The Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Polish:Siły Zbrojne Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, abbreviated SZ RP; popularly called Wojsko Polskie in Poland, abbreviated WP—roughly, the "Polish Military") are the national armed forces of the Republic of Poland. The name has been used since the early 19th century, but can also be applied to earlier periods.

From 2002 until 2014, Polish military forces were part of the Coalition Forces that participated in the ISAF mission in Afghanistan led by NATO. Poland's contribution to ISAF was the country's largest, since its entrance into NATO.

Polish forces also took part in the Iraq War, from 2003 to 2008, Polish military forces commanded the Multinational Division (MND-CS) located in the South-Central Occupation Zone of Iraq. The division was made up of troops from 23 nations and totaled as many as 8,500 soldiers, it is regarded as one of the most professional militaries in Europe.

Pursuant to the national security strategy of Poland, the supreme strategic goal of Poland's military forces is to ensure favourable and secure conditions for the realization of national interests by eliminating external and internal threats, reducing risks, rightly assessing undertaken challenges, and ably using existing opportunities,[3] the Republic of Poland’s main strategic goals in the area of defence include:

ensuring the independence and sovereignty of the Republic of Poland, as well as its integrality and the inviolability of its borders;

defence and protection of all the citizens of the Republic of Poland;

creating conditions to ensure the continuity of the implementation of functions by public administration authorities and other entities competent in the area of national security, including entities responsible for running the economy and for other areas important for the life and security of its citizens;

creating conditions for the improvement of the state’s national defence capabilities and ensuring defence readiness in allied structures;

developing partnership military cooperation with other states, especially neighbouring ones;

The List of Polish wars chronicles Polish military involvements since the year 972, the present armed forces trace their roots to the early 20th century, yet the history of Polish armed forces in their broadest sense stretches back much further. After the partitions of Poland, during the period from 1795 until 1918, Polish military was recreated several times during national insurrections that included the November Uprising of 1830, and the January Uprising in 1863, and the Napoleonic Wars that saw the formation of the Polish Legions in Italy. The Kingdom of Poland, being part of the Russian Empire with a certain degree of autonomy, had a separate Polish army in the years 1815–1830, which was disbanded after the unsuccessful November Uprising. Large numbers of Poles also served in the armies of the partitioning powers, Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary (before 1867 Austria) and Germany (before 1871 Prussia). However, these powers took care to spread Polish soldiers all over their armies and as a rule did not form predominantly Polish units.

During World War I, the Polish Legions were set up in Galicia, the southern part of Poland under Austrian occupation. They were both disbanded after the Central Powers failed to provide guarantees of Polish independence after the war. General Józef Haller, the commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, switched sides in late 1917, and via Murmansk took part of his troops to France, where he created the Blue Army. It was joined by several thousand Polish volunteers from the United States, it fought on the French front in 1917 and 1918.

The Polish Army was recreated in 1918 from elements of the three separate Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Prussian armies, and armed with equipment left following World War I. The force expanded during the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1922 to nearly 800,000 men, but then was reduced when peace was reestablished.

The communist-aligned Polish military formation was the People's Army of Poland, formed in the Soviet Union and partially integrated with Red Army formations, it became the core of the armed forces of post-war Poland. It was known officially as the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland from 1945 to 1952 (the same as the current name), and Armed Forces of People's Republic of Poland from 1952 to 1990, reflecting the country's name change from Republic of Poland to People's Republic of Poland.

The first postwar Minister of National Defence was Marszałek PolskiMichał Rola-Żymierski, promoted by Stalin's order to the rank of Marshal of Poland on 3 May 1945. However, Michta writes that while the 'army was formally under Zymierski's command until 1949, it was ultimately controlled by two Soviet officers, Generals Korczyc and Poplawski.'[7] From 1949 to 1956 the Polish armed forces were under the command of Zymierski's successor as Minister of National Defense, Marshal of the Soviet UnionKonstantin Rokossovsky, who was given the additional title Marshal of Poland. Rokossovsky was succeeded by Marian Spychalski, who was released from prison to take the post, the People's Army of Poland was prepared to defend the country against a possible new invasion from the West (based on the plan by Stefan Mossor). It was increasingly tied into the Soviet structures, this process was however stopped in the aftermath of the Polish October in 1956, however, and brigades and regiments began to be formed in the engineering, artillery and communications arms.

1954 would see the Air Force and the Air Defense Forces merged into the Polish Air and National Air Defense Forces, a process that would last till 1962 (this would happen again in 1990).

After the war the Polish Army was reorganized into six (later seven) military districts, these were the Warsaw Military District, headquarters (HQ) in Warsaw, the Lublin Military District, HQ in Lublin, the Kraków Military District, HQ in Kraków, the Łódź Military District, HQ in Lodz, the Poznań Military District, HQ in Poznan, the Pomeranian Military District, HQ in Torun, and the Silesian Military District, HQ in Katowice, created in autumn 1945. They were later reduced to four, then three and later into the two military districts active as of 2011.

A new joint operational headquarters, the Dowodztwo Operacyjne (DO) was planned to declare its initial operating capability on 1 January 2005, and full operational capability on 1 July 2005,[15] the DO was created on 22 October 2003, with the first officers being assigned in the second quarter of 2004. Most of the headquarters' 110 military staff were planned to be transferred from the 1st Mechanised Corps headquartered at Bydgoszcz, which was disbanded in 2004.

Formerly organised according to Warsaw Pact standards, the armed forces are currently being reorganised according to NATO standards. 'Eagle Guardian' is apparently the NATO planning designation for contingency plans to deploy and defend Poland and the Baltic States.[16] Poland is also playing an increasingly larger role as a major European peacekeeping power in the world through various UN peacekeeping actions, and cooperation with neighbouring nations through multinational formations and units such as the Multinational Corps Northeast and POLUKRBAT, as of 1 January 2010, the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland have transitioned to a completely contract-based manpower supply system.

On 10 April 2010 a Polish Air Force Tu-154M crashed near Smolensk, Russia while in transit to a ceremony commemorating the Katyn massacre. On board the plane were the President (Commander-in-Chief), the Chief of Staff, all four Branch Commanders of the Polish Military, and a number of other military officials; all were killed. However, the Minister of Defense stayed in Warsaw, avoiding the crash in the process.

Territorial Defence Force (Wojska Obrony Terytorialnej): Planned paramilitary force which began forming in 2016 and slated to reach a size of 50,000 personnel by 2022.[19] Recruits are intended to come from the current assortment of independent paramilitary groups in the country which between them are estimated to have around 80,000 members in total.[20][21]

Technical modernisation plans for the years 2013 through to 2022 have been put in place,[24] during the 2013 to 2016 period of the plan, 37.8 billion PLN, or 27.8% of the period's military budget of 135.5 billion PLN was invested into technical modernisation.[24]

Significant military equipment acquisitions are also planned for the upcoming 2017 through 2022 period of the 2013-2022 technical modernisation plan, with the Ministry of Defense outlaying 61 billion złoty to be spent over the six-year span. A major feature of the program is the acquisition of around 1200 unmanned aerial vehicles, including at least 1000 with combat capabilities. Additionally, new helicopters and air defense systems are to be procured along with five light vessels for the navy. A new submarine force is to be jointly operated with a NATO partner, and general upgrade and modernization efforts are aimed at the country's air defenses, naval forces, cyber warfare capabilities, armored forces, and territorial defense forces (to have 50,000 volunteer members).[19]

Poland has several ongoing acquisition efforts for firearms, the largest in quantity is the continuing delivery of FB Beryl and Mini-Beryl assault rifles of which over 28,000 are on order. Adopted in 1997, these weapons are continuing to replace Cold War-era infantry rifles that can still be found in some formations and stockpiles. Even with deliveries continuing, the military is developing a next-generation service rifle, the FB MSBS, which would be configurable for a number of different roles, including assault rifle, carbine, sniper rife, squad light machine gun, and perhaps even a combat shotgun. Sniper rifle acquisitions include 60 Bor rifles on order plus a planned acquisition of 250 new designated marksman rifles to replace the SWD. Modernization is planned for the machine gun arsenal with 368 UKM-2000P on order.

A major program to purchase 50 Eurocopter EC725 Caracal helicopters was announced in 2015, this would replace the Mi-8 and Mi-14 in service at a cost of PLN13.3 billion. [26] However, in October 2016, Poland dropped out of offset negotiations prior to concluding the deal,[27] the Defence Minister announced plans to instead purchase an initial two Sikorsky S-70 Black Hawk helicopters to be built in Poland, with another eight planned for 2017. This however was amended later in October, and an invitation given to Airbus Helicopters, Sikorsky, and Leonardo-Finmeccanica to enter discussions on providing helicopters. By December, the Ministry of Defence had officially launched a tender to procure fourteen military helicopters to meet urgent requirements.[28] Separately, to arm new helicopters, plans have been laid to acquire as many as 100 Miniguns.

The Polish Armed Forces are the only military entity in the world to use a two-finger salute which is only used while wearing a hat (it refers to the fact that the salute is given to the emblem itself) with the emblem of the Polish eagle, such as military hat rogatywka, the salute is performed with the middle and index fingers extended and touching each other, while the ring and little fingers are bent and touched by the thumb. The tips of the middle and index fingers touch the peak of the cap, two fingers supposedly meaning honour and fatherland (Honor i Ojczyzna).

1.
Polish Land Forces
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The Land Forces are a military branch of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland. They currently contain some 65,000 active personnel and form many components of European Union, Polands recorded military history stretches back for hundreds of years – since the 10th century, but Polands modern army was formed after 1918. When Poland regained independence in 1918, it recreated its military which participated in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921, the Polish land forces as readied for the Polish-Soviet War was made up of soldiers who had formerly served in the various partitioning empires, supported by some international volunteers. There appear to have been a total of around 30 Polish divisions involved, boris Savinkov was at the head of an army of 20,000 to 30,000 largely Russian POWs, and was accompanied by Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Zinaida Gippius. The Polish forces grew from approximately 100,000 in 1918 to over 500,000 in early 1920, in August 1920, the Polish army had reached a total strength of 737,767 people, half of that was on the frontline. Given Soviet losses, there was rough numerical parity between the two armies, and by the time of the battle of Warsaw Poles might have even had an advantage in numbers. Among the major formations involved on the Polish side were a number of Fronts, including the Lithuanian-Belarusian Front, the German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939, and the Wehrmacht seized half the country quickly despite heavy Polish resistance. Among the erroneous myths generated by this campaign were accounts of Polish cavalry charging German tanks, in the east, the Red Army took the other half of the country in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Following the countrys fall, Polish soldiers began regrouping in what was to become the Polish Army in France. Both the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Polish Armed Forces in the East, as well as interior forces, while the forces fighting under the Allied banner were supported by the Polish air force and navy, the partisan forces were an exclusive land formation. However the army today has its roots in the surrogate force formed in support of Soviet interests during the establishment of the Peoples Republic of Poland after the Second World War. Two Polish armies, the First Army and the Second Army fought with the Red Army on the Eastern Front, the formation of a Third Army was begun but not completed. The end of the war found the Polish Army in the midst of intense organisational development, although the implementation of the Polish Front concept was abandoned, new tactical unit and troop types were created. As a result of mobilisation, troop numbers in May 1945 reached 370,000 soldiers, Military districts were organised in liberated areas. The districts exercised direct authority over the units stationed on the territory administered by them, the southern border, from Jelenia Gora to the Użok railway station was occupied by the First Army. Its headquarters staff formed the basis of the Silesian Military District, in mid-1945, after the end of World War II, the Polish Army, as part of the overall armed forces, the Peoples Army of Poland, was divided into six districts. In June 1945 the 1st, 3rd and 8th Infantry Divisions were assigned internal security duties, the rule was that military units were used primarily against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, while the Internal Security Corps was used to fight the armed underground independence. Often however army units fought the underground resistance, and vice versa, the culmination of the UPA suppression operation was the so-called Wisła Action which took place in 1947

Polish Land Forces
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Polish defences at Miłosna, during the decisive battle of Warsaw, August 1920.
Polish Land Forces
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Eagle of Polish Land Forces
Polish Land Forces
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Polish People's Army soldiers marking new Polish-German border on Oder River in 1945.
Polish Land Forces
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Soldier aiming an SVD sniper rifle.

2.
Huta Stalowa Wola
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Huta Stalowa Wola is a defense contractor, and steel mill. It is a producer of military equipment in Poland, located in Stalowa Wola. It was established in 1938-1939 in the Second Polish Republic and it was a major part of a series of investments made by the Polish government in the years 1936–1939 to create the Central Industrial Region. This was to be a group of factories built in an area in the middle of the country, away from the borders with Germany and it was designed to provide a reasonably secure location for the production of armaments and high technology goods. The mill was set up in order to manufacture high alloy steels and weapons - artillery, a city quickly grew around the mill, and took its name from it. In 1960s and 1970s the company started production of construction machinery. In 1991 Huta Stalowa Wola became a joint stock company and it is still the major employer in the town, and a major producer of military equipment in Poland. HSW SA as of Feb.1,2012 sold its construction division to the Guangxi Liugong Machinery. In 2012, HSW bought Jelcz-Komponenty Sp, HSW SA is included in Polska Grupa Zbrojeniowa SA. HSW SA Homepage Homepage LiuGong Poland, formerly part of HSW

3.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety

5.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon

6.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him

7.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’

Switzerland
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Founded in 44 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
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Flag
Switzerland
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The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
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The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.

8.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age

9.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama

10.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth

11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

12.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum

European Union
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In 1989, the Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to expand further (Berlin Wall pictured).
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2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
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The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (Cyprus).

13.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra

14.
Armenia
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Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a sovereign state in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. The Republic of Armenia constitutes only one-tenth of historical Armenia, Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia, in the 1st century BC the Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great. Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in between the late 3rd century to early years of the 4th century, the state became the first Christian nation. The official date of adoption of Christianity is 301 AD. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century, under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century. Declining due to the wars against the Byzantines, the fell in 1045. An Armenian principality and later a kingdom Cilician Armenia was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, during World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, in 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the worlds oldest national church, as the countrys primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD, Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which was proclaimed in 1991, the native Armenian name for the country is Հայք. The name in the Middle Ages was extended to Հայաստան, by addition of the Persian suffix -stan, the further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription as Armina, the ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία and Ἀρμένιοι are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus. Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a descendant of Hayk

Armenia
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Reconstruction of Herodotus ' world map c. 450 BC, with Armenia shown in the center
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The Armenian pagan Temple of Garni, probably built 1st century AD, is the only "Greco-Roman colonnaded building" in Armenia and the entire former Soviet Union.
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The Etchmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia's Mother Church traditionally dated 303 AD, is considered the oldest cathedral in the world.

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Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương

16.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations

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Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling

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Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
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Principalities of Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
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The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus'.

18.
Libya
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The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world. The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in western Libya, the other large city is Benghazi, which is located in eastern Libya. Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age, the Phoenicians established trading posts in western Libya, and ancient Greek colonists established city-states in eastern Libya. Libya was variously ruled by Carthaginians, Persians, Egyptians and Greeks before becoming a part of the Roman Empire, Libya was an early center of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli, until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries, Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1943. During the Second World War Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign, the Italian population then went into decline. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951, a military coup in 1969 overthrew King Idris I, beginning a period of sweeping social reform. Since then, Libya has experienced a period of instability, the European Union is involved in an operation to disrupt human trafficking networks exploiting refugees fleeing from wars in Africa for Europe. At least two political bodies claim to be the government of Libya, the Council of Deputies is internationally recognized as the legitimate government, but it does not hold territory in the capital, Tripoli, instead meeting in the Cyrenaica city of Tobruk. Parts of Libya are outside of either governments control, with various Islamist, rebel, the United Nations is sponsoring peace talks between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based factions. An agreement to form an interim government was signed on 17 December 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council, the leaders of the new government, called the Government of National Accord, arrived in Tripoli on 5 April 2016. Since then the GNC, one of the two governments, has disbanded to support the new GNA. The name Libya was introduced in 1934 for Italian Libya, reviving the name for Northwest Africa. The name was based on use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the region of what is today Libya having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911

19.
Georgia (country)
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Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east

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It is said that Georgians were so named because they revered Saint George.
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Ancient Georgian states of Colchis and Iberia, 500-400 BC
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Queen Tamar of Georgia presided over the "Golden Age" of the medieval Georgian monarchy. Her position as the first woman to rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title "Mepe mepeta" ("King of Kings").

20.
Timeline of the Polish Army
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Fall of the Republic February 29,1768 - Confederation of Bar is formed. July 27,1768 - The Siege of Kraków begins,1770 - The Battle of Dobra takes place. May 21,1771 - The Battle of Lanckorona takes place, may - The Battle of Groby takes place. September 6 - The Battle of Antopol takes place,1792 - The War in Defense of the Constitution begins. The Battle of Mir takes place, the Battle of Zelwa takes place. June 18 - The Battle of Zielenice takes place, july 18 - The Battle of Dubienka takes place. April 2 - The Battle of Racławice takes place, june 6 - The Battle of Szczekociny takes place. June 8 - The Battle of Chelmno takes place, october 10 - The Battle of Maciejowice takes place. November 4 - Massacre of Praga takes place, the Polish under the rule of Berlin and Vienna had no military formations of their own until World War I

21.
Armed forces
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly

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The Ministry of National Defence's seat on Klonowa Street in Warsaw's government district.
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Official governmental wall plaque
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The Ministry of National Defence as seen from Belwederska Street.

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NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved

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The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
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The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
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Reforms made under Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Warsaw Pact.

24.
Multinational Division Central-South
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Multinational Division Central-South, created in September 2003, and supported by NATO, was a part of the Multinational Force Iraq. Headquartered in Camp Echo, it was under Polish command until October 2008, as of December 2008, Armenian, Bosnian, Danish, Latvian, Kazakh, Lithuanian, Mongolian, Spanish and Slovakian forces have been fully withdrawn. The region has a population of about 5 million spread over 65632 km², major cities in the area include Diwaniyah, Kut, Hillah, and Karbala and Najaf. On January 5,2006, Polish troops handed over control of the central Babil province to U. S. troops, the strength of the Polish forces has decreased from 2224 to 900. The Division has been switching from stabilization tasks towards training the Iraqi Army, the divisional headquarters was moved in 2004 from Camp Babilon to Camp Echo. According to mission statement the primary task of the MND CS was to oversee the transfer of the military, in Bob Woodwards book State of Denial he recounts the experience of Frank Miller, who as of March 2004 was the senior director for defense on the National Security Council. During the course of a fact finding trip to Iraq in that month he visited the leadership of the Multinational Division, Woodwards description is as follows, Miller moved on to meet with the Polish commander of the Multinational Division, made up of troops from 23 nations. They have 23 separate rules of engagement, I pick up the phone, I tell the colonel in charge of the Spanish Brigade what to do. He picks up his phone, calls Madrid, and says, Miller understood that this meant the Multinational Division had little or no fighting capability

25.
History of the Polish Army
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The Polish Army is the name applied to the military forces of Poland. The name has been in use since the early 19th century, Polish Armed Forces consist of the Army, Navy and Air Force branches and are under the command of the Ministry of National Defense. The first Polish Army was created in the 10th century kingdom of Poland, the princes forces were composed of a group of armed men, usually mounted, named drużyna. Their key role was the protection of the monarch and supporting the taxation effort and their organisation was similar to other such armed units of other Slavic rulers, and were often of foreign origin. With time, the tribal warriors gave rise to knights and eventually, by the 15th century. The Polish gentry formed an element within the ancient tribal groupings. This is uncertain, however, as there is documentation on the early history of Poland. Around the 14th century, there was little difference between those called knights and those referred to as szlachta in Poland, members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country, and thereby became the kingdoms privileged social class. It was them who were obliged to build and support castles as well as to keep peace, Commonwealth armies were commanded by four hetmans. These units included, Husaria, heavy cavalry armed with lances, tabor, military horse-drawn wagons, usually carrying army supplies. Their use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks, the Kingdom of Poland, ruled by the Russian Tsar with a certain degree of autonomy, had a separate Polish army in the years 1815-1830 which was disbanded after the unsuccessful insurrection. Large numbers of Poles also served in the armies of the powers, Russia, Austria-Hungary. However, these powers took care to spread Polish soldiers all over their armies, during World War I, the Polish Legions were set up in Galicia, the southern part of Poland under Austrian occupation. They were both disbanded after the Central Powers failed to provide guarantees of Polish independence after the war. General Józef Haller, the commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, switched sides in late 1917, and via Murmansk took part of his troops to France and it was joined by several thousand Polish volunteers from the United States. It fought valiantly on the French front in 1917 and 1918, when Poland regained independence in 1918, it recreated its military which participated in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1922 and in the Second World War 1939-1945. During the German occupation of Poland, a number of movements were created. The Polish armed forces, then known as Polish Peoples Army, were part of the Soviet-controlled Warsaw Pact, Polish units took part in occupying Czechoslovakia in response to the Prague Spring in 1968

History of the Polish Army
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Commonwealth husaria
History of the Polish Army
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Helmet of Polish drużyna from the 10th century

26.
Polish contribution to World War II
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The European theatre of World War II opened with the German invasion of Poland on Friday September 1,1939 and the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17,1939. The Polish Army was defeated more than a month of fighting. After Poland had been overrun, a government-in-exile, armed forces, and these organizations contributed to the Allied effort throughout the war. The Polish Army was recreated in the West, as well as in the East, Poles provided significant contributions to the Allied effort throughout the war, fighting on land, sea and air. Notable was the service of the Polish Air Force, not only in the Allied victory in the Battle of Britain, Polish ground troops were present in the North Africa Campaign, the Italian campaign, and in battles following the invasion of France. Some Polish contributions were less visible, most notably the prewar and wartime deciphering of German Enigma machine codes by cryptologists Marian Rejewski, the Polish intelligence network also proved to be of much value to the Allied intelligence. Unlike in France, the Nazis did not set up a collaborationist government, instead Poland was governed directly by a purely German administration known as the Generalgouvernement. The Polish forces as a whole are considered to have been the 4th largest Allied army in Europe, after the Soviet Union, United States and Britain. The invasion of Poland by the forces of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union. The Soviets had been taken by surprise by the speed of the German advance as they had expected to have several weeks to prepare for an rather than merely a few days. They did promise to move as quickly as possible, on September 17 the Soviets invaded eastern Poland, forcing the Polish government and military to abandon their plans for a long-term defense in the Romanian bridgehead area. The last remaining Polish Army units capitulated in early October, in accordance with their treaty obligations, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on September 3. Hitler had gambled, incorrectly, that France and Britain would allow him to parts of Poland without military reaction. It ended on October 6,1939, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying the entirety of Poland, German and Soviet units went on a military parade in Brest-Litovsk followed by the joint victory parade in the streets of Lwow. Further cooperation between German and Soviets took the form of an exchange of Polish prisoners of war. Following order by Lavrentiy Beria given to the NKVD on October 3,1939,46,000 Polish prisoners detained in Soviet camps were traded against 44,000 POWs released by the Germans. German losses included approximately 16,000 killed in action,28,000 wounded,3,500 missing, over 200 aircraft, the Polish casualties were around 66,000 dead and 694,000 captured. Though the German attack was successful, losses were greater than expected and it has been estimated that, during the September campaign in Poland, the Wehrmacht needed to use more than twice the ammunition they used in France the following spring

27.
Partitions of Poland
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The First Partition of Poland was decided on August 5,1772. Two decades later, Russian and Prussian troops entered the Commonwealth again, Austria did not participate in the Second Partition. The Third Partition of Poland took place on October 24,1795, with this partition, the Commonwealth ceased to exist. In Polish, there are two words for the two meanings. In Polish historiography, the term Fourth Partition of Poland has also been used, the term Fourth Partition in a temporal sense can also mean the diaspora communities that played important political role in re-establishing the Polish sovereign state after 1918. A single member of parliaments belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency, even after the act had been approved and it became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The liberum veto also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways and this applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King Stanisław August Poniatowski, who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress Catherine the Great. Their alliance later became known in Poland as the Alliance of the Three Black Eagles, the Commonwealth could never be liquidated unless its long-time ally, Austria, allowed it, so Catherine had to use diplomacy to win Austria to her side. Frederick II retaliated by ordering enough Polish currency counterfeited to severely affect the Polish economy and this new constitution undid the reforms made in 1764 under Stanisław II. The liberum veto and all the old abuses of the last one, the irregular and poorly commanded Polish forces had little chance in the face of the regular Russian army and suffered a major defeat. In 1769 Austria annexed a small territory of Spisz and in 1770 – Nowy Sącz and these territories had been a bone of contention between Poland and Hungary, which was a part of the Austrian crown lands. In February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna, early in August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously invaded the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22,1772, to Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz, part of Lesser Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomir and the whole of Galicia, less the city of Kraków. Catherine of Russia was also very satisfied, by this diplomatic document Russia came into possession of that section of Livonia that had remained in Commonwealth control, and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl. By this partition, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory and half of its population, by seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly gained control over 80% of the Commonwealths total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the collapse of the Commonwealth, after having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their action. By 1790 the First Polish Republic had been weakened to such a degree that it was forced into an unnatural and terminal alliance with its enemy, the Polish–Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed. The conditions of the Pact contributed to the succeeding and final two partitions of Poland–Lithuania, the May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm

28.
January Uprising
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The January Uprising was an uprising in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Russian Empire. It began on 22 January 1863 and lasted until the last insurgents were captured in 1864, the uprising began as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Imperial Russian Army. It was soon joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and various politicians, the insurrectionists, severely outnumbered and lacking serious outside support, were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics. Public executions and deportations to Siberia led many Poles to abandon armed struggle and turn instead to the idea of work, economic. After the Russian Empire lost the Crimean war and was weakened economically and politically, in Vilna alone 116 demonstrations were held in 1861. In August 1861, protests in Vilna ended in clashes with the Imperial Russian Army, in spite of Russian police and Cossack interference, a symbolic meeting of hymn-singing Poles and Lithuanians took place on the bridge across the Niemen River. Another mass gathering took place in Horodło, where the Union of Horodło had been signed in 1413, the crowds sang Boże, broń Polskę in Lithuanian and Belarusian. In the autumn of 1861 Russians had introduced a state of emergency in Vilna Governorate, Kovno Governorate, after a series of patriotic riots, the Russian Namestnik of Tsar Alexander II, General Karl Lambert, introduced martial law in Poland on 14 October 1861. Public gatherings were banned and some leaders were declared outlaws. The future leaders of the uprising gathered secretly in St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Vilna, Paris, after this series of meetings two major factions emerged. The Reds represented united peasants, workers, and some clergy, while The Whites represented liberal minded landlords, in 1862 two initiative groups were formed for the two components of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. To deal with these units the Russian government had at its disposal an army of 90,000 men under General Ramsay in Poland. It looked as if the rebellion would be crushed quickly, the die was cast, however, the provisional government applied itself to this great task with fervor. It issued a manifesto in which it pronounced all sons of Poland are free and equal citizens without distinction of creed, condition and rank. The revolutionary government did its very best to supply with provisions the unarmed and scattered guerrillas who, during the month of February, met the Russians in eighty bloody encounters. Meanwhile, it issued an appeal to the nations of western Europe, pope Pius IX ordered a special prayer for the success of the Catholic Polish in their defence against the Orthodox Russians, and was very active in arousing sympathy for the Polish rebels. In Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northern Ukraine and western Russia the uprising started on February 1,1863, a coalition government of the Reds and the Whites was formed. It was led by Zygmunt Sierakowski, Antanas Mackevičius and Konstanty Kalinowski and they fully supported their counterparts in Poland and adhered to the same policy

January Uprising
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" Polonia (Poland), 1863", by Jan Matejko, 1864, oil on canvas, 156 × 232 cm, National Museum, Kraków. Pictured is the aftermath of the failed January 1863 Uprising. Captives await transportation to Siberia. Russian officers and soldiers supervise a blacksmith placing shackles on a woman (Polonia). The blonde girl next to her represents Lithuania.
January Uprising
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Russian army in Warsaw during martial law 1861
January Uprising
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"The Battle" from the cycle of paintings "Polonia" dedicated to January Uprising of 1863 - Artur Grottger.
January Uprising
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Battles of January Uprising in Congress Poland 1863-1864

29.
Polish Legions in Italy
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The Polish Legions in the Napoleonic period, were several Polish military units that served with the French Army, mainly from 1797 to 1803, although some units continued to serve until 1815. After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, many Poles believed that Revolutionary France, Frances enemies included Polands partitioners, Prussia, Austria and Imperial Russia. Many Polish soldiers, officers and volunteers therefore emigrated, especially to Italy and to France, the number of Polish recruits soon reached many thousands. With support from Napoleon Bonaparte, Polish military units were formed, bearing Polish military ranks and they became known as the Polish Legions, a Polish army in exile, under French command. Their best known Polish commanders included Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, Karol Kniaziewicz, the Polish Legions serving alongside the French Army during the Napoleonic Wars saw combat in most of Napoleons campaigns, from the West Indies, through Italy and Egypt. When the Duchy of Warsaw was created in 1807, many of the veterans of the Legions formed a core around which the Duchys army was raised under Józef Poniatowski, among historians there is a degree of uncertainty about the period in which the Legions existed. Magocsi et al. notes that the heyday of their activity falls in the years 1797–1801, similarly, Davies defines the time of their existence as five to six years. The Polish PWN Encyklopedia defines them as operating in the period of 1797–1801. The Polish WIEM Encyklopedia notes that the Legions ended with the death of most of their personnel in the Haitian campaign, which concluded in 1803. Estimates of the strength of the Polish Legions also vary and it is believed that between 20,000 and 30,000 men served in the Legions ranks at any one time over the course of their existence. The WIEM Encyklopedia estimate is 21,000 for the period up to 1803, Davies suggests 25,000 for the period of up to 1802–1803, as does Magosci et al. Bideleux and Jeffries offer an estimate of up to 30,000 for the period up to 1801, most of the soldiers came from the ranks of the peasantry, with only about 10 percent being drawn from the nobility. Frances enemies included Polands partitioners, Prussia, Austria and Imperial Russia, Paris was the seat of two Polish organizations laying the claim to be the Polish government-in-exile, the Deputation of Franciszek Ksawery Dmochowski and the Agency of Józef Wybicki. Many Polish soldiers, officers and volunteers therefore emigrated, especially to Italy, eventually, the Agency was successful in convincing the French government to organize a Polish military unit. As the French Constitution did not allow for the employment of troops on French soil, the French decided to use the Poles to bolster their allies in Italy. Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, a former high-ranking officer in the army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Dąbrowski was soon authorized by the French-allied Cisalpine Republic to create the Polish Legions, which would be part of the army of the newly created Republic of Lombardy. This agreement, drafted by Napoleon, was signed on 9 January 1797, the Polish soldiers serving in the Dąbrowski Legion were granted Lombardian citizenship and were paid the same wage as other troops. They were allowed to use their own unique Polish-style uniforms, with some French and Lombardian symbols, by early February 1797 the Legion was 1,200 strong, having been bolstered by the arrival of many new recruits who had deserted from the Austrian army

30.
Congress Poland
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Thus effectively it was little more than a puppet state of the Russian Empire. The autonomy was curtailed following uprisings in 1830–31 and 1863, as the country became governed by namestniks. Thus from the start, Polish autonomy remained little more than fiction, the territory of the Kingdom of Poland roughly corresponds to the Kalisz Region and the Lublin, Łódź, Masovian, Podlaskie and Holy Cross Voivodeships of Poland. Although the official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland, in order to distinguish it from other Kingdoms of Poland, it was sometimes referred to as Congress Poland. The Kingdom of Poland was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw, the creation of the Kingdom created a partition of Polish lands in which the state was divided among Russia, Austria and Prussia. The Congress was important enough in the creation of the state to cause the new country to be named for it, the Kingdom lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative divisions were reorganized. It was sufficiently distinct that its name remained in official Russian use, originally, the Kingdom had an area of roughly 128,500 km2 and a population of approximately 3.3 million. Its population reached 6.1 million by 1870 and 10 million by 1900, most of the ethnic Poles in the Russian Empire lived in the Congress Kingdom, although some areas outside it also contained a Polish majority. The Kingdom of Poland largely re-emerged as a result of the efforts of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the Kingdom of Poland was one of the few contemporary constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the Emperor of Russia serving as the Polish King. His title as chief of Poland in Russian, was Tsar, similar to usage in the fully integrated states within the Empire, theoretically the Polish Kingdom in its 1815 form was a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia through the rule of the Russian Emperor. Poland also had traditions and the Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. In reality, the Kings had absolute power and the title of Autocrat. All opposition to the Emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials, however, in time the situation changed and he granted the viceroy, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, almost dictatorial powers. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them, in 1819, Alexander I abolished freedom of the press and introduced preventory censorship. Resistance to Russian control began in the 1820s, beginning in 1825, the sessions of the Sejm were held in secret. Nicholas rule promoted the idea of Official Nationality, consisting of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, in relation to Poles, those ideas meant assimilation, turning them into loyal Orthodox Russians. All of this led to discontent and resistance among the Polish population, in January 1831, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I as King of Poland in response to his repeated curtailing of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland, resulting in the November Uprising, following an 11-month military campaign, the Kingdom of Poland lost its semi-independence and was integrated much more closely with the Russian Empire

31.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

32.
Galicia (Central Europe)
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Galicia is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the regions of western Ukraine, Lviv, Ternopil. In the 18th century, territories that became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region that is inhabited by various nationalities, Halych-Volhynia cut a swathe as a mighty principality under the reign of Roman the Great in 1170–1205. After the expulsion of the Hungarians in 1221, Ruthenians took back rule of the area, Romans son Daniel of Galicia was crowned king of Halych-Volhynia. He founded Lviv, named in honour of his son Leo I, the Ukrainian name Halych comes from the Khwalis or Kaliz who occupied the area from the time of the Magyars. They were also called Khalisioi in Greek, and Khvalis in Ukrainian, the Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt and Vysotske cultures. Others assert that the name has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning a naked hill, the jackdaw was used as a charge in the citys coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology, although the Hungarians were driven out from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1527, the Habsburgs inherited those titles, together with the Hungarian crown, in 1772, Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, decided to use those historical claims to justify her participation in the first partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia, Volhynia, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi – after which Lodomeria was named – was taken by Russia, not Austria. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl, Zamość, Lublin, the full official name of the new Austrian province was Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, each of those entities was formally separate, they were listed as such in the Austrian emperors titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków, on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, was not ruled by Austria, dale Dwellers, Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy, Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie, Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. During the Great Migration period of Europe, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, overall, Slavs came to dominate the Celtic-German population. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych formed there, Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty

Galicia (Central Europe)
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Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, 1914]]
Galicia (Central Europe)
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The legislative Sejm of the Land was located in the capital city, Lviv
Galicia (Central Europe)
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Reconstruction of the historic border (1772-1918) between Austrian Galicia and Austrian Silesia in Bielsko-Biała
Galicia (Central Europe)
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Siege of Przemyśl in 1915

33.
Murmansk
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The city is named for the Murman Coast, Murman is itself an older Russian term for Norwegians. Although Murmansks population is in decline—299,148,307, 257 ,336, 137 ,468, Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. On June 29,1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement, on July 6,1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman, after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On September 21,1916, the ceremony was performed. After the February Revolution of 1917, on April 3,1917, in the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had allied in World War I. On February 13,1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a session of the Murmansk City Soviet. Prior to this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd, while this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26,1935, however, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk also continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11,1938. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28,1938, the supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a point for weapons. This unyielding, stoic resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6,1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive 35. 5-meter tall statue Alyosha, in 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug and they were abolished on June 2,1948. The same city districts were created for the time on June 23,1951

34.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert

35.
Polish resistance movement in World War II
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The Polish defence against the Nazi occupation was an important part of the European anti-fascist resistance movement. It was a part of the Polish Underground State, the largest of all Polish resistance organizations was the Armia Krajowa, loyal to the Polish government in exile in London. The AK was formed in 1942 from the Union for Armed Combat and it was the military arm of the Polish Underground State and loyal to the Polish government in Exile. Most of the other Polish underground armed organizations were created by a party or faction. Created by the leftist Peoples Party around 1940–1941, it would merge with AK around 1942–1943. The Gwardia Ludowa WRN of Polish Socialist Party The Konfederacja Narodu, created in 1940 by far-right Obóz Narodowo Radykalny-Falanga. It would partially merge with ZWZ around 1941 and finally join AK around fall 1943, the Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa, established by the National Party in 1939, mostly integrated with AK around 1942. Narodowe Siły Zbrojne, created in 1943 from dissatisfied NOW units, the Obóz Polski Walczącej, established by the Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego around 1942, subordinated to AK. in 1943. The largest groups that refused to join the AK were the National Armed Forces, within the framework of the entire enemy intelligence operations directed against Germany, the intelligence service of the Polish resistance movement assumed major significance. Heinrich Himmler,31 December 1942 In February 1942, when AK was formed, in the beginning of 1943, it had reached a strength of about 200,000. In the summer of 1944 when Operation Tempest begun AK reached its highest membership numbers, the strength of the second largest resistance organization, Bataliony Chłopskie, can be estimated for summer 1944 at about 160,000 men. The third largest group include NSZ with approximately 70,000 men around 1943-1944, at its height in 1944, the communist Armia Ludowa, never merged with AK, numbered about 30,000 people. One estimate for the summer 1944 strength of AK and its allies, including NSZ, overall, the Polish resistance have often been described as the largest or one of the largest resistance organizations in World War II Europe. On 9 November 1939, two soldiers of the Polish army—Witold Pilecki and Major Jan Włodarkiewicz—founded the Secret Polish Army, one of the first underground organizations in Poland after defeat. Pilecki became its commander as TAP expanded to cover not only Warsaw but Siedlce, Radom, Lublin. By 1940, TAP had approximately 8,000 men, some 20 machine guns, later, the organization was incorporated into the Union for Armed Struggle, later renamed and better known as the Home Army. A few days later in an ambush near the village of Szałasy it inflicted heavy casualties upon another German unit, to counter this threat the German authorities formed a special 1,000 men strong anti-partisan unit of combined SS–Wehrmacht forces, including a Panzer group. Although the unit of Major Dobrzański never exceeded 300 men, the Germans fielded at least 8,000 men in the area to secure it, in the camp he organized the underground organization -Związek Organizacji Wojskowej - ZOW

Polish resistance movement in World War II
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History of Poland 1939–1945
Polish resistance movement in World War II
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Soldiers from Kolegium "A" of Kedyw on Stawki Street in Wola district - Warsaw Uprising 1944
Polish resistance movement in World War II
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Polish partisans from Kielce area - unit " Jędrusie " 1945
Polish resistance movement in World War II
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Witold Pilecki - founder of TAP organisation and the secret agent of Polish resistance in Auschwitz

36.
Polish Armed Forces in the East
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Broadly speaking, there were two such formations. In 1944, the Polish Peoples Army was reorganised to become the military of the communist-ruled Peoples Republic of Poland. After the Soviet invasion and occupation of eastern Poland at the start of the Second World War in 1939, diplomatic relations were re-established in 1941 after the German invasion of the Soviet Union forced Soviet premier Joseph Stalin to look for allies. The new formation known as the Anders Army and started to organise in the Buzuluk area. By the end of 194125,000 soldiers had been recruited, in the spring of 1942, the unit was moved to the area of Tashkent. The 8th and 9th divisions were formed that year. About 77,000 combatants and 41,000 civilians - former Polish citizens - left the USSR, increasing numbers of volunteers were denied the opportunity to enlist in Polish formations, instead they were declared Soviet citizens and assigned to the Red Army. Activities of organisations and people loyal to the Polish government-in-exile, particularly the Polish embassy in Moscow, were curtailed, finally, diplomatic relations between the Soviets and the Polish government-in-exile were severed again as news of the Katyn massacre emerged in 1943. In 1943 the Soviet Union created the Union of Polish Patriots in Moscow as a future communist puppet government of Poland, the ZPP was led by the pro-Soviet Polish communist Wanda Wasilewska. At the same time a new army was created - the Ludowe Wojsko Polskie and its first unit, the 1 Polish Infantry Division, was created in summer 1943, reaching operational readiness by June/July. In August, the Division was enlarged to a corps, becoming the Polish I Corps and it would be commanded by General Zygmunt Berling, other notable commanders included General Karol Świerczewski and Col. Włodzimierz Sokorski. The division with its elements was sent to the Eastern Front in September 1943. By March 1944 the Corps had been strengthened with increasing armoured and mechanical support, in mid-March 1944 the Corps was reorganized into the Polish First Army. Plans for a Polish Front were considered but dropped, and the Polish First Army was integrated into the 1st Belorussian Front and these units were led by Soviet commanders, and fought under Soviet general command. In the Polish First Army approximately 40% of officers and engineers were Soviet, special political officers, almost exclusively made up of Soviets, oversaw the Polish soldiers. The Soviets also created political military police, which became the Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army. In April–May 1945 the First Army took part in the Soviet invasion of Germany, the Second Army reached operational readiness in January 1945. Formations as of May 1,1945 Second Army Headquarters 5th Infantry Division Saxonian 7th Infantry Division Postwar 2nd War Mechanised Division, 8th Infantry Division 9th Infantry Division Postwar 9th Mechanised Division. k. a

Polish Armed Forces in the East
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Polish volunteers to the Anders Army, released from a Soviet POW camp
Polish Armed Forces in the East
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The " Piast eagle" (specimen 43) worn by Polish Army Formations in the East, 1943-1945
Polish Armed Forces in the East
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Soldiers of the Polish Second Army in the area of Nysa Łuzycka River after fording it in April 1945
Polish Armed Forces in the East
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Karol Świerczewski (front). The two other officers are Marian Spychalski and Michał Rola-Żymierski.

37.
Polish government-in-exile
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Only after the end of Communist rule in Poland did the government-in-exile formally pass on its responsibilities to the new government of the Third Polish Republic in December 1990. The government-in-exile was based in France during 1939 and 1940, first in Paris, from 1940, following the Fall of France, the government moved to London, and remained in the United Kingdom until its dissolution in 1990. Should the Presidents successor assume office, the term of his office shall expire at the end of three months after the conclusion of peace and it was not until 29th or 30th September 1939 that Mościcki resigned. Raczkiewicz, who was already in Paris, immediately took his constitutional oath at the Polish Embassy and he then appointed General Władysław Sikorski to be Prime Minister and, following Edward Rydz-Śmigłys stepping down, made Sikorski Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. Most of the Polish Navy escaped to Britain, and tens of thousands of Polish soldiers and airmen escaped through Hungary, Polish citizens held captive in Soviet camps were released under the Sikorski–Mayski Agreement to form military units that would fight Nazi Germany under Allied command. Berlings Army formed in the Soviet Union in 1944 fought alongside, even after the fall of Poland, Poland remained the third strongest Allied belligerent, after France and Britain. The Polish government in exile, based first in Paris, then in Angers, France, escaping from France the government relocated to London, it was recognized by all the Allied governments. The amnesty allowed the Poles to create eight military divisions known as the Anders Army and they were evacuated to Iran and the Middle East, where they were desperately needed by the British, hard pressed by Rommels Afrika Korps. These Polish units formed the basis for the Polish II Corps, led by General Władysław Anders and it was also the first official document singling out the sufferings of European Jews as Jews and not only as citizens of their respective countries of origin. The note of 10 december 1942 and the Polish Governmnent efforts triggered the Declaration of the Allied Nations of 17 December 1942, the Soviet government said that the Germans had fabricated the discovery. The other Allied governments, for reasons, formally accepted this. Stalin then severed relations with the Polish government in exile, since it was clear that it would be the Soviet Union, not the western Allies, who would liberate Poland from the Germans, this breach had fateful consequences for Poland. In an unfortunate coincidence, Sikorski, widely regarded as the most capable of the Polish exile leaders, was killed in an air crash at Gibraltar in July 1943 and he was succeeded as head of the Polish government in exile by Stanisław Mikołajczyk. During 1943 and 1944, the Allied leaders, particularly Winston Churchill, but these efforts broke down over several matters. Mikołajczyk, however, refused to compromise on the question of Polands sovereignty over her prewar eastern territories, a third matter was Mikołajczyks insistence that Stalin not set up a Communist government in postwar Poland. Mikołajczyk and his colleagues in the Polish government-in-exile insisted on making a stand in the defense of Polands pre-1939 eastern border as a basis for the future Polish-Soviet border. However, this was a position that could not be defended in practice – Stalin was in occupation of the territory in question, many Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a façade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland. This view was proven correct in 1947, when the Communist-dominated Democratic Bloc won a blatantly rigged election

38.
Hill 262
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By late summer 1944, the bulk of two German armies had become surrounded by the Allies near the town of Falaise. The Mont Ormel ridge, with its view of the area. The American success of Operation Cobra provided the Allies with an opportunity to cut off, American, British and Canadian armies converged on the area around Falaise, trapping the German Seventh Army and elements of the Fifth Panzer Army in what became known as the Falaise pocket. On 20 August Generalfeldmarschall Walter Model ordered a withdrawal, but by time the Allies were already blocking his path. On 20 August, with his forces encircled, Model organised attacks on the Polish position from both within and outside the pocket, the Germans managed to isolate the ridge and force open a narrow escape corridor. Lacking the fighting power to close the corridor, the Poles nevertheless directed constant and accurate fire on German units retreating from the pocket. Exasperated, the Germans launched fierce attacks throughout 20 August which inflicted losses on Hill 262s entrenched defenders, exhausted and dangerously low on ammunition, the Poles managed to retain their foothold on the ridge. The following day, less intense attacks continued until midday, when the last German effort to overrun the position was defeated at close quarters. The Poles were relieved by the Canadian Grenadier Guards shortly after noon, their dogged stand had ensured the closure of the Falaise pocket, on 25 July 1944, Lieutenant General Omar Bradley launched Operation Cobra against the German defences penning his First United States Army into its Normandy beachhead. Its capture would cut off all the remaining German forces in Normandy. To accomplish this, Crerar and Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds, of II Canadian Corps, intended to seize an area of high ground north of Falaise, by 9 August the offensive was in trouble despite initial gains on Verrières Ridge and near Cintheaux. Strong German defences and indecision and hesitation in the Canadian chain of command hampered Allied efforts, Anglo-Canadian forces reached Hill 195 north of Falaise on 10 August but were unable to make further progress, so Totalize was called off. The Canadians reorganised and on 14 August they launched Operation Tractable, the Allied noose was relentlessly closing around von Kluges force, and it fell to the 1st Polish Armoured Division to draw it tight. In a meeting with his commanders on 19 August, Simonds emphasised the importance of quickly closing the Falaise Pocket to General Stanisław Maczek. However, facing stiff German resistance and with Koszutskis battlegroup having gone astray and needing to be rescued, galvanised by Simonds, Maczek was determined to get his men onto their objectives as soon as possible. Having taken Trun and Champeaux the 4th Canadian Armoured Division was able to assist, although the arms of the encirclement had now made contact, the Allies were not yet astride Seventh Armys escape route in any great strength and their positions came under frenzied assault. During the day a column from the 2nd Panzer Division broke through the Canadians in St. Lambert, capturing half the village. Many Germans escaped along this route and numerous small parties infiltrated on foot through to the River Dives during the night, northeast of Chambois and overlooking the Dives River valley, an elongated, wooded ridge runs roughly north–south above the village of Coudehard

Hill 262
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Polish infantry moving towards cover on Mount Ormel, 20 August 1944.
Hill 262
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Lieutenant Kłaptocz of the Polish 1st Armoured Division and Major Leonard Dull of the US 90th Infantry Division, in Chambois, August 1944, after the Allied link-up.
Hill 262
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The remains of a retreating German column destroyed by the 1st Armoured Regiment near Hill 262
Hill 262
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The remains of a Polish Sherman tank and two German vehicles (a Panther tank and Sd.Kfz. 251 halftrack), destroyed in the vicinity of Boisjois near Point 262N

39.
II Polish Corps
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The Polish II Corps, 1943–1947, was a major tactical and operational unit of the Polish Armed Forces in the West during World War II. It was commanded by Lieutenant General Władysław Anders and fought with distinction in the Italian Campaign, by the end of 1945, the corps had grown to well over 100,000 soldiers. Victims of Soviet deportations from occupied Poland in 1939–40 had been processed by the NKVD and sent to concentration camps, the Nazi-Soviet pact of August 1939 effectively ended on 22 June 1941 when the German Wehrmacht invaded the USSR. Its first commander, General Michał Tokarzewski, began the task of forming this army in the Soviet town of Totskoye on 17 August and this army would grow over the following two years and provide the bulk of the units and troops of the Polish II Corps. The Polish II Corps was created in 1943 from various units fighting alongside the Allies in all theatres of war. Its creation was based on the British Allied Forces Act 1940, however, the British High Command never agreed to incorporate the exiled Polish Air Force into the Corps. In February 1944, the Polish II Corps was transferred from Egypt to Italy, in 1944, the Polish II Corps numbered about 50,000 soldiers. During three subsequent battles, it suffered losses and it was suggested to General Anders that he withdraw his units. By 1945, new units were added, composed mainly of freed POWs and this increased the Corps strength to around 75,000 men, approximately 20,000 of whom were transferred to other Polish units fighting in the West. After the war, the divisions of the Corps were used in Italy until 1946, the total establishment of the Polish II Corps in 1946 was 103,000. The majority of soldiers remained in exile and settled in Britain, the Corps had a consistently high fighting reputation and was well-regarded by the American and Commonwealth troops with whom they fought. In May 1945, the Corps consisted of 55,780 men, there was also a bear mascot, named Wojtek, who was officially entered onto the unit roll as a private soldier, subsequently being promoted to corporal. The majority of the Corps were Polish citizens who had been deported by the NKVD to the Soviet Gulags during the Soviet Unions annexation of Eastern Poland in 1939. Following Operation Barbarossa and the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement, many of them were released and allowed to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East being formed in Southern Russia, the main bulk of the soldiers were from the eastern voivodeships of pre-war Poland. Although the majority were ethnic Poles, there were other nationalities, most notably Jews. After being relocated to Palestine, many Jewish soldiers deserted and fled into the countryside, menachem Begin, however, though urged by his friends to desert, refused to remove his uniform until he had been officially discharged. Among them were 2,301 killed in action,8,543 wounded in action and 535 missing in action. At the time of its demobilisation in 1946, the 2nd Polish Corps establishment was as follows, Polish 3rd Carpathian Infantry Division CO, krótki informator historyczny o Wojsku Polskim w latach II wojny światowej

40.
Battle of Arnhem
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The Battle of Arnhem was a major battle of the Second World War fought in and around the Dutch towns of Arnhem, Oosterbeek, Wolfheze, Driel and the surrounding countryside from 17–26 September 1944. After sweeping through France and Belgium in the summer of 1944, after the Battle of Normandy, to this end, the Allies launched Operation Market Garden on 17 September 1944. Allied Airborne troops were dropped in the Netherlands to secure key bridges, farthest north, the British 1st Airborne Division, supported by men of the Glider Pilot Regiment and the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade, landed at Arnhem to secure bridges across the Nederrijn. Initially expecting a walkover, British XXX Corps planned to reach the British airborne forces within two to three days, the British airborne forces landed some distance from their objectives and were quickly hampered by unexpected resistance – especially from elements of the 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions. Only a small force was able to reach the Arnhem road bridge while the body of the division was halted on the outskirts of the city. Meanwhile, XXX Corps was unable to advance north as quickly as anticipated due to the destruction of the bridge at Son, after nine days of fighting, the shattered remains of the British 1st Airborne Division were withdrawn in Operation Berlin. With no secure bridges over the Nederrijn, the Allies were unable to advance further, the British 1st Airborne Division had lost nearly three-quarters of its strength and did not see combat again. By September 1944, Allied forces had broken out of their Normandy beachhead and pursued shattered German forces across Northern France. Although Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton commanded the First Allied Airborne Army, the British Second Army, led by XXX Corps would advance up the Airborne corridor, securing the airborne divisions positions and crossing the Rhine within two days. If successful the plan would open the door to Germany and hopefully force an end to the war in Europe by the end of the year, most of the division had seen action in North Africa and Sicily, particularly the 1st Parachute Brigade and 1st Airlanding Brigade. However, this was the first time the division had fought together as a complete formation, the division was also substantially reinforced by the addition of 1,200 men of the Glider Pilot Regiment, providing Urquhart with the equivalent of two battalions of infantry for the operation. Smaller additions included a Dutch commando team and American communications teams, Urquhart also had the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade under his command, who would also be joining the British in the operation to seize the bridges. The division was required to secure the road, rail and pontoon bridges over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem, from the beginning, however, Urquhart was severely restricted in how he could prepare and deploy his troops for the upcoming battle. With the need to secure the bridges, towns and drop zones for subsequent supply drops, Urquhart decided to land Brigadier Gerald Lathburys 1st Parachute Brigade and Brigadier Pip Hicks 1st Airlanding Brigade on the first day of the operation. The 3rd Battalion of Lt. Col. Fitch would head through Oosterbeek to Arnhem, assist in the capture of the road bridge, Lt. Col. Dobies 1st Battalion would follow Leopard route north of the railway line to occupy high ground north and north west of Arnhem. On the third day, the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade would be dropped south of the river at DZ K. Once XXX Corps had arrived and advanced beyond the bridgehead, the 52nd Infantry Division would be flown into Deelen airfield to support the forces north of the Rhine. The remaining units of the division would follow XXX Corps on land in what was known as the sea tail

41.
1st Polish Parachute Brigade
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Originally, the brigades exclusive mission was to drop into occupied Poland in order to help liberate the country. The British government, however, pressured the Poles into allowing the unit to be used in the Western theatre of war, Operation Market Garden eventually saw the unit sent into action in support of the British 1st Airborne Division at the Battle of Arnhem in September 1944. The Brigade was originally trained close to RAF Ringway and later in Upper Largo in Scotland and it was finally based in Lincolnshire, close to RAF Spitalgate where it continued training until its eventual departure for Europe after D-Day. The pressure of the British government eventually caused the Poles to give in and it was slotted to take part in several operations after the invasion of Normandy, but all of them were cancelled. On 27 July, aware of the imminent Warsaw Uprising, the Polish government in exile asked the British government for air support and this request was refused on the grounds of operational considerations and the difficulties in coordinating with the Soviet forces. Eventually, the Brigade entered combat when it was dropped during Operation Market Garden in September 1944, during the operation, the Brigades anti-tank battery went into Arnhem on the third day of the battle, supporting the British paratroopers at Oosterbeek. This left Sosabowski without any anti-tank capability, the light artillery battery was left behind in England due to a shortage of gliders. Owing to bad weather and a shortage of planes, the drop into Driel was delayed by two days, to 21 September. The British units which were supposed to cover the zone were in a bad situation. Finally, the 2nd Battalion, and elements of the 3rd Battalion, with troops from the Brigades Medical Company, Engineer Company. They overran Driel, after it was realised that the Heveadorp ferry had been destroyed, in Driel, the Polish paratroopers set up a defensive hedgehog position, from which over the next two nights further attempts were made to cross the Rhine. The following day, the Poles were able to produce some makeshift boats, in total, about 200 Polish paratroopers made it across in two days, and were able to cover the subsequent withdrawal of the remnants of the British 1st Airborne Division. On 26 September 1944, the Brigade was ordered to march towards Nijmegen, the Brigade had lost 25% of its fighting strength, amounting to 590 casualties. In 1945, the Brigade was attached to the Polish 1st Armoured Division, the majority of its soldiers chose to stay in exile rather than hazard returning to the new Communist Poland. Shortly after the war, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands wanted to award the Parachute Brigade, however, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Eelco van Kleffens, opposed the idea. He thought an award for the Poles would upset the relations with the ‘Big Three’, the military order of William is the highest Dutch military award. Only eleven units have been awarded this honor, of which only 2 are non Dutch, the award is now worn by the 6th Airborne Brigade which inherited the battle honours of the brigade. Brigade HQ CO, Maj. Gen S. Sosabowski Deputy Brigade CO, S. Jachnik 1st Parachute Battalion CO, Lt. Col

42.
Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
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The Polish Air Forces was the name of the Polish Air Forces formed in France and the United Kingdom during World War II. The core of the Polish air units fighting alongside the Allies were experienced veterans of the 1939 Invasion of Poland and they contributed to the Allied victory in the Battle of Britain and most World War II air operations. A total of 145 Polish fighter pilots served in the RAF during the Battle of Britain, by the end of the war, around 19,400 Poles were serving in the Polish Air Force in Great Britain and in the RAF. There, in accordance with the Franco-Polish Military Alliance of 1921, however, the French headquarters was hesitant about creating large Polish air units, and instead most Polish pilots were attached to small units, so-called keys. Only one large unit was formed, the Groupe de Chasse polonaise I/145 stationed at Mions airfield, however, it was not until May 18,1940 that this unit was equipped with planes - and even then these were the completely obsolete Caudron C.714 fighters. After 23 sorties the bad opinion of the plane was confirmed by the front-line pilots and it was seriously underpowered and was no match for the enemy fighters of the period. Because of that, on May 25, only a week after the plane was introduced to active service, however, since the French authorities had no other planes to offer, the Polish pilots ignored the order and continued to use the planes. Interestingly, among the planes claimed shot down were four Dornier Do 17 bombers, the rest of the Polish units were using the slightly more reliable Morane-Saulnier M. S.406 fighter. A small improvised Polish unit at Salon and Clermont-Aulnat operated the equally inadequate Koolhoven F. K.58 from 30 May commanded by Captain Walerian Jasionowski. The Polish Air Force in France had 86 aircraft with one and a half of the fully operational. Altogether, the Polish pilots flew 714 sorties during the Battle of France, according to Jerzy Cynk, they shot down 51.9 enemy planes, in addition to 3 unconfirmed kills and 6 3/5 damaged. According to Bartłomiej Belcarz they shot down 53 aircraft, including 19 kills shared with the French and these 53 victories makes 7. 93% of 693 allied air victories in the French campaign. At the same time they lost 44 planes and lost 8 fighter pilots in combat,1 missing, after the collapse of France in 1940, a large part of the Polish Air Force contingent was withdrawn to the United Kingdom. However, the RAF Air Staff were not willing to accept the independence, Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding later admitted he had been a little doubtful at first about the Polish airmen. The British government informed General Sikorski that at the end of the war, only after posting would anyone be promoted to a higher grade. The first squadrons were 300 and 301 bomber squadrons and 302 and 303 fighter squadrons, the fighter squadrons, flying the Hawker Hurricane, first saw action in the third phase of the Battle of Britain in late August 1940, quickly becoming highly effective. Polish flying skills were well-developed from the Invasion of Poland and the pilots were regarded as fearless and their success rates were very high in comparison to the less-experienced British Commonwealth pilots. The 303 squadron became the most efficient RAF fighter unit at that time, by late 1940 the American visitor Ralph Ingersoll reported that the Poles were the talk of London because of their victories

Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
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Monument to fallen Polish airmen; Warsaw, Pole Mokotowskie
Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
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Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
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Polish War Memorial, London
Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain
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Polish Air Force memorial, St Clement Danes, London

43.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period

44.
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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The Army Air Corps is a component of the British Army, first formed in 1942 during the Second World War. There are eight regiments of the AAC as well as four Independent Flights and they are located in Britain, Brunei, Canada, and Germany. The AAC provides the air elements of 16 Air Assault Brigade through Joint Helicopter Command. The British Army first took to the sky during the 19th century with the use of observation balloons, in 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers was the first heavier-than-air British military aviation unit. Between the wars, the Army used RAF co-operation squadrons, at the beginning of the Second World War, Royal Artillery officers, with the assistance of RAF technicians, flew Auster observation aircraft under RAF-owned Air Observation Post Squadrons. Twelve such squadrons were raised —three of which belonged to the RCAF—, early in the war, Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announced the establishment of a new branch of army aviation, the Army Air Corps, formed in 1942. The corps initially comprised the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Parachute Battalions, in 1944, the SAS Regiment was added to the Corps. One of their most successful exploits during the war was Operation Deadstick, including the attack on Pegasus Bridge, once the three gliders landed, some roughly which incurred casualties, the pilots joined the glider-borne troops to act as infantry. The bridge was taken within ten minutes of the battle commencing and they were soon reinforced and relieved by soldiers from Lord Lovats 1 Special Service Brigade, famously led by piper Bill Millin. It was subsequently reinforced by units of the British 3rd Division. The pilots who had flown the gliders soon had to transfer to flying powered aircraft, becoming part of the RAF Air Observation Post Squadrons. In 1957 the Glider Pilot and Parachute Corps was renamed to The Parachute Regiment, while the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Air Observation Squadrons amalgamated into a new unit, from 1970, nearly every army brigade had at least one Aviation Squadron that usually numbered twelve aircraft. The main rotor aircraft during the 1970s were the Westland Scout, the Sioux was replaced from 1973 by the Westland Gazelle used for Airborne recce, initially unarmed, they were converted to carry 68mm SNEB rocket pods in 1982, during the Falklands War. The Scout was replaced from 1978 by the Westland Lynx, which was capable of carrying additional firepower in the form of door gunners. Basic rotary flying training was carried out on the Bell Sioux in the 1970s, fixed-wing types in AAC service have included the Auster AOP.6 and AOP.9 and DHC-2 Beaver AL.1 in the observation and liaison roles. Since 1989, the AAC have operated a number of Britten-Norman Islander and Defender aircraft for surveillance, the corps operated the DHC-1 Chipmunk T.10 in the training role until its replacement by the Slingsby T67 Firefly in the 1990s. The Firefly was replaced by the Grob Tutor in 2010, a further boost in the Army Air Corps capability came in the form of the Westland Apache AH.1 attack helicopter. In 2006, British Apaches deployed to Afghanistan as part of the NATO International Security Assistance Force, the strength of the Army Air Corps is believed to be some 2,000 Regular personnel, of which 500 are officers

Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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Cap Badge of the Army Air Corps
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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A Westland Lynx of the Army Air Corps ready to touch down on a desert road south of Basra Airport, November 2003
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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Army Air Corps personnel on parade, 2011.
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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AgustaWestland AH.1

45.
Battle of France
–
The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries in 1940 during the Second World War. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 and attempted an invasion of France, the German plan for the invasion of France consisted of two main operations. After the withdrawal of the BEF, the German forces began Fall Rot on 5 June, the sixty remaining French divisions made a determined resistance but were unable to overcome the German air superiority and armoured mobility. German tanks outflanked the Maginot Line and pushed deep into France, German forces occupied Paris unopposed on 14 June after a chaotic period of flight of the French government that led to a collapse of the French army. German commanders met with French officials on 18 June with the goal of forcing the new French government to accept an armistice that amounted to surrender and this led to the end of the French Third Republic. France was not liberated until the summer of 1944, in 1939, Britain and France offered military support to Poland in the likely case of a German invasion. In the dawn of 1 September 1939, the German Invasion of Poland began, France and the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces to immediately withdraw their forces from Poland was met without reply. Following this, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada, on 7 September, in accordance with their alliance with Poland, France began the Saar Offensive with an advance from the Maginot Line 5 km into the Saar. France had mobilised 98 divisions and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions, the French advanced until they met the then thin and undermanned Siegfried Line. On 17 September, the French supreme commander, Maurice Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions, following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called the Phoney War set in between the belligerents. Adolf Hitler had hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland, on 6 October, he made a peace offer to both Western powers. On 9 October, Hitler issued a new Führer-Directive Number 6, the plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. For the moment only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germanys ability to survive a long war in the west. Hitler ordered a conquest of the Low Countries to be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and it would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitlers offer of peace and on 12 October, colonel-General Franz Halder, presented the first plan for Fall Gelb on 19 October. This was the codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries. Halders plan has been compared to the Schlieffen Plan, the given to the German strategy of 1914 in the First World War. It was similar in both plans entailed an advance through the middle of Belgium

Battle of France
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Clockwise from top left: German Panzer IV tanks passing through a town in France; German soldiers marching past the Arc de Triomphe after the surrender of Paris, 14 June 1940; column of French Renault R35 tanks at Sedan, Ardennes; British and French prisoners at Veules-les-Roses; French soldiers on review within the Maginot Line fortifications.
Battle of France
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Newly arrived British troops move up to the front, May 1940
Battle of France
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A burnt out German Junkers Ju 52 transport lying in a Dutch field
Battle of France
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An abandoned Belgian tank is inspected by German soldiers

46.
Royal Navy
–
The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive

47.
ORP Conrad
–
Danae was laid down on 1 December 1916 in the Armstrong Whitworth Shipyard in Walker-on-Tyne and launched on 26 January 1918. The lead ship of her class, she was one of the fastest cruisers of her time, propelled by two Brown-Curtis steam turbines of 40,000 HP,6 boilers and 2 propellors, she could travel at 29 knots. With 1,060 tons of oil in her tanks, she had a range of 1,480 nautical miles at 29 knots and 6,700 nautical miles at 10 knots. She was also well armoured, with the sides and the command deck protected with 3 inches of reinforced steel, the tanks and munition chambers with 57 millimetres, and the main deck with 2 inches. Attached to the Harwich-based 5th Light Cruiser Squadron, she took part in several North Sea patrols during the last months of World War I. Between October and November of the year, she passed to the Baltic Sea. In February 1920 she was attached to the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet, in 1923 she was attached to the Special Service Squadron, a naval fleet created for propaganda purposes. The flotilla consisted of the battlecruisers Hood, Repulse and the cruisers Delhi, Dragon, Dauntless and Dunedin, as well as 9 other ships, the Squadron left Devonport on 27 November and headed for Freetown in Sierra Leone. Then the task force visited Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban, the following day the Squadron left for Zanzibar, then visited Trincomalee, Singapore, Albany, Adelaide, Melbourne, Hobart and Sydney, from where she left for Wellington in New Zealand. She left the port in May and on 16 May paid a visit to Suva and Samara on Fiji, then to Honolulu, Victoria, Vancouver. There the Squadron was split and the light headed for Great Britain through the Panama Canal and various ports in South America, including British Guyana, Antilles. Transferred to the Mediterranean, between 1927 and 1929 Danae served as an escort of the 1st Cruiser Squadron, after which she was withdrawn to Great Britain for refurbishment and modernisation. In 1930 she returned to service and was attached to the 8th Cruiser Squadron stationed in the British West Indies. In 1935, at the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, after completing her duties in the Far East, Danae was again moved to Great Britain and placed in reserve. Mobilized in July 1939, she was attached to the 9th Cruiser Squadron, initially operating in the South Atlantic, on 23 March 1940 she was attached to the Malaya Force and took part in various patrols in the area of the Dutch East Indies and Singapore. On 24 February she arrived in Batavia and then went on to Colombo and she returned to active service in July 1943, after 11 months in the shipyard. In March 1944 she returned to Great Britain and was attached to the 1st Cruiser Squadron, in July the squadron moved to the area of Port en Bessin and Ouistreham only to return to Great Britain in August. Withdrawn from active service, she was used as a hulk in the port of Plymouth, after the loss of ORP Dragon, on 4 October she was leased to the Polish Navy

48.
Hunt class destroyer
–
The Hunt class was a class of escort destroyer of the Royal Navy. The first vessels were ordered early in 1939, and the class saw service in the Second World War, particularly on the British east coast. They were named after British fox hunts, the contemporary Hunt class of GRP hulled mine countermeasure vessels maintain the Hunt names lineage in the Royal Navy. The Royal Navy had identified the need for two types of destroyer, larger vessels with heavy gun and torpedo armaments for fleet work, although old fleet destroyers could be allocated to escort work, they were unsuitable for the task and new construction replaced them. Fleet destroyers were designed for speed and their machinery was inefficient at convoy speeds and their shape made them poor sea boats at low speed, also exacerbated by additional equipment on the superstructure. Modifications were needed to ease these problems, the escort vessels forsook the heavy armament and some of the speed of the fleet type to reduce unit cost and better suit mass production and the conditions. This new fast escort vessel was classified as an escort destroyer. The guns were controlled by a Fuze Keeping Clock AA fire control computer when engaging aircraft, the first twenty were ordered in March and April 1939. They were constructed to Admiralty standards, as were contemporary destroyers, unlike the frigates, clearly the Hunts posed a major design challenge. They would be too short and narrow and of insufficient range for open ocean work, being restricted to the North Sea and this sacrifice was accepted to give any chance of meeting the requirements. The demanding specifications in an overworked Admiralty design department resulted in a major design miscalculation, when the detailed calculations were done the centre of gravity was lower than expected and the beam was increased. As the first ships were being completed it was found that the design was as much as 70 tons overweight, top heavy, leaving them dangerously deficient in stability. The first twenty ships were so far advanced in construction that it was necessary to remove the X 4-inch gun mount and these ships became the Type I group, and had the multiple 2-pounder gun relocated from behind the funnel to the more advantageous X position. These ships became the Type II group, and also had a design of bridge with the compass platform extending forwards to the wheelhouse face. Under the 1939 Emergency War Programme 36 more Hunts had been ordered, depth charge stowage could also be increased from 40 in the Type I to 110. For the 1940 building programme, torpedoes were deemed necessary, the next 27 ships were completed to a revised design, the Type III group, and were intended specifically for Mediterranean work. They sacrificed Y gun for a pair of 21-inch torpedo tubes amidships, the Type III Hunts could be easily identified as they had a straight funnel with a sloping top and the foremast had no rake. Fourteen of them had their stabiliser fins removed and the used for extra fuel oil

49.
Zygmunt Berling
–
Zygmunt Henryk Berling was a Polish general and politician. He fought for the independence of Poland in the early 20th century, during the Second World War, he was sentenced to death in absentia for desertion from the Polish Army of General Władysław Anders. The verdict was overruled by the Polish government-in-exile, later, he became the commander of the 1st Polish Army, part of the Polish Army in the USSR, and played an important role in the post-war Polish government. Zygmunt Berling was born in Limanowa on 27 April 1896 and he joined the Polish Legions of Józef Piłsudski in 1914, serving in the 2nd and 4th Legions Infantry Regiment. Between the oath crisis of June 1917 and October 1918 he served in the Austro-Hungarian Army, at the end of the First World War he joined the reborn Polish Army, becoming the commander of an infantry company in the 4th Infantry Regiment. During the Polish-Soviet War he gained fame as a commander during the Battle of Lwów. After the war, he remained in the military and in 1923 he was promoted to major, in 1930, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and started his service as a commanding officer, first in the 6th Infantry Regiment and then in the 4th Infantry Regiment. Berling initially retired from duty in June 1939, because of a messy divorce. Berling did not participate in the defence against the German Wehrmacht during the invasion of Poland in 1939. Berling remained in prison until 1940, first in Starobielsk and later Moscow, eventually, the relations between the Polish government-in-exile and the Soviet Union were broken off after Germans publicized the findings on the Katyn Massacre. During the Polish Armys evacuation led by General Anders, Berling deserted along with two officers to join the Red Army. On 20 April 1943, Anders degraded all three and expelled them from the army, on 25 July 1943 the field court confirmed the expulsion and sentenced the deserters in absentia to death and loss of public rights for ever. The sentence was vacated by General Kazimierz Sosnkowski, the Polish Armys Commander-in-Chief in London, in 1943, the Polish Army in the USSR was created, a formation of Polish Armed Forces in the East. Berling was nominated to be the commander of its first unit, the 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division and he became the deputy commander of the Polish Army in the USSR on 22 July 1944. This behaviour may have caused Berlings dismissal from his post soon after and he was transferred to the War Academy in Moscow, where he remained until returning to Poland in 1947 where he organized and directed the Academy of General Staff. Zygmunt Berling held a variety of government positions after 1953, in 1963, he joined the Polish United Workers Party. He is buried at Powązki Military Cemetery in Warsaw, Polish contribution to World War II Bargiełowski, Daniel. Short bio and photo of pre-war Jagiellonian University ID Biography at the Institute of National Remembrance

50.
Battle of Berlin
–
The Battle of Berlin, designated the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation by the Soviet Union, was the final major offensive of the European theatre of World War II. Following the Vistula–Oder Offensive of January–February 1945, the Red Army had temporarily halted on a line 60 km east of Berlin, on 9 March, Germany established its defence plan for the city with Operation Clausewitz. The first defensive preparations at the outskirts of Berlin were made on 20 March, under the newly appointed commander of Army Group Vistula, General Gotthard Heinrici. When the Soviet offensive resumed on 16 April, two Soviet fronts attacked Berlin from the east and south, while a third overran German forces positioned north of Berlin. Before the main battle in Berlin commenced, the Red Army encircled the city after successful battles of the Seelow Heights, on 23 April General Helmuth Weidling assumed command of the forces within Berlin. The garrison consisted of several depleted and disorganized Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS divisions, along with poorly trained Volkssturm, over the course of the next week, the Red Army gradually took the entire city. Before the battle was over, Hitler and a number of his followers committed suicide. Starting on 12 January 1945, the Red Army began the Vistula–Oder Offensive across the Narew River, and, from Warsaw, an operation on a broad front. On the fourth day, the Red Army broke out and started moving west, up to 30 to 40 km per day, taking East Prussia, Danzig, and Poznań, drawing up on a line 60 km east of Berlin along the Oder River. The newly created Army Group Vistula, under the command of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, attempted a counter-attack, the Red Army then drove on to Pomerania, clearing the right bank of the Oder River, thereby reaching into Silesia. In the south the Siege of Budapest raged, three German attempts to relieve the encircled Hungarian capital city failed, and Budapest fell to the Soviets on 13 February. Adolf Hitler insisted on a counter-attack to recapture the Drau-Danube triangle, the goal was to secure the oil region of Nagykanizsa and regain the Danube River for future operations, but the depleted German forces had been given an impossible task. By 16 March, the German Lake Balaton Offensive had failed, on 30 March, the Soviets entered Austria, and in the Vienna Offensive they captured Vienna on 13 April. Between June and September 1944, the Wehrmacht had lost more than a million men, and it lacked the fuel and armaments needed to operate effectively. On 12 April 1945, Hitler, who had decided to remain in the city against the wishes of his advisers. No plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation, the major Western Allied contribution to the battle was the bombing of Berlin during 1945. The Soviet offensive into central Germany, what later became East Germany, had two objectives, but the overriding objective was to capture Berlin. The two goals were complementary because possession of the zone could not be won quickly unless Berlin were taken, another consideration was that Berlin itself held useful post-war strategic assets, including Adolf Hitler and the German atomic bomb programme

51.
Battle of Bautzen (1945)
–
The Battle of Bautzen was one of the last battles of the Eastern Front during World War II. The battle took place during Ivan Konevs 1st Ukrainian Fronts push toward Berlin, the battle was fought in the town of Bautzen and the rural areas to the northeast situated primarily along the Bautzen–Niesky line. Major combat began on 21 April 1945 and continued until 26 April although isolated engagements continued to place until 30 April. The Polish Second Army under Karol Świerczewski suffered heavy losses, but, with the aid of Soviet reinforcements, according to one historian, the Battle of Bautzen was one of the Polish Armys bloodiest battles. After the battle both sides claimed victory and modern views as to who won the battle remain contradictory, because the war was almost over and the battle had no strategic impact on the ongoing Battle of Berlin, German historiography has focused more on its tactical aspects. The German operation successfully recaptured Bautzen and its surroundings, which were held until the end of the war, Polish historiography during the Peoples Republic of Poland portrayed the battle as difficult, but victorious. After the fall of communism, Polish historians became much more critical of Świerczewskis command, blaming the destruction of the Polish force on his incompetence. The battles outcome is now seen in Poland as a very costly victory for the Soviets. In the last months of World War II, the Polish Second Army, under General Karol Świerczewski, took part in the Soviet drive on Berlin. Part of Marshal Ivan Konevs 1st Ukrainian Front, the Poles operated in the centre of the front, flanked on the right by the 5th Guards Army, opposing these forces was the 4th Panzer Army under General Fritz-Hubert Gräser, of Field Marshal Ferdinand Schörners Army Group Center. On 17 April, the Polish Second Army breached German defenses on the rivers Weisser Schöps and their pursuit of retreating German forces toward Dresden threatened to cut off additional forces in the Muskauer Forst region. The following day Soviet units of the 7th Mechanized Corps captured parts of Bautzen and secured the south of Niesky, taking Weißenberg. Świerczewski decided to prioritize the taking of Dresden over securing his southern flank, meanwhile, Schörner was concentrating his units in the Görlitz and Reichenbach region, and planned to launch a counteroffensive at the southern flank of the Polish Army. His aim was to stop the 1st Fronts advance and break through to Berlin to relieve the trapped 9th Army, the Germans were pinning their hopes on the idea that the Soviets might be fended off long enough for the city to be surrendered to the Western Allies. The concentration of Schörners units went unnoticed by Soviet and Polish reconnaissance, German forces were composed of elements of the 4th Panzer Army and commanded by the headquarters for the Grossdeutschland and 57th Armored Corps. For the battle, the Germans had two armored divisions, two mechanized divisions, a division as well as an infantry division battle group. This force counted some 50,000 soldiers,300 tanks, the supply train of the 10th SS Panzer Division was also present near Bautzen. The Polish Second Army consisted of five divisions, about 84, 000–90,000 men

Battle of Bautzen (1945)
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Memorial in Bautzen to Polish and Soviet soldiers and civilians fallen near the town of Wuischke.
Battle of Bautzen (1945)
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Monument to Polish soldiers in Crostwitz
Battle of Bautzen (1945)
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General Karol Świerczewski

52.
Air Force of the Polish Army
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It was the primary Polish air force formation within the Polish Armed Forces in the East during World War II. Setting up the first combat unit – the 1st Independent Fighter Squadron – started on July 7,1943, as of July 23,1943, their first training airfield was Grigoryevskoye, about 15 km south of Moscow. On August 20,1943, the Squadron was renamed as the Polish 1st Fighter Regiment, on April 1,1944, two more Polish units were formed at Grigorievskoye, the 2nd Bomber Regiment Kraków and the 103rd Independent Liaison Aviation Squadron. In June 1944 the 1st Fighter Reg. and 2nd Bomber Reg. were moved to Gostomel airfield near Kiev, at the same time about 600 Poles were sent to Soviet aviation schools in Yegoryevsk, Chkalov, Buguruslan, Sorochinsk, Volsk and Kinel. On June 5,1944, at the Headquarters of the Polish Army, the first commander was Col. Józef Smaga. On August 16 and August 17,1944, the 1st, at this time the AF of the PA was reinforced by the Soviet 611th Ground-Attack Regiment. A few days later, on August 19, all units were moved to airfields in Zadybie Stare, on August 30,1944, all three Regiments, reinforced by the Communication Company and Liaison Section, were combined into the Polish 1st Air Force Division. At that time, the new unit was equipped with 106 combat aircraft, in September 1944, in the area of Kharkiv and Kazan, Soviet authorities started to form the Polish 1st Mixed Air Force Corps. The new Corps were equipped with 303 aircraft, on February 1945, the units were moved to Poland on airfields in Łowicz, Sochaczew, Łódź and Kutno. Subordinated to Communication Command of the Polish Army, on October 31,1944, all Polish aviation units were subordinated to the newly created Command of the Air Force of the Polish Army with Maj. Gen. Teodor Połynin. The new school started teaching on January 2,1945, Polish pilots were also trained in the 15th Independent Reserve Air Force Regiment, formed on November 28,1944. In December 1944, the AF of the PA took over control from Soviet Air Forces in the 7th Air Base Area, two more aviation units reinforced the AF of the PA in March 1945. The Air Force of the Polish Army went to combat at the last stage of the Lublin-Brest Offensive, between August 23 and September 2,1944, the 1st Air Force Division supported the 1st Polish Army on bridgeheads near Warka and Magnuszew by making 66 combat flights. After September 10, 2nd Bomber Reg. received an order to support an attack in the direction of Praga district of Warsaw, during the Warsaw Uprising all units of the 1st Air Force Division made 609 flights. Within this number,442 flights were made by the 2nd Regiment -259 of them were attacks on German positions - and 183 were supply flights for fighters in Warsaw. At the same time the 103rd Independent Liaison Aviation Squadron operating from Soplicowo made reconnaissance flights for the 1st Polish Army. In the next stage of the war, between November 1,1944, and January 13,1945, the 1st AF Division, renamed as the 4th Mixed AF Division, took part in preparation for the Vistula-Oder Offensive. In 201 flights, it collected data about the locations of German forces in the area of the 1st Polish Armys planned attack, apart from that, each regiment of the division had its own separate tasks

Air Force of the Polish Army
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Yak-9 with Polish markings.
Air Force of the Polish Army
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Il-2m3 with Polish markings.
Air Force of the Polish Army
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Pe-2 with Polish markings.

53.
Stanislav Poplavsky
–
Stanislav Gilyarovich Poplavsky was a general in the Soviet and Polish armies. Poplavsky was born in Imperial Russia, near Kiev and his family was ethnically Polish, and in his younger years he considered himself a Pole. He was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1930 onwards and he was drafted to the Red Army in 1920 and served for the first three years as a private, then for four years as an NCO, company commander in the 297th Rifle Regiment. He returned to service shortly before the German invasion of the Soviet Union and he was first a member of the staff of the 162nd Rifle Division, next commander of 720th Rifle Regiment, and then Chief of Staff of 363rd Rifle Division. During the next four months he commanded the 184th, 256th and 220th Rifle Divisions, in 1944 he was transferred to the Ludowe Wojsko Polskie as one of the many Soviet officers who were to ensure that this allied formation remained loyal to communist ideals. As major general he commanded the Polish Second Army and later the Polish First Army and his units took parts in the breakthrough of the Pommernstellung fortification line, securing the Baltic Sea coast, crossing the Odra and Elbe rivers and the battle of Berlin. He was wounded four times in the war and he also held political positions, on 2 April 1949 he became the 2nd Deputy Minister of National Defence and later was Deputy Minister himself. He was also a deputy to the Polish Sejm, and from 1949 to 1956 he was a member of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers Party, in 1956 he was commander of the military forces responsible for the suppression of the Poznań1956 protests. He retired in 1963 with the rank of army general, married with one daughter, he died on 10 August 1973 in Moscow and was buried in the Novodevichi Cemetery, Moscow. Poplavsky was the recipient of awards, including Polish and Soviet. Several items were named after him, particularly in the Peoples Republic of Poland, the original title was to be On the land of forefathers, but it was changed by the censors. Short biography on the page of Silesian Military District Timeline of military career Comrades in the Struggle, memoirs of Poplavsky

Stanislav Poplavsky
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Stanislav Poplavsky in the uniform of a Polish Army General
Stanislav Poplavsky
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Commemorative medal.

54.
Marshal of the Soviet Union
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Marshal of the Soviet Union was the highest military rank of the Soviet Union. The rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union was created in 1935, forty-one people held the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. The equivalent naval rank was until 1955 Admiral of the Fleet, both ranks were comparable to NATO rank codes OF10, and to the five-star rank in anglophone armed forces. The military rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union was established by a decree of the Soviet Cabinet, of these, Blyukher, Tukhachevsky and Yegorov were executed during Stalins Great Purge of 1937–38. On 7 May 1940, three new Marshals were appointed, the new Peoples Commissar of Defence, Semyon Timoshenko, Boris Shaposhnikov, and Grigory Kulik. During World War II, Kulik was demoted for incompetence, and these included Georgy Zhukov, Ivan Konev and Konstantin Rokossovsky to name a few. In 1943, Stalin himself was made a Marshal of the Soviet Union and these non-military Marshals were joined in 1947 by politician Nikolai Bulganin. Two Marshals were executed in postwar purges, Kulik in 1950 and Beria in 1953, the last Marshal of the Soviet Union was Dmitry Yazov, appointed in 1990, who was imprisoned after the failed coup against Mikhail Gorbachev in 1991. Marshal Sergei Akhromeev committed suicide in 1991 on the fall of the Soviet Union, the Marshals fell into three generational groups. Those who had gained their reputations during the Russian Civil War and these included both those who were purged in 1937–38, and those who held high commands in the early years of World War II. All of the latter except Shaposhnikov and Timoshenko proved out-of-step with modern warfare and were removed from commanding positions and those who made their reputations in World War II and assumed high commands in the latter part of the war. These included Zhukov, Vasilievsky, Konev, Rokossovsky, Malinovsky, Tolbukhin and those who assumed high command in the Cold War era. All of these were officers in World War II, but their higher commands were held in the Warsaw Pact or as Soviet Defence Ministers and these included Grechko, Yakubovsky, Kulikov, Ogarkov, Akhromeev, and Yazov. All Marshals in the category had been officers in World War II, except Brezhnev, who had been a military commissar, and Ustinov. Even Yazov, who was 20 when the war ended, had been a platoon commander, the rank was abolished with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. It was succeeded in the new Russia by the rank of Marshal of the Russian Federation, which has held by only one person, Marshal Igor Sergeyev. Note, All Marshals of the Soviet Union, with the exception of Non-Military Marshals had at least started their careers in the Army. The Service Arms listed are the services they served in during their tenures as Marshals of the Soviet Union

Marshal of the Soviet Union
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Marshal's Star - big
Marshal of the Soviet Union
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The first five marshals of the Soviet Union from left to right: Tukhachevsky, Budyonny, Voroshilov, Blyukher and Yegorov.
Marshal of the Soviet Union
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Marshals G.K. Zhukov (center) and K.K. Rokossovsky (right) in 1945
Marshal of the Soviet Union
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Political and religious leaders

55.
Marshal of Poland
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Marshal of Poland is the highest rank in the Polish Army. It has been granted to six officers. At present, this rank is equivalent to a Field Marshal or General of the Army in other NATO armies, today there are no living Marshals of Poland, since this rank is bestowed only on military commanders who have achieved victory in war. In all, the following persons have served as Marshals of Poland

56.
Marian Spychalski
–
Marian Marek Spychalski pronounced was a Polish architect in pre-war Poland, and later, military commander and communist politician. During World War II he belonged to the communist underground forces operating within Poland and was one of the leaders of the resistance movement Gwardia Ludowa, born to a working-class family in Łódź, Spychalski graduated from the Faculty of Architecture of the Warsaw University of Technology in 1931. Before World War II, he practised architecture and won national and international competitions. After World War II, he held a number of offices in the government of Poland, one of his first being mayor of Warsaw, in 1951 he appeared in a show trial where he was instructed to deliver official testimony against Gomułka. He was only released in the release of political prisoners in April 1956. With Gomułkas rehabilitation and return to power in 1956, Spychalski became the Polish Minister of Defence, in 1959 he again became a member of the Politburo, and in 1963 he was promoted to Field Marshal. As head of state, Spychalski was nearly assassinated at Karachi airport in Pakistan on 1 November 1970 during the welcoming ceremonies. Spychalski lost his posts as close associate of Gomułka, when Edward Gierek replaced Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers Party during the 1970 Polish protests throughout December. Spychalski retired and wrote a four volume memoir which is now in the archives of the Hoover Institution in California and he died on 7 June 1980, survived by his wife Barbara who also wrote about him

57.
Polish October
–
Polish October, also known as October 1956, Polish thaw, or Gomułkas thaw, marked a change in the politics of Poland in the second half of 1956. For the Peoples Republic of Poland,1956 was a year of transition, protests by workers in June in Poznań had highlighted the peoples dissatisfaction with their situation. In October, the set in motion resulted in the rise in power of the reformers faction. After brief, but tense, negotiations, the Soviets gave permission for Gomułka to stay in control, for Polish citizens this meant a temporary liberalization. Eventually though, hopes for full liberalization were proven false, as Gomułkas regime became more oppressive, nonetheless, the era of Stalinization in Poland had ended. Gomułkas thaw was caused by several factors, the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 and the resulting de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw prompted debates about fundamental issues throughout the entire Eastern Bloc. Nikita Khrushchevs speech, On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, had implications for the Soviet Union. For example, many members of the Polish United Workers Party criticized Stalins execution of older Polish Communists during the Great Purge, several other factors contributed to the destabilization of Poland. These included the widely publicized defection in 1953 of high-ranking Polish intelligence agent Józef Światło, the PZPR Secretariat decided that Khrushchevs speech should have wide circulation in Poland, a unique decision in the Eastern Bloc. In late March and early April, thousands of Party meetings were all over Poland, with Politburo. Tens of thousands took part in such meetings, the Secretariats plan succeeded beyond what they expected. A new Party Congress was demanded, as was a role for the Sejm. Alarmed by the process, the Party Secretariat decided to withhold the speech from the general public, in June 1956, there was an insurrection in Poznań. The workers rioted to protest shortages of food and consumer goods, bad housing, decline in income, trade relations with the Soviet Union. The Polish government initially responded by branding the rioters provocateurs, counterrevolutionaries, between 57 and 78 people—mostly protesters—were killed, and hundreds were wounded and arrested. Soon, however, the party hierarchy recognized that the riots had awakened a nationalist movement, wages were raised by 50 percent, and economic and political change was promised. The Poznań protests, although the largest, were not unique in Poland, people across the country criticized the security police and asked for the dissolution of the public security committee and the punishment of its guiltiest functionaries. Demands were made for the exposure of secret police collaborators, in many localities, crowds gathered outside the secret police headquarters, shouted hostile slogans, and broke its windows

Polish October
–
Władysław Gomułka, at the height of his popularity, on 24 October 1956, addressing hundreds of thousands of people in Warsaw, asked for an end to demonstrations and a return to work. "United with the working class and the nation", he concluded, "the Party will lead Poland along a new way of socialism".
Polish October
–
Gomułka.

58.
Military district
–
Military districts are formations of a states armed forces which are responsible for a certain area of territory. They are often responsible for administrative than operational matters, and in countries with conscript forces. Navies have also used a model, with organizations such as the United States Naval Districts. A number of navies in South America used naval districts at various points in time, source, Library of Congress Country Study,1993, 258-260 Algeria is divided into six numbered military regions, each with headquarters located in a principal city or town. Regional commanders control and administer bases, logistics, and housing, commanders of army divisions and brigades, air force installations, and naval forces report directly to the Ministry of National Defence and service chiefs of staff on operational matters. Previously Algeria had formed Frances tenth military region, Military region commanders in 2003 included Brahim Fodel Chérif, Kamel Abderrahmane (2nd Military Region, Abcène Tafer, Abdelmadjid Sahed (4th Military Region, Chérif Abderrazak and Ali Benali. During the Second Sino-Japanese War the National Revolutionary Army eventually organized itself into twelve Military Regions, the military regions of the Peoples Liberation Army were divided into military districts, usually contiguous with provinces, and military sub-districts. For many years up to 21 military regions were active, with the evolution of administrative organization, France was divided into regional administrative districts. The military organisation then combined the administrative organization and in each CAR corresponded a territorial military division, on the defence side, these military divisions have been grouped into military regions. Their number varied depending on the period, the method they adopted was to separate the Field Army from the Home Command and to entrust the responsibilities of training, conscription, supply and equipment to that command. The Commander of the Infantry Corps with the number also commanded the Wehrkreis in peacetime. In peace time, the Wehrkreis was the home to the Infantry Corps of the same number, todays German Armed Forces have four military districts – Wehrbereichskommando as part of the Streitkräftebasis or Joint Service Support Command. Each WBK controls several Landeskommandos due to the structure of Germany. Previously this function was carried out by the Verteidigungsbezirkskommandos or Military Region Commands and these command authorities are in charge of all military facilities in their area of responsibility and of several supporting regiments. The Indonesian Army uses military districts, known as Komando Daerah Militer or KODAM and it was created by General Soedirman as a system initially called Wehrkreise, adapted from the German system during World War II. The system was ratified in Surat Perintah Siasat No.1. Military area command functioned as a means of circles of defense, or regional defense, each MAC commander had full authority to begin operations with assets available in the district. MAC commanders had a command and an autonomy over its military structures, Poznań Military District, HQ in Poznań Warsaw Military District, HQ in Warszawa

Military district
–
Algerian military regions

59.
Pomeranian Military District
–
The Pomeranian Military District was a military district of the Polish Armed Forces from 1945 to 2011. Formally it was subordinate to the Minister of National Defence in the matters of defense. The district command headquarters was at Torun, Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Koszalin, from 1947 to 20071 Gen. J. Dwernicki Street, from 2007 to December 2011 105th Szubinska Street. Since 1999, the POW is one of the two districts in Poland. After 92 years, in accordance with the decision of the Minister of National Defence, the First All-Military Army was a military formation of the Polish Land Forces created in 1955. It was intended to guard the Baltic Sea shores as part of the Polish Front, unlike the 2nd Polish Army it was never mobilised and was disbanded as soon as Poland regained her independence from the Soviet bloc and left the Warsaw Pact. Although all armies of the Polish Army were disbanded in 1945, for that purpose in 1950 a Polish Front was created from Polish units, as part of Soviet war preparations. In 1955 the front was further subdivided into armies, all air assets were to be joined into the 3rd Air Army in case of mobilisation. The army was never activated and was disbanded in 1990,21 April 1945 –15 May 1945 – acting ppłk Mikołaj Iwanow 16 May 1945 –24 September 1945 – płk Wacław Szokalski,25 September 1945 –10 October 1945 – gen. bryg. Wiaczesław Jakutowicz,11 October 1945 –25 June 1947 – gen. bryg, jan Jośkiewicz,26 June 1947 –15 October 1947 – gen. bryg. Jan Rotkiewicz,19 November 1947 –21 January 1953 – gen. dyw, bronisław Półturzycki,21 March 1953 –29 May 1953 – acting gen. bryg. Antoni Władyczański,30 May 1953 –22 October 1954 – acting gen. bryg, antoni Władyczański,31 December 1954 –5 November 1956 – gen. dyw. Jan Rotkiewicz,6 November 1956 –14 November 1964 – gen. dyw, zygmunt Huszcza,15 November 1964 –18 May 1971 – gen. dyw. Józef Kamiński,19 May 1971 –26 February 1978 – gen. dyw, wojciech Barański,27 February 1978 –14 March 1983 – gen. dyw. Józef Użycki,1 April 1983 –22 September 1989 – gen. dyw, zbigniew Blechman,23 September 1989 –3 September 1992 – gen. dyw. Zbigniew Zalewski,4 September 1992 –8 September 2000 – gen. dyw, tadeusz Bazydło,9 September 2000 –11 December 2003 – gen. dyw. Leszek Chyła,12 December 2003 –5 October 2006 – gen. dyw, zbigniew Głowienka 6 October 2006 –11 January 2007 – acting gen. bryg. Zygmunt Duleba 12 January 2007 –28 December 2011 – gen. bryg, wojsko Polskie w Układzie Warszawskim 1955-1985

60.
Silesian Military District
–
Silesian Military District was one of three military districts in Poland, the other two being the Pomeranian Military District and the Warsaw Military District. All three were disbanded by the end of 2011 due to the restructuring of the Polish Army and its headquarters was in Wrocław Its history dates back to the aftermath of World War II, when Military District Silesia was formed in 1945. The Silesian Military District Commander-in-Chief position was established in accordance with command of the Polish Army order No,0208, authorized on August 22,1945. On the basis of Headquarters First Army, the Military District Command of Silesia was created at Katowice, the districts area, which included the provinces of Silesian-Dąbrowski and Wroclaw province, is now dissolved. Between August and September 1945 the largest changes occurred, as many of the units were disbanded. On October 22,1945 the Silesia Military District had 42,291 soldiers, during this period, the district took command of subordinate units and the organization of military administration. At the same time, he took over the functions of the district headquarters, in March 1946 the headquarters of the District were moved from Katowice to Wrocław. On November 15,1946 Silesia Military District Command was renamed the Command Military District No, IV, which remained in effect until 1953. In 1947, the headquarters were put under control of the Land Forces Command. This was again reinstated by popular consensus on December 22,1997, on 4 March 1949 the Poznan Military District was dissolved and the troops of its territory were incorporated into the Silesian Military District. In 1950, as a result of changes in administrative divisions within the district, there were five provinces recognized, Wroclaw, Poznan, Katowice, Opole, troops of the district were involved in suppressing the Poznań1956 protests. In the early 1960s the armed forces were divided into the Army Operational and territorial defense. On the basis of the units of the Silesian Military District, the Second Army was formed in the event that a war broke out. This was in accordance with the United Armed Forces of the Warsaw Pact, in July 1968, the 2nd Army was reformed from the districts troops for the purpose of participation in Operation Danube. The army, commanded by general Florian Siwicki, was disbanded in November 1968, the army consisted of 30,000 soldiers,7,000 transport vehicles,750 tanks, and 592 APCs. In November 1973 the District began contributing soldiers to the composition of UN interim Force, supervising the truce in the Middle East. Since then, they have used in a variety of tasks throughout the world, such as in Egypt, Syria, Namibia Western Sahara, Cambodia Iran, Iraq. District officers have performed as United Nations military observers since 1953, in the years 1953-1957 and from 1973, SCO officers were involved in the International Control Commission in

Silesian Military District
–
Śląski Okręg Wojskowy

61.
Fall of communism
–
The Revolutions of 1989 were part of a revolutionary wave in the late 1980s and early 1990s that resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe and beyond. The period is called the Autumn of Nations, a play on the term Spring of Nations sometimes used to describe the Revolutions of 1848. Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century and these culminated in the early 20th century, when several states and colonies formed their own communist parties. Many of the countries involved had hierarchical structures with monarchic governments, Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes in the late 19th/early 20th century states, as such, communism was repressed. Its champions suffered persecution while people were discouraged from adopting it and this had been the practice even in states which identified as exercising a multi-party system. The Russian Revolution of 1917 saw the first communist state in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, during the period between the world wars, communism had been on the rise in many parts of the world, especially in towns and cities. This led to a series of purges in many countries to stifle the movement, violent resistance to this repression led to a decrease in support for communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the early stages of World War II, both Nazi Germany and the USSR invaded and occupied the countries of Eastern Europe after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany then turned against and invaded the USSR, the battles of this Eastern Front were the largest in history. The USSR joined with the Allies and in conferences at Tehran and Yalta, the USSR fought the Germans to a standstill and finally began driving them back, reaching Berlin before the end of the war. Nazi ideology was violently anti-communist, and the Nazis brutally suppressed communist movements in the countries it occupied, Communists played a large part in the resistance to the Nazis in these countries. As the Soviets forced the Germans back, they assumed control of these devastated areas. After World War II, the Soviets ensured that communists loyal to Moscow took power in the countries it occupied, the Soviets retained troops throughout these territories. The Cold War saw these states, bound together by the Warsaw Pact, have continuing tensions with the capitalist west, the Chinese Revolution established communism in China in 1949. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, a spontaneous nationwide anti-authoritarian revolt, similarly in 1968, the USSR repressed the Prague Spring by organizing the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 had led to the formation of the independent trade union, Solidarity, led by Lech Wałęsa, during the mid-1980s, a younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation. After decades of growth, the Soviet Union was now facing a period of economic decline and needed Western technology. The costs of maintaining its military, the KGB, subsidies to client states etc. further strained the moribund Soviet economy. The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of glasnost in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika

62.
Polish 1970 protests
–
The Polish 1970 protests occurred in northern Poland in December 1970. The protests were sparked by an increase of prices of food. As a result of the riots, which were put down by the Polish Peoples Army, in December 1970 the regime suddenly announced massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs. The rise in prices proved to be a shock to ordinary citizens. Demonstrations against the price rises broke out in the northern Baltic coastal cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, Elbląg, gomułkas right-hand man, Zenon Kliszko, made matters worse by ordering the army to fire on workers as they tried to return to their factories. The regime was afraid of a wave of sabotage that was being started, which however is believed to be inspired by the secret police. Another party leader, Stanisław Kociołek, appealed to the workers to return to work, the protest movement then spread to other cities, leading to strikes and occupations. The government mobilized 5,000 members of squads of police and 27,000 soldiers equipped with heavy tanks. Over 1,000 people were wounded and at least 40 killed and 3,000 arrested, however, only six people were reported dead by the government at the time. All those who perished were buried overnight, with only the closest relatives present, the Party leadership met in Warsaw and decided that a full-scale working-class revolt was inevitable unless drastic steps were taken. With the consent of Leonid Brezhnev in Moscow, Gomułka, Kliszko and other leaders were forced to resign, if the price rises had been a plot against Gomułka, since Moscow would not accept Mieczysław Moczar, Edward Gierek was drafted as the new leader. The price rises were reversed, wage rises announced, and sweeping economic, Gierek went to Gdańsk and met the workers, apologised for the mistakes of the past, promised a political renewal and said that as a worker himself he would now govern for the people. Despite the fact that the aims of the protesters were mostly social and economical rather than political, nevertheless, the workers from the Coast did not ultimately prevent the government from implementing its agenda of increased food prices. This was achieved a few later, after the 1971 Łódź strikes. Janek Wiśniewski, a name given to then-unknown young victim, immortalised in Janek Wiśniewski poem. Strike, a Polish-German movie about Agnieszka Kowalska, a woman who played a role in the Solidarity Movement. Brunon Drywa In-line, Poland, The uprising of December 1970

63.
Wojciech Jaruzelski
–
Wojciech Witold Jaruzelski was a Polish military officer and politician. He was First Secretary of the Polish United Workers Party from 1981 to 1989 and he also served as Prime Minister from 1981 to 1985 and the countrys head of state from 1985 to 1990. He was also the last commander-in-chief of the Polish Peoples Army and he resigned after the Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989, which led to democratic elections in Poland. During Jaruzelskis rule from 1981 to 1989, around 700,000 people left the country, wojciech Witold Jaruzelski was born on 6 July 1923 in Kurów, into a family of Polish gentry. He was the son of Wanda and Władysław Mieczysław Jaruzelski, and was raised on the estate near Wysokie. He was educated in a Catholic school during the 1930s, World War II commenced on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany, aided by the Soviet invasion of Poland sixteen days later. These resulted in the defeat of Poland by October. Jaruzelski and his family fled to Lithuania and stayed with friends there. In 1940 at the age of sixteen, Jaruzelski was sent to the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, during his labour work he was stricken with snow blindness and suffered permanent damage to his eyes as well as his back. His eye condition forced him to wear dark sunglasses most of the time for the rest of his life, Jaruzelskis father died in 1942 from dysentery. His mother and sister survived the war, Jaruzelski was selected by the Soviet authorities for enrollment into the Soviet Officer Training School. He served in this Soviet-sponsored First Polish Army during the war and he participated in the 1945 Soviet military takeover of Warsaw and the Battle of Berlin. By the time the war ended that year, he had gained the rank of lieutenant and he further credited himself in Soviet eyes by engaging in combat against the non-Communist Polish Home Army, from 1945 to 1947. After the end of the war, Jaruzelski graduated from the Polish Higher Infantry School, in the initial post-war years, he was among those who fought the Polish anti-Communists in the Świętokrzyskie region. He benefited from a campaign in the army, during which more than 1000 Jewish officers were demoted or expelled. Even the non-Jewish minister of defence, Marshal Marian Spychalski was persecuted, in 1970, he was involved in the successful plot against Władysław Gomułka, which led to the appointment of Edward Gierek as General Secretary of the Polish United Workers Party. As Minister of Defense general Jaruzelski was ultimately responsible for 27,000 troops used against unarmed civilians, Jaruzelski became a candidate member for the Politburo of the Polish United Workers Party, the chief executive body of the party, obtaining full membership the following year. On 11 February 1981, Jaruzelski was named Chairman of the Council of Ministers, on 18 October, Stanisław Kania was ousted as First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers Party after a listening device recorded him criticising the Soviet leadership

64.
Operation Danube
–
Approximately 250,000 Warsaw pact troops attacked Czechoslovakia that night, with Romania and Albania refusing to participate. Although East German forces were prepared to participate in the invasion as well,108 Czechoslovakian civilians were killed and around 500 wounded in the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped Alexander Dubčeks Prague Spring liberalisation reforms and strengthened the authority of the authoritarian wing within the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. The process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s, following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the new constitution, accordingly, adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, the Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies, novotnýs attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a part of the union held these beliefs. The Prague Spring was a period of liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech, a large wave of emigration swept the nation. A spirited non-violent resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, painting over and turning street signs, defiance of various curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months, there were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self-immolation, but there was no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained controlled until 1989, when the revolution ended pro-Soviet rule peacefully, undoubtedly drawing upon the successes of the non-violent resistance twenty years earlier. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also president, reversed almost all of Dubčeks reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, the first such fear was that Czechoslovakia would defect from the bloc, injuring the Soviet Unions position in a possible war with the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. Not only would the loss result in a lack of depth for the USSR. Czechoslovak leaders had no intention of leaving the Warsaw Pact, other fears included the spread of liberalization and unrest elsewhere in Eastern Europe

65.
Ivan Yakubovsky
–
Ivan Ignatyevich Yakubovsky was a Marshal of the Soviet Union, twice made a Hero of the Soviet Union and serving as commander-in-chief of the Warsaw Pact from 1967 to 1976. Born as the child of a peasant family in Belarus, he was employed in their village. From 1930 he worked as section-secretary on the Makaryevsky village council and he graduated from two courses at the Orsha School in 1932. Commanding a tank company in the Red Armys September 1939 Polish campaign as part of the troops on the Belorussian front, Yakubovsky entered the war in its early days on the western border as commander of a tank battalion, fighting heroically in the most difficult defensive battles in Belarus. His unit was one of the last defenders of a doomed Minsk, from January 1941 he commanded a tank regiment on the USSRs western front, becoming Deputy Commander then Commander of the 91st Tank Brigade and participating in the Barvinkivske-Lozova offensive. In spring 1943 the brigade was transferred to the Central Front, joining the 3rd Guards Tank Army, for his heroism at Fastiv, where his unit destroyed 30 enemy tanks in a single day, Yakubovsky was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. In spring 1944, at the head of his tank brigade, in June 1944 he became deputy commander of 6th Guards Tank Corps within 3rd Guards Tank Army. He participated in the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive, in the defending and expanding the Sandomierz bridgehead. In these operations, he commanded the corps troops, at their point of impact with the German tank units. For heroic actions in the Lvov-Sandomierz operation Colonel Yakubovsky was again ranked as a Hero of the Soviet Union, by decree of 23 September 1944. From April 1945 he was deputy commander of the 7th Guards Tank Corps within 3rd Guards Tank Army, participating in the Berlin and Prague operations, after the war, he continued to serve as deputy commander of the tank shell in the Leningrad Military District. In 1948 he graduated from the General Staff Academy, rising to Lieutenant-General of Tank Forces, he commanded a Tank Army then a mechanized army. In July 1957 he became First Deputy Commander of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, after stabilizing the situation in April 1962, Army General Yakubovsky again returned to the post of Commander of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany. In January 1965 he was made Commander of the Kiev Military District, according to numerous recollections of colleagues, Marshal Yakubovsky was a bright and distinctive personality. In terms of the number of anecdotes about him, he can perhaps only compete with the commander of the Airborne Forces Army General Vasily Margelov. An implacable opponent of showing off, he was a man of exceptional integrity, Земля в огне, Moscow,1975, За прочный мир на земле, Moscow,1975 Ivan Yakubovsky at Find a Grave

66.
Legnica
–
Legnica is a city in southwestern Poland, in the central part of Lower Silesia, on the Kaczawa River and the Czarna Woda. Between 1 June 1975 and 31 December 1998 Legnica was the capital of the Legnica Voivodeship and it is currently the seat of the county and since 1992 the city has been the seat of a Diocese. As of 2012, Legnica had a population of 102,708 inhabitants, the city was first referenced in chronicles dating from the year 1004, although previous settlements could be traced back to the 7th century. The name Legnica was mentioned in 1149 under High Duke of Poland Bolesław IV the Curly, the Christian coalition under the command of the Polish Duke Henry II the Pious, supported by nobles, knights, and mercenaries, was decisively defeated by the Mongols. This, however, was a point in the war as the Mongols, having killed Henry II, halted their advance into Europe. During the Renaissance period, Legnica was one of the most important cities of Central Europe, the city began to rapidly develop after the sudden discovery of gold in the Kaczawa River between Legnica and the town of Złotoryja. In 1742 the city was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia after King Frederick the Greats victory over Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession. It remained in Germany until the end of World War II, Legnica is an economic, cultural and academic centre in Lower Silesia, together with Wrocław. The city is renowned for its architecture, spanning from early medieval to modern period. According to the Foreign direct investment ranking from 2016, Legnica is one of the fastest developing cities in the Silesian region. As of 31 December 2012 Legnica has 102,708 inhabitants and is the third largest city in the voivodeship and it also constitutes the southernmost and the largest urban center of a copper deposit with agglomeration of 448,617 inhabitants. Legnica is the largest city of the conurbation and is a member of the Association of Polish Cities, a settlement of the Lusatian culture people existed in the 8th century B. C. After Celtic invasions beyond upper danube basin the area of Legnica was inhabited by their tribes, tacitus and Ptolemy recorded the Lugii in the area, and mentioned their town of Lugidunum, which has been attributed to both Legnica and Głogów. Slavic Lechitic tribes moved into the area in the 8th century and were the first group to settle it permanently, the city was first officially mentioned in chronicles from 1004, although settlement dates to the 7th century. It is mentioned in 1149 when the High Duke of Poland Bolesław IV the Curly funded a chapel at the St. Benedict monastery. Legnica was the most likely place of residence for Bolesław and it became the residence of the High Dukes of Poland in 1163 and was the seat of a principality ruled from 1248–1675. Legnica became famous for the battle took place at Legnickie Pole near the city on 9 April 1241 during the Mongol invasion of Europe. As the capital of the Duchy of Legnica at the beginning of the 14th century, Legnica was one of the most important cities of Central Europe, the city began to expand quickly after the discovery of gold in the Kaczawa River between Legnica and Złotoryja

67.
Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission
–
The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission was established by the Korean Armistice Agreement signed July 27,1953, declaring an armistice in the Korean War. It is, with the Military Armistice Commission, part of the mechanism regulating the relations between the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea, reports were to be made to the Military Armistice Commission. The term neutral nations was defined as those nations whose combat forces did not participate in the hostilities in Korea, the United Nations Command chose Switzerland and Sweden, while the Korean Peoples Army and Chinese Peoples Volunteers chose Czechoslovakia and Poland. The NNSC was supported by twenty Neutral Nations Inspection Teams, ten permanently located at ports in North and South Korea, the Armistice did not specify the manner of operation of the teams. The Swiss and Swedish teams were of a size, relying on their hosts to provide personnel support, vehicles. The Czech and Polish teams were larger and fully self-sufficient, including heavy radio trucks, interpreters, cooks. The first meeting of the NNSC took place on August 1,1953, in 1954, there had been hostility to the NNSC inspections by the South Koreans, and doubts by the UNC, Switzerland and Sweden about the balanced application of inspections. After discussion within the NNSC, and with the agreement of the Military Armistice Commission, in March 1955, the South Korean Assembly unanimously passed a resolution that NNSC inspection teams should be expelled from South Korea. Demonstrations against NNSC inspection teams continued through September and October, on May 31,1956, the UNC required that the NNSC fixed inspection teams be withdrawn from South Korean ports, as the U. S. believed North Korea was being rearmed avoiding NNSC inspection. This was opposed by North Korea in the Military Armistice Commission, following this, NNSC inspection teams in North Korea were withdrawn in the following days. From this time onward, NNSC activities were limited to recording information offered by both sides, and staffing levels were reduced, at a meeting of the Military Armistice Commission on June 21,1957, the U. S. North Korea viewed the NNSC as existing in only after the inspection teams were withdrawn. A1970 report on the NNSC by the U. S, arms Control and Disarmament Agency concluded Since the NNSC was established only to observe the enforcement of 13 and 13, it ceased, therefore, to have any function. The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission thus remains a facade, maintained only because of apprehension about the void which would occur if it were abolished. From June 1956 to the year of 1993, the NNSC ceased their controls, the former Polish and Czech camps which were located nearby on the north Korean side of the Military Demarcation Line, have been taken over by the KPA and are now used for other purposes. North Korea expelled the Czech component in 1993 and the Polish component in 1995, since 1995 North Korea has not recognized the existence of the NNSC. The Swedish and Swiss delegations continue to submit reports on South Korean troop movements to North Korea, Poland continues to attend NNSC meetings, although it is no longer able to observe troop movements in North Korea. Since 2008 the main role of the NNSC is to maintain, five Swiss and five Swedish representatives are stationed near Panmunjeom, South Korea, on duty for the NNSC

68.
GROM
–
JW GROM is Polands elite counter-terrorism unit. GROM, which stands for Grupa Reagowania Operacyjno-Manewrowego, which means thunder, is one of the five special operation forces units of the Polish Armed Forces. It was officially activated on July 13,1990 and it is deployed in a variety of special operations and unconventional warfare roles, including anti-terrorist operations and projection of force behind enemy lines. The unit was named after the Silent Unseen - Polands elite World War II special-operations unit, the units other name is Jednostka Wojskowa 2305. GROM was originally modelled on NATOs most reputable special operations such as the US Armys Delta Force, the US Navys SEAL Team Six. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were several formations of special units within Poland. This proposal, however, was rejected by the Peoples Army of Poland. In 1989, many Jews were allowed to emigrate from the Soviet Union to Israel, Poland was one of the handful of countries that provided aid in the form of organization for the operation, later dubbed Operation Bridge. After two Polish diplomats were shot in Beirut, Lt. Col. Sławomir Petelicki was sent to Lebanon to secure the transfer of civilians, petelickis ideas were well received, and on June 13,1990, GROM was formally established as JW2305. As a Polish intelligence officer from Służba Bezpieczeństwa specializing in sabotage and subversion and he gathered around himself a group of like-minded and professional soldiers, functionaries and set about choosing soldiers that would be fit for special operations. Due to the risks involved in special service, it was decided that all men should be from professional service. The first batch of recruits all came from a variety of already-existing special units within the Polish Armed Forces, many of these initial instructors were trained by the Special Forces of the United States and the United Kingdom. It was first reported to the press in 1992 and became known to the public in 1994, before October 1,1999, JW2305 was subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, after which time command was transferred to the Minister of National Defence, until 2007. Since 2007 JW GROM is under the command of Dowódca Wojsk Specjalnych, GROM soldiers train with the best special forces units in the world. The training of GROM soldiers includes a variety of disciplines, all of them undergo the same specialized training in anti-terrorism and special operations, as well as frogman, sniping, and parachuting. In four-man teams, each soldier must be prepared to assume the respective responsibilities of his colleagues, JW GROM receives basic special operations training from the Swedish Navys Special Command for Tactical Operations based in Karlskrona, Swedens primary Naval Base. Approximately 75% of GROM personnel are trained as medics or paramedics, in addition, each group is supported by several professional physicians. GROM soldiers are trained in the capture or kill methods, Most of units operations remain classified, the known ones are listed below

69.
Operation Uphold Democracy
–
Operation Uphold Democracy was a war designed to remove the military regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup détat that overthrew the elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The operation was authorized by the 31 July 1994 United Nations Security Council Resolution 940. The war began with the alert of United States and its allies for an entry into the island nation of Haiti. U. S. Navy, U. S. Coast Guard, some of these elements were staged out of Hunter Army Airfield and Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. The 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division deployed to Haiti aboard the U. S. S, the operation was directed by Commander, Joint Task Force 120, provided by Commander, Carrier Group Two. S. Senator Sam Nunn and retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell persuaded the leaders of Haiti to step down, the main leader holding power was General Joseph Raoul Cédras and was the key focus of the delegation. As a final effort to force the dictator to step down without violence, while allowing Cédras to process the panic-inducing sight, he was informed that while he assumed he was watching a live-feed, he was in fact viewing a video captured more than 2 hours before. As such, they explained unnecessarily, the elements of the 15,000 paratrooper strong airborne assault force had already launched from Fort Bragg. The delegation had issued an ultimatum to the dictator. S. Would forcibly wrest control of his country and see justice done, within minutes General Cédras capitulated under the most favorable terms available to him at that time. With his capitulation, the 100+ aircraft carrying the 82nd Airborne Division were either turned around in mid-air or unloaded before they had a chance to take off. The military mission changed from an operation to a peace-keeping and nation-building operation with the deployment of the U. S. -led multinational force in Haiti. Polk LA and Marine Forces Caribbean, teams were deployed throughout the country to establish order and humanitarian services. This included the 46th Support Group, the Joint Material Management Center, JMMC, additionally, the 28th CASH provided medical care for service members and Haitians alike. In August 1994, the Battalion departed for the Caribbean and Haitian waters for Operation Support Democracy, 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines once again landed in Cap Haitian, Haiti on September 20,1994. Participation in Operation Uphold Democracy lasted until October 1994, a squad from Echo Company Engaged in a fire fight with the Haitian police/ military coup. Fourteen Marines led by Lt Polumbo were engaged and prevailed despite superior numbers, one Navy interpreter was wounded and several Haitians lost their lives. The 10th Mountain Division was relieved in place by units of the 25th Infantry Division under command of Major General George Fisher

70.
2003 invasion of Iraq
–
The 2003 invasion of Iraq lasted from 20 March to 1 May 2003 and signalled the start of the Iraq War, which was dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom by the United States. 160,000 troops were sent by the Coalition into Iraq, during the invasion phase. About 130,000 were sent from the USA alone, with about 28,000 British soldiers, Australia,36 other countries were involved in its aftermath. In preparation for the invasion,100,000 U. S. troops were assembled in Kuwait by 18 February, the coalition forces also received support from Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan. Others place a greater emphasis on the impact of the September 11 attacks, and the role this played in changing U. S. strategic calculations. The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some long-standing U. S. allies, including the governments of France, Germany, and New Zealand. Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of destruction in Iraq. According to the French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April 2003,36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war. The invasion was preceded by an airstrike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on 20 March 2003, the following day, coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Province from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border. Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the army into chaos. The main body of forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq. Most of the Iraqi military was defeated and Baghdad was occupied on 9 April. Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi army, including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on 10 April, Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country. On 1 May, an end of combat operations was declared, ending the invasion period. Hostilities of the 1991 Gulf War were suspended on 28 February 1991 and it was revealed that a biological weapons program in Iraq had begun in the early 1980s with help from the U. S. and Europe in violation of the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972. The investigation concluded there was no evidence the program had continued after the war. The U. S. and its allies then maintained a policy of containment towards Iraq, Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. In October 1998, removing the Saddam regime became official U. S. foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act

2003 invasion of Iraq
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U.S. Army M1A1 Abrams tanks and their crews pose for a photo in front of the " Hands of Victory " monument at Baghdad 's Ceremony Square in November 2003.
2003 invasion of Iraq
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Gen. Anthony C. Zinni briefs reporters at The Pentagon following Operation Desert Fox, 21 December 1998
2003 invasion of Iraq
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A UN weapons inspector in Iraq, 2002.
2003 invasion of Iraq
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Two US F-16 Falcons prepare to depart Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia for a patrol as part of Operation Southern Watch, 2000.

71.
Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq
–
On March 17,2003, then Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski announced that Poland would send about 2,000 troops to the Persian Gulf to take part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Polish soldiers had been present in the region since July 2002 and these formed the fourth of the larger military contributions to the forces arrayed against Iraq. The original Polish contingent contained,70 soldiers from the JW Grom SOF unit, already deployed to the region and these were joined by another 56 men, just before the invasion. The logistic support ship ORP Kontradmirał Xawery Czernicki which served as a base for special operations,74 chemical-contamination personnel from 4 Brodnicki Pułk Chemiczny. Another 53 men strong chemical-contamination contingent was ready to be sent to Turkey, in April 2005, Poland had 2,500 troops deployed in Iraq, and was also commanding a number of other coalition troops within the Polish-led Multinational Division Central-South. Polish commandos took part in security operations on Iraqi Oil Platforms, Polish special forces performed the operation of securing the port of Umm Qasr. S. Foreign Economic and Military Aid by Recipient Country,2000 to 2003

Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq
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A Polish Army soldier patrol leader debriefs his team after completing an afternoon patrol around the perimeter of Camp Babylon, Iraq.
Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq
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GROM commandos in Umm Qasr, 28 March 2003.

72.
Military Engineers
–
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and communications. Military engineers are responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering, in the 20th and 21st centuries, military engineering also includes other engineering disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering techniques. According to NATO, military engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component or service, Military engineering does not encompass the activities undertaken by those engineers who maintain, repair and operate vehicles, vessels, aircraft, weapon systems and equipment. Military engineering is a subject taught in military academies or schools of military engineering. The construction and demolition tasks related to engineering are usually performed by military engineers including soldiers trained as sappers or pioneers. In modern armies, soldiers trained to perform such tasks while well forward in battle, the word engineer was initially used in the context of warfare, dating back to 1325 when engine’er referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, engine referred to a machine, i. e. A mechanical contraption used in war, in its place, the term military engineering has come to be used. Modern military engineering can be divided into three main tasks or fields, combat engineering, strategic support, and ancillary support, combat engineering is associated with engineering on the battlefield. Combat engineers are responsible for increasing mobility on the front lines of war such as digging trenches, strategic support is associated with providing service in communication zones such as the construction of airfields and the improvement and upgrade of ports, roads and railways communication. Ancillary support includes provision and distribution of maps as well as the disposal of unexploded warheads, Military engineers construct bases, airfields, roads, bridges, ports, and hospitals. During peacetime before modern warfare, military engineers took the role of civil engineers by participating in the construction of civil-works projects, nowadays, military engineers are almost entirely engaged in war logistics and preparedness. Combat engineers clear routes, repair airfields and harbours, bridge rivers all at top speed, the first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known as architecti. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries, such military engineering feats would have been completely new, and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. The best known of these Roman army engineers due to his writings surviving is Vitruvius, alexander the Great also used engineers in his army. In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for warfare and building field fortifications, temporary camps. The most notable engineers of ancient times were the Romans and Chinese, the Romans were responsible for constructing fortified wooden camps and paved roads for their legions

Military Engineers
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Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his age.
Military Engineers
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Aerial view of Mulberry harbour "B" (October 27, 1944)
Military Engineers
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A Bailey bridge being deployed in the Korean War to replace a bridge destroyed in combat.
Military Engineers
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The American 341st Engineer Company building a ribbon bridge

73.
MINURCAT
–
Armed Sudanese rebel groups have continuously carried out attacks across the Sudanese border, endangering local residents and Darfurian refugees alike. Although the EUFOR Tchad/RCA was originally scheduled to deploy in November 2007 and it reached its Initial Operational Capability on 15 March 2008 and was replaced by UN forces under the same MINURCAT mandate on 15 March 2009. A further extension was done until the end of 2010. As of 2010, there were 300 police officers from Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte dIvoire, Egypt, Finland, France, Guinea, Jordan, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Turkey and Yemen. The EU forces mission EUFOR Tchad/RCA operated under the auspices and in the framework of MINURCAT in Chad, the deployment of up to 3,700 troops began in February 2008. The EU operation commander, General Patrick Nash, announced on 5 November that this force will be 3,700 troops strong, the military operation was approved by the Council of the European Union on 15 October

MINURCAT
–
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad

74.
Central African Republic
–
The Central African Republic is a landlocked country in Central Africa. The CAR covers a area of about 620,000 square kilometres and had an estimated population of around 4.7 million as of 2014. Most of the CAR consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas, but the country includes a Sahelo-Sudanian zone in the north. Two thirds of the country is within the Ubangi River basin, while the third lies in the basin of the Chari. Ange-Félix Patassé became president, but was removed by General François Bozizé in the 2003 coup. As of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, the country had the lowest level of human development and this Agricultural Revolution, combined with a Fish-stew Revolution, in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the regions inhabitants, the Bouar Megaliths in the western region of the country indicate an advanced level of habitation dating back to the very late Neolithic Era. Ironworking arrived in the region around 1000 BC from both Bantu cultures in what is today Nigeria and from the Nile city of Meroë, the capital of the Kingdom of Kush. Bananas arrived in the region and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet, production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region. During the 16th and 17th centuries slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan, in the mid 19th century, the Bobangi people became major slave traders and sold their captives to the Americas using the Ubangi river to reach the coast. During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi River, in 1875 the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day CAR. The European penetration of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa, Europeans, primarily the French, Germans, and Belgians, arrived in the area in 1885. France created Ubangi-Shari territory in 1894, in 1911 at the Treaty of Fez, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km² portion of the Sangha and Lobaye basins to the German Empire which ceded a smaller area to France. After World War I France again annexed the territory, in 1920 French Equatorial Africa was established and Ubangi-Shari was administered from Brazzaville. The concessionary companies forced local people to harvest rubber, coffee, between 1890, a year after the French first arrived, and 1940, about half of the population died as a result. New forms of forced labor were also introduced and a number of Ubangians were sent to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway. Many of these laborers died of exhaustion, illness, or the poor conditions which claimed between 20% and 25% of the 127,000 workers. In 1928, an insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or war of the hoe handle, broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari

75.
UNOCI
–
The United Nations Operation in Côte dIvoire is a peacekeeping mission whose objective is to facilitate the implementation by the Ivorian parties of the peace agreement signed by them in January 2003. The two main Ivorian parties here are the Ivorian Government forces who control the south of the country, and the New Forces, the UNOCI mission aims to control a zone of confidence across the centre of the country separating the two parties. The Head of Mission and Special Representative of the Secretary-General is Aïchatou Mindaoudou Souleymane from Niger and she has succeeded Bert Koenders from the Netherlands in 2013 who himself succeeded Choi Young-jin from South Korea in 2011. The mission was authorized by Security Council Resolution 1528 on 27 February 2004 to take over from MINUCI from 4 April 2004. The mandate was extended several times, including 31 October 2008,31 January 2010,27 May 2010,20 December 2010. As of November 2006, the mission consisted of about 8,000 uniformed soldiers from a total of 41 countries and they have included, from the Bangladeshi Army, 56th and 57th Battalions, East Bengal Regiment. They were deployed alongside 4,000 French soldiers of the Operation Licorne intervention, a presidential election is planned for 2009, after numerous delays arising from postwar issues. In January 2006, supporters of President Laurent Gbagbo attacked the base of the United Nations peacekeepers after the Ivorian Popular Front withdrew from the Ivorian Civil War peace process, about 1,000 protesters invaded the UN base at Guiglo. In the aftermath of the 2010 presidential election, incumbent president Gbagbo said UNOCI troops should leave the country, heavy fighting broke out on 31 March 2011 as forces of Alassane Ouattara advanced on Abidjan from several directions. The UN peacekeeping mission said its headquarters were fired on by Gbabgos special forces on 31 March, UN convoys have also come under attack by Gbagbo loyalists four times since 31 March, with three peacekeepers injured in one of the attacks. The peacekeepers had exchanged fire with Gbagbo loyalists in several parts of the city, on 4 April 2011 UN and French helicopters also began firing on pro-Gbagbo military installations, a French military spokesman said the attacks were aimed at heavy artillery and armoured vehicles. Eyewitnesses reported seeing two UN Mi-24P attack helicopters firing missiles at the Akouédo military camp in Abidjan, UN helicopters were flown by Ukrainian Ground Forces crews seconded to the United Nations. The attacks sparked protests by a Gbagbo spokesperson, who said such actions were illegal, illegitimate. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon defended the actions, however, saying that the mission has taken action in self-defence. Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said that Russia intends to look into the legitimacy of the use of force by UN peacekeepers, the position of the Russian government was that any foreign interference would only lead to increasing violence. On 9 April, pro-Gbagbo forces were reported to have fired on the Golf Hotel, the attackers reportedly used both sniper rifles and mortars, in response, UN peacekeepers fired on them. The following day, United Nations and French forces carried out air strikes against Gbagbos remaining heavy weapons, using Mi-24. The attack was reported to have caused damage to the presidential palace

UNOCI
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Ms. Helen Clark UNDP Administrator during her visit in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire in September 2012, after a work session with the government of Côte d'Ivoire, appearing in this picture with the Prime Minister of Côte d'Ivoire Mr. Kablan Duncan and his cabinet, United Nations Secretary-General's Special Representative and Head of UNOCI Mr. Bert Koenders, and the United Nations Interpreter Mr. Fernand Mikanga
UNOCI
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United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire

76.
UNMEE
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First military troops Netherlands - Canadian battalion NECBAT arrived and established bases in the region in December 2000. The mission was abandoned in July 2008 after experiencing serious difficulties in sustaining its troops due to fuel stoppages. On July 31,2000, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1312, the mission was put in place in order to formally demarcate the border between the two countries. The border followed the route as declared by a commission in The Hague but Ethiopia refused to accept the ruling. The mission maintained headquarters in Asmara, and Addis Ababa, and consisted of 1,676 military personnel, about 1,500 of these peacekeepers were from the Indian Army. In addition, there were about 147 international civilians,202 local civilians and 67 UN Volunteers and their area of responsibility was a buffer zone 25 kilometers wide on the Eritrean side of the Ethiopian-Eritrean border. There have been recorded 20 fatalities,13 military personnel,3 international civilian personnel and 4 local civilian personnel, the approved budget for the mission between 1 July 2007 and 30 June 2008 was $118.99 million. The border between Ethiopia and Eritrea has remained closed and thousands of live in refugee camps while perhaps a million people remain displaced. In October 2005, the Eritrean government restricted UNMEE helicopter flights along the border, Eritrea also restricted movement of ground patrols inside the buffer zone. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1640 in November 2005 threatened sanctions on both parties if there was no resolution, the mission was ended with effect from 31 July 2008 with a UNSC resolution adopted on 30 July 2008. Peacekeepers had been driven from the zone by Eritrea by February 2008. There are fears that this may set a precedent to show that a country can force out UN peacekeepers, analysts also fear a new war may erupt between Ethiopia and Eritrea over the border dispute. Eritrea has, however, tried to allay fears over a new war

77.
Bydgoszcz
–
Bydgoszcz /ˈbɪdɡɒʃtʃ/ is a city in northern Poland, on the Brda and Vistula rivers. With a city population of 358,614, and an urban agglomeration with more than 470,000 inhabitants and it has been the seat of Bydgoszcz County and the co-capital, with Toruń, of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship since 1999. Prior to this, between 1947 and 1998, it was the capital of the Bydgoszcz Voivodeship, and before that, Bydgoszcz is part of the metroplex Bydgoszcz-Toruń, which totals over 850,000 inhabitants. Bydgoszcz is the seat of Casimir the Great University, University of Technology and Life Sciences, Bydgoszcz hosts the Pomeranian Philharmonic concert hall, the Opera Nova opera house, and the Bydgoszcz Ignacy Jan Paderewski Airport. There are also a number of other Polish place-names which make use of the goszcz suffix, the name Byd-gost contains archaic elements of the Proto-Slavonic root byd which existed as a variant of the verb to raise, and the common Slavic root Goszcz. Some people identify the name of the town as Budorgis, a name from the 2nd century which is listed next to the village Calisia on the amber route, during the early Slavic times a fishing settlement called Bydgozcya, became a stronghold on the Vistula trade routes. In the 13th century it was the site of a castellany, the city was occupied by the Teutonic Knights in 1331, and incorporated into the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. The city was relinquished by the Knights in 1343 with their signing of the Treaty of Kalisz along with Dobrzyń, king Casimir III of Poland, granted Bydgoszcz city rights on 19 April 1346. The city increasingly saw an influx of Jews after that date, in 1555, however, due to pressure by the clergy, the Jews were expelled and came back only with the annexion to Prussia in 1772. In the 15th and 16th centuries Bydgoszcz was a significant site for wheat trading, during 1629, near the end of the Polish-Swedish War of 1626–29, the town was conquered by Swedish troops led by king Gustav II Adolph of Sweden personally. During the events of war the town suffered demolitions, the town was conquered a second and third time by Sweden in 1656 and 1657 during the Second Northern War. On the latter occasion the castle was destroyed completely and has since remained a ruin. After the war only 94 houses were inhabited,103 stood empty and 35 were burned down, also the suburbs had been damaged considerably. In 1772, in the First Partition of Poland, Bydgoszcz was acquired by the Kingdom of Prussia, renamed Bromberg, at the time, the town was seriously depressed and semi-derelict. In 1807, after the defeat of Prussia by Napoleon and the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, with Napoleons defeat at the Battle of Nations in 1815, the town was returned to Prussia as part of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen. In 1871 the Province of Posen, along with the rest of the Kingdom of Prussia, in the mid-19th century, the arrival of the Prussian Eastern Railway contributed greatly to the development of Bromberg. The first stretch, from Schneidemühl to Bromberg, was opened in July 1851, the city grew from 12,900 in 1852 to 57,700 in 1910 – of whom 84 percent were Germans and 16 percent Poles. After World War I, despite Brombergs German majority, it was assigned to the recreated Polish state by the 1919 Versailles Treaty, now officially Bydgoszcz again, the city belonged to the Poznań Voivodeship

Bydgoszcz
Bydgoszcz
Bydgoszcz

78.
Warsaw Pact
–
The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too

79.
Multinational Corps Northeast
–
Multinational Corps Northeast was formed on 18 September 1999 at Szczecin, Poland, which became its headquarters. It evolved from what was for years the only multinational corps in NATO, Allied Land Forces Schleswig-Holstein. From 1962 LANDJUT had been responsible for the defence of the Baltic Approaches from a headquarters at Rendsburg and it comprised the 6th Panzergrenadier Division and the Danish Jutland Division. A tri-national working group was established following the July 1997 decision that Poland was to be admitted to NATO with the aim of establishing the corps as part of NATO’s Main Defence Forces. In July 1997, Ministers of Defence of Denmark, Germany and this Corps was to be named Multinational Corps Northeast with its Headquarters located in Szczecin, Poland. The Headquarters Allied Land Forces Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland from Rendsburg in Germany was to form the nucleus of new command. Ministers of Defence of Denmark, Germany and Poland signed the Corps Convention in 1998, when Poland was not a member of NATO yet, but the date of the country’s accession had already been set. On 18 September 1999, the three Framework Nations – Denmark, Germany, Poland – could hoist their flags in the Baltic Barracks, the Corps has significantly developed decisively since that time. Though it is a NATO-affiliated formation, the Corps Convention is an agreement between the three nations. The positions of commander, deputy commander, and chief of staff rotate between the three nations, for common purposes of practice and training the corps was assigned to Joint Sub-Regional Command Northeast, at Karup, Denmark. For Article 5 common defence purposes, the Corps was to have been assigned either to JSRC NE or the JSRC Centre at Heidelberg, following the latest reorganisation, it might report if designated for operations in Central Europe to Allied Force Command Heidelberg. The 14th Panzergrenadier Division of the German Army used to be part of the Corps, due to its geographical location, the only NATO HQ East of the former Iron Curtain, Multinational Corps North East has a key function in the integration of new NATO member states. This is reflected in the structure of its personnel, officers and NCOs from the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia are serving at Multinational Corps North East. Since April 2004, the flags of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been fluttering at the Headquarters, in January 2005, Slovakia joined Multinational Corps Northeast, whereas the Czech Republic - in October 2005. The US flag was hoisted in November 2006 indicating the US membership in the Corps, in July 2008, first Romanian officers arrived to serve at the HQ. In August 2009, Slovenia entered the MNC NE family, in January 2012, Croatia officially became the twelfth nation of the Corps. In July 2013, the flag of Hungary was hoisted in Baltic Barracks, sweden, a non-NATO member, sent its representative to the Baltic Barracks in autumn 2014. In 2015 Turkish, British, French and Dutch officers started their tours of duty in Szczecin, canada, Iceland, Belgium, Norway and Greece joined the Corps in 2016

Multinational Corps Northeast
–
Multinational Corps North East

80.
POLUKRBAT
–
The battalion can be made fully operational after 30 days from the receipt of a request from the United Nations. In June 2006, the Ukrainian contingent was reduced to 179 soldiers, the Polish component was split from the 14th Armored Brigade and the Ukrainian component was split from the 310th Mechanized Regiment of the 24th Mechanized Division in Yavoriv. Fearing that such deployment would undermine its prestige, the parliament ratified the 1997 agreement on April 6,2000. The protest, however, had no consequence and the law, signed by Leonid Kuchma, then the President of Ukraine, the mission of the battalion as a part of Kosovo International peacekeeping force started in July,2000. Before deployment, the Ukrainian troops undertook special training in the Yavoriv center, the final multinational military exercise in Yavoriv was attended by the Ukrainian and Polish ministers of defense. The units service received good reviews from the high command. The Major tasks of the Battalion are, Participation in peace support activities in the area of responsibility, Ukrainian units are based in Camp Bondsteel and Camp Breza near the Brezovica village. From 1999 to 2006, units were stationed in Camp Golden Lion. Lithuanian-Polish Peace Force Battalion Lithuanian–Polish–Ukrainian Brigade Roman Woronowycz, Ukraines troops play key role in peacekeeping operations, archived from the original on 2007-09-30. The Ukrainian Weekly, January 1,2001 KFOR POLAND, Seeing Both Sides of the Balkans, Warsaw Voice, June 24,2001 Photos

81.
Army of Congress Poland
–
Army of the Congress Poland refers to the military forces of the Kingdom of Poland that existed in the period 1815–1831. The army was formed even before the Congress Poland, in 1814 and its creation was confirmed by the Constitution of the Congress Kingdom. It took part in the November Uprising against the Russians, the uprising begun when a group of young officers tried, unsuccessfully, to assassinate Grand Duke Constantine. The defeat of the uprising in 1831 marked the end of the existence of a regular Polish army for almost a century and it was abolished with the new constitution of 1832, the Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland, which incorporated the army into the Russian Army. It was reorganized into a Russian army model, with infantry and cavalry divisions, artillery brigades and batteries, a regiment of grenadiers and cavalry rifleman were also formed. Obligatory military service was set at 10 years, with the option of buying ones time out, the Army was well trained, with a new cadet school in Kalisz, a number of podchorąży training schools, and a higher military school in Warsaw. The cost of maintaining the army was close to 50% of the Kingdoms budget, notable Polish commanders of the Army included Ignacy Prądzyński and Józef Bem, and General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski. Its nominal commander-in-chief was the Russian Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia, the peacetime army was 28, 000-30,000 strong. During the November Uprising, it was expanded to 100,000, of that, about 57,000 could be seen as a qualified, first-line troops. Before the Uprising, the Army was composed of two divisions with three brigades each, two cavalry divisions with two brigades each, and two artillery brigades. Each infantry brigade was about 3,600 strong, each brigade was about half that size. Army of the Duchy of Warsaw Military of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Polish Legions Mieczysław Chojnacki, Template, Army of Congress Poland Template, Polish Armed Forces

82.
7TP
–
The 7TP was a Polish light tank of the Second World War. A development of the British Vickers 6-ton, it was better armed than its most common opponents. A standard tank of the Polish Army during the 1939 Invasion of Poland and its chassis was used as the base for C7P artillery tractor. The 7TP was the Polish development of the British Vickers 6-ton Mark E tank licence, about 132 tanks were produced between 1935 and the outbreak of the war, plus four iron prototypes. The designation 7TP meant 7 Tonne, Polish, although 7TP is often claimed to be the worlds first diesel-powered tank, this distinction actually goes to Japanese Type 89B I-Go Otsu, produced with a diesel engine from 1934 onwards. Barring that, the claim of a first purpose-designed diesel-powered tank is tied with Type 95 Ha-Go, whose series production also commenced in 1935. Like its British predecessor, the 7TP was initially produced in two variants, twin turret version armed with 2 Ckm wz.30 machine guns, and a single turret version, armed with 37 mm Bofors wz.37 gun. After initial tests, it clear that the twin-turret variant was obsolete and lacked firepower. Prior to the outbreak of World War II most of the twin turret tanks were converted to single turret versions and it is to be noted that twin and single turret variants had no specific designations. In some modern books they are unofficially designated 7TP dw. in 1938 Państwowe Zakłady Inżynierii also produced 13 prototype models of a better armored version of the 7TP – the 9TP. Although the 9TP never entered production, these prototypes were used in the defense of Warsaw in September 1939, romania sent a military commission in late autumn 1935 to evaluate the 7TP for a future acquisition. All 7TP tanks took part in combat in the defence of Poland during the German Invasion of Poland in 1939, most of them were attached to two light tank battalions. The remaining tanks, that is the used for training as well as tanks that were finished after the outbreak of the war, were used in an improvised tank unit fighting in the defence of Warsaw. Although technically superior to any of the German light tanks of the era, the 1st Light Tank Battalion fought in the ranks of the Prusy Army as part of the strategic reserve force of the Polish Army. It entered combat on September 4,1939 and fought with distinction in a variety of roles, mostly as a mobile reserve and it fought in a number of battles, most notably in the battles of Przedbórz, Sulejów, Inowłódz, Odrzywół and Drzewica. On September 8 it managed to stop the German advance on the centre of the Polish forces, but the following day it got separated from the main force and had to be withdrawn to the rear. As part of unit, the battalion took part in the Battle of Józefów and formed part of the spearhead of the Polish units trying to break through to Lwów. After the Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski, on September 21,1939, the tanks were destroyed by their crews

83.
Umm Qasr
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Umm Qasr, is a port city in southern Iraq. It stands on the canalised Khawr az-Zubayr, part of the Khawr Abd Allah estuary which leads to the Persian Gulf and it is separated from the border of Kuwait by a small inlet. A bridge across the waterway linked the port with Kuwait prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf War, Umm Qasr was originally a small fishing town, but was used as a military port on several occasions before advancing trades and jobs by building a deep-water port on the coast. It was said to have been the site of Alexander the Greats landing in Mesopotamia in 325 BC, during the Second World War a temporary port was established there by the Allies to unload supplies to dispatch to the Soviet Union. It fell back into obscurity after the war, but the government of King Faisal II sought to establish a permanent port there in the 1950s, after the Iraqi Revolution of 1958, a naval base was established at Umm Qasr. The port was founded in 1961 by the Iraqi ruler General Abdul-Karim Qassem. It was intended to serve as Iraqs only deep water port, the port facilities were built by a consortium of companies from West Germany, Sweden and Lebanon, with a railway line connecting it to Basra and Baghdad. The port opened for business in July 1967, during the Iran–Iraq War its importance increased as fighting restricted access to other ports further east. Umm Qasr was threatened after the successful Iranian invasion and occupation of the al-Faw Peninsula in 1986, however, the port never fell during the Iran–Iraq War. Access to the port was a significant issue in the dispute with Kuwait which led to the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Both countries contested ownership of the leading to Umm Qasr as well as control of the nearby Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan. After the war, during which the port was bombed, control of the inlet was transferred to Kuwait, the Iraqi government rejected the border changes and continued to claim Kuwaiti territory near the port. Umm Qasr was the target of one of the first major operations in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The analogy was met with scepticism among the troops on the ground, a British soldier was widely quoted as retorting, Theres no beer, no prostitutes and people are shooting at us. In January 2006, the 100th British soldier to die in Iraq, population estimates are around 46,000 people living in Umm Qasr town at the outbreak of the 2003 war. Having grown from a fishing village in 1958, the town is laid out in planned housing tracts. Almost the entire population were relocated from parts of Iraq to work in state-run industries. The port were dramatically expanded following the first Gulf War, in part to remove vital functions from Basra, a mapping project shortly thereafter stated In total, the town is composed of 82 streets, each street has 72 houses

Umm Qasr
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Cranes at Umm Qasr await cargo.

84.
Military supply chain management
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Military supply chain management is a cross-functional approach to procuring, producing and delivering products and services for military applications. The broad management scope includes sub-suppliers, suppliers, internal information, a supply is the procurement, distribution, maintenance while in storage and salvage of supplies, including the determination of kind and quantity of supplies. The producer phase of a military supply extends from determination of procurement schedules to acceptance of finished supplies by the military services, the consumer phase of a military supply extends from receipt of finished supplies by the military services, through issue for use or consumption. The supply chain is the activities associated with providing material from a raw material stage to an end user as a finished good. The supply point is a location where supplies, services and materials are located and issued and these locations are temporary and mobile, normally being occupied for up to 72 hours. Military logistics is the science of planning and carrying out the movement, the major difference between the concept of logistic management and supply chain management is the level of information gathered, processes, analysed and used for decision making. If we exclude this information out of supply chain model then we can see the logistic management part of the business. Unlike standard supply chain management practices world-wide, some concepts are not supported in the military domain. For example, the model emphasizes holding less inventory, whereas in military supply chains, due to the high costs of a stock-out. Some examples of these are the ammunition dump and oil depot, likewise, the military procurement process has much different criteria than the normal business procurement process. Military needs call for reliability of supply during peace and war, as compared to price, ammunition dump Loss of Strength Gradient Principles of sustainment Supply chain management Department of Defense - Supply Chain Management Regulation

Military supply chain management
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The up / down stream flow of information, showing the flow of information in supply chain management vs. logistics management systems.

85.
Military logistics
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Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. Acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities, the word logistics is derived from the Greek adjective logistikos meaning skilled in calculating. The first administrative use of the word was in Roman and Byzantine times when there was an administrative official with the title Logista. At that time, the word apparently implied a skill involved in numerical computations, a second method was for the army to bring along what was needed, whether by ships, pack animals, wagons or carried on the backs of the soldiers themselves. This allowed the army some measure of self-sufficiency, and up through to the 19th century most of the ammunition a soldier needed for a campaign could be carried on their person. However this method led to a baggage train which could slow down the armys advance. Starting with the Industrial Revolution new technological, technical and administrative advances led to a third method and this led to a logistical revolution which began in the 20th century and drastically improved the capabilities of modern armies while making them highly dependent on this new system. Starting in the sixteenth century armies in Europe greatly increased in size. However, very little support was provided to these massive armies. When operating in enemy territory an army was forced to plunder the countryside for supplies. Sieges in particular were affected by this, both for any army attempting to lay siege to a location or coming to its relief. Unless a military commander was able to implement some sort of regular resupply, although this theoretically granted armies freedom of movement, the need for plunder prevented any sort of sustained, purposeful advance. Many armies were further restricted to following waterways due to the fact that what supplies they were forced to carry could be easily transported by boat. With these arrangements there was a increase in the use of magazines which could provide a more regular flow of supply via convoys. While the concepts of magazines and convoys was not new at this time, despite these changes, French armies still relied on plunder for a majority of their needs while on the move. Magazines were created for campaigns and any surplus was immediately sold for both monetary gain and to lessen the tax burden. The vehicles used to form convoys were contracted out from commercial interests or requisitioned from local stockpiles, the primary benefits of these reforms was to supply an army during a siege. This was borne out in the campaign of 1658 when the French army at no point was forced to end a siege on account of supplies

86.
Military Gendarmerie (Poland)
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The Military Gendarmerie is a military provost and law enforcement agency created in 1990 in Poland as an independent part of the Polish Armed Forces. In December 2011 the Żandarmeria Wojskowa has made application to the European Gendarmerie Force to become a member state. The ŻW is organized into, Headquarters 3 special units 10 units 2 departments 45 regional stations The current commander is brigadier general Mirosław Rozmus, Mirosław Rozmus Gendarmerie European Gendarmerie Force Official pages

Military Gendarmerie (Poland)
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Logo of the Military Gendarmerie

87.
Firearm
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A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds

88.
FB Beryl
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The kbs wz.1996 Beryl is a Polish 5. 56mm assault rifle, designed and produced by the Łucznik Arms Factory in the city of Radom. The rifle is to replace the 7. 62×39mm AKM and 5. 45×39mm Tantal used in the Polish Armed Forces, the new weapon’s specifications were approved in February 1995 and in December the same year, a prototype production batch consisting of 11 Beryl rifles was produced. In 1997 the weapon had been evaluated and adopted into service as the 5,56 mm karabinek szturmowy wz.1996. The Beryl subsequently became the standard Polish rifle, in 2011, there were more than 45,000 in the inventory, accounting for about half of the assault rifles in the Polish Army. On May 25,2016, FB Łucznik Radom announced an order from the Polish Army for 26,000 Beryls and Mini-Beryls, 96A Mini Beryls are used by Lithuania. Until 2002/2003 they were equipment of a special forces unit SOJ Aitvaras, with an adapter, it can use M16 NATO standard magazine. The 457 mm-long barrel, has six right-hand grooves and a 228 mm twist rate, the flash hider can be used to mount and launch rifle grenades. The flash hider has a taper at the front that supports a bayonet. These ports are placed asymmetrically around the circumference of the flash hider, internally the flash suppressor features threading at the muzzle used to screw-in a blank firing attachment. Located mid-length on the flash hider is a cut-out with a retainer spring that secures a rifle grenade to the barrel. The receiver housing contains several modifications over the receiver of the wz.1988 rifle and it uses a reinforced rear stock trunnion, adapted for the new shoulder stock and a top-mounted Picatinny rail for mounting optical sights. The side-folding tubular metal stock is coated with a thermal polymer shrink film and it has a metal shoulder stop covered with a rubber recoil pad. More recent models come with a collapsible stock, the standard lower handguard features an angled rib pattern designed to enhance gripping by the support hand. The rear of the handguard features two molded notches that enable the 40 mm wz.1974 grenade launcher to be mounted under the barrel, some Beryl handguards are equipped with short Picatinny rails and an integral vertical foregrip. However, the most used additional sight for Beryl is EOTech 552 holographic sight, pCS-6 and CWL-1 are introduced in small number. The weapons unique magazine is molded from plastic and is not interchangeable with magazines from the kbk wz.1988 Tantal. The Beryl fires 5. 56×45mm ammunition with a standard round, a tracer cartridge and a training slug. The rifle can also be fitted with a system for optical sights

89.
Assault rifle
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An assault rifle is a selective-fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine. Assault rifles were first used during World War II, examples include the StG44, AK-47 and the M16 rifle. However, other sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the production order, the StG44 is generally considered the first selective fire military rifle to popularize the assault rifle concept. Today, the assault rifle is used to define firearms sharing the same basic characteristics as the StG44. The U. S. Army defines assault rifles as short, compact, in a strict definition, a firearm must have at least the following characteristics to be considered an assault rifle, It must be capable of selective fire. It must have a cartridge, more power than a pistol. Its ammunition must be supplied from a box magazine. It must have a range of at least 300 metres. Rifles that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are not assault rifles. For example, Select-fire M2 Carbines are not assault rifles, their range is only 200 yards. Select-fire rifles such as the FN FAL battle rifle are not assault rifles, semi-automatic-only rifles like variants of the Colt AR-15 are not assault rifles, they do not have select-fire capabilities. Semi-auto rifles with fixed magazines like the SKS are not assault rifles, selective fire rifles like the Fedorov Avtomat which in hindsight could be classified as prototypical assault rifles. However,6. 5x50mm Arisaka is still very much a full-powered rifle cartridge and they would soon develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the range and accuracy of a rifle. The result was the Sturmgewehr 44, which the Germans produced in large numbers and it fired a new and revolutionary intermediate powered cartridge, the 7. 92×33mm Kurz. This new cartridge was developed by shortening the standard 7. 92×57mm Mauser round and giving it a lighter 125-grain bullet, a smaller lighter cartridge also allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition to support the higher consumption rate of automatic fire. The Sturmgewehr 44 features an inexpensive, easy-to-make, stamped steel design and this weapon was the prototype of all successful automatic rifles. The barrel and overall length were shorter than a traditional rifle, on July 15,1943, a Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the Peoples Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets soon developed the 7. 62×39mm M43 cartridge, the semi-automatic SKS carbine, shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 assault rifle, which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service

Assault rifle
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The StG 44, an early German assault rifle, was adopted by the Wehrmacht in 1944. It fires the 7.92×33mm Kurz round.
Assault rifle
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Currently the most used assault rifle in the world, the AK-47 was first adopted in 1949 by the Soviet Army. It fires the 7.62×39mm M43 round.
Assault rifle
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The M16 was first introduced into service in 1964 with the United States Armed Forces. It fires the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge and is the second most used assault rifle in the world after the AK-47. [citation needed]
Assault rifle
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The German StG 44, the first assault rifle manufactured in significant numbers

90.
Sub-machine gun
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A submachine gun is a magazine-fed, automatic carbine designed to fire pistol cartridges. The term submachine gun was coined by John T. Thompson, the submachine gun was developed during World War I. At its zenith during World War II, millions of SMGs were made, after the war, new SMG designs appeared frequently. However, by the 1980s, SMG usage decreased, today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault rifles, which have a greater effective range and are capable of penetrating the helmets and body armor used by modern infantrymen. Carbine-type automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed during the stages of World War I by Italy, Germany. Their improved firepower and portability offered an advantage in trench warfare, in 1915, the Italians introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft machine gun. It fired pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun and this odd design was then modified into the Beretta OVP carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the Beretta Model 1918 after the end of World War I. Both the Beretta OVP and the Model 1918 had a wooden stock, a 25-round top-fed box magazine. The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08 pistol equipped with a larger-capacity snail-drum magazine, by 1918, Bergmann Waffenfabrik had developed the MP18, the first practical submachine gun. This weapon fired the 9×19mm Parabellum round and used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine as the Luger P-08, the MP18 was used in significant numbers by German stormtroopers employing infiltration tactics, achieving some notable successes in the final year of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent Germanys collapse in November 1918, after World War I, the MP18 would evolve into the MP28/II SMG, which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, a semi & full auto selector, and other minor improvements. The Thompson submachine gun had been in development at approximately the time as the Bergmann. However, the war ended before prototypes could be shipped to Europe, although it had missed its chance to be the first purpose-designed submachine gun to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons and had the longest active service life of the three. However, the FBI and other U. S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use, eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted by many military organizations, especially as World War II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs. The Italians were among the first to develop submachine guns during World War I, however, they were slow to produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model 1938 was not available in numbers until 1943. The 38 was made in a series of improved and simplified models all sharing the same basic layout. The Beretta has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear for full-auto, most models use standard wooden stocks, although some models were fitted with an MP 40-style under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the German SMG

91.
WIST-94
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The WIST-94 is a semi-automatic pistol produced in Poland. WIST-94 was designed at Military Institute of Armament Technology under the code name Piryt, two prototypes were made in 1992, which differ in the barrel locking system, Model A01 used a rotary-locking system and Model B01 using conventional, Browning-type tilting barrel locking. B01 was the one to complete testing but the development was temporarily halted due to the military cutting off funding. Financed by WITU and Prexer company, the continued and in 1994 a new prototype was developed. Called WIST-94 it is based on the B01 prototype, the new pistol was chosen by the Polish military as its new standard sidearm. The WIST-94 is a pistol chambered for 9mm Parabellum round. It uses the Browning cam-lug system of operation, the polygonal-rifled barrel is locked to the slide by three locking lugs machined into the upper part of the barrel. The frame is made from polymer plastic while the slide is constructed from steel, the trigger mechanism is similar to the one used in Glock pistols, striker-fired double-action-only. After racking the slide back and after each shot fired the striker is held semi-cocked allowing for lighter trigger pull than conventional double-action, the only safety used is an internal automatic firing pin safety that unlocks the firing pin only in the final stages of the trigger pull. The WIST-94 is fed by a 16-round magazine, the magazine release catch is reversible for use by left-handed shooter. The slide release lever is located at the side of the gun. The sights are fixed and are have self-luminous tritium inserts for low-light situations, the WIST-94L is also equipped with a laser sight mounted in the upper part of trigger guard. The name of the gun sounds, in Polish, very similar to Vis. WIST-94 - basic version WIST-94L - version with integral laser sights WIST-94 pistol has started entering service with the Polish army in 1997, the number of pistols ordered and the unit cost are currently classified. Polish Firearms Page - Dadrki PREXER Spółka z. o. o. - manufacturer

WIST-94
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WIST-94
WIST-94
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WIST-94L variant

92.
Semi-automatic pistol
–
One cartridge is fired each time the trigger of a semi-automatic pistol is pulled, the pistols disconnector ensures this behavior. Additional terms sometimes used as synonyms for a semi-automatic pistol are automatic pistol, self-loading pistol, autopistol, a semi-automatic pistol harnesses the energy of one shot to reload the chamber for the next. After a round is fired, the spent casing is ejected, most pistols use recoil operation to do this, but some pistols use blowback or gas operation. Most types of semi-automatic pistols rely on a magazine to store ammunition before it is fired. Typically, the first round is loaded into the chamber by pulling back. This is called racking the slide or racking the gun, after the trigger is pulled and the round is fired, the recoil operation of the handgun automatically extracts and ejects the shell casing and reloads the chamber. This mode of operation allows for faster reloading and storing a larger number of cartridges than a revolver. Each pull of the trigger on a DAO semi-automatic pistol requires the amount of pressure. The Kel-Tec P-32 is an example of a DAO action, DAO semi-automatic pistols are most generally recommended only in the smaller, self-defense, concealable pistols, rather than in target or hunting pistols. A notable exception is Glock-brand pistols which optimize preset triggers, and this allows for significantly shorter trigger pulls than DAO. The trigger spring can be replaced with a one and paired with a low-strength sear connector resulting in lightened trigger pulls to improve a shooters accuracy. Standard modern semi-automatic pistols are double action, also sometimes known as double-action/single-action. In this design, the hammer or striker may be either thumb-cocked or activated by pulling the trigger when firing the first shot, the hammer or striker is recocked automatically during each firing cycle. In double-action pistols, the first pull of the trigger requires roughly twice as much pressure as subsequent firings, the Beretta 92F/FS, a full-sized, service, semi-automatic pistol is an example of this style of action. A common mode of carry for DA semi-automatic pistols is with the full, a round chambered. In contrast, a single-action semi-automatic pistol must be cocked by first operating the slide or bolt, or, if a round is already chambered, the famed Colt M1911 is an example of this style of action. All SA semi-automatic pistols exhibit this feature, and automatically cock the hammer when the slide is first racked to chamber a round, a round can also be manually inserted in the chamber with the slide locked back. Then the safety can be applied, the normal mode of carrying an SA semi-automatic pistol is condition 1, popularly known as cocked and locked

93.
Grenade launcher
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A grenade launcher is a weapon that fires a specially-designed large-caliber projectile, often with an explosive, smoke or gas warhead. Today, the term refers to a class of dedicated firearms firing unitary grenade cartridges. The most common type are man-portable, shoulder-fired weapons issued to individuals, Grenade launchers can either come in the form of standalone weapons or attachments mounted to a parent firearm, usually a rifle. Larger crew-served automatic grenade launchers such as the Mk 19 are mounted on tripods or vehicles, some armored fighting vehicles also mount fixed arrays of short range, single-shot grenade launchers as a means of defense. These devices usually fire smoke grenades to conceal the vehicle behind a screen, though can also be loaded with chaff, flares. Vehicle-mounted smoke grenade launchers are known as smoke dischargers. The earliest devices which could conceivably be referred to as grenade launchers were slings, a new method of launching grenades was developed during the First World War and used throughout the Second. The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier wants to launch a grenade, if they are surprised by a close-range threat while preparing to fire the grenade, they have to reverse the procedure before they can respond with rifle fire. Due to the lack of a barrel, rifle grenades also tend to be difficult to fire accurately compared to underbarrel or standalone designs. One of the first examples of a dedicated breech-loading launcher for unitary explosive grenade rounds was the M79 grenade launcher, the goal for the M79 was the production of a device with greater range than a rifle grenade but more portable than a mortar. Such single-shot devices were replaced in military service with underbarrel grenade launchers. Single shot launchers are still commonly used in riot control operations. This reduces the weight the soldier must carry by eliminating the grenade launchers buttstock, underbarrel 40mm grenade launchers generally have their own trigger group, to fire, one simply changes grips, disengages the safety, and pulls the trigger. In Western systems, the barrel slides forward or pivots to the side to allow reloading, soviet/Russian launchers are instead loaded from the muzzle, with the cartridge casing affixed to the projectile in the style of a mortar shell. Modern launchers often have the option of mounting more sophisticated aiming systems, such as ballistic rangefinders, one AAI submission for SPIW mounted a simple single-action, single-shot breech-loading underbarrel grenade launcher in lieu of the required semi-automatic multi-shot device. With refinement, this was adopted as the M203 grenade launcher in 1968, a variety of lengths of M203 are available along with numerous parts kits to fit it to various rifles aside from the AR15 pattern weapons it was designed for. A variant of the weapon, the M320 Grenade Launcher Module, was salvaged from the failed XM8 program. Further developments led to the GP series of grenade launchers, an automatic grenade launcher or grenade machine gun is a crew-served support weapon which fires explosive rounds in quick succession from an ammunition belt or large-capacity magazine

94.
Anti-tank guided missile
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An anti-tank missile, anti-tank guided missile, anti-tank guided weapon or anti-armor guided weapon, is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily armored military vehicles. Germany developed a design for a wire-guided anti tank missile derived from the Ruhrstahl X-4 air to air missile concept in the months of World War II. Reliable information for this weapon is elusive and it was never used in combat and allegedly had serious guidance to target issues. The SS.10 is the first anti-tank missile widely used and it entered service in the French Army in 1955. It was also the first anti-tank missile used by the US Army, the Malkara missile was one of the earliest anti-tank guided missiles. It was jointly developed by Australia and the United Kingdom between 1951 and 1954, and was in service from 1958 until gradually replaced by the Vickers Vigilant missile in the late 1960s. It was intended to be enough to deploy with airborne forces. First-generation manually command guided MCLOS missiles require input from an operator using a joystick or similar device to steer the missile to the target, the disadvantage is that the operator must keep the sights cross hairs on the target and then steer the missile into the cross hairs—i. e. To do this, the operator must be trained and must remain stationary. Because of this, the operator is vulnerable while guiding the missile, the first system to become operational and to see combat was the French Nord SS.10 during the early 1950s. Second-generation semi-automatically command guided SACLOS missiles require the operator to keep the sights on the target until impact. Automatic guidance commands are sent to the missile through wires or radio, examples are the Russian 9M133 Kornet, Israeli LAHAT and the American Hellfire I missiles. Again, the operator must remain stationary during the missiles flight, third-generation guidance systems rely on a laser, electro-optical imager seeker or a W band radar seeker in the nose of the missile. Once the target is identified, the missile needs no further guidance during flight, it is fire-and-forget, however, fire-and-forget missiles are more subject to electronic countermeasures than MCLOS and SACLOS missiles. Examples include the German PARS3 LR, Spike and the Indian Nag, most modern ATGMs have shaped charge high explosive warheads, designed specifically for penetrating armor. Tandem-charge missiles attempt to defeat ERA protected armor, the small initial charge sets off the ERA while the follow-up main charge attempts to penetrate the main armor. Top-attack weapons such as the Indian Nag, American Javelin and the Swedish Bill are designed to strike vehicles from above, both come with the downside of significant weight and bulk. However, inclusion of armor in older vehicles as a part of re-design is possible

95.
9K111 Fagot
–
The 9K111 Fagot is a second-generation tube-launched SACLOS wire-guided anti-tank missile system of the Soviet Union for use from ground or vehicle mounts. The 9K111 Fagot missile system was developed by the Tula KBP Design Bureau for Instrument Building, 9M111 is the GRAU designation of the missile. Its NATO reporting name is AT-4 Spigot, the 9K111 Fagot was developed by the Tula Machinery Design Bureau. Development began in 1962 with the aim of producing the next generation of SACLOS ATGMs for use in both the man role and the tank destroyer role. The 9K111 Fagot was developed alongside the 9M113 Konkurs, both use similar technology, only differing in size, and can use the same launchers. The missile entered service in 1970, the anti-tank platoon of a Soviet BTR equipped motor rifle battalion had two ATGM squads, each with two 9K111 Fagot teams. The team consisted of three men, the gunner carries the 9P135 launcher and tripod as a pack. The men also carry assault rifles, but do not carry an RPG, besides the four missiles carried by each team, each squad would normally have an extra eight missiles carried in their transport, usually a BTR. It can also be deployed from the BMP-1P, BMD-1P, BTR-D, north Korea was said to have acquired a number of the systems during the late 1980s until the 2000s from the USSR. These were subsequently reverse-engineered under the designation Bulsae-2, the missile is stored and carried in a container/launch tube. It is fired from a 9P135 launcher post, a simple tripod, a 9S451 guidance box is fitted to the tripod with the missile sitting just above. The 9Sh119 sight is fitted to the left side, the complete launcher system weighs 22.5 kg. The gunner lays prone while firing, the system can engage moving targets travelling at less than 60 km/h. The launcher post can traverse through 360 degrees horizontally, and +/−20 degrees in elevation, the sight has a magnification of 10x and a 5 degree field of view. Up to three missiles a minute can be fired from a launcher post, the system uses a gas generator to push the missile out of the launch tube, which exits from the rear of the launch tube in a manner similar to a recoilless rifle. The missile leaves the tube at 80 m/s, and is then quickly accelerated to 186 m/s by its solid fuel motor. This initial high speed reduces the missiles deadzone, since it can be launched directly at the target, 9M111 Fagot Entered service in 1970. Maximum range 2,000 m, minimum 70 m, warhead 400 mm versus RHA or 200 mm towards armour inclined at 60° 9M111-2 Fagot Slightly improved version

96.
Strela 2
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The 9K32 Strela-2 is a man-portable, shoulder-fired, low-altitude surface-to-air missile system with a high explosive warhead and passive infrared homing guidance. Broadly comparable in performance with the US Army FIM-43 Redeye, it was the first generation of Soviet man-portable SAMs, entering service in 1968, with series production starting in 1970. Described by one expert as being the premier Russian export line, the end of World War II saw a major shift in Soviet defense policy. Numerous long-range, high-altitude SAM systems, such as the SA-1 Guild, due to the apparent obsolescence of conventional arms, however, relatively little development took place to field mobile battlefield air defenses. This direction was changed with the beginning of the Korean War. An entirely conventional conflict, it proved that nuclear weapons were not the be-all and end-all of warfare, as development began in the Turopov OKB, detailed information on the design of the US FIM-43 Redeye became available. While it was by no means a simple reverse-engineered copy, in ways the Strela design borrowed heavily from the Redeye. Due to the comparatively primitive Soviet technical base, development was protracted, eventually, the designers settled for a simpler seeker head than that of the Redeye, allowing the initial version, the 9K32 Strela-2 to finally enter service in 1968, five years behind schedule. As the modifications introduced with the Strela-2M were relatively minor, the process was fast, the Strela-2M replaced the Strela-2 in production lines immediately. The seeker head improvements were minor changes to allow better discrimination of the target signal against background emissions. Some sources claim that the sensitivity was also improved. In practice, chaff flares proved to be highly effective countermeasure against both versions of the Strela-2, the seeker is commonly referred to as a hot metal tracker. The seeker can see infrared energy in the near infrared spectrum. This allows only rear-aspect engagement of jet targets, earning the weapon its other moniker as a revenge weapon, the missile launcher system consists of the green missile launch tube containing the missile, a grip stock and a cylindrical thermal battery. The launch tube is reloadable at depot, but missile rounds are delivered to units in their launch tubes. The device can be reloaded up to five times, when engaging slow or straight-receding targets, the operator tracks the target with the iron sights in the launch tube and applies half-trigger. This action uncages the seeker and allows its attempt to track, if a target IR signature can be tracked against the background present, this is indicated by a light and a buzzer sound. The shooter then pulls the trigger fully, and immediately applies lead and this method is called a manual engagement

97.
Grom (missile)
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The Grom is a man-portable air-defense system produced in Poland. It consists of a 72 mm anti-aircraft missile set with a speed of 650 m/s, as well as a single-use launcher, re-usable gripstock. The full name of the system is PZR Grom, PZR standing for Przeciwlotniczy Zestaw Rakietowy and it is designed to target low-flying helicopters and aeroplanes. As such, the Grom missile is used by other surface-to-air defence systems of Polish design, including ZSU-23-4MP Biała, ZUR-23-2 kg and it should not to be confused with versions of the Zvezda Kh-23 air-to-surface missile built under licence in Yugoslavia/Serbia as the Grom-A and Grom-B. Initially at least since the 1970s the MESKO metal works in Skarżysko-Kamienna mass-produced license-built Soviet Strela-2M surface-to-air missiles, however, when these became outdated in the late 1980s the lead designers prepared the works to produce a more modern Soviet design, the 9K38 Igla. However, Poland left the Soviet bloc in 1990 and the license was declined, because of that, in late 1992 various Polish works and design bureaus started working on a new Igla-like design. By 1995 the first batch entered service and it included a number of imported Russian components. By the late 1990s these were replaced with entirely Poland-designed elements, on January 1,2013, Bumar Amunicja manufactured their 2, 000th Grom missile set. The system is designed to be operated by one soldier and it consists of a single-stage projectile, a single-use tubular launcher, a starting mechanism, and an on-ground power supply. The rocket projectile uses solid propellant, the infrared aiming sensor is cooled with liquid nitrogen. There are options for identification friend or foe and thermovision, the Grom has been used by Polish Land Forces since 1995. It is also exported to countries, including Georgia which bought 30 launchers and 100 missiles in 2007. According to press releases during the Russo-Georgian War, Polish-made GROM missiles targeted Russian planes, indonesian Army bought 155 GROM missiles as part of Kobra V-SHORAD system. Lithuania plans to buy approx 25 launchers and unknown number of missiles for 10 million € In late 2008 Russian press claimed that Russian army personnel had found Polish GROM missiles in Chechnya. Polish press immediately reacted accusing Russia of fabricating evidence which links Poland to that conflict, Georgia -30 launchers and 100+ missiles, were used in Russo-Georgian war. Indonesia - in use as a part of KOBRA system, lithuania - signed purchase contract on 2 September 2014, first deliveries are expected before end of the 2014. Poland - 400+ launchers and 2000+ missiles, also on ZSU-23-4MP Biała, POPRAD, around 400 missiles of newer version, Piorun, will deliver from 2014 to 2017. com

98.
Self-propelled howitzer
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A self-propelled gun is a form of self-propelled artillery, and in modern use is usually used to refer to artillery pieces such as howitzers. Self-propelled guns are mounted on a wheeled or tracked chassis. As such the gun can be maneuvered under its own power as opposed to a gun that relies upon a vehicle or other means to be moved on the battlefield. Self-propelled guns are combat support weapons, they are employed by combat support units fighting in support of, or attached to, self-propelled guns are best at providing indirect fire but can give direct fire when needed. It may be armoured, in case it is considered an armoured fighting vehicle. Typically, self-propelled guns are more lightly armoured and may not have turrets, the greatest tactical advantage in the case of artillery guns is clearly the greater degree of mobility they have compared to towed artillery. A secondary advantage in the case of – even lightly – armoured guns is the protection offered to the gun crews. The first attempts to give artillery a greater degree of manoeuvrability was in World War I, although mechanical tractors had been used to tow some artillery, most were still towed by horses. The Gun Carrier Mark I was a piece that was transported by. Between the wars, in the development of their armoured warfare tactics and it carried an 18 pounder gun on a chassis derived from their then medium tank and as such was able to keep up and cross the same ground as the tanks it was intended to support. As well as use as a gun, the gun could be elevated sufficiently for use against aircraft. Self-propelled guns and howitzers are used in the way as their towed variety. Self-propelled artillery can also include other types of weapons not considered a self-propelled gun. Assault guns are artillery pieces, meant to support infantry by direct fire with high explosive ammunition

99.
152mm SpGH DANA
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The DANA is a wheeled self-propelled artillery piece. It is also known as the Samohybná Kanónová Húfnica vzor 77, introduced in the 1970s it was the first wheeled 152 mm self-propelled artillery gun to enter service. It is based on a modified 8x8 Tatra 813 chassis with excellent cross-country mobility, currently it is in service with the Czech Republic, Libya, Poland, Georgia and Slovakia. Wheeled vehicles have the advantage of being cheaper to build and easier to maintain with greater mobility, tire pressure can be regulated to allow good mobility off-road and there is power-assisted steering on the front four wheels. It lowers 3 hydraulic stabilizers into the prior to firing. The crew of the DANA consists of the driver and commander sitting in the front cabin, the gunner and loader operator are on the side of the turret. Design work was completed in 1976 and the DANA project was handed off to production at ZTS Dubnica nad Váhom and it was accepted into service in 1981, and by 1994 over 750 units had been built. The DANA was also exported to Poland and Libya, the vehicle has a driving cabin at the front, an open-topped fighting compartment at mid-length and the engine compartment in the rear. The front crew cabin seats both the driver/mechanic and vehicle commander, the right side of the turret contains a mechanized projectile delivery system which is operated by a second loader at this position. The DANAs primary weapon is a 152 mm howitzer with a monolithic barrel equipped with an expansion chamber. The howitzer has a semi-automatic, vertically-sliding wedge-type breech which opens to the left side, the recoil assembly consists of a hydraulic buffer, two pneumatic return cylinders and a controlling plunger which governs the displacement of the buffering system. The gun laying is carried out by a drive system or an emergency manual control. DANAs unique feature is that its autoloader is able to load a shell and this sight has a horizontal scale used to set the appropriate horizontal laying via aiming at reference points. This means that the DANA is not a system there needs to be an additional device to assist in gun laying. The Ondava project ended with the revolution and dissolution of the Czechoslovakian state. Technical experience was carried over to the Zuzana project, the ShKH MODAN is a Slovak upgrade of DANA with longer range, higher accuracy and rate of fire. The upgrade consists of a new control system that enables higher combat efficiency. The DANA-M1 CZ is a Czech upgrade of the DANA, developed by Excalibur Army from Prague, the upgrade package consists of a new fire control system, new navigation aids and a modified chassis with T3-930 engine

100.
AHS Krab
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The 2011 version used a Nexter Systems barrel and UPG chassis. The 2016 production batch utilize the K9 chassis and a Rheinmetall barrel, as of 2016 full-rate production of 120 Krabs for Polish Army has started with 16 guns completed and deliveries to be completed by 2024. The cannon was developed within the research framework Regina, the programs goal was to create a 155 mm long-range artillery piece for the Polish Army that would serve as a division level asset. It was decided, that instead of buying a licence for a vehicle, only a licence for a modern L/52 gun and turret would be bought. In 1997 there was announced a contest for an artillery part, the British AS-90M was a winner, and in 1999 its technology was transferred to Huta Stalowa Wola factory. The chassis UPG-NG was developed in Poland by OBRUM in Gliwice, from a chassis SPG-1M, the first prototype was completed in 2001, the second - next year. The first two examples of the howitzer are fitted with turret systems supplied by BAE Systems and it covers eight guns, command vehicles, plus ammunition vehicles and repair vehicles for the armament and electronics, as well as the fire control system etc. In the introductory and series products original British guns were replaced by those supplied by Nexter, Trial firing of another gun supplied by the maker is realized every month until the end of the year. These are realized at the Dynamic Trial Center of the WITU in Stalowa Wola, the first firing of the third complete Krab was carried out on 29 July 2011. Concentration of fire was tested, among others, as of 2012 two prototypes and eight initial units have been built by Huta Stalowa Wola. In 2012-2013 eight new examples were used for tests conducted by the Polish Army as a part of the command module Regina. Poland also evaluated the Turkish built T-155 Firtina chassis of the same origin, the first K9 chassis was shipped to Poland for testing and integration in June 2015. The prototype was rolled out on 24 August 2015 and it went through type acceptance testing in October 2015. The type examination ended successfully in April 2016 allowing serial production, on 7 April 2016 Ministry of National Defence and manufacturer concluded the research and development phase. On 28 April 2016 during Polish Prime Minister visit in Stalowa Wola first two examples were handed over to Polish Army. They joined eight initial production examples in Artillery Training Center in Toruń and they were used to elaborate operational norms for combat units. During handover ceremnony on 18 November 2016 nine Krabs were accepted in the present of Polish Minister of National Defence, eight original turrets on UPG chassis are scheduled to be upgraded with K9 chassis after first batch of 16 guns is delivered by the end of 2016. The deal for following 96 units was signed on December 14,2016, each of the planned five squadrons of Krabs is going to be equipped with 24 howitzers

AHS Krab
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Initial model of Krab shown in 2010

101.
BM-21 Grad
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The BM-21 Grad, is a Soviet truck-mounted 122 mm multiple rocket launcher. The weapons system and the M-21OF rocket it fires were developed in the early 1960s, BM stands for boyevaya mashina, and the nickname grad means hail. The complete system with the BM-21 launch vehicle and the M-21OF rocket is designated as the M-21 field rocket system, the complete system is more commonly known as a Grad multiple rocket launcher system. In NATO countries, the system was known as M1964. Several other countries have copied it or developed similar systems, the M-21 field rocket system with a BM-21 launch vehicle. The launch vehicle consists of a Ural-375D six-by-six truck chassis fitted with a bank of 40 launch tubes arranged in a shape that can be turned away from the unprotected cab. The vehicle is powered by a water-cooled V-8180 hp gasoline engine, has a road speed of 75 km/h, road range of up to 750 kilometers. The original vehicle together with supporting equipment is referred to by the GRAU index 9K51, in 1976, the BM-21 was mounted on the newer Ural-4320 six-by-six army truck. The three-member crew can emplace the system and have it ready to fire in three minutes, the crew can fire the rockets from the cab or from a trigger at the end of a 64-meter cable. All 40 rockets can be away in as little as 20 seconds, a PG-1M panoramic telescope with K-1 collimator can be used for sighting. The BM-21 can be packed up and ready to move in two minutes, which can be necessary when engaged by counter-battery fire, reloading is done manually and takes about 10 minutes. Each 2. 87-meter rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers. Newer high explosive and cargo rockets have a range of 30 kilometers, warheads weigh around 20 kilograms, depending on the type. The number of rockets that each vehicle is able to bring to bear on an enemy target makes it effective. One battalion of eighteen launchers is able to deliver 720 rockets in a single volley, the system has lower precision than typical artillery and cannot be used in situations that call for pinpoint precision. It relies on a number of shells dissipating over an area for a certain hit rate on specific targets. Nonetheless, because of the warning time for the impact of the whole volley. BM-21, Original version known as the BM-21 launch vehicle, the launcher unit was mounted on a modified Ural-375D truck chassis

102.
WR-40 Langusta
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WR-40 Langusta is a Polish self-propelled multiple rocket launcher developed by Centrum Produkcji Wojskowej HSW SA. The first 32 units of the WR-40 entered service in 2010, the Langusta is based on a deeply modernized and re-worked Soviet cold-war era BM-21 launcher. The carrier used is a 6x6 Jelcz truck model P662D.35 with armoured crew-cabin, another step in the modernization of Polish rocket artillery is project Homar, corresponding to MLRS rocket system, carried on from 2007. BM-21 Grad RS-122 RM-70 multiple rocket launcher

WR-40 Langusta
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WR-40 prototype

103.
Surface-to-air missile
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A surface-to-air missile, or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of system, in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft weapons. The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II, further development in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for work, evolved through the 1960s and 1970s. The American Nike Ajax was the first operational guided missile SAM system, widely used modern examples include the Patriot and S-300 wide-area systems, SM-6 naval missiles, and short-range man-portable systems like the Stinger and Strela-3. The first known idea for a guided missile was in 1925. A selenium cell was mounted on the tip of each of the rockets four tail fins, when one selenium cell was no longer in the light beam, it would be steered in the opposite direction back into the beam. During World War II, efforts were started to develop surface-to-air missiles as it was considered that flak was of little use against bombers of ever-increasing performance. The lethal radius of a shell is fairly small. Against the Boeing B-17, which operated just within the range of the numerous German eighty-eights flak guns, bombers flying at higher altitudes require larger guns and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and slows the rate of fire, faster aircraft fly out of range more quickly, reducing the number of rounds fired against them. Against late-war designs like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered designs like the Arado Ar 234, the first serious consideration of a SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. Von Braun became convinced a better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, the directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in manned aircraft, and the resulting disagreements between the teams delayed serious consideration of a SAM for two years. None of these saw any real development until 1943, when the first large-scale raids by the Allied air forces started. As the urgency of the problem grew, new designs were added, including Enzian and Rheintochter, in general, these designs could be split into two groups. One set of designs would be boosted to altitude in front of the bombers and these designs included the Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group were high-speed missiles, typically supersonic, that flew directly towards their targets from below, both types used radio control for guidance, either by eye, or by comparing the returns of the missile and target on a single radar screen. Development of all systems was carried out at the same time

Surface-to-air missile
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An artist's depiction of a Soviet surface-to-air missile system engaging western combat aircraft.
Surface-to-air missile
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A Wasserfall missile lifts off during a test flight.
Surface-to-air missile
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Nike Ajax was the first operational SAM system.
Surface-to-air missile
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SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles, one of the most widely deployed SAM systems in the world

104.
9K33 Osa
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The 9K33 Osa is a highly mobile, low-altitude, short-range tactical surface-to-air missile system. Its NATO reporting name is SA-8 Gecko and its export version name is Romb. The SA-8 was the first mobile air defense missile system incorporating its own engagement radars on a single vehicle, the six-wheeled transport vehicles BAZ-5937 are fully amphibious and air transportable. The road range is about 500 km, the 1S51M3-2 radar system on the SA-8 TELAR received the NATO codename Land Roll. It was derived from the naval Pop Group radar system but is smaller since it not require the elaborate stabilisation system. An improved system designated the SA-8B Gecko Mod 1, was first seen in Germany in 1980 and it had improvements added to the launcher configuration, carrying six missiles in ribbed containers. The system is reported to be of the frequency-agile monopulse type and it consists of an elliptical rotating surveillance antenna mounted on top of the array, operates in H band and has a 30 km acquisition range against most targets. The large pulsed J band engagement antenna is mounted below it in the centre of the array and has a tracking range of about 20 km. Mounted on either side of the radar antenna is a small J band parabolic dish antenna to track the missile. Below that is a circular antenna which emits an I band uplink capture beam to gather the missile shortly after launch. The final antennas in the array are two small rectangular ones, one on either side of the array mounted alongside the I band. These are used for command uplink to the missile and this twin antenna system permits the Land Roll radar to control up to two missiles simultaneously against a single target. Furthermore, the two missiles can be guided on different frequencies to further complicate ECM, there is also a tubular device fitted to and above the tracking radar, this is a 9Sh33 electro-optical tracker. It can be used to track the target when the tracking radar is jammed by ECM. A 9K33 battery comprises four 9A33B TELAR vehicles and two 9T217 transloader vehicles on BAZ-5939 chassis with reload missiles and a crane, a reload time of five minutes has been reported per TELAR. In addition to the TELARs, each regiment is assigned a single radar collimation vehicle 9V914. This vehicle assists in the alignment of the TELARs radar systems, ensuring accurate target tracking, 9K33 Osa began development in 1960 and was introduced in 1971-1972 with four exposed 9M33 missiles per TELAR 9A33B and a maximum range of 12 km. 4K33 OSA-M was introduced in 1972 and is the version of the system with two 9M33M missiles on a Zif-122 retractable rotating launcher and improved performance

105.
2K12 Kub
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The 2K12 Kub mobile surface-to-air missile system is a Soviet low to medium-level air defence system designed to protect ground forces from air attack. 2К12 is the GRAU designation of the system, each 2K12 battery consists of a number of similar tracked vehicles, one of which carries the 1S9125 kW G/H band radar equipped with a continuous wave illuminator, in addition to an optical sight. The battery usually also includes four triple-missile transporter erector launchers, and four trucks, the TEL is based on a GM-578 chassis, while the 1S91 radar vehicle is based on a GM-568 chassis, all developed and produced by MMZ. The development of the 2K12 was started after 18 July 1958 at the request of the CPSU Central Committee.7, the systems design was the responsibility of the now Tikhomirov Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Design. Before 1963 only 11 of 83 missiles fired had the seeker head installed, Kub downed its first ever air target on February 18,1963 during the state trials at Donguz test site, Orenburg Oblast. It was an Ilyushin Il-28 bomber, the 2K12 Kub was recommended for modernisation work in 1967 with the goal of improving combat characteristics. A modernised variant underwent trial testing in 1972 eventually being adopted in 1973 as the Kub-M1, the system underwent another modernisation between 1974 and 1976, against the general combat characteristics of the system were improved with the Kub-M3 clearing testing and entering service in 1976. The final major development of the Kub missile system was achieved during the development of its successor, although the Buk is the successor to Kub it was decided that both systems could share some interoperability, the result of this decision was the Kub-M4 system. The Kub-M4 used Kub-M3 components which could receive fire control information from the 9А310 transporter erector launcher, the advantage of interoperability was an increase in the number of fire control channels and available missiles for each system as well as a faster service entry for Buk system components. The Kub-M4 was adopted into service in 1978 following completion of trials, some early development interpretations of the Buk missile system heavily utilized Kub components, including the 3M9 missile. There are several plans to integrate active radar homing missiles into Kub, for instance, Polish WZU of Grudziadz demonstrated a project of a Sparrow-armed Kub at the MSPO2008 defence exhibition in Kielce. It is reported also that Vympel initiated some work to use its RVV-AE air-to-air missile to modernise the Kvadrat SAM system, also, the Czech company RETIA presented a SURN upgrade featuring an optical channel and new multiple-function color displays as well as the radar upgrade and the IFF system. In 2011 a Kub upgraded launcher with three Aspide 2000 missiles in launch containers was presented at the International Exhibition of Defence and Security Technologies exposition in Brno, the modifications were made by Retia. The 2K12 system shares many components with the 2K11 Krug system, in many ways they are designed to complement each other, 2K11 is effective at long ranges and high altitudes, 2K12 at medium ranges and intermediate altitudes. The system is able to acquire and begin tracking targets using the 1S91 Самоходная установка разведки и наведения at 75 km and begin illumination, IFF is also performed using this radar. It can only guide one or two missiles to a target at any time. The missile is initially command guided with terminal semi-active radar homing, detonation is via either the impact or proximity fuze. The optical tracking method also allows engagements to altitudes below that where the radar is able to track targets, maximum target speed is around Mach 2 for head-on engagements and Mach 1 for tail-chase engagements

106.
S-200 (missile)
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Each battalion has 6 single-rail missile launchers for the 10.8 m long missiles and a fire control radar. It can be linked to other, longer-range radar systems, the S-200 surface-to-air missile system was designed for the defense of the most important administrative, industrial and military installations from all types of air attack. S-200 provides defeat of modern and advanced aircraft, including air command and control centers, AWACS aircraft, aircraft jamming creation, the S-200 is an all-weather system that can be operated in various climatic conditions. By 1966, the S-200 was officially accepted into service in order to replace the failed anti-ballistic missile RZ-25/5V11 Dal, the Dal was assigned the NATO reporting name SA-5 Griffon before it was cancelled. The first S-200 operational regiments were deployed in 1966 with 18 sites and 342 launchers in service by the end of the year, by 1968 there were 40 sites, and by 1969 there were 60 sites. The growth in numbers then gradually increased throughout the 1970s and early 1980s until the peak of 130 sites and 2,030 launchers was reached in 1980–1990, each missile is launched by 4 solid-fueled strap-on rocket boosters. After they burn out and drop away it fires a 5D67 liquid fueled rocket engine which burns a fuel called TG-02 Samin. Maximum range is between 150 km and 300 km, depending on the model, the missile uses radio illumination mid-course correction to fly towards the target with a terminal semi-active radar homing phase. Maximum target speed is around Mach 4, effective altitude is 300 m to 20,000 m for early models and up to 35,000 m for later models. The warhead is either 217 kg high-explosive fragmentation triggered by radar proximity fuse or command signal, each missile weighs around 7,108 kg at takeoff. The existence of an optional terminal passive radar homing mode for use against AEW aircraft remains unconfirmed, peak missile speed is around Mach 8 and the single-shot kill probability is quoted as 0.85, presumably against a high altitude bomber-type target. The fire control radar of the S-200 system is the 5N62 CW H band radar and it is used for both the tracking of targets and their illumination. 5–40. The probability of hitting the target 0. 45–0.98 S-200V Vega, with the V-860PV/5V21P missile, introduced in 1970, range 240 km minimum 7 km, ceiling 29 km superior limit 35, division – one goal and missiles at targets a maximum of 2. Missile has a semi-active radar homing, the launch – reclining, with a constant angle of elevation, from the launcher, is rotated horizontally. S-200 Vega, with the V-870 missile, range increased to 300 km and ceiling to 40 km with the new, shorter missile, the probability of hitting the target 0. 66–0.99.3 sq. meters. Speed of the target -1200 m / s The number of simultaneously fired targets, greater than previously opportunity fight against stealth. S-200D Dubna, with the 5V25V, V-880M/5V28M or V-880MN/5V28MN² missile, introduced in 1976, high-explosive or nuclear warhead, range 400 km, ceiling 0, the probability of hitting the target 0, 72-0,99. Command post S-300 can manage in any combination the elements of S-200 and S-300, Missiles complex S-200 Dubna can be controlled command post system S-300, command post S-300 may also be controlled by the command post S-400 Or through a higher-level command post

107.
ZSU-23-4
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The ZSU-23-4 Shilka is a lightly armored Soviet self-propelled, radar guided anti-aircraft weapon system. The acronym ZSU stands for Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka, meaning anti-aircraft self-propelled mount, the 23 signifies the bore diameter in millimeters and it is named after the Shilka River in Russia. Afghan soldiers nicknamed it the sewing machine due to the sound of firing guns and it is also referred to by its nickname of Zeus. The previous Soviet self-propelled anti-aircraft gun, the ZSU-57-2, was armed with two 57 mm autocannons, it was aimed using a basic tracking and lead calculating system. The ZPU series armed with 14.5 mm heavy machine guns carried on a mount for stationary. The 23 mm version of this system was known as the ZU-23-2. However, these towed or improvised truck-mounted weapons had similar disadvantages, initially, tank regiments should have had the anti-aircraft artillery battalion of Shilka. At the end of the 1960s, one battery was equipped with ZSU-23-4s, motorized rifle and tank regiment standard anti-aircraft batteries consisted of two platoons later. The ZSU-23-4 combined a proven radar system, the chassis based on GM-575 tracked vehicle. This delivered a highly effective combination of mobility with heavy firepower, the ZSU-23-4 outclassed all NATO anti-aircraft guns at the time, and it is still regarded as posing a major threat for low-flying fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. The system was widely fielded throughout the Warsaw Pact and among other pro-Soviet states, around 2,500 ZSU-23-4s, of the total 6,500 produced, were exported to 23 countries. The Soviet Unions successor states continue to manufacture and supply variants of the ZSU-23-4, notably the Ukrainian Donets, ZSU-23-4 units saw active service in the Yom Kippur War and other Arab-Israeli conflicts, the Iran–Iraq War, and the First Gulf War. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the system was effective against the Israeli Air Force. Israeli pilots attempting to fly low in order to avoid SA-6 missiles were shot down by ZSU-23-4s as in Operation Doogman 5. They were also used to suppress defensive positions around the palace during the initial coup in Kabul at the start of the Soviet-Afghan war. The Russian Army used the ZSU-23-4 for mountain combat in Chechnya, the ZSU-23-4 has a very high density, rate and accuracy of fire, as well as the capability for each of the four autocannons to fire its own type of projectile from separate belts. Operators were strongly discouraged from shooting from a single barrel, the appearance of the Shilka caused significant changes in NATO tactics in aircraft use at low altitude over the battlefield. With its high rate of fire, the ZSU-23-4 can even neutralize tanks by destroying their gun sights, radio antennas

108.
BMP-1
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The BMP-1 is a Soviet amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle. BMP stands for Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty 1, meaning infantry fighting vehicle, the BMP-1 was the first mass-produced infantry fighting vehicle of USSR. It was called the M-1967, BMP and BMP-76PB by NATO before its designation was known. It would increase infantry squad mobility, provide support to them. The BMP-1 was first tested in combat in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, based on lessons learned from this conflict, and early experiences in the Soviet War in Afghanistan, a version with improved fighting qualities was developed, called the BMP-2. It was accepted into service in August 1980, in 1987, the BMP-3, a radically redesigned vehicle with a completely new weapon system, entered service in limited numbers with the Soviet Army. Existing APCs offered little or no protection from nuclear or chemical weapons. Furthermore, the infantry had to disembark to be able to use their weapons, the requirement for the BMP, which was first drawn up in the late 1950s, stressed speed, good armament, and the ability for all squad members to fire from within the vehicle. The armament had to direct support for dismounted infantry in the attack and defense. The vehicle needed to protect the crew from.50 cal machinegun fire and 20–23 mm caliber autocannons across the frontal arc, firepower consisted of the innovative combination of the 73 mm 2A28 Grom gun and a launcher for the 9M14 Malyutka anti-tank wire-guided missile. Requirements were issued to the design bureaus between 1959 and 1960. There was a question as to whether the BMP should be tracked or wheeled, so a number of configurations were explored. The tracked Obyekt 764 was chosen because its front-engine design provided a convenient, the original prototype was built in 1964, followed by the improved Obyekt 765 in 1965, which was accepted by the Army in 1966, under a designation BMP-1. A large number of variants of the BMP-1 were produced, with the most notable IFV variants being, BMP-2, MLI-84, the BMP went into production with the Soviet Army in 1966. The first series was produced until 1969 and it was replaced by the improved production model, the BMP-1, which was produced from 1969 until 1973. This, in turn, was replaced by the Obyekt 765 Sp3, a number of improvements were made to the reliability of the chassis, engine and transmission during mass production. The last version of the BMP-1 IFV, which was produced from 1979 to 1983, was armed with a more powerful ATGM launcher 9P135M-1 for the ATGM Konkurs/Fagot. Upgrades of the BMP-1 were performed by KMZ as well as by tank repair workshops of the Ministry of Defence during scheduled, more than 20,000 BMP-1s and vehicles based on it were built in the USSR

BMP-1
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Ex-Iraqi BMP-1 captured by US forces in Iraq during the First Gulf War.
BMP-1
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BMP-1 with eight passengers
BMP-1
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Rear view of a plinthed BMP-1 in Lebyazhye, Lomonosovsky District, Leningrad Oblast
BMP-1
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Two Bulgarian Army soldiers man the driver's and gunner's stations, while a US Army soldier occupies the commander's position of a Bulgarian BMP-1 IFV.

109.
Infantry fighting vehicle
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An infantry fighting vehicle, or mechanized infantry combat vehicle, is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. Infantry fighting vehicles are distinct from armoured personnel carriers, which are transport vehicles armed only for self-defense, consequently, IFVs possess heavier armament than an APC, and the attached rifle squad fights from within the vehicle more often than in an APC. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have ports which allow the infantry to fire personal weapons while on board and they are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes anti-tank guided missiles. IFVs are usually tracked, but there are some wheeled vehicles too, IFVs are much less heavily armed and protected than main battle tanks, but when equipped with larger cannon or ATGMs may pose a significant threat to all but the heaviest armoured fighting vehicles. The first mass-produced IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s, the SPz 12-3 mounted a 20 mm autocannon in a small turret and carried a half-squad of five armoured infantrymen. Western powers were surprised when the Soviet Union paraded the BMP-1, Soviet infantrymen could thus enter a hypothetical engagement in a vehicle that possessed formidable fighting capability in its own right. This brought combined arms integration to the lowest tactical level, in 1971, the Ratel was designed to a South African specification for a wheeled combat vehicle suited to the demands of a high-speed offensive that combined maximum mobility and firepower. The emphasis was on mobility in particular, as it had to keep pace with a rapid mechanised advance, South Africas motorised units had carried out prior deployments on unprotected Bedford MK and Unimog trucks, but these were deemed unsuitable for the harsh African terrain. They also offered few advantages in mine protection, while the Ratels blastproof hull was developed to even the most catastrophic anti-tank mine explosions. During the South African Border War, Ratels equipped with a 90 mm gun adopted from the Eland-90 were utilised as improvised tank destroyers to varying degrees of success. In most Western IFVs, the large guns on the BMP. While the former enjoyed a tank-killing capability that most autocannon lack, combat applications in close-combat environments are likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitating the same protection level required by most tanks. In times of warfare, local crises, and urban combat. The IFV offers a compromise between mobility, protection, and firepower. They can be used in high and low intensity conflicts as well as peacekeeping operations, the latest vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to be repaired in the field. Infantry fighting vehicles are typically well armoured, although usually with less protection than main battle tanks, typical armament is an autocannon and machine guns. IFVs have a door for dismounts, most IFVs are resistant against heavy machine guns, artillery fragments, and small arms. The IFVs mission does not include anti-tank duties except in support of units or in emergencies, therefore

110.
MT-LB
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The MT-LB is a Soviet multi-purpose fully amphibious auxiliary armoured tracked vehicle, which was first introduced in the late 1960s. Initially, the vehicle was known as the M1970 in the west, in the 1970s, the Soviet Central Auto and Tractor Directorate began a development program to replace the AT-P series of artillery tractors with a new generation of vehicles. The MT-L was developed to meet this requirement based on the PT-76 amphibious light tank chassis, the MT-LB is the armoured variant of the MT-L. Entering production in the early 1970s, it was cheap to build, being based on many existing components, e. g. the engine and it is built at the Kharkiv Tractor Plant and under license in Poland by Huta Stalowa Wola and Bulgaria. The crew, a driver and a sit in a compartment at the front of the vehicle. A compartment at the rear enables up to 11 infantry to be carried or a cargo of up to 2,000 kg, a load of 6,500 kg can be towed. The vehicle is amphibious, being propelled by its tracks in the water. A small turret at the front of the vehicle fits a 7.62 mm PKT machine gun with 360 degree manual traverse, the vehicle is lightly armoured against small arms and shell splinters with a thickness of 3 to 10 mm of steel. The infantry compartment has two hatches over the top, which open forwards, there are four firing ports - one in either side of the hull, the other two in the rear twin doors of the infantry compartment. The driver is provided with a TVN-2 infra-red periscope, which in combination with the OU-3GK infra-red/white light search light provides a range of about 40 m, all vehicles include an NBC system. MT-L MT-LB - basic model, often used as simple APC, in the West the term MT-LB Blade or MT-LB M1980 is used for vehicles that are fitted with a hydraulic dozer blade. MT-LBV - low pressure track version, with 565 mm tracks giving a pressure of 0.27 kgf/cm². Used in Arctic regions instead of BMP or BTR wheeled vehicles, MT-LBVM - with NSVT12.7 mm instead of the original 7.62 mm machine gun turret. MT-LBV-N MT-LBV-NS MTP-LB - technical support version with no turret, an A frame, SNAR-10 Jaguar - with 1RL-127 Ground surveillance radar in a large rotating turret. Old NATO designators are MT-LB M1975 and MT-LB SON, sNAR-10M Pantera - upgraded, automated system with a range of 40 km. 9A34 - launch vehicle of the 9K35 Strela-10 system, 9A35 - as per 9A34 but additionally with passive detection system. 9P149 Shturm-S - anti-tank version with retractable launcher for 9M114 Kokon ATGM, the vehicles carries 12 missiles on board and entered service in 1979. RKhM Kashalot - chemical reconnaissance vehicle with detection, marking and alarm devices and this model has the hull shape and single rear door of the 2S1

MT-LB
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A left front view of a Soviet MT-LB multi-purpose tracked vehicle on display at Bolling Air Force Base
MT-LB
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9P149 Shturm-S in Saint Petersburg Artillery Museum
MT-LB
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Ex-East German MT-LB used by US Marines in the OPFOR role
MT-LB
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Iraqi MT-LBV fitted with wider tracks

111.
Armored personnel carrier
–
An armoured personnel carrier is a type of armoured fighting vehicle designed to transport infantry to the battlefield. APCs are colloquially referred to as taxis or battle buses. Armoured personnel carriers are distinguished from infantry fighting vehicles by the weaponry they carry, by convention, they are not intended to take part in direct-fire battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to provide protection from shrapnel and small arms fire. Examples include the American M113, the French VAB, the Dutch-German GTK Boxer, the genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, without infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented with carrying machine-gun crews in the Mark V* tank, britain therefore designed the first purpose built armoured troop transport, the Mark IX, but the war ended before it could be put to use. During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3 and German SdKfz 251 played a similar to post-war APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the full-tracked Universal Carrier, over the course of the war, APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity, to purpose built vehicles. Obsolete armoured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as the various Kangaroos converted from M7 Priest self-propelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart, during the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing them with newer APCs, the Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60 and BTR-80 remain in production, czechoslovakia and Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT-64 SKOT. A cold war example of a Kangaroo is the heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 dismountable troops, although some can carry more than 20, in addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many with a gunner and/or commander as well. An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a combination of the two, as in a half-track, both systems have advantages and limitations. Tracked vehicles have more traction off-road and more maneuverability, including a turn radius. Wheeled APCs are faster on road, can cross long distances, and are expensive to develop, produce. However, wheeled vehicles have higher pressure than tracked vehicles with a comparable weight. The higher ground pressure increases the likelihood of becoming immobilized by soft terrains such as mud and their tracks can propel the APC in the water

Armored personnel carrier
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A M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, during the Vietnam War
Armored personnel carrier
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The British Mark IX tank was the first specialised armoured personnel carrier.
Armored personnel carrier
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Czechoslovak and Polish OT-64 SKOT
Armored personnel carrier
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Namer APC is the most heavily armored vehicle in the world according to the IDF.

112.
BRDM-2
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The BRDM-2 is an amphibious armoured patrol car used by Russia and the former Soviet Union. It was also known under the designations BTR-40PB, BTR-40P-2 and GAZ 41-08 and this vehicle, like many other Soviet designs, has been exported extensively and is in use in at least 38 countries. It was intended to replace the earlier BRDM-1, compared to which it had improved amphibious capabilities, after a few years of use by the Soviet Army, the limitations and drawbacks of the BRDM-1 became obvious. The vehicle had no turret and to operate the armament the gunner had to open a hatch, the vehicle was not fitted with an NBC protection system, and had no night vision equipment by default. The vehicle also didnt have any kind of special sights, which undermined its usability as a reconnaissance vehicle and these drawbacks encouraged the design team to create a new vehicle which would suit the modern battlefield. The BRDM-2 has a crew of four, a driver, a co-driver, a commander, externally, it differs from the BRDM-1 by having a larger, box-like hull. It retains the boat-like bow of the BRDM-1, however, the crew compartment is now further forward and the new GAZ-41 gasoline V-8 engine is in the rear. Thanks to this, the engine is better protected from enemy fire. The engine compartment is separated from the crew compartment by an armoured barrier. The drivers and commanders stations are in the front of the vehicle, with the driver positioned on the left, both of them sit in front of a bulletproof windscreen, which provides them with their primary view of the battlefield. When in combat, the windscreen can be protected by twin armoured shutters. When the shutters are in their position, they protect the driver and commander from being blinded by the sunlight. The commander and driver have periscopes allowing both of them a detailed view of the surrounding terrain. The commander has six TNP-A periscopes, a TPKU-2B day sight, the driver has four TNP-A periscopes, one of which can be replaced by a TWN-2B night vision device. The gunner is in the turret during combat, but when traveling he is seated inside the hull, the crew mounts and dismounts the vehicle via two hatches over drivers and commanders stations. On either side of the adjacent to the crew position. Immediately behind the port there are three TNP-A periscopes, which protrude from the outside of the hull, giving the crew some vision to the front. The engine is larger than the BRDMs, the BRDM-2 has an IR spotlight and four IR driving lights, as well as an over pressure collective NBC filter system

BRDM-2
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BRDM-2 on a military parade, 1 March 1983.
BRDM-2
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Polish BRDM-2 crossing a trench with the use of its belly wheels.

113.
M113
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The M113 is a fully tracked armored personnel carrier that was developed by Food Machinery Corp. The vehicle was first fielded by the United States Armys mechanized infantry units in Vietnam in April 1962 and it was largely known as an APC or an ACAV by the allied forces. The armys heavy brigade combat teams are equipped with around 6,000 M113s and 4,000 Bradleys, the M113s versatility spawned a wide variety of adaptations that live on worldwide, and in U. S. service. These variants together currently represent about half of U. S. Army armored vehicles. To date, it is estimated that over 80,000 M113s of all types have been produced and used by over 50 countries worldwide, the Military Channels Top Ten series named the M113 the most significant infantry vehicle in history. Thousands of M113s continue to see service in the IDF. The M113 was developed by Food Machinery Corp. which had produced the earlier M59, the M113 bears a very strong resemblance to both of these earlier vehicles. The M75 was too heavy and expensive to be useful, its weight prevented amphibious capability, the lightened M59 addressed both of these problems, but ended up with too little armor, and was unreliable as a result of efforts to reduce its cost. The army was looking for a vehicle that combined the best features of both designs, the airborne armored multi-purpose vehicle family, of all-purpose, all-terrain armored fighting vehicles FMC had been working with Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Co. in the late 1950s to develop suitable aluminum armor. It was known that use of armor could produce a vehicle that provided the protection of the M75. Food Machinery Corp. responded with two proposals, two versions of the aluminum T113—a thicker and a thinner armored one—along with the similar but mostly steel T117. The thicker-armored version of the T113, effectively the prototype of the M113, was chosen because it weighed less than its steel competitor, an improved T113 design, the T113E1, was adopted by the U. S. Army in 1960 as the M113. A diesel prototype, T113E2, was put into production in 1964 as the M113A1, in 1994, FMC transferred the M113s production over to its newly formed defense subsidiary, United Defense. Then in 2005, United Defense was acquired by BAE Systems, the M113 was developed to provide a survivable and reliable light tracked vehicle able to be air-lifted and air-dropped, by C-130 and C-141 transport planes. Entering service with the U. S. Army in 1960 and its main armament was a single. 50-caliber M2 Browning machine gun operated by the commander. On 30 March 1962, the first batch of 32 M113s arrived in Vietnam, on 11 June 1962, the two mechanized units were fielded for the first time. During the Battle of Ap Bac in January 1963, at least fourteen of the exposed.50 caliber gunners aboard the M113s were killed in action, necessitating modifications to improve crew survivability. Soon, makeshift shields formed from metal salvaged from the hulls of ships were fitted to the carriers

M113
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Troops of the 1st Infantry Division in U.S. Army M113s mortar carriers depart Samarra, Iraq after conducting an assault during Operation Baton Rouge of the Iraq War, in October 2004.
M113
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FMC T113 proposal
M113
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U.S. Army soldiers dismount from an M113 armored personnel carrier during a training exercise in September 1985.
M113
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Interior of an M113 at the American Armored Foundation Museum in Danville, Virginia, July 2006.

114.
Military engineering vehicle
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A military engineering vehicle is a vehicle built for the construction work or for the transportation of combat engineers on the battlefield. These vehicles may be modified civilian equipment or purpose-built military vehicles, military engineering can employ a wide variety of heavy equipment in the same or similar ways to how this equipment is used outside the military. Bulldozers, cranes, graders, excavators, dump trucks, loaders, military engineers may also use civilian heavy equipment which was modified for military applications. Typically, this involves adding armour for protection from hazards such as artillery, unexploded ordnance, mines. Often this protection is provided by armour plates and steel jackets, some examples of armoured civilian heavy equipment are the IDF Caterpillar D9, American D7 TPK, Canadian D6 armoured bulldozer, cranes, graders, excavators, and M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck. Militarized heavy equipment may take on the form of traditional civilian equipment designed. These vehicles typically sacrifice some depth of capability from civilian models in order to gain greater speed, examples of this type of vehicle include high speed backhoes such as the Australian Armys High Mobility Engineering Vehicle from Thales or the Canadian Armys Multi-Purpose Engineer Vehicle from Arva. These vehicles are designed to directly conduct obstacle breaching operations and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield, good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle. Thus, armoured vehicle used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers. Lighter and less multi-functional than the CEVs or AEVs described above and these vehicles have greater high speed mobility than traditional heavy equipment and are protected against the effects of blast and fragmentation. Good examples are the American M9 ACE and the UK FV180 Combat Engineer Tractor and these vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man made obstacles. Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, in some cases, these vehicles will also mount Mine-clearing line charges. Breaching vehicles may be either converted armoured fighting vehicles or purpose built vehicles, good examples of breaching vehicles include the USMC M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle, the UK Aardvark JSFU, and the Singaporean Trailblazer. Several types of military bridging vehicles have been developed, an armoured vehicle-launched bridge is typically a modified tank hull converted to carry a bridge into battle in order to support crossing ditches, small waterways, or other gap obstacles. Another type of bridging vehicle is the truck launched bridge, the Soviet TMM bridging truck could carry and launch a 10-meter bridge that could be daisy-chained with other TMM bridges to cross larger obstacles. Earlier examples of bridging vehicles include a type in which a tank hull is the bridge. An example of type of armoured bridging vehicle was the Churchill Ark used in the Second World War. Another type of CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport sappers and can be fitted with a bulldozers blade and they are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection

115.
Truck
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A truck is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, smaller varieties may be similar to some automobiles. Commercial trucks can be large and powerful, and may be configured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers. Modern trucks are powered by diesel engines, although small to medium size trucks with gasoline engines exist in the US. In the European Union, vehicles with a gross mass of up to 3.5 t are known as light commercial vehicles. Trucks and cars have an ancestor, the steam-powered fardier Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built in 1769. However, steam wagons were not common until the mid-1800s, the roads of the time, built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to the nearest railway station. The first semi-trailer appeared in 1881, towed by a tractor manufactured by De Dion-Bouton. In 1895 Karl Benz designed and built the first truck in history using the internal combustion engine, later that year some of Benzs trucks were modified to become the first bus by the Netphener, the first motorbus company in history. A year later, in 1896, another internal combustion engine truck was built by Gottlieb Daimler, other companies, such as Peugeot, Renault and Büssing, also built their own versions. The first truck in the United States was built by Autocar in 1899 and was available with optional 5 or 8 horsepower motors, trucks of the era mostly used two-cylinder engines and had a carrying capacity of 3,300 to 4,400 lb. In 1904,700 heavy trucks were built in the United States,1000 in 1907,6000 in 1910, after World War I, several advances were made, pneumatic tires replaced the previously common full rubber versions. Electric starters, power brakes,4,6, and 8 cylinder engines, closed cabs, the first modern semi-trailer trucks also appeared. Touring car builders such as Ford and Renault entered the heavy truck market, although it had been invented in 1890, the diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe until the 1930s. In the United States, it took longer for diesel engines to be accepted. The word truck might come from a back-formation of truckle, meaning small wheel or pulley, from Middle English trokell, another possible source is the Latin trochus, meaning iron hoop. In turn, both sources emanate from the Greek trokhos, meaning wheel, from trekhein, the first known usage of truck was in 1611, when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships cannon carriages. In its extended usage it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads and its expanded application to motor-powered load carrier has been in usage since 1930, shortened from motor truck, which dates back to 1901

116.
Jelcz
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Jelcz is a Polish brand of trucks also military, buses and trolley buses produced by Zakłady Samochodowe Jelcz, Jelczańskie Zakłady Samochodowe. Currently company operates as Jelcz with focus on offroad military trucks manufacturing, in 1952, a decision was made to use a former German armaments factory in Jelcz-Laskowice near Oława for production in new western Poland. A company called Zakłady Budowy Nadwozi Samochodowych was established, after reconstruction of the factory the company started to develop and build car-bodies for Lublin and Star trucks. The company built buses like the Jelcz PR110D, Z OO concentrates on producing heavy trucks for armed forces, mainly Siły Zbrojne Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Since 2012 sole owner of the Jelcz Sp, Z OO is Huta Stalowa Wola SA, part of the Polska Grupa Zbrojeniowa SA. Jelcz M11 Jelcz PR110 Jelcz M125M Jelcz of KMKM Warszawa History of JZS Jelcz Sp, Z OO website Jelcz en. website

117.
Mikoyan MiG-29
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The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a twin-engine jet fighter aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. The MiG-29 entered service with the Soviet Air Force in 1982, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the militaries of a number of former Soviet republics have continued to operate the MiG-29, the largest of which is the Russian Air Force. The Russian Air Force wanted to upgrade its fleet to the modernised MiG-29SMT configuration. The MiG-29 has also been a popular aircraft, more than 30 nations either operate or have operated the aircraft to date. As of 2013, the MiG-29 is in production by Mikoyan, at the height of the Cold War, a Soviet response was necessary to avoid the possibility of a new American fighter gaining a serious technological advantage over existing Soviet fighters. Thus the development of a new air superiority became a priority. In 1969, the Soviet General Staff issued a requirement for a Perspektivnyy Frontovoy Istrebitel, specifications were extremely ambitious, calling for long range, good short-field performance, excellent agility, Mach 2+ speed, and heavy armament. The Russian aerodynamics institute TsAGI worked in collaboration with the Sukhoi design bureau on the aircrafts aerodynamics, by 1971, however, Soviet studies determined the need for different types of fighters. The PFI program was supplemented with the Perspektivnyy Lyogkiy Frontovoy Istrebitel program, PFI and LPFI paralleled the USAFs decision that created the Lightweight Fighter program and the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and Northrop YF-17. The PFI fighter was assigned to Sukhoi, resulting in the Sukhoi Su-27, detailed design work on the resultant Mikoyan Product 9, designated MiG-29A, began in 1974, with the first flight taking place on 6 October 1977. The workload split between TPFI and LPFI became more apparent as the MiG-29 filtered into front line service with the Soviet Air Forces in the mid-1980s, the Soviet Union did not assign official names to most of its aircraft, although nicknames were common. Total production was about 840 aircraft, in the 1980s, Mikoyan developed the improved MiG-29S to use longer range R-27E and R-77 air-to-air missiles. It added a hump to the upper fuselage to house a jamming system. The weapons load was increased to 4,000 kg with airframe strengthening and these features were included in new-built fighters and upgrades to older MiG-29s. In the post-Soviet era, MiG-29 development was influenced by the Mikoyan bureaus apparent lesser political clout than rival Sukhoi, Mikoyan had developed improved versions of the MiG-29, called MiG-29M/M2 and MiG-29SMT. On 15 April 2014, the Russian Air Force placed an order for a batch of 16 MiG-29 SMT fighters, there have been several upgrade programmes conducted for the MiG-29. Common upgrades include the adoption of NATO/ICAO standard-compatible avionics, service life extensions to 4,000 flight hours, safety enhancements, greater combat capabilities and reliability. In 2005, the Russian Aircraft Corporation “MiG” established a family of 4++ generation multirole fighters

118.
Military transport aircraft
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Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for delivering airborne forces during the Second World War and towing military gliders. Fixed-wing transport aircraft are defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift or [[tactical |-, for example, the military transport helicopter is the primary transport asset of US Marines deploying from LHDs and LHA. Transport helicopters are operated in assault, medium and heavy classes, air assault helicopters are usually the smallest of the transport types, and designed to move an infantry squad or section and their equipment. Helicopters in the role are generally armed for self-protection both in transit and for suppression of the landing zone. This armament may be in the form of door gunners, or the modification of the helicopter with wings and pylons to carry missiles. For example, the Sikorsky S-70, fitted with the ESSM, the assault helicopter can be thought of as the modern successor to the military glider. Finally, there is the term utility helicopter, which generally refers to medium-lift designs. Unlike the assault helicopter they are not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone. Examples include the versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma. The lower speed, range and increased consumption of helicopters are more than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere

119.
PZL M-28
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The PZL M28 Skytruck is a Polish STOL light cargo and passenger plane, produced by PZL Mielec, as a development of license-built Antonov An-28. Early licence-built planes were designated PZL An-28, the maritime patrol and reconnaissance variants are named PZL M28B Bryza. The An-28 is derived from the earlier An-14, commonalities with the An-14 include a high wing layout, twin fins and rudders, but it differs in having a reworked and longer fuselage, with turboprop engines. The original powerplant was the TVD-850, but production versions are powered by the more powerful TVD-10B, the An-28 made its first flight as the An-14M in September 1969 in the Ukraine. A subsequent preproduction aircraft first flew in April 1975, production of the An-28 was then transferred to Polands PZL Mielec in 1978, although it was not until 22 July 1984 that the first Polish-built production aircraft flew. The An-28s Soviet type certificate was awarded in April 1986, PZL Mielec has become the sole source for production An-28s. The basic variant, not differing from the Soviet one, was designated PZL An-28 and was powered with PZL-10S engines and they were built mostly for the USSR, until it broke up. The plane was developed by the PZL Mielec into a westernised version powered by 820 kW Pratt & Whitney PT6A-65B turboprops with five-blade Hartzell propellers. Designated the PZL M28 Skytruck, first flight was on 24 July 1993 and it is in limited production, the type received Polish certification in March 1996, and US FAR Part 23 certificate on 19 March 2004. From 2000, newly produced M28Bs started to be equipped with five-blade propellers as well, the M28 is best suited for passenger and/or cargo transportation. While of conventional design, one feature of the An-28 is that it will not stall. 176 An-28s and M28s in all variants were built in Poland by 2006, on 4 November 2005, a Vietnamese Airforce M28 crashed in Gia Lam district, Hanoi. On 12 February 2009, The weekly periodical Air Force Times reported that the Air Force Special Operations Command would receive 10 PZL M28 Skytrucks in June 2009 and these aircraft carry the U. S. Air Force model design series designation of C-145A Skytruck. In 2011 one aircraft landed in Afghanistan and was damaged beyond repair. On 28 October 2010, an Indonesian Police-operated M28 crashed in the Nabire region of the Indonesian state of Papua, PZL An-28 Original variant build under Antonov licence, with PZL-10S engines. PZL M28 Skytruck Development variant with redesigned fuselage and wings, new Pratt & Whitney Canada engines, new avionics, 5-blade rotors, PZL M28B Bryza Militarized variants used by Polish Air Force and Polish Navy, similar to Skytruck, but with PZL-10S engines. PZL M28+ Skytruck Plus Prototype of new lengthened variant with more internal space, C-145A Variant flown by USAF Special Operations Warfare Center. Similar to Skytruck, but with Pratt and Whitney PT6A-65B Turboprops, the USAF has started retiring the aircraft, with the first aircraft, AF Ser

120.
Mil Mi-17
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The Mil Mi-17 is a Russian helicopter in production at two factories in Kazan and Ulan-Ude. It is known as the Mi-8M series in Russian service and it is a medium twin-turbine transport helicopter. There are also armed gunship versions, optional engines for hot and high conditions are the 1545 kW Isotov TV3-117VM. Recent exports to China and Venezuela for use in high mountains have the new Klimov VK-2500 version of the Klimov TV3-117 engine with FADEC control, the designation Mi-17 is for export, Russian armed forces call it Mi-8MT. The Mi-17 can be recognized because it has the rotor on the port side instead of the starboard side. Engine cowls are shorter than on the TV2-powered Mi-8, not extending as far over the cockpit, actual model numbers vary by builder, engine type, and other options. As an example, the sixteen new Ulan-Ude-built machines delivered to the Czech Air Force in 2005 with –VM model engines were designated as Mi-171Sh, modifications include a new large door on the right side, improved Czech-built APU, Kevlar armor plates around the cockpit area and engines. Eight have a ramp in place of the usual clamshell doors. The plant built 20 helicopters in 2008, using Russian Ulan-Ude-supplied kits, the variants to be built by Lantian will include Mi-171, Mi-17V5, and Mi-17V7. In May 1999, during Operation Safed Sagar, the Mi-17 was used in the first air phase of the Kargil War by 129HU of the Indian Air Force against Pakistani regular, one Mi-17 was downed by a shoulder-fired missile, and a fighter aircraft was lost in combat. This led the withdrawal of armed helicopters and attacks by fixed-wing aircraft began, the Mi-17 was used extensively by the Sri Lanka Air Force in the Sri Lankan Civil War. Seven of them were lost in combat and attacks on airports, the Mi-17 was used by the Colombian Army in Operation Jaque. In 2001, the Macedonian Air Force used the Mi-17 against Albanian insurgents, the Mi-17 is also used by search and rescue teams such as the Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department. Executive Outcomes used them extensively in its operations in the Angolan Civil War, the Mi-17 is used as a commercial passenger aircraft by Air Koryo, national airline of North Korea. Previous flights include those between Pyongyang and Kaesong and Pyongyang and Haeju, the Mexican Navy uses its Mi-17s for anti-narcotic operations such as locating marijuana fields and dispatching marines to eradicate the plantations. The Slovak Air Force and Croatian Air Force operate Mi-17s in Kosovo as part of KFOR, both the pro-Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war have operated Mi-17s. Mi-17s are operated by the Afghan Air Force, in July 2010 two Mi-17 were flown by a mixed crew of United States Air Force and Afghan Air Force personnel in a 13-hour mission that rescued 2,080 civilians from flood waters. This was the largest rescue by two helicopters in USAF history, USAF pilot Lt Col Gregory Roberts received the Distinguished Flying Cross for the mission

121.
Alenia M-346 Master
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The Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master is a military twin-engine transonic trainer aircraft. The first flight of the M-346 was performed in 2004, the type is currently operated by the air forces of Italy, Israel, Singapore, and Poland. Since 2016 manufacturer became Leonardo-Finmeccanica as Alenia Aermaccchi merged into the new Finmeccanica, the resulting aircraft first flew in 1996 and was brought to Italy the following year to replace the aging MB-339. By this point, the aircraft was being marketed as the Yak/AEM-130, in February 1996, Russia provided initial funding for the Yak/AEM-130 and pledged to purchase up to 200 aircraft for the Russian Air Force. In October 1998, it was reported that the venture was increasingly becoming an Italian-led effort due to a lack of support on the part of Russia. By July 2000, Aermacchi held a 50% stake in the development programme, Yakovlev, the M-346 is a highly modified version of the aircraft that was being developed under the joint venture. It uses equipment exclusively from Western manufacturers, such as the flight control system being developed by a collaboration between Teleavio, Marconi Italiana and BAE Systems. In July 2000, Aermacchi selected the Honeywell F124 turbofan engine to power the type in place of the originally intended Povazske Strojarne DV-2S powerplant, on 7 June 2003, the first M-346 prototype rolled out, this prototype conducted its maiden flight on 15 July 2004. In 2004, a contract for the development of a simulator for the M-346 was awarded to CAE. Further production contracts for CAEs full-mission simulator have since been issued, in March 2008 the Chilean ENAER signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Alenia Aermacchi at the FIDAE air show. On 10 April 2008, a prototype, produced in the final configuration, was rolled out. In May 2008, Boeing signed a Memorandum of Understanding to cooperate on the marketing, sales, training and support of two Aermacchi trainer aircraft, the M-346 and the M-311. On 20 June 2011, a Military Type Certification was granted to Alenia Aermacchi for the M-346 Master by the General Directorate for Aeronautical Armaments of the Italian Ministry of Defence in Rome. In the trainer jet role, the M-346 is unarmed, however, in November 2015, in late 2014, a series of armed tests involving the IRIS-T missiles took place. In 2015, a variant, designated as the M-346 LCA, was offered to Poland. In February 2016, the created, consolidated Leonardo-Finmeccanica company promoted the Aermacchi M346 in two new roles, companion training and dissimilar air combat training. The M-346 is designed for the role of lead-in fighter trainer. Outside of the role, the M-346 was designed from the onset to accommodate additional operational capabilities, including combat missions such as close air support

122.
PZL SW-4
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The PZL SW-4 Puszczyk is a Polish light single-engine multipurpose helicopter manufactured by PZL-Świdnik. Following a protracted development, the SW-4 entered service in 2002, the SW-4 was further developed by PZL-Świdnik and corporate parent AgustaWestland into an optionally piloted vehicle, the SW-4 Solo. From 2016 onwards, the type has been marketed to civil operators as the AW009, around 1981, development work at PZL-Swidnik was started on a new four/five place light utility helicopter. The original design for the SW-4 called for it to be powered by a 300 kW PZL Rzeszow GTD350 turboshaft engine, according to PZL-Swidnik, the early SW-4 could reach the rated top speed of about 240 km/h and a max range with auxiliary fuel tank about 900 km. Other changes were made to the design, which bore little resemblance to its earlier form. In 1995, the SW-4 project was formally re-launched and, in addition to the switch of power plant, in December 1994, the project had proceeded to ground testing of a non-flying prototype. Subsequently, a pair of prototypes were assembled to support the development program. The first prototype was planned to perform a flight in January 1995. On 26 October 1996, the SW-4 was reported as having performing its first flight, by May 2002, the two prototypes had accumulated a total of 640 flight hours. PZL-Swidnik targeted US Federal Aviation Administration FAR Part 27 certification for the SW-4 and it was believed that the program should be capable of producing production models by 1999. In 2002, the first production model SW-4, which was equipped with the Rolls-Royce engine, was approaching receipt of certification from the Polish civil aviation authority, certification for use in other markets is to be made upon customer request. On 1 October 2002, serial production of the SW-4 formally began, on 27 September 2007, type certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency was received. In Polish service, the SW-4 has been used as a training rotorcraft, replacing the Mil Mi-2, at The Center of Aviation Education and Training at Dęblin. In February 2009, Rolls-Royce stated that it was holding talks with PZL-Świdnik on the use of its newly developed Rolls-Royce RR500 engine on future derivatives of the SW-4. PZL-Świdniks parent company, AgustaWestland chose to use the SW-4 as the basis for an optionally manned rotorcraft, in 2011, development of an optionally-manned demonstrator began. The SW-4 Solo was first was shown at the MSPO2012 in Poland as SW-4 Solo RUAS/OPH platform, in 2013, AgustaWestland was given a Royal Navy contract for the SW-4 Solos development as part of the UK’s RWUAS Capability Concept Demonstrator programme. Development of the SW-4 Solo is also being supported by the Italian Ministry of Defences Directorate for Air Armaments under the Italian National Military Research Plan, by September 2015, the SW-4 Solo had performed a total of 26 demonstration flights, which included simulated shipboard integration tests. In November 2015, AgustaWestland stated that the SW-4 Solo was ready for sale, in 2006, PZL-Świdnik entered into an agreement with Chinas Jiujiang Hongying Technology Development Ltd. which aimed for the establishment of an SW4 assembly line in Jiujiang, China

123.
PZL M28 Skytruck
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The PZL M28 Skytruck is a Polish STOL light cargo and passenger plane, produced by PZL Mielec, as a development of license-built Antonov An-28. Early licence-built planes were designated PZL An-28, the maritime patrol and reconnaissance variants are named PZL M28B Bryza. The An-28 is derived from the earlier An-14, commonalities with the An-14 include a high wing layout, twin fins and rudders, but it differs in having a reworked and longer fuselage, with turboprop engines. The original powerplant was the TVD-850, but production versions are powered by the more powerful TVD-10B, the An-28 made its first flight as the An-14M in September 1969 in the Ukraine. A subsequent preproduction aircraft first flew in April 1975, production of the An-28 was then transferred to Polands PZL Mielec in 1978, although it was not until 22 July 1984 that the first Polish-built production aircraft flew. The An-28s Soviet type certificate was awarded in April 1986, PZL Mielec has become the sole source for production An-28s. The basic variant, not differing from the Soviet one, was designated PZL An-28 and was powered with PZL-10S engines and they were built mostly for the USSR, until it broke up. The plane was developed by the PZL Mielec into a westernised version powered by 820 kW Pratt & Whitney PT6A-65B turboprops with five-blade Hartzell propellers. Designated the PZL M28 Skytruck, first flight was on 24 July 1993 and it is in limited production, the type received Polish certification in March 1996, and US FAR Part 23 certificate on 19 March 2004. From 2000, newly produced M28Bs started to be equipped with five-blade propellers as well, the M28 is best suited for passenger and/or cargo transportation. While of conventional design, one feature of the An-28 is that it will not stall. 176 An-28s and M28s in all variants were built in Poland by 2006, on 4 November 2005, a Vietnamese Airforce M28 crashed in Gia Lam district, Hanoi. On 12 February 2009, The weekly periodical Air Force Times reported that the Air Force Special Operations Command would receive 10 PZL M28 Skytrucks in June 2009 and these aircraft carry the U. S. Air Force model design series designation of C-145A Skytruck. In 2011 one aircraft landed in Afghanistan and was damaged beyond repair. On 28 October 2010, an Indonesian Police-operated M28 crashed in the Nabire region of the Indonesian state of Papua, PZL An-28 Original variant build under Antonov licence, with PZL-10S engines. PZL M28 Skytruck Development variant with redesigned fuselage and wings, new Pratt & Whitney Canada engines, new avionics, 5-blade rotors, PZL M28B Bryza Militarized variants used by Polish Air Force and Polish Navy, similar to Skytruck, but with PZL-10S engines. PZL M28+ Skytruck Plus Prototype of new lengthened variant with more internal space, C-145A Variant flown by USAF Special Operations Warfare Center. Similar to Skytruck, but with Pratt and Whitney PT6A-65B Turboprops, the USAF has started retiring the aircraft, with the first aircraft, AF Ser

124.
Unmanned aerial vehicle
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An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which include a UAV, a controller. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under control by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions too dull, civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015. Multiple terms are used for unmanned vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept. The term drone, more used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of navigation. The term has encountered opposition from aviation professionals and government regulators. This term emphasizes the importance of other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground stations, data links. A similar term is a vehicle system remotely piloted aerial vehicle. Many similar terms are in use, therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided. The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight, however, a radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of an autopilot artificial intelligence, and ceases to be a drone when an AI is removed. In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice, UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time, the earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Lows Aerial Target in 1916. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles in 1915. Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, the first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used both to train gunners and to fly attack missions

125.
ORP Kaszub (1987)
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ORP Kaszub is a corvette of the Polish Navy, in service since 1987, the sole ship of the Project 620 class. She was the first ocean-going warship built in Poland, as of 2012 she is in active service. The work on her began in 1971, but the construction of the first ship started only in 1984, being laid down at Stocznia Północna. Kaszub was launched on 11 May 1986, but was found to have a hull and propeller shafts. Originally it was planned to build 7 ships of this class, at first, Kaszub saw little operational use, being loaned to the Polish Border guard from 1990 to January 1991. In September 1991, the ship was fitted with a AK-17676 mm gun turret forward Baker, the Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World 1998–1999. Annapolis, Maryland, USA, Naval Institute Press, conways All The Worlds Fighting Ships 1947–1995. Annapolis, Maryland, USA, Naval Institute Press

126.
FB Mini-Beryl
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The karabinek wz.1996 Mini-Beryl is a Polish compact assault rifle derived from the kbs wz.1996 Beryl service rifle and chambered for 5. 56×45mm. It was developed in parallel with the wz.1996 Beryl by the Łucznik Arms Factory in Radom, the weapon’s method of operation, the rotary bolt locking mechanism and ammunition are identical to those of the wz.1996 Beryl standard rifle. The 235 mm barrel has 6 right-hand grooves and a rifling twist rate of 1 in 228 mm capable of firing both SS109 and M193 types of 5. 56×45mm ammunition with optimum performance from both. The barrel’s profile is identical to the barrel of the wz.89 Onyks carbine. The muzzle device, externally similar to the attachment of the wz.89 Onyks in appearance, has deeper-seated threading used to screw the flash suppressor into the gas block. The compensator has two symmetrical ports at the end of the device placed at a 90° angle in relation to each other. The muzzle attachment can also be used to rifle grenades to ranges up to 150 meters. The magazine developed for the Mini-Beryl is shorter compared to the magazine of the Beryl and has a smaller capacity. Standard magazines from the Beryl can also be used, new magazines are molded from a translucent polymer allowing the shooter to visually monitor the level of ammunition. The base of the rear sight – unlike in the Onyks – has cut-outs on its top surface running alongside it and used to mount a variety of optical sights or a Picatinny-type rail adapter. A variant of the Mini-Beryl is also offered with a MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail instead of the rear sight. The standard rear sight and front post are provided with luminescent dots to assist aiming in poor light conditions, the weapon’s gas block is longer than that of the Onyks and it features internal threading that is used to secure the muzzle device in place. The Mini-Beryl has a twin-strut stock folding to the side of the receiver. All furniture is high-impact black plastic, the handguards were developed specifically for the carbine. The carbine can also be fitted with two side rails secured to the handguard, a vertical forward grip and a blank-firing muzzle attachment. Lithuania -10 units in use Nigeria -10 test units, poland - around 7,500 units in use Wozniak, Ryszard. Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej – tom 3 M-P, fabryka Broni Łucznik Radom home page

127.
UKM-2000
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The Zakłady Mechaniczne Tarnów UKM-2000 is a 7. 62×51mm NATO general-purpose machine gun designed in Tarnów, Poland. On March 12,1999 Poland joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, a problem arose with modifying the weapons of the Polish Army to use the standard NATO ammunition. A decision was made to develop a new machine gun. The construction was based on the design of the successful PK/PKS machine gun, the UKM-2000 is a primary GPMG on most vehicles used by Polish Forces in Afghanistan and is a coaxial machine gun in KTO Rosomak and Polish-modernized BRDM-2. There is a proposal of modernization of the Polish UKM-2000 general purpose machine gun fed by 7. 62×51mm NATO to the new UKM-2013 standard, the Polish Army is interested in this machine gun fed from the 100-round soft ammo bag instead of a steel box. Because of external similarity to the Russian PKM GPMG chambered to the 7. 62×54mmR some elements like a buttstock, uKM-2000C - coaxial version of UKM-2000, successor of the PKT. Use on KTO Rosomak and some Polish modernized BRDM-2, modifications include the removal of the stock, a longer and heavier barrel, a gas regulator and an electric solenoid trigger. UKM-2000D - airborne version with folding stock, limited use in Polish Armed Forces UKM-2000P - standard GPMG version, uKM-2000Z - first attempt to modernization of UKM-2000, new telescoping stock and black polymer pistol grip. Poland - around 1200 examples used by Polish Land Forces and Military Gendarmerie, nigeria Factory WWW7,62 mm general-purpose machine gun UKM-2000

UKM-2000
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UKM-2000P

128.
Airbus Helicopters
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Airbus Helicopters is the helicopter manufacturing division of Airbus Group. It is the largest in the industry in terms of revenues and its head office is located at Marseille Provence Airport in Marignane, France, near Marseille. The main facilities of Airbus Helicopters are at its headquarters in Marignane, France and in Donauwörth, Germany, with production plants in Brazil, Australia, Spain. The company was renamed Airbus Helicopters on 2 January 2014, Airbus Helicopters was formed in 1992 as Eurocopter Group, through the merger of the helicopter divisions of Aérospatiale and DASA. The companys heritage traces back to Blériot and Lioré et Olivier in France and to Messerschmitt, as a consequence of the merger of Airbus Helicopters former parents in 2000, the firm is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Airbus Group. Today, Airbus Helicopters has four plants in Europe, plus 32 subsidiaries and participants around the world, including those in Brisbane, Australia, Albacete, Spain and Grand Prairie. As of 2014, more than 12,000 Airbus Helicopters were in service with over 3,000 customers in around 150 countries, Eurocopter sold 422 helicopters in 2013 and delivered 497 helicopters that year. In 2014, AH built a concrete cylinder for testing helicopters before first flight, when the division changed its name from Eurocopter Group to Airbus Helicopters in 2014 the trade names of the products were changed to reflect this. Suffixes, as well as the differentiation for single or twin engines, were no longer to be used, military versions were to be symbolized by the letter M. The only exceptions to this new branding were the AS350 B2, AS635 and 565, the EC145e, the AS332 and 532, the Tiger and the NH90, x6 – Two year concept study into the possible launch of an 11. 5t helicopter to replace the H225. Some of the helicopters were renamed in 2015, resembling Airbus airplane naming, note, On Airbus Helicopters aircraft designed in France, the main rotor turns clockwise when viewed from above, in common with rotorcraft deriving from Russia. Airbus Helicopters products developed in Germany have a rotor which turns counter-clockwise when viewed from above. Official Airbus Helicopters website Helibras Airbus Helicopters timeline at Helis. com

129.
Sikorsky Aircraft
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The Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Stratford, Connecticut. It was established by Igor Sikorsky in 1925 and was among the first companies to manufacture helicopters for civilian, previously owned by United Technologies Corporation, in November 2015 Sikorsky was sold to Lockheed Martin. Sikorsky was founded in 1925 by aircraft engineer Igor Sikorsky, an immigrant to the United States who was born in Kiev, the company, named Sikorsky Manufacturing Company, began aircraft production in Roosevelt, New York, that year. In 1929 the company moved to Stratford, Connecticut and it became a part of United Aircraft and Transport Corporation in July of that year. In the United States, Igor Sikorsky originally concentrated on the development of multi-engined landplanes, in the late 1930s, sales declined and United Aircraft merged his division with Vought Aircraft. He took this opportunity to work on developing a practical helicopter. It is a defense contractor. Sikorsky has supplied the Presidential helicopter since 1957, sikorskys VH-3 and VH-60 currently perform this role. The company acquired Helicopter Support Inc. in 1998, HSI handles non-U. S. government after-market support for parts and repair for the Sikorsky product lines. United Technologies Corporation acquired Schweizer Aircraft Corp. in 2004, which now operates as a subsidiary of Sikorsky, the Schweizer deal was signed on August 26,2004, exactly one week after the death of Paul Schweizer, the companys founder and majority owner. In late 2005, Sikorsky completed the purchase of Keystone Helicopter Corporation, located in Coatesville, Keystone had been maintaining and completing Sikorsky S-76 and S-92 helicopters prior to the sale. In 2007, Sikorsky opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center located west of the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in Big Flats and that same year Sikorsky purchased the PZL Mielec plant in Poland. The plant is assembling the S-70i for international customers, in February 2009, Sikorsky Global Helicopters was created as a business unit of Sikorsky Aircraft to focus on the construction and marketing of commercial helicopters. The business unit combines the main civil helicopters that were produced by Sikorsky Aircraft and it is based at Coatesville, Pennsylvania. The commercial products had already moved to their Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility. Sikorskys main plant and administrative offices are located in Stratford, Connecticut, other Sikorsky facilities are in Trumbull, Shelton, and Bridgeport, Connecticut, Fort Worth, Texas, West Palm Beach, Florida, and Huntsville, and Troy, Alabama. Other Sikorsky-owned subsidiaries are in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, and Grand Prairie, Texas, in 2015, UTC considered Sikorsky to be less profitable than its other subsidiaries, and analyzed a possible spin-off rather than a tax-heavy sale. On July 20,2015, Lockheed Martin announced an agreement to purchase Sikorsky from UTC for $9.0 billion, final approval came in November 2015

130.
Minigun
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The M134 Minigun is a 7. 62×51mm NATO, six-barrel rotary machine gun with a high rate of fire which can also fire at a high sustained rate. It features Gatling-style rotating barrels with a power source, normally an electric motor. The Minigun is used by branches of the U. S. military. Versions are designated M134 and XM196 by the United States Army, Minigun refers to a specific model of weapon that General Electric originally produced, but the term minigun has popularly come to refer to any externally powered rotary-style gun of rifle caliber. The term is used loosely to refer to guns of similar rates of fire and configuration regardless of power source. The ancestor to the modern minigun was made in the 1860s, richard Jordan Gatling replaced the hand-cranked mechanism of a rifle-caliber Gatling gun with an electric motor, a relatively new invention at the time. Patent #502,185 on July 25,1893, despite Gatlings improvements, the Gatling gun fell into disuse after cheaper, lighter-weight, recoil and gas operated machine guns were invented, Gatling himself went bankrupt for a period. During World War I, several German companies were working on externally powered guns for use in aircraft, of those, the best-known today is perhaps the Fokker-Leimberger, an externally powered 12-barrel rotary gun using the 7. None of these German guns went into production during the war, the British also experimented with this type of split-breech during the 1950s, but they were also unsuccessful. In the 1960s, the United States Armed Forces began exploring modern variants of the electric-powered, although helicopters had mounted single-barrel machine guns, using them to repel attackers hidden in the dense jungle foliage often led to barrels overheating or cartridge jams. In order to develop a weapon with a reliable, higher rate of fire. The resulting weapon, designated M134 and known popularly as the Minigun, the gun was originally specified to fire at 6,000 rpm, but this was later lowered to 4,000 rpm. Other famous gunship airplanes were the Douglas AC-47 Spooky, the Fairchild AC-119, the U. S. government had procured some 10,000 miniguns during the Vietnam War. By 1975, production of spare parts had ceased with the Army in possession of a large inventory, by 1985, there were few spares left in the inventory. Units that received miniguns could not maintain them, so by the 1990s only Task Force 160, around 1995, the 160th SOAR began acquiring spare miniguns. Industry had a difficult time reproducing parts according to the blueprints, so models that were being procured were mechanically unreliable. This resulted in using a batch of working and unreliable weapons. This fact was unknown to the 160th SOAR, and the use of miniguns that would not work shook the confidence in the system

Minigun
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A U.S. Air Force rotary-wing crewman fires a minigun during the Vietnam War.
Minigun
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A Royal Navy minigun, separated from mounting and ammunition
Minigun
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A U.S. Navy Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewmen (SWCC) firing a Minigun at the Stennis Space Center in Mississippi, August 2009
Minigun
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FAST Marine firing a GAUSE-17/A minigun

131.
F-16
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time

132.
Two-finger salute
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The two-finger salute is a salute given using only the middle and index fingers, while bending the other fingers at the second knuckle, and with the palm facing the signer. This salute is used by Cub Scouts, the Polish military, the salute is only used while wearing a headdress with the emblem of the Polish eagle, or without this emblem. The salute is performed with the middle and index fingers extended and touching each other, while the ring and little fingers are bent, the tips of the middle and index fingers touch the peak of the cap, two fingers meaning honour and fatherland. It is not clear when the two-fingers salute appeared in Polish military forces, some see its origin in Tadeusz Kościuszkos 1794 oath. Others state that it came from Polish soldiers in the Congress Kingdom army around 1815, at that time, apparently the Tsars Viceroy in Poland Grand Duke Constantine said that Poles salute him with two fingers, while using the other two to hold a stone to throw at him. Another legend attributes the salute to the remembrance of Battle of Olszynka Grochowska in 1831, the two-fingers salute caused problems for Polish units serving with the Allies on the western front during World War II. Allied officers, seeing what they perceived as a Cub Scouts salute, as a result, many soldiers were arrested, until the misunderstanding could be explained. This led to the use of the full hand salute when saluting foreign officers. The salute has undergone the same evolution as the full-hand salute and it used to be rendered with the palm of the hand perpendicular to the ground, but is now rendered with the palm of the hand parallel to the ground, since before the World War II. Many Cub Scout sections also use a two-finger salute, the salute was devised by Robert Baden-Powell and originally represented the two ears of a wolf cub, since the original programme was based on Rudyard Kiplings The Jungle Book. However, Cubs in several national associations now use the three-finger Scout salute used by the rest of the Scout Movement

133.
Rogatywka
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Rogatywka is the Polish generic name for an asymmetrical, peaked, four-pointed cap used by various Polish military formations throughout the ages. It is a distant relative of its 18th-century predecessor, konfederatka and it consists of a four-pointed top and a short peak, usually made of black or brown leather. Although rogatywka in English seems to mean the same as czapka, the word czapka in Polish designates not only rogatywka and it usually comes in two variants, the hardened and soft version. The hardened model, based on the rogatywka Mk,1935, olive green with black peak, is used in full gala uniforms, while the rim colour marks unit type. It was not worn during most of the Peoples Republic of Poland era but was reintroduced for wear by the Honour Guard Company in 1989. The soft version was used before World War II and during the Peoples Republic of Poland period for garrison dress, Polish soldiers, unlike in most militaries, decorate caps not with the emblem of their corps, but with their services version of the Polish military eagle. The military eagle insignia is based on an early 19th century design, green rogatywka with brown leather peak and scout Fleur-de-lis symbol, is traditionally worn by Polish boy scouts, grey is sometimes used by girl guides

134.
Ludowe Wojsko Polskie
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What later became the LWP was formed during the Second World War as the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division, also unofficially known as the Berling Army. As late as the beginning of 1945, out of approximately 40 thousand officers, Polish forces soon grew beyond the 1st Division into two major commands - the Polish First Army and the Polish Second Army. The Polish First Army participated in the Vistula–Oder Offensive and the Battle of Kolberg before participating in its offensive with the Battle of Berlin. After the war the Polish Army was reorganized into six military districts and it was increasingly tied into the Soviet structures. This process was stopped in the aftermath of the Polish October in 1956, however. The LWP also took part in the suppressing of the 1968 democratization process of Czechoslovakia, air Force of the Polish Army Battle of Bautzen Battle of Lenino

135.
Traitor
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In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against ones nation or sovereign. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason. A person who commits treason is known in law as a traitor, orans Dictionary of the Law defines treason as a citizens actions to help a foreign government overthrow, make war against, or seriously injure the. In many nations, it is often considered treason to attempt or conspire to overthrow the government. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet, in a civil war or insurrection, the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende, the accusation of treason towards a group of people can be a unifying political message. Treason is considered to be different and on occasions a separate charge from treasonable felony in many parts of the world. In English law, high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered or burnt at the stake and those penalties were abolished in 1814,1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors, many of them would now just be considered dissidents. His treachery is considered so notorious that his name has long been synonymous with traitor, christian theology and political thinking until after the Enlightenment considered treason and blasphemy as synonymous, as it challenged both the state and the will of God. Kings were considered chosen by God, and to ones country was to do the work of Satan. Many nations laws mention various types of treason, Crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason, and may include a coup detat. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, Crimes Related to inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in Japan, the application of Crimes Related to Insurrection was considered about Aum Shinrikyo cult which caused religious terrorism. A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs, or if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature, the only permissible penalty for treason is life imprisonment. Section 24AA of the Crimes Act 1914 creates the offence of treachery. The Treason Act 1351, the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales, Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by the Treason Act 1351. This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848, the offence of treason was created by section 9A of the Crimes Act 1958

136.
Vice News
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Vice News is Vice Media, Inc. s current affairs channel, producing daily documentary essays and video through its website and YouTube channel. It promotes itself on its coverage of under-reported stories, Vice News was created in December 2013 and is based in New York City, though it has bureaus worldwide. In December 2013, Vice Media expanded its news division into an independent division dedicated to news exclusively. Vice Media put $50 million into its news division, setting up 34 bureaus worldwide, Vice News has primarily targeted a younger audience comprised predominantly of millennials, the same audience to which its parent company appeals. On May 24,2016, a change in leadership at Vice News resulted in the laying off of some 20 editorial, before Vice News was founded, Vice published news documentaries and news reports from around the world through its YouTube channel alongside other programs. On 17 September 2014, Vice News launched a phone app for iOS. In November 2014, Vice News launched its French-language version, in October 2015 Vice hired Josh Tyrangiel to run a daily Vice News show for HBO. Tyrangiel had recently left Bloomberg, where he was reported to be “a divisive figure who was admired and despised during his six years there. ”The following May, it was announced that Tyrangiel had also been given control of the weekly Vice on HBO show as well as Vice News. As the announcement was made, Tyrangiel promptly laid off much of the news staff, in an interview given the previous week, Vice Media founder Shane Smith called Tyrangiel “a murderer, ” foretelling a “bloodbath” in digital media. In June, Tyrangiel touted various new hires he had brought aboard as part of his team and it will also include allowing The Guardian access Vice’s video production skills with content distributed to its millennial-skewed global audience. On April 21,2014, while covering the conflict in Ukraine, Simon Ostrovsky, in 2015 two journalists and their translator were arrested in Turkey. Since its creation, Vice News has covered emerging events and widespread issues around the world and it also publishes daily articles on its website on a variety of world current events, along with maintaining a Vice News Wire where it displays wire reports from around the world. Vice on City, A weekly television series on City, a Canadian television network, and in August 2014, was described by The Guardian as one of the fastest growing channels on YouTube. “Its videos may fail every rule in the BBC impartiality book, but they are brilliantly edited and, often, utterly compelling. Vice News has found young, fearless foreign correspondents to serve an audience who are bored stiff by traditional outlets but are quite prepared to watch videos on their mobile phones. ”Vice’s brand image marketing as an edgy, hip outlet have helped drive its popularity with young people. “Mainstream media is not trusted by a lot of people, and rightly so, so they step in and fill in, “People see a sense of fun behind it. Jon Stewart is very popular, but he’s an entertainer, other critiques mention that their work is more affiliated with entertainment rather than hard-hitting news. Official website Vice Newss channel on YouTube Vice on City The Islamic State — the controversial video filmed in the Islamic State

Vice News
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Vice News

137.
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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During the Cold War, Radio Free Europe was broadcast to Soviet satellite countries and Radio Liberty targeted the Soviet Union. RFE was founded as an anti-communist propaganda source in 1949 by the National Committee for a Free Europe, RL was founded two years later and the two organizations merged in 1976. Communist governments frequently sent agents to infiltrate RFEs headquarters, Radio transmissions into the Soviet Union were regularly jammed by the KGB. RFE/RL received funds from the Central Intelligence Agency until 1972, RFE/RL was headquartered at Englischer Garten in Munich, Germany, from 1949 to 1995. In 1995, the headquarters were moved to Prague in the Czech Republic, european operations have been significantly reduced since the end of the Cold War. In addition to the headquarters, the service maintains 20 local bureaus in countries throughout their broadcast region, as well as an office in Washington. RFE/RL broadcasts in 28 languages to 21 countries including Armenia, Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the committee was composed of an A list of powerful U. S. Radio Free Europe received widespread support from Eisenhowers Crusade for Freedom campaign. In 1950, over 16 million Americans signed Eisenhower’s Freedom Scrolls on a publicity trip to over 20 U. S. cities, the NCFEs mission was to support the refugees and provide them with a useful outlet for their opinions and creativity while increasing exposure to the modern world. The NCFE divided its program into three parts, exile relations, radio, and American contacts, although exile relations were initially its first priority, Radio Free Europe became the NCFEs greatest legacy. The United States funded a long list of projects to counter the Communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe, RFE was developed out of a belief that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means. American policymakers such as George Kennan and John Foster Dulles acknowledged that the Cold War was essentially a war of ideas, the implementation of surrogate radio stations was a key part of the greater psychological war effort. RFE was modeled after Radio in the American Sector a U. S. government-sponsored radio service initially intended for Germans living in the American sector of Berlin, staffed almost entirely by Germans with minimal U. S. supervision, the station provided free media to German listeners. In January 1950 the NCFE obtained a base at Lampertheim, West Germany. In late 1950, RFE began to assemble a full-fledged foreign broadcast staff, teams of journalists were hired for each language service and an elaborate system of intelligence gathering provided up-to-date broadcast material. Most of this came from a network of well-connected émigrés. RFE did not use paid agents inside the Iron Curtain and based its bureaus in regions popular with exiles, RFE also extensively monitored Communist bloc publications and radio services, creating an impressive body of information that would later serve as a resource for organizations across the world. From October 1951 to November 1956, the skies of Central Europe were filled with more than 350,000 balloons carrying over 300 million leaflets, posters, books, the project served as a publicity tool to solidify RFEs reputation as an unbiased broadcaster

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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RFE/RL Broadcast Region 2009
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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Newly constructed building of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in Prague-Hagibor.
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty transmitter site, Biblis, Germany
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
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1994–2008, RFE/RL used the former Federal Parliament building of the abolished Czechoslovakia in Prague New Town. For many years past 2001, security concrete barriers reduced capacity of the most frequented roads in Prague center.

138.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church

139.
Prehistory and protohistory of Poland
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The area of present-day Poland went through the stages of socio-technical development known as the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages after experiencing the climatic shifts of the glacial periods. The best known archeological discovery from the period is the Lusatian-culture Biskupin fortified settlement. As ancient civilizations began to appear in southern and western Europe, among the peoples that inhabited various parts of Poland up to the Iron Age stage of development were Scythian, Celtic, Germanic, and Baltic tribes. Written language came to Poland only after 966 AD, when the ruler of the Polish lands, Duke Mieszko I, converted to Christianity, Polands Stone Age is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras. The Mesolithic era lasted from c.8000 to 5500 BC, the Neolithic is subdivided into the Neolithic proper, c.5500 –2900 BC, and the Copper Age, c.2900 –2300 BC. Polands Stone Age lasted approximately 500,000 years and saw the appearance of three distinct Homo species, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. As elsewhere in Central Europe, the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stages of Polands Stone Age were each characterized by refinements in stone-tool-making techniques, Paleolithic human activities were intermittent because of recurring glaciations. A general climate warming and an increase in ecologic diversity were characteristic of the Mesolithic era. The Neolithic era ushered in the first settled agricultural communities, whose founders had migrated from the Danube River area beginning about 5500 BC, later, the native post-Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life. Polands Bronze Age comprised Period I, c, 1100–900 BC, and Period V, c. The Early Iron Age included Hallstatt Period C, c, 700–600 BC, and Hallstatt Period D, c. Polands Bronze- and Iron-Age cultures are known mainly from archeological research, Polands Early Bronze Age cultures began around 2300-2400 BC, whereas the Iron Age commenced c. By the beginning of the Common Era, the Iron Age archeological cultures described in the article no longer existed. In Poland, the Lusatian culture, which spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages, the most famous archeological discovery from that period is the Biskupin fortified settlement that represented early-Iron-Age Lusatian culture. Bronze objects were brought to Poland around 2300 BC from the Carpathian Basin, the native Early Bronze Age that followed was dominated by the innovative Unetice culture in western Poland and the conservative Mierzanowice culture in eastern Poland. These were replaced in their territories for the duration of the subsequent Older Bronze Period by the Tumulus culture. Characteristic of the remaining bronze periods were the Urnfield cultures, in which skeletal burials were replaced by cremation throughout much of Europe, in Poland, the Lusatian culture settlements dominated the landscape for nearly a thousand years, continuing into the Early Iron Age. A series of Scythian invasions beginning in the 6th century BC, the Hallstatt Period D was a time of expansion for the Pomeranian culture, while the Western Baltic Kurgan culture dominated Polands Masuria-Warmia region

140.
History of Poland in the Middle Ages
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In This is a of time period Polish history covering roughly a millennium, from the 5th century, the way through to the 16th century. Results of a study by researchers from Gdańsk Medical University support hypothesis placing the earliest known homeland of Slavs in the middle Dnieper basin. The West Slavs came primarily from the more western early Slavic branch called the Sclaveni by the Byzantine historian Jordanes in Getica, the Slavs had first migrated into Poland in the second half of the 5th century, some half century after these territories had been vacated by Germanic tribes. From there, over the 6th century, the new population dispersed north, the Slavs lived mostly by cultivating crops but also engaged in hunting and gathering. Their migrations took place while Eastern and Central Europe were being invaded from the east by waves of peoples and armies such as the Huns, a number of West Slavic Polish tribes formed small states, beginning in the 8th century, some of which later coalesced into larger states. Among these tribes were the Vistulans in southern Poland, with Kraków and Wiślica as their main centers, at the end of the 9th century Vistulans were part of the Great Moravia, according to some theories. The tribal states built many gords – fortified structures with earthen and wooden walls, some of these were developed and inhabited, others featured a large empty space and may have served primarily as refuges in times of trouble. The Polans settled the plains around Giecz, Poznań and Gniezno that would become the center of Poland. Niger bicth historically recorded Polish state begins with the rule of Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty in the half of the 10th century. Mieszko chose to be baptized in the Western Latin Rite in 966, following its emergence, the Polish nation was led by a series of rulers who converted the population to Christianity, created a strong kingdom and integrated Poland into the European culture. Mieszkos son Bolesław I Chrobry established a Polish Church province, pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned and this was followed by a collapse of the monarchy and restoration under Casimir I. Casimirs son Bolesław II the Bold became fatally involved in a conflict with the ecclesiastical authority, after Bolesław III divided the country among his sons, internal fragmentation eroded the initial Piast monarchy structure in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Kingdom was restored under Władysław I the Elbow-high, strengthened and expanded by his son Casimir III the Great, the western provinces of Silesia and Pomerania were lost after the fragmentation, and Poland began expanding to the east. The consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for, after the reigns of two members of the Angevin dynasty, the new powerful Kingdom of Poland that was to follow, beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila, the Jagiellon dynasty formed the Polish–Lithuanian union. In the south Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars, Poland was developing as a feudal state, with predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly dominant landed nobility component. The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Sejm in 1505 and this event marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the free and equal Polish nobility. Protestant Reformation movements made deep inroads into the Polish Christianity, which resulted in unique at time in Europe policies of religious tolerance. The European Renaissance currents evoked in late Jagiellon Poland an immense cultural flowering, polands and Lithuanias territorial expansion included the far north region of Livonia

History of Poland in the Middle Ages
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West Slavic tribes in 9th/10th century

141.
Geography of Poland
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Poland is a country in Central Europe with an area of 312,679 square kilometres, and mostly temperate climate. Generally speaking, Poland is an almost unbroken plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north, within that plain, terrain variations run in bands east to west. The Baltic coast has two harbors, the larger one in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region, and a smaller one near Szczecin in the far northwest. The northeastern region also known as Masurian Lake District with more than 2,000 lakes, is densely wooded, the central lowlands had been formed by glacial erosion in the Pleistocene ice age. The country extends 876 kilometers from north to south and 689 kilometers from east to west, the average elevation is 173 meters, and only 3% of Polish territory, along the southern border, is higher than 500 meters. The highest elevation is Mount Rysy, which rises 2,499 meters in the Tatra Range of the Carpathians,95 kilometers south of Kraków, about 60 square kilometers along the Gulf of Gdańsk are below sea level. Poland is traditionally divided into five topographic zones from north to south, the largest, the central lowlands or Polish Plain, is narrow in the west, then expands to the north and south as it extends eastward. Along the eastern border, this zone reaches from the far northeast to within 200 kilometers of the southern border, the terrain in the central lowlands is quite flat, and earlier glacial lakes have been filled by sediment. The region is cut by several rivers, including the Oder, which defines the Silesian Lowlands in the southwest, and the Vistula. The topography of this region is divided transversely into higher and lower elevations, in the western section, the Silesia-Kraków Upthrust contains rich coal deposits. The third topographic area is located on side of Polands southern border and is formed by the Sudeten. Within Poland, neither of these ranges is forbidding enough to prevent substantial habitation, the rugged form of the Sudeten range derives from the geological shifts that formed the later Carpathian uplift. The highest elevation in the Sudeten is Śnieżka in the Karkonosze Mountains, the Carpathians in Poland, formed as a discrete topographical unit in the relatively recent Tertiary Era, are the highest mountains in the country. They are the northernmost edge of a larger range that extends into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary. Within Poland the range includes two major basins, the Oświęcim and Sandomierz, which are rich in minerals and natural gas. To the north of the lowlands, the lake region includes primeval forests - one of the last remaining in Europe. Glacial action in this region formed lakes and low hills in the flat terrain adjacent to Lithuania. Small lakes dot the northern half of Poland, and the glacial formations that characterize the lake region extend as much as 200 kilometers inland in western Poland

Geography of Poland
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Geography of Poland
Geography of Poland
Geography of Poland
Geography of Poland

142.
List of cities and towns in Poland
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This page contains a list of cities and towns in Poland, preceded by a, table of major Polish cities. The table ranks cities by population based on data from the Central Statistical Office of Poland, note that in the Polish system of administration there is no difference between a city and a town. A gazetteer is available to any town or settlement on a detailed map. As of 1 January 2017, there are 923 cities and towns in Poland, for metropolitan areas, see Metropolitan areas in Poland. Below is the list of the most populated cities in Poland, the seats of either a voivode, or a voivodeship legislature, are marked in bold. Ćmielów Elbląg Ełk Frampol Frombork Hajnówka Halinów Hel Hrubieszów

List of cities and towns in Poland
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Augustów
List of cities and towns in Poland
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Contents:
List of cities and towns in Poland
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Białystok
List of cities and towns in Poland
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Bielsko-Biała

143.
Poland A and B
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Reportedly, Polands well-off cities are Warsaw, Kraków, Wrocław, and Poznań, while the ones struggling with less investment are Rzeszów, Lublin, Olsztyn and Białystok to the north-east. In 2014 among the highest in the ranked the Kujawsko-Pomorskie and Zachodniopomorskie. The distinction is unofficial and in some ways oversimplified, but it is acknowledged and discussed in Poland. It can be thought of as analogous to the Blue State/Red State divide in American politics, in this divide it has to be noted that Polands borders were changing over the centuries. They moved westward after 1945, to reflect the Poland of the Piasts, for instance, Warsaw was initially a settlement in eastern Poland. When it became a city in the 16th century, and historically in the developed as a central part of the Kingdom of Poland. Now is situated in the part of it. For example, the above-mentioned Olsztyn was part of Prussia since the times of the Teutonic Knights, the difference between Polands A and B is particularly evident in the voting patterns of the two regions. During the 1990s, Poland A tended to favour the Democratic Left Alliance, as a secular, Poland B on the other hand voted either PSL or the Solidarity camp. 2005, Poland saw a realignment in its political system, residents of Poland A have supported the liberal conservative political party, the Civic Platform. Residents of Poland B, on the hand, tend to support the socially conservative but populist Law. After a 2010 plane crash took the life of president Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and dozens of important Polish politicians, mostly conservative, however, the underlying fissures, mutual suspicions, and recriminations between Poland A and Poland B soon resurfaced. List of Polish voivodeships by GDP per capita Recovered Territories Kozak M. Pyszkowski A. Szewczyk R.2001, Słownik Rozwoju Regionalnego, PARR, iwona Borkowska, Polska Polsce nierówna, Raport Polska. pl 2008-06-04. Gazeta Wyborcza Polska A, B i C, August 4

Poland A and B
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Railroads of Poland in 1953, following World War II. The denser network of railways in the west is a result of traditional coal mining as well as Poland's prewar heritage.
Poland A and B
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Administrative map of Poland by the European Commission Directorate General for Press and Communication
Poland A and B
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Polish 2007 elections results and German empire map

144.
Politics of Poland
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Politics of Poland takes place in the framework of a democracy, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government of a multi-party system and the President is the head of state. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government, which consists of a council of ministers led by the Prime Minister and its members are typically chosen from a majority coalition in the lower house of parliament, although exceptions to this rule are not uncommon. The government is formally announced by the president, and must pass a motion of confidence in the Sejm within two weeks, legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament, Sejm and Senate. Members of Sejm are elected by proportional representation, with the proviso that non-ethnic-minority parties must gain at least 5% of the vote to enter the lower house. Parliamentary elections occur at least every four years, the political system is defined in the Polish Constitution, which also guarantees a wide range of individual freedoms. The judicial branch plays a role in politics, apart from the Constitutional Tribunal. The prime minister proposes, the president appoints, and the Sejm approves the Council of Ministers, the president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the prime minister and deputy prime ministers are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Sejm. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the minister and the Sejm. The President is elected by terms, as head of state, supreme commander of the Armed Forces, the President has the right to veto legislation, although veto may be overridden by the assembly by a three-fifths majority vote. As Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, the President shall appoint the Chief of the General Staff, the President may, regarding particular matters, convene the Cabinet Council, although it does not possess the competence of the Council of Ministers. The Senate has 100 members elected for a term under the single member. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly, only the first kind has occurred to date. Since 1991 elections are supervised by the National Electoral Commission, whose division is called the National Electoral Office. Polands top national security goal is to integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic. Polish military doctrine reflects the same nature as its NATO partners. The combined consists of 100,300 active duty personnel and in addition 234,000 reserves, in 2009 the Armed Forces transformed into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure, budget constraints hamper such priority defense acquisitions as a multi-role fighter, improved communications systems, and an attack helicopter. Poland is an ally of the US in Europe and leads the Multinational Division Central-South in Iraq

145.
Constitution of Poland
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The current Constitution of Poland was adopted on 2 April 1997. It was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997, approved by a referendum on 25 May 1997. Poland has had numerous previous constitutional acts during its history, historically, the most significant is probably the May Constitution adopted on 3 May 1791. The five years after 1992 were spent in dialogue about the new character of Poland, the nation had changed significantly since 1952 when the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Poland was instituted. Mindful of the experiences of the times when fundamental freedoms. Many articles were written explicitly to rectify the wrongs of previous governments, in response to communist-era collective farming, Article 23 established the family farm as the basis of the agricultural economy. Article 74 requires public officials to pursue ecologically sound public policy and those involved in drafting the document were not interested in creating a de facto Catholic Poland. That said, nods were given in the direction of the church, for example, in Article 18, marriage is granted the protection of the state, and in Article 53, freedom of religion, religious education, and religious upbringing are protected. The first major privilege was granted in Košice by Louis Andegavin on September 17,1374, in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga, he agreed to abolish all but one tax the szlachta was required to pay. On May 2,1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the same rights as possessed by the Polish szlachta. In September and October 1454 Casimir IV granted the Cerkwica and Nieszawa Privileges which forbade the king to set new taxes and these privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years War. In the spring of 1505 king Alexander signed a bill adopted by the Diet of Radom known as Nihil novi nisi commune consensu, the Nihil novi act transferred legislative power from the king to the Diet, or Polish parliament. This date marked the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the period of a szlachta-run republic, until the death of Sigismund Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could only be elected from within the royal family. However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish-Lithuanian monarch, every newly elected king was required sign two documents - the Pacta conventa - a confirmation of the kings pre-election promises, and Henrican articles. Sejm Constitution of 1590 In the 18th century, the introduction of Cardinal Laws in 1768 was an important step towards codifying the existing Polish law, the Polish Constitution of May 3,1791 is called the first constitution of its kind in Europe by historian Norman Davies. It was instituted by the Government Act adopted on that date by the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and it was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty. The Constitution introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. The May 3rd Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the countrys reactionary magnats, with a more egalitarian, the adoption of the May 3rd Constitution provoked the active hostility of the Polish Commonwealths neighbors

146.
Human rights in Poland
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Human rights in Poland are guaranteed by the second chapter of the Constitution. Elements of what is called now human rights may be found in early times of the Polish state, the Statute of Kalisz, the General Charter of Jewish Liberties introduced numerous right for the Jews in Poland, leading to an autonomous nation within a nation. The Warsaw Confederation of 1573 confirmed the religious freedom of all residents of Poland, gathered at Warsaw, all nobles signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of prosperity and relative security witnessed the appearance of a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures. Poland has ratified the International Criminal Court agreement, corporal punishment is entirely prohibited since 2010. Death Penalty is abolished for all crimes as noted by Amnesty International, the article Article 54 states,1. The freedom to express opinions, to acquire and to disseminate information shall be ensured to everyone, preventive censorship of the means of social communication and the licensing of the press shall be prohibited. The state of womens rights in Poland is moderately good, feminism in Poland started in 1800s in the age of foreign Partitions marked by the gross abuse of power especially by the Russians, which impacted the rights of women as well. However, prior to the last Partition in 1795, tax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life, polands precursor of feminism under Partitions, Narcyza Żmichowska who founded a group of Suffragettes in 1842, was jailed by the Russians for three years. Since 1918, following the return to independence, all women could vote, Poland was the 15th country to introduce universal womens suffrage. Nevertheless, there is a number of issues concerning women in modern-day Poland such as the abortion rights, domestic Violence, according to 2011 report by TheNews. pl website run by the Polish Radio, is perceived by one in five respondents as a problem. Some 13 percent said that abuse is a private family matter. At the same time,16 percent said that there are situations when violence is justified in the home, some 26 percent of Poles claim that they have been victims of physical violence. Rape is illegal and punishable by up to 12 years in prison, sexual harassment is under-reported due to societal views. In January 2014, a reform was introduced to simplify the procedure as well as make it a criminal offence pursued by the state. An abortion is difficult to obtain in Poland by official means. In the field of employment, due to perceptions of womens roles, Poland country signed the UN LGBT rights Declaration, but same-sex unions are not recognized in Poland. However, Poland is not on the list of countries with state-sponsored homophobia, homosexuality was confirmed legal in 1932, and Poland also recognises gender change and requires no sterilisation of its transgender citizens

147.
Law of Poland
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The Polish law, or legal system in Poland has been developing since the first centuries of Polish history, over 1,000 years ago. The public and private laws of Poland are codified, the supreme law in Poland is the Constitution of Poland. Poland is a civil law jurisdiction and has a civil code. The Polish parliament creates legislation and is made up of the Senate, new Polish law is published in Dziennik Ustaw and Monitor Polski. Law in Poland is administered by the judiciary of Poland and enforced by the law enforcement in Poland

148.
Law enforcement in Poland
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Law enforcement in Poland consists of the Police, City Guards, and several smaller specialised agencies. The Prokuratura Krajowa and an independent judiciary also play an important role in the maintenance of law, the Constitution aimed to weaken the golden freedoms of the upper classes and redistribute a portion of their power amongst the mercantile middle classes. In Austrian-controlled Galicia, the Imperial Gendarmerie became responsible for preserving order and later became known for being arguably the least oppressive of the three occupying powers. In 1919, with the re-independence of the Polish nation, the state reorganised itself along non-federalist lines, during the inter-war period, a number of key law enforcement duties were delegated to other formations, such as the Border Guard and Military Gendarmerie. The reality turned out to be largely the opposite, and the Milicja instead represented a rather state-controlled force which was used to political repression on the citizens. The Policja is the police force of Poland. It is directly responsible to the national government, officers are routinely armed, and are responsible for the investigation of most ordinary crimes. They are responsible for many specialist services such as highway patrol and they can be contacted by calling 997 from any telephone. As Poland is a centralised state, regional law enforcement agencies do not exist in the way that they do in the United States, Canada. While voivodeship commands exist within the structure of the Policja. Several gmina in Poland have their own forces, which work in conjunction with the Policja. They have more limited powers than the Policja, and do not currently carry firearms and they can be contacted by calling 986 from any telephone. In addition to the Policja and the City Guards, there are also a number of specialised agencies which operate with more specific objectives, agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego - - Responsible for matters related to Polands internal security, including counter-espionage and counter-terrorism. It is analogous to the American Federal Bureau of Investigation, and it is responsible directly to the Prime Minister. Biuro Ochrony Rządu - - A protective security unit tasked with the protection of the Polish President, Prime Minister, Ministers of State, centralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne - - Responsible for investigating and preventing corruption in both the public and private sectors. It was founded in 2006, and is directly to the Prime Minister. Służba Celna - The Polish Customs Service is responsible for collecting customs duties, mostly at Polands borders, oddział Wart Cywilnych - - Armed civilian watchmen tasked with protecting military areas. They are responsible to the Ministry of Defence, służba Więzienna - Straż Graniczna - Responsible for border protection at land borders and other points of entry, such as airports

Law enforcement in Poland
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A Policja officer, accompanied by two service vehicles, performs spot-checks on passing traffic
Law enforcement in Poland
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1887 Russian 'wanted' poster for future Polish Marshal of Poland and Chief of State, Józef Piłsudski
Law enforcement in Poland
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An officer of the Straż Graniczna (Border Guard) in parade uniform walks with colleagues from the Służba Celna (Customs Service)
Law enforcement in Poland
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Biuro Ochrony Rządu presidential escort

149.
Foreign relations of Poland
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The Republic of Poland is a Central European country and member of the European Union and NATO, among others. After regaining independence in 1989, Poland has forged ahead on its economic reintegration with the Western world, Poland also has been an active nation in advocating European integration. In 1994, Poland became a member of the European Union and its defensive arm. In 1996, Poland achieved full OECD membership and submitted preliminary documentation for full EU membership, in 1997, Poland was invited in the first wave of NATO policy enlargement at the July 1997 NATO Summit in Madrid, Spain. In March 1999, Poland became a member of NATO. Poland promoted its NATO candidacy through energetic participation in the Partnership for Peace program, Poland formally joined the European Union in May 2004, along with the other members of the Visegrád group. Poland was a part of the force in Iraq. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the establishment of seven new states in Polands immediate neighborhood, of which Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine. Poland has actively pursued good relations with all its neighboring countries, the Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West. This creates the background of Polands tight relations with the USA and their sensitivity in relations towards its partner within the European Union, Germany. At the same time, the equally burdened attitude towards Russia results in very tense diplomatic relations, National Identity and National Interest in Polish Eastern Policy, 1989-2004

150.
National Bank of Poland
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Narodowy Bank Polski is the central bank of Poland. It controls the issuing of Polands currency, the złoty, the Bank is headquartered in Warsaw, and has branches in 16 major Polish towns. The NBP represents Poland in the European System of Central Banks, although the bank has existed under its current name since 1945, it is a continuation of two previous central banks of Poland, both named simply Bank of Poland. The first one was founded in Warsaw in 1828 by Prince Franciszek Ksawery Drucki-Lubecki, an institution of the government of the Kingdom of Poland, it was entitled with issuance of the Polish currency as well as control over the credit rates. It was also entitled with a concession to foreign currencies and buy off credits issued by foreign companies. During the Second World War the gold reserves of Poland were transferred to Great Britain, the latter was one of two banks allowed to operate in Polands postwar planned economy. It had a monopoly for currency, credits and cumulation of savings, the other bank, PKO Bank Polski, was responsible for private accounts. After the fall of the communist system in 1989, the economy was reintroduced. The structure and functioning of the Narodowy Bank Polski are regulated by article 227 of the Constitution of Poland of 1997, the President of the NBP is appointed by the Sejm, at the request of the President of the Republic of Poland, for a term of six years. The NBP President is responsible for the organisation and functioning of the Polishs central bank, the same person cannot serve as President of the NBP for more than two terms of office. Apart from his function as the superior of the NBP staff, he is also the chairman of the Monetary Policy Council, the NBP Management Board and he is also responsible for representing Poland in international banking and financial institutions

National Bank of Poland
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The headquarters of the National Bank of Poland in Warsaw
National Bank of Poland
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Marek Belka, current Head of National Bank of Poland
National Bank of Poland
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Warsaw
National Bank of Poland
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Siedlce

151.
Transport in Poland
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Transport in Poland involves air, water, road and rail transportation. The country has a network of municipal public transport, such as buses, trams. As a country located at the cross-roads of Europe, Poland, with its highly developed economy, is a nation with a large, the countrys most important waterway is the river Vistula. The largest seaports are the Port of Szczecin and Port of Gdańsk, air travel is generally used for international travel, with many flights originating at Warsaw Chopin Airport. In addition to this, five out of sixteen Polish voivodeships have their own rail service providers. Poland is served by a network of railways. In most cities the main station is located near a city centre and is well connected to the local transportation system. The infrastructure is operated by PKP PLK, part of state-run PKP Group, the rail network is very dense in western and northern Poland, while eastern part of the country is less developed. The capital city, Warsaw, has the only rapid transit system. The only high-speed rail line in central-eastern Europe is the Central Rail Line and it has a length of 223 km, and was built in 1971–1977, it links Warsaw with Kraków and Katowice. In test runs on the CMK in November 2013 a new Pendolino ED250 train set a new Polish speed record of 293 km/h, plans were made to construct a new high-speed line from Warsaw to Poznań and Wrocław with forks in Łódź and Kalisz. But the project was cancelled in November 2011 due to its high cost, the PKP Group is the fourth largest railway throughout Europe. Trains are run by its different subsidiaries and these railways are mostly in decline, some surviva as a museum or tourist railways. Therefore, Linia Hutnicza Szerokotorowa in Sławków is the longest broad gauge line in Poland. The line runs on a track for almost 400 km from the Polish-Ukrainian border. It is the westernmost broad gauge line in Europe that is connected to the broad gauge rail system of the countries of the former Soviet Union. They were transferred to authorities or became independent companies. Same gauge, Czech Republic Germany Slovakia Break-of-gauge –1,435 mm /1,520 mm Lithuania Belarus Russia Ukraine Polish public roads are grouped into categories related to administrative division

152.
Unemployment in Poland
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Unemployment in Poland appeared in the 19th century, during the process of industrialization, and was particularly severe during the Great Depression. During communist rule officially Poland had close to full employment although hidden unemployment existed, after Polands transition to a market economy the unemployment rate sharply increased, peaking at above 16% in 1993, then dropped afterwards, but remained well above pre-1993 levels. Another period of unemployment occurred in the early 2000s when the rate reached 20%. As Poland entered European Union in 2004 and its job market, since then the rate had fallen until the onset of the 2008 Great Recession. Recent years have seen an increase in the unemployment rate from below 8% to above 10% or from below 10% to 13%, the rate began dropping again in late 2013. Polish government reported 9. 6% registered unemployment in November 2015, according to Eurostat data, since 2008, unemployment in Poland has been constantly below the EU average. Significant regional differences in the unemployment rate exist across Poland, unemployment rates are reported by the Polish Central Statistical Office, and the European Unions Eurostat office. The difference in the statistics is due to adjustments that Eurostat makes to make the unemployment rate comparable across countries in Europe. The unemployment rate as reported by GUS is defined as percent of those without work out of the active population. Additionally, the rate counts as unemployed those who have hired for a job but have not yet started active work. Eurostat uses the same harmonized definition of unemployment for all countries in the EU, based on the definition of the International Labour Organization. This definition is similar to the one used by GUS but considers people between 15 and 74, rather than 17 and 74, years of age, and counts the unemployed as a percentage of the labor force. Unemployment originated in Poland in the late 19th century, and appeared as a result of industrialization, in Russian-ruled Congress Poland, the 1904 onset of war with Japan caused a depression that deepened with the following years revolution. Meanwhile, efforts by the government to industry to Russia proper led to long-term industrial recession. Massive unemployment of workers ensued, in turn prompting both urban and rural Poles to emigrate. In the Second Polish Republic, unemployment was among the worst problems of the economy, particularly during the Great Depression. The number of registered unemployed jumped from 185,000 in 1928 to 466,000 in 1936, in 1932, there were 240,000 unemployed industrial workers, not only industrial workers but also members of the intelligentsia were affected. Official statistics for the only account for non-farm wage and salary earners who registered as unemployed with a labor exchange

Unemployment in Poland
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Unemployment rate in Poland in 1990–2013 (GUS)
Unemployment in Poland
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Unemployment rates in the European Union (2013)

153.
Demographics of Poland
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61. 5% of the Polish population lives in urban areas, a number which is slowly diminishing. Poland is the 33rd most populous country in the world, total population of Poland is almost stagnant. Average life expectancy was 70.5 for men and 78.9 for women, in 2009, it was expected to be 73.1 for men and 79.5 for women. Ethnically, Poland is a very country, with 96. 7% of population being Polish. Estimates by INTEREG and Eurominority present a similar picture of Poland. In 1950, the age was 25.8, half of the Polish population was younger. If current trends continue, it will be 51 by 2050, as the population is aging, it has also started to decline mainly due to low birth rates and continued emigration which is impacting the economy. The number of children born in Polish families is one of the lowest in Eastern Europe, for many centuries, until the end of World War II, the Polish population was composed of many significant ethnic minorities. It means that the permanent population may be correspondingly smaller. 10% of the people of Poland claim sole or partial Polish nationality, among minority groups, the largest numbers of respondents claimed Silesian nationality, followed by Kashubian, German, and Ukrainian. The statistics on Ukrainians do not include recently arrived migrant workers, which a report by the National Bank of Poland estimated at around 1 million in 2015

Demographics of Poland
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Population of Poland 1900-2010

154.
Ethnic minorities in Poland
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Although the concept of an ethnic minority is mostly used with regards to modern period, historically, Poland has been a very multi-ethnic country. Early on, the influx of Jewish and German settlers was particularly notable, forming significant minorities and this was especially true after she regained her independence in the wake of World War I. The census of 1921 allocates 30. 8% of the population in the minority and this was further exacerbated with the Polish victory in the Polish-Soviet War, and the large territorial gains in the east, made by Poland as a consequence. Also, there were communities of Russians, and Gypsies. The situation of minorities was a subject and changed during the period. Poland was also a nation of many religions. In 1921,16,057,229 Poles were Roman Catholics,3,031,057 citizens of Poland were Eastern Rite Catholics,2,815,817 were Greek Orthodox,2,771,949 were Jewish, and 940,232 were Protestants. By 1931 Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, before World War II, a third of Polands population was composed of ethnic minorities. After the war, however, Polands minorities were mostly gone, due to the 1945 revision of borders, under the National Repatriation Office, millions of Poles were forced to leave their homes in the eastern Kresy region and settle in the western former German territories. At the same time approximately 5 million remaining Germans were similarly expelled from those territories into the Allied occupation zones. Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities found themselves now mostly within the borders of the Soviet Union, the population of Jews in Poland, which formed the largest Jewish community in pre-war Europe at about 3.3 million people, was all but destroyed by 1945. Approximately 3 million Jews died of starvation in ghettos and labor camps, were slaughtered at the German Nazi extermination camps or by the Einsatzgruppen death squads. Between 40,000 and 100,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust in Poland, and another 50,000 to 170,000 were repatriated from the Soviet Union, and 20,000 to 40,000 from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, there were 180,000 to 240,000 Jews in Poland, settled mostly in Warsaw, Łódź, Kraków, the rights of ethnic minorities in Poland are guaranteed in article 35 of the 1997 Constitution,1. There are presently three categories of recognized minorities in Poland,9 national minorities,4 ethnic minorities, at the Polish census of 2002,96. 7% of the people of Poland claimed Polish nationality, and 97. 8% declare that they speak Polish at home. At the 2011 census,1, 44% of the 39 million inhabitants of Poland declared to be descendents of another single ancestry than Polish and that number includes 418,000 who declared to be Silesians as a national-ethnic identification and 17,000 Kashubians. Recognized minorities numbered 0, 3% of the population,49,000 Germans,36,000 Ukrainians,7,000 Lemkos,37,000 Belarusians,12,000 Roma people,8,000 Russians,0, 2% of the population are foreign citizens. The general population background in 2011 was as follows, Around 50,000 Armenians settled in Poland in the 14th century, and an Armenian colony gradually formed through successive immigrations

156.
Cinema of Poland
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After World War II, the communist government built an auteur based national cinema, trained hundreds of new directors and empowered them to make films. Filmmakers like Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Agnieszka Holland, Andrzej Wajda, Andrzej Żuławski, Andrzej Munk, the first cinema in Poland was founded in Łódź in 1899, several years after the invention of the Cinematograph. Initially dubbed Living Pictures Theatre, it gained popularity and by the end of the next decade there were cinemas in almost every major town of Poland. Arguably the first Polish filmmaker was Kazimierz Prószyński, who filmed various short documentaries in Warsaw, another pioneer of cinema was Bolesław Matuszewski, who became one of the first filmmakers working for the Lumière company - and the official cinematographer of the Russian tsars in 1897. The earliest surviving film, the Antoś pierwszy raz w Warszawie was made in 1908 by Antoni Fertner. The date of its première, October 22,1908, is considered the date of Polish film industry. During the World War I the Polish cinema crossed borders, films made in Warsaw or Vilna were often rebranded with German language intertitles and shown in Berlin. That was how a young actress Pola Negri gained fame in Germany, in November 1945 the communist government founded the film production and distribution organization Film Polski, and put the well-known Polish Peoples Army filmmaker Aleksander Ford in charge. Starting with a few railway carriages full of film equipment taken from the Germans they proceed to train, the FP output was limited, only thirteen features were released between 1947 and its dissolution in 1952, concentrating on Polish suffering at the hands of the Nazis. In 1947 Ford moved to establish the new National Film School in Łódź. The industry used imported cameras and film stocks, at first ORWO black and white film stock from East Germany and then Eastman colour negative stock and ORWO print stocks for rushes and release prints. Poland made its own lighting equipment, because of the high costs of film stock Polish films were shot with very low shooting ratios, the amount of film stock used in shooting the film to length of the finished film. The equipment and film stock were not the best and budgets were modest, another advantage was that as Film Polski was a state organisation film makers had access to all Polish institutions and their cooperation in making their films. Film cameras were able to enter almost every aspect of Polish life, the first film produced in Poland following the World War II was Zakazane piosenki, directed by Leonard Buczkowski, which was seen by 10.8 million people in its initial theatrical run. Buczkowski continued to make films regularly until his death in 1967, by the mid 1950s, following the end of Stalinism in Poland, Film production was organised into film groups. A film group was a collection of film makers, led by a film director and consisting of writers, film directors. They would write scripts, create budgets, apply for funding off the Ministry of Culture and they would hire actors and crew, and use studios and laboratories controlled by Film Polski. The change in political climate gave rise to the Polish Film School movement, Andrzej Wajdas films offer insightful analyses of the universal element of the Polish experience - the struggle to maintain dignity under the most trying circumstances

157.
Polish cuisine
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Polish cuisine is a style of cooking and food preparation originating in or widely popular in Poland. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Polands history, Polish cuisine shares many similarities with other Slavic countries, especially Czech, Slovak, Russian and Ukrainian. It has also widely influenced by other Central European cuisines, namely German, Austrian and Hungarian cuisines as well as Jewish, French, Turkish. It is rich in meat, especially pork, chicken and beef, winter vegetables, spices and it is also characteristic in its use of various kinds of noodles the most notable of which are kluski as well as cereals such as kasha. Generally speaking, Polish cuisine is hearty and uses a lot of cream, the traditional dishes are often demanding in preparation. The main meal might be eaten about 2 p. m. or later and it is larger than the North American lunch. The main course usually includes a serving of meat, such as roast or kotlet schabowy, vegetables, currently replaced by leafy green salads, were not very long ago most commonly served as surówka – shredded root vegetables with lemon and sugar or sauerkraut. The side dishes are boiled potatoes, rice or more traditionally kasza. Meals often conclude with a such as makowiec, a poppy seed pastry, or drożdżówka. Other Polish specialities include chłodnik, golonka, kołduny, zrazy, salceson and flaki. Polish cuisine in the Middle Ages was based on dishes made of agricultural produce and cereal crops, meats of wild and farm animals, fruits, forest berries and game, honey, herbs and local spices. It was known above all for abundant use of salt from Wieliczka, a high calorific value of dishes and drinking beer or mead as a basic drink was typical of Middle Ages Polish cuisine. During the Middle Ages the cuisine of Poland was heavy and spicy, two main ingredients were meat and cereal. The latter consisted initially of proso millet, but later in the Middle Ages other types of cereal became widely used. Most commoners did not use bread and instead consumed cereals in the forms of kasza or various types of flatbread, apart from cereals, a large portion of the daily diet of mediaeval Poles consisted of beans, mostly broad beans and peas. As the territory of Poland was densely forested, usage of mushrooms, forest berries, nuts, among the delicacies of the Polish nobility were honey-braised bear paws served with horseradish-flavoured salad, smoked bear tongue and bear bacon. Thanks to close relations with Turkey and the countries in the Caucasus. The usage of two basic sauces remained widespread at least until the 18th century, the daily beverages included milk, whey, buttermilk and various herb infusions