
Valley. The soil in the plains has a higher ratio of clay to
sandy loam than in the hills and therefore drains more
slowly.
These soils are not as susceptible to erosion as the soil in
the hills because of the relatively ﬂat topography of the
plains. The pH for this soil varies from 5.5 to 6.5, which is
less acidic than the pH levels of the soils in the hills, and
often more conducive to vegetative growth and efficient
nutrient exchange.

Erosion within a pine plantation at Campo San Francisco. Erosion creates
instability in the landscape and soil health. Though pines were planted to
address the erosion problem, it still occurs throughout the landscape.

The soil in the plains also has a higher organic matter content than the soil in the hills and has high iron and magnesium content, further increasing soil suitability for
vegetative vitality (Fernandez 2009).

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

SoIL

15

SOILS at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
Campo San Francisco spans the two major land types in
the region, the hills and the plains. The different soil qualities, runoff and infiltration patterns, and erosion patterns
of these land types are reﬂected on the property.

HILLS

PLAINS

The hills are steep and highly eroded, which limits accessibility. All houses are located on the plains, which means
residents can avoid frequent travel on the eroded hills.
When the current landowners purchased the property,
most of the land was eroding and degraded. To address
this issue while also generating a profit that could help the
company sustain the land further, Alto Cauquenes planted
over 1,000,000 trees over the course of four years (Ellena
2012).

Approximation of hill
and plain land types,
Campo San Francisco.

1 km

ASSESSMENT
PIneS—A SteP toWARdS HeALtHy SoIL
Good soil health is critical to maintaining the productivity
and vigor of plants.

While the pines’ roots successfully reduce erosion and aerate the soil, they do not fully eliminate the issues associated
with degraded soil (Brookfield 2009). What further detracts
from the benefits of pines is that they are planted in a
monoculture.
IMPLIcAtIonS oF MonocULtUReS
Monocultures do not contribute readily to organic matter
that would improve soil fertility, and they are susceptible to
disturbances (Toro 1998).

Erosion between rows of a pine plantation, Campo San Francisco.

Mycorrhizal vitality has been proven to aid in the resilience
of forests, and beneficial organisms aid in nutrient cycling
and increasing soil fertility (Brookfield 2009). Also, because
the soil in a plantation is mechanically and chemically disturbed, beneficial organisms and mycorrhizal growth is
limited (Brookfield 2009).
RedUcInG eRoSIon FURtHeR
Soil erosion reduces the stability and diversity of the soil
profile (Olivares 2011). Alto Cauquenes has taken many
steps towards improving the soil on-site, and the organization is now in a position to be a leader in soil
improvement.
Monoculture of radiata pines at Campo San Francisco.

16

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

SoIL

RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Soils
encoURAGe BeneFIcIAL BActeRIA And FUnGI
Beneficial organisms that live in the soil are vulnerable to
disturbance, particularly in fine-grained soils (Kimmins
1997).

Beneficial fungi and bacteria in the soil help trees take up
important nutrients and absorb water, and management
should preserve their health (Olivares 2011). These beneficial organisms are vulnerable to disturbances caused by
planting, harvesting, and managing plantation forest stands.
Better understanding the effects of forest practices on the
soil can inform management decisions that aim to limit
impact.

Cover crops growing before planting in a radiata pine plantation in New Zealand. Cover crops are an alternative to chemical fertilizer in preparing the soil

• Limit clearcutting to avoid removal of vital nutrients
from the soil (Merino et al. 1997). Alternating harvesting
methods can minimize these detrimental effects.
• Investigate cover crops for use during planting and after
harvest. Cover crops can limit erosion and contribute to
organic matter, replenishing vital nutrients and beneficial
organisms in the soil.
LIMIt FeRtILIZeR And HeRBIcIde APPLIcAtIon
Fertilizers and herbicides have been shown to negatively
affect soil organisms within the soil substrate (Brookfield
2009). Studies have also shown that the results of fertilizer
and herbicide application are variable, and application does
not always ensure increased tree growth.

In a study from the University of Concepción, the application of herbicide on recently planted radiata pine resulted
in increased sapling growth during the first season (Rubilar
et al. 2008). However, in the second season, differences
between growth rates of stands that had received herbicide
and control groups were negligible. Additionally the application of fertilizer was not shown to increase growth during either season.
Researchers attributed the lack of increased growth to limited water availability. When water is a limiting resource—
as it may be at Campo San Francisco— pesticides and
fertilizers might be an unnecessary investment. Assessing
the necessity of fertilizers and herbicides and reducing use
accordingly could save money and increase soil microbial
health.
• Assess the necessity for and, if possible, minimize or
eliminate the application of herbicide and fertilizer.
• Preference cover cropping and interplanting as nutrient
addition and weed suppression methods.

LIMIt MecHAnIcAL dIStURBAnce
Machines used during planting and
harvesting, such as
skid steer loaders,
deep tillers and
other heavy equipment can negatively
impact nutrient
cycling by compacting the soil,
disturbing fungi
and bacteria colonies, and breaking
up the soil strucTillage in preparation for pine planting.Tilling breaks
ture (McAvoy 1995). up the compacted soil to allow for aeration and
water infiltration. Growing then turning over cover
crops before planting would achieve the same benefits while adding nutrients to the soil.

HYDROLOGY
the central Valley is beholden to a wet and dry season. the property sits in a rain shadow of the coastal range, making
water resources precious. campo San Francisco does have several water sources to draw from; the main resource is the
Estero el Rosal that ﬂows north to south on the property. The management of water on the property is important to the
ecology of the whole system, ﬁre management and crop viability.

WATER at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
There are three types of waterbodies on-site: a large
stream, Estero el Rosal; ponds (one man-made reservoir
and several natural ponds); and small creeks.

exIStInG condItIonS
The Estero el Rosal is the main waterway at Campo San
Francisco. It is a large stream that runs north to south
across the property.

The headwaters of the Estero el Rosal are north of the
property, running through thousands of hectares of
pine plantation. The ﬂoodplain is wide and there is
visual evidence that the water has jumped its channel in
the past, potentially during an earthquake or, more
likely, a substantial ﬂood.
During the summer months, the Estero el Rosal slowly
meanders through the property, with a maximum depth
of approximately one meter. Each year, during the rainy
season from May through October, the Estero el Rosal
ﬂoods substantially (Nilo 2012).

The Estero el Rosal flowing slowly in the summer months, Campo
San Francisco.

Because the seasonal ﬂood is related to intense rain
events, the river ﬂoods at a high velocity. These fast,
high-impact ﬂoods generally leave minimal silt deposits
(Barclay 2012). Soil that is affected by ﬂooding in this
way is often degraded and not ideal for cultivation.

MAIN
HOUSE
ESTERO EL ROSAL
Drainageways

RESERVOIR

Water at Campo San Francisco: The two
main waterbodies and the Estero el Rosal are
located in the eastern portion of the property,
close to the homestead. Intermittent streams
and drainageways run evenly throughout the
entire property.

POND

Alberto approaching the bank of the reservoir.The access road leads to the water’s
edge.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

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19

Man-made reservoir, Campo San Francisco.

The man-made reservoir, constructed in 2006, is approximately a
half a kilometer long and three to four meters deep (Nilo 2012).
This pond was constructed both for recreational purposes and as
a water source for extinguishing fires.
The banks of the reservoir along the western boundary are
approximately three meters from the Estero el Rosal.
A substantial wall was built on the southern end of the reservoir
to reduce the possibility of the Estero breaching the bank and
entering the pond. The reservoir does not receive a natural inďŹ&#x201A;ux
of water from the Estero el Rosal and the water level in the reservoir is maintained through a diesel pump system, draining water
from the Estero.

Water flowing from the Estero el Rosal into the man-made reservoir at
Campo San Francisco. The water level is maintained with a pump system.

PLAnS FoR A neW ReSeRVoIR
Alto cauquenes has plans to create a large reservoir covering approximately 10
hectares and up to 10 meters deep. the construction is expected to occur some
time within the next few years.
this reservoir is being built with the intention of providing an additional
water resource. Because the construction has not yet occurred, there are
opportunities to implement ecological construction and management practices.

FUTURE RESERVOIR
Proposed location of the future reservoir. This area is characterized
by typical grassland species, and is at the convergence of a number of
drainageways.

20

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

HydRoLoGy

The largest natural pond is comparable in area to the reservoir,
and is naturally filled each ﬂooding season by the Estero el
Rosal. Both the pond and reservoir have pines surrounding
them, with a buffer of mostly native vegetation that is approximately six to eight meters wide, making them home to diverse
avian populations, including nesting herons and black neck
swans.

Heron flying over the largest pond. Both natural and man-made
ponds are home to a diverse avian population.

A mat of vegetation covers most of the surface area of the
natural pond, and a smaller mat has begun to grow in the reservoir. There are two more ponds on the west side of the river
that also have this vegetation. The species of vegetation that
forms this mat is unknown, but its continued growth could
affect recreational and management practices and potentially
threaten avian diversity.

Mat of vegetation that covers most of the ponds and
reservoir. This growth could potentially impede the water
quality and recreational potential of the waterbodies.
Vegetated buffer comprising radiata and native pine species. Plantation
pines surround the ponds within a 6 to 8 meter buffer.

On the west side of Campo San Francisco are two creeks
that run year round. During the dry season, the water levels are very low in some areas, often reduced to a trickle
(Nilo 2012).
During the rainy season, the drainageways ﬂow into the
creek system and ﬂood the smaller ﬂoodplains throughout the property. Extensive erosion can be seen in most
of the drainageways due to the ﬂooding that happens
during the rainy season and the nature of the soils.

Low-flowing creek on the west side of the property.

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21

cURRent MAnAGeMent
Water from the Estero el Rosal is utilized to irrigate
crops and maintain the water level of the reservoir.

Small earth dams are built seasonally in the river
corridor to pool water so pumps can supply water
to an irrigation system. The system irrigates poplar
trees that are planted along a hillside close to the
road, the olive grove, and the grapes that grow closest to the main house. Up-slope, a retaining pond
used for irrigation is fed by Estero el Rosal.

Earth dam constructed in the river corridor to pool water,
allowing pumps to supply water to an irrigation system.

Pump-driven irrigation system pulls water from pools formed by dams in the Estero
el Rosal, and directs it to a portion of the poplar plantation, the olive grove and the
irrigated vineyards.

The reservoir water level is maintained through a culvert that can
be opened to pump water from the Estero el Rosal. Each winter,
runoff from rainfall and ﬂoodwaters from the Estero fill the large
natural pond. The ponds on the west side of the Estero are also
ﬂooded with runoff during the rainy season (Nilo 2012).
Each year a tractor drives through the channel of the Estero el
Rosal, clearing the debris left by the previous ﬂood. This is done
with the intention of maximizing potential water ﬂow through the
channel, in order to reduce erosion and ﬂood damage on the property (Ellena 2012).
Also in an effort to reduce erosion and rainwater runoff, onemeter-wide and one-meter-deep trenches were dug next to each
tree during the planting phase.
One-meter-wide and one-meter-deep trenches, adjacent to
every newly planted tree. These trenches are meant to collect
rainwater to slow runoff, minimize erosion, and increase infiltration near the tree roots.

22

To supply drinking water to the families that live at Campo San
Francisco, potable water is trucked in from the town of
Cauquenes. Additionally, two wells for irrigation were dug to the
west of Estero el Rosal, but are not in use because the waterbodies
on-site currently provide substantial irrigation water (Ellena 2012).

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ASSESSMENT
There is a possibility that climate change in the coming
years will lead to a decrease in average rainfall for the
region. Alto Cauquenes depends on the waterbodies on
Campo San Francisco for irrigation and fire management,
and if the water availability decreases, this will pose a challenge for Alto Cauquenes.

Estero’s corridor. The Estero el Rosal has the potential to
be a rich, biodiverse corridor for wildlife movement, and
suitable aquatic habitat. However, regularly clearing debris
from the riverbed can limit the diversity and habitat quality
of this area, while potentially increasing the impact of
ﬂooding.

Climate change also has the potential to increase water
temperatures on-site, which could decrease oxidation in
the water, creating a niche for less desirable invasive species and decreasing the ecological diversity within the system (Hansen et al. 2011).

When the river is dammed and driven in, the river bed is
disturbed. This could lead to a loss of ecological viability
and a constraint on the movement of wildlife (Barclay
2012). Removing debris could also destroy valuable macro
and micro invertebrate habitat and compromise the watercleansing services that these species provide (Barclay
2012).

During the rainy season, rainwater runs off rapidly into
the waterbodies on-site, potentially bringing contaminants
and particulate matter from the soil. Fertilizer, herbicide,
pesticide, and eroded soil all have the potential to negatively impact water quality and the ecological integrity of
aquatic habitat.

While there are issues associated with the waterbodies at
Campo San Francisco, the Estero el Rosal, the ponds, the
creek system, and the wells currently provide water security on the site. Water security is rare in the dry interior
region, and these resources are able to support the productive landscape at Campo San Francisco.

Vegetated buffer areas around waterbodies can slow the
runoff, thereby increasing infiltration into the soil, and filtering out contaminants before they reach the water.

There is a great opportunity for Alto Cauquenes to establish mutually beneficial relationships between scientists and
ecologists in the area. This partnership could result in
more ecologically sensitive management of the water
resources at Campo San Francisco that would help to control ﬂooding and preserve water quality.

There is a vegetative buffer that runs along much of the
Estero el Rosal but biodiversity may be limited within the

DRAINAGES
AND SEASONAL
STREAMS

FF

RUNO

PUMP

RUN

MAN-MADE
RESERVOIR

PUMP
AT
URAL FLOW

ESTERO EL ROSA
L

OFF

MP

PU

IRRIGATION
POND
NATURAL
POND

IRRIGATED
CROPS

FF

RUNO

N

N
Mechanized manipulation in the Estero el Rosal corridor. Heavy manipulation of the channel can lead to a loss of ecological viability and
constrain wildlife movement.

Water movement: This diagram shows the flow of water across Campo
San Francisco. Most of the rainwater runoff on the property flows into
the Estero el Rosal. Water from the Estero fills the pond seasonally, and is
pumped into the reservoir. Water from the Estero is also pumped out to
irrigate crops on the eastern side of the property.

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23

RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Hydrology
ASSeSS VeGetAtIVe BUFFeR ZoneS
The width of a buffer largely determines how it will function.
If a buffer is too narrow it may not be able to filter sediments
or stabilize banks (Hellmund et al. 2006).

Many studies have been done on effective widths for optimal
buffer functioning. It is important that every system be considered individually to determine the most appropriate width.
Following, however, are general guidelines that should be
considered when establishing a healthy riparian ecosystem
(Hellmund et al. 2006).
• Avoid interference with the natural course of the river and
ﬂoodplain.
• Assess existing vegetation
• Know where the upland feeder streams and drainageways
are, especially in areas prone to seasonal ﬂooding.
• Map the ecological integrity of all segments of drainageways noting where the existing protected vegetation seems
adequate to buffer its uphill areas
• Pay particular attention to buffer zones close to harvest and
production operations.

Vegetated buffer between the natural pond and pine plantation at
Campo San Francisco. A functional vegetative buffer will filter sediments and chemicals such as fertilizers and herbicides.

enHAnce toPoGRAPHIc dIVeRSIty oF eSteRo eL RoSAL
A healthy stream and river corridor should have topographical diversity. A healthy corridor has rocks and
logs that create pools and other forms of habitat for macro and micro invertebrates. These objects also help
slow water velocity during ﬂooding, and increase overall diversity of the riparian vegetation (Silk et al. 2005).

• Maintain aquatic diversity in the river channel by leaving some natural debris.
BeneFItS oF RIPARIAn BUFFeRS
(Forman 1995)

•Filter sedimentation and potential
chemicals from runoff
•Provide vegetative cover to keep
water temperatures cooler
•Provide habitat for diverse
species of wildlife and vegetation
•Control ﬂooding downstream
•Act as a corridor for wildlife and a
conduit to other corridors
Stream channel at the Reserva los Ruiles. The dense vegetated buffer and topographical diversity in the streambed provide filtration services and create habitat for
a diverse array of wildlife.

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HydRoLoGy

USLe: Universal Soil Loss equation
the USLe predicts the long term average rate of
erosion on a ﬁeld slope based on rainfall pattern,
soil type, topography, crop system, and management
practices.
the USLe can be used to compare soil losses from a
particular ﬁeld with a speciﬁc crop and management
system to “tolerable soil loss rates” (USLe).
Cross
section

StRAteGIeS FoR tHe neW ReSeRVoIR
A management plan to manage the biodiversity and water
quality of the planned reservoir could be used as a case study
for other landowners in the region.

• Consider establishing parts of the reservoir’s vegetative
buffer before construction of the reservoir to allow the
buffer to grow in.
• Use Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and consider uphill site conditions to help determine appropriate buffer widths.
• When clearing land for the reservoir, set up a nursery to
keep valuable native material to re-vegetate the reservoir
edge or other areas needing riparian vegetation.
• Rescue important plant species before construction; replant again after pond construction.

• Plant/encourage vegetation close to the water’s edge to
provide cover for wildlife.

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25

NATIVE VEGETATION
The temperate forests of Chile are globally important due to their high rates of endemism and their contribution to the ecology
of the planet. The rate at which they have disappeared from the Central Valley of Chile is alarming. The region of south central
Chile has 7 percent of native forest cover left. Campo San Francisco has a patch of native Southern Beech (Nothofagus glauca)
forest and miles of native riparian vegetation. While this preservation is a great contribution to the region, connecting corridors to
increase diversity of plants and wildlife will contribute to the health of the whole ecosystem, including the plantation forest.

REGIONAL PATTERNS
One-third of all the world’s remaining temperate forests
grow in Chile (Neira et al. 2000). The temperate forests of
Chile are ecologically valuable due to the high species
diversity and endemism.
An endemic species is found only in one location on the
planet, and the high level of endemism in Chile’s central
region exists mainly because of an island effect created by
the Pacific ocean to the west, the Andes mountain range
to the east and the Atcama desert to the north (Echeverria
et al. 2006).
Today, the number of endemic plant species growing in
the Chilean temperate forest has been reduced to 7 percent of its original number. The fragmentation of the forests and the extinction of these endemic species has
decreased biodiversity and heavily degraded this rich and
unique ecological resource (Armesto et al. 1997).
1975

NATIVE VEGETATION: HISTORICAL PATTERNS
The fragmentation and removal of the temperate forest is a historical pattern in Chile’s Central Valley, and has been ongoing
for centuries.

The first major event that affected the Central Valley’s temperate forests was the war between the indigenous tribes and the
Spanish Conquistadores. During this time thousands of hectares of forest were burnt down.
The second major event took place in the nineteenth century.
The Spanish settled in the valley and forests were extensively
burned for cropland and pasture. By the twentieth century, forest clearing, selective logging, and the introduction of exotic
species irreparably changed the temperate forests (Neira et al.
2002). The rate of deforestation from 1975 to 2000 in the
province was 4.5 percent per year (Echeverria et al. 2006).

1990

2000

Major Native Forest Cover in Rio Maule-Cobquecura for years between 1975-2000
Adapted from (Echeverria et al. 2006)

Strategies for ecological management: campo San Francisco

native VEGETATION

27

nAtIVe VeGetAtIon In context
Although the rate of deforestation and fragmentation of the
native forest appears grim, the province of Cauquenes is home to
a number of conservation areas and remnants of native forest.
These areas serve as reminders of the once diverse landscape that
spanned the Central Valley. They also serve as models for diversity and conservation within the region.

Cerro Name, the highest mountain in the province, is abundant
with native ďŹ&#x201A;ora and fauna, many of which are thought to have
existed across the whole dry interior region of the province of
Cauquenes. Some examples include the maiten (Maytenus boaria),
an evergreen tree whose wood is used to make tool handles;
soapwood (Quillaja saponaria), valued for its soap-making properties; the puemo (Cryptocarya alba), valued for its fruit; and the
boldo (Peumus boldus), valued for its medicinal properties
(Aronson 1998).

Range: Antofagasta to
Magallanes.
Description: Largest heron
in Chile. Found in flooded
lowlands in rural areas near
rivers and ponds.

Nothofagus glauca

Quillaja saponaria

At the base of Cerro Name is the lush wetland, Cienagas del
Name. This 4,000-hectare wetland is conserved by Corporacion
Nacional Forestal (CONAF), the federal forest service of Chile.
Cienagas del Name has diverse avian and plant populations that
are protected by the government as valuable sources of biodiversity and endemism.
Nothofagus alessandrii

Cerro Name, Sauzal

Garza cuca

Another intact portion of native temperate forest is the Reserva
Nacional Los Ruiles. This 45-hectare reserve located in the
coastal mountain range has mainly southern beech tree species,
which make up a large portion of the species in Chileâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s temperate
forests. Many of the tree species in the reserve are in danger of
extinction, including the Roble (Nothofagus glauca) which also
grows at Campo San Francisco.
nAtIVe WILdLIFe
The main predator of the region is the South American gray fox
(Lycalopex griseus). Because of the limited habitat, the number of
foxes has decreased, resulting in a regional overpopulation of old
world rabbits (Oryctologus cuniculus). These rabbits destroy the
bark on young trees and grape vines.

BLACK NECK SWAN

OLD WORLD RABBIT

Cygnus melancoryphus

Oryctologus cuniculus

Range: Atacama to Tierra del
Fuego. Lays eggs in reedbeds
on the lake shore or on small
islets.
Description: Feeds on
aquatic vegetation, insects and
fish spawn.

Range: Arica to Magallenes
Description: Live in
woodland edge and areas with
sandy or soft soils. Digs and
lives in burrows. Females have
5 to 7 litters per year.

While there are not many mammalian species in the region, there
is a diverse avian population including condors, herons, and black
neck swans.
28

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

nAtIVe VeGetAtIon

The native forest patch along the western boundary of Campo San Francisco.
Riparian Habitat

nAtIVe VeGetAtIon At cAMPo SAn FRAncISco
The native vegetation on-site consists mostly of
riparian vegetation growing along the drainageways
and waterways. There is a patch adjacent to the
southeastern boundary along the river that is more
substantial in size.

Grassland

Core Native Forest Habitat

The riparian vegetation is highly fragmented with
large portions of edge habitat, as opposed to intact
core habitat. Because of the nature of this vegetative
pattern, there is a high probability that the plant and
animal species inhabiting these areas do not require
large tracts of core habitat.
Beyond the riparian vegetation there is a patch of
secondary native forest comprised of Roble and
other native shrubs along the western perimeter of
the property.
Since core habitat occurs less frequently than edge
habitat, it is likely that the wildlife composition at
Campo San Francisco does not resemble the wildlife
composition in either the historic or current intact
native temperate forests.
If vertebrate, invertebrate and plant species that
thrive in intact tracts of native temperate forest were
present, they would inhabit the two small areas of
core habitat, and might not have a means to safely
move between the two areas to increase the genetic
diversity of the populations.

Core Riparian Habitat

As the land patterns exist today, the distance between patches of native
vegetation could impede the survival and genetic variation of any species that depends on interior habitat, such as the South American gray
fox (Lara 2006).
Also, since many species native to Chileâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s temperate forests are
endemic, it is possible that many of the plants found in both the riparian forests and the native forest at Campo San Francisco are endangered, endemic species and should be preserved as ecological rarities.
The preservation and conservation of existing native vegetation is
essential to encourage and ensure a healthy, biodiverse ecosystem. If
steps are taken to preserve and expand current forest and riparian vegetation, Campo San Francisco will continue to provide valuable habitat
for species that already inhabit the land, and possibly encourage additional species to inhabit the area.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

nAtIVe VeGetAtIon

29

Riparian vegetation along drainage way at Campo San Francisco.

cURRent MAnAGeMent
The riparian vegetation has been protected under riparian
buffer zones required by CONAF. The current regulations
implemented by CONAF derive from the Forest Law of
1930 and Executive Order 701. These regulations require
landowners to protect streams and drainageways from pollution, excess nutrients, and particulate matter.

Specifically, these regulations require a vegetative buffer of at
least 20 meters wide on either side of streams or drainageways. Because these strips of vegetation are meant to protect
water quality, they are minimally managed (Nilo 2012).
The only intact patch of native forest is a secondary regrowth forest comprising mainly southern beech tree species.
The management maintains a six-meter open buffer between
the plantation forest and the native forest.
Alto Cauquenes has planted oak and chestnut tree species
both adjacent to the native forest patch and close to the
homestead, however the young trees have not been thriving.

30

ASSESSMENT
Patches of native riparian vegetation spread throughout
the property. However, there are minimal areas of large
intact habitat. The spaces between riparian vegetation disrupt the potential for an intact riparian corridor for plants
and wildlife. Also, the lack of connection between the core
habitat patches and the riparian vegetation buffers further
inhibits biodiversity and ecosystem health.
There is an opportunity to form connections between
existing riparian vegetation patches to increase overall habitat connectivity on the site. These riparian corridors could
eventually form a network between the core habitat
patches, further increasing connectivity.
This connection could be achieved by widening existing
patches of riparian vegetation to create corridors for
plants and wildlife. Creating corridors and actively conserving native forest and vegetation could enhance seed
regeneration, seed dispersion, and overall species health of
plants while increasing habitat connectivity for wildlife
(Lara 2006).

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

nAtIVe VeGetAtIon

RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES:
Native Vegetation

Current Patch of Native forest

“A forest is more than trees. It is a complex ecosystem ever
changing, deﬁned by the interactions of living organisms and
surrounding environments.” -Thom J. McEvoy

Proposed
extension of
native forest

cReAte An AdAPtIVe MAnAGeMent APPRoAcH
Adaptive management is a process of decision making
utlized in the face of uncertainty. The aim is to minimize uncertainty over time through system monitoring.
The common adaptive management process follows
these steps:

conSeRVe And exPAnd cURRent PAtcH oF nAtIVe FoReSt
The native forest at Campo San Francisco is part of remaining native
forest in the region, of which only 7 percent of the original forest
cover still exists. The conservation of the existing native temperate
forest at Campo San Francisco is crucial to conserving this remaining
forest cover.

1. Assess Problem (E.g., at Campo San Francisco
there are an abundance of rabbits that feed on saplings
and young grape vines and olive trees.)

Consider expanding the existing native forest patch to extend and
incorporate the riparian vegetation that exists in the valley adjacent
to the forest. The native patch currently exists at approximately 25
hectares. This expansion would increase the size of the patch to
approximately 100 hectares.

2. Design Control Techniques (E.g., design corridors
specifically meant to enhance habitat and wildlife
movement of the gray fox, a predator species.)
3. Monitor and Assess (E.g., create a monitoring system to assess rabbit population and predator movement within the property.)
4. Review and Modify (E.g., collect and review data,
use results to inform future management decisions.)
There are many valuable resources in the community
surrounding Campo San Francisco that could help
establish a plan and monitoring system for conservation and preservation efforts on the property. There
are five universities in the nearby city of Talca and an
agricultural experiment station (INIA) located in the
city of Cauquenes. Forming relationships with these
schools and organizations could help Campo San
Francisco enhance biodiversity and control pests such
as the rabbits.

The conversion could begin after the harvest of the pine, replanting
the harvested areas with native trees and shrubs. During this process,
careful consideration must be given to possible invasive plant species
and other unwanted vegetation.
Another potential method for expansion is to remove the first two
rows of the adjacent pines and thin the third row. This would open
the canopy to allow space and sunlight for the growth of understory
native trees and shrubs. As the native plants establish, further rows
can be thinned, slowly shifting the land cover from pines to native
trees and shrubs.
SoUtH AMeRIcAn GRAy Fox Lycalopex griseus

“Forest corridors are often considered the main instrument with which to offset
the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation.” — Lees and Peres

CORE HABITAT
RIPARIAN
CONNECTIONS
OFF-SITE
CORRIDOR
CONNECTION
Core Habitat and Potential Connections This
map shows the areas of core habitat that have potential to be expanded. Also shown are potential areas of riparian vegetation connection, and potential
off-site corridor connections.

connect RIPARIAn BUFFeRS
Connecting existing riparian corridors will create a network of
corridors throughout the property. Investigate ways to connect
to nearby core habitat patches that would avoid promoting the
spread of invasive species, disease, or major disturbances such
as forest fires. Following are diagrams representing different
approaches to establishing connections:

Utilize the “stepping stone” approach, creating
smaller patches in between the corridors for
species to migrate through.
Establish parallel corridors when possible, with
a central corridor and a corridor edge on either
side of the central corridor. This would allow
movement of edge-dependent species, as well
as interior species that may move through the
central corridor (Forman 1995).

coRe HABItAt exPAnSIon
The same recommendations apply to expanding other
areas of existing native vegetation bordered by the radiata pine.
Benefits of corridors
• Provide a place to protect biodiversity.
• Serve as a mechanism to enhance water
resource management, such as ﬂood control,
soil run-off, water levels and cleaning water.
• Act as safe havens for isolated species allowing
them to move from one core habitat area to
another, serving as “stepping stones.”
• Act as corridors for wildlife, and conduits to
other corridors.
• Are places of beauty and recreation, including
hiking and biking trails.
Adapted from (Forman 1995)

Different methods for connecting corridors
Adapted from (Forman 1995)

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nAtIVe VeGetAtIon

eStABLISH A MonItoRInG SySteM
Set up a permanent monitoring system that will provide
continuous information about the health of the forest and
indirect impacts of plantation forest practice.

A company in the Maule Region, Compania Agricola y
Forestal El Alamo (CAF) actively monitors river water quality and wildlife diversity. With this information they are able
to determine the effects of harvest and planting regiments
on the water quality and wildlife movement, and adjust
management practices to minimize negative effects accordingly. Refer to Forestry section for more information.
condUct A BIoBLItZ
A BioBlitz is an organized event where teams of scientists,
students and community members come together and
record as many species of plants, animals and other organisms as they can find on-site. This could be an opportunity
to assess the biodiverstiy existing on-site, and to engage
other landowners in the region to do the same.
encoURAGe LAndoWneRS to conSeRVe
Engage surrounding landowners who own remnant patches
of native forest, and assess the potential for a system of
“stepping stones” of important vegetation and habitat
that stretch through multiple properties. Stepping stones
are smaller patches of vegetation dispersed throughout a
landscape that provide connections between larger patches
of vegetation, such as the native forest patch at Campo San
Francisco or the larger patch of riparian vegetation along
the southern end of the Estero el Rosal. If Alto Cauquenes
and adjacent landowners were to conserve patches of
vegetation, these patches might serve as stepping stones for
larger patches such as Reserva Nacional Los Ruiles or Lake
Tutuven (Discussed further in Off-site Connections).

A BioBlitz is an event in which teams of
volunteer scientists, families, students,
teachers, and other community
members come together for 24 hours to
conduct an inventory of plants, animals,
microbes, fungi, and other organisms
that inhabit a site.
national Geographic is performing
BioBlitzs in all national Parks in the
United States. the Saguaro BioBlitz was
performed in 2011. Within 24 hours
they discovered 859 species of plants
and animals of which 400 species
were previously unknown to the 37,000
hectare national Park.
“A BioBlitz gives adults, kids, and teens
the opportunity to join biologists in
the ﬁeld and participate in bona ﬁde
research expeditions. It’s a fun and
exciting way to learn about the biological
diversity of local parks and to better
understand how to protect them.”

PLANTATION FORESTRY
Radiata pine plantations sweep across the coastal range of chile. their inception was historical and a call to repair a
highly degraded landscape that was blowing away with the wind. Many plantation foresters have contributed greatly to the
forestry industry through afforestation, enhancing soil vitality and actively conserving native forest, vegetation and wildlife.
campo San Francisco has made a commitment to develop the health of the land through agroforestry. Understanding that
monocultures can have positive and adverse effects on the landscape will enable foresters to manage their forest through
the thoughtful lens of biodiversity to ensure longevity and high quality forest for future generations.

REGIONAL PATTERNS
Plantation forestry is the prominent land use in Chile’s
Central Valley. A number of species are produced in plantation stands, but the most prominent species is the radiata
pine (Monterey Pine, Pinus radiata). Most of the land and
soils in the Central Valley and the dry interior are
degraded, highly eroded, and devoid of nutrients.
However, radiata pines are able to grow quickly in this
region, and have been planted across much of the Central
Valley. To fully understand the role that these pines play in
the environment, it is important to understand the land
use history that has led to the current landscape.
PLAntAtIon FoReStRy: HIStoRIcAL PAtteRnS
In 1910, Federico Albert, a German forest ecologist, was
hired by the Chilean government to propose solutions to
severe erosion problems. Historically, the lands in the
Central Valley were covered in oak and
southern beech forests that built up a
large amount of organic matter on the
forest ﬂoor. In the 1700’s the Spanish
moved through the land, clearing the trees
to grow cereal crops on the fertile soil
beneath (Wilcox 1996).

The wheat and cereal crops removed
nutrients from the soil, and the Spanish
farming practices did not lead to replenishment. Additionally, the extensive root
structures of the trees, and the layers of
organic matter were no longer available to
maintain the integrity of the soil structure. Severe erosion began to occur across
the region, and Federico’s proposed solution was to plant radiata pine across the
landscape.

This solution did stabilize soils to a certain extent, and
soon turned into more than just erosion prevention; it
became an economic opportunity because of the demand
for timber and wood pulp (Toro 1999).
With the coming of the Chilean industrial revolution came
the centralization and reorganization of the means of production, and this was reﬂected in the growing forestry
industry in Chile. In 1974 Augusto Pinochet’s military
regime initiated a government subsidy encouraging the
planting of trees and the semiarid regions of Chile, including the dry interior (Aronson 1998).
The government absorbed 75 percent of the costs related
to forestation expenses. Because this subsidy had no further specifications about the density and formation of
these plantings, large forestry companies have been the
major beneficiaries of this subsidy. Large companies have
bought up former agriculture land for large scale tree
planting (Toro 1999).

Young radiata pine plantation, Cauquenes.

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PLAntAtIon FoReStRy todAy
The forestry subsidies been successful in creating a
Chilean product for the world market; the forestry industry is the second leading exporter in the country (Toro
1999).

Also, many large forestry corporations have been of help
to peasant farmers who own degraded land. These businesses purchase pines planted by small farmers across the
region. This offers peasant farmers a viable option for
profitable production on otherwise unproductive soil.

Since the subsidy decree in 1974, plantation forestry has
spread from 300,000 hectares to over 2.07 million hectares
today (Estrada 2007). There are a number of explanations
for the rapid expansion of this land use. For instance,
radiata pine is one of the few forest species of economic
importance, capable of growing in degraded, eroded soils.
The species also displays a fast growth rate and high
financial returns in a rotation of less than thirty years
(Toro 1999). Furthermore, radiata pine is easy to establish
on eroded soils (Toro 1999).

The benefits of this partnership go both ways, as the pines
on the farmers’ land increase the forest companies’ projected tree supply. The companies do not have to expend
capital on the purchase of land (Clapp 1995).

The plantation forestry model has had a number of positive effects on the region. In many cases, forestry activities
in the Central Valley have created jobs in small towns
located close to the pulp mills. In 1999, 2.1 percent of the
active working population of Chile was in the forest sector, a higher percentage than the 1.8 percent of the mining sector at the time (Toro 1999).
Large, single-use plantations offer economies of scale,
concentration, and simplicity. They lend themselves to
maximized production and efficient investment return
(Clapp 1995).

Small-scale farmer and plantation owner. Farmers plant
pine plantations according to government regulations,
and forestry corporations offer a viable option for production on degraded soil.

coRPoRAte cHILeAn FoReStRy
Forestal ARAUCO is a major Chilean forestry company that produces wood pulp, sawntimber, and wood panels. ARAUCO has ﬁve pulp
mills and four wood manufacturing plants in chile and they serve customers in over 70 countries. Some 327,000 ha of ARAUco’s
1.5 million ha forest holdings, consist of native forest that is protected under strict international regulations. these forests that
have been permanently set-aside from harvest, and include areas of exceptional biological diversity. In May, 2009, ARAUco formally
committed itself to securing certiﬁcation of all of its forest holdings in Chile to the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standard.
ARAUco’s Radiata Pine cycle:
Research & Development: Seeds obtained from genetically superior trees.
Nursery: new plants are cultivated in high technology nurseries.
Plantations: Harvested forests are replanted.
Management: Slower-growing trees are removed to allow healthier trees to grow,
and limbs are removed to create clear, knot-free wood.
Production:
• Logs are carefully selected and used to produce lumber, panels, and pulp.
• Processed wood by-products are used to produce other industrial products or
energy.
• ARAUCO sells its products in more than 75 countries.

36

Two workers doing measurements in Radiata Pine stand.

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While the root structures of radiata pines and
other fast growing tree species can reduce soil
degradation on steep slopes, planting these trees
does not improve soil fertility. There is evidence
that plantation forestry practices as they are carried out today may further deplete soil health
(Clapp 1995).
Common tree planting practice in Chile and at
Campo San Francisco begins with intensive tilling
of the land to loosen the compacted soil. Next, a
highly mechanized planting process involves the
insertion of saplings along evenly spaced rows
that follow the contours of the slopes (Nilo
2012).
Subsidy benefits are given for water catchment
ditches, which are dug within the stands at varying densities. These ditches are meant to slow
water runoff and erosion and increase infiltration
within the plantation stands (Nilo 2012).

Preparing land for planting radiata pines at Campo San Francisco. Common forestry practice
involves intensive tilling of the land to loosen the compacted soil.

Prior to planting, general herbicide is applied
across the stand, and is applied once more to
facilitate the establishment of the forest. This
second application is applied during the early
development of the tree.
Newly planted pines are fertilized with boron,
nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, and
again when the plants are between 4 and 6 years
of age (Nilo 2012). Pines are harvested about 22
years after planting, but this varies from site to
site depending on their growth and development
(Ellena 2012).
No pines have been harvested to date at Campo
San Francisco, but regionally harvesting is done
by clearcutting. In clearcutting all of the trees in
a designated area are cut and removed at the
same time (Toro 1999). The machinery used for
harvesting is very heavy and fuel intensive, and
significant soil compaction occurs after harvest
(Toro 1999).
After an area is clearcut, the soil is tilled again
before the next planting, and the land is
replanted and fertilized.

Timber logs on their way to mills near the coast, Cauquenes

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Pine species have been shown to have different impacts on soil
properties and processes as compared to the grasslands that
existed prior to plantation forestry afforestation. It has been
shown that there is a net reduction in total carbon and associated nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur due to the lack of
build-up of organic matter and the lack of nutrient returns in
the form of plant matter to the soil under the trees (Chirino et
al 2010).
The pine plantation landscape pattern may also have negative
implications on wildlife. The native forests have been extensively cleared, leaving only scattered fragments of natural forests embedded in a matrix of pine woodlands (Estades and
Temple 1999).
The effects of this pattern on wildlife are not fully understood, but because of a lack of habitat diversity and understory plant species, the habitat for understory birds and
ground-dwelling creatures is marginal (Estades and Temple
1999).

In Chile, the annual growth of radiata pine generally
exceeds the growth associated with the trees in their native
environment in California. This increased growth in the
foreign landscape may be widely attributed to the separation of the trees from their natural enemies. While
increased growth raises the economic value of the trees in
the short run, it also puts these large monoculture stands
at great risk to danger when pests and pathogens eventually appear (Duran et al. 2008).
The risk of the rapid spread of disastrous epidemic is
potentially the biggest challenge facing the uniform pine
plantations. Large, exotic monoculture stands, while economically efficient, greatly raise the probability of widespread disturbance (Clapp 1995).

One prominent pathogen issue in the Central Valley of
Chile is a needle blight disease (Phytophthora pinofolia). In
February 2004, 70 hectares of unusual tree mortality
appeared in a six-year old radiata pine stand in Arauco,
Chile. The damage attributed to this blight increased to
approximately 60,000 hectares by the end of 2006 (Duran
et al. 2008).
Referred to as Dano Foliar del Pino (DFP), this pathogen
is accepted as the most serious issue pine forestry in Chile
has faced. DFP causes rapid death of the needles of
young plants. The pathogen can affect pines of all ages. In
young and adult trees, infection occurs in current year
needles towards the end of the growing season resulting
in severe needle loss. In seedlings the disease kills young
terminal shoots, eventually killing the entire plant (Duran
et al. 2008).

DFP (Phytophthora pinofolia) effect on radiata pine needles.

Studies show that the pathogen was introduced into Chile
in 2004, and has spread rapidly from its single entry point
in Arauco, Chile. The rapid spread of the disease so far is
typical of an introduced pathogen exposed to a highly
susceptible host grown over large areas in monoculture
patterns (Duran et al. 2008).

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FORESTRY at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
Plantation forestry covers a large portion of the land at
Campo San Francisco. There are three types of trees currently being cultivated: radiata pine (Pinus radiata), blue gum
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), and poplar (Populus spp.). The
radiata pine and eucalyptus are non-native species, which
reach maturity very rapidly (12-20 years) in the Central
Valley.
Radiata pines make up most of the trees planted and they
were all planted within four years of each other. Planting
was performed according to common regional practice,
which is highly mechanized and inserts trees into the ground
at even spacing and depth. These planting practices have
resulted in approximately 900 hectares of evenly spaced
trees of similar age, size, and form.
Smaller stands of eucalyptus and poplar grow on the eastern
side of the property. Each stand was planted all at once in a
monoculture, resulting in a homogeneous pattern.
View from the fire watch tower, Campo San Francisco. Radiata pines
make up most of the trees planted and they were all planted within four
years of each other.

RADIATA PINE
EUCALYPTUS
POPLAR

1 km

40

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cURRent MAnAGeMent
Stands are generally harvested eighteen to twenty-two years
after planting. The radiata pine stands receive two applications of NPK fertilizer, once during planting and once after
four to six years of growth. The stands also receive two
applications of herbicide and pesticide (Nilo 2012).

Radiata pines are used for a variety of products. At Campo
San Francisco, the trees are managed for timber. Ideally, this
wood product is long, straight and free of knots. To achieve
this growth formation, the pines on the property are pruned
and thinned every year. Eucalyptus trees produce a lower
quality wood, and are used primarily for woodpulp production (Nilo 2012).

Planting: Most of the pine stands were planted between 2002 and 2006. One stand along the northern perimeter was
planted in 1994, eight years before the current owners purchased the property. Since the average time between planting and
harvesting for timber is twenty-two years, the first harvest is scheduled to take place in 2016. The rest of the stands are
scheduled for harvest between 2024 and 2028. The eucalyptus stands were harvested in 2010-2011; they were coppiced and
will be mature in ten years. The poplar that were planted in 2006 will be mature in eighteen years.

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Pine Harvest: No pines have reached harvest age at
Campo San Francisco, but the common harvest practice in
the region is clearcutting. In clearcut, all of the trees in
one stand are cut and removed at once. This process is
highly mechanized, needing only eight people to harvest
100 square meters of trees.
The harvested trees are then dragged and trucked off-site
to a mill or pulp processing plant. After the intensive harvest, roots and remaining debris are removed and soil is
tilled using heavy machinery. New saplings are replanted
on the recently harvested plot.
Eucalyptus and Poplar, Planting and Harvest: The
eucalyptus and poplar stands also receive applications of
fertilizer at planting, and a small portion of the poplar
stand planted on a hill is irrigated regularly. None of the
poplar trees have been harvested to date.

Clearcut eucalyptus stand, Campo San Francisco. The common harvest
practice in the region is clearcut, in which all of the trees in one stand are
cut and removed at once.

The eucalyptus trees are grown in short rotations of ten
to twelve years. The northern eucalyptus stand was
planted in 1994 and harvested in 2010. Eucalyptus trees
produce low quality timber, and are used for wood pulp.
The northern eucalyptus stand was planted in 1996, and
the eastern stand was planted in 2002. Both stands were
harvested in 2011. These trees were all coppiced at once,
and new trees have sprouted from the stumps.
The coppice harvest allows for less disturbance of the
soil, but because eucalyptus trees re-seed easily, it is often
difficult to remove eucalyptus plants from a stand. This
could pose a problem in the case that the land is designated for a use other than growing eucalyptus.

Plantation forestry currently results in a stable and relatively
predictable return on investment. However, it is known that
homogeneous timber stands are susceptible to disturbance
and therefore are not able to respond to disturbance as well
as a diverse system would.
The forest expert Puettmann (2009) states that a homogeneous, monoculture forest pattern is highly susceptible to
disturbance. As stated earlier in the section, if disease, wildfire, or extreme drought afďŹ&#x201A;icted the property, the entire
stand and the entire investment would be at risk.
Additionally, monoculture plantings have limited biodiversity and poor soil health.
Studies have shown that in radiata pine monoculture, a
homogeneous overstory along with minimal ground vegetation can alter the hydrology of water systems. Minimal
ground vegetation often results in increased amounts of
runoff, which can increase water levels, alter water temperatures, and degrade aquatic habitat (Neira et al. 2002).
Harvesting methods also pose a number of opportunities
and challenges on the site. Since the vast majority of trees
on-site have not reached maturity, there is ample time to
investigate alternative planting and harvesting methods and
optimal planting and harvesting times. If harvest methods
are carried out following the common practice of the
region, this practice will negatively impact biodiversity, water
quality, soil quality, and view corridors on the property.
Clearcut methods can limit biodiversity, increase runoff of
particulate matter and debris into water systems, and do not
allow for substantial buildup of organic matter (Neira et al.
2002). These results could have an impact on regional water
and habitat quality and furthermore affect the overall health
of the ecosystem.
With the limitations and advantages of plantation forests in
mind, it is important to devise strategies to encourage resilience within the current forest system to ensure productivity
for many generations. If Campo San Francisco can achieve
this, it will become a model in Chile for sustainability and
contribute to the diversity of plantation forestry worldwide.
Following are ideas for moving forward that have been
practiced or studied in other places within Chile and internationally. These are meant to guide the management decisions to incorporate diversity for the overall health and
wellbeing of the plantation and the people who work on the
plantation.

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RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Forestry
“Embrace the vision that a thriving local forest economy is compatible with forest ecosystems
and good for its human communities.” — Susan Campbell
AddInG nAtIVe tReeS to tHe RotAtIon
Adding native tree species to the timber rotation would
increase the diversity of the forest and could limit the cost of
forest management by decreasing the need for fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticide (Donoso et al. 2009).

nAtIVe PLAntS In tHe UndeRStoRy
Planting native plants or cover crops to cultivate and
create an understory within the pine plantations could
increase soil health and fertility as well as diversity
within stands.

In a study done at
the Catholic
University of
Concepcion, a
stand of coigue
tree (Nothofagus
dombeyi) was
planted adjacent to
a radiata pine forest in Valdivia,
Chile.

The most important contribution of an understory
would be the additions to nutrient cycling. Understory
plants provide more organic matter and supply more
nutrients. Understory growth increases water absorption by adding fine roots into the substrate, breaking
up the compaction that results from planting.

The findings for
the study determined that the coigue can be planted in degraded soil with
minimal tilling requirements (Donoso and Donoso 2010).
The implications of this study support the value that native
trees could add to the exotic, monoculture forestry practices
that exist today. Native trees are more adaptable and resilient
to local environmental stressors, making them an ideal addition to a timber rotation. These trees require less fertilizer, tillage and other costly soil amendments.
Using native trees would diversify the canopy and understory
of forest stands at Campo San Francisco, enhancing soil
health and wildlife biodiversity (Donoso et al. 2009).

44

Increasing the trees’ ability to obtain more water and
withdraw more nutrients from the soil improves the
health of the overall tree, thus increasing the quality of
the wood product (Guerrero and Bustamante 2004).
PLAnt PRoFILe: PUeMo (Cryptocarya alba)
It was thought that understory plants including
native woody shrubs would not grow in the
shaded, degraded soils of radiata pine
plantations. However, researchers at Universidad
de chile have found that cryptocarya alba will
regenerate in the understory of these plantations.
(Guerrero and Bustamante 2004).
the puemo is a woody shrub found in the
secondary native forest in the coastal mountain
range of chile. cultivating understory plants within
the pine planation would be highly beneﬁcial to
production and would reduce resource inputs.

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IncReASInG RotAtIon tIMe
In plantation forestry operations, the stand rotation length
is largely determined by the tree species’ age of maturity.
Most plantation forestry stands consist of trees that are
fast growing and planted all at once. Therefore, most
stands don’t grow for more than thirty years, and the trees
within the stand reach maturity all at once.

coMPAnIA AGRIcoLA y FoReStAL eL ALAMo (cAF)

Age homogeneity within the stands can be harmful to forest and soil health. Increasing the rotation time of certain
portions within a plantation would create age diversity
within stands. It has been shown that increasing the rotation in this way can have a positive impact on soil health
through limiting the impact of harvesting on a stand’s
vitality. The longer a stand grows, the more opportunity
for vegetation to continue to regenerate and contribute to
the soil profile (McEvoy 2004).
A forestry company with 3,000 hectares of land
in cultivation in Region Maule VII, cAF is a fully
operating agro-silvopastoral system.
Main tree crops
• Poplar
• Walnut
• Eucalyptus

Uneven-aged forest stand

cReAtInG VeGetAted StRIPS WItHIn PIne StAndS
Creating strips through the stands approximately four
meters in width will be conducive to grassland and woody
shrub growth. This baseline width is generic and it should
be noted that every system is different. The strip of vegetation can provide both a break from the homogeneity of
the pine plantation as well as a stepping stone for plant
species (Munoz et al. 1990).

Main edible crops
• Maize
• Asparagus
• Bilberry

contribution to conservation
• Performed ecological survey on property to
identify ecologically sensitive areas and critical
habitat for conservation
• Created zones for conservation
• Demonstrated commitment to habitat and
wildlife diversity
• Established a monitoring system that generates
feedback on forestry impact to conservation
Forest Stewardship council certified
Because of cAF’s commitment to sustainable
forestry and conservation practice on-site, they
obtained certiﬁcation from a highly demanding
council that is recognized globally for its high
standards.

Native vegetation corridors within pine stands.

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“A good forester takes a perfect forest and makes it less perfect, a bad
forester spoils it.” — Henrich Cotta
cLeARcUt And FeAtHeRed edGeS
If clearcut harvest cannot be avoided, there are ways to
minimize the impact of clearcutting. To minimize some
of the effects of clearcutting a forester can implement
the practice of feathering the edges rather than cutting
straight rows when harvesting. Feathering is the selective
cutting of trees at the edge of the harvest boundary to
create an uneven edge (Refer to diagram to the right for
example).

Straight Cut-Traditional
Clearcut Line

Feathering an edge mimics the effects of wildfire.
Wildfires are beneficial in a natural forest because they
create diversity at the vegetative and habitat level by
increasing the edge of the forest. The edge of a forest
plays an important role in biodiversity within the forest.
There are certain species of plants and animals that
depend on the edge to exist.

Irregular cut pattern
increases edge habitat

By feathering the edge of a clearcut, a wider edge emulates a wildfire edge which helps maintain a population
of plants and animals that depend on the edge (Mallik et
al. 2011).

Uneven-aged stand rotation
Staggering the harvest of specific blocks of trees
according to their age can cultivate diversity in a plantation forest by diversifying the age of tree stands.

This method requires the land manager to divide existing stands into designated â&#x20AC;&#x153;blocks.â&#x20AC;? The block size will
vary depending on the production goals.
Each block is harvested at a different time, establishing
diversity within stands and reducing the size of a contiguous clearcut.
Once a block is harvested it is replanted prior to the
harvest of the other blocks in the same stand. This process continues in the stand until all of the trees have
gone through one harvest rotation cycle.
Implementing a staggered harvest regiment can reduce
some of the negative impacts of clearcutting.
Harvesting each stand in sections can preserve the viewshed, limit erosion caused by clearcutting, improve soil
health and increase diversity and vitality of the forest
(Barclay 2012).

CLEARCUT Strip Cutting for natural
regeneration
This method is not commonly used in timber operations
that are intensively managed because it depends on seed
regeneration and natural regeneration of the stand. It is
a viable option for stands closer to the homestead at the
Campo San Francisco because it minimizes the impact
of harvest on the viewshed. The strip method cuts
strips through the entire stand. There are considerations
to be taken with this method. Trees can be susceptible
to damage from prevailing winds; the direction of the
cuts should respond to wind patterns as seeds will disperse faster with the prevailing wind. After several years
of regeneration, the strips can be widened by cutting
adjacent strips. After many years and a series of successive cuts, the entire stand will have been removed
(United States Forest Service).

Young
forest

Mid-size forest

Mature forest

Clear strip method of harvest

Strategies for ecological management: campo San Francisco

Forestry

47

SHeLteRWood
Shelterwood harvesting is a three-cut regeneration
method that staggers the establishment of young pines
within a stand allowing for a strong crop of seedlings to
establish and regenerate a forest within fifteen years. This
method depends on natural regeneration and considerations of this method should be thoughtfully made as it
impacts profitability.

This method of sapling establishment is lower impact
than planting saplings and harvesting trees all at once.
Shelterwood harvesting also creates openings within the
plantation forest for wildlife and shade-tolerant shrubs
and trees.
Benefits of this method include limiting the impact on a
viewshed when the entire stand is harvested because the
trees that were planted in the initial cuts have established
and provide coverage for the landscape.
This also aids in limiting the amount of erosion and sediment runoff caused by clearcut. The adverse effect is the
limited amount of wood produced during the first major
thinning; this may be an expensive approach to limiting
clearcut effects on a forest stand (Marion et al. 2002).

SHeLteRWood HARVeSt detAILS

opening cut: 20-30 percent of mature trees are
removed, leaving a fairly contiguous overstory. this
allows the remaining trees to have more space and
light, and creates higher quality wood while leaving
valuable area for seed regeneration.
Seed cut: Six or eight years after the opening cut,
the seed cut removes half the original stand. the
cutting permits the establishment of new seedlings.
Final cut: the remaining trees bear more seeds and
protect the young growth from excess sun exposure.
After six to eight years this remaining stand can be
removed.

Opening cut shelterwood pine forest, Washington

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GReen ceRtIFIcAtIon
There are several green certifications available both in
Chile and internationally. One of the better-known certifications is from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). This
is an independent, non-governmental, not-for-profit organization established to promote the responsible management of the world’s forests. This is a global certification
process performed by a third party to ensure sustainable
forest management practices are being carried out. The
principles that guide the certification are driven by environmental, social and economic welfare. The benefit of
certification is an increased marketability of wood products. Consumers have become diligent in their awareness
of forest management practice and are demanding products from responsible forestry operations. Companies in
Chile that are certified include Forestal Celco (Arauco)
who has pines planted adjacent to Campo San Francisco.
Please see the following list for more information on
certifications.
More Information on the certification Process can be
found at the following websites:
• Forest Stewardship Council:
www.fscus.org
• Sustainable Forestry Institution:
www.afandpa.org
• Pan European Forest Certiﬁcation:
www.pefc.org
• International Organization for Standardization:
www.iso.org
• Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry:
www.research.yale.edu/gisf/index.html

BIoeneRGy
As the world continues to find new ways to limit dependency on fossil fuel, bioenergy has gained a lot of momentum. It is proven that the accumulation of biomass
generated from forestry outfits (pruning and thinning)
can be used as an additive to gasoline. The development
of this practice could generate more jobs and alleviate
the dependence on fossil fuel. By using logging residue
to generate bioenergy, plantations could play a substantial
role in diminishing the effects of global warming (Acuna
et al. 2010).
cARBon cRedItS
Carbon credits have been discussed frequently in light of
the carbon that plantation forests can sequester. There is a
potential that this sequestration may be enough to warrant
credits that can be sold to international investors who need
it to satiate the terms of the Kyoto Protocol. A study that
was done in a loblolly pine plantation showed the following results in accordance to carbon sequestration. For a
forest that is 40 years old, 165 Mg of Carbon was sequestered. Of that 165 Mg, 51 percent came from main stems,
13 percent came from branches and foliage and the
remaining 37 percent came from roots and soil (Johansen
et al. 2001).

South central chile was blessed with deep fertile soil
that deﬁned its culture as an agriculturally rich valley.
Historical mismanagement of the soil led to poor fertility
and soil structure which caused the culture to shift away
from agriculture. today, after many years of revitalizing the
soils, grapes, olives and small fruit crops have increased
in production and economic value. While regionally many
farms are owned by large companies, smaller farms have
begun to make traction. their success will bolster a culture
that is a strong part of the region’s heritage. campo
San Francisco is a part of this movement and wants to
contribute to the pride of its agricultural heritage.

Due to agricultural reforms throughout the past decade,
most of Chile’s agriculture has shifted away from crops
introduced by the Spanish such as wheat, and even further
away from the traditional indigenous food crops of maize,
potatoes, and beans.
Small-scale fruit and vegetables are still produced in the
province, but these crops are mostly grown by small-scale
subsistence farmers. Today, the majority of the agricultural
sector in Chile is devoted to wine production and tender
fruit crops (Filho 2011).
The amount of irrigated crops in the sub humid dry interior
region is dependent on the crop type, access to water and
water rights. Not all farms are able to irrigate because of
these variables. The larger companies irrigate their crops
because most have access to water and have water rights to
the river. Many small farmers, however, may not have access
or do not own the water rights on their property which limits their ability to utilize water for irrigation (Filho 2011).

The Local Farmer
Don Raul has a small vineyard
in the plains north of the city
of Cauquenes. On his vineyard
grows the Pais grape, a variety
originally introduced by the
Spaniards over a century ago.
Don Raul is an eighty-fiveyear-old farmer who planted
the vines forty years ago. He
alone tends to the rows of his
vineyard covering less than one
hectare. His sons left for Santiago in search of a more urban
lifestyle. He is visited often by a local viticulturist who buys
his grapes to make fine wine.
The Winemakers
Louis Antoine Luyt is a French born viticulturist. He came
to Cauquenes to continue his wine business. He has formed
many relationships with local grape farmers that he buys
grapes from, such as Don Raul. He has spearheaded the
growing of the Pais grape for fine wines, which is currently
used as a grape for mass-produced wine. He is dedicated to
resurrecting the value of the Pais grape through dry farming
and winemaking. He sells his wines in Europe and recently
began a business venture in the United States.
Vina de Las Lomas is a cooperative of 250 small farmers
with vineyards of less than twelve hectares. Las Lomas
makes wine in their centralized production center and sells
the wine both nationally and internationally. The cooperative
allows small farmers to stay in business and receive a fair
price for their products.

These small farmers have utilized this reality to their advantage by dry farming grapes. In the grape industry, dry farmed
grapes have emerged as a coveted crop. Because the grape
vine has to adapt to the limited water source its roots grow
deeper into soil substrate than the roots of an irrigated crop.
This adds an additional natural ﬂavor to the wine that is
made from a dry farmed grape; the undertones have a more
mineral taste as stated by local wine consultant, Louis
Antoine Luyt. This has given small farmers the ability to
compete with some of the other larger grape farmers.
Louis Antoine Luyt in one of his leased vineyards, Cauquenes.

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AGRICULTURE at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
At Campo San Francisco, two vineyards grow in the highly mineralized soils of the eastern plains. In the northernmost vineyard, Carminere and Syrah grapes are planted in rows that follow
contour lines. Rows of 100 year-old Pais grapevines sit lower to
the ground in the southern vineyard. The Pais grapes have historical value, and have adapted in order to thrive in the dry area.
An olive grove near the northernmost vineyard contains a number of different olive varieties. The olives were planted five years
ago and have yet to produce fruit. The olive and vineyard specialist explains that the cause of this lack of productivity is
unclear.
Four hectares of corn and potatoes are planted in the southern
ﬂoodplain, on the west side of the river. This is an area that
ﬂoods seasonally but does not receive a large deposit of fertile
silt due to the high velocity of the ﬂoods.
Additionally, two small greenhouses sit close to the caretakers’
house near the property entrance. They are conveniently located
near the houses on the property, and are used seasonally to grow
produce for residents.
Inside one of the two greenhouses located near the caretakers’ house.

CORN and POTATOES
VINEYARDS
OLIVES
GREENHOUSES

1 km

Fruits and vegetables grown at Campo San
Francisco.

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cURRent MAnAGeMent
The Pais grapes are grown without irrigation or fertilization while the Carminere grapes, Syrah grapes, and olive
varieties are all fertilized and drip irrigated with water
pumped from the river on-site (Nilo 2012).

Sulfur is applied on all three plots to combat mildew (Nilo
2012). The addition of fertilizer and sulfur can impact
water quality through runoff from heavy rains. Aside from
a few grasses growing in between rows, the grape vines are
the only plants growing in the vineyards.
The greenhouses are used to grow food for the families
living on-site. Based on direct observation, the extreme
summer heat creates a challenge for food production
across the entire site.

Irrigated vineyard, Campo San Francisco.

The corn and potato crops replaced native shrubs and
grasses, and are irrigated and fertilized. Due to the proximity of the plot to the river, it is highly probable that the
fertilization and chemicals applied to the site run directly
into the water, and potentially affect water quality
downstream.

ASSESSMENT
Agriculture is well placed on-site: cultivated land is located
in the more fertile soil of the plains, near to water sources
and the homestead area. Additionally, the number of different crops grown in this fertile soil has increased since
the property was purchased.

Dry-farmed Pais vineyard, Campo San Francisco.

If increased, this diversification of crop types can help
promote soil health and organic matter, and increase the
resilience of the crop production system at Campo San
Francisco. Through integrated farming methods such as
inter-planting between crops, using cover crops, and revitalizing old systems, agriculture at Campo San Francisco
can truly adapt to the challenges of growing crops in the
dry interior region of the coastal mountain range.

“…the landman’s job is not so much to conserve soil as it
is to develop soil, to improve his soil and to make it more
fertile than it ever was….” — Percival Alfred Yeomans

Corn and potato field, Campo San Francisco.

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RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Agriculture
“Wines made from grapes grown according to organic and biodynamic agriculture are healthier than those made from conventionally grown
grapes because they contain no residues. They are wines that are made a better way, with practices that protect both the environment and
the people who work in the process. They are also much more personal, unique wines that have more character of their own with more
expression of their origins….” — Alvaro Espinoza, winemaker at Viñedos Emiliana
VIneyARdS And cLIMAte cHAnGe
Chile’s wine industry is dependent on the unique climate
system that until recently has provided farmers with ideal
conditions for growing premium grapes in the Central
Valley. However, it is unclear whether climate change will
strengthen, weaken, or disrupt these ideal conditions
(Gatto et al. 2009).

Air Temperature: Several studies have confirmed the various effects of temperature variability on wine. Higher temperatures reduce the success of grape varieties that are
better suited to cooler temperatures; rising temperatures
increase the number of grape diseases and other pests;
fewer cool nights decrease grape quality; and more extreme
hot days decrease grape productivity (Gatto et al. 2009).
Water Supply: Potential increased periods of drought in
the future of the Central Valley could threaten the regional
water supply. Grapes that are sensitive to drought may suffer during a period of limited water availability (Gatto et al.
2009). Following are more risks that are associated with climate change that could potentially become a challenge in
Chile.

VIneyARdS At cAMPo SAn FRAncISco
As Campo San Francisco invests in its vineyards, creating a
management plan that minimizes the potential effects of these
disturbances will be important to vineyard yield and overall
health.

Currently there is an emphasis on culture and heritage in the
grapes that are being grown at Campo San Francisco. Some of
the grape vines are 100 years old and have been uncovered,
cared for and are producing grapes for wine. These grapes are
being dry farmed and have become resilient to drought.
Following are pictures of the Pais grape vines when they were
uncovered from years of neglect compared with what they look
like today.
The health of the land and the people are important considerations for Campo San Francisco’s pursuit of grape growing and
winemaking. Emiliana Vineyards, although a larger company,
performs exemplary management practices that invest in the
health of the land and the people who work there. These practices could serve as a guide for Alto Cauquenes as they begin to
establish themselves in the wine industry.

oRGAnIc And BIodynAMIc AGRIcULtURe
Emiliana Vineyards are planted from the Casablanca Valley
to Bio Bio Region. The company began in 1986 and is
leading Chile in the organic wine industry with special concern for the land and the people who work it. Their commitment to sustainable agriculture and progressive
ideas—such as implementing biodynamics—has led them
to become the first Chilean vineyard to adopt international
standards of protection and care of the environment
through ISO 14,001 certification.

SUStAInABLe MAnAGeMent PRActIceS

• Wastewater Treatment: Biologically treating their own
waste.
• Alternative Energy: Using solar panels to heat water and
biofuels to run equipment on the vineyard.
• Reduce, Re-Use, Recycle: Making a commitment to using
less packaging, re-using old wine barrels to make signs or
birdhouses, and having a composting system in place for
solid organic waste.
• Carbon Neutral Certification: Certified by Germany’s TÜV
SUD and supported by CORFO-INNOVA CHILE.
• Sustainable Management Practice: Supporting the“Wine,
Climate Change, and Biodiversity” project in connection
with the IEB Institute (Ecology and Biodiversity Chile
Institute). Using practices that reﬂect their philosophy that
the land is a living organism.

“Each of our vineyards is a faithful reflection of
organic practices based on two general concepts: the
development of biodiversity and the absence of agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers).”
— Emiliana Vineyards
WoRKInG WItH tHe coMMUnIty
Emiliana has a strong foundation of social responsibility
and offers educational programs to teach children about
organic practice on their vineyards.

The organization supports local business owners by purchasing locally handcrafted items for their workers, such
as much-needed summer hats. They also sell locally handcrafted items at their vineyard shops.

BIodynAMIcS: three Basic Principles
Based on a philosophy of Rudolf Steiner
(1861–1925)
1. the land is alive and is balanced. this balance
must be maintained by keeping the nutrient
and waste cycle of the farm within the farm,
minimizing outside elements to enter the system.
It is important for a farmer to preserve and
conserve what is there rather than intervening in
the natural biological balance.
2. Plants are exposed to light from the sun, the
moon, and the planets, which have regular cycles
and rhythms. emiliana uses the biodynamic
calendar to structure their growing cycle.
3. connections between plants, animals and the
minerals in the earth are utilized to create the best
living environment for the crops. composting and
soil amendments are consistently put on the ﬁelds
to invigorate the soil and health of the land.

Emiliana hats purchased from local crafts people for workers.

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cRoP RotAtIon
Crop rotational systems were developed in the sixteenth century
when farmers realized that this practice helps fend off disease
and pests, and contributes to soil health and vitality (BAAP 2001).

There are two categories of crops involved in crop rotation: crops
that exhaust nutrients from the soil and crops that add nutrients
to the soil. Every rotation scheme is determined by the forecrop
(crop planted presently) and the aftercrop (crop to be grown in
the future). The forecrop is commonly a crop that exhausts nutrients from the soil and an aftercrop replenishes those nutrients. In
general, cereal crops exhaust nutrients while leguminous cereals
and perennial grasses increase nutrients by fixing nitrogen and
adding organic matter (BAAP 2001).
Every region has different possible crop combinations. In the dry
interior of the Cauquenes region, the Instituto Investigaciones
Agropecuarias (INIA) has done extensive research on cereal
crops and leguminous cereal crops that thrive in the region. The
following plant types, investigated by INIA, could be considered
as part of a crop rotation scheme.

dRyLAnd FARMInG: Big Sandy, Montana
Farmer Bob Quinn
Bob Quinn is a dryland farmer who converted to a crop
rotational system 15 years ago as a way to combat pest
infestation. Today he begins a ﬁve-year rotation of his
crops. during dry years, he grows lentils or winter peas
and turns them under in the soil in the late spring. He
attributes the lack of pest and disease to the increasing
structure and health of the soils on his land.
ecosystems with greater diversity are generally more
stable. they can absorb disturbances and recover better
than less diverse systems. the more diverse the plant
species and soil-borne organisms are in a cultivation
system, the more inviting the system is to support
diverse pest-controlling organisms.
As Quinn explains, “the rotation and soil-building
program we have in place allows a great diversity in soil
biology, and that’s what keeps the pests in place.”

KeyLIne deSIGn And PLAnnInG
Keyline design helps to restore soil health and water infiltration within a highly degraded system, and may be
appropriate for the degraded soils at Campo San
Francisco. The design uses a site-specific pattern that
draws water from the naturally wetter swales in the landscape to the drier ridges.
The core concepts of Keyline design include the keypoint
and the keyline. As water naturally ﬂows from the ridge
down a slope to the base it slows down and infiltrates at
the keypoint where the convex angle of the slope meets
the concave angle of the valley. This area can be identified
quickly in the spring as it greens up first and usually has
the densest vegetation. The contour passing through the
keypoint is the keyline.

Contour plowing parallel to the keyline creates an off contour pattern that redirects the natural ﬂow of water going
to the valley and keeps it on the slopes, slowing down the
water and allowing it to infiltrate. This helps in areas that
get heavy rains and severe erosion. The dispersal of water
across the slope allows more water to infiltrate the slope
more evenly (Yeomans 1981).
The Keyline approach is similar to Alto Cauquenes’ current practice of digging small trenches near each newlyplanted plantation tree. The trenches retain rainwater to
encourage infiltration close to the trees and to limit erosion (Nilo 2012).

Keyline design distributes water more readily than the
trenches, and allows more water to infiltration during
major rain events. Because the trenches act as holding
tanks for water, they have a maximum capacity, and they
overﬂow during ﬂooding events, potentially contributing
further to erosion.

Trenches for trees at Campo San Francisco.

coMPoStInG
Campo San Francisco has designated areas for forest compost that sit within the pine stands. For the grapes, corn,
olives, and any other crop, there could other designated
compost areas.

Compost piles should be close to an area that has easy
access and has the space to manage the compost pile.
There are important considerations to take when deciding
on using compost such as ﬂy control, mechanisms to aerate the pile, and moisture control.
The resulting compost could be added to any soil being
cultivated to increase organic matter and nutrient content,
and encourage growth without the use of chemical
fertilizers.
Benefits of composting

HUMAN INFRASTRUCTURE
campo San Francisco has a vast road network spanning the
perimeter of the property and reaching many points within it. the
maintenance and construction of the roads show varied success,
with the main arterial road and primary secondary roads being in
great shape and easy to access. However, the secondary roads in
the steeper western region of the property limit access to many
areas because of severe erosion. Functional roads are essential
to forestry and recreation. there are many opportunities to
improve the roads for future use.

ROADS at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
A main road running east to west serves as an artery within Campo
San Francisco. Many of the secondary roads run directly down
slopes, but a few follow the contour lines across the landscape.
In the western portion of the property most of the roads are running
down the slopes and in some cases they also run along drainageways.
The roads that run up and down slopes are severely eroded, limiting
their functionality. The steepness of the terrain contributes to severe
erosion along the roads and makes the far western part of the property difficult to access. The roads that follow the slopes across the hill
are not eroded, allowing for easier travel.

The accessibility of all of the roads on-site is
extremely important for harvesting. Full access to all
of the trees planted is required for a successful
harvest.
The main road is currently the only way to cross the
Estero el Rosal. There is a wooden bridge that
crosses the river adjacent to the main artery. The
road sits approximately six meters south of the
bridge and was built in the river basin elevated with
three small culverts to let the water ﬂow under the
road.
During the rainy season this road washes out and
the bridge may be ﬂooded out. This limits accessibility to the western portion of the property during the
winter months.
Currently most of the roads throughout the plantation do not have landings. Landings are ﬂat areas
that allow logs to be piled up and carried away by
trucks more efficiently. The landings allow trucks to
turn around and give them space to store and load
timber. Because the pine has not been harvested yet
it is not clear whether the absence of these landings
will create inefficiencies in harvesting.

OFF-SITE ROAD
ON-SITE ROAD
25 m CONTOUR

Roads at Campo San Francisco: A network of roads runs
throughout Campo San Francisco. Many of the roads on the
property run directly up-slope, and the roads in the western portion of the property run up very steep slopes. Erosion of roads
is an issue on the property, and can be attributed in part to the
placement of the roads.
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59

RoAd MAnAGeMent
The roads are graded every three years. It does
not appear that there are swales or other methods
to manage water on the roads. The road and
bridge that cross the river need to be repaired
seasonally.

Regrading the roads occurs every three years. A large portion of the road system becomes heavily eroded in this time-span. Because roads are placed perpendicularly on
slopes, water runs down them, leading to rapid erosion.
Bridge crossing the Estero Rosal at Campo San Francisco. The
bridge is one of two available crossings. Crossing the Estero is
a challenge due to seasonal flooding.

ASSESSMENT: Roads

The relationship between the placement of roads
and the natural slopes of the landscape pose a
challenge on Campo San Francisco. The secondary road system appears to be degraded which
creates a heavy reliance on continued maintenance
and limits access to the property. Erosion from
roads also contributes sediments to waterbodies
and reduces their ecological integrity.
Erosion makes roads less convenient and
increases maintenance. Access to the entire property is required for harvest and will open many
areas of recreation to everyone who lives or visits
on the property. The opportunity to label the
roads will aid in making the property useful and
easy to navigate.

Erosion on a steep road at Campo San Francisco.

The river crossing is a challenge due to seasonal
ďŹ&#x201A;ooding. A crossing point that is suitable yearround would improve access to the entire site,
help neighbors who cannot cross the river from
the main road in the winter, and maintain yearround access to the air hanger, which is on the
west side of the Estero el Rosal.
Estero el Rosal flooding over the bridge during the rainy season. This bridge is the only accessible crossing point when the river is flowing high, and when the bridge is not passable, as
shown here, there is no on-site crossing to access the western portion of the site.

60

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RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Roads
ASSeSS RoAd SySteM
• Inventory roads and identify segments with current or
potential for erosion.

• Assess all roads that exhibit severe erosion and develop a
plan for the future placement and management of the
road on-site.
IMPRoVe RoAd StRUctURe
• Along with harvesting timber from an area, reroute roads
that are in assessed problem areas, especially in the western portion of the property.

• Reroute roads away from riparian corridors.

Severe erosion on a road at Campo San Francisco. The roads on the property
should be assessed for this type of erosion, and the reason for erosion should
be identified.

RoAd conStRUctIon: General Guidelines
When constructing a road the main factors
to consider are topography, soils and method
of harvest (Silk et al. 2005). Following are
guiding concepts:
• Roads are best located on naturally low
grade features and should follow natural
contours (dnRc 2002).
• The design of the road will direct water off
the road with limited sedimentation runoff
(Silk et al. 2005).
• The length and width of the road and
amount of ﬁll should be minimized (Silk et
al. 2005)
• Stabilizing roadside slopes can reduce
erosion (Silk et al. 2005).

• Create simple names for all roads on-site, and
place road signs at all intersections.
• Use color coated trail blazers along each designated road.
Examples of possible maps and road signs.

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TRAILS at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
Campo San Francisco sits in the foothills of the coastal
mountain range, the area that is home to one-third of the
remaining temperate forests of the world.

“In every walk with nature one receives far more
than he seeks.” — John Muir

The beauty of the hills is paired with small intimate places
within the landscape spread out throughout the property.
Most of these beautiful places are separated by many acres
of pine plantations and currently, there are no foot trails connecting or moving through these beautiful areas.

ASSESSMENT: Trails

Creating trails could allow people to access the beauty of
Campo San Francisco, and to experience the natural wonders
that can be found away from the city.
Trails will allow access for people to explore the places that
are special not only to Campo San Francisco, but also to the
dry interior. Trails can also serve as a management tool to
increase the enjoyment of natural areas, while guiding people
away from more sensitive ecological places.
Because the places of interest and beauty are spread out
across the property, the trails at the campo are less likely to
be a site-wide trail network and more likely to be shorter local
trails from various trailheads.

Altos del Lircay National Reserve
Trail to Laguna

62

Los Ruiles National Reserve

Altos del Lircay National Reserve
Trail along Lircay River

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

Altos del Lircay National Reserve
Enladrillado Mountain

HUMAn InFRAStRUctURe

RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Trails
tRAIL deSIGn
As noted earlier the exact design of the trail
should be generated on-site during the wet season in order to best understand the erosion and
water patterns specific to Campo San Francisco.

deSIGn GUIdeLIneS
When planning a trail it is best to survey the
area during the rainy season, and to build trails
that follow the natural contour of the land.
Below are guidelines and grade speciﬁcations
to limit erosion during the maintenance and
construction of trails.

There are trails proposed along lake
and river habitat. Construction of
trails through wetland areas require
specific planning and may need
built features such as boardwalks or
small bridges across creeks.

Diagram: stream crossing

Diagram: wetland
boardwalk

PRoPoSed tRAILS
The native forest is designated for a
trail. Although it is important to
maintain core habitat here, a short
trail that allows access to the forest
from the road would be useful.
This short trail would enter the forest for the benefit of viewing the
diversity of plant and animal life.
This area could serve as an interpretive trail that will teach students
and other foresters about the
importance of conserving Chile’s
temperate forest.

Diagram: retaining wall
along a footpath

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HOMESTEAD at CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO
The two homes on the property are located in close proximity to
each other, and near the main entrance to the property. Within
the homestead area are the large facilities building, various facilities storage areas and a water storage and pump system. All of
these structures and areas are within close walking distance from
the main entrance to the property.

CURRENT
HOMESTEAD
AREA

The area around the caretakersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; house is currently used to grow
food and ďŹ&#x201A;owers in plots of varying sizes, as well as to raise
chickens and contain dogs.

ASSESSMENT: Homestead
The close location of the homes and facilities area to the entrance is logical and functional. Not only does it allow for easy
access between the homes, but it allows for a compact water,
fuel, electricity, and other resources. This set up is efficient, and
ideal.
If in the future, the property owners wished to build homes or
other buildings on the property, the current facilities compound
would be a good model to follow.
Ellena/Hurtado home with vineyards in front.

64

Facilities building near the entrance to the property.

Caretakers home near the main entrance to the property.

Facilities storage area.

Water storage and pump system.

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RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Homestead

FACILITIES
BUILDING

CARETAKERS
HOME

CREATED SPACE

coMPoUnd deSIGn
In the event that the property owners decide to construct new buildings on the site—whether they be for
wine/olive oil processing, guest houses, barns, storage
buildings etc.—a compound design, such as the one that
currently exists in the facilities area, should take
preference.

GREEN
HOUSE/

WINE/OLIVE
PROCESSING
CENTER
Concept 1: Caretaker/Facilities Compound
This conceptual design shows a compound in the existing facilities
center. If the open area around the existing buildings was framed by a
wine/olive processing center, or a greenhouse or tree nursery, the area
in between the buildings could be used for a number of different things
such as an enclosed outdoor storage space or an outdoor tree nursery.

Compound building arrangements offer a number of
benefits. Because of the close proximity of the buildings, resources such as water, fuel and electricity do not
have to routed very far. The increased efficiency generally reduces energy and water costs.
Compound building arrangements also frame outdoor
spaces that encourage shared use and creative use of
space.
HORSE BARN

HOME
HOME
CREATED SPACE

HOME

CARETAKERS
HOME

STORAGE

CREATED SPACE

HOME
Concept 2: New Homes Compound
This conceptual design shows a possible compound formed with new
homes on the property. If the open area around the existing buildings
was framed by the houses, the area in between the buildings could be
used in a number of ways including a common outdoor gathering space,
garden or pool area.

SUGGESTED
CHATEAU
LOCATIONS

Suggested Wine Chateau Locations
The circles shown on the above map give general suggestions for ideal locations of a wine chateau. These areas are all close to the property entrance,
the airstrip and locations of existing and future vineyards. They are also on
the eastern side of the property, away from the main forestry operation.

CHICKEN
COOP

LOWER
MAINTENANCE

VEGETABLE GARMISC. STORAGE

Concept 3: Caretaker Homestead Compound
This conceptual design shows a compound area near the existing
caretakers’ home. A horse barn, chicken coop, dog run, vegetable garden, storage space and other food production plots could frame an
open space. This space could be used as a private outdoor gathering
space, or a grazing area for horses or foraging grounds for chickens.

WIne cHAteAU
In the case that the property owners want to create a
more private space away from the other homes, a wine
chateau compound would be an ideal use of space. The
area would be best suited on the east side of the property, away from the main forestry practices and close to
existing and future vineyard sites. The compound might
include a house that could be rented to vineyard tourists
in the Central Valley, as well as a wine production facility
center.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

HUMAn InFRAStRUctURe

65

OFF-SITE CONNECTIONS
the surrounding landowners are integral to the story of campo San Francisco and the region. the campo’s neighbors are equally
invested in the wellbeing of the landscape and are actively cultivating their lands. It is the hope of campo San Francisco that
a mutual relationship can be formed with its neighbors to work together in making the south central Valley a connected and
economically stimulating place where the young people of the region share the promise of a bright future.

neIGHBoRS
There are several small-scale farm owners to the north-northeast
growing pines and food crops, and pasturing livestock. One neighbor
owns just under 12 hectares of land and often crosses through Campo
San Francisco to access the main road. There are a number of other
neighbors to the northeast, and their land has limited access to water
sources compared to Campo San Francisco.

FORESTAL
CELCO

Campo San Francisco’s neighbor to the west-southwest is Forestal
Celco, a large forestry company owned by Arauco. Alto Cauquenes
maintains a relationship with the Celco operation and in the case of
wildfires they communicate directly with Celco to join forces in fire
suppression.

Reserva Nacional
Federico Albert

Reserva Nacional
Los Ruiles
Campo San
Francisco
Lake

Reserva Nacional
Los Queles

ASSESSMENT
Viewing the region around Campo San Francisco as a
whole system, one can see the potential for the property as a resource to enhance the vitality of human
connections, education, and ecological functioning in
the region.
Alto Cauquenes is committed to the vitality of the
land and the people who live in Cauquenes. They have
worked hard to generate jobs for community members
and to help their neighbors in any way they can.

PLAceS oF ReGIonAL InteReSt
Between Campo San Francisco and the Pacific coast, there are at least
four places of biological interest. These include the Reserva Nacional
Federico Albert, the Reserva National Los Ruiles, the Reserva
Nacional Los Queles, and the area surrounding Lake Tutuven. These
areas are the few remaining treasures of biodiversity in the region, and
Campo San Francisco could potentially become part of this biodiversity web across the Central Valley.

There are also several universities to the north of Campo San
Francisco, which could be wonderful resources for both gaining ecological information about the Campo, and providing research areas for
scientists from the universities.
With this cooperative mentality, Campo San Francisco has potential to
be a community hub for landowners to come together and share
knowledge of working and revitalizing the degraded landscape. The
Campo could also serve as an experimental station for local conservation organizations and universities. Interns from local colleges or from
international colleges could learn about agroforestry systems in the
context of Cauquenes’ culture.
The land at Campo San Francisco could also serve as a model for
other landowners to encourage conservation and corridor management. Through encouraging the enhanced connection of biodiverse
areas, Campo San Francisco would pay homage to the valuable and
endangered natural wonders in the region.

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

oFF-SIte connectIonS

67

RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES: Off-site Connections
cReAte ReLAtIonSHIPS WItH LocAL UnIVeRSItIeS
There are many universities in Talca and Concepcion with forestry departments and biology departments. These departments
can use Campo as an extension for experiments such as growing
different crops, erosion management, and conservation biology.

• Hire interns seasonally to teach the trade of agroforestry or
land management. Interns could also serve as master tradesman who teach skills needed by seasonal workers for the agroforestry business.

“When we try to pick out anything by itself, we ﬁnd it
hitched to everything else in the Universe” — John Muir
InVIte LocALS to conSULt And teAcH:
As observed in the city of Cauquenes there are many people who are active in the business of agroforestry, viticulture and olives. Invite these trades people to consult and
train workers.
nAtIVe FoReSt AS A teAcHInG tooL
Because a third of the world’s temperate native forest
exists in Chile, the native forest that is located in Campo
San Francisco could be a place to bring young students,
landowners and government authorities to teach them
about the natural wonder that exists in Chile and conservation methods.

A case Study: WILLoW LAKe FARM
Willow Lake Farm is a 1,400 hectare farm located in
southern Minnesota. It is owned and operated by a ﬁfth
generation farmer, James Thompson, who just won the
Siehl Prize for agricultural excellence. He runs a fully
functioning farm generating proﬁt while contributing to
the prairie land conservation and wildlife diversity. the
farm is dedicated to the preservation of ecology and the
cultural value of farming.

every year the farm hosts an agroecology summit where for two
days farmers, conservationists, researchers, consumers and
educators explore ideas and approaches to make connections
between agriculture and ecology.
the farm promotes experiential learning with a strong relationship
to the University of Minnesota and Iowa. the farm hosts entire
college classes, doctorate and master candidates that study the
farming system that integrates sound conservation practices with
sound agricultural practice.

coRRIdoR connectIonS
Create relationships with neighbors encouraging them to establish conservation corridors on
their property for the sake of
wildlife movement and biodiversity management.

Reserva Nacional
Los Queles

City of Cauquenes

The above map introduces the concept of corridor connections from Campo San Francisco to
other areas of biological interest in the region. Creating these connections would be a paramount
achievement in south central Chile and a powerful idea that could inspire other connections
throughout the region.

CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

RESERVA NACIONAL LOS RUILES

STRATEGIES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: CAMPO SAN FRANCISCO

RESERVA NACIONAL FEDERICO ALBERT

oFF-SIte connectIonS

69

CONCLUSION
The strategies for ecological management presented in this guide are categorized according
to landscape patterns. However, after a thorough analysis of regional and on-site landscape
patterns, an overarching group of strategies emerged. The emergence of these strategies
demonstrates the connections between the systems at Campo San Francisco. If these
overarching strategies are integrated into Alto Cauquenes’ management decisions, the
landscape’s resilience to natural and anthropogenic disturbances will increase. This will
ensure the lasting health and vitality of the land at Campo San Francisco.
Overarching Strategies:
• Diversify management practices and number of species:
Diversity enhances resilience in the face of climatic shocks, disease
and pest outbreaks and variability in the returns from sale of a range
of crops.
• Increase resource use efficiency:
Make precise applications of water and other external inputs in both
space and time to minimize waste and other problems that arise
from overapplication.
• Allow natural processes to take management precedent whenever possible:
Aim for biological solutions, and diverse management strategies that
mirror the diversity of the biophysical characteristics on-site.
Manage pests by monitoring them, and encouraging the presence of
their natural enemies, rather than seeking to eliminate pests.
• Increase soil health:
Shift from nutrient management based on fertilizer application to
processes such as biological nitrogen fixation, crop rotation and nutrient recycling, and incorporate the use of manure and compost.
• Manage for adaptive dynamism:
Constant monitoring and experimentation is critical to adaptive and
dynamic management.

Through implementing strategies for ecological management, Alto Cauquenes
can shape Campo San Francisco towards greater ecological, economic, and social
resiliency. This report provides recommendations and strategies for increasing
Campo San Franciscoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adaptablity and diversity. The recommendations were
developed through an assessment of regional land use patterns and current
management practices at Campo San Francisco. The recommended strategies aim
to foster resiliency at Campo San Francisco and to position Alto Cauquenes as a
model for other forestry companies and land owners in the region.

The Conway School is the only institution of its kind in North America. Its focus is sustainable landscape planning and design.
Each year, through its accredited, ten-month graduate program just eighteen to nineteen students from diverse backgrounds are
immersed in a range of applied landscape studies, ranging in scale from residences to regions. Graduates go on to play significant
professional roles in various aspects of landscape planning and design.

Strategies For Ecological Management for Campo San Francisco, Chile

Through implementing strategies for ecological management, Alto Cauquenes can shape Campo San Francisco towards greater ecological, economic, and social resiliency. This report provides recommendations and strategies for increasing Campo San Francisco’s adaptablity and diversity. The recommendations weredeveloped through an assessment of regional land use patterns and current management practices at Campo San Francisco. The recommended strategies aim to foster resiliency at Campo San Francisco and to position Alto Cauquenes as a model for other forestry companies and land owners in the region.