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GVHD and the steroid therapy that accompanies it is well known to be associated with both noninfectious and infectious interstitial pneumonia. On the other hand, once steroid use was included in a regression model, inclusion of other variables led to models that were improved very little Table 2. Importantly, steroids were associated with PIV-3 pneumonia among autologous transplant recipients with pseudo-GVHD as well; their use in the autologous setting effectively raises the risk for progression to that of the highly immunosuppressed allogeneic transplant recipient.

Introduction

Thus, the correlation between GVHD and PIV pneumonia appears to be primarily driven by the corticosteroids patients receive for this condition. It is likely that the "steroid effect" is related to an acute decline in T-cell-mediated immunity that occurs after the administration of high-dose corticosteroids. These data suggest that tapering of corticosteroids at the time of PIV-3 URI diagnosis may be one strategy to prevent progression to pneumonia. PIV may predispose patients to such infections by damaging the respiratory epithelium and allowing other organisms to penetrate or may exert a direct immunosuppressive effect.

Recent data have suggested that antecedent PIV-1 infection may predispose to bacterial pneumonia in the elderly8 and may inhibit T-cell function in vitro,9,10 raising the possibility that either local or global immunosuppression may be operative. Further studies regarding the interaction of PIV-3 with other posttransplant infections are needed. In our study, all individuals who received ribavirin did so within 48 hours of diagnosis of parainfluenza 3 infection by BAL; rapid diagnosis was achieved in over half of these individuals via DFA staining, allowing initiation of ribavirin a median of 2 days after LRI was identified.

Unfortunately, mortality did not appear significantly lower in those who were identified early, even among those without significant copathogens isolated; early diagnosis and therapy also failed to result in improved mortality in another recent report. It remains possible that earlier diagnosis of PIV-3 pneumonia may allow for more expeditious therapy with ribavirin, thereby potentially improving outcome.

Finally, other investigators have reported some anecdotal success with systemic ribavirin therapy administered orally or intravenously, though hemolysis is a notable complication. In addition, newer, more active antiviral agents are needed. Because current therapeutic options are limited, the prevention of PIV infections is paramount.

Unfortunately, the epidemiology of PIV-3 infections makes infection control daunting. Strict infection control practices can decrease nosocomial or patient-to-patient transmission; these have been in place at the FHCRC for the past 9 years. Despite these measures, incident infections continued to occur in outpatients, most notably in a prolonged outbreak from September to June Figure 1.

This outbreak was coincident with a dramatic rise in community-wide prevalence data not shown.

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In contrast to RSV infection which is usually symptomatic , PIV-3 can be associated with minimal symptoms in the immunocompetent host, who may shed the virus for up to 1 month14; the avoidance of "symptomatic" individuals may thus be ineffective. Peaks in community PIV-3 activity occur in parallel with allergy season, further complicating the interpretation of individuals with rhinorrhea. Given the year-round distribution of cases and prolonged shedding among those infected, constant vigilance to staff, family, and patient symptomatology may be needed to prevent transmission outside of the "respiratory virus season.

Corticosteroid therapy was highly associated with pneumonia in a dose-dependent fashion, and dramatically increased the risk for pneumonia among autologous transplant recipients as well. Mortality from PIV-3 pneumonia was high and driven higher by the presence of copathogens; ribavirin with or without IVIG did not appear to improve survival or decrease viral shedding. New agents are sorely needed for PIV infections in the immunocompromised host.

Until then, strict infection control measures based on virologic surveillance of symptomatic patients remain the cornerstone of preventive strategy. Reinfection can occur throughout life, the elderly and the immunocompromised being at greater risk of serious complications. Infection with human parainfluenza virus 3 is usually seasonal in temperate climates, with outbreaks occurring predominantly in autumn. Human parainfluenza virus 3 spreads efficiently, and, by age 5, almost all children will show serological evidence of past infection.

Because reinfection can occur throughout life, despite the presence of neutralizing antibodies, nosocomial infection is common in both children and adults. It infects 5. Transmission of PIV3 has been demonstrated previously by Karron et al. However, our data additionally implicate prolonged shedding of virus by an immunosuppressed patient as a major factor in the first outbreak.

In fact, symptoms together with virus shedding were observed for up to 4 months in several of the BMT patients despite treatment with ribavirin. Prolonged shedding of PIV3 may continue for many months in immunosuppressed children ref and adults ref1 , ref2 , even despite ribavirin treatment. There was a rapid and complete response to pulse high-dose corticosteriod and intravenous immunoglobulin ref. Proteomics : it up-regulates c - PI31 , which delays immunoproteasome formation hence affecting presentation of the immunoproteasome-dependent epitope E1B.

Human mastadenovirus G Human adenovirus 52 one of only three gastroenteritis-causing HAdVs that are equipped with two different fiber proteins, one long and one short. Though she became seriously ill with pneumonia around the same time the monkeys were falling ill, she was not hospitalized and recovered after about 4 weeks.

Her blood tested positive for antibodies to the virus 3 months after the epidemic ref1 , ref2 Epidemiology : outbreaks of adenovirus infection are not uncommon in military establishments, and some types of adenovirus infection have been associated with conjunctivitis in the past. In Feb following an outbreak of conjunctivitis affecting about soldiers in 6 barracks in northern and southern Hessen, some members of the troops stationed in Hesse by the German Federal Armed Forces have have been withdrawn from service.

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The bases at Schwalmstadt where the epidemic began , Schwarzenborn, Stadtallendorf, and Neustadt will be closed for 3 weeks while the premises are disinfected Japan : prior to , most isolates were in descending order adenovirus types 3, 2 and 1. In , most were types 2, 3 and 7. In , most were types 2, 3 and 1. Adenovirus type 7 infection rates peak during May to September, with 55 percent of patients in the age group 0 to 4 years.

An nationwide outbreak of Adenovirus 7 infection 75 cases was reported in During to , laboratory reports ranged from to per year. Reports of pharyngoconjunctival fever ranged from in to 15 in Notable outbreaks: : an outbreak 28 cases of adenovirus 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis was reported at a babies' home in Sapporo. CAR is almost ubiquitously expressed expecially in hepatocytes. Adjacent epithelium cells maintain cell contacts through homotypic interactions of the CAR protein, an immunoglobulin superfamily member that also serves as the receptor for adenoviruses.

After the initial binding step, the viral particle achieves endocytotic internalization via interaction with Integrin a M mediates attachment but not internalization of adenovirus virions in monocytes, while integrin a V also mediates internalization via clathrin-dependent endocytosis in both monocytes and epithelial cells. They persist in lymphoid tissues, rhinopharynx, bowel and kidney excreted in urines during pregnancy.

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Respiratory infections in children are short-lived and rarely life-threatening. Most outbreaks of pharyngoconjunctivital fever in school-age children have occurred occur during the summer, whereas the outbreaks among military recruits have occurred during winter, probably reflecting a different mode of transmission. Adenovirus types 8, 9 and 11 have been associated with outbreaks of keratoconjunctivitis also known as shipyard eye in adults. However, whereas multiple serotypes from different species have been described as causing cases or limited, irregular outbreaks of ocular disease in humans, there are only a few serotypes that regularly cause larger outbreaks or epidemics.

The 2 types of ocular disease that are commonly caused by adenoviruses are pharyngoconjunctival fever PCF and epidemic keratoconjunctivitis EKC. An interesting observation is that the 3 serotypes that cause EKC Ad8, Ad19, and Ad37 use a cellular receptor sialic acid that is different from the cellular receptors used by other adenoviruses CAR or CD46 Laboratory examinations : basophilic Cowdry type B inclusion bodies Therapy : at present, there are no licensed antivirals available to any of the adenoviruses.

However, these vaccines are no longer in production, and there is some evidence that outbreaks of adenovirus-associated illness affecting military recruits are on the increase.

Used as transfection vector. Epidemiology : secondary transmission after a lab accident ref1 , ref2. In Jan 4 Formosan rock monkeys Macaca cyclopis out of 27 in a wildlife shelter in Nantou County were put down after they were diagnosed as carriers Genomics : there is evidence of distinct genotypes, and that isolates from different species of macaques vary in their pathogenicity for humans. Transmission : the natural host is Asiatic macaque monkey, but, when reactivated, can be transmitted to humans usually via injury bites and scratches , through handling infected monkey tissues, and more rarely by other routes such as the eye.

Prevention : if bitten or scratched, people should thoroughly cleanse their wounds with water and receive an immunoglobulin shot. However, the use of the antivirals acyclovir or gancyclovir can halt disease progression and assist recovery. Rapid diagnosis is essential. LAT inhibits apoptosis and maintains latency by promoting the survival of infected neurons. No protein product has been attributed to the LAT gene and the mechanism by which LAT protects cells from apoptosis is not yet known.

Neuroblastoma cells transfected with a fragment of the LAT gene show reduced susceptibility to cell death. The anti-apoptotic function of LAT has been mapped to a region within the first exon. A mutant virus in which a nucleotide fragment encompassing the mature miRNA was deleted neither protected the infected cells from apoptosis nor generated an miRNA. Instead, HSV-1 prevented the reappearance of endocytosed CD1d on the cell surface by redistributing endocytosed CD1d to the lysosome limiting membrane.

HSV-1 might also inhibit the transport of newly synthesized CD1d to the cell surface. In an immunocompromised host, reactivation usually causes chronic ulcers that erode and spread. The lower lip is more commonly affected than the upper lip. In the case of wrestlers the condition is known as herpes gladiatorum HG. Anderson ref concluded from an analysis of the epidemiology and clinical analysis of several outbreaks of herpes gladiatorum that the National Federation of State High School Associations NFHS guidelines were inadequate to prevent and control outbreaks of HG.

The focus of preventive efforts needed to change from mat cleanliness to more rapid detection of outbreaks by requiring culture results and appropriate therapy for all suspected bacterial and herpes lesions before allowing return to contact.

To minimize and control spread of HG, treatment and isolation should be implemented based not only on vesicle formation but also on systemic signs and symptoms. Anderson Jpn J Infect Dis. The study evaluated the usage of valacyclovir to prevent acquisition of primary HG, due to human herpesvirus type 1, in high school wrestlers at a day wrestling camp. Out of male wrestlers, aged , who entered camp, 94 elected to participate in blood sampling. Among the 94 wrestlers, 28 At the end of camp, 55 of these original seronegative individuals elected to participate in blood sampling and none had detectable IgM anti-human herpesvirus 1 or 2 antibodies.

Due to the high prevalence of this virus in high school wrestlers, Anderson recommended that serological testing should be done at the beginning of each season. HSV-1 seropositive individuals should consider being on antiviral medication throughout the season to minimize the risk of transmitting the virus to other wrestlers.

In the preclinical phase, when HSV-1 replicates in the corneal epithelium, neutrophils invade the underlying corneal stroma. This transient response, triggered by replicating virus, is thought to control HSV replication and limit viral spread into peripheral tissues.

During the clinical phase, a second wave of inflammatory cells, predominantly consisting of neutrophils, infiltrates the corneal stroma and destroy it. Paradoxically, virus antigens are largely focused in the epithelial layer of the cornea and not in the stromal layer, and viral antigens are eliminated before stromal inflammation develops. It is not clear what drives inflammation, whether viral antigens are necessary, or how viral antigens reach the stroma. It has been proposed that HSV travels from the corneal epithelium to sensory ganglia then returns to the stroma to cause disease.

US9 - HSV mutant, that had diminished capacity to move in neuronal axons, replicated and spread normally in the mouse corneal epithelium and to the trigeminal ganglia. However, US9 - HSV was unable to return from ganglia to the cornea and failed to cause periocular skin disease, which requires zosteriform spread from neurons.