U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report
Police Departments in Large Cities, 1990-2000
May 2002, NCJ 175703
By Brian A. Reaves, Ph.D., and Matthew J. Hickman,
BJS Statisticians
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This file is text only without graphics and many of the
tables. A Zip archive of the tables in this report in
spreadsheet format (.wk1) and the full report including
tables and graphics in .pdf format are available from:
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/tsp00.htm
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Highlights
From 1990 to 2000, in cities with 250,000 or more residents, the
number of UCR violent crimes decreased 34%, the number of UCR
property crimes decreased 31%, and the number of full-time local
police officers increased 17%.
Among large city police departments, 1990-2000,
changes included --
*The number of residents served increased by 10%, accompanied by
a 7% increase, from 289 to 310, in the number of full-time sworn
personnel per 100,000 residents.
*The percentage of full-time sworn personnel who were members of
a racial or ethnic minority increased from 30% to 38%.
*Hispanic representation among officers increased from 9% to
14%, blacks from 18% to 20%, and women from 12% to 16%.
*The percent of departments requiring new officers to have at
least some college rose from 19% to 37%, and the percent
requiring a 2-year or 4-year degree grew from 6% to 14%.
*Annual operating costs per resident rose 10%, from $242 to
$266, but annual per officer costs increased by just 2%, from
$83,814 to $85,786.
*The percent of departments using bicycles rose from 39% to 98%.
The average number of bicycles in use went from 8 to 95.
*The percent of departments using in-field computers increased
from 73% to 92%, the percent using automated fingerprint ID
systems from 60% to 97%, and the percent with enhanced 9-1-1
from 76% to 97%.
*The percent of departments with full-time domestic violence
units rose from 50% to 81%; with full-time victim assistance
units, from 32% to 47%.
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From 1990 to 2000, 62 local police departments served cities
with a population of 250,000 or more. During this time, the
number of residents served by these agencies increased by 10%,
from 45 million to 49.4 million; their number of full-time
employees by 20%, from 166,823 to 199,627; and their number of
full-time sworn personnel by 17%, from 130,242 to 152,858.
In contrast to the increases noted above, the volume of serious
crime reported in these cities was substantially lower in 2000
than in 1990. According to the FBI Uniform Crime Reports
program, the number of violent Crime Index offenses declined by
34%, and the number of property Crime Index offenses by 31%.
In addition to employment and crime trends, this report presents
other data comparisons based on the 1990 and 2000 Law
Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS)
surveys. Topics include staffing levels, race and ethnicity of
officers, officer education and training requirements, operating
budgets, officer salaries and special pay, types of special
units operated, drug enforcement activities, sidearm and armor
policies, types of vehicles operated, and computerization.
Staffing levels
From 1990 to 2000, the average number of full-time personnel in
police departments serving cities with a population of 250,000
or more increased by 20%, from 2,691 to 3,220. New York City's
police department (NYPD), the Nation's largest, had about 53,000
full-time employees as of June 2000.
In 2000, police departments in large cities employed 404
full-time personnel per 100,000 residents. This represented an
increase of 9% over the 1990 level of 370 per 100,000. On a
land area served basis, employment increased from 85 full-time
personnel per 10 square miles in 1990 to 101 per 10 square miles
in 2000.
From 1990 to 2000 the average number of full-time sworn
personnel among police departments in large cities increased by
17%, from 2,101 to 2,465. The NYPD had more than 40,000
full-time sworn personnel as of June 2000. This was about 3
times the next largest department in Chicago, with 13,466.
In terms of land area, employment increased from 66 full-time
sworn personnel per 10 square miles in 1990 to 78 per 10 square
miles in 2000.
In 2000 these agencies employed 310 full-time sworn personnel
per 100,000 residents. This represented an increase of 21 per
100,000, or 7%, compared to 1990.
The Washington (DC) Metropolitan Police Department continued to
have the highest ratio, with 631 officers per 100,000 residents
in 2000, although this was down 15% from the 1990 ratio of 742
per 10,000. Other large city police departments with at least
500 full-time officers per 100,000 residents in 2000 were the
Newark (NJ) Police (536) and the NYPD (505).
Minority and female representation
Minority representation among local police officers in large
cities increased from 29.8% in 1990 to 38.1% in 2000. Hispanics
recorded the greatest increase, from 9.2% to 14.1%. Black
representation also increased, from 18.4% in 1990 to 20.1% in
2000. Asian and Pacific Islander representation was 2.8% in
2000, up from 2.0% in 1990. The percentage of female officers
rose from 12.1% in 1990 to 16.3% in 2000.
Using a ratio based on the percentage of sworn personnel who
were members of a racial or ethnic minority relative to the
percentage of city residents who were members of that minority
group indicates that, on average, police departments in large
cities were slightly more representative of the cities they
served in 2000 than in 1990.
From 1990 to 2000, the average ratio increased from .59 to .63
for minorities overall. That is, on average, police departments
in large cities had 63 minority police officers for every 100
minority residents in 2000, compared to 59 for every 100 in
1990. For blacks or African Americans, the average ratio
increased from .64 in 1990 to .74 in 2000, for Hispanics or
Latinos from .54 to .56, and for other minority groups (such as
Asians and American Indians) from .26 to .37.
Education and training requirements
The percentage of police departments in large cities that
required a 4-year degree of new officers rose from 1.6% in 1990
to 4.8% in 2000. The percentage requiring a 2-year degree
increased from 4.8% to 9.7% during this time, and the percentage
with a non-degree college requirement went from 12.9% to 22.6%.
Overall, about twice as many departments had some type of
college education requirement for new officers in 2000 (37.1%)
as did in 1990 (19.3%).
From 1990 to 2000, the median number of classroom training hours
required of new officer recruits in police departments in large
cities increased from 760 to 880. The median field training
requirement also increased during this time -- from 520 hours to
600 hours. In 2000, police departments in large cities had a
median annual in-service training requirement for officers of 40
hours (data were not collected in 1990).
Operating budgets
The operating budgets of police departments serving cities with
a population of 250,000 or more totaled about $13.1 billion in
fiscal 2000. Controlling for inflation (see methodological note
on page 15), this was 20% more than in 1990. The per agency
average was nearly $212 million in 2000 compared to about $176
million in 1990.
Operating budgets for 2000 totaled $266 per resident, $24
higher than in 1990. Per employee operating costs were $64,323
for 2000, about the same as in 1990 ($64,493). The overall
operating budget per sworn officer increased 2% during this
period, from $83,814 to $85,786.
In 2000, departments serving 1 million or more residents had the
highest per resident operating budget, $290. Departments
serving a population of 350,000 to 499,999 had the highest per
employee ($73,811), and per officer ($102,539) budgets.
Salaries and special pay
From 1990 to 2000, the average base starting salary for police
chiefs in cities with a population of 250,000 or more increased
by about 2%, from $95,393 to $97,215. The average starting
salary for chiefs was highest in departments serving 500,000 or
more residents -- about $105,500.
Average starting salaries for sergeants or equivalent first-line
supervisors increased by 3% from 1990 ($49,081) to 2000
($50,541), while starting salaries for entry-level officers
declined by about 1%, from $35,002 to $34,556.
From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of police departments in large
cities that offered shift differential pay to officers increased
from 66% to 76%. Nearly all (93%) of the departments serving
250,000 to 349,999 residents offered this type of special pay in
2000.
About 3 in 5 departments offered education incentive pay in 1990
(60%) and 2000 (61%). Those serving 250,000 to 349,999
residents (71%) were the most likely to offer it in 2000.
From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of departments offering
hazardous duty pay declined slightly, from 56% to 50%. In 2000,
a majority of the departments serving 500,000 to 999,999
residents (57%) offered this type of special pay.
The percentage of departments with merit pay in 2000 (34%) was
about the same as in 1990 (35%). Those serving 1 million or
more residents (50%) or 350,000 to 499,999 residents (47%) were
the most likely to offer merit pay.
UCR violent crimes
From 1990 to 2000, according to the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports
(UCR), the number of violent Crime Index offenses (murder,
forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) reported to
police departments in cities with 250,000 or more residents
declined 34% -- from an average of 13,091 per department to
8,686.
The drop in the rate of violent crimes per 100,000 residents was
even larger, falling from a rate of 1,802 violent crimes per
100,000 residents in 1990, to 1,091 per 100,000 in 2000 -- a
reduction of 39%. Cities with 1 million or more residents had
the largest decrease (46%), led by a 60% drop in New York City.
A large reduction in violent crime also occurred in the number
reported per officer employed. In 2000 there were 353 violent
crimes per 100 sworn personnel, 43% fewer than the 1990 rate of
623 per 100. Among cities with 1 million or more residents, the
decline was 51%, including 57% in New York.
By specific type of violent crime, the number of murders per
100,000 residents declined from an average of 21 per city in
1990 to 13 in 2000; forcible rapes, from 84 to 52; robberies,
from 671 to 399; and aggravated assaults, from 786 to 603.
UCR property crimes
From 1990 to 2000, the number of UCR property Crime Index
offenses (larceny-theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft) in large
cities decreased 31%, from an average of 60,563 per city to
41,571.
In 2000, there were 5,221 property crimes per 100,000 residents
compared to 8,352 in 1990, a decrease of 37%. In cities with 1
million or more residents, the drop was 46%, led by New York
(64%).
There were 41% fewer reported UCR property crimes per 100 sworn
personnel in 2000 (1,692) than in 1990 (2,887). Departments
serving 1 million or more residents reported a drop in property
crimes per 100 officers that exceeded 50% (from 2,425 to 1,186),
with a 69% drop in New York.
The burglary rate in cities with a population of 250,000 or more
declined from an average of 2,122 per 100,000 residents in 1990,
to 1,167 per 100,000 residents in 2000. For larceny-theft, the
average rate declined from 5,082 to 3,798, and for motor vehicle
theft from 1,529 to 1,005.
Special units
Police departments in large cities operated various types of
special units to address crime-related problems and to provide
resources to those affected by crime. In 1990 and 2000, more
than three-fourths of departments had full-time special units or
part-time personnel assigned to general crime prevention, child
abuse, juvenile crime, drug education in schools, missing
children, drunk drivers, or gangs.
In 2000 a majority of departments had personnel assigned full
time to special units for gangs (84%), domestic violence (81%),
child abuse (77%), crime prevention (76%), drug education in
schools (73%), juvenile crime (68%), and missing children (66%).
Seventy-one percent of departments operated a full-time unit or
had part-time personnel assigned to victim assistance in 2000
compared to 45% in 1990. The percentage with full-time victim
assistance units rose from 32% to 47% during this time.
Ninety-seven percent of departments operated either a full-time
domestic violence unit or had personnel assigned part-time to
deal with the problem in 2000, compared to 61% in 1990. The
percentage with full-time units increased from 50% to 81% during
this time.
From 1990 to 2000, the percentage with personnel assigned on at
least a part-time basis to address gang-related problems rose
from 89% to 98%, and the percentage with a full-time gang unit
increased from 69% to 84%.
The percentage of departments with personnel assigned at least
part-time to handle bias-related crimes increased from 58% in
1990 to 71% in 2000; however, the percentage with a full-time
unit dropped from 34% to 26% during this time.
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Community policing initiatives of police departments in large
cities, 2000
Since the enactment of the 1994 Crime Act and the subsequent
creation of the Department of Justice's Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services (COPS), most police departments have
taken steps to implement community policing.
The COPS office facilitated this effort by providing funding to
deploy community policing officers, facilitate problem solving
efforts, encourage interactions with communities by officers,
promote innovations in policing, and enhance existing
technologies.
Although such data were not collected in 1990, the 2000 LEMAS
survey provided several measures of large city police
departments' community policing efforts. For example, 94% of
the departments provided all new officer recruits with at least
8 hours of community policing training during the 12-month
period ending June 30, 2000.
Also, nearly all departments had full-time sworn personnel
serving as community policing officers with a mean of 21% and a
median of 5% of all officers so assigned.
Seventy-one percent of departments had a formal, written
community policing plan, while 29% had an informal plan. Other
indicators of community policing in large cities:
Type of community policing activity
during 12-month period
ending June 30, 2000 Percent of agencies
Met at least quarterly with citizen groups
to discuss crime-related problems 100%
Gave patrol officers responsibility
for specific geographic areas/beats 90%
Conducted a citizen police academy 87%
Assigned detectives to cases based
on geographic areas/beats 84%
Trained citizens in community policing
techniques such as community mobilization
and problem solving 79%
Actively encouraged patrol officers
to engage in SARA-type problem-solving
projects on their beats 77%
Upgraded technology to support community
policing 76%
Conducted or sponsored a survey of citizens
on crime or police-related topics 63%
Formed problem-solving partnerships through
specialized contracts or written agreements 61%
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Drug enforcement
All but 1 of the 62 local police departments serving cities with
a population of 250,000 or more reported in the 2000 LEMAS
survey that they had receipts from
a drug asset forfeiture program during the prior year, as did 60
departments in the 1990 survey. Although data on the value of
the goods, money, and property received were not collected in
1990, it totalled an estimated $108.2 million in 1999, or about
$708 per sworn officer.
Estimated value of drug asset
forfeiture receipts, police departments
serving cities with a population of
250,000 or more, 1999
Population Total Per
served (in millions) officer
All sizes $108.2 $708
1,000,000 or more $58.7 $674
500,000 - 999,999 25.0 657
350,000 - 499,999 14.0 845
250,000 - 349,999 10.5 939
Departments had an average of 15 full-time officers each
assigned to a multi-agency drug enforcement task force in 2000,
compared to 13 in 1990. As a percentage of all officers, the
average decreased slightly, from 1.0% in 1990 to 0.9% in 2000.
From 1990 to 2000, departments serving a population of 1 million
or more increased their average number of officers assigned to a
task force from an average of 21, or 0.3% of all officers, to an
average of 48, or 0.7%.
The average number of officers per department assigned to a
special unit for drug enforcement increased from 86 in 1990 to
123 in 2000; however, the average percentage of all officers so
assigned in 2000 (3.5%) was lower than in 1990 (4.4%). The
largest drop was among departments serving 350,000 to 499,999
residents -- from an average of 6.3% of officers in 1990 to 3.4%
in 2000.
Equipment
In 1990 nearly all police departments serving 250,000 or more
residents authorized the use of both semiautomatic (98%) and
revolver (97%) sidearms; however, the percentage authorizing
revolvers had dropped to 65% by 2000. All departments
authorized semiautomatic sidearms in 2000.
From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of police departments in large
cities requiring all patrol officers to wear protective body
armor increased from 21% to 48%. During this time, the
percentage of departments that required at least some patrol
officers to wear armor rose from 31% to 69%. Departments
serving 250,000 to 349,999 residents (43%) were the least likely
to have a body armor requirement for patrol officers during 2000.
Vehicles
In 2000, 29% of police departments in large cities operated
airplanes, about the same percentage as in 1990 (26%). Nearly
all departments with planes had just one, with no more than four
operated by any department. In 2000 those serving a population
of 1 million or more (50%) were the most likely to operate an
airplane.
Sixty-six percent of departments operated at least one
helicopter in 2000, compared to 55% in 1990. The median number
of helicopters operated was 2 with a maximum of 19. Ninety
percent of departments serving a population of 1 million or more
operated helicopters during 2000.
From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of departments using boats
increased from 48% to 58%. Among those using boats in 2000, the
median number operated was 3, and the maximum was 27. About
three-fourths of the departments serving a population of 500,000
or more used boats during 2000.
Among land vehicles, motorcycle use increased slightly, from 90%
of departments in 1990 to 95% in 2000. A much more substantial
increase was observed for bicycles, with 98% of departments
using them in 2000, compared to 39% in 1990. On average,
departments operated 44 bicycles per 1,000 sworn personnel in
2000 compared to 3 per 1,000 in 1990.
Police departments in large cities operated 307 marked cars per
1,000 sworn personnel in 2000, 17% more than in 1990 (263). The
ratio of un- marked cars also increased, from 188 per 1,000
sworn personnel in 1990 to 207 per 1,000 in 2000.
The percentage of departments allowing officers to drive marked
vehicles between work and home increased from 39% in 1990 to 55%
in 2000. However, the percentage of departments allowing
officers to use these vehicles for personal errands decreased
from 24% to 13%.
Computers and information systems
The increase in computerization among police departments in
large cities from 1990 to 2000 was evident in a variety of
areas. For example, all departments were using computer-aided
dispatch systems in 2000, compared to 90% in 1990.
Participation in enhanced 9-1-1 emergency systems, capable of
pinpointing a caller's location automatically, increased from
76% of departments in 1990 to 97% in 2000. In 2000, all
departments serving 250,000 to 999,999 residents were using
enhanced 9-1-1.
Increases in the percentage of departments using in-field
computers or terminals were also observed. Ninety-two percent
of police departments in large cities used them in 2000,
compared to 73% in 1990. All departments serving 500,000 or
more residents were using in-field computers or terminals during
2000.
The use of Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)
rose from 60% of departments in 1990 to 97% in 2000. In 2000
all departments serving 350,000 or more residents had AFIS
access. The percentage of departments with exclusive or shared
ownership of an AFIS system increased from 57% to 71% during
this time.
In terms of the technological measures provided by LEMAS, nearly
all police departments in large cities had advanced capabilities
in 2000. This included the use of computer-aided dispatch,
enhanced 9-1-1, automated fingerprint identification, and
in-field computers.
Methodological notes
A large part of the data used in this report are from the Law
Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS)
surveys conducted in 1990 and 2000. Population data are from
the U.S. Census Bureau decennial census, and crime data are from
the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports (UCR). Certain methodological
issues arose during analysis and are discussed below.
Jurisdictional issues
The 62 cities included in this report were chosen because they
had a population of at least 250,000 in both the 1990 and 2000
decennial censuses. In most cases the data used represent a
city and the local police department that serves it. For
certain cities, special circumstances existed and are noted below.
Anaheim (CA)
The Anaheim (CA) Police did not respond to the 1990 LEMAS
survey. Although personnel counts were obtained from other
sources, other values for 1990 were based on the agency's
responses to the 1987 and 1993 surveys. Where data values for
categorical variables differed, the data for 1993 were used.
Continous variables such as number of personnel, operating
budget, number of vehicles, and asset forfeiture receipts were
averaged for the two years to arrive at an estimate for 1990.
Charlotte (NC)
The Charlotte Police and Mecklenberg County Police merged on
October 1, 1993. To provide comparability with 2000 data for
the Charlotte-Mecklenberg Police, the data reported by the two
original agencies for 1990 were aggregated for continuous
variables. For categorical variables in 1990, data from the
Charlotte Police were used.
Honolulu (HI)
The jurisdiction of the Honolulu Police covers the City and
County of Honolulu. Therefore, county population data were used
for this report.
Indianapolis (IN)
The city of Indianapolis is served by both the Indianapolis
Police and the Marion County Sheriff's Department. Therefore,
data from these two agencies were combined for both 1990 and
2000. For categorical variables, data from the Indianapolis
Police were used, and for continuous variables, the responses of
the two agencies were aggregated.
Las Vegas (NV)
The city of Las Vegas is under the law enforcement jurisdiction
of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department. (LVMPD). The
jurisdiction of the LVMPD extends beyond the city of Las Vegas
to include significant portions of suburban Clark County.
General population counts were available for the actual LVMPD
jurisdictional area, however; race and ethnicity were not.
Therefore, the population race and ethnicity data used are for
all of Clark County. This includes the city of Las Vegas, and
county areas inside and outside of LVMPD law enforcement
jurisdiction.
New York (NY)
The New York City transit and housing police agencies were
merged into the New York City Police Department (NYPD) on April
30, 1995. To provide comparability with the 2000 data reported
by NYPD, data reported by the transit and housing police for
1990 were combined with NYPD data. For categorical variables,
the responses of the NYPD were used. For continuous variables,
data for the three original agencies were aggregated.
Comparability issues
All items that could be compared between the 1990 and 2000
surveys were included for analysis. Certain items asked in both
surveys could not be included because of comparability issues.
In some cases, items were included when the design of the
questions had changed because it was determined to not affect
comparability. These items included the following:
Training requirements
The 1990 LEMAS survey asked for the number of classroom and
field training hours required while the 2000 survey asked for
the number of academy and field hours.
Operating costs
The 1990 survey asked for the annual operating expenditure while
the 2000 survey asked for the operating budget.
All monetary data were converted to 2000 dollars by multiplying
them by 1.3393. This factor was derived from annual Consumer
Price Index averages published by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
UCR Crime data
Changes in reporting methods at the State or local levels may
affect the comparability of crime data for 1990 and 2000. This
has been documented for Tennessee, including the cities of
Nashville and Memphis, which appear to have underreported
certain crimes in 1990. Comparability issues may exist in other
jurisdictions as well, documented or not.
Data on the number of forcible rapes in Chicago were not
available for 1990 or 2000. Estimates based on the number of
other violent crimes were calculated for this report.
When comparing crime rates between jurisdictions, the FBI
suggests considering factors such as population density, degree
of urbanization, demographic composition of the population,
stability of the population, transportation modes and systems,
economic conditions, cultural factors, family conditions,
climate, effective strength of law enforcement agencies,
administrative and investigative emphasis of law enforcement,
criminal justice system policies, citizen attitudes, and citizen
crime reporting practices. For more information on the Uniform
Crime Reports see .
Special units
The 1990 survey asked if the agency operated a special unit with
personnel assigned either full-time or part-time. The 2000
survey asked if the agency operated a unit with personnel
assigned full-time or had specially designated personnel who
dealt with the issue on a part-time basis.
In-field computers
The 1990 survey included the categories of laptop, car-mounted
digital terminal, hand-held digital terminal and "other". The
2000 survey included the four specific categories of laptop,
mobile digital/data computer, mobile digital/data terminal, and
"other" within two general categories of vehicle-mounted and
portable.
Minority representation ratio
The officer-to-resident ratios used to measure minority
representation in figure 1 and appendix table B were calculated
by dividing the percent of an agency's full-time sworn personnel
who were members of a racial or ethnic group by the percentage
in the population served who belonged to that group.
In some instances this resulted in a value greater than 1 (that
is, a group was over represented).
Such values are included in table B; however, for the purposes
of calculating the average ratios used in figure 1, these values
were truncated to 1.00.
This was done so that average ratios would not be artificially
inflated by overrepresentation in certain agencies. By
definition the overrepresentation of one group is accompanied by
the under representation of one or more other groups. Ideally,
all groups would have an officer-to-resident ratio of 1.
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The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of
the U.S. Department of Justice.
Lawrence A. Greenfeld is acting director.
Brian Reaves and Matthew Hickman, BJS statisticians, prepared
this report. The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
(COPS) provided partial funding for the 2000 LEMAS survey.
Debra Cohen and Matthew Scheider of COPS assisted with
questionnaire development. More information on COPS can be
obtained at their website . Data were
collected and processed by the U.S. Census Bureau under the
supervision of Latrice Brogsdale-Davis and Charlene Sebold.
Project staff included Theresa Reitz, Martha Greene, Patricia
Torreyson, Bill Bryner, and Paula Kinard. Jayne Robinson, BJS,
administered final report production.
May 2002, NCJ 173703
End of file
th 5/09/02