Men and violence

Violence is a common feature of most societies.
Statistically, we know that it's predominantly a male characteristic,
particularly one of young males. In England and Wales more than 90 per cent of
violent offenders are male, and half of those are aged between 17 and 24. So
why are men prone to acts of violence?

Natural-born fighters

Some argue that testosterone predisposes men to aggression.

The instinct hypothesis suggests that aggression is a natural
instinct that has the biological function of ensuring the proper spacing of
animals, thereby helping to maintain the stability of the group.

Conrad Lorenz, the man behind this theory, observed that members
of the same species were aggressive towards each other when they were subject
to specific threats.

He believed that men's violent instincts are normally expressed
in a socially approved way in the modern world, for example through sport. It
is the failure to find such expression that leads to undesirable aggressive
acts.

Driven mad

Another view is the frustrated-drive theory, which suggests
aggression stems from the frustration of not getting your own way.

It holds that aggression is the end result when a person is
prevented from achieving a goal. The degree of aggression depends
on:

how important they perceive the goal to be

the number of times they have been thwarted in achieving
it.

Frustration may not lead to aggression if other inhibiting
forces are present, such as a fear of consequences, eg a criminal
record.

The aggression may also be displaced onto objects other than the
frustrating agent. An example would be kicking a cat when you're angry with the
cat's owner.

This view may explain some aspects of aggression but it cannot
account for the whole picture because frustration leads to different responses
in different people.

Some respond with dejection and resignation.

Others react with a positive, active effort to overcome
whatever barriers are in their way.

This theory also fails to explain some types of violence,
including sadistic acts or those carried out in defence of a
reputation.

Chemical reaction

If violent acts are not simply the result of frustration at
external events, could hormones be to blame?

There has been much controversy as to the role of male hormones
in aggression.

Some argue that testosterone predisposes men to aggression. This
has been borne out in part by studies that show men who abuse steroids while
bodybuilding are more aggressive and explosive than those who do
not.

It is beyond argument that men have more testosterone in their
circulation than females and that men are more aggressive.

Typically, males produce about 25 times as much testosterone
per day as females.

Male testosterone levels peak in the late teens and remain high
until the mid-20s: precisely the time in which male aggressiveness and violence
is most common.

But it's clear that testosterone does not in itself lead to
violence. The evidence from studies on bodybuilders cannot be taken entirely at
face value.

Individuals who abuse anabolic steroids often abuse other drugs
too, including alcohol, cocaine and amphetamines, and are often highly
aggressive and competitive prior to this abuse.

While it's likely that increased levels of testosterone
aggravate a tendency towards violence in some men, it does not follow that all
men are naturally violent.

Aggravating aggression

Factors in violence

Various theories may seek to explain violence in men, but
because it's such a complex social phenomenon, violence can perhaps best be
understood as the final outcome of an intricate web of interacting factors.

The following are some of the factors that have an effect on how
violently we behave.

Personality

Some individuals over-control their emotions while others
under-control them.

Both these personality types are more prone to violence than
the norm.

People who under-control are more likely to often be
aggressive. With practice this personality-type learns to contain their
aggression.

The over-controllers are more likely to be extremely
aggressive, but only on occasion. Because this personality type is unused to
aggressive feelings and reactions, they lose control once the outburst begins,
often with severe consequences.

Immediate social group

The influence of the immediate social group can be seen in
the case of football hooligans, angry crowds or young men out at night
drinking.

Here, the aggression may merely take the form of posturing or
may turn to actual violence.

In such instances a man's behaviour may owe more to the effect
of group pressure than to his own personality.

Behaviour of the victim

Victims of violence are often well known to the
aggressor.

In 25 per cent of homicides, the victim appears to play a
substantial part in triggering the violence by provoking the
aggressor.

In one study, half of spouse murder victims were found to be
alcoholic or psychotic and had played a significant part in their own
death.

Controversial studies of battered wives have also revealed a
sub-group who were repeatedly provocative to their explosive husbands.

Alcohol

Fifty per cent of violent incidents happen in or near pubs,
while alcohol is often involved in acts of violence at home.

There is a clear link between the abuse of alcohol and
aggressive behaviour.

Alcohol reduces our inhibitions. In some cases this overrides
the self-control that might normally prevent someone from acting
aggressively.

Drugs

The link between drugs and aggression seems to be connected
with the need to get the drugs, or money for the drugs, which can lead to
violent crime.

Personal surroundings

Violence and films

There has been much debate about the role of violence in
film.

It is unclear how much (if at all) violent films affect
individual attitudes towards violence.

Overcrowding, high temperatures, noise and social pressures
all affect the level of violence in a society.

Social customs are important, but to what extent is difficult
to quantify.

Physiological changes

A disturbance in the body's chemistry or physiology can alter
a person's self-control - perhaps brought on by fatigue, hunger or lack of
sleep.

Medical conditions can sometimes play a role. For example, a
person with diabetes may develop low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) if they miss a
meal and become aggressive as a result.

People who've sustained a head injury, say in a road accident,
can be irritable and aggressive even if the injury was relatively mild. That
said, it is people who are more irritable and aggressive in the first place who
are more likely to receive a head injury in a traffic collision or through an
assault.

Very rarely, a serious condition such as a brain tumour may be
the reason for aggression.

Mental abnormality

Violence is sometimes associated with various forms of mental
illness and mental handicap.

It is not the cause of most violent incidents, and is not an
issue for the vast majority of men who are prone to violence.

A more common example would be a man with depression who
cannot or will not admit this to himself, and who responds to his difficulties
by being irritable or violent towards his family.

In these situations, a family will often describe a clear
change in the aggressor's personality. Treatment should lead to a resolution of
the problem.

Social circumstances

Much of the violence in present-day society is associated
with social deprivation.

Many offenders are either unemployed or employed in
low-status, low-income jobs. Many come from areas of poverty and
deprivation.

Additionally, studies on young violent men demonstrate a
number of common background features.

Many will have suffered physical or sexual abuse or some
other trauma.

Many lack any philosophical or religious belief system to
provide meaning and purpose.

A child who suffers repeated trauma might grow up to be an
adult who is impulsively angry and aggressive. In these circumstances, it may
be that the body produces stress hormones at an excessive rate, and so the
individual is constantly in a state of 'hair-trigger' alert.

There is evidence that all crime, including violent crime,
decreases in times of economic prosperity and increases in times of
recession.

Whilst this is the general rule in recent years the rate of
violent crime has been falling in most Western countries despite the economic
and social consequences of the financial crisis.

The reasons for this are unknown: speculation has centred
around a number of possibilities including the impact of changes in policing
tactics; changes in societal attitudes to the acceptability of violence; and
the removal of toxic lead from petrol car exhaust fumes.

There is also evidence that violent crime becomes less common
when society is more cohesive and nurturing.

It is probable that the intensely competitive nature of
Western societies leads to increased aggression and violence, especially among
those who do not prosper.

What can be done about male aggression?

For the individual who is prone to temper tantrums,
irritability or aggression, there are a number of factors that can be
addressed.

Avoid alcohol and stimulating drugs.

Try to identify particular situations that prompt aggression so
you can avoid them.

Aggression is often associated with increased arousal. You can
learn to relax in a number of different ways, eg through physical exercise or
relaxation tapes. By reducing your general level of arousal, you are less
likely to become involved in violent incidents.

Aggression can be dealt with through specific anger-management
courses. These are provided by the NHS and by voluntary groups. Through these
courses individuals can come to understand the particular factors that lead to
aggression or violence and can learn to curb these impulses.

If you think aggression is a result of a physical or
psychiatric illness such as diabetes or depression, talk to your doctor.
Treating the original condition may well help your situation.

It's more difficult to treat aggression that is due to a
long-standing medical problem, such as an old head injury. Sometimes medication
helps, but often the general measures outlined above will be more
helpful.

Offender or victim?

The issue of male violence in society is an extremely complex
one.

It is no longer appropriate for us to explain violent behaviour
as purely a result of some kind of intrinsic evil – that an aggressive person
is merely a 'bad seed'.

Violent behaviour may be seen as a combination of physical,
psychological and particularly social factors. Perhaps we should bear in mind
that aggressive people are likely to have been the victims of violence
themselves.

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