By David Crystal

New from Cambridge University Press!

By Peter Mark Roget

This book "supplies a vocabulary of English words and idiomatic phrases 'arranged … according to the ideas which they express'. The thesaurus, continually expanded and updated, has always remained in print, but this reissued first edition shows the impressive breadth of Roget's own knowledge and interests."

The ''Ecology of Language'' is a collection of twenty-four articles analyzing sometheoretical aspects of the ecological metaphor in language studies anddescribing the complexity of language networks in selected areas.

All chapters are built around a common structure: after a short 'introduction',the authors move from some historical background in the 'early developments'section, through the overview of linguistic panorama ('major contributions'),analysis of current activity ('work in progress'), summary of 'problems anddifficulties' involved, to the final prognosis in 'future directions'.

Section 1, on the historical and theoretical background to the ecologicalperspective, opens with a chapter by the great campaigners for linguistic rightsand language equalities, Tove Skuttnabb-Kangas and Robert Phillipson. With anumber of references to historical and contemporary legislation on the issue,the authors argue for more comprehensive legal protection of languages. Thedangers of subtractive language learning are presented as a threat to diversitynecessary for harmonious biological survival of our planet. Multidisciplinaryfocus on LHR (linguistic human rights) is called for and the central role ofeducation is emphasized in the struggle for the preservation of local andstrategic knowledge encoded in local languages.

Once the reader is comfortably settled with the ecological metaphor, the secondchapter, by John Edwards, upsets the picture, criticizing the 'language ecology'model as limiting instead of enhancing our understanding of the socio-linguisticrelations. ''The Ecology of language: insight and illusion'' argues against thebiological description of language; the author rejects the approach as of nopractical relevance and obscuring the problems of linguistic diversity. ForEdwards, the 'ecology of language' is simply another political ideologicalinstrument which does not advance the scientific study. The author criticizesthe 'ecological enterprise' in reference to language as biased and one-sided, incontrast to the holistic implication of the term 'ecology'. In the chapter, thelanguage ecology model is presented as ''deeply flawed'' and the advocates oflinguistic rights are said to replace one demagogy with another. The campaignfor linguistic rights, according to Edwards, has to be relegated to an elementof the much more general problem of pluralistic societies, with the suggestionsof replacing 'rights' with 'claims', and placing them within the moral ratherthan legal realm. Edwards discredits the lists of advantages of theecology-of-language model (Skuttnabb-Kangas 2000, Phillipson 1992, orMühlhäusler 1996) as largely ''naïve'', ''questionable'', ''unoriginal' or''truistic''. Sceptical views on the problems of linguistic imperialism seemtypical for a representative of the 'inner circle'. In the same manner, Edwardswarns against making education and literacy responsible for cultural endangeringof minor languages (''villains''). Consequently, he also discards the romanticviews on minor languages and cultures, as ''harmful and unrealistic'', toemphasise the benefits of standard international language.

In chapter 3, ''Language ecology and language ideology'', Adrian Blackledge givesan overview of the major applications of the ecological paradigm by Haugen(1972), Fill and Mühlhäusler (2001), Hornberger (2002), Ricento (2000, 2006),and refers to the related linguistic rights issue (Skuttnabb-Kangas 2000 andPhillipson 1992). Blackledge focuses on the interrelation of language ideologyand politics, problematising national identity issues, linked to previousscholarly debates and discussions of speech communities. The role of educationalpolicies in supporting identity through language policies is discussed andBourdieu's (1990, 1998) analysis of symbolic value of language is presented.Blackledge summarizes May's position on the interplay of language and identity(2004, 2005) and refers to the Irvine and Gal studies of language practice(1995). The chapter finishes with suggestions of future research directions; thework of Gal (2006), May (2004), Creese and Martin (2003) or Stevenson andMar-Malinero (2006) point towards research on multilingual practices, linguisticcomplementarity. On the whole, Blackledge's chapter is mostly an overview ofmajor research in the area of ecology and ideology of language, past andpresent, and the presentation of key research ideas.

For Robert B. Kaplan and Richard Baldauf (chapter 4), the ecology perspectivehelps to present language policy in the context of mutual interaction oflanguages, inside and across polities. Changes to language ecology, broughtabout by missionary activities (language spread or translation necessary forreligious instruction), colonization or economic globalization (English) havebecome a frequent problem of modern times. Kaplan and Baldauf use the languagecontext of Japan to illustrate the intricate mix of languages in one country.Language planners are warned not to ignore the whole context of languagerelations and influences; the biological metaphor proves useful in the analysis,even if not totally appropriate.

Section 1 closes with Leo van Lier's ''The ecology of language learning andsociocultural theory''. Drawing on the work of Vygotsky (1997) and J. Gibson(1979), van Lier relates the theories of perception to language learning. Hetries to show 'identity' and 'self' as separate concepts, with sociocultural andecological argumentation. Neisser's (1988) typology of self-knowledge is used todistinguish between 'the perceived self' and 'the reflected self', to drawanalogies to language development later, with central prominence given toperception and action. For more comprehensive application in language learning,Van Lier emphasizes the need to supplement Neisser's model with the emotionalsphere and orientation to the future. He views second language learning as theperception and action in the new 'languaculture', accompanied by the developmentof new 'voice'. Consequently, the active acquisition of a new language should besupported by the appropriate 'pedagogical scaffolding', which van Lierencourages on three levels: macro, meso and micro. Both the ecological andsociocultural framework allow one to mark out the appropriate guidelines.

Having provided the historical and theoretical framework, the book moves on todiscuss particular language ecologies of selected areas (Section 2). Sandra Kippdescribes the situation of Australian community languages, placing emphasis onchanging governmental policies, inconsistent data, educational provisions,language shifts and changing hierarchy of languages. Throughout the history ofthe country, LOTEs (languages other than English) have been submitted to variedtreatment: from a laissez faire approach, through enforced monolingualism,abuse, disregard, to partial recognition and state support of communitylanguages. The data on multilingualism is not consistent or comprehensive; thelanguage question appeared on the National Census in 1976, was excluded from the1981 census and reformulated in 1986 to refer only to languages used ''in thehome''. Kipp includes 4 tables with statistics on top community languages between1976-2001, use of languages by 0-14 year-olds, language shift in 2001 and 1996and the languages in schools. Cultural distance, values, group cohesion andgeographical concentration are indicated as contributing to the multilingualismof Australia. A number of case studies are quoted, building a clear picture ofLOTEs in the country. The author considers the providers of language programmes(regular day schools, schools of languages and after-hours ethnic schools),language examinations, language maintenance and the relative position oflanguages conditioned by factors such as stringent assessment, language statusor economic significance. Still, with 43 languages examinable and more than 200languages used, Australia is a useful model of rich and changing linguisticdemography.

Andy Chebanne traces the historical marginalization of the major languages ofSouthern Africa’s original inhabitants: the Khoe and the San. A complexsituation of numerous other languages in the area is illustrated, with theexamples of languages disappearing, dying, threatened, surviving, rejected orcodified and standardized to assist in maintenance. The educational policy ofSingapore is shown to have shaped its current linguistic mix, with 4 officiallanguages, English as the teaching medium, and some moves towards changes ofschool policies (Anthea Gupta). In Arturo Tosi's analysis, Italy emerges as abattleground of local dialects with the instrumental imposition of a nationallanguage. Yasir Suleiman focuses on phonological aspects of language change inJordan, with reference to the gender factor; a ''sex-based account'' of languageshift or switch. Luis Lopez emphasizes the need for curriculum diversificationin Latin America, repositioning of orality in education and the indigenous viewof a ''language in life''.

The various panoramas of the linguistic mosaic in different places in the worlddemonstrate some similarities -- the role of language in creating nationalbonds, promotion of lingua francas, ''stigmatization of local dialects, called'weeds''' (Arturo Tosi), language evolution, shift or death.

The linguistic ecology of diasporas is dealt with in a separate section (3).James Collins describes the situation in the Malay world. In his appeal for athorough study of endangered languages of the Malay, Collins emphasizes thecomplexity of language choice in the area. Shuhan C. Wang, examining theposition of the Chinese language in the US, shows the American language policiesas mostly monolingual, prioritizing assimilation rather than pluralism, ignoringreal language needs. Peter G. Sercombe, in his study of the language problems ofthe Penan in Borneo, exposes the mechanisms of stigmatizing the local language.Jacomine Nortier focuses on the Moroccan minority in the Netherlands to questionacculturation into Dutch as a way of managing identity problems.

The different pedagogical ways of addressing local language ecologies arepresented in Section 4. Margie Probyn writes about the choice of school languagein South Africa and its social reasons and consequences. Alexandra Jaffe reportson her fieldwork in a bilingual school in Corsica, considering the role of apolynomic practice in legitimating linguistic variety. Yasoko Kanno studies therelatively recent issue of foreign nationals in Japan requiring Japaneseinstruction. The code-switching practices and battles of ideologies in bilingualclassrooms in Brunei are described by Mukul Saxena. Angela Creese and PeterMartin choose a case study of a Gujarati complementary school in England, tolook at ''bilingual and bicultural spaces in an institutional context''.

The final section (5) groups articles on the ecology of literacies. NancyHornberger refers to her model of 'continua of biliteracy' to demonstrate itspracticality and usefulness in the ecological framework of study. The literacypractices of the inhabitants of Hong Kong are the subject of Angel M.Y. Lin'swork. Kat Pahl gives an overview of research (past and present) on the ecologiesof language and literacies in homes, schools and communities, emphasising theimportance of theoretical frameworks of Bourdieu and Foucault.

The book closes with a chapter on digital literacies (by Karin Tusting). Themajor contributors to the ecological perspective on the multimodal, interactive,new literacies are presented; the summary of their work illustrates the changingnature of learning and knowledge construction.

EVALUATION

It is interesting that in a book devoted to the ecological paradigm there is aplace for critical and sceptical evaluation of the usefulness or validity of theapproach. Contrasting the strong views of campaigners for the maintenance oflinguistic biodiversity (Skuttnab-Kangas, Phillipson) with sceptical comments onthe illusory and misleading value of organic description of languages (JohnEdwards) in the first chapters forces the reader to re-think the ideology and becautious in drawing further analogies. Alternating enthusiastic and criticalstances from the very beginning encourages much more involved reading. Hence,the subsequent analysis of various linguascapes inspires different comments andfuture prognosis.

The variety of problems linked to language ecology help to expose themultiplicity of possible approaches. At the same time, however, the breadth ofthe multidisciplinary view can be quite inhibiting. In just the fiveintroductory chapters the reader has to reflect on topics such as: nationalism,social symbolism, sociocultural theory, psychological ideas, modes of seeing andperception typology of self-knowledge, identity problems, pedagogicalscaffolding, legal formulations, political ideology biodiversity, educationalpolitics, economic conditioning, discourse analysis, and language planning.

The danger of the spread of English is clearly demonstrated throughout, althoughsignificantly downplayed by the British contributor to the volume.

Newcomers to the field can find a good summary of relevant research, as all thechapters are rich in references to previous studies of the problem. On the otherhand, the long sequences of names and dates at times make it difficult to graspthe ideas of the author. To give due credit to the research done, the scholarsbreak the sentences so often that the reader is lost trying to grasp themessage. However, some chapters, especially in the section devoted to particularcase studies, offer a welcome respite from the abundance of scholarly referencesby providing an interesting and clear comment and prognosis, easy to follow alsoto those without the necessary academic slant.

The common scaffolding of all chapters organizes the content of the chaptersalong the same lines; the reader knows what to expect, can compare particularsections (though there are occasional diversions). This predictable routine canbe both useful and tiring, sometimes leaving the impression that the authors,forced into identical structure, were limited in their creative approaches.Still, they manage to attract the readers' attention with their topic and style;e.g. Arturo Tosi's chapter on Italy is full of inspiring and poetical ideas,expressed in thought-provoking phrases.

For readers eager to see the practical implications of scholarly debates, thegreat value of the book lies in the references to education policies andplanning. Most chapters refer to language curriculum or the impact of compulsoryeducation and the school system.

Whether the ecological metaphor seems more or less adequate or appealing, thebook provides enough interesting material to problematise linguistic diversityin a context conducive to the awareness of the linguistic richness of our globeand the importance of the survival of the fittest and the weakest forpreservation of the planet which needs to speak with a variety of voices. Theeducational sector needs to respond appropriately.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER:
Dr. Anna Gonerko-Frej is the Head of the English Department at Szczecin
University, Poland. She is a teacher trainer, language teacher, textbook
consultant and a researcher. Her main areas of interest are linguistic
imperialism, culture in language teaching, intercultural learning, language
policy and identity issues in language.