After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, some of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.[1] Between 1945 and 1950, over 15 million people emigrated from Soviet-occupied Eastern European countries to the West.[2] Taking advantage of this route, the number of Eastern Europeans applying for political asylum in West Germany was 197,000 in 1950, 165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953.[3]

By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany.[4] Up until 1953, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places.[5] Consequently, the Inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected; in 1955, the Soviets passed a law transferring control over civilian access in Berlin to East Germany, which officially abdicated them for direct responsibility of matters therein, while passing control to a government not recognized in the US-allied West.[6] When large numbers of East Germans then defected under the guise of "visits", the new East German state essentially eliminated all travel between the west and east in 1956.[5]

With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952,[7] the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers.[5] Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West,[8] the Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape.[7] The 4.5[9] million East Germans that had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population.[10] The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals—engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers,[10] the brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that closing this loophole and securing the Soviet-imposed East-West-Berlin frontier was imperative.[11]

In November 1958, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev issued the Western powers an ultimatum to withdraw from Berlin within six months and make it a free, demilitarised city. Khrushchev declared that, at the end of that period, the Soviet Union would turn over control of all lines of communication with West Berlin to East Germany, meaning the western powers would have access to West Berlin only when East Germany permitted it; in response, the United States, United Kingdom, and France clearly expressed their strong determination to remain in, and maintain their legal right of free access to, West Berlin.[12]

With tensions mounting, the United States, United Kingdom and France formed a covert group with orders to plan for an eventual response to any aggression on West Berlin, the planning group was named LIVE OAK, and staff from the three countries prepared land and air plans to guarantee access to and from West Berlin.[13]

The Soviet Union withdrew its deadline in May 1959, and the foreign ministers of the four countries spent three months meeting, they did not come to any major agreements, but this process led to negotiations and to Khrushchev's September 1959 visit to the US, at the end of which he and US President Dwight Eisenhower jointly asserted that general disarmament was of utmost importance and that such issues as that of Berlin "should be settled, not by the application of force, but by peaceful means through negotiations."[12]

Eisenhower and Khrushchev had a few days together at the US presidential retreat Camp David, where they talked frankly with each other. "There was nothing more inadvisable in this situation," said Eisenhower, "than to talk about ultimatums, since both sides knew very well what would happen if an ultimatum were to be implemented." Khrushchev responded that he did not understand how a peace treaty could be regarded by the American people as a "threat to peace". Eisenhower admitted that the situation in Berlin was "abnormal" and that "human affairs got very badly tangled at times."

Khrushchev came away with the impression that a deal was possible over Berlin, and they agreed to continue the dialogue at a summit in Paris in May 1960. However, the Paris Summit that was to resolve the Berlin question was cancelled in the fallout from Gary Powers's failed U-2 spy flight on 1 May 1960.

At the Vienna summit on 4 June 1961, tensions rose. Meeting with US President John F. Kennedy, Premier Khrushchev reissued the Soviet ultimatum to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany and thus end the existing four-power agreements guaranteeing American, British, and French rights to access West Berlin and the occupation of East Berlin by Soviet forces.[12] However, this time he did so by issuing a deadline of 31 December 1961, the three powers responded that any unilateral treaty could not affect their responsibilities and rights in West Berlin.[12]

In the growing confrontation over the status of Berlin, Kennedy undercut his own bargaining position during his Vienna summit negotiations with Khrushchev in June 1961. Kennedy essentially conveyed US acquiescence to the permanent division of Berlin, this made his later, more assertive public statements less credible to the Soviets.[14]

As the confrontation over Berlin escalated, Kennedy, in a speech delivered on nationwide[where?] television the night of 25 July, reiterated that the United States was not looking for a fight and that he recognised the "Soviet Union's historical concerns about their security in central and eastern Europe." He said he was willing to renew talks, but he also announced that he would ask Congress for an additional $3.25 billion for military spending, mostly on conventional weapons. He wanted six new divisions for the Army and two for the Marines, and he announced plans to triple the draft and to call up the reserves. Kennedy proclaimed: "We seek peace, but we shall not surrender."

The same day, Kennedy requested an increase in the Army's strength from 875,000 to approximately 1 million, an increase of 29,000 and 63,000 men in the active duty Navy and Air Force, respectively, and the authority to bring some reserve units into active duty, he also ordered that draft calls be doubled, and asked for additional funds to identify and mark space in existing structures that could be used for fallout shelters, to stock these shelters with essentials for survival, and to improve air-raid warning and fallout detection systems.[12][where?]

Vacationing in the Black Sea resort of Sochi, Khrushchev was reported to be angered by Kennedy's speech. John Jay McCloy, Kennedy's disarmament adviser, who happened to be in the Soviet Union, was invited to join Khrushchev. It is reported that Khrushchev explained to McCloy that Kennedy's military build-up threatened war.

In early 1961, the East German government sought a way to stop its population leaving to the West. Walter Ulbricht, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party (SED) and Staatsrat chairman and thus East Germany's chief decision-maker, convinced the Soviet Union that force was necessary to stop this movement, although Berlin's four-power status required the allowance of free travel between zones and forbade the presence of German troops in Berlin.[12]

The East German government began stockpiling building materials for the erection of the Berlin Wall; this activity was widely known, but only a small circle of Soviet and East German planners believed that East Germans were aware of the purpose.[12] This material included enough barbed wire to enclose the 96-mile circumference of West Berlin, the regime managed to avoid suspicion by spreading out the purchases of barbed wire among several East German companies, which in turn spread their orders out among a range of firms in West Germany and the United Kingdom.[15]

On 15 June 1961, two months before the construction of the Berlin Wall started, Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference: "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" ("No one has the intention to erect a wall"). It was the first time the term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context.

On 4–7 August 1961, the foreign ministers of the US, UK, France and West Germany secretly met in Paris to discuss how to respond to the Soviet actions in West Berlin, they expressed a lack of willingness to engage in warfare. Within weeks, the KGB provided Khrushchev with descriptions of the Paris talks, these showed that US Secretary of State Dean Rusk, unlike the West Germans, supported talks with the Soviet Union, though the KGB and the GRU warned that the US were being pressured by other members of the alliance to consider economic sanctions against East Germany and other socialist countries and to move faster on plans for conventional and nuclear armament of their allies in Western Europe, such as the West German Bundeswehr.[16]

The West had advance intelligence about the construction of the Wall, on 6 August, a HUMINT source, a functionary in the SED, provided the 513th Military Intelligence Group (Berlin) with the correct date of the start of construction. At weekly meeting of the Berlin Watch Committee on 9 August 1961, the Chief of the US Military Liaison Mission to the Commander Group of Soviet Forces Germany predicted the construction of a wall. An intercept of SED communications on the same day informed the West that there were plans to begin blocking all foot traffic between East and West Berlin, the interagency intelligence Watch Committee assessment said that this intercept "might be the first step in a plan to close the border", which turned out to be correct.

On Saturday 12 August 1961, the leaders of East Germany attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin, and Walter Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a Wall.

At midnight, the army, police, and units of the East German army began to close the border and by morning on Sunday 13 August 1961 the border to West Berlin had been shut. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the barrier to make them impassable to most vehicles, and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 mi) around the three western sectors and the 43 km (27 mi) which actually divided West and East Berlin. Approximately 32,000 combat and engineer troops were employed for the building of the Wall, after which the Border Police became responsible for manning and improving it. To discourage Western interference and perhaps control potential riots, the Soviet Army was present.[12]

On 30 August 1961, in response to moves by the Soviet Union to cut off access to Berlin, President Kennedy ordered 148,000 Guardsmen and Reservists to active duty; in October and November, more Air National Guard units were mobilised, and 216 aircraft from the tactical fighter units flew to Europe in operation "Stair Step", the largest jet deployment in the history of the Air Guard. Most of the mobilised Air Guardsmen remained in the US, while some others had been trained for delivery of tactical nuclear weapons and had to be retrained in Europe for conventional operations, the Air National Guard's ageing F-84s and F-86s required spare parts that the United States Air Forces in Europe lacked.[12]

Richard Bach wrote his book Stranger to the Ground centred around his experience as an Air National Guard pilot on this deployment.

The four powers governing Berlin (Soviet Union, United States, United Kingdom, and France) had agreed at the 1945 Potsdam Conference that Allied personnel could move freely in any sector of Berlin, but on 22 October 1961, just two months after the construction of the Wall, the US Chief of Mission in West Berlin, E. Allan Lightner, was stopped in his car (which had occupation forces license plates) while crossing at Checkpoint Charlie to go to a theatre in East Berlin, the former Army General Lucius D. Clay, US President John F. Kennedy's Special Advisor in West Berlin, decided to demonstrate American resolve.

Clay sent an American diplomat, Albert Hemsing, to probe the border. While probing in a vehicle clearly identified as belonging to a member of the US Mission in Berlin, Hemsing was stopped by East German police asking to see his passport. Once his identity became clear, US Military Police were rushed in, the Military Police escorted the diplomatic car as it drove into East Berlin and the shocked GDR police got out of the way. The car continued and the soldiers returned to West Berlin. A British diplomat — British cars were not immediately recognisable as belonging to the staff in Berlin — was stopped the next day and showed his identity card identifying him as a member of the British Military Government in Berlin, infuriating Clay.

US Commandant General Watson was outraged by the East Berlin police's attempt to control the passage of American military forces, he communicated to the Department of State on 25 October 1961 that Soviet Commandant Colonel Solovyev and his men were not doing their part to avoid disturbing actions during a time of peace negotiations, and demanded that the Soviet authorities take immediate steps to remedy the situation. Solovyev replied by describing American attempts to send armed soldiers across the checkpoint and keeping American tanks at sector boundary as an "open provocation" and a direct violation of GDR regulations, he insisted that properly identified American military could cross the sector border without impediments, and were only stopped when their nationality was not immediately clear to guards. Solovyev contended that requesting identifying paperwork from those crossing the border was not unreasonable control; Watson disagreed. In regards to the American military presence on the border, Solovyev warned:

I am authorized to state that it is necessary to avoid actions of this kind, such actions can provoke corresponding actions from our side. We have tanks too. We hate the idea of carrying out such actions, and are sure that you will re-examine your course.[17]

Perhaps this contributed to Hemsing's decision to make the attempt again: on 27 October 1961, Mr. Hemsing again approached the zonal boundary in a diplomatic vehicle, but Clay did not know how the Soviets would respond, so just in case, he had sent tanks with an infantry battalion to the nearby Tempelhof airfield. To everyone's relief the same routine was played out as before, the US Military Police and Jeeps went back to West Berlin, and the tanks waiting behind also went home.

Immediately afterwards, 33 Soviet tanks drove to the Brandenburg Gate. Curiously, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev claimed in his memoirs that as he understood it, the American tanks had seen the Soviet tanks coming and retreated. Col. Jim Atwood, then Commander of the US Military Mission in West Berlin, disagreed in later statements, as one of the first to spot the tanks when they arrived, Lieutenant Vern Pike was ordered to verify whether they were indeed Soviet tanks. He and tank driver Sam McCart drove over to East Berlin, where Pike took advantage of a temporary absence of any soldiers near the tanks to climb into one of them, he came out with definitive evidence that the tanks were Soviet, including a Red Army newspaper.[18]

Ten of these tanks continued to Friedrichstraße, and stopped just 50 to 100 metres from the checkpoint on the Soviet side of the sector boundary, the US tanks turned back towards the checkpoint, stopping an equal distance from it on the American side of the boundary. From 27 October 1961 at 17:00 until 28 October 1961 at about 11:00, the respective troops faced each other, as per standing orders, both groups of tanks were loaded with live munitions. The alert levels of the US Garrison in West Berlin, then NATO, and finally the US Strategic Air Command (SAC) were raised. Both groups of tanks had orders to fire if fired upon.[citation needed]

Soviet tanks at Checkpoint Charlie October 27, 1961.

It was at this point that US Secretary of State Dean Rusk conveyed to General Lucius Clay, the US commanding officer in Berlin, that "We had long since decided that Berlin is not a vital interest which would warrant determined recourse to force to protect and sustain." Clay was convinced that having US tanks use bulldozer mounts to knock down parts of the Wall would have ended the Crisis to the greater advantage of the US and its allies without eliciting a Soviet military response. His views, and corresponding evidence that the Soviets may have backed down following this action, support a more critical assessment of Kennedy's decisions during the crisis and his willingness to accept the Wall as the best solution.[19]

With KGB spy Georgi Bolshakov serving as the primary channel of communication, Khrushchev and Kennedy agreed to reduce tensions by withdrawing the tanks,[20] the Soviet checkpoint had direct communications to General Anatoly Gribkov at the Soviet Army High Command, who in turn was on the phone to Khrushchev. The US checkpoint contained a Military Police officer on the telephone to the HQ of the US Military Mission in Berlin, which in turn was in communication with the White House. Kennedy offered to go easy over Berlin in the future in return for the Soviets removing their tanks first, the Soviets agreed. Kennedy stated concerning the Wall: "It's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war."[21]

A Soviet tank moved about 5 metres backwards first; then an American tank followed suit. One by one the tanks withdrew, but General Bruce C. Clarke, then the Commander-in-Chief (CINC) of US Army Europe (USAREUR), was said to have been concerned about Clay's conduct[citation needed] and Clay returned to the United States in May 1962. Gen. Clarke's assessment may have been incomplete, however: Clay's firmness had a great effect on the German population, led by West Berlin Mayor Willy Brandt and West German ChancellorKonrad Adenauer.

1.
History of Berlin
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The history of Berlin starts with its foundation in the 13th century, and later became the capital of the small country of Prussia. Prussia grew rapidly in the 18th and 19th century, and formed the basis of the German Empire in 1871. After 1900 Berlin became a world city, known for its leadership roles in science. It also had a role in manufacturing and finance, during World War II, it was virtually destroyed by bombing, artillery, and ferocious street-by-street fighting. It was split between the victors, and lost its leadership roles. With the reunification of Germany in 1990, Berlin was restored as a capital, the origin of the name Berlin is uncertain. It may have roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, folk etymology connects the name to the German word for bear, Bär. A bear also appears in the coat of arms of the city, the original Slavic town of Berlin was on the eastern bank of the Spree, approximately where the Nikolaiviertel now stands. The first German settlers probably reached the area in the 11th or 12th centuries and they founded a second town, called Cölln, on the island in the Spree now known as the Spreeinsel or Museum Island. In the 12th century the region came under German rule as part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg and it was under the Margraves of Brandenburg, that Old Berlin and Cölln received their first town charters in the 13th century. The year 1237 was later taken as the year of founding, as German settlement increased, the Slavic character of the town faded and the two settlements merged into the German town of Berlin-Cölln, they formally merged in 1432. Albert the Bear also bequeathed to Berlin the emblem of the bear, by the year 1400 Berlin and Cölln had 8,000 inhabitants. A great town fire in 1380 damaged most written records of those early years. In 1415, Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, subsequent members of the Hohenzollern family ruled until 1918 in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of Prussia, and finally as German emperors. When Berlin became the residence of the Hohenzollerns, it had to give up its Hanseatic League free city status and its main economical activity changed from trade to the production of luxurious goods for the court. 1443 to 1451, The first Berliner Stadtschloss was built on the embankment of the river Spree, at that time Berlin-Cölln had about 8,000 inhabitants. Population figures rose fast, leading to poverty,1448, The inhabitants of Berlin rebelled in the Berlin Indignation against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector Frederick II Irontooth. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political,1451, Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free Hanseatic city

2.
Margraviate of Brandenburg
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The Margraviate of Brandenburg was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1157 to 1806. Also known as the March of Brandenburg, it played a role in the history of Germany. Brandenburg developed out of the Northern March founded in the territory of the Slavic Wends and its ruling margraves were established as prestigious prince-electors in the Golden Bull of 1356, allowing them to vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The state thus became known as Electoral Brandenburg or the Electorate of Brandenburg. The House of Hohenzollern came to the throne of Brandenburg in 1415, under Hohenzollern leadership, Brandenburg grew rapidly in power during the 17th century and inherited the Duchy of Prussia. The resulting Brandenburg-Prussia was the predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia, although the electors highest title was King in/of Prussia, their power base remained in Brandenburg and its capital Berlin. Although the Margraviate of Brandenburg ended with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, despite its meager beginnings in the Holy Roman Empire, the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871. The Mark Brandenburg is still used today to refer to the federal state of Brandenburg in the Federal Republic of Germany. The territory of the margraviate, commonly known as the Mark Brandenburg, lies in present-day eastern Germany. Geographically it encompassed the majority of the present-day German states Brandenburg and Berlin, the Altmark, parts of the present-day federal state Brandenburg, such as Lower Lusatia and territory which had been Saxon until 1815, were not parts of the Mark. Colloquially but not accurately, the federal state Brandenburg is sometimes identified as the Mark or Mark Brandenburg, the region was formed during the ice age and characterized by moraines, glacial valleys, and numerous lakes. The territory is known as a Mark or march because it was a county of the Holy Roman Empire. The Mark is defined by two uplands and two depressions, the depressions are taken up by rivers and chains of lakes with marsh and boggy soil along the shores, once used for peat collection, the riverbanks are now mostly drained and dry. The Northern or Baltic Uplands of the Mecklenburg Lake Plateau have only minor extensions into Brandenburg, the southern depression is generally to the north of this ridge and appears strikingly in the Spreewald. Between these two depressions is a low plateau that extends from the Poznań area westward to Brandenburg through Torzym, the Spree plateau, the region is predominantly marked by dry, sandy soil, wide stretches of which have pine trees and erica plants, or heath. However, the soil is loamy in the uplands and plateaus and, Mark Brandenburg has a cool, continental climate, with temperatures averaging near 0 °C in January and February and near 18 °C in July and August. Precipitation averages between 500 mm and 600 mm annually, with a modest summer maximum, by the 8th century, Slavic Wends, such as the Sprevjane and Hevelli, started to move into the Brandenburg area. They intermarried with Saxons and Bohemians, the Bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg were established at the beginning of the 10th century

3.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion

4.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same

5.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943

6.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt

7.
East Berlin
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East Berlin existed between 1949 and 1990 and consisted of the Soviet sector of Berlin established in 1945. The American, British, and French sectors became West Berlin, strongly associated with West Germany, from 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989, East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. In East German official usage, it widespread in the 1970s to refer to the Western part of the city as Westberlin. In May 1945, the Soviet Union installed a city government for the city that was called Magistrate of Greater Berlin. After the war, the Allied Forces initially administrated the city together within the Allied Kommandatura, however, in 1948 the Soviet representative left the Kommandatura and the common administration broke apart during the following months. In the Soviet sector, a city government was established. When the German Democratic Republic was formed in 1949, it immediately claimed East Berlin as its capital - a claim that was recognized by all Communist countries, nevertheless, its representatives to the Peoples Chamber were not directly elected and did not have full voting rights until 1981. In June 1948, all railways and roads leading to West Berlin were blocked, however, more than one-thousand East Germans were escaping to West Berlin each day by 1960. In August 1961, the East German Government tried to stop that from happening by building the Berlin Wall and it was very dangerous for illegal migrants to cross because of the presence of armed guards that were trained to shoot people in such cases. East Germany was a socialist republic, but there was not complete economic equality, privileges such as prestigious apartments and good schooling were given to members of the ruling party and their family. Eventually, Christian churches were allowed to operate without restraint after years of harassment by authorities, in the 1970s wages of East Berliners rose and working hours fell. The United States Command Berlin, for example, published detailed instructions for U. S. military, in fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested against the presence of the East German National Peoples Army in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades. Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as the capital of East Germany, treaties instead used terms such as seat of government. On 3 October 1990, West and East Germany and West and East Berlin were reunited, after reunification, the East German economy suffered significantly. Many East German factories were shut due to inability to comply with West German pollution and safety standards. Because of this, an amount of West German economic aid was poured into East Germany to revitalize it. This stimulus was part-funded through a 7. 5% tax on income, despite the large sums of economic aid poured into East Berlin, there still remain obvious differences between the former East and West Berlin. East Berlin has a visual style, this is partly due to the greater survival of prewar façades and streetscapes

East Berlin
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Marx-Engels-Platz and the Palast der Republik in East Berlin in the summer of 1989. The Fernsehturm (TV Tower) is visible in the background
East Berlin
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Flag
East Berlin
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Easter Sunday 1988 Fernsehturm and Palast der Republik
East Berlin
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Karl Marx Allee apartments

8.
Berlin Blockade
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The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies railway, road, the Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche mark from West Berlin. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin airlift to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, the Soviets did not disrupt the airlift for fear this might lead to open conflict. By the spring of 1949, the airlift was clearly succeeding, on 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin. The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. These zones were located roughly around the then-current locations of the allied armies, also divided into occupation zones, Berlin was located 100 miles inside Soviet-controlled eastern Germany. The United States, United Kingdom, and France controlled western portions of the city, factories, equipment, technicians, managers and skilled personnel were removed to the Soviet Union. Stalin and other leaders told visiting Bulgarian and Yugoslavian delegations in early 1946 that Germany must be both Soviet and communist, a further factor contributing to the Blockade was that there had never been a formal agreement guaranteeing rail and road access to Berlin through the Soviet zone. At the end of the war, western leaders had relied on Soviet goodwill to them with access. The Soviets also granted only three air corridors for access to Berlin from Hamburg, Bückeburg and Frankfurt, in response, the Soviets started a public relations campaign against American policy and began to obstruct the administrative work of all four zones of occupation. Until the blockade began in 1948, the Truman Administration had not decided whether American forces should remain in West Berlin after the establishment of a West German government, Berlin quickly became the focal point of both US and Soviet efforts to re-align Europe to their respective visions. As Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov noted, What happens to Berlin, happens to Germany, what happens to Germany, Berlin had suffered enormous damage, its prewar population of 4.3 million people was reduced to 2.8 million. After harsh treatment, forced emigration, political repression and the hard winter of 1945–1946. Local elections in 1946 resulted in a massive anti-communist protest vote, Berlins citizens overwhelmingly elected non-Communist members to its city council. Meanwhile, to coordinate the economies of the British and United States occupation zones, after March 1946 the British zonal advisory board was established, with representatives of the states, the central offices, political parties, trade unions, and consumer organisations. As indicated by its name, the advisory board had no legislative power. The Control Commission for Germany – British Element made all decisions with its legislative power and it created its own central bodies headed by a secretariat seated in Stuttgart. Eventually the London Agreement on German External Debts, also known as the London Debt Agreement, was concluded, in response to the announcement of the first of these meetings, in late January 1948, the Soviets began stopping British and American trains to Berlin to check passenger identities

9.
Ich bin ein Berliner
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Ich bin ein Berliner is a quotation from a June 26,1963, speech by U. S. President John F. Kennedy in West Berlin. Kennedy aimed to underline the support of the United States for West Germany 22 months after Soviet-supported East Germany erected the Berlin Wall to prevent mass emigration to the West. The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a statement of U. S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. The speech is considered one of Kennedys best, both a moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New Frontier. It was a morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an enclave deep inside East Germany. Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg for an audience of 450,000, Kennedy said, Two thousand years ago, Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is Ich bin ein Berliner. All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, there is a widespread misconception that the phrase is incorrect German and in fact means Im a doughnut. It has even been embellished into an urban legend including equally incorrect claims about the audience laughing at this phrase, germanys capital, Berlin, was deep within the area controlled after World War II by the Soviet Union. Afterward, the controlled by the NATO Allies became an effective exclave of West Germany. From 1952, the border between East and West was closed everywhere but in Berlin, hundreds of thousands of East Germans defected to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain that threatened East Germany with economic collapse. In 1961, the East German government under Walter Ulbricht erected a barrier around West Berlin. The East German authorities argued that it was meant to prevent spies, however, it was universally known as the Berlin Wall and its real purpose was to keep East German citizens from escaping to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, the Wall closed the biggest loophole in the Iron Curtain, and Berlin went from being one of the easiest places to cross from East Europe to West Europe to being one of the most difficult. The West, including the U. S. was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the Wall, officially, Berlin was under joint occupation by the four allied powers, each with primary responsibility for a certain zone. Kennedys speech marked the first instance where the U. S. acknowledged that East Berlin was part of the Soviet bloc along with the rest of East Germany. Today, I believe, in 1962 the proudest boast is to say, and it is not enough to merely say it, we must live it. But Americans who serve today in West Berlin—your sons and brothers -- are the Americans who are bearing the great burden, such transcriptions are also found in the third draft of the speech, from June 25. The final typed version of the speech does not contain the transcriptions and it became clear quickly that the president did not have a gift for languages and was more likely to embarrass himself if he was to cite in German for any length

10.
Tear down this wall!
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The tear down this wall speech was not the first time Reagan had addressed the issue of the Berlin Wall. In a visit to West Berlin in June 1982, hed stated Id like to ask the Soviet leaders one question Why is the wall there, on the day before Reagans 1987 visit,50,000 people had demonstrated against the presence of the American president in Berlin. During the visit itself, wide swaths of Berlin were closed off to prevent further anti-Reagan protests, the district of Kreuzberg, in particular, was targeted in this respect, with movement throughout this portion of the city in effect restrained completely. American officials in West Germany and presidential speechwriters, including Peter Robinson, Robinson traveled to West Germany to inspect potential speech venues, and gained an overall sense that the majority of West Berliners opposed the wall. Despite getting little support for suggesting Reagan demand the walls removal, on May 18,1987, President Reagan met with his speechwriters and responded to the speech by saying, I thought it was a good, solid draft. White House Chief of Staff Howard Baker objected, saying it sounded extreme and unpresidential, nevertheless, Reagan liked the passage, saying, I think well leave it in. Chief speechwriter Anthony Dolan gives another account of the origins, however. He records vivid impressions of his own reaction and Robinsons at the time and this led to a friendly exchange of letters between Robinson and Dolan over their differing accounts, which The Wall Street Journal published. Arriving in Berlin on June 12,1987, President and Mrs. Reagan were taken to the Reichstag, Reagan then made his speech at the Brandenburg Gate at 2,00 pm, in front of two panes of bulletproof glass. Among the spectators were West German president Richard von Weizsäcker, Chancellor Helmut Kohl and that afternoon, Reagan said, We welcome change and openness, for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, general Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall, yes, across Europe, this wall will fall. For it cannot withstand faith, it cannot withstand truth, the speech received relatively little coverage from the media, Time magazine claimed 20 years later. East German Politburo member Guenter Schabowski considered the speech to be absurd, former West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl said he would never forget standing near Reagan when he challenged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. He was a stroke of luck for the world, especially for Europe, in an interview with Reagan himself, he recalls the East German police not allowing people to get near the wall, which prevented the citizens from experiencing the speech at all. The fact that West German police acted in a way has however seldom been noted in accounts such as these. Speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan Robinson, Peter and its My Party, A Republicans Messy Love Affair with the GOP. Hardcover, Warner Books, ISBN 0-446-52665-7 Ambassador John C, kornblum, Reagans Brandenburg Concerto, The American Interest, May–June 2007 Ratnesar, Romesh

11.
History of Germany
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Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagnes heirs in 843, in 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. In the High Middle Ages, the dukes, princes. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the states became Protestant. The two parts of the Holy Roman Empire clashed in the Thirty Years War, which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians living in both states. The Thirty Years War brought tremendous destruction to Germany, more than 1/4 of the population,1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, feudalism fell away, the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, led to the rapid growth of cities and to the emergence of the Socialist movement in Germany. Prussia, with its capital Berlin, grew in power, German universities became world-class centers for science and the humanities, while music and the arts flourished. The new Reichstag, a parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific, Germany was the dominant power on the continent. By 1900, its rapidly expanding industrial economy passed Britains, allowing a naval race, Germany led the Central Powers in World War I against France, Great Britain, Russia and the United States. Defeated and partly occupied, Germany was forced to pay war reparations by the Treaty of Versailles and was stripped of its colonies as well as Polish areas and Alsace-Lorraine. The German Revolution of 1918–19 deposed the emperor and the kings and princes, leading to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. In the early 1930s, the worldwide Great Depression hit Germany hard, as unemployment soared, in 1933, the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler came to power and quickly established a totalitarian regime. Political opponents were killed or imprisoned, after forming a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939, Hitler and Stalin divided Eastern Europe. After a Phoney War in spring 1940 the German blitzkrieg swept Scandinavia, only the British Commonwealth and Empire stood opposed, along with Greece. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in 1942, the German invasion of the Soviet Union faltered, and after the United States had entered the war, Britain became the base for massive Anglo-American bombings of German cities. Germany fought the war on multiple fronts through 1942–1944, however following the Allied invasion of Normandy, millions of ethnic Germans fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion, and became the dominant economy in Western Europe

History of Germany
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The Steinheim Skull is at least 250,000 years old
History of Germany
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Painting of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, the Germanic victory in 9 AD
History of Germany
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Expansion of the Frankish Empire: Blue = realm of Pippin III in 758, Red = expansion under Charlemagne until 814, Yellow = marches and dependencies
History of Germany
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The Holy Roman Empire at its greatest territorial extent during Crusades.

12.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln

Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin

13.
Ultimatum
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An ultimatum is a demand whose fulfillment is requested in a specified period of time and which is backed up by a threat to be followed through in case of noncompliance. An ultimatum is generally the demand in a series of requests. As such, the time allotted is usually short, and the request is not to be open to further negotiation. The threat which backs up the ultimatum can vary depending on the demand in question and on the other circumstances, the word is used in diplomacy to signify the final terms submitted by one of the parties in negotiation for settlement of any subject of disagreement. It is accompanied by an intimation as to how refusal will be regarded and this opens up a variety of possibilities, such as good offices, mediation, the appointment of a commission of inquiry, arbitration, reprisals, pacific blockade and war. An ultimatum may also serve to provide legitimacy for military action, as reasons for a declaration of war are necessarily in the nature of an ultimatum, the ultimatum may now be regarded as an indispensable formality precedent to the outbreak of hostilities. The actor that presents the other side with an ultimatum should be prepared to make good on the threat, for instance, initiate military action, There are dangers if the threatened actor decides not to comply. On the other hand, the opponent may take the ultimatum seriously, the ultimatum may encourage the opponent to remain firm so as not to be seen as weak. One danger here is that the opponent may profess to accept the ultimatum, possibly with conditions, another danger is that the issuer may keep negotiating with the opponent when the requested period of time ends, thus making the issuer look like a laughable fool. A threat of force to defeat the opponent or deny him his objectives quickly with little cost, an assurance to the adversary against future demands. An offer of inducements for compliance, boulwarism Hobsons choice Byman, Daniel, Waxman, Matthew. The Dynamics of Coercion, American Foreign Policy and the Limits of Military Might, George, Alexander L. Art, Robert J. Cronin, Patrick M. eds. Forceful Persuasion, Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War, in Art, Robert J. Cronin, Patrick M. The United States and coercive diplomacy, threats of Force, International Law and Strategy. Levy, Jack S. Deterrence and Coercive Diplomacy, The Contributions of Alexander George, the Use of Pauses in Coercion, An Explanation in Theory. School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, building a Psychological Strategy for the U. S. Leveraging the Informational Element of National Power, U. S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Art, Robert J. Waltz, Kenneth Neal, eds, the Use of Force, Military Power and International Politics

Ultimatum
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The 1853 negotiations between Russian envoy, Prince Menshikov, and the Turkish Sultan about the protection of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire involved a series of ultimata. On 31 May, Russia threatened that the provinces of Moldova and Wallachia would be occupied if Menshikov's note was not accepted within seven days. This Punch cartoon satirises rejection of the ultimatum by Austria, France and Turkey while Britain watches, amused.

14.
Partition (politics)
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In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. Partition, multiple times, of the Roman Empire into the Eastern Roman Empire, in the 1757 Second Treaty of Versailles, France agreed upon the partition of Prussia Partition of the United States during the American Civil War. Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth in the 18th century

15.
Communist Party of China
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The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party of the Peoples Republic of China. It was founded in 1921, chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, the CPC is currently the worlds second largest political party with a membership of 88.76 million as of 2016. It also controls the worlds largest armed force, the Peoples Liberation Army, the highest body of the CPC is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. The partys leader holds the offices of General Secretary, Chairman of the Central Military Commission, through these posts the party leader is the countrys paramount leader. The current party leader is Xi Jinping, elected at the 18th National Congress, the CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties each year. The official explanation for Chinas economic reforms is that the country is in the stage of socialism. The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy, the CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals. Other influences stemming from the Bolshevik revolution and Marxist theory inspired the Communist Party of China, Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution. In contrast to Chen Duxiu, Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China, both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere. The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenins theory of a vanguard party, Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, the rudiments. Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, the founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, the CPC organization, while it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession, police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July. Because of that, the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang province, only 12 delegates attended the congress, with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend. Chen sent a representative to attend the congress. The resolutions of the called for the establishment of a communist party. The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT, a party organized on Leninist lines, when KMT leader Sun Yat-sen died in March 1925, he was succeeded by a rightist, Chiang Kai-shek, who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists. Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords, Chiang Kai-shek turned on the communists, ignoring the orders of the Wuhan-based KMT government, he marched on Shanghai, a city controlled by communist militias. Although the communists welcomed Chiangs arrival, he turned on them, Chiangs army then marched on Wuhan, but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops

Communist Party of China
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Mao declared the establishment of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949
Communist Party of China
Communist Party of China
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Chinese communists celebrate Joseph Stalin 's birthday, 1949
Communist Party of China
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A monument dedicated to Marx (left) and Engels (right) in Shanghai, China

16.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

17.
Soviet occupations
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During World War II, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed several countries effectively handed over by Nazi Germany in the secret protocol Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939. These included Eastern Poland, as well as Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, part of eastern Finland, apart from Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and post-war division of Germany, USSR also occupied and annexed Carpathian Ruthenia from Czechoslovakia in 1945. Poland was the first country to be occupied by the Soviet Union during the World War II, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact stipulated Poland to be split between Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In 1944–1947, over a million Poles were resettled from the territories into Poland. Soviet troops were stationed in Poland from 1945 till 1993, other scholars date the Soviet occupation till 1989. The Polish Government in Exile existed until 1990, after existing as independent countries for twenty years, the Baltic states were occupied and illegally annexed in June 1940. In the case of refusal, the USSR effected an air and naval blockade, the military forces overtook the political systems of these countries and installed puppet regimes after rigged elections in June 1940. The sovietisation was interrupted by the German occupation in 1941–1944, the Baltic Offensive re-established the Soviet control in 1944–1945, and resumed sovietisation, mostly completed by 1950. The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947, and was completed after the deportation in March 1949. Private farms were confiscated, and farmers were made to join the collective farms, an armed resistance movement of forest brothers was active until the mid-1950s. Hundreds of thousands participated or supported the movement, tens of thousands were killed, the Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers also suffered hundreds of deaths. Some innocent civilians were killed on both sides, in addition, a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active. Most of their members were sentenced to terms of imprisonment. The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalins death in 1953, from 1956–58, during the occupation, the Soviet authorities killed, politically arrested, unlawfully drafted, and deported hundreds of thousands of people. Numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period, furthermore, trying to enforce the ideals of Communism, the authorities deliberately dismantled the existing social and economic structures, and imposed new ideologically pure hierarchies. This severely retarded the Baltic economies, for example, Estonian scientists have estimated economic damages directly attributable to the post-World War II occupation to hundreds of billions of US dollars. The Soviet environmental damage to Estonia is estimated to about $4 billion, in addition to direct damages, the retarded economy led to severe inequality within the Northern Europe. After all, the attempt to integrate the Estonian society into the Soviet system failed, although the armed resistance was defeated, the population remained anti-Soviet

18.
Inner German border
–
The inner German border was the border between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to 1990. Not including the similar and physically separate Berlin Wall, the border was 1,393 kilometres long and it was formally established on 1 July 1945 as the boundary between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of former Nazi Germany. It was patrolled by 50,000 armed East German guards who faced tens of thousands of West German, British and US guards, in the hinterlands behind the border were more than a million North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and Warsaw Pact troops. The border was a manifestation of Winston Churchills metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet. It marked the boundary between two ideological systems – capitalism and communism and it caused widespread economic and social disruption on both sides, East Germans living in the region suffered especially draconian restrictions. The better-known Berlin Wall was a separate, less elaborate. On 9 November 1989, the East German government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall, over the following days, millions of East Germans poured into the West to visit. Little remains of the inner German borders fortifications and its route has been declared part of a European Green Belt linking national parks and nature reserves along the course of the old Iron Curtain from the Arctic Circle to the Black Sea. Museums and memorials along the old border commemorate the division and reunification of Germany and, in some places, the inner German border originated from the Second World War Allies plans to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones. The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the boundaries of 19th-century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the unification of Germany in 1871. Three zones were agreed on, each covering roughly a third of Germanys territories, a British zone in the north-west, an American zone in the south, france was later given a zone in the far west of Germany, carved out of the British and American zones. The division of Germany was put into effect on 1 July 1945, the redeployment of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee to the West to escape the Soviet takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone. The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the Allied Control Council for Germany, cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germanys political and economic future. In May 1949, the three occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany with a freely elected government. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, under communist rule, from the outset, West Germany and the Allies rejected East Germanys legitimacy. The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist/Soviet fait accompli, West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens. East Germans thus had an incentive to move to the West. In the early days of the occupation, the Allies controlled traffic between the zones to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former Nazi officials and intelligence officers

Inner German border
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Border installations at Schlagsdorf
Inner German border
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The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of Nazi Germany, before the present Länder (federal states) were established.
Inner German border
Inner German border

19.
Brain drain
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Human capital flight refers to the emigration of highly skilled or well-educated individuals. Research is mixed as to whether there are net benefits, a gain, or net costs. Benefits and costs might vary per case, geographical, The flight of highly trained individuals and college graduates from their area of residence. Industrial, The movement of skilled workers from one sector of an industry to another. As with other human migration, the environment is often considered to be a key reason for this population shift. At the individual level, family influences, as well as personal preferences, career ambitions and other motivating factors, the term brain drain was coined by the Royal Society to describe the emigration of scientists and technologists to North America from post-war Europe. Another source indicates that this term was first used in the United Kingdom to describe the influx of Indian scientists, there are also other relevant phrases, brain circulation and brain waste. „Brain-drain‟ is a phenomenon where, relative to the remaining population, after all, research indicates that there may be net human capital gains, a brain gain, for the sending country in opportunities for emigration. One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the students of an academy-in-exile may have survived into the ninth century, long enough to facilitate the Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad. After the end of the Catholic reconquest of Spain, the Catholic Monarchs pursued a religiously uniform kingdom, Jews were expelled from the country in 1492. Before that, the Queen had also expelled them from the Kingdom of Andalusia, the war against Turks and North African Moors affected internal policy in the uprising of the Alpujarras and motivated the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609. Despite being a minority group, they were a key part of the farming sector and their departure contributed to economic decline in some regions of Spain. This way, the conservative aristocracy increased its power over economically developed provinces, in 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and declared Protestantism to be illegal in the Edict of Fontainebleau. Many went to the Dutch colony at the Cape, where they were instrumental in establishing a wine industry, at least 10,000 went to Ireland, where they were assimilated into the Protestant minority during the plantations. Many Huguenots and their descendants prospered, henri Basnage de Beauval fled France and settled in the Netherlands, where he became an influential writer and historian. Abel Boyer, another noted writer, settled in London and became a tutor to the British Royal Family, henry Fourdrinier, the descendant of Huguenot settlers in England, founded the modern paper industry. Augustin Courtauld fled to England, settling in Essex and established a dynasty founded the British silk industry. Noted Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer was born in Geneva to Huguenot refugees, sir John Houblon, the first Governor of the Bank of England, was born into a Huguenot family in London

Brain drain
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Theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, who emigrated to the United States to escape Nazi persecution, is an example of human capital flight as a result of political change.
Brain drain
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Berlin Wall in 1975

20.
Nikita Khrushchev
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Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, Khrushchevs party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar, with the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalins purges, and approved thousands of arrests, in 1938, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was again a commissar, Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalins close advisers, in the power struggle triggered by Stalins death in 1953, Khrushchev, after several years, emerged victorious. On 25 February 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the Secret Speech, denouncing Stalins purges and his domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for defense, Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, Khrushchevs rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War, flaws in Khrushchevs policies eroded his popularity and emboldened potential opponents, who quietly rose in strength and deposed the premier in October 1964. However, he did not suffer the fate of previous losers of Soviet power struggles, and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970, Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease. Khrushchev was born on 15 April 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in what is now Russias Kursk Oblast and his parents, Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva, were poor peasants of Russian origin, and had a daughter two years Nikitas junior, Irina. Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine, working as a railwayman, as a miner, and laboring in a brick factory. Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region, Kalinovka was a peasant village, Khrushchevs teacher, Lydia Shevchenko, later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been. Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age and he was schooled for a total of four years, part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenkos tutelage in Kalinovkas state school. She urged Nikita to seek education, but family finances did not permit this. In 1908, Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka, fourteen-year-old Nikita followed later that year, while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after

21.
Dwight Eisenhower
–
Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn

Dwight Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight Eisenhower
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The Eisenhower family home, Abilene, Kansas.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (2nd from left) and Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the 1912 West Point football team.
Dwight Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (far right) with three unidentified people in 1919, four years after graduating from West Point.

22.
1960 U-2 incident
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Powers parachuted safely and was captured. The U-2 flew at altitudes that could not be reached by Soviet fighter jets of the era, a facility established in Badaber,10 miles from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency. Badaber was an excellent location because of its proximity to Soviet central Asia and this enabled the monitoring of missile test sites, key infrastructure and communications. The U-2 spy-in-the-sky was allowed to use the Pakistan Air Force portion of Peshawar Airport to gain photo intelligence in an era before satellite observation. At a time like the Cold War, any act of aggression could spark open conflict between the two countries, with the United Kingdom still reeling from the aftermath of the Suez Crisis and in no position to snub American requests, the British government was amenable to the proposal. The final two missions before the summit were to be flown by American pilots, the U-2 left Soviet air space and landed at an Iranian airstrip at Zahedan. It was clear that the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency had successfully performed an extraordinary intelligence operation. The next flight of the U-2 spyplane from Peshawar airport was planned for late April, Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport, a US Air Force C-130 followed, carrying the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Gary Powers, and the back up pilot, Bob Ericson. On the morning of 29 April, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed one day, as a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one day further because of bad weather over the Soviet Union, at the time, the USSR had six ICBM launch pads, two at Baikonur and four at Plesetsk. Mayak, then named Chelyabinsk-65, an important industrial center of plutonium processing, was another of the targets that Powers was to photograph. A close study of Powerss account of the shows that one of the last targets he overflew. Because of the U-2s extreme operating altitude, Soviet attempts to intercept the plane using fighter aircraft failed. The U-2s course was out of range of several of the nearest SAM sites, the U-2 was eventually brought down near Kosulino, Ural Region, by the first of three SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles fired by a battery commanded by Mikhail Voronov. The SA-2 site had previously identified by the CIA, using photos taken during Vice President Richard Nixons visit to Sverdlovsk the previous summer. Powers bailed out but neglected to disconnect his oxygen hose first and struggled with it until it broke, Powers was captured soon after parachuting safely down onto Russian soil. Powers carried with him a silver dollar which contained a lethal, shellfish-derived saxitoxin-tipped needle

1960 U-2 incident
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A U-2 aircraft similar to the one shot down
1960 U-2 incident
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U-2 "GRAND SLAM" flight plan on 1 May 1960, from CIA publication 'The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance; The U-2 And Oxcart Programs, 1954-1974', declassified 25 June 2013.
1960 U-2 incident
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Part of the U-2 wreckage.
1960 U-2 incident
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U-2 with fictitious NASA markings and serial number at the NASA Flight Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, on 6 May 1960 (NASA photo).

23.
Vienna summit
–
The Vienna summit was a summit meeting held on June 4,1961, in Vienna, Austria, between President John F. Kennedy of the United States and Premier Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union. The leaders of the two superpowers of the Cold War era discussed numerous issues in the relationship between their countries, President John F. Kennedy met the Soviet Premier, Nikita S. Khrushchev, at the Vienna Summit in June 1961. Prior to meeting face-to-face, their contact began when Khrushchev sent Kennedy a message on November 9,1960. ”In a reply message, Kennedy thanked Khrushchev and similar niceties continued until 1961. On February 22,1961, President Kennedy sent Premier Khrushchev a letter stating, “I hope it will be possible, before too long, Kennedy felt “that if he could just sit down with Khrushchev” the two leaders could work out their inter-state conflicts. Yet, Kennedy’s advisors told him not to meet with Khrushchev so soon after Kennedy’s election, the American Ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn E. Thompson, feared that Kennedy misjudged Khrushchev’s personality and intentions. Likewise, Charles Bohlen, a U. S. diplomat, “worried that JFK underrated Khrushchev’s determination to expand world communism. ”Nevertheless, Khrushchev accepted Kennedy’s summit proposal, meanwhile, Cold War rivalries between the two powers escalated in Germany, Laos, and Cuba. The regional conflicts became major items on the Vienna Summit agenda, between 1945 and 1961,2. 7million East Germans emigrated from East Berlin, a part of the German Democratic Republic, to West Berlin. The leader of the GDR, Walter Ulbricht, argued that the number of emigrants leaving East Berlin threatened the existence of the GDR by diminishing its population. In the early months of 1961, Ulbricht pressured Khrushchev to close the border between East and West Berlin, Khrushchev understood Ulbricht’s concern but feared that a potential intervention from Western powers would destabilize East Berlin further. If the USSR rendered complete control of East Berlin to the East German government, then the U. S. could only communicate with and control West Berlin with permission from the East German government. The Berlin Question—whether or not the U. S. would allow the USSR to sign a peace treaty with Berlin—dominated Khrushchev. The signing of a peace treaty with Berlin did not appeal to American policy makers. America felt comfortable with the division of Germany and Berlin itself, a peace treaty threatened the established balance of power and could potentially lead to the United States losing all its influence in East Berlin. A lesser known conflict fuelled controversy at the Vienna Summit as well. “As in Berlin, inherited in Laos a situation aggravated by near-direct armed confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. ”During Eisenhower’s presidency, the U. S. backed a right-winged conservative government in Laos to counter that communist threat of the popular Pathet Lao. In Laos, “the Eisenhower government committed millions of dollars in aid” in order to continue the rule of a pro-American leader, both the Soviets and the Americans knew that a proxy war in Laos drove both countries further into an arms race. Under this context, Khrushchev and Kennedy discussed the Laos situation at length at the Vienna Summit, the American-facilitated Bay of Pigs Invasion of April 1961 also rocked Khrushchev and Kennedy’s relationship. On April 18,1961, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram said, “Mr. President, I send you this message in an hour of alarm

24.
Fallout shelter
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A fallout shelter is an enclosed space specially designed to protect occupants from radioactive debris or fallout resulting from a nuclear explosion. Many such shelters were constructed as civil defense measures during the Cold War, during a nuclear explosion, matter vaporized in the resulting fireball is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive. When this material condenses in the rain, it forms dust, the fallout emits alpha and beta particles, as well as gamma rays. Much of this radioactive material falls to earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation. A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to minimize exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has decayed to a safer level, plans were made, however, to use existing buildings with sturdy below-ground-level basements as makeshift fallout shelters. These buildings were usually placarded with the yellow and black trefoil sign, civilian alarm device was engineered and tested but the program was not viable and was terminated in 1967. In the U. S. in September 1961, under the direction of Steuart L. Pittman, a letter from President Kennedy advising the use of fallout shelters appeared in the September 1961 issue of Life magazine. The former Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries often designed their underground mass-transit and subway tunnels to serve as bomb, germany has protected shelters for 3% of its population, Austria for 30%, Finland for 70%, Sweden for 81% and Switzerland for 114%. Later, the law ensured that all buildings built after 1978 contained a nuclear shelter able to withstand a blast from a 12 megaton explosion at a distance of 700 metres. The Federal Law on the Protection of the Population and Civil Protection still requires nowadays that every inhabitant should have a place in a close to where they live. The Swiss authorities also maintain large communal shelters stocked with four months of food. The reference Nuclear War Survival Skills declared that, as of 1986, Switzerland has the best civil defense system, one that already includes blast shelters for over 85 percent of all its citizens. In Switzerland, most residential shelters are no longer stocked with the food and water required for prolonged habitation, but the owner still has the obligation to ensure the maintenance of the shelter. A basic fallout shelter consists of shields that reduce gamma ray exposure by a factor of 1000, the required shielding can be accomplished with 10 times the thickness of any quantity of material capable of cutting gamma ray exposure in half. Shields that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% include 1 cm of lead,6 cm of concrete,9 cm of packed earth or 150 m of air, when multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. Thus, a practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of packed earth, usually, an expedient purpose-built fallout shelter is a trench, with a strong roof buried by c.1 m of earth. The two ends of the trench have ramps or entrances at right angles to the trench, so that gamma rays cannot enter, to make the overburden waterproof, a plastic sheet may be buried a few inches below the surface and held down with rocks or bricks. Blast doors are designed to absorb the shock wave of a nuclear blast, bending, dry earth is a reasonably good thermal insulator, and over several weeks of habitation, a shelter will become dangerously hot

Fallout shelter
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A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in New York City.
Fallout shelter
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Nuclear weapons
Fallout shelter
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The Sonnenberg Tunnel, in Switzerland, was the world's largest civilian nuclear fallout shelter, designed to protect 20,000 civilians in the eventuality of war or disaster (civil defense function abandoned in 2006).
Fallout shelter
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Concrete door of a public fallout shelter in Switzerland (2014).

25.
Sochi
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Sochi is a city in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, located on the Black Sea coast near the border between Georgia/Abkhazia and Russia. The area of the city proper is 176.77 square kilometers, according to the 2010 Census, the city had a permanent population of 343,334, up from 328,809 recorded in the 2002 Census, making it Russias largest resort city. Being part of the Caucasian Riviera, it is one of the few places in Russia with a subtropical climate, with warm to hot summers. It will also be one of the host cities for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Greater Sochi is elongated along the Black Sea coast for 145 kilometers. Sochi is in the north of Western Asia, falling on the side of the Greater Caucasus. Sochi is approximately 1,603 kilometers from Moscow, from the southwest, it is bordered by the Black Sea. The vast majority of the population of Sochi lives in a strip along the coast and is organized in independent microdistricts. The biggest of these microdistricts, from the northwest to the southeast, are Lazarevskoye, Loo, Dagomys, central Sochi, Khosta, Matsesta, the whole city is located on the slopes of the Western Caucasus which descend to the Black Sea and are cut by the rivers. The biggest rivers in Sochi are the Mzymta, which is in fact the longest Black Sea tributary in Russia, other rivers include the Ashe, the Psezuapse, the Sochi, the Khosta, and the Matsesta. The Psou River makes the border with Abkhazia, the northeastern part of the city belongs to the Caucasian Biosphere Reserve which is a World Heritage Site spanning vast areas in Krasnodar Krai and Adygea. Almost the whole area of the Greater Sochi, with the exception of the coast, Sochi has a humid subtropical climate with mild winters in the period from December to March and warm summers in the period from May to October. From the 6th to the 11th centuries, the area belonged to the kingdom of Lazica. The Christian settlements along the coast were destroyed by the invading Göktürks, Khazars, Mongols, the northern wall of an 11th-century Byzantine basilica still stands in the Loo Microdistrict. Provision of weapons and ammunition from abroad to the Circassians caused a conflict between the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom that occurred in 1836 over the mission of the Vixen. The Russians had no detailed knowledge of the area until Baron Feodor Tornau investigated the route from Gelendzhik to Gagra. At the outbreak of the Crimean War, the garrison was evacuated from Navaginsky in order to prevent its capture by the Turks, who effected a landing on Cape Adler soon after. The last battle of the Caucasian War took place at the Godlikh river on March 18,1864 O. S. where the Ubykhs were defeated by the Dakhovsky regiment of the Russian Army. On March 25,1864, the Dakhovsky fort was established on the site of the Navaginsky fort, the end of Caucasian War was proclaimed at Kbaade tract on June 2,1864, by the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II read aloud by Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia

26.
Walter Ulbricht
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Walter Ernst Paul Ulbricht was a German Communist politician. Ulbricht played a role in the creation of the Weimar-era Communist Party of Germany. As the First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party 1950 to 1971, from President Wilhelm Piecks death in 1960, he was also the East German head of state until his own death in 1973. He followed Stalins guidelines very closely, and made sure everyone else in East Germany did so as well. Ulbricht was born in Leipzig, Saxony, to Pauline Ida and Ernst August Ulbricht and he spent eight years in primary school. After leaving school, he trained to be a joiner, both his parents worked actively for the Social Democratic Party, which Walter joined in 1912. Ulbricht served in World War I from 1915 to 1917 in Galicia on the Eastern Front and he deserted in 1918, as he had opposed the war from the beginning. Imprisoned in Charleroi, in 1918 he was released as part of the collapse of Imperial Germany, in 1917 he became a member of the Independent Social Democratic Party after it split off from the Social Democratic Party over support of Germanys participation in World War I. During the German Revolution, he became a member of the soviet of his army corps. Along with the bulk of the USPD, he joined the KPD in 1920 and he rose fast in the ranks of the KPD, becoming a member of the Central Committee in 1923. Ulbricht attended the International Lenin School of the Comintern in Moscow in 1924/1925, the electors subsequently voted him into the regional parliament of Saxony in 1926. He became a Member of the Reichstag for South Westphalia from 1928 to 1933 and served as KPD chairman in Berlin, in the years before the 1933 Nazi election to power, paramilitary wings of Marxist and extreme nationalist parties provoked massive riots connected with demonstrations. Besides the Berlin Police, the KPDs arch-enemies were street-fighters affiliated with the Nazi Party, the Monarchist German National Peoples Party, and radical nationalist parties. The Social Democratic Party of Germany, which dominated local and national politics from 1918-1931, for this reason, the Comintern ordered the KPD to cooperate with the Nazis against the SPD. At an event arranged by the Nazi Party in January 1931, Ulbricht was allowed by Joseph Goebbels, subsequently, Goebbels delivered his own speech. The attempt at a friendly discussion turned hostile, and a struggle between Nazis and Communists began, police officers divided them, both sides had tried to use this event for their election propaganda. The Nazi Party attained power in Germany in January 1933, and very quickly began a purge of Communist, following the arrest of the KPDs leader, Ernst Thälmann, Ulbricht campaigned to be Thälmanns replacement as head of the Party. Many competitors for the leadership were killed in the Soviet Union because of Ulbricht, Ulbricht lived in exile in Paris and Prague from 1933 to 1937

27.
Staatsrat
–
The State Council, was the collective head of state that governed East Germany, from 1960 to 1990. However, from the start the East German government was controlled by the SED. When Wilhelm Pieck died on 7 September 1960, the head of state was reshaped along those lines, the constitution was amended on 12 September 1960 by the Law concerning the formation of the State Council, which created a collective body in place of the presidency. The same constitutional amendment also acknowledged the role of the recently formed National Defense Council in GDR defense policy, the State Council remained virtually unchanged in the 1968 constitution and amendments of 1974. The State Council was elected by the Peoples Chamber, the East German parliament and its term was originally four years, but was later changed to five years. The body consisted of a chairman, several deputy chairmen, further members, members were taken from the political parties and mass organizations affiliated to the SED-controlled National Front. Occasionally an otherwise prominent citizen was also included, outside of East Germany, the chairmans post was reckoned as being equivalent to that of president. The diplomatic role of head of state solely rested with the chairman, both the bodys legislative powers and the chairmans special diplomatic status were formally abolished in 1974. Though the Council formally exercised its functions collectively, it was dominated by its chairman, in contrast, the predecessor post of president was a relatively weak position. However, the body had some importance as an advisory and decision-making body under Walter Ulbricht, when Ulbricht lost power in the early 1970s, the body was reduced to a ceremonial role. The 1974 amendments reflected this development, when Honecker became chairman in 1976, the secretariat of the State Council was of some practical importance as its approximately 200 employees since 1961 dealt with citizens petitions. Authorities in government and economics were obliged to cooperate with the secretariat on this, to mark the end of the SEDs monopoly on power, LDPD leader Manfred Gerlach was elected chairman. However, the body ceased to be of importance and merely oversaw the transition to the parliamentary elections of March 1990. The new Peoples Chamber, the first that emerged from free elections, among its first measures was an amendment to the constitution abolishing the State Council. As provided in the constitution, the president of the Peoples Chamber, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl, served as interim head of state until reunification with West Germany on 3 October

Staatsrat
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State Council Building, East Berlin.
Staatsrat
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Session of the State Council, 25 June 1981.

28.
Signals intelligence
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Signals intelligence is intelligence-gathering by interception of signals, whether communications between people or from electronic signals not directly used in communication. Signals intelligence is a subset of intelligence collection management, as sensitive information is often encrypted, signals intelligence in turn involves the use of cryptanalysis to decipher the messages. Traffic analysis—the study of who is signaling whom and in what quantity—is also used to derive information, electronic interception appeared as early as 1900, during the Boer War of 1899-1902. The British Royal Navy had installed wireless sets produced by Marconi on board their ships in the late 1890s, the Boers captured some wireless sets and used them to make vital transmissions. Since the British were the only people transmitting at the time, the birth of signals intelligence in a modern sense dates from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Over the course of the First World War, the new method of signals intelligence reached maturity, in 1918, French intercept personnel captured a message written in the new ADFGVX cipher, which was cryptanalyzed by Georges Painvin. This gave the Allies advance warning of the German 1918 Spring offensive, the British in particular built up great expertise in the newly emerging field of signals intelligence and codebreaking. On the declaration of war, Britain cut all German undersea cables and this forced the Germans to use either a telegraph line that connected through the British network and could be tapped, or through radio which the British could then intercept. Rear-Admiral Henry Oliver appointed Sir Alfred Ewing to establish an interception and decryption service at the Admiralty, an interception service known as Y service, together with the post office and Marconi stations grew rapidly to the point where the British could intercept almost all official German messages. The German fleet was in the each day of wirelessing the exact position of each ship. Whenever a change to the pattern was seen, it immediately signalled that some operation was about to take place. Detailed information about submarine movements was also available, the use of radio receiving equipment to pinpoint the location of the transmitter was also developed during the war. Captain H. J. Round working for Marconi, began carrying out experiments with direction finding equipment for the army in France in 1915. By May 1915, the Admiralty was able to track German submarines crossing the North Sea, some of these stations also acted as Y stations to collect German messages, but a new section was created within Room 40 to plot the positions of ships from the directional reports. Room 40 played an important role in naval engagements during the war. The battle of Dogger Bank was won in no small part due to the intercepts that allowed the Navy to position its ships in the right place. It played a role in subsequent naval clashes, including at the Battle of Jutland as the British fleet was sent out to intercept them. The direction-finding capability allowed for the tracking and location of German ships, submarines, however its most astonishing success was in decrypting the Zimmermann Telegram, a telegram from the German Foreign Office sent via Washington to its ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt in Mexico

Signals intelligence
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RAF Menwith Hill, a large site in the United Kingdom, part of ECHELON and the UKUSA Agreement. (2005)
Signals intelligence
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The last German message intercepted by the British during World War II, signaling Germany's unconditional surrender
Signals intelligence
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Zimmermann telegram, as decoded by Room 40 in 1917.
Signals intelligence
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A Mark 2 Colossus computer. The ten Colossi were the world's first programmable electronic computers, and were built to break the German codes.

29.
Checkpoint Charlie
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Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West, Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany and it is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin. By the early 1950s, the Soviet method of restricting emigration was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, however, in occupied Germany, until 1952, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones remained easily crossed in most places. Consequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed and a fence erected. Accordingly, Berlin became the route by which East Germans left for the West. Hence the Berlin sector border was essentially a loophole through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape, the 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. The emigrants tended to be young and well educated, the loss was disproportionately great among professionals — engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers. The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility, between 1949 and 1961, over 2½ million East Germans fled to the West. The numbers increased during the three years before the Berlin Wall was erected, with 144,000 in 1959,199,000 in 1960 and 207,000 in the first seven months of 1961 alone, the East German economy suffered accordingly. On August 13,1961, a barrier that would become the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin was erected by the East Germans. Two days later, police and army began to construct a more permanent concrete wall. Along with the wall, the 830 mile zonal border became 3, Checkpoint Charlie was a crossing point in the Berlin Wall located at the junction of Friedrichstraße with Zimmerstraße and Mauerstraße. It is in the Friedrichstadt neighborhood, Checkpoint Charlie was designated as the single crossing point for foreigners and members of the Allied forces. The Soviets simply called it the Friedrichstraße Crossing Point, the East Germans referred officially to Checkpoint Charlie as the Grenzübergangsstelle Friedrich-/Zimmerstraße. As the most visible Berlin Wall checkpoint, Checkpoint Charlie is frequently featured in spy movies, a famous cafe and viewing place for Allied officials, armed forces and visitors alike, Cafe Adler, is situated right on the checkpoint. It was an excellent viewing point to look into East Berlin while having something to eat and their reason was that they did not consider the inner Berlin sector boundary an international border and did not treat it as such. Soon after the construction of the Berlin Wall, a standoff occurred between U. S. and Soviet tanks on either side of Checkpoint Charlie, by October 27,10 Soviet and an equal number of American tanks stood 100 yards apart on either side of the checkpoint

Checkpoint Charlie
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A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector
Checkpoint Charlie
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Checkpoint Charlie in 1986
Checkpoint Charlie
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Replica of the famous sign at the former East–West Berlin border
Checkpoint Charlie
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Berlin Wall 1975

30.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

31.
Potsdam Conference
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The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, the three powers were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill and, later, Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. The goals of the conference included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaty issues. In the five months since the Yalta Conference, a number of changes had taken place which would affect the relationships between the leaders. Firstly, the Soviet Union was occupying Central and Eastern Europe, by July, the Red Army effectively controlled the Baltic states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and fearing a Stalinist take-over, refugees were fleeing from these countries. Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland and he insisted that his control of Eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks and claimed that it was a legitimate sphere of Soviet influence. Secondly, Britain had a new Prime Minister, a general election was held in the UK on 5 July, the results of which became known during the conference, with a Labour Party majority, Labour leader Clement Attlee became the new Prime Minister. During the war and in the name of Allied unity, Roosevelt had brushed off warnings of a potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship in part of Europe, while inexperienced in foreign affairs, Truman had closely followed the allied progress of the war. With the end of the war, the priority of allied unity was replaced with a new challenge, the two leading powers continued to sustain a cordial relationship to the public but suspicions and distrust lingered between them. As the suspicion grew between the two rising powers, Stalin proposed that America will use their advantage and success in order to entices other nations into expanding their U. S. policies. Truman became much more suspicious of communist moves than Roosevelt had been, Truman and his advisers saw Soviet actions in Eastern Europe as aggressive expansionism which was incompatible with the agreements Stalin had committed to at Yalta the previous February. However, the Potsdam Conference marks the first and only time Truman would ever meet Stalin in person, at the end of the conference, the three Heads of Government agreed on the following actions. All other issues were to be answered by the peace conference to be called as soon as possible. Allied Chiefs of Staff at the Potsdam Conference decided to temporarily partition Vietnam at the 16th parallel for the purposes of operational convenience. It was agreed that British forces would take the surrender of Japanese forces in Saigon for the half of Indochina. The Allies issued a statement of aims of their occupation of Germany, Germany and Austria were to be divided respectively into four occupation zones, and similarly each capital, Berlin and Vienna, was to be divided into four zones. It was agreed that the Nazi war criminals would be put to trial, all German annexations in Europe were to be reversed, including Sudetenland, Alsace-Lorraine, Austria, and the westernmost parts of Poland. Germanys eastern border was to be shifted westwards to the Oder–Neisse line, the territories east of the new border comprised East Prussia, Silesia, West Prussia, and two thirds of Pomerania

32.
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate is an 18th-century neoclassical monument in Berlin, and one of the best-known landmarks of Germany. It is built on the site of a city gate that marked the start of the road from Berlin to the town of Brandenburg an der Havel. It is located in the part of the city centre of Berlin within Mitte, at the junction of Unter den Linden and Ebertstraße. One block to the stands the Reichstag building, which houses the German parliament. The gate is the entry to Unter den Linden, the renowned boulevard of linden trees. It was commissioned by King Frederick William II of Prussia as a sign of peace, having suffered considerable damage in World War II, the Brandenburg Gate was restored from 2000 to 2002 by the Stiftung Denkmalschutz Berlin. During the post-war Partition of Germany, the gate was isolated, the area around the gate was featured most prominently in the media coverage of the tearing down of the wall in 1989, and the subsequent German reunification in 1990. Georgen Tor, Stralower Tor, Cöpenicker Tor, Neues Tor, relative peace, a policy of religious tolerance, and status as capital of the Kingdom of Prussia facilitated the growth of the city. The Brandenburg Gate was not part of the old fortifications, but one of 18 gates within the Berlin Customs Wall, erected in the 1730s, including the old fortified city, the new gate was commissioned by Frederick William II of Prussia to represent peace. The gate consists of twelve Doric columns, six to each side, citizens originally were allowed to use only the outermost two on each side. Atop the gate is a Quadriga, a chariot drawn by four horses, the new gate was originally named the Peace Gate and the goddess is Eirene, the goddess of peace. The gates design is based upon the Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the gate was the first element of Athens on the River Spree by architect Langhans. The Brandenburg Gate has played different political roles in German history, after the 1806 Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon was the first to use the Brandenburg Gate for a triumphal procession, and took its Quadriga to Paris. After Napoleons defeat in 1814 and the Prussian occupation of Paris by General Ernst von Pfuel, the Quadriga faces east, as it did when it was originally installed in 1793. Only the royal family was allowed to pass through the archway, as well as members of the Pfuel family. The Kaiser granted this honour to the family in gratitude to Ernst von Pfuel, in addition, the central archway was also used by the coaches of ambassadors on the single occasion of their presenting their letters of credence to council. When the Nazis ascended to power, they used the gate as a party symbol, the gate survived World War II and was one of the damaged structures still standing in the Pariser Platz ruins in 1945. The gate was damaged with holes in the columns from bullets

Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate
Brandenburg Gate
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate quadriga at night
Brandenburg Gate
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Berlin in 1688: The future site of the Brandenburg gate was near the middle left of the map, separating the Tiergarten from Unter den Linden. Travellers going west from the city toward Brandenburg an der Havel could pass in this direction.

33.
Willy Brandt
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He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930. Brandt was originally considered one of the leaders of the wing of the SPD. He served as Foreign Minister and as Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesingers cabinet, Brandt was controversial on both the right wing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his support of American policies, including the Vietnam War, and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Report became a measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt was also known for his fierce anti-communist policies at the domestic level, Brandt resigned as chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service. Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck on 18 December 1913 and his mother was Martha Frahm, a single parent, who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met, as his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mothers stepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora. After passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck, he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and he joined the Socialist Youth in 1929 and the Social Democratic Party in 1930. He left the SPD to join the left wing Socialist Workers Party, which was allied to the POUM in Spain. In 1933, using his connections with the port and its ships and it was at this time that he adopted the pseudonym Willy Brandt to avoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part in the founding of the International Bureau of Revolutionary Youth Organizations, Brandt was in Germany from September to December 1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gunnar Gaasland. The real Gunnar Gaasland was married to Gertrud Meyer from Lübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her from deportation, Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July 1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked in Spain as a journalist, in 1938, the German government revoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian citizenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occupying German forces, on his release, he escaped to neutral Sweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citizen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian legation in Stockholm, in exile in Norway and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish. Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a relationship with Norway. In late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for the Norwegian government, in 1948, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany and became a German citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym Willy Brandt as his legal name. In 1950, Brandt, being a member of the federal parliament, being confronted with this during his life, Brandt always denied

34.
Konrad Adenauer
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Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer was a German statesman who served as the first post-war Chancellor of Germany from 1949 to 1963. He led his country from the ruins of World War II to a productive and prosperous nation that forged close relations with France, the United Kingdom, during his years in power West Germany achieved democracy, stability, international respect and economic prosperity. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union, a Christian Democratic party that under his leadership became one of the most influential parties in the country, Adenauer, the Chancellor till age 87 was dubbed Der Alte. British historian Roy Jenkins says he was the oldest statesman ever to function in elected office and he belied his age by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a vision of market-based liberal democracy. A shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and he worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction of World War II to a central position in Europe, presiding over the German Economic Miracle. He reestablished the German military in 1955 and he came to terms with France, which made possible the economic unification of Western Europe. Adenauer opposed rival East Germany and made his nation a member of NATO, a devout Roman Catholic, he had been a leading Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, serving as Mayor of Cologne and as president of the Prussian State Council. Konrad Adenauer was born as the third of five children of Johann Konrad Adenauer and his wife Helene in Cologne, Rhenish Prussia and his siblings were August, Johannes, Lilli and Elisabeth, who died shortly after birth in c. In 1894, he completed his Abitur and began studying law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich and Bonn. In 1896, at the age of 20, he was conscripted into the German army and he was a member of several Roman Catholic students associations under the K. St. V. He graduated in 1900 and afterwards worked as a lawyer at the court in Cologne and he was strongly interested in the use of medicinal herbs, according to famous French herbalist Maurice Messugue, whom he met and befriended. These were his favorite medicinal plants according to Messugue, though he had knowledge of a wide range of plants. He agreed with Messugue that plants had to be free of sprays and he told Messugue that he owed his good health to the plants, to nature. Adenauer found relaxation and great enjoyment in the Italian game of bocce, as a devout Catholic, he joined the Centre Party in 1906 and was elected to Colognes city council in the same year. In 1909, he became Vice-Mayor of Cologne, a metropolis with a population of 635,000 in 1914. From 1917 to 1933, he served as Mayor of Cologne, Adenauer headed Cologne during World War I, working closely with the army to maximize the citys role as a rear base of supply and transportation for the Western Front. He paid special attention to the food supply, enabling the residents to avoid the worst of the severe shortages that beset most German cities during 1918–19

Konrad Adenauer
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Konrad Adenauer
Konrad Adenauer
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Cöln Notgeld Banknote 10 Pfennig 1918, signed by Mayor Konrad Adenauer, on the reverse the historical town hall of Cologne (Rathaus).
Konrad Adenauer
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In Wilhelmshaven in 1928, when a new cruiser was given the name of Adenauer's (centre, with left hand visible) town Köln
Konrad Adenauer
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Heinrich Hoerle: Zeitgenossen (contemporaries). An expressionist painting with mayor Adenauer (in grey) together with artists and a boxer.

35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

36.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions

37.
German reunification
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The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies

38.
White Crosses
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White Crosses is a memorial for those who died during the Cold War at the Berlin Wall. It is located at the shore of the river Spree in Berlin next to the Reichstag building, which houses the German parliament. Established by the private group Berliner Bürger-Verein on the 10th anniversary of the Berlin Wall in 1971 it was first located east of the Reichstag on a fence directly in front of the wall. During construction the memorial was moved to a location south of the Reichstag next to the Tiergarten, on the 50th anniversary of the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany a second set of crosses was erected on the riverbank, which is slightly north-west of the original location. The opening speech was given by then President of the Bundestag Wolfgang Thierse, the names of 13 victims are inscribed on both sides of the 7 crosses. One cross is devoted to the victims of the wall. The selection contains the first and last victim who were killed by gunfire, most of the victims died between 1961 and 1965

White Crosses
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The „White Crosses“
White Crosses
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The original memorial with Berlin Wall in the background, 1990

39.
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
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The Checkpoint Charlie Museum is a museum in Berlin. It is named after the crossing point on the Berlin Wall. On display are the photos and related documents of successful escape attempts from East Germany, together with the apparatus, hot-air balloons, getaway cars, chairlifts. It began as an exhibition by human rights activist Dr. Rainer Hildebrandt on 19 October 1962, just outside the Berlin Wall, the street was divided along its whole length, the buildings in the east had been vacated and their windows were bricked up. The Haus am Checkpoint Charlie opened in its present location in 1963, the museum is operated by the Arbeitsgemeinschaft 13. August, and the director is Alexandra Hildebrandt, widow of Rainer and it is one of the most frequently visited museums in Berlin, with 850,000 visitors in 2007. Through its presentation of the ways in which people tried to escape East Germany, it aims to bring that period of history to life. While some considered this public exhibit to be appropriate, others considered it a form of cheap populism, the following year, the crosses which made up the memorial were removed, following a court order enacted by the owner of the site. In 2008, the museum gave the number of people killed up until 1989 on the Berlin Wall. The aim was to document the best border security system in the world, further exhibitions followed,1973, Artists interpret THE WALL,1976, BERLIN – from a front-line city to Europes bridge,1984, FROM GANDHI TO WALESA – non-violent struggle for human rights. Original objects from successful escapes demonstrate the courage and creativity of the escapees, the exhibition presents the history of both parts of the divided city – their contrasts and similarities – from the end of World War II onward. Further stages in the show the building of the Wall, the Four Power Agreement, the 750th anniversary celebrations. Checkpoint Charlie was the border crossing between East and West. In October 1961 American and Russian tanks engage in a following the USAs intervention to defend the fundamental rights of Berlins occupying powers. Again and again Checkpoint Charlie is the scene of demonstrations, escape attempts are either successful or fail just in front of the white borderline. On 17 August 1962, Peter Fechter bleeds to death before the eyes of the world. Finally, on 22 June 1990, in the presence of the ministers of the four victorious powers of World War II. In 2007, the Museum created a new permanent exhibition on the history of NATO, in the run-up to the opening of the exhibition Charles C

40.
Chapel of Reconciliation
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The Chapel of Reconciliation stands on the site of the old Church of Reconciliation, on Bernauer Straße in the Mitte district of Berlin. The church was completed in 1894 as an imposing brick-built building by the architect Gotthilf Ludwig Möckel and it received some damage in the Second World War, and still had a deactivated American bomb in the basement discovered during the reconstruction in 1999, but the church survived the war. With the Division of Berlin in 1945, the building found itself within the Soviet sector. Four years later in 1989, the Wall fell, in the summer of 1990 the removal of the border fortifications began, leaving the land where the Church of Reconciliation had once stood overgrown with grass and shrubs. The result was to build a chapel on the site, a construction that considered ecological and historical concerns as well as the needs of its parishioners. The Berlin architects Rudolf Reitermann and Peter Sassenroth were commissioned to design the chapel, the chapel was constructed in 1999 under the leadership of the Austrian clay artist Martin Rauch. Volunteers from Open Houses came from fourteen eastern and western European countries to support the building project, to construct the walls,30 cm of moist clay was put into position and then compressed by 8 cm, giving the wall’s structure its strength. Within the clay, pieces of stone and even glass are visible and it is the first clay-built public building to be built for over 150 years in Germany and the first clay-built German church. On the 9th November 2000, on the anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The chapel unites architectural and ecological modernity with remembrance, standing as a triumph against its predecessors destruction. The chapel also has a replica of Coventry Cathedral’s Statue of Reconciliation, after helping with the construction, Open Houses has continued its involvement with the chapel. Every year volunteers from around the work at the chapel. List of deaths at the Berlin Wall Official website openhouses. de

Chapel of Reconciliation
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The present-day Chapel of Reconciliation: exterior
Chapel of Reconciliation
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View from within the outer chapel wall
Chapel of Reconciliation
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The Church of Reconciliation, pictured in 1899
Chapel of Reconciliation
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The Church as it appeared in 1978

41.
Checkpoint Bravo
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Drewitz is a community nearby, and Dreilinden is the name of the wooded area in Berlin through which the highway passes. The checkpoint was located on the motorway A115, between the Berliner locality of Nikolassee and the Brandenburger rural community of Drewitz, part of the municipality of Kleinmachnow, the new checkpoint was relocated to Nikolassee. The site of the original, pre-1969 checkpoint was used in filming the Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei television series, the site itself, which includes a derelict bridge and a crumbling cafe covered in graffiti, was auctioned in September 2010 for €45,000. The vast site of the East-German checkpoint was eventually converted into a park named Europarc Dreilinden. All that remains of the checkpoint is the main control tower that now houses a museum of the checkpoint. Berlin border crossings Checkpoint Alpha Checkpoint Charlie British Garrison Berlin 1945 -1994, No where to go, W. Durie ISBN 978-3-86408-068-5 Checkpoint Bravo official website

Checkpoint Bravo
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Bridge building of former Checkpoint Bravo at Berlin Dreilinden-Drewitz. Road photographed from A 115, view from north
Checkpoint Bravo
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Map showing the Berlin border and its crossing points
Checkpoint Bravo
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Congestion at the East German checkpoint in Drewitz in March 1972 after the temporary easing of travel restrictions into East Germany.

42.
Glienicke Bridge
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The Glienicke Bridge is a bridge across the Havel River in Germany, connecting the Wannsee district of Berlin with the Brandenburg capital Potsdam. It is named after nearby Glienicke Palace, the current bridge, the fourth on the site, was completed in 1907, although major reconstruction was necessary after it was damaged during World War II. The bridge spans the Havel narrows between the Jungfernsee to the north and the Glienicker Lake to the south and it carries the Bundesstraße 1 highway. The Glienicke Palace and Jagdschloss Glienicke are situated near the east end of the bridge, Potsdam tram route 93 from Potsdam main station and Berlin bus route 316 from Wannsee station terminate and interconnect at a tram stop on the Potsdam end of the bridge. The respective Potsdam and Wannsee stations are served by the Berlin S-Bahn, a first wooden bridge across the Havel River at this location was built about 1660, in order to reach the hunting grounds around Stolpe. By the early 1800s, a new, non-wooden bridge was needed to accommodate the increase in traffic on the chaussee between the Prussian capital Berlin and the Hohenzollern residence in Potsdam. The architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel designed a brick and wood bascule bridge, in 1904, the Prussian government held a design competition to replace Schinkels bridge with a modern, iron bridge. The Johann Caspar Harkort Company of Duisburg submitted the design. The German film studio UFA shot the film Unter den Brücken at the Glienicke Bridge in 1944 and 1945, at the end of April 1945, an unexploded shell severely damaged the bridge. The reconstruction of the bridge was not completed until 1949, after the establishment of West Germany. The East German government named it the “Bridge of Unity as the border between East Germany and Western Allied-occupied West Berlin ran across the middle of the bridge. During the early years of the Cold War, the bridge was used by the Allies as a link between their Berlin sections and the military liaison missions in Potsdam. German residents of the two cities more frequently used the S-Bahn suburban rail to travel between Berlin and Potsdam, on 27 May 1952, East German authorities closed the bridge to citizens of West Berlin and West Germany. The bridge was closed to East German citizens after the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961, only allied military personnel and foreign diplomats were allowed to access the bridge at any time. By the 1970s, the bridge had outlived its projected lifespan, the cost of these repairs became a focus of a dispute between the government of West Berlin and the government of East Germany. On the evening of 10 November 1989, one day after the opening of the Berlin Wall, border fortifications and barricades were dismantled as a part of German reunification in 1990. Reporters began calling it the Bridge of Spies, when this name was later used as the title for various works, it was often taken to be a pun on bridge of sighs a name applied first to the bridge in Venice and then to others. The first prisoner exchange took place on 10 February 1962, the Americans released Soviet spy Colonel Rudolf Abel in exchange for American spy-plane pilot Francis Gary Powers captured by the USSR following the U-2 Crisis of 1960

43.
List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
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There were numerous deaths at the Berlin Wall, which stood as a barrier between West Berlin and East Germany from 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989. Before the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961,3, between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration. The state-funded Centre for Contemporary History in Potsdam has given the figure of 139 deaths, including people attempting to escape, border guards. However, researchers at the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and some others had estimated the toll to be significantly higher. The escape attempts claimed the lives of a variety of people, from a child as young as one to an 80-year-old woman. After World War II, Berlin had been divided into four sectors controlled by the Allies, the US, the outer border of West Berlin, which was also the border between West-Berlin and the GDR, had also been closed down in 1952. During the first years border fortifications inside the city consisted of brick walls with a top made of barbed wire. Clay bricks and concrete slabs were used for construction, further obstacles of barbed wire and upstate walls delimitated the East and at some places, like Bernauer Straße, bricked-up buildings formed the boundary line. The buildings were situated on East-Berlin territory, whereas the pavement in front of the houses belonged to West-Berlin, in many places safety installations of West-Berlins outer ring consisted of metal fences and barbed wire barriers. Technologically advanced upgrading took place later on and only in 1975 L-shaped concrete segments that were known from the fall of the Wall were added, identifying deaths specifically attributable to the Berlin Wall is not straightforward. Although East Germans were aware of deaths on the Wall from West German media broadcasts which they were able to receive, a number of different West German institutions kept their own records. These included the West Berlin police, the Central Registry of State Judicial Administration in Salzgitter and the Arbeitsgruppe 13 August, within the jurisdiction of the West-Berlin police, the State Security Department was responsible for the registration of known incidents. The records distinguish between individuals who died at the border of West-Berlin, unclear incidents and border guards who were shot. The Central Registry of State Judicial Administrations in Salzgitter, was given a mandate to collect evidence of actual or attempted murder in the GDR. In 1991, it published the Salzgitter-Report with the names of 78 victims, however, since the Registration Agency had no access to the GDR archives, the data was regarded as incomplete. Both agencies mainly listed incidents that could have observed from West-Berlin or had been reported by fugitives or border patrols who left the GDR. After the fall of the Wall, criminal investigations into border killings were launched by the Investigating Agency for Governmental and Party Crimes, each of these institutions used different criteria to count deaths. This list was a pre-inquiry for the departments of Berlin and Neuruppin

List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
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One of many memorials to those who died at the Berlin Wall
List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
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Wreath laying at the 25th anniversary of the Berlin Wall in 1986.
List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
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Wreaths at the 25th anniversary of the Berlin Wall in 1986.
List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
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Monument to the Berlin Wall with part of the concrete wall in the background

44.
Chris Gueffroy
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Chris Gueffroy was the last person to be shot while trying to escape from East Berlin to West Berlin across the Berlin Wall. Chris Gueffroy was born in Viereck, Pasewalk, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern on 21 June 1968 and he had an older brother, Stefan Gueffroy. He moved to Schwedt in 1970, the year that his mother, Karin Gueffroy. Three years later, when he was five years old, he moved to Berlin with his mother, when he was in the third grade, he was sent to the youth sports school SC Dynamo Berlin, based on his gymnastic talent. In September 1985 he began an apprenticeship in the Schönefeld airport restaurant near Berlin after which he worked in a number of different restaurants. As a waiter, his income was better than average, and he had a degree of freedom. His friend Christian Gaudian, whom he had met at gastronomy school, in mid-January 1989, upon learning that he was to be conscripted into the National Peoples Army the following May, he and Gaudian decided to leave East Germany. Climbing the last metal lattice fence, the two were discovered and came under fire from the NVA border troops, Gueffroy was hit in the chest by two shots and died in the border strip. In September 1989 Gaudian was freed on bail by the East German government, winfried Freudenberg died in the crash of an improvised balloon aircraft by which he crossed the border into West Berlin on 8 March 1989. The four border guards involved at first obtained an award from the chief of the Grenzkommandos Mitte border guards, Erich Wöllner, however, after the reunification of East and West Germany, they were prosecuted by Berlin regional court. A third border guard, Andreas Kuehnpast, got a suspended sentence of two years, the fourth border guard, Ingo Heinrich, who was responsible for the mortal shot in the heart, was at first sentenced to three and a half years of jail. On appeal, the Bundesgerichtshof in 1994 reduced the penalty to a sentence of two years. The case was retried on 7 August 2004, and the two men were guilty and given suspended sentences of 15 months each. The judge explained that the sentences were due to the length of time since the events. This was the last case concerning deaths on the inner German border, on 21 June 2003, which would have been his 35th birthday, a monument to Gueffroy was erected on the bank of the Britz district canal. The monument was designed by Berlin artist Karl Biedermann, one of the crosses at the White Crosses memorial site next to the Reichstag building is devoted to him. On 13 August 2010 the Britzer Allee between Treptow and Neukölln was renamed Chris-Gueffroy-Allee, short Portrait of Chris Gueffroy at chronik-der-mauer

45.
Marienetta Jirkowsky
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Marienetta Micki Jirkowsky was a German woman killed trying to cross the Berlin Wall. She grew up in Spreenhagen, in Brandenburg, and last lived on Birkenweg 13, Micki, as her friends called her, was a small, free-spirited and fun-loving person. She and her friends really just wanted to live in peace, without any problems and without being forbidden to do anything, during the school year, she had little contact with other students. Instead, during her time, she helped in a retirement home in the neighboring village of Grünheide. She began her Reifenkombinat apprenticeship in 1979, Falko Vogt had been thinking about escaping for a long time. He and Marienetta Jirkowsky met Peter Wiesner together in spring 1980 and he, too, had not adjusted to the conditions in East Germany and had applied a number of times for an exit permit to leave the country. When Marienetta Jirkowsky turned 18, the age of an adult under East German law. They planned to move in together in the fall of 1980 and this decision, however, led to major conflicts with her parents, who were opposed to their relationship, and feared that they were going to lose their only child. To prevent this happening, they succeeded in getting a police order to ban Peter Wiesner from having any contact with their daughter. He was divorced, drank a lot, changed jobs often, prone to violence, after that, the three were just waiting for the right moment to leave East Germany. They planned to flee together on the night of 22 November 1980, in preparation for their escape Peter Wiesner created a folding ladder, which consisted of separate pieces, in his apartment. Numerous newspaper and magazine articles indicated that by this time, Marienetta Jirkowsky was three months pregnant, however, this has not been confirmed by something more reliable, such as an autopsy record from the hospital in Hennigsdorf, or a Stasi report. On 21 November the three young people took a train from Fürstenwalde to East Berlin to look for a place to escape. They agreed that the spot they had checked out was not favorable for an escape. Peter Wiesner was familiar with the border there, from when he had worked nearby as a showman and they arrived at the Hohen Neuendorf S-Bahn station at around 12,30 AM, and worked their way across the property near the border. Contrary to their plan, the three made a spontaneous decision to flee that very night. They did not know that, thanks to this decision, the two men had just barely missed being arrested early the next morning. An informant for the East German secret police, or Stasi, once in position where the escape would be attempted, they used the stepladder to peer over the interior wall and get a look at the border grounds

46.
Dorit Schmiel
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Dorit Schmiel was a German woman who died while trying to cross the Berlin Wall. At the age of 20, she was shot while attempting to escape from East Berlin to West Berlin. Dorit Schmiel was born in 1941 in Berlin during the Second World War and she and her older brother were raised by her mother and step-father in the East Berlin district of Pankow, where she worked as a seamstress in a state-run manufacturing company. Ever since she was a child, she traveled regularly to the part of the city to visit relatives, go shopping, watch movies. The sealing off of the border, and subsequent loss of freedom to visit the west as a painful turning point in her life. By the time she was 20, she had moved in with her fiancé, the group of five decided on a place in the northern part of the city, where Dorits cousin previously escaped. It was past midnight on February 19,1962, a misty and cloudy night, using wire cutters, they cut a hole in the first fence, and one after another, they crawled through the hole, and through the snow, towards the outer border fences. They had almost reached them when border guards noticed them, a bullet hit Dorit Schmiel in the abdomen, causing her to cry out, only then did the guards stop firing and approached the group. The remaining four surrendered, and obeyed the order to stand up, but Schmiel remained on the groud, bleeding profusely, and crying in pain. She was transported to the Krankenhaus der Volkspolizei in Mitte, where she died later that same night, Dorit Schmiel was buried on March 2,1962 in Section 29B of the cemetery known today as Friedhof Pankow III, in Schönholz, Niederschönhausen. Like Friedhof Pankow VII, where the escape took place. Supplementary forces of the Peoples Police virtually sealed off the funeral, as of 2012, her grave no longer exists. The other fugitives were interrogated for hours that same night and they were tried a month later, and indicted for an act that seriously endangered society and which could have endangered peace by inciting provocations from the class enemy. The Pankow district court sentenced them to terms ranging from ten months to two years. Thirty years later, Dorit Schmiel’s friends acted as witnesses and joint plaintiffs in the trial of the three guards who had shot her. It was not possible to determine which guard had fired the shots that killed Dorit Schmiel, christine Brecht, Dorit Schmiel, in, Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer 1961–1989

47.
Ida Siekmann
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Ida Siekmann was the first person to die at the Berlin Wall, only 9 days after the beginning of its construction. Ida Siekmann was born in Gorken near Marienwerder and she had moved to Berlin where she worked as a nurse, and lived at Bernauer Straße 48 in the center of Berlin. She had a sister, Martha L. who lived only a few blocks away, as of August 1961, she was already a widow, it is not known when she was actually widowed. After World War II, Berlin was divided in four Allied sectors, while the street and the sidewalk of the Bernauer Straße lay in the French sector of West Berlin, the frontage of the buildings on the southern side lay in the Soviet sector of East Berlin. Until 13 August 1961, the day the Berlin Wall was built and her sisters apartment was also in the French sector of West Berlin. Immediately after the border between East and West Berlin was closed on 13 August 1961, numerous families and individuals from 50 Bernauer Straße addresses fled to the West. On 18 August 1961, Walter Ulbricht ordered the East German border troops to brick up the entrances and windows on the ground floor of the houses on the southern side of the street. Members of the Combat Groups of the Working Class and police controlled every person who tried to enter the houses, many residents of such tenements still fled to West Berlin, residents of the upper floors were often rescued by jumping-sheets of the West Berlin fire department. On 21 August, the entrance and windows of Bernauer Straße 48 were barred and she fell on the pavement and was severely injured. Siekmann died shortly after on her way to the Lazarus Hospital, Siekmann was buried at the Seestraße cemetery on 29 August, in September a memorial was erected at Bernauer Straße 48. The memorial was often visited by politicians to honour the victims of the Berlin Wall. The houses on the side of Bernauer Straße were torn down in 1963. Hans- Hermann Hertle, Maria Nooke, The deaths at the Berlin Wall 1961 -1989, a biographical handbook / ed. the Centre for Contemporary History Potsdam, links, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-86153-517-1, p

Ida Siekmann
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This photo of Ida Siekmann appeared in the Berlin newspaper "Bild Zeitung" on 23 August 1961, the day following her death
Ida Siekmann
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Ida Siekmann, at the Window of Remembrance, Berlin Wall Memorial, Bernauer Straße (2011)
Ida Siekmann
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Makarios III, President of Cyprus, at the Siekmann memorial (1962)
Ida Siekmann
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Ida Siekmann, at the Urnenfriedhof Seestrasse, Berlin-Wedding (2011)

48.
Heinz Sokolowski
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Heinz Sokolowski was a casualty of the Cold War at the Berlin Wall. Sokolowski was born during the First World War in Frankfurt, following primary school, he apprenticed as a tailor, he then attended a trade school, where he completed his education. He left trade school in order to become a journalist with the Frankfurt Oder Zeitung and he was drafted into the Wehrmacht, and fought in various places, he was also used as a war correspondent. He was captured in Russia and was won over to Communism in an Antifa working group, when Sokolowski returned from captivity in 1946, he moved into the Soviet sector of Berlin, where he worked as a freelance journalist. In the following year, he married and moved with his wife and he worked for the Soviets until his arrest on 12 February 1953. A military tribunal found him guilty of espionage and sentenced him first to twenty years, then to ten, the Soviets handed him over to the German Democratic Republic in 1956, they held him prisoner until 13 February 1963. During this time, he fell ill with tuberculosis, after Sokolowskis release from prison, he worked as an elevator operator in East Berlin. He applied to leave East Germany, but was not approved for emigration and he made contacts in West Berlin in 1964, bringing him to the attention of the Stasi. After his dismissal in May 1965, he began in earnest to plan his escape and that morning, he neared the border by Clara-Zetkin-Straße, which is known today as Dorotheenstraße. A border guard saw him and fired a shot. Other guards opened fire on the refugee, who had by this time reached the last wall, Sokolowski was shot in the abdomen and died of his injuries on the way to the hospital. A three-meter-high cross was erected at the corner of Ebertstraße and Scheidemannstraße on 13 August 1966 in memory of Heinz Sokolowski, inscribed upon this cross are his dates of birth and death and the legend Nach 7 Jahren DDR-Haft erschossen auf der Flucht. Sokolowski is also remembered with a White Cross on the Reichstagufer

49.
Hildegard Trabant
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Hildegard Trabant, née Pohl was a German woman killed trying to cross the Berlin Wall. Hildegard Trabant was born in Berlin and grew up there and she was loyal to the East German regime. At the age of 22, she joined the Socialist Unity Party in 1949, in 1954, she married a Peoples Police officer, who was employed in the passport and registration division. They lived in an apartment complex on Tilsiter Strasse 64, near Frankfurter Tor, possibly facilitating their residence there, she held a managerial position in the Kommunale Wohnungsverwaltung Friedrichshain. Whatever led her to attempt to flee East Germany was probably of a personal nature and she had several large clashes with her husband, which got the attention of his supervisors within the police force. At 6, 50PM on August 18,1964, Hildegard Trabant attempted to cross the border between East and West Berlin and she was discovered by East German border guards and subsequently shot. She died about an hour later at the Krankenhaus der Volkspolizei, in the presence of his superiors, her husband was either unable or unwilling to comment on circumstances which led to her attempted flight from East Germany. Hildegard Trabant was one of eight women killed at the Berlin wall. Further, of all the Berlin Wall victims that were classified as escapees/attempted escapees, Hildegard Trabant was buried on September 23,1964 at the Frieden-Himmelfahrt Cemetery, north of Pankow, in Rosenthal. This period of resting expired in 1984, and this section of the cemetery was rearranged. Her urn is still there, like all urns buried there, but its now under another grave number, previously, her grave number was UH Him - 234a. The new grave number is UH Him - B102, unlike almost all other deaths at the Berlin Wall, Hildegard Trabants death went totally unnoticed in West Berlin. It would be 26 years later when the 1964 East Berlin files were given to the German federal judiciary. After a lengthy trial, Kurt Renner, the guard who shot her, was guilty of manslaughter, and sentenced to one year and nine months in prison

Hildegard Trabant
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Hildegard Trabant
Hildegard Trabant
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Hildegard Trabant's former residence at Richard-Sorge-Strasse 64 (then, Tilsiter Strasse 64), in Berlin-Friedrichshain, taken in 2014
Hildegard Trabant
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Richard-Sorge-Strasse 64, in Berlin. This is the front door to the former residence of Hildegard Trabant, in Berlin-Friedrichshain, taken in 2014
Hildegard Trabant
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Hildegard Trabant's grave at the Friedhof Nordend, in Berlin-Rosenthal. Marked as UH Him - B102, taken in 2014

50.
Conrad Schumann
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Hans Conrad Schumann was an East German soldier who famously defected to West Germany during the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Born in Zschochau, Saxony during the middle of World War II, after three months training in Dresden, he was posted to a non-commissioned officers college in Potsdam, after which he volunteered for service in Berlin. On 15 August 1961, the 19-year-old Schumann was sent to the corner of Ruppiner Straße, at that time and place, the wall was only a single coil of concertina wire. From the other side, West Germans shouted to him, Komm rüber. Schumann jumped over the barbed wire while dropping his PPSh-41 submachine gun and was promptly driven away from the scene by the West Berlin police. West German photographer Peter Leibing photographed Schumanns escape and his picture has since become an iconic image of the Cold War era and featured at the beginning of the 1982 Disney film Night Crossing. The scene, including Schumanns preparations, has also filmed on 16-mm film from the same perspective. Schumann was later permitted to travel from West Berlin to the territory of West Germany. He met his wife Kunigunde in the town of Günzburg, after the fall of the Berlin Wall he said, Only since 9 November 1989 have I felt truly free. Even so, he continued to more at home in Bavaria than in his birthplace, citing old frictions with his former colleagues. On 20 June 1998, suffering from depression, he committed suicide, in May 2011, the photograph of Schumanns leap into freedom was inducted into the UNESCO Memory of the World programme as part of a collection of documents on the fall of the Berlin Wall. In, Wer war wer in der DDR, band 2, Ch. Links, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-86153-561-4

51.
The Tunnel (1962 film)
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Produced by Reuven Frank and narrated by Piers Anderton, it was an NBC White Paper installment that was broadcast on December 10,1962 and sponsored by the Gulf Oil Corporation. The Tunnel earned three Emmy Awards in 1963 and it was the only documentary to receive the award as The Program of the Year. It was also honored for Outstanding Achievement in the Field of Documentary, the Tunnel was the basis for a pair of similarly named German projects which were released just under four decades after the original. One was the 1999 documentary directed by Marcus Vetter, which featured the NBC footage accompanied by accounts from the actual participants. The other was the 2001 television movie directed by Roland Suso Richter. Reluctant to add to global tensions in light of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Kennedy administration had opposed airing the documentary, worried that NBC was increasing tensions between the United States and Russia at the height of the Cold War. Robert Kennedy, the brother and attorney general, was reported to have commented “That was a terrible thing you people did, buying that tunnel. ”Concerns about the ethics of NBCs involvement. Reuven Frank, Producer Who Pioneered TV News Coverage at NBC, Is Dead at 85, The New York Times, Tuesday, Reuven Frank,85, NBC Producer Helped Launch Huntley-Brinkley Show, Los Angeles Times, Tuesday, February 7,2006

The Tunnel (1962 film)
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Main article

52.
The Wall (1962 film)
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The Wall is a 1962 American propaganda film directed by Walter de Hoog about the erection of the Berlin Wall. The documentary begins with a group of German children playing football in a street bordering the Berlin Wall, in the course of the game, the ball is kicked over to the other side. Using raw footage, the chronicles the erection of the wall, civilian efforts to communicate with and assist East German escapees. For a brief time after the wall was built, civilians were able to escape by jumping from the windows of buildings close to the wall. Several such escapes were captured in the film, including one where communist policemen tried to pull a woman back into the room before she fell to the waiting firefighters below. GDR guards are filmed throwing tear gas at civilians on the side of the wall. After a short time, the windows of buildings were bricked up. Trees and houses are shown being razed, lest they be used as escape routes, in the surrounding countryside, more civilians escape, despite the deployment of minefields and barbed wire. Another escapee is seen being injured in the face when she runs into a wire fence. A memorial is shown for others who died trying to escape to West Germany, three minutes of silence are held on the western side to commemorate those lost and killed, and the film ends with a young boy walking alongside the wall. Since the 1960s, the documentary was preserved by the U. S. National Archives. Since the film was deemed a propaganda film, the production could not be released or shown in the United States until after the Cold War between the Eastern Bloc and Western Bloc countries. The Wall at the Internet Movie Database The Wall is available for download at the Internet Archive

The Wall (1962 film)
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Main article

53.
Good Bye, Lenin!
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Good Bye Lenin. is a 2003 German tragicomedy film, directed by Wolfgang Becker. The cast includes Daniel Brühl, Katrin Saß, Chulpan Khamatova, most scenes were shot at the Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin and around Plattenbauten near Alexanderplatz. The film is set in East Berlin, from October 1989 to just after German reunification a year later, Alex lives with his sister, Ariane, his mother, Christiane, and Arianes infant daughter, Paula. It appears that his father abandoned the family and fled to the West in 1978, in his absence, Christiane has become an ardent supporter of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany. On the other hand, Alex takes part in an anti-government demonstration, there he meets a girl, but they are separated by the Volkspolizei before they can properly introduce themselves. When Christiane sees Alex being arrested, she suffers a heart attack. While visiting his mother in the hospital, Alex encounters the girl from the demonstration, Lara, Alex and Lara soon begin dating and develop a close bond. Shortly afterward, the Berlin Wall falls, Erich Honecker resigns from office, Alex loses his job as a TV repairman, but is hired by a West German cable company. Alex is paired with Denis Domaschke, a filmmaker with whom Alex quickly becomes good friends. Ariane leaves university to work at a Burger King drive-through, after eight months, Christiane awakens from her coma, but she is severely weakened and her doctor warns that any shock might cause another, possibly fatal, heart attack. Alex realises that the discovery of recent events would be too much for her to bear and their deception is successful, though increasingly complicated as Christiane occasionally witnesses strange occurrences, such as a gigantic Coca-Cola advertisement banner. With Deniss help, Alex edits old tapes of East German news broadcasts, Christiane eventually gains strength and wanders outside one day while Alex is asleep. She sees all her neighbours old furniture piled up in the street, advertisements for Western corporations, however, Alex and Ariane quickly take her home and show her a fake report that East Germany is now accepting refugees from the West following a severe economic crisis there. Soon after, the family decides to go and inspect their dacha in the countryside at Christianes suggestion, however, Christiane, fearing the government would take Alex and Ariane away from her if things went wrong, chose to stay. As she regrets the decision, Christiane relapses and is back to the hospital. Alex meets his father, Robert, and convinces him to see Christiane one last time, however, it is suggested that Christiane already knows the truth. Nevertheless, she reacts fondly to her sons effort, without mentioning anything, Christiane dies two days later, she outlives the GDR, passing away three days after full official German reunification. Alex, Ariane, Lara, Denis, and Robert scatter her ashes in the using a old toy rocket Alex made with his father during his childhood

54.
Sonnenallee
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Sonnenallee is a 1999 comedy film about life in East Berlin in the late 1970s. The movie was directed by Leander Haußmann, the film was released shortly before the corresponding novel, Am kürzeren Ende der Sonnenallee. Both the book and the screenplay were written by Thomas Brussig and while they are based on the characters and setting. Both the movie and the book emphasize the importance of pop-art and in particular, pop music, for the youth of East Berlin. The Sonnenallee is a street in Berlin that was intersected by the border between East and West during the time of the Berlin Wall, although it bears little resemblance to the film set. Sonnenallee was broadcast in the Czech Republic under the title Eastie Boys, michael is a 17-year-old growing up in communist East Germany in the 1970s. He spends his time with his friends listening to banned pop music, partying and trying to win over the heart of Miriam, who is dating a West Berlin boy. Over the course of the movie his best friend Mario, falls for an existentialist, gets kicked out of school and subsequently discovers he is going to be a father. The closing of the movie upsets Michas thus far idealistic life, as Mario sells out his ideals by signing up for service to support his girlfriend. Furthermore, his young friend, Wuschel, is shot by a GDR guard. The young boy is devastated, however, prominently displaying the importance of pop music in their lives, later, he gets a new copy by using the 50 West German mark that he gets from Miriams ex-boyfriend when the latter causes him to crash his bike. Writing for Der Spiegel, Marianne Wellshoff argued that the film glorified the GDR, but other reviewers saw this criticism as unfair, and the film was well received by German viewers. Sonnenallee at the Internet Movie Database

Sonnenallee
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Sonnenallee

55.
West of the Wall
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West of the Wall is a 1962 song written by Wayne Shanklin, which was recorded as a single by his wife Toni Fisher. The song tells of the sadness of lovers separated by the Berlin Wall which divided Germany into East and West at the time, the Berlin Wall had been constructed in 1961, and in fact did not fall until 1989. The song was a Top 40 hit for Toni Fisher in the United States and it was issued on the Bigtop label. It enjoyed greater success in Australia, where it reached #1 on the Australian chart for two weeks beginning 21 July and it was recorded at Gold Star Recording Studio, Hollywood. Fishers single for Signet, You Never Told Me had Toot Toot Amore on the B side, which was the same melody and arrangement as West of the Wall with different lyrics

West of the Wall
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Main article

56.
Funeral in Berlin (film)
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Funeral in Berlin is a 1966 British spy film directed by Guy Hamilton and based on the novel of the same name by Len Deighton. It is the second of three 1960s films starring Michael Caine as the character Harry Palmer that followed the characters from the initial film, the third film was Billion Dollar Brain. Caine would reprise the role of Harry Palmer in Bullet to Beijing, British secret agent Harry Palmer is sent to Berlin by his superior Colonel Ross to arrange the defection of Colonel Stok, a prominent Soviet intelligence officer. Palmer is sceptical but links up with Johnny Vulkan, an old German friend and former criminal associate, Palmer makes a rendezvous with Stok in the Soviet zone of the divided city and finds him eccentric and likeable. Stok asks for the defection to be managed by Otto Kreutzman, when Palmer returns to the western sector he meets a model who calls herself Samantha Steel, with whom he spends the night. Meanwhile, Palmer arranges a deal with Kreutzman to bring Stok across the wall for £20,000, Palmer then returns to London to report. Ross is convinced that Stoks defection is genuine and dismisses Palmers suspicions that the model he met in Berlin was a spy, Ross gives full authorisation for Palmer to return to Berlin to complete the deal, with documents and money provided by a man at Intelligence headquarters named Hallam. The plan devised by Kreutzman is to arrange a burial and bring the Colonel across the border in a coffin, Kreutzman goes over to the east to supervise the defection personally in view of its importance. Palmer waits with Kreutzmans henchman on the side of the border. When it is opened, however, Palmer finds the body of Kreutzmann. Palmer is knocked unconscious by Vulkan, who gets hold of the Broum documents that were included as part of the deal but is held up by Samantha, Ross got hold of the documents and used them to blackmail Broum into working for him. He now orders Palmer to kill Broum, but Palmer allows him to get away instead, Palmer later meets Stok, who is in West Berlin for a routine meeting with his Western counterparts. The Russian confirms that his defection was just a trap to get rid of Kreutzmann. He even jokes that if Palmer ever wishes to defect to the East, he should ask Vulkan, meanwhile, the supposed Vulkan goes to Samanthas flat, murders an Israeli agent and gets the documents back, but when he meets with Hallam they discover that they are forgeries. Hallam goes to Palmer, saying that he has sent by Ross to get the real documents back. Palmer forces him to admit that he is in league with Broum to get out of London. Back in London, Ross is satisfied that the dead Vulkan will be taken for another martyr shot while escaping to the West, offered a bonus for his work, Palmer refuses and leaves. video Funeral in Berlin was released as a Region 1 DVD on 14 August 2001. Funeral in Berlin at the Internet Movie Database Funeral in Berlin at the TCM Movie Database

57.
Gotcha! (1985 film)
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Gotcha. is a 1985 comedy-action film, starring Anthony Edwards and Linda Fiorentino and directed by Jeff Kanew, who also directed Anthony Edwards in Revenge of the Nerds in 1984. UCLA college student Jonathan Moore is playing a game called Gotcha, Moore and his apartment roommate Manolo go on a vacation to Paris, France. After touring some of Paris, in a cafe Moore meets Sasha Banicek, eventually, Jonathan has intercourse with Sasha, losing his virginity. Jonathan decides to leave Manolo and go with Sasha to West Berlin to spend time with her. Jonathan believes that he is in love with Sasha, there, Jonathan and Sasha continue to have sex and even go to an Oktoberfest beer gathering. One night, Sasha tells Jonathan that she has to go to East Berlin to pick up a package, one night after arriving in East Berlin, Sasha leaves their hotel room and walks to dark street corner. There, Sasha meets a German man who tells her the location of the pickup of her package, meanwhile, Sasha was being monitored by a Soviet agent, who was sitting in a car at a distance. During the day, Sasha tells Jonathan that if she gives him a certain message, at a cafe, Sasha gives Jonathan a package and says that a strudel is inside. A little later, Sasha tells Jonathan to meet her at the shop near their hotel. All of a sudden, a Soviet agent begins to chase after Sasha, Sasha decides to use Jonathan to unknowingly get the package over to West Berlin. Meanwhile, Sasha is taken by the Soviet agent and East German secret police, Jonathan goes to Checkpoint Charlie to cross the heavily fortified border into West Berlin. At the East German customs search, Jonathan is stripped of his clothes, meanwhile, Sasha is stripped and searched for possible espionage evidence. Vlad arrives at the crossing to search for Jonathan, however Jonathan passes the border safely before he can be captured. Once in West Berlin, Jonathan feels liberated by the Westernized society, in the hotel, Jonathan receives a message from Sasha to meet him at a specified location. Jonathan finds out that his room was broken into and robbed of his travelers checks. Soviet agents eventually find Jonathan in West Berlin and chase him throughout a public park, Jonathan jumps into a water canal and manages to escape from the Soviets and stumbles upon a German rock group headed for Hamburg, who offer him a ride to the airport. The rock group successfully get Jonathan to the airport and Jonathan finally arrives in Los Angeles Tom Bradley International Airport, soon, Vlad and a band of Soviet agents arrive too in Los Angeles. Once home, Jonathan stumbles upon a film canister, which was planted by Sasha, Jonathan visits his parents and tells them what happened in Germany but they cannot believe a word of it and think Jonathan is on drugs

Gotcha! (1985 film)
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Theatrical release poster

58.
Stop Train 349
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Stop Train 349, is a 1963 internationally co-produced drama film directed by Rolf Hädrich. It was entered into the 13th Berlin International Film Festival and it was released in the US in 1964 by Allied Artists. Screenwriter Will Tremper won the Film Award in Gold of the 1964 German Film Awards, josé Ferrer as Cowan the Reporter Sean Flynn as Lt. Novak Nicole Courcel as Nurse Kathy Jess Hahn as Sgt. Torre Yossi Yadin as Maj. Menschikov Hans-Joachim Schmiedel as Banner Christiane Schmidtmer as Karin Joy Aston as Mrs. Abramson Lothar Mann as East German Conductor Arthur Brauss as I. M. P. Edward Meeks as Capt. Kolski Fred Dur as Maj. Finnegan Len Monroe as U. S, soldier Wolfgang Georgi as Russian Officer Gorski Antonella Murgia as Teenager Stop Train 349 at the Internet Movie Database filmportal. de entry

Stop Train 349
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U.S. Film poster

59.
List of Berlin Wall segments
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Many segments of the Berlin Wall have been given to various institutions since its fall on November 9,1989. Segments are occasionally moved, so locations shown may not be current in all cases, tirana, Albania Unveiled in 2013 in the Blloku district, as part of a memorial to victims of Albanias Communist Regime. EU Parliament, Brussels, Belgium Two segments of the wall are on display outside the EU Parliament in Brussels, flanders Expo, Ghent, Belgium A segment of the wall is on display outside the building. It originally stood on Potsdamer Platz, Sofia, Bulgaria One section is part of a memorial in the park in front of the National Palace of Culture in the center of Sofia. Cold War Museum Langelandsfort, Denmark Since 2011 a section of the wall has been on display in the Cold War Museum Langelandsfort on the island of Langeland, the segment was a gift from the City of Berlin and was originally located at the Potsdamer Platz. Museum of Occupations, Tallin, Estonia A segment of the wall was installed outside the Museum of Occupations in November 2014, the segment was a gift to Estonia from the Senate of Berlin, and originally formed part of the wall along Potsdamer Platz. Le Quai Theatre, Angers A segment of the wall is on display inside Le Quai contemporary theatre in Angers and it will take a central part in the 2011 edition of Les Accroche-coeurs festival. Mémorial pour la Paix, Caen A segment of the wall is on display inside the Mémorial pour la Paix in Caen, la Défense, Paris A segment of the wall can be found next to one of the office buildings. Esplanade of the 9th of November 1989, Porte de Versailles, European Court of Human Rights, Strasbourg A segment of the wall is on display outside the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France. Allied Museum, Berlin A section of four slabs is on display with the exhibits of the Allied Museum along with a border guard tower. American Embassy, Berlin A segment of the Berlin Wall was installed in the courtyard of the embassy on 13 February 2008, to serve as a reminder of the past and a symbol of hope for the future. Deutsches Eck, Koblenz Three segments of the Berlin Wall are on permanent display on the Deutsches Eck area as a memorial for the division of Germany. John F. Kennedy School, Berlin On the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall in November 2009, the two segments were cemented back-to-back, whereby the respective short foot extensions of the bases were cut off. The West side is painted with colorful graffiti whereas the East side is colored historical plain white, private, Hamm A segment of the wall can be found at Harringholzstr. Patch Barracks, Stuttgart A segment of the wall is on Patch Barracks in front of European Command Headquarters, ramstein Air Base, Ramstein-Miesenbach A segment of the wall is in front of the Passenger Terminal on base. Europa-Park, Rust Two segments of the stand near the entrance of the amusement park Europa-Park in theme area Germany. Weimar A section of two slabs is placed next to the Weimar Atrium shopping Center, Budapest Two sections of the Berlin Wall were originally placed on Krisztina Blvd, in the Tabán district of Budapest, Hungary. These were later moved, after someone painted them red, to the garden of the Maltese Charity Service in Budapest

List of Berlin Wall segments
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The section of the Berlin Wall outside the EU Parliament in Brussels
List of Berlin Wall segments
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The Allied Museum in Berlin
List of Berlin Wall segments
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A segment of the wall is on display outside the German embassy building in Kiev, Ukraine
List of Berlin Wall segments
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A segment of the Berlin Wall stands outside the Imperial War Museum in London

60.
Ghost station
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Ghost stations is the usual English translation for the German word Geisterbahnhöfe. This term was used to describe certain stations on Berlins U-Bahn and S-Bahn metro networks that were closed during the period of Berlins division during the Cold War. Since then, the term has come to be used to any disused underground station actively passed through by passenger trains. In August 1961 the East German government built the Berlin Wall, as a result, the Berlin public transit network, which had formerly spanned both halves of the city, was also divided into two. Some U- and S-Bahn lines fell entirely into one half of the city or the other, other lines were divided between the two jurisdictions, with trains running only to the border and then turning back. The name Geisterbahnhof was soon applied to these dimly lit, heavily guarded stations by travelers from West Berlin. However, the term was never official, West Berlin subway maps of the period simply labelled these stations Bahnhöfe, East Berlin subway maps neither depicted the West Berlin lines nor the ghost stations. The situation was less than ideal. If a train on a West Berlin line broke down in East Berlin territory, then passengers had to wait for Eastern border police to appear and escort them out. The East German government occasionally hinted that it might block access to the tunnels at the border. However, this status quo persisted for the entire 28-year period of the division of Berlin. An alarm was triggered if anyone breached one of the barriers, as for the entrances, the signage was removed, walkways were walled up and stairways were sealed with concrete slabs. Police stations were built into the windowed platform service booths, from which the platform area could be monitored. A wide white line on the wall marked the location of the border. Later, gates were installed at stations that could be rolled into place at night while the guards were off-duty. Guard posts at other stations were staffed continuously, creating additional employment positions with the transport police, in the platform area, the guards always worked in pairs, and care was taken in their assignment to assure that there would be no personal ties between them. In addition, superior officers could conduct surprise inspections at any time, thus, other stations were secured by the border guards. Friedrichstraße station, though served by Western lines and located in East Berlin territory, was not a Geisterbahnhof, instead, it served as a transfer point between U6 and several S-Bahn lines

Ghost station
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Saint-Martin, a ghost station in Paris Métro.
Ghost station
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Sign at Unter Den Linden in 2007, unchanged since the 1930s. It has since been covered by a modern sign showing the station's new name, "Brandenburger Tor".
Ghost station
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The reopening of Jannowitzbrücke U-Bahn station on 11 November 1989, the first of the ghost stations to be reopened after the Fall of the Berlin Wall.
Ghost station
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S-Bahn station Potsdamer Platz – formerly a ghost station and now reopened.

61.
List of Presidents of the United States
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The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War

List of Presidents of the United States
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The White House in Washington, D.C. is the president's official residence, the center of the administration, and a prominent symbol of the office.
List of Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents of the United States
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1
List of Presidents of the United States
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2

62.
Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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The inauguration of John F. Kennedy as the 35th President of the United States was held on Friday, January 20,1961 at the eastern portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of John F. Kennedys only term as President, johnsons only term as Vice President. Kennedy died 2 years,306 days into this term, Kennedy took office following the November 1960 presidential election, in which he narrowly defeated Richard Nixon, the then–incumbent Vice President. He was the first Roman Catholic to become President, and became the youngest person elected to the office and his inaugural address encompassed the major themes of his campaign and would define his presidency during a time of economic prosperity, emerging social changes, and diplomatic challenges. This inauguration was the first in which a poet, Robert Frost, frank Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized and hosted a pre-inaugural ball at the D. C. Armory on the eve of Inauguration day, January 19,1961, considered as one of the biggest parties ever held in Washington, D. C. With tickets ranging from $100 per person to $10,000 per group, davis eventually switched his support to the Republican Party and Richard Nixon in the early 1970s. Harry Belafonte expressed sadness at the controversy, stating It was the ambassador, sammy not being there was a loss. On inauguration day, January 20,1961, the skies began to clear but the snow created chaos in Washington and this task force employed hundreds of dump trucks, front-end loaders, sanders, plows, rotaries, and flamethrowers to clear the route. Over 1,400 cars which had been stranded due to the conditions, the snowstorm dropped visibility at Washington National Airport to less than half a mile, preventing former President Herbert Hoover from flying into Washington and attending the inauguration. Before the proceeding to the Capitol in company with outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the invocation and prayers lasted a total of 28 minutes. Marian Anderson sang The Star-Spangled Banner, and a composition by musical Leonard Bernstein titled Fanfare for the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy was played, the oath of office for Vice President was administered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Sam Rayburn to Lyndon Johnson. Robert Frost, then 86 years old, recited his poem The Gift Outright, Kennedy requested Frost to read a poem at the inauguration, suggesting The Gift Outright, considered an act of gratitude towards Frost for his help during the campaign. Kennedy would later state that he admired the courage, the skill and daring of Frost, and adding that Ive never taken the view the world of politics. I think politicians and poets share at least one thing, American poet William Meredith would say that the request focused attention on Kennedy as a man of culture, as a man interested in culture. Frost composed a new poem titled Dedication specifically for the ceremony as a preface to the poem Kennedy suggested, to the surprise of Kennedys friends. On the morning of the inauguration, Frost asked Stewart Udall, Kennedys future Secretary of the Interior, to have his handwritten draft type scripted for easier reading, once at the presidential podium, however, the glare of the sun and snow prevented him from reading his papers. When Frost started reading, he stumbled on the first three lines, squinting at his papers in view of the crowd and cameras

Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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Presidential Inauguration of John F.Kennedy
Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, wearing a gown designed by Ethel Franken of Bergdorf Goodman, arrive at Sinatra's inaugural ball on the evening of Inauguration Day.
Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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View of the extended East Front of the Capitol where the inauguration was held. President Kennedy is in the center delivering his inaugural address, with Vice-President Johnson and official and invited guests sitting behind him.
Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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The most famous passage from the inaugural address is etched in stone at Kennedy's gravesite in Arlington National Cemetery, with the Lincoln Memorial and Washington Monument in the background.

63.
Clean Air Act (United States)
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The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, in coordination with state, local and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U. S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution, the first federal legislation to actually pertain to controlling air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963. The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a program within the U. S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution, the 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. Major amendments to the law, requiring regulatory controls for air pollution, the 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly expanded federal enforcement, the 1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, established a national permits program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush, the Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits. Numerous state and local governments have enacted legislation, either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs. This section of the act declares that protecting and enhancing the nations air quality promotes public health, the law encourages prevention of regional air pollution and control programs. It also provides technical and financial assistance for air pollution prevention at both state and local governments, additional subchapters cover of cooperation, research, investigation, training and other activities. Grants for air pollution planning and control programs, and interstate air quality agencies, the act mandates air quality control regions, designated as attainment vs non-attainment. Non-attainment areas do not meet standards for primary or secondary ambient air quality. Attainment areas meet these standards, while unclassifiable areas cannot be classified on the basis of the information that is available, Air quality criteria, national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, state implementation plans and performance standards for new stationary sources are also covered in Part A. The list of air pollutants established by the act includes acetaldehyde, benzene, chloroform, phenols. The list also includes mineral fiber emissions from manufacturing or processing glass, the list periodically can be modified. The remaining subchapters cover smokestack heights, state plan adequacy, and estimating emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, measures to prevent unemployment or other economic disruption include using local coal or coal derivatives to comply with implementation requirements

Clean Air Act (United States)
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Counties in the United States where one or more National Ambient Air Quality Standards are not met, as of October 2015.
Clean Air Act (United States)
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Clean Air Act
Clean Air Act (United States)
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President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the 1967 Clean Air Act in the East Room of the White House, November 21, 1967.
Clean Air Act (United States)
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Air

64.
Communications Satellite Act of 1962
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The Communications Satellite Act of 1962 was put into effect in order to deal with the issue of commercialization of space communications. This act was controversial, and was left very open-ended. The act was signed August 31,1962 by President John F. Kennedy, the act aimed to join together private communication companies in order to make satellites more obtainable. Long of Louisiana said of the act, When this bill first started out I thought it was as crooked as a hind leg. I am now convinced that that would be a compliment and this bill is as crooked as a barrel of snakes. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company argued that space for communications was just a modern representation of the submarine communications cables currently in use. The Federal Communications Commission proposed that the ten companies together in a program. The compromise allowing the bill to pass was there would be government regulation on the communication industry. The United States Congress made it so that all companies registered by the FCC had nondiscriminatory access to the satellite systems and this would allow competition to develop among the companies, thus preventing trusts from forming. The United States Government, including the President, NASA, the President was to observe every aspect of the development and operation of the satellite systems. He is also responsible for providing arrangements with foreign participation, NASA was designated as a technical advisor for the FCC and the communications corporation to the extent that would aid the nation. NASA was to receive reimbursement for the services it rendered, the largest burden on regulation falls on the FCC. The FCC was deemed responsible for making sure that competition is present, the Act created a board of directors to oversee regulation of the act. There are to be 15 members of board, three appointed by the president, six chosen by public stock holders, and the remaining six chosen by communication carriers that are authorized by the FCC. This board of directors is to control the satellite systems. Stock shares for this Board were to be sold for $100 and this would provide finances for the board. The act was ambiguous about the responsibilities of the regulators and the direction that the companies were to go, however. Section 301 of the Act provided Congress the right to repeal, alter and this would be necessary in order make clear the future regulation done by the committees established by the act

65.
Community Mental Health Act
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The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was an act to provide federal funding for community mental health centers in the United States. This legislation was passed as part of John F. Kennedys New Frontier, in 1955, Congress passed the Mental Health Study Act, leading to the establishment of the Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Mental Health. That Commission issued a report in 1961, which would become the basis of the 1963 Act, the CMHA provided grants to states for the establishment of local mental health centers, under the overview of the National Institute of Mental Health. The NIH also conducted a study involving adequacy in mental health issues, the purpose of the CMHA was to build mental health centers to provide for community-based care, as an alternative to institutionalization. At the centers, patients could be treated while working and living at home, only half of the proposed centers were ever built, none were fully funded, and the act didn’t provide money to operate them long-term. Some states saw an opportunity to close expensive state hospitals without spending some of the money on community-based care, deinstitutionalization accelerated after the adoption of Medicaid in 1965. During the Reagan administration, the funding for the act was converted into a mental-health block grant for states. Since the CMHA was enacted,90 percent of beds have been cut at state hospitals, the CMHA proved to be a mixed success. Many patients, formerly warehoused in institutions, were released into the community, however, not all communities had the facilities or expertise to deal with them. In many cases, patients wound up in homes or with their families, or homeless in large cities. Anthony, Vergare, Michael J. Homelessness, the mentally ill. Institute of Medicine, Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, Homelessness, Health, and Human Needs, Health Care and Human Needs. Statistics of Mental Disorders in the United States, Current Status, Some Urgent Needs, journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A. Blackwell Publishing for the Royal Statistical Society, from Poorhouses to Homelessness, Policy Analysis and Mental Health Care. Community Mental Health Services Act, Five Years of Operation Under the California Law, whatever Happened to Community Mental Health. Stavis, Paul F. Homeward Bound, The Developing Legal Right to a Home in the Community, New York State Commission on Quality of Care and Advocacy for Persons with Disabilities. Archived from the original on 2009-01-11

Community Mental Health Act
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Community Mental Health Act

66.
Food for Peace
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In different administrative and organizational forms, the Food for Peace program of the United States has provided food assistance around the world for more than 50 years. Approximately 3 billion people in 150 countries have benefited directly from U. S. food assistance, the Office of Food for Peace within the United States Agency for International Development is the U. S. Government’s largest provider of food assistance. The food assistance programming is funded primarily through the Food for Peace Act, the Office of Food for Peace also receives International Disaster Assistance Funds through the Foreign Assistance Act that can be used in emergency settings. The Office of Food for Peace donates food based on an identified need, during the 2010s the program underwent revisions offered by in the Administrations Fiscal Year 2014 budget. These revisions would change the program to provide cash donations rather than American grown, on April 24,2013, USA Maritime Chairman James L. Henry wrote a statement which discussed the efficacy of the program and specifically the importance of the U. S. Merchant Marine in delivering the U. S. food aid to people who are undernourished around the world, Henry offers that this is a significant fact in the effort to address global hunger. Americas food assistance programs began in 1812 when James Madison sent emergency aid to victims in Venezuela. As director of the American Relief Administration, Herbert Hoover led a $20 million feeding program in Russia during the 1920s under the Russian Famine Relief Act. In 1949, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided large quantities of food aid commodities to the people of Western Europe, the Marshall Plan helped rejuvenate and unite Europe while laying the foundations for a permanent U. S. food assistance program. Many of the European countries the U. S. Government helped at that time have become major food exporters. On July 10,1954, Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Agricultural Trade Development, by signing this legislation, the President laid “the basis for a permanent expansion of our exports of agricultural products with lasting benefits to ourselves and peoples of other lands. S. dollars. Through new amendments, the law switched its focus from disposing of surplus commodities to addressing humanitarian needs. In signing the extension of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act in 1959 and he specifically referred to the extension as the Food for Peace program. Although Kennedy may have expanded the program, he was not the first to refer to the program as Food for Peace, former U. S. McGovern assumed the post on January 21,1961. He found space for the program in the Executive Office Building rather than be subservient to either the U. S. Department of State or U. S. Department of Agriculture. By the close of 1961, the Food for Peace program was operating in a dozen countries, during an audience in Rome, Pope John XXIII warmly praised McGoverns work. McGovern resigned his post on July 18,1962, wanting to resume his political career

Food for Peace
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George McGovern as Food for Peace director in 1961, with President John F. Kennedy

67.
Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
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The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door took place at Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama on June 11,1963. The incident brought Wallace into the national spotlight, brown v. Board of Education meant that the University of Alabama had to be desegregated. In the years following, hundreds of African-Americans applied for admission, the University worked with police to find any disqualifying qualities, or when this failed, intimidated the applicants. But in 1963, three African-Americans —Vivian Malone Jones, Dave McGlathery and James Hood—applied, in early June a federal district judge ordered that they be admitted, and forbade Governor Wallace from interfering. On June 11, Malone and Hood pre-registered in the morning at the Birmingham courthouse and they selected their courses and filled out all their forms there. They arrived at Foster Auditorium to have their course loads reviewed by advisors and they remained in their vehicle as Wallace, attempting to uphold his promise as well as for political show, blocked the entrance to Foster Auditorium with the media watching. Then, flanked by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach told Wallace to step aside, however, Wallace interrupted Katzenbach and gave a speech on states rights. Katzenbach called President John F. Kennedy, who federalized the Alabama National Guard. Four hours later, Guard General Henry Graham commanded Wallace to step aside, saying, Sir, Wallace then spoke further, but eventually moved, and Malone and Hood completed their registration. The incident was detailed in Robert Drews 1963 documentary film Crisis, the event was depicted in the 1994 film Forrest Gump, in which the title character appeared at the event, and in the 1997 television movie George Wallace. Dont stand in the doorway, dont block up the hall, Wallace, Jr. said, when he was 14, he sang the song for his father and thought he saw the look of regret in his fathers eyes. JFK Address on Civil Rights The Crimson-white, June 9,1963 and June 13,1963, media related to Stand in the Schoolhouse Door at Wikimedia Commons

Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
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Attempting to block integration at the University of Alabama, Governor of Alabama George Wallace stands at the door of the Foster Auditorium while being confronted by United States Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach.
Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
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General Henry Graham salutes and then confronts George Wallace.
Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
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Vivian Malone Jones arrives to register for classes at the University of Alabama's Foster Auditorium.
Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
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Academics

68.
Alliance for Progress
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The Alliance for Progress initiated by U. S. President John F. Kennedy in 1961 aimed to establish economic cooperation between the U. S. and Latin America. The United States government began to strengthen relations with Latin America in the late 1950s during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. In March 1961, newly elected President Kennedy proposed a plan for Latin America, The program was signed at an inter-American conference at Punta del Este, Uruguay. The charter called for, an increase of 2. First, the called for Latin American countries to pledge a capital investment of $80 billion over 10 years. The United States agreed to supply or guarantee $20 billion within one decade, second, Latin American delegates required the participating countries to draw up comprehensive plans for national development. These plans were then to be submitted for approval by a board of experts. Third, tax codes had to be changed to more from those who have most. Because of the program, economic assistance to Latin America nearly tripled between fiscal year 1960 and fiscal year 1961, between 1962 and 1967 the US supplied $1.4 billion per year to Latin America. If new investment is included, the amount of aid rose to $3.3 billion per year during this timespan while the amount of aid was roughly $22.3 billion. However, the amount of aid did not equal the net transfer of resources and development as Latin American countries still had to pay off their debt to the US, additionally, profits from the investments usually returned to the US, with profits frequently exceeding new investment. Economic aid to Latin America dropped sharply in the late 1960s, in addition the industries lobbied Congress to limit all purchases of AID machinery and vehicles in the US. A1967 study of AID showed that 90 percent of all AID commodity expenditures went to US corporations, ivan Illich advanced a potent and highly influential critique of the Alliance, seeing it as bankrolled and organized by wealthy nations, foundations, and religious groups. Brazil also enjoyed large overall balance of payments surpluses during the Alliance years, during the Kennedy administration, between 1961 and 1963, the U. S. The suspensions lasted for periods of three weeks to six months, Nixon appointed his most powerful political rival, New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to direct the study. The poor relationship between the two suggested that Nixon would not be that interested in the results of the study. There was a lack of interest for the region in the late 1960s to early 1970s, in early 1969, Rockefeller and his advisors took four trips to Latin America. Most of the turned out to be an embarrassment

Alliance for Progress
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Venezuelan President Rómulo Betancourt and U.S. President John F. Kennedy at La Morita, Venezuela, during an official meeting for the Alliance for Progress in 1961

69.
Kennedy Doctrine
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The Kennedy Doctrine refers to foreign policy initiatives of the 35th President of the United States, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, towards Latin America during his term in office between 1961 and 1963. A dominant premise during the Kennedy years was the need to contain communism at any cost, in this Cold War environment, Kennedy’s “call for military strength and unison in the struggle against communism were balanced with. Kennedy expressed this idea in his address when he stated, “In the long history of the only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom from its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility – I welcome it. ”1 The Kennedy Doctrine was essentially an expansion of the foreign policy prerogatives of the administrations of Dwight D. Eisenhower. The foreign policies of these presidents all revolved around the threat of communism, the Truman Doctrine focused on the containment of communism by providing assistance to countries resisting communism in Europe. In his inaugural address, Kennedy talks of an alliance for progress with countries in Latin America, in his Alliance for Progress address for Latin American Diplomats and Members of Congress on March 13th 1961 he expanded on his promises from his inaugural speech. He requested that Latin American countries promote social change within their borders, “To achieve this goal political freedom must accompany material progress. Our Alliance for Progress is an alliance of free governments –, increase of U. S. involvement in Vietnam War,1962. Ratification of Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, July,1963, flexible response The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy, available online at, http, //www. yale. edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/kennedy. htm Viotti, Paul R, American Foreign Policy and National Security, A Documentary Record,222. President John F. Kennedy, On the Alliance for Progress,1961, available Online at, http, //www. fordham. edu/halsall/mod/1961kennedy-afp1. html Fitzsimons, Louise. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Oral History Collection, available Online at, http, //www. lexisnexis. com/academic/2upa/Aph/KennedyOral. asp Weidman, Lisa Menéndez. A Biography of John F. Kennedy, The 35th President of the United States, available Online at The JFK Library, http, //www. jfklibrary. org/jfk_biography. html Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy Library and Museum

70.
Peace Corps
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The Peace Corps is a volunteer program run by the United States government. The work is related to social and economic development. Each program participant, a Peace Corps Volunteer, is an American citizen, typically with a college degree, Volunteers work with governments, schools, non-profit organizations, non-government organizations, and entrepreneurs in education, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment. After 24 months of service, volunteers can request an extension of service, from 1961 to 2015, nearly 220,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps and served in 141 countries. The Peace Corps shows the willingness of Americans to work at the level in order to help underdeveloped countries meet their needs. The Peace Corps has affected the way people of other countries view Americans, how Americans view other countries, following the end of World War II, various members of the United States Congress proposed bills to establish volunteer organizations in developing countries. In that calling, these men would follow the work done by the religious missionaries in these countries over the past 100 years. In 1952 Senator Brien McMahon proposed an army of young Americans to act as missionaries of democracy, privately funded nonreligious organizations began sending volunteers overseas during the 1950s. The President, knowing how I felt, asked me to introduce legislation for all three, I introduced the first Peace Corps bill in 1957. It did not meet with much enthusiasm, Some traditional diplomats quaked at the thought of thousands of young Americans scattered across their world. Many senators, including liberal ones, thought it silly and an unworkable idea, now, with a young president urging its passage, it became possible and we pushed it rapidly through the Senate. It is fashionable now to suggest that Peace Corps Volunteers gained as much or more and that may be true, but it ought not demean their work. They touched many lives and made them better, Only in 1959, however, did the idea receive serious attention in Washington when Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin proposed a Point Four Youth Corps. In 1960, he and Senator Richard L. Neuberger of Oregon introduced identical measures calling for a study of the ideas advisability and practicability. Both the House Foreign Affairs Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee endorsed the study, in this form it became law in June 1960. He later dubbed the proposed organization the Peace Corps, a brass marker commemorates the place where Kennedy stood. In the weeks after the 1960 election, the group at Colorado State University. Kennedys opponent, Richard M. Nixon, predicted it would become a cult of escapism, others doubted whether recent graduates had the necessary skills and maturity

71.
United States Agency for International Development
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The United States Agency for International Development is the United States Government agency which is primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. President John F. Kennedy created USAID from its predecessor agencies in 1961 by executive order, USAIDs programs are authorized by the Congress in the Foreign Assistance Act, which the Congress supplements through directions in annual funding appropriation acts and other legislation. Although it is technically an independent agency, USAID operates subject to the policy guidance of the President, Secretary of State. USAID operates in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, USAIDs decentralized network of resident field missions is drawn on to manage U. S. Government programs in low-income countries for a range of purposes. Disaster relief Poverty relief Technical cooperation on issues, including the environment U. S. bilateral interests Socioeconomic development Some of the U. S. Governments earliest foreign aid programs provided relief in crises created by war, in 1915, USG assistance through the Commission for Relief of Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion. After 1945, the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall helped rebuild war-torn Western Europe, USAID manages relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Office of U. S Foreign Disaster Assistance in Washington D. C. Privately funded U. S. NGOs and the U. S. military also play roles in disaster relief overseas. After 1945, many newly independent countries needed assistance to relieve the chronic deprivation afflicting their low-income populations, USAID and its predecessor agencies have continuously provided poverty relief in many forms, including assistance to public health and education services targeted at the poorest. USAID has also helped manage food aid provided by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in addition, USAID provides funding to NGOs to supplement private donations in relieving chronic poverty. The USG has specialized agencies dealing with such areas, such as the Centers for Disease Control, USAIDs special ability to administer programs in low-income countries supports these and other USG agencies international work on global concerns. Among these global interests, environmental issues attract high attention, USAID assists projects that conserve and protect threatened land, water, forests, and wildlife. USAID also assists projects to reduce emissions and to build resilience to the risks associated with global climate change. U. S. environmental regulation laws require that programs sponsored by USAID should be economically and environmentally sustainable. To support U. S. geopolitical interests, USAID is often called upon to administer exceptional financial grants to allies. Also, when U. S. troops are in the field, in these circumstances, USAID may be directed by specially appointed diplomatic officials of the State Department, as has been done in Afghanistan and Pakistan during operations against al-Qaeda. U. S. commercial interests are served by U. S. laws requirement that most goods, USAID is also sometimes called upon to support projects of U. S. constituents that have exceptional interest. To help low-income nations achieve self-sustaining socioeconomic development, USAID assists them in improving management of their own resources, USAIDs assistance for socioeconomic development mainly provides technical advice, training, scholarships, commodities, and financial assistance

United States Agency for International Development
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USAID Packages are delivered by United States Coast Guard personnel
United States Agency for International Development
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Early reading and literacy programs contribute to long-term development, USAID Nigeria
United States Agency for International Development
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USAID Acting Administrator Amb. Alfonso E. Lenhardt
United States Agency for International Development
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Pakistani and U.S. Staff of USAID/Pakistan in 2009

72.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
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The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Prime Minister Fidel Castro. The Presidential coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, against President Carlos Prio, President Prios exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Fidel Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of December 31,1958, severed the countrys formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets. It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Fidel Castro forged strong links with the Soviet Union, with whom, at the time. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castros government was taking, the CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhowers successor John F. Kennedy approved the invasion plan on 4 April 1961. Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five battalions and one paratrooper battalion. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields, on the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia, the Cuban Armys counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover for the invasion, as a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhowers presidency had required both air and naval support, on 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons. The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castros leadership, made him a national hero and it also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy, Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castros leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later, for centuries, Cuba was home of the Spanish Empire. The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out, subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60% of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban North Americans. Between 1906 and 1909,5,000 US Marines were stationed across the island, many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. Another was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil, which had been founded by the Federation of University Students President José Antonio Echevarría, however, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the 26th of July Movement, founded by a lawyer named Fidel Castro

73.
Cuban Missile Crisis
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The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. An agreement was reached during a meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer. The 1962 midterm elections were under way in the United States and these missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missile facilities. The United States established a blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba, after a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between U. S. President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U. S. -built Jupiter MRBMs, when all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 20,1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, as a result, the Moscow–Washington hotline was established. A series of sharply reduced U. S. –Soviet tensions during the following years. The United States had been embarrassed publicly by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, afterward, former President Eisenhower told Kennedy that the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do. U. S. covert operations against Cuba continued in 1961 with the similarly unsuccessful Operation Mongoose, in addition, Khrushchevs impression of Kennedys weakness was confirmed by the Presidents response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall. He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, CIA agents or pathfinders from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts. When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was a missile gap with the Soviets leading. In fact, the U. S. led the Soviets by a margin that would only increase. In 1961, the Soviets had only four intercontinental ballistic missiles, by October 1962, they may have had a few dozen, with some intelligence estimates as high as 75. The U. S. on the hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more. It also had eight George Washington– and Ethan Allen–class ballistic missile submarines with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles each, the Soviet Union did have medium-range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, however, these were very unreliable and inaccurate. The U. S. had an advantage in total number of nuclear warheads at the time. The U. S. also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power, Khrushchev faced a strategic situation where the U. S. was perceived to have a splendid first strike capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage

74.
SS-100-X
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Secret Service code name for the presidential limousine originally used by the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy. The limousine is the one that Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy were passengers in when the President was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22,1963. Following Kennedys assassination, the car received significant armor plating and a bullet-proof hardtop and its navy blue exterior was painted black. It resumed its role as a limousine for President Lyndon B. Johnson until 1967 and later remained in service until 1978. SS-100-X was originally a standard 1961 Lincoln Continental four door convertible built by the Ford Motor Company and assembled at the Wixom and it had a retail price of $7,347. The car was moved to the Experimental Garage at the Ford Proving Grounds where an additional 41 inches was added between the front and rear doors and just beyond the rear doors, the cars frame was strengthened to accommodate the additional length and weight. It was painted a navy blue color and taken to Hess & Eisenhardt of Cincinnati, Ohio for reupholstering. During the refit the car had no bulletproof or bullet-resistant additions added, the windshield remained the standard two-ply safety glass which could be easily replaced at any dealership. It was first delivered to the White House on June 15,1961 and measured 255 long, had a wheelbase of 156, was 78.6 wide, and 57 high. It weighed 7,800 lbs, up 1,585 lbs from factory weight, and was powered by a hand-built 350-horsepower 430 cubic inch Ford MEL engine. An open car, the Lincoln was equipped with an assortment of tops, including a bubble top, a black cover for the bubble, a formal rear top. It also featured two-way radio telephones and retractable steps and grab-handles for Secret Service agents, no armor plate was added to the bodywork, but the undercarriage and all suspension components were strengthened. A hydraulically-lifted rear seat was fitted, at the time of the assassination, the Lincoln had been fitted with a 1962-model front clip. It had a special short-turn radius,61.9 feet, total cost of modifications was approximately $200,000. The limousine was registered to the Ford Motor Company and was leased to the Secret Service for a fee of $500 per year. The limousine carried the District of Columbia license plate GG300, in November 2015, the license plates were sold at auction for $100,000. Following the shooting of President Kennedy and Governor Connally at approximately 12.30 pm, the Plexiglas bubble top and cloth cover were then attached. Later that afternoon at 3.30 pm CST the limousine was taken to Love Field and boarded on a C-130 and flown to Andrews Air Force Base, Washington DC, after arrival at Andrews AFB, the limo was delivered to the White House garage

SS-100-X
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The car on display in the Henry Ford Museum
SS-100-X
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JFK, Jackie, and the Connallys in the presidential limousine seconds before his assassination

75.
Situation Room
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The Situation Room is equipped with secure, advanced communications equipment for the President to maintain command and control of U. S. forces around the world. The Situation Room was created in 1961 on the order of President John F. Kennedy after the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion was attributed to a lack of real-time information. The room has secure communications systems built into it and the walls contain wood panels that hide different audio, video, the Situation Room staff is organized around five Watch Teams that monitor domestic and international events. The teams are staffed from a pool of approximately 30 senior personnel from agencies in the intelligence community. These members are handpicked from heavily vetted nominations made by their parent agencies and they stand watch on a 24-hour basis, constantly monitoring world events and keeping senior White House staff apprised of significant incidents. The mission of the Situation Room is to provide current intelligence and crisis support to the NSC staff, the National Security Advisor, in effect, the Situation Room is a 24/7 one-stop shop for sensitive information flowing into and out of the White House. It is also the funnel through which most communications, especially classified information and it is an essential link, providing the traveling White House with access to all the information available from Washingtons national security community. The day begins with the Watch Teams preparation of the Morning Book, the Morning Book is usually in the car when the National Security Advisor is picked up for work. In addition, the Watch Teams produce morning and evening summaries of highly selective material and these summaries, targeted on current interagency issues, are transmitted electronically to the NSC staff. The Situation Room staff also provides alerts on breaking events to NSC, responsibility for informing the President belongs to the National Security Adviser. Later, a written Sit Room Note will be prepared, summarizing the event with up-to-the-minute reports from other centers, perhaps including a photo, diagram, another typical Situation Room activity is arranging the Presidents phone calls and other sensitive communications with foreign heads of state. This includes coordinating the timing of calls at each end, providing interpreters where necessary. In this function, the Situation Room coordinates closely with the White House Communications Agency, the only comprehensive renovation of the Situation Room took place from 2006 to 2007. Prior to the renovation, the room used cathode ray tubes for monitors and fax for communication and had computers, the room also had a small kitchen with no sink. Encrypted audio/visual equipment was unreliable, and such equipment would sometimes go black. Henry Kissinger once described the Situation Room as uncomfortable, unaesthetic and essentially oppressive, planning for the renovation began before the September 11,2001 attacks, although the project became more urgent afterward. Renovations began in August 2006, when the Situation Room complex was gutted down to bricks and bare floor and rebuilt from the ground up. The complex was renovated over about four and a months and was disruptive, particularly to White House Chief of Staff Joshua Bolten

Situation Room
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President Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room. (Clicking on a person will take you to their respective article).
Situation Room
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The newspaper with censored photo
Situation Room
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Life and politics

76.
American University speech
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Noteworthy are his comments that the United States was seeking a goal of complete disarmament of nuclear weapons and his vow that America will never start a war. The speech was unusual in its outreach to the Soviet Union at the height of the Cold War. After the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, Kennedy was determined to construct a better relationship with the Soviet Union to discourage another threat of nuclear war and he believed that Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was also interested in renewing U. S. -Soviet relations. On November 19,1962, Khrushchev had submitted a report to the Central Committee of the Communist Party that implicitly called for a halt in foreign intervention to concentrate on the economy. One month later, Khrushchev wrote Kennedy a letter stating the time has now to put an end once. Kennedy greeted this response with enthusiasm and suggested that technical discussions for nuclear inspections begin between representatives of the two governments, however, Kennedy faced opposition for any test ban from Republican leaders and his own State Department. After several months the opposition in the Senate lessened and gave the Kennedy Administration the opportunity to pursue the ban with the Soviet Union, in May 1963, the president informed his National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy that he wished to deliver a major address on peace. In the days before the speech, Kennedy was committed to addressing the U. S, Conference of Mayors in Honolulu and asked Sorensen to construct the initial draft with input from several members of Kennedys staff. The speech was reviewed and edited by Kennedy and Sorensen on the flight from Honolulu days before the address. Historian and Special Assistant Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. observed in his diary, from the viewpoint of orderly administration, but the State Department could never in a thousand years have produced this speech. By 1963 he had written drafts for nearly every speech Kennedy delivered in office, including the address, the Cuban Missile Crisis speech. Common elements of the Kennedy-Sorensen speeches were alliteration, repetition and chiasmus as well as historical references, although Kennedy often interposed off-the-cuff ad-libs to his speeches, he did not deviate from the final draft of the address. Anca Gata described Ted Sorensen as “the chief architect of the speech in language, style, composition, Kennedy noted that almost uniquely among the major world powers the United States and Russia had never been at war with each other. Kennedy sought to draw similarities between the United States and the Soviet Union several times and called for a reexamination of American attitudes towards Russia. He warned that adopting a course towards nuclear confrontation would be only of the bankruptcy of our policy—or of a collective death-wish for the world. For in it Kennedy tells us about transforming our deepest aspirations--in this case for peace--into practical realities and he almost presents a method, a dream-and-do combination that soars with high vision and yet walk on earth with practical results. What kind of peace do I mean and what kind of a peace do we seek, not a Pax Americana enforced on the world by American weapons of war. Not the peace of the grave or the security of the slave, today the expenditure of billions of dollars every year on weapons acquired for the purpose of making sure we never need them is essential to the keeping of peace

American University speech
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President Kennedy delivers the commencement address at American University, Monday, June 10, 1963.

77.
1956 Democratic National Convention
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The 1956 National Convention of the Democratic Party nominated former Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois for President and Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee for Vice President. It was held in the International Amphitheatre on the South Side of Chicago, unsuccessful candidates for the presidential nomination included Governor W. Averell Harriman of New York, Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, and Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri. As the unsuccessful 1952 Democratic Party presidential nominee, Stevenson had the highest stature of the candidates and was easily renominated on the first ballot. Former President Harry S. Truman, whose support for Stevenson in 52 helped secure him the nomination, was opposed to his renomination in 1956 and it did no good, as Truman was no longer a sitting President, and Stevenson was nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic convention preceded the Republican convention in the Cow Palace, San Francisco, at the GOP gathering, President Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for reelection. Candidates, The roll call, as reported in Richard C, Bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. This set off a scramble among several candidates to win the nomination. A good deal of the excitement of the race came from the fact that the candidates had only one hectic day to campaign among the delegates before the voting began. Kennedy surprised the experts by surging into the lead on the second ballot, however, a number of states then left their favorite son candidates and switched to Kefauver, giving him the victory. Kennedy then gave a concession speech. The narrow defeat raised his profile and helped Kennedys long-term presidential chances, as of 2017, this was the last time any presidential or vice presidential nomination of either the Democratic or Republican parties, went past the first ballot. Candidates The vote totals in the presidential balloting are recorded in the following table. On November 6, Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver lost the election to President Eisenhower, Democratic Party Platform of 1956 at The American Presidency Project Stevenson Acceptance Speech at The American Presidency Project

78.
1960 Democratic National Convention
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The 1960 Democratic National Convention was held in Los Angeles, California, on July 11–July 15,1960. It nominated Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts for President, several other candidates sought support in their home state or region as favorite son candidates without any realistic chance of winning the nomination. Symington, Stevenson, and Johnson all declined to campaign in the presidential primaries, realizing that this was a strategy touted by his opponents to keep the public from taking him seriously, Kennedy stated frankly, Im not running for vice-president, Im running for president. The next step was the primaries, Kennedys Roman Catholic religion was an issue. Kennedy first challenged Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey in the Wisconsin primary, Kennedys attractive sisters, brothers, and wife Jacqueline combed the state looking for votes, leading Humphrey to complain that he felt like an independent merchant competing against a chain store. The first televised debate of 1960 was held in West Virginia, humphreys campaign was low on funds and could not compete for advertising and other get-out-the-vote drives with Kennedys well-financed and well-organized campaign. In the end, Kennedy defeated Humphrey with over 60% of the vote, West Virginia showed that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Although Kennedy had only competed in nine primaries, Kennedys rivals, Johnson and Symington. Following the primaries, Kennedy traveled around the nation speaking to state delegations, as the Democratic Convention opened, Kennedy was far in the lead, but was still seen as being just short of the delegate total he needed to win. In the week before the convention opened, Kennedy received two new challengers when Lyndon B, Johnson, the powerful Senate Majority Leader from Texas, and Adlai Stevenson II, the partys nominee in 1952 and 1956, announced their candidacies. Johnson challenged Kennedy to a debate before a joint meeting of the Texas and Massachusetts delegations. Most observers felt that Kennedy won the debate, and Johnson was not able to expand his delegate support beyond the South, two Johnson supporters, including John B. Connally, brought up the question of Kennedys health, connally said that Kennedy had Addisons disease. JFK press secretary Pierre Salinger of California denied the story, a Kennedy physician, Janet Travell, released a statement that the senators adrenal glands were functioning adequately and that he was no more susceptible to infection than anyone else. It was also denied that Kennedy was on cortisone, the Democratic platform in 1960 was the longest yet. As the first step in speeding economic growth, a Democratic president will put an end to the present high-interest-rate, tight-money policy. Other planks included national defense, disarmament, civil rights, immigration, foreign aid, Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina attempted to soften the partys plank on civil rights. A speech by Hawaii delegate Patsy Mink persuaded two-thirds of the party to keep their progressive stance on the issue. On July 13,1960, the day of the convention, Kennedy gained a narrow majority on the first ballot

79.
Coretta Scott King
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Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, civil rights leader, and the wife of Martin Luther King, Jr. from 1953 until his death in 1968. Coretta Scott King helped lead the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, King was an active advocate for African-American equality. King met her husband while in college, and their participation escalated until they became central to the movement, in her early life, Coretta was an accomplished singer, and she often incorporated music into her civil rights work. King played a prominent role in the years after her husbands 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself, King founded the King Center and sought to make his birthday a national holiday. King finally succeeded when Ronald Reagan signed legislation which established Martin Luther King and she later broadened her scope to include both opposition to apartheid and advocacy for LGBT rights. King became friends with many politicians before and after Martin Luther Kings death, most notably John F. Kennedy, John F. Kennedys phone call to her during the 1960 election was what she liked to believe was behind his victory. In August 2005, King suffered a stroke paralyzed her right side and left her unable to speak. Her funeral was attended by some 10,000 people, including four of five living US presidents and she was temporarily buried on the grounds of the King Center until being interred next to her husband. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame and was the first African-American to lie in State in the Georgia State Capitol, King has been referred to as First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement. Coretta Scott was born in Marion, Alabama, the third of four children of Obadiah Scott and she was born in her parents home with her paternal great-grandmother Delia Scott, a former slave, presiding as midwife. Corettas mother became known for her talent and singing voice. As a child Bernice attended the local Crossroads School and only had a fourth grade education, bernices older siblings, however, attended boarding school at the Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee Institute. The senior Mrs. Scott worked as a bus driver, a church pianist. She served as Worthy Matron for her Eastern Star chapter and was a member of the local Literacy Federated Club, Obie, Corettas father, was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a vehicle. Before starting his own businesses he worked as a policeman, along with his wife, he ran a clothes shop far from their home and later opened a general store. He also owned a mill, which was burned down by white neighbors after Scott refused to lend his mill to a white male logger. Her maternal grandparents were Mollie and Martin van Buren McMurry – both were of African-American and Irish descent, Mollie was born a slave to plantation owner Jim Blackburn and Adeline Smith. Corettas maternal grandfather, Martin, was born to a slave of Black Native American ancestry and he eventually owned a 280-acre farm

80.
Why England Slept
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Why England Slept is the published version of a thesis written by John F. Kennedy while in his senior year at Harvard College. Its title was an allusion to Winston Churchills 1938 book While England Slept, which also examined the buildup of German power. The book was intended to be no more than a college thesis – it was rated as a magna cum laude by Professor Henry A. Yeomans. Author Garry Wills claims that this amounted to rewriting and retitling the manuscript. As ambassador to Britain, Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. supported Prime Minister Neville Chamberlains policy of appeasement during the late 1930s. John F. Kennedy lived with his father in Britain at that time and later, during World War II, since 1940, the books foreword was written by Henry R. Luce

Why England Slept
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cover of paperback edition

81.
Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination
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This article considers the detailed timeline of events before, during, and after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22. Oswald had secured the job after a referral by Ruth Paine, with whom Lees wife, Marina Oswald, Ruth had also separated from her husband, Michael Paine, at about the same time. On October 24,1963, when on a visit to Dallas to mark U. N. Day, U. N. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson was jeered, jostled, hit by a sign, and spat upon. Dallas Police were fearful that similar demonstrations were going to happen to Kennedy when he visited Dallas, several people, including Stevenson, warned JFK against coming to Dallas, but Kennedy refused their advice. Dallas Police, headed by chief Jesse Curry, did increase the level of security during Kennedys visit, Curry even deputized citizens to take action for any suspicious acts that may be pointed towards the president. San Antonio, Dedication speech for U. S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base, Houston, Testimonial dinner at the Rice Hotel, honoring Congressman Albert Thomas. Fort Worth, Arrival at Hotel Texas, Fort Worth, Chamber of Commerce breakfast speech at Hotel Texas. Dallas, Luncheon speech attended by Dallas Citizens Council, Dallas Assembly, austin, Fundraising dinner speech at Municipal Auditorium. Johnson City, Weekend of relaxation at Lyndon Johnsons ranch, on Thursday, November 21,1963, at 11,07 p. m. Air Force One lands at Carswell Air Force base on the ouskirts of Fort Worth, when walking down the steps of Air Force One, the president and his wife are met by Raymond Buck, president of the Fort Worth Chamber of Commerce. Also travelling on board Air Force Two are the vice president Lyndon B, Johnson, the Texas governor John Connally, and Senator Ralph Yarborough. Connally and Yarborough dislike each other so much that Yarborough is unwilling to travel in the car as Johnson. The following day, the president tells him to ride with Johnson, Kennedy is praising Fort Worth’s aviation industry. JFK takes his place in the hotel’s Grand Ballroom for the scheduled speech, later, press secretary Mac Kilduff shows the First Couple a disturbing advertisement seen in The Dallas Morning News, ironically and critically headlined ‘Welcome Mr. Kennedy to Dallas’. JFK tells Jacqueline, ‘We’re heading into nut country today, ’ On Friday, November 22,1963, at 11,38 a. m

82.
State funeral of John F. Kennedy
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The body of President Kennedy was brought back to Washington soon after his death and placed in the East Room of the White House for 24 hours. On the Sunday after the assassination, his coffin was carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the U. S. Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket, representatives from over 90 countries attended the state funeral on Monday, November 25. After the Requiem Mass at St. Matthews Cathedral, the president was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. After John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, his body was flown back to Washington, at the same time, military authorities began making arrangements for a state funeral. Wehle, the general of the Military District of Washington. Miller, chief of ceremonies and special events at the MDW and they headed to the White House and worked with the presidents brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, also director of the Peace Corps, and Ralph Dungan, an aide to the president. Because Kennedy had no plan in place, much of the planning rested with the CG MDW. The day after the assassination, the new president, Lyndon B, johnson, issued Presidential Proclamation 3561, declaring Monday to be a national day of mourning, and only essential emergency workers to be at their posts. He read the proclamation over a radio and television broadcast at 4,45 p. m. from the Fish Room at the White House. Several elements of the funeral paid tribute to Kennedys service in the Navy during World War II. They included a member of the Navy bearing the flag, the playing of the Navy Hymn, Eternal Father, Strong to Save. Then Kennedys body was put in a new casket in place of the bronze casket which was used to transport the body from Dallas. The bronze casket had been damaged in transit, and was disposed of by the Air Force in the Atlantic Ocean so that it would not fall into the hands of sensation seekers. The body of President Kennedy was returned to the White House at about 4,30 a. m, the motorcade bearing the remains was met at the White House gate by a Marine honor guard, which escorted it to the North Portico. The pallbearers bore the casket to the East Room where, nearly one hundred years earlier, Kennedys casket was placed on a catafalque previously used for the funerals of the Unknown Soldiers from the Korean War and World War II at Arlington. Jacqueline Kennedy declared that the casket would be closed for the duration of the viewing. The shot to Kennedys head left a wound, and religious leaders said that a closed casket minimized morbid concentration on the corpse

State funeral of John F. Kennedy
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State Funeral of John F. Kennedy
State funeral of John F. Kennedy
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President John F. Kennedy lies in repose in the White HouseEast Room.
State funeral of John F. Kennedy
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The riderless (caparisoned) horse named " Black Jack " during a departure ceremony held on the center steps at the United States Capitol Building.
State funeral of John F. Kennedy
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A limbers and caissons bearing the casket of President John F. Kennedy seen moving down the White House drive on the way to St. Matthew's Cathedral on November 25, 1963. A color guard holding the presidential colors, the flag of the President of the United States, and the riderless horse "Black Jack", follow behind.

83.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
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The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum is the presidential library and museum of John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States. Designed by the architect I. M, the library and museum were dedicated in 1979 by President Jimmy Carter and members of the Kennedy family. It can be reached from nearby Interstate 93 or via shuttle bus or walk from the JFK/UMass stop on the Boston subways Red line. At the time there were four other Presidential Libraries, the Hoover Presidential Library, the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, the Truman Library. They were all scattered around the country in small towns from New York to Iowa, Kennedy had not decided on any design concept yet, but he felt that the existing presidential libraries were placed too far away from scholarly resources. Kennedy chose a plot of land next to the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, the building would face the Charles River which was a few feet away, and on the other side of which, the dormitories that included Winthrop House where Kennedy spent his upperclassman days. Therefore, the building would have the word museum appended to its name, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, after President Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, his family and friends discussed how to construct a library that would serve as a fitting memorial. A committee was formed to advise Kennedys widow Jacqueline, who would make the final decision, the group deliberated for months, and visited with architects from around the world including Pietro Belluschi and others from the United States, Brazils Lucio Costa, and Italys Franco Albini. Mrs. Kennedy and others met with the candidates together at the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis, Massachusetts, the committee also conducted a secretive process whereby the architects voted anonymously for the most capable of their colleagues. Progress on the building shortly after his death. On January 13,1964, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy announced that a taped oral-history project was to be undertaken for inclusion in the library, the project would feature administration staff, friends, family, and politicians from home and abroad. Large donations came from the Hispanic world with Venezuela pledging $100,000, the oral-history project also began recording, starting with Jacqueline Kennedy and Robert Kennedy. Originally projected to consist of interviews with 150 people,178 had agreed to participate, some notable donations include $900,000 handed over to Postmaster General John A. Gronouski on July 9,1964. It was the sum of a campaign encompassing 102 Federal agencies, Gronouski said many of the Federal employee contributions were in the form of a $5 withholding each payday for a period of three years. The next day the Indian ambassador to the United States, Braj Kumar Nehru, presented Black with a check for $100,000 during a ceremony at the River Club. Nehru said that the Indian people were hit by a sad blow when the President died, and he desired for Indian students abroad in the United States to use the library, then still planned for construction at Harvard along the banks of the Charles River. On December 13,1964, the Kennedy family announced that I. M. Pei was unanimously chosen by a subcommittee as the architect of the library. Even though Pei was relatively unknown amongst the list of candidates, Mrs. Pei did not have a design yet, but the idea as described by Robert Kennedy was to “stimulate interest in politics. ”Meanwhile, the suggestion that Harvard may not be a suitable site for the library had begun cropping up

John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
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From the pavilion (pictured), designer I. M. Pei says there is a restricted access area that offers the best view in the complex.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
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President Kennedy had the coconut made into a paperweight. It sat on his desk in the Oval Office. The message reads: "NAURO ISL… COMMANDER… NATIVE KNOWS POS'IT… HE CAN PILOT… 11 ALIVE… NEED SMALL BOAT… KENNEDY"
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
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Life

84.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2,1964, Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. On June 11,1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening and this led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, the presidents bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U. S. law, in essence, this was the controversial Title III that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality, Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October,1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963, kennedys successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee, by the time of the 1963 winter recess,50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill, to avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastlands firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Said Russell, We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about equality and intermingling. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals, on the morning of June 10,1964, Senator Robert Byrd completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, a day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bills manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, and quickly passed through the House-Senate conference committee

85.
Apollo 11
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Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20,1969, at 20,18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02,56,15 UTC and they spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moons surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16, and was the fifth manned mission of NASAs Apollo program. After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn Vs upper stage, Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface, the astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew in human spaceflight history, a previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969, charlie Duke, Capsule Communicator Ronald Evans Owen K. Garriott Don L. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, the Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon in Jules Vernes 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for peaceful lunar landing by the United States and he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too warlike and after some discussion, All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was used for the smaller Susan B

86.
Kennedy Space Center
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The John F. Kennedy Space Center is one of ten National Aeronautics and Space Administration field centers. Since December 1968, Kennedy Space Center has been NASAs primary launch center of human spaceflight, Launch operations for the Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle programs were carried out from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 and managed by KSC. Located on the east coast of Florida, KSC is adjacent to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, the management of the two entities work very closely together, share resources, and even own facilities on each others property. Additionally, the center manages launch of robotic and commercial missions, researches food production and In-Situ Resource Utilization for off Earth exploration. Since 2010, the center has worked to become a multi-user spaceport through industry partnerships, there are about 700 facilities grouped across the centers 144,000 acres. There is also a Visitor Complex open to the public on site, the military had been performing launch operations since 1949 at what would become Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. In December 1959, the Department of Defense transferred 5,000 personnel, President John F. Kennedys 1961 goal of a manned lunar landing before 1970 required an expansion of launch operations. On July 1,1962, the Launch Operations Directorate was separated from MSFC to become the Launch Operations Center, therefore, the decision was made to build a new LOC site located adjacent to Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island. NASA began land acquisition in 1962, buying title to 131 square miles, the major buildings in KSCs Industrial Area were designed by architect Charles Luckman. Construction began in November 1962, and Kennedy visited the site twice in 1962, on November 29,1963, the facility was given its current name by President Lyndon B. Johnson under Executive Order 11129. Johnsons order joined both the civilian LOC and the military Cape Canaveral station under the designation John F. Kennedy Space Center, spawning some confusion joining the two in the public mind. Located on Merritt Island, Florida, the center is north-northwest of Cape Canaveral on the Atlantic Ocean and it is 34 miles long and roughly six miles wide, covering 219 square miles. KSC is a major central Florida tourist destination and is one hours drive from the Orlando area. The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex offers public tours of the center, Center workers can encounter bald eagles, American alligators, wild boars, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, the endangered Florida panther and Florida manatees. From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches, the first of two unmanned flights, Apollo 4 on November 9,1967, was also the first rocket launch from KSC. The Saturn Vs first manned launch on December 21,1968 was Apollo 8s lunar orbiting mission, the next two missions tested the Lunar Module, Apollo 9 and Apollo 10. Apollo 11, launched from Pad A on July 16,1969, Apollo 12 followed four months later. From 1970–1972, the Apollo program concluded at KSC with the launches of missions 13 through 17, on May 14,1973, the last Saturn V launch put the Skylab space station in orbit from Pad 39A

87.
Five cents John Kennedy
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The five cents John Kennedy is the first United States postage stamp to pay tribute to President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. It was issued May 29,1964 for his 47th birthday, with a first day of issue cancellation in his hometown of Boston, the overall shape of the stamp is a horizontal rectangle, of a size standard for the time. Textual inscriptions form a frame around the design, and include a quotation from Kennedys 1961 inaugural address. And the glow from that fire can truly light the world, along with Kennedys full name and the years of his birth and death. The required U. S. POSTAGE inscription is positioned inconspicuously in small letters vertically next to the Eternal Flame, the stamp is in a single blue-gray color. Soon after the assassination of President Kennedy, the United States Post Office Department decided to issue a stamp to be issued on his next birthday. This was a challenging deadline, requiring the stamp to be designed, approved by the Presidents widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, the first proposals of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing were turned down in December 1963 and in early January 1964. The decision was made to call in the Loewy/Snaith design firm. Over the next three months, Loewys designers worked on the project, to maintain secrecy, Loewy locked the papers and projects in his safe every day, putting his thumbs fingerprint on them. Finally, Mrs. Kennedy was consulted, choosing both the design proposal and its color, a similar to that used in the interior of Air Force One. Reproductions of some proposals are printed with the article

Five cents John Kennedy
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5 cents John Kennedy

88.
Operation Sail
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Operation Sail refers to a series of sailing events held to celebrate special occasions and features sailing vessels from around the world. Each event is coordinated by Operation Sail, Inc. a non-profit organization established in 1961 by U. S. President John F. Kennedy and must be approved by the United States Congress. Often referred to as OpSail or Op Sail, the event has the goals of promoting good will and it is also sometimes erroneously referred to as Tall Ships. While the tall ships form the centerpiece of the event, smaller sailing vessels also participate, Op Sail events, when scheduled, are run concurrently with the annual International Naval Review, which features present-day warships from various navies. Six Op Sail events have held to date, in 1964,1976,1986,1992,2000 and 2012. The event culminates in the Parade of Ships on the Hudson River and in New York Harbor on July 4, the United States Coast Guard cutter Eagle has been the host vessel to all six Op Sail events. Along with Nils Hansell, Frank Braynard launched the worlds first Operation Sail, the inaugural Opsail was a tie-in with the 1964 New York Worlds Fair. Operation sail 1964, Four years in the making, Operation Sail is an effort to promote goodwill and to generate awareness of ships. It is a dream come true for sailing enthusiasts, and a once in an opportunity for anyone who is stirred by the sight of a square rigger under full sail. Many nations maintain sailing ships in this age because they believe there is no better way to build character in young men than sail training. It encourages initiative, steadfastness, leadership and personal courage, the records of the brotherhood of the sea sparkle with innumerable examples of the value of such training. The prestige of having served aboard a windjammer is no small matter, to reach New York for the July 14 parade up the Hudson River, some of these tall ships will have sailed from their home ports as long ago as early March. Some will have raced from Plymouth, England, to Lisbon, Portugal, then 3000 miles across the Atlantic to Bermuda rendezvous, and these ships are specifically built for training under sail. As these tall ships plough the oceans, the men who man this great fleet are helping to forge a bond of understanding, July 12, Ships anchor in designated order in Gravesend Bay. July 13, 1430- Captains briefing aboard USCG 1730-2000, Reception at Chase Manhattan Bank, July 14, 1100- Ships will depart Gravesend Bay and pass official reviewing vessel, USS Randolph, and then proceed to anchorages below the George Washington Bridge. July 15, Ships move to assigned piers, July 16, 1200- Ticker tape parade from Battery Park to City Hall. 1400-1800- Ships open to Public. 2000-0100- Grand Ball, Holland America Line Pier 40, July 17, 0900- Captains Symposium, Maritime Exchange. 1215- American Institute of Marine Underwriters luncheon for Captains at India House, July 18, Worlds Fair Day, Singer Bowl

89.
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
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This is a list of memorials to John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States. At Harvard University, The Harvard Institute of Politics serves as a memorial which promotes public service in his name. The School of Government is known as the John F. Kennedy School of Government, John F. Kennedy University opened in Pleasant Hill, California, in 1964 as a school for adult education. Hundreds of schools across the U. S. were named in Kennedys honor, the first school in the United States named after him, while he was alive, had been the Kennedy Middle School, in Cupertino, California. In the week after Kennedys death, the first schools renamed for him were the Kennedy Elementary School in Butte, Montana, both schools held Board Meetings on November 26, at which time the new names were adopted. Originally scheduled to be named in honour of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, it was instead named President Kennedy School, Cape Canaveral itself was likewise renamed Cape Kennedy, but a referendum passed by Florida voters in 1973 reverted it to its original name. In New York City, the New York International Airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, today, the airport is widely referred to as JFK which is now its IATA code. John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport, Ashland, Wisconsin, United States, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum on Columbia Point in Dorchester, Massachusetts opened in 1979 as Kennedys official presidential library. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts opened in 1971 in Washington, the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Federal Building in Government Center, Boston. John F. Kennedy Stadium, Bridgeport, Connecticut, United States, JFK Stadium, Springfield, Missouri, United States. One of the five towers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst is named Kennedy Tower in his honor. The student union at the University of Dayton is named the John F. Kennedy Memorial Union, in Cumberland, Maryland a low income residential apartment is named the John F Kennedy Tower. It was dedicated by Maryland native and late brother-in-law of Kennedy, Sargent Shriver, Philadelphia Municipal Stadium was renamed John F. Kennedy Stadium in 1964. It was razed in 1992 and its location is now occupied by the Wells Fargo Center. Rue John Kennedy, a street in Beirut, Lebanon that was named in honor of President John F. Kennedy on November 30,1963, Kennedy Street was the name of a street in Tehran, Iran, which was renamed Vahdat-e-Islami Street after the Revolution of 1979. Kennedybrücke, a bridge in Vienna, Austria, finished in 1964 and named after John F. Kennedy, kennedytunnel, one of the busiest highway tunnels in Europe, built in the 1960s in Antwerp, Belgium, and named after President Kennedy. Kennedybrücke, a bridge in Hamburg, between the Binnenalster and Außenalster, completed in 1953 and originally named Neue Lombardsbrücke, it was renamed Kennedybrücke after the assassination in 1963. Ejido John F. Kennedy, a farm in the state of Sonora

Memorials to John F. Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy has appeared on the U.S. half-dollar coin since 1964
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
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Bust of Kennedy, with UQAM President Kennedy Pavilion behind, on Président-Kennedy Avenue in Montreal

90.
John F. Kennedy International Airport
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John F. Kennedy International Airport is a major international airport located near South Ozone Park in the borough of Queens in New York City, United States,12 miles southeast of Lower Manhattan. Over ninety airlines operate out of the airport, with non-stop or direct flights to destinations in all six inhabited continents, the airport features six passenger terminals and four runways. It serves as a hub for American Airlines and Delta Air Lines and is the operating base for JetBlue Airways. In the past, JFK served as a hub for Eastern, National, Pan Am, John F. Kennedy International Airport was originally Idlewild Airport after the Idlewild Beach Golf Course that it displaced. It was built to relieve LaGuardia Airport, which was overcrowded soon after opening in 1939. Construction began in 1943, and about $60 million was spent of governmental funding. In March 1948 the New York City Council changed the name to New York International Airport, Anderson Field, the Port Authority leased the JFK property from the City of New York in 1947 and maintains this lease today. The first airline flight from JFK was on July 1,1948, the Port Authority cancelled foreign airlines permits to use LaGuardia, forcing them to move to JFK during the next couple of years. JFK opened with six runways and a seventh under construction, runways 1L and 7L were held in reserve and never came into use as runways. Runway 31R is still in use, runway 31L opened soon after the rest of the airport and is still in use, runway 1R closed in 1957, runway 4 opened June 1949 and runway 4R was added ten years later. A smaller runway 14/32 was built after runway 7R closed and was used through 1990 by general aviation, STOL and smaller commuter flights. The Avro Jetliner was the first jetliner to land at JFK on April 18,1950, later in 1957 the USSR sought approval for two Tupolev Tu-104 flights carrying diplomats to JFK, the Port Authority did not allow them, saying noise tests had to be done first. The airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, then-mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. proposed the renaming. The Port of New York Authority originally planned a single 55-gate terminal, architect Wallace Harrison then designed a master plan under which each major airline at the airport would be given its own space to develop its own terminal design. This scheme made construction more practical, made terminals more navigable, the revised plan met airline approval in 1955, with seven terminals initially planned—five for individual airlines, one developed for 3 airlines and an international arrivals building. The International Arrivals Building, or IAB, was the first new terminal at the airport, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and opening in December 1957. Stretching nearly 700 meters parallel to runway 7R where Terminal 4 is now, it had finger piers at right-angles to the building allowing more aircraft to park. United Airlines opened Terminal 7, a Skidmore design similar to the IAB, Eastern Airlines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 a month later, it was demolished in 1995

John F. Kennedy International Airport
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John F. Kennedy International Airport - KJFK
John F. Kennedy International Airport
John F. Kennedy International Airport
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FAA airport diagram as of September 2014.
John F. Kennedy International Airport

91.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial
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The JFK Memorial was the first memorial by famed American architect and Kennedy family friend, Philip Johnson. The monument was approved by Jacqueline Kennedy herself, Johnson called it a place of quiet refuge, an enclosed place of thought and contemplation separated from the city around, but near the sky and earth. The citizens of Dallas funded its construction entirely, Philip Johnsons design is a cenotaph, or empty tomb, that symbolizes the freedom of Kennedy’s spirit. The memorial is a square, roofless room,30 feet high and 50 by 50 feet wide with two narrow openings facing north and south. The walls consist of 72 white precast concrete columns, most of which seem to float with no visible support two feet above the earth, eight columns extend to the ground, acting as legs that seem to hold up the monument. Each column ends in a light fixture, at night, the lights create the illusion that the structure is supported by the light itself. The corners and “doors” of this room are decorated with rows of concrete circles, or medallions, each identical. These decorations introduce the circular shape into the architecture of the Kennedy Memorial. Visitors enter the room after a walk up a slight concrete incline. Inside visitors confront a low-hewn granite square, too empty to be a base, too short to be a table, the letters have been painted gold to capture the light from the white floating column walls and the pale concrete floor. These words – three words of a famous name – are the verbal messages in the empty room. A square granite memorial next to this marker reads, The joy, so did the pain and sorrow of his death. When he died on November 22,1963, shock and agony touched human conscience throughout the world, in Dallas, Texas, there was a special sorrow. The young President died in Dallas, the death bullets were fired 200 yards west of this site. This memorial, designed by Philip Johnson, was erected by the people of Dallas, thousands of citizens contributed support, money and effort. It is not a memorial to the pain and sorrow of death, in mid 1999, The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza undertook management of the memorial, rallying the support of Dallas County and the City of Dallas. The Museum became caretaker of the monument and launched a restoration project aimed at preserving the memorial. In 2000, a panel of experts wrote an explanation of the memorial to satisfy the public, architectural critic Witold Rybczynski wrote that the monument is poorly done, likening its precast concrete slab walls to mammoth Lego blocks, and commented that Kennedy deserved better

John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial
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JFK Memorial

92.
John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
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The main span is 700 feet and the bridge has a total length of 2,498 feet. The span carries six southbound lanes and it is named after U. S. President John F. Kennedy. Designed by the Louisville engineering firm of Hazelet & Erdal, construction began in the spring of 1961, the span was unnamed when U. S. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22,1963. Four days later, Kentucky Governor Bert T. Combs announced that there was agreement that the bridge would be named in Kennedys honor. The bridge was dedicated and opened for traffic on December 6. Between the late 1990s and 2006, the bridge was covered with spots and the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet had failed in attempts to rectify this. The state twice paid contractors to repaint the bridge who then failed to do so, the attempts cost over $23 million, with little apparent result. The first of the two contracts, awarded in 1999, ended two years later in a scandal that resulted in criminal prosecution. In October 2006, the awarded a $14.7 million contract to Intech Contracting of Lexington to paint half the bridge by the summer of 2007. The new contract differed in that the project was split in two, and the plans for a three color paint scheme were replaced with a simpler all beige colored one. The very southernmost portion of the bridge was completed in three colors, although this will be painted over, on December 5,2007, the painting project was completed at a cost of $59 million which included the two previous failed painting projects. In 2013, Kentucky broke ground on a span as part of the Ohio River Bridges Project. The Abraham Lincoln Bridge, a bridge that opened in December 2015. The Kennedy Bridge now carries six lanes of southbound I-65 traffic, the Kennedy Bridge reopened in three phases during the final months of 2016. The first phase saw one lane reopen on September 30 for traffic traveling from surface streets in Jeffersonville to I-65, the final phase was the reopening of the exit ramp from the bridge to westbound I-64, which had been closed for nearly a year, on November 14

John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
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The John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge in 2006 as seen from Jeffersonville, Indiana
John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
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The bridge during the last repainting project. Note the far right part of the bridge painted in a three color scheme, originally planned for the whole bridge. This scheme was abandoned and the entire bridge was painted in a light grey.

93.
John F. Kennedy School of Government
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The John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University is a public policy and public administration school, of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The school offers degrees in public policy, public administration, and international development, grants several doctoral degrees. It conducts research in subjects relating to politics, government, international affairs, the Schools primary campus is located on John F. Kennedy Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The main buildings overlook the Charles River, southwest of Harvard Yard and Harvard Square, the School is adjacent to the public riverfront John F. Kennedy Memorial Park. In 2015, Douglas Elmendorf, the director of the U. S. Congressional Budget Office who had served as a Harvard faculty member, was named Dean of the Harvard Kennedy School. From 2004 to 2015, the Schools Dean was David Ellwood, previously, Ellwood was an assistant secretary in the Department of Health and Human Services in the Clinton Administration. A major expansion and renovation of the began in 2015. Harvard Kennedy School was originally the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration, and was founded in 1936 with a $2 million gift from Lucius N. Littauer and its shield was designed to express the national purpose of the school and was modeled after the U. S. shield. The School drew its initial faculty from Harvards existing government and economics departments, the Schools original home was in the Littauer Center north of Harvard Yard, now the home of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences Economics Department. In the 1960s, the School began to develop public policy degree. In 1966, the School was renamed for President John F. Kennedy, under the terms of Littauers original grant, the current HKS campus also features a building called Littauer. The IOP has been housed on the Kennedy School campus since 1978, the John F. Kennedy, Jr. Forum in the new Littauer building is both the site of IOP forum events as well as a major social gathering place between HKS courses. Ground breaking commenced on May 7,2015 and is expected to be complete in early 2018. The school has stated that the new space will be used exclusively to cater to the needs of the class sizes. Currently, Harvard Kennedy School offers four degree programs. The Master of Public Policy program focuses on analysis, economics, management in the public sector. Among the members of the mid-career MPA class are the Mason Fellows, Mason Fellows typically constitute about 50% of the incoming class of Mid Career MPA candidates

John F. Kennedy School of Government
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Littauer Building
John F. Kennedy School of Government
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Harvard Kennedy School
John F. Kennedy School of Government
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Taubman Building
John F. Kennedy School of Government
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Belfer Center

94.
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
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Its purpose is to recruit, assess, select, train and educate the U. S. The command originated in 1950, when the U. S. Army developed the Psychological Warfare Division of the Army General School at Fort Riley, Kansas. The U. S. Army Psychological Warfare Center and School, which included operational tactical units, the center was proposed by the Armys then-Psychological Warfare Chief, Robert A. McClure, to provide doctrinal support and training for both psychological and unconventional warfare. In 1956, the PSYWAR Center and School was renamed the U. S. Army Center for Special Warfare/U. S, the school was given the responsibility to develop the doctrine, techniques, training and education of Special Forces and Psychological Operations personnel. In 1960, the schools expanded to counterinsurgency operations. In 1962, the Special Warfare Center established a Special Forces Training Group to train enlisted volunteers for operational assignments within Special Forces units, the Advanced Training Committee was formed to explore and develop methods of infiltration and exfiltration. On 16 May 1969, the school was renamed the U. S. Army Institute for Military Assistance, the curriculum was expanded to provide training in high-altitude, low-opening parachuting and SCUBA operations. On 1 April 1972, the U. S. Army Civil Affairs School was transferred from Fort Gordon, Georgia to Fort Bragg, in 1973, the center was assigned to the new U. S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. On 1 June 1982, the Chief of Staff of the Army approved the separation of the center as an independent TRADOC activity under the name U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center. The SWC integrated special operations into the Army systems, training and operations, in 1985, SWC was recognized as the U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School. A few years later, the Noncommissioned Officer Academy was instituted, on 20 June 1990, SWCS was reassigned from TRADOC to the U. S. Army Special Operations Command. This designation gave USASOC control of all components of SOF, with the exception of forward-deployed units. The U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School at Fort Bragg, N. C. manages and resources training, education, Special operations forces training is grounded in the SOF Truths, Humans are more important than hardware. Competent special-operations forces cannot be created after emergencies occur, most special operations require non-SOF support On any given day, approximately 3,100 students are enrolled in SWCS training programs. Courses range from training to advanced war fighting skills. SWCS also maintains the Special Forces Warrant Officer Institute and the David K. Thuma Noncommissioned Officer Academy, while most courses are conducted at Fort Bragg, SWCS also has facilities and relationships with outside institutions. In all, SWCS offers 41 unique courses, including assessment & selection and qualification courses for Civil Affairs, Psychological Operations, Special Forces and Cultural Support. Advanced skills courses include combat diver training in Key West, Florida, sniper training at Fort Bragg, regional studies and education constitutes Phase II of the three branches qualification courses

John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
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Distinctive Unit Insignia
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
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U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School insignia

95.
Yad Kennedy
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Yad Kennedy, located in the Mateh Yehuda Region near Jerusalem, Israel, is a memorial to John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, who was assassinated in Dallas, Texas in 1963. The 60-foot high memorial is shaped like the stump of a felled tree, inside is a bronze relief of Kennedy, with an eternal flame burning in the center. It is encircled by 51 concrete columns, one for each of the 50 states in the United States plus one for Washington, the emblems of the states are displayed on each of the columns, and the columns are separated by slim panels of glass. The monument measures approximately 250 feet in circumference around its base, the monument was built in 1966 with funds donated by American Jewish communities. Yad Kennedy and its picnic grounds are part of the John F. Kennedy Peace Forest. The site is located 7 miles from downtown Jerusalem, in the general direction as Hadassah Medical Center, on top of the highest of the Jerusalem hills. The view from the lot has been described in the Frommers travel guide as breathtaking – a never-ending succession of mountains. On a clear day, the Mediterranean Sea can be seen in the direction of Tel Aviv,40 miles away, the memorial can be reached by following the winding mountain roads past Ora and Aminadav. It is approximately 45 minutes by foot from the nearest main road, the monument and adjoining picnic grounds are part of the John F. Kennedy Peace Forest. The area designated as the JFK Peace Forest is part of the larger Aminadav Forest, max Bressler of Chicago, Illinois, then president of the American Jewish National Fund, came up with the proposal for the memorial in 1964. Bressler, for whom the Jerusalem neighborhood of Kiryat Menachem is named, had hoped to lead an American delegation to the dedication ceremony, but he died in 1966. On 13 January 1964, former Pennsylvania Governor George M. Leader announced plans for the memorial and he stated that similar committees would be set up in each State, as well as some additional committees in countries overseas. On 22 November 1964, the first anniversary of the assassination, the meetings were described as tributes for the fallen President as well as symbolic dedication ceremonies for the planned memorial. American communities pledged to fund the planting of trees in the forest in addition to funds for the memorial, an Israeli childrens band played Hatikva, the Israeli national anthem, along with the U. S. anthem, the Star Spangled Banner. Among the guests at the 4 July 1966 dedication was U. S, chief Justice Earl Warren, who had chaired the commission tasked with investigating the 1963 assassination. Among other guests were Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel, Teddy Kollek, the mayor of Jerusalem, and Walworth Barbour, the United States Ambassador to Israel. Warren noted that Washington, D. C. had many memorials and your children and grandchildren when they visit Israel will find your monument. Second, Warren recalled that Kennedy had visited Israel twice, the first time in 1939 when it was part of the British Mandate

96.
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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USS John F. Kennedy is the only ship of her class and the last conventionally powered carrier built for the United States Navy. The ship is named after the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, Kennedy was originally designated a CVA, however, the designation was changed to CV to denote that the ship was capable of anti-submarine warfare, making her an all-purpose carrier. After nearly 40 years of service in the United States Navy and she is berthed at the NAVSEA Inactive Ships On-site Maintenance facility in Philadelphia and is available for donation as a museum and memorial to a qualified organization. The name has been adopted by the future Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier John F. Kennedy, contracted as Ship Characteristic Board SCB-127C, the ships keel was laid on 22 October 1964 by Newport News Shipbuilding. The ship was officially christened 27 May 1967 by Jacqueline Kennedy and her 9-year-old daughter, Caroline, the ship entered service 7 September 1968. John F. Kennedy is a version of the earlier Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carriers. Originally scheduled to be the fourth Kitty Hawk-class carrier, the ship received so many modifications during construction she formed her own class, the ship was originally ordered as a nuclear carrier, using the A3W reactor, but converted to conventional propulsion after construction had begun. The island is somewhat different from that of the Kitty Hawk class, with angled funnels to direct smoke, Kennedy is also 17 feet shorter than the Kitty Hawk class. After an ORI conducted by Commander, Carrier Division Two, Kennedy left for the Mediterranean in April 1969, the ship reached Rota, Spain on the morning of 22 April 1969 and relieved USS Forrestal. Rear Admiral Pierre N. Charbonnet, Commander, Carrier Striking Forces, Sixth Fleet, the turnover complete by nightfall, the carrier, escorted by destroyers, transited the Strait of Gibraltar at the start of the mid watch on 22 April. The next day, John F. Kennedy refueled from USS Marias and it was during the 1970s that Kennedy was upgraded to handle the F-14 Tomcat and the S-3 Viking. Kennedy was involved in the Navy response to the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East in October 1973, with her actions, in 1974, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. On 20 June 1975 Kennedy was the target of arson, suffering eight fires, with no injuries, while at port in Norfolk, Virginia. On 22 November 1975 Kennedy collided with the cruiser Belknap, severely damaging the ship and earning itself the nicknames Can Opener. As a result of the collision with John F. Kennedys overhanging deck, JP-5 fuel lines were ruptured spraying fuel over an adjacent catwalk, belknaps superstructure was gutted almost to the main deck, and seven of her crew killed. Aboard Kennedy, smoke inhalation claimed the life of Petty Officer 2nd Class Yeoman David A. Chivalette of CVW-1, both crew members ejected and landed on the deck, injured but alive. A naval race followed between the Soviet Navy and US Navy to get not only the plane, but also its missiles. In late 1978 Kennedy underwent her first, yearlong overhaul, which was completed in 1979, on 9 April 1979 she experienced five fires set by arson while undergoing overhaul at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Virginia

USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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USS John F. Kennedy is escorted out of NS Mayport, Florida by tugboats, on 11 November 2003.
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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John F. Kennedy on her initial shakedown in December 1968
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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A view of damage sustained by the carrier John F. Kennedy when she collided with the cruiser USS Belknap
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
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An elevated starboard quarter view of John F. Kennedy during the International Naval Review in New York Harbor, 4 July 1986.

97.
USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79)
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John F. Kennedy is the second Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier being built for the United States Navy. The ship is under construction and planned to be commissioned in 2020, on 7 December 2007, the 66th anniversary of the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Congressman Harry Mitchell proposed naming this ship USS Arizona. In 2009, Congressman John Shadegg proposed naming either CVN-79 or the subsequent CVN-80 Barry M. Goldwater, after Barry Goldwater, the late senator from Arizona. On 29 May 2011, the Department of Defense announced that the ship would be named for John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, who served in the navy during World War II. She will be the navy ship named after members of the Kennedy family, and the second aircraft carrier named John F. Kennedy, succeeding USS John F. Kennedy. On 15 January 2009, Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding was awarded a million contract for design work. On 30 September 2010, Northrop Grumman announced a new president for the construction of John F. Kennedy, Mike Shawcross. On 25 February 2011, the navy conducted the First Cut of Steel ceremony at Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding in Newport News, John F. Kennedy was originally planned to be completed in 2018. This was extended to 2020 after Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced in 2009 that the program would shift to a building program so as to place it on a more fiscally sustainable path. In September 2013, the Government Accountability Office recommended delaying the detail design, the Navy and Defense Department have rejected the recommendation. The Navy faces technical, design, and construction challenges to completing USS Gerald R. Ford, Gerald R. Ford had costs increase by 22 percent to $12.8 billion, and additional increases could follow due to uncertainties facing critical technology systems and shipbuilder underperformance. Risk is introduced in the plan to conduct integration testing of key systems at the same time as initial operational test. One action the GAO says could be taken to ensure Ford-class carrier acquisitions are supported is conducting an analysis of required capabilities. The ships keel was laid in Newport News, Virginia on 22 August 2015, as part of the traditional keel laying ceremony, the initials of ship sponsor Caroline Kennedy, daughter of President Kennedy, were welded into the ships hull. DoD press release naming CVN-79 John F. Kennedy Builder Website, Construction Milestones

98.
Caroline Kennedy
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Caroline Bouvier Kennedy is an American author, attorney, and diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Japan from 2013 to 2017. She is a prominent member of the Kennedy family and the surviving child of President John F. Kennedy. The following year, Caroline, her mother, and brother settled on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, Kennedy graduated from Radcliffe College and worked at Manhattans Metropolitan Museum of Art, where she met her future husband, exhibit designer Edwin Schlossberg. She went on to receive a J. D. degree from Columbia Law School, most of Kennedys professional life has spanned law and politics, as well as education reform and charitable work. She has also acted as a spokesperson for her familys legacy, congresswoman Kirsten Gillibrand ultimately replaced Clinton as the junior New York Senator. In 2013, President Obama appointed her as ambassador to Japan, Caroline Bouvier Kennedy was born on November 27,1957, at New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan to John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy. A year before Carolines birth, her parents had a daughter named Arabella. Caroline had two brothers, John Jr. who was born just before her third birthday, and Patrick. Caroline lived with her parents in Georgetown, Washington, D. C. during the first three years of her life, when Caroline was three years old, the family moved to the White House when her father was sworn in as President of the United States. Caroline frequently attended kindergarten in classes that were organized by her mother, one such photo in a news article inspired singer-songwriter Neil Diamond to write his Top Ten hit song, Sweet Caroline—which he revealed when he performed it for her 50th birthday. As a small child, Caroline received numerous gifts from dignitaries, including a puppy from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, historians described Carolines childhood personality as a trifle remote and a bit shy at times yet remarkably unspoiled. Shes too young to realize all these luxuries, her grandmother, Rose Kennedy. She probably thinks its natural for children to go off in their own airplanes, but she is with her cousins, and some of them dance and swim better than she. They do not allow her to take special precedence and that evening, the children were brought back to the White House, and while Caroline was in her bed, Shaw broke the news to her. Shaw soon found out that Jacqueline had wanted to be the one to tell the children, on December 6, two weeks after the assassination, Jacqueline and the children moved out of the White House, back to Georgetown. Their new home became a popular tourist attraction and they moved from Washington to a penthouse apartment at 1040 Fifth Avenue on the Upper East Side of Manhattan the following year. In 1967, Caroline christened the U. S. Navy aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy in a widely publicized ceremony in Newport News, Virginia. Over that summer, Jacqueline took the children on a sentimental journey to Ireland

99.
John F. Kennedy Jr.
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John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. often referred to as JFK Jr. or John John, was an American lawyer, journalist, and magazine publisher. He was the surviving son of former President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy. His father was assassinated three days before his third birthday, from his early childhood onwards, Kennedy was the subject of great media scrutiny, and he became a popular social figure of Manhattan. Trained as a lawyer, he worked as a New York City Assistant District Attorney for four years, in 1995, he launched George magazine, using his political and celebrity status to publicize it. Kennedy died along with his wife Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy and her elder sister Lauren in the crash of a plane he was piloting. Kennedy had intended to drop off Lauren at Marthas Vineyard before continuing to the wedding of his cousin Rory Kennedy in Hyannis Port, John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. was born at Georgetown University Hospital on November 25,1960, two weeks after his father was elected president. His parents had a daughter named Arabella four years before John Jr. s birth. John Jr. had a sister, Caroline, and an infant brother, Patrick. His putative nickname, John-John, came from a reporter who misheard JFK calling him John twice in quick succession, John Jr. lived in the White House during the first three years of his life, and later remained in the public spotlight up until his death. His father was assassinated on November 22,1963, and the funeral was held three days later on John Jr. s third birthday. In a moment that became an image of the 1960s, John Jr. stepped forward. The family continued with their plans for a party, to demonstrate that the Kennedys would go on despite the death of their father. Following his fathers assassination, Kennedy moved to the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City with his mother and sister, where he grew up. In 1967, his mother took him and his sister Caroline on a sentimental journey to Ireland. After his uncle Robert was assassinated in 1968, his mother took him and his out of the United States, saying, If theyre killing Kennedys. I want to get out of this country, the same year, she married Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis, and the family went to live on his private island of Skorpios. Kennedy is said to have considered his stepfather a joke, in 1971, Kennedy returned to the White House with his mother and sister for the first time since the assassination. President Richard Nixons daughters gave Kennedy a tour that included his old bedroom, when Onassis died in 1975, he left Kennedy $25,000, though Jacqueline was able to renegotiate the will, and acquired $20 million for herself and her children

100.
Patrick Bouvier Kennedy
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Patrick Bouvier Kennedy was the last child of United States President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy. His birth weight was 4 pounds 10 1⁄2 ounces, shortly after birth, he developed symptoms of hyaline membrane disease, now called infant respiratory distress syndrome. He was transferred to Boston Childrens Hospital where he died two days later, following treatment in a hyperbaric chamber. At that time, all that could be done for a baby with hyaline membrane disease was to make efforts to keep the blood chemistry as close to normal as possible. A funeral mass was held on August 10,1963, in the chapel of Cardinal Richard Cushing in Boston. The child was buried at Holyhood Cemetery in Brookline, Massachusetts. The First Lady and the President were deeply affected by the death, upon their departure from Otis Air Force Base, the couple – seldom publicly affectionate – were seen holding hands. Secret Service agent Clint Hill recalled the couple having a closer relationship that was visible following Patricks death. Press secretary Pierre Salinger believed that while the President and First Lady had been brought closer by the White House, preterm birth Kennedy family Kennedy family tree President John F. Kennedy on the Death of His Infant Son Patrick Bouvier Kennedy Shapell Manuscript Foundation

101.
Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.
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Joseph Patrick Joe Kennedy Jr. was a United States Navy lieutenant. He was killed in action while serving as a patrol bomber pilot in World War II and was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross. He was the eldest of nine born to Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Joe Sr. had plans for Joe Jr. to become President. However, Joe Jr. was killed participating in a top-secret mission in 1944, and the high expectations of the father then fell upon Joe Jr. s younger brother John. Kennedy was born in Hull, Massachusetts and he first attended the Dexter School in Brookline, Massachusetts, with his brother, John. He graduated from The Choate School in 1933 in Wallingford, Connecticut and he then entered Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, graduating in 1938. Kennedy participated in football, rugby, and crew, and he served on the student council, Kennedy then spent a year studying under the tutelage of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics before enrolling in Harvard Law School. From a very young age, Kennedy was groomed by his father, when he was born, his grandfather John F. Fitzgerald, then Mayor of Boston, told the news, This child is the future President of the nation. He often boasted that he would be president even without help from his father and he was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1940. Kennedy planned to run for Massachusettss 11th congressional district in 1946, Kennedy expressed approval of Adolf Hitler. His father sent him to visit Nazi Germany in 1934. He wrote to his father, praising Hitler’s sterilization policy as “a great thing” that “will do away with many of the specimens of men. ”He explained that Hitler is building a spirit in his men that could be envied in any country. Kennedy left before his year of law school at Harvard to enlist in the U. S. Naval Reserve on June 24,1941. He entered flight training to be a Naval Aviator, and after training and he was assigned to Patrol Squadron 203 and then Bombing Squadron 110. In September 1943, he was sent to Britain and became a member of Bomber Squadron 110, Special Air Unit ONE and he piloted land-based PB4Y Liberator patrol bombers on anti-submarine details during two tours of duty in the winter of 1943–1944. Kennedy had completed 25 combat missions and was eligible to return home and he instead volunteered for an Operation Aphrodite mission. Kennedy was appointed a lieutenant on July 1,1944, after the U. S. Army Air Forces operation missions were drawn up on July 23,1944, Lieutenants Wilford John Willy and Kennedy were designated as the first Navy flight crew

102.
Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
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Kathleen Agnes Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington, also known as Kick Kennedy, was an American socialite. She was the daughter of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. and Rose Kennedy, sister of future U. S. President John F. Kennedy, and wife of the Marquess of Hartington, heir apparent to The 10th Duke of Devonshire. When her father was appointed United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Kathleen made many friends in London, working with the Red Cross, she began a romantic relationship with Lord Hartington, whom she married in May 1944. He was killed on active service in Belgium only four months later, Kathleen died in a plane crash in 1948, flying to the south of France on holiday with her married partner The 8th Earl Fitzwilliam. Kathleen Agnes Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, fourth child and second daughter of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. and she was especially close to her older brother, the future president John F. Kennedy. Kathleen was nicknamed “Kick” because of her irrepressible nature, Kathleen was educated at Riverdale Country School in the Riverdale section of the Bronx, New York. She also attended Noroton Convent of the Sacred Heart in Noroton, Connecticut and this was particularly the case when Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1938. As a child, Kathleen was very athletic and played football with her brothers and her optimism and high spirits attracted many suitors, some of whom were Jacks closest friends. When Kathleen attended the Riverdale Country School, her mother did not approve of the attention being shown to her daughter. Eventually, Kathleen started to date and had her first serious relationship with Peter Grace, Kennedys time in England during her fathers appointment as Ambassador would dramatically influence the remainder of her life. With World War II imminent following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, after returning to the States, Kennedy enrolled at the Finch School for a time and then attended Florida Commercial College. In addition to her studies, Kennedy also began doing work for the Red Cross. In 1941, she decided to school and began working as a research assistant for Frank Waldrop. She later teamed with Inga Arvad, who wrote the Did You Happen to See, column and was eventually given her own column where she reviewed films and plays. In 1943, seeking a way to return to England, Kennedy signed up to work in a center for servicemen set up by the Red Cross. During her time in England, both before and particularly during the war, she gradually but increasingly more independent from her family. During this time, Kennedy began a relationship with politician William Cavendish. He was the eldest son and heir apparent of His Grace The 10th Duke of Devonshire, the two had met and begun a friendship when she moved to England when her father was appointed Ambassador

Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
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Kennedy wearing an American Red Cross uniform in London, c. 1943
Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
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St Peter's Churchyard, Edensor - grave of Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (née Kennedy, 1920–1948). Her grave is marked with a headstone and a plaque in the ground commemorating the visit of U.S. President John F. Kennedy at the gravesite
Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
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Life
Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
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Electoral history

103.
Patricia Kennedy Lawford
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Patricia Helen Pat Kennedy Lawford was an American socialite and the sixth of nine children of Rose and Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. She was a sister of President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, Pat wanted to be a film producer, a profession not readily open to young women in her time. She married English actor Peter Lawford in 1954, but they experienced a serious culture-clash, Patricia Helen Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts. She was considered the most sophisticated, yet also the most introverted, since childhood she had a fascination with travel and Hollywood. In time she would become a traveler, so much so that as a young girl she was given assignments by the independent. Her ongoing fascination with Hollywood was fueled by her fathers stories and adventures there as a movie mogul heading RKO Pictures, after graduating from Rosemont College, she moved to Hollywood in hopes of becoming a movie producer and director like her father. Her father apparently believed that she could do as much, once saying and she could really run this town if she put her mind to it. She met English actor Peter Lawford through her sister Eunice in the 1940s and they met again in 1949, and again in 1953. They courted briefly and officially announced their engagement in February 1954 and they married on April 24,1954, at the Roman Catholic Church of St. Thomas More in New York City, twelve days before her thirtieth birthday. They settled in Santa Monica, California, and often socialized with actress Judy Garland, Garland gave birth to her son Joseph at the same hospital and on the same day Kennedy gave birth to her son Christopher. Lawford had difficulty adjusting to Kennedys steadfast Catholicism and her familys larger-than-life image, Kennedy could not tolerate Lawfords heavy drinking, extramarital affairs, and gradual addiction to drugs. Shortly after her brother Jacks death, she filed for a separation. After her divorce, Kennedy battled alcoholism and suffered from tongue cancer and she worked with the John F. Kennedy died of pneumonia at age of 82 on September 17,2006 in her Manhattan home. She was survived by her four children and ten grandchildren, as well as her brother Ted and her sisters Eunice and she was buried in Southampton Cemetery. Kennedy family Kennedy family tree Patricia Kennedy Lawford obituary Patricia Kennedy Lawford at the Internet Movie Database

104.
John F. Fitzgerald
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John Francis Honey Fitz Fitzgerald was an American politician, father of Rose Kennedy and maternal grandfather of President John F. Kennedy. Fitzgerald, born to Irish immigrants, was a Democratic congressman who went on to win two terms as mayor of Boston, and made unsuccessful runs for Governor of Massachusetts. He made major improvements to the port, and became a patron of the team now known as the Boston Red Sox. He maintained a profile in the city, with his theatrical style of campaigning. His daughter Rose married Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. the son of his political rival P. J. Kennedy, in old age, Fitzgerald helped his grandson John F. Kennedy to win his first seat in congress. John Francis Fitzgerald was born in the North End of Boston to Irish businessman/politician Thomas Fitzgerald of Bruff, County Limerick and he was the fourth of twelve children. Both of his sisters, Ellen and Mary, and his eldest brother, Michael, Fitzgeralds brother Joseph had severe brain damage from malaria and barely functioned. Only three of the children survived in good health, Fitzgeralds mother died when he was sixteen. His father wished for him to become a doctor to help prevent future tragedies of the sort that had marred the Fitzgerald family. Accordingly, after being educated at Boston Latin School and Boston College, he enrolled at Harvard Medical School for one year, Fitzgerald later became a clerk at the Customs House in Boston and was active in the local Democratic Party. Fitzgerald was a member of the Royal Rooters, a supporters club for Bostons baseball teams, particularly its American League team. At one point, he was the chairman, and threw out the ceremonial opening pitch in Fenway Parks inaugural game. His great-granddaughter Caroline Kennedy threw out the first pitch for Fenway Parks 100th anniversary on April 20,2012, Fitzgerald was elected to Bostons Common Council in 1891. In 1892, he became a member of the Massachusetts Senate and these early victories came about with support from the powerful boss of Bostons 8th ward, Martin Lomasney. In 1906, Fitzgerald was elected Mayor of Boston, becoming the first American-born Irish-Catholic to be elected to that office, in the process, he made an enemy of the powerful Lomasney, who had fielded one of his lieutenants for the office. Fitzgerald served as mayor of Boston from 1906 to 1908, was defeated for re-election, of his stylish manner, Robert Dallek wrote, He was a natural politician—a charming, impish, affable lover of people. His warmth of character earned him yet another nickname, Honey Fitz, a pixie-like character with florid face, bright eyes, and sandy hair, he was a showman who could have had a career in vaudeville. But politics, with all the brokering that went into arranging alliances, a verse of the day ran, Honey Fitz can talk you blind / on any subject you can find / Fish and fishing, motor boats / Railroads, streetcars, getting votes

105.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn

Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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The Eisenhower family home, Abilene, Kansas.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (2nd from left) and Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the 1912 West Point football team.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Eisenhower (far right) with three unidentified people in 1919, four years after graduating from West Point.