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The present application provides novel tetrahydro-isohumulone (THIAA)
derivatives and substantially enantiomerically pure compositions and
pharmaceutical formulations thereof. The application further provides
methods of using the disclosed compounds and compositions to activate
PPAR.gamma., inhibit inflammation, and treat conditions associated with
inflammation and conditions responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation such as
diabetes.

This application is a continuation of International Application Number
PCT/US2013/049788, filed Jul. 9, 2013, which claims priority to U.S.
Provisional Application No. 61/669,441, filed Jul. 9, 2012, the
disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Hops (Humulus lupulus L.) is a plant that has been used for medicinal purposes for centuries and is currently used in the brewing industry. Hops contains both alpha acids (humulones) and beta acids (lupulones). Alpha acids/humulones have the
general structure:

##STR00001##

The three primary types of alpha acids are humulone (R.dbd.CH.sub.2CH(CH.sub.3).sub.2), cohumulone (R.dbd.CH(CH.sub.3).sub.2), and adhumulone (R.dbd.CH(CH.sub.3)CH.sub.2CH.sub.3). There are also two less common alpha acids in hops, prehumulone
and posthumulone. Alpha acids can be converted to cis or trans iso-alpha acids/isohumulones by heat-induced isomerization of alpha acids, and these iso-alpha acids can in turn converted to cis or trans reduced iso-alpha acids by hydrogenation. The
three primary types of reduced iso-alpha acids are dihydro- (also known as rho-), tetrahydro-, and hexahydro-iso-alpha acids (RIAA, THIAA, and HIAA, respectively).

Several compounds derived from hops have been found to possess anti-inflammatory activity (Hall 2008; Desai 2009; Tripp 2009; Konda 2010). THIAA extracts have been shown to inhibit inflammation (Desai 2009), reduce symptoms of arthritis in a
mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (Konda 2010), and improve glucose homeostasis in a high fat diet-induced metabolic endotoxemia model (Everard 2012). In each of these cases, the THIAA compounds shared a substituted 1,3-cyclopentadione motif.

The first attempts to identify the stereochemical configuration of the alpha acids and their derivatives were incorrect, starting with the alpha acids (which naturally have (-) optical rotation) and continuing through to the isomerized alpha
acids. The alpha acids were originally given the 6R configuration, but are now known to be 6S. The correct stereochemical configuration was identified in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0108671, which disclosed the stereochemical configuration of the
THIAA cis 3,4-dihydroxy-2-(3-methylbutanoyl)-5-(3-methylbutyl)-4-(4-methylpentanoyl- )cyclopent-2-en-1-one ("KDT500," also known as cis tetrahydro isohumulone) based on X-ray crystallography data. There are two enantiomers of KDT500:
(+)-(4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-2-(3-methylbutanoyl)-5-(3-methylbutyl)-4-(4-met- hylpentanoyl)cyclopent-2-en-1-one ("(+)-KDT500") and (-)-(4R,5S)-3,4-dihydroxy-2-(3-methylbutanoyl)-5-(3-methylbutyl)-4-(4-met- hylpentanoyl)cyclopent-2-en-1-one ("(-)-KDT500").
The structures of (+)-KDT500 and (-)-KDT500 are set forth in Formulas II and III, respectively.

##STR00002## U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0108671 describes the purification and characterization of KDT500 and its potassium salt KDT501. An enriched THIAA extract containing predominantly the cis diastereomers was obtained during hops
processing and purified using countercurrent chromatography (CCC), and the isolated (+)-KDT500 was converted to (+)-KDT501 by reacting with 1 equivalent of potassium salt (e.g., KOH).

##STR00003##

(+)-KDT501 was found to exhibit both anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic effects.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of synthesizing the novel THIAA derivatives disclosed herein. In certain embodiments, these synthesis methods utilize one or more of the acylation, enamine, oxime, and reduction protocols set
forth herein.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of activating PPAR.gamma. either selectively or in combination with PPAR.alpha. and methods of decreasing levels of one or more inflammatory markers in vitro or in vivo using one or more of
the THIAA derivatives or compositions thereof provided herein. In certain embodiments, the composition is a substantially enantiomerically pure pharmaceutical composition comprising a THIAA derivative and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable
carriers. In certain embodiments, the methods are used to treat a condition associated with decreased PPAR.gamma. activity in a subject in need thereof.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are methods of inhibiting inflammation, treating a condition associated with inflammation, activating PPAR.gamma. either selectively or in combination with PPAR.alpha., treating a condition responsive to
PPAR.gamma. modulation, or decreasing levels of one or more inflammatory markers in a subject in need thereof by administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of one or more of the THIAA derivatives or compositions thereof provided
herein. In certain of these embodiments, the derivatives are administered via a substantially enantiomerically pure pharmaceutical composition as provided herein. In certain embodiments, the condition responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation is type II
diabetes, obesity, hyperinsulinemia, metabolic syndrome, non alcoholic fatty liver disease, non alcoholic steatohepatitis, an autoimmune disorder, or a proliferative disorder. Similarly, in certain embodiments the condition associated with inflammation
is diabetes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description of the invention is merely intended to illustrate various embodiments of the invention. As such, the specific modifications discussed are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will be
apparent to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes, and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein.

As disclosed herein, a novel set of THIAA derivatives have been synthesized and analyzed for their ability to treat inflammatory conditions and diabetes. These derivatives are summarized in Table 1. Provided herein in certain embodiments are
these THIAA derivatives and salts and crystals thereof, including crystals of the salts. Also provided herein are compositions comprising these derivatives and salts and crystals thereof, including substantially enantiomerically pure compositions.

Provided herein in certain embodiments is an acylation protocol for generating THIAA derivatives having the general structure set forth in Formula V (ester) and Formula VI (carbonate), as well as compounds generated by this protocol.

##STR00026## The acylation protocol provided herein comprises reacting the parent THIAA compound (tertiary alcohol with various R.sup.1 groups) with acyl chlorides or anhydrides to obtain esters (R.sup.2), or with alkyl chloroformates to obtain
carbonates (R.sup.3). This protocol allows for synthesis of THIAA derivatives with different R.sup.1, R.sup.2, and R.sup.3 groups. In certain embodiments, R.sup.1 is selected from isopropyl, isobutyl, and sec-butyl. In certain embodiments, R.sup.2 is
selected from any alkyl or aryl, including substituted or branched alkyls and aryls. In certain embodiments, R.sup.3 is selected from any alkyl other than a tertiary alkyl.

As set forth in Examples 1-8 below, the compounds KDT0033, KDT0034, KDT0035, KDT0036, KDT0037, KDT0041, KDT0042, and KDT0043 were synthesized via an acylation protocol as provided herein. Tetrahydro isohumulone (n- or co-) was dissolved in
suitable solvent (dichloromethane or chloroform), followed by addition of an excess of pyridine (5 eq.) and then an excess of acyl chloride or anhydride (3 eq.) was added. The reaction was kept at room temperature and monitored by HPLC. Once the
starting material was consumed (typically 30-60 minutes for chloride, 12-24 hours for anhydrides), methanol was added to quench the excess of acyl chloride and remove a possible second acyl group from the enolized triketone. After at least an hour, the
reaction mixture was evaporated and the residue was dissolved in tBuOMe, washed with 1 N HCl (2.times.) and brine (1.times.), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated. The residue was purified by either HPLC (C18 reverse phase, 40%
acetonitrile, water, 0.05% TFA) or countercurrent chromatography (CCC) to obtain the ester (KDT0033, KDT0034, KDT0036, KDT0041, KDT0042, KDT0043). The same procedure is performed with alkyl chloroformates to obtain the carbonates (KDT0035, KDT0037).

Provided herein in certain embodiments is an enamine protocol for generating THIAA derivatives having the general structure set forth in Formula VII, as well as compounds generated by this protocol.

##STR00027##

The enamine protocol provided herein comprises reacting the parent THIAA compound (tertiary alcohol with various R.sup.1 groups) with primary amines. This protocol allows for synthesis of THIAA derivatives with different R.sup.4 groups. In
certain embodiments, R.sup.1 is selected from isopropyl, isobutyl, and sec-butyl. In certain embodiments, R.sup.4 is selected from any alkyl or aryl, including substituted or branched alkyls and aryls.

As set forth in Examples 9-11 below, the compounds KDT0017, KDT0020, and KDT0024 were synthesized via an enamine protocol as provided herein. Cis tetrahydro isohumulone (n- or co-) was dissolved in a suitable solvent (methanol or ethanol) and
an excess of primary amine (5 eq.) was added. The reaction was kept at room temperature to 50.degree. C. and monitored by HPLC. Once starting material was no longer present (typically 1 to 12 hours), the solvent was evaporated. In the case of
volatile amines, the product could be used without further purification. In the case of non-volatile amines, the crude product was dissolved in tBuOMe, washed with 1 N HCl (2.times.) and brine (1.times.), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and
evaporated. The residue was purified by HPLC (C18 reverse phase, 40% acetonitrile, water, 0.05% TFA).

Provided herein in certain embodiments is an oxime protocol for generating THIAA derivatives having the general structure set forth in Formulas VIII and IX, as well as compounds generated by this protocol.

##STR00028## The oxime protocol provided herein comprises reacting the parent THIAA compound (tertiary alcohol with various R.sup.1 groups) with various O-alkylated hydroxylamines. This protocol allows for synthesis of THIAA derivatives with
different R.sup.5 groups. In certain embodiments, R selected from isopropyl, isobutyl, and sec-butyl. In certain embodiments, R.sup.5 is selected from any alkyl or aryl, including substituted or branched alkyls and aryls.

As set forth in Examples 12 and 13 below, the compounds KDT0001/2 and KDT0005 were synthesized via an oxime protocol as provided herein. Tetrahydro isohumulone (n- or co-) was dissolved in a suitable solvent (methanol or ethanol) and a slight
excess of O-alkyl hydroxylamine hydrochloride was added, followed by 1 equivalent of NaOH (1 M aq. solution). The reaction was kept at room temperature and followed by HPLC. Once starting material was no longer present (typically 1 hour), the solvent
was evaporated and the residue partitioned between water and tBuOMe. The organic layer was washed with 1 N HCl (2.times.) and brine (1.times.), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated. If necessary, this residue may be purified by HPLC (C18
reverse phase, 40% acetonitrile, water, 0.05% TFA).

Provided herein in certain embodiments is a selenium oxide protocol for generating THIAA derivatives, as well as compounds generated by this protocol. The selenium oxide protocol provided herein comprises reacting the parent THIAA compound with
selenium dioxide.

As set forth in Example 15, the compound KDT0040 was synthesized via a selenium oxide protocol as provided herein. Cis isohumulone dissolved in methanol was converted to a magnesium salt, followed by addition of selenium dioxide and heating.
After reaction completion, the mixture was filtered and the filtrate was evaporated, after which the residual oil was purified by simple partitioning. The aqueous phase was then evaporated to produce the final product.

As set forth in Examples 25 and 26, the THIAA derivatives set forth above were evaluated for their effect on inflammation and PPAR.gamma. activity, and certain of the derivatives were found to demonstrate anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic
properties. As shown in Example 25, certain of the derivatives were found to inhibit production of various inflammatory mediators, including PGE.sub.2, NO, MMP-9, IL-1.beta., MCP-1, RANTES, and MIP-1.alpha.. Based on these results, methods are provided
herein for inhibiting inflammation, decreased inflammatory marker levels, and treating conditions associated with inflammation such as diabetes. As shown in Example 26, certain of the derivatives were found to increase PPAR.gamma. activity, with some
compounds selectively increasing PPAR.gamma. activity and others also exhibiting the ability to increase PPAR.alpha. activity. Based on these results, methods are provided herein for increasing PPAR.gamma. activity either selectively or in
combination with PPAR.alpha. activity and for treating conditions responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation such as type II diabetes, obesity, hyperinsulinemia, metabolic syndrome, non alcoholic fatty liver disease, non alcoholic steatohepatitis, an
autoimmune disorder, or a proliferative disorder.

The term "salt" as used herein may refer to any pharmaceutically acceptable salt, including for example inorganic base salts such as potassium, aluminum, calcium, copper, guanidinium, iron, lithium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc salts and organic
base salts such as cinchonidine, cinchonine, and diethanolamine salts. Additional examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts and preparations in accordance with the present invention can be found in, for example, Berge J Pharm Sci 66:1 (1977).

Provided herein in certain embodiments are compositions comprising one or more of the THIAA derivatives provided herein. In certain of these embodiments, the compositions are substantially enantiomerically pure. The term "substantially
enantiomerically pure" as used herein refers to a composition in which 90% or more of a particular compound in the composition is in a first enantiomeric form, while 10% or less is in a second enantiomeric form. In certain embodiments, the "first
enantiomeric form" of a compound includes salts and crystals of that enantiomeric form. In certain embodiments, a substantially enantiomerically composition may contain 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.95%, or 99.99% or
greater of a first enantiomeric form of a compound.

Provided herein in certain embodiments are pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more of the THIAA derivatives provided herein and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions
are substantially enantiomerically pure. A "pharmaceutically acceptable carrier" as used herein refers to a pharmaceutically acceptable material, composition, or vehicle that is involved in carrying or transporting a compound of interest from one
tissue, organ, or portion of the body to another tissue, organ, or portion of the body. Such a carrier may comprise, for example, a liquid or solid filler, diluent, excipient, solvent, encapsulating material, stabilizing agent, or some combination
thereof. Each component of the carrier must be "pharmaceutically acceptable" in that it must be compatible with the other ingredients of the composition and must be suitable for contact with any tissue, organ, or portion of the body that it may
encounter, meaning that it must not carry a risk of toxicity, irritation, allergic response, immunogenicity, or any other complication that excessively outweighs its therapeutic benefits.

Pharmaceutical compositions as provided herein may further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances as required to approximate physiological conditions. For example, compositions may comprise one or more pH
adjusting agents, buffering agents, or toxicity adjusting agents, including for example sodium acetate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium lactate, and the like.

Pharmaceutical compositions as provided herein may be formulated into a suitable dosage form, including for example capsules, cachets, pills, tablets, lozenges (using a flavored basis, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth), powders,
granules, as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid, as an oil-in-water or water-in-oil liquid emulsion, as an elixir or syrup, or as pastilles (using an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia) and/or as
mouth washes and the like, each containing a predetermined amount of a THIAA derivative as an active ingredient. In certain embodiments, the compositions may be formulated as a time release delivery vehicle, such as for example a time release capsule.
A "time release vehicle" as used herein refers to any delivery vehicle that releases active agent over a period of time rather than immediately upon administration. In other embodiments, the compositions may be formulated as an immediate release
delivery vehicle.

A tablet may be made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared using binder (for example, gelatin or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), lubricant, inert diluent, preservative,
disintegrant (for example, sodium starch glycolate or cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose), surface-active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a substantially enantiomerically pure mixture of the
powdered THIAA derivative or further moistened with an inert liquid diluent. Tablets, and other solid dosage forms, such as dragees, capsules, pills and granules, may optionally be scored or prepared with coatings and shells, such as enteric coatings
and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical-formulating art. They may also be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of a THIAA derivative therein using, for example, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose in varying proportions to
provide the desired release profile, other polymer matrices, liposomes and/or microspheres. They may be sterilized by, for example, filtration through a bacteria-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid
compositions which can be dissolved in sterile water, or some other sterile injectable medium immediately before use. These compositions may also optionally contain pacifying agents and may be of a composition that they release the THIAA derivative(s)
only, or preferentially, in a certain portion of the gastrointestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of embedding compositions which can be used include polymeric substances and waxes. The THIAA derivative can also be in
micro-encapsulated form, if appropriate, with one or more of the above-described excipients.

The concentration of THIAA derivatives in the compositions provided herein may vary. Concentrations may be selected based on fluid volumes, viscosities, body weight, and the like in accordance with the particular mode of administration selected
and the biological system's needs. In certain embodiments, the concentration of a THIAA derivative in a composition provided herein may be from about 0.0001% to 100%, from about 0.001% to about 50%, from about 0.01% to about 30%, from about 0.1% to
about 20%, or from about 1% to about 10% wt/vol.

In certain embodiments, the synthesis methods provided herein generate a single enantiomer of a THIAA derivative. In other embodiments, the synthesis methods result in a mixture of enantiomeric forms of THIAA derivatives. In these embodiments,
one or more subsequent separation and/or purification steps may be performed to isolate a single enantiomeric form or to generate a substantially enantiomerically pure composition as provided herein.

In certain embodiments of the methods provided herein, the subject is a mammal, and in certain of these embodiments the subject is a human. A "subject in need thereof" refers to a subject diagnosed with a condition associated with inflammation
or a condition responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation, a subject who exhibits or has exhibited one or more symptoms of a condition associated with inflammation or a condition responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation, or a subject who has been deemed at risk
of developing a condition associated with inflammation or a condition responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation based on one or more hereditary or environmental factors.

The terms "treat," "treating," or "treatment" as used herein with regards to a condition refers to preventing the condition, slowing the onset or rate of development of the condition, reducing the risk of developing the condition, preventing or
delaying the development of symptoms associated with the condition, reducing or ending symptoms associated with the condition, generating a complete or partial regression of the condition, or some combination thereof.

A "therapeutically effective amount" of a THIAA derivative or pharmaceutical composition as used herein is an amount of a composition that produces a desired therapeutic effect in a subject. The precise therapeutically effective amount is an
amount of the compound or composition that will yield the most effective results in terms of therapeutic efficacy in a given subject. This amount will vary depending upon a variety of factors, including but not limited to the characteristics of the
therapeutic compound (including, e.g., activity, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and bioavailability), the physiological condition of the subject (including, e.g., age, sex, disease type and stage, general physical condition, responsiveness to a
given dosage, and type of medication), the nature of the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or carriers in the composition, and the route of administration. One skilled in the clinical and pharmacological arts will be able to determine a
therapeutically effective amount through routine experimentation, namely by monitoring a subject's response to administration of a compound and adjusting the dosage accordingly. For additional guidance, see Remington: The Science and Practice of
Pharmacy 21.sup.st Edition, Univ. of Sciences in Philadelphia (USIP), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa., 2005, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

In certain embodiments, a compound or composition as provided herein may be administered one or more times a day. In other embodiments, the compound or composition may be delivered less than once a day. For example, the compound or composition
may be administered once a week, once a month, or once every several months. Administration of a compound or composition provided herein may be carried out over a specific treatment period determined in advance, or it may be carried out indefinitely or
until a specific therapeutic benchmark is reached. In certain embodiments, dosing frequency may change over the course of treatment. For example, a subject may receive less frequent administrations over the course of treatment as certain therapeutic
benchmarks are met.

The compounds and compositions disclosed herein may be delivered to a subject by any administration pathway known in the art, including but not limited to oral, aerosol, enteral, nasal, ophthalmic, parenteral, or transdermal (e.g., topical cream
or ointment, patch). "Parenteral" refers to a route of administration that is generally associated with injection, including infraorbital, infusion, intraarterial, intracapsular, intracardiac, intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intrapulmonary,
intraspinal, intrasternal, intrathecal, intrauterine, intravenous, subarachnoid, subcapsular, subcutaneous, transmucosal, or transtracheal. Methods for preparing parenterally administrable compositions will be known or apparent to those skilled in the
art and are described in more detail in such publications as Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 21st ed., Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (2005). A composition may also be administered as a bolus, electuary, or paste.

In certain embodiments, kits are provided that comprise one or more of the THIAA derivatives, pharmaceutical formulations, or substantially enantiomerically pure compositions provided herein. In certain embodiments, the kit provides
instructions for usage, such as dosage or administration instructions. In certain embodiments, the kits may be used to treat a condition associated with inflammation or a condition responsive to PPAR.gamma. modulation.

The following examples are provided to better illustrate the claimed invention and are not to be interpreted as limiting the scope of the invention. To the extent that specific materials are mentioned, it is merely for purposes of illustration
and is not intended to limit the invention. One skilled in the art may develop equivalent means or reactants without the exercise of inventive capacity and without departing from the scope of the invention. It will be understood that many variations
can be made in the procedures herein described while still remaining within the bounds of the present invention. It is the intention of the inventors that such variations are included within the scope of the invention.

Cis tetrahydro isohumulone (52 mg) was dissolved in dichloromethane (2 mL) and ibuprofen chloride (69 mg, 2.2 eq) was added, followed immediately by pyridine (60 .mu.L, 5 eq.). The mixture was kept at room temperature for 3 hours, quenched with
MeOH (1 mL), and left overnight. The reaction mixture was then evaporated, and the residue was dissolved in tBuOMe, washed with 1 N HCl (2.times.) and brine (1.times.), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to obtain 124 mg of oil. This
crude product was purified by CCC in Hexane/DMF in descending mode. Pure fractions were combined and evaporated to obtain pure product as a colorless oil (30 mg, .about.38% yield). MS 553.4 [M-H].

In an alternative procedure, cis tetrahydro isohumulone (52 mg) was dissolved in dichloromethane (2 ml) and ibuprofen chloride (36 mg, 1.1 eq.) was added, followed immediately by pyridine (30 .mu.L, 2.6 eq.). The mixture was kept at room
temperature for 75 minutes, quenched with water (100 .mu.L), and stirred for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was then evaporated, and the residue was dissolved in tBuOMe and washed with water (1.times.), sat. aq. sodium bicarbonate (1.times.), 1 N HCl
(3.times.), and brine (1.times.), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to obtain 73.1 mg (93% yield) of the product.

One equivalent each of (+)-KDT100 (77.0 mg) and (-)-cinchonidine (51.9 mg, 1.00 eq.) were mixed in .sup.iPr--OH (200 .mu.L) and briefly heated to form a solution. .sup.tBuOMe (200 .mu.L) was added and the resulting solution was left to
crystallize at room temperature. After three days, the in situ formation of crystals was observed in this solution. An individual crystal suitable for X-ray analysis was identified, carefully removed, mounted and submitted for X-ray diffraction
analysis.

The alpha acids were isolated from a commercially available hops CO.sub.2 extract via a differential pH extraction. A 450 mm jacketed borosilicate glass immersion well was wrapped with approximately 17 meters of 2.7 mm inner diameter FEP tubing
and was used with a 450 W medium pressure mercury immersion lamp to produce a flow photoreactor. The isolated alpha acids (2.1 g) were dissolved in 100 mL of methanol and run through the flow reactor at 5 mL/min for two hours, recycling the effluent
until the reaction was complete. The resulting free acid mixture of trans iso-alpha-acids was reduced via catalytic hydrogenation and purified via CCC to produce trans tetrahydro isohumulone (Dahlberg 2010) in .gtoreq.95% homogeneity.

(-)-KDT700 (54.3 mg) was mixed with cinchonine (43.0 mg, 1 eq) in MeOH and the resulting solution was evaporated. The resulting solid salt was suspended in hexane and chloroform was added until complete dissolution occurred. The solution was
left open to allow the solvent to slowly evaporate over several days, at which time crystals formed. An individual crystal suitable for X-ray analysis was identified, carefully removed, mounted and submitted to X-ray diffraction analysis. The remaining
crystals were filtered, dried at high vacuum and submitted for elemental analysis.

The trans iso-.alpha.-acids were removed via .beta.-cyclodextrin complexation (Khatib 2010) from 45 g of a hops isomerized resin extract. The cis material was further purified via CCC (Dahlberg 2012) in order to isolate cis isoadhumulone, which
was then reduced via catalytic hydrogenation and repurified via CCC (Dahlberg 2010) to .gtoreq.95% homogeneity.

##STR00046##

Example 21: Cinchonidine Salt of (+)-KDT400

One equivalent each of (+)-KDT400 (50.0 mg) and (-)-cinchonidine (39.9 mg, 0.99 eq.) were mixed in .sup.iPr--OH (200 .mu.L) in a 4 mL amber-colored vial and briefly heated at 60-70.degree. C. to form a solution. Ether (200 .mu.L) was added and
the resulting solution was left to form crystals at room temperature. The solution was sealed under a septum, which was then pierced with a Gauge 16 needle to enable gradual evaporation of solvent. After three days at room temperature, the in situ
formation of crystals was observed in this solution. An individual crystal suitable for X-ray analysis was identified, carefully removed, mounted and submitted for X-ray diffraction analysis.

The trans iso-alpha acids were removed via .beta.-cyclodextrin complexation (Khatib 2010) from 45 g of a hops isomerized resin extract. The cis material was further purified via CCC (Dahlberg 2012) in order to isolate cis isohumulone, which was
confirmed to .gtoreq.95% homogenous following purification.

##STR00047##

Example 23: Cinchonidine Salt of (+)-KDT500

One equivalent each of (+)-KDT500 (99.4 mg) and (-)-cinchonidine (80.0 mg, 0.99 eq.) were mixed in .sup.iPr--OH (100 .mu.L) and briefly heated to form a solution. .sup.tBuOMe (500 .mu.L) was added and the resulting solution was left to form
crystals at room temperature. After three days the in situ formation of crystals was observed in this solution. An individual crystal suitable for X-ray analysis was identified, carefully removed, mounted and submitted for X-ray diffraction analysis.

The effect of the THIAA derivatives on LPS-mediated prostaglandin E2 (PGE.sub.2) and nitric oxide (NO) production was evaluated in a RAW264.7 murine macrophage model. The RAW 264.7 cell line was purchased from ATCC (Manassas, Va.) and
maintained according to their instructions. Cells were grown and subcultured in 96-well plates at a density of 8.times.10.sup.4 cells per well, and reached 80-90% confluence the next day. THIAA derivatives were added to the cells in serum-free medium
at a final concentration of 0.1% DMSO. Following one hour of incubation with the THIAA derivatives, LPS (1 .mu.g/ml) or DMEM medium alone was added to the cells and incubation was continued for 6 hours. Stimulation of RAW 264.7 cells with LPS (1
.mu.g/ml) for 6 hours activated the production of PGE.sub.2 and NO. Supernatant media was collected for measurement of PGE.sub.2 levels. For NO, incubations were continued overnight. Supernatant media was collected for measurement of NO levels after 16
hours of stimulation. PGE.sub.2 levels were measured using assay kits from Assay Designs, (Ann Arbor, Mich.) and NO levels were measured using assay kits from Cayman Chemicals (Ann Harbor, Mich.).

The effect of the THIAA derivatives on LPS-mediated MMP-9, IL-1.beta., MCP-1, RANTES, and MIP-1.alpha. was evaluated in THP-1 cells. Stimulation of THP-1 cells with LPS (1 .mu.g/ml) activated the production of MMP-9, IL-1.beta., MCP-1, RANTES,
and MIP-1.alpha..

Results are summarized in Table 2, with data represented as % inhibition of inflammatory mediator production.

In RAW264.7 cells, many of the test compounds inhibited LPS-mediated PGE.sub.2 and NO production to a significant degree (defined as greater than 20%). The efficacy of inhibition varied between test compounds. For example, KDT0033, KDT0034,
and KDT0037 inhibited both PGE.sub.2 and NO production by more than 50%, while KDT100, KDT700, KDT0005, KDT0017, KDT0038, and KDT0039 showed weak (<20%) or no inhibition of both inflammatory mediators. Rosiglitazone, a positive control agonist for
PPAR.gamma., did not inhibit PGE.sub.2 production and inhibited NO production very weakly (6%), suggesting that the anti-inflammatory effects of THIAA derivatives are independent of PPAR.gamma. activation in the RAW2564.7 cell model.

In THP-1 cells, all of the KDT test compounds inhibited LPS-induced expression of one or more of MMP-9, IL-1.beta., MCP-1, RANTES, and MIP-1.alpha. at a concentration of 12.5 .mu.M. Again, rosiglitazone showed no inhibition or only weak
inhibition of inflammatory mediator production, suggesting that the anti-inflammatory effects of the KDT test molecules are independent of PPAR.gamma. activation in the THP-1 cell model.

Mean inhibition across all six inflammatory mediators was calculated for each of the THIAA derivatives. Many of the test compounds exhibited significant mean inhibition levels, with KDT0033 and KDT0034 exhibiting mean inhibition levels of
nearly 90%. Interestingly, THIAA derivatives functionalized at the R.sup.2 (i.e., KDT0033, KDT0034, KDT0035, KDT0036, and KDT0037) position appear to have enhanced anti-inflammatory effects in both cell models.

The functional effect of THIAA derivatives on PPAR.alpha. and PPAR.gamma. activity was evaluated using a PPAR reporter assay (INDIGO Biosciences, Pa.). This assay utilizes non-human mammalian cells engineered to provide constitutive high
level expression of PPAR.alpha., or PPAR.gamma. and containing a luciferase report gene specific to the appropriate PPAR. Following activation by agonist binding, PPAR induces expression of the luciferase reporter gene. Luciferase activity therefore
provides a surrogate for measuring PPAR activity in agonist-treated cells.

Reporter cells were plated on a 96-well plate at 100 .mu.L per well, and 100 .mu.L of KDT test compounds (50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.13, 1.56 .mu.M) were added to each well in duplicates. For the PPAR.gamma. assay, rosiglitazone (1000, 500, 250,
125, 62.5, and 31.25 nM) was used as a positive control. For the PPAR.alpha. assay, GW590735 (5000, 1670, 560, 185, 62 and 21 nM) was used as a positive control. 0.1% DMSO was used as a solvent control for each assay. Plates were incubated for 20
hours in a humidified incubator at 37.degree. C. and 5% CO.sub.2. After incubation, the cell medium was discarded and the cells were treated with 100 .mu.L of luciferase detection reagent for 15 minutes. Plates were analyzed using a luminometer
(Victor2, Perkin Elmer). Average relative light unit (RLU) and standard deviation were measured.

As expected, rosiglitazone and GW590735 increased the activity of PPAR.gamma. and PPAR.alpha., respectively. Four of the THIAA derivatives (KDT100, KDT0033, KDT036, and KDT0037) increased PPAR.gamma. activity by 5% or greater in a manner
consistent with their activity as partial PPAR.gamma. agonists while exhibiting no effect on PPAR.alpha. activity, suggesting that these compounds are specific PPAR.gamma. agonists. Unexpectedly, KDT0034 and KDT0035 were found to act as dual
PPAR.alpha. and PPAR.gamma. agonists.

As stated above, the foregoing is merely intended to illustrate various embodiments of the present invention. The specific modifications discussed above are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will be apparent
to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes, and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein. All references cited herein
are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.