The maximal number of hits you can export is 250. When you want to export more records please use the Create feeds function.

301. Automation of Robotized Laser Metal-Wire Deposition

Heralic, Almir

et al.

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Christiansson, Anna-Karin

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Ottosson, Mattias

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Hurtig, Kjell

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Mechanical Engineering.

Lennartson, Bengt

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying. University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Production Systems.

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Christiansson, Anna-Karin

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Ottosson, Mattias

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying.

Hurtig, Kjell

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Mechanical Engineering.

Lennartson, Bengt

University West, Department of Technology, Mathematics and Computer Science, Division for Electrical Engineering and Land Surveying. University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Production Systems.

Coolant supplied by high pressure into the cutting zone has shown the lower thermal loads on the tool when machining difficult-to-cut materials as the Alloy 718. In this study, we investigate how the combination of high-pressure cooling and tool-surface modifications can lead to further improvements regarding tool life. The general approach is to enhance the coolant-tool interaction by increasing the contact area. Therefore, we machined cooling features into flank and rake faces of commercially available cemented tungsten carbide inserts. In this way, the surface area was increased by similar to 12%. After the cutting tests, the tools were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Compared with conventional tools, the tool modifications reduced the flank wear by 45% for the investigated cutting parameters. Furthermore, we were able to significantly increase the cutting speed and feed rate without failure of the tool. The investigated surface modifications have great potential to enhance the productivity of metal cutting processes.

Coolant supplied by high pressure into the cutting zone has shown to lower thermal loads on the tool when machining difficult-to-cut materials as Alloy 718. In this study, we investigate how the combination of high pressure cooling and tool-surface modifications can lead to further improvements regarding tool life. The general approach is to enhance the coolant-tool interaction by increasing the contact area. Therefore, we machined cooling features into flank and rake faces of commercially available cemented tungsten carbide inserts. In this way, the surface area was increased by ~ 12%. After the cutting tests, the tools were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Compared with conventional tools, the tool modifications reduced the flank wear by 45% for the investigated cutting parameters. Furthermore, we were able to significantly increase the cutting speed and feed rate without failure of the tool. The investigated surface modifications have great potential to enhance the productivityof metal cutting processes.

In the present study, the tool wear mechanisms of uncoated cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co) tools during machining Alloy 718 with high-pressure coolant supply are investigated. Worn flank faces are analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). With increasing spiral cutting length, larger areas on the tool surface are subjected to erosion of Co-binder by the coolant jet impact. Moreover, the amount and morphology of workpiece-precipitates adhered on worn flank surfaces are influenced significantly by the extent of flank wear land (due to increasing spiral cutting length). The reasons for the obtained results are addressed with respect to the underlying mechanisms. Possible implications for the tool wear behavior are discussed.

There is a strong industrial driving force to find alternative production technologies in order to make the production of aero engine components of superalloys even more efficient than it is today. Introducing new and nonconventional machining technologies allows taking a giant leap to increase the material removal rate and thereby drastically increase the productivity. However, the end result is to meet the requirements set for today's machined surfaces.The present work has been dedicated to improving the knowledge of how the non-conventional machining methods Abrasive Water Jet Machining, AWJM, Laser Beam Machining, LBM, and Electrical Discharge Machining, EDM, affect the surface integrity. The aim has been to understand how the surface integrity could be altered to an acceptable level. The results of this work have shown that both EDM and AWJM are two possible candidates but EDM is the better alternative; mainly due to the method's ability to machine complex geometries. It has further been shown that both methods require post processing in order to clean the surface and to improve the topography and for the case of EDM ageneration of compressive residual stresses are also needed.Three cold working post processes have been evaluated in order to attain this: shot peening, grit blasting and high pressure water jet cleaning, HPWJC. There sults showed that a combination of two post processes is required in order to reach the specified level of surface integrity in terms of cleaning and generating compressive residual stresses and low surface roughness. The method of high pressure water jet cleaning was the most effective method for removing the EDM wire residuals, and shot peening generated the highest compressive residual stresses as well as improved the surface topography.To summarise: the most promising production flow alternative using nonconventional machining would be EDM followed by post processing using HPWJC and shot peening.

Residual stress measurements using x-ray diffraction is a well established method used within the industrial and academic community to verify the performance of different processes for metallic materials. The measurement gives an absolute value of the stress state which can be used to design and optimize the process route to induce beneficial compressive residual stresses and avoid detrimental tensile stresses. Investigating the uncertainty and accuracy of the measurement system, operator and the material is therefore of high relevance both from an industrial and scientific point of view. Round robin testing is an important way to quantify the uncertainties that could affect the quality of the measured results and hence how a process is optimized and tuned. Such an investigation allows the operator to understand and reduce variations. Current round robin test includes results from five different laboratories using comparable equipments located in Sweden, Finland, Germany and United States. This work focuses on five shot-peened tool steel specimens produced with identical process settings. Additionally, an investigation of the repeatability of the system, influence of the operator, variations within the specimen, and the long time stability of the specimens has been measured.

Alloy Ti-6Al-4V is a frequently used material in aero space applications due the high strength and low weight. This material is however often considered as a difficult to machine alloy due to several material properties such as the inherent characteristics of high hot hardness and strength which is causing an increased deformation of the cutting tool during machining. The thermal properties also cause a low thermal diffusion from locally high temperatures in the cutting zone that allows for reaction to the tool material resulting in increased tool wear. Predicting the behavior of machining of this alloy is therefore essential when selecting machining tools or machining strategies. If the surface integrity is predicted, the influence of different machining parameters could be studied using Particle Finite Element (PFEM)-simulations. In this investigation the influence from cutting speed and feed during turning on the residual stresses has been measured using x-ray diffraction and compared to PFEM-simulations. The results showed that cutting speed and feed have great impact on the residual stress state. The measured cutting force showed a strong correlation especially to the cutting feed. The microstructure, observed in SEM, showed highly deformed grains at the surface from the impact of the turning operation and the full width half maximum from the XDR measurements distinguish a clear impact from different cutting speed and feed which differed most for the higher feed rate. The experimental measurements of the residual stresses and the PFEM simulations did however not correlate. The surface stresses as well as the sign of the residuals stresses differed which might be due to the material model used and the assumption of using a Coulomb friction model that might not represent the cutting conditions in the investigated case.

Induction hardening is a relatively rapid heat treatment method to increase mechanical properties of steel components. However, results from FE-simulation of the induction hardening process show that a tensile stress peak will build up in the transition zone in order to balance the high compressive stresses close to the surface. This tensile stress peak is located in the transition zone between the hardened zone and the core material. The main objective with this investigation has been to non-destructively validate the residual stress state throughout an induction hardened component. Thereby, allowing to experimentally confirming the existence and magnitude of the tensile stress peak arising from rapid heat treatment. For this purpose a cylindrical steel bar of grade C45 was induction hardened and characterised regarding the microstructure, hardness, hardening depth and residual stresses. This investigation shows that a combined measurement with synchrotron/neutron diffraction is well suited to non-destructively measure the strains through the steel bar of a diameter of 20 mm and thereby making it possible to calculate the residual stress profile. The result verified the high compressive stresses at the surface which rapidly changes to tensile stresses in the transition zone resulting in a large tensile stress peak. Measured stresses by conventional lab-XRD showed however that at depths below 1.5 mm the stresses were lower compared to the synchrotron and neutron data. This is believed to be an effect of stress relaxation from the layer removal. The FE-simulation predicts the depth of the tensile stress peak well but exaggerates the magnitude compared to the measured results by synchrotron/neutron measurements. This is an important knowledge when designing the component and the heat treatment process since this tensile stress peak will have great impact on the mechanical properties of the final component.

The heat generated during EDM melts the work material and thereby allows large amounts to be removed,but an unfavorable surface of a recast layer (RCL) will also be created. This layer has entirely different properties compared to the bulk. Hence, it is of great interest to efficiently remove this layer and to verify that it has been removed. The main objective of this work has been to study the efficiency of grit blasting forremoval of RCL on an EDM aero space shaft. Additionally, x-ray fluorescence (XRF) has been evaluated asa nondestructive measurement to determine RCL presence. The results show that the grit-blasting processing parameters have strong influence on the ability to remove RCL and at the same time introduce beneficial compressive stresses even after short exposure time. Longer exposure will remove the RCL fromthe surface but also increase the risk that a larger amount of the blasting medium will get stuck into the surface. This investigation shows that a short exposure time in combination with a short grit-blasting nozzle distance is the most preferable process setting. It was further found that handheld XRF equipment can be used as a nondestructive measurement in order to evaluate the amount of RCL present on an EDM surface.This was realized by analyzing the residual elements from the EDM wire.

Development of future aero engine components based on new design strategies utilising topological optimisation and additive manufacturing has in the past years become a reality. This allows for designs that involve geometries of "free form" surfaces and material combinations that could be difficult to machine using conventional milling. Hence, alternative manufacturing routes using non-conventional high energy methods are interesting to explore. In this investigation, the three high energy machining methods abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), electrical discharge machining (EDM) and laser beam machining (LBM) have been compared in terms of surface integrity to the reference, a ball nosed end milled surface. The results showed great influence on the surface integrity from the different machining methods. It was concluded that AWJM resulted in the highest quality regarding surface integrity properties with compressive residual stresses in the surface region and a low surface roughness with texture from the abrasive erosion. Further, it was shown that EDM resulted in shallow tensile residual stresses in the surface and an isotropic surface texture with higher surface roughness. However, even though both methods could be considered as possible alternatives to conventional milling they require post processing. The reason is that the surfaces need to be cleaned from either abrasive medium from AWJM or recast layer from EDM. It was further concluded that LBM should not be considered as an alternative in this case due to the deep detrimental impact from the machining process.Keywords

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is considered as an efficient alternative to conventional material removal concepts that allows for much higher material removal rates. However, EDM generates unwanted features such as re-cast layer (RCL), tensile residual stresses and a rough surface. In order to recover the surface integrity, different post processes has been compared: high-pressure water jet (HPWJ), grit blasting (GB) and shot peening (SP). Surface integrity has been evaluated regarding microstructure, residual stresses, chemical content and surface roughness. The results showed that a combination of two post processes is required in order to restore an EDM processed surface of discontinuous islands of RCL. HPWJ was superior for removing RCL closely followed by grit blasting. However, grit blasting showed embedded grit blasting abrasive into the surface. Regarding surface roughness, it was shown that both grit blasting and HPWJ caused a roughening of the surface topography while shot peening generates a comparably smoother surface. All three post processes showed compressive residual stresses in the surface where shot peening generated the highest amplitude and penetration depths. However, the microstructure close to the surface revealed that shot peening had generated cracks parallel to the surface. The results strongly state how important it is to evaluate the surface at each of the different subsequent process steps in order to avoid initiation of cracks.

In this study, the fatigue life improvement by adopting the toe weaving technique on nonload carrying cruciform welded joints has been investigated. Fatigue testing was conducted on two batches of specimens welded using double-pass manual welding. One batch had a straight second pass and the other was weaved. The influence of different weaving shape parameters was analyzed by performing crack growth analyses. The fatigue testing shows a slightly improved fatigue life for the two different batches compared to as-welded joints; the improvement is similar for both batches. The crack growth analysis concludes that the batch with the straight second pass should provide slightly higher fatigue life compared to the toe weaved batch. Measurements show a presence of undercuts in the vicinity of the crack initiation site. Nonetheless, an increased fatigue life is obtained, due to the low flank angle created during welding of the second pass, which reduces the stress concentration in the weld toe, prolonging the fatigue life.

Super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) has found a wide use in demanding applications such as offshore, chemical and petrochemical industries thanks to its excellent combination of mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Welding of SDSS, however, is associated with the risk of precipitation of secondary phases and formation of excessive amounts of ferrite in the weld metal and heat affected zone. The present study was therefore aimed at gaining knowledge about the effect of multiple welding thermal cycles on the microstructure and possible sensitization to corrosion of welds in SDSS.Controlled and repeatable thermal cycles were produced by robotic welding. Oneto four autogenous TIG-remelting passes were applied on 2507 type SDSS plates using low or high heat inputs with pure argon as shielding gas. Thermal cycles were recorded using several thermocouples attached to the plates. Thermodynamic calculations and temperature field modelling were performed in order to understand the microstructural development and to predict the pitting corrosion resistance. Etching revealed the formation of different zones with characteristic microstructures: the fused weld zone (WZ) and the heat affected zone composed of the fusion boundary zone (FBZ), next to the fusion boundary, and further out Zone 1 (Z1) and Zone 2 (Z2). The WZ had a high content of ferrite and often nitrides which increased with increasing number of passes and decreasing heati nput. Nitrogen content of the WZ decreased from 0.28 wt.% to 0.17 wt.% after four passes of low heat input and to 0.10 wt.% after four passes of high heatinput. The FBZ was reheated to high peak temperatures (near melting point) and contained equiaxed ferrite grains with austenite and nitrides. Zone 1 was free from precipitates and the ferrite content was similar to that of the unaffected base material. Sigma phase precipitated only in zone 2, which was heated to peak temperatures in the range of approximately 828°C to 1028°C. The content of sigma phase increased with the number of passes and increasing heat input.

All locations, except Z1, were susceptible to local corrosion after multiplere heating. Thermodynamic calculations predicted that a post weld heat treatment could restore the corrosion resistance of the FBZ and Z2. However, the pitting resistance of the WZ cannot be improved significantly due to the nitrogen loss. Steady state and linear fitting approaches were therefore employed to predict nitrogen loss in autogenous TIG welding with argon as shielding gas. Two practical formulas were derived giving nitrogen loss as functions of initial nitrogen content and arc energy both predicting a larger loss for higher heat input and higher base material nitrogen content. A practical recommendation based on the present study is that it is beneficial to perform welding with a minimum number of passes even if this results in a higherheat input as multiple reheating strongly promotes formation of deleterious phases.

High-temperature processing and application of super duplex stainless steel(SDSS) are associated with the risk of changes in the ferrite/austenite balance and precipitation of secondary phases. This study was therefore aimed at improving knowledge about effects of thermal cycles on the microstructure and properties of SDSS base and weld metal. Controlled and repeatable thermal cycles were physically simulated using the innovative multiple TIG reheating/remelting and the arc heat treatment techniques. In the first technique, one to four autogenous TIG-remelting passes were applied. During arc heat treatment, a stationary arc was applied on a disc mounted on a water-cooled chamber thereby subjecting the material to a steady state temperature gradient from 0.5 minute to 600 minutes. Microstructures and properties were assessed and linked to thermal history through thermal cycle analysis, thermodynamic calculations and temperature field modelling, Remelting studies showed that nitrogen loss from the melt pool was a function of arc energy and initial nitrogen content and could cause highly ferritic microstructures. Heat affected zones were sensitized by nitride formation next to the fusion boundary and sigma phase precipitation in regions subjected to peak temperatures of 828-1028°C. Accumulated time in the critical temperature range, peak temperature and the number of thermal cycles are the most relevant criteria when evaluating the risk of sigma phase precipitation. Arc heat treatment produced graded microstructures in SDSS base and weld metal with the formation of a ferritic region at high temperature due to solid-state nitrogen loss, precipitation of sigma, chi, nitrides, and R-phase with different morphologies at 550-1010°C and spinodal decomposition below 500°C. This caused sensitization and/or increased hardness and embrittlement. Results were summarized as time-temperature-precipitation and properties diagrams for base and weld metal together with guidelines for processing and welding of SDSS.

High-temperature processing and application of super duplex stainless steel(SDSS) are associated with the risk of changes in the ferrite/austenite balance and precipitation of secondary phases. This study was therefore aimed at improving knowledge about effects of thermal cycles on the microstructure and properties of SDSS base and weld metal. Controlled and repeatable thermal cycles were physically simulated using the innovative multiple TIG reheating/remelting and the arc heat treatment techniques. In the first technique, one to four autogenous TIG-remelting passes were applied. During arc heat treatment, a stationary arc was applied on a disc mounted on a water-cooled chamber thereby subjecting the material to a steady state temperature gradient from 0.5 minute to 600 minutes. Microstructures and properties were assessed and linked to thermal history through thermal cycle analysis, thermodynamic calculations and temperature field modelling, Remelting studies showed that nitrogen loss from the melt pool was a function of arc energy and initial nitrogen content and could cause highly ferritic microstructures. Heat affected zones were sensitized by nitride formation next to the fusion boundary and sigma phase precipitation in regions subjected to peak temperatures of 828-1028°C. Accumulated time in the critical temperature range, peak temperature and the number of thermal cycles are the most relevant criteria when evaluating the risk of sigma phase precipitation. Arc heat treatment produced graded microstructures in SDSS base and weld metal with the formation of a ferritic region at high temperature due to solid-state nitrogen loss, precipitation of sigma, chi, nitrides, and R-phase with different morphologies at 550-1010°C and spinodal decomposition below 500°C. This caused sensitization and/or increased hardness and embrittlement. Results were summarized as time-temperature-precipitation and properties diagrams for base and weld metal together with guidelines for processing and welding of SDSS.

321. Study of the effect of tool geometry on semisolid stir welding of a AZ91 magnesium alloy

Hosseini, Vahid A.

et al.

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Manufacturing Processes.

Semisolid stir welding is a newly developed method suitable for joining of the magnesium alloy AZ91. In this study, the effect of tool geometries on the joint properties such as bending strength and the occurrence of porosity are studied. A 2 mm-thick Mg-25%Zn interlayer was placed between two AZ91 plates and the plate was heated up to 530°C before joining. At this temperature, when both the interlayer and the base metal were in the semisolid state, a stirrer was introduced into the joint. Drill-tip and round shape stirrer tools were employed at three different stirring rates. Welds produced with the two methods showed similar properties in the shear punch test. However, using the round tool geometry resulted in welds with excellent bending strength closely matching that of the base metal especially at the highest stirring rate. The improved properties when using the round tool was a result of the formation of a very fine and uniform microstructure with a low content of porosity.

The influence of heat input and multiple welding cycles on the microstructure of the heat-affected zone in autogenously TIG-welded 6 mm 2507 type super duplex stainless steel plates was investigated. In order to produce multiple thermal cycles, one to four pass bead-on-plate welds were made with arc energies of 0.47 and 1.08 kJ/mm, corresponding to heat inputs of 0.37 and 0.87 kJ/mm. Several thermocouples were attached to record thermal cycles on the front and back sides of the plates. Finite element modelling was successfully done to map and correlate measured and calculated peak temperatures. Only minor changes were seen in the ferrite content at 1 and 2 mm from the fusion boundary. Nitrides formed in all passes of the low heat input samples in a region next to the fusion boundary, but only after the third and fourth passes of the high heat input samples. Sigma phase precipitated only in a zone heated to a peak temperature in the range of approximately 828 to 1028 °C. Multiple reheating was found to promote precipitation of sigma phase relatively more than slower cooling. A precipitation free zone was observed between the nitride and sigma phase bands. The precipitation behaviour could be understood from equilibrium phase diagrams, evaluation of local thermal cycles and by correlating results from the modelling and measurements of peak temperatures. It is suggested that the peak temperature, the accumulated time in the critical temperature range between approximately 828 and 1028 °C, and the number of thermal cycles are the most relevant criteria when evaluating the risk of sigma phase formation.

Nitrogen loss is an important phenomenon in welding of super duplex stainless steels. In this study, a super duplex stainless steel was autogenously TIG-welded with one to four bead-on-plate passes with low or high heat inputs using pure argon shielding gas. The goal was to monitor nitrogen content and microstructure for each weld pass. Nitrogen content, measured by wavelength dispersive X-ray spectrometry, was after four passes reduced from 0.28 wt% in the base metal to 0.17 wt% and 0.10 wt% in low and high heat input samples, respectively. Nitrogen loss resulted in a more ferritic structure with larger grains and nitride precipitates. The ferrite grain width markedly increased with increasing number of passes and heat input. Ferrite content increased from 55% in base metal to 75% at low and 79% at high heat inputs after four passes. An increasing amount of nitrides were seen with increasing number of weld passes. An equation was suggested for calculation of the final nitrogen content of the weld metal as functions of initial nitrogen content and arc energy. Acceptable ferrite contents were seen for one or two passes. The recommendation is to use nitrogen in shielding gas and proper filler metals.

Semisolid stir welding of AZ91 was investigated with focus on the joining temperature and rotational speed. An Mg-25% Zn interlayer was located between two AZ91 pieces and the system was heated up to the semisolid state of base metal and interlayer. The weld seam was stirred using a drill-tip at different joining temperatures and rotational speeds. Optical and scanning electron microscopes were employed to study microstructure, cavity formation, and segregation. Hardness profile and shear punch test were also employed to rank the welds based on their quality and homogeneity. Results showed that the lowest cavity content (2.1%) with the maximum ultimate shear strength (about 188 MPa) was obtained in weld with the joining temperature of 530 degrees C and the rotational speed of 1600 r/min. Low quality welds and a reduction of ultimate shear strength were observed at very high or low rotational speeds and joining temperatures. The process, in conclusion, produced close mechanical properties to those of the base metal and homogenous quality throughout the joint, when the intermediate temperature and rotational speeds were employed.

Approaches to determining ferrite fraction (%) and ferrite number (FN) were examined for super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) welds. A reference sample was produced by bead-on-plate gas–tungsten arc welding of a type-2507 SDSS plate. By comparing different etchants and measurement practices, it was realized that etching with modified Beraha followed by computerized image analysis (IA) was the most accurate and quickest technique to measure ferrite fraction, which determined the same ferrite fraction (68.0 ± 2.6%) as that measured by electron diffraction backscattered analysis (67.6 ± 2.3%). A Round Robin test was performed on a reference sample at University West, Swerea KIMAB, Outokumpu Stainless, and Sandvik Materials Technology to investigate the repeatability of the technique. The ferrite fraction measurements performed at different laboratories showed very small variations, which were in the range of those seen when changing microscope in the same laboratory. After verification of the technique, the relationship between ferrite fraction and ferrite number (measured with FERITSCOPE®) was determined using 14 single (root) pass welds, including butt, corner, and T-, V-, and double V-joint geometries. The best-fit equation found in this study was ferrite number (FN) = 1.1 × ferrite fraction (%). To conclude, the ferrite fraction technique suggested in the present paper was accurate and repeatable, which made it possible to determine a ferrite fraction–ferrite number formula for SDSS single-pass welds.

The present study aims at investigating bead geometry and the evolution of microstructure with thermal cycles in multipass shielded metal arc welding of a V-groove 13-mm type-2507 super-duplex stainless steel (SDSS) plate. The weld consisted of 4 beads produced with arc energies of 0.81-1.06 kJ/mm. The upper beads showed lower base metal (BM) dilution than the first bead. Thermal cycles were recorded with thermocouples, indicating that the cooling rate decreased in the as-deposited weld zone when adding a new bead. Ferrite fraction in the as-welded condition was lower for the upper beads. The austenite grain morphology in reheated passes varied depending on the local peak temperatures and the number of reheating passes. Sigma phase precipitated in a location reheated by the third and fourth passes that was subjected to a critical peak temperature for sigma precipitation. Ferrite content, measured using image analysis and Fisher FERITSCOPE technique, showed that the ferrite fraction moved toward 50/50% in the weld metal with an increasing number of reheating cycles. Finally, a schematic map showing an overview of the microstructure in the multipass SDSS weld was introduced.

This is a study of the effect of repetitive TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding passes, melting and remelting the same material volume on microstructure and corrosion resistance of 2507 (EN 1.4410) super duplex stainless steel. One to four weld passes were autogenously (no filler added) applied on a plate using two different arc energies and with pure argon shielding gas. Sensitization testing showed that multipass remelting resulted in significant loss of corrosion resistance of the weld metal, in base material next to the fusion boundary, and in a zone 1 to 4 mm from the fusion boundary. Metallography revealed the main reasons for sensitization to be a ferrite-rich weld metal and precipitation of nitrides in the weld metal, and adjacent heat affected zone together with sigma phase formation at some distance from the fusion boundary. Corrosion properties cannot be significantly restored by a post weld heat treatment. Using filler metals with higher nickel contents and nitrogen containing shielding gases, are therefore, recommended. Welding with a higher heat input and fewer passes, in some cases, can also decrease the risk of formation of secondary phases and possible corrosion attack.

Multipass welding of super duplex stainless steels (SDSS) needs further characterization due to their growing applications inpetrochemical and offshore industries. This study, as a result, is aimed at investigating the effects of the number of passesand the arc energy on the microstructure and properties of 2507-type SDSS (UNS S32750). From one to four TIG weldpasses were autogenously applied on a plate using two different arc energies and with pure argon gas as the shielding gas.Chemical analysis showed increasing nitrogen loss with an increasing number of passes and increasing arc energy.Microstructural analyses revealed formation of nitrides in the weld metal and heat affected zone, and sigma phase at somedistance from the fusion boundary. Thermal cycle analysis in combination with Thermo-Calc calculations indicated thatexcessive reheating cause degradation of corrosion properties of multipass weldments, by reducing the pitting resistanceequivalent number of austenite to less than 40. Multipass welding resulted in a more ferritic weld metal microstructure and anincreased hardness.Recommendations, based on the present study, are as follows: 1) Corrosion attack can occur not only in the weld zone andnext to the fusion boundary, but also in a location at some distance from the fusion zone due to reheating in the sigma phaseformation temperature range. This should be considered in inspection procedures 2) Nitrogen loss degrades the mechanicaland corrosion properties of weldments even when welding with a low heat input. Using filler metals with higher nickelcontents and nitrogen containing shielding gases are therefore recommended. 3) It is often recommended to use a heat inputin the lower end of the recommended 0.3-1.5 kJ/mm range in multipass welding of super duplex stainless steels. However,welding with a higher heat input and fewer passes, in some cases, can decrease the risk of formation of secondary phases.

329. Wire-arc additive manufacturing of a duplex stainless steel

Hosseini, Vahid

et al.

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

Högström, Mats

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

Hurtig, Kjell

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

Valiente Bermejo, María Asunción

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

Stridh, Lars-Erik

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

Karlsson, Leif

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Welding Technology.

The evolution of microstructures with thermal cycles was studied for wire-arc additive manufacturing of duplex stainless steel blocks. To produce samples, arc energy of 0.5kJ/mm and interlayer temperature of 150 degrees C were used as low heat input-low interlayer temperature (LHLT) and arc energy of 0.8kJ/mm and interlayer temperature of 250 degrees C as high heat input-high interlayer temperature (HHHT). Thermal cycles were recorded with different thermocouples attached to the substrate as well as the built layers. The microstructure was analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that a similar geometry was produced with 14 layers4 beads in each layerfor LHLT and 15 layers3 beads in each layerfor HHHT. Although the number of reheating cycles was higher for LHLT, each layer was reheated for a shorter time at temperatures above 600 degrees C, compared with HHHT. A higher austenite fraction (+8%) was achieved for as-deposited LHLT beads, which experienced faster cooling between 1200 and 800 degrees C. The austenite fraction of the bulk of additively manufactured samples, reheated several times, was quite similar for LHLT and HHHT samples. A higher fraction of secondary phases was found in the HHHT sample due to longer reheating at a high temperature. In conclusion, an acceptable austenite fraction with a low fraction of secondary phases was obtained in the bulk of wire-arc additively manufactured duplex stainless steel samples (35-60%), where higher austenite fractions formed with a larger number of reheating cycles as well as longer reheating at high peak temperatures (800-1200 degrees C).

Super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) weld metal microstructures, covering the complete temperature range from ambient to liquidus, were produced by arc heat treatment for 1 and 10 min. Temperature modeling and thermodynamic calculations complemented microstructural studies, hardness mapping and sensitization testing. After 1 min, intermetallics such as sigma and chi phase had precipitated, resulting in moderate sensitization at 720–840 °C. After 10 min, larger amounts of intermetallics resulted in hardness up to 400 HV0.5 and more severe sensitization at 580–920 °C. Coarse and fine secondary austenite precipitated at high and low temperatures, respectively: The finer secondary austenite was more detrimental to corrosion resistance due to its lower content of Cr, Mo, and N as predicted by thermodynamic calculations. Increased hardness and etching response suggest that 475 °C embrittlement had occurred after 10 min. Results are summarized as time-temperature-precipitation and property diagrams for hardness and sensitization.

This paper introduces a novel arc heat treatment technique to produce samples with graded microstructures through the application of controlled temperature gradients. Steady state temperature distributions within the sample can be achieved and maintained, for times ranging from a few seconds to several hours. The technique reduces the number of samples needed to characterize the response of a material to thermal treatments, and can consequently be used as a physical simulator for materials processing. The technique is suitable for conventional heat treatment analogues, welding simulations, multi-step heat treatments, and heat treatments with controlled heating and cooling rates. To demonstrate this technique, a super duplex stainless steel was treated with a stationary TIG arc, to confirm the relationship between generated steady-state temperature fields, microstructure development, hardness, and sensitization to corrosion. Metallographic imaging and hardness mapping provided information about graded microstructures, confirming the formation of secondary phases and microstructure sensitization in the temperature range 850–950 °C. Modelling of temperature distributions and thermodynamic calculations of phase stabilities were used to simulate microstructure development and associated welding cycles.

The relationship between welding process parameters, welding thermal cycle, and the final microstructure is of great importance for reliable fabrication of welded super duplex stainless steels (SDSS) structures. The present study was primarily aimed at investigating the relationship for root/single pass welding of type 2507 SDSS. Fourteen welds were produced using GMAW, GTAW, SAW, and SMAW with different joints geometries, plate thicknesses, and welding parameters. Thermal cycles were recorded using several thermocouples attached to the plates and thermocouples were also harpooned into the weld pool. Weld pool geometries and base metal dilution in the weld metal were determined for all welds. The general trend was that the ferrite fraction of the weld zone increased with increasing cooling rate and base metal dilution in the weld metal. The ferrite fraction was in the range 49-64% for all welds. Kinetics of austenite formation was modeled using computational thermodynamics (Thermo-Calc & DICTRA) to predict the ferrite fractions in the weld zone and calculated fractions were in good agreement with experimental results. Some conflicting results showed that in addition to dilution and cooling rate, the possible nitrogen loss must be taken into account when evaluating and predicting ferrite fraction. It was concluded that the above approach can be used for prediction of the ferrite fraction of super duplex stainless steel single pass welds. Â 2019 ESSC and DUPLEX 2019 - 10th European Stainless Steel Conference - Science and Market, 6th European Duplex Stainless Steel Conference and Exhibition. All rights reserved.

A comprehensive model on heat transfer in welded plates is able to calculate the amount of heat losses from the surfaces. A model demands as input parameter the amount of heat delivered to the plate, independently of any loss (called here gross heat input for clarity). However, the great discrepancies among the results of calorimetric measurements have left many researchers skeptical about using this parameter in modeling as absolute term. The objective of this work was to assess the use of a water-cooled stationary anode calorimeter to obtain not only arc efficiency, but also gross heat input. A series of tests was carried out to determine the effect of current, material type and water flow rate on the calorimeter performance, as well as to evaluate some measures for reducing the calorimeter intrinsic errors. Finally, a sensitivity test was conducted to estimate the effect of measurement inaccuracies on the absorbed heat and arc efficiency values. The results showed that this calorimetric approach is a simple way for measuring gross heat inputs in arc welding. Nevertheless some improvement to reduce heat losses from the top surface and boost heat sinking from the opposite surface of the test coupon must be applied. This calorimeter is, on the other hand, highly sensitive to the parameter measurements, leading to errors up to ± 0.09 in arc efficiency determination if the instrument is not properly calibrated and installed.

Comprehensive models of heat transfer require specification of the total amount of heat received by the workpiece. The objective of this work was to critically examine the use of a water-cooled stationary anode calorimeter to obtain both arc efficiency and total heat input into the workpiece. For simplicity and clarity, this last quantity is called the gross heat input. The effects of current, material type and water flow rate on the calorimeter performance were determined experimentally. Some measures for reducing errors in calorimetry were evaluated. Improvements were made to reduce heat losses from the top surface of the test coupon and boost heat removal from the opposite surface. A sensitivity test was conducted to estimate the effect of measurement inaccuracies. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of calorimetry for measuring gross heat input in arc welding.

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India; School of Engineering Sciences and Technology, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, India.

Das, Dibakar

School of Engineering Sciences and Technology, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, India.

Joshi, Shrikant V.

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Subtractive and Additive Manufacturing.

Ramasamy, Easwaramoorthi

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Aligned metal oxide nanostructures carry electrons efficiently, and are therefore ideal building blocks for next-generation optoelectronic devices. Herein, we report the seed-layer-assisted low-temperature solution growth of aligned 3D ZnO nanowall architecture on arbitrary substrates. By introducing a controlled amount of Al into a seed-layer, the morphology of ZnO nanostructure is gradually changed from nanowire to 3D nanowalls. Time-dependent growth experiments suggest that hydroxyl-ions present in growth solution react with Al to form Al(OH)4− which in turn binds to the positively charged Zn2 +surface and partially blocking ZnO growth along the (0001) direction and promoting lateral growth. Such aligned 3D ZnO nanowall architecture, with the unique combination of high surface-area and cage-like pores, grown on seed-layer coated transparent conductive substrate is found to be beneficial for electron transporting material (ETM) in perovskite solar cells and a maximum photocurrent density (JSC) of 7.5 mA.cm− 2 and a power conversion efficiency (η) of 2.4% are demonstrated. Our facile approach readily allows further growth of ZnO nanowires on 3D ZnO nanowall surface; thereby improving the perovskite-ZnO interface and increasing the JSC and η to 9.7 and 3.3%, respectively. This 3D ZnO nanowall-nanowire architecture opens up a novel configuration for designing high-performance optoelectronic devices.

343. Effect of hole-transporting materials on the photovoltaic performance and stability of all-ambient-processed perovskite solar cells

Islavath, Nanaji

et al.

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Saroja, S.

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Reddy, K Srinivas

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Harikesh, P.C.

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Veerappan, G.

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Joshi, Shrikant V.

University West, Department of Engineering Science, Division of Subtractive and Additive Manufacturing. Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

Ramasamy, Easwaramoorthi

Centre for Solar Energy Materials, International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India.

High-efficiency perovskite solar cells (PSCs) reported hitherto have been mostly prepared in a moisture and oxygen-free glove-box atmosphere, which hampers upscaling and real-time performance assessment of this exciting photovoltaic technology. In this work, we have systematically studied the feasibility of all-ambient-processing of PSCs and evaluated their photovoltaic performance. It has been shown that phase-pure crystalline tetragonal MAPbI3 perovskite films are instantly formed in ambient air at room temperature by a two-step spin coating process, undermining the need for dry atmosphere and post-annealing. All-ambient-processed PSCs with a configuration of FTO/TiO2/MAPbI3/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au achieve open-circuit voltage (990 mV) and short-circuit current density (20.31 mA/cm2) comparable to those of best reported glove-box processed devices. Nevertheless, device power conversion efficiency is still constrained at 5% by the unusually low fill-factor of 0.25. Dark current–voltage characteristics reveal poor conductivity of hole-transporting layer caused by lack of oxidized spiro-OMeTAD species, resulting in high series-resistance and decreased fill-factor. The study also establishes that the above limitations can be readily overcome by employing an inorganic p-type semiconductor, copper thiocyanate, as ambient-processable hole-transporting layer to yield a fill-factor of 0.54 and a power conversion efficiency of 7.19%. The present findings can have important implications in industrially viable fabrication of large-area PSCs.

The poor conductivity of ambient-processed spiro-OMeTAD HTM layer caused by lack of oxidation is identified as a major performance limiting factor and successfully overcome by replacing with stable inorganic CuSCN.

There is a need for materials with high strength, oxidation resistance, thermal stability and adequate weldability in order to facilitate the production of large structural jet engine components. Therefore, the weldability of Waspaloy® and Haynes® 282® have been evaluated using the Varestraint weldability test. The experiments reveal that Waspaloy® has a higher susceptibility to hot cracking compared to Haynes® 282®. This conclusion is supported by increased total crack length (10 mm or more) and larger brittle temperature range (approx. 65°C) for Waspaloy® when compared to Haynes® 282® in Varestraint and Gleeble hot ductility tests, respectively. The cracking in Haynes® 282® seems to be connected with a secondary phase which presumably can be associated with Ti-Mo based MC-type carbide observed in the fusion zone. Also, a surrounding segregated area is present near this secondary phase as well as along the grain boundaries. Furthermore, micro-Vickers hardness results revealed more or less the same weld metal hardness (260- 280 HV) but a difference in the base metal hardness. The weld metal hardness of Waspaloy® was lower than that of the base metal hardness, while Haynes® 282® had a higher hardness in comparison.

In this study, the old and well-known alloy 718 is compared with the newly developed ATI® 718Plus™ from the weldability point of view. This is done in order to gain new information that have not been documented and established yet among the high-temperature materials with high strength, oxidation resistance, thermal stability and sufficient weldability, yet. ATI® 718Plus™ shows a lower sensitivity to hot cracking than alloy 718 with approximately 10 mm total crack length (TCL) difference in Varestraint testing. In the solution-annealed condition at 982°C for 4.5 h followed by air cooling, the crack sensitivity is decreased as compared to the mill-annealed condition. Along the crack path and also ahead of the crack tip, γ-Laves eutectic is present in both alloys. The microhardness measurements showed similar hardness level of 250 HV in the weld metal of both alloys and even in the parent material of alloy 718. ATI® 718Plus™ parent metal had hardness of 380 HV and a small increase of less than 50 HV was observed for both studied alloys in the heat affected zone (HAZ). For the same grain size of ATI® 718Plus™ (8.3 μm) and alloy 718 (15.6 μm), the susceptibility to liquation cracking may increase with increasing grain size. With a small grain size, there is a possibility to accommodate more trace elements (B, S, P) due to the larger grain boundary area. The impurity elements were found in relatively small precipitates, typically borides (0.2 μm), phosphides (0.1 to 0.5 μm) and carbo-sulphides. The solidification sequence of alloy 718 and ATI® 718Plus™ is relatively similar, where the liquid starts to solidify as γ-phase followed by γ/MC reaction at about 1260 °C and then final γ/Laves eutectic reaction at around 1150 °C. Detailed knowledge about weldability of alloy 718 and ATI® 718Plus™ can be used for material selection.

The weldability of Waspaloy® and Haynes® 282® have been evaluated using the Varestraint weldability test. The experiments reveal that Waspaloy® has a higher susceptibility to hot cracking compared to Haynes® 282®. This conclusion is supported by increased total crack length (10 mm or more) for Waspaloy® when compared to Haynes® 282® in Varestraint test. The cracking in Haynes® 282® seems to be connected with a secondary phase which presumably can be associated with Ti-Mo based MC-type carbide observed in the fusion zone. Also, a surrounding segregated area is present near this secondary phase as well as along the grain boundaries. Furthermore, micro-Vickers hardness results revealed more or less the same weld metal hardness (260-280 HV) but a difference in the base metal hardness. The weld metal hardness of Waspaloy® was lower than that of the base metal hardness, while Haynes® 282® had a higher hardness in comparison.

KCl-induced high temperature corrosion behavior of four HVAF-sprayed Ni-based coatings (Ni21Cr, Ni5Al, Ni21Cr7Al1Y, and Ni21Cr9Mo) under KCl deposit has been investigated in ambient air at 600°C up to 168h. The coatings were deposited onto 16Mo3 steel - a widely used boiler tube material.Uncoated substrate, 304L and Sanicro25 were used as reference materials in the test environment.SEM/EDS and XRD techniques were utilized to characterize the as-sprayed and exposed samples.The results showed that the small addition of KCl significantly accelerated degradation to the coatings. All coatings provided better corrosion resistance compared to the reference materials. The alumina-forming Ni5Al coating under KCl deposit was capable of forming a more protective oxide scale compared to the chromia-forming coatings as penetration of Cl through diffusion paths was hindered. Both active corrosion and chromate formation mechanisms were found to be responsible for Page 1 of 23ASM the corrosion damages. The corrosion resistance of the coatings based on the microstructure analysis and kinetics had the following ranking (from the best to worst): Ni5Al >Ni21Cr> Ni21Cr7Al1Y>Ni21Cr9Mo.