Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in
Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and
Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2

ABSTRACTChronically ill patients with
neurodegenerative and neurobehavioural and psychiatric diseases commonly
have systemic and central nervous system bacterial and viral
infections. In addition, other chronic illnesses where neurological
manifestations are routinely found, such as fatiguing and autoimmune
diseases, Lyme disease and Gulf War illnesses, also show systemic
bacterial and viral infections that could be important in disease
inception, progression or increasing the types/severities of signs and
symptoms. Evidence of Mycoplasma species, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi,
human herpesvirus-1, -6 and -7 and other bacterial and viral infections
revealed high infection rates in the above illnesses that were not
found in controls. Although the specific roles of chronic infections in
various diseases and their pathogeneses have not been carefully
determined, the data suggest that chronic bacterial and/or viral
infections are common features of progressive chronic diseases.

Introduction

In the first part of this review we considered neurodegenerative
and neurobehavioural diseases and the findings that these diseases
commonly are associated with systemic and central nervous system
bacterial and viral infections.1 In this second part we
continue with psychiatric diseases, autoimmune diseases, fatiguing
illnesses, and other chronic diseases where chronic infections play an
important role.

Psychiatric diseases

Borrelia-associated psychiatric disorders

In addition to neurologic and rheumatologic symptoms Borrelia burgdorferi has been associated with several psychiatric manifestations2, 3 (see also below).
Such infections can invade the central nervous system and may cause or
mimic psychiatric disorders or cause a co-morbid condition. A broad
range of psychiatric conditions have been associated with Lyme disease,
including paranoia, dementia, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, panic
attacks, major depression, anorexia nervosa and obsessive-compulsive
disorder.4-7 For example, depressive states among patients with late Lyme disease are fairly common, ranging from 26% to 66%.3 It is not known whether B. burgdorferi
contributes to overall psychiatric morbidity, but undiagnosed chronic
Lyme disease caused by this spirochete is considered a differential
diagnosis in patients with certain psychiatric symptoms such as
depressive symptoms, lack of concentration and fatigue.

The neuropsychiatric sequelae of chronic Lyme disease remains
unclear. Studies were performed, some on large numbers of patients, to
investigate whether a correlation exists between chronic Lyme disease
(defined by seropositivity) and psychiatric disorders.8-11 Interestingly, different results were reported on the association between B. burgdorferi infection and psychiatric morbidity.8-11 For example, Hájek et al.8 compared the prevalence of antibodies to B. burgdorferi
in groups of psychiatric patients and healthy subjects. Among the
matched pairs, 33% of the psychiatric patients and 19% of the healthy
comparison subjects were seropositive. In contrast, Grabe et al.11 did not find an association between Borrelia
seropositivity and mental and physical complaints. In 926 consecutive
psychiatric patients that were screened for antibodies and compared with
884 simultaneously recruited healthy subjects, seropositive psychiatric
patients were found to be significantly younger than seronegative ones,
and this was not found in the healthy controls.10 However, none of the psychiatric diagnostic categories used in this study exhibited a stronger association with seropositivity.10 These findings suggest a potential association between B. burgdorferi
infection and psychiatric morbidity, but fail to identify any specific
clinical 'signature' of the infection. This might be due to the very low
incidence in an endemic region (0.2%, CI 95% 0.0% to 1.1%) as
demonstrated in 517 patients hospitalized for psychiatric diseases.9

In addition to serological data, clinical evidence for the
association of psychiatric symptoms and post-Lyme disease has also been
investigated. If mental and physical complaints in patients were
assessed with the von Zerssen's complaint scale using multivariate
analyses, the data revealed that definitions of seropositivity were not
associated with increased mental or physical complaints.11 In
contrast, if the SF-36 was used to determine Quality of Life (QOL) in
post-Lyme patients, the average SF-36 physical component summary (40±9,
range 29-44) and mental component summary (39±14, range 23-46) of the
QOL assessment were worse than the general USA population, and they
could be significantly improved by anti-Lyme antibiotics (46% versus
18%, p=0.007).5 Barr et al.12 examined the
relation between complaints of memory disturbance and measures of mood
and memory functioning in 55 patients with serological evidence of
late-stage Lyme borreliosis. There was a significant correlation between
subjective memory ratings and self-reported depression (p<0 .001=".001" 30="30" a="a" affect="affect" and="and" battery="battery" but="but" checklist="checklist" chronic="chronic" disturbance="disturbance" in="in" indicating="indicating" interview="interview" lyme="lyme" memory="memory" negative="negative" neuropsychological="neuropsychological" not="not" objective="objective" of="of" patients.="patients." patients="patients" performance="performance" positive="positive" post-lyme="post-lyme" psychiatric="psychiatric" schedule="schedule" span="span" structured="structured" symptom="symptom" tests="tests" the="the" using="using" with="with">, participants did not appear to have an elevated incidence of psychiatric disorders or psychiatric history.13
Their mood, however, was characterized by lowered levels of positive
affect and typical levels of negative affect that were similar to affect
patterns in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Similarly,
Hasset et al.4, 7 reported on 240 consecutive post-Lyme
patients who were screened for clinical psychiatric disorders, such as
depression and anxiety. After adjusting for age and sex, these disorders
were more common in symptomatic patients than in the comparison group
(Odds Ratio=3.54, CI 95% 1.97-6.55, p<0 .001=".001" both="both" but="but" comparable="comparable" disorders="disorders" groups.="groups." in="in" personality="personality" span="span" were="were">0>0>

Although psychiatric co-morbidity and other psychological factors
are prominent in post-Lyme patients, it remains uncertain whether these
symptoms can be directly attributed to the chronic course of Borrelia infections or to other chronic illness-related factors.

Schizophrenia

...

Neuropsychiatric Movement Disorders

... As mentioned above, streptococcal infections are likely to play a pivotal role in these syndromes.35

The pathogenic mechanism may be secondary to an
activation of the immune system, resulting in an autoimmune
response. This will be discussed in the next section.

Autoimmune Diseases

Infections are associated with various autoimmune conditions.38-40 Autoimmunity can occur when infections like cell-wall-deficient
bacteria are released from cells containing parts of cell membranes
that are then seen as part of a bacterial antigen complex, or bacteria
can synthesize mimicry antigens (glycolipids, glycoproteins or
polysaccharides) that are similar enough in structure (molecular
mimicry) to stimulate autoimmune responses against similar host
antigens. Alternatively, viral infections can weaken or kill cells and
thus release cellular antigens, which can stimulate autoimmune
responses, or they can incorporate molecules like gangliosides into
their structures.

In addition to molecular mimicry, autoimmunity involves several
other complex relationships within the host, including inflammatory
cytokines, Toll-like receptor signalling, stress or shock
proteins, nitric oxide and other stress-related free radicals, among
other changes that together result in autoimmune disease.38, 39

Guillain-Barré syndrome

...

Viruses have also been found to be associated with GB.40 Examples are: CMV,47 HIV,48 herpes simplex virus,49 West Nile virus,50 and HHV-6.51

Streptococcal infections in children are usually
benign and self-limited. In a small percentage of children, however,
prominent neurologic and/or psychiatric sequelae can
occur. Post-streptococcal basal ganglia dysfunction has been reported
with various manifestations, all of which fall into a relatively
well-defined symptom complex or syndrome called paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS).52

...

Fatiguing illnesses

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) is a
fatiguing illness characterised by unexplained, persistent long-term
disabling fatigue plus additional signs and symptoms, including
neurophysiological symptoms.65 Brain imaging studies have
shown that CFS/ME patients are dysfunctional in their ventral anterior
cingulate cortex, and they also have other brain MRI abnormalities.66, 67
In addition, CFS/ME patients also have immunological and inflammation
abnormalities, such as alternations in natural killer cell function68, 69 and cytokine profiles.70, 71 In
addition, the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, which plays a major
role in stress responses, appears to be altered in CFS/ME.72

Most, if not all, CFS/ME patients have multiple chronic bacterial and viral infections.73-80
For example, when patients were examined for evidence of multiple,
systemic bacterial and viral infections, the Odds Ratio for this was
found to be 18 (CI 95% 8.5-37.9, p< 0.001).75 In this study CFS/ME patients had a high prevalence of one of four Mycoplasma species (Odds Ratio=13.8, CI 95% 5.8-32.9, p< 0.001) and often showed evidence of co-infections with different Mycoplasma species, C. pneumoniae(Odds Ratio=8.6, CI 95% 1.0-71.1, p< 0.01) and HHV-6 (Odds Ratio=4.5, CI 95% 2.0-10.2, p< 0.001).75 In a separate study the presence of these infections was also related to the number and severity of signs and symptoms in CFS/ME patients, including neurological symptoms.77 Similarly, Vojdani et al.76 found Mycoplasma species in a majority of CFS/ME patients, but this has not been seen in all studies.81 Interestingly, when European CFS/ME patients were examined for various Mycoplasma species, the most common species found was M. hominis,82 whereas in North America the most common species found was M. pneumoniae,75, 77
indicating possible regional differences in the types of infections in
CFS/ME patients. In addition to Mycoplasma species, CFS/ME patients are
also often infected with B. burgdorferi,80 and as mentioned above, C. pneumoniae.75, 77, 83

Other infections are also found in CFS/ME patients, such as viral infections: CMV,84 parvovirus B19,78 enterovirus79 and HHV-6.75, 77, 85-88 For example, Ablashi et al.88
found that 54% of CFS/ME patients had antibodies against HHV-6 early
protein, compared to 8% of controls. Similarly, Patnaik et al.86
found that 77% of CFS/ME patients were positive for HHV-6 early antigen
IgG or IgM antibodies, whereas only 12% of control subjects had IgG or
IgM antibodies to HHV-6 early antigen. Recently a new retrovirus, XMRV,
was found in mononuclear blood cells of 67% of 101 chronic fatigue
syndrome patients compared to only 3.7% of healthy controls. Cell
culture experiments determined that the patient-derived virus was
infectious and could possibly be transmitted.89

Gulf War illnesses

GWI is a syndrome similar to CFS/ME.90 In most GWI
patients the variable incubation time, ranging from months to years
after presumed exposure, the cyclic nature of the relapsing fevers and
the other chronic signs and symptoms, and their subsequent appearance in
immediate family members, are consistent with an infectious process.90, 91 GWI
patients were exposed to a variety of toxic materials including
chemicals, radiochemicals and biologicals so not all patients are likely
to have infections as their main clinical problem. Neurological
symptoms are common in GWI cases.90 Baumzweiger and Grove92
have described GWI as neuro-immune disorder that involves the central,
peripheral and autonomic nervous systems as well as the immune
system. They attribute a major source of the illness to brainstem damage
and central, peripheral and cranial nerve dysfunction from
demyelination. They found GWI patients have muscle spasms, memory and
attention deficits, ataxia and increased muscle tone.92

Bacterial infections were a common finding in many GWI patients.90 Mycoplasmal infections were found in about one-half of GWI patients, and more than 80% of these cases were PCR positive for M. fermentans.90, 91, 93-95
In studies of over 1,500 U.S. and British veterans with GWI,
approximately 45% of GWI patients have PCR evidence of such infections,
compared to 6% in the non-deployed, healthy population. Other infections
found in GWI cases at much lower incidence were Y. pestis, Coxiella burnetii and Brucella species.90

When we examined the immediate family members of veterans with GWI
who became sick only after the veteran returned to the home, we found
that >53% had positive tests for mycoplasmal infections and showed
symptoms of CFS/ME. Among the CFS/ME-symptomatic family members, most
(>80%) had the same Mycoplasma fermentans infection as the GWI
patients compared to the few non-symptomatic family members who had
similar infections (Odds Ratio=16.9, CI 95% 6.0-47.6, p<0 .001=".001" sup="sup">910>

In contrast, in the few non-symptomatic family members that tested Mycoplasma-positive, the Mycoplasma species were often different from the species found in the Gulf War Illness patients (M. fermentans).The most sensible conclusion is that veterans came home with M. fermentans infections and then transmitted these infections to immediate family members.91

Some other infectious diseases with neurological aspects

Lyme Disease

Lyme disease is caused by a tick bite and the entry of the spiral-shaped spirochete B. burgdorferi as well as other co-infections.96 Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne disease in North America. After incubation for a few days to a month, the Borrelia
spirochete and co-infections migrate through the subcutaneous tissues
into the lymph and blood where they can travel to near and distant host
sites, including the central nervous system.3, 97-99Transplacental transmission of B. burgdorferi and
co-infections can occur in pregnant animals, including humans, and
blood-borne transmission to humans by blood transfusion is likely but
unproven. The tick-borne co-infections associated with Lyme disease can
and usually do appear clinically at the same time, complicating clinical
dignoses.100

Lyme disease signs and symptoms eventually overlap with the signs and
symptoms of other chronic illnesses, and patients are often diagnosed
with illnesses like CFS/ME, chronic arthritis or a neurological disease.80,97-100 About one-third of cases with Lyme disease start with the appearance of a round, red, bulls-eye skin rash (erythema migrans) at the site of the tick bite, usually within 3-30 days.100 Within
days to weeks mild flu-like symptoms can occur that include shaking
chills, intermittent fevers and local lymph node swelling. After this
localised phase, which can last weeks to months, the infection can
spread to other sites resulting in disseminated disease. In the
disseminated (late) phase patients present with malaise, fatigue, fever
and chills, headaches, stiff neck, facial nerve palsies (Bell’s palsy)
and muscle and joint pain, and other signs and symptoms.100-104

The disseminated (late) phase of Lyme disease is a
chronic, persistent disease with ophthalmic, cardiac, musculoskeletal,
central nervous system and internal organ invasion. When it involves the
central and peripheral nervous systems, it is often termed
neuroborreliosis.100, 104 At this late stage, arthritis, neurological impairment with memory and cognitive loss, cardiac problems (such
as myocarditis, endocarditis causing palpitations, pain, bradycardia,
hypertension) and severe chronic fatigue are usually apparent.80, 100-102 The
signs and symptoms of the chronic (late) phase of the disease usually
overlap with other chronic conditions, such as CFS/ME, chronic
arthritis, as well as neurodegenerative diseases, causing confusion in
the diagnosis and treatment of the chronic phase in patients with Lyme
Disease.80, 97, 100, 105 Patients with late stage
neuroborreliosis exhibit neuropathologic and neuropsychiatric disease
similar to some of the neurodegenerative diseases discussed in previous
sections.1

Diagnostic laboratory testing for Lyme disease at
various clinical stages is not fool-proof, and experts often use a
checklist of signs and symptoms and potential exposures, along with
multiple laboratory tests to diagnose Lyme disease.104 The laboratory tests include serology, Western blot analysis of B.burgdorferi
associated bands, PCR analysis of blood and the nonspecific decrease in
CD-57 natural killer cells. Unfortunately, similar to other
intracellular bacteria, Borrelia spirochetes are not always
released into the blood circulation or other body fluids, making the
very sensitive PCR method less than reliable for diagnosing Lyme Borrelia with blood samples. Lebech and Hansen106 found that only 40% of cerebrospinal fluid samples from patients with Lyme neuroborreliosis were positive for B.burgdorferi by PCR.

Co-infections in Lyme disease are important but, in general, have not received the attention that B. burgdorferiattracts. Some of the Lyme Disease co-infections on their own, such as M. fermentans, have been shown to produce signs and symptoms comparable to B. burgdorferi infections.80, 102

The most common co-infections found in Lyme disease are species of Mycoplasma, mostly M. fermentans,present in a majority of cases.80, 103, 107 In some cases multiple mycoplasmal infections are present in patients with Lyme disease,80 while other common co-infections include Ehrlichia species, Bartonella species and Babesia species. Such co-infections are present in 10-40% of cases.103, 104, 108-112Ehrlichia and Bartonella species are usually found along with Mycoplasma species in Lyme disease.94, 98, 108-111 Bartonella species, such as B.henselae,111 which also causes cat-scratch disease,113 are often found in neurological cases of Lyme disease.100, 111

Protozoan co-infections have been found with B.burgdorferi, such as intracellular Babesia species.100, 108, 109, 112, 114The combination of Borrelia, Mycoplasma and Babesia
infections can be lethal in some patients, and ~7% of patients can have
disseminated intravascular coagulation, acute respiratory distress
syndrome and heart failure.109

Brucellosis

...

Final comments to part 2

The progression, and in some cases, the inception of
many chronic diseases are probably elicited by various bacterial and
viral infections.1, 39, 40, 119 Even if infections are not
directly involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases, patients with
chronic conditions are at risk of a variety of opportunistic
infections that could result in co-morbid conditions or promote disease
progression. Infections can complicate diagnosis and treatment, and
patients with late-stage disease with complex neurological
manifestations, such as meningitis, encephalitis, peripheral neuropathy,
psychiatric conditions, or with other signs and symptoms could have
infections that are not recognized or treated.

Patients with chronic diseases are particularly difficult to treat
using single modality approaches, and this is particularly true for
patients who also have multiple chronic infections.103, 109The multi-focal nature of chronic diseases and the fact that often
treatments are given to suppress signs and symptoms, rather than treat
causes of the disease or its progression, have resulted in incomplete or
ineffective treatments. On the other hand, even if the causes of
chronic diseases are known, by the time therapeutic intervention is
undertaken, it may be entirely too late to use approaches that should
work on the disease if chronic infections were not present. Moreover, if
complex, chronic infections are ignored or left untreated, recovery may
be difficult, if not impossible to achieve.

At the moment the evidence that particular or specific types of
infections are responsible for the inception or pathogenesis of chronic
diseases is inconclusive.119 One of the problems that
arises in trying to prove this hypothesis is that not all patients
appear to have similar chronic infections. Some individuals can harbour
chronic infections without any observable signs or symptoms. Although
the incidence of chronic infections of the types discussed in this
review in symptom-free individuals is generally very low, usually only a
few percent,74-76, 120 that does not prove that they are
important in pathogenesis. Since patients with chronic diseases have
been identified that do not have easily diagnosed chronic infections,
most researchers have concluded that infections are not involved in the
pathogenesis of chronic diseases. Unfortunately, the tools available to
find chronic infections are not optimal, and many patients are likely go
undiagnosed with chronic infections for purely technical reasons.1,119-121

In the history of medicine animal models of disease have provided
useful information that could not be obtained through clinical studies
alone. Indeed, the field of chronic diseases could benefit from the
greater use of relevant animal models. We suggest that to be useful, the
pathogenesis of the animal models of disease must be similar to the
pathogenesis of human disease and the animal models must have a similar
response to therapy as humans. Thus such models are only relevant if
they closely mimic human disease and its response to treatment. For
example, the infection of non-human primates with neuropathologic
microorganisms, such as Mycoplasma fermentans, resulted in brain infections and fatal diseases with clinically typical neurological signs and symptoms.122 These primates also respond to therapies that have been used successfully to treat humans.93,123
Thus this particular model may be useful if it can be reproucibly
infected with specific microorganisms and later develop neurological
signs and symptoms that closely mimic chronic human neurological
diseases. Future efforts to determine the relationship between
specific infections and the pathogenesis of various chronic diseases may
well depend on the further development of relevant animal models.