Problems

The study of Baltic religion has developed as an offshoot of the study of Baltic languages—Old Prussian, Latvian, and Lithuanian (see Baltic languages). These form a separate group—the oldest one—of the Indo-European languages, which are closely related to the ancient Indian language Sanskrit.

Although the study of Baltic languages is important in the study of Indo-European linguistics, the study of Baltic religion has not assumed a similar level of importance in the study of comparative religion. In 1875 it was shown that the religious concepts of the Balts, when compared with those of other European peoples, are found to be marked by many older features that agree with Vedic (ancient Indian) and Iranian ideas. At least one scholarly reconstruction of ancient Indo-European religion depended mainly on Baltic religious traditions. International research in Baltic religion has, however, been greatly hindered by the fact that the languages of these small Baltic countries (Latvia and Lithuania) are but little known and because Baltic scholars have been able to work in this field only relatively recently. Thus, a comprehensive review of Baltic religion is possible only on the express understanding that many findings are only hypothetical and require further research. But, as will be seen below, even under these circumstances Baltic religious concepts help greatly in understanding the formation and structure of the oldest phases of Indo-European religion.

Sources of data

There are four main sources of data, each with its own relevance and each requiring its own specific methodology: archaeological material, historical documents, linguistics, including toponymy (the study of the place-names of a region or language), and folklore. Since the last half of the 19th century, archaeological material has furnished much information about burial and sacrificial rites. The remains of sacred buildings have also been found. This material is of special interest in that it corroborates old religious traditions preserved by folklore, which gives added reliability to both of these sources. But archaeological material can at best furnish only a partial and incomplete picture, even though it is meaningful in some respects. Historical documents, already partially compiled and published, could be expected to yield much more information. Their value, however, is made problematic by the fact that all such documents were written by foreigners, mainly Germans who, in the course of their centuries-long eastward expansion, subjugated the Baltic peoples and exterminated some of them. Since the conquerors did not understand the Baltic languages, many documents contain the names of gods and other divinities that are without basis in fact. Baltic religion was viewed dogmatically and negatively in the light of Christian interpretations. Linguistic source material, also compiled by foreigners, shows fewer signs of interpretation, especially in regard to toponymy. Baltic folklore—one of the most extensive folklores of all European peoples—contains the greatest amount of material, especially in the form of dainas (short folk songs of four lines each) and folktales. Folklore is especially valuable because it contains many concepts that elsewhere have been lost under the influence of Christianity. Old religious beliefs have persisted because the Germans, after conquering the Baltic lands in the 13th and 14th centuries, made practically no attempt at Christianization and contented themselves with only economic gains. The positive result of this policy is the preservation of old traditions and religious beliefs; some researchers have also noted the similarity between the metrical structure of the dainas and that of the Old Indian short verses in the Rigveda (a Hindu sacred scripture).

The student of Baltic religion still encounters two difficulties. First, as has been noted, since written documents were established in Christian times, Christian influences in them are inescapable. Such influences cause difficulties and make a critical approach mandatory. Second, after the establishment of political independence of the Baltic countries following World War I, there arose a certain national romanticism that has attempted to identify Baltic culture with that of the ancient Indo-Europeans. Thus, an uncritical approach has led even to the introduction of “gods” that are actually only etymological derivations from the names of Christian saints. On the other hand, those western European scholars who are unfamiliar with the special historical and social circumstances of the Balts have assumed Baltic folklore to be on a level with the thoroughly Christianized western European folklore and thus have underestimated its importance.

Mythology

Cosmology

In the traditions of the Baltic peoples, there are no epic myths about the creation of the world and its structure. This fact is explained by the historical and social circumstances mentioned above, which either have hindered the formation of these types of myths or, more likely, have simply made their preservation impossible. Furthermore, there has been no significant research concerning Baltic myths and their interrelationships. Fragmentary evidence found exclusively in folklore indicates only two complexes of ideas with any certainty: the first concerns the structure of the world, the second the enmity between Saule (“Sun”) and Mēness (Latvian; Lithuanian Mėnulis; “Moon”).

There is disagreement as to whether the Balts pictured the world as consisting of two regions or of three. The two-region hypothesis seems to be more plausible and is supported by a dualism found frequently in the dainas: šī saule(literally “this sun”) and viņa saule (literally “the other sun”). The metaphor šī saule symbolizes ordinary everyday human life, while viņa saule indicates the invisible world where the sun goes at night, which is also the abode of the dead.

The evidence does not show conclusively whether this world is located in the direction of the setting sun or under the earth, beneath which the sun travels back to the east. The sky is considered to be a mountain, sometimes of stone, and is the residence of the sky gods. Saule rides over the sky in a chariot drawn by a varying number of horses, Mēness rides to be married, and Pērkons (Latvian; Lithuanian Perkūnas; “Thunderer”) makes weapons and jewelry in the sky.

The concept that Saule, unseen during the night, makes her way from west to east under the earth so that she can start her course anew over the sky mountain is also familiar. It is also possible to see here the ancient idea of a world ocean on which the earth, as a round plate, swims, an idea that has disappeared under the influence of Christianity.

The notion of a sun tree, or world tree, is one of the most important concepts regarding the cosmos. This tree grows at the edge of the path of Saule, and the setting sun (Saule) hangs her belt on the tree in preparation for rest. It is usually considered to be an oak but is also described as a linden or some other kind of tree. The tree is said to be located in the middle of the world ocean or generally to the west.

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