4 5 Influencingfactors on the characteristics of the athletes' heart A KARDIÁLIS EDZETTSÉGI JELEKET BEFOLYÁSOLÓ TÉNYEZŐK Theses of the dissertation to the doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (DSc) December 8,2004 Pavllk Gábor Semmelweis University Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences Department of Health Sciences and Sports Medicine, Budapest Introduction Relationship between the regular physical training and cardio-vascular system has received an especially high importance during the last decades, because the sedentary way of life impairs first of ali the cardiovascular system, and because the endurance performance is mostly determined by the cardiovascular adaptation. Characteristics of the athletes' heart have been determined during the past decades by several authors (summarised in 9,14). The aim of the present work was to examine the effect of different influencing factors on the athletic characteristics of the heart. Methods Morphologic characteristics were measured mostly in two-dimensionajly guided M-mode echocardiography (in 4,9,11,14). Cardiac dimensions were related to the body size by indices in which exponents of the numerator and denominator were matched; wall thickness and internal diameters were related to the square root of the body surface area (BSAO.5), volumes and ventricular mass to the BSA1.5 (13). From the functional characteristics the diastolic function was estimated by the EIA quotient, i.e. by the ratio of the peak velocities measured during the early and late phase of left ventricular (LV) filling, systolic function was determined by ratio of ventricular ejection and electric systole (LVET/QT) (11,15). Cardiac regulation was monitored by the heart rate (HR) and cardiac output (CO). CO was established by echocardiography in humans (4,9,14) and it was estimated by Evans-blue dilution method in albino rats (3). Results Characteristics of the athletes' heart in different types of sports ln yr. old male competitive athletes of different level rel. LV muscle mass (MM) hypertrophy manifested itself in a very regular rank order: sedentary persons - power athletes sprinters - ball-game players - endurance athletes (4,14) (TabJe 1). ln the cardiac hypertrophy LV wall thickness (WT) took a hig her share than internal diameter (ID) in ali of athletic subjects. Their ratio, the muscular quotient (MQ=LVWT/LVID) was the highest not in the power athletes but in the ball-game players. Data do not confirm the c1assic findings that power sports induce concentric, endurance activity induces eccentric type of hypertrophy, but support observations according to which wall thickening can be induced by any kind of sports, while increase of the ID is brought about only by endurance training (14) Díastolic function, Le. the EIA quotient is high in young, healthy persons, in the males only endurance athletes showed a significantly hig her ratio. As a main indicator of the cardiac regulation, HR was lower in ali of the athletes than in sedentary subjects (4,14). Characteristics of the athletes' heart in different branches of sports A special interest was devoted to the Olympic champion water polo players. They did not show high rel. aerobic power, it was similar than that of top-level sprinters-jumpers, and lower than in toplevel endurance athletes. Athletic characteristics of the heart: LVWTI BSN 5, LVMM/BSN 5, EIA quotient and HR were, however, the best (TabJe 2). Excellent results of the water polo players are explained by the extreme high amount and intensity of training sessions, by the long training carrier and the compjexity of the game rather than the extremely high level of the Hungarian team. Similar results were seen in other top-level water polo teams and in the Hungarian female water polo players (1,9). Effect of regular training in different ages Examining the effect of regular training in different ages, a special interest was offered to the development of training effects, namely to the age 9-20 yr. During this period, in non-trained boys no ch ange was seen, in athletic groups a significant increase was seen after the pubertal age not only in rel.lvwt but also in rel.lvid (2). ln the childhood and in the young adults, rel.lvmm was higher in the athletes than in the non-athletes. In older age differences disappear between males and females and between trai- Table 1 - Echocardiographic parameters in male athletes of different types of sports (mean ± SD). NON-A: non-athletes, POW-A: power-athletes, SPR-J: sprinters-jumpers, BG-P: ball-game players, END-A: endurance athletes. LV: left ventricular, WT: wall thickness, ID: internal diameter, MM: muscle mass, EIA: ratio of peak velocities during the early and late phases of transmitral flow, bpm: beats per minute. Numbers in bold: significant difference from the controls. NON-A POW-A SPR-J BG-P END-A N LVWT/BSN LVID/BSN LVMM/BSN WT/EDD % ± EIA Heart rate bpm 76.1 ± ± ± ± ± 10.6

8 Ma 9 and in sedentary persons practically no correlation was seen. Because of the high oxidative capacity of their slow twitch muscles, endurance athletes seem to use completely the oxygen transported to the muscles, performance is really limited by the oxygen offer. If oxygen consumption is limited in the periphery, correlation between rel. aerobic power and cardiac characteristics cannot be not expected (10) (Fig.5). Regular physical training and hypertension ln accordance with other observations, our data also indicate that regular physical training slightly but significantly decreases blood pressure (BP), our data indicate that in this decrease CO has greater share than total peripheral resistance (7). There are reports according to which hypertension is manifested not only in the elevation of the BP, but it is a complexity of severai metabolic and cardiovascular alterations, which can be seen without an elevation of BP, e.g. in normotensive children of hypertensive parents. ln normotensive sedentary young offshoots (18-25 yr.) of hypertensive parents we did not find increased cardiac measures but we observed a significantly impaired diastolic function, a decreased EIA quotient. There were no differences between athletic offshoots of hypertensive parents indicating that regular physical training can eliminate these latent signs of hypertensive syndrome (8) (Table 5) Regular physical training and obesity Obese males displayed greater cardiac measures than sedentary ones, increase of the LY was proportional to the increase of their body size and their body size corrected cardiac mea sures were lower than that of physically active males. Cardiac function of the different groups was sharply different. Diastolic function was impaired in the obese group and it was improved in the physically active persons (16). Specific test to detennine physical condition of water polo players The. c1assical spiroergometric measurement with treadmillload proved to be inadequate to determine physical condition of water polo players. Therefore, a swimming test has been used since The test contains the time result of a maximum speed 30 m freestyle sprint swimming, the mean time result of a 6 x 30 m repetitive swim with 15 s resting periods, a total of the heart beats during a 4 min recovery period, and the difference between the heart beats measured in the 1st and Athletic characteristics of the heart in the function of rel. aerobic power in adult men Rel.WT ~~-...~ TOTAL N=2D7 ENDUR N=56 BALL G N=53 POWER N=49 N ATHL N=49 Rel.lD Fig. 5 WT: wall thickness, ID: internal diameter, LVM: left ventricular musele mass EIA: ratío of the peak velocity during the early and late phase of diastolic filling, 2nd half minute of recovery, as the fast component of recovery. Yalues of different intensity, magnitude and deviations can be summarised to a common index by a mathematical transformatioh. The absolute, measured values are transformed to relative ones, taking differences from the means of ali of the measurements, divided by the standard deviations. Summarised test results displayed a slight but significant correlation with the rel. aerobic power of the players. They show as weil the development of the players' physical condition from 1983 to It can be established as weil that players reach their maximum performance in their yr. of age, and they can maintain their condition until the 30th of age (6,12,) (Figure 6). Conclusions and practical advices Regular physical activity has its special beneficial effect on the heart in ali ages that must be taken into account in the establishment of the cardiac condition. Affectivity of regular exercise to develop cardiac condition is higher with a great share of endurance activity. Lower level physical activity can also be very useful to develop cardiac condition. Stop of regular physical activity can cause unpleasant and dangerous modifications in the cardiac regulation. Regular physical activity must have an important role in the prevention and therapy of hypertension and obesity, especially with a sensitive family anamnesis. Relation of cardiac measures to body dimensions should be made by indices in which the exponent of the numerator and denominator match. ln summarising different parameters into one index, relativising of absolute data should be made.

10 orttulloman zemle 11 Motor Abilities of Basketball Players Compared with Handball Players and Weightlifters KOSÁRLABDÁZÓK, KÉZILABDÁZÓK ÉS SÚlYEMELŐK MOTOROS KÉPESSÉGEINEK ÖSSZEHASONLíTÓ VIZSGÁLATA Tamás Téczely, András Pálfai, Áron Petafi and Lajos Ángyán Institute of Human Movement Sciences, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary Abstract We assessed and compared the motor performances of basketball players, handball players and weightlifters to determine which variables best discriminate between them at the end of the fíve weeks long preseason-conditioning program. Subjects were professional ath [etes: 13 basketball players (21.6±2 yr.), 16 handball players (21.6±2.6 yr.), and 7 weightlifters (21±6 yr.). Anthropometrical measurements, static and dynamic motor tests, as weil as sport-specific motor tests were completed just after finishing the preseason-conditioning program. Ali measurements were repeated three months later in the basketbaji players. Basketball players had low body fat, which showed a positive correlation with the time of running and zigzag dribbling the basketball among traffic cones. The general motor tests indicated healthy physical condition. The comparisons of the data obtained from the different sportsgroups showed significant differences between body measures, but only slight variety of the general motor tests was found. The sport-specific tests discriminated weil between the groups. The measurements during the competitive period verified some improvements in the sport-specific motor abilities, but no significant change in the body measures and in the performance of the general motor tests. It is concluded that (1) both static and dynamic motor abilities are weil developed at the end of the five weeks long preseason-conditioning program. (2) The body measures and the sport-specific tests differentiate weil between the different sport-groups. (3) The motor abilities developed by the preseason-conditioning program did not change significantly during the regula r competitive training. These results point to the importance of the structure of preseason-conditioning program. Key-words: basketball, body measures, motor performances, preseasonconditioning program Összefoglalás Összehasonlítottuk kosárlabdázók, kézilabdázók és súlyemelők motoros képességeit öthetes alapozó edzések után, s arra a kérdésre kerestünk választ, hogy vannak-.~ szignifikáns különbségek közöttük. Osszesen 13 (21.6±2 év) minősített kosárlabdázót, 16 (21.6±2.6 év) kézilabdázót és 7 (21 ±6 év) súlyemelőt vizsgáltunk meg. Antropometriai méréseket, statikus, dinamikus, valamint sportág-specifikus motoros próbákat végeztünk közvetlenül az alapozó időszak befejezése után. Három hónappal a versenyidőszak megkezdése után megismételtük a méréseket a kosárlabdázókon. A kosárlabdázók alacsony testzsírral rendelkeztek. Pozitív korrelációt találtunk a testzsír és a futás, valamint a kosárlabdával végzett szlalom futás között. Az általános motoros próbák jó erőnlétet mutattak. A három sportág versenyzőinek a testméretei szignifikánsan különböztek. Az általános motoros próbák nem, de a sportág-specifikus próbák lényeges eltéréseket mutattak. A versenyidőszak alatt megismételt mérések némi javulást jeleztek a sportág-specifikus teljesitményekben, az általános motoros próbák eredményei azonban nem változtak. Eredményeink azt mutatják, hogy (1) az alapozó időszak végén megfelelő statikus és dinamikus motoros képességekkel rendelkeztek asportolók; (2) a testméretek és a sportág-specifikus próbák alapján tehető szignifikáns különbség a különböző sportágakban sportolók között; s (3) a versenyidőszak alatt nem fejlődnek a motoros képességek. Ez a tény hangsúlyozza az alapozó edzésprogram megfelelő összeállítását. Kulcsszavak: kosárlabdázók, testméretek, motoros teljesítmények, alapozó testedzések Introduction Basketball is a popular sport both among athletes and as a leisure activity. It is common experience that successful performance in basketball competition requires a combination of high degree of motor abilities as weil as technical and mental preparedness. We define the motor ability as a general trait of the individual to perform specific skills. We used selected motor tests to quantify different pa rameters (coord ination, strength, speed, balance) of the subjects' motor abilities. The motor abilities necessary for success in basketball are frequently associated with body height. Height is an important attribute for the basketball player, but it would be a mistake to pay no attention to other characteristics. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the ability profile of the elite basketball players developed by playing basketball at least for three years. A series of anthropometrical measurements and a variety of motor tests were assessed. Anthropometrical attributes are known to influence the performance, and can contribute to selection procedures in junior basketball (4, 5, 8, 12). Therefore, we started our examination with anthropometrical measurements. Both static and dynamic motor tests were used to describe the motor profile of the participants. The motor tests were selected (1) to obtain suffícient parameters to estimate the physical aptitude of the subjects, and, (2) to complete ali measurements during a tolerable time of about 45 minutes. Coming from our local possibilities, for comparison we choose handball, which possesses ma ny similarities to basketball, and weightlifting as a contrasting sport activity. The aim of this testing was to verify both the degree and the specificity of the motor abilities at the end of the five weeks long preseasonconditioning program. The preseasonconditioning program was an organized training of five weeks long to develop good physical condition of the athletes. The anthropometrical data and the results of motor tests at the end of the

11 12 ::::========:::]M~ai!lilfjaiirJS~oRrttijiiuiddomtnyi Szemle 2004/4 Table 1. Anthropometrical data and results of motor tests obtained from basketball players. Measures Mean SE Minimum Maximum Body Heiqht (cm) Body Mass Index Body Fat (%) Hanaina (sec) Jumpinq (cm) Flexibility (cm) Balance (attempts/min) Runninq (sec) liazaa dribblina (sec) Free-throw (goals) preseason-conditioning program indica ted its effectiveness. The role of preseason-conditioning program is to develop motor abilities that are important both to game performance and in preventing athletic injuries (1, 9). After three months, we examined the effects of competitive season, which is a series of matches in programrned time and order to rank the participants according to their achievement. The effects of the competitive season have been studied from different aspects (3, 6). Our intention was to assess (1) the ability profile of the elite basketball players at the end of fjve weeks preseasonconditioning program, (2) to compare the motor abilities of basketball players with handball players and weightlifters in order to determine which variables best discriminate between them, and, (3) to describe the changes in the motor abilities of basketball players induced by the competitive season. Methods The subjects were professional athletes: 13 basketball players (21.6±2 yr.), 16 hand ball players (21.6±2.6 yr.), and 7 weightlifters (21 ±6 yr.). Ali subjects were participating in the examinations voluntarily with written informed consenl The Ethics Committee of our Medical School of University permitted the study. The examinations were performed at the end of the five weeks long preseason conditioning program, and were repeated in the basketball players three months after beginning the competitive period. Anthropometrical measurements (body height, circumferences of upper arm, thigh, lower leg and, chest at the level of xiphoid process of the sternum), and waist to hip ratio were determined with the individuai standing erect on a smooth surface. For body weight, the subject, wearing sports c1othes, was standing in the centercentre of the scale. Body fat was determined by bioelectricai impedance measurements (Omron bf 300) giving the normal range between 10 and 19%. The general motor tests involved Flamingo (one-leg standing) balance test, handgrip and back muscle dynamometry, flexibility test, bent arm hanging, and vertical jump from a standing start. For the Flamingo balance test the subject was standing on one shoeless leg on a 50-cm long, 4 cm high and 3 cm wide wood beam. The subject should keep balanced in this position for one minute. Each time the subject lost his equilibrium, a new attempt started again. The number of attempts needed to keep in balance on the beam for one whole minute was recorded. Therefore, the fewer attempts indicate better posturai balance. The static strengths of hand and back muscular groups were measured by appropriate dynamometers (Jamar grip tester, Back-a). Flexibility was measured by a lower ba ck and rear thigh test. The subject was standing on a footstool with feet together and knees straight. The task was to bend forward to reach for the maximum bending, and maintaining this position for 2 sec. The maximum distance between the surface of the footstool (O level) and the middie finger tip was measured, and expressed by negative numbers above the O level, and positive numbers below the O level. The result is given in cm. Arm and shoulder muscular endurance was measured by maintaining a bent arm position while hanging from a bar. The result is given in sec. Explosive strength was measured by vertical jump test. The difference in distance between the reach height and the jump height is the score. The result is given in cm. Sport-specific tests were (1) running time to 20 m, (2) 10 free-throw shootings with basketball from the distance of 4.8 m, and, (3) the time to zigzag dribbling the basketball to ] 4 m among traffic cones 2 mapart. Descriptive statistics, ANOVA, and regression analyses were used for statisticai analysis. Results The anthropometrical measures of basketball players are summarized in the Table 1. The body fat varied from 4.6% to 16.9%, and the mean (11.08 %) was at the lower level of the normal range. Though the general motor tests point to a fit physical condition for the group as a whole, some individuals perforrned poorly. Two subjects produced minor flexibility, and another one could not maintain postural balance weil. The results of both the static and the dynamic strength tests were good, but one subject's flexed arm hang was short (32.1 sec). To answer the question whether the anthropometrical characteristics have any predictive value for the motor abilities, we examined the correlations between the body measures and the results of the motor tests. No significant correlation was found between body height and the motor abilities. A slight but statistically significant negative correlation (r = -0.56, P < 0.05) was found between the body mass index and duration of hanging. Positive correlations were shown between the body fat and the running (r = 0.58, P < 0.05), as weil as between body fat and zigzag dribbling the basketball among traffic cones (r = 0.72, P < 0.01). The comparisons of basketball players with handball players and weightlifters showed important differences among them. Slight differences in the body measures were revealed between the basketball and handball players, but certain measures of both groups were different significantly from the weightlifters (Table 2). The difference between the circumferences of the chest, measured after maximum inspiration and expiration, indicareflecting the costa I type of respiration, was significantly hig her in the basketball players than in the weightlifters. Ali groups performed the general motor tests with similar results; only the sport-specific tests discriminated between them (Table 3). In spite of that, the differences were not significant statistically, it is noteworthy that vertical jumping of basketball players was shorter and hanging was longer than that of weightlifters. The handgrip dynamometry showed no significant differences among the three groups. However, the back muscles were significantly stronger in the weightlifters than in the basketball players. The regression analysis of the arm circumferences and handgrip strengths showed a linear relationship (r = 0.58, P

12 Table 2. Body measures obtained from the three groups of athletes. Body Body Mass Body fat (%) Waist/hip Circumferences Height (cm) Index ratio Arm Thiah Lower lea Chest (Inspirationexpiration) Basketball plavers (N= 13) ±2 ±0.4 ±1.2 ±0.03 ±2.1 ±1.2 ±3.3 ±0.3 Handball plavers (N=16) ±2 ±0.4 ±0.8 ±0.02 ±2.2 ±0.8 ± 1.9 ±0.4 Weightlifters (N=7) ±3 ±1.5 ±2.4 ±0.02 ±6 ±2.7 ±4.3 ±0.3 F P < 0.02) in the basketball players. Similar relationship was not obtained from the two other groups. The competitive training of the basketball players induced no significant changes in the static strengths, flexibiiity, and balance. A slight, but statistically significant increase was obtained from the vertical-jumping test (Fig. 1). There were some improvements in the freethrow shootings and the running; however, statistically significant changes emerged only in the time to zigzag dribbling the basketball among the traffic cones (Fig. 2) * Flexibility D Balance CI Jumping * P <0.05 Discussion The present results support the common belief that high body height is a typicai characteristic of the basketball players. However, no significant correlation was found between body height and the general motor abilities. It indicates that increased height is beneficial in the game, but not decisive in the individual's physical condition. ln contrast, the body fat (%) content has functional consequences. The importance of fat in the metabolism is weil known, but it is hardly possible to relate directly the fat metabolism to the motor abilities such as running and zigzag dribbling the ball among traffic cones. Most Iikely, the distribution of the fat in the body is important in the motor abilities, indicated by the waist to hip ratio. The general motor tests indicate that good performances both in static and 10 o Before Figure 1. Results of motor tests before and during the competitive period. The numbers on the vertical line mean cm for f1exibility and jumping, as weil as number of attempts to maintain balance during 1 minute. dynamic tests are important attributes of the physical condition developed by the five weeks long preseason conditioning. The comparisons between the different groups showed higher body mass index and body fat content for the weightlifters than for the basketball and handball players. However, the waist-tohip ratio was similar for ali groups, and at the upper level of the normal range «1). The circumference of the thigh is During competitive period largest in the weightlifters, but the circumferences of the arm and lower leg are not different significantly from the two other groups. Though the physiological studies state that the muscle strength involves far more than mere muscle size (11), a Iinear relationship was found between the arm circumferences and the static strengths of the hand in the basketball players. Similar relationships were not obtained from the Table 3. Comparisons of motor tests. Balance HanQinQ Jumpinq Runninq Ziqzaq dribblinq Free-throw Basketball players (N= 13) ±1.4 ±3.1 ±1.5 ±0.04 ±0.15 ±0.47 Handball players (N= 16) ±1.2 ±3.9 ±1 ± ±0.55 Weightlifters (N=7) ±2.3 ±3.8 ±2.2 ± ±0.63 F P

13 * II Running D Shooting rzj Zigzag dribbling *1'< /4 l o B efore During competitive period Figure 2. Results of motor tests before and during the competitive period. The numbers on the vertical line are seconds for zigzag dribbling and running, as weil as results (goals) of 10 free-throw shootings with basketball. handball players and weightlifters. The difference between circumferences of the chest measured at the end of inspiration and expiration the costal type of respiration. It was significantly higher in the basketball players than in weightlifters. It is possible to speculate that shooting in basketball needs stabile posture and the thoracic wall supports it. The f1exibility, postural balance, verticai jumping, and static hanging tests yielded similar results for the three groups. It shows c1early that the general motor tests do not discriminate between the basketbalj players and the two other groups. Though the differences among the groups are not significant statistically, it is noteworthy that the weightlifters produced the highest vertical jumping. Considering their special training (e.g. eccentric contraction of the leg muscles) to produce strong lower-limb explosive strength, this result is not surprising. In another series of assessment, there were no statistically significant sport-group differences in jumping height when runners, soccer players, shooters, and weightlifters were compared (7). It is difficult to explain why the basketball players produced better results with hanging than the weightlifters. It is possibie to suggest that the pattem of movements for weightjifting (putting the bar bell overhead) is opposite to that of hanging (pulling up the body). The sport-specific test discriminated weil among the three groups. The basketball players produced significantly better results of free-throw shootings with basketball than the others. The accuracy of shooting was found as variable best discriminated between the top and lower ranked performers in women's basketball (10). The present results show that also the zigzag dribbling with basketball among traffic cones discriminated weil the groups. The results obtained from the second series of measurements in basketball players revealed no significant improvements in general motor abilities are pro- duced by the competitive period. This fact underlines the importance of preseason-conditioning program in developing motor abilities. An improvement in balance associated with years of participation in basketball was reported (2). However, that study is different from ours, because the sports activity was recorded from the answers to a questionnaire. The sport-specific tests showed slight increases in vertical jumping and running speed. It is possible to argue that a period of three months was very short to develop the effects of competitive period. However, examination of the effects of the entire competitive season showed no systematic changes in different variables (maximum oxygen uptake, anthropometrical characteristics, leg muscles forces) and found increases in vertical jumping (3). Furthermore, during the later phases of competition unpleasant symptoms (e.g. fatigue) might appear and disturb the motor abilities. Our results show that the basketball players have an approprite motor profile at the end of five weeks long preseasonconditioning program. The general motor tests do not differentiate weil between the different sport groups. The comparisons of the results of motor tests before and during the competitive period indicate that the general motor abilities do not improve significantly under the effect of competition. Therefore, it is important to select right exercises for the preseason-conditioning

14 program, in order to improve competitive performance. References 1. Feiringeiring, d.c. and g.1. Derscheid. (1989). The role of preseason-conditioning in preventing athletic injuries. Clin Sports Med. 8: Hahn 1., A. Foldspang" A. E. Vestergaard and T. E.lngemann Hansen., T.. (1999): One-leg standing balance and sports activity. scand j med sci sports. 9: hakkinen k. (1993): Changes in physical fitness profile in female basket ball players during the competitive sea son including explosive type strength training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 33: Hamilton, G.R. and C Reinschmidt. (1997): Optimal trajectory for the bas ketball free throw. J Sports Sci. 15: Hoare D.G. (2000): Predicting suc cess in junior elite basketball players. the contribution of anthropometric and physiological attributes. J Sci Med Sport. 3: Hoffman J.R., M. Bar-Eli, M. and G. Tenenbaum. (1999) G. :An examination of mood ch anges and performance in a professional basketball team. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 39: Kettunen JA, U.M.KujaJa, H. Raty and S. Sarna. (1999): Jumping height in former elite athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 79: Kinnunen DA., G. Colon, D. G., Espinoza, L.Y. D., Overby and D.K. Lewis, DK (2001): Anthropometric correlates of basketball free-throw shootings by young girls. Percept Mot Skills. 93: Liu, S. and Burton, A.W. Changes in basketball shooting patterns as a function of distance. Percept. Mot. Skills. 89(3 Pt 1): ,1999. McGuine TA., J.J. Greene, T. J.J., best and G., Leverson. (2000):, G. Balance as a predictor of ankle injuries in high school basketball players. Clin J Sport Med. 10: Riezebos M.L., D.H. Paterson, CR., D.H., Hall and, CR. M.S. Yuhasz. (1983): Relationship of selected variables to performance in women's basketball. Can J Appl Sport Sci. 8: Ugarkovic D., D. Matavulj, M. Kukolj and S. Jarie. (2002:) Standard anthropometric, body composition, and strength variables as predictors of jumping performance in elite junior athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 16: Rojas, F.J., Cepero, M., Ona, A. and Gutierrez, M. Kinematic adjustments in the basketball jump shot against an opponent. Ergonomics, 43: , Smith, H.K. and Thomas, S.G. Physiological characteristics of elite female basketball players. Can. J. Sport. Sci. 16: , Wilmore J.H. and D.L. CostilI. (1994): Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Leeds, Human Kinetics, pp. Leeds, Pp Acknowledgements The grant NKFP 1/026, 2001 from the Hungarian Government, and a grant from the Hungarian Society of Sport Science supported this investigation. BOOK REVIEW Zsolt Radak (editor):exercise and Diseases Prevention through Training Dr. Zsolt Radak (born in 1961) Professor and Associate-Dean of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science at Semmelweis University, Budapest, fortunately does not require detailed introduction, specially not since 2000, when he put together and edited the since popular book: "Free Radicals in Exercise and Aging". This research oriented publication focuses on exercise induced adaptation and elucidates the role of free radical species in regulating this process. The basic reference type of book became an immediate success in the scientific circles primarily because it was one of the first to provide an in-depth review on skeletal muscle oxidative stress and aging. Dr Radak (became a doctor in 1990 and he has received his Ph.D. from Tsukuba University in 1996 and he is the doctor of Hungarian Academy of Science from 2003) belongs to the talented young as weil as ambitious generation of the Hungarian sport scientists with very wide network of internationally weil known colleagues particularly on his main areas of research (exercise, aging and oxidative stress, oxidative repair, further the role of free radicals) and aj so an outstanding communicator in English and Japanese be side his mother tongue of course. With unmistakabje good sense and foresight, Meyer & Meyer, the World famous sport and science publisher realized in advance the potential of Radak's newest volume - Exercise and Diseases - and thanks for their publishing contribution, it is now ready for internationally wide range of distribution. As we ali know weil, regular exercise increases the average life span and also the quality of life (this subject, by the way, raises many serious questions speciaily in Hungary where the average life span is considerably lower than the ones in other countries of the European Union). The favorable effects are partly mediated by the fact that - in addition - regular exercise is also preventive to a number of diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes, Alzheimer's diseases, immune system, further ventilation- and lung related diseases too. This book therefore offers a summarized description of the effects of exercise on the most common health threatening diseases. The collected studies represent valuable and important aid for those individuals who work in the field of prevention and rehabilitation. Rezső Gallov

15 Investigation on Shooting Accuracy and Distance Guessing with Soccer Players RÚGÁSPONTOSSÁG ÉS TÁVOLSÁGBECSLÉS LABDARÚGÁSBAN Csaba Batha - Endre Rigler - Péter Berkes Semmelweis University, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Budapest Abstract The common feature of ball games is that positive forming of the result is realízed through the pre-set aims, and shooting accurately at targets. The several kinds of technical solutions can be looked upon as a method of gaining favourable aiming position through them. This question is especially important in footba II, where target should be hit with the less skilfullimb, in a way that the man and ball contact is reduced to a moment-iike touch. The success of scoring depends on correct judging of target position, the distance from the place of kicking, and the plane of surface. It is well-known from practice that kicking a standing or moving ball into the goal create different problems. Sensing the target is only one of the important components. The other requirement could be the correct sensing of the force exerted during the preparatory kick. ln this poster we studied a sample of football players with different abilities to describe the individual and group variations of aiming exercises. Key-words: estimating distance, kicking accuracy, football Összefoglalás A labdajátékok közös vonása, hogy az eredmény pozitiv alakítása előre megjelölt célok, felületek, minél többszöri eltalálása révén valósul meg. A számos technikai megoldás úgyis felfogható, hogy általuk kedvező célzási pozíció megszerzése válik lehetségessé. Különösen izgalmas a témakör a labdarúgásban, ahol az ügyetlenebbnek tartott alsó végtaggal kell a célt eltaláini oly módon, hogy az ember - labda kontaktus pillanatszerű érintésre redukálódik. A találat sikere, feltehetően a cél helyzetének pontos megítélésétől, a rúgás helyétől, való távolságtól és a felület elhelyezkedési síkjától függ. Gyakorlatból ismeretes, hogy különböző nehézséget támaszt az álló illetve mozgó labdának a célba juttatása. A kijelölt cél érzékelése minden bizonnyal csak az egyik fontos komponens. A másik elvárást a vizsgálati személy a rúgás közben kifejtett erejének pontos érzékelése és adagolása jelentheti. A vizsgálatban arra vállalkozunk, hogy a labdarúgásban különböző jártasságot mutató játékosok mintáján megvizsgáljuk a célzási feladatok teljesülésének egyéni és csoportbeli változatosságát. Kulcsszavak: távolságbecslés, rúgáspontosság, labdarúgás. Introduction Not only the laymen but also the experts have been arguing about why ballgames are so popular. Among several rational explanations there is one outstanding principle: ball games are real games, team sports, where success is the result of cooperation, aithough the collective intent is being embarrassed by the opponent. Within sport games people have always been and will always be tal king about soccer in Hungary. It's almost a slogan now, that everybody is expert on soccer. Problems of nowadays soccer is very diversified, and this situation doesn't exempt us from not trying to make it better. When we are reading the title of this investigation, obviously we try to answer a simple question. As it is proved in the scientific researches, sometimes the simple questions are more complicated in the process of execution. To shoot the ball is an easy task to do, but to shoot it to the correct place while the player is moving, there is a time pressure and other disturbing conditions, it is a complex problem. That is why we chose the problem of shooting accuracy for one of our main ínterests in the!ast months. It was our inquiry to find out how punctual the different aged, dominant sided, qualified and also different footsized players can perform under research conditions? While we were analyzing the Iiterature, we found articles of Márton Pilvein, who had chosen the topic of position-recognitíon and distance guessing in the 70's jn case of soccer players. (pilvein 1970, 1972, 1973) The author found that guessing of the target's correct piacement is one of the most important actions of successful execution. 1. Questions LogicaIly we can accept that these kind of questions are connected to the physical abilities. To receive high level movement execution - which is required in ali targeting exercise - practice must have a central and important role, as weil as safety distance guessing, which is forming on the basis of it. Does the distance of the aim have influence on the shooting accuracy or in the background there is a so called "generally good shooting safety" which is an unconditional ability of the sportsman and this guarantees the successful execution for any distance? Note: The expected result - even though it is a result of sport specific fjeld in case of successful execution, is very interesting from human biojogicai point of view. In the background are the reliability of distance guessing precise power dosage for movement execution and also the 2 components' tunes. How is distance guessing shaping for indivjduals from arbitrary decided distances for experts in groups? What kind of success can be expected on undertaken distance achievement for soccer experts and amateur groups? 2. Methods Throughout our study non-probability - expert - method was used for selecting sample. We registered the players' (n=50) expectations and the achieved distance of shooting in meters. After that we asked them to shoot the ball to the expected distance. After execution we registered the players' impressions how successful they were on the expected

16 distance, did they over or under estimated the distance? Than we measured the expected distance and also the achieved distance and they also tried to guess the distance. The measured point was that point where the ball first touched the ground. Ali together there were 3 expectations and 3 executed shots from each player, but we didn't inform them how accurate they were not to give them correlation point. On the score sheet we registered the expected and achieved distance values in that way that the underestimated performances received negative sign, while the overestimated performances were recorded with positive sign. Data were statistically analyzed with paired T test (Statistics for Windows 4.5 StatSoft Inc.). 3. Participants Different aged, knowledge-level (I., II. Division, county I. division) players participated in our research. Beside their age, sport-participation age was also registered. The distribution is shown in Table 1. Note: Those players were considered as experts who have been playing soccer for at least 10 years and have been practicing on at least 4 trainings per week. 4. Results It was utmost interesting for us to see the expected distance guessing values. The limit numbers of players' guessing were 20 meters to 40 meters. The explanation for this can be found in the practiced distances which are pretty similar to these numbers for instance in fast breaks, in changing side shots and also tactical solutions in width and depth. The expected distance guessing is shown in Fig. 2. While we were analyzing the gained data with paired T test we found signifi- Groups n Age Height Weight (year) (cm) (kg) piece táblázat: A résztvevő csoportok átlagos jellemzői Table 1: Common features of participants 5 o 20 metre 5. Coneiusion Fig.1: 25 metre cant difference (p<o.os) between junior experts and adult amateurs and also between junior experts and junior ama teur players in distance guessing. Measuring the execution of shots we found significant difference (p<o.os) between adult experts and adult amateurs, and also between adult experts and junior amateurs. We summarized the conclusion in Table 2. Note: Empty circles show the expected distance guessing while black points show the achieved values. The absolute place of the aim is shown with a vertical line, which can be drawn between overand underestimation. The soccer players in the research had better guessing results in case of expected distance guessing than execution. (Distance differences from the aim: in expected distance guessing x= 119m; in execution x= 149,Sm;) ln the examined 4 groups' summarized performance both in expected distance guessing and shooting accuracy Foot size Dominant Dominant (Europen leg hand number) left right left right Junior I ,38 176,22 70,33 41,81 4 II 3 12 (amateurs) Junior II ,89 181,92 76,81 42, (experts) Adult I ,37 180,63 75,25 42, (amateurs) Adult II. (experts) 13 26,95 185,19 79,95 43, Summary 50 21,08 180,80 75,37 42, ábra: Rúgástávolságok megoszlása a felvállalt távolságok alapján Distribution of shot distances on the basis of expected distance guess metre 35 metre 40 metre distance the underperformance is more frequented. (underestimation: 68,Sm, overesti mation: 50,5m, underperformed: 87,Sm, over performed: 62m) From the results we can not clearly state, that the shooting accuracy to different distances has statisticai coher ence with the foreseen calculated distances. The best accuracy can be observed at 40 m shots. The 30 and 20 m shots were a bit worse but as a number of failures they were equal. The worst performance can be seen in the 35 meter shots. There are some changes in the per formance when we try to compare the expectation with the achievements. It seems, even though the 40 meters shots j

18 orttudomán zemle 19 The Role of the Security Forces in the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens A BIZTONSÁGI ERŐK SZEREPE A 2004-ES NYÁRI OLIMPIAI JÁTÉKOKON ATHÉNBAN Lappas Kleomenls Department of Social Sciences Semmelweis University of Budapest-Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences (TF) Abstract The Olympics returned to Greece, after108 years. The aim of this paper is to c1arify the major issues of the organized security plan for the 2004 Olympics and describe the most important characteristics in the activity of the security forces. This study is based on a participant's observation. Depth interviews have also been done. Findings of a theoretical research are used as weil as the results of analysis of documents. Finally the author presents the opinion of media experts and key persons in the leadership of the security for the 2004 summer Olympic Games relevant to the crucial issue of the security insurance of Olympics. Key-words: Security measurement, security forces, terrorism, media Összefoglaló 108 év után Athén újra Olimpiai Játékokat rendezett. A dolgozat bemutatja a 2004-es nyári olimpiai játékok biztosítási tervét és a biztonsági erők tevékenységének legfontosabb összetevőit. A tanulmány alapvetően a résztvevői megfigyelés (participant observation) módszerére épül, amelyet a szerző dokumentumelemzéssei és mélyinterjúkkal (N=9) egészített ki. Eredményeit összeveti elméleti kutatások következtetéseivel. A befejező részben a biztonsági tevékenység néhány vezetőjének és a media válogatott kulcsembereinek véleményét elemzi az olimpiák biztosításának és biztonságának kardinális kérdéseiről. Kulcsszavak: biztonsági intézkedések, biztonsági erők, terrorizmus, media 1. Introduction The summer 2004 OJympíc Games took place in Athens, Greece on August 13-29, with 10,500 athletes from 202 countries participating and more than The aim of this paper is to describe and analyze some major characteristics of the activity of the security forces of the summer 2004 Olympics in Athens, and to present the major issues of the organized security plan. First there will be given the historical background of terrorism in Olympic Games since 1972, the international threats, and the nation one millions spectators presenting themselves in most athletic events. The first Olympic games took place in Greece in 776 B.C. and the first modern Olympics were held in Athens in Therefore, hosting a successful Olympics was a point of national pride and the highest priority of the Greek government. Under this historical background of the Olympic Games and considering the importance of the necessity of a very wejl organized and safe Olympics under the threat of terrorist attacks in a national and international level, it appeared to be an exciting and great chance for a social scientist to be able to be a participant observer in such relevant phenomena, in which he/she is interested with. To ensure security in Olympics has been. a crucial issue since 1998, and became even more important sínce September 11 st, 200 1'. It is not easy to discover this issue from a sociological perspective. Consequently, considering the fact that such phenomena do not occur regularly, l prepared myself for this activity as a researcher and as member of the security forces of the Olympic Games as weil. The organization of safe Olympic Games have had such importance, that Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis assumed the post of Minister of Culture to be directly responsible for the Olympics when he took office in March He has promised, "the best and safest Olympic Games ever." Karamanlis's deputy has been Alternate Culture Minister Faní Palli-Petralia. The al President of the Athens Olympics Organizing Committee (ATHOC) has been Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki. Greece was the smallest country to host an Olympics since Finland in 1952, and questions have arisen about its ability to cope with the many facets of the taskfrom completing construction of numerous new sports venues and infrastructure for Olympic activities on time to providing adequate security for teams and tourists. Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis has declared that Olympics of Athens would be safe from terrorism, or as safe as would be "humanly possibie". Even critics of the government's massive security operation were deciaring Athens "one of the safest places on Earth". The Olympics securíty operation has started rolling on July 1 with the sealing off more than 30 venues before the August event. Tension in Iraq and the Middie East has sparked fears of a terrorist attack during the Games, topped by a recent string of small bomb and arson attacks by home grown frínge groups. In the run-up to the Games, intelligence officials had mentioned that there have been no indications that the world's largest sporting event will be a target for terrorism. Nevertheless, there have been a number of minor incidents, quickly blamed on domestic left-wíng extremists, or anarchists. Less than a fortnight ago, a petrol bomb was thrown at the interior ministry in what was thought to be a protest at the security crackdown. 2. Objective and international terrorist organizations and their action. Following, an organized security plan of the Olympics in both 9 national and international level will be given. The creation of a special Coordinating council, the athletes, tourists, and VlP protection and the contribution of other countries to security of the Olympics will be some of the major topics, which will be discussed. Then there will be a special chapter about the

19 cost of the entire security plan of the 2004 Olympics. Finally, the contribution of the armed forces in the security of the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens will be discussed. At the end some concluding thoughts will be mentioned as weil as the opinion of some key persons referring to security and cost matters of the Olympics in Athens. 3. Methods ln spite of using several methods and being a participant observer from the beginning to the end of the Olympics in Athens, onlya segment of the security activity could be discovered, which are allowed to be published. This is under standable because of the confidential character of the topic. Nevertheless, I will try to give an inside view to the security problem and it is worth while to study. For this reason a qualitative research had been carried out from the beginning tili the end of the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. Guideline was a structured and non-structured observation. There were few criteria according to which I registered the related information. Beside that, I did not know in advance what other criteria would follow the observation, so I followed the incidents. Depth Interviews have also been done with some key persons in the leadership of the security forces and some Media experts. Finally the newspapers' reactions on the activity of the security forces have been taken into consideration. Interesting information has been taken also from the "Police Review", a bimonthly magazine of Hellenic Police Headquarters. 4. Historical background of terrorism in Olympic Games and International Threats Terrorism and violence are not new phenomena to the Olympics. Palestinian terrorists kidnapped and murdered Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics in 1972, and an American has been charged with the bombing near the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Terrorists reportedly planned to attack other Olympics, but did not succeed. Since last year, the frequency and density of international terrorist violent incidents has increased and Greek security planners face a variety of challenges. Until recently, Greece's record in combating domestic terrorism was widely regarded as deficient. A group called the Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N) had acted with impunity since 1975, ciaiming responsibility for the assassination of four U.S. officials and many others. Following the arrest of a 17N terrorist in June 2002 after a bomb exploded in his hands prernaturel y, Greek authorities captured suspected leaders and members of the group. Those arrested were successfully prosecuted, with 15 of the accused receiving long prison sentences in December No new acts of terrorism have been attributed to 17N since the 2002 arrests, and Greek Police Chief Fotis Nasiakos has stated that 17N does not exist any more. The U.S. State Department, however, has kept 17N on its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations in Patterns of Global Terrorism, 2003, noting that additional members of the group are at large, and investigations are continuing. After their success against 17N, Greek authorities focused on the Revolutionary People's Struggle (ELA). ELA also had been active since 1975 and had asserted that it was responsible for hundreds of bombings and at least two murders. On the other hand, the Foreign Terrorist Organization, called Revolutionary Nuclei (RN), had not c1aimed an attack since Five members of ELA captured in January 2003 and accused of crimes including bombing vehicles and facilities used by the U.S. military are now on triaj. The Greek government believes that ELA, Iike 17N, has been effectively dismantled. It should be mentioned that according to some analysts and media experts, if members of 17N and ELA were still active, they would not act during the Olympics because of their professed "patriotism" or "nationalism." However, such sentiments may not inhibit anarchist groups, which operate mostly in the Athens area and target popular U.S. and allied businesses, for example American Express, Citibank, and McDonald's. They usually attack when premises are unoccupied and use low-ievel weapons such as firebombs. There is some concern that Greek anarchists may ally with like-minded anti-globalization groups both in Greece and from elsewhere in Europe during the Olympics. Greece also has Muslim population, as weil as a large number of residents from Arab countries. It should be mentioned that there have been no reports of radical Islamist terrorist groups operating in Greece; but police surveillance of Muslims reportedly has been increased in anticipation of the OJympics. And, although domestic terrorist groups have not been tied to international terror networks, some media reports have mentioned that ELA trained with Palestinian counterparts in Lebanon, suggesting that other international Iinks may be possible. The Athens Olympics were the first summer games to be held since AI Qaeda attacked the United States on September 11, Alleged AI Qaeda links to the November 2003 bombings in nearby Istanbul and the March 11, 2004 bombing of a train in Madrid have heightened the Greek government's already keen awareness of a possible international terrorist threat to the Olympics. AI Qaeda has made no specific or known threat against the Olympics. Moreover, responding to

20 threats that AI Qaeda and its terrorist affiliates have long been known to operate in Greece, the U.S. State Department stated in August 2003 that there was no information to confjrm the presence or even a possible terrorist attack of AI Qaeda in Greece. On April 15, 2004, AI Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden offered Europeans a "peace treaty"if they withdrew their troops from Muslim countries. His message said that "the door of peace will remain open" for three months. The Olympics willoccur just weeks after Bin Laden's deadline expires, meaning that the Games might be a high value symbolíc European target for AI Qaeda. Some experts believe that AI Qaeda will be attracted to the Greek Olympics to communicate its message to an audience of billions, to strike in the cradle of Western democracy, and to attack Western citizens and interests. Countries whose nationals are considered to be at high risk during the Olympics include the United States and its allies in the Iraq war, such as Britain, plus Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Russia-because of the Chechen problem. A dissenting view is heard from those who suggest that anxiety about AI Qaeda terrorism at the Olympics may be exaggerated or maintain that Greek security measures will accomplish their purpose of effectively hardening otherwise "soft" tourism-related targets. 5. Organized Security Plan 5.1. Security plan in a nationallevel Public Order Ministry was the lead agency for Olympic security and, because it was believed that there is no more domestic threat, it was primarily focusing on external threats. Given the nature of the Greek government, ministers usually operated autonomously and were responsibje solely to the Prime Minister. Coordination was considered both a possible weakness and a priority for Olympic preparations. The government has created special Coordinating Council for Olympic Security, consisting of 10 ministers and chaired by the Minister of Public Order. Early security exercises confirmed, however, that coordination was still a problem. Following Police Review (Volume 226), the major conveyors of the security of O the Olympics in Athens were the foljowing: 1. Hellenic Police Department (photo 1) 2. Hellenic Coast Guard (photo 2) 3. Hellenic Fire Department (photo 3) 4. Hellenic Armed Forces (photo 4) 5. Hellenic Central Intelligence Unit.(photo 5) The major responsibility for the security of the Olympics in Athens belongs to the Hellenic Police Department. They are legislated to organize and conduct any activity referring to security matters, as weil as to cooperate with the other four security authorities and coordinate their action before, during and after the Summer Olympic Games of Officials had also inspected security measures at three venues, the main stadium, the athletes' village and the 19thcentury marble Panathinaikon stadium, site of the first modern Olympics in 1896, where the archery competition will take place. Eight grand-scaje security exercises, three involving military troops, have already been held since November An airship was hovering above the city for up to 16 hours per day (fjg. 1). It was assumed by some political parties and by some media experts as weil that, it could be used to eavesdrop on private phone conversations and even record details of people's everyday lives. The police strongly deny this - and say security measures have been put in with full respect for human rights. But the surveillance network does give them extraordinary abilities to track suspect vehicles and individuals. The ministry of public order stated that the main goal is to conduct the Olympic Games in an absolutely secure environment. The Olympic venues themselves have been swept for bombs and are locked down. Athletes from high-risk nations like the United States, Israel and Britain have been afforded armed guards. Security searches for spectators had to be rigorous.vip protection, transport security and accommodation, international terrorism and information exchange management wee some issues that had to be weil studied and organized. Consequently, for the proper supervision of the Olympic Games related areas, and especially the areas around the athjetic stadiums, the airport, some buildings and areas of high importance, underwater areas, the highway, the subway, some luxury hotels and the athletic villages, a high number of special advanced technological equipment has been used by the security forces (fig. 2). Those were the following: TETR.A(Terrestrial Trunked Radio)_ 963 magnetic gates 261 x-rays devises 520 mobile metal detectors 496 mirrors for the vehicles control 39 devises for the detection of explosives 1577 CCTV devises (cameras) telecommunication systems 4205 vehicle detectors Sonar Detection devises for the bottom of the sea It should be also mentioned that Greece has repeatedly refused the presence of non-greek, armed guards for athlete security during the Games. The country's public order minister said state leaders could take armed guards but Greece alone woujd protect international athletes. George Vouigarakis said that the Leaders, presidents, kings were one thing and athletes were another. Greece was exclusively responsible for the protection and guarding of the athletes. As far as the Games were concerned it is clear that Greek authorities had the exclusive responsibility, and they have done everything humanly possible for the Games to be held in a safe and peaceful environment. It should also be mentioned that according to Police Review (Volume 227), the President of the IOC Jacques Rogge, was impressed with the way the personnel of the security forces acted during the Olympics. He mentioned that they were really professionals but at the same time they were friendly and cooperative Cooperation of Greek Security Authorities with other countries When the OJympic Games opened in Athens on Friday, they were more than just a test of athletes. One of the biggest challenges was whether the first Games since the iast years, attacks could pass off safely, despite the threat of international terrorism. Consequently, in 2000, the Greek government estabjished a seven-nation Olympic Advisory Group ~0

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