Toward a product-based typology for nature-based tourism: a conceptual framework

The traditional view of nature-based tourists as a relatively homogeneous group has been questioned, and several scholars have suggested various segmentation typologies. This paper discusses market and industry changes and notes key trends, as Fordist tourist products have been replaced by post-Fordist and neo-Fordist products, with both McDonaldization and McDisneyization developments. A range of visitor-based typologies are reviewed, and the conflict between capturing the diversity of today's nature-based tourists while offering management bodies simple tools to segment visitors, identify core groups and improve their marketing is noted. In an attempt to overcome this conflict, the paper presents a conceptual framework which focuses on nature-based tourism products instead of tourist types, therefore incorporating aspects of both the demand and supply sides of the nature-based tourism industry market. A two-dimensional matrix is suggested, linking four basic travel motivations (nature conservation, nature experience, sports/adventure and hedonistic) to four different types of tourist products (independent, ala carte, customized and standardized), giving a total typology of 16 different types. The matrix should help protected area managers to better understand tourist needs, suggest management measures and help to create more sustainable forms of tourism. Empirical testing is suggested as a next step. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

A global perspective on trends in nature-based tourism

Reports of rapid growth in nature-based tourism and recreation add significant weight to the economic case for biodiversity conservation but seem to contradict widely voiced concerns that people are becoming increasingly isolated from nature. This apparent paradox has been highlighted by a recent study showing that on a per capita basis, visits to natural areas in the United States and Japan have declined over the last two decades. These results have been cited as evidence of "a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation"-but how widespread is this phenomenon? We address this question by looking at temporal trends in visitor numbers at 280 protected areas (PAs) from 20 countries. This more geographically representative dataset shows that while PA visitation (whether measured as total or per capita visit numbers) is indeed declining in the United States and Japan, it is generally increasing elsewhere. Total visit numbers are growing in 15 of the 20 countries for which we could get data, with the median national rate of change unrelated to the national rate of population growth but negatively associated with wealth. Reasons for this reversal of growth in the richest countries are difficult to pin down with existing data, but the pattern is mirrored by trends in international tourist arrivals as a whole and so may not necessarily be caused by disaffection with nature. Irrespective of the explanation, it is clear that despite important downturns in some countries, nature-related tourism is far from declining everywhere, and may still have considerable potential both to generate funds for conservation and to shape people's attitudes to the environment..

A Global Perspective on Trends in Nature-Based Tourism

Falling attendance at United States and Japanese national parks has led to claims of a pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation. A global analysis, however, now suggests that while visit rates are declining slightly in some richer countries, elsewhere nature tourism is booming. Reports of rapid growth in nature-based tourism and recreation add significant weight to the economic case for biodiversity conservation but seem to contradict widely voiced concerns that people are becoming increasingly isolated from nature. This apparent paradox has been highlighted by a recent study showing that on a per capita basis, visits to natural areas in the United States and Japan have declined over the last two decades. These results have been cited as evidence of aa fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreationaabut how widespread is this phenomenon? We address this question by looking at temporal trends in visitor numbers at 280 protected areas (PAs) from 20 countries. This more geographically representative dataset shows that while PA visitation (whether measured as total or per capita visit numbers) is indeed declining in the United States and Japan, it is generally increasing elsewhere. Total visit numbers are growing in 15 of the 20 countries for which we could get data, with the median national rate of change unrelated to the national rate of population growth but negatively associated with wealth. Reasons for this reversal of growth in the richest countries are difficult to pin down with existing data, but the pattern is mirrored by trends in international tourist arrivals as a whole and so may not necessarily be caused by disaffection with nature. Irrespective of the explanation, it is clear that despite important downturns in some countries, nature-related tourism is far from declining everywhere, and may still have considerable potential both to generate funds for conservation and to shape people's attitudes to the environment. Author Summary Nature-based tourism is frequently described as one of the fastest growing sectors of the world's largest industry, and a very important justification for conservation. However, a recent, high profile report has interpreted declining visit rates to US and Japanese national parks as evidence of a pervasive shift away from nature tourism. Here we use the largest database so far compiled on trends in visits to Protected Areas around the world to resolve this apparent paradox. We find that, while visit ratesameasured in two different waysaare indeed declining in some wealthy countries, in roughly three-quarters of the nations where data are available, visits to Protected Areas are increasing. Internationally, rates of growth in the number of visits to such areas show a clear negative association with per capita income, which interestingly is matched by trends in foreign arrivals as a whole. Our results therefore suggest that, despite worrying local downturns, nature-related tourism is far from declining everywhere, and may still have considerable potential to generate funds for conservation and engage people with the environment..

Sustainable management of an alpine national park: handling the two-edged effect of tourism

Attracting visitors to an alpine national park can open up additional sources of funding for species conservation. However, tourism also brings ecologically negative impacts to the park and, in particular, to endangered species. In this paper, we discuss the handling of this two-edged effect of nature-based tourism within the context of a national park's management decision. We develop a stylized model which frames the interaction of a representative largely unknown species, its habitat, and park visitors in an alpine ecosystem. In applying this to the protection of a rock partridge population in the Hohe Tauern National Park (Austria), we illustrate that a combined visitor and species protection policy can maximize steady state net benefits from tourism and conservation, while ensuring that the endangered species reaches its conservation target in the long run. Thus, even for a small, largely unknown species such as the rock partridge, and not only for popular species like the golden eagle, it is possible to endogenously generate a conservation budget by attracting visitors. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Bimonte, S. 2008, European Journal of Tourism Research Vol 1 side 112-127.

This study investigates and discusses the controversial question of whether nature-based tourists (NBTs) are more sensitive to socio-cultural and environmental resources, have different attitudes toward local products and more positive economic effects on host communities and destinations than beach tourists (BTs). In order to test these aspects, a simultaneous comparative analysis of these two types of tourist based on an a priori and activity-based segmentation was carried out. Data was collected by questionnaire at two sites in the Maremma (a costal area in southern Tuscany, Italy), each specific to the type of tourist investigated. In line with the findings of other studies, the results confirm that NBTs are older, more educated, more affluent, and more often employed in professional occupations than BTs. They also confirm the hypothesis that NBTs are more sensitive to environmental quality and have a more positive socio-economic impact. This study likewise highlights the strong role played by psychographic information in explaining tourist behavior. Three innovative findings concerning the relationship between income, education, personal commitment to the environment and tourist type are discussed at the end. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Brandscaping: From Traditional Cultural Landscapes to "Label Regions": A Strategic Scheme to Achieve Sustainable Regional Development in the Swiss Alps

Sustainable regional development is a long-term goal for Alpine landscapes and habitats in Switzerland. Areas of high ecological quality and sufficient socio-cultural potential, but insufficient economic power, are looking for long-term perspectives. The economic options of structurally weak peripheral regions could be improved significantly through "brandscaping," ie a certification strategy for Label Regions focusing on sustainability, thereby "producing" new types of landscapes. An adequate implementation strategy should be based on a reliable indicator system, which should finally lead to certification procedures for regional management. But the implementation of Label Regions (with certification) is only feasible under an innovative development scenario in which the socioeconomic and political environment facilitates such strategies. Labeling intends to offer regional producers an advantage in the nature-based tourism market as well as for other quality products and services, and must be effectively promoted by regional as well as sectoral policies, thus shaping traditional landscapes into "brandscapes." [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Enhancing the Role of Host Communities in the Management of Protected Areas through Effective Two-way Communications: A Case Study

The use of protected areas by the tourism industry and the subsequent impacts on host communities have been well documented. Less is known about the levels of knowledge that communities have about protected areas and how the members of host communities learn about these areas. If information search patterns used by local residents are not understood or, at worst, ignored, protected area managers may find difficulty gaining support from local communities. The research reported in this study investigates the relationship between local communities and management authorities using a case study approach based on the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area (WTQWHA). The paper examines how residents of the communities that surround the WTQWHA seek out information on the nearby protected rainforest area and identifies the information delivery methods preferred by the community. Data used in the study were collected via a community survey (n = 853) conducted in 2007. Findings indicated that the involvement of the local community in a genuine two-way communications process about conservation strategies and the development of recreation opportunities increase the level of support for the management agency as well as the retention of the protected area..

Cengiz, T. 2007, International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology Vol 14 side 260-267.

Protected areas are important potential areas from the point of view of ecological tourism because of their natural, historical and cultural richness. In this study, the environmental sustainability of protected areas has been investigated within a sample of the Karagöl-Sahara National Park in Turkey. This national park has, so far, had little exposure to recreational and tourism activities. However, an increase in the number of tourists visiting the park has been observed as a result of the demands of ecological tourism. This area was investigated with respect to ecological planning to prevent intensive usage from causing future damage, as a result of human thoughtlessness, and to protect the park. Additionally, the aim was to determine the usage potential using ecological planning and to propose variations of ecotourism thought to be helpful for the public. The Karagöl-Sahara National Park has valuable natural and cultural resources, and is an area whose recreation-tourism potential has been strongly protected. The national park also has major economic potential for ecotourism. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Evaluation Method for Ecotourism in Nature Reserves Based on Principles of Ecotourism and Its Application

An evaluation method for ecotourism in nature reserves was put forward based on the basic principles for ecotourism. Ten indexes that the nature reserve possessed to satisfy the needs of ecotourism were determined as nature-based tourism, motives of appreciation and learning, environmental and social cultural impacts, tourists' environmental attitudes, community attitudes to resource protection, conservation benefit from ecotourism, economic benefit of community, community participation, tourists' understanding and respect to local culture. Ecotourism was classified into three grades according to the total score of each index. The method was applied to evaluate Zhalong Nature Reserve. Result shows that the ecotourism in Zhalong Nature Reserves belongs to grade II, namely part ecotourism. Some suggests were proposed to improve the ecotourism management, such as to provide more nature experience and environmental education, form community participation in ecotourism, and blend more local culture with ecotoriusm..

Birdwatching, twitching and tourism: Towards an Australian perspective

Connell, J. 2009, Australian Geographer Vol 40 side 203-217.

Birdwatching has grown in importance in recent decades as a new variant of niche tourism, but has largely escaped geographical documentation. Global growth has been reflected in the development of tourism companies, websites and guidebook coverage, mainly in Western nations. New complexity and competition are reflected in the emergence of distinct sub-categories of birdwatchers. Birdwatching has been particularly significant in more remote places including deserts and wetlands, but particularly offshore islands, where more unusual and rare species are to be found. It has contributed to the economic development and environmental management of rural and remote areas, while also being one of the most ecologically sound and sustainable of versions of wildlife tourism..

Trail damage and vegetation loss due to recreation activities is an increasing problem in many natural areas. Managing ecological impacts through the selection of indicators and standards is a key component of developing a sustainable tourism industry, a process that appropriately is based on the judgment of different stakeholder groups. This study investigates stakeholder consensus regarding trail impacts and management preferences in the Norwegian community of Lom and the surrounding region. Evaluations are compared across three groups; tourists, residents with tourism-related income, and other residents. Results show a fairly high tolerance for trail impacts across stakeholder groups. Differences are more noticeable with respect to management actions that might be used to reduce ecological impacts, with tourists generally being more supportive of actions. Results suggest that consensus on relevant indicators and standards may be achieved relatively easily, but agreement on management actions may be more difficult..

Attitudes towards large carnivores and carnivore tourism among tourism entrepreneurs in Sweden

The return and the growth of large carnivore populations and especially the wolf population have caused a fierce public debate between advocates and opponents. In this debate the tourist perspective has been overshadowed by other interests, mostly by farmers and hunters, disregarded by the research and mostly promoted by environmental movement. Even if die tourism perspective has played a nearly non-existing role in the public debate it has become a much more important perspective due to growth in segments, of eco- and nature-based tourism as a tool for rural development and nature conservation. Previous research on attitudes towards large carnivores has systematically focused on public attitudes and attitudes among interests, negatively touched by these animals. The purpose of this article is to analyze the attitudes towards large carnivores and carnivore tourism among tourism entrepreneurs in the county of Värmland, Sweden. The main objective is to scrutinize the relationship between the entrepreneur's attitudes toward large carnivores and their attitudes towards, and opinion about the potential for, large carnivores as resource for tourism. The empirical data is based on survey responses from 134 entrepreneurs in spring 2004. Among other findings, the results suggest that we have to take place attachment and other place dependent aspects into account to fully understand how tourism entrepreneurs, who best represent the tourism perspective, and their attitudes affect their perceived potential for large carnivores as resources for tourism..

Improving the factual knowledge of landscapes: Following up the European Landscape Convention with a comparative historical analysis of forces of landscape change in the Sjodalen and Stølsheimen mountain areas, Norway

A focus of implementing the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in Norway is on improving the factual knowledge of landscapes, which implies analysing the forces transforming them. The article aims to identify important forces of change and to elucidate its complexity by a comparative historical study of land cover and land use in two mountain areas in Western and Eastern Norway. The land covers and uses in focus are transport infrastructure, seasonal farming, vegetation, tourism and outdoor recreation, and nature and landscape protection. Based on an understanding of forces as something being exerted, a framework including pressure, attraction, friction, repulsion, and working force is developed. A comprehensive literature analysis shows how differences in intensity and extent of land use and development of land cover result from a complex interaction of common extrinsic forces with locally different intrinsic forces. To control landscape change and to maintain diversity among landscapes as a Europe-wide resource, the national implementation of the ELC will require a strong focus on the local level. Moreover, understanding the ELC as an origin of forces is recommended, because it allows more appropriate individual responses to landscape change..

This article focuses on Italian charter tourists' experiences of North Cape, the site considered to be Europe's northernmost sport and the most privileged place for gazing at the Midnight Sun. My aim is to show that tourists' experiences and interpretation of a specific attraction are culturally shaped and contextually situated..

Primary Economic Impacts at Three Spatial Levels: The Case of Fulufjallet National Park, Sweden

The changing nature of Swedish national parks from a primarily resource protection emphasis to a more multiple use philosophy, including tourism, requires new ways of looking at park-related planning and development. Tourism must not be considered in a vacuum spatially but from a broad regional perspective as its economic impact is greater than just that which occurs in or adjacent to a park. The aim of this study was to analyze primary economic impacts (expenditures) at three different spatial levels (in the park, the gateway communities, and the region outside these gateway communities) associated with tourism to Fulufjallet National Park in Sweden. Results show that park visitors do have significant economic expenditures beyond the national park and nearby gateway communities. The probability of expenditures, and the magnitude of those expenditures, increases with a wider geographical scale of analysis. These observations illustrate the importance of examining national park tourism from a wider spatial perspective and to ensure a diversity of opportunities are available outside the park that will complement the activities inside the park..

Seasonal Differences in Visitor Perceptions: A Comparative Study of Three Mountainous National Parks in Central Europe

This paper compares the views and attitudes of visitors to three key mountain national parks and Biosphere Reserves: Sumava National Park (Sumava NP, Czech Republic), Krkonose National Park (KRNAP, Czech Republic) and Karkonoski Park Narodowy (KPN, Poland). A large numbers of people visit these destinations both in the summer (e.g. hikers and cyclists) and in the winter (e.g. hikers and skiers), which threatens sustainability and creates problems regarding the management of these areas. A comprehensive understanding of visitor use, including visitors' attitudes and perceptions, is fundamental for effective park management. Most research in these national parks is carried out during the summer season, therefore different results in the winter season are expected. Using a standardised socio-environmental survey we attempt to find seasonal differences between visitors and their opinions. A total of 2252 questionnaires were gathered. There were 13 common questions for these three national parks, three of them yielded significantly different results between the two seasons (visitors' nationality, type of accommodation and financial costs). Other differences were detected in one or two national parks. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Protected Areas in the Alps: The Success Factors of Nature-Based Tourism and the Challenge for Regional Policy

Hammer, T.S., D. 2008, Gaia Vol side 152-160.

In the rural periphery of the Alpine region nature-based tourism in protected areas can considerably contribute to regional development. In order to create positive effects for sustainable regional development, certain conditions have to be met. Based on a comprehensive two-stage Delphi survey of 27 experienced actors in protected areas and the neighbouring tourism associations in the Alpine region, 14 success factors in the following three categories could be identified: 1. general conditions of protected area tourism, 2. cooperation between the actors involved, and 3. design of tourism services and products. The success factors, and accordingly the nature-based tourism in protected areas, can and must be promoted by regional politics in order to achieve positive effects for regional development. This includes, among other things, the appreciation of protected areas as well as the adaptation of the respective regional policy instruments..

Harmony or Conflict? A Focus Group Study on Traditional Use and Tourism Development in and around Rondane and Jotunheimen National Parks in Norway

Rural industries in Norway are increasingly being marginalized, and rural populations are decreasing. Rural areas and the mountain landscapes which often characterize them are, however, highly valued for their biodiversity, and for amenity values, which in many cases are associated with national parks and other protected areas. In this context, the present study seeks to explore local stakeholders' views on issues associated with tourism development in Norwegian national parks - in particular, their personal interests, rural discourses and management planning processes. Four focus group meetings were undertaken in two prominent national parks in Norway, Rondane National Park and Jotunheimen National Park, and with two main user groups: traditional rural user interests and local tourism interests. Findings revealed strong support across all groups for the existence of the two national parks. Both groups in both parks were in favour of some level, and certain types, of tourism within the parks. The local tourism interests, however, felt more strongly than their counterparts that a more extensive tourism strategy was needed to support the local communities. A general frustration with the present management regime was noted among several stakeholders. A key conclusion is that local stakeholders should be significantly involved in future park management processes..

Current Tourism Patterns in the Swedish Mountain Region

Tourism has been part of the mountain economy in Sweden for the past century. With the current decline of the extractive industries in this rural area, tourism is taking on new significance for many communities. This article gives an overview of tourism in the extensive Swedish mountain region, with a focus on types of recreational activities and their regionality. The data presented are based on a national sample of participation in mountain tourism. Findings show that 43% of the Swedish adult population (2.66 million individuals) visited the mountains at least once during a 5-year period (1995-1999). Winter activities-skiing and snowmobiling-were the dominant forms of mountain recreation. Tourism activity patterns differ distinctively across the 4 mountain counties: whereas winter tourism dominates in the southern parts of the region, the north receives visitors mostly in the summer. Only 5% of visitors to the Swedish mountains are from outside Scandinavia. In a single year, 9 times as many people visited the Swedish mountains as live there, but despite these numbers the population in the region is continually decreasing..

Although horse-based tourism is an important and growing sector of the tourism industry, it has not been extensively researched. The findings from the current research project, which involved interviews with owners/ operators of horse-based tourism businesses and a survey of their business practices, suggest that they belong to a culture of horsemanship rather than a culture of tourism as business operations in a service industry. The background, interests and outlook of the participants is that of horsemen: that is people involved with the breeding, training and riding of horses. This is also what they expect their guests to be interested in, and a passion they believe to be shared between hosts and guests. The business operation, including finances, insurance and business plans, were topics that the participants seemed less knowledgeable about and less interested in..

Slaughtering the Goose that Lays the Golden Egg: Are Whaling and Whale-Watching Mutually Exclusive?

Higham, J.E.S.L., David 2008, Current Issues in Tourism Vol side 63-63.

The compatibility of whaling and whale-watching, and likely tourist reactions to continuing debate surrounding the killing of whales were tested. Tourism potentially sewed the seeds of its own destruction. It was recognised that tourism and nature-based tourism specifically existed in an often complex and delicate co-existence with other social, cultural, economic and political interests. It was estimated that the introduction of seal culls in Scotland had cost the country more than $150 million in tourism revenues. It was found that whale-watchers reacted negatively to commercial whaling. Whale-watching rapidly became a major financial contributor to the tourism sector of many countries. Significant divergence from the western paradigm existed in cultural values associated with whales..

Community-based tourism: A pathway to sustainability for Japan's protected areas

Hiwasaki, L. 2006, Society and Natural Resources Vol 19 side 675-692.

The recent diversification of domestic tourism needs in Japan, seen particularly in increasing demand for ecotourism and green tourism, shows that there is much potential for further development of nature tourism, much of which takes place in protected areas. However, numerous challenges exist. Based on case-study research on tourism taking place in three national parks, four common success factors of these sites were identified, namely, institutional arrangements; self-regulations related to conservation; high environmental awareness; and the existence of partnerships. This article demonstrates how, under the current system of Japanese national park management, community-based tourism can be facilitated by building upon these success factors. This would address the existing challenges to tourism in protected areas, and in turn would significantly contribute to the sustainable management of protected areas. Finally, this article points to the need for future research that focuses on the wider applicability of the lessons learned from the Japanese experience..

Biodiversity and Tourism: A valuable relationship

Hudson, K.L., Diane 2010, Social Alternatives Vol 29 side 39-43.

In 2008, international visitor arrivals reached 880 million with associated expenditure of US$946 billion. In terms of the value to tourism from biodiversity, there have been a number of studies that have attempted to demonstrate the value of the natural environment in areas where successful iconic wildlife tours operate. In Iceland the whale watching industry is growing rapidly with an estimated annual value of $US4.5m - $US6m which is considered to be worth more than commercial whaling was at its peak, in Queensland, Australia, whale watching in Hervey Bay has been estimated as contributing between $AUS6.4m and $AUS11.4m to the regional economy. Further, nature-based tourism across southern Africa reportedly now generates roughly the same revenue as farming, forestry, and fisheries combined. In terms of the value of tourism for biodiversity the argument is generally positioned in two key ways: first, as a generator of economic means to address conservation issues, and second, as a vehicle to educate visitors about human impacts on biodiversity and wildlife habitat leading to an increased awareness and behaviour change. A discussion of values aims to highlight the notion that value is accrued in a number of forms to a variety of stakeholders and the article argues that a mutual understanding by managers of both biodiversity and tourism will result in adding value to both in a shared and symbiotic manner. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

A growing body of research is emerging on tourism and partnerships in protected areas, but conceptual development remains fragmented. This paper tackles this challenge by focusing on three aspects important for sustainability: (1) complexity (nested systems of biophysical environments, tourism and park management structures, community-resident systems, local-global systems and use-conservation gap; (2) scale, structure and scope of collaborations (including community involvement and control) and (3) challenges of implementation and long term structuring (for sustainability and success). Some related questions are: How does the tourism system fit with the protected area system? Who represents "Nature" in negotiations over conservation and use? How can plans and programmes be effectively enacted at the local level for long term success? A theoretical discussion plus an example of community-based collaboration for conservation and economic development in Bolivia (Chalalan Ecolodge) are provided to explore these questions. Chalalan shows an evolving partnership between local and international stakeholders toward local control, and also a complex relationship between local-traditional and scientific knowledge, and cultural change..

Estimating the Regional Economic Impact of Tourism to National Parks: Two Case Studies from Germany

Job, H. 2008, Gaia Vol side 134-142.

National parks are seen as major nature-based tourism attractions. This coincides with an international trend in environmental politics to increasingly highlight the regional economic effects of national parks. The often-lacking acceptance of reserves by the locals, who see them as hindering economic development, is the reason. Also in Germany, national parks have recently been integrated into tourism planning strategy. The economic benefits for local communities thus need to be assessed. Studies in this field, however, face major difficulties: Firstly, Germany's free access policy for its protected areas results in a lack of visitor data. Secondly, data on tourism expenditures are very rare and only provide general information that cannot be considered representative of national parks. This study presents the financial benefits derived from nature-based tourism in and around two German national parks on the basis of the value-added technique. The results clearly indicate that tourism can generate considerable benefits for the regional development in the structurally weak rural periphery. This information should increase the acceptance of national parks by both local communities and politicians. Consequently, German national parks need to further incorporate the concept of socio-economic monitoring..

Interpretation has been recognized as a useful tool in managing visitor behavior in nature-based tourism areas. This study explores a multiple assessment approach to identify the strengths and weaknesses of site-based interpretation in influencing multidimensional aspects of attitudes and behavioral intentions toward local environmental issues. Visitors to the Lulworth coastal area in England were studied using on-site questionnaire survey data. The results of the research highlight that the effectiveness of interpretation varied in relation to a number of different aspects of responsible environmental behavior and local conservation issues. The findings also reveal that it fostered visitors' awareness of and their support for management policies but its impacts were limited to site-specific responsible behavior related in this case to geological and environmental conservation. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

The purchase of equipment in consumer production of outdoor experiences

Larsen, E.R. 2003, Journal of Consumer Policy Vol 26 side 351-371.

Consumers use combinations of goods to produce experiences. In order to produce outdoor experiences, consumers include environmental amenities as production factors in addition to purchasable instruments such as equipment. While amenities are not marketed, equipment is. Inspecting consumer purchases of the latter may uncover attitudes towards the former. Purchases of equipment are realized money outlays in a market and constitute lower bounds for the willingness to pay for one factor in outdoor experience production. This study investigates income and demographic effects in the demand for outdoor equipment over time in Norway, and examines the proportion of purchasing households for each year. Results show that equipment is a luxury item, and that it becomes more popular over time. The findings are relevant to policymakers in two ways since use of equipment may entail environmental degradation, but purchases of equipment may reflect a willingness to pay for environmental standards. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

The supply of nature-based tourism activities in Sweden

After a long period of urbanisation and globalisation, the demand for nature and nature-based recreation and tourism in large part comes from metropolitan areas and from abroad. The development of nature-based tourism is encouraged by regional policy and development schemes. However the positive potential of nature-based tourism for regional development and rural entrepreneurship is contested. This encourages the identification of factors that may explain the success or failure of destinations and businesses focusing on nature based tourism products and how the supply of nature-based tourism activities coincide with domestic demand in Sweden with the aim to discuss the potential of nature-based tourism for socio-economic development. The question addressed is: what supply is there in terms of nature-based activities in Sweden? The paper is based on a survey of nature-based tourism supply on regional web pages in Sweden. The material indicates that supply and demand have difficulties to meet. From a supply-side perspective variations in accessibility and a lack of suitable products limit the possibility to actually make a living out of nature-based tourism. Hence, it is concluded that nature-based tourism is a viable development option only for few destinations..

The New Environmental Paradigm and Nature-Based Tourism Motivation

This study examines the relationship between environmental attitudes as measured by the new environmental paradigm (NEP) and nature-based tourism (NBT) motivations based on data gathered from a national forest park in China. The results indicate that tourists' environmental attitudes are heterogeneous across all four tourism motivations. Specifically, those who are more supportive of limits to growth and who are more concerned about ecocrisis tend to have a higher desire to be close to nature, to learn about nature, and to escape from routine and issues associated with cities. In addition, those whose motivations are oriented to develop skills and abilities or seek to experience new things, environments, and social contact tend to be more supportive of the notion of human over nature. Thus, it can be concluded that environmental attitudes and NBT motivations are closely and positively related. Research limits, theoretical and practical implications, and future research needs of the study are discussed..

Northern exposure: opportunities and challenges for tourism development in Torngat Mountains National Park, Labrador, Canada

Maher, P.T.L., R. Harvey 2011, The Polar Record Vol 47 side 40-45.

ABSTRACT Torngat Mountains National Park (TMNP) is Canada's newest national park, and was established in 2005. The development of the park has mirrored a change in mandate for the agency that manages it, Parks Canada. Since 2005 Parks Canada has sought to focus on 'proactively facilitate[ing] opportunities for meaningful and memorable visitor experiences', complimentary to maintaining the protection of ecological integrity and providing education (Parks Canada 2005, no page numbers). Under the auspices of this new multi-faceted mandate, this research note will examine the current state of tourism in TMNP, and will also evaluate some of the opportunities and challenges for the future. Within Parks Canada's Visitor experience vision 2015 statement, understanding tourism delivery in the present and future are important components of its mission, as is engagement with external partners to assist in this process. The analysis of tourism development in TMNP for this note comes from the authors' two week research trips to the park in August 2008 and July 2009, undertaken to assist Parks Canada to evaluate their current visitor experience activities and future options. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Tourism's role in rural development of Finnish Lapland: Interpreting national and regional strategy documents

Maria, H.T., S. 2008, Fennia Vol 186 side .

Rural communities in sparsely populated areas are facing considerable social changes as a result of depopulation and the introduction of new forms of livelihood and working practices. The communities also have to deal with environmental changes caused by the increase in the use of natural resources and by global issues, such as climate change. Anticipation and adaptation, as well as active participation, are important strategies for local communities. Strategic development work is part of the planning system at many geographical levels. This article asks how strategy documents take into account future prospects for tourism development. The objective is to examine how changes in operating environments, land-use patterns, and in the nature-based industries of local rural communities, are taken into account in the "development speech" of tourism strategies. The relationship between tourism strategies and other rural strategies is also briefly addressed. The grass-root level of local communities is introduced by analysing the group discussions held at the village of Lokka in Finnish Lapland. Textual analysis is carried out by using content analysis and rhetorical analysis. The results show that an increase in tourism is regarded as inevitable and that tourism development is often discussed separately from other realms of rural life, even though different rural livelihoods are in many ways strongly interconnected..

Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas

This study identifies the diversity of domestic visitors to Portuguese protected areas (PPA) based on benefit segmentation. The segments of PPA visitors are also compared with other nature-based tourist segments using some empirical benefit segmentation literature. Data were collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire and multivariate statistics techniques (principal components, hierarchical and K-means cluster analyses) were applied. Five distinct segments of visitors were identified based on the motivation for their visit and further characterized by the perceived importance of activities, facilities and services, frequency of visit and socio-demographics. Three segments are nature-focused and two are focused on activities or events. Only one segment shows specific interests and motivations associated with ecotourism and similar characteristics to international ecotourists; moreover, the reasons for the visit in one segment are unrelated to any of the motivations of nature-based tourism. Some implications for management are also described. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

THE ECOTOURISM'S DEVELOPMENT IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS' PROTECTED AREAS: FACTS, FIGURES AND NEEDS

Matei, E. 2011, Human Geographies Vol 5 side 31-39.

Landscape heritage of the Romanian Carpathians is emphasized through protection activities, but in the same time it represents an important pool of resources suitable to the numerous forms of tourism. Conservation is in line with sustainable tourism and its alternatives, ecotourism. The present study aimed on analyzes several features of the Carpathian protected heritage and how activities function through environmentally friendly tourism. Results showed a great diversity of understanding and implementation of ecotourism in the Carpathian Mountains, with numerous actions of organization, but also with a series of measures that are absolutely necessary for the proper functioning of this tourism alternative. The study provides several models to estimate some characteristics of ecotourism resources, which provide returns for consumer satisfaction as well as improve the management of protected areas. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Nature-Based Tourism: A Contrast to Everyday Life

Mehmetoglu, M. 2007, Journal of Ecotourism Vol 6 side 111-111.

The relationship between trip motives and the importance placed on nature when choosing a destination was examined. It was suggested that the nature-based tourism had emerged as a form of tourism that represented an alternative to mass tourism in terms of its greater individuality, activity and flexibility. It was suggested that environmentalism, changes in consumption and negative effects of mass tourism were the main macro reasons for the increasing demand for nature-based tourism. It was indicated that another considerable reason for the increasing demand could be the fact that nature-based tourism simply represented a contrast to everyday life. The results obtained supported this proposition in that those who indicated that they were motivated by their mundane everyday lives to travel were more likely to travel mainly for nature..

Nature-based Tourists: The Relationship Between their Trip Expenditures and Activities

This paper investigates the relationship between four groups of trip activities and the daily expenditures of a sample of visitors at two nature-based attractions in Northern Norway. The paper also examines some other potential factors by adopting a widely utilised twofold segmentation approach: light versus heavy spenders. The results of the logistic regression analysis indicate that there is a significant relationship between the importance attached to travel activities by nature-based tourists and their daily expenditure on a current trip. More specifically, the more individuals consider visiting historic/cultural sites as an important activity on their journey, the more likely they are to be light spenders, whereas the more they consider 'challenging nature-based activities' as important, the more likely that they will be classified as heavy spenders. The investigation additionally finds that travel motives, though to a lesser degree, when taken in tandem with variables such as trip length, trip purpose, age and household income, influence nature tourists' daily expenditure. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Land use in the Swedish mountain region: Trends and conflicting goals

This paper describes historical and current trends in the use of natural resources in the Swedish mountain region, with the aim of providing a background for understanding the complexity of managing natural resources in the area. The mountain region is a sparsely populated area with low productivity and large conservation values. Traditionally, hunting, fishing and reindeer husbandry were important and still are important. Mining, hydroelectric energy production and forestry have also employed many people, although less in recent times. Tourism is sometimes seen as a potential saviour in terms of employment, but has not yet reached high enough levels to compensate for other losses. The intensity and types of land use have thus varied over time, with some rapid changes. The contribution of different forms of land use to the well-being of local societies has also varied. This highly dynamic pattern is likely to continue in the future, and the question is how to meet these changes in order to achieve a sustainable use of natural resources. The current management of different natural resources is a complex issue, not least because of conflicting goals and many hierarchical levels in the decision processes. Underlying many of these conflicts are also unclear legal rights which will have to be clarified..

Economic impacts of national park tourism on gateway communities: The case of Kosciuszko National Park

Mules, T. 2005, Tourism Economics Vol 11 side 247-259.

Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) is a major tourist attraction for Australians, featuring the highest mountain on the Australian mainland (Mount Kosciuszko) and including popular ski resorts and wilderness. The region adjoining KNP includes townships with a total population of some 25,000 people, whose economic welfare is increasingly affected by tourism to KNP. This paper reports research that surveyed expenditure by visitors to KNP, which injects new activity into the adjoining regional economy. The paper uses the first round of an input-output process to model the impacts of such expenditure on the region, and also develops a spreadsheet model for allocating visitor expenditure between businesses within the park and businesses within the adjoining regional economy..

Celebration of extreme playfulness: Ekstremsportveko at voss

This study aims to explore the central success factors behind the growth and prosperity of festivals. In line with resource dependency theory and the model of competitive strategies, it was assumed that successful festivals both adapt to, and influence, their contexts to their own advantage while also providing benefits for their environment. A capital framework was employed to examine the relationships between a successful festival and its context, employing a case study design and multiple methods. The case chosen was Extreme Sports Week, an annual extreme sports festival at Voss, Norway, which has become the largest extreme sports event worldwide during its 10 years of existence. It brings together sports and forms of cultural expression concentrating mainly on new trends in advanced sports activities and street culture music, combined with local food traditions. Factors in its success are the six "capitals" of the region: Natural, human, social, cultural, physical, and financial. The festival balances the exploitation of these capitals, although indirectly with respect to natural capital, hence constituting an example of sustainability in festival management. Interestingly, the festival was successful in spite of very limited access to local financial capital. The analysis also revealed that a seventh capital construct - administrative capital - is relevant to the understanding of festival development. However, this form of capital was the only one where investments were perceived as problematic, and the festival repaid far more than the authorities had invested in the event..

The Importance of Stakeholders and Policy Influence Enhancing the Innovation in Nature Based Tourism Services Greece, Austria, Finland and Romania Case Studies

This paper aims to illustrate in the context of the challenges of the Europeanization process what kind of co-operation models there exist between nature-based tourism companies and the critical stakeholder groups effecting the business activities and social sustainability of the companies. The following topics are part of our current research: which are the cooperation strategy; which are the management models applied in countries with competitive market and strong innovation policy; which are the costs of implementing innovation policies for co-operation strategies enhancing the innovation in nature based tourism services; which barriers avoid the entrepreneurship development and how innovative can be the firm management. We intend to analyze the importance of stakeholders and policy influence enhancing the innovation in nature based tourism service, in Greece, Austria, Finland and Romania case studies. The research will continue with a comparison between these cases, including the perspective of supporting entrepreneurship and regional competitiveness in Romania. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Entrepreneurship and innovativeness have seen considerable attention in the literature. However, little research has focused on micro-scaled enterprises, especially in the context of nature-based tourism. This work investigates how entrepreneurial attitude influences innovativeness and performance in Norwegian nature-based tourism enterprises. Data collection consisted of an e-mail survey and resulted in 178 usable responses. Respondents that exhibit a stronger entrepreneurial attitude appear more likely to change the way they organize their enterprise and tend to have higher income growth. Results point to potential policy actions that could positively impact rural development as well as individual firm actions that may enhance performance..

Opportunity or threat? Finnish hunters' attitudes to hunting tourism

This article examines elements of the social sustainability of hunting tourism development by scrutinising Finnish hunters' opinions on three possible scenarios related to hunting tourism: the threat of an exclusion of local hunters, the threat of rising rents of hunting land and the threat to Finnish hunting customs and practice due to increasing numbers of foreign hunting tourists. Hunters' positions on these three issues are mapped and the determinants of their attitudes are analysed using unique national survey data on Finnish hunters and their attitudes (N= 1193). The results show a clear ambivalence to hunting tourism among hunters. While a majority of hunters tend to view hunting tourism as a threat, a large minority relate to it more positively. These attitudinal patterns can be explained only partly by socioeconomic factors, whereas factors pertaining to hunting experience and hunting profile play a somewhat more prominent role in understanding the legitimacy that hunting tourism enjoys in the eyes of hunters in Finland. Age, rural residence and participation in wildlife management are also found important for some issues. The ambiguities revealed could pose major problems for social sustainability and hunting tourism management and development..

A declining and restructured reindeer herd is forcing some Sami into other permanent or temporary occupations. In the Swedish parts of Sami land, Sapmi, an increasing number of Sami are involved in small companies dealing with tourism that focuses on their culture. The purpose of this paper is to analyse which factors matter when tourists make their decisions. Using the stated preference method, respondents were requested to evaluate a number of hypothetical alternatives. The tourists' opinions and considerations were measured in respect of three attributes: the companies' offers, the prices for these products and access. The study shows that there seems to be a considerable potential in these kinds of activity and that there is, in some respects, a gap between supply and demand..

How are we Working Together? A Framework to Assess Collaborative Arrangements in Nature-based Tourism

'Working together' is increasingly advanced as a logical strategy to pursue nature-based tourism because it embraces multiple benefit claims to the natural environment. This paper examines terminology within the collaborative rubric (partnerships, collaboration and co-management) and develops an assessment framework consisting of five elements. Together the elements enhance conceptual precision and direct attention to aspects requiring careful consideration by those pursuing such innovative approaches. The proposed assessment framework is subsequently applied to a tourism initiative in the lower portion of the St John River in New Brunswick to illustrate the potential utility of the framework. Systematic application of the framework confirms that considerable specificity is possible when addressing nature-based tourism initiatives. Closing reflections highlight benefits of this discernment, the functionality of the framework and potential implications for nature-based tourism programmes and policies..

As in many industrialized countries, Finnish policy makers see nature tourism as a source of rural economic development. This study explores the factors that influence traveller expenditures on nature trips. While focusing primarily on nature tourism in southern Finland, it also draws comparisons with northern Finland, where nature tourism is well established. On the basis of accommodation and activity expense data, nature trips were segmented in order to identify those destination attributes that promote high expenditures. In addition, an analysis was made of the role of different landownership categories in providing recreation services that support nature tourism. Basic data was provided by a population survey designed to inventory national outdoor recreation demand and supply. Trip-related expenditures were found to be especially low on trips to a family-owned summer cottage, such trips being typical in nature tourism in southern Finland. For trips to destinations other than a vacation home, higher expenditures tended to be associated with travellers' higher income and with middle age. Some destination area characteristics, such as availability of downhill skiing slopes and camping sites increased the probability that the trip would be a high-expenditure trip. Other trip characteristics that increased tourists' expenditures and thus economic impacts of nature tourism were related to first-time visit, longer distance from residence to destination and longer stay at the destination. The implications of these findings on nature tourism development in Finland are discussed..

Antarctic tourists: ambassadors or consumers?

ABSTRACT Two complementary studies were conducted to investigate both the immediate and longer-term influence of Antarctic cruise tourism experiences on participants' knowledge of Antarctica, attitudes toward management issues facing the Antarctic region, and environmental behaviours and future intentions. In addition, the study investigated tourists' attitudes toward visitor guidelines. The results suggest that Antarctica nature-based tourism operators have the potential to provide experiences that educate the public to the importance of Antarctica. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Increasing role of tourism in finnish national parks

Puhakka, R. 2008, Fennia Vol 186 side 47-58.

While the role of traditional livelihoods has decreased, tourism has become an important tool for regional development in northern peripheral areas, and the economic and political expectations have increased. National parks have become attractive tourist destinations also in Finland. This article analyses how the central stakeholders - park authorities, tourists and tourism entrepreneurs - perceive the role of tourism in Finnish national parks. Parks are understood as spaces constructed by historical and social practices; the role of tourism is thus neither historically nor culturally unchanging or indisputable. By analysing planning documents and interviews, the study identifies four discourses that define the interaction between nature conservation and tourism in Finnish parks: 1) national parks as conservation areas, 2) national parks as tourist destinations, 3) national parks as destinations of sustainable nature-based tourism, and 4) national parks as resources for local people. The study indicates that the role of tourism has increased in national parks in Finland. Nowadays the aim is to integrate the ecological goals of nature conservation and the economic goals of nature-based tourism by implementing the principles of sustainability. The possible effects of the recent discursive shift on the future development of protected areas are also discussed in the article..

The nature of national parks - The changing discourses about nature conservation and tourism

As a result of the growth of nature-based tourism, national parks have become important tourist attractions in Finland. This article identifies various discourses that define the interaction between nature conservation and tourism in national parks. The study analyses how the stakeholders - park authorities, tourists and tourism entrepreneurs - understand the role of tourism in parks, and on what kind of concepts of nature the meanings given to parks are based. National parks are understood as spaces constructed by historical and social practices. Thus, the role of tourism in parks is neither historically nor culturally unchanging or indisputable. By analysing planning documents and interviews, the study identifies four discourses: (1) national parks as conservation areas; (2) national parks as tourist destinations: (3) national parks as destinations of sustainable nature-based tourism; and (4) national parks as resources for local people. The study finds that in the 2000s, the above-mentioned Discourse 3 has become dominant in directing the management and land use of the Finnish parks. The present emphasis is on combining the ecological goals of conservation and the economic goals of tourism by implementing the principles of sustainability. Local interests are taken into account more widely than previously..

Visits to national parks and the provision of natural and man-made recreation and tourism resources

Understanding the relationship between national park characteristics and the number of visits is crucial for the planning and management of parks. Visitation, the number of visits to the park, has a key role to play in assessing the social and economic impacts of new and existing parks. This study examines how the natural characteristics of a national park, the recreation services inside it and tourism services in the surrounding communities are related to the number of visits. Parks are classified according to these three dimensions and the numbers of visitors are compared within the three types. 35 national parks in Finland form the data of the study. The results indicate that the number of visits is associated with the main nature type, implying a continuum from the highest numbers visiting mountainous (i.e. fell) parks to the lowest visiting mire parks. A high number of visits is associated with a good provision of both recreational facilities inside and tourism services outside it. In water-based parks, in particular, the effect of services on park visits is considerable..

This paper utilizes an inclusive community based sustainability framework with a focus on a resort destination in providing a potential model for more inclusive long-range destination planning and implementation. Four diverse, but interrelated areas of sustainable tourism were specified in this framework for a more comprehensive process including ecological, cultural, economic and socio-community sustainability. In addition a strategic community driven structure, which provides direction, information and practices, serves the purpose of integrating and implementing the framework. The unique tourism destination, Noosa in Australia is used as an example of embracing sustainable tourism as a community and as part of a larger focus on the four key components of sustainability. By viewing sustainable community attributes as assets, all of which are important to manage, enhance and/or conserve, it is expected that the resort community will continue to attract visitors to feel connected and committed to experiencing its lifestyle, sense-of-community and natural features while also contributing to community sustainable stewardship and a strong tourism economy. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Local Economic Role of Nature-based Tourism in Kuhmo Municipality, Eastern Finland

The study was carried out to examine and quantify the economic role of nature-based tourism on a local, municipality level. In contrast to mass tourism, nature-based tourism is characterized by individualism, small tourist groups and geographically scattered supply of services, which makes economic and regional development evaluation difficult. Kuhmo municipality in the Eastern Finland wilderness has a long tradition in small-scale nature-based tourism. A so-called Nordic model was applied to quantify direct, indirect and induced income and employment impacts. The model was developed further in order to track income leakage. The data consisted of 385 tourist groups, i.e. people travelling together, and 100 tourism companies interviewed in Kuhmo. The gross income impact amounted to 3.45 million Euros a year, equalling exactly half of the total tourism income. The share of income leakage was 48%, leaving 1.98 million Euros as a net income impact. Nature-based tourism employed 53 man-year-units in Kuhmo, which was 48% of tourism jobs and 1.6% of total employment. Compared to general tourism, there was no major difference in the amount of daily expenditure. Yet, the pattern of expenditure was different and generated less direct and more indirect effects. The results show that nature-based tourism already plays a role in maintaining the population in peripheral, rural locations and in bringing precious additional jobs to regions suffering from heavy structural unemployment..

Perceptions and adaptation strategies of the tourism industry to climate change: the case of Finnish nature-based tourism entrepreneurs

Saarinen, T. 2007, International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development Vol 1 side 214-228.

Climate change-related processes have emerged as major issues in tourism development and management, particularly with respect to nature-based tourism, which is seen as especially vulnerable and is the sector of the industry that is the main focus of this study. The aim of the paper is to identify the perceptions and adaptation strategies of Finnish nature-based tourism entrepreneurs on climate change. The case study was conducted by interviewing nature-based tourism entrepreneurs in northern Finland and the Finnish Lake District, south east Finland. In general, the entrepreneurs were aware of the issue of global climate change. However, half of the interviewees did not believe that the phenomenon actually exists and will influence the region's tourism industry in the future. The scepticism towards the climate change may explain the fact that there were almost no adaptation strategies. However, other adaptation mechanisms were used to cope with the 'normal' weather variation and market changes..

Access, Tourism and Democracy: A Conceptual Framework and the Non-establishment of a Proposed National Park in Sweden

Tourism, conservation, national parks and the interrelationship with regional development are important aspects of the high mountain region in the North of Sweden. Here, during the latter part of the 1980s there was a debate concerning the possibility of establishing a large national park in the area around Lake Tornetraesk. Even though various interested parties were represented in the working group, there was such a clash of interests that the plan was shelved for an indefinite period. The main obstacle was the resistance from local groups, principally in the township of Kiruna close by, who were afraid that their use of the area would be curtailed due to restrictions on such outdoor activities as fishing, hunting and the use of snowmobiles. This case is analysed in a conceptual framework of different "ecostrategies" for attitudes and behaviour with regard to landscape and the man-nature interrelationship. The framework is constituted as a four-field figure with the help of one axis illustrating the tension between "functional specialization" vs. "territorial adaptation" as point of departure for landscape perspectives. The other axis illustrates the tension between the strategies of "active" use vs. "passive" contemplation of the landscape..

The realisation of tourism business opportunities adjacent to three national parks in southern Finland: entrepreneurs and local decision-makers matter

The tourists and recreationists who are attracted to national parks create a basis for the development of nature-based tourism. The paper examines the attitudes of entrepreneurs and local decision-makers towards the development of tourism- and recreational service enterprises adjacent to three small, different-aged national parks in southern Finland: Linnansaari, Seitseminen and Repovesi. Four distinct groups of entrepreneurs could be formed on the basis of their attitudes to business. The most "advanced" group (adapters) were aware of both the demand for tourism services and their enterprises' business resources. The second group (adopters) were resource aware but had ideas for new business ventures rather than knowledge of demand. An "informed satisficer" group exhibited satisficing attitudes (where lifestyle aspirations are placed before business growth and development) but who were well informed and could be related to the adopters. The final group of entrepreneurs were simply satisficers. There was a greater proportion of adapter entrepreneurs adjacent to the oldest park, while entrepreneurs adjacent to the youngest park were predominantly satisficers or informed satisficers. The adopter class of entrepreneurs was most common in the two older national park areas. The majority of local decision-makers in the municipalities adjacent to the national parks preferred to develop tourism together with other sectors of the economy, although industrial alternatives were preferred. The decision-makers fell into three groups with respect to their preferred ways and means of developing tourism-based local enterprise: supporting existing enterprises, lowering the threshold for (new) enterprise, and developing the business infrastructure and funding arrangements. The greatest support for new enterprises was found in the Repovesi area, the district with the greatest proportion of satisficing entrepreneurs. Decision-makers preferred to support existing businesses adjacent to the oldest park, Linnansaari, with its greater proportion of adapter and adopter entrepreneurs and fewer satisficers. Opportunities for business will not be realised if local enterprises fail to perceive or respond to them, or if decision-makers fail to play an active role in encouraging tourism enterprises by means of support schemes or by developing the tourism infrastructure. Regional differences in the development of tourism-related services therefore depend on the attitudes of the key actors and their ability to encompass new economic activities and their associated institutions and discourses..

National Park Visitor Segments and their Interest in Rural Tourism Services and Intention to Revisit

The study aims to understand national park visitors' interests to use tourism services provided in the vicinity of Linnansaari, Seitseminen and Repovesi national parks in Southern Finland. Separate visitor groups were identified based on their use of tourism services and their intention to revisit the area. Data were generated from a questionnaire survey of 736 visitors to the national parks. The analyses revealed five dimensions of interest in tourism services from which five visitor groups were identified: Countryside and outdoor friends, who were interested in recreation services; safari riders, interested in renting snowmobiles and similar services; guided visitors, who were interested in guided tours; room and rental seekers, whose main interest was accommodation and rental services, and uninterested, who had no interest in services. The strongest intentions to revisit the parks and the regions were recorded among "countryside and outdoor friends" and "safari riders". The results of this study may help tourism enterprises, municipality decision makers and park managers in rural communities surrounding national parks to understand and recognize visitors' overall needs of tourism services..

Requirements of an international legal framework on nature based tourism

Nature based tourism (NBT) as an effective instrument for sustainable use of biodiversity is an interesting issue to be studied in order to evaluate response the of international community to the interaction between developmental and environmental pillars of sustainable development. Various international endeavours have been carried out with considerable outcomes to address NBT in different forms and manifestations. As a result, the international community has attained many successful achievements and valuable experiences. There is an urgent need for an internationally accepted instrument to address the existing gaps and overlaps appropriately. Such an instrument should respond to lake of adequate environmental and developmental rules and regulations at international scale. Careful study of major international environmental and developmental achievements related to NBT could provide the international community with an appropriate legal framework to address such an environmentally fragile, economically viable, and a culturally sensitive issue. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

This paper addresses the need for a better understanding of why people purchase nature-based tourism activity products as a basis for management decisions. In order to satisfy the tourist's needs, wants and goals, businesses must first understand the tourist's motivations for purchasing such products. A factor-cluster segmentation approach was employed for a survey among members from two of Norway's largest nongovernmental outdoor recreation organisations. Four motivation factors: quality improvement, skill development, new activity and social, and five segments: Want-it-all, Try new activity, Social, Performer and Unexplained were identified. These segments differed in terms of their purchase motivation, socio-demographic characteristics and travelling behaviour. Understanding the differences in these segments will help managers of nature-based tourism businesses to target more profitable segments, develop products that better satisfy the needs in targeted segments, and to develop better market communication..

The operational and regional vulnerability of winter tourism to climate variability and change: The case of the finnish nature-based tourism entrepreneurs

The climatic vulnerability of winter tourism activities other than downhill skiing or snowmobiling has remained unstudied even though winter tourism has lately received plenty of attention in relation to climate change. As winter tourism entrepreneurs operate in diverse environments and have diverse customer groups, the sector cannot be considered as one homogenous group. Special attention should be directed to individual activities, especially in the context of the Nordic countries where importance of downhill skiing is relatively low. In this article, the sensitivity of winter tourism activities to climatic events is assessed in a Finnish context using questionnaire data gathered from winter tourism entrepreneurs operating in Finland. According to results, the vulnerability of winter tourism to climate depends both on the activity and on the region where activities are produced. About three-quarters of winter tourism enterprises are affected by weather events such as high or extremely low temperatures or high wind that cause cancellations. Climate change in Finland is not predicted to shorten the length of the snow season below the critical length as expressed by the entrepreneurs. Considering this, the future of winter tourism in Finland and similar areas may be more sensitive to the changes in the frequency and severity of weather extremes than to the changes in the season lengths..

Hiking in the Alps: Exploring substitution patterns of hiking destinations

Thiene, M.S., R. 2008, Tourism Economics Vol 14 side 263-282.

Tourism in the Alps used to rely on a network of facilities maintained in part by the military Alpine Corps. Hiking has been growing in popularity, while the national draft is no longer compulsory. This situation calls for a renewed approach to management of the maintenance of alpine facilities. The authors explore the use of destination choice models which allow for various substitution hypotheses and highlight how single mountain sites can be substitutes for others, although located in a different geographical area. The results supply helpful information for local policy decision makers as they provide insights about the redistribution of visits following the implementation of different policy scenarios. The authors investigate such redistributions following the variation of availability to hikers in terms of alpine shelters, length of trails, site access and the application of access fees. They also estimate changes in welfare for selected variations of alpine facilities and availability of destinations. The findings highlight the sensitivity of results to the use of different specifications of demand models to guide local policy strategies..

Local People, Nature Conservation, and Tourism In Northeastern Finland

The opinions and perceptions of local communities are central issues in the sustainable management of conservation areas. During 2002 and 2003, we studied the opinions of local people about nature conservation and the development of tourism to investigate whether these opinions were influenced by socioeconomic and demographic factors. Data were collected via a survey of local residents in six areas with different histories of land use, land ownership, conservation, and tourism development. We classified respondents by cluster analysis into three different groups according to their opinions about nature conservation and tourism development: (1) sympathetic to nature conservation, but quite neutral to tourism development (57.7%); (2) critical of nature conservation, but quite neutral to tourism development (30.5%); and (3) quite neutral to nature conservation, but critical of tourism development (11.8%). The most important factors for classification were residential area, age, level of education, primary occupation, indigenousness, frequency of contact with tourists through work, and effects of nature conservation on household economy. On the other hand, gender, level of income, land ownership, land donation for conservation, and income from tourism did not affect opinions concerning nature conservation and tourism development. Almost equal proportions of residents living in close proximity to conservation areas in Kuusamo had positive and negative opinions about nature conservation. Residents living in close proximity to conservation areas regarded conservation as something that might reduce employment and incomes. On the other hand, a greater proportion of residents living near tourist resorts and farther from conservation areas had positive opinions about and perceptions of nature conservation and tourism development. Based on the proportional division of all respondents into the three groups, there may be a coexistent relationship between nature conservation and tourism in our study area. When local stakeholders had a chance to commit to the planning process, they had positive perceptions of and opinions about nature conservation and tourism development in their residential areas. As a result, we concluded that negative opinions and a lack of commitment to the planning process may hinder local development..

Development update ecotourism

Townsend, J. 2009, Geography Review Vol 22 side 34-35.

Ecotourism aims to promote the freedom of native local people, preserve ecosystems and build economies, having a sociocultural and nature based benefits along with endurable developments, and is another form of unwelcomed development for the natives. It is categorized basically into three forms: there's a conservation of wilderness, emphasizing to keep things savage controlled under valuable environments. The second type is charmed by cultural landscapes with natural beauty to create a product that fits the ecotourist market, and the third include 'disappearing Edens' of traditional societies, in cooperation of native communities and tour companies. Ecotourism provides exciting cross-cultural encounters featuring ordinary tourism with various developmental advantages as well as disadvantages. It also claims low impacts and positive for people and the environment, by changing the values of ecotourists and the market for ecotourism..

From lessees to partners: Exploring tourism public-private partnerships within the New South Wales national parks and wildlife service

In a "new" protected-area management paradigm which requires close working relationships with a range of stakeholders, it is important that national parks managers recognise the individual interests of each group with whom they are expected to collaborate. A substantial body of research has investigated non-commercial collaborative activities among natural resource managers, tourism organisations and community groups. However, little academic attention has been paid to commercial tourism collaborations, particularly public-private partnerships (PPPs) with tourism operators. PPPs are often more contentious and require careful management to ensure sustainability and political acceptance. This paper reports on qualitative research, exploring the quality and nature of commercial lease arrangements between the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) and a number of their private on-site tourism providers. In-depth interviews were conducted with fourteen key stakeholders involved in these partnerships. Based on an emergent approach to analysis, five main themes emerged which define the nature and quality of relationships between NPWS and tourism operators. Ultimately, it is argued that in commercial PPPs, protected-area managers need to move beyond viewing tourism operators as mere "lessees", seeing them instead as valued and long-lasting "partners"..

Self-Serving Bias in Visitors' Perceptions of the Impacts of Tourism

This study explores tourism destination impacts through the unique lens of visitors' perceptions of their contributions to impacts. Self-serving bias of attributions was used as the theoretical framework to examine how campers in the Canadian Rocky Mountain National Parks perceived the impacts of their own behavior on the destination. In total 241 campers completed self-administered questionnaires that assessed common tourism impacts, camping experience, and socio-demographic characteristics. Results of factor analysis indicated three dimensions of impacts: immediate; gradual; and economic. Findings suggested that while visitors recognized their immediate and economic impacts on the destination, their contribution to gradual impacts depended upon an interaction between camping experiences and destination experience. The temporal nature of impacts, coupled with the interaction effect support self-serving bias as a useful framework to explain how visitors perceive their own impacts at a vacation destination. Implications for persuasive communication are discussed. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Marine wildlife tours can provide a range of education and conservation benefits for visitors, including emotional (i.e., affective) responses and learning (i.e., cognition). Interpretive programs cover the biology, ecology, and behavior of marine species; best practice guidelines; and human threats to marine areas. The author reviews the education and conservation benefits of 18 marine wildlife experiences with dolphins, whales, and marine turtles by using (a) M. Orams's (1999) framework of indicators such as behavior or lifestyle changes in visitors and (b) 3 environmental indicators of conservation. Results of this meta-analysis showed that visitor learning and emotional empathy during mediated encounters with marine wildlife contributed to on-site behavior changes and some longer term intentions to engage in marine conservation actions. The author presents an experience-learning-action model to guide research and develop free-choice visitor learning. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROTECTING NATURAL SITES FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Objectives of this paper are to review and advance the statements of knowledge about the significance of protection of natural sites within the development of ecotourism and explain why the protection of nature sites is an important and significant issue for ecotourism development. Literature review and case quotation are mainly used research methods.Finally, based on many study aspects, such as sustainable development of ecotourism, educational roles for eco-tourists, pollution of environment,etc,this paper concludes that the protection of natural sites within the tourism destinations shows great significance for ecotourism development. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

Communicating old-growth forest through an educational trail

This paper describes the experience of developing an educational trail inside an old-growth beech forest in central Italy. In the last 150 years local people exploited this stand almost exclusively for recreational purposes and now the beechwood has acquired new ecological value after having reached old-growth status. Despite the cultural-historical importance of the site, there is a substantial lack of knowledge about this magnificent stand among members of the public, who have no tools to understand its dynamics nor to accept those structural changes related to its natural evolution. Tourist facilities were restored at the site, according to non-restricting criteria, and an educational program was developed in order to promote a shared comprehension of old-growth forests, their ecological processes and value, the services they provide, and to increase tourist awareness toward this fragile ecosystem. We discuss the educational role ecotourism might potentially hold in western developed countries to link the public with the scientific world, educating people about nature, while preventing negative impacts on natural environments. Even if the importance of local communities in conservation of natural resources has been widely recognized by a number of conservationists, public involvement, particularly in forest conservation and management, still represents a difficult challenge, since it requires the implementation of a common understanding about forest ecosystems, forest goods and forest services. The educational trail inside the beech forest of Monte Cimino may represent a low impact strategy for preserving forest aesthetic functionality, limiting potential damages to the forest while increasing its importance for nature conservation.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT].

The sustaining tourist - Results and conclusions from questioning tourists in German and Austrian National Parks and Biosphere Reserve regions

Sustainable tourism is an important part of sustained regional development. In tourist regions especially there are varying possibilities and approaches to achieve sustainability. On the other hand, doubts have been raised again and again as to whether tourism is capable of sustainability at all. During the past decade numerous models, catalogues of criteria and strategies for sustainable tourism development have been elaborated but their transfer into reality has so far only partially taken place. This paper does not look at tourism supply but its demand. Based on results of questioning a total of some 3000 tourists in five German and Austrian National Parks or biosphere reserve regions respectively some questions of sustaining recreational and leisure utilisation have been more closely looked at, among them general holiday interests and environmentally friendly traffic. To characterise holiday makers on the one hand and day trippers on the other, varied methods of classification and arranging into types were used and comparisons between the regions were carried out. As regards sustainability it can be demonstrated that nature oriented recreation and use of leisure time is still greatly favoured, especially in landscapes still close to natural ones and in protected areas. Unfortunately only relatively few of those questioned showed an interest in nature and its protection and the use of public transport which is frequently cumbersome. The regional differences allow the drawing of interesting conclusions..

A GIS approach to evaluating ecological sensitivity for tourism development in fragile environments. A case study from SE Iceland

Expansion of tourism in the northern periphery regions provides innovative resources for an economic boost to many of the peripheral communities. The northern ecosystems are however extremely vulnerable. It is therefore of vital importance for such communities to plan the growth of tourism along sustainable lines in order to secure long-term economic benefit from tourism. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can handle multiple spatial criteria and provide a tool for the allocation of resources between conflicting demands and aid decision-makers in planning. Despite increased use of GIS in environmental planning and management, the application of GIS to tourism planning is still limited. This study aims to develop a methodology to generate a Tourism Decision Support System (TDSS) to aid planning of sustainable tourism. A GIS model was developed based on classification of identified impact factors and variables, as well as selected classification algorithms that were used to assess categories of ecological sensitivity that may aid decision makers in planning and managing sustainable tourism in sensitive areas that are facing the risk of being subjected to ecological degradation..