Daxue 大學

Daxue 大學 "The Great Learning" is a Confucian Classic. It is part of the canon of the Sishu 四書 "Four Books", to which it was added as integral Confucian writing on the order and harmony of society. It was originally a chapter of the ritual classic Liji 禮記.

The Neo-Confucian scholars Cheng Hao 程顥 (1032-1085) and Cheng Yi 程頤 (1033-1107) were the first to consider it as a separate treatise. The Southern Song period 南宋 (1127-1279) master Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200) divided it into a classic (jing 經) and a commentary (zhuan 傳), wrote a philological study (zhangju 章句) on the Daxue and made it part of the canon of the "Four Books" (see Sishu zhangju jizhu 四書章句集注). Zhu Xi believed that the part he called "classic" had been compiled by Zeng Shen 曾參 (Zengzi 曾子), a disciple of Confucius, while the "commentary" was compiled by followers of Zeng Sen. This cutting-up of the text is rather arbitrary and not based on scholarly evidence. The Qing period 清 (1644-1911) scholar Chen Que 陳確 therefore contradicted this assumption and, based on textual evidence, offered the opinion that the Daxue must have been compiled only during the Former Han period 前漢 (206 BCE-8 CE), and not at the time when Confucius and his disciples lived (5th cent. BCE).

The text of the Daxue interrelates the moral self-cultivation with the general harmony in state and society. The objective of building up a moral character was to "enlighten the lucid virtue" (ming ming de 明明德), to "approach the people" (qin min 親民) and "to stop at the utmost goodness" (zhi yu zhi shan 止于至善). These targets were to be reached by those of a higher social position, especially the ruler. A benevolent ruler, nevertheless, was not sufficient for the welfare of a people. It was necessary that everybody was willing to study the world (ge wu 格物), before they could reach perfect knowledge (zhi zhi 致知), and only with perfect knowledge they would be able to accomplish sincerity (cheng yi 誠意). Only with the help of sincerity, one would be able to rectify one's heart (zheng xin 正心), and only this way man would be able to practice self-cultivation (xiu shen 修身). Once cultivated, the own family was brought to unison (jia qi 家齊), and only with families in unison a state could be governed (zhi guo 治國) in the right way. If all this were achieved, there would be peace on earth (tianxia ping 天下平).

This chain of conditions had to be fulfilled in each detail, otherwise the whole concept would not bear fruit. The core condition was self-cultivation, which had to be carried out by everyone, from the ruler down to the common man. If everybody practiced self-cultivation, social harmony could be achieved on all levels, and the state would prosper and be at peace.

This approach of a state philosophy is very idealistic and does not consider social, economical and political conditions at all. It is a very simplistic and theoretical model useful for the Neo-Confucian concept of learning and exploring the natural order in oneself and in all things on earth. The concept of self-cultivation, which was stressed as very important by the Neo-Confucian scholars, shows the influence of Buddhism. On the other hand the text of the Daxue shows how important the concept of harmony was to the traditional society in general, and what prominence the government's benevolence had in imperial China: "The accumulation of wealth is the way to scatter the people; and letting it be scattered among them is the way to collect the people." This is a monetary theory which shows the Confucian's concern for social welfare. The Daxue was thus created with a practical mind and not only as a theoretical essay.

What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.

The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy. From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides. It cannot be, when the root is neglected, that what should spring from it will be well ordered. It never has been the case that what was of great importance has been slightly cared for, and, at the same time, that what was of slight importance has been greatly cared for. [...]

What is meant by, "The cultivation of the person depends on rectifying the mind may be thus illustrated:-If a man be under the influence of passion he will be incorrect in his conduct. He will be the same, if he is under the influence of terror, or under the influence of fond regard, or under that of sorrow and distress. When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat. This is what is meant by saying that the cultivation of the person depends on the rectifying of the mind.

What is meant by "The regulation of one's family depends on the cultivation of his person is this:-men are partial where they feel affection and love; partial where they despise and dislike; partial where they stand in awe and reverence; partial where they feel sorrow and compassion; partial where they are arrogant and rude. Thus it is that there are few men in the world who love and at the same time know the bad qualities of the object of their love, or who hate and yet know the excellences of the object of their hatred. Hence it is said, in the common adage,"A man does not know the wickedness of his son; he does not know the richness of his growing corn." This is what is meant by saying that if the person be not cultivated, a man cannot regulate his family.