African literature: The epic: …heroic poetry and tale in Ibonia, and tale and myth (and, to a lesser extent, poetry) in Mwindo. Oral societies have these separate categories: history, the imaginative tale, heroic poetry, myth, and epic. Epic, therefore, is not simply history. History exists as a separate genre. The essential characteristic of epic…

Dean Kamen: In 1999 Kamen introduced the IBOT, a device similar to a wheelchair that could climb stairs and stand upright on two wheels. His use of gyroscopic stabilizers on the IBOT led him to develop the Segway, which was unveiled on Dec. 3, 2001. Kamen claimed that the Segway, with its…

Chaillu Massif: …points in the range are Mount Iboundji (3,215 feet [980 m]) and Mount Mimongo (2,822 feet [860 m]). The granite massif is named for the explorer Paul du Chaillu, who noted the mountains during his journeys up the Ngounié River (1855–65).

Indonesia: Finance: …1998 the government established the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA) to extricate the financial sector from its monumental debt. IBRA accomplished this task largely through the closure and consolidation of financially precarious banks. The remaining banks then prioritized households and small businesses in their lending, which stimulated growth in the…

?brahim, Ottoman sultan whose unstable character made him prey to the ambitions of his ministers and relatives and to his own self-indulgence; as a consequence, the Ottoman state was weakened by war, misrule, and rebellion during his reign (1640–48). Early in his reign under the guidance of the

Vasco da Gama: The second voyage: …ruler of Kilwa, the amīr Ibrāhīm, had been unfriendly to Cabral; da Gama threatened to burn Kilwa if the Amīr did not submit to the Portuguese and swear loyalty to King Manuel, which he then did.

Abraham, the first of the Hebrew patriarchs and a figure revered by the three great monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the biblical book of Genesis, Abraham left Ur, in Mesopotamia, because God called him to found a new nation in an undesignated land that he later

Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy (wālī) of Egypt under Ottoman rule and a general of outstanding ability. A son, or adopted son, of the famous wālī Mu?ammad ?Alī, in 1805 Ibrahim joined his father in Egypt, where he was made governor of Cairo. During 1816–18 he successfully commanded an army against the

Ibrāhīm al-?āqilānī, Maronite Catholic scholar noted for his Arabic translation of books of the Bible. Ordained a deacon, Ibrāhīm taught Arabic and Syriac first at Pisa, then in Rome, and in 1628 he published a Syriac grammar. In 1640 he began collaborating on the Le Jay Polyglot Bible, publishing

Hāshimīyah: …of Mu?ammad and his successor Ibrāhīm al-Imām (c. 701–749), the Hāshimīyah became a political instrument for stirring up anti-Umayyad sentiment among moderate Shī?ite and non-Arab, especially Iranian, converts to Islam. The sect’s missionary branch, developed by Abū Hāshim, was sent into the Iranian province of Khorāsān, where it met with…

Islamic arts: The Umayyad and ?Abbāsid dynasties: classical Islamic music: …artists of the period were Ibrāhīm al-Maw?ilī and his son Is?āq. Members of a noble Persian family, they were chief court musicians and close companions of the caliphs Hārūn al-Rashīd and al-Ma?mūn.

Islamic world: The ?Abbāsids: …also during Hārūn’s reign that Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, a trusted governor in Tunis, founded a dynasty that gradually became independent, as did the ?āhirids, the ?Abbāsid governors in Khorāsān, two decades later.

Islam: Mystics and other later figures: …in God, the Central Asian Ibrāhīm ibn Adham (died c. 780). The founders of mystical orders were credited by their followers with a variety of miracles, such as riding on lions, healing the sick, walking on water, being present at two places at the same time, and cardiognosia (which is…

Islamic world: The ?Abbāsids: …also during Hārūn’s reign that Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, a trusted governor in Tunis, founded a dynasty that gradually became independent, as did the ?āhirids, the ?Abbāsid governors in Khorāsān, two decades later.

Ziyādid Dynasty: …soon forced the Ziyādī ruler Ibrāhīm ibn Mu?ammad (859–902) to cede territory in return for tribute. More territory, including Zabīd itself, was lost to the sectarian Qarma?ians after Ibrāhīm’s death, and records of his successor have been obscured. Abū al-Jaysh Is?āq, however, restored Ziyādid power and territory in a celebrated…

mathematics: Mathematics in the 10th century: Thābit ibn Qurrah, his grandson Ibrāhīm ibn Sinān (909–946), Abū Sahl al-Kūhī (died c. 995), and Ibn al-Haytham solved problems involving the pure geometry of conic sections, including the areas and volumes of plane and solid figures formed from them, and also investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from…

Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, the first European in modern times to visit the ancient city of Petra and to arrive at the great Egyptian temple at Abu Simbel (or Abū Sunbul). Burckhardt went to England in 1806 and studied in London and at Cambridge University. In 1809, under the auspices of the

?Alī Bey: …was made a gift to Ibrāhīm Katkhudā, an emir who was the virtual ruler of Egypt. ?Alī earned the confidence of his master, who later freed him and advanced him to the rank of bey (district governor). ?Alī managed to strengthen his position by obtaining slaves and setting them in…

Ibrāhīm Lodī, last Afghan sultan of Delhi of the Lodī dynasty. He was a suspicious tyrant who increasingly alienated his nobles during his reign. The son of Sikandar, Ibrāhīm succeeded to the throne on his father’s death (Nov. 21, 1517) and was quickly faced with continuing disputes between the

?brahim Müteferrika, Ottoman diplomat known for his contributions to the 18th-century reform movement in the Ottoman Empire; he sponsored the introduction of printing into the Turkish domains. A Hungarian by origin, ?brahim converted to Islām and entered the Ottoman diplomatic service. He took part

?brahim Pa?a, Ottoman grand vizier (1523–36) who played a decisive role in diplomatic and military events during the reign of Sultan Süleyman I (1520–66). ?brahim’s first military expedition was to Egypt (1524), where he reestablished order and introduced administrative and fiscal measures that

Ahmed Nedim: …of the grand vizier, Nevsheherli ?brahim Pa?a, received an appointment as a librarian. Later, he became the Sultan’s close friend—thus his name Nedim, meaning Boon Companion. He lived during the Tulip Age (Lale Devri) of Ottoman history, in the reign of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), so called because a fad…

Safiye Sultan: …thrice grand vizier (chief minister) ?brahim Pa?a. During the years of her greatest influence, she is said to have been partial to the interests of Venice. She was sent into retirement after the death of Mehmed III.

Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy (wālī) of Egypt under Ottoman rule and a general of outstanding ability. A son, or adopted son, of the famous wālī Mu?ammad ?Alī, in 1805 Ibrahim joined his father in Egypt, where he was made governor of Cairo. During 1816–18 he successfully commanded an army against the

India: Successors to the Bahmanī: Consolidation was achieved by Ibrāhīm Qu?b Shah (reigned 1550–80) and enhanced under Mu?ammad Qulī early in the 17th century. A conciliatory policy toward the Nayakas, as well as the regime’s desire to preserve the Telugu warrior ethos, brought Telugu warrior groups into Golconda’s service. Special attention to large-scale irrigation…

India: The rise of regional states: …during the reign (1402–40) of Ibrāhīm Sharqī. Ibrāhīm’s successor, Ma?mūd, conducted expansionist campaigns against Bengal and Orissa and, in 1452, initiated a conflict with the Lodī sultans of Delhi that lasted at least until the defeat and partial annexation of Jaunpur by Bahlūl Lodī in 1479.

Katagum: 1809 by Ibrahim Zakiyul Kalbi (also known as Malam [Scholar] Zaki), a warrior in the Fulani jihad (holy war) who in 1812 besieged and destroyed Ngazargamu (115 mi [185 km] east-northeast), the capital of the Bornu kingdom. After his victory, Malam Zaki (who was named sarkin [“king…

?ādil Shāhī dynasty: …was during the reign of Ibrāhīm ?ādil Shah II (1579–1626), who extended his frontier as far south as Mysore and was a skillful administrator and a generous patron of the arts. He reverted to the Sunni form of Islam but remained tolerant of other religions, including Christianity. Thereafter, increasing weakness…

?āfi? Ibrāhīm, Egyptian poet known as the “poet of the Nile” (sha?ir al-Nīl). ?āfi? Ibrāhīm was born on a houseboat on the Nile. As a young man, he apprenticed in several law offices and later joined the military forces. In 1891 he graduated from Cairo’s military academy at the rank of second

Khalil Ibrahim, Sudanese physician and rebel leader (born 1958?, Tina, North Darfur, Sudan—died Dec. 24, 2011, Wad Banda area, North Kodofan state, Sudan), was the cofounder (2001) and leader of the Darfur-based Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). He was also believed to be one of the authors of

Mo Ibrahim, Sudanese-born British entrepreneur and philanthropist who founded one of the largest mobile phone companies operating in Africa and who created the multimillion-dollar Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. Ibrahim grew up in Sudan, the son of a clerk. He moved with his

Mo Ibrahim, Sudanese-born British entrepreneur and philanthropist who founded one of the largest mobile phone companies operating in Africa and who created the multimillion-dollar Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. Ibrahim grew up in Sudan, the son of a clerk. He moved with his

?āfi? Ibrāhīm, Egyptian poet known as the “poet of the Nile” (sha?ir al-Nīl). ?āfi? Ibrāhīm was born on a houseboat on the Nile. As a young man, he apprenticed in several law offices and later joined the military forces. In 1891 he graduated from Cairo’s military academy at the rank of second

Sa?d al-Dīn Ibrāhīm, Egyptian American professor and civil rights activist known for his vocal criticism of Egyptian president Hosnī Mubārak. Ibrāhīm graduated from Cairo University (B.A., 1960) and was awarded a government scholarship to study sociology at the University of Washington (Ph.D.,

Sa?d al-Dīn Ibrāhīm, Egyptian American professor and civil rights activist known for his vocal criticism of Egyptian president Hosnī Mubārak. Ibrāhīm graduated from Cairo University (B.A., 1960) and was awarded a government scholarship to study sociology at the University of Washington (Ph.D.,

?un? Allāh Ibrāhīm, Egyptian novelist and social critic whose satires are best known for their mixture of realism and dark humour. In 1959, while a journalist in Egypt, Ibrāhīm was arrested during political purges ordered by Pres. Gamal Abdel Nasser. For five years he was imprisoned and subjected

?un? Allāh Ibrāhīm, Egyptian novelist and social critic whose satires are best known for their mixture of realism and dark humour. In 1959, while a journalist in Egypt, Ibrāhīm was arrested during political purges ordered by Pres. Gamal Abdel Nasser. For five years he was imprisoned and subjected

?un? Allāh Ibrāhīm, Egyptian novelist and social critic whose satires are best known for their mixture of realism and dark humour. In 1959, while a journalist in Egypt, Ibrāhīm was arrested during political purges ordered by Pres. Gamal Abdel Nasser. For five years he was imprisoned and subjected

Mecca: City site: …the dry beds of the Wadi Ibrāhīm and several of its short tributaries. It is surrounded by the ?irāt Mountains, the peaks of which include Mount (Jabal) Ajyad, which rises to 1,332 feet, and Mount Abū Qubays, which attains 1,220 feet, to the east and Mount Qu?ayq?ān, which reaches 1,401…

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), Main component organization of the World Bank. The IBRD lends money to middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries. Most of its funds come from sales of bonds in international capital markets. More than 180 countries are members of

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), relatively common disorder of the intestines characterized by abdominal pain, intestinal gas, and altered bowel habits, including diarrhea, constipation, or both. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain that is relieved after defecation, mucus in the stools, or a

Henrik Ibsen, major Norwegian playwright of the late 19th century who introduced to the European stage a new order of moral analysis that was placed against a severely realistic middle-class background and developed with economy of action, penetrating dialogue, and rigorous thought. Ibsen was born

Henrik Ibsen, major Norwegian playwright of the late 19th century who introduced to the European stage a new order of moral analysis that was placed against a severely realistic middle-class background and developed with economy of action, penetrating dialogue, and rigorous thought. Ibsen was born

Teamsters Union, the largest private-sector labour union in the United States, representing truck drivers and workers in related industries (such as aviation). The union was formed in 1903 when the Team Drivers International Union (1899) merged with the Teamsters National Union (1902). Local

Masaru Ibuka, Japanese businessman (born April 11, 1908, Nikko, Japan—died Dec. 19, 1997, Tokyo), was the cofounder and leading engineer of the Sony Corp. His development of the tape recorder, transistor radio, and many other products put Sony at the forefront of technological innovation for more t

Ibuprofen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used in the treatment of minor pain, fever, and inflammation. Like aspirin, ibuprofen works by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandins, body chemicals that sensitize nerve endings. The drug may irritate the gastrointestinal tract. Marketed under

Ibuse Masuji, Japanese novelist noted for sharp but sympathetic short portraits of the foibles of ordinary people. Ibuse was first interested in poetry and painting but was encouraged to write fiction when he entered Waseda University in 1918. His greatest popularity came after World War II, but he

Ibycus, Greek lyric poet, one of the nine lyric poets in the official list, or canon, drawn up by the scholars of Alexandria in the 3rd and 2nd centuries bc, who edited his work in seven books, or papyrus rolls. Ibycus left Magna Graecia (southern Italy and Sicily) for the Aegean island of Samos,

Integrated circuit (IC), an assembly of electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconductor material

nebula: The work of the Herschels: …it was supplemented by two Index Catalogues (IC) of 5,386 additional objects. The list still included galaxies as well as true nebulae, for they were often at this time still indistinguishable. Most of the brighter galaxies are still identified by their NGC or IC numbers according to their listing in…

Illinois Central Railroad (IC), former U.S. railroad founded in 1851 that expanded service from Illinois to much of the Midwest before merging with the Canadian National Railway Company (CN) in 1999. With its charter in 1851, the Illinois Central Railroad was the first of many railroads to receive

Immediate constituent analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters i

cybercrime: Internet fraud: Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) reported that more than $54 million dollars had been lost through a variety of fraud schemes; this represented a threefold increase over estimated losses of $17 million in 2001. The annual losses grew in subsequent years, reaching $125 million in…

Native American art: Peru and highland Bolivia: …is the art of the Ica civilization (ad 1000–1500). These people produced fine textiles, the designs of which were often reproduced on the pottery of the area. The dry climate has also preserved a wealth of wood carving, much of it in such fine condition that the quality of the…

Political Communication: …was jointly sponsored by the International Communication Association (ICA) and the American Political Science Association (APSA). The journal was a successor to two other publications, Political Communication Review and Political Communication and Persuasion.

Ica, city, southern Peru. It is located about 30 miles (48 km) from the Pacific Ocean and 170 miles (275 km) southeast of Lima in the extremely arid and intensively irrigated coastal valley of the Ica River. Ica lies within a wide expanse of high plains that border the Andean foothills to the east.

library: Associations and international organizations: The International Council on Archives (ICA) was established with the help of UNESCO in 1948, and the first International Congress of Archivists was held in Paris in 1950. Early and continuing interest has centred on the microfilming, conservation, and preservation of historical records and on the…

Putumayo River, tributary, 1,000 miles (1,609 km) long, of the Amazon River. It originates as the Guamués River, which flows from La Cocha Lake, high in the Andes near Pasto, Colombia. The Guamués flows southeastward into densely forested plains past Puerto Asís, Colom., after which point it is k

Coco plum, (species Chrysobalanus icaco), evergreen tree, in the family Chrysobalanaceae, native to tropical America and Africa. The tree, up to 9 m (30 feet) tall, has roundish shiny green leaves and clusters of white flowers. The fruit, up to 4 cm (1.5 inches) long, is a pulpy drupe, sweet but

Icadyptes, genus of extinct giant penguin that lived about 37 million to 35 million years ago, during the second half of the Eocene Epoch (56 million to 33.9 million years ago). It is a member of the Sphenisciformes, the group that contains living penguins and their extinct relatives. Icadyptes was

Carl Icahn, American financier who was board chairman of Icahn Enterprises, a holding company with a diverse portfolio. In the 1980s he was called a corporate raider, but in later years he was more often labeled an activist investor. Icahn was an only child. Both his parents were teachers, and his

Carl Icahn, American financier who was board chairman of Icahn Enterprises, a holding company with a diverse portfolio. In the 1980s he was called a corporate raider, but in later years he was more often labeled an activist investor. Icahn was an only child. Both his parents were teachers, and his

International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), international coalition of organizations that was founded in 2007 to eliminate nuclear weapons, with a focus on enacting international law to ban them. It played a key role in the United Nations’ Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

traffic control: History: …under the auspices of the International Commission on Air Navigation (ICAN) under the direction of the League of Nations. The first air traffic controller, Archie League of St. Louis, Mo., U.S., began working in 1929. The long distances traveled by aircraft show why aviation quickly became an international concern. The…

ICANN, nonprofit private organization incorporated in California on September 18, 1998, and tasked with taking over from the U.S. government various administrative duties associated with running the Internet. ICANN’s functions include overseeing the top-level domains (TLDs; e.g., .com, .net, .org,

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), intergovernmental specialized agency associated with the United Nations (UN). Established in 1947 by the Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944), which had been signed by 52 states three years earlier in Chicago, the ICAO is dedicated to

Serge Lifar: …with this controversial concept in Icare (1935; “Icarus”), in which he created the title role. The work was performed solely to a percussion accompaniment that was added after the choreography had been completed. In later ballets he utilized more conventional music but continued to dictate to his composers or musical…

étienne Cabet: …280 settlers there to start Icaria. The settlement was at best a compromise, for Cabet was unable to put many of his ideas into practice. The population never exceeded 1,800. In 1856 dissension arose, and Cabet left with 180 followers for St. Louis, where he soon died. Colonies of Icarians…

Erigone: …in Greek mythology, daughter of Icarius, the hero of the Attic deme (township) of Icaria. Her father, who had been taught by the god Dionysus to make wine, gave some to several shepherds, who became intoxicated. Their companions, thinking they had been poisoned, killed Icarius and buried him under a…

Triassic Period: Flying reptiles: …as the small Late Triassic Icarosaurus, are thought to have developed an airfoil from skin stretched between extended ribs, which would have allowed short glides similar to those made by present-day flying squirrels. Similarly, Longisquama had long scales that could have been employed as primitive wings, while the Late Triassic…

Icarus, an Apollo asteroid (one that passes inside Earth’s orbit). It was discovered on June 27, 1949, by German-born American astronomer Walter Baade of the Hale Observatories (now Palomar Observatory), California. At the time of its discovery, Icarus had a more-eccentric orbit than any other

Yonne River, river, north central France, a left-bank tributary of the Seine River. From its source in the Nièvre département at the foot of Mont Preneley, located in the Morvan heights west of Autun, to its confluence with the Seine at Montereau, the Yonne is 182 mi (293 km) long. It speeds

Jorge Icaza, Ecuadorean novelist and playwright whose brutally realistic portrayals of the exploitation of his country’s Indians brought him international recognition as a spokesman for the oppressed. Icaza started writing for the theatre, but when he was censured for a 1933 dramatic script, El

International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), international coalition of organizations in some 100 countries that was established in 1992 to ban the use, production, trade, and stockpiling of antipersonnel land mines. In 1997 the coalition was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace, which it shared

ICBM, Land-based, nuclear-armed ballistic missile with a range of more than 3,500 miles (5,600 km). Only the United States, Russia, and China field land-based missiles of this range. The first ICBMs were deployed by the Soviet Union in 1958; the United States followed the next year and China some

International Criminal Court (ICC), permanent judicial body established by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) to prosecute and adjudicate individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. On July 1, 2002, after the requisite number of countries (60)

International Council of Christians and Jews (ICCJ), umbrella organization of national associations dedicated to encouraging Jewish-Christian dialogue. The International Council of Christians and Jews was founded in 1946 in the aftermath of the Holocaust as a way to encourage interfaith dialogue

International Classification of Diseases (ICD), in medicine, diagnostic tool that is used to classify and monitor causes of injury and death and that maintains information for health analyses, such as the study of mortality (death) and morbidity (illness) trends. The ICD is designed to promote

Ice, solid substance produced by the freezing of water vapour or liquid water. At temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), water vapour develops into frost at ground level and snowflakes (each of which consists of a single ice crystal) in clouds. Below the same temperature, liquid water forms a solid, as,

comet: Spacecraft exploration of comets: …(of a sort) was the International Cometary Explorer (ICE) spacecraft’s encounter with Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner on September 11, 1985. The mission had originally been launched as part of a joint project by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA) known as the International Sun-Earth…

Methamphetamine, potent and addictive synthetic stimulant drug that affects the central nervous system (the spinal cord and brain). Methamphetamine is prescribed for the treatment of certain medical conditions, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. In

railroad: Western Europe: …was the beginning of Germany’s InterCity Express (ICE) high-speed rail network, which has continued to grow as further lines have been constructed, notably between Hannover and Berlin (opened 1998) and in Germany’s most heavily trafficked corridor, Cologne–Frankfurt am Main (opened 2002).

Ray Romano: …father, in the animated feature Ice Age (2002); he reprised the character in four sequels (2006, 2009, 2012, and 2016). In the dark comedy Eulogy (2004) he was cast as the maladjusted eldest son mourning the death of the family patriarch. That year he also appeared in Welcome to Mooseport,…

Ice age, any geologic period during which thick ice sheets cover vast areas of land. Such periods of large-scale glaciation may last several million years and drastically reshape surface features of entire continents. A number of major ice ages have occurred throughout Earth history. The earliest

global warming: Ice albedo feedback: Another important positive climate feedback is the so-called ice albedo feedback. This feedback arises from the simple fact that ice is more reflective (that is, has a higher albedo) than land or water surfaces. Therefore, as global ice cover decreases, the reflectivity…

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