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The Great Migration

The Great Migration refers to the
relocation of hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the rural areas of the
South to urban areas in the North during the years between 1915 and 1930. Although
many of those who left the rural South migrated to southern urban areas, most
migrants moved to cities in the North. It was the largest movement northward and into
cities that had occurred among African Americans to that point in history. The United
States' entrance into World War I in 1917 played an important role in this movement,
as the demand for additional labor grew in war-related industries at the same time
that white workers were siphoned off to serve in the armed forces. Immigration also
slowed dramatically, removing another source of labor for American industry. African
American labor was one of the key alternative sources sought by these industries to
enable them to respond to the growing demand for war-related goods. Industrial jobs
that had not been previously available to African Americans now became accessible in
greater quantity and variety. This flood of African American migrants dramatically
changed the demography of many cities in both the North and South, as the percentage
of African American residents exploded. Cities like New York; Philadelphia and
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and Chicago, Illinois, saw their African American
populations grow by 50 percent or more during this period. This population surge
placed great pressure on the municipal services and housing supply of these cities.
It created growing tension between residents as they competed for places to live and
for jobs, particularly after the war ended. As a consequence, the Great Migration
pushed issues of race more to the forefront in the North. It also heightened these
issues for the South as concern increased about the loss of workers in rural areas
and the presence of growing African American populations in some of its cities. The
movement added greater impact to a statement made by the African American
intellectual W. E. B. Du Bois, who posited in 1903 that one of the critical issues of
the twentieth century would be the question of the color line. MORE...

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Leaving Oppression

On the eve of World War I, living conditions
for African Americans in the South were oppressive. Segregation and discrimination dominated nearly
every aspect of their lives. Jim
Crow laws and outright intimidation dictated where they went to school,
where they sat on public transportation, where they lived, and whether they could
assert their right to
vote. In Virginia, their political status was clearly impacted by the
Virginia
Constitution of 1902, which included a poll tax provision and an "understanding"
clause—additional layers of screening for citizens who would otherwise qualify to
vote. Under these provisions, local registrars were given the authority to charge
a fee (a tax) to voters, as well as to ask random questions of potential voters in
order to determine their qualification to vote. African Americans rarely passed
these "tests," and therefore were not allowed to register. The Virginia
Constitution, consequently, dramatically reduced the number of African Americans
who qualified to vote and essentially removed them from the political process.

Other statutes in the state further reinforced the lower status of African
Americans. Virginia state law required the separation of riders in railroad cars,
on steamboats, and in streetcars. It also barred black and white children from
attending the same schools and authorized the creation of "segregation districts"
in cities. Under this law city councils were to prepare maps showing the
boundaries of the segregated areas and detailing the numbers of white or black
persons living within each segregation district. African Americans were not to
move into white districts and whites were not to move into African American
districts.

In the years leading up to the Great Migration, two-thirds of African Americans in
the South lived in rural areas, working in lumber camps, as farm laborers, or as
sharecroppers who rented land on which they grew crops to make a living. While
cotton was the primary crop in most southern states, it did not dominate in
Virginia, which was more agriculturally diversified through the cultivation of
tobacco, wheat, and vegetables.
This work provided a meager existence for most black laborers, who were fortunate
when they earned enough merely to cover expenses for the year. But employment
options were limited since access to the better-paying industrial jobs was not
available to them.

The threat of violence also hung over their
lives. African Americans were expected to accept their status at the bottom rungs
of the social and economic ladder humbly and deferentially. Challenges to the
system could result in serious consequences ranging from threats to physical
beatings to death as a way of reminding African Americans of their "place." Lynching—an almost ritualized act
of torture and murder—was widespread throughout the South between 1890 and 1930.
The National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People recorded more than 2,000 lynchings during
this period. Virginia had a relatively lower number of these occurrences than did
other southern states, but they did take place. Two men, for example, were lynched
in 1917 and one in 1918. These incidents stood as a powerful warning to African
Americans across the state of the possible consequences of defying their unequal
status. This reminder was reinforced through numerous additional non-fatal, but
highly intimidating actions directed toward African Americans. For example, in
July 1910, black Norfolk citizens who were celebrating the victory of African
American boxer Jack Johnson over his white opponent Jim Jeffries were pulled from
streetcars and beaten for "being insolent." This combination of physical
intimidation, social control, and economic restriction left African Americans
struggling to carve out a productive and relatively safe place for themselves
within southern society.

Urban and Northern Realities

At the start of World War I, large numbers of African Americans made the decision
to leave the South and to take advantage of new opportunities in the North. It is
estimated that between 1910 and 1920 more than four hundred thousand people left,
and that between 1920 and 1930 at least another half million people relocated
north. A majority of these migrants were residents of Deep South states such as
Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Louisiana, where living conditions were
particularly harsh. Floods, boll weevil attacks on cotton, lynchings, and
segregation were among factors pushing them to leave. These migrants traveled
either by boat up the Mississippi River or used the Illinois Central Railroad to
go to St. Louis, Missouri; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Chicago. Residents of
Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia who made the decision to leave used the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad, the Southern Railway, or boats on the Ohio River for transport to Gary,
Indiana; Cincinnati and Cleveland, Ohio; Pittsburgh; and Detroit, Michigan.

Residents of the Atlantic seaboard migrating
from Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, or Maryland also
had several options. They could travel by boat using the ports of Savannah,
Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina; Norfolk, Virginia; or Baltimore, Maryland; to go to Philadelphia,; New
York; Newark, New Jersey; or Boston, Massachusetts. The Old Dominion Line ran
boats twice a week from Virginia to New York, and in the 1920s a family of four
could make this trip for about $25. This was not inexpensive, but a family's
commitment to saving for such an important purpose made the trip achievable. They
also had the option to travel on the Atlantic Coast or the Southern railroads to
Washington, D.C., where they could transfer to the Pennsylvania Railroad, whose
lines ran north toward New York or west toward Pittsburgh. Train fare from
Virginia to New York was about $7.50. During this twenty-year period, more than
two hundred thousand African Americans from Virginia left the state.

The pathway north was not usually a straight journey from southern rural locations
to northern cities. Migrants made several stops along the way, often during the
course of several months, before they reached their final destination. Most often
the first move in this process of "step migration" was to towns and cities within
their home state, particularly to places where job opportunities were expanding
because of the war. In Virginia, Richmond and Norfolk experienced significant increases in African
American residents during this period. Richmond's population grew by 12 percent
and Norfolk's by more than 70 percent. Richmond was home to one of the largest
locomotive plants in the world, a major flour mill, significant tobacco
operations, and important iron manufacturing companies. Early in the war Norfolk
was selected as one of the key embarkation points for troops and supplies going to
Europe. As one of the primary naval bases on the Atlantic Coast, it needed
workers. Norfolk
Shipbuilding and Drydock, Texas Oil, and British-American Tobacco, among
others, sought dock workers and laborers to help them manufacture and ship
materials.

The chance to make more money and improve one's circumstances was a strong draw.
African American workers hoped in the process to gain access to jobs in
well-established companies that might stretch out into the future. For some this
move met their expectations and they settled into their new lives for the long
term, but for others this proved to be only a temporary stop. Whatever those
residents found in these cities did not provide enough incentive to stay. A number
of issues impacted the decision whether to stay or to go.

Along with increased wages, migrants hoped to
find better living conditions in their new locations. They were frequently
disappointed. African American sections of southern cities suffered from poorly
maintained roads, dilapidated housing, poor sanitation, and subpar educational
facilities. A 1927 report on housing for African Americans in Richmond described
conditions as horrible. African American residents of Norfolk also complained to
city officials about lack of streetlights, sewers, and paved streets. Parents
further complained about a dearth of decent playgrounds for their children. They
were frustrated by the modern facilities built in white neighborhoods while their
facilities steadily deteriorated.

While some residents chose to protest to city officials, others decided to seek a
new life elsewhere. For them the offer of better wages was just one of many
factors that drew them north. Better educational opportunities and greater
personal freedom also proved enticing. These factors made potential migrants more
open to the encouragement of relatives, friends, and others in the North who
suggested they relocate.

Individuals who decided to go north got their
information about the opportunities there through a variety of sources. Many
companies sent labor recruiters south to let workers know about available
opportunities. Early in the war the Pennsylvania Railroad sent labor recruiters
south to find people to work for them and other companies. Recruiters were often
sent to areas where they had family or friends who trusted them and might be ready
to relocate. The naval yards on Hog Island in Philadelphia also actively
advertised for workers. They offered wages that were significantly higher than
black workers could earn in Virginia. The more than three dollars a day available
in Philadelphia was a significant improvement over the less than one dollar a day
made by the average farm laborer.

African American newspapers also served as
sources of encouragement. The Chicago Defender, run by
Robert S. Abbott, circulated widely throughout the nation and actively encouraged
migration. It offered editorials and stories extolling the virtues of life in the
North, and also included advertisements from northern companies highlighting their
need for workers and noting the high wages they paid. The Pittsburgh Courier played a similar role in that city. In Virginia the
Richmond Planet, operated by John Mitchell, strongly
supported migration. Mitchell, who once was threatened with lynching, actively
campaigned against it and also led a turn-of-the-century boycott of Richmond's
streetcars. As a staunch opponent of segregation, he counseled African Americans
to consider leaving rather than submit to mistreatment.

An even more important source of information
was news obtained from family and friends who already lived in the North.
Philadelphia, for example, had been a destination for African Americans leaving
Virginia for many years. In his book The Philadelphia Negro
(1899), W. E. B. Du Bois noted the large number of residents who had migrated
there from Virginia by the turn of the century. He also noted how their travels
included several stops along the way in smaller towns and cities like Roanoke,
Richmond, or Norfolk. These longtime residents of Philadelphia became important
contact points of information for later migrants. When they moved to Philadelphia
or other northern locations, these earlier travelers did not lose contact with
family and friends they left behind. Communication continued on a regular
basis.

Letters sent home offered one avenue of updates about jobs, wages, and living
conditions. Even better was the direct exchange of information when individuals
either traveled to Philadelphia to visit or when visitors came south for special
occasions. African American newspapers like the Norfolk Journal
and Guide carried regular reports of these travels, illustrating a
constant stream of people traveling between Norfolk and various locations in the
North. The visits insured a consistent flow of information between southern
residents and people they knew living in the North. This connection enabled
Virginia residents to make informed decisions about where to go and the best times
to leave if they hoped to optimize their chances of finding work.

Consequently, migrants rarely left on a whim or a sudden impulse. Instead the
process of leaving often was a meticulously planned event. While some northern
companies might provide train tickets to their cities, this was not the norm. Most
migrants had to accumulate the capital to afford to move themselves and/or their
family members north. This might take weeks or months to accomplish. Men with
families frequently traveled north first, obtained a job, and then saved enough to
locate housing for their families before bringing them north to live. Knowledge
obtained in advance from family and friends in northern cities made this process
less random and increased chances of success. Quite often these contacts provided
temporary housing or introductions at places of work for people they knew. Indeed,
in many cities sizeable enclaves of people from one state or community developed.
They became safe and familiar havens for newcomers migrating north. Chicago
attracted many migrants from Mississippi and there were groupings of people from
specific towns in that state. In Philadelphia the years of migration from Virginia
created a strong presence of African Americans from that state who aided their
fellow Virginians.

Having family or friends to assist newcomers
did not insure the success of the move. Migrants found a very different world in
the North. While overall salaries were higher, migrants often were unable to get
the higher-paying or more-skilled jobs. They primarily wound up in lower-paying
positions as common laborers, stevedores, janitors, or warehousemen. Women most
often worked as cooks, maids, and laundresses. Housing frequently was crowded with
minimal sanitary conditions and the cost of living often was higher. It was not
unusual for a family to live in a one- or two-room apartment or to share living
accommodations with others. Predominantly African American enclaves like Harlem in
New York, the South Side in Chicago, and the Seventh Ward in Philadelphia emerged
as a consequence of the arrival of these waves of migrants.

White residents in these cities did not always
welcome the newest arrivals, especially when they sought housing in previously
all-white neighborhoods. Riots broke out in several northern cities as white
residents expressed their resentment and fears. In July 1918 violent
confrontations occurred in Philadelphia as African Americans began to move into
white neighborhoods and the residents there fought to keep them out. Four people
died in the four days of violence and several hundred people, black and white,
were injured. More riots took place the following summer, often referred to as the
"Red Summer of 1919," because so many riots broke out in other northern cities
where similar activities sparked major confrontations. The largest took place in
Chicago late in July and resulted in the deaths of thirty-eight people, including
twenty-three African Americans. More than five hundred people were injured and one
thousand families, mostly African American, were left homeless. Challenges like
these made survival even more of a struggle for migrants.

What counterbalanced these challenges was the
greater freedom migrants found in the North. Their children had better
opportunities to get a high school education. In rural areas in the South, most
children did not get past sixth grade as local landowners often encouraged parents
to put their children to work as early as possible. And, most important, the
living environment was less oppressive. While discrimination existed in the North,
it did not demand the daily indignities and subservience synonymous with of life
in the South. Integrated schools existed, city-owned facilities like libraries and
playgrounds allowed access, and public transportation was not segregated. African
Americans also had the opportunity to actively participate in the political
system. Their votes were important and sought by local politicians, black and
white. Living in the North gave migrants an opportunity to exercise their rights
as citizens in ways they could not in the South. This opportunity in itself made
the struggle in other parts of their lives more worthwhile. As one Philadelphia
minister noted, "There is prejudice here, too, but the color line isn't drawn in
their faces at every turn as it is in the South. It all gets back to a question of
manhood." Northern life was not perfect, but in balance it offered more positives
as compared to living in the South.

The Great Migration fueled an important shift
in the demographic center and the role of African Americans in the United States.
This shift to northern cities continued beyond 1930, with a larger surge in the
years after World War II (1939–1945). As a result, by 1970 Africans Americans had
transformed from a rural and southern population to an urban and northern one. In
addition, they adopted a more aggressive stance toward racial discrimination,
which fueled growing civil rights activism. As participants in this movement,
Virginians relocated to Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New York, and other cities
mainly on the Atlantic seaboard. They helped transform these cities and,
eventually, the way the nation thought about race and equality.