While most studies have descriptive elements some are purely descriptive

Census is an example

Demographic profile of aggregate group (population)

6Purpose to Explain

Answers questions like Why do people? and how do people? and when do people? etc.

Usually more complex

Usually more ambiguous

Usually more experimental and scientific in design

7Nomothetic Explanation

To what extent (if any) do the independent variable(s) account for variations in the dependent variable(s)?

Since it applies to aggregates, and is more naturally probabilistic, it is more likely to lead to misinterpretation and misunderstanding

For example what caused Joe to support liberal views? is less difficult than what causes people to be more liberal?

8Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

Three things required to show causation

A statistical relationship between the two variables

One variable changes consistently with another (either direction). Alone, this is NOT enough to claim causation

Time order the cause must takes place before the effect

Relationships must not be spurious

I.e. there are no other variables that can (partly or entirely) explain the observed relationship

9Problems with Nomothetic Causality

Example research has found that there is a positive relationship between the number of firefighters at a fire and the damage that results

Therefore, firefighters are the cause of some of the damage?

Does this fulfill the requirements of causal logic?

10Necessary vs. Sufficient Causes

Necessary cause something that MUST be present for the effect to occur

If youre determining the causes of classroom disruptions, a necessary cause, but not sufficient, is that the subject be a student

Sufficient cause by itself guarantees the effect

Not necessarily the only cause

Causes that are necessary and sufficient are the most satisfying outcome in research. However, single causes rarely exist

11Units of Analysis

What or whom is to be studied

We must be careful to make sure our units of analysis and the aggregates we generalize about concur

E.g. Gangs vs. gang members

Units of analysis include

Individuals

Groups/organizations

Social interactions

Social artifacts

12Units of Analysis

Individuals

Most common, even in studies of groups. Generalize about the behavior of the individual, not the group

Groups and organizations

Generalize about the behavior of the group or organization as single social entities

Social artifacts

Any product of social beings, usually a means of communication

Books, movies, newspapers, ceremonies, riots, etc.

Generalize about the artifact, not the people involved

13Tip

Three ways to determine unit of analysis versus unit of observation (who or what unit you sampled to collect data)

Unit of analysis

Determine who or what does the study intends to generalize about. Groups? Individuals? Social artifacts?

Determine the category of the independent variable. Groups? Individuals? Social artifacts?

Create a sample conclusion. Does it involve groups, individuals, social artifacts?

14Example

A researcher collects data regarding the effects of five different programs to determine which is most effective

Unit of analysis?

Unit of observation?

15Example

A researcher collects data from software engineers about their perceptions of what constitutes best practices with regard to program design. She wants to see which software products (from 20 different companies) are most reliable.

Unit of analysis?

Unit of observation?

16Example

A researcher collects interview data from a random sample of HR directors about hiring practices in order to determine which characteristics of potential job candidates were most often used in the selection process

Unit of analysis?

Unit of observation?

17Fallacies Caused by Incorrect Identification of Units of Analysis

Ecological fallacy assuming something learned about an ecological unit (group) says something about the individuals in the unit

Be careful of the reverse as well

Reductionism reducing something to a simple explanation when in reality it is complex

Distinct disciplines often filter their perceptions in terms of that discipline eg. Economic reductionism

However, time effects can be logically drawn from a single measurement at times

Longitudinal studies

Observations over an extended period

Difficult for quantitative studies (threats)

20Time-Related Studies

Longitudinal studies

Trend studies changes within a population over time (Census). Each measurement may be different individuals

Cohort studies measures a specific subpopulation (e.g. U.S. males between 20-25). Each measurement may be different individuals

Panel studies measures the same individuals over time

Each has unique strengths and weaknesses

21Example

Cross-sectional studies indicate that IQ declines with age. Longitudinal studies claim that there is either no decline or less of a decline with age than cross-sectional studies indicate

What might cause this difference in results?

22Identify the Problem

Professor Root was studying the arrest rates for drunken driving in urban and rural areas of Ohio. It was found that the arrest rate was higher in the rural areas. Professor Root concluded that people who live in rural areas are more likely to drive while intoxicated than are people who live in urban areas

23How to Design a Research Project

Define the purpose of your project

Explore, describe or explain? What outcomes do you want?

Specify exact meanings for the concepts you want to study (conceptualize)

Example excessive stress visiting a mental health practitioner

Choose a research method

Survey, content analysis, secondary data analysis etc.

Decide how to measure the results (operationalization)

Example recording the number of times an individual visits a mental health practitioner. Also, the wording of questionnaires

24How to Design a Research Project

Decide whom or what to study

What is the unit of analysis

Define the population or sample specifically

Collect empirical data

Make your observations, distribute and collect your surveys etc.

Process the data

For qualitative or quantitative analysis

Analyze the data

Interpret and draw conclusions

Report your findings

Use a standard method, report implications, problems, future research

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