Peshawar has evolved into one of Pakistan's most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities. In the last three decades, there has been a significant increase in urban population, in part due to internal migration of people in search of better employment opportunities, education, and services, and in part because of the influx of Afghans and other people internally displaced due to military operations and civil unrest in neighboring regions. Peshawar is the major educational, political, and business center of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Peshawar's recorded history goes back as far as at least 539 BC, making it one of the oldest living cities in South Asia.[4]

Being among the most ancient cities of the region between Central and South Asia, Peshawar has for centuries been a centre of trade between Afghanistan, South Asia and Central Asia. As an ancient centre of learning, the 2nd century BC. Bakhshali Manuscript used in the Bakhshali approximation was found nearby.[5]

Vedic mythology refers to an ancient settlement called Pushkalavati in the area, after Pushkal, the son of King Bharata in the epic Ramayana;[citation needed] but this settlement's existence remains speculative and unverifiable.[6] In recorded history, the earliest major city established in the general area of Peshawar was called Purushapura (Sanskrit for City of Men), from which the current name "Peshawar" is likely derived.[7]

The area that Peshawar occupies was then seized by the Greco-Bactrian king, Eucratides (170 – 159 BC), and was controlled by a series of Greco-Bactrian, and later, Indo-Greek kings, who ruled an empire that geographically spanned from the area of present-day Afghanistan to North India. According to the historian, Tertius Chandler, Peshawar consisted of a population of 120,000 in the year 100 AD, making it the seventh most populous city in the world at the time.[8] Later, the city was ruled by several Parthian and Indo-Parthian kings, another group of Iranian peoples germane to the region, the most famous of whom, Gondophares (Gandapur in Pashto), ruled the city and its environs, starting in circa 46 AD; the period of rule by Gondophares was briefly followed by two or three of his descendants, before they were displaced by the first of the "Great Kushans", Kujula Kadphises, around the middle of the 1st century AD. The city was invaded and made capital of the Kushans, a Central Asian tribe of Tocharian origin, during their brief rule in the 2nd century AD.[9]

The Kushan king, Kanishka, who ruled from at least 127 AD, moved the capital from Pushkalavati (now called Charsadda, in the Peshawar valley), to Purushapura (Peshawar) in the 2nd century AD,[10]Buddhist missionaries arrived at Zoroastrian, Hindu and animist Peshawar, seeking counsel with the Kushan rulers. Their teachings were embraced by the Zoroastrian Kushans, who converted to Buddhism, assigning the religion with an official status in the city. Following this move by the Kushans, Peshawar became a great centre of Buddhist learning.[citation needed]

However, Kanishka, who became an ardent follower of Buddhism, built what may have been the tallest building in the world at the time — a giant stupa, to house the Buddhist relics, that was located just outside the Ganj Gate of the old city of Peshawar. The Kanishka stupa was said to be an imposing structure, as one travelled down from the mountains of Afghanistan onto the Gandharan plains. The earliest account of the famous building was documented by Faxian, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, who was also a monk, who visited the structure in 400 AD and described it as being over 40 chang in height (approximately 120 metres (390 ft)) and adorned "with all precious substances". Faxian continued: "Of all the stûpas and temples seen by the travellers, none can compare with this for beauty of form and strength."[citation needed] The stupa was eventually destroyed by lightning, but was repaired several times; it was still in existence at the time of Xuanzang's visit in 634 AD. A jewelled casket containing relics of the Buddha, and an inscription identifying Kanishka as the donor, existed at the ruined base of this giant stupa — the casket was excavated, by a team supervised by Dr D.B. Spooner in 1909, from a chamber under the very centre of the stupa's base.[11]

The Pashtuns began a conversion to Islam, following the early annexation by the Arab Empire from Khurasan (in what is today Afghanistan and northeastern Iran).[12] In 1001, the Turkic ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, Mahmud of Ghazni, further expanded from Afghanistan into the Indian sub-continent.

“

Sebuktagin's death occurred in 997 AD and he was succeeded as governor of Khorasan by his son, Mahmud; Mahmud subsequently ceased dependence upon the Samani princes and assumed the title of Sultan in 999 AD.[citation needed]

During the early reign of this celebrated invader, major battles again occurred on the plains of Peshawar, the first of which was fought on the maira, between Nowshera and the Indus, in the year 1001 AD. Mahmud was opposed by the Hindu Shahi King Jayapala in the Battle of Peshawar (1001); it was a constantly endeavour of King Jayapala to recover the country that had been wrested from him by Sebuktagin. The King was aided by some Pathans (also known as Pashtuns, or Afghans), whose allegiance to the Muslim governor of Peshawar did not continue in the long-term.[citation needed]

The Jayapala-initiated battle occurred during the month of November[citation needed] and the king, himself, was taken prisoner — upon his release, Jayapala resigned the crown to his son, Anandpal. On this occasion, Mahmud punished the Pathans, who had sided with the enemy, and, as they had converted entirely to Islam, the Pathans remained loyal to their new allegiance.[13]

The Pashtun emperor Sher Shah Suri, who founded the Sur Empire centered at Delhi, turned Peshawar's renaissance into a boom when he ran his Delhi-to-Kabul Shahi Road through the Khyber Pass and Peshawar in the 16th century. Peshawar was also incorporated into the Mughal domains by the mid of 16th century. The founder of the Mughul dynasty that would conquer South Asia, Babur, who hailed from the area that is currently Uzbekistan, arrived in Peshawar and founded a city called Bagram, where he rebuilt a fort in 1530 AD. His grandson, Akbar, recorded the name of the city as Peshawa, meaning "The Place at the Frontier" or "Near Water"[citation needed] and expanded the bazaars and fortifications. The Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to the Islamic Sultanate in South Asia, with many settling in the Peshawar region.[6]

Khushal Khan Khattak, the Pashtun/Afghan warrior poet, was born near Peshawar, and his life was intimately tied to the city. As an advocate for Afghan independence, he was an implacable foe of the Mughal rulers, especially Aurangzeb.[citation needed]

As Mughal power declined in 1747, following a loya jirga, Peshawar would join the Pashtun Durrani Empire of Ahmad Shah Durrani.[14] In 1776, Ahmad Shah's son, Timur Shah Durrani, chose Peshawar as his winter capital[15] and the Bala Hissar Fort in Peshawar was used as the residence of Afghan kings. Pashtuns from Peshawar participated in the incursions of South Asia during the Durrani Empire. Peshawar remained the winter capital until the Sikhs rose to power in the early nineteenth century.[16]

Peshawar was captured and briefly held by the Maratha Empire of India, which conquered the city in the Battle of Peshawar on 8 May 1758. A large force of Durrani Afghans then re-conquered Peshawar in early 1759.[17] Peshawar remained under Afghan rule till the conquest by the Sikhs in 1818.

In 1812, Peshawar was controlled by Afghanistan, but was contested by the Sikh Empire of Punjab. The arrival of a party led by British explorer and former agent of the East India Company, William Moorcroft was seen as an advantage, both in dealings with Kabul and for protection against the Sikhs of Lahore. Moorcroft continued to Kabul in the company of Peshawari horses and thence to the Hindu Kush.[18] In 1818, Peshawar was captured by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and paid a nominal tribute until it was finally annexed in 1834 by the Sikh Empire, after which the city fell into steep decline. Many of Peshawar's famous Mughal gardens were destroyed by the Sikhs at this time. An Italian was appointed by the Sikhs as administrator. Acting on behalf of the Sikhs, Paolo Avitabile, unleashed a reign of fear – his time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets." The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.[12]

Sikhism was established in the region with the construction of Gurdwara Bhai Joga Singh and Gurdwara Bhai Beeba Singh, by Hari Singh Nalwa.[19] While the city's Sikh population drastically declined after the partition of India, Peshawar's Sikh community has re-established itself, bolstered by Sikh refugees and by approximately 4,000 refugees from the Tribal Areas;[20] in 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar.[21] Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Hindko as their mother tongue.[22]

Following the defeat of the Sikh's in the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Peshawar was captured by British East India company. During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;[23] the absence of brutality meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.[24] British control remained confined within the city walls as vast regions of the Frontier province outside the city were claimed by the Kingdom of Afghanistan. The vast mountainous areas outside of the city were mapped out only in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the boundary of British-controlled areas with the Afghan ruler at the time, Abdur Rahman Khan.

The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.[17] Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.[12] The British also constructed Cunningham clock tower, in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and, in 1906, constructed Victoria Hall (now home of the Peshawar Museum) in memory of Queen Victoria.[12] The British greatly contributed to the establishment of Western-style education in Peshawar with the establishment of Edwardes College and Islamia College in 1901 and 1913, respectively—these were established in addition to numerous other schools, many of which are run by the Anglican Church.[12] For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were seprated from the Punjab Province in 1901. [25]

Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindko and Pashtun intellectuals. Hindko speakers, also referred to as Khaarian ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.[26] Where as before it was the Pashtuns and Mughals who beautified and brought culture to the region, until the Sikhs brought the city to shambles and deterioration.

In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created Pakistan after politicians from the Frontier decided to join the state. While a large majority of people approved this action, a small minority, including Abdul Ghaffar Khan, believed that South Asians could form a confederation; however, the call for a united India was deeply unpopular with the local people. A small, but powerful, minority believed that the province should have been absorbed into Afghanistan, because Peshawar had been part of Afghanistan before the British connected it to the rest of India. There was also a call for the creation of Pashtunistan, an independent state separate from both Pakistan and Afghanistan. At the time most of the population of Peshawar were Pashtuns who spoke Peshawari Pashto, a dialect of native tongue of Afghanistan.

Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. Of the old city gates, the most famous was the "Kabuli Gate", and in January 2012, an announcement was made by Siraj Ahmed Khan, the Peshawar District Coordination Officer at the time: "In due course of time, all the gates around the old city will be restored." — Imran Rasheed, an author who has written extensively on the history of Peshawar has explained:

Old Peshawar was divided into three separate walled communities, Gunj, Dhaki Nalbandi and Sard Chah quarters. Under the Sikhs, the Italian mercenary governor of Peshawar, General Paolo Avitabile, popularly known as Abu Tabela, demolished the walls around these quarters and built a single wall around the old city.[28]

Peshawar's size or capacity has not grown in direct proportion to the city's population and pollution and overcrowding have negatively impacted upon the city in modern times. In addition to the increase in population, the high number of Afghan transportation vehicles that pass through the city have contributed to the degradation of the city's air quality:

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, smoke, dust, hydrocarbons and tetraethyl lead are the main components of vehicular emissions poured into the urban air. Fuel adulteration and use of ill-maintained vehicles enhances emissions from motor vehicle exhaust. A large amount of suspended dust is generated due to vehicles driving on unpaved road shoulders, poorly maintained and overcrowded roads. In Peshawar, being a boarder city of Afghanistan, the large influx of Afghan transporters has greatly increased the problem of air pollution.[29]

There was a total of approximately 100,000 Afghans registered in Peshawar during the 1988 election, when Benazir Bhutto was running for Prime Minister of Pakistan; although, in addition to this estimate, hundreds of thousands of Afghan refugees were in the city "illegally".[30] The Afghans rebuked being labeled as illegal citizens, since they claim Peshawar belongs to Afghanistan and was illegally taken away from them to be given to British backed India by the British. Many of the ethnic Pashtun Afghans reside in Peshawar with relative ease and many still remain in Peshawar since to them it is home.

As of 2012, Peshawar continues to link Pakistan with Afghanistan and Central Asia. Peshawar has emerged as an important regional city of Pakistan and the city remains a focal point for Pashtun culture. Like the surrounding region, Peshawar was at the crossroads of the struggle between the extremist Taliban and moderates, liberals, and Pashtun nationalists. As a demonstration of their determination to destroy Pashtun icons, the Pakistani Taliban bombed the shrine of the Pashtun poet, Rahman Baba, in 2009.[31]

Peshawar is situated near the eastern end of the Khyber Pass and is mainly situated on the Iranian Plateau, along with the rest of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.

The Valley of Peshawar is covered with consolidated deposits of silt, sands and gravel from recent geological periods. The flood plains/zones are the areas between the Kabul River and Budni Nala. The meandering flood plain extends from Warsak in the northwest towards the southeast in the upper northern half of the district; the Kabul River enters the district in the northwest. Upon the Kabul River's entrance into the Peshawar Plain, the waterway is divided into several — the two main channels are the Adizai River Eastward, which flows along the boundary with the Charsadda District, and the Shah Alam, branching from the right bank of the Naguman River and merging with the Naguman River further in the east. In general, the sub-soil strata is composed of gravels, boulders and sands overlain by silts and clays.[citation needed]

Peshawar features a semi-arid climate, with very hot summers and relatively cold winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).

Peshawar is not a monsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 millimetres (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007,[32] while the highest summer rainfall of 402 millimetres (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010;[33] during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 millimetres (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010[33] — the previous record was 187 millimetres (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009.[32] The average winter rainfall levels are higher than that of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 millimetres (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 millimetres (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003.[32] Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 knots (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 knots (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995,[32] while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.[32]

Peshawar is a rapidly growing city, with a population of 2,982,816 in 1998.[36] The current population growth rate is 3.29% per year, a rate that is higher than the average of many other Pakistani cities.[37]

In 2002, based on the growth rate of 3.56%, the city's population doubled in 20 years, from 1.1 million in 1981 to 2.942 million in 2002 with a majority being Pashtun.[citation needed]Peshawar District covers a large area that extends over 50 kilometres (31 mi), from north to south, and over 30 kilometres (19 mi), from east to west. The city is situated at an altitude of 359 metres (1,178 ft) above sea level.[citation needed] The Peshawar Valley is nearly circular, extending from the Indus to the Khyber Hills, and is bound on the north and northeast by hills, which separate it from the Swat Valley. In the northwest are the rugged mountains of Khyber and to the south is the continuation of spur which branches off from Safed Koh (the famous white mountain on the Afghan border) and runs to the Indus. The lower portion of this branch separates the district of Peshawar and Kohat. Lakka Mountain with elevation of 6,600 feet in Khyber Agency is almost 25 kilometres from the city centre and 15 kilometres from Hayatabad

Over 99% of Peshawar's population is Muslim, mostly Sunnis, with Twelver Shias the significant minority group. Despite the mainly Islamic nature of modern Peshawar, the city was previously home to a diverse range of communities, such as Jews, Zoroastrians and members of the Bahá'í Faith. A significant number of Sikhs, in addition to smaller communities of Hindus and Christians, continue to exist in Peshawar.[citation needed]

Peshawar is the cultural centre of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; its culture has evolved over the years and has been principally Pakhtun. Hindko and Ghandara culture has given rise recently. The province in which Peshawar is located has a population that is predominantly Pakhtun.

With the Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980s and the influx of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, Peshawar became home for many Afghan musicians and artists.[38] The city has also become the centre for Pashto music and cinema, as well as Dari music for the Tajiks, and a thriving Persian language book-publishing sector is now established in Peshawar; Islamic Shia literature is the primary output of the Peshawar publishing industry and it is located in the Qissa Khawani Bazaar.[citation needed]\

Sethi Mohallah

Following the election of the Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA) Islamic coalition in 2002, restrictions on public musical performances were introduced, as well as a ban prohibiting the playing of recorded music on public transport; however, a thriving underground scene has developed in Peshawar.[39] In 2008, the secular political party, the Awami National Party (ANP), swept elections and won power from the Islamic coalition. Since the ANP assumed power in Peshawar, a greater focus has shifted towards the areas of culture and the arts, but the party has been hindered by a well-established conservatism among the population and the Taliban militancy. In June 2012, a Pashto singer, Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in the city, with the subsequent investigation revealing that the pair were murdered. Javed's career was very successful and her death occurred close to three years after the death of another promising Pashto musical artist, Aiyman Udas, who was also murdered in a fringe area of the city. Such incidents have been associated with Peshawar's conservative culture and the influence of the Taliban, the latter being the reason for Javed's movement to Peshawar, as the Taliban had strengthened its presence in the Peshawar Valley in 2007.[40]

Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city's old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection. Author, Dr Raj Wali Shah Khattak, a former director of the Pushto Academy and a senior academic at the University of Peshawar, has written in his book, An Intangible Heritage: The Walled City of Peshawar:

To protect the inheritance of the walled city of Peshawar, the establishment of a heritage centre should be a priority. The centre should have audio and visual documentation equipment so that every aspect of culture and life, be it folklore, music, types of instruments, stories, etc., can be recorded. Moreover, visual documentation of customs and traditions should include marriage functions, clothing, lifestyle, manners and habits. Research into the oral nature of life in the bazars and streets, both during the day and at night, should be carried out to preserve this historical record. Fairs, festivals and traditions, both secular and religious, should be included in this record.[41]

The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.[28] The numerous gates include: Lahori Gate, Sarasia Gate, Ganj Gate, Sirki Gate, Sard Chah Gate and Kohati Gate. Former gates that were demolished were Kabuli Gate, Berikian Gate, Bajori Gate, Yakatut Gate, Dabgari Gate, Kachahri Gate and Hasht Nagri Gate.

Clock Tower of Peshawar city known as "Ghanta Ghar" (Clock Home) in Urdu

Flower work inside Mohabbat Khan Mosque

Fruit vendors selling local melons

Peshawar is a host city for many bazaars that sell various goods and souvenirs for travellers. The main bazaars are the historic Qissa Khawani Bazaar, the Copper Market, Chowk Yadgar and Andarsheher Bazaar. Due to the city's access to the Khyber Pass, the Khyber Train Safari starts from Peshawar.

The following is a list of other significant landmarks in the city that still exist in the 21st century:

Shahji ki Dheri – the site of King Kanishka's famous Buddhist stupa. It was once the tallest stupa in India and served as the model for pagodas in China and Japan. The site is now a slum located outside the Gunj Gate of the old Walled City called Akhunabad.[42][43] The stupa was described by Chinese pilgrims in the 7th century as the tallest stupa in all India with a height of 591–689 feet.

Hindu

Panch Tirath – an ancient Hindu site with 5 sacred ponds, that has been converted into a park (Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa (K-P) Chamber of Commerce and Industry)[44]

Beal, Samuel. 1911. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing". Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.

Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India,: comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969).

Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. "Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825", Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.

Reeves, Richard. 1985. "Passage to Peshawar: Pakistan: Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea." Holiday House September 1985. ISBN 0-671-60539-9.