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(1827–90). Indian social reformer and writer Jyotiba Phule was a champion of equal rights for all people, including poor peasants and women. He was a strong critic of the Hindu caste system, in which people are born into a social group that determines their place in society. Phule deplored the discrimination suffered by members of the so-called lower castes, including the Shudras (artisans and laborers) and those considered “untouchables” (now called Dalits or Scheduled Castes). He led a movement that called for the creation of a new social order in India, in which no one would be subordinate to the upper-caste Brahmans. Phule also fought for women’s rights. Believing that education was essential to bringing about social change, he established schools for girls and for children of lower castes.

Jyotiba Govind (or Govindrao) Phule was born on April 11, 1827, in what is now western Maharashtra state, western India. (He was born either in or near Pune or in the Satara district.) Phule’s first name is also spelled Jyotibha or Jotiba, and he is sometimes called Jyotirao (or Jotirao) Phule. His family grew and sold vegetables and flowers. They belonged to the Mali caste within the Shudra social class. In the 1840s Phule attended a high school run by Scottish Christian missionaries at Pune. A notable influence on his thinking was Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man. Phule was also inspired by the American struggles for independence and against slavery.

Meanwhile, Phule’s father had become a building contractor, and Phule joined him in his business. Phule later worked part-time as a teacher at the Scottish mission school.

In 1848 Phule was reportedly humiliated at the wedding of Brahman friend. He was ordered to leave the wedding procession because he belonged to a Shudra caste. This incident is said to have helped open his eyes to the injustices of the caste system. Besides holding all Hindu religious authority, the Brahmans enjoyed positions of power in Indian government and society. The lower castes were oppressed and denied educational and economic opportunities. Phule did not believe that the Brahmans were naturally superior or that the division of society into castes was a God-given system. The Brahmans were proud to claim their descent from the Aryans, a people who settled in India in ancient times and were said to have conquered the native peoples. Phule contended that the Aryans were foreign invaders and that the land of India rightfully belonged to the native peoples—now the lower castes. He argued that the caste system was alien to India, having been introduced by the Aryans to strengthen their dominance.

Phule opened a pioneering school for lower-caste girls in Pune in 1848, a time when it was extremely rare for girls of any caste in India to receive an education. He had educated his wife, Savitribai Phule, at home, and she became the teacher of the girls’ school. Over the next few years, the Phules opened a series of schools in the Pune area for girls and for lower-caste boys and girls. Their work met with great hostility from orthodox Brahmans.

Phule opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage, which was prohibited particularly among high-caste Hindus. He opened a home for widows, especially Brahmans, who had become pregnant and an orphanage for their children. Phule later adopted one of these children.

In 1873 Phule formed a reform society named Satyashodhak Samaj (“Society of Truth Seekers”) to promote social equality and the uniting and uplifting of Shudras and “untouchables.” The society’s emphasis was on education. It also encouraged people to conduct weddings without Brahman priests.

To spread his ideas, Phule wrote books, essays, poems, and plays. His best-known work is the book Gulamagiri (Slavery), published in 1873. An attack on India’s caste system, it compares the position of the lower castes with those of black slaves in the United States.

In 1888 Phule was honored with the title Mahatma, which means “Great Soul” in Sanskrit. He died on November 28, 1890. Phule’s work and writings inspired later movements for caste reform in India, including that of Dalit leader Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar.

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