North Carolina guide for the early years

i
North Carolina Guide for the
Early Years
Second Edition
ii
It is our responsibility
to cultivate children’s
delight in exploring and
understanding their world.
Early childhood is and
should be a time of laughter,
love, play, and great fun.
Copple & Bredekamp, 2009
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
Our Mission and Goals
The guiding mission of the North Carolina State Board of Education is that every
public school student will graduate from high school, globally competitive for work
and postsecondary education and prepared for life in the 21st century.
Goal: NC public schools will produce globally competitive students.
Goal: NC public schools will be led by 21st century professionals.
Goal: NC public school students will be healthy and responsible.
Goal: Leadership will guide innovation in NC public schools.
Goal: NC public schools will be governed and supported by 21st century systems.
WILLIAM C. HARRISON, Chairman, Fayetteville
WAYNE MCDEVITT , Vice Chair, Asheville
WALTER DALTON, Lieutenant Governor, Rutherfordton
JANET COWELL, State Treasurer, Raleigh
KATHY A. TAFT, Greenville
REGINALD KENAN, Rose Hill
KEVIN D. HOWELL, Raleigh
SHIRLE Y E. HARRIS, Troy
CHRI STINE J. GREENE, High Point
JOHN A. TATE III, Charlotte
ROBERT “TOM” SPEED, Boone
MELISSA E. BARTLETT, Roxboro
PATRICIA N. WILLOUGHBY, Raleigh
NC DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
301 N. Wilmington Street :: Raleigh, North Carolina 27601-2825
In compliance with federal law, NC Public Schools administers all state-operated educational
programs, employment activities and admissions without discrimination because of race, religion,
national or ethnic origin, color, age, military service, disability, or gender, except where exemption is
appropriate and allowed by law.
Inquiries or complaints regarding discrimination issues should be directed to: Dr. Rebecca Garland,
Chief Academic Officer :: Academic Services and Instructional Support, 6368 Mail Service Center,
Raleigh, NC 27699-6368 :: Telephone: (919) 807-3200 :: Fax: (919) 807-4065
Visit us on the Web:: www.ncpublicschools.org
PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NOR TH CAROLINA
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION Howard N. Lee, Chairman
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
W W W . NC PU B L I C SCHOOLS . O R G
OFFICE OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT
June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent | jatkinson@dpi.state.nc.us
6301 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, North Carolina 27699-6301 | (919) 807-3430 | Fax (919) 807-3445
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYER
2008
Dear Educators of Young Children,
A child's early years are critically important to his/her future success in school. We
also know that it is during these years that children learn to value and love learning.
If we are to make the most of these years, and it is imperative that we do so, then
schools must be READY to engage and serve our children and their families. This
is a big order, for children come to us in all shapes and sizes, from all kinds of
backgrounds, and with varying degrees of abilities and interests.
We must create classrooms that encourage learning, lead children to cooperate with
others, and promote children to develop the social skills that assure success in life.
It is imperative that learning environments meet the needs of all students in
inclusive settings. We must link standards, assessments and accountability and
use them as tools to guide curriculum development, instructional design and
teaching practice – all focused on the learner.
Schools and communities are already working together to develop primary
school programs that serve the needs of all children. As we pursue high quality
programs to ensure that children reach their potential, The North Carolina Guide
for the Early Years is an excellent resource and model for local schools.
Our promise to the children and teachers of North Carolina is to advocate for policies,
laws and regulations to enhance the quality of their life and work. We pledge our best
efforts to the rights of children, so they may learn in safe environments – ones that
are responsive to their development and needs. By doing so we can best appreciate
and respect each child's uniqueness, contributions and potential.
Given our opportunities and challenges, it is with pleasure that we dedicate this
The North Carolina Guide for the Early Years to the children of North Carolina and
the very special group of professional educators who are entrusted with their
learning and care. We wish you every success as you pursue the great adventure
of learning and growing together.
June St. Clair Atkinson Howard N. Lee
State Superintendent Chairman
NC Department of Public Instruction NC State Board of Education
Public Schools of North Carolina
Department of Public Instruction | June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
www.ncpublicschools.org
September 29, 2009
iv
N o r t h C a r o l i n a D E p a r t m e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n
Acknowledgments
NC Department of Public Instruction
Primary Section
Lucy Roberts, Chief Consultant
Eva Phillips, K-2, Title 1 Kindergarten Consultant
Amy Smith, K-2 Consultant
Office of School Readiness
John Pruette, Director
Cindy Bagwell, Assistant Director
Teachers
Silvia Bayer, Warren Wilson Child Development Center
Karla Carpenter, Hickory City Schools
Susan Hoffman, Chapel Hill Carrboro Schools
Marilyn Ornstein, Duke School
Marylee Sease, Haywood County Schools
Susan Shilcock, Asheville City Schools
Deborah Sowell, Durham County Schools
Corrine Watson, Richmond County Schools
Administrator
Sherry Willis, Hickory City Schools
Parents
Azell Reeves
Cynthia R. Smith
Carrie P. Sharp
IHE/Comm unity College
Barbara L. Brehm, East Carolina University
Deb Cassidy, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro
Patricia Hearron, Appalachian State University
Judy Niemeyer, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro
Bobbie Rowland, University of
North Carolina at Charlotte
Kristi Snuggs, NC Community College System
Central Office/Coordinators
Barbara Batts, Nash/Rocky Mount Schools
Sharon Bentley, Haywood County Schools
Ellen Edmonds, Charlotte Mecklenburg Schools
Kitty Hedgepeth, Washington County Schools
Linda McConnell, Gaston County Schools
Debbie Pace, Edgecombe County Schools
Evelyn Seidenberg, Moore County Schools
Comm unity Representatives
Joe Appleton, NC Office of School Readiness
Kathy Baars, NC Department of Public Instruction
Don Carter, Even Start
Dina Castro, Frank Porter Graham
Margaret Gayle, American Association
for Gifted Children
Beth Gerall, NoveList
Ileetha Groom, NC Department of Public Instruction
Valorie Hargett, NC Department of Public Instruction
Jackie Harrell, Division of Public Health
Jani Kozlowski, NC Partnership for Children
Carolyn Moser, Division of Public Health
Patsy Pierce, NC Department of Public Instruction
Lorie Pugh, Division of Child Development
Cassandra Smith, NC Department of
Public Instruction
Judith J. Smith, East Carolina University
Marlo Walston, Head Start
Pat Wesley, Partnerships for Inclusion
Becky Wrisley, Prevent Child Abuse NC
Facilitator
Andy Phillips, Writer, Consultant
Content Editor
Harriet Egertson, Ph.D., Early Childhood
Consultant, Temecula, CA
Copy Editor
Betty Work, Greensboro, NC
Designer
Kevin Justice, Graham, NC
Preschool Teachers
Lisa Bruggeman
Karla Carpenter
Lugene Cox
Cecelia Ducket
Shari Funkhouser
Gigi Johnston
Tracy Little
NC Power of K
Kindergarten
Teacher Leaders
Amy Blessing
Michelle Cole
Kristy Corbo
Toni DeMarco
Shakila Faqih
Juliana Harris
Becky Huffman
Scott Larson
Rene Lemons-Matney
Mary Beth Lester
Emilie MacDonald
Donna Manning
Sherri Matheny
Gretchen May
Kathy Miller
Jennifer Nelson
Vanessa Osborne
Yolanda Sawyer
Marylee Sease
Susan Suddreth
K-2 Teachers
Susan Shillcock
Principals
Russell Johnson
Lisa Spalding
Sherry Willis
Instructional Directors/
Coordinators/Specialists
Silvia Bayer
Emily Bostic
Kitty Hedgepeth
Cindy Dewey
Debra Pace
Evelyn Seidenberg
Drew Setchfield
Linda Vandevender
Katherine Wilder
Comm unity
Representatives
Kathy Baars
Beth Gerall
Jani Kozlowski
Lori Pugh
Virginia Schreiner, M.D.
Marlo Walston
Consultants
Tara Almeida
Joe Appleton
Carla Garrett
Leonnie Gill
Jody Koon
Janet McGinnis
Rhonda Muhammad
Mia Sherard
Carolyn Southerland
Dan Tetreault
Cindy Wheeler
Catherine Woodall
Institutes of Higher
Education Faculty
Dr. Deb Cassidy
Dr. Patricia Hearron
Dr. Judy Niemeyer
Dr. Patsy Pierce
Dr. Sharon Ritchie
Dr. Bobbie Rowland
Dr. Judith Smith
Dr. Kristi Snuggs
Dr. Diane Strangis
Reviewers
Writing Task Force
The North Carolina Guide for the Early
Years, Second Edition, is based on
the knowledge of sound research,
theories, and professional practices.
We thank the many generous
people who gave so unselfishly of
their expertise, time, and resources
to provide the direction and content
of this Guide.
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T h e N o r t h C a r o l i n a G u i d e f o r t h e E a r l y Y e a r s
Quick Reference Guide
Section I: A Framework for Teaching and Learning
Chapter 1 – Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2 – Building a Foundation for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 3 – Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 4 – Making the Most of Each Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter 5 – Teaching with Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 6 – Fostering the Development of Appropriate Behavior and Social Skills. . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 7 – Preparing Children for School and Schools for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 8 – Making Informed Decisions about Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 9 – Assessing Children’s Progress Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Section II: The Essential Tools of Learning
Chapter 10 – Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 11 – Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 12 – Health and Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter 13 – Language Development and Early Literacy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter 14 – Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 15 – Integrating Technology into the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Section III: Early Learning Resources and References
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Classroom Environmental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Classroom Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sample Classroom Floor Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Classroom Equipment and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Sample Kindergarten Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Sample Preschool Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Kindergarten Health Assessment Form and Instructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Position Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Quick Guide to the Learning Centers
Art / 162
Blocks / 138
Books and Listening / 128
Carpentry / 142
Computer / 181
Cooking / 156
Dramatic Play / 174
Manipulatives / 144
Music / 165
Outdoor Activities / 117
Sand and Water / 154
Science and Discovery / 152
Stitchery and Weaving / 164
Writing and Printing / 130
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T h e N o r t h C a r o l i n a G u i d e f o r t h e E a r l y Y e a r s
Contents
Section I: A Framework for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What’s New? / 4
The Future-Ready Child / 6
Uniquely North Carolina / 7
Chapter 2 – Building a Foundation for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Key Understandings / 11
The Brain: Making New Connections / 13
Patterns of Growth and Implications for Teaching / 14
Developmentally Appropriate Practice / 16
Responding to How Young Children Learn / 17
Getting to Know the Child as an Individual / 19
Partnering with Families / 23
Chapter 3 – Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Engaging All Children / 28
The Well-Designed Classroom / 30
The ABC’s of Organizing the Space / 31
The Seven Dimensions: Achieving Balance in the Classroom / 32
Large Group Meetings / 33
Chapter 4 – Making the Most of Each Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Art of Scheduling / 39
Developing Schedules for Inclusive Classrooms / 40
Establishing Routines / 41
Smoothing Transitions in Daily Routines / 43
Chapter 5 – Teaching with Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Being an Intentional Teacher / 46
Putting out the Welcome Mat / 47
Classroom Interactions / 48
Stages of Play / 50
Chapter 6 – Fostering the Development of Appropriate Behavior and Social Skills. . . . . . . . . 51
Supporting Appropriate Behavior / 51
Working with Challenging Behaviors / 56
Teaching Strategies / 57
Chapter 7 – Preparing Children for School and Schools for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
What is a Ready School? / 59
Pathways to a Ready School / 60
Ready Schools and Transition Planning / 62
Preparing Children for Transitions / 65
Chapter 8 – Making Informed Decisions about Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Creating Child-Centered Environments / 70
Indicators of an Effective Curriculum / 71
Considering Curriculum Models / 72
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Organizing Activities around Curriculum / 72
Project Planning / 73
Active Learning Strategies / 73
Providing Continuity to the Next Level / 75
Chapter 9 – Assessing Children’s Progress Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Risks in Assessing Young Children / 80
Ongoing Assessment vs. Accountability Assessment / 81
Assessment of Children’s Progress in the School Environment / 81
Assessment Techniques / 83
Making Assessment a Routine / 86
Evaluating the Program / 94
Comprehensive Environment Tools / 96
Domain Specific/Content Area Tools / 96
Section II: The Essential Tools of Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Chapter 10 – Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Focusing on the Bigger Picture / 102
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 103
Chapter 11 – Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Developing Emotional Competence / 106
Developing Social Competence / 106
How Teachers Can Influence Results / 107
Coping with Social Difficulties / 108
Developing Self-Esteem / 109
Negative, Long-Term Issues / 111
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 112
Chapter 12 – Health and Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Motor Development / 113
Physical Development / 114
Health and Personal Care / 114
Safety / 115
Playing it Safe in the Classroom and Outdoors / 115
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 116
Learning Center Focus: Outdoor Activities, 117
Chapter 13 – Language Development and Early Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Guiding Principles for Teaching Early Literacy / 122
Building on Our Knowledge of Language and Literacy / 125
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 126
Learning Center Focus: Books and Listening, 128
Learning Center Focus: Writing and Printing, 130
Chapter 14 – Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Mathematics / 135
Children as Problem-Solvers, 136
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 137
Learning Center Focus: Blocks, 138
Learning Center Focus: Carpentry, 142
Learning Center Focus: Manipulatives, 144
Science / 147
Children as Young Scientists, 148
Common Understandings about Teaching Science, 148
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Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 151
Learning Center Focus: Science and Discovery, 152
Learning Center Focus: Sand and Water, 154
Learning Center Focus: Cooking, 156
Creative Arts / 158
Fostering Creativity, 158
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 160
Learning Center Focus: Art, 162
Learning Center Focus: Stitchery and Weaving, 164
Learning Center Focus: Music, 165
Social Studies / 167
Current Perspectives about Teaching Social Studies, 170
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 172
Learning Center Focus: Dramatic Play, 174
Chapter 15 – Integrating Technology into the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Possibilities and Tradeoffs / 178
Choosing Appropriate Software / 178
Using the Internet / 179
Adapting Technology to Special Needs / 180
Learning Center Focus: Computer, 181
Section III: Early Learning Resources and References. . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Classroom Environmental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Classroom Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sample Classroom Floor Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Classroom Equipment and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Sample Kindergarten Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Sample Preschool Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Kindergarten Health Assessment Form and Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Position Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
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1
S e c t i o n I
A Framework for
Teaching and Learning
The North Carolina Guide for the Early Years reflects more
than a decade of dramatic change in early education theory
and practice. Since the first edition was published in 1997,
preschool and kindergarten classrooms have moved toward
becoming more inclusive, more technological, and more attuned
to how children learn and what they need to succeed.
In times past, educating young children was generally seen
as relatively straightforward – a matter of bringing together
teachers and children with materials, books, and ideas. Today,
educators and the public have come to view quality early learning
as a complex enterprise requiring an integrated approach. And
that is what you will find in this new edition.
3
The N.C. Guide for the Early Years is designed to be a major
resource for early learning professionals, combining the
latest research about how preschool and kindergarten
children learn with time-tested strategies and essential teaching
tools. The contents of these pages:
represent the belief that a • ll children benefit from
participating in inclusive programs and services that value
their diversity of backgrounds, languages, and abilities,
• emphasize the interconnectedness of content areas, and
• connect expectations for children’s development and learning
to validated best practice.
While a central tenet of this document is the importance of
using learning centers as the major vehicle to organize a classroom,
it also acknowledges the importance of these eight elements:
• a strong, evidence-based curriculum
• purposeful teaching
• effective schedules, routines, and transitions
• a positive interpersonal environment (how children interact
with one another and how adults interact and intervene to
support their learning)
• partnerships with families
• positive professional relationships
• a broad repertoire of instructional practices that strike
a delicate balance across a continuum of child-initiated
experiences and teacher-directed instruction
• child-initiated and teacher-supported play
C h a p t e r O n e
Introduction
Chapter Highlights
What’s New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Future-Ready . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Uniquely North Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
What’s New
In addition to updating material from the
1997 edition, the Guide brings together
several resources in a more accessible
format. It includes supplementary content
from:
Foundations: • Early Learning Standards
for North Carolina Preschoolers and
Strategies for Guiding Their Success
• The North Carolina Standard Course
of Study for Kindergarten (SCOS)
• Learning Through the Eyes of a Child:
A Guide to Best Teaching Practices in
Early Education
In each relevant chapter, you will find
examples of linking the Foundations
Preschool Widely Held Expectations and
the Kindergarten SCOS Objectives. They
are presented together so that teachers
across this age range can easily see match-ing
areas and use them to help plan their
curriculum and learning environment.
This Guide is for You – the Teacher
While its larger audience includes individ-uals
across the early childhood landscape,
this document is designed primarily for
teachers – to assist you in establishing
and maintaining a high-quality program
and in developing as a professional.
“Early childhood” is defined as birth
to age eight. Early childhood teachers
include those who work with children in
preschool, kindergarten, and first, second,
and third grades.
While this document focuses on
preschool and kindergarten, it has impli-cations
for teachers working with older
children as well. Included are many
examples of teaching strategies and ways
to create a classroom environment that
will nurture children’s natural curiosity
and zest for learning.
The Guide can be used to:
Evaluate Your Work and Learn More
• Confirm, validate, and communicate
why you use certain practices in your
daily work with children.
• Expand your understanding of the
early childhood knowledge base.
• Identify resources for early education.
• Continuously improve daily teaching
practices.
Gain New Perspectives
• Identify challenging but achievable
learning goals for children across the
development and content domains
and across age-level groups.
• Appreciate learning goals that cross
content areas and mutually reinforce
learning.
• Provide a common knowledge base
and language for improving the
program or school.
Better Define Early Childhood Education
• Focus on the uniqueness of young
children.
• Recognize the expectations of
development and learning for
preschool and kindergarten children.
C h a p t e r On e — Wh a t ’s New 5
• Strengthen the important connection
between preschool and kindergarten
programs.
• Maximize your understanding of
the interrelationships of learning for
young children.
• Convey the value of children’s
ownership of their own learning and
motivation.
Interpret and Apply Research
• Understand the relevance of research
to the teaching and learning process.
• Apply research findings in
meaningful and relevant ways.
• Use the principles of child
development.
• Clarify the relationships among
curriculum, assessment, and
instruction.
• Study and learn with colleagues.
Empathize
• Understand and celebrate the energy
and wonder of young children.
• Understand the process of inquiry.
• Create safe and respectful indoor and
outdoor learning environments.
• Respect the families, culture,
language, and development of each
child.
Key Terms
You will find a glossary in the appendix,
where it typically resides, but there are
several terms we want to spotlight here
because they are important to understand-ing
and using this document effectively.
Integrated – refers to a program purposely
planned to present content and skills
through activities and experiences that
incorporate aspects of several content
areas. A daily or weekly schedule in a
classroom using an integrated curriculum
model is rarely characterized by segments
of time for specific “subjects” (such as
math, science, etc.).
Inclusive – refers to an organizational
pattern that serves children in a grouping
of age peers. Age peers may be a single-,
mixed-, or multi-age group spanning
more than one year. Inclusive classrooms
do not segregate children because of any
characteristic related to physical or men-tal
ability or language spoken.
Learning Expectations – applies to
learning standards in the broad sense and
as they are referenced in Foundations as
Widely Held Expectations and in the
Standard Course of Study as Kindergarten
Objectives.
Terms used in the field of assessment
take on different meanings in different
contexts. Words related to assessment
have been examined for their appropri-ateness
for evaluating young children. A
referenced glossary of such terms as they
apply to early childhood may be found on
the Web at www.ccsso.org (search: The
Words We Use).
Indoor and Outdoor
Learning Center Focus
Information for focused play and learning
opportunities, both indoors and outdoors, is
placed within its respective domain section.
Here is a quick reference to their locations.
Art . 162
Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Books and Listening . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Carpentry . 142
Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Cooking . 156
Dramatic Play . 174
Manipulatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Music . 165
Outdoor Activities . .117
Sand and Water . 154
Science and Discovery . 152
Stitchery and Weaving . . . . . . . . . . 164
Writing and Printing . 130
Childhood is a
time of wonder
and magic,
where dreams
and imagination
get fueled, and
issues of power
are explored.
Deb Curtis &
Margie Carter, 2003
6 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Future-Ready
We now know just how crucial it is for
children to have a strong beginning if
they are to succeed in school and in life.
They need positive family involvement,
good nutrition and health care, and
access to quality early learning. This
new Guide describes how effective
preschool and kindergarten pro-grams
can help provide children
with a sturdy foundation from
which they can grow and go
forward.
A North Carolina preschooler
or kindergartner who is enrolled
in a quality program has expe-riences
every day that support
future-ready outcomes. These
experiences look very different from
those of a high school senior, but they
are no less critical to a lifetime of success.
Children who participate in caring,
safe, play-centered, intellectually
challenging programs have a
far greater likelihood of being
future-ready.
The Future-Ready Child:
• is curious
• is a problem-solver
• likes to explore science
activities
• can use language to interact
positively and to get needs
met
• is beginning to understand
print
• plays and works
intentionally
• uses mathematical ideas
while engaged in play
• can use simple
technology
• knows and
practices
healthy
behaviors
C h a p t e r On e — Un i q u e l y No r t h C a r o li n a 7
Uniquely
North Carolina
North Carolina is home to a substantial
array of resources that exist to benefit
teachers and students and to contribute to
the body of knowledge about early child-hood
education. Many of these resources
are nationally and internationally recog-nized,
such as the Smart Start initiative,
the Frank Porter Graham Child
Development Center, research such as the
Abecedarian study, and tools like the Early
Childhood Environment Rating Scale.
Here’s a closer look at some of our state’s
notable contributions to the field and how
educators like you might use them:
Institutes, Agencies, and Programs
FirstSchool – University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill
FirstSchool is a new vision for early
schooling of 3 to 8 year-olds that is being
developed through a partnership among
families, schools, the community, the
FPG Child Development Institute, and
the University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill. The fundamental aim is to ensure
that all children’s and families’ early school
experiences are positive and successful. On
the Web: www.firstschool.us
Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute
– University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Founded in 1966, the FPG institute is
one of the nation’s oldest multidisci-plinary
institutes for the study of young
children and their families. Researchers
focus on parent and family support; early
care and education; child health and
development; early identification and
intervention; equity, access and inclusion;
and early childhood policy. On the Web:
www.fpg.unc.edu
Generations-Tadpole: Assistive
Technology Lending Library – Butner
This private rehabilitation agency lends
and ships books, tapes, toys, and other
low-tech assistive technology devices to
families and professionals across the state.
Anyone who is working with a child with
a disability – including parents and other
family members, therapists and other
professionals – is eligible to borrow items.
The services are free, including shipping.
On the Web: www.tadpole.org
Motheread – Raleigh
Founded in Raleigh in 1987, Motheread
has grown into a national training and
curriculum development model with a
multi-state affiliate network. This pri-vate,
nonprofit organization combines
8 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
the teaching of literacy skills with child
development and family empowerment
issues. It offers classes for both adults
and children. In adult classes, partici-pants
learn to be story readers, writers,
and tellers. For children, story explor-ing
provides a structured environment
for learning reading, critical thinking,
and problem-solving skills. On the Web:
www.motheread.org
National Center for Early Development
and Learning – FPG Child Development
Center, Chapel Hill
The center is an early childhood research
project that focuses on enhancing the
cognitive, social, and emotional develop-ment
of children from birth through age
eight. On the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
National Early Childhood Technical
Assistance Center – Chapel Hill
The center works with administrators
in all states to help ensure that children
with disabilities, ages birth through five,
and their families receive high-quality,
culturally appropriate, and family-cen-tered
supports and services. On the Web:
www.nectac.org
Natural Learning Initiative – College of
Design, N.C. State University, Raleigh
This research design and assistance pro-gram
promotes the importance of the
natural environment in the daily experi-ence
of children through environmental
design, action research, education, and
dissemination of information. Its mission
is to help communities create stimulating
places for play, learning, and environ-mental
education. On the Web: www.
naturalearning.org
New Voices/Nuevas Voces – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
New Voices/Nuevas Voces is a profes-sional
development program for early
childhood providers working with young
children from culturally, linguistically,
and ability-diverse backgrounds, with a
special focus on Latino children and their
families. On the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
Partnerships for Inclusion – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
With offices in Chapel Hill, Asheville,
Wilmington, and Greenville, this state-wide
technical-assistance project provides
training and consultation to support the
inclusion of young children with disabili-ties,
ages birth through five years, in all
aspects of community life. The group
works with child care providers, early
interventionists, public school preschool
coordinators, parents, teachers, develop-mental
day programs, local interagency
councils, regional interagency coordinating
councils, child care resource and referral
agencies, and Smart Start programs. On
the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
Smart Start: The North Carolina
Partnership for Children – Raleigh
North Carolina’s nationally recognized
and award-winning early childhood
initiative was created to ensure that young
children enter school healthy and ready
to succeed. Smart Start is a public-private
initiative that provides early education
funding to all of the state’s 100 counties.
On the Web: www.smartstart-nc.org
T.E.A.C.H. Early Childhood Project – Child
Care Services Association, Chapel Hill
T.E.A.C.H. gives scholarships to child
care workers to complete coursework in
early childhood education and to increase
their compensation. The project was
created in response to a 1989 North
Carolina workforce study that examined
the wages and retention of child care
workers. Child Care Services Association,
a nonprofit service, research, and advo-cacy
group, now serves as an umbrella
agency for what has become a multi-state
program involving institutions of higher
learning, community colleges, child care
providers, state agencies, Head Start pro-grams,
resource and referral agencies,
C h a p t e r On e — Un i q u e l y No r t h C a r o li n a 9
state licensing agencies, and cooperative
extension representatives. On the Web:
www.childcareservices.org
Tools, Publications, and Other Resources
Assessment of Practices in Early
Elementary Classrooms (APEEC)
Developed in conjunction with research-ers
at the FPG Child Development
Institute and using the same basic format
as the ECERS-R, APEEC is the first
measurement scale designed to evaluate
the use of developmentally appropriate
practices in the early elementary class-room,
K-3. (Mary Louise Hemmeter,
Kelly L. Maxwell, Melinda Jones Ault,
and John W. Schuster; 2001, Teachers
College Press)
Crosswalks Toolbox – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
The Crosswalks Toolbox is an interac-tive
database of instructional resources
that address key areas of early-childhood
or early-intervention content and diver-sity.
Its search function can help teachers
find videos, articles, syllabi, and other
resources for increasing the emphasis
on cultural and linguistic diversity. The
Crosswalks project conducts research on
ways to support faculty and programs in
making diversity-related changes, work-ing
directly with colleges and universities
in North Carolina. On the Web: www.
fpg.unc.edu
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS)
Created by FPG researchers, the ECERS
consists of 43 items that assess the quality
of center-based programs in kindergarten,
preschool, and child care classrooms,
including use of space, materials, and
experiences to enhance children’s devel-opment,
daily schedule, and supervision.
It is the most widely used scale of this type
in the nation. (Thelma Harms, Richard
M. Clifford, and Debby Cryer; revised
edition, 1998, Teachers College Press)
Early Learning, Later Success:
The Abecedarian Study
The Abecedarian project was a carefully
controlled scientific study of the poten-tial
benefits of early childhood education
for poor children. This report highlights
the Age 21 Follow-up Study. (Craig T.
Ramey, Frances A. Campbell, Margaret
R. Burchinal, Donna M. Bryant, Barbara
H. Wasik, M.L. Skinner, and D.M.
Gardner; 2000, University of North
Carolina)
PreK-K Teachers Performance
Appraisal Instrument (PKKTPAI)
Developed over the years by both the
private and public sectors and validated
by beginning and experienced teach-ers,
PKKTPAI was created to reflect the
standards appropriate for the pre-k and
kindergarten classrooms. The instrument
is used by OSR/Teacher Licensure Unit
mentors and evaluators to assess early
childhood teachers in North Carolina.
(Lisa Doyle Howley, Richard Lambert,
and Bobbie Rowland; 2005, UNC-Charlotte)
On the Web: www.education.
uncc.edu/pkktpai
Preschool Outdoor Environment
Measurement Scale (POEMS)
POEMS is an assessment tool developed
by a multidisciplinary team from N.C.
State and UNC-Greensboro for evaluat-ing
and improving the quality of outdoor
environments in childcare centers for
children 3-5 years old. It includes a tech-nical
assistance manual for program
improvement and planning. (Karen
DeBord, Linda L. Hestenes, Robin C.
Moore, Nilda G. Cosco, and Janet R.
McGinnis; 2005, Kaplan) On the Web:
www.poemsnc.org
QuickNotes: Inclusion Resources for
Early Childhood Professionals
Quicknotes is a research notebook cov-ering
a broad range of topics relating
to high-quality care of young children.
(Patricia Wesley, Brenda Dennis, and
Sabrina Tyndall; second edition, 2007,
University of North Carolina)
The Carolina Curriculum for
Preschoolers with Special Needs
The Carolina Curriculum is an assess-ment
and intervention program designed
for use with young children from birth to
five years who have mild to severe disabil-ities.
(Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Susan
M. Attermeier, and Bonnie Hacker;
second edition, 2004; Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.)
11
Each weekday, nearly half a million children walk into early
childhood programs and classrooms across North Carolina.
Bustling with energy, talking and laughing, these children
reflect the rich diversity of our state. From the mountainous west-ern
regions to the flat coastal plains, these young learners bring
with them a variety of experiences, interests, and needs.
The backgrounds and knowledge children bring to school,
combined with their natural curiosity and sense of wonder, are
the foundation for learning in the preschool and kindergarten
years. Our task, as early childhood professionals, is to make the
most of each day they spend in our care.
To do that, we need to come to know each child as a unique
individual. We must create meaningful opportunities that help
all of them grow and develop to their full potential, building on
individual differences rather than stressing conformity.
Key Understandings
Children’s experiences and the skills and characteristics they
develop during the preschool and kindergarten years are critically
important to their success today and for years to come – both
in school and in life.1 Eager to Learn, the National Research
Council’s comprehensive review of child development and early
1 Bryant & Maxwell, “The Effectiveness of Early Intervention for Disadvantaged Children,” 1997.
C h a p t e r T w o
Building a Foundation for Learning
Chapter Highlights
Key Understandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Brain: Making New Connections . . . . . 13
Patterns of Growth and
Implications for Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . 16
Responding to How Young Children Learn. . . . . 17
Getting to Know the Child as an Individual. . . . 19
Partnering with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
12 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
education, suggests that we have previ-ously
underestimated children’s abilities
and the concepts they can understand if
they are exposed to age-appropriate and
stimulating learning opportunities.2
The NC Guide for the Early Years rests
on seven key understandings about chil-dren’s
development and learning and
provides support for complementary
teaching practices.
Every child is different.
The rate of development and learning is
not the same for every individual of the
same age. The way each child devel-ops
will vary greatly depending on a
combination of factors, such as the char-acteristics
they are born with, the culture
they live in, and their experiences within
their family and in other settings.
Learning occurs in predictable patterns.
Though each child is unique, develop-ment
typically unfolds in progressive
steps or stages. What varies tremen-dously
from one child to another is when
and how children achieve various devel-opmental
milestones. These differences
are associated with individual tempera-ment,
learning characteristics, gender,
race, ethnicity, socio-economic status,
2 Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, Eager to Learn: Educating our
Preschoolers, 2001.
family culture, and genetic make-up.
Gifted children or children with disabili-ties
may exhibit even greater variation
in the achievement of developmental
milestones. Children with special needs
progress through the same developmen-tal
patterns at a different rate. Children’s
understanding grows from simple to com-plex
(or from concrete to abstract). New
knowledge builds on previous experience
and understanding.
Learning is most meaningful when
integrated across all domains.
Children construct knowledge and integrate
new ideas and concepts into their exist-ing
understandings. Their achievements in
language and learning are influenced by
the emotional and social aspects of their
development. Communication influences
learning in all areas of the curriculum.
There are no clear lines among the domains
or areas of learning.
Young children are active learners.
Children learn by doing, and they need
time to practice what they are learning,
to ask questions, to investigate, and to
use what they are experiencing in their
everyday activities. Their ideas about
themselves impact their interactions with
adults and other children, and with how
they view themselves as learners. The
development of the whole child is hon-ored
when preschool and kindergarten
programs focus on active learning. Such
an approach reflects an understanding that
children learn through active involvement
and play and demonstrate their knowl-edge
in a variety of ways.
Experience, knowledge, curiosity,
and a sense of wonder are
foundations for learning.
Every child enters the world ready to
learn, wanting to learn and, in fact, need-ing
to learn. The need for food and shelter
is matched by a vital need to make sense
of their surroundings – a complex world
of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and
Most children are
motivated to learn
by an intense desire
to make sense
out of their world
and achieve the
competencies desired
by the culture.
Sue Bredekamp and
Carol Copple, 1997
Bandura
Albert Bandura, social
learning theorist,
stated (1994) that a
sense of personal
competence is essential
to children’s willingness
to undertake learning.
Children, according
to Bandura, have the
capacity to condemn
or congratulate
themselves when
they feel competent.
The children, when
confronted with a task,
expect to be successful.
Maturation
Years
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Maturation Dierences
Early Maturation
Normative Maturation
Slow to Mature
The Kindergarten year represents the time in public school education in which the largest maturation
dierences occur.
Source: Dominic F. Gullo, professor of elementary and early childhood education at Queens College, City University of New York, 2007.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 13
textures. In a real sense, knowledge about
this world is constructed by the child and
with very little direct help from others.
Assessment and evaluation form the
basis for educational decisions.
Evidence of what each child can do is
collected frequently and used to make
decisions about instruction and activities to
meet particular learning needs. Importantly,
the assessment and evaluation of a child’s
growth in learning are based on the goals
of the program, not by comparison with
other children. In this way, children are
encouraged to improve their performance
and realize their individual potential
rather than compete with others.
Development and learning are rooted
in culture and supported by family.
Language, knowledge, traditions, and
family expectations are the primary
influences on children’s development.
Their growth and learning are greatly
impacted by the physical environment,
relationships with family members and
others, and the community and culture in
which they live. These factors differ from
child to child and shape their view of the
world and how they develop. Learning
is enriched and strengthened by stable,
nurturing relationships within the family
and community.
The Brain: Making New Connections
Effective teaching practice in preschool
and kindergarten is based on our knowl-edge
of child growth and development
and increasingly also on discoveries about
brain development that have emerged in
recent years.
Since the 1970s, and especially in the
last decade, scientists have used DNA
research and imaging techniques to study
how the brain develops. What they have
found agrees with what early childhood
professionals have long believed – that the
early years are important for establishing
learning patterns across the domains.3
While neurologists are just beginning to
understand what experiences influence
neural development, they do know that
by adulthood, the brain is crisscrossed
with over 100 billion neurons.4
The human brain grows most rapidly
during early childhood. Because the quality
of a young child’s day-to-day experiences
3 Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, 2006.
4 Begley, “Your Child’s Brain,” 1996; Talaris Institute, Five Ways a
Child Grows: A Timeline for Typical Development, 2006.
Informed Teaching Practices
Each of these key understandings has enormous implications for planning
and carrying out an effective program for preschool and kindergarten
children. They form the basis of large and small decisions about choosing
materials for the classroom, organizing them, and planning experiences to
help children develop and learn. The material in this publication is organized
to support informed practices.
• Since each child is unique and learns in unique ways, teaching
practices must be designed to respond to the wide range of characteristics
and abilities found among children in any classroom, including those
learning English, those with disabilities, and those who may be gifted.
• Because learning is continuous, largely sequential and occurs in
predictable patterns, teachers select materials and offer experiences that
are continuously responsive to the range of learning needs of children in
their class.
• Since learning is most meaningful when integrated across
all domains of development and content areas, teachers plan
experiences around topics of interest to children and embed skill
development into worthwhile, meaningful, and playful activities.
• Since children are naturally curious, teachers assure that the indoor
and outdoor physical environment and the learning experiences are largely
play-based and designed to capitalize on children’s natural curiosity and
interest in learning by doing.
• If experience, knowledge, curiosity, and a sense of wonder are
foundations for learning, intellectually challenging, interesting, and
enjoyable indoor and outdoor materials and learning experiences must be
designed to capitalize on children’s ever-expanding and changing interests.
• Since assessment and evaluation form the basis for decisions
that support each child’s learning, teachers use continuous authentic
assessment to plan for learning, to identify children who may need
additional assistance, and to evaluate the program’s effectiveness.
• Because development and learning are rooted in culture and
supported by the family, teachers celebrate the strengths, knowledge,
and values each child and his or her family bring to the classroom and
design learning opportunities to capitalize on this resource.
14 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
affects neural growth and brain develop-ment,
it is crucial that educators
understand that what they do each and
every day has an impact on the children
in their care. This is the most important
message preschool and kindergarten
teachers can take from brain development
research.
Brainy Nuggets to Ponder
Connections in the brain develop rapidly
during the first three years of life and
continue at a fast pace until a child is
eight to ten years old. Emerging research
tells us that:
• human development hinges on
the interplay between nature and
nurture.
• early care has a decisive and long-lasting
impact on how we develop,
our ability to learn, and our capacity
to regulate our emotions.
• the brain has a remarkable capacity to
change, but timing is crucial.
• there are times when negative
experiences or the absence of
appropriate stimulation are more
likely to have serious and sustained
effects.
• Evidence amassed over the last
decade points to the wisdom and
value of prevention and early
intervention.5
As their brains develop, children begin
to show new understandings and skills
in cognitive, social, and emotional areas.
Concurrently, their physical development
enables them to act on this expanding
knowledge of the world about them.
Twentieth-century theorists focused
on the development of children across
the domains. Today, these theories are
the basis for understanding child growth
and development. The work of Piaget,
Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg, along
with Brazelton, Bandura, and Gardner
and emerging research on brain develop-ment,
guide early childhood educators in
creating environments that help children
realize their potential.
Patterns of Growth and
Implications for Teaching
Children’s cognitive, social, emotional,
language, and physical development fol-lows
predictable patterns. Progress in
one area, however, can affect patterns of
growth in other areas. As a result, indi-vidual
children may develop at different
rates in each domain.
A child’s development is also influenced
by a set of inclinations and dispositions
commonly referred to as approaches to
learning. Increasingly, these are viewed as
critical to overall development.
The following segments provide an
overview of typical patterns of growth
and development across the domains
and the implications for educating young
children.
Cognitive Development and
General Knowledge
Life experiences, maturing neural sys-tems,
and expanding brain capacity
enable children to think in increasingly
5 Shore, Rethinking the Brain: New Insights into Early Develop-ment,
1997.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 15
complex ways as they move from infancy
through early childhood. They begin to
use abstract and symbolic cues to process
information and learn about their world.
As they mature, they master elaborate
strategies for organizing and processing
information.
Implications for Teaching
A foundation for learning is built when children have
opportunities to interact with other people and with
materials and, as a result, are encouraged to learn from
their surroundings. The transition to later schooling
is made easier when they have been provided a
variety of play-oriented, exploratory activities and
when their early school experiences continue these
activities. From these experiences children construct
knowledge of patterns and relations, cause and effect,
and methods of solving problems in everyday life. 6
Emotional and Social Development
Infants and very young children per-ceive
and interpret their experiences
from a self-centered perspective. As
they mature, they become more aware
of others. A child’s emotional and social
development progresses from bonding
with a significant adult to establishing
additional relationships. They learn that
they can modify their own behavior to
take into account others’ feelings, needs,
and points of view, and they learn how to
relate to and influence other people.
Implications for Teaching
This dimension serves as the foundation for relationships
that give meaning to children’s experiences in school and
beyond. It involves a sense of personal well-being that
comes from stable interactions in their early lives and
interactions that enable them to participate in positive
classroom activities with classmates and teachers.
Intentional teaching includes providing emotional
support and secure relationships as critically important
conditions for emotional and social development.7
6 Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, Reconsidering Children’s Early
Development and Learning: Toward Common Views and Vocabulary,
1995.
7 Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995.
Language Development and Early Literacy
Children acquire language skills as
they listen to and interact with others.
Language development occurs along sev-eral
dimensions that move from simple
to complex – making purposeful sounds
or words, attaching meanings to them,
and combining words into phrases and
sentences. They first use language in con-crete
or literal ways and then learn to
express and understand abstract ideas. As
their language ability grows, children use
more precise language and more intricate
language patterns.
Implications for Teaching
Experience with language, both written and spoken,
gives children the tools to interact with others and
represent their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Communicating effectively with other children and
with adults and having emergent literacy experiences
with diverse forms of language are fundamental
elements of this dimension.8 In the decade since the
publication of the first edition of this guide, early
literacy has received considerable attention from
researchers. This has translated into heightened
attention to the steps preschool and kindergarten
teachers must take to improve literacy outcomes.9
Health and Physical Development
As children mature, their muscles,
bones, neurological systems, digestive
tracts and endocrine systems develop.
Loco-motor and manipulative skills
move through stages from crawling and
walking, to reaching and grasping, to
running and jumping. Motor abilities
are refined through physical growth and
opportunities to practice. With matu-rity,
opportunity and practice, children
learn to move easily and efficiently. They
become more coordinated, more able to
control voluntary muscles, and more able
to attend to and control their responses to
stimulation.
8 Ibid.
9 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children, 1998.
Piaget
Jean Piaget (1952)
believed that people
develop intellectual
capacity as they
master events in
their environments.
He further believed
that although each
person comes to his
own understanding
of the world, human
development follows a
universal progression
through distinct
stages and trends.
Also according to
his theory, exposing
children to concepts
or problems too
advanced for their
experiences will not
promote cognitive
development.
16 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Implications for Teaching
A strong body of research links maternal and child
health to performance in school. Conditions such
as very low birth weight and poor nutrition may
have long-term effects on a child’s preparedness.
Obtaining basic health history information is vital
for understanding the condition in which they
come to school. In addition, teachers provide many
opportunities throughout the day, both indoors and
outdoors, for optimal motor development, including
large motor movements and small motor skills needed
for holding a crayon or putting together puzzles. 10
Developing a Sense of Responsibility
Social, emotional, and cognitive devel-opment
are all components of the
development of responsibility in a young
child. Initially, their understanding of
cause and effect is concrete and literal.
Their perspective is egocentric. Between
the ages of five and seven, however, chil-dren
begin to be able to see things from
other points of view and sympathize
with others. With this increasing under-standing,
they learn to value and respect
the feelings and rights of others. They
develop the ability to change their behav-ior
and deliberately act in ways that result
in predictable responses. Role models are
an important part of this process.
Implications for Teaching
To develop responsibility in young children, teachers
ensure that classroom materials are readily available
to children without needing the assistance of adults.
Labeling shelves and baskets to show where materials
belong is another easy way that early childhood teachers
can help children to build a sense of responsibility.
Providing opportunities to participate in the care of
their environment, such as watering the plants, feeding
the classroom pet and recycling materials, are other
important ways to build responsibility in young children.
Approaches to Learning
Approaches to learning is a term that
refers to inclinations, dispositions, and
styles – rather than skills – that reflect
the myriad ways children become involved
in learning and develop their inclinations
10 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998.
to pursue it. Approaches to learning vary
within and between cultures and this is
something that needs to be respected. A
cookie-cutter approach to early childhood
education (with the goal of all children
coming out the same) is undesirable. A child
can be successful in school in many ways.
Implications for Teaching
Families and teachers should understand the ways
children become engaged in learning in order to know
how to enhance and not discourage their engagement.
Curiosity, creativity, independence, cooperativeness,
and persistence are some of the approaches that
enhance early learning and development.11 Teachers
provide children time to plan what they are going
to do and provide time later for them to think and
talk about what they did. Allowing ample amounts
of time for activities is another way for children
to develop their own approaches to learning.12
Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
Based on years of research and theories
related to child growth, learning, and
development and as a response to new
knowledge and the changing context of
early education, the National Association
for the Education of Young Children has
revised its position statement on develop-mentally
appropriate practice. This new
statement emphasizes “excellence and
equality, intentionality and effectiveness,
continuity and change, and joy and learn-ing”
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). The
NAEYC defines Developmentally
Appropriate Practice as:
Meeting c • hildren where they are –
which means that teachers must get
to know them well – and enabling
them to reach goals that are both
challenging and achievable.
• Teaching practices that are
appropriate to children’s age and
developmental status, attuned to
11 Ibid.
12 From Foundations: Early Learning Standards for North Carolina
Preschoolers and Strategies for Guiding Their Success, 2004.
Child-centered
curriculum is too
often interpreted
as “child indulgent,”
and a more
descriptive term
would be “child-sensitive.”
The goal
of child-centered
curriculum is to
base curriculum
decisions first and
foremost on the
needs of children
and the ways in
which they learn.
Sue Bredekamp and Teresa
Rosegrant in Reaching Potentials:
Appropriate Curriculum and
Assessment for Young Children
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 17
them as unique individuals, and
responsive to the social and cultural
contexts in which they live.
• Ensuring that goals and experiences
are suited to children’s learning
and development and challenging
enough to promote their progress
and interest.
• Best practice is based on knowledge
– not on assumptions – of how
children learn and develop.
Five Key Aspects of Developmentally
Appropriate Teaching
1. Creating a caring community of
learners
2. Teaching to enhance development
and learning
3. Planning curriculum to achieve
important goals
4. Assessing children’s development
and learning
5. Establishing reciprocal relationships
with families13
Responding to How
Young Children Learn
With rare exceptions, the developmental
process unfolds in a similar fashion for
children regardless of their ability, gen-der,
race, social or economic background,
and culture. Yet within this process, chil-dren
learn at their own pace and in their
own way.
Safe and Worthwhile Environments
The challenge for teachers is to use what
we know about child development and
observation to create safe, nurturing,
meaningful, and productive learning envi-ronments
and experiences, both indoors
and outdoors. Effective teachers:
13 Copple & Bredekamp, Developmentally Appropriate Practice,
3rd ed., 2009.
• Stimulate development across all
domains and avoid emphasizing
one area (e.g., early literacy) to the
exclusion of others.
• Provide integrated learning
opportunities connecting content
areas and avoid cutting up the daily
schedule into small segments focused
on individual content areas.
• Prepare children for future academic
learning expectations and avoid
trivial activities having little current
or future usefulness.
• Recognize the learning opportunities
available in the outdoor environment
and plan for them.
• Use family and community
experiences to provide learning
opportunities that are relevant to
their lives. They do not view parents
as obstacles to their children’s
learning.
The Importance of Active Learning
Discovery learning, activities involving
concrete objects or manipulatives, and
multi-sensory experiences enhance learn-ing
in young children by helping them
understand the world and how things
work. Piaget’s work and literature on con-structivist
learning indicate that learners
must respond actively to experiences in
order to learn from them. Although
observing models and listening to instruc-tions
may be preliminary steps for some
activities, children learn by doing. They
need to plan their own actions and responses,
practice, and do things themselves.
Children are more likely to learn when
activities are based on their interests.
Even so, teachers should not fall into the
trap of thinking that all learning must be
fun. A more worthwhile goal is to aim for
learning experiences that are enjoyable.
When children’s interests form the basis
of decisions about important content, this
is more likely to happen and experiences
based on trivial content will be avoided.
Froebel
Friedrich Froebel in
1840 established the
first kindergarten. His
vision was to stimulate
an appreciation and
love for children,
to provide a new
but small world for
children to play with
their age group and
experience their
first gentle taste of
independence. The
name kindergarten
signifies both a garden
for children, a location
where they can
observe and interact
with nature, and also
a garden of children,
where they themselves
can grow and develop
in freedom from
arbitrary political and
social imperatives. To
Froebel belongs the
credit for finding the
true nature of play and
regulating it to lead
naturally into work.
18 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
The Role of Reasonable Expectations
A well-designed curriculum provides
guidelines for expected learning outcomes,
while teachers use children’s interests and
experiences to plan meaningful activities.
By linking new activities and concepts
to previous ones, you facilitate learning
by helping children build on what they
already know. Advocates of constructivism
believe that this linking of new concepts
to what is already known is an impor-tant
part of learning. Constructivists also
believe children are motivated to learn
when tasks are interesting and that they
should have opportunities to apply the
things they learn to real-life situations.
It’s important to give children opportuni-ties
to ask questions, solve problems, have
good role models, and make decisions,
along with time to reflect on what they
have done.
Children who are successful in school
develop a sense of what Bandura calls
self-efficacy – a belief in their capability
to complete academic tasks. When chil-dren
see their peers being successful, they
What Children Do What Teachers Do
Cycle of Learning and Teaching
Awareness
Experience
Acquire an interest
Recognize broad parameters
Attend, perceive
Create the environment
Provide opportunities by introducing new objects, events and people
Invite interest by posing problems or questions
Respond to children’s interests or shared experiences
Show interest and enthusiasm
Exploration
Observe
Explore materials
Collect information
Discover
Create
Figure out components
Construct own understanding
Apply own rules
Create personal meaning
Facilitate
Support and enhance exploration
Provide opportunities for active exploration
Extend play
Describe children’s activities
Ask open-ended questions (e.g., “What else could you do?”)
Respect children’s thinking and rule systems
Allow for constructive error
Modify curriculum or activities to meet individual children’s needs and perhaps modify methods for
student response
Inquiry
Experience
Investigate
Propose explanations
Focus
Compare own thinking with others
Generalize
Relate to prior learning
Adjust to conventional rule systems
Help children refine understanding
Guide children, focus attention
Ask more focused questions (e.g., “What else works like this?”)
“What happens if....”
Provide information when requested: “How do you spell...?”
Help children make connections
Utilization
Use learning in many ways:
learning becomes functional
Represent learning in various ways
Apply learning to new situations
Formulate new hypotheses and repeat cycle
Create vehicles for application in real world
Help children apply learning to new situations
Provide meaningful situations to use learning
The Cycle of Learning and Teaching
The cycle of learning and teaching defines four levels of learning and offers strategies for supporting children at each one. In this model,
children progress from awareness to exploring concepts. They then ask questions about a concept and, finally, are able to use what they have
learned in new situations. The following table shows what children and teachers do at each step of the learning cycle.
Source: Bredekamp & Rosegrant, Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children, Vol. 1, 1992.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 19
believe they can do likewise. Self-talk and
messages from others, including teachers,
family members and peers, contribute
to feelings of efficacy. Teachers can help
children set reasonable goals that are
specific, moderately challenging, and
attainable in the not-too-distant future.
Reaching goals stimulates effort, persis-tence,
feelings of efficacy and motivation.
Getting to Know the Child
as an Individual
Even before the school year begins,
teachers are amassing information from
families, child care providers, early inter-ventionists,
screening procedures, and
developmental checklists. You use this
information to begin learning about a
child’s interests, attitudes, and disposi-tions
as well as their backgrounds and
experiences. Teachers need time to gather
all available records and carefully review
them before school starts. Then you can
plan an appropriate program by combin-ing
what you know in general about the
developmental needs of young children
with the specific characteristics of those
in your class.
Screening Tools
Many school systems use screening and
readiness tools to learn about children
who are entering preschool and kinder-garten.
Originally designed to identify
individuals who might benefit from
special education services, screening tests
look at developmental milestones. Results
of screening tests may lead to referrals
for further assessment. Readiness tests
are intended to do just what the name
suggests – help you know what chil-dren
are ready to learn. Screening and
readiness tests provide information for
planning appropriate programs.
“Readiness tests, by definition and sta-tistical
design, do not predict outcomes
and therefore cannot be substituted for
such purposes. These tests assist teach-ers
in making instructional decisions
about individual children. Children who
do poorly on readiness tests are likely
to benefit the most from kindergarten.
The paradox is that if readiness tests are
substituted for developmental screen-ing
measures, certain children are being
channeled away from the regular class-room.
Screening and assessment does
not substitute for an observant, com-petent,
caring teacher and a responsive
curriculum.”14
Health Assessments
All children entering preschool and kin-dergarten
must have health assessment
reports.15 All children with special needs
must have an individualized education
plan developed prior to receiving spe-cial
education and related services. Such
information must only be used with pro-fessional
safeguards for confidentiality
and never be allowed to create self-fulfill-ing
negative expectations of children.
Observation and Documentation
Young children change from day to day as
learning occurs, development progresses,
and skills emerge. Teachers, therefore,
need current information about all
domains. Continuous observation provides
information to build on emerging abili-ties
and understandings. It’s necessary to
structure experiences that encourage
development in all areas for all children.
Teachers must connect what children
know and are able to do with learning
expectations established at local, state,
and national levels. Families, teachers,
and the children themselves need to know
how things are progressing in terms of
established expectations. The challenge
is to document progress in ways that are
fair, consistent, and purposeful.
14 From “STIL Unacceptable Trends in Kindergarten Entry and
Placement,” a position statement developed by the National Association
of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education.
15 See appendix for a copy of the Kindergarten Health Assess-ment
Report, which provides important information about development,
illnesses, and vaccinations.
Dewey
John Dewey became
famous in the
1920s and ’30s for
pointing out that
the authoritarian,
preordained approach
of traditional
education was too
concerned with
delivering knowledge
and not enough
with understanding
students’ actual
experiences. Any
situation, he said, can
be experienced in
profoundly different
ways because of
unique individual
differences. The
teacher with good
insight into the effects
of past experiences
that students bring
with them is better
able to provide
quality education
that is relevant and
meaningful.
20 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Individual children grow and change
at different rates even though the devel-opmental
process follows predictable
patterns. Just as children get their first
teeth at different times, other changes
vary from child to child. As you get to
know the children in your class as indi-viduals,
consider the developmental
process in planning activities.
Individual Characteristics
Energy and activity level. Because chil-dren
combine high energy levels with
the need to rest, plan for quiet as well as
active times during the day. Offer choices
of indoor and outdoor activities.
Rates of physical growth. Children typi-cally
gain three to five pounds a year and
grow about three inches in height. Make
sure classroom furnishings and arrange-ments
cover the range of physical sizes
and characteristics.
Levels of coordination. Children are
developing preferences for right or left
handedness. Provide a variety of large
and small muscle activities that allow
them to develop lateral awareness and
coordination. Allow for activities to be
performed in a variety of ways – on the
floor, in the wheelchair, etc. Add lots of
time for practice.
Vision. Children between the ages of
four and five typically still have not fully
established visual tracking (left to right).
Therefore, they tend to focus on one
word at a time and have difficulty copy-ing
from the blackboard or chart stand.
Provide large print, different colors of
background, and designated workspace
for students with visual impairments.
Close visual activities should be kept to
a minimum.16
Health and hygiene habits. Children
form basic health care habits early in life.
Plan activities to encourage good health
and hygiene, including hand washing,
dental care, a balanced diet and good eat-ing
habits.
Sleep and rest needs. Children require
about ten hours of sleep a night. Daytime
rest needs vary from child to child but
must be available to all preschool and
kindergarten children. Adjust the length
of nap time and other options for quiet
activities during the rest period depend-ing
on individual needs and as the year
progresses. Therefore, a typical rest time
in a preschool setting may last 60 minutes
in a typical day of 6 to 6 1/2 hours, while
kindergarten may begin with a 45-minute
quiet time and shortened to 20 minutes
by the end of the kindergarten year.
Preferences for group and solitary activ-ities.
Some young children are interested
in playing with others while some prefer
to play alone. Structure your classroom so
children can choose.
Levels of cooperation and sharing.
Preschool and kindergarten children are
just learning to respect others. Offer day-
16 From Yardsticks: Children in the Classroom Ages 4-14: A
Resource for Parents and Teachers, by Wood, 1997.
What the best
and wisest
parent wants for
his own child –
that must the
community want
for all its children.
John Dewey
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 21
to-day activities that give them varied
opportunities to practice getting along
with other children and adults. Use peer
helpers to assist the special needs children
in center activities.
Developing self-concepts. Early percep-tions
and experiences can have powerful
lifelong effects. Allow children to explore
and to experience success in a variety of
activities. Feelings of trust and attach-ment
must be developed to support
positive self-concepts.
Interests in writing and drawing.
Children express themselves and repre-sent
feelings, thoughts, experiences and
emotions through drawing, scribbling and
writing. Early markings and drawings
move through stages that indicate levels
of development. Provide opportunities to
use markers, paints, crayons and a variety
of paper and instruments throughout the
day. Provide modified writing tools and
modified materials so all students can
access the center.
Developing language. Children develop
concepts as they talk and think about
their experiences. An early childhood
classroom is full of things to do, see, and
talk about. Children who are provided
with an environment full of experiences
and rich in language and print extend
their concepts of language skills.
Developing understanding of math-ematical
concepts. Young children
develop math concepts in different ways.
They begin by understanding like and
different, sorting, patterning, series, mea-surement,
spatial relationships, and the
concepts of number and time. Help chil-dren
develop these concepts by providing
an environment rich in manipulative
materials. Centers should have modifi-cations
that allow activities for children
with physical limitations by including
adaptive materials/devices.
Differing attention spans. Young chil-dren
typically focus on one thing at a
time. Activities hold some children’s
attention for long periods of time. Others
move from one thing to another very
quickly. Provide many different situations
to engage children in learning activi-ties.
Provide a quiet place for children to
remove themselves and refocus.
Indicators from the Child
During the school year, children show us
what they know and can do. They draw,
scribble, and write. They build and talk.
They climb, run, jump, and dance. They
tell and retell stories. Their work prod-ucts
and performances during activities
provide authentic evidence of growth and
development. Their behaviors and reac-tions
give us clues to successes as well
as larger problems. Teachers and others
use careful, systematic observation and
documentation to know how children
perform in routine classroom situations.
This information serves as the basis
for assessing changes in learning and
development.
Visual problems may be present if a child...
• bumps into furniture, walls, and
people.
• squints, closes one eye, or tilts his
head to try to see better.
• if one eye turns in or out while the
other one remains focused and
straight.
• complains that her eyes hurt.
• rubs red, watery eyes or encrusted
eyelids.
• holds objects very close to her eyes.
• does not seem to focus on people,
things, or activities.
Hearing problems should be
considered if a child...
• uses motions and gestures rather than
talking.
• uses noticeably fewer words than
peers.
• turns one ear, usually the same one,
toward sounds or voices.
• does not turn when her name is
called.
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
(1971) was interested
in the reasoning
people use as
they make moral
judgments. He
believed that children,
adolescents, and
adults all actively
construct their
concepts of justice
and fairness as they
encounter and resolve
dilemmas. Kohlberg
proposed six age-related
stages of
moral development
that begin with
simple obedience
and culminate with
a sense of universal
conscience.
22 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
does n • ot react to sudden noises.
• does not seem to understand speech.
• speaks in non-speech sounds or uses
speech that cannot be understood.
• always talks in either a very loud or a
very soft voice.
• frequently has ear discharges or
earaches.
Emotional and social development
may be a problem if a child...
• seems to withdraw from others.
• has problems making transitions.
• has problems making friends.
• does not interact with other children.
• is difficult to comfort.
• regularly interferes with other
children’s activities and play groups.
• finds it difficult to control her
behavior.
• has exaggerated responses to sudden
noises or surprises.
• is unusually quiet.
• has toileting problems (not related to
physical condition or developmental
stage).
• displays repetitive or self-stimulatory
behaviors.
Motor development may be delayed if a child...
• has difficulties balancing and
walking.
• shows greater coordination on one
side of the body than on the other.
• does not seem to keep pace with
other children either in growth or in
the ability to walk.
• has poor muscle tone (either very stiff
or flabby).
• has a difficult time getting up from a
squatting or ground-seated position.
General health may be a concern if a child...
• lacks energy to participate in activity
play.
• appears to be significantly
overweight, underweight, or
markedly shorter than other children
his/her age.
• is often short of breath.
• frequently falls asleep or seems overly
fatigued.
Language delays and difficulties
may be present if a child...
• has problems understanding speech
and following simple directions.
• has a much smaller vocabulary than
peers.
• speaks in non-speech sounds or uses
speech that is not understandable.
• just does not communicate.
Cognitive difficulties should be
considered if a child...
• does not remember simple events,
names, or routines.
• repeats words and questions, but
usually in an unconnected manner.
• has little interest in caring for himself
and being independent.
• seems uninterested in surroundings
and is withdrawn.
• is not easily consoled.
• cannot respond to problems peers
handle with ease.
• does not understand concepts peers
comprehend.
A child may be gifted if he or she...
• is eager to tell the ending of a story
before it is read.
• remembers and retells stories in great
detail.
• is easily bored with activities that
engage other children in the group.
• has a vocabulary more advanced than
peers.
• recognizes written words or reads
before peers do.
• recognizes complex patterns,
including visual and number
patterns.
• solves mathematical problems with
ease.
• has a vast array of information about
his or her world.17
17 Adapted from Training Guide: Development and Implementa-tion
of the Individual Service Plan in Head Start, by Wolfe, Griffin, Zeger,
& Herring, 1982.
One of the most
important steps
to successful
transitions (for
children) is a
positive working
relationship
with families.
Patricia A. Wesley, 2001
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 23
Partnering with Families
One of the best places to learn more
about the children in our classrooms is
from their families. After all, they know
their children best and have had the most
influence on them. Trying to develop a
relationship with a child without getting
to know the family is like seeing only half
the picture!
Often the first experience a young child
has away from home is in the preschool or
kindergarten classroom. By working closely
with families, you can help children feel
comfortable and develop their confidence
and skills in this new environment.
Because all families are different, they
will participate in their child’s program in
varying ways. For families with younger
children at home, a language barrier, or
personal health issues, simply maintain-ing
the child’s enrollment in your class is
involvement itself. For others, advocacy
and leadership roles are unlimited. For
all of them, your commitment to keeping
channels of communication open is criti-cal
to the success of partnerships between
parents and teachers and to children’s
bright outlook toward learning.
To develop an understanding of a fam-ily’s
particular priorities, concerns and
resources, you must also consider the child
in the context of his or her community.
You can make your classroom relevant to
many communities by inviting families to
be part of your program. Through artwork,
toys and materials, activities and interac-tions
in the classroom, you can show that
all cultures are valued and important in the
day-to-day experiences at school. By help-ing
the children learn about community
events and relationships and by showing
them the connections between school,
home and community, you can have a last-ing,
positive effect on a child’s life.
How can you facilitate a positive
partnership with families and other care-givers
in your program? Consider these
strategies:
Take time to get to know families.
Building rapport and trust as the basis for
mutual respect takes time. Strong foun-dations
for lasting relationships cannot
be rushed. They emerge from a balance
of becoming close without prying into
people’s lives.
Respect and accept diversity. Show con-cern
for all the people in a child’s home
who are regarded as members of the fam-ily.
Developing an understanding of the
cultural, social, and economic factors
affecting the family will contribute to
your understanding of the children and
to your ability to help them learn.
Show sensitivity toward a family’s emo-tional
needs, including that of privacy.
Develop your ability to listen carefully
without interrupting or judging. Accept
that a family’s interest in and ability to
participate in their child’s program may
change over time. A family whose child
has special needs, for example, may feel
especially overwhelmed from time to
time. A family’s previous experiences
and personal preferences may affect
their willingness to share some types of
information. Schools should only request
information that is directly related to the
child’s learning. Always respect a family’s
right to confidentiality.
Erikson
Erik Erikson (1963)
theorized that
healthy personalities
emerge as people
master their social
environment and
perceive themselves
and others realistically.
Conversely, he said,
when children or
adolescents do not
resolve a particular
crisis in a healthy
manner, they cannot
advance through
that stage and may
develop psychological
ill-health. Coiner of the
term “identity crisis,”
Erikson advanced the
theory that there are
eight developmental
crises that must be
resolved and that the
content and sequence
of these stages is fixed.
24 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Design flexible schedules. Consider fam-ily
schedules when inviting participation
in school events. Schedule conferences to
accommodate a variety of family circum-stances
and transportation arrangements,
even if this means some late afternoon or
evening work. Respond to family con-cerns
in a timely manner, adjusting your
schedule as needed.
Frame your concerns positively. Let
families know in advance when you
want to meet with them and be prepared
to emphasize solutions that meet their
interests and needs. Recognize that any
meeting about a child can be stressful
for parents and be as positive as possible.
Parents of children with special needs
may want to bring someone else to the
meeting. Extend this option to all par-ents.
Collect data to share with parents to
support concerns about the student.
Help families find resources in the com-munity.
Families may need help identifying
and accessing community services for
themselves and their children. No single
program will meet all the needs of all
families. This means that in addition to
traditional roles, teachers and adminis-trators
are becoming knowledgeable links
to resources. In some cases, schools can
provide resources themselves to help fam-ilies
participate in their child’s program.
Sometimes simply arranging rides to school
meetings and providing child care at meet-ings
can boost family participation.
Guiding Principles for Family/
School Partnerships
Value fa 1. milies as children’s first
teachers and as important sources of
information.
2. Recognize and respect various
family structures.
3. Encourage and value active family
participation in decisions about
children’s education.
4. Solicit family members in shaping
school-wide policies.
5. Include learning for all family
members in the child’s educational
experience.
Ideas for Communicating with Families
• Home visits
• Classroom visits and open houses
• Newsletters and other print materials
• Group meetings
• Individual conferences
• Samples of the child’s work
• Bulletin boards
• Advisory committees
• Community outings
• Phone calls
• Email
• Daily diaries
• Cassette or VCR recordings
• Discussion groups
• Suggestion box
• Questionnaires
• Web site
Gathering Information
Early on, consult families about their hopes
for their children and their ideas for the pro-gram.
Consider these questions:
• What are your hopes and
expectations for your child in school?
• What are your child’s special
interests and talents?
• How would you like to see us help
your child?
• What do you enjoy doing with your
child?
• How do you expect your child to
react to school?
• How is your child adjusting to school?
• What questions and concerns do you
have about the program?
• What would you want from your
child’s teacher?
• What kinds of information and
support would you like from the
school (e.g., ways to meet other
parents, information about the
curriculum, information about
community services and resources)?
• How would you like to help in the
school or in your child’s group?
• How can school be a greater part of
your community?
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky (1978)
believed that children
acquire knowledge
and skills when they
are challenged by
problems just beyond
their current ability
and then link their
new experiences with
what they already
know and can do.
His observations of
children talking to
themselves as they
solved problems
led him to propose
that language
development
is an important
component of
thought and cognitive
development.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 25
Shaping Your Program through Feedback
• Develop a questionnaire asking
parents to rate the quality of the
program.
• Use a suggestion box, informal
conversation, or evaluation form
to capture parents’ ideas about
improving classroom activities.
• Establish a monthly discussion group
where parents can offer suggestions
for making program policies and
practices more family-friendly.
How Families Can Participate
At Home
• Telephone or email other parents
about upcoming events.
• Cut out and color simple materials
for the program.
• Wash sheets and towels used in the
classroom.
• Send program snacks.
• Read to their child.
• Do learning games with their child.
• Help write, edit, illustrate, or
circulate program newsletters.
• Send in recyclable materials.
• Repair equipment or materials.
• Share information, via phone or
notebook, with the teacher about
their child.
• Donate used clothing for the
dramatic play area.
• Make props for center time.
• Display their child’s work.
• Assemble a scrapbook about their
child to share with teachers.
In the Community
• Locate door prizes for parent
meetings.
• Serve as an interpreter for families
who are not fluent in English.
• Participate in fund-raising activities
for the program or school.
• Take classes that enhance knowledge
and skills.
• Join in health and consumer
information forums about children.
• Take their child to the library,
museum, park, or community center.
• Join local, state and national parent
and early childhood organizations.
• Educate employers about the need for
family-friendly work policies such as
flex time.
• Help organize a special event, field
trip, or visit by a community member
to the program or school.
• Develop an “Adopt-a-Family” or
“Welcome Wagon” program for new
families.
In the Classroom
• Write a story as a child tells it.
• Read to a child.
• Share a special interest, ability, or
experience.
• Help a child accomplish a special
goal.
• Serve as a substitute or volunteer.
• Help with lunch, nap time, or special
event.
• Share information about cultural
traditions through storytelling or
demonstration.
• Bring a favorite food to share.
• Lead a small group of children in an
activity.
• Supervise a special activity center.
• Assist in efforts to evaluate global
classroom quality.
Creating effective
partnerships
between schools,
parents and
communities isn’t
just a nice idea.
It’s a necessity.
Don Davies, 2000
26 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
At the Center or School
Attend i • ndividual conferences.
• Attend a family meeting, family
night, or pot-luck supper.
• Act as a greeter at a family meeting.
• Organize a family support group.
• Establish a buddy system, cluster
group, or car pool for attending
meetings.
• Lead activities for children during
parent meetings.
• Become a member of an advisory or
policy board.
• Build or repair furniture or
equipment.
• Assist with updating a list of toys
available through the program’s
lending library or staff the library on
occasion.
• Answer the telephone to provide the
school secretary a break.
• Conduct training sessions for staff or
parents.
• Participate in evaluating the
effectiveness of the overall program.
In the Outdoor Learning Environment
• Help children play games or teach
them a new one.
• Help conduct a safety check of
equipment and grounds.
• Share special knowledge about the
outdoors.
• Conduct an outdoor experiment.
• Set up and supervise an outdoor art
activity.
• Help a child with special needs
participate in an activity or use
equipment.
• Plant a garden with children.
• Develop a nature trail for children
and their families.
• Build bird houses or a bird blind.18
18 All lists taken from Planning for Success: A Teacher’s Guide
to a New Planning Guide to the Preschool Curriculum, by Hardin, Lohr, &
Wesley, 1997.
Quality Indicators for Family Involvement
• Family members make decisions in
forming individual education plans
for their child.
• They are always welcomed in the
classroom and encouraged to
participate.
• They receive many opportunities to
participate and exchange information
with staff.
• They serve as representatives on
committees and advisory boards
that have direct input in planning
activities and policies in the
classroom and school.
• They are included in the planning of
family activities.
• Partnership activities and special
events are scheduled at times and
locations convenient to families.
• Frequent, ongoing, and varied
types of communication inform
families about their child’s progress,
classroom activities, and school
events.
• Teachers actively solicit family
involvement and listen to concerns as
well as compliments.
• Teachers share and solicit
information and work together
with families in the best interest of
children.
• Staff development activities are
planned based on needs assessments
that solicit suggestions from families.
• The school has a common vision and
a plan for family participation.
• Family members and other volunteers
are in the school and in classrooms
daily.
• Materials and games are provided for
family members and children to use
together at home.
• Family involvement and home/school
partnerships are assessed regularly
and the results are used to improve
effectiveness.
27
One of many important things we know about young children
is that they learn best when allowed to actively explore their
environment. They try to make sense of common objects by
prying into them, taking them apart, and manipulating them in
a variety of ways. As they build with blocks, they are consider-ing
their size, proportion, and concepts about numbers that will
later help make higher-level mathematics seem more sensible. As
they draw, cut patterns, glue and paint, they develop the arm and
hand muscles needed later for handwriting.
Indeed, in their years in preschool and kindergarten, children
absorb an amazing depth of learning across all the content areas
– language, mathematics, science, social studies, and the arts.
Children are weaving their experiences into knowledge and skills
they can use now and will need in future schooling and life.
Children in any group represent a wide array of developmen-tal
accomplishments, temperaments, interests, and needs. More
and more, they may be learning English as a second language.
This chapter addresses how preschool and kindergarten teachers
can plan and organize programs and their classrooms to meet the
diverse needs of all the children who come to them.
C h a p t e r T h r e e
Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children
Chapter Highlights
Engaging All Children . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Well-Designed Classroom . . . . . . . . 30
The ABCs of Organizing the Space . . . . . . . 31
The Seven Dimensions:
Achieving Balance in the Classroom. . . . . . . 32
Large Group Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Guidelines for Structuring Large
Group Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Commonly Asked Questions About
Managing Group Time. . . . . . . . . . . . 35
28 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Engaging All Children
A central tenet of the Guide for the Early
Years is the importance of using learning
centers as the major vehicle to organize a
classroom. A program organized around
well-designed centers for interactive play
activities helps children develop self-regulation
skills, language skills, and
mathematics concepts, as well as knowl-edge
in all other discipline areas.
As greater focus is placed on academic
performance in kindergarten and even
preschool, such activity-based programs
still raise some eyebrows. Are children
learning what they need to get ready for the
next level of schooling? The evidence con-tinues
to support that they are. Young
children are learning the concepts under-lying
the “three Rs” at their individual
level of development and so very much
more. Such an approach is the most likely
way to address the learning needs of
the widely diverse groups of children in
today’s classrooms.
Experts continue to urge schools,
teachers, and parents to resist the tempta-tion
to teach preschool and kindergarten
in the same way as the upper grades. They
argue that formal instruction in reading
or other academic subjects is largely inap-propriate
for children in these programs
because they are not yet mature enough to
grasp what is being taught. Worse, such
an approach steals time that children in
this age range need to accomplish other
important developmental and learning
goals.
The intentional teaching, exploration,
and discovery that take place in activity-centered
classrooms mean much more
than many may realize. By focusing on
developing the whole child – socially,
emotionally, physically, and intellectu-ally
– teachers provide a nurturing, safe
environment that helps children move
forward with a love of learning, an abil-ity
to socialize well with others, and a
desire to master all content and skills in
all subjects.
Such an approach is also the most
effective learning environment for young
people who face challenges to success in
school:
Children f • rom economically
disadvantaged families
• Children with a wide range of
disabilities
• Children learning English
• Children who may later benefit from
programs for children who are gifted
The key to enabling each child to
achieve his or her potential is thoughtful
planning of the indoor and outdoor envi-ronment
and active, intentional teaching
by specially trained teachers who receive
ongoing support.1 Subsequent sections of
this chapter offer additional information
on setting up and managing an effective
learning environment for all children,
including:
Children with disabilities. It is now
widely accepted that most young children
with disabilities learn best in inclusive
settings. They will make progress on the
skills and characteristics described in
Foundations and the NC Standard Course
of Study for Kindergarten, though with
great variation. They will make the most
1 Pianta, et al, “Features of Pre-Kindergarten Programs, Class-rooms,
and Teachers: Do They Predict Observed Classroom Quality and
Child-Teacher Interactions?”, 2005.
Every individual
matters. Every
individual has a
role to play. Every
individual makes
a difference.
Jane Goodall
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 29
progress developmentally, socially, and
academically when appropriate special
education and other support services
are provided within typical classroom
settings. Just as the expectations/objec-tives
are inclusive of all young learners,
so should early childhood programs be.
Children with and without disabilities
learn from one another in natural envi-ronments.
A curriculum and classroom
tailored to meet the needs of individual
children meet the needs of all.
• Children with disabilities are
valuable to the inclusive preschool
and kindergarten classroom.
• Children with disabilities are affected
by their ability to communicate and
access the environment.
• Preschool and kindergarten
classrooms should promote a respect
and understanding of the differences
in children.
• Children with disabilities learn best
when their skills are integrated with
their peers in a typical classroom
setting.
• Families should be encouraged and
supported as they learn techniques
for communication and movement
for their children with disabilities
and should be encouraged to be a
part of the classroom.
• Educators should expect children
with disabilities to grow and achieve
to their abilities.
Children who bring diversity in language
and culture. This diversity is something
to celebrate. Families from different
backgrounds bring a wealth of strengths,
knowledge, and values to preschool and
kindergarten classrooms. Teachers in
classrooms that include children from
diverse cultures and with different home
languages should be guided by these six
principles:
• Children from families with diverse
cultural and language backgrounds
are valuable assets to preschool and
kindergarten programs.
• Children’s learning is affected
by their language and cultural
background.
• Preschool and kindergarten
classrooms should strive to promote
understanding and respect for
different cultures and languages.
• Children whose home language
is not English learn best when
early educators encourage them to
continue to speak and read their
home language while learning
English.
• Families who speak a language other
than English should be encouraged
to continue to speak and read to their
child in their home language, even
while the child is learning English.
• Educators should expect wide
variation in how children make
progress on learning English and
on the skills and characteristics
described in Foundations and the
Kindergarten Standard Course of
Study.
Children who may be gifted. Occasionally
teachers will see children whose devel-opmental
trajectories greatly exceed that
of typical preschool and kindergarten
children. How these children experi-ence
school in these early years will have
a profound impact on their adjustment
Keeping it Real
Every learning environment communicates to
children what is important and valuable in the
eyes of those who provide it. The décor of many
early childhood and elementary classrooms
emphasizes what is cute, frivolous and trivial
and also misrepresents children’s interests. This
emphasis is not only questionable on aesthetic
and pedagogical grounds, but it also may
distract children from achieving self-esteem
derived from appreciating and interacting
with the real world and their real capacities to
understand and contribute to it.
Lilian Katz
30 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
in future schooling. A richly provisioned
program and teachers who encourage
exploration and learning will help these
children advance their knowledge and
skills and support habits and attitudes
they will need in the future. Such chil-dren
can serve as models to others and
benefit from learning that they have a
responsibility to help others.
The Well-Designed Classroom
Active learning through play in a well-planned
and well-equipped environment
is characteristic of effective preschool and
kindergarten programs. More than at any
other level of education, the design of
early childhood classrooms is a physical
representation of the curriculum. The
particular learning centers described in
this publication mirror those found in
Learning through the Eyes of a Child:
A Guide to Best Teaching Practices in
Early Education.
Detailed information about provision-ing
and using specific learning centers is
located within chapters that most closely
address that domain or discipline. This
somewhat unconventional route was
taken in order to emphasize the centers’
importance as the primary learning/orga-nizational
mode for the various domains
and disciplines. It should not be inter-preted
as diminishing the important ways
all of the centers weave together chil-dren’s
opportunities to acquire content
and skills.
All of the centers are integrated and
interdisciplinary. They all promote social
development. Science and Discovery
offers opportunities to develop literacy.
Dramatic Play supports language devel-opment
and problem-solving. A classroom
with high-quality learning centers sup-ports
a child’s overall understanding
about order and classification, generally
viewed as a math and/or general cognitive
skill. A well-designed classroom provides
a variety of areas for exploration. They
include (though certainly are not limited
to):
• a blocks area for building
• a science area for observing and
investigating
• a dramatic play area for role-playing
• an art area offering a variety of open-ended
materials for trying creative
ideas
• a book area, comfortable and quiet,
with good books, music, and stories
• a writing area with paper, pencils,
crayons, markers, and possibly a
computer
• a table games and manipulative area
for developing eye-hand coordination
as well as sharing, problem-solving,
and thinking skills
• a sand and water area for beginning
to explore basic mathematical and
scientific concepts
• an outdoor area for exercise, sharing,
and exploration
• a carpentry area for exercising small
muscles and developing eye-hand
coordination
No matter what
routine you
establish to care
for the classroom
environment, the
first step must be to
control clutter.
Rebecca Isbel, Betty & Gary Exelby,
2001
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 31
• a large open space for group
meetings, story time, music, and
movement
Learning Center Possibilities
• Art
• Blocks
• Books and Listening
• Carpentry
• Computer
• Cooking
• Dramatic Play
• Mathematics and Manipulatives
• Music
• Outdoor Activities
• Sand and Water
• Science and Discovery
• Stitchery and Weaving
• Writing and Printing
The ABCs of Organizing the Space
Children need a comfortable, safe, stim-ulating
environment in order to learn. A
well-organized classroom not only posi-tively
affects attitudes toward learning but
also fosters a sense of belonging and con-tributes
to appropriate behavior. Setting
up your space to accomplish these goals
requires a bit of thought and planning,
but it assuredly pays off. Don’t be afraid
to make changes as you go through the
year. Here are some key considerations:
• Plan learning centers that address
all developmental areas (cognitive,
language, creative, physical, self-help,
social/emotional).
• Incorporate a variety of materials
and adaptations to allow children
to access and use the materials.
Make sure each center addresses all
children’s needs.
• If the size of your classroom limits
all centers at the same time, plan a
rotation pattern. However, Blocks,
Table Games and Manipulatives,
Books and Listening, Dramatic
Play, Writing and Printing, and Art
should be available all the time.
• Locate centers based on needs for
storage and water, the size of the
group using them, and the space
needed for the materials (e.g.,
the Block Center requires about
25% to 35% of the total classroom
floor space. Because this center
incorporates so many learning
concepts, it should be established
first.)
• To the extent possible, keep quiet
areas separate from active or noisy
areas (e.g., Books should be distant
from Blocks, Carpentry, and
Dramatic Play).
• Consider floor coverings in placing
centers (e.g., Sand and Water,
Cooking, and Art work best on
materials that can be easily cleaned).
• Ensure that the room arrangement
allows for children to be visually
supervised at all times.
• Provide space where children can go
to be alone but still remain in full
view of the teacher.
From a Child’s Perspective
• Is this a comfortable place to be? Do I want to stay?
• Are there adults here? What do they do?
• How many choices do I get to make here?
• Are these same kids going to be here tomorrow?
• Is there a space for me to put something of my own?
• Do I know where to find and return toys and materials? How do I know?
• Are there enough toys and materials I might find interesting? Can I do more
than one thing with them? Do I even have to use them?
• Where will I eat? Where will I take my nap?
• Where can I run, climb, jump, and be noisy?
• Can I move about in this space if I use a walker, wheelchair, or other assistive
equipment?
• Is there a quiet area where I can flop down and relax?
• If I want to play alone, is that OK? Where can I go to be alone?
• Do I know what parts of the center and classroom I can explore and what parts
are off-limits?
• Is the same thing going to happen every day? How will I know what to do next?
• Can I get my special needs met here (e.g., medicine/therapy/help during
toileting)?
Source: Wesley, Mainstreaming Young Children: A Training Series for Child Care Providers, 1992.
32 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
If we embrace
the idea of the
environment as a
significant educator
in our early
childhood programs,
we must expand
our thinking beyond
the notion of room
arrangements.
We must ask
ourselves what
values we want
to communicate
through learning
environments
and how we
want children
to experience
their time in our
programs.
Deb Curtis & Margie Carter, 2003
Define boundaries w • ith furniture and
floor coverings so children can tell
where learning centers start and end.
Post pictures to designate centers for
children needing a visual input.
• Provide each child with a place to
store personal belongings (e.g., a
cubby, a plastic bin).
• Avoid leaving large open spaces in
the room that encourage running
and aimless wandering.
• For safety, separate the Carpentry
workbench from other activity areas
and limit the number of children who
can work there at one time. Be sure to
include safety devices such as goggles.
• Make activity centers organized
with materials easily accessible for
children’s use. View each one from
knee-level to gauge how it appears
to them. Take into consideration
children with walkers or wheelchairs.
• Select storage to display materials to
their best advantage — shelving at
the children’s eye level, open shelves
instead of closed cupboards, books
on shelving that lets them lay flat
with covers visible.
• Provide storage shelves labeled with
shapes of blocks. Shelves with labels
require children to use math skills
(sorting and classifying) as they
replace blocks during cleanup.
• Choose materials that are appropriate
for all children in the group – simple
enough for those who are developing
more slowly, complex enough for
those who are rapidly developing –
challenging for all. Materials should
be respectful of all cultures, and
print materials should represent the
language groups represented in the
classroom. Provide duplicates of
favorite toys and materials.
• Integrate tables into the various
centers rather than keeping them
separate or grouped in one area of
the room.
• Make sure there is enough space
around the tables for all children
involved in and around the activity.
• Allow ample space and time for the
completion of projects. Designate a
“holding area” for work that is still in
progress.
• Provide materials that are adapted to
meet individual children’s needs.
• Remember that, with planning,
anything you do inside the classroom
can be done outside. Incorporating
spaces in the outdoor area to include
blocks, dramatic play, science,
manipulatives, art, sand and water,
carpentry, open spaces for large motor
movement, and quiet spaces for alone
time is essential to a well-designed
environment for young children.
The Seven Dimensions:
Achieving Balance in the Classroom
Think about how to make small, but
continuous, changes to improve your
classroom environment so that it enhances
learning opportunities for all children.
Elizabeth Prescott (1984) identified these
seven dimensions to consider in achiev-ing
balance and providing for individual
needs. Prescott describes each dimension
as a continuum.
Softness/Hardness
Softness is expressed through the use
of pillows, rugs, carpets, stuffed ani-mals,
beanbags, sofas, cushions, draped
fabrics, lamps, and tablecloths. These
help to make the classroom feel cozy and
responsive to children. (Be sure they meet
fire codes and are kept clean.) Bolsters,
mats, and pillows may aid in positioning
a child with physical disabilities. Sand,
water, play dough, and finger paints also
provide a sense of softness as children feel,
touch, and mold them. Animals – guinea
pigs, rabbits, hamsters, gerbils – provide
soft, sensory experiences. However, care
should be given to those with allergic
sensitivities. Hardness is expressed with
hard surfaces and materials: hard plastic,
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 33
wood blocks, metal or wooden furniture,
and tiled floors. Hard surfaces are more
appropriate for some activities.
Open/Closed
Open materials can be used in differ-ent
ways and offer children choices.
Examples include unit blocks, water, sand
and drama props, and art centers. Closed
materials, such as puzzles, often have one
correct way of being used. Limiting how
children use materials – e.g., requiring
them to build a barn only with blocks or
paint apples only red at the easel – restricts
options and makes materials closed.
Simple/Complex
As children work with simple mate-rials,
add props to sustain interest.
Once a material has been explored in its
simplest form, make other tools or ele-ments
available. The material or activity
becomes more complex and more inter-esting
as they discover new uses for
materials and props. All children need
opportunities to show competence and to
be challenged.
Intrusion/Seclusion
Define and label boundaries so that
children understand where certain
activities take place. Plan traffic patterns
so that activities are not interrupted to let
others pass by. Plan for a child’s special
mobility needs and designate areas where
children can spend a few moments by
themselves if they wish.
High Mobility/Low Mobility
Room arrangement encourages or
discourages movement. Provide high-mobility
areas in the classroom as well as
outdoors to encourage children to practice
gross motor skills. Also set aside areas for
activities requiring low mobility, such as
meetings, story and rest times, and art
and book centers. The outdoor environ-ment
lends itself to the variety of mobility
needs of children all the time.
It’s important that children with disabilities
have access to all areas, with adaptations as
needed to provide that access.
Safety /Risk
Emphasize good health and safety
practices. Encourage and support
children as they take informed risks.
Young children learn through taking
risks while supported by the adults in
their world. Knowing how to proceed
carefully and safely is especially impor-tant
for children with disabilities.
Large Group/Individual
Allow for a variety of group activi-ties,
both large and smaller groups,
as well as times for individual experi-ences.
Provide opportunities for children
to choose large group, small group, or
individual activities at different times
during the day.
Large Group Meetings
Group times are a vital part of early
childhood classrooms. They encourage a
sense of belonging and can contribute to
creating mutual respect. Young children
need chances to work within a group in
order to learn social skills, enhance their
ability to speak in front of others, and
share ideas and experiences. Group meet-ings
also serve as a vehicle for presenting
materials that will help further cognitive
development.
The number of group meetings during
any given day depends on class sched-ules.
In general, it is wise to have an early
morning gathering in order to greet chil-dren
and begin the day as a community.
A meeting before departure allows every-one
to get together and reflect on the
day’s work.
Other meetings can be scheduled in
and around daily activities. These meet-ings,
held in the indoor and outdoor
environments, enhance knowledge and
teach skills in all the cognitive domains.
At times, calling the children together
Children deserve to
be surrounded with
beauty, softness
and comfort, as
well as order and
attention to health
and safety.
Deb Curtis and Margie Carter, 2003
34 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
serves to help shift gears or redirect play
and activities in the room. While many
group meetings are teacher initiated and
directed, there should always be room for
child-initiated questions and choices dur-ing
meeting times. Children may decide
which songs to sing, which finger plays to
do, or stories to read. A key to successful
group meetings is children’s participation.
Children may also bring a group concern
to a meeting so the group can help resolve
the problem – for example, deciding on rules
to use the tire swing on the playground.
Guidelines for Structuring
Large Group Meetings
Establish a meeting place. A specially
designated carpeted spot should serve
as the meeting center. It should be large
enough to accommodate all children
comfortably. If possible, it should be near
a space where a child who is having dif-ficulty
being part of the group at that
moment might sit and attend until he/she
is ready to join. Make sure all children
are afforded opportunities to participate
by using assistive technology, pictures,
or other means as needed. The gathering
space should provide easy access to:
• a chart stand
• a big book easel
• a tape/CD player and CDs/tapes
• a chair or stool
• a wipe-off board/magnetic board and
a flannel board
A special place to gather together as a
large group is also a wonderful space to
include in the outdoor environment as
well.
Organize the seating. There are a num-ber
of ways for children to sit in a meeting
time. Some teachers like to assign places
with tape on the area rug. Others like to
use a small rug to help individual chil-dren
remain in their own special spot.
Some teachers feel comfortable allowing
children to sit wherever they wish. As
long as a system is devised that works for
each teacher, it doesn’t matter what the
system is. The important thing is that the
children are seated in a way that maxi-mizes
your ability to manage the group
and maintain attention. (Of course,
the best way to keep children’s atten-tion
is for the activity to be of interest
to them!) Theater-style seating works for
some things (reading stories, brainstorm-ing
ideas) while sitting around the edges
of a circle area works better for demon-strations
of new activities or materials.
Children with visual, hearing, or motor
needs may need a designated space to sit
to allow them to participate fully in the
group activities.
Gather the children. Depending on
what children are doing at the time,
there is usually a need to transition them
to a group meeting. It is important from
the very beginning of the school year to
institute a signal that will alert the chil-dren
to the start of a gathering time. If
the children are in learning centers, give
a five-minute warning prior to the signal
for cleanup. This gives them a chance to
reach a satisfying “stopping place” with
the activity. Use a familiar signal to let
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 35
children know when it is time to stop and
clean up (a song, music, or dimming the
lights). As children finish cleanup, they
can avoid wait time by helping others.
Teachers use whatever signals work
best with their particular group of chil-dren.
What is important is that children
know how to respond. Correct behavior is
modeled and expectations are clear. Many
young children need time to change gears
– particularly if they will not be going
back to the activity they were involved
in. A plastic pop bottle timer filled with
sand is a perfect way to do this.
As children gather at the meeting
place, a teacher should be in place to fill
wait time by singing songs or doing fin-ger
plays that are familiar, so the children
can easily join in as they arrive. Songs also
serve as an “invitation” to any child who
has not arrived, as they send the message
“here is where the action will be next!”
As the teacher ends the last song, with all
gathered, she has the children’s attention
and is ready for the meeting to begin.
Manage the meeting. Just as a gather-ing
signal is used, children need a signal
to know when they should begin listen-ing.
Again, whatever is done is not as
important as modeling and practicing
expectations early in the school year. A
simple raised hand or two fingers raised
in the peace sign (for quiet) usually works
well. Always wait for everyone’s attention
before beginning. It will avoid having to
stop and start again. With young chil-dren,
singing a simple song or doing
a finger play works particularly well.
Children usually attend to a change in
voice and react positively as their friends
begin to participate.
Work with an assistant. Assistants are an
integral part of the classroom community
and as such should be part of large group
meetings. They should be knowledge-able
about the meeting agenda and part
of the management that assures a smooth
flow in the meeting. In general, it helps
for the teacher and any assistants to be as
low and close to the group as possible. It
is hard to ignore a teacher who is right in
front of you! Depending on the activity
for group time, sitting on the floor or on a
chair close to the group works well. If the
activity is book-reading, the reader needs
to be visible to everyone. If the activity
is a demonstration, everyone needs to be
able to see what is being shown.
Keep everyone focused. There are a vari-ety
of supports (tools) that are sometimes
helpful for children who have trouble
focusing in groups. For example, squishy
pillows, fidget bracelets, a stuffed toy.
This gives children an opportunity to
keep their hands to themselves and man-age
their personal space. Some children
also can remain focused during a group
meeting by sitting on a low chair or stool.
Some children with disabilities may need
to respond by pictures, signs, symbols, or
voice output equipment to participate in
the group.
Commonly Asked Questions
About Managing Group Time
What should I do about challenging
behaviors during group time?
If you have children in the classroom
who are developmentally unready to fully
participate in group experiences or have
a short attention span (i.e., 1-2 minutes),
make provisions for them to come and go
as needed – but in a manner that is not
disruptive to the group. It is imperative
to have a plan in place with your teach-ing
partner/assistant so that everyone
is on the same page and can handle the
situation while you are working with the
group. It might be that the child needs to
be away from the group for a few min-utes
to gain better control. It might also
work to have that child be in a chair near
the group and able to hear and see what
is happening. In a few minutes, he or she
might be ready to rejoin in a more respon-sible
fashion.
36 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Much of this will depend on the issues
at hand, but these two alternatives usually
can provide some assistance. Some chil-dren
get over-stimulated in a group and
need their own space in order to attend
better. Children who typically have trou-ble
in group meetings may respond best
being seated close enough to be a mem-ber
of the group but far enough away to
remain attentive and focused. If a teacher
resorts to that mode, the child should be
made to feel welcome and also be made
aware that the seating is to help him or
her attend, not as a punishment. These
children may also do well placed near the
teacher leading the group or the teach-ing
partner/assistant. Then a simple touch
might be given to help the child stay
calm, focused, and attentive.
What about children who interrupt and call out?
Part of being in a group is learning how
to get needs met while waiting one’s turn.
Children develop these attributes at dif-ferent
times, but there are ways to help
them understand the “rules” of work-ing
together. This

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i
North Carolina Guide for the
Early Years
Second Edition
ii
It is our responsibility
to cultivate children’s
delight in exploring and
understanding their world.
Early childhood is and
should be a time of laughter,
love, play, and great fun.
Copple & Bredekamp, 2009
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
Our Mission and Goals
The guiding mission of the North Carolina State Board of Education is that every
public school student will graduate from high school, globally competitive for work
and postsecondary education and prepared for life in the 21st century.
Goal: NC public schools will produce globally competitive students.
Goal: NC public schools will be led by 21st century professionals.
Goal: NC public school students will be healthy and responsible.
Goal: Leadership will guide innovation in NC public schools.
Goal: NC public schools will be governed and supported by 21st century systems.
WILLIAM C. HARRISON, Chairman, Fayetteville
WAYNE MCDEVITT , Vice Chair, Asheville
WALTER DALTON, Lieutenant Governor, Rutherfordton
JANET COWELL, State Treasurer, Raleigh
KATHY A. TAFT, Greenville
REGINALD KENAN, Rose Hill
KEVIN D. HOWELL, Raleigh
SHIRLE Y E. HARRIS, Troy
CHRI STINE J. GREENE, High Point
JOHN A. TATE III, Charlotte
ROBERT “TOM” SPEED, Boone
MELISSA E. BARTLETT, Roxboro
PATRICIA N. WILLOUGHBY, Raleigh
NC DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
301 N. Wilmington Street :: Raleigh, North Carolina 27601-2825
In compliance with federal law, NC Public Schools administers all state-operated educational
programs, employment activities and admissions without discrimination because of race, religion,
national or ethnic origin, color, age, military service, disability, or gender, except where exemption is
appropriate and allowed by law.
Inquiries or complaints regarding discrimination issues should be directed to: Dr. Rebecca Garland,
Chief Academic Officer :: Academic Services and Instructional Support, 6368 Mail Service Center,
Raleigh, NC 27699-6368 :: Telephone: (919) 807-3200 :: Fax: (919) 807-4065
Visit us on the Web:: www.ncpublicschools.org
PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NOR TH CAROLINA
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION Howard N. Lee, Chairman
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
W W W . NC PU B L I C SCHOOLS . O R G
OFFICE OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT
June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent | jatkinson@dpi.state.nc.us
6301 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, North Carolina 27699-6301 | (919) 807-3430 | Fax (919) 807-3445
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYER
2008
Dear Educators of Young Children,
A child's early years are critically important to his/her future success in school. We
also know that it is during these years that children learn to value and love learning.
If we are to make the most of these years, and it is imperative that we do so, then
schools must be READY to engage and serve our children and their families. This
is a big order, for children come to us in all shapes and sizes, from all kinds of
backgrounds, and with varying degrees of abilities and interests.
We must create classrooms that encourage learning, lead children to cooperate with
others, and promote children to develop the social skills that assure success in life.
It is imperative that learning environments meet the needs of all students in
inclusive settings. We must link standards, assessments and accountability and
use them as tools to guide curriculum development, instructional design and
teaching practice – all focused on the learner.
Schools and communities are already working together to develop primary
school programs that serve the needs of all children. As we pursue high quality
programs to ensure that children reach their potential, The North Carolina Guide
for the Early Years is an excellent resource and model for local schools.
Our promise to the children and teachers of North Carolina is to advocate for policies,
laws and regulations to enhance the quality of their life and work. We pledge our best
efforts to the rights of children, so they may learn in safe environments – ones that
are responsive to their development and needs. By doing so we can best appreciate
and respect each child's uniqueness, contributions and potential.
Given our opportunities and challenges, it is with pleasure that we dedicate this
The North Carolina Guide for the Early Years to the children of North Carolina and
the very special group of professional educators who are entrusted with their
learning and care. We wish you every success as you pursue the great adventure
of learning and growing together.
June St. Clair Atkinson Howard N. Lee
State Superintendent Chairman
NC Department of Public Instruction NC State Board of Education
Public Schools of North Carolina
Department of Public Instruction | June St. Clair Atkinson, Ed.D., State Superintendent
www.ncpublicschools.org
September 29, 2009
iv
N o r t h C a r o l i n a D E p a r t m e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n
Acknowledgments
NC Department of Public Instruction
Primary Section
Lucy Roberts, Chief Consultant
Eva Phillips, K-2, Title 1 Kindergarten Consultant
Amy Smith, K-2 Consultant
Office of School Readiness
John Pruette, Director
Cindy Bagwell, Assistant Director
Teachers
Silvia Bayer, Warren Wilson Child Development Center
Karla Carpenter, Hickory City Schools
Susan Hoffman, Chapel Hill Carrboro Schools
Marilyn Ornstein, Duke School
Marylee Sease, Haywood County Schools
Susan Shilcock, Asheville City Schools
Deborah Sowell, Durham County Schools
Corrine Watson, Richmond County Schools
Administrator
Sherry Willis, Hickory City Schools
Parents
Azell Reeves
Cynthia R. Smith
Carrie P. Sharp
IHE/Comm unity College
Barbara L. Brehm, East Carolina University
Deb Cassidy, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro
Patricia Hearron, Appalachian State University
Judy Niemeyer, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro
Bobbie Rowland, University of
North Carolina at Charlotte
Kristi Snuggs, NC Community College System
Central Office/Coordinators
Barbara Batts, Nash/Rocky Mount Schools
Sharon Bentley, Haywood County Schools
Ellen Edmonds, Charlotte Mecklenburg Schools
Kitty Hedgepeth, Washington County Schools
Linda McConnell, Gaston County Schools
Debbie Pace, Edgecombe County Schools
Evelyn Seidenberg, Moore County Schools
Comm unity Representatives
Joe Appleton, NC Office of School Readiness
Kathy Baars, NC Department of Public Instruction
Don Carter, Even Start
Dina Castro, Frank Porter Graham
Margaret Gayle, American Association
for Gifted Children
Beth Gerall, NoveList
Ileetha Groom, NC Department of Public Instruction
Valorie Hargett, NC Department of Public Instruction
Jackie Harrell, Division of Public Health
Jani Kozlowski, NC Partnership for Children
Carolyn Moser, Division of Public Health
Patsy Pierce, NC Department of Public Instruction
Lorie Pugh, Division of Child Development
Cassandra Smith, NC Department of
Public Instruction
Judith J. Smith, East Carolina University
Marlo Walston, Head Start
Pat Wesley, Partnerships for Inclusion
Becky Wrisley, Prevent Child Abuse NC
Facilitator
Andy Phillips, Writer, Consultant
Content Editor
Harriet Egertson, Ph.D., Early Childhood
Consultant, Temecula, CA
Copy Editor
Betty Work, Greensboro, NC
Designer
Kevin Justice, Graham, NC
Preschool Teachers
Lisa Bruggeman
Karla Carpenter
Lugene Cox
Cecelia Ducket
Shari Funkhouser
Gigi Johnston
Tracy Little
NC Power of K
Kindergarten
Teacher Leaders
Amy Blessing
Michelle Cole
Kristy Corbo
Toni DeMarco
Shakila Faqih
Juliana Harris
Becky Huffman
Scott Larson
Rene Lemons-Matney
Mary Beth Lester
Emilie MacDonald
Donna Manning
Sherri Matheny
Gretchen May
Kathy Miller
Jennifer Nelson
Vanessa Osborne
Yolanda Sawyer
Marylee Sease
Susan Suddreth
K-2 Teachers
Susan Shillcock
Principals
Russell Johnson
Lisa Spalding
Sherry Willis
Instructional Directors/
Coordinators/Specialists
Silvia Bayer
Emily Bostic
Kitty Hedgepeth
Cindy Dewey
Debra Pace
Evelyn Seidenberg
Drew Setchfield
Linda Vandevender
Katherine Wilder
Comm unity
Representatives
Kathy Baars
Beth Gerall
Jani Kozlowski
Lori Pugh
Virginia Schreiner, M.D.
Marlo Walston
Consultants
Tara Almeida
Joe Appleton
Carla Garrett
Leonnie Gill
Jody Koon
Janet McGinnis
Rhonda Muhammad
Mia Sherard
Carolyn Southerland
Dan Tetreault
Cindy Wheeler
Catherine Woodall
Institutes of Higher
Education Faculty
Dr. Deb Cassidy
Dr. Patricia Hearron
Dr. Judy Niemeyer
Dr. Patsy Pierce
Dr. Sharon Ritchie
Dr. Bobbie Rowland
Dr. Judith Smith
Dr. Kristi Snuggs
Dr. Diane Strangis
Reviewers
Writing Task Force
The North Carolina Guide for the Early
Years, Second Edition, is based on
the knowledge of sound research,
theories, and professional practices.
We thank the many generous
people who gave so unselfishly of
their expertise, time, and resources
to provide the direction and content
of this Guide.
v
T h e N o r t h C a r o l i n a G u i d e f o r t h e E a r l y Y e a r s
Quick Reference Guide
Section I: A Framework for Teaching and Learning
Chapter 1 – Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2 – Building a Foundation for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 3 – Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 4 – Making the Most of Each Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter 5 – Teaching with Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 6 – Fostering the Development of Appropriate Behavior and Social Skills. . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 7 – Preparing Children for School and Schools for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 8 – Making Informed Decisions about Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 9 – Assessing Children’s Progress Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Section II: The Essential Tools of Learning
Chapter 10 – Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 11 – Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 12 – Health and Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter 13 – Language Development and Early Literacy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter 14 – Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 15 – Integrating Technology into the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Section III: Early Learning Resources and References
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Classroom Environmental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Classroom Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sample Classroom Floor Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Classroom Equipment and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Sample Kindergarten Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Sample Preschool Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Kindergarten Health Assessment Form and Instructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Position Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Quick Guide to the Learning Centers
Art / 162
Blocks / 138
Books and Listening / 128
Carpentry / 142
Computer / 181
Cooking / 156
Dramatic Play / 174
Manipulatives / 144
Music / 165
Outdoor Activities / 117
Sand and Water / 154
Science and Discovery / 152
Stitchery and Weaving / 164
Writing and Printing / 130
vii
T h e N o r t h C a r o l i n a G u i d e f o r t h e E a r l y Y e a r s
Contents
Section I: A Framework for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What’s New? / 4
The Future-Ready Child / 6
Uniquely North Carolina / 7
Chapter 2 – Building a Foundation for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Key Understandings / 11
The Brain: Making New Connections / 13
Patterns of Growth and Implications for Teaching / 14
Developmentally Appropriate Practice / 16
Responding to How Young Children Learn / 17
Getting to Know the Child as an Individual / 19
Partnering with Families / 23
Chapter 3 – Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Engaging All Children / 28
The Well-Designed Classroom / 30
The ABC’s of Organizing the Space / 31
The Seven Dimensions: Achieving Balance in the Classroom / 32
Large Group Meetings / 33
Chapter 4 – Making the Most of Each Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Art of Scheduling / 39
Developing Schedules for Inclusive Classrooms / 40
Establishing Routines / 41
Smoothing Transitions in Daily Routines / 43
Chapter 5 – Teaching with Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Being an Intentional Teacher / 46
Putting out the Welcome Mat / 47
Classroom Interactions / 48
Stages of Play / 50
Chapter 6 – Fostering the Development of Appropriate Behavior and Social Skills. . . . . . . . . 51
Supporting Appropriate Behavior / 51
Working with Challenging Behaviors / 56
Teaching Strategies / 57
Chapter 7 – Preparing Children for School and Schools for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
What is a Ready School? / 59
Pathways to a Ready School / 60
Ready Schools and Transition Planning / 62
Preparing Children for Transitions / 65
Chapter 8 – Making Informed Decisions about Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Creating Child-Centered Environments / 70
Indicators of an Effective Curriculum / 71
Considering Curriculum Models / 72
viii
Organizing Activities around Curriculum / 72
Project Planning / 73
Active Learning Strategies / 73
Providing Continuity to the Next Level / 75
Chapter 9 – Assessing Children’s Progress Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Risks in Assessing Young Children / 80
Ongoing Assessment vs. Accountability Assessment / 81
Assessment of Children’s Progress in the School Environment / 81
Assessment Techniques / 83
Making Assessment a Routine / 86
Evaluating the Program / 94
Comprehensive Environment Tools / 96
Domain Specific/Content Area Tools / 96
Section II: The Essential Tools of Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Chapter 10 – Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Focusing on the Bigger Picture / 102
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 103
Chapter 11 – Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Developing Emotional Competence / 106
Developing Social Competence / 106
How Teachers Can Influence Results / 107
Coping with Social Difficulties / 108
Developing Self-Esteem / 109
Negative, Long-Term Issues / 111
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 112
Chapter 12 – Health and Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Motor Development / 113
Physical Development / 114
Health and Personal Care / 114
Safety / 115
Playing it Safe in the Classroom and Outdoors / 115
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 116
Learning Center Focus: Outdoor Activities, 117
Chapter 13 – Language Development and Early Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Guiding Principles for Teaching Early Literacy / 122
Building on Our Knowledge of Language and Literacy / 125
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies / 126
Learning Center Focus: Books and Listening, 128
Learning Center Focus: Writing and Printing, 130
Chapter 14 – Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Mathematics / 135
Children as Problem-Solvers, 136
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 137
Learning Center Focus: Blocks, 138
Learning Center Focus: Carpentry, 142
Learning Center Focus: Manipulatives, 144
Science / 147
Children as Young Scientists, 148
Common Understandings about Teaching Science, 148
ix
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 151
Learning Center Focus: Science and Discovery, 152
Learning Center Focus: Sand and Water, 154
Learning Center Focus: Cooking, 156
Creative Arts / 158
Fostering Creativity, 158
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 160
Learning Center Focus: Art, 162
Learning Center Focus: Stitchery and Weaving, 164
Learning Center Focus: Music, 165
Social Studies / 167
Current Perspectives about Teaching Social Studies, 170
Early Learning Expectations, Objectives, and Strategies, 172
Learning Center Focus: Dramatic Play, 174
Chapter 15 – Integrating Technology into the Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Possibilities and Tradeoffs / 178
Choosing Appropriate Software / 178
Using the Internet / 179
Adapting Technology to Special Needs / 180
Learning Center Focus: Computer, 181
Section III: Early Learning Resources and References. . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Classroom Environmental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Classroom Environment Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sample Classroom Floor Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Classroom Equipment and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Sample Kindergarten Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Sample Preschool Schedules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Kindergarten Health Assessment Form and Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Position Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
x
1
S e c t i o n I
A Framework for
Teaching and Learning
The North Carolina Guide for the Early Years reflects more
than a decade of dramatic change in early education theory
and practice. Since the first edition was published in 1997,
preschool and kindergarten classrooms have moved toward
becoming more inclusive, more technological, and more attuned
to how children learn and what they need to succeed.
In times past, educating young children was generally seen
as relatively straightforward – a matter of bringing together
teachers and children with materials, books, and ideas. Today,
educators and the public have come to view quality early learning
as a complex enterprise requiring an integrated approach. And
that is what you will find in this new edition.
3
The N.C. Guide for the Early Years is designed to be a major
resource for early learning professionals, combining the
latest research about how preschool and kindergarten
children learn with time-tested strategies and essential teaching
tools. The contents of these pages:
represent the belief that a • ll children benefit from
participating in inclusive programs and services that value
their diversity of backgrounds, languages, and abilities,
• emphasize the interconnectedness of content areas, and
• connect expectations for children’s development and learning
to validated best practice.
While a central tenet of this document is the importance of
using learning centers as the major vehicle to organize a classroom,
it also acknowledges the importance of these eight elements:
• a strong, evidence-based curriculum
• purposeful teaching
• effective schedules, routines, and transitions
• a positive interpersonal environment (how children interact
with one another and how adults interact and intervene to
support their learning)
• partnerships with families
• positive professional relationships
• a broad repertoire of instructional practices that strike
a delicate balance across a continuum of child-initiated
experiences and teacher-directed instruction
• child-initiated and teacher-supported play
C h a p t e r O n e
Introduction
Chapter Highlights
What’s New. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Future-Ready . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Uniquely North Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
What’s New
In addition to updating material from the
1997 edition, the Guide brings together
several resources in a more accessible
format. It includes supplementary content
from:
Foundations: • Early Learning Standards
for North Carolina Preschoolers and
Strategies for Guiding Their Success
• The North Carolina Standard Course
of Study for Kindergarten (SCOS)
• Learning Through the Eyes of a Child:
A Guide to Best Teaching Practices in
Early Education
In each relevant chapter, you will find
examples of linking the Foundations
Preschool Widely Held Expectations and
the Kindergarten SCOS Objectives. They
are presented together so that teachers
across this age range can easily see match-ing
areas and use them to help plan their
curriculum and learning environment.
This Guide is for You – the Teacher
While its larger audience includes individ-uals
across the early childhood landscape,
this document is designed primarily for
teachers – to assist you in establishing
and maintaining a high-quality program
and in developing as a professional.
“Early childhood” is defined as birth
to age eight. Early childhood teachers
include those who work with children in
preschool, kindergarten, and first, second,
and third grades.
While this document focuses on
preschool and kindergarten, it has impli-cations
for teachers working with older
children as well. Included are many
examples of teaching strategies and ways
to create a classroom environment that
will nurture children’s natural curiosity
and zest for learning.
The Guide can be used to:
Evaluate Your Work and Learn More
• Confirm, validate, and communicate
why you use certain practices in your
daily work with children.
• Expand your understanding of the
early childhood knowledge base.
• Identify resources for early education.
• Continuously improve daily teaching
practices.
Gain New Perspectives
• Identify challenging but achievable
learning goals for children across the
development and content domains
and across age-level groups.
• Appreciate learning goals that cross
content areas and mutually reinforce
learning.
• Provide a common knowledge base
and language for improving the
program or school.
Better Define Early Childhood Education
• Focus on the uniqueness of young
children.
• Recognize the expectations of
development and learning for
preschool and kindergarten children.
C h a p t e r On e — Wh a t ’s New 5
• Strengthen the important connection
between preschool and kindergarten
programs.
• Maximize your understanding of
the interrelationships of learning for
young children.
• Convey the value of children’s
ownership of their own learning and
motivation.
Interpret and Apply Research
• Understand the relevance of research
to the teaching and learning process.
• Apply research findings in
meaningful and relevant ways.
• Use the principles of child
development.
• Clarify the relationships among
curriculum, assessment, and
instruction.
• Study and learn with colleagues.
Empathize
• Understand and celebrate the energy
and wonder of young children.
• Understand the process of inquiry.
• Create safe and respectful indoor and
outdoor learning environments.
• Respect the families, culture,
language, and development of each
child.
Key Terms
You will find a glossary in the appendix,
where it typically resides, but there are
several terms we want to spotlight here
because they are important to understand-ing
and using this document effectively.
Integrated – refers to a program purposely
planned to present content and skills
through activities and experiences that
incorporate aspects of several content
areas. A daily or weekly schedule in a
classroom using an integrated curriculum
model is rarely characterized by segments
of time for specific “subjects” (such as
math, science, etc.).
Inclusive – refers to an organizational
pattern that serves children in a grouping
of age peers. Age peers may be a single-,
mixed-, or multi-age group spanning
more than one year. Inclusive classrooms
do not segregate children because of any
characteristic related to physical or men-tal
ability or language spoken.
Learning Expectations – applies to
learning standards in the broad sense and
as they are referenced in Foundations as
Widely Held Expectations and in the
Standard Course of Study as Kindergarten
Objectives.
Terms used in the field of assessment
take on different meanings in different
contexts. Words related to assessment
have been examined for their appropri-ateness
for evaluating young children. A
referenced glossary of such terms as they
apply to early childhood may be found on
the Web at www.ccsso.org (search: The
Words We Use).
Indoor and Outdoor
Learning Center Focus
Information for focused play and learning
opportunities, both indoors and outdoors, is
placed within its respective domain section.
Here is a quick reference to their locations.
Art . 162
Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Books and Listening . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Carpentry . 142
Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Cooking . 156
Dramatic Play . 174
Manipulatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Music . 165
Outdoor Activities . .117
Sand and Water . 154
Science and Discovery . 152
Stitchery and Weaving . . . . . . . . . . 164
Writing and Printing . 130
Childhood is a
time of wonder
and magic,
where dreams
and imagination
get fueled, and
issues of power
are explored.
Deb Curtis &
Margie Carter, 2003
6 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Future-Ready
We now know just how crucial it is for
children to have a strong beginning if
they are to succeed in school and in life.
They need positive family involvement,
good nutrition and health care, and
access to quality early learning. This
new Guide describes how effective
preschool and kindergarten pro-grams
can help provide children
with a sturdy foundation from
which they can grow and go
forward.
A North Carolina preschooler
or kindergartner who is enrolled
in a quality program has expe-riences
every day that support
future-ready outcomes. These
experiences look very different from
those of a high school senior, but they
are no less critical to a lifetime of success.
Children who participate in caring,
safe, play-centered, intellectually
challenging programs have a
far greater likelihood of being
future-ready.
The Future-Ready Child:
• is curious
• is a problem-solver
• likes to explore science
activities
• can use language to interact
positively and to get needs
met
• is beginning to understand
print
• plays and works
intentionally
• uses mathematical ideas
while engaged in play
• can use simple
technology
• knows and
practices
healthy
behaviors
C h a p t e r On e — Un i q u e l y No r t h C a r o li n a 7
Uniquely
North Carolina
North Carolina is home to a substantial
array of resources that exist to benefit
teachers and students and to contribute to
the body of knowledge about early child-hood
education. Many of these resources
are nationally and internationally recog-nized,
such as the Smart Start initiative,
the Frank Porter Graham Child
Development Center, research such as the
Abecedarian study, and tools like the Early
Childhood Environment Rating Scale.
Here’s a closer look at some of our state’s
notable contributions to the field and how
educators like you might use them:
Institutes, Agencies, and Programs
FirstSchool – University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill
FirstSchool is a new vision for early
schooling of 3 to 8 year-olds that is being
developed through a partnership among
families, schools, the community, the
FPG Child Development Institute, and
the University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill. The fundamental aim is to ensure
that all children’s and families’ early school
experiences are positive and successful. On
the Web: www.firstschool.us
Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute
– University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Founded in 1966, the FPG institute is
one of the nation’s oldest multidisci-plinary
institutes for the study of young
children and their families. Researchers
focus on parent and family support; early
care and education; child health and
development; early identification and
intervention; equity, access and inclusion;
and early childhood policy. On the Web:
www.fpg.unc.edu
Generations-Tadpole: Assistive
Technology Lending Library – Butner
This private rehabilitation agency lends
and ships books, tapes, toys, and other
low-tech assistive technology devices to
families and professionals across the state.
Anyone who is working with a child with
a disability – including parents and other
family members, therapists and other
professionals – is eligible to borrow items.
The services are free, including shipping.
On the Web: www.tadpole.org
Motheread – Raleigh
Founded in Raleigh in 1987, Motheread
has grown into a national training and
curriculum development model with a
multi-state affiliate network. This pri-vate,
nonprofit organization combines
8 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
the teaching of literacy skills with child
development and family empowerment
issues. It offers classes for both adults
and children. In adult classes, partici-pants
learn to be story readers, writers,
and tellers. For children, story explor-ing
provides a structured environment
for learning reading, critical thinking,
and problem-solving skills. On the Web:
www.motheread.org
National Center for Early Development
and Learning – FPG Child Development
Center, Chapel Hill
The center is an early childhood research
project that focuses on enhancing the
cognitive, social, and emotional develop-ment
of children from birth through age
eight. On the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
National Early Childhood Technical
Assistance Center – Chapel Hill
The center works with administrators
in all states to help ensure that children
with disabilities, ages birth through five,
and their families receive high-quality,
culturally appropriate, and family-cen-tered
supports and services. On the Web:
www.nectac.org
Natural Learning Initiative – College of
Design, N.C. State University, Raleigh
This research design and assistance pro-gram
promotes the importance of the
natural environment in the daily experi-ence
of children through environmental
design, action research, education, and
dissemination of information. Its mission
is to help communities create stimulating
places for play, learning, and environ-mental
education. On the Web: www.
naturalearning.org
New Voices/Nuevas Voces – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
New Voices/Nuevas Voces is a profes-sional
development program for early
childhood providers working with young
children from culturally, linguistically,
and ability-diverse backgrounds, with a
special focus on Latino children and their
families. On the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
Partnerships for Inclusion – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
With offices in Chapel Hill, Asheville,
Wilmington, and Greenville, this state-wide
technical-assistance project provides
training and consultation to support the
inclusion of young children with disabili-ties,
ages birth through five years, in all
aspects of community life. The group
works with child care providers, early
interventionists, public school preschool
coordinators, parents, teachers, develop-mental
day programs, local interagency
councils, regional interagency coordinating
councils, child care resource and referral
agencies, and Smart Start programs. On
the Web: www.fpg.unc.edu
Smart Start: The North Carolina
Partnership for Children – Raleigh
North Carolina’s nationally recognized
and award-winning early childhood
initiative was created to ensure that young
children enter school healthy and ready
to succeed. Smart Start is a public-private
initiative that provides early education
funding to all of the state’s 100 counties.
On the Web: www.smartstart-nc.org
T.E.A.C.H. Early Childhood Project – Child
Care Services Association, Chapel Hill
T.E.A.C.H. gives scholarships to child
care workers to complete coursework in
early childhood education and to increase
their compensation. The project was
created in response to a 1989 North
Carolina workforce study that examined
the wages and retention of child care
workers. Child Care Services Association,
a nonprofit service, research, and advo-cacy
group, now serves as an umbrella
agency for what has become a multi-state
program involving institutions of higher
learning, community colleges, child care
providers, state agencies, Head Start pro-grams,
resource and referral agencies,
C h a p t e r On e — Un i q u e l y No r t h C a r o li n a 9
state licensing agencies, and cooperative
extension representatives. On the Web:
www.childcareservices.org
Tools, Publications, and Other Resources
Assessment of Practices in Early
Elementary Classrooms (APEEC)
Developed in conjunction with research-ers
at the FPG Child Development
Institute and using the same basic format
as the ECERS-R, APEEC is the first
measurement scale designed to evaluate
the use of developmentally appropriate
practices in the early elementary class-room,
K-3. (Mary Louise Hemmeter,
Kelly L. Maxwell, Melinda Jones Ault,
and John W. Schuster; 2001, Teachers
College Press)
Crosswalks Toolbox – FPG Child
Development Institute, Chapel Hill
The Crosswalks Toolbox is an interac-tive
database of instructional resources
that address key areas of early-childhood
or early-intervention content and diver-sity.
Its search function can help teachers
find videos, articles, syllabi, and other
resources for increasing the emphasis
on cultural and linguistic diversity. The
Crosswalks project conducts research on
ways to support faculty and programs in
making diversity-related changes, work-ing
directly with colleges and universities
in North Carolina. On the Web: www.
fpg.unc.edu
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS)
Created by FPG researchers, the ECERS
consists of 43 items that assess the quality
of center-based programs in kindergarten,
preschool, and child care classrooms,
including use of space, materials, and
experiences to enhance children’s devel-opment,
daily schedule, and supervision.
It is the most widely used scale of this type
in the nation. (Thelma Harms, Richard
M. Clifford, and Debby Cryer; revised
edition, 1998, Teachers College Press)
Early Learning, Later Success:
The Abecedarian Study
The Abecedarian project was a carefully
controlled scientific study of the poten-tial
benefits of early childhood education
for poor children. This report highlights
the Age 21 Follow-up Study. (Craig T.
Ramey, Frances A. Campbell, Margaret
R. Burchinal, Donna M. Bryant, Barbara
H. Wasik, M.L. Skinner, and D.M.
Gardner; 2000, University of North
Carolina)
PreK-K Teachers Performance
Appraisal Instrument (PKKTPAI)
Developed over the years by both the
private and public sectors and validated
by beginning and experienced teach-ers,
PKKTPAI was created to reflect the
standards appropriate for the pre-k and
kindergarten classrooms. The instrument
is used by OSR/Teacher Licensure Unit
mentors and evaluators to assess early
childhood teachers in North Carolina.
(Lisa Doyle Howley, Richard Lambert,
and Bobbie Rowland; 2005, UNC-Charlotte)
On the Web: www.education.
uncc.edu/pkktpai
Preschool Outdoor Environment
Measurement Scale (POEMS)
POEMS is an assessment tool developed
by a multidisciplinary team from N.C.
State and UNC-Greensboro for evaluat-ing
and improving the quality of outdoor
environments in childcare centers for
children 3-5 years old. It includes a tech-nical
assistance manual for program
improvement and planning. (Karen
DeBord, Linda L. Hestenes, Robin C.
Moore, Nilda G. Cosco, and Janet R.
McGinnis; 2005, Kaplan) On the Web:
www.poemsnc.org
QuickNotes: Inclusion Resources for
Early Childhood Professionals
Quicknotes is a research notebook cov-ering
a broad range of topics relating
to high-quality care of young children.
(Patricia Wesley, Brenda Dennis, and
Sabrina Tyndall; second edition, 2007,
University of North Carolina)
The Carolina Curriculum for
Preschoolers with Special Needs
The Carolina Curriculum is an assess-ment
and intervention program designed
for use with young children from birth to
five years who have mild to severe disabil-ities.
(Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Susan
M. Attermeier, and Bonnie Hacker;
second edition, 2004; Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.)
11
Each weekday, nearly half a million children walk into early
childhood programs and classrooms across North Carolina.
Bustling with energy, talking and laughing, these children
reflect the rich diversity of our state. From the mountainous west-ern
regions to the flat coastal plains, these young learners bring
with them a variety of experiences, interests, and needs.
The backgrounds and knowledge children bring to school,
combined with their natural curiosity and sense of wonder, are
the foundation for learning in the preschool and kindergarten
years. Our task, as early childhood professionals, is to make the
most of each day they spend in our care.
To do that, we need to come to know each child as a unique
individual. We must create meaningful opportunities that help
all of them grow and develop to their full potential, building on
individual differences rather than stressing conformity.
Key Understandings
Children’s experiences and the skills and characteristics they
develop during the preschool and kindergarten years are critically
important to their success today and for years to come – both
in school and in life.1 Eager to Learn, the National Research
Council’s comprehensive review of child development and early
1 Bryant & Maxwell, “The Effectiveness of Early Intervention for Disadvantaged Children,” 1997.
C h a p t e r T w o
Building a Foundation for Learning
Chapter Highlights
Key Understandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Brain: Making New Connections . . . . . 13
Patterns of Growth and
Implications for Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . 16
Responding to How Young Children Learn. . . . . 17
Getting to Know the Child as an Individual. . . . 19
Partnering with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
12 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
education, suggests that we have previ-ously
underestimated children’s abilities
and the concepts they can understand if
they are exposed to age-appropriate and
stimulating learning opportunities.2
The NC Guide for the Early Years rests
on seven key understandings about chil-dren’s
development and learning and
provides support for complementary
teaching practices.
Every child is different.
The rate of development and learning is
not the same for every individual of the
same age. The way each child devel-ops
will vary greatly depending on a
combination of factors, such as the char-acteristics
they are born with, the culture
they live in, and their experiences within
their family and in other settings.
Learning occurs in predictable patterns.
Though each child is unique, develop-ment
typically unfolds in progressive
steps or stages. What varies tremen-dously
from one child to another is when
and how children achieve various devel-opmental
milestones. These differences
are associated with individual tempera-ment,
learning characteristics, gender,
race, ethnicity, socio-economic status,
2 Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, Eager to Learn: Educating our
Preschoolers, 2001.
family culture, and genetic make-up.
Gifted children or children with disabili-ties
may exhibit even greater variation
in the achievement of developmental
milestones. Children with special needs
progress through the same developmen-tal
patterns at a different rate. Children’s
understanding grows from simple to com-plex
(or from concrete to abstract). New
knowledge builds on previous experience
and understanding.
Learning is most meaningful when
integrated across all domains.
Children construct knowledge and integrate
new ideas and concepts into their exist-ing
understandings. Their achievements in
language and learning are influenced by
the emotional and social aspects of their
development. Communication influences
learning in all areas of the curriculum.
There are no clear lines among the domains
or areas of learning.
Young children are active learners.
Children learn by doing, and they need
time to practice what they are learning,
to ask questions, to investigate, and to
use what they are experiencing in their
everyday activities. Their ideas about
themselves impact their interactions with
adults and other children, and with how
they view themselves as learners. The
development of the whole child is hon-ored
when preschool and kindergarten
programs focus on active learning. Such
an approach reflects an understanding that
children learn through active involvement
and play and demonstrate their knowl-edge
in a variety of ways.
Experience, knowledge, curiosity,
and a sense of wonder are
foundations for learning.
Every child enters the world ready to
learn, wanting to learn and, in fact, need-ing
to learn. The need for food and shelter
is matched by a vital need to make sense
of their surroundings – a complex world
of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and
Most children are
motivated to learn
by an intense desire
to make sense
out of their world
and achieve the
competencies desired
by the culture.
Sue Bredekamp and
Carol Copple, 1997
Bandura
Albert Bandura, social
learning theorist,
stated (1994) that a
sense of personal
competence is essential
to children’s willingness
to undertake learning.
Children, according
to Bandura, have the
capacity to condemn
or congratulate
themselves when
they feel competent.
The children, when
confronted with a task,
expect to be successful.
Maturation
Years
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Maturation Dierences
Early Maturation
Normative Maturation
Slow to Mature
The Kindergarten year represents the time in public school education in which the largest maturation
dierences occur.
Source: Dominic F. Gullo, professor of elementary and early childhood education at Queens College, City University of New York, 2007.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 13
textures. In a real sense, knowledge about
this world is constructed by the child and
with very little direct help from others.
Assessment and evaluation form the
basis for educational decisions.
Evidence of what each child can do is
collected frequently and used to make
decisions about instruction and activities to
meet particular learning needs. Importantly,
the assessment and evaluation of a child’s
growth in learning are based on the goals
of the program, not by comparison with
other children. In this way, children are
encouraged to improve their performance
and realize their individual potential
rather than compete with others.
Development and learning are rooted
in culture and supported by family.
Language, knowledge, traditions, and
family expectations are the primary
influences on children’s development.
Their growth and learning are greatly
impacted by the physical environment,
relationships with family members and
others, and the community and culture in
which they live. These factors differ from
child to child and shape their view of the
world and how they develop. Learning
is enriched and strengthened by stable,
nurturing relationships within the family
and community.
The Brain: Making New Connections
Effective teaching practice in preschool
and kindergarten is based on our knowl-edge
of child growth and development
and increasingly also on discoveries about
brain development that have emerged in
recent years.
Since the 1970s, and especially in the
last decade, scientists have used DNA
research and imaging techniques to study
how the brain develops. What they have
found agrees with what early childhood
professionals have long believed – that the
early years are important for establishing
learning patterns across the domains.3
While neurologists are just beginning to
understand what experiences influence
neural development, they do know that
by adulthood, the brain is crisscrossed
with over 100 billion neurons.4
The human brain grows most rapidly
during early childhood. Because the quality
of a young child’s day-to-day experiences
3 Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, 2006.
4 Begley, “Your Child’s Brain,” 1996; Talaris Institute, Five Ways a
Child Grows: A Timeline for Typical Development, 2006.
Informed Teaching Practices
Each of these key understandings has enormous implications for planning
and carrying out an effective program for preschool and kindergarten
children. They form the basis of large and small decisions about choosing
materials for the classroom, organizing them, and planning experiences to
help children develop and learn. The material in this publication is organized
to support informed practices.
• Since each child is unique and learns in unique ways, teaching
practices must be designed to respond to the wide range of characteristics
and abilities found among children in any classroom, including those
learning English, those with disabilities, and those who may be gifted.
• Because learning is continuous, largely sequential and occurs in
predictable patterns, teachers select materials and offer experiences that
are continuously responsive to the range of learning needs of children in
their class.
• Since learning is most meaningful when integrated across
all domains of development and content areas, teachers plan
experiences around topics of interest to children and embed skill
development into worthwhile, meaningful, and playful activities.
• Since children are naturally curious, teachers assure that the indoor
and outdoor physical environment and the learning experiences are largely
play-based and designed to capitalize on children’s natural curiosity and
interest in learning by doing.
• If experience, knowledge, curiosity, and a sense of wonder are
foundations for learning, intellectually challenging, interesting, and
enjoyable indoor and outdoor materials and learning experiences must be
designed to capitalize on children’s ever-expanding and changing interests.
• Since assessment and evaluation form the basis for decisions
that support each child’s learning, teachers use continuous authentic
assessment to plan for learning, to identify children who may need
additional assistance, and to evaluate the program’s effectiveness.
• Because development and learning are rooted in culture and
supported by the family, teachers celebrate the strengths, knowledge,
and values each child and his or her family bring to the classroom and
design learning opportunities to capitalize on this resource.
14 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
affects neural growth and brain develop-ment,
it is crucial that educators
understand that what they do each and
every day has an impact on the children
in their care. This is the most important
message preschool and kindergarten
teachers can take from brain development
research.
Brainy Nuggets to Ponder
Connections in the brain develop rapidly
during the first three years of life and
continue at a fast pace until a child is
eight to ten years old. Emerging research
tells us that:
• human development hinges on
the interplay between nature and
nurture.
• early care has a decisive and long-lasting
impact on how we develop,
our ability to learn, and our capacity
to regulate our emotions.
• the brain has a remarkable capacity to
change, but timing is crucial.
• there are times when negative
experiences or the absence of
appropriate stimulation are more
likely to have serious and sustained
effects.
• Evidence amassed over the last
decade points to the wisdom and
value of prevention and early
intervention.5
As their brains develop, children begin
to show new understandings and skills
in cognitive, social, and emotional areas.
Concurrently, their physical development
enables them to act on this expanding
knowledge of the world about them.
Twentieth-century theorists focused
on the development of children across
the domains. Today, these theories are
the basis for understanding child growth
and development. The work of Piaget,
Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg, along
with Brazelton, Bandura, and Gardner
and emerging research on brain develop-ment,
guide early childhood educators in
creating environments that help children
realize their potential.
Patterns of Growth and
Implications for Teaching
Children’s cognitive, social, emotional,
language, and physical development fol-lows
predictable patterns. Progress in
one area, however, can affect patterns of
growth in other areas. As a result, indi-vidual
children may develop at different
rates in each domain.
A child’s development is also influenced
by a set of inclinations and dispositions
commonly referred to as approaches to
learning. Increasingly, these are viewed as
critical to overall development.
The following segments provide an
overview of typical patterns of growth
and development across the domains
and the implications for educating young
children.
Cognitive Development and
General Knowledge
Life experiences, maturing neural sys-tems,
and expanding brain capacity
enable children to think in increasingly
5 Shore, Rethinking the Brain: New Insights into Early Develop-ment,
1997.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 15
complex ways as they move from infancy
through early childhood. They begin to
use abstract and symbolic cues to process
information and learn about their world.
As they mature, they master elaborate
strategies for organizing and processing
information.
Implications for Teaching
A foundation for learning is built when children have
opportunities to interact with other people and with
materials and, as a result, are encouraged to learn from
their surroundings. The transition to later schooling
is made easier when they have been provided a
variety of play-oriented, exploratory activities and
when their early school experiences continue these
activities. From these experiences children construct
knowledge of patterns and relations, cause and effect,
and methods of solving problems in everyday life. 6
Emotional and Social Development
Infants and very young children per-ceive
and interpret their experiences
from a self-centered perspective. As
they mature, they become more aware
of others. A child’s emotional and social
development progresses from bonding
with a significant adult to establishing
additional relationships. They learn that
they can modify their own behavior to
take into account others’ feelings, needs,
and points of view, and they learn how to
relate to and influence other people.
Implications for Teaching
This dimension serves as the foundation for relationships
that give meaning to children’s experiences in school and
beyond. It involves a sense of personal well-being that
comes from stable interactions in their early lives and
interactions that enable them to participate in positive
classroom activities with classmates and teachers.
Intentional teaching includes providing emotional
support and secure relationships as critically important
conditions for emotional and social development.7
6 Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, Reconsidering Children’s Early
Development and Learning: Toward Common Views and Vocabulary,
1995.
7 Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995.
Language Development and Early Literacy
Children acquire language skills as
they listen to and interact with others.
Language development occurs along sev-eral
dimensions that move from simple
to complex – making purposeful sounds
or words, attaching meanings to them,
and combining words into phrases and
sentences. They first use language in con-crete
or literal ways and then learn to
express and understand abstract ideas. As
their language ability grows, children use
more precise language and more intricate
language patterns.
Implications for Teaching
Experience with language, both written and spoken,
gives children the tools to interact with others and
represent their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Communicating effectively with other children and
with adults and having emergent literacy experiences
with diverse forms of language are fundamental
elements of this dimension.8 In the decade since the
publication of the first edition of this guide, early
literacy has received considerable attention from
researchers. This has translated into heightened
attention to the steps preschool and kindergarten
teachers must take to improve literacy outcomes.9
Health and Physical Development
As children mature, their muscles,
bones, neurological systems, digestive
tracts and endocrine systems develop.
Loco-motor and manipulative skills
move through stages from crawling and
walking, to reaching and grasping, to
running and jumping. Motor abilities
are refined through physical growth and
opportunities to practice. With matu-rity,
opportunity and practice, children
learn to move easily and efficiently. They
become more coordinated, more able to
control voluntary muscles, and more able
to attend to and control their responses to
stimulation.
8 Ibid.
9 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children, 1998.
Piaget
Jean Piaget (1952)
believed that people
develop intellectual
capacity as they
master events in
their environments.
He further believed
that although each
person comes to his
own understanding
of the world, human
development follows a
universal progression
through distinct
stages and trends.
Also according to
his theory, exposing
children to concepts
or problems too
advanced for their
experiences will not
promote cognitive
development.
16 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Implications for Teaching
A strong body of research links maternal and child
health to performance in school. Conditions such
as very low birth weight and poor nutrition may
have long-term effects on a child’s preparedness.
Obtaining basic health history information is vital
for understanding the condition in which they
come to school. In addition, teachers provide many
opportunities throughout the day, both indoors and
outdoors, for optimal motor development, including
large motor movements and small motor skills needed
for holding a crayon or putting together puzzles. 10
Developing a Sense of Responsibility
Social, emotional, and cognitive devel-opment
are all components of the
development of responsibility in a young
child. Initially, their understanding of
cause and effect is concrete and literal.
Their perspective is egocentric. Between
the ages of five and seven, however, chil-dren
begin to be able to see things from
other points of view and sympathize
with others. With this increasing under-standing,
they learn to value and respect
the feelings and rights of others. They
develop the ability to change their behav-ior
and deliberately act in ways that result
in predictable responses. Role models are
an important part of this process.
Implications for Teaching
To develop responsibility in young children, teachers
ensure that classroom materials are readily available
to children without needing the assistance of adults.
Labeling shelves and baskets to show where materials
belong is another easy way that early childhood teachers
can help children to build a sense of responsibility.
Providing opportunities to participate in the care of
their environment, such as watering the plants, feeding
the classroom pet and recycling materials, are other
important ways to build responsibility in young children.
Approaches to Learning
Approaches to learning is a term that
refers to inclinations, dispositions, and
styles – rather than skills – that reflect
the myriad ways children become involved
in learning and develop their inclinations
10 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998.
to pursue it. Approaches to learning vary
within and between cultures and this is
something that needs to be respected. A
cookie-cutter approach to early childhood
education (with the goal of all children
coming out the same) is undesirable. A child
can be successful in school in many ways.
Implications for Teaching
Families and teachers should understand the ways
children become engaged in learning in order to know
how to enhance and not discourage their engagement.
Curiosity, creativity, independence, cooperativeness,
and persistence are some of the approaches that
enhance early learning and development.11 Teachers
provide children time to plan what they are going
to do and provide time later for them to think and
talk about what they did. Allowing ample amounts
of time for activities is another way for children
to develop their own approaches to learning.12
Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
Based on years of research and theories
related to child growth, learning, and
development and as a response to new
knowledge and the changing context of
early education, the National Association
for the Education of Young Children has
revised its position statement on develop-mentally
appropriate practice. This new
statement emphasizes “excellence and
equality, intentionality and effectiveness,
continuity and change, and joy and learn-ing”
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). The
NAEYC defines Developmentally
Appropriate Practice as:
Meeting c • hildren where they are –
which means that teachers must get
to know them well – and enabling
them to reach goals that are both
challenging and achievable.
• Teaching practices that are
appropriate to children’s age and
developmental status, attuned to
11 Ibid.
12 From Foundations: Early Learning Standards for North Carolina
Preschoolers and Strategies for Guiding Their Success, 2004.
Child-centered
curriculum is too
often interpreted
as “child indulgent,”
and a more
descriptive term
would be “child-sensitive.”
The goal
of child-centered
curriculum is to
base curriculum
decisions first and
foremost on the
needs of children
and the ways in
which they learn.
Sue Bredekamp and Teresa
Rosegrant in Reaching Potentials:
Appropriate Curriculum and
Assessment for Young Children
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 17
them as unique individuals, and
responsive to the social and cultural
contexts in which they live.
• Ensuring that goals and experiences
are suited to children’s learning
and development and challenging
enough to promote their progress
and interest.
• Best practice is based on knowledge
– not on assumptions – of how
children learn and develop.
Five Key Aspects of Developmentally
Appropriate Teaching
1. Creating a caring community of
learners
2. Teaching to enhance development
and learning
3. Planning curriculum to achieve
important goals
4. Assessing children’s development
and learning
5. Establishing reciprocal relationships
with families13
Responding to How
Young Children Learn
With rare exceptions, the developmental
process unfolds in a similar fashion for
children regardless of their ability, gen-der,
race, social or economic background,
and culture. Yet within this process, chil-dren
learn at their own pace and in their
own way.
Safe and Worthwhile Environments
The challenge for teachers is to use what
we know about child development and
observation to create safe, nurturing,
meaningful, and productive learning envi-ronments
and experiences, both indoors
and outdoors. Effective teachers:
13 Copple & Bredekamp, Developmentally Appropriate Practice,
3rd ed., 2009.
• Stimulate development across all
domains and avoid emphasizing
one area (e.g., early literacy) to the
exclusion of others.
• Provide integrated learning
opportunities connecting content
areas and avoid cutting up the daily
schedule into small segments focused
on individual content areas.
• Prepare children for future academic
learning expectations and avoid
trivial activities having little current
or future usefulness.
• Recognize the learning opportunities
available in the outdoor environment
and plan for them.
• Use family and community
experiences to provide learning
opportunities that are relevant to
their lives. They do not view parents
as obstacles to their children’s
learning.
The Importance of Active Learning
Discovery learning, activities involving
concrete objects or manipulatives, and
multi-sensory experiences enhance learn-ing
in young children by helping them
understand the world and how things
work. Piaget’s work and literature on con-structivist
learning indicate that learners
must respond actively to experiences in
order to learn from them. Although
observing models and listening to instruc-tions
may be preliminary steps for some
activities, children learn by doing. They
need to plan their own actions and responses,
practice, and do things themselves.
Children are more likely to learn when
activities are based on their interests.
Even so, teachers should not fall into the
trap of thinking that all learning must be
fun. A more worthwhile goal is to aim for
learning experiences that are enjoyable.
When children’s interests form the basis
of decisions about important content, this
is more likely to happen and experiences
based on trivial content will be avoided.
Froebel
Friedrich Froebel in
1840 established the
first kindergarten. His
vision was to stimulate
an appreciation and
love for children,
to provide a new
but small world for
children to play with
their age group and
experience their
first gentle taste of
independence. The
name kindergarten
signifies both a garden
for children, a location
where they can
observe and interact
with nature, and also
a garden of children,
where they themselves
can grow and develop
in freedom from
arbitrary political and
social imperatives. To
Froebel belongs the
credit for finding the
true nature of play and
regulating it to lead
naturally into work.
18 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
The Role of Reasonable Expectations
A well-designed curriculum provides
guidelines for expected learning outcomes,
while teachers use children’s interests and
experiences to plan meaningful activities.
By linking new activities and concepts
to previous ones, you facilitate learning
by helping children build on what they
already know. Advocates of constructivism
believe that this linking of new concepts
to what is already known is an impor-tant
part of learning. Constructivists also
believe children are motivated to learn
when tasks are interesting and that they
should have opportunities to apply the
things they learn to real-life situations.
It’s important to give children opportuni-ties
to ask questions, solve problems, have
good role models, and make decisions,
along with time to reflect on what they
have done.
Children who are successful in school
develop a sense of what Bandura calls
self-efficacy – a belief in their capability
to complete academic tasks. When chil-dren
see their peers being successful, they
What Children Do What Teachers Do
Cycle of Learning and Teaching
Awareness
Experience
Acquire an interest
Recognize broad parameters
Attend, perceive
Create the environment
Provide opportunities by introducing new objects, events and people
Invite interest by posing problems or questions
Respond to children’s interests or shared experiences
Show interest and enthusiasm
Exploration
Observe
Explore materials
Collect information
Discover
Create
Figure out components
Construct own understanding
Apply own rules
Create personal meaning
Facilitate
Support and enhance exploration
Provide opportunities for active exploration
Extend play
Describe children’s activities
Ask open-ended questions (e.g., “What else could you do?”)
Respect children’s thinking and rule systems
Allow for constructive error
Modify curriculum or activities to meet individual children’s needs and perhaps modify methods for
student response
Inquiry
Experience
Investigate
Propose explanations
Focus
Compare own thinking with others
Generalize
Relate to prior learning
Adjust to conventional rule systems
Help children refine understanding
Guide children, focus attention
Ask more focused questions (e.g., “What else works like this?”)
“What happens if....”
Provide information when requested: “How do you spell...?”
Help children make connections
Utilization
Use learning in many ways:
learning becomes functional
Represent learning in various ways
Apply learning to new situations
Formulate new hypotheses and repeat cycle
Create vehicles for application in real world
Help children apply learning to new situations
Provide meaningful situations to use learning
The Cycle of Learning and Teaching
The cycle of learning and teaching defines four levels of learning and offers strategies for supporting children at each one. In this model,
children progress from awareness to exploring concepts. They then ask questions about a concept and, finally, are able to use what they have
learned in new situations. The following table shows what children and teachers do at each step of the learning cycle.
Source: Bredekamp & Rosegrant, Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children, Vol. 1, 1992.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 19
believe they can do likewise. Self-talk and
messages from others, including teachers,
family members and peers, contribute
to feelings of efficacy. Teachers can help
children set reasonable goals that are
specific, moderately challenging, and
attainable in the not-too-distant future.
Reaching goals stimulates effort, persis-tence,
feelings of efficacy and motivation.
Getting to Know the Child
as an Individual
Even before the school year begins,
teachers are amassing information from
families, child care providers, early inter-ventionists,
screening procedures, and
developmental checklists. You use this
information to begin learning about a
child’s interests, attitudes, and disposi-tions
as well as their backgrounds and
experiences. Teachers need time to gather
all available records and carefully review
them before school starts. Then you can
plan an appropriate program by combin-ing
what you know in general about the
developmental needs of young children
with the specific characteristics of those
in your class.
Screening Tools
Many school systems use screening and
readiness tools to learn about children
who are entering preschool and kinder-garten.
Originally designed to identify
individuals who might benefit from
special education services, screening tests
look at developmental milestones. Results
of screening tests may lead to referrals
for further assessment. Readiness tests
are intended to do just what the name
suggests – help you know what chil-dren
are ready to learn. Screening and
readiness tests provide information for
planning appropriate programs.
“Readiness tests, by definition and sta-tistical
design, do not predict outcomes
and therefore cannot be substituted for
such purposes. These tests assist teach-ers
in making instructional decisions
about individual children. Children who
do poorly on readiness tests are likely
to benefit the most from kindergarten.
The paradox is that if readiness tests are
substituted for developmental screen-ing
measures, certain children are being
channeled away from the regular class-room.
Screening and assessment does
not substitute for an observant, com-petent,
caring teacher and a responsive
curriculum.”14
Health Assessments
All children entering preschool and kin-dergarten
must have health assessment
reports.15 All children with special needs
must have an individualized education
plan developed prior to receiving spe-cial
education and related services. Such
information must only be used with pro-fessional
safeguards for confidentiality
and never be allowed to create self-fulfill-ing
negative expectations of children.
Observation and Documentation
Young children change from day to day as
learning occurs, development progresses,
and skills emerge. Teachers, therefore,
need current information about all
domains. Continuous observation provides
information to build on emerging abili-ties
and understandings. It’s necessary to
structure experiences that encourage
development in all areas for all children.
Teachers must connect what children
know and are able to do with learning
expectations established at local, state,
and national levels. Families, teachers,
and the children themselves need to know
how things are progressing in terms of
established expectations. The challenge
is to document progress in ways that are
fair, consistent, and purposeful.
14 From “STIL Unacceptable Trends in Kindergarten Entry and
Placement,” a position statement developed by the National Association
of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education.
15 See appendix for a copy of the Kindergarten Health Assess-ment
Report, which provides important information about development,
illnesses, and vaccinations.
Dewey
John Dewey became
famous in the
1920s and ’30s for
pointing out that
the authoritarian,
preordained approach
of traditional
education was too
concerned with
delivering knowledge
and not enough
with understanding
students’ actual
experiences. Any
situation, he said, can
be experienced in
profoundly different
ways because of
unique individual
differences. The
teacher with good
insight into the effects
of past experiences
that students bring
with them is better
able to provide
quality education
that is relevant and
meaningful.
20 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Individual children grow and change
at different rates even though the devel-opmental
process follows predictable
patterns. Just as children get their first
teeth at different times, other changes
vary from child to child. As you get to
know the children in your class as indi-viduals,
consider the developmental
process in planning activities.
Individual Characteristics
Energy and activity level. Because chil-dren
combine high energy levels with
the need to rest, plan for quiet as well as
active times during the day. Offer choices
of indoor and outdoor activities.
Rates of physical growth. Children typi-cally
gain three to five pounds a year and
grow about three inches in height. Make
sure classroom furnishings and arrange-ments
cover the range of physical sizes
and characteristics.
Levels of coordination. Children are
developing preferences for right or left
handedness. Provide a variety of large
and small muscle activities that allow
them to develop lateral awareness and
coordination. Allow for activities to be
performed in a variety of ways – on the
floor, in the wheelchair, etc. Add lots of
time for practice.
Vision. Children between the ages of
four and five typically still have not fully
established visual tracking (left to right).
Therefore, they tend to focus on one
word at a time and have difficulty copy-ing
from the blackboard or chart stand.
Provide large print, different colors of
background, and designated workspace
for students with visual impairments.
Close visual activities should be kept to
a minimum.16
Health and hygiene habits. Children
form basic health care habits early in life.
Plan activities to encourage good health
and hygiene, including hand washing,
dental care, a balanced diet and good eat-ing
habits.
Sleep and rest needs. Children require
about ten hours of sleep a night. Daytime
rest needs vary from child to child but
must be available to all preschool and
kindergarten children. Adjust the length
of nap time and other options for quiet
activities during the rest period depend-ing
on individual needs and as the year
progresses. Therefore, a typical rest time
in a preschool setting may last 60 minutes
in a typical day of 6 to 6 1/2 hours, while
kindergarten may begin with a 45-minute
quiet time and shortened to 20 minutes
by the end of the kindergarten year.
Preferences for group and solitary activ-ities.
Some young children are interested
in playing with others while some prefer
to play alone. Structure your classroom so
children can choose.
Levels of cooperation and sharing.
Preschool and kindergarten children are
just learning to respect others. Offer day-
16 From Yardsticks: Children in the Classroom Ages 4-14: A
Resource for Parents and Teachers, by Wood, 1997.
What the best
and wisest
parent wants for
his own child –
that must the
community want
for all its children.
John Dewey
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 21
to-day activities that give them varied
opportunities to practice getting along
with other children and adults. Use peer
helpers to assist the special needs children
in center activities.
Developing self-concepts. Early percep-tions
and experiences can have powerful
lifelong effects. Allow children to explore
and to experience success in a variety of
activities. Feelings of trust and attach-ment
must be developed to support
positive self-concepts.
Interests in writing and drawing.
Children express themselves and repre-sent
feelings, thoughts, experiences and
emotions through drawing, scribbling and
writing. Early markings and drawings
move through stages that indicate levels
of development. Provide opportunities to
use markers, paints, crayons and a variety
of paper and instruments throughout the
day. Provide modified writing tools and
modified materials so all students can
access the center.
Developing language. Children develop
concepts as they talk and think about
their experiences. An early childhood
classroom is full of things to do, see, and
talk about. Children who are provided
with an environment full of experiences
and rich in language and print extend
their concepts of language skills.
Developing understanding of math-ematical
concepts. Young children
develop math concepts in different ways.
They begin by understanding like and
different, sorting, patterning, series, mea-surement,
spatial relationships, and the
concepts of number and time. Help chil-dren
develop these concepts by providing
an environment rich in manipulative
materials. Centers should have modifi-cations
that allow activities for children
with physical limitations by including
adaptive materials/devices.
Differing attention spans. Young chil-dren
typically focus on one thing at a
time. Activities hold some children’s
attention for long periods of time. Others
move from one thing to another very
quickly. Provide many different situations
to engage children in learning activi-ties.
Provide a quiet place for children to
remove themselves and refocus.
Indicators from the Child
During the school year, children show us
what they know and can do. They draw,
scribble, and write. They build and talk.
They climb, run, jump, and dance. They
tell and retell stories. Their work prod-ucts
and performances during activities
provide authentic evidence of growth and
development. Their behaviors and reac-tions
give us clues to successes as well
as larger problems. Teachers and others
use careful, systematic observation and
documentation to know how children
perform in routine classroom situations.
This information serves as the basis
for assessing changes in learning and
development.
Visual problems may be present if a child...
• bumps into furniture, walls, and
people.
• squints, closes one eye, or tilts his
head to try to see better.
• if one eye turns in or out while the
other one remains focused and
straight.
• complains that her eyes hurt.
• rubs red, watery eyes or encrusted
eyelids.
• holds objects very close to her eyes.
• does not seem to focus on people,
things, or activities.
Hearing problems should be
considered if a child...
• uses motions and gestures rather than
talking.
• uses noticeably fewer words than
peers.
• turns one ear, usually the same one,
toward sounds or voices.
• does not turn when her name is
called.
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
(1971) was interested
in the reasoning
people use as
they make moral
judgments. He
believed that children,
adolescents, and
adults all actively
construct their
concepts of justice
and fairness as they
encounter and resolve
dilemmas. Kohlberg
proposed six age-related
stages of
moral development
that begin with
simple obedience
and culminate with
a sense of universal
conscience.
22 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
does n • ot react to sudden noises.
• does not seem to understand speech.
• speaks in non-speech sounds or uses
speech that cannot be understood.
• always talks in either a very loud or a
very soft voice.
• frequently has ear discharges or
earaches.
Emotional and social development
may be a problem if a child...
• seems to withdraw from others.
• has problems making transitions.
• has problems making friends.
• does not interact with other children.
• is difficult to comfort.
• regularly interferes with other
children’s activities and play groups.
• finds it difficult to control her
behavior.
• has exaggerated responses to sudden
noises or surprises.
• is unusually quiet.
• has toileting problems (not related to
physical condition or developmental
stage).
• displays repetitive or self-stimulatory
behaviors.
Motor development may be delayed if a child...
• has difficulties balancing and
walking.
• shows greater coordination on one
side of the body than on the other.
• does not seem to keep pace with
other children either in growth or in
the ability to walk.
• has poor muscle tone (either very stiff
or flabby).
• has a difficult time getting up from a
squatting or ground-seated position.
General health may be a concern if a child...
• lacks energy to participate in activity
play.
• appears to be significantly
overweight, underweight, or
markedly shorter than other children
his/her age.
• is often short of breath.
• frequently falls asleep or seems overly
fatigued.
Language delays and difficulties
may be present if a child...
• has problems understanding speech
and following simple directions.
• has a much smaller vocabulary than
peers.
• speaks in non-speech sounds or uses
speech that is not understandable.
• just does not communicate.
Cognitive difficulties should be
considered if a child...
• does not remember simple events,
names, or routines.
• repeats words and questions, but
usually in an unconnected manner.
• has little interest in caring for himself
and being independent.
• seems uninterested in surroundings
and is withdrawn.
• is not easily consoled.
• cannot respond to problems peers
handle with ease.
• does not understand concepts peers
comprehend.
A child may be gifted if he or she...
• is eager to tell the ending of a story
before it is read.
• remembers and retells stories in great
detail.
• is easily bored with activities that
engage other children in the group.
• has a vocabulary more advanced than
peers.
• recognizes written words or reads
before peers do.
• recognizes complex patterns,
including visual and number
patterns.
• solves mathematical problems with
ease.
• has a vast array of information about
his or her world.17
17 Adapted from Training Guide: Development and Implementa-tion
of the Individual Service Plan in Head Start, by Wolfe, Griffin, Zeger,
& Herring, 1982.
One of the most
important steps
to successful
transitions (for
children) is a
positive working
relationship
with families.
Patricia A. Wesley, 2001
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 23
Partnering with Families
One of the best places to learn more
about the children in our classrooms is
from their families. After all, they know
their children best and have had the most
influence on them. Trying to develop a
relationship with a child without getting
to know the family is like seeing only half
the picture!
Often the first experience a young child
has away from home is in the preschool or
kindergarten classroom. By working closely
with families, you can help children feel
comfortable and develop their confidence
and skills in this new environment.
Because all families are different, they
will participate in their child’s program in
varying ways. For families with younger
children at home, a language barrier, or
personal health issues, simply maintain-ing
the child’s enrollment in your class is
involvement itself. For others, advocacy
and leadership roles are unlimited. For
all of them, your commitment to keeping
channels of communication open is criti-cal
to the success of partnerships between
parents and teachers and to children’s
bright outlook toward learning.
To develop an understanding of a fam-ily’s
particular priorities, concerns and
resources, you must also consider the child
in the context of his or her community.
You can make your classroom relevant to
many communities by inviting families to
be part of your program. Through artwork,
toys and materials, activities and interac-tions
in the classroom, you can show that
all cultures are valued and important in the
day-to-day experiences at school. By help-ing
the children learn about community
events and relationships and by showing
them the connections between school,
home and community, you can have a last-ing,
positive effect on a child’s life.
How can you facilitate a positive
partnership with families and other care-givers
in your program? Consider these
strategies:
Take time to get to know families.
Building rapport and trust as the basis for
mutual respect takes time. Strong foun-dations
for lasting relationships cannot
be rushed. They emerge from a balance
of becoming close without prying into
people’s lives.
Respect and accept diversity. Show con-cern
for all the people in a child’s home
who are regarded as members of the fam-ily.
Developing an understanding of the
cultural, social, and economic factors
affecting the family will contribute to
your understanding of the children and
to your ability to help them learn.
Show sensitivity toward a family’s emo-tional
needs, including that of privacy.
Develop your ability to listen carefully
without interrupting or judging. Accept
that a family’s interest in and ability to
participate in their child’s program may
change over time. A family whose child
has special needs, for example, may feel
especially overwhelmed from time to
time. A family’s previous experiences
and personal preferences may affect
their willingness to share some types of
information. Schools should only request
information that is directly related to the
child’s learning. Always respect a family’s
right to confidentiality.
Erikson
Erik Erikson (1963)
theorized that
healthy personalities
emerge as people
master their social
environment and
perceive themselves
and others realistically.
Conversely, he said,
when children or
adolescents do not
resolve a particular
crisis in a healthy
manner, they cannot
advance through
that stage and may
develop psychological
ill-health. Coiner of the
term “identity crisis,”
Erikson advanced the
theory that there are
eight developmental
crises that must be
resolved and that the
content and sequence
of these stages is fixed.
24 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Design flexible schedules. Consider fam-ily
schedules when inviting participation
in school events. Schedule conferences to
accommodate a variety of family circum-stances
and transportation arrangements,
even if this means some late afternoon or
evening work. Respond to family con-cerns
in a timely manner, adjusting your
schedule as needed.
Frame your concerns positively. Let
families know in advance when you
want to meet with them and be prepared
to emphasize solutions that meet their
interests and needs. Recognize that any
meeting about a child can be stressful
for parents and be as positive as possible.
Parents of children with special needs
may want to bring someone else to the
meeting. Extend this option to all par-ents.
Collect data to share with parents to
support concerns about the student.
Help families find resources in the com-munity.
Families may need help identifying
and accessing community services for
themselves and their children. No single
program will meet all the needs of all
families. This means that in addition to
traditional roles, teachers and adminis-trators
are becoming knowledgeable links
to resources. In some cases, schools can
provide resources themselves to help fam-ilies
participate in their child’s program.
Sometimes simply arranging rides to school
meetings and providing child care at meet-ings
can boost family participation.
Guiding Principles for Family/
School Partnerships
Value fa 1. milies as children’s first
teachers and as important sources of
information.
2. Recognize and respect various
family structures.
3. Encourage and value active family
participation in decisions about
children’s education.
4. Solicit family members in shaping
school-wide policies.
5. Include learning for all family
members in the child’s educational
experience.
Ideas for Communicating with Families
• Home visits
• Classroom visits and open houses
• Newsletters and other print materials
• Group meetings
• Individual conferences
• Samples of the child’s work
• Bulletin boards
• Advisory committees
• Community outings
• Phone calls
• Email
• Daily diaries
• Cassette or VCR recordings
• Discussion groups
• Suggestion box
• Questionnaires
• Web site
Gathering Information
Early on, consult families about their hopes
for their children and their ideas for the pro-gram.
Consider these questions:
• What are your hopes and
expectations for your child in school?
• What are your child’s special
interests and talents?
• How would you like to see us help
your child?
• What do you enjoy doing with your
child?
• How do you expect your child to
react to school?
• How is your child adjusting to school?
• What questions and concerns do you
have about the program?
• What would you want from your
child’s teacher?
• What kinds of information and
support would you like from the
school (e.g., ways to meet other
parents, information about the
curriculum, information about
community services and resources)?
• How would you like to help in the
school or in your child’s group?
• How can school be a greater part of
your community?
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky (1978)
believed that children
acquire knowledge
and skills when they
are challenged by
problems just beyond
their current ability
and then link their
new experiences with
what they already
know and can do.
His observations of
children talking to
themselves as they
solved problems
led him to propose
that language
development
is an important
component of
thought and cognitive
development.
C h a p t e r Two — B u i l d i n g a F o u n d a t i o n f o r Lea r n i n g 25
Shaping Your Program through Feedback
• Develop a questionnaire asking
parents to rate the quality of the
program.
• Use a suggestion box, informal
conversation, or evaluation form
to capture parents’ ideas about
improving classroom activities.
• Establish a monthly discussion group
where parents can offer suggestions
for making program policies and
practices more family-friendly.
How Families Can Participate
At Home
• Telephone or email other parents
about upcoming events.
• Cut out and color simple materials
for the program.
• Wash sheets and towels used in the
classroom.
• Send program snacks.
• Read to their child.
• Do learning games with their child.
• Help write, edit, illustrate, or
circulate program newsletters.
• Send in recyclable materials.
• Repair equipment or materials.
• Share information, via phone or
notebook, with the teacher about
their child.
• Donate used clothing for the
dramatic play area.
• Make props for center time.
• Display their child’s work.
• Assemble a scrapbook about their
child to share with teachers.
In the Community
• Locate door prizes for parent
meetings.
• Serve as an interpreter for families
who are not fluent in English.
• Participate in fund-raising activities
for the program or school.
• Take classes that enhance knowledge
and skills.
• Join in health and consumer
information forums about children.
• Take their child to the library,
museum, park, or community center.
• Join local, state and national parent
and early childhood organizations.
• Educate employers about the need for
family-friendly work policies such as
flex time.
• Help organize a special event, field
trip, or visit by a community member
to the program or school.
• Develop an “Adopt-a-Family” or
“Welcome Wagon” program for new
families.
In the Classroom
• Write a story as a child tells it.
• Read to a child.
• Share a special interest, ability, or
experience.
• Help a child accomplish a special
goal.
• Serve as a substitute or volunteer.
• Help with lunch, nap time, or special
event.
• Share information about cultural
traditions through storytelling or
demonstration.
• Bring a favorite food to share.
• Lead a small group of children in an
activity.
• Supervise a special activity center.
• Assist in efforts to evaluate global
classroom quality.
Creating effective
partnerships
between schools,
parents and
communities isn’t
just a nice idea.
It’s a necessity.
Don Davies, 2000
26 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
At the Center or School
Attend i • ndividual conferences.
• Attend a family meeting, family
night, or pot-luck supper.
• Act as a greeter at a family meeting.
• Organize a family support group.
• Establish a buddy system, cluster
group, or car pool for attending
meetings.
• Lead activities for children during
parent meetings.
• Become a member of an advisory or
policy board.
• Build or repair furniture or
equipment.
• Assist with updating a list of toys
available through the program’s
lending library or staff the library on
occasion.
• Answer the telephone to provide the
school secretary a break.
• Conduct training sessions for staff or
parents.
• Participate in evaluating the
effectiveness of the overall program.
In the Outdoor Learning Environment
• Help children play games or teach
them a new one.
• Help conduct a safety check of
equipment and grounds.
• Share special knowledge about the
outdoors.
• Conduct an outdoor experiment.
• Set up and supervise an outdoor art
activity.
• Help a child with special needs
participate in an activity or use
equipment.
• Plant a garden with children.
• Develop a nature trail for children
and their families.
• Build bird houses or a bird blind.18
18 All lists taken from Planning for Success: A Teacher’s Guide
to a New Planning Guide to the Preschool Curriculum, by Hardin, Lohr, &
Wesley, 1997.
Quality Indicators for Family Involvement
• Family members make decisions in
forming individual education plans
for their child.
• They are always welcomed in the
classroom and encouraged to
participate.
• They receive many opportunities to
participate and exchange information
with staff.
• They serve as representatives on
committees and advisory boards
that have direct input in planning
activities and policies in the
classroom and school.
• They are included in the planning of
family activities.
• Partnership activities and special
events are scheduled at times and
locations convenient to families.
• Frequent, ongoing, and varied
types of communication inform
families about their child’s progress,
classroom activities, and school
events.
• Teachers actively solicit family
involvement and listen to concerns as
well as compliments.
• Teachers share and solicit
information and work together
with families in the best interest of
children.
• Staff development activities are
planned based on needs assessments
that solicit suggestions from families.
• The school has a common vision and
a plan for family participation.
• Family members and other volunteers
are in the school and in classrooms
daily.
• Materials and games are provided for
family members and children to use
together at home.
• Family involvement and home/school
partnerships are assessed regularly
and the results are used to improve
effectiveness.
27
One of many important things we know about young children
is that they learn best when allowed to actively explore their
environment. They try to make sense of common objects by
prying into them, taking them apart, and manipulating them in
a variety of ways. As they build with blocks, they are consider-ing
their size, proportion, and concepts about numbers that will
later help make higher-level mathematics seem more sensible. As
they draw, cut patterns, glue and paint, they develop the arm and
hand muscles needed later for handwriting.
Indeed, in their years in preschool and kindergarten, children
absorb an amazing depth of learning across all the content areas
– language, mathematics, science, social studies, and the arts.
Children are weaving their experiences into knowledge and skills
they can use now and will need in future schooling and life.
Children in any group represent a wide array of developmen-tal
accomplishments, temperaments, interests, and needs. More
and more, they may be learning English as a second language.
This chapter addresses how preschool and kindergarten teachers
can plan and organize programs and their classrooms to meet the
diverse needs of all the children who come to them.
C h a p t e r T h r e e
Creating a Learning Environment for ALL Children
Chapter Highlights
Engaging All Children . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Well-Designed Classroom . . . . . . . . 30
The ABCs of Organizing the Space . . . . . . . 31
The Seven Dimensions:
Achieving Balance in the Classroom. . . . . . . 32
Large Group Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Guidelines for Structuring Large
Group Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Commonly Asked Questions About
Managing Group Time. . . . . . . . . . . . 35
28 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Engaging All Children
A central tenet of the Guide for the Early
Years is the importance of using learning
centers as the major vehicle to organize a
classroom. A program organized around
well-designed centers for interactive play
activities helps children develop self-regulation
skills, language skills, and
mathematics concepts, as well as knowl-edge
in all other discipline areas.
As greater focus is placed on academic
performance in kindergarten and even
preschool, such activity-based programs
still raise some eyebrows. Are children
learning what they need to get ready for the
next level of schooling? The evidence con-tinues
to support that they are. Young
children are learning the concepts under-lying
the “three Rs” at their individual
level of development and so very much
more. Such an approach is the most likely
way to address the learning needs of
the widely diverse groups of children in
today’s classrooms.
Experts continue to urge schools,
teachers, and parents to resist the tempta-tion
to teach preschool and kindergarten
in the same way as the upper grades. They
argue that formal instruction in reading
or other academic subjects is largely inap-propriate
for children in these programs
because they are not yet mature enough to
grasp what is being taught. Worse, such
an approach steals time that children in
this age range need to accomplish other
important developmental and learning
goals.
The intentional teaching, exploration,
and discovery that take place in activity-centered
classrooms mean much more
than many may realize. By focusing on
developing the whole child – socially,
emotionally, physically, and intellectu-ally
– teachers provide a nurturing, safe
environment that helps children move
forward with a love of learning, an abil-ity
to socialize well with others, and a
desire to master all content and skills in
all subjects.
Such an approach is also the most
effective learning environment for young
people who face challenges to success in
school:
Children f • rom economically
disadvantaged families
• Children with a wide range of
disabilities
• Children learning English
• Children who may later benefit from
programs for children who are gifted
The key to enabling each child to
achieve his or her potential is thoughtful
planning of the indoor and outdoor envi-ronment
and active, intentional teaching
by specially trained teachers who receive
ongoing support.1 Subsequent sections of
this chapter offer additional information
on setting up and managing an effective
learning environment for all children,
including:
Children with disabilities. It is now
widely accepted that most young children
with disabilities learn best in inclusive
settings. They will make progress on the
skills and characteristics described in
Foundations and the NC Standard Course
of Study for Kindergarten, though with
great variation. They will make the most
1 Pianta, et al, “Features of Pre-Kindergarten Programs, Class-rooms,
and Teachers: Do They Predict Observed Classroom Quality and
Child-Teacher Interactions?”, 2005.
Every individual
matters. Every
individual has a
role to play. Every
individual makes
a difference.
Jane Goodall
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 29
progress developmentally, socially, and
academically when appropriate special
education and other support services
are provided within typical classroom
settings. Just as the expectations/objec-tives
are inclusive of all young learners,
so should early childhood programs be.
Children with and without disabilities
learn from one another in natural envi-ronments.
A curriculum and classroom
tailored to meet the needs of individual
children meet the needs of all.
• Children with disabilities are
valuable to the inclusive preschool
and kindergarten classroom.
• Children with disabilities are affected
by their ability to communicate and
access the environment.
• Preschool and kindergarten
classrooms should promote a respect
and understanding of the differences
in children.
• Children with disabilities learn best
when their skills are integrated with
their peers in a typical classroom
setting.
• Families should be encouraged and
supported as they learn techniques
for communication and movement
for their children with disabilities
and should be encouraged to be a
part of the classroom.
• Educators should expect children
with disabilities to grow and achieve
to their abilities.
Children who bring diversity in language
and culture. This diversity is something
to celebrate. Families from different
backgrounds bring a wealth of strengths,
knowledge, and values to preschool and
kindergarten classrooms. Teachers in
classrooms that include children from
diverse cultures and with different home
languages should be guided by these six
principles:
• Children from families with diverse
cultural and language backgrounds
are valuable assets to preschool and
kindergarten programs.
• Children’s learning is affected
by their language and cultural
background.
• Preschool and kindergarten
classrooms should strive to promote
understanding and respect for
different cultures and languages.
• Children whose home language
is not English learn best when
early educators encourage them to
continue to speak and read their
home language while learning
English.
• Families who speak a language other
than English should be encouraged
to continue to speak and read to their
child in their home language, even
while the child is learning English.
• Educators should expect wide
variation in how children make
progress on learning English and
on the skills and characteristics
described in Foundations and the
Kindergarten Standard Course of
Study.
Children who may be gifted. Occasionally
teachers will see children whose devel-opmental
trajectories greatly exceed that
of typical preschool and kindergarten
children. How these children experi-ence
school in these early years will have
a profound impact on their adjustment
Keeping it Real
Every learning environment communicates to
children what is important and valuable in the
eyes of those who provide it. The décor of many
early childhood and elementary classrooms
emphasizes what is cute, frivolous and trivial
and also misrepresents children’s interests. This
emphasis is not only questionable on aesthetic
and pedagogical grounds, but it also may
distract children from achieving self-esteem
derived from appreciating and interacting
with the real world and their real capacities to
understand and contribute to it.
Lilian Katz
30 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
in future schooling. A richly provisioned
program and teachers who encourage
exploration and learning will help these
children advance their knowledge and
skills and support habits and attitudes
they will need in the future. Such chil-dren
can serve as models to others and
benefit from learning that they have a
responsibility to help others.
The Well-Designed Classroom
Active learning through play in a well-planned
and well-equipped environment
is characteristic of effective preschool and
kindergarten programs. More than at any
other level of education, the design of
early childhood classrooms is a physical
representation of the curriculum. The
particular learning centers described in
this publication mirror those found in
Learning through the Eyes of a Child:
A Guide to Best Teaching Practices in
Early Education.
Detailed information about provision-ing
and using specific learning centers is
located within chapters that most closely
address that domain or discipline. This
somewhat unconventional route was
taken in order to emphasize the centers’
importance as the primary learning/orga-nizational
mode for the various domains
and disciplines. It should not be inter-preted
as diminishing the important ways
all of the centers weave together chil-dren’s
opportunities to acquire content
and skills.
All of the centers are integrated and
interdisciplinary. They all promote social
development. Science and Discovery
offers opportunities to develop literacy.
Dramatic Play supports language devel-opment
and problem-solving. A classroom
with high-quality learning centers sup-ports
a child’s overall understanding
about order and classification, generally
viewed as a math and/or general cognitive
skill. A well-designed classroom provides
a variety of areas for exploration. They
include (though certainly are not limited
to):
• a blocks area for building
• a science area for observing and
investigating
• a dramatic play area for role-playing
• an art area offering a variety of open-ended
materials for trying creative
ideas
• a book area, comfortable and quiet,
with good books, music, and stories
• a writing area with paper, pencils,
crayons, markers, and possibly a
computer
• a table games and manipulative area
for developing eye-hand coordination
as well as sharing, problem-solving,
and thinking skills
• a sand and water area for beginning
to explore basic mathematical and
scientific concepts
• an outdoor area for exercise, sharing,
and exploration
• a carpentry area for exercising small
muscles and developing eye-hand
coordination
No matter what
routine you
establish to care
for the classroom
environment, the
first step must be to
control clutter.
Rebecca Isbel, Betty & Gary Exelby,
2001
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 31
• a large open space for group
meetings, story time, music, and
movement
Learning Center Possibilities
• Art
• Blocks
• Books and Listening
• Carpentry
• Computer
• Cooking
• Dramatic Play
• Mathematics and Manipulatives
• Music
• Outdoor Activities
• Sand and Water
• Science and Discovery
• Stitchery and Weaving
• Writing and Printing
The ABCs of Organizing the Space
Children need a comfortable, safe, stim-ulating
environment in order to learn. A
well-organized classroom not only posi-tively
affects attitudes toward learning but
also fosters a sense of belonging and con-tributes
to appropriate behavior. Setting
up your space to accomplish these goals
requires a bit of thought and planning,
but it assuredly pays off. Don’t be afraid
to make changes as you go through the
year. Here are some key considerations:
• Plan learning centers that address
all developmental areas (cognitive,
language, creative, physical, self-help,
social/emotional).
• Incorporate a variety of materials
and adaptations to allow children
to access and use the materials.
Make sure each center addresses all
children’s needs.
• If the size of your classroom limits
all centers at the same time, plan a
rotation pattern. However, Blocks,
Table Games and Manipulatives,
Books and Listening, Dramatic
Play, Writing and Printing, and Art
should be available all the time.
• Locate centers based on needs for
storage and water, the size of the
group using them, and the space
needed for the materials (e.g.,
the Block Center requires about
25% to 35% of the total classroom
floor space. Because this center
incorporates so many learning
concepts, it should be established
first.)
• To the extent possible, keep quiet
areas separate from active or noisy
areas (e.g., Books should be distant
from Blocks, Carpentry, and
Dramatic Play).
• Consider floor coverings in placing
centers (e.g., Sand and Water,
Cooking, and Art work best on
materials that can be easily cleaned).
• Ensure that the room arrangement
allows for children to be visually
supervised at all times.
• Provide space where children can go
to be alone but still remain in full
view of the teacher.
From a Child’s Perspective
• Is this a comfortable place to be? Do I want to stay?
• Are there adults here? What do they do?
• How many choices do I get to make here?
• Are these same kids going to be here tomorrow?
• Is there a space for me to put something of my own?
• Do I know where to find and return toys and materials? How do I know?
• Are there enough toys and materials I might find interesting? Can I do more
than one thing with them? Do I even have to use them?
• Where will I eat? Where will I take my nap?
• Where can I run, climb, jump, and be noisy?
• Can I move about in this space if I use a walker, wheelchair, or other assistive
equipment?
• Is there a quiet area where I can flop down and relax?
• If I want to play alone, is that OK? Where can I go to be alone?
• Do I know what parts of the center and classroom I can explore and what parts
are off-limits?
• Is the same thing going to happen every day? How will I know what to do next?
• Can I get my special needs met here (e.g., medicine/therapy/help during
toileting)?
Source: Wesley, Mainstreaming Young Children: A Training Series for Child Care Providers, 1992.
32 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
If we embrace
the idea of the
environment as a
significant educator
in our early
childhood programs,
we must expand
our thinking beyond
the notion of room
arrangements.
We must ask
ourselves what
values we want
to communicate
through learning
environments
and how we
want children
to experience
their time in our
programs.
Deb Curtis & Margie Carter, 2003
Define boundaries w • ith furniture and
floor coverings so children can tell
where learning centers start and end.
Post pictures to designate centers for
children needing a visual input.
• Provide each child with a place to
store personal belongings (e.g., a
cubby, a plastic bin).
• Avoid leaving large open spaces in
the room that encourage running
and aimless wandering.
• For safety, separate the Carpentry
workbench from other activity areas
and limit the number of children who
can work there at one time. Be sure to
include safety devices such as goggles.
• Make activity centers organized
with materials easily accessible for
children’s use. View each one from
knee-level to gauge how it appears
to them. Take into consideration
children with walkers or wheelchairs.
• Select storage to display materials to
their best advantage — shelving at
the children’s eye level, open shelves
instead of closed cupboards, books
on shelving that lets them lay flat
with covers visible.
• Provide storage shelves labeled with
shapes of blocks. Shelves with labels
require children to use math skills
(sorting and classifying) as they
replace blocks during cleanup.
• Choose materials that are appropriate
for all children in the group – simple
enough for those who are developing
more slowly, complex enough for
those who are rapidly developing –
challenging for all. Materials should
be respectful of all cultures, and
print materials should represent the
language groups represented in the
classroom. Provide duplicates of
favorite toys and materials.
• Integrate tables into the various
centers rather than keeping them
separate or grouped in one area of
the room.
• Make sure there is enough space
around the tables for all children
involved in and around the activity.
• Allow ample space and time for the
completion of projects. Designate a
“holding area” for work that is still in
progress.
• Provide materials that are adapted to
meet individual children’s needs.
• Remember that, with planning,
anything you do inside the classroom
can be done outside. Incorporating
spaces in the outdoor area to include
blocks, dramatic play, science,
manipulatives, art, sand and water,
carpentry, open spaces for large motor
movement, and quiet spaces for alone
time is essential to a well-designed
environment for young children.
The Seven Dimensions:
Achieving Balance in the Classroom
Think about how to make small, but
continuous, changes to improve your
classroom environment so that it enhances
learning opportunities for all children.
Elizabeth Prescott (1984) identified these
seven dimensions to consider in achiev-ing
balance and providing for individual
needs. Prescott describes each dimension
as a continuum.
Softness/Hardness
Softness is expressed through the use
of pillows, rugs, carpets, stuffed ani-mals,
beanbags, sofas, cushions, draped
fabrics, lamps, and tablecloths. These
help to make the classroom feel cozy and
responsive to children. (Be sure they meet
fire codes and are kept clean.) Bolsters,
mats, and pillows may aid in positioning
a child with physical disabilities. Sand,
water, play dough, and finger paints also
provide a sense of softness as children feel,
touch, and mold them. Animals – guinea
pigs, rabbits, hamsters, gerbils – provide
soft, sensory experiences. However, care
should be given to those with allergic
sensitivities. Hardness is expressed with
hard surfaces and materials: hard plastic,
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 33
wood blocks, metal or wooden furniture,
and tiled floors. Hard surfaces are more
appropriate for some activities.
Open/Closed
Open materials can be used in differ-ent
ways and offer children choices.
Examples include unit blocks, water, sand
and drama props, and art centers. Closed
materials, such as puzzles, often have one
correct way of being used. Limiting how
children use materials – e.g., requiring
them to build a barn only with blocks or
paint apples only red at the easel – restricts
options and makes materials closed.
Simple/Complex
As children work with simple mate-rials,
add props to sustain interest.
Once a material has been explored in its
simplest form, make other tools or ele-ments
available. The material or activity
becomes more complex and more inter-esting
as they discover new uses for
materials and props. All children need
opportunities to show competence and to
be challenged.
Intrusion/Seclusion
Define and label boundaries so that
children understand where certain
activities take place. Plan traffic patterns
so that activities are not interrupted to let
others pass by. Plan for a child’s special
mobility needs and designate areas where
children can spend a few moments by
themselves if they wish.
High Mobility/Low Mobility
Room arrangement encourages or
discourages movement. Provide high-mobility
areas in the classroom as well as
outdoors to encourage children to practice
gross motor skills. Also set aside areas for
activities requiring low mobility, such as
meetings, story and rest times, and art
and book centers. The outdoor environ-ment
lends itself to the variety of mobility
needs of children all the time.
It’s important that children with disabilities
have access to all areas, with adaptations as
needed to provide that access.
Safety /Risk
Emphasize good health and safety
practices. Encourage and support
children as they take informed risks.
Young children learn through taking
risks while supported by the adults in
their world. Knowing how to proceed
carefully and safely is especially impor-tant
for children with disabilities.
Large Group/Individual
Allow for a variety of group activi-ties,
both large and smaller groups,
as well as times for individual experi-ences.
Provide opportunities for children
to choose large group, small group, or
individual activities at different times
during the day.
Large Group Meetings
Group times are a vital part of early
childhood classrooms. They encourage a
sense of belonging and can contribute to
creating mutual respect. Young children
need chances to work within a group in
order to learn social skills, enhance their
ability to speak in front of others, and
share ideas and experiences. Group meet-ings
also serve as a vehicle for presenting
materials that will help further cognitive
development.
The number of group meetings during
any given day depends on class sched-ules.
In general, it is wise to have an early
morning gathering in order to greet chil-dren
and begin the day as a community.
A meeting before departure allows every-one
to get together and reflect on the
day’s work.
Other meetings can be scheduled in
and around daily activities. These meet-ings,
held in the indoor and outdoor
environments, enhance knowledge and
teach skills in all the cognitive domains.
At times, calling the children together
Children deserve to
be surrounded with
beauty, softness
and comfort, as
well as order and
attention to health
and safety.
Deb Curtis and Margie Carter, 2003
34 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
serves to help shift gears or redirect play
and activities in the room. While many
group meetings are teacher initiated and
directed, there should always be room for
child-initiated questions and choices dur-ing
meeting times. Children may decide
which songs to sing, which finger plays to
do, or stories to read. A key to successful
group meetings is children’s participation.
Children may also bring a group concern
to a meeting so the group can help resolve
the problem – for example, deciding on rules
to use the tire swing on the playground.
Guidelines for Structuring
Large Group Meetings
Establish a meeting place. A specially
designated carpeted spot should serve
as the meeting center. It should be large
enough to accommodate all children
comfortably. If possible, it should be near
a space where a child who is having dif-ficulty
being part of the group at that
moment might sit and attend until he/she
is ready to join. Make sure all children
are afforded opportunities to participate
by using assistive technology, pictures,
or other means as needed. The gathering
space should provide easy access to:
• a chart stand
• a big book easel
• a tape/CD player and CDs/tapes
• a chair or stool
• a wipe-off board/magnetic board and
a flannel board
A special place to gather together as a
large group is also a wonderful space to
include in the outdoor environment as
well.
Organize the seating. There are a num-ber
of ways for children to sit in a meeting
time. Some teachers like to assign places
with tape on the area rug. Others like to
use a small rug to help individual chil-dren
remain in their own special spot.
Some teachers feel comfortable allowing
children to sit wherever they wish. As
long as a system is devised that works for
each teacher, it doesn’t matter what the
system is. The important thing is that the
children are seated in a way that maxi-mizes
your ability to manage the group
and maintain attention. (Of course,
the best way to keep children’s atten-tion
is for the activity to be of interest
to them!) Theater-style seating works for
some things (reading stories, brainstorm-ing
ideas) while sitting around the edges
of a circle area works better for demon-strations
of new activities or materials.
Children with visual, hearing, or motor
needs may need a designated space to sit
to allow them to participate fully in the
group activities.
Gather the children. Depending on
what children are doing at the time,
there is usually a need to transition them
to a group meeting. It is important from
the very beginning of the school year to
institute a signal that will alert the chil-dren
to the start of a gathering time. If
the children are in learning centers, give
a five-minute warning prior to the signal
for cleanup. This gives them a chance to
reach a satisfying “stopping place” with
the activity. Use a familiar signal to let
C h a p t e r T h r e e — C r ea t i n g a Lea r n i n g E nv i r o nme n t f o r AL L C h i l d r e n 35
children know when it is time to stop and
clean up (a song, music, or dimming the
lights). As children finish cleanup, they
can avoid wait time by helping others.
Teachers use whatever signals work
best with their particular group of chil-dren.
What is important is that children
know how to respond. Correct behavior is
modeled and expectations are clear. Many
young children need time to change gears
– particularly if they will not be going
back to the activity they were involved
in. A plastic pop bottle timer filled with
sand is a perfect way to do this.
As children gather at the meeting
place, a teacher should be in place to fill
wait time by singing songs or doing fin-ger
plays that are familiar, so the children
can easily join in as they arrive. Songs also
serve as an “invitation” to any child who
has not arrived, as they send the message
“here is where the action will be next!”
As the teacher ends the last song, with all
gathered, she has the children’s attention
and is ready for the meeting to begin.
Manage the meeting. Just as a gather-ing
signal is used, children need a signal
to know when they should begin listen-ing.
Again, whatever is done is not as
important as modeling and practicing
expectations early in the school year. A
simple raised hand or two fingers raised
in the peace sign (for quiet) usually works
well. Always wait for everyone’s attention
before beginning. It will avoid having to
stop and start again. With young chil-dren,
singing a simple song or doing
a finger play works particularly well.
Children usually attend to a change in
voice and react positively as their friends
begin to participate.
Work with an assistant. Assistants are an
integral part of the classroom community
and as such should be part of large group
meetings. They should be knowledge-able
about the meeting agenda and part
of the management that assures a smooth
flow in the meeting. In general, it helps
for the teacher and any assistants to be as
low and close to the group as possible. It
is hard to ignore a teacher who is right in
front of you! Depending on the activity
for group time, sitting on the floor or on a
chair close to the group works well. If the
activity is book-reading, the reader needs
to be visible to everyone. If the activity
is a demonstration, everyone needs to be
able to see what is being shown.
Keep everyone focused. There are a vari-ety
of supports (tools) that are sometimes
helpful for children who have trouble
focusing in groups. For example, squishy
pillows, fidget bracelets, a stuffed toy.
This gives children an opportunity to
keep their hands to themselves and man-age
their personal space. Some children
also can remain focused during a group
meeting by sitting on a low chair or stool.
Some children with disabilities may need
to respond by pictures, signs, symbols, or
voice output equipment to participate in
the group.
Commonly Asked Questions
About Managing Group Time
What should I do about challenging
behaviors during group time?
If you have children in the classroom
who are developmentally unready to fully
participate in group experiences or have
a short attention span (i.e., 1-2 minutes),
make provisions for them to come and go
as needed – but in a manner that is not
disruptive to the group. It is imperative
to have a plan in place with your teach-ing
partner/assistant so that everyone
is on the same page and can handle the
situation while you are working with the
group. It might be that the child needs to
be away from the group for a few min-utes
to gain better control. It might also
work to have that child be in a chair near
the group and able to hear and see what
is happening. In a few minutes, he or she
might be ready to rejoin in a more respon-sible
fashion.
36 Guide for the Ear l y Year s
Much of this will depend on the issues
at hand, but these two alternatives usually
can provide some assistance. Some chil-dren
get over-stimulated in a group and
need their own space in order to attend
better. Children who typically have trou-ble
in group meetings may respond best
being seated close enough to be a mem-ber
of the group but far enough away to
remain attentive and focused. If a teacher
resorts to that mode, the child should be
made to feel welcome and also be made
aware that the seating is to help him or
her attend, not as a punishment. These
children may also do well placed near the
teacher leading the group or the teach-ing
partner/assistant. Then a simple touch
might be given to help the child stay
calm, focused, and attentive.
What about children who interrupt and call out?
Part of being in a group is learning how
to get needs met while waiting one’s turn.
Children develop these attributes at dif-ferent
times, but there are ways to help
them understand the “rules” of work-ing
together. This